,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces4 ,,volume ,i4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces1 ,,f ,,! ,,e>lie/ ,,to ,,! ,,pres5t ,,"t4 ,,by ,,william ,,:ewell1 ,d4 ,d41 ,,ma/] ,,( ,,tr9ity ,,college1 ,,cambridge4 ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition1 ,,) ,,additions4 ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes4 ,,volume ,i4 ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,& ,,company1 #edi #eea ,,broadway4 #ahge4 ,,to ,,sir ,,john ,,fr$]ick ,,william ,,h]s*el1 ,k4,g4,h4 ,,my ,,de> ,,h]s*el1 ,,x is ) no common pleasure t ,i take up my p5 to d$icate ^! volumes to y4 ,!y are ! result ( tra9s ( ?\ght :i* h (t5 be5 ! subject ( our conv]sation1 & ( :i* ! orig9 goes back to ! p]iod ( our e>ly companion%ip at ! ,univ]sity4 ,& if ,i _h ev] wav]$ 9 my purpose ( comb9+ su* reflections & rese>*es into a :ole1 ,i %\ld h d]iv$ a r5ew$ impulse & increas$ animation f y\r delightful ,disc\rse on a k9dr$ subject4 ,= ,i c\ld n h read x )\t f9d+ ?is portion ( philosophy inve/$ ) a fre% *>m2 & ?\gh ,i might be well aw>e t ,i c\ld n aspire to t l>ge %>e ( popul>ity :i* y\r "w s ju/ly ga9$1 ,i %\ld /ill h reflect$1 t some?+ 0 due to ! subject itself1 & %\ld h hop$ t my own aim 0 s f> simil> to y\rs1 t ! pres5t "w might h a *ance ( excit+ an int]e/ 9 "s ( y\r read]s4 ,t x w int]e/ y1 ,i d n at all hesitate to believe4 ,if y 7 n[ 9 ,engl& ,i %\ld /op "h3 b :5 a fri5d is remov$ = ye>s to a f> di/ant l&1 we seem to acquire a "r to speak op5ly ( 8 good qualities4 ,i _c1 !re=e1 prevail ^u myself to lay d[n my p5 )\t allud+ to ! affectionate admiration ( y\r moral & social1 z well z intellectual excell5cies1 :i* spr+s up 9 ! he>ts ( y\r fri5ds1 :5ev] y are ?\ght (4 ,!y are mu* delight$ to look ^u ! halo ( des]v$ fame :i* plays r\nd y\r head b /ill m1 to recollect1 #f z "o ( !m said1 t y\r head is f> f be+ ! be/ "p ab\t y4 ,may y\r soj\rn 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e be z happy & successful z its object is noble & wor?y ( y2 & may y\r return home be spe$y & prosp]\s1 z soon z y\r purpose is atta9$4 ,ev]1 my de> ,h]s*el1 y\rs1 ,w4 ,,:ewell4 ,m>* #bb1 #ahcg4 ,p4,s4 ,s ,i wrote ne>ly t5 ye>s ago1 :5 y 7 at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 employ$ 9 y\r great task ( mak+ a complete /&>d survey ( ! nebul & d\ble />s visible to man4 ,n[ t y are1 z ,i tru/1 9 a few weeks ab\t to put ! cr[n+ /one ^u y\r edifice by ! publication ( y\r ,obs]vations 9 ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e1 ,i _c refra9 f congratulat+ y ^u hav+ _h y\r life ennobl$ by ! conception & happy execution ( s great a design1 & once m (f]+ y my wi%es t y may long enjoy ! glory y h s well won4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,tr9ity ,,college1 ,,nov4 #bb1 #ahdf4 #g ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,,9 ! ,prefaces to ! previ\s ,editions ( ?is "w1 sev]al rem>ks 7 made :i* x is n necess>y n[ to repeat to ! same ext5t4 ,t a ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces1 execut$ z ?is is1 has "s value 9 ! eyes ( ! ,public1 is suffici5tly prov$ by ! circulation :i* x has obta9$4 ,i am /ill able to say t ,i h se5 no objection urg$ aga9/ ! plan ( ! "w1 & sc>cely any aga9/ ! details4 ,! attempt to ?r[ ! hi/ory ( ea* sci5ce into ,,epo*s at :i* "s great & c>d9al discov]y 0 made1 & to arrange ! subord9ate ev5ts ( ea* hi/ory z belong+ to ! ,,preludes & ! ,,sequels ( su* ,epo*s1 appe>s to be ass5t$ to1 z conv5i5tly & fairly exhibit+ ! progress ( sci5tific tru?4 ,su* a view be+ assum$1 z x 0 a con/ant light & guide to ! writ] 9 8 task1 s w x also1 ,i ?9k1 make ! view ( ! read] f> m cle> & compreh5sive ?an x c\ld o!rwise be4 ,) reg>d to ! mann] 9 :i* ?is plan has be5 c>ri$ into effect ) ref]5ce to p>ticul> writ]s & _! rese>*es1 z ,i h said1 ,i h se5 sc>cely any objection made4 ,i 0 aw>e1 z ,i /at$ at ! outset1 ( ! difficulty & delicacy ( ! (fice :i* ,i _h und]tak52 b ,i _h v>i\s consid]ations to enc\rage me to g ?r\gh x2 & ,i _h a tru/1 :i* ,i #h h z yet se5 no?+ to di/urb1 t ,i %\ld be able to speak imp>tially ( ! great sci5tific m5 ( all ages1 ev5 ( our own4 ,i h already said1 9 ! ,introduction1 t ! "w aim$ at be+1 n m]ely a n>ration ( ! facts 9 ! hi/ory ( ,sci5ce1 b a basis = ! ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce4 ,x seem$ to me t our /udy ( ! modes ( discov]+ tru? ought to be bas$ ^u a survey ( ! tru?s :i* h be5 discov]$4 ,?is maxim1 s /at$1 seems suffici5tly self-evid5t2 yet x has1 ev5 up to ! pres5t "t1 be5 v r>ely act$ on4 ,^? :o disc\rse conc]n+ ! nature ( ,tru? & ! mode ( its discov]y1 /ill1 commonly1 make = !mselves examples ( tru?s1 :i* = ! mo/ "p are utt]ly frivol\s & unsub/antial 7z 9 mo/ ,treatises on ,logic72 or else !y dig up1 ov] & ov]1 ! n>r[ & special field ( ma!matical tru?1 :i* c]ta9ly _c1 ( itself1 exemplify ! g5]al mode by :i* man has atta9$ to ! va/ body ( c]ta9 tru? :i* he n[ possesses4 ,yet x mu/ n be d5i$ t ! ,ideas :i* =m ! basis ( ,ma!matical ,tru? are conc]n$ 9 ! =mation ( ,sci5tific ,tru? 9 g5]al2 & discussions conc]n+ ^! ,ideas are by no means necess>ily b>r5 ( advantage4 ,b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t1 besides ^! ,ideas1 !re are also o!rs1 :i* no less lie at ! root ( ,sci5tific ,tru?2 & conc]n+ :i* !re h be51 at v>i\s p]iods1 discussions :i* h _h an important be>+ on ! progress ( ,sci5tific ,tru?2--su* z discussions conc]n+ ! nature & necess>y attributes ( ,matt]1 ( ,=ce1 ( ,atoms1 ( ,m$iums1 ( ,k9ds1 ( ,organization4 ,! controv]sies :i* h tak5 place conc]n+ ^! h an important place 9 ! hi/ory ( ,natural ,sci5ce 9 #i its mo/ ext5d$ s5se4 ,yet x appe>$ conv5i5t to c>ry on ! hi/ory ( ,sci5ce1 s f> z x dep5ds on ,obs]vation1 9 a l9e sep>ate f ^! discussions conc]n+ ,ideas4 ,! acc\nt ( ^! discussions & ! consequ5t controv]sies1 !re=e1 ?\gh x be ?or\ghly hi/orical1 &1 z appe>s to me1 a v curi\s & int]e/+ hi/ory1 is res]v$ = ! o!r "w1 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,su* a hi/ory has1 9 tru?1 its natural place 9 ! ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce2 = ! ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce at ! pres5t day mu/ conta9 ! result & summ+ up ( all ! tru? :i* has be5 dis5tangl$ f error & confusion dur+ ^! pa/ controv]sies4 ,i h made a few ,additions to ! pres5t ,edition2 p>tly1 ) a view ( br++ up ! hi/ory1 at lea/ ( "s ( ! ,sci5ces1 to ! pres5t "t1--s f> z ^? l>g] features ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce are conc]n$1 ) :i* alone ,i h "h to deal1--& p>tly also1 especially 9 ! ,fir/ ,volume1 9 ord] to rectify & enl>ge "s ( ! e>li] portions ( ! hi/ory4 ,sev]al works :i* h rec5tly appe>$ sugge/$ reconsid]ation ( v>i\s po9ts2 & ,i hop$ t my read]s might be int]e/$ 9 ! reflections s sugge/$4 ,i w add a few s5t5ces f ! ,preface to ! ,fir/ ,edition4 ,z w easily be suppos$1 ,i h borr[$ l>gely f o!r writ]s1 bo? ( ! hi/ories ( special sci5ces & ( philosophy 9 g5]al4#a,p ,i h done ?is )\t #aj scruple1 s9ce ! novelty ( my "w 0 int5d$ to consi/1 n 9 its sup]iority z a collection ( facts1 b 9 ! po9t ( view 9 :i* ! facts 7 plac$4 ,i h1 h[ev]1 9 all cases1 giv5 ref]5ces to my au?orities1 & !re are v few in/ances 9 :i* ,i h n v]ifi$ ! ref]5ces ( previ\s hi/orians1 & /udi$ ! orig9al au?ors4 ,accord+ to ! plan :i* ,i h pursu$1 ! hi/ory ( ea* sci5ce =ms a :ole 9 itself1 divid$ into di/9ct b connect$ memb]s1 by ! ,epo*s ( its successive advances4 ,if ,i h satisfi$ ! compet5t judges 9 ea* sci5ce by my selection ( su* epo*s1 ! s*eme ( ! "w mu/ be ( p]man5t value1 h[ev] imp]fect may be ! execution ( any ( its portions4 ,note #a,p3 ,among ^!1 ,i may m5tion z works to :i* ,i h peculi> obligations1 ,t5nemann's ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie2 ,deg]&o's ,hi/oire ,comp>e des ,sy/mes de ,philosophie2 ,montucla's ,hi/oire des ,ma?matiques1 ) ,delal&e's cont9uation ( x2 ,delambre's ,a/ronomie ,anci5ne1 ,a/ronomie du ,moy5 ,age1 ,a/ronomie ,mod]ne1 & ,a/ronomie du ,dix-huitime ,sicle2 ,bailly's ,hi/oire d',a/ronomie ,anci5ne1 & ,hi/oire d',a/ronomie ,mod]ne2 ,voiron's ,hi/oire d',a/ronomie 7publi%$ z a cont9uation ( ,bailly71 ,fis*]'s ,ges*i*te d] ,physik1 ,gmel9's ,ges*i*te d] ,*emie1 ,?omson's ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry1 ,spr5gel's ,hi/ory ( ,m$ic9e1 8 ,hi/ory ( ,botany1 & 9 all bran*es ( ,natural ,hi/ory & ,physiology1 ,cuvi]'s works2 9 _! hi/orical1 z 9 all o!r portions1 mo/ admirable & in/ructive4 ,) all ^! gr\nds ( hope1 x is /ill impossible n to see t su* an und]tak+ is1 9 no small degree1 ardu\s1 & its ev5t obscure4 ,b all :o v5ture ^u su* tasks mu/ ga!r tru/ & enc\ragem5t f reflections l ^? by :i* _! great =]unn] prep>$ himself = 8 endeavors2--by recollect+ t !y are aim+ to advance ! be/ int]e/s & privileges ( man2 & t !y may expect all ! be/ & wise/ ( m5 to jo9 !m 9 _! aspirations & to aid !m 9 _! labors4 ',conc]n+ ourselves we speak n2 b z t\*+ ! matt] :i* we h 9 h&1 ?is we ask2--t m5 deem x n to be ! sett+ up ( an ,op9ion1 b ! p]=m+ ( a ,"w2 & t !y receive ?is z a c]ta9ty--t we are n lay+ ! f\ndations ( any sect or doctr9e1 b ( ! pr(it & dignity ( mank9d3--,fur!rmore1 #aa t be+ well dispos$ to :at %all advantage !mselves1 & putt+ (f factions & prejudices1 !y take common c\nsel ) u1 to ! end t be+ by ^! our aids & appliances fre$ & def5d$ f w&]+s & imp$im5ts1 !y may l5d _! h&s also to ! labors :i* rema9 to be p]=m$3--,& yet1 fur!r1 t !y be ( good hope2 nei!r feign & imag9e to !mselves ?is our ,re=m z some?+ ( inf9ite dim5sion & beyond ! grasp ( mortal man1 :51 9 tru?1 x is1 ( inf9ite error1 ! end & true limit2 & is by no means unm9dful ( ! condition ( mortality & humanity1 n confid+ t su* a ?+ c be c>ri$ to its p]fect close 9 ! space ( "o s+le day1 b assign+ x z a task to a succession ( g5]ations4'--,,bacon--,,in/auratio ,,magna1 ,prf4 ad f94 ',if !re be any man :o has x at he>t1 n m]ely to take 8 /& on :at has already be5 discov]$1 b to pr(it by t1 & to g on to some?+ beyond2--n to conqu] an adv]s>y by disput+1 b to conqu] nature by work+2--n to op9e probably & prettily1 b to "k c]ta9ly & demon/rably2--let su*1 z be+ true sons ( nature 7if !y w cons5t to d s71 jo9 !mselves to u2 s t1 leav+ ! por* ( nature :i* endless multitudes h s long trod1 we may at la/ op5 a way to ! inn] c\rts4 ,& t we may m>k ! two ways1 t old "o1 & our new "o1 by famili> names1 we h be5 wont to call ! "o ! ,anticipation ( ! ,m9d1 ! o!r1 ! ,int]pretation ( ,nature4'--,,in/4 ,,mag4 ,prf4 ad ,"p4 ii4 #ac ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,! ,,fir/ ,,volume4 ,,page ,preface to ! ,?ird ,edition4 #g ,index ( ,prop] ,names4 #bc ,index ( ,te*nical ,t]ms4 #cc ,,introduction4 #da ,,book ,i4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ool ,,philosophy1 ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,physical ,,sci5ce4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ool ,,philosophy4 ,sect4 #a4 ,fir/ ,attempts ( ! ,speculative ,faculty 9 ,physical ,inquiries4 #ee ,sect4 #b4 ,primitive ,mi/ake 9 ,greek ,physical ,philosophy4 #fj ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,! ,,greek ,,s*ool ,,philosophy4 ,sect4 #a4 ,! ,g5]al ,f\ndation ( ! ,greek ,s*ool ,philosophy4 #fc ,sect4 #b4 ,! ,ari/otelian ,physical ,philosophy4 #fg ,sect4 #c4 ,te*nical ,=ms ( ! ,greek ,s*ools4 #gc #a4 ,te*nical ,=ms ( ! ,ari/otelian ,philosophy4 #gc #b4 ,platoni/s4 #ge #c4 ,py?agoreans4 #gg #d4 ,atomi/s & ,o!rs4 #gh ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,failure ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ools4 ,sect4 #a4 ,result ( ! ,greek ,s*ool ,philosophy4 #hj ,sect4 #b4 ,cause ( ! ,failure ( ! ,greek ,physical ,philosophy4 #hc #ad ,,book ,,ii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,greece4 ,introduction4 #ie ,,*apt] ,i4--,,e>lie/ ,,/ages ,,( ,,me*anics ,,& ,,hydro/atics4 ,sect4 #a4 ,me*anics4 #if ,sect4 #b4 ,hydro/atics4 #ih ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,e>lie/ ,,/ages ,,( ,,optics4 #ajj ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,e>lie/ ,,/ages ,,( ,,h>monics4 #aje ,,book ,,iii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,greek ,,a/ronomy4 ,introduction4 #aaa ,,*apt] ,i4--,,e>lie/ ,,/ages ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,sect4 #a4 ,=mation ( ! ,notion ( a ,ye>4 #aab ,sect4 #b4 ,fixation ( ! ,civil ,ye>4 #aac ,sect4 #c4 ,correction ( ! ,civil ,ye> 7,julian ,cal5d>74 #aag ,sect4 #d4 ,attempts at ! ,fixation ( ! ,mon?4 #aah ,sect4 #e4 ,inv5tion ( ,lunisol> ,ye>s4 #abj ,sect4 #f4 ,! ,con/ellations4 #abd ,sect4 #g4 ,! ,planets4 #abf ,sect4 #h4 ,! ,circles ( ! ,sph]e4 #abh ,sect4 #i4 ,! ,globul> ,=m ( ! ,e>?4 #acb ,sect4 #aj4 ,! ,phases ( ! ,moon4 #acd ,sect4 #aa4 ,eclipses4 #ace ,sect4 #ab4 ,sequel to ! ,e>ly ,/ages ( ,a/ronomy4 #acf ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,hipp>*us4 #ach #ae ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,hipp>*us4 ,sect4 #a4 ,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles & ,ecc5trics4 #ade ,sect4 #b4 ,e/imate ( ! ,value ( ! ,!ory ( ,ecc5trics & ,epicycles4 #aea ,sect4 #c4 ,discov]y ( ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes4 #aee ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,hipp>*us4 ,sect4 #a4 ,rese>*es :i* v]ifi$ ! ,!ory4 #aeg ,sect4 #b4 ,rese>*es :i* did n v]ify ! ,!ory4 #aei ,sect4 #c4 ,me?ods ( ,obs]vation ( ! ,greek ,a/ronom]s4 #afa ,sect4 #d4 ,p]iod f ,hipp>*us to ,ptolemy4 #aff ,sect4 #e4 ,measures ( ! ,e>?4 #afi ,sect4 #f4 ,ptolemy's ,discov]y ( ,evection4 #agj ,sect4 #g4 ,conclusion ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,greek ,a/ronomy4 #age ,sect4 #h4 ,arabian ,a/ronomy4 #agf ,,book ,,iv4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,physical ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 ,introduction4 #ahe ,,*apt] ,i4--,,on ,,! ,,indi/9ctness ,,( ,,ideas ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 #a4 ,collections ( ,op9ions4 #ahg #b4 ,indi/9ctness ( ,ideas 9 ,me*anics4 #ahh #c4 %[n 9 ,ar*itecture4 #aia #d4 9 ,a/ronomy4 #aib #e4 %[n by ,skeptics4 #aib #f4 ,neglect ( ,physical ,reason+ 9 ,*ri/5dom4 #aie #g4 ,"q ( ,antipodes4 #aie #h4 ,intellectual ,condition ( ! ,religi\s ,ord]s4 #aig #i4 ,popul> ,op9ions4 #aii ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,! ,,comm5tatorial ,,_s ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 #bja #a4 ,natural ,bias to ,au?ority4 #bjb #b4 ,"* ( ,comm5tators4 #bjd #c4 ,greek ,comm5tators ( ,ari/otle4 #bje #af #d4 ,greek ,comm5tators ( ,plato & ,o!rs4 #bjg #e4 ,arabian ,comm5tators ( ,ari/otle4 #bjh ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,( ,,! ,,my/icism ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 #baa #a4 ,neoplatonic ,!osophy4 #bab #b4 ,my/ical ,ari?metic4 #baf #c4 ,a/rology4 #bah #d4 ,al*emy4 #bbd #e4 ,magic4 #bbe ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,( ,,! ,,dogmatism ,,( ,,! ,,/ation>y ,,p]iod4 #a4 ,orig9 ( ! ,s*ola/ic ,philosophy4 #bbh #b4 ,s*ola/ic ,dogmas4 #bcj #c4 ,s*ola/ic ,physics4 #bce #d4 ,au?ority ( ,ari/otle among ! ,s*oolm54 #bcf #e4 ,subjects omitt$4 ,civil ,law4 ,m$ic9e4 #bch ,,*apt] ,v4--,,progress ,,( ,,! ,,arts ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 #a4 ,art & ,sci5ce4 #bci #b4 ,arabian ,sci5ce4 #bdb #c4 ,exp]im5tal ,philosophy ( ! ,arabians4 #bdc #d4 ,rog] ,bacon4 #bde #e4 ,ar*itecture ( ! ,middle ,ages4 #bdf #f4 ,treatises on ,ar*itecture4 #bdh ,,book ,v4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,=mal ,,a/ronomy ,,aft] ,,! ,,/ation>y ,,p]iod4 ,introduction4 #bee ,,*apt] ,i4--,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,cop]nicus4 #beg ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,induction ,,( ,,cop]nicus4 ,,! ,,helioc5tric ,,!ory ,,ass]t$ ,,on ,,=mal ,,gr\nds4 #bfb #ag ,,*apt] ,,iii--,,sequel ,,to ,,cop]nicus4 ,,! ,,reception ,,& ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,cop]nican ,,!ory4 ,sect4 #a4 ,fir/ ,reception ( ! ,cop]nican ,!ory4 #bfi ,sect4 #b4 ,diffusion ( ! ,cop]nican ,!ory4 #bgb ,sect4 #c4 ,! ,helioc5tric ,!ory confirm$ by ,facts4 ,galileo's ,a/ronomical ,discov]ies4 #bgf ,sect4 #d4 ,! ,cop]nican ,sy/em oppos$ on ,!ological ,gr\nds4 #bhf ,sect4 #e4 ,! ,helioc5tric ,!ory confirm$ on ,physical ,consid]ations4 7,prelude to ,kepl]'s ,a/ronomical ,discov]ies47 #bhg ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,kepl]4 ,sect4 #a4 ,intellectual ,"* ( ,kepl]4 #bij ,sect4 #b4 ,kepl]'s ,discov]y ( 8 ,?ird ,law4 #bic ,sect4 #c4 ,kepl]'s ,discov]y ( 8 ,fir/ & ,second ,laws4 ,elliptical ,!ory ( ! ,planets4 #bif ,,*apt] ,v4--,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,kepl]4 ,,reception1 ,,v]ification1 ,,& ,,ext5sion ,,( ,,! ,,elliptical ,,!ory4 ,sect4 #a4 ,application ( ! ,elliptical ,!ory to ! ,planets4 #cjb ,sect4 #b4 ,moon4 #cjc ,sect4 #c4 ,causes ( ! fur!r ,progress ( ,a/ronomy4 #cje ,,! ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ,,book ,,vi4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,me*anics1 ,,includ+ ,,fluid ,,me*anics4 ,introduction4 #caa ,,*apt] ,i4--,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,galileo4 ,sect4 #a4 ,prelude to ! ,sci5ce ( ,/atics4 #cab ,sect4 #b4 ,revival ( ! ,sci5tific ,idea ( ,pressure4 --,/ev9us4--,equilibrium ( ,oblique ,=ces4 #caf ,sect4 #c4 ,prelude to ! ,sci5ce ( ,dynamics4--,attempts at ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion4 #cai #ah ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,galileo4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,motion ,,9 ,,simple ,,cases4 ,sect4 #a4 ,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion4 #cbb ,sect4 #b4 ,=mation & ,application ( ! ,motion ( ,accel]at+ ,=ce4 ,laws ( ,fall+ ,bodies4 #cbd ,sect4 #c4 ,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,second ,law ( ,motion4--,curvil9e> ,motions4 #ccj ,sect4 #d4 ,g5]alization ( ! ,laws ( ,equilibrium4--,pr9ciple ( ,virtual ,velocities4 #cca ,sect4 #e4 ,attempts at ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion4--,notion ( ,mom5tum4 #ccd ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,galileo4--,,p]iod ,,( ,,v]ification ,,& ,,d$uction4 #cdj ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,me*anical ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,fluids4 ,sect4 #a4 ,r$iscov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,equilibrium ( ,fluids4 #cde ,sect4 #b4 ,discov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,motion ( ,fluids4 #cdh ,,*apt] ,v4--,,g5]alization ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,me*anics4 ,sect4 #a4 ,g5]alization ( ! ,second ,law ( ,motion4--,c5tral ,=ces4 #ceb ,sect4 #b4 ,g5]alization ( ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion4--,c5tre ( ,oscillation4--,huygh5s4 #cef ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,g5]alization ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,me*anics4--,,p]iod ,,( ,,ma!matical ,,d$uction4--,,analytical ,,me*anics4 #cfb #a4 ,geometrical ,me*anics4--,newton1 c4 #cfc #b4 ,analytical ,me*anics4--,eul]4 #cfc #c4 ,me*anical ,problems4 #cfd #d4 ,d',alemb]t's ,pr9ciple4 #cfe #e4 ,motion 9 ,resi/+ ,m$ia4--,balli/ics4 #cfe #f4 ,con/ellation ( ,ma!maticians4 #cff #g4 ,! ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies4 #cfg #h4 ,mcanique ,cle/e1 c4 #cga #i4 ,precession4--,motion ( ,rigid ,bodies4 #cgd #aj4 ,vibrat+ ,/r+s4 #cge #aa4 ,equilibrium ( ,fluids4--,figure ( ! ,e>?4--,tides4 #cgf #ab4 ,capill>y ,action4 #cgg #ac4 ,motion ( ,fluids4 #cgh #ad4 ,v>i\s ,g5]al ,me*anical ,pr9ciples4 #chj #ae4 ,analytical ,g5]ality4--,connection ( ,/atics & ,dynamics4 #cha #ai ,,book ,,vii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,physical ,,a/ronomy4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,newton4 #che ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,! ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,newton4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,univ]sal ,,gravitation ,,( ,,matt]1 ,,accord+ ,,to ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,! ,,inv]se ,,squ>e ,,( ,,! ,,di/ance4 #cii #a4 ,sun's ,=ce on ,diff]5t ,planets4 #cii #b4 ,=ce 9 ,diff]5t ,po9ts ( an ,orbit4 #djj #c4 ,moon's ,gravity to ! ,e>?4 #djb #d4 ,mutual ,attraction ( all ! ,cele/ial ,bodies4 #djf #e4 ,p>ticles ( ,matt]4 #daa ,reflections on ! ,discov]y4 #dad ,"* ( ,newton4 #daf ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,newton4--,,reception ,,( ,,! ,,newtonian ,,!ory4 ,sect4 #a4 ,g5]al ,rem>ks4 #dbj ,sect4 #b4 ,reception ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory 9 ,engl&4 #dba ,sect4 #c4 ,abroad4 #dbi ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,newton1 ,,cont9u$4 ,,v]ification ,,& ,,completion ,,( ,,! ,,newtonian ,,!ory4 ,sect4 #a4 ,division ( ! ,subject4 #dcc ,sect4 #b4 ,application ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory to ! ,moon4 #dcd ,sect4 #c4 ,planets1 ,satellites1 & ,e>?4 #dch ,sect4 #d4 ,application ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory to ,secul> ,inequalities4 #ddd ,sect4 #e4 to ! new ,planets4#ddf ,sect4 #f4 to ,comets4 #ddi ,sect4 #g4 to ! ,figure ( ! ,e>?4 #deb ,sect4 #h4 ,confirmation ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory by ,exp]im5ts on ,attraction4 #def ,sect4 #i4 ,application ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory to ! ,tides4 #deg ,,*apt] ,v4--,,discov]ies ,,add$ ,,to ,,! ,,newtonian ,,!ory4 ,sect4 #a4 ,tables ( ,a/ronomical ,refraction4 #dfb ,sect4 #b4 ,discov]y ( ! ,velocity ( ,light4--,rm]4 #dfc #bj ,sect4 #c4 ,discov]y ( ,ab]ration4--,bradley4 #dfd ,sect4 #d4 ,discov]y ( ,nutation4 #dfe ,sect4 #e4 ,discov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,d\ble ,/>s4--,! ,two ,h]s*els4 #dfg ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,! ,,in/rum5ts ,,& ,,aids ,,( ,,a/ronomy ,,dur+ ,,! ,,newtonian ,,p]iod4 ,sect4 #a4 ,in/rum5ts4 #dgj ,sect4 #b4 ,obs]vatories4 #dgf ,sect4 #c4 ,sci5tific ,societies4 #dgh ,sect4 #d4 ,patrons ( ,a/ronomy4 #dgi ,sect4 #e4 ,a/ronomical ,exp$itions4 #dhj ,sect4 #f4 ,pres5t ,/ate ( ,a/ronomy4 #dha ,,additions ,,to ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,,introduction #dhi ,,book ,i4--,,! ,,greek ,,s*ool ,,philosophy4 ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ools4 ,! ,platonic ,doctr9e ( ,ideas4 #dia ,,failure ,,( ,,! ,,greek ,,physical ,,philosophy4 ,bacon's ,rem>ks on ! ,greeks4 #did ,ari/otle's ,acc\nt ( ! ,ra9b[4 #die ,,book ,,ii4--,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,greece4 ,plato's ,timu & ,republic4 #dig ,h]o ( ,alex&ria4 #eja ,,book ,,iii4--,,! ,,greek ,,a/ronomy4 ,introduction4 #ejc ,,e>lie/ ,,/ages ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,! ,globul> ,=m ( ! ,e>?4 #eje ,! ,helioc5tric ,sy/em among ! ,anci5ts4 #ejf ,! ,eclipse ( ,?ales4 #ejh #ba ,,book ,,iv4--,,physical ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 ,g5]al ,rem>ks4 #eaa ,,progress ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 ,?omas ,aqu9as4 #eab ,rog] ,bacon4 #eab ,,book ,v4--,,=mal ,,a/ronomy4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,cop]nicus4 ,nicolas ( ,cus4 #ebc ,,! ,,cop]nican ,,!ory4 ,! ,moon's ,rotation4 #ebd ,m4 ,f\cault's ,exp]im5ts4 #ebe ,,sequel ,,to ,,cop]nicus4 ,engli% ,cop]nicans4 #ebf ,giordano ,bruno4 #ecj ,did ,francis ,bacon reject ! 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#dgg2 b4 #fg1 #abj4 ,albategnius1 a4 #agg1 #agh4 ,alb]tus ,magnus1 a4 #bbi1 #bcg2 b4 #cfg4 ,albumas>1 a4 #bbb4 ,alex&] ,aphrodisi5sis1 a4 #bjf4 ,alex&] ! ,great1 a4 #add4 ,alf>abi1 a4 #bji4 ,alfr$1 a4 #aih4 ,algazel1 a4 #aid4 ,alhaz51 a4 #bdc2 b4 #ed4 ,alis-b5-,isa1 a4 #afi4 ,alk9di1 a4 #baa1 #bbf4 ,almansor1 a4 #agg4 ,alm]ic1 a4 #bcf4 ,alpetragius1 a4 #agi ,alphonso ,x41 a4 #aea1 #agh4 ,amauri1 a4 #bcf4 ,ammonius ,saccas1 a4 #bjf1 #bab4 ,ampre1 b4 #ahc1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bdf1 #bhd4 ,anaxagoras1 a4 #gh2 b4 #ec4 ,anaxim&]1 a4 #acj1 #acb1 #ace4 ,anaxim5es1 a4 #ef4 ,&]son1 a4 #cdb4 ,anna ,comn5a1 a4 #bjg4 ,anselm1 a4 #bbi4 ,arago1 b4 #gb1 #ha1 #ajj1 #aad1 #bed4 ,aratus1 a4 #afg4 ,ar*im$es1 a4 #if1 #ii1 #cab1 #caf4 ,ardu9o1 b4 #ead4 ,ari/>*us1 a4 #acg1 #bei4 ,ari/yllus1 a4 #add4 ,ari/ophanes1 a4 #abj4 ,ari/otle1 a4 #eg1 #ccd2 b4 #bd1 #eh1 #cfa1 #dab1 #dag1 #dbj1 #dch1 #ddd1 #dee1 #ehc4 ,arnold de ,vill ,nov1 a4 #bbh4 ,arriaga1 a4 #cce4 ,art$i1 b4 #dbc4 ,artephius1 a4 #bbf4 ,aryabatta1 a4 #bfj4 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,b]n\lli1 ,james1 ! y\ng]1 b4 #db4 ,b]n\lli1 ,john1 a4 #cei1 #cfa1 #cfc1 #cff1 #cge1 #cic1 #dcj2 b4 #cb4 ,b]n\lli1 ,john1 ! y\ng]1 b4 #cb4 ,b]?ollet1 b4 #bfg1 #bgh1 #bha4 ,b]zelius1 b4 #bhd1 #bhi1 #cjd1 #cce1 #cdg1 #cdh4 ,bessel1 a4 #bgb4 ,betanc\rt1 b4 #agc4 ,beudant1 b4 #cdh4 ,bi*at1 b4 #dfc4 ,bidone1 a4 #cej4 ,biela1 a4 #deb4 ,bik]1 b4 #agd4 ,biot1 b4 #ge1 #gf1 #ha1 #bbc1 #bdi4 ,black1 b4 #afj1 #bgb1 #bha4 ,blair1 b4 #fg4 ,blo*1 b4 #dbe4 ,blondel1 a4 #cdb4 ,bock1 b4 #cga4 ,bo?ius1 a4 #aig1 #bjh4 ,boileau1 a4 #cij4 ,bonap>te1 b4 #bda1 #bif4 ,bonav5tura1 a4 #bcc4 ,bontius1 b4 #dbb4 ,borelli1 a4 #cbc1 #chg1 #cic1 #dje1 #djf4 ,bossut1 a4 #cej4 ,b\1 ,ami1 b4 #ebc4 ,b\gu]1 a4 #cgg4 ,b\illet1 b4 #aff4 ,b\rdon1 b4 #dfa4 ,b\rnon1 b4 #cbf4 ,b\v>d1 a4 #ddc4 ,boyle1 a4 #cie2 b4 #hj1 #afc1 #bfc4 ,boze1 b4 #aih4 ,bradley1 a4 #dch1 #dda1 #def1 #dfc1 #dfe4 ,br&]1 b4 #ejh1 #eaf4 ,brassavola1 b4 #cfh4 ,brew/]1 ,sir ,david1 b4 #fe1 #ge1 #ha1 #aac1 #aai1 #abc1 #cca1 #ccb4 ,briggs1 a4 #bgf4 ,brisbane1 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,refraction1 b4 #ed4 ( heat1 b4 #aee4 ,remora1 a4 #aij4 ,res9\s electricity1 b4 #aie4 ,rete mirabile1 b4 #dfc4 ,retrograde motion ( planets1 a4 #aci4 ,roman cal5d>1 a4 #abc4 ,rotatory vibrations1 b4 #dd4 ,rudolph9e tables1 a4 #bgj1 #cjb4 ,s>os1 a4 #acf4 ,s*ola/ic philosophy1 a4 #bcj4 ,s*ool philosophy1 a4 #ej4 ,sci5ce1 a4 #db4 ,second>y rocks1 b4 #eac4 me*anical sci5ces1 b4 #bc4 ,second law ( motion1 a4 #ccj4 ,seconds1 a4 #afc4 ,secul> inequalities1 a4 #cgj4 ,segregation1 b4 #eeh4 ,sem9al contagion1 b4 #dei4 proportions1 a4 #gi4 ,sequels ( epo*s1 a4 #dg4 ,silicides1 b4 #ceb4 ,silurian rocks1 b4 #ecj4 ,simples1 b4 #cfg4 ,s9e1 a4 #aha4 ,sol> heat1 b4 #ade4 ,sol/itial po9ts1 a4 #aca4 ,solution ( wat] 9 air1 b4 #aff4 ,so?ic p]iod1 a4 #aah4 ,spagiric art1 b4 #bfb4 ,specific heat1 b4 #aei4 ,sph]e1 a4 #acj4 ,spontane\s g5]ation1 b4 #deg4 ,/atical electricity1 b4 #bjh4 ,/ation>y p]iods1 a4 #dh4 planets1 a4 #aci4 ,/ations 7( plants71 b4 #efb4 ,sympa!tic s\nds1 b4 #cg4 ,sy/ematic ,botany1 b4 #ceg4 ,sy/ematic ,zoology1 b4 #dab4 ,sy/ems ( cry/allization1 b4 #cbh4 ,tables1 ,sol>1 7( ,ptolemy71 a4 #adf4 ,hakemite1 a4 #agg4 ,toletan1 a4 #agg4 ,il*anic1 a4 #agh4 ,alphons9e1 a4 #agh4 ,prut5ic1 a4 #bgj4 ,rudolph9e1 a4 #cjb4 ,p]petual 7( ,lansb]g71 a4 #cjb4 ,philolaic1 a4 #cjd4 ,c>ol9ian1 a4 #cjd4 ,tang5tial vibrations1 b4 #de4 ,tauto*ron\s curves1 a4 #cgb4 ,te*nical t]ms1 b4 #chi4 ,temp]am5t1 b4 #dg4 ,temp]ature1 b4 #aci4 ,t]m9ology1 b4 #chi4 ,t]ti>y rocks1 b4 #eac4 ,tetractys1 a4 #gg4 ,!ory ( analogues1 b4 #dhc4 ,!rmomultipli]1 b4 #aed4 ,!rmotics1 b4 #acg4 ,?ick plates4 ,colors (1 b4 #gi4 ,?9 plates4 ,colors (1 b4 #gg4 ,?ird law ( motion1 a4 #ccd4 ,?ree pr9ciples 79 ,*emi/ry71 b4 #bfa4 ,toletan tables1 a4 #agg4 ,transition rocks1 b4 #ecj4 ,transv]se vibrations1 b4 #dd1 #ic1 #aja4 ,trav]t91 b4 #edf4 ,trepidation ( ! fix$ />s1 a4 #agi4 ,trigonometry1 a4 #afg4 ,trivial names1 b4 #cib4 ,trivium1 a4 #aii4 ,tropics1 a4 #aca4 ,truncation 7( cry/als71 b4 #cai4 ,type 79 ,comp>ative ,anatomy71 b4 #dgf4 ,uni=m =ce1 a4 #cbg4 ,unity ( ,composition 79 ,comp>ative ,anatomy71 b4 #dhc4 ,unity ( plan 79 ,comp>ative ,anatomy71 b4 #dhc4 ,v>iation ( ! moon1 a4 #agi1 #cjc4 #ch ,vegetable alkali1 b4 #bfd4 ,v]tebrata1 b4 #dgh4 ,vibrations1 b4 #dd4 ,vic>i\s elem5ts1 b4 #ccd4 solicitations1 a4 #cei4 ,virtual velocities1 a4 #ccc4 ,vitre\s electricity1 b4 #aie4 ,volatile alkali1 b4 #bfd4 ,volta-electromet]1 b4 #bii4 ,voltaic electricity1 b4 #bci4 pile1 b4 #bci4 ,volumes1 ,!ory (1 b4 #bij4 ,volunt>y1 viol5t1 & natural motion1 a4 #cai4 ,vortices1 a4 #chh4 ,week1 a4 #abg4 ,ye>1 a4 #aab4 ,z5i?1 a4 #aha4 ,zodiac1 a4 #aca4 ,zones1 a4 #acf4 #ci ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces4 ,,introduction4 ,a j /ory ( le>n+1 conta9+ ! antiquities & orig9als ( ,,kn[l$ges1 & _! sects2 _! inv5tions1 _! div]se adm9i/rations & manag+s2 _! fl\ri%+s1 _! oppositions1 decays1 depressions1 oblivions1 removes2 ) ! causes & occasions ( !m1 & all o!r ev5ts conc]n+ le>n+1 ?r\gh\t all ages ( ! _w2 ,i may truly affirm to be want+4 ,! use & end ( :i* "w ,i d n s mu* design = curiosity1 or satisfaction ( ^? t are ! lov]s ( le>n+3 b *iefly = a m s]i\s & grave purpose2 :i* is ?is1 9 few words--t x w make le>n$ m5 m wise 9 ! use & adm9i/ration ( le>n+4 ,,bacon1 ,advancem5t ( ,le>n+1 book ii4 #da ,,introduction4 ,,x is my purpose to write ! ,hi/ory ( "s ( ! mo/ important ( ! ,physical ,sci5ces1 f ! e>lie/ to ! mo/ rec5t p]iods4 ,i %all ?us h to trace "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable bran*es ( human k1 f _! fir/ g]m to _! gr[? into a va/ & v>i$ assemblage ( undisput$ tru?s2 f ! acute1 b fruitless1 essays ( ! e>ly ,greek ,philosophy1 to ! compreh5sive sy/ems1 & demon/rat$ g5]alizations1 :i* compose su* sci5ces z ! ,me*anics1 ,a/ronomy1 & ,*emi/ry1 ( mod]n times4 ,! complet5ess ( hi/orical view :i* belongs to su* a design1 consi/s1 n 9 accumulat+ all ! details ( ! cultivation ( ea* sci5ce1 b 9 m>k+ ! l>g] features ( its =mation4 ,! hi/orian mu/ endeavor to po9t out h[ ea* ( ! important advances 0 made1 by :i* ! sci5ces h rea*$ _! pres5t position2 & :5 & by :om ea* ( ! valuable tru?s 0 obta9$1 ( :i* ! aggregate n[ con/itutes a co/ly treasure4 ,su* a task1 if fitly execut$1 mu/ h a well-f\nd$ int]e/ = all ^? :o look at ! exi/+ condition ( human k ) complac5cy & admiration4 ,! pres5t g5]ation f9ds itself ! heir ( a va/ patrimony ( sci5ce2 & x mu/ ne$s conc]n u to "k ! /eps by :i* ^! possessions 7 acquir$1 & ! docum5ts by :i* !y are secur$ to u & our heirs =ev]4 ,our species1 f ! "t ( its creation1 has be5 travell+ onw>ds 9 pursuit ( tru?2 & n[ t we h rea*$ a l(ty & comm&+ position1 ) ! broad light ( day ar\nd u1 x mu/ be grateful to look back on ! l9e ( our va/ progress2--to review ! j\rney1 begun 9 e>ly twilight amid primeval wilds2 = a long "t cont9u$ ) sl[ advance & obscure prospects2 & gradually & 9 lat] days foll[$ along m op5 & lightsome pa?s1 9 a wide & f]tile region4 ,! hi/orian ( sci5ce1 f e>ly p]iods to ! pres5t times1 may hope = favor on ! score ( ! m]e subject ( 8 n>rative1 & 9 virtue ( ! curiosity :i* ! m5 #db ( ! pres5t day may naturally feel respect+ ! ev5ts & p]sons ( 8 /ory4 ,b su* a survey may possess also an int]e/ ( ano!r k9d2 x may be in/ructive z well z agreeable2 x may br+ be=e ! read] ! pres5t =m & ext5t1 ! future hopes & prospects ( sci5ce1 z well z its pa/ progress4 ,! em95ce on :i* we /& may enable u to see ! l& ( promise1 z well z ! wild]ness ?r\gh :i* we h pass$4 ,! exam9ation ( ! /eps by :i* our ance/ors acquir$ our intellectual e/ate1 may make u acqua9t$ ) our expectations z well z our possessions2--may n only rem9d u ( :at we h1 b may tea* u h[ to improve & increase our /ore4 ,x w be univ]sally expect$ t a ,hi/ory ( ,inductive ,sci5ce %\ld po9t out to u a philosophical di/ribution ( ! exi/+ body ( k1 & af=d u "s indication ( ! mo/ promis+ mode ( direct+ our future ef=ts to add to its ext5t & complet5ess4 ,to d$uce su* lessons f ! pa/ hi/ory ( human k1 0 ! int5tion :i* orig9ally gave rise to ! pres5t "w4 ,nor is ?is portion ( ! design 9 any measure ab&on$2 b its execution1 if x take place1 mu/ be attempt$ 9 a sep>ate & future treatise1 ,on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,an essay ( ?is k9d may1 ,i tru/1 f ! progress already made 9 x1 be laid be=e ! public at no long int]val aft] ! pres5t hi/ory4#aa ,note #aa3 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces 0 publi%$ %ortly aft] ! pres5t "w4 ,?\gh1 !re=e1 _m ( ! pr9ciples & maxims ( su* a "w w disclose !mselves ) m or less ( di/9ctness 9 ! c\rse ( ! hi/ory on :i* we are ab\t to ent]1 ! sy/ematic & complete exposition ( su* pr9ciples mu/ be res]v$ = ?is o!r treatise4 ,my attempts & reflections h l$ me to ! op9ion1 t ju/ice _c be done to ! subject )\t su* a division ( x4 ,to ?is future "w1 !n1 ,i mu/ ref] ! read] :o is dispos$ to require1 at ! outset1 a precise explanation ( ! t]ms :i* occur 9 my title4 ,x is n possible1 )\t ent]+ into ?is philosophy1 to expla9 adequately h[ sci5ce :i* is ,,inductive diff]s f t :i* is n s2 or :y "s portions ( k may prop]ly be select$ f ! g5]al mass & t]m$ ,,sci5ce4 ,x w be suffici5t at pres5t to say1 t ! sci5ces ( :i* we h #dc "h to treat1 are ^? :i* are commonly kn[n z ! ,physical ,sci5ces2 & t by ,induction is to be und]/ood t process ( collect+ g5]al tru?s f ! exam9ation ( p>ticul> facts1 by :i* su* sci5ces h be5 =m$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 two or ?ree rem>ks1 ( :i* ! application w occur s frequ5tly1 & w t5d s mu* to give u a cle>] view ( "s ( ! subjects :i* occur 9 our hi/ory1 t ,i w /ate !m n[ 9 a brief & g5]al mann]4 ,facts & ,ideas4#ba--;,9 ! fir/ place !n1 ,i rem>k1 t1 to ! =mation ( sci5ce1 two ?+s are requisite2--,facts & ,ideas2 obs]vation ( ,?+s )\t1 & an inw>d ef=t ( ,?\ght2 or1 9 o!r words1 ,s5se & ,reason4 ,nei!r ( ^! elem5ts1 by itself c con/itute sub/antial g5]al k4 ,! impressions ( s5se1 unconnect$ by "s rational & speculative pr9ciple1 c only end 9 a practical acqua9tance ) individual objects2 ! op]ations ( ! rational faculties1 on ! o!r h&1 if all[$ to g on )\t a con/ant ref]5ce to ext]nal ?+s1 c lead only to empty ab/raction & b>r5 +5uity4 ,real speculative k dem&s ! comb9ation ( ! two +r$i5ts2--"r reason1 & facts to reason ^u4 ,x has be5 well said1 t true k is ! int]pretation ( nature2 & !re=e x requires bo? ! int]pret+ m9d1 & nature = its subject2 bo? ! docum5t1 & ! +5uity to read x aright4 ,?us inv5tion1 acut5ess1 & connection ( ?\ght1 are necess>y on ! "o h&1 = ! progress ( philosophical k2 & on ! o!r h&1 ! precise & /eady application ( ^! faculties to facts well kn[n & cle>ly conceiv$4 ,x is easy to po9t out in/ances 9 :i* sci5ce has fail$ to advance1 9 consequ5ce ( ! abs5ce ( "o or o!r ( ^! requisites2 inde$1 by f> ! great] "p ( ! c\rse ( ! _w1 ! hi/ory ( mo/ times & mo/ c\ntries1 exhibits a condition ?us /ation>y ) respect to k4 ,! facts1 ! impressions on ! s5ses1 on :i* ! fir/ successful attempts at physical k proce$$1 7 z well kn[n long be=e ! "t :5 !y 7 ?us turn$ to acc\nt1 z at t p]iod4 ,! motions ( ! />s1 & ! effects ( weight1 7 famili> to man be=e ! rise ( ! ,greek ,a/ronomy & ,me*anics3 b ! div9] m9d 0 /ill abs5t2 ! act ( ?\ght _h n be5 ex]t$1 by :i* ^! facts 7 b\nd toge!r "u ! =m ( laws & pr9ciples4 ,& ev5 at #dd ?is day1 ! tribes ( unciviliz$ & half-civiliz$ man1 ov] ! :ole face ( ! e>?1 h be=e _! eyes a va/ body ( facts1 ( exactly ! same nature z ^? ) :i* ,europe has built ! /ately fabric ( h] physical philosophy2 b1 9 almo/ e o!r "p ( ! e>?1 ! process ( ! intellect by :i* ^! facts become sci5ce1 is unkn[n4 ,! sci5tific faculty does n "w4 ,! scatt]$ /ones are !re1 b ! build]'s h& is want+4 ,& aga91 we h no lack ( pro( t m]e activity ( ?\ght is equally ineffici5t 9 produc+ real k4 ,almo/ ! :ole ( ! c>e] ( ! ,greek s*ools ( philosophy2 ( ! s*oolm5 ( ,europe 9 ! middle ages2 ( ! ,arabian & ,indian philosoph]s2 %[s u t we may h extreme +5uity & subtlety1 inv5tion & connection1 demon/ration & me?od2 & yet t out ( ^! g]ms1 no physical sci5ce may be develop$4 ,we may obta91 by su* means1 ,logic & ,metaphysics1 & ev5 ,geometry & ,algebra2 b out ( su* mat]ials we %all nev] =m ,me*anics & ,optics1 ,*emi/ry & ,physiology4 ,h[ impossible ! =mation ( ^! sci5ces is )\t a con/ant & c>eful ref]5ce to obs]vation & exp]im5t2--h[ rapid & prosp]\s _! progress may be :5 !y draw f su* s\rces ! mat]ials on :i* ! m9d ( ! philosoph] employs itself2--! hi/ory ( ^? bran*es ( k = ! la/ ?ree hundr$ ye>s abundantly tea*es u4 ,note #ba3 ,= ! ,anti!sis ( ,facts & ,ideas1 see ! ,philosophy1 book i4 *4 #a1 #b1 #d1 #e4 ,accord+ly1 ! exi/5ce ( cle> ,ideas appli$ to di/9ct ,facts w be disc]nible 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,sci5ce1 :5ev] any m>k$ advance takes place4 ,&1 9 trac+ ! progress ( ! v>i\s prov9ces ( k :i* come "u our survey1 x w be important = u to see t1 at all su* epo*s1 su* a comb9ation has occurr$2 t :5ev] any mat]ial /ep 9 g5]al k has be5 made1--:5ev] any philosophical discov]y arre/s our att5tion1--"s man or m5 come be=e u1 :o h possess$1 9 an em95t degree1 a cle>ness ( ! ideas :i* belong to ! subject 9 "q1 & :o h appli$ su* ideas 9 a vigor\s & di/9ct mann] to asc]ta9$ facts & exact obs]vations4 ,we %all nev] proce$ ?r\gh any consid]able range ( our n>rative1 )\t hav+ occasion to rem9d ! read] ( ?is reflection4 ,successive ,/eps 9 ,sci5ce4#ca--;,b !re is ano!r rem>k :i* we mu/ also make4 ,su* sci5ces z we h "h to d ) are1 #de commonly1 n =m$ by a s+le act2--!y are n complet$ by ! discov]y ( "o great pr9ciple4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y consi/ 9 a long-cont9u$ advance2 a s]ies ( *anges2 a repeat$ progress f "o pr9ciple to ano!r1 diff]5t & (t5 app>5tly contradictory4 ,n[1 x is important to rememb] t ?is contradiction is app>5t only4 ,! pr9ciples :i* con/itut$ ! triumph ( ! prec$+ /ages ( ! sci5ce1 may appe> to be subv]t$ & eject$ by ! lat] discov]ies1 b 9 fact !y are 7s f> z !y 7 true7 tak5 up 9 ! subsequ5t doctr9es & includ$ 9 !m4 ,!y cont9ue to be an ess5tial "p ( ! sci5ce4 ,! e>li] tru?s are n expell$ b absorb$1 n contradict$ b ext5d$2 & ! hi/ory ( ea* sci5ce1 :i* may ?us appe> l a succession ( revolutions1 is1 9 reality1 a s]ies ( developm5ts4 ,9 ! intellectual1 z 9 ! mat]ial _w1 ,omnia mutantur nil int]it 4 4 4 4 4 ,nec manet ut fu]at nec =mas s]vat easdem1 ,s$ tam5 ipsa eadem e/4 ,all *anges1 naught is lo/2 ! =ms are *ang$1 ,& t :i* has be5 is n :at x 01 ,yet t :i* has be5 is4 ,no?+ :i* 0 done 0 useless or uness5tial1 ?\gh x ceases to be conspicu\s & prim>y4 ,note #ca3 ,conc]n+ ,successive ,g5]alizations 9 ,sci5ce see ! ,philosophy1 book i4 *4 #b1 sect4 #aa4 ,?us ! f9al =m ( ea* sci5ce conta9s ! sub/ance ( ea* ( its prec$+ modifications2 & all t 0 at any antec$5t p]iod discov]$ & e/abli%$1 m9i/]s to ! ultimate developm5t ( its prop] bran* ( k4 ,su* previ\s doctr9es may require to be made precise & def9ite1 to h _! sup]flu\s & arbitr>y portions expung$1 to be express$ 9 new language1 to be tak5 up into ! body ( sci5ce by v>i\s processes2--b !y d n on su* acc\nts cease to be true doctr9es1 or to =m a portion ( ! ess5tial con/itu5ts ( our k4 ,t]ms record ,discov]ies4#da--,! modes 9 :i* ! e>li] tru?s ( sci5ce are pres]v$ 9 its lat] =ms1 are inde$ v>i\s4 ,f be+ ass]t$ at fir/ z /range discov]ies1 su* tru?s come at la/ to be impli$ z almo/ self-evid5t axioms4 ,!y are record$ by "s famili> maxim1 or p]haps by "s new ^w or phrase1 :i* becomes "p ( ! curr5t language ( ! philosophical _w2 & ?us ass]ts a pr9ciple1 :ile x appe>s m]ely to indicate a transi5t #df notion2--pres]ves z well z expresses a tru?2--&1 l a m$al ( gold1 is a treasure z well z a tok54 ,we %all frequ5tly h to notice ! mann] 9 :i* great discov]ies ?us /amp _! impress ^u ! t]ms ( a sci5ce2 &1 l great political revolutions1 are record$ by ! *ange ( ! curr5t co9 :i* has accompani$ !m4 ,note #da3 ,conc]n+ ,te*nical ,t]ms1 see ,philosophy1 book i4 *4 #c4 ,g5]alization4--,! great *anges :i* ?us take place 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 ! revolutions ( ! intellectual _w1 h1 z a usual & lead+ "*1 ?is1 t !y are /eps ( g5]alization2 transitions f p>ticul> tru?s to o!rs ( a wid] ext5t1 9 :i* ! =m] are includ$4 ,?is progress ( k1 f individual facts to univ]sal laws1--f p>ticul> propositions to g5]al ones1--& f ^! to o!rs /ill m g5]al1 ) ref]5ce to :i* ! =m] g5]alizations are p>ticul>1--is s f> famili> to m5's m9ds1 t1 )\t "h ent]+ into fur!r explanation1 its nature w be und]/ood suffici5tly to prep>e ! read] to recognize ! exemplifications ( su* a process1 :i* he w f9d at e /ep ( our advance4 ,inductive ,epo*s2 ,preludes2 ,sequels4--,9 our hi/ory1 x is ! progress ( k only :i* we h to att5d to4 ,?is is ! ma9 action ( our drama2 & all ! ev5ts :i* d n be> ^u ?is1 ?\gh !y may relate to ! cultivation & ! cultivators ( philosophy1 are n a necess>y "p ( our !me4 ,our n>rative w !re=e consi/ ma9ly ( successive /eps ( g5]alization1 su* z h j be5 m5tion$4 ,b among ^!1 we %all f9d "s ( em95t & decisive importance1 :i* h m peculi>ly influ5c$ ! =tunes ( physical philosophy1 & to :i* we may consid] ! re/ z subord9ate & auxili>y4 ,^! prim>y movem5ts1 :5 ! ,inductive process1 by :i* sci5ce is =m$1 has be5 ex]cis$ 9 a m en]getic & p[]ful mann]1 may be di/+ui%$ z ! ,inductive ,epo*s ( sci5tific hi/ory2 & !y des]ve our m express & po9t$ notice4 ,!y are1 = ! mo/ "p1 m>k$ by ! great discov]ies & ! great philosophical names :i* all civiliz$ nations h agre$ 9 admir+4 ,b1 :5 we exam9e m cle>ly ! hi/ory ( su* discov]ies1 we f9d t ^! epo*s h n occurr$ sudd5ly & )\t prep>ation4 ,!y h be5 prec$$ by a p]iod1 :i* we may call _! ,prelude dur+ :i* ! ideas & facts on :i* !y turn$ 7 call$ into action2--7 gradually evolv$ into cle>ness & connection1 p]man5cy & c]ta9ty2 till at la/ ! discov]y :i* m>ks ! epo*1 seiz$ & fix$ =ev] ! tru? :i* _h till !n be5 obscurely & #dg d\btfully disc]n$4 ,& aga91 :5 ?is /ep has be5 made by ! pr9cipal discov]]s1 !re may g5]ally be obs]v$ ano!r p]iod1 :i* we may call ! ,sequel ( ! ,epo*1 dur+ :i* ! discov]y has acquir$ a m p]fect c]ta9ty & a m complete developm5t among ! lead]s ( ! advance2 has be5 diffus$ to ! wid] ?rong ( ! second>y cultivators ( su* k1 & trac$ into its di/ant consequ5ces4 ,?is is a "w1 always ( "t & labor1 (t5 ( difficulty & conflict4 ,to di/ribute ! ,hi/ory ( sci5ce into su* ,epo*s1 ) _! ,preludes & ,sequels1 if successfully attempt$1 mu/ ne$s make ! s]ies & connections ( its occurr5ces m di/9ct & intelligible4 ,su* p]iods =m re/+-places1 :]e we pause till ! du/ ( ! confus$ m>* is laid1 & ! prospect ( ! pa? is cle>4 ,inductive ,*>ts4#ea--,s9ce ! advance ( sci5ce consi/s 9 collect+ by induction true g5]al laws f p>ticul> facts1 & 9 comb9+ sev]al su* laws into "o high] g5]alization1 9 :i* !y /ill reta9 _! tru?2 we might =m a ,*>t1 or ,table1 ( ! progress ( ea* sci5ce1 by sett+ d[n ! p>ticul> facts :i* h ?us be5 comb9$1 s z to =m g5]al tru?s1 & by m>k+ ! fur!r union ( ^! g5]al tru?s into o!rs m compreh5sive4 ,! ,table ( ! progress ( any sci5ce w\ld ?us resemble ! ,map ( a ,riv]1 9 :i* ! wat]s f sep>ate s\rces unite & make rivulets1 :i* aga9 meet ) rivulets f o!r f\nta9s1 & ?us g on =m+ by _! junction trunks ( a high] & high] ord]4 ,! repres5tation ( ! /ate ( a sci5ce 9 ?is =m1 w\ld necess>ily exhibit all ! pr9cipal doctr9es ( ! sci5ce2 = ea* g5]al tru? conta9s ! p>ticul> tru?s f :i* x 0 d]iv$1 & may be foll[$ backw>ds till we h ^! be=e u 9 _! sep>ate /ate4 ,& ! la/ & mo/ advanc$ g5]alization w\ld h1 9 su* a s*eme1 its prop] place & ! evid5ce ( its validity4 ,h5ce su* an ,inductive ,table ( ea* sci5ce w\ld af=d a crit]ion ( ! correctness ( our di/ribution ( ! inductive ,epo*s1 by its co9cid5ce ) ! views ( ! be/ judges1 z to ! sub/antial cont5ts ( ! sci5ce 9 "q4 ,by =m+1 !re=e1 su* ,inductive ,tables ( ! pr9cipal sci5ces ( :i* ,i h "h to speak1 & by regulat+ by ^! tables1 my views ( ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ces1 ,i conceive t ,i h secur$ ! di/ribution ( my #dh hi/ory f mat]ial error2 = no m]ely arbitr>y division ( ! ev5ts c\ld satisfy su* conditions4 ,b ?\gh ,i h con/ruct$ su* *>ts to direct ! c\rse ( ! pres5t hi/ory1 ,i %all n ins]t !m 9 ! "w1 res]v+ !m = ! illu/ration ( ! philosophy ( ! subject2 = to ?is !y m prop]ly belong1 be+ a "p ( ! ,logic ( ,induction4 ,note #ea3 ,inductive *>ts ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy & ( ,optics1 su* z are "h ref]r$ to1 are giv5 9 ! ,philosophy1 book xi4 *4 #f4 ,/ation>y ,p]iods4--,by ! l9es ( su* maps ! real advance ( sci5ce is depict$1 & no?+ else4 ,b !re are sev]al occurr5ces ( o!r k9ds1 too int]e/+ & too in/ructive to be altoge!r omitt$4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! conditions ( ! progress ( k1 we mu/ att5d1 9 "s measure1 to ! failures z well z ! successes by :i* su* attempts h be5 att5d$4 ,:5 we reflect dur+ h[ small a portion ( ! :ole hi/ory ( human speculations1 sci5ce has really be51 9 any m>k$ degree1 progressive1 we mu/ ne$s feel "s curiosity to "k :at 0 do+ 9 ^! /ation>y p]iods2 :at field c\ld be f\nd :i* admitt$ ( s wide a deviation1 or at lea/ s protract$ a w&]+4 ,x is highly necess>y to our purpose1 to describe ! baffl$ ent]prises z well z ! a*ievem5ts ( human speculation4 ,d$uction4--,dur+ a great "p ( su* /ation>y p]iods1 we %all f9d t ! process :i* we h spok5 ( z ess5tial to ! =mation ( real sci5ce1 ! conjunction ( cle> ,ideas ) di/9ct ,facts1 0 int]rupt$2 &1 9 su* cases1 m5 dealt ) ideas alone4 ,!y employ$ !mselves 9 reason+ f pr9ciples1 & !y arrang$1 & classifi$1 & analyz$ _! ideas1 s z to make _! reason+s satisfy ! requisitions ( our rational faculties4 ,?is process ( draw+ conclusions f our pr9ciples1 by rigor\s & unimpea*able tra9s ( demon/ration1 is t]m$ ,d$uction4 ,9 its due place1 x is a highly important "p ( e sci5ce2 b x has no value :5 ! fundam5tal pr9ciples1 on :i* ! :ole ( ! demon/ration re/s1 h n fir/ be5 obta9$ by ! induction ( facts1 s z to supply ! mat]ials ( sub/antial tru?4 ,)\t su* mat]ials1 a s]ies ( demon/rations resembles physical sci5ce only z a %ad[ resembles a real object4 ,to give a real significance to our propositions1 ,induction mu/ provide :at ,d$uction _c supply4 ,f a pictur$ hook we c hang only a pictur$ *a94 ,di/9ction ( common ,notions & ,sci5tific ,ideas4#fa--,:5 ! #di notions ) :i* m5 are conv]sant 9 ! common c\rse ( practical life1 :i* give mean+ to _! famili> language1 & employm5t to _! h\rly ?\ghts1 are comp>$ ) ! ,ideas on :i* exact sci5ce is f\nd$1 we f9d t ! two classes ( intellectual op]ations h mu* t is common & mu* t is diff]5t4 ,)\t "h attempt+ fully to expla9 ?is relation 7:i*1 inde$1 is "o ( ! h>de/ problems ( our philosophy71 we may obs]ve t !y h ?is 9 common1 t bo? are acquir$ by acts ( ! m9d ex]cis$ 9 connect+ ext]nal impressions1 & may be employ$ 9 conduct+ a tra9 ( reason+2 or1 speak+ loosely 7= we _c "h pursue ! subject s z to arrive at philosophical exactness71 we may say1 t all notions & ideas are obta9$ by an inductive1 & may be us$ 9 a d$uctive process4 ,b sci5tific ,ideas & common ,notions diff] 9 ?is1 t ! =m] are precise & /able1 ! latt] vague & v>iable2 ! =m] are possess$ ) cle> insight1 & employ$ 9 a s5se rigor\sly limit$1 & always id5tically ! same2 ! latt] h gr[n up 9 ! m9d f a ?\s& dim & div]se sugge/ions1 & ! obscurity & incongruity :i* belong to _! orig9 hang ab\t all _! applications4 ,sci5tific ,ideas c (t5 be adequately exhibit$ = all ! purposes ( reason+1 by means ( ,def9itions & ,axioms2 all attempts to reason by means ( ,def9itions f common ,notions1 lead to empty =ms or entire confusion4 ,note #fa3 ,sci5tific ,ideas dep5d ^u c]ta9 ,fundam5tal ,ideas1 :i* are enum]at$ 9 ! ,philosophy1 book i4 *4 #h4 ,su* common ,notions are suffici5t = ! common practical conduct ( human life3 b man is n a practical creature m]ely2 he has )9 him a speculative t5d5cy1 a pleasure 9 ! contemplation ( ideal relations1 a love ( k z k4 ,x is ?is speculative t5d5cy :i* br+s to light ! diff]5ce ( common ,notions & sci5tific ,ideas1 ( :i* we h spok54 ,! m9d analyzes su* ,notions1 reasons ^u !m1 comb9es & connects !m2 = x feels assur$ t intellectual ?+s ought to be able to be> su* h&l+4 ,ev5 practical k1 we see cle>ly1 is n possible )\t ! use ( ! reason2 & ! speculative reason is only ! reason satisfy+ itself ( its own consi/5cy4 ,! speculative faculty _c be controll$ f act+4 ,! m9d _c b claim a "r to speculate conc]n+ all its own acts & creations2 yet1 :5 x ex]cises ?is "r ^u its common practical notions1 we f9d t x runs into b>r5 ab/ractions & ev]-recurr+ cycles ( subtlety4 ,su* ,notions are l wat]s naturally /agnant2 h[ev] mu* we urge & agitate !m1 !y only revolve 9 /ation>y #ej :irlpools4 ,b ! m9d is capable ( acquir+ sci5tific ,ideas1 :i* are bett] fitt$ to und]go discussion & impulsion4 ,:5 our speculations are duly f$ f ! spr+heads ( ,obs]vation1 & frequ5tly drawn (f into ! region ( ,appli$ ,sci5ce1 we may h a liv+ /ream ( consi/5t & progressive k4 ,t sci5ce may be bo? real z to its import1 & logical z to its =m1 ! examples ( _m exi/+ sci5ces suffici5tly prove4 ,s*ool ,philosophy4--,s long1 h[ev]1 z attempts are made to =m sci5ces1 )\t su* a v]ification & realization ( _! fundam5tal ideas1 !re is1 9 ! natural s]ies ( speculation1 no self-correct+ pr9ciple4 ,a philosophy con/ruct$ on notions obscure1 vague1 & unsub/antial1 & held 9 spite ( ! want ( correspond5ce betwe5 its doctr9es & ! actual tra9 ( physical ev5ts1 may long subsi/1 & occupy m5's m9ds4 ,su* a philosophy mu/ dep5d = its p]man5ce ^u ! pleasure :i* m5 feel 9 trac+ ! op]ations ( _! own & o!r m5's m9ds1 & 9 r$uc+ !m to logical consi/5cy & sy/ematical arrangem5t4 ,9 ^! cases ! ma9 subjects ( att5tion are n ext]nal objects1 b speculations previ\sly deliv]$2 ! object is n to int]pret nature1 b man's m9d4 ,! op9ions ( ! ,ma/]s are ! facts :i* ! ,disciples endeavor to r$uce to unity1 or to foll[ into consequ5ces4 ,a s]ies ( speculators :o pursue su* a c\rse1 may prop]ly be t]m$ a ,s*ool1 & _! philosophy a ,s*ool ,philosophy2 :e!r _! agreem5t 9 su* a mode ( seek+ k arise f p]sonal communication & tradition1 or be m]ely ! result ( a community ( intellectual "* & prop5sity4 ,! two great p]iods ( ,s*ool ,philosophy 7x w be recollect$ t we are "h direct+ our att5tion ma9ly to physical sci5ce7 7 t ( ! ,greeks & t ( ! ,middle ,ages2--! p]iod ( ! fir/ wak+ ( sci5ce1 & t ( its midday slumb]4 ,:at has be5 said ?us briefly & imp]fectly1 w\ld require great detail & mu* explanation1 to give x its full significance & au?ority4 ,b x seem$ prop] to /ate s mu* 9 ?is place1 9 ord] to r5d] m intelligible & m in/ructive1 at ! fir/ aspect1 ! view ( ! attempt$ or effect$ progress ( sci5ce4 ,x is1 p]haps1 a disadvantage inevitably att5d+ an und]tak+ l ! pres5t1 t x mu/ set out ) /atem5ts s ab/ract2 & mu/ pres5t !m )\t _! adequate developm5t & pro(4 ,su* an ,introduction1 bo? 9 its "* & its scale ( execution1 may be comp>$ to ! geographical sket* ( a c\ntry1 ) :i* #ea ! hi/orian ( its =tunes (t5 beg9s 8 n>ration4 ,s mu* ( ,metaphysics is z necess>y to u z su* a portion ( ,geography is to ! ,hi/orian ( an ,empire2 & :at has hi!rto be5 said1 is int5d$ z a slight outl9e ( ! ,geography ( t ,intellectual ,_w1 ( :i* we h "h to /udy ! ,hi/ory4 ,! "n :i* we h giv5 to ?is ,hi/ory--,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces--has ! fault ( seem+ to exclude f ! rank ( ,inductive ,sci5ces ^? :i* are n includ$ 9 ! ,hi/ory2 z ,e?nology & ,glossology1 ,political ,economy1 ,psy*ology4 ,?is exclusion ,i by no means wi% to imply2 b ,i c\ld f9d no o!r way ( comp5di\sly describ+ my subject1 :i* 0 int5d$ to compreh5d ^? ,sci5ces 9 :i*1 by ! obs]vation ( facts & ! use ( reason1 sy/ems ( doctr9e h be5 e/abli%$ :i* are univ]sally receiv$ z tru?s among ?\ghtful m52 & :i* may !re=e be /udi$ z examples ( ! mann] 9 :i* tru? is to be discov]$4 ,p]haps a m exact description ( ! "w w\ld h be51 ,a ,hi/ory ( ! pr9cipal ,sci5ces hi!rto e/abli%$ by ,induction4 ,i may add t ,i d n include 9 ! phrase ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ! bran*es ( ,pure ,ma!matics 7,geometry1 ,ari?metic1 ,algebra1 & ! l71 because1 z ,i h else:]e /at$ 7,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc41 book ii4 c4 #a71 ^! are n ,inductive b ,d$uctive ,sci5ces4 ,!y d n inf] true !ories f obs]v$ facts1 & m g5]al f m limit$ laws3 b !y trace ! conditions ( all !ory1 ! prop]ties ( space & numb]2 & d$uce results f ideas )\t ! aid ( exp]i5ce4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ^! ,sci5ces is briefly giv5 9 ,*apt]s #ac & #ad ( ! ,second ,book ( ! ,philosophy j ref]r$ to4 ,i may fur!r add t ! o!r "w to :i* ,i ref]1 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 is 9 a great measure hi/orical1 no less ?an ! pres5t ,hi/ory4 ,t "w conta9s ! hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces s f> z x dep5ds on ,ideas2 ! pres5t "w conta9s ! hi/ory s f> z x dep5ds ^u ,obs]vation4 ,! two works result$ simultane\sly f ! same exam9ation ( ! pr9cipal writ]s on sci5ce 9 all ages1 & may s]ve to supplem5t ea* o!r4 #ec ,,book ,i4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ool ,,philosophy1 ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,physical ,,sci5ce4 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 ' 1 1 ' 1 ' 1 4 ,,p9d>4 ,py?4 iv4 #abd1 #cdi4 ,:5ce came _! voyage8 !m :at p]il held ,) adamant9e rivets firmly b\nd8 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,b soon z on ! vessel's b[ ,! an*or 0 hung up1 ,!n took ! ,lead] on ! pr[ ,9 h&s a gold5 cup1 ,& on great ,fa!r ,jove did call1 ,& on ! ,w9ds & ,wat]s all1 ,swept by ! hurry+ bla/2 ,& on ! ,nights1 & ,ocean ,ways1 ,& on ! fair auspici\s ,days1 ,& lov$ return at la/4 #ee ,,book ,i4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ool ,,philosophy1 ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,physical ,,sci5ce4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ool ,,philosophy4 ,sect4 #a4--;,fir/ ,attempts ( ! ,speculative ,faculty 9 ,physical ,inquiries4 ,,at an e>ly p]iod ( hi/ory !re appe>$ 9 m5 a prop5sity to pursue speculative inquiries conc]n+ ! v>i\s p>ts & prop]ties ( ! mat]ial _w4 ,:at !y saw excit$ !m to m$itate1 to conjecture1 & to reason3 !y endeavor$ to acc\nt = natural ev5ts1 to trace _! causes1 to r$uce !m to _! pr9ciples4 ,?is habit ( m9d1 or1 at lea/ t modification ( x :i* we h "h to consid]1 seems to h be5 fir/ unfold$ among ! ,greeks4 ,& dur+ t obscure introductory int]val :i* elaps$ :ile ! speculative t5d5cies ( m5 7 z yet h>dly dis5tangl$ f ! practical1 ^? :o 7 mo/ em95t 9 su* inquiries 7 di/+ui%$ by ! same t]m ( praise :i* is appli$ to sagacity 9 matt]s ( action1 & 7 call$ wise m5--4 ,b :5 x came to be cle>ly felt by su* p]sons t _! endeavors 7 sugge/$ by ! love ( k1 a motive diff]5t f ! motives :i* lead to ! wisdom ( active life1 a "n 0 adopt$ ( a m appropriate1 z well z ( a m mode/ signification1 & !y 7 t]m$ philosoph]s1 or lov]s ( wisdom4 ,?is appellation is said#ga to h be5 fir/ assum$ by ,py?agoras4 ,yet he1 9 ,h]odotus1 in/ead ( hav+ ?is title1 is call$ a p[]ful sophi/-- 2#ha ! hi/orian us+ ?is ^w1 z x w\ld seem1 )\t int5d+ to imply t misuse ( reason :i* ! t]m aft]w>ds came to d5ote4 ,! hi/orians ( lit]ature #ef plac$ ,py?agoras at ! orig9 ( ! ,italic ,s*ool1 "o ( ! two ma9 l9es ( succession ( ! e>ly ,greek philosoph]s3 b ! o!r1 ! ,ionic ,s*ool1 :i* m peculi>ly dem&s our att5tion1 9 consequ5ce ( its "* & subsequ5t progress1 is d$uc$ f ,?ales1 :o prec$$ ! age ( ,philosophy1 & 0 "o ( ! sophi1 or wise m5 ( ,greece4 ,note #ga3 ,cic4 ,tusc4 v4 #c4 ,note #ha3 ,h]od4 iv4 #ie4 ,! ,ionic ,s*ool 0 succe$$ 9 ,greece by sev]al o!rs2 & ! subjects :i* occupi$ ! att5tion ( ^! s*ools became v ext5sive4 ,9 fact1 ! fir/ attempts 71 to =m sy/ems :i* %\ld expla9 ! laws & causes ( ! mat]ial univ]se2 & to ^! 7 soon add$ all ! great que/ions :i* our moral condition & faculties sugge/4 ,! physical philosophy ( ^! s*ools is especially des]v+ ( our /udy1 z exhibit+ ! "* & =tunes ( ! mo/ memorable attempt at univ]sal k :i* has ev] be5 made4 ,x is highly in/ructive to trace ! pr9ciples ( ?is und]tak+2 = ! c\rse pursu$ 0 c]ta9ly "o ( ! mo/ natural & tempt+ :i* c be imag9$2 ! essay 0 made by a nation unequall$ 9 f9e m5tal end[m5ts1 at ! p]iod ( its greate/ activity & vigor2 & yet x mu/ be all[$ 7=1 at lea/ s f> z physical sci5ce is conc]n$1 none w conte/ ?is71 to h be5 entirely unsuccessful4 ,we _c consid] o!rwise ?an z an utt] failure1 an endeavor to discov] ! causes ( ?+s1 ( :i* ! mo/ complete results are ! ,ari/otelian physical treatises2 & :i*1 aft] rea*+ ! po9t :i* ^! treatises m>k1 left ! human m9d to rema9 /ation>y1 at any rate on all su* subjects1 = ne>ly two ?\s& ye>s4 ,! e>ly philosoph]s ( ,greece ent]$ ^u ! "w ( physical speculation 9 a mann] :i* %[$ ! vigor & confid5ce ( ! que/ion+ _s1 z yet untam$ by labors & rev]ses4 ,x 0 = lat] ages to le>n t man mu/ acquire1 sl[ly & pati5tly1 lett] by lett]1 ! alphabet 9 :i* nature writes h] answ]s to su* inquiries4 ,! fir/ /ud5ts wi%$ to div9e1 at a s+le glance1 ! :ole import ( h] book4 ,!y endeavor$ to discov] ! orig9 & pr9ciple ( ! univ]se2 accord+ to ,?ales1 wat] 0 ! orig9 ( all ?+s1 accord+ to ,anaxim5es1 air2 & ,h]aclitus consid]$ fire z ! ess5tial pr9ciple ( ! univ]se4 ,x has be5 conjectur$1 ) great plausibility1 t ?is t5d5cy to give to _! ,philosophy ! =m ( a ,cosmogony1 0 ow+ to ! influ5ce ( ! poetical ,cosmogonies & ,!ogonies :i* _h be5 produc$ & admir$ at a /ill e>li] age4 ,inde$1 su* wide & ambiti\s #eg doctr9es z ^? :i* h be5 m5tion$1 7 bett] suit$ to ! dim magnific5ce ( poetry1 ?an to ! purpose ( a philosophy :i* 0 to be> ! %>p scrut9y ( reason4 ,:5 we speak ( ! pr9ciples ( ?+s1 ! t]m1 ev5 n[1 is v ambigu\s & indef9ite 9 its import1 b h[ mu* m 0 t ! case 9 ! fir/ attempts to use su* ab/ractions6 ,! t]m :i* is commonly us$ 9 ?is s5se 771 signifi$ at fir/ ! beg9n+2 & 9 its e>ly philosophical applications impli$ "s obscure mix$ ref]5ce to ! me*anical1 *emical1 organic1 & hi/orical causes ( ! visible /ate ( ?+s1 besides ! !ological views :i* at ?is p]iod 7 only j beg9n+ to be sep>at$ f ! physical4 ,h5ce we are n to be surpris$ if ! s\rces f :i* ! op9ions ( ?is p]iod appe> to be d]iv$ are r vague sugge/ions & casual analogies1 ?an any reasons :i* w be> exam9ation4 ,ari/otle conjectures1 ) consid]able probability1 t ! doctr9e ( ,?ales1 accord+ to :i* wat] 0 ! univ]sal elem5t1 result$ f ! manife/ importance ( moi/ure 9 ! support ( animal & vegetable life4#ia ,b su* prec>i\s analyses ( ^! obscure & loose dogmas ( e>ly antiquity are ( small consequ5ce to our object4 ,note #ia3 ,metaph4 i4 #c4 ,9 m limit$ & m def9ite examples ( inquiry conc]n+ ! causes ( natural appe>ances1 & 9 ! attempts made to satisfy m5's curiosity 9 su* cases1 we appe> to disc]n a m g5u9e prelude to ! true _s ( physical inquiry4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable in/ances ( ?is k9d is to be f\nd 9 ! speculations :i* ,h]odotus records1 relative to ! cause ( ! floods ( ! ,nile4 ,conc]n+ ! nature ( ?is riv]1 says ! fa!r ( hi/ory1#aja ,i 0 n able to le>n any ?+1 ei!r f ! prie/s or f any "o besides1 ?\gh ,i que/ion$ !m v press+ly4 ,= ! ,nile is flood$ = a hundr$ days1 beg9n+ ) ! summ] sol/ice2 & aft] ?is "t x dim9i%es1 & is1 dur+ ! :ole w9t]1 v small4 ,& on ?is head ,i 0 n able to obta9 any ?+ satisfactory f any "o ( ! ,egyptians1 :5 ,i ask$ :at is ! p[] by :i* ! ,nile is 9 its nature ! rev]se ( o!r riv]s4 ,note #aja3 ,h]od4 ii4 #ai4 ,we may see1 ,i ?9k1 9 ! hi/orian's acc\nt1 t ! ,grecian m9d felt a crav+ to discov] ! reasons ( ?+s :i* o!r nations did n feel4 ,! ,egyptians1 x appe>s1 _h no !ory1 & felt no want ( a !ory4 ,n s ! ,greeks2 !y _h _! reasons to r5d]1 ?\gh !y 7 n su* z satisfi$ ,h]odotus4 ,"s #eh ( ! ,greeks1 he says1 :o wi% to be consid]$ great philosoph]s 7 71 h prop\nd$ ?ree ways ( acc\nt+ = ^! floods4 ,two ( !m1 he adds1 ,i d n ?9k wor?y ( record1 except j s f> z to m5tion !m4 ,b z ^! are "s ( ! e>lie/ ,greek essays 9 physical philosophy1 x w be wor? :ile1 ev5 at ?is day1 to pres]ve ! brief notice he has giv5 ( !m1 & 8 own reason+s ^u ! same subject4 ,"o ( ^! op9ions holds t ! ,etesian w9ds :i* blew f ! nor? are ! cause ( ^! floods1 by prev5t+ ! ,nile f fl[+ into ! sea4 ,aga9/ ?is ! hi/orian reasons v simply & s5sibly4 ,v (t5 :5 ! ,etesian w9ds d n bl[1 ! ,nile is flood$ nev]!less4 ,& moreov]1 if ! ,etesian w9ds 7 ! cause1 all o!r riv]s1 :i* h _! c\rse opposite to ^! w9ds1 ought to und]go ! same *anges z ! ,nile2 :i* ! riv]s ( ,syria & ,libya s circum/anc$ d n4 ,! next op9ion is /ill m unsci5tific 771 & is1 9 tru?1 m>vell\s = its folly4 ,?is holds t ! ocean fl[s all r\nd ! e>?1 & t ! ,nile comes out ( ! ocean1 & by t means produces its effects4 ,n[1 says ! hi/orian1 ! man :o talks ab\t ?is ocean-riv]1 goes into ! region ( fable1 :]e x is n easy to demon/rate t he is wrong4 ,i "k ( no su* riv]4 ,b ,i suppose t ,hom] & "s ( ! e>li] poets inv5t$ ?is fiction & introduc$ x into _! poetry4 ,he !n proce$s to a ?ird acc\nt1 :i* to a mod]n reason] w\ld appe> n at all unphilosophical 9 itself1 b :i* he1 nev]!less1 rejects 9 a mann] no less decid$ ?an ! o!rs4 ,! ?ird op9ion1 ?\gh mu* ! mo/ plausible1 is /ill m wrong ?an ! o!rs2 = x ass]ts an impossibility1 namely1 t ! ,nile proce$s f ! melt+ ( ! sn[4 ,n[ ! ,nile fl[s out ( ,libya1 & ?r\gh ,e?iopia1 :i* are v hot c\ntries1 & ?us comes into ,egypt1 :i* is a cold] region4 ,h[ !n c x proce$ f sn[8 ,he !n (f]s sev]al o!r reasons to %[1 z he says1 to any "o capable ( reason+ on su* subjects 7 71 t ! ass]tion _c be true4 ,! w9ds :i* bl[ f ! s\!rn regions are hot2 ! inhabitants are black2 ! swall[s & kites 77 /ay 9 ! c\ntry ! :ole ye>2 ! cranes fly ! colds ( ,scy?ia1 & seek _! w>m w9t]-qu>t]s !re2 :i* w\ld n be if x sn[$ ev] s little4 ,he adds ano!r reason1 f\nd$ app>5tly ^u #ei "s limit$ empirical maxim ( wea!r-wisdom tak5 f ! climate ( ,greece4 ,libya1 he said1 has nei!r ra9 nor ice1 & !re=e no sn[2 =1 9 five days aft] a fall ( sn[ !re mu/ be a fall ( ra92 s t if x sn[$ 9 ^? regions x mu/ ra9 too4 ,i ne$ n obs]ve t ,h]odotus 0 n aw>e ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! climate ( high m\nta9s & pla9s 9 a torrid region2 b x is impossible n to be /ruck bo? ) ! activity & ! coh]5cy ( ?\ght display$ by ! ,greek m9d 9 ?is primitive physical inquiry4 ,b ,i mu/ n omit ! hypo!sis :i* ,h]odotus himself proposes1 aft] reject+ ^? :i* h be5 already giv54 ,x does n appe> to me easy to cat* 8 exact mean+1 b ! /atem5t w /ill be curi\s4 ,if1 he says1 "o :o has condemn$ op9ions previ\sly promulgat$ may put =w>d 8 own op9ion conc]n+ s obscure a matt]1 ,i w /ate :y x seems to me t ! ,nile is flood$ 9 summ]4 ,?is op9ion he prop\nds at fir/ ) an oracul> brevity1 :i* x is difficult to suppose t he did n int5d to be impressive4 ,9 w9t] ! sun is c>ri$ by ! seasons away f 8 =m] c\rse1 & goes to ! upp] p>ts ( ,libya4 ,& !re1 9 %ort1 is ! :ole acc\nt2 = t region to :i* ?is div9ity 7! sun7 is ne>e/1 mu/ naturally be mo/ scant ( wat]1 & ! riv]-s\rces ( t c\ntry mu/ be dri$ up4 ,b ! lively & g>rul\s ,ionian imm$iately relaxes f ?is app>5t res]ve4 ,to expla9 ! matt] m at l5g?1 he proce$s1 x is ?us4 ,! sun :5 he trav]ses ! upp] p>ts ( ,libya1 does :at he commonly does 9 summ]2--he draws ! wat] to him 7 ' 71 & hav+ ?us drawn x1 he pu%es x to ! upp] regions 7( ! air probably71 & !n ! w9ds take x & disp]se x till !y dissolve 9 moi/ure4 ,& ?us ! w9ds :i* bl[ f ^? c\ntries1 ,libs & ,notus1 are ! mo/ moi/ ( all w9ds4 ,n[ :5 ! w9t] relaxes & ! sun returns to ! nor?1 he /ill draws wat] f all ! riv]s1 b !y are increas$ by %[]s & ra9 torr5ts s t !y are 9 flood till ! summ] comes2 & !n1 ! ra9 fall+ & ! sun /ill draw+ !m1 !y become small4 ,b ! ,nile1 n be+ f$ by ra9s1 yet be+ drawn by ! sun1 is1 alone ( all riv]s1 mu* m scanty 9 ! w9t] ?an 9 ! summ]4 ,= 9 summ] x is drawn l all o!r riv]s1 b 9 w9t] x alone has its supplies %ut up4 ,& 9 ?is way1 ,i h be5 l$ to ?9k ! sun is ! cause ( ! occurr5ce 9 "q4 ,we may rem>k t ! hi/orian "h appe>s to #fj ascribe ! inequality ( ! ,nile at diff]5t seasons to ! influ5ce ( ! sun ^u its spr+s alone1 ! o!r cause ( *ange1 ! ra9s be+ "h exclud$2 & t1 on ?is supposition1 ! same relative effects w\ld be produc$ :e!r ! sun increase ! s\rces 9 w9t] by melt+ ! sn[s1 or dim9i% !m 9 summ] by :at he calls draw+ !m upw>ds4 ,?is specim5 ( ! e>ly ef=ts ( ! ,greeks 9 physical speculations1 appe>s to me to speak /rongly = ! op9ion t _! philosophy on su* subjects 0 ! native gr[? ( ! ,greek m9d1 & ow$ no?+ to ! suppos$ lore ( ,egypt & ! ,ea/2 an op9ion :i* has be5 adopt$ ) reg>d to ! ,greek ,philosophy 9 g5]al by ! mo/ compet5t judges on a full survey ( ! evid5ce4#aaa ,inde$1 we h no evid5ce :atev] t1 at any p]iod1 ! ,african or ,asiatic nations 7) ! exception p]haps ( ! ,indians7 ev] felt ?is importunate curiosity ) reg>d to ! def9ite application ( ! idea ( cause & effect to visible ph5om5a2 or drew s /rong a l9e betwe5 a fabul\s leg5d & a reason r5d]$2 or attempt$ to asc5d to a natural cause by class+ toge!r ph5om5a ( ! same k9d4 ,we may be well excus$1 !re=e1 = believ+ t !y c\ld n imp>t to ! ,greeks :at !y !mselves did n possess2 & s f> z our survey goes1 physical philosophy has its orig91 app>5tly spontane\s & indep5d5t1 9 ! active & acute intellect ( ,greece4 ,note #aaa3 ,?irlwall1 ,hi/4 ,gr41 ii4 #acj2 &1 z !re quot$1 ,ritt]1 ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 i4 #aei-agc4 ,sect4 #b4--,primitive ,mi/ake 9 ,greek ,physical ,philosophy4 ,,we n[ proce$ to exam9e ) :at success ! ,greeks foll[$ ! track into :i* !y _h ?us /ruck4 ,& "h we are oblig$ to confess t !y v soon turn$ aside f ! "r road to tru?1 & deviat$ into a va/ field ( error1 9 :i* !y & _! successors h w&]$ almo/ to ! pres5t "t4 ,x is n necess>y "h to inquire :y ^? faculties :i* appe> to be be/[$ ^u u = ! discov]y ( tru?1 7 p]mitt$ by ,provid5ce to fail s signally 9 answ]+ t purpose2 :e!r1 l ! p[]s by :i* we seek our happ9ess1 !y involve a responsibility on our "p1 & may be defeat$ by reject+ ! guidance ( a high] faculty2 or :e!r ^! end[m5ts1 ?\gh !y did n #fa imm$iately lead man to pr(\nd physical k1 answ]$ "s nobl] & bett] purpose 9 8 con/itution & gov]nm5t4 ,! fact und\bt$ly 01 t ! physical philosophy ( ! ,greeks soon became trifl+ & wor?less2 & x is prop] to po9t out1 z precisely z we c1 9 :at ! fundam5tal mi/ake consi/$4 ,to expla9 ?is1 we may 9 ! fir/ place return = a mom5t to ,h]odotus's acc\nt ( ! cause ( ! floods ( ! ,nile4 ,! read] w probably h obs]v$ a rem>kable phrase us$ by ,h]odotus1 9 8 own explanation ( ^! inundations4 ,he says t ! sun draws1 or attracts1 ! wat]2 a metaphorical t]m1 obvi\sly int5d$ to d5ote "s m g5]al & ab/ract conception ?an t ( ! visible op]ation :i* ! ^w prim>ily signifies4 ,?is ab/ract notion ( draw+ is1 9 ! hi/orian1 z we see1 v vague & loose2 x might1 ) equal propriety1 be expla9$ to mean :at we n[ und]/& by me*anical or by *emical attraction1 or pressure1 or evaporation4 ,& 9 l mann]1 all ! fir/ attempts to compreh5d ! op]ations ( nature1 l$ to ! introduction ( ab/ract conceptions1 (t5 vague1 inde$1 b n1 !re=e1 unmean+2 su* z motion & velocity1 =ce & pressure1 impetus & mom5tum 774 ,& ! next /ep 9 philosophiz+1 necess>ily 0 to endeavor to make ^! vague ab/ractions m cle> & fix$1 s t ! logical faculty %\ld be able to employ !m securely & coh]5tly4 ,b !re 7 two ways ( mak+ ?is attempt2 ! "o1 by exam9+ ! words only1 & ! ?\ghts :i* !y call up2 ! o!r1 by att5d+ to ! facts & ?+s :i* br+ ^! ab/ract t]ms into use4 ,! latt]1 ! me?od ( real inquiry1 0 ! way to success2 b ! ,greeks foll[$ ! =m]1 ! v]bal or notional c\rse1 & fail$4 ,if ,h]odotus1 :5 ! notion ( ! sun's attract+ ! wat]s ( riv]s _h ent]$ into 8 m9d1 _h gone on to in/ruct himself1 by att5tion to facts1 9 :at mann] ?is notion c\ld be made m def9ite1 :ile x /ill rema9$ applicable to all ! k :i* c\ld be obta9$1 he w\ld h made "s progress t[>ds a true solution ( 8 problem4 ,if1 = in/ance1 he _h tri$ to asc]ta9 :e!r ?is ,attraction :i* ! sun ex]t$ ^u ! wat]s ( riv]s1 dep5d$ on 8 influ5ce at _! f\nta9s only1 or 0 ex]t$ ov] _! :ole c\rse1 & ov] wat]s :i* 7 n p>ts ( riv]s1 he w\ld h be5 l$ to reject 8 hypo!sis2 = he w\ld h f\nd1 by obs]vations suffici5tly obvi\s1 t ! sun's ,attraction1 z %[n 9 su* cases1 is a t5d5cy to less5 all exp&$ & #fb op5 collections ( moi/ure1 :e!r fl[+ f a spr+ or n2 & x w\ld !n be se5 t ?is influ5ce1 op]at+ on ! :ole surface ( ! ,nile1 mu/ dim9i% x z well z o!r riv]s1 9 summ]1 & !re=e c\ld n be ! cause ( its ov]fl[4 ,he w\ld ?us h correct$ 8 fir/ loose conjecture by a real /udy ( nature1 & might1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 m$itations1 h be5 l$ to available notions ( ,evaporation1 or o!r natural actions4 ,&1 9 l mann]1 9 o!r cases1 ! rude attempts at explanation1 :i* ! fir/ ex]cise ( ! speculative faculty produc$1 might h be5 gradually conc5trat$ & ref9$1 s z to fall 91 bo? ) ! requisitions ( reason & ! te/imony ( s5se4 ,b ?is 0 n ! direction :i* ! ,greek speculators took4 ,on ! contr>y2 z soon z !y _h introduc$ into _! philosophy any ab/ract & g5]al conceptions1 !y proce$$ to scrut9ize ^! by ! int]nal light ( ! m9d alone1 )\t any long] look+ abroad into ! _w ( s5se4 ,!y took = grant$ t philosophy mu/ result f ! relations ( ^? notions :i* are involv$ 9 ! common use ( language1 & !y proce$$ to seek _! philosophical doctr9es by /udy+ su* notions4 ,!y ought to h re=m$ & fix$ _! usual conceptions by ,obs]vation2 !y only analyz$ & exp&$ !m by ,reflection3 !y ought to h s\ght by trial1 among ! ,notions :i* pass$ ?r\gh _! m9ds1 "s "o :i* admitt$ ( exact application to ,facts2 !y select$ arbitr>ily1 &1 consequ5tly1 errone\sly1 ! ,notions accord+ to :i* ,facts %\ld be assembl$ & arrang$3 !y ought to h collect$ cle> ,fundam5tal ,ideas f ! _w ( ?+s by inductive acts ( ?\ght2 !y only d]iv$ results by ,d$uction f "o or o!r ( _! famili> ,conceptions4#aba ,note #aba3 ,! c\rse by :i* ! ,sci5ces 7 =m$1 & :i* is "h ref]r$ to z t :i* ! ,greeks did n foll[1 is describ$ 9 detail 9 ! ,philosophy1 book xi41 ,( ! ,con/ruction ( ,sci5ce4 ,:5 ?is false direction _h be5 ext5sively adopt$ by ! ,greek philosoph]s1 we may treat ( x z ! me?od ( _! ,s*ools4 ,"u t title we mu/ give a fur!r acc\nt ( x4 #fc ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ool ,,philosophy4 ,sect4 #a4--,! g5]al ,f\ndation ( ! ,greek ,s*ool ,philosophy4 ,,! physical philosophy ( ! ,greek ,s*ools 0 =m$ by look+ at ! mat]ial _w ?r\gh ! m$ium ( t common language :i* m5 employ to answ] ! common occasions ( life2 & by adopt+1 arbitr>ily1 z ! gr\nds ( comp>ison ( facts1 & ( inf]5ce f !m1 notions m ab/ract & l>ge ?an ^? ) :i* m5 are practically famili>1 b n less vague & obscure4 ,su* a philosophy1 h[ev] mu* x might be sy/ematiz$1 by classify+ & analyz+ ! conceptions :i* x involves1 c\ld n ov]come ! vices ( its fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,b be=e speak+ ( ^! defects1 we mu/ give "s indications ( its "*4 ,! prop5sity to seek = pr9ciples 9 ! common usages ( language may be disc]n$ at a v e>ly p]iod4 ,?us we h an example ( x 9 a say+ :i* is report$ ( ,?ales1 ! f\nd] ( ,greek philosophy4#aca ,:5 he 0 ask$1 ,:at is ! greate/ ?+8 he repli$1 ,place2 = all o!r ?+s are 9 ! _w1 b ! _w is 9 x4 ,9 ,ari/otle we h ! consummation ( ?is mode ( speculation4 ,! usual po9t f :i* he />ts 9 8 inquiries is1 t we say ?us or ?us 9 common language4 ,?us1 :5 he has to discuss ! "q1 :e!r !re be1 9 any "p ( ! univ]se1 a ,void1 or space 9 :i* !re is no?+1 he inquires fir/ 9 h[ _m s5ses we say t "o ?+ is 9 ano!r4 ,he enum]ates _m ( ^!2#ada we say ! "p is 9 ! :ole1 z ! f+] is 9 ! h&2 aga9 we say1 ! species is 9 ! g5us1 z man is includ$ 9 animal2 aga91 ! gov]nm5t ( ,greece is 9 ! k+2 & v>i\s o!r s5ses are describ$ or exemplifi$1 b ( all ^! ! mo/ prop] is :5 we say a ?+ is 9 a vessel1 & g5]ally1 9 place4 ,he next exam9es :at place is1 & comes to ?is conclusion1 t if ab\t a body !re be ano!r body includ+ x1 x is 9 place1 & if n1 n4 ,a body moves :5 x *anges its place2 b #fd he adds1 t if wat] be 9 a vessel1 ! vessel be+ at re/1 ! p>ts ( ! wat] may /ill move1 = !y are includ$ by ea* o!r2 s t :ile ! :ole does n *ange its place1 ! p>ts may *ange _! places 9 a circul> ord]4 ,proce$+ !n to ! "q ( a void1 he1 z usual1 exam9es ! diff]5t s5ses 9 :i* ! t]m is us$1 & adopts1 z ! mo/ prop]1 place )\t matt]2 ) no useful result1 z we %all soon see4 ,note #aca3 ,plut4 ,conv4 ,sept4 ,sap4 ,diog4 ,la]t4 i4 #ce4 ,note #ada3 ,physic4 ,ausc4 iv4 #c4 ,aga91#aea 9 a "q conc]n+ me*anical action1 he says1 ,:5 a man moves a /one by pu%+ x ) a /ick1 we say bo? t ! man moves ! /one1 & t ! /ick moves ! /one1 b ! latt] m prop]ly4 ,note #aea3 ,physic4 ,ausc4 viii4 #e4 ,aga91 we f9d ! ,greek philosoph]s apply+ !mselves to extract _! dogmas f ! mo/ g5]al & ab/ract notions :i* !y c\ld detect2 = example1--f ! conception ( ! ,univ]se z ,"o or z ,_m ?+s4 ,!y tri$ to det]m9e h[ f> we may1 or mu/1 comb9e ) ^! conceptions t ( a :ole1 ( p>ts1 ( numb]1 ( limits1 ( place1 ( beg9n+ or end1 ( full or void1 ( re/ or motion1 ( cause & effect1 & ! l4 ,! analysis ( su* conceptions ) su* a view1 occupies1 = in/ance1 almo/ ! :ole ( ,ari/otle's ,treatise on ! ,heav5s4 ,! ,dialogue ( ,plato1 :i* is entitl$ ,p>m5ides1 appe>s at fir/ z if its object 7 to %[ ! futility ( ?is me?od ( philosophiz+2 = ! philosoph] ^: "n x be>s1 is repres5t$ z argu+ ) an ,a!nian nam$ ,ari/otle1#afa &1 by a process ( metaphysical analysis1 r$uc+ him at lea/ to ?is conclusion1 t :e!r ,"o exi/1 or d n exi/1 x foll[s t bo? x & o!r ?+s1 ) ref]5ce to !mselves & to ea* o!r1 all & 9 all respects1 bo? are & are n1 bo? appe> & appe> n4 ,yet ! me?od ( ,plato1 s f> z conc]ns tru?s ( t k9d ) :i* we are "h conc]n$1 0 little m efficaci\s ?an t ( 8 rival4 ,x consi/s ma9ly1 z may be se5 9 sev]al ( ! dialogues1 & especially 9 ! ,timu1 9 ! application ( notions z loose z ^? ( ! ,p]ipatetics2 = example1 ! conceptions ( ! ,good1 ! ,beautiful1 ! ,p]fect2 & ^! are r5d]$ /ill m arbitr>y1 by assum+ an acqua9tance ) ! views ( ! ,creator ( ! univ]se4 ,! philosoph] is ?us l$ to maxims :i* agree ) ^? #fe ( ! ,ari/otelians1 t !re c be no void1 t ?+s seek _! own place1 & ! l4#aga ,note #afa3 ,?is ,ari/otle is n ! ,/agirite1 :o 0 =ty-five ye>s y\ng] ?an ,plato1 b "o ( ! ?irty tyrants1 z !y 7 call$4 ,note #aga3 ,timu1 p4 #hj4 ,ano!r mode ( reason+1 v widely appli$ 9 ^! attempts1 0 ! doctr9e ( contr>ieties1 9 :i* x 0 assum$1 t adjectives or sub/antives :i* are 9 common language1 or 9 "s ab/ract mode ( conception1 oppos$ to ea* o!r1 mu/ po9t at "s fundam5tal anti!sis 9 nature1 :i* x is important to /udy4 ,?us ,ari/otle#aha says1 t ! ,py?agoreans1 f ! contra/s :i* numb] sugge/s1 collect$ t5 pr9ciples1--,limit$ & ,unlimit$1 ,odd & ,ev51 ,"o & ,_m1 ,"r & ,left1 ,male & ,female1 ,re/ & ,motion1 ,/raight & ,curv$1 ,light & ,d>kness1 ,good & ,evil1 ,squ>e & ,oblong4 ,we %all see h]eaft]1 t ,ari/otle himself d$uc$ ! doctr9e ( ,f\r ,elem5ts1 & o!r dogmas1 by oppositions ( ! same k9d4 ,note #aha3 ,metaph4 #a4 #e4 ,! physical speculator ( ! pres5t day w le>n )\t surprise1 t su* a mode ( discussion z ?is1 l$ to no tru?s ( real or p]man5t value4 ,! :ole mass ( ! ,greek philosophy1 !re=e1 %r9ks into an almo/ imp]ceptible compass1 :5 view$ ) ref]5ce to ! progress ( physical k4 ,/ill ! g5]al "* ( ?is sy/em1 & its =tunes f ! "t ( its f\nd]s to ! ov]?r[ ( _! au?ority1 are n )\t _! in/ruction1 &1 x may be hop$1 n )\t _! int]e/4 ,i proce$1 !re=e1 to give "s acc\nt ( ^! doctr9es 9 _! mo/ fully develop$ & p]man5tly receiv$ =m1 t 9 :i* !y 7 pres5t$ by ,ari/otle4 ,sect4 #b4--,! ,ari/otelian ,physical ,philosophy4 ,,! pr9cipal physical treatises ( ,ari/otle are1 ! eight ,books ( ,physical ,lectures1 ! f\r ,books ,( ! ,heav5s1 ! two ,books ,( ,production & ,de/ruction3 = ! ,book ,( ! ,_w is n[ univ]sally ackn[l$g$ to be spuri\s2 & ! ,meteorologies1 ?\gh full ( physical explanations ( natural ph5om5a1 does n exhibit ! doctr9es & reason+s ( ! s*ool 9 s g5]al a =m2 ! same may be said ( ! ,me*anical ,problems4 ,! treatises on ! v>i\s subjects ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 ,on ,animals1 ,on ! ,p>ts ( ,animals1 ,on ,plants1 ,on ,physiognomonics1 ,on ,colors1 ,on ,s\nd1 conta9 an extraord9>y #ff accumulation ( facts1 & manife/ a wond]ful p[] ( sy/ematiz+2 b are n works :i* exp\nd pr9ciples1 & !re=e d n require to be "h consid]$4 ,! ,physical ,lectures are possibly ! "w conc]n+ :i* a well-kn[n anecdote is relat$ by ,simplicius1 a ,greek comm5tator ( ! six? c5tury1 z well z by ,plut>*4 ,x is said1 t ,alex&] ! ,great wrote to 8 =m] tutor to ?is effect2 ,y h n done well 9 publi%+ ^! lectures2 = h[ %all we1 y\r pupils1 excel o!r m51 if y make t public to all1 :i* we le>nt f y8 ,to ?is ,ari/otle is said to h repli$3 ,my ,lectures are publi%$ & n publi%$2 !y w be intelligible to ^? :o he>d !m1 & to none besides4 ,?is may v easily be a /ory inv5t$ & circulat$ among ^? :o f\nd ! "w beyond _! compreh5sion2 & x _c be d5i$1 t to make out ! mean+ & reason+ ( e "p1 w\ld be a task v labori\s & difficult1 if n impossible4 ,b we may foll[ ! import ( a l>ge portion ( ! ,physical ,lectures ) suffici5t cle>ness to appreh5d ! "* & pr9ciples ( ! reason+2 & ?is is :at ,i %all endeavor to d4 ,! au?or's introductory /atem5t ( 8 view ( ! nature ( philosophy falls 9 v closely ) :at has be5 said1 t he takes 8 facts & g5]alizations z !y are impli$ 9 ! /ructure ( language4 ,we mu/ 9 all cases proce$1 he says1 f :at is kn[n to :at is unkn[n4 ,?is w n be d5i$2 b we c h>dly foll[ him 9 8 inf]5ce4 ,he adds1 ,we mu/ proce$1 !re=e1 f univ]sal to p>ticul>4 ,& some?+ ( ?is1 he pursues1 may be se5 9 language2 = names signify ?+s 9 a g5]al & indef9ite mann]1 z circle1 & by def9+ we unfold !m into p>ticul>s4 ,he illu/rates ?is by say+1 ?us *ildr5 at fir/ call all m5 fa!r1 & all wom5 "m1 b aft]w>ds di/+ui%4 ,9 accordance ) ?is view1 he endeavors to settle sev]al ( ! great que/ions conc]n+ ! univ]se1 :i* _h be5 />t$ among subtle & speculative m51 by unfold+ ! mean+ ( ! words & phrases :i* are appli$ to ! mo/ g5]al notions ( ?+s & relations4 ,we h already notic$ ?is me?od4 ,a few examples w illu/rate x fur!r3--,:e!r !re 0 or 0 n a void1 or place )\t matt]1 _h already be5 debat$ among rival sects ( philosoph]s4 ,! antagoni/ argum5ts 7 briefly ^!3--,!re mu/ be a void1 because a body _c move into a space except x is #fg empty1 & !re=e )\t a void !re c\ld be no motion3--&1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is no void1 = ! int]vals betwe5 bodies are fill$ ) air1 & air is some?+4 ,^! op9ions _h ev5 be5 support$ by ref]5ce to exp]im5t4 ,on ! "o h&1 ,anaxagoras & 8 s*ool _h %[n1 t air1 :5 conf9$1 resi/$ compression1 by squeez+ a bl[n bladd]1 & press+ d[n an inv]t$ vessel 9 ! wat]2 on ! o!r h&1 x 0 alleg$ t a vessel full ( f9e a%es held z mu* wat] z if ! a%es 7 n !re1 :i* c\ld only be expla9$ by suppos+ void spaces among ! a%es4 ,ari/otle decides t !re is no void1 on su* argum5ts z ?is3#aia--;,9 a void !re c\ld be no diff]5ce ( up & d[n2 = z 9 no?+ !re are no diff]5ces1 s !re are none 9 a privation or negation2 b a void is m]ely a privation or negation ( matt]2 !re=e1 9 a void1 bodies c\ld n move up & d[n1 :i* x is 9 _! nature to d4 ,x is easily se5 t su* a mode ( reason+1 elevates ! famili> =ms ( language & ! intellectual connections ( t]ms1 to a supremacy ov] facts2 mak+ tru? dep5d ^u :e!r t]ms are or are n privative1 & :e!r we say t bodies fall naturally4 ,9 su* a philosophy e new result ( obs]vation w\ld be compell$ to con=m to ! usual comb9ations ( phrases1 z ^! _h become associat$ by ! modes ( appreh5sion previ\sly famili>4 ,note #aia3 ,physic4 ,ausc4 iv4 #g1 p4 #bae4 ,x is n int5d$ "h to intimate t ! common modes ( appreh5sion1 :i* are ! basis ( common language1 are limit$ & casual4 ,!y imply1 on ! contr>y1 univ]sal & necess>y conditions ( our p]ceptions & conceptions2 ?us all ?+s are necess>ily appreh5d$ z exi/+ 9 ,"t & ,space1 & z connect$ by relations ( ,cause & ,effect2 & s f> z ! ,ari/otelian philosophy reasons f ^! assumptions1 x has a real f\ndation1 ?\gh ev5 9 ?is case ! conclusions are (t5 insecure4 ,we h an example ( ?is reason+ 9 ! eigh? ,book1#bja :]e he proves t !re nev] 0 a "t 9 :i* *ange & motion did n exi/2 ,= if all ?+s 7 at re/1 ! fir/ motion mu/ h be5 produc$ by "s *ange 9 "s ( ^! ?+s2 t is1 !re mu/ h be5 a *ange be=e ! fir/ *ange2 & aga91 ,h[ c be=e & aft] apply :5 "t is n8 or h[ c "t be :5 motion is n8 ,if1 he adds1 "t is a num]ation ( motion1 & if "t be et]nal1 motion mu/ be et]nal4 ,b he sometimes #fh introduces pr9ciples ( a m arbitr>y "*2 & besides ! g5]al relations ( ?\ght1 takes = grant$ ! inv5tions ( previ\s speculators2 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! !n commonly receiv$ op9ions conc]n+ ! frame ( ! _w4 ,f ! ass]tion t motion is et]nal1 prov$ 9 ! mann] j /at$1 ,ari/otle proce$s by a curi\s tra9 ( reason+1 to id5tify ?is et]nal motion ) ! diurnal motion ( ! heav5s4 ,!re mu/1 he says1 be some?+ :i* is ! ,fir/ ,mov]3#baa ?is foll[s f ! relation ( causes & effects4 ,aga91 ,motion mu/ g on con/antly1 &1 !re=e1 mu/ be ei!r cont9u\s or successive4 ,n[ :at is cont9u\s is m prop]ly said to take place con/antly1 ?an :at is successive4 ,also ! cont9u\s is bett]2 b we always suppose t :i* is bett] to take place 9 nature1 if x be possible4 ,! motion ( ! ,fir/ ,mov] w1 !re=e1 be cont9u\s1 if su* an et]nal motion be possible4 ,we "h see ! vague judgm5t ( bett] & worse introduc$1 z t ( natural & unnatural 0 be=e1 into physical reason+s4 ,note #bja3 ,ib4 viii4 #a1 p4 #beh4 ,note #baa3 ,physic4 ,ausc4 viii4 #f4 p4 #beh4 ,i proce$ ) ,ari/otle's argum5t4#bba ,we h n[1 !re=e1 to %[ t !re may be an inf9ite s+le1 cont9u\s motion1 & t ?is is circul>4 ,?is is1 9 fact1 prov$1 z may readily be conceiv$1 f ! consid]ation t a body may g on p]petually revolv+ uni=mly 9 a circle4 ,& ?us we h a demon/ration1 on ! pr9ciples ( ?is philosophy1 t !re is & mu/ be a ,fir/ ,mov]1 revolv+ et]nally ) a uni=m circul> motion4 ,note #bba3 ,ib4 viii4 #h4 ,?\gh ?is k9d ( philosophy may appe> too trifl+ to des]ve be+ dwelt ^u1 x is important = our purpose s f> z to exemplify x1 t we may aft]w>ds advance1 confid5t t we h done x no inju/ice4 ,i w n[ pass f ! doctr9es relat+ to ! motions ( ! heav5s1 to ^? :i* conc]n ! mat]ial elem5ts ( ! univ]se4 ,& "h x may be rem>k$ t ! t5d5cy 7( :i* we are "h trac+ ! developm5t7 to extract speculative op9ions f ! relations ( words1 mu/ be v natural to man2 = ! v widely accept$ doctr9e ( ! ,f\r ,elem5ts :i* appe>s to be f\nd$ on ! opposition ( ! adjectives hot & cold1 wet & dry1 is mu* old] ?an ,ari/otle1 & 0 probably "o ( ! e>lie/ ( philosophical dogmas4 ,! great ma/] ( ?is philosophy1 h[ev]1 puts ! op9ion 9 a m sy/ematic mann] ?an 8 pr$ecessors4 #fi ,we seek1 he says1#bca ! pr9ciples ( s5sible ?+s1 t is1 ( tangible bodies4 ,we mu/ take1 !re=e1 n all ! contr>ieties ( quality1 b ^? only :i* h ref]5ce to ! t\*4 ,?us black & :ite1 sweet & bitt]1 d n diff] z tangible qualities1 & !re=e mu/ be reject$ f our consid]ation4 ,note #bca3 ,de ,g54 et ,corrupt4 ii4 #b4 ,n[ ! contr>ieties ( quality :i* ref] to ! t\* are ^!3 hot1 cold2 dry1 wet2 heavy1 light2 h>d1 s(t2 unctu\s1 meagre2 r\gh1 smoo?2 d5se1 r>e4 ,he !n proce$s to reject all b ! f\r fir/ ( ^!1 = v>i\s reasons2 heavy & light1 because !y are n active & passive qualities2 ! o!rs1 because !y are comb9ations ( ! f\r fir/1 :i* !re=e he inf]s to be ! f\r elem5t>y qualities4 #bda ,n[ 9 f\r ?+s !re are six comb9ations ( two2 b ! comb9ations ( two opposites1 z hot & cold1 mu/ be reject$2 we h1 !re=e1 f\r elem5t>y comb9ations1 :i* agree ) ! f\r app>5tly elem5t>y bodies4 ,fire is hot & dry2 air is hot & wet 7= /eam is air72 wat] is cold & wet1 e>? is cold & dry4 ,note #bda3 ,ib4 iii4 #h4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ?is disposition to assume t "s common elem5t>y quality mu/ exi/ 9 ! cases 9 :i* we habitually apply a common adjective1 z x began be=e ! reign ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 s also surviv$ its influ5ce4 ,n to m5tion o!r cases1 x w\ld be difficult to free ,bacon's ,inquisitio 9 naturam calidi1 ,exam9ation ( ! nature ( heat1 f ! *>ge ( conf\nd+ toge!r v diff]5t classes ( ph5om5a "u ! cov] ( ! ^w hot4 ,! correction ( ^! op9ions conc]n+ ! elem5t>y composition ( bodies belongs to an advanc$ p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( physical k1 ev5 aft] ! revival ( its progress4 ,b !re are "s ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9es :i* p>ticul>ly des]ve our att5tion1 f ! prom95t %>e !y _h 9 ! v fir/ beg9n+s ( t revival2 ,i mean ! doctr9es conc]n+ motion4 ,^! are /ill f\nd$ ^u ! same mode ( reason+ f adjectives2 b 9 ?is case1 ! result foll[s1 n only f ! opposition ( ! words1 b also f ! di/9ction ( _! be+ absolutely or relatively true4 ,=m] writ]s1 says ,ari/otle1 h consid]$ heavy & light relatively only1 tak+ cases1 :]e bo? ?+s h weight1 b "o is light] ?an ! o!r2 & !y imag9$ t1 9 #gj ?is way1 !y def9$ :at 0 absolutely 77 heavy & light4 ,we n[ "k t ?+s :i* rise by _! lightness d s only because !y are press$ upw>ds by heavi] surr\nd+ bodies2 & ?is assumption ( absolute levity1 :i* is evid5tly gratuit\s1 or r m]ely nom9al1 entirely vitiat$ ! :ole ( ! succe$+ reason+4 ,! inf]5ce 01 t fire mu/ be absolutely light1 s9ce x t5ds to take its place above ! o!r ?ree elem5ts2 e>? absolutely heavy1 s9ce x t5ds to take its place bel[ fire1 air1 & wat]4 ,! philosoph] argu$ also1 ) great acut5ess1 t air1 :i* t5ds to take its place bel[ fire & above wat]1 mu/ d s by its nature1 & n 9 virtue ( any comb9ation ( heavy & light elem5ts4 ,= if air 7 compos$ ( ! p>ts :i* give fire its levity1 jo9$ ) o!r p>ts :i* produce gravity1 we might assume a quantity ( air s l>ge1 t x %\ld be light] ?an a small quantity ( fire1 hav+ m ( ! light p>ts4 ,x ?us foll[s t ea* ( ! f\r elem5ts t5ds to its own place1 fire be+ ! highe/1 air ! next1 wat] ! next1 & e>? ! l[e/4 ,! :ole ( ?is tra9 ( errors arises f fallacies :i* h a v]bal orig92--f consid]+ light z opposite to heavy2 & f consid]+ levity z a quality ( a body1 in/ead ( reg>d+ x z ! effect ( surr\nd+ bodies4 ,x is wor? :ile to notice t a difficulty :i* (t5 emb>rasses p]sons on _! entrance ^u physical speculations1--! difficulty ( conceiv+ t up & d[n are diff]5t directions 9 diff]5t places1--_h be5 completely got ov] by ,ari/otle & ! ,greek philosoph]s4 ,!y 7 /eadily conv9c$ ( ! r\ndness ( ! e>?1 & saw t ?is tru? l$ to ! conclusion t all heavy bodies t5d 9 conv]g+ directions to ! c5tre4 ,&1 !y add$1 z ! heavy t5ds to ! c5tre1 ! light t5ds to ! ext]ior1 = ,ext]ior is opposite to ,c5tre z heavy is to light4#bea ,note #bea3 ,de ,clo1 iv4 #d4 ,! t5d5cies ( bodies d[nw>ds & upw>ds1 _! weight1 _! fall1 _! float+ or s9k+1 7 ?us acc\nt$ = 9 a mann] :i*1 h[ev] uns\nd1 satisfi$ ! great] "p ( ! speculative _w till ! "t ( ,galileo & ,/ev9us1 ?\gh ,ar*im$es 9 ! mean "t publi%$ ! true !ory ( float+ bodies1 :i* is v diff]5t f t above /at$4 ,o!r p>ts ( ! doctr9es ( motion 7 deliv]$ by ! ,/agirite 9 ! same _s & ) ! same success4 ,! motion ( a body :i* is ?r[n along ! #ga gr\nd dim9i%es & f9ally ceases2 ! motion ( a body :i* falls f a height goes on becom+ quick] & quick]2 ?is 0 acc\nt$ = on ! usual pr9ciple ( opposition1 by say+ t ! =m] is a viol5t1 ! latt] a natural motion4 ,& ! lat] writ]s ( ?is s*ool express$ ! *>act]s ( su* motions 9 v]se4 ,! rule ( natural motion 0#bfa ,pr9cipium tepeat1 m$ium cum f9e calebit4 ,cool at ! fir/1 x w>m & w>m] gl[s4 ,& ( viol5t motion1 ! law 0-- ,pr9cipium f]vet1 m$ium calet1 ultima friget4 ,hot at ! fir/1 !n b>ely w>m1 !n cold4 ,note #bfa3 ,al/$4 ,encyc4 tom4 i4 p4 #fhg4 ,x appe>s to h be5 consid]$ by ,ari/otle a difficult problem to expla9 :y a /one ?r[n f ! h& cont9ues to move = "s "t1 & !n /ops4 ,if ! h& 0 ! cause ( ! motion1 h[ c\ld ! /one move at all :5 left to itself8 if n1 :y does x ev] /op8 ,& he answ]s ?is difficulty by say+1#bga t !re is a motion communicat$ to ! air1 ! successive p>ts ( :i* urge ! /one onw>ds2 & t ea* "p ( ?is m$ium cont9ues to act = "s :ile aft] x has be5 act$ on1 & ! motion ceases :5 x comes to a p>ticle :i* _c act aft] x has ceas$ to be act$ on4 ,x w be readily se5 t ! :ole ( ?is difficulty1 conc]n+ a body :i* moves =w>d & is ret>d$ till x /ops1 arises f ascrib+ ! ret>dation1 n to ! real cause1 ! surr\nd+ resi/ances1 b to ! body itself4 ,note #bga3 ,phys4 ,ausc4 viii4 #aj4 ,"o ( ! doctr9es :i* 0 ! subject ( ! w>me/ discussion betwe5 ! def5d]s & oppos]s ( ,ari/otle1 at ! revival ( physical k1 0 t 9 :i* he ass]ts1#bha ,t body is heavi] ?an ano!r :i* 9 an equal bulk moves d[nw>d quick]4 ,! op9ion ma9ta9$ by ! 9999,ari/otelians at ! "t ( ,galileo 01 t bodies fall quick] exactly 9 proportion to _! weight4 ,! ma/] himself ass]ts ?is 9 express t]ms1 & reasons ^u x4#bia ,yet 9 ano!r passage he appe>s to di/+ui% betwe5 weight & actual motion d[nw>ds4#cja ,9 physics1 we call bodies heavy & light f _! p[] ( motion2 b ^! names are n appli$ to _! actual op]ations 77 except any "o ?9ks #gb mom5tum 77 to be a ^w ( bo? applications4 ,b heavy & light are1 z x 71 ! emb]s or sp>ks ( motion1 & !re=e prop] to be treat$ ( "h4 ,note #bha3 ,de ,clo1 iv4 #a1 p4 #cjh4 ,note #bia3 ,ib4 iii4 #b4 ,note #cja3 ,ib4 iv4 #a1 p4 #cjg4 ,! di/9ction j allud$ to1 betwe5 ,p[] or ,faculty ( ,action1 & actual ,op]ation or ,en]gy1 is "o v frequ5tly ref]r$ to by ,ari/otle2 & ?\gh n by any means useless1 may easily be s us$ z to lead to m]e v]bal ref9em5ts in/ead ( sub/antial k4 ,! ,ari/otelian di/9ction ( ,causes has n any v imm$iate be>+ ^u ! p>ts ( physics ( :i* we h "h ma9ly spok52 b x 0 s ext5sively accept$1 & s long reta9$1 t x may be prop] to notice x4#caa ,"o k9d ( ,cause is ! matt] ( :i* any ?+ is made1 z bronze ( a /atue1 & silv] ( a vial2 ano!r is ! =m & patt]n1 z ! ,cause ( an octave is ! ratio ( two to "o2 aga91 !re is ! ,cause :i* is ! orig9 ( ! production1 z ! fa!r ( ! *ild2 & aga91 !re is ! ,end1 or t = ! sake ( :i* any ?+ is done1 z heal? is ! cause ( walk+4 ,^! f\r k9ds ( ,cause1 ! mat]ial1 ! =mal1 ! effici5t1 & ! f9al1 7 long lead+ po9ts 9 all speculative inquiries2 & our famili> =ms ( spee* /ill reta9 traces ( ! influ5ce ( ?is division4 ,note #caa3 ,phys4 ii4 #c4 ,x is my object "h to pres5t to ! read] 9 an intelligible %ape1 ! pr9ciples & mode ( reason+ ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 n its results4 ,if ?is 7 n ! case1 x w\ld be easy to excite a smile by insulat+ "s ( ! passages :i* are mo/ remote f mod]n notions4 ,i w only m5tion1 z specim5s1 two su* passages1 bo? v rem>kable4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! book ,on ! ,heav5s1 he proves#cba ! _w to be p]fect1 by reason+ ( ! foll[+ k9d3 ,! bodies ( :i* ! _w is compos$ are solids1 & !re=e h ?ree dim5sions3 n[ ?ree is ! mo/ p]fect numb]2 x is ! fir/ ( numb]s1 = ( "o we d n speak z a numb]2 ( two we say bo?2 b ?ree is ! fir/ numb] ( :i* we say all2 moreov]1 x has a beg9n+1 a middle1 & an end4 ,note #cba3 ,de ,clo1 i4 #a4 ,! read] w /ill p]ceive ! v]bal f\ndations ( op9ions ?us support$4 ,! simple elem5ts mu/ h simple motions1 & ?us fire & air h _! natural motions upw>ds1 & wat] & e>? h #gc _! natural motions d[nw>ds2 b besides ^! motions1 !re is motion 9 a circle1 :i* is unnatural to ^! elem5ts1 b :i* is a m p]fect motion ?an ! o!r1 because a circle is a p]fect l9e1 & a /raight l9e is n2 & !re mu/ be some?+ to :i* ?is motion is natural4 ,f ?is x is evid5t1 he adds1 ) obvi\s animation1 t !re is "s ess5ce ( body diff]5t f ^? ( ! f\r elem5ts1 m div9e ?an ^?1 & sup]ior to !m4 ,if ?+s :i* move 9 a circle move contr>y to nature1 x is m>vell\s1 or r absurd1 t ?is1 ! unnatural motion1 %\ld alone be cont9u\s & et]nal2 = unnatural motions decay spe$ily4 ,& s1 f all ?is1 we mu/ collect1 t besides ! f\r elem5ts :i* we h "h & ab\t u1 !re is ano!r remov$ f> (f1 & ! m excell5t 9 proportion z x is m di/ant f u4 ,?is fif? elem5t 0 ! qu9ta ess5tia1 ( aft] writ]s1 ( :i* we h a trace 9 our mod]n lit]ature1 9 ! ^w qu9tess5ce4 ,sect4 #c4--,te*nical ,=ms ( ! ,greek ,s*ools4 ,,we h hi!rto consid]$ only ! pr9ciple ( ! ,greek ,physics2 :i* 01 z we h se51 to d$uce its doctr9es by an analysis ( ! notions :i* common language involves4 ,b ?\gh ! ,grecian philosoph] began by /udy+ words 9 _! common mean+s1 he soon f\nd himself l$ to fix ^u "s special %ades or applications ( ^! mean+s z ! p]man5t & /&>d notion1 :i* !y 7 to express2 t is1 he made 8 language te*nical4 ,! inv5tion & e/abli%m5t ( te*nical t]ms is an important /ep 9 any philosophy1 true or false2 we mu/1 !re=e1 say a few words on ?is process1 z exemplifi$ 9 ! anci5t sy/ems4 #a4 ,te*nical ,=ms ( ! ,ari/otelian ,philosophy4--,we h already _h occasion to cite "s ( ! di/9ctions introduc$ by ,ari/otle1 :i* may be consid]$ z te*nical2 = in/ance1 ! classification ( ,causes z mat]ial1 =mal1 effici5t1 & f9al2 & ! opposition ( ,qualities z absolute & relative4 ,a few m ( ! mo/ important examples may suffice4 ,an analysis ( objects into ,matt] & ,=m1 :5 metaphorically ext5d$ f visible objects to ?+s conceiv$ 9 ! mo/ g5]al mann]1 became an habitual hypo!sis ( ! ,ari/otelian s*ool4 ,inde$ ?is metaphor is ev5 yet "o ( ! mo/ significant ( ^? :i* we c employ1 to sugge/ "o ( ! mo/ compreh5sive & fundam5tal anti!ses ) :i* philosophy has to d2--! opposition ( s5se & reason1 ( #gd impressions & laws4 ,9 ?is application1 ! ,g]man philosoph]s h1 up to ! pres5t "t1 re/$ ^u ?is di/9ction a great "p ( ! weight ( _! sy/ems2 z :5 ,kant says1 t ,space & ,"t are ! ,=ms ( ,s5sation4 ,ev5 9 our own language1 we reta9 a trace ( ! influ5ce ( ?is ,ari/otelian notion1 9 ! ^w ,in=mation1 :5 us$ = t k :i* may be conceiv$ z m\ld+ ! m9d into a def9ite %ape1 in/ead ( leav+ x a m]e mass ( unimpress$ susceptibility4 ,ano!r favorite ,ari/otelian anti!sis is t ( ,p[] & ,act 71 74 ,?is di/9ction is made ! basis ( mo/ ( ! physical philosophy ( ! s*ool2 be+1 h[ev]1 g5]ally introduc$ ) a peculi> limitation4 ,?us1 ,light is def9$ to be ! ,act ( :at is lucid1 z be+ lucid4 ,& if1 x is add$1 ! lucid be s 9 p[] b n 9 act1 we h d>kness4 ,! reason ( ! limitation1 z be+ lucid1 is1 t a lucid body may act 9 o!r ways2 ?us a tor* may move z well z %9e1 b its mov+ is n its act z be+ a lucid body4 ,ari/otle appe>s to be well satisfi$ ) ?is explanation1 = he goes on to say1 ,?us light is n ,fire1 nor any body :atev]1 or ! emanation ( any body 7= t w\ld be a k9d ( body71 b x is ! pres5ce ( some?+ l ,fire 9 ! body2 x is1 h[ev]1 impossible t two bodies %\ld exi/ 9 ! same place1 s t x is n a body2 & ?is reason+ appe>s to leave him m satisfi$ ) 8 doctr9e1 t ,light is an ,en]gy or ,act4 ,b we h a m di/9ctly te*nical =m giv5 to ?is notion4 ,ari/otle introduc$ a ^w =m$ by himself to express ! act :i* is ?us oppos$ to inactive p[]3 ?is is ! celebrat$ ^w 4 ,?us ! not$ def9ition ( ,motion 9 ! ?ird book ( ! ,physics1#cca is t x is ! ,entele*y1 or ,act1 ( a movable body 9 respect ( be+ movable2 & ! def9ition ( ! ,s\l is#cda t x is ! ,entele*y ( a natural body :i* has life by reason ( its p[]4 ,?is ^w has be5 v>i\sly translat$ by ! foll[]s ( ,ari/otle1 & "s ( !m h decl>$ x untranslatable4 ,act & ,action are held to be inadequate sub/itutes2 ! v act1 ipse cursus actionis1 is employ$ by "s2 primus actus is employ$ by _m1 b ano!r s*ool use primus actus ( a non-op]at+ =m4 ,budu uses efficacia4 ,cic]o#cea translates x quasi qu&am cont9uatam motionem1 et p]5nem2 b ?is p>aphrase1 ?\gh x may #ge fall 9 ) ! description ( ! s\l1 :i* is ! subject ) :i* ,cic]o is conc]n$1 does n appe> to agree ) ! g5]al applications ( ! t]m4 ,h]molaus ,b>b>us is said to h be5 s mu* oppress$ ) ?is difficulty ( translation1 t he consult$ ! evil _s by night1 entreat+ to be suppli$ ) a m common & famili> sub/itute = ?is ^w3 ! mock+ fi5d1 h[ev]1 sugge/$ only a ^w equally obscure1 & ! translator1 discont5t$ ) ?is1 inv5t$ = himself ! ^w p]fectihabia4 ,note #cca3 ,phys4 iii4 #a4 ,note #cda3 ,de ,anim1 ii4 #a4 ,note #cea3 ,tusc4 i4 #aj4 ,we ne$ n "h notice ! endless app>atus ( te*nicalities :i* 01 9 lat] days1 introduc$ into ! ,ari/otelian philosophy2 b we may rem>k1 t _! long cont9uance & ext5sive use %[ u h[ p[]ful te*nical phraseology is1 = ! p]petuation ei!r ( tru? or error4 ,! ,ari/otelian t]ms1 & ! metaphysical views :i* !y t5d to pres]ve1 are n yet ext9ct among u4 ,9 a v rec5t age ( our lit]ature x 0 ?\ght a wor?y employm5t by "s ( ! greate/ writ]s ( ! day1 to attempt to expel ?is sy/em ( te*nicalities by ridicule4 ,crambe regrett$ extremely t sub/antial =ms1 a race ( h>mless be+s1 :i* _h la/$ = _m ye>s1 & af=d$ a com=table subsi/5ce to _m poor philosoph]s1 %\ld n[ be hunt$ d[n l s _m wolves1 )\t a possibility ( retreat4 ,he consid]$ t x _h gone mu* h>d] ) !m ?an ) ess5ces1 :i* _h retir$ f ! s*ools into ! apo!c>ies' %ops1 :]e "s ( !m _h be5 advanc$ to ! degree ( qu9tess5ces49999#cfa ,note #cfa3 ,m>t9us ,scribl]us1 cap4 vii4 ,we mu/ n[ say a few words on ! te*nical t]ms :i* o!rs ( ! ,greek philosophical sects introduc$4 #b4 ,te*nical ,=ms ( ! ,platoni/s4--,! o!r sects ( ! ,greek philosophy1 z well z ! ,ari/otelians1 inv5t$ & adopt$ te*nical t]ms1 & ?us gave fixity to _! t5ets & consi/5cy to _! tradition>y sy/ems2 ( ^! ,i w m5tion a few4 ,a te*nical expression ( a contempor>y s*ool has acquir$ p]haps great] celebrity ?an any ( ! t]ms ( ,ari/otle4 ,i mean ! ,ideas ( ,plato4 ,! acc\nt :i* ,ari/otle gives ( ! orig9 ( ^! w s]ve to expla9 _! nature4#cga ,plato1 says he1 :o1 9 8 y\?1 0 9 habits ( communication fir/ ) ,cratylus & ! ,h]aclitean op9ions1 :i* repres5t all ! objects ( s5se z be+ 9 a p]petual flux1 s t conc]n+ ^! no sci5ce nor c]ta9 #gf k c exi/1 ent]ta9$ ! same op9ions at a lat] p]iod also4 ,:51 aft]w>ds1 ,socrates treat$ ( moral subjects1 & gave no att5tion to physics1 b1 9 ! subjects :i* he did discuss1 arriv$ at univ]sal tru?s1 & be=e any man1 turn$ 8 ?\ghts to def9itions1 ,plato adopt$ simil> doctr9es on ?is subject also2 & con/ru$ !m 9 ?is way1 t ^! tru?s & def9itions mu/ be applicable to some?+ else1 & n to s5sible ?+s3 = x 0 impossible1 he conceiv$1 t !re %\ld be a g5]al common def9ition ( any s5sible object1 s9ce su* 7 always 9 a /ate ( *ange4 ,! ?+s1 !n1 :i* 7 ! subjects ( univ]sal tru?s he call$ ,ideas2 & held t objects ( s5se _h _! names accord+ to ,ideas & aft] !m2 s t ?+s p>ticipat$ 9 t ,idea :i* _h ! same "n z 0 appli$ to !m4 ,note #cga3 ,ari/4 ,metaph4 i4 #f4 ,! same acc\nt is repeat$1 & ! subject discuss$1 ,metaph4 xii4 #d4 ,9 agreem5t ) ?is1 we f9d ! op9ions sugge/$ 9 ! ,p>m5ides ( ,plato1 ! dialogue :i* is consid]$ by _m to conta9 ! mo/ decid$ exposition ( ! doctr9e ( ,ideas4 ,9 ?is dialogue1 ,p>m5ides is made to say to ,socrates1 !n a "y man1#cha ,o ,socrates1 philosophy has n yet claim$ y = h] own1 z1 9 my judgm5t1 %e w claim y1 & y w n di%onor h]4 ,z yet1 l a "y man z y are1 y look to ! op9ions ( m54 ,b tell me ?is3 x appe>s to y1 z y say1 t !re are c]ta9 ,k9ds or ,ideas 77 ( :i* ?+s p>take & receive applications accord+ to t ( :i* !y p>take3 ?us ^? ?+s :i* p>take ( ,lik5ess are call$ l2 ^? ?+s :i* p>take ( ,greatness are call$ great2 ^? ?+s :i* p>take ( ,beauty & ,ju/ice are call$ beautiful & j4 ,to ?is ,socrates ass5ts4 ,& 9 ano!r "p ( ! dialogue he %[s t ^! ,ideas are n includ$ 9 our common k1 f :5ce he inf]s t !y are objects ( ! ,div9e m9d4 ,note #cha3 ,p>m5id4 p4 #aca4 ,9 ! ,phd ! same op9ion is ma9ta9$1 & is summ$ up 9 ?is way1 by a report] ( ! la/ conv]sation ( ,socrates1#cia 1 ' 2 t ea* ,k9d has an exi/5ce1 & t o!r ?+s p>take ( ^! ,k9ds1 & are call$ accord+ to ! ,k9d ( :i* !y p>take4 ,note #cia3 ,phd1 p4 #ajb4 ,! inf]5ce drawn f ?is view 01 t 9 ord] to obta9 true & c]ta9 k1 m5 mu/ elevate !mselves1 z mu* z possible1 to ^! ,ideas ( ! qualities :i* !y h to consid]3 #gg & z ?+s 7 ?us call$ aft] ! ,ideas1 ! ,ideas _h a priority & pre-em95ce assign$ !m4 ,! ,idea ( ,good1 ,beautiful1 & ,wise 0 ! ,fir/ ,good1 ! ,fir/ ,beautiful1 ! ,fir/ ,wise4 ,?is dignity & di/9ction 7 ultimately c>ri$ to a l>ge ext5t4 ,^? ,ideas 7 describ$ z et]nal & self-subsi/+1 =m+ an ,intelligible ,_w1 full ( ! models or ar*etypes ( creat$ ?+s4 ,b x is n to our purpose "h to consid] ! ,platonic ,ideas 9 _! !ological be>+s4 ,9 physics !y 7 appli$ 9 ! same =m z 9 morals4 ,! primum calidum1 primum frigidum 7 ^? ,ideas ( fundam5tal ,pr9ciples by p>ticipation ( :i*1 all ?+s 7 hot or cold4 ,?is s*ool did n mu* employ itself 9 ! developm5t ( its pr9ciples z appli$ to physical inquiries3 b we are n )\t examples ( su* speculations4 ,plut>*'s ,treatise 1 ,on ! ,fir/ ,cold1 may be cit$ z "o4 ,x is 9 reality a discussion ( a "q :i* has be5 agitat$ 9 mod]n times also2--:e!r cold be a positive quality or a m]e privation4 ,is !re1 ,o ,favor9us1 he beg9s1 a ,fir/ ,p[] & ,ess5ce ( ! ,cold1 z ,fire is ( ! ,hot2 by a c]ta9 pres5ce & p>ticipation ( :i* all o!r ?+s are cold3 or is r coldness a privation ( heat1 z d>kness is ( light1 & re/ ( motion8 #c4 ,te*nical ,=ms ( ! ,py?agoreans4--,! ,numb]s ( ! ,py?agoreans1 :5 prop\nd$ z ! explanation ( physical ph5om5a1 z !y 71 are /ill m obscure ?an ! ,ideas ( ! ,platoni/s4 ,!re 71 inde$1 consid]able resemblances 9 ! way 9 :i* ^! two k9ds ( notions 7 spok5 (4 ,plato call$ 8 ,ideas unities1 monads2 & z1 accord+ to him1 ,ideas1 s1 accord+ to ! ,py?agoreans1 ,numb]s1 7 ! causes ( ?+s be+ :at !y are4#dja ,b !re 0 ?is diff]5ce1 t ?+s %>$ ! nature ( ! ,platonic ,ideas by p>ticipation1 :ile !y %>$ ! nature ( ,py?agorean ,numb]s by imitation4 ,moreov]1 ! ,py?agoreans foll[$ _! notion out into mu* great] developm5t ?an any o!r s*ool1 inve/+ p>ticul> numb]s ) extraord9>y attributes1 & apply+ !m by v /range & =c$ analogies4 ,?us ! numb] ,f\r1 to :i* !y gave ! "n ( ,tetractys1 0 held to be ! mo/ p]fect numb]1 & 0 conceiv$ to correspond to ! human s\l1 9 "s way :i* appe>s to be v imp]fectly und]/ood by ! comm5tators ( ?is philosophy4 #gh ,note3 #dja3 ,ari/4 ,metaph4 i4 #f4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ by a di/+ui%$ mod]n s*ol>1#daa t ! place :i* ,py?agoras ascrib$ to 8 numb]s is intelligible only by suppos+ t he conf\nd$1 fir/ a num]ical unit ) a geometrical po9t1 & !n ?is ) a mat]ial atom4 ,b ?is criticism appe>s to place sy/ems ( physical philosophy "u requisitions too sev]e4 ,if all ! ess5tial prop]ties & attributes ( ?+s 7 fully repres5t$ by ! relations ( numb]1 ! philosophy :i* suppli$ su* an explanation ( ! univ]se1 might well be excus$ f expla9+ also t exi/5ce ( objects :i* is di/9ct f ! exi/5ce ( all _! qualities & prop]ties4 ,! ,py?agorean love ( num]ical speculations might h be5 comb9$ ) ! doctr9e ( atoms1 & ! comb9ation might h l$ to results well wor? notice4 ,b s f> z we are aw>e1 no su* comb9ation 0 attempt$ 9 ! anci5t s*ools ( philosophy2 & p]haps we ( ! pres5t day are only j beg9n+ to p]ceive1 ?r\gh ! disclosures ( *emi/ry & cry/allography1 ! importance ( su* a l9e ( inquiry4 ,note #daa3 ,?irlwall's ,hi/4 ,gr4 ii4 #adb4 #d4 ,te*nical ,=ms ( ! ,atomi/s & ,o!rs4--,! atomic doctr9e1 ( :i* we h j spok51 0 "o ( ! mo/ def9ite ( ! physical doctr9es ( ! anci5ts1 & 0 appli$ ) mo/ p]sev]ance & k to ! explanation ( ph5om5a4 ,?\gh1 !re=e1 x l$ to no success ( any consequ5ce 9 anci5t times1 x s]v$ to transmit1 ?r\gh a long s]ies ( ages1 a habit ( really physical inquiry2 &1 on ?is acc\nt1 has be5 ?\ght wor?y ( an hi/orical disquisition by ,bacon4#dba ,note #dba3 ,p>m5idis et ,telesii et prcipue ,democriti ,philosophia1 c41 ,works1 vol4 ix4 #cag4 ,! te*nical t]m1 ,atom1 m>ks suffici5tly ! nature ( ! op9ion4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 ! _w consi/s ( a collection ( simple p>ticles1 ( "o k9d ( matt]1 & ( indivisible smallness 7z ! "n indicates71 & by ! v>i\s configurations & motions ( ^! p>ticles1 all k9ds ( matt] & all mat]ial ph5om5a are produc$4 ,to ?is1 ! ,atomic ,doctr9e ( ,leucippus & ,democritus1 0 oppos$ ! ,homoiom]ia ( ,anaxagoras2 t is1 ! op9ion t mat]ial ?+s consi/ ( p>ticles :i* are homog5e\s 9 ea* k9d ( body1 b v>i\s 9 diff]5t k9ds3 ?us = example1 s9ce by food ! fle% & blood & bones ( man increase1 ! au?or ( ?is doctr9e held t !re are 9 food p>ticles ( fle%1 & blood1 #gi & bone4 ,z ! =m] t5et po9ts to ! corpuscul> !ories ( mod]n times1 s ! latt] may be consid]$ z a dim glimpse ( ! idea ( *emical analysis4 ,! ,/oics also1 :o 71 especially at a lat] p]iod1 incl9$ to mat]iali/ views1 _h _! te*nical modes ( speak+ on su* subjects4 ,!y ass]t$ t matt] conta9$ 9 itself t5d5cies or dispositions to c]ta9 =ms1 :i* dispositions !y call$ 99991 sem9al proportions1 or sem9al reasons4 ,:atev] ( s\nd view1 or "r direction1 !re might be 9 ! notions :i* sugge/$ ^! & o!r te*nical expressions1 01 9 all ! s*ools ( philosophy 7s f> z physics 0 conc]n$7 qu5*$ & ov]laid by ! pr$om9ance ( trifl+ & b>r5 speculations2 & by ! love ( subtiliz+ & comm5t+ ^u ! works ( e>li] writ]s1 in/ead ( attempt+ to int]pret ! book ( nature4 ,h5ce ^! te*nical t]ms s]v$ to give fixity & p]man5ce to ! traditional dogmas ( ! sect1 b l$ to no progress ( k4 ,! advances :i* 7 made 9 physical sci5ce proce$$1 n f ^! s*ools ( philosophy 7if we except1 p]haps1 ! obligations ( ! sci5ce ( ,h>monics to ! ,py?agoreans71 b f reason]s :o foll[$ an indep5d5t pa?4 ,! sequel ( ! ambiti\s hopes1 ! va/ s*emes1 ! confid5t und]tak+s ( ! philosoph]s ( anci5t ,greece1 0 an entire failure 9 ! physical k ( :i* x is our bus9ess to trace ! hi/ory4 ,yet we are n1 on t acc\nt1 to ?9k slight+ly ( ^! e>ly speculators4 ,!y 7 m5 ( extraord9>y acut5ess1 inv5tion1 & range ( ?\ght2 &1 above all1 !y _h ! m]it ( fir/ completely unfold+ ! speculative faculty--( />t+ 9 t ke5 & vigor\s *ase ( k out ( :i* all ! subsequ5t culture & improvem5t ( man's intellectual /ores h aris54 ,! sages ( e>ly ,greece =m ! h]oic age ( sci5ce4 ,l ! fir/ navigators 9 _! own my?ology1 !y boldly v5tur$ _! untri$ b>k 9 a di/ant & ardu\s voyage1 urg$ on by ! hopes ( a sup]natural success2 & ?\gh !y miss$ ! imag9>y gold5 prize :i* !y s\ght1 !y unlock$ ! gates ( di/ant regions1 & op5$ ! seas to ! keels ( ! ?\s&s ( adv5tur]s :o1 9 succe$+ times1 sail$ to & fro1 to ! indef9ite increase ( ! m5tal treasures ( mank9d4 ,b inasmu* z _! attempts1 9 "o s5se1 & at fir/1 fail$1 we mu/ proce$ to (f] "s acc\nt ( ?is failure1 & ( its nature & causes4 #hj ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,failure ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ools4 ,sect4 #a4--,result ( ! ,greek ,s*ool ,philosophy4 ,,! me?ods & =ms ( philosophiz+ :i* we h describ$ z employ$ by ! ,greek ,s*ools1 fail$ altoge!r 9 _! application to physics4 ,no discov]y ( g5]al laws1 no explanation ( special ph5om5a1 rew>d$ ! acut5ess & boldness ( ^! e>ly /ud5ts ( nature4 ,a/ronomy1 :i* made consid]able progress dur+ ! exi/5ce ( ! sects ( ,greek philosoph]s1 ga9$ p]haps some?+ by ! au?ority ) :i* ,plato taught ! supremacy & univ]sality ( ma!matical rule & ord]2 & ! tru?s ( ,h>monics1 :i* _h probably giv5 rise to ! ,py?agorean passion = numb]s1 7 cultivat$ ) mu* c>e by t s*ool4 ,b aft] ^! fir/ impulses1 ! sci5ces ow$ no?+ to ! philosophical sects2 & ! va/ & complex accumulations & app>atus ( ! ,/agirite d n appe> to h l$ to any !oretical physical tru?s4 ,?is ass]tion h>dly requires pro(1 s9ce 9 ! exi/+ body ( sci5ce !re are no doctr9es = :i* we are indebt$ to ! ,ari/otelian ,s*ool4 ,real tru?s1 :5 once e/abli%$1 rema9 to ! end ( "t a "p ( ! m5tal treasure ( man1 & may be disc]n$ ?r\gh all ! additions ( lat] days4 ,b we c po9t out no physical doctr9e n[ receiv$1 ( :i* we trace ! anticipation 9 ,ari/otle1 9 ! way 9 :i* we see ! ,cop]nican sy/em anticipat$ by ,ari/>*us1 ! resolution ( ! heav5ly appe>ances into circul> motions sugge/$ by ,plato1 & ! num]ical relations ( musical int]vals ascrib$ to ,py?agoras4 ,b x may be wor? :ile to look at ?is matt] m closely4 ,among ! works ( ,ari/otle are ?irty-eight *apt]s ( ,problems1 :i* may s]ve to exemplify ! progress he _h really made 9 ! r$uction ( ph5om5a to laws & causes4 ,( ^! ,problems1 a l>ge proportion are physiological1 & ^! ,i "h pass by1 z n illu/rative ( ! /ate ( physical k4 ,b ^? :i* are prop]ly physical are1 = ! mo/ "p1 que/ions conc]n+ su* #ha facts & difficulties z x is ! peculi> bus9ess ( !ory to expla94 ,n[ x may be truly said1 t 9 sc>cely any "o in/ance are ! answ]s1 :i* ,ari/otle gives to 8 que/ions1 ( any value4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 inde$1 he prop\nds 8 answ] ) a degree ( hesitation or vacillation :i* ( itself %[s ! abs5ce ( all sci5tific di/9ctness ( ?\ght2 & ! op9ions s (f]$ nev] appe> to involve any settl$ or g5]al pr9ciple4 ,we may take1 z examples ( ?is1 ! problems ( ! simple/ k9d1 :]e ! pr9ciples lay ne>e/ at h&--! me*anical ones4 ,:y1 he asks1#dca d small =ces move great weights by means ( a lev]1 :5 !y h ?us to move ! lev] add$ to ! weight8 ,is x1 he sugge/s1 because a great] radius moves fa/]8 ,:y does a small w$ge split great weights8#dda ,is x because ! w$ge is compos$ ( two opposite lev]s8 ,:y1#dea :5 a man rises f a *air1 does he b5d 8 leg & 8 body to acute angles ) 8 ?igh8 ,is x because a "r angle is connect$ ) equality & re/8 ,:y#dfa c a man ?r[ a /one fur!r ) a sl+ ?an ) 8 h&8 ,is x t :5 he ?r[s ) 8 h& he moves ! /one f re/1 b :5 he uses ! sl+ he ?r[s x already 9 motion8 ,:y1#dga if a circle be ?r[n on ! gr\nd1 does x fir/ describe a /raight l9e & !n a spiral1 z x falls8 ,is x t ! air fir/ presses equally on ! two sides & supports x1 & aft]w>ds presses on "o side m8 ,:y#dha is x difficult to di/+ui% a musical note f ! octave above8 ,is x t proportion /&s 9 ! place ( equality8 ,x mu/ be all[$ t ^! are v vague & wor?less surmises2 = ev5 if we 71 z "s comm5tators h done1 to int]pret "s ( !m s z to agree ) s\nd philosophy1 we %\ld /ill be unable to po9t out1 9 ?is au?or's works1 any cle> or p]man5t appreh5sion ( ! g5]al pr9ciples :i* su* an int]pretation implies4 ,note #dca3 ,me*4 ,prob4 #d4 ,note #dda3 ,ib4 #ah4 ,note #dea3 ,ib4 #ca4 ,note #dfa3 ,ib4 #ac4 ,note #dga3 4 #aa4 ,note #dha3 4 #ad4 ,?us ! ,ari/otelian physics _c be consid]$ z o!rwise ?an a complete failure4 ,x collect$ no g5]al laws f facts2 & consequ5tly1 :5 x tri$ to expla9 facts1 x _h no pr9ciples :i* 7 ( any avail4 ,! same may be said ( ! physical speculations ( ! o!r s*ools ( philosophy4 ,!y arriv$ at no doctr9es f :i* !y c\ld d$uce1 by s\nd reason+1 su* facts z !y saw2 ?\gh !y #hb (t5 v5ture s f> to tru/ _! pr9ciples z to inf] f !m propositions beyond ! doma9 ( s5se4 ,?us1 ! pr9ciple t ea* elem5t seeks its own place1 l$ to ! doctr9e t1 ! place ( fire be+ ! highe/1 !re is1 above ! air1 a ,sph]e ( ,fire--( :i* doctr9e ! ^w ,empyrean1 us$ by our poets1 /ill conveys a rem9isc5ce4 ,! ,py?agorean t5et t t5 is a p]fect numb]1#dia l$ "s p]sons to assume t ! heav5ly bodies are 9 numb] t52 & z n9e only 7 kn[n to !m1 !y ass]t$ t !re 0 an anti*?on1 or c\nt]-e>?1 on ! o!r side ( ! sun1 invisible to u4 ,_! op9ions respect+ num]ical ratios1 l$ to v>i\s o!r speculations conc]n+ ! di/ances & positions ( ! heav5ly bodies3 & z !y _h1 9 o!r cases1 f\nd a connection betwe5 proportions ( di/ance & musical notes1 !y assum$1 on ?is sugge/ion1 ! music ( ! sph]es4 ,note #dia3 ,ari/4 ,metaph4 i4 #e4 ,al?\gh we %all look 9 va9 9 ! physical philosophy ( ! ,greek ,s*ools = any results m valuable ?an ^? j m5tion$1 we %all n be surpris$ to f9d1 recollect+ h[ mu* an admiration = classical antiquity has possess$ ! m9ds ( m51 t "s writ]s e/imate _! claims mu* m highly ?an !y are /at$ "h4 ,among su* writ]s we may notice ,dut5s1 :o1 9 #agff1 publi%$ 8 ,orig9 ( ! ,discov]ies attribut$ to ! ,mod]ns2 9 :i* x is %[n t our mo/ celebrat$ ,philosoph]s h receiv$ ! greate/ "p ( _! k f ! ,works ( ! ,anci5ts4 ,! !sis ( ?is "w is attempt$ to be prov$1 z we might expect1 by v l>ge int]pretations ( ! g5]al phrases us$ by ! anci5ts4 ,?us1 :5 ,timu1 9 ,plato's dialogue1 says ( ! ,creator ( ! _w1#eja t he infus$ into x two p[]s1 ! orig9s ( motions1 bo? ( t ( ! same ?+ & ( t ( diff]5t ?+s2 ,dut5s#eaa f9ds 9 ?is a cle> indication ( ! projectile & attractive =ces ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,& 9 "s ( ! common declamation ( ! ,py?agoreans & ,platoni/s conc]n+ ! g5]al preval5ce ( num]ical relations 9 ! univ]se1 he discov]s _! acqua9tance ) ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance by :i* gravitation is regulat$1 ?\gh he all[s#eba t x requir$ all ! p5etration ( ,newton & 8 foll[]s to detect ?is law 9 ! scanty fragm5ts by :i* x is transmitt$4 ,note #eja3 ,tim4 #if4 ,note #eaa3 #c;d ed4 p4 #hc4 ,note #eba3 ,ib4 p4 #hh4 ,argum5t ( ?is k9d is palpably insuffici5t to cov] ! failure ( ! ,greek attempts at a g5]al physical philosophy2 or r we #hc may say1 t su* argum5ts1 s9ce !y are z good z c be br\ght 9 favor ( su* an op9ion1 %[ m cle>ly h[ entire ! failure 04 ,i proce$ n[ to endeavor to po9t out its causes4 ,sect4 #b4--;,cause ( ! ,failure ( ! ,greek ,physical ,philosophy4 ,,! cause ( ! failure ( s _m ( ! attempts ( ! ,greeks to con/ruct physical sci5ce is s important1 t we mu/ endeavor to br+ x into view "h2 ?\gh ! full developm5t ( su* subjects belongs r to ! ,philosophy ( ,induction4 ,! subject mu/1 at pres5t1 be treat$ v briefly4 ,i w fir/ notice "s errors :i* may naturally occur to ! read]'s m9d1 z possible causes ( failure1 b :i*1 we %all be able to %[1 7 n ! real reasons 9 ?is case4 ,! cause ( failure 0 n ! neglect ( facts4 ,x is (t5 said t ! ,greeks disreg>d$ exp]i5ce1 & spun _! philosophy out ( _! own ?\ghts alone2 & ?is is suppos$ by _m to be _! ess5tial error4 ,x is1 no d\bt1 true1 t ! disreg>d ( exp]i5ce is a phrase :i* may be s int]pret$ z to express almo/ any defect ( philosophical me?od2 s9ce co9cid5ce ) exp]i5ce is requisite to ! tru? ( all !ory4 ,b if we fix a m precise s5se on our t]ms1 ,i conceive x may be %[n t ! ,greek philosophy did1 9 its op9ions1 recognize ! necessity & p>am\nt value ( obs]vations2 did1 9 its orig91 proce$ ^u obs]v$ facts2 & did employ itself to no small ext5t 9 classify+ & arrang+ ph5om5a4 ,we mu/ endeavor to illu/rate ^! ass]tions1 because x is important to %[ t ^! /eps alone d n necess>ily lead to sci5ce4 #a4 ,! ackn[l$gm5t ( exp]i5ce z ! ma9 gr\nd ( physical k is s g5]ally und]/ood to be a di/+ui%+ feature ( lat] times1 t x may excite surprise to f9d t ,ari/otle1 & o!r anci5t philosoph]s1 n only ass]t$ 9 ! mo/ po9t$ mann] t all our k mu/ beg9 f exp]i5ce1 b also /at$ 9 language mu* resembl+ ! habitual phraseology ( ! mo/ mod]n s*ools ( philosophiz+1 t p>ticul> facts mu/ be collect$2 t f ^!1 g5]al pr9ciples mu/ be obta9$ by induction2 & t ^! pr9ciples1 :5 ( ! mo/ g5]al k9d1 are axioms4 ,a few passages w %[ ?is4 ,! way#eca mu/ be ! same1 says ,ari/otle1 9 speak+ ( ! rules ( reason+1 ) respect to philosophy1 z x is ) respect to #hd any art or sci5ce :atev]2 we mu/ collect ! facts1 & ! ?+s to :i* ! facts happ51 9 ea* subject1 & provide z l>ge a supply ( ^! z possible4 ,he !n proce$s to say t we are n to look at once at all ?is collect$ mass1 b to consid] small & def9ite portions 4 4 4 ,& ?us x is ! (fice ( obs]vation to supply pr9ciples 9 ea* subject2 = in/ance1 a/ronomical obs]vation supplies ! pr9ciples ( a/ronomical sci5ce4 ,= ! ph5om5a be+ prop]ly assum$1 ! a/ronomical demon/rations 7 f ^! discov]$4 ,& ! same applies to e art & sci5ce4 ,s t if we take ! facts 7 7 belong+ to ea* subject1 x is our task to m>k out cle>ly ! c\rse ( ! demon/rations4 ,= if 9 our natural hi/ory 7 7 we h omitt$ no?+ ( ! facts & prop]ties :i* belong to ! subject1 we %all le>n :at we c demon/rate & :at we _c4 ,note #eca3 ,anal4 ,prior4 i4 #cj4 ,^! facts1 1 he1 at o!r times1 includes 9 ! t]m s5sation4 ,?us1 he says1#eda ,x is obvi\s t if any s5sation is want+1 !re mu/ be also "s k want+ :i* we are ?us prev5t$ f hav+1 s9ce we arrive at k ei!r by induction or by demon/ration4 ,demon/ration proce$s f univ]sal propositions1 ,induction f p>ticul>s4 ,b we _c h univ]sal !oretical propositions except f induction2 & we _c make inductions )\t hav+ s5sation2 = s5sation has to d ) p>ticul>s4 ,note #eda3 ,anal4 ,po/4 i4 #ah4 ,9 ano!r place1#eea aft] /at+ t pr9ciples mu/ be prior to1 & bett] kn[n ?an conclusions1 he di/+ui%es su* pr9ciples into absolutely prior1 & prior relative to u3 ,! prior pr9ciples1 relative to u1 are ^? :i* are ne>] to ! s5sation2 b ! pr9ciples absolutely prior are ^? :i* are m remote f ! s5sation4 ,! mo/ g5]al pr9ciples are ! m remote1 ! m p>ticul> are ne>]4 ,! g5]al pr9ciples :i* are necess>y to k are axioms4 ,note #eea3 ,ib4 i4 #b4 ,we may add to ^! passages1 t 9 :i* he gives an acc\nt ( ! way 9 :i* ,leucippus 0 l$ to ! doctr9e ( atoms4 ,aft] describ+ ! op9ions ( "s e>li] philosoph]s1 he says1#efa ,?us1 proce$+ 9 violation ( s5sation1 & disreg>d+ x1 because1 z !y held1 !y mu/ foll[ reason1 "s came to ! conclusion t ! univ]se 0 "o1 & inf9ite1 & at re/4 ,z x appe>$1 h[ev]1 t ?\gh ?is ought to be by reason+1 x #he w\ld g ne> to madness to hold su* op9ions 9 practice 7= no "o 0 ev] s mad z to ?9k fire & ice to be "o71 ,leucippus1 !re=e1 pursu$ a l9e ( reason+ :i* 0 9 accordance ) s5sation1 & :i* 0 n irreconcilable ) ! production & decay1 ! motion & multitude ( ?+s4 ,x is obvi\s t ! s*ool to :i* ,leucippus belong$ 7! ,eclectic7 mu/ h be51 at lea/ 9 its orig91 /rongly impress$ ) ! necessity ( br++ its !ories into h>mony ) ! obs]v$ c\rse ( nature4 ,note #efa3 ,de ,g54 et ,cor4 i4 #h4 #b4 ,nor 0 ?is recognition ( ! fundam5tal value ( exp]i5ce a m]e pr(ession4 ,! ,greek philosophy did1 9 its beg9n+1 proce$ ^u obs]vation4 ,inde$ x is obvi\s t ! pr9ciples :i* x adopt$ 71 9 ! fir/ place1 assum$ 9 ord] to acc\nt = "s classes ( facts1 h[ev] imp]fectly !y might answ] _! purpose4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?+s seek+ _! own places1 0 inv5t$ 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! fall+ & float+ ( bodies4 ,aga91 ,ari/otle says1 t heat is t :i* br+s toge!r ?+s ( ! same k9d1 cold is t :i* br+s toge!r ?+s :e!r ( ! same or ( diff]5t k9ds3 x is pla9 t 9 ?is in/ance he int5d$ by 8 pr9ciple to expla9 "s obvi\s facts1 z ! freez+ ( moi/ sub/ances1 & ! sep>ation ( het]og5e\s ?+s by fusion2 =1 z he adds1 if fire br+s toge!r ?+s :i* are ak91 x w sep>ate ^? :i* are n ak94 ,x w\ld be easy to illu/rate ! rem>k fur!r1 b its tru? is evid5t f ! nature ( ! case2 = no pr9ciples c\ld be accept$ = a mom5t1 :i* 7 ! result ( an arbitr>y caprice ( ! m9d1 & :i* 7 n 9 "s measure plausible1 & app>5tly confirm$ by facts4 ,b ! works ( ,ari/otle %[1 9 ano!r way1 h[ unju/ x w\ld be to accuse him ( disreg>d+ facts4 ,_m l>ge treatises ( 8 consi/ almo/ entirely ( collections ( facts1 z = in/ance1 ^? ,on ,colors1 ,on ,s\nds1 & ! collection ( ,problems to :i* we h already ref]r$2 to say no?+ ( ! num]\s collection ( facts be>+ on natural hi/ory & physiology1 :i* =m a great portion ( 8 works1 & are ev5 n[ treasuries ( in=mation4 ,a mom5t's reflection w conv9ce u t ! physical sci5ces ( our own times1 = example4 ,me*anics & ,hydro/atics1 are f\nd$ almo/ entirely ^u facts ) :i* ! anci5ts 7 z famili> z we are4 ,! defect ( _! philosophy1 !re=e1 :]ev] x may lie1 consi/s nei!r 9 ! speculative depreciation ( ! value ( facts1 nor 9 ! practical neglect ( _! use4 #c4 ,nor aga91 %\ld we hit ^u ! tru?1 if we 7 to say t #hf ,ari/otle1 & o!r anci5t philosoph]s1 did inde$ collect facts2 b t !y took no /eps 9 classify+ & comp>+ !m2 & t ?us !y fail$ to obta9 f !m any g5]al k4 ,=1 9 reality1 ! treatises ( ,ari/otle :i* we h m5tion$1 are z rem>kable = ! p[] ( classify+ & sy/ematiz+ :i* !y exhibit1 z = ! indu/ry %[n 9 ! accumulation4 ,b x is n classification ( facts m]ely :i* c lead u to k1 except we adopt t special arrangem5t1 :i*1 9 ea* case1 br+s into view ! pr9ciples ( ! subject4 ,we may easily %[ h[ unpr(itable an arbitr>y or r&om classification is1 h[ev] ord]ly & sy/ematic x may be4 ,= in/ance1 = a long p]iod all unusual fi]y appe>ances 9 ! sky 7 class$ toge!r z meteors4 ,comets1 %oot+-/>s1 & globes ( fire1 & ! aurora borealis 9 all its =ms1 7 ?us gr\p$ toge!r1 & classifications ( consid]able ext5t & m9ut5ess 7 propos$ ) ref]5ce to ^! objects4 ,b ?is classification 0 ( a mix$ & arbitr>y k9d4 ,figure1 color1 motion1 duration1 7 all comb9$ z *>act]s1 & ! imag9ation l5t its aid1 trans=m+ ^! /rik+ appe>ances into fi]y swords & spe>s1 be>s & dragons1 armies & *>iots4 ,! facts s classifi$ 71 not)/&+1 wor?less2 & w\ld n h be5 "o jot ! less s1 _h !y & _! classes be5 t5 times z num]\s z !y 74 ,no rule or law t w\ld /& ! te/ ( obs]vation 0 or c\ld be ?us discov]$4 ,su* classifications h1 !re=e1 long be5 neglect$ & =gott54 ,ev5 ! anci5t descriptions ( ^! objects ( curiosity are un9telligible1 or unwor?y ( tru/1 because ! spectators _h no /eady conception ( ! usual ord] ( su* ph5om5a4 ,=1 h[ev] mu* we may fe> to be misl$ by preconceiv$ op9ions1 ! caprices ( imag9ation di/ort our impressions f> m ?an ! anticipations ( reason4 ,9 ?is case m5 _h1 inde$ we may say ) reg>d to _m ( ^! meteors1 !y /ill h1 no sci5ce3 n = want ( facts1 nor ev5 = want ( classification ( facts2 b because ! classification 0 "o 9 :i* no real pr9ciple 0 conta9$4 #d4 ,s9ce1 z we h said be=e1 two ?+s are requisite to sci5ce1--,facts & ,ideas2 & s9ce1 z we h se54 ,facts 7 n want+ 9 ! physical speculations ( ! anci5ts1 we are naturally l$ to ask1 ,7 !y !n defici5t 9 ,ideas8 ,0 !re a want among !m ( m5tal activity1 & logical connection ( ?\ght8 ,b x is s obvi\s t ! answ] to ?is inquiry mu/ be 9 ! negative1 t we ne$ n dwell ^u x4 ,no "o :o kn[s any ?+ ( ! #hg hi/ory ( ! anci5t ,greek m9d1 c "q1 t 9 acut5ess1 9 +5uity1 9 ! p[] ( close & di/9ct reason+1 !y h nev] be5 surpass$4 ,! common op9ion1 :i* consid]s ! defect ( _! philosophical "* to reside r 9 ! exclusive activity ( su* qualities1 ?an 9 ! abs5ce ( !m1 is at lea/ s f> j4 #e4 ,we come back aga91 !re=e1 to ! "q1 ,:at 0 ! radical & fatal defect 9 ! physical speculations ( ! ,greek philosophical s*ools8 ,to ?is ,i answ]3 ,! defect 01 t ?\gh !y _h 9 _! possession ,facts & ,ideas1 ! ,ideas 7 n di/9ct & appropriate to ! ,facts4 ,! peculi> *>act]i/ics ( sci5tific ideas1 :i* ,i h endeavor$ to express by speak+ ( !m z di/9ct & appropriate to ! facts1 mu/ be m fully & =mally set =?1 :5 we come to ! philosophy ( ! subject4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! read] w probably h no difficulty 9 conceiv+ t1 = ea* class ( ,facts1 !re is "s special set ( ,ideas1 by means ( :i* ! facts c be includ$ 9 g5]al sci5tific tru?s2 & t ^! ,ideas1 :i* may ?us be t]m$ appropriate1 mu/ be possess$ ) entire di/9ctness & cle>ness1 9 ord] t !y may be successfully appli$4 ,x 0 ! want ( ,ideas hav+ ?is ref]5ce to mat]ial ph5om5a1 :i* r5d]$ ! anci5t philosoph]s1 ) v few exceptions1 helpless & unsuccessful speculators on physical subjects4 ,?is mu/ be illu/rat$ by "o or two examples4 ,"o ( ! facts :i* ,ari/otle endeavors to expla9 is ?is2 t :5 ! sun's light passes ?r\gh a hole1 :atev] be ! =m ( ! hole1 ! bright image1 if =m$ at any consid]able di/ance f ! hole1 is r\nd1 in/ead ( imitat+ ! figure ( ! hole1 z %ad[s resemble _! objects 9 =m4 ,we %all easily p]ceive ?is appe>ance to be a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! circul> figure ( ! sun1 if we conceive light to be diffus$ f ! lum9>y by means ( /raight rays proce$+ f e po9t ( ! sun's disk & pass+ ?r\gh e po9t )9 ! b\nd>y ( ! hole4 ,by att5d+ to ! consequ5ces ( ?is mode ( conception1 x w be se5 t ea* po9t ( ! hole w be ! v]tex ( a d\ble cone ( rays :i* has ! sun's disk = its base on "o side & an image ( ! sun on ! o!r2 & ! figure ( ! image ( ! hole w be det]m9$ by suppos+ a s]ies ( equal bright circles1 images ( ! sun1 to be plac$ along ! b\nd>y ( an image equal to ! hole itself4 ,! figure ( ! image ?us det]m9$ w p>take ( ! =m ( ! hole1 & #hh ( ! circul> =m ( ! sun's image3 b ^! circul> images become l>g] & l>g] z !y are fur!r f ! hole1 :ile ! c5tral image ( ! hole rema9s always ( ! orig9al size2 & ?us at a consid]able di/ance f ! hole1 ! trace ( ! hole's =m is ne>ly oblit]at$1 & ! image is ne>ly a p]fect circle4 ,in/ead ( ?is di/9ct conception ( a cone ( rays :i* has ! sun's disk = its basis1 ,ari/otle has ! foll[+ loose conjecture4#ega ,is x because light is emitt$ 9 a conical =m2 & ( a cone1 ! base is a circle2 s t on :atev] ! rays ( ! sun fall1 !y appe> m circul>8 ,& ?us ?\gh he applies ! notion ( rays to ?is problem1 he possesses ?is notion s indi/9ctly t 8 explanation is ( no value4 ,he does n introduce into 8 explanation ! consid]ation ( ! sun's circul> figure1 & is ?us prev5t$ f giv+ a true acc\nt ( ?is v simple optical ph5om5on4 ,note #ega3 ,problem4 #ae1 1 c4 #f4 ,aga91 to pass to a m ext5sive failure3 :y 0 x t ,ari/otle1 kn[+ ! prop]ty ( ! lev]1 & _m o!r me*anical tru?s1 0 unable to =m !m into a sci5ce ( me*anics1 z ,ar*im$es aft]w>ds did8 ,! reason 01 t1 in/ead ( consid]+ re/ & motion directly1 & di/9ctly1 ) ref]5ce to ! ,idea ( ,cause1 t is ,=ce1 he w&]$ 9 se>* ( reasons among o!r ideas & notions1 :i* c\ld n be br\ght into /eady connection ) ! facts2--! ideas ( prop]ties ( circles1 ( proportions ( velocities1--! notions ( /range & common1 ( natural & unnatural4 ,?us1 9 ! ,proem to 8 ,me*anical ,problems1 aft] /at+ "s ( ! difficulties :i* he has to attack1 he says1 ,( all su* cases1 ! circle conta9s ! pr9ciple ( ! cause4 ,& ?is is :at might be look$ =2 = x is no?+ absurd1 if some?+ wond]ful is d]iv$ f some?+ m wond]ful /ill4 ,n[ ! mo/ wond]ful ?+ is1 t opposites %\ld be comb9$2 & ! circle is con/itut$ ( su* comb9ations ( opposites4 ,= x is con/ruct$ by a /ation>y po9t & a mov+ l9e1 :i* are contr>y to ea* o!r 9 nature2 & h5ce we may ! less be surpris$ at ! result+ contr>ieties4 ,& 9 ! fir/ place1 ! circumf]5ce ( ! circle1 ?\gh a l9e )\t bread?1 has opposite qualities2 = x is bo? convex & concave4 ,9 ! next place1 x has1 at ! same "t1 opposite motions1 = x moves =w>d & backw>d at ! same "t4 ,= ! circumf]5ce1 sett+ out f any po9t1 comes to ! same po9t aga91 s #hi t by a cont9u\s progression1 ! la/ po9t becomes ! fir/4 ,s t1 z 0 be=e /at$1 x is n surpris+ t ! circle %\ld be ! pr9ciple ( all wond]ful prop]ties4 ,ari/otle aft]w>ds proce$s to expla9 m specially h[ he applies ! prop]ties ( ! circle 9 ?is case4 ,! reason1 he says1 9 8 f\r? ,problem1 :y a =ce1 act+ at a great] di/ance f ! fulcrum1 moves a weight m easily1 is1 t x describes a great] circle4 ,he _h already ass]t$ t :5 a body at ! end ( a lev] is put 9 motion1 x may be consid]$ z hav+ two motions2 "o 9 ! direction ( ! tang5t1 & "o 9 ! direction ( ! radius2 ! =m] motion is1 he says1 accord+ to nature1 ! latt]1 contr>y to nature4 ,n[ 9 ! small] circle1 ! motion1 contr>y to nature1 is m consid]able ?an x is 9 ! l>g] circle4 ,!re=e1 he adds1 ! mov] or weight at ! l>g] arm w be transf]r$ fur!r by ! same =ce ?an ! weight mov$1 :i* is at ! extremity ( ! %ort] arm4 ,^! loose & inappropriate notions ( natural & unnatural motions1 7 unfit to lead to any sci5tific tru?s2 &1 ) ! habits ( ?\ght :i* dictat$ ^! speculations a p]ception ( ! true gr\nds ( me*anical prop]ties 0 impossible4 #g4 ,?us1 9 ?is in/ance1 ! error ( ,ari/otle 0 ! neglect ( ! ,idea appropriate to ! facts1 namely1 ! ,idea ( ,me*anical ,cause1 :i* is ,=ce2 & ! sub/itution ( vague or inapplicable notions involv+ only relations ( space or emotions ( wond]4 ,! errors ( ^? :o fail$ simil>ly 9 o!r in/ances1 7 ( ! same k9d4 ,to detail or classify ^! w\ld lead u too f> into ! philosophy ( sci5ce2 s9ce we %\ld h to enum]ate ! ,ideas :i* are appropriate1 & ! v>i\s classes ( ,facts on :i* ! diff]5t sci5ces are f\nd$1--a task n to be n[ lightly und]tak54 ,b x w be p]ceiv$1 )\t fur!r explanation1 t x is necess>y1 9 ord] to obta9 f facts any g5]al tru?1 t we %\ld apply to !m t appropriate ,idea1 by :i* p]man5t & def9ite relations are e/abli%$ among !m4 ,9 su* ,ideas ! anci5ts 7 v poor1 & ! /unt$ & de=m$ gr[? ( _! physical sci5ce 0 ! result ( ?is p5ury4 ,! ,ideas ( ,space & ,"t1 ,numb] & ,motion1 !y did inde$ possess di/9ctly2 & s f> z ^! w5t1 _! sci5ce 0 tol]ably heal?y4 ,!y also caught a glimpse ( ! ,idea ( a ,m$ium by :i* ! qualities ( bodies1 z colors & s\nds1 are p]ceiv$4 ,b ! idea ( ,sub/ance rema9$ b>r5 9 _! h&s2 #ij 9 speculat+ ab\t elem5ts & qualities1 !y w5t ! wrong way1 assum+ t ! prop]ties ( ,comp\nds mu/ resemble ^? ( ! ,elem5ts :i* det]m9e !m2 & _! loose notions ( ,contr>iety nev] approa*$ ! =m ( ^? ideas ( ,pol>ity1 :i*1 9 mod]n times1 regulate _m p>ts ( physics & *emi/ry4 ,if ?is /atem5t %\ld seem to any "o to be te*nical or arbitr>y1 we mu/ ref]1 = ! ju/ification ( x1 to ! ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce1 ( :i* we hope h]eaft] to treat4 ,b x w appe>1 ev5 f :at has be5 "h said1 t !re are c]ta9 ,ideas or ,=ms ( m5tal appreh5sion1 :i* may be appli$ to ,facts 9 su* a mann] z to br+ into view fundam5tal pr9ciples ( sci5ce2 :ile ! same ,facts1 h[ev] array$ or reason$ ab\t1 s long z ^! appropriate ideas are n employ$1 _c give rise to any exact or sub/antial k4 #b;d ,ed4 ,?is acc\nt ( ! cause ( failure 9 ! physical speculations ( ! anci5t ,greek philosoph]s has be5 object$ to z unsatisfactory4 ,i w (f] a few words 9 explanation ( x4 ,! mode ( acc\nt+ = ! failure ( ! ,greeks 9 physics is1 9 sub/ance2--t ! ,greeks 9 _! physical speculations fix$ _! att5tion ^u ! wrong aspects & relations ( ! ph5om5a2 & t ! aspects & relations 9 :i* ph5om5a are to be view$ 9 ord] to arrive at sci5tific tru?s may be arrang$ "u c]ta9 heads1 :i* ,i h t]m$ ,ideas2 su* z ,space1 ,"t1 ,numb]1 ,cause1 ,lik5ess4 ,9 e case1 !re is an ,idea to :i* ! ph5om5a may be ref]r$1 s z to br+ into view ! ,laws by :i* !y are gov]n$2 ?is ,idea ,i t]m ! appropriate ,idea 9 su* case2 & 9 ord] t ! ref]5ce ( ! ph5om5a to ! ,law may be cle>ly se51 ! ,idea mu/ be di/9ctly possess$4 ,?us ! reason ( ,ari/otle's failure 9 8 attempts at ,me*anical ,sci5ce is1 t he did n ref] ! facts to ! appropriate ,idea1 namely ,=ce1 ! ,cause ( ,motion1 b to relations ( ,space & ! l2 t is1 he introduces ,geometrical in/ead ( ,me*anical ,ideas4 ,x may be said t we le>n little by be+ told t ,ari/otle's failure 9 ?is & ! l cases arose f 8 ref]r+ to ! wrong class ( ,ideas2 or1 z ,i h o!rwise express$ x1 fix+ 8 att5tion ^u ! wrong aspects & relations ( ! facts2 s9ce1 x may be said1 ?is is only to /ate 9 o!r words t he did fail4 ,b ?is criticism is1 ,i ?9k1 ill-f\nd$4 ,! acc\nt :i* ,i h giv5 is n only a /atem5t t ,ari/otle1 & o!rs :o took a l c\rse1 did fail2 b also1 t !y fail$ 9 "o c]ta9 po9t out ( sev]al #ia :i* are enum]at$4 ,!y did n fail because !y neglect$ to obs]ve facts2 !y did n fail because !y omitt$ to class facts2 !y did n fail because !y _h n ideas to reason f2 b !y fail$ because !y did n take ! "r ideas 9 ea* case4 ,& s long z !y 7 9 ! wrong 9 ?is po9t1 no indu/ry 9 collect+ facts1 or +5uity 9 class+ !m & reason+ ab\t !m1 c\ld lead !m to solid tru?4 ,nor is ?is acc\nt ( ! nature ( _! mi/ake )\t its in/ruction = u2 al?\gh we are n to expect to d]ive f ! /udy ( _! failure any te*nical rule :i* %all necess>ily guide u to sci5tific discov]y4 ,= _! failure tea*es u t1 9 ! =mation ( sci5ce1 an ,error 9 ! ,ideas is z fatal to ! discov]y ( ,tru? z an ,error 9 ! ,facts2 & may z completely imp$e ! progress ( k4 ,i h 9 ,books ,,ii4 to ,x4 ( ! ,philosophy1 %[n hi/orically h[ l>ge a portion ( ! progress ( ,sci5ce consi/s 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ,appropriate ,ideas z ! basis ( ea* sci5ce4 ,( ! two ma9 processes by :i* sci5ce is con/ruct$1 z /at$ 9 ,book ,,xi4 ( t "w1 namely ! ,explication ( ,conceptions & ! ,colligation ( ,facts1 ! =m] mu/ prec$e ! latt]4 ,9 ,book ,,xii4 *ap4 #e1 ( ! ,philosophy1 ,i h /at$ ! maxim conc]n+ appropriate ,ideas 9 ?is =m1 t ! ,idea & ! ,facts mu/ be homog5e\s4 ,:5 ,i say t ! failure ( ! ,greeks 9 physical sci5ce arose f _! n employ+ appropriate ,ideas to connect ! facts1 ,i d n use ! t]m appropriate 9 a loose popul> s5se2 b ,i employ x z a some:at te*nical t]m1 to d5ote ! appropriate ,idea1 out ( t s]ies ( ,ideas :i* h be5 made 7z ,i h %[n 9 ! ,philosophy7 ! f\ndation ( sci5ces2 namely1 ,space1 ,"t1 ,numb]1 ,cause1 ,lik5ess1 ,sub/ance1 & ! re/4 ,x appe>s to me j to say t ,ari/otle's failure 9 8 attempts to deal ) problems ( equilibrium1 arose f 8 ref]r+ to circles1 velocities1 notions ( natural & unnatural1 & ! l1--conceptions dep5d+ ^u ,ideas ( ,space1 ( ,nature1 c4--:i* are n appropriate to ^! problems1 & f 8 miss+ ! ,idea ( ,me*anical ,=ce or ,pressure1 :i* is ! appropriate ,idea4 ,i give ?is1 n z an acc\nt ( all failures 9 attempts at sci5ce1 b only z ! acc\nt ( su* radical & fundam5tal failures z ?is ( ,ari/otle2 :o1 ) a k ( ! facts1 fail$ to connect !m into a really sci5tific view4 ,if ,i _h to comp>e rival !ories ( a m complex k9d1 ,i %\ld n necess>ily say t "o involv$ #ib an appropriate ,idea & ! o!r did n1 ?\gh ,i might judge "o to be true & ! o!r to be false4 ,= in/ance1 9 comp>+ ! emissive & ! undulatory !ory ( light1 we see t bo? involve ! same ,idea2--! ,idea ( a ,m$ium act+ by c]ta9 me*anical prop]ties4 ,! "q !re is1 ,:at is ! true view ( ! me*anism ( ! ,m$ium8 ,x may be rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t ! example ( ,ari/otle's failure 9 physics1 giv5 9 p4 #hg1 namely1 8 attempt$ explanation ( ! r\nd image ( a squ>e hole1 is a specim5 r ( indi/9ct ?an ( inappropriate ideas4 ,! geometrical explanation ( ?is ph5om5on1 :i* ,i h !re ins]t$1 0 giv5 by ,maurolycus1 & be=e him1 by ,leon>do da ,v9ci4 ,we %all1 9 ! next ,book1 see ! influ5ce ( ! appropriate g5]al ,ideas1 9 ! =mation ( v>i\s sci5ces4 ,x ne$ only be obs]v$1 be=e we proce$1 t1 9 ord] to d full ju/ice to ! physical k ( ! ,greek ,s*ools ( philosophy1 x is n necess>y to /udy _! c\rse aft] ! "t ( _! f\nd]s4 ,_! =tunes1 9 respect ( su* acquisitions z we are n[ consid]+1 7 n progressive4 ,! lat] *iefs ( ! ,s*ools foll[$ ! e>li] ma/]s2 & ?\gh !y v>i$ mu*1 !y add$ little4 ,! ,romans adopt$ ! philosophy ( _! ,greek subjects2 b !y 7 always1 &1 inde$1 ackn[l$g$ !mselves to be1 inf]ior to _! tea*]s4 ,!y 7 z arbitr>y & loose 9 _! ideas z ! ,greeks1 )\t possess+ _! inv5tion1 acut5ess1 & _s ( sy/em4 ,9 addition to ! vagu5ess :i* 0 comb9$ ) ! m elevat$ tra9s ( philosophical speculation among ! ,greeks1 ! ,romans introduc$ into _! treatises a k9d ( declamatory rhetoric1 :i* arose probably f _! =5sic & political habits1 & :i* /ill fur!r obscur$ ! wan+ gleams ( tru?4 ,yet we may also trace 9 ! ,roman philosoph]s to :om ?is *>ge mo/ly applies 7,lucretius1 ,pl9y1 ,s5eca71 ! national vigor & ambition4 ,!re is some?+ ,roman 9 ! public _s & anticipation ( univ]sal empire :i* !y display1 z citiz5s ( ! intellectual republic4 ,?\gh !y speak sadly or slight+ly ( ! a*ievem5ts ( _! own g5]ation1 !y betray a m abid+ & vivid belief 9 ! dignity & de/9$ advance ( human k z a :ole1 ?an is obvi\s among ! ,greeks4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 turn back1 9 ord] to describe /eps ( m def9ite value to ! progress ( sci5ce ?an ^? :i* we h hi!rto notic$4 #ic ,,book ,,ii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,greece4 1 4 ,prom4 ,v9ct4 #aji4 ,i br\ght to e>? ! sp>k ( heav5ly fire1 ,conceal$ at fir/1 & small1 b spread+ soon ,among ! sons ( m51 & burn+ on1 ,tea*] ( art & use1 & f\nt ( p[]4 #ie ,,introduction4 ,,9 ord] to ! acquisition ( any su* exact & real k ( nature z t :i* we prop]ly call ,physical ,sci5ce1 x is requisite1 z has already be5 said1 t m5 %\ld possess ,ideas bo? di/9ct & appropriate1 & %\ld apply !m to asc]ta9$ ,facts4 ,!y are ?us l$ to propositions ( a g5]al "*1 :i* are obta9$ by ,induction1 z w else:]e be m fully expla9$4 ,we proce$ n[ to trace ! =mation ( ,sci5ces among ! ,greeks by su* processes4 ,! prov9ces ( k :i* ?us dem& our att5tion are1 ,a/ronomy1 ,me*anics & ,hydro/atics1 ,optics & ,h>monics2 ( :i* ,i mu/ relate1 fir/1 ! e>lie/ /ages1 & next1 ! subsequ5t progress4 ,( ^! portions ( human k1 ,a/ronomy is1 beyond d\bt or comp>ison1 mu* ! mo/ anci5t & ! mo/ rem>kable2 & probably exi/$1 9 some:at ( a sci5tific =m1 9 ,*aldea & ,egypt1 & o!r c\ntries1 be=e ! p]iod ( ! intellectual activity ( ! ,greeks4 ,b ,i w give a brief acc\nt ( "s ( ! o!r ,sci5ces be=e ,i proce$ to ,a/ronomy1 = two reasons2 fir/1 because ! orig9 ( ,a/ronomy is lo/ 9 ! obscurity ( a remote antiquity2 & !re=e we _c exemplify ! conditions ( ! fir/ rise ( sci5ce s well 9 t subject z we c 9 o!rs :i* assum$ _! sci5tific =m at kn[n p]iods2 & next1 9 ord] t ,i may n h to int]rupt1 aft] ,i h once begun x1 ! hi/ory ( ! only progressive ,sci5ce :i* ! anci5t _w produc$4 ,x has be5 object$ to ! arrangem5t "h employ$ t x is n symmetrical2 & t ,a/ronomy1 z be+ "o ( ! ,physical ,sci5ces1 ought to h occupi$ a *apt] 9 ?is ,second ,book1 in/ead ( hav+ a :ole ,book to itself 7,book ,,iii74 ,i d n pret5d t ! arrangem5t is symmetrical1 & h employ$ x only on ! gr\nd ( conv5i5ce4 ,! importance & ext5t ( ! hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy are su* t ?is sci5ce c\ld n1 ) a view to our purposes1 be made co-ord9ate ) ,me*anics or ,optics4 #if ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,e>lie/ ,,/ages ,,( ,,me*anics ,,& ,,hydro/atics4 ,sect4 #a4--,me*anics4 ,,a/ronomy is a sci5ce s anci5t t we c h>dly asc5d to a p]iod :5 x did n exi/2 ,me*anics1 on ! o!r h&1 is a sci5ce :i* did n beg9 to be till aft] ! "t ( ,ari/otle2 = ,ar*im$es mu/ be look$ ^u z ! au?or ( ! fir/ s\nd k on ?is subject4 ,:at is /ill m curi\s1 & %[s rem>kably h[ little ! cont9u$ progress ( sci5ce foll[s inevitably f ! nature ( man1 ?is dep>tm5t ( k1 aft] ! "r road _h be5 fairly ent]$ ^u1 rema9$ absolutely /ation>y = ne>ly two ?\s& ye>s2 no s+le /ep 0 made1 9 addition to ! propositions e/abli%$ by ,ar*im$es1 till ! "t ( ,galileo & ,/ev9us4 ,?is extraord9>y halt w be a subject ( att5tion h]eaft]2 at pres5t we mu/ consid] ! orig9al advance4 ,! great /ep made by ,ar*im$es 9 ,me*anics 0 ! e/abli%+1 ^u true gr\nds1 ! g5]al proposition conc]n+ a /raight lev]1 load$ ) two heavy bodies1 & re/+ ^u a fulcrum4 ,! proposition is1 t two bodies s circum/anc$ w balance ea* o!r1 :5 ! di/ance ( ! small] body f ! fulcrum is great] ?an ! di/ance ( ! o!r1 9 exactly ! same proportion 9 :i* ! weight ( ! body is less4 ,?is proposition is prov$ by ,ar*im$es 9 a "w :i* is /ill extant1 & ! pro( holds its place 9 our treatises to ?is day1 z ! simple/ :i* c be giv54 ,! demon/ration is made to re/ on assumptions :i* am\nt 9 effect to su* ,def9itions & ,axioms z ^!3 ,t ^? bodies are ( equal weight :i* balance ea* o!r at equal arms ( a /raight lev]2 & t 9 e heavy body !re is a def9ite po9t call$ a ,c5tre ( ,gravity1 9 :i* po9t we may suppose ! weight ( ! body collect$4 ,! pr9ciple1 :i* is really ! f\ndation ( ! validity ( ! demon/ration ?us giv51 & :i* is ! condition ( all exp]im5tal k on ! subject1 is ?is3 t :5 two equal weights are support$ on a lev]1 !y act on ! fulcrum ( ! lev] ) ! #ig same effect z if !y 7 bo? toge!r support$ imm$iately at t po9t4 ,or m g5]ally1 we may /ate ! pr9ciple to be ?is3 t ! pressure by :i* a heavy body is support$ cont9ues ! same1 h[ev] we alt] ! =m or position ( ! body1 s long z ! magnitude & mat]ial cont9ue ! same4 ,! exp]im5tal tru? ( ?is pr9ciple is a matt] ( obvi\s & univ]sal exp]i5ce4 ,! weight ( a basket ( /ones is n alt]$ by %ak+ ! /ones into new positions4 ,we _c make ! direct burd5 ( a /one less by alt]+ its position 9 our h&s2 & if we try ! effect on a balance or a ma*9e ( any k9d1 we %all see /ill m cle>ly & exactly t ! alt]$ position ( "o weight1 or ! alt]$ arrangem5t ( sev]al1 produces no *ange 9 _! effect1 s long z _! po9t ( support rema9s un*ang$4 ,?is g5]al fact is obvi\s1 :5 we possess 9 our m9ds ! ideas :i* are requisite to appreh5d x cle>ly4 ,b :5 we are s prep>$1 ! tru? appe>s to be manife/1 ev5 indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce1 & is se5 to be a rule to :i* exp]i5ce mu/ con=m4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! lead+ idea :i* ?us enables u to reason effectively ^u me*anical subjects8 ,by att5tion to ! c\rse ( su* reason+s1 we p]ceive t x is ! idea ( ,pressure2 ,pressure be+ conceiv$ z a measurable effect ( heavy bodies at re/1 di/+ui%able f all o!r effects1 su* z motion1 *ange ( figure1 & ! l4 ,x is n "h necess>y to attempt to trace ! hi/ory ( ?is idea 9 our m9ds2 b x is c]ta9 t su* an idea may be di/9ctly =m$1 & t ^u x ! :ole sci5ce ( /atics may be built4 ,pressure1 load1 weight1 are names by :i* ?is idea is d5ot$ :5 ! effect t5ds directly d[nw>ds2 b we may h pressure )\t motion1 or dead pull1 9 o!r cases1 z at ! critical in/ant :5 two nicely-mat*$ wre/l]s are balanc$ by ! ex]tion ( ! utmo/ /r5g? ( ea*4 ,pressure 9 any direction may ?us exi/ )\t any motion :atev]4 ,b ! causes :i* produce su* pressure are capable ( produc+ motion1 & are g5]ally se5 produc+ motion1 z 9 ! above in/ance ( ! wre/l]s1 or 9 a pair ( scales employ$ 9 weigh+2 & ?us m5 come to consid] pressure z ! exception1 & motion z ! rule3 or p]haps !y image to !mselves ! motion :i* might or w\ld take place2 = in/ance1 ! motion :i* ! arms ( a lev] w\ld h if !y did move4 ,!y turn away f ! case really be=e !m1 :i* is t ( bodies at re/1 & balanc+ ea* o!r1 & pass to ano!r case1 :i* is arbitr>ily #ih assum$ to repres5t ! fir/4 ,n[ ?is arbitr>y & caprici\s evasion ( ! "q we consid] z oppos$ to ! introduction ( ! di/9ct & prop] idea ( ,pressure1 by means ( :i* ! true pr9ciples ( ?is subject c be appreh5d$4 ,we h already se5 t ,ari/otle 0 9 ! numb] ( ^? :o ?us evad$ ! difficulties ( ! problem ( ! lev]1 & consequ5tly lo/ ! rew>d ( success4 ,he fail$1 z has be=e be5 /at$1 9 consequ5ce ( 8 seek+ 8 pr9ciples 9 notions1 ei!r vague & loose1 z ! di/9ction ( natural & unnatural motions1 or else inappropriate1 z ! circle :i* ! weight w\ld describe1 ! velocity :i* x w\ld h if x mov$2 circum/ances :i* are n "p ( ! fact "u consid]ation4 ,! influ5ce ( su* modes ( speculation 0 ! ma9 h9drance to ! prosecution ( ! true ,ar*im$ean =m ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics4 ,! me*anical doctr9e ( ,equilibrium1 is ,/atics4 ,x is to be di/+ui%$ f ! me*anical doctr9e ( ,motion1 :i* is t]m$ ,dynamics1 & :i* 0 n successfully treat$ till ! "t ( ,galileo4 ,sect4 #b4--;,hydro/atics4 ,,ar*im$es n only laid ! f\ndations ( ! ,/atics ( solid bodies1 b also solv$ ! pr9cipal problem ( ,hydro/atics1 or ! ,/atics ( ,fluids2 namely1 ! conditions ( ! float+ ( bodies4 ,?is is ! m rem>kable1 s9ce n only did ! pr9ciples :i* ,ar*im$es e/abli%$ on ?is subject rema9 unpursu$ till ! revival ( sci5ce 9 mod]n times1 b1 :5 !y 7 aga9 put =w>d1 ! ma9 proposition 0 s f> f obvi\s t x 0 t]m$1 & is to ?is day call$1 ! hydro/atic p>adox4 ,! true doctr9e ( ,hydro/atics1 h[ev]1 assum+ ! ,idea ( ,pressure1 :i* x involves1 9 common ) ! ,me*anics ( solid bodies1 requires also a di/9ct ,idea ( a ,fluid1 z a body ( :i* ! p>ts are p]fectly movable among ea* o!r by ! slighte/ p>tial pressure1 & 9 :i* all pressure ex]t$ on "o "p is transf]r$ to all o!r p>ts4 ,f ?is idea ( ,fluidity1 necess>ily foll[s t multiplication ( pressure :i* con/itutes ! hydro/atic p>adox2 & ! notion be+ se5 to be v]ifi$ 9 nature1 ! consequ5ces 7 also realiz$ z facts4 ,?is notion ( ,fluidity is express$ 9 ! po/ulate :i* /&s at ! head ( ,ar*im$es' ,treatise on ,float+ ,bodies4 ,& f ?is pr9ciple are d$uc$ ! solutions1 n only ( ! simple problems ( ! sci5ce1 b ( "s problems ( consid]able complexity4 #ii ,! difficulty ( hold+ fa/ ?is ,idea ( ,fluidity s z to trace its consequ5ces ) infallible /rictness ( demon/ration1 may be judg$ ( f ! circum/ance t1 ev5 at ! pres5t day1 m5 ( great tal5ts1 n unfamili> ) ! subject1 sometimes admit into _! reason+s an ov]sight or fallacy ) reg>d to ?is v po9t4 ,! importance ( ! ,idea :5 cle>ly appreh5d$ & securely held1 may be judg$ ( f ?is1 t ! :ole sci5ce ( ,hydro/atics 9 its mo/ mod]n =m is only ! developm5t ( ! ,idea4 ,& :at k9d ( attempts at sci5ce w\ld be made by p]sons de/itute ( ?is ,idea1 we may see 9 ! speculations ( ,ari/otle conc]n+ light & heavy bodies1 :i* we h already quot$2 :]e1 by consid]+ light & heavy z opposite qualities1 resid+ 9 ?+s !mselves1 & by an inability to appreh5d ! effect ( surr\nd+ fluids 9 support+ bodies1 ! subject 0 made a mass ( false or frivol\s ass]tions1 :i* ! utmo/ +5uity c\ld n reconcile ) facts1 & c\ld /ill less d$uce f ! ass]t$ doctr9es any new practical tru?s4 ,9 ! case ( ,/atics & ,hydro/atics1 ! mo/ important condition ( _! advance 0 und\bt$ly ! di/9ct appreh5sion ( ^! two appropriate ,ideas--,/atical ,pressure1 & ,hydro/atical ,pressure z includ$ 9 ! idea ( ,fluidity4 ,= ! ,ideas be+ once cle>ly possess$1 ! exp]im5tal laws :i* !y s]v$ to express 7t ! :ole pressure ( a body d[nw>ds 0 always ! same2 & t wat]1 & ! l1 7 fluids accord+ to ! above idea ( fluidity71 7 s obvi\s1 t !re 0 no d\bt nor difficulty ab\t !m4 ,^! two ideas lie at ! root ( all me*anical sci5ce2 & ! firm possession ( !m is1 to ?is day1 ! fir/ requisite = a /ud5t ( ! subject4 ,aft] be+ cle>ly awak5$ 9 ! m9d ( ,ar*im$es1 ^! ideas slept = _m c5turies1 till !y 7 aga9 call$ up 9 ,galileo1 & m rem>kably 9 ,/ev9us4 ,?is "t1 !y 7 n de/9$ aga9 to slumb]2 & ! results ( _! activity h be5 ! =mation ( two ,sci5ces1 :i* are z c]ta9 & sev]e 9 _! demon/rations z geometry itself & z copi\s & int]e/+ 9 _! conclusions2 b :i*1 besides ?is recomm5dation1 possess "o ( a diff]5t ord]1--t !y exhibit ! exact impress ( ! laws ( ! physical _w1 & unfold a portion ( ! rules accord+ to :i* ! ph5om5a ( nature take place1 & mu/ take place1 till nature h]self %all alt]4 #ajj ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,e>lie/ ,,/ages ,,( ,,optics4 ,,! progress made by ! anci5ts 9 ,optics 0 ne>ly proportional to t :i* !y made 9 ,/atics4 ,z !y discov]$ ! true gr\nds ( ! doctr9e ( ,equilibrium1 )\t obta9+ any s\nd pr9ciples conc]n+ ,motion1 s !y discov]$ ! law ( ! ,reflection ( light1 b _h none b ! mo/ indi/9ct notions conc]n+ ,refraction4 ,! ext5t ( ! pr9ciples :i* !y really possess$ is easily /at$4 ,!y knew t vision is p]=m$ by rays :i* proce$ 9 /raight l9es1 & t ^! rays are reflect$ by c]ta9 surfaces 7mirrors7 9 su* mann] t ! angles :i* !y make ) ! surface on ea* side are equal4 ,!y drew v>i\s conclusions f ^! premises by ! aid ( geometry2 z1 = in/ance1 ! conv]g5ce ( rays :i* fall on a concave speculum4 ,x may be obs]v$ t ! ,idea :i* is "h introduc$1 is t ( visual rays1 or l9es along :i* vision is produc$ & light c>ri$4 ,?is idea once cle>ly appreh5d$1 x 0 n difficult to %[ t ^! l9es are /raight l9es1 bo? 9 ! case ( light & ( sight4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ,euclid's ,treatise on ,optics1 "s ( ! argum5ts are m5tion$ by :i* ?is 0 e/abli%$4 ,we are told 9 ! ,proem1 ,9 expla9+ :at conc]ns ! sight1 he adduc$ c]ta9 argum5ts f :i* he inf]r$ t all light is c>ri$ 9 /raight l9es4 ,! greate/ pro( ( ?is is %ad[s1 & ! bright spots :i* are produc$ by light com+ ?r\gh w9d[s & cracks1 & :i* c\ld n be1 except ! rays ( ! sun 7 c>ri$ 9 /raight l9es4 ,s 9 fires1 ! %ad[s are great] ?an ! bodies if ! fire be small1 b less ?an ! bodies if ! fire be great]4 ,a cle> compreh5sion ( ! pr9ciple w\ld lead to ! p]ception ( innum]able pro(s ( its tru? on e side4 ,! ,law ( ,equality ( ,angles ( ,incid5ce & ,reflection 0 n q s easy to v]ify2 b ! exact resemblance ( ! object & its image 9 a plane mirror1 7z ! surface ( /ill wat]1 = in/ance71 :i* is a consequ5ce ( ?is law1 w\ld af=d conv9c+ evid5ce ( its tru? 9 t case1 & w\ld be confirm$ by ! exam9ation ( o!r cases4 #aja ,) ^! true pr9ciples 0 mix$ mu* error & indi/9ctness1 ev5 9 ! be/ writ]s4 ,euclid1 & ! ,platoni/s1 ma9ta9$ t vision is ex]cis$ by rays proce$+ f ! eye1 n to x2 s t :5 we see objects1 we le>n _! =m z a bl9d man w\ld d1 by feel+ x out ) 8 /aff4 ,?is mi/ake1 h[ev]1 ?\gh ,montucla speaks sev]ely ( x1 0 nei!r v discr$itable nor v injuri\s2 = ! ma!matical conclusions on ea* supposition are necess>ily ! same4 ,ano!r curi\s & false assumption is1 t ^? visual rays are n close toge!r1 b sep>at$ by int]vals1 l ! f+]s :5 ! h& is spread4 ,! motive = ?is inv5tion 0 ! wi% to acc\nt = ! fact1 t 9 look+ = a small object1 z a ne$le1 we (t5 _c see x :5 x is "u our nose2 :i* x 0 conceiv$ w\ld be impossible if ! visual rays rea*$ to all po9ts ( ! surface be=e u4 ,^! errors w\ld n h prev5t$ ! progress ( ! sci5ce4 ,b ! ,ari/otelian physics1 z usual1 conta9$ speculations m ess5tially faulty4 ,ari/otle's views l$ him to try to describe ! k9d ( causation by :i* vision is produc$1 in/ead ( ! laws by :i* x is ex]cis$2 & ! attempt consi/$1 z 9 o!r subjects1 ( indi/9ct pr9ciples1 & ill-comb9$ facts4 ,accord+ to him1 vision mu/ be produc$ by a ,m$ium1--by some?+ betwe5 ! object & ! eye1--= if we press ! object on ! eye1 we d n see x2 ?is ,m$ium is ,light1 or ! transp>5t 9 action2 d>kness occurs :5 ! transp>5cy is pot5tial1 n actual2 color is n ! absolute visible1 b some?+ :i* is on ! absolute visible2 color has ! p[] ( sett+ ! transp>5t 9 action2 x is n1 h[ev]1 all colors t are se5 by means ( light1 b only ! prop] color ( ea* object2 = "s ?+s1 z ! heads1 & scales1 & eyes ( fi%1 are se5 9 ! d>k2 b !y are n se5 ) _! prop] color49999#ab ,note #ab3 ,de ,anim4 ii4 9999#g4 ,9 all ?is !re is no /eady adh]5ce ei!r to "o notion1 or to "o class ( facts4 ,! di/9ction ( ,p[] & ,act is introduc$ to modify ! ,idea ( ,transp>5cy1 accord+ to ! =mula ( ! s*ool2 !n ,color is made to be some?+ unkn[n 9 addition to ,visibility2 & ! di/9ction ( prop] & improp] colors is assum$1 z suffici5t to acc\nt = a ph5om5on4 ,su* classifications h 9 !m no?+ ( :i* ! m9d c take /eady hold2 nor is x difficult to see t !y d n come "u ^? #ajb conditions ( successful physical speculation1 :i* we h laid d[n4 ,x is prop] to notice m di/9ctly ! nature ( ! ,geometrical ,propositions conta9$ 9 ,euclid's "w4 ,! ,optica conta9s ,propositions conc]n+ ,vision & ,%ad[s1 d]iv$ f ! pr9ciple t ! rays ( light are rectil9e>3 = in/ance1 ! ,proposition t ! %ad[ is great] ?an ! object1 if ! illum9at+ body be less & vice v]sa4 ,! ,catoptrica conta9s ,propositions conc]n+ ! effects ( ,reflection1 d]iv$ f ! pr9ciple t ! ,angles ( ,incid5ce & ,reflection are equal3 z1 t 9 a convex mirror ! object appe>s convex1 & small] ?an ! object4 ,we see "h an example ( ! promptitude ( ! ,greeks 9 d$uction4 ,:5 !y _h once obta9$ a k ( a pr9ciple1 !y foll[$ x to its ma!matical consequ5ces ) great acut5ess4 ,! subject ( concave mirrors is pursu$ fur!r 9 ,ptolemy's ,optics4 ,! ,greek writ]s also cultivat$ ! subject ( ,p]spective speculatively1 9 ma!matical treatises1 z well z practically1 9 pictures4 ,! :ole ( ?is !ory is a consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciple t vision takes place 9 /raight l9es drawn f ! object to ! eye4 ,! anci5ts 7 9 "s measure acqua9t$ ) ! ,refraction z well z ! ,reflection ( ,light1 z ,i h %[n 9 ,book ,,ix4 ,*ap4 #b #b;d ,ed4 ( ! ,philosophy4 ,! curr5t k on ?is subject mu/ h be5 v slight & confus$2 = x does n appe> to h enabl$ !m to acc\nt = "o ( ! simple/ results ( ,refraction1 ! magnify+ effect ( convex transp>5t bodies4 ,i h notic$ 9 ! passage j ref]r$ to1 ,s5eca's crude notions on ?is subject2 & 9 l mann] ,ptolemy 9 8 ,optics ass]ts t an object plac$ 9 wat] mu/ always appe> l>g] !n :5 tak5 out4 ,ari/otle uses ! t]m 7,meteorol4 iii4 #b71 b app>5tly 9 a v vague mann]4 ,x is n evid5t t he di/+ui%$ ,refraction f ,reflection4 ,8 ,comm5tators h[ev] d di/+ui% ^! z & 4 ,see ,olympiodorus 9 ,s*neid]'s ,eclog ,physic1 vol4 i4 p4 #cig4 ,& ,refraction _h be5 ! subject ( special att5tion among ! ,greek ,ma!maticians4 ,ar*im$es _h notic$ 7z we le>n f ! same writ]7 t 9 c]ta9 cases1 a r+ :i* _c be se5 ov] ! edge ( ! empty vessel 9 :i* x is plac$1 becomes visible :5 ! vessel is fill$ ) wat]4 ,! same fact is /at$ 9 ! ,optics ( ,euclid4 ,we d n f9d ?is fact expla9$ 9 t "w z we n[ h x2 b 9 ,ptolemy's ,optics ! fact is expla9$ by a flexure ( ! visual ray3 x is #ajc notic$ t ?is flexure is diff]5t at diff]5t angles f ! p]p5dicul>1 & !re is an elaborate collection ( measures ( ! flexure at diff]5t angles1 made by means ( an in/rum5t devis$ = ! purpose4 ,!re is also a collection ( simil> measures ( ! refraction :5 ! ray passes f air to glass1 & :5 x passes f glass to wat]4 ,?is "p ( ,ptolemy's "w is1 ,i ?9k1 ! olde/ extant example ( a collection ( exp]im5tal measures 9 any o!r subject ?an a/ronomy2 & 9 a/ronomy our measures are ! result ( obs]vation r ?an ( exp]im5t4 ,z ,delambre says 7,a/ron4 ,anc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #dbg71 ,on y voit des expri5ces de physique bi5 faites1 ce qui e/ sans exemple *ez les anci5s4 ,ptolemy's ,optical "w 0 kn[n only by ,rog] ,bacon's ref]5ces to x 7,opus ,majus1 p4 #bhf1 c47 till #ahaf2 b copies ( ,lat9 translations ( x 7 kn[n to exi/ 9 ! ,royal ,libr>y at ,p>is1 & 9 ! ,bodleian at ,ox=d4 ,delambre has giv5 an acc\nt ( ! cont5ts ( ! ,p>is copy 9 8 ,a/ron4 ,anc4 ii4 #dad1 & 9 ! ,connoissance des ,temps = #ahaf2 & ,pr(4 ,rigaud's acc\nt ( ! ,ox=d copy is giv5 9 ! article ,optics1 9 ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,ptolemy %[s great sagacity 9 apply+ ! notion ( ,refraction to ! explanation ( ! displacem5t ( a/ronomical objects :i* is produc$ by ! atmosph]e1--,a/ronomical ,refraction1 z x is commonly call$4 ,he repres5ts ! visual ray z refract$ 9 pass+ f ! e!r1 :i* is above ! air1 into ! air2 ! air be+ b\nd$ by a sph]ical surface :i* has = its c5tre ! c5tre ( all ! elem5ts1 ! c5tre ( ! e>?2 & ! refraction be+ a flexure t[>ds ! l9e drawn p]p5dicul> to ?is surface4 ,he ?us con/ructs1 says ,delambre1 ! same figure on :i* ,cass9i aft]w>ds f\nd$ ! :ole ( 8 !ory2 & gives a !ory m complete ?an t ( any a/ronom] previ\s to him4 ,ty*o1 = in/ance1 believ$ t a/ronomical refraction 0 caus$ only by ! vapors ( ! atmosph]e1 & did n exi/ above ! altitude ( #de4 ,cleom$es1 ab\t ! "t ( ,augu/us1 _h guess$ at ,refraction1 z an explanation ( an eclipse 9 :i* ! sun & moon are bo? se5 at ! same "t4 ,is x n possible1 he says1 t ! ray :i* proce$s f ! eye & trav]ses moi/ & cl\dy air may b5d d[nw>ds to ! sun1 ev5 :5 he is bel[ ! horizon8 ,& ,sextus ,empiricus1 a c5tury lat]1 says1 ,! air be+ d5se1 by ! refraction ( ! visual ray1 a con/ellation may be se5 above ! horizon :5 x is yet bel[ ! horizon4 ,b f :at foll[s1 x #ajd appe>s d\btful :e!r he cle>ly di/+ui%$ ,refraction & ,reflection4 ,9 ord] t we may n atta* too mu* value to ! vague expressions ( ,cleom$es & ,sextus ,empiricus1 we may rem>k t ,cleom$es conceives su* an eclipse z he describes n to be possible1 ?\gh he (f]s an explanation ( x if x be3 7! fact mu/ really occur :5ev] ! moon is se5 9 ! horizon 9 ! middle ( an eclipse37 & t ,sextus ,empiricus gives 8 sugge/ion ( ! effect ( refraction z an argum5t :y ! ,*aldean a/rology _c be true1 s9ce ! con/ellation :i* appe>s to be ris+ at ! mom5t ( a bir? is n ! "o :i* is truly ris+4 ,! ,*aldeans might h answ]$1 says ,delambre1 t ! /> beg9s to %$ its influ5ce1 n :5 x is really 9 ! horizon1 b :5 its light is se54 7,a/4 ,anc4 vol4 i4 p4 #bca1 & vol4 ii4 p4 #edh47 ,x has be5 said t ,vitellio1 or ,vitello1 :om we %all h]eaft] h to speak ( 9 ! hi/ory ( ,optics1 took 8 ,tables ( ,refractions f ,ptolemy4 ,?is is contr>y to :at ,delambre /ates4 ,he says t ,vitello may be accus$ ( plagi>ism f ,alhaz51 & t ,alhaz5 did n borr[ 8 ,tables f ,ptolemy4 ,rog] ,bacon _h said 7,opus ,majus1 p4 #bhh71 ,ptolemu 9 libro de ,opticis1 id e/1 de ,aspectibus1 seu 9 ,p]spectiv su1 qui prius quam ,alhaz5 d$it hanc s5t5tiam1 quam a ,ptolemo acceptam ,alhaz5 exposuit4 ,?is ref]s only to ! op9ion t visual rays proce$ f ! eye4 ,b ?is also is errone\s2 = ,alhaz5 ma9ta9s ! contr>y3 ,visio fit radiis a visibili extr9secus ad visum manantibus4 7,opt4 ,lib4 i4 cap4 #e47 ,vitello says ( 8 ,table ( ,refractions1 ,acceptis in/rum5talit]1 pr\t potuimus prop9quius1 angulis omnium refractionum 4 4 4 inv5imus quod semp] iidem sunt anguli refractionum3 4 4 4 secundum hoc fecimus has tabulas4 ,hav+ measur$1 by means ( in/rum5ts1 z exactly z we c\ld1 ! :ole range ( ! angles ( refraction1 we f\nd t ! refraction is always ! same = ! same angle2 & h5ce we h con/ruct$ ^! ,tables4 #aje ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,e>lie/ ,,/ages ,,( ,,h>monics4 ,,among ! anci5ts1 ! sci5ce ( ,music 0 an application ( ,ari?metic1 z ,optics & ,me*anics 7 ( ,geometry4 ,! /ory :i* is told conc]n+ ! orig9 ( _! ari?metical music1 is ! foll[+1 z x /&s 9 ! ,ari?metical ,treatise ( ,nicoma*us4 ,py?agoras1 walk+ "o day1 m$itat+ on ! means ( measur+ musical notes1 happ5$ to pass ne> a blacksmi?'s %op1 & _h 8 att5tion arre/$ by he>+ ! hamm]s1 z !y /ruck ! anvil1 produce ! s\nds :i* _h a musical relation to ea* o!r4 ,on li/5+ fur!r1 he f\nd t ! int]vals 7 a ,f\r?1 a ,fif?1 & an ,octave2 & on weigh+ ! hamm]s1 x appe>$ t ! "o :i* gave ! ,octave 0 "o-half ! heavie/1 ! "o :i* gave ! ,fif? 0 two-?irds1 & ! "o :i* gave ! ,f\r? 0 ?ree-qu>t]s4 ,he return$ home1 reflect$ ^u ?is ph5om5on1 made trials1 & f9ally discov]$1 t if he /ret*$ musical /r+s ( equal l5g?s1 by weights :i* h ! proportion ( "o-half1 two-?irds1 & ?ree-f\r?s1 !y produc$ int]vals :i* 7 an ,octave1 a ,fif?1 & a ,f\r?4 ,?is obs]vation gave an ari?metical measure ( ! pr9cipal ,musical ,int]vals1 & made ,music an ari?metical subject ( speculation4 ,?is /ory1 if n entirely a philosophical fable1 is und\bt$ly inaccurate2 = ! musical int]vals ?us spok5 ( w\ld n be produc$ by /rik+ ) hamm]s ( ! weights !re /at$4 ,b x is true t ! notes ( /r+s h a def9ite relation to ! =ces :i* /ret* !m2 & ?is tru? is /ill ! gr\ndwork ( ! !ory ( musical concords & discords4 ,nicoma*us says t ,py?agoras f\nd ! weights to be1 z ,i h m5tion$1 9 ! proportion ( #ab1 #f1 #h1 #i2 & ! int]vals1 an ,octave1 correspond+ to ! proportion #ab to #f1 or #b to #a2 a ,fif?1 correspond+ to ! proportion #ab to #h1 or #c to #b2 & a ,f\r?1 correspond+ to ! proportion #ab to #i1 or #d to #c4 ,!re is no d\bt t ?is /atem5t ( ! anci5t writ] is inexact z to ! physical fact1 = ! rate ( vibration ( a /r+1 on :i* its note dep5ds1 is1 #ajf o!r ?+s be+ equal1 n z ! weight1 b z ! squ>e root ( ! weight4 ,b he is "r z to ! ess5tial po9t1 t ^? ratios ( #b to #a1 #c to #b1 & #d to #c1 are ! *>act]i/ic ratios ( ! ,octave1 ,fif?1 & ,f\r?4 ,9 ord] to produce ^! int]vals1 ! app5d$ weights mu/ be1 n z #ab1 #i1 #h1 & #f1 b z #ab1 #f1 #e1 & #c4 ,! num]ical relations ( ! o!r int]vals ( ! musical scale1 z well z ( ! ,octave1 ,fif?1 & ,f\r?1 7 discov]$ by ! ,greeks4 ,?us !y f\nd t ! proportion 9 a ,major ,?ird 0 #e to #d2 9 a ,m9or ,?ird1 #f to #e2 9 a ,major ,tone1 #i to #h2 9 a ,semitone or ,diesis1 #af to #ae4 ,!y ev5 w5t s f> z to det]m9e ! ,comma1 9 :i* ! int]val ( two notes is s small t !y are 9 ! proportion ( #ha to #hj4 ,?is is ! int]val betwe5 two notes1 ea* ( :i* may be call$ ! ,sev5te5? above ! key-note2--! "o note be+ obta9$ by asc5d+ a ,fif? f\r times ov]2 ! o!r be+ obta9$ by asc5d+ ?r\gh two ,octaves & a ,major ,?ird4 ,! want ( exact co9cid5ce betwe5 ^! two notes is an inh]5t ari?metical imp]fection 9 ! musical scale1 ( :i* ! consequ5ces are v ext5sive4 ,! num]ical prop]ties ( ! musical scale 7 work$ out to a v great ext5t by ! ,greeks1 & _m ( _! ,treatises on ?is subject rema9 to u4 ,! pr9cipal ones are ! sev5 au?ors publi%$ by ,meibomius4#bb ,^! ari?metical elem5ts ( ,music are to ! pres5t day important & fundam5tal portions ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,h>monics4 ,note #bb3 ,antiqu ,music ,scriptores septem1 #afeb4 ,x may at fir/ appe> t ! tru?1 or ev5 ! possibility ( ?is hi/ory1 by ref]r+ ! discov]y to accid5t1 disproves our doctr9e1 t ?is1 l all o!r fundam5tal discov]ies1 requir$ a di/9ct & well-pond]$ ,idea z its condition4 ,9 ?is1 h[ev]1 z 9 all cases ( suppos$ accid5tal discov]ies 9 sci5ce1 x w be f\nd1 t x 0 exactly ! possession ( su* an ,idea :i* made ! accid5t possible4 ,py?agoras1 assum+ ! tru? ( ! tradition1 mu/ h _h an exact & ready appreh5sion ( ^? relations ( musical s\nds1 :i* are call$ respectively an ,octave1 a ,fif?1 & a ,f\r?4 ,if he _h n be5 able to conceive di/9ctly ?is relation1 & to appreh5d x :5 he>d1 ! s\nds ( ! anvil w\ld h /ruck 8 e>s to no m purpose ?an !y did ^? ( ! smi?s !mselves4 ,he #ajg mu/ h _h1 too1 a ready famili>ity ) num]ical ratios2 &1 moreov] 7t 9 :i*1 probably1 8 sup]iority mo/ consi/$71 a disposition to connect "o notion ) ! o!r--! musical relation ) ! ari?metical1 if x 7 f\nd possible4 ,:5 ! connection 0 once sugge/$1 x 0 easy to devise exp]im5ts by :i* x might be confirm$4 ,! philosoph]s ( ! ,py?agorean ,s*ool1#cb & 9 p>ticul>1 ,lasus ( ,h]mione1 & ,hippasus ( ,metapontum1 made _m su* exp]im5ts ^u /r+s2 v>y+ bo? _! l5g?s & ! weights :i* /ret*$ !m2 & also ^u vessels fill$ ) wat]1 9 a great] or less degree4 ,& ?us 0 e/abli%$ t connection ( ! ,idea ) ! ,fact1 :i* ?is ,sci5ce1 l all o!rs1 requires4 ,note #cb3 ,montucla1 iii4 #aj4 ,i %all quit ! ,physical ,sci5ces ( ,anci5t ,greece1 ) ! above brief /atem5t ( ! discov]y ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples :i* !y involv$2 n only because su* initial /eps mu/ always be ! mo/ important 9 ! progress ( sci5ce1 b because1 9 reality1 ! ,greeks made no advances beyond ^!4 ,!re took place among !m no additional inductive processes1 by :i* new facts 7 br\ght "u ! dom9ion ( pr9ciples1 or by :i* pr9ciples 7 pres5t$ 9 a m compreh5sive %ape ?an be=e4 ,_! advance t]m9at$ 9 a s+le /ride4 ,ar*im$es _h /irr$ ! intellectual _w1 b _h n put x 9 progressive motion3 ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics /opp$ :]e he left x4 ,& ?\gh1 9 "s objects1 z 9 ,h>monics1 mu* 0 writt51 ! works ?us produc$ consi/$ ( d$uctions f ! fundam5tal pr9ciples1 by means ( ari?metical calculations2 occasionally modifi$1 inde$1 by ref]5ce to ! pleasures :i* music1 z an art1 af=ds1 b n enri*$ by any new sci5tific tru?s4 #c;d ,ed4 ,we %\ld1 h[ev]1 quit ! philosophy ( ! anci5t ,greeks )\t a due s5se ( ! obligations :i* ,physical ,sci5ce 9 all succe$+ ages owes to ! acute & p5etrat+ _s 9 :i* _! inquiries 9 t region ( human k 7 conduct$1 & to ! l>ge & l(ty aspirations :i* 7 display$1 ev5 9 _! failure1 if we did n be> 9 m9d bo? ! multif>i\s & compreh5sive "* ( _! attempts1 & "s ( ! causes :i* limit$ _! progress 9 positive sci5ce4 ,!y speculat$ & #ajh !oriz$ "u a lively p]suasion t a ,sci5ce ( e "p ( nature 0 possible1 & 0 a fit object = ! ex]cise ( man's be/ faculties2 & !y 7 spe$ily l$ to ! conviction t su* a sci5ce mu/ clo! its conclusions 9 ! language ( ma!matics4 ,?is conviction is em95tly conspicu\s 9 ! writ+s ( ,plato4 ,9 ! ,republic1 9 ! ,ep9omis1 & above all 9 ! ,timu1 ?is conviction makes him return1 aga9 & aga91 to a discussion ( ! laws :i* _h be5 e/abli%$ or conjectur$ 9 8 "t1 respect+ ,h>monics & ,optics1 su* z we h se51 & /ill m1 respect+ ,a/ronomy1 su* z we %all see 9 ! next ,book4 ,probably no succe$+ /ep 9 ! discov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,nature 0 ( s mu* importance z ! full adoption ( ?is p]vad+ conviction1 t !re mu/ be ,ma!matical ,laws ( ,nature1 & t x is ! bus9ess ( ,philosophy to discov] ^! ,laws4 ,?is conviction cont9ues1 ?r\gh all ! succe$+ ages ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 to be ! animat+ & support+ pr9ciple ( sci5tific inve/igation & discov]y4 ,&1 especially 9 ,a/ronomy1 _m ( ! errone\s guesses :i* ! ,greeks made1 conta91 if n ! g]m1 at lea/ ! vivify+ life-blood1 ( great tru?s1 res]v$ = future ages4 ,moreov]1 ! ,greeks n only s\ght su* !ories ( special p>ts ( nature1 b a g5]al ,!ory ( ! ,univ]se4 ,an essay at su* a !ory is ! ,timu ( ,plato2 too wide & too ambiti\s an attempt to succe$ at t "t2 or1 inde$1 on ! scale on :i* he unfolds x1 ev5 9 our "t2 b a vigor\s & in/ructive example ( ! claim :i* man's ,intellect feels t x may make to und]/& ! univ]sal frame ( ?+s1 & to r5d] a reason = all t is pres5t$ to x by ! outw>d s5ses4 ,fur!r2 we see 9 ,plato1 t "o ( ! gr\nds ( ! failure 9 ?is attempt1 0 ! assumption t ! reason :y e ?+ is :at x is & z x is1 mu/ be t s x is be/1 accord+ to "s view ( bett] or worse atta9able by man4 ,socrates1 9 8 dy+ conv]sation1 z giv5 9 ! ,phd1 decl>es ?is to h be5 :at he s\ght 9 ! philosophy ( 8 "t2 & tells 8 fri5ds t he turn$ away f ! speculations ( ,anaxagoras because !y did n give him su* reasons = ! con/itution ( ! _w2 & ,plato's ,timu is1 9 reality1 an attempt to supply ?is defici5cy1 & to pres5t a ,!ory ( ! ,univ]se1 9 :i* e ?+ is acc\nt$ = by su* reasons4 ,?\gh ?is is a failure1 x is a noble z well z an in/ructive failure4 #aji ,,book ,,iii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,greek ,,a/ronomy4 1 1 1 ' 1 1 4--,,plato1 ,ep9omis1 p4 #ihh4 ,nor %\ld any ,greek h any misgiv+ ( ?is k9d2 t x is n fitt+ = u to inquire n>r[ly into ! op]ations ( ,sup]ior ,p[]s1 su* z ^? by :i* ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies are produc$3 b1 on ! contr>y1 m5 %\ld consid] t ! ,div9e ,p[]s nev] act )\t purpose1 & t !y "k ! nature ( man3 !y "k t by _! guidance & aid1 man may foll[ & compreh5d ! lessons :i* are v\*saf$ him on su* subjects4 #aaa ,,introduction4 ,,! e>lie/ & fundam5tal conceptions ( m5 respect+ ! objects ) :i* ,a/ronomy is conc]n$1 are =m$ by famili> processes ( ?\ght1 )\t appe>+ to h 9 !m any ?+ te*nical or sci5tific4 ,days1 ,ye>s1 ,mon?s1 ! ,sky1 ! ,con/ellations1 are notions :i* ! mo/ uncultur$ & incuri\s m9ds possess4 ,yet ^! are elem5ts ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,a/ronomy4 ,! reasons :y1 9 ?is case alone1 ( all ! prov9ces ( human k1 m5 7 able1 at an e>ly & un5light5$ p]iod1 to con/ruct a sci5ce out ( ! obvi\s facts ( obs]vation1 ) ! help ( ! common furniture ( _! m9ds1 w be m app>5t 9 ! c\rse ( ! philosophy ( sci5ce3 b ,i may "h b>ely m5tion two ( ^! reasons4 ,!y are1 fir/1 t ! famili> act ( ?\ght1 ex]cis$ = ! common purposes ( life1 by :i* we give to an assemblage ( our impressions su* a unity z is impli$ 9 ! above notions & t]ms1 a ,mon?1 a ,ye>1 ! ,sky1 & ! l1 is1 9 reality1 an inductive act1 & %>es ! nature ( ! processes by :i* all sci5ces are =m$2 &1 9 ! next place1 t ! ideas appropriate to ! induction 9 ?is case1 are ^? :i*1 ev5 9 ! lea/ cultivat$ m9ds1 are v cle> & def9ite2 namely1 ! ideas ( ,space & ,figure1 ,"t & ,numb]1 ,motion & ,recurr5ce4 ,h5ce1 f _! fir/ orig91 ! modifications ( ^? ideas assume a sci5tific =m4 ,we mu/ n[ trace 9 detail ! peculi> c\rse :i*1 9 consequ5ce ( ^! causes1 ! k ( man respect+ ! heav5ly bodies took1 f ! e>lie/ p]iod ( 8 hi/ory4 #aab ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,e>lie/ ,,/ages ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,sect4 #a4--;,=mation ( ! ,notion ( a ,ye>4 ,,! notion ( a ,day is e>ly & obvi\sly impress$ ^u man 9 almo/ any condition 9 :i* we c imag9e him4 ,! recurr5ce ( light & d>kness1 ( comp>ative w>m? & cold1 ( noise & sil5ce1 ( ! activity & repose ( animals2--! ris+1 m\nt+1 desc5d+1 & sett+ ( ! sun2--! v>y+ colors ( ! cl\ds1 g5]ally1 not)/&+ _! v>iety1 m>k$ by a daily progression ( appe>ances2--! calls ( ! desire ( food & ( sleep 9 man himself1 ei!r exactly adju/$ to ! p]iod ( ?is *ange1 or at lea/ readily capable ( be+ accommodat$ to x2--! recurr5ce ( ^! circum/ances at int]vals1 equal1 s f> z our obvi\s judgm5t ( ! passage ( "t c decide2 & ^! int]vals s %ort t ! repetition is notic$ ) no ef=t ( att5tion or memory2--?is assemblage ( sugge/ions makes ! notion ( a ,day necess>ily occur to man1 if we suppose him to h ! conception ( ,"t1 & ( ,recurr5ce4 ,he naturally m>ks by a t]m su* a portion ( "t1 & su* a cycle ( recurr5ce2 he calls ea* portion ( "t1 9 :i* ?is s]ies ( appe>ances & occurr5ces come r\nd1 a ,day2 & su* a gr\p ( p>ticul>s are consid]$ z appe>+ or happ5+ 9 ! same day4 ,a ,ye> is a notion =m$ 9 ! same mann]2 imply+ 9 ! same way ! notion ( recurr+ facts2 & also ! faculty ( arrang+ facts 9 "t1 & ( appreciat+ _! recurr5ce4 ,b ! notion ( a ,ye>1 ?\gh und\bt$ly v obvi\s1 is1 on _m acc\nts1 less s ?an t ( a ,day4 ,! repetition ( simil> circum/ances1 at equal int]vals1 is less manife/ 9 ?is case1 & ! int]vals be+ mu* long]1 "s ex]tion ( memory becomes requisite 9 ord] t ! recurr5ce may be p]ceiv$4 ,a *ild might easily be p]suad$ t successive ye>s 7 ( unequal l5g?2 or1 if ! summ] 7 cold1 & ! spr+ & autumn w>m1 might be made to believe1 if all :o spoke 9 its he>+ agre$ to support ! delusion1 t "o ye> 0 two4 ,x w\ld be impossible to practise su* a deception ) reg>d to ! day1 )\t ! use ( "s artifice beyond m]e words4 #aac ,/ill1 ! recurr5ce ( ! appe>ances :i* sugge/ ! notion ( a ,ye> is s obvi\s1 t we c h>dly conceive man )\t x4 ,b ?\gh1 9 all climes & times1 !re w\ld be a recurr5ce1 & at ! same int]val 9 all1 ! recurr+ appe>ances w\ld be extremely diff]5t 9 diff]5t c\ntries2 & ! contra/s & resemblances ( ! seasons w\ld be widely v>i$4 ,9 "s places ! w9t] utt]ly alt]s ! face ( ! c\ntry1 conv]t+ grassy hills1 deep leafy woods ( v>i\s hues ( gre51 & runn+ wat]s1 into sn[y & icy wa/es1 & b>e sn[-lad5 bran*es2 :ile 9 o!rs1 ! field reta9s its h]bage1 & ! tree its leaves1 all ! ye>2 & ! ra9s & ! sun%9e alone1 or v>i\s agricultural employm5ts q diff]5t f ours1 m>k ! pass+ seasons4 ,yet 9 all p>ts ( ! _w ! ye>ly cycle ( *anges has be5 s+l$ out f all o!rs1 & designat$ by a peculi> "n4 ,! inhabitant ( ! equatorial regions has ! sun v]tically ov] him at ! end ( e p]iod ( six mon?s1 & simil> tra9s ( cele/ial ph5om5a fill up ea* ( ^! int]vals1 yet we d n f9d ye>s ( six mon?s among su* nations4 ,! ,arabs alone1#ac :o practise nei!r agriculture nor navigation1 h a ye> dep5d+ ^u ! moon only2 & borr[ ! ^w f o!r languages1 :5 !y speak ( ! sol> ye>4 ,note #ac3 ,idel]1 ,b]l4 ,trans4 #ahac1 p4 #ea4 ,9 g5]al1 nations h m>k$ ?is portion ( "t by "s ^w :i* has a ref]5ce to ! return+ circle ( seasons & employm5ts4 ,?us ! ,lat9 annus signifi$ a r+1 z we see 9 ! d]ivative annulus3 ! ,greek t]m implies some?+ :i* returns into itself3 & ! ^w z x exi/s 9 ,teutonic languages1 ( :i* our ^w ye> is an example1 is said to h its orig9 9 ! ^w yra :i* means a r+ 9 ,sw$i%1 & is p]haps connect$ ) ! ,lat9 gyrus4 ,sect4 #b4--;,fixation ( ! ,civil ,ye>4 ,,! ye>1 consid]$ z a recurr+ cycle ( seasons & ( g5]al appe>ances1 mu/ attract ! notice ( man z soon z 8 att5tion & memory suffice to b9d toge!r ! p>ts ( a succession ( ! l5g? ( sev]al ye>s4 ,b to make ! same t]m imply a c]ta9 fix$ numb] ( days1 we mu/ "k h[ _m days ! cycle ( ! seasons occupies2 a k :i* requires faculties & artifices beyond :at we h already m5tion$4 ,= in/ance1 m5 _c reckon z f> z any numb] at all approa*+ ! numb] ( days 9 ! ye>1 )\t possess+ a sy/em ( num]al t]ms1 & me?ods #aad ( practical num]ation on :i* su* a sy/em ( t]ms is always f\nd$4#bc ,! ,s\? ,am]ican ,indians1 ! ,k\ssa ,caffres & ,hott5tots1 & ! natives ( ,new ,holl&1 all ( :om are said to be unable to reckon fur!r ?an ! f+]s ( _! h&s & feet1#cc _c1 z we d1 include 9 _! notion ( a ye> ! fact ( its consi/+ ( #cfe days4 ,?is fact is n likely to be kn[n to any nation except ^? :i* h advanc$ f> beyond t :i* may be consid]$ z ! e>lie/ sci5tific process :i* we c trace 9 ! hi/ory ( ! human race1 ! =mation ( a me?od ( designat+ ! successive numb]s to an indef9ite ext5t1 by means ( names1 fram$ accord+ to ! decimal1 qu9>y1 or vig5>y scale4 ,note #bc3 ,ari?metic 9 ,encyc4 ,metrop4 7by ,dr4 ,peacock71 ,art4 #h4 ,note #cc3 ,ibid4 ,art4 #cb4 ,b ev5 if we suppose m5 to h ! habit ( record+ ! passage ( ea* day1 & ( c\nt+ ! score ?us record$1 x w\ld be by no means easy = !m to det]m9e ! exact numb] ( days 9 :i* ! cycle ( ! seasons recurs2 = ! indef9it5ess ( ! appe>ances :i* m>k ! same season ( ! ye>1 & ! *anges to :i* !y are subject z ! seasons are e>ly or late1 w\ld leave mu* unc]ta9ty respect+ ! duration ( ! ye>4 ,!y w\ld n obta9 any accuracy on ?is head1 till !y _h att5d$ = a consid]able "t to ! motions & places ( ! sun2 circum/ances :i* require m precision ( notice ?an ! g5]al facts ( ! degrees ( heat & light4 ,! motions ( ! sun1 ! succession ( ! places ( 8 ris+ & sett+ at diff]5t times ( ! ye>1 ! greate/ heights :i* he rea*es1 ! proportion ( ! l5g? ( day & night1 w\ld all exhibit sev]al cycles4 ,! turn+ back ( ! sun1 :5 he _h rea*$ ! greate/ di/ance to ! s\? or to ! nor?1 z %[n ei!r by 8 ris+ or by 8 height at noon1 w\ld p]haps be ! mo/ obs]vable ( su* circum/ances4 ,accord+ly ! 1 ! turn+s ( ! sun1 are us$ repeat$ly by ,hesiod z a m>k f :i* he reckons ! seasons ( v>i\s employm5ts4 ,fifty days1 he says1 aft] ! turn+ ( ! sun1 is a seasonable "t = beg9n+ a voyage4#dc ,note #dc3 4--,op4 et ,dies1 #ffa4 ,! ph5om5a w\ld be diff]5t 9 diff]5t climates1 b ! recurr5ce w\ld be common to all4 ,any "o ( ^! k9ds ( ph5om5a1 not$ ) mod]ate c>e = a ye>1 w\ld %[ :at 0 ! numb] ( days ( :i* a ye> consi/$2 & if sev]al ye>s #aae 7 includ$ 9 ! int]val ?r\gh :i* ! scrut9y ext5d$1 ! k ( ! l5g? ( ! ye> s acquir$ w\ld be proportionally m exact4 ,besides ^? notices ( ! sun :i* (f]$ exact indications ( ! seasons1 o!r m indef9ite natural occurr5ces 7 us$2 z ! arrival ( ! swall[ 77 & ! kite 771 ,! birds1 9 ,ari/ophanes' play ( t "n1 m5tion x z "o ( _! (fices to m>k ! seasons2 ,hesiod simil>ly notices ! cry ( ! crane z an indication ( ! dep>ture ( w9t]4#ec ,note #ec3 ,idel]1 i4 #bdj4 ,among ! ,greeks ! seasons 7 at fir/ only summ] & w9t] 7 & 71 ! latt] includ+ all ! ra9y & cold portion ( ! ye>4 ,! w9t] 0 !n subdivid$ into ! & 7w9t] prop] & spr+71 & ! summ]1 less def9itely1 into & 7summ] & autumn74 ,tacitus says t ! ,g]mans knew nei!r ! bless+s nor ! "n ( autumn1 ,autumni p]9de nom5 ac bona ignorantur4 ,yet h>ve/1 h]b/1 is c]ta9ly an old ,g]man ^w4#fc ,note #fc3 ,ib4 i4 #bdc4 ,9 ! same p]iod 9 :i* ! sun goes ?r\gh 8 cycle ( positions1 ! />s also g ?r\gh a cycle ( appe>ances belong+ to !m2 & ^! appe>ances 7 p]haps employ$ at z e>ly a p]iod z ^? ( ! sun1 9 det]m9+ ! exact l5g? ( ! ye>4 ,_m ( ! gr\ps ( fix$ />s are readily recogniz$1 z exhibit+ always ! same configuration2 & p>ticul> bright />s are s+l$ out z objects ( att5tion4 ,^! are obs]v$1 at p>ticul> seasons1 to appe> 9 ! we/ aft] sunset2 b x is not$ t :5 !y d ?is1 !y are f\nd ne>] & ne>] to ! sun e successive ev5+1 & at la/ disappe> 9 8 light4 ,x is obs]v$ also1 t at a c]ta9 int]val aft] ?is1 !y rise visibly be=e ! dawn ( day r5d]s ! />s invisible2 & aft] !y are se5 to d ?is1 !y rise e day at a long] int]val be=e ! sun4 ,! ris+s & sett+s ( ! />s "u ^! circum/ances1 or "u o!rs :i* are easily recogniz$1 71 9 c\ntries :]e ! sky is usually cle>1 employ$ at an e>ly p]iod to m>k ! seasons ( ! ye>4 ,es*ylus#gc makes ,prome!us m5tion ?is among ! b5efits ( :i* #aaf he1 ! tea*] ( arts to ! e>lie/ race ( m51 0 ! communicator4 ,note #gc3 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 4--,prom4 ,v4 #ded4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! ris+#hc ( ! ,pleiades 9 ! ev5+ 0 a m>k ( ! approa* ( w9t]4 ,! ris+ ( ! wat]s ( ! ,nile 9 ,egypt co9cid$ ) ! heliacal ris+ ( ,sirius1 :i* /> ! ,egyptians call$ ,so?is4 ,ev5 )\t any artificial measure ( "t or position1 x 0 n difficult to c>ry obs]vations ( ?is k9d to su* a degree ( accuracy z to le>n f !m ! numb] ( days :i* compose ! ye>2 & to fix ! precise season f ! appe>ance ( ! />s4 ,note #hc3 ,idel] 7,*ronol4 i4 #bdb7 says t ?is ris+ ( ! ,pleiades took place at a "t ( ! ye> :i* corresponds to our #aa? ,may1 & ! sett+ to ! #bj? ,octob]2 b ?is does n agree ) ! =ty days ( _! be+ conceal$1 :i*1 f ! context1 mu/ mean1 ,i conceive1 ! int]val betwe5 _! sett+ & ris+4 ,pl9y1 h[ev]1 says1 ,v]gili>um exortu /as incipit1 occasu hiems2 seme/ri spatio intra se messes v9demiasque et omnium maturitatem complex4 7,h4 ,n4 xviii4 #fi47 ,! autumn ( ! ,greeks1 1 0 e>li] ?an our autumn1 = ,hom] calls ,sirius 1 :i* rose at ! end ( ,july4 ,a k conc]n+ ! />s appe>s to h be5 fir/ cultivat$ ) ! la/-m5tion$ view1 & makes its fir/ appe>ance 9 lit]ature ) ?is = its object4 ,?us ,hesiod directs ! husb&man :5 to reap by ! ris+1 & :5 to pl\gh by ! sett+ ( ! ,pleiades4#ic ,9 l mann] ,sirius1#ajc ,arcturus1#aac ! ,hyades & ,orion1#abc are notic$4 #aag ,note #ic3 4 ' 1 4 1 4 ,op4 et ,dies1 l4 #cha4 ,note #ajc3 ,ib4 l4 #dac4 ,note #aac3 ' ' '1 1 ' 1 4 ,op4 et ,dies1 l4 #efb4 ' ' 1 ' 4 ,ib4 #fjg4 ,note #abc3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,ib4 #fab4 ,^! me?ods 7 employ$ to a late p]iod1 because ! ,greek mon?s1 be+ lun>1 did n correspond to ! seasons4 ,tables ( su* motions 7 call$ 4--,idel]1 ,hi/4 ,unt]su*ung51 p4 #bji4 ,by su* means x 0 det]m9$ t ! ye> consi/$1 at lea/1 ne>ly1 ( #cfe days4 ,! ,egyptians1 z we le>n f ,h]odotus1#acc claim$ ! honor ( ?is discov]y4 ,! prie/s in=m$ him1 he says1 t ! ,egyptians 7 ! fir/ m5 :o discov]$ ! ye>1 divid+ x into twelve equal p>ts2 & ?is !y ass]t$ t !y discov]$ f ! />s4 ,ea* ( ^! p>ts or mon?s consi/$ ( #cj days1 & !y add$ #e days m at ! end ( ! ye>1 & ?us ! circle ( ! seasons come r\nd4 ,x seems1 also1 t ! ,jews1 at an e>ly p]iod1 _h a simil> reckon+ ( "t1 = ! ,deluge :i* cont9u$ #aej days 7,g54 vii4 #bd71 is /at$ to h la/$ f ! #ag? day ( ! second mon? 7,g54 vii4 #aa7 to ! #ag? day ( ! sev5? mon? 7,g54 viii4 #d71 t is1 #e mon?s ( #cj days4 ,note #acc3 ,ib4 ii4 #d4 ,a ye> ?us settl$ z a p]iod ( a c]ta9 numb] ( days is call$ a ,civil ,ye>4 ,x is "o ( ! e>lie/ discov]able in/itutions ( ,/ates possess+ any g]m ( civilization2 & "o ( ! e>lie/ portions ( human sy/ematic k is ! discov]y ( ! l5g? ( ! civil ye>1 s t x %\ld agree ) ! natural ye>1 or ye> ( ! seasons4 ,sect4 #c4--;,correction ( ! ,civil ,ye>4 7,julian ,cal5d>47 ,,9 reality1 by su* a mode ( reckon+ z we h describ$1 ! circle ( ! seasons w\ld n come r\nd exactly4 ,! real l5g? ( ! ye> is v ne>ly #cfe days & a qu>t]4 ,if a ye> ( #cfe days 7 us$1 9 f\r ye>s ! ye> w\ld beg9 a day too soon1 :5 consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! sun & />s2 & 9 #fj ye>s x w\ld beg9 #ae days too soon3 a quantity p]ceptible to ! loose/ degree ( att5tion4 ,! civil ye> w\ld be f\nd n to co9cide ) ! ye> ( ! seasons2 ! beg9n+ ( ! =m] w\ld take place at diff]5t p]iods ( ! latt]2 x w\ld w&] into v>i\s seasons1 in/ead ( rema9+ fix$ to ! same season2 ! t]m ye>1 & any numb] ( ye>s1 w\ld become ambigu\s3 "s correction1 at lea/ "s comp>ison1 w\ld be requisite4 ,we d n "k by :om ! insuffici5cy ( ! ye> ( #cfe days 0 fir/ discov]$2#adc we f9d ?is k diffus$ among all civiliz$ nations1 & v>i\s artifices us$ 9 mak+ ! correction4 ,! me?od :i* we employ1 & :i* consi/s 9 reckon+ an #aah additional day at ! end ( ,febru>y e f\r? or leap ye>1 is an example ( ! pr9ciple ( int]calation1 by :i* ! correction 0 mo/ commonly made4 ,me?ods ( int]calation = ! same purpose 7 f\nd to exi/ 9 ! new _w4 ,! ,mexicans add$ #ac days at ! end ( e #eb ye>s4 ,! me?od ( ! ,greeks 0 m complex 7by means ( ! octat]is or cycle ( #h ye>s72 b x _h ! additional object ( accommodat+ itself to ! motions ( ! moon1 & !re=e mu/ be treat$ ( h]eaft]4 ,! ,egyptians1 on ! o!r h&1 kn[+ly p]mitt$ _! civil ye> to w&]1 at lea/ s f> z _! religi\s obs]vances 7 conc]n$4 ,!y d n wi%1 says ,gem9us1#aec ! same sacrifices ( ! gods to be made p]petually at ! same "t ( ! ye>1 b t !y %\ld g ?r\gh all ! seasons1 s t ! same fea/ may happ5 9 summ] & w9t]1 9 spr+ & autumn4 ,! p]iod 9 :i* any fe/ival w\ld ?us pass ?r\gh all ! seasons ( ! ye> is #adfa ye>s2 = #adfj ye>s ( #cfe days are equal to #adfa ye>s ( #cfe days4 ,?is p]iod ( #adfa ye>s is call$ ! ,so?ic ,p]iod1 f ,so?is1 ! "n ( ! ,dog-/>1 by :i* _! fix$ ye> 0 det]m9$2 & = ! same reason x is call$ ! ,canicul> ,p]iod4#afc ,note #adc3 ,syncellus 7,*ronographia1 p4 #abc7 says t accord+ to ! leg5d1 x 0 ,k+ ,ase? :o fir/ add$ ! #e additional days to #cfj1 = ! ye>1 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 ,b4 ,c4 ,note #aec3 ,uranol4 p4 #cc4 ,note #afc3 ,c5sor9us de ,die ,natali1 c4 #ah4 ,o!r nations did n regulate _! civil ye> by int]calation at %ort int]vals1 b rectifi$ x by a re=m :5 ?is became necess>y4 ,! ,p]sians are said to h add$ a mon? ( #cj days e #abj ye>s4 ,! ,roman cal5d>1 at fir/ v rude 9 its /ructure1 0 re=m$ by ,numa1 & 0 direct$ to be kept 9 ord] by ! p]petual int]position ( ! augurs4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 01 f v>i\s causes1 n prop]ly done2 & ! consequ5ce 01 t ! reckon+ fell into utt] disord]1 9 :i* /ate x 0 f\nd by ,julius ,cs>1 :5 he became dictator4 ,by ! advice ( ,sosig5es1 he adopt$ ! mode ( int]calation ( "o day 9 #d ye>s1 :i* we /ill reta92 & 9 ord] to correct ! d]angem5t :i* _h already be5 produc$1 he add$ #ij days to a ye> ( ! usual l5g?1 :i* ?us became :at 0 call$ ! ye> ( confusion4 ,! ,julian ,cal5d>1 ?us re=m$1 came into use1 ,janu>y #a1 ,b4 ,c4 #de4 ,sect4 #d4--;,attempts at ! ,fixation ( ! ,mon?4 ,,! circle ( *anges ?r\gh :i* ! moon passes 9 ab\t ?irty days1 is m>k$1 9 ! e>lie/ /ages ( language1 by a ^w :i* implies ! space ( "t :i* "o su* circle occupies2 j #aai z ! circle ( *anges ( ! seasons is designat$ by ! ^w ye>4 ,! lun> *anges are1 inde$1 m obvi\s to ! s5se1 & /rike a m c>eless p]son1 ?an ! annual2 ! moon1 :5 ! sun is abs5t1 is almo/ ! sole natural object :i* attracts our notice2 & we look at h] ) a f> m tranquil & agreeable att5tion ?an we be/[ on any o!r cele/ial object4 ,h] *anges ( =m & place are def9ite & /rik+ to all eyes2 !y are un9t]rupt$1 & ! duration ( _! cycle is s %ort z to require no ef=t ( memory to embrace x4 ,h5ce x appe>s to be m easy1 & 9 e>li] /ages ( civilization m common1 to c\nt "t by moons ?an by ye>s4 ,! words by :i* ?is p]iod ( "t is designat$ 9 v>i\s languages1 seem to ref] u to ! e>ly hi/ory ( language4 ,our ^w mon? is connect$ ) ! ^w moon1 & a simil> connection is noticeable 9 ! o!r bran*es ( ! ,teutonic4 ,! ,greek ^w 9 l mann] is relat$ to 1 :i* ?\gh n ! common ^w = ! moon1 is f\nd 9 ,hom] ) t signification4 ,! ,lat9 ^w m5sis is probably connect$ ) ! same gr\p4#agc ,note #agc3 ,cic]o d]ives ?is ^w f ! v]b to measure3 quia m5sa spatia conficiunt1 m5ses nom9antur2 & o!r etymologi/s1 ) simil> views1 connect ! above-m5tion$ words ) ! ,hebrew manah1 to measure 7) :i* ! ,arabic ^w almana* is connect$74 ,su* a d]ivation w\ld h "s analogy ) t ( annus1 c41 notic$ above3 b if we are to attempt to asc5d to ! e>lie/ condition ( language1 we mu/ conceive x probable t m5 w\ld h a "n = a mo/ conspicu\s visible object1 ! moon1 be=e !y w\ld h a v]b d5ot+ ! v ab/ract & g5]al notion1 to measure4 ,! mon? is n any exact numb] ( days1 be+ m ?an #bi1 & less ?an #cj4 ,! latt] numb] 0 fir/ tri$1 = m5 m readily select numb]s possess+ "s di/9ction ( regul>ity4 ,x exi/$ = a long p]iod 9 _m c\ntries4 ,a v few mon?s ( #cj days1 h[ev]1 w\ld suffice to d]ange ! agreem5t betwe5 ! days ( ! mon?s & ! moon's appe>ance4 ,a little fur!r trial w\ld %[ t mon?s ( #bi & #cj days alt]nately1 w\ld pres]ve1 = a consid]able p]iod1 ?is agreem5t4 ,! ,greeks adopt$ ?is cal5d>1 &1 9 consequ5ce1 consid]$ ! days ( _! mon? z repres5t+ ! *anges ( ! moon3 ! la/ day ( ! mon? 0 call$ 1 ! old & new z belong+ to bo? ! wan+ & ! reappe>+ moon3#ahc & _! #abj fe/ivals & sacrifices1 z det]m9$ by ! cal5d>1 7 conceiv$ to be necess>ily connect$ ) ! same p]iods ( ! cycles ( ! sun & moon4 ,! laws & ! oracles1 says ,gem9us1 :i* direct$ t !y %\ld 9 sacrifices obs]ve ?ree ?+s1 mon?s1 days1 ye>s1 7 s und]/ood4 ,) ?is p]suasion1 a correct sy/em ( int]calation became a religi\s duty4 ,note #ahc3 ,aratus says ( ! moon1 9 a passage quot$ by ,gem9us1 p4 #cc3 ' 1 ,z /ill h] %ift+ visage *ang+ turns1 ,by h] we c\nt ! mon?ly r\nd ( morns4 ,! above rule ( alt]nate mon?s ( #bi & #cj days1 supposes ! l5g? ( ! mon?s #bi days & a half1 :i* is n exactly ! l5g? ( a lun> mon?4 ,accord+ly ! ,mon?s & ! ,moon 7 soon at v>iance4 ,ari/ophanes1 9 ,! ,cl\ds1 makes ! ,moon compla9 ( ! disord] :5 ! cal5d> 0 d]ang$4 1 ' ' ' 4 ,nubes1 #fae-ai4 ,,*orus ,,( ,,cl\ds4 ,! ,moon by u to y h] greet+ s5ds1 ,b bids u say t %e's an ill-us$ moon1 ,& takes x mu* amiss t y %\ld /ill ,%uffle h] days1 & turn !m topsy-turvy3 ,& t ! gods 7:o "k _! fea/-days well7 ,by y\r false c\nt are s5t home supp]less1 ,& scold & /orm at h] = y\r neglect4#aic ,note #aic3 ,?is passage is suppos$ by ! comm5tators to be int5d$ z a satire ^u ^? :o _h introduc$ ! cycle ( ,meton 7spok5 ( 9 ,sect4 #e71 :i* _h be5 done at ,a!ns a few ye>s be=e ,! ,cl\ds 0 act$4 ,! correction ( ?is inaccuracy1 h[ev]1 0 n pursu$ sep>ately1 b 0 comb9$ ) ano!r object1 ! secur+ a correspond5ce betwe5 ! lun> & sol> ye>s1 ! ma9 purpose ( all e>ly cycles4 ,sect4 #e4--;,inv5tion ( ,lunisol> ,ye>s4 ,,!re are #ab complete lunations 9 a ye>2 :i* accord+ to ! above rule 7( #bi days to a lunation7 w\ld make #ced days1 leav+ #ab days ( diff]5ce betwe5 su* a lun> ye> & a sol> ye>4 ,x is said t1 at an e>ly p]iod1 ?is 0 attempt$ to be correct$ by int]polat+ a mon? ( #cj days e alt]nate ye>2 & ,h]odotus#bjc relates a conv]sation ( ,solon1 imply+ a /ill rud] mode ( #aba int]calation4 ,?is c h>dly be consid]$ z an improvem5t 9 ! ,greek cal5d> already describ$4 ,note #bjc3 ,b4 i4 c4 #ae4 ,! fir/ cycle :i* produc$ any ne> correspond5ce ( ! reckon+ ( ! moon & ! sun1 0 ! ,octat]is1 or p]iod ( #h ye>s3 #h ye>s ( #ced days1 toge!r ) #c mon?s ( #cj days ea*1 mak+ up 79 #ii lunations7 #bibb days2 :i* is exactly ! am\nt ( #h ye>s ( #cfe days ea*4 ,h5ce ?is p]iod w\ld answ] its purpose1 s f> z ! above l5g?s ( ! lun> & sol> cycles are exact2 & x might assume v>i\s =ms1 accord+ to ! mann] 9 :i* ! ?ree int]cal>y mon?s 7 di/ribut$4 ,! cu/om>y me?od 0 to add a ?irte5? mon? at ! end ( ! ?ird1 fif?1 & eigh? ye> ( ! cycle4 ,?is p]iod is ascrib$ to v>i\s p]sons & times2 probably diff]5t p]sons propos$ diff]5t =ms ( x4 ,dodwell places its introduction 9 ! #ei? ,olympiad1 or 9 ! #f? c5tury1 ,b4 ,c43 b ,idel] ?9ks ! a/ronomical k ( ! ,greeks ( t age 0 too limit$ to all[ ( su* a discov]y4 ,?is cycle1 h[ev]1 0 imp]fect4 ,! duration ( #ii lunations is some?+ m ?an #bibb days2 x is m ne>ly #bibc2 h5ce 9 #af ye>s !re 0 a defici5cy ( #c days1 ) reg>d to ! motions ( ! moon4 ,?is cycle ( #af ye>s 7,heccdecat]is71 ) #c int]polat$ days at ! end1 0 us$1 x is said1 to br+ ! calculation "r ) reg>d to ! moon2 b 9 ?is way ! orig9 ( ! ye> 0 displac$ ) reg>d to ! sun4 ,aft] #aj revolutions ( ?is cycle1 or #afj ye>s1 ! int]polat$ days w\ld am\nt to #cj1 & h5ce ! end ( ! lun> ye> w\ld be a mon? 9 advance ( ! end ( ! sol>4 ,by t]m9at+ ! lun> ye> at ! end ( ! prec$+ mon?1 ! two ye>s w\ld aga9 be br\ght into agreem5t3 & we h ?us a cycle ( #afj ye>s4#bac ,note #bac3 ,gem9us4 ,idel]4 ,?is cycle ( #afj ye>s1 h[ev]1 0 calculat$ f ! cycle ( #af ye>s2 & x 0 probably nev] us$ 9 civil reckon+2 :i* ! o!rs1 or at lea/ t ( #h ye>s1 appe> to h be54 ,! cycles ( #af & #afj ye>s 7 corrections ( ! cycle ( #h ye>s2 & 7 readily sugge/$1 :5 ! l5g? ( ! sol> & lun> p]iods became kn[n ) accuracy4 ,b a mu* m exact cycle1 indep5d5t ( ^!1 0 discov]$ & introduc$ by ,meton1#bbc #dcb ye>s ,b4 ,c4 ,?is cycle consi/$ ( #ai ye>s1 & is s correct & conv5i5t1 t x is 9 use among ourselves to ?is day4 ,! "t occupi$ by #ai ye>s1 & by #bce lunations1 is v ne>ly ! same2 #abb 7! =m] "t is less ?an #fidj days by #i h\rs1 ! latt]1 by #g h\rs74 ,h5ce1 if ! #ai ye>s be divid$ into #bce mon?s1 s z to agree ) ! *anges ( ! moon1 at ! end ( t p]iod ! same succession may beg9 aga9 ) great exactness4 ,note #bbc3 ,idel]1 ,hi/4 ,unt]s4 p4 #bjh4 ,9 ord] t #bce mon?s1 ( #cj & #bi days1 may make up #fidj days1 we mu/ h #abe ( ! =m]1 :i* 7 call$ full mon?s1 & #aaj ( ! latt]1 :i* 7 t]m$ holl[4 ,an artifice 0 us$ 9 ord] to di/ribute #aaj holl[ mon?s among #fidj days4 ,x w be f\nd t !re is a holl[ mon? = ea* #fc days ne>ly4 ,h5ce if we reckon #cj days to e mon?1 b at e #fc;d day leap ov] a day 9 ! reckon+1 we %all1 9 ! #ai ye>s1 omit #aaj days2 & ?is accord+ly 0 done4 ,?us ! #c;d day ( ! #c;d mon?1 ! #f? day ( ! #e? mon?1 ! #i? day ( ! #g?1 mu/ be omitt$1 s z to make ^! mon?s holl[4 ,( ! #ai ye>s1 sev5 mu/ consi/ ( #ac mon?s2 & x does n appe> to be kn[n accord+ to :at ord] ^! sev5 ye>s 7 select$4 ,"s say !y 7 ! #c;d1 #f?1 #h?1 #aa?1 #ad?1 #ag?1 & #ai?2 o!rs1 ! #c;d1 #e?1 #h?1 #aa?1 #ac?1 #af?1 & #ai?4 ,! ne> co9cid5ce ( ! sol> & lun> p]iods 9 ?is cycle ( #ai ye>s1 0 und\bt$ly a consid]able discov]y at ! "t :5 x 0 fir/ accompli%$4 ,x is n easy to trace ! way 9 :i* su* a discov]y 0 made at t "t2 = we d n ev5 "k ! mann] 9 :i* m5 !n record$ ! agreem5t or diff]5ce betwe5 ! cal5d> day & ! cele/ial ph5om5on :i* ought to correspond to x4 ,x is mo/ probable t ! l5g? ( ! mon? 0 obta9$ ) "s exactness by ! obs]vation ( eclipses1 at consid]able int]vals ( "t f ea* o!r2 = eclipses are v noticeable ph5om5a1 & mu/ h be5 v soon obs]v$ to occur only at new & full moon4#bcc ,note #bcc3 ,?ucyd4 vii4 #ej4 4 iv4 #eb1 4 ii4 #bh4 7 7 1 4 ,! exact l5g? ( a c]ta9 numb] ( mon?s be+ ?us kn[n1 ! discov]y ( a cycle :i* %\ld regulate ! cal5d> ) suffici5t accuracy w\ld be a bus9ess ( ari?metical skill1 & w\ld dep5d1 9 "p1 on ! exi/+ k ( ari?metical me?ods2 b 9 mak+ ! discov]y1 a natural ari?metical sagacity 0 probably m efficaci\s ?an me?od4 ,x is v possible t ! ,cycle ( ,meton is correct m ne>ly ?an its au?or 0 aw>e1 & #abc ne>ly ?an he c\ld asc]ta9 f any evid5ce & calculation kn[n to him4 ,x is s exact t x is /ill us$ 9 calculat+ ! new moon = ! "t ( ,ea/]2 & ! ,gold5 ,numb]1 :i* is spok5 ( 9 /at+ su* rules1 is ! numb] ( ?is ,cycle correspond+ to ! curr5t ye>4#bdc ,note #bdc3 ,! same cycle ( #ai ye>s has be5 us$ by ! ,*9ese = a v great l5g? ( "t2 _! civil ye> consi/+1 l t ( ! ,greeks1 ( mon?s ( #bi & #cj days4 ,! ,siamese also h ?is p]iod4 7,a/ron4 ,lib4 ,u4 ,k47 ,meton's ,cycle 0 correct$ a hundr$ ye>s lat] 7#ccj ,b4 ,c471 by ,calippus1 :o discov]$ ! error ( x by obs]v+ an eclipse ( ! moon six ye>s be=e ! dea? ( ,alex&]4#bec ,9 ?is correct$ p]iod1 f\r cycles ( #ai ye>s 7 tak51 & a day left out at ! end ( ! #gf ye>s1 9 ord] to make all[ance = ! h\rs by :i*1 z already obs]v$1 #fidj days are great] ?an #ai ye>s1 & ?an #bce lunations3 & ?is ,calippic p]iod is us$ 9 ,ptolemy's ,almage/1 9 /at+ obs]vations ( eclipses4 ,note #bec3 ,delamb4 ,a4 ,a4 p4 #ag4 ,! ,metonic & ,calippic p]iods und\bt$ly imply a v consid]able degree ( accuracy 9 ! k :i* ! a/ronom]s1 to :om !y are due1 _h ( ! l5g? ( ! mon?2 & ! fir/ is a v happy inv5tion = br++ ! sol> & lun> cal5d>s into agreem5t4 ,! ,roman ,cal5d>1 f :i* our own is d]iv$1 appe>s to h be5 a mu* less skilful contrivance ?an ! ,greek2 ?\gh s*ol>s are n agre$ on ! subject ( its con/ruction1 we c h>dly d\bt t mon?s1 9 ?is z 9 o!r cases1 7 int5d$ orig9ally to h a ref]5ce to ! moon4 ,9 :atev] mann] ! sol> & lun> motions 7 int5d$ to be reconcil$1 ! attempt seems altoge!r to h fail$1 & to h be5 soon ab&on$4 ,! ,roman mon?s1 bo? be=e & aft] ! ,julian correction1 7 portions ( ! ye>1 hav+ no ref]5ce to full & new moons2 & we1 hav+ adopt$ ?is division ( ! ye>1 h ?us1 9 our common cal5d>1 ! traces ( "o ( ! e>ly attempts ( mank9d to seize ! law ( ! succession ( cele/ial ph5om5a1 9 a case :]e ! attempt 0 a complete failure4 ,consid]$ z a "p ( ! progress ( our a/ronomical k1 improvem5ts 9 ! cal5d> d n (f] _m po9ts to our obs]vation1 b !y exhibit a few v important /eps4 ,cal5d>s :i*1 belong+ app>5tly to unsci5tific ages & nations1 possess a great degree ( accordance ) ! true motions ( ! sun & moon 7l #abd ! sol> cal5d> ( ! ,mexicans1 & ! lun> cal5d> ( ! ,greeks71 conta9 ! only record n[ extant ( discov]ies :i* mu/ h requir$ a great deal ( obs]vation1 ( ?\ght1 & probably ( "t4 ,! lat] improvem5ts 9 cal5d>s1 :i* take place :5 a/ronomical obs]vation has be5 att5tively pursu$1 are ( little consequ5ce to ! hi/ory ( sci5ce2 = !y are g5]ally f\nd$ on a/ronomical det]m9ations1 & are po/]ior 9 "t1 & inf]ior 9 accuracy1 to ! k on :i* !y dep5d4 ,b cycles ( correction1 :i* are bo? %ort & close to exactness1 l t ( ,meton1 may p]haps be ! orig9al =m ( ! k :i* !y imply2 & c]ta9ly require bo? accurate facts & sagaci\s ari?metical reason+s4 ,! discov]y ( su* a cycle mu/ always h ! appe>ance ( a happy guess1 l o!r discov]ies ( laws ( nature4 ,beyond ?is po9t1 ! int]e/ ( ! /udy ( cal5d>s1 z be>+ on our subject1 ceases3 !y may be consid]$ z belong+ r to ,art ?an to ,sci5ce2 r z an application ( a "p ( our k to ! uses ( life1 ?an a means or an evid5ce ( its ext5sion4 ,sect4 #f4--,! ,con/ellations4 ,,"s t5d5cy to consid] ! />s z =m$ into gr\ps1 is inevitable :5 m5 beg9 to att5d to !m2 b h[ m5 7 l$ to ! fanciful sy/em ( names ( ,/>s & ( ,con/ellations1 :i* we f9d to h prevail$ 9 e>ly times1 x is v difficult to det]m9e4 ,s+le />s1 & v close gr\ps1 z ! ,pleiades1 7 nam$ 9 ! "t ( ,hom] & ,hesiod1 & at a /ill e>li] p]iod1 z we f9d 9 ! book ( ,job4#bfc ,note #bfc3 ,job xxxviii4 #ca4 ,can/ ?\ b9d ! sweet influ5ces ( ,*ima 7! ,pleiades71 or loose ! b&s ( ,kesil 7,orion78 ,can/ ?\ br+ =? ,mazz>o? 7,sirius7 9 8 season8 or can/ ?\ guide ,a% 7or ,ais*7 7,arcturus7 ) 8 sons8 ,& ix4 #i4 ,:i* make? ,arcturus1 ,orion1 & ,pleiades1 & ! *amb]s ( ! s\?4 ,dupuis1 vi4 #ede1 ?9ks t ,ais* 0 1 ! goat & kids4 ,see ,hyde1 ,ulughbeigh4 ,two rem>kable circum/ances ) respect to ! ,con/ellations are1 fir/1 t !y appe> 9 mo/ cases to be arbitr>y comb9ations2 ! artificial figures :i* are made to include ! />s1 n hav+ any resemblance to _! obvi\s configurations2 & second1 t ^! figures1 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 are s f> simil>1 z to imply "s communication4 ,! arbitr>y nature ( ^! figures %[s t !y #abe 7 r ! "w ( ! imag9ative & my?ological t5d5cies ( man1 ?an ( m]e conv5i5ce & love ( arrangem5t4 ,! con/ellations1 says an a/ronom] ( our own "t1#bgc seem to h be5 almo/ purposely nam$ & del9eat$ to cause z mu* confusion & inconv5i5ce z possible4 ,innum]able snakes tw9e ?r\gh long & contort$ areas ( ! heav5s1 :]e no memory c foll[ !m3 be>s1 lions1 & fi%es1 l>ge & small1 nor!rn & s\!rn1 confuse all nom5clature4 ,a bett] sy/em ( con/ellations might h be5 a mat]ial help z an artificial memory4 ,:5 m5 indicate ! />s by figures1 borr[$ f obvi\s resemblances1 !y are l$ to comb9ations q diff]5t f ! receiv$ con/ellations4 ,?us ! common p 9 our own c\ntry f9d a wa9 or wagon1 or a pl\gh1 9 a portion ( ! great be>4#bhc ,note #bgc3 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el4 ,note #bhc3 ,s also ! ,greeks1 ,hom]1 ,il4 ,,xviii4 #dhg4 4 ,! ,nor!rn ,be> :i* (t ! ,wa9 !y call4 0 ! traditional "n2 1 t sugge/$ by ! =m4 ,! simil>ity ( ! con/ellations recogniz$ 9 diff]5t c\ntries is v rem>kable4 ,! ,*aldean1 ! ,egyptian1 & ! ,grecian skies h a resemblance :i* _c be ov]look$4 ,"s h conceiv$ t ?is resemblance may be trac$ also 9 ! ,indian & ,arabic con/ellations1 at lea/ 9 ^? ( ! zodiac4#bic ,b :ile ! figures are ! same1 ! names & traditions connect$ ) !m are diff]5t1 accord+ to ! hi/ories & localities ( ea* c\ntry2#cjc ! riv] among ! />s :i* ! ,greeks call$ ! ,eridanus1 ! ,egyptians ass]t$ to be ! ,nile4 ,"s conceive t ! ,signs ( ! ,zodiac1 or pa? along :i* ! sun & moon pass1 _h its divisions m>k$ by signs :i* _h a ref]5ce to ! c\rse ( ! seasons1 to ! motion ( ! sun1 or ! employm5ts ( ! husb&man4 ,if we take ! position ( ! heav5s1 :i*1 f ! k we n[ possess1 we are sure !y mu/ h _h #ae1jjj ye>s ago1 ! significance ( ! signs ( ! zodiac1 9 :i* ! sun 01 z ref]r$ to ! ,egyptian ye>1 becomes v m>k$1#cac & has l$ "s to suppose t ! zodiac 0 inv5t$ at su* a p]iod4 ,o!rs h reject$ ?is z an improbably great antiquity1 & h ?\ght x m likely t ! con/ellation assign$ to ea* season 0 t :i*1 at t season1 rose at ! beg9n+ ( ! night3 #abf ?us ! balance 7:i* is conceiv$ to designate ! equality ( days & nights7 0 plac$ among ! />s :i* rose 9 ! ev5+ :5 ! spr+ began3 ?is w\ld fix ! orig9 ( ^! signs #bejj ye>s be=e our era4 ,note #bic3 ,dupuis1 vi4 #edh4 ,! ,indian zodiac conta9s1 9 ! place ( our ,capricorn1 a ram & a fi%1 :i* proves ! resemblance )\t *ance ( mi/ake4 ,bailly1 i4 p4 #aeg4 ,note #cjc3 ,dupuis1 vi4 #edi4 ,note #cac3 ,laplace1 ,hi/4 ,a/ron4 p4 #h4 ,x is cle>1 z has already be5 said1 t ,fancy1 & probably ,sup]/ition1 _h a %>e 9 =m+ ! collection ( con/ellations4 ,x is c]ta9 t1 at an e>ly p]iod1 sup]/iti\s notions 7 associat$ ) ! />s4#cbc ,a/rology is ( v high antiquity 9 ! ,ea/4 ,! />s 7 suppos$ to influ5ce ! "* & de/9y ( man1 & to be 9 "s way connect$ ) sup]ior natures & p[]s4 ,note #cbc3 ,dupuis1 vi4 #edf4 ,we may1 ,i conceive1 look ^u ! =mation ( ! con/ellations1 & ! notions ?us connect$ ) !m1 z a v e>ly attempt to f9d a mean+ 9 ! relations ( ! />s2 & z an utt] failure4 ,! fir/ ef=t to associate ! appe>ances & motions ( ! skies by conceptions imply+ unity & connection1 0 made 9 a wrong direction1 z may v easily be suppos$4 ,in/ead ( consid]+ ! appe>ances only ) ref]5ce to space1 "t1 numb]1 9 a mann] purely rational1 a numb] ( o!r elem5ts1 imag9ation1 tradition1 hope1 fe>1 awe ( ! sup]natural1 belief 9 de/9y1 7 call$ into action4 ,man1 /ill "y1 z a philosoph] at lea/1 _h yet to le>n :at notions 8 successful guesses on ^! subjects mu/ involve1 & :at !y mu/ exclude4 ,at t p]iod1 no?+ c\ld be m natural or excusable ?an ?is ignorance2 b x is curi\s to see h[ long & h[ ob/9ately ! belief l+]$ 7if inde$ x be yet ext9ct7 t ! motions ( ! />s1 & ! dispositions & =tunes ( m51 may come "u "s common conceptions & laws1 by :i* a connection betwe5 ! "o & ! o!r may be e/abli%$4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 agree ) ^? :o consid] ,a/rology 9 ! e>ly ages z only a degrad$ ,a/ronomy1 ! abuse ( a m anci5t sci5ce4#ccc ,x 0 ! fir/ /ep to a/ronomy by lead+ to habits & means ( gr\p+ ph5om5a2 &1 aft] a :ile1 by %[+ t pictorial & my?ological relations among ! />s _h no v obvi\s value4 ,f t "t1 ! inductive process w5t on /eadily 9 ! true road1 "u ! guidance ( ideas ( space1 "t1 & numb]4 ,note #ccc3 ,ib4 vi4 #edf4 ,sect4 #g4--,! ,planets4 ,,:ile m5 7 becom+ famili> ) ! fix$ />s1 ! planets mu/ h attract$ _! notice4 ,v5us1 f h] brightness1 & #abg f h] accompany+ ! sun at no great di/ance1 & ?us appe>+ z ! morn+ & ev5+ />1 0 v conspicu\s4 ,py?agoras is said to h ma9ta9$ t ! ev5+ & morn+ /> are ! same body1 :i* c]ta9ly mu/ h be5 "o ( ! e>lie/ discov]ies on ?is subject2 & inde$ we c h>dly conceive m5 notic+ ! />s = a ye> or two )\t com+ to ?is conclusion4 ,jupit] & ,m>s1 sometimes /ill bright] ?an ,v5us1 7 also v noticeable4 ,saturn & ,m]cury 7 less s1 b 9 f9e climates !y & _! motion w\ld soon be detect$ by p]sons obs]vant ( ! heav5s4 ,to r$uce to any rule ! movem5ts ( ^! lum9>ies mu/ h tak5 "t & ?\ght2 probably be=e ?is 0 done1 c]ta9ly v e>ly1 ^! heav5ly bodies 7 br\ght m peculi>ly "u ^? views :i* we h notic$ z lead+ to a/rology4 ,at a "t beyond ! rea* ( c]ta9 hi/ory1 ! planets1 along ) ! sun & moon1 _h be5 arrang$ 9 a c]ta9 recogniz$ ord] by ! ,egyptians or "s o!r anci5t nation4 ,probably ?is arrangem5t _h be5 made accord+ to ! sl[ness ( _! motions among ! />s2 = ?\gh ! motion ( ea* is v v>iable1 ! gradation ( _! velocities is1 on ! :ole1 v manife/2 & ! diff]5t rate ( travell+ ( ! diff]5t planets1 & probably o!r circum/ances ( diff]5ce1 l$1 9 ! ready fancy ( e>ly times1 to ! attribution ( a peculi> "* to ea* lum9>y4 ,?us ,saturn 0 held to be ( a cold & gelid nature2 ,jupit]1 :o1 f 8 m rapid motion1 0 suppos$ to be l[] 9 place1 0 temp]ate2 ,m>s1 fi]y1 & ! l4#cdc ,note #cdc3 ,a*illes ,tatius 7,uranol4 pp4 #ace1 #acf71 gives ! ,grecian & ,egyptian names ( ! planets4 ,egyptian4 ,greek4 ,saturn ,jupit] ,m>s ,v5us ,m]cury ,x is n necess>y to dwell on ! details ( ^! speculations1 b we may notice a v rem>kable evid5ce ( _! antiquity & g5]ality 9 ! /ructure ( "o ( ! mo/ famili> ( our measures ( "t1 ! ,week4 ,?is di/ribution ( "t accord+ to p]iods ( sev5 days1 comes d[n to u1 z we le>n f ! ,jewi% scriptures1 f ! beg9n+ ( man's exi/5ce on ! e>?4 ,! same usage is f\nd ov] all ! ,ea/2 x exi/$ among ! ,arabians1 ,assyrians1 #abh ,egyptians4#cec ,! same week is f\nd 9 ,india among ! ,bram9s2 x has !re1 also1 its days m>k$ by ^? ( ! heav5ly bodies2 & x has be5 asc]ta9$ t ! same day has1 9 t c\ntry1 ! "n correspond+ ) its designation 9 o!r nations4 ,note #cec3 ,laplace1 ,hi/4 ,a/ron4 p4 #af4 ,! notion :i* l$ to ! usual designations ( ! days ( ! week is n easily unravell$4 ,! days ea* correspond to "o ( ! heav5ly bodies1 :i* 71 9 ! e>lie/ sy/ems ( ! _w1 conceiv$ to be ! foll[+1 enum]at+ !m 9 ! ord] ( _! remot5ess f ! e>?3#cfc ,saturn1 ,jupit]1 ,m>s1 ! ,sun1 ,v5us1 ,m]cury1 ! ,moon4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 ! receiv$ sy/ems plac$ ! sev5 lum9>ies 9 ! sev5 sph]es4 ,! k :i* 0 impli$ 9 ?is view1 & ! "t :5 x 0 obta9$1 we mu/ consid] h]eaft]4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ! names are assign$ to ! days ( ! week 7beg9n+ ) ,saturday7 is1 ,saturn1 ! ,sun1 ! ,moon1 ,m>s1 ,m]cury1 ,jupit]1 ,v5us2 & v>i\s acc\nts are giv5 ( ! mann] 9 :i* "o ( ^! ord]s is obta9$ f ! o!r2 all ! me?ods proce$+ ^u c]ta9 arbitr>y ari?metical processes1 connect$ 9 "s way ) a/rological views4 ,x is p]haps n wor? our :ile "h to exam9e fur!r ! /eps ( ?is process2 x w\ld be difficult to det]m9e ) c]ta9ty :y ! =m] ord] ( ! planets 0 adopt$1 & h[ & :y ! latt] 0 d$uc$ f x4 ,b !re is some?+ v rem>kable 9 ! univ]sality ( ! notions1 app>5tly s fanta/ic1 :i* h produc$ ?is result2 & we may probably consid] ! ,week1 ) ,laplace1#cgc z ! mo/ anci5t monum5t ( a/ronomical k4 ,?is p]iod has gone on )\t int]ruption or irregul>ity f ! e>lie/ record$ times to our own days1 trav]s+ ! ext5t ( ages & ! revolutions ( empires2 ! names ( ! anci5t deities :i* 7 associat$ ) ! />s h be5 replac$ by ^? ( ! objects ( ! wor%ip ( our ,teutonic ance/ors1 accord+ to _! views ( ! correspond5ce ( ! two my?ologies2 & ! ,quak]s1 9 reject+ ^! names ( days1 h ca/ aside ! mo/ anci5t exi/+ relic ( a/rological z well z idolatr\s sup]/ition4 ,note #cfc3 ,philol4 ,mus4 ,no4 #a4 ,note #cgc3 ,hi/4 ,a/4 p4 #ag4 ,sect4 #h4--,! ,circles ( ! ,sph]e4 ,,! inv5tions hi!rto notic$1 ?\gh und\bt$ly !y 7 /eps 9 a/ronomical k1 c h>dly be consid]$ z purely ab/ract & sci5tific speculations2 = ! exact reckon+ ( "t is "o ( #abi ! wants1 ev5 ( ! lea/ civiliz$ nations4 ,b ! di/ribution ( ! places & motions ( ! heav5ly bodies by means ( a cele/ial sph]e ) imag9>y l9es drawn ^u x1 is a /ep 9 speculative a/ronomy1 & 0 occasion$ & r5d]$ important by ! sci5tific prop5sities ( man4 ,x is n easy to say ) :om ?is notion orig9at$4 ,"s p>ts ( x are obvi\s4 ,! appe>ance ( ! sky naturally sugge/s ! idea ( a concave ,sph]e1 ) ! />s fix$ on its surface4 ,_! motions dur+ any "o night1 x w\ld be readily se51 might be repres5t$ by suppos+ ?is ,sph]e to turn r\nd a ,pole or ,axis2 = !re is a conspicu\s /> 9 ! heav5s :i* app>5tly /&s /ill 7! ,pole-/>72 all ! o!rs travel r\nd ?is 9 circles1 & keep ! same positions ) respect to ea* o!r4 ,?is /ation>y /> is e night ! same1 & 9 ! same place2 ! o!r />s also h ! same relative position2 b _! g5]al position at ! same "t ( night v>ies gradually f night to night1 s z to g ?r\gh its cycle ( appe>ances once a ye>4 ,all ?is w\ld obvi\sly agree ) ! supposition t ! sky is a concave sph]e or dome1 t ! />s h fix$ places on ?is sph]e1 & t x revolves p]petually & uni=mly ab\t ! ,pole or fix$ po9t4 ,b ?is supposition does n at all expla9 ! way 9 :i* ! appe>ances ( diff]5t nights succe$ ea* o!r4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 may be expla9$1 x appe>s1 by suppos+ ! sun also to move among ! />s on ! surface ( ! concave sph]e4 ,! sun by 8 brightness makes ! />s invisible :i* are on 8 side ( ! heav5s3 ?is we c easily believe2 = ! moon1 :5 bright1 also puts out all b ! l>ge/ />s2 & we see ! />s appe>+ 9 ! ev5+1 ea* 9 its place1 accord+ to _! degree ( spl5dor1 z fa/ z ! decl9+ light ( day all[s !m to become visible4 ,& z ! sun br+s day1 & 8 abs5ce night1 if he move ?r\gh ! circuit ( ! />s 9 a ye>1 we %all h1 9 ! c\rse ( t "t1 e "p ( ! />ry sph]e 9 succession pres5t$ to u z our nocturnal sky4 ,?is notion1 t ! sun moves r\nd among ! />s 9 a ye>1 is ! basis ( a/ronomy1 & a consid]able "p ( ! sci5ce is only ! developm5t & p>ticul>ization ( ?is g5]al conception4 ,x is n easy to asc]ta9 ei!r ! exact me?od by :i* ! pa? ( ! sun among ! />s 0 det]m9$1 or ! au?or & date ( ! discov]y4 ,t !re is "s difficulty 9 trac+ ! c\rse ( ! sun among ! />s w be cle>ly se51 :5 x is consid]$ t no #acj /> c ev] be se5 at ! same "t ) ! sun4 ,if ! :ole circuit ( ! sky be divid$ into twelve p>ts or signs1 x is e/imat$ by ,autolycus1 ! olde/ writ] on ^! subjects ^: works rema9 to u1#chc t ! />s :i* occupy "o ( ^! p>ts are absorb$ by ! sol> rays1 s t !y _c be se54 ,h5ce ! />s :i* are se5 ne>e/ to ! place ( ! sett+ & ! ris+ sun 9 ! ev5+ & 9 ! morn+1 are di/ant f him by ! half ( a sign3 ! ev5+ />s be+ to ! we/1 & ! morn+ />s to ! ea/ ( him4 ,if ! obs]v] _h previ\sly obta9$ a k ( ! places ( all ! pr9cipal />s1 he might 9 ?is way det]m9e ! position ( ! sun ea* night1 & ?us trace 8 pa? 9 a ye>4 ,note #chc3 ,delamb4 ,a4 ,a4 p4 xiii4 ,9 ?is1 or "s su* way1 ! sun's pa? 0 det]m9$ by ! e>ly a/ronom]s ( ,egypt4 ,?ales1 :o is m5tion$ z ! fa!r ( ,greek a/ronomy1 probably le>nt among ! ,egyptians ! results ( su* speculations1 & introduc$ !m into 8 own c\ntry4 ,8 k1 inde$1 mu/ h be5 a great deal m advanc$ ?an t :i* we are n[ describ+1 if x be true1 z is ass]t$1 t he pr$ict$ an eclipse4 ,b 8 hav+ done s is n v consi/5t ) :at we are told ( ! /eps :i* 8 successors _h /ill to make4 ,! ,circle ( ! ,signs1 9 :i* ! sun moves among ! />s1 is obliquely situat$ ) reg>d to ! circles 9 :i* ! />s move ab\t ! poles4 ,pl9y#cic /ates t ,anaxim&]1#djc a s*ol> ( ,?ales1 0 ! fir/ p]son :o po9t$ out ?is obliquity1 & ?us1 z he says1 op5$ ! gate ( nature4 ,c]ta9ly1 ! p]son :o fir/ _h a cle> view ( ! nature ( ! sun's pa? 9 ! cele/ial sph]e1 made t /ep :i* l$ to all ! re/2 b x is difficult to conceive t ! ,egyptians & ,*aldeans _h n already advanc$ s f>4 ,note #cic3 ,lib4 ii4 c4 7viii47 ,note #djc3 ,plut>*1 ,de ,plac4 ,phil4 lib4 ii4 cap4 xii4 says ,py?agoras 0 ! au?or ( ?is discov]y4 ,! diurnal motion ( ! cele/ial sph]e1 & ! motion ( ! moon 9 ! circle ( ! signs1 gave rise to a ma!matical sci5ce1 ! ,doctr9e ( ! ,sph]e1 :i* 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ bran*es ( appli$ ma!matics4 ,a numb] ( te*nical conceptions & t]ms 7 soon introduc$4 ,! ,sph]e ( ! heav5s 0 conceiv$ to be complete1 ?\gh we see b a "p ( x2 x 0 suppos$ to turn ab\t ! visible pole & ano!r pole opposite to ?is1 & ^! poles 7 connect$ by an imag9>y ,axis4 ,! circle :i* divid$ ! sph]e exactly midway betwe5 ^! poles 0 call$ ! ,equator 774 #aca ,! two circles p>allel to ?is :i* b\nd$ ! sun's pa? among ! />s 7 call$ ,tropics 771 because ! sun turns back aga9 t[>ds ! equator :5 he rea*es !m4 ,! />s :i* nev] set are b\nd$ by a circle call$ ! ,arctic ,circle 71 f 1 ! ,be>1 ! con/ellation to :i* "s ( ! pr9cipal />s )9 t circle belong47 ,a circle ab\t ! opposite pole is call$ ,ant>ctic1 & ! />s :i* are )9 x c nev] rise to u4#dac ,! sun's pa? or circle ( ! signs is call$ ! ,zodiac1 or circle ( animals2 ! po9ts :]e ?is circle meets ! equator are ! ,equ9octial ,po9ts1 ! days & nights be+ equal :5 ! sun is 9 !m2 ! ,sol/itial ,po9ts are ^? :]e ! sun's pa? t\*es ! tropics2 8 motion to ! s\? or to ! nor? ceases :5 he is !re1 & he appe>s 9 t respect to /& /ill4 ,! ,colures 71 mutilat$7 are circles :i* pass ?r\gh ! poles & ?r\gh ! equ9octial & sol/itial po9ts2 !y h _! "n because !y are only visible 9 "p1 a portion ( !m be+ bel[ ! horizon4 ,note #dac3 ,! ,arctic & ,ant>ctic ,circles ( mod]n a/ronom]s are diff]5t f ^!4 ,! ,horizon 77 is commonly und]/ood z ! b\nd>y ( ! visible e>? & heav54 ,9 ! doctr9e ( ! sph]e1 ?is b\nd>y is a great circle1 t is1 a circle ( :i* ! plane passes ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! sph]e2 &1 !re=e1 an entire hemisph]e is always above ! horizon4 ,! t]m occurs = ! fir/ "t 9 ! "w ( ,euclid1 call$ ,phnom5a 774 ,we possess two treatises writt5 by ,autolycus#dbc 7:o liv$ ab\t #cjj ,b4 ,c47 :i* trace d$uctively ! results ( ! doctr9e ( ! sph]e4 ,suppos+ its diurnal motion to be uni=m1 9 a "w entitl$ 1 ,on ! ,mov+ ,sph]e1 he demon/rates v>i\s prop]ties ( ! diurnal ris+s1 sett+s1 & motions ( ! />s4 ,9 ano!r "w1 1 ,on ,ris+s & ,sett+s1#dcc tacitly assum+ ! sun's motion 9 8 circle to be uni=m1 he proves c]ta9 propositions1 ) reg>d to ^? ris+s & sett+s ( ! />s1 :i* take place at ! same "t :5 ! sun rises & sets1#ddc or vice v]s2#dec & also _! app>5t ris+s & sett+s :5 !y cease to be visible aft] sunset1 or beg9 to be visible aft] sunrise4#dfc #acb ,sev]al ( ! propositions conta9$ 9 ! =m] ( ^! treatises are /ill necess>y to be und]/ood1 z fundam5tal p>ts ( a/ronomy4 ,note #dbc3 ,delambre1 ,a/ron4 ,anci5ne1 p4 #ai4 ,note #dcc3 ,delambre1 ,a/ron4 ,anc4 p4 #be4 ,note #ddc3 ,cosmical ris+ & sett+4 ,note #dec3 ,acronycal ris+ & sett+2 71 happ5+ at ! extremity ( ! night47 ,note #dfc3 ,heliacal ris+ & sett+4 ,! "w ( ,euclid1 j m5tion$1 is ( ! same k9d4 ,delambre#dgc f9ds 9 x evid5ce t ,euclid 0 m]ely a book-a/ronom]1 :o _h nev] obs]v$ ! heav5s4 ,note #dgc3 ,a/4 ,anc4 p4 #ec4 ,we may "h rem>k ! fir/ in/ance ( t :i* we %all f9d abundantly illu/rat$ 9 e "p ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce2 t man is prone to become a d$uctive reason]2--t z soon z he obta9s pr9ciples :i* c be trac$ to details by logical consequ5ce1 he sets ab\t =m+ a body ( sci5ce1 by mak+ a sy/em ( su* reason+s4 ,geometry has always be5 a favorite mode ( ex]cis+ ?is prop5sity3 & t sci5ce1 along ) ,trigonometry1 ,plane & ,sph]ical1 to :i* ! e>ly problems ( a/ronomy gave rise1 h1 up to ! pres5t day1 be5 a con/ant field = ! ex]cise ( ma!matical +5uity2 a few simple a/ronomical tru?s be+ assum$ z ! basis ( ! reason+4 ,sect4 #i4--,! ,globul> ,=m ( ! ,e>?4 ,,! e/abli%m5t ( ! globul> =m ( ! e>? is an important /ep 9 a/ronomy1 = x is ! fir/ ( ^? convictions1 directly oppos$ to ! app>5t evid5ce ( ! s5ses1 :i* a/ronomy irresi/ibly proves4 ,to make m5 believe t up & d[n are diff]5t directions 9 diff]5t places2 t ! sea1 :i* seems s level1 is1 9 fact1 convex2 t ! e>?1 :i* appe>s to re/ on a solid f\ndation1 is1 9 fact1 n support$ at all2 are great triumphs bo? ( ! p[] ( discov]+ & ! p[] ( conv9c+4 ,we may readily all[ ?is1 :5 we recollect h[ rec5tly ! doctr9e ( ! antipodes1 or ! exi/5ce ( inhabitants ( ! e>?1 :o /& on ! opposite side ( x1 ) _! feet turn$ t[>ds ours1 0 consid]$ bo? mon/r\s & h]etical4 ,yet ! diff]5t positions ( ! horizon at diff]5t places1 necess>ily l$ ! /ud5t ( sph]ical a/ronomy t[>ds ?is notion ( ! e>? z a r\nd body4 ,anaxim&]#dhc is said by "s to h held ! e>? to be globul>1 & to be deta*$ or susp5d$2 he is also /at$ to h con/ruct$ a sph]e1 on :i* 7 %[n ! ext5t ( l& & wat]4 ,z1 h[ev]1 we d n "k ! argum5ts ^u :i* he ma9ta9$ ! e>?'s globul> =m1 we _c judge ( ! #acc value ( 8 op9ion2 x may h be5 no bett] f\nd$ ?an a diff]5t op9ion ascrib$ to him by ,la]tius1 t ! e>? _h ! %ape ( a pill>4 ,probably1 ! au?ors ( ! doctr9e ( ! globul> =m ( ! e>? 7 l$ to x1 z we h said1 by obs]v+ ! diff]5t height ( ! pole at diff]5t places4 ,!y w\ld f9d t ! space :i* !y pass$ ov] f nor? to s\? on ! e>?1 0 proportional to ! *ange ( place ( ! horizon 9 ! cele/ial sph]e2 & z ! horizon is1 at e place1 9 ! direction ( ! e>?'s app>5tly level surface1 ?is obs]vation w\ld naturally sugge/ to !m ! op9ion t ! e>? is plac$ )9 ! cele/ial sph]e1 z a small globe 9 ! middle ( a mu* l>g] "o4 ,note #dhc3 ,see ,bruck]1 ,hi/4 ,phil4 vol4 i4 p4 #dhf4 ,we f9d ?is doctr9e s di/9ctly insi/$ on by ,ari/otle1 t we may almo/ look on him z ! e/abli%] ( x4#dic ,z to ! figure ( ! e>?1 x mu/ necess>ily be sph]ical4 ,?is he proves1 fir/ by ! t5d5cy ( ?+s1 9 all places1 d[nw>ds4 ,he !n adds1#ejc ,&1 moreov]1 f ! ph5om5a accord+ to ! s5se3 = if x 7 n s1 ! eclipses ( ! moon w\ld n h su* sections z !y h4 ,= 9 ! configurations 9 ! c\rse ( a mon?1 ! defici5t "p takes all diff]5t %apes2 x is /raight1 & concave1 & convex2 b 9 eclipses x always has ! l9e ( division convex2 :]e=e1 s9ce ! moon is eclips$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! int]position ( ! e>?1 ! p]iph]y ( ! e>? mu/ be ! cause ( ?is by hav+ a sph]ical =m4 ,& aga91 f ! appe>ances ( ! />s1 x is cle>1 n only t ! e>? is r\nd1 b t its size is n v l>ge3 = :5 we make a small removal to ! s\? or ! nor?1 ! circle ( ! horizon becomes palpably diff]5t1 s t ! />s ov]head und]go a great *ange1 & are n ! same to ^? t travel to ! nor? & to ! s\?4 ,= "s />s are se5 9 ,egypt or at ,cyprus1 b are n se5 9 ! c\ntries to ! nor? ( ^!2 & ! />s t 9 ! nor? are visible :ile !y make a complete circuit1 !re und]go a sett+4 ,s t f ?is x is manife/1 n only t ! =m ( ! e>? is r\nd1 b also t x is a "p ( n a v l>ge sph]e3 = o!rwise ! diff]5ce w\ld n be s obvi\s to p]sons mak+ s small a *ange ( place4 ,:]e=e we may judge t ^? p]sons :o connect ! region 9 ! neighborhood ( ! pill>s ( ,h]cules ) t t[>ds ,india1 & :o ass]t t 9 ?is way ! sea is ,,"o1 d n ass]t ?+s v improbable4 ,!y confirm ?is conjecture moreov] by ! #acd elephants1 :i* are said to be ( ! same species 77 t[>ds ea* extreme2 z if ?is circum/ance 0 a consequ5ce ( ! conjunction ( ! extremes4 ,! ma!maticians1 :o try to calculate ! measure ( ! circumf]5ce1 make x am\nt to #djj1jjj /adia2 :5ce we collect t ! e>? is n only sph]ical1 b is n l>ge comp>$ ) ! magnitude ( ! o!r />s4 ,note #dic3 ,ari/4 de ,clo1 lib4 ii4 cap4 xiv4 ed4 ,casaub4 p4 #bij4 ,note #ejc3 p4 #bia ,c4 ,:5 ?is notion 0 once sugge/$1 x 0 def5d$ & confirm$ by su* argum5ts z we f9d 9 lat] writ]s3 = in/ance1#eac t ! t5d5cy ( all ?+s 0 to fall to ! place ( heavy bodies1 & t ?is place be+ ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 ! :ole e>? _h no su* t5d5cy2 t ! inequalities on ! surface 7 s small z n mat]ially to affect ! %ape ( s va/ a mass2 t drops ( wat] naturally =m !mselves into figures ) a convex surface2 t ! end ( ! ocean w\ld fall if x 7 n r\nd$ (f2 t we see %ips1 :5 !y g out to sea1 disappe>+ d[nw>ds1 :i* %[s ! surface to be convex4 ,^! are ! argum5ts /ill employ$ 9 impress+ ! doctr9es ( a/ronomy ^u ! /ud5t ( our own days2 & ?us we f9d t1 ev5 at ! e>ly p]iod ( :i* we are n[ speak+1 tru?s _h begun to accumulate :i* =m a "p ( our pres5t treasures4 ,note #eac3 ,pl9y1 ,nat4 ,hi/4 ii4 ,,lxv4 ,sect4 #aj4--,! ,phases ( ! ,moon4 ,,:5 m5 _h =m$ a /eady notion ( ! ,moon z a solid body1 revolv+ ab\t ! e>?1 !y _h only fur!r to conceive x sph]ical1 & to suppose ! sun to be beyond ! region ( ! moon1 & !y w\ld f9d t !y _h obta9$ an explanation ( ! v>y+ =ms :i* ! bright "p ( ! moon assumes 9 ! c\rse ( a mon?4 ,= ! convex side ( ! cresc5t-moon1 & h] full edge :5 %e is gibb\s1 are always turn$ t[>ds ! sun4 ,& ?is explanation1 once sugge/$1 w\ld be confirm$1 ! m x 0 exam9$4 ,= in/ance1 if !re be ne> u a sph]ical /one1 on :i* ! sun is %9+1 & if we place ourselves s t ?is /one & ! moon are se5 9 ! same direction 7! moon appe>+ j ov] ! top ( ! /one71 we %all f9d t ! visible "p ( ! /one1 :i* is !n illum9at$ by ! sun1 is exactly simil> 9 =m to ! moon1 at :atev] p]iod ( h] *anges %e may be4 ,! /one & ! moon be+ 9 ! same position ) respect to u1 & bo? be+ enlight5$ by ! sun1 ! bright p>ts are ! same 9 figure2 #ace ! only diff]5ce is1 t ! d>k "p ( ! moon is usually n visible at all4 ,?is doctr9e is ascrib$ to ,anaxim&]4 ,ari/otle 0 fully aw>e ( x4#ebc ,x c\ld n well escape ! ,*aldeans & ,egyptians1 if !y speculat$ at all ab\t ! causes ( ! appe>ances 9 ! heav5s4 ,note #ebc3 ,probl4 ,cap4 ,,xv4 ,art4 #g4 ,sect4 #aa4--;,eclipses4 ,,eclipses ( ! sun & moon 7 f ! e>lie/ tunes reg>d$ ) a peculi> int]e/4 ,! notions ( sup]human influ5ces & relations1 :i*1 z we h se51 7 associat$ ) ! lum9>ies ( ! sky1 made m5 look ) al>m at any sudd5 & /rik+ *ange 9 ^? objects2 & z ! con/ant & /eady c\rse ( ! cele/ial revolutions 0 contemplat$ ) a feel+ ( admiration & awe1 any m>k$ int]ruption & deviation 9 ?is c\rse1 0 reg>d$ ) surprise & t]ror4 ,?is appe>s to be ! case ) all nations at an e>ly /age ( _! civilization4 ,?is impression w\ld cause ,eclipses to be not$ & rememb]$2 & accord+ly we f9d t ! records ( ,eclipses are ! e>lie/ a/ronomical in=mation :i* we possess4 ,:5 m5 _h discov]$ "s ( ! laws ( succession ( o!r a/ronomical ph5om5a1 = in/ance1 ( ! usual appe>ances ( ! moon & sun1 x might !n occur to !m t ^! unusual appe>ances also might probably be gov]n$ by "s rule4 ,! se>* aft] ?is rule 0 successful at an e>ly p]iod4 ,! ,*aldeans 7 able to pr$ict ,eclipses ( ! ,moon4 ,?is !y did1 probably1 by means ( _! ,cycle ( #bbc mon?s1 or ab\t #ah ye>s2 = at ! end ( ?is "t1 ! eclipses ( ! moon beg9 to return1 at ! same int]vals & 9 ! same ord] z at ! beg9n+4#ecc ,probably ?is 0 ! fir/ in/ance ( ! pr$iction ( peculi> a/ronomical ph5om5a4 ,! ,*9ese h1 inde$1 a leg5d1 9 :i* x is relat$ t a sol> eclipse happ5$ 9 ! reign ( ,t*ongkang1 above #bjjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 & t ! emp]or 0 s mu* irritat$ aga9/ two great (fic]s ( /ate1 :o _h neglect$ to pr$ict ?is eclipse1 t he put !m to dea?4 ,b ?is _c be accept$ z a real ev5t3 =1 dur+ ! next t5 c5turies1 we f9d no s+le obs]vation or fact connect$ ) a/ronomy 9 ! ,*9ese #acf hi/ories2 & _! a/ronomy has nev] advanc$ beyond a v rude & imp]fect condition4 ,note #ecc3 ,! eclipses ( ! sun are m difficult to calculate2 s9ce !y dep5d ^u ! place ( ! spectator on ! e>?4 ,we c only conjecture ! mode 9 :i* ! ,*aldeans discov]$ _! ,p]iod ( #ah ye>s2 & we may make v diff]5t suppositions ) reg>d to ! degree ( sci5ce by :i* !y 7 l$ to x4 ,we may suppose1 ) ,delambre1#edc t !y c>efully record$ ! eclipses :i* happ5$1 & !n1 by ! inspection ( _! regi/]s1 discov]$ t ^? ( ! moon recurr$ aft] a c]ta9 p]iod4 ,or we may suppose1 ) o!r au?ors1 t !y s$ul\sly det]m9$ ! motions ( ! moon1 & hav+ obta9$ ^! ) consid]able accuracy1 s\ght & f\nd a p]iod :i* %\ld include cycles ( ^! motions4 ,?is latt] mode ( proce$+ w\ld imply a consid]able degree ( k4 ,note #edc3 ,a4 ,a4 p4 #bab4 ,x appe>s probable r t su* a p]iod 0 discov]$ by notic+ ! recurr5ce ( eclipses1 ?an by /udy+ ! moon's motions4 ,aft] #fehe days1 or #bbc lunations1 ! same eclipses ne>ly w recur4 ,x is n conte/$ t ! ,*aldeans 7 acqua9t$ ) ?is p]iod1 :i* !y call$ ,s>os2 or t !y calculat$ eclipses by means ( x4 ,sect4 #ab4--,sequel to ! ,e>ly ,/ages ( ,a/ronomy4 ,,e /age ( sci5ce has its tra9 ( practical applications & sy/ematic inf]5ces1 aris+ bo? f ! dem&s ( conv5i5ce & curiosity1 & f ! pleasure :i*1 z we h already said1 +5u\s & active-m9d$ m5 feel 9 ex]cis+ ! process ( d$uction4 ,! e>lie/ condition ( a/ronomy1 9 :i* x c be look$ ^u z a sci5ce1 exhibits sev]al examples ( su* applications & inf]5ces1 ( :i* we may m5tion a few4 ,pr$iction ( ,eclipses4--,! ,cycles :i* s]v$ to keep 9 ord] ! ,cal5d> ( ! e>ly nations ( antiquity1 9 "s in/ances enabl$ !m also1 z has j be5 /at$1 to pr$ict ,eclipses2 & ?is application ( k necess>ily excit$ great notice4 ,cleom$es1 9 ! "t ( ,augu/us1 says1 ,we nev] see an eclipse happ5 :i* has n be5 pr$ict$ by ^? :o made use ( ! ,tables4 7 47 ,t]re/rial ,zones4--,! globul> =m ( ! e>? be+ ass5t$ to1 ! doctr9e ( ! sph]e 0 appli$ to ! e>? z well z ! heav5s2 & ! e>?'s surface 0 divid$ by v>i\s imag9>y #acg circles2 among ! re/1 ! equator1 ! tropics1 & circles1 at ! same di/ance f ! poles z ! tropics are f ! equator4 ,"o ( ! curi\s consequ5ces ( ?is division 0 ! assumption t !re mu/ be "s m>k$ diff]5ce 9 ! /ripes or zones into :i* ! e>?'s surface 0 ?us divid$4 ,9 go+ to ! s\?1 ,europeans f\nd c\ntries hott] & hott]1 9 go+ to ! nor?1 cold] & cold]2 & x 0 suppos$ t ! space betwe5 ! tropical circles mu/ be un9habitable f heat1 & t )9 ! pol> circles1 aga91 un9habitable f cold4 ,?is fancy 01 z we n[ "k1 entirely unf\nd$4 ,b ! pr9ciple ( ! globul> =m ( ! e>?1 :5 dealt ) by means ( sph]ical geometry1 l$ to _m true & important propositions conc]n+ ! l5g?s ( days & nights at diff]5t places4 ,^! propositions /ill =m a "p ( our ,elem5t>y ,a/ronomy4 ,gnomonic4--,ano!r important result ( ! doctr9e ( ! sph]e 0 ,gnomonic or ,diall+4 ,anaxim5es is said by ,pl9y to h fir/ taught ?is art 9 ,greece2 & bo? he & ,anaxim&] are report$ to h erect$ ! fir/ dial at ,lac$emon4 ,_m ( ! anci5t dials rema9 to u2 "s ( ^! are ( complex =ms1 & mu/ h requir$ great +5uity & consid]able geometrical k 9 _! con/ruction4 ,measure ( ! ,sun's ,di/ance4--,! explanation ( ! phases ( ! moon l$ to no result s rem>kable z ! attempt ( ,ari/>*us ( ,samos to obta9 f ?is doctr9e a measure ( ! ,di/ance ( ! ,sun z comp>$ ) t ( ! ,moon4 ,if ! moon 0 a p]fectly smoo? sph]e1 :5 %e 0 exactly midway betwe5 ! new & full 9 position 7t is1 a quadrant f ! sun71 %e w\ld be some:at m ?an a half moon2 & ! place :5 %e 0 di*otomiz$1 t is1 0 an exact semicircle1 ! bright "p be+ b\nd$ by a /raight l9e1 w\ld dep5d ^u ! sun's di/ance f ! e>?4 ,ari/>*us endeavor$ to fix ! exact place ( ?is ,di*otomy2 b ! irregul>ity ( ! edge :i* b\nds ! bright "p ( ! moon1 & ! difficulty ( measur+ ) accuracy1 by means !n 9 use1 ei!r ! precise "t :5 ! b\nd>y 0 mo/ ne>ly a /raight l9e1 or ! exact di/ance ( ! moon f ! sun at t "t1 r5d]$ 8 conclusion false & valueless4 ,he collect$ t ! sun is at #ah times ! di/ance ( ! moon f u2 we n[ "k t he is at #djj times ! moon's di/ance4 ,x w\ld be easy to dwell long] on subjects ( ?is k9d2 b we h already p]haps ent]$ too mu* 9 detail4 ,we h be5 #ach tempt$ to d ?is by ! int]e/ :i* ! ma!matical _s ( ! ,greeks gave to ! e>lie/ a/ronomical discov]ies1 :5 ^! 7 ! subjects ( _! reason+s2 b we mu/ n[ proce$ to contemplate !m engag$ 9 a wor?i] employm5t1 namely1 9 add+ to ^! discov]ies4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,hipp>*us4 ,,)\t pret5d+ t we h exhau/$ ! consequ5ces ( ! elem5t>y discov]ies :i* we h enum]at$1 we n[ proce$ to consid] ! nature & circum/ances ( ! next great discov]y :i* makes an ,epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy2 & ?is we %all f9d to be ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles & ,ecc5trics4 ,be=e1 h[ev]1 we relate ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is !ory1 we mu/1 accord+ to ! g5]al plan we h m>k$ out1 notice "s ( ! conjectures & attempts by :i* x 0 prec$$1 & ! gr[+ acqua9tance ) facts1 :i* made ! want ( su* an explanation felt4 ,9 ! /eps previ\sly made 9 a/ronomical k1 no +5uity _h be5 requir$ to devise ! view :i* 0 adopt$4 ,! motions ( ! />s & sun 7 mo/ naturally & almo/ irresi/ibly conceiv$ z ! results ( motion 9 a revolv+ sph]e2 ! indications ( position :i* we obta9 f diff]5t places on ! e>?'s surface1 :5 cle>ly comb9$1 obvi\sly imply a globul> %ape4 ,9 ^! cases1 ! fir/ conjectures1 ! supposition ( ! simple/ =m1 ( ! mo/ uni=m motion1 requir$ no aft]-correction4 ,b ?is manife/ simplicity1 ?is easy & obvi\s explanation1 did n apply to ! movem5t ( all ! heav5ly bodies4 ,! ,planets1 ! w&]+ />s1 c\ld n be s easily und]/ood2 ! motion ( ea*1 z ,cic]o says1 und]go+ v rem>kable *anges 9 its c\rse1 go+ be=e & beh9d1 quick] & sl[]1 appe>+ 9 ! ev5+1 b gradually lo/ !re1 & em]g+ aga9 9 ! morn+4#eec ,a cont9u$ att5tion to ^! />s w\ld1 h[ev]1 #aci detect a k9d ( intricate regul>ity 9 _! motions1 :i* might naturally be describ$ z a dance4 ,! ,*aldeans are /at$ by ,diodorus#efc to h obs]v$ assidu\sly ! ris+s & sett+s ( ! planets1 f ! top ( ! temple ( ,belus4 ,by do+ ?is1 !y w\ld f9d ! times 9 :i* ! =w>d & backw>d movem5ts ( ,saturn1 ,jupit]1 & ,m>s recur2 & also ! "t 9 :i* !y come r\nd to ! same "p ( ! heav5s4#egc ,v5us & ,m]cury nev] rec$e f> f ! sun1 & ! int]vals :i* elapse :ile ei!r ( !m leaves its greate/ di/ance f ! sun & returns aga9 to ! greate/ di/ance on ! same side1 w\ld easily be obs]v$4 ,note #eec3 ,cic4 de ,nat4 ,d4 lib4 ii4 p4 #dej4 ,ea qu ,saturni /ella dicitur1 que a ,grcis nom9atur1 qu a t]ra abe/ plurimum1 xxx f]e annis cursum suum conficit2 9 quo cursu multa mirabilit] effici5s1 tum antec$5do1 tum ret>d&o1 tum vesp]t9is temporibus delitesc5do1 tum matut9is se rursum ap]i5do1 nihil immutat sempit]nis sculorum tatibus1 qu9 eadem iisdem temporibus efficiat4 ,& s ( ! o!r planets4 ,note #efc3 ,a4 ,a4 i4 p4 #d4 ,note #egc3 ,pl94 ,h4 ,n4 ii4 p4 #bjd4 ,probably ! mann] 9 :i* ! motions ( ! planets 7 orig9ally r$uc$ to rule 0 some?+ l ! foll[+3--,9 ab\t #cj ( our ye>s1 ,saturn goes #bi times ?r\gh 8 ,anomaly1 t is1 ! succession ( v>i$ motions by :i* he sometimes goes =w>ds & sometimes backw>ds among ! />s4 ,dur+ ?is "t1 he goes once r\nd ! heav5s1 & returns ne>ly to ! same place4 ,?is is ! cycle ( 8 app>5t motions4 ,p]haps ! ea/]n nations cont5t$ !mselves ) ?us ref]r+ ^! motions to cycles ( "t1 s z to det]m9e _! recurr5ce4 ,some?+ ( ?is k9d 0 done at an e>ly p]iod1 z we h se54 ,b ! ,greeks soon attempt$ to frame to !mselves a s5sible image ( ! me*anism by :i* ^! complex motions 7 produc$2 nor did !y f9d ?is difficult4 ,v5us1 = in/ance1 :o1 ^u ! :ole1 moves f we/ to ea/ among ! />s1 is se51 at c]ta9 int]vals1 to return or move retrograde a %ort way back f ea/ to we/1 !n to become = a %ort "t /ation>y1 !n to turn aga9 & resume h] direct motion we/w>d1 & s on4 ,n[ ?is c be expla9$ by suppos+ t %e is plac$ 9 ! rim ( a :eel1 :i* is turn$ edgeways to u1 & ( :i* ! c5tre turns r\nd 9 ! heav5s f we/ to ea/1 :ile ! :eel1 c>ry+ ! planet 9 its motion1 moves r\nd its own c5tre4 ,9 ?is way ! motion ( ! :eel ab\t its c5tre1 w\ld1 9 "s situations1 c\nt]balance ! g5]al motion ( ! c5tre1 & make ! planet retrograde1 :ile1 on ! :ole1 ! we/]ly motion w\ld prevail4 ,j z if we suppose t a p]son1 hold+ a lamp 9 8 h& 9 ! d>k1 & at a #adj di/ance1 s t ! lamp alone is visible1 %\ld run on turn+ himself r\nd2 we %\ld see ! light sometimes /ation>y1 sometimes retrograde1 b on ! :ole progressive4 ,a me*anism ( ?is k9d 0 imag9$ = ea* ( ! planets1 & ! :eels ( :i* we h spok5 7 9 ! end call$ ,epicycles4 ,! application ( su* me*anism to ! planets appe>s to h aris5 9 ,greece ab\t ! "t ( ,ari/otle4 ,9 ! works ( ,plato we f9d a /rong ta/e = ?is k9d ( me*anical speculation4 ,9 ! t5? book ( ! ,polity1 we h ! apologue ( ,alc9us ! ,pamphylian1 :o1 be+ suppos$ to be kill$ 9 battle1 reviv$ :5 he 0 plac$ on ! fun]al pyre1 & relat$ :at he _h se5 dur+ 8 trance4 ,among o!r revelations1 he beheld ! ma*9]y by :i* all ! cele/ial bodies revolve4 ,! axis ( ^! revolutions is ! adamant9e di/aff :i* ,de/9y holds betwe5 h] knees2 on ?is are fix$1 by means ( diff]5t sockets1 flat r+s1 by :i* ! planets are c>ri$4 ,! ord] & magnitude ( ^! sp9dles are m9utely detail$4 ,also1 9 ! ,epilogue to ! ,laws 7,ep9omis71 he aga9 describes ! v>i\s movem5ts ( ! sky1 s z to %[ a di/9ct acqua9tance ) ! g5]al "* ( ! planet>y motions2 &1 aft] speak+ ( ! ,egyptians & ,syrians z ! orig9al cultivators ( su* k1 he adds "s v rem>kable exhortations to 8 c\ntrym5 to prosecute ! subject4 ,:atev] we ,greeks1 he says1 receive f ! b>b>ians1 we improve & p]fect2 !re is good hope & promise1 !re=e1 t ,greeks w c>ry ?is k f> beyond t :i* 0 introduc$ f abroad4 ,to ?is task1 h[ev]1 he looks ) a due appreciation ( ! qualities & prep>ation :i* x requires4 ,an a/ronom] mu/ be1 he says1 ! wise/ ( m52 8 m9d mu/ be duly discipl9$ 9 y\?2 especially is ma!matical /udy necess>y2 bo? an acqua9tance ) ! doctr9e ( numb]1 & also ) t o!r bran* ( ma!matics1 :i*1 closely connect$ z x is ) ! sci5ce ( ! heav5s1 we v absurdly call geometry1 ! measurem5t ( ! e>?4#ehc ,note #ehc3 ,ep9omis1 pp4 #ihh1 #iij4 ,^? anticipations 7 v rem>kably v]ifi$ 9 ! subsequ5t c>e] ( ! ,greek ,a/ronomy4 ,! !ory1 once sugge/$1 probably made rapid progress4 ,simplicius#eic relates1 t ,eudoxus ( ,cnidus introduc$ ! hypo!sis ( revolv+ circles or sph]es4 ,calippus ( ,cyzicus1 hav+ visit$ #ada ,polem>*us1 an intimate fri5d ( ,eudoxus1 !y w5t toge!r to ,a!ns1 & communicat$ to ,ari/otle ! inv5tion ( ,eudoxus1 & ) 8 help improv$ & correct$ x4 ,note #eic3 ,lib4 ii4 de ,clo4 ,bullialdus1 p4 #ah4 ,probably at fir/ ?is hypo!sis 0 appli$ only to acc\nt = ! g5]al ph5om5a ( ! progressions1 retrogradations1 & /ations ( ! planet2 b x 0 soon f\nd t ! motions ( ! sun & moon1 & ! circul> motions ( ! planets1 :i* ! hypo!sis suppos$1 _h o!r anomalies or irregul>ities1 :i* made a fur!r ext5sion ( ! hypo!sis necess>y4 ,! defect ( uni=mity 9 ^! motions ( ! sun & moon1 ?\gh less app>5t ?an 9 ! planets1 is easily detect$1 z soon z m5 endeavor to obta9 any accuracy 9 _! obs]vations4 ,we h already /at$ 7,*ap4 ,i47 t ! ,*aldeans 7 9 possession ( a p]iod ( ab\t eighte5 ye>s1 :i* !y us$ 9 ! calculation ( eclipses1 & :i* might h be5 discov]$ by close obs]vation ( ! moon's motions2 al?\gh x 0 probably r hit ^u by not+ ! recurr5ce ( eclipses4 ,! moon moves 9 a mann] :i* is n r$ucible to regul>ity )\t consid]able c>e & "t4 ,if we trace h] pa? among ! />s1 we f9d t1 l ! pa? ( ! sun1 x is oblique to ! equator1 b x does n1 l t ( ! sun1 pass ov] ! same />s 9 successive revolutions4 ,?us its latitude1 or di/ance f ! equator1 has a cycle diff]5t f its revolution among ! />s2 & its ,nodes1 or ! po9ts :]e x cuts ! equator1 are p]petually *ang+ _! position4 ,9 addition to ?is1 ! moon's motion 9 h] own pa? is n uni=m2 9 ! c\rse ( ea* lunation1 %e moves alt]nately sl[] & quick]1 pass+ gradually ?r\gh ! int]m$iate degrees ( velocity2 & goes ?r\gh ! cycle ( ^! *anges 9 some?+ less ?an a mon?2 ?is is call$ a revolution ( ,anomaly4 ,:5 ! moon has gone ?r\gh a complete numb] ( revolutions ( ,anomaly1 & has1 9 ! same "t1 return$ to ! same position ) reg>d to ! sun1 & also ) reg>d to h] ,nodes1 h] motions ) respect to ! sun w !nce=? be ! same z at ! fir/1 & all ! circum/ances on :i* lun> eclipses dep5d be+ ! same1 ! eclipses w occur 9 ! same ord]4 ,9 #fehe days !re are #bci revolutions ( anomaly1 #bda revolutions ) reg>d to "o ( ! ,nodes1 &1 z we h said1 #bbc lunations or revolutions ) reg>d to ! sun4 ,h5ce ?is ,p]iod w br+ ab\t a succession ( ! same lun> eclipses4 ,if ! ,*aldeans obs]v$ ! moon's motion among ! />s ) any consid]able accuracy1 s z to detect ?is p]iod by t means1 #adb !y c\ld h>dly avoid discov]+ ! anomaly or unequal motion ( ! moon2 = 9 e revolution1 h] daily progression 9 ! heav5s v>ies f ab\t tw5ty-two to tw5ty-six times h] own diamet]4 ,b !re is n1 9 _! k ( ?is ,p]iod1 any evid5ce t !y _h measur$ ! am\nt ( ?is v>iation2 & ,delambre#fjc is probably "r 9 attribut+ all su* obs]vations to ! ,greeks4 ,note #fjc3 ,a/ronomie ,anci5ne1 i4 #bab4 ,! sun's motion w\ld also be se5 to be irregul> z soon z m5 _h any exact mode ( det]m9+ ! l5g?s ( ! f\r seasons1 by means ( ! passage ( ! sun ?r\gh ! equ9octial & sol/itial po9ts4 ,= spr+1 summ]1 autumn1 & w9t]1 :i* w\ld ea* consi/ ( an equal numb] ( days if ! motions 7 uni=m1 are1 9 fact1 f\nd to be unequal 9 l5g?4 ,x 0 n v difficult to see t ! me*anism ( epicycles might be appli$ s z to expla9 irregul>ities ( ?is k9d4 ,a :eel travell+ r\nd ! e>?1 :ile x revolv$ ^u its c5tre1 might produce ! effect ( mak+ ! sun or moon fix$ 9 its rim g sometimes fa/] & sometimes sl[] 9 appe>ance1 j 9 ! same way z ! same suppositions w\ld acc\nt = a planet go+ sometimes =w>ds & sometimes backw>ds3 ! epicycles ( ! sun & moon w\ld1 = ?is purpose1 be less ?an ^? ( ! planets4 ,accord+ly1 x is probable t1 at ! "t ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 philosoph]s 7 already endeavor+ to apply ! hypo!sis to ^! cases1 ?\gh x does n appe> t any "o fully succe$$ be=e ,hipp>*us4 ,! problem :i* 0 ?us pres5t to ! m9ds ( a/ronom]s1 & :i* ,plato is said to h propos$ to !m 9 a di/9ct =m1 01 ,to reconcile ! cele/ial ph5om5a by ! comb9ation ( equable circul> motions4 ,t ! circul> motions %\ld be equable z well z circul>1 0 a condition1 :i*1 if x _h be5 m]ely tri$ at fir/1 z ! mo/ simple & def9ite conjecture1 w\ld h des]v$ praise4 ,b ?is condition1 :i* is1 9 reality1 inconsi/5t ) nature1 01 9 ! sequel1 adh]$ to ) a p]t9acity :i* introduc$ endless complexity into ! sy/em4 ,! hi/ory ( ?is assumption is "o ( ! mo/ m>k$ in/ances ( t love ( simplicity & symmetry :i* is ! s\rce ( all g5]al tru?s1 ?\gh x s (t5 produces & p]petuates error4 ,at pres5t we c easily see h[ fancifully ! notion ( simplicity & p]fection 0 int]pret$1 9 ! argum5ts by :i* ! op9ion 0 def5d$1 t ! #adc real motions ( ! heav5ly bodies mu/ be circul> & uni=m4 ,! ,py?agoreans1 z well z ! ,platoni/s1 ma9ta9$ ?is dogma4 ,accord+ to ,gem9us1 ,!y suppos$ ! motions ( ! sun1 & ! moon1 & ! five planets1 to be circul> & equable3 = !y w\ld n all[ ( su* disord] among div9e & et]nal ?+s1 z t !y %\ld sometimes move quick]1 & sometimes sl[]1 & sometimes /& /ill2 = no "o w\ld tol]ate su* anomaly 9 ! movem5ts1 ev5 ( a man1 :o 0 dec5t & ord]ly4 ,! occasions ( life1 h[ev]1 are (t5 reasons = m5 go+ quick] or sl[]1 b 9 ! incorruptible nature ( ! />s1 x is n possible t any cause c be alleg$ ( quickness & sl[ness4 ,:]eupon !y prop\nd$ ?is "q1 h[ ! ph5om5a might be repres5t$ by equable & circul> motions4 ,^! conjectures & assumptions l$ naturally to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles4 ,x is probable t ?is !ory 0 adopt$ ) respect to ! ,planets at or be=e ! "t ( ,plato4 ,& ,ari/otle gives u an acc\nt ( ! sy/em ?us devis$4#fac ,eudoxus1 he says1 attribut$ f\r sph]es to ea* ,planet3 ! fir/ revolv$ ) ! fix$ />s 7& ?is produc$ ! diurnal motion72 ! second gave ! planet a motion along ! ecliptic 7! mean motion 9 longitude72 ! ?ird _h its axis p]p5dicul>#fbc to ! ecliptic 7& ?is gave ! inequality ( ea* planet>y motion1 really aris+ f its special motion ab\t ! sun72 ! f\r? produc$ ! oblique motion transv]se to ?is 7! motion 9 latitude74 ,he is also said to h attribut$ a motion 9 latitude & a correspond+ sph]e to ! ,sun z well z to ! ,moon1 ( :i* x is difficult to und]/& ! mean+1 if ,ari/otle has report$ rightly ( ! !ory2 = x w\ld be absurd to ascribe to ,eudoxus a k ( ! motions by :i* ! sun deviates f ! ecliptic4 ,calippus conceiv$ t two additional sph]es mu/ be giv5 to ! sun & to ! moon1 9 ord] to expla9 ! ph5om5a3 probably he 0 aw>e ( ! inequalities ( ! motions ( ^! lum9>ies4 ,he also propos$ an additional sph]e = ea* planet1 to acc\nt1 we may suppose1 = ! results ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbits4 ,note #fac3 ,metaph4 xi4 #h4 ,note #fbc3 ,ari/otle says has its poles 9 ! ecliptic1 b ?is mu/ be a mi/ake ( 84 ,he pr(esses m]ely to receive ^! op9ions f ! ma!matical a/ronom]s1 4 ,! hypo!sis1 9 ?is =m1 does n appe> to h be5 r$uc$ to measure1 & 01 moreov]1 unnecess>ily complex4 ,! resolution #add ( ! oblique motion ( ! moon into two sep>ate motions1 by ,eudoxus1 0 n ! simple/ way ( conceiv+ x2 & ,calippus imag9$ ! connection ( ^! sph]es 9 "s way :i* made x necess>y ne>ly to d\ble _! numb]2 9 ?is mann] 8 sy/em _h no less ?an #ee sph]es4 ,su* 0 ! progress :i* ! ,idea ( ! hypo!sis ( epicycles _h made 9 m5's m9ds1 previ\sly to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! !ory by ,hipp>*us4 ,!re _h also be5 a prep>ation = ?is /ep1 on ! o!r side1 by ! collection ( ,facts4 ,we "k t obs]vations ( ! ,eclipses ( ! ,moon 7 made by ! ,*aldeans #cfg ,b4 ,c4 at ,babylon1 & 7 kn[n to ! ,greeks2 = ,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy f\nd$ _! ,!ory ( ! ,moon on ^! obs]vations4 ,p]haps we _c consid]1 z equally c]ta91 ! /ory t1 at ! "t ( ,alex&]'s conque/1 ! ,*aldeans possess$ a s]ies ( obs]vations1 :i* w5t back #aijc ye>s1 & :i* ,ari/otle caus$ ,calli/h5es to br+ to him 9 ,greece4 ,all ! ,greek obs]vations :i* are ( any value1 beg9 ) ! s*ool ( ,alex&ria4 ,ari/yllus & ,timo*>is appe>1 by ! citations ( ,hipp>*us1 to h obs]v$ ! ,places ( ,/>s & ,planets1 & ! ,times ( ! ,sol/ices1 at v>i\s p]iods f ,b4 ,c4 #bie to ,b4 ,c4 #bfi4 ,)\t _! obs]vations1 inde$1 x w\ld n h be5 easy = ,hipp>*us to e/abli% ei!r ! ,!ory ( ! ,sun or ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes4 ,9 ord] t obs]vations at di/ant int]vals may be comp>$ ) ea* o!r1 !y mu/ be ref]r$ to "s common era4 ,! ,*aldeans dat$ by ! era ( ,nabonass>1 :i* comm5c$ #gdi ,b4 ,c4 ,! ,greek obs]vations 7 ref]r$ to ! ,calippic p]iods ( #gf ye>s1 ( :i* ! fir/ began #cca ,b4 ,c4 ,^! are ! dates us$ by ,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy4 #ade ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,hipp>*us4 ,sect4 #a4--;,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles & ,ecc5trics4 ,,al?\gh1 z we h already se51 at ! "t ( ,plato1 ! ,idea ( ,epicycles _h be5 sugge/$1 & ! problem ( its g5]al application propos$1 & solutions ( ?is problem (f]$ by 8 foll[]s2 we /ill consid] ,hipp>*us z ! real discov]] & f\nd] ( t !ory2 inasmu* z he n only guess$ t x might1 b %[$ t x mu/1 acc\nt = ! ph5om5a1 bo? z to _! nature & z to _! quantity4 ,! ass]tion t he only discov]s :o proves1 is j2 n only because1 until a !ory is prov$ to be ! true "o1 x has no pre-em95ce ov] ! num]\s o!r guesses among :i* x circulates1 & above :i* ! pro( alone elevates x2 b also because he :o takes hold ( ! !ory s z to apply calculation to x1 possesses x ) a di/9ctness ( conception :i* makes x peculi>ly 84 ,9 ord] to e/abli% ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles1 x 0 necess>y to assign ! magnitudes1 di/ances1 & positions ( ! circles or sph]es 9 :i* ! heav5ly bodies 7 mov$1 9 su* a mann] z to acc\nt = _! app>5tly irregul> motions4 ,we may be/ und]/& :at 0 ! problem to be solv$1 by call+ to m9d :at we n[ "k to be ! real motions ( ! heav5s4 ,! true motion ( ! e>? r\nd ! sun1 & !re=e ! app>5t annual motion ( ! sun1 is p]=m$1 n 9 a circle ( :i* ! e>? is ! c5tre1 b 9 an ellipse or oval1 ! e>? be+ ne>] to "o end ?an to ! o!r2 & ! motion is mo/ rapid :5 ! sun is at ! ne>] end ( ?is oval4 ,b in/ead ( an oval1 we may suppose ! sun to move uni=mly 9 a circle1 ! e>? be+ n[1 n 9 ! c5tre1 b ne>] to "o side2 = on ?is supposition1 ! sun w appe> to move mo/ quickly :5 he is ne>e/ to ! e>?1 or 9 8 ,p]igee1 z t po9t is call$4 ,su* an orbit is call$ an ,ecc5tric1 & ! di/ance ( ! e>? f ! c5tre ( ! circle is call$ ! ,ecc5tricity4 ,x may easily be %[n by geometrical reason+1 t ! inequality ( app>5t motion s produc$1 is exactly ! same 9 #adf detail1 z ! inequality :i* foll[s f ! hypo!sis ( a small ,epicycle1 turn+ uni=mly on its axis1 & c>ry+ ! sun 9 its circumf]5ce1 :ile ! c5tre ( ?is epicycle moves uni=mly 9 a circle ( :i* ! e>? is ! c5tre4 ,?is id5tity ( ! results ( ! hypo!sis ( ! ,ecc5tric & ! ,epicycle is prov$ by ,ptolemy 9 ! ?ird book ( ! ,almage/4 ,! ,sun's ,ecc5tric4--,:5 ,hipp>*us _h cle>ly conceiv$ ^! hypo!ses1 z possible ways ( acc\nt+ = ! sun's motion1 ! task :i* he _h to p]=m1 9 ord] to %[ t !y des]v$ to be adopt$1 0 to assign a place to ! ,p]igee1 a magnitude to ! ,ecc5tricity1 & an ,epo* at :i* ! sun 0 at ! p]igee2 & to %[ t1 9 ?is way1 he _h produc$ a true repres5tation ( ! motions ( ! sun4 ,?is1 accord+ly1 he did2 & hav+ ?us det]m9$1 ) consid]able exactness1 bo? ! law ( ! sol> irregul>ities1 & ! numb]s on :i* _! am\nt dep5ds1 he 0 able to assign ! motions & places ( ! sun = any mom5t ( future "t ) correspond+ exactness2 he 0 able1 9 %ort1 to con/ruct ,sol> ,tables1 by means ( :i* ! sun's place ) respect to ! />s c\ld be correctly f\nd at any "t4 ,^! tables 7z !y are giv5 by ,ptolemy7#fcc give ! ,anomaly1 or inequality ( ! sun's motion2 & ?is !y exhibit by means ( ! ,pro/haph]esis1 ! quantity ( :i*1 at any di/ance ( ! sun f ! ,apogee1 x is requisite to add to or subtract f ! arc1 :i* he w\ld h describ$ if 8 motion _h be5 equable4 ,note #fcc3 ,syntax4 #a4 iii4 ,! read] might p]haps expect t ! calculations :i* ?us exhibit$ ! motions ( ! sun = an indef9ite future p]iod mu/ dep5d ^u a consid]able numb] ( obs]vations made at all seasons ( ! ye>4 ,t1 h[ev]1 0 n ! case2 & ! g5ius ( ! discov]] appe>$1 z su* g5ius usually does appe>1 9 8 p]ceiv+ h[ small a numb] ( facts1 rightly consid]$1 7 suffici5t to =m a f\ndation = ! !ory4 ,! numb] ( days conta9$ 9 two seasons ( ! ye> suffic$ = ?is purpose to ,hipp>*us4 ,hav+ asc]ta9$1 says ,ptolemy1 t ! "t f ! v]nal equ9ox to ! summ] tropic is #id days1 & ! "t f ! summ] tropic to ! autumnal equ9ox #ib days1 f ^! ph5om5a alone he demon/rates t ! /raight l9e jo9+ ! c5tre ( ! sun's ecc5tric pa? ) ! c5tre ( ! zodiac 7! spectator's eye7 is ne>ly ! #bd? "p ( ! radius ( ! ecc5tric pa?2 & t #adg its apogee prec$es ! summ] sol/ice by #bd degrees ne>ly1 ! zodiac conta9+ #cfj4 ,! exactness ( ! ,sol> ,tables1 or ,canon1 :i* 0 f\nd$ on ^! data1 0 manife/$1 n only by ! co9cid5ce ( ! sun's calculat$ place ) su* obs]vations z ! ,greek a/ronom]s ( ?is p]iod 7 able to make 7:i* 7 inde$ v rude71 b by its enabl+ !m to calculate sol> & lun> eclipses2 ph5om5a :i* are a v precise & sev]e trial ( ! accuracy ( su* tables1 inasmu* z a v m9ute *ange 9 ! app>5t place ( ! sun or moon w\ld completely alt] ! obvi\s features ( ! eclipse4 ,?\gh ! tables ( ?is p]iod 7 by no means p]fect1 !y bore ) tol]able cr$it ?is try+ & p]petually recurr+ te/2 & ?us prov$ ! s\ndness ( ! !ory on :i* ! tables 7 calculat$4 ,! ,moon's ,ecc5tric4--,! moon's motions h _m irregul>ities2 b :5 ! hypo!sis ( an ,ecc5tric or an ,epicycle _h suffic$ 9 ! case ( ! sun1 x 0 natural to try to expla91 9 ! same way1 ! motions ( ! moon2 & x 0 %[n by ,hipp>*us t su* hypo!ses w\ld acc\nt = ! m obvi\s anomalies4 ,x is n v easy to describe ! sev]al ways 9 :i* ^! hypo!ses 7 appli$1 = x is1 9 tru?1 v difficult to expla9 9 words ev5 ! m]e facts ( ! moon's motion4 ,if %e 7 to leave a visible bright l9e beh9d h] 9 ! heav5s :]ev] %e mov$1 ! pa? ?us exhibit$ w\ld be ( an extremely complex nature2 ! circle ( ea* revolution slipp+ away f ! prec$+1 & ! traces ( successive revolutions =m+ a sort ( b& ( net-"w runn+ r\nd ! middle ( ! sky4#fdc ,9 ea* revolution1 ! motion 9 longitude is affect$ by an anomaly ( ! same nature z ! sun's anomaly already spok5 (2 b besides ?is1 ! pa? ( ! moon deviates f ! ecliptic to ! nor? & to ! s\? ( ! ecliptic1 & ?us %e has a motion 9 latitude4 ,?is motion 9 latitude w\ld be suffici5tly kn[n if we knew ! p]iod ( its re/oration1 t is1 ! "t :i* ! moon occupies 9 mov+ f any latitude till %e is re/or$ to ! same latitude2 z1 = in/ance1 f ! ecliptic on "o side ( ! heav5s to ! ecliptic on ! same side ( ! heav5s aga94 ,b x is f\nd t ! p]iod ( ! re/oration ( ! latitude is n ! same z ! p]iod ( ! re/oration ( ! longitude1 t is1 z ! p]iod ( ! moon's revolution among ! #adh />s2 & ?us ! moon describes a diff]5t pa? among ! />s 9 e successive revolution1 & h] pa?1 z well z h] velocity1 is con/antly v>iable4 ,note #fdc3 ,! read] w f9d an attempt to make ! nature ( ?is pa? g5]ally intelligible 9 ! ,companion to ! ,briti% ,almanac = #ahad4 ,hipp>*us1 h[ev]1 r$uc$ ! motions ( ! moon to rule & to ,tables1 z he did ^? ( ! sun1 & 9 ! same mann]4 ,he det]m9$1 ) mu* great] accuracy ?an any prec$+ a/ronom]1 ! mean or av]age equable motions ( ! moon 9 longitude & 9 latitude2 & he !n repres5t$ ! anomaly ( ! motion 9 longitude by means ( an ecc5tric1 9 ! same mann] z he _h done = ! sun4 ,b "h !re occurr$ /ill an additional *ange1 besides ^? ( :i* we h spok54 ,! ,apogee ( ! ,sun 0 always 9 ! same place 9 ! heav5s2 or at lea/ s ne>ly s1 t ,ptolemy c\ld detect no error 9 ! place assign$ to x by ,hipp>*us #bej ye>s be=e4 ,b ! ,apogee ( ! ,moon 0 f\nd to h a motion among ! />s4 ,x _h be5 obs]v$ be=e ! "t ( ,hipp>*us1 t 9 #fehe days1 !re are #bda revolutions ( ! moon ) reg>d to ! />s1 b only #bci revolutions ) reg>d to ! anomaly4 ,?is diff]5ce c\ld be suitably repres5t$ by suppos+ ! ecc5tric1 9 :i* ! moon moves1 to h itself an angul> motion1 p]petually c>ry+ its apogee 9 ! same direction 9 :i* ! moon travels2 b ?is supposition be+ made1 x 0 necess>y to det]m9e1 n only ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit1 & place ( ! apogee at a c]ta9 "t1 b also ! rate ( motion ( ! apogee itself1 9 ord] to =m tables ( ! moon4 ,?is task1 z we h said1 ,hipp>*us execut$2 & 9 ?is in/ance1 z 9 ! problem ( ! r$uction ( ! sun's motion to tables1 ! data :i* he f\nd x necess>y to employ 7 v few4 ,he d$uc$ all 8 conclusions f six eclipses ( ! moon4#fec ,?ree ( ^!1 ! records ( :i* 7 br\ght f ,babylon1 :]e a regi/] ( su* occurr5ces 0 kept1 happ5$ 9 ! #cff? & #cfg? ye>s f ! era ( ,nabonass>1 & enabl$ ,hipp>*us to det]m9e ! ecc5tricity & apogee ( ! moon's orbit at t "t4 ,! ?ree o!rs 7 obs]v$ at ,alex&ria1 9 ! #edg? ye> ( ,nabonass>1 :i* gave him ano!r position ( ! orbit at an int]val ( #ahj ye>s2 & he ?us became acqua9t$ ) ! motion ( ! orbit itself1 z well z its =m4#ffc #adi ,note #fec3 ,ptol4 ,syn4 iv4 #aj4 ,note #ffc3 ,ptolemy uses ! hypo!sis ( an epicycle = ! moon's fir/ inequality2 b ,hipp>*us employs an ecc5tric4 ,! moon's motions are really affect$ by sev]al o!r inequalities1 ( v consid]able am\nt1 besides ^? :i* 7 ?us consid]$ by ,hipp>*us2 b ! lun> pa?s1 con/ruct$ on ! above data1 possess$ a consid]able degree ( correctness1 & especially :5 appli$1 z !y 7 pr9cipally1 to ! calculation ( eclipses2 = ! greate/ ( ! additional irregul>ities :i* we h m5tion$ disappe> at new & full moon1 :i* are ! only times :5 eclipses take place4 ,! num]ical explanation ( ! motions ( ! sun & moon1 by means ( ! ,hypo!sis ( ,ecc5trics1 & ! consequ5t con/ruction ( tables1 0 "o ( ! great a*ievem5ts ( ,hipp>*us4 ,! g5]al explanation ( ! motions ( ! planets1 by means ( ! hypo!sis ( epicycles1 0 9 circulation previ\sly1 z we h se54 ,b ! special motions ( ! planets1 9 _! epicycles1 are1 9 reality1 affect$ by anomalies ( ! same k9d z ^? :i* r5d] x necess>y to introduce ecc5trics 9 ! cases ( ! sun & moon4 ,hipp>*us det]m9$1 ) great exactness1 ! ,mean ,motions ( ! ,planets2 b he 0 n able1 f want ( data1 to expla9 ! planet>y ,irregul>ities by means ( ,ecc5trics4 ,! :ole mass ( good obs]vations ( ! planets :i* he receiv$ f prec$+ ages1 did n conta9 s _m1 says ,ptolemy1 z ^? :i* he has transmitt$ to u ( 8 own4 ,h5ce#fgc x 01 he adds1 t :ile he labor$1 9 ! mo/ assidu\s mann] to repres5t ! motions ( ! sun & moon by means ( equable circul> motions2 ) respect to ! planets1 s f> z 8 works %[1 he did n ev5 make ! attempt1 b m]ely put ! extant obs]vations 9 ord]1 add$ to !m himself m ?an ! :ole ( :at he receiv$ f prec$+ ages1 & %[$ ! insuffici5cy ( ! hypo!sis curr5t among a/ronom]s to expla9 ! ph5om5a4 ,x appe>s t prec$+ ma!maticians _h already pret5d$ to con/ruct a ,p]petual ,canon1 t is1 ,tables :i* %\ld give ! places ( ! planets at any future "t2 b ^! be+ con/ruct$ )\t reg>d to ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbits1 mu/ h be5 v errone\s4 ,note #fgc3 ,synt4 ix4 #b4 ,ptolemy decl>es1 ) great reason1 t ,hipp>*us %[$ 8 usual love ( tru?1 & 8 "r s5se ( ! responsibility ( 8 task1 9 leav+ ?is "p ( x to future ages4 ,! ,!ories ( ! ,sun & ,moon1 :i* we h already describ$1 con/itute him a great a/ronomical discov]]1 & ju/ify ! reputation he has always #aej possess$4 ,!re is1 inde$1 no philosoph] :o is s uni=mly spok5 ( 9 t]ms ( admiration4 ,ptolemy1 to :om we owe our pr9cipal k ( him1 p]petually c\ples ) 8 "n epi!ts ( praise3 he is n only an excell5t & c>eful obs]v]1 b a#fhc mo/ tru?-lov+ & labor-lov+ p]son1 "o :o _h %[n extraord9>y sagacity & rem>kable desire ( tru? 9 e "p ( sci5ce4 ,pl9y1 aft] m5tion+ him & ,?ales1 breaks out into "o ( 8 passages ( declamatory vehem5ce3 ,great m56 elevat$ above ! common /&>d ( human nature1 by discov]+ ! laws :i* cele/ial occurr5ces obey1 & by free+ ! wret*$ m9d ( man f ! fe>s :i* eclipses inspir$--,hail to y & to y\r g5ius1 int]pret]s ( heav51 wor?y recipi5ts ( ! laws ( ! univ]se1 au?ors ( pr9ciples :i* connect gods & m56 ,mod]n writ]s h spok5 ( ,hipp>*us ) ! same admiration2 & ev5 ! exact b sev]e hi/orian ( a/ronomy1 ,delambre1 :o be/[s 8 praise s sp>+ly1 & 8 s>casm s g5]ally2--:o says#fic t x is un=tunate = ! memory ( ,ari/>*us t 8 "w has come to u entire1 & :o _c ref]#gjc to ! /atem5t ( an eclipse rightly pr$ict$ by ,halicon ( ,cyzicus )\t add+1 t if ! /ory be true1 ,halicon 0 m lucky ?an prud5t2--loses all 8 bitt]ness :5 he comes to ,hipp>*us4#gac ,9 ,hipp>*us1 says he1 we f9d "o ( ! mo/ extraord9>y m5 ( antiquity2 ! v greate/1 9 ! sci5ces :i* require a comb9ation ( obs]vation ) geometry4 ,delambre adds1 app>5tly 9 ! wi% to reconcile ?is eulogium ) ! depreciat+ mann] 9 :i* he habitually speaks ( all a/ronom]s ^: obs]vations are inexact1 a long p]iod & ! cont9u$ ef=ts ( _m indu/ri\s m5 are requisite to produce good in/rum5ts1 b en]gy & assiduity dep5d on ! man himself4 ,note #fhc3 ,synt4 ix4 #b4 ,note #fic3 ,a/ronomie ,anci5ne1 i4 #ge4 ,note #gjc3 ,ib4 i4 #ag4 ,note #gac3 ,ib4 i4 #ahf4 ,hipp>*us 0 ! au?or ( o!r great discov]ies & improvem5ts 9 a/ronomy1 besides ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,ecc5trics & ,epicycles2 b ?is1 be+ ! greate/ advance 9 ! !ory ( ! cele/ial motions :i* 0 made by ! anci5ts1 mu/ be ! lead+ subject ( our att5tion 9 ! pres5t "w2 our object be+ to discov] 9 :at ! progress ( real !oretical k consi/s1 & "u :at circum/ances x has gone on4 #aea ,sect4 #b4--;,e/imate ( ! ,value ( ! ,!ory ( ,ecc5trics & ,epicycles4 ,,x may be useful "h to expla9 ! value ( ! !oretical /ep :i* ,hipp>*us ?us made2 & ! m s1 z !re are1 p]haps1 op9ions 9 popul> circulation1 :i* might lead m5 to ?9k lightly ( ! m]it ( introduc+ or e/abli%+ ! ,doctr9e ( ,epicycles4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 ?is doctr9e is n[ ackn[l$g$ to be false2 & "s ( ! greate/ m5 9 ! m mod]n hi/ory ( a/ronomy owe ! brighte/ "p ( _! fame to _! hav+ be5 in/rum5tal 9 ov]turn+ ?is hypo!sis4 ,&1 moreov]1 9 ! next place1 ! !ory is n only false1 b extremely p]plex$ & entangl$1 s t x is usually look$ ^u z a mass ( arbitr>y & absurd complication4 ,mo/ p]sons are famili> ) passages 9 :i* x is ?us spok5 (4#gbc 4 4 4 4 4 ,he 8 fabric ( ! heav5s ,ha? left to _! disputes1 p]haps to move ,8 laught] at _! qua9t op9ions wide2 ,h]eaft]1 :5 !y come to model heav5 ,& calculate ! />s1 h[ w !y wield ,! mighty frame6 h[ build1 unbuild1 contrive1 ,to save appe>ances6 h[ gird ! sph]e ,) c5tric & ecc5tric scribbl$ o'er1 ,cycle 9 epicycle1 orb 9 orb6 ,& e "o w recollect ! celebrat$ say+ ( ,alphonso ,x41 k+ ( ,ca/ile1#gcc :5 ?is complex sy/em 0 expla9$ to him2 t if ,god _h consult$ him at ! creation1 ! univ]se %\ld h be5 on a bett] & simpl] plan4 ,9 addition to ?is1 ! sy/em is repres5t$ z involv+ an extravagant conception ( ! nature ( ! orbs :i* x introduces2 t !y are cry/all9e sph]es1 & t ! va/ spaces :i* int]v5e betwe5 ! cele/ial lum9>ies are a solid mass1 =m$ by ! fitt+ toge!r ( _m masses p]petually 9 motion2 an imag9ation :i* is presum$ to be incr$ible & mon/r\s4 ,note #gbc3 ,p>adise ,lo/1 viii4 ,note #gcc3 ,a4 ,d4 #abeb4 ,we mu/ endeavor to correct or remove ^! prejudices1 n only 9 ord] t we may d ju/ice to ! ,hipp>*ian1 or1 z x is usually call$1 ,ptolemaic sy/em ( a/ronomy1 & to its f\nd]2 b = ano!r reason1 mu* m important to ! purpose ( ?is "w2 #aeb namely1 t we may see h[ !ories may be highly e/imable1 ?\gh !y conta9 false repres5tations ( ! real /ate ( ?+s1 & may be extremely useful1 ?\gh !y involve unnecess>y complexity4 ,9 ! advance ( k1 ! value ( ! true "p ( a !ory may mu* outweigh ! accompany+ error1 & ! use ( a rule may be little impair$ by its want ( simplicity4 ,! fir/ /eps ( our progress d n lose _! importance because !y are n ! la/2 & ! outset ( ! j\rney may require no less vigor & activity ?an its close4 ,t :i* is true 9 ! ,hipp>*ian !ory1 & :i* no succe$+ discov]ies h depriv$ ( its value1 is ! ,resolution ( ! app>5t motions ( ! heav5ly bodies into an assemblage ( circul> motions4 ,! te/ ( ! tru? & reality ( ?is ,resolution is1 t x leads to ! con/ruction ( !oretical ,tables ( ! motions ( ! lum9>ies1 by :i* _! places are giv5 at any "t1 agree+ ne>ly ) _! places z actually obs]v$4 ,! assumption t ^! circul> motions1 ?us introduc$1 are all exactly uni=m1 is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! :ole process4 ,?is assumption is1 x may be said1 false2 & we h se5 h[ fanta/ic "s ( ! argum5ts 71 :i* 7 orig9ally urg$ 9 its favor4 ,b "s assumption is necess>y1 9 ord] t ! motions1 at diff]5t po9ts ( a revolution1 may be someh[ connect$1 t is1 9 ord] t we may h any !ory ( ! motions2 & no assumption m simple ?an ! "o n[ m5tion$ c be select$4 ,! m]it ( ! !ory is ?is2--t obta9+ ! am\nt ( ! ecc5tricity1 ! place ( ! apogee1 &1 x may be1 o!r elem5ts1 f few obs]vations1 x d$uces f ^!1 results agree+ ) all obs]vations1 h[ev] num]\s & di/ant4 ,to express an inequality by means ( an epicycle1 implies1 n only t !re is an inequality1 b fur!r1--t ! inequality is at its greate/ value at a c]ta9 kn[n place1--dim9i%es 9 proce$+ f t place by a kn[n law1--cont9ues its dim9ution = a kn[n portion ( ! revolution ( ! lum9>y1--!n increases aga92 & s on3 t is1 ! introduction ( ! epicycle repres5ts ! inequality ( motion1 z completely z x c be repres5t$ ) respect to its quantity4 ,we may fur!r illu/rate ?is1 by rem>k+ t su* a ,resolution ( ! unequal motions ( ! heav5ly bodies into equable circul> motions1 is1 9 fact1 equival5t to ! mo/ rec5t & improv$ processes by :i* mod]n a/ronom]s deal ) su* motions4 ,_! univ]sal me?od is to resolve all unequal motions into a s]ies ( #aec t]ms1 or expressions ( p>tial motions2 & ^! t]ms involve s9es & cos9es1 t is1 c]ta9 te*nical modes ( measur+ circul> motion1 ! circul> motion hav+ "s con/ant relation to ! "t4 ,& ?us ! problem ( ! resolution ( ! cele/ial motions into equable circul> ones1 :i* 0 prop\nd$ above two ?\s& ye>s ago 9 ! s*ool ( ,plato1 is /ill ! great object ( ! /udy ( mod]n a/ronom]s1 :e!r obs]v]s or calculators4 ,t ,hipp>*us %\ld h succe$$ 9 ! fir/ great /eps ( ?is resolution = ! sun & moon1 & %\ld h se5 its applicability 9 o!r cases1 is a circum/ance :i* gives him "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ places 9 ! roll ( great a/ronom]s4 ,z to ! *>ges or ! sne]s aga9/ ! complexity ( 8 sy/em1 to :i* we h ref]r$1 x is easy to see t !y are ( no =ce4 ,z a sy/em ( calculation1 8 is n only good1 b1 z we h j said1 9 _m cases no bett] has yet be5 discov]$4 ,if1 :5 ! actual motions ( ! heav5s are calculat$ 9 ! be/ possible way1 ! process is complex & difficult1 & if we are discont5t$ at ?is1 nature1 & n ! a/ronom]1 mu/ be ! object ( our displeasure4 ,?is plea ( ! a/ronom]s mu/ be all[$ to be reasonable4 ,we mu/ n be repell$1 says ,ptolemy1#gdc by ! complexity ( ! hypo!ses1 b expla9 ! ph5om5a z well z we c4 ,if ! hypo!ses satisfy ea* app>5t inequality sep>ately1 ! comb9ation ( !m w repres5t ! tru?2 & :y %\ld x appe> wond]ful to any t su* a complexity %\ld exi/ 9 ! heav5s1 :5 we "k no?+ ( _! nature :i* entitles u to suppose t any inconsi/5cy w result8 ,note #gdc3 ,synt4 xiii4 #b4 ,b x may be said1 we n[ "k t ! motions are m simple ?an !y 7 ?us repres5t$1 & t ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles 0 false1 z a conception ( ! real con/ruction ( ! heav5s4 ,& to ?is we may reply1 t x does n appe> t ! be/ a/ronom]s ( antiquity conceiv$ ! cycles & epicycles to h a mat]ial exi/5ce4 ,?\gh ! dogmatic philosoph]s1 z ! ,ari/otelians1 appe> to h taught t ! cele/ial sph]es 7 real solid bodies1 !y are spok5 ( by ,ptolemy z imag9>y2#gec & x is cle>1 f 8 pro( ( ! id5tity ( ! results ( ! hypo!sis ( an ecc5tric & an epicycle1 t !y are int5d$ to pass = no m ?an geometrical conceptions1 9 :i* view !y are true repres5tations ( ! app>5t motions4 #aed ,note #gec3 ,ibid4 iii4 #c4 ,x is true1 t ! real motions ( ! heav5ly bodies are simpl] ?an ! app>5t motions2 & t we1 :o are 9 ! habit ( repres5t+ to our m9ds _! real arrangem5t1 become impati5t ( ! seem+ confusion & disord] ( ! anci5t hypo!ses4 ,b ?is real arrangem5t nev] c\ld h be5 detect$ by philosoph]s1 if ! app>5t motions _h n be5 /rictly exam9$ & successfully analyz$4 ,h[ f> ! connection betwe5 ! facts & ! true !ory is f be+ obvi\s or easily trac$1 any "o may satisfy himself by endeavor+1 f a g5]al conception ( ! moon's real motions1 to discov] ! rules :i* regulate ! occurr5ces ( eclipses2 or ev5 to expla9 to a le>n]1 ( :at nature ! app>5t motions ( ! moon among ! />s w be4 ,! unque/ionable evid5ce ( ! m]it & value ( ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles is to be f\nd 9 ?is circum/ance2--t x s]v$ to embody all ! mo/ exact k !n extant1 to direct a/ronom]s to ! prop] me?ods ( mak+ x m exact & complete1 to po9t out new objects ( att5tion & rese>*2 & t1 aft] do+ ?is at fir/1 x 0 also able to take 91 & pres]ve1 all ! new results ( ! active & p]sev]+ labors ( a long s]ies ( ,greek1 ,lat91 ,arabian1 & mod]n ,european a/ronom]s1 till a new !ory arose :i* c\ld dis*>ge ?is (fice4 ,x may1 p]haps1 surprise "s read]s to be told1 t ! au?or ( ?is next great /ep 9 a/ronomical !ory1 ,cop]nicus1 adopt$ ! !ory ( epicycles2 t is1 he employ$ t :i* we h spok5 ( z its really valuable *>act]i/ic4 ,we#gfc mu/ confess1 he says1 t ! cele/ial motions are circul>1 or comp\nd$ ( sev]al circles1 s9ce _! inequalities obs]ve a fix$ law & recur 9 value at c]ta9 int]vals1 :i* c\ld n be1 except t !y 7 circul>2 = a circle alone c make t :i* has be51 recur aga94 ,note #gfc3 ,cop]nicus4 ,de ,rev4 #a4 i4 c4 #d4 ,9 ?is s5se1 !re=e1 ! ,hipp>*ian !ory 0 a real & inde/ructible tru?1 :i* 0 n reject$1 & replac$ by diff]5t tru?s1 b 0 adopt$ & incorporat$ into e succe$+ a/ronomical !ory2 & :i* c nev] cease to be "o ( ! mo/ important & fundam5tal p>ts ( our a/ronomical k4 ,a mom5t's reflection w %[ t1 9 ! ev5ts j spok5 (1 ! introduction & e/abli%m5t ( ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles1 ^? *>act]i/ics 7 /rictly exemplifi$1 :i* we h ass]t$ to be ! conditions ( e real advance 9 progressive sci5ce2 namely1 #aee ! application ( di/9ct & appropriate ,ideas to a real s]ies ( ,facts4 ,! di/9ctness ( ! geometrical conceptions :i* enabl$ ,hipp>*us to assign ! ,orbits ( ! ,sun & ,moon1 requires no illu/ration2 & we h j expla9$ h[ ^! ideas comb9$ into a connect$ :ole ! v>i\s motions & places ( ^? lum9>ies4 ,to make ?is /ep 9 a/ronomy1 requir$ dilig5ce & c>e1 ex]t$ 9 collect+ obs]vations1 & ma!matical cle>ness & /ead9ess ( view1 ex]cis$ 9 see+ & %[+ t ! !ory 0 a successful analysis ( !m4 ,sect4 #c4--;,discov]y ( ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes4 ,,! same qualities :i* we trace 9 ! rese>*es ( ,hipp>*us already exam9$1--dilig5ce 9 collect+ obs]vations1 & cle>ness ( idea 9 repres5t+ !m1--appe> also 9 o!r discov]ies ( 81 :i* we mu/ n pass unnotic$4 ,! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes1 9 p>ticul>1 is "o ( ! mo/ important ( ^! discov]ies4 ,! circum/ance "h br\ght into notice 0 a ,*ange ( ,longitude ( ! ,fix$ ,/>s4 ,! longitudes ( ! heav5ly bodies1 be+ measur$ f ! po9t :]e ! sun's annual pa? cuts ! equator1 w *ange if t pa? *anges4 ,:e!r ?is happ5s1 h[ev]1 is n v easy to decide2 = ! sun's pa? among ! />s is made out1 n by m]ely look+ at ! heav5s1 b by a s]ies ( inf]5ces f o!r obs]vable facts4 ,hipp>*us us$ = ?is purpose eclipses ( ! moon2 = ^!1 be+ exactly opposite to ! sun1 af=d data 9 m>k+ out 8 pa?4 ,by comp>+ ! eclipses ( 8 own "t ) ^? obs]v$ at an e>li] p]iod by ,timo*>is1 he f\nd t ! bright />1 ,spica ,virg9is1 0 six degrees beh9d ! equ9octial po9t 9 8 own "t1 & _h be5 eight degrees beh9d ! same po9t at an e>li] epo*4 ,! suspicion 0 ?us sugge/$1 t ! longitudes ( all ! />s increase p]petually2 b ,hipp>*us _h too truly philosophical a _s to take ?is = grant$4 ,he exam9$ ! places ( ,regulus1 & ^? ( o!r />s1 z he _h done ^? ( ,spica2 & he f\nd1 9 all ^! in/ances1 a *ange ( place :i* c\ld be expla9$ by a c]ta9 alt]ation ( position 9 ! circles to :i* ! />s are ref]r$1 :i* alt]ation is describ$ z ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes4 ,! di/9ctness ) :i* ,hipp>*us conceiv$ ?is *ange ( relation ( ! heav5s1 is manife/$ by ! "q :i*1 z we are told by ,ptolemy1 he exam9$ & decid$2--t ?is motion ( ! #aef heav5s takes place ab\t ! poles ( ! ecliptic1 & n ab\t ^? ( ! equator4 ,! c>e ) :i* he collect$ ?is motion f ! />s !mselves1 may be judg$ ( f ?is1 t hav+ made 8 fir/ obs]vations = ?is purpose on ,spica & ,regulus1 zodiacal />s1 8 fir/ suspicion 0 t ! />s ( ! zodiac alone *ang$ _! longitude1 :i* suspicion he disprov$ by ! exam9ation ( o!r />s4 ,by 8 processes1 ! idea ( ! nature ( ! motion1 & ! evid5ce ( its exi/5ce1 ! two conditions ( a discov]y1 7 fully br\ght into view4 ,! scale ( ! facts :i* ,hipp>*us 0 ?us able to r$uce to law1 may be 9 "s measure judg$ ( by recollect+ t ! precession1 f 8 "t to ours1 has only c>ri$ ! />s ?r\gh "o sign ( ! zodiac2 & t1 to complete "o revolution ( ! sky by ! motion ?us discov]$1 w\ld require a p]iod ( #be1jjj ye>s4 ,?us ?is discov]y connect$ ! v>i\s aspects ( ! heav5s at ! mo/ remote p]iods ( human hi/ory2 &1 accord+ly1 ! novel & +5i\s views :i* ,newton publi%$ 9 8 *ronology1 are f\nd$ on ?is s+le a/ronomical fact1 ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes4 ,! two discov]ies :i* h be5 describ$1 ! mode ( con/ruct+ ,sol> & ,lun> ,tables1 & ! ,precession1 7 advances ( ! greate/ importance 9 a/ronomy1 n only 9 !mselves1 b 9 ! new objects & und]tak+s :i* !y sugge/$ to a/ronom]s4 ,! "o discov]y detect$ a con/ant law & ord] 9 ! mid/ ( p]petual *ange & app>5t disord]2 ! o!r disclos$ mutation & movem5t p]petually op]at+ :]e e ?+ _h be5 suppos$ fix$ & /ation>y4 ,su* discov]ies 7 well adapt$ to call up _m que/ion+s 9 ! m9ds ( speculative m52 =1 aft] ?is1 no?+ c\ld be suppos$ con/ant till x _h be5 asc]ta9$ to be s by close exam9ation2 & no app>5t complexity or confusion c\ld ju/ify ! philosoph] 9 turn+ away 9 despair f ! task ( simplification4 ,to answ] ! inquiries ?us sugge/$1 new me?ods ( obs]v+ ! facts 7 requisite1 m exact & uni=m ?an ^? hi!rto employ$4 ,moreov]1 ! discov]ies :i* 7 made1 & o!rs :i* c\ld n fail to foll[ 9 _! tra91 l$ to _m consequ5ces1 requir$ to be reason$ ^u1 sy/ematiz$1 complet$1 enl>g$4 ,9 %ort1 ! ,epo* ( ,induction l$1 z we h /at$ t su* epo*s mu/ always lead1 to a ,p]iod ( ,developm5t1 ( ,v]ification1 ,application1 & ,ext5sion4 #aeg ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,hipp>*us4 ,sect4 #a4--,rese>*es :i* v]ifi$ ! ,!ory4 ,,! discov]y ( ! lead+ ,laws ( ! ,sol> & ,lun> ,motions1 & ! detection ( ! ,precession1 may be consid]$ z ! great positive /eps 9 ! ,hipp>*ian a/ronomy2--! p>5t discov]ies1 f :i* _m m9or improvem5ts proce$$4 ,! task ( pursu+ ! collat]al & consequ5t rese>*es :i* n[ (f]$ !mselves1--( br++ ! o!r p>ts ( a/ronomy up to ! level ( its mo/ improv$ portions1--0 prosecut$ by a succession ( zeal\s obs]v]s & calculators1 fir/1 9 ! s*ool ( ,alex&ria1 & aft]w>ds 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,we mu/ notice ! v>i\s labors ( ?is s]ies ( a/ronom]s2 b we %all d s v briefly2 = ! ult]ior developm5t ( doctr9es once e/abli%$ is n s important an object ( contemplation = our pres5t purpose1 z ! fir/ conception & pro( ( ^? fundam5tal tru?s on :i* sy/ematic doctr9es are f\nd$4 ,yet ,p]iods ( ,v]ification1 z well z ,epo*s ( ,induction1 des]ve to be att5d$ to2 & !y c n[h]e be /udi$ ) s mu* advantage z 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy4 ,9 tru?1 h[ev]1 ,hipp>*us did n leave to 8 successors ! task ( pursu+ into detail ^? views ( ! heav5s to :i* 8 discov]ies l$ him4 ,he exam9$ ) scrupul\s c>e almo/ e "p ( ! subject4 ,we mu/ briefly m5tion "s ( ! pr9cipal po9ts :i* 7 ?us settl$ by him4 ,! v]ification ( ! laws ( ! *anges :i* he assign$ to ! skies1 impli$ t ! condition ( ! heav5s 0 con/ant1 except s f> z x 0 affect$ by ^? *anges4 ,?us1 ! doctr9e t ! *anges ( position ( ! />s 7 rightly repres5t$ by ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 suppos$ t ! />s 7 fix$ ) reg>d to ea* o!r2 & ! doctr9e t ! unequal numb] ( days1 9 c]ta9 subdivisions ( mon?s & ye>s1 0 adequately expla9$ by ! !ory ( epicycles1 assum$ t ye>s & days 7 always ( con/ant l5g?s4 ,b ,hipp>*us 0 n cont5t ) assum+ ^! bases ( 8 !ory1 he endeavor$ to prove !m4 #aeh #a4 ,fixity ( ! ,/>s4--,! "q necess>ily arose aft] ! discov]y ( ! precession1 ev5 if su* a "q _h nev] sugge/$ itself be=e1 :e!r ! />s :i* 7 call$ fix$1 & to :i* ! motions ( ! o!r lum9>ies are ref]r$1 d really reta9 con/antly ! same relative position4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ?is fundam5tal "q1 ,hipp>*us und]took to con/ruct a ,map ( ! heav5s2 = ?\gh ! result ( 8 survey 0 express$ 9 words1 we may give ?is "n to 8 ,catalogue ( ! positions ( ! mo/ conspicu\s />s4 ,^! positions are describ$ by means ( al9eations2 t is1 ?ree or m su* />s are select$ z c be t\*$ by an app>5t /raight l9e drawn 9 ! heav5s4 ,?us ,hipp>*us obs]v$ t ! s\!rn claw ( ,canc]1 ! bright /> 9 ! same con/ellation :i* prec$es ! head ( ! ,hydra1 & ! bright /> ,procyon1 7 ne>ly 9 ! same l9e4 ,ptolemy quotes ?is & _m o!r ( ! configurations :i* ,hipp>*us _h not$1 9 ord] to %[ t ! positions ( ! />s _h n *ang$ 9 ! int]m$iate "t2 a tru? :i* ! catalogue ( ,hipp>*us ?us gave a/ronom]s ! means ( asc]ta9+4 ,x conta9$ #ajhj />s4 ,! con/ruction ( ?is catalogue ( ! />s by ,hipp>*us is an ev5t ( great celebrity 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy4 ,pl9y1#ggc :o speaks ( x ) admiration z a wond]ful & sup]human task 7ausus rem etiam ,deo improbam1 annum]>e po/]is /ellas71 ass]ts ! und]tak+ to h be5 sugge/$ by a rem>kable a/ronomical ev5t1 ! appe>ance ( a new />2 novam /ellam et alium 9 vo suo g5itam depreh5dit2 ejusque motu1 qua die fulsit1 ad dubitationem e/ adductus anne hoc spius fi]et1 mov]5turque et e quas putamus affixas4 ,!re is no?+ inh]5tly improbable 9 ?is tradition1 b we may obs]ve1 ) ,delambre1#ghc t we are n in=m$ :e!r ?is new /> rema9$ 9 ! sky1 or soon disappe>$ aga94 ,ptolemy makes no m5tion ( ! /> or ! /ory2 & 8 catalogue conta9s no bright /> :i* is n f\nd 9 ! ,cata/]isms ( ,erato/h5es4 ,^! ,cata/]isms 7 an enum]ation ( #dge ( ! pr9cipal />s1 accord+ to ! con/ellations 9 :i* !y are1 & 7 publi%$ ab\t sixty ye>s be=e ,hipp>*us4 ,note #ggc3 ,nat4 ,hi/4 lib4 ii4 7xxvi47 ,note #ghc3 ,a4 ,a4 i4 #bij4 #b4 ,con/ant ,l5g? ( ,ye>s4--,hipp>*us also attempt$ to asc]ta9 :e!r successive ye>s are all ( ! same l5g?2 & ?\gh1 ) 8 scrupul\s love ( accuracy1#gic he does n appe> to h #aei ?\ght himself ju/ifi$ 9 ass]t+ t ! ye>s 7 always exactly equal1 he %[$1 bo? by obs]vations ( ! "t :5 ! sun pass$ ! equ9oxes1 & by eclipses1 t ! diff]5ce ( successive ye>s1 if !re 7 any diff]5ce1 mu/ be extremely slight4 ,! obs]vations ( succe$+ a/ronom]s1 & especially ( ,ptolemy1 confirm$ ?is op9ion1 & prov$1 ) c]ta9ty1 t !re is no progressive increase or dim9ution 9 ! duration ( ! ye>4 ,note #gic3 ,ptolem4 ,synt4 iii4 #b4 #c4 ,con/ant ,l5g? ( ,days4 ,equation ( ,"t4--,! equality ( days 0 m difficult to asc]ta9 ?an t ( ye>s2 = ! ye> is measur$1 z on a natural scale1 by ! numb] ( days :i* x conta9s2 b ! day c be subdivid$ into h\rs only by artificial means2 & ! me*anical skill ( ! anci5ts did n enable !m to atta9 any consid]able accuracy 9 ! measure ( su* portions ( "t2 ?\gh clepsydras & simil> in/rum5ts 7 us$ by a/ronom]s4 ,! equality ( days c\ld only be prov$1 !re=e1 by ! consequ5ces ( su* a supposition2 & 9 ?is mann] x appe>s to h be5 assum$1 z ! fact really is1 t ! app>5t revolution ( ! />s is accurately uni=m1 nev] becom+ ei!r quick] or sl[]4 ,x foll[$1 z a consequ5ce ( ?is1 t ! sol> days 7or r ! nyc!m]s1 comp\nd$ ( a night & a day7 w\ld be unequal1 9 consequ5ce ( ! sun's unequal motion1 ?us giv+ rise to :at we n[ call ! ,equation ( ,"t1--! int]val by :i* ! "t1 z m>k$ on a dial1 is be=e or aft] ! "t1 z indicat$ by ! accurate timepieces :i* mod]n skill c produce4 ,?is inequality 0 fully tak5 acc\nt ( by ! anci5t a/ronom]s2 & !y ?us 9 fact assum$ ! equality ( ! sid]eal days4 ,sect4 #b4--,rese>*es :i* did n v]ify ! ,!ory4 ,,"s ( ! rese>*es ( ,hipp>*us & 8 foll[]s fell ^u ! weak p>ts ( 8 !ory2 & if ! obs]vations _h be5 suffici5tly exact1 mu/ h l$ to its be+ correct$ or reject$4 ,among ^! we may notice ! rese>*es :i* 7 made conc]n+ ! ,p>allax ( ! heav5ly bodies1 t is1 _! app>5t displacem5t by ! alt]ation ( position ( ! obs]v] f "o "p ( ! e>?'s surface to ! o!r4 ,?is subject is treat$ ( at l5g? by ,ptolemy2 & !re c be no d\bt t x 0 well exam9$ by ,hipp>*us1 :o inv5t$ a p>allactic in/rum5t = t purpose4 ,! idea ( p>allax1 z a geometrical possibility1 0 inde$ too obvi\s to be ov]look$ by geomet]s at any "t2 & :5 ! doctr9e ( ! sph]e 0 e/abli%$1 x mu/ h appe>$ /range #afj to ! /ud5t1 t e place on ! e>?'s surface might alike be consid]$ z ! c5tre ( ! cele/ial motions4 ,b if ?is 0 true ) respect to ! motions ( ! fix$ />s1 0 x also true ) reg>d to ^? ( ! sun & moon8 ,! displacem5t ( ! sun by p>allax is s small1 t ! be/ obs]v]s among ! anci5ts c\ld nev] be sure ( its exi/5ce2 b ) respect to ! moon1 ! case is diff]5t4 ,%e may be displac$ by ?is cause to ! am\nt ( twice h] own bread?1 a quantity easily notic$ by ! rude/ process ( in/rum5tal obs]vation4 ,! law ( ! displacem5t ?us produc$ is easily obta9$ by !ory1 ! globul> =m ( ! e>? be+ suppos$ kn[n2 b ! am\nt ( ! displacem5t dep5ds ^u ! di/ance ( ! moon f ! e>?1 & requires at lea/ "o good obs]vation to det]m9e x4 ,ptolemy has giv5 a table ( ! effects ( p>allax1 calculat$ accord+ to ! app>5t altitude ( ! moon1 assum+ c]ta9 suppos$ di/ances2 ^! di/ances1 h[ev]1 d n foll[ ! real law ( ! moon's di/ances1 9 consequ5ce ( _! be+ f\nd$ ^u ! ,hypo!sis ( ! ,ecc5tric & ,epicycle4 ,9 fact ?is ,hypo!sis1 ?\gh a v close repres5tation ( ! tru?1 s f> z ! positions ( ! lum9>ies are conc]n$1 fails altoge!r :5 we apply x to _! di/ances4 ,! radius ( ! epicycle1 or ! ecc5tricity ( ! ecc5tric1 are det]m9$ s z to satisfy ! obs]vations ( ! app>5t motions ( ! bodies2 b1 inasmu* z ! hypo!tical motions are diff]5t altoge!r f ! real motions1 ! ,hypo!sis does n1 at ! same "t1 satisfy ! obs]vations ( ! di/ances ( ! bodies1 if we are able to make any su* obs]vations4 ,p>allax is "o me?od by :i* ! di/ances ( ! moon1 at diff]5t times1 may be comp>$2 h] ,app>5t ,diamet]s af=d ano!r me?od4 ,nei!r ( ^! modes1 h[ev]1 is easily capable ( su* accuracy z to ov]turn at once ! ,hypo!sis ( epicycles2 &1 accord+ly1 ! ,hypo!sis cont9u$ to be ent]ta9$ 9 spite ( su* measures2 ! measures be+1 inde$1 9 "s degree falsifi$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! reign+ op9ion4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 ! imp]fection ( ! me?ods ( measur+ p>allax & magnitude1 :i* 7 9 use at ?is p]iod1 0 su*1 _! results c\ld n lead to any degree ( conviction des]v+ to be set 9 opposition to a !ory :i* 0 s satisfactory ) reg>d to ! m c]ta9 obs]vations1 namely1 ^? ( ! motions4 ,! ,ecc5tricity1 or ! ,radius ( ! ,epicycle1 :i* w\ld satisfy #afa ! inequality ( ! motions ( ! moon1 w\ld1 9 fact1 d\ble ! inequality ( ! di/ances4 ,! ,ecc5tricity ( ! moon's orbit is det]m9$ by ,ptolemy z #a_/ab ( ! radius ( ! orbit2 b its real am\nt is only half z great2 ?is diff]5ce is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! supposition ( uni=m circul> motions1 on :i* ! ,epicyclic ,hypo!sis proce$s4 ,we see1 !re=e1 t ?is "p ( ! ,hipp>*ian !ory c>ries 9 itself ! g]m ( its own de/ruction4 ,z soon z ! art ( cele/ial measurem5t 0 s f> p]fect$1 t a/ronom]s c\ld be sure ( ! app>5t diamet] ( ! moon )9 #a_/cj or #a_/dj ( ! :ole1 ! inconsi/5cy ( ! !ory ) itself w\ld become manife/4 ,we %all see1 h]eaft]1 ! way 9 :i* ?is inconsi/5cy op]at$2 9 reality a v long p]iod elaps$ be=e ! me?ods ( obs]v+ 7 suffici5tly good to br+ x cle>ly into view4 ,sect4 #c4--,me?ods ( ,obs]vation ( ! ,greek ,a/ronom]s4 ,,we mu/ n[ say a ^w conc]n+ ! ,me?ods above spok5 (4 ,s9ce "o ( ! mo/ important tasks ( v]ification is to asc]ta9 ) accuracy ! magnitude ( ! quantities :i* ent]1 z elem5ts1 into ! !ory :i* occupies m5 dur+ ! p]iod2 ! improvem5t ( in/rum5ts1 & ! me?ods ( obs]v+ & exp]im5t+1 are pr9cipal features 9 su* p]iods4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 m5tion "s ( ! facts :i* be> ^u ?is po9t4 ,! e/imation ( di/ances among ! />s by ! eye1 is an extremely inexact process4 ,9 "s ( ! anci5t obs]vations1 h[ev]1 ?is appe>s to h be5 ! me?od employ$2 & />s are describ$ z be+ a cubit or two cubits f o!r />s4 ,we may =m "s notion ( ! scale ( ?is k9d ( measurem5t1 f :at ,cleom$es rem>ks1#hjc t ! sun appe>s to be ab\t a foot broad2 an op9ion :i* he confutes at l5g?4 ,note #hjc3 ,del4 ,a4 ,a4 i4 #bbb4 ,a me?od ( det]m9+ ! positions ( ! />s1 susceptible ( a little m exactness ?an ! =m]1 is ! use ( al9eations1 already notic$ 9 speak+ ( ,hipp>*us's catalogue4 ,?us1 a /raight l9e pass+ ?r\gh two />s ( ! ,great ,be> passes also ?r\gh ! pole-/>2 ?is is1 inde$1 ev5 n[ a me?od usually employ$ to enable u readily to fix on ! pole-/>2 & ! two />s & ( ,ursa ,major1 are h5ce (t5 call$ ! po9t]s4 #afb ,b no?+ l accurate measurem5ts ( any portions ( ! sky 7 obta9$1 till a/ronom]s adopt$ ! me?od ( mak+ visual co9cid5ces ( ! objects ) ! in/rum5ts1 ei!r by means ( %ad[s or ( sights4 ,probably ! olde/ & mo/ obvi\s measurem5ts ( ! positions ( ! heav5ly bodies 7 ^? 9 :i* ! elevation ( ! sun 0 det]m9$ by comp>+ ! l5g? ( ! %ad[ ( an upright /aff or gnomon1 ) ! l5g? ( ! /aff itself4 ,x appe>s1#hac f a memoir ( ,gautil1 fir/ pr9t$ 9 ! ,connaissance des ,temps = #ahji1 t1 at ! l[] t[n ( ,loyang1 n[ call$ ,hon-anf\1 ,t*on-kong f\nd ! l5g? ( ! %ad[ ( ! gnomon1 at ! summ] sol/ice1 equal to "o foot & a half1 ! gnomon itself be+ eight feet 9 l5g?4 ,?is 0 ab\t #aajj ,b4 ,c4 ,! ,greeks1 at an e>ly p]iod1 us$ ! same me?od4 ,/rabo says#hbc t ,byzantium & ,m>seilles are on ! same p>allel ( latitude1 because ! %ad[s at ^? places h ! same proportion to ! gnomon1 accord+ to ! /atem5t ( ,hipp>*us1 :o foll[s ,py!as4 ,note #hac3 ,lib4 ,u4 ,k4 ,hi/4 ,a/4 p4 #e4 ,note #hbc3 ,del4 ,a4 ,a4 i4 #beg4 ,b ! relations ( position :i* a/ronomy consid]s1 are1 = ! mo/ "p1 angul> di/ances2 & ^! are mo/ simply express$ by ! int]cept$ portion ( a circumf]5ce describ$ ab\t ! angul> po9t4 ,! use ( ! gnomon might lead to ! det]m9ation ( ! angle by ! graphical me?ods ( geometry2 b ! num]ical expression ( ! circumf]5ce requir$ "s progress 9 trigonometry2 = in/ance1 a table ( ! tang5ts ( angles4 ,in/rum5ts 7 soon inv5t$ = measur+ angles1 by means ( circles1 :i* _h a bord] or limb1 divid$ into equal p>ts4 ,! :ole circumf]5ce 0 divid$ into #cfj degrees3 p]haps because ! circles1 fir/ s divid$1 7 ^? :i* repres5t$ ! sun's annual pa?2 "o su* degree w\ld be ! sun's daily advance1 m ne>ly ?an any o!r conv5i5t aliquot "p :i* c\ld be tak54 ,! position ( ! sun 0 det]m9$ by means ( ! %ad[ ( "o "p ( ! in/rum5t ^u ! o!r4 ,! mo/ anci5t in/rum5t ( ?is k9d appe>s to be ! ,hemisph]e ( ,b]osus4 ,a holl[ hemisph]e 0 plac$ ) its rim horizontal1 & a /yle 0 erect$ 9 su* a mann] t ! extremity ( ! /yle 0 exactly at ! c5tre ( ! sph]e4 ,! %ad[ ( ?is extremity1 on ! concave surface1 _h ! same position ) reg>d to ! l[e/ po9t ( ! sph]e :i* ! sun _h ) reg>d to ! highe/ po9t ( ! heav5s4 #afc ,b ?is in/rum5t 0 9 fact us$ r = divid+ ! day into portions ( "t ?an = det]m9+ position4 ,erato/h5es#hcc obs]v$ ! am\nt ( ! obliquity ( ! sun's pa? to ! equator3 we are n in=m$ :at in/rum5ts he us$ = ?is purpose2 b he is said to h obta9$1 f ! munific5ce ( ,ptolemy ,eu]getes1 two ,armils1 or in/rum5ts compos$ ( circles1 :i* 7 plac$ 9 ! portico at ,alex&ria1 & long us$ = obs]vations4 ,if a circul> rim or hoop 7 plac$ s z to co9cide ) ! plane ( ! equator1 ! inn] concave edge w\ld be enlight5$ by ! sun's rays :i* came "u ! front edge1 :5 ! sun 0 s\? ( ! equator1 & by ! rays :i* came ov] ! front edge1 :5 ! sun 0 nor? ( ! equator3 ! mom5t ( ! transition w\ld be ! "t ( ! equ9ox4 ,su* an in/rum5t appe>s to be ref]r$ to by ,hipp>*us1 z quot$ by ,ptolemy4#hdc ,! circle ( copp]1 :i* /&s at ,alex&ria 9 :at is call$ ! ,squ>e ,por*1 appe>s to m>k1 z ! day ( ! equ9ox1 t on :i* ! concave surface beg9s to be enlight5$ f ! o!r side4 ,su* an in/rum5t 0 call$ an equ9octial armil4 ,note #hcc3 ,delambre1 ,a4 ,a4 i4 #hf4 ,note #hdc3 ,ptol4 ,synt4 iii4 #b4 ,a sol/itial armil is describ$ by ,ptolemy1 consi/+ ( two circul> rims1 "o slid+ r\nd )9 ! o!r1 & ! inn] "o furni%$ ) two pegs /&+ out f its surface at "r angles1 & diametrically opposite to ea* o!r4 ,^! circles be+ fix$ 9 ! plane ( ! m]idian1 & ! inn] "o turn$1 till1 at noon1 ! %ad[ ( ! peg 9 front falls ^u ! peg beh9d1 ! position ( ! sun at noon w\ld be det]m9$ by ! degrees on ! out] circle4 ,9 calculation1 ! degree 0 conceiv$ to be divid$ into #fj m9utes1 ! m9ute into #fj seconds1 & s on4 ,b 9 practice x 0 impossible to divide ! limb ( ! in/rum5t into p>ts s small4 ,! armils ( ,alex&ria 7 divid$ into no p>ts small] ?an six?s ( degrees1 or divisions ( #aj m9utes4 ,! angles1 obs]v$ by means ( ^! divisions1 7 express$ z a fraction ( ! circumf]5ce4 ,?us ,erato/h5es /at$ ! int]val betwe5 ! tropics to be #aa_/hc ( ! circumf]5ce4#hec ,note #hec3 ,delambre1 ,a4 ,a4 i4 #hg4 ,x is probable t 8 obs]vation gave him #dg degrees4 ,! fraction #dg_/cfj #adc_/ajhj #aa #ac_/ajhj #aa_/7hca_/ac71 :i* is v ne>ly #aa_/hc4 ,x 0 soon rem>k$ t ! :ole circumf]5ce ( ! circle #afd 0 n want$ = su* obs]vations4 ,ptolemy#hfc says t he f\nd x m conv5i5t to obs]ve altitudes by means ( a squ>e flat piece ( /one or wood1 ) a quadrant ( a circle describ$ on "o ( its flat faces1 ab\t a c5tre ne> "o ( ! angles4 ,a peg 0 plac$ at ! c5tre1 & "o ( ! extreme radii ( ! quadrant be+ p]p5dicul> to ! horizon1 ! elevation ( ! sun above ! horizon 0 det]m9$ by obs]v+ ! po9t ( ! arc ( ! quadrant on :i* ! %ad[ ( ! peg fell4 ,note #hfc3 ,synt4 i4 #a4 ,z ! necessity ( accuracy 9 ! obs]vations 0 m & m felt1 v>i\s adju/m5ts ( su* in/rum5ts 7 practis$4 ,! in/rum5ts 7 plac$ 9 ! m]idian by means ( a m]idian l9e drawn by a/ronomical me?ods on ! floor on :i* !y /ood4 ,! plane ( ! in/rum5t 0 made v]tical by means ( a plumb-l9e3 ! b\nd+ radius1 f :i* angles 7 measur$1 0 also adju/$ by ! plumb-l9e4#hgc ,note #hgc3 ,! curvature ( ! plane ( ! circle1 by w>p+1 0 notic$4 ,ptol4 iii4 #b4 p4 #aee1 obs]ves t 8 equatorial circle 0 illum9at$ on ! holl[ side twice 9 ! same day4 7,he did n "k t ?is might arise f refraction47 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! places ( ! sun & ( ! moon c\ld be obs]v$ by means ( ! %ad[s :i* !y ca/4 ,9 ord] to obs]ve ! />s1#hhc ! obs]v] look$ along ! face ( ! circle ( ! armil1 s z to see its two edges app>5tly br\ght toge!r1 & ! /> app>5tly t\*+ !m4#hic ,note #hhc3 ,delamb4 ,a4 ,a4 i4 #ahe4 ,note #hic3 ,ptol4 ,synt4 i4 #a4 ' 4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds f\nd important to asc]ta9 ! position ( ! sun ) reg>d to ! ecliptic3 &1 = ?is purpose1 an in/rum5t1 call$ an a/rolabe1 0 inv5t$1 ( :i* we h a description 9 ,ptolemy4#ijc ,?is also consi/$ ( circul> rims1 movable )9 "o ano!r1 or ab\t poles2 & conta9$ circles :i* 7 to be br\ght into ! position ( ! ecliptic1 & ( a plane pass+ ?r\gh ! sun & ! poles ( ! ecliptic4 ,! position ( ! moon ) reg>d to ! ecliptic1 & its position 9 longitude ) reg>d to ! sun or a />1 7 ?us det]m9$4 ,note #ijc3 ,synt4 v4 #a4 ,! a/rolabe cont9u$ long 9 use1 b n s long z ! quadrant describ$ by ,ptolemy2 ?is1 9 a l>g] =m1 is ! mural quadrant1 :i* has be5 us$ up to ! mo/ rec5t times4 ,x may be consid]$ surpris+1#iac t ,hipp>*us1 aft] hav+ #afe obs]v$1 = "s "t1 "r asc5sions & decl9ations1 quitt$ equatorial armils = ! a/rolabe1 :i* imm$iately ref]s ! />s to ! ecliptic4 ,he probably did ?is because1 aft] ! discov]y ( precession1 he f\nd ! latitudes ( ! />s con/ant1 & want$ to asc]ta9 _! motion 9 longitude4 ,note #iac3 ,del4 ,a4 ,a4 #aha4 ,to ! above in/rum5ts1 may be add$ ! dioptra1 & ! p>allactic in/rum5t ( ,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy4 ,9 ! latt]1 ! di/ance ( a /> f ! z5i? 0 obs]v$ by look+ ?r\gh two sights fix$ 9 a rule1 ?is be+ annex$ to ano!r rule1 :i* 0 kept 9 a v]tical position by a plumb-l9e2 & ! angle betwe5 ! two rules 0 measur$4 ,! foll[+ example ( an obs]vation1 tak5 f ,ptolemy1 may s]ve to %[ ! =m 9 :i* ! results ( ! in/rum5ts1 j describ$1 7 usually /at$4#ibc ,note #ibc3 ,del4 ,a4 ,a4 ii4 #bdh4 ,9 ! #b;d ye> ( ,anton9us1 ! #i? day ( ,ph>m\?i1 ! sun be+ ne> sett+1 ! la/ division ( ,taurus be+ on ! m]idian 7t is1 #e equ9octial h\rs aft] noon71 ! moon 0 9 #c degrees ( ,pisces1 by h] di/ance f ! sun 7:i* 0 #ib degrees1 #h m9utes72 & half an h\r aft]1 ! sun be+ set1 & ! qu>t] ( ,gem9i on ! m]idian1 ,regulus appe>$1 by ! o!r circle ( ! a/rolabe1 #eg degrees m =w>ds ?an ! moon 9 longitude4 ,f ^! data ! longitude ( ,regulus is calculat$4 ,f :at has be5 said respect+ ! obs]vations ( ! ,alex&rian a/ronom]s1 x w h be5 se5 t _! in/rum5tal obs]vations c\ld n be dep5d$ on = any close accuracy4 ,?is defect1 aft] ! g5]al reception ( ! ,hipp>*ian !ory1 op]at$ v unfavorably on ! progress ( ! sci5ce4 ,if !y c\ld h trac$ ! moon's place di/9ctly f day to day1 !y mu/ soon h discov]$ all ! inequalities :i* 7 kn[n to ,ty*o ,brahe2 & if !y c\ld h measur$ h] p>allax or h] diamet] ) any consid]able accuracy1 !y mu/ h obta9$ a confutation ( ! epicycloidal =m ( h] orbit4 ,by ! badness ( _! obs]vations1 & ! imp]fect agreem5t ( ^! ) calculation1 !y n only 7 prev5t$ mak+ su* /eps1 b 7 l$ to receive ! !ory ) a s]vile ass5t & an indi/9ct appreh5sion1 in/ead ( t rational conviction & intuitive cle>ness :i* w\ld h giv5 a progressive impulse to _! k4 #aff ,sect4 #d4--,p]iod f ,hipp>*us to ,ptolemy4 ,,we h n[ to speak ( ! cultivators ( a/ronomy f ! "t ( ,hipp>*us to t ( ,ptolemy1 ! next great "n :i* occurs 9 ! hi/ory ( ?is sci5ce2 ?\gh ev5 he holds place only among ^? :o v]ifi$1 develop$1 & ext5d$ ! !ory ( ,hipp>*us4 ,! a/ronom]s :o liv$ 9 ! int]m$iate "t1 inde$1 did little1 ev5 9 ?is way2 ?\gh x might h be5 suppos$ t _! /udies 7 c>ri$ on "u consid]able advantages1 inasmu* z !y all enjoy$ ! lib]al patronage ( ! k+s ( ,egypt4#icc ,! div9e s*ool ( ,alex&ria1 z x is call$ by ,synesius1 9 ! f\r? c5tury1 appe>s to h produc$ few p]sons capable ( c>ry+ =w>ds1 or ev5 ( v]ify+1 ! labors ( its great a/ronomical tea*]4 ,! ma!maticians ( ! s*ool wrote mu*1 & app>5tly !y obs]v$ sometimes2 b _! obs]vations are ( little value2 & _! books are expositions ( ! !ory & its geometrical consequ5ces1 )\t any attempt to comp>e x ) obs]vation4 ,= in/ance1 x does n appe> t any "o v]ifi$ ! rem>kable discov]y ( ! precession1 till ! "t ( ,ptolemy1 #bej ye>s aft]2 nor does ! /atem5t ( ?is motion ( ! heav5s appe> 9 ! treatises ( ! int]m$iate writ]s2 nor does ,ptolemy quote a s+le obs]vation ( any p]son made 9 ?is long int]val ( "t2 :ile 8 ref]5ces to ^? ( ,hipp>*us are p]petual2 & to ^? ( ,ari/yllus & ,timo*>is1 & ( o!rs1 z ,conon1 :o prec$$ ,hipp>*us1 are n unfrequ5t4 ,note #icc3 ,delamb4 ,a4 ,a4 ii4 #bdj4 ,?is ,alex&rian p]iod1 s inactive & b>r5 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 0 prosp]\s1 civiliz$1 & lit]>y2 & _m ( ! works :i* belong to x are come d[n to u1 ?\gh ^? ( ,hipp>*us are lo/4 ,we h ! ,uranologion ( ,gem9us1#idc a sy/ematic treatise on ,a/ronomy1 exp\nd+ correctly ! ,hipp>*ian ,!ories & _! consequ5ces1 & conta9+ a good acc\nt ( ! use ( ! v>i\s ,cycles1 :i* end$ 9 ! adoption ( ! ,calippic ,p]iod4 ,we h likewise ,! ,circul> ,!ory ( ! ,cele/ial ,bodies ( ,cleom$es1#iec ( :i* ! pr9cipal "p is a developm5t ( ! doctr9e ( ! sph]e1 includ+ ! consequ5ces ( ! globul> =m ( ! e>?4 ,we h also ano!r "w on ,sph]ics by ,!odosius ( ,bi?ynia1#ifc :i* conta9s "s ( ! mo/ important propositions ( ! subject1 & has be5 us$ z a book ( #afg in/ruction ev5 9 mod]n times4 ,ano!r writ] on ! same subject is ,m5elaus1 :o liv$ some:at lat]1 & ^: ,?ree ,books on ,sph]ics /ill rema94 ,note #idc3 ,b4 ,c4 #gj4 ,note #iec3 ,b4 ,c4 #fj4 ,note #ifc3 ,b4 ,c4 #ej4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important k9ds ( d$uction f a geometrical !ory1 su* z t ( ! doctr9e ( ! sph]e1 or t ( epicycles1 is ! calculation ( its num]ical results 9 p>ticul> cases4 ,) reg>d to ! latt] !ory1 ?is 0 done 9 ! con/ruction ( ,sol> & ,lun> ,tables1 z we h already se52 & ?is process requir$ ! =mation ( a ,trigonometry1 or sy/em ( rules = calculat+ ! relations betwe5 ! sides & angles ( triangles4 ,su* a sci5ce _h be5 =m$ by ,hipp>*us1 :o appe>s to be ! au?or ( e great /ep 9 anci5t a/ronomy4#igc ,he wrote a "w 9 twelve books1 ,on ! ,con/ruction ( ! ,tables ( ,*ords ( ,arcs2 su* a table be+ ! means by :i* ! ,greeks solv$ _! triangles4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ! ,sph]e requir$1 9 l mann]1 a ,sph]ical ,trigonometry1 9 ord] to enable ma!maticians to calculate its results2 & ?is bran* ( sci5ce also appe>s to h be5 =m$ by ,hipp>*us1#ihc :o gives results t imply ! possession ( su* a me?od4 ,hypsicles1 :o 0 a contempor>y ( ,ptolemy1 also made "s attempts at ! solution ( su* problems3 b x is extraord9>y t ! writ]s :om we h m5tion$ z com+ aft] ,hipp>*us1 namely1 ,!odosius1 ,cleom$es1 & ,m5elaus1 d n ev5 m5tion ! calculation ( triangles1#iic ei!r pla9 or sph]ical2 ?\gh ! latt] writ]#ajjc is said to h writt5 on ! ,table ( ,*ords1 a "w :i* is n[ lo/4 ,note #igc3 ,delamb4 ,a4 ,a4 ii4 #cg4 ,note #ihc3 ,a4 ,a4 i4 #aag4 ,note #iic3 ,a4 ,a4 i4 #bdi4 ,note #ajjc3 ,a4 ,a4 ii4 #cg4 ,we %all see1 h]eaft]1 h[ preval5t a disposition 9 lit]>y ages is t :i* induces au?ors to become comm5tators4 ,?is t5d5cy %[$ itself at an e>ly p]iod 9 ! s*ool ( ,alex&ria4 ,aratus1#ajac :o liv$ #bgj ,b4 ,c4 at ! c\rt ( ,antigonus1 k+ ( ,mac$onia1 describ$ ! cele/ial con/ellations 9 two poems1 entitl$ ,phnom5a1 & ,progno/ics4 ,^! poems 7 little m ?an a v]sification ( ! treatise ( ,eudoxus on ! acronycal & heliacal ris+s & sett+s ( ! />s4 ,! "w 0 ! subject ( a comm5t by ,hipp>*us1 :o p]haps f\nd ?is ! easie/ way ( giv+ connection & circulation to 8 k4 ,?ree ,lat9 translations ( ?is poem gave ! ,romans ! means ( becom+ acqua9t$ ) x3 ! fir/ is by ,cic]o1 ( :i* we h num]\s fragm5ts #afh extant2#ajbc ,g]manicus ,cs>1 "o ( ! sons-9-law ( ,augu/us1 also translat$ ! poem1 & ?is translation rema9s almo/ entire4 ,f9ally1 we h a complete translation by ,avi5us4#ajcc ,! ,a/ronomica ( ,manilius1 ! ,poeticon ,a/ronomicon ( ,hyg9us1 bo? belong+ to ! "t ( ,augu/us1 are1 l ! "w ( ,aratus1 poems :i* comb9e my?ological ornam5t ) elem5t>y a/ronomical exposition2 b h no value 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,we may pass ne>ly ! same judgm5t ^u ! explanations & declamations ( ,cic]o1 ,s5eca1 & ,pl9y1 = !y d n apprise u ( any additions to a/ronomical k2 & !y d n always indicate a v cle> appreh5sion ( ! doctr9es :i* ! writ]s adopt4 ,note #ajac3 ,a4 ,a4 i4 #gd4 ,note #ajbc3 ,two copies ( ?is translation1 illu/rat$ by draw+s ( diff]5t ages1 "o set ,roman1 & ! o!r ,saxon1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,ottley1 are describ$ 9 ! ,ar*ologia1 vol4 xviii4 ,note #ajcc3 ,montucla1 i4 #bba4 ,p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable feature 9 ! two la/-nam$ writ]s1 is ! declamatory expression ( _! admiration = ! discov]]s ( physical k2 & 9 "o ( !m1 ,s5eca1 ! p]suasion ( a b\ndless progress 9 sci5ce to :i* man 0 de/9$4 ,?\gh ?is belief 0 no m ?an a vague & arbitr>y conjecture1 x sugge/$ o!r conjectures 9 detail1 "s ( :i*1 hav+ be5 v]ifi$1 h attract$ mu* notice4 ,= in/ance1 9 speak+ ( comets1#ajdc ,s5eca says1 ,! "t w come :5 ^? ?+s :i* are n[ hidd5 %all be br\ght to light by "t & p]sev]+ dilig5ce4 ,our po/]ity w wond] t we %\ld be ignorant ( :at is s obvi\s4 ,! motions ( ! planets1 he adds1 complex & seem+ly confus$1 h be5 r$uc$ to rule2 & "s "o w come h]eaft]1 :o w reveal to u ! pa?s ( comets4 ,su* convictions & conjectures are n to be admir$ = _! wisdom2 = ,s5eca 0 l$ r by en?usiasm1 ?an by any solid reasons1 to ent]ta9 ?is op9ion2 nor1 aga91 are !y to be consid]$ z m]ely lucky guesses1 imply+ no m]it2 !y are rem>kable z %[+ h[ ! p]suasion ( ! univ]sality ( law1 & ! belief ( ! probability ( its discov]y by man1 gr[ up 9 m5's m9ds1 :5 speculative k becomes a prom95t object ( att5tion4 ,note #ajdc3 ,s5eca1 ,qu4 ,n4 vii4 #be4 ,an important practical application ( a/ronomical k 0 made by ,julius ,cs>1 9 8 correction ( ! cal5d>1 :i* we h already notic$2 & ?is 0 /rictly due to ! ,alex&rian ,s*ool3 ,sosig5es1 an a/ronom] belong+ to t s*ool1 came f ,egypt to ,rome = ! purpose4 #afi ,sect4 #e4--,measures ( ! ,e>?4 ,,!re 71 z we h said1 few attempts made1 at ! p]iod ( :i* we are speak+1 to improve ! accuracy ( any ( ! det]m9ations ( ! e>ly ,alex&rian a/ronom]s4 ,"o "q naturally excit$ mu* att5tion at all times1 ! magnitude ( ! e>?1 its figure be+ univ]sally ackn[l$g$ to be a globe4 ,! ,*aldeans1 at an e>li] p]iod1 _h ass]t$ t a man1 walk+ )\t /opp+1 might g r\nd ! circuit ( ! e>? 9 a ye>2 b ?is might be a m]e fancy1 or a m]e guess4 ,! attempt ( ,erato/h5es to decide ?is "q w5t ^u pr9ciples entirely correct4 ,sy5e 0 situat$ on ! tropic2 = !re1 on ! day ( ! sol/ice1 at noon1 objects ca/ no %ad[2 & a well 0 enlight5$ to ! bottom by ! sun's rays4 ,at ,alex&ria1 on ! same day1 ! sun 01 at noon1 di/ant f ! z5i? by a fiftie? "p ( ! circumf]5ce4 ,^? two cities 7 nor? & s\? f ea* o!r3 & ! di/ance _h be5 det]m9$1 by ! royal ov]se]s ( ! roads1 to be #ejjj /adia4 ,?is gave a circumf]5ce ( #bej1jjj /adia to ! e>?1 & a radius ( ab\t #dj1jjj4 ,ari/otle#ajec says t ! ma!maticians make ! circumf]5ce #djj1jjj /adia4 ,hipp>*us conceiv$ t ! measure ( ,erato/h5es ought to be increas$ by ab\t "o-t5?4#ajfc ,posidonius1 ! fri5d ( ,cic]o1 made ano!r attempt ( ! same k9d4 ,at ,rhodes1 ! /> ,canopus b j appe>$ above ! horizon2 at ,alex&ria1 ! same /> rose to an altitude ( #a_/dh? ( ! circumf]5ce2 ! direct di/ance on ! m]idian 0 #ejjj /adia1 :i* gave #bdj1jjj = ! :ole circuit4 ,we _c look ^u ^! measures z v precise2 ! /adium employ$ is n c]ta9ly kn[n2 & no peculi> c>e appe>s to h be5 be/[$ on ! measure ( ! direct di/ance4 ,note #ajec3 ,de ,clo1 ii4 ad f94 ,note #ajfc3 ,pl94 ii4 7cviii47 ,:5 ! ,arabians1 9 ! n9? c5tury1 came to be ! pr9cipal cultivators ( a/ronomy1 !y repeat$ ?is obs]vation 9 a mann] m suit$ to its real importance & capacity ( exactness4 ,"u ! ,caliph ,almamon1#ajgc ! va/ pla9 ( ,s+i>1 9 ,mesopotamia1 0 ! sc5e ( ?is und]tak+4 ,! ,arabian a/ronom]s !re divid$ !mselves into two b&s1 "o "u ! direction ( ,*alid b5 ,abdolmalic1 & ! o!r hav+ at its head ,alis b5 ,isa4 ,^! two p>ties proce$$1 ! "o nor?1 ! o!r s\?1 det]m9+ ! di/ance by ! actual application ( _! measur+-rods to ! gr\nd1 #agj till ea* 0 f\nd1 by a/ronomical obs]vation1 to be a degree f ! place at :i* !y />t$4 ,x !n appe>$ t ^! t]re/rial degrees 7 respectively #ef miles1 & #ef miles & two-?irds1 ! mile be+ #djjj cubits4 ,9 ord] to remove all d\bt conc]n+ ! scale ( ?is measure1 we are in=m$ t ! cubit is t call$ ! black cubit1 :i* consi/s ( #bg in*es1 ea* in* be+ ! ?ickness ( six gra9s ( b>ley4 ,note #ajgc3 ,montu4 #ceg4 ,sect4 #f4--,ptolemy's ,discov]y ( ,evection4 ,,by ref]r+1 9 ?is place1 to ! la/-m5tion$ measure ( ! e>?1 we include ! labors ( ! ,arabian z well z ! ,alex&rian a/ronom]s1 9 ! p]iod ( m]e detail1 :i* =ms ! sequel to ! great a/ronomical revolution ( ! ,hipp>*ian epo*4 ,& ?is p]iod ( v]ification is rightly ext5d$ to ^? lat] times2 n m]ely because a/ronom]s 7 !n /ill employ$ 9 det]m9+ ! magnitude ( ! e>?1 & ! am\nt ( o!r elem5ts ( ! !ory1--= ^! are "s ( _! employm5ts to ! pres5t day1--b because no great int]v5+ discov]y m>ks a new epo*1 & beg9s a new p]iod2--because no great revolution 9 ! !ory add$ to ! objects ( inve/igation1 or pres5t$ !m 9 a new po9t ( view4 ,?is be+ ! case1 x w be m in/ructive = our purpose to consid] ! g5]al "* & broad intellectual features ( ?is p]iod1 ?an to (f] a useless catalogue ( obscure & wor?less writ]s1 & ( op9ions ei!r borr[$ or uns\nd4 ,b be=e we d ?is1 !re is "o writ] :om we _c leave undi/+ui%$ 9 ! cr[d2 s9ce 8 "n is m celebrat$ ev5 ?an t ( ,hipp>*us2 8 works conta9 n9ety-n9e hundr$?s ( :at we "k ( ! ,greek a/ronomy2 & ?\gh he 0 n ! au?or ( a new !ory1 he made "s v rem>kable /eps 9 ! v]ification1 correction1 & ext5sion ( ! !ory :i* he receiv$4 ,i speak ( ,ptolemy1 ^: "w1 ,! ,ma!matical ,con/ruction 7( ! heav5s71 conta9s a complete exposition ( ! /ate ( a/ronomy 9 8 "t1 ! reigns ( ,adrian & ,anton9e4 ,?is book is famili>ly kn[n to u by a t]m :i* conta9s ! record ( our hav+ receiv$ our fir/ k ( x f ! ,arabic writ]s4 ,! ,megi/e ,syntaxis1 or ,great ,con/ruction1 gave rise1 among !m1 to ! title ,al ,magi/i1 or ,almage/1 by :i* ! "w is commonly describ$4 ,z a ma!matical exposition ( ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles & ,ecc5trics1 ( ! obs]vations & calculations :i* 7 employ$ 9 #aga ord] to apply ?is !ory to ! sun1 moon1 & planets1 & ( ! o!r calculations :i* are requisite1 9 ord] to d$uce ! consequ5ces ( ?is !ory1 ! "w is a spl5did & la/+ monum5t ( dilig5ce1 skill1 & judgm5t4 ,inde$1 all ! o!r a/ronomical works ( ! anci5ts h>dly add any ?+ :atev] to ! in=mation we obta9 f ! ,almage/2 & ! k :i* ! /ud5t possesses ( ! anci5t a/ronomy mu/ dep5d ma9ly ^u 8 acqua9tance ) ,ptolemy4 ,among o!r m]its1 ,ptolemy has t ( giv+ u a v copi\s acc\nt ( ! mann] 9 :i* ,hipp>*us e/abli%$ ! ma9 po9ts ( 8 !ories2 an acc\nt ! m agreeable1 9 consequ5ce ( ! admiration & en?usiasm ) :i* ?is au?or ev]y:]e speaks ( ! great ma/] ( ! a/ronomical s*ool4 ,9 our pres5t survey ( ! writ+s ( ,ptolemy1 we are conc]n$ less ) 8 exposition ( :at _h be5 done be=e him1 ?an ) 8 own orig9al labors4 ,9 mo/ ( ! bran*es ( ! subject1 he gave additional exactness to :at ,hipp>*us _h done2 b our ma9 bus9ess1 at pres5t1 is ) ^? p>ts ( ! ,almage/ :i* conta9 new /eps 9 ! application ( ! ,hipp>*ian hypo!sis4 ,!re are two su* cases1 bo? v rem>kable1--t ( ! moon's ,evection1 & t ( ! ,planet>y ,motions4 ,! law ( ! moon's anomaly1 t is1 ( ! lead+ & obvi\s inequality ( h] motion1 c\ld be repres5t$1 z we h se51 ei!r by an ecc5tric or an epicycle2 & ! am\nt ( ?is inequality _h be5 collect$ by obs]vations ( eclipses4 ,b ?\gh ! hypo!sis ( an epicycle1 = in/ance1 w\ld br+ ! moon to h] prop] place1 s f> z eclipses c\ld %[ x1 t is1 at new & full moon1 ?is hypo!sis did n rightly repres5t h] motions at o!r po9ts ( h] c\rse4 ,?is appe>$1 :5 ,ptolemy set ab\t measur+ h] di/ances f ! sun at diff]5t times4 ,^!1 he#ajhc says1 sometimes agre$1 & sometimes disagre$4 ,b by fur!r att5tion to ! facts1 a rule 0 detect$ 9 ^! diff]5ces4 ,z my k became m complete & m connect$1 s z to %[ ! ord] ( ?is new inequality1 ,i p]ceiv$ t ?is diff]5ce 0 small1 or no?+1 at new & full moon2 & t at bo? ! di*otomies 7:5 ! moon is half illum9at$7 x 0 small1 or no?+1 if ! moon 0 at ! apogee or p]igee ( ! epicycle1 & 0 greate/ :5 %e 0 9 ! middle ( ! int]val1 & !re=e :5 ! fir/ #agb inequality 0 greate/ also4 ,he !n adds "s fur!r rem>ks on ! circum/ances accord+ to :i* ! moon's place1 z affect$ by ?is new inequality1 is be=e or beh9d ! place1 z giv5 by ! epicyclical hypo!sis4 ,note #ajhc3 ,syn?4 v4 #b4 ,su* is ! ann\ncem5t ( ! celebrat$ discov]y ( ! moon's second inequality1 aft]w>ds call$ 7by ,bullialdus7 ! ,evection4 ,ptolemy soon proce$$ to repres5t ?is inequality by a comb9ation ( circul> motions1 unit+1 = ?is purpose1 ! hypo!sis ( an epicycle1 already employ$ to expla9 ! fir/ inequality1 ) ! hypo!sis ( an ecc5tric1 9 ! circumf]5ce ( :i* ! c5tre ( ! epicycle 0 suppos$ to move4 ,! mode ( comb9+ ^! 0 some:at complex2 m complex we may1 p]haps1 say1 ?an 0 absolutely requisite2#ajic ! apogee ( ! ecc5tric mov$ backw>ds1 or contr>y to ! ord] ( ! signs1 & ! c5tre ( ! epicycle mov$ =w>ds ne>ly twice z fa/ ^u ! circumf]5ce ( ! ecc5tric1 s z to rea* a place ne>ly1 b n exactly1 ! same1 z if x _h mov$ 9 a conc5tric in/ead ( an ecc5tric pa?4 ,?us ! c5tre ( ! epicycle w5t twice r\nd ! ecc5tric 9 ! c\rse ( "o mon?3 & 9 ?is mann] x satisfi$ ! condition t x %\ld vani% at new & full moon1 & be greate/ :5 ! moon 0 9 ! qu>t]s ( h] mon?ly c\rse4#aajc ,note #ajic3 ,if ,ptolemy _h us$ ! hypo!sis ( an ecc5tric in/ead ( an epicycle = ! fir/ inequality ( ! moon1 an epicycle w\ld h repres5t$ ! second inequality m simply ?an 8 me?od did4 ,note #aajc3 ,i w ins]t "h ! explanation :i* my ,g]man translator1 ! late di/+ui%$ a/ronom] ,littr[1 has giv5 ( ?is po9t4 ,! ,rule ( ?is ,inequality1 ! ,evection1 may be mo/ simply express$ ?us4 ,if a d5ote ! excess ( ! ,moon's ,longitude ov] ! ,sun's1 & b ! ,anomaly ( ! ,moon reckon$ f h] ,p]igee1 ! ,evection is equal to #a4 #c4 s9 7#b;a - b74 ,at ,new & ,full ,moon1 a is #j or #ahj1 & ?us ! ,evection is - #a4c4s9 b4 ,at bo? qu>t]s1 or di*otomies1 a is #ij or #bgj1 & consequ5tly ! ,evection is #a4c 4 s9 b4 ,! ,moon's ,elliptical ,equation ( ! c5tre is at all po9ts ( h] orbit equal to #f4c4s9 b4 ,! ,greek ,a/ronom]s be=e ,ptolemy obs]v$ ! moon only at ! "t ( eclipses2 & h5ce !y necess>ily f\nd = ! sum ( ^! two greate/ inequalities ( ! moon's motion ! quantity #f4c4 s9 b - #a4c4s9 b1 or #e4s9 b3 & z !y took ?is = ! moon's equation ( ! c5tre1 :i* dep5ds ^u ! ecc5tricity ( ! moon's orbit1 we obta9 f ?is too small equation ( ! c5tre1 an ecc5tricity also small] ?an ! tru?4 ,ptolemy1 :o fir/ obs]v$ ! moon 9 h] qu>t]s1 f\nd = ! sum ( ^? ,inequalities at ^? po9ts ! quantity #f4c4s9 b #a4c4s9 b1 or #g4f4s9 b2 & ?us made ! ecc5tricity ( ! moon z mu* too great at ! qu>t]s z ! obs]v]s ( eclipses _h made x too small4 ,he h5ce conclud$ t ! ecc5tricity ( ! ,moon's orbit is v>iable1 :i* is n ! case4 ,! discov]y ( ! ,evection1 & ! r$uction ( x to ! #agc epicyclical !ory1 01 = sev]al reasons1 an important /ep 9 a/ronomy2 "s ( ^! reasons may be /at$4 #a4 ,x obvi\sly sugge/$1 or confirm$1 ! suspicion t ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies might be subject to _m inequalities3--t :5 "o set ( anomalies _h be5 discov]$ & r$uc$ to rule1 ano!r set might come into view2--t ! discov]y ( a rule 0 a /ep to ! discov]y ( deviations f ! rule1 :i* w\ld require to be express$ 9 o!r rules2--t 9 ! application ( !ory to obs]vation1 we f9d1 n only ! /at$ ph5om5a1 = :i* ! !ory does acc\nt1 b also residual ph5om5a1 :i* rema9 unacc\nt$ =1 & /& out beyond ! calculation2--t ?us nature is n simple & regul>1 by con=m+ to ! simplicity & regul>ity ( our hypo!ses1 b leads u =w>ds to app>5t complexity1 & to an accumulation ( rules & relations4 ,a fact l ! ,evection1 expla9$ by an ,hypo!sis l ,ptolemy's1 t5d$ altoge!r to disc\rage any disposition to guess at ! laws ( nature f m]e ideal views1 or f a few ph5om5a4 #b4 ,! discov]y ( ,evection _h an importance :i* did n come into view till long aft]w>ds1 9 be+ ! fir/ ( a num]\s s]ies ( inequalities ( ! moon1 :i* results f ! ,di/urb+ ,=ce ( ! sun4 ,^! inequalities 7 successfully discov]$2 & l$ f9ally to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! law ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,! moon's fir/ inequality arises f a diff]5t cause2--f ! same cause z ! inequality ( ! sun's motion2--f ! motion 9 an ellipse1 s f> z ! c5tral attraction is undi/urb$ by any o!r4 ,?is fir/ inequality is call$ ! ,elliptic ,inequality1 or1 m usually1 ! ,equation ( ! ,c5tre4#aaac ,all ! planets h su* inequalities1 b ! ,evection is peculi> to ! moon4 ,! discov]y ( o!r inequalities ( ! moon's motion1 ! ,v>iation & ,annual ,equation1 made an imm$iate sequel 9 ! ord] ( ! subject to #agd ! discov]ies ( ,ptolemy1 al?\gh sep>at$ by a long int]val ( "t2 = ^! discov]ies 7 only made by ,ty*o ,brahe 9 ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,! imp]fection ( a/ronomical in/rum5ts 0 ! great cause ( ?is long delay4 ,note #aaac3 ,! ,equation ( ! ,c5tre is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! place ( ! ,planet 9 its elliptical orbit1 & t place :i* a ,planet w\ld h1 :i* revolv$ uni=mly r\nd ! ,sun z a c5tre 9 a circul> orbit 9 ! same "t4 ,an imag9>y ,planet mov+ 9 ! mann] la/ describ$1 is call$ ! mean ,planet1 :ile ! actual ,planet :i* moves 9 ! ellipse is call$ ! true ,planet4 ,! ,longitude ( ! mean ,planet at a giv5 "t is easily f\nd1 because its motion is uni=m4 ,by add+ to x ! ,equation ( ! ,c5tre1 we f9d ! ,longitude ( ! true ,planet1 & ?us1 its place 9 its orbit4--,littr['s ,note4 ,i may add t ! ^w ,equation1 us$ 9 su* cases1 d5otes 9 g5]al a quantity :i* mu/ be add$ to or subtract$ f a mean quantity1 to make x equal to ! true quantity2 or r1 a quantity :i* mu/ be add$ to or subtract$ f a v>iably increas+ quantity to make x increase equably4 #c4 ,! ,epicyclical ,hypo!sis 0 f\nd capable ( accommodat+ itself to su* new discov]ies4 ,^! new inequalities c\ld be repres5t$ by new comb9ations ( ecc5trics & epicycles3 all ! real & imag9>y discov]ies by a/ronom]s1 up to ,cop]nicus1 7 actually embodi$ 9 ^! hypo!ses2 ,cop]nicus1 z we h said1 did n reject su* hypo!ses2 ! lun> inequalities :i* ,ty*o detect$ might h be5 simil>ly exhibit$2 & ev5 ,newton#aabc repres5ts ! motion ( ! moon's apogee by means ( an epicycle4 ,z a mode ( express+ ! law ( ! irregul>ity1 & ( calculat+ its results 9 p>ticul> cases1 ! epicyclical !ory 0 capable ( cont9u+ to r5d] great s]vice to a/ronomy1 h[ev] ext5sive ! progress ( ! sci5ce might be4 ,x 01 9 fact1 z we h already said1 ! mod]n process ( repres5t+ ! motion by means ( a s]ies ( circul> functions4 ,note #aabc3 ,pr9cipia1 lib4 iii4 prop4 xxxv4 #d4 ,b ?\gh ! doctr9e ( ecc5trics & epicycles 0 ?us admissible z an ,hypo!sis1 & conv5i5t z a means ( express+ ! laws ( ! heav5ly motions1 ! successive occasions on :i* x 0 call$ into use1 gave no c\nt5ance to x z a ,!ory2 t is1 z a true view ( ! nature ( ^! motions1 & _! causes4 ,by ! /eps ( ! progress ( ?is ,hypo!sis1 x became m & m complex1 in/ead ( becom+ m simple1 :i*1 z we %all see1 0 ! c\rse ( ! true ,!ory4 ,! notions conc]n+ ! position & connection ( ! heav5ly bodies1 :i* 7 sugge/$ by "o set ( ph5om5a1 7 n confirm$ by ! indications ( ano!r set ( ph5om5a2 = in/ance1 ^? relations ( ! epicycles :i* 7 adopt$ to acc\nt = ! ,motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 7 n f\nd to fall 9 ) ! consequ5ces ( _! app>5t ,diamet]s & ,p>allaxes4 ,9 reality1 z we h said1 if ! relative di/ances ( ! sun & moon at diff]5t times c\ld h be5 accurately det]m9$1 ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles mu/ h be5 =?) ov]turn$4 ,! insecurity ( su* measurem5ts alone ma9ta9$ ! !ory to lat] times4#aacc #age ,note #aacc3 ,! alt]ation ( ! app>5t diamet] ( ! moon is s great t x _c escape u1 ev5 ) v mod]ate in/rum5ts4 ,?is app>5t diamet] conta9s1 :5 ! moon is ne>e/ ! e>?1 #bjaj seconds2 :5 %e is fur!/ (f #agfb seconds2 t is1 #bdh seconds1 or #d m9utes #h seconds1 less ?an 9 ! =m] case4 ,! two quantities are 9 ! proportion ( #h to #g1 ne>ly4--,littr['s ,note4 ,sect4 #g4--;,conclusion ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,greek ,a/ronomy4 ,i ,,might n[ proce$ to give an acc\nt ( ,ptolemy's o!r great /ep1 ! det]m9ation ( ! ,planet>y ,orbits2 b z ?is1 ?\gh 9 itself v curi\s1 w\ld n illu/rate any po9t beyond ^? already notic$1 ,i %all ref] to x v briefly4 ,! planets all move 9 ellipses ab\t ! sun1 z ! moon moves ab\t ! e>?2 & z ! sun app>5tly moves ab\t ! e>?4 ,!y w !re=e ea* h an ,elliptic ,inequality or ,equation ( ! c5tre1 = ! same reason t ! sun & moon h su* inequalities4 ,& ?is inequality may be repres5t$1 9 ! cases ( ! planets1 j z 9 ! o!r two1 by means ( an ecc5tric2 ! epicycle1 x w be recollect$1 _h already be5 us$ 9 ord] to repres5t ! m obvi\s *anges ( ! planet>y motions4 ,to det]m9e ! am\nt ( ! ,ecc5tricities & ! places ( ! ,apogees ( ! planet>y orbits1 0 ! task :i* ,ptolemy und]took2 ,hipp>*us1 z we h se51 hav+ be5 de/itute ( ! obs]vations :i* su* a process requir$4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! ,ecc5tricities 9 ^! cases involv$ "s peculi>ities :i* might n at fir/ sight occur to ! read]4 ,! 9999elcliptical motion ( ! planets takes place ab\t ! sun2 b ,ptolemy consid]$ _! movem5ts z altoge!r indep5d5t ( ! sun1 & ref]r$ !m to ! e>? alone2 & ?us ! app>5t ecc5tricities :i* he _h to acc\nt =1 7 ! comp\nd result ( ! ,ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 & ( ! prop] ecc5tricity ( ! orbit ( ! ,planet4 ,he expla9$ ?is result by ! receiv$ me*anism ( an ecc5tric ,def]5t1 c>ry+ an ,epicycle2 b ! motion 9 ! ,def]5t is uni=m1 n ab\t ! c5tre ( ! circle1 b ab\t ano!r po9t1 ! ,equant4 ,)\t go+ fur!r into detail1 x may be suffici5t to /ate t1 by a comb9ation ( ,ecc5trics & ,epicycles1 he did acc\nt = ! lead+ features ( ^! motions2 & by us+ 8 own obs]vations1 comp>$ ) m anci5t ones 7= in/ance1 ^? ( ,timo*>is = ,v5us71 he 0 able to det]m9e ! ,dim5sions & ,positions ( ! orbits4#aadc #agf ,note #aadc3 ,ptolemy det]m9$ ! ,radius & ! ,p]iodic ,"t ( 8 two circles = ea* ,planet 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,= ! inf]ior ,planets1 t is1 ,m]cury & ,v5us1 he took ! ,radius ( ! ,def]5t equal to ! ,radius ( ! ,e>?'s orbit1 & ! ,radius ( ! ,epicycle equal to t ( ! ,planet's orbit4 ,= ^! ,planets1 accord+ to 8 assumption1 ! ,p]iodic ,"t ( ! ,planet 9 its ,epicycle 0 to ! ,p]iodic ,"t ( ! ,epicyclical ,c5tre on ! ,def]5t1 z ! synodical ,revolution ( ! ,planet to ! tropical ,revolution ( ! ,e>? above ! ,sun4 ,= ! ?ree sup]ior ,planets1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 & ,saturn1 ! ,radius ( ! ,def]5t 0 equal to ! ,radius ( ! ,planet's orbit1 & ! ,radius ( ! ,epicycle 0 equal to ! ,radius ( ! ,e>?'s orbit2 ! ,p]iodic ,"t on ! ,planet 9 its ,epicycle 0 to ! ,p]iodic ,"t ( ! ,epicyclical ,c5tre on ! ,def]5t1 z ! synodical ,revolution ( ! ,planet to ! tropical ,revolution ( ! same ,planet4 ,ptolemy might obvi\sly h made ! geometrical motions ( all ! ,planets correspond ) ! obs]vations by "o ( ^! two modes ( con/ruction2 b he appe>s to h adopt$ ?is d\ble =m ( ! !ory1 9 ord] t 9 ! inf]ior1 z well z 9 ! sup]ior ,planets1 he might give ! small] ( ! two ,radii to ! ,epicycle3 t is1 9 ord] t he might make ! small] circle move r\nd ! l>g]1 n vice v]s4--,littr['s ,notes4 ,i %all "h close my acc\nt ( ! a/ronomical progress ( ! ,greek ,s*ool4 ,my purpose is only to illu/rate ! pr9ciples on :i* ! progress ( sci5ce dep5ds1 & !re=e ,i h n at all pret5d$ to t\* ^u e "p ( ! subject4 ,"s portion ( ! anci5t !ories1 z1 = in/ance1 ! mode ( acc\nt+ = ! motions ( ! moon & planets 9 latitude1 are suffici5tly analog\s to :at has be5 expla9$1 n to require any m especial notice4 ,o!r p>ts ( ,greek a/ronomical k1 z1 = in/ance1 _! acqua9tance ) refraction1 did n assume any cle> or def9ite =m1 & c only be consid]$ z ! prelude to mod]n discov]ies on ! same subject4 ,& be=e we c ) propriety pass on to ^!1 !re is a long & rem>kable1 ?\gh unproductive int]val1 ( :i* "s acc\nt mu/ be giv54 ,sect4 #h4--;,arabian ,a/ronomy4 ,,! int]val to :i* ,i h j allud$ may be consid]$ z ext5d+ f ,ptolemy to ,cop]nicus2 we h no advance 9 ,greek a/ronomy aft] ! =m]2 no signs ( a revival ( ! p[] ( discov]y till ! latt]4 ,dur+ ?is int]val ( #acej ye>s1#aaec ! pr9cipal cultivators ( a/ronomy 7 ! ,arabians1 :o adopt$ ?is sci5ce f ! ,greeks :om !y conqu]$1 & f :om ! conqu]ors ( we/]n ,europe aga9 receiv$ back _! treasure1 :5 ! love ( sci5ce & ! capacity = x _h be5 awak5$ 9 _! m9ds4 ,9 ! int]v5+ "t1 ! preci\s deposit _h und]gone little *ange4 ,! ,arab a/ronom] _h be5 ! scrupul\s b unpr(itable s]vant1 :o kept 8 tal5t )\t app>5t dang] ( loss1 b also )\t prospect ( increase4 ,!re is little 9 #agg ,arabic lit]ature :i* be>s ^u ! progress ( a/ronomy2 b z ! little t !re is mu/ be consid]$ z a sequel to ! ,greek sci5ce1 ,i %all notice "o or two po9ts be=e ,i treat ( ! /ation>y p]iod 9 g5]al4 ,note #aaec3 ,ptolemy di$ ab\t ,a4 ,d4 #aej4 ,cop]nicus 0 liv+ ,a4 ,d4 #aejj4 ,:5 ! sceptre ( we/]n ,asia _h pass$ into ! h&s ( ! ,abasside caliphs1#aafc ,bagdad1 ! city ( peace1 rose to spl5dor & ref9em5t1 & became ! metropolis ( sci5ce "u ! successors ( ,almansor ! ,victori\s1 z ,alex&ria _h be5 "u ! successors ( ,alex&] ! ,great4 ,a/ronomy attract$ peculi>ly ! favor ( ! p[]ful z well z ! le>n$2 & almo/ all ! culture :i* 0 be/[$ ^u ! sci5ce1 appe>s to h _h its s\rce 9 ! patronage1 (t5 also 9 ! p]sonal /udies1 ( ,s>ac5 pr9ces4 ,"u su* enc\ragem5t1 mu* 0 done1 9 ^? sci5tific labors :i* money & rank c comm&4 ,translations ( ,greek works 7 made1 l>ge in/rum5ts 7 erect$1 obs]v]s 7 ma9ta9$2 & accord+ly z obs]vation %[$ ! defects & imp]fection ( ! extant tables ( ! cele/ial motions1 new ones 7 con/ruct$4 ,?us "u ,almansor1 ! ,grecian works ( sci5ce 7 collect$ f all qu>t]s1 & _m ( !m translat$ into ,arabic4#aagc ,! translation ( ! ,megi/e ,syntaxis ( ,ptolemy1 :i* ?us became ! ,almage/1 is ascrib$ to ,isaac b5 ,homa9 9 ?is reign4 ,note #aafc3 ,gibbon1 x4 #ca4 ,note #aagc3 ,id4 x4 #cf4 ,! greate/ ( ! ,arabian ,a/ronom]s comes half a c5tury lat]4 ,?is is ,albategnius1 z he is commonly call$2 or m exactly1 ,mohamm$ b5 ,geb] ,albatani1 ! la/ appellation indicat+ t he 0 born at ,batan1 a city ( ,mesopotamia4#aahc ,he 0 a ,syrian pr9ce1 ^: resid5ce 0 at ,aracte or ,ra*a 9 ,mesopotamia3 a "p ( 8 obs]vations 7 made at ,antio*4 ,8 "w /ill rema9s to u 9 ,lat94 ,aft] hav+ read1 he says1 ! ,syntaxis ( ,ptolemy1 & le>nt ! me?ods ( calculation employ$ by ! ,greeks1 8 obs]vations l$ him to conceive t "s improvem5ts might be made 9 _! results4 ,he f\nd x necess>y to add to ,ptolemy's obs]vations z ,ptolemy _h add$ to ^? ( ,abra*is 7,hipp>*us74 ,he !n publi%$ ,tables ( ! motions ( ! sun1 moon1 & planets1 :i* long ma9ta9$ a high reputation4 ,note #aahc3 ,del4 ,a/ronomie du ,moy5 ,age1 #d4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 did n prev5t ! publication ( o!rs4 ,"u ! ,caliph ,hakem 7ab\t ,a4 ,d4 #ajjj7 ,ebon ,i\nis publi%$ ,tables ( ! ,sun1 ,moon1 & ,planets1 :i* 7 h5ce call$ ! ,hakemite ,tables4 ,n long aft]1 ,arza*el ( ,tol$o publi%$ ! ,toletan #agh ,tables4 ,9 ! #ac? c5tury1 ,nasir ,edd9 publi%$ ,tables ( ! ,/>s1 d$icat$ to ,il*an1 a ,t>t> pr9ce1 & h5ce t]m$ ! ,il*anic ,tables4 ,two c5turies lat]1 ,ulugh ,beigh1 ! gr&son ( ,tam]lane1 & pr9ce ( ! c\ntries beyond ! ,oxus1 0 a zeal\s practical a/ronom]2 & 8 ,tables1 :i* 7 publi%$ 9 ,europe by ,hyde 9 #affe1 are ref]r$ to z important au?ority by mod]n a/ronom]s4 ,! s]ies ( ,a/ronomical ,tables :i* we h ?us notic$1 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 _m are omitt$1 leads u to ! ,alphons9e ,tables1 :i* 7 put =? 9 #adhh1 & 9 succe$+ ye>s1 "u ! auspices ( ,alphonso1 k+ ( ,ca/ile2 & ?us br+s u to ! v]ge ( mod]n a/ronomy4 ,= all ^! ,tables1 ! ,ptolemaic hypo!ses 7 employ$2 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 )\t alt]ation4 ,! ,arabs sometimes felt ! extreme complexity & difficulty ( ! doctr9e :i* !y /udi$2 b _! m9ds did n possess t k9d ( inv5tion & en]gy by :i* ! philosoph]s ( ,europe1 at a lat] p]iod1 won _! way into a simpl] & bett] sy/em4 ,?us ,alpetragius /ates1 9 ! outset ( 8 ,planet>um ,!orica1 t he 0 at fir/ a/oni%$ & /upefi$ ) ?is complexity1 b t aft]w>ds ,god 0 pleas$ to op5 to him ! occult secret 9 ! !ory ( 8 orbs1 & to make kn[n to him ! tru? ( _! ess5ce & ! rectitude ( ! quality ( _! motion4 ,8 sy/em consi/s1 accord+ to ,delambre1#aaic 9 attribut+ to ! planets a spiral motion f ea/ to we/1 an idea already refut$ by ,ptolemy4 ,geb] ( ,seville criticises ,ptolemy v sev]ely1#abjc b )\t introduc+ any ess5tial alt]ation into 8 sy/em4 ,! ,arabian obs]vations are 9 _m cases valuable2 bo? because !y 7 made ) m skill & ) bett] in/rum5ts ?an ^? ( ! ,greeks2 & also because !y illu/rate ! p]man5ce or v>iability ( important elem5ts1 su* z ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic & ! incl9ation ( ! moon's orbit4 ,note #aaic3 ,delambre1 ,m4 ,a4 p4 #g4 ,note #abjc3 ,m4 ,a4 p4 #ahj1 c4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 notice "o or two peculi> ,arabian doctr9es4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is ! discov]y ( ! ,motion ( ! ,son's ,apogee by ,albategnius4 ,he f\nd ! ,apogee to be 9 longitude #hb degrees2 ,ptolemy _h plac$ x 9 longitude #fe degrees4 ,! diff]5ce ( #ag degrees 0 beyond all limit ( probable error ( calculation1 ?\gh ! process is n capable ( great precision2 & ! inf]5ce ( ! ,motion ( ! ,apogee 0 s obvi\s1 t we _c #agi agree ) ,delambre1 9 d\bt+ or ext5uat+ ! claim ( ,albategnius to ?is discov]y1 on ! gr\nd ( 8 n hav+ expressly /at$ x4 ,9 detect+ ?is motion1 ! ,arabian a/ronom]s reason$ rightly f facts well obs]v$3 !y 7 n always s =tunate4 ,arza*el1 9 ! #aa? c5tury1 f\nd ! apogee ( ! sun to be less advanc$ ?an ,albategnius _h f\nd x1 by "s degrees2 he inf]r$ t x _h rec$$ 9 ! int]m$iate "t2 b we n[ "k1 f an acqua9tance ) its real rate ( mov+1 t ! true inf]5ce w\ld h be51 t ,albategnius1 ^: me?od 0 less tru/wor?y ?an t ( ,arza*el1 _h made an error to ! am\nt ( ! diff]5ce ?us aris+4 ,a curi\s1 b utt]ly false hypo!sis 0 f\nd$ on obs]vations ?us errone\sly appreciat$2 namely1 ! ,trepidation ( ! fix$ />s4 ,arza*el conceiv$ t a uni=m ,precession ( ! equ9octial po9ts w\ld n acc\nt = ! app>5t *anges ( position ( ! />s1 & t = ?is purpose1 x 0 necess>y to conceive two circles ( ab\t eight degrees radius describ$ r\nd ! equ9octial po9ts ( ! immovable sph]e1 & to suppose ! fir/ po9ts ( ,aries & ,libra to describe ! circumf]5ce ( ^! circles 9 ab\t #hjj ye>s4 ,?is w\ld produce1 at "o "t a progression1 & at ano!r a regression1 ( ! app>5t equ9oxes1 & w\ld moreov] *ange ! latitude ( ! />s4 ,su* a motion is entirely vision>y2 b ! doctr9e made a sect among a/ronom]s1 & 0 adopt$ 9 ! fir/ edition ( ! ,alphons9e ,tables1 ?\gh aft]w>ds reject$4 ,an important exception to ! g5]al unprogressive "* ( ,arabian sci5ce has be5 po9t$ out rec5tly by ,m4 ,s$illot4#abac ,x appe>s t ,mohamm$-,ab\l ,wefa-al-,b\zdjani1 an ,arabian a/ronom] ( ! t5? c5tury1 :o resid$ at ,cairo1 & obs]v$ at ,bagdad 9 #ige1 discov]$ a ?ird inequality ( ! moon1 9 addition to ! two exp\nd$ by ,ptolemy1 ! ,equation ( ! ,c5tre1 & ! ,evection4 ,?is ?ird inequality1 ! ,v>iation1 is usually suppos$ to h be5 discov]$ by ,ty*o ,brahe1 six c5turies lat]4 ,x is an inequality ( ! moon's motion1 9 virtue ( :i* %e moves quicke/ :5 %e is at new or full1 & sl[e/ at ! fir/ & ?ird qu>t]2 9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 f ! fir/ qu>t] to ! full1 %e is beh9d h] mean place2 at ! full1 %e does n diff] f h] mean place2 f ! full to ! ?ird qu>t]1 %e is be=e h] true #ahj place2 & s on2 & ! greate/ effect ( ! inequality is 9 ! octants1 or po9ts half-way betwe5 ! f\r qu>t]s4 ,9 an ,almage/ ( ,ab\l ,wefa1 a "p ( :i* exi/s 9 ! ,royal ,libr>y at ,p>is1 aft] describ+ ! two inequalities ( ! moon1 he has a ,section ix41 ,( ! ,?ird ,anomaly ( ! moon call$ ,muhazal or ,prosneusis4 ,he !re says1 t tak+ cases :5 ! moon 0 9 apogee or p]igee1 & :51 consequ5tly1 ! effect ( ! two fir/ inequalities vani%es1 he f\nd1 by obs]vation ( ! moon1 :5 %e 0 ne>ly 9 tr9e & 9 sextile ) ! sun1 t %e 0 a degree & a qu>t] f h] calculat$ place4 ,& h5ce1 he adds1 ,i p]ceiv$ t ?is anomaly exi/s indep5d5tly ( ! two fir/3 & ?is c only take place by a decl9ation ( ! diamet] ( ! epicycle ) respect to ! c5tre ( ! zodiac4 ,note #abac3 ,s$illot1 ,n\velles ,re*4 sur l',hi/4 de l',a/ron4 *ez les ,arabes4 ,n\veau ,j\rnal ,asiatique4 #ahcf4 ,we may rem>k t we h "h ?is inequality ( ! moon made out 9 a really philosophical mann]2 a residual quantity 9 ! moon's longitude be+ detect$ by obs]vation1 & ! cases 9 :i* x occurs select$ & gr\p$ by an inductive ef=t ( ! m9d4 ,! advance is n great2 = ,ab\l ,wefa appe>s only to h detect$ ! exi/5ce1 & n to h fix$ ! law or ! exact quantity ( ! inequality2 b /ill x places ! sci5tific capacity ( ! ,arabs 9 a m favorable po9t ( view ?an any circum/ance ) :i* we 7 previ\sly acqua9t$4 ,b ?is discov]y ( ,ab\l ,wefa appe>s to h excit$ no notice among 8 contempor>ies & foll[]s3 at lea/ x _h be5 long q =gott5 :5 ,ty*o ,brahe r$iscov]$ ! same lun> inequality4 ,we c h>dly help look+ ^u ?is circum/ance z an evid5ce ( a s]vility ( intellect belong+ to ! ,arabian p]iod4 ,! le>n$ ,arabians 7 s little 9 ! habit ( consid]+ sci5ce z progressive1 & look+ ) pride & confid5ce at examples ( its progress1 t !y _h n ! c\rage to believe 9 a discov]y :i* !y !mselves _h made1 & 7 dragg$ back by ! *a9 ( au?ority1 ev5 :5 !y _h advanc$ beyond _! ,greek ma/]s4 ,z ! ,arabians took ! :ole ( _! !ory 7) su* slight exceptions z we h be5 notic+7 f ! ,greeks1 !y took f !m also ! ma!matical processes by :i* ! consequ5ces ( ! !ory 7 obta9$4 ,ari?metic & ,trigonometry1 two ma9 bran*es ( ^! processes1 receiv$ consid]able improvem5ts at _! h&s4 ,9 ! =m]1 especially1 !y r5d]$ a s]vice to ! _w :i* x is difficult to e/imate too highly1 9 aboli%+ ! #aha cumbr\s ,sexagesimal ,ari?metic ( ! ,greeks1 & introduc+ ! notation by means ( ! digits #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #j1 :i* we n[ employ4#abbc ,^! num]als appe> to be ( ,indian orig91 z is ackn[l$g$ by ! ,arabs !mselves2 & ?us =m no exception to ! /]ility ( ! ,arabian g5ius z to great sci5tific inv5tions4 ,ano!r improvem5t1 ( a subord9ate k9d1 b ( great utility1 0 ,arabian1 be+ made by ,albategnius4 ,he introduc$ into calculation ! s9e1 or half-*ord ( ! d\ble arc1 in/ead ( ! *ord ( ! arc itself1 :i* _h be5 employ$ by ! ,greek a/ronom]s4 ,!re h be5 v>i\s conjectures conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! ^w s9e2 ! mo/ probable appe>s to be t s9us is ! ,lat9 translation ( ! ,arabic ^w gib1 :i* signifies a fold1 ! two halves ( ! *ord be+ conceiv$ to be fold$ toge!r4 ,note #abbc3 ,mont4 i4 #cgf4 ,! great obligation :i* ,sci5ce owes to ! ,arabians1 is to h pres]v$ x dur+ a p]iod ( d>kness & desolation1 s t ,europe might receive x back aga9 :5 ! evil days 7 pa/4 ,we %all see h]eaft] h[ diff]5tly ! ,european intellect dealt ) ?is h]$it>y treasure :5 once recov]$4 ,be=e quitt+ ! subject1 we may obs]ve t ,a/ronomy br\ght back1 f h] soj\rn among ! ,arabs1 a few t]ms :i* may /ill be p]ceiv$ 9 h] phraseology4 ,su* are ! z5i?1 & ! opposite imag9>y po9t1 ! nadir2--! circles ( ! sph]e t]m$ almacant>s & azimu? circles4 ,! alidad ( an in/rum5t is its index1 :i* possesses an angul> motion4 ,"s ( ! />s /ill reta9 _! ,arabic names2 ,aldebran1 ,rigel1 ,fomalhaut2 _m o!rs 7 kn[n by su* appellations a little :ile ago4 ,p]haps ! ^w almanac is ! mo/ famili> ve/ige ( ! ,arabian p]iod ( a/ronomy4 ,x is =eign to my purpose to note any ef=ts ( ! intellectual faculties among o!r nations1 :i* may h tak5 place indep5d5tly ( ! great sy/em ( progressive ,european culture1 f :i* all our exi/+ sci5ce is d]iv$4 ,o!rwise ,i might speak ( ! a/ronomy ( "s ( ! ,ori5tals1 = example1 ! ,*9ese1 :o are said1 by ,montucla 7i4 #dfe71 to h discov]$ ! fir/ equation ( ! moon1 & ! prop] motion ( ! fix$ />s 7! ,precession71 9 ! ?ird c5tury ( our era4 ,! ,greeks _h made ^! discov]ies #ejj ye>s e>li]4 #ahc ,,book ,,iv4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,physical ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages2 ,,or1 ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,/ation>y ,,p]iod ,,( ,,inductive ,,sci5ce4 ,9 va91 9 va96 ! all-compos+ h\r ,resi/less falls 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,z "o by "o1 at dread ,m$ea's /ra91 ,! sick5+ />s fade (f ?' e!real pla92 ,z ,argus' eyes1 by ,h]mes' w& oppre/1 ,clos$ "o by "o to ev]la/+ re/2 ,?us at h] felt approa* & secret might1 ,art aft] art goes out1 & all is night4 ,see skulk+ ,tru? to h] old cav]n fl$1 ,m\nta9s ( casui/ry heap$ on h] head2 ,philosophy1 t rea*$ ! heav5s be=e1 ,%r9ks to h] hidd5 cause1 & is no m4 ,physic ( ,metaphysic begs def5ce1 ,& ,metaphysic calls = aid to ,s5se3 ,see ,my/]y to ,ma!matics fly6 ,9 va96 !y gaze1 turn giddy1 rave1 & die4 ,dunciad1 ,b4 iv4 #ahe ,,introduction4 ,,we h n[ to consid] m especially a long & b>r5 p]iod1 :i* int]v5$ betwe5 ! sci5tific activity ( anci5t ,greece & t ( mod]n ,europe2 & :i* we may1 !re=e1 call ! ,/ation>y ,p]iod ( ,sci5ce4 ,x w\ld be to no purpose to enum]ate ! v>i\s =ms 9 :i*1 dur+ ^! times1 m5 reproduc$ ! discov]ies ( ! inv5tive ages2 or to trace 9 !m ! small successes ( ,art1 void ( any pr9ciple ( g5u9e ,philosophy4 ,our object requires r t we %\ld po9t out ! g5]al & di/+ui%+ features ( ! intellect & habits ( ^? times4 ,we mu/ endeavor to del9eate ! "* ( ! ,/ation>y ,p]iod1 &1 z f> z possible1 to analyze its defects & errors2 & ?us obta9 "s k ( ! causes ( its b>r5ness & d>kness4 ,we h already /at$1 t real sci5tific progress requires di/9ct g5]al ,ideas1 appli$ to _m special & c]ta9 ,facts4 ,9 ! p]iod ( :i* we n[ h to speak1 m5's ,ideas 7 obscur$2 _! disposition to br+ _! g5]al views into accordance ) ,facts 0 enfeebl$4 ,!y 7 ?us l$ to employ !mselves unpr(itably1 among indi/9ct & unreal notions4 ,& ! evil ( ^! t5d5cies 0 fur!r inflam$ by moral peculi>ities 9 ! "* ( ^? times2--by an abjectness ( ?\ght on ! "o h&1 :i* c\ld n help look+ t[>ds "s intellectual sup]ior1 & by an impati5ce ( diss5t on ! o!r4 ,to ?is mu/ be add$ an en?usia/ic temp]1 :i*1 :5 introduc$ into speculation1 t5ds to subject ! m9d's op]ations to ideas altoge!r di/ort$ & delusive4 ,^! *>act]i/ics ( ! /ation>y p]iod1 its obscurity ( ?\ght1 its s]vility1 its intol]ant disposition1 & its en?usia/ic temp]1 w be treat$ ( 9 ! f\r foll[+ *apt]s1 on ! ,indi/9ctness ( ,ideas1 ! ,comm5tatorial ,_s1 ! ,dogmatism1 & ! ,my/icism ( ! ,middle ,ages4 #ahf ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,on ,,! ,,indi/9ctness ,,( ,,ideas ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 ,,t firm & entire possession ( c]ta9 cle> & di/9ct g5]al ideas :i* is necess>y to s\nd sci5ce1 0 ! "* ( ! m9ds ( ^? among ! anci5ts :o creat$ ! sev]al sci5ces :i* arose among !m4 ,x 0 indisp5sable t su* inv5tors %\ld h a lum9\s & /eadfa/ appreh5sion ( c]ta9 g5]al relations1 su* z ^? ( space & numb]1 ord] & cause2 & %\ld be able to apply ^! notions ) p]fect read9ess & precision to special facts & cases4 ,x is necess>y t su* sci5tific notions %\ld be m def9ite & precise ?an ^? :i* common language conveys2 & 9 ?is /ate ( unusual cle>ness1 !y mu/ be s famili> to ! philosoph]1 t !y are ! language 9 :i* he ?9ks4 ,! discov]] is ?us l$ to doctr9es :i* o!r m5 adopt & foll[ out1 9 proportion z !y seize ! fundam5tal ideas1 & become acqua9t$ ) ! lead+ facts4 ,?us ,hipp>*us1 conceiv+ cle>ly ! motions & comb9ations ( motion :i* ent] into 8 !ory1 saw t ! relative l5g?s ( ! seasons 7 suffici5t data = det]m9+ ! =m ( ! sun's orbit2 ?us ,ar*im$es1 possess+ a /eady notion ( me*anical pressure1 0 able1 n only to d$uce ! prop]ties ( ! lev] & ( ! c5tre ( gravity1 b also to see ! tru? ( ^? pr9ciples respect+ ! di/ribution ( pressure 9 fluids1 on :i* ! sci5ce ( hydro/atics dep5ds4 ,) ! progress ( su* di/9ct ideas1 ! inductive sci5ces rise & fl\ri%2 ) ! decay & loss ( su* di/9ct ideas1 ^! sci5ces become /ation>y1 languid1 & retrograde4 ,:5 m5 m]ely repeat ! t]ms ( sci5ce1 )\t atta*+ to !m any cle> conceptions2--:5 _! appreh5sions become vague & dim2--:5 !y ass5t to sci5tific doctr9es z a matt] ( tradition1 r ?an ( conviction1 on tru/ r ?an on sight2--:5 sci5ce is consid]$ z a collection ( op9ions1 r ?an a record ( laws by :i* ! univ]se is really gov]n$2--x mu/ inevitably happ51 t m5 w lose _! hold on ! k :i* ! great discov]]s :o prec$$ !m h br\ght to light4 ,!y are n able to pu% =w>ds ! tru?s on :i* !y lay s #ahg feeble & irresolute a h&2 probably !y _c ev5 prev5t _! slid+ back t[>ds ! obscurity f :i* !y _h be5 drawn1 or f be+ lo/ altoge!r4 ,su* indi/9ctness & vacillation ( ?\ght appe> to h prevail$ 9 ! /ation>y p]iod1 & to be1 9 fact1 intimately connect$ ) its /ation>y "*4 ,i %all po9t out "s indications ( ! intellectual peculi>ity ( :i* ,i speak4 #a4 ,collections ( ,op9ions4--,! fact1 t m]e ,collections ( ! op9ions ( physical philosoph]s came to hold a prom95t place 9 lit]ature1 already indicat$ a t5d5cy to an indi/9ct & w&]+ appreh5sion ( su* op9ions4 ,i speak ( su* works z ,plut>*'s five ,books on ! ,op9ions ( ,philosoph]s1 or ! physical op9ions :i* ,diog5es ,lartius gives 9 8 ,lives ( ! ,philosoph]s4 ,at an e>li] p]iod /ill1 books ( ?is k9d appe>2 z = in/ance1 a l>ge portion ( ,pl9y's ,natural ,hi/ory1 a "w :i* has v appropriately be5 call$ ! ,encyclopdia ( ,antiquity2 ev5 ,ari/otle himself is mu* 9 ! habit ( enum]at+ ! op9ions ( ^? :o _h prec$$ him4 ,to pres5t su* /atem5ts z an important "p ( physical philosophy1 %[s an errone\s & loose appreh5sion ( its nature4 ,= ! only pro( ( :i* its doctr9es admit1 is ! possibility ( apply+ ! g5]al !ory to ea* p>ticul> case2 ! au?ority ( great m51 :i* 9 moral & practical matt]s may or mu/ h its weight1 is "h ( no =ce2 & ! te*nical precision ( ideas :i* ! t]ms ( a s\nd physical !ory usually dem&1 r5d]s a m]e /atem5t ( ! doctr9es v imp]fectly intelligible to read]s famili> ) common notions only4 ,to dwell ^u su* collections ( op9ions1 !re=e1 bo? implies1 & produces1 9 writ]s & read]s1 an obscure & inadequate appreh5sion ( ! full mean+ ( ! doctr9es ?us collect$2 suppos+ !re be among !m any :i* really possess su* a cle>ness1 solidity1 & reality1 z to make !m important 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,su* div]sities ( op9ion convey no tru?2 su* a multiplicity ( /atem5ts ( :at has be5 said1 9 no degree tea*es u :at is2 su* accumulations ( indi/9ct notions1 h[ev] va/ & v>i$1 d n make up "o di/9ct idea4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! habit ( dwell+ ^u ! v]bal expressions ( ! views ( o!r p]sons1 & ( be+ cont5t ) su* an appreh5sion ( doctr9es z a transi5t notice c give u1 is fatal to firm & cle> ?\ght3 x indicates wav]+ & feeble conceptions1 :i* are inconsi/5t ) speculation4 #ahh ,we may1 !re=e1 consid] ! preval5ce ( ,collections ( ! k9d j ref]r$ to1 z indicat+ a defici5cy ( philosophical tal5t 9 ! ages n[ "u review4 ,z evid5ce ( ! same "*1 we may add ! long tra9 ( publi%]s ( ,ab/racts1 ,epitomes1 ,bibliographical ,notices1 & simil> writ]s4 ,all su* writ]s are wor?less = all purposes ( sci5ce1 & _! labors may be consid]$ z dead works2 !y h 9 !m no pr9ciple ( philosophical vitality2 !y draw _! orig9 & nutrim5t f ! dea? ( true physical k2 & resemble ! sw>ms ( insects t are born f ! p]i%+ c>cass ( "s noble animal4 #b4 ,indi/9ctness ( ,ideas 9 ,me*anics4--,b ! indi/9ctness ( ?\ght :i* is s fatal a feature 9 ! intellect ( ! /ation>y p]iod1 may be trac$ m directly 9 ! works1 ev5 ( ! be/ au?ors1 ( ^? times4 ,we f9d t !y did n reta9 /eadily ! ideas on :i* ! sci5tific success ( ! previ\s p]iod _h dep5d$4 ,= in/ance1 x is a rem>kable circum/ance 9 ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics1 t x did n make any advance f ! "t ( ,ar*im$es to t ( ,/ev9us & ,galileo4 ,ar*im$es _h e/abli%$ ! doctr9e ( ! lev]2 sev]al p]sons tri$1 9 ! int]m$iate "t1 to prove ! prop]ty ( ! incl9$ plane1 & none ( !m succe$$4 ,b let u look to ! attempts2 = example1 t ( ,pappus1 9 ! eigh? ,book ( 8 ,ma!matical ,collections1 & we may see ! reason ( ! failure4 ,8 ,problem %[s1 9 ! v t]ms 9 :i* x is prop\nd$1 ! want ( a cle> appreh5sion ( ! subject4 ,hav+ giv5 ! p[] :i* w draw a giv5 weight along ! horizontal plane1 to f9d ! additional p[] :i* w draw ! same weight along a giv5 incl9$ plane4 ,?is is propos$ )\t previ\sly def9+ h[ ,p[]s1 produc+ su* effects1 are to be measur$2 & z if ! spe$ ) :i* ! body 7 drawn1 & ! nature ( ! surface ( ! plane1 7 ( no consequ5ce4 ,! prop] elem5t>y ,problem is1 ,to f9d ! =ce :i* w support a body on a smoo? incl9$ plane2 & no d\bt ! solution ( ,pappus has m ref]5ce to ?is problem ?an to 8 own4 ,8 reason+ is1 h[ev]1 totally at v>iance ) me*anical ideas on any view ( ! problem4 ,he supposes ! weight to be =m$ into a sph]e2 & ?is sph]e be+ plac$ 9 contact ) ! incl9$ plane1 he assumes t ! effect w be ! same z if ! weight 7 support$ on a horizontal lev]1 ! fulcrum be+ ! po9t ( contact ( ! sph]e ) ! plane1 & ! p[] act+ at ! circumf]5ce ( ! sph]e4 ,su* an assumption implies an entire #ahi abs5ce ( ^? di/9ct ideas ( =ce & me*anical pressure1 on :i* our p]ception ( ! id5tity or diff]5ce ( diff]5t modes ( action mu/ dep5d2--( ^? ideas by ! help ( :i* ,ar*im$es _h be5 able to demon/rate ! prop]ties ( ! lev]1 & ,/ev9us aft]w>ds discov]$ ! true solution ( ! problem ( ! incl9$ plane4 ,! motive to ,pappus's assumption 0 probably no m ?an ?is2--he p]ceiv$ t ! additional p[]1 :i* he ?us obta9$1 vani%$ :5 ! plane became horizontal1 & increas$ z ! incl9ation became great]4 ,?us 8 views 7 vague2 he _h no cle> conception ( me*anical action1 & he tri$ a geometrical conjecture4 ,?is is n ! way to real k4 ,pappus 7:o liv$ ab\t ,a4 ,d4 #djj7 0 "o ( ! be/ ma!maticians ( ! ,alex&rian s*ool2 &1 on subjects :]e 8 ideas 7 s indi/9ct1 x is n likely t any mu* cle>] 7 to be f\nd 9 ! m9ds ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,accord+ly1 on all subjects ( speculative me*anics1 !re appe>s to h be5 an entire confusion & obscurity ( ?\ght till mod]n times4 ,m5's m9ds 7 busy 9 endeavor+ to sy/ematize ! di/9ctions & subtleties ( ! ,ari/otelian s*ool1 conc]n+ ,motion & ,p[]2 &1 be+ ?us employ$ among doctr9es 9 :i* !re 0 involv$ no def9ite mean+ capable ( real exemplification1 !y1 ( c\rse1 c\ld n acquire s\nd physical k4 ,we h already se5 t ! physical op9ions ( ,ari/otle1 ev5 z !y came f him1 _h no prop] sci5tific precision4 ,8 foll[]s1 9 _! endeavors to p]fect & develop 8 /atem5ts1 nev] attempt$ to introduce cle>] ideas ?an ^? ( _! ma/]2 & z !y nev] ref]r$1 9 any /eady mann]1 to facts1 ! vagu5ess ( _! notions 0 n correct$ by any collision ) obs]vation4 ,! physical doctr9es :i* !y extract$ f ,ari/otle 71 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 built up into a regul> sy/em2 & ?\gh ^! doctr9es c\ld n be foll[$ into a practical application )\t introduc+ di/9ctions & *anges1 su* z depriv$ ! t]ms ( all /eady signification1 ! dogmas cont9u$ to be repeat$1 till ! _w 0 p]suad$ t !y 7 self-evid5t2 & :51 at a lat] p]iod1 exp]im5tal philosoph]s1 su* z ,galileo & ,boyle1 v5tur$ to contradict ^! curr5t maxims1 _! new pr9ciples s\nd$ 9 m5's e>s z /range z !y n[ s\nd famili>4 ,?us ,boyle promulgat$ 8 op9ions on ! me*anics ( fluids1 z ,hydro/atical ,p>adoxes1 prov$ & illu/rat$ by exp]im5ts4 ,& ! op9ions :i* he !re opposes1 are ^? :i* ! ,ari/otelian philosoph]s habitually prop\nd$ z c]ta9 #aij & indisputable2 su*1 = in/ance1 z t 9 fluids ! upp] p>ts d n gravitate on ! l[]2 t a light] fluid w n gravitate on a heavi]2 t levity is a positive quality ( bodies z well z gravity4 ,s long z ^! ass]tions 7 left unconte/$ & untri$1 m5 he>d & repeat$ !m1 )\t p]ceiv+ ! incongruities :i* !y involv$3 & ?us !y long evad$ refutation1 amid ! vague notions & und\bt+ habits ( ! /ation>y p]iod4 ,b :5 ! controv]sies ( ,galileo's "t _h made m5 ?9k ) m acut5ess & /ead9ess1 x 0 discov]$ t _m ( ^! doctr9es 7 inconsi/5t ) !mselves1 z well z ) exp]im5t4 ,we h an example ( ! confusion ( ?\ght to :i* ! ,ari/otelians 7 liable1 9 _! doctr9e conc]n+ fall+ bodies4 ,heavy bodies1 said !y1 mu/ fall quick] ?an light ones2 = weight is ! cause ( _! fall1 & ! weight ( ! great] bodies is great]4 ,!y did n p]ceive t1 if !y consid]$ ! weight ( ! body z a p[] act+ to produce motion1 !y mu/ consid] ! body itself z (f]+ a resi/ance to motion2 & t ! effect mu/ dep5d on ! proportion ( ! p[] to ! resi/ance2 9 %ort1 !y _h no cle> idea ( accel]at+ =ce4 ,?is defect runs ?r\gh all _! me*anical speculations1 & r5d]s !m entirely valueless4 ,we may exemplify ! same confusion ( ?\ght on me*anical subjects 9 writ]s ( a less te*nical "*4 ,?us1 if m5 _h any di/9ct idea ( me*anical action1 !y c\ld n h accept$ = a mom5t ! fable ( ! ,e*9eis or ,remora1 a little fi% :i* 0 said to be able to /op a l>ge %ip m]ely by /ick+ to x4#ad ,lucan ref]s to ?is leg5d 9 a poetical mann]1 & notices ?is creature only 9 br++ toge!r a collection ( mon/rosities2 b ,pl9y relates ! tale gravely1 & moralizes ^u x aft] 8 mann]4 ,:at1 he cries1#bd is m viol5t ?an ! sea & ! w9ds8 :at a great] "w ( art ?an a %ip8 ,yet "o little fi% 7! ,e*9eis7 c hold back all ^! :5 !y all /ra9 ! same way4 ,! w9ds may #aia bl[1 ! waves may rage2 b ?is small creature controls _! fury1 & /ops a vessel1 :5 *a9s & an*ors w\ld n hold x3 & ?is x does1 n by h>d labor1 b m]ely by adh]+ to x4 ,alas1 = human vanity6 :5 ! turret$ %ips :i* man has built1 t he may fight f ca/le-walls1 at sea z well z at l&1 are held captive & motionless by a fi% a foot & a half long6 ,su* a fi% is said to h /opp$ ! admiral's %ip at ! battle ( ,actium1 & compell$ ,antony to g into ano!r4 ,& 9 our own memory1 "o ( ^! animals held fa/ ! %ip ( ,caius1 ! emp]or1 :5 he 0 sail+ f ,a/ura to ,antium4 ,! /opp+ ( ?is %ip1 :5 all ! re/ ( ! fleet w5t on1 caus$ surprise2 b ?is did n la/ long1 = "s ( ! m5 jump$ into ! wat] to look = ! fi%1 & f\nd x /ick+ to ! rudd]2 !y %[$ x to ,caius1 :o 0 indignant t ?is animal %\ld int]pose its prohibition to 8 progress1 :5 impell$ by f\r hundr$ r[]s4 ,x 0 l a slug2 & _h no p[]1 aft] x 0 tak5 into ! %ip4 ,note #ad3 ,lucan is describ+ "o ( ! poetical comp\nds produc$ 9 incantations4 ,huc quicquid ftu g5uit ,natura s9i/ro ,miscetur3 non spuma canum quibus unda timori e/1 ,visc]a non lyncis1 non dur nodus hyn ,defuit1 et c]vi pa/i s]p5te m$ull2 ,9 m$iis ,e*9eis aquis1 oculique draconum4 ,etc4 ,ph>salia1 9999vi4 #fgj4 ,note #bd3 ,pl94 ,hi/4 ,n4 xxxii4 #e4 ,a v little advance 9 ! p[] ( ?9k+ cle>ly on ! =ce :i* x ex]t$ 9 pull+1 w\ld h enabl$ ! ,romans to see t ! %ip & its r[]s mu/ pull ! adh]+ fi% by ! hold ! o>s _h ^u ! wat]2 & t1 except ! fi% _h a hold equally /rong on "s ext]nal body1 x c\ld n resi/ ?is =ce4 #c4 ,indi/9ctness ( ,ideas %[n 9 ,ar*itecture4--,p]haps x may s]ve to illu/rate /ill fur!r ! ext5t to :i*1 "u ! ,roman empire1 m5's notions ( me*anical relations became fa9t1 wav]$1 & disappe>$1 if we obs]ve ! *ange :i* took place 9 ar*itecture4 ,all ar*itecture1 to possess g5u9e beauty1 mu/ be me*anically consi/5t4 ,! decorative memb]s mu/ repres5t a /ructure :i* has 9 x a pr9ciple ( support & /ability4 ,?us ! ,grecian colonnade 0 a /raight horizontal beam1 re/+ on v]tical props2 & ! p$im5t imitat$ a frame l a ro(1 :]e oppositely incl9$ beams support ea* o!r4 ,^! =ms ( build+ 71 !re=e1 prop] models ( art1 because !y impli$ support+ =ces4 ,b to be cont5t ) colonnades & p$im5ts1 :i*1 ?\gh !y imitat$ ! =ms ( ! ,grecian ones1 7 de/itute ( _! me*anical tru?1 belong$ to ! decl9e ( art2 & %[$ t m5 _h lo/ ! idea ( =ce1 & reta9$ only t ( %ape4 ,yet ?is 0 :at ! ar*itects ( ! ,roman empire did4 ,"u _! h&s1 ! p$im5t 0 sev]$ at its v]tex1 & divid$ into sep>ate halves1 s t x 0 no long] a me*anical possibility4 ,! entablature no long] lay /raight f pill> to pill>1 b1 project+ ov] ea* #aib column1 turn$ back to ! wall1 & adh]$ to x 9 ! int]v5+ space4 ,! spl5did rema9s ( ,palmyra1 ,balbec1 ,petra1 exhibit endless examples ( ?is k9d ( p]v]se inv5tiv5ess2 & %[ u1 v in/ructively1 h[ ! decay ( art & ( sci5ce alike accompany ?is indi/9ctness ( ideas :i* we are n[ endeavor+ to illu/rate4 #d4 ,indi/9ctness ( ,ideas 9 ,a/ronomy4--,return+ to ! sci5ces1 x may be suppos$1 at fir/ sight1 t1 ) reg>d to a/ronomy1 we h n ! same gr\nd = *>g+ ! /ation>y p]iod ) indi/9ctness ( ideas on t subject1 s9ce !y 7 able to acquire & v]ify1 &1 9 "s measure1 to apply1 ! doctr9es previ\sly e/abli%$4 ,&1 und\bt$ly1 x mu/ be confess$ t m5's notions ( ! relations ( space & numb] are nev] v indi/9ct4 ,x appe>s to be impossible = ^! *a9s ( elem5t>y p]ception ev] to be mu* entangl$4 ,! lat] ,greeks1 ! ,arabians1 & ! e>lie/ mod]n a/ronom]s1 mu/ h conceiv$ ! hypo!ses ( ! ,ptolemaic sy/em ) tol]able complet5ess4 ,& yet1 we may ass]t1 t dur+ ! /ation>y p]iod1 m5 did n possess ! notions1 ev5 ( space & numb]1 9 t vivid & vigor\s mann] :i* enables !m to discov] new tru?s4 ,if !y _h p]ceiv$ di/9ctly t ! a/ronomical !ori/ _h m]ely to d ) relative motions1 !y mu/ h be5 l$ to see ! possibility1 at lea/1 ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em2 z ! ,greeks1 at an e>li] p]iod1 _h already p]ceiv$ x4 ,we f9d no trace ( ?is4 ,inde$1 ! mode 9 :i* ! ,arabian ma!maticians pres5t ! solutions ( _! problems1 does n indicate t cle> appreh5sion ( ! relations ( space1 & t delight 9 ! contemplation ( !m1 :i* ! ,greek geometrical speculations imply4 ,! ,arabs are 9 ! habit ( giv+ conclusions )\t demon/rations1 precepts )\t ! inve/igations by :i* !y are obta9$2 z if _! ma9 object 7 practical r ?an speculative1--! calculation ( results r ?an ! exposition ( !ory4 ,delambre#cd has be5 oblig$ to ex]cise great +5uity1 9 ord] to discov] ! me?od by :i* ,ibn ,i\nis prov$ 8 solution ( c]ta9 difficult problems4 ,note #cd3 ,delamb4 ,m4 ,a4 p4 #abe-h4 #e4 ,indi/9ctness ( ,ideas %[n by ,skeptics4--,! same un/ead9ess ( ideas :i* prev5ts m5 f obta9+ cle> views1 & /eady & j convictions1 on special subjects1 may lead !m to despair ( or d5y ! possibility ( acquir+ c]ta9ty at all1 & may ?us make !m skeptics ) reg>d to all k4 ,su* skeptics #aic are !mselves m5 ( indi/9ct views1 = !y c\ld n o!rwise avoid ass5t+ to ! demon/rat$ tru?s ( sci5ce2 &1 s f> z !y may be tak5 z specim5s ( _! contempor>ies1 !y prove t indi/9ct ideas prevail 9 ! age 9 :i* !y appe>4 ,9 ! /ation>y p]iod1 moreov]1 ! indef9ite speculations & unpr(itable subtleties ( ! s*ools might fur!r impel a man ( bold & acute m9d to ?is univ]sal skepticism1 because !y (f]$ no?+ :i* c\ld fix or satisfy him4 ,& ?us ! skeptical _s may des]ve our notice z indicative ( ! defects ( a sy/em ( doctr9e too feeble 9 demon/ration to control su* resi/ance4 ,! mo/ rem>kable ( ^! philosophical skeptics is ,sextus ,empiricus2 s call$1 f 8 belong+ to t m$ical sect :i* 0 t]m$ ! empirical1 9 contradi/9ction to ! rational & me?odical sects4 ,8 works conta9 a s]ies ( treatises1 direct$ aga9/ all ! divisions ( ! sci5ce ( 8 "t4 ,he has *apt]s aga9/ ! ,geomet]s1 aga9/ ! ,ari?meticians1 aga9/ ! ,a/rolog]s1 aga9/ ! ,musicians1 z well z aga9/ ,gramm>ians1 ,rhetoricians1 & ,logicians2 &1 9 %ort1 z a mod]n writ] has said1 8 skepticism is employ$ z a sort ( frame-"w :i* embraces an encyclop$ical view ( human k4 ,x mu/ be /at$1 h[ev]1 t 8 objections are r to ! metaphysical gr\nds1 ?an to ! details ( ! sci5ces2 he r d5ies ! possibility ( speculative tru? 9 g5]al1 ?an ! exp]im5tal tru?s :i* _h be5 !n obta9$4 ,?us 8 objections to geometry & ari?metic are f\nd$ on ab/ract cavils conc]n+ ! nature ( po9ts1 lett]s1 unities1 c4 ,& :5 he comes to speak aga9/ a/rology1 he says1 ,i am n go+ to consid] t p]fect sci5ce :i* re/s ^u geometry & ari?metic2 = ,i h already %[n ! weakness ( ^? sci5ces3 nor t faculty ( pr$iction 7( ! motions ( ! heav5s7 :i* belongs to ! pupils ( ,eudoxus1 & ,hipp>*us1 & ! re/1 :i* "s call ,a/ronomy2 = t is an obs]vation ( ph5om5a1 l agriculture or navigation3 b aga9/ ! ,art ( ,pr$iction f ! "t ( bir?1 :i* ! ,*aldeans ex]cise4 ,sextus1 !re=e1 ?\gh a skeptic by pr(ession1 0 n ins5sible to ! diff]5ce betwe5 exp]im5tal k & my/ical dogmas1 ?\gh ev5 ! =m] _h no?+ :i* excit$ 8 admiration4 ,! skepticism :i* d5ies ! evid5ce ( ! tru?s ( :i* ! be/ e/abli%$ physical sci5ces consi/1 mu/ necess>ily involve a v indi/9ct appreh5sion ( ^? tru?s2 = su* tru?s1 prop]ly exhibit$1 conta9 _! own evid5ce1 & are ! be/ antidote #aid to ?is skepticism4 ,b an incr$ulity or contempt t[>ds ! ass]t$ tru?s ( physical sci5ce may arise also f ! att5tion be+ ma9ly direct$ to ! c]ta9ty & importance ( religi\s tru?s4 ,a v5]ation = reveal$ religion may ?us assume ! aspect ( a skepticism ) reg>d to natural k4 ,su* appe>s to be ! case ) ,algazel or ,algezeli1 :o is adduc$ by ,deg]&o#dd z an example ( an ,arabian skeptic4 ,he 0 a celebrat$ tea*] at ,bagdad 9 ! elev5? c5tury1 & he decl>$ himself ! enemy1 n only ( ! mix$ ,p]ipatetic & ,platonic philosophy ( ! "t1 b ( ,ari/otle himself4 ,8 "w entitl$ ,! ,de/ructions ( ! ,philosoph]s1 is kn[n to u by ! refutation ( x :i* ,av]rhoes publi%$1 "u ! title ( ,de/ruction ( ,algazel's ,de/ructions ( ! ,philosoph]s4 ,x appe>s t he conte/$ ! fundam5tal pr9ciples bo? ( ! ,platonic & ( ! ,ari/otelian s*ools1 & d5i$ ! possibility ( a kn[n connection betwe5 cause & effect2 ?us mak+ a prelude1 says ,deg]&o1 to ! celebrat$ argum5tation ( ,hume4 ,note #dd3 ,deg]&o1 ,hi/4 ,comp4 de ,sy/mes1 iv4 #bbd4 #b;d ,ed4 ,s9ce ! publication ( my fir/ edition1 an acc\nt ( ,algazel or ,algazzali & 8 works has be5 publi%$ "u ! title ( ,essai sur les ,ecoles ,philosophiques *ez les ,arabes1 et notamm5t sur la ,doctr9e d',algazzali1 p> ,augu/ ,s*mld]s4 ,p>is4 #ahdb4 ,f ?is book x appe>s t ,deg]&o's acc\nt ( ,algazzali is correct1 :5 he says#ed t 8 skepticism seems to h ess5tially = its object to de/roy all sy/ems ( m]ely rational !ology1 9 ord] to op5 an indef9ite c>e]1 n only to fai? guid$ by revelation1 b also to ! free exaltation ( a my/ical en?usiasm4 ,x is rem>k$ by ,dr4 ,s*mld]s1 foll[+ ,m4 de ,hamm]-,purg/all1 t ! title ( ! "w ref]r$ to 9 ! text ought r to be ,mutual ,refutation ( ! ,philosoph]s3 & t its object is to %[ t ,philosophy consi/s ( a mass ( sy/ems1 ea* ( :i* ov]turns ! o!rs4 ,! "w ( ,algazzali :i* ,dr4 ,s*mld]s has publi%$1 ,on ! ,errors ( ,sects1 c41 conta9s a k9d ( autobiographical acc\nt ( ! way 9 :i* ! au?or 0 l$ to 8 views4 ,he does n reject ! tru?s ( sci5ce1 b he condemns ! m5tal habits :i* are caus$ by lay+ too mu* /ress ^u sci5ce4 ,religi\s m51 he says1 are1 by su* a c\rse1 l$ to reject all sci5ce1 ev5 :at relates to eclipses ( ! moon & sun2 & m5 ( sci5ce are l$ to hate religion4#fd #aie ,note #ed3 ,hi/4 ,comp4 iv4 p4 #bbg4 ,note #fd3 ,essai1 p4 #cc4 #f4 ,neglect ( ,physical ,reason+ 9 ,*ri/5dom4--,if ! ,arabians1 :o1 dur+ ! ages ( :i* we are speak+1 7 ! mo/ em95t cultivators ( sci5ce1 ent]ta9$ only su* comp>atively feeble & s]vile notions ( its doctr9es1 x w easily be suppos$1 t 9 ! ,*ri/5dom ( t p]iod1 :]e physical k 0 comp>atively neglect$1 !re 0 /ill less di/9ctness & vividness 9 ! preval5t ideas on su* subjects4 ,inde$1 dur+ a consid]able p]iod ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 & by _m ( its pr9cipal au?orities1 ! /udy ( natural philosophy 0 n only disreg>d$ b discomm5d$4 ,! great practical doctr9es :i* 7 pres5t$ to m5's m9ds1 & ! s]i\s tasks1 ( ! regulation ( ! w & affections1 :i* religion impress$ ^u !m1 made inquiries ( m]e curiosity seem to be a repreh5sible misapplication ( human p[]s2 & _m ( ! fa!rs ( ! ,*ur* reviv$1 9 a /ill m p]emptory =m1 ! op9ion ( ,socrates1 t ! only valuable philosophy is t :i* tea*es u our moral duties & religi\s hopes4#gd ,?us ,eusebius says1#hd ,x is n ?r\gh ignorance ( ! ?+s admir$ by !m1 b ?r\gh contempt ( _! useless labor1 t we ?9k little ( ^! matt]s1 turn+ our s\ls to ! ex]cise ( bett] ?+s4 ,:5 ! ?\ghts 7 ?us int5tionally av]t$ f ^? ideas :i* natural philosophy involves1 ! ideas inevitably became v indi/9ct 9 _! m9ds2 & !y c\ld n conceive t any o!r p]sons c\ld f9d1 on su* subjects1 gr\nds ( cle> conviction & c]ta9ty4 ,!y held ! :ole ( _! philosophy to be1 z ,lactantius#id ass]ts x to be1 empty & false4 ,to se>*1 says he1 = ! causes ( natural ?+s2 to inquire :e!r ! sun be z l>ge z he seems1 :e!r ! moon is convex or concave1 :e!r ! />s are fix$ 9 ! sky or float freely 9 ! air2 ( :at size & ( :at mat]ial are ! heav5s2 :e!r !y be at re/ or 9 motion2 :at is ! magnitude ( ! e>?2 on :at f\ndations x is susp5d$ & balanc$2--to dispute & conjecture on su* matt]s1 is j z if we *ose to discuss :at we ?9k ( a city 9 a remote c\ntry1 ( :i* we nev] he>d b ! "n4 ,x is impossible to express m =cibly t abs5ce ( any def9ite notions on physical subjects :i* l$ to ?is tone ( ?\ght4 ,note #gd3 ,bruck]1 iii4 #cag4 ,note #hd3 ,prp4 ,ev4 xv4 #fa4 ,note #id3 ,in/4 #a4 iii4 init4 #g4 ,"q ( ,antipodes4--,) su* habits ( ?\ght1 we are n to be surpris$ if ! relations result+ f ! be/ e/abli%$ !ories 7 appreh5d$ 9 an imp]fect & incongru\s mann]4 #aif ,we h "s rem>kable examples ( ?is2 & a v notable "o is ! celebrat$ "q ( ! exi/5ce ( ,antipodes1 or p]sons inhabit+ ! opposite side ( ! globe ( ! e>?1 & consequ5tly hav+ ! soles ( _! feet directly oppos$ to ours4 ,! doctr9e ( ! globul> =m ( ! e>? results1 z we h se51 by a geometrical necessity1 f a cle> conception ( ! v>i\s po9ts ( k :i* we obta91 be>+ ^u t subject4 ,?is doctr9e 0 held di/9ctly by ! ,greeks2 x 0 adopt$ by all a/ronom]s1 ,arabian & ,european1 :o foll[$ !m2 & 01 9 fact1 an inevitable "p ( e sy/em ( a/ronomy :i* gave a consi/5t & intelligible repres5tation ( ph5om5a4 ,b ^? :o did n call be=e _! m9ds any di/9ct repres5tation at all1 & :o ref]r$ ! :ole "q to o!r relations ?an ^? ( space1 might /ill d5y ?is doctr9e2 & !y did s4 ,! exi/5ce ( inhabitants on ! opposite side ( ! t]raque\s globe1 0 a fact ( :i* exp]i5ce alone c\ld tea* ! tru? or falsehood2 b ! religi\s relations1 :i* ext5d alike to all mank9d1 7 suppos$ to give ! ,*ri/ian philosoph] gr\nds = decid+ aga9/ ! possibility ( su* a race ( m54 ,lactantius1#ajd 9 ! f\r? c5tury1 argues ?is matt] 9 a way v illu/rative ( t impati5ce ( su* speculations1 & consequ5t confusion ( ?\ght1 :i* we h m5tion$4 ,is x possible1 he says1 t m5 c be s absurd z to believe t ! crops & trees on ! o!r side ( ! e>? hang d[nw>ds1 & t m5 !re h _! feet high] ?an _! heads8 ,if y ask ( !m h[ !y def5d ^! mon/rosities--h[ ?+s d n fall away f ! e>? on t side--!y reply1 t ! nature ( ?+s is su* t heavy bodies t5d t[>ds ! c5tre1 l ! spokes ( a :eel1 :ile light bodies1 z cl\ds1 smoke1 fire1 t5d f ! c5tre t[>ds ! heav5s on all sides4 ,n[ ,i am really at a loss :at to say ( ^? :o1 :5 !y h once gone wrong1 /eadily p]sev]e 9 _! folly1 & def5d "o absurd op9ion by ano!r4 ,x is obvi\s t s long z ! writ] refus$ to admit into 8 ?\ghts ! fundam5tal conception ( _! !ory1 he mu/ ne$s be at a loss :at to say to _! argum5ts )\t be+ on t acc\nt 9 any degree conv9c$ ( _! doctr9es4 ,note #ajd3 ,in/4 #a4 iii4 #bc4 ,9 ! six? c5tury1 inde$1 9 ! reign ( ,ju/9ian1 we f9d a writ] 7,cosmas ,indicopleu/es#aad7 :o does n re/ 9 ?is obscurity ( #aig repres5tation2 b 9 ?is case1 ! di/9ctness ( ! pictures only s]ves to %[ 8 want ( any cle> conception z to :at suppositions w\ld expla9 ! ph5om5a4 ,he describes ! e>? z an oblong floor1 surr\nd$ by upright walls1 & cov]$ by a vault1 bel[ :i* ! heav5ly bodies p]=m _! revolutions1 go+ r\nd a c]ta9 high m\nta91 :i* occupies ! nor!rn p>ts ( ! e>?1 & makes night by int]cept+ ! light ( ! sun4 ,9 ,augu/9#abd 7:o fl\ri%$ ,a4 ,d4 #djj7 ! op9ion is treat$ on o!r gr\nds2 & )\t d5y+ ! globul> =m ( ! e>?1 x is ass]t$ t !re are no inhabitants on ! opposite side1 because no su* race is record$ by ,scripture among ! desc5dants ( ,adam4#acd ,consid]ations ( ! same k9d op]at$ 9 ! well-kn[n in/ance ( ,virgil1 ,bi%op ( ,salzburg1 9 ! eigh? c5tury4 ,:5 he 0 report$ to ,boniface1 ,ar*bi%op ( ,m5tz1 z hold+ ! exi/5ce ( ,antipodes1 ! prelate 0 %ock$ at ! assumption1 z x seem$ to him1 ( a _w ( human be+s1 out ( ! rea* ( ! conditions ( salvation2 & application 0 made to ,pope ,za*>y = a c5sure ( ! hold] ( ?is dang]\s doctr9e4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 appe> t ?is l$ to any sev]ity2 & ! /ory ( ! deposition ( ,virgil f 8 bi%opric1 :i* is circulat$ by ,kepl] & by m mod]n writ]s1 is und\bt$ly altoge!r false4 ,! same scruples cont9u$ to prevail among ,*ri/ian writ]s to a lat] p]iod2 & ,to/atus#add notes ! op9ion ( ! rotundity ( ! e>? z an unsafe doctr9e1 only a few ye>s be=e ,columbus visit$ ! o!r hemisph]e4 ,note #aad3 ,montfaucon1 ,collectio ,nova ,patrum1 t4 ii4 p4 #aac4 ,cosmas ,indicopleu/es4 ,*ri/ianorum ,op9iones de ,mundo1 sive ,topographia ,*ri/iana4 ,note #abd3 ,civ4 ,d4 xvi4 #i4 ,note #acd3 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t scriptural argum5ts 7 f\nd on ! o!r side4 ,/4 ,j]ome says 7,comm4 9 ,eze*4 i4 #f71 speak+ ( ! two *]ubims ) f\r faces1 se5 by ! prophet1 & ! int]pretation ( ! vision3 ,alii v]o qui philosophorum /ultam sequuntur sapi5tiam1 duo hemisph]ia 9 duobus templi *]ubim1 nos et antipodes1 quasi sup9os et cad5tes hom9es suspicantur4 ,note #add3 ,montfauc4 ,patr4 t4 ii4 #h4 ,intellectual ,condition ( ! ,religi\s ,ord]s4--,x mu/ be recollect$1 h[ev]1 t ?\gh ^! 7 ! views & t5ets ( _m religi\s writ]s1 & ?\gh !y may be tak5 z indications ( ! preval5t & *>act]i/ic temp] ( ! times ( :i* we speak1 !y nev] 7 univ]sal4 ,su* a confusion ( ?\ght affects ! m9ds ( _m p]sons1 ev5 9 ! mo/ enlight5$ times2 & 9 :at we call ! ,d>k ,ages1 ?\gh cle> views on su* subjects might be m r>e1 ^? :o gave _! m9ds to sci5ce1 ent]ta9$ ! true op9ion ( ! figure ( ! e>?4 ,?us ,bo?ius#aed 79 ! six? c5tury7 urges ! smallness ( ! globe ( ! e>?1 #aih comp>$ ) ! heav5s1 z a reason to repress our love ( glory4 ,?is "w1 x w be recollect$1 0 translat$ into ! ,anglo-,saxon by our own ,alfr$4 ,x 0 also comm5t$ on by ,b$e1 :o1 9 :at he says on ?is passage1 ass5ts to ! doctr9e1 & %[s an acqua9tance ) ,ptolemy & 8 comm5tators1 bo? ,arabian & ,greek4 ,g]b]t1 9 ! t5? c5tury1 w5t f ,france to ,spa9 to /udy a/ronomy ) ! ,arabians1 & soon surpass$ 8 ma/]s4 ,he is report$ to h fabricat$ clocks1 & an a/rolabe ( peculi> con/ruction4 ,g]b]t aft]w>ds 79 ! la/ ye> ( ! fir/ ?\s& f ! bir? ( ,*ri/7 became pope1 by ! "n ( ,sylve/] ,,ii4 ,among o!r cultivators ( ! sci5ces1 "s ( :om1 f _! pr(ici5cy1 mu/ h possess$ ) consid]able cle>ness & /ead9ess ! elem5t>y ideas on :i* x dep5ds1 we may "h m5tion1 aft] ,montucla1#afd ,adelbold1 ^: "w ,on ! ,sph]e 0 address$ to ,pope ,sylve/]1 & ^: geometrical reason+s are1 accord+ to ,montucla1#agd vague & *im]ical2 ,h]mann ,contractus1 a monk ( ,/ ,gall1 :o1 9 #ajej1 publi%$ a/ronomical works2 ,william ( ,hirsaug51 :o foll[$ 8 example 9 #ajhj2 ,rob]t ( ,lorra9e1 :o 0 made ,bi%op ( ,h]e=d by ,william ! ,conqu]or1 9 consequ5ce ( 8 a/ronomical k4 ,9 ! next c5tury1 ,adelh>d ,go?1 an ,engli%man1 travell$ among ! ,arabs = purposes ( /udy1 z ,g]b]t _h done 9 ! prec$+ age2 & on 8 return1 translat$ ! ,elem5ts ( ,euclid1 :i* he _h br\ght f ,spa9 or ,egypt4 ,rob]t ,gro/te1 ,bi%op ( ,l9coln1 0 ! au?or ( an ,epitome on ! ,sph]e2 ,rog] ,bacon1 9 8 y\? ! contempor>y ( ,rob]t1 & ( 8 bro!r ,adam ,m>%1 praises v highly _! k 9 ma!matics4 ,note #aed3 ,bo?ius1 ,cons4 ii4 pr4 #g4 ,note #afd3 ,mont4 i4 #ejb4 ,note #agd3 ,ib4 i4 #ejc4 ,& "h1 says ! ,fr5* hi/orian ( ma!matics1 :om ,i h foll[$ 9 ! prec$+ relation1 x is impossible n to reflect t all ^? m5 :o1 if !y did n augm5t ! treasure ( ! sci5ces1 at lea/ s]v$ to transmit x1 7 monks1 or _h be5 su* orig9ally4 ,conv5ts 71 dur+ ^! /ormy ages1 ! asylum ( sci5ces & lett]s4 ,)\t ^! religi\s m51 :o1 9 ! sil5ce ( _! mona/]ies1 occupi$ !mselves 9 transcrib+1 9 /udy+1 & 9 imitat+ ! works ( ! anci5ts1 well or ill1 ^? works w\ld h p]i%$2 p]haps n "o ( !m w\ld h come d[n to u4 ,! ?read :i* connects u ) ! ,greeks & ,romans w\ld h be5 snapt asund]2 ! preci\s productions ( #aii anci5t lit]ature w\ld no m exi/ = u1 ?an ! works1 if any !re 71 publi%$ be=e ! cata/rophe t annihilat$ t highly sci5tific nation1 :i*1 accord+ to ,bailly1 exi/$ 9 remote ages 9 ! c5tre ( ,t>t>y1 or at ! roots ( ,caucasus4 ,9 ! sci5ces we %\ld h _h all to create2 & at ! mom5t :5 ! human m9d %\ld h em]g$ f its /upor & %ak5 (f its slumb]s1 we %\ld h be5 no m advanc$ ?an ! ,greeks 7 aft] ! tak+ ( ,troy4 ,he adds1 t ?is consid]ation inspires feel+s t[>ds ! religi\s ord]s v diff]5t f ^? :i*1 :5 he wrote1 7 preval5t among 8 c\ntrym54 ,except s f> z _! religi\s op9ions int]f]$1 x 0 natural t m5 :o liv$ a life ( quiet & /udy1 & 7 necess>ily 9 a great measure remov$ f ! absorb+ & bl9d+ int]e/s ) :i* practical life occupies ! ?\ghts1 %\ld cultivate sci5ce m successfully ?an o!rs1 precisely because _! ideas on speculative subjects _h "t & opportunity to become cle> & /eady4 ,! /udies :i* 7 cultivat$ "u ! "n ( ! ,sev5 ,lib]al ,arts1 necess>ily t5d$ to favor ?is effect4 ,! ,trivium1#ahd inde$1 :i* consi/$ ( ,gramm>1 ,logic1 & ,rhetoric1 _h no direct be>+ ^u ^? ideas ) :i* physical sci5ce is conc]n$2 b ! ,quadrivium1 ,music1 ,ari?metic1 ,geometry1 ,a/ronomy1 c\ld n be pursu$ ) any att5tion1 )\t a correspond+ improvem5t ( ! m9d = ! purposes ( s\nd k4#aid ,note #ahd3 ,bruck4 iii4 #eig4 ,note #aid3 ,rog] ,bacon1 9 8 ,specula ,ma!matica1 cap4 i41 says ,h>um sci5ti>um porta et clavis e/ ma!matica1 quam sancti a pr9cipio mundi inv5]unt1 etc4 ,cujus neglig5tia jam p] trig9ta vel quadrag9ta annos de/ruxit totum /udium ,lat9orum4 ,i d n "k on :at occasion ?is neglect took place4 #i4 ,popul> ,op9ions4--,t1 ev5 9 ! be/ intellects1 some?+ 0 want+ to fit !m = sci5tific progress & discov]y1 is obvi\s f ! fact t sci5ce 0 s long absolutely /ation>y4 ,& ,i h endeavor$ to %[ t "o "p ( ?is defici5cy 0 ! want ( ! requisite cle>ness & vigor ( ! fundam5tal sci5tific ideas4 ,if ^! 7 want+1 ev5 9 ! mo/ p[]ful & mo/ cultivat$ m9ds1 we may easily conceive t /ill great] confusion & obscurity prevail$ 9 ! common class ( mank9d4 ,!y actually adopt$ ! belief1 h[ev] crude & inconsi/5t1 t ! =m ( ! e>? & heav5s really is :at at any place x appe>s to be2 t ! e>? is flat1 & ! wat]s ( ! sky su/a9$ above a mat]ial floor1 ?r\gh :i* 9 %[]s !y desc5d4 ,yet ! true doctr9es ( #bjj a/ronomy appe> to h _h "s popul> circulation4 ,= in/ance1 a ,fr5* poem ( ! "t ( ,edw>d ! ,second1 call$ ,ymage du ,monde1 conta9s a metrical acc\nt ( ! e>? & heav5s1 accord+ to ! ,ptolemaic views2 & 9 a manuscript ( ?is poem1 pres]v$ 9 ! libr>y ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 !re are repres5tations1 9 accordance ) ! text1 ( a sph]ical e>?1 ) m5 /&+ upright ^u x on e side2 & by way ( illu/rat+ ! t5d5cy ( all ?+s to ! c5tre1 p]=ations ( ! e>?1 entirely ?r\gh its mass1 are describ$ & depict$2 & figures are exhibit$ dropp+ balls d[n ea* ( ^! holes1 s z to meet 9 ! int]ior4 ,&1 z be>+ ^u ! p]plexity :i* att5ds ! motions ( up & d[n1 :5 appli$ to ! globul> e>?1 & ! *ange ( ! direction ( gravity :i* w\ld occur 9 pass+ ! c5tre1 ! read]s ( ,dante w recollect ! extraord9>y mann] 9 :i* ! poet & 8 guide em]ge f ! bottom ( ! abyss2 & ! explanation :i* ,virgil imp>ts to him ( :at he !re sees4 ,aft] !y h crept ?r\gh ! ap]ture 9 :i* ,lucif] is plac$1 ! poet says1 ,io levai gli oc*i e cr$etti v$]e ,lucif]o com' io l' avea lasciato1 ,e vidile le gambe 9 su t5]e4 4 4 4 4 4 ,que/i come fitto ,si sottasopra6 4 4 4 4 4 ,qu&o mi volsi1 tu passa/' il punto ,al qual si traggon d' ogni p>te i pesi4 ,inf]no1 xxxiv4 4 4 4 4 4 ,i rais$ m9e eyes1 ,believ+ t ,i ,lucif] %\ld see ,:]e he 0 lately left1 b saw him n[ ,) legs held upw>d4 4 4 4 4 4 ,h[ /&e? he 9 po/ure ?us rev]s$8 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,?\ wa/ on ! o!r side s long z ,i ,desc5d$2 :5 ,i turn$1 ?\ did/ o'erpass ,t po9t to :i* f e "p is dragg$ ,all heavy sub/ance4 ,,c>y4 ,?is is m philosophical ?an ,milton's repres5tation1 9 a m sci5tific age1 ( ,uriel slid+ to ! e>? on a sunbeam1 & slid+ back aga91 :5 ! sun _h sunk bel[ ! horizon4 4 4 4 4 4 ,uriel to 8 *>ge ,return$ on t bright beam ^: po9t n[ rais$1 ,bore him slope d[nw>d to ! sun1 n[ fall5 ,b5ea? ! ,azores4 ,p>4 ,lo/1 ,b4 iv4 #bja ,! philosophical notions ( up & d[n are too mu* at v>iance ) ! obvi\s sugge/ions ( our s5ses1 to be held /eadily & ju/ly by m9ds undiscipl9$ 9 sci5ce4 ,p]haps x 0 "s misund]/ood /atem5t ( ! curv$ surface ( ! ocean1 :i* gave rise to ! tradition ( !re be+ a "p ( ! sea directly ov] ! e>?1 f :i* at times an object has be5 kn[n to fall or an an*or to be let d[n4 ,ev5 su* :imsical fancies are n )\t in/ruction1 & may s]ve to %[ ! read] :at t vagu5ess & obscurity ( ideas is1 ( :i* ,i h be5 endeavor+ to trace ! preval5ce 9 ! d>k ages4 ,we n[ proce$ to ano!r ( ! features :i* appe>s to me to m>k1 9 a v prom95t mann]1 ! "* ( ! /ation>y p]iod4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,comm5tatorial ,,_s ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 ,,we h already notic$1 t1 aft] ! fir/ great a*ievem5ts ( ! f\nd]s ( s\nd speculation1 9 ! diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( human k1 _h attract$ ! int]e/ & admiration :i* ^? :o became acqua9t$ ) !m c\ld n b give to !m1 !re appe>$ a disposition among m5 to lean on ! au?ority ( "s ( ^! tea*]s2--to /udy ! op9ions ( o!rs z ! only mode ( =m+ _! own2--to read nature ?r\gh books2--to att5d to :at _h be5 already ?\ght & said1 r ?an to :at really is & happ5s4 ,?is t5d5cy ( m5's m9ds requires our p>ticul> consid]ation4 ,its manife/ations 7 v important1 & highly *>act]i/ic ( ! /ation>y p]iod2 x gave1 9 a great degree1 a peculi> bias & direction to ! intellectual activity ( _m c5turies2 & ! k9d ( labor ) :i* speculative m5 7 occupi$ 9 consequ5ce ( ?is bias1 took ! place ( t exam9ation ( realities :i* mu/ be _! employm5t1 9 ord] t real k may make any decid$ progress4 ,9 "s subjects1 inde$1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! doma9s ( morals1 poetry1 & ! arts1 ^: aim is ! production ( beauty1 ?is opposition betwe5 ! /udy ( =m] op9ion & pres5t reality1 may n be s di/9ct2 inasmu* z x may be said by "s1 t1 9 ^! subjects1 op9ions are realities2 t ! ?\ghts & feel+s :i* #bjb prevail 9 m5's m9ds are ! mat]ial ^u :i* we mu/ "w1 ! p>ticul>s f :i* we are to g5]alize1 ! in/rum5ts :i* we are to use2 & t1 !re=e1 to reject ! /udy ( antiquity1 or ev5 its au?ority1 w\ld be to %[ ourselves ignorant ( ! ext5t & mutual be>+ ( ! elem5ts ) :i* we h to deal2--w\ld be to cut asund] t :i* we ought to unite into a vital :ole4 ,yet ev5 9 ! prov9ces ( hi/ory & poetry1 ! pov]ty & s]vility ( m5's m9ds dur+ ! middle ages1 are %[n by indications s /rong z to be truly rem>kable2 = in/ance1 9 ! ef=ts ( ! antiqu>ians ( almo/ e ,european c\ntry to assimilate ! e>ly hi/ory ( _! own /ate to ! poet's acc\nt ( ! f\ndation ( ,rome1 by br++ f ! sack ( ,troy1 ,brutus to ,engl&1 ,bavo to ,fl&]s1 & s on4 ,b h[ev] ?is may be1 our bus9ess at pres5t is1 to trace ! v>y+ _s ( ! physical philosophy ( diff]5t ages2 tru/+ t1 h]eaft]1 ?is prefatory /udy w enable u to ?r[ "s light ^u ! o!r p>ts ( philosophy4 ,& 9 physics ! case und\bt$ly 01 t ! labor ( obs]vation1 :i* is "o ( ! two great elem5ts ( ! progress ( k1 0 9 a great measure sup]s$$ by ! collection1 ! analysis1 ! explanation1 ( previ\s au?ors & op9ions2 exp]im5t]s 7 replac$ by comm5tators2 criticism took ! place ( induction2 & in/ead ( great discov]]s we _h le>n$ m54 #a4 ,natural ,bias to ,au?ority4--,x is v evid5t t1 9 su* a bias ( m5's /udies1 !re is some?+ v natural2 h[ev] /ra9$ & te*nical ?is erudition may h be51 ! prop5sities on :i* x dep5ds are v g5]al1 & are easily se54 ,def]5ce to ! au?ority ( ?\ghtful & sagaci\s m51 a disposition :i* m5 9 g5]al nei!r reject nor ?9k !y ought to reject 9 practical matt]s1 naturally cl+s to !m1 ev5 9 speculation4 ,x is a satisfaction to u to suppose t !re are1 or h be51 m9ds ( transc5d5t p[]s1 ( wide & wise views1 sup]ior to ! common errors & bl9dness ( our nature4 ,! pleasure ( admiration1 & ! repose ( confid5ce1 are inducem5ts to su* a belief4 ,!re are also o!r reasons :y we will+ly believe t !re are 9 philosophy great tea*]s1 s pr(\nd & sagaci\s1 t1 9 ord] to arrive at tru?1 we h only to le>n _! ?\ghts1 to und]/& _! writ+s4 ,!re is a peculi> int]e/ :i* m5 feel 9 deal+ ) ! ?\ghts ( _! fell[-m51 r ?an ) brute matt]4 ,matt] feels & excites no sympa?ies3 9 seek+ = m]e laws ( nature1 !re is no?+ ( m5tal int]c\rse ) ! great spirits ( ! pa/1 z !re is 9 #bjc /udy+ ,ari/otle or ,plato4 ,moreov]1 a l>ge portion ( ?is employm5t is ( a k9d ! mo/ agreeable to mo/ speculative m9ds2 x consi/s 9 trac+ ! consequ5ces ( assum$ pr9ciples3 x is d$uctive l geometry3 & ! pr9ciples ( ! tea*]s be+ kn[n1 & be+ undisput$1 ! d$uction & application ( _! results is an obvi\s1 self-satisfy+1 & inexhau/ible ex]cise ( +5uity4 ,^! causes1 & probably o!rs1 make criticism & comm5tation fl\ri%1 :5 inv5tion beg9s to fail1 oppress$ & bewild]$ by ! acquisitions x has already made2 & :5 ! vigor & hope ( m5's m9ds are enfeebl$ by civil & political *anges4 ,accord+ly1#bjd ! ,alex&rian s*ool 0 em95tly *>act]iz$ by a _s ( erudition1 ( lit]>y criticism1 ( int]pretation1 ( imitation4 ,^! practices1 :i* reign$ fir/ 9 _! full vigor 9 ! ,museum1 are likely to be1 at all times1 ! lead+ prop5sities ( simil> academical in/itutions4 ,note #bjd3 ,deg]&o1 ,hi/4 des ,sy/4 de ,philos4 iii4 p4 #acd4 ,h[ natural x is to select a great writ] z a p>am\nt au?ority1 & to ascribe to him extraord9>y pr(undity & sagacity1 we may see1 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! ,greeks look$ ^u ,hom]2 & ! fancy :i* detect$ 9 8 poems traces ( ! orig9 ( all arts & sci5ces1 has1 z we "k1 f\nd favor ev5 9 mod]n times4 ,to pass ov] e>li] in/ances ( ?is feel+1 we may obs]ve1 t ,/rabo beg9s 8 ,geography by say+ t he agrees ) ,hipp>*us1 :o _h decl>$ ,hom] to be ! fir/ au?or ( our geographical k2 & he does n conf9e ! application ( ?is ass]tion to ! v>i\s & curi\s topographical in=mation :i* ! ,iliad & ,odyssey conta91 conc]n+ ! c\ntries surr\nd+ ! ,m$it]ranean2 b 9 phrases :i*1 to mo/ p]sons1 might appe> ! m]e play ( a poetical fancy1 or a casual selection ( circum/ances1 he f9ds unque/ionable evid5ce ( a correct k ( g5]al geographical tru?s4 ,?us1#bad :5 ,hom] speaks ( ! sun ris+ f ! s(t & deep-fl[+ ocean1 ( 8 spl5did blaze plung+ 9 ! ocean2 ( ! nor!rn con/ellation ,alone unwa%5 by ! ocean wave2 & ( ,jupit]1 :o goes to ! ocean to fea/ ) ! blameless ,e?iopians2 ,/rabo is satisfi$ f ^! passages t ,hom] knew ! dry l& to be surr\nd$ ) wat]3 & he reasons 9 l mann] ) respect to o!r po9ts ( geography4 #bjd ,note #bad3 ,/rabo1 i4 p4 #e4 #b4 ,"* ( ,comm5tators4--,! _s ( comm5tation1 z has already be5 sugge/$1 turns to que/ions ( ta/e1 ( metaphysics1 ( morals1 ) f> m avidity ?an to physics4 ,accord+ly1 critics & gramm>ians 7 peculi>ly ! gr[? ( ?is s*ool2 &1 ?\gh ! comm5tators sometimes *ose works ( ma!matical or physical sci5ce = _! subject 7z ,proclus1 :o comm5t$ on ,euclid's ,geometry1 & ,simplicius1 on ,ari/otle's ,physics71 ^! comm5t>ies 71 9 fact1 r metaphysical ?an ma!matical4 ,x does n appe> t ! comm5tators h1 9 any in/ance1 illu/rat$ ! au?or by br++ 8 ass]tions ( facts to ! te/ ( exp]im5t4 ,?us1 :5 ,simplicius comm5ts on ! passage conc]n+ a vacuum1 :i* we =m]ly adduc$1 he notices ! argum5t :i* w5t ^u ! ass]tion1 t a vessel full ( a%es w\ld conta9 z mu* wat] z an empty vessel2 & he m5tions v>i\s op9ions ( diff]5t au?ors1 b no trial ( ! fact4 ,eudemus _h said1 t ! a%es conta9$ some?+ hot1 z quicklime does1 & t by means ( ?is1 a "p ( ! wat] 0 evaporat$2 o!rs suppos$ ! wat] to be cond5s$1 & s on4#bbd ,note #bbd3 ,simplicius1 p4 #agj4 ,! ,comm5tator's pr(ess$ object is to expla91 to en=ce1 to illu/rate doctr9es assum$ z true4 ,he endeavors to adapt ! "w on :i* he employs himself to ! /ate ( in=mation & ( op9ion 9 8 own "t2 to elucidate obscurities & te*nicalities2 to supply /eps omitt$ 9 ! reason+2 b he does n seek to obta9 additional tru?s or new g5]alizations4 ,he und]takes only to give :at is virtually conta9$ 9 8 au?or2 to develop1 b n to create4 ,he is a cultivator ( ! ?\ghts ( o!rs3 8 labor is n sp5t on a field ( 8 own2 he pl\ghs b to enri* ! gran>y ( ano!r man4 ,?us he does n "w z a freeman1 b z "o 9 a s]vile condition2 or r1 8 is a m5ial1 & n a productive s]vice3 8 (fice is to adorn ! appe>ance ( 8 ma/]1 n to increase 8 weal?4 ,yet ?\gh ! ,comm5tator's employm5t is ?us subord9ate & dep5d5t1 he is easily l$ to attribute to x ! greate/ importance & dignity4 ,to elucidate good books is1 inde$1 a useful task2 & :5 ^? :o und]take ?is "w execute x well1 x w\ld be mo/ unreasonable to f9d fault ) !m = n do+ m4 ,b ! critic1 long & e>ne/ly employ$ on "o au?or1 may easily und]rate ! relative value ( o!r k9ds ( m5tal ex]tion4 ,he may #bje ascribe too l>ge dim5sions to t :i* occupies ! :ole ( 8 own field ( vision4 ,?us he may come to consid] su* /udy z ! highe/ aim1 & be/ evid5ce ( human g5ius4 ,to und]/& ,ari/otle1 or ,plato1 may appe> to him to comprise all t is possible ( pr(undity & acut5ess4 ,& :5 he has travell$ ov] a portion ( _! doma91 & satisfi$ himself t ( ?is he too is ma/]1 he may look ) complac5cy at ! circuit he has made1 & speak ( x z a labor ( va/ ef=t & difficulty4 ,we may quote1 z an expression ( ?is temp]1 ! language ( ,sir ,h5ry ,savile1 9 conclud+ a c\rse ( lectures on ,euclid1 deliv]$ at ,ox=d4#bcd ,by ! grace ( ,god1 g5tlem5 he>]s1 ,i h p]=m$ my promise2 ,i h r$eem$ my pl$ge4 ,i h expla9$1 accord+ to my ability1 ! def9itions1 po/ulates1 axioms1 & fir/ eight propositions ( ! ,elem5ts ( ,euclid4 ,"h1 s9k+ "u ! weight ( ye>s1 ,i lay d[n my art & my in/rum5ts4 ,note #bcd3 ,exolvi p] ,dei gratiam1 ,dom9i auditores1 promissum2 lib]avi fldem meam2 explicavi pro meo modulo1 def9itiones1 petitiones1 communes s5t5tias1 et octo priores propositiones ,elem5torum ,euclidis4 ,hic1 annis fessus1 cyclos artemque repono4 ,we "h speak ( ! peculi> prov9ce ( ! ,comm5tator2 = und\bt$ly1 9 _m in/ances1 a comm5t>y on a receiv$ au?or has be5 made ! vehicle ( convey+ sy/ems & doctr9es entirely diff]5t f ^? ( ! au?or himself2 z1 = in/ance1 :5 ! ,new ,platoni/s wrote1 tak+ ,plato = _! text4 ,! labors ( le>n$ m5 9 ! /ation>y p]iod1 :i* came "u ?is description1 belong to ano!r class4 #c4 ,greek ,comm5tators on ,ari/otle4--,! comm5tators or disciples ( ! great philosoph]s did n assume at once _! s]vile "*4 ,at fir/ _! object 0 to supply & correct1 z well z to expla9 _! tea*]4 ,?us among ! e>li] comm5tators ( ,ari/otle1 ,!ophra/us inv5t$ five moods ( syllogism 9 ! fir/ figure1 9 addition to ! f\r inv5t$ by ,ari/otle1 & /at$ ) additional accuracy ! rules ( hypo!tical syllogisms4 ,he also n only collect$ mu* in=mation conc]n+ animals1 & natural ev5ts1 :i* ,ari/otle _h omitt$1 b (t5 diff]$ ) 8 ma/]2 z1 = in/ance1 conc]n+ ! saltness ( ! sea3 ?is1 :i* ! ,/agirite attribut$ to ! effect ( ! evaporation produc$ by ! sun's rays1 0 ascrib$ by ,!ophra/us to b$s ( salt at ! bottom4 ,porphyry1#bdd :o fl\ri%$ 9 ! ?ird c5tury1 wrote a book on ! ,pr$icables1 :i* 0 f\nd to be s suitable a complem5t #bjf to ! ,pr$icam5ts or ,categories ( ,ari/otle1 t x 0 usually prefix$ to t treatise2 & ! two h be5 us$ z an elem5t>y "w toge!r1 up to mod]n times4 ,! ,pr$icables are ! five /eps :i* ! gradations ( g5]ality & p>ticul>ity introduce2--g5us1 species1 diff]5ce1 individual1 accid5t3--! ,categories are ! t5 heads "u :i* ass]tions or pr$ications may be arrang$3--sub/ance1 quantity1 relation1 quality1 place1 "t1 position1 habit1 action1 passion4 ,note #bdd3 ,buhle1 ,ari/4 i4 #bhd4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 ! ,ari/otelian comm5tators became m s]vile1 & foll[$ ! au?or /ep by /ep1 expla9+1 accord+ to _! views1 8 expressions & doctr9es2 (t51 inde$1 ) extreme prolixity1 exp&+ 8 clauses into s5t5ces1 & 8 s5t5ces into p>agraphs4 ,alex&] ,aphrodisi5sis1 :o liv$ at ! end ( ! second c5tury1 is ( ?is class2 sometimes useful1 z "o ( ! rec5t editors ( ,ari/otle says2#bed b by ! prolixity ( 8 int]pretation1 by 8 p]v]se it* = himself discuss+ ! argum5t exp\nd$ by ,ari/otle1 = def5d+ 8 op9ions1 & = refut+ or reconcil+ ^? ( o!rs1 he r obscures ?an enlight5s4 ,at v>i\s times1 also1 "s ( ! comm5tators1 & especially ^? ( ! ,alex&rian s*ool1 endeavor$ to reconcile1 or comb9$ )\t reconcil+1 oppos+ doctr9es ( ! great philosoph]s ( ! e>li] times4 ,simplicius1 = in/ance1 &1 inde$1 a great numb] ( ! ,alex&rian ,philosoph]s1#bfd z ,alex&]1 ,ammonius1 & o!rs1 employ$ !mselves 9 ! futile task ( reconcil+ ! doctr9es ( ! ,py?agoreans1 ( ! ,eleatics1 ( ,plato1 & ( ! ,/oics1 ) ^? ( ,ari/otle4 ,boe?ius#bgd ent]ta9$ ! design ( translat+ into ,lat9 ! :ole ( ,ari/otle's & ,plato's works1 & ( %[+ _! agreem5t2 a gigantic plan1 :i* he nev] execut$4 ,o!rs employ$ !mselves 9 dis5tangl+ ! confusion :i* su* attempts produc$1 z ,john ! ,gramm>ian1 surnam$ ,philoponus1 ! ,labor-lov+2 :o1 t[>ds ! end ( ! sev5? c5tury1 ma9ta9$ t ,ari/otle 0 entirely misund]/ood by ,porphyry & ,proclus1#bhd :o _h pret5d$ to incorporate 8 doctr9es into ^? ( ! ,new ,platonic s*ool1 or ev5 to reconcile him ) ,plato himself on ! subject ( ideas4 ,o!rs1 aga91 wrote ,epitomes1 ,comp\nds1 ,ab/racts2 & endeavor$ to ?r[ ! works ( ! philosoph] into "s simpl] & m obvi\sly regul> =m1 z ,john ( ,damascus1 9 #bjg ! middle ( ! eigh? c5tury1 :o made ab/racts ( "s ( ,ari/otle's works1 & introduc$ ! /udy ( ! au?or into !ological education4 ,^! two writ]s liv$ "u ! patronage ( ! ,arabs2 ! =m] 0 favor$ by ,amr\1 ! conqu]or ( ,egypt2 ! latt] 0 at fir/ secret>y to ! ,caliph1 b aft]w>ds )drew to a mona/]y4#bid ,note #bed3 ,ib4 i4 #bhh4 ,note #bfd3 ,ib4 i4 #caa4 ,note #bgd3 ,deg]&o1 ,hi/4 des ,sy/4 iv4 #ajj4 ,note #bhd3 ,ib4 iv4 #aee4 ,note #bid3 ,deg4 iv4 #aej4 ,at ?is p]iod ! ,arabians became ! fo/]]s & patrons ( philosophy1 r ?an ! ,greeks4 ,ju/9ian _h1 by an edict1 clos$ ! s*ool ( ,a!ns1 ! la/ ( ! s*ools ( hea!n philosophy4 ,leo1 ! ,isaurian1 :o 0 a zeal\s ,iconocla/1 aboli%$ also ! s*ools :]e g5]al k _h be5 taught1 9 comb9ation ) ,*ri/ianity1#cjd yet ! l9e ( ! ,ari/otelian comm5tators 0 cont9u$1 ?\gh feebly1 to ! lat] ages ( ! ,greek empire4 ,anna ,comn5a#cad m5tions a ,eu/ratus :o employ$ himself ^u ! dialectic & moral treatises1 & :om %e does n hesitate to elevate above ! ,/oics & ,platoni/s1 = 8 tal5t 9 philosophical discussions4 ,nicephorus ,blemmydes wrote logical & physical epitomes = ! use ( ,john ,ducas2 ,george ,pa*ym]us compos$ an epitome ( ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle1 & a comp5d ( 8 logic2 ,!odore ,meto*ytes1 :o 0 fam\s 9 8 "t alike = 8 eloqu5ce & 8 le>n+1 has left a p>aphrase ( ! books ( ,ari/otle on ,physics1 on ! ,s\l1 ! ,heav5s1#cbd c4 ,fabricius /ates t ?is writ] has a *apt]1 ! object ( :i* is to prove1 t all philosoph]s1 & ,ari/otle & ,plato 9 p>ticul>1 h disda9$ ! au?ority ( _! pr$ecessors4 ,he c\ld h>dly help rem>k+ 9 h[ diff]5t a _s philosophy _h be5 pursu$ s9ce _! "t4 ,note #cjd3 ,ib4 iv4 #afc4 ,note #cad3 ,ib4 #afg4 ,note #cbd3 ,ib4 #afh4 #d4 ,greek ,comm5tators ( ,plato & o!rs4--,i h spok5 pr9cipally ( ! comm5tators ( ,ari/otle1 = he 0 ! great subject ( ! comm5tators prop]2 & ?\gh ! "n ( 8 rival1 ,plato1 0 grac$ by a li/ ( att5dants1 h>dly less num]\s1 ^!1 ! ,neoplatoni/s1 z !y are call$1 _h introduc$ new elem5ts into ! doctr9es ( _! nom9al ma/]1 to su* an ext5t t !y mu/ be plac$ 9 a diff]5t class4 ,we may obs]ve "h1 h[ev]1 h[1 9 ?is s*ool z 9 ! ,p]ipatetic1 ! race ( comm5tators multipli$ itself4 ,porphyry1 :o comm5t$ on ,ari/otle1 0 comm5t$ on by ,ammonius2 ,plot9us's ,enneads 7 comm5t$ on by ,proclus & ,dexippus4 ,psellus#ccd ! eld] 0 a p>aphra/ ( #bjh ,ari/otle2 ,psellus ! y\ng]1 9 ! elev5? c5tury1 attempt$ to re/ore ! ,new ,platonic s*ool4 ,! =m] ( ^! two writ]s _h = 8 pupils two m51 ! emp]or ,leo1 surnam$ ! ,philosoph]1 & ,photius ! patri>*1 :o ex]t$ !mselves to re/ore ! /udy ( lit]ature at ,con/ant9ople4 ,we /ill possess ! ,collection ( ,extracts ( ,photius1 :i*1 l t ( ,/obu & o!rs1 %[s ! t5d5cy ( ! age to compilations1 ab/racts1 & epitomes1--! ext9ction ( philosophical vitality4 ,note #ccd3 ,deg4 iv4 #afi4 #e4 ,arabian ,comm5tators ( ,ari/otle4--,! read] might p]haps h expect$1 t :5 ! philosophy ( ! ,greeks 0 c>ri$ among a new race ( intellects1 ( a diff]5t national "* & condition1 ! tra9 ( ?is s]vile tradition w\ld h be5 brok52 t "s new ?\ghts w\ld h />t$ =?2 t "s new direction1 "s new impulse1 w\ld h be5 giv5 to ! se>* = tru?4 ,x might h be5 anticipat$ t we %\ld h _h s*ools among ! ,arabians :i* %\ld rival ! ,p]ipatetic1 ,academic1 & ,/oic among ! ,greeks2--t !y w\ld preoccupy ! gr\nd on :i* ,cop]nicus & ,galileo1 ,lavoisi] & ,l9nu1 won _! fame2--t !y w\ld make ! next great /eps 9 ! progressive sci5ces4 ,no?+ ( ?is1 h[ev]1 happ5$4 ,! ,arabians _c claim1 9 sci5ce or philosophy1 any really great names2 !y produc$ no m5 & no discov]ies :i* h mat]ially influ5c$ ! c\rse & de/9ies ( human k2 !y tamely adopt$ ! intellectual s]vitude ( ! nation :i* !y conqu]$ by _! arms2 !y jo9$ !mselves at once to ! /r+ ( slaves :o 7 dragg+ ! c> ( ,ari/otle & ,plot9us4 ,nor1 p]haps1 on a little fur!r reflection1 %all we be surpris$ at ?is want ( vigor & productive p[]1 9 ?is p]iod ( app>5t national y\?4 ,! ,arabians _h n be5 duly prep>$ rightly to enjoy & use ! treasures ( :i* !y became possess$4 ,!y _h1 l mo/ unciviliz$ nations1 be5 passionately fond ( _! indig5\s poetry2 _! imag9ation _h be5 awak5$1 b _! rational p[]s & speculative t5d5cies 7 /ill torpid4 ,!y receiv$ ! ,greek philosophy )\t hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ^? gradations ( ard5t curiosity & ke5 rese>*1 ( obscurity bright5+ into cle>ness1 ( d\bt succe$$ by ! joy ( discov]y1 by :i* ! ,greek m9d _h be5 enl>g$ & ex]cis$4 ,nor _h ! ,arabians ev] enjoy$1 z ! ,greeks _h1 ! individual consci\sness1 ! indep5d5t volition1 ! intellectual fre$om1 aris+ f ! fre$om ( political in/itutions4 ,!y _h n felt ! contagi\s m5tal activity ( a small city1--! elation aris+ f ! g5]al #bji sympa?y 9 speculative pursuits diffus$ ?r\gh an intellig5t & acute audi5ce2 9 %ort1 !y _h n _h a national education su* z fitt$ ! ,greeks to be disciples ( ,plato & ,hipp>*us4 ,h5ce1 _! new lit]>y weal? r encumb]$ & enslav$1 ?an enri*$ & /r5g!n$ !m3 9 _! want ( ta/e = intellectual fre$om1 !y 7 glad to give !mselves up to ! guidance ( ,ari/otle & o!r dogmati/s4 ,_! milit>y habits _h accu/om$ !m to look to a lead]2 _! rev]5ce = ! book ( _! law _h prep>$ !m to accept a philosophical ,koran also4 ,?us ! ,arabians1 ?\gh !y nev] translat$ ! ,greek poetry1 translat$1 & m]ely translat$1 ! ,greek philosophy2 !y foll[$ ! ,greek philosoph]s )\t deviation1 or1 at lea/1 )\t any philosophical deviations4 ,!y became = ! mo/ "p ,ari/otelians2--/udi$ n only ,ari/otle1 b ! comm5tators ( ,ari/otle2 & !mselves swell$ ! va/ & unpr(itable h]d4 ,! philosophical works ( ,ari/otle _h1 9 "s measure1 made _! way 9 ! ,ea/1 be=e ! gr[? ( ! ,s>ac5 p[]4 ,9 ! six? c5tury1 a ,syrian1 ,uranus1#cdd enc\rag$ by ! love ( philosophy manife/$ by ,cosroes1 _h translat$ "s ( ! writ+s ( ! ,/agirite2 ab\t ! same "t1 ,s]gius _h giv5 "s translations 9 ,syriac4 ,9 ! sev5? c5tury1 ,jacob ( ,edessa translat$ into ?is language ! ,dialectics1 & add$ ,notes to ! "w4 ,su* labors became num]\s2 & ! fir/ ,arabic translations ( ,ari/otle 7 =m$ ^u ^! ,p]sian or ,syriac texts4 ,9 ?is succession ( transfusions1 "s mi/akes mu/ inevitably h be5 introduc$4 ,note #cdd3 ,deg4 iv4 #aif4 ,! ,arabian int]pret]s ( ,ari/otle1 l a l>ge portion ( ! ,alex&rian ones1 gave to ! philosoph] a t+e ( op9ions borr[$ f ano!r s\rce1 ( :i* ,i %all h to speak "u ! head ( ,my/icism4 ,b !y are1 = ! mo/ "p1 suffici5tly /rong examples ( ! peculi> _s ( comm5tation1 to make x fitt+ to notice !m "h4 ,at ! head ( !m /&s#ced ,alk9di1 :o appe>s to h liv$ at ! c\rt ( ,almamon1 & :o wrote comm5t>ies on ! ,organon ( ,ari/otle4 ,b ,alf>abi 0 ! glory ( ! s*ool ( ,bagdad2 8 k includ$ ma!matics1 a/ronomy1 m$ic9e1 & philosophy4 ,born 9 an elevat$ rank1 & possess$ ( a ri* patrimony1 he l$ an au/]e life1 & devot$ himself altoge!r to /udy & m$itation4 ,he employ$ himself p>ticul>ly 9 unfold+ ! import ( ,ari/otle's treatise ,on ! ,s\l4#cfd ,avic5na 7,ebn ,s9a7 #baj 0 at once ! ,hippocrates & ! ,ari/otle ( ! ,arabians2 & c]ta9ly ! mo/ extraord9>y man t ! nation produc$4 ,9 ! c\rse ( an un=tunate & /ormy life1 occupi$ by politics & by pleasures1 he produc$ works :i* 7 long rev]$ z a sort ( code ( sci5ce4 ,9 p>ticul>1 8 writ+s on m$ic9e1 ?\gh !y conta9 little besides a compilation ( ,hippocrates & ,gal51 took ! place ( bo?1 ev5 9 ! univ]sities ( ,europe2 & 7 /udi$ z models at ,p>is & ,montpeli]1 till ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 at :i* p]iod !y fell into an almo/ complete oblivion4 ,avic5na is conceiv$1 by "s mod]n writ]s1#cgd to h %[n "s p[] ( orig9al ?9k+ 9 8 repres5tations ( ! ,ari/otelian ,logic & ,metaphysics4 ,av]roes 7,ebn ,ro%d7 ( ,cordova1 0 ! mo/ illu/ri\s ( ! ,spani% ,ari/otelians1 & became ! guide ( ! s*oolm51#chd be+ plac$ by !m on a level ) ,ari/otle himself1 or above him4 ,he translat$ ,ari/otle f ! fir/ ,syriac v]sion1 n be+ able to read ! ,greek text4 ,he aspir$ to1 & reta9$ = c5turies1 ! title ( ! ,comm5tator2 & he des]ves ?is title by ! s]vility ) :i* he ma9ta9s t ,ari/otle#cid c>ri$ ! sci5ces to ! highe/ possible degree1 measur$ _! :ole ext5t1 & fix$ _! ultimate & p]man5t b\nd>ies2 al?\gh 8 works are conceiv$ to exhibit a trace ( ! ,new ,platonism4 ,"s ( 8 writ+s are direct$ aga9/ an ,arabian skeptic1 ( ! "n ( ,algazel1 :om we h already notic$4 ,note #ced3 ,ib4 iv4 #ahg4 ,note #cfd3 ,ib4 iv4 #bje4 ,note #cgd3 ,deg4 iv4 #bjf4 ,note #chd3 ,ib4 iv4 #bdg4 ,av]roes di$ ,a4 ,d4 #abjf4 ,note #cid3 ,ib4 iv4 #bdh4 ,:5 ! s*oolm5 _h adopt$ ! supremacy ( ,ari/otle to ! ext5t 9 :i* ,av]roes ma9ta9$ x1 _! philosophy w5t fur!r ?an a sy/em ( m]e comm5tation1 & became a sy/em ( dogmatism2 we mu/1 !re=e1 9 ano!r *apt]1 say a few words m ( ! ,ari/otelians 9 ?is po9t ( view1 be=e we proce$ to ! revival ( sci5ce2 b we mu/ previ\sly consid] "s o!r features 9 ! "* ( ! ,/ation>y ,p]iod4 #baa ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,my/icism ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 ,,x has be5 already sev]al times h9t$1 t a new & peculi> elem5t 0 introduc$ into ! ,greek philosophy :i* occupi$ ! att5tion ( ! ,alex&rian s*ool2 & t ?is elem5t t+$ a l>ge portion ( ! speculations ( succe$+ ages4 ,we may speak ( ?is peculi> elem5t z ,my/icism2 =1 f ! notion usually convey$ by ?is t]m1 ! read] w easily appreh5d ! g5]al "* ( ! t5d5cy n[ spok5 (2 & especially :5 he sees its effect po9t$ out 9 v>i\s subjects4 ,?us1 in/ead ( ref]r+ ! ev5ts ( ! ext]nal _w to space & "t1 to s5sible connection & causation1 m5 attempt$ to r$uce su* occurr5ces "u spiritual & sup]s5sual relations & dep5d5cies2 !y ref]r$ !m to sup]ior intellig5ces1 to !ological conditions1 to pa/ & future ev5ts 9 ! moral _w1 to /ates ( m9d & feel+s1 to ! creatures ( an imag9>y my?ology or demonology4 ,& ?us _! physical ,sci5ce became ,magic1 _! ,a/ronomy became ,a/rology1 ! /udy ( ! ,composition ( bodies became ,al*emy1 ,ma!matics became ! contemplation ( ! ,spiritual ,relations ( numb] & figure1 & ,philosophy became ,!osophy4 ,! exam9ation ( ?is feature 9 ! hi/ory ( ! human m9d is important = u1 9 consequ5ce ( its influ5ce ^u ! employm5ts & ! ?\ghts ( ! times n[ "u our notice4 ,?is t5d5cy mat]ially affect$ bo? m5's speculations & _! lab\rs 9 ! pursuit ( k4 ,by its direct op]ation1 x gave rise to ! new] ,platonic philosophy among ! ,greeks1 & to correspond+ doctr9es among ! ,arabians2 & by call+ into a prom95t place a/rology1 al*emy1 & magic1 x long occupi$ mo/ ( ! real obs]v]s ( ! mat]ial _w4 ,9 ?is mann] x delay$ & imp$$ ! progress ( true sci5ce2 = we %all see reason to believe t human k lo/ m by ! p]v]sion ( m5's m9ds & ! misdirection ( _! ef=ts1 ?an x ga9$ by any increase ( zeal aris+ f ! peculi> hopes & objects ( ! my/ics4 ,x is n our purpose to attempt any g5]al view ( ! progress & =tunes ( ! v>i\s =ms ( ,my/ical ,philosophy2 b only to exhibit "s ( its *>act]s1 9 s f> z !y illu/rate ^? #bab t5d5cies ( ?\ght :i* accompani$ ! retrogradation ( inductive sci5ce4 ,& ( ^!1 ! lead+ feature :i* dem&s our notice is t already allud$ to2 namely1 ! practice ( ref]r+ ?+s & ev5ts1 n to cle> & di/9ct relations1 obvi\sly applicable to su* cases2--n to g5]al rules capable ( direct v]ification2 b to notions vague1 di/ant1 & va/1 :i* we _c br+ into contact ) facts1 because !y belong to a diff]5t region f ! facts2 z :5 we connect natural ev5ts ) moral or hi/orical causes1 or seek spiritual mean+s 9 ! prop]ties ( numb] & figure4 ,?us ! "* ( ,my/icism is1 t x ref]s p>ticul>s1 n to g5]alizations homog5e\s & imm$iate1 b to su* z are het]og5e\s & remote2 to :i* we mu/ add1 t ! process ( ?is ref]5ce is n a calm act ( ! intellect1 b is accompani$ ) a gl[ ( en?usia/ic feel+4 #a4 ,neoplatonic ,!osophy4--,! ,new] ,platonism is ! fir/ example ( ?is ,my/ical ,philosophy :i* ,i %all consid]4 ,! ma9 po9ts :i* "h require our notice are1 ! doctr9e ( an ,intellectual ,_w result+ f ! act ( ! ,div9e ,m9d1 z ! only reality2 & ! aspiration aft] ! union ( ! human s\l ) ?is ,div9e ,m9d1 z ! object ( human exi/5ce4 ,! ,ideas ( ,plato 7 ,=ms ( our k2 b among ! ,neoplatoni/s !y became really exi/+1 inde$ ! only really exi/+1 ,objects2 & ! inaccessible s*eme ( ! univ]se :i* ^! ideas con/itute1 0 (f]$ z ! great subject ( philosophical contemplation4 ,! desire ( ! human m9d to approa* t[>ds its ,creator & ,pres]v]1 & to obta9 a spiritual access to ,him1 leads to an employm5t ( ! ?\ghts :i* is well wor? ! notice ( ! religi\s philosoph]2 b su* an ef=t1 ev5 :5 f\nd$ on revelation & well regulat$1 is n a means ( advance 9 physics2 & :5 x is ! m]e result ( natural en?usiasm1 x may easily obta9 su* a place 9 m5's m9ds z to unfit !m = ! successful prosecution ( natural philosophy4 ,! temp]1 !re=e1 :i* introduces su* sup]natural communion into ! g5]al c\rse ( its speculations1 may be prop]ly treat$ z my/ical1 & z "o ( ! causes ( ! decl9e ( sci5ce 9 ! ,/ation>y ,p]iod4 ,! ,neoplatonic philosophy requires our notice z "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable =ms ( ?is ,my/icism4 ,?\gh ,ammonius ,saccas1 :o fl\ri%$ at ! end ( ! second c5tury1 is look$ ^u z ! beg9n] ( ! ,neoplatoni/s1 8 disciple ,plot9us is1 9 reality1 ! great f\nd] ( ! s*ool1 bo? by 8 #bac works1 :i* /ill rema9 to u1 & by ! en?usiasm :i* 8 "* & mann]s inspir$ among 8 foll[]s4 ,he liv$ a life ( m$itation1 g5tl5ess1 & self-d5ial1 & di$ 9 ! second ye> ( ! reign ( ,claudius 7,a4 ,d4 #bgj74 ,8 disciple1 ,porphyry1 has giv5 u a ,life ( him1 f :i* we may see h[ well 8 habitual mann]s 7 suit$ to make 8 doctr9es impressive4 ,plot9us1 ! philosoph] ( our "t1 ,porphyry ?us beg9s 8 biography1 appe>$ l a p]son a%am$ t he 0 9 ! body4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is disposition1 he c\ld n be> to talk conc]n+ 8 family1 or 8 p>5ts1 or 8 c\ntry4 ,he w\ld n all[ himself to be repres5t$ by a pa9t] or /atu>y2 & once1 :5 ,aurelius entreat$ him to p]mit a lik5ess ( him to be tak51 he said1 ',is x n en\gh = u to c>ry ?is image 9 :i* nature has enclos$ u1 b we mu/ also try to leave a m durable image ( ?is image1 z if x 7 s great a sight8' ,& he reta9$ ! same temp] to ! la/4 ,:5 he 0 dy+1 he said1 ',i am try+ to br+ ! div9ity :i* is 9 u to ! div9ity :i* is 9 ! univ]se4' ,he 0 look$ ^u by 8 successors ) extraord9>y admiration & rev]5ce2 & 8 disciple ,porphyry collect$ f 8 lips1 or f fragm5tal notes1 ! six ,enneads ( 8 doctr9es 7t is1 p>ts ea* consi/+ ( n9e ,books71 :i* he arrang$ & annotat$4 ,we h no difficulty 9 f9d+ 9 ?is rem>kable "w examples ( my/ical speculation4 ,! ,intelligible ,_w ( realities or ess5ces corresponds to ! _w ( s5se#djd 9 ! classes ( ?+s :i* x includes4 ,to ! ,intelligible ,_w1 man's m9d asc5ds1 by a triple road :i* ,plot9us figuratively calls t ( ! ,musician1 ! ,lov]1 ! ,philosoph]4#dad ,! activity ( ! human s\l is id5tifi$ by analogy ) ! motion ( ! heav5s4 ,?is activity is ab\t a middle po9t1 & ?us x is circul>2 b a middle po9t is n ! same 9 body & 9 ! s\l3 9 t1 ! middle po9t is local2 9 ?is1 x is t on :i* ! re/ dep5ds4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 an analogy2 = z 9 "o case1 s 9 ! o!r1 !re mu/ be a middle po9t1 & z ! sph]e revolves ab\t its c5tre1 ! s\l revolves ab\t ,god ?r\gh its affections4 ,note #djd3 vi4 ,ennead1 iii4 #a4 ,note #dad3 ii4 ,e4 ii4 #b4 ,! conclusion ( ! "w is1#dbd z might be suppos$1 ^u ! approa* to1 union )1 & fruition ( ,god4 ,! au?or ref]s aga9 to ! analogy betwe5 ! movem5ts ( ! s\l & ^? ( ! heav5s4 ,we move r\nd him l a *oral dance2 ev5 :5 we #bad look f him we revolve ab\t him3 we d n always look at him1 b :5 we d1 we h satisfaction & re/1 & ! h>mony :i* belongs to t div9e movem5t4 ,9 ?is movem5t1 ! m9d beholds ! f\nta9 ( life1 ! f\nta9 ( m9d1 ! orig9 ( be+1 ! cause ( good1 ! root ( ! s\l4#dcd ,!re w be a "t :5 ?is vision %all be cont9ual2 ! m9d be+ no m int]rupt$1 nor suff]+ any p]turbation f ! body4 ,yet t :i* beholds is n t :i* is di/urb$2 & :5 ?is vision becomes dim1 x does n obscure ! k :i* resides 9 demon/ration1 & fai?1 & reason+2 b ! vision itself is n reason1 b great] ?an reason1 & be=e reason4#ddd ,note #dbd3 vi4 ,enn4 ix4 #h4 ,note #dcd3 vi4 ,enn4 ix4 #i4 ,note #ddd3 vi4 ,enn4 ix4 #aj4 ,! fif? book ( ! ?ird ,ennead has = its subject ! ,dmon :i* belongs to ea* man4 ,x is entitl$ ,conc]n+ ,love2 & ! doctr9e appe>s to be1 t ! ,love1 or common s\rce ( ! passions :i* is 9 ea* man's m9d1 is ! ,dmon :i* !y say accompanies ea* man4#ded ,^! dmons 71 h[ev] 7at lea/ by lat] writ]s71 inve/$ ) a visible aspect & ) a p]sonal "*1 includ+ a resemblance ( human passions & motives4 ,x is curi\s ?us to see an unt5able & vision>y g5]alization fall+ back into ! doma9 ( ! s5ses & ! fancy1 aft] a va9 attempt to support itself 9 ! region ( ! reason4 ,?is imag9ation soon produc$ pret5sions to ! p[] ( mak+ ^! dmons or g5ii visible2 & ! ,treatise on ! ,my/]ies ( ! ,egyptians1 :i* is attribut$ to ,iambli*us1 gives an acc\nt ( ! secret c]emonies1 ! my/]i\s words1 ! sacrifices & expiations1 by :i* ?is 0 to be done4 ,note #ded3 ,fic9us1 ,comm4 9 v4 ,enn4 iii4 ,x is unnecess>y = u to dwell on ! progress ( ?is s*ool2 to po9t out ! gr[? ( ! ,!urgy :i* ?us arose2 or to describe ! attempts to claim a high antiquity = ?is sy/em1 & to make ,orpheus1 ! poet1 ! fir/ promulgator ( its doctr9es4 ,! sy/em1 l all my/ical sy/ems1 assum$ ! "* r ( religion ?an ( a !ory4 ,! op9ions ( its disciples mat]ially influ5c$ _! lives4 ,x gave ! _w ! spectacle ( an au/]e morality1 a devotional exaltation1 comb9$ ) ! grosse/ sup]/itions ( ,paganism4 ,! successors ( ,iambli*us appe>$ r to hold a prie/hood1 ?an ! *air ( a philosophical s*ool4#dfd ,!y 7 p]secut$ by ,con/ant9e & ,con/antius1 z oppon5ts ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,sopat]1 a #bae ,syrian philosoph] ( ?is s*ool1 0 behead$ by ! =m] emp]or on a *>ge t he _h b\nd ! w9ds by ! p[] ( magic4#dgd ,b ,julian1 :o %ortly aft] succe$$ to ! purple1 embrac$ ) ardor ! op9ions ( ,iambli*us4 ,proclus 7:o di$ ,a4 ,d4 #dhg7 0 "o ( ! greate/ ( ! tea*]s ( ?is s*ool2#dhd & 01 bo? 9 8 life & doctr9es1 a wor?y successor ( ,plot9us1 ,porphyry1 & ,iambli*us4 ,we possess a biography1 or r a panegyric ( him1 by 8 disciple ,m>9us1 9 :i* he is exhibit$ z a repres5tation ( ! ideal p]fection ( ! philosophic "*1 accord+ to ! views ( ! ,neoplatoni/s4 ,8 virtues are arrang$ z physical1 moral1 purificatory1 !oretic1 & !urgic4 ,ev5 9 8 boyhood1 ,apollo & ,m9]va visit$ him 9 8 dreams3 he /udi$ oratory at ,alex&ria1 b x 0 at ,a!ns t ,plut>* & ,lysianus initiat$ him 9 ! my/]ies ( ! ,new ,platoni/s4 ,he receiv$ a k9d ( consecration at ! h&s ( ! daught] ( ,plut>*1 ! celebrat$ ,asclepig5ia1 :o introduc$ him to ! traditions ( ! ,*aldeans1 & ! practices ( !urgy2 he 0 also admitt$ to ! my/]ies ( ,eleusis4 ,he became celebrat$ = 8 k & eloqu5ce2 b especially = 8 skill 9 ! sup]natural arts :i* 7 connect$ ) ! doctr9es ( 8 sect4 ,he appe>s be=e u r z a hi]ophant ?an a philosoph]4 ,a l>ge portion ( 8 life 0 sp5t 9 evocations1 purifications1 fa/+s1 pray]s1 hymns1 int]c\rse ) app>itions1 & ) ! gods1 & 9 ! celebration ( ! fe/ivals ( ,paganism1 especially ^? :i* 7 held 9 honor ( ! ,"m ( ! ,gods4 ,8 religi\s admiration ext5d$ to all =ms ( my?ology4 ,! philosoph]1 said he1 is n ! prie/ ( a s+le religion1 b ( all ! religions ( ! _w4 ,accord+ly1 he compos$ hymns 9 honor ( all ! div9ities ( ,greece1 ,rome1 ,egypt1 ,arabia2--,*ri/ianity alone 0 exclud$ f 8 favor4 ,note #dfd3 ,deg4 iii4 #djg ,note #dgd3 ,gibbon1 iii4 #ceb4 ,note #dhd3 ,deg4 iii4 #dai4 ,! read] w f9d an int]e/+ view ( ! ,s*ool ( ,alex&ria1 9 ,m4 ,b>!lemy ,sa9t-,hilaire's ,rapport on ! ,mmoires s5t to ! ,academy ( ,moral & ,political ,sci5ces at ,p>is1 9 consequ5ce ( its hav+1 9 #ahda1 propos$ ?is z ! subject ( a prize1 :i* 0 aw>d$ 9 #ahdd4 ,m4 ,sa9t-,hilaire has prefix$ to ?is ,rapport a diss]tation on ! ,my/icism ( t s*ool4 ,he1 h[ev]1 uses ! t]m ,my/icism 9 a wid] s5se ?an my purpose1 :i* reg>d$ ma9ly ! be>+ ( ! doctr9es ( ?is s*ool ^u ! progress ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 has l$ me to d4 ,al?\gh he f9ds mu* to #baf admire 9 ! ,alex&rian philosophy1 he decl>es t !y 7 incapable ( treat+ sci5tific que/ions4 ,! ext5t to :i* ?is is true is well illu/rat$ by ! extract :i* he gives f ,plot9us1 on ! "q1 ,:y objects appe> small] 9 proportion z !y are m di/ant4 ,plot9us d5ies t ! reason ( ?is is t ! angles ( vision become small]4 ,8 reason = ?is d5ial is curi\s en\gh4 ,if x 7 s1 he says1 h[ c\ld ! heav5 appe> small] ?an x is1 s9ce x occupies ! :ole ( ! visual angle8 #b4 ,my/ical ,ari?metic4--,x is unnecess>y fur!r to exemplify1 f ,proclus1 ! g5]al my/ical "* ( ! s*ool & "t to :i* he belong$2 b we may notice m specially "o ( ! =ms ( ?is my/icism1 :i* v frequ5tly (f]s itself to our notice1 especially 9 him2 & :i* we may call ,my/ical ,ari?metic4 ,l all ! k9ds ( ,my/icism1 ?is consi/s 9 ! attempt to connect our conceptions ( ext]nal objects by g5]al & inappropriate notions ( goodness1 p]fection1 & relation to ! div9e ess5ce & gov]nm5t2 in/ead ( ref]r+ su* conceptions to ^? appropriate ideas1 :i*1 by due att5tion1 become p]fectly di/9ct1 & capable ( be+ positively appli$ & v]ifi$4 ,! subject :i* is ?us dealt )1 9 ! doctr9es ( :i* we n[ speak1 is ,numb]2 a notion :i* tempts m5 into ^! vision>y speculations m naturally ?an any o!r4 ,= numb] is really applicable to moral notions--to emotions & feel+s1 & to _! objects--z well z to ! ?+s ( ! mat]ial _w4 ,moreov]1 by ! discov]y ( ! pr9ciple ( musical concords1 x _h be5 f\nd1 probably mo/ unexpect$ly1 t num]ical relations 7 closely connect$ ) s\nds :i* c\ld h>dly be di/+ui%$ f ! expression ( ?\ght & feel+2 & a suspicion might easily arise1 t ! univ]se1 bo? ( matt] & ( ?\ght1 might conta9 _m g5]al & ab/ract tru?s ( "s analog\s k9d4 ,! relations ( numb] h s wide a be>+1 t ! ramifications ( su* a suspicion c\ld n easily be exhau/$1 suppos+ m5 will+ to foll[ !m into d>kness & vagu5ess2 :i* x is precisely ! my/ical t5d5cy to d4 ,accord+ly1 ?is k9d ( speculation appe>$ v e>ly1 & %[$ itself fir/ among ! ,py?agoreans1 z we might h expect$1 f ! att5tion :i* !y gave to ! !ory ( h>mony3 & ?is1 z well z "s o!r ( ! doctr9es ( ! ,py?agorean philosophy1 0 adopt$ by ! lat] ,platoni/s1 &1 inde$1 by ,plato himself1 ^: speculations conc]n+ numb] h decid$ly a my/ical "*4 ,! m]e ma!matical relations ( numb]s1--z odd & ev51 p]fect & imp]fect1 #bag abundant & defective1--71 by a will+ submission to an en?usia/ic bias1 connect$ ) ! notions ( good & beauty1 :i* 7 sugge/$ by ! t]ms express+ _! relations2 & pr9ciples result+ f su* a connection 7 wov5 into a wide & complex sy/em4 ,x is n necess>y to dwell long on ?is subject2 ! m]e titles ( ! works :i* treat$ ( x %[ its nature4 ,ar*ytas#did is said to h writt5 a treatise on ! numb] t53 ,telaug1 ! daught] ( ,py?agoras1 wrote on ! numb] f\r4 ,?is numb]1 inde$1 :i* 0 kn[n by ! "n ( ! ,tetractys1 0 v celebrat$ 9 ! s*ool ( ,py?agoras4 ,x is m5tion$ 9 ! ,gold5 ,v]ses1 :i* are ascrib$ to him3 ! pupil is conjur$ to be virtu\s1 4 4 4 4 ,by him :o /ampt ,! ,f\r ^u ! m9d1-- ,! ,f\r1 ! f\nt ( nature's endless /ream4 ,note #did3 ,mont4 ii4 #abc4 ,9 ,plato's works1 we h evid5ce ( a simil> belief 9 religi\s relations ( ,numb]2 & 9 ! new ,platoni/s1 ?is doctr9e 0 e/abli%$ z a sy/em4 ,proclus1 ( :om we h be5 speak+1 f\nds 8 philosophy1 9 a great measure1 on ! relation ( ,unity & ,multiple2 f ?is1 he is l$ to repres5t ! causality ( ! ,div9e ,m9d by ?ree ,triads ( ab/ractions2 & 9 ! developm5t ( "o "p ( ?is sy/em1 ! numb] sev5 is introduc$4#ejd ,! intelligible & intellectual gods produce all ?+s triadically2 = ! monads 9 ^! latt] are divid$ accord+ to numb]2 & :at ! monad 0 9 ! =m]1 ! numb] is 9 ^! latt]4 ,& ! intellectual gods produce all ?+s hebdomically2 = !y evolve ! intelligible1 & at ! same "t intellectual triads1 into intellectual hebdomads1 & exp& _! contract$ p[]s into intellectual v>iety4 ,sev5 is :at is call$ by ari?meticians a prime numb]1 t is1 x _c be produc$ by ! multiplication ( o!r numb]s4 ,9 ! language ( ! ,new ,platoni/s1 ! numb] sev5 is said to be a virg91 & )\t a "m1 & x is !re=e sacr$ to ,m9]va4 ,! numb] six is a p]fect numb]1 & is consecrat$ to ,v5us4 ,note #ejd3 ,procl4 v4 #c1 ,taylor's translation4 ,! relations ( space 7 dealt ) 9 l mann]1 ! ,geometrical prop]ties be+ associat$ ) su* physical & metaphysical notions z vague ?\ght & lively feel+ c\ld anyh[ connect ) !m4 ,we may consid]1 z an example ( ?is1#ead ,plato's op9ion #bah conc]n+ ! p>ticles ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,he gave to ea* k9d ( p>ticle "o ( ! five regul> solids1 ab\t :i* ! geometrical speculations ( himself & 8 pupils _h be5 employ$4 ,! p>ticles ( fire 7 pyramids1 because !y are %>p1 & t5d upw>ds2 ^? ( e>? are cubes1 because !y are /able1 & fill space2 ! p>ticles ( air are octah$ral1 z mo/ ne>ly resembl+ ^? ( fire2 ^? ( wat] are ! icositetrah$ron1 z mo/ ne>ly sph]ical4 ,! dodecah$ron is ! figure ( ! elem5t ( ! heav5s1 & %[s its influ5ce 9 o!r ?+s1 z 9 ! twelve signs ( ! zodiac4 ,9 su* examples we see h[ loosely space & numb] are comb9$ or conf\nd$ by ^! my/ical vision>ies4 ,note #ead3 ,/anley1 ,hi/4 ,phil4 ,^! num]ical dreams ( anci5t philosoph]s h be5 imitat$ by mod]n writ]s2 = in/ance1 by ,pet] ,bungo & ,kir*]1 :o h writt5 ,de ,my/]iis ,num]orum4 ,bungo treats ( ! my/ical prop]ties ( ea* ( ! numb]s 9 ord]1 at great l5g?4 ,& su* speculations h influ5c$ a/ronomical !ories4 ,9 ! fir/ edition ( ! ,alphons9e ,tables1#ebd ! precession 0 repres5t$ by mak+ ! fir/ po9t ( ,aries move1 9 a p]iod ( #gjjj ye>s1 ?r\gh a circle ( :i* ! radius 0 #ah degrees1 :ile ! circle mov$ r\nd ! ecliptic 9 #di1jjj ye>s2 & ^! numb]s1 #gjjj & #di1jjj1 7 *os5 probably by ,jewi% calculators1 or ) ref]5ce to ,jewi% ,sabbat>ian notions4 ,note #ebd3 ,montucla1 i4 #eaa4 #c4 ,a/rology4--,( all ! =ms :i* my/icism assum$1 none 0 cultivat$ m assidu\sly ?an a/rology4 ,al?\gh ?is art prevail$ mo/ univ]sally & p[]fully dur+ ! /ation>y p]iod1 its exi/5ce1 ev5 z a detail$ te*nical sy/em1 goes back to a v e>ly age4 ,x probably _h its orig9 9 ! ,ea/2 x is univ]sally ascrib$ to ! ,babylonians & ,*aldeans2 ! "n ,*aldean 01 at ,rome1 synonym\s ) ma!maticus1 or a/rolog]2 & we read repeat$ly t ?is class ( p]sons 7 expell$ f ,italy by a decree ( ! s5ate1 bo? dur+ ! times ( ! republic & ( ! empire4#ecd ,! recurr5ce ( ?is act ( legislation %[s t x 0 n effectual3 ,x is a class ( m51 says ,tacitus1 :i*1 9 our city1 w always be prohibit$1 & w always exi/4 ,9 ,greece1 x does n appe> t ! /ate %[$ any ho/ility to ! pr(essors ( ?is art4 ,!y und]took1 x w\ld seem1 !n1 z at a lat] p]iod1 to det]m9e ! c\rse ( a man's "* & life f ! configuration ( ! />s at ! mom5t ( 8 bir?4 ,we d n possess any ( ! #bai speculations ( ! e>ly a/rolog]s2 & we _c !re=e be c]ta9 t ! notions :i* op]at$ 9 m5's m9ds :5 ! art _h its bir?1 agre$ ) ! views on :i* x 0 aft]w>ds def5d$1 :5 x became a matt] ( controv]sy4 ,b x appe>s probable1 t1 ?\gh x 0 at lat] p]iods support$ by physical analogies1 x 0 orig9ally sugge/$ by my?ological belief4 ,! ,greeks spoke ( ! influ5ces or effluxes 77 :i* proce$$ f ! />s2 b ! ,*aldeans _h probably ?\ght r ( ! p[]s :i* !y ex]cis$ z deities4 ,9 :atev] mann] ! sun1 moon1 & planets came to be id5tifi$ ) gods & goddesses1 x is cle> t ! *>act]s ascrib$ to ^! gods & goddesses regulate ! virtues & p[]s ( ! />s :i* be> _! names4 ,?is association1 s manife/ly vision>y1 0 reta9$1 amplifi$1 & pursu$1 9 an en?usia/ic _s1 in/ead ( be+ reject$ = m di/9ct & sub/antial connections2 & a pret5d$ sci5ce 0 ?us =m$1 :i* be>s ! obvi\s /amp ( my/icism4 ,note #ecd3 ,tacit4 ,ann4 ii4 #cb4 xii4 #eb4 ,hi/4 ,i4 #bb1 ,,ii4 #fb4 ,t common s5se ( mank9d :i* tea*es !m t !oretical op9ions are to be calmly tri$ by _! consequ5ces & _! accordance ) facts1 appe>s to h c\nt]act$ ! preval5ce ( a/rology 9 ! bett] times ( ! human m9d4 ,eudoxus1 z we are in=m$ by ,cic]o1#edd reject$ ! pret5sions ( ! ,*aldeans2 & ,cic]o himself reasons aga9/ !m ) argum5ts z s5sible & intellig5t z c\ld be adduc$ by a writ] ( ! pres5t day2 su* z ! diff]5t =tunes & *>act]s ( p]sons born at ! same "t2 & ! failure ( ! pr$ictions1 9 ! case ( ,pompey1 ,crassus1 ,cs>1 to :om ! a/rolog]s _h =etold glori\s old age & peaceful dea?4 ,he also employs an argum5t :i* ! read] w\ld p]haps n expect f him1--! v great remot5ess ( ! planets z comp>$ ) ! di/ance ( ! moon4 ,:at contagion c rea* u1 he asks1 f a di/ance almo/ inf9ite8 ,note #edd3 ,cic4 de ,div4 ii4 #db4 ,pl9y argues on ! same side1 & ) "s ( ! same argum5ts4#eed ,hom]1 he says1 tells u t ,hector & ,polydamus 7 born ! same night2--m5 ( su* diff]5t =tune4 ,& e h\r1 9 e "p ( ! _w1 are born lords & slaves1 k+s & begg>s4 ,note #eed3 ,hi/4 ,nat4 vii4 #di4 ,! impression made by ^! argum5ts is m>k$ 9 an anecdote told conc]n+ ,publius ,nigidius ,figulus1 a ,roman ( ! "t ( ,julius ,cs>1 :om ,lucan m5tions z a celebrat$ a/rolog]4 ,x is #bbj said1 t :5 an oppon5t ( ! art urg$ z an objection ! diff]5t fates ( p]sons born 9 two successive in/ants1 ,nigidius bade him make two contigu\s m>ks on a pott]'s :eel1 :i* 0 revolv+ rapidly ne> !m4 ,on /opp+ ! :eel1 ! two m>ks 7 f\nd to be really f> remov$ f ea* o!r2 & ,nigidius is said to h receiv$ ! "n ( ,figulus 7! pott]71 9 remembrance ( ?is /ory1 ,8 argum5t1 says ,/4 ,augu/9e1 :o gives u ! n>rative1 0 z fragile z ! w>e :i* ! :eel manufactur$4 ,z ! d>k5+ times ( ! ,roman empire advanc$1 ev5 ! /rong] m9ds seem to h lo/ ! cle> en]gy :i* 0 requisite to ?r[ (f ?is delusion4 ,s5eca appe>s to take ! influ5ce ( ! planets = grant$2 & ev5 ,tacitus#efd seems to hesitate4 ,= my own "p1 says he1 ,i d\bt2 b c]ta9ly ! majority ( mank9d _c be wean$ f ! op9ion1 t1 at ! bir? ( ea* man1 8 future de/9y is fix$2 ?\gh "s ?+s may fall out diff]5tly f ! pr$ictions1 by ! ignorance ( ^? :o pr(ess ! art2 & t ?us ! art is unju/ly blam$1 confirm$ z x is by not$ examples 9 all ages4 ,! occasion :i* gives rise to ^! reflections ( ! hi/orian is ! m5tion ( ,?rasyllus1 ! favorite a/rolog] ( ! ,emp]or ,tib]ius1 ^: skill is exemplifi$ 9 ! foll[+ n>rative4 ,^? :o 7 br\ght to ,tib]ius on any important matt]1 7 admitt$ to an int]view 9 an ap>tm5t situat$ on a l(ty cliff 9 ! isl& ( ,capre4 ,!y rea*$ ?is place by a n>r[ pa?1 accompani$ by a s+le fre$man ( great bodily /r5g?2 & on _! return1 if ! emp]or _h conceiv$ any d\bts ( _! tru/wor?9ess1 a s+le bl[ buri$ ! secret & its victim 9 ! ocean bel[4 ,aft] ,?rasyllus _h1 9 ?is retreat1 /at$ ! results ( 8 art z !y conc]n$ ! emp]or1 ,tib]ius ask$ him :e!r he _h calculat$ h[ long he himself _h to live4 ,! a/rolog] exam9$ ! aspect ( ! />s1 & :ile he did ?is1 z ! n>rative /ates1 %[$ hesitation1 al>m1 increas+ t]ror1 & at la/ decl>$ t1 ! pres5t h\r 0 = him critical1 p]haps fatal4 ,tib]ius embrac$ him1 & told him he 0 "r 9 suppos+ he _h be5 9 dang]1 b t he %\ld escape x2 & made him !nce=? 8 confid5tial c\nsellor4 ,note #efd3 ,ann4 vi4 #bb4 ,! belief 9 ! p[] ( a/rological pr$iction :i* ?us obta9$ dom9ion ov] ! m9ds ( m5 ( lit]>y cultivation & practical en]gy1 naturally _h a m complete sway among ! speculative #bba b un/able m9ds ( ! lat] philosophical s*ools ( ,alex&ria1 ,a!ns1 & ,rome4 ,we h a treatise on a/rology by ,proclus1 :i* w s]ve to exemplify ! my/ical pr9ciple 9 ?is =m4 ,x appe>s z a comm5t>y on a "w on ! same subject call$ ,tetrabiblos1 ascrib$ to ,ptolemy2 ?\gh we may reasonably d\bt :e!r ! au?or ( ! ,megale ,syntaxis 0 also ! writ] ( ! a/rological "w4 ,a few notices ( ! comm5t>y ( ,proclus w suffice4#egd ,! sci5ce is def5d$ by urg+ h[ p[]ful we "k ! physical effects ( ! heav5ly bodies to be4 ,! sun regulates all ?+s on e>?2--! bir? ( animals1 ! gr[? ( fruits1 ! fl[+ ( wat]s1 ! *ange ( heal?1 accord+ to ! seasons3 he produces heat1 moi/ure1 dryness1 cold1 accord+ to 8 approa* to our z5i?4 ,! moon1 :i* is ! ne>e/ ( all bodies to ! e>?1 gives out mu* influ5ce2 & all ?+s1 animate & inanimate1 sympa?ize ) h]3 riv]s increase & dim9i% accord+ to h] light2 ! advance ( ! sea1 & its recess1 are regulat$ by h] ris+ & sett+2 & along ) h]1 fruits & animals wax & wane1 ei!r :olly or 9 "p4 ,x is easy to see t by pursu+ ?is tra9 ( associations 7"s real & "s imag9>y7 v vaguely & v en?usia/ically1 ! connections :i* a/rology supposes w\ld receive a k9d ( c\nt5ance4 ,proclus !n proce$s to /ate#ehd ! doctr9es ( ! sci5ce4 ,! sun1 he says1 is productive ( heat & dryness2 ?is p[] is mod]ate 9 its nature1 b is m p]ceiv$ ?an t ( ! o!r lum9>ies1 f 8 magnitude1 & f ! *ange ( seasons4 ,! nature ( ! moon is = ! mo/ "p moi/2 = be+ ! ne>e/ to ! e>?1 %e receives ! vapors :i* rise f moi/ bodies1 & ?us %e causes bodies to s(t5 & rot4 ,b by ! illum9ation %e receives f ! sun1 %e p>takes 9 a mod]ate degree ( heat4 ,saturn is cold & dry1 be+ mo/ di/ant bo? f ! heat+ p[] ( ! sun1 & ! moi/ vapors ( ! e>?4 ,8 cold1 h[ev]1 is mo/ preval5t1 8 dryness is m mod]ate4 ,bo? he & ! re/ receive additional p[]s f ! configurations :i* !y make ) respect to ! sun & moon4 ,9 ! same mann] x is rem>k$ t ,m>s is dry & cau/ic1 f 8 fi]y nature1 :i*1 inde$1 8 color %[s4 ,jupit] is well comp\nd$ ( w>m & moi/1 z is ,v5us4 ,m]cury is v>iable 9 8 "*4 ,f ^! notions 7 d]iv$ o!rs conc]n+ ! b5eficial or hurtful effect ( ^! />s4 ,heat & #bbb moi/ure are g5]ative & creative elem5ts2 h5ce ! anci5ts1 says ,proclus1 deem$ ,jupit]1 & ,v5us1 & ! ,moon to h a good p[]2 ,saturn & ,m]cury1 on ! o!r h&1 _h an evil nature4 ,note #egd3 ,i4 #b4 ,note #ehd3 ,i4 #d4 ,o!r di/9ctions ( ! "* ( ! />s are enum]at$1 equally vision>y1 & sugge/$ by ! mo/ fanciful connections4 ,"s are mascul9e1 & "s fem99e3 ! ,moon & ,v5us are ( ! latt] k9d4 ,?is appe>s to be m]ely a my?ological or etymological association4 ,"s are diurnal1 "s nocturnal3 ! ,moon & ,v5us are ( ! latt] k9d1 ! ,sun & ,jupit] ( ! =m]2 ,saturn & ,m>s are bo?4 ,! fix$ />s1 also1 & especially ^? ( ! zodiac1 _h especial influ5ces & subjects assign$ to !m4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ea* sign 0 suppos$ to preside ov] a p>ticul> "p ( ! body2 ?us ,aries _h ! head assign$ to x1 ,taurus ! neck1 & s on4 ,! mo/ important "p ( ! sky 9 ! a/rolog]'s consid]ation1 0 t sign ( ! zodiac :i* rose at ! mom5t ( ! *ild's bir?2 ?is 01 prop]ly speak+1 ! horoscope1 ! asc5dant1 or ! fir/ h\se2 ! :ole circuit ( ! heav5s be+ divid$ into twelve h\ses1 9 :i* life & dea?1 m>riage & *ildr51 ri*es & honors1 fri5ds & enemies1 7 di/ribut$4 ,we ne$ n attempt to trace ! progress ( ?is sci5ce4 ,x prevail$ ext5sively among ! ,arabians1 z we might expect f ! "* ( t nation4 ,albumas>1 ( ,balkh 9 ,khorasan1 :o fl\ri%$ 9 ! n9? c5tury1 :o 0 "o ( _! greate/ a/ronom]s1 0 also a great a/rolog]2 & 8 "w on ! latt] subject1 ,de ,magnis ,conjunctionibus1 ,annorum ,revolutionibus ac eorum ,p]fectionibus1 0 long celebrat$ 9 ,europe4 ,aboaz5 ,haly 7! writ] ( a treatise ,de ,judiciis ,a/rorum71 :o liv$ 9 ,spa9 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1 0 "o ( ! classical au?ors on ?is subject4 ,x w easily be suppos$ t :5 ?is apotelesmatic or judicial a/rology obta9$ firm possession ( m5's m9ds1 x w\ld be pursu$ into innum]able subtle di/9ctions & extravagant conceits2 & ! m s1 z exp]i5ce c\ld (f] little or no *eck to su* ex]cises ( fancy & subtlety4 ,= ! correction ( rules ( a/rological div9ation by comp>ison ) kn[n ev5ts1 ?\gh pret5d$ to by _m pr(essors ( ! art1 0 f> too vague & fallible a guidance to be ( any real advantage4 ,ev5 9 :at has be5 call$ ,natural ,a/rology1 ! dep5d5ce ( ! wea!r on ! heav5ly bodies1 x is easy to see :at a va/ accumulation ( well-obs]v$ facts is requisite to e/abli% #bbc any true rule2 & x is well kn[n h[ long1 9 spite ( facts1 false & gr\ndless rules 7z ! dep5d5ce ( ! wea!r on ! moon7 may keep _! hold on m5's m9ds4 ,:5 ! facts are su* loose & _m-sid$ ?+s z human *>act]s1 passions1 & happ9ess1 x 0 h>dly to be expect$ t ev5 ! mo/ p[]ful m9ds %\ld be able to f9d a foot+ suffici5tly firm1 to enable !m to resi/ ! impression ( a !ory con/ruct$ ( sweep+ & bold ass]tions1 & fill$ out into a complete sy/em ( details4 ,accord+ly1 ! connection ( ! />s ) human p]sons & actions 01 = a long p]iod1 undisput$4 ,! vague1 obscure1 & het]og5e\s "* ( su* a connection1 & its unfitness = any really sci5tific reason+1 c\ld1 ( c\rse1 nev] be got rid (2 & ! bewild]+ feel+ ( e>ne/ness & solemnity1 ) :i* ! connection ( ! heav5s ) man 0 contemplat$1 nev] di$ away4 ,9 o!r respects1 h[ev]1 ! a/rolog]s fell into a s]vile comm5tatorial _s2 & employ$ !mselves 9 annotat+ & illu/rat+ ! works ( _! pr$ecessors to a consid]able ext5t1 be=e ! revival ( true sci5ce4 ,x may be m5tion$1 t a/rology has long be51 & probably is1 an art held 9 great e/eem & admiration among o!r ea/]n nations besides ! ,mohamm$ans2 = in/ance1 ! ,jews1 ! ,indians1 ! ,siamese1 & ! ,*9ese4 ,! preval5ce ( vague1 vision>y1 & b>r5 notions among ^! nations1 _c surprise u2 = ) reg>d to !m we h no evid5ce1 z ) reg>d to ,europeans we h1 t !y are capable1 on subjects ( physical speculation1 ( orig9at+ s\nd & rational g5]al pr9ciples4 ,! ,arts may h _h _! bir? 9 all p>ts ( ! globe2 b x is only ,europe1 at p>ticul> favor$ p]iods ( its hi/ory1 :i* has ev] produc$ ,sci5ces4 ,we are1 h[ev]1 n[ speak+ ( a long p]iod1 dur+ :i* ?is productive en]gy 0 int]rupt$ & susp5d$4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ,europe desc5d$1 9 intellectual "*1 to ! level at :i* ! o!r p>ts ( ! _w h always /ood4 ,h] ,sci5ce 0 !n a mixture ( ,art & ,my/icism2 we h consid]$ sev]al =ms ( ?is ,my/icism1 b !re are two o!rs :i* mu/ n pass unnotic$1 ,al*emy & ,magic4 ,we may obs]ve1 be=e we proce$1 t ! deep & settl$ influ5ce :i* ,a/rology _h obta9$ among !m1 appe>s p]haps mo/ /rongly 9 ! circum/ance1 t ! mo/ vigor\s & cle>-sight$ m9ds :i* 7 conc]n$ 9 ! revival ( sci5ce1 did n1 = a long p]iod1 %ake (f ! p]suasion t !re 01 9 ?is art1 "s elem5t ( tru?4 ,rog] ,bacon1 ,c>dan1 ,kepl]1 ,ty*o ,brahe1 #bbd ,francis ,bacon1 are examples ( ?is4 ,^!1 or mo/ ( !m1 reject$ all ! m obvi\s & extravagant absurdities ) :i* ! subject _h be5 load$2 b /ill conceiv$ t "s real & valuable tru? rema9$ :5 all ^! 7 remov$4 ,?us ,campanella1#eid :om we %all h to speak ( z "o ( ! fir/ oppon5ts ( ,ari/otle1 wrote an ,a/rology purifi$ f all ! ,sup]/itions ( ! ,jews & ,arabians1 & treat$ physiologically4 ,note #eid3 ,bacon1 ,de ,aug4 iii4 #d4 #d4 ,al*emy4--,l o!r k9ds ( ,my/icism1 ,al*emy seems to h gr[n out ( ! notions ( moral1 p]sonal1 & my?ological qualities1 :i* m5 associat$ ) t]ms1 ( :i* ! prim>y application 0 to physical prop]ties4 ,?is is ! =m 9 :i* ! subject is pres5t$ to u 9 ! e>lie/ writ+s :i* we possess on ! subject ( *emi/ry2--^? ( ,geb]#fjd ( ,seville1 :o is suppos$ to h liv$ 9 ! eigh? or n9? c5tury4 ,! v titles ( ,geb]'s works %[ ! notions on :i* ?is pret5d$ sci5ce proce$s4 ,!y are1 ,( ! ,se>* ( ,p]fection2 ,( ! ,sum ( ,p]fection1 or ( ! ,p]fect ,magi/]y2 ,( ! ,inv5tion ( ,v]ity1 or ,p]fection4 ,! basis ( ?is phraseology is ! di/9ction ( metals into m or less p]fect2 gold be+ ! mo/ p]fect1 z be+ ! mo/ valuable1 mo/ beautiful1 mo/ pure1 mo/ durable2 silv] ! next2 & s on4 ,! ,se>* ( ,p]fection 01 !re=e1 ! attempt to conv]t o!r metals into gold2 & doctr9es 7 adopt$ :i* repres5t$ ! metals z all comp\nd$ ( ! same elem5ts1 s t ?is 0 !oretically possible4 ,b ! my/ical tra9s ( association 7 pursu$ mu* fur!r ?an ?is2 gold & silv] 7 held to be ! mo/ noble ( metals2 gold 0 _! ,k+1 & silv] _! ,que54 ,my?ological associations 7 call$ 9 aid ( ^! fancies1 z _h be5 done 9 a/rology4 ,gold 0 ,sol1 silv] 0 ,luna1 ! moon2 copp]1 iron1 t91 lead1 7 assign$ to ,v5us1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn4 ,! processes ( mixture & heat 7 spok5 ( z p]sonal actions & relations1 /ruggles & victories4 ,"s elem5ts 7 conqu]ors1 "s conqu]$2 !re exi/$ prep>ations :i* possess$ ! p[] ( *ang+ ! :ole ( a body into a sub/ance ( ano!r k9d3 ^! 7 call$ magi/]ies4#fad ,:5 gold & quicksilv] are comb9$1 ! k+ & ! que5 are m>ri$1 to produce *ildr5 ( _! own k9d4 ,x w easily be conceiv$1 t :5 *emical op]ations 7 describ$ 9 phraseology ( ?is sort1 ! en?usiasm ( ! #bbe fancy w\ld be add$ to t ( ! hopes1 & obs]vation w\ld n be p]mitt$ to correct ! delusion1 or to sugge/ s\nd] & m rational views4 ,note #fjd3 ,?omson's ,hi/4 ( ,*em4 i4 #aag4 ,note #fad3 ,boyle1 ,?omson's ,hi/4 ,*4 i4 #be4 ,c>olus ,musitanus4 ,! exagg]ation ( ! vague notion ( p]fection & p[] 9 ! object ( ! al*emi/'s se>*1 0 c>ri$ fur!r /ill4 ,! same prep>ation :i* possess$ ! faculty ( turn+ bas] metals into gold1 0 imag9$ to be also a univ]sal m$ic9e1 to h ! gift ( cur+ or prev5t+ diseases1 prolong+ life1 produc+ bodily /r5g? & beauty3 ! philosoph]s' /one 0 f9ally inve/$ ) e desirable efficacy :i* ! fancy ( ! philosoph]s c\ld devise4 ,x has be5 usual to say t ,al*emy 0 ! "m ( ,*emi/ry2 & t m5 w\ld nev] h made ! exp]im5ts on :i* ! real sci5ce is f\nd$1 if !y _h n be5 animat$ by ! hopes & ! en]gy :i* ! delusive art inspir$4 ,to judge :e!r ?is is truly said1 we mu/ be able to e/imate ! degree ( int]e/ :i* m5 feel 9 purely speculative tru?1 & 9 ! real & sub/antial improvem5t ( art to :i* x leads4 ,s9ce ! fall ( ,al*emy1 & ! progress ( real ,*emi/ry1 ^! motives h be5 p[]ful en\gh to engage 9 ! /udy ( ! sci5ce1 a body f> l>g] ?an ! ,al*emi/s ev] 71 & no less zeal\s4 ,!re is no app>5t reason :y ! result %\ld n h be5 ! same1 if ! progress ( true sci5ce _h begun soon]4 ,a/ronomy 0 long cultivat$ )\t ! bribe ( ,a/rology4 ,b1 p]haps1 we may ju/ly say ?is2--t1 9 ! /ation>y p]iod1 m5's m9ds 7 s f> enfeebl$ & degrad$1 t pure speculative tru? _h n its full effect ^u !m2 & ! my/ical pursuits 9 :i* "s dim & disfigur$ images ( tru? 7 s\ght ) avidity1 7 among ! provisions by :i* ! human s\l1 ev5 :5 sunk bel[ its be/ condition1 is p]petually direct$ to some?+ above ! m]e objects ( s5se & appetite2--a contrivance ( comp5sation1 z x 71 9 ! intellectual & spiritual con/itution ( man4 #e4 ,magic4--,magical ,arts1 s f> z !y 7 believ$ 9 by ^? :o pr(ess$ to practise !m1 & s f> z !y h a be>+ 9 sci5ce1 /& on ! same foot+ z a/rology2 &1 inde$1 a close alliance has g5]ally be5 ma9ta9$ betwe5 ! two pursuits4 ,incapacity & indisposition to p]ceive natural & philosophical causation1 an en?usia/ic imag9ation1 & su* a fai? z c devise & ma9ta9 sup]natural & spiritual connexions1 are ! elem5ts ( ?is1 z ( o!r =ms ( ,my/icism4 ,& ?us1 t temp] :i* l$ m5 to aim at ! magician's suppos$ au?ority ov] ! elem5ts1 #bbf is an additional exemplification ( ^? habits ( ?\ght :i* prev5t$ ! progress ( real sci5ce1 & ! acquisition ( t comm& ov] nature :i* is f\nd$ on sci5ce1 dur+ ! int]val n[ be=e u4 ,b !re is ano!r aspect "u :i* ! op9ions connect$ ) ?is pursuit may s]ve to illu/rate ! m5tal "* ( ! ,/ation>y ,p]iod4 ,! t5d5cy1 dur+ ! middle ages1 to attribute ! "* ( ,magician to almo/ all p]sons em95t = great speculative or practical k1 is a feature ( ^? times1 :i* %[s h[ ext5sive & complete 0 ! inability to appreh5d ! nature ( real sci5ce4 ,9 cultivat$ & enlight5$ p]iods1 su* z ^? ( anci5t ,greece1 or mod]n ,europe1 k is wi%$ = & admir$1 ev5 by ^? :o lea/ possess x3 b 9 d>k & degrad$ p]iods1 sup]ior k is a butt = hatr$ & fe>4 ,9 ! "o case1 m5's eyes are op52 _! ?\ghts are cle>2 &1 h[ev] high ! philosoph] may be rais$ above ! multitude1 !y c cat* glimpses ( ! int]v5+ pa?1 & see t x is free to all1 & t elevation is ! rew>d ( en]gy & labor4 ,9 ! o!r case1 ! cr[d are n only ignorant1 b spiritless2 !y h lo/ ! pleasure 9 k1 ! appetite = x1 & ! feel+ ( dignity :i* x gives3 !re is no sympa?y :i* connects !m ) ! le>n$ man3 !y see him above !m1 b "k n h[ he is rais$ or support$3 he becomes an object ( av]sion & envy1 ( vague suspicion & t]ror2 & ^! emotions are embodi$ & confirm$ by association ) ! fancies & dogmas ( sup]/ition4 ,to consid] sup]ior k z ,magic1 & ,magic z a dete/able & crim9al employm5t1 0 ! =m :i* ^! feel+s ( dislike assum$2 & at "o p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ,europe1 almo/ e "o :o _h ga9$ any em95t lit]>y fame1 0 spok5 ( z a magician4 ,naudu1 a le>n$ ,fr5*man1 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 wrote ,an ,apology = all ! ,wise ,m5 :o h be5 unju/ly report$ ,magicians1 f ! ,creation to ! pres5t ,age4 ,! li/ ( p]sons :om he ?us ?9ks x necess>y to protect1 are ( v>i\s classes & ages4 ,alk9di1 ,geb]1 ,artephius1 ,!bit1 ,raymund ,lully1 ,arnold de ,vill ,nov1 ,pet] ( ,apono1 & ,p>acelsus1 _h incurr$ ! black suspicion z physicians or al*emi/s4 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ,rog] ,bacon1 ,mi*ael ,scott1 ,picus ( ,mir&ula1 & ,tri!mius1 _h n escap$ x1 ?\gh m9i/]s ( religion4 ,ev5 dignit>ies1 su* z ,rob]t ,gro/e/e1 ,bi%op ( ,l9coln1 ,alb]tus ,magnus1 ,bi%op ( ,ratisbon1 #bbg ,popes ,sylve/] ! ,second1 & ,gregory ! ,sev5?1 _h be5 involv$ 9 ! wide calumny4 ,9 ! same way 9 :i* ! vulg> conf\nd$ ! em95t le>n+ & k :i* _h appe>$ 9 rec5t times1 ) skill 9 d>k & sup]natural arts1 !y conv]t$ into wiz>ds all ! be/-kn[n names 9 ! rolls ( fame2 z ,ari/otle1 ,solomon1 ,joseph1 ,py?agoras2 &1 f9ally1 ! poet ,virgil 0 a p[]ful & skilful necromanc]1 & ?is fancy 0 exemplifi$ by _m /range /ories ( 8 a*ievem5ts & practices4 ,! v>i\s results ( ! t5d5cy ( ! human m9d to my/icism1 :i* we h "h notic$1 =m prom95t features 9 ! intellectual "* ( ! _w1 = a long c\rse ( c5turies4 ,! !osophy & !urgy ( ! ,neoplatoni/s1 ! my/ical ari?metic ( ! ,py?agoreans & _! successors1 ! pr$ictions ( ! a/rolog]s1 ! pret5ces ( al*emy & magic1 repres5t1 n unfairly1 ! g5]al "* & disposition ( m5's ?\ghts1 ) ref]5ce to philosophy & sci5ce4 ,t !re 7 /rong] m9ds1 :i* ?rew (f 9 a great] or less degree ?is tra9 ( delusive & unsub/antial ideas1 is true2 z1 on ! o!r h&1 ,my/icism1 among ! vulg> or ! fooli%1 (t5 w5t to an ext5t ( extravagance & sup]/ition1 ( :i* ,i h n attempt$ to convey any conception4 ,! lesson :i* ! prec$+ survey tea*es u is1 t dur+ ! ,/ation>y ,p]iod1 ,my/icism1 9 its v>i\s =ms1 0 a lead+ "*1 bo? ( ! common m9d1 & ( ! speculations ( ! mo/ intellig5t & pr(\nd reason]s2 & t ?is ,my/icism 0 ! opposite ( t habit ( ?\ght :i* we h /at$ ,sci5ce to require2 namely1 cle> ,ideas1 di/9ctly employ$ to connect well-asc]ta9$ ,facts2 inasmu* z ! ,ideas 9 :i* x dealt 7 vague & un/able1 & ! temp] 9 :i* !y 7 contemplat$ 0 an urg5t & aspir+ en?usiasm1 :i* c\ld n submit to a calm conf]5ce ) exp]i5ce ^u ev5 t]ms4 ,! f]vor ( ?\ght 9 "s degree suppli$ ! place ( reason 9 produc+ belief2 b op9ions s obta9$ _h no endur+ value2 !y did n exhibit a p]man5t record ( old tru?s1 nor a firm f\ndation = new4 ,exp]i5ce collect$ h] /ores 9 va91 or ceas$ to collect !m1 :5 %e _h only to p\r !m into ! flimsy folds ( ! lap ( ,my/icism2 :o 01 9 tru?1 s mu* absorb$ 9 look+ = ! treasures :i* 7 to fall f ! skies1 t %e he$$ little h[ scantily %e obta9$1 or h[ loosely %e held1 su* ri*es z might be f\nd ne> h]4 #bbh ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,dogmatism ,,( ,,! ,,/ation>y ,,p]iod4 ,,9 speak+ ( ! "* ( ! age ( comm5tators1 we notic$ pr9cipally ! +5i\s s]vility :i* x displays2--! acut5ess ) :i* x f9ds gr\nd = speculation 9 ! expression ( o!r m5's ?\ghts2--! want ( all vigor & f]tility 9 acquir+ any real & new tru?s4 ,su* 0 ! "* ( ! reason]s ( ! /ation>y p]iod f ! fir/2 b1 at a lat] day1 ?is "*1 f v>i\s causes1 0 modifi$ by new features4 ,! s]vility :i* _h yield$ itself to ! yoke1 insi/$ ^u =c+ x on ! necks ( o!rs3 ! subtlety :i* f\nd all ! tru? x ne$$ 9 c]ta9 accr$it$ writ+s1 resolv$ t no "o %\ld f9d !re1 or 9 any o!r region1 any o!r tru?s2 speculative m5 became tyrants )\t ceas+ to be slaves2 to _! "* ( ,comm5tators !y add$ t ( ,dogmati/s4 #a4 ,orig9 ( ! ,s*ola/ic ,philosophy4--,! causes ( ?is *ange h be5 v happily analyz$ & describ$ by sev]al mod]n writ]s4#fbd ,! g5]al nature ( ! process may be briefly /at$ to h be5 ! foll[+4 ,note #fbd3 ,dr4 ,hampd51 9 ! ,life ( ,?omas ,aqu9as1 9 ! ,encyc4 ,metrop4 ,deg]&o1 ,hi/4 ,comp>e1 vol4 iv4 ,also ,t5nemann1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil4 vol4 viii4 ,introduction4 ,! t5d5cies ( ! lat] times ( ! ,roman empire to a comm5t+ lit]ature1 & a second-h& philosophy1 h already be5 notic$4 ,! loss ( ! dignity ( political fre$om1 ! want ( ! *e]fulness ( advanc+ prosp]ity1 & ! sub/itution ( ! less philosophical /ructure ( ! ,lat9 language = ! delicate intellectual me*anism ( ! ,greek1 fix$ & augm5t$ ! preval5t feebl5ess & b>r5ness ( intellect4 ,m5 =got1 or fe>$1 to consult nature1 to seek = new tru?s1 to d :at ! great discov]]s ( o!r times _h done2 !y 7 cont5t to consult libr>ies1 to /udy & def5d old op9ions1 to talk ( :at great g5iuses _h said4 ,!y s\ght _! philosophy 9 accr$it$ treatises1 & d>$ n "q su* doctr9es z !y !re f\nd4 ,! "* ( ! philosophy to :i* !y 7 ?us l$1 0 det]m9$ by ?is want ( c\rage & orig9ality4 ,!re are v>i\s #bbi antagoni/ pr9ciples ( op9ion1 :i* seem alike to h _! root 9 ! intellectual con/itution ( man1 & :i* are ma9ta9$ & develop$ by oppos+ sects1 :5 ! intellect is 9 vigor\s action4 ,su* pr9ciples are1 = in/ance1--! claims ( ,au?ority & ( ,reason to our ass5t2--! s\rce ( our k 9 ,exp]i5ce or 9 ,ideas2--! sup]iority ( a ,my/ical or ( a ,skeptical turn ( ?\ght4 ,su* oppositions ( doctr9e 7 f\nd 9 writ]s ( ! greate/ fame2 & two ( ^?1 :o mo/ occupi$ ! att5tion ( /ud5ts1 ,plato & ,ari/otle1 71 on sev]al po9ts ( ?is nature1 v div]se f ea* o!r 9 _! t5d5cy4 ,! attempt to reconcile ^! philosoph]s by ,bo?ius & o!rs1 we h already notic$2 & ! attempt 0 s f> successful1 t x left on m5's m9ds ! belief 9 ! possibility ( a great philosophical sy/em :i* %\ld be bas$ on bo? ^! writ]s1 & h a claim to ! ass5t ( all sob] speculators4 ,b1 9 ! mean "t1 ! ,*ri/ian ,religion _h become ! lead+ subject ( m5's ?\ghts2 & div9es _h put =w>d its claims to be1 n m]ely ! guide ( m5's lives1 & ! means ( reconcil+ !m to _! heav5ly ,ma/]1 b also to be a ,philosophy 9 ! wide/ s5se 9 :i* ! t]m _h be5 us$2--a consi/5t speculative view ( man's condition & nature1 & ( ! _w 9 :i* he is plac$4 ,^! claims _h be5 ackn[l$g$2 &1 un=tunately1 f ! intellectual condition ( ! times1 ) no due appreh5sion ( ! necess>y m9i/ry ( ,obs]vation1 & ,reason deal+ ) obs]vation1 by :i* alone su* a sy/em c be embodi$4 ,x 0 held )\t any regulat+ pr9ciple1 t ! philosophy :i* _h be5 bequea!d to ! _w by ! great g5iuses ( hea!n antiquity1 & ! ,philosophy :i* 0 d$uc$ f1 & impli$ by1 ! ,revelations made by ,god to man1 mu/ be id5tical2 &1 !re=e1 t ,!ology is ! only true philosophy4 ,inde$1 ! ,neoplatoni/s _h already arriv$1 by o!r roads1 at ! same conviction4 ,john ,scot ,erig5a1 9 ! reign ( ,alfr$1 & consequ5tly be=e ! exi/5ce ( ! ,s*ola/ic ,philosophy1 prop]ly s call$1 _h reass]t$ ?is doctr9e4#fcd ,anselm1 9 ! elev5? c5tury1 aga9 br\ght x =w>d2#fdd & ,b]n>d de ,*>tres1 9 ! ?irte5?4#fed ,note #fcd3 ,deg4 iv4 #cea4 ,note #fdd3 ,ib4 iv4 #chh4 ,note #fed3 ,ib4 iv4 #dah4 ,?is view 0 confirm$ by ! op9ion :i* prevail$1 conc]n+ ! nature ( philosophical tru?2 a view support$ by ! !ory #bcj ( ,plato1 ! practice ( ,ari/otle1 & ! g5]al prop5sities ( ! human m9d3 ,i mean ! op9ion t all sci5ce may be obta9$ by ! use ( reason+ alone2--t by analys+ & comb9+ ! notions :i* common language br+s be=e u1 we may le>n all t we c "k4 ,?us ,logic came to include ! :ole ( ,sci5ce2 & accord+ly ?is ,abel>d expressly ma9ta9$4#ffd ,i h already expla9$1 9 "s measure1 ! fallacy ( ?is belief1 :i* consi/s1 z has be5 well said1#fgd 9 mi/ak+ ! univ]sality ( ! !ory ( language = ! g5]alization ( facts4 ,b on all acc\nts ?is op9ion is readily accept$2 & x l$ at once to ! conclusion1 t ! ,!ological ,philosophy :i* we h describ$1 is complete z well z true4 ,note #ffd3 ,deg4 iv4 #djg4 ,note #fgd3 ,enc4 ,met4 #hjg4 ,?us a ,univ]sal ,sci5ce 0 e/abli%$1 ) ! au?ority ( a ,religi\s ,cre$4 ,its univ]sality re/$ on errone\s views ( ! relation ( words & tru?s2 its pret5sions z a sci5ce 7 admitt$ by ! s]vile temp] ( m5's intellects2 & its religi\s au?ority 0 assign$ x1 by mak+ all tru? "p ( religion4 ,& z ,religion claim$ ass5t )9 h] own jurisdiction "u ! mo/ solemn & imp]ative sanctions1 ,philosophy %>$ 9 h] imp]ial p[]1 & diss5t f _! doctr9es 0 no long] blameless or all[able4 ,error became wick$1 diss5t became h]esy2 to reject ! receiv$ human doctr9es1 0 ne>ly ! same z to d\bt ! ,div9e decl>ations4 ,! ,s*ola/ic ,philosophy claim$ ! ass5t ( all believ]s4 ,! ext]nal =m1 ! details1 & ! text ( ?is philosophy1 7 tak51 9 a great measure1 f ,ari/otle2 ?\gh1 9 ! _s1 ! g5]al notions1 & ! /yle ( int]pretation1 ,plato & ! ,platoni/s _h no inconsid]able %>e4 ,v>i\s causes contribut$ to ! elevation ( ,ari/otle to ?is di/9ction4 ,8 ,logic _h e>ly be5 adopt$ z an in/rum5t ( !ological disputation2 & 8 _s ( sy/ematization1 ( subtle di/9ction1 & ( analysis ( words1 z well z 8 disposition to argum5tation1 af=d$ ! mo/ natural & grateful employm5t to ! comm5tat+ prop5sities4 ,^? pr9ciples :i* we be=e not$ z ! lead+ po9ts ( 8 physical philosophy1 7 select$ & adopt$2 & ^!1 pres5t$ 9 a mo/ te*nical =m1 & appli$ 9 a sy/ematic mann]1 con/itute a l>ge portion ( ! philosophy ( :i* we n[ speak1 s f> z x pret5ds to deal ) physics4 #b4 ,s*ola/ic ,dogmas4--,b be=e ! complete asc5dancy ( ,ari/otle 0 ?us e/abli%$1 :5 some?+ ( an intellectual wak+ #bca took place aft] ! d>kness & sleep ( ! n9? & t5? c5turies1 ! ,platonic doctr9es seem to h _h1 at fir/1 a /rong attraction = m5's m9ds1 z bett] fall+ 9 ) ! my/ical speculations & contemplative piety :i* belong$ to ! times4 ,john ,scot ,erig5a#fhd may be look$ ^u z ! reviv] ( ! ,new ,platonism 9 ! t5? c5tury4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! elev5?1 ,pet] ,dami51#fid 9 ,italy1 reproduc$1 involv$ 9 a !ological discussion1 "s ,neoplatonic ideas4 ,godefroy#gjd also1 c5sor ( ,/4 ,victor1 has left a treatise1 entitl$ ,microcosmus2 ?is is f\nd$ on a my/ical analogy1 (t5 aft]w>ds aga9 br\ght =w>d1 betwe5 ,man & ! ,univ]se4 ,philosoph]s & !ologians1 says ! writ]1 agree 9 consid]+ man z a little _w2 & z ! _w is compos$ ( f\r elem5ts1 man is end[$ ) f\r faculties1 ! s5ses1 ! imag9ation1 reason1 & und]/&+4 ,b]n>d ( ,*>tres1#gad 9 8 ,megascosmus & ,microcosmus1 took up ! same notions4 ,hugo1 abbot ( ,/4 ,victor1 made a contemplative life ! ma9 po9t & cr[n ( 8 philosophy2 & is said to h be5 ! fir/ ( ! s*ola/ic writ]s :o made psy*ology 8 special /udy4#gbd ,he says ! faculties ( ! m9d are ! s5ses1 ! imag9ation1 ! reason1 ! memory1 ! und]/&+1 & ! intellig5ce4 ,note #fhd3 ,deg4 iv4 #ce4 ,note #fid3 ,ib4 iv4 #cfg4 ,note #gjd3 ,ib4 iv4 #dac4 ,note #gad3 ,ib4 iv4 #dai4 ,note #gbd3 ,ib4 iv4 #dae4 ,physics does n orig9ally & prop]ly =m any prom95t "p ( ! ,s*ola/ic ,philosophy1 :i* consi/s ma9ly ( a s]ies ( que/ions & det]m9ations ^u ! v>i\s po9ts ( a c]ta9 te*nical div9ity4 ,( ?is k9d is ! ,book ( ,s5t5ces ( ,pet] ! ,lomb>d 7bi%op ( ,p>is71 :o is1 on t acc\nt1 usually call$ ,magi/] ,s5t5ti>um2 a "w :i* 0 publi%$ 9 ! twelf? c5tury1 & 0 long ! text & /&>d ( su* discussions4 ,! que/ions are decid$ by ! au?ority ( ,scripture & ( ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur*1 & are divid$ into f\r ,books1 ( :i* ! fir/ conta9s que/ions conc]n+ ,god & ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity 9 p>ticul>2 ! second is conc]n+ ! ,creation2 ! ?ird1 conc]n+ ,*ri/ & ! ,*ri/ian ,religion2 & ! f\r? treats ( ,religi\s & ,moral ,duties4 ,9 ! second book1 z 9 _m ( ! writ]s ( ?is "t1 ! nature ( ,angels is consid]$ 9 detail1 & ! ,ord]s ( _! ,hi]>*y1 ( :i* !re 7 held to be n9e4 ,! physical discussions ent] only z be>+ ^u ! scriptural hi/ory ( ! creation1 & _c be tak5 z a specim5 ( ! "w2 b ,i may obs]ve1 t 9 speak+ ( ! division ( ! wat]s above ! #bcb firmam5t1 he gives "o op9ion1 t ( ,b$e1 t ! =m] wat]s are ! solid cry/all9e heav5s 9 :i* ! />s are fix$1#gcd = cry/al1 :i* is s h>d & transp>5t1 is made ( wat]4 ,b he m5tions also ! op9ion ( ,/4 ,augu/9e1 t ! wat]s above ! heav5s are 9 a /ate ( vapor1 7vaporalit]7 & 9 m9ute drops2 if1 !n1 wat] c1 z we see 9 cl\ds1 be s m9utely divid$ t x may be ?us support$ z vapor on air1 :i* is naturally light] ?an wat]2 :y may we n believe t x floats above t light] cele/ial elem5t 9 /ill m9ut] drops & /ill light] vapors8 ,b 9 :atev] mann] ! wat]s are !re1 we d n d\bt t !y are !re4 ,note #gcd3 ,lib4 ii4 ,di/9ct4 xiv4 ,de op]e secund diei4 ,! celebrat$ ,summa ,!ologic ( ,?omas ,aqu9as is a "w ( ! same k9d2 & any?+ :i* has a physical be>+ =ms an equally small "p ( x4 ,?us1 ( ! #eab ,que/ions ( ! ,summa1 !re is only "o 7,"p ,i41 ,que/4 #aae71 on ,corporeal ,action1 or on any "p ( ! mat]ial _w2 ?\gh !re are sev]al conc]n+ ! cele/ial ,hi]>*ies1 z on ! ,act ( ,angels1 on ! ,speak+ ( ,angels1 on ! ,subord9ation ( ,angels1 on ,gu>dian ,angels1 & ! l4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 w\ld n be rem>kable 9 a treatise on ,!ology1 except ?is ,!ology 7 int5d$ to con/itute ! :ole ( ,philosophy4 ,we may obs]ve1 t 9 ?is "w1 ?\gh ,plato1 ,avecibron1 & _m o!r hea!n z well z ,*ri/ian philosoph]s1 are adduc$ z au?ority1 ,ari/otle is ref]r$ to 9 a peculi> mann] z ! philosoph]4 ,?is is notic$ by ,john ( ,salisbury1 z attract+ att5tion 9 8 "t 7he di$ ,a4,d4 #aahb74 ,! v>i\s ,ma/]s ( ,dialectic1 says he1#gdd %9e ea* ) 8 peculi> m]it2 b all are pr\d to wor%ip ! foot/eps ( ,ari/otle2 s mu* s1 inde$1 t ! "n ( philosoph]1 :i* belongs to !m all1 has be5 pre-em95tly appropriat$ to him4 ,he is call$ ! philosoph] autonomatice1 t is1 by excell5ce4 ,note #gdd3 ,metalogicus1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #af4 ,! ,"q conc]n+ ,corporeal ,action1 9 ,aqu9as1 is divid$ into six ,articles2 & ! conclusion deliv]$ ^u ! fir/ is1#ged t ,body be+ comp\nd$ ( p[] & act1 is active z well z passive4 ,aga9/ ?is x is urg$1 t quantity is an attribute ( body1 & t quantity prev5ts action2 t ?is appe>s 9 fact1 s9ce a l>g] body is m difficult to move4 ,! au?or replies1 t #bcc quantity does n prev5t corporeal =m f action altoge!r1 b prev5ts x f be+ a univ]sal ag5t1 inasmu* z ! =m is individualiz$1 :i*1 9 matt] subject to quantity1 x is4 ,moreov]1 ! illu/ration d$uc$ f ! pond]\sness ( bodies is n to ! purpose2 fir/1 because ! addition ( quantity is n ! cause ( gravity1 z is prov$ 9 ! f\r? book1 ,de ,clo & ,de ,mundo 7we see t he quotes famili>ly ! physical treatises ( ,ari/otle72 second1 because x is false t pond]\sness makes motion sl[]2 on ! contr>y1 9 proportion z any ?+ is heavi]1 ! m does x move ) its prop] motion2 ?irdly1 because action does n take place by local motion1 z ,democritus ass]t$2 b by ?is1 t some?+ is drawn f p[] into act4 ,note #ged3 9999,summa1 ,p4 i4 ,q4 #aae4 ,art4 #a4 ,x does n belong to our purpose to consid] ei!r ! !ological or ! metaphysical doctr9es :i* =m s l>ge a portion ( ! treatises ( ! s*oolm54 ,p]haps x may h]eaft] appe>1 t "s light is ?r[n on "s ( ! que/ions :i* h occupi$ metaphysicians 9 all ages1 by t exam9ation ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,progressive ,sci5ces 9 :i* we are n[ engag$2 b till we are able to analyze ! lead+ controv]sies ( ?is k9d1 x w\ld be ( little s]vice to speak ( !m 9 detail4 ,x may be notic$1 h[ev]1 t _m ( ! mo/ prom95t ( !m ref] to ! great "q1 ,:at is ! relation betwe5 actual ?+s & g5]al t]ms8 ,p]haps 9 mod]n times1 ! actual ?+s w\ld be m commonly tak5 z ! po9t to />t f2 & m5 w\ld beg9 by consid]+ h[ classes & univ]sals are obta9$ f individuals4 ,b ! s*oolm51 f\nd+ _! speculations on ! receiv$ modes ( consid]+ su* subjects1 to :i* bo? ,ari/otle & ,plato _h contribut$1 travell$ 9 ! opposite direction1 & endeavor$ to discov] h[ individuals 7 d$uc$ f g5]a & species2--:at 0 ! ,pr9ciple ( ,individuation4 ,?is 0 v>i\sly /at$ by diff]5t reason]s4 ,?us ,bonav5tura#gfd solves ! difficulty by ! aid ( ! ,ari/otelian di/9ction ( ,matt] & ,=m4 ,! individual d]ives f ! ,=m ! prop]ty ( be+ some?+1 & f ! ,matt] ! prop]ty ( be+ t p>ticul> ?+4 ,duns ,scotus1#ggd ! great adv]s>y ( ,?omas ,aqu9as 9 !ology1 plac$ ! pr9ciple ( ,individuation 9 a c]ta9 det]m9+ positive entity1 :i* 8 s*ool call$ ,hcceity or ?isness4 ,?us an individual man is ,pet]1 because 8 humanity is comb9$ ) ,petreity4 ,! =ce #bcd ( ab/ract t]ms is a curi\s "q1 & "s rem>kable exp]im5ts 9 _! use _h be5 made by ! ,lat9 ,ari/otelians be=e ?is "t4 ,9 ! same way 9 :i* we talk ( ! quantity & quality ( a ?+1 !y spoke ( its quiddity4#ghd ,note #gfd3 ,deg4 iv4 #egc4 ,note #ggd3 ,ib4 iv4 #ebc4 ,note #ghd3 ,deg4 iv4 #did4 ,we may consid] ! reign ( m]e disputation z fully e/abli%$ at ! "t ( :i* we are n[ speak+2 & ! only k9d ( philosophy h5ce=? /udi$ 0 "o 9 :i* no s\nd physical sci5ce _h or c\ld h a place4 ,! wav]+ ab/ractions1 indi/9ct g5]alizations1 & loose classifications ( common language1 :i* we h already not$ z ! f\nta9 ( ! physics ( ! ,greek ,s*ools ( philosophy1 7 also ! only s\rce f :i* ! ,s*oolm5 ( ! middle ages drew _! views1 or r _! argum5ts3 & ?\gh ^! notional & v]bal relations 7 inve/$ ) a mo/ complex & p$antic te*nicality1 !y did n1 on t acc\nt1 become at all m precise z notions1 or m likely to lead to a s+le real tru?4 ,in/ead ( acquir+ di/9ct ideas1 !y multipli$ ab/ract t]ms2 in/ead ( real g5]alizations1 !y _h rec\rse to v]bal di/9ctions4 ,! :ole c\rse ( _! employm5ts t5d$ to make !m1 n only ignorant ( physical tru?1 b incapable ( conceiv+ its nature4 ,hav+ ?us tak5 ^u !mselves ! task ( rais+ & discuss+ que/ions by means ( ab/ract t]ms1 v]bal di/9ctions1 & logical rules alone1 !re 0 no t5d5cy 9 _! activity to come to an end1 z !re 0 no progress4 ,! same que/ions1 ! same answ]s1 ! same difficulties1 ! same solutions1 ! same v]bal subtleties1--s\ght =1 admir$1 cavill$ at1 ab&on$1 reproduc$1 & aga9 admir$1--might recur )\t limit4 ,john ( ,salisbury#gid obs]ves ( ! ,p>isian tea*]s1 t1 aft] sev]al ye>s' abs5ce1 he f\nd !m n a /ep advanc$1 & /ill employ$ 9 urg+ & p>ry+ ! same argum5ts2 & ?is1 z ,mr4 ,hallam rem>ks1#hjd 0 equally applicable to ! p]iod ( c5turies4 ,! same knots 7 ti$ & #bce unti$2 ! same cl\ds 7 =m$ & dissipat$4 ,! poet's c5sure ( ! ,sons ( ,ari/otle1 is j z happily express$3 ,!y /& ,lock$ up toge!r h& 9 h& ,e "o leads z he is l$1 ,! same b>e pa? !y tread1 ,& dance l ,fairies a fanta/ic r\nd1 ,b nei!r *ange _! motion nor _! gr\nd4 ,note #gid3 ,he /udi$ logic at ,p>is1 at ,/4 ,g5evive1 & !n left !m4 ,duodec5nium mihi elapsum e/ div]sis /udiis occupatum4 ,jucundum itaque visum e/ vet]es quos reliqu]am1 et quos adhuc ,dialectica det9ebat 9 monte1 7,sanct ,g5ovef7 revis]e socios1 conf]re cum eis sup] ambiguitatibus pri/9is2 ut no/rm invicem collatione mutu commetiremur pr(ectum4 ,inv5ti sunt1 qui fu]ant1 et ubi2 neque enim ad palmam visi sunt processisse ad qu/iones pri/9is dirim5das1 neque propositiunculam unam adjec]ant4 ,quibus urgebant /imulis eisdem et ipsi urgebantur1 c4 ,metalogicus1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #aj4 ,note #hjd3 ,middle ,ages1 iii4 #ecg4 ,x w !re=e be unnecess>y to g into any detail respect+ ! hi/ory ( ! ,s*ool ,philosophy ( ! ?irte5?1 f\rte5?1 & fifte5? c5turies4 ,we may suppose x to h be51 dur+ ! int]m$iate "t1 su* z x 0 at fir/ & at la/4 ,an occasion to consid] its lat] days w be br\ght be=e u by ! c\rse ( our subject4 ,b1 ev5 dur+ ! mo/ entire asc5d5cy ( ! s*ola/ic doctr9es1 ! elem5ts ( *ange 7 at "w4 ,:ile ! doctors & ! philosoph]s receiv$ all ! o/5sible homage ( m51 a doctr9e & a philosophy ( ano!r k9d 7 gradually =m+3 ! practical in/9cts ( man1 _! impati5ce ( tyranny1 ! progress ( ! useful arts1 ! promises ( al*emy1 7 all dispos+ m5 to reject ! au?ority & d5y ! pret5sions ( ! receiv$ philosophical cre$4 ,two antagoni/ =ms ( op9ion 7 9 exi/5ce1 :i* = "s "t w5t on deta*$1 & almo/ indep5d5t ( ea* o!r2 b1 f9ally1 ^! came into conflict1 at ! "t ( ,galileo2 & ! w> spe$ily ext5d$ to e "p ( civiliz$ ,europe4 #c4 ,s*ola/ic ,physics4--,x is difficult to give briefly any appropriate examples ( ! nature ( ! ,ari/otelian physics :i* are to be f\nd 9 ! works ( ?is "t4 ,z ! gravity ( bodies 0 "o ( ! fir/ subjects ( dispute :5 ! /ruggle ( ! rival me?ods began1 we may notice ! mode 9 :i* x 0 treat$4#had ,zab>ella ma9ta9s t ! proximate cause ( ! motion ( elem5ts is ! =m1 9 ! ,ari/otelian s5se ( ! t]m3 b to ?is s5t5ce we1 says ,keck]man1 _c agree2 = 9 all o!r ?+s ! =m is ! proximate cause1 n ( ! act1 b ( ! p[] or faculty f :i* ! act fl[s4 ,?us 9 man1 ! rational s\l is n ! cause ( ! act ( laugh+1 b ( ! risible faculty or p[]4 ,keck]man's sy/em 0 at "o "t a "w ( consid]able au?ority3 x 0 publi%$ 9 #afad4 ,by comp>+ & sy/ematiz+ :at he f9ds 9 ,ari/otle1 he is l$ to /ate 8 results 9 ! =m ( def9itions #bcf & !orems4 ,?us1 gravity is a motive quality1 aris+ f cold1 d5sity1 & bulk1 by :i* ! elem5ts are c>ri$ d[nw>ds4 ,wat] is ! l[]1 int]m$iate elem5t1 cold & moi/4 ,! fir/ !orem conc]n+ wat] is1 ,! moi/ness ( ! wat] is controll$ by its coldness1 s t x is less ?an ! moi/ness ( ! air2 ?\gh1 accord+ to ! s5se ( ! vulg>1 wat] appe>s to moi/5 m ?an air4 ,x is obvi\s t ! two prop]ties ( fluids1 to h _! p>ts easily mov$1 & to wet o!r bodies1 are "h conf\nd$4 ,i may1 z a conclud+ specim5 ( ?is k9d1 m5tion ^? propositions or maxims conc]n+ fluids1 :i* 7 s firmly e/abli%$1 t1 :5 ,boyle prop\nd$ ! true me*anical pr9ciples ( fluid action1 he 0 oblig$ to /ate 8 op9ions z hydro/atical p>adoxes4 ,^! 71--t fluids d n gravitate 9 proprio loco2 t is1 t wat] has no gravity 9 or on wat]1 s9ce x is 9 its own place2--t air has no gravity on wat]1 s9ce x is above wat]1 :i* is its prop] place2--t e>? 9 wat] t5ds to desc5d1 s9ce its place is bel[ wat]2--t ! wat] rises 9 a pump or siphon1 because nature abhors a vacuum2--t "s bodies h a positive levity 9 o!rs1 z oil 9 wat]2 & ! l4 ,note #had3 ,keck]man1 p4 #adbh4 #d4 ,au?ority ( ,ari/otle among ! ,s*oolm54--,! au?ority ( ,ari/otle1 & ! practice ( mak+ him ! text & basis ( ! sy/em1 especially z x reg>d$ physics1 prevail$ dur+ ! p]iod ( :i* we speak4 ,?is au?ority 0 n1 h[ev]1 )\t its fluctuations4 ,launoy has trac$ "o "p ( its hi/ory 9 a book ,on ! v>i\s ,=tune ( ,ari/otle 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is4 ,! mo/ mat]ial turns ( ?is =tune dep5d on ! be>+ :i* ! works ( ,ari/otle 7 suppos$ to h ^u !ology4 ,sev]al ( ,ari/otle's works1 & m especially 8 metaphysical writ+s1 _h be5 translat$ into ,lat91 & 7 expla9$ 9 ! s*ools ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 z e>ly z ! beg9n+ ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4#hbd ,at a c\ncil held at ,p>is 9 #abji1 !y 7 prohibit$1 z hav+ giv5 occasion to ! h]esy ( ,alm]ic 7or ,amauri71 & because !y might give occasion to o!r h]esies n yet inv5t$4 ,! ,logic ( ,ari/otle recov]$ its cr$it "s ye>s aft] ?is1 & 0 publicly taught 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is 9 ! ye> #abae2 b ! ,natural ,philosophy & ,metaphysics 7 prohibit$ by a decree ( ,gregory ! ,n9?1 9 #abca4 ,! ,emp]or ,fr$]ic ! ,second employ$ a numb] ( le>n$ m5 to translate into ,lat91 f ! ,greek & #bcg ,arabic1 c]ta9 books ( ,ari/otle1 & ( o!r anci5t sages2 & we h a lett] ( ,pet] de ,v9eis1 9 :i* !y are recomm5d$ to ! att5tion ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,bologna3 probably ! same recomm5dation 0 address$ to o!r ,univ]sities4 ,bo? ,alb]tus ,magnus & ,?omas ,aqu9as wrote comm5t>ies on ,ari/otle's works2 & z ?is 0 done soon aft] ! decree ( ,gregory ! ,n9?1 ,launoy is mu* p]plex$ to reconcile ! fact ) ! or?odoxy ( ! two doctors4 ,campanella1 :o 0 "o ( ! fir/ to ca/ (f ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle1 says1 ,we are by no means to ?9k t ,/4 ,?omas ari/oteliz$2 he only exp\nd$ ,ari/otle1 t he might correct 8 errors2 & ,i %\ld conceive he did ?is ) ! lic5se ( ! ,pope4 ,?is /atem5t1 h[ev]1 by no means gives a j view ( ! nature ( ,alb]tus's & ,aqu9as's comm5t>ies4 ,bo? h foll[$ _! au?or ) pr(\nd def]5ce4#hcd ,= in/ance1 ,aqu9as#hdd attempts to def5d ,ari/otle's ass]tion1 t if !re 7 no resi/ance1 a body w\ld move ?r\gh a space 9 no "t2 & ! same def5ce is giv5 by ,scotus4 ,note #hbd3 ,mo%eim1 iii4 #aeg4 ,note #hcd3 ,deg4 ,n4 #dge4 ,note #hdd3 ,f4 ,piccolom9i1 ii4 #hce4 ,we may imag9e ! ext5t ( au?ority & admiration :i* ,ari/otle w\ld atta91 :5 ?us c\nt5anc$1 bo? by ! p[]ful & ! le>n$4 ,9 univ]sities1 no degree c\ld be tak5 )\t a k ( ! philosoph]4 ,9 #adeb1 ,c>d9al ,tot>il e/abli%$ ?is rule 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is4#hed ,:5 ,ramus1 9 #aedc1 publi%$ an attack ^u ,ari/otle1 x 0 repell$ by ! p[] ( ! c\rt1 & ! sev]ity ( ! law4 ,francis ! ,fir/ publi%$ an edict1 9 :i* he /ates t he _h appo9t$ c]ta9 judges1 :o _h be5 ( op9ion1#hfd que le dit ,ramus avoit t tmraire1 arrogant et impud5t2 et que p>cequ'en son livre des animadv]sions il repr5ait ,ari/otle1 e/ait videmm5t connue et manife/e son ignorance4 ,! books are !n decl>$ to be suppress$4 ,x 0 (t5 a compla9t ( pi\s m51 t !ology 0 corrupt$ by ! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle & 8 comm5tators4 ,petr>* says1#hgd t "o ( ! ,italian le>n$ m5 conv]s+ ) him1 aft] express+ mu* contempt = ! apo/les & fa!rs1 exclaim$1 ,ut9am tu ,av]ro5 pati posses1 ut vid]es quanto ille tuis 8 nugatoribus major sit6 ,note #hed3 ,launoy1 pp4 #ajh1 #abh4 ,note #hfd3 ,launoy1 p4 #acb4 ,note #hgd3 ,hallam1 ,m4 ,a4 iii4 #ecf4 ,:5 ! revival ( lett]s began to take place1 & a numb] ( m5 ( ard5t & elegant m9ds1 susceptible to ! impressions ( beauty ( /yle & dignity ( ?\ght1 7 br\ght into contact ) ,greek lit]ature1 ,plato _h naturally great] *>ms = !m4 ,a #bch p[]ful s*ool ( ,platoni/s 7n ,neoplatoni/s7 0 =m$ 9 ,italy1 includ+ "s ( ! pr9cipal s*ol>s & m5 ( g5ius ( ! "t2 z ,picus ( ,mir&ula 9 ! middle1 ,m>silius ,fic9us at ! end1 ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,at "o "t1 x appe>$ z if ! asc5d5cy ( ,ari/otle 0 ab\t to be ov]turn$2 b1 9 physics at lea/1 8 au?ority pass$ un%ak5 ?r\gh ?is trial4 ,x 0 n by disputation t ,ari/otle c\ld be ov]?r[n2 & ! ,platoni/s 7 n p]sons ^: doctr9es l$ !m to use ! only decisive me?od 9 su* cases1 ! obs]vation & unfett]$ int]pretation ( facts4 ,! hi/ory ( _! controv]sies1 !re=e1 does n belong to our design4 ,= l reasons we d n "h speak ( o!r au?ors1 :o oppos$ ! s*ola/ic philosophy on g5]al !oretical gr\nds ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,su* examples ( insurrection aga9/ ! dogmatism :i* we h be5 review+1 are extremely int]e/+ ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( ! philosophy ( sci5ce4 ,b1 9 ! pres5t "w1 we are to conf9e ourselves to ! hi/ory ( sci5ce itself2 9 ! hope t we may ?us be able1 h]eaft]1 to ?r[ a /eadi] light ^u t philosophy by :i* ! succession ( /ation>y & progressive p]iods1 :i* we are "h trac+1 may be 9 "s measure expla9$4 ,we are n[ to close our acc\nt ( ! /ation>y p]iod1 & to ent] ^u ! great subject ( ! progress ( physical sci5ce 9 mod]n times4 #e4 ,subjects omitt$4 ,civil ,law1 ,m$ic9e4--,my object has be5 to make my way1 z rapidly z possible1 to ?is p]iod ( progress2 & 9 do+ ?is1 ,i h _h to pass ov] a long & b>r5 track1 :]e almo/ all traces ( ! "r road disappe>4 ,9 explor+ ?is region1 x is n )\t "s difficulty t he :o is travell+ ) objects su* z m9e1 cont9ues a /eady progress 9 ! prop] direction2 = _m curi\s & attractive subjects ( rese>* come 9 8 way3 he crosses ! track ( _m a controv]sy1 :i* 9 its "t divid$ ! _w ( speculators1 & ( :i* ! results may be trac$1 ev5 n[1 9 ! conduct ( moral1 or political1 or metaphysical discussions2 or 9 ! common associations ( ?\ght1 & =ms ( language4 ,! w>s ( ! ,nom9ali/s & ,reali/s2 ! disputes conc]n+ ! f\ndations ( morals1 & ! motives ( human actions2 ! controv]sies conc]n+ pr$e/9ation1 free w1 grace1 & ! _m o!r po9ts ( metaphysical div9ity2 ! influ5ce ( !ology & metaphysics ^u ea* o!r1 & ^u o!r subjects ( human curiosity2 ! effects ( op9ion ^u politics1 & ( political condition ^u op9ion2 ! influ5ce ( lit]ature & philosophy #bci ^u ea* o!r1 & ^u society2 & _m o!r subjects2--might be well wor? exam9ation1 if our hope ( success did n reside 9 pursu+1 /eadily & directly1 ^? inquiries 9 :i* we c look = a def9ite & c]ta9 reply4 ,we mu/ ev5 neglect two ( ! lead+ /udies ( ^? times1 :i* occupi$ mu* ( m5's "t & ?\ghts1 & _h a v great influ5ce on society2 ! "o deal+ ) ,notions1 ! o!r ) ,?+s2 ! "o employ$ ab\t moral rules1 ! o!r ab\t mat]ial causes1 b bo? = practical ends2 ,i mean1 ! /udy ( ! ,civil ,law1 & ( ,m$ic9e4 ,! second ( ^! /udies w h]eaft] come be=e u1 z "o ( ! pr9cipal occasions :i* l$ to ! cultivation ( *emi/ry2 b1 9 itself1 its progress is ( too complex & indef9ite a nature to be advantage\sly comp>$ ) t ( ! m exact sci5ces4 ,! ,roman ,law is held1 by its admir]s1 to be a sy/em ( d$uctive sci5ce1 z exact z ! ma!matical sci5ces !mselves2 & x may1 !re=e1 be useful to consid] x1 if we %\ld1 9 ! sequel1 h to exam9e h[ f> !re c exi/ an analogy betwe5 moral & physical sci5ce4 ,b1 aft] a few m words on ! middle ages1 we mu/ return to our task ( trac+ ! progress ( ! latt]4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,progress ,,( ,,! ,,arts ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 ,,art ,,& ,,sci5ce4--,i %all1 be=e ,i resume ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 say a few words on ! subject describ$ 9 ! title ( ?is *apt]1 bo? because ,i might o!rwise be accus$ ( do+ inju/ice to ! p]iod n[ treat$ (2 & also1 because we %all by ?is means br+ "u our notice "s circum/ances :i* 7 important z be+ ! h>b+]s ( ! revival ( progressive k4 ,! accusation ( inju/ice t[>ds ! /ate ( sci5ce 9 ! middle ages1 if we 7 to t]m9ate our survey ( !m ) :at has hi!rto be5 said1 might be urg$ f obvi\s topics4 ,h[ d we recognize1 x might be ask$1 9 a picture ( m]e confusion & my/icism ( ?\ght1 ( s]vility & dogmatism ( "*1 ! p[]s & acquirem5ts to :i* we owe s _m ( ! mo/ important inv5tions :i* we n[ enjoy8 ,p>*m5t & pap]1 pr9t+ & engrav+1 improv$ glass & /eel1 gunp[d]1 clocks1 telescopes1 #bdj ! m>9]'s compass1 ! re=m$ cal5d>1 ! decimal notation1 algebra1 trigonometry1 *emi/ry1 c\nt]po9t1 an inv5tion equival5t to a new creation ( music2--^! are all possessions :i* we inh]it f t :i* has be5 s disp>ag+ly t]m$ ! ,/ation>y ,p]iod4 ,above all1 let u look at ! monum5ts ( ar*itecture ( ?is p]iod2--! admiration & ! despair ( mod]n ar*itects1 n only = _! beauty1 b = ! skill disclos$ 9 _! con/ruction4 ,) all ^! evid5ces be=e u1 h[ c we avoid all[+ t ! ma/]s ( ! middle ages n only made "s small progress 9 ,a/ronomy1 :i* has1 grudg+ly z x w\ld seem1 be5 admitt$ 9 a =m] ,book2 b also t !y 7 no small pr(ici5ts 9 o!r sci5ces1 9 ,optics1 9 ,h>monics1 9 ,physics1 &1 above all1 9 ,me*anics8 ,if1 x may be add$1 we are all[$1 9 ! pres5t day1 to ref] to ! p]fection ( our arts z evid5ce ( ! advanc$ /ate ( our physical philosophy2--if our /eam-eng9es1 our gas-illum9ation1 our build+s1 our navigation1 our manufactures1 are cit$ z triumphs ( sci5ce2--%all n prior inv5tions1 made "u f> heavi] disadvantages1--%all n great] works1 produc$ 9 an e>li] /ate ( k1 also be admitt$ z witnesses t ! middle ages _h _! %>e1 & t n a small or d\btful "o1 ( sci5ce8 ,to ^! que/ions ,i answ]1 by di/+ui%+ betwe5 ,art1 & ,sci5ce 9 t s5se ( g5]al ,inductive ,sy/ematic ,tru?1 :i* x be>s 9 ?is "w4 ,to sep>ate & comp>e1 ) precision1 ^! two processes1 belongs to ! ,philosophy ( ,induction2 & ! attempt mu/ be res]v$ = ano!r place3 b ! lead+ diff]5ces are suffici5tly obvi\s4 ,art is practical1 ,sci5ce is speculative3 ! =m] is se5 9 do+2 ! latt] re/s 9 ! contemplation ( :at is kn[n4 ,! ,art ( ! build] appe>s 9 8 edifice1 ?\gh he may nev] h m$itat$ on ! ab/ract propositions on :i* its /ability & /r5g? dep5ds4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ! ma!matical me*anician consi/s 9 8 see+ t1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 bodies mu/ su/a9 ea* o!r's pressure1 ?\gh he may nev] h appli$ 8 k 9 a s+le case4 ,n[ ! rem>k :i* ,i h to make is ?is3--9 all cases ! ,arts are prior to ! relat$ ,sci5ces4 ,art is ! p>5t1 n ! prog5y1 ( ,sci5ce2 ! realization ( pr9ciples 9 practice =ms "p ( ! prelude1 z well z ( ! sequel1 ( !oretical discov]y4 ,& ?us ! inv5tions ( ! middle ages1 :i* h be5 above enum]at$1 ?\gh at ! pres5t day !y may be portions ( our sci5ces1 are no evid5ce t ! sci5ces !n exi/$2 b only t #bda ^? p[]s ( practical obs]vation & practical skill 7 at "w1 :i* prep>e ! way = !oretical views & sci5tific discov]ies4 ,x may be urg$1 t ! great works ( art d virtually take = grant$ pr9ciples ( sci5ce2 & t1 !re=e1 x is unreasonable to d5y sci5ce to great arti/s4 ,x may be said1 t ! gr& /ructures ( ,cologne1 or ,ami5s1 or ,cant]bury1 c\ld n h be5 erect$ )\t a pr(\nd k ( me*anical pr9ciples4 ,to ?is we reply1 t su* k is manife/ly n ( ! nature ( t :i* we call sci5ce4 ,if ! beautiful & skilful /ructures ( ! middle ages prove t me*anics !n exi/$ z a sci5ce1 me*anics mu/ h exi/$ z a sci5ce also among ! build]s ( ! ,cyclopean walls ( ,greece & ,italy1 or ( our own ,/oneh5ge2 = ! masses :i* are !re pil$ on ea* o!r1 c\ld n be rais$ )\t consid]able me*anical skill4 ,b we may g mu* fur!r4 ,! actions ( e man :o raises & balances weights1 or walks along a pole1 take = grant$ ! laws ( equilibrium2 & ev5 animals con/antly avail !mselves ( su* pr9ciples4 ,are ^!1 !n1 acqua9t$ ) me*anics z a sci5ce8 ,aga91 if actions :i* are p]=m$ by tak+ advantage ( me*anical prop]ties prove a k ( ! sci5ce ( me*anics1 !y mu/ also be all[$ to prove a k ( ! sci5ce ( geometry1 :5 !y proce$ on geometrical prop]ties4 ,b ! mo/ famili> actions ( m5 & animals proce$ ^u geometrical tru?s4 ,! ,epicureans held1 z ,proclus in=ms u1 t ev5 asses knew t two sides ( a triangle are great] ?an ! ?ird4 ,& animals may truly be said to h a practical k ( ?is tru?2 b !y h n1 !re=e1 a sci5ce ( geometry4 ,& 9 l mann] among m51 if we consid] ! matt] /rictly1 a practical assumption ( a pr9ciple does n imply a speculative k ( x4 ,we may1 9 ano!r way also1 %[ h[ inadmissible are ! works ( ! ,ma/] ,arti/s ( ! middle ages into ! s]ies ( ev5ts :i* m>k ! advance ( ,sci5ce4 ,! foll[+ maxim is applicable to a hi/ory1 su* z we are "h endeavor+ to write4 ,we are employ$ 9 trac+ ! progress ( su* g5]al pr9ciples z con/itute ea* ( ! sci5ces :i* we are review+2 & no facts or subord9ate tru?s belong to our s*eme1 except s f> z !y t5d to or are includ$ 9 ^! high] pr9ciples2 nor are !y important to u1 any fur!r ?an z !y prove su* pr9ciples4 ,n[ ) reg>d to processes ( art l ^? :i* we h ref]r$ to1 namely1 ! inv5tions ( ! middle ages1 let u ask1 :at pr9ciple ea* ( !m #bdb illu/rates8 ,:at *emical doctr9e re/s = its support on ! ph5om5a ( gunp[d]1 or glass1 or /eel8 ,:at new h>monical tru? 0 illu/rat$ 9 ! ,gregorian *ant8 ,:at me*anical pr9ciple unkn[n to ,ar*im$es 0 display$ 9 ! pr9t+-press8 ,! practical value & use1 ! +5uity & skill ( ^! inv5tions is n que/ion$2 b :at is _! place 9 ! hi/ory ( speculative k8 ,ev5 9 ^? cases 9 :i* !y ent] into su* a hi/ory1 h[ m9ute a figure d !y make6 h[ great is ! contra/ betwe5 _! practical & !oretical importance6 ,!y may 9 _! op]ation h *ang$ ! face ( ! _w2 b 9 ! hi/ory ( ! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ces to :i* !y belong1 !y may be omitt$ )\t be+ miss$4 ,z to t "p ( ! objection :i* 0 /at$ by ask+1 :y1 if ! arts ( our age prove its sci5tific em95ce1 ! arts ( ! middle ages %\ld n be receiv$ z pro( ( !irs2 we mu/ reply to x1 by giv+ up "s ( ! pret5sions :i* are (t5 put =w>ds on behalf ( ! sci5ce ( our times4 ,! p]fection ( ! me*anical & o!r arts among u proves ! advanc$ condition ( our sci5ces1 only 9 s f> z ^! arts h be5 p]fect$ by ! application ( "s great sci5tific tru?1 ) a cle> insight into its nature4 ,! greate/ improvem5t ( ! /eam-eng9e 0 due to ! /eady appreh5sion ( an atmological doctr9e by ,watt2 b :at di/9ct !oretical pr9ciple is illu/rat$ by ! beautiful manufactures ( porcela91 or /eel1 or glass8 ,a *emical view ( ^! comp\nds1 :i* w\ld expla9 ! conditions ( success & failure 9 _! manufacture1 w\ld be ( great value 9 art2 & x w\ld also be a novelty 9 *emical !ory2 s little is ! pres5t condition ( ^? processes a triumph ( sci5ce1 %$d+ intellectual glory on our age4 ,& ! same might be said ( _m1 or ( mo/1 ( ! processes ( ! arts z n[ practis$4 #b4 ,arabian ,sci5ce4--,hav+1 ,i tru/1 e/abli%$ ! view ,i h /at$1 respect+ ! relation ( ,art & ,sci5ce1 we %all be able v rapidly to dispose ( a numb] ( subjects :i* o!rwise might seem to require a detail$ notice4 ,?\gh ?is di/9ction has be5 recogniz$ by o!rs1 x has h>dly be5 rigor\sly adh]$ to1 9 consequ5ce ( ! indi/9ct notion ( sci5ce :i* has commonly prevail$4 ,?us ,gibbon1 9 speak+ ( ! k ( ! p]iod n[ "u our notice1 says1#hhd ,mu* useful exp]i5ce _h be5 acquir$ 9 #bdc ! practice ( arts & manufactures2 b ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry owes its orig9 & improvem5t to ! indu/ry ( ! ,s>ac5s4 ,!y1 he adds1 fir/ inv5t$ & nam$ ! alembic = ! purposes ( di/illation1 analyz$ ! sub/ances ( ! ?ree k+doms ( nature1 tri$ ! di/9ction & aff9ities ( alkalies & acids1 & conv]t$ ! poison\s m9]als into s(t & salut>y m$ic9es4 ,! =mation & realization ( ! notions ( analysis & ( aff9ity1 7 important /eps 9 *emical sci5ce1 :i*1 z ,i %all h]eaft] endeavor to %[1 x rema9$ = ! *emi/s ( ,europe to make at a mu* lat] p]iod4 ,if ! ,arabians _h done ?is1 !y might ) ju/ice h be5 call$ ! au?ors ( ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry2 b no doctr9es c be adduc$ f _! works :i* give !m any title to ?is em95t di/9ction4 ,_! claims are dissipat$ at once by ! application ( ! maxim above /at$4 ,:at analysis ( !irs t5d$ to e/abli% any receiv$ pr9ciple ( *emi/ry8 ,:at true doctr9e conc]n+ ! diff]5ces & aff9ities ( acids & alkalies did !y tea*8 ,we ne$ n wond] if ,gibbon1 ^: views ( ! b\nd>ies ( sci5tific *emi/ry 7 probably v wide & indi/9ct1 c\ld include ! arts ( ! ,arabians )9 its doma92 b !y _c pass ! fronti] ( sci5ce if philosophically def9$1 & /eadily gu>d$4 ,note #hhd3 ,decl9e & ,fall1 vol4 x4 p4 #dc4 ,! judgm5t :i* we are ?us l$ to =m respect+ ! *emical k ( ! middle ages1 & ( ! ,arabians 9 p>ticul>1 may s]ve to measure ! condition ( sci5ce 9 o!r dep>tm5ts2 = *emi/ry has ju/ly be5 consid]$ "o ( _! /ronge/ po9ts4 ,9 botany1 anatomy1 zoology1 optics1 ac\/ics1 we h /ill ! same obs]vations to make1 t ! /eps 9 sci5ce :i*1 9 ! ord] ( progress1 next foll[$ :at ! ,greeks _h done1 7 left = ! ,europeans ( ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies4 ,! m]its & advances ( ! ,arabian philosoph]s 9 a/ronomy & pure ma!matics1 we h already describ$4 #c4 ,exp]im5tal ,philosophy ( ! ,arabians4--,! e/imate to :i* we h ?us be5 l$1 ( ! sci5tific m]its ( ! le>n$ m5 ( ! middle ages1 is mu* less exalt$ ?an t :i* has be5 =m$ by _m writ]s2 &1 among ! re/1 by "s ( our own "t4 ,b ,i am p]suad$ t any attempt to answ] ! que/ions j ask$1 w expose ! unt5able nature ( ! high] claims :i* h be5 advanc$ 9 favor ( ! ,arabians4 ,we c deliv] no j decision1 except we w cons5t to use ! t]ms ( sci5ce 9 a /rict & precise s5se3 & if we d ?is1 we %all f9d little1 ei!r 9 ! #bdd p>ticul> discov]ies or g5]al processes ( ! ,arabians1 :i* is important 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4#hid ,note #hid3 ,if ,i might take ! lib]ty ( criticis+ an au?or :o has giv5 a v int]e/+ view ( ! p]iod 9 "q 7,mahometanism ,unveil$1 by ! ,rev4 ,*>les ,=/]1 #ahbi71 ,i w\ld rem>k1 t 9 8 "w ?is caution is p]haps too little obs]v$4 ,?us1 he says1 9 speak+ ( ,alhaz5 7vol4 ii4 p4 #bgj71 ! !ory ( ! telescope may be f\nd 9 ! "w ( ?is a/ronom]2 & ( ano!r1 ! uses ( magnify+ glasses & telescopes1 & ! pr9ciple ( _! con/ruction1 are expla9$ 9 ! ,great ,"w ( 7,rog]7 ,bacon1 ) a tru? & cle>ness :i* h comm&$ univ]sal admiration4 ,su* phrases w\ld be mu* too /rong1 ev5 if us$ respect+ ! optical doctr9es ( ,kepl]1 :i* 7 yet incomp>ably m true & cle> ?an ^? ( ,bacon4 ,to employ su* language1 9 su* cases1 is to deprive su* t]ms z !ory & pr9ciple ( all mean+4 ,! cr$it due to ! ,arabians = improvem5ts 9 ! g5]al me?ods ( philosophiz+1 is a m difficult "q2 & _c be discuss$ at l5g? by u1 till we exam9e ! hi/ory ( su* me?ods 9 ! ab/ract1 :i*1 9 ! pres5t "w1 x is n our int5tion to d4 ,b we may obs]ve1 t we _c agree ) ^? :o rank _! m]its high 9 ?is respect4 ,we h already se51 t _! m9ds 7 completely dev\r$ by ! wor/ habits ( ! /ation>y p]iod1--,my/icism & ,comm5tation4 ,!y foll[$ _! ,greek lead]s1 = ! mo/ "p1 ) abject s]vility1 & ) only t k9d ( acut5ess & indep5d5t speculation :i* ! ,comm5tator's vocation implies4 ,& 9 _! *oice ( ! /&>d subjects ( _! /udies1 !y fix$ ^u ^? works1 ! ,physical ,books ( ,ari/otle1 :i* h nev] promot$ ! progress ( sci5ce1 except 9 s f> z !y incit$ m5 to refute !m2 an effect :i* !y nev] produc$ on ! ,arabians4 ,t ! ,arabian a/ronom]s made "s advances beyond ! ,greeks1 we h already /at$3 ! two great in/ances are1 ! discov]y ( ! ,motion ( ! ,sun's ,apogee by ,albategnius1 & ! discov]y 7rec5tly br\ght to light7 ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,moon's ,second ,inequality1 by ,ab\l ,wefa4 ,b we _c b obs]ve 9 h[ diff]5t a mann] !y treat$ ^! discov]ies1 f t ) :i* ,hipp>*us or ,ptolemy w\ld h done4 ,! ,v>iation ( ! ,moon1 9 p>ticul>1 in/ead ( be+ incorporat$ into ! sy/em by means ( an ,epicycle1 z ,ptolemy _h done ) ! ,evection1 0 all[$1 almo/ imm$iately1 s f> z we c judge1 to fall into neglect & oblivion3 s little 7 ! le>n$ ,arabians prep>$ to take _! lessons f obs]vation z well z f books4 ,t 9 _m subjects !y made exp]im5ts1 may easily be all[$3 !re nev] 0 a p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 & lea/ ( all a p]iod ( comm]ce #bde & manufactures1 luxury & art1 m$ic9e & eng9e]+1 9 :i* !re 7 n go+ on innum]able processes1 :i* may be t]m$ ,exp]im5ts2 &1 9 addition to ^!1 ! ,arabians adopt$ ! pursuit ( al*emy1 & ! love ( exotic plants & animals4 ,b s f> f _! be+1 z has be5 ma9ta9$1#ijd a p ^: exp]im5tal intellect fitt$ !m to =m sci5ces :i* ! ab/ract intellect ( ! ,greeks fail$ 9 produc+1 x r appe>s1 t sev]al ( ! sci5ces :i* ! ,greeks _h f\nd$1 7 nev] ev5 compreh5d$ by ! ,arabians4 ,i d n "k any evid5ce t ^! pupils ev] atta9$ to und]/& ! real pr9ciples ( ,me*anics1 ,hydro/atics1 & ,h>monics1 :i* _! ma/]s _h e/abli%$4 ,at any rate1 :5 ^! sci5ces aga9 became progressive1 ,europe _h to />t :]e ,europe _h /opp$4 ,!re is no ,arabian "n :i* any "o has ?\ght ( int]pos+ betwe5 ,ar*im$es ! anci5t1 & ,/ev9us & ,galileo ! mod]ns4 ,note #ijd3 ,mahometanism ,unveil$1 ii4 #bga4 #d4 ,rog] ,bacon4--,!re is "o writ] ( ! middle ages1 on :om mu* /ress has be5 laid1 & :o 0 c]ta9ly a mo/ rem>kable p]son4 ,rog] ,bacon's works are n only s f> beyond 8 age 9 ! k :i* !y conta91 b s diff]5t f ! temp] ( ! times1 9 8 ass]tion ( ! supremacy ( exp]im5t1 & 9 8 contemplation ( ! future progress ( k1 t x is difficult to conceive h[ su* a "* c\ld !n exi/4 ,t he receiv$ mu* ( 8 k f ,arabic writ]s1 !re c be no d\bt2 = !y 7 9 8 "t ! repositories ( all tradition>y k4 ,b t he d]iv$ f !m 8 disposition to %ake (f ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle1 to ma9ta9 ! importance ( exp]im5t1 & to look ^u k z 9 its infancy1 ,i _c believe1 because ,i h n myself hit ^u1 nor se5 quot$ by o!rs1 any passages 9 :i* ,arabian writ]s express su* a disposition4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we d f9d 9 ,european writ]s1 9 ! au?ors ( ,greece & ,rome1 ! solid s5se1 ! bold & hopeful _s1 :i* sugge/ su* t5d5cies4 ,we h already se5 t ,ari/otle ass]ts1 z di/9ctly z words c express1 t all k mu/ dep5d on obs]vation1 & t sci5ce mu/ be collect$ f facts by induction4 ,we h se51 too1 t ! ,roman writ]s1 & ,s5eca 9 p>ticul>1 speak ) an en?usia/ic confid5ce ( ! progress :i* sci5ce mu/ make 9 ! c\rse ( ages4 ,:5 ,rog] ,bacon holds simil> language 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1 ! resemblance is probably r a sympa?y ( "*1 ?an a matt] ( direct d]ivation2 b ,i "k ( no?+ #bdf :i* proves ev5 s mu* z ?is sympa?y 9 ! case ( ,arabian philosoph]s4 ,a good deal has be5 said ( late ( ! co9cid5ces betwe5 8 views1 & ^? ( 8 great namesake 9 lat] times1 ,francis ,bacon4#iad ,! resemblances consi/ ma9ly 9 su* po9ts z ,i h j notic$2 & we _c b ackn[l$ge1 t _m ( ! expressions ( ! ,franciscan ,fri> rem9d u ( ! l>ge ?\ghts & l(ty phrases ( ! ,philosophical ,*ancellor4 ,h[ f> ! "o c be consid]$ z hav+ anticipat$ ! me?od ( ! o!r1 we %all exam9e m advantage\sly1 :5 we come to consid] :at ! "* & effect ( ,francis ,bacon's works really are4#ibd ,note #iad3 ,hallam's ,middle ,ages1 iii4 #edi4 ,=/]'s ,mahom4 ,u4 ii4 #cac4 ,note #ibd3 ,9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,i h giv5 an acc\nt at consid]able l5g? ( ,rog] ,bacon's mode ( treat+ ,arts & ,sci5ces2 & h also comp>$ m fully 8 philosophy ) t ( ,francis ,bacon2 & ,i h giv5 a view ( ! be>+ ( ?is latt] ^u ! progress ( ,sci5ce 9 mod]n times4 ,see ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 book xii4 *aps4 #g & #aa4 ,see also ! ,app5dix to ?is volume4 #e4 ,ar*itecture ( ! ,middle ,ages4--,b ?\gh we are ?us compell$ to disall[ sev]al ( ! claims :i* h be5 put =w>ds 9 support ( ! sci5tific "* ( ! middle ages1 !re are two po9ts 9 :i* we may1 ,i conceive1 really trace ! progress ( sci5tific ideas among !m2 & :i*1 !re=e1 may be consid]$ z ! prelude to ! p]iod ( discov]y4 ,i mean _! practical ar*itecture1 & _! ar*itectural treatises4 ,9 a previ\s *apt] ( ?is book1 we h endeavor$ to expla9 h[ ! indi/9ctness ( ideas1 :i* att5d$ ! decl9e ( ! ,roman empire1 appe>s 9 ! =ms ( _! ar*itecture2--9 ! disreg>d1 :i* ! decorative con/ruction exhibits1 ( ! necess>y me*anical conditions ( support4 ,! orig9al s*eme ( ,greek ornam5tal ar*itecture _h be5 horizontal masses re/+ on v]tical columns3 :5 ! ar* 0 introduc$ by ! ,romans1 x 0 conceal$1 or kept 9 a /ate ( subord9ation3 & ! lat]al support :i* x requir$ 0 suppli$ lat5tly1 m>k$ by "s artifice4 ,b ! /ruggle betwe5 ! me*anical & ! decorative con/ruction#icd end$ 9 ! complete disorganization ( ! classical /yle4 ,! #bdg inconsi/5cies & extravagances ( :i* we h notic$ ! occurr5ce1 7 results & indications ( ! fall ( good ar*itecture4 ,! elem5ts ( ! anci5t sy/em _h lo/ all pr9ciple ( connection & reg>d to rule4 ,build+ became n only a m]e art1 b an art ex]cis$ by ma/]s )\t skill1 & )\t feel+ = real beauty4 ,note #icd3 ,see ,mr4 ,willis's admirable ,rem>ks on ! ,ar*itecture ( ! ,middle ,ages1 *ap4 ii4 ,s9ce ! publication ( my fir/ edition1 ,mr4 ,willis has %[n t mu* ( ! mason-craft ( ! middle ages consi/$ 9 ! geometrical me?ods by :i* ! arti/s wr\ght out ( ! blocks ! complex =ms ( _! decorative sy/em4 ,to ! g5]al indi/9ctness ( speculative notions on me*anical subjects preval5t 9 ! middle ages1 !re may h be5 "s exceptions1 & especially s long z !re 7 read]s ( ,ar*im$es4 ,bo?ius _h translat$ ! me*anical works ( ,ar*im$es into ,lat91 z we le>n f ! enum]ation ( 8 works by 8 fri5d ,cassiodorus 7,v>i>4 lib i4 cap4 #de71 ,me*anicum etiam ,ar*im$em latialem siculis r$didi/i4 ,b ,me*anicus 0 us$ 9 ^? times r = "o skill$ 9 ! art ( con/ruct+ wond]ful ma*9es ?an 9 ! speculative !ory ( !m4 ,! lett] f :i* ! quotation is tak5 is s5t by ,k+ ,!odoric to ,bo?ius1 to urge him to s5d ! k+ a wat]-clock4 ,:51 aft] ?is deep decl9e1 ar*itecture rose aga91 z x did 9 ! twelf? & succe$+ c5turies1 9 ! exquisitely beautiful & skilful =ms ( ! ,go?ic /yle1 :at 0 ! nature ( ! *ange :i* _h tak5 place1 s f> z x be>s ^u ! progress ( sci5ce8 ,x 0 ?is3--! idea ( true me*anical relations 9 an edifice _h be5 reviv$ 9 m5's m9ds1 z f> z 0 requisite = ! purposes ( art & beauty3 & ?is1 ?\gh a v diff]5t ?+ f ! possession ( ! idea z an elem5t ( speculative sci5ce1 0 ! prop] prep>ation = t acquisition4 ,! notion ( support & /ability aga9 became conspicu\s 9 ! decorative con/ruction1 & univ]sal 9 ! =ms ( build+4 ,! eye :i*1 look+ = beauty 9 def9ite & significant relations ( p>ts1 is nev] satisfi$ except ! weights appe> to be duly support$1#idd 0 aga9 gratifi$4 ,ar*itecture ?rew (f its b>b>\s *>act]s3 a new decorative con/ruction 0 matur$1 n ?w>t+ & controll+1 b assi/+ & h>moniz+ ) ! me*anical con/ruction4 ,all ! ornam5tal p>ts 7 made to ent] into ! app>5t con/ruction4 ,e memb]1 almo/ e m\ld+1 became a su/a9] ( weight2 & by ! multiplicity ( props assi/+ ea* o!r1 & ! consequ5t subdivision ( weight1 ! eye 0 satisfi$ ( ! /ability ( ! /ructure1 not)/&+ ! curi\sly-sl5d] =ms ( ! sep>ate p>ts4 ,! ar* & ! vault1 no long] trammell$ by an incompatible sy/em ( decoration1 b fav\r$ by m tractable =ms1 7 only limit$ by ! skill ( ! build]s4 ,ev]y?+ %[$ t1 practically at lea/1 m5 possess$ & appli$1 ) /ead9ess & pleasure1 ! idea ( me*anical pressure & support4 ,note #idd3 ,willis1 pp4 #ae-ba4 ,i h ?r\gh\t ?is description ( ! =mation ( ! ,go?ic /yle avail$ myself ( ,mr4 ,willis's well-*os5 expressions4 ,! possession ( ?is idea1 z a pr9ciple ( art1 l$1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 to its speculative developm5t z ! f\ndation ( a sci5ce2 #bdh & ?us ,ar*itecture prep>$ ! way = ,me*anics4 ,b ?is advance requir$ sev]al c5turies4 ,! int]val betwe5 ! admirable ca!drals ( ,salisbury1 ,ami5s1 ,cologne1 & ! me*anical treatises ( ,/ev9us1 is n less ?an ?ree hundr$ ye>s4 ,dur+ ?is "t1 m5 7 advanc+ t[>ds sci5ce2 b 9 ! mean "t1 & p]haps f ! v beg9n+ ( ! "t1 art _h begun to decl9e4 ,! build+s ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 erect$ :5 ! pr9ciples ( me*anical support 7 j on ! v]ge ( be+ enunciat$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 exhibit ^? pr9ciples ) a f> less impressive simplicity & elegance ?an ^? ( ! ?irte5?4 ,we may h]eaft] inquire :e!r we f9d any o!r examples to c\nt5ance ! belief1 t ! =mation ( ,sci5ce is commonly accompani$ by ! decl9e ( ,art4 ,! lead+ pr9ciple ( ! /yle ( ! ,go?ic edifices 01 n m]ely t ! weights 7 support$1 b t !y 7 se5 to be s2 & t n only ! me*anical relations ( ! l>g] masses1 b ( ! small] memb]s also1 7 display$4 ,h5ce we _c admit1 z an orig9 or anticipation ( ! ,go?ic1 a /yle 9 :i* ?is pr9ciple is n manife/$4 ,i d n see1 9 any ( ! repres5tations ( ! e>ly ,arabic build+s1 t di/ribution ( weights to supports1 & t me*anical consi/5cy ( p>ts1 :i* w\ld elevate !m above ! "* ( b>b>\s ar*itecture4 ,_! masses are brok5 into innum]able memb]s1 )\t subord9ation or mean+1 9 a mann] sugge/$ app>5tly by caprice & ! love ( ! m>vell\s4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( _! mosques1 x 0 a favorite artifice ( ! ,arabs to su/a9 imm5se & pond]\s masses ( /one by ! support ( pill>s s sl5d]1 t ! incumb5t weight seem$1 z x 71 susp5d$ 9 ! air by an invisible h&4#ied ,?is pleasure 9 ! contemplation ( app>5t impossibilities is a v g5]al disposition among mank9d2 b x appe>s to belong to ! infancy1 r ?an ! maturity ( intellect4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! pleasure 9 ! contemplation ( :at is cle>1 ! crav+ = a ?or\gh insight into ! reasons ( ?+s1 :i* m>ks ! ,european m9d1 is ! temp] :i* leads to sci5ce4 ,note #ied3 ,mahometanism ,unveil$1 ii4 #bee4 #f4 ,treatises on ,ar*itecture4--,no "o :o has att5d$ to ! ar*itecture :i* prevail$ 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many1 f ! twelf? to ! fifte5? c5tury1 s f> z to compreh5d its beauty1 h>mony1 consi/5cy1 & uni=mity1 ev5 9 ! m9ute/ p>ts & mo/ obscure relations1 c look ^u x o!rwise ?an z a #bdi rem>kably connect$ & def9ite artificial sy/em4 ,nor c we d\bt t x 0 ex]cis$ by a class ( arti/s :o =m$ !mselves by labori\s /udy & practice1 & by communication ) ea* o!r4 ,!re mu/ h be5 bodies ( ma/]s & ( s*ol>s1 discipl9e1 traditions1 precepts ( art4 ,h[ ^! associat$ arti/s diffus$ !mselves ov] ,europe1 & :e!r hi/ory enables u to trace !m 9 a di/9ct =m1 ,i %all n "h discuss4 ,b ! exi/5ce ( a c\rse ( in/ruction1 & ( a body ( rules ( practice1 is prov$ beyond dispute by ! great s]ies ( ,european ca!drals & *ur*es1 s ne>ly id5tical 9 _! g5]al arrangem5ts1 & 9 _! p>ticul> details4 ,! "q !n occurs1 h ^! rules & ?is sy/em ( in/ruction any:]e be5 committ$ to writ+8 ,c we1 by su* evid5ce1 trace ! progress ( ! sci5tific idea1 ( :i* we see ! work+ 9 ^! build+s8 ,we are n to be surpris$1 if1 dur+ ! mo/ fl\ri%+ & vigor\s p]iod ( ! art ( ! middle ages1 we f9d none ( its precepts 9 books4 ,art has1 9 all ages & c\ntries1 be5 taught & transmitt$ by practice & v]bal tradition1 n by writ+4 ,x is only 9 our own times1 t ! ?\ght occurs z famili>1 ( committ+ to books all t we wi% to pres]ve & convey4 ,&1 ev5 9 our own times1 mo/ ( ! ,arts are le>n$ f> m by practice1 & by int]c\rse ) practition]s1 ?an by read+4 ,su* is ! case1 n only ) ,manufactures & ,h&icrafts1 b ) ! ,f9e ,arts1 ) ,eng9e]+1 & ev5 yet1 ) t art1 ,build+1 ( :i* we are n[ speak+4 ,we are n1 !re=e1 to wond]1 if we h no treatises on ,ar*itecture belong+ to ! great p]iod ( ! ,go?ic ma/]s2--or if x appe>s to h requir$ "s o!r incitem5t & "s o!r help1 besides _! own possession ( _! practical skill1 to lead !m to %ape into a lit]>y =m ! precepts ( ! art :i* !y knew s well h[ to ex]cise3--or if1 :5 !y did write on su* subjects1 !y seem1 in/ead ( deliv]+ _! own s\nd practical pr9ciples1 to satisfy !mselves ) pursu+ "s ( ! frivol\s notions & speculations :i* 7 !n curr5t 9 ! _w ( lett]s4 ,su* appe>s to be ! case4 ,! e>lie/ treatises on ,ar*itecture come be=e u "u ! =m :i* ! comm5tatorial _s ( ! middle ages inspir$4 ,!y are ,translations ( ,vitruvius1 ) ,annotations4 ,9 "s ( ^!1 p>ticul>ly t ( ,ces>e ,ces>iano1 publi%$ at ,como1 9 #aeba1 we see1 9 a v curi\s mann]1 h[ ! habit ( assum+ t1 9 e dep>tm5t ( lit]ature1 ! anci5ts #bej mu/ ne$s be _! ma/]s1 l$ ^! writ]s to subord9ate ! memb]s ( _! own ar*itecture to ! precepts ( ! ,roman au?or4 ,we h ,go?ic %afts1 m\ld+s1 & arrangem5ts1 giv5 z p>allelisms to o!rs1 :i* pr(ess to repres5t ! ,roman /yle1 b :i* are1 9 fact1 examples ( t mix$ mann] :i* is call$ ! /yle ( ! ,c9que c5to by ! ,italians1 ( ! ,r5aissance by ! ,fr5*1 & :i* is commonly includ$ 9 our ,elizabe?an4 ,b 9 ! e>ly ar*itectural works1 besides ! sup]/itions & mi/ak5 erudition :i* ?us *ok$ ! gr[? ( real ar*itectural doctr9es1 ano!r ( ! peculi> elem5ts ( ! middle ages comes into view2--its my/icism4 ,! dim5sions & positions ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( edifices & ( _! memb]s1 are det]m9$ by draw+ triangles1 squ>es1 circles1 & o!r figures1 9 su* a mann] z to b\nd !m2 & to ^! geometrical figures 7 assign$ _m ab/ruse significations4 ,! plan & ! front ( ! ,ca!dral at ,milan are ?us repres5t$ 9 ,ces>iano's "w1 b\nd$ & subdivid$ by v>i\s equilat]al triangles2 & x is easy to see1 9 ! e>ne/ness ) :i* he po9ts out ^! relations1 ! evid5ce ( a fanciful & my/ical turn ( ?\ght4#ifd ,note #ifd3 ,! plan :i* he has giv51 fol4 #ad1 he has entitl$ ,i*nographia ,fundam5ti sacr dis b>icephal1 ,g]manico m1 ,trigono ac ,p>iquadrato p]/ructa1 uti etiam ea qu nunc ,milani videtur4 ,! "w ( ,ces>iano 0 translat$ into ,g]man by ,gualt] ,rivius1 & publi%$ at ,nuremb]g1 9 #aedh1 "u ! title ( ,vitruvius ,teuts*1 ) copies ( ! ,italian diagrams4 ,a few ye>s ago1 9 an article 9 ! ,wi5] ,jahrb*] 7,oct4-,dec41 #ahba71 ! review] ma9ta9$1 on ! au?ority ( ! diagrams 9 ,rivius's book1 t ,go?ic ar*itecture _h its orig9 9 ,g]many & n 9 ,engl&4 ,we ?us f9d erudition & my/icism take ! place ( mu* ( t developm5t ( ! ar*itectural pr9ciples ( ! middle ages :i* w\ld be s int]e/+ to u4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 ^! works are by no means )\t _! value4 ,inde$ _m ( ! arts appe> to fl\ri% n at all ! worse1 = be+ treat$ 9 a mann] some:at my/ical2 & x may easily be1 t ! relations ( geometrical figures1 = :i* fanta/ical reasons are giv51 may really involve pr9ciples ( beauty or /ability4 ,b indep5d5tly ( ?is1 we f9d1 9 ! be/ works ( ! ar*itects ( all ages 7includ+ eng9e]s71 evid5ce t ! true idea ( me*anical pressure exi/s among !m m di/9ctly ?an among m5 9 g5]al1 al?\gh x may n be develop$ 9 a sci5tific =m4 ,?is is true up to our own "t1 & ! arts :i* su* p]sons cultivate c\ld n be successfully #bea ex]cis$ if x 7 n s4 ,h5ce ! writ+s ( ar*itects & eng9e]s dur+ ! middle ages d really =m a prelude to ! works on sci5tific me*anics4 ,vitruvius1 9 8 ,ar*itecture1 & ,julius ,front9us1 :o1 "u ,vespasian1 wrote ,on ,aqu$ucts1 ( :i* he 0 sup]9t5d5t1 h transmitt$ to u ! pr9cipal "p ( :at we "k respect+ ! practical me*anics & hydraulics ( ! ,romans4 ,9 mod]n times ! s]ies is resum$4 ,! e>ly writ]s on ar*itecture are also writ]s on eng9e]+1 & (t5 on hydro/atics3 = example1 ,leon>do da ,v9ci wrote on ! equilibrium ( wat]4 ,& ?us we are l$ up to ,/ev9us ( ,bruges1 :o 0 eng9e] to ,pr9ce ,maurice ( ,nassau1 & inspector ( ! dykes 9 ,holl&2 & 9 ^: "w1 on ! processes ( 8 art1 is conta9$ ! fir/ cle> mod]n /atem5t ( ! sci5tific pr9ciples ( hydro/atics4 ,hav+ ?us expla9$ bo? ! ob/acles & ! prospects :i* ! middle ages (f]$ to ! progress ( sci5ce1 ,i n[ proce$ to ! hi/ory ( ! progress1 :5 t progress 0 once aga9 resum$4 #bec ,,book ,v4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,=mal ,,a/ronomy ,,aft] ,,! ,,/ation>y ,,p]iod4 4 4 4 ,cyclopum educta cam9is ,mnia conspicio1 atque adv]so =nice portas4 4 4 4 4 4 ,8 demum exactis1 p]fecto mun]e ,div1 ,dev5]e locos ltos et amna vireta ,=tunatorum nemorum s$esque beatas4 ,l>gior hic campos !r et lum9e ve/it ,purpureo3 solemque suum1 sua sid]a norunt4 ,,virgil1 n4 vi4 #fcj4 ,!y leave at l5g? ! ne!r gloom1 & /& ,be=e ! portals ( a bett] l&3 ,to happi] pla9s !y come1 & fair] groves1 ,! seats ( ^? :om heav51 b5ignant1 loves2 ,a bright] day1 a blu] e!r1 spreads ,its lucid dep?s above _! favor$ heads2 ,&1 purg$ f mi/s t veil our e>?ly skies1 ,%9e suns & />s unse5 by mortal eyes4 #bee ,,introduction4 ,( ,=mal & ,physical ,a/ronomy4 ,,we h ?us rapidly trac$ ! causes ( ! almo/ complete blank :i* ! hi/ory ( physical sci5ce (f]s1 f ! decl9e ( ! ,roman empire1 = a ?\s& ye>s4 ,along ) ! break+ up ( ! anci5t =ms ( society1 7 brok5 up ! anci5t en]gy ( ?9k+1 ! cle>ness ( idea1 & /ead9ess ( intellectual action4 ,?is m5tal decl5sion produc$ a s]vile admiration = ! g5ius ( ! bett] p]iods1 & ?us1 ! _s ( ,comm5tation3 ,*ri/ianity e/abli%$ ! claim ( tru? to gov]n ! _w2 & ?is pr9ciple1 mis9t]pret$ & comb9$ ) ! ignorance & s]vility ( ! times1 gave rise to ! ,dogmatic ,sy/em3 & ! love ( speculation1 f9d+ no secure & p]mitt$ pa? on solid gr\nd1 w5t (f into ! regions ( ,my/icism4 ,! causes :i* produc$ ! in]tness & bl9dness ( ! /ation>y p]iod ( human k1 began at la/ to yield to ! influ5ce ( ! pr9ciples :i* t5d$ to progression4 ,! indi/9ctness ( ?\ght1 :i* 0 ! orig9al feature 9 ! decl9e ( s\nd k1 0 9 a measure rem$i$ by ! /eady cultivation ( ,pure ,ma!matics & ,a/ronomy1 & by ! progress ( inv5tions 9 ! ,arts1 :i* call out & fix ! di/9ctness ( our conceptions ( ! relations ( natural ph5om5a4 ,z m5's m9ds became cle>1 !y became less s]vile3 ! p]ception ( ! nature ( tru? drew m5 away f controv]sies ab\t m]e op9ion2 :5 !y saw di/9ctly ! relations ( ?+s1 !y ceas$ to give _! :ole att5tion to :at _h be5 said conc]n+ !m2 & ?us1 z sci5ce rose into view1 ! _s ( comm5tation lo/ its way4 ,& :5 m5 came to feel :at x 0 to ?9k = !mselves on subjects ( sci5ce1 !y soon rebell$ aga9/ ! "r ( o!rs to impose op9ions ^u !m4 ,:5 !y ?rew (f _! bl9d admiration = ! anci5ts1 !y 7 dispos$ to ca/ away also _! passive ob$i5ce to ! anci5t sy/em ( doctr9es4 ,:5 !y 7 no long] inspir$ by ! _s ( comm5tation1 !y 7 no long] submissive to ! dogmatism ( ! s*ools4 ,:5 !y began to feel t !y c\ld #bef discov] tru?s1 !y felt also a p]suasion ( a "r & a gr[+ w s to d4 ,?us ! reviv$ cle>ness ( ideas1 :i* made its appe>ance at ! revival ( lett]s1 br\ght on a /ruggle ) ! au?ority1 intellectual & civil1 ( ! e/abli%$ s*ools ( philosophy4 ,?is cle>ness ( idea %[$ itself1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 9 ,a/ronomy1 & 0 embodi$ 9 ! sy/em ( ,cop]nicus2 b ! conte/ did n come to a crisis till a c5tury lat]1 9 ! "t ( ,galileo & o!r disciples ( ! new doctr9e4 ,x is our pres5t bus9ess to trace ! pr9ciples ( ?is s]ies ( ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,i d n pr(ess to write a hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy1 any fur!r ?an is necess>y 9 ord] to exhibit ! pr9ciples on :i* ! progression ( sci5ce proce$s2 &1 !re=e1 ,i neglect subord9ate p]sons & occurr5ces1 9 ord] to br+ into view ! lead+ features ( great *anges4 ,n[ 9 ! introduction ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em into g5]al acceptation1 two lead+ views op]at$ ^u m5's m9ds2 ! consid]ation ( ! sy/em z exhibit+ ! app>5t motions ( ! univ]se1 & ! consid]ation ( ?is sy/em ) ref]5ce to its causes2--! =mal & ! physical aspect ( ! ,!ory2--! relations ( ,space & ,"t1 & ! relations ( ,=ce & ,matt]4 ,^! two divisions ( ! subject 7 at fir/ n cle>ly sep>at$2 ! second 0 long mix$1 9 a mann] v dim & obscure1 ) ! fir/1 )\t appe>+ z a di/9ct subject ( att5tion2 b at la/ x 0 extricat$ & treat$ 9 a mann] suitable to its nature4 ,! views ( ,cop]nicus re/$ ma9ly on ! =mal condition ( ! univ]se1 ! relations ( space & "t2 b ,kepl]1 ,galileo1 & o!rs1 7 l$1 by controv]sies & o!r causes1 to give a gradually increas+ att5tion to ! physical relations ( ! heav5ly bodies2 an impulse 0 giv5 to ! /udy ( ,me*anics 7! ,doctr9e ( ,motion71 :i* became v soon an important & ext5sive sci5ce2 & 9 no long p]iod1 ! discov]ies ( ,kepl]1 sugge/$ by a vague b int5se belief 9 ! physical connection ( ! p>ts ( ! univ]se1 l$ to ! decisive & sublime g5]alizations ( ,newton4 ,! di/9ction ( =mal & physical ,a/ronomy ?us becomes necess>y1 9 ord] to treat cle>ly ( ! discussions :i* ! prop\nd+ ( ! ,cop]nican !ory occasion$4 ,b x may be obs]v$ t1 besides ?is great *ange1 ,a/ronomy made v great advances 9 ! same pa? :i* we h already be5 trac+1 namely1 ! det]m9ation ( ! quantities & laws ( ! cele/ial motions1 9 s f> z !y 7 exhibit$ by ! anci5t !ories1 or #beg might be repres5t$ by obvi\s modifications ( ^? !ories4 ,i speak ( new ,inequalities1 new ,ph5om5a1 su* z ,cop]nicus1 ,galileo1 & ,ty*o ,brahe discov]$4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ^! 7 v soon ref]r$ to ! ,cop]nican r ?an ! ,ptolemaic hypo!sis1 !y may be consid]$ z developm5ts r ( ! new ?an ( ! old ,!ory2 & ,i %all1 !re=e1 treat ( !m1 agreeably to ! plan ( ! =m] "p1 z ! sequel ( ! ,cop]nican ,induction4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,cop]nicus4 ,,! ,doctr9e ( ,cop]nicus1 t ! ,sun is ! true c5tre ( ! cele/ial motions1 dep5ds prim>ily ^u ! consid]ation t su* a supposition expla9s v simply & completely all ! obvi\s appe>ances ( ! heav5s4 ,9 ord] to see t x does ?is1 no?+ m is requisite ?an a di/9ct conception ( ! nature ( ,relative ,motion1 & a k ( ! pr9cipal ,a/ronomical ,ph5om5a4 ,!re 01 !re=e1 no reason :y su* a doctr9e might n be discov]$1 t is1 sugge/$ z a !ory plausible at fir/ sight1 long be=e ! "t ( ,cop]nicus2 or r1 x 0 impossible t ?is guess1 among o!rs1 %\ld n be prop\nd$ z a solution ( ! appe>ances ( ! heav5s4 ,we are n1 !re=e1 to be surpris$ if we f9d1 9 ! e>lie/ times ( ,a/ronomy1 & at v>i\s succe$+ p]iods1 su* a sy/em spok5 ( by a/ronom]s1 & ma9ta9$ by "s z true1 ?\gh reject$ by ! majority1 & by ! pr9cipal writ]s4 ,:5 we look back at su* a diff]5ce ( op9ion1 hav+ 9 our m9ds1 z we unavoidably h1 ! cle> & irresi/ible consid]ations by :i* ! ,cop]nican ,doctr9e is e/abli%$ = u1 x is difficult = u n to attribute sup]ior sagacity & c&or to ^? :o held t side ( ! "q1 & to imag9e ^? :o clung to ! ,ptolemaic ,hypo!sis to h be5 bl9d & prejudic$2 incapable ( see+ ! beauty ( simplicity & symmetry1 or indispos$ to resign e/abli%$ errors1 & to accept novel & compreh5sive tru?s4 ,yet 9 judg+ ?us1 we are probably ourselves influ5c$ by prejudices aris+ f ! k & receiv$ op9ions ( our own times4 ,= is x1 9 reality1 cle> t1 be=e ! "t ( ,cop]nicus1 ! #beh ,helioc5tric ,!ory 7t :i* places ! c5tre ( ! cele/ial motions 9 ! ,sun7 _h a claim to ass5t s decid$ly sup]ior to ! ,geoc5tric ,!ory1 :i* places ! ,e>? 9 ! c5tre8 ,:at is ! basis ( ! helioc5tric !ory8--,t ! relative motions are ! same1 on t & on ! o!r supposition4 ,s f>1 !re=e1 ! two hypo!ses are exactly on ! same foot+4 ,b1 x is urg$1 on ! helioc5tric side we h ! advantage ( simplicity3--true2 b we h1 on ! o!r side1 ! te/imony ( our s5ses2 t is1 ! geoc5tric doctr9e 7:i* ass]ts t ! ,e>? re/s & ! heav5ly bodies move7 is ! obvi\s & spontane\s int]pretation ( ! appe>ances4 ,bo? ^! argum5ts1 simplicity on ! "o side1 & obvi\sness on ! o!r1 are vague1 & we may v5ture to say1 bo? indecisive4 ,we _c e/abli% any /rong prepond]ance ( probability 9 favor ( ! =m] doctr9e1 )\t go+ mu* fur!r into ! argum5ts ( ! "q4 ,nor1 :5 we speak ( ! sup]ior simplicity ( ! ,cop]nican !ory1 mu/ we =get1 t ?\gh ?is !ory has und\bt$ly1 9 ?is respect1 a great advantage ov] ! ,ptolemaic1 yet t ! ,cop]nican sy/em itself is v complex1 :5 x und]takes to acc\nt1 z ! ,ptolemaic did1 = ! ,inequalities ( ! ,motions ( ! sun1 moon1 & planets2 &1 t 9 ! h&s ( ,cop]nicus1 x reta9$ a l>ge %>e ( ! ecc5trics & epicycles ( its pr$ecessor1 &1 9 "s p>ts1 ) increas$ ma*9]y4 ,! helioc5tric !ory1 )\t ^! app5dages1 w\ld n approa* ! ,ptolemaic1 9 ! accurate explanation ( facts2 & z ^? :o _h plac$ ! sun 9 ! c5tre _h nev]1 till ! "t ( ,cop]nicus1 %[n h[ ! inequalities 7 to be expla9$ on t supposition1 we may ass]t t aft] ! promulgation ( ! !ory ( ecc5trics & epicycles on ! geoc5tric hypo!sis1 !re 0 no publi%$ helioc5tric !ory :i* c\ld be> a comp>ison ) t hypo!sis4 ,x is true1 t all ! contrivances ( epicycles1 & ! l1 by :i* ! geoc5tric hypo!sis 0 made to repres5t ! ph5om5a1 7 susceptible ( an easy adaptation to a helioc5tric me?od1 :5 a good ma!matician _h once propos$ to himself ! problem3 & ?is 0 precisely :at ,cop]nicus und]took & execut$4 ,b1 till ! appe>ance ( 8 "w1 ! helioc5tric sy/em _h nev] come be=e ! _w except z a ha/y & imp]fect hypo!sis2 :i* bore a favorable comp>ison ) ! ph5om5a1 s long z _! g5]al features only 7 kn[n2 b :i* _h be5 completely ?r[n into ! %ade by ! labor & intellig5ce be/[$ ^u #bei ! ,hipp>*ian or ,ptolemaic !ories by a long s]ies ( great a/ronom]s ( all civiliz$ c\ntries4 ,b1 ?\gh ! a/ronom]s :o1 be=e ,cop]nicus1 held ! helioc5tric op9ion1 _c1 on any good gr\nds1 be consid]$ z mu* m enlight5$ ?an _! oppon5ts1 x is curi\s to trace ! e>ly & repeat$ manife/ations ( ?is view ( ! univ]se4 ,! di/9ct ass]tion ( ! helioc5tric !ory among ! ,greeks is an evid5ce ( ! cle>ness ( _! ?\ghts1 & ! vig\r ( _! m9ds2 & x is a pro( ( ! feebl5ess & s]vility ( intellect 9 ! /ation>y p]iod1 t1 till ! p]iod ( ,cop]nicus1 no "o 0 f\nd to try ! =tune ( ?is hypo!sis1 modifi$ accord+ to ! improv$ a/ronomical k ( ! "t4 ,! mo/ anci5t ( ! ,greek philosoph]s to :om ! anci5ts ascribe ! helioc5tric doctr9e1 is ,py?agoras2 b ,diog5es ,la]tius makes ,philolaus1 "o ( ! foll[]s ( ,py?agoras1 ! fir/ au?or ( ?is doctr9e4 ,we le>n f ,ar*im$es1 t x 0 held by 8 contempor>y1 ,ari/>*us4 ,ari/>*us ( ,samos1 says he1#ae makes ?is supposition1--t ! fix$ />s & ! sun rema9 at re/1 & t ! e>? revolves r\nd ! sun 9 a circle4 ,plut>*#be ass]ts t ?is1 :i* 0 only a hypo!sis 9 ! h&s ( ,ari/>*us1 0 prov$ by ,seleucus2 b we may v5ture to say t1 at t "t1 no su* pro( 0 possible4 ,ari/otle _h recogniz$ ! exi/5ce ( ?is doctr9e by argu+ aga9/ x4 ,all ?+s1 says he1#ce t5d to ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 & re/ !re1 & !re=e ! :ole mass ( ! e>? _c re/ except !re4 ,ptolemy _h 9 l mann] argu$ aga9/ ! diurnal motion ( ! e>?3 su* a revolution w\ld1 he urg$1 disp]se into surr\nd+ space all ! loose p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,yet he all[$ t su* a supposition w\ld facilitate ! explanation ( "s ph5om5a4 ,cic]o appe>s to make ,m]cury & ,v5us revolve ab\t ! sun1 z does ,m>tianus ,capella at a lat] p]iod2 & ,s5eca says#de x is a wor?y subject ( contemplation1 :e!r ! e>? be at re/ or 9 motion3 b at ?is p]iod1 z we may see f ,s5eca himself1 t habit ( intellect :i* 0 requisite = ! solution ( su* a "q1 _h be5 succe$$ by indi/9ct views1 & rhetorical =ms ( spee*4 ,if !re 7 any good ma!maticians & good obs]v]s at ?is p]iod1 !y 7 employ$ 9 cultivat+ & v]ify+ ! ,hipp>*ian !ory4 ,note #ae3 ,ar*im4 ,ar5>ius4 ,note #be3 ,que/4 ,plat4 ,delamb4 ,a4 ,a4 vi4 ,note #ce3 ,quot$ by ,cop]nic4 i4 #g4 ,note #de3 ,que/4 ,nat4 vii4 #b4 ,next to ! ,greeks1 ! ,indians appe> to h possess$ t #bfj orig9al vigor & cle>ness ( ?\ght1 f :i* true sci5ce spr+s4 ,x is rem>kable t ! ,indians1 also1 _h _! helioc5tric !ori/s4 ,aryabatta#ee 7,a4 ,d4 #acbb71 & o!r a/ronom]s ( t c\ntry1 are said to h advocat$ ! doctr9e ( ! e>?'s revolution on its axis2 :i* op9ion1 h[ev]1 0 reject$ by subsequ5t philosoph]s among ! ,h9doos4 ,note #ee3 ,lib4 ,u4 ,k4 ,hi/4 ,a/4 p4 #aa4 ,"s writ]s h ?\ght t ! helioc5tric doctr9e 0 d]iv$ by ,py?agoras & o!r ,european philosoph]s1 f "s ( ! ori5tal nations4 ,?is op9ion1 h[ev]1 w appe> to h little weight1 if we consid] t ! helioc5tric hypo!sis1 9 ! only %ape 9 :i* ! anci5ts knew x1 0 too obvi\s to require mu* tea*+2 t x did n & c\ld n1 s f> z we "k1 receive any additional /r5g? f any ?+ :i* ! ori5tal nations c\ld tea*2 & t ea* a/ronom] 0 induc$ to adopt or reject x1 n by any in=mation :i* a ma/] c\ld give him1 b by 8 love ( geometrical simplicity on ! "o h&1 or ! prejudices ( s5se on ! o!r4 ,real sci5ce1 dep5d+ on a cle> view ( ! relation ( ph5om5a to g5]al !oretical ideas1 _c be communicat$ 9 ! way ( secret & exclusive traditions1 l ! my/]ies ( c]ta9 arts & crafts4 ,if ! philosoph] d n see t ! !ory is true1 he is little ! bett] = hav+ he>d or read ! words :i* ass]t its tru?4 ,x is impossible1 !re=e1 = u to ass5t to ^? views :i* w\ld discov] 9 ! helioc5tric doctr9es ( ! anci5ts1 traces ( a m pr(\nd a/ronomy ?an any :i* !y h transmitt$ to u4 ,^? doctr9es 7 m]ely ! plausible conjectures ( m5 ) s\nd geometrical notions2 b !y 7 nev] ext5d$ s z to embrace ! details ( ! exi/+ a/ronomical k2 & p]haps we may say1 t ! analysis ( ! ph5om5a into ! arrangem5ts ( ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 0 s mu* m obvi\s ?an any o!r1 t x mu/ necess>ily come fir/1 9 ord] to =m an introduction to ! ,cop]nican4 ,! true f\ndation ( ! helioc5tric !ory = ! anci5ts 01 z we h intimat$1 its p]fect geometrical consi/5cy ) ! g5]al features ( ! ph5om5a1 & its simplicity4 ,b x 0 unlikely t ! human m9d w\ld be cont5t to consid] ! subject "u ?is /rict & limit$ aspect alone4 ,9 its eag]ness = wide speculative views1 x naturally look$ out = o!r & vagu] pr9ciples ( connection & relation4 ,?us1 z x _h be5 urg$ 9 #bfa favor ( ! geoc5tric doctr9e1 t ! heavie/ body mu/ be 9 ! c5tre1 x 0 ma9ta9$1 z a lead+ recomm5dation ( ! opposite op9ion1 t x plac$ ! ,fire1 ! noble/ elem5t1 9 ! ,c5tre ( ! ,univ]se4 ,! au?ority ( my?ological ideas 0 call$ 9 on bo? sides to support ^! views4 ,numa1 z ,plut>*#fe in=ms u1 built a circul> temple ov] ! ev]-burn+ ,fire ( ,ve/a2 typify+1 n ! e>?1 b ! ,univ]se1 :i*1 accord+ to ! ,py?agoreans1 has ! ,fire seat$ at its ,c5tre4 ,! same writ]1 9 ano!r ( 8 works1 makes "o ( 8 int]locutors say1 ,only1 my fri5d1 d n br+ me be=e a c\rt ( law on a *>ge ( impiety2 z ,clean!s said1 t ,ari/>*us ! ,samian ought to be tri$ = impiety1 because he remov$ ! ,he>? ( ! ,univ]se4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 seems to h be5 int5d$ z a pleasantry4 ,note #fe3 ,de ,facie 9 ,orbe ,lun1 #f4 ,! preval5t physical views1 & ! op9ions conc]n+ ! causes ( ! motions ( ! p>ts ( ! univ]se1 7 sc>cely m def9ite ?an ! anci5t op9ions conc]n+ ! relations ( ! f\r elem5ts1 till ,galileo _h f\nd$ ! true ,doctr9e ( ,motion4 ,?\gh1 !re=e1 argum5ts on ?is "p ( ! subject 7 ! mo/ important "p ( ! controv]sy aft] ,cop]nicus1 ! =ce ( su* argum5ts 0 at 8 "t almo/ balanc$4 ,ev5 if m _h be5 kn[n on su* subjects1 ! argum5ts w\ld n h be5 conclusive3 = in/ance1 ! va/ mass ( ! heav5s1 :i* is commonly urg$ z a reason :y ! heav5s d n move r\nd ! e>?1 w\ld n make su* a motion impossible2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! motions ( bodies at ! e>?'s surface1 :i* 7 alleg$ z inconsi/5t ) its motion1 did n really disprove su* an op9ion4 ,b accord+ to ! /ate ( ! sci5ce ( motion be=e ,cop]nicus1 all reason+s f su* pr9ciples 7 utt]ly vague & obscure4 ,we mu/ n omit to m5tion a mod]n :o prec$$ ,cop]nicus1 9 ! ass]tion at lea/ ( ! helioc5tric doctr9e4 ,?is 0 ,ni*olas ( ,cusa 7a village ne> ,treves71 a c>d9al & bi%op1 :o1 9 ! fir/ half ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 0 v em95t z a div9e & ma!matician2 & :o 9 a "w1 ,de ,doct ,ignoranti1 prop\nd$ ! doctr9e ( ! motion ( ! e>?2 m1 h[ev]1 z a p>adox ?an z a reality4 ,we _c consid] ?is z any di/9ct anticipation ( a pr(\nd & consi/5t view ( ! tru?4 ,we %all n[ exam9e fur!r ! promulgation ( ! ,helioc5tric ,sy/em by ,cop]nicus1 & its consequ5ces4 #bfb ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,induction ,,( ,,cop]nicus4--,,! ,,helioc5tric ,,!ory ,,ass]t$ ,,on ,,=mal ,,gr\nds4 ,,x w be recollect$ t ! =mal are oppos$ to ! physical gr\nds ( a !ory2 ! =m] t]m indicat+ t x gives a satisfactory acc\nt ( ! relations ( ! ph5om5a 9 ,space & ,"t1 t is1 ( ! ,motions !mselves2 :ile ! latt] expression implies fur!r t we include 9 our explanation ! ,causes ( ! motions1 ! laws ( ,=ce & ,matt]4 ,! /ronge/ ( ! consid]ations by :i* ,cop]nicus 0 l$ to inv5t & adopt 8 sy/em ( ! univ]se 7 ( ! =m] k9d4 ,he 0 dissatisfi$1 he says1 9 8 ,preface address$ to ! ,pope1 ) ! want ( symmetry 9 ! ,ecc5tric ,!ory1 z x prevail$ 9 8 days2 & we>y ( ! unc]ta9ty ( ! ma!matical traditions4 ,he !n s\ght ?r\gh all ! works ( philosoph]s1 :e!r any _h held op9ions conc]n+ ! motions ( ! _w1 diff]5t f ^? receiv$ 9 ! e/abli%$ ma!matical s*ools4 ,he f\nd1 9 anci5t au?ors1 acc\nts ( ,philolaus & o!rs1 :o _h ass]t$ ! motion ( ! e>?4 ,!n1 he adds1 ,i1 too1 began to m$itate conc]n+ ! motion ( ! e>?2 & ?\gh x appe>$ an absurd op9ion1 yet s9ce ,i knew t1 9 previ\s times1 o!rs _h be5 all[$ ! privilege ( feign+ :at circles !y *ose1 9 ord] to expla9 ! ph5om5a1 ,i conceiv$ t ,i also might take ! lib]ty ( try+ :e!r1 on ! supposition ( ! e>?'s motion1 x 0 possible to f9d bett] explanations ?an ! anci5t ones1 ( ! revolutions ( ! cele/ial orbs4 ,hav+ !n assum$ ! motions ( ! e>?1 :i* are h]eaft] expla9$1 by labori\s & long obs]vation ,i at l5g? f\nd1 t if ! motions ( ! o!r planets be comp>$ ) ! revolution ( ! e>?1 n only _! ph5om5a foll[ f ! suppositions1 b also t ! sev]al orbs1 & ! :ole sy/em1 are s connect$ 9 ord] & magnitude1 t no "o "p c be transpos$ )\t di/urb+ ! re/1 & introduc+ confusion into ! :ole univ]se4 ,?us ! satisfactory explanation ( ! app>5t motions ( ! planets1 & ! simplicity & symmetry ( ! sy/em1 7 ! #bfc gr\nds on :i* ,cop]nicus adopt$ 8 !ory2 z ! crav+ = ^! qualities 0 ! feel+ :i* l$ him to seek = a new !ory4 ,x is manife/ t 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r cases ( discov]y1 a cle> & /eady possession ( ab/ract ,ideas1 & an aptitude 9 compreh5d+ real ,facts "u ^! g5]al conceptions1 mu/ h be5 lead+ *>act]s 9 ! discov]]'s m9d4 ,he mu/ h _h a good geometrical head1 & great a/ronomical k4 ,he mu/ h se51 ) peculi> di/9ctness1 ! consequ5ces :i* fl[$ f 8 suppositions z to ! relations ( space & "t1--! app>5t motions :i* result$ f ! assum$ real ones2 & he mu/ also h kn[n well all ! irregul>ities ( ! app>5t motions = :i* he _h to acc\nt4 ,we f9d indications ( ^! qualities 9 8 expressions4 ,a /eady & calm contemplation ( ! !ory is :at he asks =1 z ! ma9 requisite to its reception4 ,if y suppose ! e>? to revolve & ! heav5 to be at re/1 y w f9d1 he says1 si s]io animadv]tas1 if y ?9k /eadily1 t ! app>5t diurnal motion w foll[4 ,& aft] alleg+ 8 reasons = 8 sy/em1 he says1#ge ,we are1 !re=e1 n a%am$ to confess1 t ! :ole ( ! space )9 ! orbit ( ! moon1 along ) ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 moves r\nd ! sun 9 a ye> among ! o!r planets2 ! magnitude ( ! _w be+ s great1 t ! di/ance ( ! e>? f ! sun has no app>5t magnitude :5 comp>$ ) ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s4 ,all :i* ?+s1 ?\gh !y be difficult & almo/ inconceivable1 & aga9/ ! op9ion ( ! majority1 yet1 9 ! sequel1 by ,god's favor1 we w make cle>] ?an ! sun1 at lea/ to ^? :o are n ignorant ( ma!matics4 ,note #ge3 ,nicolai ,cop]nici ,tor95sis de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,cle/ium ,libri ,,vi4 ,norimb]g1 ,m4,d4,,xliii4 p4 #i4 ,x w easily be und]/ood1 t s9ce ! anci5t geoc5tric hypo!sis ascrib$ to ! planets ^? motions :i* 7 app>5t only1 & :i* really arose f ! motion ( ! e>? r\nd ! sun 9 ! new hypo!sis1 ! latt] s*eme mu/ mu* simplify ! planet>y !ory4 ,kepl]#he enum]ates elev5 motions ( ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 :i* are at once ext]m9at$ & r5d]$ unnecess>y by ! new sy/em4 ,/ill1 z ! real motions1 bo? ( ! e>? & ! planets1 are unequable1 x 0 requisite to h "s mode ( repres5t+ _! inequalities2 &1 accord+ly1 ! anci5t !ory ( ecc5trics & epicycles 0 reta9$1 s f> z 0 requisite = ?is purpose4 ,! planets revolv$ r\nd ! sun by means ( a ,def]5t1 & a #bfd great & small ,epicycle2 or else by means ( an ,ecc5tric & ,epicycle1 modifi$ f ,ptolemy's1 = reasons :i* we %all %ortly m5tion4 ,?is mode ( repres5t+ ! motions ( ! planets cont9u$ 9 use1 until x 0 expell$ by ! discov]ies ( ,kepl]4 ,note #he3 ,my/4 ,cosm4 cap4 #a4 ,besides ! daily rotation ( ! e>? on its axis1 & its annual circuit ab\t ! sun1 ,cop]nicus attribut$ to ! axis a motion ( decl9ation1 by :i*1 dur+ ! :ole annual revolution1 ! pole 0 con/antly direct$ t[>ds ! same "p ( ! heav5s4 ,?is con/ancy 9 ! absolute direction ( ! axis1 or its mov+ p>allel to itself1 may be m correctly view$ z n indicat+ any sep>ate motion4 ,! axis cont9ues 9 ! same direction1 because !re is no?+ to make x *ange its direction2 j z a /raw1 ly+ on ! surface ( a cup ( wat]1 cont9ues to po9t ne>ly 9 ! same direction :5 ! cup is c>ri$ r\nd a room4 ,& ?is 0 notic$ by ,cop]nicus's adh]5t1 ,ro?man1#ie a few ye>s aft] ! publication ( ! "w ,de ,revolutionibus4 ,!re is no occasion1 he says1 9 a lett] to ,ty*o ,brahe1 = ! triple motion ( ! e>?3 ! annual & diurnal motions suffice4 ,?is error ( ,cop]nicus1 if x be look$ ^u z an error1 arose f 8 ref]r+ ! position ( ! axis to a limit$ space1 :i* he conceiv$ to be c>ri$ r\nd ! sun along ) ! e>?1 in/ead ( ref]r+ x to fix$ or absolute space4 ,:51 9 a ,planet>ium 7a ma*9e 9 :i* ! motions ( ! planets are imitat$71 ! e>? is c>ri$ r\nd ! sun by be+ fa/5$ to a mat]ial radius1 x is requisite to give a motion to ! axis by additional ma*9]y1 9 ord] to enable x to pres]ve its p>allelism4 ,a simil> confusion ( geometrical conception1 produc$ by a d\ble ref]5ce to absolute space & to ! c5tre ( revolution1 (t5 leads p]sons to dispute :e!r ! moon1 :i* revolves ab\t ! e>?1 always turn+ to x ! same face1 revolves ab\t h] axis or n4 ,note #ie3 ,ty*o4 ,epi/4 i4 p4 #ahd1 ,a4 ,d4 #aeij4 ,x is also to be notic$ t ! precession ( ! equ9oxes made x necess>y to suppose ! axis ( ! e>? to be n exactly p>allel to itself1 b to deviate f t position by a slight annual diff]5ce4 ,cop]nicus errone\sly supposes ! precession to be unequable2 & 8 me?od ( expla9+ ?is *ange1 :i* is simpl] ?an t ( ! anci5ts1 becomes m simple /ill1 :5 appli$ to ! true /ate ( ! facts4 ,! t5d5cies ( our speculative nature1 :i* c>ry u onw>ds 9 #bfe pursuit ( symmetry & rule1 & :i* ?us produc$ ! !ory ( ,cop]nicus1 z !y produce all !ories1 p]petually %[ _! vigor by ov]%oot+ _! m>k4 ,!y obta9 some?+ by aim+ at mu* m4 ,!y detect ! ord] & connection :i* exi/1 by imag9+ relations ( ord] & connection :i* h no exi/5ce4 ,real discov]ies are ?us mix$ ) baseless assumptions2 pr(\nd sagacity is comb9$ ) fanciful conjecture2 n r>ely1 or 9 peculi> in/ances1 b commonly1 & 9 mo/ cases2 probably 9 all1 if we c\ld read ! ?\ghts ( ! discov]]s z we read ! books ( ,kepl]4 ,to try wrong guesses is app>5tly ! only way to hit ^u "r ones4 ,! "* ( ! true philosoph] is1 n t he nev] conjectures haz>d\sly1 b t 8 conjectures are cle>ly conceiv$ & br\ght into rigid contact ) facts4 ,he sees & comp>es di/9ctly ! ideas & ! ?+s1--! relations ( 8 notions to ea* o!r & to ph5om5a4 ,"u ^! conditions x is n only excusable1 b necess>y = him1 to snat* at e semblance ( g5]al rule2--to try all promis+ =ms ( simplicity & symmetry4 ,cop]nicus is n exempt f giv+ u1 9 8 "w1 an example ( ?is "* ( ! inv5tive _s4 ,! axiom t ! cele/ial motions mu/ be circul> & uni=m1 appe>$ to him to h /rong claims to acceptation2 & 8 !ory ( ! inequalities ( ! planet>y motions is fa%ion$ ^u x4 ,8 great desire 0 to apply x m rigidly ?an ,ptolemy _h done4 ,! "t did n come = reject+ ?is axiom1 till ! obs]vations ( ,ty*o ,brahe & ! calculations ( ,kepl] _h be5 made4 ,i %all n attempt to expla91 9 detail1 ,cop]nicus's sy/em ( ! planet>y inequalities4 ,he reta9$ epicycles & ecc5trics1 alt]+ _! c5tres ( motion2 t is1 he reta9$ :at 0 true 9 ! old sy/em1 translat+ x into 8 own4 ,! peculi>ities ( 8 me?od consi/$ 9 mak+ su* a comb9ation ( epicycles z to supply ! place ( ! equant1#aje & to make all ! motions equable ab\t ! c5tres ( motion4 ,?is device 0 admir$ = a "t1 till ,kepl]'s elliptic !ory expell$ x1 ) all o!r =ms ( ! !ory ( epicycles3 b we mu/ obs]ve t ,cop]nicus 0 aw>e ( "s ( ! discrepancies :i* belong$ to t !ory z x _h1 up to t "t1 be5 prop\nd$4 ,9 ! case ( ,m]cury's orbit1 :i* is m ecc5tric ?an t ( ! o!r planets1 he makes suppositions :i* are complex inde$1 b :i* %[ 8 p]ception ( ! imp]fection ( #bff ! common !ory2 & he proposes a new !ory ( ! moon1 = ! v reason :i* did at la/ ov]turn ! doctr9e ( epicycles1 namely1 t ! ratio ( _! di/ances f ! e>? at diff]5t times 0 inconsi/5t ) ! circul> hypo!sis4#aae ,note #aje3 ,see ,b4 iii4 ,*ap4 9999iv4 ,sect4 #g4 ,note #aae3 ,de ,rev4 iv4 c4 #b4 ,x is obvi\s1 t1 along ) 8 ma!matical cle>ness ( view1 & 8 a/ronomical k1 ,cop]nicus mu/ h _h great intellectual boldness & vigor1 to conceive & fully develop a !ory s diff]5t z 8 0 f all receiv$ doctr9es4 ,8 pupil & expositor1 ,rheticus1 says to ,s*5]1 ,i beg y to h ?is op9ion conc]n+ t le>n$ man1 my ,preceptor2 t he 0 an ard5t admir] & foll[] ( ,ptolemy2 b :5 he 0 compell$ by ph5om5a & demon/ration1 he ?\ght he did well to aim at ! same m>k at :i* ,ptolemy _h aim$1 ?\gh ) a b[ & %afts ( a v diff]5t mat]ial f 84 ,we mu/ recollect :at ,ptolemy says1 ' 4 ',he :o is to foll[ philosophy mu/ be a freeman 9 m9d4' ,rheticus !n goes on to def5d 8 ma/] f ! *>ge ( disrespect to ! anci5ts3 ,t temp]1 he says1 is ali5 f ! disposition ( e good man1 & mo/ especially f ! _s ( philosophy1 & f no "o m utt]ly ?an f my ,preceptor4 ,he 0 v f> f ra%ly reject+ ! op9ions ( anci5t philosoph]s1 except = weighty reasons & irresi/ible facts1 ?r\gh any love ( novelty4 ,8 ye>s1 8 gravity ( "*1 8 excell5t le>n+1 8 magnanimity & nobl5ess ( _s1 are v f> f hav+ any liability to su* a temp]1 :i* belongs ei!r to y\?1 or to ard5t & light m9ds1 or to ^? 1 ':o ?9k mu* ( !mselves & "k little1' z ,ari/otle says4 ,und\bt$ly ?is def]5ce = ! great m5 ( ! pa/1 jo9$ ) ! tal5t ( seiz+ ! _s ( _! me?ods :5 ! lett] ( _! !ories is no long] t5able1 is ! true m5tal con/itution ( discov]]s4 ,besides ! intellectual en]gy :i* 0 requisite 9 ord] to con/ruct a sy/em ( doctr9es s novel z ^? ( ,cop]nicus1 "s c\rage 0 necess>y to ! publication ( su* op9ions2 c]ta91 z !y 71 to be met1 to a great ext5t1 by rejection & dispute1 & p]haps by *>ges ( h]esy & mis*iev\s t5d5cy4 ,?is la/ dang]1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be judg$ s great z we might inf] f ! angry controv]sies & acts ( au?ority :i* occurr$ 9 #bfg ,galileo's "t4 ,! ,dogmatism ( ! /ation>y p]iod1 :i* id5tifi$ ! cause ( philosophical & religi\s tru?1 _h n yet di/9ctly felt itself attack$ by ! advance ( physical k2 & !re=e _h n begun to look ) al>m on su* movem5ts4 ,/ill1 ! claims ( ,scripture & ( ecclesia/ical au?ority 7 ass]t$ z p>am\nt on all subjects2 & x 0 obvi\s t _m p]sons w\ld be disquiet$ or (f5d$ ) ! new int]pretation ( _m scriptural expressions1 :i* ! true !ory w\ld make necess>y4 ,?is evil ,cop]nicus appe>s to h =ese52 & ?is & o!r causes long )held him f publication4 ,he 0 himself an ecclesia/ic2 &1 by ! patronage ( 8 mat]nal uncle1 0 preb5d>y ( ! *ur* ( ,/4 ,john at ,?orn1 & a canon ( ! *ur* ( ,frau5burg1 9 ! diocese ( ,ermel&4#abe ,he _h be5 a /ud5t at ,bologna1 & _h taught ma!matics at ,rome 9 ! ye> #aejj2 & he aft]w>ds pursu$ 8 /udies & obs]vations at 8 resid5ce ne> ! m\? ( ! ,vi/ula4#ace ,8 discov]y ( 8 sy/em mu/ h occurr$ be=e #aejg1 = 9 #aedc he in=ms ,pope ,paulus ! ,?ird1 9 8 d$ication1 t he _h kept 8 book by him = f\r times ! n9e ye>s recomm5d$ by ,horace1 & !n only publi%$ x at ! e>ne/ entreaty ( 8 fri5d ,c>d9al ,s*omb]g1 ^: lett] is prefix$ to ! "w4 ,?\gh ,i "k1 he says1 t ! ?\ghts ( a philosoph] d n dep5d on ! judgm5t ( ! _m1 8 /udy be+ to seek out tru? 9 all ?+s z f> z t is p]mitt$ by ,god to human reason3 yet :5 ,i consid]$1 he adds1 h[ absurd my doctr9e w\ld appe>1 ,i long hesitat$ :e!r ,i %\ld publi% my book1 or :e!r x 7 n bett] to foll[ ! example ( ! ,py?agoreans & o!rs1 :o deliv]$ _! doctr9es only by tradition & to fri5ds4 ,x w be obs]v$ t he speaks "h ( ! opposition ( ! e/abli%$ s*ool ( ,a/ronom]s1 n ( ,div9es4 ,! latt]1 inde$1 he appe>s to consid] z a less =midable dang]4 ,if p]*ance1 he says at ! end ( 8 preface1 !re be 1 va9 babbl]s1 :o kn[+ no?+ ( ma!matics1 yet assume ! "r ( judg+ on acc\nt ( "s place ( ,scripture p]v]sely wre/$ to _! purpose1 & :o blame & attack my und]tak+2 ,i he$ !m n1 & look ^u _! judgm5ts z ra% & contemptible4 ,he !n goes on to %[ t ! globul> figure ( ! e>? 7:i* 01 ( c\rse1 at t "t1 an undisput$ po9t among a/ronom]s71 _h be5 oppos$ on simil> gr\nds by ,lactantius1 :o1 #bfh ?\gh a writ] ( cr$it 9 o!r respects1 _h spok5 v *ildi%ly 9 t matt]4 ,9 ano!r epi/le prefix$ to ! "w 7by ,&reas ,osi&]71 ! read] is rem9d$ t ! hypo!ses ( a/ronom]s are n necess>ily ass]t$ to be true1 by ^? :o propose !m1 b only to be a way ( repres5t+ facts4 ,we may obs]ve t1 9 ! "t ( ,cop]nicus1 :5 ! motion ( ! e>? _h n be5 connect$ ) ! physical laws ( matt] & motion1 x c\ld n be consid]$ s di/9ctly real z x necess>ily 0 held to be 9 aft] times4 ,note #abe3 ,rheticus1 ,n>4 p4 #id4 ,note #ace3 ,riccioli4 ,! delay ( ! publication ( ,cop]nicus's "w br\ght x to ! end ( 8 life2 he di$ 9 ! ye> #aedc1 9 :i* x 0 publi%$4 ,x 0 entitl$ ,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,cle/ium ,libri ,,vi4 ,he receiv$ ! only copy he ev] saw on ! day ( 8 dea?1 & nev] op5$ x3 he _h !n1 says ,gass5di1 8 biograph]1 o!r c>es4 ,8 sy/em 01 h[ev]1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 promulgat$1 & 8 fame diffus$ be=e t "t4 ,c>d9al ,s*omb]g1 9 8 lett] ( #aecf1 :i* has be5 already m5tion$1 says1 ,"s ye>s ago1 :5 ,i he>d tid+s ( y\r m]it by ! con/ant report ( all p]sons1 my affection = y 0 augm5t$1 & ,i congratulat$ ! m5 ( our "t1 among :om y fl\ri% 9 s mu* honor4 ,= ,i _h und]/ood t y 7 n only acqua9t$ ) ! discov]ies ( anci5t ma!maticians1 b also _h =m$ a new sy/em ( ! _w1 9 :i* y tea* t ! ,e>? moves1 ! ,sun occupies ! l[e/1 & consequ5tly1 ! middle place1 ! sph]e ( ! fix$ />s rema9s immovable & fix$1 & ! ,moon1 along ) ! elem5ts includ$ 9 h] sph]e1 plac$ betwe5 ! orbits 7clum7 ( ,m>s & ,v5us1 travels r\nd ! sun 9 a ye>ly revolution4#ade ,! writ] goes on to say t he has he>d t ,cop]nicus has writt5 a book 7,comm5t>ios71 9 :i* ?is sy/em is appli$ to ! con/ruction ( ,tables ( ! ,planet>y ,motions 7erratic>um /ell>um74 ,he !n proce$s to entreat him e>ne/ly to publi% 8 lucubrations4 #bfi ,note #ade3 ,?is passage has s important a place 9 ! hi/ory1 t ,i w give x 9 ! orig9al3--,intellex]am te non modo vet]um ma!maticorum inv5ta egregie call]e s$ etiam novam mundi rationem con/ituisse3 ,qua doceas t]ram mov]i3 solem imum mundi1 atque m$ium locum obt9]e3 clum octavum immotum atque fixum p]petuo man]e3 ,lunam se una cum inclusis su sph] elem5tis1 int] ,m>tis et ,v5]is clum sitam1 anniv]s>io cursu circum solem conv]t]e4 ,atque de hac tota a/ronomi ratione comm5t>ios a te confectos esse1 ac erratic>um /ell>um motus calculis subductos tabulis te contulisse1 maxima omnium cum admiratione4 ,quamobrem vir doctissime1 nisi tibi mole/us sum1 te etiam atque etiam oro vehem5t] ut hoc tuum inv5tum /udiosis communices1 et tuas de mundi sphra lucubrationes1 una cum ,tabulis et si quid habes prt]ea quod ad e&em rem p]t9eat primo quoque tempore ad me mittas4 ,?is lett] is dat$ #aecf1 & implies t ! "w ( ,cop]nicus 0 !n writt51 & kn[n to p]sons :o /udi$ a/ronomy4 ,delambre says t ,a*illes ,gass>us ( ,l9dau1 9 a lett] dat$ #aedj1 s5ds to 8 fri5d ,george ,vogel9 ( ,con/ance1 ! book ,de ,revolutionibus4 ,b ,mr4 ,de ,morgan#aee has po9t$ out t ! pr9t$ "w :i* ,gass>us s5t to ,vogel9 0 ! ,n>ratio by ,rheticus ( ,feldkir*1 a eulogium ( ,cop]nicus & 8 sy/em prefix$ to ! second edition ( ! ,de ,revolutionibus1 :i* appe>$ 9 #aeff4 ,9 ?is ,n>ration1 ,rheticus speaks ( ! "w ( ,cop]nicus z a ,pal+5esia1 or ,new ,bir? ( a/ronomy4 ,rheticus1 x appe>s1 _h gone to ,cop]nicus = ! purpose ( gett+ k ab\t triangles & trigonometrical tables1 & _h _h 8 att5tion call$ to ! helioc5tric !ory1 ( :i* he became an ard5t admir]4 ,he speaks ( 8 ,preceptor ) /rong admiration1 z we h se54 ,he appe>s to me1 says he1 m to resemble ,ptolemy ?an any o!r a/ronom]s4 ,?is1 x mu/ be recollect$1 0 select+ ! highe/ kn[n subject ( comp>ison4 ,note #aee3 ,a/4 ,mod4 i4 p4 #ach4 ,i owe ?is & _m o!r corrections to ! p]sonal k9dness ( ,mr4 ,de ,morgan4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sequel ,,to ,,cop]nicus4--,,! ,,reception ,,& ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,cop]nican ,,!ory4 ,sect4 #a4--;,fir/ ,reception ( ! ,cop]nican ,!ory4 ,,! !ories ( ,cop]nicus made _! way among a/ronom]s1 9 ! mann] 9 :i* true a/ronomical !ories always obta9 ! ass5t ( compet5t judges4 ,!y l$ to ! con/ruction ( ,tables ( ! motion ( ! sun1 moon1 & planets1 z ! !ories ( ,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy _h done2 & ! v]ification ( ! doctr9es 0 to be look$ =1 f ! agreem5t ( ^! ,tables ) obs]vation1 ?r\gh a suffici5t c\rse ( "t4 ,! "w ,de ,revolutionibus conta9s su* ,tables4 ,9 #aeea ,re9hold improv$ & republi%$ ,tables f\nd$ on ! pr9ciples ( ,cop]nicus4 ,we owe1 he says 9 8 preface1 great obligations to ,cop]nicus1 bo? = 8 labori\s #bgj obs]vations1 & = re/or+ ! doctr9e ( ! ,motions4 ,b ?\gh 8 geometry is p]fect1 ! good old man appe>s to h be51 at times1 c>eless 9 8 num]ical calculations4 ,i h1 !re=e1 recalculat$ ! :ole1 f a comp>ison ( 8 obs]vations ) ^? ( ,ptolemy & o!rs1 foll[+ no?+ b ! g5]al plan ( ,cop]nicus's demon/rations4 ,^! ,prut5ic ,tables 7 republi%$ 9 #aega & #aehe1 & cont9u$ 9 repute = "s "t2 till sup]s$$ by ! ,rudolph9e ,tables ( ,kepl] 9 #afbg4 ,! "n ,prut5ic1 or ,prussian1 0 employ$ by ! au?or z a m>k ( gratitude to 8 b5efactor ,alb]t1 ,m>kgrave ( ,br&5b\rg4 ,! discov]ies ( ,cop]nicus _h inspir$ neighbor+ nations ) ! ambition ( claim+ a place 9 ! lit]>y community ( ,europe4 ,9 some?+ ( ! same _s1 ,rheticus wrote an ,encomium ,borussi1 :i* 0 publi%$ along ) 8 ,n>ratio4 ,! ,tables f\nd$ ^u ! ,cop]nican sy/em 71 at fir/1 mu* m g5]ally adopt$ ?an ! helioc5tric doctr9e on :i* !y 7 f\nd$4 ,?us ,mag9i publi%$ at ,v5ice1 9 #aehg1 ,new ,!ories ( ! ,cele/ial ,orbits1 agree+ ) ! ,obs]vations ( ,ni*olas ,cop]nicus4 ,b 9 ! preface1 aft] prais+ ,cop]nicus1 he says1 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 he1 ei!r = ! sake ( %[+ 8 tal5ts1 or induc$ by 8 own reasons1 has reviv$ ! op9ion ( ,nicetas1 ,ari/>*us1 & o!rs1 conc]n+ ! motion ( ! e>?1 & has di/urb$ ! e/abli%$ con/itution ( ! _w1 :i* 0 a reason :y _m reject$1 or receiv$ ) dislike1 8 hypo!sis1 ,i h ?\ght x wor? :ile1 t1 reject+ ! suppositions ( ,cop]nicus1 ,i %\ld accommodate o!r causes to 8 obs]vations1 & to ! ,prut5ic ,tables4 ,?is doctr9e1 h[ev]1 01 z we h %[n1 receiv$ ) favor by _m p]sons1 ev5 be=e its g5]al publication4 ,! doctr9e ( ! motion ( ! e>? 0 fir/ publicly ma9ta9$ at ,rome by ,widman/adt1#afe :o pr(ess$ to h receiv$ x f ,cop]nicus1 & expla9$ ! ,sy/em be=e ! ,pope & ! ,c>d9als1 b did n tea* x to ! public4 ,note #afe3 ,see ,v5turi1 ,essai sur les ,ouvrages ,physico-,ma?matiques de ,leon>d da ,v9ci1 avec des ,fragm5s tirs de ses ,manuscrits apports d',italie4 ,p>is1 #agig2 &1 z !re quot$1 ,m>9i ,ar*iatri ,pontificii1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bea4 ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 :o 0 an em95t ma!matician1 z well z pa9t]1 ab\t #aeaj1 expla9$ h[ a body1 by describ+ a k9d ( spiral1 might desc5d t[>ds a revolv+ globe1 s t its app>5t motion relative to a po9t 9 ! surface ( ! globe1 might be 9 a #bga /raight l9e lead+ to ! c5tre4 ,he ?us %[$ t he _h ent]ta9$ 9 8 ?\ghts ! hypo!sis ( ! e>?'s rotation1 & 0 employ$ 9 remov+ ! difficulties :i* accompani$ ?is supposition1 by means ( ! consid]ation ( ! composition ( motions4 ,9 l mann] we f9d ! "q /irr$ by o!r em95t m54 ,?us ,john ,mull] ( ,konigsb]g1 a celebrat$ a/ronom] :o di$ 9 #adgf1 bett] kn[n by ! "n ( ,regiomontanus1 wrote a diss]tation on ! subject ,:e!r ! e>? be 9 motion or at re/1 9 :i* he decides ex pr(esso#age aga9/ ! motion4 ,yet su* discussions mu/ h made g5]ally kn[n ! argum5ts = ! helioc5tric !ory4 ,note #age3 ,s*on]i ,op]a1 "p ii4 p4 #abi4 ,we h already se5 ! en?usiasm ) :i* ,rheticus1 :o 0 ,cop]nicus's pupil 9 ! latt] ye>s ( 8 life1 speaks ( him4 ,?us1 says he1 ,god has giv5 to my excell5t preceptor a reign )\t end2 :i* may ,he v\*safe to guide1 gov]n1 & increase1 to ! re/oration ( a/ronomical tru?4 ,am54 ,( ! imm$iate conv]ts ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 :o adopt$ x be=e ! controv]sy on ! subject _h attract$ att5tion1 ,i %all only add 9999,m/l91 & 8 pupil1 ,kepl]4 9999,m/l9 publi%$ 9 #aehh an ,epitome ,a/ronomi1 9 :i* ! immobility ( ! e>? is ass]t$2 b 9 #aeif he edit$ ,kepl]'s ,my/]ium ,cosmographicum1 & ! ,n>ratio ( ,rheticus3 & 9 an epi/le ( 8 own1 :i* he ins]ts1 he def5ds ! ,cop]nican sy/em by ^? physical reason+s :i* we %all %ortly h to m5tion1 z ! usual argum5ts 9 ?is dispute4 ,kepl] himself1 9 ! outset ( ! "w j nam$1 says1 ,:5 ,i 0 at ,tb+51 att5d+ to ,mi*ael ,m/l91 be+ di/urb$ by ! manifold inconv5i5ces ( ! usual op9ion conc]n+ ! _w1 ,i 0 s delight$ ) ,cop]nicus1 ( :om he made great m5tion 9 8 lectures1 t ,i n only def5d$ 8 op9ions 9 our disputations ( ! c&idates1 b wrote a !sis conc]n+ ! ,fir/ ,motion :i* is produc$ by ! revolution ( ! e>?4 ,?is mu/ h be5 9 #aeij4 ,! diff]5ces ( op9ion respect+ ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 ( :i* we ?us see traces1 l$ to a controv]sy ( "s l5g? & ext5t4 ,?is controv]sy turn$ pr9cipally ^u physical consid]ations1 :i* 7 mu* m di/9ctly dealt ) by ,kepl]1 & o!rs ( ! foll[]s ( ,cop]nicus1 ?an !y _h be5 by ! #bgb discov]] himself4 ,i %all1 !re=e1 give a sep>ate consid]ation to ?is "p ( ! subject4 ,x may be prop]1 h[ev]1 9 ! fir/ place1 to make a few obs]vations on ! progress ( ! doctr9e1 indep5d5tly ( ^! physical speculations4 ,sect4 #b4--;,diffusion ( ! ,cop]nican ,!ory4 ,,! diffusion ( ! ,cop]nican op9ions 9 ! _w did n take place rapidly at fir/4 ,inde$1 x 0 necess>ily "s "t be=e ! progress ( obs]vation & ( !oretical me*anics gave ! helioc5tric doctr9e t sup]iority 9 argum5t1 :i* n[ makes u wond] t m5 %\ld h hesitat$ :5 x 0 pres5t$ to !m4 ,yet !re 7 "s speculators ( ?is k9d1 :o 7 attract$ at once by ! enl>g$ views ( ! univ]se :i* x op5$ to !m4 ,among ^! 0 ! un=tunate ,giordano ,bruno ( ,nola1 :o 0 burnt z a h]etic at ,rome 9 #afjj4 ,! h]esies :i* l$ to 8 unhappy fate 71 h[ev]1 n 8 a/ronomical op9ions1 b a "w :i* he publi%$ 9 ,engl&1 & d$icat$ to ,sir ,philip ,sydney1 "u ! title ( ,spaccio della ,be/ia ,trionfante1 & :i* is und]/ood to conta9 a bitt] satire ( religion & ! papal gov]nm5t4 ,montucla conceives t1 by 8 ra%ness 9 visit+ ,italy aft] putt+ =? su* a "w1 he compell$ ! gov]nm5t to act aga9/ him4 ,bruno embrac$ ! ,cop]nican op9ions at an e>ly p]iod1 & connect$ ) !m ! belief 9 innum]able worlds besides t :i* we inhabit2 z also c]ta9 metaphysical or !ological doctr9es :i* he call$ ! ,nolan philosophy4 ,9 #aeia he publi%$ ,de innum]abilibus1 imm5so1 et infigurabili1 seu de ,univ]so et ,mundis1 9 :i* he ma9ta9s t ea* /> is a sun1 ab\t :i* revolve planets l our e>?2 b ?is op9ion is mix$ up ) a l>ge mass ( baseless v]bal speculations4 ,giordano ,bruno is a disciple ( ,cop]nicus on :om we may look ) peculi> int]e/1 s9ce he probably _h a consid]able %>e 9 introduc+ ! new op9ions into ,engl&2#ahe al?\gh o!r p]sons1 z ,recorde1 ,field1 ,dee1 _h adopt$ x ne>ly ?irty ye>s e>li]2 & ,?omas ,digges t5 ye>s be=e1 mu* m expressly4 ,bruno visit$ ?is c\ntry 9 ! reign ( ,que5 ,elizabe?1 & speaks ( h] & ( h] c\ncillors 9 t]ms ( praise1 :i* appe> to %[ t #bgc 8 book 0 int5d$ = ,engli% read]s2 ?\gh he describes ! mob :i* 0 usually to be met ) 9 ! /reets ( ,london ) expressions ( great disgu/3 ,una plebe la quale 9 ess]e irrespettevole1 incivile1 rozza1 ru/ica1 selvatica1 et male allevata1 non c$e ad altra *e pasc] possa la t]ra nel suo s5o4#aie ,! "w to :i* ,i ref] is ,la ,c5a de le ,c5]e1 & n>rates :at took place at a supp] held on ! ev5+ ( ,a% ,w$nesday 7ab\t #aehc1 see p4 #ade ( ! book71 at ! h\se ( ,sir ,fulk ,greville1 9 ord] to give ,il ,nolano an opportunity ( def5d+ 8 peculi> op9ions4 ,8 pr9cipal antagoni/s are two ,dottori d' ,oxonia1 :om ,bruno calls ,nund9io & ,torquato4 ,! subject is n treat$ 9 any v ma/]ly mann] on ei!r side2 b ! au?or makes himself h greatly ! advantage n only 9 argum5t1 b 9 temp] & c\rtesy3 & 9 support ( 8 repres5tations ( p$antesca1 o/9atissima ignoranza et presunzione1 mi/a con una ru/ica incivilit1 *e f>ebbe prev>ic> la pazi5za di ,giobbe1 9 8 oppon5ts1 he ref]s to a public disputation :i* he _h held at ,ox=d ) ^! doctors ( !ology1 9 pres5ce ( ,pr9ce ,alasco1 & _m ( ! ,engli% nobility4#bje ,note #ahe3 ,see ,burton's ,anat4 ,mel4 ,pref4 ,"s prodigi\s t5et or p>adox ( ! e>?'s motion1 c4 ,bruno1 c4 ,note #aie3 ,op]e di ,giordano ,bruno1 vol4 i4 p4 #adf4 ,note #bje3 ,ib4 vol4 i4 p4 #agi4 ,among ! evid5ces ( ! difficulties :i* /ill lay 9 ! way ( ! reception ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 we may notice ,bacon1 :o1 z is well kn[n1 nev] gave a full ass5t to x4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t he does n reject ! op9ion ( ! e>?'s motion 9 s p]emptory & dogmatical a mann] z he is sometimes accus$ ( do+3 ?us 9 ! ,!ma ,cli he says1 ,! e>?1 !n1 be+ suppos$ to be at re/ 7= t n[ appe>s to u ! m true op9ion74 ,& 9 8 tract ,on ! ,cause ( ! ,tides1 he says1 ,if ! tide ( ! sea be ! extreme & dim9i%$ limit ( ! diurnal motion ( ! heav5s1 x w foll[ t ! e>? is immovable2 or at lea/ t x moves ) a mu* sl[] motion ?an ! wat]4 ,9 ! ,descriptio ,globi ,intellectualis he gives 8 reasons = n accept+ ! helioc5tric !ory4 ,9 ! sy/em ( ,cop]nicus !re are _m & grave difficulties3 = ! ?reefold motion ) :i* he encumb]s ! e>? is a s]i\s inconv5i5ce2 & ! sep>ation ( ! sun f ! planets1 ) :i* he has s _m affections 9 common1 is likewise a h>% /ep2 & ! introduction ( s _m immovable bodies into nature1 z :5 he makes ! sun & ! />s immovable1 ! bodies :i* are peculi>ly lucid & radiant2 & 8 mak+ ! moon adh]e to ! e>? 9 a sort ( epicycle2 & "s #bgd o!r ?+s :i* he assumes1 are proce$+s :i* m>k a man :o ?9ks no?+ ( introduc+ fictions ( any k9d into nature1 provid$ 8 calculations turn out well4 ,we h already expla9$ t1 9 attribut+ ?ree motions to ! e>?1 ,cop]nicus _h pres5t$ 8 sy/em encumb]$ ) a complexity n really belong+ to x4 ,b x w be se5 %ortly1 t ,bacon's fundam5tal objection to ?is sy/em 0 8 wi% = a sy/em :i* c\ld be support$ by s\nd physical consid]ations2 & x mu/ be all[$1 t at ! p]iod ( :i* we are speak+1 ?is _h n yet be5 done 9 favor ( ! ,cop]nican hypo!sis4 ,we may add1 h[ev]1 t x is n q cle> t ,bacon 0 9 full possession ( ! details ( ! a/ronomical sy/ems :i* t ( ,cop]nicus 0 int5d$ to sup]s$e2 & t ?us he1 p]haps1 did n see h[ mu* less h>% 7 ^! fictions1 z he call$ !m1 ?an ^? :i* 7 ! inevitable alt]natives4 ,p]haps he might ev5 be liable to a little ( t indi/9ctness1 ) respect to /rictly geometrical conceptions1 :i* we h rem>k$ 9 ,ari/otle4 ,we c h>dly o!rwise acc\nt = 8 n see+ any use 9 resolv+ ! app>5tly irregul> motion ( a planet into sep>ate regul> motions4 ,yet he speaks slight+ly ( ?is important /ep4#bae ,! motion ( planets1 :i* is con/antly talk$ ( z ! motion ( regression1 or r5it5cy1 f we/ to ea/1 & :i* is ascrib$ to ! planets z a prop] motion1 is n true2 b only arises f appe>ance1 f ! great] advance ( ! />ry heav5s t[>ds ! we/1 by :i* ! planets are left beh9d to ! ea/4 ,und\bt$ly ^? :o spoke ( su* a motion ( regression 7 aw>e ( ?is2 b !y saw h[ ! motion 0 simplifi$ by ?is way ( conceiv+ x1 :i* ,bacon seems n to h se54 ,?\gh1 !re=e1 we may admire ,bacon = ! /eadfa/ness ) :i* he look$ =w>d to physical a/ronomy z ! great & prop] object ( philosophical int]e/1 we _c give him cr$it = see+ ! full value & mean+ ( :at _h be5 done1 up to 8 "t1 9 ,=mal ,a/ronomy4 ,note #bae3 ,!ma ,cli1 p4 #bdf4 ,bacon's contempor>y1 ,gilb]t1 :om he frequ5tly praises z a philosoph]1 0 mu* m dispos$ to adopt ! ,cop]nican op9ions1 ?\gh ev5 he does n appe> to h made up 8 m9d to ass5t to ! :ole ( ! sy/em4 ,9 8 "w4 ,de ,magnete 7pr9t$ #afjj71 he gives ! pr9cipal argum5ts 9 favor ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 & decides t ! e>? revolves on its axis4#bbe ,he connects #bge ?is op9ion ) 8 magnetic doctr9es2 & especially endeavors by t means to acc\nt = ! precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,b he does n seem to h be5 equally confid5t ( its annual motion4 ,9 a po/hum\s "w1 publi%$ 9 #affa 7,de ,mundo ,no/ra ,sublun>i ,philosophia ,nova7 he appe>s to hesitate betwe5 ! sy/ems ( ,ty*o & ,cop]nicus4#bce ,inde$1 x is probable t at ?is p]iod _m p]sons 7 9 a /ate ( d\bt on su* subjects4 ,milton1 at a p]iod some:at lat]1 appe>s to h be5 /ill undecid$4 ,9 ! op5+ ( ! eigh? book ( ! ,p>adise ,lo/1 he makes ,adam /ate ! difficulties ( ! ,ptolemaic hypo!sis1 to :i* ! ar*angel ,raphael opposes ! usual answ]s2 b aft]w>ds sugge/s to 8 pupil ! new] sy/em3 4 4 4 4 ,:at if sev5? to ^! ,! planet e>?1 s /eadfa/ ?\gh %e seem1 ,ins5sibly ?ree diff]5t motions move8 ,p>4 ,lo/1 b4 viii4 ,note #bbe3 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 #c1 #d4 ,note #bce3 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 #bj4 ,milton's lean+1 h[ev]1 seems to h be5 = ! new sy/em2 we c h>dly believe t he w\ld o!rwise h conceiv$ s di/9ctly1 & describ$ ) su* obvi\s pleasure1 ! motion ( ! e>?3 ,or %e f we/ h] sil5t c\rse advance ,) in(f5sive pace1 t sp9n+ sleeps ,on h] s(t axle1 :ile %e paces ev51 ,& be>s !e s(t ) ! smoo? air along4 ,p>4 ,lo/1 b4 viii4 ,p]haps ! works ( ! celebrat$ ,bi%op ,wilk9s t5d$ m ?an any o!rs to ! diffusion ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em 9 ,engl&1 s9ce ev5 _! extravagances drew a /rong] att5tion to !m4 ,9 #afch1 :5 he 0 only tw5ty-f\r ye>s old1 he publi%$ a book entitl$ ,! ,discov]y ( a ,new ,_w2 or a ,disc\rse t5d+ to prove t x is probable !re may be ano!r habitable ,_w 9 ! ,moon2 ) a ,disc\rse conc]n+ ! possibility ( a passage ?i!r4 ,! latt] "p ( 8 subject 01 ( c\rse1 an obvi\s m>k = ! sne]s & witticisms ( critics4 ,two ye>s aft]w>ds1 9 #afdj1 appe>$ 8 ,disc\rse conc]n+ a new ,planet2 t5d+ to prove t x is probable our ,e>? is "o ( ! ,planets3 9 :i* he urg$ ! reasons 9 favor ( ! helioc5tric sy/em2 & expla9$ away ! opposite argum5ts1 especially ^? drawn f ! #bgf suppos$ decl>ations ( ,scripture4 ,probably a good deal 0 done = ! e/abli%m5t ( ^? op9ions by ,?omas ,salusbury1 :o 0 a w>m admir] ( ,galileo1 & publi%$1 9 #affa1 a translation ( sev]al ( 8 works be>+ ^u ?is subject4 ,! ma!maticians ( ?is c\ntry1 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 z ,napi] & ,briggs1 ,horrox & ,crabtree1 ,oughtr$ & ,se? ,w>d1 ,wallis & ,wr51 7 probably all decid$ ,cop]nicans4 ,kepl] d$icates "o ( 8 works to ,napi]1 & ,w>d inv5t$ an approximate me?od ( solv+ ,kepl]'s problem1 /ill kn[n z ! simple elliptical hypo!sis4 ,horrox wrote1 & wrote well1 9 def5ce ( ! ,cop]nican op9ion1 9 8 ,kepl]ian ,a/ronomy def5d$ & promot$1 compos$ 79 ,lat97 probably ab\t #afce1 b n publi%$ till #afgc1 ! au?or hav+ di$ at ! age ( tw5ty-two1 & 8 pap]s hav+ be5 lo/4 ,b ,salusbury's "w 0 calculat$ = ano!r circle ( read]s4 ,! book1 he says 9 ! introductory address1 be+1 = subject & design1 int5d$ *iefly = g5tlem51 ,i h be5 z c>eless ( us+ a /udi$ p$antry 9 my /yle1 z c>eful 9 contriv+ a pleasant & beautiful impression4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 to judge ( ! advantage "u :i* ! ,cop]nican sy/em n[ came =w>d1 we mu/ consid] ! additional evid5ce = x :i* 0 br\ght to light by ,galileo's a/ronomical discov]ies4 ,sect4 #c4--,! ,helioc5tric ,!ory confirm$ by ,facts4--,galileo's ,a/ronomical ,discov]ies4 ,,! long int]val :i* elaps$ betwe5 ! la/ great discov]ies made by ! anci5ts & ! fir/ made by ! mod]ns1 _h af=d$ ample "t = ! developm5t ( all ! important consequ5ces ( ! anci5t doctr9es4 ,b :5 ! human m9d _h be5 ?or\ghly r\s$ aga9 into activity1 ?is 0 no long] ! c\rse ( ev5ts4 ,discov]ies cr[d$ on ea* o!r2 "o wide field ( speculation 0 only j op5$1 :5 a ri*] promise tempt$ ! labor]s away into ano!r qu>t]4 ,h5ce ! hi/ory ( ?is p]iod conta9s ! beg9n+s ( _m sci5ces1 b exhibits none fully work$ out into a complete or f9al =m4 ,?us ! sci5ce ( ,/atics1 soon aft] its revival1 0 eclips$ & ov]laid by t ( ,dynamics2 & ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 consid]$ m]ely ) ref]5ce to ! views ( its au?or1 0 absorb$ 9 ! comm&+ int]e/ ( ,physical ,a/ronomy4 ,/ill1 advances 7 made :i* _h an important be>+ on ! #bgg helioc5tric !ory1 9 o!r ways ?an by ?r[+ light ^u its physical pr9ciples4 ,i speak ( ! new views ( ! heav5s :i* ! ,telescope gave2 ! visible inequalities ( ! moon's surface2 ! moon-l phases ( ! planet ,v5us2 ! discov]y ( ! ,satellites ( ,jupit]1 & ( ! ,r+ ( ,saturn4 ,^! discov]ies excit$ at ! "t ! /ronge/ int]e/2 bo? f ! novelty & beauty ( ! objects !y pres5t$ to ! s5se2 f ! way 9 :i* !y seem$ to gratify man's curiosity ) reg>d to ! remote p>ts ( ! univ]se2 & also f t ( :i* we h "h to speak1 _! be>+ ^u ! conflict ( ! old & ! new philosophy1 ! helioc5tric & geoc5tric !ories4 ,x may be true1 z ,lagrange & ,montucla say1 t ! laws :i* ,galileo discov]$ 9 ,me*anics impli$ a pr(\nd] g5ius ?an ! novelties he detect$ 9 ! sky3 b ! latt] naturally attract$ ! great] %>e ( ! att5tion ( ! _w1 & 7 matt] ( ke5] discussion4 ,x is n to our purpose to speak "h ( ! details & ( ! occasion ( ! inv5tion ( ! ,telescope2 x is well kn[n t ,galileo con/ruct$ 8 ab\t #afji1 & proce$$ imm$iately to apply x to ! heav5s4 ,! discov]y ( ! ,satellites ( ,jupit] 0 almo/ imm$iately ! rew>d ( 8 activity2 & ^! 7 ann\nc$ 9 8 ,nuncius ,sid]eus1 publi%$ at ,v5ice 9 #afaj4 ,! title ( ?is "w w be/ convey an idea ( ! claim x made to public notice3 ,! ,sid]eal ,mess5g]1 ann\nc+ great & v wond]ful spectacles1 & (f]+ !m to ! consid]ation ( e "o1 b especially ( philosoph]s & a/ronom]s2 :i* h be5 obs]v$ by ,galileo ,galilei1 c4 c41 by ! assi/ance ( a p]spective glass lately inv5t$ by him2 namely1 9 ! face ( ! moon1 9 innum]able fix$ />s 9 ! milky-way1 9 nebul\s />s1 b especially 9 f\r planets :i* revolve r\nd ,jupit] at diff]5t int]vals & p]iods ) a wond]ful cel]ity2 :i*1 hi!rto n kn[n to any "o1 ! au?or has rec5tly be5 ! fir/ to detect1 & has decre$ to call ! ,m$icean />s4 ,! int]e/ ?is discov]y excit$ 0 int5se3 & m5 7 at ?is p]iod s little habituat$ to accommodate _! convictions on matt]s ( sci5ce to newly obs]v$ facts1 t sev]al ( ! pap]-philosoph]s1 z ,galileo t]m$ !m1 appe> to h ?\ght !y c\ld get rid ( ^! new objects by writ+ books aga9/ !m4 ,! effect :i* ! discov]y _h ^u ! reception ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em 0 imm$iately v consid]able4 ,x %[$ t ! real univ]se 0 v diff]5t f t :i* anci5t philosoph]s _h imag9$1 #bgh & sugge/$ at once ! ?\ght t x conta9$ me*anism m v>i\s & m va/ ?an _h yet be5 conjectur$4 ,& :5 ! sy/em ( ! planet ,jupit] ?us (f]$ to ! bodily eye a model or image ( ! sol> sy/em accord+ to ! views ( ,cop]nicus1 x support$ ! belief ( su* an arrangem5t ( ! planets1 by an analogy all b irresi/ible4 ,x ?us1 z a writ]#bde ( our own times has said1 gave ! hold+ turn to ! op9ions ( mank9d respect+ ! ,cop]nican sy/em4 ,we may trace ?is effect 9 ,bacon1 ev5 ?\gh he does n ass5t to ! motion ( ! e>?4 ,we affirm1 he says1#bee ! sun-foll[+ arrangem5t 7solisequium7 ( ,v5us & ,m]cury2 s9ce x has be5 f\nd by ,galileo t ,jupit] also has att5dants4 ,note #bde3 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el4 ,note #bee3 ,!ma ,cli1 ix4 p4 #bec4 ,! ,nuncius ,sid]eus conta9$ o!r discov]ies :i* _h ! same t5d5cy 9 o!r ways4 ,! exam9ation ( ! moon %[$1 or at lea/ seem$ to %[1 t %e 0 a solid body1 ) a surface extremely rugg$ & irregul>4 ,?is1 ?\gh p]haps n be>+ directly ^u ! "q ( ! helioc5tric !ory1 0 yet a bl[ to ! ,ari/otelians1 :o _h1 9 _! philosophy1 made ! moon a body ( a k9d altoge!r diff]5t f ?is1 & _h giv5 an abundant quantity ( reasons = ! visible m>ks on h] surface1 all proce$+ on ^! preconceiv$ views4 ,o!rs ( 8 discov]ies produc$ ! same effect2 = in/ance1 ! new />s invisible to ! nak$ eye1 & ^? extraord9>y appe>ances call$ ,nebul4 ,b be=e ! end ( ! ye>1 ,galileo _h new in=mation to communicate1 be>+ m decid$ly on ! ,cop]nican controv]sy4 ,?is intellig5ce 0 inde$ decisive ) reg>d to ! motion ( ,v5us ab\t ! sun2 = he f\nd t t planet1 9 ! c\rse ( h] revolution1 assumes ! same succession ( phases :i* ! moon exhibits 9 ! c\rse ( a mon?4 ,?is he express$ by a ,lat9 v]se3 ,cyn?i figuras mulatur mat] amorum3 ,! ,que5 ( ,love l ,cyn?ia %apes h] =ms3 transpos+ ! lett]s ( ?is l9e 9 ! publi%$ acc\nt1 accord+ to ! practice ( ! age2 :i* ?us %[$ ! anci5t love = comb9+ v]bal puzzles ) sci5tific discov]ies1 :ile x betray$ ! new] feel+1 ( jeal\sy respect+ ! priority ( discov]y ( physical facts4 ,x _h always be5 a =midable objection to ! ,cop]nican !ory t ?is appe>ance ( ! planets _h n be5 obs]v$4 ,! au?or #bgi ( t !ory _h endeavor$ to acc\nt = ?is1 by suppos+ t ! rays ( ! sun pass$ freely ?r\gh ! body ( ! planet2 & ,galileo takes occasion to praise him = n be+ det]r$ f adopt+ ! sy/em :i*1 on ! :ole1 appe>$ to agree be/ ) ! ph5om5a1 by meet+ ) "s appe>ances :i* x did n enable him to expla94#bfe ,yet :ile ! fate ( ! !ory 0 yet undecid$1 ?is c\ld n b be look$ ^u z a weak po9t 9 its def5ces4 ,note #bfe3 ,dr9kwat]-,be?une1 ,life ( ,galileo1 p4 #ce4 ,! objection1 9 ano!r =m also1 0 emb>rass+ alike to ! ,ptolemaic & ,cop]nican sy/ems4 ,:y1 x 0 ask$1 did n ,v5us appe> f\r times z l>ge :5 ne>e/ to ! e>?1 z :5 fur!/ f x8 ,! au?or ( ! ,epi/le prefix$ to ,cop]nicus's "w _h tak5 refuge 9 ?is argum5t f ! dang] ( be+ suppos$ to believe 9 ! reality ( ! sy/em2 & ,bruno _h attempt$ to answ] x by say+1 t lum9\s bodies 7 n gov]n$ by ! same laws ( p]spective z opake ones4 ,b a m satisfactory answ] n[ readily (f]$ itself4 ,v5us does n appe> f\r times z l>ge :5 %e is f\r times z ne>1 because h] bright "p is n f\r times z l>ge1 ?\gh h] visible diamet] is2 & z %e is too small = u to see h] %ape ) ! nak$ eye1 we judge ( h] size only by ! quantity ( light4 ,! o!r great discov]ies made 9 ! heav5s by means ( telescopes1 z t ( ,saturn's r+ & 8 satellites1 ! spots 9 ! sun1 & o!rs1 belong to ! fur!r progress ( a/ronomy4 ,b we may "h obs]ve1 t ?is doctr9e ( ! motion ( ,m]cury & ,v5us ab\t ! sun 0 fur!r confirm$ by ,kepl]'s obs]vation ( ! transit ( ! =m] planet ov] ! sun 9 #afca4 ,our c\ntryman ,horrox 0 ! fir/ p]son :o1 9 #afci1 _h ! satisfaction ( see+ a transit ( ,v5us4 ,^! ev5ts are a rem>kable in/ance ( ! way 9 :i* a discov]y 9 art 7= at ?is p]iod1 ! mak+ ( telescopes mu/ be ma9ly s consid]$7 may influ5ce ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,we %all soon h to notice a /ill m rem>kable example ( ! way 9 :i* two sci5ces 7,a/ronomy & ,me*anics7 may influ5ce & promote ! progress ( ea* o!r4 #bhj ,sect4 #d4--,! ,cop]nican ,sy/em oppos$ on ,!ological ,gr\nds4 ,,! doctr9e ( ! ,e>?'s motion r\nd ! ,sun1 :5 x 0 ass]t$ & promulgat$ by ,cop]nicus1 soon aft] #aejj1 excit$ no visible al>m among ! !ologians ( 8 own "t4 ,inde$1 x 0 receiv$ ) favor by ! mo/ intellig5t ecclesia/ics2 & lectures 9 support ( ! helioc5tric doctr9e 7 deliv]$ 9 ! ecclesia/ical colleges4 ,b ! ass]tion & confirmation ( ?is doctr9e by ,galileo1 ab\t a c5tury lat]1 excit$ a /orm ( controv]sy1 & 0 visit$ ) sev]e condemnation4 ,galileo's own behavior appe>s to h provok$ ! int]f]5ce ( ! ecclesia/ical au?orities2 b !re mu/ h be5 a great *ange 9 ! temp] ( ! times to make x possible = 8 adv]s>ies to br+ d[n ! s5t5ce ( ! ,inquisition ^u op9ions :i* _h be5 s long curr5t )\t giv+ any s]i\s (f5ce4 #b;d ,ed4 ,x appe>s to me t ! diff]5t degree ( tol]ation accord$ to ! helioc5tric !ory 9 ! "t ( ,cop]nicus & ( ,galileo1 mu/ be ascrib$ 9 a great measure to ! controv]sies & al>ms :i* _h 9 ! mean "t aris5 out ( ! ,re=mation 9 religion1 & :i* _h r5d]$ ! ,romi% ,*ur* m jeal\s ( innovations 9 receiv$ op9ions ?an x _h previ\sly be54 ,x appe>s too t ! discussion ( su* novel doctr9es 01 at t "t at lea/1 less freely tol]at$ 9 ,italy ?an 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,9 #aeig1 ,kepl] writes to ,galileo ?us3 ,confide ,galile et progr$]e4 ,si b5e conjecto1 pauci de prcipuis ,europ ,ma!maticis a nobis sec$]e vol5t2 tanta vis e/ v]itatis4 ,si tibi ,italia m9us e/ idonea ad publicationem et si aliqua habitures es imp$im5ta1 =san ,g]mania nobis hanc lib]tatem conc$et4--,v5turi1 ,mem4 di ,galileo1 vol4 i4 p4 #ai4 ,i w\ld n h[ev] be und]/ood to ass]t ! condemnation ( new doctr9es 9 sci5ce to be ei!r a g5]al or a *>act]i/ic practice ( ! ,romi% ,*ur*4 ,c]ta9ly ! intellig5t & cultivat$ m9ds ( ,italy1 & _m ( ! mo/ em95t ( h] ecclesia/ics among !m1 h always be5 ! =emo/ 9 promot+ & welcom+ ! progress ( sci5ce3 &1 z ,i h /at$1 !re 7 f\nd among ! ,italian ecclesia/ics ( ,galileo's "t _m ( ! e>lie/ & mo/ enlight5$ adh]5ts ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em4 ,! condemnation ( ! doctr9e ( ! e>?'s motion1 is1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 ! only in/ance 9 :i* ! ,papal au?ority has pron\nc$ a decree ^u a po9t ( sci5ce4 ,& ! mo/ c&id ( ! #bha adh]5ts ( ! ,romi% ,*ur* condemn ! assumption ( au?ority 9 su* matt]s1 :i* 9 ?is "o in/ance1 at lea/1 0 made by ! ecclesia/ical tribunals4 ,! au?or ( ! ,ages ( ,fai? 7book viii4 p4 #bdh7 says1 ,a congregation1 x is to be lam5t$1 decl>$ ! new sy/em to be oppos$ to ,scripture1 & !re=e h]etical4 ,9 m rec5t times1 z ,i h else:]e rem>k$1#bge ! ,*ur* ( ,au?ority & ! ,*ur* ( ,private ,judgm5t h ea* its peculi> temptations & dang]s1 :5 !re appe>s to be a discrepance betwe5 ,scripture & ,philosophy4 ,note #bge3 ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sci4 book x4 *ap4 #d4 ,b ?\gh we may acquit ! popes & c>d9als 9 ,galileo's "t ( /upidity & p]v]s5ess 9 reject+ manife/ sci5tific tru?s1 ,i d n see h[ we c acquit !m ( dissimulation & duplicity4 ,^? p]sons appe> to me to def5d 9 a v /range mann] ! conduct ( ! ecclesia/ical au?orities ( t p]iod1 :o boa/ ( ! lib]ality ) :i* ,cop]nican pr(essors 7 plac$ by !m 9 important (fices1 at ! v "t :5 ! motion ( ! e>? _h be5 decl>$ by ! same au?orities contr>y to ,scripture4 ,su* m]its _c make u approve ( _! conduct 9 dem&+ f ,galileo a public recantation ( ! sy/em :i* !y ?us favor$ 9 o!r ways1 & :i* !y _h repeat$ly told ,galileo he might hold z mu* z he pleas$4 ,nor c any "o1 read+ ! pla9 language ( ! ,s5t5ce pass$ ^u ,galileo1 & ( ! ,abjuration =c$ f him1 f9d any value 9 ! plea :i* has be5 urg$1 t ! op9ion 0 d5om9at$ a h]esy only 9 a wide1 improp]1 & te*nical s5se4 ,b if we are ?us unable to excuse ! conduct ( ,galileo's judges1 ,i d n see h[ we c give our unconditional admiration to ! philosoph] himself4 ,p]haps ! conv5tional decorum :i*1 z we h se51 0 requir$ 9 treat+ ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 may excuse or expla9 ! furtive mode ( ins9uat+ 8 doctr9es :i* he (t5 employs1 & :i* "s ( 8 hi/orians admire z subtle irony1 :ile o!rs blame x z ins9c]ity4 ,b ,i d n see ) :at propriety ,galileo c be look$ ^u z a ,m>tyr ( ,sci5ce4 ,und\bt$ly he 0 v desir\s ( promot+ :at he conceiv$ to be ! cause ( philosophical tru?2 b x w\ld seem t1 :ile he 0 re/less & eag] 9 urg+ 8 op9ions1 he 0 always ready to make su* submissions z ! spiritual tribunals requir$4 ,he w\ld really h act$ z a m>tyr1 if he _h utt]$ #bhb 8 ,e pur si muove1 9 ! place ( 8 abjuration1 n aft] x4 ,b ev5 9 ?is case he w\ld h be5 a m>tyr to a cause ( :i* ! m]it 0 ( a m+l$ sci5tific "*2 = 8 own special & favorite %>e 9 ! reason+s by :i* ! ,cop]nican sy/em 0 support$1 0 ! argum5t drawn f ! flux & reflux ( ! sea1 :i* argum5t is altoge!r false4 ,he consid]$ ?is z supply+ a me*anical gr\nd ( belief1 )\t :i* ! m]e a/ronomical reasons 7 q insuffici5t2 b 9 ?is case he 0 des]t$ by ! me*anical sagacity :i* appe>$ 9 8 o!r speculations4 ,! helioc5tric doctr9e _h = a c5tury be5 mak+ its way into ! m9ds ( ?\ghtful m51 on ! g5]al gr\nd ( its simplicity & symmetry4 ,galileo appe>s to h ?\ght t n[1 :5 ^! orig9al recomm5dations ( ! sy/em _h be5 re9=c$ by 8 own discov]ies & reason+s1 x ought to be univ]sally ackn[l$g$ z a tru? & a reality4 ,& :5 argum5ts aga9/ ! fixity ( ! sun & ! motion ( ! e>? 7 adduc$ f ! expressions ( ,scripture1 he c\ld n be satisfi$ )\t ma9ta9+ 8 favorite op9ion to be con=mable to ,scripture z well z to ,philosophy2 & he 0 v eag] 9 8 attempts to obta9 f au?ority a decl>ation to ?is effect4 ,! ecclesia/ical au?orities 7 naturally av]se to express !mselves 9 favor ( a novel op9ion1 />tl+ to ! common m9d1 & contr>y to ! mo/ obvi\s mean+ ( ! words ( ! ,bible2 & :5 !y 7 compell$ to pron\nce1 !y decid$ aga9/ ,galileo & 8 doctr9es4 ,he 0 accus$ be=e ! ,inquisition 9 #afae2 b at t p]iod ! result 0 t he 0 m]ely recomm5d$ to conf9e himself to ! ma!matical reason+s ^u ! sy/em1 & to ab/a9 f m$dl+ ) ! ,scripture4 ,galileo's zeal = 8 op9ions soon l$ him aga9 to br+ ! "q "u ! notice ( ! ,pope1 & ! result 0 a decl>ation ( ! ,inquisition t ! doctr9e ( ! e>?'s motion appe>$ to be contr>y to ! ,sacr$ ,scripture4 ,galileo 0 prohibit$ f def5d+ & tea*+ ?is doctr9e 9 any mann]1 & promis$ ob$i5ce to ?is injunction4 ,b 9 #afcb he publi%$ 8 9999,dialogo delli due ,massimi ,si/emi del ,mondo1 ,tolemaico e ,cop]nicano3 & 9 ?is he def5d$ ! helioc5tric sy/em by all ! /ronge/ argum5ts :i* its admir]s us$4 ,n only s1 b he introduc$ into ?is ,dialogue a "* "u ! "n ( ,simplicius1 9 ^: m\? 0 put ! def5ce ( all ! anci5t dogmas1 & :o 0 repres5t$ z defeat$ at all po9ts 9 ! discussion2 #bhc & he prefix$ to ! ,dialogue a ,notice1 ,to ! ,discreet ,read]1 9 :i*1 9 a ve9 ( transp>5t irony1 he assign$ 8 reasons = ! publication4 ,"s ye>s ago1 he says1 a :olesome edict 0 promulgat$ at ,rome1 :i*1 9 ord] to *eck ! p]il\s sc&als ( ! pres5t age1 impos$ sil5ce ^u ! ,py?agorean op9ion ( ! motion ( ! e>?4 ,!re 7 n want+1 he adds1 p]sons :o ra%ly ass]t$ t ?is decree 0 ! result1 n ( a judici\s inquiry1 b ( a passion ill-in=m$2 & compla9ts 7 he>d t c\nsellors1 utt]ly unacqua9t$ ) a/ronomical obs]vations1 ought n to be all[$1 ) _! undue prohibitions1 to clip ! w+s ( speculative intellects4 ,at ! he>+ ( ra% lam5tations l ^!1 my zeal c\ld n keep sil5ce4 ,& he !n goes on to say t he wi%es1 by ! publication ( 8 ,dialogue to %[ t ! subject _h be5 fully exam9$ at ,rome4 ,! result ( ?is 0 t ,galileo 0 condemn$ = 8 infraction ( ! injunction laid ^u him 9 #afaf2 8 ,dialogue 0 prohibit$2 he himself 0 comm&$ to abjure on 8 knees ! doctr9e :i* he _h taught2 & ?is abjuration he p]=m$4 ,?is celebrat$ ev5t mu/ be look$ ^u r z a "q ( decorum ?an a /ruggle 9 :i* ! int]e/s ( tru? & free inquiry 7 deeply conc]n$4 ,! g5]al acceptance ( ! ,cop]nican ,sy/em 0 no long] a matt] ( d\bt4 ,sev]al p]sons 9 ! highe/ positions1 includ+ ! ,pope himself1 look$ ^u ! doctr9e ) favorable eyes2 & _h %[n _! int]e/ 9 ,galileo & 8 discov]ies4 ,!y _h tri$ to prev5t 8 involv+ himself 9 tr\ble by discuss+ ! "q on scriptural gr\nds4 ,x is probable t 8 k ( ^? favorable dispositions t[>ds himself & 8 op9ions l$ him to suppose t ! slighte/ color ( pr(ess$ submission to ! ,*ur* 9 8 belief1 w\ld enable 8 argum5ts 9 favor ( ! sy/em to pass unvisit$3 ! notice :i* ,i h quot$1 9 :i* ! irony is q transp>5t & ! s>casm gl>+ly obvi\s1 0 deem$ too flimsy a veil = ! purpose ( dec5cy1 & inde$ mu/ h aggravat$ ! (f5ce4 ,b x is n to be suppos$ t ! inquisitors believ$ ,galileo's abjuration to be s9c]e1 or ev5 t !y wi%$ x to be s4 ,x is /at$ t :5 ,galileo _h made 8 r5unciation ( ! e>?'s motion1 he rose f 8 knees1 & /amp+ on ! e>? ) 8 foot1 said1 ,e pur si muove--,& yet x does move4 ,?is is sometimes repres5t$ z ! h]oic soliloquy ( a m9d *]i%+ its conviction ( ! tru? 9 spite ( p]secution2 ,i ?9k we may m naturally conceive x utt]$ z a playful #bhd epigram 9 ! e> ( a c>d9al's secret>y1 ) a full k t x w\ld be imm$iately repeat$ to 8 ma/]4 #b;d ,ed4 ,?r\gh\t ! c\rse ( ! proce$+s aga9/ him1 ,galileo 0 treat$ ) great c\rtesy & indulg5ce4 ,he 0 condemn$ to a =mal imprisonm5t & a v light discipl9e4 ,te damnamus ad =malem c>c]em hujus ,s4 ,(ficii ad tempus arbitrio no/ro limit&um2 et titulo pnit5ti salut>is prcipimus ut tribus annis futuris recites 9999semel 9 hebdomad septem psalmos p5it5tiales4 ,b ?is conf9em5t 0 r$uc$ to 8 be+ plac$ "u "s slight re/rictions1 fir/ at ! h\se ( ,nicol9i1 ! ambassador ( 8 own sov]eign1 & aft]w>ds at ! c\ntry seat ( ,ar*bi%op ,piccolom9i1 "o ( 8 own w>me/ fri5ds4 ,x has sometimes be5 ass]t$ or ins9uat$ t ,galileo 0 subject$ to bodily torture4 ,an argum5t has be5 drawn f ! expressions us$ 9 8 s5t5ce3 ,cum v]o nobis vid]etur non esse a te integram v]itatem pronunciatam circa tuam int5tionem2 judicavimus necesse esse v5ire ad rigorosum exam5 tui1 9 quo respondi/i ca?olic4 ,x has be5 argu$ by ,m4 ,libri 7,hi/4 des ,sci5ces ,ma?matiques en ,italie1 vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #bei71 & ,m4 ,qu9et 7,l',ultramontanisme1 ,,iv4 ,leon1 p4 #ajd71 t ! rigorosum exam5 necess>ily implies bodily torture1 not)/&+ t no su* ?+ is m5tion$ by ,galileo & 8 contempor>ies1 & not)/&+ ! consid]ation ) :i* he 0 treat$ 9 all o!r respects3 b ,m4 ,biot m ju/ly rem>ks 7,biogr4 ,univ4 ,art4 ,galileo71 t su* a proc$ure is incr$ible4 ,to ! op9ion ( ,m4 ,biot1 we may add t ( ,delambre1 :o rejects ! notion ( ,galileo's hav+ be5 put to ! torture1 z inconsi/5t ) ! g5]al conduct ( ! au?orities t[>ds him1 & z irreconcilable ) ! acc\nts ( ! trial giv5 by ,galileo himself1 & by a s]vant ( 81 :o nev] quitt$ him = an in/ant4 ,he adds also1 t x is inconsi/5t ) ! words ( 8 s5t5ce1 ne tuus i/e gravis et p]niciosus error ac transgressio remaneat omn9o impunitus2 = ! error w\ld h be5 already v f> f impunity1 if ,galileo _h be5 previ\sly subject$ to ! rack4 ,he adds1 v reasonably1 il ne faut noircir p]sonne sans preuve1 pas mme l',inquisition2--we mu/ n calumniate ev5 ! ,inquisition4 ,! ecclesia/ical au?orities hav+ once decl>$ ! doctr9e ( ! e>?'s motion to be contr>y to ,scripture & h]etical1 long adh]$ 9 =m to ?is decl>ation1 & did n all[ ! ,cop]nican sy/em to be taught 9 any o!r way ?an z an hypo!sis4 ,! #bhe ,padua edition ( ,galileo's works1 publi%$ 9 #agdd1 conta9s ! ,dialogue :i* n[1 ! editors say1 ,esce f9alm5te a pubblico lib]o uso colle debite lic5ze1 is n[ at la/ freely publi%$ ) ! requisite lic5se2 b !y add1 quanto alla ,qui/ione pr9cipale del moto della t]ra1 an*e noi ci con=miamo alla ritrazione et prote/a dell' ,autore1 di*i>&o nella piu sol5ne =ma1 *e non pu1 n dee ammet]si se non come pura ,ipotesi ,ma!matice1 *e s]ve a spieg>e piu agevolam5to c]ti f5om5i2 nei!r c nor ought to be admitt$ except z a conv5i5t hypo!sis4 ,& 9 ! edition ( ,newton's ,pr9cipia1 publi%$ 9 #agfj1 by ,le ,sueur & ,jacqui]1 ( ! ,ord] ( ,m9ims1 ! editors prefix to ! ,?ird ,book _! ,decl>atio1 t ?\gh ,newton assumes ! hypo!sis ( ! motion ( ! e>?1 & !re=e !y _h us$ simil> language1 !y 71 9 do+ ?is1 assum+ a "* :i* did n belong to !m4 ,h9c ali5am coacti sumus g]]e p]sonam4 ,!y add1 ,ct]um latis a summis ,pontificibus contra telluris motum ,decretis1 nos obsequi pr(itemur4 ,by ?us mak+ decrees aga9/ a doctr9e :i* 9 ! c\rse ( "t 0 e/abli%$ z an indisputable sci5tific tru?1 ! ,see ( ,rome 0 guilty ( an unwise & un=tunate /ret* ( ecclesia/ical au?ority4 ,b ?\gh we d n hesitate to pron\nce su* a judgm5t on ?is case1 we may add t !re is a "q ( no small real difficulty1 :i* ! progress ( sci5ce (t5 br+s into notice1 z x did !n4 ,! ,revelation on :i* our religion is f\nd$1 seems to decl>e1 or to take = grant$1 op9ions on po9ts on :i* ,sci5ce also gives h] decision2 & we !n come to ?is dilemma1--t doctr9es1 e/abli%$ by a sci5tific use ( reason1 may seem to contradict ! decl>ations ( ,revelation1 accord+ to our view ( its mean+2--& yet1 t we _c1 9 consi/5cy ) our religi\s views1 make reason a judge ( ! tru? ( reveal$ doctr9es4 ,9 ! case ( ,a/ronomy1 on :i* ,galileo 0 call$ 9 "q1 ! g5]al s5se ( cultivat$ & sob]-m9d$ m5 has long ago drawn t di/9ction betwe5 religi\s & physical t5ets1 :i* is necess>y to resolve ?is dilemma4 ,on ?is po9t1 x is reasonably held1 t ! phrases :i* are employ$ 9 ,scripture respect+ a/ronomical facts1 are n to be made use ( to guide our sci5tific op9ions2 !y may be suppos$ to answ] _! end if !y fall 9 ) common notions1 & are ?us effectually subs]vi5t to ! moral & religions import ( ,revelation4 ,b ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is di/9ction 0 n accompli%$ )\t long & di/ress+ controv]sies4 ,nor1 if we wi% to #bhf include all cases 9 :i* ! same dilemma may aga9 come into play is x easy to lay d[n an adequate canon = ! purpose4 ,= we c h>dly =esee1 be=eh&1 :at "p ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! univ]se may ev5tually be f\nd to come )9 ! doma9 ( sci5ce2 or :at be>+ ! t5ets1 :i* sci5ce e/abli%es1 may h ^u our view ( ! provid5tial & reveal$ gov]nm5t ( ! _w4 ,b )\t attempt+ "h to g5]alize on ?is subject1 !re are two reflections :i* may be wor? our notice3 !y are support$ by :at took place 9 ref]5ce to ,a/ronomy on ! occasion ( :i* we are speak+2 & may1 at o!r p]iods1 be applicable to o!r sci5ces4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! mean+ :i* any g5]ation puts ^u ! phrases ( ,scripture1 dep5ds1 m ?an is at fir/ sight suppos$ ^u ! receiv$ philosophy ( ! "t4 ,h5ce1 :ile m5 imag9e t !y are cont5d+ = ,revelation1 !y are1 9 fact1 cont5d+ = _! own int]pretation ( ,revelation1 unconsci\sly adapt$ to :at !y believe to be rationally probable4 ,& ! new int]pretation1 :i* ! new philosophy requires1 & :i* appe>s to ! old] s*ool to be a fatal viol5ce done to ! au?ority ( religion1 is accept$ by _! successors )\t ! dang]\s results :i* 7 appreh5d$4 ,:5 ! language ( ,scripture1 inve/$ ) its new mean+1 has become famili> to m51 x is f\nd t ! ideas :i* x calls up1 are q z reconcilable z ! =m] ones 7 ) ! s\nde/ religi\s views4 ,& ! _w !n looks back ) surprise at ! error ( ^? :o ?\ght t ! ess5ce ( ,revelation 0 involv$ 9 _! own arbitr>y v]sion ( "s collat]al circum/ance4 ,at ! pres5t day we c h>dly conceive h[ reasonable m5 %\ld h imag9$ t religi\s reflections on ! /ability ( ! e>?1 & ! beauty & use ( ! lum9>ies :i* revolve r\nd x1 w\ld be int]f]$ ) by its be+ ackn[l$g$ t ?is re/ & motion are app>5t only4 ,9 ! next place1 we may obs]ve t ^? :o ?us adh]e t5aci\sly to ! tradition>y or arbitr>y mode ( und]/&+ ,scriptural expressions ( physical ev5ts1 are always /rongly condemn$ by succe$+ g5]ations4 ,!y are look$ ^u ) contempt by ! _w at l>ge1 :o _c ent] into ! obsolete difficulties ) :i* !y encumb]$ !mselves2 & ) pity by ! m consid]ate & s]i\s1 :o "k h[ mu* sagacity & rightm9d$ness are requisite = ! conduct ( philosoph]s & religi\s m5 on su* occasions2 b :o "k also h[ weak & va9 is ! attempt #bhg to get rid ( ! difficulty by m]ely d5\nc+ ! new t5ets z inconsi/5t ) religi\s belief1 & by visit+ ! promulgators ( !m ) sev]ity su* z ! /ate ( op9ions & in/itutions may all[4 ,! prosecutors ( ,galileo are /ill up to ! scorn & av]sion ( mank9d3 al?\gh1 z we h se51 !y did n act till x seem$ t _! position compell$ !m to d s1 & !n proce$$ ) all ! g5tl5ess & mod]ation :i* 7 compatible ) judicial =ms4 ,sect4 #e4--,! ,helioc5tric ,!ory confirm$ on ,physical consid]ations4--7,prelude to ,kepl]'s ,a/ronomical ,discov]ies47 ,,by physical views1 ,i mean1 z ,i h already said1 ^? :i* dep5d on ! causes ( ! motions ( matt]1 z1 = in/ance1 ! consid]ation ( ! nature & laws ( ! =ce by :i* bodies fall d[nw>ds4 ,su* consid]ations 7 necess>ily & imm$iately br\ght "u notice by ! exam9ation ( ! ,cop]nican !ory2 b ! loose & inaccurate notions :i* prevail$ respect+ ! nature & laws ( =ce1 prev5t$1 = "s "t1 all di/9ct reason+ on ?is subject1 & gave tru? little advantage ov] error4 ,! =mation ( a new ,sci5ce1 ! ,sci5ce ( ,motion & its ,causes1 0 requisite1 be=e ! helioc5tric sy/em c\ld h ju/ice done x ) reg>d to ?is "p ( ! subject4 ,?is discussion 0 at fir/ c>ri$ on1 z 0 to be expect$1 9 t]ms ( ! receiv$1 t is1 ! ,ari/otelian doctr9es4 ,?us1 ,cop]nicus says t t]re/rial ?+s appe> to be at re/ :5 !y h a motion accord+ to nature1 t is1 a circul> motion2 & asc5d or desc5d :5 !y h1 9 addition to ?is1 a rectil9e> motion by :i* !y 9999endeavor to get into _! own place4 ,b 8 disciples soon began to "q ! ,ari/otelian dogmas1 & to seek = s\nd] views by ! use ( _! own reason4 ,! great argum5t aga9/ ?is sy/em1 says ,m/l91 is t heavy bodies are said to move to ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 & light bodies f ! c5tre4 ,b ,i w\ld ask1 :]e d we get ?is exp]i5ce ( heavy & light bodies8 & h[ is our k on ^! subjects ext5d$ s f> t we c reason ) c]ta9ty conc]n+ ! c5tre ( ! :ole univ]se8 ,is n ! only resid5ce & home ( all ! ?+s :i* are heavy & light to u1 ! e>? & ! air :i* surr\nds x8 & :at is ! e>? & ! ambi5t air1 ) respect to ! imm5sity ( ! univ]se8 ,x is a po9t1 a punctule1 or some?+1 if !re be any ?+1 /ill less4 ,z our light & heavy bodies t5d to #bhh ! c5tre ( our e>?1 x is cr$ible t ! sun1 ! moon1 & ! o!r lights1 h a simil> affection1 by :i* !y rema9 r\nd z we see !m2 b none ( ^! c5tres is necess>ily ! c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,! mo/ obvi\s & important physical difficulty att5dant ^u ! supposition ( ! motion ( ! e>? 0 ?us /at$3 ,if ! e>? move1 h[ is x t a /one1 dropp$ f ! top ( a high t[]1 falls exactly at ! foot ( ! t[]8 s9ce ! t[] be+ c>ri$ f we/ to ea/ by ! diurnal revolution ( ! e>?1 ! /one mu/ be left beh9d to ! we/ ( ! place f :i* x 0 let fall4 ,! prop] answ] to ?is 01 t ! motion :i* ! fall+ body receiv$ f its t5d5cy d[nw>ds 0 comp\nd$ ) ! motion :i*1 be=e x fell1 x _h 9 virtue ( ! e>?'s rotation3 b ?is answ] c\ld n be cle>ly made or appreh5d$1 till ,galileo & 8 pupils _h e/abli%$ ! laws ( su* ,compositions ( motion aris+ f diff]5t =ces4 ,ro?man1 ,kepl]1 & o!r def5d]s ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 gave _! reply some:at at a v5ture1 :5 !y ass]t$ t ! motion ( ! e>? 0 communicat$ to bodies at its surface4 ,/ill1 ! facts :i* indicate & e/abli% ?is tru? are obvi\s1 :5 ! subject is /eadily consid]$2 & ! ,cop]nicans soon f\nd t !y _h ! sup]iority ( argum5t on ?is po9t z well z o!rs4 ,! attacks ^u ! ,cop]nican sy/em by ,durret1 ,mor91 ,riccioli1 & ! def5ce ( x by ,galileo1 ,lansb]g1 ,gass5di1#bhe left on all c&id reason]s a cle> impression 9 fav\r ( ! sy/em4 ,mor9 attempt$ to /op ! motion ( ! e>?1 :i* he call$ break+ its w+s2 8 ,al ,t]r ,fract 0 publi%$ 9 #afdc1 & answ]$ by ,gass5di4 ,& ,riccioli1 z late z #afec1 9 8 ,almage/um ,novum1 enum]at$ fifty-sev5 ,cop]nican argum5ts1 & pret5d$ to refute !m all3 b su* reason+s n[ made no conv]ts2 & by ?is "t ! me*anical objections to ! motion ( ! e>? 7 g5]ally se5 to be baseless1 z we %all relate :5 we come to speak ( ! progress ( ,me*anics z a di/9ct sci5ce4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! beauty & simplicity ( ! helioc5tric !ory 7 p]petually w9n+ ! admiration ev5 ( ^? :o1 f "o cause or o!r1 refus$ _! ass5t to x4 ,?us ,riccioli1 ! la/ ( its consid]able oppon5ts1 all[s its sup]iority 9 ^! respects2 & ackn[l$ges 79 #afec7 t ! ,cop]nican belief appe>s r to increase ?an dim9i% "u ! condemnation ( ! decrees ( ! ,c>d9als4 ,he applies to x ! l9es ( ,horace3#bie #bhi ,p] damna p] cdes1 ab ipso ,sumit opes animumque f]ro4 ,untam$ its pride1 un*eck$ its c\rse1 ,f foes & w\nds x ga!rs =ce4 ,note #bhe3 ,del4 ,a4 ,m4 vol4 i4 p4 #eid4 ,note #bie3 ,almag4 ,nov4 p4 #ajb4 ,we h spok5 ( ! influ5ce ( ! motion ( ! e>? on ! motions ( bodies at its surface2 b ! notion ( a physical connection among ! p>ts ( ! univ]se 0 tak5 up by ,kepl] 9 ano!r po9t ( view1 :i* w\ld probably h be5 consid]$ z highly fanta/ical1 if ! result _h n be51 t x l$ to by f> ! mo/ magnific5t & mo/ c]ta9 tra9 ( tru?s :i* ! :ole expanse ( human k c %[4 ,i speak ( ! p]suasion ( ! exi/5ce ( num]ical & geometrical laws connect+ ! di/ances1 times1 & =ces ( ! bodies :i* revolve ab\t ! c5tral sun4 ,t /eady & int5se conviction ( ?is gov]n+ pr9ciple1 :i* made its developm5t & v]ification ! lead+ employm5t ( ,kepl]'s mo/ active & busy life1 _c be consid]$ o!rwise ?an z an example ( pr(\nd sagacity4 ,t x 0 connect$1 ?\gh dimly & obscurely1 ) ! notion ( a c5tral ag5cy or influ5ce ( "s sort1 emanat+ f ! sun1 _c be d\bt$4 ,kepl]1 9 8 fir/ essay ( ?is k9d1 ! ,my/]ium ,cosmographicum1 says1 ,! motion ( ! e>?1 :i* ,cop]nicus _h prov$ by ma!matical reasons1 ,i want$ to prove by physical1 or1 if y pref] x1 metaphysical4 ,9 ! tw5tie? *apt] ( t "w1 he endeavors to make out "s relation betwe5 ! di/ances ( ! ,planets f ! ,sun & _! velocities4 ,! invet]ate yet vague notions ( =ces :i* preside 9 ?is attempt1 may be judg$ ( by su* passages z ! foll[+3--,we mu/ suppose "o ( two ?+s2 ei!r t ! mov+ spirits1 9 proportion z !y are m remov$ f ! sun1 are m feeble2 or t !re is "o mov+ _s 9 ! c5tre ( all ! orbits1 namely1 9 ! sun1 :i* urges ea* body ! m vehem5tly 9 proportion z x is ne>]2 b 9 m di/ant spaces langui%es 9 consequ5ce ( ! remot5ess & att5uation ( its virtue4 ,we mu/ n =get1 9 read+ su* passages1 t !y 7 writt5 "u a belief t =ce 0 requisite to keep up1 z well z to *ange ! motion ( ea* planet2 & t a body1 mov+ 9 a circle1 w\ld /op :5 ! =ce ( ! c5tral po9t ceas$1 in/ead ( mov+ (f 9 a tang5t to ! circle1 z we n[ "k x w\ld d4 ,! =ce :i* ,kepl] supposes is a tang5tial =ce1 9 ! direction ( ! body's motion1 & ne>ly p]p5dicul> to ! radius2 ! #bij =ce :i* mod]n philosophy has e/abli%$1 is 9 ! direction ( ! radius1 & ne>ly p]p5dicul> to ! body's pa?4 ,kepl] 0 "r no fur!r ?an 9 8 suspicion ( a connection betwe5 ! cause ( motion & ! di/ance f ! c5tre2 n only 0 8 k imp]fect 9 all p>ticul>s1 b 8 mo/ g5]al conception ( ! mode ( action ( a cause ( motion 0 errone\s4 ,) ^! g5]al convictions & ^! physical notions 9 8 m9d1 ,kepl] endeavor$ to detect num]ical & geometrical relations among ! p>ts ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,aft] extraord9>y labor1 p]sev]ance1 & +5uity1 he 0 em95tly successful 9 discov]+ su* relations2 b ! glory & m]it ( int]pret+ !m accord+ to _! physical mean+1 0 res]v$ = 8 great] successor1 ,newton4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,kepl]4 ,sect4 #a4--;,intellectual ,"* ( ,kepl]4 ,,sev]al p]sons1#cje especially 9 rec5t times1 :o h tak5 a view ( ! discov]ies ( ,kepl]1 appe> to h be5 surpris$ & some:at discont5t$ t conjectures1 app>5tly s fanciful & arbitr>y z 81 %\ld h l$ to important discov]ies4 ,!y seem to h be5 al>m$ at ! ,moral t _! read]s might draw1 f ! tale ( a ,que/ ( ,k1 9 :i* ! ,h]o1 ?\gh fanta/ical & self-will$1 & violat+ 9 8 conduct1 z !y conceiv$1 all "r rule & s\nd philosophy1 is rew>d$ ) ! mo/ signal triumphs4 ,p]haps "o or two reflections may 9 "s measure reconcile u to ?is result4 #bia ,note #cje3 ,laplace1 ,prcis de l',hi/4 d',a/4 p4 #id4 ,il e/ affligeant p\r l'esprit huma9 de voir ce gr& homme1 mme dans ses d]ni]s ouvrages1 se complaire avec dlices dans ses *imriques spculations1 et les reg>d] comme l'me et la vie de l'a/ronomie4 ,hi/4 ( ,a/41 ,l4 ,u4 ,k41 p4 #ec4 ,?is success ( ,kepl] may well inspire ) dismay ^? :o are accu/om$ to consid] exp]im5t & rigor\s induction z ! only means to int]rogate nature ) success4 ,life ( ,kepl]1 ,l4 ,u4 ,k41 p4 #ad1 ,bad philosophy4 ,p4 #ae1 ,kepl]'s miracul\s good =tune 9 seiz+ tru?s across ! wilde/ & mo/ absurd !ories4 ,p4 #ed1 ,! dang] ( attempt+ to foll[ 8 me?od 9 ! pursuit ( tru?4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we may obs]ve t ! lead+ ?\ght :i* sugge/$ & animat$ all ,kepl]'s attempts 0 true1 & we may add1 sagaci\s & philosophical2 namely1 t !re mu/ be "s num]ical or geometrical relations among ! times1 di/ances1 & velocities ( ! revolv+ bodies ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,?is settl$ & con/ant conviction ( an important tru? regulat$ all ! conjectures1 app>5tly s caprici\s & fanciful1 :i* he made & exam9$1 respect+ p>ticul> relations 9 ! sy/em4 ,9 ! next place1 we may v5ture to say1 t advances 9 k are n commonly made )\t ! previ\s ex]cise ( "s boldness & lic5se 9 guess+4 ,! discov]y ( new tru?s requires1 und\bt$ly1 m9ds c>eful & scrupul\s 9 exam9+ :at is sugge/$2 b x requires1 no less1 su* z are quick & f]tile 9 sugge/+4 ,:at is ,inv5tion1 except ! tal5t ( rapidly call+ be=e u _m possibilities1 & select+ ! appropriate "o8 ,x is true1 t :5 we h reject$ all ! inadmissible suppositions1 !y are quickly =gott5 by mo/ p]sons2 & few ?9k x necess>y to dwell on ^! disc>d$ hypo!ses1 & on ! process by :i* !y 7 condemn$1 z ,kepl] has done4 ,b all :o discov] tru?s mu/ h reason$ ^u _m errors1 to obta9 ea* tru?2 e accept$ doctr9e mu/ h be5 "o select$ out ( _m c&idates4 ,9 mak+ _m conjectures1 :i* on trial prov$ errone\s1 ,kepl] 0 no m fanciful or unphilosophical ?an o!r discov]]s h be54 ,discov]y is n a cauti\s or rigor\s process1 9 ! s5se ( ab/a9+ f su* suppositions4 ,b !re are great diff]5ces 9 diff]5t cases1 9 ! facility ) :i* guesses are prov$ to be errors1 & 9 ! degree ( att5tion ) :i* ! error & ! pro( are aft]w>ds dwelt on4 ,kepl] c]ta9ly 0 rem>kable = ! labor :i* he gave to su* self-refutations1 & = ! c&or & copi\sness ) :i* he n>rat$ !m2 8 works are 9 ?is way extremely curi\s & amus+2 & are a v in/ructive exhibition ( ! m5tal process ( discov]y4 ,b 9 ?is respect1 ,i v5ture to believe1 !y exhibit to u ! usual process 7some:at c>icatur$7 ( inv5tive m9ds3 !y r exemplify ! rule ( g5ius ?an 7z has g5]ally be5 hi!rto taught7 ! exception4 ,we may add1 t if _m ( ,kepl]'s guesses n[ appe> fanciful & absurd1 because "t & obs]vation h refut$ !m1 o!rs1 :i* 7 at ! "t equally gratuit\s1 h be5 confirm$ by succe$+ discov]ies 9 a mann] :i* makes !m appe> m>vell\sly sagaci\s2 z1 = in/ance1 8 ass]tion ( ! rotation ( #bib ! sun on 8 axis1 be=e ! inv5tion ( ! telescope1 & 8 op9ion t ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic 0 decreas+1 b w\ld1 aft] a long-cont9u$ dim9ution1 /op1 & !n increase aga94#cae ,no?+ c be m j1 z well z m poetically happy1 ?an ,kepl]'s picture ( ! philosoph]'s pursuit ( sci5tific tru?1 convey$ by means ( an allusion to ,virgil's %eph]d & %eph]dess3 ,malo me ,galatea petit1 lasciva puella ,et fugit ad salices et se cupit ante vid]i4 ,coy yet invit+1 ,galatea loves ,to sport 9 sight1 !n plunge into ! groves2 ,! *all5ge giv51 %e d>ts along ! gre51 ,w n be caught1 yet w\ld n run unse54 ,note #cae3 ,bailly1 ,a4 ,m4 iii4 #age4 ,we may notice z ano!r peculi>ity ( ,kepl]'s reason+s1 ! l5g? & labori\sness ( ! processes by :i* he discov]$ ! errors ( 8 fir/ guesses4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important tal5ts requisite = a discov]]1 is ! +5uity & skill :i* devises means = rapidly te/+ false suppositions z !y (f] !mselves4 ,?is tal5t ,kepl] did n possess3 he 0 n ev5 a good ari?metical calculator1 (t5 mak+ mi/akes1 "s ( :i* he detect$ & lam5ts1 :ile o!rs escap$ him to ! la/4 ,b 8 defects 9 ?is respect 7 comp5sat$ by 8 c\rage & p]sev]ance 9 und]tak+ & execut+ su* tasks2 &1 :at 0 /ill m admirable1 he nev] all[$ ! labor he _h sp5t ^u any conjecture to produce any reluctance 9 ab&on+ ! hypo!sis1 z soon z he _h evid5ce ( its inaccuracy4 ,! only way 9 :i* he rew>d$ himself = 8 tr\ble1 0 by describ+ to ! _w1 9 8 lively mann]1 8 s*emes1 ex]tions1 & feel+s4 ,! my/ical p>ts ( ,kepl]'s op9ions1 z 8 belief 9 a/rology1 8 p]suasion t ! e>? 0 an animal1 & _m ( ! loose moral & spiritual z well z s5sible analyses by :i* he repres5t$ to himself ! p[]s :i* he suppos$ to prevail 9 ! univ]se1 d n appe> to h int]f]$ ) 8 discov]y1 b r to h /imulat$ 8 inv5tion1 & animat$ 8 ex]tions4 ,inde$1 :]e !re are cle> sci5tific ideas on "o subject 9 ! m9d1 x does n appe> t my/icism on o!rs is at all unfavorable to ! successful prosecution ( rese>*4 ,i conceive1 !n1 t we may consid] ,kepl]'s "* z conta9+ ! g5]al features ( ! "* ( a sci5tific discov]]1 #bic ?\gh "s ( ! features are exagg]at$1 & "s too feebly m>k$4 ,8 _s ( inv5tion 0 und\bt$ly v f]tile & ready1 & ?is & 8 p]sev]ance s]v$ to rem$y 8 defici5cy 9 ma!matical artifice & me?od4 ,b ! peculi> physiognomy is giv5 to 8 intellectual aspect by 8 dwell+ 9 a mo/ prom95t mann] on ^? errone\s tra9s ( ?\ght :i* o!r p]sons conceal f ! _w1 & (t5 !mselves =get1 because !y f9d means ( /opp+ !m at ! outset4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 book 7,argum5ta ,capitum7 he says1 if ,*ri/oph] ,columbus1 if ,magellan1 if ! ,portuguese1 :5 !y n>rate _! w&]+s1 are n only excus$1 b if we d n wi% ^! passages omitt$1 & %\ld lose mu* pleasure if !y 71 let no "o blame me = do+ ! same4 ,kepl]'s tal5ts 7 a k9dly & f]tile soil1 :i* he cultivat$ ) abundant toil & vigor2 b ) great scant9ess ( agricultural skill & implem5ts4 ,we$s & ! gra9 ?rove & fl\ri%$ side by side almo/ undi/+ui%$2 & he gave a peculi> appe>ance to 8 h>ve/1 by ga!r+ & pres]v+ ! "o class ( plants ) z mu* c>e & dilig5ce z ! o!r4 ,sect4 #b4--,kepl]'s ,discov]y ( 8 ,?ird ,law4 ,i ,,%all n[ give "s acc\nt ( ,kepl]'s speculations & discov]ies4 ,! fir/ discov]y :i* he attempt$1 ! relation among ! successive di/ances ( ! planets f ! sun1 0 a failure2 8 doctr9e be+ )\t any solid f\ndation1 al?\gh prop\nd$ by him ) great triumph1 9 a "w :i* he call$ ,my/]ium ,cosmographicum1 & :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #aeif4 ,! acc\nt :i* he gives ( ! tra9 ( 8 ?\ghts on ?is subject1 namely1 ! v>i\s suppositions assum$1 exam9$1 & reject$1 is curi\s & in/ructive1 = ! reasons j /at$2 b we %all n dwell ^u ^! essays1 s9ce !y l$ only to an op9ion n[ entirely ab&on$4 ,! doctr9e :i* pr(ess$ to give ! true relation ( ! orbits ( ! diff]5t planets1 0 ?us deliv]$3#cbe ,! orbit ( ! e>? is a circle3 r\nd ! sph]e to :i* ?is circle belongs1 describe a dodecah$ron2 ! sph]e includ+ ?is w give ! orbit ( ,m>s4 ,r\nd ,m>s describe a tetrah$ron2 ! circle includ+ ?is w be ! orbit ( ,jupit]4 ,describe a cube r\nd ,jupit]'s orbit2 ! circle includ+ ?is w be ! orbit ( ,saturn4 ,n[ inscribe 9 ! ,e>?'s orbit an icosah$ron2 ! circle inscrib$ 9 x w be ! orbit ( ,v5us4 #bid ,inscribe an octah$ron 9 ! orbit ( ,v5us2 ! circle inscrib$ 9 x w be ,m]cury's orbit4 ,?is is ! reason ( ! numb] ( ! planets4 ,! five k9ds ( polyh$ral bodies "h m5tion$ are ! only ,regul> ,solids4 ,note #cbe3 ,l4 ,u4 ,k4 ,kepl]1 #f4 ,b ?\gh ?is "p ( ! ,my/]ium ,cosmographicum 0 a failure1 ! same rese>*es cont9u$ to occupy ,kepl]'s m9d2 & tw5ty-two ye>s lat] l$ him to "o ( ! important rules kn[n to u z ,kepl]'s ,laws2 namely1 to ! rule connect+ ! mean di/ances ( ! planets f ! sun ) ! times ( _! revolutions4 ,?is rule is express$ 9 ma!matical t]ms1 by say+ t ! squ>es ( ! p]iodic times are 9 ! same proportion z ! cubes ( ! di/ances2 & 0 ( great importance to ,newton 9 lead+ him to ! law ( ! sun's attractive =ce4 ,we may prop]ly consid] ?is discov]y z ! sequel ( ! tra9 ( ?\ght already notic$4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,my/]ium1 ,kepl] _h said1 ,9 ! ye> #aeie1 ,i brood$ ) ! :ole en]gy ( my m9d on ! subject ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em4 ,!re 7 ?ree ?+s 9 p>ticul> ( :i* ,i p]t9aci\sly s\ght ! causes :y !y are n o!r ?an !y are2 ! numb]1 ! size1 & ! motion ( ! orbits4 ,we h se5 ! nature ( 8 attempt to acc\nt = ! two fir/ ( ^! po9ts4 ,he _h also made "s essays to connect ! motions ( ! planets ) _! di/ances1 b ) 8 success 9 ?is respect he 0 n himself completely satisfi$4 ,b 9 ! fif? book ( ! ,h>monice ,mundi1 publi%$ 9 #afai1 he says1 ,:at ,i prophesi$ two-&-tw5ty ye>s ago z soon z ,i _h discov]$ ! ,five ,solids among ! ,heav5ly ,bodies2 :at ,i firmly believ$ be=e ,i _h se5 ! ,h>monics ( ,ptolemy2 :at ,i promis$ my fri5ds 9 ! title ( ?is book 7,on ! mo/ p]fect ,h>mony ( ! ,cele/ial ,motions7 :i* ,i nam$ be=e ,i 0 sure ( my discov]y2 :at sixte5 ye>s ago ,i reg>d$ z a ?+ to be s\ght2 t = :i* ,i jo9$ ,ty*o ,brahe1 = :i* ,i settl$ 9 ,prague1 = :i* ,i h devot$ ! be/ "p ( my life to a/ronomical contemplations2 at l5g? ,i h br\ght to light1 & h recogniz$ its tru? beyond my mo/ sangu9e expectations4 ,! rule ?us ref]r$ to is /at$ 9 ! ?ird ,*apt] ( ?is fif? ,book4 ,x is1 he says1 a mo/ c]ta9 & exact ?+ t ! proportion :i* exi/s betwe5 ! p]iodic times ( any two planets is precisely ! sesquiplicate ( ! proportion ( _! mean di/ances2 t is1 ( ! radii ( ! orbits4 ,?us1 ! p]iod ( ! e>? is "o ye>1 t ( ,saturn ?irty ye>s2 if any "o trisect ! proportion1 t #bie is1 take ! cube root ( x1 & d\ble ! proportion s f\nd1 t is1 squ>e x1 he w f9d ! exact proportion ( ! di/ances ( ! ,e>? & ( ,saturn f ! sun4 ,= ! cube root ( #a is #a1 & ! squ>e ( ?is is #a2 & ! cube root ( #cj is great] ?an #c1 & !re=e ! squ>e ( x is great] ?an #i4 ,& ,saturn at 8 mean di/ance f ! sun is at a little m ?an #i times ! mean di/ance ( ! ,e>?4 ,:5 we n[ look back at ! "t & ex]tions :i* ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is law co/ ,kepl]1 we are tempt$ to imag9e t he 0 /rangely bl9d 9 n see+ x soon]4 ,8 object1 we might reason1 0 to discov] a law connect+ ! di/ances & ! p]iodic times4 ,:at law ( connection c\ld be m simple & obvi\s1 we might say1 ?an t "o ( ^! quantities %\ld v>y z "s p[] ( ! o!r1 or z "s root2 or z "s comb9ation ( ! two1 :i* 9 a m g5]al view1 may /ill be call$ a p[]8 ,& if ! problem _h be5 view$ 9 ?is way1 ! "q mu/ h occurr$1 to :at p[] ( ! p]iodic times are ! di/ances proportional8 ,& ! answ] mu/ h be51 ! trial be+ made1 t !y are proportional to ! squ>e ( ! cube root4 ,?is ex-po/-facto obvi\sness ( discov]ies is a delusion to :i* we are liable ) reg>d to _m ( ! mo/ important pr9ciples4 ,9 ! case ( ,kepl]1 we may obs]ve1 t ! process ( connect+ two classes ( quantities by comp>+ _! p[]s1 is obvi\s only to ^? :o are famili> ) g5]al algebraical views2 & t 9 ,kepl]'s "t1 algebra _h n tak5 ! place ( geometry1 z ! mo/ usual vehicle ( ma!matical reason+4 ,x may be add$1 also1 t ,kepl] always s\ght 8 =mal laws by means ( physical reason+s2 & ^!1 ?\gh vague or errone\s1 det]m9$ ! nature ( ! ma!matical connection :i* he assum$4 ,?us 9 ! ,my/]ium he _h be5 l$ by 8 notions ( mov+ virtue ( ! sun to ?is conjecture1 among o!rs--t1 9 ! planets1 ! increase ( ! p]iods w be d\ble ( ! diff]5ce ( ! di/ances2 :i* supposition he f\nd to give him an approa* to ! actual proportion ( ! di/ances1 b "o n suffici5tly close to satisfy him4 ,! great] "p ( ! fif? ,book ( ! ,h>monics ( ! ,univ]se consi/s 9 attempts to expla9 v>i\s relations among ! di/ances1 times1 & ecc5tricities ( ! planets1 by means ( ! ratios :i* belong to c]ta9 concords & discords4 ,?is portion ( ! "w is s complex & labori\s1 t probably few mod]n read]s h _h c\rage to g ?r\gh x4 ,delambre ackn[l$g$ t 8 pati5ce #bif (t5 fail$ him dur+ ! task2#cce & subscribes to ! judgm5t ( ,bailly3 ,aft] ?is sublime ef=t1 ,kepl] replunges himself 9 ! relations ( music to ! motions1 ! di/ance1 & ! ecc5tricities ( ! planets4 ,9 all ^! h>monic ratios !re is n "o true relation2 9 a cr[d ( ideas !re is n "o tru?3 he becomes a man aft] be+ a _s ( light4 ,c]ta9ly ^! speculations are ( no value1 b we may look on !m ) tol]ation1 :5 we recollect t ,newton has s\ght = analogies betwe5 ! spaces occupi$ by ! prismatic colors & ! notes ( ! gamut4#cde ,! num]ical relations ( ,concords are s peculi> t we c easily suppose !m to h o!r be>+s ?an ^? :i* fir/ (f] !mselves4 ,note #cce3 ,a4 ,m4 a4 #ceh4 ,note #cde3 ,optics1 b4 ii4 p4 iv4 ,obs4 #e4 ,x does n belong to my pres5t purpose to speak at l5g? ( ! speculations conc]n+ ! =ces produc+ ! cele/ial motions by :i* ,kepl] 0 l$ to ?is celebrat$ law1 or ( ^? :i* he d$uc$ f x1 & :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,epitome ,a/ronomi ,cop]nican1 publi%$ 9 #afbb4 ,9 t "w also 7p4 #eed71 he ext5d$ ?is law1 ?\gh 9 a loose mann]1 to ! satellites ( ,jupit]4 ,^! physical speculations 7 only a vague & di/ant prelude to ,newton's discov]ies2 & ! law1 z a =mal rule1 0 complete 9 itself4 ,we mu/ n[ att5d to ! hi/ory ( ! o!r two laws ) :i* ,kepl]'s "n is associat$4 ,sect4 #c4--,kepl]'s ,discov]y ( 8 ,fir/ & ,second ,laws4--,elliptical ,!ory ( ! ,planets4 ,,! propositions designat$ z ,kepl]'s ,fir/ & ,second ,laws are ^!3 ,t ! orbits ( ! planets are elliptical2 &1 ,t ! areas describ$1 or swept1 by l9es drawn f ! sun to ! planet1 are proportional to ! times employ$ 9 ! motion4 ,! occasion ( ! discov]y ( ^! laws 0 ! attempt to reconcile ! !ory ( ,m>s to ! !ory ( ecc5trics & epicycles2 ! ev5t ( x 0 ! complete ov]?r[ ( t !ory1 & ! e/abli%m5t1 9 its /ead1 ( ! ,elliptical ,!ory ( ! planets4 ,a/ronomy 0 n[ ripe = su* a *ange4 ,z soon z ,cop]nicus _h taught m5 t ! orbits ( ! planets 7 to be ref]r$ to ! sun1 x obvi\sly became a "q1 :at 0 ! true =m ( ^! orbits1 & ! rule ( motion ( ea* planet 9 its own orbit4 ,cop]nicus repres5t$ ! motions 9 longitude by means ( #big ecc5trics & epicycles1 z we h already said2 & ! motions 9 latitude by c]ta9 librations1 or alt]nate elevations & depressions ( epicycles4 ,if a ma!matician _h obta9$ a collection ( true positions ( a planet1 ! =m ( ! orbit & ! motion ( ! /> w\ld h be5 det]m9$ ) ref]5ce to ! sun z well z to ! e>?2 b ?is 0 n possible1 = ?\gh ! geoc5tric position1 or ! direction 9 :i* ! planet 0 se51 c\ld be obs]v$1 its di/ance f ! e>? 0 n kn[n4 ,h5ce1 :5 ,kepl] attempt$ to det]m9e ! orbit ( a planet1 he comb9$ ! obs]v$ geoc5tric places ) successive modifications ( ! !ory ( epicycles1 till at la/ he 0 l$1 by "o /ep aft] ano!r1 to *ange ! epicyclical into ! elliptical !ory4 ,we may obs]ve1 moreov]1 t at e /ep he endeavor$ to support 8 new suppositions by :at he call$1 9 8 fanciful phraseology1 s5d+ into ! field a res]ve ( new physical reason+s on ! r\t & disp]sion ( ! vet]ans2#cee t is1 by connect+ 8 a/ronomical hypo!ses ) new imag9ations1 :5 ! old ones became unt5able4 ,we f9d1 inde$1 t ?is is ! _s 9 :i* ! pursuit ( k is g5]ally c>ri$ on ) success2 ^? m5 arrive at tru? :o eag]ly endeavor to connect remote po9ts ( _! k1 n ^? :o /op cauti\sly at ea* po9t till some?+ compels !m to g beyond x4 ,note #cee3 ,i w ins]t ?is passage1 z a specim5 ( ,kepl]'s fanciful mode ( n>rat+ ! defeats :i* he receiv$ 9 ! w> :i* he c>ri$ on ) ,m>s4 ,dum 9 hunc modum de ,m>tis motibus triumpho1 eique ut plan devicto tabul>um c>c]es et equationum comp$es necto1 div]sis nuntiatur locis1 futilem victoriam ut bellam tot mole recrudesc]e4 ,nam domi quidam ho/is ut captivus contemptus1 rupit omnia equationum v9cula1 c>c]esque tabul>um effregit4 ,=is speculatores pr(lig]unt meas caus>um physic>um arcessitas copias e>umque jugum excuss]unt resumt lib]tate4 ,jamque p>um abfuit quia ho/is fugitivus sese cum rebellibus suis conjung]et meque 9 desp]ationem adig]et3 nisi raptim1 nova rationum physic>um subsidia1 fusis et palantibus vet]ibus1 submisissem1 et qua se captivus proripuisset1 omni dilig5tia1 edoctus ve/igiis ipsius null mor int]posit inhsiss]em4 ,kepl] jo9$ ,ty*o ,brahe at ,prague 9 #afjj1 & f\nd him & ,longomontanus busily employ$ 9 correct+ ! !ory ( ,m>s2 & he also !n ent]$ ^u t tra9 ( rese>*es :i* he publi%$ 9 #afji 9 8 extraord9>y "w ,on ! ,motions ( ,m>s4 ,9 ?is "w1 z 9 o!rs1 he gives an acc\nt1 n only ( 8 success1 b ( 8 failures1 expla9+1 at l5g?1 ! v>i\s suppositions :i* he _h made1 ! notions by :i* he _h be5 l$ to inv5t or to ent]ta9 !m1 ! processes by :i* he _h prov$ _! #bih falsehood1 & ! alt]nations ( hope & sorr[1 ( vexation & triumph1 ?r\gh :i* he _h gone4 ,x w n be necess>y = u to cite _m passages ( ^! k9ds1 curi\s & amus+ z !y are4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important tru?s conta9$ 9 ! motions ( ,man is ! discov]y t ! plane ( ! orbit ( ! planet %\ld be consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! sun itself1 in/ead ( ref]r+ x to any ( ! o!r c5tres ( motion :i* ! ecc5tric hypo!sis introduc$3 & t1 :5 s consid]$1 x _h none ( ! librations :i* ,ptolemy & ,cop]nicus _h attribut$ to x4 ,! f\rte5? *apt] ( ! second "p ass]ts1 ,plana ecc5tricorum esse 2 t ! planes are unlibrat+2 reta9+ always ! same incl9ation to ! ecliptic1 & ! same l9e ( nodes4 ,) ?is /ep ,kepl] appe>s to h be5 ju/ly delight$4 ,cop]nicus1 he says1 n kn[+ ! value ( :at he possess$ 78 sy/em71 und]took to repres5t ,ptolemy1 r ?an nature1 to :i*1 h[ev]1 he _h approa*$ m ne>ly ?an any o!r p]son4 ,= be+ rejoic$ t ! quantity ( ! latitude ( ea* planet 0 increas$ by ! approa* ( ! e>? to ! planet1 accord+ to 8 !ory1 he did n v5ture to reject ! re/ ( ,ptolemy's increase ( latitude1 b 9 ord] to express x1 devis$ librations ( ! planes ( ! ecc5tric1 dep5d+ n ^u its own ecc5tric1 b 7mo/ improbably7 ^u ! orbit ( ! e>?1 :i* has no?+ to d ) x4 ,i always f\ght aga9/ ?is imp]t95t ty+ toge!r ( two orbits1 ev5 be=e ,i saw ! obs]vations ( ,ty*o2 & ,i !re=e rejoice mu* t 9 ?is1 z 9 o!rs ( my preconceiv$ op9ions1 ! obs]vations 7 f\nd to be on my side4 ,kepl] e/abli%$ 8 po9t by a fair & labori\s calculation ( ! results ( obs]vations ( ,m>s made by himself & ,ty*o ,brahe2 & _h a "r to exult :5 ! result ( ^! calculations confirm$ 8 views ( ! symmetry & simplicity ( nature4 ,we may judge ( ! difficulty ( ca/+ (f ! !ory ( ecc5trics & epicycles1 by recollect+ t ,cop]nicus did n d x at all1 & t ,kepl] only did x aft] repeat$ /ruggles2 ! hi/ory ( :i* occupies ?irty-n9e ,*apt]s ( 8 book4 ,at ! end ( !m he says1 ,?is prolix disputation 0 necess>y1 9 ord] to prep>e ! way to ! natural =m ( ! equations1 ( :i* ,i am n[ to treat4#cfe ,my fir/ error 01 t ! pa? ( a planet is a p]fect circle2--an op9ion :i* 0 a m mis*iev\s ?ief ( my "t1 #bii 9 proportion z x 0 support$ by ! au?ority ( all philosoph]s1 & app>5tly agreeable to metaphysics4 ,b be=e he attempts to correct ?is errone\s "p ( 8 hypo!sis1 he sets ab\t discov]+ ! law accord+ to :i* ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! orbit are describ$ 9 ! case ( ! e>?1 9 :i* case ! ecc5tricity is s small t ! effect ( ! oval =m is ins5sible4 ,! result ( ?is inquiry 0#cge ! ,rule1 t ! "t ( describ+ any arc ( ! orbit is proportional to ! area int]cept$ betwe5 ! curve & two l9es drawn f ! sun to ! extremities ( ! arc4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ?is rule1 at fir/1 ?\gh x _h ! recomm5dation ( be+ select$ aft] ! unavoidable ab&onm5t ( _m1 :i* 7 sugge/$ by ! notions ( ^? times1 0 f> f be+ adopt$ ^u any v rigid or cauti\s gr\nds4 ,a rule _h be5 prov$ at ! apsides ( ! orbit1 by calculation f obs]vations1 & _h !n be5 ext5d$ by conjecture to o!r p>ts ( ! orbit2 & ! rule ( ! areas 0 only an approximate & inaccurate mode ( repres5t+ ?is rule1 employ$ = ! purpose ( brevity & conv5i5ce1 9 consequ5ce ( ! difficulty ( apply+1 geometrically1 t :i* ,kepl] n[ conceiv$ to be ! true rule1 & :i* requir$ him to f9d ! sum ( ! l9es drawn f ! sun to e po9t ( ! orbit4 ,:5 he proce$$ to apply ?is rule to ,m>s1 9 ^: orbit ! oval =m is mu* m m>k$1 additional difficulties came 9 8 way2 & "h aga9 ! true supposition1 t ! oval is ( t special k9d call$ ellipse1 0 adopt$ at fir/ only 9 ord] to simplify calculation1#che & ! deviation f exactness 9 ! result 0 attribut$ to ! inaccuracy ( ^? approximate processes4 ,! supposition ( ! oval _h already be5 =c$ ^u ,purba* 9 ! case ( ,m]cury1 & ^u ,re9hold 9 ! case ( ! ,moon4 ,! c5tre ( ! epicycle 0 made to describe an egg-%ap$ figure 9 ! =m] case1 & a l5ticul> figure 9 ! latt]4#cie ,note #cfe3 ,de ,/ell ,m>tis1 iii4 #dj4 ,note #cge3 ,de ,/ell ,m>tis1 p4 #aid4 ,note #che3 ,ib4 iv4 c4 #dg4 ,note #cie3 ,l4 ,u4 ,k4 ,kepl]1 p4 #cj4 ,x may s]ve to %[ ! k9d ( labor by :i* ,kepl] 0 l$ to 8 result1 if we "h enum]ate1 z he does 9 8 =ty-sev5? ,*apt]1#dje six hypo!ses1 on :i* he calculat$ ! longitude ( ,m>s1 9 ord] to see :i* be/ agre$ ) obs]vation4 ,note #dje3 ,de ,/ell ,m>tis1 p4 #bbh4 #a4 ,! simple ecc5tricity4 #b4 ,! bisection ( ! ecc5tricity1 & ! duplication ( ! sup]ior "p ( ! equation4 #cjj #c4 ,! bisection ( ! ecc5tricity1 & a /ation>y po9t ( equations1 aft] ! mann] ( ,ptolemy4 #d4 ,! vic>i\s hypo!sis by a free section ( ! ecc5tricity made to agree z ne>ly z possible ) ! tru?4 #e4 ,! physical hypo!sis on ! supposition ( a p]fect circle4 #f4 ,! physical hypo!sis on ! supposition ( a p]fect ellipse4 ,by ! physical hypo!sis1 he meant ! doctr9e t ! "t ( a planet's describ+ any "p ( its orbit is proportional to ! di/ance ( ! planet f ! sun1 = :i* supposition1 z we h said1 he conceiv$ t he _h assign$ physical reasons4 ,! two la/ hypo!ses came ! ne>e/ to ! tru?1 & diff]$ f x only by ab\t eight m9utes1 ! "o 9 excess & ! o!r 9 defect4 ,&1 aft] be+ mu* p]plex$ by ?is rema9+ error1 x at la/ occurr$ to him#dae t he might take ano!r ellipsis1 exactly int]m$iate betwe5 ! =m] "o & ! circle1 & t ?is mu/ give ! pa? & ! motion ( ! planet4 ,mak+ ?is assumption1 & tak+ ! areas to repres5t ! times1 he n[ saw#dbe t bo? ! longitude & ! di/ances ( ,m>s w\ld agree ) obs]vation to ! requisite degree ( accuracy4 ,! rectification ( ! =m] hypo!sis1 :5 ?us /at$1 may1 p]haps1 appe> obvi\s4 ,& ,kepl] in=ms u t he _h ne>ly be5 anticipat$ 9 ?is /ep 7c4 #ee74 ,david ,fabricius1 to :om ,i _h communicat$ my hypo!sis ( cap4 #de1 0 able1 by 8 obs]vations1 to %[ t x err$ 9 mak+ ! di/ances too %ort at mean longitudes2 ( :i* he in=m$ me by lett] :ile ,i 0 labor+1 by repeat$ ef=ts1 to discov] ! true hypo!sis4 ,s ne>ly did he get ! />t ( me 9 detect+ ! tru?4 ,b ?is 0 less easy ?an x might seem4 ,:5 ,kepl]'s fir/ hypo!sis 0 envelop$ 9 ! complex con/ruction requisite 9 ord] to apply x to ea* po9t ( ! orbit1 x 0 f> m difficult to see :]e ! error lay1 & ,kepl] hit ^u x only by notic+ ! co9cid5ces ( c]ta9 numb]s1 :i*1 z he says1 rais$ him z if f sleep1 & gave him a new light4 ,we may obs]ve1 also1 t he 0 p]plex$ to reconcile ?is new view1 accord+ to :i* ! planet describ$ an exact ellipse1 ) 8 =m] op9ion1 :i* repres5t$ ! motion by means ( libration 9 an epicycle4 ,?is1 he says1 0 my greate/ tr\ble1 t1 ?\gh ,i consid]$ & reflect$ till ,i 0 almo/ mad1 ,i c\ld n f9d :y ! planet to :i*1 ) s mu* probability1 & ) su* an exact #cja accordance ( ! di/ances1 libration 9 ! diamet] ( ! epicycle 0 attribut$1 %\ld1 accord+ to ! indication ( ! equations1 g 9 an elliptical pa?4 ,:at an absurdity on my "p6 z if libration 9 ! diamet] might n be a way to ! ellipse6 ,note #dae3 ,de ,/ell ,m>tis1 c4 #eh4 ,note #dbe3 ,ibid4 p4 #bce4 ,ano!r scruple respect+ ?is !ory arose f ! impossibility ( solv+1 by any geometrical con/ruction1 ! problem to :i* ,kepl] 0 ?us l$1 namely1 ,to divide ! area ( a semicircle 9 a giv5 ratio1 by a l9e drawn f any po9t ( ! diamet]4 ,?is is /ill t]m$ ,kepl]'s ,problem1 & is1 9 fact1 incapable ( exact geometrical solution4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! calculation c be p]=m$1 &1 inde$1 0 p]=m$ by ,kepl] himself1 ) a suffici5t degree ( accuracy to %[ t ! elliptical hypo!sis is true1 ! insolubility ( ?is problem is a m]e ma!matical difficulty 9 ! d$uctive process1 to :i* ,kepl]'s induction gave rise4 ,( ,kepl]'s physical reason+s we %all speak m at l5g? on ano!r occasion4 ,8 num]\s & fanciful hypo!ses _h dis*>g$ _! (fice1 :5 !y _h sugge/$ to him 8 _m l9es ( labori\s calculation1 & enc\rag$ him "u ! ex]tions & disappo9tm5ts to :i* ^! l$4 ,! result ( ?is "w 0 ! =mal laws ( ! motion ( ,m>s1 e/abli%$ by a cle> induction1 s9ce !y repres5t$1 ) suffici5t accuracy1 ! be/ obs]vations4 ,& we may all[ t ,kepl] 0 entitl$ to ! praise :i* he claims 9 ! motto on 8 fir/ leaf4 ,ramus _h said t if any "o w\ld con/ruct an a/ronomy )\t hypo!sis1 he w\ld be ready to resign to him 8 pr(essor%ip 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is4 ,kepl] quotes ?is passage1 & adds1 x is well1 ,ramus1 t y h run f ?is pl$ge1 by quitt+ life & y\r pr(essor%ip2#dce if y held x /ill1 ,i %\ld1 ) ju/ice1 claim x4 ,?is 0 n say+ too mu*1 s9ce he _h entirely ov]turn$ ! hypo!sis ( ecc5trics & epicycles1 & _h obta9$ a !ory :i* 0 a m]e repres5tation ( ! motions & di/ances z !y 7 obs]v$4 #cjb ,note #dce3 ,ramus p]i%$ 9 ! ,massacre ( ,/4 ,b>?olomew4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,kepl]4 ,,reception1 ,,v]ification1 ,,& ,,ext5sion ,,( ,,! ,,elliptical ,,!ory4 ,sect4 #a4--;,application ( ! ,elliptical ,!ory to ! ,planets4 ,,! ext5sion ( ,kepl]'s discov]ies conc]n+ ! orbit ( ,m>s to ! o!r planets1 obvi\sly (f]$ itself z a /rong probability1 & 0 confirm$ by trial4 ,?is 0 made 9 ! fir/ place ^u ! orbit ( ,m]cury2 :i* planet1 9 consequ5ce ( ! l>g5ess ( its ecc5tricity1 exhibits m cle>ly ?an ! o!rs ! circum/ances ( ! elliptical motion4 ,^! & v>i\s o!r supplem5t>y portions ( ! views to :i* ,kepl]'s discov]ies _h l$1 appe>$ 9 ! latt] "p ( 8 ,epitome ,a/ronomi ,cop]nican1 publi%$ 9 #afbb4 ,! real v]ification ( ! new doctr9e conc]n+ ! orbits & motions ( ! heav5ly bodies 01 ( c\rse1 to be f\nd 9 ! con/ruction ( tables ( ^? motions1 & 9 ! cont9u$ comp>ison ( su* tables ) obs]vation4 ,kepl]'s discov]ies _h be5 f\nd$1 z we h se51 pr9cipally on ,ty*o's obs]vations4 ,longomontanus 7s call$ z be+ a native ( ,langb]g 9 ,d5m>k71 publi%$ 9 #afba1 9 8 ,a/ronomia ,danica1 tables f\nd$ ^u ! !ories z well z ! obs]vations ( 8 c\ntryman4 ,kepl]#dde 9 #afbg publi%$ 8 tables ( ! planets1 :i* he call$ ,rudolph9e ,tables1 ! result & application ( 8 own !ory4 ,9 #afcc1 ,lansb]g1 a ,belgian1 publi%$ also ,tabul ,p]petu1 a "w :i* 0 u%]$ into ! _w ) consid]able pomp & pret5sion1 & 9 :i* ! au?or cavils v ke5ly at ,kepl] & ,brahe4 ,we may judge ( ! impression made ^u ! a/ronomical _w 9 g5]al by ^! rival works1 f ! acc\nt :i* our c\ntryman ,j]emy ,horrox has giv5 ( _! effect on him4 ,he _h be5 s$uc$ by ! magnific5t promises ( ,lansb]g1 & ! praises ( 8 admir]s1 :i* are prefix$ to ! "w1 & 0 p]suad$ t ! common op9ion :i* pref]r$ ,ty*o & ,kepl] to him 0 a prejudice4 ,9 #afcf1 h[ev]1 he became acqua9t$ ) ,crabtree1 ano!r "y #cjc a/ronom]1 :o liv$ 9 ! same "p ( ,lanca%ire4 ,by him ,horrox 0 w>n$ t ,lansb]g 0 n to be dep5d$ on2 t 8 hypo!ses 7 vici\s1 & 8 obs]vations falsifi$ or =c$ into agreem5t ) 8 !ories4 ,he !n read ! works & adopt$ ! op9ions ( ,kepl]2 & aft] "s hesitation :i* he felt at ! ?\ght ( attack+ ! object ( 8 =m] idolatry1 he wrote a diss]tation on ! po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,x appe>s t1 at "o "t1 he int5d$ to (f] himself z ! umpire :o 0 to adjudge ! prize ( excell5ce among ! ?ree rival !ories ( ,longomontanus1 ,kepl]1 & ,lansb]g2 &1 9 allusion to ! /ory ( anci5t my?ology1 8 "w 0 to h be5 call$ ,p>is ,a/ronomicus2 we easily see t he w\ld h giv5 ! gold5 apple to ! ,kepl]ian goddess4 ,succe$+ obs]vations confirm$ 8 judgm5t3 & ! ,rudolph9e ,tables1 ?us publi%$ sev5ty-six ye>s aft] ! ,prut5ic1 :i* 7 f\nd$ on ! doctr9es ( ,cop]nicus1 7 = a long "t ^? univ]sally us$4 ,note #dde3 ,rheticus1 ,n>ratio1 p4 #ih4 ,sect4 #b4--;,application ( ! ,elliptical ,!ory to ! ,moon4 ,,! r$uction ( ! ,moon's motions to rule 0 a h>d] task ?an ! =mation ( planet>y tables1 if accuracy 0 requir$2 = ! ,moon's motion is affect$ by an incr$ible numb] ( diff]5t & complex inequalities1 :i*1 till _! law is detect$1 appe> to defy all !ory4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 progress 0 made 9 ?is "w4 ,! mo/ important advances 7 due to ,ty*o ,brahe4 ,9 addition to ! fir/ & second inequalities ( ! moon 7! ,equation ( ! ,c5tre1 kn[n v e>ly1 & ! ,evection1 :i* ,ptolemy _h discov]$71 ,ty*o prov$ t !re 0 ano!r inequality1 :i* he t]m$ ! ,v>iation1#dee :i* dep5d$ on ! moon's position ) respect to ! sun1 & :i* at its maximum 0 =ty m9utes & a half1 ab\t a qu>t] ( ! evection4 ,he also p]ceiv$1 ?\gh n v di/9ctly1 ! necessity ( ano!r correction ( ! moon's place dep5d+ on ! sun's longitude1 :i* has s9ce be5 t]m$ ! ,annual ,equation4 ,note #dee3 ,we h se5 7*ap4 iii471 t ,ab\l-,wefa1 9 ! t5? c5tury1 _h already notic$ ?is inequality2 b 8 discov]y _h be5 entirely =gott5 long be=e ! "t ( ,ty*o1 & has only rec5tly be5 br\ght aga9 into notice4 ,^! /eps conc]n$ ! ,longitude ( ! ,moon2 ,ty*o also made important advances 9 ! k ( ! ,latitude4 ,! ,incl9ation ( ! ,orbit _h hi!rto be5 assum$ to be ! same at all #cjd times2 & ! motion ( ! ,node _h be5 suppos$ uni=m4 ,he f\nd t ! incl9ation increas$ & dim9i%$ by tw5ty m9utes1 accord+ to ! position ( ! l9e ( nodes2 & t ! nodes1 ?\gh !y regress ^u ! :ole1 sometimes g =w>ds & sometimes g backw>ds4 ,ty*o's discov]ies conc]n+ ! moon are giv5 9 8 ,progymnasmata1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #afjc1 two ye>s aft] ! au?or's dea?4 ,he repres5ts ! ,moon's motion 9 longitude by means ( c]ta9 comb9ations ( epicycles & ecc5trics4 ,b aft] ,kepl] _h %[n t su* devices are to be bani%$ f ! planet>y sy/em1 x 0 impossible n to ?9k ( ext5d+ ! elliptical !ory to ! moon4 ,horrox succe$$ 9 do+ ?is2 & 9 #afch s5t ?is essay to 8 fri5d ,crabtree4 ,x 0 publi%$ 9 #afgc1 ) ! num]ical elem5ts requisite = its application add$ by ,flam/e$4 ,flam/e$ _h also 79 #afga-b7 comp>$ ?is !ory ) obs]vation1 & f\nd t x agre$ f> m ne>ly ?an ! ,philolaic ,tables ( ,bullialdus1 or ! ,c>ol9ian ,tables ( ,/reet 7,epilogus ad ,tabulas74 ,moreov] ,horrox1 by mak+ ! c5tre ( ! ellipse revolve 9 an epicycle1 gave an explanation ( ! evection1 z well z ( ! equation ( ! c5tre4#dfe ,note #dfe3 ,horrox 7,horrockes z he himself spelt 8 "n7 gave a fir/ sket* ( 8 !ory 9 lett]s to 8 fri5d ,crabtree 9 #afch3 9 :i* ! v>iation ( ! ecc5tricity is n allud$ to4 ,b 9 ,crabtree's lett] to ,gascoigne 9 #afdb1 he gives ,horrox's rule conc]n+ x2 & ,flam/e$ 9 8 ,epilogue to ! ,tables1 publi%$ by ,wallis along ) ,horrox's works 9 #afgc1 gave an explanation ( ! !ory :i* made x am\nt v ne>ly to a revolution ( ! c5tre ( ! ellipse 9 an epicycle4 ,halley aft]w>ds made a slight alt]ation2 b h>dly1 ,i ?9k1 en\gh to ju/ify ,newton's ass]tion 7,pr9cip4 ,lib4 iii4 ,prop4 #ce1 ,s*ol471 ,halleius c5trum ellipseos 9 epicyclo locavit4 ,see ,baily's ,flam/e$1 p4 #fhc4 ,mod]n a/ronom]s1 by calculat+ ! effects ( ! p]turb+ =ces ( ! sol> sy/em1 & comp>+ _! calculations ) obs]vation1 h add$ _m new corrections or equations to ^? kn[n at ! "t ( ,horrox2 & s9ce ! ,motions ( ! heav5ly bodies 7 ev5 !n affect$ by ^! v>iations z yet undetect$1 x is cle> t ! ,tables ( t "t mu/ h %[n "s errors :5 comp>$ ) obs]vation4 ,^! errors mu* p]plex$ a/ronom]s1 & naturally gave rise to ! "q :e!r ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies really 7 exactly regul>1 or :e!r !y 7 n affect$ by accid5ts z little r$ucible to rule z w9d & wea!r4 ,kepl] _h held ! op9ion ( ! casualty ( su* errors2 b ,horrox1 f> m philosophically1 argues aga9/ ?is op9ion1 ?\gh he #cje all[s t he is mu* emb>rass$ by ! deviations4 ,8 argum5ts %[ a s+ul>ly cle> & /rong appreh5sion ( ! features ( ! case1 & _! real import4 ,he says1#dge ^! errors ( ! tables are alt]nately 9 excess & defect2 h[ c\ld ?is con/ant comp5sation happ5 if !y 7 casual8 ,moreov]1 ! alt]nation f excess to defect is mo/ rapid 9 ! ,moon1 mo/ sl[ 9 ,jupit] & ,saturn1 9 :i* planets ! error cont9ues sometimes = ye>s4 ,if ! errors 7 casual1 :y %\ld !y n la/ z long 9 ! ,moon z 9 ,saturn8 ,b if we suppose ! tables to be "r 9 ! mean motions1 b wrong 9 ! equations1 ^! facts are j :at mu/ happ52 s9ce ,saturn's inequalities are ( long p]iod1 :ile ^? ( ! ,moon are num]\s1 & rapidly *ang+4 ,x w\ld be impossible1 at ! pres5t mom5t1 to reason bett] on ?is subject2 & ! doctr9e1 t all ! app>5t irregul>ities ( ! cele/ial motions are really regul>1 0 "o ( great consequ5ce to e/abli% at ?is p]iod ( ! sci5ce4 ,note #dge3 ,a/ron4 ,kepl]4 ,proleg4 p4 #ag4 ,sect4 #c4--;,causes ( ! fur!r ,progress ( ,a/ronomy4 ,,we are n[ arriv$ at ! "t :5 !ory & obs]vation sprang =w>ds ) emul\s en]gy4 ,! physical !ories ( ,kepl]1 & ! reason+s ( o!r def5d]s ( ! ,cop]nican !ory1 l$ inevitably1 aft] "s vagu5ess & p]plexity1 to a s\nd sci5ce ( ,me*anics2 & ?is sci5ce 9 "t gave a new face to ,a/ronomy4 ,b 9 ! mean "t1 :ile me*anical ma!maticians 7 g5]aliz+ f ! a/ronomy already e/abli%$1 a/ronom]s 7 accumulat+ new facts1 :i* po9t$ ! way to new !ories & new g5]alizations4 ,cop]nicus1 :ile he _h e/abli%$ ! p]man5t l5g? ( ! ye>1 _h confirm$ ! motion ( ! sun's apogee1 & _h %[n t ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 & ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic1 7 gradually1 ?\gh sl[ly1 dim9i%+4 ,ty*o _h accumulat$ a /ore ( excell5t obs]vations4 ,^!1 z well z ! laws ( ! motions ( ! moon & planets already expla9$1 7 mat]ials on :i* ! ,me*anics ( ! ,univ]se 0 aft]w>ds to employ its mo/ matur$ p[]s4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! telescope _h op5$ o!r new subjects ( notice & speculation2 n only confirm+ ! ,cop]nican doctr9e by ! phases ( ,v5us1 & ! analogical examples ( ,jupit] & ,saturn1 :i* ) _! ,satellites #cjf appe>$ l models ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em2 b disclos+ unexpect$ objects1 z ! ,r+ ( ,saturn1 & ! ,spots ( ! ,sun4 ,! art ( obs]v+ made rapid advances1 bo? by ! use ( ! telescope1 & by ! s\nd] notions ( ! con/ruction ( in/rum5ts :i* ,ty*o introduc$4 ,cop]nicus _h laugh$ at ,rheticus1 :5 he 0 di/urb$ ab\t s+le m9utes2 & decl>$ t if he c\ld be sure to t5 m9utes ( space1 he %\ld be z mu* delight$ z ,py?agoras 0 :5 he discov]$ ! prop]ty ( ! "r-angl$ triangle4 ,b ,kepl] f\nd$ ! revolution :i* he introduc$ on a quantity less ?an ?is4 ,s9ce1 he says1#dhe ! ,div9e ,goodness has giv5 u 9 ,ty*o an obs]v] s exact t ?is error ( eight m9utes is impossible1 we mu/ be ?ankful to ,god = ?is1 & turn x to acc\nt4 ,& ^! eight m9utes1 :i* we mu/ n neglect1 w1 ( !mselves1 enable u to recon/ruct ! :ole ( a/ronomy4 ,9 addition to o!r improvem5ts1 ! art ( num]ical calculation made an ine/imable advance by means ( ,napi]'s inv5tion ( ,log>i?ms2 & ! progress ( o!r p>ts ( pure ma!matics 0 proportional to ! calls :i* a/ronomy & physics made ^u !m4 ,note #dhe3 ,de ,/ell ,m>tis1 c4 #ai4 ,! exactness :i* obs]vation _h atta9$ enabl$ a/ronom]s bo? to v]ify & improve ! exi/+ !ories1 & to /udy ! yet unsy/ematiz$ facts4 ,! sci5ce 01 !re=e1 =c$ along by a /rong impulse on all sides1 & its c>e] assum$ a new "*4 ,up to ?is po9t1 ! hi/ory ( ,european ,a/ronomy 0 only ! sequel ( ! hi/ory ( ,greek ,a/ronomy2 = ! helioc5tric sy/em1 z we h se51 _h _h a place among ! guesses1 at lea/1 ( ! inv5tive & acute intellects ( ! ,greek philosoph]s4 ,b ! discov]y ( ,kepl]'s ,laws1 accompani$1 z f ! fir/ !y 71 ) a conviction t ! relations ?us br\ght to light 7 ! effects & expon5ts ( physical causes1 l$ rapidly & irresi/ibly to ! ,me*anical ,sci5ce ( ! skies1 & collat]ally1 to ! ,me*anical ,sci5ce ( ! o!r p>ts ( ,nature3 ,s\nd1 & ,light1 & ,heat2 & ,magnetism1 & ,electricity1 & ,*emi/ry4 ,! hi/ory ( ^! ,sci5ces1 ?us treat$1 =ms ! sequel ( ! pres5t "w1 & w be ! subject ( ! succe$+ volumes4 ,& s9ce1 z ,i h said1 our ma9 object 9 ?is "w is to d$uce1 f ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 ! philosophy ( sci5tific discov]y1 x may be reg>d$ z =tunate = our purpose t ! hi/ory1 aft] ?is po9t1 s f> *anges its aspect z to (f] new mat]ials = su* speculations4 ,! details ( #cjg a hi/ory ( a/ronomy1 su* z ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy s9ce ,newton has be51 ?\gh int]e/+ to ! special lov]s ( t sci5ce1 w\ld be too te*nical1 & ! features ( ! n>rative too monoton\s & unimpressive1 to int]e/ ! g5]al read]1 or to sugge/ a compreh5sive philosophy ( sci5ce4 ,b :5 we pass f ! ,ideas ( ,space & ,"t to ! ,ideas ( ,=ce & ,matt]1 ( ,m$iums by :i* action & s5sation are produc$1 & ( ! ,intimate ,con/itution ( mat]ial bodies1 we h new fields ( inquiry op5$ to u4 ,& :5 we f9d t 9 ^! fields1 z well z 9 a/ronomy1 !re are l>ge & /rik+ tra9s ( unque/ion$ discov]y to be n>rat$1 we may gird ourselves afre% to ! task ( writ+1 & ,i hope1 ( read+1 ! rema9+ "p ( ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 9 ! tru/ t x w 9 "s measure help u to answ] ! important que/ions1 ,:at is ,tru?8 &1 ,h[ is x to be discov]$8 #cji ,,book ,,vi4 ,,! ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,me*anics1 ,,includ+ ,,fluid ,,me*anics4 ,i 1 1 ' ,,s*ylus4 ,prom4 ,v9ct4 #ac4 ,y1 ,,=ce & ,,p[]1 h done y\r de/9$ task3 ,& naught imp$es ! "w ( o!r h&s4 #caa ,,introduction4 ,,we ent] n[ ^u a new region ( ! human m9d4 ,9 pass+ f ,a/ronomy to ,me*anics we make a transition f ! =mal to ! physical sci5ces2--f "t & space to =ce & matt]2--f ph5om5a to causes4 ,hi!rto we h be5 conc]n$ only ) ! pa?s & orbits1 ! p]iods & cycles1 ! angles & di/ances1 ( ! objects to :i* our sci5ces appli$1 namely1 ! heav5ly bodies4 ,h[ ^! motions are produc$2--by :at ag5cies1 impulses1 p[]s1 !y are det]m9$ to be :at !y are2--( :at nature are ! objects !mselves2--are speculations :i* we h hi!rto n dwelt ^u4 ,! hi/ory ( su* speculations n[ comes be=e u2 b1 9 ! fir/ place1 we mu/ consid] ! hi/ory ( speculations conc]n+ motion 9 g5]al1 t]re/rial z well z cele/ial4 ,we mu/ fir/ att5d to ,me*anics1 & aft]w>ds return to ,physical ,a/ronomy4 ,9 ! same way 9 :i* ! developm5t ( ,pure ,ma!matics1 :i* began ) ! ,greeks1 0 a necess>y condition ( ! progress ( ,=mal ,a/ronomy1 ! creation ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics n[ became necess>y to ! =mation & progress ( ,physical ,a/ronomy4 ,geometry & ,me*anics 7 /udi$ = _! own sakes2 b !y also suppli$ ideas1 language1 & reason+ to o!r sci5ces4 ,if ! ,greeks _h n cultivat$ ,conic ,sections1 ,kepl] c\ld n h sup]s$$ ,ptolemy2 if ! ,greeks _h cultivat$ ,dynamics1#af ,kepl] might h anticipat$ ,newton4 #cab ,note #af3 ,dynamics is ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! ,motions ( ,bodies2 ,/atics is ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! ,pressure ( ,bodies :i* are 9 equilibrium1 & !re=e at re/4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,galileo4 ,sect4 #a4--,prelude to ! ,sci5ce ( ,/atics4 ,,"s /eps 9 ! sci5ce ( ,motion1 or r 9 ! sci5ce ( ,equilibrium1 _h be5 made by ! anci5ts1 z we h se54 ,ar*im$es e/abli%$ satisfactorily ! doctr9e ( ! ,lev]1 "s important prop]ties ( ! ,c5tre ( ,gravity1 & ! fundam5tal proposition ( ,hydro/atics4 ,b ?is beg9n+ l$ to no p]man5t progress4 ,:e!r ! di/9ction betwe5 ! pr9ciples ( ! doctr9e ( ,equilibrium & ( ,motion 0 cle>ly se5 by ,ar*im$es1 we d n "k2 b x nev] 0 caught hold ( by any ( ! o!r writ]s ( antiquity1 or by ^? ( ! ,/ation>y ,p]iod4 ,:at 0 /ill worse1 ! po9t :i* ,ar*im$es _h won 0 n /eadily ma9ta9$4 ,we h giv5 "s examples ( ! g5]al ignorance ( ! ,greek philosoph]s on su* subjects1 9 notic+ ! /range mann] 9 :i* ,ari/otle ref]s to ma!matical prop]ties1 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! equilibrium ( a lev]1 & ! attitude ( a man ris+ f a *air4 ,& we h se51 9 speak+ ( ! indi/9ct ideas ( ! ,/ation>y ,p]iod1 t ! attempts :i* 7 made to ext5d ! /atical doctr9e ( ,ar*im$es1 fail$1 9 su* a mann] z to %[ t 8 foll[]s _h n cle>ly appreh5d$ ! idea on :i* 8 reason+ altoge!r dep5d$4 ,! cl\ds :i* he _h1 = a mom5t1 clov5 9 8 advance1 clos$ aft] him1 & ! =m] dimness & confusion settl$ aga9 on ! l&4 ,?is dimness & confusion1 ) respect to all subjects ( me*anical reason+1 prevail$ /ill1 at ! p]iod we n[ h to consid]2 namely1 ! p]iod ( ! fir/ promulgation ( ! ,cop]nican op9ions4 ,?is is s important a po9t t ,i mu/ illu/rate x fur!r4 ,c]ta9 g5]al notions ( ! connection ( cause & effect 9 motion1 exi/ 9 ! human m9d at all p]iods ( its developm5t1 & are impli$ 9 ! =mation ( language & 9 ! mo/ famili> employm5ts ( m5's ?\ghts4 ,b ^! d n con/itute a sci5ce ( #cac ,me*anics1 any m ?an ! notions ( squ>e & r\nd make a ,geometry1 or ! notions ( mon?s & ye>s make an ,a/ronomy4 ,! unfold+ ^! ,notions into di/9ct ,ideas1 on :i* c be f\nd$ pr9ciples & reason+s1 is fur!r requisite1 9 ord] to produce a sci5ce2 &1 ) respect to ! doctr9es ( ,motion1 ?is 0 long 9 com+ to pass2 m5's ?\ghts rema9$ long entangl$ 9 _! primitive & unsci5tific confusion4 ,we may m5tion "o or two features ( ?is confusion1 su* z we f9d 9 au?ors belong+ to ! p]iod n[ "u review4 ,we h already1 9 speak+ ( ! ,greek ,s*ool ,philosophy1 notic$ ! attempt to expla9 "s ( ! diff]5ces among ,motions1 by classify+ !m into ,natural ,motions & ,viol5t ,motions2 & we h spok5 ( ! ass]tion t heavy bodies fall quick] 9 proportion to _! great] weight4 ,^! doctr9es 7 /ill reta9$3 yet ! views :i* !y impli$ 7 ess5tially errone\s & uns\nd2 = !y did n ref] di/9ctly to a measurable ,=ce z ! cause ( all motion or *ange ( motion2 & !y conf\nd$ ! causes :i* produce & ^? :i* pres]ve1 motion4 ,h5ce su* pr9ciples did n lead imm$iately to any advance ( k1 ?\gh ef=ts 7 made to apply !m1 9 ! cases bo? ( t]re/rial ,me*anics & ( ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,! effect ( ! ,incl9$ ,plane 0 "o ( ! fir/1 z x 0 "o ( ! mo/ important1 propositions1 on :i* mod]n writ]s employ$ !mselves4 ,x 0 f\nd t a body1 :5 support$ on a slop+ surface1 might be su/a9$ or rais$ by a =ce or ex]tion :i* w\ld n h be5 able to su/a9 or raise x )\t su* support4 ,& h5ce1 ,! ,incl9$ ,plane 0 plac$ 9 ! li/ ( ,me*anical ,p[]s1 or simple ma*9es by :i* ! efficacy ( =ces is increas$3 ! "q 01 9 :at proportion ?is increase ( effici5cy takes place4 ,x is easily se5 t ! =ce requisite to su/a9 a body is small]1 z ! slope on :i* x re/s is small]2 ,c>dan 7^: "w1 ,de ,proportionibus ,num]orum1 ,motuum1 ,pond]um1 c41 0 publi%$ 9 #aede7 ass]ts t ! =ce is d\ble :5 ! angle ( incl9ation is d\ble1 & s on = o!r proportions2 ?is is probably a guess1 & is an errone\s "o4 ,guido ,ubaldi1 ( ,m>*mont1 publi%$ at ,pes>o1 9 #aegg1 a "w :i* he call$ ,me*anicorum ,lib]1 9 :i* he endeavors to prove t an acute w$ge w produce a great] me*anical effect ?an an obtuse "o1 )\t det]m9+ 9 :at proportion4 ,!re is1 he obs]ves1 a c]ta9 repugnance betwe5 ! direction 9 :i* ! side ( ! w$ge t5ds to #cad move ! ob/acle1 & ! direction 9 :i* x really does move4 ,?us ! ,w$ge & ! ,incl9$ ,plane are connect$ 9 pr9ciple4 ,he also ref]s ! ,screw to ! ,incl9$ ,plane & ! ,w$ge1 9 a mann] :i* %[s a j appreh5sion ( ! "q4 ,b5$etti 7#aehe7 treats ! ,w$ge 9 a diff]5t mann]2 n exact1 b /ill %[+ "s p[]s ( ?\ght on me*anical subjects4 ,mi*ael ,v>ro1 ^: ,tractatus de ,motu 0 publi%$ at ,g5eva 9 #aehd1 d$uces ! w$ge f ! composition ( hypo!tical motions1 9 a way :i* may appe> to "s p]sons an anticipation ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,composition ( ,=ces4 ,!re is ano!r "w on subjects ( ?is k9d1 ( :i* sev]al editions 7 publi%$ 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 & :i* treats ?is matt] 9 ne>ly ! same way z ,v>ro1 & 9 fav\r ( :i* a claim has be5 made#bf 7,i ?9k an unf\nd$ "o71 z if x conta9$ ! true pr9ciple ( ?is problem4 ,! "w is ,jordanus ,nemor>ius ,de ,pond]ositate4 ,! date & hi/ory ( ?is au?or 7 probably ev5 !n unkn[n2 = 9 #aeii1 ,b5$etti1 correct+ "s ( ! errors ( ,t>talea1 says !y are tak5 a ,jordano quodam antiquo4 ,! book 0 probably a k9d ( s*ool-book1 & mu* us$2 = an edition pr9t$ at ,frank=t1 9 #aecc1 is /at$ to be ,cum gratia et privilegio ,imp]iali1 ,petro ,apiano ma!matico ,+ol/adiano ad xxx annos concesso4 ,b ?is edition does n conta9 ! ,incl9$ ,plane4 ,?\gh ^? :o compil$ ! "w ass]t 9 words some?+ l ! inv]se proportion ( ,weights & _! ,velocities1 !y _h n le>nt at t "t h[ to apply ?is maxim to ! ,incl9$ ,plane2 nor 7 !y ev] able to r5d] a s\nd reason = x4 ,9 ! edition ( ,v5ice1 #aefe1 h[ev]1 su* an application is attempt$4 ,! reason+s are f\nd$ on ! ,ari/otelian assumption1 t bodies desc5d m quickly 9 proportion z !y are heavi]4 ,to ?is pr9ciple are add$ "s o!rs2 z1 t a body is heavi] 9 proportion z x desc5ds m directly to ! c5tre1 & t1 9 proportion z a body desc5ds m obliquely1 ! int]cept$ "p ( ! direct desc5t is small]4 ,by means ( ^! pr9ciples1 ! desc5d+ =ce ( bodies1 on incl9$ planes1 0 comp>$1 by a process1 :i*1 s f> z x =ms a l9e ( pro( at all1 is a some:at curi\s example ( confus$ & vici\s reason+4 ,:5 two bodies are support$ on two incl9$ planes1 & are connect$ by a /r+ pass+ ov] ! junction ( ! planes1 s t :5 "o desc5ds ! o!r asc5ds1 #cae !y mu/ move ?r\gh equal spaces on ! planes2 b on ! plane :i* is m oblique 7t is1 m ne>ly horizontal71 ! v]tical desc5t w be small] 9 ! same proportion 9 :i* ! plane is long]4 ,h5ce1 by ! ,ari/otelian pr9ciple1 ! weight ( ! body on ! long] plane is less2 &1 to produce an equality ( effect1 ! body mu/ be great] 9 ! same proportion4 ,we may obs]ve t ! ,ari/otelian pr9ciple is n only false1 b is "h misappli$2 = its g5u9e mean+ is1 t :5 bodies fall freely by gravity1 !y move quick] 9 proportion z !y are heavi]2 b ! rule is "h appli$ to ! motions :i* bodies w\ld h1 if !y 7 mov$ by a =ce extrane\s to _! gravity4 ,! proposition 0 suppos$ by ! ,ari/otelians to be true ( actual velocities2 x is appli$ by ,jordanus to virtual velocities1 )\t 8 be+ aw>e :at he 0 do+4 ,?is confusion be+ made1 ! result is got at by tak+ = grant$ t bodies ?us prov$ to be equally heavy1 h equal p[]s ( desc5t on ! incl9$ planes2 :]eas1 9 ! previ\s "p ( ! reason+1 ! weight 0 suppos$ to be proportional to ! desc5t 9 ! v]tical direction4 ,x is obvi\s1 9 all ?is1 t ?\gh ! au?or _h adopt$ ! false ,ari/otelian pr9ciple1 he _h n settl$ 9 8 own m9d :e!r ! motions ( :i* x spoke 7 actual or virtual motions2--motions 9 ! direction ( ! incl9$ plane1 or ( ! int]cept$ p>ts ( ! v]tical1 correspond+ to ^!2 nor :e!r ! desc5d+ =ce ( a body 0 some?+ diff]5t f its weight4 ,we _c d\bt t1 if he _h be5 requir$ to po9t out1 ) any exactness1 ! cases to :i* 8 reason+ appli$1 he w\ld h be5 unable to d s2 n possess+ any ( ^? cle> fundam5tal ,ideas ( ,pressure & ,=ce1 on :i* alone any real k on su* subjects mu/ dep5d4 ,! :ole ( ,jordanus's reason+ is an example ( ! confusion ( ?\ght ( 8 p]iod1 & ( no?+ m4 ,x no m suppli$ ! want ( "s man ( g5ius1 :o %\ld give ! subject a real sci5tific f\ndation1 ?an ,ari/otle's k ( ! proportion ( ! weights on ! lev] sup]s$$ ! necessity ( ,ar*im$es's pro( ( x4 ,note #bf3 ,mr4 ,dr9kwat]'s ,life ( ,galileo1 9 ! ,lib4 ,usef4 ,kn4 p4 #hc4 ,we are n1 !re=e1 to wond] t1 ?\gh ?is pret5d$ !orem 0 copi$ by o!r writ]s1 z by ,t>talea1 9 8 ,quesiti et ,inv5tioni ,div]si1 publi%$ 9 #aeed1 no progress 0 made 9 ! real solution ( any "o me*anical problem by means ( x4 ,guido ,ubaldi1 :o1 9 #aegg1 writes 9 su* a mann] z to %[ t he _h tak5 a good hold ( 8 subject = 8 "t1 ref]s to ,pappus's solution ( ! problem ( ! ,incl9$ ,plane1 b makes no m5tion ( t ( #caf ,jordanus & ,t>talea4#cf ,no progress 0 likely to occur1 till ! ma!maticians _h di/9ctly recov]$ ! g5u9e ,idea ( ,pressure1 z a ,=ce produc+ equilibrium1 :i* ,ar*im$es _h possess$1 & :i* 0 soon to reappe> 9 ,/ev9us4 ,note #cf3 ,ubaldi m5tions & blames ,jordanus's way ( treat+ ! ,lev]4 7,see 8 ,preface47 ,! prop]ties ( ! ,lev] _h always cont9u$ kn[n to ma!maticians1 al?\gh1 9 ! d>k p]iod1 ! sup]iority ( ! pro( giv5 by ,ar*im$es _h n be5 recogniz$4 ,we are n to be surpris$1 if reason+s l ^? ( ,jordanus 7 appli$ to demon/rate ! !ories ( ! ,lev] ) app>5t success4 ,writ]s on ,me*anics 71 z we h se51 s vacillat+ 9 _! mode ( deal+ ) words & propositions1 t _! maxims c\ld be made to prove any ?+ :i* 0 already kn[n to be true4 ,we proce$ to speak ( ! beg9n+ ( ! real progress ( ,me*anics 9 mod]n times4 ,sect4 #b4--,revival ( ! ,sci5tific ,idea ( ,pressure4--,/ev9us4--,equilibrium ( ,oblique ,=ces4 ,,! doctr9e ( ! ,c5tre ( ,gravity 0 ! "p ( ! me*anical speculations ( ,ar*im$es :i* 0 mo/ dilig5tly prosecut$ aft] 8 "t4 ,pappus & o!rs1 among ! anci5ts1 _h solv$ "s new problems on ?is subject1 & ,comm&9us1 9 #aefe1 publi%$ ,de ,c5tro ,gravitatis ,solidorum4 ,su* treatises conta9$1 = ! mo/ "p1 only ma!matical consequ5ces ( ! doctr9es ( ,ar*im$es2 b ! ma!maticians also reta9$ a /eady conviction ( ! me*anical prop]ty ( ! ,c5tre ( ,gravity1 namely1 t all ! weight ( ! body might be collect$ !re1 )\t any *ange 9 ! me*anical results2 a conviction :i* is closely connect$ ) our fundam5tal conceptions ( me*anical action4 ,su* a pr9ciple1 also1 w enable u to det]m9e ! result ( _m simple me*anical arrangem5ts2 = in/ance1 if a ma!matician ( ^? days _h be5 ask$ :e!r a solid ball c\ld be made ( su* a =m1 t1 :5 plac$ on a horizontal plane1 x %\ld g on roll+ =w>ds )\t limit m]ely by ! effect ( its own weight1 he w\ld probably h answ]$1 t x c\ld n2 = t ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! ball w\ld seek ! l[e/ position x c\ld f9d1 & t1 :5 x _h f\nd ?is1 ! ball c\ld h no t5d5cy to roll any fur!r4 ,&1 9 mak+ ?is ass]tion1 ! suppos$ reason] w\ld n be #cag anticipat+ any wid] pro( ( ! impossibility ( a p]petual motion drawn f pr9ciples subsequ5tly discov]$1 b w\ld be ref]r+ ! "q to c]ta9 fundam5tal convictions1 :i*1 :e!r put into ,axioms or n1 inevitably accompany our me*anical conceptions4 ,9 ! same way1 ,/ev9us ( ,bruges1 9 #aehf1 :5 he publi%$ 8 ,begh9sel5 d] ,waaghcon/ 7,pr9ciples ( ,equilibrium71 _h be5 ask$ :y a loop ( *a91 hung ov] a triangul> beam1 c\ld n1 z he ass]t$ x c\ld n1 g on mov+ r\nd & r\nd p]petually1 by ! action ( its own weight1 he w\ld probably h answ]$1 t ! weight ( ! *a91 if x produc$ motion at all1 mu/ h a t5d5cy to br+ x into "s c]ta9 position1 & t :5 ! *a9 _h rea*$ ?is position1 x w\ld h no t5d5cy to g any fur!r2 & ?us he w\ld h r$uc$ ! impossibility ( su* a p]petual motion1 to ! conception ( gravity1 z a =ce t5d+ to produce equilibrium2 a pr9ciple p]fectly s\nd & correct4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple ?us appli$1 ,/ev9us did e/abli% ! fundam5tal prop]ty ( ! ,incl9$ ,plane4 ,he suppos$ a loop ( /r+1 load$ ) f\rte5 equal balls at equal di/ances1 to hang ov] a triangul> support :i* 0 compos$ ( two incl9$ planes ) a horizontal base1 & ^: sides1 be+ unequal 9 ! proportion ( two to "o1 support$ f\r & two balls respectively4 ,he %[$ t ?is loop mu/ hang at re/1 because any motion w\ld only br+ x into ! same condition 9 :i* x 0 at fir/2 & t ! fe/oon ( eight balls :i* hung d[n bel[ ! triangle might be remov$ )\t di/urb+ ! equilibrium2 s t f\r balls on ! long] plane w\ld balance two balls on ! %ort] plane2 or 9 o!r words1 ! weights w\ld be z ! l5g?s ( ! planes int]cept$ by ! horizontal l9e4 ,/ev9us %[$ 8 firm possession ( ! tru? conta9$ 9 ?is pr9ciple1 by d$uc+ f x ! prop]ties ( =ces act+ 9 oblique directions "u all k9ds ( conditions2 9 %ort1 he %[$ 8 entire ability to f\nd ^u x a complete doctr9e ( equilibrium2 & ^u 8 f\ndations1 & )\t any additional support1 ! ma!matical doctr9es ( ,/atics might h be5 c>ri$ to ! highe/ pit* ( p]fection !y h yet rea*$4 ,! =mation ( ! sci5ce 0 f9i%$2 ! ma!matical developm5t & exposition ( x 7 alone op5 to ext5sion & *ange4 #b;d ,ed4 ,simon ,/ev9 ( ,bruges1 z he usually designates himself 9 ! title-page ( 8 "w1 has lately become an object ( g5]al int]e/ 9 8 own c\ntry1 & x has be5 resolv$ to erect a #cah /atue 9 honor ( him 9 "o ( ! public places ( 8 native city4 ,he 0 born 9 #aedh1 z ,i le>n f ,m4 ,quetelet's notice ( him1 & di$ 9 #afbj4 ,montucla says t he di$ 9 #afcc2 misl$ app>5tly by ! preface to ,alb]t ,gir>d's edition ( ,/ev9's works1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #afcd1 & :i* speaks ( a dea? :i* took place 9 ! prec$+ ye>2 b on exam9ation x w be se5 t ?is ref]s to ,gir>d1 n to ,/ev94 ,i ought to h m5tion$1 9 consid]ation ( ! importance ( ! proposition1 t ,/ev9 di/9ctly /ates ! triangle ( =ces2 namely1 t ?ree =ces :i* act ^u a po9t are 9 equilibrium :5 !y are p>allel & proportional to ! ?ree sides ( any plane triangle4 ,?is includes ! pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,/atical ,=ces4 ,/ev9 also applies 8 pr9ciple ( equilibrium to cordage1 pulleys1 funicul> polygons1 & especially to ! bits ( bridles2 a bran* ( me*anics :i* he calls ,*al9o?lipsis4 ,he has also ! m]it ( hav+ se5 v cle>ly1 ! di/9ction ( /atical & dynamical problems4 ,he rem>ks t ! "q1 ,:at =ce w support a load$ wagon on an incl9$ plane8 is a /atical "q1 dep5d+ on simple conditions2 b t ! "q1 ,:at =ce w move ! wagon8 requires additional consid]ations to be introduc$4 ,9 ,*apt] iv4 ( ?is ,book1 ,i h notic$ ,/ev9's %>e 9 ! r$iscov]y ( ! ,laws ( ! ,equilibrium ( ,fluids4 ,he di/9ctly expla9s ! hydro/atic p>adox1 ( :i* ! discov]y is g5]ally ascrib$ to ,pascal4 ,e>li] ?an ,/ev9us1 ,leon>do da ,v9ci mu/ h a place among ! discov]]s ( ! ,conditions ( ,equilibrium ( ,oblique ,=ces4 ,he publi%$ no "w on ?is subject2 b extracts f 8 manuscripts h be5 publi%$ by ,v5turi1 9 8 ,essai sur les ,ouvrages ,physico-,ma!matiques de ,leon>d da ,v9ci1 avec des ,fragm5s tirs de ses ,manuscrits apports d',italie1 ,p>is1 #agig3 & by ,libri1 9 8 ,hi/4 des ,sc4 ,ma?4 en ,italie1 #ahci4 ,i h also myself exam9$ ^! manuscripts 9 ! ,royal ,libr>y at ,p>is4 ,x appe>s t1 z e>ly z #adii1 ,leon>do gave a p]fectly correct /atem5t ( ! proportion ( ! =ces ex]t$ by a cord :i* acts obliquely & supports a weight on a lev]4 ,he di/+ui%es betwe5 ! real lev]1 & ! pot5tial lev]s1 t is1 ! p]p5dicul>s drawn f ! c5tre ^u ! directions ( ! =ces4 ,?is is q s\nd & satisfactory4 ,^! views mu/ 9 all probability h be5 suffici5tly promulgat$ 9 ,italy to influ5ce ! speculations ( ,galileo2 #cai ^: reason+s respect+ ! lev] mu* resemble ^? ( ,leon>do4--,da ,v9ci also anticipat$ ,galileo 9 ass]t+ t ! "t ( desc5t ( a body d[n an incl9$ plane is to ! "t ( desc5t d[n its v]tical l5g? 9 ! proportion ( ! l5g? ( ! plane to ! height4 ,b ?is _c1 ,i ?9k1 h be5 m ?an a guess3 !re is no ve/ige ( a pro( giv54 ,! contemporane\s progress ( ! o!r bran* ( me*anics1 ! ,doctr9e ( ,motion1 int]f]$ ) ?is indep5d5t advance ( ,/atics2 & to t we mu/ n[ turn4 ,we may obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t true propositions respect+ ! composition ( =ces appe> to h rapidly diffus$ !mselves4 ,! ,tractatus de ,motu ( ,mi*ael ,v>ro ( ,g5eva1 already notic$1 pr9t$ 9 #aehd1 _h ass]t$1 t ! =ces :i* balance ea* o!r1 act+ on ! sides ( a "r-angl$ triangul> w$ge1 are 9 ! proportion ( ! sides ( ! triangle2 & al?\gh ?is ass]tion does n appe> to h be5 d]iv$ f a di/9ct idea ( pressure1 ! au?or _h h5ce rightly d$uc$ ! prop]ties ( ! w$ge & ! screw4 ,& %ortly aft] ?is "t1 ,galileo also e/abli%$ ! same results on diff]5t pr9ciples4 ,9 8 ,treatise ,delle ,sci5ze ,mecani*e 7#aeib71 he ref]s ! ,incl9$ ,plane to ! ,lev]1 9 a s\nd & ne>ly satisfactory mann]2 imag9+ a lev] s plac$1 t ! motion ( a body at ! extremity ( "o ( its arms %\ld be 9 ! same direction z x is ^u ! plane4 ,a slight modification makes ?is an unexceptionable pro(4 ,sect4 #c4--,prelude to ! ,sci5ce ( ,dynamics4--,attempts at ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion4 ,,we h already se51 t ,ari/otle divid$ ,motions into ,natural & ,viol5t4 ,c>dan endeavor$ to improve ?is division by mak+ ?ree classes3 ,volunt>y ,motion1 :i* is circul> & uni=m1 & :i* is int5d$ to include ! cele/ial motions2 ,natural ,motion1 :i* is /rong] t[>ds ! end1 z ! motion ( a fall+ body1--?is is 9 a /raight l9e1 because x is motion to an end1 & nature seeks h] ends by ! %orte/ road2 & ?irdly1 ,viol5t ,motion1 includ+ 9 ?is t]m all k9ds diff]5t f ! =m] two4 ,c>dan 0 aw>e t su* ,viol5t ,motion might be produc$ by a v small =ce2 ?us he ass]ts1 t a sph]ical body re/+ on a horizontal plane may be put 9 motion by any =ce :i* is suffici5t to cleave ! air2 = :i*1 h[ev]1 he errone\sly assigns z a reason1 #cbj ! smallness ( ! po9t ( contact4#df ,b ! mo/ common mi/ake ( ?is p]iod 01 t ( suppos+ t z =ce is requisite to move a body1 s a p]petual supply ( =ce is requisite to keep x 9 motion4 ,! :ole ( :at ,kepl] call$ 8 physical reason+1 dep5d$ ^u ?is assumption4 ,he endeavor$ to discov] ! =ces by :i* ! motions ( ! planets ab\t ! sun might be produc$2 b1 9 all cases1 he consid]$ ! velocity ( ! planet z produc$ by1 & exhibit+ ! effect (1 a =ce :i* act$ 9 ! direction ( ! motion4 ,kepl]'s essays1 :i* are 9 ?is respect s feeble & unmean+1 h sometimes be5 consid]$ z disclos+ "s di/ant anticipation ( ,newton's discov]y ( ! exi/5ce & law ( c5tral =ces4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 9 reality1 no o!r connection betwe5 ^! speculations ?an t :i* arises f ! use ( ! t]m =ce by ! two writ]s 9 two utt]ly diff]5t mean+s4 ,kepl]'s ,=ces 7 c]ta9 imag9>y qualities :i* appe>$ 9 ! actual motion :i* ! bodies _h2 ,newton's ,=ces 7 causes :i* appe>$ by ! *ange ( motion3 ,kepl]'s ,=ces urg$ ! bodies =w>ds2 ,newton's deflect$ ! bodies f su* a progress4 ,if ,kepl]'s ,=ces 7 de/roy$1 ! body w\ld in/antly /op2 if ,newton's 7 annihilat$1 ! body w\ld g on uni=mly 9 a /raight l9e4 ,kepl] comp>es ! action ( 8 ,=ces to ! way 9 :i* a body might be driv5 r\nd1 by be+ plac$ among ! sails ( a w9dmill2 ,newton's ,=ces w\ld be repres5t$ by a rope pull+ ! body to ! c5tre4 ,newton's ,=ce is m]ely mutual attraction2 ,kepl]'s is some?+ q diff]5t f ?is2 = ?\gh he p]petually illu/rates 8 views by ! example ( a magnet1 he w>ns u t ! sun diff]s f ! magnet 9 ?is respect1 t its =ce is n attractive1 b directive4#ef ,kepl]'s essays may ) consid]able reason be ass]t$ to be an anticipation ( ! ,vortices ( ,desc>tes2 b !y c ) no propriety :atev] be said to anticipate ,newton's ,dynamical ,!ory4 ,note #df3 ,9 speak+ ( ! =ce :i* w\ld draw a body up an incl9$ plane he obs]ves1 t p] communem animi s5t5tiam1 :5 ! plane becomes horizontal1 ! requisite =ce is no?+4 ,note #ef3 ,epitome ,a/ron4 ,cop]n4 p4 #agf4 ,! confusion ( ?\ght :i* prev5t$ ma!maticians f see+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 produc+ & pres]v+ motion1 01 inde$1 fatal to all attempts at progress on ?is subject4 ,we h already notic$ ! p]plexity 9 :i* ,ari/otle involv$ himself1 by 8 endeavors to f9d a reason = ! cont9u$ motion ( a /one #cba aft] ! mov+ p[] _h ceas$ to act2 & t he _h ascrib$ x to ! effect ( ! air or o!r m$ium 9 :i* ! /one moves4 ,t>talea1 ^: ,nuova ,sci5za is dat$ #aeej1 ?\gh a good pure ma!matician1 is /ill q 9 ! d>k on me*anical matt]s4 ,"o ( 8 propositions1 9 ! "w j m5tion$1 is 7,b4 i4 ,prop4 #c71 ,! m a heavy body rec$es f ! beg9n+1 or approa*es ! end ( viol5t motion1 ! sl[] & m in]tly x goes2 :i* he applies to ! horizontal motion ( projectiles4 ,9 l mann] mo/ o!r writ]s ab\t ?is p]iod conceiv$ t a cannon-ball goes =w>ds till x loses all its projectile motion1 & !n falls d[nw>ds4 ,b5$etti1 :o has already be5 m5tion$1 mu/ be consid]$ z "o ( ! fir/ enlight5$ oppon5ts ( ?is & o!r ,ari/otelian errors or puzzles4 ,9 8 ,speculationum ,lib] 7,v5ice1 #aehe71 he opposes ,ari/otle's me*anical op9ions1 ) great expressions ( respect1 b 9 a v sweep+ mann]4 ,8 *apt] xxiv4 is head$1 ,:e!r ?is em95t man 0 "r 9 8 op9ion conc]n+ viol5t & natural motion4 ,& aft] /at+ ! ,ari/otelian op9ion j m5tion$1 t ! body is impell$ by ! air1 he says t ! air mu/ imp$e r ?an impel ! body1 & t#ff ! motion ( ! body1 sep>at$ f ! mov]1 arises by a c]ta9 natural impression f ! impetuosity 7ex impetuositate7 receiv$ f ! mov]4 ,he adds1 t 9 natural motions ?is impetuosity cont9ually increases by ! cont9u$ action ( ! cause1--namely1 ! prop5sion ( go+ to ! place assign$ x by nature2 & t ?us ! velocity increases z ! body moves f ! beg9n+ ( its pa?4 ,?is /atem5t %[s a cle>ness ( conception ) reg>d to ! cause ( accel]at$ motion1 :i* ,galileo himself 0 long 9 acquir+4 ,note #ff3 ,p4 #ahd4 ,?\gh ,b5$etti 0 ?us on ! way to ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion1--t all motion is uni=m & rectil9e>1 except s f> z x is affect$ by extrane\s =ces2--?is ,law 0 n likely to be ei!r g5]ally conceiv$1 or satisfactorily prov$1 till ! o!r ,laws ( ,motion1 by :i* ! action ( ,=ces is regulat$1 _h come into view4 ,h5ce1 ?\gh a p>tial appreh5sion ( ?is pr9ciple _h prec$$ ! discov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,motion1 we mu/ place ! e/abli%m5t ( ! pr9ciple 9 ! p]iod :5 ^? ,laws 7 detect$ & e/abli%$1 ! p]iod ( ,galileo & 8 foll[]s4 #cbb ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,galileo4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,motion ,,9 ,,simple ,,cases4 ,sect4 #a4--;,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion4 ,,aft] ma!maticians _h begun to d\bt or reject ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle1 !y 7 /ill "s "t 9 com+ to ! conclusion1 t ! di/9ction ( ,natural & ,viol5t ,motions 0 altoge!r unt5able2--t ! velocity ( a body 9 motion increas$ or dim9i%$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! action ( extr9sic causes1 n ( any prop]ty ( ! motion itself2--& t ! app>5tly univ]sal fact1 ( bodies gr[+ sl[] & sl[]1 z if by _! own disposition1 till !y f9ally /opp$1 f :i* ,motions _h be5 call$ ,viol5t1 arose f ! action ( ext]nal ob/acles n imm$iately obvi\s1 z ! friction & ! resi/ance ( ! air :5 a ball runs on ! gr\nd1 & ! action ( gravity1 :5 x is ?r[n upw>ds4 ,b ! tru? to :i* !y 7 at la/ l$1 01 t su* causes w\ld acc\nt = all ! dim9ution ( velocity :i* bodies exp]i5ce :5 app>5tly left to !mselves & t )\t su* causes1 ! motion ( all bodies w\ld g on =ev]1 9 a /raight l9e & ) a uni=m velocity4 ,:o fir/ ann\nc$ ?is ,law 9 a g5]al =m1 x may be difficult to po9t out2 its exact or approximate tru? 0 necess>ily tak5 = grant$ 9 all complete inve/igations on ! subject ( ! laws ( motion ( fall+ bodies1 & ( bodies project$ s z to describe curves4 ,9 ,galileo's fir/ attempt to solve ! problem ( fall+ bodies1 he did n c>ry 8 analysis back to ! notion ( =ce1 & !re=e ?is law does n appe>4 ,9 #afjd he _h an errone\s op9ion on ?is subject & we d n "k :5 he 0 l$ to ! true doctr9e :i* he publi%$ 9 8 ,discorso1 9 #afch4 ,9 8 ?ird ,dialogue he gives ! in/ance ( wat] 9 a vessel1 = ! purpose ( %[+ t circul> motion has a t5d5cy to cont9ue4 ,& 9 8 fir/ ,dialogue on ! ,cop]nican ,sy/em#gf 7publi%$ 9 #afcj71 he ass]ts #cbc ,circul> ,motion alone to be naturally uni=m1 & reta9s ! di/9ction betwe5 ,natural & ,viol5t ,motion4 ,9 ! ,dialogues on ,me*anics1 h[ev]1 publi%$ 9 #afch1 b writt5 app>5tly at an e>li] p]iod1 9 treat+ ( ,projectiles1#hf he ass]ts ! true ,law4 ,mobile sup] planum horizontale projectum m5te concipio omni secluso imp$im5to2 jam con/at ex 8 qu fusius alibi dicta sunt1 illius motum equabilem et p]petuum sup] ipso plano futurum esse1 si planum 9 inf9itum ext5datur4 ,conceive a movable body ^u a horizontal plane1 & suppose all ob/acles to motion to be remov$2 x is !n manife/1 f :at has be5 said m at l>ge 9 ano!r place1 t ! body's motion w be uni=m & p]petual ^u ! plane1 if ! plane be indef9itely ext5d$4 ,8 pupil ,borelli1 9 #affg 79 ! treatise ,de ,vi ,p]cussionis71 /ates ! proposition g5]ally1 t ,velocity is1 by its nature1 uni=m1 & p]petual2 & ?is op9ion appe>s to h be51 at t "t1 g5]ally diffus$1 z we f9d evid5ce 9 ,wallis & o!rs4 ,x is commonly said t ,desc>tes 0 ! fir/ to /ate ?is g5]ally4 ,8 ,pr9cipia 7 publi%$ 9 #afdd2 b 8 pro(s ( ?is ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion are r ( a !ological ?an ( a me*anical k9d4 ,8 reason = ?is ,law is1#if ! immutability & simplicity ( ! op]ation by :i* ,god pres]ves motion 9 matt]4 ,= he only pres]ves x precisely z x is 9 t mom5t 9 :i* he pres]ves x1 tak+ no acc\nt ( t :i* may h be5 previ\sly4 ,reason+ ( ?is ab/ract & priori k9d1 ?\gh x may be urg$ 9 favor ( true op9ions aft] !y h be5 inductively e/abli%$1 is almo/ equally capable ( be+ call$ 9 on ! side ( error1 z we h se5 9 ! case ( ,ari/otle's philosophy4 ,we ought n1 h[ev]1 to =get t ! ref]5ce to ^! ab/ract & priori pr9ciples is an indication ( ! absolute univ]sality & necessity :i* we look = 9 complete ,sci5ces1 & a result ( ^? faculties by :i* su* ,sci5ce is r5d]$ possible1 & suitable to man's intellectual nature4 ,note #gf3 ,dial4 9999i4 p4 #dj4 ,note #hf3 9999p4 #ada4 ,note #if3 ,pr9cip4 p4 #cd4 ,! induction by :i* ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion is e/abli%$1 consi/s1 z induction consi/s 9 all cases1 9 conceiv+ cle>ly ! ,law1 & 9 p]ceiv+ ! subord9ation ( ,facts to x4 ,b ! ,law speaks ( bodies n act$ ^u by any ext]nal =ce1--a case :i* nev] occurs 9 fact2 & ! difficulty ( ! /ep consi/$ 9 br++ all ! common cases 9 :i* motion is gradually ext+ui%$1 "u ! notion ( ! action ( a ret>d+ =ce4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 #cbd ,hooke & o!rs %[$ t1 by dim9i%+ ! obvi\s resi/ances1 ! ret>dation also became less2 & m5 7 gradually l$ to a di/9ct appreciation ( ! ,resi/ance1 ,friction1 c41 :i*1 9 all t]re/rial motions1 prev5t ! ,law f be+ evid5t2 & ?us !y at la/ e/abli%$ by exp]im5t a ,law :i* _c be exp]im5tally exemplifi$4 ,! natural uni=mity ( motion 0 prov$ by exam9+ all k9ds ( cases 9 :i* motion 0 n uni=m4 ,m5 cull$ ! ab/ract ,rule out ( ! concrete ,exp]im5t2 al?\gh ! ,rule 01 9 e case1 mix$ ) o!r ,rules1 & ea* ,rule c\ld be collect$ f ! ,exp]im5t only by suppos+ ! o!rs kn[n4 ,! p]fect simplicity :i* we necess>ily seek = 9 a law ( nature1 enables u to dis5tangle ! complexity :i* ?is comb9ation appe>s at fir/ sight to occasion4 ,! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion ass]ts t ! motion ( a body1 :5 left to itself w n only be uni=m1 b rectil9e> also4 ,?is latt] "p ( ! law is inde$ obvi\s ( itself z soon z we conceive a body deta*$ f all special ref]5ce to ext]nal po9ts & objects4 ,yet1 z we h se51 ,galileo ass]t$ t ! naturally uni=m motion ( bodies 0 t :i* takes place 9 a circle4 ,b5$etti1 h[ev]1 9 #aehe1 _h ent]ta9$ s\nd notions on ?is subject4 ,9 comm5t+ on ,ari/otle's "q1 :y we obta9 an advantage 9 ?r[+ by us+ a sl+1 he says1#ajf t ! body1 :5 :irl$ r\nd1 t5ds to g on 9 a /raight l9e4 ,9 ,galileo's second ,dialogue1 he makes "o ( 8 int]locutors 7,simplicio71 :5 appeal$ to on ?is subject1 aft] ?9k+ int5tly = a little :ile1 give ! same op9ion2 & ! pr9ciple is1 f ?is "t1 tak5 = grant$ by ! au?ors :o treat ( ! motion ( projectiles4 ,desc>tes1 z might be suppos$1 gives ! same reason = ?is z = ! o!r "p ( ! law1 namely1 ! immutability ( ! ,deity4 ,note #ajf3 ,corpus vellet recta it] p]ag]e4 9999,speculationum ,lib]1 p4 #afj4 ,sect4 #b4--;,=mation & ,application ( ! ,notion ( ,accel]at+ ,=ce4--,laws ( ,fall+ ,bodies4 ,,we h se5 h[ rude & vague 7 ! attempts ( ,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s to obta9 a philosophy ( bodies fall+ d[nw>ds or ?r[n 9 any direction4 ,if ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion _h be5 cle>ly kn[n1 x w\ld !n1 p]haps1 h be5 se5 t ! way to und]/& & analyze ! motion ( any body1 is to consid] ! #cbe ,causes ( *ange ( motion :i* at ea* in/ant op]ate ^u x2 & ?us m5 w\ld h be5 l$ to ! notion ( ,accel]at+ ,=ces1 t is1 ,=ces :i* act ^u bodies already 9 motion1 & accel]ate1 ret>d1 or deflect _! motions4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 only aft] _m attempts t !y rea*$ ?is po9t4 ,!y began by consid]+ ! :ole motion ) ref]5ce to c]ta9 ill-def9$ ab/ract ,notions1 in/ead ( consid]+1 ) a cle> appreh5sion ( ! conditions ( ,causation1 ! successive p>ts ( :i* ! motion consi/s4 ,?us1 !y spoke ( ! t5d5cy ( bodies to ! ,c5tre1 or to _! ,own ,place2--( ,project+ ,=ce1 ( ,impetus1 ( ,retraction2--) little or no pr(it to k4 ,! indi/9ctness ( _! notions may1 p]haps1 be judg$ ( f _! speculations conc]n+ projectiles4 ,santba*1#aaf 9 #aefa1 imag9$ t a body ?r[n ) great velocity1 z1 = in/ance1 a ball f a cannon1 w5t 9 a /raight l9e till all its velocity 0 exhau/$1 & !n fell directly d[nw>ds4 ,he has writt5 a treatise on gunn]y1 f\nd$ on ?is absurd assumption4 ,to ?is succe$$ ano!r doctr9e1 :i*1 ?\gh n mu* m philosophical ?an ! =m]1 agre$ mu* bett] ) ! ph5om5a4 ,nicolo ,t>talea 7,nuova ,sci5za1 ,v5ice1 #aeej2 ,quesiti et ,inv5tioni ,div]si1 #aeed7 & 9999,gualt] ,rivius 7,ar*itectura1 c41 ,basil1 #aehb7 repres5t$ ! pa? ( a cannon-ball z consi/+1 fir/ ( a /raight l9e 9 ! direction ( ! orig9al projection1 !n ( an arc ( a circle 9 :i* x w5t on till its motion became v]tical d[nw>ds1 & !n ( a v]tical l9e 9 :i* x cont9u$ to fall4 ,! latt] ( ^! writ]s1 h[ev]1 0 aw>e t ! pa? mu/1 f ! fir/1 be a curve2 & treat$ x z a /raight l9e1 only because ! curvature is v slight4 ,ev5 ,santba*'s figure repres5ts ! pa? ( ! ball z p>tially desc5d+ be=e its f9al fall1 b !n x desc5ds by /eps1 n 9 a curve4 ,santba*1 !re=e1 did n conceive ! ,composition ( ! effect ( gravity ) ! exi/+ motion1 b suppos$ !m to act alt]nately2 ,rivius1 h[ev]1 und]/ood ?is ,composition1 & saw t gravity mu/ act z a deflect+ =ce at e po9t ( ! pa?4 ,galileo1 9 8 second ,dialogue1#abf makes ,simplicius come to ! same conclusion4 ,s9ce1 he says1 !re is no?+ to support ! body1 :5 x quits t :i* projects x1 x _c be b t its prop] gravity mu/ op]ate1 & x mu/ imm$iately beg9 to decl9e d[nw>ds4 #cbf ,note #aaf3 ,problematum ,a/ronomicorum et ,geometricorum ,sectiones vii4 c4 c4 ,auctore ,daniele ,santba*1 ,noviomago4 ,basile1 #aefa4 ,note #abf3 ,p4 #adg4 ,! ,=ce ( ,gravity :i* ?us produces deflection & curvature 9 ! pa? ( a body ?r[n obliquely1 con/antly increases ! velocity ( a body :5 x falls v]tically d[nw>ds4 ,! univ]sality ( ?is increase 0 obvi\s1 bo? f reason+ & 9 fact2 ! law ( x c\ld only be discov]$ by clos] consid]ation2 & ! full analysis ( ! problem requir$ a di/9ct measure ( ! quantity ( ,accel]at+ ,=ce4 ,galileo1 :o fir/ solv$ ?is problem1 began by view+ x z a "q ( fact1 b conjectur$ ! solution by tak+ = grant$ t ! rule mu/ be ! simple/ possible4 ,bodies1 he says1#acf w fall 9 ! mo/ simple way1 because ,natural ,motions are always ! mo/ simple4 ,:5 a /one falls1 if we consid] ! matt] att5tively1 we %all f9d t !re is no addition1 no increase1 ( ! velocity m simple ?an t :i* is always add$ 9 ! same mann]1 t is1 :5 equal additions take place 9 equal times2 :i* we %all easily und]/& if we att5d to ! close connection ( motion & "t4 ,f ?is ,law1 ?us assum$1 he d$uc$ t ! spaces describ$ f ! beg9n+ ( ! motion mu/ be z ! squ>es ( ! times2 &1 aga91 assum+ t ! laws ( desc5t = balls roll+ d[n incl9$ planes1 mu/ be ! same z = bodies fall+ freely1 he v]ifi$ ?is conclusion by exp]im5t4 ,note #acf3 ,dial4 ,sc4 iv4 p4 #ia4 ,x w1 p]haps1 occur to ! read] t ?is argum5t1 f ! simplicity ( ! assum$ law1 is some:at insecure4 ,x is n always easy = u to disc]n :at t greate/ simplicity is1 :i* nature adopts 9 h] laws4 ,accord+ly1 ,galileo 0 l$ wrong by ?is way ( view+ ! subject be=e he 0 l$ "r4 ,he at fir/ suppos$1 t ! ,velocity :i* ! body _h acquir$ at any po9t mu/ be proportional to ! ,space describ$ f ! po9t :]e ! motion began4 ,?is false law is z simple 9 its enunciation z ! true law1 t ! ,velocity is proportional to ! ,"t3 x _h be5 ass]t$ z ! true law by ,m4 ,v>ro 7,de ,motu ,tractatus1 ,g5ev1 #aehd71 & by ,baliani1 a g5tleman ( ,g5oa1 :o publi%$ x 9 #afch4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 soon reject$ by ,galileo1 ?\gh x 0 aft]w>ds tak5 up & def5d$ by ,casru1 "o ( ,galileo's oppon5ts4 ,x s happ5s1 inde$1 t ! false law is n only at v>iance ) fact1 b ) itself3 x involves a ma!matical self-contradiction4 ,?is circum/ance1 h[ev]1 0 accid5tal3 x w\ld be easy to /ate laws ( ! increase ( velocity :i* %\ld be simple1 & yet false 9 fact1 ?\gh q possible 9 _! own nature4 #cbg ,! ,law ( ,velocity 0 hi!rto1 z we h se51 treat$ z a law ( ph5om5a1 )\t ref]5ce to ! ,causes ( ! law4 ,! cause ( ! accel]ation ( ! motions ( fall+ bodies is n1 ,galileo obs]ves1 a necess>y "p ( ! inve/igation4 ,op9ions are diff]5t4 ,"s ref] x to ! approa* to ! c5tre2 o!rs say t !re is a c]ta9 ext5sion ( ! c5trical m$ium1 :i*1 clos+ beh9d ! body1 pu%es x =w>ds4 ,= ! pres5t1 x is en\gh = u to demon/rate c]ta9 prop]ties ( ,accel]at$ ,motion1 ! accel]ation be+ accord+ to ! v simple ,law1 t ! ,velocity is proportional to ! ,"t4 ,& if we f9d t ! prop]ties ( su* motion are v]ifi$ by ! motions ( bodies desc5d+ freely1 we may suppose t ! assumption agrees ) ! laws ( bodies fall+ freely by ! action ( gravity4#adf ,note #adf3 ,gal4 ,op4 iii4 #ia1 #ib4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 an easy /ep to conceive ?is accel]ation z caus$ by ! cont9ual action ( ,gravity4 ,?is acc\nt _h already be5 giv5 by ,b5$etti1 z we h se54 ,:5 x 0 once adopt$1 ,gravity 0 consid]$ z a con/ant or uni=m =ce2 on ?is po9t1 inde$1 ! adh]5ts ( ! law ( ,galileo & ( t ( ,casru 7 agre$2 b ! "q 01 :at is a ,uni=m ,=ce8 ,! answ] :i* ,galileo 0 l$ to give 0 obvi\sly ?is2--t is a ,uni=m ,=ce :i* g5]ates equal velocities 9 equal successive times2 & ?is pr9ciple leads at once to ! doctr9e1 t ,=ces are to be comp>$ by comp>+ ! ,velocities g5]at$ by !m 9 equal times4 ,?\gh1 h[ev]1 ?is 0 a consequ5ce ( ! rule by :i* ,gravity is repres5t$ z a ,uni=m ,=ce1 ! subject pres5ts "s difficulty at fir/ sight4 ,x is n imm$iately obvi\s t we may ?us measure =ces by ! ,velocity add$ 9 a giv5 "t1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! velocity !y h already4 ,if we communicate velocity to a body by ! h& or by a spr+1 ! effect we produce 9 a second ( "t is less5$1 :5 ! body has already a velocity :i* )draws x f ! pressure ( ! ag5t4 ,b x appe>s t ?is is n s 9 ! case ( gravity2 ! velocity add$ 9 "o second is ! same1 :atev] d[nw>d motion ! body already possesses4 ,a body fall+ f re/ acquires a velocity1 9 "o second1 ( ?irty-two feet2 & if a cannon-ball 7 %ot d[nw>ds ) a velocity ( #ajjj feet a second1 x w\ld equally1 at ! end ( "o second1 h receiv$ an accession ( #cb feet to its velocity4 ,?is conception ( ,gravity z a ,uni=m ,=ce1--z con/antly & #cbh equally increas+ ! velocity ( a desc5d+ body1--w become cle> by a little att5tion2 b x und\bt$ly pres5ts difficulty at fir/4 ,accord+ly1 we f9d t ,desc>tes did n accept x4 ,x is c]ta91 he says1 t a /one is n equally dispos$ to receive a new motion or increase ( velocity :5 x is already mov+ v quickly1 & :5 x is mov+ sl[ly4 ,desc>tes %[$1 by o!r expressions1 t he _h n caught hold ( ! true notion ( accel]at+ =ce4 ,?us1 he says 9 a lett] to ,m]s5ne1 ,i am a/oni%$ at :at y tell me1 ( hav+ f\nd1 by exp]im5t1 t bodies ?r[n up 9 ! air take nei!r m nor less "t to rise ?an to fall aga92 & y w excuse me if ,i say t ,i look ^u ! exp]im5t z a v difficult "o to make accurately4 ,yet x is cle> f ! ,notion ( a ,con/ant ,=ce t 7omitt+ ! resi/ance ( ! air7 ?is equality mu/ take place2 = ! ,=ce :i* w gradually de/roy ! :ole velocity 9 a c]ta9 "t 9 asc5d+1 w1 9 ! same "t1 g5]ate aga9 ! same velocity by ! same gradations inv]t$2 & !re=e ! same space w be pass$ ov] 9 ! same "t 9 ! desc5t & 9 ! asc5t4 ,ano!r difficulty arose f a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! ,laws ( ,fall+ ,bodies ?us e/abli%$2--! proposition1 namely1 t 9 acquir+ its motion1 a body passes ?r\gh e int]m$iate degree ( velocity1 f ! smalle/ conceivable1 up to t :i* x at la/ acquires4 ,:5 a body falls f re/1 x beg9s to fall ) no velocity2 ! velocity increases ) ! "t2 & 9 "o-?\s&? "p ( a second1 ! body has only acquir$ "o-?\s&? "p ( ! velocity :i* x has at ! end ( "o second4 ,?is is c]ta91 & manife/ on consid]ation2 yet !re 0 at fir/ mu* difficulty rais$ on ! subject ( ?is ass]tion2 & disputes took place conc]n+ ! velocity ) :i* a body beg9s to fall4 ,on ?is subject also ,desc>tes did n =m cle> notions4 ,he writes to a correspond5t1 ,i h be5 revis+ my notes on ,galileo1 9 :i* ,i h n said expressly t fall+ bodies d n pass ?r\gh e degree ( sl[ness1 b ,i said t ?is _c be kn[n )\t kn[+ :at ,weight is1 :i* comes to ! same ?+2 z to y\r example1 ,i grant t x proves t e degree ( velocity is inf9itely divisible1 b n t a fall+ body actually passes ?r\gh all ^! divisions4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ! ,motion ( ,fall+ ,bodies be+ ?us e/abli%$ by ,galileo1 ! ,d$uction ( ! pr9cipal ma!matical consequ5ces 01 z is usual1 effect$ ) great rapidity1 & is to be f\nd #cbi 9 8 works1 & 9 ^? ( 8 s*ol>s & successors4 ,! motion ( bodies fall+ freely 01 h[ev]1 9 su* treatises1 g5]ally comb9$ ) ! motion ( bodies ,fall+ along ,incl9$ ,planes2 a "p ( ! !ory ( :i* we h /ill to speak4 ,! ,notion ( ,accel]at+ ,=ce & ( its op]ation1 once =m$1 0 naturally appli$ 9 o!r cases ?an t ( bodies fall+ freely4 ,! diff]5t velocities ) :i* heavy & light bodies fall 7 expla9$ by ! diff]5t resi/ance ( ! air1 :i* dim9i%es ! accel]at+ =ce2#aef & x 0 boldly ass]t$1 t 9 a vacuum a lock ( wool & a piece ( lead w\ld fall equally quickly4 ,x 0 also ma9ta9$#aff t any fall+ body1 h[ev] l>ge & heavy1 w\ld always h its velocity 9 "s degree dim9i%$ by ! air 9 :i* x falls1 & w\ld at la/ be r$uc$ to a /ate ( uni=m motion1 z soon z ! resi/ance upw>ds became equal to ! accel]at+ =ce d[nw>ds4 ,?\gh ! law ( progress ( a body to ?is limit+ velocity 0 n made out till ! ,pr9cipia ( ,newton appe>$1 ! views on :i* ,galileo made ?is ass]tion are p]fectly s\nd1 & %[ t he _h cle>ly conceiv$ ! nature & op]ation ( accel]at+ & ret>d+ =ce4 ,note #aef3 ,galileo1 iii4 #dc4 ,note #aff3 iii4 #ed4 ,:5 ,uni=m ,accel]at+ ,=ces _h once be5 ma/]$1 !re rema9$ only ma!matical difficulties 9 ! treatm5t ( ,v>iable ,=ces4 ,a ,v>iable ,=ce 0 measur$ by ! ,limit ( ! increm5t ( ! ,velocity1 comp>$ ) ! increm5t ( ! ,"t2 j z a ,v>iable ,velocity 0 measur$ by ! ,limit ( ! increm5t ( ! ,space comp>$ ) t ( ! ,"t4 ,) ?is introduction ( ! ,notion ( ,limits1 we are1 ( c\rse1 l$ to ! ,high] ,geometry1 ei!r 9 its geometrical or its analytical =m4 ,! g5]al laws ( bodies fall+ by ! action ( any ,v>iable ,=ces 7 giv5 by ,newton 9 ! ,sev5? ,section ( ! ,pr9cipia4 ,! subject is !re1 accord+ to ,newton's pref]5ce ( geometrical me?ods1 treat$ by means ( ! ,quadrature ( ,curves2 ! ,doctr9e ( ,limits be+ exhibit$ 9 a peculi> mann] 9 ! ,fir/ ,section ( ! "w1 9 ord] to prep>e ! way = su* applications ( x4 ,leibnitz1 ! ,b]n\illis1 ,eul]1 & s9ce _! "t1 _m o!r ma!maticians1 h treat$ su* que/ions by means ( ! analytical me?od ( limits1 ! ,diff]5tial ,calculus4 ,! ,rectil9e> ,motion ( bodies act$ ^u by v>iable =ces is1 ( c\rse1 a simpl] problem ?an _! ,curvil9e> ,motion1 to :i* we h n[ to proce$4 ,b x #ccj may be rem>k$ t ,newton1 hav+ e/abli%$ ! laws ( ,curvil9e> ,motion indep5d5tly1 has1 9 a great "p ( 8 ,sev5? ,section1 d$uc$ ! simpl] case ( ! ,rectil9e> ,motion f ! move complex problem1 by reason+s ( great +5uity & beauty4 ,sect4 #c4--;,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,second ,law ( ,motion4--,curvil9e> ,motions4 ,a ,,slight degree ( di/9ctness 9 m5's me*anical notions enabl$ !m to p]ceive1 z we h already expla9$1 t a body :i* traces a curv$ l9e mu/ be urg$ by "s =ce1 by :i* x is con/antly made to deviate f t rectil9e> pa?1 :i* x w\ld pursue if act$ ^u by no =ce4 ,?us1 :5 a body is made to describe a circle1 z :5 a /one is :irl$ r\nd 9 a sl+1 we f9d t ! /r+ does ex]t su* a =ce on ! /one2 = ! /r+ is /ret*$ by ! ef=t1 & if x be too sl5d]1 x may ?us be brok54 ,?is c5trifugal =ce ( bodies mov+ 9 circles 0 notic$ ev5 by ! anci5ts4 ,! effect ( =ce to produce curvil9e> motion also appe>s 9 ! pa?s describ$ by projectiles4 ,we h already se5 t ?\gh ,t>talea did n p]ceive ?is correctly1 ,rivius1 ab\t ! same "t1 did4 ,to see t a transv]se =ce w\ld produce a curve1 0 "o /ep2 to det]m9e :at ! curve is1 0 ano!r /ep1 :i* involv$ ! discov]y ( ! ,second ,law ( ,motion4 ,?is /ep 0 made by ,galileo4 ,9 8 ,dialogues on ,motion1 he ass]ts t a body project$ horizontally w reta9 a uni=m motion 9 ! horizontal direction1 & w h1 comp\nd$ ) ?is1 a uni=mly accel]at$ motion d[nw>ds1 t is1 ! motion ( a body fall+ v]tically f re/2 & w ?us describe ! curve call$ a p>abola4 ,! ,second ,law ( ,motion consi/s ( ?is ass]tion 9 a g5]al =m2--namely1 t 9 all cases ! motion :i* ! =ce w produce is comp\nd$ ) ! motion :i* ! body previ\sly has4 ,?is 0 n obvi\s2 = ,c>dan _h ma9ta9$1#agf t if a body is mov$ by two motions at once1 x w come to ! place result+ f _! composition sl[] ?an by ei!r ( !m4 ,! pro( ( ! tru? ( ! law to ,galileo's m9d 01 s f> z we collect f ! ,dialogue itself1 ! simplicity ( ! supposition1 & 8 cle> p]ception ( ! causes :i*1 9 "s cases1 produc$ an obvi\s deviation 9 practice #cca f ?is !oretical result4 ,= x may be obs]v$1 t ! curvil9e> pa?s ascrib$ to milit>y projectiles by ,rivius & ,t>talea1 & by o!r writ]s :o foll[$ !m1 z ,digges & ,norton 9 our own c\ntry1 ?\gh utt]ly diff]5t f ! !oretical =m1 ! p>abola1 d1 9 fact1 approa* ne>] ! true pa?s ( a cannon or musket ball ?an a p>abola w\ld d2 & ?is approximation m especially exi/s 9 t :i* at fir/ sight appe>s mo/ absurd 9 ! old !ory2 namely1 ! ass]tion t ! ball1 :i* asc5ds 9 a slop+ direction1 f9ally desc5ds v]tically4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! resi/ance ( ! air1 ?is is really ! pa? ( a projectile2 & :5 ! velocity is v great1 z 9 milit>y projectiles1 ! deviation f ! p>abolic =m is v manife/4 ,?is cause ( discrepancy betwe5 ! !ory1 :i* does n take resi/ance into ! acc\nt1 & ! fact1 ,galileo p]ceiv$2 & accord+ly he says1#ahf t ! velocities ( ! projectiles1 9 su* cases1 may be consid]$ z excessive & sup]natural4 ,) ! due all[ance to su* causes1 he ma9ta9$ t 8 !ory 0 v]ifi$1 & might be appli$ 9 practice4 ,su* practical applications ( ! doctr9e ( projectiles no d\bt _h a %>e 9 e/abli%+ ! tru? ( ,galileo's views4 ,we mu/ n =get1 h[ev]1 t ! full e/abli%m5t ( ?is second law ( motion 0 ! result ( ! !oretical & exp]im5tal discussions conc]n+ ! motion ( ! e>?3 its =tunes 7 involv$ 9 ^? ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em2 & x %>$ ! triumph ( t doctr9e4 ,?is triumph 0 already decisive1 inde$1 9 ! "t ( ,galileo1 b n complete till ! "t ( ,newton4 ,note #agf3 ,op4 vol4 iv4 p4 #dij4 ,note #ahf3 ,op4 vol4 iii4 p4 #adg4 ,sect4 #d4--;,g5]alization ( ! ,laws ( ,equilibrium4--,pr9ciple ( ,virtual ,velocities4 ,,x 0 kn[n1 ev5 z e>ly z ,ari/otle1 t ! two weights :i* balance ea* o!r on ! lev]1 if !y move at all1 move ) velocities :i* are 9 ! inv]se proportions ( ! weights4 ,! peculi> res\rces ( ! ,greek language1 :i* c\ld /ate ?is relation ( inv]se proportionality 9 a s+le ^w 771 fix$ x 9 m5's m9ds1 & prompt$ !m to g5]alize f ?is prop]ty4 ,su* attempts 7 at fir/ made ) indi/9ct ideas1 & on conjecture only1 & _h1 !re=e1 no sci5tific value4 ,?is is ! judgm5t :i* we mu/ pass on ! book ( ,jordanus ,nemor>ius1 :i* #ccb we h already m5tion$4 ,its reason+s are pr(ess$ly on ,ari/otelian pr9ciples1 & exhibit ! common ,ari/otelian abs5ce ( all di/9ct me*anical ideas4 ,b 9 ,v>ro1 ^: ,tractatus de ,motu appe>$ 9 #aehd1 we f9d ! pr9ciple1 9 a g5]al =m1 n satisfactorily prov$1 inde$1 b mu* m di/9ctly conceiv$4 ,?is is 8 fir/ !orem3 ,du>um virium connex>um qu>um 7si moveantur7 motus erunt ipsis proportionales1 neutra alt]am movebit1 s$ equilibrium faci5t4 ,! pro( (f]$ ( ?is is1 t ! resi/ance to a =ce is z ! motion produc$2 &1 z we h se51 ! !orem is rightly appli$ 9 ! example ( ! w$ge4 ,f ?is "t x appe>s to h be5 usual to prove ! prop]ties ( ma*9es by means ( ?is pr9ciple4 ,?is is done1 = in/ance1 9 ,les ,raisons des ,=ces ,m\vantes1 ! production ( ,solomon de ,caus1 eng9e] to ! ,elector ,palat9e1 publi%$ at ,antw]p 9 #afaf2 9 :i* ! effect ( ,too!d-,:eels & ( ! ,screw is det]m9$ 9 ?is mann]1 b ! ,incl9$ ,plane is n treat$ (4 ,! same is ! case 9 ,bi%op ,wilk9s's ,ma!matical ,magic1 9 #afdh4 ,:5 ! true doctr9e ( ! ,incl9$ ,plane _h be5 e/abli%$1 ! laws ( equilibrium = all ! simple ma*9es or ,me*anical ,p[]s1 z !y _h usually be5 enum]at$ 9 books on ,me*anics1 7 br\ght into view2 = x 0 easy to see t ! ,w$ge & ! ,screw involv$ ! same pr9ciple z ! ,incl9$ ,plane1 & ! ,pulley c\ld obvi\sly be r$uc$ to ! ,lev]4 ,x 01 also1 n difficult = a p]son ) cle> me*anical ideas to p]ceive h[ any o!r comb9ation ( bodies1 on :i* pressure & traction are ex]t$1 may be r$uc$ to ^! simple ma*9es1 s z to disclose ! relation ( ! =ces4 ,h5ce by ! discov]y ( ,/ev9us1 all problems ( equilibrium 7 ess5tially solv$4 ,! conjectural g5]alization ( ! prop]ty ( ! lev]1 :i* we h j m5tion$1 enabl$ ma!maticians to express ! solution ( all ^! problems by means ( "o proposition4 ,?is 0 done by say+1 t 9 rais+ a weight by any ma*9e1 we lose 9 ,"t :at we ga9 9 ,=ce2 ! weight rais$ moves z mu* sl[] ?an ! p[]1 z x is l>g] ?an ! p[]4 ,?is 0 expla9$ ) great cle>ness by ,galileo1 9 ! preface to 8 ,treatise on ,me*anical ,sci5ce1 publi%$ 9 #aeib4 ,! motions1 h[ev]1 :i* we "h suppose ! p>ts ( ! ma*9e to h1 are n motions :i* ! =ces produce2 = at pres5t we are deal+ ) ! case 9 :i* ! =ces balance ea* o!r1 & !re=e produce no motion4 ,b we ascribe to ! #ccc ,weights & ,p[]s hypo!tical motions1 aris+ f "s o!r cause2 & !n1 by ! con/ruction ( ! ma*9e1 ! velocities ( ! ,weights & ,p[]s mu/ h c]ta9 def9ite ratios4 ,^! velocities1 be+ ?us hypo!tically suppos$ & n actually produc$1 are call$ ,virtual ,velocities4 ,& ! g5]al law ( equilibrium is1 t 9 any ma*9e1 ! ,weights :i* balance ea* o!r1 are reciprocally to ea* o!r z _! ,virtual ,velocities4 ,?is is call$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ,virtual ,velocities4 ,?is ,pr9ciple 7:i* 0 aft]w>ds /ill fur!r g5]aliz$7 is1 by "s ( ! admir]s ( ,galileo1 dwelt ^u z "o ( 8 great s]vices to ,me*anics4 ,b if we exam9e x m ne>ly1 we %all see t x has n mu* importance 9 our hi/ory4 ,x is a g5]alization1 b a g5]alization e/abli%$ r by enum]ation ( cases1 ?an by any induction proce$+ ^u "o di/9ct ,idea1 l ^? g5]alizations ( ,facts by :i* ,laws are prim>ily e/abli%$4 ,x r s]ves v]bally to conjo9 ,laws previ\sly kn[n1 ?an to exhibit a connection 9 !m3 x is r a help = ! memory ?an a pro( = ! reason4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,virtual ,velocities is s f> f imply+ any cle> possession ( me*anical ideas1 t any "o :o kn[s ! prop]ty ( ! ,lev]1 :e!r he is capable ( see+ ! reason = x or n1 c see t ! great] weight moves sl[] 9 ! exact proportion ( its great] magnitude4 ,accord+ly1 ,ari/otle1 ^: entire want ( s\nd me*anical views we h %[n1 has yet notic$ ?is tru?4 ,:5 ,galileo treats ( x1 in/ead ( (f]+ any reasons :i* c\ld indep5d5tly e/abli% ?is pr9ciple1 he gives 8 read]s a numb] ( analogies & illu/rations1 _m ( !m v loose ones4 ,?us ! rais+ a great weight by a small =ce1 he illu/rates by suppos+ ! weight brok5 into _m small p>ts1 & conceiv+ ^? p>ts rais$ "o by "o4 ,by o!r p]sons1 ! analogy1 already intimat$1 ( ga9 & loss is ref]r$ to z an argum5t = ! pr9ciple 9 "q4 ,su* images may please ! fancy1 b !y _c be accept$ z me*anical reasons4 ,s9ce ,galileo nei!r fir/ enunciat$ ?is rule1 nor ev] prov$ x z an indep5d5t pr9ciple ( ,me*anics1 we _c consid] ! discov]y ( x z "o ( 8 me*anical a*ievem5ts4 ,/ill less c we comp>e 8 ref]5ce to ?is pr9ciple ) ,/ev9us's pro( ( ! ,incl9$ ,plane2 :i*1 z we h se51 0 rigor\sly inf]r$ f ! s\nd axiom1 t a body _c put itself 9 motion4 ,if we 7 to ass5t to ! really self-evid5t axioms ( ,/ev9us1 only 9 virtue #ccd ( ! unprov$ v]bal g5]alization ( ,galileo1 we %\ld be 9 great dang] ( all[+ ourselves to be ref]r$ successively f "o tru? to ano!r1 )\t any reasonable hope ( ev] arriv+ at any ?+ ultimate & fundam5tal4 ,b ?\gh ?is ,pr9ciple ( ,virtual ,velocity _c be look$ ^u z a great discov]y ( ,galileo1 x is a highly useful rule2 & ! v>i\s =ms "u :i* he & 8 successors urg$ x1 t5d$ mu* to dissipate ! vague wond] ) :i* ! effects ( ma*9es _h be5 look$ ^u2 & ?us to diffuse s\nd] & cle>] notions on su* subjects4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,virtual ,velocities also affect$ ! progress ( me*anical sci5ce 9 ano!r way3 x sugge/$ "s ( ! analogies by ! aid ( :i* ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion 0 made out2 lead+ to ! adoption ( ! notion ( ,mom5tum z ! ari?metical product ( weight & velocity4 ,s9ce on a ma*9e on :i* a weight ( two p\nds at "o "p balances ?ree p\nds at ano!r "p1 ! =m] weight w\ld move ?r\gh ?ree in*es :ile ! latt] w\ld move ?r\gh two in*es2 we see 7s9ce ?ree multipli$ into two is equal to two multipli$ into ?ree7 t ! ,product ( ! weight & ! velocity is ! same = ! two balanc+ weights2 & if we call ?is ,product ,mom5tum1 ! ,law ( ,equilibrium is1 t :5 two weights balance on a ma*9e1 ! ,mom5tum ( ! two w\ld be ! same1 if !y 7 put 9 motion4 ,! ,notion ( ,mom5tum 0 "h employ$ 9 connection ) ,virtual ,velocities2 b x also came "u consid]ation 9 treat+ ( ,actual ,velocities1 z we %all soon see4 ,sect4 #e4--;,attempts at ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion4--,notion ( ,mom5tum4 ,,9 ! que/ions we h hi!rto _h to consid] respect+ ,motion1 no reg>d is _h to ! ,size ( ! body mov$1 b only to ! ,velocity & ,direction ( ! motion4 ,we mu/ n[ trace ! progress ( k respect+ ! mode 9 :i* ! ,mass ( ! body influ5ces ! effect ( ,=ce4 ,?is is a m difficult & complex bran* ( ! subject2 b x is "o :i* requires to be notic$1 z obvi\sly z ! =m]4 ,que/ions belong+ to ?is dep>tm5t ( ,me*anics1 z well z to ! o!rs1 occur 9 ,ari/otle's ,me*anical ,problems4 ,:y1 says he1 is x1 t nei!r v small nor v l>ge bodies g f> :5 we ?r[ !m2 b1 9 ord] t ?is may #cce happ51 ! ?+ ?r[n mu/ h a c]ta9 proportion to ! ag5t :i* ?r[s x8 ,is x t :at is ?r[n or pu%$ mu/ react#aif aga9/ t :i* pu%es x2 & t a body s l>ge z n to yield at all1 or s small z to yield entirely1 & n to react1 produces no ?r[ or pu%8 ,! same confusion ( ideas prevail$ aft] 8 "t2 & me*anical que/ions 7 9 va9 discuss$ by means ( g5]al & ab/ract t]ms1 employ$ ) no di/9ct & /eady mean+2 su* z impetus1 p[]1 mom5tum1 virtue1 en]gy1 & ! l4 ,f "s ( ^! speculations we may judge h[ ?or\gh ! confusion 9 m5's heads _h become4 ,c>dan p]plexes himself ) ! difficulty1 already m5tion$1 ( ! comp>ison ( ! =ces ( bodies at re/ & 9 motion4 ,if ! ,=ce ( a body dep5ds on its velocity1 z x appe>s to d1 h[ is x t a body at re/ has any ,=ce at all1 & h[ c x resi/ ! slighte/ ef=t1 or ex]t any pressure8 ,he flatt]s himself t he solves ! "q1 by ass]t+ t bodies at re/ h an occult motion4 ,corpus movetur occulto motu quiesc5do4--,ano!r puzzle1 ) :i* he appe>s to di/ress himself r m wantonly1 is ?is3 ,if "o man c draw half ( a c]ta9 weight1 & ano!r man also "o half2 :5 ! two act toge!r1 ^! proportions %\ld be comp\nd$2 s t !y ought to be able to draw "o half ( "o half1 or "o qu>t] only4 ,! tal5t :i* +5i\s m5 _h = gett+ into su* p]plexities1 0 c]ta9ly at "o "t v great4 ,arriaga1#bjf :o wrote 9 #afci1 is tr\bl$ to discov] h[ sev]al flat weights1 ly+ "o ^u ano!r on a bo>d1 %\ld produce a great] pressure ?an ! l[e/ "o alone produces1 s9ce t alone t\*es ! bo>d4 ,among o!r solutions1 he sugge/s t ! bo>d affects ! upp] weight1 :i* x does n t\*1 by det]m9+ its ubication1 or :]5ess4 ,note #aif3 4 ,note #bjf3 ,rod4 de ,arriaga1 ,cursus ,philosophicus4 ,p>is1 #afci4 ,ari/otle's doctr9e1 t a body t5 times z heavy z ano!r1 w fall t5 times z fa/1 is ano!r in/ance ( ! confusion ( ,/atical & ,dynamical ,=ces3 ! ,=ce ( ! great] body1 :ile at re/1 is t5 times z great z t ( ! o!r2 b ! ,=ce z measur$ by ! velocity produc$1 is equal 9 ! two cases4 ,! two bodies w\ld fall d[nw>ds ) ! same rapidity1 except s f> z !y are affect$ by accid5tal causes4 ,! m]it ( prov+ ?is by exp]im5t1 & ?us refut+ ! ,ari/otelian dogma1 is usually ascrib$ to ,galileo1 :o made 8 exp]im5t f ! fam\s lean+ t[] ( ,pisa1 ab\t #aeij4 ,b o!rs ab\t ! same "t _h n #ccf ov]look$ s obvi\s a fact--,f4 ,piccolom9i1 9 8 ,lib] ,sci5ti de ,natura1 publi%$ at ,padua1 9 #aeig1 says1 ,on ! subject ( ! motion ( heavy & light bodies1 ,ari/otle has put =? v>i\s op9ions1 :i* are contr>y to s5se & exp]i5ce1 & has deliv]$ rules conc]n+ ! proportion ( quickness & sl[ness1 :i* are palpably false4 ,= a /one twice z great does n move twice z fa/4 ,& ,/ev9us1 9 ! ,app5dix to 8 ,/atics1 describes 8 hav+ made ! exp]im5t1 & speaks ) great correctness ( ! app>5t deviations f ! rule1 aris+ f ! resi/ance ( ! air4 ,inde$1 ! result foll[$ by v obvi\s reason+2 = t5 bricks1 9 contact ) ea* o!r1 side by side1 w\ld obvi\sly fall 9 ! same "t z "o2 & ^! might be conceiv$ to =m a body t5 times z l>ge z "o ( !m4 ,accord+ly1 ,b5$etti1 9 #aehe1 reasons 9 ?is mann] ) reg>d to bodies ( diff]5t size1 ?\gh he reta9s ,ari/otle's error z to ! diff]5t velocity ( bodies ( diff]5t d5sity4 ,! next /ep 9 ?is subject is m cle>ly due to ,galileo2 he discov]$ ! true proportion :i* ! ,accel]at+ ,=ce ( a body fall+ d[n an incl9$ plane be>s to ! ,accel]at+ ,=ce ( ! same body fall+ freely4 ,?is 0 at fir/ a happy conjecture2 x 0 !n confirm$ by exp]im5ts1 &1 f9ally1 aft] "s hesitation1 x 0 ref]r$ to its true pr9ciple1 ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion1 ) prop] elem5t>y simplicity4 ,! ,pr9ciple "h spok5 ( is ?is3--t = ! same body1 ! ,dynamical effect ( =ce is z ! ,/atical effect2 t is1 ! ,velocity :i* any =ce g5]ates 9 a giv5 "t :5 x puts ! body 9 motion1 is proportional to ! ,pressure :i* ! same =ce produces 9 a body at re/4 ,! ,pr9ciple1 s /at$1 appe>s v simple & obvi\s2 yet ?is 0 n ! =m 9 :i* x sugge/$ itself ei!r to ,galileo or to o!r p]sons :o s\ght to prove x4 ,galileo1 9 8 ,dialogues on ,motion1 assumes1 z 8 fundam5tal proposition on ?is subject1 "o mu* less evid5t ?an t we h quot$1 b "o 9 :i* t is involv$4 ,8 ,po/ulate is1#baf t :5 ! same body falls d[n diff]5t planes ( ! same height1 ! velocities acquir$ are equal4 ,he confirms & illu/rates ?is by a v +5i\s exp]im5t on a p5dulum1 %[+ t ! weight sw+s to ! same height :atev] pa? x be compell$ to foll[4 ,torricelli1 9 8 treatise publi%$ #afdd1 says t he _h he>d t ,galileo _h1 t[>ds ! end ( 8 life1 prov$ 8 #ccg assumption1 b t1 n hav+ se5 ! pro(1 he w give 8 own4 ,9 ?is he ref]s u to ! "r pr9ciple1 b appe>s n di/9ctly to conceive ! pro(1 s9ce he e/imates mom5tum indiscrim9ately by ! /atical ,pressure ( a body1 & by its ,velocity :5 9 motion2 z if ^! two quantities 7 self-evid5tly equal4 ,huygh5s1 9 #afgc1 expresses himself dissatisfi$ ) ! pro( by :i* ,galileo's assumption 0 support$ 9 ! lat] editions ( 8 works4 ,8 own pro( re/s on ?is pr9ciple2--t if a body fall d[n "o incl9$ plane1 & proce$ up ano!r ) ! velocity ?us acquir$1 x _c1 "u any circum/ances1 asc5d to a high] position ?an t f :i* x fell4 ,?is pr9ciple co9cides v ne>ly ) ,galileo's exp]im5tal illu/ration4 ,9 tru?1 h[ev]1 ,galileo's pr9ciple1 :i* ,huygh5s ?us slights1 may be look$ ^u z a satisfactory /atem5t ( ! true law namely1 t1 9 ! same body1 ! velocity produc$ is z ! pressure :i* produces x4 ,we are agre$1 he says1#bbf t1 9 a movable body1 ! impetus1 en]gy1 mom5tum1 or prop5sion to motion1 is z great z is ! =ce or lea/ resi/ance :i* suffices to support x4 ,! v>i\s t]ms "h us$1 bo? = dynamical & /atical ,=ce1 %[ t ,galileo's ideas 7 n confus$ by ! ambiguity ( any "o t]m1 z appe>s to h happ5$ to "s ma!maticians4 ,! pr9ciple ?us ann\nc$1 is1 z we %all see1 "o ( great ext5t & value2 & we read ) int]e/ ! circum/ances ( its discov]y1 :i* are ?us n>rat$4#bcf ,:5 ,viviani 0 /udy+ ) ,galileo1 he express$ 8 dissatisfaction at ! want ( any cle> reason = ,galileo's po/ulate respect+ ! equality ( velocities acquir$ d[n incl9$ planes ( ! same heights2 ! consequ5ce ( :i* 01 t ,galileo1 z he lay1 ! same night1 sleepless ?r\gh indisposition1 discov]$ ! pro( :i* he _h long s\ght 9 va91 & introduc$ x 9 ! subsequ5t editions4 ,x is easy to see1 by look+ at ! pro(1 t ! discov]] _h _h to /ruggle1 n = int]m$iate /eps ( reason+ betwe5 remote notions1 z 9 a problem ( geometry1 b = a cle> possession ( ideas :i* 7 ne> ea* o!r1 & :i* he _h n yet be5 able to br+ into contact1 because he _h n yet a suffici5tly firm grasp ( !m4 ,su* t]ms z ,mom5tum & ,=ce _h be5 s\rces ( confusion f ! "t ( ,ari/otle2 & x requir$ consid]able /ead9ess ( ?\ght to comp>e ! =ces ( bodies at re/ & 9 motion "u ! obscurity & vacillation ?us produc$4 #cch ,note #baf3 ,op]e1 iii4 #if4 ,note #bbf3 ,galileo1 ,op4 iii4 #ajd4 ,note #bcf3 ,dr9kwat]1 ,life ( ,galileo1 p4 #ei4 ,! t]m ,mom5tum _h be5 introduc$ to express ! =ce ( bodies 9 motion1 be=e x 0 kn[n :at t effect 04 ,galileo1 9 8 ,discorso intorno alle ,cose *e /anno 9 su l' ,acqua1 says1 t ,mom5tum is ! =ce1 efficacy1 or virtue1 ) :i* ! motion moves & ! body mov$ resi/s1 dep5d+ n ^u weight only1 b ^u ! velocity1 incl9ation1 & any o!r cause ( su* virtue4 ,:5 he arriv$ at m precision 9 8 views1 he det]m9$1 z we h se51 t1 9 ! same body1 ! ,mom5tum is proportional to ! ,velocity2 &1 h5ce x 0 easily se5 t 9 diff]5t bodies x 0 proportional to ! ,velocity & ,mass jo9tly4 ,! pr9ciple ?us enunciat$ is capable ( v ext5sive application1 &1 among o!r consequ5ces1 leads to a det]m9ation ( ! results ( ! mutual ,p]cussion ( ,bodies4 ,b ?\gh ,galileo1 l o!rs ( 8 pr$ecessors & contempor>ies1 _h speculat$ conc]n+ ! problem ( ,p]cussion1 he did n arrive at any satisfactory conclusion2 & ! problem rema9$ = ! ma!maticians ( ! next g5]ation to solve4 ,we may "h notice ,desc>tes & 8 ,laws ( ,motion1 ! publication ( :i* is sometimes spok5 ( z an important ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( ,me*anics4 ,?is is say+ f> too mu*4 ,! ,pr9cipia ( ,desc>tes did little = physical sci5ce4 ,8 ass]tion ( ! ,laws ( ,motion1 9 _! mo/ g5]al %ape1 0 p]haps an improvem5t 9 =m2 b 8 ,?ird ,law is false 9 sub/ance4 ,desc>tes claim$ sev]al ( ! discov]ies ( ,galileo & o!rs ( 8 contempor>ies2 b we _c ass5t to su* claims1 :5 we f9d t1 z we %all see1 he did n und]/&1 or w\ld n apply1 ! ,laws ( ,motion :5 he _h !m be=e him4 ,if we 7 to comp>e ,desc>tes ) ,galileo1 we might say1 t ( ! me*anical tru?s :i* 7 easily atta9able 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ,galileo took hold ( z _m1 & ,desc>tes ( z few1 z 0 well possible = a man ( g5ius4 #b;d ,ed4 ,! foll[+ rem>ks ( ,m4 ,libri appe> to be j4 ,aft] giv+ an acc\nt ( ! doctr9es put =? on ! subject ( ,a/ronomy1 ,me*anics1 & o!r bran*es ( sci5ce1 by ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 ,fraca/oro1 ,maurolycus1 ,comm&9us1 ,b5$etti1 he adds 7,hi/4 des ,sci5ces ,ma?matiques en ,italie1 t4 iii4 p4 #aca73 ,?is %ort analysis is suffici5t to %[ t1 at ! p]iod at :i* we are arriv$1 ,ari/otle no long] reign$ unque/ion$ 9 ! ,italian ,s*ools4 ,if we _h to write ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 we %\ld prove by a multitude ( facts t x 0 ! ,italians :o ov]?rew ! anci5t idol ( philosoph]s4 ,m5 g on incessantly repeat+ t ! #cci /ruggle 0 begun by ,desc>tes1 & !y proclaim him ! legislator ( mod]n philosoph]s4 ,b :5 we exam9e ! philosophical writ+s ( ,fraca/oro1 ( ,b5$etti1 ( ,c>dan1 & above all1 ^? ( ,galileo2 :5 we see on all sides en]getic prote/s rais$ aga9/ ! p]ipatetic doctr9es2 we ask1 :at !re rema9$ = ! inv5tor ( vortices to d1 9 ov]turn+ ! natural philosophy ( ,ari/otle8 ,9 addition to ?is1 ! memorable labors ( ! ,s*ool ( ,cos5za1 ( ,telesius1 ( ,giordano ,bruno1 ( ,campanella2 ! writ+s ( ,patricius1 :o 01 besides1 a good geomet]2 ( ,nizolius1 :om ,leibnitz e/eem$ s highly1 & ( ! o!r metaphysicians ( ! same epo*1--prove t ! anci5t philosophy _h already lo/ its empire on t side ! ,alps1 :5 ,desc>tes ?rew himself ^u ! enemy n[ put to ! r\t4 ,! yoke 0 ca/ (f 9 ,italy1 & all ,europe _h only to foll[ ! example1 )\t its be+ necess>y to give a new impulse to real sci5ce4 ,9 ,engl&1 we are accu/om$ to he> ,francis ,bacon1 r ?an ,desc>tes1 spok5 ( z ! fir/ great antagoni/ ( ! ,ari/otelian s*ools1 & ! legislator ( mod]n philosophy4 ,b x is true1 bo? ( "o & ! o!r1 t ! ov]?r[ ( ! anci5t sy/em _h be5 effectively begun be=e _! "t by ! practical discov]]s "h m5tion$1 & o!rs :o1 by exp]im5t & reason+1 e/abli%$ tru?s inconsi/5t ) ! receiv$ ,ari/otelian doctr9es4 ,gilb]t 9 ,engl&1 ,kepl] 9 ,g]many1 z well z ,b5$etti & ,galileo 9 ,italy1 gave a p[]ful impulse to ! cause ( real k1 be=e ! influ5ce ( ,bacon & ,desc>tes _h produc$ any g5]al effect4 ,:at ,bacon really did 0 ?is2--t by ! augu/ image :i* he pres5t$ ( a future ,philosophy1 ! rival ( ! ,ari/otelian1 & f> m p[]ful & ext5sive1 he drew to x ! affections & hopes ( all m5 ( compreh5sive & vigor\s m9ds1 z well z ( ^? :o att5d$ to special tra9s ( discov]y4 ,he ann\nc$ a ,new ,me?od1 n m]ely a correction ( special curr5t errors2 he ?us conv]t$ ! ,insurrection into a ,revolution1 & e/abli%$ a new philosophical ,dyna/y4 ,desc>tes _h1 9 "s degree1 ! same purpose2 &1 9 addition to ?is1 he n only proclaim$ himself ! au?or ( a ,new ,me?od1 b pr(ess$ to give a complete sy/em ( ! results ( ! ,me?od4 ,8 physical philosophy 0 put =? z complete & demon/rative1 & ?us involv$ ! vices ( ! anci5t dogmatism4 ,telesius & ,campanella _h also gr& notions ( an entire re=m 9 ! me?od ( philosophiz+1 z ,i h notic$ 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,book xii4 #cdj ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,galileo4--,,p]iod ,,( ,,v]ification ,,& ,,d$uction4 ,,! evid5ce on :i* ,galileo re/$ ! tru? ( ! ,laws ( ,motion :i* he ass]t$1 01 z we h se51 ! simplicity ( ! laws !mselves1 & ! agreem5t ( _! consequ5ces ) facts2 prop] all[ances be+ made = di/urb+ causes4 ,8 successors took up & cont9u$ ! task ( mak+ repeat$ comp>isons ( ! !ory ) practice1 till no d\bt rema9$ ( ! exactness ( ! fundam5tal doctr9es3 !y also employ$ !mselves 9 simplify+1 z mu* z possible1 ! mode ( /at+ ^! doctr9es1 & 9 trac+ _! consequ5ces 9 v>i\s problems by ! aid ( ma!matical reason+4 ,^! employm5ts l$ to ! publication ( v>i\s ,treatises on ,fall+ ,bodies1 ,incl9$ ,planes1 ,p5dulums1 ,projectiles1 ,sp\t+ ,fluids1 :i* occupi$ a great "p ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,! au?ors ( ^! treatises may be consid]$ z ! ,s*ool ( ,galileo4 ,sev]al ( !m 71 inde$1 8 pupils or p]sonal fri5ds4 ,ca/elli 0 8 disciple & a/ronomical assi/ant at ,flor5ce1 & aft]w>ds 8 correspond5t4 ,torricelli 0 at fir/ a pupil ( ,ca/elli1 b became ! inmate & amanu5sis ( ,galileo 9 #afda1 & succe$$ him 9 8 situation at ! c\rt ( ,flor5ce on 8 dea?1 :i* took place a few mon?s aft]w>ds4 ,viviani =m$ "o ( 8 family dur+ ! ?ree la/ ye>s ( 8 life2 & surviv+ him & 8 contempor>ies 7= ,viviani liv$ ev5 into ! eighte5? c5tury71 has a manife/ pleasure & pride 9 call+ himself ! la/ ( ! disciples ( ,galileo4 ,gass5di1 an em95t ,fr5* ma!matician & pr(essor1 visit$ him 9 #afbh2 & x %[s u ! ext5t ( 8 reputation :5 we f9d ,milton ref]r+ ?us to 8 travels 9 ,italy3#bdf ,!re x 0 t ,i f\nd & visit$ ! fam\s ,galileo1 gr[n old1 a prison] 9 ! ,inquisition1 = ?9k+ 9 a/ronomy o!rwise ?an ! ,franciscan & ,dom9ican lic5s]s ?\ght4 ,note #bdf3 ,spee* = ! ,lib]ty ( ,unlic5s$ ,pr9t+4 ,besides ! above writ]s1 we may m5tion1 z p]sons :o pursu$ & illu/rat$ ,galileo's doctr9es1 ,borelli1 :o 0 pr(essor at ,flor5ce & ,pisa2 ,m]s5ne1 ! correspond5t ( ,desc>tes1 :o 0 #cda pr(essor at ,p>is2 ,wallis1 :o 0 appo9t$ ,savilian pr(essor at ,ox=d 9 #afdi1 8 pr$ecessor be+ eject$ by ! p>liam5t>y commission]s4 ,x is n necess>y = u to trace ! progress ( purely ma!matical inv5tions1 :i* con/itute a great "p ( ! works ( ^! au?ors2 b a few circum/ances may be m5tion$4 ,! "q ( ! pro( ( ! ,second ,law ( ,motion 01 f ! fir/1 id5tifi$ ) ! controv]sy respect+ ! tru? ( ! ,cop]nican ,sy/em2 = ?is law suppli$ ! true answ] to ! mo/ =midable ( ! objections aga9/ ! motion ( ! e>?2 namely1 t if ! e>? 7 mov+1 bodies :i* 7 dropt f an elevat$ object w\ld be left beh9d by ! place f :i* !y fell4 ,?is argum5t 0 reproduc$ 9 v>i\s =ms by ! oppon5ts ( ! new doctr9e2 & ! answ]s to ! argum5t1 ?\gh !y belong to ! hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy1 & =m "p ( ! ,sequel to ! ,epo* ( ,cop]nicus1 belong m peculi>ly to ! hi/ory ( ,me*anics1 & are ev5ts 9 ! sequel to ! ,discov]ies ( ,galileo4 ,s f>1 inde$1 z ! me*anical controv]sy 0 conc]n$1 ! advocates ( ! ,second ,law ( ,motion appeal$1 v triumphantly1 to exp]im5t4 ,gass5di made _m exp]im5ts on ?is subject publicly1 ( :i* an acc\nt is giv5 9 8 ,epi/ol tres de ,motu ,impresso a ,motore ,translato#bef ,x appe>$ 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 t bodies let fall d[nw>ds1 or ca/ upw>ds1 =w>ds1 or backw>ds1 f a %ip1 or *>iot1 or man1 :e!r at re/1 or 9 any degree ( motion1 _h always ! same motion relatively to ! motor4 ,9 ! application ( ?is pr9ciple to ! sy/em ( ! _w1 inde$1 ,gass5di & o!r philosoph]s ( 8 "t 7 greatly hamp]$2 = ! def]5ce :i* religi\s scruples requir$1 did n all[ !m to say t ! e>? really mov$1 b only t ! physical reasons aga9/ its motion 7 invalid4 ,?is re/riction enabl$ ,riccioli & o!r writ]s on ! geoc5tric side to involve ! subject 9 metaphysical difficulties2 b ! conviction ( m5 0 n p]man5tly %ak5 by ^!1 & ! ,second ,law ( ,motion 0 soon assum$ z unque/ion$4 ,note #bef3 ,mont4 ii4 #aii4 ,! ,laws ( ! ,motion ( ,fall+ ,bodies1 z assign$ by ,galileo1 7 confirm$ by ! reason+s ( ,gass5di & ,f]mat1 & ! exp]im5ts ( ,riccioli & ,grimaldi2 & ! effect ( resi/ance 0 po9t$ out by 9999,m]s5ne & ,de*ales4 ,! p>abolic motion ( ,projectiles 0 m especially illu/rat$ by exp]im5ts on ! jet :i* sp\ts f an orifice 9 a vessel full ( fluid4 ,?is mode ( exp]im5t+ #cdb is well adapt$ to attract notice1 s9ce ! curve describ$1 :i* is transi5t & invisible 9 ! case ( a s+le projectile1 becomes p]man5t & visible :5 we h a cont9u\s /ream4 ,! doctr9e ( ! motions ( fluids has always be5 zeal\sly cultivat$ by ! ,italians4 ,ca/elli's treatise1 ,della ,misura dell' ,acque ,corr5te 7#afch71 is ! fir/ "w on ?is subject1 & ,montucla ) ju/ice calls him ! creator ( a new bran* ( hydraulics2#bff al?\gh he mi/ak5ly suppos$ ! velocity ( efflux to be z ! dep? ( ! orifice f ! surface4 9999,m]s5ne & ,torricelli also pursu$ ?is subject1 & aft] !m1 _m o!rs4 ,note #bff3 ,mont4 ii4 #bja4 ,galileo's belief 9 ! ne> approximation ( ! curve describ$ by a cannon-ball or musket-ball to ! !oretical p>abola1 0 some:at too obsequi\sly adopt$ by succe$+ practical writ]s on artill]y4 ,!y und]rat$1 z he _h done1 ! effect ( ! resi/ance ( ! air1 :i* is 9 effect s great z entirely to *ange ! =m & prop]ties ( ! curve4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 ! p>abolic !ory 0 employ$1 z 9 ,&]son's ,art ( ,gunn]y 7#afgd72 & ,blondel1 9 8 ,art de jet] les ,bombes 7#afhh71 n only calculat$ ,tables on ?is supposition1 b attempt$ to answ] ! objections :i* _h be5 made respect+ ! =m ( ! curve describ$4 ,x 0 n till a lat] p]iod 7#agdj71 :5 ,rob9s made a s]ies ( c>eful & sagaci\s exp]im5ts on artill]y1 & :5 "s ( ! mo/ em95t ma!maticians calculat$ ! curve1 tak+ into acc\nt ! resi/ance1 t ! ,!ory ( ,projectiles c\ld be said to be v]ifi$ 9 fact4 ,! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion 0 /ill 9 "s confusion :5 ,galileo di$1 z we h se54 ,! next great /ep made 9 ! s*ool ( ,galileo 0 ! det]m9ation ( ! ,laws ( ! motions ( bodies 9 _! ,direct ,impact1 s f> z ?is impact affects ! motion ( translation4 ,! difficulties ( ! problem ( ,p]cussion arose1 9 "p1 f ! het]og5e\s nature ( ,pressure 7( a body at re/71 & ,mom5tum 7( a body 9 motion72 &1 9 "p1 f mix+ toge!r ! effects ( p]cussion on ! p>ts ( a body1 z1 = in/ance1 cutt+1 bruis+1 & break+1 ) its effect 9 mov+ ! :ole4 ,! =m] difficulty _h be5 se5 ) "s cle>ness by ,galileo himself4 ,9 a po/hum\s addition to 8 ,me*anical ,dialogues1 he says1 ,!re are two k9ds ( resi/ance 9 a movable body1 "o int]nal1 z :5 we say x is m difficult to lift a weight ( a ?\s& p\nds ?an a weight ( a hundr$2 ano!r respect+ space1 z #cdc :5 we say t x requires m =ce to ?r[ a /one "o hundr$ paces ?an fifty4#bgf ,reason+ ^u ?is diff]5ce1 he comes to ! conclusion t ! ,mom5tum ( p]cussion is inf9ite1 s9ce !re is no resi/ance1 h[ev] great1 :i* is n ov]come by a =ce ( p]cussion1 h[ev] small4#bhf ,he fur!r expla9s ?is by obs]v+ t ! resi/ance to p]cussion mu/ occupy "s portion ( "t1 al?\gh ?is portion may be ins5sible4 ,?is correct mode ( remov+ ! app>5t incongruity ( cont9u\s & in/antane\s =ce1 0 a mat]ial /ep 9 ! solution ( ! problem4 ,note #bgf3 ,op4 iii4 #baj4 ,note #bhf3 iii4 #baa4 ,! ,laws ( ! mutual ,impact ( bodies 7 errone\sly giv5 by ,desc>tes 9 8 ,pr9cipia2 & appe> to h be5 fir/ correctly /at$ by ,wr51 ,wallis1 & ,huygh5s1 :o ab\t ! same "t 7#affi7 s5t pap]s to ! ,royal ,society ( ,london on ! subject4 ,9 ^! solutions1 we p]ceive t m5 7 gradually com+ to appreh5d ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se2 namely1 t ! ,mom5tum 7:i* is proportional to ! ,mass ( ! body & its ,velocity jo9tly7 may be tak5 = ! measure ( ! effect2 s t ?is ,mom5tum is z mu* dim9i%$ 9 ! /rik+ body by ! resi/ance x exp]i5ces1 z x is increas$ 9 ! body /ruck by ! ,impact4 ,?is 0 sometimes express$ by say+ t ! ,quantity ( ,motion rema9s unalt]$1 ,quantity ( ,motion be+ us$ z synonym\s ) ,mom5tum4 ,newton express$ x by say+ t ,action & ,reaction are equal & opposite1 :i* is /ill "o ( ! mo/ famili> modes ( express+ ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion4 ,9 ?is mode ( /at+ ! ,law1 we see an example ( a prop5sity :i* has prevail$ v g5]ally among ma!maticians2 namely1 a disposition to pres5t ! fundam5tal laws ( re/ & ( motion z if !y 7 equally manife/1 &1 inde$1 id5tical4 ,! close analogy & connection :i* exi/s betwe5 ! pr9ciples ( equilibrium & ( motion1 (t5 l$ m5 to conf\nd ! evid5ce ( ! two2 & ?is confusion introduc$ an ambiguity 9 ! use ( words1 z we h se5 9 ! case ( ,mom5tum1 ,=ce1 & o!rs4 ,! same may be said ( ,action & ,reaction1 :i* h bo? a /atical & a dynamical signification4 ,& by ?is means1 ! mo/ g5]al /atem5ts ( ! laws ( motion are made to co9cide ) ! mo/ g5]al /atical propositions4 ,= in/ance1 ,newton d$uc$ f 8 pr9ciples ! conclusion1 t by ! mutual action ( bodies1 ! motion ( _! c5tre ( gravity _c be affect$4 ,m>riotte1 9 8 ,trait de la #cdd ,p]cussion 7#afhd71 _h ass]t$ ?is proposition = ! case ( direct impact4 ,b by ! reason]s ( ,newton's "t1 ! dynamical proposition1 t ! motion ( ! c5tre ( gravity is n alt]$ by ! actual free motion & impact ( bodies1 0 associat$ ) ! /atical proposition1 t :5 bodies are 9 equilibrium1 ! c5tre ( gravity _c be made to asc5d or desc5d by ! virtual motions ( ! bodies4 ,?is latt] is a proposition :i* 0 assum$ z self-evid5t by ,torricelli2 b :i* may m philosophically be prov$ f elem5t>y /atical pr9ciples4 ,?is disposition to id5tify ! elem5t>y laws ( equilibrium & ( motion1 l$ m5 to ?9k too slight+ly ( ! anci5t solid & suffici5t f\ndation ( ,/atics1 ! doctr9e ( ! lev]4 ,:5 ! progress ( ?\ght _h op5$ m5's m9ds to a m g5]al view ( ! subject1 x 0 consid]$ z a blemi% 9 ! sci5ce to f\nd x on ! prop]ties ( "o p>ticul> ma*9e4 ,desc>tes says 9 8 ,lett]s1 t x is ridicul\s to prove ! pulley by means ( ! lev]4 ,& ,v>ignon 0 l$ by simil> reflections to ! project ( 8 ,n\velle ,mcanique1 9 :i* ! :ole ( /atics %\ld be f\nd$ on ! composition ( =ces4 ,?is project 0 publi%$ 9 #afhg2 b ! "w did n appe> till #agbe1 aft] ! dea? ( ! au?or4 ,?\gh ! attempt to r$uce ! equilibrium ( all ma*9es to ! composition ( =ces1 is philosophical & m]itori\s1 ! attempt to r$uce ! composition ( ,pressures to ! composition ( ,motions1 ) :i* ,v>ignon's "w is occupi$1 0 a retrograde /ep 9 ! subject1 s f> z ! progress ( di/9ct me*anical ideas 0 conc]n$4 ,?us1 at ! p]iod at :i* we h n[ arriv$1 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,elem5t>y ,me*anics 7 g5]ally kn[n & accept$2 & !re 0 9 ! m9ds ( ma!maticians a preval5t t5d5cy to r$uce !m to ! mo/ simple & compreh5sive =m ( :i* !y admitt$4 ,! execution ( ?is simplification & ext5sion1 :i* we t]m ! g5]alization ( ! laws1 is s important an ev5t1 t ?\gh x =ms "p ( ! natural sequel ( ,galileo1 we %all treat ( x 9 a sep>ate *apt]4 ,b we mu/ fir/ br+ up ! hi/ory ( ! me*anics ( fluids to ! correspond+ po9t4 #cde ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,me*anical ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,fluids4 ,sect4 #a4--,r$iscov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,equilibrium ( ,fluids4 ,,we h already said1 t ! true laws ( ! equilibrium ( fluids 7 discov]$ by ,ar*im$es1 & r$iscov]$ by ,galileo & ,/ev9us2 ! int]m$iate "t hav+ be5 occupi$ by a vagu5ess & confusion ( ?\ght on physical subjects1 :i* made x impossible = m5 to reta9 su* cle> views z ,ar*im$es _h disclos$4 ,/ev9us mu/ be consid]$ z ! e>lie/ ( ! au?ors ( ?is r$iscov]y2 = 8 "w 7,pr9ciples ( ,/atik & ,hydro/atik7 0 publi%$ 9 ,dut* ab\t #aehe2 & 9 ?is1 8 views are p]fectly di/9ct & correct4 ,he re/ates ! doctr9es ( ,ar*im$es1 & %[s t1 z a consequ5ce ( !m1 x foll[s t ! pressure ( a fluid on ! bottom ( a vessel may be mu* great] ?an ! weight ( ! fluid itself3 ?is he proves1 by imag9+ "s ( ! upp] portions ( ! vessel to be fill$ ) fix$ solid bodies1 :i* take ! place ( ! fluid1 & yet d n alt] ! pressure on ! base4 ,he also %[s :at w be ! pressure on any portion ( a base 9 an oblique position2 & h5ce1 by c]ta9 ma!matical artifices :i* make an approa* to ! ,inf9itesimal ,calculus1 he f9ds ! :ole pressure on ! base 9 su* cases4 ,?is mode ( treat+ ! subject w\ld take 9 a l>ge portion ( our elem5t>y ,hydro/atics z ! sci5ce n[ /&s4 ,galileo saw ! prop]ties ( fluids no less cle>ly1 & expla9$ !m v di/9ctly1 9 #afab1 9 8 ,disc\rse on ,float+ ,bodies4 ,x _h be5 ma9ta9$ by ! ,ari/otelians1 t =m 0 ! cause ( bodies float+2 & collat]ally1 t ice 0 cond5s$ wat]2 app>5tly f a confusion ( ?\ght betwe5 rigidity & d5sity4 ,galileo ass]t$1 on ! contr>y1 t ice is r>efi$ wat]1 z appe>s by its float+3 & 9 support ( ?is1 he prov$1 by v>i\s exp]im5ts1 t ! float+ ( bodies does n dep5d on _! =m4 ,! happy g5ius ( ,galileo is ! m rem>kable 9 ?is case1 z ! controv]sy 0 a good deal p]plex$ by ! mixture ( ph5om5a ( ano!r k9d1 due to :at is usually call$ capill>y or molecul> attraction4 ,?us x is a fact1 t a ball #cdf ( ebony s9ks 9 wat]1 :ile a flat slip ( ! same mat]ial lies on ! surface2 & x requir$ consid]able sagacity to sep>ate su* cases f ! g5]al rule4 ,galileo's op9ions 7 attack$ by v>i\s writ]s1 z ,nozzol9i1 ,v9c5zio di ,grazia1 ,ludovico delle ,colombe2 & def5d$ by 8 pupil ,ca/elli1 :o publi%$ a reply 9 #afae4 ,^! op9ions 7 g5]ally adopt$ & diffus$2 b some:at lat]1 ,pascal pursu$ ! subject m sy/ematically1 & wrote 8 ,treatise ( ! ,equilibrium ( ,fluids 9 #afec2 9 :i* he %[s t a fluid1 inclos$ 9 a vessel1 necess>ily presses equally 9 all directions1 by imag9+ two pi/ons or slid+ plugs1 appli$ at diff]5t p>ts1 ! surface ( "o be+ c5tuple t ( ! o!r3 x is cle>1 z he obs]ves1 t ! =ce ( "o man act+ at ! fir/ pi/on1 w balance ! =ce ( "o hundr$ m5 act+ at ! o!r4 ,& ?us1 says he1 x appe>s t a vessel full ( wat] is a new ,pr9ciple ( ,me*anics1 & a new ,ma*9e :i* w multiply =ce to any degree we *oose4 ,pascal also ref]r$ ! equilibrium ( fluids to ! pr9ciple ( virtual velocities1 :i* regulates ! equilibrium ( o!r ma*9es4 ,?is1 inde$1 ,galileo _h done be=e him4 ,x foll[$ f ?is doctr9e1 t ! pressure :i* is ex]cis$ by ! l[] p>ts ( a fluid arises f ! weight ( ! upp] p>ts4 ,9 all ?is !re 0 no?+ :i* 0 n easily ass5t$ to2 b ! ext5sion ( ^! doctr9es to ! air requir$ an additional ef=t ( me*anical conception4 ,! pressure ( ! air on all sides ( u1 & its weight above u1 7 two tru?s :i* _h nev] yet be5 appreh5d$ ) any k9d ( cle>ness4 ,s5eca1 inde$1#bif talks ( ! gravity ( ! air1 & ( its p[] ( diffus+ itself :5 cond5s$1 z ! causes ( w9d2 b we c h>dly consid] su* propriety ( phraseology 9 him z m ?an a *ance2 = we see ! value ( 8 philosophy by :at he imm$iately adds3 ,d y ?9k t we h =ces by :i* we move ourselves1 & t ! air is left )\t any p[] ( mov+8 :5 ev5 wat] has a motion ( its own1 z we see 9 ! gr[? ( plants4 ,we c h>dly atta* mu* value to su* a recognition ( ! gravity & ela/icity ( ! air4 ,note #bif3 ,qu/4 ,nat4 v4 #e4 ,yet ! effects ( ^! causes 7 s num]\s & obvi\s1 t ! ,ari/otelians _h be5 oblig$ to inv5t a pr9ciple to acc\nt = !m2 namely1 ,nature's ,horror ( a ,vacuum4 ,to ?is pr9ciple 7 ref]r$ _m famili> ph5om5a1 z suction1 brea?+1 ! #cdg action ( a pair ( bell[s1 its draw+ wat] if imm]s$ 9 wat]1 its refus+ to op5 :5 ! r5t is /opp$ up4 ,! action ( a cupp+ in/rum5t1 9 :i* ! air is r>efi$ by fire2 ! fact t wat] is support$ :5 a full inv]t$ bottle is plac$ 9 a bas92 or :5 a full tube1 op5 bel[ & clos$ above1 is simil>ly plac$2 ! runn+ out ( ! wat]1 9 ?is in/ance1 :5 ! top is op5$2 ! action ( a siphon1 ( a syr+e1 ( a pump2 ! adhesion ( two poli%$ plates1 & o!r facts1 7 all expla9$ by ! fuga vacui4 ,inde$1 we mu/ cont5d t ! pr9ciple 0 a v good "o1 inasmu* z x br\ght toge!r all ^! facts :i* are really ( ! same k9d1 & ref]r$ !m to a common cause4 ,b :5 urg$ z an ultimate pr9ciple1 x 0 n only unphilosophical1 b imp]fect & wrong4 ,x 0 unphilosophical1 because x introduc$ ! notion ( an emotion1 ,horror1 z an acc\nt ( physical facts2 x 0 imp]fect1 because x 0 at be/ only a law ( ph5om5a1 n po9t+ out any physical cause2 & x 0 wrong1 because x gave an unlimit$ ext5t to ! effect4 ,accord+ly1 x l$ to mi/akes4 ,?us ,m]s5ne1 9 #afdd1 speaks ( a siphon :i* %all g ov] a m\nta91 be+ ignorant !n t ! effect ( su* an in/rum5t 0 limit$ to a height ( ?irty-f\r feet4 ,a few ye>s lat]1 h[ev]1 he _h detect$ ?is mi/ake2 & 9 8 ?ird volume1 publi%$ 9 #afdg1 he puts 8 siphon 9 8 em5d&a1 & speaks correctly ( ! weight ( air z support+ ! m]cury 9 ! tube ( ,torricelli4 ,x 01 inde$1 by f9d+ ?is horror ( a vacuum to h a limit at ! height ( ?irty-f\r feet1 t ! true pr9ciple 0 sugge/$4 ,x 0 discov]$ t :5 attempts 7 made to raise wat] high] ?an ?is4 ,nature tol]at$ a vacuum above ! wat] :i* rose4 ,9 #afdc1 ,torricelli tri$ to produce ?is vacuum at a small] height1 by us+1 in/ead ( wat]1 ! heavi] fluid1 quicksilv]2 an attempt :i* %[s t ! true explanation1 ! balance ( ! weight ( ! wat] by ano!r pressure1 _h already sugge/$ itself4 ,inde$1 ?is appe>s f o!r evid5ce4 ,galileo _h already taught t ! air has weight2 & ,baliani1 writ+ to him 9 #afcj1 says1#cjf ,if we 7 9 a vacuum1 ! weight ( ! air above our heads w\ld be felt4 ,desc>tes also appe>s to h "s %>e 9 ?is discov]y2 =1 9 a lett] ( ! date ( #afca1 he expla9s ! susp5sion ( m]cury 9 a tube1 clos$ at top1 by ! pressure ( ! column ( air rea*+ to ! cl\ds4 #cdh ,note #cjf3 ,dr9kwat]'s ,galileo1 p4 #ij4 ,/ill m5's m9ds want$ confirmation 9 ?is view2 & !y f\nd su* confirmation1 :51 9 #afdg1 ,pascal %[$ practically1 t if we alt] ! l5g? ( ! sup]9cumb5t column ( air by go+ to a high place1 we alt] ! weight :i* x w support4 ,?is celebrat$ exp]im5t 0 made by ,pascal himself on a *ur*-/eeple 9 ,p>is1 ! column ( m]cury 9 ! ,torricellian tube be+ us$ to comp>e ! weights ( ! air2 b he wrote to 8 bro!r-9-law1 :o liv$ ne> ! high m\nta9 ( ,puy de ,dme 9 ,auv]gne1 to reque/ him to make ! exp]im5t !re1 :]e ! result w\ld be m decisive4 ,y see1 he says1 t if x happ5s t ! height ( ! m]cury at ! top ( ! hill be less ?an at ! bottom 7:i* ,i h _m reasons to believe1 ?\gh all ^? :o h ?\ght ab\t x are ( a diff]5t op9ion71 x w foll[ t ! weight & pressure ( ! air are ! sole cause ( ?is susp5sion1 & n ! horror ( a vacuum3 s9ce x is v c]ta9 t !re is m air to weigh on x at ! bottom ?an at ! top2 :ile we _c say t nature abhors a vacuum at ! foot ( a m\nta9 m ?an on its summit4--,m4 ,p]ri]1 ,pascal's correspond5t1 made ! obs]vation z he _h desir$1 & f\nd a diff]5ce ( ?ree in*es ( m]cury1 :i*1 he says1 ravi%$ u ) admiration & a/oni%m5t4 ,:5 ! lea/ obvi\s case ( ! op]ation ( ! pressure & weight ( fluids _h ?us be5 made out1 !re 7 no fur!r difficulties 9 ! progress ( ! !ory ( ,hydro/atics4 ,:5 ma!maticians began to consid] m g5]al cases ?an ^? ( ! action ( gravity1 !re arose diff]5ces 9 ! way ( /at+ ! appropriate pr9ciples3 b none ( ^! diff]5ces imply any diff]5t conception ( ! fundam5tal nature ( fluid equilibrium4 ,sect4 #b4--;,discov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,motion ( ,fluids4 ,,! art ( conduct+ wat] 9 pipes1 & ( direct+ its motion = v>i\s purposes1 is v old4 ,:5 treat$ sy/ematically1 x has be5 t]m$ ,hydraulics3 b ,hydrodynamics is ! g5]al "n ( ! sci5ce ( ! laws ( ! motions ( fluids1 "u ^? or o!r circum/ances4 ,! ,art is z old z ! comm5cem5t ( civilization3 ! ,sci5ce does n asc5d high] ?an ! "t ( ,newton1 ?\gh attempts on su* subjects 7 made by ,galileo & 8 s*ol>s4 ,:5 a fluid sp\ts f an orifice 9 a vessel1 ,ca/elli saw t ! velocity ( efflux dep5ds on ! dep? ( ! orifice bel[ ! #cdi surface3 b he errone\sly judg$ ! velocity to be exactly proportional to ! dep?4 ,torricelli f\nd t ! fluid1 "u ! inevitable causes ( defect :i* occur 9 ! exp]im5t1 w\ld sp\t ne>ly to ! height ( ! surface3 he !re=e inf]r$1 t ! full velocity is t :i* a body w\ld acquire 9 fall+ ?r\gh ! dep?2 & t x is consequ5tly proportional to ! squ>e root ( ! dep?4--,?is1 h[ev]1 he /at$ only z a result ( exp]i5ce1 or law ( ph5om5a1 at ! end ( 8 treatise1 ,de ,motu ,naturalit] ,accel]ato1 pr9t$ 9 #afdc4 ,newton treat$ ! subject !oretically 9 ! ,pr9cipia 7#afhg72 b we mu/ all[1 z ,lagrange says1 t ?is is ! lea/ satisfactory passage ( t great "w4 ,newton1 hav+ made 8 exp]im5ts 9 ano!r mann] ?an ,torricelli1 namely1 by measur+ ! quantity ( ! efflux in/ead ( its velocity1 f\nd a result inconsi/5t ) t ( ,torricelli4 ,! velocity inf]r$ f ! quantity dis*>g$1 0 only t due to half ! dep? ( ! fluid4 ,9 ! fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9cipia1#caf ,newton gave a tra9 ( reason+ by :i* he !oretically demon/rat$ 8 own result1 go+ ^u ! pr9ciple1 t ! mom5tum ( ! issu+ fluid is equal to ! mom5tum :i* ! column v]tically ov] ! orifice w\ld g5]ate by its gravity4 ,b ,torricelli's exp]im5ts1 :i* _h giv5 ! velocity due to ! :ole dep?1 7 confirm$ on repetition3 h[ 0 ?is discrepancy to be expla9$8 ,note #caf3 ,b4 ii4 ,prop4 xxxvii4 ,newton expla9$ ! discrepancy by obs]v+ ! contraction :i* ! jet1 or ve9 ( wat]1 und]goes1 j aft] x leaves ! orifice1 & :i* he call$ ! v5a contracta4 ,at ! orifice1 ! velocity is t due to half ! height2 at ! v5a contracta x is t due to ! :ole height4 ,! =m] velocity regulates ! quantity ( ! dis*>ge2 ! latt]1 ! pa? ( ! jet4 ,?is explanation 0 an important /ep 9 ! subject2 b x made ,newton's orig9al pro( appe> v defective1 to say ! lea/4 ,9 ! second edition ( ! ,pr9cipia 7#agad71 ,newton attack$ ! problem 9 a mann] altoge!r diff]5t f 8 =m] inve/igation4 ,he !re assum$1 t :5 a r\nd vessel1 conta9+ fluid1 has a hole 9 its bottom1 ! desc5d+ fluid may be conceiv$ to be a conoidal mass1 :i* has its base at ! surface ( ! fluid1 & its n>r[ end at ! orifice4 ,?is portion ( ! fluid he calls ! cat>act2 & supposes t :ile ?is "p desc5ds1 ! surr\nd+ #cej p>ts rema9 immovable1 z if !y 7 froz52 9 ?is way he f9ds a result agree+ ) ,torricelli's exp]im5ts on ! velocity ( ! efflux4 ,we mu/ all[ t ! assumptions by :i* ?is result is obta9$ are some:at arbitr>y2 & ^? :i* ,newton introduces 9 attempt+ to connect ! problem ( issu+ fluids ) t ( ! resi/ance to a body mov+ 9 a fluid1 are no less s4 ,b ev5 up to ! pres5t "t1 ma!maticians h n be5 able to r$uce problems conc]n+ ! motions ( fluids to ma!matical pr9ciples & calculations1 )\t introduc+ "s /eps ( ?is arbitr>y k9d4 ,& "o ( ! uses ( exp]im5ts on ?is subject is1 to sugge/ ^? hypo!ses :i* may enable u1 9 ! mann] mo/ consonant ) ! true /ate ( ?+s1 to r$uce ! motions ( fluids to ^? g5]al laws ( me*anics1 to :i* we "k !y mu/ be subject4 ,h5ce ! sci5ce ( ! ,motion ( ,fluids1 unlike all ! o!r prim>y dep>tm5ts ( ,me*anics1 is a subject on :i* we /ill ne$ exp]im5ts1 to po9t out ! fundam5tal pr9ciples4 ,_m su* exp]im5ts h be5 made1 ) a view ei!r to comp>e ! results ( d$uction & obs]vation1 or1 :5 ?is comp>ison fail$1 to obta9 purely empirical rules4 ,9 ?is way ! resi/ance ( fluids1 & ! motion ( wat] 9 pipes1 canals1 & riv]s1 has be5 treat$4 ,italy has possess$1 f e>ly times1 a l>ge body ( su* writ]s4 ,! e>li] works ( ?is k9d h be5 collect$ 9 sixte5 qu>to volumes4 ,lec*i & ,mi*elotti ab\t #agfe1 ,bidone m rec5tly1 h pursu$ ^! inquiries4 ,bossut1 ,buat1 ,ha*ette1 9 ,france1 h labor$ at ! same task1 z h ,c\lomb & ,prony1 ,gir>d & ,poncelet4 ,eytelwe9's ,g]man treatise 7,hydraulik7 conta9s an acc\nt ( :at o!rs & himself h done4 ,_m ( ^! tra9s ( exp]im5ts1 bo? 9 ,france & ,italy1 7 made at ! exp5se ( gov]nm5ts1 & on a v magnific5t scale4 ,9 ,engl& less 0 done 9 ?is way dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 ?an 9 mo/ o!r c\ntries4 ,! ,philosophical ,transactions1 = in/ance1 sc>cely conta9 a s+le pap] on ?is subject f\nd$ on exp]im5tal inve/igations4#cbf ,dr4 ,?omas ,"y1 :o 0 at ! head ( 8 c\ntrym5 9 s _m bran*es ( sci5ce1 0 "o ( ! fir/ to call back att5tion to ?is3 & ,mr4 ,r5nie & o!rs h rec5tly made valuable exp]im5ts4 ,9 _m ( ! que/ions n[ spok5 (1 ! accordance :i* eng9e]s are able to obta91 betwe5 _! calculat$ & obs]v$ results1 #cea is v great3 b ^! calculations are p]=m$ by means ( empirical =mul1 :i* d n connect ! facts ) _! causes1 & /ill leave a wide space to be trav]s$1 9 ord] to complete ! sci5ce4 ,note #cbf3 ,r5nie1 ,report to ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,9 ! mean "t1 all ! o!r portions ( ,me*anics 7 r$uc$ to g5]al laws1 & analytical processes2 & means 7 f\nd ( includ+ ,hydrodynamics1 not)/&+ ! difficulties :i* att5d its special problems1 9 ?is common improvem5t ( =m4 ,?is progress we mu/ relate4 #b;d ,ed4 ,! hydrodynamical problems ref]r$ to above are1 ! laws ( a fluid issu+ f a vessel1 ! laws ( ! motion ( wat] 9 pipes1 canals1 & riv]s1 & ! laws ( ! resi/ance ( fluids4 ,to ^! may be add$1 z an hydrodynamical problem important 9 !ory1 9 exp]im5t1 & 9 ! comp>ison ( ! two1 ! laws ( waves4 ,newton gave1 9 ! ,pr9cipia1 an explanation ( ! waves ( wat] 7,lib4 ii4 ,prop4 #dd71 :i* appe>s to proce$ ^u an errone\s view ( ! nature ( ! motion ( ! fluid3 b 9 8 solution ( ! problem ( s\nd1 appe>$1 = ! fir/ "t1 a correct view ( ! propagation ( an undulation 9 a fluid4 ,! hi/ory ( ?is subject1 z be>+ ^u ! !ory ( s\nd1 is giv5 9 ,book viii43 b ,i may "h rem>k1 t ! laws ( ! motion ( waves h be5 pursu$ exp]im5tally by v>i\s p]sons1 z ,bremonti] 7,re*]*es sur le ,m\vem5t des ,ondes1 #ahji71 ,emy 7,du ,m\vem5t des ,ondes1 #ahca71 ! ,web]s 7,well5lehre1 #ahbe72 & by ,mr4 ,scott ,russell 7,reports ( ! ,briti% ,association1 #ahdd74 ,! analytical !ory has be5 c>ri$ on by ,poisson1 ,cau*y1 &1 among ourselves1 by ,pr(4 ,kell& 7,ed94 ,trans47 & ,mr4 ,airy 79 ! article ,tides1 9 ! ,encyclopdia ,metropolitana74 ,& ?\gh !ory & exp]im5t h n yet be5 br\ght into complete accordance1 great progress has be5 made 9 t "w1 & ! rema9+ *asm betwe5 ! two is manife/ly due only to ! incomplet5ess ( bo?4 ,p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable case ( fluid motion rec5tly discuss$1 is "o :i* ,mr4 ,scott ,russell has pres5t$ exp]im5tally2 & :i*1 ?\gh novel1 is easily se5 to foll[ f kn[n pr9ciples2 namely1 ! ,great ,solit>y ,wave4 ,a wave may be produc$1 :i* %all move along a canal unaccompani$ by any o!r wave3 & ! simplicity ( ?is case makes ! ma!matical conditions & consequ5ces m simple ?an !y are 9 mo/ o!r problems ( ,hydrodynamics4 #ceb ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,g5]alization ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,me*anics4 ,sect4 #a4--;,g5]alization ( ! ,second ,law ( ,motion4--,c5tral ,=ces4 ,,! ,second ,law ( ,motion be+ prov$ = con/ant ,=ces :i* act 9 p>allel l9es1 & ! ,?ird ,law = ! ,direct ,action ( bodies1 x /ill requir$ great ma!matical tal5t1 & "s inductive p[]1 to see cle>ly ! laws :i* gov]n ! motion ( any numb] ( bodies1 act$ ^u by ea* o!r1 & by any =ces1 anyh[ v>y+ 9 magnitude & direction4 ,?is 0 ! task ( ! g5]alization ( ! laws ( motion4 ,galileo _h conv9c$ himself t ! velocity ( projection1 & t :i* gravity alone w\ld produce1 are bo? ma9ta9$1 )\t be+ alt]$1 p]turb$1 or imp$$ 9 _! mixture4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! tru? ( ?is result dep5ds ^u a p>ticul> circum/ance1 namely1 t gravity1 at all po9ts1 acts 9 l9es1 :i*1 z to s5se1 are p>allel4 ,:5 we h to consid] cases 9 :i* ?is is n true1 z :5 ! =ce t5ds to ! c5tre ( a circle1 ! law ( composition _c be appli$ 9 ! same way2 &1 9 ?is case1 ma!maticians 7 met by "s peculi> difficulties4 ,"o ( ^! difficulties arises f ! app>5t inconsi/5cy ( ! /atical & dynamical measures ( =ce4 ,:5 a body moves 9 a circle1 ! =ce :i* urges ! body to ! c5tre is only a t5d5cy to motion2 = ! body does n1 9 fact1 approa* to ! c5tre2 & ?is m]e t5d5cy to motion is comb9$ ) an actual motion1 :i* takes place 9 ! circumf]5ce4 ,we appe> to h to comp>e two ?+s :i* are het]og5e\s4 ,desc>tes _h notic$ ?is difficulty1 b )\t giv+ any satisfactory solution ( x4#ccf ,if we comb9e ! actual motion to or f ! c5tre ) ! trav]se motion ab\t ! c5tre1 we obta9 a result :i* is false on me*anical pr9ciples4 ,galileo endeavor$ 9 ?is way to f9d ! curve describ$ by a body :i* falls t[>ds ! e>?'s c5tre1 & is1 at ! same "t1 c>ri$ #cec r\nd by ! motion ( ! e>?2 & obta9$ an errone\s result4 ,kepl] & ,f]mat attempt$ ! same problem1 & obta9$ solutions diff]5t f t ( ,galileo1 b n m correct4 ,note #ccf3 ,pr9cip4 ,p4 iii4 #ei4 ,ev5 ,newton1 at an e>ly p]iod ( 8 speculations1 _h an errone\s op9ion respect+ ?is curve1 :i* he imag9$ to be a k9d ( spiral4 ,hooke animadv]t$ ^u ?is op9ion :5 x 0 laid be=e ! ,royal ,society ( ,london 9 #afgi1 & /at$1 m truly1 t1 suppos+ no resi/ance1 x w\ld be an ecc5tric ellipsoid1 t is1 a figure resembl+ an ellipse4 ,b ?\gh he _h made out ! approximate =m ( ! curve1 9 "s unexpla9$ way1 we h no reason to believe t he possess$ any means ( det]m9+ ! ma!matical prop]ties ( ! curve describ$ 9 su* a case4 ,! p]petual composition ( a c5tral =ce ) ! previ\s motion ( ! body1 c\ld n be successfully treat$ )\t ! consid]ation ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,limits1 or some?+ equival5t to t doctr9e4 ,! fir/ example :i* we h ( ! "r solution ( su* a problem occurs1 s f> z ,i "k1 9 ! ,!orems ( ,huygh5s conc]n+ ,circul> ,motion1 :i* 7 publi%$1 )\t demon/ration1 at ! end ( 8 ,horologium ,oscillatorium1 9 #afgc4 ,x 0 !re ass]t$ t :5 equal bodies describe circles1 if ! times are equal1 ! c5trifugal =ces w be z ! diamet]s ( ! circles2 if ! velocities are equal1 ! =ces w be reciprocally z ! diamet]s1 & s on4 ,9 ord] to arrive at ^! propositions1 ,huygh5s mu/1 virtually at lea/1 h appli$ ! ,second ,law ( ,motion to ! limit+ elem5ts ( ! curve1 accord+ to ! way 9 :i* ,newton1 a few ye>s lat]1 gave ! demon/ration ( ! !orems ( ,huygh5s 9 ! ,pr9cipia4 ,! gr[+ p]suasion t ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies ab\t ! sun might be expla9$ by ! action ( c5tral =ces1 gave a peculi> int]e/ to ^! me*anical speculations1 at ! p]iod n[ "u review4 ,inde$1 x is n easy to /ate sep>ately1 z our pres5t object requires u to d1 ! progress ( ,me*anics1 & ! progress ( ,a/ronomy4 ,yet ! di/9ction :i* we h to make is1 9 its nature1 suffici5tly m>k$4 ,x is1 9 fact1 no less m>k$ ?an ! di/9ction betwe5 speak+ logically & speak+ truly4 ,! fram]s ( ! sci5ce ( motion 7 employ$ 9 e/abli%+ ^? notions1 names1 & rules1 9 con=mity to :i* all me*anical tru? mu/ be express$2 b :at 0 ! tru? ) reg>d to ! me*anism ( ! univ]se rema9$ to be det]m9$ by o!r means4 ,physical ,a/ronomy1 at ! p]iod ( :i* we speak1 eclips$ & ov]laid #ced !oretical ,me*anics1 z1 a little previ\sly1 ,dynamics _h eclips$ & sup]s$$ ,/atics4 ,! laws ( v>iable =ce & ( curvil9e> motion 7 n mu* pursu$1 till ! inv5tion ( ,fluxions & ( ! ,diff]5tial ,calculus aga9 turn$ m5's m9ds to ^! subjects1 z easy & int]e/+ ex]cises ( ! p[]s ( ^! new me?ods4 ,newton's ,pr9cipia1 ( :i* ! fir/ two ,books are purely dynamical1 is ! great exception to ?is ass]tion2 inasmu* z x conta9s correct solutions ( a great v>iety ( ! mo/ g5]al problems ( ! sci5ce2 & inde$ is1 ev5 yet1 "o ( ! mo/ complete treatises :i* we possess ^u ! subject4 ,we h se5 t ,kepl]1 9 8 attempts to expla9 ! curvil9e> motions ( ! planets by means ( a c5tral =ce1 fail$1 9 consequ5ce ( 8 belief t a cont9u$ transv]se action ( ! c5tral body 0 requisite to keep up a cont9ual motion4 ,galileo _h f\nd$ 8 !ory ( projectiles on ! pr9ciple t su* an action 0 n necess>y2 yet ,borelli1 a pupil ( ,galileo1 :51 9 #afff1 he publi%$ 8 !ory ( ! ,m$icean ,/>s 7! satellites ( ,jupit]71 did n keep q cle> ( ! same errors :i* _h vitiat$ ,kepl]'s reason+s4 ,9 ! same way1 ?\gh ,desc>tes is sometimes spok5 ( z ! fir/ promulgator ( ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion1 yet 8 !ory ( ,vortices mu/ h be5 ma9ly sugge/$ by a want ( an entire confid5ce 9 t law4 ,:5 he repres5t$ ! planets & satellites z ow+ _! motions to oceans ( fluid diffus$ ?r\gh ! cele/ial spaces1 & con/antly :irl+ r\nd ! c5tral bodies1 he mu/ h felt afraid ( tru/+ ! planets to ! op]ation ( ! laws ( motion 9 free space4 ,s\nd] physical philosoph]s1 h[ev]1 began to p]ceive ! real nature ( ! "q4 ,z e>ly z #afff1 we read1 9 ! ,j\rnals ( ! ,royal ,society1 t !re 0 read a pap] ( ,mr4 ,hooke's explicat+ ! inflexion ( a direct motion into a curve by a sup]v5+ attractive pr9ciple2 & be=e ! publication ( ! ,pr9cipia 9 #afhg1 ,huygh5s1 z we h se51 9 ,holl&1 &1 9 our own c\ntry1 ,wr51 ,halley1 & ,hooke1 _h made "s progress 9 ! true me*anics ( circul> motion1#cdf & _h di/9ctly contemplat$ ! problem ( ! motion ( a body 9 an ellipse by a c5tral =ce1 ?\gh !y c\ld n solve x4 ,halley w5t to ,cambridge 9 #afhd1cef = ! express purpose ( consult+ ,newton ^u ! subject ( ! production ( ! elliptical motion ( ! planets by means ( a c5tral #cee =ce1 &1 on ! #aj? ( ,decemb]1#cff ann\nc$ to ! ,royal ,society t he _h se5 ,mr4 ,newton's book1 ,de ,motu ,corporum4 ,! feel+ t ma!maticians 7 on ! br9k ( discov]ies su* z are conta9$ 9 ?is "w 0 s /rong1 t ,dr4 ,halley 0 reque/$ to rem9d ,mr4 ,newton ( 8 promise ( ent]+ !m 9 ! ,regi/] ( ! ,society1 = secur+ ! inv5tion to himself till su* "t z he c be at leisure to publi% x4 ,! manuscript1 ) ! title ,philosophi ,naturalis ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 0 pres5t$ to ! society 7to :i* x 0 d$icat$7 on ! #bh? ( ,april1 #afhf4 ,dr4 ,v9c5t1 :o pres5t$ x1 spoke ( ! novelty & dignity ( ! subject2 & ! presid5t 7,sir ,j4 ,hosk9s7 add$1 ) great tru?1 t ! me?od 0 s mu* ! m to be priz$ z x 0 bo? inv5t$ & p]fect$ at ! same "t4 ,note #cdf3 ,newt4 ,pr9cip4 ,s*ol4 to ,prop4 iv4 ,note #cef3 ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]'s ,life ( ,newton1 p4 #aed4 ,note #cff3 ,id4 p4 #ahd4 ,! read] w recollect t we are "h speak+ ( ! ,pr9cipia z a ,me*anical ,treatise only2 we %all aft]w>ds h to consid] x z conta9+ ! greate/ discov]ies ( ,physical ,a/ronomy4 ,z a "w on ,dynamics1 its m]it is1 t x exhibits a wond]ful /ore ( ref9$ & beautiful ma!matical artifices1 appli$ to solve all ! mo/ g5]al problems :i* ! subject (f]$4 ,! ,pr9cipia c h>dly be said to conta9 any new inductive discov]y respect+ ! pr9ciples ( me*anics2 = ?\gh ,newton's ,axioms or ,laws ( ,motion :i* /& at ! beg9n+ ( ! book1 are a mu* cle>] & m g5]al /atem5t ( ! gr\nds ( ,me*anics ?an _h yet appe>$1 !y d n involve any doctr9es :i* _h n be5 previ\sly /at$ or tak5 = grant$ by o!r ma!maticians4 ,! "w1 h[ev]1 besides its unrivall$ ma!matical skill1 employ$ 9 trac+ out1 d$uctively1 ! consequ5ces ( ! laws ( motion1 & its great cosmical discov]ies1 :i* we %all h]eaft] treat (1 _h great philosophical value 9 ! hi/ory ( ,dynamics1 z exhibit+ a cle> conception ( ! new "* & functions ( t sci5ce4 ,9 8 ,preface1 ,newton says1 ,rational ,me*anics mu/ be ! sci5ce ( ! ,motions :i* result f any ,=ces1 & ( ! ,=ces :i* are requir$ = any ,motions1 accurately prop\nd$ & demon/rat$4 ,= _m ?+s induce me to suspect1 t all natural ph5om5a may dep5d ^u "s ,=ces by :i* ! p>ticles ( bodies are ei!r drawn t[>ds ea* o!r1 & coh]e1 or repel & rec$e f ea* o!r3 & ^! ,=ces be+ hi!rto unkn[n1 philosoph]s h pursu$ _! rese>*es 9 va94 ,& ,i hope #cef t ! pr9ciples exp\nd$ 9 ?is "w w af=d "s light1 ei!r to ?is mode ( philosophiz+1 or to "s mode :i* is m true4 ,be=e we pursue ?is subject fur!r1 we mu/ trace ! rema9d] ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,?ird ,law4 ,sect4 #b4--;,g5]alization ( ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion4--,c5tre ( ,oscillation4--,huygh5s4 ,,! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion1 :e!r express$ accord+ to ,newton's =mula 7by ! equality ( ,action & ,reaction71 or 9 any o!r ( ! ways employ$ ab\t ! same "t1 easily gave ! solution ( me*anical problems 9 all cases ( direct action2 t is1 :5 ea* body act$ directly on o!rs4 ,b !re /ill rema9$ ! problems 9 :i* ! action is indirect2--:5 bodies1 9 motion1 act on ea* o!r by ! int]v5tion ( lev]s1 or 9 any o!r way4 ,if a rigid rod1 pass+ ?r\gh two weights1 be made to sw+ ab\t its upp] po9t1 s z to =m a p5dulum1 ea* weight w act & react on ! o!r by means ( ! rod1 consid]$ z a lev] turn+ ab\t ! po9t ( susp5sion4 ,:at1 9 ?is case1 w be ! effect ( ?is action & reaction8 ,9 :at "t w ! p5dulum oscillate by ! =ce ( gravity8 ,:]e is ! po9t at :i* a s+le weight mu/ be plac$ to oscillate 9 ! same "t8 9 o!r words1 :]e is ! ,c5tre ( ,oscillation8 ,su* 0 ! problem--an example only ( ! g5]al problem ( indirect action--:i* ma!maticians _h to solve4 ,t x 0 by no means easy to see 9 :at mann] ! law ( ! communication ( motion 0 to be ext5d$ f simpl] cases to ^? :]e rotatory motion 0 produc$1 is %[n by ?is2--t ,newton1 9 attempt+ to solve ! me*anical problem ( ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes1 fell into a s]i\s error on ?is v subject4 ,he assum$ t1 :5 a "p has to communicate rotatory movem5t to ! :ole 7z ! protub]ant portion ( ! t]re/rial sph]oid1 attract$ by ! sun & moon1 communicates a small movem5t to ! :ole mass ( ! e>?71 ! quantity ( ! motion1 motus1 w n be alt]$ by be+ communicat$4 ,?is pr9ciple is true1 if1 by motion1 we und]/& :at is call$ mom5t ( in]tia1 a quantity 9 :i* bo? ! velocity ( ea* p>ticle & its di/ance f ! axis ( rotation are tak5 into acc\nt3 b ,newton1 9 8 calculations ( its am\nt1 consid]$ ! velocity only2 ?us mak+ motion1 9 ?is case1 id5tical ) ! mom5tum :i* he introduces 9 treat+ ( ! simpl] case #ceg ( ! ?ird law ( motion1 :5 ! action is direct4 ,?is error 0 reta9$ ev5 9 ! lat] editions ( ! ,pr9cipia4#cgf ,note #cgf3 ,b4 iii4 ,lemma iii4 to ,prop1 xxxix4 ,! "q ( ! c5tre ( oscillation _h be5 propos$ by ,m]s5ne some:at e>li]1#chf 9 #afdf4 ,& ?\gh ! problem 0 out ( ! rea* ( any pr9ciples at t "t kn[n & und]/ood1 "s ( ! ma!maticians ( ! day _h rightly solv$ "s cases ( x1 by proce$+ z if ! "q _h be5 to f9d ! ,c5tre ( ,p]cussion4 ,! ,c5tre ( ,p]cussion is ! po9t ab\t :i* ! mom5ta ( all ! p>ts ( a body balance ea* o!r1 :5 x is 9 motion ab\t any axis1 & is /opp$ by /rik+ aga9/ an ob/acle plac$ at t c5tre4 ,rob]val f\nd ?is po9t 9 "s easy cases2 ,desc>tes also attempt$ ! problem2 _! rival labors l$ to an angry controv]sy3 & ,desc>tes 01 z 9 8 physical speculations he (t5 01 v presumptu\s1 ?\gh n m ?an half "r4 ,note #chf3 ,mont4 ii4 #dbc4 ,huygh5s 0 h>dly advanc$ beyond boyhood :5 ,m]s5ne fir/ propos$ ?is problem2 &1 z he says1#cif c\ld see no pr9ciple :i* ev5 (f]$ an op5+ to ! solution1 & _h ?us be5 repell$ at ! ?re%old4 ,:51 h[ev]1 he publi%$ 8 ,horologium ,oscillatorium 9 #afgc1 ! f\r? "p ( t "w 0 on ! ,c5tre ( ,oscillation or ,agitation2 & ! pr9ciple :i* he !n assum$1 ?\gh n s simple & self-evid5t z ^? to :i* su* problems 7 aft]w>ds ref]r$1 0 p]fectly correct & g5]al1 & l$ to exact solutions 9 all cases4 ,! read] has already se5 repeat$ly 9 ! c\rse ( ?is hi/ory1 complex & d]ivative pr9ciples pres5t+ !mselves to m5's m9ds1 be=e simple & elem5t>y ones4 ,! hypo!sis assum$ by ,huygh5s 0 ?is2 t if any weights are put 9 motion by ! =ce ( gravity1 !y _c move s t ! c5tre ( gravity ( !m all %all rise high] ?an ! place f :i* x desc5d$4 ,?is be+ assum$1 x is easy to %[ t ! c5tre ( gravity w1 "u all circum/ances1 rise z high z its orig9al position2 & ?is consid]ation leads to a det]m9ation ( ! oscillation ( a comp\nd p5dulum4 ,we may obs]ve1 9 ! pr9ciple ?us select$1 a conviction t1 9 all me*anical action1 ! c5tre ( gravity may be tak5 z ! repres5tative ( ! :ole sy/em4 ,?is conviction1 z we h se51 may be trac$ 9 ! axioms ( ,ar*im$es & ,/ev9us2 & ,huygh5s1 :5 he proce$s ^u x1 und]takes to %[1#djf t he assumes only ?is1 t a heavy body _c1 ( itself1 move upw>ds4 #ceh ,note #cif3 ,hor4 ,osc4 ,pref4 ,note #djf3 ,hor4 ,osc4 p4 #aba4 ,cle> z ,huygh5's pr9ciple appe>$ to himself1 x 01 aft] "s "t1 attack$ by ! ,abb ,catelan1 a zeal\s ,c>tesian4 ,catelan also put =? pr9ciples :i* he conceiv$ 7 evid5t1 & d$uc$ f !m conclusions contradictory to ^? ( ,huygh5s4 ,8 pr9ciples1 n[ t we "k !m to be false1 appe> to u v gratuit\s4 ,!y are ^!2 t 9 a comp\nd p5dulum1 ! sum ( ! velocities ( ! compon5t weights is equal to ! sum ( ! velocities :i* !y w\ld h acquir$ if !y _h be5 deta*$ p5dulums2 & t ! "t ( ! vibration ( a comp\nd p5dulum is an ari?metic mean betwe5 ! times ( ! vibrations ( ! weights1 mov+ z deta*$ p5dulums4 ,huygh5s easily %[$ t ^! suppositions w\ld make ! c5tre ( gravity asc5d to a great] height ?an t f :i* x fell2 & aft] "s "t1 ,james ,b]n\lli /ept into ! ar5a1 & rang$ himself on ! side ( ,huygh5s4 ,z ! discussion ?us proce$$1 x began to be se5 t ! "q really 01 9 :at mann] ! ,?ird ,law ( ,motion 0 to be ext5d$ to cases ( indirect action2 :e!r by di/ribut+ ! action & reaction accord+ to /atical pr9ciples1 or 9 "s o!r way4 ,i propose x to ! consid]ation ( ma!maticians1 says ,b]n\lli 9 #afhf1 :at law ( ! communication ( velocity is obs]v$ by bodies 9 motion1 :i* are su/a9$ at "o extremity by a fix$ fulcrum1 & at ! o!r by a body also mov+1 b m sl[ly4 ,is ! excess ( velocity :i* mu/ be communicat$ f ! "o body to ! o!r to be di/ribut$ 9 ! same proportion 9 :i* a load support$ on ! lev] w\ld be di/ribut$8 ,he adds1 t if ?is "q be answ]$ 9 ! affirmative1 ,huygh5s w be f\nd to be 9 error2 b ?is is a mi/ake4 ,! pr9ciple1 t ! action & reaction ( bodies ?us mov+ are to be di/ribut$ accord+ to ! rules ( ! lev]1 is true2 b ,b]n\lli mi/ook1 9 e/imat+ ?is action & reaction by ! velocity acquir$ at any mom5t2 in/ead ( tak+1 z he %\ld h done1 ! increm5t ( velocity :i* gravity t5d$ to impress 9 ! next in/ant4 ,?is 0 %[n by ! ,m>quis de l',hpital2 :o adds1 ) ju/ice1 ,i conceive t ,i h ?us fully answ]$ ! call ( ,b]n\lli1 :5 he says1 ,i propose x to ! consid]ation ( ma!maticians1 c4 ,we may1 f ?is "t1 consid] z kn[n1 b n z fully e/abli%$1 ! pr9ciple t ,:5 bodies 9 motion affect ea* o!r1 ! action & reaction are di/ribut$ accord+ to ! laws ( ,/atics2 al?\gh !re 7 /ill f\nd occasional difficulties 9 ! #cei g5]alization & application ( ! role4 ,james ,b]n\lli1 9 #agjc1 gave a ,g5]al ,demon/ration ( ! ,c5tre ( ,oscillation1 drawn f ! nature ( ! ,lev]4 ,9 ?is demon/ration#daf he takes z a fundam5tal pr9ciple1 t bodies 9 motion1 connect$ by lev]s1 balance1 :5 ! products ( _! mom5ta & ! l5g?s ( ! lev]s are equal 9 opposite directions4 ,= ! pro( ( ?is proposition1 he ref]s to ,m>riotte1 :o _h ass]t$ x ( weights act+ by p]cussion1#dbf & 9 ord] to prove x1 _h balanc$ ! effect ( a weight on a lev] by ! effect ( a jet ( wat]1 & _h confirm$ x by o!r exp]im5ts4#dcf ,moreov]1 says ,b]n\lli1 !re is no "o :o d5ies x4 ,/ill1 ?is k9d ( pro( 0 h>dly satisfactory or elem5t>y en\gh4 ,john ,b]n\lli took up ! subject aft] ! dea? ( 8 bro!r ,james1 :i* happ5$ 9 #agje4 ,! =m] publi%$ 9 #agad 8 ,m$itatio de ,natur ,c5tri ,oscillationis4 ,9 ?is memoir1 he assumes1 z 8 bro!r _h done1 t ! effects ( =ces on a lev] 9 motion are di/ribut$ accord+ to ! common rules ( ! lev]4#ddf ,! pr9cipal g5]alization :i* he introduc$ 01 t he consid]$ gravity z a =ce solicit+ to motion1 :i* might h diff]5t int5sities 9 diff]5t bodies4 ,at ! same "t1 ,brook ,taylor 9 ,engl& solv$ ! problem1 ^u ! same pr9ciples z ,b]n\lli2 & ! "q ( priority on ?is subject 0 "o po9t 9 ! angry int]c\rse :i*1 ab\t ?is "t1 became common betwe5 ! ,engli% ma!maticians & ^? ( ! ,cont95t4 ,h]mann also1 9 8 ,phoronomia1 publi%$ 9 #agaf1 gave a pro( :i*1 z he in=ms u1 he _h devis$ be=e he saw ,john ,b]n\lli's4 ,?is pro( is f\nd$ on ! /atical equival5ce ( ! solicitations ( gravity & ! vic>i\s solicitations :i* correspond to ! actual motion ( ea* "p2 or1 z x has be5 express$ by m mod]n writ]s1 ! equilibrium ( ! impress$ & effective =ces4 ,note #daf3 ,op4 ii4 #icj4 ,note #dbf3 ,*oq4 des ,corps1 p4 #bif4 ,note #dcf3 ,ib4 ,prop4 xi4 ,note #ddf3 ,p4 #agb4 ,x 0 %[n by ,john ,b]n\lli & ,h]mann1 & 0 inde$ easily prov$1 t ! proposition assum$ by ,huygh5s z ! f\ndation ( 8 solution1 01 9 fact1 a consequ5ce ( ! elem5t>y pr9ciples :i* belong to ?is bran* ( me*anics4 ,b ?is assumption ( ,huygh5s 0 an example ( a m g5]al proposition1 :i* by "s ma!maticians at ?is "t _h be5 put =w>d z an orig9al & elem5t>y law2 & z a pr9ciple :i* ought to sup]s$e ! usual measure ( ! =ces ( bodies 9 motion2 ?is pr9ciple !y call$ ! ,cons]vation ( ,vis ,viva4 ,! attempt to #cfj make ?is *ange 0 ! comm5cem5t ( "o ( ! mo/ ob/9ate & curi\s ( ! controv]sies :i* =m "p ( ! hi/ory ( me*anical sci5ce4 ,! celebrat$ ,leibnitz 0 ! au?or ( ! new op9ion4 ,9 #afhf1 he publi%$1 9 ! ,leipsic ,acts1 ,a %ort ,demon/ration ( a memorable ,error ( ,desc>tes & o!rs1 conc]n+ ! natural law by :i* !y ?9k t ,god always pres]ves ! same quantity ( motion2 9 :i* !y p]v]t me*anics4 ,! pr9ciple t ! same quantity ( motion1 & !re=e ( mov+ =ce1 is always pres]v$ 9 ! _w1 foll[s f ! equality ( action & reaction2 ?\gh ,desc>tes _h1 aft] 8 fa%ion1 giv5 a !ological reason = x2 ,leibnitz all[$ t ! quantity ( mov+ =ce rema9s always ! same1 b d5i$ t ?is =ce is measur$ by ! quantity ( motion or mom5tum4 ,he ma9ta9$ t ! same =ce is requisite to raise a weight ( "o p\nd ?r\gh f\r feet1 & a weight ( f\r p\nds ?r\gh "o foot1 ?\gh ! mom5ta 9 ?is case are z "o to two4 ,?is 0 answ]$ by ! ,abb de ,conti2 :o truly obs]v$1 t all[+ ! effects 9 ! two cases to be equal1 ?is did n prove ! =ces to be equal2 s9ce ! effect1 9 ! fir/ case1 0 produc$ 9 a d\ble "t1 & !re=e x 0 q consi/5t to suppose ! =ce only half z great4 ,leibnitz1 h[ev]1 p]si/$ 9 8 innovation2 & 9 #afie laid d[n ! di/9ction betwe5 vires mortu1 or pressures1 & vires viv1 ! "n he gave to 8 own measure ( =ce4 ,he kept up a correspond5ce ) ,john ,b]n\lli1 :om he conv]t$ to 8 peculi> op9ions on ?is subject2 or r1 z ,b]n\lli says1#def made him ?9k = himself1 :i* end$ 9 8 prov+ directly t :i* ,leibnitz _h def5d$ by indirect reasons4 ,among o!r argum5ts1 he _h pret5d$ to %[ 7:at is c]ta9ly n true71 t if ! common measure ( =ces be adh]$ to1 a p]petual motion w\ld be possible4 ,x is easy to collect _m cases :i* admit ( be+ v simply & conv5i5tly reason$ ^u by means ( ! vis viva1 t is1 by tak+ ! =ce to be proportional to ! squ>e ( ! velocity1 & n to ! velocity itself4 ,?us1 9 ord] to give ! arr[ twice ! velocity1 ! b[ mu/ be f\r times z /rong2 & 9 all cases 9 :i* no acc\nt is tak5 ( ! "t ( produc+ ! effect1 we may conv5i5tly use simil> me?ods4 ,note #def3 ,op4 iii4 #dj4 ,b x 0 n till a lat] p]iod t ! "q excit$ any g5]al notice4 ,! ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,p>is 9 #agbd propos$ #cfa z a subject = _! prize diss]tation ! laws ( ! impact ( bodies4 ,b]n\lli1 z a competitor1 wrote a treatise1 ^u ,leibnitzian pr9ciples1 :i*1 ?\gh n honor$ ) ! prize1 0 pr9t$ by ! ,academy ) comm5dation4#dff ,! op9ions :i* he "h def5d$ & illu/rat$ 7 adopt$ by sev]al ma!maticians2 ! controv]sy ext5d$ f ! ma!matical to ! lit]>y _w1 at t "t m att5tive ?an usual to ma!matical disputes1 9 consequ5ce ( ! great /ruggle !n go+ on betwe5 ! ,c>tesian & ! ,newtonian sy/em4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 obvi\s t by ?is "t ! int]e/ ( ! "q1 s f> z ! progress ( ,dynamics 0 conc]n$1 0 at an end2 = ! combatants all agre$ z to ! results 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,! ,laws ( ,motion 7 n[ e/abli%$2 & ! "q 01 by means ( :at def9itions & ab/ractions c\ld !y be be/ express$2--a metaphysical1 n a physical discussion1 & !re=e "o 9 :i* ! pap] philosoph]s1 z ,galileo call$ !m1 c\ld be> a "p4 ,9 ! fir/ volume ( ! ,transactions ( ! ,academy ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 publi%$ 9 #agbh1 !re are ?ree ,leibnitzian memoirs by ,h]mann1 ,bullf+]1 & ,wolff4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,cl>ke 0 an angry assailant ( ! ,g]man op9ion1 :i* ,s',graves&e ma9ta9$4 ,9 ,france1 ,mairan attack$ ! vis viva 9 #agbh2 ) /rong & victori\s reasons1 z ! ,m>quise du ,*atelet decl>$1 9 ! fir/ edition ( h] ,treatise on ,fire4#dgf ,b %ortly aft] ?is praise 0 publi%$1 ! ,*ateau de ,cirey1 :]e ! ,m>quise usually liv$1 became a s*ool ( ,leibnitzian op9ions1 & ! resort ( ! pr9cipal p>tisans ( ! vis viva4 ,soon1 obs]ves ,mairan1 _! language 0 *ang$2 ! vis viva 0 en?ron$ by ! side ( ! monads4 ,! ,m>quise tri$ to retract or expla9 away h] praises2 %e urg$ argum5ts on ! o!r side4 ,/ill ! "q 0 n decid$2 ev5 h] fri5d ,voltaire 0 n conv]t$4 ,9 #agda he read a memoir ,on ! ,measure & ,nature ( ,mov+ ,=ces1 9 :i* he ma9ta9$ ! old op9ion4 ,f9ally1 ,d',alemb]t 9 #agdc decl>$ x to be1 z x truly 01 a m]e "q ( words2 & by ! turn :i* ,dynamics !n took1 x ceas$ to be ( any possible int]e/ or importance to ma!maticians4 ,note #dff3 ,disc\rs sur les ,loix de la ,communication du ,m\vem5t4 ,note #dgf3 ,mont4 iii4 #fdj4 ,! repres5tation ( ! laws ( motion & ( ! reason+s dep5d+ on !m1 9 ! mo/ g5]al =m1 by means ( analytical language1 _c be said to h be5 fully a*iev$ till ! "t ( ,d',alemb]t2 b z we h already se51 ! discov]y ( ^! laws #cfb _h tak5 place some:at e>li]2 & t law :i* is m p>ticul>ly express$ 9 ,d',alemb]t's ,pr9ciple 7! equality ( ! action ga9$ & lo/7 01 x has be5 se51 r l$ to by ! g5]al curr5t ( ! reason+ ( ma!maticians ab\t ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury ?an discov]$ by any "o4 ,huygh5s1 ,m>riotte1 ! two ,b]n\lli's1 ,l',hpital1 ,taylor1 & ,h]mann1 h ea* ( !m _! "n 9 ! hi/ory ( ?is advance2 b we _c ascribe to any ( !m any great real inductive sagacity %[n 9 :at !y ?us contribut$1 except to ,huygh5s1 :o fir/ seiz$ ! pr9ciple 9 su* a =m z to f9d ! c5tre ( oscillation by means ( x4 ,inde$1 9 ! /eps tak5 by ! o!rs1 language itself _h almo/ made ! g5]alization = !m at ! "t :5 !y wrote2 & x requir$ no small degree ( acut5ess & c>e to di/+ui% ! old cases1 9 :i* ! law _h already be5 appli$1 f ! new cases1 9 :i* !y _h to apply x4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,g5]alization ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,me*anics4--,,p]iod ,,( ,,ma!matical ,,d$uction4--,,analytical ,,me*anics4 ,,we h n[ f9i%$ ! hi/ory ( ! discov]y ( ,me*anical ,pr9ciples1 /rictly s call$4 ,! ?ree ,laws ( ,motion1 g5]aliz$ 9 ! mann] we h describ$1 conta9 ! mat]ials ( ! :ole /ructure ( ,me*anics2 & 9 ! rema9+ progress ( ! sci5ce1 we are l$ to no new tru? :i* 0 n implicitly involv$ 9 ^? previ\sly kn[n4 ,x may be ?\ght1 !re=e1 t ! n>rative ( ?is progress is ( comp>atively small int]e/4 ,nor d we ma9ta9 t ! application & developm5t ( pr9ciples is a matt] ( s mu* importance to ! philosophy ( sci5ce1 z ! advance t[>ds & to !m4 ,/ill1 !re are _m circum/ances 9 ! latt] /ages ( ! progress ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics1 :i* well des]ve notice1 & make a rapid survey ( t "p ( its hi/ory indisp5sable to our purpose4 ,! ,laws ( ,motion are express$ 9 t]ms ( ,space & ,numb]2 ! developm5t ( ! consequ5ces ( ^! laws mu/1 !re=e1 be p]=m$ by means ( ! reason+s ( ma!matics2 & ! sci5ce #cfc ( ,me*anics may assume ! v>i\s aspects :i* belong to ! diff]5t modes ( deal+ ) ma!matical quantities4 ,me*anics1 l pure ma!matics1 may be geometrical or may be analytical2 t is1 x may treat space ei!r by a direct consid]ation ( its prop]ties1 or by a symbolical repres5tation ( !m3 ,me*anics1 l pure ma!matics1 may proce$ f special cases1 to problems & me?ods ( extreme g5]ality2--may summon to its aid ! curi\s & ref9$ relations ( symmetry1 by :i* g5]al & complex conditions are simplifi$2--may become m p[]ful by ! discov]y ( m p[]ful analytical artifices2--may ev5 h ! g5]ality ( its pr9ciples fur!r exp&$1 inasmu* z symbols are a m g5]al language ?an words4 ,we %all v briefly notice a s]ies ( modifications ( ?is k9d4 #a4 ,geometrical ,me*anics4 ,newton1 c4--,! fir/ great sy/ematical ,treatise on ,me*anics1 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se1 is ! two fir/ ,books ( ! ,pr9cipia ( ,newton4 ,9 ?is "w1 ! me?od employ$ is pr$om9antly geometrical3 n only space is n repres5t$ symbolically1 or by ref]5ce to numb]2 b numb]s1 z1 = in/ance1 ^? :i* measure "t & =ce1 are repres5t$ by spaces2 & ! laws ( _! *anges are indicat$ by ! prop]ties ( curve l9es4 ,x is well kn[n t ,newton employ$1 by pref]5ce1 me?ods ( ?is k9d 9 ! exposition ( 8 !orems1 ev5 :]e he _h made ! discov]y ( !m by analytical calculations4 ,! intuitions ( space appe>$ to him1 z !y h appe>$ to _m ( 8 foll[]s1 to be a m cle> & satisfactory road to k1 ?an ! op]ations ( symbolical language4 ,h]mann1 ^: ,phoronomia 0 ! next great "w on ?is subject1 pursu$ a l c\rse2 employ+ curves1 :i* he calls ! scale ( velocities1 ( =ces1 c4 ,me?ods ne>ly simil> 7 employ$ by ! two fir/ ,b]n\llis1 & o!r ma!maticians ( t p]iod2 & 71 inde$1 s long famili>1 t ! influ5ce ( !m may /ill be trac$ 9 "s ( ! t]ms :i* are us$ on su* subjects2 z1 = in/ance1 :5 we talk ( r$uc+ a problem to quadratures1 t is1 to ! f9d+ ! area ( ! curves employ$ 9 ^! me?ods4 #b4 ,analytical ,me*anics4 ,eul]4--,z analysis 0 m cultivat$1 x ga9$ a pr$om9ancy ov] geometry2 be+ f\nd to be a f> m p[]ful in/rum5t = obta9+ results2 & possess+ a beauty & an evid5ce1 :i*1 ?\gh diff]5t f ^? ( geometry1 _h great attractions = m9ds to :i* !y became famili>4 ,! p]son :o did mo/ to give to analysis ! g5]ality & #cfd symmetry :i* are n[ its pride1 0 also ! p]son :o made ,me*anics analytical2 ,i mean ,eul]4 ,he began 8 execution ( ?is task 9 v>i\s memoirs :i* appe>$ 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces at ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 comm5c+ ) its e>lie/ volumes2 & 9 #agcf1 he publi%$ !re 8 ,me*anics1 or ! ,sci5ce ( ,motion analytically exp\nd$2 9 ! way ( a ,supplem5t to ! ,transactions ( ! ,imp]ial ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,9 ! preface to ?is "w1 he says1 t ?\gh ! solutions ( problems by ,newton & ,h]mann 7 q satisfactory1 yet he f\nd t he _h a difficulty 9 apply+ !m to new problems1 diff]+ little f !irs2 & t1 !re=e1 he ?\ght x w\ld be useful to extract an analysis out ( _! syn!sis4 #c4 ,me*anical ,problems4--,9 reality1 h[ev]1 ,eul] has done mu* m ?an m]ely give analytical me?ods1 :i* may be appli$ to me*anical problems3 he has himself appli$ su* me?ods to an imm5se numb] ( cases4 ,8 transc5d5t ma!matical p[]s1 8 long & /udi\s life1 & ! int]e/ ) :i* he pursu$ ! subject1 l$ him to solve an almo/ inconceivable numb] & v>iety ( me*anical problems4 ,su* problems sugge/$ !mselves to him on all occasions4 ,"o ( 8 memoirs beg9s1 by /at+ t1 happ5+ to ?9k ( ! l9e ( ,virgil1 ,an*ora de pror jacitur /ant litore puppes2 ,! an*or drops1 ! ru%+ keel is /aid2 he c\ld n help inquir+ :at w\ld be ! nature ( ! %ip's motion "u ! circum/ances "h describ$4 ,& 9 ! la/ few days ( 8 life1 aft] 8 mortal illness _h begun1 hav+ se5 9 ! newspap]s "s /atem5ts respect+ balloons1 he proce$$ to calculate _! motions2 & p]=m$ a difficult integration1 9 :i* ?is und]tak+ engag$ him4 ,8 ,memoirs occupy a v l>ge portion ( ! ,petropolitan ,transactions dur+ 8 life1 f #agbh to #aghc2 & he decl>$ t he %\ld leave pap]s :i* might enri* ! publications ( ! ,academy ( ,pet]sburg = tw5ty ye>s aft] 8 dea?2--a promise :i* has be5 m ?an fulfill$2 =1 up to #ahah1 ! volumes usually conta9 sev]al ,memoirs ( 84 ,he & 8 contempor>ies may be said to h exhau/$ ! subject2 = !re are few me*anical problems :i* h be5 s9ce treat$1 :i* !y h n 9 "s mann] t\*$ ^u4 ,i d n dwell ^u ! details ( su* problems2 = ! next great /ep 9 ,analytical ,me*anics1 ! publication ( ,d',alemb]t's #cfe ,pr9ciple 9 #agdc1 9 a great degree sup]s$$ _! int]e/4 ,! ,transactions ( ! ,academies ( ,p>is & ,b]l91 z well z ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 are fill$1 up to ?is "t1 ) v>i\s que/ions ( ?is k9d4 ,!y require1 = ! mo/ "p1 ! det]m9ation ( ! motions ( sev]al bodies1 ) or )\t weight1 :i* pull or pu% ea* o!r by means ( ?reads1 or lev]s1 to :i* !y are fa/5$1 or along :i* !y c slide2 & :i*1 hav+ a c]ta9 impulse giv5 !m at fir/1 are !n left to !mselves1 or are compell$ to move 9 giv5 l9es & surfaces4 ,! po/ulate ( ,huygh5s1 respect+ ! motion ( ! c5tre ( gravity1 0 g5]ally "o ( ! pr9ciples ( ! solution2 b o!r pr9ciples 7 always ne$$ 9 addition to ?is2 & x requir$ ! ex]cise ( +5uity & skill to detect ! mo/ suitable 9 ea* case4 ,su* problems 71 = "s "t1 a sort ( trial ( /r5g? among ma!maticians3 ! pr9ciple ( ,d',alemb]t put an end to ?is k9d ( *all5ges1 by supply+ a direct & g5]al me?od ( resolv+1 or at lea/ ( ?r[+ into equations1 any imag9able problem4 ,! me*anical difficulties 7 9 ?is way r$uc$ to difficulties ( pure ma!matics4 #d4 ,d',alemb]t's ,pr9ciple4--,d',alemb]t's ,pr9ciple is only ! expression1 9 ! mo/ g5]al =m1 ( ! pr9ciple ^u :i* ,john ,b]n\lli1 ,h]mann1 & o!rs1 _h solv$ ! problem ( ! c5tre ( oscillation4 ,x 0 ?us /at$1 ,! motion impress$ on ea* p>ticle ( any sy/em by ! =ces :i* act ^u x1 may be resolv$ into two1 ! effective motion1 & ! motion ga9$ or lo/3 ! effective motions w be ! real motions ( ! p>ts1 & ! motions ga9$ & lo/ w be su* z w\ld keep ! sy/em at re/4 ,! di/9ction ( /atics1 ! doctr9e ( equilibrium1 & dynamics1 ! doctr9e ( motion1 01 z we h se51 fundam5tal2 & ! diff]5ce ( difficulty & complexity 9 ! two subjects 0 well und]/ood1 & g5]ally recogniz$ by ma!maticians4 ,d',alemb]t's pr9ciple r$uces e dynamical "q to a /atical "o2 & h5ce1 by means ( ! conditions :i* connect ! possible motions ( ! sy/em1 we c det]m9e :at ! actual motions mu/ be4 ,! difficulty ( det]m9+ ! laws ( equilibrium1 9 ! application ( ?is pr9ciple 9 complex cases is1 h[ev]1 (t5 z great z if we apply m simple & direct consid]ations4 #e4 ,motion 9 ,resi/+ ,m$ia4 ,balli/ics4--,we %all notice m p>ticul>ly ! hi/ory ( "s ( ! problems ( me*anics4 ,?\gh ,john ,b]n\lli always spoke ) admiration ( ,newton's ,pr9cipia1 & ( its au?or1 he appe>s to h be5 well dispos$ to po9t out #cff real or imag9$ blemi%es 9 ! "w4 ,aga9/ ! validity ( ,newton's det]m9ation ( ! pa? describ$ by a body project$ 9 any "p ( ! sol> sy/em1 ,b]n\lli urges a cavil :i* x is difficult to conceive t a ma!matician1 su* z he 01 c\ld s]i\sly believe to be well f\nd$4 ,on ,newton's det]m9ation ( ! pa? ( a body 9 a resi/+ m$ium1 8 criticism is m j4 ,he po9t$ out a mat]ial error 9 ?is solution3 ?is correction came to ,newton's k 9 ,london1 9 ,octob]1 #agab1 :5 ! impression ( ! second edition ( ! ,pr9cipia 0 j draw+ to a close1 "u ! c>e ( ,cotes at ,cambridge2 & ,newton imm$iately cancell$ ! leaf & correct$ ! error4#dhf ,note #dhf3 ,,ms4 ,correspond5ce 9 ,tr94 ,coll4 ,libr>y4 ,?is problem ( ! motion ( a body 9 a resi/+ m$ium1 l$ to ano!r collision betwe5 ! ,engli% & ! ,g]man ma!maticians4 ,! proposition to :i* we h ref]r$1 gave only an indirect view ( ! nature ( ! curve describ$ by a projectile 9 ! air2 & x is probable t ,newton1 :5 he wrote ! ,pr9cipia1 did n see 8 way to any direct & complete solution ( ?is problem4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 9 #agah1 :5 ! qu>rel _h wax$ hot betwe5 ! admir]s ( ,newton & ,leibnitz1 ,keill1 :o _h come =w>d z a *ampion on ! ,engli% side1 propos$ ?is problem to ! =eign]s z a *all5ge4 ,keill probably imag9$ t :at ,newton _h n discov]$1 no "o ( 8 "t w\ld be able to discov]4 ,b ! s$ul\s cultivation ( analysis by ! ,g]mans _h giv5 !m ma!matical p[]s beyond ! expectations ( ! ,engli%2 :o1 :atev] might be _! tal5ts1 _h made little advance 9 ! effective use ( g5]al me?ods2 & = a long p]iod seem$ to be fasc9at$ to ! spot1 9 _! admiration ( ,newton's excell5ce4 ,b]n\lli spe$ily solv$ ! problem2 & reasonably en\gh1 accord+ to ! law ( honor ( su* *all5ges1 call$ ^u ! *all5g] to produce 8 solution4 ,keill 0 unable to d ?is2 & aft] "s attempts at procra/9ation1 0 driv5 to v paltry evasions4 ,b]n\lli !n publi%$ 8 solution1 ) v j expressions ( scorn t[>ds 8 antagoni/4 ,& ?is may1 p]haps1 be consid]$ z ! fir/ mat]ial addition :i* 0 made to ! ,pr9cipia by subsequ5t writ]s4 #f4 ,con/ellation ( ,ma!maticians4--,we pass ) admiration along ! great s]ies ( ma!maticians1 by :om ! sci5ce ( !oretical me*anics has be5 cultivat$1 f ! "t ( ,newton to our own4 ,!re is no gr\p ( m5 ( sci5ce ^: fame is #cfg high] or bright]4 ,! great discov]ies ( ,cop]nicus1 ,galileo1 ,newton1 _h fix$ all eyes on ^? portions ( human k on :i* _! successors employ$ _! labors4 ,! c]ta9ty belong+ to ?is l9e ( speculation seem$ to elevate ma!maticians above ! /ud5ts ( o!r subjects2 & ! beauty ( ma!matical relations1 & ! subtlety ( intellect :i* may be %[n 9 deal+ ) !m1 7 fitt$ to w9 unb\nd$ applause4 ,! successors ( ,newton & ! ,b]n\llis1 z ,eul]1 ,clairaut1 ,d',alemb]t1 ,lagrange1 ,laplace1 n to introduce liv+ names1 h be5 "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable m5 ( tal5t :i* ! _w has se54 ,t _! tal5t is1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( a diff]5t k9d f t by :i* ! laws ( nature 7 discov]$1 ,i %all h occasion to expla9 else:]e2 = ! pres5t1 ,i mu/ endeavor to arrange ! pr9cipal a*ievem5ts ( ^? :om ,i h m5tion$4 ,! s]ies ( p]sons is connect$ by social relations4 ,eul] 0 ! pupil ( ! fir/ g5]ation ( ,b]n\llis1 & ! intimate fri5d ( ! second g5]ation2 & all ^! extraord9>y m51 z well z ,h]mann1 7 ( ! city ( ,basil1 9 t age a spot f]tile ( great ma!maticians to an unp>allel$ degree4 ,9 #agdj1 ,clairaut & ,maup]tuis visit$ ,john ,b]n\lli1 at t "t ! ,ne/or ( ma!maticians1 :o di$1 full ( age & honors1 9 #agdh4 ,eul]1 sev]al ( ! ,b]n\llis1 ,maup]tuis1 ,lagrange1 among o!r ma!maticians ( small] note1 7 call$ into ! nor? by ,ca?>9e ( ,russia & ,fr$]ic ( ,prussia1 to inspire & in/ruct academies :i* ! brilliant fame !n atta*$ to sci5ce1 _h induc$ ^? mon>*s to e/abli%4 ,! prizes propos$ by ^! societies1 & by ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 gave occasion to _m ( ! mo/ valuable ma!matical works ( ! c5tury4 #g4 ,! ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies4--,9 #agdg1 ,clairaut & ,d',alemb]t s5t1 on ! same day1 to ?is body1 _! solutions ( ! celebrat$ ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies1 :i*1 f t "t1 became ! great object ( att5tion ( ma!maticians2--! b[ 9 :i* ea* tri$ 8 /r5g?1 & endeavor$ to %oot fur!r ?an 8 pr$ecessors4 ,?is problem 01 9 fact1 ! a/ronomical "q ( ! effect produc$ by ! attraction ( ! sun1 9 di/urb+ ! motions ( ! moon ab\t ! e>?2 or by ! attraction ( "o planet1 di/urb+ ! motion ( ano!r planet ab\t ! sun2 b be+ express$ g5]ally1 z ref]r+ to "o body :i* di/urbs any two o!rs1 x became a me*anical problem1 & ! hi/ory ( x belongs to ! pres5t subject4 #cfh ,"o consequ5ce ( ! syn!tical =m adopt$ by ,newton 9 ! ,pr9cipia1 01 t 8 successors _h ! problem ( ! sol> sy/em to beg9 entirely anew4 ,^? :o w\ld n d ?is1 made no progress1 z 0 long ! case ) ! ,engli%4 ,clairaut says1 t he tri$ = a long "t to make "s use ( ,newton's labors2 b t1 at la/1 he resolv$ to take up ! subject 9 an indep5d5t mann]4 ,?is1 accord+ly1 he did1 us+ analysis ?r\gh\t1 & foll[+ me?ods n mu* diff]5t f ^? /ill employ$4 ,we d n n[ speak ( ! comp>ison ( ?is !ory ) obs]vation1 except to rem>k1 t bo? by ! agreem5ts & by ! discrepancies ( ?is comp>ison1 ,clairaut & o!r writ]s 7 p]petually driv5 on to c>ry =w>ds ! calculation to a great] & great] degree ( accuracy4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important ( ! cases 9 :i* ?is happ5$1 0 t ( ! movem5t ( ! ,apogee ( ! ,moon2 & 9 ?is case1 a mode ( approximat+ to ! tru?1 :i* _h be5 dep5d$ on z ne>ly exact1 01 aft] hav+ caus$ great p]plexity1 f\nd by ,clairaut & ,eul] to give only half ! tru?4 ,?is same ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies 0 ! occasion ( a memoir ( ,clairaut1 :i* ga9$ ! prize ( ! ,academy ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg 9 #agea2 &1 f9ally1 ( 8 ,?orie de la ,lune1 publi%$ 9 #agfe4 ,d',alemb]t labor$ at ! same "t on ! same problem2 & ! value ( _! me?ods1 & ! m]it ( ! inv5tors1 unhappily became a subject ( controv]sy betwe5 ^? two great ma!maticians4 ,eul] also1 9 #agec1 publi%$ a ,!ory ( ! ,moon1 :i* 01 p]haps1 m useful ?an ei!r ( ! o!rs1 s9ce x 0 aft]w>ds ! basis ( ,may]'s me?od1 & ( 8 ,tables4 ,x is difficult to give ! g5]al read] any di/9ct notion ( ^! solutions4 ,we may obs]ve1 t ! quantities :i* det]m9e ! moon's position1 are to be det]m9$ by means ( c]ta9 algebraical equations1 :i* express ! me*anical conditions ( ! motion4 ,! op]ation1 by :i* ! result is to be obta9$1 involves ! process ( integration2 :i*1 9 ?is in/ance1 _c be p]=m$ 9 an imm$iate & def9ite mann]2 s9ce ! quantities ?us to be op]at$ on dep5d ^u ! moon's position1 & ?us require u to "k ! v ?+ :i* we h to det]m9e by ! op]ation4 ,! result mu/ be got at1 !re=e1 by successive approximations3 we mu/ fir/ f9d a quantity ne> ! tru?2 & !n1 by ! help ( ?is1 "o ne>] /ill2 & s on2 &1 9 ?is mann]1 ! moon's place w be giv5 by a conv]g+ s]ies ( t]ms4 ,! =m ( ^! t]ms dep5ds ^u ! relations ( position betwe5 ! sun #cfi & moon1 _! apogees1 ! moon's nodes1 & o!r quantities2 & by ! v>iety ( comb9ations ( :i* ^! admit1 ! t]ms become v num]\s & complex4 ,! magnitude ( ! t]ms dep5ds also ^u v>i\s circum/ances2 z ! relative =ce ( ! sun & e>?1 ! relative times ( ! sol> & lun> revolutions1 ! ecc5tricities & incl9ations ( ! two orbits4 ,^! are comb9$ s z to give t]ms ( diff]5t ord]s ( magnitudes2 & x dep5ds ^u ! skill & p]sev]ance ( ! ma!matician h[ f> he w cont9ue ?is s]ies ( t]ms4 ,= !re is no limit to _! numb]3 & ?\gh ! me?ods ( :i* we h spok5 d !oretically enable u to calculate z _m t]ms z we please1 ! labor & ! complexity ( ! op]ations are s s]i\s t common calculators are /opp$ by !m4 ,none b v great ma!maticians h be5 able to walk safely any consid]able di/ance into ?is av5ue1--s rapidly does x d>k5 z we proce$4 ,& ev5 ! possibility ( do+ :at has be5 done1 dep5ds ^u :at we may call accid5tal circum/ances2 ! smallness ( ! incl9ations & ecc5tricities ( ! sy/em1 & ! l4 ,if nature _h n favor$ u 9 ?is way1 ,lagrange us$ to say1 !re w\ld h be5 an end ( ! geomet]s 9 ?is problem4 ,! expect$ return ( ! comet ( #afhb 9 #agei1 gave a new int]e/ to ! problem1 & ,clairaut proce$$ to calculate ! case :i* 0 ?us sugge/$4 ,:5 ?is 0 treat$ by ! me?ods :i* _h succe$$ = ! moon1 x (f]$ no prospect ( success1 9 consequ5ce ( ! abs5ce ( ! favorable circum/ances j ref]r$ to1 &1 accord+ly1 ,clairaut1 aft] obta9+ ! six equations to :i* he r$uces ! solution1#dif adds1 ,integrate !m :o c 7,intgre ma9t5ant qui p\rra74 ,new me?ods ( approximation 7 devis$ = ?is case4 ,note #dif3 ,j\rnal des ,savans1 ,aug4 #agei4 ,! problem ( ?ree bodies 0 n prosecut$ 9 consequ5ce ( its analytical beauty1 or its intr9sic attraction2 b its great difficulties 7 ?us resolutely combat$ f necessity2 because 9 no o!r way c\ld ! !ory ( univ]sal gravitation be kn[n to be true or made to be useful4 ,! con/ruction ( ,tables ( ! ,moon1 an object :i* (f]$ a l>ge pecuni>y rew>d1 z well z ma!matical glory1 to ! successful adv5tur]1 0 ! ma9 purpose ( ^! labors4 ,! ,!ory ( ! ,planets pres5t$ ! ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies 9 a new =m1 & involv$ 9 peculi> difficulties2 = ! #cgj approximations :i* succe$ 9 ! ,lun> !ory fail "h4 ,artifices some:at modifi$ are requir$ to ov]come ! difficulties ( ?is case4 ,eul] _h inve/igat$1 9 p>ticul>1 ! motions ( ,jupit] & ,saturn1 9 :i* !re 0 a secul> accel]ation & ret>dation1 kn[n by obs]vation1 b n easily explicable by !ory4 ,eul]'s memoirs1 :i* ga9$ ! prize ( ! ,fr5* ,academy1 9 #agdh & #ageb1 conta9$ mu* beautiful analysis2 & ,lagrange publi%$ also a !ory ( ,jupit] & ,saturn1 9 :i* he obta9$ results diff]5t f ^? ( ,eul]4 ,laplace1 9 #aghg1 %[$ t ?is inequality arose f ! circum/ance t two ( ,saturn's ye>s are v ne>ly equal to five ( ,jupit]'s4 ,! problems relat+ to ,jupit]'s ,satellites1 7 f\nd to be ev5 m complex ?an ^? :i* ref] to ! planets3 = x 0 necess>y to consid] ea* satellite z di/urb$ by ! o!r ?ree at once2 & ?us !re occurr$ ! ,problem ( ,five ,bodies4 ,?is problem 0 resolv$ by ,lagrange4#ejf ,note #ejf3 ,bailly1 ,a/4 ,mod4 iii4 #agh4 ,aga91 ! newly-discov]$ small ,planets1 ,juno1 ,c]es1 ,ve/a1 ,pallas1 ^: orbits almo/ co9cide ) ea* o!r1 & are m incl9$ & m ecc5tric ?an ^? ( ! anci5t planets1 give rise1 by _! p]turbations1 to new =ms ( ! problem1 & require new artifices4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! rese>*es respect+ ,jupit]1 ,lagrange & ,laplace 7 l$ to consid] p>ticul>ly ! secul> ,inequalities ( ! sol> sy/em2 t is1 ^? inequalities 9 :i* ! duration ( ! cycle ( *ange embraces v _m revolutions ( ! bodies !mselves4 ,eul] 9 #agdi & #agee1 & ,lagrange#eaf 9 #agff1 _h introduc$ ! me?od ( ! ,v>iation ( ! ,elem5ts ( ! orbit2 :i* consi/s 9 trac+ ! effect ( ! p]turb+ =ces1 n z directly alt]+ ! place ( ! planet1 b z produc+ a *ange f "o in/ant to ano!r1 9 ! dim5sions & position ( ! ,elliptical orbit :i* ! planet describes4#ebf ,tak+ ?is view1 he #cga det]m9es ! secul> *anges ( ea* ( ! elem5ts or det]m9+ quantities ( ! orbit4 ,9 #aggc1 ,laplace also attack$ ?is subject ( secul> *anges1 & obta9$ expressions = !m4 ,on ?is occasion1 he prov$ ! celebrat$ proposition t1 ! mean motions ( ! planets are inv>iable3 t is1 t !re is1 9 ! revolutions ( ! sy/em1 no progressive *ange :i* is n f9ally /opp$ & rev]s$2 no increase1 :i* is n1 aft] "s p]iod1 *ang$ into decrease2 no ret>dation :i* is n at la/ succe$$ by accel]ation2 al?\gh1 9 "s cases1 millions ( ye>s may elapse be=e ! sy/em rea*es ! turn+-po9t4 ,?omas ,simpson notic$ ! same consequ5ce ( ! laws ( univ]sal attraction4 ,9 #aggd & #aggf1 ,lagrange#ecf /ill labor$ at ! secul> equations2 ext5d+ 8 rese>*es to ! nodes & incl9ations2 & %[$ t ! inv>iability ( ! mean motions ( ! planets1 :i* ,laplace _h prov$1 neglect+ ! f\r? p[]s ( ! ecc5tricities & incl9ations ( ! orbits1#edf 0 true1 h[ev] f> ! approximation 0 c>ri$1 s long z ! squ>es ( ! di/urb+ masses 7 neglect$4 ,he aft]w>ds improv$ 8 me?ods2#eef &1 9 #aghc1 he endeavor$ to ext5d ! calculation ( ! *anges ( ! elem5ts to ! p]iodical equations1 z well z ! secul>4 ,note #eaf3 ,gauti]1 ,prob4 de ,trois ,corps1 p4 #aee4 ,note #ebf3 ,9 ! fir/ edition ( ?is ,hi/ory1 ,i _h ascrib$ to ,lagrange ! inv5tion ( ! ,me?od ( ,v>iation ( ,elem5ts 9 ! !ory ( ,p]turbations4 ,b ju/ice to ,eul] requires t we %\ld assign ?is di/9ction to him2 at lea/1 next to ,newton1 ^: mode ( repres5t+ ! pa?s ( bodies by means ( a ,revolv+ ,orbit1 9 ! ,n9? ,section ( ! ,pr9cipia1 may be consid]$ z an anticipation ( ! me?od ( v>iation ( elem5ts4 ,9 ! fif? volume ( ! ,mcanique ,cle/e1 livre xv4 p4 #cje1 is an ab/ract ( ,eul]'s pap] ( #agdi2 :]e ,laplace adds1 ,c'e/ le premi] essai de la m?ode de la v>iation des con/antes arbitraires4 ,& 9 page #caj is an ab/ract ( ! pap] ( #agef3 & speak+ ( ! me?od1 ,laplace says1 ,x consi/s 9 reg>d+ ! elem5ts ( ! elliptical motion z v>iable 9 virtue ( ! p]turb+ =ces4 ,^? elem5ts are1 #a1 ! axis major2 #b1 ! epo* ( ! body be+ at ! apse2 #c1 ! ecc5tricity2 #d1 ! movem5t ( ! apse2 #e1 ! incl9ation2 #f1 ! longitude ( ! node2 & he !n proce$s to %[ h[ ,eul] did ?is4 ,x is possible t ,lagrange knew no?+ ( ,eul]'s pap]4 ,see ,mc4 ,cl4 vol4 v4 p4 #cab4 ,b ,eul]'s conception & treatm5t ( ! me?od are complete1 s t he mu/ be look$ ^u z ! au?or ( x4 ,note #ecf3 ,gauti]1 p4 #ajd4 ,note #edf3 ,ib4 p4 #ahd4 ,note #eef3 ,ib4 p4 #aif4 #h4 ,mcanique ,cle/e1 c4--,laplace also resum$ ! consid]ation ( ! secul> *anges2 &1 f9ally1 und]took 8 va/ "w1 ! ,mcanique ,cle/e1 :i* he int5d$ to conta9 a complete view ( ! exi/+ /ate ( ?is spl5did dep>tm5t ( sci5ce4 ,we may see1 9 ! exultation :i* ! au?or obvi\sly feels at ! ?\ght ( erect+ ?is monum5t ( 8 age1 ! en?usiasm :i* _h be5 excit$ by ! spl5did c\rse ( ma!matical successes ( :i* ,i h giv5 a sket*4 ,! two fir/ volumes ( ?is great "w appe>$ 9 #agii4 ,! ?ird & f\r? volumes 7 publi%$ 9 #ahjb & #ahje respectively4 ,s9ce its publication1 little has be5 add$ to ! solution ( ! great problems ( :i* x treats4 ,9 #ahjh1 ,laplace pres5t$ to ! ,fr5* ,bureau des ,longitudes1 a ,supplem5t to ! ,mcanique ,cle/e2 ! object ( :i* 0 to improve /ill fur!r #cgb ! mode ( obta9+ ! secul> v>iations ( ! elem5ts4 ,poisson & ,lagrange prov$ ! inv>iability ( ! major axes ( ! orbits1 z f> z ! second ord] ( ! p]turb+ =ces4 ,v>i\s o!r au?ors h s9ce labor$ at ?is subject4 ,burckh>dt1 9 #ahjh1 ext5d$ ! p]turb+ function z f> z ! six? ord] ( ! ecc5tricities4 ,gauss1 ,hans51 & ,bessel1 ,ivory1 ,,mm4 ,lubbock1 ,plana1 ,pontc\lant1 & ,airy1 h1 at diff]5t p]iods up to ! pres5t "t1 ei!r ext5d$ or illu/rat$ "s p>ticul> "p ( ! !ory1 or appli$ x to special cases2 z 9 ! in/ance ( ,pr(essor ,airy's calculation ( an inequality ( ,v5us & ! e>?1 ( :i* ! p]iod is #bdj ye>s4 ,! approximation ( ! ,moon's motions has be5 pu%$ to an almo/ incr$ible ext5t by ,m4 ,damoiseau1 &1 f9ally1 ,plana has once m attempt$ to pres5t1 9 a s+le "w 7?ree ?ick qu>to volumes71 all t has hi!rto be5 execut$ ) reg>d to ! !ory ( ! ,moon4 ,i give only ! lead+ po9ts ( ! progress ( analytical dynamics4 ,h5ce ,i h n spok5 9 detail ( ! !ory ( ! ,satellites ( ,jupit]1 a subject on :i* ,lagrange ga9$ a prize = a ,memoir1 9 #agff1 & 9 :i* ,laplace discov]$ "s mo/ curi\s prop]ties 9 #aghd4 ,/ill less h ,i ref]r$ to ! purely speculative "q ( ,tauto*ron\s ,curves 9 a resi/+ m$ium1 ?\gh x 0 a subject ( ! labors ( ,b]n\lli1 ,eul]1 ,fonta9e1 ,d',alemb]t1 ,lagrange1 & ,laplace4 ,! read] w rightly suppose t _m o!r curi\s inve/igations are pass$ ov] 9 utt] sil5ce4 #b;d ,ed4 ,al?\gh ! analytical calculations ( ! great ma!maticians ( ! la/ c5tury _h det]m9$1 9 a demon/rative mann]1 a va/ s]ies ( inequalities to :i* ! motions ( ! sun1 moon1 & planets 7 subject 9 virtue ( _! mutual attraction1 !re 7 /ill unsatisfactory po9ts 9 ! solutions ?us giv5 ( ! great me*anical problems sugge/$ by ! ,sy/em ( ! ,univ]se4 ,"o ( ^! po9ts 0 ! want ( any evid5t me*anical significance 9 ! successive memb]s ( ^! s]ies4 ,l9d5au relates t ,lagrange1 ne> ! end ( 8 life1 express$ 8 sorr[ t ! me?ods ( approximation employ$ 9 ,physical ,a/ronomy re/$ on arbitr>y processes1 & n on any insight into ! results ( me*anical action4 ,b some?+ 0 subsequ5tly done to remove ! gr\nd ( ?is compla9t4 ,9 #ahah1 ,gauss po9t$ out t secul> equations may be conceiv$ to result f ! di/urb+ body be+ di/ribut$ along its orbit s z to =m a r+1 & ?us made ! result conceivable m di/9ctly ?an z a m]e result ( calculation4 ,& x appe>s #cgc to me t ,pr(essor ,airy's treatise entitl$ ,gravitation1 publi%$ at ,cambridge 9 #ahcd1 is ( great value 9 supply+ simil> modes ( conception ) reg>d to ! me*anical orig9 ( _m ( ! pr9cipal inequalities ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,bessel 9 #ahbd1 & ,hans5 9 #ahbh1 publi%$ works :i* are consid]$ z belong+1 along ) ^? ( ,gauss1 to a new era 9 physical a/ronomy4#eff ,gauss's ,!oria ,motuum ,corporum ,cele/ium1 :i* _h ,lal&e's m$al assign$ to x by ! ,fr5* ,in/itute1 _h already 7#ahaj7 resolv$ all problems conc]n+ ! det]m9ation ( ! place ( a planet or comet 9 its orbit 9 function ( ! elem5ts4 ,! value ( ,hans5's labors respect+ ! ,p]turbations ( ! ,planets 0 recogniz$ by ! ,a/ronomical ,society ( ,london1 :i* aw>d$ to !m its gold m$al4 ,note #eff3 ,abh&4 d] ,akad4 d4 ,wiss5s*4 zu ,b]l94 #ahbd2 & ,disquisitiones circa ,!oriam ,p]turbationum4 ,see ,jahn4 ,ges*4 d] ,a/ron4 p4 #hd4 ,! inve/igations ( ,m4 ,damoiseau1 & ( ,,mm4 ,plana & ,c>l9i1 on ! ,problem ( ! ,lun> ,!ory1 foll[$ ne>ly ! same c\rse z ^? ( _! pr$ecessors4 ,9 ^!1 z 9 ! ,mcanique ,cle/e & 9 prec$+ works on ! same subject1 ! ,moon's co-ord9ates 7"t1 radius vector1 & latitude7 7 express$ 9 function ( h] true longitude4 ,! integrations 7 effect$ 9 s]ies1 & !n by rev]sion ( ! s]ies1 ! longitude 0 express$ 9 function ( ! "t2 & !n 9 ! same mann] ! o!r two co-ord9ates4 ,b ,sir ,john ,lubbock & ,m4 ,pontc\lant h made ! mean longitude ( ! moon1 t is1 ! "t1 ! indep5d5t v>iable1 & h express$ ! moon's co-ord9ates 9 t]ms ( s9es & cos9es ( angles increas+ proportionally to ! "t4 ,& ?is me?od has be5 adopt$ by ,m4 ,poisson 7,mem4 ,in/4 xiii4 #ahce1 p4 #bab74 ,m4 ,damoiseau1 l ,laplace & ,clairaut1 _h d$uc$ ! successive coeffici5ts ( ! lun> inequalities by num]ical equations4 ,b ,m4 ,plana expresses explicitly ea* coeffici5t 9 g5]al t]ms ( ! lett]s express+ ! con/ants ( ! problem1 arrang+ !m accord+ to ! ord] ( ! quantities1 & sub/itut+ numb]s at ! end ( ! op]ation only4 ,by att5d+ to ?is arrangem5t1 ,,mm4 ,lubbock & ,pontc\lant h v]ifi$ or correct$ a l>ge portion ( ! t]ms conta9$ 9 ! inve/igations ( ,,mm4 ,damoiseau & ,plana4 ,sir ,john ,lubbock has calculat$ ! pol> co-ord9ates ( ! ,moon directly2 ,m4 ,poisson1 on ! o!r h&1 has obta9$ ! v>iable elliptical elem5ts2 ,m4 ,pontc\lant conceives t ! me?od ( v>iation or arbitr>y #cgd con/ants may mo/ conv5i5tly be res]v$ = secul> inequalities & inequalities ( long p]iods4 ,,mm4 ,lubbock & ,pontc\lant h made ! mode ( treat+ ! ,lun> ,!ory & ! ,planet>y ,!ory agree ) ea* o!r1 in/ead ( foll[+ two diff]5t pa?s 9 ! calculation ( ! two problems1 :i* _h previ\sly be5 done4 ,pr(4 ,hans51 also1 9 8 ,fundam5ta ,nova ,inve/igationis ,orbit v] quam ,luna p]lu/rat 7,go?1 #ahch71 gives a g5]al me?od1 includ+ ! ,lun> ,!ory & ! ,planet>y ,!ory z two special cases4 ,to ?is is annex$ a solution ( ! ,problem ( ,f\r ,bodies4 ,i am "h speak+ ( ! ,lun> & ,planet>y ,!ories z ,me*anical ,problems only4 ,connect$ ) ?is subject1 ,i w n omit to notice a v g5]al & beautiful me?od ( solv+ problems respect+ ! motion ( sy/ems 9999( mutually attract+ bodies1 giv5 by ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,hamilton1 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahcd-e 7,on a ,g5]al ,me?od 9 ,dynamics74 ,8 me?od consi/s 9 inve/igat+ ! ,pr9cipal ,function ( ! co-ord9ates ( ! bodies3 ?is function be+ "o1 by ! diff]5tiation ( :i*1 ! co-ord9ates ( ! bodies ( ! sy/em may be f\nd4 ,moreov]1 an approximate value ( ?is function be+ obta9$1 ! same =mul supply a means ( successive approximation )\t limit4 #i4 ,precession4 ,motion ( ,rigid ,bodies4--,! s]ies ( inve/igations ( :i* ,i h spok51 ext5sive & complex z x is1 treats ! mov+ bodies z po9ts only1 & takes no acc\nt ( any peculi>ity ( _! =m or motion ( _! p>ts4 ,! inve/igation ( ! motion ( a body ( any magnitude & =m1 is ano!r bran* ( analytical me*anics1 :i* well des]ves notice4 ,l ! =m] bran*1 x ma9ly ow$ its cultivation to ! problems sugge/$ by ! sol> sy/em4 ,newton1 z we h se51 endeavor$ to calculate ! effect ( ! attraction ( ! sun & moon 9 produc+ ! precession ( ! equ9oxes2 b 9 do+ ?is he made "s mi/akes4 ,9 #agdg1 ,d',alemb]t solv$ ?is problem by ! aid ( 8 ,pr9ciple2 & x 0 n difficult = him to %[1 z he did 9 8 ,opuscules1 9 #agfa1 t ! same me?od enabl$ him to det]m9e ! motion ( a body ( any figure act$ ^u by any =ces4 ,b1 z ! read] w h obs]v$ 9 ! c\rse ( ?is n>rative1 ! great ma!maticians ( ?is p]iod 7 always ne>ly abrea/ ( ea* o!r 9 _! advances4--,eul]1#egf 9 ! mean "t1 _h publi%$1 9 #agea1 a solution ( ! #cge problem ( ! precession2 & 9 #ageb1 a memoir :i* he entitl$ ,discov]y ( a ,new ,pr9ciple ( ,me*anics1 & :i* conta9s a solution ( ! g5]al problem ( ! alt]ation ( rot>y motion by =ces4 ,d',alemb]t notic$ ) disapprobation ! assumption ( priority :i* ?is title impli$1 ?\gh all[+ ! m]it ( ! memoir4 ,v>i\s improvem5ts 7 made 9 ^! solutions2 b ! f9al =m 0 giv5 !m by ,eul]2 & !y 7 appli$ to a great v>iety ( problems 9 8 ,!ory ( ! ,motion ( ,solid & ,rigid ,bodies1 :i* 0 writt5#ehf ab\t #agfj1 & publi%$ 9 #agfe4 ,! =mul 9 ?is "w 7 mu* simplifi$ by ! use ( a discov]y ( ,segn]1 t e body has ?ree axes :i* 7 call$ ,pr9cipal ,axes1 ab\t :i* alone 79 g5]al7 x w\ld p]man5tly revolve4 ,! equations :i* ,eul] & o!r writ]s _h obta9$1 7 attack$ z errone\s by ,l&5 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #aghe2 b ,i ?9k x is impossible to consid] ?is criticism o!rwise ?an z an example ( ! inability ( ! ,engli% ma!maticians ( t p]iod to take a /eady hold ( ! analytical g5]alizations to :i* ! great ,cont95tal au?ors _h be5 l$4 ,p]haps "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable calculations ( ! motion ( a rigid body is t :i* ,lagrange p]=m$ ) reg>d to ! ,moon's ,libration2 & by :i* he %[$ t ! ,nodes ( ! ,moon's ,equator & ^? ( h] ,orbit mu/ always co9cide4 ,note #egf3 ,ac4 ,b]l4 #agde1 #agej4 ,note #ehf3 ,see ! preface to ! book4 #aj4 ,vibrat+ ,/r+s4--,o!r me*anical que/ions1 unconnect$ ) a/ronomy1 7 also pursu$ ) great zeal & success4 ,among ^! 0 ! problem ( a vibrat+ /r+1 /ret*$ betwe5 two fix$ po9ts4 ,!re is n mu* complexity 9 ! me*anical conceptions :i* belong to ?is case1 b consid]able difficulty 9 r$uc+ !m to analysis4 ,taylor1 9 8 ,me?od ( ,increm5ts1 publi%$ 9 #agaf1 _h annex$ to 8 "w a solution ( ?is problem2 obta9$ on suppositions1 limit$ inde$1 b app>5tly con=mable to ! mo/ common circum/ances ( practice4 ,john ,b]n\lli1 9 #agbh1 _h also treat$ ! same problem4 ,b x assum$ an int]e/ altoge!r new1 :51 9 #agdg1 ,d',alemb]t publi%$ 8 views on ! subject2 9 :i* he ma9ta9$ t1 in/ead ( "o k9d ( curve only1 !re 7 an inf9ite numb] ( diff]5t curves1 :i* answ]$ ! conditions ( ! "q4 ,! problem1 ?us put =w>d by "o great ma!matician1 01 z usual1 tak5 up by ! o!rs1 ^: names ! read] is n[ s famili> ) 9 su* an association4 ,9 #cgf #agdh1 ,eul] n only ass5t$ to ! g5]alization ( ,d',alemb]t1 b held t x 0 n necess>y t ! curves s introduc$ %\ld be def9$ by any algebraical condition :atev]4 ,f ?is extreme indet]m9at5ess ,d',alemb]t diss5t$2 :ile ,daniel ,b]n\lli1 tru/+ m to physical & less to analytical reason+s1 ma9ta9$ t bo? ^! g5]alizations 7 inapplicable 9 fact1 & t ! solution 0 really re/rict$1 z _h at fir/ be5 suppos$1 to ! =m ( ! tro*oid1 & to o!r =ms d]ivable f t4 ,he introduc$1 9 su* problems1 ! ,law ( ,coexi/5t ,vibrations1 :i* is ( em95t use 9 enabl+ u to conceive ! results ( complex me*anical conditions1 & ! real import ( _m analytical expressions4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! wond]ful analytical g5ius ( ,lagrange _h appli$ itself to ?is problem4 ,he _h =m$ ! ,academy ( ,tur91 9 conjunction ) 8 fri5ds ,saluces & ,cigna2 & ! fir/ memoir 9 _! ,transactions 0 "o by him on ?is subject3 9 ?is & 9 subsequ5t writ+s he has e/abli%$1 to ! satisfaction ( ! ma!matical _w1 t ! functions introduc$ 9 su* cases are n necess>ily cont9u\s1 b are arbitr>y to ! same degree t ! motion is s practically2 ?\gh capable ( expression by a s]ies ( circul> functions4 ,?is controv]sy1 conc]n+ ! degree ( lawlessness ) :i* ! conditions ( ! solution may be assum$1 is ( consequ5ce1 n only ) respect to vibrat+ /r+s1 b also ) respect to _m problems1 belong+ to a bran* ( ,me*anics :i* we n[ h to m5tion1 ! ,doctr9e ( ,fluids4 #aa4 ,equilibrium ( ,fluids4 ,figure ( ! ,e>?4 ,tides4--,! application ( ! g5]al doctr9es ( ,me*anics to fluids 0 a natural & inevitable /ep1 :5 ! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce _h be5 g5]aliz$4 ,x 0 easily se5 t a fluid is1 = ?is purpose1 no?+ m ?an a body ( :i* ! p>ts are movable among/ ea* o!r ) entire facility2 & t ! ma!matician mu/ trace ! consequ5ces ( ?is condition ^u 8 equations4 ,?is accord+ly 0 done1 by ! f\nd]s ( me*anics1 bo? = ! cases ( ! equilibrium & ( motion4 ,newton's attempt to solve ! problem ( ! figure ( ! e>?1 suppos+ x fluid1 is ! fir/ example ( su* an inve/igation3 & ?is solution re/$ ^u pr9ciples :i* we h already expla9$1 appli$ ) ! skill & sagacity :i* di/+ui%$ all t ,newton did4 ,we h already se5 h[ ! g5]ality ( ! pr9ciple1 t fluids press equally 9 all directions1 0 e/abli%$4 ,9 apply+ x to calculation1 ,newton took = 8 fundam5tal pr9ciple1 ! equal #cgg weight ( columns ( ! fluid rea*+ to ! c5tre2 ,huygh5s took1 z 8 basis1 ! 9999p]p5dicul>ity ( ! result+ =ce at ea* po9t to ! surface ( ! fluid2 ,b\gu] conceiv$ t bo? pr9ciples 7 necess>y2 & ,clairaut %[$ t ! equilibrium ( all canals is requisite4 ,he also 0 ! fir/ ma!matician :o d$uc$ f ?is pr9ciple ! ,equations ( ,p>tial ,diff]5tials by :i* ^! laws are express$2 a /ep :i*1 z ,lagrange says1#eif *ang$ ! face ( ,hydro/atics1 & made x a new sci5ce4 ,eul] simplifi$ ! mode ( obta9+ ! ,equations ( ,equilibrium = any =ces :atev]2 & put !m 9 ! =m :i* is n[ g5]ally adopt$ 9 our treatises4 ,note #eif3 ,mc4 ,analyt4 ii4 p4 #ahj4 ,! explanation ( ! ,tides1 9 ! way 9 :i* ,newton attempt$ x 9 ! ?ird book ( ! ,pr9cipia1 is ano!r example ( a hydro/atical inve/igation3 = he consid]$ only ! =m t ! ocean w\ld h if x 7 at re/4 ,! memoirs ( ,maclaur91 ,daniel ,b]n\lli1 & ,eul]1 on ! "q ( ! ,tides1 :i* %>$ among !m ! prize ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 #agdj1 w5t ^u ! same views4 ,! ,treatise ( ! ,figure ( ! ,e>?1 by ,clairaut1 9 #agdc1 ext5d$ ,newton's solution ( ! same problem1 by suppos+ a solid nucleus cov]$ ) a fluid ( diff]5t d5sity4 ,no peculi> novelty has be5 introduc$ into ?is subject1 except a me?od employ$ by ,laplace = det]m9+ ! attractions ( sph]oids ( small ecc5tricity1 :i* is1 z ,pr(essor ,airy has said1#fjf a calculus ! mo/ s+ul> 9 its nature1 & ! mo/ p[]ful 9 its effects1 ( any :i* has yet appe>$4 ,note #fjf3 ,enc4 ,met4 ,fig4 ( ,e>?1 p4 #aib4 #ab4 ,capill>y ,action4--,!re is only "o o!r problem ( ! /atics ( fluids on :i* x is necess>y to say a ^w1--! doctr9e ( ,capill>y ,attraction4 ,daniel ,b]n\lli1#faf 9 #agch1 /ates t he passes ov] ! subject1 because he c\ld n r$uce ! facts to g5]al laws3 b ,clairaut 0 m successful1 & ,laplace & ,poisson h s9ce giv5 great analytical complet5ess to 8 !ory4 ,at pres5t our bus9ess is1 n s mu* ) ! suffici5cy ( ! !ory to expla9 ph5om5a1 z ) ! me*anical problem ( :i* ?is is an example1 :i* is "o ( a v rem>kable & important "*2 namely1 to det]m9e ! effect ( attractions :i* are ex]cis$ by all ! p>ticles ( bodies1 on ! hypo!sis t ! #cgh attraction ( ea* p>ticle1 ?\gh s5sible :5 x acts ^u ano!r p>ticle at an extremely small di/ance f x1 becomes ins5sible & vani%es ! mom5t ?is di/ance assumes a p]ceptible magnitude4 ,x may easily be imag9$ t ! analysis by :i* results are obta9$ "u conditions s g5]al & s peculi>1 is curi\s & ab/ract2 ! problem has be5 resolv$ 9 "s v ext5sive cases4 ,note #faf3 ,hydrodyn4 ,pref4 p4 #e4 #ac4 ,motion ( ,fluids4--,! only bran* ( ma!matical me*anics :i* rema9s to be consid]$1 is t :i* is1 we may v5ture to say1 hi!rto incomp>ably ! mo/ incomplete ( all1--,hydrodynamics4 ,x may easily be imag9$ t ! m]e hypo!sis ( absolute relative mobility 9 ! p>ts1 comb9$ ) ! laws ( motion & no?+ m1 are conditions too vague & g5]al to lead to def9ite conclusions4 ,yet su* are ! conditions ( ! problems :i* relate to ! motion ( fluids4 ,accord+ly1 ! mode ( solv+ !m has be51 to introduce c]ta9 o!r hypo!ses1 (t5 ackn[l$g$ to be false1 & almo/ always 9 "s measure arbitr>y1 :i* may assi/ 9 det]m9+ & obta9+ ! solution4 ,! ,velocity ( a fluid issu+ f an orifice 9 a vessel1 & ! ,resi/ance :i* a solid body suff]s 9 mov+ 9 a fluid1 h be5 ! two ma9 problems on :i* ma!maticians h employ$ !mselves4 ,we h already spok5 ( ! mann] 9 :i* ,newton attack$ bo? ^!1 & endeavor$ to connect !m4 ,! subject became a bran* ( ,analytical ,me*anics by ! labors ( ,d4 ,b]n\lli1 ^: ,hydrodynamica 0 publi%$ 9 #agch4 ,?is "w re/s ^u ! ,huygh5ian pr9ciple ( :i* we h already spok5 9 ! hi/ory ( ! c5tre ( oscillation2 namely1 ! equality ( ! actual desc5t ( ! p>ticles & ! pot5tial asc5t2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! cons]vation ( vis viva4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ analytical treatise2 & ! analysis is decl>$ by ,lagrange to be z elegant 9 its /eps z x is simple 9 its results4 ,maclaur9 also treat$ ! subject2 b is accus$ ( reason+ 9 su* a way z to %[ t he _h det]m9$ ^u 8 result be=eh&2 & ! me?od ( ,john ,b]n\lli1 :o likewise wrote ^u x1 has be5 /rongly object$ to by ,d',alemb]t4 ,d',alemb]t himself appli$ ! pr9ciple :i* be>s 8 "n to ?is subject2 publi%+ a ,treatise on ! ,equilibrium & ,motion ( ,fluids 9 #agdd1 & on ! ,resi/ance ( ,fluids 9 #agec4 ,8 ,rflexions sur la ,cause ,gnrale des ,v5ts1 pr9t$ 9 #agdg1 are also a celebrat$ "w1 belong+ to ?is "p ( ma!matics4 ,eul]1 9 ?is z 9 o!r cases1 0 "o ( ^? :o mo/ contribut$ to give analytical elegance to ! subject4 ,9 addition to ! que/ions :i* #cgi h be5 m5tion$1 he & ,lagrange treat$ ! problems ( ! small vibrations ( fluids1 bo? inela/ic & ela/ic2--a subject :i* leads1 l ! "q ( vibrat+ /r+s1 to "s subtle & ab/ruse consid]ations conc]n+ ! significations ( ! integrals ( p>tial diff]5tial equations4 ,laplace also took up ! subject ( waves propagat$ along ! surface ( wat]2 & d$uc$ a v celebrat$ !ory ( ! tides1 9 :i* he consid]$ ! ocean to be1 n 9 equilibrium1 z prec$+ writ]s _h suppos$1 b agitat$ by a con/ant s]ies ( undulations1 produc$ by ! sol> & lun> =ces4 ,! difficulty ( su* an inve/igation may be judg$ ( f ?is1 t ,laplace1 9 ord] to c>ry x on1 is oblig$ to assume a me*anical proposition1 unprov$1 & only conjectur$ to be true2 namely1#fbf t1 9 a sy/em ( bodies act$ ^u by =ces :i* are p]iodical1 ! /ate ( ! sy/em is p]iodical l ! =ces4 ,ev5 ) ?is assumption1 v>i\s o!r arbitr>y processes are requisite2 & x appe>s /ill v d\btful :e!r ,laplace's !ory is ei!r a bett] me*anical solution ( ! problem1 or a ne>] approximation to ! laws ( ! ph5om5a1 ?an t obta9$ by ,d4 ,b]n\lli1 foll[+ ! views ( ,newton4 ,note #fbf3 ,mc4 ,cl4 t4 ii4 p4 #bah4 ,9 mo/ cases1 ! solutions ( problems ( hydrodynamics are n satisfactorily confirm$ by ! results ( obs]vation4 ,poisson & ,cau*y h prosecut$ ! subject ( waves1 & h d$uc$ v curi\s conclusions by a v recondite & pr(\nd analysis4 ,! assumptions ( ! ma!matician "h d n repres5t ! conditions ( nature2 ! rules ( !ory1 !re=e1 are n a good /&>d to :i* we may ref] ! ab]rations ( p>ticul> cases2 & ! laws :i* we obta9 f exp]im5t are v imp]fectly illu/rat$ by priori calculation4 ,! case ( ?is dep>tm5t ( k1 ,hydrodynamics1 is v peculi>2 we h rea*$ ! highe/ po9t ( ! sci5ce1--! laws ( extreme simplicity & g5]ality f :i* ! ph5om5a fl[2 we _c d\bt t ! ultimate pr9ciples :i* we h obta9$ are ! true ones1 & ^? :i* really apply to ! facts2 & yet we are f> f be+ able to apply ! pr9ciples to expla9 or f9d out ! facts4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 we want1 9 addition to :at we h1 true & useful pr9ciples1 int]m$iate betwe5 ! highe/ & ! l[e/2--betwe5 ! extreme & almo/ b>r5 g5]ality ( ! laws ( motion1 & ! endless v>ieties & inextricable complexity ( fluid motions 9 special cases4 #chj ,! reason ( ?is peculi>ity 9 ! sci5ce ( ,hydrodynamics appe>s to be1 t its g5]al pr9ciples 7 n discov]$ ) ref]5ce to ! sci5ce itself1 b by ext5sion f ! si/] sci5ce ( ! ,me*anics ( ,solids2 !y 7 n obta9$ by asc5d+ gradually f p>ticul>s1 to tru?s m & m g5]al1 respect+ ! motions ( fluids2 b 7 caught at once1 by a p]ception t ! p>ts ( fluids are includ$ 9 t range ( g5]ality :i* we are entitl$ to give to ! supreme laws ( motions ( solids4 ,?us1 ,solid ,dynamics & ,fluid ,dynamics resemble two edifices :i* h _! highe/ ap>tm5t 9 common1 & ?\gh we c explore e "p ( ! =m] build+1 we h n yet succe$$ 9 trav]s+ ! /aircase ( ! latt]1 ei!r f ! top or f ! bottom4 ,if we _h liv$ 9 a _w 9 :i* !re 7 no solid bodies1 we %\ld probably n h yet discov]$ ! laws ( motion2 if we _h liv$ 9 a _w 9 :i* !re 7 no fluids1 we %\ld h no idea h[ insuffici5t a complete possession ( ! g5]al laws ( motion may be1 to give u a true k ( p>ticul> results4 #ad4 ,v>i\s ,g5]al ,me*anical ,pr9ciples4--,! g5]aliz$ laws ( motion1 ! po9ts to :i* ,i h endeavor$ to conduct my hi/ory1 include 9 !m all o!r laws by :i* ! motions ( bodies c be regulat$2 & among su*1 sev]al laws :i* _h be5 discov]$ be=e ! highe/ po9t ( g5]alization 0 rea*$1 & :i* ?us s]v$ z /epp+-/ones to ! ultimate pr9ciples4 ,su* 71 z we h se51 ! ,pr9ciples ( ! ,cons]vation ( vis viva1 ! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,cons]vation ( ! ,motion ( ! ,c5tre ( ,gravity1 & ! l4 ,^! pr9ciples may1 ( c\rse1 be d$uc$ f our elem5t>y laws1 & 7 f9ally e/abli%$ by ma!maticians on t foot+4 ,!re are o!r pr9ciples :i* may be simil>ly demon/rat$2 among ! re/1 ,i may m5tion ! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,cons]vation ( areas1 :i* ext5ds to any numb] ( bodies a law analog\s to t :i* ,kepl] _h obs]v$1 & ,newton demon/rat$1 respect+ ! areas describ$ by ea* planet r\nd ! sun4 ,i may m5tion also1 ! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,immobility ( ! plane ( maximum areas1 a plane :i* is n di/urb$ by any mutual action ( ! p>ts ( any sy/em4 ,! =m] ( ^! pr9ciples 0 publi%$ ab\t ! same "t by ,eul]1 ,d4 ,b]n\lli1 & ,d>cy1 "u diff]5t =ms1 9 #agdf & #agdg2 ! latt] by ,laplace4 ,to ^! may be add$ a law1 v celebrat$ 9 its "t1 & ! occasion ( an angry controv]sy1 ! ,pr9ciple ( lea/ action4 #cha ,maup]tuis conceiv$ t he c\ld e/abli% priori1 by !ological argum5ts1 t all me*anical *anges mu/ take place 9 ! _w s z to occasion ! lea/ possible quantity ( action4 ,9 ass]t+ ?is1 x 0 propos$ to measure ! ,action by ! product ( ,velocity & ,space2 & ?is measure be+ adopt$1 ! ma!maticians1 ?\gh !y did n g5]ally ass5t to ,maup]tuis' reason+s1 f\nd t 8 pr9ciple express$ a rem>kable & useful tru?1 :i* might be e/abli%$ on kn[n me*anical gr\nds4 #ae4 ,analytical ,g5]ality4 ,connection ( ,/atics & ,dynamics4--,be=e ,i quit ?is subject1 x is important to rem>k ! peculi> "* :i* ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics has n[ assum$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! extreme analytical g5]ality :i* has be5 giv5 x4 ,symbols1 & op]ations ^u symbols1 include ! :ole ( ! reason]'s task2 & ?\gh ! relations ( space are ! lead+ subjects 9 ! sci5ce1 ! great analytical treatises ^u x d n conta9 a s+le diagram4 ,! ,mcanique ,analytique ( ,lagrange1 ( :i* ! fir/ edition appe>$ 9 #aghh1 is by f> ! mo/ consummate example ( ?is analytical g5]ality4 ,! plan ( ?is "w1 says ! au?or1 is entirely new4 ,i h propos$ to myself to r$uce ! :ole !ory ( ?is sci5ce1 & ! art ( resolv+ ! problems :i* x includes1 to g5]al =mul1 ( :i* ! simple developm5t gives all ! equations necess>y = ! solution ( ! problem4--,! read] w f9d no figures 9 ! "w4 ,! me?ods :i* ,i deliv] d n require ei!r con/ructions1 or geometrical or me*anical reason+s2 b only algebraical op]ations1 subject to a regul> & uni=m rule ( proce$+4 ,?us ?is writ] makes ,me*anics a bran* ( ,analysis2 in/ead ( mak+1 z _h previ\sly be5 done1 ,analysis an implem5t ( ,me*anics4#fcf ,! transc5d5t g5]aliz+ g5ius ( ,lagrange1 & 8 mat*less analytical skill & elegance1 h made ?is und]tak+ z successful z x is /rik+4 ,note #fcf3 ,lagrange himself t]ms ,me*anics1 ,an ,analytical ,geometry ( f\r dim5sions4 ,besides ! ?ree co-ord9ates :i* det]m9e ! place ( a body 9 space1 ! "t ent]s z a f\r? co-ord9ate4 ,note by ,littr[4 ,! ma!matical read] is aw>e t ! language ( ma!matical symbols is1 9 its nature1 m g5]al ?an ! language ( words3 & t 9 ?is way tru?s1 translat$ into symbols1 (t5 sugge/ _! own g5]alizations4 ,some?+ ( ?is k9d has happ5$ 9 ,me*anics4 ,! same ,=mula expresses ! g5]al condition ( ,/atics & t ( ,dynamics4 ,! t5d5cy to g5]alization :i* is ?us introduc$ by analysis1 makes ma!maticians unwill+ to #chb ackn[l$ge a plurality ( ,me*anical pr9ciples2 & 9 ! mo/ rec5t analytical treatises on ! subject1 all ! doctr9es are d$uc$ f ! s+le ,law ( ,in]tia4 ,inde$1 if we id5tify ,=ces ) ! ,velocities :i* produce !m1 & all[ ! ,composition ( ,=ces to be applicable to =ce s und]/ood1 x is easy to see t we c r$uce ! ,laws ( ,motion to ! ,pr9ciples ( ,/atics2 & ?is conjunction1 ?\gh x may n be consid]$ z philosophically j1 is v]bally correct4 ,if we ?us multiply or ext5d ! mean+s ( ! t]m ,=ce1 we make our elem5t>y pr9ciples simpl] & few] ?an be=e2 & ^? p]sons1 !re=e1 :o are will+ to ass5t to su* a use ( words1 c ?us obta9 an additional g5]alisation ( dynamical pr9ciples2 & ?is1 z ,i h /at$1 has be5 adopt$ 9 sev]al rec5t treatises4 ,i %all n fur!r discuss "h h[ f> ?is is a real advance 9 sci5ce4 ,hav+ ?us rapidly gone ?r\gh ! hi/ory ( ,=ce & ,attraction 9 ! ab/ract1 we return to ! attempt to int]pret ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se by ! aid ( ^! ab/ractions ?us e/abli%$4 ,b be=e we d s1 we may make "o rem>k on ! hi/ory ( ?is "p ( sci5ce4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! va/ c>e] into :i* ! ,doctr9e ( ,motion has be5 drawn by ! spl5did problems propos$ to x by ,a/ronomy1 ! orig9 & />t+-po9t ( ,me*anics1 namely ,ma*9es1 _h almo/ be5 lo/ out ( sight4 ,ma*9es _h become ! smalle/ "p ( ,me*anics1 z ,l&-measur+ _h become ! smalle/ "p ( ,geometry4 ,yet ! application ( ,ma!matics to ! doctr9e ( ,ma*9es has l$1 at all p]iods ( ! ,sci5ce1 & especially 9 our own "t1 to curi\s & valuable results4 ,"s ( ^! w be notic$ 9 ! ,additions to ?is volume4 #chc ,,book ,,vii4 ,,! ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 7,,cont9u$47 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,physical ,,a/ronomy4 ,,desc5d f heav51 ,urania1 by t "n ,if rightly ?\ art call$1 ^: voice div9e ,foll[+1 above ! ,olympian hill ,i so>1 ,above ! flight ( ,pegasean w+4 ,! mean+1 n ! "n1 ,i call1 = ?\ ,nor ( ! muses n9e1 nor on ! top ,( old ,olympus dwell'/3 b heav5ly-born1 ,be=e ! hills appe>$1 or f\nta9 fl[$1 ,?\ ) ,et]nal ,wisdom did/ conv]se1 ,wisdom1 ?y si/]4 ,p>adise ,lo/1 ,b4 vii4 #che ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,newton4 ,,we h n[ to contemplate ! la/ & mo/ spl5did p]iod ( ! progress ( ,a/ronomy2--! gr& completion ( ! hi/ory ( ! mo/ anci5t & prosp]\s prov9ce ( human k2--! /eps :i* elevat$ ?is sci5ce to an unrivall$ em95ce above o!r sci5ces2--! fir/ great example ( a wide & complex assemblage ( ph5om5a indubitably trac$ to _! s+le simple cause2--9 %ort1 ! fir/ example ( ! =mation ( a p]fect ,inductive ,sci5ce4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 o!r consid]able advances 9 real sci5ce1 ! complete disclosure ( ! new tru?s by ! pr9cipal discov]]1 0 prec$$ by movem5ts & glimpses1 by trials1 seek+s1 & guesses on ! "p ( o!rs2 by indications1 9 %ort1 t m5's m9ds 7 already c>ri$ by _! intellectual impulses 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! tru? lay1 & 7 beg9n+ to detect its nature4 ,9 a case s important & int]e/+ z ?is1 x is m peculi>ly prop] to give "s view ( ?is ,prelude to ! ,epo* ( ! full discov]y4 7,francis ,bacon47 ,t ,a/ronomy %\ld become ,physical ,a/ronomy1--t ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies %\ld be trac$ to _! causes1 z well z r$uc$ to rule1--0 felt by all p]sons ( active & philosophical m9ds z a press+ & irresi/ible ne$1 at ! "t ( :i* we speak4 ,we h already se5 h[ mu* ?is feel+ _h to d 9 impell+ ,kepl] to ! tra9 ( labori\s rese>* by :i* he made 8 discov]ies4 ,p]haps x may be int]e/+ to po9t out h[ /rongly ?is p]suasion ( ! necessity ( giv+ a physical "* to a/ronomy1 _h tak5 possession ( ! m9d ( ,bacon1 :o1 look+ at ! progress ( k ) a m compreh5sive _s1 & f a high] po9t ( view ?an ,kepl]1 c\ld h none ( 8 a/ronomical prejudices1 s9ce on t subject he 0 ( a diff]5t s*ool1 & ( f> inf]ior k4 ,9 8 ,description ( ! ,intellectual ,globe1 ,bacon says t :ile ,a/ronomy _h1 up to t "t1 _h x = h] bus9ess to inquire into ! rules ( ! heav5ly motions1 & ,philosophy into _! causes1 !y _h bo? s f> work$ )\t due appreciation ( _! respective tasks2 ,philosophy neglect+ facts1 & ,a/ronomy claim+ ass5t to h] #chf ma!matical hypo!ses1 :i* ought to be consid]$ z m]e /eps ( calculation4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 he cont9ues1#ag ea* sci5ce has hi!rto be5 a slight & ill-con/ruct$ ?+1 we mu/ assur$ly take a firm] /&2 our gr\nd be+1 t ^! two subjects1 :i* on acc\nt ( ! n>r[ness ( m5's views & ! traditions ( pr(essors h be5 s long dissev]$1 are1 9 fact1 "o & ! same ?+1 & compose "o body ( sci5ce4 ,x mu/ be all[$ t1 h[ev] errone\s might be ! po9ts ( ,bacon's positive a/ronomical cre$1 ^! g5]al views ( ! nature & position ( ! sci5ce are mo/ s\nd & philosophical4 ,note #ag3 ,vol4 ix4 #bba4 7,kepl]7 ,9 8 attempts to sugge/ a "r physical view ( ! />ry heav5s & _! relation to ! e>?1 ,bacon fail$1 along ) all ! writ]s ( 8 "t4 ,x has already be5 /at$ t ! ma9 cause ( ?is failure 0 ! want ( a k ( ! true !ory ( motion2--! non-exi/5ce ( ! sci5ce ( ,dynamics4 ,at ! "t ( ,bacon & ,kepl]1 x 0 only j beg9n+ to be possible to r$uce ! heav5ly motions to ! laws ( e>?ly motion1 because ! latt] 7 only j !n divulg$4 ,accord+ly1 we h se5 t ! :ole ( ,kepl]'s physical speculations proce$ ^u an ignorance ( ! fir/ law ( motion1 & assume x to be ! ma9 problem ( ! physical a/ronom] to assign ! cause :i* keeps up ! motions ( ! planets4 ,kepl]'s doctr9e is1 t a c]ta9 ,=ce or ,virtue resides 9 ! sun1 by :i* all bodies )9 8 influ5ce are c>ri$ r\nd him4 ,he illu/rates#bg ! nature ( ?is ,virtue 9 v>i\s ways1 comp>+ x to ,light1 & to ! ,magnetic ,p[]1 :i* x resembles 9 ! circum/ances ( op]at+ at a di/ance1 & also 9 ex]cis+ a feebl] influ5ce z ! di/ance becomes great]4 ,b x 0 obvi\s t ^! comp>isons 7 v imp]fect2 = !y d n expla9 h[ ! sun produces 9 a body at a di/ance a motion a?w>t ! l9e ( emanation2 & ?\gh ,kepl] introduc$ an assum$ rotation ( ! sun on 8 axis z ! cause ( ?is effect1 t su* a cause c\ld produce ! result c\ld n be e/abli%$ by any analogy ( t]re/rial motions4 ,b ano!r image to :i* he ref]r$1 sugge/$ a mu* m sub/antial & conceivable k9d ( me*anical action by :i* ! cele/ial motions might be produc$1 namely1 a curr5t ( fluid matt] circulat+ r\nd ! sun1 & c>ry+ ! planet ) x1 l a boat 9 a /ream4 ,9 ! ,table ( ,cont5ts ( ! "w on ! planet ,m>s1 ! purport ( ! *apt] to :i* ,i h allud$ is #chg /at$ z foll[s3 ,a physical speculation1 9 :i* x is demon/rat$ t ! vehicle ( t ,virtue :i* urges ! planets1 circulates ?r\gh ! spaces ( ! univ]se aft] ! mann] ( a riv] or :irlpool 7vortex71 mov+ quick] ?an ! planets4 ,i ?9k x w be f\nd1 by any "o :o reads ,kepl]'s phrases conc]n+ ! mov+ =ce1--! magnetic nature1--! immat]ial virtue ( ! sun1 t !y convey no di/9ct conception1 except s f> z !y are int]pret$ by ! expressions j quot$4 ,a vortex ( fluid con/antly :irl+ r\nd ! sun1 kept 9 ?is :irl+ motion by ! rotation ( ! sun himself1 & c>ry+ ! planets r\nd ! sun by its revolution1 z a :irlpool c>ries /raws1 c\ld be readily und]/ood2 & ?\gh x appe>s to h be5 held by ,kepl] t ?is curr5t & vortex 0 immat]ial1 he ascribes to x ! p[] ( ov]com+ ! in]tia ( bodies1 & ( putt+ !m & keep+ !m 9 motion1 ! only mat]ial prop]ties ) :i* he _h any ?+ to d4 ,kepl]'s physical reason+s1 !re=e1 am\nt1 9 fact1 to ! doctr9e ( ,vortices r\nd ! c5tral bodies1 & are occasionally s /at$ by himself2 ?\gh by ass]t+ ^! vortices to be an immat]ial species1 & by ! fickl5ess & v>iety ( 8 phraseology on ! subject1 he leaves ?is !ory 9 "s confusion2--a proce$+1 inde$1 :i* bo? 8 want ( s\nd me*anical conceptions1 & 8 busy & inv5tive fancy1 might h l$ u to expect4 ,nor1 we may v5ture to say1 0 x easy = any "o at ,kepl]'s "t to devise a m plausible !ory ?an ! !ory ( vortices might h be5 made4 ,x 0 only ) ! =mation & progress ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics t ?is !ory became unt5able4 ,note #bg3 ,de ,/ell ,m>tis1 ,p4 #c4 c4 xxxiv4 7,desc>tes7 ,b if ,kepl] might be excus$1 or inde$ admir$1 = prop\nd+ ! !ory ( ,vortices at 8 "t1 ! case 0 diff]5t :5 ! laws ( motion _h be5 fully develop$1 & :5 ^? :o knew ! /ate ( me*anical sci5ce ought to h le>n$ to consid] ! motions ( ! />s z a me*anical problem1 subject to ! same conditions z o!r me*anical problems1 & capable ( ! same exactness ( solution4 ,& !re 0 an especial inconsi/5cy 9 ! circum/ance ( ! ,!ory ( ,vortices be+ put =w>ds by ,desc>tes1 :o pret5d$1 or 0 ass]t$ by 8 admir]s1 to h be5 "o ( ! discov]]s ( ! true ,laws ( ,motion4 ,x c]ta9ly %[s bo? great conceit & great %all[ness1 t he %\ld h proclaim$ ) mu* pomp ?is crude inv5tion ( ! ante-me*anical p]iod1 at ! "t :5 ! be/ ma!maticians ( ,europe1 z ,borelli 9 ,italy1 ,hooke & ,wallis 9 ,engl&1 ,huygh5s 9 ,holl&1 #chh 7 pati5tly labor+ to br+ ! me*anical problem ( ! univ]se into its mo/ di/9ct =m1 9 ord] t x might be solv$ at la/ & =ev]4 ,i d n mean to ass]t t ,desc>tes borr[$ 8 doctr9es f ,kepl]1 or f any ( 8 pr$ecessors1 = ! !ory 0 suffici5tly obvi\s2 & especially if we suppose ! inv5tor to seek 8 sugge/ions r 9 ! casual examples (f]$ to ! s5se ?an 9 ! exact laws ( motion4 ,nor w\ld x be reasonable to rob ?is philosoph] ( t cr$it1 ( ! plausible d$uction ( a va/ sy/em f app>5tly simple pr9ciples1 :i*1 at ! "t1 0 s mu* admir$2 & :i* und\bt$ly 0 ! great cause ( ! _m conv]ts to 8 views4 ,at ! same "t we may v5ture to say t a sy/em ( doctr9e ?us d$uc$ f assum$ pr9ciples by a long *a9 ( reason+1 & n v]ifi$ & confirm$ at e /ep by detail$ & exact facts1 has h>dly a *ance ( conta9+ any tru?4 ,desc>tes said t he %\ld ?9k x little to %[ h[ ! _w is con/ruct$1 if he c\ld n also %[ t x mu/ ( necessity h be5 s con/ruct$4 ,! m mode/ philosophy :i* has surviv$ ! boa/+s ( 8 s*ool is cont5t to receive all its k ( facts f exp]i5ce1 & nev] dreams ( int]pos+ its p]emptory mu/ be :5 nature is ready to tell u :at is4 ,! priori philosoph] has1 h[ev]1 always a /rong feel+ 9 8 favor among m54 ,! d$uctive =m ( 8 speculations gives !m some?+ ( ! *>m & ! app>5t c]ta9ty ( pure ma!matics2 & :ile he avoids t labori\s recurr5ce to exp]im5ts1 & measures1 & multipli$ obs]vations1 :i* is irksome & di/a/eful to ^? :o are impati5t to gr[ wise at once1 e fact ( :i* ! !ory appe>s to give an explanation1 seems to be an unask$ & almo/ an infallible witness 9 its favor4 ,my bus9ess ) ,desc>tes "h is only ) 8 physical ,!ory ( ,vortices2 :i*1 great z 0 its glory at "o "t1 is n[ utt]ly ext+ui%$4 ,x 0 prop\nd$ 9 8 ,pr9cipia ,philosophi1 9 #afdd4 ,9 ord] to arrive at ?is !ory1 he beg9s1 z might be expect$ ( him1 f reason+s suffici5tly g5]al4 ,he lays x d[n z a maxim1 9 ! fir/ s5t5ce ( 8 book1 t a p]son :o seeks = tru? mu/1 once 9 8 life1 d\bt ( all t he mo/ believes4 ,conceiv+ himself ?us to h /ripp$ himself ( all 8 belief on all subjects1 9 ord] to resume t "p ( x :i* m]its to be reta9$1 he beg9s ) 8 celebrat$ ass]tion1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am2 :i* appe>s to him a c]ta9 & immovable pr9ciple1 by means ( #chi :i* he may proce$ to some?+ m4 ,accord+ly1 to ?is he soon adds ! idea1 & h5ce ! c]ta9 exi/5ce1 ( ,god & 8 p]fections4 ,he !n ass]ts x to be also manife/1 t a vacuum 9 any "p ( ! univ]se is impossible2 ! :ole mu/ be fill$ ) matt]1 & ! matt] mu/ be divid$ into equal angul> p>ts1 ?is be+ ! mo/ simple1 & !re=e ! mo/ natural supposition4#cg ,?is matt] be+ 9 motion1 ! p>ts are necess>ily gr\nd into a sph]ical =m2 & ! corn]s ?us rubb$ (f 7l fil+s or sawdu/7 =m a second & m subtle matt]4#dg ,!re is1 besides1 a ?ird k9d ( matt]1 ( p>ts m co>se & less fitt$ = motion4 ,! fir/ matt] makes lum9\s bodies1 z ! sun1 & ! fix$ />s2 ! second is ! transp>5t sub/ance ( ! skies2 ! ?ird is ! mat]ial ( opake bodies1 z ! e>?1 planets1 & comets4 ,we may suppose1 also1#eg t ! motions ( ^! p>ts take ! =m ( revolv+ circul> curr5ts1#fg or vortices4 ,by ?is means1 ! fir/ matt] w be collect$ to ! c5tre ( ea* vortex1 :ile ! second1 or subtle matt]1 surr\nds x1 &1 by its c5trifugal ef=t1 con/itutes light4 ,! planets are c>ri$ r\nd ! sun by ! motion ( 8 vortex1#gg ea* planet be+ at su* a di/ance f ! sun z to be 9 a "p ( ! vortex suitable to its solidity & mobility4 ,! motions are prev5t$ f be+ exactly circul> & regul> by v>i\s causes2 = in/ance1 a vortex may be press$ into an oval %ape by contigu\s vortices4 ,! satellites are1 9 l mann]1 c>ri$ r\nd _! prim>y planets by subord9ate vortices2 :ile ! comets h sometimes ! lib]ty ( glid+ out ( "o vortex into ! "o next contigu\s1 & ?us travell+ 9 a s9u\s c\rse1 f sy/em to sy/em1 ?r\gh ! univ]se4 ,x is n necess>y = u to speak "h ( ! entire defici5cy ( ?is sy/em 9 me*anical consi/5cy1 & 9 a correspond5cy to obs]vation 9 details & measures4 ,its g5]al reception & tempor>y sway1 9 "s in/ances ev5 among intellig5t m5 & good ma!maticians1 are ! mo/ rem>kable facts connect$ ) x4 ,^! may be ascrib$1 9 "p1 to ! circum/ance t philosoph]s 7 n[ ready & eag] = a physical a/ronomy comm5surate ) ! exi/+ /ate ( k2 !y may h be5 ow+ also1 9 "s measure1 to ! "* & position ( ,desc>tes4 ,he 0 a man ( high claims 9 e dep>tm5t ( speculation1 &1 9 pure ma!matics1 a g5u9e inv5tor ( great em95ce2--a man ( family & a soldi]2--an in(f5sive philosoph]1 attack$ & p]secut$ #cij = 8 op9ions ) great bigotry & fury by a ,dut* div9e1 ,voet2--! favorite & tea*] ( two di/+ui%$ pr9cesses1 &1 x is said1 ! lov] ( "o ( !m4 ,?is 0 ,elizabe?1 ! daught] ( ! ,elector ,fr$]ick1 & consequ5tly gr&-daught] ( our ,james ! ,fir/4 ,8 o!r royal disciple1 ! celebrat$ ,*ri/iana ( ,sw$51 %[$ h] zeal = 8 in/ructions by appo9t+ ! h\r ( five 9 ! morn+ = _! int]views4 ,?is1 9 ! climate ( ,sw$51 & 9 ! w9t]1 0 too sev]e a trial = ! con/itution ( ! philosoph]1 born 9 ! sunny valley ( ! ,loire2 &1 aft] a %ort resid5ce at ,/ockholm1 he di$ ( an inflammation ( ! *e/ 9 #afej4 ,he always kept up an active correspond5ce ) 8 fri5d ,m]s5ne1 :o 0 call$1 by "s ( ! ,p>isians1 ! ,resid5t ( ,desc>tes at ,p>is2 & :o in=m$ him ( all t 0 done 9 ! _w ( sci5ce4 ,x is said t he at fir/ s5t to ,m]s5ne an acc\nt ( a sy/em ( ! univ]se :i* he _h devis$1 :i* w5t on ! assumption ( a vacuum2 ,m]s5ne in=m$ him t ! vacuum 0 no long] ! fa%ion at ,p>is2 ^u :i* he proce$$ to remodel 8 sy/em1 & to re-e/abli% x on ! pr9ciple ( a pl5um4 ,und\bt$ly he tri$ to avoid promulgat+ op9ions :i* might br+ him into tr\ble4 ,he1 on all occasions1 endeavor$ to expla9 away ! doctr9e ( ! motion ( ! e>?1 s z to evade ! scruples to :i* ! decrees ( ! pope _h giv5 rise2 &1 9 /at+ ! !ory ( vortices1 he says1#hg ,!re is no d\bt t ! _w 0 creat$ at fir/ ) all its p]fection2 nev]!less1 x is well to consid] h[ x might h aris5 f c]ta9 pr9ciples1 al?\gh we "k t x did n4 ,inde$1 9 ! :ole ( 8 philosophy1 he appe>s to des]ve ! "* ( be+ bo? ra% & c[>dly1 pusillanimus simul et audax1 f> m ?an ,ari/otle1 to ^: physical speculations ,bacon applies ?is description4#ig ,note #cg3 ,pr94 p4 #eh4 ,note #dg3 ,ib4 p4 #ei4 ,note #eg3 ,ib4 p4 #ef4 ,note #fg3 ,ib4 p4 #fa4 ,note #gg3 ,ib4 c4 #adj1 p4 #aad4 ,note #hg3 ,pr94 p4 #ef4 ,note #ig3 ,bacon1 ,descriptio ,globi ,intellectualis4 ,:atev] ! causes might be1 8 sy/em 0 well receiv$ & rapidly adopt$4 ,gass5di1 inde$1 says t he f\nd nobody :o _h ! c\rage to read ! ,pr9cipia ?r\gh2#ajg b ! sy/em 0 soon embrac$ by ! y\ng] pr(essors1 :o 7 eag] to dispute 9 its favor4 ,x is said#aag t ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is 0 on ! po9t ( publi%+ an edict aga9/ ^! new doctr9es1 & 0 only prev5t$ f do+ s by a pasqu9ade :i* is wor? m5tion+4 ,x 0 compos$ by ! poet ,boileau 7ab\t #afhd71 & pr(ess$ to be a ,reque/ 9 favor ( ,ari/otle1 & an ,edict issu$ f ,m\nt #cia ,p>nassus 9 consequ5ce4 ,x is obvi\s t1 at ?is "t1 ! cause ( ,c>tesianism 0 look$ ^u z ! cause ( free inquiry & mod]n discov]y1 9 opposition to t ( bigotry1 prejudice1 & ignorance4 ,probably ! poet 0 f> f be+ a v sev]e or pr(\nd critic ( ! tru? ( su* claims4 ,?is petition ( ! ,ma/]s ( ,arts1 ,pr(essors & ,reg5ts ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 humbly %[e?1 t x is ( public notoriety t ! sublime & incomp>able ,ari/otle 01 )\t conte/1 ! fir/ f\nd] ( ! f\r elem5ts1 fire1 air1 e>?1 & wat]2 t he did1 by special grace1 accord unto !m a simplicity :i* belonge? n to !m ( natural "r2 & s on4 ,nev]!less1 s9ce1 a c]ta9 "t pa/1 two individuals1 nam$ ,reason & ,exp]i5ce1 h leagu$ !mselves toge!r to dispute 8 claim to ! rank :i* ( ju/ice p]ta9s to him1 & h tri$ to erect !mselves a ?rone on ! ru9s ( 8 au?ority2 &1 9 ord] ! bett] to ga9 _! ends1 h excit$ c]ta9 facti\s spirits1 :o1 "u ! names ( ,c>tesians & ,gass5di/s1 h begun to %ake (f ! yoke ( _! ma/]1 ,ari/otle2 &1 contemn+ 8 au?ority1 ) unexampl$ tem]ity1 w\ld dispute ! "r :i* he _h acquir$ ( mak+ true pass = false & false = true2--,9 fact1 ?is production does n exhibit any ( ! peculi> t5ets ( ,desc>tes1 al?\gh1 probably1 ! positive po9ts ( 8 doctr9es obta9$ a foot+ 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 "u ! cov] ( ?is assault on 8 adv]s>ies4 ,! ,physics ( ,rohault1 a zeal\s disciple ( ,desc>tes1 0 publi%$ at ,p>is ab\t #afgj1abg & 01 = a "t1 ! /&>d book = /ud5ts ( ?is subject1 bo? 9 ,france & 9 ,engl&4 ,i d n "h speak ( ! lat] def5d]s ( ! ,c>tesian sy/em1 =1 9 _! h&s1 x 0 mu* modifi$ by ! /ruggle :i* x _h to ma9ta9 aga9/ ! ,newtonian sy/em4 ,note #ajg3 ,del4 ,a4 ,m4 ii4 #aic4 ,note #aag3 ,enc4 ,brit4 art4 ,c>tesianism4 ,note #abg3 ,& a second edition 9 #afgb4 ,we are conc]n$ ) ,desc>tes & 8 s*ool only z !y =m "p ( ! picture ( ! intellectual condition ( ,europe j be=e ! publication ( ,newton's discov]ies4 ,beyond ?is1 ! ,c>tesian speculations are )\t value4 ,:51 inde$1 ,desc>tes' c\ntrym5 c\ld no long] refuse _! ass5t & admiration to ! ,newtonian !ory1 x came to be ! fa%ion among !m to say t ,desc>tes _h be5 ! necess>y precursor ( ,newton2 & to adopt a favorite say+ ( ,leibnitz1 t ! ,c>tesian philosophy 0 ! ante*amb] ( ,tru?4 ,yet ?is comp>ison is f> f be+ happy3 x appe>$ r z if ^! suitors _h mi/ak5 ! door2 = ^? #cib :o fir/ came into ! pres5ce ( ,tru? h]self1 7 ^? :o nev] ent]$ ?is imag9$ ante*amb]1 & ^? :o 7 9 ! ante*amb] fir/1 7 ! la/ 9 p5etrat+ fur!r4 ,9 p>tly ! same _s1 ,playfair has not$ x z a s]vice :i* ,newton p]haps ow$ to ,desc>tes1 t he _h exhau/$ "o ( ! mo/ tempt+ =ms ( error4 ,we %all see soon t ?is temptation _h no attraction = ^? :o look$ at ! problem 9 its true light1 z ! ,italian & ,engli% philosoph]s already did4 ,voltaire has obs]v$1 f> m truly1 t ,newton's edifice re/$ on no /one ( ,desc>tes' f\ndations4 ,he illu/rates ?is by relat+ t ,newton only once read ! "w ( ,desc>tes1 &1 9 do+ s1 wrote ! ^w error1 repeat$ly1 on ! fir/ sev5 or eight pages2 aft] :i* he read no m4 ,?is volume1 ,voltaire adds1 0 = "s "t 9 ! possession ( ,newton's nephew4#acg ,note #acg3 ,c>tesianism1 ,enc4 ,phil4 7,gass5di47 ,ev5 9 8 own c\ntry1 ! sy/em ( ,desc>tes 0 by no means univ]sally adopt$4 ,we h se5 t ?\gh ,gass5di 0 c\pl$ ) ,desc>tes z "o ( ! lead]s ( ! new philosophy1 he 0 f> f admir+ 8 "w4 ,gass5di's own views ( ! causes ( ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies are n v cle>1 nor ev5 v cle>ly ref]rible to ! laws ( me*anics2 al?\gh he 0 "o ( ^? :o _h mo/ %>e 9 %[+ t ^? laws apply to a/ronomical motions4 ,9 a *apt]1 head$#adg ,qu sit motrix sid]um causa1 he reviews sev]al op9ions2 b ! "o :i* he seems to adopt1 is t :i* ascribes ! motion ( ! cele/ial globes to c]ta9 fibres1 ( :i* ! action is simil> to t ( ! muscles ( animals4 ,x does n appe>1 !re=e1 t he _h di/9ctly appreh5d$1 ei!r ! cont9uation ( ! movem5ts ( ! planets by ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion1 or _! deflection by ! ,second ,law2--! two ma9 /eps on ! road to ! discov]y ( ! true =ces by :i* !y are made to describe _! orbits4 ,note #adg3 ,gass5di1 ,op]a1 vol4 i4 p4 #fci4 7,leibnitz1 c47 ,nor does x appe> t 9 ,g]many ma!maticians _h atta9$ ?is po9t ( view4 ,leibnitz1 z we h se51 did n ass5t to ! op9ions ( ,desc>tes1 z conta9+ ! complete tru?2 & yet 8 own views ( ! physics ( ! univ]se d n seem to h any great advantage ov] ^!4 ,9 #afga he publi%$ ,a new physical hypo!sis1 by :i* ! causes ( mo/ ph5om5a are d$uc$ f a c]ta9 s+le univ]sal motion suppos$ 9 our globe2--n to be despis$ ei!r by ! ,ty*onians or ! ,cop]nicans4 ,he supposes #cic ! p>ticles ( ! e>? to h sep>ate motions1 :i* produce collisions1 & ?us propagate#aeg an agitation ( ! e!r1 radiat+ 9 all directions2 &1#afg by ! rotation ( ! sun on its axis1 concurr+ ) its rectil9e> action on ! e>?1 arises ! motion ( ! e>? ab\t ! sun4 ,! o!r motions ( ! sol> sy/em are1 z we might expect1 acc\nt$ = 9 a simil> mann]2 b x appe>s difficult to inve/ su* an hypo!sis ) any me*anical consi/5cy4 ,note #aeg3 ,art4 #e4 ,note #afg3 ,ib4 #h4 ,john ,b]n\lli ma9ta9$ to ! la/ ! ,c>tesian hypo!sis1 ?\gh ) sev]al modifications ( 8 own1 & ev5 pret5d$ to apply ma!matical calculation to 8 pr9ciples4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 belongs to a lat] p]iod ( our hi/ory2 to ! reception1 n to ! prelude1 ( ! ,newtonian !ory4 7,borelli47 ,9 ,italy1 ,holl&1 & ,engl&1 ma!maticians appe> to h look$ mu* m /eadily at ! problem ( ! cele/ial motions1 by ! light :i* ! discov]y ( ! real laws ( motion ?rew ^u x4 ,9 ,borelli's ,!ories ( ! ,m$icean ,planets1 pr9t$ at ,flor5ce 9 #afff1 we h already a conception ( ! nature ( c5tral action1 9 :i* true notions beg9 to appe>4 ,! attraction ( a body ^u ano!r :i* revolves ab\t x is spok5 ( & lik5$ to magnetic action2 n conv]t+ ! attract+ =ce into a transv]se =ce1 accord+ to ! errone\s views ( ,kepl]1 b tak+ x z a t5d5cy ( ! bodies to meet4 ,x is manife/1 says he1#agg t e planet & satellite revolves r\nd "s pr9cipal globe ( ! univ]se z a f\nta9 ( virtue1 :i* s draws & holds !m t !y _c by any means be sep>at$ f x1 b are compell$ to foll[ x :]ev] x goes1 9 con/ant & cont9u\s revolutions4 ,&1 fur!r on1 he describes#ahg ! nature ( ! action1 z a matt] ( conjecture inde$1 b ) rem>kable correctness4#aig ,we %all acc\nt = ^! motions by suppos+1 t :i* c h>dly be d5i$1 t ! planets h a c]ta9 natural appetite = unit+ !mselves ) ! globe r\nd :i* !y revolve1 & t !y really t5d1 ) all _! ef=ts1 to approa* to su* globe2 ! planets1 = in/ance1 to ! sun1 ! ,m$icean ,/>s to ,jupit]4 ,x is c]ta91 also1 t circul> motion gives a body a t5d5cy to rec$e f ! c5tre ( su* revolution1 z we f9d 9 a :eel1 or a /one :irl$ 9 a sl+4 ,let u suppose1 !n1 ! planet to endeavor to approa* ! sun2 s9ce1 9 ! mean "t1 x requires1 by ! circul> motion1 a =ce to rec$e f ! same c5tral body1 x comes to pass1 t :5 #cid ^? two opposite =ces are equal1 ea* comp5sates ! o!r1 & ! planet _c g ne>] to ! sun nor fur!r f him ?an a c]ta9 det]m9ate space1 & ?us appe>s balanc$ & float+ ab\t him4 ,note #agg3 ,cap4 #b4 ,note #ahg3 ,ib4 #aa4 ,note #aig3 ,p4 #dg4 ,?is is a v rem>kable passage2 b x w be obs]v$1 at ! same "t1 t ! au?or has no di/9ct conception ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! *ange ( direction ( ! planet's motion is regulat$ f "o in/ant to ano!r2 /ill less d 8 views lead to any mode ( calculat+ ! di/ance f ! c5tral body at :i* ! planet w\ld be ?us balanc$1 or ! space ?r\gh :i* x might approa* to ! c5tre & rec$e f x4 ,!re is a great int]val f ,borelli's guesses1 ev5 to ,huygh5s' !orems & a mu* great] to ! beg9n+ ( ,newton's discov]ies4 7,engl&47 ,x is peculi>ly int]e/+ to u to trace ! gradual approa* t[>ds ^! discov]ies :i* took place 9 ! m9ds ( ,engli% ma!maticians & ?is we c d ) tol]able di/9ctness4 ,gilb]t1 9 8 "w1 ,de ,magnete1 pr9t$ 9 #afjj1 has only "s vague notions t ! magnetic virtue ( ! e>? 9 "s way det]m9es ! direction ( ! e>?'s axis1 ! rate ( its diurnal rotation1 & t ( ! revolution ( ! moon ab\t x4#bjg ,he di$ 9 #afjc1 &1 9 8 po/hum\s "w1 already m5tion$ 7,de ,mundo no/ro ,sublun>i ,philosophia nova1 #afea71 we h already a m di/9ct /atem5t ( ! attraction ( "o body by ano!r4#bag ,! =ce :i* emanates f ! moon rea*es to ! e>?1 &1 9 l mann]1 ! magnetic virtue ( ! e>? p]vades ! region ( ! moon3 bo? correspond & conspire by ! jo9t action ( bo?1 accord+ to a proportion & con=mity ( motions2 b ! e>? has m effect1 9 consequ5ce ( its sup]ior mass2 ! e>? attracts & repels ! moon1 & ! moon1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 ! e>?2 n s z to make ! bodies come toge!r1 z magnetic bodies d1 b s t !y may g on 9 a cont9u\s c\rse4 ,?\gh ?is phraseology is capable ( repres5t+ a good deal ( ! tru?1 x does n appe> to h be5 connect$1 9 ! au?or's m9d1 ) any v def9ite notions ( me*anical action 9 detail4 ,we may probably say ! same ( ,milton's language3 ,:at if ! sun ,be c5tre to ! _w2 & o!r />s1 ,by 8 attractive virtue & _! own ,incit$1 dance ab\t him v>i\s r\nds8 ,p>4 ,lo/1 ,b4 viii4 #cie ,note #bjg3 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 #f1 #g4 ,note #bag3 ,ib4 ii4 c4 #ai4 ,boyle1 ab\t ! same p]iod1 seems to h incl9$ to ! ,c>tesian hypo!sis4 ,?us1 9 ord] to %[ ! advantage ( ! natural !ology :i* contemplates organic contrivances1 ov] t :i* ref]s to a/ronomy1 he rem>ks3 ,x may be said1 t 9 bodies inanimate1#bbg ! contrivance is v r>ely s exquisite b t ! v>i\s motions & occurr5ces ( _! p>ts may1 )\t mu* improbability1 be suspect$ capable1 aft] _m essays1 to ca/ "o ano!r into sev]al ( ^? circumvolutions call$ by ,epicurus & by ,desc>tes1 vortices2 :i* be+ once made1 may cont9ue a long "t aft] ! mann] expla9$ by ! latt]4 ,nei!r ,milton nor ,boyle1 h[ev]1 c be suppos$ to h _h an exact k ( ! laws ( me*anics2 & !re=e !y d n fully repres5t ! views ( _! ma!matical contempor>ies4 ,b !re arose ab\t ?is "t a gr\p ( philosoph]s1 :o began to knock at ! door :]e ,tru? 0 to be f\nd1 al?\gh x 0 left = ,newton to =ce x op54 ,^! 7 ! f\nd]s ( ! ,royal ,society1 ,wilk9s1 ,wallis1 ,se? ,w>d1 ,wr51 ,hooke1 & o!rs4 ,! "t ( ! beg9n+ ( ! speculations & association ( ^! m5 corresponds to ! "t ( ! civil w>s betwe5 ! k+ & p>liam5t 9 ,engl& & x does n appe> a fanciful acc\nt ( _! sci5tific zeal & activity1 to say1 t :ile !y %>$ ! common m5tal f]m5t ( ! times1 !y s\ght 9 ! calm & peaceful pursuit ( k a contra/ to ! vexati\s & angry /ruggles :i* at t "t di/urb$ ! repose ( society4 ,x 0 well if ^! diss5sions produc$ any good to sci5ce to balance ! obvi\s evils :i* fl[$ f !m4 ,gascoigne1 ! inv5tor ( ! micromet]1 a fri5d ( ,horrox1 0 kill$ 9 ! battle ( ,m>/on ,moor4 ,milburne1 ano!r fri5d ( ,horrox1 :o l him detect$ ! errors ( ,lansb]g's a/ronomical tables1 left pap]s on ?is subject1 :i* 7 lo/ by ! com+ ( ! ,scot* army into ,engl& 9 #afci2 9 ! civil w> :i* ensu$1 ! anatomical collections ( ,h>vey 7 plund]$ & de/roy$4 ,mo/ ( ^! p]sons ( :om ,i h lately _h to speak1 7 involv$ 9 ! *anges ( =tune ( ! ,commonweal?1 "s on "o side1 & "s on ! o!r4 ,wilk9s 0 made ,w>d5 ( ,wadham by ! committee ( p>liam5t appo9t$ = re=m+ ! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d2 & 01 9 #afei1 made ,ma/] ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,cambridge1 by ,ri*>d ,cromwell1 b eject$ !nce ! ye> foll[+1 ^u ! re/oration ( ! #cif royal sway4 ,se? ,w>d1 :o 0 a ,fell[ ( ,sidney ,college1 ,cambridge1 0 depriv$ ( 8 ,fell[%ip by ! p>liam5t>y committee2 b at a lat] p]iod 7#afdi7 he took ! engagem5t to be fai?ful to ! ,commonweal?1 & became ,savilian ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy at ,ox=d4 ,wallis held a ,fell[%ip ( ,que5's ,college1 ,cambridge1 b vacat$ x by m>riage4 ,he 0 aft]w>ds mu* employ$ by ! royal p>ty 9 deciph]+ secret writ+s1 9 :i* art he _h peculi> skill4 ,yet he 0 appo9t$ by ! p>liam5t>y commission]s ,savilian ,pr(essor ( ,geometry at ,ox=d1 9 :i* situation he 0 cont9u$ by ,*>les ,,ii4 aft] 8 re/oration4 ,*ri/oph] ,wr5 0 some:at lat]1 & escap$ ^! *anges4 ,he 0 *os5 ,fell[ ( ,all-,s\ls 9 #afeb1 & succe$$ ,w>d z ,savilian ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy4 ,^! m51 along ) ,boyle & sev]al o!rs1 =m$ !mselves into a club1 :i* !y call$ ! ,philosophical1 or ! ,invisible ,college2 & met1 f ab\t ! ye> #afde1 sometimes 9 ,london1 & sometimes 9 ,ox=d1 accord+ to ! *anges ( =tune & resid5ce ( ! memb]s4 ,hooke w5t to ,*ri/ ,*ur*1 ,ox=d1 9 #affc1 :]e he 0 patroniz$ by ,boyle1 ,w>d1 & ,wallis2 & :5 ! ,philosophical ,college resum$ its meet+s 9 ,london1 aft] ! ,re/oration1 z ! ,royal ,society1 ,hooke 0 made curator ( exp]im5ts4 ,halley 0 ( ! next g5]ation1 & comes aft] ,newton2 he /udi$ at ,que5's ,college1 ,ox=d1 9 #afgc2 b 0 at fir/ a man ( "s =tune1 & n engag$ 9 any (ficial situation4 ,8 tal5ts & zeal1 h[ev]1 made him an active & effective ally 9 ! promotion ( sci5ce4 ,note #bbg3 ,%aw's ,boyle's ,works1 ii4 #afj4 ,! connection ( ! p]sons ( :om we h be5 speak+ has a be>+ on our subject1 = x l$1 hi/orically speak+1 to ! publication ( ,newton's discov]ies 9 physical a/ronomy4 ,rightly to propose a problem is no inconsid]able /ep to its solution2 & x 0 und\bt$ly a great advance t[>ds ! true !ory ( ! univ]se to consid] ! motion ( ! planets r\nd ! sun z a me*anical "q1 to be solv$ by a ref]5ce to ! laws ( motion1 & by ! use ( ma!matics4 ,s f> ! ,engli% philosoph]s appe> to h gone1 be=e ! "t ( ,newton4 ,hooke1 inde$1 :5 ! doctr9e ( gravitation 0 publi%$1 ass]t$ t he _h discov]$ x previ\sly to ,newton2 & ?\gh ?is pret5sion c\ld n be ma9ta9$1 he c]ta9ly _h p]ceiv$ t ! ?+ to be done 01 to det]m9e ! effect ( a c5tral =ce 9 produc+ curvil9e> motion2 :i* effect1 z we h already se51 he illu/rat$ by exp]im5t z e>ly z #afff4 ,hooke _h also spok5 m cle>ly on ?is subject #cig 9 ,an ,attempt to prove ! ,motion ( ! ,e>? f ,obs]vations1 publi%$ 9 #afgd4 ,9 ?is1 he di/9ctly /ates t ! planets w\ld move 9 /raight l9es1 if !y 7 n deflect$ by c5tral =ces2 & t ! c5tral attractive p[] increases 9 approa*+ ! c5tre 9 c]ta9 degrees1 dep5d5t on ! di/ance4 ,n[ :at ^! degrees are1 he adds1 ,i h n yet exp]im5tally v]ifi$2 b he v5tures to promise to any "o :o succe$s 9 ?is und]tak+1 a discov]y ( ! cause ( ! heav5ly motions4 ,he ass]t$1 9 conv]sation1 to ,halley & ,wr51 t he _h solv$ ?is problem1 b 8 solution 0 nev] produc$4 ,! proposition t ! attractive =ce ( ! sun v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f ! c5tre1 _h already be5 div9$1 if n fully e/abli%$4 ,if ! orbits ( ! planets 7 circles1 ?is proportion ( ! =ces might be d$uc$ 9 ! same mann] z ! propositions conc]n+ circul> motion1 :i* ,huygh5s publi%$ 9 #afgc2 yet x does n appe> t ,huygh5s made ?is application ( 8 pr9ciples4 ,newton1 h[ev]1 _h already made ?is /ep "s ye>s be=e ?is "t4 ,accord+ly1 he says 9 a lett] to ,halley1 on ,hooke's claim to ?is discov]y1#bcg ,:5 ,huyg5ius put out 8 ,horologium ,oscillatorium1 a copy be+ pres5t$ to me1 9 my lett] ( ?anks ,i gave ^? rules 9 ! end !re( a p>ticul> comm5dation = _! usefulness 9 comput+ ! =ces ( ! moon f ! e>?1 & ! e>? f ! sun4 ,he says1 moreov]1 ,i am almo/ confid5t by circum/ances1 t ,sir ,*ri/oph] ,wr5 knew ! duplicate proportion :5 ,i gave him a visit2 & !n ,mr4 ,hooke1 by 8 book ,cometa1 w prove ! la/ ( u ?ree t knew x4 ,hooke's ,cometa 0 publi%$ 9 #afgh4 ,^! inf]5ces 7 all connect$ ) ,kepl]'s law1 t ! times are 9 ! sesquiplicate ratio ( ! major axes ( ! orbits4 ,b ,halley _h also be5 l$ to ! duplicate proportion by ano!r tra9 ( reason+1 namely1 by consid]+ ! =ce ( ! sun z an emanation1 :i* mu/ become m feeble 9 proportion to ! increas$ sph]ical surface ov] :i* x is diffus$1 & !re=e 9 ! inv]se proportion ( ! squ>e ( ! di/ances4#bdg ,9 ?is view ( ! matt]1 h[ev]1 ! difficulty 0 to det]m9e :at w\ld be ! motion ( a body act$ on by su* a =ce1 :5 ! orbit is n circul> b oblong4 ,! inve/igation ( ?is case 0 a problem :i*1 we c #cih easily conceive1 mu/ h appe>$ ( v =midable complexity :ile x 0 unsolv$1 & ! fir/ ( its k9d4 ,accord+ly ,halley1 z 8 biograph] says1 f9d+ himself unable to make x out 9 any geometrical way1 fir/ appli$ to ,mr4 ,hooke & ,sir ,*ri/oph] ,wr51 & meet+ ) no assi/ance f ei!r ( !m1 he w5t to ,cambridge 9 ,augu/ 7#afhd71 to ,mr4 ,newton1 :o suppli$ him fully ) :at he _h s ard5tly s\ght4 ,note #bcg3 ,biog4 ,brit41 art4 ,hooke4 ,note #bdg3 ,bullialdus1 9 #afde1 _h ass]t$ t ! =ce by :i* ! sun preh5dit et h>pagat1 takes hold ( & grapples ! planets1 mu/ be z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,a pap] ( ,halley's 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = ,janu>y1 #afhf1 pr(ess$ly ins]t$ z a prep>ation = ,newton's "w1 conta9s "s argum5ts aga9/ ! ,c>tesian hypo!sis ( gravity1 :i* seem to imply t ,c>tesian op9ions _h "s foot+ among ,engli% philosoph]s2 & we are told by ,:i/on1 ,newton's successor 9 8 pr(essor%ip at ,cambridge1 t ,c>tesianism =m$ a "p ( ! /udies ( t place4 ,inde$1 ,rohault's ,physics 0 us$ z a classbook at t ,univ]sity long aft] ! "t ( :i* we are speak+2 b ! peculi> ,c>tesian doctr9es :i* x conta9$ 7 soon sup]s$$ by o!rs4 ,) reg>d1 !n1 to ?is "p ( ! discov]y1 t ! =ce ( ! sun foll[s ! inv]se duplicate proportion ( ! di/ances1 we see t sev]al o!r p]sons 7 on ! v]ge ( x at ! same "t ) ,newton2 ?\gh he alone possess$ t comb9ation ( di/9ctness ( ?\ght & p[] ( ma!matical inv5tion1 :i* enabl$ him to =ce 8 way across ! b>ri]4 ,b ano!r1 & s f> z we "k1 an e>li] tra9 ( ?\ght1 l$ by a diff]5t pa? to ! same result2 & x 0 ! conv]g5ce ( ^! two l9es ( reason+ t br\ght ! conclusion to m5's m9ds ) irresi/ible =ce4 ,i speak n[ ( ! id5tification ( ! =ce :i* reta9s ! moon 9 h] orbit ) ! =ce ( gravity by :i* bodies fall at ! e>?'s surface4 ,9 ?is comp>ison ,newton _h1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 no =]unn]4 ,we are n[1 !re=e1 arriv$ at ! po9t at :i* ! hi/ory ( ,newton's great discov]y prop]ly beg9s4 #cii ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,inductive ,,epo* ,,( ,,newton4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,univ]sal ,,gravitation ,,( ,,matt]1 ,,accord+ ,,to ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,! ,,inv]se ,,squ>e ,,( ,,! ,,di/ance4 ,,9 ord] t we may ! m cle>ly consid] ! be>+ ( ?is1 ! greate/ sci5tific discov]y ev] made1 we %all resolve x into ! p>tial propositions ( :i* x consi/s4 ,( ^! we may enum]ate five4 ,! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation ass]ts1 #a4 ,t ! =ce by :i* ! diff]5t planets are attract$ to ! sun is 9 ! inv]se proportion ( ! squ>es ( _! di/ances2 #b4 ,t ! =ce by :i* ! same planet is attract$ to ! sun1 9 diff]5t p>ts ( its orbit1 is also 9 ! inv]se proportion ( ! squ>es ( ! di/ances2 #c4 ,t ! e>? also ex]ts su* a =ce on ! moon1 & t ?is =ce is id5tical ) ! =ce ( gravity2 #d4 ,t bodies ?us act on o!r bodies1 besides ^? :i* revolve r\nd !m2 ?us1 t ! sun ex]ts su* a =ce on ! moon & satellites1 & t ! planets ex]t su* =ces on "o ano!r2 #e4 ,t ?is =ce1 ?us ex]t$ by ! g5]al masses ( ! sun1 e>?1 & planets1 arises f ! attraction ( ea* p>ticle ( ^! masses2 :i* attraction foll[s ! above law1 & belongs to all matt] alike4 ,! hi/ory ( ! e/abli%m5t ( ^! five tru?s w be giv5 9 ord]4 #a4 ,sun's ,=ce on ,diff]5t ,planets4--,) reg>d to ! fir/ ( ! above five propositions1 t ! diff]5t planets are attract$ to ! sun by a =ce :i* is inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 ,newton _h s f> be5 anticipat$1 t sev]al p]sons _h discov]$ x to be true1 or ne>ly true2 t is1 !y _h discov]$ t if ! orbits ( ! planets 7 circles1 ! proportions ( ! c5tral =ce to ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance w\ld foll[ f ,kepl]'s ?ird law1 ( ! sesquiplicate proportion ( ! p]iodic times4 ,z we h se51 ,huygh5s' !orems w\ld h prov$ ?is1 if !y _h be5 s appli$2 ,wr5 knew x2 ,hooke n only knew x1 b claim$ a prior k to ,newton2 & ,halley _h satisfi$ himself t x 0 at #djj lea/ ne>ly true1 be=e he visit$ ,newton4 ,hooke 0 report$ to ,newton at ,cambridge1 z hav+ appli$ to ! ,royal ,society to d him ju/ice ) reg>d to 8 claims2 b :5 ,halley wrote & in=m$ ,newton 79 a lett] dat$ ,june #bi1 #afhf71 t ,hooke's conduct _h be5 repres5t$ 9 worse colors ?an x ought1 ,newton ins]t$ 9 8 book a notice ( ^! 8 pr$ecessors1 9 ord]1 z he said1 to compose ! dispute4#beg ,?is notice appe>s 9 a ,s*olium to ! f\r? ,proposition ( ! ,pr9cipia1 :i* /ates ! g5]al law ( revolutions 9 circles4 ,! case ( ! six? coroll>y1 ,newton !re says1 obta9s 9 ! cele/ial bodies1 z has be5 sep>ately inf]r$ by our c\ntrym51 ,wr51 ,hooke1 & ,halley2 he soon aft] names ,huygh5s1 :o1 9 8 excell5t treatise ,de ,horologio ,oscillatorio1 comp>es ! =ce ( gravity ) ! c5trifugal =ces ( revolv+ bodies4 ,note #beg3 ,biog4 ,brit4 folio1 art4 ,hooke4 ,! two /eps requisite = ?is discov]y 71 to propose ! motions ( ! planets z simply a me*anical problem1 & to apply ma!matical reason+ s z to solve ?is problem1 ) ref]5ce to ,kepl]'s ?ird law consid]$ z a fact4 ,! =m] /ep 0 a consequ5ce ( ! me*anical discov]ies ( ,galileo & 8 s*ool2 ! result ( ! firm & cle> place :i* ^! gradually obta9$ 9 m5's m9d1 & ( ! utt] abolition ( all ! notions ( solid sph]es by ,kepl]4 ,! ma!matical /ep requir$ no small ma!matical p[]s2 z appe>s1 :5 we consid] t ?is 0 ! fir/ example ( su* a problem1 & t ! me?od ( limits1 "u all its =ms1 0 at ?is "t 9 its infancy1 or r1 at its bir?4 ,accord+ly1 ev5 ?is /ep1 ?\gh mu* ! easie/ 9 ! pa? ( d$uction1 no "o be=e ,newton completely execut$4 #b4 ,=ce 9 diff]5t ,po9ts ( an ,orbit4--,! inf]5ce ( ! law ( ! =ce f ,kepl]'s two laws conc]n+ ! elliptical motion1 0 a problem q diff]5t f ! prec$+1 & mu* m difficult2 b ! dispute ) respect to priority 9 ! two propositions 0 int]m+l$4 ,borelli1 9 #afff1 _h1 z we h se51 endeavor$ to reconcile ! g5]al =m ( ! orbit ) ! notion ( a c5tral attractive =ce1 by tak+ c5trifugal =ce into ! acc\nt2 & ,hooke1 9 #afgi1 _h ass]t$ t ! result ( ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e 9 ! =ce ( ! e>? w\ld be an ellipse1#bfg or a curve l an ellipse4#bgg ,b x does n appe> t ?is 0 any ?+ m ?an #dja a conjecture4 ,halley says#bhg t ,hooke1 9 #afhc1 told him he _h demon/rat$ all ! laws ( ! cele/ial motions by ! reciprocally duplicate proportion ( ! =ce ( gravity2 b t1 be+ (f]$ =ty %ill+s by ,sir ,*ri/oph] ,wr5 to produce su* a demon/ration1 8 answ] 01 t he _h x1 b w\ld conceal x = "s "t1 t o!rs1 try+ & fail+1 might "k h[ to value x :5 he %\ld make x public4 ,halley1 h[ev]1 truly obs]ves1 t aft] ! publication ( ! demon/ration 9 ! ,pr9cipia1 ?is reason no long] held2 & adds1 ,i h pla9ly told him1 t unless he produce ano!r diff]+ demon/ration1 & let ! _w judge ( x1 nei!r ,i nor any "o else c believe x4 ,note #bfg3 ,newton's ,lett]1 ,biog4 ,brit41 ,hooke1 p4 #bffj4 ,note #bgg3 ,bir*'s ,hi/4 ,r4 ,s41 ,wallis's ,life4 ,note #bhg3 ,enc4 ,brit41 ,hooke1 p4 #bffj4 ,newton all[s t ,hooke's ass]tions 9 #afgi gave occasion to 8 inve/igation on ?is po9t ( ! !ory4 ,8 demon/ration is conta9$ 9 ! second & ?ird ,sections ( ! ,pr9cipia4 ,he fir/ treats ( ! g5]al law ( c5tral =ces 9 any curve2 & !n1 on acc\nt1 z he /ates1 ( ! application to ! motion ( ! heav5ly bodies1 he treats ( ! case ( =ce v>y+ inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 9 a m diffuse mann]4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 ! =m] portion ( 8 discov]y1 ! two /eps 71 ! propos+ ! heav5ly motions z a me*anical problem1 & ! solv+ ?is problem4 ,borelli & ,hooke _h c]ta9ly made ! =m] /ep1 ) consid]able di/9ctness2 b ! ma!matical solution requir$ no common inv5tive p[]4 ,newton seems to h be5 mu* ruffl$ by ,hooke's speak+ slightly ( ! value ( ?is second /ep2 & is mov$ 9 return to d5y ,hooke's pret5sions ) "s asp]ity1 & to ass]t 8 own4 ,he says1 9 a lett] to ,halley1 ,borelli did some?+ 9 x1 & wrote mode/ly2 he 7,hooke7 has done no?+2 & yet writt5 9 su* a way z if he knew1 & _h suffici5tly h9t$ all b :at rema9$ to be det]m9$ by ! drudg]y ( calculations & obs]vations2 excus+ himself f t labor by reason ( 8 o!r bus9ess2 :]eas he %\ld r h excus$ himself by reason ( 8 inability2 = x is v pla91 by 8 words1 he knew n h[ to g ab\t x4 ,n[ is n ?is v f9e8 ,ma!maticians t f9d out1 settle1 & d all ! bus9ess1 mu/ cont5t !mselves ) be+ no?+ b dry calculators & drudges2 & ano!r t does no?+ b pret5d & grasp at all ?+s1 mu/ c>ry away all ! inv5tions1 z well ( ^? t 7 to foll[ him z ( ^? t #djb w5t be=e4 ,?is 0 writt51 h[ev]1 "u ! influ5ce ( "s degree ( mi/ake2 & 9 a subsequ5t lett]1 ,newton says1 ,n[ ,i und]/& he 0 9 "s respects misrepres5t$ to me1 ,i wi% ,i _h sp>$ ! po/script to my la/1 9 :i* is ! passage j quot$4 ,we see1 by ! melt+ away ( rival claims1 ! undivid$ honor :i* belongs to ,newton1 z ! real discov]] ( ! proposition n[ "u notice4 ,we may add1 t 9 ! sequel ( ! ?ird ,section ( ! ,pr9cipia1 he has trac$ its consequ5ces1 & solv$ v>i\s problems fl[+ f x ) 8 usual f]tility & beauty ( ma!matical res\rce2 & has !re %[n ! necess>y connection ( ,kepl]'s ?ird law ) 8 fir/ & second4 #c4 ,moon's ,gravity to ! ,e>?4--,?\gh o!rs _h consid]$ cosmical =ces z gov]n$ by ! g5]al laws ( motion1 x does n appe> t !y _h id5tifi$ su* =ces ) ! =ce ( t]re/rial gravity4 ,?is /ep 9 ,newton's discov]ies has g5]ally be5 ! mo/ spok5 ( by sup]ficial ?9k]s2 & a false k9d ( int]e/ has be5 atta*$ to x1 f ! /ory ( its be+ sugge/$ by ! fall ( an apple4 ,! popul> m9d is caught by ! "* ( an ev5tful n>rative :i* ! anecdote gives to ?is occurr5ce2 & by ! anti!sis :i* makes a pr(\nd !ory appe> ! result ( a trivial accid5t4 ,h[ inappropriate is su* a view ( ! matt] we %all soon see4 ,! n>rative ( ! progress ( ,newton's ?\ghts1 is giv5 by ,pemb]ton 7:o _h x f ,newton himself7 9 8 preface to 8 ,view ( ,newton's ,philosophy1 & by ,voltaire1 :o _h x f ,mrs4 ,conduit1 ,newton's niece4#big ,! fir/ ?\ghts1 we are told1 :i* gave rise to 8 ,pr9cipia1 he _h :5 he retir$ f ,cambridge1 9 #afff1 on acc\nt ( ! plague 7he 0 !n tw5ty-f\r ye>s ( age74 ,z he sat alone 9 a g>d51 he fell into a speculation on ! p[] ( gravity2 t z ?is p[] is n f\nd s5sibly dim9i%$ at ! remote/ di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! e>? to :i* we c rise1 nei!r at ! tops ( ! l(tie/ build+s1 nor ev5 on ! summits ( ! highe/ m\nta9s1 x appe>$ to him reasonable to conclude t ?is p[] mu/ ext5d mu* fur!r ?an 0 usually ?\ght3 ,:y n z high z ! moon8 said he to himself2 & if s1 h] motion mu/ be influ5c$ by x2 p]haps %e is reta9$ 9 h] orbit !reby4 ,note #big3 ,elm5s de ,phil4 de ,newton1 #cme p>tie1 *ap4 iii4 ,! ?\ght ( cosmical gravitation 0 ?us di/9ctly br\ght into be+2 & ,newton's sup]iority "h 01 t he conceiv$ ! #djc cele/ial motions z di/9ctly z ! motions :i* took place close to him2--consid]$ !m z ( ! same k9d1 & appli$ ! same rules to ea*1 )\t hesitation or obscurity4 ,b s f>1 ?is ?\ght 0 m]ely a guess3 its occurr5ce %[$ ! activity ( ! ?9k]2 b to give x any value1 x requir$ mu* m ?an a :y n8--a p]haps4 ,accord+ly1 ,newton's :y n8 0 imm$iately succe$$ by 8 if s1 :at !n8 ,8 reason+ 01 t if gravity rea* to ! moon1 x is probably ( ! same k9d z ! c5tral =ce ( ! sun1 & foll[s ! same rule ) respect to ! di/ance4 ,:at is ?is rule8 ,we h already se5 t1 by calculat+ f ,kepl]'s laws1 & suppos+ ! orbits to be circles1 ! rule ( ! =ce appe>s to be ! inv]se duplicate proportion ( ! di/ance2 & ?is1 :i* _h be5 curr5t z a conjecture among ! previ\s g5]ation ( ma!maticians1 ,newton _h already prov$ by indisputable reason+s1 & 0 ?us prep>$ to proce$ 9 8 tra9 ( inquiry4 ,if1 !n1 he w5t on1 pursu+ 8 tra9 ( ?\ght1 ! e>?'s gravity ext5d to ! moon1 dim9i%+ accord+ to ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 w x1 at ! moon's orbit1 be ( ! prop] magnitude = reta9+ h] 9 h] pa?8 ,"h aga9 came 9 calculation1 & a calculation ( extreme int]e/2 = h[ important & h[ critical 0 ! decision :i* dep5d$ on ! result+ numb]s8 ,accord+ to ,newton's calculations1 made at ?is "t1 ! moon by h] motion 9 h] orbit1 0 deflect$ f ! tang5t e m9ute ?r\gh a space ( ?irte5 feet4 ,b by notic+ ! space ?r\gh :i* bodies w\ld fall 9 "o m9ute at ! e>?'s surface1 & suppos+ ?is to be dim9i%$ 9 ! ratio ( ! inv]se squ>e1 x appe>$ t gravity w\ld1 at ! moon's orbit1 draw a body ?r\gh m ?an fifte5 feet4 ,! diff]5ce seems small1 ! approximation enc\rag+1 ! !ory plausible2 a man 9 love ) 8 own fancies w\ld readily h discov]$ or inv5t$ "s probable cause ( ?is diff]5ce4 ,b ,newton acquiesc$ 9 x z a dispro( ( 8 conjecture1 & laid aside at t "t any fur!r ?\ghts ( ?is matt]29999 ?us resign+ a favorite hypo!sis1 ) a c&or & op5ness to conviction n inf]ior to ,kepl]1 ?\gh 8 notion _h be5 tak5 up on f> /rong] & s\nd] gr\nds ?an ,kepl] dealt 92 & )\t ev51 s f> z we "k1 ,kepl]'s regrets & /ruggles4 ,nor 0 ?is levity or indiff]5ce2 ! idea1 ?\gh ?us laid aside1 0 n f9ally condemn$ & ab&on$4 ,:5 ,hooke1 9 #afgi1 contradict$ ,newton on ! subject ( ! curve describ$ by a fall+ body1 & ass]t$ x to be an ellipse1 ,newton #djd 0 l$ to inve/igate ! subject1 & 0 !n aga9 conduct$1 by ano!r road1 to ! same law ( ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,?is naturally turn$ 8 ?\ghts to 8 =m] speculations4 ,0 !re really no way ( expla9+ ! discrepancy :i* ?is law gave1 :5 he attempt$ to r$uce ! moon's motion to ! action ( gravity8 ,a sci5tific op]ation !n rec5tly complet$1 gave ! explanation at once4 ,he _h be5 mi/ak5 9 ! magnitude ( ! e>?1 & consequ5tly 9 ! di/ance ( ! moon1 :i* is det]m9$ by measurem5ts ( :i* ! e>?'s radius is ! base4 ,he _h tak5 ! common e/imate1 curr5t among geograph]s & seam51 t sixty ,engli% miles are conta9$ 9 "o degree ( latitude4 ,b ,pic>d1 9 #afgj1 _h measur$ ! l5g? ( a c]ta9 portion ( ! m]idian 9 ,france1 ) f> great] accuracy ?an _h yet be5 atta9$ & ?is measure enabl$ ,newton to repeat 8 calculations ) ^! am5d$ data4 ,we may imag9e ! /rong curiosity :i* he mu/ h felt z to ! result ( ^! calculations4 ,8 =m] conjecture 0 n[ f\nd to agree ) ! ph5om5a to a rem>kable degree ( precision4 ,?is conclusion1 ?us com+ aft] long d\bts & delays1 & fall+ 9 ) ! o!r results ( me*anical calculation = ! sol> sy/em1 gave a /amp f t mom5t to 8 op9ions1 & ?r\gh him to ^? ( ! :ole philosophical _w4 #b;d ,ed4 ,dr4 ,robison 7,me*anical ,philosophy1 p4 #bhh7 says t ,newton hav+ become a memb] ( ! ,royal ,society1 !re le>n$ ! accurate measurem5t ( ! e>? by ,pic>d1 diff]+ v mu* f ! e/imation by :i* he _h made 8 calculations 9 #afff4 ,& ,m4 ,biot1 9 8 ,life ( ,newton1 publi%$ 9 ! ,biographie ,univ]selle1 says1 ,accord+ to conjecture1 ab\t ! mon? ( ,june1 #afhb1 ,newton be+ 9 ,london at a meet+ ( ! ,royal ,society1 m5tion 0 made ( ! new measure ( a degree ( ! e>?'s surface1 rec5tly execut$ 9 ,france by ,pic>d2 & great praise 0 giv5 to ! c>e :i* _h be5 employ$ 9 mak+ ?is measure exact4 ,i _h adopt$ ?is conjecture z a fact 9 my fir/ edition2 b x has be5 po9t$ out by ,pr(4 ,rigaud 7,hi/orical ,essay on ! ,fir/ ,publication ( ! ,pr9cipia1 #ahch71 t ,pic>d's measurem5t 0 probably well kn[n to ! ,fell[s ( ! ,royal ,society z e>ly z #afge1 !re be+ an acc\nt ( ! results ( x giv5 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = t ye>4 ,newton appe>s to h discov]$ ! me?od ( det]m9+ t a body might describe an ellipse :5 act$ ^u by a =ce resid+ 9 ! focus1 & v>y+ #dje inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 9 #afgi1 ^u occasion ( 8 correspond5ce ) ,hooke4 ,9 #afhd1 at ,halley's reque/1 he return$ to ! subject1 & 9 ,febru>y1 #afhe1 !re 0 ins]t$ 9 ! ,regi/] ( ! ,royal ,society a pap] ( ,newton's 7,isaaci ,newtoni ,propositiones de ,motu7 :i* conta9$ "s ( ! pr9cipal ,propositions ( ! fir/ two ,books ( ! ,pr9cipia4 ,?is pap]1 h[ev]1 does n conta9 ! ,proposition ,lunam gravit>e 9 t]ram1 nor any ( ! o!r propositions ( ! ?ird ,book4 ,! ,pr9cipia 0 pr9t$ 9 #afhf & #g1 app>5tly at ! exp5se ( ,halley4 ,on ! #f? ( ,april1 #afhg1 ! ?ird ,book 0 pres5t$ to ! ,royal ,society4 ,x does n appe>1 ,i ?9k1 t be=e ,newton1 philosoph]s 9 g5]al _h suppos$ t t]re/rial gravity 0 ! v =ce by :i* ! moon's motions are produc$4 ,m5 _h1 z we h se51 tak5 up ! conception ( su* =ces1 & _h probably call$ !m gravity3 b ?is 0 done only to expla91 by analogy1 :at k9d ( =ces !y 71 j z at o!r times !y comp>$ !m ) magnetism2 & x did n imply t t]re/rial gravity 0 a =ce :i* act$ 9 ! cele/ial spaces4 ,aft] ,newton _h discov]$ t ?is 0 s1 ! application ( ! t]m gravity did und\bt$ly convey su* a sugge/ion2 b we %\ld err if we inf]r$ f ?is co9cid5ce ( expression t ! notion 0 commonly ent]ta9$ be=e him4 ,?us ,huygh5s appe>s to use language :i* may be mi/ak51 :5 he says1#cjg t ,borelli 0 ( op9ion t ! prim>y planets 7 urg$ by gravity t[>ds ! sun1 & ! satellites t[>ds ! prim>ies4 ,! notion ( t]re/rial gravity1 z be+ actually a cosmical =ce1 is =eign to all ,borelli's speculations4#cag ,b ,horrox1 z e>ly z #afce1 appe>s to h ent]ta9$ ! true view on ?is subject1 al?\gh vitiat$ by ,kepl]ian errors conc]n+ ! connection betwe5 ! rotation ( ! c5tral body & its effect on ! body :i* revolves ab\t x4 ,?us he says1#cbg t ! emanation ( ! e>? c>ries a project$ /one along ) ! motion ( ! e>?1 j 9 ! same way z x c>ries ! moon 9 h] orbit2 & t ?is =ce is great] on ! /one ?an on ! moon1 because ! di/ance is less4 ,note #cjg3 9999,cosmo!oros1 l4 #b4 p4 #gbj4 ,note #cag3 ,i h f\nd no in/ance 9 :i* ! ^w is s us$ by him4 ,note #cbg3 ,a/ronomia ,kepl]iana def5sa et promota1 cap4 #b4 ,see fur!r on ?is subject 9 ! ,additions to ?is volume4 ,! ,proposition 9 :i* ,newton has /at$ ! discov]y ( :i* we are n[ speak+1 is ! f\r? ( 8 ?ird ,book3 ,t ! moon gravitates to ! e>?1 & by ! =ce ( gravity is p]petually #djf deflect$ f a rectil9e> motion1 & reta9$ 9 h] orbit4 ,! pro( consi/s 9 ! num]ical calculation1 ( :i* he only gives ! elem5ts1 & po9ts out ! me?od2 b we may obs]ve1 t no small degree ( k ( ! way 9 :i* a/ronom]s _h obta9$ ^! elem5ts1 & judgm5t 9 select+ among !m1 7 necess>y3 ?us1 ! mean di/ance ( ! moon _h be5 made z little z fifty-six & a half semidiamet]s ( ! e>? by ,ty*o1 & z mu* z sixty-two & a half by ,kir*]3 ,newton gives good reasons = adopt+ sixty-"o4 ,! t]m gravity1 & ! expression to gravitate1 :i*1 z we h j se51 ,newton uses ( ! moon1 7 to receive a /ill wid] application 9 consequ5ce ( 8 discov]ies2 b 9 ord] to make ?is ext5sion cle>]1 we consid] x z a sep>ate /ep4 #d4 ,mutual ,attraction ( all ! ,cele/ial ,bodies4--,if ! prec$+ p>ts ( ! discov]y ( gravitation 7 comp>atively easy to conjecture1 & difficult to prove1 ?is 0 mu* m ! case ) ! "p ( :i* we h n[ to speak1 ! attraction ( o!r bodies1 besides ! c5tral ones1 ^u ! planets & satellites4 ,if ! ma!matical calculation ( ! unmix$ effect ( a c5tral =ce requir$ transc5d5t tal5ts1 h[ mu* mu/ ! difficulty be increas$1 :5 o!r influ5ces prev5t$ ^? fir/ results f be+ accurately v]ifi$1 :ile ! deviations f accuracy 7 f> m complex ?an ! orig9al action6 ,if x _h n be5 t ^! deviations1 ?\gh surpris+ly num]\s & complicat$ 9 _! nature1 7 v small 9 _! quantity1 x w\ld h be5 impossible = ! intellect ( man to deal ) ! subject2 z x 01 ! /ruggle ) its difficulties is ev5 n[ a matt] ( wond]4 ,! conjecture t !re is "s mutual action ( ! planets1 _h be5 put =? by ,hooke 9 8 ,attempt to prove ! ,motion ( ! ,e>? 7#afgd74 ,x foll[$1 he said1 f 8 doctr9e1 t n only ! sun & moon act ^u ! c\rse & motion ( ! e>?1 b t ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 & ,saturn1 h also1 by _! attractive p[]1 a consid]able influ5ce ^u ! motion ( ! e>?1 & ! e>? 9 l mann] p[]fully affects ! motions ( ^? bodies4 ,& ,borelli1 9 attempt+ to =m !ories ( ! satellites ( ,jupit]1 _h se51 ?\gh dimly & confus$ly1 ! probability t ! sun w\ld di/urb ! motions ( ^! bodies4 ,?us he says 7cap4 #ad71 ,h[ c we believe t ! ,m$icean globes are n1 l o!r planets1 impell$ ) a great] velocity :5 !y approa* ! sun3 & ?us !y are act$ ^u by two mov+ =ces1 "o ( #djg :i* produces _! prop] revolution ab\t ,jupit]1 ! o!r regulates _! motion r\nd ! sun4 ,& 9 ano!r place 7cap4 #bj71 he attempts to %[ an effect ( ?is pr9ciple ^u ! incl9ation ( ! orbit2 ?\gh1 z might be expect$1 )\t any real result4 ,! case :i* mo/ obvi\sly sugge/s ! notion t ! sun ex]ts a p[] to di/urb ! motions ( second>y planets ab\t prim>y ones1 might seem to be our own moon2 = ! great inequalities :i* _h hi!rto be5 discov]$1 _h all1 except ! fir/1 or elliptical anomaly1 a ref]5ce to ! position ( ! sun4 ,nev]!less1 ,i d n "k t any "o _h attempt$ ?us to expla9 ! curi\sly irregul> c\rse ( ! e>?'s att5dant4 ,to calculate1 f ! di/urb+ ag5cy1 ! am\nt ( ! irregul>ities1 0 a problem :i* c\ld n1 at any =m] p]iod1 h be5 dreamt ( z likely to be at any "t )9 ! v]ge ( human p[]4 ,newton bo? made ! /ep ( inf]r+ t !re 7 su* =ces1 &1 to a v great ext5t1 calculat$ ! effects ( !m4 ,! inf]5ce is made on me*anical pr9ciples1 9 ! six? ,!orem ( ! ?ird ,book ( ! ,pr9cipia2--t ! moon is attract$ by ! sun1 z ! e>? is2--t ! satellites ( ,jupit] & ,saturn are attract$ z ! prim>ies are2 9 ! same mann]1 & ) ! same =ces4 ,if ?is 7 n s1 x is %[n t ^! att5dant bodies c\ld n accompany ! pr9cipal ones 9 ! regul> mann] 9 :i* !y d4 ,all ^? bodies at equal di/ances f ! sun w\ld be equally attract$4 ,b ! complexity :i* mu/ occur 9 trac+ ! results ( ?is pr9ciple w easily be se54 ,! satellite & ! prim>y1 ?\gh ne>ly at ! same di/ance1 & 9 ! same direction1 f ! sun1 are n exactly s4 ,moreov] ! diff]5ce ( ! di/ances & ( ! directions is p]petually *ang+2 & if ! motion ( ! satellite be elliptical1 ! cycle ( *ange is long & intricate3 on ?is acc\nt alone ! effects ( ! sun's action w inevitably foll[ cycles z long & z p]plex$ z ^? ( ! positions4 ,b on ano!r acc\nt !y w be /ill m complicat$2 = 9 ! cont9u$ action ( a =ce1 ! effect :i* takes place at fir/1 modifies & alt]s ! effect aft]w>ds4 ,! result at any mom5t is ! sum ( ! results 9 prec$+ in/ants3 & s9ce ! t]ms1 9 ?is s]ies ( in/antane\s effects1 foll[ v complex rules1 ! sums ( su* s]ies w be1 x might be expect$1 utt]ly incapable ( be+ r$uc$ to any manageable degree ( simplicity4 ,x c]ta9ly does n appe> t any "o b ,newton c\ld make #djh any impression on ?is problem1 or c\rse ( problems4 ,no "o = sixty ye>s aft] ! publication ( ! ,pr9cipia1 &1 ) ,newton's me?ods1 no "o up to ! pres5t day1 _h add$ any ?+ ( any value to 8 d$uctions4 ,we "k t he calculat$ all ! pr9cipal lun> inequalities2 9 _m ( ! cases1 he has giv5 u 8 processes2 9 o!rs1 only 8 results4 ,b :o has pres5t$1 9 8 beautiful geometry1 or d$uc$ f 8 simple pr9ciples1 any ( ! inequalities :i* he left unt\*$8 ,! pond]\s in/rum5t ( syn!sis1 s effective 9 8 h&s1 has nev] s9ce be5 grasp$ by "o :o c\ld use x = su* purposes2 & we gaze at x ) admir+ curiosity1 z on "s gigantic implem5t ( w>1 :i* /&s idle among ! memorials ( anci5t days1 & makes u wond] :at mann] ( man he 0 :o c\ld wield z a weapon :at we c h>dly lift z a burd54 ,x is n necess>y to po9t out 9 detail ! sagacity & skill :i* m>k ?is "p ( ! ,pr9cipia4 ,! mode 9 :i* ! au?or obta9s ! effect ( a di/urb+ =ce 9 produc+ a motion ( ! apse ( an elliptical orbit 7! n9? ,section ( ! fir/ ,book71 has always be5 admir$ = its +5uity & elegance4 ,! g5]al /atem5t ( ! nature ( ! pr9cipal inequalities produc$ by ! sun 9 ! motion ( a satellite1 giv5 9 ! sixty-six? ,proposition1 is1 ev5 yet1 "o ( ! be/ explanations ( su* action2 & ! calculations ( ! quantity ( ! effects 9 ! ?ird ,book1 = in/ance1 ! v>iation ( ! moon1 ! motion ( ! nodes & its inequalities1 ! *ange ( incl9ation ( ! orbit1--are full ( beautiful & efficaci\s artifices4 ,b ,newton's inv5tive faculty 0 ex]cis$ to an ext5t great] ?an ^! publi%$ inve/igations %[4 ,9 sev]al cases he has suppress$ ! demon/ration ( 8 me?od1 & giv5 u ! result only2 ei!r f ha/e or f m]e we>9ess1 :i* might well ov]take "o :o1 :ile he 0 /ruggl+ ) facts & numb]s1 ) difficulties ( conception & practice1 0 aim+ also at t geometrical elegance ( exposition1 :i* he consid]$ z alone fit = ! public eye4 ,?us1 9 /at+ ! effect ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! moon's orbit ^u ! motion ( ! apogee1 he says1#ccg ,! computations1 z too intricate & emb>rass$ ) approximations1 ,i d n *oose to introduce4 ,note #ccg3 ,s*ol4 to ,prop4 #ce1 fir/ edit4 ,! computations ( ! !oretical motion ( ! moon be+ ?us difficult1 & its irregul>ities num]\s & complex1 we may ask #dji :e!r ,newton's reason+ 0 suffici5t to e/abli% ?is "p ( 8 !ory2 namely1 t h] actual motions arise f h] gravitation to ! sun4 ,& to ?is we may reply1 t x 0 suffici5t = t purpose1--s9ce x %[$ t1 f ,newton's hypo!sis1 inequalities mu/ result1 foll[+ ! laws :i* ! moon's inequalities 7 kn[n to foll[2--s9ce ! am\nt ( ! inequalities giv5 by ! !ory agre$ ne>ly ) ! rules :i* a/ronom]s _h collect$ f obs]vation2--& s9ce1 by ! v intricacy ( ! calculation1 x 0 r5d]$ probable1 t ! fir/ results might be some:at inaccurate1 & ?us might give rise to ! /ill rema9+ diff]5ces betwe5 ! calculations & ! facts4 ,a ,progression ( ! ,apogee2 a ,regression ( ! ,nodes2 &1 besides ! ,elliptical1 or fir/ ,inequality1 an inequality1 foll[+ ! law ( ! ,evection1 or second inequality discov]$ by ,ptolemy2 ano!r1 foll[+ ! law ( ! ,v>iation discov]$ by ,ty*o2--7 po9t$ out 9 ! fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9cipia1 z ! consequ5ces ( ! !ory4 ,moreov]1 ! quantities ( ^! inequalities 7 calculat$ & comp>$ ) obs]vation ) ! utmo/ confid5ce1 & ! agreem5t 9 mo/ in/ances 0 /rik+4 ,! ,v>iation agre$ ) ,halley's rec5t obs]vations )9 a m9ute ( a degree4#cdg ,! ,mean ,motion ( ! ,nodes 9 a ye> agre$ )9 less ?an "o-hundr$? ( ! :ole4#ceg ,! ,equation ( ! ,motion ( ! ,nodes also agre$ well4#cfg ,! ,incl9ation ( ! ,plane ( ! ,orbit to ! ecliptic1 & its *anges1 accord+ to ! diff]5t situations ( ! nodes1 likewise agre$4#cgg ,! ,evection has be5 already notic$ z encumb]$ ) peculi> difficulties3 "h ! accordance 0 less close4 ,! ,diff]5ce ( ! daily progress ( ! ,apogee 9 syzygy1 & its daily ,regress 9 ,quadratures1 is1 ,newton says1 #d m9utes by ! ,tables1 #f by our calculation4 ,he boldly adds1 ,i suspect ?is diff]5ce to be due to ! fault ( ! ,tables4 ,9 ! second edition 7#agaa7 he add$ ! calculation ( sev]al o!r inequalities1 z ! ,annual ,equation1 also discov]$ by ,ty*o2 & he comp>$ !m ) m rec5t obs]vations made by ,flam/e$ at ,gre5wi*2 b ev5 9 :at has already be5 /at$1 x mu/ be all[$ t !re is a wond]ful accordance ( !ory ) ph5om5a1 bo? be+ v complex 9 ! rules :i* !y educe4 ,note #cdg3 ,b4 iii4 ,prop4 #bi4 ,note #ceg3 ,prop4 #cb4 ,note #cfg3 ,prop4 #cc4 ,note #cgg3 ,prop4 #ce4 ,! same !ory :i* gave ^! ,inequalities 9 ! motion ( ! ,moon produc$ by ! di/urb+ =ce ( ! sun1 gave also #daj correspond+ ,inequalities 9 ! motions ( ! ,satellites ( o!r planets1 aris+ f ! same cause2 & likewise po9t$ out ! necess>y exi/5ce ( irregul>ities 9 ! motions ( ! ,planets aris+ f _! mutual attraction4 ,newton gave propositions by :i* ! ,irregul>ities ( ! motion ( ,jupit]'s moons might be d$uc$ f ^? ( our own2#chg & x 0 %[n t ! motions ( _! nodes w\ld be sl[ by !ory1 z ,flam/e$ _h f\nd x to be by obs]vation4#cig ,b ,newton did n attempt to calculate ! effect ( ! mutual action ( ! planets1 ?\gh he obs]ves1 t 9 ! case ( ,jupit] & ,saturn ?is effect is too consid]able to be neglect$2#djg & he notices 9 ! second edition1#dag t x foll[s f ! !ory ( gravity1 t ! aphelia ( ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ! ,e>?1 & ,m>s1 slightly progress4 ,note #chg3 ,b4 i4 ,prop4 #ff4 ,note #cig3 ,b4 iii4 ,prop4 #bc4 ,note #djg3 ,b4 iii4 ,prop4 #ac4 ,note #dag3 ,s*olium to ,prop4 #ad4 ,b4 iii4 ,9 "o celebrat$ in/ance1 inde$1 ! deviation ( ! !ory ( ! ,pr9cipia f obs]vation 0 wid]1 & m difficult to expla92 & z ?is deviation = a "t resi/$ ! analysis ( ,eul] & ,clairaut1 z x _h resi/$ ! syn!sis ( ,newton1 x at "o p]iod /agg]$ ! fai? ( ma!maticians 9 ! exactness ( ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,i speak ( ! ,motion ( ! ,moon's ,apogee1 a problem :i* has already be5 ref]r$ to2 & 9 :i* ,newton's me?od1 & all ! me?ods :i* c\ld be devis$ = "s "t aft]w>ds1 gave only half ! obs]v$ motion2 a circum/ance :i* arose1 z 0 discov]$ by ,clairaut 9 #agej1 f ! insuffici5cy ( ! me?od ( approximation4 ,newton does n attempt to conceal ?is discrepancy4 ,aft] calculat+ :at ! motion ( apse w\ld be1 ^u ! assumption ( a di/urb+ =ce ( ! same am\nt z t :i* ! sun ex]ts on ! moon1 he simply says1#dbg ! apse ( ! moon moves ab\t twice z fa/4 ,note #dbg3 ,b4 i4 ,prop4 #dd1 second edit4 ,!re is reason to believe1 h[ev]1 t ,newton _h1 9 8 unpubli%$ calculations1 rectifi$ ?is discrepancy4 ,! difficulty ( do+ :at ,newton did 9 ?is bran* ( ! subject1 & ! p[]s x mu/ h requir$1 may be judg$ ( f :at has already be5 /at$2--t no "o1 ) 8 me?ods1 has yet be5 able to add any ?+ to 8 labors3 few h und]tak5 to illu/rate :at he has writt51 & no great numb] h und]/ood x ?r\gh\t4 ,! extreme complication ( ! =ces1 & ( ! conditions "u :i* !y act1 makes ! subject by f> ! mo/ ?orny walk ( ma!matics4 ,x is necess>y to resolve ! action #daa into _m elem5ts1 su* z c be sep>at$2 to inv5t artifices = deal+ ) ea* ( ^!2 & !n to recomp\nd ! laws ?us obta9$ into "o common conception4 ,! moon's motion _c be conceiv$ )\t compreh5d+ a s*eme m complex ?an ! ,ptolemaic epicycles & ecc5trics 9 _! wor/ =m2 & ! compon5t p>ts ( ! sy/em are n1 9 ?is in/ance1 m]e geometrical ideas1 requir+ only a di/9ct appreh5sion ( relations ( space 9 ord] to hold !m securely2 !y are ! f\ndations ( me*anical notions1 & require to be grasp$ s t we c apply to !m s\nd me*anical reason+s4 ,newton's successors1 9 ! next g5]ation1 ab&on$ ! hope ( imitat+ him 9 ?is int5se m5tal ef=t2 !y gave ! subject ov] to ! op]ation ( algebraical reason+1 9 :i* symbols ?9k = u1 )\t our dwell+ con/antly ^u _! mean+1 & obta9 = u ! consequ5ces :i* result f ! relations ( space & ! laws ( =ce1 h[ev] complicat$ be ! conditions "u :i* !y are comb9$4 ,ev5 ,newton's c\ntrym51 ?\gh !y 7 long be=e !y appli$ !mselves to ! me?od ?us oppos$ to 81 did n produce any ?+ :i* %[$ t !y _h ma/]$1 or c\ld retrace1 ! ,newtonian inve/igations4 ,?us ! ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies1#dcg treat$ geometrically1 belongs exclusively to ,newton2 & ! pro(s ( ! mutual action ( ! sun1 planets1 & satellites1 :i* dep5d ^u su* reason+1 c\ld n be discov]$ by any "o b him4 ,note #dcg3 ,see ! hi/ory ( ! ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies1 ante1 9 ,book vi4 ,*ap4 vi4 ,sect4 #g4 ,b we h n yet done ) 8 a*ievem5ts on ?is subject2 = "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable & beautiful ( ! reason+s :i* he connect$ ) ?is problem1 belong to ! next /ep ( 8 g5]alization4 #e4 ,mutual ,attraction ( all ,p>ticles ( ,matt]4--,t all ! p>ts ( ! univ]se are drawn & held toge!r by love1 or h>mony1 or "s affection to :i*1 among o!r names1 t ( attraction may h be5 giv51 is an ass]tion :i* may v possibly h be5 made at v>i\s times1 by speculators writ+ at r&om1 & tak+ _! *ance ( mean+ & tru?4 ,! au?ors ( su* casual dogmas h g5]ally no?+ accurate or sub/antial1 ei!r 9 _! conception ( ! g5]al proposition1 or 9 _! ref]5ce to examples ( x2 &1 !re=e1 _! doctr9es are no conc]n ( ours at pres5t4 ,b among ^? :o 7 really ! fir/ to ?9k ( ! mutual #dab attraction ( matt]1 we _c help notic+ ,francis ,bacon2 = 8 notions 7 s f> f be+ *>geable ) ! loos5ess & indi/9ctness to :i* we h allud$1 t he propos$ an exp]im5t#ddg :i* 0 to decide :e!r ! facts 7 s or n2--:e!r ! gravity ( bodies to ! e>? arose f an attraction ( ! p>ts ( matt] t[>ds ea* o!r1 or 0 a t5d5cy t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,& ?is exp]im5t is1 ev5 to ?is day1 "o ( ! be/ :i* c be devis$1 9 ord] to exhibit ! univ]sal gravitation ( matt]3 x consi/s 9 ! comp>ison ( ! rate ( go+ ( a clock 9 a deep m9e1 & on a high place4 ,huygh5s1 9 8 book ,de ,caus ,gravitatis1 publi%$ 9 #afij1 %[$ t ! e>? w\ld h an oblate =m1 9 consequ5ce ( ! action ( ! c5trifugal =ce2 b 8 reason+ does n suppose gravity to arise f ! mutual attraction ( ! p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,! app>5t influ5ce ( ! moon ^u ! tides _h long be5 rem>k$2 b no "o _h made any progress 9 truly expla9+ ! me*anism ( ?is influ5ce2 & all ! analogies to :i* ref]5ce _h be5 made1 on ?is & simil> subjects1 z magnetic & o!r attractions1 7 r delusive ?an illu/rative1 s9ce !y repres5t$ ! attraction z some?+ peculi> 9 p>ticul> bodies1 dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ea* body4 ,note #ddg3 ,nov4 ,org4 ,lib4 ii4 ,aph4 #cf4 ,t all su* =ces1 cosmical & t]re/rial1 7 ! same s+le =ce1 & t ?is 0 no?+ m ?an ! ins5sible attraction :i* subsi/s betwe5 "o /one & ano!r1 0 a conception equally bold & gr&2 & w\ld h be5 an incompreh5sible ?\ght1 if ! views :i* we h already expla9$ _h n prep>$ ! m9d = x4 ,b ! prec$+ /eps hav+ disclos$1 betwe5 all ! bodies ( ! univ]se1 =ces ( ! same k9d z ^? :i* produce ! weight ( bodies at ! e>?1 &1 !re=e1 su* z exi/ 9 e p>ticle ( t]re/rial matt]2 x became an obvi\s "q1 :e!r su* =ces did n also belong to all p>ticles ( planet>y matt]1 & :e!r ?is 0 n1 9 fact1 ! :ole acc\nt ( ! =ces ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,b1 suppos+ ?is conjecture to be ?us sugge/$1 h[ =midable1 on fir/ appe>ance at lea/1 0 ! und]tak+ ( v]ify+ x6 ,= if ?is be s1 e f9ite mass ( matt] ex]ts =ces :i* are ! result ( ! inf9itely num]\s =ces ( its p>ticles1 ^! =ces act+ 9 diff]5t directions4 ,x does n appe>1 at fir/ sight1 t ! law by :i* ! =ce is relat$ to ! di/ance1 w be ! same = ! p>ticles z x is = ! masses2 &1 9 reality1 x #dac is n s1 except 9 special cases4 ,&1 aga91 9 ! in/ance ( any effect produc$ by ! =ce ( a body1 h[ are we to "k :e!r ! =ce resides 9 ! :ole mass z a unit1 or 9 ! sep>ate p>ticles8 ,we may reason1 z ,newton does1#deg t ! rule :i* proves gravity to belong univ]sally to ! planets1 proves x also to belong to _! p>ts2 b ! m9d w n be satisfi$ ) ?is ext5sion ( ! rule1 except we c f9d decisive in/ances1 & calculate ! effects ( bo? suppositions1 "u ! appropriate conditions4 ,accord+ly1 ,newton _h to solve a new s]ies ( problems sugge/$ by ?is inquiry2 & ?is he did4 ,note #deg3 ,pr9cip4 ,b4 iii4 ,prop4 #g4 ,^! solutions are no less rem>kable = ! ma!matical p[] :i* !y exhibit1 ?an ! o!r p>ts ( ! ,pr9cipia4 ,! propositions 9 :i* x is %[n t ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e = ! p>ticles gives ! same law = sph]ical masses1 h t k9d ( beauty :i* might well h ju/ifi$ _! be+ publi%$ = _! ma!matical elegance alone1 ev5 if !y _h n appli$ to any real case4 ,great +5uity is also employ$ 9 o!r in/ances1 z 9 ! case ( sph]oids ( small ecc5tricity4 ,& :5 ! am\nt ( ! me*anical action ( masses ( v>i\s =ms has ?us be5 assign$1 ! sagacity %[n 9 trac+ ! results ( su* action 9 ! sol> sy/em is truly admirable2 n only ! g5]al nature ( ! effect be+ po9t$ out1 b its quantity calculat$4 ,i speak 9 p>ticul> ( ! reason+s conc]n+ ! ,figure ( ! ,e>?1 ! ,tides1 ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes1 ! ,regression ( ! ,nodes ( a r+ su* z ,saturn's2 & ( "s effects :i*1 at t "t1 _h n be5 asc]ta9$ ev5 z facts ( obs]vation2 = in/ance1 ! diff]5ce ( gravity 9 diff]5t latitudes1 & ! ,nutation ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,x is true1 t 9 mo/ ( ^! cases1 ,newton's process c\ld be consid]$ only z a rude approximation4 ,9 "o 7! ,precession7 he committ$ an error1 & 9 all1 8 means ( calculation 7 insuffici5t4 ,inde$ ^! are mu* m difficult inve/igations ?an ! ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies1 9 :i* ?ree po9ts act on ea* o!r by explicit laws4 ,up to ?is day1 ! res\rces ( mod]n analysis h be5 employ$ ^u "s ( !m ) v p>tial success2 & ! facts1 9 all ( !m1 requir$ to be accurately asc]ta9$ & measur$1 a process :i* is n complet$ ev5 n[4 ,nev]!less ! =m & nature ( ! conclusions :i* ,newton did obta91 7 su* z to inspire a /rong confid5ce 9 ! compet5cy ( 8 !ory to expla9 #dad all su* ph5om5a z h be5 spok5 (4 ,we %all aft]w>ds h to speak ( ! labors1 und]tak5 9 ord] to exam9e ! ph5om5a m exactly1 to :i* ! !ory gave occasion4 ,?us1 !n1 ! !ory ( ! univ]sal mutual gravitation ( all ! p>ticles ( matt]1 accord+ to ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ances1 0 conceiv$1 its consequ5ces calculat$1 & its results %[n to agree ) ph5om5a4 ,x 0 f\nd t ?is !ory took up all ! facts ( a/ronomy z f> z !y _h hi!rto be5 asc]ta9$2 :ile x po9t$ out an int]m9able vi/a ( new facts1 too m9ute or too complex = obs]vation alone to dis5tangle1 b capable ( be+ detect$ :5 !ory _h po9t$ out _! laws1 & ( be+ us$ z crit]ia or confirmations ( ! tru? ( ! doctr9e4 ,= ! same reason+ :i* expla9$ ! evection1 v>iation1 & annual equation ( ! moon1 %[$ t !re mu/ be _m o!r inequalities besides ^!2 s9ce ^! result$ f approximate me?ods ( calculation1 9 :i* small quantities 7 neglect$4 ,& x 0 kn[n t1 9 fact1 ! inequalities hi!rto detect$ by a/ronom]s did n give ! place ( ! moon ) satisfactory accuracy2 s t !re 0 room1 among ^! hi!rto untractable irregul>ities1 = ! additional results ( ! !ory4 ,to "w out ?is comp>ison 0 ! employm5t ( ! succe$+ c5tury2 b ,newton began x4 ,?us1 at ! end ( ! proposition 9 :i* he ass]ts1#dfg t all ! lun> motions & _! irregul>ities foll[ f ! pr9ciples "h /at$1 he makes ! obs]vation :i* we h j made2 & gives1 z examples1 ! diff]5t motions ( ! apogee & nodes1 ! diff]5ce ( ! *ange ( ! ecc5tricity1 & ! diff]5ce ( ! moon's v>iation1 accord+ to ! diff]5t di/ances ( ! sun4 ,b ?is inequality1 he says1 9 a/ronomical calculations1 is usually ref]r$ to ! pro/haphresis ( ! moon1 & conf\nd$ ) x4 ,note #dfg3 ,b4 iii4 ,prop4 #bb4 ,reflections on ! ,discov]y4--,su*1 !n1 is ! great ,newtonian ,induction ( ,univ]sal ,gravitation1 & su* its hi/ory4 ,x is indisputably & incomp>ably ! greate/ sci5tific discov]y ev] made1 :e!r we look at ! advance :i* x involv$1 ! ext5t ( ! tru? disclos$1 or ! fundam5tal & satisfactory nature ( ?is tru?4 ,z to ! fir/ po9t1 we may obs]ve t any "o ( ! five /eps into :i* we h sep>at$ ! doctr9e1 w\ld1 ( itself1 h be5 consid]$ z an important advance2--w\ld h conf]r$ di/9ction on ! p]sons :o made x1 & ! "t to :i* x belong$4 ,all #dae ! five /eps made at once1 =m$ n a leap1 b a flight1--n an improvem5t m]ely1 b a metamorphosis1--n an epo*1 b a t]m9ation4 ,a/ronomy pass$ at once f its boyhood to mature manhood4 ,aga91 ) reg>d to ! ext5t ( ! tru?1 we obta9 z wide a g5]alization z our physical k admits1 :5 we le>n t e p>ticle ( matt]1 9 all times1 places1 & circum/ances1 attracts e o!r p>ticle 9 ! univ]se by "o common law ( action4 ,& by say+ t ! tru? 0 ( a fundam5tal & satisfactory nature1 ,i mean t x assign$1 n a rule m]ely1 b a cause1 = ! heav5ly motions2 & t k9d ( cause :i* mo/ em95tly & peculi>ly we di/9ctly & ?or\ghly conceive1 namely1 me*anical =ce4 ,kepl]'s laws 7 m]ely =mal rules1 gov]n+ ! cele/ial motions accord+ to ! relations ( space1 "t1 & numb]2 ,newton's 0 a 9999causal law1 ref]r+ ^! motions to me*anical reasons4 ,x is no d\bt conceivable t future discov]ies may bo? ext5d & fur!r expla9 ,newton's doctr9es2--may make gravitation a case ( "s wid] law1 & may disclose some?+ ( ! mode 9 :i* x op]ates2 que/ions ) :i* ,newton himself /ruggl$4 ,b1 9 ! mean "t1 few p]sons w dispute1 t bo? 9 g5]ality & pr(undity1 bo? 9 wid? & dep?1 ,newton's !ory is altoge!r )\t a rival or neighbor4#dgg ,note #dgg3 ,! value & nature ( ?is /ep h long be5 g5]ally ackn[l$g$ :]ev] sci5ce is cultivat$4 ,yet x w\ld appe> t !re is1 9 "o "p ( ,europe1 a s*ool ( philosoph]s :o conte/ ! m]it ( ?is "p ( ,newton's discov]ies4 ,kepl]1 says a celebrat$ ,g]man metaphysician199 discov]$ ! laws ( free motion2 a discov]y ( immortal glory4 ,x has s9ce be5 ! fa%ion to say t ,newton fir/ f\nd out ! pro( ( ^! rules4 ,x has seldom happ5$ t ! glory ( ! fir/ discov]] has be5 m unju/ly transf]r$ to ano!r p]son4 ,x may appe> /range t any "o 9 ! pres5t day %\ld hold su* language2 b if we exam9e ! reasons :i* ?is au?or gives1 !y w be f\nd1 ,i ?9k1 to am\nt to ?is3 t 8 m9d is 9 ! condition 9 :i* ,kepl]'s 02 & t ! :ole range ( me*anical ideas & modes ( conception :i* made ! transition f ,kepl] & ,newton possible1 are extrane\s to ! doma9 ( 8 philosophy4 ,ev5 ?is au?or1 h[ev]1 if ,i und]/& him rightly1 recognizes ,newton z ! au?or ( ! doctr9e ( ,p]turbations4 ,i h giv5 a fur!r acc\nt ( ^! views1 9 a ,memoir ,on ,hegel's ,criticism ( ,newton's ,pr9cipia4 ,cambridge ,transactions1 #ahdi4 99 ,hegel1 ,encyclopdia1 #bgj4 ,! requisite conditions ( su* a discov]y 9 ! m9d ( its au?or 71 9 ?is z 9 o!r cases1 ! idea1 & its comp>ison ) facts2--! conception ( ! law1 & ! m\ld+ ?is conception 9 su* a =m z to correspond ) kn[n realities4 ,! idea ( me*anical #daf =ce z ! cause ( ! cele/ial motions1 _h1 z we h se51 be5 = "s "t gr[+ up 9 m5's m9ds2 _h gone on becom+ m di/9ct & m g5]al2 & _h1 9 "s p]sons1 approa*$ ! =m 9 :i* x 0 ent]ta9$ by ,newton4 ,/ill1 9 ! m]e conception ( univ]sal gravitation1 ,newton mu/ h gone f> beyond 8 pr$ecessors & contempor>ies1 bo? 9 g5]ality & di/9ctness2 & 9 ! inv5tiv5ess & sagacity ) :i* he trac$ ! consequ5ces ( ?is conception1 he 01 z we h %[n1 )\t a rival1 & almo/ )\t a second4 ,z to ! facts :i* he _h to include 9 8 law1 !y _h be5 accumulat+ f ! v bir? ( a/ronomy2 b ^? :i* he _h m peculi>ly to take hold ( 7 ! facts ( ! planet>y motions z giv5 by ,kepl]1 & ^? ( ! moon's motions z giv5 by ,ty*o ,brahe & ,j]emy ,horrox4 ,we f9d "h occasion to make a rem>k :i* is important 9 its be>+ on ! nature ( progressive sci5ce4 ,:at ,newton ?us us$ & ref]r$ to z facts1 7 ! laws :i* 8 pr$ecessors _h e/abli%$4 ,:at ,kepl] & ,horrox _h put =? z !ories1 7 n[ e/abli%$ tru?s1 fit to be us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( o!r !ories4 ,x is 9 ?is mann] t "o !ory is built ^u ano!r2--t we rise f p>ticul>s to g5]als1 & f "o g5]alization to ano!r2--t we h1 9 %ort1 successive /eps ( induction4 ,z ,newton's laws assum$ ,kepl]'s1 ,kepl]'s laws assum$ z facts ! results ( ! planet>y !ory ( ,ptolemy2 & ?us ! !ories ( ea* g5]ation 9 ! sci5tific _w are 7:5 ?or\ghly v]ifi$ & e/abli%$199997 ! facts ( ! next g5]ation4 ,newton's !ory is ! circle ( g5]alization :i* includes all ! o!rs2--! highe/ po9t ( ! inductive asc5t2--! cata/rophe ( ! philosophic drama to :i* ,plato _h prologiz$2--! po9t to :i* m5's m9ds _h be5 j\rney+ = two ?\s& ye>s4 ,"* ( ,newton4--,x is n easy to anatomize ! con/itution & ! op]ations ( ! m9d :i* makes su* an advance 9 k4 ,yet we may obs]ve t !re mu/ exi/ 9 x1 9 an em95t degree1 ! elem5ts :i* compose ! ma!matical tal5t4 ,x mu/ possess di/9ctness ( intuition1 t5acity & facility 9 trac+ logical connection1 f]tility ( inv5tion1 & a /rong t5d5cy to g5]alization4 ,x is easy to discov] indications ( ^! *>act]i/ics 9 ,newton4 ,! di/9ctness ( 8 intuitions ( space1 & we may add ( =ce also1 0 se5 9 ! amusem5ts ( 8 y\?2 9 8 con/ruct+ clocks & mills1 c>ts & dials1 z well z ! facility ) :i* he #dag ma/]$ geometry4 ,?is fondness = h&icraft employm5ts1 & = mak+ models & ma*9es1 appe>s to be a common prelude ( excell5ce 9 physical sci5ce2#dhg probably on ?is v acc\nt1 t x arises f ! di/9ctness ( intuitive p[] ) :i* ! *ild conceives ! %apes & ! work+ ( su* mat]ial comb9ations4 ,newton's inv5tive p[] appe>s 9 ! numb] & v>iety ( ! ma!matical artifices & comb9ations :i* he devis$1 & ( :i* 8 books are full4 ,if we conceive ! op]ation ( ! inv5tive faculty 9 ! only way 9 :i* x appe>s possible to conceive x2--t :ile "s hidd5 s\rce supplies a rapid /ream ( possible sugge/ions1 ! m9d is on ! wat* to seize & deta9 any "o ( ^! :i* w suit ! case 9 h&1 all[+ ! re/ to pass by & be =gott52--we %all see :at extraord9>y f]tility ( m9d is impli$ by s _m successful ef=ts2 :at an innum]able ho/ ( ?\ghts mu/ h be5 produc$1 to supply s _m t des]v$ to be select$4 ,& s9ce ! selection is p]=m$ by trac+ ! consequ5ces ( ea* sugge/ion1 s z to comp>e !m ) ! requisite conditions1 we see also :at rapidity & c]ta9ty 9 draw+ conclusions ! m9d mu/ possess z a tal5t1 & :at wat*fulness & pati5ce z a habit4 ,note #dhg3 ,z 9 ,galileo1 ,hooke1 ,huygh5s1 & o!rs4 ,! hidd5 f\nta9 ( our unbidd5 ?\ghts is = u a my/]y2 & we h1 9 our consci\sness1 no /&>d by :i* we c measure our own tal5ts2 b our acts & habits are some?+ ( :i* we are consci\s2 & we c und]/&1 !re=e1 h[ x 0 t ,newton c\ld n admit t !re 0 any diff]5ce betwe5 himself & o!r m51 except 9 8 possession ( su* habits z we h m5tion$1 p]sev]ance & vigilance4 ,:5 he 0 ask$ h[ he made 8 discov]ies1 he answ]$1 by always ?9k+ ab\t !m2 & at ano!r "t he decl>$ t if he _h done any ?+1 x 0 due to no?+ b indu/ry & pati5t ?\ght3 ,i keep ! subject ( my inquiry con/antly be=e me1 & wait till ! fir/ dawn+ op5s gradually1 by little & little1 into a full & cle> light4 ,no bett] acc\nt c be giv5 ( ! nature ( ! m5tal ef=t :i* gives to ! philosoph] ! full b5efit ( 8 p[]s2 b ! natural p[]s ( m5's m9ds are n on t acc\nt ! less diff]5t4 ,!re are _m :o might wait ?r\gh ages ( d>kness )\t be+ visit$ by any dawn4 ,! habit to :i* ,newton ?us1 9 "s s5se1 ow$ 8 #dah discov]ies1 ?is con/ant att5tion to ! ris+ ?\ght1 & developm5t ( its results 9 e direction1 necess>ily engag$ & absorb$ 8 _s1 & made him inatt5tive & almo/ ins5sible to ext]nal impressions & common impulses4 ,! /ories :i* are told ( 8 extreme abs5ce ( m9d1 probably ref] to ! two ye>s dur+ :i* he 0 compos+ 8 ,pr9cipia1 & ?us foll[+ out a tra9 ( reason+ ! mo/ f]tile1 ! mo/ complex1 & ! mo/ important1 :i* any philosoph] _h ev] _h to deal )4 ,! magnific5t & /rik+ que/ions :i*1 dur+ ?is p]iod1 he mu/ h _h daily ris+ be=e him2 ! p]petual succession ( difficult problems ( :i* ! solution 0 necess>y to 8 great object2 may well h entirely occupi$ & possess$ him4 ,he exi/$ only to calculate & to ?9k4#dig ,(t51 lo/ 9 m$itation1 he knew n :at he did1 & 8 m9d appe>$ to h q =gott5 its connection ) ! body4 ,8 s]vant report$ t1 on ris+ 9 a morn+1 he frequ5tly sat a l>ge portion ( ! day1 half-dress$1 on ! side ( 8 b$ & t 8 meals wait$ on ! table = h\rs be=e he came to take !m4 ,ev5 ) 8 transc5d5t p[]s1 to d :at he did 0 almo/ irreconcilable ) ! common conditions ( human life2 & requir$ ! utmo/ devotion ( ?\ght1 en]gy ( ef=t1 & /ead9ess ( w--! /ronge/ "*1 z well z ! highe/ end[m5ts1 :i* belong to man4 ,note #dig3 ,biot4 ,newton has be5 s univ]sally consid]$ z ! greate/ example ( a natural philosoph]1 t 8 moral qualities1 z well z 8 intellect1 h be5 ref]r$ to z models ( ! philosophical "*2 & ^? :o love to ?9k t great tal5ts are naturally associat$ ) virtue1 h always dwelt ) pleasure ^u ! views giv5 ( ,newton by 8 contempor>ies2 = !y h uni=mly repres5t$ him z c&id & humble1 mild & good4 ,we may take z an example ( ! impressions preval5t ab\t him 9 8 own "t1 ! expressions ( ,?omson1 9 ! ,poem on 8 ,dea?4#ejg #dai ,say ye :o be/ c tell1 ye happy few1 ,:o saw him 9 ! s(te/ lights ( life1 ,all un)held1 indulg+ to 8 fri5ds ,! va/ unborr[$ treasures ( 8 m9d1 ,oh1 speak ! wondr\s man6 h[ mild1 h[ calm ,h[ greatly humble1 h[ div9ely good1 ,h[ firm e/abli%$ on et]nal tru?6 ,f]v5t 9 do+ well1 ) e n]ve ,/ill press+ on1 =getful ( ! pa/1 ,& pant+ = p]fection2 f> above ,^? little c>es & vision>y joys ,t s p]plex ! fond impassion$ he>t ,( ev]-*eat$1 ev]-tru/+ man4 ,note #ejg3 ,9 ! same /ra9 we f9d ! g5]al voice ( ! "t4 ,= in/ance1 "o ( ,loggan's ,views ( ,cambridge is d$icat$ ,isaaco ,newtono 4 4 ,ma!matico1 ,physico1 ,*ymico consummatissimo2 nec m9us suavitate morum et c&ore animi 4 4 4 spectabili4 ,9 opposition to ! g5]al curr5t ( su* te/imony1 we h ! compla9ts ( ,flam/e$1 :o ascribes to ,newton angry language & h>% conduct 9 ! matt] ( ! publication ( ! ,gre5wi* ,obs]vations1 & ( ,:i/on4 ,yet ev5 ,flam/e$ speaks well ( 8 g5]al disposition4 ,:i/on 0 himself s weak & prejudic$ t 8 te/imony is wor? v little4 #b;d ,ed4 ,9 ! fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9cipia1 publi%$ 9 #afhg1 ,newton %[$ t ! nature ( all ! !n kn[n inequalities ( ! moon1 & 9 "s cases1 _! quantities1 might be d$uc$ f ! pr9ciples :i* he laid d[n b ! det]m9ation ( ! am\nt & law ( mo/ ( ! inequalities 0 def]r$ to a m favorable opportunity1 :5 he might be furni%$ ) bett] a/ronomical obs]vations4 ,su* obs]vations z he ne$$ = ?is purpose _h be5 made by ,flam/e$1 & = ^! he appli$1 repres5t+ h[ mu* value _! use w\ld add to ! obs]vations4 ,if1 he says1 9 #afid1 y publi% !m )\t su* a !ory to recomm5d !m1 !y w only be ?r[n into ! heap ( ! obs]vations ( =m] a/ronom]s1 till somebody %all arise t by p]fect+ ! !ory ( ! moon %all discov] y\r obs]vations to be exact] ?an ! re/2 b :5 t %all be1 ,god kn[s3 ,i fe>1 n 9 y\r lifetime1 if ,i %\ld die be=e x is done4 ,= ,i f9d ?is !ory s v intricate1 & ! !ory ( gravity s necess>y to x1 t ,i am satisfi$ x w nev] be p]fect$ b by somebody :o und]/&s ! !ory ( gravity z well1 or bett] ?an ,i d4 ,he obta9$ f ,flam/e$ ! lun> obs]vations = :i* he appli$1 & by us+ ^! he fram$ ! ,!ory ( ! ,moon :i* is giv5 z 8 9 ,david ,gregory's ,a/ronomi ,elem5ta4#eag ,he also obta9$ f ,flam/e$ ! diamet]s ( ! planets z obs]v$ at v>i\s times1 & ! greate/ elongation ( ,jupit]'s ,satellites1 bo? ( :i*1 ,flam/e$ says1 he made use ( 9 8 ,pr9cipia4 ,note #eag3 ,9 ! ,preface to a ,treatise on ,dynamics1 ,"p i41 publi%$ 9 #ahcf1 ,i h endeavor$ to %[ t ,newton's modes ( det]m9+ sev]al ( ! lun> inequalities admitt$ ( an accuracy n v inf]ior to ! mod]n analytical me?ods4 ,newton1 9 8 lett]s to ,flam/e$ 9 #afid & #e1 ackn[l$ges ?is s]vice4#ebg9999 #dbj ,note #ebg3 ,! qu>rel on ! subject ( ! publication ( ,flam/e$'s ,obs]vations took place at a lat] p]iod4 ,flam/e$ wi%$ to h 8 ,obs]vations pr9t$ complete & entire4 ,halley1 :o1 "u ! au?ority ( ,newton & o!rs1 _h ! managem5t ( ! pr9t+1 made _m alt]ations & omissions1 :i* ,flam/e$ consid]$ z de=m+ & spoil+ ! "w4 ,! advantages ( publi%+ a complete s]ies ( obs]vations1 n[ g5]ally und]/ood1 7 n !n kn[n to a/ronom]s 9 g5]al1 ?\gh well kn[n to ,flam/e$1 & e>ne/ly insi/$ ^u 9 8 remon/rances4 ,! result 0 t ,flam/e$ publi%$ 8 ,obs]vations at 8 own exp5se1 & f9ally obta9$ p]mission to de/roy ! copies pr9t$ by ,halley1 :i* he did4 ,9 #agbf1 aft] ,flam/e$'s dea?1 8 wid[ appli$ to ! ,vice-,*ancellor ( ,ox=d1 reque/+ t ! volume pr9t$ by ,halley might be remov$ out ( ! ,bodleian ,libr>y1 :]e x exi/s1 z be+ no?+ m ?an an errone\s abridgm5t ( ,mr4 ,flam/e$'s works1 & unfit to see ! light4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,newton4--,,reception ,,( ,,! ,,newtonian ,,!ory4 ,sect4 #a4--;,g5]al ,rem>ks4 ,,! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation1 l o!r great /eps 9 sci5ce1 requir$ a c]ta9 "t to make its way into m5's m9ds2 & _h to be confirm$1 illu/rat$1 & complet$1 by ! labors ( succe$+ philosoph]s4 ,z ! discov]y itself 0 great beyond =m] example1 ! features ( ! natural sequel to ! discov]y 7 also on a gigantic scale2 & _m va/ & labori\s tra9s ( rese>*1 ea* ( :i* might1 9 itself1 be consid]$ z =m+ a wide sci5ce1 & sev]al ( :i* h occupi$ _m pr(\nd & zeal\s inquir]s f t "t to our own day1 come be=e u z p>ts only ( ! v]ification ( ,newton's ,!ory4 ,almo/ e ?+ t has be5 done1 & is do+1 9 a/ronomy1 falls inevitably "u ?is description2 & x is only :5 ! a/ronom] travels to ! v limits ( 8 va/ field ( labor1 t he falls 9 ) ph5om5a :i* d n ackn[l$ge ! jurisdiction ( ! ,newtonian legislation4 ,we mu/ give "s acc\nt ( ! ev5ts ( ?is "p ( ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy2 b our n>rative mu/ necess>ily be extremely brief & imp]fect2 = ! subject is mo/ l>ge & copi\s1 & our limits are fix$ & n>r[4 ,we h "h to d ) ! hi/ory ( discov]ies1 only s f> z x illu/rates _! philosophy4 ,& ?\gh ! #dba a/ronomical discov]ies ( ! la/ c5tury are by no means poor1 ev5 9 int]e/ ( ?is k9d1 ! g5]alizations :i* !y involve are f> less important = our object1 9 consequ5ce ( be+ includ$ 9 a previ\s g5]alization4 ,newton %9es out s brightly1 t all :o foll[ seem fa9t & dim4 ,x is n precisely ! case :i* ! poet describes-- ,z 9 a !atre ! eyes ( m51 ,aft] "s well-grac$ actor leaves ! /age1 ,are idly b5t on him t ent]s next1 ,?9k+ 8 prattle to be t$i\s3 b our eyes are at lea/ less int5tly b5t on ! a/ronom]s :o succe$$1 & we att5d to _! communications ) less curiosity1 because we "k ! end1 if n ! c\rse ( _! /ory2 we "k t _! spee*es h all clos$ ) ,newton's sublime decl>ation1 ass]t$ 9 "s new =m4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 ! acc\nt ( ! v]ification & ext5sion ( any great discov]y is a highly important "p ( its hi/ory4 ,9 ?is in/ance x is mo/ important2 bo? f ! weight & dignity ( ! !ory conc]n$1 & ! +5uity & ext5t ( ! me?ods employ$3 &1 ( c\rse1 s long z ! ,newtonian !ory /ill requir$ v]ification1 ! "q ( ! tru? or falsehood ( su* a gr& sy/em ( doctr9es c\ld n b excite ! mo/ int5se curiosity4 ,9 :at ,i h said1 ,i am v f> f wi%+ to depreciate ! value ( ! a*ievem5ts ( mod]n a/ronom]s1 b x is ess5tial to my purpose to m>k ! subord9ation ( n>r[] to wid] tru?s--! diff]5t "* & import ( ! labors ( ^? :o come be=e & aft] ! promulgation ( a ma/]-tru?4 ,) ?is w>n+ ,i n[ proce$ to my n>rative4 ,sect4 #b4--,reception ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory 9 ,engl&4 ,,!re appe>s to be a popul> p]suasion t great discov]ies are usually receiv$ ) a prejudic$ & cont5ti\s opposition1 & ! au?ors ( !m neglect$ or p]secut$4 ,! rev]se ( ?is 0 c]ta9ly ! case 9 ,engl& ) reg>d to ! discov]ies ( ,newton4 ,z we h already se51 ev5 be=e !y 7 publi%$1 !y 7 proclaim$ by ,halley to be some?+ ( transc5d5t value2 & f ! mom5t ( _! appe>ance1 !y rapidly made _! way f "o class ( ?9k]s to ano!r1 ne>ly z fa/ z ! nature ( m5's intellectual capacity all[s4 ,halley1 ,wr51 & all ! lead+ #dbb memb]s ( ! ,royal ,society1 appe> to h embrac$ ! sy/em imm$iately & zeal\sly4 ,m5 ^: pursuits _h la9 r 9 lit]ature ?an 9 sci5ce1 & :o _h n ! k & habits ( m9d :i* ! /rict /udy ( ! sy/em requir$1 adopt$1 on ! cr$it ( _! ma!matical fri5ds1 ! highe/ e/imation ( ! ,pr9cipia1 & a /rong reg>d = its au?or1 z ,evelyn1 ,locke1 & ,pepys4 ,only five ye>s aft] ! publication1 ! pr9ciples ( ! "w 7 ref]r$ to f ! pulpit1 z s inconte/ably prov$ t !y might be made ! basis ( a !ological argum5t4 ,?is 0 done by ,dr4 ,b5tley1 :5 he prea*$ ! ,boyle's ,lectures 9 ,london1 9 #afib4 ,newton himself1 f ! "t :5 8 "w appe>$1 is nev] m5tion$ except 9 t]ms ( pr(\nd admiration2 z1 = in/ance1 :5 he is call$ by ,dr4 ,b5tley1 9 8 s]mon1#ecg ,t v excell5t & div9e !ori/1 ,mr4 ,isaac ,newton4 ,x appe>s to h be5 soon sugge/$1 t ! ,gov]nm5t ought to provide 9 "s way = a p]son :o 0 s great an honor to ! nation4 ,"s delay took place ) reg>d to ?is2 b1 9 #afie1 8 fri5d ,mr4 ,montague1 aft]w>ds ,e>l ( ,halifax1 at t "t ,*ancellor ( ! ,ex*equ]1 made him ,w>d5 ( ! ,m9t2 & 9 #afii1 he succe$$ to ! high] (fice ( ,ma/] ( ! ,m9t1 a situation wor? #abjj or #aejj a ye>1 :i* he fill$ to ! end ( 8 life4 ,9 #agjc1 he became ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society1 & 0 annually re-elect$ to ?is (fice dur+ ! rema9+ tw5ty-five ye>s ( 8 life4 ,9 #agje1 he 0 knight$ 9 ! ,ma/]'s ,lodge1 at ,tr9ity ,college1 by ,que5 ,anne1 !n on a visit to ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge4 ,aft] ! accession ( ,george ! ,fir/1 ,newton's conv]sation 0 frequ5tly s\ght by ! ,pr9cess1 aft]w>ds ,que5 ,c>ol9e1 :o _h a ta/e = speculative /udies1 & 0 (t5 he>d to decl>e 9 public1 t %e ?\ght h]self =tunate 9 liv+ at a "t :i* enabl$ h] to enjoy ! society ( s great a g5ius4 ,8 fame1 & ! respect paid him1 w5t on increas+ to ! end ( 8 life2 & :51 9 #agbg1 full ( ye>s & glory1 8 e>?ly c>e] 0 end$1 8 dea? 0 m\rn$ z a national calamity1 ) ! =ms usually conf9$ to royalty4 ,8 body lay 9 /ate 9 ! ,j]usalem *amb]2 8 pall 0 borne by ! fir/ nobles ( ! l& & 8 e>?ly rema9s 7 deposit$ 9 ! c5tre ( ,we/m9/] ,abbey1 9 ! mid/ ( ! memorials ( ! greate/ & wise/ m5 :om ,engl& has produc$4 ,note #ecg3 ,s]m4 vii4 #bba4 ,x _c be sup]flu\s to say a ^w or two on ! reception ( #dbc 8 philosophy 9 ! univ]sities ( ,engl&4 ,^! are (t5 repres5t$ z places :]e bigotry & ignorance resi/1 z long z x is possible to resi/1 ! invasion ( new tru?s4 ,we _c d\bt t su* op9ions h prevail$ ext5sively1 :5 we f9d an intellig5t & g5]ally temp]ate writ]1 l ! late ,pr(essor ,playfair ( ,ed9burgh1 s f> possess$ by !m1 z to be incapable ( see+1 or int]pret+1 9 any o!r way1 any facts respect+ ,ox=d & ,cambridge4 ,yet1 not)/&+ ^! op9ions1 x w be f\nd t1 9 ! ,engli% univ]sities1 new views1 :e!r 9 sci5ce or 9 o!r subjects1 h be5 introduc$ z soon z !y 7 cle>ly e/abli%$2--t !y h be5 diffus$ f ! few to ! _m m rapidly !re ?an else:]e occurs2--& t f ^! po9ts1 ! light ( newly-discov]$ tru?s has mo/ usually spread ov] ! l&4 ,9 mo/ in/ances und\bt$ly !re has be5 some?+ ( a /ruggle1 on su* occasions1 betwe5 ! old & ! new op9ions4 ,few m5's m9ds c at once %ake (f a famili> & consi/5t sy/em ( doctr9es1 & adopt a novel & /range set ( pr9ciples z soon z pres5t$2 b all c see t "o *ange produces _m1 & t *ange1 9 itself1 is a s\rce ( inconv5i5ce & dang]4 ,9 ! case ( ! admission ( ! ,newtonian op9ions into ,cambridge & ,ox=d1 h[ev]1 !re are no traces ev5 ( a /ruggle4 ,c>tesianism _h nev] /ruck its roots deep 9 ?is c\ntry2 t is1 ! peculi> hypo!ses ( ,desc>tes4 ,! ,c>tesian books1 su*1 = in/ance1 z t ( ,rohault1 7 inde$ 9 use2 & ) good reason1 = !y conta9$ by f> ! be/ treatises on mo/ ( ! physical sci5ces1 su* z ,me*anics1 ,hydro/atics1 ,optics1 & ,=mal ,a/ronomy1 :i* c\ld !n be f\nd4 ,b ,i d n conceive t ! ,vortices 7 ev] dwelt ^u z a matt] ( importance 9 our academic tea*+4 ,at any rate1 if !y 7 br\ght among u1 !y 7 soon dissipat$4 ,newton's ,college1 & 8 ,univ]sity1 exult$ 9 8 fame1 & did _! utmo/ to honor & aid him4 ,he 0 exempt$ by ! k+ f ! obligation ( tak+ ord]s1 "u :i* ! fell[s ( ,tr9ity ,college 9 g5]al are2 by 8 college he 0 reliev$ f all (fices :i* might int]f]e1 h[ev] slightly1 ) 8 /udi\s employm5ts1 ?\gh he resid$ )9 ! walls ( ! society ?irty-five ye>s1 almo/ )\t ! int]ruption ( a mon?4#edg ,by ! ,univ]sity he 0 elect$ _! repres5tative 9 p>liam5t 9 #afhh1 #dbd & aga9 9 #agja2 & ?\gh he 0 reject$ 9 ! dissolution ( #agje1 ^? :o oppos$ him ackn[l$g$ him#eeg to be ! glory ( ! ,univ]sity & nation1 b consid]$ ! "q z a political "o1 & ,newton z s5t to tempt !m f _! duty1 by ! great & j v5]ation !y _h = him4 ,in/rum5ts & o!r memorials1 valu$ because !y belong$ to him1 are /ill pres]v$ 9 8 college1 along ) ! tradition ( ! *amb]s :i* he occupi$4 ,note #edg3 ,8 "n is n[h]e f\nd on ! college-books1 z appo9t$ to any ( ! (fices :i* usually pass d[n ! li/ ( resid5t fell[s 9 rotation4 ,?is might be ow+ 9 "p1 h[ev]1 to 8 be+ ,lucasian ,pr(essor4 ,! con/ancy ( 8 resid5ce 9 college appe>s f ! exit & r$it book ( t "t1 :i* is /ill pres]v$4 ,note #eeg3 ,a pamphlet by ,/yan ,?urlby4 ,! mo/ active & p[]ful m9ds at ,cambridge became at once disciples & foll[]s ( ,newton4 ,samuel ,cl>ke1 aft]w>ds 8 fri5d1 def5d$ 9 ! public s*ools a !sis tak5 f 8 philosophy1 z e>ly z #afid2 & 9 #afig publi%$ an edition ( ,rohault's ,physics1 ) notes1 9 :i* ,newton is frequ5tly ref]r$ to ) expressions ( pr(\nd respect1 ?\gh ! lead+ doctr9es ( ! ,pr9cipia are n introduc$ till a lat] edition1 9 #agjc4 ,9 #afii1 ,b5tley1 :om we h already m5tion$ z a ,newtonian1 became ,ma/] ( ,tr9ity ,college2 & 9 ! same ye>1 ,:i/on1 ano!r ( ,newton's disciples1 0 appo9t$ 8 deputy z pr(essor ( ma!matics4 ,:i/on deliv]$ ! ,newtonian doctr9es1 bo? f ! pr(essor's *air1 & 9 works writt5 = ! use ( ! ,univ]sity2 yet x is rem>kable t a taunt respect+ ! late introduction ( ! ,newtonian sy/em into ! ,cambridge c\rse ( education1 has be5 f\nd$ on "s peevi% expressions :i* he uses 9 8 ,memoirs1 writt5 at a p]iod :51 hav+ incurr$ expulsion f 8 pr(essor%ip & ! ,univ]sity1 he 0 naturally qu]ul\s & jaundic$ 9 8 views4 ,9 #agji-aj1 ,dr4 ,laughton1 :o 0 tutor 9 ,cl>e ,hall1 procur$ himself to be appo9t$ mod]ator ( ! ,univ]sity disputations1 9 ord] to promote ! diffusion ( ! new ma!matical doctr9es4 ,by ?is "t ! fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9cipia 0 become r>e1 & fet*$ a great price4 ,b5tley urg$ ,newton to publi% a new "o2 & ,cotes1 by f> ! fir/1 at t "t1 ( ! ma!maticians ( ,cambridge1 und]took to sup]9t5d ! pr9t+1 & ! edition 0 accord+ly publi%$ 9 #agac4 #b;d ,ed4 ,i p]ceive t my accompli%$ ,g]man translator1 ,littr[1 has incauti\sly copi$ ! ins9uations ( "s mod]n writ]s to ! effect t ,cl>ke's ref]5ce to ,newton1 9 8 ,edition ( ,rohault's ,physics1 0 a mode ( introduc+ ,newtonian doctr9es cov]tly1 :5 x 0 n all[$ him to introduce su* novelties #dbe op5ly4 ,i am q sure t any "o :o looks into ?is matt] w see t ?is supposition ( any unwill+ness at ,cambridge to receive ,newton's doctr9e is q absurd1 & c prove no?+ b ! int5se prejudices ( ^? :o ma9ta9 su* an op9ion4 ,newton receiv$ & held 8 pr(essor%ip amid ! unexampl$ admiration ( all contempor>y memb]s ( ! ,univ]sity4 ,:i/on1 :o is sometimes br\ght z an evid5ce aga9/ ,cambridge on ?is po9t1 says1 ,i ) imm5se pa9s set myself ) ! utmo/ zeal to ! /udy ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton's wond]ful discov]ies 9 8 ,philosophi ,naturalis ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 "o or two ( :i* lectures ,i _h he>d him read 9 ! public s*ools1 ?\gh ,i und]/ood !m n at ! "t4 ,z to ,rohault's ,physics1 x really did conta9 ! be/ me*anical philosophy ( ! "t2--! doctr9es :i* 7 held by ,desc>tes 9 common ) ,galileo1 & ) all ! s\nd ma!maticians :o succe$$ !m4 ,nor does x look l any great antipa?y to novelty 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 t ?is book1 :i* 0 q z novel 9 its doctr9es z ,newton's ,pr9cipia1 & :i* _h only be5 publi%$ at ,p>is 9 #afga1 _h obta9$ a firm hold on ! ,univ]sity 9 less ?an tw5ty ye>s4 ,nor is !re any attempt made 9 ,cl>ke's notes to conceal ! novelty ( ,newton's discov]ies1 b on ! contr>y1 admiration is claim$ = !m z new4 ,! promptitude ) :i* ! ,ma!maticians ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge adopt$ ! be/ p>ts ( ! me*anical philosophy ( ,desc>tes1 & ! great] philosophy ( ,newton1 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 has be5 p>allel$ 9 our own times1 9 ! promptitude ) :i* !y h adopt$ & foll[$ into _! consequ5ces ! ,ma!matical ,!ory ( ,heat ( ,f\ri] & ,laplace1 & ! ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,light ( ,"y & ,fresnel4 ,9 ,newton's ,college1 we possess1 besides ! memorials ( him m5tion$ above 7:i* include two locks ( 8 silv]-:ite hair71 a pap] 9 8 own h&writ+1 describ+ ! prep>atory read+ :i* 0 necess>y 9 ord] t our ,college /ud5ts might be able to read ! ,pr9cipia4 ,i h pr9t$ ?is pap] 9 ! ,preface to my ,edition ( ! ,fir/ ,?ree ,sections ( ! ,pr9cipia 9 ! orig9al ,lat9 7#ahdf74 ,b5tley1 :o _h express$ 8 admiration = ,newton 9 8 ,boyle's ,lectures 9 #afib1 0 made ,ma/] ( ! ,college 9 #afii1 z ,i h /at$2 & p>tly1 no d\bt1 9 consequ5ce ( ! ,newtonian s]mons :i* he _h prea*$4 ,9 8 adm9i/ration ( ! ,college1 he zeal\sly /imulat$ & assi/$ ! ex]tions ( ,cotes1 ,:i/on1 & o!r disciples ( ,newton4 ,smi?1 ,b5tley's successor z ,ma/] ( #dbf ! ,college1 erect$ a /atue ( ,newton 9 ! ,college ,*apel 7a noble "w ( ,r\biliac71 ) ! inscription1 ,qui g5us humanum +5io sup]avit4 ,at ,ox=d1 ,david ,gregory & ,halley1 bo? zeal\s & di/+ui%$ disciples ( ,newton1 obta9$ ! ,savilian pr(essor%ips ( a/ronomy & geometry 9 #afia & #agjc4 ,david ,gregory's ,a/ronomi ,physic et ,geometric ,elem5ta issu$ f ! ,ox=d ,press 9 #agjb4 ,! au?or1 9 ! fir/ s5t5ce ( ! ,preface1 /ates 8 object to be to expla9 ! me*anics ( ! univ]se 7,physica ,cle/is71 :i* ,isaac ,newton1 ! ,pr9ce ( ,geomet]s1 has c>ri$ to a po9t ( elevation :i* all look up to ) admiration4 ,& ?is design is execut$ by a full exposition ( ! ,newtonian doctr9es & _! results4 ,keill1 a pupil ( ,gregory1 foll[$ 8 tutor to ,ox=d1 & taught ! ,newtonian philosophy !re 9 #agjj1 be+ !n ,deputy ,s$leian ,pr(essor4 ,he illu/rat$ 8 lectures by exp]im5ts1 & publi%$ an ,introduction to ! ,pr9cipia :i* is n out ( use ev5 yet4 ,9 ,scotl&1 ! ,newtonian philosophy 0 accept$ ) great alacrity1 z appe>s by ! in/ances ( ,david ,gregory & ,keill4 ,david ,gregory 0 pr(essor at ,ed9burgh be=e he remov$ to ,ox=d1 & 0 succe$$ !re by 8 bro!r ,james4 ,! latt] _h1 z e>ly z #afij1 pr9t$ a !sis1 conta9+ 9 tw5ty-two propositions1 a comp5d ( ,newton's ,pr9cipia4#efg ,probably ^! 7 int5d$ z !ses = academical disputations2 z ,laughton at ,cambridge introduc$ ! ,newtonian philosophy into ^! ex]cises4 ,! =mula at ,cambridge1 9 use till v rec5tly 9 ^! disputations1 0 ,rect /atuit ,newtonus de ,motu ,lun2 or ! l4 ,note #efg3 ,see ,hutton's ,ma?4 ,dict41 art4 ,james ,gregory4 ,if x fell 9 ) my plan to notice d]ivative works1 ,i might speak ( ,maclaur9's admirable ,acc\nt ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton's ,discov]ies1 publi%$ 9 #agdh4 ,?is is /ill "o ( ! be/ books on ! subject4 ,! late ,pr(essor ,rigaud's ,hi/orical ,essay on ! ,fir/ ,publication ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton's ,pr9cipia 7,oxf4 #ahch7 conta9s a c>eful & c&id view ( ! circum/ances ( t ev5t4 ,! g5]al diffusion ( ^! op9ions 9 ,engl& took place1 n only by means ( books1 b ?r\gh ! labors ( v>i\s exp]im5tal lectur]s1 l ,desaguli]s1 :o remov$ f ,ox=d to ,london 9 #agac2 :5 he in=ms u1#egg t he f\nd ! ,newtonian philosophy g5]ally receiv$ among p]sons ( all ranks & pr(essions1 & ev5 among ! ladies by ! help ( exp]im5ts4 #dbg ,note #egg3 ,desag4 ,pref4 ,we might easily trace 9 our lit]ature indications ( ! gradual progress ( ! ,newtonian doctr9es4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! e>li] editions ( ,pope's ,dunciad1 ?is c\plet occurr$1 9 ! description ( ! effects ( ! reign ( ,dulness3 ,philosophy1 t rea*$ ! heav5s be=e1 ,%r9ks to h] hidd5 cause1 & is no m4 ,& ?is1 says 8 editor1 ,w>burton1 0 int5d$ z a c5sure on ! ,newtonian philosophy4 ,= ! poet _h be5 misl$ by ! prejudices ( =eign]s1 z if t philosophy _h recurr$ to ! occult qualities ( ,ari/otle4 ,?is 0 ! idea he receiv$ ( x f a man educat$ mu* abroad1 :o _h read e ?+1 b e ?+ sup]ficially4#ehg ,:5 ,i h9t$ to him h[ he _h be5 impos$ ^u1 he *ang$ ! l9es ) great pleasure into a complim5t 7z !y n[ /&7 on t div9e g5ius1 & a satire on t v folly by :i* he himself _h be5 misl$4 ,9 #agdc x 0 pr9t$1 ,philosophy1 t lean$ on heav5 be=e1 ,%r9ks to h] second cause1 & is no m4 ,! ,newtonians repell$ ! *>ge ( deal+ 9 occult causes2#eig &1 ref]r+ gravity to ! w ( ! ,deity1 z ! ,fir/ ,cause1 assum$ a sup]iority ov] ^? ^: philosophy re/$ 9 second causes4 ,note #ehg3 ,i presume ,bol+broke is "h meant4 ,note #eig3 ,see ,cotes's ,pref4 to ! ,pr9cipia4 ,to ! cordial reception ( ! ,newtonian !ory by ! ,engli% a/ronom]s1 !re is only "o conspicu\s exception2 :i* is1 h[ev]1 "o ( "s note1 be+ no o!r ?an ,flam/e$1 ! ,a/ronom] ,royal1 a mo/ labori\s & exact obs]v]4 ,flam/e$ at fir/ li/5$ ) complac5cy to ! promises ( improvem5ts 9 ! ,lun> ,tables1 :i* ! new doctr9es held =?1 & 0 will+ to assi/ ,newton1 & to receive assi/ance f him4 ,b aft] a "t1 he lo/ 8 respect = ,newton's !ory1 & ceas$ to take any int]e/ 9 x4 ,he !n decl>$ to "o ( 8 correspond5ts1#fjg ,i h det]m9$ to lay ^! crot*ets ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton's :olly aside4 ,we ne$ n1 h[ev]1 f9d any difficulty 9 ?is1 if we recollect t ,flam/e$1 ?\gh a good obs]v]1 0 no philosoph]2--nev] und]/ood by a ,!ory any ?+ m ?an a ,=mula :i* %\ld pr$ict results2--& 0 incapable ( compreh5d+ ! object ( ,newton's !ory1 :i* 0 to assign causes z well z rules1 & to satisfy ! conditions ( ,me*anics z well z ( ,geometry4 #dbh ,note #fjg3 ,baily's ,acc\nt ( ,flam/e$1 c41 p4 #cji4 #b;d ,ed4 ,i d n see any reason to retract :at 0 ?us said2 b x ought p]haps to be di/9ctly said t on ^! v acc\nts ,flam/e$'s rejection ( ,newton's rules did n imply a d5ial ( ! doctr9e ( gravitation4 ,9 ! lett] above quot$1 ,flam/e$ says t he has be5 employ$ ^u ! ,moon1 & t ! heav5s reject t equation ( ,sir ,i4 ,newton :i* ,gregory & ,newton call$ 8 six?3 ,i _h !n :5 he wrote be=e comp>$ b #gb ( my obs]vations ) ! tables1 n[ ,i h exam9$ above #ajj m4 ,i f9d !m all firm 9 ! same1 & ! sev5? equation too4 ,& !reupon he comes to ! det]m9ation above /at$4 ,at an e>li] p]iod ,flam/e$1 z ,i h said1 _h receiv$ ,newton's sugge/ions ) great def]5ce1 & _h regulat$ 8 own obs]vations & !ories ) ref]5ce to !m4 ,! calculation ( ! lun> inequalities ^u ! !ory ( gravitation 0 f\nd by ,newton & 8 successors to be a m difficult & labori\s task ?an he _h anticipat$1 & 0 n p]=m$ )\t sev]al trials & errors4 ,"o ( ! equations 0 at fir/ publi%$ 79 ,gregory's ,a/ronomi ,elem5ta7 ) a wrong sign4 ,& :5 ,newton _h done all1 ,flam/e$ f\nd t ! rules 7 f> f com+ up to ! degree ( accuracy :i* _h be5 claim$ = !m1 t !y c\ld give ! moon's place true to #b or #c m9utes4 ,x 0 n till consid]ably lat] t ?is am\nt ( exactness 0 atta9$4 ,! late ,mr4 ,baily1 to :om a/ronomy & a/ronomical lit]ature are s deeply indebt$1 9 8 ,supplem5t to ! ,acc\nt ( ,flam/e$1 has exam9$ ) great c>e & great c&or ! ass]tion t ,flam/e$ did n und]/& ,newton's ,!ory4 ,he rem>ks1 v ju/ly1 t :at ,newton himself at fir/ pres5t$ z 8 ,!ory1 might m prop]ly be call$ ,rules = comput+ lun> tables1 ?an a physical ,!ory 9 ! mod]n acceptation ( ! t]m4 ,he %[s1 too1 t ,flam/e$ _h read ! ,pr9cipia ) att5tion4#fag ,nor d ,i d\bt t _m consid]able ma!maticians gave ! same imp]fect ass5t to ,newton's doctr9e :i* ,flam/e$ did4 ,b :5 we f9d t o!rs1 z ,halley1 ,david ,gregory1 & ,cotes1 at once n only saw 9 ! doctr9e a s\rce ( true =mul1 b also a magnific5t physical discov]y1 we are oblig$1 ,i ?9k1 to make ,flam/e$1 9 ?is respect1 an exception to ! fir/ class ( a/ronom]s ( 8 own "t4 ,note #fag3 ,supp4 p4 #fia4 ,mr4 ,baily's sugge/ion t ! annual equations = ! corrections ( ! lun> apogee & node 7 collect$ f ,flam/e$'s tables #dbi & obs]vations indep5d5tly ( _! sugge/ion by ,newton z ! results ( ,!ory 7,supp4 p4 #fib1 ,note1 & p4 #fih71 appe>s to me n to be adequately support$ by ! evid5ce giv54 ,sect4 #c4--,reception ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory abroad4 ,,! reception ( ! ,newtonian !ory on ! ,cont95t1 0 mu* m t>dy & unwill+ ?an 9 its native isl&4 ,ev5 ^? ^: ma!matical atta9m5ts mo/ fitt$ !m to appreciate its pro(s1 7 prev5t$ by "s peculi>ity ( view f adopt+ x z a sy/em2 z ,leibnitz1 ,b]n\lli1 ,huygh5s2 :o all clung to "o modification or o!r ( ! sy/em ( vortices4 ,9 ,france1 ! ,c>tesian sy/em _h obta9$ a wide & popul> reception1 hav+ be5 recomm5d$ by ,font5elle ) ! graces ( 8 /yle2 & its empire 0 s firm & well e/abli%$ 9 t c\ntry1 t x resi/$ = a long "t ! pressure ( ,newtonian argum5ts4 ,inde$1 ! ,newtonian op9ions _h sc>cely any disciples 9 ,france1 till ,voltaire ass]t$ _! claims1 on 8 return f ,engl& 9 #agbh3 until !n1 z he himself says1 !re 7 n tw5ty ,newtonians out ( ,engl&4 ,! hold :i* ! ,philosophy ( ,desc>tes _h ^u ! m9ds ( 8 c\ntrym5 is1 p]haps1 n surpris+4 ,he really _h ! m]it1 a great "o 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 ( hav+ completely ov]turn$ ! ,ari/otelian sy/em1 & introduc$ ! philosophy ( matt] & motion4 ,9 all bran*es ( mix$ ma!matics1 z we h already said1 8 foll[]s 7 ! be/ guides :o _h yet appe>$4 ,8 hypo!sis ( vortices1 z an explanation ( ! cele/ial motions1 _h an app>5t advantage ov] ! ,newtonian doctr9e1 9 ?is respect2--t x ref]r$ effects to ! mo/ intelligible1 or at lea/ mo/ famili> k9ds ( me*anical causation1 namely1 pressure & impulse4 ,& above all1 ! sy/em 0 acceptable to mo/ m9ds1 9 consequ5ce ( be+1 z 0 pret5d$1 d$uc$ f a few simple pr9ciples by necess>y consequ5ces2 & ( be+ also directly connect$ ) metaphysical & !ological speculations4 ,we may add1 t x 0 modifi$ by its ma!matical adh]5ts 9 su* a way z to remove mo/ ( ! objections to x4 ,a vortex revolv+ ab\t a c5tre c\ld be con/ruct$1 or at lea/ x 0 suppos$ t x c\ld be con/ruct$1 s z to produce a t5d5cy ( bodies to ! c5tre4 ,9 all cases1 !re=e1 :]e a c5tral =ce act$1 a vortex 0 suppos$2 b 9 reason+ to ! results ( ?is hypo!sis1 x 0 #dcj easy to leave out ( sight all o!r effects ( ! vortex1 & to consid] only ! c5tral =ce2 & :5 ?is 0 done1 ! ,c>tesian ma!matician c\ld apply to 8 problems a me*anical pr9ciple ( "s degree ( consi/5cy4 ,?is reflection w1 9 "s degree1 acc\nt = :at at fir/ seems s /range2--! fact t ! language ( ! ,fr5* ma!maticians is ,c>tesian1 = almo/ half a c5tury aft] ! publication ( ! ,pr9cipia ( ,newton4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 a controv]sy betwe5 ! two op9ions go+ on all ?is "t1 & e day %[$ ! insurm\ntable difficulties "u :i* ! ,c>tesians labor$4 ,newton1 9 ! ,pr9cipia1 _h ins]t$ a s]ies ( propositions1 ! object ( :i* 0 to prove1 t ! ma*9]y ( vortices c\ld n be accommodat$ to "o "p ( ! cele/ial ph5om5a1 )\t contradict+ ano!r "p4 ,a m obvi\s difficulty 0 ! case ( gravity ( ! e>?2 if ?is =ce arose1 z ,desc>tes ass]t$1 f ! rotation ( ! e>?'s vortex ab\t its axis1 x ought to t5d directly to ! axis1 & n to ! c5tre4 ,! ass]t]s ( vortices (t5 tri$ _! skill 9 rem$y+ ?is vice 9 ! hypo!sis1 b nev] ) mu* success4 ,huygh5s suppos$ ! e!real matt] ( ! vortices to revolve ab\t ! c5tre 9 all directions2 ,p]rault made ! /rata ( ! vortex increase 9 velocity ( rotation z !y rec$e f ! c5tre2 ,saur9 ma9ta9$ t ! circumambi5t resi/ance :i* comprises ! vortex w produce a pressure pass+ ?r\gh ! c5tre4 ,! elliptic =m ( ! orbits ( ! planets 0 ano!r difficulty4 ,desc>tes _h suppos$ ! vortices !mselves to be oval b o!rs1 z ,john ,b]n\lli1 contriv$ ways ( hav+ elliptical motion 9 a circul> vortex4 ,! ma!matical prize-que/ions propos$ by ! ,fr5* ,academy1 naturally br\ght ! two sets ( op9ions into conflict4 ,! ,c>tesian memoir ( ,john ,b]n\lli1 to :i* we h j ref]r$1 0 ! "o :i* ga9$ ! prize 9 #agcj4 ,x n unfrequ5tly happ5$ t ! ,academy1 z if desir\s to %[ its imp>tiality1 divid$ ! prize betwe5 ! ,c>tesians & ,newtonians4 ,?us 9 #agcd1 ! "q be+1 ! cause ( ! incl9ation ( ! orbits ( ! planets1 ! prize 0 %>$ betwe5 ,john ,b]n\lli1 ^: ,memoir 0 f\nd$ on ! sy/em ( vortices1 & 8 son ,daniel1 :o 0 a ,newtonian4 ,! la/ act ( homage ( ?is k9d to ! ,c>tesian sy/em 0 p]=m$ 9 #agdj1 :5 ! prize on ! "q ( ! ,tides 0 di/ribut$ betwe5 ,daniel ,b]n\lli1 ,eul]1 ,maclaur91 & ,cavalli]i2 ! la/ ( :om _h tri$ to pat* up & am5d ! ,c>tesian hypo!sis on ?is subject4 #dca ,?us ! ,newtonian sy/em 0 n adopt$ 9 ,france till ! ,c>tesian g5]ation _h di$ (f2 ,font5elle1 :o 0 secret>y to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 & :o liv$ till #agef1 di$ a ,c>tesian4 ,!re 7 exceptions2 = in/ance1 ,delisle1 an a/ronom] :o 0 select$ by ,pet] ! ,great ( ,russia1 to f\nd ! ,academy ( ,/ ,pet]sburg2 :o visit$ ,engl& 9 #agbd1 & to :om ,newton !n gave 8 picture1 & ,halley 8 ,tables4 ,b 9 g5]al1 dur+ ! int]val1 t c\ntry & ?is _h a national diff]5ce ( cre$ on physical subjects4 ,voltaire1 :o visit$ ,engl& 9 #agbg1 notices ?is diff]5ce 9 8 lively mann]4 ,a ,fr5*man :o arrives 9 ,london1 f9ds a great alt]ation 9 philosophy1 z 9 o!r ?+s4 ,he left ! _w full 9999a pl5um1 he f9ds x empty4 ,at ,p>is y see ! univ]se compos$ ( vortices ( subtle matt]1 9 ,london we see no?+ ( ! k9d4 ,) y x is ! pressure ( ! moon :i* causes ! tides ( ! sea1 9 ,engl& x is ! sea :i* gravitates t[>ds ! moon2 s t :5 y ?9k ! moon ought to give u high wat]1 ^! g5tlem5 believe t y ought to h l[ wat]2 :i* un=tunately we _c te/ by exp]i5ce2 = 9 ord] to d t1 we %\ld h exam9$ ! ,moon & ! ,tides at ! mom5t ( ! creation4 ,y w obs]ve also t ! sun1 :i* 9 ,france has no?+ to d ) ! bus9ess1 "h comes 9 = a qu>t] ( x4 ,among y ,c>tesians1 all is done by an impulsion :i* "o does n well und]/&2 ) ! ,newtonians1 x is done by an attraction ( :i* we "k ! cause no bett]4 ,at ,p>is y fancy ! e>? %ap$ l a melon1 at ,london x is flatt5$ on ! two sides4 ,x 0 ,voltaire himself z we h said1 :o 0 ma9ly in/rum5tal 9 giv+ ! ,newtonian doctr9es curr5cy 9 ,france4 ,he 0 at fir/ refus$ p]mission to pr9t 8 ,elem5ts ( ! ,newtonian ,philosophy1 by ! ,*ancellor1 ,d',aguesseaux1 :o 0 a ,c>tesian2 b aft] ! appe>ance ( ?is "w 9 #agch1 & ( o!r writ+s by him on ! same subject1 ! ,c>tesian edifice1 already )\t real support or consi/5cy1 crumbl$ to pieces & disappe>$4 ,! fir/ ,memoir 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,fr5* ,academy 9 :i* ! doctr9e ( c5tral =ce is appli$ to ! sol> sy/em1 is "o by ! ,*evali] de ,l\ville 9 #agbj1 ,on ! ,con/ruction & ,!ory ( ,tables ( ! ,sun4 ,9 ?is1 h[ev]1 ! mode ( expla9+ ! motions ( ! planets by means ( an orig9al impulse & an attractive =ce is attribut$ to ,kepl]1 n to ,newton4 ,! fir/ ,memoir :i* ref]s to ! univ]sal gravitation ( matt] is by ,maup]tuis1 9 #dcb #agcf4 ,b ,newton 0 n unkn[n or despis$ 9 ,france till ?is "t4 ,9 #afii he 0 admitt$ "o ( ! v small numb] ( =eign associates ( ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,ev5 ,font5elle1 :o1 z we h said1 nev] adopt$ 8 op9ions1 spoke ( him 9 a wor?y mann]1 9 ! ,eloge :i* he compos$ on ! occasion ( 8 dea?4 ,at a mu* e>li] p]iod too1 ,font5elle did homage to 8 fame4 ,! foll[+ passage ref]s1 ,i presume1 to ,newton4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,academy = #agjh1 :i* is writt5 by ! secret>y1 he says1#fbg 9 ref]r+ to ! difficulty :i* ! comets occasion 9 ! ,c>tesian hypo!sis3 ,we might relieve ourselves at once f all ! emb>rassm5t :i* arises f ! directions ( ^! motions1 by suppress+1 z has be5 done by "o ( ! greate/ g5iuses ( ! age1 all ?is imm5se fluid matt]1 :i* we commonly suppose betwe5 ! planets1 & conceiv+ !m susp5d$ 9 a p]fect void4 ,note #fbg3 ,hi/4 ,ac4 ,sc4 #agjh4 p4 #ajc4 ,comets1 z ! above passage implies1 7 a k9d ( artill]y :i* ! ,c>tesian pl5um c\ld n resi/4 ,:5 x appe>$ t ! pa?s ( su* w&]]s trav]s$ ! vortices 9 all directions1 x 0 impossible to ma9ta9 t ^! imag9>y curr5ts gov]n$ ! movem5ts ( bodies imm]s$ 9 !m & ! me*anism ceas$ to h any real efficacy4 ,bo? ^! ph5om5a ( comets1 & _m o!rs1 became objects ( a /rong] & m g5]al int]e/1 9 consequ5ce ( ! controv]sy betwe5 ! rival p>ties2 & ?us ! preval5ce ( ! ,c>tesian sy/em did n s]i\sly imp$e ! progress ( s\nd k4 ,9 "s cases1 no d\bt1 x made m5 unwill+ to receive ! tru?1 z 9 ! in/ance ( ! deviation ( ! comets f ! zodiacal motion2 & aga91 :5 ,rm] discov]$ t light 0 n in/antane\sly propagat$4 ,b x enc\rag$ obs]vation & calculation1 & ?us =w>d$ ! v]ification & ext5sion ( ! ,newtonian sy/em2 ( :i* process we mu/ n[ consid] "s ( ! incid5ts4 #dcc ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,newton1 ,,cont9u$4--,,v]ification ,,& ,,completion ,,( ,,! ,,newtonian ,,!ory4 ,sect4 #a4--;,division ( ! ,subject4 ,,! v]ification ( ! ,law ( ,univ]sal ,gravitation z ! gov]n+ pr9ciple ( all cosmical ph5om5a1 l$1 z we h already /at$1 to a numb] ( diff]5t l9es ( rese>*1 all long & difficult4 ,( ^! we may treat successively1 ! motions ( ! ,moon1 ( ! ,sun1 ( ! ,planets1 ( ! ,satellites1 ( ,comets2 we may also consid] sep>ately ! ,secul> ,inequalities1 :i* at fir/ sight appe> to foll[ a diff]5t law f ! o!r *anges2 we may !n speak ( ! results ( ! pr9ciple z !y affect ?is ,e>?1 9 its ,figure1 9 ! am\nt ( ,gravity at diff]5t places1 & 9 ! ph5om5a ( ! ,tides4 ,ea* ( ^! subjects has l5t its aid to confirm ! g5]al law3 b 9 ea* ! confirmation has _h its peculi> difficulties1 & has its sep>ate hi/ory4 ,our sket* ( ?is hi/ory mu/ be v rapid1 = our aim is only to %[ :at is ! k9d & c\rse ( ! confirmation :i* su* a !ory dem&s & receives4 ,= ! same reason we pass ov] _m ev5ts ( ?is p]iod :i* are highly important 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy4 ,!y h lo/ mu* ( _! int]e/ = u1 & ev5 = common read]s1 because !y are ( a class ) :i* we are already famili>1 tru?s includ$ 9 m g5]al tru?s to :i* our eyes n[ mo/ readily turn4 ,?us1 ! discov]y ( new satellites & planets is b a repetition ( :at 0 done by ,galileo3 ! det]m9ation ( _! nodes & apses1 ! r$uction ( _! motions to ! law ( ! ellipse1 is b a fre% exemplification ( ! discov]ies ( ,kepl]4 ,o!rwise1 ! =mation ( ,tables ( ! satellites ( ,jupit] & ,saturn1 ! discov]y ( ! ecc5tricities ( ! orbits1 & ( ! motions ( ! nodes & apses1 by ,cass9i1 ,halley1 & o!rs1 w\ld rank ) ! great a*ievem5ts 9 a/ronomy4 ,newton's peculi> advance 9 ! ,tables ( ! cele/ial motions is ! introduction ( ,p]turbations4 ,to ^! motions1 s affect$1 we n[ proce$4 #dcd ,sect4 #b4--;,application ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory to ! ,moon4 ,,! ,motions ( ! ,moon may be fir/ spok5 (1 z ! mo/ obvi\s & ! mo/ important ( ! applications ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory4 ,! v]ification ( su* a !ory consi/s1 z we h se5 9 previ\s cases1 9 ! con/ruction ( ,tables d]iv$ f ! !ory1 & ! comp>ison ( ^! ) obs]vation4 ,! advancem5t ( a/ronomy w\ld alone h be5 a suffici5t motive = ?is labor2 b !re 7 o!r reasons :i* urg$ x on ) a /rong] impulse4 ,a p]fect ,lun> ,!ory1 if ! !ory c\ld be p]fect$1 promis$ to supply a me?od ( f9d+ ! ,longitude ( any place on ! e>?'s surface2 & ?us ! v]ification ( a !ory :i* pr(ess$ to be complete 9 its f\ndations1 0 id5tifi$ ) an object ( imm$iate practical use to navigators & geograph]s1 & ( va/ ackn[l$g$ value4 ,a good me?od = ! ne> discov]y ( ! longitude _h be5 e/imat$ by nations & pr9ces at l>ge sums ( money4 ,! ,dut* 7 will+ to tempt ,galileo to ?is task by ! (f] ( a *a9 ( gold3 ,philip ! ,?ird ( ,spa9 _h promis$ a rew>d = ?is object /ill e>li]2#fcg ! p>liam5t ( ,engl&1 9 #agad1 propos$ a recomp5se ( #bj1jjjl4 /]l+2 ! ,reg5t ,duke ( ,orlans1 two ye>s aft]w>ds1 (f]$ #ajj1jjj francs = ! same purpose4 ,^! prizes1 add$ to ! love ( tru? & ( fame1 kept ?is object con/antly be=e ! eyes ( ma!maticians1 dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,note #fcg3 ,del4 ,a4 ,m4 i4 #ci1 #ff4 ,if ! ,tables c\ld be s con/ruct$ z to repres5t ! moon's real place 9 ! heav5s ) extreme precision1 z x w\ld be se5 f a /&>d obs]vatory1 ! obs]vation ( h] app>5t place1 z se5 f any o!r po9t ( ! e>?'s surface1 w\ld enable ! obs]v] to f9d 8 longitude f ! /&>d po9t4 ,! motions ( ! moon _h hi!rto s ill agre$ ) ! be/ ,tables1 t ?is me?od fail$ altoge!r4 ,newton _h discov]$ ! gr\nd ( ?is want ( agreem5t4 ,he _h %[n t ! same =ce :i* produces ! ,evection1 ,v>iation1 & ,annual ,equation1 mu/ produce also a long s]ies ( o!r ,inequalities1 ( v>i\s magnitudes & cycles1 :i* p]petually drag ! moon be=e or beh9d ! place :]e %e w\ld be s\ght by an a/ronom] :o knew only ( ^? pr9cipal & notori\s inequalities4 ,b to calculate & apply ! new inequalities1 0 no slight und]tak+4 #dce ,9 ! fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9cipia 9 #afhg1 ,newton _h n giv5 any calculations ( new inequalities affect+ ! longitude ( ! moon4 ,b 9 ,david ,gregory's ,elem5ts ( ,physical & ,geometrical ,a/ronomy1 publi%$ 9 #agjb1 is ins]t$#fdg ,newton's ,lun> ,!ory z appli$ by him to ,practice2 9 :i* ! great discov]] has giv5 ! results ( 8 calculations ( eight ( ! lun> ,equations1 _! quantities1 epo*s1 & p]iods4 ,^! calculations 7 = a long p]iod ! basis ( new ,tables ( ! ,moon1 :i* 7 publi%$ by v>i\s p]sons2#feg z by ,delisle 9 #agae or #agaf1 ,grammatici at ,+old/adt 9 #agbf1 ,wright 9 #agcb1 ,angelo ,capelli at ,v5ice 9 #agcc1 ,dun?orne at ,cambridge 9 #agci4 ,note #fdg3 ,p4 #ccb4 ,note #feg3 ,lal&e1 #adeg4 ,flam/e$ _h giv5 ,tables ( ! ,moon ^u ,horrox's !ory 9 #afha1 & wi%$ to improve !m2 & ?\gh1 z we h se51 he w\ld n1 or c\ld n1 accept ,newton's doctr9es 9 _! :ole ext5t1 ,newton communicat$ 8 !ory to ! obs]v] 9 ! %ape 9 :i* he c\ld und]/& x & use x3#ffg & ,flam/e$ employ$ ^! directions 9 con/ruct+ new ,lun> ,tables1 :i* he call$ 8 ,!ory4#fgg ,^! ,tables 7 n publi%$ till long aft] 8 dea?1 by ,le ,monni] at ,p>is 9 #agdf4 ,!y are said1 by ,lal&e1#fhg n to diff] mu* f ,halley's4 ,halley's ,tables ( ! ,moon 7 pr9t$ 9 #agai or #agbj1 b n publi%$ till aft] 8 dea? 9 #agdi4 ,!y _h be5 f\nd$ on ,flam/e$'s obs]vations & 8 own2 & :51 9 #agbj1 ,halley succe$$ ,flam/e$ 9 ! po/ ( ,a/ronom] ,royal at ,gre5wi*1 & conceiv$ t he _h ! means ( mu* improv+ :at he _h done be=e1 he began by pr9t+ :at he _h already execut$4#fig ,note #ffg3 ,baily4 ,acc\nt ( ,flam/e$1 p4 #gb4 ,note #fgg3 ,p4 #baa4 ,note #fhg3 ,lal4 #adei4 ,note #fig3 ,mr4 ,baily99 says t ,may]'s ,n\velles ,tables de la ,lune 9 9999#agec1 publi%$ upw>ds ( fifty ye>s aft] ,gregory's ,a/ronomy1 may be consid]$ z ! fir/ lun> tables =m$ solely on ,newton's pr9ciples4 ,?\gh ,wright 9 #agcb publi%$ ,new & ,correct ,tables ( ! ,lun> ,motions accord+ to ! ,newtonian ,!ory1 ,newton's rules 7 9 !m only p>tially adopt$4 ,9 #agce ,leadbett] publi%$ 8 ,uranoscopia1 9 :i* ^? rules 7 m fully foll[$4 ,b ^! ,newtonian ,tables did n sup]s$e ,flam/e$'s ,horroxian ,tables1 till bo? 7 supplant$ by ^? ( ,may]4 99 ,supp4 p4 #gjb4 ,b ,halley _h long propos$ a me?od1 diff]5t f t ( ,newton1 b m>k$ by great +5uity1 = am5d+ ! ,lun> ,tables4 ,he propos$ to d ?is by ! use ( a cycle1 :i* we h m5tion$ z "o ( ! e>lie/ discov]ies 9 a/ronomy2--! ,p]iod ( #bbc lunations1 or eighte5 ye>s & elev5 days1 ! ,*aldean #dcf ,s>os4 ,?is p]iod 0 anci5tly us$ = pr$ict+ ! eclipses ( ! sun & moon2 = ^? eclipses :i* happ5 dur+ ?is p]iod1 are repeat$ aga9 9 ! same ord]1 & ) ne>ly ! same circum/ances1 aft] ! expiration ( "o su* p]iod & ! comm5cem5t ( a second4 ,! reason ( ?is is1 t at ! end ( su* a cycle1 ! moon is 9 ne>ly ! same position ) respect to ! sun1 h] nodes1 & h] apogee1 z %e 0 at fir/2 & is only a few degrees di/ant f ! same "p ( ! heav5s4 ,b on ! /r5g? ( ?is consid]ation1 ,halley conjectur$ t all ! irregul>ities ( ! moon's motion1 h[ev] complex !y may be1 w\ld recur aft] su* an int]val2 & t1 !re=e1 if ! requisite corrections 7 det]m9$ by obs]vation = "o su* p]iod1 we might by means ( !m give accuracy to ! ,tables = all succe$+ p]iods4 ,?is idea occurr$ to him be=e he 0 acqua9t$ ) ,newton's views4#gjg ,aft] ! lun> !ory ( ! ,pr9cipia _h appe>$1 he c\ld n help see+ t ! idea 0 confirm$2 = ! inequalities ( ! moon's motion1 :i* arise f ! attraction ( ! sun1 w dep5d on h] positions ) reg>d to ! sun1 ! apogee1 & ! node2 & !re=e1 h[ev] num]\s1 w recur :5 ^! positions recur4 ,note #gjg3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agca1 p4 #ahh4 ,halley ann\nc$1 9 #afia1gag 8 int5tion ( foll[+ ?is idea into practice2 9 a pap] 9 :i* he correct$ ! text ( ?ree passages 9 ,pl9y1 9 :i* ?is p]iod is m5tion$1 & f :i* x is sometimes call$ ! ,pl9ian p]iod4 ,9 #agaj1 9 ! preface to a new edition to ,/reet's ,c>ol9e ,tables1 he /at$ t he _h already confirm$ x to a consid]able ext5t4#gbg ,& ev5 aft] ,newton's !ory _h be5 appli$1 he /ill resolv$ to use 8 cycle z a means ( obta9+ fur!r accuracy4 ,on succe$+ to ! ,obs]vatory at ,gre5wi* 9 #agbj1 he 0 fur!r delay$ by f9d+ t ! in/rum5ts _h belong$ to ,flam/e$1 & 7 remov$ by 8 executors4 ,& ?is1 he says1#gcg 0 ! m griev\s to me1 on acc\nt ( my advanc$ age1 be+ !n 9 my sixty-f\r? ye>3 :i* put me pa/ all hopes ( ev] liv+ to see a complete p]iod ( eighte5 ye>s' obs]vation4 ,b1 ?anks to ,god1 he has be5 pleas$ hi!rto 79 #agca7 to af=d me suffici5t heal? & /r5g? to execute my (fice1 9 all its p>ts1 ) my own h&s & eyes1 )\t any assi/ance or int]ruption1 dur+ "o :ole p]iod ( ! moon's #dcg apogee1 :i* p]iod is p]=m$ 9 some:at less ?an n9e ye>s4 ,he f\nd ! agreem5t v rem>kable1 & conceiv$ hopes ( atta9+ ! great object1 ( f9d+ ! ,longitude ) ! requisite degree ( exactness2 nor did he give up 8 labors on ?is subject till he _h complet$ 8 ,pl9ian p]iod 9 #agci4 ,note #gag3 ,ib4 p4 #ecf4 ,note #gbg3 ,ib4 #agca1 p4 #ahg4 ,note #gcg3 ,ib4 p4 #aic4 ,! accuracy ) :i* ,halley conceiv$ himself able to pr$ict ! moon's place#gdg 0 )9 two m9utes ( space1 or "o fifte5? ( ! bread? ( ! moon h]self4 ,! accuracy requir$ = obta9+ ! national rew>d 0 consid]ably great]4 ,le ,monni] pursu$ ! idea ( ,halley4#geg ,b be=e ,halley's me?od _h be5 complet$1 x 0 sup]s$$ by ! m direct prosecution ( ,newton's views4 ,note #gdg3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agca1 p4 #aie4 ,note #geg3 ,bailly1 ,a4 ,m4 c4 #aca4 ,we h already rem>k$1 9 ! hi/ory ( analytical me*anics1 t 9 ! ,lun> ,!ory1 consid]$ z "o ( ! cases ( ! ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies1 no advance 0 made beyond :at ,newton _h done1 till ma!maticians ?rew aside ! ,newtonian artifices1 & appli$ ! newly develop$ g5]alizations ( ! analytical me?od4 ,! fir/ great app>5t defici5cy 9 ! agreem5t ( ! law ( univ]sal gravitation ) a/ronomical obs]vation1 0 remov$ by ,clairaut's improv$ approximation to ! !oretical ,motion ( ! ,moon's ,apogee1 9 #agej2 yet n till x _h caus$ s mu* disquietude1 t ,clairaut himself _h sugge/$ a modification ( ! law ( attraction2 & x 0 only 9 trac+ ! consequ5ces ( ?is sugge/ion1 t he f\nd ! ,newtonian law ( ! inv]se squ>e to be t :i*1 :5 rightly develop$1 agre$ ) ! facts4 ,eul] solv$ ! problem by ! aid ( 8 analysis 9 #agde1gfg & publi%$ ,tables ( ! ,moon 9 #agdf4 ,8 tables 7 n v accurate at fir/2#ggg b he1 ,d',alemb]t1 & ,clairaut1 cont9u$ to labor at ?is object1 & ! two latt] publi%$ ,tables ( ! ,moon 9 #aged4ghg ,f9ally1 ,tobias ,may]1 an a/ronom] ( ,gtt+51 hav+ comp>$ ,eul]'s tables ) obs]vations1 correct$ !m s successfully1 t 9 #agec he publi%$ ,tables ( ! ,moon1 :i* really did possess ! accuracy :i* ,halley only flatt]$ himself t he _h atta9$4 ,may]'s success 9 8 fir/ ,tables enc\rag$ him to make !m /ill m p]fect4 ,he appli$ himself to ! me*anical !ory ( ! moon's orbit2 correct$ all ! coeffici5ts ( ! s]ies by a great numb] ( obs]vations2 & 9 #agee1 s5t 8 new ,tables to ,london z wor?y to claim ! prize (f]$ = ! discov]y ( longitude4 ,he di$ soon aft] #dch 79 #agfb71 at ! e>ly age ( ?irty-n9e1 worn out by 8 incessant labors2 & 8 wid[ s5t to ,london a copy ( 8 ,tables ) additional corrections4 ,^! ,tables 7 committ$ to ,bradley1 !n ,a/ronom] ,royal1 9 ord] to be comp>$ ) obs]vation4 ,bradley labor$ at ?is task ) unremitt+ zeal & indu/ry1 hav+ himself long ent]ta9$ hopes t ! ,lun> ,me?od ( f9d+ ! ,longitude might be br\ght into g5]al use4 ,he & 8 assi/ant1 ,gael ,morris1 introduc$ corrections into ,may]'s ,tables ( #agee4 ,9 8 report ( #agef1 he says1#gig t he did n f9d any diff]5ce s great z a m9ute & a qu>t]2 & 9 #agfj1 he adds1 t ?is deviation _h be5 fur!r dim9i%$ by 8 corrections4 ,x is n =eign to our purpose to obs]ve ! great labor :i* ?is v]ification requir$4 ,n less ?an #abbj obs]vations1 & long calculations f\nd$ ^u ea*1 7 employ$4 ,! accuracy :i* ,may]'s ,tables possess$ 0 consid]$ to entitle !m to a "p ( ! p>liam5t>y rew>d2 !y 7 pr9t$ 9 #aggj1 & 8 wid[ receiv$ #cjjjl4 f ! ,engli% nation4 ,at ! same "t1 ,eul]1 ^: ,tables _h be5 ! orig9 & f\ndation ( ,may]'s1 also _h a recomp5se ( ! same am\nt4 ,note #gfg3 ,lal4 #adfj4 ,note #ggg3 ,bradley's ,correspond5ce4 ,note #ghg3 ,lal4 #adfj4 ,note #gig3 ,bradley's ,mem4 p4 xcviii4 ,?is public national ackn[l$gm5t ( ! practical accuracy ( ^! ,tables is1 x w be obs]v$1 also a solemn recognition ( ! tru? ( ! ,newtonian !ory1 z f> z tru? c be judg$ ( by m5 act+ "u ! highe/ (ficial responsibility1 & aid$ by ! mo/ complete comm& ( ! res\rces ( ! skill & tal5ts ( o!rs4 ,! f9d+ ! ,longitude is ?us ! seal ( ! moon's gravitation to ! sun & e>?2 & ) ?is occurr5ce1 !re=e1 our ma9 conc]n ) ! hi/ory ( ! ,lun> ,!ory ends4 ,v>i\s improvem5ts h be5 s9ce introduc$ into ?is rese>*2 b on ^! we1 ) s _m o!r subjects be=e u1 mu/ =be> to ent]4 ,sect4 #c4--;,application ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory to ! ,planets1 ,satellites1 & ,e>?4 ,,! !ories ( ! ,planets & ,satellites1 z affect$ by ! law ( univ]sal gravitation1 & !re=e by p]turbations1 7 naturally subjects ( int]e/1 aft] ! promulgation ( t law4 ,"s ( ! effects ( ! mutual attraction ( ! planets _h1 inde$1 already attract$ notice4 ,! inequality produc$ by ! mutual attraction ( ,jupit] & ,saturn _c be ov]look$ by a good obs]v]4 ,9 ! #dci preface to ! second edition ( ! ,pr9cipia1 ,cotes rem>ks1#hjg t ! p]turbation ( ,jupit] & ,saturn is n unkn[n to a/ronom]s4 ,9 ,halley's ,tables x 0 notic$#hag t !re are v great deviations f regul>ity 9 ^! two planets1 & ^! deviations are ascrib$ to ! p]turb+ =ce ( ! planets on ea* o!r2 b ! correction ( ^! by a suitable equation is left to succe$+ a/ronom]s4 ,note #hjg3 ,preface to ,pr9cipia1 p4 xxi4 ,note #hag3 ,end ( ,planet>y ,tables4 ,! motion ( ! planes & apsides ( ! planet>y orbits 0 "o ( ! fir/ results ( _! mutual p]turbation :i* 0 obs]v$4 ,9 #agjf1 ,la ,hire & ,m>aldi comp>$ ,jupit] ) ! ,rudolph9e ,tables1 & ^? ( ,bullialdus3 x appe>$ t 8 aphelion _h advanc$1 & t 8 nodes _h regress$4 ,9 #agbh1 ,j4 ,cass9i f\nd t ,saturn's aphelion _h 9 l mann] travell$ =w>ds4 ,9 #agbj1 :5 ,l\ville refus$ to all[ 9 8 sol> tables ! motion ( ! aphelion ( ! e>?1 ,font5elle obs]v$ t ?is 0 a misplac$ scrupul\sness1 s9ce ! aphelion ( ,m]cury c]ta9ly advances4 ,yet ?is reluctance to admit *ange & irregul>ity 0 n yet ov]come4 ,:5 a/ronom]s _h f\nd an approximate & app>5t con/ancy & regul>ity1 !y 7 will+ to believe x absolute & exact4 ,9 ! satellites ( ,jupit]1 = in/ance1 !y 7 unwill+ to admit ev5 ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbits2 & /ill m1 ! v>iation ( ! nodes1 incl9ations1 & apsides4 ,b all ! fix$ness ( ^! 0 successively disprov$4 ,font5elle 9 #agcb1 on ! occasion ( ,m>aldi's discov]y ( ! *ange ( incl9ation ( ! f\r? satellite1 expresses a suspicion t all ! elem5ts might prove liable to *ange4 ,we see1 says he1 ! con/ancy ( ! incl9ation already %ak5 9 ! ?ree fir/ satellites1 & ! ecc5tricity 9 ! f\r?4 ,! immobility ( ! nodes holds out s f>1 b !re are /rong indications t x w %>e ! same fate4 ,! motions ( ! nodes & apsides ( ! satellites are a necess>y "p ( ! ,newtonian !ory2 & ev5 ! ,c>tesian a/ronom]s n[ requir$ only data1 9 ord] to introduce ^! *anges into _! ,tables4 ,! complete re=mation ( ! ,tables ( ! ,sun1 ,planets1 & ,satellites1 :i* foll[$ z a natural consequ5ce f ! revolution :i* ,newton _h introduc$1 0 r5d]$ possible by ! labors ( ! great con/ellation ( ma!maticians ( :om we h spok5 9 ! la/ book1 ,clairaut1 ,eul]1 ,d',alemb]t1 & _! successors2 & #ddj x 0 c>ri$ into effect 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,?us ,lal&e appli$ ,clairaut's !ory to ,m>s1 z did ,may]2 & ! inequalities 9 ?is case1 says ,bailly#hbg 9 #aghe1 may am\nt to two m9utes1 & !re=e mu/ n be neglect$4 ,lal&e det]m9$ ! inequalities ( ,v5us1 z did ,fa!r ,walmesley1 an ,engli% ma!matician2 ^! 7 f\nd to rea* only to ?irty seconds4 ,note #hbg3 ,a/4 ,mod4 iii4 #agj4 ,! ,planet>y ,tables#hcg :i* 7 9 highe/ repute1 up to ! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 7 ^? ( ,lal&e4 ,9 ^!1 ! p]turbations ( ,jupit] & ,saturn 7 introduc$1 _! magnitude be+ su* t !y _c be disp5s$ )2 b ! ,tables ( ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 & ,m>s1 _h no p]turbations4 ,h5ce ^! latt] ,tables might be consid]$ z accurate en\gh to enable ! obs]v] to f9d ! object1 b n to te/ ! !ory ( p]turbations4 ,b :5 ! calculation ( ! mutual di/urbances ( ! planets 0 appli$1 x 0 always f\nd t x enabl$ ma!maticians to br+ ! !oretical places to co9cide m exactly ) ^? obs]v$4 ,9 improv+1 z mu* z possible1 ?is co9cid5ce1 x is necess>y to det]m9e ! mass ( ea* planet2 = ^u t1 accord+ to ! law ( univ]sal gravitation1 its di/urb+ p[] dep5ds4 ,?us1 9 #ahac1 ,l9d5au publi%$ ,tables ( ,m]cury1 & conclud$1 f !m1 t a consid]able increase ( ! suppos$ mass ( ,v5us 0 necess>y to reconcile !ory ) obs]vation4#hdg ,he _h publi%$ ,tables ( ,v5us 9 #ahaj1 & ( ,m>s 9 #ahaa4 ,&1 9 prov+ ,b\v>d's ,tables ( ,jupit] & ,saturn1 values 7 obta9$ ( ! masses ( ^? planets4 ,! =m 9 :i* ! "q ( ! tru? ( ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation n[ (f]s itself to ! m9ds ( a/ronom]s1 is ?is3--t x is tak5 = grant$ t x w acc\nt = ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 & ! "q is1 ) :at suppos$ masses x w give ! be/ acc\nt4#heg ,! cont9ually increas+ accuracy ( ! table %[s ! tru? ( ! fundam5tal assumption4 ,note #hcg3 ,airy1 ,report on ,a/4 to ,brit4 ,ass4 #ahcb4 ,note #hdg3 ,airy1 ,report on ,a/4 to ,brit4 9999,ass4 #ahcb4 ,note #heg3 ,among ! mo/ important corrections ( ! suppos$ masses ( ! planets1 we may notice t ( ,jupit]1 by ,pr(essor ,airy4 ,?is det]m9ation ( ,jupit]'s mass 0 f\nd$1 n on ! effect z se5 9 p]turbations1 b on a mu* m direct datum1 ! "t ( revolution ( 8 f\r? satellite4 ,x appe>$1 f ?is calculation1 t ,jupit]'s mass requir$ to be increas$ by ab\t #ahj?4 ,?is result agrees ) t :i* has be5 d]iv$ by ,g]man a/ronom]s f ! p]turbations :i* ! attractions ( ,jupit] produce 9 ! f\r new planets1 & has be5 g5]ally adopt$ z an improvem5t ( ! elem5ts ( our sy/em4 ,! "q ( p]turbation is exemplifi$ 9 ! satellites also4 #dda ,?us ! satellites ( ,jupit] are n only di/urb$ by ! sun1 z ! moon is1 b also by ea* o!r1 z ! planets are4 ,?is mutual action gives rise to "s v curi\s relations among _! motions2 :i*1 l mo/ ( ! o!r lead+ inequalities1 7 =c$ ^u ! notice ( a/ronom]s by obs]vation be=e !y 7 obta9$ by ma!matical calculation4 ,9 ,bradley's rem>ks ^u 8 own ,tables ( ,jupit]'s ,satellites1 publi%$ among ,halley's ,tables1 he obs]ves t ! places ( ! ?ree int]ior satellites are affect$ by errors :i* recur 9 a cycle ( #dcg days1 answ]+ to ! "t 9 :i* !y return to ! same relative position ) reg>d to ea* o!r1 & to ! axis ( ,jupit]'s %ad[4 ,w>g5t91 :o _h notic$ ! same circum/ance )\t k ( :at ,bradley _h done1 appli$ x1 ) all dilig5ce1 to ! purpose ( improv+ ! tables ( ! satellites 9 #agdf4 ,b1 at a lat] p]iod1 ,laplace e/abli%$1 by ma!matical reason+1 ! v curi\s !orem on :i* ?is cycle dep5ds1 :i* he calls ! libration ( ,jupit]'s satellites2 & ,delambre 0 !n able to publi% ,tables ( ,jupit]'s ,satellites m accurate ?an ^? ( ,w>g5t91 :i* he did 9 #aghi4hfg ,note #hfg3 ,voiron1 ,hi/4 ,a/4 p4 #cbb4 ,! progress ( physical a/ronomy f ! "t ( ,eul] & ,clairaut1 has consi/$ ( a s]ies ( calculations & comp>isons ( ! mo/ ab/ruse & recondite k9d4 ,! =mation ( ,tables ( ! ,planets & ,satellites f ! !ory1 requir$ ! solution ( problems mu* m complex ?an ! orig9al case ( ! ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies4 ,! real motions ( ! planets & _! orbits are r5d]$ /ill fur!r intricate by ?is1 t all ! l9es & po9ts to :i* we c ref] !m1 are !mselves 9 motion4 ,! task ( c>ry+ ord] & law into ?is mass ( app>5t confusion1 has requir$ a long s]ies ( m5 ( transc5d5t intellectual p[]s2 & a p]sev]ance & delicacy ( obs]vation1 su* z we h n ! smalle/ example ( 9 any o!r subject4 ,x is impossible "h to give any detail$ acc\nt ( ^! labors2 b we may m5tion "o in/ance ( ! complex consid]ations :i* ent] into !m4 ,! nodes ( ,jupit]'s f\r? satellite d n g backw>ds1#hgg z ! ,newtonian !ory seems to require2 !y advance ^u ,jupit]'s orbit4 ,b !n1 x is to be recollect$ t ! !ory requires ! nodes to retrograde ^u ! orbit ( ! p]turb+ body1 :i* is "h ! ?ird satellite2 & ,lal&e %[$ t1 by ! necess>y relations ( space1 ! latt] motion may be retrograde ?\gh ! =m] is direct4 #ddb ,note #hgg3 ,bailly1 iii4 #age4 ,attempts h be5 made1 f ! "t ( ! solution ( ! ,problem ( ?ree bodies to ! pres5t1 to give ! greate/ possible accuracy to ! ,tables ( ! ,sun1 by consid]+ ! effect ( ! v>i\s p]turbations to :i* ! e>? is subject4 ,?us1 9 #agef1 ,eul] calculat$ ! effect ( ! attractions ( ! planets on ! e>? 7! prize-"q ( ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces71 & ,clairaut soon aft]4 ,lacaille1 mak+ use ( ^! results1 & ( 8 own num]\s obs]vations1 publi%$ ,tables ( ! ,sun4 ,9 #aghf1 ,delambre#hhg und]took to v]ify & improve ^! tables1 by comp>+ !m ) #cad obs]vations made by ,maskelyne1 at ,gre5wi*1 9 #agge & #aghd1 & 9 "s ( ! int]m$iate ye>s4 ,he correct$ mo/ ( ! elem5ts2 b he c\ld n remove ! unc]ta9ty :i* occurr$ respect+ ! am\nt ( ! inequality produc$ by ! reaction ( ! moon4 ,he admitt$ also1 9 pursuance ( ,clairaut's !ory1 a second t]m ( ?is inequality dep5d+ on ! moon's latitude2 b irresolutely1 & half dispos$ to reject x on ! au?ority ( ! obs]vations4 ,succe$+ rese>*es ( ma!maticians h %[n1 t ?is t]m is n admissible z a result ( me*anical pr9ciples4 ,delambre's ,tables1 ?us improv$1 7 exact to sev5 or eight seconds2#hig :i* 0 ?\ght1 & truly1 a v close co9cid5ce = ! "t4 ,b a/ronom]s 7 f> f re/+ cont5t ) ?is4 ,9 #ahjf1 ! ,fr5* ,bo>d ( ,longitude publi%$ ,delambre's improv$ ,sol> ,tables2 & 9 ! ,connaissance des ,tems = #ahaf1 ,burckh>dt gave ! results ( a comp>ison ( ,delambre's ,tables ) a great numb] ( ,maskelyne's obs]vations2--f> great] ?an ! numb] on :i* !y 7 f\nd$4#ijg ,x appe>$ t ! epo*1 ! p]igee1 & ! ecc5tricity1 requir$ s5sible alt]ations1 & t ! mass ( ,v5us ought to be r$uc$ ab\t "o-n9?1 & t ( ! ,moon to be s5sibly dim9i%$4 ,9 #ahbg1 ,pr(essor ,airy#iag comp>$ ,delambre's tables ) #bjjj ,gre5wi* obs]vations1 made ) ! new transit-in/rum5t at ,cambridge1 & d$uc$ f ?is comp>ison ! correction ( ! elem5ts4 ,^! 9 g5]al agre$ closely ) ,burckh>dt's1 except+ t a dim9ution ( ,m>s appe>$ necess>y4 ,"s discordances1 h[ev]1 l$ ,pr(essor ,airy to suspect ! exi/5ce ( an inequality :i* _h escap$ ! sagacity ( ,laplace & ,burckh>dt4 ,&1 a few weeks aft] ?is suspicion _h be5 express$1 ! same ma!matician ann\nc$ to ! ,royal ,society t he _h #ddc detect$1 9 ! planet>y !ory su* an inequality1 hi!rto unnotic$1 aris+ f ! mutual attraction ( ,v5us & ! ,e>?4 ,its :ole effect on ! e>?'s longitude1 w\ld be to increase or dim9i% x by ne>ly ?ree seconds ( space1 & its p]iod is ab\t #bdj ye>s4 ,?is t]m1 he adds1 acc\nts completely = ! diff]5ce ( ! secul> motions giv5 by ! comp>ison ( ! epo*s ( #aghc & #ahba1 & by t ( ! epo*s ( #ahja & #ahba4 ,note #hhg3 ,voiron1 ,hi/4 p4 #cae4 ,note #hig3 ,montucla1 iv4 #db4 ,note #ijg3 ,airy1 ,report1 p4 #aej4 ,note #iag3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbh4 ,_m excell5t ,tables ( ! motions ( ! sun1 moon1 & planets1 7 publi%$ 9 ! latt] "p ( ! la/ c5tury2 b ! ,bureau des ,longitudes :i* 0 e/abli%$ 9 ,france 9 #agie1 endeavor$ to give new or improv$ tables ( mo/ ( ^! motions4 ,?us 7 produc$ ,delambre's ,tables ( ! ,sun1 ,burg's ,tables ( ! ,moon1 ,b\v>d's ,tables ( ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 & ,uranus4 ,! agreem5t betwe5 ^! & obs]vation is1 9 g5]al1 truly m>vell\s4 ,we may notice "h a diff]5ce 9 ! mode ( ref]r+ to obs]vation :5 a !ory is fir/ e/abli%$1 & :5 x is aft]w>ds to be confirm$ & correct$4 ,x 0 rem>k$ z a m]it 9 ! me?od ( ,hipp>*us1 & an evid5ce ( ! ma!matical coh]5ce ( 8 !ory1 t 9 ord] to det]m9e ! place ( ! sun's apogee1 & ! ecc5tricity ( 8 orbit1 he requir$ to "k no?+ besides ! l5g?s ( w9t] & spr+4 ,b if ! fewness ( ! requisite data is a beauty 9 ! fir/ fixation ( a !ory1 ! multitude ( obs]vations to :i* x applies is its excell5ce :5 x is e/abli%$2 & 9 correct+ ,tables1 ma!maticians take f> m data ?an w\ld be requisite to det]m9e ! elem5ts4 ,= ! !ory ought to acc\nt = all ! facts3 & s9ce x w n d ?is ) ma!matical rigor 7= obs]vation is n p]fect71 ! elem5ts are det]m9$1 n s z to satisfy any select$ obs]vations1 b s z to make ! :ole mass ( error z small z possible4 ,& ?us1 9 ! adaptation ( !ory to obs]vation1 ev5 9 its mo/ advanc$ /ate1 !re is room = sagacity & skill1 prud5ce & judgm5t4 ,9 ?is mann]1 by select+ ! be/ mean elem5ts ( ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 ! obs]v$ motions deviate f ?is mean 9 ! way ! !ory po9ts out1 & con/antly return to x4 ,to ?is g5]al rule1 ( ! con/ant return to a mean1 !re are1 h[ev]1 "s app>5t exceptions1 ( :i* we %all n[ speak4 #ddd ,sect4 #d4--;,application ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory to ,secul> ,inequalities4 ,,secul> ,inequalities 9 ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies occur 9 consequ5ce ( *anges 9 ! elem5ts ( ! sol> sy/em1 :i* g on progressively f age to age4 ,! example ( su* *anges :i* 0 fir/ /udi$ by a/ronom]s1 0 ! ,accel]ation ( ! ,moon's ,mean ,motion1 discov]$ by ,halley4 ,! obs]v$ fact 01 t ! moon n[ moves 9 a v small degree quick] ?an %e did 9 ! e>li] ages ( ! _w4 ,:5 ?is 0 asc]ta9$1 ! v>i\s hypo!ses :i* appe>$ likely to acc\nt = ! fact 7 r$uc$ to calculation4 ,! resi/ance ( ! m$ium 9 :i* ! heav5ly bodies move 0 ! mo/ obvi\s ( ^! hypo!ses4 ,ano!r1 :i* 0 = "s "t dwelt ^u by ,laplace1 0 ! successive transmission ( gravity1 t is1 ! hypo!sis t ! gravity ( ! e>? takes a c]ta9 f9ite "t to rea* ! moon4 ,b none ( ^! suppositions gave satisfactory conclusions2 & ! /r5g? ( ,eul]1 ,d',alemb]t1 ,lagrange1 & ,laplace1 0 = a "t foil$ by ?is difficulty4 ,at l5g?1 9 #aghg1 ,laplace ann\nc$ to ! ,academy t he _h discov]$ ! true cause ( ?is accel]ation1 & t x arose f ! action ( ! sun ^u ! moon1 comb9$ ) ! secul> v>iation ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! effects ( ?is comb9ation w\ld exactly acc\nt = ! *anges :i* _h hi!rto s p]plex$ ma!maticians4 ,a v rem>kable result ( ?is inve/igation 01 t ?is ,secul> ,inequality ( ! motion ( ! moon is p]iodical1 b x requires millions ( ye>s to re-e/abli% itself2 s t aft] an almo/ inconceivable "t1 ! accel]ation w become a ret>dation4 ,laplace "s "t aft] 79 #agig71 ann\nc$ o!r discov]ies1 relative to ! secul> motions ( ! apogee & ! nodes ( ! moon's orbit4 ,laplace collect$ ^! rese>*es 9 8 ,!ory ( ! ,moon1 :i* he publi%$ 9 ! ?ird volume ( ! ,mcanique ,cle/e 9 #ahjb4 ,a simil> case occurr$ ) reg>d to an accel]ation ( ,jupit]'s mean motion1 & a ret>dation ( ,saturn's1 :i* _h be5 obs]v$ by ,cass9i1 ,m>aldi1 & ,horrox4 ,aft] sev]al imp]fect attempts by o!r ma!maticians1 ,laplace1 9 #aghg1 f\nd t !re result$ f ! mutual attraction ( ^! two planets a great ,inequality1 ( :i* ! p]iod is #ibi ye>s & a half1 & :i* has accel]at$ ,jupit] & ret>d$ ,saturn ev] s9ce ! re/oration ( a/ronomy4 #dde ,?us ! secul> inequalities ( ! cele/ial motions1 l all ! o!rs1 confirm ! law ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,!y are call$ secul>1 because ages are requisite to unfold _! exi/5ce1 & because !y are n obvi\sly p]iodical4 ,!y might1 9 "s measure1 be consid]$ z ext5sions ( ! ,newtonian !ory1 = ?\gh ,newton's law acc\nts = su* facts1 he did n1 s f> z we "k1 =esee su* a result ( x4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 !y are exactly ( ! same nature z ^? :i* he did =esee & calculate4 ,& :5 we call !m secul> 9 opposition to p]iodical1 x is n t !re is any real diff]5ce1 = !y1 too1 h _! cycle2 b x is t we h assum$ our mean motion )\t all[+ = ^! long inequalities4 ,& ?us1 z ,laplace obs]ves on ?is v occasion1#ibg ! lot ( ?is great discov]y ( gravitation is no less ?an ?is1 t e app>5t exception becomes a pro(1 e difficulty a new occasion ( a triumph4 ,& su*1 z he truly adds1 is ! "* ( a true !ory1--( a real repres5tation ( nature4 ,note #ibg3 ,sy/4 du ,monde1 #hvo1 ii4 #cg4 ,x is impossible = u "h to enum]ate ev5 ! pr9cipal objects :i* h ?us fill$ ! triumphal m>* ( ! ,newtonian !ory f its outset up to ! pres5t "t4 ,b among ^! secul> *anges1 we may m5tion ! ,dim9ution ( ! ,obliquity ( ! ,ecliptic1 :i* has be5 go+ on f ! e>lie/ times to ! pres5t4 ,?is *ange has be5 expla9$ by !ory1 & %[n to h1 l all ! o!r *anges ( ! sy/em1 a limit1 aft] :i* ! dim9ution w be conv]t$ into an increase4 ,we may m5tion "h "s subjects ( a k9d some:at diff]5t f ^? j spok5 (4 ,! true !oretical quantity ( ! ,precession ( ! ,equ9oxes1 :i* _h be5 errone\sly calculat$ by ,newton1 0 %[n by ,d',alemb]t to agree ) obs]vation4 ,! con/ant co9cid5ce ( ! ,nodes ( ! ,moon's ,equator ) ^? ( h] ,orbit1 0 prov$ to result f me*anical pr9ciples by ,lagrange4 ,! curi\s circum/ance t ! ,"t ( ! ,moon's rotation on h] axis is equal to ! ,"t ( h] revolution ab\t ! e>?1 0 %[n to be consi/5t ) ! results ( ! laws ( motion by ,laplace4 ,laplace also1 z we h se51 expla9$ c]ta9 rem>kable relations :i* con/antly connect ! longitudes ( ! ?ree fir/ satellites ( ,jupit]2 ,bailly & ,lagrange analyz$ & expla9$ ! curi\s librations ( ! nodes & incl9ations ( _! orbits2 & ,laplace trac$ ! effect ( ,jupit]'s oblate figure on _! motions1 #ddf :i* masks ! o!r causes ( inequality1 by det]m9+ ! direction ( ! motions ( ! p]ijove & node ( ea* satellite4 ,sect4 #e4--;,application ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory to ! ,new ,planets4 ,,we are n[ s accu/om$ to consid] ! ,newtonian !ory z true1 t we c h>dly imag9e to ourselves ! possibility t ^? planets :i* 7 n discov]$ :5 ! !ory 0 f\nd$1 %\ld contradict its doctr9es4 ,we c sc>cely conceive x possible t ,uranus or ,c]es %\ld h be5 f\nd to violate ,kepl]'s laws1 or to move )\t suff]+ p]turbations f ,jupit] & ,saturn4 ,yet if we c suppose m5 to h _h any d\bt ( ! exact & univ]sal tru? ( ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation1 at ! p]iod ( ^! discov]ies1 !y mu/ h scrut9iz$ ! motions ( ^! new bodies ) an int]e/ f> m lively ?an t ) :i* we n[ look = ! pr$ict$ return ( a comet4 ,! solid e/abli%m5t ( ! ,newtonian !ory is ?us %[n by ! mann] 9 :i* we take x = grant$ n only 9 our reason+s1 b 9 our feel+s4 ,b ?\gh ?is is s1 a %ort notice ( ! process by :i* ! new planets 7 br\ght )9 ! doma9 ( ! !ory may prop]ly f9d a place "h4 ,william ,h]s*el1 a man ( great en]gy & +5uity1 :o _h made mat]ial improvem5ts 9 reflect+ telescopes1 obs]v+ at ,ba? on ! #ac? ( ,m>*1 #agha1 discov]$1 9 ! con/ellation ,gem9i1 a /> l>g] & less lum9\s ?an ! fix$ />s4 ,on ! application ( a m p[]ful telescope1 x 0 se5 magnifi$1 & two days aft]w>ds he p]ceiv$ t x _h *ang$ its place4 ,! att5tion ( ! a/ronomical _w 0 direct$ to ?is new object1 & ! be/ a/ronom]s 9 e "p ( ,europe employ$ !mselves 9 foll[+ x along ! sky4#icg ,note #icg3 ,voiron1 ,hi/4 ,a/4 p4 #ab4 ,! admission ( an eigh? planet into ! long-e/abli%$ li/1 0 a notion s =eign to m5's ?\ghts at t "t1 t o!r suppositions 7 fir/ tri$4 ,! orbit ( ! new body 0 at fir/ calculat$ z if x _h be5 a comet runn+ 9 a p>abolic pa?4 ,b 9 a few days ! /> deviat$ f ! c\rse ?us assign$ x3 & x 0 9 va9 t 9 ord] to repres5t ! obs]vations1 ! p]ihelion di/ance ( ! p>abola 0 increas$ f f\rte5 to eighte5 times ! e>?'s di/ance f ! sun4 ,s>on1 ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,p>is1 is said#idg to h be5 ! fir/ p]son :o p]ceiv$ t ! #ddg places 7 bett] repres5t$ by a circle ?an by a p>abola3 & ,lexell1 a celebrat$ ma!matician ( ,pet]sburg1 f\nd t a motion 9 a circul> orbit1 ) a radius d\ble ( t ( ,saturn1 w\ld satisfy all ! obs]vations4 ,?is made its p]iod ab\t eighty-two ye>s4 ,note #idg3 ,ibid4 ,lal&e soon discov]$ t ! circul> motion 0 subject to a s5sible inequality3 ! orbit 01 9 fact1 an ellipse1 l ^? ( ! o!r planets4 ,to det]m9e ! equation ( ! c5tre ( a body :i* revolves s sl[ly1 w\ld1 accord+ to ! anci5t me?ods1 h requir$ _m ye>s2 b ,laplace contriv$ me?ods by :i* ! elliptical elem5ts 7 det]m9$ f f\r obs]vations1 )9 little m ?an a ye> f its fir/ discov]y by ,h]s*el4 ,^! calculations 7 soon foll[$ by tables ( ! new planet1 publi%$ by ,n\et4 ,9 ord] to obta9 additional accuracy1 x n[ became necess>y to take acc\nt ( ! p]turbations4 ,! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces propos$1 9 #aghi1 ! con/ruction ( new ,tables ( ?is ,planet z its prize-"q4 ,x is a curi\s illu/ration ( ! con/antly accumulat+ evid5ce ( ! !ory1 t ! calculation ( ! p]turbations ( ! planet enabl$ a/ronom]s to discov] t x _h be5 obs]v$ z a /> 9 ?ree diff]5t positions 9 =m] times2 namely1 by ,flam/e$ 9 #afij1 by ,may] 9 #agef1 & by ,le ,monni] 9 #agfi4 ,delambre1 aid$ by ?is discov]y & by ! !ory ( ,laplace1 calculat$ ,tables ( ! planet1 :i*1 be+ comp>$ ) obs]vation = ?ree ye>s1 nev] deviat$ f x m ?an sev5 seconds4 ,! ,academy aw>d$ its prize to ^! ,tables1 !y 7 adopt$ by ! a/ronom]s ( ,europe1 & ! planet ( ,h]s*el n[ con=ms to ! laws ( attraction1 along ) ^? anci5t memb]s ( ! kn[n sy/em f :i* ! !ory 0 inf]r$4 ,! hi/ory ( ! discov]y ( ! o!r new planets1 ,c]es1 ,pallas1 ,juno1 & ,ve/a1 is ne>ly simil> to t j relat$1 except t _! planet>y "* 0 m readily believ$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! 0 discov]$ on ! fir/ day ( ?is c5tury by ,piazzi1 ! a/ronom] at ,pal]mo2 b he _h only begun to suspect its nature1 & _h n complet$ 8 ?ird obs]vation1 :5 8 labors 7 susp5d$ by a dang]\s illness2 & on 8 recov]y ! /> 0 invisible1 be+ lo/ 9 ! rays ( ! sun4 ,he decl>$ x to be a planet ) an elliptical orbit2 b ! pa? :i* x foll[$1 on em]g+ f ! neighborhood ( ! sun1 0 n t :i* ,piazzi _h trac$ out = x4 ,its extreme smallness made x difficult to r$iscov]2 & ! :ole ( ! ye> #ahja 0 #ddh employ$ 9 se>*+ ! sky = x 9 va94 ,at la/1 aft] _m trials1 ,von ,za* & ,olb]s aga9 f\nd x1 ! "o on ! la/ day ( #ahja1 ! o!r on ! fir/ day ( #ahjb4 ,gauss & ,burckh>dt imm$iately us$ ! new obs]vations 9 det]m9+ ! elem5ts ( ! orbit2 & ! =m] inv5t$ a new me?od = ! purpose4 ,c]es n[ moves 9 a pa? ( :i* ! c\rse & inequalities are kn[n1 & c no m escape ! scrut9y ( a/ronom]s4 ,! second ye> ( ! n9ete5? c5tury also produc$ its planet4 ,?is 0 discov]$ by ,dr4 ,olb]s1 a physician ( ,brem51 :ile he 0 se>*+ = ,c]es among ! />s ( ! con/ellation ,virgo4 ,he f\nd a /> :i* _h a p]ceptible motion ev5 9 ! space ( two h\rs4 ,x 0 soon ann\nc$ z a new planet1 & receiv$ f its discov]] ! "n ( ,pallas4 ,z 9 ! case ( ,c]es1 ,burckh>dt & ,gauss employ$ !mselves 9 calculat+ its orbit4 ,b "s peculi> difficulties "h occurr$4 ,its ecc5tricity is great] ?an t ( any ( ! old planets1 & ! incl9ation ( its orbit to ! ecliptic is n less ?an ?irty-five degrees4 ,^! circum/ances bo? made its p]turbations l>ge1 & r5d]$ !m difficult to calculate4 ,burckh>dt employ$ ! kn[n processes ( analysis1 b !y 7 f\nd insuffici5t3 & ! ,imp]ial ,in/itute 7z ! ,fr5* ,academy 0 t]m$ dur+ ! reign ( ,napoleon7 propos$ ! ,p]turbations ( ,pallas z a prize-"q4 ,to ^! discov]ies succe$$ o!rs ( ! same k9d4 ,! ,g]man a/ronom]s agre$ to exam9e ! :ole ( ! zone 9 :i* ,c]es & ,pallas move2 9 ! hope ( f9d+ o!r planets1 fragm5ts1 z ,olb]s conceiv$ !y might possibly be1 ( "o orig9al mass4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is rese>*1 ,mr4 ,h>d+ ( ,lili5?al1 on ! fir/ ( ,septemb]1 #ahjd1 f\nd a new />1 :i* he soon 0 l$ to consid] z a planet4 ,gauss & ,burckh>dt also calculat$ ! elem5ts ( ?is orbit1 & ! planet 0 nam$ ,juno4 ,aft] ?is discov]y1 ,olb]s s\ght ! sky = additional fragm5ts ( 8 planet ) extraord9>y p]sev]ance4 ,he conceiv$ t "o ( two opposite con/ellations1 ! ,virg9 or ! ,:ale1 0 ! place :]e its sep>ation mu/ h tak5 place2 & :]e1 !re=e1 all ! orbits ( all ! portions mu/ pass4 ,he resolv$ to survey1 ?ree times a ye>1 all ! small />s 9 ^! two regions4 ,?is und]tak+1 s curi\s 9 its nature1 0 successful4 ,! #bi? ( ,m>*1 #ahjg1 he discov]$ ,ve/a1 :i* 0 soon f\nd to be a planet4 ,& to %[ ! mann] 9 :i* ,olb]s pursu$ 8 labors1 we may /ate t he aft]w>ds publi%$ a notification t he _h exam9$ ! #ddi same p>ts ( ! heav5s ) su* regul>ity1 t he 0 c]ta9 no new planet _h pass$ t way betwe5 #ahjh & #ahaf4 ,gauss & ,burckh>dt comput$ ! orbit ( ,ve/a2 & :5 ,gauss comp>$ "o ( 8 orbits ) tw5ty-two obs]vations ( ,m4 ,b\v>d1 he f\nd ! errors bel[ sev5te5 seconds ( space 9 "r asc5sion1 & /ill less 9 decl9ation4 ,! elem5ts ( all ^! orbits h be5 successively improv$1 & ?is has be5 done entirely by ! ,g]man ma!maticians4#ieg ,^! p]turbations are calculat$1 & ! places = "s "t be=e & aft] opposition are n[ giv5 9 ! ,b]l9 ,ephem]is4 ,i h lately obs]v$1 says ,pr(essor ,airy1 & comp>$ ) ! ,b]l9 ,ephem]is1 ! "r asc5sions ( ,juno & ,ve/a1 & ,i f9d t !y are r m accurate ?an ^? ( ,v5us3 s complete is ! confirmation ( ! !ory by ^! new bodies2 s exact are ! me?ods ( trac+ ! !ory to its consequ5ces4 ,note #ieg3 ,airy1 ,rep4 #aeg4 ,we may obs]ve t all ^! new-discov]$ bodies h receiv$ names tak5 f ! anci5t my?ology4 ,9 ! case ( ! fir/ ( ^!1 a/ronom]s 7 orig9ally divid$2 ! discov]] himself nam$ x ! ,georgium ,sidus1 9 honor ( 8 patron1 ,george ! ,?ird2 ,lal&e & o!rs call$ x ,h]s*el4 ,no?+ c be m j ?an ?is mode ( p]petuat+ ! fame ( ! au?or ( a discov]y2 b x 0 felt to be ungraceful to violate ! homog5eity ( ! anci5t sy/em ( names4 ,a/ronom]s tri$ to f9d = ! hi!rto neglect$ d5iz5 ( ! skies1 an appropriate place among ! deities to ^: assembly he 0 at la/ admitt$2 & ,uranus1 ! fa!r ( ,saturn1 0 fix$ ^u z be/ suit+ ! ord] ( ! c\rse4 ,! my?ological nom5clature ( planets appe>$1 f ?is "t1 to be g5]ally agre$ to4 ,piazzi t]m$ 8 ,c]es ,f]d9&ea4 ,! fir/ t]m1 :i* conta9s a happy allusion to ,sicily1 ! c\ntry ( ! discov]y 9 mod]n1 & ( ! goddess 9 anci5t1 times1 has be5 accept$2 ! attempt to pay a complim5t to royalty out ( ! products ( sci5ce1 9 ?is z 9 mo/ o!r cases1 has be5 set aside4 ,pallas1 ,juno1 & ,ve/a1 7 nam$1 )\t any peculi> propriety ( selection1 accord+ to ! *oice ( _! discov]]s4 ,sect4 #f4--;,application ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory to ,comets4 ,a ,,few words mu/ be said ^u ano!r class ( bodies1 :i* at fir/ seem$ z lawless z ! cl\ds & w9ds2 & :i* a/ronomy #dej has r$uc$ to a regul>ity z complete z t ( ! sun2--^u ,comets4 ,no "p ( ! ,newtonian discov]ies excit$ a m int5se int]e/ ?an ?is4 ,^! anomal\s visitants 7 anci5tly gaz$ at ) wond] & al>m2 & might /ill1 z 9 =m] times1 be accus$ ( p]plex+ nations1 ?\gh ) v diff]5t fe>s & que/ion+s4 ,! conjecture t !y1 too1 obey$ ! law ( univ]sal gravitation1 0 to be v]ifi$ by %[+ t !y describ$ a curve su* z t =ce w\ld produce4 ,hevelius1 :o 0 a mo/ dilig5t obs]v] ( ^! objects1 _h1 )\t ref]5ce to gravitation1 satisfi$ himself t !y mov$ 9 p>abolas4#ifg ,to det]m9e ! elem5ts ( ! p>abola f obs]vations1 ev5 ,newton call$#igg problema longe difficillimum4 ,newton det]m9$ ! orbit ( ! comet ( #afhj by c]ta9 graphical me?ods4 ,8 me?ods suppos$ ! orbit to be a p>abola1 & satisfactorily repres5t$ ! motion 9 ! visible "p ( ! comet's pa?4 ,b ?is me?od did n apply to ! possible return ( ! w&]+ />4 ,halley has ! glory ( hav+ fir/ detect$ a p]iodical comet1 9 ! case ( t :i* has s9ce borne 8 "n4 ,b ?is great discov]y 0 n made )\t labor4 ,9 #agje1 ,halley#ihg expla9$ h[ ! p>abolic orbit ( a planet may be det]m9$ f ?ree obs]vations2 &1 jo9+ example to precept1 himself calculat$ ! positions & orbits ( tw5ty-f\r comets4 ,he f\nd1 z ! rew>d ( ?is indu/ry1 t ! comets ( #afjg & ( #aeca _h ! same orbit z t ( #afhb4 ,& "h ! int]vals are also ne>ly ! same1 namely1 ab\t sev5ty-five ye>s4 ,are ! ?ree comets !n id5tical8 ,9 look+ back into ! hi/ory ( su* appe>ances1 he f\nd comets record$ 9 #adef1 9 #achj1 & 9 #acje2 ! int]vals are /ill ! same1 sev5ty-five or sev5ty-six ye>s4 ,x 0 impossible n[ to d\bt t !y 7 ! p]iods ( a revolv+ body2 t ! comet 0 a planet2 its orbit a long ellipse1 n a p>abola4#iig ,note #ifg3 ,bailly1 ii4 #bdf4 ,note #igg3 ,pr9cipia1 ed4 #a4 p4 #did4 ,note #ihg3 ,bailly1 ii4 #fdf4 ,note #iig3 ,! importance ( ,halley's labors on ,comets has always be5 ackn[l$g$4 ,9 speak+ ( ,halley's ,synopsis ,a/ronomic ,cometic1 ,delambre says 7,a/4 xviii4 ,sicle1 p4 #acj71 ,voil bi51 depuis ,kepl]1 ce qu'on a fait de plus gr&1 de plus beau1 de plus neuf en a/ronomie4 ,halley1 9 pr$ict+ ! comet ( #ageh1 says1 if x returns1 ,hoc primum ab hom9e ,anglo iuv5tum fuisse non inficiabitur qua po/]itas4 ,b if ?is 7 s1 ! ,comet mu/ reappe> 9 #ageh or #agei4 ,halley pr$ict$ t x w\ld d s2 & ! fulfilm5t ( ?is pr$iction 0 naturally look$ =w>ds to1 z an additional /amp ( ! tru?s ( ! !ory ( gravitation4 #dea ,b 9 all ?is1 ! ,comet _h be5 suppos$ to be affect$ only by ! attraction ( ! sun4 ,! planets mu/ di/urb its motion z !y di/urb ea* o!r4 ,h[ w\ld ?is di/urbance affect ! "t & circum/ances ( its reappe>ance8 ,halley _h propos$1 b n attempt$ to solve1 ?is "q4 ,! effect ( p]turbations ^u a comet defeats all kn[n me?ods ( approximation1 & requires imm5se labor4 ,clairaut1 says ,bailly1#ajjg und]took ?is3 ) c\rage en\gh to d>e ! adv5ture1 he _h tal5t en\gh to obta9 a memorable victory2 ! difficulties1 ! labors1 grew ^u him z he advanc$1 b he f\ght 8 way ?r\gh !m1 assi/$ by ,lal&e1 & by a female calculator1 ,madame ,lepaute4 ,he pr$ict$ t ! comet w\ld rea* its p]ihelion ,april #ac1 #agei1 b claim$ ! lic5se ( a mon? = ! inevitable inaccuracy ( a calculation :i*1 9 addition to all o!r s\rces ( error1 0 made 9 ha/e1 t x might appe> z a pr$iction4 ,! comet ju/ifi$ 8 calculations & 8 caution toge!r2 = x arriv$ at its p]ihelion on ! #ac? ( ,m>*4 ,note #ajjg3 ,bailly1 ,a4 ,m4 iii4 #aij4 ,two o!r ,comets1 ( mu* %ort] p]iod1 h be5 detect$ ( late ye>s2 ,encke's1 :i* revolves r\nd ! sun 9 ?ree ye>s & "o-?ird1 & ,biela's :i* describes an ellipse1 n extremely ecc5tric1 9 six ye>s & ?ree-qu>t]s4 ,^! bodies1 app>5tly ?9 & vapor\s masses1 l o!r comets1 h1 s9ce _! orbits 7 calculat$1 punctually con=m$ to ! law ( gravitation4 ,if x 7 /ill d\btful :e!r ! m conspicu\s comets d s1 ^! bodies w\ld t5d to prove ! fact1 by %[+ x to be true 9 an int]m$iate case4 #b;d ,ed4 ,a ?ird ,comet ( %ort p]iod 0 discov]$ by ,faye1 at ! ,obs]vatory ( ,p>is1 ,nov4 #bb1 #ahdc4 ,x is includ$ betwe5 ! orbits ( ,m>s & ,saturn1 & its p]iod is sev5 ye>s & ?ree-t5?s4 ,?is is commonly call$ ,faye's ,comet1 z ! two m5tion$ 9 ! text are call$ ,encke's & ,biela's4 ,9 ! =m] edition ,i _h express$ my ass5t to ! rule propos$ by ,m4 ,arago1 t ! latt] ought to be call$ ,gamb>t's ,comet1 9 honor ( ! a/ronom] :o fir/ prov$ x to revolve r\nd ! ,sun4 ,b a/ronom]s 9 g5]al h us$ ! =m] "n1 consid]+ t ! discov]y & obs]vation ( ! object are m di/9ct & conspicu\s m]its ?an a calculation f\nd$ ^u ! obs]vations ( o!rs4 ,& 9 reality #deb ,biela _h great m]it 9 ! discov]y ( 8 ,comet's p]iodicity1 hav+ set ab\t 8 se>* ( x f an anticipation ( its return f\nd$ ^u =m] obs]vations4 ,also a ,comet 0 discov]$ by ,de ,vico at ,rome on ,aug4 #bb1 #ahdd1 :i* 0 f\nd to describe an elliptical orbit hav+ its aphelion ne> ! orbit ( ,jupit]1 :i* is consequ5tly "o ( ^? ( %ort p]iod4 ,& on ,feb4 #bf1 #ahdf1 ,m4 ,brors5 ( ,kiel discov]$ a telescopic ,comet ^: orbit is f\nd to be elliptical4 ,we may add to ! hi/ory ( ,comets1 t ( ,lexell's1 :i*1 9 #aggj1 appe>$ to be revolv+ 9 a p]iod ( ab\t five ye>s1 & ^: motion 0 pr$ict$ accord+ly4 ,! pr$iction 0 disappo9t$2 b ! failure 0 suffici5tly expla9$ by ! comet's hav+ pass$ close to ,jupit]1 by :i* occurr5ce its orbit 0 utt]ly d]ang$4 ,x results f ! !ory ( univ]sal gravitation1 t ,comets are collections ( extremely att5uat$ matt]4 ,lexell's is suppos$ to h pass$ twice 79 #agfg & #aggi7 ?r\gh ! sy/em ( ,jupit]'s ,satellites1 )\t di/urb+ _! motions1 ?\gh suff]+ itself s great a di/urbance z to h its orbit entirely alt]$4 ,! same result is /ill m decid$ly prov$ by ! la/ appe>ance ( ,biela's ,comet4 ,x appe>$ d\ble1 b ! two bodies did n p]ceptibly affect ea* o!r's motions1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,pr(essor ,*allis ( ,cambridge1 :o obs]v$ bo? ( !m f ,jan4 #bc to ,m>4 #be1 #ahdf4 ,?is proves ! quantity ( matt] 9 ea* body to h be5 exce$+ly small4 ,?us1 no v]ification ( ! ,newtonian !ory1 :i* 0 possible 9 ! motions ( ! />s1 has yet be5 want+4 ,! return ( ,halley's ,comet aga9 9 #ahce1 & ! extreme exactitude ) :i* x con=m$ to its pr$ict$ c\rse1 is a te/imony ( tru?1 :i* mu/ appe> /rik+ ev5 to ! mo/ incuri\s respect+ su* matt]s4#ajag ,note #ajag3 ,m4 de ,humboldt 7,kosmos1 p4 #aaf7 speaks ( n9e returns ( ,halley's ,comet1 ! comet obs]v$ 9 ,*9a 9 #acgh be+ id5tifi$ ) ?is4 ,b :e!r we take #acgh or #achj = ! appe>ance 9 t c5tury1 if we beg9 ) t1 we h only sev5 appe>ances1 namely1 9 #acgh or #achj1 9 #adef1 9 #aeca1 9 #afjg1 9 #afhb1 9 #agei1 & 9 #ahce4 ,sect4 #g4--;,application ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory to ! ,figure ( ! ,e>?4 ,,! ,heav5s _h ?us be5 consult$ respect+ ! ,newtonian doctr9e1 & ! answ] giv51 ov] & ov] aga91 9 a ?\s& #dec diff]5t =ms1 _h be51 t x 0 true2 nor _h ! mo/ p]sev]+ cross-exam9ation be5 able to e/abli% any ?+ ( contradiction or prev>ication4 ,! same "q 0 also to be put to ! ,e>? & ! ,ocean1 & we mu/ briefly notice ! result4 ,accord+ to ! ,newtonian pr9ciples1 ! =m ( ! e>? mu/ be a globe some:at flatt5$ at ! poles4 ,?is conclusion1 or at lea/ ! am\nt ( ! flatt5+1 dep5ds n only ^u ! exi/5ce & law ( attraction1 b ^u its belong+ to ea* p>ticle ( ! mass sep>ately2 & ?us ! exp]im5tal confirmation ( ! =m ass]t$ f calculation1 w\ld be a v]ification ( ! !ory 9 its wide/ s5se4 ,! application ( su* a te/ 0 ! m necess>y to ! int]e/s ( sci5ce1 inasmu* z ! ,fr5* a/ronom]s _h collect$ f _! measures1 & _h connect$ ) _! ,c>tesian sy/em1 ! op9ion t ! e>? 0 n oblate b oblong4 ,dom9ic ,cass9i _h measur$ sev5 degrees ( latitude f ,ami5s to ,p]pignan1 9 #agja1 & f\nd !m to decrease 9 go+ f s\? to nor?4 ,! prolongation ( ?is measure to ,dunkirk confirm$ ! same result4 ,b if ! ,newtonian doctr9e 0 true1 ! contr>y ought to be ! case1 & ! degrees ought to increase 9 proce$+ t[>ds ! pole4 ,! only answ] :i* ! ,newtonians c\ld at ?is "t make to ! difficulty ?us pres5t$1 01 t an arc s %ort z t ?us measur$1 0 n to be dep5d$ ^u = ! det]m9ation ( su* a "q2 inasmu* z ! inevitable errors ( obs]vation might exce$ ! diff]5ces :i* 7 ! object ( rese>*4 ,x w\ld1 und\bt$ly1 h become ! ,engli% to h giv5 a m complete answ]1 by execut+ measurem5ts "u circum/ances n liable to ?is unc]ta9ty4 ,! glory ( do+ ?is1 h[ev]1 !y = a long "t ab&on$ to o!r nations4 ,! ,fr5* und]took ! task ) great _s4#ajbg ,9 #agcc1 9 "o ( ! meet+s ( ! ,fr5* ,academy1 :5 ?is "q 0 discuss$1 ,de la ,condam9e1 an ard5t & eag] man1 propos$ to settle ?is "q by s5d+ memb]s ( ! ,academy to measure a degree ( ! m]idian ne> ! equator1 9 ord] to comp>e x ) ! ,fr5* degrees1 & (f]$ himself = ! exp$ition4 ,maup]tuis1 9 l mann]1 urg$ ! necessity ( ano!r exp$ition to measure a degree 9 ! neighborhood ( ! pole4 ,! gov]nm5t receiv$ ! applications favorably1 & ^! rem>kable sci5tific missions 7 s5t out at ! national exp5se4 #ded ,note #ajbg3 ,bailly1 iii4 #aa4 ,z soon z ! result ( ^! measurem5ts 0 kn[n1 !re 0 no long] any d\bt z to ! fact ( ! e>?'s oblat5ess1 & ! "q only turn$ ^u its quantity4 ,ev5 be=e ! return ( ! academicians1 ! ,cass9is & ,lacaille _h measur$ ! ,fr5* arc1 & f\nd errors :i* subv]t$ ! =m] result1 mak+ ! e>? oblate to ! am\nt ( #aafh? ( its diamet]4 ,! exp$itions to ,p]u & to ,lapl& _h to /ruggle ) difficulties 9 ! execution ( _! design1 :i* make _! n>ratives resemble "s romantic hi/ory ( irregul> w>f>e1 r ?an ! monoton\s records ( m]e measurem5ts4 ,! equatorial degree employ$ ! obs]v]s n less ?an eight ye>s4 ,:5 !y did return1 & ! results 7 comp>$1 _! discrepancy1 z to quantity1 0 consid]able4 ,! comp>ison ( ! ,p]uvian & ,fr5* arcs gave an ellipticity ( ne>ly #acad?1 t ( ! ,p]uvian & ,sw$i% arcs gave #abac? = its value4 ,newton _h d$uc$ f 8 !ory1 by reason+s ( s+ul> +5uity1 an ellipticity ( #abcj?2 b ?is result _h be5 obta9$ by suppos+ ! e>? homog5e\s4 ,if ! e>? be1 z we %\ld mo/ readily conjecture x to be1 m d5se 9 its int]ior ?an at its ext]ior1 its ellipticity w be less ?an t ( a homog5e\s sph]oid revolv+ 9 ! same "t4 ,x does n appe> t ,newton 0 aw>e ( ?is2 b ,clairaut1 9 #agdc1 9 8 ,figure ( ! ,e>?1 prov$ ?is & _m o!r important results ( ! attraction ( ! p>ticles4 ,especially he e/abli%$ t1 9 proportion z ! fraction express+ ! ,ellipticity becomes small]1 t express+ ! ,excess ( ! pol> ov] ! equatorial gravity becomes l>g]2 & he ?us connect$ ! measures ( ! ellipticity obta9$ by means ( ,degrees1 ) ^? obta9$ by means ( ,p5dulums 9 diff]5t latitudes4 ,! alt]$ rate ( a ,p5dulum :5 c>ri$ t[>ds ! equator1 _h be5 long ago obs]v$ by ,ri*] & ,halley1 & _h be5 quot$ by ,newton z confirmatory ( 8 !ory4 ,p5dulums 7 swung by ! academicians :o measur$ ! degrees1 & confirm$ ! g5]al "* ( ! results4 ,b hav+ rea*$ ?is po9t ( ! v]ification ( ! ,newtonian !ory1 any additional /ep becomes m difficult4 ,_m excell5t measures1 bo? ( ,degrees & ( ,p5dulums1 h be5 made s9ce ^? j m5tion$4 ,! results ( ! ,arcs#ajcg is an ,ellipticity ( #abih?2--( ! ,p5dulums1 an ,ellipticity ( ab\t #abhe?4 ,?is diff]5ce #dee is consid]able1 if comp>$ ) ! quantities !mselves2 b does n ?r[ a %ad[ ( d\bt on ! tru? ( ! !ory4 ,inde$1 ! obs]vations ( ea* k9d exhibit irregul>ities :i* we may easily acc\nt =1 by ascrib+ !m to ! unkn[n di/ribution ( ! d5s] portions ( ! e>?2 b :i* preclude ! extreme ( accuracy & c]ta9ty 9 our result4 ,note #ajcg3 ,airy1 ,fig4 ,e>?1 p4 #bcj4 ,b ! ne> agreem5t ( ! det]m9ation1 f ,degrees & f ,p5dulums1 is n ! only co9cid5ce by :i* ! doctr9e is confirm$4 ,we c trace ! effect ( ! e>?'s ,oblat5ess 9 c]ta9 m9ute app>5t motions ( ! />s2 = ! attraction ( ! sun & moon on ! protub]ant matt] ( ! sph]oid produces ! ,precession ( ! equ9oxes1 & a ,nutation ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,! ,precession _h be5 kn[n f ! "t ( ,hipp>*us1 & ! exi/5ce ( ,nutation 0 =ese5 by ,newton2 b ! quantity is s small1 t x requir$ consummate skill & great labor 9 ,bradley to detect x by a/ronomical obs]vation4 ,be+1 h[ev]1 s detect$1 its am\nt1 z well z t ( ! ,precession1 gives u ! means ( det]m9+ ! am\nt ( ,t]re/rial ,ellipticity1 by :i* ! effect is produc$4 ,b x is f\nd1 ^u calculation1 t we _c obta9 ?is det]m9ation )\t assum+ "s law ( d5sity 9 ! homog5e\s /rata ( :i* we suppose ! e>? to consi/#ajdg ,! d5sity w c]ta9ly increase 9 proce$+ t[>ds ! c5tre1 & !re is a simple & probable law ( ?is increase1 :i* w give #acjj? = ! ,ellipticity1 f ! am\nt ( two lun> ,inequalities 7"o 9 latitude & "o 9 longitude71 :i* are produc$ by ! e>?'s oblat5ess4 ,ne>ly ! same result foll[s f ! quantity ( ,nutation4 ,?us e ?+ t5ds to conv9ce u t ! ellipticity _c deviate mu* f ?is fraction4 ,note #ajdg3 ,airy1 ,fig4 ,e>?1 p4 #bce4 #b;d ,ed4 ,i ought n to omit ano!r class ( ph5om5a 9 :i* ! effects ( ! ,e>?'s ,oblat5ess1 act+ accord+ to ! law ( univ]sal gravitation1 h manife/$ !mselves2--,i speak ( ! ,moon's ,motion1 z affect$ by ! ,e>?'s ,ellipticity4 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 mo/ o!rs1 obs]vation anticipat$ !ory4 ,mason _h inf]r$ f lun> obs]vations a c]ta9 ,inequality 9 ,longitude1 dep5d+ ^u ! di/ance ( ! ,moon's ,node f ! ,equ9ox4 ,d\bts 7 ent]ta9$ by a/ronom]s :e!r ?is inequality really exi/$2 b ,laplace %[$ t su* an inequality w\ld arise f ! oblate =m ( ! e>?2 & t its magnitude might s]ve to #def det]m9e ! am\nt ( ! oblat5ess4 ,laplace %[$1 at ! same "t1 t along ) ?is ,inequality 9 ,longitude !re mu/ be an ,inequality 9 ,latitude2 & ?is ass]tion ,burg confirm$ by ! discussion ( obs]vations4 ,! two ,inequalities1 z %[n 9 ! obs]vations1 agree 9 assign+ to ! e>?'s =m an ,ellipticity ( #acje?4 ,sect4 #h4--;,confirmation ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory by ,exp]im5ts on ,attraction4 ,,! attraction ( all ! p>ts ( ! e>? to "o ano!r 0 ?us prov$ by exp]im5ts1 9 :i* ! :ole mass ( ! e>? is conc]n$4 ,b attempts h also be5 made to measure ! attraction ( small] portions2 z m\nta9s1 or artificial masses4 ,?is is an exp]im5t ( great difficulty2 = ! attraction ( su* masses mu/ be comp>$ ) t ( ! e>?1 ( :i* x is a sc>cely p]ceptible fraction2 &1 moreov]1 9 ! case ( m\nta9s1 ! effect ( ! m\nta9 w be modifi$ or disguis$ by unkn[n or unappreciable circum/ances4 ,9 _m ( ! measurem5ts ( degrees1 indications ( ! attraction ( m\nta9s _h be5 p]ceiv$2 b at ! sugge/ion ( ,maskelyne1 ! exp]im5t 0 c>efully made1 9 #aggd1 ^u ! m\nta9 ,s*ehalli51 9 ,scotl&1 ! m\nta9 be+ m9]alogically survey$ by ,playfair4 ,! result obta9$ 01 t ! attraction ( ! m\nta9 drew ! plumb-l9e ab\t six seconds f ! v]tical2 & x 0 d$uc$ f ?is1 by ,hutton's calculations1 t ! d5sity ( ! e>? 0 ab\t once & f\r-fif?s t ( ,s*ehalli51 or f\r & a half times t ( wat]4 ,cav5di%1 :o _h sugge/$ _m ( ! artifices 9 ?is calculation1 himself made ! exp]im5t 9 ! o!r =m1 by us+ lead5 balls1 ab\t n9e in*es diamet]4 ,?is obs]vation 0 conduct$ ) an extreme degree ( +5uity & delicacy1 :i* c\ld alone make x valuable2 & ! result agre$ v ne>ly ) t ( ! ,s*ehalli5 exp]im5t1 giv+ = ! d5sity ( ! e>? ab\t five & "o-?ird times t ( wat]4 ,ne>ly ! same result 0 obta9$ by ,c>l9i1 9 #ahbd1 f obs]vations ( ! p5dulum1 made at a po9t ( ! ,alps 7! ,hospice1 on ,m\nt ,c5is7 at a consid]able elevation above ! av]age surface ( ! e>?4 #deg ,sect4 #i4--;,application ( ! ,newtonian ,!ory to ! ,tides4 ,,we come1 f9ally1 to t result1 9 :i* mo/ rema9s to be done = ! v]ification ( ! g5]al law ( attraction--! subject ( ! ,tides4 ,yet1 ev5 "h1 ! v]ification is /rik+1 z f> z obs]vations h be5 c>ri$4 ,newton's !ory expla9$1 ) s+ul> felicity1 all ! prom95t circum/ances ( ! tides !n kn[n2--! diff]5ce ( spr+ & neap tides2 ! effect ( ! moon's & sun's decl9ation & p>allax2 ev5 ! diff]5ce ( morn+ & ev5+ tides1 & ! anomal\s tides ( p>ticul> places4 ,ab\t1 & aft]1 ?is "t1 attempts 7 made bo? by ! ,royal ,society ( ,engl&1 & by ! ,fr5* ,academy1 to collect num]\s obs]vations b ^! 7 n foll[$ up ) suffici5t p]sev]ance4 ,p]haps1 inde$1 ! !ory _h n be5 at t "t suffici5tly develop$ b ! admirable prize-essays ( ,eul]1 ,b]n\lli1 & ,d',alemb]t1 9 #agdj1 remov$1 9 a great measure1 ?is defici5cy4 ,^! diss]tations suppli$ ! means ( br++ ?is subject to ! same te/ to :i* all ! o!r consequ5ces ( gravitation _h be5 subject$2--namely1 ! calculation ( tables1 & ! cont9u$ & ord]ly comp>ison ( ^! ) obs]vation4 ,laplace has attempt$ ?is v]ification 9 ano!r way1 by calculat+ ! results ( ! !ory 7:i* he has done ) an extraord9>y comm& ( analysis71 & !n by comp>+ ^!1 9 suppos$ critical cases1 ) ! ,bre/ obs]vations4 ,?is me?od has confirm$ ! !ory z f> z x c\ld d s2 b su* a process _c sup]s$e ! necessity ( apply+ ! prop] crit]ion ( tru? 9 su* cases1 ! con/ruction & v]ification ( ,tables4 ,b]n\lli's !ory1 on ! o!r h&1 has be5 us$ = ! con/ruction ( ,tide-tables2 b ^! h n be5 prop]ly comp>$ ) exp]im5t2 & :5 ! comp>ison has be5 made1 hav+ be5 execut$ = purposes ( ga9 r ?an ( sci5ce1 x has n be5 publi%$1 & _c be quot$ z a v]ification ( ! !ory4 ,?us we h1 z yet1 no suffici5t comp>ison ( fact ) !ory1 = ,laplace's is f> f a complete comp>ison4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 o!r p>ts ( physical a/ronomy1 our !ory ought n only to agree ) obs]vations select$ & gr\p$ 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 b ) ! :ole c\rse ( obs]vation1 & ) e "p ( ! ph5om5a4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 o!r cases1 ! true !ory %\ld be v]ifi$ by its giv+ u ! be/ ,tables2 b ,tide-tables 7 nev]1 ,i believe1 #deh calculat$ ^u ,laplace's !ory1 & ?us x 0 nev] fairly br\ght to ! te/4 ,x is1 p]haps1 rem>kable1 consid]+ all ! exp]i5ce :i* a/ronomy _h furni%$1 t m5 %\ld h expect$ to rea* ! completion ( ?is bran* ( sci5ce by improv+ ! ma!matical !ory1 )\t1 at ! same "t1 asc]ta9+ ! laws ( ! facts4 ,9 all o!r dep>tm5ts ( a/ronomy1 z1 = in/ance1 9 ! cases ( ! moon & ! planets1 ! lead+ features ( ! ph5om5a _h be5 made out empirically1 be=e ! !ory expla9$ !m4 ,! c\rse :i* analogy w\ld h recomm5d$ = ! cultivation ( our k ( ! tides1 w\ld h be51 to asc]ta91 by an analysis ( long s]ies ( obs]vations1 ! effect ( *anges 9 ! "t ( transit1 p>allax1 & decl9ation ( ! moon1 & ?us to obta9 ! laws ( ph5om5a & !n proce$ to inve/igate ! laws ( causation4 ,?\gh ?is 0 n ! c\rse foll[$ by ma!matical !ori/s1 x 0 really pursu$ by ^? :o practically calculat$ ,tide-tables2 & ! application ( k to ! useful purposes ( life be+ ?us sep>at$ f ! promotion ( ! !ory1 0 naturally treat$ z a ga9ful prop]ty1 & pres]v$ by secrecy4 ,art1 9 ?is in/ance1 hav+ ca/ (f h] legitimate subord9ation to ,sci5ce1 or r1 be+ depriv$ ( ! guidance :i* x 0 ! duty ( ,sci5ce to af=d1 resum$ h] anci5t practices ( exclusiv5ess & my/]y4 ,liv]pool1 ,london1 & o!r places1 _h _! ,tide-tables1 con/ruct$ by undivulg$ me?ods1 :i* me?ods1 9 "s in/ances at lea/1 7 h&$ d[n f fa!r to son = sev]al g5]ations z a family possession2 & ! publication ( new ,tables1 accompani$ by a /atem5t ( ! mode ( calculation1 0 res5t$ z an infr+em5t ( ! rights ( prop]ty4 ,! mode 9 :i* ^! secret me?ods 7 inv5t$1 0 t :i* we h po9t$ out2--! analysis ( a consid]able s]ies ( obs]vations4 ,probably ! be/ example ( ?is 0 af=d$ by ! ,liv]pool ,tide-tables4 ,^! 7 d$uc$ by a cl]gyman nam$ ,hold51 f obs]vations made at t port by a h>bor-ma/] ( ! "n ( ,hut*9son2 :o 0 l$1 by a love ( su* pursuits1 to obs]ve ! tides c>efully = above tw5ty ye>s1 day & night4 ,hold5's ,tables1 f\nd$ on f\r ye>s ( ^! obs]vations1 7 rem>kably accurate4 ,at l5g? m5 ( sci5ce began to p]ceive t su* calculations 7 "p ( _! bus9ess2 & t !y 7 call$ ^u1 z ! #dei gu>dians ( ! e/abli%$ !ory ( ! univ]se1 to comp>e x 9 ! greate/ possible detail ) ! facts4 ,mr4 ,lubbock 0 ! fir/ ma!matician :o und]took ! ext5sive labors :i* su* a conviction sugge/$4 ,f9d+ t regul> tide-obs]vations _h be5 made at ! ,london ,docks f #agie1 he took n9ete5 ye>s ( ^! 7purposely select+ ! l5g? ( a cycle ( ! motions ( ! lun> orbit71 & caus$ !m 79 #ahca7 to be analyz$ by ,mr4 ,dessi\1 an exp]t calculator4 ,he ?us obta9$#ajeg ,tables = ! effect ( ! ,moon's ,decl9ation1 ,p>allax1 & h\r ( ,transit1 on ! tides2 & 0 enabl$ to produce ,tide-tables f\nd$ ^u ! data ?us obta9$4 ,"s mi/akes 9 ^! z fir/ publi%$ 7mi/akes unimportant z to ! !oretical value ( ! "w71 s]v$ to %[ ! jeal\sy ( ! practical tide-table calculators1 by ! acrimony ) :i* ! ov]sights 7 dwelt ^u2 b 9 a v few ye>s1 ! tables ?us produc$ by an op5 & sci5tific process 7 m exact ?an ^? :i* result$ f any ( ! secrets2 & ?us practice 0 br\ght into its prop] subord9ation to !ory4 ,note #ajeg3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahca4 ,briti% ,almanac1 #ahcb4 ,! !ory ) :i* ,mr4 ,lubbock 0 l$ to comp>e 8 results1 0 ! ,equilibrium-!ory ( ,daniel ,b]n\lli2 & x 0 f\nd t ?is !ory1 ) c]ta9 modifications ( its elem5ts1 repres5t$ ! facts to a rem>kable degree ( precision4 ,mr4 ,lubbock po9t$ out ?is agreem5t especially 9 ! semi-m5sual inequality ( ! times ( high wat]4 ,! l agreem5t 0 aft]w>ds 79 #ahcc7 %[n by ,mr4 ,:ewell#ajfg to obta9 /ill m accurately at ,liv]pool1 bo? = ! ,times & ,heights2 = by ?is "t1 n9ete5 ye>s ( ,hut*9son's ,liv]pool ,obs]vations _h also be5 discuss$ by ,mr4 ,lubbock4 ,! o!r inequalities ( ! ,times & ,heights 7dep5d+ ^u ! ,decl9ation & ,p>allax ( ! ,moon & ,sun17 7 v>i\sly comp>$ ) ! ,equilibrium-!ory by ,mr4 ,lubbock & ,mr4 ,:ewell2 & ! g5]al result 01 t ! facts agre$ ) ! condition ( equilibrium at a c]ta9 ant]ior "t1 b t ?is ant]ior "t 0 diff]5t = diff]5t ph5om5a4 ,9 l mann] x appe>$ to foll[ f ^! rese>*es1 t 9 ord] to expla9 ! facts1 ! mass ( ! moon mu/ be suppos$ diff]5t 9 ! calculation at diff]5t places4 ,a result 9 effect ! same 0 obta9$ by ,m4 ,daussy1#ajgg an active ,fr5* ,hydrograph]2 = he f\nd t obs]vations at v>i\s /ations c\ld n be reconcil$ ) ! =mul ( ,laplace's ,mcanique #dfj ,cle/e 79 :i* ! ratio ( ! heights ( spr+-tides & neap-tides 0 comput$ on an assum$ mass ( ! moon7 )\t an alt]ation ( level :i* 01 9 fact1 equival5t to an alt]ation ( ! moon's mass4 ,?us all ?+s appe>$ to t5d to %[ t ! ,equilibrium-!ory w\ld give ! =mul = ! inequalities ( ! tides1 b t ! magnitudes :i* ent] into ^! =mul mu/ be s\ght f obs]vation4 ,note #ajfg3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcd4 ,note #ajgg3 ,connaissance des ,tems1 #ahch4 ,:e!r ?is result is consi/5t ) !ory1 is a "q n s mu* ( ,physical ,a/ronomy z ( ,hydrodynamics1 & has n yet be5 solv$4 ,a ,!ory ( ! ,tides :i* %\ld include 9 its conditions ! ph5om5a ( ,d]ivative ,tides1 & ( _! comb9ations1 w probably require all ! res\rces ( ! ma!matical me*anician4 ,z a contribution ( empirical mat]ials to ! treatm5t ( ?is hydrodynamical problem1 x may be all[able to m5tion "h ,mr4 ,:ewell's attempts to trace ! progress ( ! tide into all ! seas ( ! globe1 by draw+ on maps ( ! ocean :at he calls ,cotidal ,l9es2--l9es m>k+ ! contemporane\s position ( ! v>i\s po9ts ( ! great wave :i* c>ries high wat] f %ore to %ore4#ajhg ,?is is necess>ily a task ( labor & difficulty1 s9ce x requires u to "k ! "t ( high wat] on ! same day 9 e "p ( ! _w2 b 9 proportion z x is complet$1 x supplies /eps betwe5 our g5]al view ( ! movem5ts ( ! ocean & ! ph5om5a ( p>ticul> ports4 ,note #ajhg3 ,essay t[>ds a ,fir/ ,approximation to a ,map ( ,cotidal ,l9es4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcc1 #ahcf4 ,look+ at ?is subject by ! light :i* ! example ( ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy af=ds1 we may v5ture to repeat1 t x w nev] h ju/ice done x till x is treat$ z o!r p>ts ( a/ronomy are treat$2 t is1 till ,tables ( all ! ph5om5a :i* c be obs]v$1 are calculat$ by means ( ! be/ k :i* we at pres5t possess1 & till ^! tables are con/antly improv$ by a comp>ison ( ! pr$ict$ ) ! obs]v$ fact4 ,a set ( ,tide-obs]vations & ,tide-ephem]ides ( ?is k9d1 w\ld soon give to ?is subject t precision :i* m>ks ! o!r p>ts ( a/ronomy2 & w\ld leave an assemblage ( unexpla9$ residual ph5om5a1 9 :i* a c>eful rese>* might f9d ! mat]ials ( o!r tru?s z yet unsuspect$4 #b;d ,ed4 ,t !re w\ld be1 9 ! tidal movem5ts ( ! ocean1 inequalities ( ! heights & times ( high & l[ wat] #dfa correspond+ to ^? :i* ! equilibrium !ory gives1 c\ld be consid]$ only z a conjecture1 till ! comp>ison ) obs]vation 0 made4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 a natural conjecture2 s9ce ! wat]s ( ! ocean are at e mom5t t5d+ to acquire ! =m assum$ 9 ! equilibrium !ory3 & x may be consid]$ likely t ! causes :i* prev5t _! assum+ ?is =m produce an effect ne>ly con/ant = ea* place4 ,:atev] be ?\ght ( ?is reason+1 ! conjecture is confirm$ by obs]vation ) curi\s exactness4 ,! laws ( a great numb] ( ! tidal ph5om5a--namely1 ( ! ,semi-m5sual ,inequality ( ! ,heights1 ( ! ,semi-m5sual ,inequality ( ! ,times1 ( ! ,diurnal ,inequality1 ( ! effect ( ! ,moon's ,decl9ation1 ( ! effect ( ! ,moon's ,p>allax--are repres5t$ v closely by =mul d]iv$ f ! equilibrium !ory4 ,! hydrodynamical mode ( treat+ ! subject has n add$ any ?+ to ! k ( ! laws ( ! ph5om5a to :i* ! o!r view _h conduct$ u4 ,we may add1 t ,laplace's assumption1 t 9 ! mov+ fluid ! motions mu/ h a p]iodicity correspond+ to t ( ! =ces1 is also a conjecture4 ,& ?\gh ?is conjecture may1 9 "s cases ( ! problem1 be v]ifi$1 by sub/itut+ ! result+ expressions 9 ! equations ( motion1 ?is _c be done 9 ! actual case1 :]e ! revolv+ motion ( ! ocean is prev5t$ by ! intrusion ( tracts ( l& runn+ ne>ly f pole to pole4 ,yet 9 ,mr4 ,airy's ,treatise ,on ,tides & ,waves 79 ! ,encyclopdia ,metropolitana7 mu* has be5 done to br+ ! hydrodynamical !ory ( oceanic tides into agreem5t ) obs]vation4 ,9 ?is admirable "w1 ,mr4 ,airy has1 by peculi> artifices1 solv$ problems :i* come s ne> ! actual cases t !y may repres5t !m4 ,he has1 9 ?is way1 d$uc$ ! laws ( ! semi-diurnal & ! diurnal tide1 & ! o!r features ( ! tides :i* ! equilibrium !ory 9 "s degree imitates2 b he has also1 tak+ into acc\nt ! effect ( friction1 %[n t ! actual tide may be repres5t$ z ! tide ( an e>li] epo*2--t ! relative mass ( ! moon & sun1 z inf]r$ f ! tides1 w\ld dep5d ^u ! dep? ( ! ocean 7,art4 #dee72--) _m o!r results rem>kably expla9+ ! obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,he has also %[n t ! relation ( ! cotidal l9es to ! tide waves really propagat$ is1 9 complex cases1 v obscure1 because diff]5t waves ( diff]5t magnitudes1 travell+ 9 diff]5t directions1 may coexi/1 & ! cotidal l9e is ! comp\nd result ( all ^!4 #dfb ,) ref]5ce to ! ,maps ( ,cotidal ,l9es1 m5tion$ 9 ! text1 ,i may add1 t we are z yet de/itute ( obs]vations :i* %\ld supply ! means ( draw+ su* l9es on a l>ge scale 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,admiral ,ltke has h[ev] suppli$ u ) "s valuable mat]ials & rem>ks on ?is subject 9 8 ,notice sur les ,m>es ,priodiques dans le gr& ,ocan ,boral et dans la ,m] ,glaciale2 & has drawn !m1 app>5tly on suffici5t data1 9 ! ,:ite ,sea4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,discov]ies ,,add$ ,,to ,,! ,,newtonian ,,!ory4 ,sect4 #a4--,tables ( ,a/ronomical ,refraction4 ,,we h travell$ ov] an imm5se field ( a/ronomical & ma!matical labor 9 ! la/ few pages1 & h yet1 at ! end ( e /ep1 /ill f\nd ourselves "u ! jurisdiction ( ! ,newtonian laws4 ,we are rem9d$ ( ! univ]sal mon>*ies1 :]e a man c\ld n escape f ! empire )\t quitt+ ! _w4 ,we h n[ to notice "s o!r discov]ies1 9 :i* ?is ref]5ce to ! law ( univ]sal gravitation is less imm$iate & obvi\s2 ,i mean ! a/ronomical discov]ies respect+ ,light4 ,! g5]al tru?s to :i* ! e/abli%m5t ( ! true laws ( ,atmosph]ic ,refraction l$ a/ronom]s1 7 ! law ( ,deflection ( ! rays ( light1 :i* applies to all refractions1 & ! real /ructure & size ( ! ,atmosph]e1 s f> z x became kn[n4 ,! great discov]ies ( ,rm] & ,bradley1 namely1 ! ,velocity ( ,light1 ! ,ab]ration ( ,light1 & ! ,nutation ( ! e>?'s axis1 gave a new di/9ctness to ! conceptions ( ! propagation ( light 9 ! m9ds ( philosoph]s1 & confirm$ ! doctr9es ( ,cop]nicus1 ,kepl]1 & ,newton1 respect+ ! motions :i* belong to ! e>?4 ,! true laws ( ,atmosph]ic ,refraction 7 sl[ly discov]$4 ,ty*o attribut$ ! app>5t displacem5t ( ! heav5ly bodies to ! l[ & gross "p ( ! atmosph]e only1 & h5ce made x cease at a po9t half-way to ! z5i?2 b ,kepl] rightly ext5d$ x to ! z5i? itself4 ,dom9ic ,cass9i endeavor$ to discov] ! law ( ?is correction by obs]vation1 & gave 8 result 9 ! =m #dfc :i*1 z we h said1 s\nd sci5ce prescribes1 a ,table to be habitually us$ = all obs]vations4 ,b great difficulties at ?is "t emb>rass$ ?is inve/igation1 = ! p>allaxes ( ! sun & ( ! planets 7 unkn[n1 & v div]se values _h be5 assign$ !m by diff]5t a/ronom]s4 ,to remove "s ( ^! difficulties1 ,ri*]1 9 #agfb1 w5t to obs]ve at ! equator2 & on 8 return1 ,cass9i 0 able to confirm & am5d 8 =m] e/imations ( p>allax & refraction4 ,b !re 7 /ill difficulties4 ,accord+ to ,la ,hire1 ?\gh ! ph5om5a ( twilight give an altitude ( #cd1jjj toises to ! atmosph]e1#ajig ^? ( refraction make x only #bjjj4 ,john ,cass9i und]took to support & improve ! calculations ( 8 fa!r ,dom9ic1 & took ! true supposition1 t ! light foll[s a curvil9e> pa? ?r\gh ! air4 ,! ,royal ,society ( ,london _h already asc]ta9$ exp]im5tally ! refractive p[] ( air4#aajg ,newton calculat$ a ,table ( ,refractions1 :i* 0 publi%$ "u ,halley's "n 9 ! 9999,philosophical ,transactions = #agba1 )\t any indication ( ! me?od by :i* x 0 con/ruct$4 ,b ,m4 ,biot has rec5tly %[n1#aaag by means ( ! publi%$ correspond5ce ( ,flam/e$1 t ,newton _h solv$ ! problem 9 a mann] ne>ly correspond+ to ! mo/ improv$ me?ods ( mod]n analysis4 ,note #ajig3 ,bailly1 ii4 #fab4 ,note #aajg3 ,ibid4 ii4 #fjg4 ,note #aaag3 ,biot1 ,acad4 ,sc4 ,compte ,r5du1 ,sept4 #e1 #ahcf4 ,dom9ic ,cass9i & ,pic>d prov$1#aabg ,le ,monni] 9 #agch confirm$ m fully1 ! fact t ! v>iations ( ! ,!rmomet] affect ! ,refraction4 ,may]1 tak+ into acc\nt bo? ^! *anges1 & ! *anges indicat$ by ! ,b>omet]1 =m$ a !ory1 :i* ,lacaille1 ) imm5se labor1 appli$ to ! con/ruction ( a ,table ( ,refractions f obs]vation4 ,b ,bradley's ,table 7publi%$ 9 #agfc by ,maskelyne7 0 m commonly adopt$ 9 ,engl&2 & 8 =mula1 orig9ally obta9$ empirically1 has be5 %[n by ,"y to result f ! mo/ probable suppositions we c make respect+ ! atmosph]e4 ,bessel's ,refraction ,tables are n[ consid]$ ! be/ ( ^? :i* h appe>$4 ,note #aabg3 ,bailly1 iii4 #ib4 ,sect4 #b4--;,discov]y ( ! ,velocity ( ,light4--,rm]4 ,,! a/ronomical hi/ory ( ,refraction is n m>k$ by any great discov]ies1 & 01 = ! mo/ "p1 a "w ( labor only4 ,! progress ( ! o!r portions ( our k respect+ light is #dfd m /rik+4 ,9 #afgf1 a great numb] ( obs]vations ( eclipses ( ,jupit]'s satellites 7 accumulat$1 & c\ld be comp>$ ) ,cass9i's ,tables4 ,rm]1 a ,dani% a/ronom]1 :om ,pic>d _h br\ght to ,p>is1 p]ceiv$ t ^! eclipses happ5$ con/antly lat] ?an ! calculat$ "t at "o season ( ! ye>1 & e>li] at ano!r season2--a diff]5ce = :i* a/ronomy c\ld (f] no acc\nt4 ,! error 0 ! same = all ! satellites2 if x _h dep5d$ on a defect 9 ! ,tables ( ,jupit]1 x might h affect$ all1 b ! effect w\ld h _h a ref]5ce to ! velocities ( ! satellites4 ,! cause1 !n1 0 some?+ extrane\s to ,jupit]4 ,rm] _h ! happy ?\ght ( comp>+ ! error ) ! e>?'s di/ance f ,jupit]1 & x 0 f\nd t ! eclipses happ5$ lat] 9 proportion z ,jupit] 0 fur!r (f4#aacg ,?us we see ! eclipse lat]1 z x is m remote2 & ?us light1 ! mess5g] :i* br+s u intellig5ce ( ! occurr5ce1 travels ov] its c\rse 9 a measurable "t4 ,by ?is evid5ce1 light appe>$ to take ab\t elev5 m9utes 9 describ+ ! diamet] ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,note #aacg3 ,bailly1 ii4 #ag4 ,?is discov]y1 l s _m o!rs1 once made1 appe>s easy & inevitable2 yet ,dom9ic ,cass9i _h ent]ta9$ ! idea = a mom5t1#aadg & _h reject$ x2 & ,font5elle _h congratulat$ himself publicly on hav+ n>r[ly escap$ ?is s$uctive error4 ,! objections to ! admission ( ! tru? arose pr9cipally f ! inaccuracy ( obs]vation1 & f ! p]suasion t ! motions ( ! satellites 7 circul> & uni=m4 ,_! irregul>ities disguis$ ! fact 9 "q4 ,z ^! irregul>ities became cle>ly kn[n1 ,rm]'s discov]y 0 f9ally e/abli%$1 & ! ,equation ( ,light took its place 9 ! ,tables4 ,note #aadg3 ,ib4 ii4 #dai4 ,sect4 #c4--;,discov]y ( ,ab]ration4--,bradley4 ,,improvem5ts 9 in/rum5ts1 & 9 ! art ( obs]v+1 7 requisite = mak+ ! next great /ep 9 trac+ ! effect ( ! laws ( light4 ,x appe>s cle>1 on consid]ation1 t s9ce light & ! spectator on ! e>? are bo? 9 motion1 ! app>5t direction ( an object w be det]m9$ by ! composition ( ^! motions4 ,b yet ! effect ( ?is composition ( motions 0 7z is usual 9 su* cases7 trac$ z a fact 9 obs]vation1 be=e x 0 cle>ly se5 z a consequ5ce ( reason+4 ,?is fact1 ! ,ab]ration ( ,light1 ! greate/ a/ronomical discov]y ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 belongs to ,bradley1 #dfe :o 0 !n ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy at ,ox=d1 & aft]w>ds ,a/ronom] ,royal at ,gre5wi*4 ,molyneux & ,bradley1 9 #agbe1 began a s]ies ( obs]vations = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+1 by obs]vations ne> ! z5i?1 ! exi/5ce ( an annual p>allax ( ! fix$ />s1 :i* ,hooke _h hop$ to detect1 & ,flam/e$ ?\ght he _h discov]$4 ,bradley#aaeg soon f\nd t ! /> obs]v$ by him _h a m9ute app>5t motion diff]5t f t :i* ! annual p>allax w\ld produce4 ,he ?\ght ( a nutation ( ! e>?'s axis z a mode ( acc\nt+ = ?is2 b f\nd1 by comp>ison ( a /> on ! o!r side ( ! pole1 t ?is explanation w\ld n apply4 ,bradley & ,molyneux !n consid]$ = a mom5t an annual alt]ation ( figure 9 ! e>?'s atmosph]e1 su* z might affect ! refractions1 b ?is hypo!sis 0 soon reject$4#aafg ,9 #agbg1 ,bradley resum$ 8 obs]vations1 ) a new in/rum5t1 at ,wan/ead1 & obta9$ empirical rules = ! *anges ( decl9ation ( diff]5t />s4 ,at la/1 accid5t turn$ 8 ?\ghts to ! direction 9 :i* he 0 to f9d ! cause ( ! v>iations :i* he _h discov]$4 ,be+ 9 a boat on ! ,?ames1 he obs]v$ t ! vane on ! top ( ! ma/ gave a diff]5t app>5t direction to ! w9d1 z ! boat sail$ "o way or ! o!r4 ,"h 0 an image ( 8 case3 ! boat repres5t$ ! e>? mov+ 9 diff]5t directions at diff]5t seasons1 & ! w9d repres5t$ ! light ( a />4 ,he _h n[ to trace ! consequ5ces ( ?is idea2 he f\nd t x l$ to ! empirical rules1 :i* he _h already discov]$1 &1 9 #agbi1 he gave 8 discov]y to ! ,royal ,society4 ,8 pap] is a v happy n>rative ( 8 labors & 8 ?\ghts4 ,8 !ory 0 s s\nd t no a/ronom] ev] conte/$ x2 & 8 obs]vations 7 s accurate1 t ! quantity :i* he assign$ z ! greate/ am\nt ( ! *ange 7"o n9ete5? ( a degree7 has h>dly be5 correct$ by m rec5t a/ronom]s4 ,x mu/ be notic$1 h[ev]1 t he consid]$ ! effects 9 decl9ation only2 ! effects 9 "r asc5sion requir$ a diff]5t mode ( obs]vation1 & a consummate goodness 9 ! ma*9]y ( clocks1 :i* at t "t 0 h>dly atta9$4 ,note #aaeg3 ,rigaud's ,bradley4 ,note #aafg3 ,rigaud1 p4 xxiii4 ,sect4 #d4--;,discov]y ( ,nutation4 ,,:5 ,bradley w5t to ,gre5wi* z ,a/ronom] ,royal1 he cont9u$ ) p]sev]ance obs]vations ( ! same k9d z ^? by :i* he _h detect$ ,ab]ration4 ,! result ( ^! 0 ano!r #dff discov]y2 namely1 t v ,nutation :i* he _h =m]ly reject$4 ,?is may appe> /range1 b x is easily expla9$4 ,! ab]ration is an annual *ange1 & is detect$ by obs]v+ a /> at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>3 ! ,nutation is a *ange ( :i* ! cycle is eighte5 ye>s2 & :i*1 !re=e1 ?\gh x does n mu* *ange ! place ( a /> 9 "o ye>1 is discov]able 9 ! alt]ations ( sev]al successive ye>s4 ,a v few ye>s' obs]vations %[$ ,bradley ! effect ( ?is *ange2#aagg & long be=e ! half cycle ( n9e ye>s _h elaps$1 he _h connect$ x 9 8 m9d ) ! true cause1 ! motion ( ! moon's nodes4 ,ma*9 0 !n ,secret>y to ! ,royal ,society1#aahg & 0 employ$ 9 consid]+ ! !ory ( gravity1 & its consequ5ces ) reg>d to ! cele/ial motions3 to him ,bradley communicat$ 8 conjectures2 f him he soon receiv$ a ,table conta9+ ! results ( 8 calculations2 & ! law 0 f\nd to be ! same 9 ! ,table & 9 obs]vation1 ?\gh ! quantities 7 some:at diff]5t4 ,x appe>$ by bo?1 t ! e>?'s pole1 besides ! motion :i* ! precession ( ! equ9oxes gives x1 moves1 9 eighte5 ye>s1 ?r\gh a small circle2--or r1 z 0 aft]w>ds f\nd by ,bradley1 an ellipse1 ( :i* ! axes are n9ete5 & f\rte5 seconds4#aaig ,note #aagg3 ,rigaud1 lxiv4 ,note #aahg3 ,ib4 #be4 ,note #aaig3 ,ib4 lxvi4 ,= ! rigor\s e/abli%m5t ( ! me*anical !ory ( t effect ( ! moon's attraction f :i* ! ph5om5a ( ,nutation fl[1 ,bradley rightly & prud5tly invit$ ! assi/ance ( ! great ma!maticians ( 8 "t4 ,d',alemb]t1 ,?omas ,simpson1 ,eul]1 & o!rs1 answ]$ ?is call1 & ! result 01 z we h already said 9 ! la/ *apt] 7,sect4 #g71 t ?is inve/igation add$ ano!r to ! recondite & pr(\nd evid5ces ( ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,x has be5 said#abjg t ,bradley's discov]ies assure him ! mo/ di/+ui%$ place among a/ronom]s aft] ,hipp>*us & ,kepl]4 ,if 8 discov]ies _h be5 made be=e ,newton's1 !re c\ld h be5 no hesitation z to plac+ him on a level ) ^? great m54 ,! exi/5ce ( su* sugge/ions z ! ,newtonian !ory (f]$ on all a/ronomical subjects1 may p]haps dim1 9 our eyes1 ! brilliance ( ,bradley's a*ievem5ts2 b ?is circum/ance _c place any o!r p]son above ! au?or ( su* discov]ies1 & !re=e we may consid] ,delambre's adjudication ( prec$5ce z well w>rant$1 & des]v+ to be p]man5t4 #dfg ,note #abjg3 ,delambre1 ,a/4 du #ah ,sic4 p4 #dbj4 ,rigaud1 xxxvii4 ,sect4 #e4--;,discov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,d\ble ,/>s4--,! two ,h]s*els4 ,,no tru?1 !n1 c be m c]ta9ly e/abli%$1 ?an t ! law ( gravitation prevails to ! v b\nd>ies ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,b does x hold good fur!r8 ,d ! fix$ />s also obey ?is univ]sal sway8 ,! idea1 ! "q1 is an obvi\s "o--b :]e are we to f9d ! means ( submitt+ x to ! te/ ( obs]vation8 ,if ! ,/>s 7 ea* insulat$ f ! re/1 z our ,sun appe>s to be f !m1 we %\ld h be5 q unable to answ] ?is inquiry4 ,b among ! />s1 !re are "s :i* are call$ ,d\ble ,/>s1 & :i* consi/ ( two />s1 s ne> to ea* o!r t ! telescope alone c sep>ate !m4 ,! eld] ,h]s*el dilig5tly obs]v$ & measur$ ! relative positions ( ! two />s 9 su* pairs2 & z has s (t5 happ5$ 9 a/ronomical hi/ory1 pursu+ "o object he fell 9 ) ano!r4 ,suppos+ su* pairs to be really unconnect$1 he wi%$ to le>n1 f _! ph5om5a1 some?+ respect+ ! annual p>allax ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,b 9 ! c\rse ( tw5ty ye>s' obs]vations he made ! discov]y 79 #ahjc7 t "s ( ^! c\ples 7 turn+ r\nd ea* o!r ) v>i\s angul> velocities4 ,^! revolutions 7 = ! mo/ "p s sl[ t he 0 oblig$ to leave _! complete det]m9ation z an inh]itance to ! next g5]ation4 ,8 son 0 n c>eless ( ! beque/1 & aft] hav+ add$ an enorm\s mass ( obs]vations to ^? ( 8 fa!r1 he appli$ himself to det]m9e ! laws ( ^! revolutions4 ,a problem s obvi\s & s tempt+ 0 attack$ also by o!rs1 z ,sav>y & ,encke1 9 #ahcj & #ahcb1 ) ! res\rces ( analysis4 ,b a problem 9 :i* ! data are s m9ute & inevitably imp]fect1 requir$ ! ma!matician to employ mu* judgm5t1 z well z skill 9 us+ & comb9+ ^! data2 & ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 by employ+ positions only ( ! l9e jo9+ ! pair ( />s 7:i* c be obs]v$ ) comp>ative exactness71 to ! exclusion ( _! di/ances 7:i* _c be measur$ ) mu* correctness71 & by inv5t+ a me?od :i* dep5d$ ^u ! :ole body ( obs]vations1 & n ^u select$ ones only1 = ! det]m9ation ( ! motion1 has made 8 inve/igations by f> ! mo/ satisfactory ( ^? :i* h appe>$4 ,! result is1 t x has be5 r5d]$ v probable1 t 9 sev]al ( ! d\ble />s ! two />s describe ellipses ab\t ea* o!r2 & !re=e t "h also1 at an #dfh immeasurable di/ance f our sy/em1 ! law ( attraction accord+ to ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 prevails4 ,&1 accord+ to ! practice ( a/ronom]s :5 a law has be5 e/abli%$1 ,tables h be5 calculat$ = ! future motions2 & we h ,ephem]ides ( ! revolutions ( suns r\nd ea* o!r1 9 a region s remote1 t ! :ole circle ( our e>?'s orbit1 if plac$ !re1 w\ld be imp]ceptible by our /ronge/ telescopes4 ,! p]man5t comp>ison ( ! obs]v$ ) ! pr$ict$ motions1 cont9u$ = m ?an "o revolution1 is ! sev]e & decisive te/ ( ! tru? ( ! !ory2 & ! result ( ?is te/ a/ronom]s are n[ await+4 #b;d ,ed4 ,9 calculat+ ! orbits ( revolv+ sy/ems ( d\ble />s1 !re is a peculi> difficulty1 aris+ f ! plane ( ! orbit be+ 9 a position unkn[n1 b probably oblique1 to ! visual ray4 ,h5ce x comes to pass t ev5 if ! orbit be an ellipse describ$ ab\t ! focus by ! laws ( planet>y motion1 x w appe> o!rwise2 & ! true orbit w h to be d$uc$ f ! app>5t "o4 ,) reg>d to a difficulty :i* has be5 m5tion$1 t ! two />s1 if !y are gov]n$ by gravity1 w n revolve ! "o ab\t ! o!r1 b bo? ab\t _! common c5tre ( gravity2--?is circum/ance adds little difficulty to ! problem4 ,newton has %[n 7,pr9cip4 lib4 i4 ,prop4 #fa7 9 ! problem ( two bodies1 ! relation betwe5 ! relative orbits & ! orbit ab\t ! common c5tre ( gravity4 ,h[ _m ( ! app>5tly d\ble />s h orbitual motions8 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 9 #ahcc gave1 9 8 ,a/ronomy 7,art4 #fjf71 a li/ ( n9e />s1 ) p]iods ext5d+ f #dc ye>s 7 ,coron7 to #abjj ye>s 7 ,leonis71 :i* he pres5t$ z ! *ief results !n obta9$ 9 ?is dep>tm5t4 ,9 8 "w on ,d\ble ,/>s1 ! fruit ( 8 labors 9 bo? hemisph]es1 :i* ! a/ronomical _w are look+ = ) eag] expectation1 he w1 ,i believe1 h a few m to add to ^!4 ,is x well e/abli%$ t su* d\ble />s attract ea* o!r accord+ to ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance8 ,! answ] to ?is "q mu/ be det]m9$ by asc]ta9+ :e!r ! above cases are regulat$ by ! laws ( elliptical motion4 ,?is is a matt] :i* x mu/ require a long c\rse ( c>eful obs]vation to det]m9e 9 su* a numb] ( cases z to prove ! univ]sality ( ! rule4 ,p]haps ! m9ds ( a/ronom]s are /ill 9 susp5se ^u ! subject4 ,:5 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's "w %all appe>1 x w probably #dfi be f\nd t ) reg>d to "s ( ^! />s1 & ,virg9is 9 p>ticul>1 ! con=mity ( ! obs]vations ) ! laws ( elliptical motion am\nts to a degree ( exactness :i* mu/ give a/ronom]s a /rong conviction ( ! tru? ( ! law4 ,= s9ce ,sir ,w4 ,h]s*el's fir/ measures 9 #agha1 ! arc describ$ by "o /> ab\t ! o!r is above #cje degrees2 & dur+ ?is p]iod ! angul> annual motion has be5 v v>i\s1 pass+ ?r\gh all gradations f ab\t #bj m9utes to #hj degrees4 ,yet 9 ! :ole ( ?is *ange1 ! two curves con/ruct$1 ! "o f ! obs]vations1 ! o!r f ! elliptical elem5ts1 = ! purpose ( comp>ison1 hav+ a total ord9ate ( #cje p>ts1 d n1 9 any "p ( _! c\rse1 deviate f ea* o!r s mu* z two su* p>ts4 ,! v]ification ( ,newton's discov]ies 0 suffici5t employm5t = ! la/ c5tury2 ! fir/ /ep 9 ! ext5sion ( !m belongs to ?is c5tury4 ,we _c at pres5t =esee ! magnitude ( ?is task1 b e "o mu/ feel t ! law ( gravitation1 be=e v]ifi$ 9 all ! p>ticles ( our own sy/em1 & n[ probably ext5d$ to ! all b inf9ite di/ance ( ! fix$ />s1 presses ^u our m9ds ) a /rong claim to be accept$ z a univ]sal law ( ! :ole mat]ial creation4 ,?us1 9 ?is & ! prec$+ *apt]1 ,i h giv5 a brief sket* ( ! hi/ory ( ! v]ification & ext5sion ( ,newton's great discov]y4 ,by ! mass ( labor & ( skill :i* ?is head ( our subject includes1 we may judge ( ! magnitude ( ! advance 9 our k :i* t discov]y made4 ,a wond]ful am\nt ( tal5t & indu/ry h be5 requisite = ?is purpose2 b ) ^!1 ext]nal means h co-op]at$4 ,weal?1 au?ority1 me*anical skill1 ! division ( labor1 ! p[] ( associations & ( gov]nm5ts1 h be5 l>gely & wor?ily appli$ 9 br++ a/ronomy to its pres5t high & fl\ri%+ condition4 ,we mu/ consid] briefly :at has ?us be5 done4 #dgj ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,in/rum5ts ,,& ,,aids ,,( ,,a/ronomy ,,dur+ ,,! ,,newtonian ,,p]iod4 ,sect4 #a4--;,in/rum5ts4 ,,"s in/rum5ts or o!r 7 employ$ at all p]iods ( a/ronomical obs]vation4 ,b x 0 only :5 obs]vation _h atta9$ a consid]able degree ( delicacy1 t ! exact con/ruction ( in/rum5ts became an object ( s]i\s c>e4 ,gradually1 z ! possibility & ! value ( increas$ exactness became manife/1 x 0 se5 t e ?+ :i* c\ld improve ! a/ronom]'s in/rum5ts 0 ( high importance to him4 ,& h5ce 9 "s cases a va/ increase ( size & ( exp5se 0 introduc$2 9 o!r cases new comb9ations1 or ! result ( improvem5ts 9 o!r sci5ces1 7 br\ght into play4 ,ext5sive k1 int5se ?\ght1 & great +5uity1 7 requisite 9 ! a/ronomical in/rum5t mak]4 ,in/ead ( rank+ ) artisans1 he became a man ( sci5ce1 %>+ ! honor & dignity ( ! a/ronom] himself4 #a4 ,measure ( ,angles4--,ty*o ,brahe 0 ! fir/ a/ronom] :o act$ ^u a due appreciation ( ! importance ( good in/rum5ts4 ,! collection ( su* at ,uraniburg 0 by f> ! f9e/ :i* _h ev] exi/$4 ,he endeavor$ to give /ead9ess to ! frame1 & accuracy to ! divisions ( 8 in/rum5ts4 ,8 ,mural ,quadrant 0 well adapt$ = ?is purpose2 its radius 0 five cubits3 x is cle>1 t z we enl>ge ! in/rum5t we are enabl$ to measure small] arcs4 ,on ?is pr9ciple _m l>ge gnomons 7 erect$4 ,cass9i's celebrat$ "o 9 ! *ur* ( ,/4 ,petronius at ,bologna1 0 eighty-?ree feet 7,fr5*7 high4 ,b ?is mode ( obta9+ accuracy 0 soon ab&on$ = bett] me?ods4 ,?ree great improvem5ts 7 introduc$ ab\t ! same "t4 ,! application ( ! ,micromet] to ! telescope1 by ,huygh5s1 ,malvasia1 & ,auz\t2 ! application ( ! ,telescope to ! a/ronomical quadrant2 & ! fixation ( ! c5tre ( its field by a ,cross ( f9e wires plac$ 9 ! focus by ,gascoigne1 & aft]w>ds by ,pic>d4 ,we may judge h[ great 0 ! improvem5t :i* ^! contrivances introduc$ into ! art ( #dga obs]v+1 by f9d+ t ,hevelius refus$ to adopt !m because !y w\ld make all ! old obs]vations ( no value4 ,he _h sp5t a labori\s & active life 9 ! ex]cise ( ! old me?ods1 & c\ld n be> to ?9k t all ! treasures :i* he _h accumulat$ _h lo/ _! wor? by ! discov]y ( a new m9e ( ri*] ore4 #b;d ,ed4 ,littr[1 9 8 ,die ,wund] des ,himmels1 ,ed4 #b1 pp4 #fhd1 #fhe1 says t ,gascoigne inv5t$ & us$ ! telescope ) wires 9 ! common focus ( ! l5ses 9 #afdj4 ,he ref]s to ,phil4 ,trans4 xxx4 #fjc4 ,pic>d re9v5t$ ?is arrangem5t 9 #affg4 ,i h already spok5 ( ,gascoigne z ! inv5tor ( ! micromet]4 ,rm] 7already m5tion$1 p4 #dfd7 br\ght into use ! ,transit ,in/rum5t1 & ! employm5t ( complete ,circles1 in/ead ( ! ,quadrants us$ till !n2 & by ^! means gave to practical a/ronomy a new =m1 ( :i* ! full value 0 n discov]$ till long aft]w>ds49999 ,! app>5t place ( ! object 9 ! in/rum5t be+ s precisely det]m9$ by ! new me?ods1 ! exact ,division ( ! arc into degrees & _! subdivisions became a matt] ( great consequ5ce4 ,a s]ies ( arti/s1 pr9cipally ,engli%1 h acquir$ di/+ui%$ places 9 ! li/s ( sci5tific fame by _! p]=mances 9 ?is way2 & f t p]iod1 p>ticul> in/rum5ts h possess$ hi/orical int]e/ & individual reputation4 ,graham 0 "o ( ! fir/ ( ^! arti/s4 ,he execut$ a great ,mural ,arc = ,halley at ,gre5wi*2 = ,bradley he con/ruct$ ! ,sector :i* detect$ ab]ration4 ,he also made ! ,sector :i* ! ,fr5* academicians c>ri$ to ,lapl&2 & probably ! goodness ( ?is in/rum5t1 comp>$ ) ! imp]fection ( ^? :i* 7 s5t to ,p]u1 0 "o ma9 cause ( ! great diff]5ce ( duration 9 ! two s]ies ( obs]vations4 ,bird1 some:at lat]#abag 7ab\t #agej71 divid$ sev]al ,quadrants = public obs]vatories4 ,8 me?od ( divid+ 0 consid]$ s p]fect1 t ! k ( x 0 pur*as$ by ! ,engli% gov]nm5t1 & publi%$ 9 #agfg4 ,ramsd5 0 equally celebrat$4 ,! error ( "o ( 8 be/ ,quadrants 7t at ,padua7 is said to be nev] great] ?an two seconds4 ,b at a lat] p]iod1 ,ramsd5 con/ruct$ ,mural ,circles only1 hold+ ?is to be a k9d ( in/rum5t f> sup]ior to ! quadrant4 ,he made "o ( five feet diamet]1 9 #aghh1 = ,m4 ,piazzi at ,pal]mo2 & "o ( eight feet = ! obs]vatory ( ,dubl94 ,tr\ghton1 a wor?y successor ( ! #dgb arti/s we h m5tion$1 has inv5t$ a me?od ( divid+ ! circle /ill sup]ior to ! =m] ones2 inde$1 "o :i* is !oretically p]fect1 & practically capable ( consummate accuracy4 ,9 ?is way1 circles h be5 con/ruct$ = ,gre5wi*1 ,armagh1 ,cambridge1 & _m o!r places2 & probably ?is me?od1 c>efully appli$1 (f]s to ! a/ronom] z mu* exactness z 8 o!r implem5ts all[ him to receive2 b ! slighte/ casualty happ5+ to su* an in/rum5t1 aft] x has be5 con/ruct$1 or any d\bt :e!r ! me?od ( graduation has be5 rightly appli$1 makes x unfit = ! jeal\s scrupulosity ( mod]n a/ronomy4 ,note #abag3 ,mont4 iv4 #ccg4 ,! ,engli% arti/s s\ght to atta9 accurate measurem5ts by cont9u$ bisection & o!r aliquot subdivision ( ! limb ( _! circle2 b ,may] propos$ to obta9 ?is end o!rwise1 by repeat+ ! measure on diff]5t p>ts ( ! circumf]5ce till ! error ( ! division becomes unimportant1 in/ead ( attempt+ to divide an in/rum5t )\t error4 ,?is inv5tion ( ! ,repeat+ ,circle 0 zeal\sly adopt$ by ! ,fr5*1 & ! relative sup]iority ( ! rival me?ods is /ill a matt] ( diff]5ce ( op9ion4 #b;d ,ed4 ,9 ! s]ies ( ^! great a/ronomical me*ani/s1 we mu/ also reckon ,george ,rei*5ba*4 ,he 0 born ,aug4 #bd1 #aggb1 at ,durla*2 became ,lieut5ant ( ,artill]y 9 ! ,bav>ian s]vice 9 #agid2 7,sal95ra?7 ,commission] ( ,salt-works 9 #ahaa2 & 9 #ahbj1 ,fir/ ,commission] ( ,wat]-works & ,roads4 ,he became1 ) ,fraunh(]1 ! ornam5t ( ! me*anical & optical ,in/itute erect$ 9 #ahje at ,b5$ictbeu]n by ,utzs*neid]2 & 8 a/ronomical in/rum5ts1 m]idian circles1 transit in/rum5ts1 equatorials1 heliomet]s1 make an epo* 9 ,obs]v+ ,a/ronomy4 ,8 contrivances 9 ! ,salt-works at ,b]*tesgad5 & ,rei*5hall1 9 ! ,arms ,manufactory at ,amb]g1 & 9 ! works = bor+ cannon at ,vi5na1 are endur+ monum5ts ( 8 r>e me*anical tal5t4 ,he di$ ,may #ba1 #ahbf1 at ,muni*4 #b4 ,clocks4--,! improvem5ts 9 ! measures ( space require correspond+ improvem5ts 9 ! measure ( "t4 ,! beg9n+ ( any ?+ :i* we c call accuracy1 9 ?is subject1 0 ! application ( ! ,p5dulum to clocks1 by ,huygh5s1 9 #afef4 ,t ! successive oscillations ( a p5dulum occupy equal times1 _h be5 notic$ by ,galileo2 b 9 ord] to take advantage ( ?is prop]ty1 ! p5dulum mu/ be connect$ ) ma*9]y by :i* its motion is kept f langui%+1 & by :i* ! numb] ( its sw+s is record$4 ,by inv5t+ su* ma*9]y1 ,huygh5s at once obta9$ #dgc a measure ( "t m accurate ?an ! sun itself4 ,h5ce a/ronom]s 7 soon l$ to obta9 ! "r asc5sion ( a />1 n directly1 by measur+ a ,di/ance 9 ! heav5s1 b indirectly1 by obs]v+ ! ,mom5t ( its ,transit4 ,?is obs]vation is n[ made ) a degree ( accuracy :i* might1 at fir/ sight1 appe> beyond ! limits ( human s5se1 be+ not$ to a t5? ( a second ( "t3 b we may expla9 ?is1 by rem>k+ t ?\gh ! numb] ( ! second at :i* ! transit happ5s is giv5 by ! clock1 & is reckon$ accord+ to ! c\rse ( "t1 ! subdivision ( ! second ( "t into small] fractions is p]=m$ by ! eye1--by see+ ! space describ$ by ! heav5ly body 9 a :ole second1 & h5ce e/imat+ a small] "t1 accord+ to ! space :i* its description occupies4 ,b 9 ord] to make clocks s accurate z to ju/ify ?is degree ( precision1 _! con/ruction 0 improv$ by v>i\s p]sons 9 succession4 ,pic>d soon f\nd t ,huygh5s' clocks 7 affect$ 9 _! go+ by temp]ature1 = heat caus$ expansion ( ! metallic p5dulum4 ,?is cause ( error 0 rem$i$ by comb9+ diff]5t metals1 z iron & copp]1 :i* exp& 9 a diff]5t degree1 9 su* a way t _! effects comp5sate ea* o!r4 ,graham aft]w>ds us$ quicksilv] = ! same purpose4 ,! ,escapem5t too 7:i* connects ! =ce :i* impels ! clock ) ! p5dulum :i* regulates x71 & o!r p>ts ( ! ma*9]y1 _h ! mo/ ref9$ me*anical skill & +5uity ( ! be/ arti/s con/antly be/[$ ^u !n4 ,! a/ronom] ( ! pres5t day1 con/antly te/+ ! go+ ( su* a clock by ! motions ( ! fix$ />s1 has a scale ( "t z /able & z m9utely exact z ! scales on :i* he measures di/ance4 ,! con/ruction ( good ,wat*es1 t is1 portable or m>9e clocks1 0 important on ano!r acc\nt1 namely1 because !y might be us$ 9 det]m9+ ! longitude ( places4 ,h5ce ! improvem5t ( ?is little ma*9e became an object ( national int]e/1 & 0 includ$ 9 ! rew>d ( #bj1jjjl41 :i* we h already notic$ z (f]$ by ! ,engli% p>liam5t = ! discov]y ( ! longitude4 ,h>rison1#abbg orig9ally a c>p5t]1 turn$ 8 m9d to ?is subject ) success4 ,aft] ?irty ye>s ( labor1 9 :i* he 0 enc\rag$ by _m em95t p]sons1 he produc$1 9 #ageh1 a "t-keep]1 :i* 0 s5t on a voyage to ,jamaica = trial4 ,aft] #afa days1 ! error #dgd ( ! wat* 0 only "o m9ute five seconds1 & ! arti/ receiv$ f ! nation #ejjjl4 ,at a lat] p]iod1#abcg at ! age ( sev5ty-five ye>s1 aft] a life devot$ to ?is object1 hav+ /ill fur!r satisfi$ ! commission]s1 he receiv$1 9 #agfe1 #aj1jjjl41 at ! same "t t ,eul] & ! heirs ( ,may] receiv$ ea* #cjjjl4 = ! lun> tables :i* !y _h con/ruct$4 ,note #abbg3 ,mont4 iv4 #eed4 ,note #abcg3 ,mont4 iv4 #efj4 ,! two me?ods ( f9d+ ! longitude1 by ,*ronomet]s & by ,lun> ,obs]vations1 h solv$ ! problem = all practical purposes2 b ! latt] c\ld n h be5 employ$ at sea )\t ! aid ( t invaluable in/rum5t1 ! ,sextant1 9 :i* ! di/ance ( two objects is obs]v$1 by br++ "o to co9cide app>5tly ) ! reflect$ image ( ! o!r4 ,?is in/rum5t 0 inv5t$ by ,hadley1 9 #agca4 ,?\gh ! problem ( f9d+ ! longitude be1 9 fact1 "o ( geography r ?an a/ronomy1 x is an application ( a/ronomical sci5ce :i* has s mat]ially affect$ ! progress ( our k1 t x des]ves ! notice we h be/[$ ^u x4 #c4 ,telescopes4--,we h spok5 ( ! application ( ! telescope to a/ronomical measurem5ts1 b n ( ! improvem5t ( ! telescope itself4 ,if we endeavor to augm5t ! optical p[] ( ?is in/rum5t1 we run1 accord+ to ! pa? we take1 into v>i\s inconv5i5ces2--di/ortion1 confusion1 want ( light1 or color$ images4 ,di/ortion & confusion are produc$1 if we increase ! magnify+ p[]1 reta9+ ! l5g? & ! ap]ture ( ! object-glass4 ,if we dim9i% ! ap]ture we suff] f loss ( light4 ,:at rema9s !n is to increase ! focal l5g?4 ,?is 0 done to an extraord9>y ext5t1 9 telescopes con/ruct$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,huygh5s1 9 8 fir/ attempts1 made !m #bb feet long2#abdg aft]w>ds1 ,campani1 by ord] ( ,l\is ! ,f\rte5?1 made !m ( #hf1 #ajj1 & #acf feet4 ,huygh5s1 by new ex]tions1 made a telescope #baj feet long4 ,auz\t & ,h>tsoeck] are said to h gone mu* fur!r1 & to h succe$$ 9 mak+ an object-glass ( #fjj feet focus4 ,b ev5 su* telescopes z ^? ( ,campani are almo/ unmanageable3 9 t ( ,huygh5s1 ! object-glass 0 plac$ on a pole1 & ! obs]v] 0 plac$ at ! focus ) an eye-glass4 ,note #abdg3 ,bailly1 ii4 #bec4 ,! mo/ s]i\s objection to ! increase ( ! ap]ture ( object-glasses1 0 ! coloration ( ! image produc$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! unequal refrangibility ( diff]5tly color$ rays4 ,newton1 :o discov]$ ! pr9ciple ( ?is defect 9 l5ses1 _h ma9ta9$ t #dge ! evil 0 irrem$iable1 & t a comp\nd l5s c\ld no m refract )\t produc+ color1 ?an a s+le l5s c\ld4 ,eul] & ,kl+5/i]na d\bt$ ! exactness ( ,newton's proposition2 &1 9 #agee1 ,dollond disprov$ x by exp]im5t4 ,?is discov]y po9t$ out a me?od ( mak+ object-glasses :i* %\ld give no color2--:i* %\ld be a*romatic4 ,= ?is purpose ,dollond fabricat$ v>i\s k9ds ( glass 7fl9t & cr[n glass72 & ,clairaut & ,d',alemb]t calculat$ =mul4 ,dollond & 8 son#abeg succe$$ 9 con/ruct+ telescopes ( ?ree feet long 7) a triple object-glass7 :i* produc$ an effect z great z ^? ( =ty-five feet on ! anci5t pr9ciples4 ,at fir/ x 0 conceiv$ t ^! discov]ies op5$ ! way to a va/ ext5sion ( ! a/ronom]'s p[] ( vision2 b x 0 f\nd t ! mo/ mat]ial improvem5t 0 ! comp5di\s size ( ! new in/rum5ts2 =1 9 increas+ ! dim5sions1 ! optician 0 /opp$ by ! impossibility ( obta9+ l5ses ( fl9t-glass ( v l>ge dim5sions4 ,& ?is bran* ( art rema9$ long /ation>y2 b1 aft] a "t1 its epo* ( advance aga9 arriv$4 ,9 ! pres5t c5tury1 ,fraunh(]1 at ,muni*1 ) ! help ( ,gu9& & ! pecuni>y support ( ,utzs*neid]1 succe$$ 9 =m+ l5ses ( fl9t-glass ( a magnitude till !n unhe>d (4 ,a*romatic object-glasses1 ( a foot 9 diamet]1 & tw5ty feet focal l5g?1 are n[ no long] impossible2 al?\gh 9 su* attempts ! arti/ _c reckon on c]ta9 success4 ,note #abeg3 ,bailly1 iii4 #aah4 #b;d ,ed4 ,joseph ,fraunh(] 0 born ,m>* #f1 #aghg1 at ,/raub+ 9 ,bav>ia1 ! son ( a poor glazi]4 ,he 0 9 8 e>li] ye>s employ$ 9 8 fa!r's trade1 s t he 0 n able to att5d s*ool1 & rema9$ ignorant ( writ+ & ari?metic till 8 f\rte5? ye>4 ,at a lat] p]iod he 0 assi/$ by ,utzs*neid]1 & tri$ rapidly to recov] 8 lo/ gr\nd4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjf he ent]$ ! e/abli%m5t ( ,utzs*neid] z an optician4 ,9 ?is e/abli%m5t 7transf]r$ f ,b5$ictbeu]n to ,muni* 9 #ahai7 he soon came to be ! greate/ ,optician ( ,g]many4 ,8 excell5t telescopes & microscopes are kn[n ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,8 greate/ telescope1 t 9 ! ,obs]vatory at ,dorpat1 has an object-glass ( #i in*es diamet]1 & a focal l5g? ( #ac feet4 ,8 writt5 productions are to be f\nd 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,bav>ian ,academy1 9 ,gilb]t's ,annal5 d] ,physik1 & 9 ,s*uma*]'s ,a/ronomis*e ,na*ri*t54 ,he di$ ! #g? ( ,june1 #ahbf4 #dgf ,su* telescopes might be expect$ to add some?+ to our k ( ! heav5s1 if !y _h n be5 anticipat$ by reflectors ( an equal or great] scale4 ,james ,gregory _h inv5t$1 & ,newton _h m efficaci\sly introduc$1 reflect+ telescopes4 ,b ^! 7 n us$ ) any peculi> effect1 till ! eld] ,h]s*el made !m 8 especial /udy4 ,8 skill & p]sev]ance 9 gr9d+ specula1 & 9 contriv+ ! be/ app>atus = _! use1 7 rew>d$ by a numb] ( curi\s & /rik+ discov]ies1 among :i*1 z we h already relat$1 0 ! discov]y ( a new planet beyond ,saturn4 ,9 #aghi1 ,h]s*el surpass$ all 8 =m] attempts1 by br++ into action a reflect+ telescope ( =ty feet l5g?1 ) a speculum ( f\r feet 9 diamet]4 ,! fir/ application ( ?is magnific5t in/rum5t %[$ a new satellite 7! six?7 ( ,saturn4 ,he & 8 son h1 ) reflectors ( tw5ty feet1 made a complete survey ( ! heav5s1 s f> z !y are visible 9 ?is c\ntry2 & ! latt] is n[ 9 a di/ant region complet+ ?is survey1 by add+ to x ! o!r hemisph]e4 ,9 speak+ ( ! improvem5ts ( telescopes we ought to notice1 t !y h be5 pursu$ 9 ! eye-glasses z well z 9 ! object-glasses4 ,in/ead ( ! s+le l5s1 ,huygh5s sub/itut$ an eye-piece ( two l5ses1 :i*1 ?\gh introduc$ = ano!r purpose1 atta9$ ! object ( de/roy+ color4#abfg ,ramsd5's eye-piece is "o fit to be us$ ) a micromet]1 & o!rs ( m complex con/ruction h be5 us$ = v>i\s purposes4 ,note #abfg3 ,codd+ton's ,optics1 ii4 #ba4 ,sect4 #b4--,obs]vatories4 ,,a/ronomy1 :i* is ?us b5efit$ by ! erection ( l>ge & /able in/rum5ts1 requires also ! e/abli%m5t ( p]man5t ,obs]vatories1 suppli$ ) funds = _! support1 & = t ( ! obs]v]s4 ,su* obs]vatories h exi/$ at all p]iods ( ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce2 b f ! comm5cem5t ( ! p]iod :i* we are n[ review+1 !y multipli$ to su* an ext5t t we _c ev5 enum]ate !m4 ,yet we mu/ und\bt$ly look ^u su* e/abli%m5ts1 & ! labors ( :i* !y h be5 ! sc5e1 z important & ess5tial p>ts ( ! hi/ory ( ! progress ( a/ronomy4 ,"s ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ( ! obs]vatories ( mod]n times we may m5tion4 ,! fir/ ( ^! 7 t ( ,ty*o ,brahe #dgg at ,uraniburg1 & t ( ! ,l&grave ( ,hesse ,cassel1 at ,cassel1 :]e ,ro?man & ,byrgius obs]v$4 ,b by f> ! mo/ important obs]vations1 at lea/ s9ce ^? ( ,ty*o1 :i* 7 ! basis ( ! discov]ies ( ,kepl] & ,newton1 h be5 made at ,p>is & ,gre5wi*4 ,! ,obs]vatory ( ,p>is 0 built 9 #affg4 ,x 0 !re t ! fir/ ,cass9i made _m ( 8 discov]ies2 ?ree ( 8 desc5dants h s9ce labor$ 9 ! same place1 & two o!rs ( 8 family1 ! ,m>aldis2#abgg besides _m o!r em95t a/ronom]s1 z ,pic>d1 ,la ,hire1 ,lefvre1 ,f\*y1 ,leg5til1 ,*appe1 ,m*a91 ,b\v>d4 ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory 0 built a few ye>s lat] 7#afge72 & ev] s9ce its erection1 ! obs]vations !re made h be5 ! f\ndation ( ! greate/ improvem5ts :i* a/ronomy1 = ! "t1 receiv$4 ,flam/e$1 ,halley1 ,bradley1 ,bliss1 ,maskelyne1 ,pond1 h occupi$ ! place 9 succession3 on ! retirem5t ( ! la/-nam$ a/ronom] 9 #ahce1 ,pr(essor ,airy 0 remov$ ?i!r f ! ,cambridge ,obs]vatory4 ,9 e /ate1 & 9 almo/ e pr9cipality 9 ,europe1 ,obs]vatories h be5 e/abli%$2 b ^! h (t5 fall5 spe$ily into inaction1 or h contribut$ little to ! progress ( a/ronomy1 because _! obs]vations h n be5 publi%$4 ,f ! same causes1 ! num]\s private obs]vatories :i* exi/ ?r\gh\t ,europe h add$ little to our k1 except :]e ! att5tion ( ! a/ronom] has be5 direct$ to "s def9ite po9ts2 z1 = in/ance1 ! magnific5t labors ( ! ,h]s*els1 or ! skilful obs]vations made by ,mr4 ,pond ) ! ,we/bury circle1 :i* fir/ po9t$ out ! error ( graduation ( ! ,gre5wi* quadrants4 ,! ,obs]vations1 n[ regul>ly publi%$1#abhg are ^? ( ,gre5wi*1 begun by ,maskelyne1 & cont9u$ qu>t]ly by ,mr4 ,pond2 ^? ( ,knigsb]g1 publi%$ by ,bessel s9ce #ahad2 ( ,vi5na1 by ,littr[ s9ce #ahbj2 ( ,spei]1 by ,s*w]d s9ce #ahbf2 ^? ( ,cambridge1 comm5c$ by ,airy 9 #ahbh2 ( ,armagh1 by ,rob9son 9 #ahbi4 ,besides ^!1 a numb] ( useful obs]vations h be5 publi%$ 9 j\rnals & occasional =ms2 z1 = in/ance1 ^? ( ,za*1 made by ,seeb]g1 ne> ,go?a1 s9ce #aghh2 & o!rs h be5 employ$ 9 =m+ catalogues1 ( :i* we %all speak %ortly4 ,note #abgg3 ,mont4 iv4 #cdf4 ,note #abhg3 ,airy1 ,rep4 p4 #abh4 #b;d ,ed4 ,i h left ! /atem5t ( publi%$ ,obs]vations 9 ! text z x /ood orig9ally4 ,i believe t at pres5t 7#ahdg7 ! twelve places conta9$ 9 ! foll[+ li/ publi% _! ,obs]vations q regul>ly1 or ne>ly s2--,gre5wi*1 ,ox=d1 ,cambridge1 ,vi5na1 #dgh ,b]l91 ,dorpat1 ,muni*1 ,g5eva1 ,p>is1 ,knigsb]g1 ,madras1 ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,littr[1 9 8 translation1 adds to ! publications notic$ 9 ! text z conta9+ a/ronomical ,obs]vations1 ,za*'s ,monatli*e ,correspond5z1 ,l9d5au & ,bohn5b]g]'s ,zeits*rift fr ,a/ronomie1 ,bode's ,a/ronomis*es ,jahrbu*1 ,s*uma*]'s ,a/ronomis*e ,na*ri*t54 ,nor has ! e/abli%m5t ( obs]vatories be5 conf9$ to ,europe4 ,9 #aghf1 ,m4 de ,beau*amp1 at ! exp5se ( ,l\is ! ,sixte5?1 erect$ an obs]vatory at ,bagdad1 built to re/ore ! ,*aldean & ,arabian obs]vations1 z ! inscription /at$2 b1 probably1 ! re/oration once effect$1 ! ma9 int5tion _h be5 fulfill$1 & little p]sev]ance 9 obs]v+ 0 ?\ght necess>y4 ,9 #ahbh1 ! ,briti% gov]nm5t complet$ ! build+ ( an obs]vatory at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 :i* ,lacaille _h already made an a/ronomical /ation by 8 obs]vations !re at an e>li] p]iod 7#agej72 & an obs]vatory =m$ 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales by ,sir ,t4 ,m4 ,brisbane 9 #ahbb1 & pres5t$ by him to ! gov]nm5t1 is also 9 activity4 ,! ,ea/ ,india ,company has f\nd$ obs]vatories at ,madras1 ,bombay1 & ,/4 ,hel5a2 & obs]vations made at ! =m] ( ^! places1 & at ,/4 ,hel5a1 h be5 publi%$4 ,! be>+ ( ! "w done at su* obs]vatories ^u ! pa/ progress ( a/ronomy1 has already be5 se5 9 ! prec$+ n>rative4 ,_! be>+ ^u ! pres5t condition ( ! sci5ce w be ! subject ( a few rem>ks h]eaft]4 ,sect4 #c4--,sci5tific ,societies4 ,,! influ5ce ( ,sci5tific ,societies1 or ,academical ,bodies1 has also be5 v p[]ful 9 ! subject be=e u4 ,9 all bran*es ( k1 ! use ( su* associations ( /udi\s & inquir+ m5 is great2 ! cle>ness & coh]5ce ( a speculator's ideas1 & _! agreem5t ) facts 7! two ma9 conditions ( sci5tific tru?71 are sev]ally b b5eficially te/$ by collision ) o!r m9ds4 ,9 a/ronomy1 moreov]1 ! va/ ext5t ( ! subject makes requisite ! division ( labor & ! support ( sympa?y4 ,! ,royal ,societies ( ,london & ( ,p>is 7 f\nd$ ne>ly at ! same "t z ! metropolitan ,obs]vatories ( ! two c\ntries4 ,we h se5 :at con/ellations ( philosoph]s1 & :at activity ( rese>*1 exi/$ at ^? p]iods2 ^! philosoph]s appe> 9 ! li/s1 _! discov]ies #dgi 9 ! publications1 ( ! above-m5tion$ em95t ,societies4 ,z ! progress ( physical sci5ce1 & pr9cipally ( a/ronomy1 attract$ m & m admiration1 ,academies 7 creat$ 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,t ( ,b]l9 0 f\nd$ by ,leibnitz 9 #agaj2 t ( ,/ ,pet]sburg 0 e/abli%$ by ,pet] ! ,great 9 #agbe2 & bo? ^! h produc$ highly valuable ,memoirs4 ,9 m mod]n times ^! associations h multipli$ almo/ beyond ! p[] ( e/imation4 ,!y h be5 =m$ accord+ to divisions1 bo? ( locality & ( subject1 con=mable to ! pres5t ext5t ( sci5ce1 & ! va/ population ( its cultivators4 ,x w\ld be useless to attempt to give a view ei!r ( _! numb] or ( ! enorm\s mass ( sci5tific lit]ature :i* _! ,transactions pres5t4 ,b we may notice1 z especially connect$ ) our pres5t subject1 ! ,a/ronomical ,society ( ,london1 f\nd$ 9 #ahbj1 :i* gave a /rong impulse to ! pursuit ( ! sci5ce 9 ,engl&4 ,sect4 #d4--,patrons ( ,a/ronomy4 ,! advantages :i* lett]s & philosophy d]ive f ! patronage ( ! great h sometimes be5 que/ion$2 t love ( k1 x has be5 ?\ght1 _c be g5u9e :i* requires su* /imulation1 nor ^? speculations free & true :i* are ?us =c$ into be+4 ,9 ! sci5ces ( obs]vation & calculation1 h[ev]1 9 :i* disput$ que/ions c be exp]im5tally decid$1 & 9 :i* op9ions are n di/urb$ by m5's practical pr9ciples & int]e/s1 !re is no?+ necess>ily op]at+ to poison or neutralize ! res\rces :i* weal? & p[] supply to ! inve/igation ( tru?4 ,a/ronomy has1 9 all ages1 fl\ri%$ "u ! favor ( ! ri* & p[]ful2 9 ! p]iod ( :i* we speak1 ?is 0 em95tly ! case4 ,l\is ! ,f\rte5? gave to ! a/ronomy ( ,france a di/9ction :i*1 )\t him1 x c\ld n h atta9$4 ,no /ep p]haps t5d$ m to ?is ?an 8 br++ ! celebrat$ ,dom9ic ,cass9i to ,p>is4 ,?is ,italian a/ronom] 7= he 0 born at ,p]maldo1 9 ! c\nty ( ,nice1 & 0 pr(essor at ,bologna71 0 already 9 possession ( a brilliant reputation1 :5 ! ,fr5* ambassador1 9 ! "n ( 8 sov]eign1 appli$ to ,pope ,clem5t ! ,n9?1 & to ! s5ate ( ,bologna1 t he %\ld be all[$ to remove to ,p>is4 ,! reque/ 0 grant$ only s f> z an abs5ce ( six ye>s2 b at ! end ( t "t1 ! b5efits & honors :i* #dhj ! k+ _h conf]r$ ^u him1 fix$ him 9 ,france4 ,! impulse :i* 8 arrival 79 #affi7 & 8 resid5ce gave to a/ronomy1 %[$ ! wisdom ( ! measure4 ,9 ! same _s1 ! ,fr5* gov]nm5t drew to ,p>is ,rm] f ,d5m>k1 ,huygh5s f ,holl&1 & gave a p5sion to ,hevelius1 & a l>ge sum :5 8 obs]vatory at ,dantzic _h be5 de/roy$ by fire 9 #afgi4 ,:5 ! sov]eigns ( ,prussia & ,russia 7 ex]t+ !mselves to enc\rage ! sci5ces 9 _! c\ntries1 !y foll[$ ! same c\rse :i* _h be5 s successful 9 ,france4 ,?us1 z we h said1 ! ,cz> ,pet] took ,delisle to ,pet]sburg 9 #agbe2 ! celebrat$ ,fr$]ick ! ,great drew to ,b]l91 ,voltaire & ,maup]tuis1 ,eul] & ,lagrange2 & ! ,empress ,ca?>9e obta9$ 9 ! same way ,eul]1 two ( ! ,b]n\lli's1 & o!r ma!maticians4 ,9 none ( ^! in/ances1 h[ev]1 did x happ5 t ! g5]\s plant did /ill its /ock r5ew1 z we h se5 0 ! case at ,p>is1 ) ! ,cass9is1 & _! k9sm5 ! ,m>aldis4 #b;d ,ed4 ,i may notice among in/ances ( ! patronage ( ,a/ronomy1 ! rew>d at pres5t (f]$ by ! ,k+ ( ,d5m>k = ! discov]y ( a ,comet4 ,x is n necess>y to m5tion "h ! m rec5t cases 9 :i* sov]eigns or /atesm5 h attempt$ to patronize individual a/ronom]s4 ,sect4 #e4--;,a/ronomical ,exp$itions4 ,,besides ! p5sions ?us be/[$ ^u resid5t ma!maticians & a/ronom]s1 ! gov]nm5ts ( ,europe h wisely & usefully employ$ consid]able sums ^u exp$itions & travels und]tak5 by m5 ( sci5ce = "s appropriate object4 ,?us ,pic>d1 9 #afga1 0 s5t to ,uraniburg1 ! sc5e ( ,ty*o's obs]vations1 to det]m9e its latitude & its longitude4 ,he f\nd t ! ,city ( ! ,skies _h utt]ly disappe>$ f ! e>?2 & ev5 its f\ndations 7 retrac$ ) difficulty4 ,) ! same object1 t ( accurately connect+ ! labors ( ! places :i* _h be5 at diff]5t p]iods ! metropolis ( a/ronomy1 ,*azelles 0 s5t1 9 #afic1 to ,alex&ria4 ,we h already m5tion$ ,ri*]'s a/ronomical exp$ition to ,cay5ne 9 #afgb4 ,v>9 & ,de%ayes#abig 7 s5t a few ye>s lat] into ! same regions = simil> purposes4 ,halley's exp$ition to ,/4 #dha ,hel5a 9 #afgg1 ) ! view ( obs]v+ ! s\!rn />s1 0 at 8 own exp5se2 b at a lat] p]iod 79 #afih71 he 0 appo9t$ to ! comm& ( a small vessel by ,k+ ,william ! ,?ird1 9 ord] t he might make 8 magnetical obs]vations 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,lacaille 0 ma9ta9$ by ! ,fr5* gov]nm5t f\r ye>s at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope 7#agej-d71 = ! purpose ( obs]v+ ! />s ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,! two transits ( ,v5us 9 #agfa & #agfi1 occasion$ exp$itions to be s5t to ,kamts*atka & ,tobolsk by ! ,russians2 to ! ,isle ( ,france1 & to ,corom&el1 by ! ,fr5*2#acjg to ! isles ( ,/4 ,hel5a & ,otaheite by ! ,engli%2 to ,lapl& & to ,dron!im1 by ! ,sw$es & ,danes4 ,i %all n "h ref] to ! measures ( degrees execut$ by v>i\s nations1 /ill less ! innum]able surveys by l& & sea2 b ,i may j notice ! successive ,engli% exp$itions ( ,capta9s ,basil ,hall1 ,sab9e1 & ,fo/]1 = ! purpose ( det]m9+ ! l5g? ( ! seconds' p5dulum 9 diff]5t latitudes2 & ! voyages ( ,m4 ,biot & o!rs1 s5t by ! ,fr5* gov]nm5t = ! same purpose4 ,mu* has be5 done 9 ?is way1 b n m ?an ! progress ( a/ronomy absolutely requir$2 & only a small portion ( t :i* ! completion ( ! subject calls =4 ,note #abig3 ,bailly1 ii4 #cgd4 ,note #acjg3 ,bailly1 iii4 #ajg4 ,sect4 #f4--,pres5t ,/ate ( ,a/ronomy4 ,,a/ronomy1 9 its pres5t condition1 is n only mu* ! mo/ advanc$ ( ! sci5ces1 b is also 9 f> m favorable circum/ances ?an any o!r sci5ce = mak+ any future advance1 z soon z ?is is possible4 ,! g5]al me?ods & conditions by :i* su* an advantage is to be obta9$ = ! v>i\s sci5ces1 we %all endeavor h]eaft] to ?r[ "s light ^u2 b 9 ! mean "t1 we may notice "h "s ( ! circum/ances 9 :i* ?is peculi> felicity ( ! pres5t /ate ( a/ronomy may be trac$4 ,! sci5ce is cultivat$ by a numb] ( vot>ies1 ) an assiduity & labor1 & ) an exp5diture ( private & public res\rces1 to :i* no o!r subject approa*es2 & ! mode ( its cultivation 9 all public & mo/ private obs]vatories1 has ?is "*--t x =ms1 at ! same "t1 a con/ant process ( v]ification ( exi/+ discov]ies1 & a /rict se>* = any new discov]able laws4 ,! obs]vations made are imm$iately ref]r$ to ! be/ tables1 & #dhb correct$ by ! be/ =mul :i* are kn[n2 & if ! result ( su* a r$uction leaves any ?+ unacc\nt$ =1 ! a/ronom] is =?) curi\s & anxi\s to trace ?is deviation f ! expect$ numb]s to its rule & its orig92 & till ! fir/1 at lea/1 ( ^! ?+s is p]=m$1 he is dissatisfi$ & unquiet4 ,! ref]5ce ( obs]vations to ! /ate ( ! heav5s z kn[n by previ\s rese>*es1 implies a great am\nt ( calculation4 ,! exact places ( ! />s at "s /&>d p]iod are record$ 9 ,catalogues2 _! movem5ts1 accord+ to ! laws hi!rto detect$1 are arrang$ 9 ,tables2 & if ^! tables are appli$ to pr$ict ! numb]s :i* obs]vation on ea* day ought to give1 !y =m ,ephem]ides4 ,?us ! catalogues ( fix$ />s ( ,flam/e$1 ( ,piazzi1 ( ,maskelyne1 ( ! ,a/ronomical ,society1 are ! basis ( all obs]vation4 ,to ^! are appli$ ! ,corrections = ,refraction ( ,bradley or ,bessel1 & ^? = ,ab]ration1 = ,nutation1 = ,precession1 ( ! be/ mod]n a/ronom]s4 ,! obs]vations s correct$ enable ! obs]v] to satisfy himself ( ! delicacy & fidelity ( 8 measures ( "t & space2 8 ,clocks & 8 ,arcs4 ,b ?is be+ done1 diff]5t />s s obs]v$ c be comp>$ ) ea* o!r1 & ! a/ronom] c !n endeavor fur!r to correct 8 fundam5tal ,elem5ts2--8 ,catalogue1 or 8 ,tables ( ,corrections4 ,9 ^! ,tables1 ?\gh previ\s discov]y has asc]ta9$ ! law1 yet ! exact quantity1 ! con/ant or coeffici5t ( ! =mula1 c be exactly fix$ only by num]\s obs]vations & comp>isons4 ,?is is a labor :i* is /ill go+ on1 & 9 :i* !re are diff]5ces ( op9ion on almo/ e po9t2 b ! am\nt ( ^! diff]5ces is ! /ronge/ evid5ce ( ! c]ta9ty & exactness ( ^? doctr9es 9 :i* all agree4 ,?us ,l9d5au makes ! coeffici5t ( ,nutation r less ?an n9e seconds1 :i* o!r a/ronom]s give z ab\t n9e seconds & ?ree-t5?s4 ,! ,tables ( ,refraction are /ill ! subject ( mu* discussion1 & ( _m attempts at improvem5t4 ,& aft] or amid ^! discussions1 arise que/ions :e!r !re be n o!r corrections ( :i* ! law has n yet be5 assign$4 ,! mo/ rem>kable example ( su* que/ions is ! controv]sy conc]n+ ! exi/5ce ( an ,annual ,p>allax ( ! fix$ />s1 :i* ,br9kley ass]t$1 & :i* ,pond d5i$4 ,su* a dispute betwe5 two ( ! be/ mod]n obs]v]s1 only proves t ! quantity 9 "q1 if x really exi/1 is ( ! same ord] z ! hi!rto unsurm\nt$ errors ( in/rum5ts & corrections4 #b;d ,ed4 ,! belief 9 an appreciable p>allax ( "s ( ! fix$ #dhc />s appe>s to ga9 gr\nd among a/ronom]s4 ,! p>allax ( #fa ,cygni1 z det]m9$ by ,bessel1 is #jcd2 ab\t "o-?ird ( a second1 or #aajjjj ( a degree4 ,t ( ,c5tauri1 z det]m9$ by ,macle>1 is #ji1 or #adjjj ( a degree4 ,b besides ! fix$ />s & _! corrections1 ! a/ronom] has ! motions ( ! planets = 8 field ( action4 ,! e/abli%$ !ories h giv5 u tables ( ^!1 f :i* _! daily places are calculat$ & giv5 9 our ,ephem]ides1 z ! ,b]l9] ,jahrbu* ( ,encke1 or ! ,nautical ,almanac1 publi%$ by ! gov]nm5t ( ?is c\ntry1 ! ,connaissance des ,tems :i* appe>s at ,p>is1 or ! ,effem]idi di ,milano4 ,! comp>ison ( ! obs]v$ ) ! tabul> place1 gives u ! means ( correct+ ! coeffici5ts ( ! tables2 & ?us ( obta9+ great] exactness 9 ! con/ants ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,b ^! con/ants dep5d ^u ! mass & =m ( ! bodies ( :i* ! sy/em is compos$2 & 9 ?is prov9ce1 z well z 9 sid]eal a/ronomy1 diff]5t det]m9ations1 obta9$ by diff]5t pa?s1 may be comp>$2 & d\bts may be rais$ & may be solv$4 ,9 ?is way1 ! p]turbations produc$ by ,jupit] on diff]5t planets gave rise to a d\bt :e!r 8 attraction be really proportional to 8 mass1 z ! law ( univ]sal gravitation ass]ts4 ,! d\bt has be5 solv$ by ,nicolai & ,encke 9 ,g]many1 & by ,airy 9 ,engl&4 ,! mass ( ,jupit]1 z %[n by ! p]turbations ( ,juno1 ( ,ve/a1 & ( ,encke's ,comet1 & by ! motion ( 8 out]mo/ ,satellite1 is f\nd to agree1 ?\gh diff]5t f ! mass previ\sly receiv$ on ! au?ority ( ,laplace4 ,?us also ,burckh>dt1 ,littr[1 & ,airy1 h correct$ ! elem5ts ( ! ,sol> ,tables4 ,9 o!r cases1 ! a/ronom] f9ds t no *ange ( ! coeffici5ts w br+ ! ,tables & ! obs]vations to a co9cid5ce2--t a new t]m 9 ! =mula is want+4 ,he obta9s1 z f> z he c1 ! law ( ?is unkn[n t]m2 if possible1 he traces x to "s kn[n or probable cause4 ,?us ,mr4 ,airy1 9 8 exam9ation ( ! ,sol> ,tables1 n only f\nd t a dim9ution ( ! receiv$ mass ( ,m>s 0 necess>y1 b p]ceiv$ discordances :i* l$ him to suspect ! exi/5ce ( a new inequality4 ,su* an inequality 0 at l5g? f\nd to result !oretically f ! attraction ( ,v5us4 ,encke1 9 8 exam9ation ( 8 comet1 f\nd a dim9ution ( ! p]iodic "t 9 ! successive revolutions2 f :i* he inf]r$ ! exi/5ce ( a resi/+ m$ium4 ,uranus /ill deviates f 8 tabul> place1 & ! cause rema9s yet to be discov]$4 7,b see ! ,additions to ?is volume47 #dhd ,?us x is impossible t an ass]tion1 false to any am\nt :i* ! exi/+ /ate ( obs]vation c easily detect1 %\ld h any abid+ preval5ce 9 a/ronomy4 ,su* errors may long keep _! gr\nd 9 any sci5ce :i* is conta9$ ma9ly 9 didactic works1 & /udi$ 9 ! closet1 b n act$ ^u else:]e2--:i* is reason$ ^u mu*1 b br\ght to ! te/ ( exp]im5t r>ely or nev]4 ,"h1 on ! contr>y1 an error1 if x arise1 makes its way into ! ,tables1 into ! ,ephem]is1 into ! obs]v]'s nightly ,li/1 or 8 %eet ( ,r$uctions2 ! evid5ce ( s5se flies 9 its face 9 a ?\s& obs]vatories2 ! discrepancy is trac$ to its s\rce1 & soon disappe>s =ev]4 ,9 ?is favor$ bran* ( k1 ! mo/ recondite & delicate discov]ies c no m suff] d\bt or contradiction1 ?an ! mo/ palpable facts ( s5se :i* ! face ( nature (f]s to our notice4 ,! la/ great discov]y 9 a/ronomy--! motion ( ! />s aris+ f ,ab]ration--is z obvi\s to ! va/ population ( a/ronomical obs]v]s 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 z ! motion ( ! />s ab\t ! pole is to ! casual night w&]]4 ,& ?is immunity f ! dang] ( any l>ge error 9 ! receiv$ doctr9es1 is a firm plat=m on :i* ! a/ronom] c /& & ex]t himself to rea* p]petually fur!r & fur!r into ! region ( ! unkn[n4 ,! same scrupul\s c>e & dilig5ce 9 record+ all t has hi!rto be5 asc]ta9$1 has be5 ext5d$ to ^? dep>tm5ts ( a/ronomy 9 :i* we h z yet no g5]al pr9ciples :i* s]ve to b9d toge!r our acquir$ treasures4 ,^! records may be consid]$ z con/itut+ a ,descriptive ,a/ronomy2 su* are1 = in/ance1 ,catalogues ( ,/>s1 & ,maps ( ! ,heav5s1 ,maps ( ! ,moon1 repres5tations ( ! appe>ance ( ! ,sun & ,planets z se5 ?r\gh p[]ful telescopes1 pictures ( ,nebul1 ( ,comets1 & ! l4 ,?us1 besides ! ,catalogue ( ,fundam5tal ,/>s :i* may be consid]$ z /&>d po9ts ( ref]5ce = all obs]vations ( ! ,sun1 ,moon1 & ,planets1 !re exi/ _m l>ge catalogues ( small] />s4 ,flam/e$'s ,hi/oria ,cele/is1 :i* mu* surpass$ any previ\s catalogue1 conta9$ above #cjjj />s4 ,b 9 #ahja1 ! ,fr5* ,hi/oire ,cle/e appe>$1 compris+ obs]vations ( #ej1jjj />s4 ,catalogues or *>ts ( o!r special portions ( ! sky h be5 publi%$ m rec5tly2 & 9 #ahbe1 ! ,b]l9 ,academy propos$ to ! a/ronom]s ( ,europe to c>ry on ?is "w by portion+ out ! heav5s among !m4 #b;d ,ed4 ,be=e ,flam/e$1 ! be/ ,catalogue ( ! ,/>s 0 #dhe ,ty*o ,brahe's1 conta9+ ! places ( ab\t #ajjj />s1 det]m9$ v r\ghly ) ! nak$ eye4 ,on ! occasion ( a project ( f9d+ ! longitude1 :i* 0 (f]$ to ,*>les ,,ii41 9 #afgd1 ,flam/e$ repres5t$ t ! me?od 0 q useless1 9 consequ5ce1 among o!r ?+s1 ( ! inaccuracy ( ,ty*o's places ( ! />s4 ,flam/e$'s lett]s be+ %[n ,k+ ,*>les1 he 0 />tl$ at ! ass]tion ( ! fix$ />s' places be+ false 9 ! ,catalogue1 & said1 ) "s vehem5ce1 ,he mu/ h !m anew obs]v$1 exam9$1 & correct$ = ! use ( 8 seam54 ,?is 0 ! imm$iate occasion ( build+ ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory1 & plac+ ,flam/e$ !re z an obs]v]4 ,flam/e$'s ,hi/oria ,cele/is conta9$ above #cjjj />s1 obs]v$ ) telescopic sights4 ,x has rec5tly be5 republi%$ ) important improvem5ts by ,mr4 ,baily4 ,see ,baily's ,flam/e$1 p4 #ch4 ,! ,fr5* ,hi/oire ,cle/e 0 publi%$ 9 #ahja by ,lal&e1 conta9+ #ej1jjj />s1 simply z obs]v$ by himself & o!r ,fr5* a/ronom]s4 ,! r$uction ( ! obs]vations conta9$ 9 ?is ,catalogue to ! mean places at ! beg9n+ ( ! ye> #ahjj may be effect$ by means ( ,tables publi%$ by ,s*uma*] = t purpose 9 #ahbe4 ,9 #ahjg1 ,piazzi's ,catalogue ( #fgdh />s1 f\nd$ on ,maskelyne's ,catalogue ( #agjj1 0 publi%$2 aft]w>ds ext5d$ to #gfdf />s 9 #ahad4 ,?is is consid]$ z ! greate/ "w und]tak5 by any mod]n a/ronom]2 ! obs]vations be+ well made1 r$uc$1 & comp>$ ) ^? ( =m] a/ronom]s4 ,piazzi's ,catalogue is ! /&>d & accurate ,catalogue1 z ! ,hi/oire ,cle/e is ! /&>d approximate ,catalogue = small />s4 ,b ! new planets 7 discov]$ mo/ly by a comp>ison ( ! heav5s ) ,bode's 7,b]l97 ,catalogue4 ,i may m5tion o!r ,catalogues ( ,/>s :i* h rec5tly be5 publi%$4 ,pond's ,catalogue conta9s #aaab ,nor!rn />s2 ,johnson's1 #fjf2 ,wrottesley's1 #acah 79 ,"r ,asc5sion only72 ,airy's ,fir/ ,cambridge ,catalogue1 #gbf2 8 ,gre5wi* ,catalogue1 #adci4 ,pe>son's has #ebj zodiacal />s2 ,groombridge's1 #dbdc circumpol> />s z f> z #ej degrees ( ,nor? ,pol> di/ance2 ,sant9i's1 a zone #ah degrees ,nor? ( ! equator4 ,besides ^!1 ,mr4 ,taylor has publi%$1 by ord] ( ! ,madras gov]nm5t1 a ,catalogue ( #aa1jjj />s obs]v$ by him at ,madras2 & ,rumk]1 :o obs]v$ 9 ! ,obs]vatory e/abli%$ by ,sir ,?omas ,brisbane at ,p>amatta 79 ,au/ralia71 has comm5c$ a ,catalogue :i* is to conta9 #ab1jjj4 ,mr4 ,baily #dhf publi%$ two ,/&>d ,catalogues2 t ( ! ,royal ,a/ronomical ,society1 conta9+ #bhha />s2 & t ( ! ,briti% ,association1 conta9+ #hcgg />s4 ,i omit o!r ,catalogues1 z ^? ( ,argel&]1 c41 & ,catalogues ( ,s\!rn ,/>s4 ,( ! ,b]l9 ,maps1 f\rte5 h\rs 9 ,"r ,asc5sion h be5 publi%$2 & _! value may be judg$ ( by ?is circum/ance1 t x 0 9 a great measure by comp>+ ! heav5s ) ^! ,maps t ! new planet ,a/ra 0 discov]$4 ,! ,zone obs]vations made at ,knigsb]g1 by ! late illu/ri\s a/ronom] ,bessel1 des]ve to be m5tion$1 z embrac+ a va/ numb] ( />s4 ,! common mode ( designat+ ! ,/>s is f\nd$ ^u ! anci5t con/ellations z giv5 by ,ptolemy2 to :i* ,bay]1 ( ,augsburg1 9 8 ,uranometria1 add$ ! artifice ( designat+ ! brighte/ />s 9 ea* con/ellation by ! ,greek lett]s1 1 1 1 c41 appli$ 9 ord] ( brightness1 & :5 ^! 7 exhau/$1 ! ,lat9 lett]s4 ,flam/e$ us$ numb]s4 ,z ! numb] ( obs]v$ />s increas$1 v>i\s me?ods 7 employ$ = designat+ !m2 & ! confusion :i* has be5 ?us introduc$1 bo? ) reg>d to ! b\nd>ies ( ! con/ellations & ! nom5clature ( ! />s 9 ea*1 has be5 mu* compla9$ ( lately4 ,"s attempts h be5 made to rem$y ?is v>iety & disord]4 ,mr4 ,argel&] has rec5tly record$ />s1 accord+ to _! magnitudes z se5 by ! nak$ eye1 9 a ,neue ,uranometrie4 ,among repres5tations ( ! ,moon ,i may m5tion ,hevelius's ,sel5ographia1 a "w ( =m] times1 & ,be] & ,madl]'s ,map ( ! ,moon1 rec5tly publi%$4 ,i h already said some?+ ( ! obs]vations ( ! two ,h]s*els on ,d\ble ,/>s1 :i* h l$ to a k ( ! law ( ! revolution ( su* sy/ems4 ,b besides ^!1 ! same illu/ri\s a/ronom]s h accumulat$ enorm\s treasures ( obs]vations ( ,nebul2 ! mat]ials1 x may be1 h]eaft]1 ( "s va/ new g5]alization ) respect to ! hi/ory ( ! sy/em ( ! univ]se4 #b;d ,ed4 ,a few measures ( ,d\ble ,/>s are to be f\nd 9 previ\s a/ronomical records4 ,b ! epo* ( ! creation ( ?is "p ( ! sci5ce ( a/ronomy mu/ be plac$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury1 :5 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el 79 #ahjb7 publi%$ 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 a ,catalogue ( #ejj new ,nebul ( v>i\s classes1 & 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahjc1 a pap] ,on ! *anges 9 ! relative situation ( ! ,d\ble ,/>s 9 #be ye>s4 ,9 succe$+ pap]s he pursu$ ! subject4 ,9 "o 9 #ahad he notic$ ! break+ up ( ! #dhg ,milky ,way 9 diff]5t places1 app>5tly f "s pr9ciple ( ,attraction2 & 9 ?is1 & 9 "o 9 #ahag1 he publi%$ ^? rem>kable views on ! di/ribution ( ! />s 9 our own clu/] z =m+ a l>ge /ratum1 & on ! connection ( />s & nebul 7! />s appe>+ sometimes to be accompani$ by nebul1 sometimes to h absorb$ a "p ( ! nebula1 & sometimes to h be5 =m$ f nebul71 :i* h be5 accept$ & prop\nd$ by o!rs z ! ,nebul> ,!ory4 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el's la/ pap] 0 a ,catalogue ( #ade new ,d\ble ,/>s communicat$ to ! ,a/ronomical ,society 9 #ahbb4 ,9 #ahbg ,m4 ,/ruve1 ( ,dorpat 79 ,russia71 publi%$ 8 ,catalogus ,novus1 conta9+ ! places ( #caab d\ble />s4 ,:ile ?is 0 go+ on1 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el & ,sir ,james ,s\? publi%$ 79 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbd7 accurate measures ( #chj ,d\ble & ,triple ,/>s1 to :i* ,sir ,j4 ,s\? aft]w>ds add$ #deh4 ,mr4 ,dunlop publi%$ measures ( #bec ,s\!rn ,d\ble ,/>s4 ,o!r ,obs]vations h be5 publi%$ by ,capt4 ,smy?1 ,mr4 ,dawes1 c4 ,! great "w ( ,/ruve1 ,m5sur ,micrometric1 c41 conta9s #cacd su* objects1 includ+ mo/ ( ,sir ,w4 ,h]s*el's ,d\ble ,/>s4 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el 9 #ahbf1 #g1 & #h pres5t$ to ! ,a/ronomical ,society ab\t #ajjj measures ( ,d\ble ,/>s2 & 9 #ahcj1 good measures ( #abcf1 made ) 8 #bj-;feet reflector4 ,8 pap] 9 vol4 v4 ( ! ,a/4 ,soc4 ,mem41 besides measures ( #cfd su* />s1 exhibits all ! mo/ /rik+ results1 z to ! motion ( ,d\ble ,/>s1 :i* h yet be5 obta9$4 ,9 #ahce he c>ri$ 8 #bj-;feet reflector to ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope = ! purpose ( complet+ ! survey ( ,d\ble ,/>s & ,nebul 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e ) ! same in/rum5ts :i* _h explor$ ! nor!rn skies4 ,he return$ f ! ,cape 9 #ahch1 & is n[ 7#ahdf7 ab\t to give ! _w ! results ( 8 labors4 ,besides ! />s j m5tion$1 8 "w w conta9 f #aejj to #bjjj additional d\ble />s2 mak+ a gross numb] ( above #hjjj2 9 :i* ( c\rse are includ$ a numb] ( objects ( no great sci5tific int]e/1 b 9 :i* also are conta9$ ! mat]ials ( ! mo/ important discov]ies :i* rema9 to be made by a/ronom]s4 ,! publication ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's great "w ^u ,d\ble ,/>s & ,nebul is look$ = ) eag] int]e/ by a/ronom]s4 ,( ! obs]vations ( ,nebul we may say :at has j be5 said ( ! obs]vations ( ,d\ble ,/>s2--t !y probably conta9 ! mat]ials ( important future discov]ies4 ,x is impossible n to reg>d ^! ph5om5a ) ref]5ce to ! ,nebul> ,hypo!sis1 :i* has be5 prop\nd$ by ,laplace1 & mu* m /rongly #dhh insi/$ ^u by o!r p]sons2--namely1 ! hypo!sis t sy/ems ( revolv+ planets1 ( :i* ! ,sol> ,sy/em is an example1 arise f ! gradual contraction & sep>ation ( va/ masses ( nebul\s matt]4 ,yet x does n appe> t any *anges h be5 obs]v$ 9 nebul :i* t5d to confirm ?is hypo!sis2 & ! mo/ p[]ful telescope 9 ! _w1 rec5tly erect$ by ! ,e>l ( ,rosse1 has giv5 results :i* militate aga9/ ! hypo!sis2 inasmu* z x has %[n t :at appe>$ a diffus$ nebul\s mass is1 by a great] p[] ( vision1 resolv$1 9 all cases yet exam9$1 into sep>ate />s4 ,:5 a/ronomical ph5om5a are view$ ) ref]5ce to ! ,nebul> ,hypo!sis1 !y d n belong s prop]ly to ,a/ronomy1 9 ! view "h tak5 ( x1 z to ,cosmogony4 ,if su* speculations %\ld acquire any sci5tific value1 we %all h to arrange !m among ^? :i* ,i h call$ ,paltiological ,sci5ces2 namely1 ^? ,sci5ces :i* contemplate ! univ]se1 ! e>?1 & its inhabitants1 ) ref]5ce to _! hi/orical *anges & ! causes ( ^? *anges4 #dhi ,,additions ,,to ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,,introduction4 ,,!re is a difficulty 9 writ+ = popul> read]s a ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 aris+ f ?is2--t ! sympa?y ( su* read]s goes mo/ readily & naturally along ! c\rse :i* leads to false sci5ce & to failure4 ,m51 9 ! outset ( _! attempts at k1 are prone to ru% f a few ha/y obs]vations ( facts to "s wide & compreh5sive pr9ciples2 & !n1 to frame a sy/em on ^! pr9ciples4 ,?is is ! opposite ( ! me?od by :i* ! ,sci5ces h really & hi/orically be5 conduct$2 namely1 ! me?od ( a gradual & cauti\s asc5t f obs]vation to pr9ciples ( limit$ g5]ality1 & f !m to o!rs m g5]al4 ,?is latt]1 ! true ,sci5tific ,me?od1 is ,induction1 & has l$ to ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,! o!r1 ! spontane\s & delusive c\rse1 has be5 t]m$ by ,francis ,bacon1 :o fir/ cle>ly po9t$ out ! di/9ction1 & w>n$ m5 ( ! error1 ,anticipation4 ,! hopelessness ( ?is c\rse is ! great lesson ( 8 philosophy2 b by ?is c\rse proce$$ all ! e>li] attempts ( ! ,greek philosoph]s to obta9 a k ( ! ,univ]se4 ,labori\s obs]vation1 n>r[ & mode/ inf]5ce1 caution1 sl[ & gradual advance1 limit$ k1 are all unwelcome ef=ts & re/ra9ts to ! m9d ( man1 :5 8 speculative _s is once r\s$3 yet ^! are ! necess>y conditions ( all advance 9 ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,h5ce1 z ,i h said1 x is difficult to w9 ! sympa?y ( popul> read]s to ! true hi/ory ( ^! sci5ces4 ,! c>e] ( bold sy/ems & fanciful pret5ces ( k is m ent]ta9+ & /rik+4 ,n only s1 b ! bold guesses & fanciful reason+s ( m5 un*eck$ by d\bt or fe> ( failure are (t5 pres5t$ z ! dictates ( ,common ,s5se2--z ! pla91 unsophi/icat$1 un=c$ reason ( man1 act+ accord+ to no artificial rules1 b foll[+ its own natural c\rse4 ,su* ,common ,s5se1 :ile x #dij complac5tly plumes itself on its cle>-sight$ness 9 reject+ arbitr>y sy/ems ( o!rs1 is no less arbitr>y 9 its own argum5ts1 & (t5 no less fanciful 9 its inv5tions1 ?an ^? :om x condemns4 ,we _c take a bett] repres5tative ( ! ,common ,s5se ( ! anci5t ,greeks ?an ,socrates3 & we f9d t 8 ,common ,s5se1 judg+ ) su* admirable sagacity & acut5ess respect+ moral & practical matt]s1 (f]$1 :5 he appli$ x to physical que/ions1 examples ( ! unconsci\s assumptions & fanciful reason+s :i*1 z we h said1 ,common ,s5se on su* subjects commonly involves4 ,socrates1 ,x5ophon tells u 7,memorabilia1 iv4 #g71 recomm5d$ 8 fri5ds n to /udy a/ronomy1 s z to pursue x into sci5tific details4 ,?is 0 practical advice3 b he proce$$ fur!r to speak ( ! palpable mi/akes made by ^? :o _h c>ri$ su* /udies f>!/4 ,anaxagoras1 = in/ance1 he said1 held t ! ,sun 0 a ,fire3--he did n consid] t m5 c look at a fire1 b !y _c look at ! ,sun2 !y become d>k by ! ,sun %9+ ^u !m1 b n s by ! fire4 ,he did n consid] t no plants c gr[ well except !y h sun%9e1 b if !y are expos$ to ! fire !y are spoil$4 ,aga91 :5 he said t ! ,sun 0 a /one r$-hot1 he did n consid] t a /one heat$ by ! fire is n lum9\s1 & soon cools1 b ! ,sun is always lum9\s & always hot4 ,we may easily conceive h[ a disciple ( ,anaxagoras w\ld reply to ^! argum5ts4 ,he w\ld say1 = example1 z we %\ld probably say at pres5t1 t if !re 7 a mass ( matt] s l>ge & s hot z ,anaxagoras suppos$ ! ,sun to be1 its light might be z great & its heat z p]man5t z ! heat & light ( ! ,sun are1 z yet1 kn[n to be4 ,9 ?is case ! argum5ts ( ,socrates are at any rate no bett] ?an ! doctr9e ( ,anaxagoras4 #dia ,,book ,i4 ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ool ,,philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,greek ,,s*ools4 ,! ,platonic ,doctr9e ( ,ideas4 ,,9 speak+ ( ! ,f\ndation ( ! ,greek ,s*ool ,philosophy1 ,i h ref]r$ to ! dialogue entitl$ ,p>m5ides1 commonly ascrib$ to ,plato4 ,& ! doctr9es ascrib$ to ,p>m5ides1 9 t & 9 o!r works ( anci5t au?ors1 are c]ta9ly rem>kable examples ( ! t5d5cy :i* prevail$ among ! ,greeks to ru% at once to ! highe/ g5]alizations ( :i* ! human m9d is capable4 ,! di/9ctive dogma ( ! ,eleatic ,s*ool1 ( :i* ,p>m5ides 0 "o ( ! mo/ illu/ri\s tea*]s1 0 t ,all ,?+s are ,"o4 ,?is inde$ 0 r a doctr9e ( metaphysical !ology ?an ( physical sci5ce4 ,x t5d$ to1 or agre$ )1 ! doctr9e t ,all ?+s are ,god3--! doctr9e commonly call$ ,pan!ism4 ,b ! t5et ( ! ,platoni/s :i* 0 commonly put 9 opposition to ?is1 t we mu/ seek ,! ,"o 9 ! ,_m1 _h a be>+ ^u physical sci5ce2 at lea/1 if we int]pret x1 z x is g5]ally int]pret$1 t we mu/ seek ! "o ,law :i* p]vades a multiplicity ( ,ph5om5a4 ,we may h[ev] take ! lib]ty ( rem>k+1 t to speak ( a ,rule :i* is exemplifi$ 9 _m cases1 z be+ ! ,"o 9 ! ,_m 7a way ( speak+ by :i* we put out ( sight ! consid]ation :at v diff]5t k9ds ( ?+s ! ,"o & ! ,_m are71 is a mode ( expression :i* makes a v simple matt] look v my/]i\s2 & is ano!r example ( ! t5d5cy :i* urges speculative m5 to aim at metaphysical g5]ality r ?an sci5tific tru?4 ,! ,dialogue ,p>m5ides is1 z ,i h said1 commonly ref]r$ to ,plato4 ,yet x is entirely diff]5t 9 sub/ance1 mann]1 & t5d5cy #dib f ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,platonic ,dialogues4 ,9 ^!1 ,socrates is repres5t$ z f9ally successful 9 refut+ or r\t+ 8 adv]s>ies1 h[ev] confid5t _! tone & h[ev] popul> _! ass]tions4 ,!y are ang]$ or humbl$2 he reta9s 8 good temp] & 8 air ( sup]iority1 & :5 !y are exhau/$1 he sums up 9 8 own way4 ,9 ! ,p>m5ides1 on ! contr>y1 ev]y?+ is ! rev]se ( ?is4 ,p>m5ides & ,z5o ex*ange good-hum\r$ smiles at ,socrates's criticism1 :5 ! by/&]s expect !m to gr[ angry4 ,!y li/5 to ,socrates :ile he prop\nds ,plato's doctr9e ( ,ideas2 & reply to him ) solid argum5ts :i* he does n answ]1 & :i* h nev] yet be5 answ]$4 ,p>m5ides1 9 a patronis+ way1 lets him (f2 & hav+ done ?is1 be+ mu* entreat$1 he pron\nces a disc\rse conc]n+ ! ,"o & ! ,_m2 :i*1 obscure z x may seem to u1 0 obvi\sly int5d$ to be irrefutable3 & dur+ ! :ole ( ?is "p ( ! ,dialogue1 ! fri5d ( ,socrates appe>s only z a passive respond5t1 say+ ,yes or ,no z ! ass]tions ( ,p>m5ides require him to d2 j 9 ! same way 9 :i* ! oppon5ts ( ,socrates are repres5t$ 9 o!r ,dialogues4 ,^! circum/ances1 to :i* o!r hi/orical difficulties might be add$1 seem to %[ pla9ly t ! ,p>m5ides mu/ be reg>d$ z an ,eleatic1 n z a ,platonic ,dialogue2--z compos$ to confute1 n to ass]t1 ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ,ideas4 ,! ,platonic doctr9e ( ,ideas has an important be>+ ^u ! philosophy ( ,sci5ce1 & 0 sugge/$ 9 a great measure by ! progress :i* ! ,greeks _h really made 9 ,geometry1 ,a/ronomy1 & o!r ,sci5ces1 z ,i %all else:]e endeavor to %[4 ,?is doctr9e has be5 recomm5d$ 9 our own "t1#a;,a z conta9+ a mighty sub/ance ( imp]i%able tru?4 ,x _c fail to be int]e/+ to see 9 :at mann] ! doctr9e is pres5t$ by ^? :o ?us judge ( x4 ,! foll[+ is ! /atem5t ( its lead+ features :i* !y give u4 ,note #a;,a3 ,a4 ,butl]'s ,lectures1 ,second ,s]ies1 ,lect4 viii4 p4 #acb4 ,man's s\l is made to conta9 n m]ely a consi/5t s*eme ( its own notions1 b a direct appreh5sion ( real & et]nal laws beyond x4 ,^! real & et]nal laws are ?+s intelligible1 & n ?+s s5sible4 ,! laws1 impress$ ^u creation by its ,creator1 & appreh5d$ by man1 are some?+ equally di/9ct f ! ,creator #dic & f man2 & ! :ole mass ( !m may be t]m$ ! ,_w ( ,?+s purely ,intelligible4 ,fur!r2 !re are qualities 9 ! ,supreme & ,ultimate ,cause ( all1 :i* are manife/$ 9 8 creation2 & n m]ely manife/$1 b 9 a mann]--aft] be+ br\ght out ( 8 sup]-ess5tial nature into ! /age ( be+ :i* is bel[ him1 b next to him--are !n1 by ! causative act ( creation1 deposit$ 9 ?+s1 diff]5c+ !m "o f ! o!r1 s t ! ?+s p>ticipate ( !m 771 communicate ) !m 774 ,! ,intellig5ce ( man1 excit$ to reflection by ! impressions ( ^! objects1 ?us 7?\gh !mselves transitory7 p>ticipant ( a div9e quality1 may rise to high] conceptions ( ! p]fections ?us fa9tly exhibit$2 & inasmu* z ! p]fections are unque/ionably real exi/5ces1 & kn[n to be su* 9 ! v act ( contemplation1 ?is may be reg>d$ z a di/9ct intellectual appreh5sion ( !m2--a union ( ! ,reason ) ! ,ideas 9 t sph]e ( be+ :i* is common to bo?4 ,f9ally1 ! ,reason1 9 proportion z x le>ns to contemplate ! ,p]fect & ,et]nal1 desires ! enjoym5t ( su* contemplations 9 a m consummate degree1 & _c be fully satisfi$ except 9 ! actual fruition ( ! ,p]fect itself4 ,^! propositions tak5 toge!r con/itute ! ,,!ory ,,( ,,ideas4 ,:5 we h to treat ( ! ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce1 x may be wor? our :ile to resume ! consid]ation ( ?is subject4 ,9 ?is "p ( ! ,hi/ory1 ! ,timu ( ,plato is ref]r$ to z an example ( ! loose notions ( ! ,greek philosoph]s 9 _! physical reason+s4 ,& und\bt$ly ?is ,dialogue does rem>kably exemplify ! boldness ( ! e>ly ,greek attempts at g5]alization on su* subjects4 ,yet 9 ?is & 9 o!r p>ts ! writ+s ( ,plato conta9 speculations :i* may be reg>d$ z conta9+ g]ms ( true physical sci5ce2 inasmu* z !y assume t ! ph5om5a ( ! _w are gov]n$ by ma!matical laws2--by relations ( space & numb]2--& endeavor1 too boldly1 no d\bt1 b n vaguely or loosely1 to assign ^? laws4 ,! ,platonic writ+s (f]1 9 ?is way1 s mu* t =ms a ,prelude to ! ,a/ronomy & o!r ,physical ,sci5ces ( ! ,greeks1 t !y w des]ve our notice1 z supply+ mat]ials = ! next two ,books ( ! ,hi/ory1 9 :i* ^! subjects are treat$ (4 #did ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,failure ,,( ,,! ,,greek ,,physical ,,philosophy4 ,francis ,bacon's ,rem>ks4 ,,?\gh we d n accept1 z au?ority1 ev5 ! judgm5ts ( ,francis ,bacon1 & %all h to e/imate ! /rong & ! weak p>ts ( 81 no less ?an ( o!r philosophies1 we %all f9d 8 rem>ks on ! ,greek philosoph]s v in/ructive4 ,?us he says ( ,ari/otle1 7,nov4 ,org4 #a4 ,aph4 lxiii473 ,he is an example ( ! k9d ( philosophy 9 :i* mu* is made out ( little2 s t ! basis ( exp]i5ce is too n>r[4 ,he corrupt$ ,natural ,philosophy by 8 ,logic1 & made ! _w out ( 8 ,categories4 ,he dispos$ ( ! di/9ction ( d5se & r>e1 by :i* bodies occupy m or less dim5sions or space1 by ! frigid di/9ction ( act & p[]4 ,he assign$ to ea* k9d ( body a s+le prop] motion1 s t if !y h any o!r motion !y mu/ receive x f "s extrane\s s\rce2 & impos$ _m o!r arbitr>y rules ^u ,nature2 be+ ev]y:]e m c>eful h[ "o may give a ready answ]1 & make a positive ass]tion1 ?an h[ he may appreh5d ! v>iety ( nature4 ,& ?is appe>s mo/ evid5tly by ! comp>ison ( 8 philosophy ) ! o!r philosophies :i* _h any vogue 9 ,greece4 ,= ! ,homoiom]ia#b;,a ( ,anaxagoras1 ! ,atoms ( ,leucippus & ,democritus1 ! ,heav5 & ,e>? ( ,p>m5ides1 ! ,love & ,hate ( ,emp$ocles1 ! ,fire ( ,h]aclitus1 _h "s trace ( ! ?\ghts ( a natural philosoph]2 "s savor ( exp]i5ce1 & nature1 & bodily ?+s2 :ile ! ,physics ( ,ari/otle1 9 g5]al1 s\nd only ( ,logical ,t]ms4 ,note #b;,a3 ,= ^! te*nical =ms ( ! ,greeks1 see ,sec4 #c ( ?is *apt]4 ,nor let any "o be mov$ by ?is--t 9 8 books ,( ,animals1 & 9 8 ,problems1 & 9 o!rs ( 8 tracts1 !re is (t5 a quot+ ( exp]im5ts4 ,= he _h made up 8 m9d be=eh&2 & did n consult exp]i5ce 9 ord] to make "r propositions & axioms1 b :5 he _h settl$ 8 sy/em to 8 w1 he twi/$ exp]i5ce #die r\nd1 & made h] b5d to 8 sy/em3 s t 9 ?is way he is ev5 m wrong ?an 8 mod]n foll[]s1 ! ,s*oolm51 :o h des]t$ exp]i5ce altoge!r4 ,we may note also :at ,bacon says ( ! t]m ,sophi/4 7,aph4 lxxi47 ,! wisdom ( ! ,greeks 0 pr(essorial1 & prone to run into disputations3 :i* k9d is v adv]se to ! discov]y ( ,tru?4 ,& ! "n ( ,sophi/s1 :i* 0 ca/ 9 ! way ( contempt1 by ^? :o wi%$ to be reckon$ philosoph]s1 ^u ! old pr(essors ( rhetoric1 ,gorgias1 ,protagoras1 ,hippias1 ,polus1 does1 9 fact1 fit ! :ole race ( !m1 ,plato1#c;,a ,ari/otle1 ,z5o1 ,epicurus1 ,!ophra/us2 & _! successors1 ,*rysippus1 ,c>neades1 & ! re/4 ,note #c;,a3 ,x is curi\s t ! attempt to %[ t ,plato's oppon5ts 7 n commonly illusive & immoral reason]s1 has be5 repres5t$ z an attempt to oblit]ate ! di/9ction ( ,sophi/ & ,philosoph]4--,see ,a4 ,butl]'s ,lectures1 i4 #ceg4 ,note4 ,t ^! two classes ( tea*]s1 z morali/s1 7 n diff]5t 9 _! k9d1 has be5 urg$ by ,mr4 ,grote 9 a v /rik+ & amus+ mann]4 ,b ,bacon speaks ( !m "h z physical philosoph]s2 9 :i* "* he holds t all ( !m 7 sophi/s1 t is1 illusory reason]s4 ,ari/otle's ,acc\nt ( ! ,ra9b[4 ,to exemplify ! /ate ( physical k among ! ,greeks1 we may notice briefly ,ari/otle's acc\nt ( ! ,ra9b[2 a ph5om5on s /rik+ & def9ite1 & s completely expla9$ by ! optical sci5ce ( lat] times4 ,we %all see t n only ! explanations !re (f]$ 7 ( no value1 b t ev5 ! obs]vation ( facts1 s common & s palpable1 0 inexact4 ,9 8 ,meteorologica 7lib4 iii4 c4 #b7 he says1 ,! ,ra9b[ is nev] m ?an a semicircle4 ,& at sunset & sunrise1 ! circle is lea/1 b ! ar* is greate/2 :5 ! sun is high1 ! circle is l>g]1 b ! ar* is less4 ,?is is errone\s1 = ! diamet] ( ! circle ( :i* ! ar* ( ! ra9b[ =ms a "p1 is always ! same1 namely #hb4 ,aft] ! autumnal equ9ox1 he adds1 x appe>s at e h\r ( ! day2 b 9 ! summ] season1 x does n appe> ab\t noon4 ,x is curi\s t he did n see ! reason ( ?is4 ,! c5tre ( ! circle ( :i* ! ra9b[ is "p1 is always opposite to ! sun4 ,& !re=e if ! sun be m ?an #da above ! horizon1 ! c5tre ( ! ra9b[ w be s mu* bel[ ! horizon1 t ! place ( ! ra9b[ w #dif be entirely bel[ ! horizon4 ,9 ! latitude ( ,a!ns1 :i* is #ch1 ! equator is #eb above ! horizon1 & ! ra9b[ c be visible only :5 ! sun is #aa l[] ?an x is at ! equ9octial noon4 ,^! rem>ks1 h[ev]1 %[ a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>eful obs]vation2 & s d ^? :i* ,ari/otle makes respect+ ! colors4 ,two ra9b[s at mo/ appe>3 & ( ^!1 ea* has ?ree colors2 b ^? 9 ! out] b[ are dull]2 & _! ord] opposite to ^? 9 ! inn]4 ,= 9 ! inn] b[ ! fir/ & l>ge/ ar* is r$2 b 9 ! out] b[ ! smalle/ ar* is r$1 ! ne>e/ to ! inn]2 & ! o!rs 9 ord]4 ,! colors are r$1 gre51 & purple1 su* z pa9t]s _c imitate4 ,x is curi\s to obs]ve h[ (t5 mod]n pa9t]s disreg>d ev5 ! ord] ( ! colors1 :i* !y c\ld imitate1 if !y att5d$ to x4 ,x may s]ve to %[ ! loose speculation :i* we oppose to sci5ce1 if we give ,ari/otle's attempt to expla9 ! ph5om5on ( ! ,ra9b[4 ,x is produc$1 he says 7c4 iv471 by ,reflexion 77 f a cl\d opposite to ! sun1 :5 ! cl\d =ms into drops4 ,& z a reason = ! r$ color1 he says t a bright object se5 ?r\gh d>kness appe>s r$1 z ! flame ?r\gh ! smoke ( a fire ( gre5 wood4 ,?is notion h>dly des]ves notice2 & yet x 0 tak5 up aga9 by ,g! 9 our own "t1 9 8 speculations conc]n+ colors4 #dig ,,book ,,ii4 ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,greece4 ,plato's ,timu & ,republic4 ,,al?\gh a great portion ( ! physical speculations ( ! ,greek philosoph]s 0 fanciful1 & consi/$ ( doctr9es :i* 7 reject$ 9 ! subsequ5t progress ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces2 /ill _m ( ^! speculations mu/ be consid]$ z =m+ a ,prelude to m exact k aft]w>ds atta9$2 & ?us1 z really belong+ to ! ,progress ( k4 ,^! speculations express1 z we h already said1 ! conviction t ! ph5om5a ( nature are gov]n$ by laws ( space & numb]2 & commonly1 ! ma!matical laws :i* are ?us ass]t$ h "s f\ndation 9 ! facts ( nature4 ,?is is m especially ! case 9 ! speculations ( ,plato4 ,x has be5 ju/ly /at$ by ,pr(essor ,?ompson 7,a4 ,butl]'s ,lectures1 ,?ird ,s]ies1 ,lect4 i4 ,note #aa71 t x is ,plato's m]it to h discov]$ t ! laws ( ! physical univ]se are resolvable into num]ical relations1 & !re=e capable ( be+ repres5t$ by ma!matical =mul4 ,( ?is tru?1 x is !re said1 ,ari/otle does n betray ! slighte/ consci\sness4 ,! ,timu ( ,plato conta9s a s*eme ( ma!matical & physical doctr9es conc]n+ ! univ]se1 :i* make x f> m analog\s ?an any "w ( ,ari/otle to ,treatises :i*1 9 mod]n times1 h borne ! titles ( ,pr9cipia1 ,sy/em ( ! ,_w1 & ! l4 ,& =tunately ! "w has rec5tly be5 well & c>efully /udi$1 ) att5tion1 n only to ! language1 b to ! doctr9es & _! be>+ ^u our real k4 ,/allbaum has publi%$ an edition ( ! ,dialogue1 & has comp>$ ! op9ions ( ,plato ) ^? ( ,ari/otle on ! l subjects4 ,pr(essor ,ar*] ,butl] ( ,dubl9 has devot$ to x sev]al ( 8 /rik+ & eloqu5t ,lectures2 & ^! h be5 furni%$ ) valuable annotations by ,pr(essor ,?ompson ( ,cambridge2 & ,m4 ,!4 ,h5ri ,m>t91 !n ,pr(essor at ,r5nes1 publi%$ 9 #ahda two volumes ( ,etudes sur le ,time de ,platon1 9 #dih :i* ! be>+s ( ! "w on ,sci5ce are v fully discuss$4 ,! ,dialogue treats n only conc]n+ ! num]ical laws ( h>monical s\nds1 ( visual appe>ances1 & ( ! motions ( planets & />s1 b also conc]n+ heat1 z well z light2 & conc]n+ wat]1 ice1 gold1 gems1 iron1 ru/1 & o!r natural objects2--conc]n+ odors1 ta/es1 he>+1 sight1 light1 colors1 & ! p[]s ( s5se 9 g5]al3--conc]n+ ! p>ts & organs ( ! body1 z ! bones1 ! m>r[1 ! bra91 ! fle%1 muscles1 t5dons1 ligam5ts1 n]ves2 ! sk91 ! hair1 ! nails2 ! ve9s & art]ies2 respiration2 g5]ation2 & 9 %ort e obvi\s po9t ( physiology4 ,b ! op9ions deliv]$ 9 ! ,timu ^u ^! latt] subjects h little to d ) ! progress ( real k4 ,! doctr9es1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* dep5d ^u geometrical & ari?metical relations1 are portions or preludes ( ! sci5ces :i*1 9 ! fulness ( "t1 assum$ a ma!matical =m = ! expression ( tru?4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ ! ari?metical relations ( h>monical s\nds1 to :i* ,i h ref]r$ 9 ! ,hi/ory4 ,^! occur 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,plato's writ+s4 ,9 ! ,timu1 9 :i* ! numb]s are mo/ fully giv51 ! mean+ ( ! numb]s is1 at fir/ sight1 lea/ obvi\s4 ,! numb]s are giv5 z repres5t+ ! proportion ( ! p>ts ( ! ,s\l 7,tim4 pp4 #ce1 #cf71 :i* does n imm$iately ref] u to ! relations ( ,s\nds4 ,b 9 a subsequ5t "p ( ! ,dialogue 7#dg1 ,d71 we are told t music is a privilege ( ! he>+ giv5 on acc\nt ( ,h>mony2 & t ,h>mony has ,cycles correspond+ to ! movem5ts ( ! ,s\l2 7ref]r+ pla9ly to ^? already ass]t$47 ,& ! numb]s :i* are ?us giv5 by ,plato z elem5ts ( h>mony1 are 9 a great measure ! same z ^? :i* express ! musical relations ( ! tones ( ! musical scale at ?is day 9 use1 z ,m4 ,h5ri ,m>t9 %[s 7,et4 sur le ,time1 note xxiii47 ,! int]vals ,c to ,d1 ,c to ,f1 ,c to ,g1 ,c to ,c1 are express$ by ! fractions #i_/h1 #d_/c1 #c_/b1 #b_/a1 & are n[ call$ a ,tone1 a ,f\r?1 a ,fif?1 an ,octave4 ,!y 7 express$ by ! same fractions among ! ,greeks1 & 7 call$ ,tone1 ,diatess>on1 ,diap5te1 ,diapason4 ,! ,major & ,m9or ,?ird1 & ! ,major & ,m9or ,six?1 7 h[ev] want+1 x is conceiv$1 9 ! musical scale ( ,plato4 ,! ,timu conta9s also a k9d ( !ory ( vision by reflexion f a plane1 & 9 a concave mirror2 al?\gh ! !ory is 9 ?is case less ma!matical & less precise ?an t ( ,euclid1 ref]r$ to 9 *ap4 ii4 ( ?is ,book4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable speculations 9 ! ,timu is t 9 #dii :i* ! ,regul> ,solids are assign$ z ! =ms ( ! ,elem5ts ( :i* ! ,univ]se is compos$4 ,?is curi\s bran* ( ma!matics1 ,solid ,geometry1 _h be5 pursu$ ) great zeal by ,plato & 8 fri5ds1 & ) rem>kable success4 ,! five ,regul> ,solids1 ! ,tetrah$ron or regul> ,triangul> ,pyramid1 ! ,cube1 ! ,octah$ron1 ! ,dodecah$ron1 & ! ,icosah$ron1 _h be5 discov]$2 & ! rem>kable !orem1 t ( regul> solids !re c be j s _m1 ^! & no o!rs1 0 kn[n4 ,& 9 ! ,timu x is ass]t$ t ! p>ticles ( ! v>i\s elem5ts h ! =ms ( ^! solids4 ,fire has ! ,pyramid2 ,e>? has ! ,cube2 ,wat] ! ,octah$ron2 ,air ! ,icosah$ron2 & ! ,dodecah$ron is ! plan ( ! ,univ]se itself4 ,x 0 natural t :5 ,plato _h le>nt t o!r ma!matical prop]ties _h a be>+ ^u ! con/itution ( ! ,univ]se1 he %\ld suppose t ! s+ul> prop]ty ( space1 :i* ! exi/5ce ( ?is limit$ & v>i$ class ( solids impli$1 %\ld h "s correspond+ prop]ty 9 ! ,univ]se1 :i* exi/s 9 space4 ,we f9d aft]w>ds1 9 ,kepl] & o!rs1 a recurr5ce to ?is assumption2 & we may say p]haps t ,cry/allography %[s u t !re are prop]ties ( bodies1 ( ! mo/ intimate k9d1 :i* involve su* spatial relations z are exhibit$ 9 ! ,regul> ,solids4 ,if ! di/9ctions ( ,cry/all9e ,sy/em 9 bodies 7 h]eaft] to be f\nd to dep5d ^u ! *emical elem5ts :i* pr$om9ate 9 _! composition1 ! admir]s ( ,plato might po9t to 8 doctr9e1 ( ! diff]5t =m ( ! p>ticles ( ! diff]5t elem5ts ( ! ,univ]se1 z a remote ,prelude to su* a discov]y4 ,b ! ma!matical doctr9es conc]n+ ! p>ts & elem5ts ( ! ,univ]se are put =w>ds by ,plato1 n s mu* z ass]tions conc]n+ physical facts1 ( :i* ! tru? or falsehood is to be det]m9$ by a ref]5ce to nature h]self4 ,!y are r prop\nd$ z examples ( a tru? ( a high] k9d ?an any ref]5ce to obs]vation c give or c te/1 & z revelations ( pr9ciples su* z mu/ h prevail$ 9 ! m9d ( ! ,creator ( ! ,univ]se2 or else z contemplations by :i* ! m9d ( man is to be rais$ above ! region ( s5se1 & br\ght ne>] to ! ,div9e ,m9d4 ,9 ! ,timu ^! doctr9es appe> r 9 ! =m] ( ! two lights2 z an exposition ( ! necess>y s*eme ( creation1 s f> z its lead+ features are conc]n$4 ,9 ! sev5? ,book ( ! ,polity1 ! same doctr9es are reg>d$ m z a m5tal discipl9e2 z ! necess>y /udy ( ! true philosoph]4 ,b 9 bo? places ^! ma!matical #ejj propositions are repres5t$ z ,realities m real ?an ! ,ph5om5a2--z a ,natural ,philosophy ( a high] k9d ?an ! /udy ( ,nature itself c tea*4 ,?is is no d\bt an errone\s assumption3 yet ev5 9 ?is !re is a g]m ( tru?2 namely1 t ! ma!matical laws1 :i* prevail 9 ! univ]se1 involve ma!matical tru?s :i* be+ demon/rative1 are ( a high] & m cog5t k9d ?an m]e exp]im5tal tru?s4 ,notions1 su* z ^! ( ,plato1 respect+ a tru? at :i* sci5ce is to aim1 :i* is ( an exact & demon/rative k9d1 & is imp]fectly manife/$ 9 ! ph5om5a ( nature1 may help or may mislead inquir]s2 !y may be ! impulse & ! occasion to great discov]ies2 or !y may lead to ! ass]tion ( false & ! loss ( true doctr9es4 ,plato consid]s ! ph5om5a :i* nature (f]s to ! s5ses z m]e sugge/ions & rude sket*es ( ! objects :i* ! philosophic m9d is to contemplate4 ,! heav5ly bodies & all ! spl5dors ( ! sky1 ?\gh ! mo/ beautiful ( visible objects1 be+ only visible objects1 are f> inf]ior to ! true objects ( :i* !y are ! repres5tatives4 ,!y are m]ely diagrams :i* may assi/ 9 ! /udy ( ! high] tru? z we might /udy geometry by ! aid ( diagrams con/ruct$ by "s consummate arti/4 ,ev5 !n1 ! true object ab\t :i* we reason is ! conception :i* we h 9 ! m9d4 ,we h1 ,i conceive1 an in/ance ( ! error z well z ( ! tru?1 to :i* su* views may lead1 9 ! speculations ( ,plato conc]n+ ,h>mony1 conta9$ 9 t "p ( 8 writ+s 7! sev5? ,book ( ! ,republic71 9 :i* ^! views are especially urg$4 ,he !re1 by way ( illu/rat+ ! sup]iority ( philosophical tru? ov] su* exactness z ! s5ses c atte/1 speaks slight+ly ( ^? :o take imm5se pa9s 9 measur+ musical notes & int]vals by ! e>1 z ! a/ronom]s measure ! heav5ly motions by ! eye4 ,!y screw _! pegs & p9* _! /r+s1 & dispute :e!r two notes are ! same or n4 ,n[1 9 tru?1 ! e> is ! f9al & supreme judge :e!r two notes are ! same or n4 ,b !re is a case 9 :i* notes :i* are nom9ally ! same1 are diff]5t really & to ! e>2 & x is probably to disputes on ?is subject1 :i* we "k did prevail among ! ,greek musicians1 t ,plato "h ref]s4 ,we may asc5d f a note ,a#a to a note ,c#c by two octaves & a ?ird4 ,we may also asc5d f ! same note ,a#a to ,c#c by fif?s f\r times repeat$4 ,b ! two notes ,c#c ?us arriv$ at are n ! same3 !y diff] by a small int]val1 :i* ! ,greeks call$ a #eja ,comma1 ( :i* ! notes are 9 ! ratio ( #hj to #ha4 ,t ! e> really detects ?is defect ( ! musical co9cid5ce ( ! two notes "u ! prop] conditions1 is a pro( ( ! co9cid5ce ( our musical p]ceptions ) ! ma!matical relations ( ! notes2 & is !re=e an exp]im5tal confirmation ( ! ma!matical pr9ciples ( h>mony4 ,b x seems to be repres5t$ by ,plato1 t to look out = su* confirmation ( ma!matical pr9ciples1 implies a disposition to lean on ! s5ses1 :i* he reg>ds z v unphilosophical4 ,h]o ( ,alex&ria4 ,,! o!r bran*es ( ma!matical sci5ce :i* ,i h spok5 ( 9 ! ,hi/ory z cultivat$ by ! ,greeks1 namely ,me*anics & ,hydro/atics1 are n treat$ expressly by ,plato2 ?\gh we "k f ,ari/otle & o!rs t "s ( ! propositions ( ^? sci5ces 7 kn[n ab\t 8 "t4 ,ma*9es mov$ n only by weights & spr+s1 b by wat] & air1 7 con/ruct$ at an e>ly p]iod4 ,ctesibius1 :o liv$ probably ab\t ,b4 ,c4 #bej1 "u ! ,ptolemies1 is said to h inv5t$ a clepsydra or wat]-clock1 & an hydraulic organ2 & to h be5 ! fir/ to discov] ! ela/ic p[] ( air1 & to apply x z a mov+ p[]4 ,( 8 pupil ,h]o1 ! "n is to ?is day famili>1 ?r\gh ! little pneumatic in/rum5t call$ ,h]o's ,f\nta94 ,he also describ$ pumps & hydraulic ma*9es ( v>i\s k9ds2 & an in/rum5t :i* has be5 spok5 ( by "s mod]n writ]s z a /eam-eng9e1 b :i* 0 m]ely a toy made to :irl r\nd by ! /eam emitt$ f holes 9 its arms4 ,conc]n+ me*anism1 besides descriptions ( ,automatons1 ,h]o compos$ two works3 ! "o entitl$ ,me*anics1 or ,me*anical ,introductions2 ! o!r ,b>ulcos1 ! ,weight-lift]4 ,9 ^! works ! elem5t>y contrivances by :i* weights may be lift$ or drawn 7 spok5 ( z ! ,five ,me*anical ,p[]s1 ! same enum]ation ( su* ma*9es z prevails to ?is day2 namely1 ! ,lev]1 ! ,:eel & ,axle1 ! ,pulley1 ! ,w$ge1 & ! ,screw4 ,9 8 ,me*anics1 x appe>s t ,h]o r$uc$ all ^! ma*9es to "o s+le ma*9e1 namely to ! lev]4 ,9 ! ,b>ulcos1 ,h]o propos$ & solv$ ! problem :i* x 0 ! glory ( ,ar*im$es to h solv$3 ,to move any object 7h[ev] l>ge7 by any p[] 7h[ev] small74 ,?is1 z may easily be conceiv$ by any "o acqua9t$ ) ! elem5ts ( ,me*anics1 is done by means ( a comb9ation ( ! me*anical p[]s1 & especially by means ( a tra9 ( too!d-:eels & axles4 #ejb ,! rema9+ writ+s ( ,h]o ( ,alex&ria h be5 ! subject ( a special1 c>eful1 & le>n$ exam9ation by ,m4 ,?4 ,h4 ,m>t9 7,p>is1 #ahed71 9 :i* ! works ( ?is writ]1 ,h]o ! ,anci5t1 z he is sometimes call$1 are di/+ui%$ f ^? ( ano!r writ] ( ! same "n ( lat] date4 ,h]o ( ,alex&ria wrote also1 z x appe>s1 a treatise on ,pneumatics1 9 :i* he describ$ ma*9es1 ei!r useful or amus+1 mov$ by ! =ce ( air & vapor4 ,he also wrote a "w call$ ,catoptrics1 :i* conta9$ pro(s ( prop]ties ( ! rays ( reflect$ light4 ,& a treatise ,on ! ,dioptra2 :i* subject h[ev] mu/ be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! subject entitl$ ,dioptrics by ! mod]ns4 ,?is latt] subject treats ( ! prop]ties ( refract$ light2 a subject on :i* ! anci5ts _h little exact k till a lat] p]iod2 z ,i h %[n 9 ! ,hi/ory4 ,! ,dioptra1 z und]/ood by ,h]o1 0 an in/rum5t = tak+ angles s z to measure ! position & h5ce to det]m9e ! di/ance ( inaccessible objects2 z is done by ! ,!odolite 9 our times4 ,m4 ,m>t9 is ( op9ion t ,h]o ( ,alex&ria liv$ at a lat] p]iod ?an is g5]ally suppos$2 namely1 aft] ,b4 ,c4 #ha4 #ejc ,,book ,,iii4 ,,! ,,greek ,,a/ronomy4 ,,introduction4 ,,! ma!matical op9ions ( ,plato respect+ ! philosophy ( nature1 & especially respect+ :at we commonly call ! heav5ly bodies1 ! ,sun1 ,moon1 & ,planets1 7 f\nd$ ^u ! view :i* ,i h already describ$3 namely1 t x is ! bus9ess ( philosophy to aim at a tru? high] ?an obs]vation c tea*2 & to solve problems :i* ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se only sugge/4 ,& ?\gh ! /ud5ts ( nature 9 m rec5t times h le>nt t ?is is too presumptu\s a notion ( human k1 yet ! v boldness & hopefulness :i* x involv$ impell$ m5 9 ! pursuit ( tru?1 ) m vigor ?an a m timor\s temp] c\ld h done2 & ! belief t !re mu/ be1 9 nature1 ma!matical laws m exact ?an exp]i5ce c\ld discov]1 /imulat$ m5 (t5 to discov] true laws1 ?\gh (t5 also to inv5t false laws4 ,plato's writ+s1 supply+ examples ( bo? ^! processes1 belong to ! ,prelude ( true ,a/ronomy1 z well z to ! errors ( false philosophy4 ,we may f9d specim5s ( bo? k9ds 9 ^? p>ts ( 8 ,dialogues to :i* we h ref]r$ 9 ! prec$+ ,book ( our ,hi/ory4 ,to ,plato's m]its 9 prep>+ ! way = ! ,!ory ( ,epicycles1 ,i h already ref]r$ 9 ,*apt] ii4 ( ?is ,book4 ,i conceive t he _h a great %>e 9 t :i* is an important /ep 9 e discov]y1 ! propos+ di/9ctly ! problem to be solv$2 :i* 01 9 ?is case1 z he /ates x1 ,to acc\nt = ! app>5t movem5ts ( ! planets by a comb9ation ( two circul> motions = ea*3--! motion ( id5tity1 & ! motion ( diff]5ce4 7,tim4 #ci1 ,a47 ,9 ! t5? ,book ( ! ,republic1 quot$ 9 our text1 ! sp9dle :i* ,de/9y or ,necessity holds betwe5 h] knees1 & on :i* are r+s1 by means ( :i* ! planets revolve r\nd x z an axis1 is a /ep t[>ds ! conception ( ! problem1 z ! con/ruction ( a ma*9e4 ,x w n be ?\ght surpris+ t ,plato expect$ t #ejd ,a/ronomy1 :5 fur!r advanc$1 w\ld be able to r5d] an acc\nt ( _m ?+s = :i* %e has n acc\nt$ ev5 to ?is day4 ,?us1 9 ! passage 9 ! sev5? ,book ( ! ,republic1 he says t ! philosoph] requires a reason = ! proportion ( ! day to ! mon?1 & ! mon? to ! ye>1 deep] & m sub/antial ?an m]e obs]vation c give4 ,yet ,a/ronomy has n yet %[n u any reason :y ! proportion ( ! times ( ! e>?'s rotation on its axis1 ! moon's revolution r\nd ! e>?1 & ! e>?'s revolution r\nd ! sun1 might n h be5 made by ! ,creator q diff]5t f :at !y are4 ,b 9 ?us ask+ ,ma!matical ,a/ronomy = reasons :i* %e _c give1 ,plato 0 only do+ :at a great a/ronomical discov]]1 ,kepl]1 did at a lat] p]iod4 ,"o ( ! que/ions :i* ,kepl] especially wi%$ to h answ]$ 01 :y !re are five planets1 & :y at su* p>ticul> di/ances f ! sun8 ,& x is /ill m curi\s t he ?\ght he _h f\nd ! reason ( ^! ?+s1 9 ! relations ( ^? ,five ,regul> ,solids :i*1 z we h se51 ,plato 0 desir\s ( introduc+ into ! philosophy ( ! univ]se4 ,we h ,kepl]'s acc\nt ( ?is1 8 imag9>y discov]y1 9 ! ,my/]ium ,cosmographicum1 publi%$ 9 #aeif1 z /at$ 9 our ,hi/ory1 ,book v4 ,*ap4 iv4 ,sect4 #b4 ,kepl] reg>ds ! law :i* ?us det]m9es ! numb] & magnitude ( ! planet>y orbits by means ( ! five regul> solids z a discov]y no less rem>kable & c]ta9 ?an ! ,?ree ,laws :i* give 8 "n its imp]i%able place 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy4 ,we are n on ?is acc\nt to ?9k t !re is no /eady crit]ion ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 imag9>y & real discov]ies 9 sci5ce4 ,z discov]y becomes possible by ! lib]ty ( guess+1 x becomes real by all[+ obs]vation con/antly & au?oritatively to det]m9e ! value ( guesses4 ,kepl] add$ to ,plato's boldness ( fancy 8 own pati5t & c&id habit ( te/+ 8 fancies by a rigor\s & labori\s comp>ison ) ! ph5om5a2 & ?us 8 discov]ies l$ to ^? ( ,newton4 #eje ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,e>lie/ ,,/ages ,,( ,,a/ronomy4 ,! ,globul> ,=m ( ! ,e>?4 ,,!re are p>ts ( ,plato's writ+s :i* h be5 adduc$ z be>+ ^u ! subsequ5t progress ( sci5ce2 & especially ^u ! globul> =m ( ! e>?1 & ! o!r views :i* l$ to ! discov]y ( ,am]ica4 ,9 ! ,timu we read ( a great cont95t ly+ 9 ! ,ocean we/ ( ! ,pill>s ( ,h]cules1 :i* ,plato calls ,atlantis4 ,he makes ! p]sonage 9 8 ,dialogue :o speaks ( ?is put x =w>d z an ,egyptian tradition4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m>t91 :o has discuss$ :at has be5 writt5 respect+ ! ,atlantis ( ,plato1 & has giv5 !re9 a diss]tation ri* 9 erudition & ( ! mo/ lively int]e/1 conceives t ,plato's notions on ?is subject arose f 8 comb9+ 8 conviction ( ! sph]ical =m ( ! e>?1 ) int]pretations ( ,hom]1 & p]haps ) traditions :i* 7 curr5t 9 ,egypt 7,etudes sur le ,time1 ,note xiii4 ix474 ,he does n consid] t ! belief 9 ,plato's ,atlantis _h any %>e 9 ! discov]ies ( ,columbus4 ,x may p]haps surprise mod]n read]s :o h a difficulty 9 gett+ rid ( ! p]suasion t !re is a natural direction upw>ds & a natural direction d[nw>ds1 to le>n t bo? ,plato & ,ari/otle1 & ( c\rse o!r philosoph]s also1 _h completely ov]come ?is difficulty4 ,!y 7 q ready to all[ & to conceive t d[n meant no?+ b t[>ds "s c5tre1 & up1 ! opposite direction4 7,ari/otle has1 besides1 an +5i\s notion t :ile heavy bodies1 z e>? & wat]1 t5d to ! c5tre1 & light bodies1 z fire1 t5d f ! c5tre1 ! fif? elem5t1 ( :i* ! heav5ly bodies are compos$1 t5ds to move r\nd ! c5tre47 ,plato expla9s ?is 9 ! mo/ decid$ mann] 9 ! ,timu 7#fb1 ,c74 ,x is q errone\s to suppose t !re are two opposite regions 9 ! univ]se1 "o above & ! o!r bel[2 & t heavy ?+s naturally t5d to ! latt] place4 ,! heav5s are sph]ical1 & e ?+ t5ds to ! c5tre2 & ?us above & bel[ h no real mean+4 ,if !re be a solid globe 9 ! middle1 #ejf & if a p]son walk r\nd x1 he w become ! antipodes to himself1 & ! direction :i* is up at "o "t w be d[n at ano!r4 ,! notion ( antipodes1 ! inhabitants ( ! "p ( ! globe ( ! e>? opposite to ourselves1 0 v famili>4 ,?us 9 ,cic]o's ,academic ,que/ions 7ii4 #ci7 "o ( ! speak]s says1 ,etiam dicitis esse e regione nobis1 e contr>ia p>te t]r1 qui adv]sis ve/igiis /ant contra no/ra ve/igia1 quos ,antipodas vocatis4 ,see also ,tusc4 ,disp4 i4 #bh & v4 #bd4 ,! ,helioc5tric ,sy/em among ! ,anci5ts4 ,z ! m cle>-sight$ ( ! anci5ts _h ov]come ! natural prejudice ( believ+ t !re is an absolute up & d[n1 s _h !y also ov]come ! natural prejudice ( believ+ t ! e>? is at re/4 ,cic]o says 7,acad4 ,que/4 ii4 #ci71 ,hicetas ( ,syracuse1 z ,!ophra/us tells u1 ?9ks t ! heav5s1 ! sun1 ! moon1 ! />s1 d n move2 & t no?+ does move b ! e>?4 ,! e>? revolves ab\t h] axis ) imm5se velocity2 & ?us ! same effect is produc$ z if ! e>? 7 at re/ & ! heav5s mov$2 & ?is1 he says1 ,plato tea*es 9 ! ,timu1 ?\gh some:at obscurely4 ,( c\rse ! ass]tion t ! moon & planets d n move1 0 meant ( ! diurnal motion only4 ,! passage ref]r$ to 9 ! ,timu seems to be ?is 7#dj1 ,c7--,z to ! ,e>?1 :i* is our nurse1 & :i* cl+s to ! axis :i* /ret*es ?r\gh ! univ]se1 ,god made h] ! produc] & pres]v] ( day & night4 ,! ^w 1 :i* ,i h translat$ cl+s to1 "s translate revolves2 & an ext5sive controv]sy has prevail$1 bo? 9 anci5t & mod]n times 7beg9n+ ) ,ari/otle71 :e!r ,plato did or did n believe 9 ! rotation ( ! e>? on h] axis4 7,see ,m4 ,c\s9's ,note on ! ,timu1 & ,m4 ,h5ri ,m>t9's ,diss]tation1 ,note xxxvii41 9 8 ,etudes sur le ,time47 ,! result ( ?is discussion seems to be t1 9 ! ,timu1 ! ,e>? is suppos$ to be at re/4 ,x is h[ev] relat$ by ,plut>* 7,platonic ,que/ions1 viii4 #a71 t ,plato 9 8 old age rep5t$ ( hav+ giv5 to ! ,e>? ! place 9 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se :i* did n belong to x4 ,9 describ+ ! ,prelude to ! ,epo* ( ,cop]nicus 7,book v4 ,*ap4 i471 ,i h spok5 ( ,philolaus1 "o ( ! foll[]s ( ,py?agoras1 :o liv$ at ! "t ( ,socrates1 z hav+ held ! doctr9e t ! e>? revolves ab\t ! sun4 ,?is has be5 a curr5t #ejg op9ion2--s curr5t1 inde$1 t ! ,abb ,b\illaud1 or ,bullialdus1 z we m commonly call him1 gave ! title ( ,philolaus to ! def5ce ( ,cop]nicus :i* he publi%$ 9 #afci2 & ,*i>amonti1 an ,ari/otelian1 publi%$ 8 answ] "u ! title ( ,antiphilolaus4 ,9 #afde ,bullialdus publi%$ 8 ,a/ronomia ,philolaica1 :i* 0 ano!r exposition ( ! helioc5tric doctr9e4 ,yet not)/&+ ?is g5]al belief1 x appe>s to be tol]ably c]ta9 t ,philolaus did n hold ! doctr9e ( ! e>?'s motion r\nd ! sun4 7,m4 ,h4 ,m>t91 ,etudes sur le ,time1 #ahda1 ,note xxxvii4 ,sect4 i42 & ,bckh1 ,de v]a ,indole ,a/ronomi ,philolaic1 #ahaj47 ,9 ! sy/em ( ,philolaus1 ! e>? revolv$ ab\t ! c5tral fire2 b ?is c5tral fire 0 n ! sun4 ,! ,sun1 along ) ! moon & planets1 revolv$ 9 circles ext]nal to ! e>?4 ,! ,e>? _h ! ,anti*?on or ,c\nt]-,e>? betwe5 x & ! c5tre2 & revolv+ r\nd ?is c5tre 9 "o day1 ! ,anti*?on1 be+ always betwe5 x & ! c5tre1 01 dur+ a portion ( ! revolution1 int]pos$ betwe5 ! ,e>? & ! ,sun1 & ?us made night2 :ile ! ,sun1 by 8 prop] motion1 produc$ ! *anges ( ! ye>4 ,:5 m5 7 will+ to suppose ! e>? to be 9 motion1 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! recurr5ce ( day & night1 x is curi\s t !y did n see t ! revolution ( a sph]ical e>? ab\t an axis pass+ ?r\gh its c5tre 0 a s*eme bo? simple & q satisfactory4 ,yet ! illum9ation ( a globul> e>? by a di/ant sun1 & ! circum/ances & ph5om5a !nce result+1 appe> to h be5 conceiv$ 9 a v confus$ mann] by _m p]sons4 ,?us ,tacitus 7,agric4 xii471 aft] /at+ t he has he>d t 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! isl& ( ,brita91 ! night disappe>s 9 ! height ( summ]1 says1 z 8 acc\nt ( ?is ph5om5on1 t ! extreme p>ts ( ! e>? are l[ & level1 & d n ?r[ _! %ad[ upw>ds2 s t ! %ade ( night falls bel[ ! sky & ! />s4 ,b1 z a little consid]ation w %[1 x is ! globul> =m ( ! e>?1 & n ! level "* ( ! c\ntry1 :i* produces ?is effect4 ,x is n 9 any degree probable t ,py?agoras taught t ! ,e>? revolves r\nd ! ,sun1 or t x rotates on its own axis4 ,nor did ,plato hold ei!r ( ^! motions ( ! ,e>?4 ,!y got s f> z to believe 9 ! ,sph]ical ,=m ( ! ,e>?2 & ?is 0 app>5tly su* an ef=t t ! human m9d made a pause be=e go+ any fur!r4 ,x requir$1 says ,m4 ,h4 ,m>t91 a great /ruggle = #ejh m5 to free !mselves f ! prejudices ( ! s5ses1 & to int]pret _! te/imony 9 su* a mann] z to conceive ! sph]icity ( ! e>?4 ,x is natural t !y %\ld h /opp$ at ?is po9t1 be=e putt+ ! e>? 9 motion 9 space4 ,"s ( ! expressions :i* h be5 und]/ood1 z describ+ a sy/em 9 :i* ! ,sun is ! c5tre ( motion1 d really imply m]ely ! ,sun is ! middle t]m ( ! s]ies ( heav5ly bodies :i* revolve r\nd ! e>?3 ! s]ies be+ ,moon1 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,sun1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn4 ,?is is ! case1 = in/ance1 9 a passage ( ,cic]o's ,vision ( ,scipio1 :i* has be5 suppos$ to imply1 7z ,i h /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory17 t ,m]cury & ,v5us revolve ab\t ! ,sun4 ,b ?\gh ! doctr9e ( ! diurnal rotation & annual revolution ( ! e>? is n ! doctr9e ( ,py?agoras1 or ( ,philolaus1 or ( ,plato1 x 0 nev]!less held by "s ( ! philosoph]s ( antiquity4 ,! te/imony ( ,ar*im$es t ?is doctr9e 0 held by 8 contempor>y ,ari/>*us ( ,samos1 is unque/ionable & !re is no reason to d\bt ,plut>*'s ass]tion t ,seleucus fur!r en=c$ x4 ,x is curi\s t ,cop]nicus appe>s n to h kn[n any?+ ( ! op9ions ( ,ari/>*us & ,seleucus1 :i* 7 really anticipations ( 8 doctr9e2 & to h d]iv$ 8 notion f passages :i*1 z ,i h be5 %[+1 conta9 no su* doctr9e4 ,he says1 9 8 ,d$ication to ,pope ,paul ,,iii41 ,i f\nd 9 ,cic]o t ,nicetas or ,hicetas held t ! e>? 0 9 motion3 & 9 ,plut>* ,i f\nd t "s o!rs _h be5 ( t op9ion3 & 8 words ,i w transcribe t any "o may read !m3 ',philosoph]s 9 g5]al hold t ! e>? is at re/4 ,b ,philolaus ! ,py?agorean tea*es t x moves r\nd ! c5tral fire 9 an oblique circle1 9 ! same direction z ! ,sun & ! ,moon4 ,h]aclides ( ,pontus & ,ecphantus ! ,py?agorean give ! e>? a motion1 b n a motion ( translation2 !y make x revolve l a :eel ab\t its own c5tre f we/ to ea/4' ,?is la/ op9ion 0 a correct ass]tion ( ! diurnal motion4 ,! ,eclipse ( ,?ales4 ,,! ,eclipse ( ,?ales is s rem>kable a po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy1 & has be5 ! subject ( s mu* discussion among a/ronom]s1 t x ought to be m especially notic$4 ,! orig9al #eji record is 9 ! fir/ ,book ( ,h]odotus's ,hi/ory 7*ap4 lxxiv47 ,he says t !re 0 a w> betwe5 ! ,lydians & ! ,m$es2 & aft] v>i\s turns ( =tune1 9 ! six? ye> a conflict took place2 & on ! battle be+ jo9$1 x happ5$ t ! day sudd5ly became night4 ,& ?is *ange1 ,?ales ( ,miletus _h pr$ict$ to !m1 def9itely nam+ ?is ye>1 9 :i* ! ev5t really took place4 ,! ,lydians & ! ,m$es1 :5 !y saw day turn$ into night1 ceas$ f fight+2 & bo? sides 7 desir\s ( peace4 ,probably ?is pr$iction 0 f\nd$ ^u ! ,*aldean p]iod ( eighte5 ye>s1 ( :i* ,i h spok5 9 ,section #aa4 ,x is probable1 z ,i h already said1 t ?is p]iod 0 discov]$ by notic+ ! recurr5ce ( eclipses4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ,?ales pr$ict$ only ! ye> ( ! eclipse1 n ! day or ! mon?4 ,9 fact1 ! exact pr$iction ( ! circum/ances ( an eclipse ( ! sun is a v difficult problem2 mu* m difficult1 x may be rem>k$1 ?an ! pr$iction ( ! circum/ance ( an eclipse ( ! moon4 ,n[ t ! ,!ory ( ! ,moon is br\ght s f> t[>ds complet5ess1 a/ronom]s are able to calculate backw>ds ! eclipses ( ! sun :i* h tak5 place 9 =m] times2 & ! "q has be5 mu* discuss$ 9 :at ye> ?is ,eclipse ( ,?ales really occurr$4 ,! ,memoir ( ,mr4 ,airy1 ! ,a/ronom] ,royal1 on ?is subject1 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 = #ahec1 gives an acc\nt ( ! mod]n exam9ations ( ?is subject4 ,mr4 ,airy />ts f ! assumption t ! eclipse mu/ h be5 "o decid$ly total2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 su* a "o & an eclipse only ne>ly total be+ v m>k$4 ,a total eclipse alone 0 likely to produce s /rong an effect on ! m9ds ( ! combatants4 ,mr4 ,airy concludes f 8 calculations t ! eclipse pr$ict$ by ,?ales took place ,b4 ,c4 #ehe4 ,anci5t eclipses ( ! ,moon & ,sun1 if !y c be id5tifi$1 are ( great value = mod]n a/ronomy2 = 9 ! long int]val ( betwe5 two & ?ree ?\s& ye>s :i* sep>ates !m f our "t1 ^? ( ! inequalities1 t is1 accel]ations or ret>dations ( ! ,moon's motion1 :i* g on increas+ con/antly1#d;,a accumulate to a l>ge am\nt2 s t ! actual "t & circum/ances ( ! eclipse give a/ronom]s ! means ( det]m9+ :at ! rate ( ^! accel]ations or ret>dations has be54 ,accord+ly ,mr4 ,airy has discuss$1 z ev5 m important ?an ! eclipse ( ,?ales1 an eclipse :i* ,diodorus relates to h happ5$ dur+ an exp$ition ( #eaj ,aga?ocles1 ! rul] ( ,sicily1 & :i* is h5ce kn[n z ! ,eclipse ( ,aga?ocles4 ,he det]m9es x to h occurr$ ,b4 ,c4 #caj4 ,note #d;,a3 ,or at lea/ = v long p]iods4 ,m4 ,h4 ,m>t91 9 ,note xxxvii4 to 8 ,etudes sur le ,time1 discusses among o!r a/ronomical matt]s1 ! ,eclipse ( ,?ales4 ,he does n appe> to r5d] a v cordial belief to ! hi/orical fact ( ,?ales hav+ deliv]$ ! pr$iction be=e ! ev5t4 ,he says t ev5 if ,?ales did make su* a pr$iction ( an eclipse ( ! sun1 z he might d1 by means ( ! ,*aldean p]iod ( #ah ye>s1 or #bbc lunations1 he w\ld h to take ! *ance ( its be+ visible 9 ,greece1 ab\t :i* he c\ld only guess3--t no au?or ass]ts t ,?ales1 or 8 successors ,anaxim&] & ,anaxagoras1 ev] tri$ _! luck 9 ! same way aga93--t en revan*e we are told t ,anaxim&] pr$ict$ an e>?quake1 & ,anaxagoras ! fall ( arolites1 :i* are pla9ly fabul\s /ories1 ?\gh z well atte/$ z ! ,eclipse ( ,?ales4 ,he adds t accord+ to ,ari/otle1 ,?ales & ,anaxim5es 7 s f> f hav+ s\nd notions ( cosmography1 t !y did n ev5 believe 9 ! r\ndness ( ! e>?4 #eaa ,,book ,,iv4 ,,physical ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 ,,g5]al ,,rem>ks4 ,,9 ! twelf? ,book ( ! ,philosophy1 9 :i* ,i h giv5 a ,review ( ,op9ions on ! ,nature ( ,k & ! me?od ( seek+ x1 ,i h giv5 "s acc\nt ( sev]al ( ! mo/ important p]sons belong+ to ! ages n[ "u consid]ation4 ,i h !re 7vol4 ii4 b4 xii4 p4 #adf7 spok5 ( ! mann] 9 :i* rem>ks made by ,ari/otle came to be accept$ z fundam5tal maxims 9 ! s*ools ( ! middle ages1 & ( ! mann] 9 :i* !y 7 discuss$ by ! greate/ ( ! s*oolm51 z ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ,alb]tus ,magnus1 & ! l4 ,i h spok5 also 7p4 #adi7 ( a c]ta9 k9d ( recognition ( ! d]ivation ( our k f exp]i5ce2 z %[n 9 ,ri*>d ( ,/4 ,victor1 9 ! twelf? c5tury4 ,i h consid]$ 7p4 #aeb7 ! plea ( ! admir]s ( ^? ages1 t religi\s au?ority 0 n claim$ = physical sci5ce4 ,i h notic$ t ! rise ( ,exp]im5tal ,philosophy exhibit$ two features 7*ap4 vii4 p4 #aee71 ! ,insurrection aga9/ ,au?ority1 & ! ,appeal to ,exp]i5ce3 & z exemplify+ ^! features1 ,i h spok5 ( ,raymond ,lully & ( ,rog] ,bacon4 ,i h fur!r notic$ ! opposition to ! prevail+ ,ari/otelian dogmatism manife/$ 7*ap4 viii47 by ,nicolas ( ,cus1 ,m>silius ,fic9us1 ,francis ,patricius1 ,picus ( ,mir&ula1 ,cornelius ,agrippa1 ,!ophra/us ,p>acelsus1 ,rob]t ,fludd4 ,i h gone on to notice ! ,!oretical ,re=m]s ( ,sci5ce 7*ap4 ix471 ,b]n>d9us ,telesius1 ,?omas ,campanella1 ,&reas ,csalp9us1 ,pet] ,ramus2 & ! ,prote/ant ,re=m]s1 z ,melanc?on4 ,aft] ^! come ! ,practical ,re=m]s ( ,sci5ce1 :o h _! place 9 ! subsequ5t hi/ory ( ,inductive ,philosophy2 ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 & ! ,h]alds ( ! dawn+ light ( real sci5ce1 :om ,francis ,bacon welcomes1 z ,h]alds are acco/$ 9 ,hom]3 4 ,hail1 ,h]alds1 mess5g]s ( ,gods & m56 #eab ,i h1 9 ! "p ( ! ,philosophy ref]r$ to1 discuss$ ! m]its & defects ( ,francis ,bacon's ,me?od1 & ,i %all h occasion1 9 ! next ,book1 to speak ( 8 mode ( deal+ ) ! positive sci5ce ( 8 "t4 ,!re is room = mu* m reflexion on ^! subjects1 b ! ref]5ces n[ made may suffice at pres5t4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,progress ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages4 ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,,aqu9as wrote 7besides ! ,summa m5tion$ 9 ! text7 a ,comm5t>y on ! ,physics ( ,ari/otle3 ,comm5t>ia 9 ,ari/otelis ,libros ,physicorum1 ,v5ice1 #adib4 ,?is "w is ( c\rse ( no sci5tific value2 & ! comm5t>y consi/s ( empty p]mutations ( ab/ract t]ms1 simil> to ^? :i* con/itute ! ma9 sub/ance ( ! text 9 ,ari/otle's physical speculations4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 an attempt to give a m te*nical =m to ! propositions & _! demon/rations4 ,z specim5s ( ^!1 ,i may m5tion t 9 ,book vi4 c4 #b1 we h a demon/ration t :5 bodies move1 ! "t & ! magnitude 7t is1 ! space describ$71 are divid$ simil>ly2 ) _m l propositions4 ,& 9 ,book viii4 we h su* propositions z ?is 7c4 #aj73 ,demon/ration t a f9ite mov] 7mov5s7 _c move any?+ 9 an inf9ite "t4 ,?is is illu/rat$ by a diagram 9 :i* two h&s are repres5t$ z engag$ 9 mov+ a :ole sph]e1 & "o h& 9 mov+ a hemisph]e4 ,?is mode ( repres5t+ =ce1 9 diagrams illu/rative ( me*anical reason+s1 by human h&s pu%+1 pull+1 & ! l1 is /ill employ$ 9 elem5t>y books4 ,probably ?is is ! fir/ example ( su* a mode ( repres5tation4 ,rog] ,bacon4 ,,?is writ]1 a contempor>y ( ,?omas ,aqu9as1 exhibits to u a k9d ( k1 speculation1 & op9ion1 s diff]5t f t ( any kn[n p]son ne> 8 "t1 t he des]ves especial notice "h2 #eac & ,i %all transf] to ?is place ! acc\nt :i* ,i h giv5 ( him 9 ! ,philosophy4 ,i d ?is ! m will+ly because ,i reg>d ! exi/5ce ( su* a "w z ! ,opus ,majus at t p]iod z a problem :i* has nev] yet be5 solv$4 ,also ,i may add1 t ! s*eme ( ! ,cont5ts ( ?is "w :i* ,i h giv51 des]ves1 z ,i conceive1 m notice ?an x has yet receiv$4 ,rog] ,bacon 0 born 9 #abad1 ne> ,il*e/]1 9 ,som]set%ire1 ( an old family4 ,9 8 y\? he 0 a /ud5t at ,ox=d1 & made extraord9>y progress 9 all bran*es ( le>n+4 ,he !n w5t to ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 z 0 at t "t ! cu/om ( le>n$ ,engli%m51 & !re receiv$ ! degree ( ,doctor ( ,!ology4 ,at ! p]suasion ( ,rob]t ,gro/te1 bi%op ( ,l9coln1 he ent]$ ! bro!rhood ( ,franciscans 9 ,ox=d1 & gave himself up to /udy ) extraord9>y f]vor4 ,he 0 t]m$ by 8 bro!r monks ,doctor ,mirabilis4 ,we "k f 8 own works1 z well z f ! traditions conc]n+ him1 t he possess$ an intimate acqua9tance ) all ! sci5ce ( 8 "t :i* c\ld be acquir$ f books2 & t he _h made _m rem>kable advances by means ( 8 own exp]im5tal labors4 ,he 0 acqua9t$ ) ,arabic1 z well z ) ! o!r languages common 9 8 "t4 ,9 ! title ( 8 works1 we f9d ! :ole range ( sci5ce & philosophy1 ,ma!matics & ,me*anics1 ,optics1 ,a/ronomy1 ,geography1 ,*ronology1 ,*emi/ry1 ,magic1 ,music1 ,m$ic9e1 ,gramm>1 ,logics1 ,metaphysics1 ,e?ics1 & ,!ology2 & judg+ f ^? :i* are publi%$1 ^! works are full ( s\nd & exact k4 ,he is1 ) good reason1 suppos$ to h discov]$1 or to h _h "s k (1 sev]al ( ! mo/ rem>kable inv5tions :i* 7 made g5]ally kn[n soon aft]w>ds2 z gunp[d]1 l5ses1 burn+ specula1 telescopes1 clocks1 ! correction ( ! cal5d>1 & ! explanation ( ! ra9b[4 ,?us possess+1 9 ! acquirem5ts & habits ( 8 own m9d1 abundant examples ( ! nature ( k & ( ! process ( inv5tion1 ,rog] ,bacon felt also a deep int]e/ 9 ! gr[? & progress ( sci5ce1 a _s ( inquiry respect+ ! causes :i* produc$ or prev5t$ its advance1 & a f]v5t hope & tru/ 9 its future de/9ies2 & ^! feel+s impell$ him to speculate wor?ily & wisely respect+ a ,re=m ( ! ,me?od ( ,philosophiz+4 ,! manuscripts ( 8 works h exi/$ = ne>ly six hundr$ ye>s 9 _m ( ! libr>ies ( ,europe1 & especially 9 ^? ( ,engl&2 & = a long p]iod ! v imp]fect portions ( !m :i* 7 #ead g5]ally kn[n1 left ! "* & atta9m5ts ( ! au?or %r\d$ 9 a k9d ( my/]i\s obscurity4 ,ab\t a c5tury ago1 h[ev]1 8 ,opus ,majus 0 publi%$#e;,a by ,dr4 ,s4 ,jebb1 pr9cipally f a manuscript 9 ! libr>y ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl92 & ?is conta9$ mo/ or all ( ! sep>ate works :i* 7 previ\sly kn[n to ! public1 along ) o!rs /ill m peculi> & *>act]i/ic4 ,we are ?us able to judge ( ,rog] ,bacon's k & ( 8 views1 & !y are 9 e way well wor?y our att5tion4 ,note #e;,a3 ,fratris ,rog]i ,bacon ,ord9is ,m9orum ,opus ,majus ad ,clem5tem ,qu>tum1 ,pontificem ,romanum1 ex ,,ms4 ,codice ,dubl9i5si cum aliis quibusdam collato nunc primum edidit ,s4 ,jebb1 ,m4,d4 ,lond9i1 #agcc4 ,! ,opus ,majus is address$ to ,pope ,clem5t ! ,f\r?1 :om ,bacon _h kn[n :5 he 0 legate 9 ,engl& z ,c>d9al-bi%op ( ,sab9a1 & :o admir$ ! tal5ts ( ! monk1 & piti$ him = ! p]secutions to :i* he 0 expos$4 ,on 8 elevation to ! papal *air1 ?is acc\nt ( ,bacon's lab\rs & views 0 s5t1 at ! e>ne/ reque/ ( ! pontiff4 ,besides ! ,opus ,majus1 he wrote two o!rs1 ! ,opus ,m9us & ,opus ,t]tium2 :i* 7 also s5t to ! pope1 z ! au?or says1#f;,a 'on acc\nt ( ! dang] ( roads1 & ! possible loss ( ! "w4' ,^! works /ill exi/ unpubli%$1 9 ! ,cottonian & o!r libr>ies4 ,note #f;,a3 ,opus ,majus1 ,prf4 ,! ,opus ,majus is a "w equally wond]ful ) reg>d to its g5]al s*eme1 & to ! special treatises ) :i* ! outl9es ( ! plan are fill$ up4 ,! pr(ess$ object ( ! "w is to urge ! necessity ( a re=m 9 ! mode ( philosophiz+1 to set =? ! reasons :y k _h n made a great] progress1 to draw back att5tion to ! s\rces ( k :i* _h be5 unwisely neglect$1 to discov] o!r s\rces :i* 7 yet almo/ unt\*$1 & to animate m5 9 ! und]tak+1 by a prospect ( ! va/ advantages :i* x (f]$4 ,9 ! developem5t ( ?is plan1 all ! lead+ portions ( sci5ce are exp\nd$ 9 ! mo/ complete %ape :i* !y _h at t "t assum$2 & improvem5ts ( a v wide & /rik+ k9d are propos$ 9 "s ( ! pr9cipal ( ^! dep>tm5ts4 ,ev5 if ! "w _h _h no lead+ purpose1 x w\ld h be5 highly valuable z a treasure ( ! mo/ solid k & s\nde/ speculations ( ! "t2 ev5 if x _h conta9$ no su* details1 x w\ld h be5 a "w mo/ rem>kable = its g5]al views & scope4 ,x may be consid]$ z1 at ! same "t1 ! ,encyclop$ia & ! ,novum ,organon ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 #eae ,s9ce ?is "w is ?us s important 9 ! hi/ory ( ,inductive ,philosophy ,i %all give1 9 a ,note1 a view#g;,a ( its divisions & cont5ts4 ,b ,i mu/ n[ endeavor to po9t out m especially ! way 9 :i* ! v>i\s pr9ciples1 :i* ! re=m ( sci5tific me?od involv$1 are "h br\ght into view4 ,note #g;,a3 ,cont5ts ( ,rog] ,bacon's ,opus ,majus3 ,"p ,i4 ,on ! f\r causes ( human ignorance3--,au?ority1 ,cu/om1 ,popul> ,op9ion1 & ! ,pride ( suppos$ ,k4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,on ! s\rce ( p]fect wisdom 9 ! ,sacr$ ,scripture4 ,"p ,,iii4 ,on ! ,usefulness ( ,gramm>4 ,"p ,,iv4 ,on ! ,usefulness ( ,ma!matics4 7#a47 ,! ,necessity ( ,ma!matics 9 ,human ,?+s 7publi%$ sep>ately z ! ,specula ,ma!matica74 7#b47 ,! ,necessity ( ,ma!matics 9 ,div9e ,?+s4--#a4 ,?is /udy has occupi$ holy m53 #b4 ,geography3 #c4 ,*ronology3 #d4 ,cycles2 ! ,gold5 ,numb]1 c43 #e4 ,natural ,ph5om5a1 z ! ,ra9b[3 #f4 ,ari?metic3 #g4 ,music4 7#c47 ,! ,necessity ( ,ma!matics 9 ,ecclesia/ical ,?+s4 #a4 ,! ,c]tification ( ,fai?3 #b4 ,! ,correction ( ! ,cal5d>4 7#d47 ,! ,necessity ( ,ma!matics 9 ! ,/ate4--#a4 ,( ,climates3 #b4 ,hydrography3 #c4 ,geography3 #d4 ,a/rology4 ,"p ,v4 ,on ,p]spective 7publi%$ sep>ately z ,p]spectiva74 7#a47 ,! organs ( vision4 7#b47 ,vision 9 /raight l9es4 7#c47 ,vision reflect$ & refract$4 7#d47 ,de multiplicatione speci]um 7on ! propagation ( ! impressions ( light1 heat1 c47 ,"p ,,vi4 ,on ,exp]im5tal ,sci5ce4 ,"o ( ! fir/ po9ts to be notic$ = ?is purpose1 is ! resi/ance to au?ority2 & at ! /age ( philosophical hi/ory ) :i* we "h h to d1 ?is means resi/ance to ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle1 z adopt$ & int]pret$ by ! ,doctors ( ! ,s*ools4 ,bacon's "w#h;,a is divid$ into ,six ,p>ts2 & ( ^! ,p>ts1 ! ,fir/ is1 ,( ! f\r univ]sal ,causes ( all ,human ,ignorance4 ,! causes ?us enum]at$#i;,a are3--! =ce ( unwor?y au?ority2--tradition>y habit2--! imp]fection ( ! undiscipl9$ s5ses2--& ! disposition to conceal our ignorance & to make an o/5tati\s %[ ( our k4 ,^! influ5ces involve e man1 occupy e condition4 ,!y prev5t our obta9+ ! mo/ useful & l>ge & fair doctr9es ( wisdom1 ! secrets ( all sci5ces & arts4 ,he !n proce$s to argue1 f ! te/imony ( philosoph]s !mselves1 t ! au?ority ( antiquity1 & especially ( ,ari/otle1 is n infallible4 ',we f9d#aj;,a _! books full ( d\bts1 obscurities1 & p]plexities4 ,!y #eaf sc>ce agree ) ea* o!r 9 "o empty "q or "o wor?less sophism1 or "o op]ation ( sci5ce1 z "o man agrees ) ano!r 9 ! practical op]ations ( m$ic9e1 surg]y1 & ! l arts ( secul> m54 ,inde$1' he adds1#aa;,a 'n only ! philosoph]s1 b ! sa9ts h fall5 into errors :i* !y h aft]w>ds retract$1' & ?is he in/ances 9 ,augu/91 ,j]ome1 & o!rs4 ,he gives an admirable sket* ( ! progress ( philosophy f ! ,ionic ,s*ool to ,ari/otle2 ( :om he speaks ) great applause4 ',yet1' he adds1 '^? :o came aft] him correct$ him 9 "s ?+s1 & add$ _m ?+s to 8 works1 & %all g on add+ to ! end ( ! _w4' ,ari/otle1 he adds1 is n[ call$ peculi>ly#ab;,a ! ,philosoph]1 'yet !re 0 a "t :5 8 philosophy 0 sil5t & unreg>d$1 ei!r on acc\nt ( ! r>ity ( copies ( 8 works1 or _! difficulty1 or f envy2 till aft] ! "t ( ,mahomet1 :5 ,avic5na & ,av]roes1 & o!rs1 recall$ ?is philosophy into ! full light ( exposition4 ,& al?\gh ! ,logic & "s o!r works 7 translat$ by ,boe?ius f ! ,greek1 yet ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle fir/ receiv$ a quick increase among ! ,lat9s at ! "t ( ,mi*ael ,scot2 :o1 9 ! ye> ( our ,"l #abcj1 appe>$1 br++ ) him portions ( ! books ( ,ari/otle on ,natural ,philosophy & ,ma!matics4 ,& yet a small "p only ( ! works ( ?is au?or is translat$1 & a /ill small] "p is 9 ! h&s ( common /ud5ts4' ,he adds fur!r#ac;,a 79 ! ,?ird ,"p ( ! ,opus ,majus1 :i* is a ,diss]tation on ,language7 t ! translations :i* are curr5t ( ^! writ+s1 are v bad & imp]fect4 ,) ^! views1 he is mov$ to express himself some:at impati5tly#ad;,a respect+ ^! works3 ',if ,i _h1' he says1 'p[] ov] ! works ( ,ari/otle1 ,i w\ld h !m all burnt2 = x is only a loss ( "t to /udy 9 !m1 & a c\rse ( error1 & a multiplication ( ignorance beyond expression4' ',! common h]d ( /ud5ts1' he says1 ') _! heads1 h no pr9ciple by :i* !y c be excit$ to any wor?y employm5t2 & h5ce !y mope & make asses ( !mselves ov] _! bad translations1 & lose _! "t1 & tr\ble1 & money4' #eag ,note #h;,a3 ,op4 ,maj4 p4 #a4 ,note #i;,a3 ,ib4 p4 #b4 ,note #aj;,a3 ,ib4 p4 #aj4 ,note #aa;,a3 ,op4 ,maj4 p4 #cf4 ,note #ab;,a3 ,autonomatic4 ,note #ac;,a3 ,op4 ,maj4 p4 #df4 ,note #ad;,a3 ,see ,pref4 to ,jebb's edition4 ,! passages !re quot$1 h[ev]1 are n extracts f ! ,opus ,majus1 b 7app>5tly7 f ! ,opus ,m9us 7,,ms4 ,cott4 ,tib4 c 4 #e74 ,si hab]em pote/atem supra libros ,ari/otelis1 ego fac]em omnes crem>i2 quia non e/ nisi temporis amissio /ud]e 9 illis1 et causa erroris1 et multiplicatio ignoranti ultra id quod valeat explic>i4 4 4 4 ,vulgus /ud5tum cum capitibus suis non habet unde excitetur ad aliquid dignum1 et ideo languet et as99at circa male translata1 et tempus et /udium amittit 9 omnibus et exp5sas4 ,! rem$ies :i* he recomm5ds = ^! evils1 are1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! /udy ( t only p]fect wisdom :i* is to be f\nd 9 ! ,sacr$ ,scripture2#ae;,a 9 ! next place1 ! /udy ( ma!matics & ! use ( exp]im5t4#af;,a ,by ! aid ( ^! me?ods1 ,bacon anticipates ! mo/ spl5did progress = human k4 ,he takes up ! /ra9 ( hope & confid5ce :i* we h notic$ z s peculi> 9 ! ,roman writ]s2 & quotes "s ( ! passages ( ,s5eca :i* we adduc$ 9 illu/ration ( ?is3--t ! attempts 9 sci5ce 7 at fir/ rude & imp]fect1 & 7 aft]w>ds improv$2--t ! day w come1 :5 :at is /ill unkn[n %all be br\ght to light by ! progress ( "t & ! labors ( a long] p]iod2--t "o age does n suffice = inquiries s wide & v>i\s2--t ! p ( future times %all "k _m ?+s unkn[n to u2--& t ! "t %all arrive :5 po/]ity w wond] t we ov]look$ :at 0 s obvi\s4 ,bacon himself adds anticipations m peculi>ly 9 ! _s ( 8 own "t4 ',we h se51' he says1 at ! end ( ! "w1 'h[ ,ari/otle1 by ! ways :i* wisdom tea*es1 c\ld give to ,alex&] ! empire ( ! _w4 ,& ?is ! ,*ur* ought to take into consid]ation aga9/ ! infidels & rebels1 t !re may be a sp>+ ( ,*ri/ian blood1 & especially on acc\nt ( ! tr\bles t %all come to pass 9 ! days ( ,anti*ri/2 :i* by ! grace ( ,god x w\ld be easy to obviate1 if prelates & pr9ces w\ld enc\rage /udy1 & jo9 9 se>*+ out ! secrets ( nature & art4' ,note #ae;,a3 ,"p ii4 ,note #af;,a3 ,p>ts iv4 v4 & vi4 ,x may n be improp] to obs]ve "h t ?is belief 9 ! appo9t$ progress ( k1 is n comb9$ ) any ov]we5+ belief 9 ! unb\nd$ & indep5d5t p[] ( ! human intellect4 ,on ! contr>y1 "o ( ! lessons :i* ,bacon draws f ! /ate & prospects ( k1 is ! duty ( fai? & humility4 ',to him1' he says1#ag;,a ':o d5ies ! tru? ( ! fai? because he is unable to und]/& x1 ,i w propose 9 reply ! c\rse ( nature1 & z we h se5 x 9 examples4' ,& aft] giv+ "s in/ances1 he adds1 ',^!1 & ! l1 ought to move m5 & to excite !m to ! reception ( div9e tru?s4 ,= if1 9 ! vile/ objects ( creation1 tru?s are f\nd1 be=e :i* ! inw>d pride ( man mu/ b[1 & believe ?\gh x _c und]/&1 h[ mu* m %\ld man humble 8 m9d be=e ! glori\s tru?s ( ,god6' ,he _h be=e said3#ah;,a ',man is incapable ( p]fect wisdom 9 ?is life2 x is h>d = #eah him to asc5d t[>ds p]fection1 easy to glide d[nw>ds to falsehoods & vanities3 let him !n n boa/ ( 8 wisdom1 or extol 8 k4 ,:at he kn[s is little & wor?less1 9 respect ( t :i* he believes )\t kn[+2 & /ill less1 9 respect ( t :i* he is ignorant (4 ,he is mad :o ?9ks highly ( 8 wisdom2 he mo/ mad1 :o exhibits x z some?+ to be wond]$ at4' ,he adds1 z ano!r reason = humility1 t he has prov$ by trial1 he c\ld tea* 9 "o ye>1 to a poor boy1 ! m>r[ ( all t ! mo/ dilig5t p]son c\ld acquire 9 =ty ye>s' labori\s & exp5sive /udy4 ,note #ag;,a3 ,op4 ,maj4 p4 #dgf4 ,note #ah;,a3 ,ib4 p4 #ae4 ,to proce$ some:at m 9 detail ) reg>d to ,rog] ,bacon's views ( a ,re=m 9 ,sci5tific ,inquiry1 we may obs]ve t by mak+ ,ma!matics & ,exp]im5t ! two great po9ts ( 8 recomm5dation1 he direct$ 8 improvem5t to ! two ess5tial p>ts ( all k1 ,ideas & ,facts1 & ?us took ! c\rse :i* ! mo/ enlight5$ philosophy w\ld h sugge/$4 ,he did n urge ! prosecution ( exp]im5t1 to ! comp>ative neglect ( ! exi/+ ma!matical sci5ces & conceptions2 a fault :i* !re is "s gr\nd = ascrib+ to 8 great namesake & successor ,francis ,bacon3 /ill less did he cont5t himself ) a m]e prote/ aga9/ ! au?ority ( ! s*ools1 & a vague dem& = *ange1 :i* 0 almo/ all t 0 done by ^? :o put !mselves =w>d z re=m]s 9 ! int]m$iate "t4 ,rog] ,bacon holds 8 way /eadily betwe5 ! two poles ( human k2 :i*1 z we h se51 x is f> f easy to d4 ',!re are two modes ( kn[+1' says he2#ai;,a 'by argum5t1 & by exp]im5t4 ,argum5t concludes a "q2 b x does n make u feel c]ta91 or acquiesce 9 ! contemplation ( tru?1 except ! tru? be also f\nd to be s by exp]i5ce4' ,x is n easy to express m decid$ly ! cle>ly-se5 union ( exact conceptions ) c]ta9 facts1 :i*1 z we h expla9$1 con/itutes real k4 ,note #ai;,a3 ,op4 ,maj4 p4 #dde2 see also p4 #ddh4 ,sci5ti ali sciunt sua pr9cipia inv5ire p] exp]im5ta1 s$ conclusiones p] argum5ta facta ex pr9cipiis inv5tis4 ,si v]o debeant hab]e exp]i5tiam conclusionum su>um p>ticul>em et completam1 tunc oportet quod habeant p] adjutorium i/ius sci5ti nobilis 7exp]im5talis74 ,"o l>ge division ( ! ,opus ,majus is ',on ! ,usefulness ( ,ma!matics1' :i* is %[n by a copi\s enum]ation ( exi/+ bran*es ( k1 z ,*ronology1 ,geography1 ! ,cal5d> & 79 a sep>ate ,"p7 ,optics4 ,!re is a *apt]1#bj;,a 9 :i* x is prov$ #eai by reason1 t all sci5ce requires ma!matics4 ,& ! argum5ts :i* are us$ to e/abli% ?is doctr9e1 %[ a mo/ j appreciation ( ! (fice ( ma!matics 9 sci5ce4 ,!y are su* z foll[s3--,t o!r sci5ces use examples tak5 f ma!matics z ! mo/ evid5t3--,t ma!matical k is1 z x 71 innate to u1 on :i* po9t he ref]s to ! well-kn[n dialogue ( ,plato1 z quot$ by ,cic]o3--,t ?is sci5ce1 be+ ! easie/1 (f]s ! be/ introduction to ! m difficult3--,t 9 ma!matics1 ?+s z kn[n to u are id5tical ) ?+s z kn[n to nature3--,t we c "h entirely avoid d\bt & error1 & obta9 c]ta9ty & tru?3--,t ma!matics is prior to o!r sci5ces 9 nature1 because x takes cognizance ( quantity1 :i* is appreh5d$ by intuition 7intuitu intellectus74 ',moreov]1' he adds1#ba;,a '!re h be5 f\nd fam\s m51 z ,rob]t1 bi%op ( ,l9coln1 & ,bro!r ,adam ,m>%man 7de ,m>isco71 & _m o!rs1 :o by ! p[] ( ma!matics h be5 able to expla9 ! causes ( ?+s2 z may be se5 9 ! writ+s ( ^! m51 = in/ance1 conc]n+ ! ,ra9b[ & ,comets1 & ! g5]ation ( heat1 & climates1 & ! cele/ial bodies4' ,note #bj;,a3 ,ib4 p4 #fj4 ,note #ba;,a3 ,op4 ,maj4 p4 #fd4 ,b und\bt$ly ! mo/ rem>kable portion ( ! ,opus ,majus is ! ,six? & la/ ,"p1 :i* is entitl$ ',de ,sci5tia exp]im5tali4' ,x is inde$ an extraord9>y circum/ance to f9d a writ] ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 n only recogniz+ exp]im5t z "o s\rce ( k1 b urg+ its claims z some?+ f> m important ?an m5 _h yet be5 aw>e (1 exemplify+ its value by /rik+ & j examples1 & speak+ ( its au?ority ) a dignity ( diction :i* s\nds l a =emurmur ( ! ,baconian s5t5ces utt]$ ne>ly f\r hundr$ ye>s lat]4 ,yet ?is is ! "* ( :at we "h f9d4#bb;,a ',exp]im5tal sci5ce1 ! sole mi/ress ( speculative sci5ces1 has ?ree great ,pr]ogatives among o!r p>ts ( k3 ,fir/ %e te/s by exp]im5t ! noble/ conclusions ( all o!r sci5ces3 ,next %e discov]s respect+ ! notions :i* o!r sci5ces deal )1 magnific5t tru?s to :i* ^! sci5ces ( !mselves c by no means atta93 h] ,?ird dignity is1 t %e by h] own p[] & )\t respect ( o!r sci5ces1 inve/igates ! secrets ( nature4' #ebj ,note #bb;,a3 ,v]itates magnificas 9 t]m9is ali>um sci5ti>um 9 quas p] nullam viam possunt ill sci5ti1 hc sola sci5ti>um dom9a speculativ>um1 pote/ d>e4--,op4 ,maj4 p4 #dfe4 ,! examples :i* ,bacon gives ( ^! ',pr]ogatives' are v curi\s1 exhibit+1 among "s error & cr$ulity1 s\nd & cle> views4 ,8 lead+ example ( ! ,fir/ ,pr]ogative is ! ,ra9b[1 ( :i* ! cause1 z giv5 by ,ari/otle1 is te/$ by ref]5ce to exp]im5t ) a skill :i* is1 ev5 to u n[1 truly admirable4 ,! examples ( ! ,second ,pr]ogative are ?ree--fir/1 ! art ( mak+ an artificial sph]e :i* %all move ) ! heav5s by natural influ5ces1 :i* ,bacon tru/s may be done1 ?\gh a/ronomy h]self _c d x--'et tunc1' he says1 '!saurum unius regis val]et hoc in/rum5tum2'--secondly1 ! art ( prolong+ life1 :i* exp]im5t may tea*1 ?\gh m$ic9e has no means ( secur+ x except by regim52#bc;,a--?irdly1 ! art ( mak+ gold f9] ?an f9e gold1 :i* goes beyond ! p[] ( al*emy4 ,! ,?ird ,pr]ogative ( exp]im5tal sci5ce1 arts indep5d5t ( ! receiv$ sci5ces1 is exemplifi$ 9 _m curi\s examples1 _m ( !m :imsical traditions4 ,?us x is said t ! "* ( a p may be alt]$ by alt]+ ! air4#bd;,a ,alex&]1 x seems1 appli$ to ,ari/otle to "k :e!r he %\ld ext]m9ate c]ta9 nations :i* he _h discov]$1 z be+ irreclaimably b>b>\s2 to :i* ! philosoph] repli$1 ',if y c alt] _! air1 p]mit !m to live2 if n1 put !m to dea?4' ,9 ?is "p1 we f9d ! sugge/ion t ! fire-works made by *ildr51 ( saltpetre1 might lead to ! inv5tion ( a =midable milit>y weapon4 ,note #bc;,a3 ,"o ( ! +r$i5ts ( a prep>ation "h m5tion$1 is ! fle% ( a dragon1 :i*1 x appe>s1 is us$ z food by ! ,e?iopians4 ,! mode ( prep>+ ?is food _c fail to amuse ! read]4 ,:]e !re are good fly+ dragons1 by ! art :i* !y possess1 !y draw !m out ( _! d5s1 & h bridles & saddles 9 read9ess1 & !y ride ^u !m1 & make !m b\nd ab\t 9 ! air 9 a viol5t mann]1 t ! h>dness & t\ghness ( ! fle% may be r$uc$1 z bo>s are hunt$ & bulls are bait$ be=e !y are kill$ = eat+4--,op4 ,maj4 p4 #dgj4 ,note #bd;,a3 ,op4 ,maj4 p4 #dgb4 ,x c\ld n be expect$ t ,rog] ,bacon1 at a "t :5 exp]im5tal sci5ce h>dly exi/$1 c\ld give any precepts = ! discov]y ( tru? by exp]im5t4 ,b no?+ c be a bett] example ( ! me?od ( su* inve/igation1 ?an 8 inquiry conc]n+ ! cause ( ! ,ra9b[4 ,nei!r ,ari/otle1 nor ,avic5na1 nor ,s5eca1 he says1 h giv5 u any cle> k ( ?is matt]1 b exp]im5tal sci5ce c d s4 ,let ! exp]im5t] 7exp]im5tator7 consid] ! cases 9 :i* he f9ds ! same colors1 z ! hexagonal cry/als f ,irel& & ,india2 by look+ into ^! he w see colors l ^? ( ! ra9b[4 ,_m ?9k t ?is arises f "s #eba special virtue ( ^! /ones & _! hexagonal figure2 let !re=e ! exp]im5t] g on1 & he w f9d ! same 9 o!r transp>5t /ones1 9 d>k ones z well z 9 light-color$4 ,he w f9d ! same effect also 9 o!r =ms ?an ! hexagon1 if !y be furr[$ 9 ! surface1 z ! ,iri% cry/als are4 ,let him consid] too1 t he sees ! same colors 9 ! drops :i* are da%$ f o>s 9 ! sun%9e2--& 9 ! spray ?r[n by a mill :eel2--& 9 ! dew drops :i* lie on ! grass 9 a mead[ on a summ] morn+2--& if a man takes wat] 9 8 m\? & projects x on "o side into a sunbeam2--& if 9 an oil lamp hang+ 9 ! air1 ! rays fall 9 c]ta9 positions ^u ! surface ( ! oil2--& 9 _m o!r ways1 are colors produc$4 ,we h "h a collection ( in/ances1 :i* are almo/ all examples ( ! same k9d z ! ph5om5on "u consid]ation2 & by ! help ( a pr9ciple collect$ by induction f ^! facts1 ! colors ( ! ra9b[ 7 aft]w>ds really expla9$4 ,) reg>d to ! =m & o!r circum/ances ( ! b[ he is /ill m precise4 ,he bids u measure ! height ( ! b[ & ( ! sun1 to %[ t ! c5tre ( ! b[ is exactly opposite to ! sun4 ,he expla9s ! circul> =m ( ! b[1--its be+ indep5d5t ( ! =m ( ! cl\d1 its mov+ :5 we move1 its fly+ :5 we foll[1--by its consi/+ ( ! reflections f a va/ numb] ( m9ute drops4 ,he does n1 inde$1 trace ! c\rse ( ! rays ?r\gh ! drop1 or acc\nt = ! precise magnitude :i* ! b[ assumes2 b he approa*es to ! v]ge ( ?is "p ( ! explanation2 & mu/ be consid]$ z hav+ giv5 a mo/ happy example ( exp]im5tal inquiry into nature1 at a "t :5 su* examples 7 exce$+ly scanty4 ,9 ?is respect1 he 0 m =tunate ?an ,francis ,bacon1 z we %all h]eaft] see4 ,we "k b little ( ! biography ( ,rog] ,bacon1 b we h e reason to believe t 8 influ5ce ^u 8 age 0 n great4 ,he 0 suspect$ ( magic1 & is said to h be5 put into close conf9em5t 9 consequ5ce ( ?is *>ge4 ,9 8 "w he speaks ( ,a/rology1 z a sci5ce well wor? cultivat+4 ',b1' says he1 ',!ologians & ,decreti/s1 n be+ le>n$ 9 su* matt]s1 & see+ t evil z well z good may be done1 neglect & abhor su* ?+s1 & reckon !m among ,magic ,arts4' ,we h already se51 t at ! v "t :5 ,bacon 0 ?us rais+ 8 voice aga9/ ! habit ( bl9dly foll[+ au?ority1 & seek+ = all sci5ce 9 ,ari/otle1 ,?omas ,aqu9as 0 employ$ 9 fa%ion+ ,ari/otle's t5ets into t fix$ =m 9 :i* !y became ! great imp$im5t to ! #ebb progress ( k4 ,x w\ld seem1 inde$1 t some?+ ( a /ruggle betwe5 ! progressive & /ation>y p[]s ( ! human m9d 0 go+ on at ?is "t4 ,bacon himself says1#be;,a ',nev] 0 !re s great an appe>ance ( wisdom1 nor s mu* ex]cise ( /udy 9 s _m ,faculties1 9 s _m regions1 z = ?is la/ =ty ye>s4 ,doctors are disp]s$ ev]y:]e1 9 e ca/le1 9 e burgh1 & especially by ! /ud5ts ( two ,ord]s1 7he means ! ,franciscans & ,dom9icans1 :o 7 almo/ ! only religi\s ord]s t di/+ui%$ !mselves by an application to /udy1#bf;,a7 :i* has n happ5$ except = ab\t =ty ye>s4 ,& yet !re 0 nev] s mu* ignorance1 s mu* error4' ,& 9 ! "p ( 8 "w :i* ref]s to ,ma!matics1 he says ( t /udy1#bg;,a t x is ! door & ! key ( ! sci5ces2 & t ! neglect ( x = ?irty or =ty ye>s has entirely ru9$ ! /udies ( ! ,lat9s4 ,accord+ to ^! /atem5ts1 "s *ange1 disa/r\s to ! =tunes ( sci5ce1 mu/ h tak5 place ab\t #abcj1 soon aft] ! f\ndation ( ! ,dom9ican & ,franciscan ,ord]s4#bh;,a ,nor c we d\bt t ! adoption ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy by ^! two ,ord]s1 9 ! =m 9 :i* ! ,angelical ,doctor _h sy/ematiz$ x1 0 "o ( ! ev5ts :i* mo/ t5d$ to def]1 = ?ree c5turies1 ! re=m :i* ,rog] ,bacon urg$ z a matt] ( cry+ necessity 9 8 own "t4 ,note #be;,a3 ,quot$ by ,jebb1 ,pref4 to ,op4 ,maj4 ,note #bf;,a3 ,mo%eim1 ,hi/4 iii4 #afa4 ,note #bg;,a3 ,op4 ,maj4 p4 #eg4 ,note #bh;,a3 ,mo%eim1 iii4 #afa4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k t 9 ! ,opus ,majus ( ,rog] ,bacon1 z aft]w>ds 9 ! ,novum ,organon ( ,francis ,bacon1 we h c]ta9 features ( exp]im5tal rese>* po9t$ out conspicu\sly z ,prrogativ3 al?\gh 9 ! =m]1 ?is t]m is employ$ to designate ! sup]iority ( exp]im5tal sci5ce 9 g5]al to ! sci5ce ( ! s*ools2 9 ! latt] "w1 ! t]m is appli$ to c]ta9 classes ( exp]im5ts z sup]ior to o!rs4 #ebc ,,book ,v4 ,,=mal ,,a/ronomy4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,cop]nicus4 ,nicolas ( ,cus4 ,i ,,w quote ! passage1 9 ! writ+s ( ?is au?or1 :i* be>s ^u ! subject 9 "q4 ,i translate x f ! edition ( 8 book ,de ,docta ,ignorantia1 f 8 works publi%$ at ,basil 9 #aefe4 ,he praises ,le>n$ ,ignorance--t is1 ,ackn[l$g$ ,ignorance--z ! s\rce ( k4 ,8 gr\nd = ass]t+ ! motions ( ! e>? is1 t !re is no su* ?+ z p]fect re/1 or an exact c5tre1 or a p]fect circle1 nor p]fect uni=mity ( motion4 ,neque v]us circulus dabilis e/1 qu9etiam v]ior d>i possit1 neque unquam uno tempore sicut alio qualit] prcis1 aut movetur1 aut circulum v]i similem1 qualem describit1 etiamsi nobis hoc non app>eat4 ,et ubicumque quis fu]it1 se 9 c5tro esse cr$it4 7,lib4 i4 cap4 xi4 p4 #ci47 ,he adds1 ,! ,anci5ts did n atta9 to ?is k1 because !y 7 want+ 9 ,le>n$ ,ignorance4 ,n[ x is manife/ to u t ! ,e>? is truly 9 motion1 al?\gh ?is d n appe> to u2 s9ce we d n appreh5d motion except by comp>ison ) some?+ fix$4 ,= if any "o 7 9 a boat 9 ! middle ( a riv]1 ignorant t ! wat] 0 fl[+1 & n see+ ! banks1 h[ c\ld he appreh5d t ! boat 0 mov+8 ,& ?us s9ce e "o1 :e!r he be 9 ! ,e>?1 or 9 ! ,sun1 or 9 any o!r />1 ?9ks t he is 9 an immovable c5tre1 & t ev]y?+ else is mov+2 he w\ld assign diff]5t poles = himself1 o!rs z be+ 9 ! ,sun1 o!rs 9 ! ,e>?1 & o!rs 9 ! ,moon1 & s ( ! re/4 ,:5ce ! ma*9e ( ! _w is z if x _h its c5tre ev]y:]e & its circumf]5ce n[h]e4 ,?is tra9 ( ?\ght #ebd might be a prep>ation = ! reception ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em2 b x is v diff]5t f ! doctr9e t ! ,sun is ! c5tre ( ! ,planet>y ,motions4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,cop]nican ,,!ory4 ,! ,moon's ,rotation4 ,i ,,h said1 9 page #bfd1 t a confusion ( m9d produc$ by ! d\ble ref]5ce ( motion to absolute space1 & to a c5tre ( revolution1 (t5 leads p]sons to dispute :e!r ! ,moon1 :ile %e revolves ab\t ! ,e>?1 always turn+ to x ! same face1 revolves ab\t h] axis or n4 ,?is dispute has be5 reviv$ v lately1 & has be5 conduct$ 9 a mann] :i* %[s t popul> read]s & writ]s h made little progress 9 ! cle>ness ( _! notions dur+ ! la/ two or ?ree c5turies2 & t !y h accept$ ! ,newtonian doctr9es 9 words ) a v dim appreh5sion ( _! real import4 ,if ! ,moon 7 c>ri$ r\nd ! ,e>? by a rigid arm revolv+ ab\t ! ,e>? z a c5tre1 be+ rigidly fa/5$ to ?is arm1 z a mimic ,moon might be1 9 a ma*9e con/ruct$ to repres5t h] motions1 ?is contrivance1 :ile x made h] revolve r\nd ! ,e>? w\ld make h] also turn ! same face to ! ,e>?3 & if we 7 to make su* a ma*9e ! /&>d example ( rotation1 ! ,moon might be said n to rotate on h] axis4 ,b we are spe$ily l$ to endless confusion by tak+ ?is case z ! /&>d ( rotation4 ,= ! selection ( ! c5tre ( rotation 9 a sy/em :i* includes sev]al bodies is arbitr>y4 ,! ,moon turns all h] faces successively to ! ,sun1 & !re=e ) reg>d to ! ,sun1 %e does rotate on h] axis2 & yet %e revolves r\nd ! ,sun z truly z %e revolves r\nd ! ,e>?4 ,& ! only really simple & consi/5t mode ( speak+ ( rotation1 is to ref] ! motion n to any relative c5tre1 b to absolute space4 ,?is is ! argum5t m]ely on ! gr\nd ( simplicity & consi/5cy4 ,b we f9d physical reasons1 z well z ma!matical1 = ref]r+ ! motion to absolute space4 ,if a cup ( wat] be c>ri$ r\nd a c5tre s z to describe a circle1 a /raw float+ on ! surface #ebe ( ! wat]1 if x po9t to ! c5tre ( ! circle at fir/1 does n cont9ue to d s1 b rema9s p>allel to itself dur+ ! :ole revolution4 ,n[ !re is no cause to make ! wat] 7& !re=e ! /raw7 rotate on its axis2 & !re=e x is n a cle> or conv5i5t way ( speak+1 to say t ! wat] 9 ?is case does revolve on its axis4 ,b if ! wat] 9 ?is case d n revolve on its axis1 a body 9 ! case ( ! ,moon does revolve on its axis4 ,! difficulty1 z ,i h said 9 ! text1 is ( ! same nature z t :i* ! ,cop]nicans at fir/ f\nd 9 ! p>allel motion ( ! ,e>?'s axis4 ,9 ord] to make ! axis ( ! ,e>?'s rotation rema9 p>allel to itself :ile ! ,e>? revolves ab\t ! ,sun1 9 a me*anical repres5tation1 "s ma*9]y is ne$$ 9 addition to ! ma*9]y :i* produces ! revolution r\nd ! c5tre 7! ,sun73 b ! simple/ way ( reg>d+ ! p>allel motion is1 to conceive t ! axis has no motion except t :i* c>ries x r\nd ! c5tral ,sun4 ,& x 0 se51 :5 ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics 0 e/abli%$1 t no =ce 0 ne$$ 9 nature to produce ?is p>allelism ( ! ,e>?'s axis4 ,x 0 !re=e ! only sci5tific c\rse1 to conceive ?is p>allelism z n be+ a rotation3 & 9 l mann] we are to conceive ! p>allelism ( a revolv+ body z n be+ a rotation4 ,m4 ,f\cault's ,pro(s ( ! ,e>?'s ,motion4 ,,x 0 h>dly to be expect$ t we %\ld discov]1 9 our own day1 a new physical pro( ( ! e>?'s motion1 yet s x has be54 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,f\cault h enabl$ u to see ! ,rotation ( ! ,e>? on its axis1 z tak+ place1 we may say1 be=e our eyes4 ,^! exp]im5ts are1 9 fact1 a result ( :at has be5 said 9 speak+ ( ! ,moon's rotation3 namely1 ,t ! me*anical causes ( motion op]ate ) ref]5ce to absolute1 n relative1 space2 s t :]e !re is no cause op]at+ to *ange a motion1 x w reta9 its direction 9 absolute space2 & may on t acc\nt seem to *ange1 if reg>d$ relatively 9 a limit$ space4 ,9 ,m4 ,f\cault's fir/ exp]im5t1 ! motion employ$ 0 t ( a p5dulum4 ,if a p5dulum oscillate q freely1 !re is no cause act+ to *ange ! v]tical plane ( oscillation absolutely2 = ! =ces :i* produce ! oscillation are 9 ! v]tical plane4 ,b if ! v]tical plane rema9 ! same absolutely1 at a spot on ! surface ( ! revolv+ ,e>?1 x w *ange relatively to ! spectator4 ,he w see ! p5dulum oscillate 9 a v]tical plane :i* gradually #ebf turns away f its fir/ position4 ,n[ ?is is :at really happ5s2 & ?us ! revolution ( ! ,e>? 9 absolute space is exp]im5tally prov$4 ,9 subsequ5t exp]im5ts1 ,m4 ,f\cault has us$ ! rotation ( a body to prove ! same ?+4 ,= :5 a body rotates freely1 act$ ^u by no p[]1 !re is no?+ to *ange ! position ( ! axis ( rotation 9 absolute space4 ,b if ! position ( ! axis rema9 ! same 9 absolute space1 x w1 9 virtue ( its relative motion1 *ange z se5 by a spectator at any spot on ! rotat+ ,e>?4 ,by tak+ a heavy disk or globe & mak+ x rotate on its axis rapidly1 ! =ce ( absolute p]man5ce 7z comp>$ ) ! inevitable casual di/urbances aris+ f ! ma*9]y :i* supports ! revolv+ disk7 becomes consid]able & h5ce ! relative motion c1 9 ?is way also1 be made visible4 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan has said 7,comp4 to ,brit4 ,alm4 #ahcf1 p4 #ah7 t a/ronomy does n supply any argum5t = ! e>?'s motion :i* is absolutely & demon/rably conclusive1 till we come to ! ,ab]ration ( ,light4 ,b we may n[ v5ture to say t ! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,f\cault prove ! diurnal motion ( ! ,e>? 9 ! mo/ conclusive mann]1 by palpable & broad effects1 if we accept ! doctr9es ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,me*anics3 :ile ,ab]ration proves ! annual motion1 if we suppose t we c obs]ve ! places ( ! fix$ />s to ! accuracy ( a few seconds2 & if we accept1 9 addition to ! doctr9es ( ,me*anics1 ! doctr9e ( ! motion ( light ) a c]ta9 great velocity4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sequel ,,to ,,cop]nicus4 ,engli% ,cop]nicans4 ,,pr(essor ,,de ,,morgan has made num]\s & int]e/+ contributions to ! hi/ory ( ! progress & reception ( ! ,cop]nican ,sy/em4 ,^! are giv5 ma9ly 9 ! ,companion to ! ,briti% ,almanac2 especially 9 8 pap]s entitl$ ,old ,argum5ts aga9/ ! ,motion ( ! ,e>? 7#ahcf72 ,engli% ,ma!matical & ,a/ronomical ,writ]s 7#ahcg72 ,on ! ,difficulty ( ,correct #ebg ,description ( ,books 7#ahec72 ,! ,progress ( ! ,doctr9e ( ! ,e>?'s ,motion betwe5 ! ,times ( ,cop]nicus & ,galileo 7#ahee74 ,9 ^! pap]s he insi/s v rightly ^u ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ma!matical & ! physical aspect ( ! doctr9es ( ,cop]nicus3 a di/9ction correspond+ v ne>ly ) ! di/9ction :i* we h drawn betwe5 ,=mal & ,physical ,a/ronomy2 & 9 accordance ) :i* we h giv5 ! hi/ory ( ! ,helioc5tric ,doctr9e z a ,=mal ,!ory 9 ,book v41 & z a ,physical ,!ory 9 ,book vii4 ,ano!r int]e/+ "p ( ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's rese>*es are ! notices :i* he has giv5 ( ! e>ly ass]tors ( ! helioc5tric doctr9e 9 ,engl&4 ,^! make _! appe>ance z soon z x 0 well possible !y %\ld exi/4 ,! "w ( ,cop]nicus 0 publi%$1 z we h said1 9 #aedc4 ,9 ,septemb] #aeef1 ,john ,field publi%$ an ,ephem]is = #aeeg1 juxta ,cop]nici et ,re9holdi ,canones1 9 ! preface to :i* he av[s 8 conviction ( ! tru? ( ! ,cop]nican hypo!sis4 ,rob]t ,recorde1 ! au?or ( v>i\s works on ,ari?metic1 publi%$ among o!rs1 ,! ,pa?way to ,k 9 #aeea4 ,9 ?is book1 ! au?or discusses ! "q ( ! quietnes ( ! e>?1 & pr(esses to leave x undecid$3 b ,mr4 ,de ,morgan 7,comp4 ,a4 #ahcg1 p4 #cc7 conceives t x appe>s f :at is said1 t he 0 really a ,cop]nican1 b did n ?9k ! _w ripe = any su* doctr9e4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,hunt] also has br\ght to notice#bi;,a ! claims ( ,field1 :om he designates z ! ,proto-,cop]nican ( ,engl&4 ,he quotes ! ,address to ! ,read] prefix$ to 8 fir/ ,ephem]is1 & dat$ ,may #ca1 #aeef1 9 :i* he says t1 s9ce abl] m5 decl9e ! task1 ,i h !re=e publi%$ ?is ,ephem]is ( ! ye> #aeeg1 foll[+ 9 x z my au?orities1 ,n4 ,cop]nicus & ,erasmus ,re9hold1 ^: writ+s are e/abli%$ & f\nd$ on true1 c]ta91 & au!ntic demon/rations4 ,i conceive t ?is passage1 h[ev]1 only %[s t ,field _h adopt$ ! ,cop]nican s*eme z a basis = ! calculation ( ,ephem]ides2 :i*1 z ,mr4 ,de ,morgan has rem>k$1 is a v diff]5t ?+ f accept+ x z a physical tru?4 ,field1 9 ?is same address1 makes m5tion ( ! errors illius turb qu ,alphonsi utitur hypo!si2 b ! ^w hypo!sis is /ill indecisive4 ,note #bi;,a3 ,a/4 ,soc4 ,notices1 vol4 iii4 p4 #c 7#ahcc74 ,z evid5ce t ,field 0 reg>d$ 9 8 own day z a man :o #ebh _h r5d]$ good s]vice to sci5ce1 ,mr4 ,hunt] notices t1 9 #aeeh1 ! ,h]alds grant$ to him ! "r ( us+1 ) 8 arms1 ! cre/ or additional device ( a r$ "r arm issu+ f ! cl\ds1 & pres5t+ a gold5 armill>y sph]e4 ,recorde's claims dep5d ^u a passage 9 a ,dialogue betwe5 ,ma/] & ,s*ol>1 9 :i* ! ,ma/] exp\nds ! doctr9e ( ,cop]nicus1 & ! au?orities aga9/ x2 to :i* ! ,s*ol> answ]s1 tak+ ! common view3 ,nay1 sir1 9 good fai? ,i desire n to he> su* va9e phantasies1 s f> aga9/ common reason1 & repugnant to all ! le>n$ multitude ( wryt]s1 & !re=e let x passe = ev] & a day long]4 ,! ,ma/]1 m sagely1 w>ns him aga9/ a ha/y judgm5t1 & says1 ,ano!r "t ,i w s decl>e 8 supposition1 t y %all n only wond] to he> x1 b also p]adv5ture be z e>ne/ !n to cr$it x1 z y n[ are n[ to condemne x4 ,i conceive t ?is passage proves ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's ass]tion1 t ,recorde 0 a ,cop]nican1 & v likely ! fir/ 9 ,engl&4 ,9 #aeee1 also1 ,leon>d ,digges publi%$ 8 ,progno/ication ,ev]la/+2 b ?is is1 z ,mr4 ,de ,morgan says 7,comp4 ,a4 #ahcg1 p4 #dj7 a meteorological "w4 ,x 0 republi%$ 9 #aeib by 8 son ,?omas ,digges ) additions2 & z ^! h be5 ! occasion ( "s confusion among ^? :o h writt5 on ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy1 ,i am glad to be able1 ?r\gh ! k9dness ( ,pr(essor ,walk] ( ,ox=d1 to give a di/9ct acc\nt ( ! editions ( ! "w4 ,9 ! ,bodleian ,libr>y1 besides ! editions ( #aeee & #aeib ( ! ,progno/ication ,ev]la/+1 !re is an edition ( #aefd4 ,x is /ill decid$ly ,ptolemaic1 & conta9s a ,diagram repres5t+ a numb] ( conc5tric circles1 :i* are m>k$1 9 ord]1 z-- ,! ,e>?1 ,moone1 ,v5us1 ,m]cury1 ,sunne1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturne1 ,! ,/>rie ,firmam5t1 ,! ,cry/all9e ,heav5s1 ,! ,fir/ ,mov]1 ,! ,abode ( ,god & ! ,elect4 ,"h ! ,le>n$ d approve4 #ebi ,! ?ird edition1 ( #aeib1 conta9s an ,addition1 by ! son1 ( tw5ty pages4 ,he !re speaks ( hav+ f\nd1 app>5tly among 8 fa!r's pap]s1 ,a description or modile ( ! _w & situation ( ,sph]es ,cle/iall & elem5t>e accord+ to ! doctr9e ( ,ptolemie1 :]eunto all univ]sities 7l$ !reunto *iefly by ! au?oritie ( ,ari/otle7 d cons5t4 ,he adds3 ,b 9 ?is our age1 "o r>e witte 7see+ ! cont9uall errors t f "t to "t m & m cont9ually h be5 discov]$1 besides ! inf9ite absurdities 9 _! ,!oricks1 :i* !y h be5 =c$ to admit t w\ld n confesse any ,mobilitie 9 ! ball ( ! ,e>?7 ha? by long /udye1 paynfull practise1 & r>e inv5tion1 deliv]$ a new ,!orick or ,model ( ! _w1 %ew+ t ! ,e>? re/e? n 9 ! ,c5t] ( ! :ole _w or globe ( elem5ts1 :i* encircl$ & enclos$ 9 ! ,moone's orbe1 & toge!r ) ! :ole globe ( mortalitye is c>ri$ ye>ely r\nd ab\t ! ,sunne1 :i* l a k+ 9 ! midde/ ( all1 raygne? & give? lawes ( motion to all ! re/1 sphrically disp]s+ 8 glori\s beames ( light ?r\gh all ?is sacr$ cle/iall ,temple4 ,& ! ,e>? itselfe to be "o ( ! ,planets1 hav+ 8 peculi> & /range c\rses1 turn+ e #bd h\rs r\nde ^u 8 owne c5tre1 :]eby ! ,sunne & great globe ( fix$ ,/>res seem to sway ab\t & turne1 albeit inde$ !y rema9e fix$--,s _m ways is ! s5se ( mortal man abus$4 ,?is ,addition is head$3 ,a ,p]fit ,description ( ! ,cle/iall ,orbes1 accord+ to ! mo/ anci5t doctr9e ( ! ,py?agoreans3 lately reviv$ by ,cop]nicus1 & by ,geometrical ,demon/rations approv$4 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan1 n hav+ se5 ?is edition1 & kn[+ ! title-page only z f> z ! ^w ,py?agoreans1 says _! a/rological doctr9es we presume1 n _! reput$ ,cop]nican ones4 ,b x n[ appe>s t 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r cases1 ! au?ority ( ! ,py?agoreans 0 claim$ = ! ,cop]nican sy/em4 ,antony a ,wood quotes ! latt] "p ( ! title ?us3 ,cui subnectitur orbium ,cop]nic>um accurata descriptio2 :i* is inaccurate4 ,weidl]1 /ill m inaccurately1 cites x1 ,cui subnectitur op]um ,cop]nici accurata descriptio4 ,lal&e goes /ill fur!r1 attempt+1 x w\ld seem1 to recov] ! ,engli% title-page f ! ,lat93 we f9d 9 ! ,bibl4 ,a/ron4 ! foll[+3 #aeib 4 4 ,leon>d ,digges1 ,accurate ,description ( ! ,cop]nican ,sy/em to ! ,a/ronomical p]petual ,progno/ication4 ,?omas ,digges appe>s1 by o!rs also ( 8 writ+s1 to h be5 #ecj a cle> & decid$ ,cop]nican4 ,9 8 ,al sive ,scal ,ma!matic1 #aegc1 he be/[s high praise ^u ,cop]nicus & ^u 8 sy/em3 & appe>s to h be5 a believ] 9 ! real motion ( ! ,e>?1 & n m]ely an admir] ( ! sy/em ( ,cop]nicus z an explanatory hypo!sis4 ,giordano ,bruno4 ,! complete title ( ! "w ref]r$ to is3 ,jordani ,bruni ,nolani ,de ,monade ,num]o et ,figura lib] consequ5s ,qu9que ,de ,m9imo ,magno et ,m5sura1 item ,de ,innum]abilibus1 ,imm5so et ,infigurabili2 seu ,de ,univ]so et ,mundis libri octo4 7,franc(urti1 #aeia47 ,t ! ,read] may judge ( ! value ( ,bruno's speculations1 ,i give ! foll[+ quotations3 ,lib4 iv4 c4 #aa 7,index74 ,tellurem totam habitabilem esse intus et extra1 et innum]abilia animantium complecti tum nobis s5sibilium tum occultorum g5]a4 ,c4 #ac4 ,ut ,mundorum ,synodi 9 ,univ]so et p>ticul>es ,mundi 9 ,synodis ord95tur1' c4 ,he says 7,lib4 v4 c4 #a1 p4 #dfa73 ,besides ! />s & ! great worlds !re are small] liv+ creatures c>ri$ ?r\gh ! e!rial space1 9 ! =m ( a small sph]e :i* has ! aspect ( a bright fire1 & is by ! vulg> reg>d$ z a fi]y beam4 ,!y are bel[ ! cl\ds1 & ,i saw "o :i* seem$ to t\* ! ro(s ( ! h\ses4 ,n[ ?is sph]e1 or beam z !y call x1 0 really a liv+ creature 7animal71 :i* ,i once saw mov+ 9 a /raight pa?1 & graz+ z x 7 ! ro(s ( ! city ( ,nola1 z if x 7 go+ to imp+e on ,m\nt ,cicada2 :i* h[ev] x w5t ov]4 ,!re are two rec5t editions ( ! works ( ,giordano ,bruno2 by ,adolf ,wagn]1 ,leipsick1 #ahcj1 9 two volumes2 & by ,gfrr]1 ,b]l91 #ahcc4 ,( ! latt] ,i d n "k t m ?an "o volume 7vol4 ii47 has appe>$4 ,did ,francis ,bacon reject ! ,cop]nican ,sy/em8 ,,mr4 ,,de ,,morgan has v prop]ly rem>k$ 7,comp4 ,b4 ,a4 #ahee1 p4 #aa7 t ! notice ( ! helioc5tric "q 9 ! ,novum ,organon mu/ be consid]$ "o ( ! mo/ important passages 9 8 works ^u ?is po9t1 z be+ probably ! late/ writt5 & be/ #eca matur$4 ,x occurs 9 ,lib4 ii4 ,aphorism xxxvi41 9 :i* he is speak+ ( ,pr]ogative ,in/ances1 ( :i* he gives tw5ty-sev5 species4 ,9 ! passage n[ ref]r$ to1 he is speak+ ( a k9d ( ,pr]ogative ,in/ances1 bett] kn[n to ord9>y read]s ?an mo/ ( ! k9ds by "n1 ! ,in/antia ,crucis3 ?\gh probably ! metaphor f :i* ?is "n is d]iv$ is commonly wrongly appreh5d$4 ,bacon's mean+ is ,guide-,po/ ,in/ances3 & ! ,crux :i* he alludes to is n a ,cross1 b a ,guide-,po/ at ,cross-roads4 ,& among ! cases to :i* su* ,in/ances may be appli$1 he m5tions ! diurnal motion ( ! heav5s f ea/ to we/1 & ! special motion ( ! p>ticul> heav5ly bodies f we/ to ea/4 ,& he sugge/s :at he conceives may be an ,in/antia ,crucis 9 ea* case4 ,if1 he says1 we f9d any motion f ea/ to we/ 9 ! bodies :i* surr\nd ! e>?1 sl[ 9 ! ocean1 quick] 9 ! air1 quick] /ill 9 comets1 gradually quick] 9 planets accord+ to _! great] di/ance f ! e>?3 !n we may suppose t !re is a cosmical diurnal motion1 & ! motion ( ! e>? mu/ be d5i$4 ,) reg>d to ! special motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 he fir/ rem>ks t ea* body n com+ q s f> we/w>ds z be=e1 aft] "o revolution ( ! heav5s1 & go+ to ! nor? or ! s\?1 does n imply any special motion2 s9ce x may be acc\nt$ = by a modification ( ! diurnal motion 9 ea*1 :i* produces a defect ( ! return1 & a spiral pa?2 & he says t if we look at ! matt] z common p#cj;,a & disreg>d ! devices ( a/ronom]s1 ! motion is really s to ! s5ses2 & t he has made an imitation ( x by means ( wires4 ,! in/antia crucis :i* he "h sugge/s is1 to see if we c f9d 9 any cr$ible hi/ory an acc\nt ( any comet :i* did n %>e 9 ! diurnal revolution ( ! skies4 ,note #cj;,a3 ,et c]tissimum e/ si paulisp] pro plebeiis nos g]amus 7missis a/ronomorum et s*ol comm5tis1 quibus illud 9 m e/1 ut s5sui 9 multis imm]ito vim faciant et obscuriora mal9t7 talem esse motum i/um ad s5sum qualem diximus4 ,on 8 ass]tion t ! motion ( ea* sep>ate planet is1 to s5se1 a spiral1 we may rem>k t x is c]ta9ly true2 b t ! bus9ess ( sci5ce1 "h1 z else:]e1 consi/s 9 resolv+ ! complex ph5om5on into simple ph5om5a2 ! complex spiral motion into simple circul> motions4 ,) reg>d to ! diurnal motion ( ! e>?1 x w\ld seem z if ,bacon himself _h a lean+ to believe x :5 he wrote ?is passage2 = nei!r is he himself1 nor are any ( ! ,anticop]nicans1 #ecb accu/om$ to ass]t t ! imm5sely rapid motion ( ! sph]e ( ! ,fix$ ,/>s graduates by a sl[] & sl[] motion ( ,planets1 ,comets1 ,air1 & ,ocean1 into ! immobility ( ! ,e>?4 ,s t ! conditions are n satisfi$ on :i* he hypo!tically says1 tum abneg&us e/ motus t]r4 ,) reg>d to ! prop] motions ( ! planets1 ?is passage seems to me to confirm :at ,i h already said ( him2 t he does n appe> to h se5 ! full value & mean+ ( :at _h be5 done1 up to 8 "t1 9 ,=mal ,a/ronomy4 ,we may h[ev] fully agree ) ,mr4 ,de ,morgan2 t ! :ole ( :at he has said on ?is subject1 :5 put toge!r1 does n ju/ify ,hume's ass]tion t he reject$ ! ,cop]nican sy/em ) ! mo/ positive disda94 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan1 9 ord] to balance ! ,cop]nican argum5t d]iv$ f ! imm5se velocity ( ! />s 9 _! diurnal velocity on ! o!r supposition1 has rem9d$ u t ^? :o reject ?is great velocity z improbable1 accept )\t scruple ! great] velocity ( light4 ,x is curi\s t ,bacon also has made ?is comp>ison1 ?\gh us+ x = a diff]5t purpose2 namely1 to %[ t ! transmission ( ! visual impression may be in/antane\s4 ,9 ,aphorism xlvi4 ( ,book ii4 ( ! ,novum ,organon he is speak+ ( :at he calls ,in/anti curriculi1 or ,in/anti ad aquam1 :i* we may call ,in/ances by ! clock3 & he says t ! great velocity ( ! diurnal sph]e makes ! m>vell\s velocity ( ! rays ( light m cr$ible4 ,imm5sa illa velocitas 9 ipso corpore1 qu c]nitur 9 motu diurno 7qu etiam viros graves ita ob/upefecit ut mall5t cr$]e motum t]r71 facit motum illum ejaculationis ab ipsis /ellis 7licet cel]itate ut diximus admirabilem7 magis cr$ibilem4 ,?is passage %[s an incl9ation t[>ds ! op9ion ( ! e>?'s be+ at re/1 b n a v /rong conviction4 ,kepl] p]secut$4 ,,we h se5 7p4 #bhj7 t ,kepl] writes to ,galileo 9 #aeig--;,be tru/ful & g =w>ds4 ,if ,italy is n a conv5i5t place = ! publication ( y\r views1 & if y are likely to meet ) any ob/acles1 p]haps ,g]many w grant u ! necess>y lib]ty4 ,kepl] h[ev] _h soon aft]w>ds occasion to le>n t 9 ,g]many also1 ! cultivators ( sci5ce 7 expos$ to p]secution4 ,x is true t #ecc 9 8 case ! p]secution w5t ma9ly on ! broad gr\nd ( 8 be+ a ,prote/ant1 & ext5d$ to great numb]s ( p]sons at t "t4 ,! circum/ances ( ?is & o!r portions ( ,kepl]'s life h be5 br\ght to light only rec5tly ?r\gh an exam9ation ( public docum5ts 9 ! ,ar*ives ( ,wrtemb]g & unpubli%$ lett]s ( ,kepl]4 7,johann ,keppl]'s ,leb5 und ,wirk51 na* neu]li* aufgefund55 ,manuscript5 be>beitet von ,j4 ,l4 ,c4 ,freih]rn v4 ,breits*w>t1 ,k4 ,wrtemb]g4 ,/aats-,ra?4 ,/uttg>t1 #ahca47 ,s*ill]1 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>1 says t :5 ,f]d9& ( ,au/ria succe$$ to ! ,ar*du*y ( ,/iria1 & f\nd a great numb] ( ,prote/ants among 8 subjects1 he suppress$ _! public wor%ip )\t cruelty & almo/ )\t noise4 ,b x appe>s n[ t ! ,prote/ants 7 treat$ ) great sev]ity4 ,kepl] held a pr(essor%ip 9 ,/iria1 & _h m>ri$1 9 #aejg1 ,b>b>a ,mll]1 :o _h l&$ prop]ty 9 t prov9ce4 ,on ! #aa? ( ,june1 #aeih1 he writes to 8 fri5d ,m/l9 t ! arrival ( ! ,pr9ce out ( ,italy is look$ =w>ds to ) t]ror4 ,9 ,decemb] he writes t ! ,prote/ants _h irritat$ ! ,ca?olics by attacks f ! pulpit & by c>icatures2 t h]eupon ! ,pr9ce1 at ! pray] ( ! ,e/ates1 _h decl>$ ! ,lett] ( ,lic5se grant$ by 8 fa!r to be =feit$1 & _h ord]$ all ! ,evangelical ,tea*]s to leave ! c\ntry on pa9 ( dea?4 ,!y w5t to ! fronti]s ( ,hung>y & ,croatia2 b aft] a mon?1 ,kepl] 0 all[$ to return1 on condition ( keep+ quiet4 ,8 discov]ies appe> to h op]at$ 9 8 favor4 ,b ! next ye> he f\nd 8 situation 9 ,/iria intol]able1 & long$ to return to 8 native c\ntry ( ,wrtemb]g1 & to f9d "s position !re4 ,?is he did n obta94 ,he wrote a circul> lett] to 8 ,bro!r ,prote/ants1 to give !m consolation & c\rage2 & ?is 0 held to be a violation ( ! conditions on :i* 8 resid5ce 0 tol]at$4 ,=tunately1 at ?is "t he 0 invit$ to jo9 ,ty*o ,brahe1 :o _h also be5 driv5 f 8 native c\ntry1 & 0 liv+ at ,prague4 ,! two a/ronom]s work$ toge!r "u ! patronage ( ! ,emp]or ,rudolph ,,ii42 & :5 ,ty*o di$ 9 #afja1 ,kepl] became ! ,imp]ial ,ma!maticus4 ,we are n to imag9e t ev5 among ,prote/ants1 a/ronomical notions 7 out ( ! sph]e ( religi\s consid]ations4 ,:5 ,kepl] 0 e/abli%$ 9 ,/iria1 8 fir/ (ficial bus9ess 0 ! calculation ( ! ,cal5d> = ! ,evangelical ,community4 ,!y prote/$ aga9/ ! new ,cal5d>1 z manife/ly calculat$ = ! fur!rance ( an impi\s papi/ry3 &1 say !y1 ,we hold ! ,pope = a #ecd horrible ro>+ ,lion4 ,if we take 8 ,cal5d>1 we mu/ ne$s g into ! *ur* :5 he r+s u 94 ,kepl] h[ev] did n fail to see1 & to say1 t ! ,papal ,re=mation ( ! ,cal5d> 0 a va/ improvem5t4 ,kepl]1 z c\rt-a/ronom]1 0 ( c\rse requir$ to provide su* obs]vations ( ! heav5s z 7 requisite = ! calculations ( ! ,a/rolog]s4 ,t he consid]$ ,a/rology to be valuable only z ! nurse ( ,a/ronomy1 he did n hesitate to reveal4 ,he wrote a "w ) a title ( :i* ! foll[+ is ! be/ translation :i* ,i c give3 ,t]tius int]v5i5s1 or3 ,a ,w>n+ to c]ta9 ,!ologi1 ,m$ici1 ,philosophi1 t :ile !y reasonably reject />-gaz+ sup]/ition1 !y d n ?r[ away ! k]nel ) ! %ell4#ca;,a #afaj4 ,9 ?is he says1 ,y ov]-clev] ,philosoph]s blame ?is ,daught] ( ,a/ronomy m ?an is reasonable4 ,d y n "k t %e mu/ ma9ta9 h] "m ) h] *>ms8 ,h[ _m m5 w\ld be able to make ,a/ronomy _! bus9ess1 if m5 did n *]i% ! hope to read ! ,future 9 ! skies8 ,note #ca;,a3 ,! ,g]man passage involves a curi\s image1 borr[$1 ,i suppose1 f "s odd /ory3 dass sie mit billig] ,v]w]fung des /]nguck]is*5 ,ab]glaub5s das ,k9d ni*t mit dem ,bade auss*tt54 ,t !y d n ?r[ away ! *ild along ) ! dirty wat] ( 8 ba?4 ,7 ! ,papal ,edicts aga9/ ! ,cop]nican ,sy/em repeal$8 ,,admiral ,,smy?1 9 8 ,cycle ( ,cele/ial ,objects1 vol4 i4 p4 #fe1 says--,at l5g?1 9 #ahah1 ! voice ( tru? 0 s prevail+ t ,pius ,,vii4 repeal$ ! edicts aga9/ ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 & ?us1 9 ! emphatic words ( ,c>d9al ,toriozzi1 'wip$ (f ?is sc&al f ! ,*ur*4' ,a l /ory is ref]r$ to by ,sir ,francis ,palgrave1 9 8 ent]ta9+ & in/ructive fiction1 ,! ,m]*ant & ! ,fri>4 ,hav+ made inquiry ( p]sons mo/ likely to be well in=m$ on ?is subject1 ,i h n be5 able to le>n t !re is any fur!r f\ndation = ^! /atem5ts ?an ?is3 ,9 #ahah1 on ! revisal ( ! ,index ,expurgatorius1 ,galileo's writ+s 71 aft] "s opposition1 expung$ f t ,catalogue4 ,monsignor ,m>9o ,m>9i1 an em95t ,roman ,prelate1 _h address$ to ! ,romana ,accademia di ,ar*eologia1 c]ta9 hi/orico-critical ,memoirs1 :i* he publi%$ 9 #ahej1 ) ! title ,galileo e l',inquisizione4 ,9 ^!1 he confirms ! conclusion :i*1 ,i ?9k1 almo/ #ece all p]sons :o h /udi$ ! facts h arriv$ at2#cb;,a t ,galileo trifl$ ) au?ority to :i* he pr(ess$ to submit1 & 0 puni%$ = ob/9ate contumacy1 n = h]esy4 ,m4 ,m>9i r5d]s full ju/ice to ,galileo's ability1 & does n at all hesitate to reg>d 8 sci5tific atta9m5ts z among ! glories ( ,italy4 ,he quotes1 :at ,galileo himself quot$1 an expression ( ,c>d9al ,b>onius1 t ! int5tion ( ! ,holy ,_s 0 to tea* h[ to g to heav51 n h[ heav5 goes4#cc;,a ,he %[s t ,galileo plead$ 7p4 #fb7 t he _h n held ! ,cop]nican op9ion aft] x _h be5 intimat$ to him 7by ,bell>m9e 9 #afaf71 t he 0 n to hold x2 & t 8 brea* ( promise 9 ?is respect 0 ! cause ( ! proce$+s aga9/ him4 ,note #cb;,a3 ,m4 ,m>9i 7p4 #bi7 m5tions ,leibnitz1 ,guizot1 ,spittl]1 ,ei*horn1 ,raum]1 ,ranke1 among ! /orici et]odossi :o h at la/ done ju/ice to ! ,roman ,*ur*4 ,note #cc;,a3 ,come si vada al ,cielo1 e non come vada il ,cielo4 ,^? :o admire ,galileo & reg>d him z a m>tyr because1 aft] escap+ puni%m5t by say+ ,x does n move1 he =?) said ,& yet x does move1 w p]haps be int]e/$ to "k t ! =m] answ] 0 sugge/$ to him by fri5ds anxi\s = 8 safety4 ,niccol9i writes to ,bali ,cioli 7,april #i1 #afcc7 t ,galileo cont9u$ to be s p]suad$ ( ! tru? ( 8 op9ions t he 0 resolv$ 7"s mom5ts be=e 8 s5t5ce7 to def5d !m /\tly2 b ,i 7cont9ues ,niccol9i7 exhort$ him to make an end ( ?is2 n to m9d def5d+ !m2 & to submit himself to t :i* he sees t !y may desire him to believe or to hold ab\t ?is matt] ( ! motion ( ! e>?4 ,he 0 extremely afflict$4 ,b ! ,inquisition 0 satisfi$ ) 8 answ]s1 & requir$ no m4#cd;,a ,note #cd;,a3 ,m>9i1 p4 #fa4 #ecf ,,book ,,vi4 ,,me*anics4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,problems4 ,significance ( ,analytical ,me*anics4 ,,9 ! text1 page #cgb1 ,i h /at$ t ,lagrange1 ne> ! end ( 8 life1 express$ 8 sorr[ t ! me?ods ( approximation employ$ 9 ,physical ,a/ronomy re/$ on arbitr>y processes1 & n on any insight into ! results ( me*anical action4 ,f ! rec5t biography ( ,gauss1 ! greate/ physical ma!matician ( mod]n times1 we le>n t he congratulat$ himself on hav+ escap$ ?is error4 ,he rem>k$#ce;,a t _m ( ! mo/ celebrat$ ma!maticians1 ,eul] v (t51 ,lagrange sometimes1 _h tru/$ too mu* to ! symbolical calculation ( _! problems1 & w\ld n h be5 able to give an acc\nt ( ! mean+ ( ea* successive /ep ( _! inve/igation4 ,he said t he himself1 on ! o!r h&1 c\ld ass]t t at e /ep :i* he took1 he always _h ! aim & purpose ( 8 op]ations be=e 8 eyes )\t ev] turn+ aside f ! way4 ,! same1 he rem>k$1 might be said ( ,newton4 ,note #ce;,a3 ,gauss1 ,zum ,g$*tniss1 von ,w4 ,s>torius v4 ,walt]%aus51 p4 #hj4 ,eng9e]+ ,me*anics4 ,! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics 7 discov]$ by obs]vations made ^u bodies )9 ! rea* ( m52 z we h se5 9 speak+ ( ! discov]ies ( ,/ev9us1 ,galileo1 & o!rs1 up to ! "t ( ,newton4 ,& :5 !re arose ! controv]sy ab\t vis viva 7,*ap4 v4 ,sect4 #b ( ?is ,book72--namely1 :e!r ! liv+ =ce ( a body is measur$ by ! product ( ! weight into ! #ecg velocity1 or ( ! weight into ! squ>e ( ! velocity2--/ill ! examples tak5 7 cases ( action 9 ma*9es & ! l t]re/rial objects4 ,b ,newton's discov]ies id5tifi$ cele/ial ) t]re/rial me*anics2 & f t "t ! me*anical problems ( ! heav5s became m important & attractive to ma!maticians ?an ! problems ab\t e>?ly ma*9es4 ,& ?us ! g5]alizations ( ! problems1 pr9ciples1 & me?ods ( ! ma!matical sci5ce ( ,me*anics f ?is p]iod are pr9cipally ^? :i* h ref]5ce to ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies3 su* z ! ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies1 ! ,pr9ciples ( ! ,cons]vation ( ,areas1 & ( ! ,immovable ,plane1 ! ,me?od ( ,v>iation ( ,p>amet]s1 & ! l 7,*ap4 vi4 ,sect4 #g & #ad74 ,& ! same is ! case 9 ! m rec5t progress ( t subject1 9 ! h&s ( ,gauss1 ,bessel1 ,hans51 & o!rs4 ,b yet ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics z appli$ to t]re/rial ma*9es--,indu/rial ,me*anics1 z x has be5 t]m$--has made "s /eps :i* x may be wor? :ile to notice1 ev5 9 a g5]al hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 all ! mo/ g5]al laws ( me*anical action be+ already f9ally e/abli%$1 9 ! way :i* we h _h to n>rate1 ! det]m9ation ( ! results & conditions ( any comb9ation ( mat]ials & movem5ts becomes really a ma!matical d$uction f kn[n pr9ciples4 ,b su* d$uctions may be made mu* m easy & mu* m lum9\s by ! e/abli%m5t ( g5]al t]ms & g5]al propositions suit$ to _! special conditions4 ,among ^! ,i may m5tion a new ab/ract t]m1 introduc$ because a g5]al me*anical pr9ciple c be express$ by means ( x1 :i* has lately be5 mu* employ$ by ! ma!matical eng9e]s ( ,france1 ,,mm4 ,poncelet1 ,navi]1 ,mor91 c4 ,! ab/ract t]m is ,travail1 :i* has be5 translat$ ,labor+ ,=ce2 & ! pr9ciple :i* gives x its value1 & makes x useful 9 ! solution ( problems1 is ?is2--t ! "w done 79 ov]com+ resi/ance or produc+ any o!r effect7 is equal to ! ,labor+ ,=ce1 by :atev] contrivances ! =ce be appli$4 ,?is is n a new pr9ciple1 be+ 9 fact ma!matically equival5t to ! cons]vation ( ,vis ,viva2 b x has be5 employ$ by ! ma!maticians ( :om ,i h spok5 ) a f]tility & simplicity :i* make x ! m>k ( a new s*ool ( ,! ,me*anics ( ,eng9e]+4 ,! ,labor+ ,=ce exp5d$ & ! "w done h be5 describ$ by v>i\s t]ms1 z ,!oretical ,effect & ,practical ,effect1 & ! l4 ,! usual t]m among ,engli% eng9e]s = ! "w #ech :i* an ,eng9e usually does1 is ,duty2 b z ?is ^w naturally signifies :at ! eng9e ought to d1 r ?an :at x does1 we %\ld at lea/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! ,!oretical & ! ,actual ,duty4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,!oretical & ,actual ,duty ( a ,ma*9e arises f ?is3 t a portion ( ! ,labor+ ,=ce is absorb$ 9 produc+ effects1 t is1 9 do+ "w :i* is n reckon$ z ,duty3 = in/ance1 ov]com+ ! resi/ance & wa/e ( ! ma*9e itself4 ,& s long z ?is resi/ance & wa/e are n rightly e/imat$1 no correspond5ce c be e/abli%$ betwe5 ! !oretical & ! practical ,duty4 ,?\gh mu* _h be5 writt5 previ\sly ^u ! !ory ( ! /eam-eng9e1 ! correspond5ce betwe5 ! ,=ce exp5d$ & ! ,"w done 0 n cle>ly made out till ,comte ,de ,pamb\r publi%$ 8 ,treatise on ,locomotive ,eng9es 9 #ahce1 & 8 ,!ory ( ! ,/eam-,eng9e 9 #ahci4 ,/r5g? ( ,mat]ials4 ,among ! subjects :i* h specially engag$ ! att5tion ( ^? :o h appli$ ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics to practical matt]s1 is ! /r5g? ( mat]ials3 = example1 ! /r5g? ( a horizontal beam to resi/ be+ brok5 by a weight press+ ^u x4 ,?is 0 "o ( ! problems :i* ,galileo took up4 ,he 0 l$ to 8 /udy ( x by a visit :i* he made to ! ars5al & docky>ds ( ,v5ice1 & ! conclusions :i* he drew 7 publi%$ 9 8 ,dialogues1 9 #afcc4 ,9 8 mode ( reg>d+ ! problem1 he consid]s ! section at :i* ! beam breaks z ! %ort arm ( a b5t lev] :i* resi/s fracture1 & ! "p ( ! beam :i* is brok5 (f z ! long] arm ( ! lev]1 ! lev] turn+ ab\t ! fracture z a h+e4 ,s f> ?is is true2 & f ?is pr9ciple he obta9$ results :i* are also true z1 t ! /r5g? ( a rectangul> beam is proportional to ! bread? multipli$ into ! squ>e ( ! dep?3--t a holl[ beam is /rong] ?an a solid beam ( ! same mass2 & ! l4 ,b he err$ 9 ?is1 t he suppos$ ! h+e ab\t :i* ! break+ beam turns1 to be exactly at ! unr5t surface1 t surface resi/+ all *ange1 & ! beam be+ r5t all ! way across4 ,:]eas ! fact is1 t ! unr5t surface yields to compression1 :ile ! opposite surface is r5t2 & ! h+e ab\t :i* ! break+ beam turns is at an int]m$iate po9t1 :]e ! ext5sion #eci & rupture end1 & ! compression & cru%+ beg93 a po9t :i* has be5 call$ ! neutral axis4 ,?is 0 po9t$ out by ,m>iotte2 & ! notion1 once sugge/$1 0 s manife/ly true t x 0 adopt$ by ma!maticians 9 g5]al4 ,james ,b]n\lli1#cf;,a 9 #agje1 inve/igat$ ! /r5g? ( beams on ?is view2 & sev]al em95t ma!maticians pursu$ ! subject2 z ,v>ignon1 ,p>5t1 & ,bulf+]2 & at a lat] p]iod1 ,dr4 ,robison 9 our own c\ntry4 ,note #cf;,a3 ,op]a1 ii4 p4 #igf4 ,b along ) ! fracture ( beams1 ! ma!maticians consid]$ also ano!r subject1 ! flexure ( beams1 :i* !y und]go be=e !y break1 9 virtue ( _! ela/icity4 ,:at is ! ela/ic curve8--! curve into :i* an ela/ic l9e =ms itself "u ! pressure ( a weight--is a problem :i* _h be5 propos$ by ,galileo1 & 0 fully solv$1 z a ma!matical problem1 by ,eul] & o!rs4 ,b beams 9 practice are n m]e l9es3 !y are solids4 ,& _! resi/ance to flexure1 & ! am\nt ( x1 dep5ds ^u ! resi/ance ( _! int]nal p>ts to ext5sion & compression1 & is diff]5t = diff]5t sub/ances4 ,to measure ^! diff]5ces1 ,dr4 ,?omas ,"y introduc$ ! notion ( ! ,modulus ( ,ela/icity3#cg;,a mean+ !reby a column ( ! sub/ance ( ! same diamet]1 su* z w\ld by its weight produce a compression equal to ! :ole l5g? ( ! beam1 ! rate ( compression be+ suppos$ to cont9ue ! same ?r\gh\t4 ,?us if a rod ( any k9d1 #ajj in*es long1 7 compress$ #a in* by a weight #ajjj p\nds1 ! weight ( its modulus ( ela/icity w\ld be #ajj1jjj p\nds4 ,?is notion assumes ,hooke's law t ! ext5sion ( a sub/ance is z its t5sion2 & ext5ds ?is law to compression also4 ,note #cg;,a3 ,lecture xiii4 ,! height ( ! modulus is ! same = ! same sub/ance1 :atev] its bread? & ?ickness may be2 = atmosph]ic air x is ab\t five miles1 & = /eel ne>ly #aejj miles4 ,!re is ?is great advantage 9 introduc+ ! def9ition ( ! ,modulus ( ,ela/icity1--t x applies equally to ! flexure ( a sub/ance & to ! m9ute vibrations :i* propagate s\nd1 & ! l4 ,& ! notion 0 appli$ s z to lead to curi\s & important results ) reg>d to ! p[] ( beams to resi/ flexure1 n only :5 load$ transv]sely1 b :5 press$ 9 ! direction ( _! l5g?1 & 9 any oblique direction4 ,b 9 ! fracture ( beams1 ! resi/ance to ext5sion & to compression are n practically equal2 & x 0 necess>y to det]m9e #edj ! diff]5ce ( ^! two =ces by exp]im5ts4 ,sev]al p]sons pursu$ rese>*es on ?is subject2 especially ,mr4 ,b>l[1 ( ! ,royal ,milit>y ,academy1#ch;,a :o inve/igat$ ! subject ) great labor & skill1 s f> z wood is conc]n$4 ,b ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! resi/ance to t5sion & to compression requires m special /udy 9 ! case ( iron2 & has be5 especially att5d$ to 9 rec5t times1 9 consequ5ce ( ! va/ increase 9 ! numb] ( iron /ructures1 & 9 p>ticul>1 railways4 ,x appe>s t wr\ght iron yields to compressive some:at m easily ?an to t5sile =ce1 :ile ca/ iron yields f> m easily to t5sile ?an to compressive /ra9s4 ,9 all cases ! p[] ( a beam to resi/ fracture resides ma9ly 9 ! upp] & ! "u side1 = !re ! t5acity ( ! mat]ial acts at ! greate/ lev]age r\nd ! h+e ( fracture4 ,h5ce ! practice 0 introduc$ ( mak+ iron beams ) a broad flange at ! upp] & ano!r flange at ! "u side1 connect$ by a v]tical plate or web1 ( :i* ! (fice 0 to keep ! two flanges asund]4 ,mr4 ,hodgk9son made _m valuable exp]im5ts1 on a l>ge scale1 to det]m9e ! =ms & prop]ties ( su* beams4 ,note #ch;,a3 ,an ,essay on ! ,/r5g? & ,%ape ( ,timb]4 #c;d edition1 #ahbf4 ,b ?\gh eng9e]s 71 by su* exp]im5ts & reason+s1 enabl$ to calculate ! /r5g? ( a giv5 iron beam1 & ! dim5sions ( a beam :i* %\ld be> a giv5 load1 x w\ld h>dly h occurr$ to ! bolde/ speculator1 a few ye>s ago1 to pr$ict t !re might be con/ruct$ beams ne>ly #ejj feet long1 re/+ m]ely on _! two extremities1 ( :i* x c\ld be kn[n be=eh&1 t !y w\ld su/a91 )\t b5d+ or yield+ 9 any p]ceptible degree1 ! weight ( a railroad tra91 & ! j> ( its un*eck$ motion4 ,yet ( su* beams1 con/ruct$ be=eh& ) ! mo/ p]fect confid5ce1 cr[n$ ) ! mo/ complete success1 is compos$ ! great tubul> bridge :i* t consummate eng9e]1 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,/eph5son1 has ?r[n across ! ,m5ai ,/rait1 jo9+ ,wales ) ! isl& ( ,anglesey4 ,! upp] & "u surfaces ( ?is quadrangul> tube are ! flanges ( ! beam1 & ! two sides are ! webs :i* connect !m4 ,9 plann+ ?is wond]ful /ructure1 ! po9t :i* requir$ especial c>e 0 to make ! upp] surface /rong en\gh to resi/ ! compressive =ce :i* x has to su/a92 & ?is 0 done by con/ruct+ ! upp] "p ( ! beam ( a s]ies ( cells1 made ( iron plate4 ,! application ( ! ar*1 ( ! dome1 & ( gro9$ vault+1 to ! wide/ space ov] :i* !y h ev] be5 ?r[n1 #eda are a*ievem5ts :i* h1 9 ! ages 9 :i* !y occurr$1 be5 receiv$ ) great admiration & applause2 b 9 ^? cases ! pr9ciple ( ! /ructure _h be5 tri$ & v]ifi$ = ages ^u a small] scale4 ,"h n only 0 ! space ?us spann$ wid] ?an any ev] spann$ be=e1 b ! pr9ciple ( su* a beam ) a cellul> /ructure ( its p>ts1 0 inv5t$ = ?is v purpose1 exp]im5tally v]ifi$ ) c>e1 & appli$ ) ! mo/ exact calculation ( its results4 ,ro(s--,ar*es--,vaults4 ,! calculations ( ! me*anical conditions ( /ructures consi/+ ( sev]al beams1 z = in/ance1 ! frames ( ro(s1 dep5ds ^u elem5t>y pr9ciples ( me*anics2 & 0 a subject ( inve/igation at an e>ly p]iod ( ! sci5ce4 ,su* frames may be reg>d$ z assemblages ( lev]s4 ,! p>ts ( :i* !y consi/ are rigid beams :i* su/a9 & convey =ce1 & ,ties :i* resi/ su* =ce by _! t5sion4 ,! =m] p>ts mu/ be made rigid 9 ! way j spok5 ( ) reg>d to iron beams2 b ties may be rods m]ely4 ,! wide /ructures ( _m ( ! ro(s ( railway /ations1 comp>$ ) ! massive wood5 ro(s ( anci5t build+s1 may %[ u h[ boldly & h[ successfully ?is di/9ction has be5 c>ri$ out 9 mod]n times4 ,! inve/igation ( ! conditions & /r5g? ( /ructures consi/+ ( wood5 beams has be5 cultivat$ by ,ma!maticians & ,eng9e]s1 & is (t5 entitl$ ,c>p5try 9 our ,me*anical ,treatises4 ,9 our own "t1 ,dr4 ,robison & ,dr4 ,?omas ,"y h be5 two ( ! mo/ em95t ma!maticians :o h writt5 ^u ?is subject4 ,! prop]ties ( ! simple ma*9es h be5 kn[n1 z we h n>rat$1 f ! "t ( ! ,anci5t ,greeks4 ,b x is pla9 t su* ma*9es are prev5t$ f produc+ _! full effect by v>i\s causes4 ,among ! re/1 ! rubb+ ( "o "p ( ! ma*9e ^u ano!r produces an ob/acle to ! effectiv5ess ( a ma*9e3 = in/ance1 ! rubb+ ( ! axle ( a :eel 9 ! hole 9 :i* x re/s1 ! rubb+ ( a screw aga9/ ! sides ( its holl[ screw2 ! rubb+ ( a w$ge aga9/ ! sides ( its not*2 ! rubb+ ( a cord aga9/ its pulley4 ,9 all ^! cases1 ! effect ( ! ma*9e to produce motion is dim9i%$ by ! friction4 ,& ?is ,friction may be measur$ & its effects calculat$2 & ?us we h a new bran* ( me*anics1 :i* has be5 mu* cultivat$4 #edb ,among ! effects ( friction1 we may notice ! /&+ ( a /one ar*4 ,= ea* ( ! vault+ /ones ( an ar* is a truncat$ w$ge2 & ?\gh a collection ( su* /ones might be s proportion$ 9 _! weights z to balance exactly1 yet ?is balance w\ld be a tott]+ equilibrium1 :i* ! slighte/ %ock w\ld ?r[ d[n1 & :i* w\ld n practically subsi/4 ,b ! friction ( ! vault+ /ones aga9/ "o ano!r prev5ts ?is in/ability f be+ a practical inconv5i5ce2 & makes an equilibrat$ ar* to be an ar* /rong = practical purposes4 ,! ,!ory ( ,ar*es is a portion ( ,me*anics :i* has be5 mu* cultivat$1 & :i* has l$ to conclusions ( practical use1 z well z ( !oretical beauty4 ,i h already spok5 ( ! inv5tion ( ! ,ar*1 ! ,dome1 & ,gro9$ ,vault+1 z m>k$ /eps 9 build+4 ,9 all ^! cases ! inv5tion 0 devis$ by practical build]s2 & me*anical !ory1 ?\gh x c aft]w>ds ju/ify ^! /ructures1 did n orig9ally sugge/ !m4 ,!y are n "p ( ! result1 nor ev5 ( ! application ( !ory1 b only ( its exemplification4 ,! au?ors ( all ^! inv5tions are unkn[n2 & ! inv5tions !mselves may be reg>d$ z a "p ( ! ,prelude ( ! sci5ce ( me*anics1 because !y indicate t ! ideas ( me*anical pressure & support1 9 v>i\s =ms1 are acquir+ cle>ness & fixity4 ,9 ?is po9t ( view1 ,i spoke 7,book iv4 *ap4 v4 sect4 #e7 ( ! ,ar*itecture ( ! ,middle ,ages z indicat+ a progress ( ?\ght :i* l$ m5 t[>ds ! =mation ( ,/atics z a sci5ce4 ,z p>ticul> in/ances ( ! op]ation ( su* ideas1 we h ! ,fly+ ,buttresses :i* support /one vaults2 & especially1 z already not$1 ! v>i\s contrivances by :i* /one vaults are made to int]sect "o ano!r1 s z to cov] a complex pill>$ space bel[ ) ,gro9$ ,vault+4 ,?is inv5tion1 execut$ z x 0 by ! build]s ( ! twelf? & succe$+ c5turies1 is ! mo/ rem>kable advance 9 ! me*anics ( build+1 aft] ! inv5tion ( ! ,ar* itself4 ,x is curi\s t x has be5 ! =tune ( our times1 among its _m inv5tions1 to h produc$ "o 9 ?is dep>tm5t1 ( :i* we may say t x is ! mo/ rem>kable /ep 9 ! me*anics ( ar*es :i* has be5 made s9ce ! introduction ( po9t$ gro9$ vaults4 ,i speak ( :at are call$ ,skew ,ar*es1 9 :i* ! c\rses ( /one or brick ( :i* ! bridge is built run obliquely to ! walls ( ! bridge4 ,su* bridges h become v common 9 ! works ( railroads2 = !y save space & mat]ial1 & ! #edc inv5tion once made1 ! co/ ( ! +5uity is no?+4 ,( c\rse1 ! me*anical pr9ciples involv$ 9 su* /ructures are obvi\s to ! ma!matician1 :5 ! problem has be5 practically solv$4 ,& 9 ?is case1 z 9 ! previ\s c>d9al inv5tions 9 /ructure1 ?\gh ! ev5t has tak5 place )9 a few ye>s1 no s+le p]son1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 c be nam$ z ! inv5tor4#ci;,a ,note #ci;,a3 ,s9ce ?is 0 writt51 ,i h be5 ref]r$ to ,rees's ,cyclopdia1 ,article ,oblique ,ar*es1 :]e ?is inv5tion is correctly expla9$1 & is claim$ = an eng9e] nam$ ,*apman4 ,x is !re said1 t ! fir/ ar* ( ?is k9d 0 erect$ 9 #aghg at ,naas1 ne> ,kild>e 9 ,irel&4 #edd ,,book ,,vii4 ,,physical ,,a/ronomy4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,newton4 ,! ,anci5ts4 ,,expressions 9 anci5t writ]s :i* may be int]pret$ z indicat+ a notion ( gravitation 9 ! ,newtonian s5se1 no d\bt occur4 ,b su* a notion1 we may be sure1 mu/ h be5 9 ! highe/ degree obscure1 wav]+1 & p>tial4 ,i h m5tion$ 7,book i4 ,*ap4 #c7 an au?or :o has fanci$ t he traces 9 ! works ( ! anci5ts ! orig9 ( mo/ ( ! vaunt$ discov]ies ( ! mod]ns4 ,b to ascribe mu* importance to su* expressions w\ld be to give a false repres5tation ( ! real progress ( sci5ce4 ,yet "s ( ,newton's foll[]s put =w>d ^! passages z well des]v+ notice2 & ,newton himself appe>s to h _h "s pleasure 9 cit+ su* expressions2 probably ) ! feel+ t !y reliev$ him ( "s ( ! odium :i*1 he seems to h appreh5d$1 hung ov] new discov]ies4 ,! ,preface to ! ,pr9cipia1 beg9s by quot+#dj;,a ! au?ority ( ! anci5ts1 z well z ! mod]ns1 9 favor ( apply+ ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics to ,natural ,philosophy4 ,9 ! ,preface to ,david ,gregory's ,a/ronomi ,physic et ,geometric ,elem5ta1 publi%$ 9 #agjb1 is a l>ge array ( names ( anci5t au?ors1 & ( quotations1 to prove ! e>ly & wide diffusion ( ! doctr9e ( ! gravity ( ! ,heav5ly ,bodies4 ,& x appe>s to be n[ made out1 t ?is collection ( anci5t au?orities #ede 0 suppli$ to ,gregory by ,newton himself4 ,! late ,pr(essor ,rigaud1 9 8 ,hi/orical ,essay on ! ,fir/ ,publication ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton's ,pr9cipia1 says 7pp4 #hj & #aja7 t hav+ be5 all[$ to exam9e ,gregory's pap]s1 he f\nd t ! quotations giv5 by him 9 8 ,preface are copi$ or abridg$ f notes :i* ,newton _h suppli$ to him 9 8 own h&writ+4 ,"s ( ! mo/ noticeable ( ! quotations are ^? tak5 f ,plut>*'s ,dialogue on ! ,face :i* appe>s 9 ! ,moon's ,disk3 x is !re said1 = example1 by "o ( ! speak]s1 t ! ,moon is p]haps prev5t$ f fall+ to ! e>? by ! rapidity ( h] revolution r\nd x2 z a /one :irl$ 9 a sl+ keeps x /ret*$4 ,lucretius also is quot$1 z tea*+ t all bodies w\ld desc5d ) an equal cel]ity 9 a vacuum3 ,omnia quapropt] deb5t p] inane quietum que pond]ibus non quis concita f]ri4 ,lib4 ii4 v4 #bch4 ,note #dj;,a3 ,cum vet]es ,me*anicam 7uti au?or e/ ,pappus71 9 r]um ,naturalium inve/igatione maximi fec]9t1 et rec5tiores1 missis =mis sub/antialibus et qualitatibus occultis1 ,ph5onm5a ,natur ad leges ma!maticas revoc>e aggressa sunt2 visum e/ 9 hoc ,tractatu ,ma!s9 excol]e quat5us ea ad ,philosophiam spectat4 ,x is ass]t$ 9 ,gregory's ,preface t ,py?agoras 0 n unacqua9t$ ) ! important law ( gravity1 ! inv]se squ>es ( ! di/ances f ! c5tre4 ,=1 x is argu$1 ! sev5 /r+s ( ,apollo's lyre mean ! sev5 planets2 & ! proportions ( ! notes ( /r+s are reciprocally z ! inv]se squ>es ( ! weights :i* /ret* !m4 ,i h attempt$1 ?r\gh\t ?is "w1 to trace ! progress ( ! discov]y ( ! great tru?s :i* con/itute real sci5ce1 9 a m precise mann] ?an t :i* ^! int]pretations ( anci5t au?ors exemplify4 ,j]emiah ,horrox4 ,9 describ+ ! ,prelude to ! ,epo* ( ,newton1 ,i h spok5 7p4 #cie7 ( a gr\p ( philosoph]s 9 ,engl& :o began1 9 ! fir/ half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 to knock at ! door :]e ,tru? 0 to be f\nd1 al?\gh x 0 left = ,newton to =ce x op52 & ,i h !re notic$ ! influ5ce ( ! civil w>s on ! progress ( philosophical /udies4 ,to ! p]sons ?us t5d+ t[>ds ! true physical !ory ( ! sol> sy/em1 ,i ought to h add$ ,j]emy ,horrox1 :om ,i h m5tion$ 9 a =m] "p 7,book v4 *ap4 #e7 z "o ( ! e>lie/ admir]s ( ,kepl]'s discov]ies4 ,he di$ at ! e>ly age ( tw5ty-two1 hav+ be5 ! fir/ p]son :o ev] saw ,v5us pass across ! disk ( ! ,sun accord+ to a/ronomical pr$iction1 :i* took place 9 #afci4 ,8 ,v5us 9 sole visa1 #edf 9 :i* ?is is describ$1 did n appe> till #affa1 :5 x 0 publi%$ by ,hevelius ( ,dantzic4 ,"s ( 8 pap]s 7 de/roy$ by ! soldi]s 9 ! ,engli% civil w>s2 & 8 rema9+ works 7 f9ally publi%$ by ,wallis1 9 #afgc4 ,! passage to :i* ,i "h specially wi% to ref] is conta9$ 9 a lett] to 8 a/ronomical ally1 ,william ,crabtree1 dat$ #afch4 ,he appe>s to h be5 ask$ by 8 fri5d to sugge/ "s cause = ! motion ( ! aphelion ( a planet2 & 9 reply1 he uses an exp]im5tal illu/ration :i* 0 aft]w>ds employ$ by ,hooke 9 #afff4 ,a ball at ! end ( a /r+ is made to sw+ s t x describes an oval4 ,?is contrivance ,hooke employ$ to %[ ! way 9 :i* an orbit results f ! comb9ation ( a projectile motion ) a c5tral =ce4 ,b ! oval does n keep its axis con/antly 9 ! same position4 ,! apsides1 z ,horrox rem>k$1 move 9 ! same direction z ! p5dulum1 ?\gh mu* sl[]4 ,& x is true1 t ?is exp]im5t does illu/rate1 9 a g5]al way1 ! cause ( ! motion ( ! aphelia ( ! ,planet>y ,orbits2 al?\gh ! =m ( ! orbit is diff]5t 9 ! exp]im5t & 9 ! sol> sy/em2 be+ an ellipse ) ! c5tre ( =ce 9 ! c5tre ( ! ellipse1 9 ! =m] case1 & an ellipse ) ! c5tre ( =ce 9 ! focus1 9 ! latt] case4 ,^! two =ms ( orbits correspond to a c5tral =ce v>y+ directly z ! di/ance1 & a c5tral =ce v>y+ inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance2 z ,newton prov$ 9 ! ,pr9cipia4 ,b ! illu/ration appe>s to %[ t ,horrox pretty cle>ly saw h[ an orbit arose f a c5tral =ce4 ,s f>1 & no fur!r1 ,newton's contempor>ies c\ld get2 & !n he _h to help !m onw>ds by %[+ :at 0 ! law ( ! =ce1 & :at l>g] tru?s 7 n[ atta9able4 ,newton's ,discov]y ( ,gravitation4 ,page #djb4 ,z ,i h already rem>k$1 m5 h a will+ness to believe t great discov]ies are gov]n$ by casual co9cid5ces1 & accompani$ by sudd5 revolutions ( feel+4 ,newton _h ent]ta9$ ! ?\ght ( ! moon be+ reta9$ 9 h] orbit by gravitation z e>ly z #affe or #afff4 ,he resum$ ! subject & work$ ! ?\ght out into a sy/em 9 #afhd & #e4 ,:at induc$ him to return to ! "q8 ,:at l$ to 8 success on ?is la/ occasion8 ,) :at feel+s 0 ! success att5d$8 ,x is easy to make an imag9>y connection ( facts4 ,8 optical discov]ies _h recomm5d$ him to ! ,royal ,society1 & he 0 n[ a memb]4 ,he #edg !re le>n$ ! accurate measurem5t ( ! ,e>? by ,pic>d1 diff]+ v mu* f ! e/imation by :i* he _h made 8 calculation 9 #afff2 & he ?\ght 8 conjecture n[ m likely to be j4#da;,a ,m4 ,biot gives 8 ass5t to ?is guess4#db;,a ,! ,engli% translation ( ,m4 ,biot's biography#dc;,a conv]ts ! guess into an ass]tion4 ,b1 says ,pr(essor ,rigaud1#dd;,a ,pic>d's measurem5t ( ! ,e>? 0 well kn[n to ! ,fell[s ( ! ,royal ,society z e>ly z #afge1 !re be+ an acc\nt ( ! results ( x giv5 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = t ye>4 ,moreov]1 ,norwood1 9 8 ,seaman's ,practice1 dat$ #afcf1 _h giv5 a mu* m exact measure ?an ,newton employ$ 9 #afff4 ,b ,norwood1 says ,voltaire1 _h be5 buri$ 9 oblivion by ! civil w>s4 ,no1 aga9 says ! exact & tru?-lov+ ,pr(essor ,rigaud1 ,norwood 0 9 communication ) ! ,royal ,society 9 #affg & #affh4 ,s ^! guesses at ! accid5t :i* made ! apple ( #affe g]m9ate 9 #afhd1 are to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f hi/ory4 ,note #da;,a3 ,robison's ,me*anical ,philosophy1 vol4 iii4 p4 #id4 7,art4 #aie47 ,note #db;,a3 ,biographie ,univ]selle4 ,note #dc;,a3 ,libr>y ( ,useful ,k4 ,note #dd;,a3 ,hi/orical ,essay on ! ,fir/ ,publication ( ! ,pr9cipia 7#ahch74 ,b ) :at feel+s did ,newton atta9 to 8 success8 ,"h aga9 we h1 ,i fe>1 no?+ bett] ?an conjecture4 ,he w5t home1 took out 8 old pap]s1 & resum$ 8 calculations4 ,z !y drew ne> to a close1 he 0 s mu* agitat$ t he 0 oblig$ to desire a fri5d to f9i% !m4 ,8 =m] conjecture 0 n[ f\nd to agree ) ! phnom5a ) ! utmo/ precision4#de;,a ,?is conjectural /ory has be5 call$ a tradition2 b he :o relates x does n call x s4 ,e "o mu/ decide1 says ,pr(essor ,rigaud1 f 8 view ( ,newton's "*1 h[ f> he ?9ks x consi/5t ) ?is /atem5t4 ,is x likely t ,newton1 s calm & s indiff]5t to fame z he g5]ally %[$ himself1 %\ld be ?us agitat$ on su* an occasion8 ,no1 says ,sir ,david ,brew/]2 x is n support$ by :at we "k ( ,newton's "*4#df;,a ,to ?is we may ass5t2 & ?is conjectural incid5t we mu/ !re=e1 ,i conceive1 sep>ate f hi/ory4 ,i _h incauti\sly admitt$ x into ! text ( ! fir/ ,edition4 ,note #de;,a3 ,robison1 ibid4 ,note #df;,a3 ,life ( ,newton1 vol4 i4 p4 #bib4 ,newton appe>s to h discov]$ ! me?od ( demon/rat+ t a body might describe an ellipse :5 act$ ^u by a =ce resid+ 9 ! focus1 & v>y+ inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 9 #affi1 ^u occasion ( 8 correspond5ce ) ,hooke4 ,9 #afhd1 #edh at ,halley's reque/1 he return$ to ! subject2 & 9 ,febru>y1 #afhe !re 0 ins]t$ 9 ! ,regi/] ( ! ,royal ,society a pap] ( ,newton's 7,isaaci ,newtoni ,propositiones de ,motu71 :i* conta9$ "s ( ! pr9cipal propositions ( ! fir/ two ,books ( ! ,pr9cipia4 ,?is pap]1 h[ev]1 does n conta9 ! proposition ,lunam gravit>e 9 ,t]ram1 nor any ( ! propositions ( ! ,?ird ,book4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,pr9cipia4 ,sect4 #b4--,reception ( ! ,pr9cipia4 ,,"l ,,br\gham has v rec5tly 7,analytical ,view ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton's ,pr9cipia1 #ahee7 %[n a /rong disposition /ill to ma9ta91 :at he says has frequ5tly be5 alleg$1 t ! reception ( ! "w 0 n1 ev5 9 ?is c\ntry1 su* z might h be5 expect$4 ,he says1 9 explanation ( ! facts :i* ,i h adduc$1 %[+ ! high e/imation 9 :i* ,newton 0 held imm$iately aft] ! publication ( ! ,pr9cipia1 t ,newton's previ\s fame 0 great by =m] discov]ies4 ,?is is true2 b ! effect ( ?is 0 precisely :at 0 mo/ honorable to ,newton's c\ntrym51 t !y receiv$ ) imm$iate acclamations ?is new & great] discov]y4 ,"l ,br\gham adds1 aft] its appe>ance ! ,pr9cipia 0 m admir$ ?an /udi$2 :i* is probably true ( ! ,pr9cipia /ill1 & ( all great works ( l novelty & difficulty at all times4 ,b1 says ,"l ,br\gham1 !re is no gett+ ov] ! inf]5ce on ?is head :i* arises f ! dates ( ! two fir/ editions4 ,!re elaps$ an int]val ( no less ?an tw5ty-sev5 ye>s betwe5 !m2 & al?\gh ,cotes 9 8 ,preface speaks ( ! copies hav+ become sc>ce & 9 v great dem& :5 ! second edition appe>$ 9 #agac1 yet _h ?is urg5t dem& be5 ( _m ye>s' cont9uance1 ! repr9t+ c\ld nev] h be5 s long delay$4 ,b ,"l ,br\gham might h le>nt f ,sir ,david ,brew/]'s ,life ( ,newton 7vol4 i4 p4 #cab71 :i* he extols s emphatically1 t already 9 #afia 7only f\r ye>s aft] ! publication71 a copy ( ! ,pr9cipia c\ld h>dly be procur$1 & t ev5 at t #edi "t an improv$ edition 0 9 contemplation2 t ,newton _h be5 press$ by 8 fri5ds to und]take x1 & _h refus$4 ,:5 ,b5tley _h induc$ ,newton to cons5t t a new edition %\ld be pr9t$1 he ann\nces 8 success ) obvi\s exultation to ,cotes1 :o 0 to sup]9t5d ! "w4 ,& 9 ! mean "t ! ,a/ronomy ( ,david ,gregory1 publi%$ 9 #agjb1 %[$ 9 e page h[ famili> ! ,newtonian doctr9es 7 to ,engli% philosoph]s1 & t5d$ to make !m m s1 z ! s]mons ( ,b5tley himself _h done 9 #afib4 ,newton's ,cambridge contempor>ies 7 among ^? :o took a "p 9 br++ ! ,pr9cipia be=e ! _w4 ,! manuscript draft ( x 0 convey$ to ! ,royal ,society 7,april #bh1 #afhf7 by ,dr4 ,v9c5t1 ,fell[ ( ,cl>e ,hall1 :o 0 ! tutor ( ,:i/on1 ,newton's deputy 9 8 pr(essor%ip2 & he1 9 pres5t+ ! "w1 spoke ( ! novelty & dignity ( ! subject4 ,!re exi/s 9 ! libr>y ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge a manuscript conta9+ ! e>ly ,propositions ( ! ,pr9cipia z f> z ,prop4 xxxiii4 7:i* is a "p ( ,section vii41 ab\t ,fall+ ,bodies74 ,?is appe>s to h be5 a transcript ( ,newton's ,lectures1 deliv]$ z ,lucasian ,pr(essor3 x is dat$ ,octob]1 #afhd4 ,is ,gravitation proportional to ,quantity ( ,matt]8 ,x 0 a portion ( ,newton's ass]tion 9 8 great discov]y1 t all ! bodies ( ! univ]se attract ea* o!r ) =ces :i* are z ! quantity ( matt] 9 ea*3 t is1 = in/ance1 ! sun attracts ! satellites ( any planet j z mu* z he attracts ! planet itself1 9 proportion to ! quantity ( matt] 9 ea*2 & ! planets attract "o ano!r j z mu* z !y attract ! sun1 accord+ to ! quantity ( matt]4 ,to prove ?is "p ( ! law exactly is a matt] :i* requires c>eful exp]im5ts2 & ?\gh prov$ exp]im5tally by ,newton1 has be5 consid]$ 9 our "t wor?y ( re-exam9ation by ! great a/ronom] ,bessel4 ,!re 0 "s gr\nd = d\bt2 = ! mass ( ,jupit]1 z d$uc$ f ! p]turbations ( ,saturn1 0 only #a_/ajgj ( ! mass ( ! sun2 ! mass ( ! same planet z d$uc$ f ! p]turbations ( ,juno & ,pallas 0 #a_/ajde ( t ( ! ,sun4 ,if ?is diff]5ce 7 to be confirm$ by accurate obs]vations & calculations1 x w\ld foll[ t ! attractive p[] ex]cis$ by ,jupit] ^u ! m9or planets 0 great] ?an t ex]cis$ ^u #eej ,saturn4 ,& 9 ! same way1 if ! attraction ( ! ,e>? _h any specific relation to diff]5t k9ds ( matt]1 ! "t ( oscillation ( a p5dulum ( equal l5g? compos$ :olly or 9 "p ( ! two sub/ances w\ld be diff]5t4 ,if1 = in/ance1 x 7 m int5se = magnetiz$ iron ?an = /one1 ! iron p5dulum w\ld oscillate m quickly4 ,bessel %[$#dg;,a t x 0 possible to assume hypo!tically a con/itution ( ! sun1 planets1 & _! app5dages1 su* t ! attraction ( ! ,sun on ! ,planets & ,satellites %\ld be proportional to ! quantity ( matt] 9 ea*2 b t ! attraction ( ! ,planets on "o ano!r w\ld n be on ! same scale4 ,note #dg;,a3 ,b]l9 ,mem4 #ahbd4 ,newton _h made exp]im5ts 7describ$ 9 ! ,pr9cipia1 ,book iii41 ,prop4 vi47 by :i* x 0 %[n t !re c\ld be no consid]able or palpable am\nt ( su* specific diff]5ce among t]re/rial bodies1 b 8 exp]im5ts c\ld n be reg>d$ z exact en\gh = ! requirem5ts ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,bessel in/itut$ a labori\s s]ies ( exp]im5ts 7pres5t$ to ! ,b]l9 ,academy 9 #ahcb7 :i* completely disprov$ ! conjecture ( su* a diff]5ce2 e sub/ance exam9$ hav+ giv5 exactly ! same coeffici5t ( gravitat+ int5sity z comp>$ ) in]tia4 ,among ! sub/ances exam9$ 7 metallic & /ony masses ( meteoric orig91 :i* might be suppos$1 if any bodies c\ld1 to come f o!r p>ts ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,v]ification ,,& ,,completion ,,( ,,! ,,newtonian ,,!ory4 ,tables ( ! ,moon & ,planets4 ,,! ,newtonian discov]y ( ,univ]sal ,gravitation1 s rem>kable 9 o!r respects1 is also rem>kable z exemplify+ ! imm5se ext5t to :i* ! v]ification ( a great tru? may be c>ri$1 ! am\nt ( human labor :i* may be requisite to d x ju/ice1 & ! /rik+ ext5sion ( human k to :i* x may lead4 ,i h said t x is rem>k$ z a beauty 9 ! fir/ fixation ( a !ory t its measures or elem5ts are e/abli%$ by means ( a few #eea data2 b t its excell5ce :5 e/abli%$ is 9 ! numb] ( obs]vations :i* x expla9s4 ,! multiplicity ( obs]vations :i* are expla9$ by a/ronomy1 & :i* are made because a/ronomy expla9s !m1 is imm5se1 z ,i h not$ 9 ! text4 ,& ! multitude ( obs]vations ?us made is employ$ = ! purpose ( correct+ ! fir/ adopt$ elem5ts ( ! !ory4 ,i h m5tion$ "s ( ! examples ( ?is process3 ,i might m5tion _m o!rs 9 ord] to cont9ue ! hi/ory ( ?is "p ( ,a/ronomy up to ! pres5t "t4 ,b ,i w notice only ^? :i* seem to me ! mo/ rem>kable4 ,9 #ahab1 ,burckh>dt's ,tables de la ,lune 7 publi%$ by ! ,fr5* ,bureau des ,longitudes4 ,a comp>ison ( ^! & ,burg's ) a consid]able numb] ( obs]vations1 gave #i-ajj?s ( a second z ! mean error ( ! =m] 9 ! ,moon's longitude1 :ile ! mean error ( ,burg's 0 #ah-ajj?s4 ,! pref]5ce 0 !re=e accord$ to ,burckh>dt's4 ,yet ! ,lun> ,tables 7 /ill z mu* z ?irty seconds wrong 9 s+le obs]vations4 ,?is circum/ance1 & ,laplace's express$ wi%1 induc$ ! ,fr5* ,academy to (f] a prize = a complete & purely !oretical det]m9ation ( ! ,lun> pa?1 in/ead ( det]m9ations re/+1 z hi!rto1 p>tly ^u !ory & p>tly ^u obs]vations4 ,9 #ahbj1 two prize essays appe>$1 ! "o by ,damoiseau1 ! o!r by ,plana & ,c>l9i4 ,& "s ye>s aft]w>ds 79 #ahbd1 & aga9 9 #ahbh71 ,damoiseau publi%$ ,tables de la ,lune =mes sur la seule ,?orie d',attraction4 ,^! agree v closely ) obs]vation4 ,t we may =m "s notion ( ! complexity ( ! problem1 ,i may /ate t ! longitude ( ! ,moon is 9 ^! ,tables affect$ by no few] ?an =ty-sev5 equations2 & ! o!r quantities :i* det]m9e h] place are subject to inequalities n mu* less 9 numb]4 ,/ill ,i _h to /ate 9 ! second ,edition1 publi%$ 9 #ahdg1 t !re rema9$ an unexpla9$ discordance betwe5 !ory & obs]vation 9 ! motions ( ! ,moon2 an inequality ( long p]iod z x seem$1 :i* ! !ory did n give4 ,a c>eful exam9ation ( a long s]ies ( ! be/ obs]vations ( ! ,moon1 comp>$ ?r\gh\t ) ! !ory 9 its mo/ p]fect =m1 w\ld af=d ! means bo? ( correct+ ! num]ical elem5ts ( ! !ory1 & ( detect+ ! nature1 & p]haps ! law1 ( any /ill rema9+ discrepancies4 ,su* a "w1 h[ev]1 requir$ va/ labor1 z well z great skill & pr(\nd ma!matical k4 #eeb ,mr4 ,airy und]took ! task2 employ+ = t purpose1 ! ,obs]vations ( ! ,moon made at ,gre5wi* f #agej to #ahcj4 ,above #hjjj obs]v$ places ( ! ,moon 7 comp>$ ) !ory by ! computation ( ! same numb] ( places1 ea* sep>ately & indep5d5tly calculat$ f ,plana's ,=mul4 ,a body ( calculators 7sometimes sixte571 at ! exp5se ( ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t1 0 employ$ = ab\t eight ye>s 9 ?is "w4 ,:5 we take ?is 9 conjunction ) ! labor :i* ! obs]vations !mselves imply1 x may s]ve to %[ on :at a scale ! v]ification ( ! ,newtonian !ory has be5 conduct$4 ,! fir/ results ( ?is labor 7 publi%$ 9 two qu>to volumes2 ! f9al d$uctions z to correction ( elem5ts1 c41 7 giv5 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,a/ronomical ,society 9 #ahdh4dh;,a ,note #dh;,a3 ,! total exp5se ( comput]s1 to ! end ( read+ ! pro(-%eets1 0 #dcjjl4 ,mr4 ,airy's e/imate ( days' works made be=e beg9n+1 = ! heavy "p ( calculations only1 0 ?irty-six ye>s ( "o comput]4 ,?is 0 some:at exce$$1 b n v greatly1 9 t "p4 ,ev5 :ile ! calculations 7 go+ on1 x became app>5t t !re 7 "s diff]5ces betwe5 ! obs]v$ places ( ! ,moon1 & ! !ory s f> z x _h !n be5 develop$4 ,m4 ,hans51 an em95t ,g]man ma!matician :o _h devis$ new & p[]ful me?ods = ! ma!matical det]m9ation ( ! results ( ! law ( gravitation1 0 ?us l$ to explore /ill fur!r ! motions ( ! ,moon 9 pursuance ( ?is law4 ,! result 0 t he f\nd !re mu/ exi/ two lun> inequalities1 hi!rto n kn[n2 ! "o ( #bgc1 & ! o!r ( #bci ye>s1 ! coeffici5ts ( :i* are respectively #bg & #bc seconds4 ,bo? ^! orig9ate 9 ! attraction ( ,v5us2 "o ( !m be+ connect$ ) ! long inequality 9 ! ,sol> ,tables1 ( :i* ,mr4 ,airy _h already prov$ ! exi/5ce1 z /at$ 9 ,*ap4 vi4 ,sect4 #f ( ?is ,book4 ,^! inequalities fell 9 ) ! discrepancies betwe5 ! actual obs]vations & ! previ\sly calculat$ ,tables1 :i* ,mr4 ,airy _h discov]$4 ,& aga91 %ortly aft]w>ds1 ,m4 ,hans5 f\nd t !re result$ f ! !ory two o!r new equations ( ! ,moon2 "o 9 latitude & "o 9 longitude1 agree+ ) two :i* 7 f\nd by ,mr4 ,airy 9 d$uc+ f ! obs]vations ! correction ( ! elem5ts ( ! ,lun> ,tables4 ,& aga91 a little lat]1 !re 0 detect$ by ^! ma!maticians a !oretical correction = ! #eec motion ( ! ,node ( ! ,moon's orbit1 co9cid+ exactly ) "o :i* _h be5 f\nd to appe> 9 ! obs]vations4 ,no?+ c m /rik+ly exhibit ! confirmation :i* increas$ scrut9y br+s to light betwe5 ! ,newtonian !ory on ! "o h&1 & ! cele/ial motions on ! o!r4 ,we h "h a v l>ge mass ( ! be/ obs]vations :i* h ev] be5 made1 sy/ematically exam9$1 ) imm5se labor1 & ) ! set purpose ( correct+ at once all ! elem5ts ( ! ,lun> ,tables4 ,! corrections ( ! elem5ts ?us d$uc$ imply ( c\rse "s error 9 ! !ory z previ\sly develop$4 ,b at ! same "t1 & ) ! l det]m9ation ?or\ghly to explore ! subject1 ! !ory is aga9 press$ to yield its mo/ complete results1 by ! inv5tion ( new & p[]ful ma!matical me?ods2 & ! ev5t is1 t residual errors ( ! old ,tables1 sev]al 9 numb]1 foll[+ ! mo/ div]se laws1 occurr+ 9 sev]al deta*$ p>ts1 agree ) ! residual results ( ! ,!ory ?us newly extract$ f x4 ,& ?us e additional exactness ( scrut9y into ! cele/ial motions on ! "o h& & ! ,newtonian !ory on ! o!r1 has end$1 soon] or lat]1 9 %[+ ! exactness ( _! co9cid5ce4 ,! comp>ison ( ! !ory ) obs]vation 9 ! case ( ! motions ( ! ,planets1 ! motion ( ea* be+ di/urb$ by ! attraction ( all ! o!rs1 is a subject 9 "s respects /ill m complicat$ & labori\s4 ,?is "w also 0 und]tak5 by ! same indefatigable a/ronom]2 & "h also 8 mat]ials belong$ to ! same p]iod z be=e2 be+ ! admirable obs]vations made at ,gre5wi* f #agej to #ahcj1 dur+ ! "t t ,bradley1 ,maskelyne1 & ,pond 7 ! ,a/ronom]s ,royal4#di;,a ,^! ,planet>y obs]vations 7 d$uc$1 & ! obs]v$ places 7 comp>$ ) ! tabul> places3 ) ,l9d5au's ,tables ( ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 & ,m>s2 & ) ,b\v>d's ,tables ( ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 & ,uranus2 & ?us1 :ile ! receiv$ !ory & its elem5ts 7 confirm$1 ! means ( te/+ any improvem5t :i* may h]eaft] be propos$1 ei!r 9 ! =m ( ! !oretical results or 9 ! con/ant elem5ts :i* !y involv$1 0 plac$ )9 ! rea* ( ! #eed a/ronom]s ( all future "t4 ,! "w appe>$ 9 #ahde2 ! exp5se ( ! compilations & ! publication be+ defray$ by ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t4 ,note #di;,a3 ,! obs]vations ( />s made by ,bradley1 :o prec$$ ,maskelyne at ,gre5wi*1 _h already be5 discuss$ by ,bessel1 a great ,g]man a/ronom]2 & ! results publi%$ 9 #ahah1 ) a title t well %[$ ! e/imation 9 :i* he held ^? mat]ials3 ,fundam5ta ,a/ronomi pro anno #agge1 d$ucta ex ,ohs]vationibus viri incomp>abilis ,james ,bradley 9 specula ,a/ronomica ,gr5ovic5si p] annos #agej-agfb in/itutis4 ,! ,discov]y ( ,neptune4 ,! !ory ( gravitation 0 de/9$ to receive a confirmation m /rik+ ?an any :i* c\ld arise f any explanation1 h[ev] p]fect1 giv5 by ! motions ( a kn[n planet2 namely1 9 reveal+ ! exi/5ce ( an unkn[n planet1 disclos$ to a/ronom]s by ! attraction :i* x ex]t$ ^u a kn[n "o4 ,! /ory ( ! discov]y ( ,neptune by ! calculations ( ,mr4 ,adams & ,m4 ,le ,v]ri] 0 p>tly told 9 ! =m] edition ( ?is ,hi/ory4 ,i _h !re /at$ 7vol4 ii4 p4 #cjf7 t a deviation ( obs]vation f ! !ory occurs at ! v extremity ( ! sol> sy/em1 & t its exi/5ce appe>s to be beyond d\bt4 ,uranus does n con=m to ! ,tables calculat$ = him on ! !ory ( gravitation4 ,9 #ahba1 ,b\v>d said 9 ! ,preface to ! ,tables ( ?is ,planet1 ! =mation ( ^! ,tables (f]s to u ?is alt]native1 t we _c satisfy mod]n obs]vations to ! requisite degree ( precision )\t mak+ our ,tables deviate f ! anci5t obs]vations4 ,b :5 we h done ?is1 !re is /ill a discordance betwe5 ! ,tables & ! m mod]n obs]vations1 & ?is discordance goes on increas+4 ,at pres5t ! ,tables make ! ,planet come ^u ! m]idian ab\t eight seconds lat] ?an he really does4 ,?is discrepancy has turn$ ! ?\ghts ( a/ronom]s to ! effects :i* w\ld result f a planet ext]nal to ,uranus4 ,x appe>s t ! obs]v$ motion w\ld be expla9$ by apply+ a planet at twice ! di/ance ( ,uranus f ! ,sun to ex]cise a di/urb+ =ce1 & x is f\nd t ! pres5t longitude ( ?is di/urb+ body mu/ be ab\t #cbe degrees4 ,i add$1 ,m4 ,le ,v]ri] 7,comptes ,r5dus1 ,jan4 #a1 #ahdf7 &1 z ,i am in=m$ by ! ,a/ronom] ,royal1 ,mr4 ,adams1 ( ,/4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 h bo? arriv$ indep5d5tly at ?is result4 ,to ?is ,edition ,i add$ a ,po/script1 dat$1 ,nov4 #g1 #ahdf1 9 :i* ,i said3 ,! planet ext]ior to ,uranus1 ( :i* ! exi/5ce 0 inf]r$ by ,m4 ,le ,v]ri] & ,mr4 ,adams f ! motions ( ,uranus 7vol4 ii4 ,note 7,l4771 has s9ce be5 discov]$4 ,?is confirmation ( calculations f\nd$ ^u ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation1 may be look$ ^u z ! mo/ rem>kable ev5t ( ! k9d s9ce ! return ( ,halley's comet 9 #ageg & 9 "s respects1 z a m /rik+ ev5t #eee ev5 ?an t2 inasmu* z ! new planet _h nev] be5 se5 at all1 & 0 discov]$ by ma!maticians entirely by _! feel+ ( its influ5ce1 :i* !y p]ceiv$ ?r\gh ! organ ( ma!matical calculation4 ,!re c be no d\bt t to ,m4 ,le ,v]ri] belongs ! glory ( hav+ fir/ publi%$ a pr$iction ( ! place & appe>ance ( ! new planet1 & ( hav+ ?us occasion$ its discov]y by a/ronomical obs]v]s4 ,m4 ,le ,v]ri]'s fir/ pr$iction 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,comptes ,r5dus de l',acad4 des ,sci5ces1 = ,june #a1 #ahdf 7n ,jan4 #a1 z errone\sly pr9t$ 9 my ,note74 ,a subsequ5t pap] on ! subject 0 read ,aug4 #ca4 ,! planet 0 se5 by ,m4 ,galle1 at ! ,obs]vatory ( ,b]l91 on ,septemb] #bc1 on :i* day he _h receiv$ an express application f ,m4 ,le ,v]ri]1 recomm5d+ him to endeavor to recognize ! /rang] by its hav+ a visible disk4 ,pr(essor ,*allis1 at ! ,obs]vatory ( ,cambridge1 0 look+ out = ! new planet f ,july #bi1 & saw x on ,augu/ #d1 & aga9 on ,augu/ #ab1 b )\t recogniz+ x1 9 consequ5ce ( 8 plan ( n comp>+ 8 obs]vations till he _h accumulat$ a great] numb] ( !m4 ,on ,sept4 #bi1 hav+ read = ! fir/ "t ,m4 ,le ,v]ri]'s second pap]1 he alt]$ 8 plan1 & paid att5tion to ! physical appe>ance r ?an ! position ( ! />4 ,on t v ev5+1 n hav+ !n he>d ( ,m4 ,galle's discov]y1 he s+l$ out ! /> by its seem+ to h a disk4 ,m4 ,le ,v]ri]'s mode ( discuss+ ! circum/ances ( ,uranus's motion1 & inf]r+ ! new planet f ^! circum/ances1 is 9 ! highe/ degree sagaci\s & ma/]ly4 ,ju/ice to him _c require t ! contemporane\s1 ?\gh unpubli%$1 labors ( ,mr4 ,adams1 ( ,/ ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 %\ld n also be record$4 ,mr4 ,adams made 8 fir/ calculations to acc\nt = ! anomalies 9 ! motion ( ,uranus1 on ! hypo!sis ( a m di/ant planet1 9 #ahdc4 ,at fir/ he _h n tak5 into acc\nt ! e>li] ,gre5wi* obs]vations2 b ^! 7 suppli$ to him by ! ,a/ronom] ,royal1 9 #ahdd4 ,9 ,septemb]1 #ahde1 ,mr4 ,adams communicat$ to ,pr(essor ,*allis values ( ! elem5ts ( ! suppos$ di/urb+ body2 namely1 its mean di/ance1 mean longitude at a giv5 epo*1 longitude ( p]ihelion1 ecc5tricity ( orbit1 & mass4 ,9 ! next mon?1 he communicat$ to ! ,a/ronom] ,royal values ( ! same elem5ts1 some:at correct$4 ,! note 7,l471 vol4 ii41 ( ! pres5t "w 7#b;d ,ed471 9 :i* ! names ( ,,mm4 ,le ,v]ri] & ,adams are m5tion$ 9 conjunction1 0 9 ! press 9 ,augu/1 #ahdf1 a #eef mon? be=e ! planet 0 se54 ,z ,i h /at$ 9 ! text1 ,mr4 ,adams & ,m4 ,le ,v]ri] assign$ to ! unse5 planet ne>ly ! same position2 !y also assign$ to x ne>ly ! same mass2 namely1 #b times ! mass ( ,uranus4 ,& h5ce1 suppos+ ! d5sity to be n great] ?an t ( ,uranus1 x foll[$ t ! visible diamet] w\ld be ab\t #c1 an app>5t magnitude n mu* small] ?an ,uranus himself4 ,m4 ,le ,v]ri] has m5tion$ = ! new planet ! "n ,neptunus2 & probably1 def]5ce to 8 au?ority z its discov]]1 w obta9 g5]al curr5cy = ?is "n4 ,mr4 ,airy has giv5 a v complete hi/ory ( ! circum/ances att5d+ ! discov]y ( ,neptune1 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,a/ronomical ,society 7read ,novemb] #ac1 #ahdf74 ,9 ?is he %[s t ! probability ( "s di/urb+ body beyond ,uranus _h sugge/$ itself to ,m4 ,a4 ,b\v>d & ,mr4 ,hussey z e>ly z #ahcd4 ,mr4 ,airy himself !n ?\ght t ! "t 0 n ripe = mak+ out ! nature ( any ext]nal action on ! planets4 ,b ,mr4 ,adams soon aft]w>ds proce$$ to "w at ! problem4 ,z e>ly z #ahda 7z he himself in=ms me7 he conjectur$ ! exi/5ce ( a planet ext]ior to ,uranus1 & record$ 9 a memor&um 8 design ( exam9+ its effect2 b def]r$ ! calculations till he _h complet$ 8 prep>ations = ! ,univ]sity exam9ation :i* he 0 to und]go 9 ,janu>y1 #ahdc1 9 ord] to receive ! ,degree ( ,ba*elor ( ,arts4 ,he 0 ! ,s5ior ,wrangl] ( t occasion1 & soon aft]w>ds proce$$ to c>ry 8 design into effect2 apply+ to ! ,a/ronom] ,royal = record$ obs]vations :i* might aid him 9 8 task4 ,on "o ( ! la/ days ( ,octob]1 #ahde1 ,mr4 ,adams w5t to ! ,obs]vatory at ,gre5wi*2 & f9d+ ! ,a/ronom] ,royal abroad1 he left !re a pap] conta9+ ! elem5ts ( ! extra-,uranian ,planet3 ! longitude 0 9 ?is pap] /at$ z #cbc degrees4 ,x 01 z we h se51 9 ,june1 #ahdf1 t ,m4 ,le ,v]ri]'s ,memoir appe>$1 9 :i* he assign$ to ! di/urb+ body a longitude ( #cbe degrees4 ,! co9cid5ce 0 /rik+4 ,i _c suffici5tly express1 says ,mr4 ,airy1 ! feel+ ( delight & satisfaction :i* ,i receiv$ f ! ,memoir ( ,m4 ,le ,v]ri]4 ,?is feel+ communicat$ itself to o!rs4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el said 9 ,septemb]1 #ahdf1 at a meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association at ,s\?ampton1 ,we see x 7! probable new planet7 z ,columbus saw ,am]ica f ! %ores ( ,spa94 ,its movem5ts h be5 felt1 trembl+ along ! f>-rea*+ l9e ( our analysis1 ) a c]ta9ty h>dly inf]ior to t ( ocul> demon/ration4 #eeg ,9 tru?1 at ! mom5t :5 ?is 0 utt]$1 ! new ,planet _h already be5 se5 by ,pr(essor ,*allis2 =1 z we h said1 he _h se5 x 9 ! e>ly "p ( ,augu/4 ,he _h includ$ x 9 ! net :i* he _h ca/ among ! />s = ?is v purpose2 b employ+ a sl[ & cauti\s process1 he _h def]r$ = a "t t exam9ation ( 8 capture :i* w\ld h enabl$ him to detect ! object s\ght4 ,z soon z he receiv$ ,m4 ,le ,v]ri]'s pap] ( ,augu/ #ca on ,septemb] #bi1 he 0 s mu* impress$ ) ! sagacity & cle>ness ( ! limitations ( ! field ( obs]vation !re laid d[n1 t he in/antly *ang$ 8 plan ( obs]vation1 & not$ ! planet1 z an object hav+ a visible disk1 on ! ev5+ ( ! same day4 ,9 ?is mann] ! !ory ( gravitation pr$ict$ & produc$ ! discov]y4 ,?us to pr$ict unkn[n facts f\nd aft]w>ds to be true1 is1 z ,i h said1 a confirmation ( a !ory :i* 9 impressiv5ess & value goes beyond any explanation ( kn[n facts4 ,x is a confirmation :i* has only occurr$ a few times 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce2 & 9 ! case only ( ! mo/ ref9$ & complete !ories1 su* z ^? ( ,a/ronomy & ,optics4 ,! ma!matical skill :i* 0 requisite 9 ord] to arrive at su* a discov]y1 may 9 "s measure be judg$ ( by ! acc\nt :i* we h _h to give ( ! previ\s ma!matical progress ( ! !ory ( gravitation4 ,x !re appe>$ t ! lives ( _m ( ! mo/ acute1 cle>-sight$1 & labori\s ( mank9d1 _h be5 employ$ = g5]ations 9 solv+ ! problem4 ,giv5 ! planet>y bodies1 to f9d _! mutual p]turbations3 b "h we h ! inv]se problem--,giv5 ! p]turbations1 to f9d ! planets4#ej;,a ,note #ej;,a3 ,?is may be call$ ! inv]se problem ) ref]5ce to ! old] & m famili> problem2 b we may rem>k t ! usual phraseology ( ! ,problem ( ,c5tral ,=ces diff]s f ?is analogy4 ,9 ,newton's ,pr9cipia1 ! e>li] ,sections1 9 :i* ! motion is giv5 to f9d ! =ce1 are spok5 ( z conta9+ ! ,direct ,problem ( ,c5tral ,=ces3 ! ,eigh? ,section ( ! ,fir/ ,book1 :]e ! ,=ce is giv5 to f9d ! orbit1 is spok5 ( z conta9+ ! ,inv]se ,problem ( ,c5tral ,=ces4 ,! ,m9or ,planets4 ,! discov]y ( ! ,m9or ,planets :i* revolve betwe5 ! orbits ( ,m>s & ,jupit] 0 n a consequ5ce or confirmation ( ! ,newtonian !ory4 ,t !ory gives no reason = ! di/ance ( #eeh ! ,planets f ! ,sun2 nor does any !ory yet devis$ give su* reason4 ,b an empirical =mula propos$ by ! ,a/ronom] ,bode ( ,b]l91 gives a law ( ^! di/ances 7,bode's ,law71 :i*1 to make x coh]5t1 requires a planet betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]4 ,) su* an addition1 ! di/ance ( ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,e>?1 ,m>s1 ! ,miss+ ,planet1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 & ,uranus1 are ne>ly z ! numb]s #d1 #g1 #aj1 #af1 #bh1 #eb1 #ajj1 #aif1 9 :i* ! excesses ( ea* numb] above ! prec$+ are ! s]ies #c1 #c1 #f1 #ab1 #bd1 #dh1 #if4 ,on ! /r5g? ( ?is law ! ,g]mans wrote on ! long-expect$ ,planet1 & =m$ !mselves into associations = ! discov]y ( x4 ,n only did ?is law /imulate ! inquiries = ! ,miss+ ,planet1 & ?us lead to ! discov]y ( ! ,m9or ,planets1 b x _h also a %>e 9 ! discov]y ( ,neptune4 ,accord+ to ! law1 a planet beyond ,uranus may be expect$ to be at ! di/ance repres5t$ by #chh4 ,mr4 ,adams & ,m4 ,le ,v]ri] bo? ( !m began by assum+ a di/ance ( ne>ly ?is magnitude = ! ,planet :i* !y s\ght2 t is1 a di/ance m ?an #ch times ! e>?'s di/ance4 ,x 0 f\nd aft]w>ds t ! di/ance ( ,neptune is only #cj times t ( ! e>?2 yet ! assumption 0 ( ess5tial use 9 obta9+ ! result & ,mr4 ,airy rem>ks t ! hi/ory ( ! discov]y %[s ! importance ( us+ any receiv$ !ory z f> z x w g1 ev5 if ! !ory c claim no high] m]it ?an t ( be+ plausible4#ea;,a ,note #ea;,a3 ,acc\nt ( ! ,discov]y ( ,neptune1 c41 ,mem4 ,a/4 ,soc41 vol4 xvi4 p4 #dad4 ,! discov]y ( ,m9or ,planets 9 a c]ta9 region ( ! int]val betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit] has gone on to su* an ext5t1 t _! numb] makes !m assume 9 a peculi> mann] ! "* ( repres5tatives ( a ,miss+ ,planet4 ,at fir/1 z ,i h said 9 ! text1 x 0 suppos$ t all ^! portions mu/ pass ?r\gh or ne> a common node2 ?is op9ion be+ f\nd$ on ! v bold doctr9e1 t ! portions mu/ at "o "t h be5 unit$ 9 "o ,planet1 & mu/ !n h sep>at$4 ,at ?is node1 z ,i h /at$1 ,olb]s lay 9 wait = !m1 z = a ho/ile army at a defile4 ,c]es1 ,pallas1 & ,juno _h be5 discov]$ 9 ?is way 9 ! p]iod f #ahja to #ahjd2 & ,ve/a 0 caught 9 #ahjg4 ,= a "t ! *ase = new planets 9 ?is region seem$ to h exhau/$ ! /ock4 ,b aft] ?irty-eight ye>s1 to ! a/oni%m5t ( a/ronom]s1 !y began to be aga9 detect$ 9 extraord9>y numb]s4 ,9 #ahde1 ,m4 ,h5cke ( #eei ,driess5 discov]$ a fif? ( ^! planets1 :i* 0 t]m$ ,a/ra4 ,9 v>i\s qu>t]s ! *ase 0 resum$ ) great ardor4 ,9 #ahdg 7 f\nd ,hebe1 ,iris1 & ,flora2 9 #ahdh1 ,metis2 9 #ahdi1 ,hyga2 9 #ahej1 ,p>!nope1 ,victoria1 & ,eg]ia2 9 #ahfa1 ,ir5e & ,eunomia2 9 #aheb1 ,psy*e1 ,!tis1 ,melpom5e1 ,=tuna1 ,massilia1 ,lutetia1 ,calliope4 ,to ^! we h n[ 7at ! close ( #ahef7 to add n9ete5 o!rs2 mak+ up ! :ole numb] ( ^! ,m9or ,planets at pres5t kn[n to =ty-two4 ,z _! enum]ation w %[1 ! anci5t practice has be5 cont9u$ ( giv+ to ! ,planets my?ological names4 ,& = a "t1 till ! numb]s became too great1 ea* ( ! ,m9or ,planets 0 designat$ 9 a/ronomical books by "s symbol appropriate to ! "* ( ! my?ological p]son2 z f anci5t times ,m>s has be5 d5ot$ by a m>k indicat+ a spe>1 & ,v5us by "o repres5t+ a look+-glass4 ,?us1 :5 a ,m9or ,planet 0 discov]$ at ,london 9 #ahea1 ! ye> 9 :i* ! peace ( ! _w 01 9 a mann]1 celebrat$ by ! ,great ,exhibition ( ! ,products ( ,all ,nations1 held at t metropolis1 ! "n ,ir5e 0 giv5 to ! new />1 z a memorial ( ! auspici\s "t ( its discov]y4 ,& x 0 agre$1 = a:ile1 t its symbol %\ld be a dove ) an olive-bran*4 ,b ! va/ multitude ( ! ,m9or ,planets1 z discov]y w5t on1 made any mode ( designation1 except a num]ical "o1 practically inconv5i5t4 ,!y are n[ d5ot$ by a small circle inclos+ a figure 9 ! ord] ( _! discov]y4 ,?us1 ,c]es is 7#a71 ,ir5e is 7#ad71 & ,isis is 7#db74 ,! rapidity ) :i* ^! discov]ies 7 made 0 ow+ 9 "p to ! =mation ( />-maps1 9 :i* all kn[n fix$ />s be+ repres5t$1 ! exi/5ce ( a new & movable /> might be recogniz$ by comp>ison ( ! sky ) ! map4 ,^! maps 7 fir/ con/ruct$ by a/ronom]s ( diff]5t c\ntries at ! sugge/ion ( ! ,academy ( ,b]l92 b !y h s9ce be5 greatly ext5d$1 & n[ include mu* small] />s ?an 7 orig9ally laid d[n4 ,i w m5tion ! numb] ( planets discov]$ 9 ea* ye>4 ,aft] ! />t 0 once made1 by ,h5cke's discov]y ( ,a/ra 9 #ahde1 ! same a/ronom] discov]$ ,hebe 9 #ahdg2 & 9 ! same ye> ,mr4 ,h9d1 ( ,london1 discov]$ two o!rs1 ,iris & ,flora4 ,! ye>s #ahdh & #ahdi ea* suppli$ "o2 ! ye> #ahej1 ?ree2 #ahea1 two2 #aheb 0 m>k$ by ! extraord9>y discov]y ( eight new memb]s ( ! planet>y sy/em4 ,! ye> #ahec suppli$ f\r2 #ahed1 six2 #ahee1 f\r2 & #ahef has already giv5 u five4 #efj ,^! discov]ies h be5 di/ribut$ among ! obs]vatories ( ,europe4 ,! bright sky ( ,naples has reveal$ sev5 new planets to ! telescope ( ,sign] ,gasp>is4 ,m>seilles has giv5 u "o2 ,g]many1 f\r1 discov]$ by ,m4 ,lu!r at ,bilk2 ,p>is has furni%$ sev52 & ,mr4 ,h9d1 9 ,mr4 ,bi%op's private obs]vatory 9 ,london1 not)/&+ our turbid skies1 has discov]$ no less ?an t5 planets2 & !re also ,mr4 ,m>? discov]$ 7#bi7 ,amphitrite4 ,mr4 ,graham1 at ! private obs]vatory ( ,mr4 ,coop]1 9 ,irel&1 discov]$ 7#i7 ,metis4 ,am]ica has suppli$ its planet1 namely 7#ca7 ,euphrosyne1 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,f]guson at ,wa%+ton & ! mo/ rec5t ( ^! discov]ies is t by ,mr4 ,pogson1 ( ,ox=d1 :o has f\nd ! =ty-second ( ^! ,m9or ,planets1 :i* has be5 nam$ ,isis4#eb;,a ,note #eb;,a3 ,i take ?is li/ f a ,memoir ( ,m4 ,bruhns1 ,b]l91 #ahef4 ,i may add t x appe>s to foll[ f ! be/ calculations t ! total mass ( all ^! bodies is v small4 ,h]s*el reckon$ ! diamet]s ( ,c]es at #ce1 & ( ,pallas at #bf miles4 ,x has s9ce be5 calculat$#ec;,a t "s ( !m are small] /ill2 ,victoria hav+ a diamet] ( #i miles1 ,lutetia ( #h1 & ,atalanta ( little m ?an #d4 ,x foll[s f ?is t ! :ole mass w\ld probably be less ?an ! six? "p ( our moon4 ,h5ce _! p]turb+ effects on ea* o!r or on o!r planets are null2 b !y are n ! less di/urb$ by ! action ( ! o!r planets1 & especially ( ,jupit]4 ,note #ec;,a3 ,bruhns1 z above4 ,anomalies 9 ! ,action ( ,gravitation4 ,! complete & exact mann] 9 :i* ! doctr9e ( gravitation expla9s ! motions ( ! ,comets z well z ( ! ,planets1 has made a/ronom]s v bold 9 propos+ hypo!ses to acc\nt = any deviations f ! motion :i* ! !ory requires4 ,?us ,encke's ,comet is f\nd to h its motion accel]at$ by ab\t "o-eigh? ( a day 9 e revolution4 ,?is result 0 conceiv$ to be e/abli%$ by =m] obs]vations1 & is confirm$ by ! facts ( ! appe>ance ( #aheb4ed;,a ,! hypo!sis :i* is propos$ 9 ord] to expla9 ?is result is1 t ! ,comet moves 9 a resi/+ m$ium1 :i* makes x fall inw>ds f its pa?1 t[>ds ! ,sun1 & ?us1 by n>r[+ its orbit1 dim9i%es its p]iodic "t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,m4 ,le ,v]ri] has f\nd t ,m]cury's mean motion has gone on dim9i%+2 #efa z if ! planet 71 9 ! progress ( 8 revolutions1 rec$+ fur!r f ! ,sun4 ,?is is expla9$1 if we suppose t !re is1 9 ! region ( ,m]cury1 a resi/+ m$ium :i* moves r\nd ! ,sun 9 ! same direction z ! ,planets move4 ,evid5ce ( a k9d ( nebul\s disk surr\nd+ ! ,sun1 & ext5d+ beyond ! orbits ( ,m]cury & ,v5us1 appe>s to be af=d$ u by ! ph5om5on call$ ! ,zodiacal ,light2 & z ! ,sun itself rotates on its axis1 x is mo/ probable t ?is k9d ( atmosph]e rotates also4#ee;,a ,on ! o!r h&1 ,m4 ,le ,v]ri] conceives t ! ,comets :i* n[ revolve )9 ! ord9>y planet>y limits h n always done s1 b h be5 caught & deta9$ by ! ,planets among :i* !y move4 ,9 ?is way ! action ( ,jupit] has br\ght ! ,comets ( ,faye & ,vico into _! pres5t limit$ orbits1 z x drew ! ,comet ( ,lexell out ( its kn[n orbit1 :5 ! ,comet pass$ ov] ! ,planet 9 #aggi1 s9ce :i* "t x has n be5 se54 ,note #ed;,a3 ,b]l9 ,memoirs1 #ahed4 ,note #ee;,a3 ,m4 ,le ,v]ri]1 ,annales de l',obs4 de ,p>is1 vol4 i4 p4 #hi4 ,among ! examples ( ! boldness ) :i* a/ronom]s assume ! doctr9e ( gravitation ev5 beyond ! limits ( ! sol> sy/em to be s entirely e/abli%$1 t hypo!ses may & mu/ be assum$ to expla9 any app>5t irregul>ity ( motion1 we may reckon ! mode ( acc\nt+ = c]ta9 suppos$ irregul>ities 9 ! prop] motion ( ,sirius1 :i* has be5 propos$ by ,bessel1 & :i* ,m4 ,pet]s ?9ks is prov$ to be true by 8 rec5t rese>*es 7,a/r4 ,na*4 xxxi4 p4 #bai1 & xxxii4 p4 #a74 ,! hypo!sis is1 t ,sirius has a companion />1 d>k1 & !re=e invisible to u2 & t ! two1 revolv+ r\nd _! common c5tre z ! sy/em moves on1 ! motion ( ,sirius is se5 to be sometimes quick] & sometimes sl[]4 ,! ,e>?'s ,d5sity4 ,cav5di%'s exp]im5t1 z x is commonly call$--! measure ( ! attractions ( manageable masses by ! torsion balance1 9 ord] to det]m9e ! d5sity ( ! ,e>?--has be5 repeat$ rec5tly by ,pr(essor ,rei* at ,freib]g1 & by ,mr4 ,baily 9 ,engl&1 ) great att5tion to ! means ( atta9+ accuracy4 ,pr(essor ,rei*'s result = ! d5sity ( ! ,e>? is #edd2 ,mr4 ,baily's is #eib4 ,cav5di%'s result 0 #edh2 accord+ to rec5t revisions#ef;,a x is #eeb4 #efb ,note #ef;,a3 ,! calculation has be5 revis$ by ,m4 ,edw>d ,s*midt4 ,humboldt's ,kosmos1 ii4 p4 #dbe4 ,b ! /atical effect ( ! attraction ( manageable masses1 or ev5 ( m\nta9s1 is v small4 ,! effect ( a small *ange 9 gravity may be accumulat$ by be+ con/antly repeat$ 9 ! oscillations ( a p5dulum1 & ?us may become p]ceptible4 ,mr4 ,airy attempt$ to det]m9e ! d5sity ( ! ,e>? by a me?od dep5d+ on ?is view4 ,a p5dulum oscillat+ at ! surface 0 to be comp>$ ) an equal p5dulum at a great dep? bel[ ! surface4 ,! diff]5ce ( _! rates w\ld disclose ! diff]5t =ce ( gravity at ! two positions2 & h5ce1 ! d5sity ( ! ,e>?4 ,9 #ahbf & #ahbh1 ,mr4 ,airy attempt$ ?is exp]im5t at ! copp] m9e ( ,dolcoa? 9 ,cornwall1 b fail$ f v>i\s causes4 ,b 9 #ahed1 he resum$ x at ! ,h>ton coal m9e 9 ,durham1 ! dep? ( :i* is #abfj feet2 hav+ 9 ?is new trial1 ! advantage ( transmitt+ ! "t f "o /ation to ! o!r by ! in/antane\s effect ( galvanism1 in/ead ( by portable wat*es4 ,! result 0 a d5sity ( #fef2 :i* is mu* l>g] ?an ! prec$+ results1 b1 z ,mr4 ,airy holds1 is entitl$ to compete ) ! o!rs on at lea/ equal t]ms4 ,tides4 ,i %\ld be want+ 9 ! expression ( gratitude to ^? :o h practically assi/$ me 9 ,rese>*es on ! ,tides1 if ,i did n m5tion ! gr& s]ies ( ,tide ,obs]vations made on ! coa/ ( ,europe & ,am]ica 9 ,june1 #ahce1 ?r\gh ! au?ority ( ! ,bo>d ( ,admiralty1 & ! int]position ( ! late ,duke ( ,well+ton1 at t "t ,=eign ,secret>y4 ,tide obs]vations 7 made = a =tnight at all ! ,coa/-gu>d /ations ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel& 9 ,june1 #ahcd2 & ^! 7 repeat$ 9 ,june1 #ahce1 ) correspond+ obs]vations on all ! coa/s ( ,europe1 f ! ,nor? ,cape ( ,norway to ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt>2 & f ! m\? ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce to ! m\? ( ! ,mississippi4 ,! results ( ^! obs]vations1 :i* 7 v complete s f> z ! coa/ tides 7 conc]n$1 7 giv5 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahcf4 ,additional accuracy respect+ ! ,tides ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican coa/ may be expect$ f ! survey n[ go+ on "u ! direction ( ,sup]9t5d5t ,a4 ,ba*e4 ,! ,tides ( ! ,engli% ,*annel h be5 fur!r inve/igat$1 & ! ph5om5a pres5t$ "u a new po9t ( view by ,admiral ,bee*ey4 #efc ,! ,tides ( ! ,coa/ ( ,irel& h be5 exam9$ ) great c>e by ,mr4 ,airy4 ,num]\s & c>eful obs]vations 7 made ) a view1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ( det]m9+ :at 0 to be reg>d$ z ! ,level ( ! ,sea2 b ! results 7 discuss$ s z to br+ into view ! laws & progress1 on ! ,iri% coa/1 ( ! v>i\s inequalities ( ! ,tides m5tion$ 9 ,*ap4 iv4 ,sect4 #i ( ?is ,book4 ,i may notice z "o ( ! curi\s results ( ! ,tide ,obs]vations ( #ahcf1 t x appe>$ to me1 f a comp>ison ( ! ,obs]vations1 t !re mu/ be a po9t 9 ! ,g]man ,ocean1 ab\t midway betwe5 ,l[e/(t on ! ,engli% coa/1 & ! ,brill on ! ,dut* coa/1 :]e ! tide w\ld vani%3 & ?is 0 asc]ta9$ to be ! case by obs]vation2 ! obs]vations be+ made by ,capta9 ,hewett1 !n employ$ 9 a survey ( t sea4 ,cotidal ,l9es supply1 z ,i conceive1 a good & simple me?od ( repres5t+ ! progress & connection ( littoral tides4 ,b to draw cotidal l9es across oceans1 is a v prec>i\s mode ( repres5t+ ! facts1 except we _h mu* m k on ! subject ?an we at pres5t possess4 ,9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 = #ahdh1 ,i h resum$ ! subject ( ! ,tides ( ! ,pacific2 & ,i h !re express$ my op9ion1 t :ile ! littoral tides are produc$ by progressive waves1 ! oceanic tides are m ( ! nature ( /ation>y undulations4 ,b _m po9ts ( ?is k9d might be decid$1 & our k on ?is subject might be br\ght to a condition ( complet5ess1 if a %ip or %ips 7 s5t expressly to foll[ ! ph5om5a ( ! ,tides f po9t to po9t1 z ! obs]vations !mselves might sugge/ a c\rse4 ,till ?is is done1 our k _c be complet$4 ,deta*$ & casual obs]vations1 made aliud ag5do1 c nev] c>ry u mu* beyond ! po9t :]e we at pres5t are4 ,d\ble ,/>s4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's "w1 ref]r$ to 9 ! ,hi/ory 7#b;d ,ed47 z !n ab\t to appe>1 0 publi%$ 9 #ahdg4eg;,a ,9 ?is "w1 besides a va/ am\nt ( valuable obs]vations & reason+s on o!r subjects #efd 7z ,nebul1 ! ,magnitude ( ,/>s1 & ! l71 ! orbits ( sev]al d\ble />s are comput$ by ! aid ( ! new obs]vations4 ,b ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's conviction on ! po9t 9 "q1 ! op]ation ( ! ,newtonian law ( gravitation 9 ! region ( ! />s1 is express$ p]haps m cle>ly 9 ano!r "w :i* he publi%$ 9 #ahdi4eh;,a ,he !re speaks ( ,d\ble ,/>s1 & especially ( gamma ,virg9is1 ! "o :i* has be5 mo/ assidu\sly wat*$1 & has (f]$ ph5om5a ( ! greate/ int]e/4#ei;,a ,he !n f9ds t ! two compon5ts ( ?is /> revolve r\nd ea* o!r 9 a p]iod ( #ahb ye>s2 & says t ! elem5ts ( ! calculat$ orbit repres5t ! :ole s]ies ( record$ obs]vations1 compris+ an angul> movem5t ( ne>ly n9e-t5?s ( a complete circuit1 bo? 9 angle & di/ance1 ) a degree ( exactness fully equal to t ( obs]vation itself4 ,no d\bt c !re=e1 he adds1 rema9 z to ! 9999preval5ce 9 ?is remote sy/em ( ! ,newtonian ,law ( ,gravitation4 ,note #eg;,a3 ,results ( ,a/ronomical ,obs]vations made dur+ ! ye>s #ahcd1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 be+ ! completion ( a ,telescopic ,survey ( ! :ole ,surface ( ! visible ,heav5s comm5c$ 9 #ahbe4 ,note #eh;,a3 ,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy4 ,note #ei;,a3 ,out4 #hdd4 ,yet ,m4 ,yvon de ,vill>ceau has endeavor$ to %[#fj;,a t ?is conclusion1 h[ev] probable1 is n yet prov$4 ,he holds1 ev5 = ! ,d\ble ,/>s1 :i* h be5 mo/ obs]v$1 ! obs]vations are only equival5t to sev5 or eight really di/9ct data1 & t sev5 data are n suffici5t to det]m9e t an ellipse is describ$ accord+ to ! ,newtonian law4 ,)\t go+ into ! details ( ?is reason+1 ,i may rem>k1 t ! m rapid relative angul> motion ( ! compon5ts ( a ,d\ble ,/> :5 !y are m ne> ea* o!r1 proves1 z is all[$ on all h&s1 t !y revolve "u ! influ5ce ( a mutual attractive =ce1 obey+ ! ,kepl]ian ,law ( ,areas4 ,b t1 :e!r ?is =ce foll[s ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e or "s o!r law1 c h>dly h be5 rigor\sly prov$ z yet1 we may easily conceive1 :5 we recollect ! mann] 9 :i* t law 0 prov$ = ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,x 0 by means ( an error ( eight m9utes1 obs]v$ by ,ty*o1 t ,kepl] 0 enabl$1 z he ju/ly boa/$1 to re=m ! s*eme ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em1--to %[1 t is1 t ! planet>y orbits are ellipses ) ! sun 9 ! focus4 ,n[1 ! obs]vations ( ,d\ble ,/>s _c pret5d to su* accuracy z ?is2 & !re=e ! ,kepl]ian !orem _c1 z yet1 h be5 fully demon/rat$ f ^? obs]vations4 ,b :5 we "k #efe t ,d\ble ,/>s are held toge!r by a c5tral =ce1 to prove t ?is =ce foll[s a diff]5t law f ! only law :i* has hi!rto be5 f\nd to obta9 9 ! univ]se1 & :i* obta9s betwe5 all ! kn[n masses ( ! univ]se1 w\ld require v cle> & di/9ct evid5ce1 ( :i* a/ronom]s h z yet se5 no trace4 ,note #fj;,a3 ,connaissance des ,temps1 = #aheb2 publi%$ 9 #ahdi4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,sect4 #a4 ,in/rum5ts4--#b4 ,clocks4 ,,9 page #dgc1 ,i h describ$ ! mann] 9 :i* a/ronom]s are able to obs]ve ! transit ( a />1 & o!r a/ronomical ph5om5a1 to ! exactness ( a t5? ( a second ( "t4 ,! mode ( obs]vation !re describ$ implies t ! obs]v] at ! mom5t ( obs]vation comp>es ! impressions ( ! eye & ( ! e>4 ,n[ x is f\nd t ! habit :i* ! obs]v] mu/ =m ( do+ ?is op]ates diff]5tly 9 diff]5t obs]v]s1 s t "o obs]v] notes ! same fact z happ5+ a fraction ( a second e>li] or lat] ?an ano!r obs]v] does2 & ?is 9 e case4 ,?us1 us+ ! t]m equation1 z we use x 9 ,a/ronomy1 to express a correction by :i* we get regul>ity f irregul>ity1 !re is a p]sonal equation belong+ to ?is mode ( obs]vation1 %[+ t x is liable to error4 ,c ?is error be got rid (8 ,x is at any rate mu* dim9i%$ by a me?od ( obs]vation rec5tly introduc$ into obs]vatories1 & fir/ practis$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,! ess5tial feature ( ?is mode ( obs]vation consi/s 9 comb9+ ! impression ( sight ) t ( t\*1 in/ead ( ) t ( he>+4 ,! obs]v] at ! mom5t ( obs]vation presses ) 8 f+] s z to make a m>k on a ma*9e :i* by its motion measures "t ) great accuracy & on a l>ge scale2 & ?us small int]vals ( "t are made visible4 ,a univ]sal1 ?\gh n a necess>y1 "p ( ?is ma*9]y1 z hi!rto adopt$1 is1 t a galvanic circuit has be5 employ$ 9 convey+ ! impression f ! f+] to ! "p :]e "t is measur$ & m>k$4 ,! facility ) :i* galvanic wires c #eff ?us lead ! impression by any pa? to any di/ance1 & increase its =ce 9 any degree1 has l$ to ?is comb9ation1 & almo/ id5tification1 ( obs]vation by t\* ) its record by galvanism4 ,! me?od hav+ be5 fir/ us$ by ,mr4 ,bond at ,cambridge1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 has be5 adopt$ else:]e1 & especially at ,gre5wi*1 :]e x is us$ = all ! in/rum5ts2 & consequ5tly a collection ( galvanic batt]ies is ?us z necess>y a "p ( ! app>atus ( ! e/abli%m5t z its graduat$ circles & arcs4 ,,end ,,( ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces4 ,,volume ,,ii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,inductive ,,sci5ces1 ,,f ,,! ,,e>lie/ ,,to ,,! ,,pres5t ,,"t4 ,,by ,,william ,,:ewell1 ,d4 ,d41 ,,ma/] ,,( ,,tr9ity ,,college1 ,,cambridge4 ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition1 ,,) ,,additions4 ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes4 ,,volume ,,ii4 ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,& ,,company1 #edi #eea ,,broadway4 #ahge4 ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,! ,,second ,,volume4 ,,! ,,second>y ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ,,book ,,viii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,ac\/ics4 ,,page ,introduction4 #bc ,,*apt] ,i4--,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,solution ,,( ,,problems ,,9 ,,ac\/ics4 #bd ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,problem ,,( ,,! ,,vibrations ,,( ,,/r+s4 #bh ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,problem ,,( ,,! ,,propagation ,,( ,,s\nd4 #cb ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,problem ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,s\nds ,,( ,,! ,,same ,,/r+4 #cf ,,*apt] ,v4--,,problem ,,( ,,! ,,s\nds ,,( ,,pipes4 #ch ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,problem ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,modes ,,( ,,vibration ,,( ,,bodies ,,9 ,,g5]al4 #da ,,book ,,ix4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,optics1 ,,=mal ,,& ,,physical4 ,introduction4 #ea #h ,,=mal ,,optics4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,prim>y ,,induction ,,( ,,optics4--,,rays ,,( ,,light ,,& ,,laws ,,( ,,reflection4 #ec ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,refraction4 #ed ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,disp]sion ,,by ,,refraction4 #eh ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,a*romatism4 #ff ,,*apt] ,v4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,d\ble ,,refraction4 #fi ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,pol>ization4 #gb ,,*apt] ,,vii4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,! ,,colors ,,( ,,?9 ,,plates4 #gf ,,*apt] ,,viii4--,,attempts ,,to ,,discov] ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,o!r ,,ph5om5a4 #gh ,,*apt] ,,ix4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,ph5om5a ,,( ,,dipol>iz$ ,,light4 #hj ,,physical ,,optics4 ,,*apt] ,x4--,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,"y ,,& ,,fresnel4 #he ,,*apt] ,,xi4--,,epo* ,,( ,,"y ,,& ,,fresnel4 ,sect4 #a4 ,introduction4 #ib ,sect4 #b4 ,explanation ( ! ,p]iodical ,colors ( ,?9 ,plates & ,%ad[s by ! ,undulatory ,!ory4 #ic ,sect4 #c4 ,explanation ( ,d\ble ,refraction by ! ,undulatory ,!ory4 #ih ,sect4 #d4 ,explanation ( ,pol>ization by ! ,undulatory ,!ory4 #ajj ,sect4 #e4 ,explanation ( ,dipol>ization by ! ,undulatory ,!ory4 #aje #i ,,*apt] ,,xii4--,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,"y ,,& ,,fresnel4--,,reception ,,( ,,! ,,undulatory ,,!ory4 #aaa ,,*apt] ,,xiii4--,,confirmation ,,& ,,ext5sion ,,( ,,! ,,undulatory ,,!ory4 #aah #a4 ,d\ble ,refraction ( ,compress$ ,glass4 #aai #b4 ,circul> ,pol>ization4 #aai #c4 ,elliptical ,pol>ization 9 ,qu>tz4 #abb #d4 ,diff]5tial ,equations ( ,elliptical ,pol>ization4 #abb #e4 ,elliptical ,pol>ization ( ,metals4 #abc #f4 ,newton's ,r+s by ,pol>iz$ ,light4 #abd #g4 ,conical ,refraction4 #abd #h4 ,fr+es ( ,%ad[s4 #abf #i4 ,objections to ! ,!ory4 #abf #aj4 ,disp]sion1 on ! ,undulatory ,!ory4 #abh #aa4 ,conclusion4 #abh ,,book ,x4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,!rmotics ,,& ,,atmology4 ,introduction4 #acg ,,!rmotics ,,prop]4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,! ,,doctr9es ,,( ,,conduction ,,& ,,radiation4 ,sect4 #a4 ,introduction ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,conduction4 #aci ,sect4 #b4 ,radiation4 #adb ,sect4 #c4 ,v]ification ( ! ,doctr9es ( ,conduction & ,radiation4 #adc ,sect4 #d4 ,! ,geological & ,cosmological ,application ( ,!rmotics4 #add #a4 ,effect ( ,sol> ,heat on ! ,e>?4 #ade #b4 ,climate4 #adf #c4 ,temp]ature ( ! ,int]ior ( ! ,e>?4 #adg #d4 ,heat ( ! ,planet>y ,spaces4 #adh ,sect4 #e4 ,correction ( ,newton's ,law ( ,cool+4 #adi ,sect4 #f4 ,o!r ,laws ( ,ph5om5a ) respect to ,radiation4 #aea ,sect4 #g4 ,f\ri]'s ,!ory ( ,radiant ,heat4 #aeb ,sect4 #h4 ,discov]y ( ! ,pol>ization ( ,heat4 #aec #aj ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,*anges ,,occasion$ ,,by ,,heat4 ,sect4 #a4 ,expansion by ,heat4--,! ,law ( ,dalton & ,gay-,lussac = ,gases4 #aeg ,sect4 #b4 ,specific ,heat4--,*ange ( ,consi/5ce4 #aei ,sect4 #c4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,lat5t ,heat4 #afj ,,atmology4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,vapor ,,& ,,air4 ,sect4 #a4 ,! ,boylean ,law ( ! ,air's ,ela/icity4 #afc ,sect4 #b4 ,prelude to ,dalton's ,doctr9e ( ,evaporation4 #afe ,sect4 #c4 ,dalton's ,doctr9e ( ,evaporation4 #agj ,sect4 #d4 ,det]m9ation ( ! ,laws ( ! ,ela/ic ,=ce ( ,/eam4 #agb ,sect4 #e4 ,consequ5ces ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,evaporation4--,explanation ( ,ra91 ,dew1 & ,cl\ds4 #agf ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,physical ,,!ories ,,( ,,heat4 ,!rmotical ,!ories4 #aha ,atmological ,!ories4 #ahd ,conclusion4 #ahg ,,! ,,me*anico-,,*emical ,,sci5ces4 ,,book ,,xi4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,electricity4 ,introduction4 #aia ,,*apt] ,i4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,electric ,,ph5om5a4 #aic ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,electrical ,,!ory4 #bja ,"q ( ,"o or ,two ,fluids4 #baj ,"q ( ! ,mat]ial ,reality ( ! ,electric ,fluid4 #bab #aa ,,book ,,xii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,magnetism4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,magnetic ,,ph5om5a4 #bag ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,progress ,,( ,,magnetic ,,!ory4 ,!ory ( ,magnetic ,action4 #bbj ,!ory ( ,t]re/rial ,magnetism4 #bbd ,conclusion4 #bcb ,,book ,,xiii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,galvanism1 ,,or ,,voltaic ,,electricity4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,voltaic ,,electricity4 #bcg ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,reception ,,& ,,confirmation ,,( ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,voltaic ,,electricity4 #bdj ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,! ,,mutual ,,attraction ,,& ,,repulsion ,,( ,,voltaic ,,curr5ts4--,,amp,,re4 #bdb ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,action4--,,o]/$4 #bdc ,,*apt] ,v4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,action4 #bde ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,!ory ,,( ,,electrodynamical ,,action4 ,ampre's ,!ory4 #bdf ,reception ( ,ampre's ,!ory4 #bdi ,,*apt] ,,vii4--,,consequ5ces ,,( ,,! ,,electrodynamic ,,!ory4 #bej ,discov]y ( ,diamagnetism4 #beb #ab ,,*apt] ,,viii4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,magneto-,,electric ,,induction4--,,f>aday4 #bec ,,*apt] ,,ix4--,,transition ,,to ,,*emical ,,sci5ce4 #bef ,,! ,,analytical ,,sci5ce4 ,,book ,,xiv4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,improvem5t ,,( ,,! ,,notion ,,( ,,*emical ,,analysis1 ,,& ,,recognition ,,( ,,x ,,z ,,! ,,spagiric ,,art4 #bfa ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,doctr9e ,,( ,,acid ,,& ,,alkali4--,,sylvius4 #bfb ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,doctr9e ,,( ,,elective ,,attractions4--,,ge(froy4 ,,b]gman4 #bfe ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,doctr9e ,,( ,,acidification ,,& ,,combu/ion4--,,phlogi/ic ,,!ory4 ,publication ( ! ,!ory by ,bec*] & ,/ahl4 #bfg ,reception & ,application ( ! ,!ory4 #bga ,,*apt] ,v4--,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,gases4--,,black4 ,,cav5di%4 #bgb ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,epo* ,,( ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,oxyg54--,,lavoisi]4 ,sect4 #a4 ,prelude to ! ,!ory4--,its ,publication4 #bge ,sect4 #b4 ,reception & ,confirmation ( ! ,!ory ( ,oxyg54 #bgh ,sect4 #c4 ,nom5clature ( ! ,oxyg5 ,!ory4 #bha ,,*apt] ,,vii4--,,application ,,& ,,correction ,,( ,,! ,,oxyg5 ,,!ory4 #bhb #ac ,,*apt] ,,viii4--,,!ory ,,( ,,def9ite1 ,,reciprocal1 ,,& ,,multiple ,,proportions4 ,sect4 #a4 ,prelude to ! ,atomic ,!ory1 & its ,publication by ,dalton4 #bhe ,sect4 #b4 ,reception & ,confirmation ( ! ,atomic ,!ory4 #bhh ,sect4 #c4 ,! ,!ory ( ,volumes4--,gay-,lussac4 #bij ,,*apt] ,,ix4--,,epo* ,,( ,,davy ,,& ,,f>aday4 ,sect4 #a4 ,promulgation ( ! ,electro-*emical ,!ory by ,davy4 #bia ,sect4 #b4 ,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,electro-*emical ,!ory by ,f>aday4 #bif ,sect4 #c4 ,consequ5ces ( ,f>aday's ,discov]ies4 #cjb ,sect4 #d4 ,reception ( ! ,electro-*emical ,!ory4 #cjc ,,*apt] ,x4--,,transition ,,f ,,! ,,*emical ,,to ,,! ,,classificatory ,,sci5ces4 #cje ,,! ,,analytico-,,classificatory ,,sci5ce4 ,,book ,,xv4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,m9]alogy4 ,,introduction ,sect4 #a4 ,( ! ,classificatory ,sci5ces4 #cac ,sect4 #b4 ,( ,m9]alogy z ! ,analytico-classificatory ,sci5ce4 #cad ,,cry/allography4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,de ,,lisle ,,& ,,ha,y4 #caf ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,epo* ,,( ,,rom ,,de ,,lisle ,,& ,,ha,y4--,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,! ,,fixity ,,( ,,cry/all9e ,,angles1 ,,& ,,! ,,simplicity ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,d]ivation4 #cbj ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,reception ,,& ,,corrections ,,( ,,! ,,hau,,an ,,cry/allography4 #cbd #ad ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,! ,,di/9ction ,,( ,,sy/ems ,,( ,,cry/allization4--,,weiss ,,& ,,mohs4 #cbf ,,*apt] ,v4--,,reception ,,& ,,confirmation ,,( ,,! ,,di/9ction ,,( ,,sy/ems ,,( ,,cry/allization4 ,diffusion ( ! ,di/9ction ( ,sy/ems4 #ccj ,confirmation ( ! ,di/9ction ( ,sy/ems by ! ,optical ,prop]ties ( ,m9]als4--,brew/]4 #cca ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,correction ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,! ,,same ,,angle ,,= ,,! ,,same ,,sub/ance4 ,discov]y ( ,isomorphism4--,mits*]li*4 #ccd ,dimorphism4 #ccf ,,*apt] ,,vii4--,,attempts ,,to ,,e/abli% ,,! ,,fixity ,,( ,,o!r ,,physical ,,prop]ties4--,,w]n]4 #ccf ,,sy/ematic ,,m9]alogy4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4--,,attempts ,,at ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,m9]als4 ,sect4 #a4 ,prop] ,object ( ,classification4 #cci ,sect4 #b4 ,mix$ ,sy/ems ( ,classification4 #cdj ,,*apt] ,,ix4--,,attempts ,,at ,,! ,,re=m ,,( ,,m9]alogical ,,sy/ems4--,,sep>ation ,,( ,,! ,,*emical ,,& ,,natural ,,hi/ory ,,me?ods4 ,sect4 #a4 ,natural ,hi/ory ,sy/em ( ,mohs4 #cdd ,sect4 #b4 ,*emical ,sy/em ( ,b]zelius & o!rs4 #cdg ,sect4 #c4 ,failure ( ! ,attempts at ,sy/ematic ,re=m4 #cdi ,sect4 #d4 ,return to ,mix$ ,sy/ems ) ,improvem5ts4 #cea ,,classificatory ,,sci5ces4 ,,book ,,xvi4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sy/ematic ,,botany ,,& ,,zoology4 ,introduction4 #ceg #ae ,,*apt] ,i4--,,imag9>y ,,k ,,( ,,plants4 #ceh ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,unsy/ematic ,,k ,,( ,,plants4 #cfa ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,=mation ,,( ,a ,,sy/em ,,( ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,plants4 ,sect4 #a4 ,prelude to ! ,epo* ( ,csalp9us4 #cfi ,sect4 #b4 ,epo* ( ,csalp9us4--,=mation ( a ,sy/em ( ,arrangem5t4 #cgc ,sect4 #c4 ,/ation>y ,int]val4 #cgh ,sect4 #d4 ,sequel to ! ,epo* ( ,csalp9us4--,fur!r ,=mation & ,adoption ( ,sy/ematic ,arrangem5t4 #chb ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,! ,,re=m ,,( ,,l9n,,u4 ,sect4 #a4 ,introduction ( ! ,re=m4 #chg ,sect4 #b4 ,l9nan ,re=m ( ,botanical ,t]m9ology4 #chi ,sect4 #c4 ,nom5clature4 #cia ,sect4 #d4 ,l9nu's ,artificial ,sy/em1 #cie ,sect4 #e4 ,l9nu's ,views on a ,natural ,me?od4 #cif ,sect4 #f4 ,reception & ,diffusion ( ! ,l9nan ,re=m4 #djj ,,*apt] ,v4--,,progress ,,t[>ds ,a ,,natural ,,sy/em ,,( ,,botany4 #djd ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,sy/ematic ,,zoology4 #dab ,,*apt] ,,vii4--,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,i*?yology4 #dai ,p]iod ( ,unsy/ematic ,k4 #dbj ,p]iod ( ,erudition4 #dba ,p]iod ( ,accumulation ( ,mat]ials4--,exotic ,collections4 #dbb ,epo* ( ! ,fixation ( ,*>act]s4--,ray & ,will\ghby4 #dbb ,improvem5t ( ! ,sy/em4--,art$i4 #dbc ,sep>ation ( ! ,artificial & ,natural ,me?ods 9 ,i*?yology4 #dbf ,,organical ,,sci5ces4 ,,book ,,xvii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,physiology ,,& ,,comp>ative ,,anatomy4 ,introduction4 #dce #af ,,*apt] ,i4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,organs ,,( ,,volunt>y ,,motion4 ,sect4 #a4 ,k ( ,gal5 & 8 ,pr$ecessors4 #dch ,sect4 #b4 ,recognition ( ,f9al ,causes 9 ,physiology4--,gal54 #ddb ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,circulation ,,( ,,! ,,blood4 ,sect4 #a4 ,prelude to ! ,discov]y4 #ddd ,sect4 #b4 ,! ,discov]y ( ! ,circulation made by ,h>vey4 #ddg ,sect4 #c4 ,reception ( ! ,discov]y4 #ddh ,sect4 #d4 ,be>+ ( ! ,discov]y on ! ,progress ( ,physiology4 #ddi ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,! ,,*yle1 ,,& ,,consequ5t ,,speculations4 ,sect4 #a4 ,! ,discov]y ( ! ,motion ( ! ,*yle4 #deb ,sect4 #b4 ,! ,consequ5t ,speculations4 ,hypo!ses ( ,dige/ion4 #dec ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,process ,,( ,,reproduction ,,9 ,,animals ,,& ,,plants1 ,,& ,,consequ5t ,,speculations4 ,sect4 #a4 ,! ,exam9ation ( ! ,process ( ,reproduction 9 ,animals4 #dee ,sect4 #b4 9 ,vegetables4 #deg ,sect4 #c4 ,! ,consequ5t ,speculations4--,hypo!ses ( ,g5]ation4 #dei ,,*apt] ,v4--,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em1 ,,& ,,consequ5t ,,speculations4 ,sect4 #a4 ,! ,exam9ation ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em4 #dfa ,sect4 #b4 ,! ,consequ5t ,speculations4 ,hypo!ses respect+ ,life1 ,s5sation1 & ,volition4 #dfd ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,introduction ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,develop$ ,,& ,,metamorphos$ ,,symmetry4 ,sect4 #a4 ,vegetable ,morphology4--,g!4 ,de ,c&olle4 #dfh ,sect4 #b4 ,application ( ,vegetable ,morphology4 #dgd ,,*apt] ,,vii4--,,progress ,,( ,,animal ,,morphology4 ,sect4 #a4 ,rise ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy4 #dge ,sect4 #b4 ,di/9ction ( ! ,g5]al ,types ( ! ,=ms ( ,animals4--,cuvi]4 #dgh ,sect4 #c4 ,attempts to e/abli% ! ,id5tity ( ! ,types ( ,animal ,=ms4 #dhj #ag ,,*apt] ,,viii4--,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,f9al ,,causes ,,9 ,,physiology4 ,sect4 #a4 ,ass]tion ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,unity ( ,plan4 #dhb ,sect4 #b4 ,e/imate ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,unity ( ,plan4 #dhg ,sect4 #c4 ,e/abli%m5t & ,application ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,conditions ( ,exi/5ce ( ,animals4--,cuvi]4 #dib ,,! ,,pal,,tiological ,,sci5ces4 ,,book ,,xviii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,geology4 ,introduction4 #dii ,,descriptive ,,geology4 ,,*apt] ,i4--,,prelude ,,to ,,sy/ematic ,,descriptive ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4 ,anci5t ,notices ( ,geological ,facts4 #eje ,sect4 #b4 ,e>ly ,descriptions & ,collections ( ,fossils4 #ejf ,sect4 #c4 ,fir/ ,con/ruction ( ,geological ,maps4 #eji ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,=mation ,,( ,,sy/ematic ,,descriptive ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4 ,discov]y ( ! ,ord] & ,/ratification ( ! ,mat]ials ( ! ,e>?4 #eaa ,sect4 #b4 ,sy/ematic ,=m giv5 to ,descriptive ,geology4--,w]n]4 #eac ,sect4 #c4 ,application ( ,organic ,rema9s z a ,geological ,"*4--,smi?4 #eae ,sect4 #d4 ,advances 9 ,palontology4--,cuvi]4 #eag ,sect4 #e4 ,intellectual ,*>act]s ( ! ,f\nd]s ( ,sy/ematic ,descriptive ,geology4 #ebj ,,*apt] ,,iii4--,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,sy/ematic ,,descriptive ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4 ,reception & ,diffusion ( ,sy/ematic ,geology4 #ebc ,sect4 #b4 ,application ( ,sy/ematic ,geology4--,geological ,surveys & ,maps4 #ebf ,sect4 #c4 ,geological ,nom5clature4 #ebg ,sect4 #d4 ,geological ,synonymy1 or ,det]m9ation ( ,geological ,equival5ts4 #eca #ah ,,*apt] ,,iv4--,,attempts ,,to ,,discov] ,,g5]al ,,laws ,,9 ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4 ,g5]al ,geological ,ph5om5a4 #ecg ,sect4 #b4 ,transition to ,geological ,dynamics4 #eda ,,geological ,,dynamics4 ,,*apt] ,v4--,,inorganic ,,geological ,,dynamics4 ,sect4 #a4 ,necessity & ,object ( a ,sci5ce ( ,geological ,dynamics4 #edb ,sect4 #b4 ,aque\s ,causes ( ,*ange4 #ede ,sect4 #c4 ,igne\s ,causes ( ,*ange4--,motions ( ! ,e>?'s ,surface4 #edi ,sect4 #d4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,c5tral ,heat4 #eed ,sect4 #e4 ,problems respect+ ,elevations & ,cry/all9e ,=ces4 #eef ,sect4 #f4 ,!ories ( ,*anges ( ,climate4 #eei ,,*apt] ,,vi4--,,progress ,,( ,,! ,,geological ,,dynamics ,,( ,,organiz$ ,,be+s4 ,sect4 #a4 ,objects ( ?is ,sci5ce4 #efa ,sect4 #b4 ,geography ( ,plants & ,animals4 #efb ,sect4 #c4 ,que/ions ( ! ,transmutation ( ,species4 #efc ,sect4 #d4 ,hypo!sis ( ,progressive ,t5d5cies4 #efe ,sect4 #e4 ,"q ( ,creation z relat$ to ,sci5ce4 #efh ,sect4 #f4 ,! ,hypo!sis ( ! ,regul> ,creation & ,ext9ction ( ,species4 #egc #a4 ,creation ( ,species4 #egc #b4 ,ext9ction ( ,species4 #egf ,sect4 #g4 ,! ,imb$d+ ( ,organic ,rema9s4 #egg ,,physical ,,geology4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4--,,progress ,,( ,,physical ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4 ,object & ,di/9ctions ( ,physical ,geology4 #egi ,sect4 #b4 ,( ,fanciful ,geological ,op9ions4 #ehj ,sect4 #c4 ,( ,premature ,geological ,!ories4 #ehd ,,*apt] ,,viii4--,,! ,,two ,,antagoni/ ,,doctr9es ,,( ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4 ,( ! ,doctr9e ( ,geological ,cata/rophes4 #ehf ,sect4 #b4 ,uni=mity4 #ehh #ai ,,additions ,,to ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,,book ,,viii4--,,ac\/ics4 ,,s\nd4 ,! ,velocity ( ,s\nd 9 ,wat]4 #eii ,,book ,,ix4--,,optics4 ,photography4 #fja ,fluoresc5ce4 #fja ,,undulatory ,,!ory4 ,direction ( ! ,transv]se ,vibrations 9 ,pol>ization4 #fjc ,f9al ,dispro( ( ! ,emission ,!ory4 #fjd ,,book ,x4--,,!rmotics4--,,atmology4 ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,vapor ,,& ,,air4 ,=ce ( ,/eam4 #fjf ,temp]ature ( ! ,atmosph]e4 #fjg ,,!ories ,,( ,,heat4 ,! ,dynamical ,!ory ( ,heat4 #fjh ,,book ,,xi4--,,electricity4 ,g5]al ,rem>ks4 #faj ,dr4 ,f>aday's ,views ( ,/atical ,electrical ,induction4 #faa ,,book ,,xii4--,,magnetism4 ,rec5t ,progress ( ,t]re/rial ,magnetism4 #fac ,correction ( ,%ips' ,compasses4 #faf #bj ,,book ,,xiii4--,,voltaic ,,electricity4 ,,magneto-,,electric ,,induction4 ,diamagnetlc ,pol>ity4 #fbj ,magneto-optic ,effects & ,magnecry/allic ,pol>ity4 #fba ,magneto-electric ,ma*9es4 #fbc ,applications ( ,electrodynamic ,discov]ies4 #fbc ,,book ,,xiv4--,,*emi/ry4 ,,! ,,electro-,,*emical ,,!ory4 ,! ,numb] ( ,elem5t>y ,sub/ances4 #fbe ,,book ,,xv4--,,m9]alogy4 ,cry/allography4 #fbg ,optical ,prop]ties ( ,m9]als4 #fbi ,classification ( ,m9]als4 #fcj ,,book ,,xvi4--,,classificatory ,,sci5ces4 ,rec5t ,views ( ,botany4 #fca ,zoology4 #fcd ,,book ,,xvii4--,,physiological ,,& ,,comp>ative ,,anatomy4 ,,vegetable ,,morphology4 #fcf ,,animal ,,morphology4 #fch ,f9al ,causes4 #fdb ,,book ,,xviii4 ,,geology4 #fdf #ba ,,book ,,viii4 ,,! ,,second>y ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,ac\/ics4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,g1 dem& ,( mighty ,nature1 if 'twas ev] meant ,t we %\ld pry f> (f & be unrais$1 ,t we %\ld pore1 & dw9dle z we pore1 ,view+ all objects unremitt+ly ,9 disconnexion dead & spiritless2 ,& /ill divid+1 & divid+ /ill1 ,break d[n all gr&eur1 /ill unsatisfi$ ,) ! p]v]se attempt1 :ile littl5ess ,may yet become m little2 wag+ ?us ,an impi\s w>f>e 'ga9/ ! v life ,( our own s\ls4 ,,wordswor?1 ,excursion4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,i 1 ,,nonnus4 ,dionysiac4 xli4 #bge4 ,along ! skiey ar* ! goddess trode1 ,& s\ght ,h>monia's augu/ abode2 ,! univ]sal plan1 ! my/ic ,f\r1 ,def9es ! figure ( ! palace-floor4 ,solid & squ>e ! anci5t fabric /&s1 ,rais$ by ! labors ( unnumb]$ h&s4 #bc ,,book ,,viii4 ,,introduction4 ,! ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces4 ,,9 ! sci5ces ( ,me*anics & ,physical ,a/ronomy1 ,motion & ,=ce are ! direct & prim>y objects ( our att5tion4 ,b !re is ano!r class ( sci5ces 9 :i* we endeavor to r$uce ph5om5a1 n evid5tly me*anical1 to a kn[n dep5d5ce ^u me*anical prop]ties & laws4 ,9 ! cases to :i* ,i ref]1 ! facts d n pres5t !mselves to ! s5ses z modifications ( position & motion1 b z second>y qualities1 :i* are f\nd to be 9 "s way d]iv$ f ^? prim>y attributes4 ,also1 9 ^! cases ! ph5om5a are r$uc$ to _! me*anical laws & causes 9 a second>y mann]2 namely1 by treat+ !m z ! op]ation ( a m$ium int]pos$ betwe5 ! object & ! organ ( s5se4 ,^!1 !n1 we may call ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces4 ,! sci5ces ( ?is k9d :i* require our notice are ^? :i* treat ( ! s5sible qualities1 ,s\nd1 ,light1 & ,heat2 t is4 ,ac\/ics1 ,optics1 & ,!rmotics4 ,x w be recollect$ t our object is n by any means to give a full /atem5t ( all ! additions :i* h be5 successively made to our k on ! subjects "u review1 or a complete li/ ( ! p]sons by :om su* additions h be5 made2 b to pres5t a view ( ! progress ( ea* ( ^? bran*es ( k z a !oretical sci5ce2--to po9t out ! ,epo*s ( ! discov]y ( ^? g5]al pr9ciples :i* r$uce _m facts to "o !ory2 & to note all t is mo/ *>act]i/ic & in/ructive 9 ! circum/ances & p]sons :i* be> ^u su* ,epo*s4 ,a hi/ory ( any sci5ce1 writt5 ) su* objects1 w n ne$ to be long2 b x w fail 9 its purpose altoge!r1 if x d n di/9ctly exhibit "s well-m>k$ & prom95t features4 #bd ,we beg9 our acc\nt ( ! ,second>y ,me*anical ,sci5ces ) ,ac\/ics1 because ! progress t[>ds "r !oretical views1 01 9 fact1 made mu* e>li] 9 ! sci5ce ( ,s\nd1 ?an 9 ^? ( ,light & ( ,heat2 & also1 because a cle> compreh5sion ( ! !ory to :i* we are l$ 9 ?is case1 is ! be/ prep>ation = ! difficulties 7by no means inconsid]able7 ( ! reason+s ( !ori/s on ! o!r subjects4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,solution ,,( ,,problems ,,9 ,,ac\/ics4 ,,9 "s measure ! true !ory ( s\nd 0 guess$ by v e>ly speculators on ! subject2 ?\gh und\bt$ly conceiv$ 9 a v vague & wav]+ mann]4 ,t s\nd is caus$ by "s motion ( ! s\nd+ body1 & convey$ by "s motion ( ! air to ! e>1 is an op9ion :i* we trace to ! e>lie/ times ( physical philosophy4 ,we may take ,ari/otle z ! be/ exp\nd] ( ?is /age ( op9ion4 ,9 8 ,treatise ,on ,s\nd & ,he>+1 he says1 ,s\nd takes place :5 bodies /rike ! air1 n by ! air hav+ a =m impress$ ^u x 771 z "s ?9k1 b by its be+ mov$ 9 a correspond+ mann]2 7probably he means 9 a mann] correspond+ to ! impulse27 ! air be+ contract$1 & exp&$1 & ov]tak51 & aga9 /ruck by ! impulses ( ! brea? & ( ! /r+s4 ,= :5 ! brea? falls ^u & /rikes ! air :i* is next x1 ! air is c>ri$ =w>ds ) an impetus1 & t :i* is contigu\s to ! fir/ is c>ri$ onw>ds2 s t ! same voice spreads e way z f> z ! motion ( ! air takes place4 ,z is ! case ) all su* specim5s ( anci5t physics1 diff]5t p]sons w\ld f9d 9 su* a /atem5t v diff]5t measures ( tru? & di/9ctness4 ,! admir]s ( antiquity might easily1 by press+ ! language closely1 & us+ ! light ( mod]n discov]y1 detect 9 ?is passage an exact acc\nt ( ! production & propagation ( s\nd3 :ile o!rs might ma9ta9 t 9 ,ari/otle's own m9d1 !re 7 only vague notions1 & v]bal g5]alizations4 ,?is #be latt] op9ion is v emphatically express$ by ,bacon4#ah ,! collision or ?ru/+ ( air1 :i* !y w h to be ! cause ( s\nd1 nei!r d5otes ! =m nor ! lat5t process ( s\nd2 b is a t]m ( ignorance & ( sup]ficial contemplation4 ,nor c x be ju/ly d5i$1 t an exact & di/9ct appreh5sion ( ! k9d ( motion ( ! air by :i* s\nd is diffus$1 0 beyond ! rea* ( ! anci5t philosoph]s1 & made its way into ! _w long aft]w>ds4 ,x 0 by no means easy to reconcile ! nature ( su* motion ) obvi\s ph5om5a4 ,= ! process is n evid5t z motion2 s9ce1 z ,bacon also obs]ves1#bh x does n visibly agitate ! flame ( a c&le1 or a fea!r1 or any light float+ sub/ance1 by :i* ! slighte/ motions ( ! air are betray$4 ,/ill1 ! p]suasion t s\nd is "s motion ( ! air1 cont9u$ to keep hold ( m5's m9ds1 & acquir$ additional di/9ctness4 ,! illu/ration employ$ by ,vitruvius1 9 ! foll[+ passage1 is ev5 n[ "o ( ! be/ we c (f]4#ch ,voice is brea?1 fl[+1 & made s5sible to ! he>+ by /rik+ ! air4 ,x moves 9 inf9ite circumf]5ces ( circles1 z :51 by ?r[+ a /one into /ill wat]1 y produce innum]able circles ( waves1 increas+ f ! c5tre & spread+ outw>ds1 till ! b\nd>y ( ! space1 or "s ob/acle1 prev5ts _! outl9es f go+ fur!r4 ,9 ! same mann] ! voice makes its motion 9 circles4 ,b 9 wat] ! circle moves bread?ways ^u a level pla92 ! voice proce$s 9 bread?1 & also successively asc5ds 9 height4 ,note #ah3 ,hi/4 ,son4 et ,aud4 vol4 ix4 p4 #fh4 ,note #bh3 ,ibid4 ,note #ch3 ,de ,ar*4 v4 #c4 ,bo? ! comp>ison1 & ! notice ( ! diff]5ce ( ! two cases1 prove ! ar*itect to h _h v cle> notions on ! subject2 :i* he fur!r %[s by comp>+ ! resonance ( ! walls ( a build+ to ! di/urbance ( ! outl9e ( ! waves ( wat] :5 !y meet ) a b\nd>y1 & are ?r[n back4 ,!re=e1 z 9 ! outl9es ( waves 9 wat]1 s 9 ! voice1 if no ob/acle int]rupt ! =emo/1 x does n di/urb ! second & ! foll[+ ones1 s t all come to ! e>s ( p]sons1 :e!r high up or l[ d[n1 )\t resonance4 ,b :5 !y /rike aga9/ ob/acles1 ! =emo/1 be+ ?r[n back1 di/urb ! l9es ( ^? :i* foll[4 ,simil> analogies 7 employ$ by ! anci5ts 9 ord] to expla9 ! occurr5ce ( ,e*oes4 ,ari/otle says1#dh ,an ,e*o takes place1 :5 ! air1 be+ z "o body 9 consequ5ce ( ! vessel :i* b\nds x1 & be+ prev5t$ f be+ ?ru/ =w>ds1 is reflect$ #bf back l a ball4 ,no?+ mat]ial 0 add$ to su* views till mod]n times4 ,note #dh3 ,de ,anim1 ii4 #h4 ,?us ! fir/ conjectures ( ^? :o philosophiz$ conc]n+ s\nd1 l$ !m to an op9ion conc]n+ its causes & laws1 :i* only requir$ to be di/9ctly und]/ood1 & trac$ to me*anical pr9ciples1 9 ord] to =m a g5u9e sci5ce ( ,ac\/ics4 ,x 01 no d\bt1 a "w :i* requir$ a long "t & sagaci\s reason]s1 to supply :at 0 ?us want+2 b /ill1 9 consequ5ce ( ?is peculi> circum/ance 9 ! e>ly condition ( ! preval5t doctr9e conc]n+ s\nd1 ! hi/ory ( ,ac\/ics assumes a peculi> =m4 ,in/ead ( conta9+1 l ! hi/ory ( ,a/ronomy or ( ,optics1 a s]ies ( g5]alizations1 ea* includ+ & ris+ above prec$+ g5]alizations2 9 ?is case1 ! highe/ g5]alization is 9 view f ! fir/2 & ! object ( ! philosoph] is to det]m9e its precise mean+ & circum/ances 9 ea* example4 ,in/ead ( hav+ a s]ies ( inductive ,tru?s1 successively dawn+ on m5's m9ds1 we h a s]ies ( ,explanations1 9 :i* c]ta9 exp]im5tal facts & laws are reconcil$1 z to _! me*anical pr9ciples & _! measures1 ) ! g5]al doctr9e already 9 our possession4 ,in/ead ( hav+ to travel gradually t[>ds a great discov]y1 l ,univ]sal ,gravitation1 or ,lum9if]\s ,undulations1 we take our /& ^u ackn[l$g$ tru?s1 ! production & propagation ( s\nd by ! motion ( bodies & ( air2 & we connect ^! ) o!r tru?s1 ! laws ( motion & ! kn[n prop]ties ( bodies1 z1 = in/ance1 _! ela/icity4 ,in/ead ( ,epo*s ( ,discov]y1 we h ,solutions ( ,problems2 & to ^! we mu/ n[ proce$4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 9 ! fir/ place1 notice t ^! ,problems include o!r subjects ?an ! m]e production & propagation ( s\nd g5]ally4 ,= su* que/ions z ^! obvi\sly occur3--:at are ! laws & cause ( ! diff]5ces ( s\nds2--( acute & grave1 l\d & l[1 cont9u$ & in/antane\s2--&1 aga91 ( ! diff]5ces ( articulate s\nds1 & ( ! quality ( diff]5t voices & diff]5t in/rum5ts8 ,! fir/ ( ^! que/ions1 9 p>ticul>1 ! real nature ( ! diff]5ce ( acute & grave s\nds1 c\ld n help attract+ att5tion2 s9ce ! diff]5ce ( notes 9 ?is respect 0 ! f\ndation ( "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ma!matical sci5ces ( antiquity4 ,accord+ly1 we f9d attempts to expla9 ?is diff]5ce 9 ! anci5t writ]s on music4 ,9 ,ptolemy's ,h>monics1 ! ?ird ,*apt] ( ! fir/ ,book is entitl$1 ,h[ ! #bg acut5ess & grav5ess ( notes is produc$2 & 9 ?is1 aft] not+ g5]ally ! diff]5ce ( s\nds1 & ! causes ( diff]5ce 7:i* he /ates to be ! =ce ( ! /rik+ body1 ! physical con/itution ( ! body /ruck1 & o!r causes71 he comes to ! conclusion1 t ! ?+s :i* produce acut5ess 9 s\nds1 are a great] d5sity & a small] size2 ! ?+s :i* produce grav5ess1 are a great] r>ity & a bulki] =m4 ,he aft]w>ds expla9s ?is s z to include a consid]able portion ( tru?4 ,?us he says1 ,t 9 /r+s1 & 9 pipes1 o!r ?+s rema9+ ! same1 ^? :i* are /opp$ at ! small] di/ance f ! bridge give ! mo/ acute note2 & 9 pipes1 ^? notes :i* come ?r\gh holes ne>e/ to ! m\?-hole are mo/ acute4 ,he ev5 attempts a fur!r g5]alization1 & says t ! great] acut5ess arises1 9 fact1 f ! body be+ m t5se2 & t ?us h>dness may c\nt]act ! effect ( great] d5sity1 z we see t brass produces a m acute s\nd ?an lead4 ,b ?is au?or's notions ( t5sion1 s9ce !y 7 appli$ s g5]ally z to include bo? ! t5sion ( a /r+1 & ! t5sion ( a piece ( solid brass1 mu/ necess>ily h be5 v vague4 ,& he seems to h be5 de/itute ( any k ( ! precise nature ( ! motion or impulse by :i* s\nd is produc$2 &1 ( c\rse1 /ill m ignorant ( ! me*anical pr9ciples by :i* ^! motions are expla9$4 ,! notion ( vibrations ( ! p>ts ( s\nd+ bodies1 does n appe> to h be5 dwelt ^u z an ess5tial circum/ance2 ?\gh 9 "s cases1 z 9 s\nd+ /r+s1 ! fact is v obvi\s4 ,& ! notion ( vibrations ( ! air does n at all appe> 9 anci5t writ]s1 except s f> z x may be conceiv$ to be impli$ 9 ! comp>ison ( arial & wat]y waves1 :i* we h quot$ f ,vitruvius4 ,x is h[ev]1 v unlikely t1 ev5 9 ! case ( wat]1 ! motions ( ! p>ticles 7 di/9ctly conceiv$1 = su* conception is f> f obvi\s4 ,! attempts to appreh5d di/9ctly1 & to expla9 me*anically1 ! ph5om5a ( s\nd1 gave rise to a s]ies ( ,problems1 ( :i* we mo/ n[ give a brief hi/ory4 ,! que/ions :i* m peculi>ly con/itute ! ,sci5ce ( ,ac\/ics1 are ! que/ions conc]n+ ^? motions or affections ( ! air by :i* x is ! m$ium ( he>+4 ,b ! motions ( s\nd+ bodies h bo? s mu* connexion ) ^? ( ! m$ium1 & s mu* resemblance to !m1 t we %all include 9 our survey rese>*es on t subject also4 #bh ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,problem ,,( ,,! ,,vibrations ,,( ,,/r+s4 ,,t ! cont9uation ( s\nd dep5ds on a cont9u$ m9ute & rapid motion1 a %ak+ or trembl+1 ( ! p>ts ( ! s\nd+ body1 0 soon se54 ,?us ,bacon says1#eh ,! duration ( ! s\nd ( a bell or a /r+ :5 /ruck1 :i* appe>s to be prolong$ & gradually ext+ui%$1 does n proce$ f ! fir/ p]cussion2 b ! trepidation ( ! body /ruck p]petually g5]ates a new s\nd4 ,= if t trepidation be prev5t$1 & ! bell or /r+ be /opp$1 ! s\nd soon dies3 z 9 sp9ets1 z soon z ! sp9e is let fall s z to t\* ! /r+1 ! s\nd ceases4 ,9 ! case ( a /ret*$ /r+1 x is n difficult to p]ceive t ! motion is a motion back & =w>ds across ! /raight l9e :i* ! /r+ occupies :5 at re/4 ,! fur!r exam9ation ( ! quantitative circum/ances ( ?is oscillatory motion 0 an obvi\s problem2 & especially aft] oscillations1 ?\gh ( ano!r k9d 7^? ( a p5dul\s body71 _h attract$ att5tion1 z !y _h done 9 ! s*ool ( ,galileo4 ,m]s5ne1 "o ( ! promulgators ( ,galileo's philosophy 9 ,france1 is ! fir/ au?or 9 :om ,i f9d an exam9ation ( ! details ( ?is case 7,h>monicorum ,lib]1 ,p>is1 #afcf74 ,he ass]ts1#fh t ! diff]5ces & concords ( acute & grave s\nds dep5d on ! rapidity ( vibrations1 & _! ratio2 & he proves ?is doctr9e by a s]ies ( exp]im5tal comp>isons4 ,?us he f9ds#gh t ! note ( a /r+ is z its l5g?1 by tak+ a /r+ fir/ twice1 & !n f\r times z long z ! orig9al /r+1 o!r ?+s rema9+ ! same4 ,?is1 inde$1 0 kn[n to ! anci5ts1 & 0 ! basis ( t num]ical indication ( ! notes :i* ! proposition expresses4 ,m]s5ne fur!r proce$s to %[ ! effect ( ?ickness & t5sion4 ,he f9ds 7,prop4 #g7 t a /r+ mu/ be f\r times z ?ick z ano!r1 to give ! octave bel[2 he f9ds1 also 7,prop4 #h71 t ! t5sion mu/ be ab\t f\r times z great 9 ord] to produce ! octave above4 ,f ^! proportions v>i\s o!rs are d$uc$1 & ! law ( ! #bi ph5om5a ( ?is k9d may be consid]$ z det]m9$4 ,m]s5ne also und]took to measure ! ph5om5a num]ically1 t is to det]m9e ! numb] ( vibrations ( ! /r+ 9 ea* ( su* cases2 :i* at fir/ might appe> difficult1 s9ce x is obvi\sly impossible to c\nt ) ! eye ! passages ( a s\nd+ /r+ backw>ds & =w>ds4 ,b ,m]s5ne rightly assum$1 t ! numb] ( vibrations is ! same s long z ! tone is ! same1 & t ! ratios ( ! numb]s ( vibrations ( diff]5t /r+s may be det]m9$ f ! num]ical relations ( _! notes4 ,he _h1 !re=e1 only to det]m9e ! numb] ( vibrations ( "o c]ta9 /r+1 or "o kn[n note1 to "k ^? ( all o!rs4 ,he took a musical /r+ ( ?ree-qu>t]s ( a foot long1 /ret*$ ) a weight ( six p\nds & five eigh?s1 :i* he f\nd gave him by its vibrations a c]ta9 /&>d note 9 8 organ3 he f\nd t a /r+ ( ! same mat]ial & t5sion1 fifte5 feet1 t is1 tw5ty times z long1 made t5 recurr5ces 9 a second2 & he inf]r$ t ! numb] ( vibrations ( ! %ort] /r+ mu/ also be tw5ty times z great2 & ?us su* a /r+ mu/ make 9 "o second ( "t two hundr$ vibrations4 ,note #eh3 ,hi/4 ,son4 et ,aud4 vol4 ix4 p4 #ga4 ,note #fh3 ,l4 i4 ,prop4 #ae4 ,note #gh3 ,l4 ii4 ,prop4 #f4 ,?is det]m9ation ( ,m]s5ne does n appe> to h attract$ due notice2 b "s "t aft]w>ds attempts 7 made to asc]ta9 ! connexion betwe5 ! s\nd & its elem5t>y pulsations 9 a m direct mann]4 ,hooke1 9 #afha1 produc$ s\nds by ! /rik+ ( ! tee? ( brass :eels1#hh & ,/anc>i1 9 #agjf1 by :irl+ r\nd a l>ge :eel 9 air1 %[$1 be=e ! ,academy ( ,bologna1 h[ ! numb] ( vibrations 9 a giv5 note might be kn[n4 ,sauveur1 :o1 ?\gh deaf = ! fir/ sev5 ye>s ( 8 life1 0 "o ( ! greate/ promot]s ( ! sci5ce ( s\nd1 & gave x its "n ( ,ac\/ics1 endeavor$ also1 ab\t ! same "t1 to det]m9e ! numb] ( vibrations ( a /&>d note1 or1 z he call$ x1 ,fix$ ,s\nd4 ,he employ$ two me?ods1 bo? +5i\s & bo? indirect4 ,! fir/ 0 ! me?od ( beats4 ,two organ-pipes1 :i* =m a discord1 are (t5 he>d to produce a k9d ( h[l1 or wavy noise1 ! s\nd swell+ & decl9+ at small int]vals ( "t4 ,?is 0 readily & rightly ascrib$ to ! co9cid5ces ( ! pulsations ( s\nd ( ! two notes aft] c]ta9 cycles4 ,?us1 if ! numb] ( vibrations ( ! notes 7 z fifte5 to sixte5 9 ! same "t1 e fifte5? vibration ( ! "o w\ld co9cide ) e #cj sixte5? vibration ( ! o!r1 :ile all ! int]m$iate vibrations ( ! two tones w\ld1 9 v>i\s degrees1 disagree ) ea* o!r2 & ?us e su* cycle1 ( fifte5 & sixte5 vibrations1 might be he>d z a sep>ate beat ( s\nd4 ,n[1 ,sauveur wi%$ to take a case 9 :i* ^! beats 7 s sl[ z to be c\nt$1#ih & 9 :i* ! ratio ( ! vibrations ( ! notes 0 kn[n f a k ( _! musical relations4 ,?us if ! two notes =m an int]val ( a semitone1 _! ratio w be t above suppos$1 fifte5 to sixte52 & if ! beats be f\nd to be six 9 a second1 we "k t1 9 t "t1 ! grav] note makes n9ety & ! acut] n9ety-six vibrations4 ,9 ?is mann] ,sauveur f\nd t an op5 organ-pipe1 five feet long1 gave "o hundr$ vibrations 9 a second4 ,note #hh3 ,life1 p4 xxiii4 ,note #ih3 ,ac4 ,sc4 ,hi/4 #agjj1 p4 #aca4 ,sauveur's o!r me?od is m recondite1 & approa*es to a me*anical view ( ! "q4#ajh ,he proce$$ on ?is basis2 a /r+1 horizontally /ret*$1 _c be drawn into a ma!matical /raight l9e1 b always hangs 9 a v flat curve1 or fe/oon4 ,h5ce ,sauveur assum$ t its transv]se vibrations may be conceiv$ to be id5tical ) ! lat]al sw++s ( su* a fe/oon4 ,obs]v+ t ! /r+ ,c1 9 ! middle ( a h>psi*ord1 hangs 9 su* a fe/oon to ! am\nt ( #acbcrd ( an in*1 he calculates1 by ! laws ( p5dulums1 ! "t ( oscillation1 & f9ds x #aabbnd ( a second4 ,?us ?is ,c1 8 fix$ note1 makes "o hundr$ & tw5ty-two vibrations 9 a second4 ,x is curi\s t ?is process1 seem+ly s arbitr>y1 is capable ( be+ ju/ifi$ on me*anical pr9ciples2 ?\gh we c h>dly give ! au?or cr$it = ! views :i* ?is ju/ification implies4 ,x is1 !re=e1 easy to und]/& t x agre$ ) o!r exp]im5ts1 9 ! laws :i* x gave = ! dep5d5ce ( ! tone on ! l5g? & t5sion4 ,note #ajh3 ,ac4 ,sc4 ,hi/4 #agac4 ,! problem ( satisfactorily expla9+ ?is dep5d5ce1 on me*anical pr9ciples1 naturally press$ ^u ! att5tion ( ma!maticians :5 ! law ( ! ph5om5a 0 ?us completely det]m9$ by ,m]s5ne & ,sauveur4 ,x 0 desirable to %[ t bo? ! circum/ances & ! measure ( ! ph5om5a 7 su* z kn[n me*anical causes & laws w\ld expla94 ,b ?is problem1 z might be expect$1 0 n attack$ till me*anical pr9ciples1 & ! modes ( apply+ !m1 _h become tol]ably famili>4 ,z ! vibrations ( a /r+ are produc$ by its t5sion1 x appe>$ to be necess>y1 9 ! fir/ place1 to det]m9e ! law ( ! t5sion #ca :i* is call$ into action by ! motion ( ! /r+2 = x is manife/ t1 :5 ! /r+ is drawn aside f ! /raight l9e into :i* x is /ret*$1 !re arises an additional t5sion1 :i* aids 9 draw+ x back to ! /raight l9e z soon z x is let g4 ,hooke 7,on ,spr+1 #afgh7 det]m9$ ! law ( ?is additional t5sion1 :i* he express$ 9 8 not$ =mula1 ,ut t5sio sic vis1 ! ,=ce is z ! ,t5sion2 or r1 to express 8 mean+ m cle>ly1 ! ,=ce ( t5sion is z ! ,ext5sion1 or1 9 a /r+1 z ! increase ( l5g?4 ,b1 9 reality1 ?is pr9ciple1 :i* is important 9 _m ac\/ical problems1 is1 9 ! "o n[ be=e u1 unimportant2 ! =ce :i* urges ! /r+ t[>ds ! /raight l9e1 dep5ds1 ) su* small ext5sions z we h n[ to consid]1 n on ! ext5sion1 b on ! curvature2 & ! p[] ( treat+ ! ma!matical difficulty ( curvature1 & its me*anical consequ5ces1 0 :at 0 requisite = ! solution ( ?is problem4 ,! problem1 9 its prop] aspect1 0 fir/ attack$ & ma/]$ by ,brook ,taylor1 an ,engli% ma!matician ( ! s*ool ( ,newton1 by :om ! solution 0 publi%$ 9 #agae1 9 8 ,me?odus ,increm5torum4 ,taylor's solution 0 inde$ imp]fect1 = x only po9t$ out a =m & a mode ( vibration1 ) :i* ! /r+ might move consi/5tly ) ! laws ( me*anics2 n ! mode 9 :i* x mu/ move1 suppos+ its =m to be any :atev]4 ,x %[$ t ! curve might be ( ! nature ( t :i* is call$ ! companion to ! cycloid2 &1 on ! supposition ( ! curve ( ! /r+ be+ ( ?is =m1 ! calculation confirm$ ! previ\sly e/abli%$ laws by :i* ! tone1 or ! "t ( vibration1 _h be5 discov]$ to dep5d on ! l5g?1 t5sion1 & bulk ( ! /r+4 ,! ma!matical incomplet5ess ( ,taylor's reason+ mu/ n prev5t u f look+ ^u 8 solution ( ! problem z ! mo/ important /ep 9 ! progress ( ?is "p ( ! subject3 = ! difficulty ( apply+ me*anical pr9ciples to ! "q be+ once ov]come1 ! ext5sion & correction ( ! application 0 sure to be und]tak5 by succe$+ ma!maticians2 &1 accord+ly1 ?is soon happ5$4 ,we may add1 moreov]1 t ! subsequ5t & m g5]al solutions require to be consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ,taylor's1 9 ord] to appreh5d di/9ctly _! import2 & fur!r1 t x 0 almo/ evid5t to a ma!matician1 ev5 be=e ! g5]al solution _h appe>$1 t ! dep5d5ce ( ! "t ( vibration on ! l5g? & t5sion1 w\ld be ! same 9 ! g5]al case z 9 ! #cb ,taylorian curve2 s t1 = ! ends ( physical philosophy1 ! solution 0 n v incomplete4 ,john ,b]n\lli1 a few ye>s aft]w>ds1#aah solv$ ! problem ( vibrat+ *ords on ne>ly ! same pr9ciples & suppositions z ,taylor2 b a little lat] 79 #agdg71 ! next g5]ation ( great ma!maticians1 ,d',alemb]t1 ,eul]1 & ,daniel ,b]n\lli1 appli$ ! increas$ p[]s ( analysis to give g5]ality to ! mode ( treat+ ?is "q2 & especially ! calculus ( p>tial diff]5tials1 inv5t$ = ?is purpose4 ,b at ?is epo*1 ! discussion1 s f> z x bore on physics1 belong$ r to ! hi/ory ( ano!r problem1 :i* comes "u our notice h]eaft]1 t ( ! composition ( vibrations2 we %all1 !re=e1 def] ! fur!r hi/ory ( ! problem ( vibrat+ /r+s1 till we h to consid] x 9 connexion ) new exp]im5tal facts4 ,note #aah3 ,op4 iii4 p4 #bjg4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,problem ,,( ,,! ,,propagation ,,( ,,s\nd4 ,,we h se5 t ! anci5t philosoph]s1 = ! mo/ "p1 held t s\nd 0 transmitt$1 z well z produc$1 by "s motion ( ! air1 )\t def9+ :at k9d ( motion ?is 02 t "s writ]s1 h[ev]1 appli$ to x a v happy similitude1 ! expansive motion ( ! circul> waves produc$ by ?r[+ a /one into /ill wat]2 b t not)/&+1 "s reject$ ?is mode ( conception1 z1 = in/ance1 ,bacon1 :o ascrib$ ! transmission ( s\nd to c]ta9 spiritual species4 ,?\gh x 0 an obvi\s ?\ght to ascribe ! motion ( s\nd to "s motion ( air2 to conceive :at k9d ( motion c\ld & did produce ?is effect1 mu/ h be5 a matt] ( grave p]plexity at ! "t ( :i* we are speak+2 & is f> f easy to mo/ p]sons ev5 n[4 ,we may judge ( ! difficulty ( =m+ ?is conception1 :5 we recollect t ,john ,b]n\lli ! y\ng]#abh decl>$1 t he c\ld n und]/& ,newton's proposition on ?is subject4 ,! difficulty consi/s 9 ?is2 t ! movem5t ( ! p>ts ( air1 9 :i* s\nd consi/s1 travels along1 b t ! p>ts #cc ( air !mselves d n s travel4 ,accord+ly ,otto ,gu]icke1#ach ! inv5tor ( ! air-pump1 asks1 ,h[ c s\nd be convey$ by ! motion ( ! air8 :5 we f9d t x is bett] convey$ ?r\gh air t is /ill1 ?an :5 !re is a w9d4 ,we may obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t he 0 p>tly misl$ by f9d+1 z he ?\ght1 t a bell c\ld be he>d 9 ! vacuum ( 8 air-pump2 a result :i* arose1 probably1 f "s imp]fection 9 8 app>atus4 ,note #abh3 ,prize ,dis4 on ,light1 #agcf4 ,note #ach3 ,de ,vac4 ,spat4 p4 #ach4 ,attempts 7 made to det]m9e1 by exp]im5t1 ! circum/ances ( ! motion ( s\nd2 & especially its velocity4 ,gass5di#adh 0 "o ( ! fir/ :o did ?is4 ,he employ$ fire-arms = ! purpose1 & ?us f\nd ! velocity to be #adgc ,p>is feet 9 a second4 ,rob]val f\nd a velocity s small 7#efj feet7 t x ?rew unc]ta9ty ^u ! re/1 & affect$ ,newton's reason+s subsequ5tly4#aeh ,cass9i1 ,huygh5s1 ,pic>d1 ,rm]1 f\nd a velocity ( #aagb ,p>is feet1 :i* is m accurate ?an ! =m]4 ,gass5di _h be5 surpris$ to f9d t ! velocity ) :i* s\nds travel1 is ! same :e!r !y are l\d or g5tle4 ,note #adh3 ,fis*]1 ,ges*4 d4 ,physik4 vol4 i4 #aga4 ,note #aeh3 ,newt4 ,pr94 ,b4 ii4 ,p4 #ej1 ,s*ol4 ,! explanation ( ?is con/ant velocity ( s\nd1 & ( its am\nt1 0 "o ( ! problems ( :i* a solution 0 giv5 9 ! ,great ,*>t] ( mod]n sci5ce1 ,newton's ,pr9cipia 7#afhg74 ,!re1 = ! fir/ "t1 7 expla9$ ! real nature ( ! motions & mutual action ( ! p>ts ( ! air ?r\gh :i* s\nd is transmitt$4 ,x 0 %[n#afh t a body vibrat+ 9 an ela/ic m$ium1 w propagate pulses ?r\gh ! m$ium2 t is1 ! p>ts ( ! m$ium w move =w>ds & backw>ds1 & ?is motion w affect successively ^? p>ts :i* are at a great] & great] di/ance f ! orig9 ( motion4 ,! p>ts1 9 go+ =w>ds1 produce cond5sation2 9 return+ to _! fir/ places1 !y all[ ext5sion2 & ! play ( ! ela/icities develop$ by ^! expansions & contractions1 supplies ! =ces :i* cont9ue to propagate ! motion4 ,note #afh3 ,newt4 ,pr94 ,b4 ii4 ,p4 #dc4 ,! idea ( su* a motion z ?is1 is1 z we h said1 f> f easy to appreh5d di/9ctly3 b a di/9ct appreh5sion ( x is a /ep ess5tial to ! physical "p ( ! sci5ces n[ "u notice2 = x is by means ( su* pulses1 or undulations1 t n only s\nd1 b light1 & probably heat1 are propagat$4 ,we con/antly meet ) evid5ce ( ! difficulty :i* m5 h 9 conceiv+ ?is undulatory motion1 & 9 sep>at+ x f a local motion ( ! m$ium z a #cd mass4 ,= in/ance1 x is n easy at fir/ to conceive ! wat]s ( a great riv] fl[+ con/antly d[n t[>ds ! sea1 :ile waves are roll+ up ! v same "p ( ! /ream2 & :ile ! great elevation1 :i* makes ! tide1 is travell+ f ! sea p]haps ) a velocity ( fifty miles an h\r4 ,! motion ( su* a wave1 or elevation1 is di/9ct f any /ream1 & is ( ! nature ( undulations 9 g5]al4 ,! p>ts ( ! fluid /ir = a %ort "t & = a small di/ance1 s z to accumulate !mselves on a neighbor+ "p1 & !n retire to _! =m] place2 & ?is movem5t affects ! p>ts 9 ! ord] ( _! places4 ,p]haps if ! read] looks at a field ( /&+ corn :5 gu/s ( w9d are sweep+ ov] x 9 visible waves1 he w h 8 conception ( ?is matt] aid$2 = he w see t "h1 :]e ea* e> ( gra9 is an*or$ by its /alk1 !re c be no p]man5t local motion ( ! sub/ance1 b only a successive /oop+ & ris+ ( ! sep>ate /raws1 produc+ holl[s & waves1 clos] & lax] /rips ( ! cr[d$ e>s4 ,newton _h1 moreov]1 to consid] ! me*anical consequ5ces :i* su* cond5sations & r>efactions ( ! ela/ic m$ium1 air1 w\ld produce 9 ! p>ts ( ! fluid itself4 ,employ+ kn[n laws ( ! ela/icity ( air1 he %[$1 9 a v rem>kable proposition1#agh ! law accord+ to :i* ! p>ticles ( air might vibrate4 ,we may obs]ve1 t 9 ?is solution1 z 9 t ( ! vibrat+ /r+ already m5tion$1 a rule 0 exhibit$ accord+ to :i* ! p>ticles might oscillate1 b n ! law to :i* !y mu/ con=m4 ,x 0 prov$ t1 by tak+ ! motion ( ea* p>ticle to be p]fectly simil> to t ( a p5dulum1 ! =ces1 develop$ by contraction & expansion1 7 precisely su* z ! motion requir$2 b x 0 n %[n t no o!r type ( oscillation w\ld give rise to ! same accordance ( =ce & motion4 ,newton's reason+ also gave a det]m9ation ( ! spe$ ( propagation ( ! pulses3 x appe>$ t s\nd ought to travel ) ! velocity :i* a body w\ld acquire by fall+ freely ?r\gh half ! height ( a homog5e\s atmosph]e2 ! height ( a homog5e\s atmosph]e be+ ! height :i* ! air mu/ h1 9 ord] to produce1 at ! e>?'s surface1 ! actual atmosph]ic pressure1 suppos+ no dim9ution ( d5sity to take place 9 asc5d+4 ,?is height is ab\t #bi1jjj feet2 & h5ce x foll[$ t ! velocity 0 #ifh feet4 ,?is velocity is really consid]ably less ?an t ( s\nd2 b at ! "t ( :i* #ce we speak1 no accurate measure _h be5 e/abli%$2 & ,newton p]suad$ himself1 by exp]im5ts made 9 ! cloi/] ( ,tr9ity ,college1 8 resid5ce1 t 8 calculation 0 n f> f ! fact4 ,:51 aft]w>ds1 m exact exp]im5ts %[$ ! velocity to be #aadb ,engli% feet1 ,newton attempt$ to expla9 ! diff]5ce by v>i\s consid]ations1 none ( :i* 7 adequate to ! purpose2--z1 ! dim5sions ( ! solid p>ticles ( :i* ! fluid air consi/s2--or ! vapors :i* are mix$ ) x4 ,o!r writ]s (f]$ o!r sugge/ions2 b ! true solution ( ! difficulty 0 res]v$ = a p]iod consid]ably subsequ5t4 ,note #agh3 ,pr9c4 ,b4 ii4 ,p4 #dh4 ,newton's calculation ( ! motion ( s\nd1 ?\gh logically incomplete1 0 ! great /ep 9 ! solution ( ! problem2 = ma!maticians c\ld n b presume t 8 result 0 n re/rict$ to ! hypo!sis on :i* he _h obta9$ x2 & ! ext5sion ( ! solution requir$ only m]e ord9>y tal5ts4 ,! logical defect ( 8 solution 0 assail$1 z might h be5 expect$4 ,cranm] 7pr(essor at ,g5eva71 9 #agda1 conceiv$ t he 0 de/roy+ ! conclusiv5ess ( ,newton's reason+1 by %[+ t x appli$ equally to o!r modes ( oscillation4 ,?is1 inde$1 contradict$ ! enunciation ( ! #dh? ,prop4 ( ! ,second ,book ( ! ,pr9cipia2 b x confirm$ & ext5d$ all ! g5]al results ( ! demon/ration2 = x left ev5 ! velocity ( s\nd unalt]$1 & ?us %[$ t ! velocity did n dep5d me*anically on ! type ( ! oscillation4 ,b ! satisfactory e/abli%m5t ( ?is physical g5]alization 0 to be suppli$ f ! va/ g5]alizations ( analysis1 :i* ma!maticians 7 n[ becom+ able to deal )4 ,accord+ly ?is task 0 p]=m$ by ! great ma/] ( analytical g5]alization1 ,lagrange1 9 #agei1 :51 at ! age ( tw5ty-?ree1 he & two fri5ds publi%$ ! fir/ volume ( ! ,tur9 ,memoirs4 ,eul]1 z 8 mann] 01 at once p]ceiv$ ! m]it ( ! new solution1 & pursu$ ! subject on ! views ?us sugge/$4 ,v>i\s analytical improvem5ts & ext5sions 7 introduc$ into ! solution by ! two great ma!maticians2 b none ( ^! at all alt]$ ! =mula by :i* ! velocity ( s\nd 0 express$2 & ! discrepancy betwe5 calculation & obs]vation1 ab\t "o-six? ( ! :ole1 :i* _h p]plex$ ,newton1 rema9$ /ill unacc\nt$ =4 ,! m]it ( satisfactorily expla9+ ?is discrepancy belongs to ,laplace4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to rem>k#ahh t ! common law ( ! #cf *anges ( ela/icity 9 ! air1 z dep5d5t on its compression1 _c be appli$ to ^? rapid vibrations 9 :i* s\nd consi/s1 s9ce ! sudd5 compression produces a degree ( heat :i* additionally increases ! ela/icity4 ,! ratio ( ?is increase dep5d$ on ! exp]im5ts by :i* ! relation ( heat & air is e/abli%$4 ,laplace1 9 #ahaf1 publi%$#aih ! !orem on :i* ! correction dep5ds4 ,on apply+ x1 ! calculat$ velocity ( s\nd agre$ v closely ) ! be/ antec$5t exp]im5ts1 & 0 confirm$ by m exact ones in/itut$ = t purpose4 ,note #ahh3 ,mc4 ,cl4 t4 v4 l4 xii4 p4 #if4 ,note #aih3 ,ann4 ,phys4 et ,*im4 t4 iii4 p4 #bhh4 ,?is /ep completes ! solution ( ! problem ( ! propagation ( s\nd1 z a ma!matical induction1 obta9$ f1 & v]ifi$ by1 facts4 ,mo/ ( ! discussions conc]n+ po9ts ( analysis to :i* ! inve/igations on ?is subject gave rise1 z1 = in/ance1 ! admissibility ( discont9u\s functions into ! solutions ( p>tial diff]5tial equations1 belong to ! hi/ory ( pure ma!matics4 ,^? :i* really conc]n ! physical !ory ( s\nd may be ref]r$ to ! problem ( ! motion ( air 9 tubes1 to :i* we %all soon h to proce$2 b we mu/ fir/ speak ( ano!r =m :i* ! problem ( vibrat+ /r+s assum$4 ,x des]ves to be notic$ t ! ultimate result ( ! /udy ( ! undulations ( fluids seems to %[ t ! comp>ison ( ! motion ( air 9 ! diffusion ( s\nd ) ! motion ( circul> waves f a c5tre 9 wat]1 :i* is m5tion$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is *apt]1 ?\gh p]t95t 9 a c]ta9 way1 is n exact4 ,x appe>s by ,mr4 ,scott's rec5t inve/igations conc]n+ waves1#bjh t ! circul> waves are oscillat+ waves ( ! ,second ord]1 & are greg>i\s4 ,! s\nd-wave seems r to resemble ! great solit>y ,wave ( ,translation ( ! ,fir/ ord]1 ( :i* we h already spok5 9 ,book vi4 *apt] vi4 ,note #bjh3 ,brit4 ,ass4 ,reports = #ahdd1 p4 #cfa4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,problem ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,s\nds ,,( ,,! ,,same ,,/r+4 ,,x _h be5 obs]v$ at an e>ly p]iod ( ac\/ical k1 t "o /r+ might give sev]al s\nds4 ,m]s5ne & o!rs #cg _h notic$#bah t :5 a /r+ vibrates1 "o :i* is 9 unison ) x vibrates )\t be+ t\*$4 ,he 0 also aw>e t ?is 0 true if ! second /r+ 0 an octave or a twelf? bel[ ! fir/4 ,?is 0 obs]v$ z a new fact 9 ,engl& 9 #afgd1 & communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society by ,wallis4#bbh ,b ! lat] obs]v]s asc]ta9$ fur!r1 t ! long] /r+ divides itself into two1 or into ?ree equal p>ts1 sep>at$ by nodes1 or po9ts ( re/2 ?is !y prov$ by hang+ bits ( pap] on diff]5t p>ts ( ! /r+4 ,! discov]y s modifi$ 0 aga9 made by ,sauveur#bch ab\t #agjj4 ,! s\nds ?us produc$ 9 "o /r+ by ! vibration ( ano!r1 h be5 t]m$ ,sympa!tic ,s\nds4 ,simil> s\nds are (t5 produc$ by p]=m]s on /r+$ in/rum5ts1 by t\*+ ! /r+ at "o ( its aliquot divisions1 & are !n call$ ! ,acute h>monics4 ,su* facts 7 n difficult to expla9 on ,taylor's view ( ! me*anical condition ( ! /r+2 b ! difficulty 0 increas$ :5 x 0 notic$ t a s\nd+ body c\ld produce ^! diff]5t notes at ! same "t4 ,m]s5ne _h rem>k$ ?is1 & ! fact 0 m di/9ctly obs]v$ & pursu$ by ,sauveur4 ,! notes ?us produc$ 9 addition to ! g5u9e note ( ! /r+1 h be5 call$ ,second>y ,notes2 ^? usually he>d are1 ! ,octave1 ! ,twelf?1 & ! ,sev5te5? above ! note itself4 ,to supply a mode ( conceiv+ di/9ctly1 & expla9+ me*anically1 vibrations :i* %\ld all[ ( su* an effect1 0 !re=e a requisite /ep 9 ac\/ics4 ,note #bah3 ,h>m4 lib4 iv4 ,prop4 #bh 7#afcf74 ,note #bbh3 ,ph4 ,tr4 #afgg1 ,april4 ,note #bch3 ,a4 ,p4 #agja4 ,?is task 0 p]=m$ by ,daniel ,b]n\lli 9 a memoir publi%$ 9 #agee4bdh ,he !re /at$ & prov$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ! coexi/5ce ( small vibrations4 ,x 0 already e/abli%$1 t a /r+ might vibrate ei!r 9 a s+le swell+ 7if we use ?is ^w to express ! curve betwe5 two nodes :i* ,b]n\lli calls a v5tre71 or 9 two or ?ree or any numb] ( equal swell+s ) immoveable nodes betwe54 ,daniel ,b]n\lli %[$ fur!r1 t ^! nodes might be comb9$1 ea* tak+ place z if x 7 ! only "o4 ,?is appe>s suffici5t to expla9 ! coexi/5ce ( ! h>monic s\nds j notic$4 ,d',alemb]t1 inde$1 9 ! article ,fundam5tal 9 ! ,fr5* ,encyclopdie1 & ,lagrange 9 8 ,diss]tation on ,s\nd 9 ! ,tur9 ,memoirs1#beh (f] sev]al objections to ?is explanation2 & x _c be d5i$ t ! subject has its difficulties2 b #ch /ill ^! d n deprive ,b]n\lli ( ! m]it ( hav+ po9t$ out ! pr9ciple ( ,coexi/5t ,vibrations1 or dive/ t pr9ciple ( its value 9 physical sci5ce4 ,note #bdh3 ,b]l9 ,mem4 #agec1 p4 #adg4 ,note #beh3 ,t4 i4 pp4 #fd1 #ajc4 ,daniel ,b]n\lli's ,memoir1 ( :i* we speak1 0 publi%$ at a p]iod :5 ! cl\ds :i* involve ! g5]al analytical treatm5t ( ! problem ( vibrat+ /r+s1 7 ?ick5+ ab\t ,eul] & ,d',alemb]t1 & d>k5+ into a controv]sial hue2 & z ,b]n\lli v5tur$ to int]pose 8 view1 z a solution ( ^! difficulties1 :i*1 9 a ma!matical s5se1 x is n1 we c h>dly be surpris$ t he met ) a rebuff4 ,! fur!r prosecution ( ! diff]5t modes ( vibration ( ! same body ne$ n be "h consid]$4 ,! s\nds :i* are call$ ,grave ,h>monics1 h no analogy ) ! ,acute ,h>monics above-m5tion$2 nor d !y belong to ?is section2 = 9 ! case ( ,grave ,h>monics1 we h "o s\nd f ! co-op]ation ( two /r+s1 in/ead ( sev]al s\nds f "o /r+4 ,^! h>monics are1 9 fact1 connect$ ) beats1 ( :i* we h already spok52 ! beats becom+ s close z to produce a note ( def9ite musical quality4 ,! discov]y ( ! ,grave ,h>monics is usually ascrib$ to ,t>t9i1 :o m5tions !m 9 #aged2 b !y are fir/ notic$#bfh 9 ! "w ( ,sorge ,on tun+ ,organs1 #agdd4 ,he !re expresses ?is discov]y 9 a qu]y4 ,:5ce comes x1 t if we tune a fif? 7#b 3 #c71 a ?ird s\nd is fa9tly he>d1 ! octave bel[ ! l[] ( ! two notes8 ,nature %[s t ) #b 3 #c1 %e /ill requires ! unity1 to p]fect ! ord] #a1 #b1 #c4 ,! tru? is1 t ^! numb]s express ! frequ5cy ( ! vibrations1 & ?us !re w be co9cid5ces ( ! notes #b & #c1 :i* are ( ! frequ5cy #a1 & consequ5tly give ! octave bel[ ! s\nd #b4 ,?is is ! explanation giv5 by ,lagrange1#bgh & is inde$ obvi\s4 ,note #bfh3 ,*ladni4 ,ac\/4 p4 #bed4 ,note #bgh3 ,mem4 ,tur4 i4 p4 #ajd4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,problem ,,( ,,! ,,s\nds ,,( ,,pipes4 ,,x 0 tak5 = grant$ by ^? :o reason$ on s\nds1 t ! s\nds ( flutes1 organ-pipes1 & w9d-in/rum5ts 9 g5]al1 #ci consi/$ 9 vibrations ( "s k9d2 b to det]m9e ! nature & laws ( ^! vibrations1 & to reconcile !m ) me*anical pr9ciples1 0 f> f easy4 ,! lead+ facts :i* _h be5 notic$ 71 t ! note ( a pipe 0 proportional to its l5g?1 & t a flute & simil> in/rum5ts might be made to produce "s ( ! acute h>monics1 z well z ! g5u9e note4 ,x _h fur!r be5 notic$1#bhh t pipes clos$ at ! end1 in/ead ( giv+ ! s]ies ( h>monics #a1 1 1 1 c41 w\ld give only ^? notes :i* answ] to ! odd numb]s #a1 1 1 c4 ,9 ?is problem also1 ,newton#bih made ! fir/ /ep to ! solution4 ,at ! end ( ! propositions respect+ ! velocity ( s\nd1 ( :i* we h spok51 he notic$ t x appe>$ by tak+ ,m]s5ne's or ,sauveur's det]m9ation ( ! numb] ( vibrations correspond+ to a giv5 note1 t ! pulse ( air runs ov] twice ! l5g? ( ! pipe 9 ! "t ( ea* vibration4 ,he does n foll[ out ?is obs]vation1 b x obvi\sly po9ts to ! !ory1 t ! s\nd ( a pipe consi/s ( pulses :i* travel back & =w>ds along its l5g?1 & are kept 9 motion by ! brea? ( ! play]4 ,?is supposition w\ld acc\nt = ! obs]v$ dep5d5ce ( ! note on ! l5g? ( ! pipe4 ,! subject does n appe> to h be5 aga9 tak5 up 9 a !oretical way till ab\t #agfj2 :5 ,lagrange 9 ! second volume ( ! ,tur9 ,memoirs1 & ,d4 ,b]n\lli 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,fr5* ,academy = #agfb1 publi%$ important essays1 9 :i* "s ( ! lead+ facts 7 satisfactorily expla9$1 & :i* may !re=e be consid]$ z ! pr9cipal solutions ( ! problem4 ,note #bhh3 ,d4 ,b]n\lli1 ,b]l94 ,mem4 #agec1 p4 #aej4 ,note #bih3 ,pr9cip4 ,s*ol4 ,prop4 #ej4 ,9 ^! solutions !re 0 necess>ily some?+ hypo!tical4 ,9 ! case ( vibrat+ /r+s1 z we h se51 ! ,=m ( ! vibrat+ curve 0 guess$ at only1 b ! exi/5ce & position ( ! ,nodes c\ld be r5d]$ visible to ! eye4 ,9 ! vibrations ( air1 we _c see ei!r ! places ( nodes1 or ! mode ( vibration2 b sev]al ( ! results are indep5d5t ( ^! circum/ances4 ,?us bo? ( ! solutions expla9 ! fact1 t a tube clos$ at "o end is 9 unison ) an op5 tube ( d\ble ! l5g?2 &1 by suppos+ nodes to occur1 !y acc\nt = ! exi/5ce ( ! odd s]ies ( h>monics alone1 #a1 #c1 #e1 9 clos$ tubes1 :ile ! :ole s]ies1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 c41 occurs 9 op5 ones4 ,bo? views ( ! nature ( ! vibration appe> to be ne>ly ! same2 ?\gh ,lagrange's is express$ ) an analytical g5]ality :i* r5d]s x obscure1 & ,b]n\lli has p]haps #dj laid d[n an hypo!sis m special ?an 0 necess>y4 ,lagrange#cjh consid]s ! vibration ( op5 flutes z ! oscillations ( a fibre ( air1 "u ! condition t its ela/icity at ! two ends is1 dur+ ! :ole oscillation1 ! same z t ( ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e4 ,b]n\lli supposes#cah ! :ole in]tia ( ! air 9 ! flute to be collect$ into "o p>ticle1 & ?is to be mov$ by ! :ole ela/icity aris+ f ?is displacem5t4 ,x may be obs]v$ t bo? ^! modes ( treat+ ! matt] come v ne> to :at we h /at$ z ,newton's !ory2 = ?\gh ,b]n\lli supposes all ! air 9 ! flute to be mov$ at once1 & n successively1 z by ,newton's pulse1 9 ei!r case ! :ole ela/icity moves ! :ole air 9 ! tube1 & requires m "t to d ?is accord+ to its quantity4 ,s9ce t "t1 ! subject has receiv$ fur!r ma!matical developem5t f ,eul]1#cbh ,lamb]t1#cch & ,poisson2#cdh b no new explanation ( facts has aris54 ,attempts h h[ev] be5 made to asc]ta9 exp]im5tally ! places ( ! nodes4 ,b]n\lli himself _h %[n t ?is place 0 affect$ by ! am\nt ( ! op5+1 & ,lamb]t#ceh _h exam9$ o!r cases ) ! same view4 ,sav>t trac$ ! node 9 v>i\s musical pipes "u diff]5t conditions2 & v rec5tly ,mr4 ,hopk9s1 ( ,cambridge1 has pursu$ ! same exp]im5tal inquiry4#cfh ,x appe>s f ^! rese>*es1 t ! e>ly assumptions ( ma!maticians ) reg>d to ! position ( ! nodes1 are n exactly v]ifi$ by ! facts4 ,:5 ! air 9 a pipe is made to vibrate s z to h sev]al nodes :i* divide x into equal p>ts1 x _h be5 suppos$ by ac\/ical writ]s t ! "p adjac5t to ! op5 end 0 half ( ! o!r p>ts2 ! out]mo/ node1 h[ev]1 is f\nd exp]im5tally to be displac$ f ! position ?us assign$ to x1 by a quantity dep5d+ on sev]al collat]al circum/ances4 ,note #cjh3 ,mm4 ,tur91 vol4 ii4 p4 #aed4 ,note #cah3 ,mm4 ,b]l91 #agec1 p4 #ddf4 ,note #cbh3 ,nov4 ,act4 ,petrop4 tom4 xvi4 ,note #cch3 ,acad4 ,b]l91 #agge4 ,note #cde3 ,j\rn4 ,ec4 ,polyt4 cap4 #ad4 ,note #ceh3 ,acad4 ,b]l91 #agge4 ,note #cfh3 ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 v4 p4 #bcd4 ,s9ce our purpose 0 to consid] ?is problem only s f> z x has t5d$ t[>ds its ma!matical solution1 we h avoid$ say+ any?+ ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! mode ( vibration on ! cause by :i* ! s\nd is produc$2 & consequ5tly1 ! rese>*es on ! effects ( re$s1 emb\*ures1 & ! l1 by ,*ladni1 ,sav>t1 ,willis1 & o!rs1 d n belong to our subject4 ,x is easily se5 t ! complex effect ( ! ela/icity & o!r prop]ties ( ! re$ & ( ! air toge!r1 is a problem ( :i* we c h>dly #da hope to give a complete solution till our k has advanc$ mu* beyond its pres5t condition4 ,inde$1 9 ! sci5ce ( ,ac\/ics !re is a va/ body ( facts to :i* we might apply :at has j be5 said2 b = ! sake ( po9t+ out "s ( !m1 we %all consid] !m z ! subjects ( "o ext5sive & yet unsolv$ problem4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,problem ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,modes ,,( ,,vibration ,,( ,,bodies ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,,n only ! objects ( :i* we h spok5 hi!rto1 /r+s & pipes1 b almo/ all bodies are capable ( vibration4 ,bells1 gongs1 tun+-=ks1 are examples ( solid bodies2 drums & tamb\r9es1 ( membranes2 if we run a wet f+] along ! edge ( a glass goblet1 we ?r[ ! fluid :i* x conta9s into a regul> vibration2 & ! v>i\s "* :i* s\nds possess accord+ to ! room 9 :i* !y are utt]$1 %[s t l>ge masses ( air h peculi> modes ( vibration4 ,vibrations are g5]ally accompani$ by s\nd1 & !y may1 !re=e1 be consid]$ z ac\/ical ph5om5a1 especially z ! s\nd is "o ( ! mo/ decisive facts 9 indicat+ ! mode ( vibration4 ,moreov]1 e body ( ?is k9d c vibrate 9 _m diff]5t ways1 ! vibrat+ segm5ts be+ divid$ by ,nodal ,l9es & ,surfaces ( v>i\s =m & numb]4 ,! mode ( vibration1 select$ by ! body 9 ea* case1 is det]m9$ by ! way 9 :i* x is held1 ! way 9 :i* x is set 9 vibration1 & ! l circum/ances4 ,! g5]al problem ( su* vibrations includes ! discov]y & classification ( ! ph5om5a2 ! detection ( _! =mal laws2 &1 f9ally1 ! explanation ( ^! on me*anical pr9ciples4 ,we mu/ speak v briefly ( :at has be5 done 9 ^! ways4 ,! facts :i* indicate ,nodal ,l9es _h be5 rem>k$ by ,galileo1 on ! s\nd+ bo>d ( a musical in/rum5t2 & ,hooke _h propos$ to obs]ve ! vibrations ( a bell by /rew+ fl\r ^u x4 ,b x 0 ,*ladni1 a ,g]man philosoph]1 :o enri*$ ac\/ics ) ! discov]y ( ! va/ v>iety ( symmetrical figures ( ,nodal ,l9es1 :i* are exhibit$ on plates ( regul> =ms1 :5 #db made to s\nd4 ,8 fir/ inve/igations on ?is subject1 ,entdeckung5 b] die ,!orie des ,klangs1 7 publi%$ #aghg2 & 9 #ahjb & #ahag he add$ o!r discov]ies4 ,9 ^! works he n only relat$ a va/ numb] ( new & curi\s facts1 b 9 "s measure r$uc$ "s ( !m to ord] & law4 ,= in/ance1 he has trac$ all ! vibrations ( squ>e plates to a resemblance ) ^? =ms ( vibration 9 :i* ,nodal ,l9es are p>allel to "o side ( ! squ>e1 & ^? 9 :i* !y are p>allel to ano!r side2 & he has e/abli%$ a notation = ! modes ( vibration f\nd$ on ?is classification4 ,?us1 #e-b d5otes a =m 9 :i* !re are five nodal l9es p>allel to "o side1 & two to ano!r2 or a =m :i* c be trac$ to a disfigurem5t ( su* a /&>d type4 ,sav>t pursu$ ?is subject /ill fur!r2 & trac$1 by actual obs]vation1 ! =ms ( ! ,nodal ,surfaces :i* divide solid bodies1 & masses ( air1 :5 9 a /ate ( vibration4 ,! dep5d5ce ( su* vibrations ^u _! physical cause1 namely1 ! ela/icity ( ! sub/ance1 we c conceive 9 a g5]al way2 b ! ma!matical !ory ( su* cases is1 z might be suppos$1 v difficult1 ev5 if we conf9e ourselves to ! obvi\s "q ( ! me*anical possibility ( ^! diff]5t modes ( vibration1 & leave out ( consid]ation _! dep5d5ce ^u ! mode ( excitation4 ,! transv]se vibrations ( ela/ic rods1 plates1 & r+s1 _h be5 consid]$ by ,eul] 9 #aggi2 b 8 calculation conc]n+ plates _h =etold only a small "p ( ! curi\s ph5om5a obs]v$ by ,*ladni2#cgh & ! sev]al notes :i*1 accord+ to 8 calculation1 ! same r+ ought to give1 7 n 9 agreem5t ) exp]im5t4#chh ,inde$1 rese>*es ( ?is k9d1 z conduct$ by ,eul]1 & o!r au?ors1#cih r 71 & 7 int5d$ =1 examples ( analytical skill1 ?an explanations ( physical facts4 ,james ,b]n\lli1 aft] ! publication ( ,*ladni's exp]im5ts 9 #aghg1 attempt$ to solve ! problem = plates1 by treat+ a plate z a collection ( fibres2 b1 z ,*ladni obs]ves1 ! ju/ice ( ?is mode ( conception is disprov$1 by ! disagreem5t ( ! results ) exp]im5t4 ,note #cgh3 ,fis*]1 vi4 #ehg4 ,note #chh3 ,ib4 vi4 #eif4 ,note #cih3 ,see ,*ladni1 p4 #dgd4 ,! ,in/itute ( ,france1 :i* _h approv$ ( ,*ladni's lab\rs1 propos$1 9 #ahji1 ! problem n[ be=e u z a prize-"q3#djh--,to give ! ma!matical !ory ( ! vibrations ( ela/ic #dc surfaces1 & to comp>e x ) exp]im5t4 ,only "o memoir 0 s5t 9 z a c&idate = ! prize2 & ?is 0 n cr[n$1 ?\gh honorable m5tion 0 made ( x4#dah ,! =mul ( ,james ,b]n\lli 71 accord+ to ,m4 ,poisson's /atem5t1 defective1 9 consequ5ce ( 8 n tak+ into acc\nt ! normal =ce :i* acts at ! ext]ior b\nd>y ( ! plate4#dbh ,! au?or ( ! anonym\s memoir correct$ ?is error1 & calculat$ ! note correspond+ to v>i\s figures ( ! nodal l9es2 & he f\nd an agreem5t ) exp]im5t suffici5t to ju/ify 8 !ory4 ,he _h n1 h[ev]1 prov$ 8 fundam5tal equation1 :i* ,m4 ,poisson demon/rat$ 9 a ,memoir1 read 9 #ahad4dch ,at a m rec5t p]iod also1 ,,mm4 ,poisson & ,cau*y 7z well z a lady1 ,mlle4 ,sophie ,g]ma97 h appli$ to ?is problem ! artifices ( ! mo/ improv$ analysis4 ,m4 ,poisson#ddh det]m9$ ! relation ( ! notes giv5 by ! longitud9al & ! transv]se vibrations ( a rod2 & solv$ ! problem ( vibrat+ circul> plates :5 ! nodal l9es are conc5tric circles4 ,9 bo? ^! cases1 ! num]ical agreem5t ( 8 results ) exp]i5ce1 seem$ to confirm ! ju/ice ( 8 fundam5tal views4#deh ,he proce$s ^u ! hypo!sis1 t ela/ic bodies are compos$ ( sep>ate p>ticles held toge!r by ! attractive =ces :i* !y ex]t ^u ea* o!r1 & di/5d$ by ! repulsive =ce ( heat4 ,m4 ,cau*y#dfh has also calculat$ ! transv]se1 longitud9al1 & rotatory vibrations ( ela/ic rods1 & has obta9$ results agree+ closely ) exp]im5t ?r\gh a consid]able li/ ( comp>isons4 ,! comb9$ au?ority ( two pr(\nd analy/s1 z ,,mm4 ,poisson & ,cau*y are1 leads u to believe t1 = ! simpl] cases ( ! vibrations ( ela/ic bodies1 ,ma!matics has execut$ h] task2 b mo/ ( ! m complex cases rema9 z yet unsubdu$4 ,note #djh3 ,see ,*ladni1 p4 #ceg4 ,note #dah3 ,poisson's ,mm4 9 ,ac4 ,sc4 #ahab1 p4 #afi4 ,note #dbh3 ,ib4 p4 #bbj4 ,note #dch3 ,ib4 #ahab1 p4 #b4 ,note #ddh3 ,ib4 t4 viii4 #ahbi4 ,note #deh3 ,an4 ,*im4 tom4 xxxvi4 #ahbg1 p4 #ij4 ,note #dfh3 ,ex]cices de ,ma?matique1 iii4 & iv4 ,! two bro!rs1 ,erne/ & ,william ,web]1 made _m curi\s obs]vations on undulations1 :i* are conta9$ 9 _! ,well5lehre1 7,doctr9e ( ,waves17 publi%$ at ,leipsig 9 #ahbe4 ,!y 7 l$ to suppose1 7z ,"y _h sugge/$ at an e>li] p]iod17 t ,*ladni's figures ( nodal l9es 9 plates 7 to be acc\nt$ = by ! sup]position ( undulations4#dgh ,mr4 ,:eat/one#dhh has und]tak5 to acc\nt = ,*ladni's figures ( vibrat+ squ>e plates by ?is #dd sup]position ( two or m simple & obvi\sly all[able modes ( nodal division1 :i* h ! same "t ( vibration4 ,he assumes1 = ?is purpose1 c]ta9 prim>y figures1 conta9+ only p>allel nodal l9es2 & by comb9+ ^!1 fir/ 9 twos1 & !n 9 f\rs1 he obta9s mo/ ( ,*ladni's obs]v$ figures1 & acc\nts = _! transitions & deviations f regul>ity4 ,note #dgh3 ,well5lehre1 p4 #dgd4 ,note #dhh3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcc1 p4 #eic4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! sup]position ( vibrations is s solidly e/abli%$ z a me*anical tru?1 t we may consid] an ac\/ical problem z satisfactorily dispos$ ( :5 x is r$uc$ to t pr9ciple1 z well z :5 x is solv$ by analytical me*anics3 b at ! same "t we may recollect1 t ! "r application & limitation ( ?is law involves no small difficulty2 & 9 ?is case1 z 9 all advances 9 physical sci5ce1 we _c b wi% to h ! new gr\nd :i* has be5 ga9$1 gone ov] by "s o!r p]son 9 "s o!r mann]2 & ?us secur$ to u z a p]man5t possession4 ,sav>t's ,laws4--,9 :at has prec$$1 ! vibrations ( bodies h be5 ref]r$ to c]ta9 g5]al classes1 ! sep>ation ( :i* 0 sugge/$ by obs]vation2 = example1 ! transv]se1 longitud9al1 & rotatory1#dih vibrations ( rods4 ,! transv]se vibrations1 9 :i* ! rod goes backw>ds & =w>ds across ! l9e ( its l5g?1 7 ! only ones notic$ by ! e>li] ac\/icians3 ! o!rs 7 pr9cipally br\ght into notice by ,*ladni4 ,z we h already se5 9 ! prec$+ pages1 ?is classification s]ves to express important laws2 z1 = in/ance1 a law obta9$ by ,m4 ,poisson :i* gives ! relation ( ! notes produc$ by ! transv]se & longitud9al vibrations ( a rod4 ,b ?is di/9ction 0 employ$ by ,m4 ,felix ,sav>t to express laws ( a m g5]al k9d2 & !n1 z (t5 happ5s 9 ! progress ( sci5ce1 by pursu+ ^! laws to a high] po9t ( g5]ality1 ! di/9ction aga9 seem$ to vani%4 ,a v few words w expla9 ^! /eps4 ,note #dih3 ,vibrations t\rnantes4 ,x 0 long ago kn[n t vibrations may be communicat$ by contact4 ,! di/9ction ( transv]se & longitud9al vibrations be+ e/abli%$1 ,sav>t f\nd t if "o rod t\*$ ano!r p]p5dicul>ly1 ! longitud9al vibrations ( ! fir/ occasion transv]se vibrations 9 ! second1 & vice v]s4 ,?is is ! m rem>kable1 s9ce ! two sets ( vibrations are n equal 9 rapidity1 & !re=e _c sympa?ize 9 any obvi\s mann]4#ejh ,sav>t f\nd himself #de able to g5]alize ?is proposition1 & to ass]t t 9 any comb9ation ( rods1 /r+s1 & lam91 at "r angles to ea* o!r1 ! longitud9al & transv]se vibrations affect respectively ! rods 9 ! "o & o!r direction1#eah s t :5 ! horizontal rods1 = example1 vibrate 9 ! "o way1 ! v]tical rods vibrate 9 ! o!r4 ,note #ejh3 ,an4 ,*im4 #ahai1 tom4 xiv4 p4 #ach4 ,note #eah3 ,an4 ,*im4 p4 #aeb4 ,?is law 0 ?us express$ 9 t]ms ( t classification ( vibrations ( :i* we h spok54 ,yet we easily see t we may express x 9 a m g5]al mann]1 )\t ref]r+ to t classification1 by say+1 t vibrations are communicat$ s z always to be p>allel to _! orig9al direction4 ,& by foll[+ x out 9 ?is %ape by means ( exp]im5t1 ,m4 ,sav>t 0 l$1 a %ort "t aft]w>ds1 to d5y t !re is any ess5tial di/9ction 9 ^! diff]5t k9ds ( vibration4 ,we are ?us l$1 he says#ebh 9 #ahbb1 to consid] normal transv]se vibrations z only "o circum/ance 9 a m g5]al motion common to all bodies1 analog\s to tang5tial longitud9al & rotatory vibrations2 t is1 z produc$ by small molecul> oscillations1 & diff]5tly modifi$ accord+ to ! direction :i* x affects1 relatively to ! dim5sions ( ! vibrat+ body4 ,note #ebh3 ,ib4 t4 xxv4 p4 #cc4 ,^! inductions1 z he prop]ly calls !m1 are support$ by a great mass ( +5i\s exp]im5ts2 & may be consid]$ z well e/abli%$1 :5 !y are limit$ to molecul> oscillations1 employ+ ?is phrase 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x is und]/ood 9 ! above /atem5t2 & also :5 !y are conf9$ to bodies 9 :i* ! play ( ela/icity is n int]rupt$ by p>ts m rigid ?an ! re/1 z ! s\nd-po/ ( a viol94#ech ,& be=e ,i quit ! subject1 ,i may notice a consequ5ce :i* ,m4 ,sav>t has d$uc$ f 8 views1 & :i*1 at fir/ sight1 appe>s to ov]turn mo/ ( ! e>li] doctr9es respect+ vibrat+ bodies4 ,x 0 =m]ly held t t5se /r+s & ela/ic rods c\ld vibrate only 9 a det]m9ate s]ies ( modes ( division1 ) no int]m$iate /eps4 ,b ,m4 ,sav>t ma9ta9s1#edh on ! contr>y1 t !y produce s\nds :i* are gradually trans=m$ into "o ano!r1 by indef9ite int]m$iate degrees4 ,! read] may naturally ask1 :at is ! solution ( ?is app>5t #df contradiction betwe5 ! e>lie/ & ! late/ discov]ies 9 ac\/ics4 ,& ! answ] mu/ be1 t ^! int]m$iate modes ( vibration are complex 9 _! nature1 & difficult to produce2 & t ^? :i* 7 =m]ly believ$ to be ! only possible vibrat+ conditions1 are s em95t above all ! re/ by _! features1 _! simplicity1 & _! facility1 t we may /ill1 = common purposes1 consid] !m z a class ap>t2 al?\gh = ! sake ( rea*+ a g5]al !orem1 we may associate !m ) ! g5]al mass ( cases ( molecul> vibrations4 ,& ?us we h no exception "h1 z we c h none 9 any case1 to our maxim1 t :at =m$ "p ( ! e>ly discov]ies ( sci5ce1 =ms "p ( its late/ sy/ems4 ,note #ech3 ,= ! sugge/ion ( ! necessity ( ?is limitation ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,willis4 ,note #edh3 ,an4 ,*im4 #ahbf1 t4 xxxii4 p4 #chd4 ,we h ?us survey$ ! progress ( ! sci5ce ( s\nd up to rec5t times1 ) respect bo? to ! discov]y ( laws ( ph5om5a1 & ! r$uction ( ^! to _! me*anical causes4 ,! =m] bran* ( ! sci5ce has necess>ily be5 inductively pursu$2 & !re=e has be5 m peculi>ly ! subject ( our att5tion4 ,& ?is consid]ation w expla9 :y we h n dwelt m ^u ! d$uctive labors ( ! great analy/s :o h treat$ ( ?is problem4 ,to ^? :o are acqua9t$ ) ! high & des]v$ fame :i* ! labors ( ,d',alemb]t1 ,eul]1 ,lagrange1 & o!rs1 ^u ?is subject1 enjoy among ma!maticians1 x may seem z if we _h n giv5 !m _! due prom95ce 9 our sket*4 ,b x is to be recollect$ "h1 z we h already obs]v$ 9 ! case ( hydrodynamics1 t ev5 :5 ! g5]al pr9ciples are unconte/$1 m]e ma!matical d$uctions f !m d n belong to ! hi/ory ( physical sci5ce1 except :5 !y po9t out laws :i* are int]m$iate betwe5 ! g5]al pr9ciple & ! individual facts1 & :i* obs]vation may confirm4 ,! bus9ess ( con/ruct+ any sci5ce may be figur$ z ! task ( =m+ a road on :i* our reason c travel ?r\gh a c]ta9 prov9ce ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,we h to ?r[ a bridge :i* may lead f ! *amb]s ( our own ?\ghts1 f our speculative pr9ciples1 to ! di/ant %ore ( mat]ial facts4 ,b 9 all cases ! abyss is too wide to be cross$1 except we c f9d "s int]m$iate po9ts on :i* ! pi]s ( our /ructure may re/4 ,m]e facts1 )\t connexion or law1 are only ! rude /ones hewn f ! opposite bank1 ( :i* our ar*es may1 at "s "t1 be built4 ,b m]e hypo!tical ma!matical calculations are only plans ( project$ /ructures2 & ^? plans :i* exhibit only "o va/ #dg & s+le ar*1 or :i* suppose no support b t :i* our own position supplies1 w assur$ly nev] become realities4 ,we mu/ h a firm basis ( int]m$iate g5]alizations 9 ord] to frame a cont9u\s & /able edifice4 ,9 ! subject be=e u1 we h no want ( su* po9ts ( int]m$iate support1 al?\gh !y are 9 _m in/ances irregul>ly di/ribut$ & obscurely se54 ,! numb] ( obs]v$ laws & relations ( ! ph5om5a ( s\nd1 is already v great2 & ?\gh ! "t may be di/ant1 !re seems to be no reason to despair ( "o day unit+ !m by cle> ideas ( me*anical causation1 & ?us ( mak+ ac\/ics a p]fect second>y me*anical sci5ce4 ,! hi/orical sket* j giv5 includes only su* p>ts ( ac\/ics z h be5 9 "s degree r$uc$ to g5]al laws & physical causes2 & ?us excludes mu* t is usually treat$ ( "u t head4 ,moreov]1 _m ( ! num]ical calculations connect$ ) s\nd belong to its agreeable effect ^u ! e>2 z ! prop]ties ( ! v>i\s sy/ems ( ,temp]am5t4 ,^! are p>ts ( ,!oretical ,music1 n ( ,ac\/ics2 ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,f9e ,arts1 n ( ,physical ,sci5ce2 & may be ref]r$ to 9 a future portion ( ?is "w1 s f> z !y be> ^u our object4 ,! sci5ce ( ,ac\/ics may1 h[ev]1 prop]ly consid] o!r diff]5ces ( s\nd ?an ^? ( acute & grave1--= in/ance1 ! articulate diff]5ces1 or ^? by :i* ! v>i\s lett]s are =m$4 ,"s progress has be5 made 9 r$uc+ ?is "p ( ! subject to g5]al rules2 = ?\gh ,kempel5's talk+ ma*9e 0 only a "w ( art1 ,mr4 ,willis's ma*9e1#eeh :i* exhibits ! relation among ! v[els1 gives u a law su* z =ms a /ep 9 sci5ce4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 consid] ?is in/rum5t z a ph?ongomet]1 or measure ( v[el quality2 & 9 t po9t ( view we %all h to ref] to x aga9 :5 we come to speak ( su* measures4 ,note #eeh3 ,on ! ,v[el ,s\nds1 & on ,re$ ,organ-pipes4 ,camb4 ,trans4 iii4 #bcg4 #di ,,book ,,ix4 ,,second>y ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 7,,cont9u$7 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,optics1 ,,=mal ,,& ,,physical4 1 1 1 1 9999 ,i1 1 9999 1 1 1 9999 4 ,,orpheus4 ,,hymn4 ,o ?\ :o fille/ ! palaces ( ,jove2 ,:o fl[e/ r\nd moon1 & sun1 & />s above2 ,p]vad+1 bright1 life-giv+ elem5t1 ,sup]nal ,,e!r1 fair & excell5t2 ,f\nta9 ( hope & joy1 ( light & day1 ,we own at l5g? ?y tranquil1 /eady sway4 #ea ,,introduction4 ,=mal & ,physical ,optics4 ,,! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce ( ,optics1 writt5 at l5g?1 w\ld be v volum9\s2 b we %all n ne$ to make our hi/ory s2 s9ce our ma9 object is to illu/rate ! nature ( sci5ce & ! conditions ( its progress4 ,9 ?is way ,optics is peculi>ly in/ructive2 ! m s1 z its hi/ory has foll[$ a c\rse 9 "s respects diff]5t f bo? ! sci5ces previ\sly review$4 ,a/ronomy1 z we h se51 advanc$ ) a /eady & cont9u\s movem5t f "o g5]ation to ano!r1 f ! e>lie/ "t1 till h] c>e] 0 cr[n$ by ! great un=ese5 discov]y ( ,newton2 ,ac\/ics _h h] extreme g5]alization 9 view f ! fir/1 & h] hi/ory consi/s 9 ! correct application ( x to successive problems2 ,optics advanc$ ?r\gh a scale ( g5]alizations z rem>kable z ^? ( ,a/ronomy2 b = a long p]iod %e 0 almo/ /ation>y2 &1 at la/1 0 rapidly impell$ ?r\gh all ^? /ages by ! en]gy ( two or ?ree discov]]s4 ,! highe/ po9t ( g5]ality :i* ,optics has rea*$ is little diff]5t f t :i* ,ac\/ics occupi$ at once2 b 9 ! old] & e>li] sci5ce we /ill want t palpable & po9t$ confirmation ( ! g5]al pr9ciple1 :i* ! undulatory !ory receives f optical ph5om5a4 ,a/ronomy has amass$ h] va/ =tune by long-cont9u$ indu/ry & labor2 ,optics has obta9$ h]s 9 a few ye>s by sagaci\s & happy speculations2 ,ac\/ics1 hav+ e>ly acquir$ a compet5ce1 has s9ce be5 employ$ r 9 improv+ & adorn+ ?an 9 ext5d+ h] e/ate4 ,! successive inductions by :i* ,optics made h] advances1 might1 ( c\rse1 be treat$ 9 ! same mann] z ^? ( ,a/ronomy1 ea* hav+ its prelude & its sequel4 ,b mo/ ( ! discov]ies 9 ,optics are ( a small] "*1 & h less employ$ ! m9ds ( m51 ?an ^? ( ,a/ronomy2 & x w n be necess>y to exhibit !m 9 ?is detail$ mann]1 till we come to ! great g5]alization by :i* ! !ory 0 e/abli%$4 ,i %all1 !re=e1 n[ pass rapidly 9 review ! e>li] optical discov]ies1 )\t any su* division ( ! s]ies4 #eb ,optics1 l ,a/ronomy1 has = its object ( inquiry1 fir/1 ! laws ( ph5om5a1 & next1 _! causes2 & we may h5ce divide ?is sci5ce1 l ! o!r1 into ,=mal ,optics & ,physical ,optics4 ,! di/9ction is cle> & sub/antive1 b x is n easy to adh]e to x 9 our n>rative2 =1 aft] ! !ory _h begun to make its rapid advance1 _m ( ! laws ( ph5om5a 7 /udi$ & discov]$ 9 imm$iate ref]5ce to ! !oretical cause1 & d n occupy a sep>ate place 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 z 9 ,a/ronomy !y d4 ,we may add1 t ! reason :y ,=mal ,a/ronomy 0 almo/ complete be=e ,physical ,a/ronomy began to exi/1 01 t x 0 necess>y to con/ruct ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics 9 ! mean "t1 9 ord] to be able to g on2 :]eas1 9 ,optics1 ma!maticians 7 able to calculate ! results ( ! undulatory !ory z soon z x _h sugge/$ itself f ! e>li] facts1 & :ile ! great mass ( facts 7 only becom+ kn[n4 ,we %all1 !n1 9 ! fir/ n9e *apt]s ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,optics treat ( ! ,=mal ,sci5ce1 t is1 ! discov]y ( ! laws ( ph5om5a4 ,! classes ( ph5om5a :i* w ?us pass "u o> notice are num]\s2 namely1 reflection1 refraction1 *romatic disp]sion1 a*romatization1 d\ble refraction1 pol>ization1 dipol>ization1 ! colors ( ?9 plates1 ! colors ( ?ick plates1 & ! fr+es & b&s :i* accompany %ad[s4 ,all ^! cases _h be5 /udi$1 &1 9 mo/ ( !m1 ! laws _h be5 9 a great measure discov]$1 be=e ! physical !ory ( ! subject gave to our k a simpl] & m solid =m4 #ec ,,=mal ,,optics4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prim>y ,,induction ,,( ,,optics4--,,rays ,,( ,,light ,,& ,,laws ,,( ,,reflection4 ,,9 speak+ ( ! ,anci5t ,hi/ory ( ,physics1 we h already notic$ t ! optical philosoph]s ( antiquity _h satisfi$ !mselves t vision is p]=m$ 9 /raight l9es2--t !y _h fix$ _! att5tion ^u ^? /raight l9es1 or rays1 z ! prop] object ( ! sci5ce2--!y _h asc]ta9$ t rays reflect$ f a bright surface make ! angle ( reflection equal to ! angle ( incid5ce2--& !y _h drawn sev]al consequ5ces f ^! pr9ciples4 ,we may add to ! consequ5ces already m5tion$1 ! art ( p]spective1 :i* is m]ely a coroll>y f ! doctr9e ( rectil9e> visual rays2 = if we suppose objects to be ref]r$ by su* rays to a plane int]pos$ betwe5 !m & ! eye1 all ! rules ( p]spective foll[ directly4 ,! anci5ts practis$ ?is art1 z we see 9 ! pictures :i* rema9 to u & we le>n f ,vitruvius1#ai t !y also wrote ^u x4 ,aga?>*us1 :o _h be5 in/ruct$ by ,es*ylus 9 ! art ( mak+ decorations = ! !atre1 0 ! fir/ au?or on ?is subject1 & ,anaxagoras1 :o 0 a pupil ( ,aga?>*us1 also wrote an ,act9ographia1 or doctr9e ( draw+ by rays3 b none ( ^! treatises are come d[n to u4 ,! mod]ns re-inv5t$ ! art 9 ! fl\ri%+ times ( ! art ( pa9t+1 t is1 ab\t ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury2 &1 belong+ to t p]iod also1 we h treatises#bi ^u x4 ,note #ai3 ,de ,ar*4 ix4 ,mont4 i4 #gjg4 ,note #bi3 ,gauricus1 #aejd4 ,b ^! are only d$uctive applications ( ! mo/ elem5t>y optical doctr9es2 we mu/ proce$ to ! inductions by :i* fur!r discov]ies 7 made4 #ed ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,refraction4 ,,we h se5 9 ! =m] "p ( ?is hi/ory t ! ,greeks _h =m$ a tol]ably cle> conception ( ! refraction z well z ! reflection ( ! rays ( light2 & t ,ptolemy _h measur$ ! am\nt ( refraction ( glass & wat] at v>i\s angles4 ,if we give ! names ( ! angle ( incid5ce & ! angle ( refraction respectively to ! angles :i* a ray ( light makes ) ! l9e p]p5dicul> to surface ( glass or wat] 7or any o!r m$ium7 )9 & )\t ! m$ium1 ,ptolemy _h obs]v$ t ! angle ( refraction is always less ?an ! angle ( incid5ce4 ,he _h suppos$ x to be less 9 a giv5 proportion1 b ?is op9ion is false2 & 0 aft]w>ds rightly d5i$ by ! ,arabian ma!matician ,alhaz54 ,! optical views :i* occur 9 ! "w ( ,alhaz5 are f> s\nd] ?an ^? ( 8 pr$ecessors2 & ! book may be reg>d$ z ! mo/ consid]able monum5t :i* we h ( ! sci5tific g5ius ( ! ,arabians2 = x appe>s1 = ! mo/ "p1 n to be borr[$ f ,greek au?orities4 ,! au?or n only ass]ts 7lib4 vii471 t refraction takes place t[>ds ! p]p5dicul>1 & ref]s to exp]im5t = ! tru? ( ?is3 & t ! quantities ( ! refraction diff] accord+ to ! magnitudes ( ! angles :i* ! directions ( ! incid5tal rays 7prim l9e7 make ) ! p]p5dicul>s to ! surface2 b he also says di/9ctly & decid$ly t ! angles ( refraction d n foll[ ! proportion ( ! angles ( incid5ce4 #bnd ,ed4 ,!re appe>s to be good gr\nd to ass5t to ! ass]tion ( ,alhaz5's orig9ality1 made by 8 editor ,risn]1 :o says1 ,euclideum hic vel ,ptolemaicum nihil f]e e/4 ,besides ! doctr9e ( reflection & refraction ( light1 ! ,arabian au?or gives a description ( ! eye4 ,he di/+ui%es ?ree fluids1 humor aqueus1 cry/all9us1 vitreus1 & f\r coats ( ! eye1 tunica adh]5s1 cornea1 uvea1 tunica reti similis4 ,he di/+ui%es also ?ree k9ds ( vision3 ,visibile p]cipitur aut solo visu1 aut visu et syllogismo1 aut visu et anticipat notione4 ,he has sev]al propositions relat+ to :at we sometimes call ! ,philosophy ( ,vision3 = in/ance ?is3 ,e visibili spius viso remanet 9 anima g5]alis notio1 c4 #ee ,! ass]tion1 t ! angles ( refraction are n proportional to ! angles ( incid5ce1 0 an important rem>k2 & if x _h be5 /eadily kept 9 m9d1 ! next ?+ to be done ) reg>d to refraction 0 to g on exp]im5t+ & conjectur+ till ! true law ( refraction 0 discov]$2 & 9 ! mean "t to apply ! pr9ciple z f> z x 0 kn[n4 ,alhaz51 ?\gh he gives directions = mak+ exp]im5tal measures ( refraction1 does n give any ,table ( ! results ( su* exp]im5ts1 z ,ptolemy _h done4 ,vitello1 a ,pole1 :o 9 ! #ac? c5tury publi%$ an ext5sive "w ^u ,optics1 does give su* a table2 & ass]ts x to be d$uc$ f exp]im5t1 z ,i h already said 7vol4 i474 ,b ?is ass]tion is /ill liable to d\bt 9 consequ5ce ( ! table conta9+ impossible obs]vations4 #bnd ,ed4 ,z ,i h already /at$1 ,vitello ass]ts t 8 ,tables 7 d]iv$ f 8 own obs]vations4 ,_! ne> agreem5t ) ^? ( ,ptolemy does n make ?is improbable3 = :]e ! obs]vations 7 only made to half a degree1 !re 0 n mu* room = obs]v]s to diff]4 ,x is n unlikely t ! obs]vations ( refraction out ( air into wat] & glass1 & out ( wat] into glass1 7 actually made2 :ile ! impossible values :i* accompany !m1 ( ! refraction out ( wat] & glass into air1 & out ( glass into wat]1 7 calculat$1 & calculat$ f an errone\s rule4 ,! pr9ciple t a ray refract$ 9 glass or wat] is turn$ t[>ds ! p]p5dicul>1 )\t kn[+ ! exact law ( refraction1 enabl$ ma!maticians to trace ! effects ( transp>5t bodies 9 v>i\s cases4 ,?us 9 ,rog] ,bacon's works we f9d a tol]ably di/9ct explanation ( ! effect ( a convex glass2 & 9 ! "w ( ,vitello ! effect ( refraction at ! two surfaces ( a glass globe is cle>ly traceable4 ,not)/&+ ,alhaz5's ass]tion ( ! contr>y1 ! op9ion 0 /ill curr5t among ma!maticians t ! angle ( refraction 0 proportional to ! angle ( incid5ce4 ,b :5 ,kepl]'s att5tion 0 drawn to ! subject1 he saw t ?is 0 pla9ly inconsi/5t ) ! obs]vations ( ,vitello = l>ge angles2 & he conv9c$ himself by 8 own exp]im5ts t ! true law 0 some?+ diff]5t f ! "o commonly suppos$4 ,! discov]y ( ?is true law excit$ 9 him an eag] curiosity2 & ?is po9t _h ! m int]e/ = him 9 consequ5ce ( ! introduction ( a correction = atmosph]ic refraction into a/ronomical calculations1 :i* _h be5 made by ,ty*o1 & ( ! inv5tion ( ! telescope4 ,9 #ef 8 ,supplem5t to ,vitello1 publi%$ 9 #afjd1 ,kepl] attempts to r$uce to a rule ! measur$ quantities ( refraction4 ,! read] :o recollects :at we h already n>rat$1 ! mann] 9 :i* ,kepl] attempt$ to r$uce to law ! a/ronomical obs]vations ( ,ty*o1--devis+ an almo/ endless v>iety ( possible =mul1 trac+ _! consequ5ces ) undaunt$ indu/ry1 & relat+1 ) a vivaci\s g>rulity1 8 disappo9tm5ts & 8 hopes1--w n be surpris$ to f9d t he proce$$ 9 ! same mann] ) reg>d to ! ,tables ( ,obs]v$ ,refractions4 ,he tri$ a v>iety ( con/ructions by triangles1 conic sections1 c41 )\t be+ able to satisfy himself2 & he at la/#ci is oblig$ to cont5t himself ) an approximate rule1 :i* makes ! refraction p>tly proportional to ! angle ( incid5ce1 & p>tly1 to ! secant ( t angle4 ,9 ?is way he satisfies ! obs]v$ refractions )9 a diff]5ce ( less ?an half a degree ea* way4 ,:5 we consid] h[ simple ! law ( refraction is1 7t ! ratio ( ! s9es ( ! angles ( incid5ce & refraction is con/ant = ! same m$ium17 x appe>s /range t a p]son attempt+ to discov] x1 & draw+ triangles = ! purpose1 %\ld fail2 b ?is lot ( miss+ :at aft]w>ds seems to h be5 obvi\s1 is a common "o 9 ! pursuit ( tru?4 ,note #ci3 ,l4 ,u4 ,k4 ,life ( ,kepl]1 p4 #aae4 ,! p]son :o did discov] ! ,law ( ! ,s9es1 0 ,willebrord ,snell1 ab\t #afba2 b ! law 0 fir/ publi%$ by ,desc>tes1 :o _h se5 ,snell's pap]s4#di ,desc>tes does n ackn[l$ge ?is law to h be5 fir/ detect$ by ano!r2 & aft] 8 mann]1 in/ead ( e/abli%+ its reality by ref]5ce to exp]im5t1 he pret5ds to prove priori t x mu/ be true1#ei comp>+1 = ?is purpose1 ! p>ticles ( light to balls /rik+ a sub/ance :i* accel]ates !m4 ,note #di3 ,huygh5s1 ,dioptrica1 p4 #b4 ,note #ei3 ,diopt4 p4 #ec4 #bnd ,ed4 ,huygh5s says ( ,snell's pap]s1 ,qu et nos vidimus aliqu&o1 et ,c>tesium quoque vidisse accepimus1 et h9c =tasse m5suram illam qu 9 s9ibus consi/it elicu]it4 ,isaac ,vossius1 ,de ,lucis ,natur et ,proprietate1 says t he also _h se5 ?is law 9 ,snell's unpubli%$ optical ,treatise4 ,! same writ] says1 ,quod itaque 7,c>tesius7 habet1 refractionum mom5ta non exig5da esse ad angulos s$ ad l9eas1 id tuo ,snellio1 acceptum f]re debuisset1 cujus nom5 m solito dissimulavit4 ,c>tesius got 8 law f ,snell1 & 9 8 usual way1 conceal$ x4 #eg ,huygh5s' ass]tion1 t ,snell did n att5d to ! proportion ( ! s9es1 is v capti\s2 & becomes absurdly s1 :5 x is made to mean t ,snell did n "k ! law ( ! s9es4 ,x is n d5i$ t ,snell knew ! true law1 or t ! true law is ! law ( ! s9es4 ,snell does n use ! trigonometrical t]m s9e1 b he expresses ! law 9 a geometrical =m m simply4 ,ev5 if he _h att5d$ to ! law ( ! s9es1 he might reasonably h pref]r$ 8 own way ( /at+ x4 ,james ,gregory also indep5d5tly discov]$ ! true law ( refraction2 &1 9 publi%+ x1 /ates t he _h le>nt t x _h already be5 publi%$ by ,desc>tes4 ,b ?\gh ,desc>tes does n1 9 ?is in/ance1 produce any good claims to ! "* ( an inductive philosoph]1 he %[$ consid]able skill 9 trac+ ! consequ5ces ( ! pr9ciple :5 once adopt$4 ,9 p>ticul> we mu/ consid] him z ! g5u9e au?or ( ! explanation ( ! ra9b[4 ,x is true t ,fleis*]#fi & ,kepl] _h previ\sly ascrib$ ?is ph5om5on to ! rays ( sunlight :i*1 fall+ on drops ( ra91 are refract$ into ea* drop1 reflect$ at its inn] surface1 & refract$ out aga93 ,antonio de ,dom9is _h f\nd t a glass globe ( wat]1 :5 plac$ 9 a p>ticul> position ) respect to ! eye1 exhibit$ bright colors2 & _h h5ce expla9$ ! circul> =m ( ! b[1 :i*1 inde$1 ,ari/otle _h done be=e4#gi ,b none ( ^! writ]s _h %[n :y !re 0 a n>r[ bright circle ( a def9ite diamet]2 = ! drops :i* s5d rays to ! eye aft] two refractions & a reflection1 occupy a mu* wid] space 9 ! heav5s4 ,desc>tes assign$ ! reason = ?is 9 ! mo/ satisfactory mann]1#hi by %[+ t ! rays :i*1 aft] two refractions & a reflection1 come to ! eye at an angle ( ab\t =ty-"o degrees ) _! orig9al direction1 are f> m d5se ?an ^? 9 any o!r position4 ,he %[$1 9 ! same mann]1 t ! exi/5ce & position ( ! second>y b[ result$ f ! same laws4 ,?is is ! complete & adequate acc\nt ( ! /ate ( ?+s1 s f> z ! brightness ( ! b[s only is conc]n$2 ! explanation ( ! colors belongs to ! next article ( our survey4 ,note #fi3 ,mont4 i4 #gja4 ,note #gi3 ,meteorol4 iii4 #c4 ,note #hi3 ,meteorum1 cap4 viii4 p4 #aif4 ,! explanation ( ! ra9b[ & ( its magnitude1 af=d$ by ,snell's law ( s9es1 0 p]haps "o ( ! lead+ po9ts 9 ! v]ification ( ! law4 ,! pr9ciple1 be+ once e/abli%$1 0 appli$1 by ! aid ( ma!matical reason+1 to atmosph]ic refractions1 #eh optical in/rum5ts1 diacau/ic curves1 7t is1 ! curves ( int5se light produc$ by refraction17 & to v>i\s o!r cases2 & 01 ( c\rse1 te/$ & confirm$ by su* applications4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 impossible to pursue ^! applications f>1 )\t a due k ( ! laws by :i*1 9 su* cases1 colors are produc$4 ,to ^! we n[ proce$4 #bnd ,ed4 ,i h omitt$ _m int]e/+ p>ts ( ! hi/ory ( ,optics ab\t ?is p]iod1 because ,i 0 conc]n$ ) ! inductive discov]y ( laws1 r ?an ) ma!matical d$uctions f su* laws :5 e/abli%$1 or applications ( !m 9 ! =m ( in/rum5ts4 ,i might o!rwise h notic$ ! discov]y ( ,spectacle ,glasses1 ( ! ,telescope1 ( ! ,microscope1 ( ! ,cam]a ,obscura1 & ! ma!matical explanation ( ^! & o!r ph5om5a1 z giv5 by ,kepl] & o!rs4 ,i might also h notic$ ! progress ( k respect+ ! ,eye & ,vision4 ,we h se5 t ,alhaz5 describ$ ! /ructure ( ! eye4 ,! op]ation ( ! p>ts 0 gradually made out4 ,bapti/a ,porta comp>es ! eye to 8 ,cam]a ,obscura 7,magia ,naturalis1 #aegi74 ,s*e9]1 9 8 ,oculus1 publi%$ #afeb1 complet$ ! ,!ory ( ! ,eye4 ,& ,kepl] discuss$ "s ( ! que/ions ev5 n[ (t5 agitat$2 z ! causes & conditions ( our see+ objects s+le ) two eyes1 & erect ) inv]t$ images4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,disp]sion ,,by ,,refraction4 ,,e>ly attempts 7 made to acc\nt = ! colors ( ! ra9b[1 & v>i\s o!r ph5om5a 9 :i* colors are se5 to arise f transi5t & unsub/antial comb9ations ( m$ia4 ,?us ,ari/otle expla9s ! colors ( ! ra9b[ by suppos+#ii t x is light se5 ?r\gh a d>k m$ium3 ,n[1 says he1 ! bright se5 ?r\gh ! d>k appe>s r$1 z1 = in/ance1 ! fire ( gre5 wood se5 ?r\gh ! smoke1 & ! sun ?r\gh mi/4 ,also#aji ! weak] is ! light1 or ! visual p[]1 & ! ne>] ! color approa*es to ! black2 becom+ fir/ r$1 !n gre51 !n purple4 ,b#aai ! #ei vision is /ronge/ 9 ! out] circle1 because ! p]iph]y is great]2--?us we %all h a gradation f r$1 ?r\gh gre51 to purple1 9 pass+ f ! out] to ! inn] circle4 ,?is acc\nt w\ld h>dly h des]v$ mu* notice1 if x _h n be5 = a /range attempt to revive x1 or some?+ v l x1 9 mod]n times4 ,! same doctr9e is f\nd 9 ! "w ( ,de ,dom9is4#abi ,accord+ to him1 light is :ite3 b if we mix ) ! light some?+ d>k1 ! colors arise1--fir/ r$1 !n gre51 !n blue or violet4 ,he applies ?is to expla9 ! colors ( ! ra9b[1#aci by means ( ! consid]ation t1 ( ! rays :i* come to ! eye f ! globes ( wat]1 "s g ?r\gh a l>g] ?ickness ( ! globe ?an o!rs1 :5ce he obta9s ! gradation ( colors j describ$4 ,note #ii3 ,meteor4 iii4 #c1 p4 #cgc4 ,note #aji3 ,ib4 p4 #cgd4 ,note #aai3 ,ib4 p4 #cge4 ,note #abi3 ,cap4 iii4 p4 #i4 ,see also ,g!1 ,f>b5l4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bea4 ,note #aci3 ,g!1 p4 #bfc4 ,desc>tes came f> ne>] ! true philosophy ( ! iridal colors4 ,he f\nd t a simil> s]ies ( colors 0 produc$ by refraction ( light b\nd$ by %ade1 ?r\gh a prism2#adi & he rightly inf]r$ t nei!r ! curvature ( ! surface ( ! drops ( wat]1 nor ! reflection1 nor ! repetition ( refraction1 7 necess>y to ! g5]ation ( su* colors4 ,9 fur!r exam9+ ! c\rse ( ! rays1 he approa*es v ne> to ! true conception ( ! case2 & we are l$ to believe t he might h anticipat$ ,newton 9 8 discov]y ( ! unequal refrangibility ( diff]5t colors1 if x _h be5 possible = him to reason any o!rwise ?an 9 ! t]ms & notions ( 8 preconceiv$ hypo!ses4 ,! conclusion :i* he draws is1#aei t ! p>ticles ( ! subtile matt] :i* transmit ! action ( light1 endeavor to rotate ) s great a =ce & impetus1 t !y _c move 9 a /raight l9e 7:5ce comes refraction73 & t ^? p>ticles :i* endeavor to revolve mu* m /rongly produce a r$ color1 ^? :i* endeavor to move only a little m /rongly produce yell[4 ,"h we h a cle> p]ception t colors & unequal refraction are connect$1 ?\gh ! cause ( refraction is express$ by a gratuit\s hypo!sis4 ,& we may add1 t he applies ?is notion rightly1 s f> z he expla9s himself1#afi to acc\nt = ! colors ( ! ra9b[4 ,note #adi3 ,meteor4 ,sect4 viii4 p4 #aij4 ,note #aei3 ,sect4 vii4 p4 #aib4 ,note #afi3 ,meteor4 ,sect4 ix4 ,x appe>s to me t ,newton & o!rs h done ,desc>tes inju/ice1 9 ascrib+ to ,de ,dom9is ! true !ory ( ! ra9b[4 ,!re are two ma9 po9ts ( ?is !ory1 namely1 ! %[+ t a bright circul> b&1 ( a c]ta9 def9ite diamet]1 arises f ! #fj great int5sity ( ! light return$ at a c]ta9 angle2 & ! ref]r+ ! diff]5t colors to ! diff]5t quantity ( ! refraction2 & bo? ^! /eps appe> indubitably to be ! discov]ies ( ,desc>tes4 ,& he in=ms u t ^! discov]ies 7 n made )\t "s ex]tion ( ?\ght4 ,at fir/1 he says1#agi ,i d\bt$ :e!r ! iridal colors 7 produc$ 9 ! same way z ^? 9 ! prism2 b1 at la/1 tak+ my p51 & c>efully calculat+ ! c\rse ( ! rays :i* fell on ea* "p ( ! drop1 ,i f\nd t _m m come at an angle ( =ty-"o degrees1 ?an ei!r at a great] or a less angle4 ,s t !re is a bright b[ t]m9at$ by a %ade2 & h5ce ! colors are ! same z ^? produc$ ?r\gh a prism4 ,note #agi3 ,sect4 ix4 p4 #aic4 ,! subject 0 left ne>ly 9 ! same /ate1 9 ! "w ( ,grimaldi1 ,physico-,ma!sis1 de ,lum9e1 ,coloribus et ,iride1 publi%$ at ,bologna 9 #affe4 ,!re is 9 ?is "w a con/ant ref]5ce to num]\s exp]im5ts1 & a sy/ematic exposition ( ! sci5ce 9 an improv$ /ate4 ,! au?or's calculations conc]n+ ! ra9b[ are put 9 ! same =m z ^? ( ,desc>tes2 b he is fur!r f seiz+ ! true pr9ciple on :i* its coloration dep5ds4 ,he rightly gr\ps toge!r a numb] ( exp]im5ts 9 :i* colors arise f refraction2#ahi & expla9s !m by say+ t ! color is bright] :]e ! light is d5s]3 & ! light is d5s] on ! side f :i* ! refraction turns ! ray1 because ! increm5ts ( refraction are great] 9 ! rays t are m incl9$4#aii ,?is way ( treat+ ! "q might be made to give a sort ( explanation ( mo/ ( ! facts1 b is mu* m errone\s ?an a developem5t ( ,desc>tes's view w\ld h be54 ,note #ahi3 ,prop4 #ce1 p4 #bed4 ,note #aii3 ,ib4 p4 #bef4 ,at l5g?1 9 #afgb1 ,newton gave#bji ! true explanation ( ! facts2 namely1 t light consi/s ( rays ( diff]5t colors & diff]5t refrangibility4 ,?is n[ appe>s to u s obvi\s a mode ( int]pret+ ! ph5om5a1 t we c h>dly und]/& h[ !y c be conceiv$ 9 any o!r mann]2 b yet ! impression :i* ?is discov]y made1 bo? ^u ,newton & ^u 8 contempor>ies1 %[s h[ remote x 0 f ! !n accept$ op9ions4 ,!re appe>s to h be5 a g5]al p]suasion t ! coloration 0 produc$1 n by any peculi>ity 9 ! law ( refraction itself b by "s collat]al circum/ance1--"s disp]sion or v>iation ( d5sity ( ! light1 9 addition to ! refraction4 ,newton's discov]y consi/$ 9 #fa tea*+ di/9ctly t ! law ( refraction 0 to be appli$1 n to ! beam ( light 9 g5]al1 b to ! colors 9 p>ticul>4 ,note #bji3 ,phil4 ,trans4 t4 vii4 p4 #cjge4 ,:5 ,newton produc$ a bright spot on ! wall ( 8 *amb]1 by admitt+ ! sun's light ?r\gh a small hole 9 8 w9d[-%utt]1 & mak+ x pass ?r\gh a prism1 he expect$ ! image to be r\nd2 :i*1 ( c\rse1 x w\ld h be51 if ! colors _h be5 produc$ by an equal disp]sion 9 all directions2 b to 8 surprise he saw ! image1 or spectrum1 five times z long z x 0 broad4 ,he f\nd t no consid]ation ( ! diff]5t ?ickness ( ! glass1 ! possible unev5ness ( its surface1 or ! diff]5t angles ( rays proce$+ f ! two sides ( ! sun1 c\ld be ! cause ( ?is %ape4 ,he f\nd1 also1 t ! rays did n g f ! prism to ! image 9 curves2 he 0 !n conv9c$ t ! diff]5t colors 7 refract$ sep>ately1 & at diff]5t angles2 & he confirm$ ?is op9ion by transmitt+ & refract+ ! rays ( ea* color sep>ately4 ,! exp]im5ts are s easy & common1 & ,newton's int]pretation ( !m s simple & evid5t1 t we might h expect$ x to receive g5]al ass5t2 inde$1 z we h %[n1 ,desc>tes _h already be5 l$ v ne> ! same po9t4 ,9 fact1 ,newton's op9ions 7 n long 9 obta9+ g5]al acceptance2 b !y met ) en\gh ( cavil & misappreh5sion to annoy extremely ! discov]]1 ^: cle> views & quiet temp] made him impati5t alike ( /upidity & ( cont5ti\sness4 ,we ne$ n dwell long on ! e>ly objections :i* 7 made to ,newton's doctr9e4 ,a ,jesuit1 ( ! "n ( ,ignatius ,p>dies1 pr(essor at ,cl]mont1 at fir/ attempt$ to acc\nt = ! elongation ( ! image by ! diff]5ce ( ! angles made by ! rays f ! two edges ( ! sun1 :i* w\ld produce a diff]5ce 9 ! am\nt ( refraction ( ! two bord]s2 b :5 ,newton po9t$ out ! calculations :i* %[$ ! insuffici5cy ( ?is explanation1 he )drew 8 opposition4 ,ano!r m p]t9aci\s oppon5t appe>$ 9 ,francis ,l9us1 a physician ( ,liege2 :o ma9ta9$1 t hav+ tri$ ! exp]im5t1 he f\nd ! sun's image1 :5 ! sky 0 cle>1 to be r\nd & n oblong2 & he ascrib$ ! elongation notic$ by ,newton1 to ! effect ( cl\ds4 ,newton = "s "t refus$ to reply to ?is contradiction ( 8 ass]tions1 ?\gh ob/9ately p]si/$ 92 & 8 answ] 0 at la/ s5t1 j ab\t ! "t ( ,l9us's dea?1 9 #afge4 ,b ,gascoigne1 a fri5d ( ,l9us1 /ill ma9ta9$ t he & o!rs _h se5 :at ! ,dut* physician _h describ$2 & ,newton1 :o 0 pleas$ ) ! c&or ( #fb ,gascoigne's lett]1 sugge/$ t ! ,dut* exp]im5t]s might h tak5 "o ( ! images reflect$ f ! surfaces ( ! prism1 ( :i* !re are sev]al1 in/ead ( ! prop] refract$ "o4 ,by ! aid ( ?is h9t1 ,lucas ( ,liege repeat$ ,newton's exp]im5ts1 & obta9$ ,newton's result1 except t he nev] c\ld obta9 a spectrum ^: l5g? 0 m ?an ?ree & a half times its bread?4 ,newton1 on 8 side1 p]si/$ 9 ass]t+ t ! image w\ld be five times z long z x 0 broad1 if ! exp]im5t 7 prop]ly made4 ,x is curi\s t he %\ld h be5 s confid5t ( ?is1 z to conceive himself c]ta9 t su* w\ld be ! result 9 all cases4 ,we n[ "k t ! disp]sion1 & consequ5tly ! l5g?1 ( ! spectrum1 is v diff]5t = diff]5t k9ds ( glass1 & x is v probable t ! ,dut* prism 0 really less disp]sive ?an ! ,engli% "o4#bai ,! errone\s assumption :i* ,newton made 9 ?is in/ance1 he held by to ! la/2 & 0 ?us prev5t$ f mak+ ! discov]y ( :i* we h next to speak4 ,note #bai3 ,brew/]'s ,newton1 p4 #ej4 ,newton 0 attack$ by p]sons ( m importance ?an ^? we h yet m5tion$2 namely1 ,hooke & ,huygh5s4 ,^! philosoph]s1 h[ev]1 did n object s mu* to ! laws ( refraction ( diff]5t colors1 z to "s expressions us$ by ,newton1 :i*1 !y conceiv$1 convey$ false notions respect+ ! composition & nature ( light4 ,newton _h ass]t$ t all ! diff]5t colors are ( di/9ct k9ds1 & t1 by _! composition1 !y =m :ite light4 ,?is is true ( colors z f> z _! analysis & composition by refraction are conc]n$2 b ,hooke ma9ta9$ t all natural colors are produc$ by v>i\s comb9ations ( two prim>y ones1 r$ & violet2#bbi & ,huygh5s held a simil> doctr9e1 tak+1 h[ev]1 yell[ & blue = 8 basis4 ,newton answ]s1 t su* compositions z !y speak ( are n compositions ( simple colors 9 8 s5se ( ! expressions4 ,^! writ]s also _h bo? ( !m adopt$ an op9ion t light consi/$ 9 vibrations2 & object$ to ,newton t 8 language 0 errone\s1 z involv+ ! hypo!sis t light 0 a body4 ,newton appe>s to h _h a horror ( ! ^w hypo!sis1 & prote/s aga9/ its be+ suppos$ t 8 !ory re/s on su* a f\ndation4 ,note #bbi3 ,brew/]'s ,newton1 p4 #ed4 ,phil4 ,trans4 viii4 #ejhd1 #fjhf4 ,! doctr9e ( ! unequal refrangibility ( diff]5t rays is cle>ly exemplifi$ 9 ! effects ( l5ses1 :i* produce images m or #fc less bord]$ ) color1 9 consequ5ce ( ?is prop]ty4 ,! improvem5t ( telescopes 01 9 ,newton's "t1 ! great practical motive = aim+ at ! improvem5t ( !oretical optics4 ,newton's !ory %[$ :y telescopes 7 imp]fect1 namely1 9 consequ5ce ( ! diff]5t refraction ( diff]5t colors1 :i* produces a *romatic ab]ration3 & ! !ory 0 confirm$ by ! circum/ances ( su* imp]fections4 ,! false op9ion ( :i* we h already spok51 t ! disp]sion mu/ be ! same :5 ! refraction is ! same1 l$ him to believe t ! imp]fection 0 insurm\ntable1--t a*romatic refraction c\ld n be obta9$3 & ?is view made him turn 8 att5tion to ! con/ruction ( reflect+ in/ead ( refract+ telescopes4 ,b ! rectification ( ,newton's error 0 a fur!r confirmation ( ! g5]al tru? ( 8 pr9ciples 9 o!r respects2 & s9ce t "t1 ! s\ndness ( ! ,newtonian law ( refraction has h>dly be5 que/ion$ among physical philosoph]s4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 9 mod]n times1 be5 v vehem5tly controv]t$ 9 a qu>t] f :i* we might n readily h expect$ a detail$ discussion on su* a subject4 ,! celebrat$ ,g! has writt5 a "w on ,! ,doctr9e ( ,colors1 7,f>b5lehre2 ,tb+51 #ahaj17 "o ma9 purpose ( :i* is1 to repres5t ,newton's op9ions1 & ! "w 9 :i* !y are =mally publi%$1 78 ,opticks17 z utt]ly false & mi/ak51 & capable ( be+ ass5t$ to only by ! mo/ bl9d & ob/9ate prejudice4 ,^? :o are acqua9t$ ) ! ext5t to :i* su* an op9ion1 promulgat$ by ,g!1 0 likely to be widely adopt$ 9 ,g]many1 w n be surpris$ t simil> language is us$ by o!r writ]s ( t nation4 ,?us ,s*ell+#bci says3 ,newton's ,opticks is ! greate/ pro( ( ! possibility ( a :ole /ructure ( fallacies1 :i*1 9 all its p>ts1 is f\nd$ ^u obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,g!1 h[ev]1 does n conc$e ev5 s mu* to ,newton's "w4 ,he goes ov] a l>ge portion ( x1 page by page1 qu>rell+ ) ! exp]im5ts1 diagrams1 reason+1 & language1 )\t int]mission2 & holds t x is n reconcileable ) ! mo/ simple facts4 ,he decl>es1#bdi t ! fir/ "t he look$ ?r\gh a prism1 he saw ! :ite walls ( ! room /ill look :ite1 & ?\gh alone1 ,i pron\nc$1 z by an in/9ct1 t ! ,newtonian doctr9e is false4 ,we ne$ n "h po9t out h[ inconsi/5t ) ! ,newtonian doctr9e x 01 to expect1 z ,g! expect$1 t ! wall %\ld be all ov] color$ v>i\s colors4 #fd ,note #bci3 ,vorlesung51 p4 #bgj4 ,note #bdi3 ,f>b5lehre1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fgh4 ,g! n only adopt$ & /r5u\sly ma9ta9$ ! op9ion t ! ,newtonian !ory 0 false1 b he fram$ a sy/em ( 8 own to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( color4 ,z a matt] ( curiosity1 x may be wor? our :ile to /ate ! nature ( ?is sy/em2 al?\gh und\bt$ly x =ms no "p ( ! progress ( physical sci5ce4 ,g!'s views are1 9 fact1 little diff]5t f ^? ( ,ari/otle & ,antonio de ,dom9is1 ?\gh m completely & sy/ematically develop$4 ,accord+ to him1 colors arise :5 we see ?r\gh a dim m$ium 7e9 trbes mittel74 ,light 9 itself is colorless2 b if x be se5 ?r\gh a some:at dim m$ium1 x appe>s yell[2 if ! dimness ( ! m$ium increases1 or if its dep? be augm5t$1 we see ! light gradually assume a yell[-r$ color1 :i* f9ally is height5$ to a ruby-r$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if d>kness is se5 ?r\gh a dim m$ium :i* is illum9at$ by a light fall+ on x1 a blue color is se51 :i* becomes cle>] & pal]1 ! m ! dimness ( ! m$ium increases1 & d>k] & full]1 z ! m$ium becomes m transp>5t2 & :5 we come to ! smalle/ degree ( ! pure/ dimness1 we see ! mo/ p]fect violet4#bei ,9 addition to ?is doctr9e ( ! dim m$ium1 we h a second pr9ciple ass]t$ conc]n+ refraction4 ,9 a va/ v>iety ( cases1 images are accompani$ by accessory images1 z :5 we see bright objects 9 a look+-glass4#bfi ,n[1 :5 an image is displac$ by refraction1 ! displacem5t is n complete1 cle> & %>p1 b incomplete1 s t !re is an accessory image along ) ! pr9cipal "o4#bgi ,f ^! pr9ciples1 ! colors produc$ by refraction 9 ! image ( a bright object on a d>k gr\nd1 are at once d]ivable4 ,! accessory image is semitransp>5t2#bhi & h5ce t bord] ( x :i* is pu%$ =w>ds1 is drawn f ! d>k ov] ! bright1 & !re ! yell[ appe>s2 on ! o!r h&1 :]e ! cle> bord] laps ov] ! d>k gr\nd1 ! blue is se52#bii & h5ce we easily see t ! image mu/ appe> r$ & yell[ at "o end1 & blue & violet at ! o!r4 ,note #bei3 ,f>b5lehre1 #aej1 p4 #aea4 ,note #bfi3 ,ib4 #bbc4 ,note #bgi3 ,ib4 #bbg4 ,note #bhi3 ,ib4 #bch4 ,note #bii3 ,ib4 #bci4 ,we ne$ n expla9 ?is sy/em fur!r1 or attempt to %[ h[ vague & loose1 z well z baseless1 are ! notions & modes ( conception :i* x introduces4 ,p]haps x is n difficult to po9t out ! peculi>ities 9 ,g!'s intellectual "* :i* l$ to 8 s+ul>ly unphilosophical views on ?is subject4 ,"o important #fe circum/ance is1 t he appe>s1 l _m p]sons 9 :om ! poetical imag9ation is v active1 to h be5 de/itute ( ! tal5t & ! habit ( geometrical ?\ght4 ,9 all probability1 he nev] appreh5d$ cle>ly & /eadily ^? relations ( position on :i* ! ,newtonian doctr9e dep5ds4 ,ano!r cause ( 8 inability to accept ! doctr9e probably 01 t he _h conceiv$ ! composition ( colors 9 "s way altoge!r diff]5t f t :i* ,newton und]/&s by composition4 ,:at ,g! expect$ to see1 we _c cle>ly collect2 b we "k1 f 8 own /atem5t1 t 8 int5tion ( exp]im5t+ ) a prism arose f 8 speculations on ! roles ( color+ 9 pictures2 & we c easily see t any notion ( ! composition ( colors :i* su* rese>*es w\ld sugge/1 w\ld require to be laid aside1 be=e he c\ld und]/& ,newton's !ory ( ! composition ( light4 ,o!r objections to ,newton's !ory1 ( a k9d v diff]5t1 h be5 rec5tly made by t em95t ma/] ( optical sci5ce1 ,sir ,david ,brew/]4 ,he conte/s ,newton's op9ion1 t ! color$ rays into :i* light is sep>at$ by refraction are altoge!r simple & homog5e\s1 & incapable ( be+ fur!r analys$ & modifi$4 ,= he f9ds t by pass+ su* rays ?r\gh color$ m$ia 7z blue glass = in/ance71 !y are n only absorb$ & transmitt$ 9 v v>i\s degrees1 b t "s ( !m h _! color alt]$2 :i* effect he conceives z a fur!r analysis ( ! rays1 "o compon5t color be+ absorb$ & ! o!r transmitt$4#cji ,& on ?is subject we c only say1 z we h be=e said1 t ,newton has inconte/ably & completely e/abli%$ 8 doctr9e1 s f> z analysis & decomposition by refraction are conc]n$2 b t ) reg>d to any o!r analysis1 :i* absorb+ m$ia or o!r ag5ts may produce1 we h no "r f 8 exp]im5ts to ass]t1 t ! colors ( ! spectrum are incapable ( su* decomposition4 ,! :ole subject ( ! colors ( objects1 bo? opake & transp>5t1 is /ill 9 obscurity4 ,newton's conjectures conc]n+ ! causes ( ! colors ( natural bodies1 appe> to help u little2 & 8 op9ions on t subject are to be sep>at$ altoge!r f ! important /ep :i* he made 9 optical sci5ce1 by ! e/abli%m5t ( ! true doctr9e ( refractive disp]sion4 ,note #cji3 ,?is latt] fact has1 h[ev]1 be5 d5i$ by o!r exp]im5t]s4 #bnd ,ed4 ,aft] a c>eful re-consid]ation ( ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]'s ass]t$ analysis ( ! sol> light into ?ree colors by means ( #ff absorb+ m$ia1 ,i _c consid] t he has e/abli%$ 8 po9t z an exception to ,newton's doctr9e4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! analysis ( light into ?ree colors appe>s to be q arbitr>y1 grant+ all 8 exp]im5tal facts4 ,i d n see :y1 us+ o!r m$ia1 he might n j z well h obta9$ o!r elem5t>y colors4 ,9 ! next place1 ?is _c be call$ an analysis 9 ! same s5se z ,newton's analysis1 except ! relation betwe5 ! two is %[n4 ,is x meant t ,newton's exp]im5ts prove no?+8 ,or is ,newton's conclusion all[$ to be true ( light :i* has n be5 analys$ by absorption8 ,& :]e are we to f9d su* light1 s9ce ! atmosph]e absorbs8 ,b1 ,i mu/ add1 9 ! ?ird place1 t ) a v s9c]e admiration ( ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]'s skill z an exp]im5t]1 ,i ?9k 8 exp]im5t requires1 n only limitation1 b confirmation by o!r exp]im5t]s4 ,mr4 ,airy repeat$ ! exp]im5ts ) ab\t ?irty diff]5t absorb+ sub/ances1 & c\ld n satisfy himself t 9 any case !y *ang$ ! color ( a ray ( giv5 refractive p[]4 ,^! exp]im5ts 7 describ$ by him at a meet+ ( ! ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society4 ,we n[ proce$ to ! corrections :i* ! next g5]ation introduc$ into ! details ( ?is doctr9e4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,a*romatism4 ,,! discov]y t ! laws ( refractive disp]sion ( diff]5t sub/ances 7 su* z to all[ ( comb9ations :i* neutralis$ ! disp]sion )\t neutraliz+ ! refraction1 is "o :i* has hi!rto be5 ( m value to art ?an to sci5ce4 ,! prop]ty has no def9ite be>+1 :i* has yet be5 satisfactorily expla9$1 ^u ! !ory ( light2 b x is ( ! greate/ importance 9 its application to ! con/ruction ( telescopes2 & x excit$ ! m notice1 9 consequ5ce ( ! prejudices & difficulties :i* = a "t ret>d$ ! discov]y4 ,newton conceiv$ t he _h prov$ by exp]im5t1#cai t light #fg is :ite aft] refraction1 :5 ! em]g5t rays are p>allel to ! incid5t1 & 9 no o!r case4 ,if ?is 7 s1 ! production ( colorless images by refract+ m$ia w\ld be impossible2 & su*1 9 def]5ce to ,newton's great au?ority1 0 = "s "t ! g5]al p]suasion4 ,eul]#cbi obs]v$1 t a comb9ation ( l5ses :i* does n color ! image mu/ be possible1 s9ce we h an example ( su* a comb9ation 9 ! human eye2 & he inve/igat$ ma!matically ! conditions requisite = su* a result4 ,kl+5/i]na1#cci a ,sw$i% ma!matician1 also %[$ t ,newton's rule c\ld n be univ]sally true4 ,f9ally1 ,john ,dollond1#cdi 9 #ageg1 repeat$ ,newton's exp]im5t1 & obta9$ an opposite result4 ,he f\nd t :5 an object 0 se5 ?r\gh two prisms1 "o ( glass & "o ( wat]1 ( su* angles t x did n appe> displac$ by refraction1 x 0 color$4 ,h5ce x foll[$ t1 )\t be+ color$1 ! rays might be made to und]go refraction2 & t ?us1 sub/itut+ l5ses = prisms1 a comb9ation might be =m$1 :i* %\ld produce an image )\t color+ x1 & make ! con/ruction ( an a*romatic telescope possible4 ,note #cai3 ,opticks1 ,b4 i4 p4 ii4 ,prop4 #c4 ,note #cbi3 ,ac4 ,b]l94 #agdg4 ,note #cci3 ,sw$i% ,trans4 #aged4 ,note #cdi3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ageh4 ,eul] at fir/ hesitat$ to confide 9 ,dollond's exp]im5ts2 b he 0 assur$ ( _! correctness by ,clairaut1 :o _h ?r\gh\t paid great att5tion to ! subject2 & ^? two great ma!maticians1 z well z ,d',alemb]t1 proce$$ to inve/igate ma!matical =mul :i* might be useful 9 ! application ( ! discov]y4 ,! rema9d] ( ! d$uctions1 :i* 7 f\nd$ ^u ! laws ( disp]sion ( v>i\s refractive sub/ances1 belongs r to ! hi/ory ( art ?an ( sci5ce4 ,dollond us$ at fir/1 = 8 a*romatic object-glass1 a l5s ( cr[n-glass1 & "o ( fl9t-glass4 ,he aft]w>ds employ$ two l5ses ( ! =m] sub/ance1 includ+ betwe5 !m "o ( ! latt]1 adju/+ ! curvatures ( 8 l5ses 9 su* a way z to correct ! imp]fections aris+ f ! sph]ical =m ( ! glasses1 z well z ! fault ( color4 ,aft]w>ds1 ,blair us$ fluid m$ia along ) glass l5ses1 9 ord] to produce improv$ object-glasses4 ,?is has m rec5tly be5 done 9 ano!r =m by ,mr4 ,b>l[4 ,! inductive laws ( refraction be+ e/abli%$1 _! results h be5 d$uc$ by v>i\s ma!maticians1 z ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el & ,pr(essor ,airy among ourselves1 :o h simplifi$ & ext5d$ ! inve/igation ( ! =mul :i* det]m9e ! be/ comb9ation ( l5ses 9 ! object-glasses & eye-glasses ( #fh telescopes1 bo? ) ref]5ce to sph]ical & to *romatic ab]rations4 ,accord+ to ,dollond's discov]y1 ! color$ spectra produc$ by prisms ( two sub/ances1 z fl9t-glass & cr[n-glass1 w\ld be ( ! same l5g? :5 ! refraction 0 diff]5t4 ,b a "q !n occurr$3 ,:5 ! :ole di/ance f ! r$ to ! violet 9 "o spectrum 0 ! same z ! :ole di/ance 9 ! o!r1 7 ! int]m$iate colors1 yell[1 gre51 c41 9 correspond+ places 9 ! two8 ,?is po9t also c\ld n be det]m9$ any o!rwise ?an by exp]im5t4 ,x appe>$ t su* a correspond5ce did n exi/2 &1 !re=e1 :5 ! extreme colors 7 correct$ by comb9ations ( ! diff]5t m$ia1 !re /ill rema9$ an uncorrect$ residue ( color aris+ f ! re/ ( ! spectrum4 ,?is defect 0 a consequ5ce ( ! prop]ty1 t ! spectra belong+ to diff]5t m$ia 7 n divid$ 9 ! same ratio by ! same colors1 & 0 h5ce t]m$ ! irrationality ( ! spectrum4 ,by us+ ?ree prisms1 or ?ree l5ses1 ?ree colors may be made to co9cide in/ead ( two1 & ! effects ( ?is irrationality greatly dim9i%$4 ,= ! reasons already m5tion$1 we d n pursue ?is subject fur!r1#cei b turn to ^? optical facts :i* f9ally l$ to a great & compreh5sive !ory4 ,note #cei3 ,! discov]y ( ! fix$ l9es 9 ! spectrum1 by ,wolla/on & ,fraunh(]1 has m rec5tly suppli$ ! means ( det]m9+1 ) extreme accuracy1 ! correspond+ portions ( ! spectrum 9 diff]5t refract+ sub/ances4 #bnd ,ed4 ,mr4 ,*e/] ,m ,hall1 ( ,m ,hall1 9 ,essex1 is said to h be5 l$ by ! /udy ( ! human eye1 :i* he conceiv$ to be a*romatic1 to con/ruct a*romatic telescopes z e>ly z #agbi4 ,mr4 ,hall1 h[ev]1 kept 8 inv5tion a secret4 ,david ,gregory1 9 8 ,catoptrics 7#agac71 _h sugge/$ t x w\ld p]haps be an improvem5t ( telescopes1 if1 9 imitation ( ! human eye1 ! object-glass 7 compos$ ( diff]5t m$ia4 ,encyc4 ,brit4 art4 ,optics4 ,x is said t ,clairaut fir/ discov]$ ! irrationality ( ! color$ spaces 9 ! spectrum4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is irrationality1 x foll[s t :5 two refract+ m$ia are s comb9$ z to correct ea* o!r's extreme disp]sion1 7! sep>ation ( ! r$ & violet rays17 ?is fir/ /ep ( correction /ill leaves a residue ( #fi coloration aris+ f ! unequal disp]sion ( ! int]m$iate rays 7! gre51 c474 ,^! out/&+ colors1 z !y 7 t]m$ by ,pr(essor ,robison1 =m ! residual1 or second>y spectrum4 ,dr4 ,blair1 by v +5i\s devices1 succe$$ 9 produc+ an object-glass1 correct$ by a fluid l5s1 9 :i* ?is ab]ration ( color 0 completely correct$1 & :i* p]=m$ wond]fully well4 ,! disp]sion produc$ by a prism may be correct$ by ano!r prism ( ! same sub/ance & ( a diff]5t angle4 ,9 ?is case also !re is an irrationality 9 ! color$ spaces1 :i* prev5ts ! correction ( color f be+ complete2 & h5ce1 a new residu>y spectrum1 :i* has be5 call$ ! t]ti>y spectrum1 by ,sir ,david ,brew/]1 :o fir/ notic$ x4 ,i h omitt$1 9 ! notice ( discov]ies respect+ ! spectrum1 _m rem>kable tra9s ( exp]im5tal rese>*1 & especially ! inve/igations respect+ ! p[] ( v>i\s m$ia to absorb ! light ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! spectrum1 prosecut$ by ,sir ,david ,brew/] ) extraord9>y skill & sagacity4 ,! obs]vations are ref]r$ to 9 *apt] iii4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 ,pr(4 ,mill]1 ,mr4 ,daniel1 ,dr4 ,f>aday1 & ,mr4 ,talbot1 h also contribut$ to ?is "p ( our k4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,d\ble ,,refraction4 ,,! laws ( refraction :i* we h hi!rto describ$1 7 simple & uni=m1 & _h a symmetrical ref]5ce to ! surface ( ! refract+ m$ium4 ,x appe>$ /range to m51 :5 _! att5tion 0 drawn to a class ( ph5om5a 9 :i* ?is symmetry 0 want+1 & 9 :i* a refraction took place :i* 0 n ev5 9 ! plane ( incid5ce4 ,! subject 0 n unwor?y ! notice & admiration x attract$2 = ! prosecution ( x end$ 9 ! discov]y ( ! g5]al laws ( light4 ,! ph5om5a ( :i* ,i n[ speak1 are ^? exhibit$ by v>i\s k9ds ( cry/all9e bodies2 b obs]v$ = a long "t 9 "o k9d only1 namely1 ! rhomboh$ral calc-sp>2 or1 z x 0 usually t]m$1 f ! c\ntry :i* suppli$ ! l>ge/ & cle>e/ cry/als1 ,icel& sp>4 ,^! #gj rhomboh$ral cry/als are usually v smoo? & transp>5t1 & (t5 ( consid]able size2 & x 0 obs]v$1 on look+ ?r\gh !m1 t all objects appe>$ d\ble4 ,! ph5om5a1 ev5 z e>ly z #affi1 _h be5 consid]$ s curi\s1 t ,erasmus ,b>?ol9 publi%$ a "w ^u !m at ,cop5hag51#cfi 7,exp]im5ta ,cry/alli ,isl&ici1 ,hafni1 #affi47 ,he analys$ ! ph5om5a into _! laws1 s f> z to discov] t "o ( ! two images 0 produc$ by refraction aft] ! usual rule1 & ! o!r by an unusual refraction4 ,?is latt] refraction ,b>?ol9 f\nd to v>y 9 diff]5t positions2 to be regulat$ by a l9e p>allel to ! sides ( ! rhomboh$ron2 & to be greate/ 9 ! direction ( a l9e bisect+ two ( ! angles ( ! rhombic face ( ! cry/al4 ,note #cfi3 ,prie/ley's ,optics1 p4 #eej4 ,^! rules 7 exact z f> z !y w5t2 & :5 we consid] h[ geometrically complex ! law is1 :i* really regulates ! unusual or extraord9>y refraction2--t ,newton altoge!r mi/ook x1 & t x 0 n v]ifi$ till ! exp]im5ts ( ,hay & ,wolla/on 9 our own "t2--we might expect t x w\ld n be soon or easily detect$4 ,b ,huygh5s possess$ a key to ! secret1 9 ! !ory1 :i* he _h devis$1 ( ! propagation ( light by undulations1 & :i* he conceiv$ ) p]fect di/9ctness & correctness1 s f> z its application to ^! ph5om5a is conc]n$4 ,h5ce he 0 enabl$ to lay d[n ! law ( ! ph5om5a 7! only "p ( 8 discov]y :i* we h "h to consid]71 ) a precision & success :i* excit$ des]v$ admiration1 :5 ! subject1 at a mu* lat] p]iod1 rega9$ its due %>e ( att5tion4 ,8 ,treatise 0 writt5#cgi 9 #afgh1 b n publi%$ till #afij4 ,note #cgi3 ,see 8 ,trait de la ,lumire4 ,preface4 ,! laws ( ! ord9>y & ! extraord9>y refraction 9 ,icel& sp> are relat$ to ea* o!r2 !y are1 9 fact1 simil> con/ructions1 made1 9 ! "o case1 by means ( an imag9>y sph]e1 9 ! o!r1 by means ( a sph]oid2 ! sph]oid be+ ( su* oblat5ess z to suit ! rhomboh$ral =m ( ! cry/al1 & ! axis ( ! sph]oid be+ ! axis ( symmetry ( ! cry/al4 ,huygh5s foll[$ ?is g5]al conception into p>ticul> positions & conditions2 & ?us obta9$ rules1 :i* he comp>$ ) obs]vation1 = cutt+ ! cry/al & transmitt+ ! rays 9 v>i\s mann]s4 ,i h exam9$ 9 detail1 says he1#ch ! prop]ties ( ! #ga extraord9>y refraction ( ?is cry/al1 to see if ea* ph5om5on :i* is d$uc$ f !ory1 w\ld agree ) :at is really obs]v$4 ,& ?is be+ s1 x is no slight pro( ( ! tru? ( our suppositions & pr9ciples2 b :at ,i am go+ to add "h confirms !m /ill m wond]fully2 t is1 ! diff]5t modes ( cutt+ ?is cry/al1 9 :i* ! surfaces produc$ give rise to refractions exactly su* z !y ought to be1 & z ,i _h =ese5 !m1 accord+ to ! prec$+ !ory4 ,note #chi3 ,see ,mas]es's ,tracts on ,optics1 p4 #bej2 or ,huygh5s1 ,tr4 sur la ,lum4 *4 v4 ,art4 #dc4 ,/atem5ts ( ?is k9d1 com+ f a philosoph] l ,huygh5s1 7 entitl$ to great confid5ce2 ,newton1 h[ev]1 appe>s n to h notic$1 or to h disreg>d$ !m4 ,9 8 ,opticks1 he gives a rule = ! extraord9>y refraction ( ,icel& sp> :i* is altoge!r errone\s1 )\t assign+ any reason = reject+ ! law publi%$ by ,huygh5s2 &1 s f> z appe>s1 )\t hav+ made any exp]im5ts ( 8 own4 ,! ,huygh5ian doctr9e ( d\ble refraction fell1 along ) 8 !ory ( undulations1 into tempor>y neglect1 ( :i* we %all h h]eaft] to speak4 ,b 9 #aghh1 ,hay %[$ t ,huygh5s's rule agre$ mu* bett] ?an ,newton's ) ! ph5om5a3 & 9 #ahjb1 ,wolla/on1 apply+ a me?od ( 8 own = measur+ refraction1 came to ! same result4 ,he made1 says ,"y1#cii a numb] ( accurate exp]im5ts ) an app>atus s+ul>ly well calculat$ to exam9e ! ph5om5a1 b c\ld f9d no g5]al pr9ciple to connect !m1 until ! "w ( ,huygh5s 0 po9t$ out to him4 ,9 #ahjh1 ! subject ( d\ble refraction 0 propos$ z a prize-"q by ! ,fr5* ,in/itute2 & ,malus1 ^: ,memoir obta9$ ! prize1 says1 ,i began by obs]v+ & measur+ a long s]ies ( ph5om5a on natural & artificial faces ( ,icel& sp>4 ,!n1 te/+ by means ( ^! obs]vations ! diff]5t laws propos$ up to ! pres5t "t by physical writ]s1 ,i 0 /ruck ) ! admirable agreem5t ( ! law ( ,huygh5s ) ! ph5om5a1 & ,i 0 soon conv9c$ t x is really ! law ( nature4 ,pursu+ ! consequ5ces ( ! law1 he f\nd t x satisfi$ ph5om5a :i* ,huygh5s himself _h n obs]v$4 ,f ?is "t1 !n1 ! tru? ( ! ,huygh5ian law 0 univ]sally all[$1 & soon aft]w>ds1 ! !ory by :i* x _h be5 sugge/$ 0 g5]ally receiv$4 ,note #cii3 ,qu>t4 ,rev4 #ahji1 ,nov4 p4 #cch4 ,! prop]ty ( d\ble refraction _h be5 fir/ /udi$ only 9 ,icel& sp>1 9 :i* x is v obvi\s4 ,! same prop]ty belongs1 #gb ?\gh less conspicu\sly1 to _m o!r k9ds ( cry/als4 ,huygh5s _h notic$ ! same fact 9 rock-cry/al2#dji & ,malus f\nd x to belong to a l>ge li/ ( bodies besides2 = in/ance1 arragonite1 sulphate ( lime1 ( b>yta1 ( /rontia1 ( iron2 c>bonate ( lead2 zircon1 corundum1 cymophane1 em]ald1 euclase1 felsp>1 mesotype1 p]idote1 sulphur1 & mellite4 ,attempts 7 made1 ) imp]fect success1 to r$uce all ^! to ! law :i* _h be5 e/abli%$ = ,icel& sp>4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ,malus took = grant$ t ! extraord9>y refraction dep5d$ always ^u an oblate sph]oid2 b ,m4 ,biot#dai po9t$ out a di/9ction betwe5 two classes ( cry/als 9 :i* ?is sph]oid 0 oblong & oblate respectively1 & ^! he call$ attractive & repulsive cry/als4 ,) ?is correction1 ! law c\ld be ext5d$ to a consid]able numb] ( cases2 b x 0 aft]w>ds prov$ by ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]'s discov]ies1 t ev5 9 ?is =m1 x belong$ only to sub/ances ( :i* ! cry/allization has relation to a s+le axis ( symmetry1 z ! rhomboh$ron1 or ! squ>e pyramid4 ,9 o!r cases1 z ! rhombic prism1 9 :i* ! =m1 consid]$ ) ref]5ce to its cry/all9e symmetry1 is biaxal1 ! law is mu* m complicat$4 ,9 t case1 ! sph]e & ! sph]oid1 :i* are us$ 9 ! con/ruction = uniaxal cry/als1 trans=m !mselves into ! two successful convolutions ( a s+le cont9u\s curve surface2 nei!r ( ! two rays foll[s ! law ( ord9>y refraction2 & ! =mula :i* det]m9es _! position is v complex4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 capable ( be+ te/$ by measures ( ! refractions ( cry/als cut 9 a peculi> mann] = ! purpose1 & ?is 0 done by ,,mm4 ,fresnel & ,arago4 ,b ?is complex law ( d\ble refraction 0 only discov]$ ?r\gh ! aid ( ! !ory ( a lum9if]\s e!r1 & !re=e we mu/ n[ return to ! o!r facts :i* l$ to su* a !ory4 ,note #dji3 ,trait de la ,lumire1 *4 v4 ,art4 #bj ,note #dai3 ,biot1 ,trait de ,phys4 iii4 #ccj4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,pol>ization4 ,,if ! ,extraord9>y ,refraction ( ,icel& sp> _h appe>$ /range1 ano!r ph5om5on 0 soon notic$ 9 ! same #gc sub/ance1 :i* appe>$ /rang] /ill1 & :i* 9 ! sequel 0 f\nd to be no less important4 ,i speak ( ! facts :i* 7 aft]w>ds describ$ "u ! t]m ,pol>ization4 ,huygh5s 0 ! discov]] ( ?is class ( facts4 ,at ! end ( ! treatise :i* we h already quot$1 he says1#dbi ,be=e ,i quit ! subject ( ?is cry/al1 ,i w add "o o!r m>vell\s ph5om5on1 :i* ,i h discov]$ s9ce writ+ ! above2 = ?\gh hi!rto ,i h n be5 able to f9d out its cause1 ,i w n1 on t acc\nt1 omit po9t+ x out1 t ,i may give occasion to o!rs to exam9e x4 ,he !n /ates ! ph5om5a2 :i* are1 t :5 two rhomboh$rons ( ,icel& sp> are 9 p>allel positions1 a ray d\bly refract$ by ! fir/1 is n fur!r divid$ :5 x falls on ! second3 ! ord9>ily refract$ ray is ord9>ily refract$ only1 & ! extraord9>y ray is only extraord9>ily refract$ by ! second cry/al1 nei!r ray be+ d\bly refract$4 ,! same is /ill ! case1 if ! two cry/als h _! pr9cipal planes p>allel1 ?\gh !y !mselves are n p>allel4 ,b if ! pr9cipal plane ( ! second cry/al be p]p5dicul> to t ( ! fir/1 ! rev]se ( :at has be5 describ$ takes place2 ! ord9>ily refract$ ray ( ! fir/ cry/al suff]s1 at ! second1 extraord9>y refraction only1 & ! extraord9>y ray ( ! fir/ suff]s ord9>y refraction only at ! second4 ,?us1 9 ea* ( ^! positions1 ! d\ble refraction ( ea* ray at ! second cry/al is r$uc$ to s+le refraction1 ?\gh 9 a diff]5t mann] 9 ! two cases4 ,b 9 any o!r position ( ! cry/als1 ea* ray1 produc$ by ! fir/1 is d\bly refract$ by ! second1 s z to produce f\r rays4 ,note #dbi3 ,tr4 ,opt4 p4 #beb4 ,a /ep 9 ! "r conception ( ^! ph5om5a 0 made by ,newton1 9 ! second edition ( 8 ,opticks 7#agag74 ,he repres5t$ !m z result+ f ?is2--t ! rays ( light h sides1 & t !y und]go ! ord9>y or extraord9>y refraction1 accord+ z ^! sides are p>allel to ! pr9cipal plane ( ! cry/al1 or at "r angles to x 7,qu]y #bf74 ,9 ?is way1 x is cle>1 t ^? rays :i*1 9 ! fir/ cry/al1 _h be5 select$ = extraord9>y refraction1 because _! sides 7 p]p5dicul> to ! pr9cipal plane1 w\ld all suff] extraord9>y refraction at ! second cry/al = ! same reason1 if its pr9cipal plane 7 p>allel to t ( ! fir/2 & w\ld all suff] ord9>y refraction1 if ! pr9cipal plane ( ! second cry/al 7 p]p5dicul> to t ( ! fir/1 & #gd consequ5tly p>allel to ! sides ( ! refract$ ray4 ,?is view ( ! subject includes "s ( ! lead+ features ( ! case1 b /ill leaves sev]al consid]able difficulties4 ,no mat]ial advance 0 made 9 ! subject till x 0 tak5 up by ,malus1#dci along ) ! o!r circum/ances ( d\ble refraction1 ab\t a hundr$ ye>s aft]w>ds4 ,he v]ifi$ :at _h be5 obs]v$ by ,huygh5s & ,newton1 on ! subject ( ! v>iations :i* light ?us exhibits2 b he discov]$ t ?is modification1 9 virtue ( :i* light und]goes ! ord9>y1 or ! extraord9>y1 refraction1 accord+ to ! position ( ! plane ( ! cry/al1 may be impress$ ^u x _m o!r ways4 ,"o "p ( ?is discov]y 0 made accid5tally4#ddi ,9 #ahjh1 ,malus happ5$ to be obs]v+ ! light ( ! sett+ sun1 reflect$ f ! w9d[s ( ! ,luxemb\rg1 ?r\gh a rhomboh$ron ( ,icel& sp>2 & he obs]v$ t 9 turn+ r\nd ! cry/al1 ! two images v>i$ 9 _! int5sity4 ,nei!r ( ! images completely vani%$1 because ! light f ! w9d[s 0 n prop]ly modifi$1 or1 to use ! t]m :i* ,malus soon adopt$1 0 n completely pol>iz$4 ,! complete pol>ization ( light by reflection f glass1 or any o!r transp>5t sub/ance1 0 f\nd to take place at a c]ta9 def9ite angle1 diff]5t = ea* sub/ance4 ,x 0 f\nd also t 9 all cry/als 9 :i* d\ble refraction occurr$1 ! sep>ation ( ! refract$ rays 0 accompani$ by pol>ization2 ! two rays1 ! ord9>y & ! extraord9>y1 be+ always pol>iz$ oppositely1 t is1 9 planes at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,! t]m poles1 us$ by ,malus1 convey$ ne>ly ! same notion z ! t]m sides :i* _h be5 employ$ by ,newton1 ) ! additional conception ( a prop]ty :i* appe>$ or disappe>$ accord+ z ! poles ( ! p>ticles 7 or 7 n 9 a c]ta9 direction2 a prop]ty ?us resembl+ ! pol>ity ( magnetic bodies4 ,:5 a spot ( pol>iz$ light is look$ at ?r\gh a transp>5t cry/al ( ,icel& sp>1 ea* ( ! two images produc$ by ! d\ble refraction v>ies 9 brightness z ! cry/al is turn$ r\nd4 ,if1 = ! sake ( example1 we suppose ! cry/al to be turn$ r\nd 9 ! direction ( ! po9ts ( ! compass1 ,n1 ,e1 ,s1 ,w1 & if "o image be brighte/ :5 ! cry/al m>ks ,n & ,s1 x w disappe> :5 ! cry/al m>ks ,e & ,w3 & on ! contr>y1 ! second image w vani% :5 ! cry/al m>ks ,n & ,s1 #ge & w be brighte/ :5 ! cry/al m>ks ,e & ,w4 ,! fir/ ( ^! images is pol>iz$ 9 ! plane ,,ns pass+ ?r\gh ! ray1 & ! second 9 ! plane ,,ew1 p]p5dicul> to ! o!r4 ,& ^! rays are oppositely pol>iz$4 ,x 0 fur!r f\nd t :e!r ! ray 7 pol>iz$ by reflection f glass1 or f wat]1 or by d\ble refraction1 ! modification ( light s produc$1 or ! nature ( ! pol>ization1 0 id5tical 9 all ^! cases2--t ! alt]natives ( ord9>y & extraord9>y refraction & non-refraction1 7 ! same1 by :atev] cry/al !y 7 te/$1 or 9 :atev] mann] ! pol>ization _h be5 impress$ ^u ! light2 9 %ort1 t ! prop]ty1 :5 once acquir$1 0 indep5d5t ( ev]y?+ except ! sides or poles ( ! ray2 & ?us1 9 #ahaa1 ! t]m pol>ization 0 introduc$4#dei ,note #dci3 ,malus1 ,?4 de la ,d\b4 ,rf4 p4 #bif4 ,note #ddi3 ,arago1 art4 ,pol>ization1 ,supp4 ,enc4 ,brit4 ,note #dei3 ,mm4 ,in/4 #ahaj4 ,?is be+ ! /ate ( ! subject1 x became an obvi\s "q1 by :at o!r means1 & accord+ to :at laws1 ?is prop]ty 0 communicat$4 ,x 0 f\nd t "s cry/als1 in/ead ( giv+1 by d\ble refraction1 two images oppositely pol>iz$1 give a s+le pol>iz$ image4 ,?is prop]ty 0 discov]$ 9 ! agate by ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]1 & 9 t\rmal9e by ,m4 ,biot & ,dr4 ,seebeck4 ,! latt] m9]al became1 9 consequ5ce1 a v conv5i5t "p ( ! app>atus us$ 9 su* obs]vations4 ,v>i\s peculi>ities be>+ ^u ?is subject1 7 detect$ by diff]5t exp]im5t]s4 ,x 0 9 a %ort "t discov]$1 t light might be pol>iz$ by refraction1 z well z by reflection1 at ! surface ( uncry/alliz$ bodies1 z glass2 ! plane ( pol>ization be+ p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( refraction2 fur!r1 t :5 a portion ( a ray ( light 0 pol>iz$ by reflection1 a correspond+ portion 0 pol>iz$ by transmission1 ! planes ( ! two pol>izations be+ at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,x 0 f\nd also t ! pol>ization :i* 0 incomplete ) a s+le plate1 ei!r by reflection or refraction1 might be made m & m complete by increas+ ! numb] ( plates4 ,among an accumulation ( ph5om5a l ?is1 x is our bus9ess to inquire :at g5]al laws 7 discov]$4 ,to make su* discov]ies )\t possess+ ! g5]al !ory ( ! facts1 requir$ no ord9>y sagacity & good =tune4 ,yet sev]al laws 7 detect$ at ?is /age ( ! subject4 ,malus1 9 #ahaa1 obta9$ ! important g5]alization t1 :5ev] we obta91 by any means1 a pol>iz$ ray ( light1 we produce also ano!r ray1 pol>iz$ 9 a contr>y #gf direction2 ?us :5 reflection gives a pol>iz$ ray1 ! companion-ray is refract$ pol>iz$ oppositely1 along ) a quantity ( unpol>iz$ light4 ,& we mu/ p>ticul>ly notice ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]'s rule = ! pol>iz+ angle ( diff]5t bodies4 ,malus#dfi _h said t ! angle ( reflection f transp>5t bodies :i* mo/ completely pol>izes ! reflect$ ray1 does n foll[ any discov]able rule ) reg>d to ! ord] ( refractive or disp]sive p[]s ( ! sub/ances4 ,yet ! rule 0 9 reality v simple4 ,9 #ahae1 ,sir ,d4 ,brew/] /at$#dgi z ! law1 :i* 9 all cases det]m9es ?is angle1 t ! index ( refraction is ! tang5t ( ! angle ( pol>ization4 ,x foll[s f ?is1 t ! pol>ization takes place :5 ! reflect$ & refract$ rays are at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,?is simple & elegant rule has be5 fully confirm$ by all subsequ5t obs]vations1 z by ^? ( ,,mm4 ,biot & ,seebeck2 & mu/ be consid]$ "o ( ! happie/ & mo/ important discov]ies ( ! laws ( ph5om5a 9 ,optics4 ,note #dfi3 ,mm4 ,in/4 #ahaj4 ,note #dgi3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahae4 ,! rule = pol>ization by "o reflection be+ ?us discov]$1 t5tative =mul 7 propos$ by ,sir ,d4 ,brew/] & ,m4 ,biot1 = ! cases 9 :i* sev]al reflections or refractions take place4 ,fresnel also 9 #ahag & #ahah1 trac$ ! effect ( reflection 9 modify+ ! direction ( pol>ization1 :i* ,malus _h done inaccurately 9 #ahaj4 ,b ! complexity ( ! subject made all su* attempts extremely prec>i\s1 till ! !ory ( ! ph5om5a 0 und]/ood1 a p]iod :i* n[ comes "u notice4 ,! laws :i* we h spok5 ( 7 important mat]ials = ! e/abli%m5t ( ! !ory2 b 9 ! mean "t1 its progress at fir/ _h be5 m =w>d$ by "s o!r classes ( facts1 ( a diff]5t k9d1 & ( a long] /&+ notoriety1 to :i* we mu/ n[ turn our att5tion4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,! ,,col\rs ,,( ,,?9 ,,plates4 ,,! facts :i* we h n[ to consid] are rem>kable1 inasmu* z ! col\rs are produc$ m]ely by ! smallness ( dim5sions ( ! bodies employ$4 ,! light is n analys$ by any peculi> #gg prop]ty ( ! sub/ances1 b dissect$ by ! m9ut5ess ( _! p>ts4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 ^! ph5om5a give v important indications ( ! real /ructure ( light2 & at an e>ly p]iod1 sugge/$ views :i* are1 9 a great measure1 j4 ,hooke appe>s to be ! fir/ p]son :o made any progress 9 discov]+ ! laws ( ! colors ( ?9 plates4 ,9 8 ,micrographia1 pr9t$ by ! ,royal ,society 9 #affd1 he describes1 9 a detail$ & sy/ematic mann]1 sev]al ph5om5a ( ?is k9d1 :i* he calls fanta/ical colors4 ,he exam9$ !m 9 ,muscovy glass or mica1 a transp>5t m9]al :i* is capable ( be+ split into ! exce$+ly ?9 films :i* are requisite = su* colors2 he notic$ !m also 9 ! fissures ( ! same sub/ance1 9 bubbles bl[n ( wat]1 ros91 gum1 glass2 9 ! films on ! surface ( temp]$ /eel2 betwe5 two plane pieces ( glass2 & 9 o!r cases4 ,he p]ceiv$ also1#dhi t ! production ( ea* color requir$ a plate ( det]m9ate ?ickness1 & he employ$ ?is circum/ance z "o ( ! gr\nds ( 8 !ory ( light4 ,note #dhi3 ,micrographia1 p4 #ec4 ,newton took up ! subject :]e ,hooke _h left x2 & foll[$ x out ) 8 accu/om$ skill & cle>ness1 9 8 ,disc\rse on ,light & ,colors1 communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society 9 #afge4 ,he det]m9$1 :at ,hooke _h n asc]ta9$1 ! ?ickness ( ! film :i* 0 requisite = ! production ( ea* color2 & 9 ?is way expla9$1 9 a complete & admirable mann]1 ! color$ r+s :i* occur :5 two l5ses are press$ toge!r1 & ! scale ( color :i* ! r+s foll[2 a /ep ( ! m consequ5ce1 z ! same scale occurs 9 _m o!r optical ph5om5a4 ,x is n our bus9ess "h to /ate ! hypo!sis ) reg>d to ! prop]ties ( light :i* ,newton f\nd$ on ^! facts2--! fits ( easy transmission & reflection4 ,we %all see h]eaft] t 8 attempt$ induction 0 imp]fect2 & 8 endeavor to acc\nt1 by means ( ! laws ( ?9 plates1 = ! colors ( natural bodies1 is altoge!r unsatisfactory4 ,b not)/&+ ^! failures 9 ! speculations on ?is subject1 he did make 9 x "s v important /eps2 = he cle>ly asc]ta9$ t :5 ! ?ickness ( ! plate 0 ab\t #aaghjjj? ( an in*1 or ?ree times1 five times1 sev5 times t magnitude1 !re 0 a bright color produc$2 b blackness1 :5 ! ?ickness 0 exactly int]m$iate betwe5 ^? magnitudes4 ,he f\nd1 also1 t ! ?icknesses :i* gave r$ & #gh violet#dii 7 z f\rte5 to n9e2 & ! int]m$iate colors ( c\rse correspond$ to int]m$iate ?icknesses1 & !re=e1 9 8 app>atus1 consi/+ ( two l5ses press$ toge!r1 appe>$ z r+s ( int]m$iate sizes4 ,8 mode ( confirm+ ! rule1 by ?r[+ ^u ?is app>atus diff]5tly color$ homog5e\s light1 is /rik+ & elegant4 ,x 0 v pleasant1 he says1 to see ! r+s gradually swell & contract z ! color ( ! light 0 *ang$4 ,note #dii3 ,opticks1 p4 #ahd4 ,x is n necess>y to ent] fur!r into ! detail ( ^! ph5om5a1 or to notice ! r+s se5 by transmission1 & o!r circum/ances4 ,! important /ep made by ,newton 9 ?is matt] 01 ! %[+ t ! rays ( light1 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 z !y pass onw>ds g p]iodically ?r\gh c]ta9 cycles ( modification1 ea* p]iod occupy+ ne>ly ! small fraction ( an in* m5tion$ above2 & ?is int]val be+ diff]5t = diff]5t colors4 ,al?\gh ,newton did n correctly dis5tangle ! conditions "u :i* ?is p]iodical "* is manife/ly disclos$1 ! discov]y t1 "u "s circum/ances1 su* a p]iodical "* does exi/1 0 likely to influ5ce1 & did influ5ce1 mat]ially & b5eficially1 ! subsequ5t progress ( ,optics t[>ds a connect$ !ory4 ,we mu/ n[ trace ?is progress2 b be=e we proce$ to ?is task1 we w briefly notice a numb] ( optical ph5om5a :i* _h be5 collect$1 & :i* wait$ = ! t\* ( s\nd !ory to introduce among !m t rule & ord] :i* m]e obs]vation _h s\ght = 9 va94 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,discov] ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,o!r ,,ph5om5a4 ,,! ph5om5a :i* result f optical comb9ations1 ev5 ( a comp>atively simple nature1 are extremely complex4 ,! !ory :i* is n[ kn[n acc\nts = ^! results ) ! mo/ curi\s exactness1 & po9ts out ! laws :i* p]vade ! app>5t confusion2 b )\t ?is key to ! appe>ances1 x 0 sc>cely possible t any rule or ord] %\ld be detect$4 ,! und]tak+ 0 ( #gi ! same k9d z x w\ld h be51 to discov] all ! inequalities ( ! moon's motion )\t ! aid ( ! doctr9e ( gravity4 ,we w enum]ate "s ( ! ph5om5a :i* ?us employ$ & p]plex$ ! cultivators ( optics4 ,! fr+es ( %ad[s 7 "o ( ! mo/ curi\s & not$ ( su* classes ( facts4 ,^! 7 fir/ rem>k$ by ,grimaldi#eji 7#affe71 & ref]r$ by him to a prop]ty ( light :i* he call$ ,diffraction4 ,:5 %ad[s are made 9 a d>k room1 by light admitt$ ?r\gh a v small hole1 ^! appe>ances are v conspicu\s & beautiful4 ,hooke1 9 #afgb1 communicat$ simil> obs]vations to ! ,royal ,society1 z a new prop]ty ( light n m5tion$ by any optical writ] be=e2 by :i* we see t he _h n he>d ( ,grimaldi's exp]im5ts4 ,newton1 9 8 ,opticks1 treats ( ! same ph5om5a1 :i* he ascribes to ! inflexion ( ! rays ( light4 ,he asks 7,qu4 #c71 ,are n ! rays ( light1 9 pass+ by ! edges & sides ( bodies1 b5t sev]al times backw>d & =w>d ) a motion l t ( an eel8 ,& d n ! ?ree fr+es ( color$ light 9 %ad[s arise f ?ree su* b5d+s8 ,x is rem>kable t ,newton %\ld n h notic$1 t x is impossible1 9 ?is way1 to acc\nt = ! facts1 or ev5 to express _! laws2 s9ce ! light :i* produces ! fr+es mu/1 on ?is !ory1 be propagat$1 ev5 aft] x leaves ! neighborhood ( ! opake body1 9 curves1 & n 9 /raight l9es4 ,accord+ly1 all :o h tak5 up ,newton's notion ( inflexion1 h inevitably fail$ 9 giv+ any?+ l an intelligible & coh]5t "* to ^! ph5om5a4 ,?is is1 = example1 ! case ) ,mr4 7n[ ,"l7 ,br\gham's attempts 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #agif4 ,! same may be said ( o!r exp]im5t]s1 z ,mairan#eai & ,du ,f\r1#ebi :o attempt$ to expla9 ! facts by suppos+ an atmosph]e ab\t ! opake body4 ,sev]al au?ors1 z ,m>aldi1#eci & ,comp>etti1#edi repeat$ or v>i$ ^! exp]im5ts 9 diff]5t ways4 ,note #eji3 ,physico-,ma!sis1 de ,lum9e1 ,coloribus et ,iride4 ,bologna1 #affe4 ,note #eai3 ,ac4 ,p>4 #agch4 ,note #ebi3 ,mmoires ,prs5ts1 vol4 v4 ,note #eci3 ,ac4 ,p>4 #agbc4 ,note #edi3 ,obs]vationes ,optic de ,luce ,inflex et ,coloribus4 ,padua1 #aghg4 ,newton _h notic$ c]ta9 r+s ( color produc$ by a glass speculum1 :i* he call$ colors ( ?ick plates1 & :i* he attempt$ to connect ) ! colors ( ?9 plates4 ,8 reason+ is by no means satisfactory2 b x 0 ( use1 by po9t+ out ?is z a case 9 :i* 8 fits 7! small p]iods1 or cycles 9 ! rays ( light1 ( #hj :i* we h spok57 cont9u$ to occur = a consid]able l5g? ( ! ray4 ,b o!r p]sons1 attempt+ to repeat 8 exp]im5ts1 conf\nd$ ) !m extrane\s ph5om5a ( o!r k9ds2 z ! ,duc de ,*aulnes1 :o spread musl9 be=e 8 mirror1#eei & ,dr4 ,h]s*el1 :o scatt]$ hair-p[d] be=e 84#efi ,! colors produc$ by ! musl9 7 ^? belong+ to %ad[s ( grat+s1 aft]w>ds exam9$ m successfully by ,fraunh(]1 :5 9 possession ( ! !ory4 ,we may m5tion "h also ! colors :i* appe> on f9ely-/riat$ surfaces1 & on "m-(-pe>l1 fea!rs1 & simil> sub/ances4 ,^! _h be5 exam9$ by v>i\s p]sons 7z ,boyle1 ,mazeas1 ,"l ,br\gham71 b c\ld /ill1 at ?is p]iod1 be only look$ ^u z insulat$ & lawless facts4 ,note #eei3 ,ac4 ,p>4 #agee4 ,note #efi3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahjg4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,ph5om5a ,,( ,,dipol>iz$ ,,light4 ,,besides ! above-m5tion$ p]plex+ cases ( colors produc$ by common light1 cases ( p]iodical colors produc$ by pol>iz$ light began to be discov]$1 & soon became num]\s4 ,9 ,augu/1 #ahaa1 ,m4 ,arago communicat$ to ! ,in/itute ( ,france an acc\nt ( colors se5 by pass+ pol>iz$ light ?r\gh mica1 & analys+#egi x ) a prism ( ,icel& sp>4 ,x is rem>kable t ! light :i* produc$ ! colors 9 ?is case 0 ! light pol>iz$ by ! sky1 a cause ( pol>ization n previ\sly kn[n4 ,! effect :i* ! mica ?us produc$ 0 t]m$ depol>ization2--n a v happy t]m1 s9ce ! effect is n ! de/ruction ( ! pol>ization1 b ! comb9ation ( a new pol>iz+ influ5ce ) ! =m]4 ,! ^w dipol>ization1 :i* has s9ce be5 propos$1 is a mu* m appropriate expression4 ,sev]al o!r curi\s ph5om5a ( ! same k9d 7 obs]v$ 9 qu>tz1 & 9 fl9t-glass4 ,m4 ,arago 0 n able to r$uce ^! ph5om5a to laws1 b he _h a full conviction ( _! value1 & v5tures to class !m ) ! great /eps 9 #ha ?is "p ( optics4 ,to ,b>?ol9 we owe ! k ( d\ble refraction2 to ,huygh5s1 t ( ! accompany+ pol>ization2 to ,malus1 pol>ization by reflection2 to ,arago1 depol>ization4 ,sir ,d4 ,brew/] 0 at ! same "t engag$ 9 a simil> tra9 ( rese>*2 & made discov]ies ( ! same nature1 :i*1 ?\gh n publi%$ till "s "t aft] ^? ( ,arago1 7 obta9$ )\t a k ( :at _h be5 done by him4 ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]'s ,treatise on ,new ,philosophical ,in/rum5ts1 publi%$ 9 #ahac1 conta9s _m curi\s exp]im5ts on ! depol>iz+ prop]ties ( m9]als4 ,bo? ^! obs]v]s notic$ ! *anges ( color :i* are produc$ by *anges 9 ! position ( ! ray1 & ! alt]nations ( color 9 ! two oppositely pol>iz$ images2 & ,sir ,d4 ,brew/] discov]$ t1 9 topaz1 ! ph5om5a _h a c]ta9 ref]5ce to l9es :i* he call$ ! neutral & depol>iz+ axes4 ,m4 ,biot _h endeavor$ to r$uce ! ph5om5a to a law2 & _h succe$$ s f>1 t he f\nd t 9 ! plates ( sulphate ( lime1 ! place ( ! t9t1 e/imat$ 9 ,newton's scale 7see ante1 *ap4 vii471 0 z ! squ>e ( ! s9e ( ! incl9ation4 ,b ! laws ( ^! ph5om5a became mu* m obvi\s :5 !y 7 obs]v$ by ,sir ,d4 ,brew/] ) a l>g] field ( view4#ehi ,he f\nd t ! colors ( topaz1 "u ! circum/ances n[ describ$1 exhibit$ !mselves 9 ! =m ( elliptical r+s1 cross$ by a black b>1 ! mo/ brilliant class ( ph5om5a1 z he ju/ly says1 9 ! :ole range ( optics4 ,9 #ahad1 also1 ,wolla/on obs]v$ ! circul> r+s ) a black cross1 produc$ by simil> means 9 calc-sp>2 & ,m4 ,biot1 9 #ahae1 made ! same obs]vation4 ,! r+s 9 sev]al ( ^! cases 7 c>efully measur$ by ,m4 ,biot & ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]1 & a great mass ( simil> ph5om5a 0 discov]$4 ,^! 7 add$ to by v>i\s p]sons1 z ,m4 ,seebeck1 & ,sir ,john ,h]s*el4 ,note #egi3 ,! prism ( ,icel& sp> produces ! colors by sep>at+ ! transmitt$ rays accord+ to ! laws ( d\ble refraction4 ,h5ce x is said to analyse ! light4 ,note #ehi3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahad4 ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]1 9 #ahah1 discov]$ a g5]al relation betwe5 ! cry/all9e =m & ! optical prop]ties1 :i* gave an incalculable impulse & a new cle>ness to ^! rese>*es4 ,he f\nd t !re 0 a correspond5ce betwe5 ! degree ( symmetry ( ! optical ph5om5a & ! cry/all9e =m2 ^? cry/als :i* are uniaxal 9 ! cry/allographical s5se1 are also uniaxal 9 _! optical prop]ties1 & give circul> r+s2 ^? :i* are ( o!r =ms are1 g5]ally speak+1 biaxal2 !y give oval & knott$ iso*romatic l9es1 ) two poles4 ,he also discov]$ a rule = ! t9t at ea* po9t #hb 9 su* cases2 & ?us expla9$1 s f> z an empirical law ( ph5om5a w5t1 ! curi\s & v>i\s =ms ( ! color$ curves4 ,?is law1 :5 simplifi$ by ,m4 ,biot1#eii made ! t9t proportional to ! product ( ! di/ances ( ! po9t f ! two poles4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>1 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el confirm$ ?is law by %[+1 f actual measurem5t1 t ! curve ( ! iso*romatic l9es 9 ^! cases 0 ! curve t]m$ ! lemniscata1 :i* has1 = ea* po9t1 ! product ( ! di/ances f two fix$ poles equal to a con/ant quantity4#fji ,he also r$uc$ to rule "s o!r app>5t anomalies 9 ph5om5a ( ! same class4 ,note #eii3 ,mm4 ,in/4 #ahah1 p4 #aib4 ,note #fji3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahai4 ,m4 ,biot1 too1 gave a rule = ! directions ( ! planes ( pol>ization ( ! two rays produc$ by d\ble refraction 9 biaxal cry/als1 a circum/ance :i* has a close be>+ ^u ! ph5om5a ( dipol>ization4 ,8 rule 01 t ! "o plane ( pol>ization bisects ! dih$ral angle =m$ by ! two planes :i* pass ?r\gh ! optic axes1 & t ! o!r is p]p5dicul> to su* a plane4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ,fresnel _h discov]$ f ! !ory ! true laws ( d\ble refraction1 x appe>$ t ! above rule is inaccurate1 al?\gh 9 a degree :i* obs]vation c\ld h>dly detect )\t ! aid ( !ory4#fai ,note #fai3 ,fresnel1 ,mm4 ,in/4 #ahbg1 p4 #afb4 ,!re 7 /ill o!r classes ( optical ph5om5a :i* attract$ notice2 especially ^? :i* are exhibit$ by plates ( qu>tz cut p]p5dicul> to ! axis4 ,m4 ,arago _h obs]v$1 9 #ahaa1 t ?is sub/ance produc$ a twi/ ( ! plane ( pol>ization to ! "r or left h&1 ! am\nt ( ?is twi/ be+ diff]5t = diff]5t colors2 a result :i* 0 aft]w>ds trac$ to a modification ( light diff]5t bo? f common & f pol>iz$ light1 & subsequ5tly kn[n z circul> pol>ization4 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el _h ! good =tune & sagacity to discov] t ?is peculi> k9d ( pol>ization 9 qu>tz 0 connect$ ) an equally peculi> modification ( cry/allization1 ! plagih$ral faces :i* are se51 on "s cry/als1 obliquely dispos$1 &1 z x 71 foll[+ ea* o!r r\nd ! cry/al f left to "r1 or f "r to left4 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el f\nd t ! "r-h&$ or left-h&$ "* ( ! circul> pol>ization correspond$1 9 all cases1 to t ( ! cry/al4 ,9 #ahae1 ,m4 ,biot1 9 8 rese>*es on ! subject ( circul> pol>ization1 0 l$ to ! unexpect$ & curi\s discov]y1 t ?is #hc prop]ty :i* seem$ to require = its v conception a cry/all9e /ructure 9 ! body1 belong$ nev]!less to sev]al fluids1 & 9 diff]5t directions = diff]5t fluids4 ,oil ( turp5t9e1 & an ess5tial oil ( laurel1 gave ! plane ( pol>ization a rotation to ! left h&2 oil ( citron1 syrup ( sug>1 & a solution ( camphor1 gave a rotation to ! "r h&4 ,soon aft]1 ! l discov]y 0 made indep5d5tly by ,dr4 ,seebeck1 ( ,b]l94 ,x w easily be suppos$ t all ^? brilliant ph5om5a c\ld n be obs]v$1 & ! laws ( _m ( ! ph5om5a discov]$1 )\t attempts on ! "p ( philosoph]s to comb9e !m all "u ! dom9ion ( "s wide & pr(\nd !ory4 ,endeavors to asc5d f su* k z we h spok5 (1 to ! g5]al !ory ( light1 71 9 fact1 made at e /age ( ! subject1 & ) a success :i* at la/ won almo/ all suffrages4 ,we are n[ arriv$ at ! po9t at :i* we are call$ ^u to trace ! hi/ory ( ?is !ory2 to pass f ! laws ( ph5om5a to _! causes2--f ,=mal to ,physical ,optics4 ,! undulatory !ory ( light1 ! only discov]y :i* c /& by ! side ( ! !ory ( univ]sal gravitation1 z a doctr9e belong+ to ! same ord]1 = its g5]ality1 its f]tility1 & its c]ta9ty1 may prop]ly be treat$ ( ) t c]emony :i* we h hi!rto be/[$ only on ! great advances ( a/ronomy2 & ,i %all !re=e n[ proce$ to speak ( ! ,prelude to ?is epo*1 ! ,epo* itself1 & its ,sequel1 accord+ to ! =m ( ! prec$+ ,book :i* treats ( a/ronomy4 #bnd ,ed4 ,i ought to h /at$1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?is *apt]1 t ,malus discov]$ ! depol>ization ( :ite light 9 #ahaa4 ,he f\nd t a p5cil ( light :i*1 be+ pol>iz$1 refus$ to be reflect$ by a surface prop]ly plac$1 recov]$ its p[] ( be+ reflect$ aft] be+ transmitt$ ?r\gh c]ta9 cry/als & o!r transp>5t bodies4 ,malus int5d$ to pursue ?is subject1 :5 8 rese>*es 7 t]m9at$ by 8 dea?1 ,feb4 #g1 #ahab4 ,m4 ,arago1 ab\t ! same "t1 ann\nc$ 8 important discov]y ( ! depol>ization ( colors by cry/als4 ,i may add1 to :at is above said ( ,m4 ,biot's discov]ies respect+ ! circul> pol>iz+ p[] ( fluids1 t he pursu$ 8 rese>*es s z to br+ into view "s mo/ curi\s relations among ! elem5ts ( bodies4 ,x appe>$ t c]ta9 sub/ances1 z sug> ( canes1 _h a "r-h&$ effect1 & c]ta9 o!r sub/ances1 z gum1 a left-h&$ effect2 & t ! molecul> value ( ?is effect 0 n alt]$ by dilution4 ,x appe>$ also t a c]ta9 elem5t ( ! #hd sub/ance ( fruits1 :i* _h be5 suppos$ to be gum1 & :i* is *ang$ into sug> by ! op]ation ( acids1 is n gum1 & has a v en]getic "r-h&$ effect4 ,?is sub/ance ,m4 ,biot call$ dextr9e1 & he has s9ce trac$ its effects into _m highly curi\s & important results49999 #he ,,physical ,,optics4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,"y ,,& ,,fresnel4 ,,by ,physical ,optics we mean1 z has already be5 /at$1 ! !ories :i* expla9 optical ph5om5a on me*anical pr9ciples4 ,no su* explanation c\ld be giv5 till true me*anical pr9ciples _h be5 obta9$2 &1 accord+ly1 we mu/ date ! comm5cem5t ( ! essays t[>ds physical optics f ,desc>tes1 ! f\nd] ( ! mod]n me*anical philosophy4 ,8 hypo!sis conc]n+ light is1 t x consi/s ( small p>ticles emitt$ by ! lum9\s body4 ,he comp>es ^! p>ticles to balls1 & endeavors to expla91 by means ( ?is comp>ison1 ! laws ( reflection & refraction4#fbi ,9 ord] to acc\nt = ! production ( colors by refraction1 he ascribes to ^! balls an alt]nat+ rotatory motion4#fci ,?is =m ( ! emission !ory1 01 l mo/ ( ! physical speculations ( its au?or1 ha/y & gratuit\s2 b 0 ext5sively accept$1 l ! re/ ( ! ,c>tesian doctr9es1 9 consequ5ce ( ! love :i* m5 h = sweep+ & simple dogmas1 & d$uctive reason+s f !m4 ,9 a %ort "t1 h[ev]1 ! rival optical !ory ( undulations made its appe>ance4 ,hooke 9 8 ,micrographia 7#affd7 prop\nds x1 ^u occasion ( 8 obs]vations1 already notic$1 7*ap4 9999vii417 on ! colors ( ?9 plates4 ,he !re ass]ts#fdi light to consi/ 9 a quick1 %ort1 vibrat+ motion1 & t x is propagat$ 9 a homog5e\s m$ium1 9 su* a way t e pulse or vibration ( ! lum9\s body w g5]ate a sph]e1 :i* w cont9ually increase & gr[ bigg]1 j aft] ! same mann] 7?\gh indef9itely swift]7 z ! waves or r+s on ! surface ( wat] d swell into bigg] & bigg] circles ab\t a po9t 9 x4#fei ,he applies ?is to ! explanation ( refraction1 #hf by suppos+ t ! rays 9 a d5s] m$ium move m easily1 & h5ce t ! pulses become oblique2 a f> less satisfactory & consi/5t hypo!sis ?an t ( ,huygh5s1 ( :i* we %all next h to speak4 ,b ,hooke has ! m]it ( hav+ also comb9$ ) 8 !ory1 ?\gh some:at obscurely1 ! ,pr9ciple ( ,int]f]5ces1 9 ! application :i* he makes ( x to ! colors ( ?9 plates4 ,?us#ffi he supposes ! light to be reflect$ at ! fir/ surface ( su* plates2 & he adds1 aft] two refractions & "o reflection 7f ! second surface7 !re is propagat$ a k9d ( fa9t] ray1 :i* comes beh9d ! o!r reflect$ pulse2 s t h]eby 7! surfaces ,,ab & ,,ef be+ s ne> toge!r t ! eye _c discrim9ate !m f "o71 ?is comp\nd or duplicat$ pulse does produce on ! ret9a ! s5sation ( a yell[4 ,! reason = ! production ( ?is p>ticul> color1 9 ! case ( :i* he "h speaks1 dep5ds on 8 views conc]n+ ! k9d ( pulses appropriate to ea* color2 &1 = ! same reason1 :5 ! ?ickness is diff]5t1 he f9ds t ! result w be a r$ or a gre54 ,?is is a v rem>kable anticipation ( ! explanation ultimately giv5 ( ^! colors2 & we may obs]ve t if ,hooke c\ld h measur$ ! ?ickness ( 8 ?9 plates1 he c\ld h>dly h avoid$ mak+ consid]able progress 9 ! doctr9e ( int]f]5ces4 ,note #fbi3 ,diopt4 c4 ii4 #d4 ,note #fci3 ,meteor4 c4 viii4 #f4 ,note #fdi3 ,micrographia1 p4 #ef4 ,note #fei3 ,micrographia1 p4 #eg4 ,note #ffi3 ,micrographia1 p4 #ff4 ,b ! p]son :o is g5]ally1 & ) ju/ice1 look$ ^u z ! great au?or ( ! undulatory !ory1 at ! p]iod n[ "u notice1 is ,huygh5s1 ^: ,trait de la ,lumire1 conta9+ a developem5t ( 8 !ory1 0 writt5 9 #afgh1 ?\gh n publi%$ till #afij4 ,9 ?is "w he ma9ta9$1 z ,hooke _h done1 t light consi/s 9 undulations1 & exp&s itself sph]ically1 ne>ly 9 ! same mann] z s\nd does2 & he ref]r$ to ! obs]vations ( ,rm] on ,jupit]'s satellites1 bo? to prove t ?is diff]5ce takes place successively1 & to %[ its exce$+ swiftness4 ,9 ord] to trace ! effect ( an undulation1 ,huygh5s consid]s t e po9t ( a wave diffuses its motion 9 all directions2 & h5ce he draws ! conclusion1 s long look$ ^u z ! turn+-po9t ( ! combat betwe5 ! rival !ories1 t ! light w n be diffus$ beyond ! rectil9e> space1 :5 x passes ?r\gh an ap]ture2 =1 says he1#fgi al?\gh ! p>tial waves1 produc$ by ! p>ticles compris$ 9 ! ap]ture1 d diffuse !mselves beyond ! rectil9e> space1 ^! waves d n concur any:]e except 9 front ( ! #hg ap]ture4 ,he rightly consid]s ?is obs]vation z ( ! mo/ ess5tial value4 ,?is1 he says1 0 n kn[n by ^? :o began to consid] ! waves ( light1 among :om are ,mr4 ,hooke 9 8 ,micrography1 & ,fa!r ,p>dies2 :o1 9 a treatise ( :i* he %[$ me a "p1 & :i* he did n live to f9i%1 _h und]tak5 to prove1 by ^! waves1 ! effects ( reflection & refraction4 ,b ! pr9cipal f\ndation1 :i* consi/s 9 ! rem>k ,i h j made1 0 want+ 9 8 demon/rations4 ,note #fgi3 ,tracts on ,optics1 p4 #bji4 ,by ! help ( ?is view1 ,huygh5s gave a p]fectly satisfactory & correct explanation ( ! laws ( reflection & refraction2 & he also appli$ ! same !ory1 z we h se51 to ! d\ble refraction ( ,icel& sp> ) great sagacity & success4 ,he conceiv$ t 9 ?is cry/al1 besides ! sph]ical waves1 !re might be o!rs ( a sph]oidal =m1 ! axis ( ! sph]oid be+ symmetrically dispos$ ) reg>d to ! faces ( ! rhomboh$ron1 = to ^! faces ! optical ph5om5a are symmetrically relat$4 ,he f\nd#fhi t ! position ( ! refract$ ray1 det]m9$ by su* sph]oidal undulations1 w\ld give an oblique refraction1 :i* w\ld co9cide 9 its laws ) ! refraction obs]v$ 9 ,icel& sp>2 &1 z we h /at$1 ?is co9cid5ce 0 long aft] fully confirm$ by o!r obs]v]s4 ,note #fhi3 ,tracts on ,optics1 #bcg4 ,s9ce ,huygh5s1 at ?is e>ly p]iod1 exp\nd$ ! undulatory !ory ) s mu* di/9ctness1 & appli$ x ) s mu* skill1 x may be ask$ :y we d n hold him up z ! great ,au?or ( ! induction ( undulations ( light2--! p]son :o m>ks ! epo* ( ! !ory8 ,to ?is we reply1 t ?\gh ,huygh5s discov]$ /rong presumptions 9 favor ( ! undulatory !ory1 x 0 n e/abli%$ till a lat] era1 :5 ! fr+es ( %ad[s1 rightly und]/ood1 made ! waves visible1 & :5 ! hypo!sis :i* _h be5 assum$ to acc\nt = d\ble refraction1 0 f\nd to conta9 also an explanation ( pol>ization4 ,x is !n t ?is !ory ( light assumes its comm&+ =m2 & ! p]sons :o gave x ?is =m1 we mu/ make ! great names ( our n>rative2 )\t1 h[ev]1 d5y+ ! g5ius & m]it ( ,huygh5s1 :o is1 und\bt$ly1 ! lead+ "* 9 ! prelude to ! discov]y4 ,! undulatory !ory1 f ?is "t to our own1 0 un=tunate 9 its c>e]4 ,x 0 by no means de/itute ( def5d]s1 b ^! 7 n exp]im5t]s2 & none ( !m ?\ght ( apply+ x to #hh ,grimaldi's exp]im5ts on fr+es1 ( :i* we h spok5 a little :ile ago4 ,& ! great au?ority ( ! p]iod1 ,newton1 adopt$ ! opposite hypo!sis1 t ( emission1 & gave x a curr5cy among 8 foll[]s :i* kept d[n ! s\nd] !ory = above a c5tury4 ,newton's fir/ disposition appe>s to h be5 by no means av]se to ! assumption ( an e!r z ! vehicle ( lum9if]\s undulations4 ,:5 ,hooke br\ght aga9/ 8 prismatic analysis ( light "s objections1 f\nd$ on 8 own hypo!tical notions1 ,newton1 9 8 reply1 said1#fii ,! hypo!sis has a mu* great] aff9ity ) 8 own hypo!sis ?an he seems to be aw>e (2 ! vibrations ( ! e!r be+ z useful & necess>y 9 ?is z 9 84 ,?is 0 9 #afgb2 & we might produce1 f ,newton's writ+1 passages ( ! same k9d1 ( a mu* lat] date4 ,inde$ x w\ld seem t1 to ! la/1 ,newton consid]$ ! assumption ( an e!r z highly probable1 & its vibrations important p>ts ( ! ph5om5a ( light2 b he also introduc$ into 8 sy/em ! hypo!sis ( emission1 & hav+ foll[$ ?is hypo!sis into ma!matical detail1 :ile he has left all t conc]ns ! e!r 9 ! =m ( qu]ies & conjectures1 ! emission !ory has naturally be5 treat$ z ! lead+ "p ( 8 optical doctr9es4 ,note #fii3 ,phil4 ,trans4 vii4 #ejhg4 ,! pr9cipal propositions ( ! ,pr9cipia :i* be> ^u ! "q ( optical !ory are ^? ( ! f\rte5? ,section ( ! fir/ ,book1#gji 9 :i* ! law ( ! s9es 9 refraction is prov$ on ! hypo!sis t ! p>ticles ( bodies act on light only at v small di/ances2 & ! proposition ( ! eigh? ,section ( ! second ,book2#gai 9 :i* x is pret5d$ to be demon/rat$ t ! motion propagat$ 9 a fluid mu/ div]ge :5 x has pass$ ?r\gh an ap]ture4 ,! =m] proposition %[s t ! law ( refraction1 an optical tru? :i* ma9ly affect$ ! *oice ( a !ory1 7= ab\t reflection !re is no difficulty on any me*anical hypo!sis17 foll[s f ! !ory ( emission3 ! latt] proposition 0 int5d$ to prove ! inadmissibility ( ! rival hypo!sis1 t ( undulations4 ,z to ! =m] po9t1--! hypo!tical explanation ( refraction1 on ! assumptions !re made1--! conclusion is q satisfactory2 b ! reason+ 9 ! latt] case1 7respect+ ! propagation ( undulations17 is c]ta9ly inconclusive & vague2 & some?+ bett] might ! m reasonably h be5 expect$1 s9ce ,huygh5s _h at lea/ #hi endeavor$ to prove ! opposite proposition4 ,b suppos+ we leave ^! prop]ties1 ! rectil9e> c\rse1 ! reflection1 & ! refraction ( light1 z problems 9 :i* nei!r !ory has a decid$ advantage1 :at is ! next mat]ial po9t8 ,! colors ( ?9 plates4 ,n[1 h[ does ,newton's !ory expla9 ^!8 ,by a new & special supposition2--t ( fits ( easy transmission & reflection3 a supposition :i*1 ?\gh x truly expresses ^! facts1 is n borne out by any o!r ph5om5a4 ,b1 pass+ ov] ?is1 :5 we come to ! peculi> laws ( pol>ization 9 ,icel& sp>1 h[ does ,newton's meet ?is8 ,aga9 by a special & new supposition2--t ! rays ( light h sides4 ,?us we f9d no fre% evid5ce 9 favor ( ! emission hypo!sis spr++ out ( ! fre% dem&s made ^u x4 ,x may be urg$1 9 reply1 t ! same is true ( ! undulatory !ory2 & x mu/ be all[$ t1 at ! "t ( :i* we n[ speak1 its sup]iority 9 ?is respect 0 n manife/$2 ?\gh ,hooke1 z we h se51 _h caught a glimpse ( ! explanation1 :i* ?is !ory supplies1 ( ! colors ( ?9 plates4 ,note #gji3 ,pr9cipia1 ,prop4 #id1 et seq4 ,note #gai3 ,ib4 ,prop4 #db4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 ,newton c]ta9ly seems to h be5 /rongly dis9cl9$ to believe light to consi/ 9 undulations m]ely4 ,are n1 he says1 9 ,"q tw5ty-eight ( ! ,opticks1 all hypo!ses errone\s1 9 :i* light is suppos$ to consi/ 9 pression or motion propagat$ ?r\gh a fluid m$ium8 ,! argum5ts :i* mo/ weigh$ ) him to produce ?is conviction1 appe> to h be5 ! "o already m5tion$1--t1 on ! undulatory hypo!sis1 undulations pass+ ?r\gh an ap]ture w\ld be diffus$2 & aga91--8 conviction1 t ! prop]ties ( light1 develop$ 9 v>i\s optical ph5om5a1 dep5d n ^u new modifications1 b ^u ! orig9al & un*angeable prop]ties ( ! rays4 7,"q tw5ty-sev547 ,b yet1 ev5 9 ?is /ate ( 8 views1 he 0 v f> f ab&on+ ! ma*9]y ( vibrations altoge!r4 ,he is dispos$ to use su* ma*9]y to produce 8 fits ( easy transmission4 ,9 8 sev5te5? ,qu]y1 he says1#gbi :5 a ray ( light falls ^u ! surface ( any pellucid body1 & is !re refract$ or reflect$2 may n waves ( vibrations or tremors be !reby excit$ 9 ! refract+ or reflect+ m$ium at ! po9t ( incid5ce8 4 4 4 4 & d n ^! vibrations ov]take ! rays ( light1 & by ov]tak+ !m successively1 d !y n put !m into ! fits ( easy reflection & easy #ij transmission describ$ above8 ,sev]al ( ! o!r qu]ies imply ! same p]suasion1 ( ! necessity = ! assumption ( an e!r & its vibrations4 ,& x might h be5 ask$1 :e!r any good reason c\ld be giv5 = ! hypo!sis ( an e!r z a "p ( ! me*anism ( light1 :i* w\ld n be equally valid 9 favor ( ?is be+ ! :ole ( ! me*anism1 especially if x c\ld be %[n t no?+ m 0 want$ to produce ! results4 ,note #gbi3 ,opticks1 p4 #cbb4 ,! emission !ory 01 h[ev]1 embrac$ 9 ! mo/ /r5u\s mann] by ! disciples ( ,newton4 ,t propositions exi/$ 9 ! ,pr9cipia :i* proce$$ on ?is hypo!sis1 01 ) _m ( ^! p]sons1 gr\nd en\gh = adopt+ ! doctr9e2 & x _h also ! advantage ( be+ m ready ( conception1 = ?\gh ! propagation ( a wave is n v difficult to conceive1 at lea/ by a ma!matician1 ! motion ( a p>ticle is /ill easi]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! undulation !ory 0 ma9ta9$ by no less a p]son ?an ,eul]2 & ! w> betwe5 ! two op9ions 0 c>ri$ on ) great e>ne/ness4 ,! argum5ts on "o side & on ! o!r soon became trite & famili>1 = no p]son expla9$ any new class ( facts by ei!r !ory4 ,?us x 0 urg$ by ,eul] aga9/ ! sy/em ( emission1#gci--t ! p]petual emanation ( light f ! sun mu/ h dim9i%$ ! mass2--t ! /ream ( matt] ?us con/antly fl[+ mu/ affect ! motions ( ! planets & comets2 t ! rays mu/ di/urb ea* o!r2--t ! passage ( light ?r\gh transp>5t bodies is1 on ?is sy/em1 inconceivable3 all su* argum5ts 7 answ]$ by repres5tations ( ! exce$+ m9ut5ess & velocity ( ! matt] ( light4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re 0 urg$ aga9/ ! !ory ( waves1 ! favorite ,newtonian argum5t1 t on ?is !ory ! light pass+ ?r\gh an ap]ture ought to be diffus$1 z s\nd is4 ,x is curi\s t ,eul] does n make to ?is argum5t ! reply :i* ,huygh5s _h made be=e4 ,! fact really 01 t he 0 n aw>e ( ! true gr\nd ( ! diff]5ce ( ! result 9 ! cases ( s\nd & light2 namely1 t any ord9>y ap]ture be>s an imm5se ratio to ! l5g? ( an undulation ( light1 b does n be> a v great ratio to ! l5g? ( an undulation ( s\nd4 ,! demon/rable consequ5ce ( ?is diff]5ce is1 t light d>ts ?r\gh su* an orifice 9 /raight rays1 :ile s\nd is diffus$ 9 all directions4 ,eul]1 n p]ceiv+ ?is diff]5ce1 re/$ 8 answ] ma9ly ^u a circum/ance by no means #ia unimportant1 t ! p>titions usually employ$ are n imp]meable to s\nd1 z opake bodies are to light4 ,he obs]ves t ! s\nd does n all come ?r\gh ! ap]ture2 = we he>1 ?\gh ! ap]ture be /opp$4 ,^! 7 ! ma9 orig9al po9ts ( attack & def5ce1 & !y cont9u$ ne>ly ! same = ! :ole ( ! la/ c5tury2 ! same difficulties 7 ov] & ov] aga9 propos$1 & ! same solutions giv51 mu* 9 ! mann] ( ! disputations ( ! s*oolm5 ( ! middle ages4 ,note #gci3 ,fis*]1 iv4 #ddi4 ,! /ruggle be+ ?us app>5tly balanc$1 ! scale 0 naturally turn$ by ! g5]al asc5dancy ( ! ,newtonian doctr9es3 & ! emission !ory 0 ! "o mo/ g5]ally adopt$4 ,x 0 /ill m firmly e/abli%$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! turn g5]ally tak5 by ! sci5tific activity ( ! latt] half ( ! eighte5? c5tury3 = :ile no?+ 0 add$ to our k ( optical laws1 ! *emical effects ( light 7 /udi$ to a consid]able ext5t by v>i\s inquir]s2#gdi & ! op9ions at :i* ^! p]sons arriv$1 !y f\nd t !y c\ld express mo/ readily1 9 consi/5cy ) ! reign+ *emical views1 by assum+ ! mat]iality ( light4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 cle>1 t no reason+s ( ! inevitably vague & d\btful "* :i* belong to ^! portions ( *emi/ry1 ought to be all[$ to int]f]e ) ! /eady & regul> progress ( induction & g5]alization1 f\nd$ on relations ( space & numb]1 by :i* proc$ure ! me*anical sci5ces are =m$4 ,we reject1 !re=e1 all ^! *emical speculations1 z belong+ to o!r subjects2 & consid] ! hi/ory ( optical !ory z a blank1 till we arrive at "s v diff]5t ev5ts1 ( :i* we h n[ to speak4 #ib ,note #gdi3 ,z ,s*eele1 ,selle1 ,lavoisi]1 ,de ,luc1 ,ri*t]1 ,leonh>di1 ,gr51 ,girtann]1 ,l9k1 ,hag51 ,voigt1 ,de la ,me!rie1 ,s*]]1 ,diz1 ,brugnatelli4 ,see ,fis*]1 vii4 p4 #bj4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,epo* ,,( ,,"y ,,& ,,fresnel4 ,sect4 #a4--;,introduction4 ,,! man ^: "n mu/ occupy ! mo/ di/+ui%$ place 9 ! hi/ory ( ,physical ,optics1 9 consequ5ce ( :at he did 9 reviv+ & e/abli%+ ! undulatory !ory ( light1 is ,dr4 ,?omas ,"y4 ,he 0 born 9 #aggc1 at ,milv]ton 9 ,som]set%ire1 ( ,quak] p>5ts2 & aft] di/+ui%+ himself dur+ y\? by ! v>iety & accuracy ( 8 atta9m5ts1 he settl$ 9 ,london z a physician 9 #ahja2 b cont9u$ to give mu* ( 8 att5tion to g5]al sci5ce4 ,8 optical !ory1 = a long "t1 made few proselytes2 & sev]al ye>s aft]w>ds1 ,augu/e ,fresnel1 an em95t ,fr5* ma!matician1 an eng9e] (fic]1 took up simil> views1 prov$ _! tru?1 & trac$ _! consequ5ces1 by a s]ies ( labors almo/ indep5d5t ( ^? ( ,dr4 ,"y4 ,x 0 n till ! !ory 0 ?us re-e*o$ f ano!r l&1 t x 0 able to take any /rong hold on ! att5tion ( ! c\ntrym5 ( its e>li] promulgator4 ,! !ory ( undulations1 l t ( univ]sal gravitation1 may be divid$ into sev]al successive /eps ( g5]alization4 ,9 bo? cases1 all ^! /eps 7 made by ! same p]sons2 b !re is ?is diff]5ce3--all ! p>ts ( ! law ( univ]sal gravitation 7 work$ out 9 "o bur/ ( inspiration by its au?or1 & publi%$ at "o "t2--9 ! doctr9e ( light1 on ! o!r h&1 ! diff]5t /eps ( ! advance 7 made & publi%$ at sep>ate times1 ) int]vals betwe54 ,we see ! !ory 9 a n>r[] =m1 & 9 deta*$ portions1 be=e ! wide/ g5]alizations & pr9ciples ( unity are rea*$2 we see ! au?ors /ruggl+ ) ! difficulties be=e we see !m successful4 ,!y appe> to u z m5 l ourselves1 liable to p]plexity & failure1 in/ead ( com+ be=e u1 z ,newton does 9 ! hi/ory ( ,physical ,a/ronomy1 z ! irresi/ible & almo/ sup]natural h]o ( a philosophical romance4 #ic ,! ma9 subdivisions ( ! great advance 9 physical optics1 ( :i* we h n[ to give an acc\nt1 are ! foll[+3-- #a4 ,! explanation ( ! p]iodical colors ( ?9 plates1 ?ick plates1 fr+$ %ad[s1 /riat$ surfaces1 & o!r ph5om5a ( ! same k9d1 by means ( ! doctr9e ( ! int]f]5ce ( undulations4 #b4 ,! explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( d\ble refraction by ! propagation ( undulations 9 a m$ium ( :i* ! optical ela/icity is diff]5t 9 diff]5t directions4 #c4 ,! conception ( pol>ization z ! result ( ! vibrations be+ transv]se2 & ! consequ5t explanation ( ! production ( pol>ization1 & ! necess>y connexion betwe5 pol>ization & d\ble refraction1 on me*anical pr9ciples4 #d4 ,! explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( dipol>ization1 by means ( ! int]f]5ce ( ! resolv$ p>ts ( ! vibrations aft] d\ble refraction4 ,! hi/ory ( ea* ( ^! discov]ies w be giv5 sep>ately to a c]ta9 ext5t2 by :i* means ! =ce ( pro( aris+ f _! comb9ation w be m app>5t4 ,sect4 #b4--;,explanation ( ! ,p]iodical ,colors ( ,?9 ,plates & ,%ad[s by ! ,undulatory ,!ory4 ,,! explanation ( p]iodical colors by ! pr9ciple ( int]f]5ce ( vibrations1 0 ! fir/ /ep :i* ,"y made 9 8 confirmation ( ! undulatory !ory4 ,9 a pap] on ,s\nd & ,light1 dat$ ,emmanuel ,college1 ,cambridge1 #i? ,july1 #agii1 & read be=e ! ,royal ,society 9 ,janu>y foll[+1 he appe>s to incl9e /rongly to ! ,huygh5ian !ory2 n h[ev] (f]+ any new facts or calculations 9 its favor1 b po9t+ out ! great difficulties ( ! ,newtonian hypo!sis4 ,b 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,royal ,society1 ,novemb] #ab1 #ahja1 he says1 ,a fur!r consid]ation ( ! colors ( ?9 plates has conv]t$ t prepossession :i* ,i be=e ent]ta9$ = ! undulatory !ory ( light1 into a v /rong conviction ( its tru? & effici5cy2 a conviction :i* has s9ce be5 mo/ /rik+ly confirm$ by an analysis ( ! colors ( /riat$ surfaces4 ,he "h /ates ! g5]al pr9ciple ( int]f]5ces 9 ! =m ( a proposition4 7,prop4 viii47 ,:5 two undulations f diff]5t orig9s co9cide ei!r p]fectly or v ne>ly 9 direction1 _! jo9t effect is a comb9ation ( ! motions belong+ to !m4 ,he expla9s1 by ! help ( ?is proposition1 ! colors :i* 7 obs]v$ 9 ,cov5try's #id micromet]s1 9 :i* in/rum5t l9es 7 drawn on glass at a di/ance ( #aejj? ( an in*4 ,! int]f]5ce ( ! undulations ( ! rays reflect$ f ! two sides ( ^! f9e l9es1 produc$ p]iodical colors4 ,9 ! same mann]1 he acc\nts = ! colors ( ?9 plates1 by ! int]f]5ce ( ! light p>tially reflect$ f ! two surfaces ( ! plates4 ,we h already se5 t ,hooke _h long be=e sugge/$ ! same explanation2 & ,"y says at ! end ( 8 pap]1 ,x 0 n till ,i _h satisfi$ myself respect+ all ^! ph5om5a1 t ,i f\nd 9 ,hooke's ,micrographia a passage :i* might h l$ me e>li] to a simil> op9ion4 ,he also quotes f ,newton _m passages :i* assume ! exi/5ce ( an e!r2 ( :i*1 z we h already se51 ,newton sugge/s ! necessity 9 ^! v ph5om5a1 ?\gh he w\ld apply x 9 comb9ation ) ! emission ( mat]ial light4 ,9 ,july1 #ahjb1 ,"y expla9$1 on ! same pr9ciple1 "s facts 9 indi/9ct vision1 & o!r simil> appe>ances4 ,& 9 #ahjc1gei he speaks m positively /ill4 ,9 mak+1 he says1 "s exp]im5ts on ! fr+es ( colors accompany+ %ad[s1 ,i h f\nd s simple & s demon/rative a pro( ( ! g5]al law ( int]f]5ce ( two portions ( light1 :i* ,i h already endeavor$ to e/abli%1 t ,i ?9k x "r to lay be=e ! ,royal ,society a %ort /atem5t ( ! facts :i* appe> to me to be ?us decisive4 ,! two pap]s j m5tion$ c]ta9ly ought to h conv9c$ all sci5tific m5 ( ! tru? ( ! doctr9e ?us urg$2 = ! numb] & exactness ( ! explanations is v rem>kable4 ,!y include ! color$ fr+es :i* are se5 ) ! %ad[s ( fibres2 ! colors produc$ by a dew betwe5 two pieces ( glass1 :i*1 accord+ to ! !ory1 %\ld appe> :5 ! ?ickness ( ! plate is six times t ( ?9 plates1 & :i* d s2 ! *anges result+ f ! employm5t ( o!r fluids ?an wat]2 ! effect ( incl9+ ! plates2 also ! fr+es & b&s :i* accompany %ad[s1 ! ph5om5a obs]v$ by ,grimaldi1 ,newton1 ,m>aldi1 & o!rs1 & hi!rto nev] at all r$uc$ to rule4 ,"y obs]ves1 v ju/ly1 :atev] may be ?\ght ( ! !ory1 we h got a simple & g5]al law ( ! ph5om5a4 ,he moreov] calculat$ ! l5g? ( an undulation f ! measurem5ts ( fr+es ( %ad[s1 z he _h done be=e f ! colors ( ?9 plates2 & f\nd a v close accordance ( ! results ( ! v>i\s cases ) "o ano!r4 #ie ,note #gei3 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,memoir1 read ,nov4 #bd4 ,!re is "o difficulty1 & "o inaccuracy1 9 ,"y's views at ?is p]iod1 :i* x may be prop] to note4 ,! difficulty 01 t he f\nd x necess>y to suppose t light1 :5 reflect$ at a r>] m$ium1 is ret>d$ by half an undulation4 ,?is assumption1 ?\gh (t5 urg$ at a lat] p]iod z an argum5t aga9/ ! !ory1 0 fully ju/ifi$ z ! me*anical pr9ciples ( ! subject 7 unfold$2 & ! necessity ( x 0 cle> to ,"y f ! fir/4 ,on ! /r5g? ( ?is1 says he1 ,i v5tur$ to pr$ict1 t if ! reflections 7 ( ! same k9d1 made at ! surfaces ( a ?9 plate1 ( a d5sity int]m$iate betwe5 ! d5sities ( ! m$iums surr\nd+ x1 ! c5tral spot w\ld be :ite2 & ,i h n[ ! pleasure ( /at+1 t ,i h fully v]ifi$ ?is pr$iction by int]pos+ a drop ( oil ( sassafras betwe5 a prism ( fl9t-glass & a l5s ( cr[n-glass4 ,! inaccuracy ( 8 calculations consi/$ 9 8 consid]+ ! ext]nal fr+e ( %ad[s to be produc$ by ! int]f]5ce ( a ray reflect$ f ! edge ( ! object1 ) a ray :i* passes cle> ( x2 in/ead ( suppos+ all ! p>ts ( ! wave ( light to corroborate or int]f]e ) "o ano!r4 ,! ma!matical treatm5t ( ! "q on ! latt] hypo!sis 0 by no means easy4 ,"y 0 a ma!matician ( consid]able p[] 9 ! solution ( ! problems :i* came be=e him3 ?\gh 8 me?ods possess$ none ( ! analytical elegance :i*1 9 8 "t1 _h become g5]al 9 ,france4 ,b x does n appe> t he ev] solv$ ! problem ( undulations z appli$ to fr+es1 ) its true conditions4 ,he did1 h[ev]1 rectify 8 conceptions ( ! nature ( ! int]f]5ce2 & we may add1 t ! num]ical error ( ! consequ5ces ( ! defective hypo!sis is n su* z to prev5t _! confirm+ ! undulatory !ory4#gfi ,note #gfi3 ,i may m5tion1 9 addition to ! applications :i* ,"y made ( ! pr9ciple ( int]f]5ces1 8 ,eriomet]1 an in/rum5t inv5t$ = ! purpose ( measur+ ! ?ickness ( ! fibres ( wood2 & ! explanation ( ! sup]num]>y b&s ( ! ra9b[4 ,^! explanations involve calculations f\nd$ on ! l5g? ( an undulation ( light1 & 7 confirm$ by exp]im5t1 z f> z exp]im5t w5t4 ,b ?\gh ?is !ory 0 ?us s p[]fully recomm5d$ by exp]im5t & calculation1 x met ) little favor 9 ! sci5tific _w4 ,p]haps ?is w be 9 "s measure acc\nt$ =1 :5 we come1 9 ! next *apt]1 to speak ( ! mode ( its reception by #if ! suppos$ judges ( sci5ce & lett]s4 ,its au?or w5t on labor+ at ! completion & application ( ! !ory 9 o!r p>ts ( ! subject2 b 8 extraord9>y success 9 unravell+ ! complex ph5om5a ( :i* we h be5 speak+1 appe>s to h excit$ none ( ! notice & admiration :i* prop]ly belong$ to x1 till ,fresnel's ,memoir ,on ,diffraction 0 deliv]$ to ! ,in/itute1 9 ,octob]1 #ahae4 ,,mm4 ,arago & ,po9sot 7 commission$ to make a report ^u ?is ,memoir2 & ! =m] ( ^! philosoph]s ?rew himself ^u ! subject ) a zeal & intellig5ce :i* peculi>ly belong$ to him4 ,he v]ifi$ ! laws ann\nc$ by ,fresnel3 laws1 he says1 :i* appe> to be de/9$ to make an epo* 9 sci5ce4 ,he !n ca/ a rapid glance at ! hi/ory ( ! subject1 & recogniz$1 at once1 ! place :i* ,"y occupi$ 9 x4 ,grimaldi1 ,newton1 ,m>aldi1 he /ates1 _h obs]v$ ! facts1 & tri$ 9 va9 to r$uce !m to rule or cause4 ,su*#ggi 0 ! /ate ( our k on ?is difficult "q1 :5 ,dr4 ,?omas ,"y made ! v rem>kable exp]im5t :i* is describ$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahjc2 namely1 t to oblit]ate all ! b&s )9 ! %ad[1 we ne$ only /op ! ray :i* is go+ to graze1 or has graz$1 "o bord] ( ! object4 ,to ?is1 ,arago add$ ! important obs]vation1 t ! same oblit]ation takes place1 if we /op ! ray1 ) a transp>5t plate2 except ! plate be v ?91 9 :i* case ! b&s are displac$1 & n ext+ui%$4 ,fresnel1 says he1 guess$ ! effect :i* a ?9 plate w\ld produce1 :5 ,i _h told him ( ! effect ( a ?ick glass4 ,fresnel himself decl>es#ghi t he 0 n1 at ! "t1 aw>e ( ,"y's previ\s labors4 ,aft] /at+ ne>ly ! same reason+s conc]n+ fr+es :i* ,"y _h put =w>d 9 #ahja1 he adds1 x is !re=e ! meet+1 ! actual cross+ ( ! rays1 :i* produces ! fr+es4 ,?is consequ5ce1 :i* is only1 s to speak1 ! translation ( ! ph5om5a1 seems to me entirely oppos$ to ! hypo!sis ( emission1 & confirms ! sy/em :i* makes light consi/ 9 ! vibrations ( a peculi> fluid4 ,& ?us ! ,pr9ciple ( ,int]f]5ces1 & ! !ory ( undulations1 s f> z t pr9ciple dep5ds ^u ! !ory1 0 a second "t e/abli%$ by ,fresnel 9 ,france1 f\rte5 ye>s aft] x _h be5 discov]$1 fully prov$1 & repeat$ly publi%$ by ,"y 9 ,engl&4 #ig ,note #ggi3 ,an4 ,*im4 #ahae1 ,febr4 ,note #ghi3 ,ib4 tom4 xvii4 p4 #djb4 ,9 ?is ,memoir ( ,fresnel's1 he takes v ne>ly ! same c\rse z ,"y _h done2 consid]+ ! int]f]5ce ( ! direct light ) t reflect$ at ! edge1 z ! cause ( ! ext]nal fr+es2 & he obs]ves1 t 9 ?is reflection x is necess>y to suppose half an undulation lo/3 b a few ye>s lat]1 he consid]$ ! propagation ( undulations 9 a m true & g5]al mann]1 & obta9$ ! solution ( ?is difficulty ( ! half-undulation4 ,8 m complete ,memoir on ,diffraction 0 deliv]$ to ! ,in/itute ( ,france1 ,july #bi1 #ahah2 & _h ! prize aw>d$ x 9 #ahai3gii b by ! delays :i* at t p]iod occurr$ 9 ! publication ( ! ,p>isian ,academical ,transactions1 x 0 n publi%$#hji till #ahbf1 :5 ! !ory 0 no long] g5]ally d\btful or unkn[n 9 ! sci5tific _w4 ,9 ?is ,memoir1 ,fresnel obs]ves1 t we mu/ consid] ! effect ( e portion ( a wave ( light ^u a di/ant po9t1 & mu/1 on ?is pr9ciple1 f9d ! illum9ation produc$ by any numb] ( su* waves toge!r4 ,h5ce1 9 g5]al1 ! process ( integration is requisite2 & ?\gh ! integrals :i* "h (f] !mselves are ( a new & difficult k9d1 he succe$$ 9 mak+ ! calculation = ! cases 9 :i* he exp]im5t$4 ,8 ,table ( ! ,correspond5ces ( ,!ory & ,obs]vation1#hai is v rem>kable = ! clos5ess ( ! agreem5t2 ! errors be+ g5]ally less ?an "o hundr$? ( ! :ole1 9 ! di/ances ( ! black b&s4 ,he ju/ly adds1 ,a m /rik+ agreem5t c\ld n be expect$ betwe5 exp]im5t & !ory4 ,if we comp>e ! smallness ( ! diff]5ces ) ! ext5t ( ! bread?s measur$2 & if we rem>k ! great v>iations :i* a & b 7! di/ance ( ! object f ! lum9\s po9t & f ! scre57 h receiv$ 9 ! diff]5t obs]vations1 we %all f9d x difficult n to reg>d ! integral :i* has l$ u to ^! results z ! fai?ful expression ( ! law ( ! ph5om5a4 ,note #gii3 ,ann4 ,*im4 ,may1 #ahai4 ,note #hji3 ,mm4 ,in/4 = #ahba-b4 ,note #hai3 ,mm4 ,in/4 p4 #dbj-dbd4 ,a ma!matical !ory1 appli$1 ) ?is success1 to a v>iety ( cases ( v diff]5t k9ds1 c\ld n n[ fail to take /rong hold ( ! att5tion ( ma!maticians2 & accord+ly1 f ?is "t1 ! undulatory doctr9e ( diffraction has be5 g5]ally ass5t$ to1 & ! ma!matical difficulties :i* x involves1 h be5 duly /udi$ & /ruggl$ )4 ,among ! rem>kable applications ( ! undulatory doctr9e to diffraction1 we may notice ^? ( ,joseph ,fraunh(]1 a #ih ma!matical optician ( ,muni*4 ,he made a great numb] ( exp]im5ts on ! %ad[s produc$ by small holes1 & gr\ps ( small holes1 v ne> ea* o!r4 ,^! 7 publi%$#hbi 9 8 ,new ,modifications ( ,light1 9 #ahbc4 ,! great] "p ( ?is ,memoir is employ$ 9 trac+ ! laws ( ph5om5a ( ! extremely complex & spl5did appe>ances :i* he obta9$2 b at ! conclusion he obs]ves1 ,x is rem>kable t ! laws ( ! reciprocal influ5ce & ( ! diffraction ( ! rays1 c be d$uc$ f ! pr9ciples ( ! undulatory !ory3 kn[+ ! conditions1 we may1 by means ( an extremely simple equation1 det]m9e ! ext5t ( a lum9\s wave = ea* ( ! diff]5t colors2 & 9 e case1 ! calculation corresponds ) obs]vation4 ,?is m5tion ( an extremely simple equation1 appe>s to imply t he employ$ only ,"y's & ,fresnel's e>li] mode ( calculat+ int]f]5ces1 by consid]+ two portions ( light1 & n ! me?od ( integration4 ,bo? f ! late p]iod at :i* !y 7 publi%$1 & f ! abs5ce ( ma!matical details1 ,fraunh(]'s labors _h n any /rong influ5ce on ! e/abli%m5t ( ! undulatory !ory2 al?\gh !y are excell5t v]ifications ( x1 bo? f ! goodness ( ! obs]vations1 & ! complexity & beauty ( ! ph5om5a4 ,note #hbi3 ,9 ,s*uma*]'s ,a/ronomis*e ,abh&lung51 9 ,fr5*2 e>li] 9 ,g]man4 ,we h n[ to consid] ! progress ( ! undulatory !ory 9 ano!r ( its dep>tm5ts1 accord+ to ! division already /at$4 ,sect4 #c4--;,explanation ( ,d\ble ,refraction by ! ,undulatory ,!ory4 ,,we h trac$ ! hi/ory ( ! undulatory !ory appli$ to diffraction1 into ! p]iod :5 ,"y came to h ,fresnel = 8 fell[-labor]4 ,b 9 ! mean "t1 ,"y _h consid]$ ! !ory 9 its ref]5ce to o!r ph5om5a1 & especially to ^? ( d\ble refraction4 ,9 ?is case1 inde$1 ,huygh5s's explanation ( ! facts ( ,icel& sp>1 by means ( sph]oidal undulations1 0 s complete1 & _h be5 s fully confirm$ by ! measurem5ts ( ,hay & ,wolla/on1 t little rema9$ to be done1 except to connect ! ,huygh5ian hypo!sis ) ! me*anical views belong+ to ! !ory1 & to ext5d 8 law to o!r cases4 ,! =m] "p ( ?is task ,"y execut$1 by rem>k+ t we may conceive ! ela/icity ( ! #ii cry/al1 on :i* ! velocity ( propagation ( ! lum9if]\s undulation dep5ds1 to be diff]5t1 9 ! direction ( ! cry/allographic axis1 & 9 ! direction ( ! planes at "r angles to ?is axis2 & f su* a diff]5ce1 he d$uces ! exi/5ce ( sph]oidal undulations4 ,?is sugge/ion appe>$ 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,review = ,novemb]1 #ahji1 9 a critique ^u an attempt ( ,laplace to acc\nt = ! same ph5om5a4 ,laplace _h propos$ to r$uce ! d\ble refraction ( su* cry/als z ,icel& sp>1 to 8 favorite ma*9]y ( =ces :i* are s5sible at small di/ances only4 ,! peculi> =ces :i* produce ! effect 9 ?is case1 he conceives to emanate f ! cry/allographic axis3 s t ! velocity ( light )9 ! cry/al w dep5d only on ! situation ( ! ray ) respect to ?is axis4 ,b ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is condition is1 z ,"y obs]ves1 ! ma9 difficulty ( ! problem4 ,h[ are we to conceive refract+ =ces1 indep5d5t ( ! surface ( ! refract+ m$ium1 & regulat$ only by a c]ta9 int]nal l9e8 ,moreov]1 ! law ( =ce :i* ,laplace 0 oblig$ to assume1 namely1 t x v>i$ z ! squ>e ( ! s9e ( ! angle :i* ! ray made ) ! axis1 c\ld h>dly be reconcil$ ) me*anical pr9ciples4 ,9 ! critique j m5tion$1 ,"y appe>s to feel t ! undulatory !ory1 & p]haps he himself1 _h n receiv$ ju/ice at ! h&s ( m5 ( sci5ce2 he compla9s t a p]son s em95t 9 ! _w ( sci5ce z ,laplace !n 01 %\ld employ 8 influ5ce 9 propagat+ error1 & %\ld disreg>d ! extraord9>y confirmations :i* ! ,huygh5ian !ory _h rec5tly receiv$4 ,! ext5sion ( ?is view1 ( ! diff]5t ela/icity ( cry/als 9 diff]5t directions1 to o!r ?an uniaxal cry/als1 0 a m complex & difficult problem4 ,! g5]al notion 0 p]haps obvi\s1 aft] :at ,"y _h done2 b its application & v]ification involv$ ma!matical calculations ( great g5]ality1 & requir$ also v exact exp]im5ts4 ,9 fact1 ?is application 0 n made till ,fresnel1 a pupil ( ! ,polyte*nic ,s*ool1 br\ght ! res\rces ( ! mod]n analysis to be> ^u ! problem2--till ! ph5om5a ( dipol>iz$ light pres5t$ ! prop]ties ( biaxal cry/als 9 a va/ v>iety ( =ms2--& till ! !ory receiv$ its gr& impulse by ! comb9ation ( ! explanation ( pol>ization ) ! explanation ( d\ble refraction4 ,to ! hi/ory ( ?is la/-m5tion$ great /ep we n[ proce$4 #ajj ,sect4 #d4--;,explanation ( ,pol>ization by ! ,undulatory ,!ory4 ,,ev5 :ile ! only ph5om5a ( pol>ization :i* 7 kn[n 7 ^? :i* affect ! two images 9 ,icel& sp>1 ! difficulty :i* ^! facts seem$ at fir/ to ?r[ 9 ! way ( ! undulatory !ory 0 felt & ackn[l$g$ by ,"y4 ,malus's discov]y ( pol>ization by reflection increas$ ! difficulty1 & ?is ,"y did n attempt to conceal4 ,9 8 review ( ! pap]s conta9+ ?is discov]y#hci he says1 ,! discov]y relat$ 9 ^! pap]s appe>s to u to be by f> ! mo/ important & int]e/+ :i* has be5 made 9 ,france conc]n+ ! prop]ties ( light1 at lea/ s9ce ! "t ( ,huygh5s2 & x is s mu* ! m des]v+ ( notice1 z x greatly influ5ces ! g5]al balance ( evid5ce 9 ! comp>ison ( ! undulatory & projectile !ories ( ! nature ( light4 ,he !n proce$s to po9t out ! ma9 features 9 ?is comp>ison1 claim+ ju/ly a great advantage = ! !ory ( undulations on ! two po9ts we h be5 consid]+1 ! ph5om5a ( diffraction & ( d\ble refraction4 ,& he adds1 ) ref]5ce to ! emb>rassm5t introduc$ by pol>ization1 t we are n to expect ! c\rse ( sci5tific discov]y to run smoo? & un9t]rupt$2 b t we are to lay our acc\nt ) p>tial obscurity & seem+ contradiction1 :i* we may hope t "t & enl>g$ rese>* w dissipate4 ,& ?us he /eadfa/ly held1 ) no bl9d prejudice1 b ) un%ak5 confid5ce1 8 great philosophical tru/1 ! =tunes ( ! undulatory !ory4 ,x is "h1 aft] ! difficulties ( pol>ization _h come into view1 & be=e _! solution _h be5 discov]$1 t we may place ! d>ke/ "t ( ! hi/ory ( ! !ory2 & at ?is p]iod ,"y 0 alone 9 ! field4 ,note #hci3 ,qu>t4 ,rev4 ,may1 #ahaj4 ,x does n appe> t ! light dawn$ ^u him = "s ye>s4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ,"y f\nd t 8 !ory w\ld expla9 dipol>iz$ colors2 & he _h ! satisfaction to see ,fresnel re-discov]1 & ,m4 ,arago adopt1 8 views on diffraction4 ,he became engag$ 9 fri5dly int]c\rse ) ! latt] philosoph]1 :o visit$ him 9 ,engl& 9 #ahaf4 ,on ,janu>y ! #ab?1 #ahag1 9 writ+ to ?is g5tleman1 among o!r rem>ks on ! subject ( optics1 he says1 ,i h also be5 reflect+ on ! possibility ( giv+ an imp]fect explanation ( ! affection ( light :i* con/itutes pol>ization1 #aja )\t dep>t+ f ! g5u9e doctr9e ( undulation4 ,he !n proce$s to sugge/ ! possibility ( a transv]se vibration1 propagat$ 9 ! direction ( ! radius1 ! motions ( ! p>ticles be+ 9 a c]ta9 con/ant direction ) respect to t radius2 & ?is1 he adds1 is pol>ization4 ,f 8 fur!r explanation ( 8 views1 x appe>s t he conceiv$ ! motions ( ! p>ticles to be oblique to ! direction ( ! ray1 & n p]p5dicul>1 z ! !ory 0 aft]w>ds fram$2 b /ill1 "h 0 ! ess5tial condition = ! explanation ( ! facts ( pol>ization1--! transv]se nature ( ! vibrations4 ,?is idea at once made x possible to conceive h[ ! rays ( light c\ld h sides2 = ! direction 9 :i* ! vibration 0 transv]se to ! ray1 might be m>k$ by peculi> prop]ties4 ,& aft] ! idea 0 once />t$1 x 0 comp>atively easy = m5 l ,"y & ,fresnel to pursue & modify x till x assum$ its true & di/9ct =m4 ,we may judge ( ! difficulty ( tak+ firmly hold ( ! conception ( transv]se vibrations ( ! e!r1 z ^? :i* con/itute light1 by obs]v+ h[ long ! great philosoph]s ( :om we are speak+ l+]$ )9 rea* ( x1 be=e !y v5tur$ to grasp x4 ,fresnel says1 9 #ahba1 ,:5 ,m4 ,arago & ,i _h rem>k$ 79 #ahaf7 t two rays pol>iz$ at "r angles always give ! same quantity ( light by _! union1 ,i ?\ght ?is might be expla9$ by suppos+ ! vibrations to be transv]se1 & to be at "r angles :5 ! rays are pol>iz$ at "r angles4 ,b ?is supposition 0 s contr>y to ! receiv$ ideas on ! nature ( ! vibrations ( ela/ic fluids1 t ,fresnel hesitat$ to adopt x till he c\ld reconcile x bett] to 8 me*anical notions4 ,mr4 ,"y1 m bold 9 8 conjectures1 & less confid+ 9 ! views ( geomet]s1 publi%$ x be=e me1 ?\gh p]haps he ?\ght x aft] me4 ,& ,m4 ,arago 0 aft]w>ds wont to relate#hdi t :5 he & ,fresnel _h obta9$ _! jo9t exp]im5tal results ( ! non-int]f]5ce ( oppositely-pol>iz$ p5cils1 & :5 ,fresnel po9t$ out t transv]se vibrations 7 ! only possible translation ( ?is fact into ! undulatory !ory1 he himself prote/$ t he _h n c\rage to publi% su* a conception2 & accord+ly1 ! second "p ( ! ,memoir 0 publi%$ 9 ,fresnel's "n alone4 ,:at r5d]s ?is m rem>kable is1 t x occurr$ :5 ,m4 ,arago _h 9 8 possession ! v lett] ( ,"y1 9 :i* he propos$ ! same sugge/ion4 #ajb ,note #hdi3 ,i take ! lib]ty ( /at+ ?is f p]sonal k4 ,"y's fir/ publi%$ /atem5t ( ! doctr9e ( transv]se vibrations 0 giv5 9 ! explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( dipol>ization1 ( :i* we %all h to speak 9 ! next ,section4 ,b ! prim>y & imm5se value ( ?is conception1 z a /ep 9 ! progress ( ! undulatory !ory1 0 ! connexion :i* x e/abli%$ betwe5 pol>ization & d\ble refraction2 = x held =? a promise ( acc\nt+ = pol>ization1 if any conditions c\ld be f\nd :i* might det]m9e :at 0 ! direction ( ! transv]se vibrations4 ,! analysis ( ^! conditions is1 9 a great measure1 ! "w ( ,fresnel2 a task p]=m$ ) pr(\nd philosophical sagacity & great ma!matical skill4 ,s9ce ! d\ble refraction ( uniaxal cry/als c\ld be expla9$ by undulations ( ! =m ( a sph]oid1 x 0 p]haps n difficult to conjecture t ! undulations ( biaxal cry/als w\ld be acc\nt$ = by undulations ( ! =m ( an ellipsoid1 :i* diff]s f ! sph]oid 9 hav+ its ?ree axes unequal1 in/ead ( two only2 & consequ5tly has t v relation to ! o!r1 9 respect ( symmetry1 :i* ! cry/all9e & optical ph5om5a h4 ,or1 aga91 in/ead ( suppos+ two diff]5t degrees ( ela/icity 9 diff]5t directions1 we may suppose ?ree su* diff]5t degrees 9 directions at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,?is k9d ( g5]alization 0 tol]ably obvi\s to a practis$ ma!matician4 ,b :at %all call into play all ^! ela/icities at once1 & produce waves gov]n$ by ea* ( !m8 ,& :at %all expla9 ! diff]5t pol>ization ( ! rays :i* ^! sep>ate waves c>ry ) !m8 ,^! 7 difficult que/ions1 to ! solution ( :i* ma!matical calculation _h hi!rto be5 unable to (f] any aid4 ,x 0 "h t ! conception ( transv]se vibrations came 91 l a beam ( sunlight1 to disclose ! possibility ( a me*anical connexion ( all ^! facts4 ,if transv]se vibrations1 travell+ ?r\gh a uni=m m$ium1 come to a m$ium n uni=m1 b con/itut$ s t ! ela/icity %all be diff]5t 9 diff]5t directions1 9 ! mann] we h describ$1 :at w be ! c\rse & condition ( ! waves 9 ! second m$ium8 ,w ! effects ( su* waves agree ) ! ph5om5a ( d\bly-refract$ light 9 biaxal cry/als8 ,"h 0 a problem1 /rik+ to ! ma!matician = its g5]ality & difficulty1 & ( deep int]e/ to ! physical philosoph]1 because ! fate ( a great !ory dep5d$ ^u its solution4 ,! solution1 obta9$ by great ma!matical skill1 0 laid be=e ! ,fr5* ,in/itute by ,fresnel 9 ,novemb]1 #ahba1 & 0 c>ri$ #ajc fur!r 9 two ,memoirs pres5t$ 9 #ahbb4 ,its import is v curi\s4 ,! undulations :i*1 com+ f a di/ant c5tre1 fall ^u su* a m$ium z we h describ$1 are1 x appe>s f ! pr9ciples ( me*anics1 propagat$ 9 a mann] q diff]5t f any?+ :i* _h be5 anticipat$4 ,! surface ( ! waves 7t is1 ! surface :i* w\ld b\nd undulations div]g+ f a po9t71 is a v complex1 yet symmetrical curve surface2 :i*1 9 ! case ( uniaxal cry/als1 resolves itself into a sph]e & a sph]oid2 b :i*1 9 g5]al1 =ms a cont9u\s d\ble envelope ( ! c5tral po9t to :i* x belongs1 int]sect+ itself & return+ into itself4 ,! directions ( ! rays are det]m9$ by ?is curve surface 9 biaxal cry/als1 z 9 uniaxal cry/als !y are det]m9$ by ! sph]e & ! sph]oid2 & ! result is1 t 9 biaxal cry/als1 bo? rays suff] extraord9>y refraction accord+ to det]m9ate laws4 ,& ! positions ( ! planes ( pol>ization ( ! two rays foll[ f ! same inve/igation2 ! plane ( pol>ization 9 e case be+ suppos$ to be t :i* is p]p5dicul> to ! transv]se vibrations4 ,n[ x appe>$ t ! pol>ization ( ! two rays1 z det]m9$ by ,fresnel's !ory1 w\ld be 9 directions1 n inde$ exactly accordant ) ! law d$uc$ by ,m4 ,biot f exp]im5t1 b deviat+ s little f ^? directions1 t !re c\ld be small d\bt t ! empirical =mula 0 wrong1 & ! !oretical "o "r4 ,! !ory 0 fur!r confirm$ by an exp]im5t %[+ t1 9 a biaxal cry/al 7topaz71 nei!r ( ! rays 0 refract$ accord+ to ! ord9>y law1 ?\gh x _h hi!rto be5 suppos$ t "o ( !m 0 s2 a natural inaccuracy1 s9ce ! error 0 small4#hei ,?us ?is beautiful !ory correct$1 :ile x expla9$1 ! be/ ( ! obs]vations :i* _h previ\sly be5 made2 & (f]$ itself to ma!maticians ) an almo/ irresi/ible p[] ( conviction4 ,! explanation ( laws s /range & div]se z ^? ( d\ble refraction & pol>ization1 by ! same g5]al & symmetrical !ory1 c\ld n result f any?+ b ! tru? ( ! !ory4 ,note #hei3 ,an4 ,*4 xxviii4 p4 #bfd4 ,long1 says ,fresnel1#hfi be=e ,i _h conceiv$ ?is !ory1 ,i _h conv9c$ myself by a pure contemplation ( ! facts1 t x 0 n possible to discov] ! true explanation ( d\ble refraction1 )\t expla9+1 at ! same "t1 ! ph5om5a ( pol>ization1 :i* always goes along ) x2 & accord+ly1 x 0 aft] hav+ f\nd #ajd :at mode ( vibration con/itut$ pol>ization1 t ,i caught sight ( ! me*anical causes ( d\ble refraction4 ,note #hfi3 ,sur la ,d\ble ,rf41 ,mm4 ,in/4 #ahbf1 p4 #agd4 ,hav+ ?us got possession ( ! pr9ciple ( ! me*anism ( pol>ization1 ,fresnel proce$$ to apply x to ! o!r cases ( pol>iz$ light1 ) a rapidity & sagacity :i* rem9ds u ( ! _s 9 :i* ,newton trac$ out ! consequ5ces ( ! pr9ciple ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,9 ! execution ( 8 task1 inde$1 ,fresnel 0 =c$ ^u sev]al prec>i\s assumptions1 :i* make1 ev5 yet1 a wide diff]5ce betwe5 ! !ory ( gravitation & t ( light4 ,b ! mode 9 :i* ^! 7 confirm$ by exp]im5t1 compels u to admire ! happy app>5t boldness ( ! calculator4 ,! subject ( pol>ization by reflection 0 "o ( ^? :i* seem$ mo/ untractable2 b1 by means ( v>i\s artifices & conjectures1 x 0 brok5 up & subdu$4 ,fresnel began ) ! simple/ case1 ! reflection ( light pol>iz$ 9 ! plane ( reflection2 :i* he solv$ by means ( ! laws ( collision ( ela/ic bodies4 ,he !n took ! reflection ( light pol>iz$ p]p5dicul>ly to ?is plane2 & "h1 add+ to ! g5]al me*anical pr9ciples a hypo!tical assumption1 t ! communication ( ! resolv$ motion p>allel to ! refract+ surface1 takes place accord+ to ! laws ( ela/ic bodies1 he obta9s 8 =mula4 ,^! results 7 capable ( comp>ison ) exp]im5t2 & ! comp>ison1 :5 made by ,m4 ,arago1 confirm$ ! =mul4 ,!y acc\nt$1 too1 = ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]'s law conc]n+ ! pol>iz+ angle 7see ,*ap4 vi472 & ?is c\ld n b be look$ ^u z a /rik+ evid5ce ( _! hav+ "s real f\ndation4 ,ano!r artifice :i* ,,mm4 ,fresnel & ,arago employ$1 9 ord] to trace ! effect ( reflection ^u common light1 0 to use a ray pol>iz$ 9 a plane mak+ half a "r angle ) ! plane ( reflection2 = ! quantities ( ! oppositely#hgi pol>iz$ light 9 su* an incid5t ray are equal1 z !y are 9 common light2 b ! relative quantities ( ! oppositely pol>iz$ light 9 ! reflect$ ray are indicat$ by ! new plane ( pol>ization2 & ?us ^! relative quantities become kn[n = ! case ( common light4 ,! results ?us obta9$ 7 also confirm$ by facts2 & 9 ?is mann]1 all t 0 d\btful 9 ! process ( ,fresnel's reason+1 seem$ to be au?oriz$ by its application to real cases4 #aje ,note #hgi3 ,x w be recollect$ all along1 t oppositely pol>iz$ rays are ^? :i* are pol>iz$ 9 two planes p]p5dicul> to ea* o!r4 ,see above1 *ap4 vi4 ,^! inve/igations 7 publi%$#hhi 9 #ahba4 ,9 succe$+ ye>s1 ,fresnel und]took to ext5d ! application ( 8 =mul to a case 9 :i* !y ceas$ to h a mean+1 or1 9 ! language ( ma!maticians1 became imag9>y2 namely1 to ! case ( int]nal reflection at ! surface ( a transp>5t body4 ,x may seem /range to ^? :o are n ma!maticians1 b x is und\bt$ly true1 t 9 _m cases 9 :i* ! solution ( a problem directs impossible ari?metical or algebraical op]ations to be p]=m$1 ^! directions may be s int]pret$ z to po9t out a true solution ( ! "q4 ,su* an int]pretation ,fresnel attempt$#hii 9 ! case ( :i* we n[ speak2 & ! result at :i* he arriv$ 01 t ! reflection ( light ?r\gh a rhomb ( glass ( a c]ta9 =m 7s9ce call$ ,fresnel's rhomb1 w\ld produce a pol>ization ( a k9d altoge!r diff]5t f ^? :i* 8 !ory _h previ\sly consid]$1 namely1 t k9d :i* we h spok5 ( z circul> pol>ization4 ,! complete confirmation ( ?is curi\s & unexpect$ result by trial1 is ano!r ( ! extraord9>y triumphs :i* h di/+ui%$ ! hi/ory ( ! !ory at e /ep s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ,fresnel's labors4 ,note #hhi3 ,an4 ,*im4 t4 xvii4 ,note #hii3 ,bullet4 des ,sc4 ,feb4 #ahbc4 ,b any?+ fur!r :i* has be5 done 9 ?is way1 may be treat$ ( m prop]ly 9 relat+ ! v]ification ( ! !ory4 ,& we h /ill to speak ( ! mo/ num]\s & v>i$ class ( facts to :i* rival !ories ( light 7 appli$1 & ( ! e/abli%m5t ( ! undulatory doctr9e 9 ref]5ce to t dep>tm5t2 ,i mean ! ph5om5a ( depol>iz$1 or r1 z ,i h already said1 dipol>iz$ light4 ,sect4 #e4--;,explanation ( ,dipol>ization by ! ,undulatory ,!ory4 ,,:5 ,arago1 9 #ahaa1 _h discov]$ ! colors produc$ by pol>iz$ light pass+ ?r\gh c]ta9 cry/als1#iji x 0 natural t attempts %\ld be made to r$uce !m to !ory4 ,m4 ,biot1 animat$ by ! success ( ,malus 9 detect+ ! laws ( d\ble refraction1 & ,"y1 kn[+ ! res\rces ( 8 own !ory1 7 ! fir/ p]sons to ent] ^u ?is und]tak+4 ,m4 ,biot's !ory1 ?\gh 9 ! end displac$ by its rival1 is well wor? notice 9 ! hi/ory ( ! subject4 ,x 0 :at he call$ ! doctr9e ( moveable pol>ization4 ,he conceiv$ t :5 ! molecules ( light pass ?r\gh #ajf ?9 cry/all9e plates1 ! plane ( pol>ization und]goes an oscillation :i* c>ries x backw>ds & =w>ds ?r\gh a c]ta9 angle1 namely1 twice ! angle conta9$ betwe5 ! orig9al plane ( pol>ization & ! pr9cipal section ( ! cry/al4 ,! int]vals :i* ?is oscillation occupies are l5g?s ( ! pa? ( ! ray1 v m9ute1 & diff]5t = diff]5t colors1 l ,newton's fits ( easy transmission2 on :i* model1 inde$1 ! new !ory 0 evid5tly fram$4#iai ,! colors produc$ 9 ! ph5om5a ( dipol>ization really d dep5d1 9 a p]iodical mann]1 on ! l5g? ( ! pa? ( ! light ?r\gh ! cry/al1 & a !ory su* z ,m4 ,biot's 0 capable ( be+ modifi$1 & 0 modifi$1 s z to include ! lead+ features ( ! facts z !n kn[n2 b _m ( its conditions be+ f\nd$ on special circum/ances 9 ! exp]im5ts1 & n on ! real conditions ( nature1 !re 7 9 x sev]al incongruities1 z well z ! g5]al defect ( its be+ an arbitr>y & unconnect$ hypo!sis4 ,note #iji3 ,see *ap4 ix4 ,note #iai3 ,see ,,mm4 ,arago & ,biot's ,memoirs1 ,mm4 ,in/4 = #ahaa2 ! :ole volume = #ahab is a ,memoir ( ,m4 ,biot's 7publi%$ #ahad72 also ,mm4 ,in/4 = #ahag2 ,m4 ,biot's ,mem4 read 9 #ahah1 publi%$ 9 #ahai & = #ahah4 ,"y's mode ( acc\nt+ = ! brilliant ph5om5a ( dipol>ization appe>$ 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,review = #ahad4 ,aft] notic+ ! discov]ies ( ,,mm4 ,arago1 ,brew/]1 & ,biot1 he adds1 ,we h no d\bt t ! surprise ( ^! g5tlem5 w be z great z our own satisfaction 9 f9d+ t !y are p]fectly r$ucible1 l o!r causes ( recurr5t colors1 to ! g5]al laws ( ! int]f]5ce ( light :i* h be5 e/abli%$ 9 ?is c\ntry2 giv+ a ref]5ce to 8 =m] /atem5ts4 ,! results are !n expla9$ by ! int]f]5ce ( ! ord9>y & extraord9>y ray4 ,b1 z ,m4 ,arago prop]ly obs]ves1 9 8 acc\nt ( ?is matt]1#ibi ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be add$ t ,dr4 ,"y _h n expla9$ ei!r 9 :at circum/ances ! int]f]5ce ( ! rays c take place1 nor :y we see no colors unless ! cry/alliz$ plates are expos$ to light previ\sly pol>iz$4 ,! explanation ( ^! circum/ances dep5ds on ! laws ( int]f]5ce ( pol>iz$ light :i* ,,mm4 ,arago & ,fresnel e/abli%$ 9 #ahaf4 ,!y !n prov$1 by direct exp]im5t1 t :5 pol>iz$ light 0 treat$ s z to br+ into view ! mo/ m>k$ ph5om5a ( int]f]5ce1 namely1 ! b&s ( %ad[s2 p5cils ( light :i* h a common orig91 & :i* are pol>iz$ 9 ! p>allel planes1 int]f]e completely1 :ile ^? :i* are #ajg pol>iz$ 9 opposite 7t is1 p]p5dicul>17 planes d n int]f]e at all4#ici ,tak+ ^! pr9ciples into ! acc\nt1 ,fresnel expla9$ v completely1 by means ( ! int]f]5ce ( undulations1 all ! circum/ances ( colors produc$ by cry/alliz$ plates2 %[+ ! necessity ( ! pol>ization 9 ! fir/ in/ance2 ! dipol>iz+ effect ( ! cry/al2 & ! (fice ( ! analys+ plate1 by :i* c]ta9 portions ( ea* ( ! two rays 9 ! cry/al are made to int]f]e & produce color4 ,?is he did1 z he says1#idi )\t be+ aw>e1 till ,arago told him1 t ,"y _h1 to "s ext5t1 anticipat$ him4 ,note #ibi3 ,enc4 ,brit4 ,supp4 art4 ,pol>ization4 ,note #ici3 ,ann4 ,*im4 tom4 x4 ,note #idi3 ,ib4 tom4 xvii4 p4 #djb4 ,:5 we look at ! hi/ory ( ! emission-!ory ( light1 we see exactly :at we may consid] z ! natural c\rse ( ?+s 9 ! c>e] ( a false !ory4 ,su* a !ory may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 expla9 ! ph5om5a :i* x 0 at fir/ contriv$ to meet2 b e new class ( facts requires a new supposition1--an addition to ! ma*9]y2 & z obs]vation goes on1 ^! incoh]5t app5dages accumulate1 till !y ov]:elm & upset ! orig9al frame-"w4 ,su* 0 ! hi/ory ( ! hypo!sis ( solid epicycles2 su* has be5 ! hi/ory ( ! hypo!sis ( ! mat]ial emission ( light4 ,9 its simple =m1 x expla9$ reflection & refraction2 b ! colors ( ?9 plates add$ to x ! hypo!sis ( fits ( easy transmission & reflection2 ! ph5om5a ( diffraction fur!r inve/$ ! p>ticles ) complex hypo!tical laws ( attraction & repulsion2 pol>ization gave !m sides2 d\ble refraction subject$ !m to peculi> =ces emanat+ f ! axes ( cry/als2 f9ally1 dipol>ization load$ !m ) ! complex & unconnect$ contrivance ( moveable pol>ization2 & ev5 :5 all ?is _h be5 assum$1 additional me*anism 0 want+4 ,!re is "h no unexpect$ success1 no happy co9cid5ce1 no conv]g5ce ( pr9ciples f remote qu>t]s2 ! philosoph] builds ! ma*9e1 b its p>ts d n fit2 !y hold toge!r only :ile he presses !m3 ?is is n ! "* ( tru?4 ,9 ! undulatory !ory1 on ! o!r h&1 all t5ds to unity & simplicity4 ,we expla9 reflection & refraction by undulations2 :5 we come to ?9 plates1 ! requisite fits are already involv$ 9 our fundam5tal hypo!sis1 = !y are ! l5g? ( an undulation2 ! ph5om5a ( diffraction also require su* int]vals2 & ! int]vals ?us requir$ agree exactly ) ! o!rs 9 magnitude1 #ajh s t no new prop]ty is ne$$4 ,pol>ization = a mom5t *ecks u2 b n long2 = ! direction ( our vibrations is hi!rto arbitr>y2--we all[ pol>ization to decide x4 ,hav+ done ?is = ! sake ( pol>ization1 we f9d t x also answ]s an entirely diff]5t purpose1 t ( giv+ ! law ( d\ble refraction4 ,tru? may give rise to su* a co9cid5ce2 falsehood _c4 ,b ! ph5om5a become m num]\s1 m v>i\s1 m /range2 no matt]3 ! ,!ory is equal to !m all4 ,x makes n a s+le new physical hypo!sis2 b out ( its orig9al /ock ( pr9ciples x educes ! c\nt]p>t ( all t obs]vation %[s4 ,x acc\nts =1 expla9s1 simplifies1 ! mo/ entangl$ cases2 corrects kn[n laws & facts2 pr$icts & discloses unkn[n ones2 becomes ! guide ( its =m] tea*]1 ,obs]vation2 &1 enlight5$ by me*anical conceptions1 acquires an insight :i* pi]ces ?r\gh %ape & color to =ce & cause4 ,we ?us rea* ! philosophical moral ( ?is hi/ory1 s important 9 ref]5ce to our purpose2 & "h we %all close ! acc\nt ( ! discov]y & promulgation ( ! undulatory !ory4 ,any fur!r /eps 9 its developm5t & ext5sion1 may ) propriety be notic$ 9 ! ensu+ *apt]s1 respect+ its reception & v]ification4 #bnd ,ed4 ,9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,b4 xi4 *4 iii4 ,sect4 #aa1 ,i h spok5 ( ! ,consili5ce ( ,inductions z "o ( ! *>act]s ( sci5tific tru?4 ,we h sev]al /rik+ in/ances ( su* consili5ce 9 ! hi/ory ( ! undulatory !ory4 ,! ph5om5a ( fr+es ( %ad[s & color$ b&s 9 cry/als jump toge!r 9 ! ,!ory ( ,vibrations4 ,! ph5om5a ( pol>ization & d\ble refraction jump toge!r 9 ! ,!ory ( ,cry/all9e ,vibrations4 ,! ph5om5a ( pol>ization & ( ! int]f]5ce ( pol>iz$ rays jump toge!r 9 ! ,!ory ( ,transv]se ,vibrations4 ,! pro( ( :at is above said ( ! undulatory !ory is conta9$ 9 ! previ\s hi/ory4 ,?is !ory has acc\nt$ =1 expla9$1 & simplifi$ ! mo/ entangl$ cases2 z ! cases ( fr+es ( %ad[s2 %ad[s ( grat+s2 color$ b&s 9 biaxal cry/als1 & 9 qu>tz4 ,!re are no optical ph5om5a m entangl$ ?an ^!4 ,x has correct$ exp]im5tal laws1 z 9 ! case ( ,m4 ,biot's law ( ! direction ( pol>ization 9 biaxal cry/als4 ,x has done ?is1 )\t mak+ any new physical hypo!sis2 = ! transv]se direction ( vibrations1 ! diff]5t optical ela/icities ( cry/als 9 diff]5t directions1 & 7if x be adopt$7 ! hypo!sis ( f9ite #aji int]vals ( ! p>ticles 7see *ap4 x4 & h]eaft]1 *ap4 xiii471 are only limitations ( :at 0 indef9ite 9 ! e>li] =m ( ! hypo!sis4 ,& s f> z ! prop]ties ( visible radiant light are conc]n$1 ,i d n ?9k x at all too mu* to say1 z ,m4 ,s*w]d has said1 t ! undulation !ory acc\nts = ! ph5om5a z completely z ! !ory ( gravitation does = ! facts ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,?is we might say1 ev5 if "s facts 7 n yet fully expla9$2 = !re 7 till v lately1 if !re are n /ill1 su* unexpla9$ facts ) reg>d to ! !ory ( gravitation1 pres5t$ to u by ! sol> sy/em4 ,) reg>d to ! undulatory !ory1 ^! exceptions are1 ,i ?9k1 disappe>+ q z rapidly & z completely z 9 ! case ( gravitation4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t no presumption aga9/ ! !ory c ) any %[ ( reason be collect$ f ! cases 9 :i* classes ( ph5om5a rema9 unexpla9$1 ! !ory hav+ nev] be5 appli$ to !m by any ma!matician capable ( trac+ its results correctly4 ,! hi/ory ( ! !ory ( gravitation may %[ u abundantly h[ necess>y x is to be> 9 m9d ?is caution2 & ! results ( ! undulatory !ory _c be trac$ )\t great ma!matical skill & great labor1 any m ?an ^? ( gravitation4 ,?is rem>k applies to su* cases z t ( ! transv]se fr+es ( groov$ surfaces4 ,! g5]al ph5om5a ( ^! cases are p]fectly expla9$ by ! !ory4 ,b !re is an int]ruption 9 ! light 9 an oblique direction1 :i* has n yet be5 expla9$2 b look+ at :at has be5 done 9 o!r cases1 x is impossible to d\bt t ?is ph5om5on dep5ds ^u ! results ( c]ta9 integrations1 & w\ld be expla9$ if ^! 7 rightly p]=m$4 ,! ph5om5a ( cry/alliz$ surfaces1 & especially _! effects ^u ! plane ( pol>ization1 7 exam9$ by ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]1 & laws ( ! ph5om5a made out by him ) 8 usual skill & sagacity4 ,= a "t ^! 7 unexpla9$ by ! !ory4 ,b rec5tly ,mr4 ,mac ,cullagh has trac$ ! consequ5ces ( ! !ory 9 ?is case1#iei & obta9$ a law :i* repres5ts ) mu* exactness1 ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]'s obs]vation4 ,note #iei3 ,pr(4 ,lloyd's ,report1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahcd1 p4 #cgd4 ,! ph5om5a :i* ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]1 9 #ahcg1 call$ a new prop]ty ( light1 7c]ta9 appe>ances ( ! spectrum :5 ! pupil ( ! eye is half cov]$ ) a ?9 glass or cry/al17 h be5 expla9$ by ,mr4 ,airy 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 = #ahdj4 ,mr4 ,airy's explanation ( ! ph5om5a t]m$ by ,sir ,d4 #aaj ,brew/] a new prop]ty ( light1 is complet$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,novemb]1 #ahdf4 ,x is !re %[n t a dep5d5ce ( ! bread? ( ! b&s ^u ! ap]ture ( ! pupil1 :i* _h be5 suppos$ to result f ! !ory1 & :i* does n appe> 9 ! exp]im5t1 did really result f c]ta9 limit$ conditions ( ! hypo!sis1 :i* conditions d n belong to ! exp]im5t2 & t :5 ! problem is solv$ )\t ^? limitations1 ! discrepance ( !ory & obs]vation vani%es2 s t1 z ,mr4 ,airy says1 ?is v rem>kable exp]im5t1 :i* long appe>$ inexplicable1 seems de/9$ to give "o ( ! /ronge/ confirmations to ! ,undulatory ,!ory4 ,i may rem>k also t !re is no =ce 9 ! objection :i* has be5 urg$ aga9/ ! admir]s ( ! undulatory !ory1 t by ! fulness ( _! ass5t to x1 !y disc\rage fur!r rese>*es :i* may contradict or confirm x4 ,we mu/1 9 ?is po9t ( view also1 look at ! c\rse ( ! !ory ( gravitation & its results4 ,! acceptance ( t !ory did n prev5t ma!maticians & obs]v]s f att5d+ to ! app>5t exceptions1 b on ! contr>y1 /imulat$ !m to calculate & to obs]ve ) additional zeal1 & /ill does s4 ,! accel]ation ( ! ,moon1 ! mutual di/urbances ( ,jupit] & ,saturn1 ! motions ( ,jupit]'s ,satellites1 ! effect ( ! ,e>?'s oblat5ess on ! ,moon's motion1 ! motions ( ! ,moon ab\t h] own c5tre1 & _m o!r ph5om5a1 7 /udi$ ) ! great] att5tion1 because ! g5]al !ory 0 deem$ s conv9c+3 & ! same cause makes ! rema9+ exceptions objects ( int5se int]e/ to a/ronom]s & ma!maticians4 ,! ma!maticians & optical exp]im5t]s :o accept ! undulatory !ory1 w ( c\rse foll[ out _! conviction 9 ! same mann]4 ,accord+ly1 ?is has be5 done & is /ill do+1 z 9 ,mr4 ,airy's ma!matical inve/igation ( ! effect ( an annul> ap]ture2 ,mr4 ,e>n%aw's1 ( ! effect ( a triangul> ap]ture2 ,mr4 ,talbot's explanation ( ! effect ( int]pos+ a film ( mica betwe5 a "p ( ! pupil & ! pure spectrum1 s ne>ly approa*+ to ! ph5om5a :i* h be5 spok5 ( z a new ,pol>ity ( ,light2 besides o!r labors ( em95t ma!maticians1 else:]e m5tion$ 9 ^! pages4 ,! ph5om5a ( ! absorption ( light h no especial be>+ ^u ! undulatory !ory4 ,!re is n mu* difficulty 9 expla9+ ! possibility ( absorption ^u ! !ory4 ,:5 ! light is absorb$1 x ceases to belong to ! !ory4 #aaa ,=1 z ,i h said1 ! !ory pr(esses only to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( radiant visible light4 ,we "k v well t light has o!r be>+s & prop]ties4 ,x produces *emical effects4 ,! optical pol>ity ( cry/als is connect$ ) ! *emical pol>ity ( _! con/itution4 ,! natural colors ( bodies1 too1 are connect$ ) _! *emical con/itution4 ,light is also connect$ ) heat4 ,! undulatory !ory does n und]take to expla9 ^! prop]ties & _! connexion4 ,if x did1 x w\ld be a ,!ory ( ,heat & ( ,*emical ,composition1 z well z a ,!ory ( ,light4 ,dr4 ,f>aday's rec5t exp]im5ts h %[n t ! magnetic pol>ity is directly connect$ ) t optical pol>ity by :i* ! plane ( pol>ization is affect$4 ,:5 ! l9es ( magnetic =ce pass ?r\gh c]ta9 transp>5t bodies1 !y communicate to !m a c]ta9 k9d ( circul> pol>iz+ p[]2 yet diff]5t f ! circul> pol>iz+ p[] ( qu>tz1 & c]ta9 fluids m5tion$ 9 *apt] ix4 ,p]haps ,i may be all[$ to ref] to ?is discov]y z a fur!r illu/ration ( ! views ,i h (f]$ 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces respect+ ! ,connexion ( ,co-exi/5t ,pol>ities4 7,b4 v4 ,*ap4 ii47 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,"y ,,& ,,fresnel4 ,,reception ,,( ,,! ,,undulatory ,,!ory4 ,,:5 ,"y1 9 #ahjj1 publi%$ 8 ass]tion ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,int]f]5ces1 z ! true !ory ( optical ph5om5a1 ! condition ( ,engl& 0 n v favorable to a fair appreciation ( ! value ( ! new op9ion4 ,! m5 ( sci5ce 7 /rongly pre-occupi$ 9 favor ( ! doctr9e ( emission1 n only f a national int]e/ 9 ,newton's glory1 & a natural rev]5ce = 8 au?ority1 b also f def]5ce t[>ds ! geomet]s ( ,france1 :o 7 look$ up to z our ma/]s 9 ! application ( ma!matics to physics1 & :o 7 und]/ood to be ,newtonians 9 ?is z 9 o!r subjects4 ,a g5]al t5d5cy to an atomic philosophy1 :i* _h begun to appe> f ! "t ( ,newton1 op]at$ p[]fully2 & #aab ! hypo!sis ( emission 0 s easily conceiv$1 t1 :5 recomm5d$ by high au?ority1 x easily became popul>2 :ile ! hypo!sis ( lum9if]\s undulations1 unavoidably difficult to compreh5d1 ev5 by ! aid ( /eady ?\ght1 0 neglect$1 & all b =gott54 ,yet ! reception :i* ,"y's op9ions met ) 0 m h>% ?an he might h expect$1 ev5 tak+ into acc\nt all ^! consid]ations4 ,b !re 0 9 ,engl& no visible body ( m51 fitt$ by _! k & "* to pron\nce judgm5t on su* a "q1 or to give ! prop] impulse & bias to public op9ion4 ,! ,royal ,society1 = in/ance1 _h n1 = a long "t1 by cu/om or in/itution1 possess$ or aim$ at su* functions4 ,! writ]s ( ,reviews alone1 self-con/itut$ & secret tribunals1 claim$ ?is k9d ( au?ority4 ,among ^! publications1 by f> ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ab\t ?is p]iod 0 ! ,ed9burgh ,review2 &1 includ+ among its contributors m5 ( em95t sci5ce & great tal5ts1 employ+ also a robu/ & poignant /yle ( writ+ 7(t5 c]ta9ly 9 a v unfair mann]71 x naturally ex]cis$ great influ5ce4 ,on ab/ruse doctr9es1 intelligible to few p]sons1 m ?an on o!r subjects1 ! op9ions & feel+s express$ 9 a ,review mu/ be ^? ( ! individual review]4 ,! criticism on "s ( ,"y's e>ly pap]s on optics 0 writt5 by ,mr4 7aft]w>ds ,"l7 ,br\gham1 :o1 z we h se51 _h exp]im5t$ on diffraction1 foll[+ ! ,newtonian view1 t ( inflexion4 ,mr4 ,br\gham 0 p]haps at ?is "t "y en\gh#ifi to be some:at intoxicat$ ) ! appe>ance ( judicial au?ority 9 matt]s ( sci5ce1 :i* 8 (fice ( anonym\s review] gave him3 & ev5 9 middle-life1 he 0 sometimes consid]$ to be prone to indulge himself 9 sev]e & s>ca/ic expressions4 ,9 ,janu>y1 #ahjc1 0 publi%$#igi 8 critique on ,dr4 ,"y's ,bak]ian ,lecture1 ,on ! ,!ory ( ,light & ,colors1 9 :i* lecture ! doctr9e ( undulations & ! law ( int]f]5ces 0 ma9ta9$4 ,?is critique 0 an un9t]rupt$ /ra9 ( blame & rebuke4 ,?is pap]1 ! review] said1 conta9s no?+ :i* des]ves ! "n ei!r ( exp]im5t or discov]y4 ,he *>g$ ! writ] ) dang]\s relaxations ( ! pr9ciples ( physical logic4 ,we wi%1 he cri$1 to recall philosoph]s to ! /rict & sev]e me?ods ( inve/igation1 describ+ !m z ^? po9t$ out by ,bacon1 ,newton1 & ! l4 ,f9ally1 ,dr4 ,"y's speculations #aac 7 spok5 ( z a hypo!sis1 :i* is a m]e "w ( fancy2 & ! critic add$1 we _c conclude our review )\t entreat+ ! att5tion ( ! ,royal ,society1 :i* has admitt$ ( late s _m ha/y & unsub/antial pap]s into its ,transactions2 :i* habit he urg$ !m to re=m4 ,! same av]sion to ! undulatory !ory appe>s soon aft] 9 ano!r article by ! same review]1 on ! subject ( ,wolla/on's measures ( ! refraction ( ,icel& sp>2 he says1 ,we are mu* disappo9t$ to f9d t s acute & +5i\s an exp]im5tali/ %\ld h adopt$ ! wild optical !ory ( vibrations4 ,! review] %[$ ignorance z well z prejudice 9 ! c\rse ( 8 rem>ks2 & ,"y drew up an answ]1 :i* 0 ably writt51 b be+ publi%$ sep>ately _h little circulation4 ,we c h>dly d\bt t ^! ,ed9burgh reviews _h _! effect 9 confirm+ ! g5]al disposition to reject ! undulatory !ory4 ,note #ifi3 ,8 age 0 tw5ty-f\r4 ,note #igi3 ,ed94 ,review1 vol4 i4 p4 #dej4 ,we may add1 h[ev]1 t ,"y's mode ( pres5t+ 8 op9ions 0 n ! mo/ likely to w9 !m favor2 = 8 ma!matical reason+s plac$ !m out ( ! rea* ( popul> read]s1 :ile ! want ( symmetry & sy/em 9 8 symbolical calculations1 depriv$ !m ( attractiv5ess = ! ma!matician4 ,he himself gave a v j criticism ( 8 own /yle ( writ+1 9 speak+ on ano!r ( 8 works3#ihi ,! ma!matical reason+1 = want ( ma!matical symbols1 0 n und]/ood1 ev5 by tol]able ma!maticians4 ,f a dislike ( ! affectation ( algebraical =mality :i* he _h obs]v$ 9 "s =eign au?ors1 he 0 l$ into some?+ l an affectation ( simplicity1 :i* 0 equally inconv5i5t to a sci5tific read]4 ,note #ihi3 ,see ,life ( ,"y1 p4 #ed4 ,"y appe>s to h be5 aw>e ( 8 own defici5cy 9 ! p[] ( draw+ public favor1 or ev5 notice1 to 8 discov]ies4 ,9 #ahjb1 ,davy writes to a fri5d1 ,h y se5 ! !ory ( my colleague1 ,dr4 ,"y1 on ! undulations ( an e!real m$ium z ! cause ( light8 ,x is n likely to be a popul> hypo!sis1 aft] :at has be5 said by ,newton conc]n+ x4 ,he w\ld be v mu* flatt]$ if y c\ld (f] any obs]vations ^u x1 :e!r = or aga9/ x4 ,"y naturally felt confid5t 9 8 p[] ( refut+ objections1 & want$ only ! opportunity ( a public combat4 ,dr4 ,brew/]1 :o 01 at ?is p]iod1 enri*+ optical k ) s va/ a tra9 ( new ph5om5a & laws1 %>$ ! g5]al av]sion to ! undulatory !ory1 :i*1 inde$1 he h>dly ov]came #aad ?irty ye>s lat]4 ,dr4 ,wolla/on 0 a p]son ^: "* l$ him to look long at ! laws ( ph5om5a1 be=e he attempt$ to det]m9e _! causes2 & x does n appe> t he _h decid$ ! claims ( ! rival !ories 9 8 own m9d4 ,h]s*el 7,i n[ speak ( ! son7 _h at fir/ ! g5]al ma!matical prejudice 9 favor ( ! emission doctr9e4 ,ev5 :5 he _h himself /udi$ & ext5d$ ! laws ( dipol>iz$ ph5om5a1 he translat$ !m into ! language ( ! !ory ( moveable pol>ization4 ,9 #ahai1 he ref]s to1 & corrects1 ?is !ory2 & says1 x is n[ reliev$ f e difficulty1 & entitl$ to rank ) ! fits ( easy transmission & reflection z a g5]al & simple physical law2 a j judgm5t1 b "o :i* n[ conveys less ( praise ?an he !n int5d$4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 he rem>k$ t we _c be c]ta9 t if ! !ory ( emission _h be5 z mu* cultivat$ z t ( undulation1 x might n h be5 z successful2 an op9ion :i* 0 c]ta9ly unt5able aft] ! fair trial ( ! two !ories 9 ! case ( diffraction1 & extravagant aft] ,fresnel's beautiful explanation ( d\ble refraction & pol>ization4 ,ev5 9 #ahbg1 9 a ,treatise on ,light1 publi%$ 9 ! ,encyclopdia ,metropolitana1 he gives a section to ! calculations ( ! ,newtonian !ory2 & appe>s to consid] ! rivalry ( ! !ories z /ill subsi/+4 ,b yet he !re speaks ) a prop] appreciation ( ! advantages ( ! new doctr9e4 ,aft] trac+ ! prelude to x1 he says1 ,b ! unpursu$ speculations ( ,newton1 & ! op9ions ( ,hooke1 h[ev] di/9ct1 mu/ n be put 9 competition1 &1 inde$1 ought sc>cely to be m5tion$1 ) ! elegant1 simple1 & compreh5sive !ory ( ,"y1--a !ory :i*1 if n f\nd$ 9 nature1 is c]ta9ly "o ( ! happie/ fictions t ! g5ius ( man ev] inv5t$ to grasp toge!r natural ph5om5a1 :i*1 at _! fir/ discov]y1 seem$ 9 irreconcileable opposition to x4 ,x is1 9 fact1 9 all its applications & details1 "o succession ( felicities2 insomu*1 t we may almo/ be induc$ to say1 if x be n true1 x des]ves to be s4 ,9 ,france1 ,"y's !ory 0 little notic$ or kn[n1 except p]haps by ,m4 ,arago1 till x 0 reviv$ by ,fresnel4 ,& ?\gh ,fresnel's ass]tion ( ! undulatory !ory 0 n s rudely receiv$ z ,"y's _h be51 x met ) no small opposition f ! old] ma!maticians1 & made its way sl[ly to ! notice & compreh5sion ( m5 ( sci5ce4 ,m4 ,arago w\ld p]haps h at once adopt$ ! conception ( transv]se vibrations1 :5 x 0 sugge/$ by 8 fell[-labor]1 ,fresnel1 if x _h n be5 t he 0 a memb] ( ! #aae ,in/itute1 & _h to be> ! brunt ( ! w>1 9 ! frequ5t discussions on ! undulatory !ory2 to :i* !ory ,laplace1 & o!r lead+ memb]s1 7 s vehem5tly oppos$1 t !y w\ld n ev5 li/5 ) tol]ation to ! argum5ts 9 its favor4 ,i d n "k h[ f> influ5ces ( ?is k9d might op]ate 9 produc+ ! delays :i* took place 9 ! publication ( ,fresnel's pap]s4 ,we h se5 t he arriv$ at ! conception ( transv]se vibrations 9 #ahaf1 z ! true key to ! und]/&+ ( pol>ization4 ,9 #ahag & #ahah1 9 a memoir read to ! ,in/itute1 he analys$ & expla9$ ! p]plex+ ph5om5a ( qu>tz1 :i* he ascrib$ to a circul> pol>ization4 ,?is memoir _h n be5 pr9t$1 nor any extract f x ins]t$ 9 ! sci5tific j\rnals1 9 #ahbb1 :5 he confirm$ 8 views by fur!r exp]im5ts4#iii ,8 rem>kable memoir1 :i* solv$ ! extraord9>y & capital problem ( ! connexion ( d\ble refraction & cry/allization1 ?\gh writt5 9 #ahba1 0 n publi%$ till #ahbg4 ,he appe>s by ?is "t to h s\ght o!r *annels ( publication4 ,9 #ahbb1 he gave1#ajji 9 ! ,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique1 an explanation ( refraction on ! pr9ciples ( ! undulatory !ory2 alleg+1 z ! reason = do+ s1 t ! !ory 0 /ill little kn[n4 ,& 9 succe$+ ye>s !re appe>$ 9 ! same "w1 8 !ory ( reflection4 ,8 memoir on ?is subject 7,mmoire sur la ,loi des ,modifications que la ,rflexion imprime la ,lumire ,pol>ise17 0 read to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 9999#ahbc4 ,b ! orig9al pap] 0 mislaid1 &1 = a "t1 suppos$ to be lo/2 x has s9ce be5 recov]$ among ! pap]s ( ,m4 ,f\ri]1 & pr9t$ 9 ! elev5? volume ( ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy4#ajai ,"s ( ! speculations to :i* he ref]s1 z communicat$ to ! ,academy1 h nev] yet appe>$4#ajbi ,note #iii3 ,h]s*4 ,light1 p4 #eci4 ,note #ajji3 ,ann4 de ,*im4 #ahbb1 tom4 xxi4 p4 #bce4 ,note #ajai3 ,lloyd4 ,report on ,optics1 p4 #cfc4 7,f\r? ,rep4 ( ,brit4 ,ass47 ,note #ajbi3 ,ib4 p4 #caf1 note4 ,/ill ,fresnel's labors 71 f ! fir/1 duly appreciat$ by "s ( ! mo/ em95t ( 8 c\ntrym54 ,8 ,memoir on ,diffraction 01 z we h se51 cr[n$ 9 #ahai3 &1 9 #ahbb1 a ,report ^u 8 ,memoir on ,d\ble ,refraction 0 drawn up by a commission consi/+ ( ,,mm4 ,ampre1 ,f\ri]1 & ,arago4 ,9 ?is report#ajci ,fresnel's !ory is spok5 ( z confirm$ by ! mo/ delicate te/s4 ,! report]s add1 respect+ 8 !oretical ideas on ! p>ticul> k9d ( undulations :i*1 accord+ to him1 con/itute light1 t x w\ld be impossible = !m to pron\nce at pres5t a decid$ #aaf judgm5t1 b t !y h n ?\ght x "r to delay any long] mak+ kn[n a "w ( :i* ! difficulty is atte/$ by ! fruitless ef=ts ( ! mo/ skilful philosoph]s1 & 9 :i* are exhibit$ 9 ! same brilliant degree1 ! tal5t = exp]im5t & ! _s ( inv5tion4 ,note #ajci3 ,ann4 ,*im4 tom4 xx4 p4 #cdc4 ,9 ! meantime1 h[ev]1 a controv]sy betwe5 ! !ory ( undulations & ! !ory ( moveable pol>ization :i* ,m4 ,biot _h propos$ ) a view ( acc\nt+ = ! colors produc$ by dipol>iz+ cry/als1 _h occurr$ among ! ,fr5* m5 ( sci5ce4 ,x is cle> t 9 "s ma9 features ! two !ories co9cide2 ! int]vals ( int]f]5ce 9 ! "o !ory be+ repres5t$ by ! int]vals ( ! oscillations 9 ! o!r4 ,b ^! int]vals 9 ,m4 ,biot's explanations 7 arbitr>y hypo!ses1 sugge/$ by ^! v facts !mselves2 9 ,fresnel's !ory1 !y 7 ess5tial p>ts ( ! g5]al s*eme4 ,m4 ,biot1 inde$1 does n appe> to h be5 av]se f a coalition2 = he all[$#ajdi to ,fresnel t ! !ory ( undulations took ! ph5om5a at a high] po9t & c>ri$ !m fur!r4 ,& ,m4 ,biot c\ld h>dly h diss5t$ f ,m4 ,arago's acc\nt ( ! matt]1 t ,fresnel's views l9k$ toge!r#ajei ! oscillations ( moveable pol>ization4 ,b ,fresnel1 ^: hypo!sis 0 all ( "o piece1 c\ld give up no "p ( x1 al?\gh he all[$ ! usefulness ( ,m4 ,biot's =mul4 ,yet ,m4 ,biot's speculations fell 9 bett] ) ! views ( ! lead+ ma!maticians ( ,p>is4 ,we may consid] z evid5ce ( ! favor ) :i* !y 7 look$ ^u1 ! l>ge space !y occupy 9 ! volumes ( ! ,academy = #ahaa1 #ahab1 #ahag1 & #ahah4 ,9 #ahab1 ! entire volume is fill$ ) a memoir ( ,m4 ,biot's on ! subject ( moveable pol>ization4 ,?is doctr9e also _h "s advantage 9 com+ e>ly be=e ! _w 9 a didactic =m1 9 8 ,trait de ,physique1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #ahaf1 & 0 ! mo/ complete treatise on g5]al physics :i* _h appe>$ up to t "t4 ,9 ?is & o!rs ( ?is au?or's writ+s1 he expresses facts s entirely 9 ! t]ms ( 8 own hypo!sis1 t x is difficult to sep>ate ! two4 ,9 ! sequel ,m4 ,arago 0 ! mo/ prom95t ( ,m4 ,biot's oppon5ts2 & 9 8 report ^u ,fresnel's memoir on ! colors ( cry/all9e plates1 he expos$ ! weaknesses ( ! !ory ( moveable pol>ization ) "s sev]ity4 ,! details ( ?is controv]sy ne$ n occupy u2 b we may obs]ve t ?is may be consid]$ z ! la/ /ruggle #aag 9 favor ( ! !ory ( emission among ma!maticians ( em95ce4 ,aft] ?is crisis ( ! w>1 ! !ory ( moveable pol>ization lo/ its gr\nd2 & ! explanations ( ! undulatory !ory1 & ! calculations belong+ to x1 be+ publi%$ 9 ! ,annales de ,*imie et de ,physique1 ( :i* ,m4 ,arago 0 "o ( ! conductors1 soon diffus$ x ov] ,europe4 ,note #ajdi3 ,ann4 ,*im4 tom4 xvii4 p4 #bea4 ,note #ajei3 ,n\ait4 ,x 0 probably 9 consequ5ce ( ! delays to :i* we h ref]r$1 9 ! publication ( ,fresnel's memoirs1 t z late z ,decemb]1 #ahbf1 ! ,imp]ial ,academy at ,/ ,pet]sburg propos$1 z "o ( _! prize-que/ions = ! two foll[+ ye>s1 ?is1--,to deliv] ! optical sy/em ( waves f all ! objections :i* h 7z x appe>s7 ) ju/ice be5 urg$ aga9/ x1 & to apply x to ! pol>ization & d\ble refraction ( light4 ,9 ! programme to ?is ann\ncem5t1 ,fresnel's rese>*es on ! subject are n allud$ to1 ?\gh 8 memoir on diffraction is notic$2 !y 71 !re=e1 probably n kn[n to ! ,russian ,academy4 ,"y 0 always look$ ^u z a p]son ( m>vell\s v>iety ( atta9m5ts & ext5t ( k2 b dur+ 8 life he h>dly held t elevat$ place among great discov]]s :i* po/]ity w probably assign him4 ,9 #ahjb1 he 0 con/itut$ ,=eign ,secret>y ( ! ,royal ,society1 an (fice :i* he held dur+ life2 9 #ahbg he 0 elect$ "o ( ! eight ,=eign ,memb]s ( ! ,in/itute ( ,france2 p]haps ! greate/ honor :i* m5 ( sci5ce usually receive4 ,! =tune ( 8 life 9 "s o!r respects 0 ( a m+l$ complexion4 ,8 pr(ession ( a physician occupi$1 suffici5tly to fett]1 )\t rew>d+ him2 :ile he 0 ,lectur] at ! ,royal ,in/itution1 he 01 9 8 lectures1 too pr(\nd to be popul>2 & 8 (fice ( ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,nautical ,almanac subject$ him to mu* m9ute labor1 & _m petulant attacks ( pamphlete]s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he _h a lead+ "p 9 ! discov]y ( ! long-s\ght key to ! ,egyptian hi]oglyphics2 & ?us ! age :i* 0 m>k$ by two great discov]ies1 "o 9 sci5ce & "o 9 lit]ature1 ow$ !m bo? 9 a great measure to him4 ,dr4 ,"y di$ 9 #ahbi1 :5 he _h sc>cely complet$ 8 fifty-six? ye>4 ,fresnel 0 snat*$ f sci5ce /ill m prematurely1 dy+1 9 #ahbg1 at ! e>ly age ( ?irty-n9e4 ,we ne$ n say t bo? ^! great philosoph]s possess$1 9 an em95t degree1 ! lead+ *>act]i/ics ( ! discov]]'s m9d1 p]fect cle>ness ( view1 ri* f]tility ( inv5tion1 & int5se love ( k4 ,we _c read )\t great int]e/ a lett] ( #aah ,fresnel to ,"y1#ajfi 9 ,novemb]1 #ahbd3 ,= a long "t t s5sibility1 or t vanity1 :i* p call love ( glory1 is mu* blunt$ 9 me4 ,i labor mu* less to cat* ! suffrages ( ! public1 ?an to obta9 an inw>d approval :i* has always be5 ! sweete/ rew>d ( my ef=ts4 ,)\t d\bt ,i h (t5 want$ ! spur ( vanity to excite me to pursue my rese>*es 9 mom5ts ( disgu/ & disc\ragem5t4 ,b all ! complim5ts :i* ,i h receiv$ f ,,mm4 ,arago1 ,de ,laplace1 or ,biot1 nev] gave me s mu* pleasure z ! discov]y ( a !oretical tru?1 or ! confirmation ( a calculation by exp]im5t4 ,note #ajfi3 ,i 0 able to give ?is1 & "s o!r extracts1 f ! !n un$it$ correspond5ce ( ,"y & ,fresnel1 by ! k9dness ( 7! ,dean ( ,ely7 ,pr(essor ,peacock1 ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,cambridge1 ^: ,life ( ,dr4 ,"y has s9ce be5 publi%$4 ,?\gh ,"y & ,fresnel 7 9 ye>s ! contempor>ies ( _m :o are n[ alive1 we mu/ consid] ourselves z /&+ t[>ds !m 9 ! relation ( po/]ity4 ,! ,epo* ( ,induction 9 ,optics is pa/2 we h n[ to trace ! ,v]ification & ,application ( ! true !ory4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,confirmation ,,& ,,ext5sion ,,( ,,! ,,undulatory ,,!ory4 ,,aft] ! undulatory !ory _h be5 develop$ 9 all its ma9 features1 by its great au?ors1 ,"y & ,fresnel1 al?\gh x bore m>ks ( tru? t c\ld h>dly be fallaci\s1 !re 0 /ill "h1 z 9 ! case ( o!r great !ories1 a p]iod 9 :i* difficulties 7 to be remov$1 objections answ]$1 m5's m9ds famili>iz$ to ! new conceptions ?us pres5t$ to !m2 & 9 :i*1 also1 x might reasonably be expect$ t ! !ory w\ld be ext5d$ to facts n at fir/ includ$ 9 its doma94 ,?is p]iod is1 inde$1 t 9 :i* we are liv+2 & we might1 p]haps ) propriety1 avoid ! task ( speak+ ( our liv+ contempor>ies4 ,b x w\ld be unju/ to ! !ory n to notice "s ( ! rem>kable ev5ts1 *>act]i/ic ( su* a p]iod1 :i* h already occurr$2 & ?is may be done v simply4 #aai ,9 ! case ( ?is great !ory1 z 9 t ( gravitation1 by f> ! mo/ rem>kable ( ^! confirmatory rese>*es 7 conduct$ by ! au?ors ( ! discov]y1 especially ,fresnel4 ,& 9 look+ at :at he conceiv$ & execut$ = ?is purpose1 we are1 x appe>s to me1 /rongly rem9d$ ( ,newton1 by ! wond]ful inv5tiv5ess & sagacity ) :i* he devis$ exp]im5ts1 & appli$ to !m ma!matical reason+s4 #a4 ,d\ble ,refraction ( ,compress$ ,glass4--,"o ( ^! confirmatory exp]im5ts 0 ! production ( d\ble refraction by ! compression ( glass4 ,fresnel obs]ves1#ajgi t ?\gh ,sir ,d4 ,brew/] _h %[n t glass "u compression produc$ colors resembl+ ^? :i* are giv5 by d\bly-refract+ cry/als1 v skilful physici/s _h n consid]$ ^? exp]im5ts z a suffici5t pro( ( ! bifurcation ( ! light4 ,9 ! hypo!sis ( moveable pol>ization1 x is add$1 !re is no app>5t connexion betwe5 ^! ph5om5a ( coloration & d\ble refraction2 b on ,"y's !ory1 t ! colors arise f two rays :i* h trav]s$ ! cry/al ) diff]5t velocities1 x appe>s almo/ unavoidable to admit also a diff]5ce ( pa? 9 ! two rays4 ,note #ajgi3 ,ann4 de ,*im4 #ahbb1 tom4 xx4 p4 #cgg4 ,?\gh1 he says1 ,i _h long s9ce adopt$ ?is op9ion1 x did n appe> to me s completely demon/rat$1 t x 0 "r to neglect an exp]im5tal v]ification ( x2 & !re=e1 9 #ahai1 he proce$$ to satisfy himself ( ! fact1 by ! ph5om5a ( diffraction4 ,! trial left no d\bt on ! subject2 b he /ill ?\ght x w\ld be int]e/+ actually to produce two images 9 glass by compression2 & by a highly-+5i\s comb9ation1 calculat$ to exagg]ate ! effect ( ! d\ble refraction1 :i* is v feeble1 ev5 :5 ! compression is mo/ int5se1 he obta9$ two di/9ct images4 ,?is evid5ce ( ! dep5d5ce ( dipol>iz+ /ructure ^u a d\bly-refract+ /ate ( p>ticles1 ?us excogitat$ out ( ! g5]al !ory1 & v]ifi$ by trial1 may well be consid]$1 z he says1 z a new occasion ( prov+ ! infallibility ( ! pr9ciple ( int]f]5ces4 #b4 ,circul> ,pol>ization4--,fresnel !n turn$ 8 att5tion to ano!r set ( exp]im5ts1 relat$ to ?is inde$1 b by a tie s recondite1 t no?+ less ?an 8 cle>ness & acut5ess ( view c\ld h detect$ any connexion4 ,! optical prop]ties ( qu>tz _h be5 p]ceiv$ to be peculi>1 f ! p]iod ( ! discov]y #abj ( dipol>iz$ colors by ,,mm4 ,arago & ,biot4 ,at ! end ( ! ,notice j quot$1 ,fresnel says1#ajhi ,z soon z my occupations p]mit me1 ,i propose to employ a pile ( prisms simil> to t :i* ,i h describ$1 9 ord] to /udy ! d\ble refraction ( ! rays :i* trav]se cry/als ( qu>tz 9 ! direction ( ! axis4 ,he !n v5tures1 )\t hesitation1 to describe be=eh& :at ! ph5om5a w be4 ,9 ! ,bullet9 des ,sci5ces#ajii = ,decemb]1 #ahbb1 x is /at$ t exp]im5t _h confirm$ :at he _h ?us ann\nc$4 ,note #ajhi3 ,ann4 de ,*im4 #ahbb1 tom4 xx4 p4 #chb4 ,note #ajii3 ,ib4 ,ann4 de ,*im4 #ahbb1 tom4 xx4 p4 #aia4 ,! ph5om5a are ^? :i* h s9ce be5 spok5 ( z circul> pol>ization2 & ! t]m fir/ occurs 9 ?is notice4#aaji ,!y are v rem>kable1 bo? by _! resemblances to1 & _! diff]5ces f1 ! ph5om5a ( plane-pol>iz$ light4 ,& ! mann] 9 :i* ,fresnel 0 l$ to ?is anticipation ( ! facts is /ill m rem>kable ?an ! facts !mselves4 ,hav+ asc]ta9$ by obs]vation t two diff]5tly-pol>iz$ rays1 totally reflect$ at ! int]nal surface ( glass1 suff] diff]5t ret>dations ( _! undulations1 he appli$ ! =mul :i* he _h obta9$ = ! pol>iz+ effect ( reflection to ?is case4 ,b 9 ?is case ! =mul express$ an impossibility2 yet z algebraical =mul1 ev5 9 su* cases1 h (t5 "s mean+1 ,i int]pret$1 he says1#aaai 9 ! mann] :i* appe>$ to me mo/ natural & mo/ probable1 :at ! analysis indicat$ by ?is imag9>y =m2 & by su* an int]pretation he collect$ ! law ( ! diff]5ce ( undulation ( ! two rays4 ,he 0 ?us able to pr$ict t by two int]nal reflections 9 a rhomb1 or p>allelopip$ ( glass1 ( a c]ta9 =m & position1 a pol>iz$ ray w\ld acquire a circul> undulation ( its p>ticles2 & ?is con/itution ( ! ray1 x appe>$1 by reason+ fur!r1 w\ld %[ itself by its possess+ peculi> prop]ties1 p>tly ! same z ^? ( pol>iz$ light1 & p>tly diff]5t4 ,?is extraord9>y anticipation 0 exactly confirm$2 & ?us ! app>5tly bold & /range guess ( ! au?or 0 fully ju/ifi$1 or at lea/ ass5t$ to1 ev5 by ! mo/ cauti\s philosoph]s4 ,z ,i _c appreciate ! ma!matical evid5ce = ! nature ( circul> pol>ization1 says ,pr(4 ,airy1#aabi ,i %all m5tion ! exp]im5tal evid5ce on :i* ,i receive x4 ,! conception has s9ce be5 univ]sally adopt$4 ,note #aaji3 ,ib4 p4 #aid4 ,note #aaai3 ,bullet4 des ,sc4 #ahbc1 p4 #cc4 ,note #aabi3 ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ha1 #ahca4 ,b ,fresnel1 hav+ ?us obta9$ circul>ly-pol>iz$ rays1 saw #aba t he c\ld acc\nt = ! ph5om5a ( qu>tz1 already obs]v$ by ,m4 ,arago1 z we h notic$ 9 ,*ap4 ix41 by suppos+ two circul>ly-pol>iz$ rays to pass1 ) diff]5t velocities1 along ! axis4 ,! curi\s succession ( colors1 foll[+ ea* o!r 9 "r-h&$ or left-h&$ circul> ord]1 ( :i* we h already spok51 might ?us be hypo!tically expla9$4 ,b 0 ?is hypo!sis ( two circul>ly-pol>iz$ rays1 travell+ along ! axis ( su* cry/als1 to be receiv$1 m]ely because x acc\nt$ = ! ph5om5a8 ,fresnel's +5uity aga9 enabl$ him to avoid su* a defect 9 !oriz+4 ,if !re 7 two su* rays1 !y might be visibly sep>at$#aaci by ! same artifice1 ( a pile ( prisms prop]ly a*romatiz$1 :i* he _h us$ = compress$ glass4 ,! result 01 t he did obta9 a visible sep>ation ( ! rays2 & ?is result has s9ce be5 confirm$ by o!rs1 = in/ance4 ,pr(essor ,airy4#aadi ,! rays 7 f\nd to be 9 all respects id5tical ) ! circul>ly-pol>iz$ rays produc$ by ! int]nal reflections 9 ,fresnel's rhomb4 ,?is k9d ( d\ble refraction gave a hypo!tical explanation ( ! laws :i* ,m4 ,biot _h obta9$ = ! ph5om5a ( ?is class2 = example1#aaei ! rule1 t ! deviation ( ! plane ( pol>ization ( ! em]g5t ray is inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! l5g? ( an undulation = ea* k9d ( rays4 ,& ?us ! ph5om5a produc$ by light pass+ along ! axis ( qu>tz 7 r$uc$ into complete con=mity ) ! !ory4 ,note #aaci3 ,bull4 des ,sc4 #ahbb1 p4 #aic4 ,note #aadi3 ,cambridge ,trans4 iv4 p4 #hj4 ,note #aaei3 ,bull4 des ,sc4 #ahbb1 p4 #aig4 #bnd ,ed4 ,i believe1 h[ev]1 ,fresnel did n d$uce ! ph5om5on f ! ma!matical =mula1 )\t ! previ\s sugge/ion ( exp]im5t4 ,he obs]v$ appe>ances :i* impli$ a diff]5ce ( ret>dation 9 ! two diff]5tly-pol>iz$ rays at total reflection2 z ,sir ,d4 ,brew/] obs]v$ 9 reflection ( metals ph5om5a hav+ a l "*4 ,! g5]al fact be+ obs]v$1 ,fresnel us$ ! !ory to discov] ! law ( ?is ret>dation1 & to det]m9e a con/ruction 9 :i*1 "o ray be+ a qu>t] ( an undulation ret>d$ m ?an ! o!r1 circul> pol>ization w\ld be produc$4 ,& ?is anticipation 0 v]ifi$ by ! con/ruction ( 8 rhomb4 ,z a /ill m curi\s v]ification ( ?is law1 ano!r ( ,fresnel's exp]im5ts may be m5tion$4 ,he f\nd ! prop] angles = a circul>ly-pol>iz+ glass rhomb on ! supposition t !re 7 #abb f\r int]nal reflections in/ead ( two2 two ( ! f\r tak+ place :5 ! surface ( ! glass 0 dry1 & two :5 x 0 wet4 ,! rhomb 0 made2 & :5 all ! po9ts ( reflection 7 dry1 ! light 0 n circul>ly pol>iz$2 :5 two po9ts 7 wet1 ! light 0 circul>ly pol>iz$2 & :5 all f\r 7 wet1 x 0 n circul>ly pol>iz$4 #c4 ,elliptical ,pol>ization 9 ,qu>tz4--,we n[ come to "o ( ! few additions to ,fresnel's !ory :i* h be5 %[n to be necess>y4 ,he _h acc\nt$ fully = ! colors produc$ by ! rays :i* travel along ! axis ( qu>tz cry/als2 & ?us1 = ! colors & *anges ( ! c5tral spot :i* is produc$ :5 pol>iz$ light passes ?r\gh a transv]se plate ( su* cry/als4 ,b ?is c5tral spot is surr\nd$ by r+s ( colors4 ,h[ is ! !ory to be ext5d$ to ^!8 ,?is ext5sion has be5 successfully made by ,pr(essor ,airy4#aafi ,8 hypo!sis is1 t z rays pass+ along ! axis ( a qu>tz cry/al are circul>ly pol>iz$1 rays :i* are oblique to ! axis are elliptically pol>iz$1 ! am\nt ( ellipticity dep5d+1 9 "s unkn[n mann]1 ^u ! obliquity2 & t ea* ray is sep>at$ by d\ble refraction into two rays pol>iz$ elliptically2 ! "o "r-h&$1 ! o!r left-h&$4 ,by means ( ^! suppositions1 he n only 0 enabl$ to acc\nt = ! simple ph5om5a ( s+le plates ( qu>tz2 b = _m mo/ complex & intricate appe>ances :i* arise f ! sup]position ( two plates1 & :i* at fir/ sight might appe> to defy all attempts to r$uce !m to law & symmetry2 su* z spirals1 curves approa*+ to a squ>e =m1 curves brok5 9 f\r places4 ,i c h>dly imag9e1 he says1#aagi v naturally1 t any o!r supposition w\ld repres5t ! ph5om5a to su* extreme accuracy4 ,i am n s mu* /ruck ) ! acc\nt+ = ! cont9u$ dilatation ( circles1 & ! g5]al repres5tation ( ! =ms ( spirals1 z ) ! explanations ( ! m9ute deviations f symmetry2 z :5 circles become almo/ squ>e1 & crosses are incl9$ to ! plane ( pol>ization4 ,& ,i believe t any "o :o %all foll[ my inve/igation1 & imitate my exp]im5ts1 w be surpris$ at _! p]fect agreem5t4 ,note #aafi3 ,camb4 ,trans41 iv4 p4 #hc1 c4 ,note #aagi3 ,camb4 ,trans41 iv4 p4 #abb4 #d4 ,diff]5tial ,equations ( ,elliptical ,pol>ization4--,al?\gh circul> & elliptical pol>ization c be cle>ly conceiv$1 & _! exi/5ce1 x w\ld seem1 irresi/ibly e/abli%$ by ! ph5om5a1 x #abc is extremely difficult to conceive any arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles ( bodies by :i* su* motions c me*anically be produc$2 & ?is difficulty is ! great]1 because "s fluids & "s gases impress a circul> pol>ization ^u light2 9 :i* cases we _c imag9e any def9ite arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles1 su* z might =m ! me*anism requisite = ! purpose4 ,accord+ly1 x does n appe> t any "o has be5 able to sugge/ ev5 a plausible hypo!sis on t subject4 ,yet1 ev5 "h1 some?+ has be5 done4 ,pr(essor ,mac ,cullagh1 ( ,dubl91 has discov]$ t by slightly modify+ ! analytical expressions result+ f ! common case ( ! propagation ( light1 we may obta9 o!r expressions :i* w\ld give rise to su* motions z produce circul> & elliptical pol>ization4 ,& ?\gh we _c z yet assign ! me*anical int]pretation ( ! language ( analysis ?us g5]aliz$1 ?is g5]alization br+s toge!r & expla9s by "o common num]ical supposition1 two di/9ct classes ( facts2--a circum/ance :i*1 9 all cases1 entitles an hypo!sis to a v favorable consid]ation4 ,mr4 ,mac ,cullagh's assumption consi/s 9 add+ to ! two equations ( motion :i* are express$ by means ( second diff]5tials1 two o!r t]ms involv+ ?ird diff]5tials 9 a simple & symmetrical mann]4 ,9 do+ ?is1 he introduces a coeffici5t1 ( :i* ! magnitude det]m9es bo? ! am\nt ( rotation ( ! pol>ization ( a ray pass+ along ! axis1 z obs]v$ & measur$ by ,biot1 & ! ellipticity ( ! pol>ization ( a ray :i* is oblique to ! axis1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,airy's !ory1 ( :i* ellipticity t philosoph] also _h obta9$ c]ta9 measures4 ,! agreem5t betwe5 ! two sets ( measures#aahi ?us br\ght into connexion is su* z v /rik+ly to confirm ,mr4 ,mac ,cullagh's hypo!sis4 ,x appe>s probable1 too1 t ! confirmation ( ?is hypo!sis involves1 al?\gh 9 an obscure & oracul> =m1 a confirmation ( ! undulatory !ory1 :i* is ! />t+-po9t ( ?is curi\s speculation4 ,note #aahi3 ,royal ,i4 ,a4 ,trans4 #ahcf4 #e4 ,elliptical ,pol>ization ( ,metals4--,! effect ( metals ^u ! light :i* !y reflect1 0 kn[n f ! fir/ to be diff]5t f t :i* transp>5t bodies produce4 ,sir ,david ,brew/]1 :o has rec5tly exam9$ ?is subject v fully1#aaii has describ$ ! modification ?us produc$1 z elliptic pol>ization4 ,9 employ+ ?is t]m1 he seems to h be5 l$1 x has be5 obs]v$1#abji by a #abd desire to avoid z mu* z possible all ref]5ce to !ory4 ,! laws :i* he has obta9$1 h[ev]1 belong to elliptically-pol>iz$ light 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! t]m 0 introduc$ by ,fresnel4 ,& ! id5tity ( ! light produc$ by metallic reflection ) ! elliptically-pol>iz$ light ( ! wave-!ory1 is plac$ beyond all d\bt1 by an obs]vation ( ,pr(essor ,airy1 t ! r+s ( uniaxal cry/als1 produc$ by ,fresnel's elliptically-pol>iz$ light1 are exactly ! same z ^? produc$ by ,brew/]'s metallic light4 ,note #aaii3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcj4 ,note #abji3 ,lloyd1 ,report on ,optics1 p4 #cgb4 7,brit4 ,assoc47 #f4 ,newton's ,r+s by ,pol>iz$ ,light4--,o!r modifications ( ! ph5om5a ( ?9 plates by ! use ( pol>iz$ light1 suppli$ o!r /rik+ confirmations ( ! !ory4 ,^! 7 9 "o case ! m rem>kable1 s9ce ! result 0 =ese5 by means ( a rigor\s application ( ! conception ( ! vibratory motion ( light1 & confirm$ by exp]im5t4 ,pr(essor ,airy1 ( ,cambridge1 0 l$ by 8 reason+s to see1 t if ,newton's r+s are produc$ betwe5 a l5s & a plate ( metal1 by pol>iz$ light1 !n1 up to ! pol>iz+ angle1 ! c5tral spot w be black1 & in/antly beyond ?is1 x w be :ite4 ,9 a note1#abai 9 :i* he ann\nc$ ?is1 he says1 ,?is ,i anticipat$ f ,fresnel's expressions2 x is confirmatory ( !m1 & defies emission4 ,he also pr$ict$ t :5 ! r+s 7 produc$ betwe5 two sub/ances ( v diff]5t refractive p[]s1 ! c5tre w\ld twice pass f black to :ite & f :ite to black1 by increas+ ! angle2 :i* anticipation 0 fulfill$ by us+ a diamond = ! high] refraction4#abbi ,note #abai3 ,address$ to myself1 dat$ ,may #bh1 #ahca4 ,i ought1 h[ev]1 to notice1 t ?is exp]im5t _h be5 made by ,m4 ,arago1 fifte5 ye>s e>li]1 & publi%$3 ?\gh n !n recollect$ by ,mr4 ,airy4 ,note #abbi3 ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 p4 #dji4 #g4 ,conical ,refraction4--,9 ! same mann]4 ,pr(essor ,hamilton ( ,dubl9 po9t$ out t accord+ to ! ,fresnelian doctr9e ( d\ble refraction1 !re is a c]ta9 direction ( a cry/al 9 :i* a s+le ray ( light w be refract$ s z to =m a conical p5cil4 ,= ! direction ( ! refract$ ray is det]m9$ by a plane :i* t\*es ! wave surface1 ! rule be+ t ! ray mu/ pass f ! c5tre ( ! surface to ! po9t ( contact2 & ?\gh 9 g5]al ?is contact gives a s+le po9t only1 x s happ5s1 f ! peculi> inflect$ =m ( ! wave surface1 :i* has :at is call$ a cusp1 t 9 "o p>ticul> position1 ! plane c t\* ! surface 9 an entire circle4 ,?us ! g5]al rule :i* assigns ! pa? ( #abe ! refract$ ray1 w\ld1 9 ?is case1 guide x f ! c5tre ( ! surface to e po9t 9 ! circumf]5ce ( ! circle1 & ?us make x a cone4 ,?is v curi\s & unexpect$ result1 :i* ,pr(essor ,hamilton ?us obta9$ f ! !ory1 8 fri5d ,pr(essor ,lloyd v]ifi$ z an exp]im5tal fact4 ,we may notice1 also1 t ,pr(essor ,lloyd f\nd ! light ( ! conical p5cil to be pol>iz$ accord+ to a law ( an unusual k9d2 b "o :i* 0 easily se5 to be 9 complete accordance ) ! !ory4 #h4 ,fr+es ( ,%ad[s4--,! ph5om5a ( ! fr+es ( %ad[s ( small holes & gr\ps ( holes1 :i* _h be5 ! subject ( exp]im5t by ,fraunh(]1 7 at a lat] p]iod c>efully obs]v$ 9 a va/ v>iety ( cases by ,m4 ,s*w]d ( ,spires1 & publi%$ 9 a sep>ate "w1#abci ,beugungs-ers*e9ung5 7,ph5om5a ( ,inflection71 #ahcf4 ,9 ?is ,treatise1 ! au?or has ) great indu/ry & skill calculat$ ! integrals :i*1 z we h se51 are requisite 9 ord] to trace ! consequ5ces ( ! !ory2 & ! accordance :i* he f9ds betwe5 ^! & ! v>i$ & brilliant results ( obs]vation is ?r\gh\t exact4 ,i %all1 says he1 9 ! preface1#abdi prove by ! pres5t ,treatise1 t all inflection-ph5om5a1 ?r\gh op5+s ( any =m1 size1 & arrangem5t1 are n only expla9$ by ! undulation-!ory1 b t !y c be repres5t$ by analytical expressions1 det]m9+ ! int5sity ( ! light 9 any po9t :atev]4 ,& he ju/ly adds1 t ! undulation-!ory acc\nts = ! ph5om5a ( light1 z completely z ! !ory ( gravitation does = ! facts ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,note #abci3 ,die ,beugungs-ers*e9ung51 aus dem ,fundam5tal-gesetz d] ,undulations-,!orie analytis* entwickelt und 9 ,bild]n d>ge/ellt1 von ,f4 ,m4 ,s*w]d4 ,mannheim1 #ahce4 ,note #abdi3 ,dat$ ,spey]1 ,aug4 #ahce4 #i4 ,objections to ! ,!ory4--,we h hi!rto m5tion$ only cases 9 :i* ! undulatory !ory 0 ei!r entirely successful 9 expla9+ ! facts1 or at lea/ hypo!tically consi/5t ) !m & ) itself4 ,b o!r objections 7 />t$1 & "s difficulties 7 long consid]$ z v emb>rass+4 ,objections 7 made to ! !ory by "s ,engli% exp]im5t]s1 z ,mr4 ,pott]1 ,mr4 ,b>ton1 & o!rs4 ,^! appe>$ 9 sci5tific j\rnals1 & 7 aft]w>ds answ]$ 9 simil> publications4 ,! objections dep5d$ p>tly on ! measure ( ! int5sity ( light 9 ! diff]5t po9ts ( ! ph5om5a 7a datum :i* x is v difficult to obta9 ) accuracy #abf by exp]im5t71 & p>tly on misconceptions ( ! !ory2 & ,i believe !re are none ( !m :i* w\ld n[ be insi/$ on4 ,we may m5tion1 also1 ano!r difficulty1 :i* x 0 ! habit ( ! oppon5ts ( ! !ory to urge z a reproa* aga9/ x1 long aft] x _h be5 satisfactorily expla9$3 ,i mean ! half-undulation :i* ,"y & ,fresnel _h f\nd x necess>y1 9 "s cases1 to assume z ga9$ or lo/ by "o ( ! rays4 ,?\gh !y & _! foll[]s c\ld n analyse ! me*anism ( reflection ) suffici5t exactness to trace out all ! circum/ances1 x 0 n difficult to see1 ^u ,fresnel's pr9ciples1 t reflection f ! int]ior & ext]ior surface ( glass mu/ be ( opposite k9ds1 :i* might be express$ by suppos+ "o ( ^! rays to lose half an undulation4 ,& ?us !re came into view a ju/ification ( ! /ep :i* _h orig9ally be5 tak5 ^u empirical gr\nds alone4 #aj4 ,disp]sion1 on ! ,undulatory ,!ory4--,a difficulty ( ano!r k9d occasion$ a m s]i\s & protract$ emb>rassm5t to ! cultivators ( ?is !ory4 ,?is 0 ! app>5t impossibility ( acc\nt+1 on ! !ory1 = ! prismatic disp]sion ( color4 ,= x _h be5 %[n by ,newton t ! am\nt ( refraction is diff]5t = e color2 & ! am\nt ( refraction dep5ds on ! velocity ) :i* light is propagat$4 ,yet ! !ory sugge/$ no reason :y ! velocity %\ld be diff]5t = diff]5t colors3 =1 by ma!matical calculation1 vibrations ( all degrees ( rapidity 79 :i* alone colors diff]7 are propagat$ ) ! same spe$4 ,nor does analogy lead u to expect ?is v>iety4 ,!re is no su* diff]5ce betwe5 quick & sl[ waves ( air4 ,! s\nds ( ! deepe/ & ! highe/ bells ( a peal are he>d at any di/ance 9 ! same ord]4 ,"h1 !re=e1 ! !ory 0 at fault4 ,b ?is defect 0 f> f be+ a fatal "o4 ,= ?\gh ! !ory did n expla91 x did n contradict1 disp]sion4 ,! suppositions on :i* ! calculations _h be5 conduct$1 & ! analogy ( s\nd1 7 obvi\sly 9 no small degree prec>i\s4 ,! velocity ( propagation might diff] = diff]5t rates ( undulation1 9 virtue ( _m causes :i* w\ld n affect ! g5]al !oretical results4 ,_m su* hypo!tical causes 7 sugge/$ by v>i\s em95t ma!maticians1 z solutions ( ?is conspicu\s difficulty4 ,b )\t dwell+ ^u ^! conjectures1 x may suffice to notice t hypo!sis ^u :i* ! att5tion ( ma!maticians 0 soon conc5trat$4 ,?is 0 ! hypo!sis ( f9ite int]vals betwe5 ! #abg p>ticles ( ! e!r4 ,! l5g? ( "o ( ^? undulations :i* produce light1 is a v small quantity1 its mean value be+ #aej1jjj? ( an in*2 b 9 ! previ\s inve/igations ( ! consequ5ces ( ! !ory1 x _h be5 assum$ t ! di/ance f ea* o!r1 ( ! p>ticles ( ! e!r1 :i*1 by _! attractions or repulsions1 caus$ ! undulations to be propagat$1 is indef9itely less ?an ?is small quantity2--s t its am\nt might be neglect$ 9 ! cases 9 :i* ! l5g? ( ! undulation 0 "o ( ! quantities :i* det]m9$ ! result4 ,b ?is assumption 0 made arbitr>ily1 z a /ep ( simplification1 & because x 0 imag9$ t1 9 ?is way1 a ne>] approa* 0 made to ! case ( a cont9u\s fluid e!r1 :i* ! supposition ( di/9ct p>ticles imp]fectly repres5t$4 ,x 0 /ill free = ma!maticians to proce$ ^u ! opposite assumption1 ( p>ticles ( :i* ! di/ances 7 f9ite1 ei!r z a ma!matical basis ( calculation1 or z a physical hypo!sis2 & x rema9$ to be se5 if1 :5 ?is 0 done1 ! velocity ( light w\ld /ill be ! same = diff]5t l5g?s ( undulation1 t is1 = diff]5t colors4 ,m4 ,cau*y1 calculat+1 ^u ! mo/ g5]al pr9ciples1 ! motion ( su* a collection ( p>ticles z w\ld =m an ela/ic m$ium1 obta9$ results :i* includ$ ! new ext5sion ( ! previ\s hypo!sis4 ,pr(essor ,p[ell1 ( ,ox=d1 appli$ himself to r$uce to calculation1 & to comp>e ) exp]im5t1 ! result ( ^! rese>*es4 ,& x appe>$ t1 on ,m4 ,cau*y's pr9ciples1 a v>iation 9 ! velocity ( light is produc$ by a v>iation 9 ! l5g? ( ! wave1 provid$ t ! int]val betwe5 ! molecules ( ! e!r be>s a s5sible ratio to ! l5g? ( an undulation4#abei ,pr(essor ,p[ell obta9$ also1 f ! g5]al expressions1 a =mula express+ ! relation betwe5 ! refractive index ( a ray1 & ! l5g? ( a wave1 or ! color ( light4#abfi ,x !n became 8 task to asc]ta9 :e!r ?is relation obta9$ exp]im5tally2 & he f\nd a v close agreem5t betwe5 ! numb]s :i* result$ f ! =mula & ^? obs]v$ by ,fraunh(]1 = t5 diff]5t k9ds ( m$ia1 namely1 c]ta9 glasses & fluids4#abgi ,to ^! he aft]w>ds add$ t5 o!r cases ( cry/als obs]v$ by ,m4 ,rudb]g4#abhi ,mr4 ,kell&1 ( ,cambridge1 also calculat$1 9 a mann] some:at diff]5t1 ! results ( ! same hypo!sis ( f9ite int]vals2#abii &1 obta9+ #abh =mul n exactly ! same z ,pr(essor ,p[ell1 f\nd also an agreem5t betwe5 ^! & ,fraunh(]'s obs]vations4 ,note #abei3 ,phil4 ,mag4 vol4 vi4 p4 #bff4 ,note #abfi3 ,ib4 vol4 vii4 #ahce1 p4 #bff4 ,note #abgi3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 p4 #bdi4 ,note #abhi3 ,ib4 #ahcf1 p4 #ag4 ,note #abii3 ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 vi4 p4 #aec4 ,x may be obs]v$1 t ! refractive indices obs]v$ & employ$ 9 ^! comp>isons1 7 n ^? det]m9$ by ! color ( ! ray1 :i* is n capable ( exact id5tification1 b ^? m accurate measures :i* ,fraunh(] 0 enabl$ to make1 9 consequ5ce ( hav+ detect$ 9 ! spectrum ! black l9es :i* he call$ ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h4 ,! agreem5t betwe5 ! !oretical =mul & ! obs]v$ numb]s is rem>kable1 ?r\gh\t all ! s]ies ( comp>isons ( :i* we h spok54 ,yet we mu/ at pres5t hesitate to pron\nce ^u ! hypo!sis ( f9ite int]vals1 z prov$ by ^! calculations2 = ?\gh ?is hypo!sis has giv5 results agree+ s closely ) exp]im5t1 x is n yet cle> t o!r hypo!ses may n produce an equal agreem5t4 ,by ! nature ( ! case1 !re mu/ be a c]ta9 gradation & cont9uity 9 ! succession ( colors 9 ! spectrum1 & h5ce1 any supposition :i* w acc\nt = ! g5]al fact ( ! :ole disp]sion1 may possibly acc\nt = ! am\nt ( ! int]m$iate disp]sions1 because ^! mu/ be int]polations betwe5 ! extremes4 ,! result ( ?is hypo!tical calculation1 h[ev]1 %[s v satisfactorily t !re is n1 9 ! fact ( disp]sion1 any?+ :i* is at all =midable to ! undulatory !ory4 #aa4 ,conclusion4--,!re are sev]al o!r ( ! m recondite po9ts ( ! !ory :i* may be consid]$ z1 at pres5t1 too undecid$ to all[ u to speak hi/orically ( ! discussions :i* !y h occasion$4#acji ,= example1 x 0 conceiv$1 = "s "t1 t ! vibrations ( pol>iz$ light are p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( pol>ization4 ,b ?is assumption 0 n an ess5tial "p ( ! !ory2 & all ! ph5om5a w\ld equally all[ u to suppose ! vibrations to be 9 ! pol>ization plane2 ! ma9 requisite be+1 t light pol>iz$ 9 planes at "r angles to ea* o!r1 %\ld also h ! vibrations at "r angles4 ,accord+ly1 = "s "t1 ?is po9t 0 left undecid$ by ,"y & ,fresnel1 &1 m rec5tly1 "s ma!maticians h come to ! op9ion t e!r vibrates 9 ! plane ( pol>ization4 ,! !ory ( transv]se vibrations is equally /able1 :i*ev] supposition may be f9ally confirm$4 ,note #acji3 ,= on acc\nt ( ^!1 see ,pr(essor ,lloyd's ,report on ,physical ,optics4 7,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 #ahcd47 ,we may speak1 9 ! same mann]1 ( ! suppositions :i*1 f #abi ! "t ( ,"y & ,fresnel1 ! cultivators ( ?is !ory h be5 l$ to make respect+ ! me*anical con/itution ( ! e!r1 & ! =ces by :i* transv]se vibrations are produc$4 ,x 0 natural t v>i\s difficulties %\ld arise ^u su* po9ts1 = transv]se vibrations _h n previ\sly be5 made ! subject ( me*anical calculation1 & ! =ces :i* occasion !m mu/ act 9 a diff]5t mann] f ^? :i* 7 previ\sly contemplat$4 ,/ill1 we may v5ture to say1 )\t ent]+ into ^! discussions1 t x has appe>$1 f all ! ma!matical reason+s :i* h be5 pursu$1 t !re is n1 9 ! conception ( transv]se vibrations1 any?+ inconsi/5t ei!r ) ! pr9ciples ( me*anics1 or ) ! be/ g5]al views :i* we c =m1 ( ! =ces by :i* ! univ]se is held toge!r4 ,i will+ly speak z briefly z ! nature ( my und]tak+ all[s1 ( ^? po9ts ( ! undulatory !ory :i* are /ill "u delib]ation among ma!maticians4 ,) respect to ^!1 an intimate acqua9tance ) ma!matics & physics is necess>y to enable any "o to und]/& ! /eps :i* are made f day to day2 & /ill high] philosophical qualifications w\ld be requisite 9 ord] to pron\nce a judgm5t ^u !m4 ,i %all1 !re=e1 conclude ?is survey by rem>k+ ! highly promis+ condition ( ?is great dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 9 respect to ! "* ( its cultivators4 ,no?+ less ?an pr(\nd ?\ght & great ma!matical skill c enable any "o to deal ) ?is !ory1 9 any way likely to promote ! int]e/s ( sci5ce4 ,b !re appe>s1 9 ! horizon ( ! sci5tific _w1 a consid]able class ( "y ma!maticians1 :o are already br++ to ^! inve/igations ! requisite tal5ts & zeal2 & :o1 hav+ acquir$ _! k ( ! !ory s9ce ! "t :5 its acceptation 0 d\btful1 possess1 )\t ef=t1 t s+l5ess & decision ( view z to its fundam5tal doctr9es1 :i* x is difficult = ^? to atta9 ^: m9ds h _h to g ?r\gh ! hesitation1 /ruggle1 & balance ( ! epo* ( ! e/abli%m5t ( ! !ory4 ,9 ! h&s ( ?is new g5]ation1 x is reasonable to suppose ! ,analytical ,me*anics ( light w be improv$ z mu* z ! ,analytical ,me*anics ( ! sol> sy/em 0 by ! successors ( ,newton4 ,we h already _h to notice _m ( ?is y\ng] race ( undulationi/s4 ,= besides ,,mm4 ,cau*y1 ,poisson1 & ,ampre1 ,m4 ,lam has be5 m rec5tly foll[+ ^! rese>*es 9 ,france4#acai ,9 #acj ,belgium1 ,m4 ,quetelet has giv5 great att5tion to !m2 &1 9 our own c\ntry1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 & ,pr(essor ,lloyd1 ( ,dubl91 h be5 foll[$ by ,mr4 ,mac ,cullagh4 ,pr(essor ,p[ell1 ( ,ox=d1 has cont9u$ 8 rese>*es ) unremitt+ indu/ry2 &1 at ,cambridge1 ,pr(essor ,airy1 :o did mu* = ! e/abli%m5t & diffusion ( ! !ory be=e he 0 remov$ to ! po/ ( ,a/ronom] ,royal1 at ,gre5wi*1 has _h ! satisfaction to see 8 labors cont9u$ by o!rs1 ev5 to ! mo/ rec5t "t2 = ,mr4 ,kell&1#acbi :om we h already m5tion$1 & ,mr4 ,ar*ibald ,smi?1#acci ! two p]sons :o1 9 #ahcd & #ahcf1 receiv$ ! highe/ ma!matical honors :i* t univ]sity c be/[1 h bo? ( !m publi%$ inve/igations respect+ ! undulatory !ory4 ,note #acai3 ,pr(4 ,lloyd's ,report1 p4 #cib4 ,note #acbi3 ,on ! ,disp]sion ( ,light1 z expla9$ by ! ,hypo!sis ( ,f9ite ,int]vals4 ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 vi4 p4 #aec4 ,note #acci3 ,inve/igation ( ! ,equation to ,fresnel's ,wave ,surface1 ib4 p4 #he4 ,see also1 9 ! same volume1 ,ma!matical ,consid]ations on ! ,problem ( ! ,ra9b[1 %[+ x to belong to ,physical ,optics1 by ,r4 ,pott]1 ,esq41 ( ,que5's ,college4 ,we may be p]mitt$ to add1 z a reflection obvi\sly sugge/$ by ^! facts1 t ! cause ( ! progress ( sci5ce is incalculably b5efit$ by ! exi/5ce ( a body ( m51 tra9$ & /imulat$ to ! /udy ( ! high] ma!matics1 su* z exi/ 9 ! ,briti% univ]sities1 :o are ?us prep>$1 :5 an ab/ruse & sublime !ory comes be=e ! _w ) all ! *>act]s ( tru?1 to appreciate its evid5ce1 to take /eady hold ( its pr9ciples1 to pursue its calculations1 & ?us to conv]t into a portion ( ! p]man5t treasure & inh]itance ( ! civiliz$ _w1 discov]ies :i* might o!rwise expire ) ! great g5iuses :o produc$ !m1 & be lo/ = ages1 z1 9 =m] times1 great sci5tific discov]ies h sometimes be54 ,! read] :o is acqua9t$ ) ! hi/ory ( rec5t optical discov]y1 w see t we h omitt$ mu* :i* has ju/ly excit$ admiration2 z1 = example1 ! ph5om5a produc$ by glass "u heat or pressure1 notic$ by ,,mm4 ,lobeck1 & ,biot1 & ,brew/]1 & _m mo/ curi\s prop]ties ( p>ticul> m9]als4 ,we h omitt$1 too1 all notice ( ! ph5om5a & laws ( ! absorption ( light1 :i* hi!rto /& unconnect$ ) ! !ory4 ,b 9 ?is we h n mat]ially deviat$ f our ma9 design2 = our end1 9 :at we h done1 has be5 to trace ! advances ( ,optics #aca t[>ds p]fection z a !ory2 & ?is task we h n[ ne>ly execut$ z f> z our abilities all[4 ,we h be5 desir\s ( %[+ t ! type ( ?is progress1 9 ! hi/ories ( ! two great sci5ces1 ,physical ,a/ronomy & ,physical ,optics1 is ! same4 ,9 bo? we h _m ,laws ( ,ph5om5a detect$ & accumulat$ by acute & inv5tive m52 we h ,preludial guesses :i* t\* ! true !ory1 b :i* rema9 = a "t imp]fect1 undevelop$1 unconfirm$3 f9ally we h ! ,epo* :5 ?is true !ory1 cle>ly appreh5d$ by great philosophical g5iuses1 is recomm5d$ by its fully expla9+ :at x 0 fir/ meant to expla91 & confirm$ by its expla9+ :at x 0 n meant to expla94 ,we h !n its ,progress /ruggl+ = a little :ile ) adv]se prepossessions & difficulties2 f9ally ov]com+ all ^!1 & mov+ onw>ds1 :ile its triumphal procession is jo9$ by all ! y\ng] & m vigor\s m5 ( sci5ce4 ,x w\ld1 p]haps1 be too fanciful to attempt to e/abli% a p>allelism betwe5 ! prom95t p]sons :o figure 9 ^! two hi/ories4 ,if we 7 to d ?is1 we mu/ consid] ,huygh5s & ,hooke z /&+ 9 ! place ( ,cop]nicus1 s9ce1 l him1 !y ann\nc$ ! true !ory1 b left x to a future age to give x developm5t & me*anical confirmation2 ,malus & ,brew/]1 gr\p+ !m toge!r1 correspond to ,ty*o ,brahe & ,kepl]1 labori\s 9 accumulat+ obs]vations1 inv5tive & happy 9 discov]+ laws ( ph5om5a2 & ,"y & ,fresnel comb9$1 make up ! ,newton ( optical sci5ce4 #bnd ,ed4 ,9 ! ,report on ,physical ,optics1 7,brit4 ,ass4 ,reports1 #ahcd17 by ,pr(4 ,lloyd1 ! progress ( ! ma!matical !ory aft] ,fresnel's labors is /at$ m di/9ctly ?an ,i h /at$ x1 to ! foll[+ effect4 ,ampre1 9 #ahbh1 prov$ ,fresnel's ma!matical results directly1 :i* ,fresnel _h only prov$ indirectly1 & d]iv$ f 8 pro( ,fresnel's beautiful geometrical con/ruction4 ,pr(4 ,mac ,cullagh n long aft] gave a concise demon/ration ( ! same !orem1 & ( ! o!r pr9cipal po9ts ( ,fresnel's !ory4 ,he repres5ts ! ela/ic =ce by means ( an ellipsoid ^: axes are inv]sely proportional to ^? ( ,fresnel's g5]at+ ellipsoid1 & d$uces ,fresnel's con/ruction geometrically4 ,9 ! ?ird ,supplem5t to 8 ,essay on ! ,!ory ( ,sy/ems ( ,rays 7,trans4 ,r4 ,i4 ,acad4 vol4 xvii471 ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton has pres5t$ t portion ( ,fresnel's !ory :i* relates to ! fundam5tal problem ( ! det]m9ation ( ! velocity & pol>ization ( a plane wave1 9 a v elegant & analytical =m4 ,?is he does by means ( :at he calls ! #acb *>act]i/ic function ( ! optical sy/em to :i* ! problem belongs4 ,f ?is function is d$uc$ ! surface ( wave-sl[ness ( ! m$ium2 & by means ( ?is surface1 ! direction ( ! rays refract$ into ! m$ium4 ,f ?is con/ruction also ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton 0 l$ to ! anticipation ( conical refraction1 m5tion$ above4 ,! inve/igations ( ,,mm4 ,cau*y & ,lam ref] to ! laws by :i* ! p>ticles ( ! e!r act ^u ea* o!r & ^u ! p>ticles ( o!r bodies2--a field ( speculation :i* appe>s to me n yet ripe = ! f9al op]ations ( ! analy/4 ,among ! ma!maticians :o h suppli$ defects 9 ,fresnel's reason+ on ?is subject1 ,i may m5tion ,mr4 ,tovey1 :o treat$ x 9 sev]al pap]s 9 ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e 7#ahcg-dj74 ,mr4 ,tovey's e>ly dea? mu/ be deem$ a loss to ma!matical sci5ce4 ,besides inve/igat+ ! motion ( symmetrical sy/ems ( p>ticles :i* may be suppos$ to correspond to biaxal cry/als1 ,mr4 ,tovey consid]$ ! case ( unsymmetrical sy/ems1 & f\nd t ! undulations propagat$ w\ld1 9 ! g5]al case1 be elliptical2 & t 9 a p>ticul> case1 circul> undulations w\ld take place1 su* z are propagat$ along ! axis ( qu>tz4 ,x appe>s to me1 h[ev]1 t he has n giv5 a def9ite mean+ to ^? limitations ( 8 g5]al hypo!sis :i* conduct him to ?is result4 ,p]haps if ! hypo!tical conditions ( ?is result 7 trac$ into detail1 !y w\ld be f\nd to reside 9 a screw-l arrangem5t ( ! elem5t>y p>ticles1 9 "s degree su* z cry/als ( qu>tz !mselves exhibit 9 _! =ms1 :5 !y h plagih$ral faces at bo? ends4 ,su* cry/als ( qu>tz are1 "s l a "r-h&$ & "s l a left-h&$ screw2 &1 z ,sir ,john ,h]s*el discov]$1 ! circul> pol>ization is "r-h&$ or left-h&$ accord+ z ! plagih$ral =m is s4 ,9 ,mr4 ,tovey's hypo!tical inve/igation x does n appe> ^u :at "p ( ! hypo!sis ?is diff]5ce ( "r & left-h&$ dep5ds4 ,! def9ition ( ?is "p ( ! hypo!sis is a v desirable /ep4 ,:5 cry/als ( ,qu>tz are "r-h&$ at "o end1 !y are "r-h&$ at ! o!r end3 b !re is a diff]5t k9d ( plagih$ral =m1 :i* occurs 9 "s o!r cry/als1 = in/ance1 9 ,apatite3 9 ^! ! plagih$ral faces are "r-h&$ at ! "o extremity & left-h&$ at ! o!r4 ,= ! sake ( di/9ction1 we may call ! =m] homolog\s plagih$ral faces1 s9ce1 at bo? ends1 !y h ! same "n2 & ! latt] het]olog\s plagih$ral faces4 #acc ,! homolog\s plagih$ral faces ( ,qu>tz cry/als are accompani$ by homolog\s circul> pol>ization ( ! same "n4 ,i d n "k t het]olog\s circul> pol>ization has be5 obs]v$ 9 any cry/al1 b x has be5 discov]$ by ,dr4 ,f>aday to occur 9 glass1 c41 :5 subject$ to p[]ful magnetic action4 ,p]haps x 0 presumptu\s 9 me to attempt to draw su* comp>isons1 especially ) reg>d to liv+ p]sons1 z ,i h done 9 ! prec$+ pages ( ?is ,book4 ,hav+ publi%$ ?is passage1 h[ev]1 ,i %all n n[ suppress x4 ,b ,i may obs]ve t ! imm5se numb] & v>iety ( ! beautiful optical discov]ies :i* we owe to ,sir ,david ,brew/] makes ! comp>ison 9 8 case a v imp]fect repres5tation ( 8 triumphs ov] nature2 & t1 besides 8 place 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,!ory ( ,optics1 he mu/ hold a mo/ em95t position 9 ! hi/ory ( ,optical ,cry/allography1 :5ev] ! discov]y ( a ,true ,optical ,!ory ( ,cry/als supplies u ) ! ,epo* to :i* 8 labors 9 ?is field =m s ri* a ,prelude4 ,i cordially ass5t to ! expression employ$ by ,mr4 ,airy 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 = #ahdj1 9 :i* he speaks ( ,sir ,david ,brew/] z ! ,fa!r ( ,mod]n ,exp]im5tal ,optics4 #ace ,,book ,x4 ,,second>y ,,me*anical ,,sci5ces4 7,,cont9u$47 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,!rmotics ,,& ,,atmology4 ,et primum faciunt ignem se vort]e 9 auras ,aris2 h9c imbrem gigni t]ramque cre>i ,ex imbri2 retroque a t]r cuncta revorti1 ,humorem primum1 po/ ara de9de calorem2 ,nec cess>e hc int] se mut>e1 me>e1 ,de clo ad t]ram de t]r ad sid]a mundi4 ,,lucretius1 i4 #ghc4 ,wat]1 & ,air1 & ,fire1 alt]nate run ,_! endless circle1 multi=m1 yet "o4 ,=1 m\ld$ by ! f]vor's lat5t beams1 ,solids fl[ loose1 & fluids fla% to /eams1 ,& elem5tal flame1 ) secret =ce1 ,pursues ?r\gh e>?1 air1 sky1 its /at$ c\rse4 #acg ,,introduction4 ,( ,!rmotics & ,atmology4 ,i ,,employ ! t]m ,!rmotics to include all ! doctr9es respect+ ,heat1 :i* h hi!rto be5 e/abli%$ on prop] sci5tific gr\nds4 ,our survey ( ! hi/ory ( ?is bran* ( sci5ce mu/ be m rapid & less detail$ ?an x has be5 9 ^? subjects ( :i* we h hi!rto treat$3 = our k is1 9 ?is case1 m vague & unc]ta9 ?an 9 ! o!rs1 & has made less progress t[>ds a g5]al & c]ta9 !ory4 ,/ill1 ! n>rative is too important & too in/ructive to be pass$ ov]4 ,! di/9ction ( ,=mal ,!rmotics & ,physical ,!rmotics1--( ! discov]y ( ! m]e ,laws ( ,ph5om5a1 & ! discov]y ( _! causes1--is applicable "h1 z 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( our k4 ,b we _c exhibit1 9 any prom95t mann]1 ! latt] division ( ! sci5ce n[ be=e u2 s9ce no g5]al !ory ( heat has yet be5 prop\nd$1 :i* af=ds ! means ( calculat+ ! circum/ances ( ! ph5om5a ( conduction1 radiation1 expansion1 & *ange ( solid1 liquid1 & gase\s =m4 ,/ill1 on ea* ( ^! subjects !re h be5 propos$1 & ext5sively ass5t$ to1 c]ta9 g5]al views1 ea* ( :i* expla9s its appropriate class ( ph5om5a2 &1 9 "s cases1 ^! pr9ciples h be5 clo!d 9 precise & ma!matical conditions1 & ?us made bases ( calculation4 ,^! pr9ciples1 ?us possess+ a g5]ality ( a limit$ k9d1 connect+ sev]al obs]v$ laws ( ph5om5a1 b yet n connect+ all ! obs]v$ classes ( facts :i* relate to heat1 w require our sep>ate att5tion4 ,!y may be describ$ z ! ,doctr9e ( ,conduction1 ! ,doctr9e ( ,radiation1 ! ,doctr9e ( ,specific ,heat1 & ! ,doctr9e ( ,lat5t ,heat2 & ^!1 & simil> doctr9es respect+ heat1 make up ! sci5ce :i* we may call ,!rmotics prop]4 ,b besides ^! collections ( pr9ciples :i* reg>d heat by itself1 ! relations ( heat & moi/ure give rise to ano!r & important collection ( laws & pr9ciples1 :i* ,i %all treat ( 9 connexion ) ,!rmotics1 & %all t]m ,atmology1 borr[+ #ach ! t]m f ! ,greek ^w 717 :i* signifies vapor4 ,! ,atmosph]e 0 s nam$ by ! ,greeks1 z be+ a sph]e ( vapor2 &1 und\bt$ly1 ! mo/ g5]al & important ( ! ph5om5a :i* take place 9 ! air1 by :i* ! e>? is surr\nd$1 are ^? 9 :i* wat]1 ( "o consi/5ce or o!r 7ice1 wat]1 or /eam17 is conc]n$4 ,! k :i* relates to :at takes place 9 ! atmosph]e has be5 call$ ,meteorology1 9 its collective =m3 b su* k is1 9 fact1 compos$ ( p>ts ( _m diff]5t sci5ces4 ,& x is useful = our purpose to consid] sep>ately ^? portions ( ,meteorology :i* h ref]5ce to ! laws ( aque\s vapor1 & ^! we may include "u ! t]m ,atmology4 ,! in/rum5ts :i* h be5 inv5t$ = ! purpose ( measur+ ! moi/ure ( ! air1 t is1 ! quantity ( vapor :i* exi/s 9 x1 h be5 t]m$ ,hygromet]s2 & ! doctr9es on :i* ^! in/rum5ts dep5d1 & to :i* !y lead1 h be5 call$ ,hygrometry2 b ?is t]m has n be5 us$ 9 q s ext5sive a s5se z t :i* we int5d to affix to ,atmology4 ,9 treat+ ( ,!rmotics1 we %all fir/ describe ! e>li] progress ( m5's views conc]n+ ,conduction1 ,radiation1 & ! l1 & %all !n speak ( ! m rec5t corrections & ext5sions1 by :i* !y h be5 br\ght ne>] to !oretical g5]ality4 #aci ,,!rmotics ,,prop]4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,doctr9es ,,( ,,conduction ,,& ,,radiation4 ,section #a4--;,introduction ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,conduction4 ,,by conduction is meant ! propagation ( heat f "o "p to ano!r ( a cont9u\s body2 or f "o body to ano!r 9 contact ) x2 z :5 "o end ( a pok] /uck 9 ! fire heats ! o!r end1 or :5 ?is end heats ! h& :i* takes hold ( x4 ,by radiation is meant ! diffusion ( heat f ! surface ( a body to po9ts n 9 contact4 ,x is cle> 9 bo? ^! cases1 t1 9 proportion z ! hot portion is hott]1 x produces a great] effect 9 w>m+ ! cool] portion2 t is1 x communicates m ,heat to x1 if ,heat be ! ab/ract conception ( :i* ?is effect is ! measure4 ,! simple/ rule :i* c be propos$ is1 t ! heat ?us communicat$ 9 a giv5 in/ant is proportional to ! excess ( ! heat ( ! hot body ov] t ( ! contigu\s bodies2 !re are no obvi\s ph5om5a :i* contradict ! supposition t ?is is ! true law2 & x 0 !nce assum$ by ,newton z ! true law = radiation & by o!r writ]s = conduction4 ,?is assumption 0 confirm$ approximately1 & aft]w>ds correct$1 = ! case ( ,radiation2 9 its application to ,conduction1 x has be5 made ! basis ( calculation up to ! pres5t "t4 ,we may obs]ve t ?is /atem5t takes = grant$ t we h atta9$ to a measure ( heat 7or ( temp]ature1 z heat ?us measur$ is t]m$71 correspond+ to ! law ?us assum$2 &1 9 fact1 z we %all h occasion to expla9 9 speak+ ( ! measures ( s5sible qualities1 #adj ! !rmometrical scale ( heat accord+ to ! expansion ( liquids 7:i* is ! measure ( temp]ature "h adopt$71 0 con/ruct$ ) a ref]5ce to ,newton's law ( radiation ( heat2 & ?us ! law is necess>ily consi/5t ) ! scale4 ,9 any case 9 :i* ! p>ts ( a body are unequally hot1 ! temp]ature w v>y cont9u\sly 9 pass+ f "o "p ( ! body to ano!r2 ?us1 a long b> ( iron1 ( :i* "o end is kept r$ hot1 w exhibit a gradual dim9ution ( temp]ature at successive po9ts1 proce$+ to ! o!r end4 ,! law ( temp]ature ( ! p>ts ( su* a b> might be express$ by ! ord9ates ( a curve :i* %\ld run alongside ! b>4 ,&1 9 ord] to trace ma!matically ! consequ5ces ( ! assum$ law1 "s ( ^? processes w\ld be necess>y1 by :i* ma!maticians are enabl$ to deal ) ! prop]ties ( curves2 z ! me?od ( inf9itesimals1 or ! diff]5tial calculus2 & ! tru? or falsehood ( ! law w\ld be det]m9$1 accord+ to ! usual rules ( inductive sci5ce1 by a comp>ison ( results s d$uc$ f ! pr9ciple1 ) ! obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,x 0 easily p]ceiv$ t ?is comp>ison 0 ! task :i* physical inquir]s _h to p]=m2 b ! execution ( x 0 delay$ = "s "t2 p>tly1 p]haps1 because ! ma!matical process pres5t$ "s difficulties4 ,ev5 9 a case s simple z t above m5tion$1 ( a l9e> b> ) a /ation>y temp]ature at "o end1 p>tial diff]5tials ent]$2 = !re 7 ?ree v>iable quantities1 ! "t1 z well z ! place ( ea* po9t & its temp]ature4 ,& at fir/1 ano!r scruple occurr$ to ,m4 ,biot :51 ab\t #ahjd1 he und]took ?is problem4#aaj ,a difficulty1 says ,laplace1#baj 9 #ahji1 pres5ts itself1 :i* has n yet be5 solv$4 ,! quantities ( heat receiv$ & communicat$ 9 an in/ant 7by any po9t ( ! b>7 mu/ be inf9itely small quantities ( ! same ord] z ! excess ( ! heat ( a slice ( ! body ov] t ( ! contigu\s slice2 !re=e ! excess ( ! heat receiv$ by any slice ov] ! heat communicat$1 is an inf9itely small quantity ( ! second ord]2 & ! accumulation 9 a f9ite "t 7:i* dep5ds on ?is excess7 _c be f9ite4 ,i conceive t ?is difficulty arises entirely f an arbitr>y & unnecess>y assumption conc]n+ ! relation ( ! inf9itesimal p>ts ( ! body4 ,laplace resolv$ ! difficulty by fur!r reason+ f\nd$ ^u ! same assumption :i* occasion$ #ada x2 b ,f\ri]1 :o 0 ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ( ! cultivators ( ?is ma!matical doctr9e ( conduction1 foll[s a c\rse ( reason+ 9 :i* ! difficulty does n pres5t itself4 ,inde$ x is /at$ by ,laplace1 9 ! ,memoir above quot$1#caj t ,f\ri] _h already obta9$ ! true fundam5tal equations by views ( 8 own4 ,note #aaj3 ,biot1 ,trait de ,phys4 iv4 p4 #ffi4 ,note #baj3 ,laplace1 ,mm4 ,in/4 = #ahji1 p4 #ccb4 ,note #caj3 ,laplace1 ,mm4 ,in/4 = #ahji1 p4 #ech4 ,! rema9+ "p ( ! hi/ory ( ! doctr9e ( conduction is pr9cipally ! hi/ory ( ,f\ri]'s labors4 ,att5tion hav+ be5 drawn to ! subject1 z we h m5tion$1 ! ,fr5* ,in/itute1 9 ,janu>y1 #ahaj1 propos$1 z _! prize "q1 ,to give ! ma!matical !ory ( ! laws ( ! propagation ( heat1 & to comp>e ?is !ory ) exact obs]vations4 ,f\ri]'s ,memoir 7! sequel ( "o deliv]$ 9 #ahjg17 0 s5t 9 ,septemb]1 #ahaa2 & ! prize 7#cjjj francs7 adjudg$ to x 9 #ahab4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! political confusion :i* prevail$ 9 ,france1 or ( o!r causes1 ^! important ,memoirs 7 n publi%$ by ! ,academy till #ahbd2 b extracts _h be5 pr9t$ 9 ! ,bullet9 des ,sci5ces 9 #ahjh1 & 9 ! ,annales de ,*imie 9 #ahaf2 & ,poisson & ,m4 ,cau*y _h consult$ ! manuscript itself4 ,x is n my purpose to give1 9 ?is place1#daj an acc\nt ( ! analytical processes by :i* ,f\ri] obta9$ 8 results4 ,! skill display$ 9 ^! ,memoirs is su* z to make !m an object ( j admiration to ma!maticians2 b !y consi/ entirely ( d$uctions f ! fundam5tal pr9ciple :i* ,i h notic$1--t ! quantity ( heat conduct$ f a hott] to a cold] po9t is proportional to ! excess ( heat1 modifi$ by ! conductivity1 or conduct+ p[] ( ea* sub/ance4 ,! equations :i* fl[ f ?is pr9ciple assume ne>ly ! same =ms z ^? :i* occur 9 ! mo/ g5]al problems ( hydrodynamics4 ,besides ,f\ri]'s solution1 ,laplace1 ,poisson1 & ,m4 ,cau*y h also ex]cis$ _! great analytical skill 9 ! managem5t ( ^! =mul4 ,we %all briefly speak ( ! comp>ison ( ! results ( ^! reason+s ) exp]im5t1 & notice "s o!r consequ5ces to :i* !y lead4 ,b be=e we c d ?is1 we mu/ pay "s att5tion to ! subject ( radiation4 #adb ,note #daj3 ,i h giv5 an acc\nt ( ,f\ri]'s ma!matical results 9 ! ,reports ( ! ,briti% ,association = #ahce4 ,sect4 #b4--;,introduction ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,radiation4 ,a ,,hot body1 z a mass ( inc&esc5t iron1 emits heat1 z we p]ceive by our s5ses :5 we approa* x2 & by ?is emission ( heat ! hot body cools d[n4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 our sy/ematic k ( ! subject 0 made 9 ! ,pr9cipia4 ,x 0 9 ! de/9y ( t great "w1 says ,f\ri]1 to exhibit1 or at lea/ to indicate1 ! causes ( ! pr9cipal ph5om5a ( ! univ]se4 ,newton assum$1 z we h already said1 t ! rate at :i* a body cools1 t is1 p>ts ) its heat to surr\nd+ bodies1 is proportional to its heat2 & on ?is assumption he re/$ ! v]ification ( 8 scale ( temp]atures4 ,x is an easy d$uction f ?is law1 t if times ( cool+ be tak5 9 ari?metical progression1 ! heat w decrease 9 geometrical progression4 ,kraft1 & aft] him ,ri*man1 tri$ to v]ify ?is law by direct exp]im5ts on ! cool+ ( vessels ( w>m wat]2 & f ^! exp]im5ts1 :i* h s9ce be5 repeat$ by o!rs1 x appe>s t = diff]5ces ( temp]ature :i* d n exce$ #ej degrees 7boil+ wat] be+ #ajj71 ?is geometrical progression repres5ts1 ) tol]able 7b n ) complete7 accuracy1 ! process ( cool+4 ,?is pr9ciple ( radiation1 l t ( conduction1 requir$ to be foll[$ out by ma!matical reason+4 ,b x requir$ also to be correct$ 9 ! fir/ place1 = x 0 easily se5 t ! rate ( cool+ dep5d$1 n on ! absolute temp]ature ( ! body1 b on ! excess ( its temp]ature above ! surr\nd+ objects to :i* x communicat$ its heat 9 cool+4 ,& philosoph]s 7 naturally l$ to endeavor to expla9 or illu/rate ?is process by "s physical notions4 ,lamb]t 9 #agfe publi%$#eaj an ,essay on ! ,=ce ( ,heat1 9 :i* he assimilates ! communication ( heat to ! fl[ ( a fluid out ( "o vessel into ano!r by an excess ( pressure2 & ma!matically d$uces ! laws ( ! process on ?is gr\nd4 ,b "s additional facts sugge/$ a diff]5t view ( ! subject4 ,x 0 f\nd t heat is propagat$ by radiation accord+ to /raight l9es1 l light2 & t x is1 z light is1 capable ( be+ reflect$ by mirrors1 & ?us br\ght to a focus ( int5s] action4 ,9 ?is mann] ! radiative effect ( a body c\ld be m precisely trac$4 ,a fact1 h[ev]1 came "u notice1 :i*1 at fir/ sight1 appe>$ to #adc (f] "s difficulty4 ,x appe>$ t cold 0 reflect$ no less ?an heat4 ,a mass ( ice1 :5 its effect 0 conc5trat$ on a !rmomet] by a sy/em ( mirrors1 made ! !rmomet] fall1 j z a vessel ( hot wat] plac$ 9 a simil> situation made x rise4 ,0 cold1 !n1 to be suppos$ a real sub/ance1 no less ?an heat8 ,note #eaj3 ,act4 ,helvet4 tom4 ii4 p4 #agb4 ,! solution ( ?is & simil> difficulties 0 giv5 by ,pi]re ,prevo/1 pr(essor at ,g5eva1 ^: !ory ( radiant heat 0 propos$ ab\t #agij4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 heat1 or caloric1 is con/antly radiat+ f e po9t ( ! surface ( all bodies 9 /raight l9es2 & x radiates ! m copi\sly1 ! great] is ! quantity ( heat :i* ! body conta9s4 ,h5ce a con/ant ex*ange ( heat is go+ on among neighbor+ bodies2 & a body gr[s hott] or cold]1 accord+ z x receives m caloric ?an x emits1 or ! contr>y4 ,& ?us a body is cool$ by rectil9e> rays f a cold body1 because along ^! pa?s x s5ds rays ( heat 9 great] abundance ?an ^? :i* return ! same way4 ,?is !ory ( ex*anges is simple & satisfactory1 & 0 soon g5]ally adopt$2 b we mu/ consid] x r z ! simple/ mode ( express+ ! dep5d5ce ( ! communication ( heat on ! excess ( temp]ature1 ?an z a proposition ( :i* ! physical tru? is cle>ly e/abli%$4 ,a numb] ( curi\s rese>*es on ! effect ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( surface ( ! heat+ & ( ! heat$ body1 7 made by ,leslie & o!rs4 ,on ^! ,i %all n dwell2 only obs]v+ t ! relative am\nt ( ?is radiative & receptive en]gy may be express$ by numb]s1 = ea* k9d ( surface2 & t we %all h occasion to speak ( x "u ! t]m ext]ior conductivity2 x is ?us di/+ui%$ f int]ior conductivity1 :i* is ! relative rate at :i* heat is conduct$ 9 ! int]ior ( bodies4#faj ,note #faj3 ,! t]m employ$ by ,f\ri]1 conductibility or conducibility1 sugge/s expressions altoge!r absurd1 z if ! bodies c\ld be call$ conductible1 or conducible1 ) respect to heat3 ,i h !re=e v5tur$ ^u a slight alt]ation ( ! ^w1 & h us$ ! ab/ract t]m :i* analogy w\ld sugge/1 if we suppose bodies to be conductive 9 ?is respect4 ,sect4 #c4--,v]ifications ( ! ,doctr9es ( ,conduction & ,radiation4 ,,! int]ior & ext]ior conductivity ( bodies are numb]s1 :i* ent] z elem5ts1 or coeffici5ts1 into ! ma!matical calculations f\nd$ on ! doctr9es ( conduction & radiation4 ,^! #add coeffici5ts are to be det]m9$ = ea* case by appropriate exp]im5ts3 :5 ! exp]im5t]s _h obta9$ ^! data1 z well z ! ma!matical solutions ( ! problems1 !y c\ld te/ ! tru? ( _! fundam5tal pr9ciples by a comp>ison ( ! !oretical & actual results 9 prop]ly-select$ cases4 ,?is 0 done = ! law ( conduction 9 ! simple cases ( metallic b>s heat$ at "o end1 by ,m4 ,biot1#gaj & ! accordance ) exp]im5t 0 suffici5tly close4 ,9 ! m complex cases ( conduction :i* ,f\ri] consid]$1 x 0 less easy to devise a satisfactory mode ( comp>ison4 ,b "s r curi\s relations :i* he demon/rat$ to exi/ among ! temp]atures at diff]5t po9ts ( an armille1 or r+1 af=d$ a good crit]ion ( ! value ( ! calculations1 & confirm$ _! correctness4#haj ,note #gaj3 ,tr4 de ,phys4 iv4 #fga4 ,note #haj3 ,mm4 ,in/4 #ahai1 p4 #aib1 publi%$ #ahbd4 ,we may !re=e presume ^! doctr9es ( radiation & conduction to be suffici5tly e/abli%$2 & we may consid] _! application to any rem>kable case to be a portion ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,we proce$ to "s su* applications4 ,sect4 #d4--,! ,geological & ,cosmological ,application ( ,!rmotics4 ,,by f> ! mo/ important case to :i* conclusions f ^! doctr9es h be5 appli$1 is t ( ! globe ( ! e>?1 & ( ^? laws ( climate to :i* ! modifications ( temp]ature give rise2 & 9 ?is way we are l$ to inf]5ces conc]n+ o!r p>ts ( ! univ]se4 ,if we _h any means ( obs]v+ ^! t]re/rial & cosmical ph5om5a to a suffici5t ext5t1 !y w\ld be valuable facts on :i* we might erect our !ories2 & !y w\ld ?us =m "p1 n ( ! coroll>ies1 b ( ! f\ndations ( our doctr9e ( heat4 ,9 su* a case1 ! laws ( ! propagation ( heat1 z discov]$ f exp]im5ts on small] bodies1 w\ld s]ve to expla9 ^! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se1 j z ! laws ( motion expla9 ! cele/ial movem5ts4 ,b s9ce we are almo/ entirely )\t any def9ite indications ( ! condition ( ! o!r bodies 9 ! sol> sy/em z to heat2 & s9ce1 ev5 ) reg>d to ! e>?1 we "k only ! temp]ature ( ! p>ts at or v ne> ! surface1 our k ( ! "p :i* heat plays 9 ! e>? & ! heav5s mu/ be 9 a great measure1 n a g5]alization ( obs]v$ facts1 b a d$uction f !oretical pr9ciples4 ,/ill1 su* k1 :e!r obta9$ #ade f obs]vation or f !ory1 mu/ possess great int]e/ & importance4 ,! doctr9es ( ?is k9d :i* we h to notice ref] pr9cipally to ! effect ( ! sun's heat on ! e>?1 ! laws ( climate1--! !rmotical condition ( ! int]ior ( ! e>?1--& t ( ! planet>y spaces4 #a4 ,effect ( ,sol> ,heat on ! ,e>?4--,t ! sun's heat passes into ! int]ior ( ! e>? 9 a v>iable mann]1 dep5d+ ^u ! succession ( days & nights1 summ]s & w9t]s1 is an obvi\s consequ5ce ( our fir/ notions on ?is subject4 ,! mode 9 :i* x proce$s into ! int]ior1 aft] desc5d+ bel[ ! surface1 rema9$ to be ga!r$1 ei!r f ! ph5om5a1 or f reason+4 ,bo? me?ods 7 employ$4#iaj ,saussure endeavor$ to trace its c\rse by digg+1 9 #aghe1 & ?us f\nd t at ! dep? ( ab\t ?irty-"o feet1 ! annual v>iation ( temp]ature is ab\t #aab? :at x is at ! surface4 ,leslie adopt$ a bett] me?od1 s9k+ ! bulbs ( !rmomet]s deep 9 ! e>?1 :ile _! /ems appe>$ above ! surface4 ,9 #ahac1 '#af1 & '#ag1 he obs]v$ ?us ! temp]atures at ! dep?s ( "o1 two1 f\r1 & eight feet1 at ,abbot%all1 9 ,fife%ire4 ,! results %[$ t ! extreme annual oscillations ( ! temp]ature dim9i% z we desc5d4 ,at ! dep? ( "o foot1 ! ye>ly range ( oscillation 0 tw5ty-five degrees 7,fahr5heit72 at two feet x 0 tw5ty degrees2 at f\r feet x 0 fifte5 degrees2 at eight feet x 0 only n9e degrees & a half4 ,& ! "t at :i* ! heat 0 greate/ 0 lat] & lat] 9 proce$+ to ! l[] po9ts4 ,at "o foot1 ! maximum & m9imum 7 ?ree weeks aft] ! sol/ice ( summ] & ( w9t]2 at two feet1 !y 7 f\r or five weeks2 at f\r feet1 !y 7 two mon?s2 & at eight feet1 ?ree mon?s4 ,! mean temp]ature ( all ! !rmomet]s 0 ne>ly ! same4 ,simil> results 7 obta9$ by ,ott at ,zuri* 9 #agfb1 & by ,h]r5s*neid] at ,/rasburg 9 #ahba1 '#b1 '#c4ajaj ,note #iaj3 ,leslie1 art4 ,climate1 ,supp4 ,enc4 ,brit4 #agi4 ,note #ajaj3 ,p\illet1 ,mtorol4 t4 ii4 p4 #fdc4 ,^! results _h already be5 expla9$ by ,f\ri]'s !ory ( conduction4 ,he _h %[n#aaaj t :5 ! surface ( a sph]e is affect$ by a p]iodical heat1 c]ta9 alt]nations ( heat travel uni=mly into ! int]ior1 b t ! ext5t ( ! alt]nation dim9i%es 9 geometrical progression 9 ?is desc5t4 ,?is conclusion applies to ! effect ( days & ye>s on ! temp]ature ( ! e>?1 & %[s t su* facts z ^? obs]v$ by ,leslie are bo? exemplifications ( #adf ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! e>?1 & are p]fectly 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciples on :i* ,f\ri]'s !ory re/s4 ,note #aaaj3 ,mm4 ,in/4 = #ahba 7publi%$ #ahbf71 p4 #afb4 #b4 ,climate4--,! t]m climate1 :i* means incl9ation1 0 appli$ by ! anci5ts to d5ote t incl9ation ( ! axis ( ! t]re/rial sph]e f :i* result ! inequalities ( days 9 diff]5t latitudes4 ,?is inequality is obvi\sly connect$ also ) a diff]5ce ( !rmotical condition4 ,places ne> ! poles are cold]1 on ! :ole1 ?an places ne> ! equator4 ,x 0 a natural object ( curiosity to det]m9e ! law ( ?is v>iation4 ,su* a det]m9ation1 h[ev]1 involves _m difficulties1 & ! settlem5t ( sev]al prelim9>y po9ts4 ,h[ is ! temp]ature ( any place to be e/imat$8 & if we reply1 by its mean temp]ature1 h[ are we to le>n ?is mean8 ,! answ]s to su* que/ions require v multipli$ obs]vations1 exact in/rum5ts1 & judici\s g5]alizations2 & _c be giv5 "h4 ,b c]ta9 fir/ approximations may be obta9$ )\t mu* difficulty2 = in/ance1 ! mean temp]ature ( any place may be tak5 to be ! temp]ature ( deep spr+s1 :i* is probably id5tical ) ! temp]ature ( ! soil bel[ ! rea* ( ! annual oscillations4 ,proce$+ on su* facts1 ,may] f\nd t ! mean temp]ature ( any place 0 ne>ly proportional to ! squ>e ( ! cos9e ( ! latitude4 ,?is1 z a law ( ph5om5a1 has s9ce be5 f\nd to require consid]able correction2 & x appe>s t ! mean temp]ature does n dep5d on ! latitude alone1 b on ! di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 & on o!r causes4 ,m4 de ,humboldt has express$ ^! deviations#abaj by 8 map ( iso!rmal l9es1 & ,sir ,d4 ,brew/] has endeavor$ to r$uce !m to a law by assum+ two poles ( maximum cold4 ,note #abaj3 ,briti% ,assoc4 #ahcc4 ,pr(4 ,=bes's ,report on ,meteorology1 p4 #bae4 ,! expression :i* ,f\ri] f9ds#acaj = ! di/ribution ( heat 9 a homog5e\s sph]e1 is n imm$iately comp>able ) ,may]'s empirical =mula1 be+ obta9$ on a c]ta9 hypo!sis1 namely1 t ! equator is kept con/antly at a fix$ temp]ature4 ,b !re is /ill a g5]al agreem5t2 =1 accord+ to ! !ory1 !re is a dim9ution ( heat 9 proce$+ f ! equator to ! poles 9 su* a case2 ! heat is propagat$ f ! equator & ! neighbor+ p>ts1 & radiates out f ! poles into ! surr\nd+ space4 ,& ?us1 9 ! case ( ! e>?1 ! sol> heat ent]s 9 ! tropical #adg p>ts1 & con/antly fl[s t[>ds ! pol> regions1 by :i* x is emitt$ into ! planet>y spaces4 ,note #acaj3 ,f\ri]4 ,mm4 ,in/4 tom4 v4 p4 #agc4 ,climate is affect$ by _m !rmotic influ5ces1 besides ! conduction & radiation ( ! solid mass ( ! e>?4 ,! atmosph]e1 = example1 produces ^u t]re/rial temp]atures effects :i* x is easy to see are v great2 b ^! x is n yet 9 ! p[] ( calculation to appreciate2#adaj & x is cle> t !y dep5d ^u o!r prop]ties ( air besides its p[] to transmit heat4 ,we mu/ !re=e dismiss !m1 at lea/ = ! pres5t4 ,note #adaj3 ,mm4 ,in/4 tom4 vii4 p4 #ehd #c4 ,temp]ature ( ! ,int]ior ( ! ,e>?4--,! "q ( ! temp]ature ( ! int]ior ( ! e>? has excit$ great int]e/1 9 consequ5ce ( its be>+ on o!r bran*es ( k4 ,! v>i\s facts :i* h be5 suppos$ to indicate ! fluidity ( ! c5tral p>ts ( ! t]re/rial globe1 belong1 9 g5]al1 to geological sci5ce2 b s f> z !y require ! light ( !rmotical calculations 9 ord] to be rightly reason$ ^u1 !y prop]ly come "u our notice "h4 ,! pr9cipal problem ( ?is k9d :i* has be5 treat$ ( is ?is3--,if 9 ! globe ( ! e>? !re be a c]ta9 orig9al heat1 result+ f its e>li] condition1 & indep5d5t ( ! action ( ! sun1 to :at results w ?is give rise8 & h[ f> d ! obs]v$ temp]atures ( po9ts bel[ ! surface lead u to su* a supposition8 ,x has1 = in/ance1 be5 ass]t$1 t 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w ! temp]ature1 z obs]v$ 9 m9es & o!r excavations1 increases 9 desc5d+1 at ! rate ( "o degree 7c5tesimal7 9 ab\t =ty y>ds4 ,:at inf]5ce does ?is ju/ify8 ,! answ] to ?is "q 0 giv5 by ,f\ri] & by ,laplace4 ,! =m] ma!matician _h already consid]$ ! problem ( ! cool+ ( a l>ge sph]e1 9 8 ,memoirs ( #ahjg1 #ahji1 & #ahaa4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 lay unpubli%$ 9 ! ar*ives ( ! ,in/itute = _m ye>s4 ,b 9 #ahbj1 :5 ! accumulation ( obs]vations :i* indicat$ an increase ( ! temp]ature ( ! e>? z we desc5d1 _h drawn obs]vation to ! subject1 ,f\ri] gave1 9 ! ,bullet9 ( ! ,philoma?ic ,society1#aeaj a summ>y ( 8 results1 z f> z !y bore on ?is po9t4 ,8 conclusion 01 t su* an increase ( temp]ature 9 proce$+ t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 c arise f no?+ b ! rema9s ( a primitive heat2--t ! heat :i* ! sun's action w\ld communicate1 w\ld1 9 its f9al & #adh p]man5t /ate1 be uni=m 9 ! same v]tical l9e1 z soon z we get beyond ! influ5ce ( ! sup]ficial oscillations ( :i* we h spok52--& t1 be=e ! di/ribution ( temp]ature rea*es ?is limit1 x w decrease1 n increase1 9 desc5d+4 ,x appe>$ also1 by ! calculation1 t ?is rema9+ exi/5ce ( ! primitive heat 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?'s mass1 0 q consi/5t ) ! abs5ce ( all p]ceptible traces ( x at ! surface2 & t ! same /ate ( ?+s :i* produces an increase ( "o degree ( heat 9 desc5d+ =ty y>ds1 does n make ! surface a qu>t] ( a degree hott] ?an x w\ld o!rwise be4 ,f\ri] 0 l$ also to "s conclusions1 ?\gh necess>ily v vague ones1 respect+ ! "t :i* ! e>? mu/ h tak5 to cool f a suppos$ orig9al /ate ( inc&esc5ce to its pres5t condition1 :i* "t x appe>$ mu/ h be5 v great2 & respect+ ! ext5t ( ! future cool+ ( ! surface1 :i* x 0 %[n mu/ be ins5sible4 ,ev]y?+ t5d$ to prove t1 )9 ! p]iod :i* ! hi/ory ( ! human race embraces1 no discov]able *ange ( temp]ature _h tak5 place f ! progress ( ?is c5tral cool+4 ,laplace fur!r calculat$ ! effect#afaj :i* any contraction ( ! globe ( ! e>? by cool+ w\ld produce on ! l5g? ( ! day4 ,he _h already %[n1 by a/ronomical reason+1 t ! day _h n become %ort] by #abjj? ( a second1 s9ce ! "t ( ,hipp>*us2 & ?us 8 inf]5ces agre$ ) ^? ( ,f\ri]4 ,z f> z reg>ds ! smallness ( ! p]ceptible effect due to ! pa/ *anges ( ! e>?'s temp]ature1 !re c be no d\bt t all ! curi\s conclusions j /at$ are d$uc$ 9 a mann] q satisfactory1 f ! fact ( a g5]al increase ( heat 9 desc5d+ bel[ ! surface ( ! e>?2 & ?us our pr9ciples ( speculative sci5ce h a be>+ ^u ! hi/ory ( ! pa/ *anges ( ! univ]se1 & give u in=mation conc]n+ ! /ate ( ?+s 9 portions ( "t o!rwise q out ( our rea*4 ,note #aeaj3 ,bullet4 des ,sc4 #ahbj1 p4 #eh4 ,note #afaj3 ,conn4 des ,tems1 #ahbc4 #d4 ,heat ( ! ,planet>y ,spaces4--,9 ! same mann]1 ?is portion ( sci5ce is appeal$ to = in=mation conc]n+ p>ts ( space :i* are utt]ly inaccessible to obs]vation4 ,! doctr9e ( heat leads to conclusions conc]n+ ! temp]atures ( ! spaces :i* surr\nd ! e>?1 & 9 :i* ! planets ( ! sol> sy/em revolve4 ,9 8 ,memoir1 publi%$ 9 #ahbg1agaj ,f\ri] /ates t he conceives x to foll[ f 8 pr9ciples1 t ^! planet>y spaces #adi are n absolutely cold1 b h a prop] heat indep5d5t ( ! sun & ( ! planets4 ,if !re 7 n su* a heat1 ! cold ( ! pol> regions w\ld be mu* m int5se ?an x is1 & ! alt]nations ( cold & w>m?1 aris+ f ! influ5ce ( ! sun1 w\ld be f> m extreme & sudd5 ?an we f9d !m4 ,z ! cause ( ?is heat 9 ! planet>y spaces1 he assigns ! radiation ( ! innum]able />s :i* are scatt]$ ?r\gh ! univ]se4 ,note #agaj3 ,mm4 ,in/4 tom4 vii4 p4 #ehj4 ,f\ri] says1#ahaj ,we conclude f ^! v>i\s rem>ks1 & pr9cipally f ! ma!matical exam9ation ( ! "q1 t ?is is s4 ,i am n aw>e t ! ma!matical calculation :i* be>s peculi>ly ^u ?is po9t has any:]e be5 publi%$4 ,b x is wor? notice1 t ,svanb]g has be5 l$#aiaj to ! op9ion ( ! same temp]ature 9 ^! spaces :i* ,f\ri] _h adopt$ 7#ej c5tigrade bel[ z]o71 by an entirely diff]5t c\rse ( reason+1 f\nd$ on ! relation ( ! atmosph]e to heat4 ,note #ahaj3 ,mm4 ,in/4 tom4 vii4 p4 #eha4 ,note #aiaj3 ,b]zel4 ,jahres ,b]i*t1 xi4 p4 #ej4 ,9 speak+ ( ?is subject1 ,i h be5 l$ to notice incomplete & p]haps d\btful applications ( ! ma!matical doctr9e ( conduction & radiation4 ,b ?is may at lea/ s]ve to %[ t ,!rmotics is a sci5ce1 :i*1 l ,me*anics1 is to be e/abli%$ by exp]im5ts on masses capable ( manipulation1 b :i*1 l t1 has = its mo/ important (fice ! solution ( geological & cosmological problems4 ,i n[ return to ! fur!r progress ( our !rmotical k4 ,sect4 #e4--;,correction ( ,newton's ,law ( ,cool+4 ,,9 speak+ ( ! e/abli%m5t ( ,newton's assumption1 t ! temp]ature communicat$ is proportional to ! excess ( temp]ature1 we /at$ t x 0 approximately v]ifi$1 & aft]w>ds correct$ 7*ap4 i41 sect4 #a4799994 ,?is correction 0 ! result ( ! rese>*es ( ,,mm4 ,dulong & ,petit 9 #ahag1 & ! rese>*es by :i* !y 7 l$ to ! true law1 are an admirable example bo? ( labori\s exp]im5t & sagaci\s induction4 ,!y exp]im5t$ ?r\gh a v great range ( temp]ature 7z high z two hundr$ & =ty degrees c5tigrade71 :i* 0 necess>y because ! inaccuracy ( ,newton's law becomes consid]able only at high temp]atures4 ,!y remov$ ! effect ( ! surr\nd+ m$ium1 by mak+ _! exp]im5ts 9 a vacuum4 ,!y select$ ) great #aej judgm5t ! conditions ( _! exp]im5ts & comp>isons1 mak+ "o quantity v>y :ile ! o!rs rema9$ con/ant4 ,9 ?is mann] !y f\nd1 t ! quickness ( cool+ = a con/ant excess ( temp]ature1 increases 9 geometrical progression1 :5 ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ space increases 9 ari?metical progression2 :]eas1 accord+ to ! ,newtonian law1 ?is quickness w\ld n h v>i$ at all4 ,aga91 ?is v>iation be+ left out ( ! acc\nt1 x appe>$ t ! quickness ( cool+1 s f> z x dep5ds on ! excess ( temp]ature ( ! hot body1 increases z ! t]ms ( a geometrical progression dim9i%$ by a con/ant numb]1 :5 ! temp]ature ( ! hot body increases 9 ari?metical progression4 ,^! two laws1 ) ! coeffici5ts requisite = _! application to p>ticul> sub/ances1 fully det]m9e ! conditions ( cool+ 9 a vacuum4 ,/>t+ f ?is det]m9ation1 ,,mm4 ,dulong & ,petit proce$$ to asc]ta9 ! effect ( ! m$ium1 9 :i* ! hot body is plac$1 ^u its rate ( cool+2 = ?is effect became a residual ph5om5on1#bjaj :5 ! cool+ 9 ! vacuum 0 tak5 away4 ,we %all n "h foll[ ?is tra9 ( rese>*2 b we may briefly /ate1 t !y 7 l$ to su* laws z ?is2--t ! rapidity ( cool+ due to any gase\s m$ium 9 :i* ! body is plac$1 is ! same1 s long z ! excess ( ! body's temp]ature is ! same1 al?\gh ! temp]ature itself v>y2--t ! cool+ p[] ( a gas v>ies ) ! ela/icity1 accord+ to a det]m9$ law2 & o!r simil> rules4 ,note #bjaj3 ,see ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sci5ces1 ,b4 xiii4 c4 #g1 ,sect4 iv4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! process ( _! induction1 x is wor?y ( notice1 t !y f\nd$ _! reason+s ^u ,prevo/'s law ( ex*anges2 & t1 9 ?is way1 ! second ( _! laws above /at$1 respect+ ! quickness ( cool+1 0 a ma!matical consequ5ce ( ! fir/4 ,x may be obs]v$ also1 t _! temp]atures are measur$ by means ( ! air-!rmomet]1 & t if !y 7 e/imat$ on ano!r scale1 ! rem>kable simplicity & symmetry ( _! results w\ld disappe>4 ,?is is a /rong argum5t = believ+ su* a measure ( temp]ature to h a natural pr]ogative ( simplicity4 ,?is belief is confirm$ by o!r consid]ations2 b ^!1 dep5d+ on ! laws ( expansion by heat1 _c be "h ref]r$ to2 & we mu/ proce$ to f9i% our survey ( ! ma!matical !ory ( heat1 z f\nd$ on ! ph5om5a ( radiation & conduction1 :i* alone h z yet be5 trac$ up to g5]al pr9ciples4 ,we may obs]ve1 be=e we quit ?is subject1 t ?is correction ( #aea ,newton's law w mat]ially affect ! ma!matical calculations on ! subject1 :i* 7 made to dep5d on t law bo? by ,f\ri]1 ,laplace1 & ,poisson4 ,probably1 h[ev]1 ! g5]al features ( ! results w be ! same z on ! old supposition4 ,m4 ,libri1 an ,italian ma!matician1 has und]tak5 "o ( ! problems ( ?is k9d1 t ( ! armil1 ) ,dulong & ,petit's law = 8 basis1 9 a ,memoir read to ! ,in/itute ( ,france 9 #ahbe1 & s9ce publi%$ at ,flor5ce4#baaj ,note #baaj3 ,mm4 de ,ma?4 et de ,phys4 #ahbi4 ,sect4 #f4--,o!r ,laws ( ,ph5om5a ) respect to ,radiation4 ,,! laws ( radiation z dep5d+ ^u ! surface ( radiat+ bodies1 & z affect+ scre5s ( v>i\s k9ds int]pos$ betwe5 ! hot body & ! !rmomet]1 7 exam9$ by sev]al inquir]s4 ,i %all n attempt to give an acc\nt ( ! latt] c\rse ( rese>*1 & ( ! diff]5t laws :i* lum9\s & non-lum9\s heat h be5 f\nd to foll[ 9 ref]5ce to bodies1 :e!r transp>5t or opaque1 :i* int]cept !m4 ,b !re are two or ?ree laws ( ! ph5om5a1 dep5d+ ^u ! effects ( ! surfaces ( bodies1 :i* are important4 #a4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! p[]s ( bodies to emit & to absorb heat1 z f> z dep5ds ^u _! surface1 appe> to be 9 ! same proportion4 ,if we black5 ! surface ( a cani/] ( hot wat]1 x radiates heat m copi\sly2 & 9 ! same measure1 x is m readily heat$ by radiation4 #b4 ,9 ! next place1 z ! radiative p[] increases1 ! p[] ( reflection dim9i%es1 & ! contr>y4 ,a bright metal vessel reflects mu* heat2 on ?is v acc\nt x does n emit mu*2 & h5ce a hot fluid :i* su* a vessel conta9s1 rema9s hot long] ?an x does 9 an unpoli%$ case4 #c4 ,! heat is emitt$ f e po9t ( ! surface ( a hot body 9 all directions2 b by no means 9 all directions ) equal int5sity4 ,! int5sity ( ! heat+ ray is z ! s9e ( ! angle :i* x makes ) ! surface4 ,! la/ law is entirely1 ! two =m] 9 a great measure1 due to ! rese>*es ( ,leslie1 ^: ,exp]im5tal ,inquiry into ! ,nature & ,propagation ( ,heat1 publi%$ 9 #ahjd1 conta9s a great numb] ( curi\s & /rik+ results & speculations4 ,! laws n[ j #aeb /at$ be>1 9 a v important mann]1 ^u ! =mation ( ! !ory2 & we mu/ n[ proce$ to consid] :at appe>s to h be5 done 9 ?is respect2 tak+ into acc\nt1 x mu/ /ill be borne 9 m9d1 only ! ph5om5a ( conduction & radiation4 ,sect4 #g4--;,f\ri]'s ,!ory ( ,radiant ,heat4 ,,! above laws ( ph5om5a be+ e/abli%$1 x 0 natural t philosoph]s %\ld seek to acquire "s conception ( ! physical action by :i* !y might acc\nt1 bo? = ^! laws1 & = ! g5]al fundam5tal facts ( ,!rmotics2 z1 = in/ance1 ! fact t all bodies plac$ 9 an inclos$ space assume1 9 "t1 ! temp]ature ( ! inclosure4 ,f\ri]'s explanation ( ?is class ( ph5om5a mu/ be consid]$ z happy & successful2 = he has %[n t ! supposition to :i* we are l$ by ! mo/ simple & g5]al ( ! facts1 w expla91 moreov]1 ! less obvi\s laws4 ,x is an obvi\s & g5]al fact1 t bodies :i* are includ$ 9 ! space t5d to acquire ! same temp]ature4 ,& ?is id5tity ( temp]ature ( neighbor+ bodies requires an hypo!sis1 :i*1 x is f\nd1 also acc\nts = ,leslie's law ( ! s9e1 9 radiation4 ,?is hypo!sis is1 t ! radiation takes place1 n f ! surface alone ( ! hot body1 b f all p>ticles situat$ )9 a c]ta9 small dep? ( ! surface4 ,x is easy to see#bbaj t1 on ?is supposition1 a ray emitt$ obliquely f an int]nal p>ticle1 w be less int5se ?an "o s5t =? p]p5dicul> to ! surface1 because ! =m] w be int]cept$ 9 a great] degree1 hav+ a great] l5g? ( pa? )9 ! body2 & ,f\ri] %[s1 t :atev] be ! law ( ?is int]cept+ p[]1 ! result w be1 t ! radiative int5sity is z ! s9e ( ! angle made by ! ray ) ! surface4 ,note #bbaj3 ,mm4 ,in/4 t4 v4 #ahba1 p4 #bjd4 ,b ?is law is1 z ,i h said1 likewise necess>y1 9 ord] t neighbor+ bodies may t5d to assume ! same temp]ature3 = in/ance1 9 ord] t a small p>ticle plac$ )9 a sph]ical %ell1 %\ld f9ally assume ! temp]ature ( ! %ell4 ,if ! law ( ! s9es did n obta91 ! f9al temp]ature ( su* a p>ticle w\ld dep5d ^u its place 9 ! inclosure2#bcaj & )9 a %ell ( ice we %\ld h1 at c]ta9 po9ts1 ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat] & ( melt+ iron4 ,note #bcaj3 ,an4 ,*im4 iv4 #ahag1 p4 #abi4 ,?is proposition may at fir/ appe> /range & unlikely2 b x may #aec be %[n to be a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! assum$ pr9ciple1 by v simple reason+1 :i* ,i %all give 9 a g5]al =m 9 a ,note4#bdaj ,note #bdaj3 ,! foll[+ reason+ may %[ ! connexion ( ! law ( ! s9es 9 radiant heat ) ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ultimate id5tity ( neighbor+ temp]atures4 ,! equilibrium & id5tity ( temp]ature betwe5 an includ+ %ell & an includ$ body1 _c obta9 ^u ! :ole1 except x obta9 betwe5 ea* pair ( p>ts ( ! two surfaces ( ! body & ( ! %ell2 t is1 any "p ( ! "o surface1 9 its ex*anges ) any "p ( ! o!r surface1 mu/ give & receive ! same quantity ( heat4 ,n[ ! quantity ex*ang$1 s f> z x dep5ds on ! receiv+ surface1 w1 by geometry1 be proportional to ! s9e ( ! obliquity ( t surface3 & z1 9 ! ex*anges1 ea* may be consid]$ z receiv+1 ! quantity transf]r$ mu/ be proportional to ! s9es ( ! two obliquities2 t is1 to t ( ! giv+ z well z ( ! receiv+ surface4 ,nor is ?is conclusion di/urb$ by ! consid]ation1 t all ! rays ( heat :i* fall ^u a surface are n absorb$1 "s be+ reflect$ accord+ to ! nature ( ! surface4 ,=1 by ! o!r above-m5tion$ laws ( ph5om5a1 we "k t1 9 ! same measure 9 :i* ! surface loses ! p[] ( admitt+1 x loses ! p[] ( emitt+1 heat2 & ! sup]ficial p>ts ga91 by absorb+ _! own radiation1 z mu* z !y lose by n absorb+ ! incid5t heat2 s t ! result ( ! prec$+ reason+ rema9s unalt]$4 ,?is reason+ is capable ( be+ pres5t$ 9 a mann] q satisfactory1 by ! use ( ma!matical symbols1 & proves t ,leslie's law ( ! s9es is rigor\sly & ma!matically true on ,f\ri]'s hypo!sis4 ,& ?us ,f\ri]'s !ory ( molecul> extra-radiation acquires great consi/5cy4 ,sect4 #h4--;,discov]y ( ! ,pol>ization ( ,heat4 ,,! laws ( :i* ! discov]y is /at$ 9 ! prec$+ ,sections ( ?is ,*apt]1 & ! explanations giv5 ( !m by ! !ories ( conduction & radiation1 all t5d$ to make ! conception ( a mat]ial heat1 or caloric1 communicat$ by an actual fl[ & emission1 famili> to m5's m9ds2 &1 till lately1 _h l$ ! great] "p ( !rmotical philosoph]s to ent]ta9 su* a view1 z ! mo/ probable op9ion conc]n+ ! nature ( heat4 ,b "s /eps h rec5tly be5 made 9 !rmotics1 :i* appe> to be likely to ov]turn ?is belief1 & to make ! doctr9e ( emission z unt5able ) reg>d to heat1 z x _h be5 f\nd to be ) reg>d to light4 ,i speak ( ! discov]y ( ! pol>ization ( heat4 ,x be+ asc]ta9$ t rays ( heat are pol>iz$ 9 ! same mann] z rays ( #aed light1 we _c reta9 ! doctr9e t heat radiates by ! emanation ( mat]ial p>ticles1 )\t suppos+ ^? p>ticles ( caloric to h poles2 an hypo!sis :i* probably no "o w\ld embrace2 =1 besides t ! ill =tune :i* att5d$ t hypo!sis 9 ! case ( light mu/ det] speculators f x1 ! intimate connexion ( heat & light w\ld h>dly all[ u to suppose pol>ization 9 ! two cases to be produc$ by two diff]5t k9ds ( ma*9]y4 ,b1 )\t "h trac+ fur!r ! influ5ce :i* ! pol>ization ( heat mu/ ex]cise ^u ! =mation ( our !ories ( heat1 we mu/ briefly notice ?is important discov]y1 z a law ( ph5om5a4 ,! analogies & connexions betwe5 light & heat are s /rong1 t :5 ! pol>ization ( light _h be5 discov]$1 m5 7 naturally l$ to endeavor to asc]ta9 :e!r heat possess$ any correspond+ prop]ty4 ,b p>tly f ! difficulty ( obta9+ any consid]able effect ( heat sep>at$ f light1 & p>tly f ! want ( a !rmometrical app>atus suffici5tly delicate1 ^! attempts l$1 = "s "t1 to no decisive result4 ,m4 ,b]>d took up ! subject 9 #ahac4 ,he us$ ,malus's app>atus1 & conceiv$ t he f\nd heat to be pol>iz$ by reflection at ! surface ( glass1 9 ! same mann] z light1 & ) ! same circum/ances4#beaj ,b :5 ,pr(essor ,p[ell1 ( ,ox=d1 a few ye>s lat] 7#ahcj71 repeat$ ^! exp]im5ts ) a simil> app>atus1 he f\nd#bfaj t ?\gh ! heat :i* is convey$ along ) light is1 ( c\rse1 pol>izable1 simple radiant heat1 z he t]ms x1 did n (f] ! smalle/ diff]5ce 9 ! two rectangul> azimu?s ( ! second glass1 & ?us %[$ no trace ( pol>ization4 ,note #beaj3 ,ann4 ,*im4 ,m>*1 #ahac4 ,note #bfaj3 ,ed94 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce1 #ahcj1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cjc4 ,?us1 ) ! old !rmomet]s1 ! po9t rema9$ d\btful4 ,b soon aft] ?is "t1 ,,mm4 ,melloni & ,nobili inv5t$ an app>atus1 dep5d+ on c]ta9 galvanic laws1 ( :i* we %all h to speak h]eaft]1 :i* !y call$ a !rmomultipli]2 & :i* 0 mu* m s5sitive to *anges ( temp]ature ?an any previ\sly-kn[n in/rum5t4 ,yet ev5 ) ?is in/rum5t1 ,m4 ,melloni fail$2 & did n1 at fir/1 detect any p]ceptible pol>ization ( heat by ! t\rmal9e2#bgaj nor did ,m4 ,nobili1#bhaj 9 repeat+ ,m4 ,b]>d's exp]im5t4 ,b 9 ?is exp]im5t ! attempt 0 made to pol>ize heat by reflection f glass1 z light is pol>iz$3 & ! quantity #aee reflect$ is s small t ! inevitable errors might completely disguise ! :ole diff]5ce 9 ! two opposite positions4 ,:5 ,pr(4 ,=bes1 ( ,ed9burgh1 79 #ahcd17 employ$ mica 9 ! l exp]im5ts1 he f\nd a v decid$ pol>iz+ effect2 fir/1 :5 ! heat 0 transmitt$ ?r\gh sev]al films ( mica at a c]ta9 angle1 & aft]w>ds1 :5 x 0 reflect$ f !m4 ,9 ?is case1 he f\nd t ) non-lum9\s heat1 & ev5 ) ! heat ( wat] bel[ ! boil+ po9t1 ! diff]5ce ( ! heat+ p[] 9 ! two positions ( opposite pol>ity 7p>allel & cross$7 0 manife/4 ,he also detect$ by c>eful exp]im5ts1#biaj ! pol>iz+ effect ( t\rmal9e4 ,?is important discov]y 0 soon confirm$ by ,m4 ,melloni4 ,d\bts 7 sugge/$ :e!r ! diff]5t effect 9 ! opposite positions might n be due to o!r circum/ances2 b ,pr(essor ,=bes easily %[$ t ^! suppositions 7 inadmissible2 & ! prop]ty ( a diff]5ce ( sides1 :i* at fir/ seem$ s /range :5 ascrib$ to ! rays ( light1 also belongs1 x seems to be prov$1 to ! rays ( heat4 ,pr(essor ,=bes also f\nd1 by int]pos+ a plate ( mica to int]cept ! ray ( heat 9 an int]m$iate po9t1 an effect 0 produc$ 9 c]ta9 positions ( ! mica analog\s to :at 0 call$ depol>ization 9 ! case ( light2 namely1 a p>tial de/ruction ( ! diff]5ces :i* pol>ization e/abli%es4 ,note #bgaj3 ,ann4 de ,*imie1 vol4 lv4 ,note #bhaj3 ,biblio?que ,univ]selle4 ,note #biaj3 ,ed4 ,r4 ,s4 ,transactions1 vol4 xiv42 & ,phil4 ,mag4 #ahce1 vol4 v4 p4 #bji4 ,ib4 vol4 vii4 p4 #cdi4 ,be=e ?is discov]y1 ,m4 ,melloni _h already prov$ by exp]im5t t heat is refract$ by transp>5t sub/ances z light is4 ,9 ! case ( light1 ! depol>iz+ effect 0 aft]w>ds f\nd to be really1 z we h se51 a dipol>iz+ effect1 ! ray be+ divid$ into two rays by d\ble refraction4 ,we are naturally mu* tempt$ to put ! same int]pretation ^u ! dipol>iz+ effect 9 ! case ( heat2 b p]haps ! ass]tion ( ! analogy betwe5 light & heat to ?is ext5t is z yet insecure4 ,x is ! m necess>y to be cauti\s 9 our attempt to id5tify ! laws ( light & heat1 inasmu* z along ) all ! resemblances ( ! two ag5ts1 !re are v important diff]5ces4 ,! p[] ( transmitt+ light1 ! diaphaneity ( bodies1 is v di/9ct f _! p[] ( transmitt+ heat1 :i* has be5 call$ dia!rmancy by ,m4 ,melloni4 ,?us bo? a plate ( alum & a plate ( rock-salt transmit ne>ly ! :ole light2 b :ile ! fir/ /ops ne>ly ! :ole heat1 ! second /ops v little ( x2 & a plate ( opake #aef qu>tz1 ne>ly imp5etrable by light1 all[s a l>ge portion ( ! heat to pass4 ,by pass+ ! rays ?r\gh v>i\s m$ia1 ! heat may be1 z x 71 sift$ f ! light :i* accompanies x4 #bnd ,ed4 ,! dia!rmancy ( bodies is di/9ct f _! diaphaneity1 9 s f> t ! same bodies d n ex]cise ! same p[]s ( selection & suppression ( c]ta9 rays on heat & on light2 b x appe>s to be prov$ by ! inve/igations ( mod]n !rmotical philosoph]s 7,,mm4 ,de la ,ro*e1 ,p[ell1 ,melloni1 & ,=bes71 t !re is a close analogy betwe5 ! absorption ( c]ta9 colors by transp>5t bodies1 & ! absorption ( c]ta9 k9ds ( heat by dia!rman\s bodies4 ,d>k s\rces ( heat emit rays :i* are analog\s to blue & violet rays ( light2 & highly lum9\s s\rces emit rays :i* are analog\s to r$ rays4 ,& by measur+ ! angle ( total reflection = heat ( diff]5t k9ds1 x has be5 %[n t ! =m] k9d ( calorific rays are really less refrangible ?an ! latt]4#cjaj ,note #cjaj3 ,see ,pr(4 ,=bes's ,?ird ,s]ies ( ,rese>*es on ,heat1 ,ed9b4 ,r4,s4 ,trans4 vol4 xiv4 ,m4 ,melloni has assum$ ?is analogy z s completely e/abli%$1 t he has propos$ = ?is "p ( !rmotics ! "n ,!rmo*roology 7,qu4 ,*romo!rmotics872 & along ) ?is t]m1 _m o!rs d]iv$ f ! ,greek1 & f\nd$ on ! same analogy4 ,if x %\ld appe>1 9 ! "w :i* he proposes to publi% on ?is subject1 t ! doctr9es :i* he has to /ate _c easily be made intelligible )\t ! use ( ! t]ms he sugge/s1 8 nom5clature w obta9 curr5cy2 b s l>ge a mass ( etymological innovations is 9 g5]al to be avoid$ 9 sci5tific works4 ,m4 ,melloni's discov]y ( ! extraord9>y p[] ( rock-salt to transmit heat1 & ,pr(essor ,=bes's discov]y ( ! extraord9>y p[] ( mica to pol>ize & depol>ize heat1 h suppli$ !rmotical inquir]s ) two new & mo/ valuable in/rum5ts4#caaj ,note #caaj3 ,= an acc\nt ( _m !rmotical rese>*es1 :i* ,i h be5 oblig$ to pass unnotic$ "h1 see two ,reports by ,pr(4 ,p[ell on ! pres5t /ate ( our k respect+ ,radiant ,heat1 9 ! ,reports ( ! ,briti% ,association = #ahcb & #ahdj4 ,moreov]1 besides ! laws ( conduction & radiation1 _m o!r laws ( ! ph5om5a ( heat h be5 discov]$ by philosoph]s2 & ^! mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 9 judg+ any !ory ( heat4 ,to ^! o!r laws we mu/ n[ turn our att5tion4 #aeg ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,*anges ,,occasion$ ,,by ,,heat4 ,sect4 #a4--;,expansion by ,heat4--,! ,law ( ,dalton & ,gay-,lussac = ,gases4 ,,almo/ all bodies exp& by heat2 solids1 z metals1 9 a small degree2 fluids1 z wat]1 oil1 alcohol1 m]cury1 9 a great] degree4 ,?is 0 "o ( ! facts fir/ exam9$ by ^? :o /udi$ ! nature ( heat1 because ?is prop]ty 0 us$ = ! measure ( heat4 ,9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,book iv41 ,*ap4 iv41 ,i h /at$ t second>y qualities1 su* z ,heat1 mu/ be measur$ by _! effects3 & 9 ,sect4 #d ( t ,*apt] ,i h giv5 an acc\nt ( ! successive attempts :i* h be5 made to obta9 measures ( heat4 ,i h !re also spok5 ( ! results :i* 7 obta9$ by comp>+ ! rate at :i* ! expansion ( diff]5t sub/ances w5t on1 "u ! same degrees ( heat2 or z x 0 call$1 ! diff]5t !rmometrical m>* ( ea* sub/ance4 ,m]cury appe>s to be ! liquid :i* is mo/ uni=m 9 its !rmometrical m>*2 & x has be5 tak5 z ! mo/ common mat]ial ( our !rmomet]s2 b ! expansion ( m]cury is n proportional to ! heat4 ,de ,luc 0 l$1 by 8 exp]im5ts1 to conclude t ! dilatations ( m]cury foll[ an accel]at$ m>* = equal augm5tations ( heat4 ,dalton conjectur$ t wat] & m]cury bo? exp& z ! squ>e ( ! real temp]ature f ! po9t ( greate/ contraction3 ! real temp]ature be+ measur$ s z to lead to su* a result4 ,b none ( ! rules ?us laid d[n = ! expansion ( solids & fluids appe> to h l$1 z yet1 to any c]ta9 g5]al laws4 ,) reg>d to gases1 !rmotical inquir]s h be5 m successful4 ,gases exp& by heat2 & _! expansion is gov]n$ by a law :i* applies alike to all degrees ( heat1 & to all gase\s fluids4 ,! law is ?is3 t = equal increm5ts ( temp]ature !y exp& by ! same fraction ( _! own bulk2 :i* fraction is ?ree-eights #aeh 9 proce$+ f freez+ to boil+ wat]4 ,?is law 0 discov]$ by ,dalton & ,m4 ,gay-,lussac indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r2#cbaj & is usually call$ by bo? _! names1 ! law ( ,dalton & ,gay-,lussac4 ,! latt] says1#ccaj ,! exp]im5ts :i* ,i h describ$1 & :i* h be5 made ) great c>e1 prove inconte/ably t oxyg51 hydrog51 azotic acid1 nitr\s acid1 ammoniacal acid1 muriatic acid1 sulphur\s acid1 c>bonic acid1 gases1 exp& equally by equal increm5ts ( heat4 ,!re=e1 he adds ) a prop] inductive g5]alization1 ! result does n dep5d ^u physical prop]ties1 & ,i collect t all gases exp& equally by heat4 ,he !n ext5ds ?is to vapors1 z e!r4 ,?is mu/ be "o ( ! mo/ important f\ndation-/ones ( any s\nd !ory ( heat4 ,note #cbaj3 ,man*4 ,mem4 vol4 v4 #ahjb2 & ,ann4 ,*im4 xliii4 p4 #acg4 ,note #ccaj3 ,ib4 p4 #bgb4 #bnd ,ed4 ,yet ,,mm4 ,magnus & ,regnault conceive t !y h ov]?r[n ?is law ( ,dalton & ,gay-,lussac1 & %[n t ! diff]5t gases d n exp& alike = ! same increm5t ( heat4 ,magnus f\nd ! ratio to be = atmosph]ic air1 #acff2 = hydrog51 #acfe2 = c>bonic acid1 #acfi2 = sulphur\s-acid gas1 #ache4 ,b ^! diff]5ces are n great] ?an ! diff]5ces obta9$ = ! same sub/ances by diff]5t obs]v]s2 & z ?is law is ref]r$ to 9 ,laplace's hypo!sis1 h]eaft] to be discuss$1 ,i d n treat ! law z disprov$4 ,yet t ! rate ( expansion ( gas 9 c]ta9 circum/ances is diff]5t = diff]5t sub/ances1 mu/ be deem$ v probable1 aft] ,dr4 ,f>aday's rec5t inve/igations ,on ! ,liquefaction & ,solidification ( ,bodies g5]ally exi/+ z ,gases1#cdaj by :i* x appe>s t ! ela/icity ( vapors 9 contact ) _! fluids increases at diff]5t rates 9 diff]5t sub/ances4 ,t ! =ce1 he says1 ( vapor increases 9 a geometrical ratio = equal increm5ts ( heat is true = all bodies1 b ! ratio is n ! same = all4 4 4 4 ,= an increase ( pressure f two to six atmosph]es1 ! foll[+ numb] ( degrees require to be add$ to ! bodies nam$3--wat] #fi1 sulphure\s acid #fc1 cyanog5 #fde1 ammonia #fj1 ars5iurett$ hydrog5 #ed1 sulphurett$ hydrog5 #efe1 muriatic acid #dc1 c>bonic acid #cbe1 nitr\s oxide #cj4 ,note #cdaj3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahde1 ,pt4 #a4 ,we h already se5 t ! op9ion t ! air-!rmomet] is a true measure ( heat1 is /rongly c\nt5anc$ by ! symmetry :i*1 by us+ x1 we introduce into ! laws ( radiation4 ,if we #aei accept ! law ( ,dalton & ,gay-,lussac1 x foll[s t ?is result is indep5d5t ( any peculi> prop]ties 9 ! air employ$2 & ?us ?is measure has an additional "* ( g5]ality & simplicity :i* make x /ill m probable t x is ! true /&>d4 ,?is op9ion is fur!r support$ by ! attempts to include su* facts 9 a !ory2 b be=e we c treat ( su* !ories1 we mu/ speak ( "s o!r doctr9es :i* h be5 introduc$4 ,sect4 #b4--,specific ,heat4--,*ange ( ,consi/5ce4 ,,9 ! attempts to obta9 measures ( heat1 x 0 f\nd t bodies _h diff]5t capacities = heat2 = ! same quantity ( heat1 h[ev] measur$1 w\ld raise1 9 diff]5t degrees1 ! temp]ature ( diff]5t sub/ances4 ,! notion ( diff]5t capacities = heat 0 ?us introduc$1 & ea* body 0 ?us assum$ to h a specific capacity = heat1 accord+ to ! quantity ( heat :i* x requir$ to raise x ?r\gh a giv5 scale ( heat4#ceaj ,! t]m capacity = heat 0 introduc$ by ,dr4 ,irv9e1 a pupil ( ,dr4 ,black4 ,= ?is t]m1 ,wilcke1 ! ,sw$i% physici/1 sub/itut$ specific heat2 9 analogy ) specific gravity4 ,note #ceaj3 ,see ,craw=d1 ,on ,heat1 = ! ,hi/ory ( ,specific ,heat4 ,x 0 f\nd1 also1 t ! capacity ( ! same sub/ance 0 diff]5t 9 ! same sub/ance at diff]5t temp]atures4 ,x appe>s f exp]im5ts ( ,,mm4 ,dulong & ,petit1 t1 9 g5]al1 ! capacity ( liquids & solids increases z we asc5d 9 ! scale ( temp]ature4 ,b "o ( ! mo/ important !rmotic facts is1 t by ! sudd5 contraction ( any mass1 its temp]ature is increas$4 ,?is is peculi>ly obs]vable 9 gases1 z1 = example1 common air4 ,! am\nt ( ! increase ( temp]ature by sudd5 cond5sation1 or ( ! cold produc$ by sudd5 r>efaction1 is an important datum1 det]m9+ ! velocity ( s\nd1 z we h already se51 & affect+ _m po9ts ( meteorology4 ,! coeffici5t :i* ent]s ! calculation 9 ! =m] case dep5ds on ! ratio ( two specific heats ( air "u diff]5t conditions2 "o belong+ to x :51 v>y+ 9 d5sity1 ! pressure is con/ant by :i* ! air is conta9$2 ! o!r1 :51 v>y+ 9 d5sity1 x is conta9$ 9 a con/ant space4 ,a lead+ fact1 also1 ) reg>d to ! op]ation ( heat on bodies #afj is1 t x *anges _! =m1 z x is (t5 call$1 t is1 _! condition z solid1 liquid1 or air4 ,s9ce ! t]m =m is employ$ 9 too _m & v>i\s s5ses to be imm$iately und]/ood :5 x is int5d$ to convey ?is peculi> mean+1 ,i %all use1 in/ead ( x1 ! t]m consi/5ce1 & %all hope to be excus$1 ev5 :5 ,i apply ?is ^w to gases1 ?\gh ,i mu/ ackn[l$ge su* phraseology to be unusual4 ,?us !re is a *ange ( consi/5ce :5 solids become liquid1 or liquids gase\s2 & ! laws ( su* *anges mu/ be fundam5tal facts ( our !rmotical !ories4 ,we are /ill 9 ! d>k z to _m ( ! laws :i* belong to ?is *ange2 b "o ( !m1 ( great importance1 has be5 discov]$1 & to t we mu/ n[ proce$4 ,sect4 #c4--,! ,doctr9e ( ,lat5t ,heat4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,lat5t ,heat ref]s to su* *anges ( consi/5ce z we h j spok5 (4 ,x is to ?is effect2 t dur+ ! conv]sion ( solids into liquids1 or ( liquids into vapors1 !re is communicat$ to ! body heat :i* is n indicat$ by ! !rmomet]4 ,! heat is absorb$1 or becomes lat5t2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 on ! cond5sation ( ! vapor to a liquid1 or ! liquid to a solid consi/5cy1 ?is heat is aga9 giv5 out & becomes s5sible4 ,?us a p\nd ( ice requires tw5ty times z long a "t1 9 a w>m room1 to raise its temp]ature sev5 degrees1 z a p\nd ( ice-cold wat] does4 ,a kettle plac$ on a fire1 9 f\r m9utes _h its temp]ature rais$ to ! boil+ po9t1 #bab3 & ?is temp]ature cont9u$ /ation>y = tw5ty m9utes1 :5 ! :ole 0 boil$ away4 ,dr4 ,black inf]r$ f ^! facts t a l>ge quantity ( heat is absorb$ by ! ice 9 becom+ wat]1 & by ! wat] 9 becom+ /eam4 ,he reckon$ f ! above exp]im5ts1 t ice1 9 melt+1 absorbs z mu* heat z w\ld raise ice-cold wat] ?r\gh #adj ( temp]ature3 & t wat]1 9 evaporat+1 absorbs z mu* heat z w\ld raise x ?r\gh #idj4 ,t sn[ requires a great quantity ( heat to melt x2 t wat] requires a great quantity ( heat to conv]t x into /eam2 & t ?is heat is n indicat$ by a rise 9 ! !rmomet]1 are facts :i* x is n difficult to obs]ve2 b to sep>ate ^! f all extrane\s conditions1 to gr\p ! cases toge!r1 & to seize ^u ! g5]al law by :i* !y are connect$1 0 an ef=t ( inductive insight1 :i* has be5 consid]$1 & des]v$ly1 z "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ #afa ev5ts 9 ! mod]n hi/ory ( physics4 ,( ?is /ep ! pr9cipal m]it appe>s to belong to ,black4 #bnd ,ed4 ,9 ! fir/ edition ,i _h m5tion$ ! names ( ,de ,luc & ( ,wilcke1 9 connexion ) ! discov]y ( ,lat5t ,heat1 along ) ! "n ( ,black4 ,de ,luc _h obs]v$1 9 #agee1 t ice1 9 melt+1 did n rise above ! freez+-po9t ( temp]ature till ! :ole 0 melt$4 ,de ,luc has be5 *>g$ ) plagi>iz+ ,black's discov]y1 b1 ,i ?9k1 )\t any j gr\nd4 ,9 8 ,ides sur la ,mtorologique 7#aghg71 he spoke ( ,dr4 ,black z ! fir/ :o _h attempt$ ! det]m9ations ( ! quantities ( lat5t heat4 ,& :5 ,mr4 ,watt po9t$ out to him t f ?is expression x might be suppos$ t ,black _h n discov]$ ! fact itself1 he acquiesc$1 & r$ress$ ! equivocal expression 9 an ,app5dix to ! volume4#cfaj ,note #cfaj3 ,see 8 ,lett] to ! ,editors ( ! ,ed9burgh ,review1 ,no4 xii4 p4 #ejb1 ( ! ,review4 ,black nev] publi%$ 8 own acc\nt ( ! doctr9e ( ,lat5t ,heat3 b he deliv]$ x e ye> aft] #agfj 9 8 ,lectures4 ,9 #aggj1 a surreptiti\s publication ( 8 ,lectures 0 made by a ,london booksell]1 & ?is gave a view ( ! lead+ po9ts ( ,dr4 ,black's doctr9e4 ,9 #aggb1 ,wilcke1 ( ,/ockholm1 read a pap] to ! ,royal ,society ( t city1 9 :i* ! absorption ( heat by melt+ ice is describ$2 & 9 ! same ye>1 ,de ,luc ( ,g5eva publi%$ 8 ,re*]*es sur les ,modifications de l',atmosphre1 :i* has be5 alleg$ to conta9 ! doctr9e ( lat5t heat1 & :i* ! au?or ass]ts to h be5 writt5 9 ignorance ( :at ,black _h done4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 ,de ,luc1 adopt+1 9 "p4 ,black's expression1 gave ! "n ( lat5t fire to ! heat absorb$4#cgaj ,note #cgaj3 ,see ,ed4 ,rev4 ,no4 vi4 p4 #bj4 ,x appe>s t ,cav5di% det]m9$ ! am\nt ( heat produc$ by cond5s+ /eam1 & by ?aw+ sn[1 z e>ly z #agfe4 ,he _h p]haps already he>d some?+ ( ,black's inve/igations1 b did n accept 8 t]m lat5t heat49999#chaj ,note #chaj3 ,see ,mr4 ,v4 ,h>c\rt's ,address to ! ,brit4 ,assoc4 9 #ahci1 & ! ,app5dix4 ,! consequ5ces ( ,black's pr9ciple are v important1 = ^u x is f\nd$ ! :ole doctr9e ( evaporation2 besides :i*1 ! pr9ciple ( lat5t heat has o!r applications4 ,b ! relations ( aque\s vapor to air are s important1 & h be5 s long a #afb subject ( speculation1 t we may ) advantage dwell a little ^u !m4 ,! "p ( sci5ce 9 :i* ?is is done may be call$1 z we h said1 ,atmology2 & to t division ( ,!rmotics ! foll[+ *apt]s belong4 #afc ,,atmology4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,vapor ,,& ,,air4 ,sect4 #a4--,! ,boylean ,law ( ! ,air's ,ela/icity4 ,,9 ! ,six? ,book 7,*ap4 iv4 ,sect4 #a47 we h already se5 h[ ! conception on ! laws ( fluid equilibrium 01 by ,pascal & o!rs1 ext5d$ to air1 z well z wat]4 ,b ?\gh air presses & is press$ z wat] presses & is press$1 pressure produces ^u air an effect :i* x does n1 9 any obvi\s degree1 produce ^u wat]4 ,air :i* is press$ is also compress$1 or made to occupy a small] space2 & is consequ5tly also made m d5se1 or cond5s$2 & on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! pressure ^u a portion ( air is dim9i%$1 ! air exp&s or is r>efi$4 ,^! broad facts are evid5t4 ,!y are express$ 9 a g5]al way by say+ t air is an ela/ic fluid1 yield+ 9 a c]ta9 degree to pressure1 & recov]+ its previ\s dim5sions :5 ! pressure is remov$4 ,b :5 m5 _h rea*$ ?is po9t1 ! que/ions obvi\sly (f]$ !mselves1 9 :at degree & accord+ to :at law air yields to pressure2 :5 x is compress$1 :at relation does ! d5sity be> to ! pressure8 ,! use :i* _h be5 made ( tubes conta9+ columns ( m]cury1 by :i* ! pressure ( portions ( air 0 v>i$ & measur$1 sugge/$ obvi\s modes ( devis+ exp]im5ts by :i* ?is "q might be answ]$4 ,su* exp]im5ts accord+ly 7 made by ,boyle ab\t #afej2 & ! result at :i* he arriv$ 01 t :5 air is ?us compress$1 ! d5sity is z ! pressure4 ,?us if ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e 9 its common /ate be equival5t to #cj in*es ( m]cury1 z %[n by ! b>omet]2 if air includ$ 9 a tube be press$ by #cj additional in*es ( #afd m]cury1 its d5sity w be d\bl$1 ! air be+ compress$ into "o half ! space4 ,if ! pressure be increas$ ?reefold1 ! d5sity is also trebl$2 & s on4 ,! same law 0 soon aft]w>ds 79 #afgf7 prov$ exp]im5tally by ,m>iotte4 ,& ?is law ( ! air's ela/icity1 t ! d5sity is z ! pressure1 is sometimes call$ ! ,boylean ,law1 & sometimes ! ,law ( ,boyle & ,m>iotte4 ,air reta9s its a]ial "* p]man5tly2 b !re are o!r a]ial sub/ances :i* appe> z su*1 & !n disappe> or *ange into "s o!r condition4 ,su* are t]m$ vapors4 ,& ! discov]y ( _! true relation to air 0 ! result ( a long c\rse ( rese>*es & speculations4 #bnd ,ed4 ,x 0 f\nd by ,m4 ,cagni>d de la ,t\r 79 #ahbc71 t at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 a liquid1 "u suffici5t pressure1 becomes cle> transp>5t vapor or gas1 hav+ ! same bulk z ! liquid4 ,?is condition ,dr4 ,f>aday calls ! ,cagni>d de la ,t\r /ate1 7! ,t\rian /ate87 ,x 0 also discov]$ by ,dr4 ,f>aday t c>bonic-acid gas1 & _m o!r gases1 :i* 7 long conceiv$ to be p]man5tly ela/ic1 are really r$ucible to a liquid /ate by pressure4#ciaj ,& 9 #ahce1 ,m4 ,?ilori] f\nd ! means ( r$uc+ liquid c>bonic acid to a solid =m1 by means ( ! cold produc$ 9 evaporation4 ,m rec5tly ,dr4 ,f>aday has add$ sev]al sub/ances usually gase\s to ! li/ ( ^? :i* c\ld previ\sly be %[n 9 ! liquid /ate1 & has r$uc$ o!rs1 includ+ ammonia1 nitr\s oxide1 & sulphurett$ hydrog51 to a solid consi/5cy4#djaj ,aft] ^! discov]ies1 we may1 ,i ?9k1 reasonably d\bt :e!r all bodies are n capable ( exi/+ 9 ! ?ree consi/5cies ( solid1 liquid1 & air4 ,note #ciaj3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbc4 ,note #djaj3 ,ib4 ,pt4 #a4 #ahde4 ,we may note t ! law ( ,boyle & ,m>iotte is n exactly true ne> ! limit at :i* ! air passes to ! liquid /ate 9 su* cases z t j spok5 (4 ,! dim9ution ( bulk is !n m rapid ?an ! increase ( pressure4 ,! transition ( fluids f a liquid to an airy consi/5ce appe>s to be accompani$ by o!r curi\s ph5om5a4 ,see ,pr(4 ,=bes's pap]s on ! ,color ( ,/eam "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 & on ! ,colors ( ! ,atmosph]e1 9 ! ,ed94 ,trans4 vol4 xiv4 #afe ,sect4 #b4--,prelude to ,dalton's ,doctr9e ( ,evaporation4 ,,visible cl\ds1 smoke1 di/illation1 gave ! notion ( ,vapor2 vapor 0 at fir/ conceiv$ to be id5tical ) air1 z by ,bacon4#daaj ,x 0 easily collect$1 t by heat1 wat] might be conv]t$ into vapor4 ,x 0 ?\ght t air 0 ?us produc$1 9 ! in/rum5t call$ ! olipile1 9 :i* a p[]ful bla/ is caus$ by a boil+ fluid2 b ,wolfe %[$ t ! fluid 0 n conv]t$ into air1 by us+ camphorat$ _s ( w9e1 & cond5s+ ! vapor aft] x _h be5 =m$4 ,we ne$ n enum]ate ! doctr9es 7if v vague hypo!ses may be s t]m$7 ( ,desc>tes1 ,de*ales1 ,borelli4#dbaj ,! latt] acc\nt$ = ! ris+ ( vapor by suppos+ x a mixture ( fire & wat]2 & ?us1 fire be+ mu* light] ?an air1 ! mixture also 0 light4 ,boyle endeavor$ to %[ t vapors d n p]man5tly float 9 vacuo4 ,he comp>$ ! mixture ( vapor ) air to t ( salt ) wat]4 ,he f\nd t ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e affect$ ! heat ( boil+ wat]2 a v important fact4 ,boyle prov$ ?is by means ( ! air-pump2 & he & 8 fri5ds 7 mu* surpris$ to f9d t :5 air 0 remov$1 wat] only j w>m boil$ viol5tly4 ,huygh5s m5tions an exp]im5t ( ! same k9d made by ,pap9 ab\t #afgc4 ,note #daaj3 ,bacon's ,hi/4 ,nat4 ,c5t4 i4 p4 #bg4 ,note #dbaj3 ,!y may be se5 9 ,fis*]1 ,ges*i*te d] ,physik1 vol4 ii4 p4 #age4 ,! asc5t ( vapor 0 expla9$ 9 v>i\s ways 9 succession1 accord+ to ! *anges :i* physical sci5ce und]w5t4 ,x 0 a problem di/9ctly treat$ (1 at a p]iod :5 hydro/atics _h acc\nt$ = _m ph5om5a2 & attempts 7 naturally made to r$uce ?is fact to hydro/atical pr9ciples4 ,an obvi\s hypo!sis1 :i* br\ght x "u ! dom9ion ( ^! pr9ciples1 01 to suppose t ! wat]1 :5 conv]t$ into vapor1 0 divid$ into small holl[ globules2--?9 pellicles includ+ air or heat4 ,halley gave su* an explanation ( evaporation2 ,leibnitz calculat$ ! dim5sions ( ^! little bubbles2 ,d]ham manag$ 7z he suppos$7 to exam9e !m ) a magnify+ glass3 ,wolfe also exam9$ & calculat$ on ! same subject4 ,x is curi\s to see s mu* confid5ce 9 s lame a !ory2 = if wat] became holl[ globules 9 ord] to rise z vapor1 we require1 9 ord] to expla9 ! =mation ( ^! globules1 new laws ( nature1 :i* are n ev5 h9t$ at by #aff ! support]s ( ! doctr9e1 ?\gh !y mu/ be f> m complex ?an ! hydro/atical law by :i* a holl[ sph]e floats4 ,newton's op9ion 0 h>dly m satisfactory2 he#dcaj expla9$ evaporation by ! repulsive p[] ( heat2 ! p>ts ( vapors1 accord+ to him1 be+ small1 are easily affect$ by ?is =ce1 & ?us become light] ?an ! atmosph]e4 ,note #dcaj3 ,opticks1 ,qu4 #ca4 ,mus*5broek /ill adh]$ to ! !ory ( globules1 z ! explanation ( evaporation2 b he 0 manife/ly discont5t$ ) x2 & reasonably appreh5d$ t ! pressure ( ! air w\ld de/roy ! frail texture ( ^! bubbles4 ,he call$ to 8 aid a rotation ( ! globules 7:i* ,desc>tes also _h assum$72 &1 n satisfi$ ) ?is1 ?rew himself on electrical action z a res]ve4 ,electricity1 inde$1 0 n[ 9 favor1 z hydro/atics _h be5 be=e2 & 0 naturally call$ 91 9 all cases ( difficulty4 ,desaguli]s1 also1 uses ?is ag5t to acc\nt = ! asc5t ( vapor1 introduc+ x into a k9d ( sexual sy/em ( cl\ds2 accord+ to him1 ! male fire 7heat7 does a "p1 & ! female fire 7electricity7 p]=ms ! re/4 ,^! are speculations ( small m]it & no value4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ,*emi/ry made great progress 9 ! e/imation ( philosoph]s1 & _h its turn 9 ! explanation ( ! important facts ( evaporation4 ,b\illet1 :o1 9 #agdb1 plac$ ! p>ticles ( wat] 9 ! int]/ices ( ^? ( air1 may be consid]$ z approa*+ to ! *emical !ory4 ,9 #agdh1 ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,b\rdeaux propos$ ! asc5t ( vapors z ! subject ( a prize2 :i* 0 adjudg$ 9 a mann] v imp>tial z to ! *oice ( a !ory2 = x 0 divid$ betwe5 ,kratz5/e91 :o advocat$ ! bubbles1 7! coat ( :i* he det]m9$ to be #aej1jjj? ( an in* ?ick17 & ,hamb]g]1 :o ma9ta9$ ! tru? to be ! adhesion ( p>ticles ( wat] to ^? ( air & fire4 ,! latt] doctr9e _h become mu* m di/9ct 9 ! au?or's m9d :5 sev5 ye>s aft]w>ds 7#agej7 he publi%$ 8 ,elem5ta ,physices4 ,he !n gave ! explanation ( evaporation 9 a phrase :i* has s9ce be5 adopt$1--! solution ( wat] 9 air2 :i* he conceiv$ to be ( ! same k9d z o!r *emical solutions4 ,?is !ory ( solution 0 fur!r advocat$ & develop$ by ,le ,roi2#ddaj & 9 8 h&s assum$ a =m :i* has be5 ext5sively adopt$ up to our times1 & has1 9 _m in/ances1 t+$ ! language commonly us$4 ,he conceiv$ t air1 l o!r solv5ts1 #afg might be saturat$2 & t :5 ! wat] 0 beyond ! am\nt requir$ = saturation1 x appe>$ 9 a visible =m4 ,! saturat+ quantity 0 held to dep5d ma9ly on w>m? & w9d4 ,note #ddaj3 ,ac4 ,r4 ,sc4 ,p>is1 #agej4 ,?is !ory 0 by no means devoid ( m]it2 = x br\ght toge!r _m ( ! ph5om5a1 & expla9$ a numb] ( ! exp]im5ts :i* ,le ,roi made4 ,x expla9$ ! facts ( ! transp>5cy ( vapor1 7= p]fect solutions are transp>5t17 ! precipitation ( wat] by cool+1 ! disappe>ance ( ! visible moi/ure by w>m+ x aga91 ! increas$ evaporation by ra9 & w9d2 & o!r obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,s f>1 !re=e1 ! introduction ( ! notion ( ! *emical solution ( wat] 9 air 0 app>5tly v successful4 ,b its defects are ( a v fatal k9d2 = x does n at all apply to ! facts :i* take place :5 air is exclud$4 ,9 ,sw$51 9 ! mean "t1#deaj ! subject _h be5 pursu$ 9 a diff]5t1 & 9 a m correct mann]4 ,wall]ius ,erics5 _h1 by v>i\s exp]im5ts1 e/abli%$ ! important fact1 t wat] evaporates 9 a vacuum4 ,8 exp]im5ts are cle> & satisfactory2 & he inf]r$ f !m ! falsity ( ! common explanation ( evaporation by ! solution ( wat] 9 air4 ,8 conclusions are drawn 9 a v intellig5t mann]4 ,he consid]s ! "q :e!r wat] c be *ang$ into air1 & :e!r ! atmosph]e is1 9 consequ5ce1 a m]e collection ( vapors2 & on good reasons1 decides 9 ! negative1 & concludes ! exi/5ce ( p]man5tly-ela/ic air diff]5t f vapor4 ,he judges1 also1 t !re are two causes conc]n$1 "o act+ to produce ! fir/ asc5t ( vapors1 ! o!r to support !m aft]w>ds4 ,! fir/1 :i* acts 9 a vacuum1 he conceives to be ! mutual repulsion ( ! p>ticles2 & s9ce ?is =ce is indep5d5t ( ! pres5ce ( o!r sub/ances1 ?is seems to be a s\nd induction4 ,:5 ! vapors h once asc5d$ into ! air1 x may readily be grant$ t !y are c>ri$ high]1 & driv5 f side to side by ! curr5ts ( ! atmosph]e4 ,wall]ius conceives t ! vapor w rise till x gets into air ( ! same d5sity z itself1 & be+ !n 9 equilibrium1 w drift to & fro4 ,note #deaj3 ,fis*]1 ,ges*4 ,phys4 vol4 v4 p4 #fc4 ,! two rival !ories ( evaporation1 t ( *emical solution & t ( indep5d5t vapor1 71 9 v>i\s =ms1 advocat$ by ! next g5]ation ( philosoph]s4 ,de ,saussure may be consid]$ z ! lead] on "o side1 & ,de ,luc on ! o!r4 ,! =m] ma9ta9$ ! solution !ory1 ) "s modifications ( 8 own4 ,de #afh ,luc d5i$ all solution1 & held vapor to be a comb9ation ( ! p>ticles ( wat] ) fire1 by :i* !y became light] ?an air4 ,accord+ to him1 !re is always fire en\gh pres5t to produce ?is comb9ation1 s t evaporation goes on at all temp]atures4 ,?is mode ( consid]+ indep5d5t vapor z a comb9ation ( fire ) wat]1 l$ ! att5tion ( ^? :o adopt$ t op9ion to ! !rmometrical *anges :i* take place :5 vapor is =m$ & cond5s$4 ,^! *anges are important1 & _! laws curi\s4 ,! laws belong to ! induction ( lat5t heat1 ( :i* we h j spok52 b a k ( !m is n absolutely necess>y 9 ord] to enable u to und]/& ! mann] 9 :i* /eam exi/s 9 air4 ,de ,luc's views l$ him#dfaj also to ! consid]ation ( ! effect ( pressure on vapor4 ,he expla9s ! fact t pressure w cond5se vapor1 by suppos+ t x br+s ! p>ticles )9 ! di/ance at :i* ! repulsion aris+ f fire ceases4 ,9 ?is way1 he also expla9s ! fact1 t ?\gh ext]nal pressure does ?us cond5se /eam1 ! mixture ( a body ( air1 by :i* ! pressure is equally increas$1 w n produce ! same effect2 & !re=e1 vapors c exi/ 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,!y make no fix$ proportion ( x2 b at ! same temp]ature we h ! same pressure aris+ f !m1 :e!r !y are 9 air or n4 ,z ! heat increases1 vapor becomes capable ( support+ a great] & great] pressure1 & at ! boil+ heat1 x c support ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,note #dfaj3 ,fis*]1 vol4 vii4 p4 #dec4 ,n\velles ,ides sur la ,mtorologie1 #aghg4 ,de ,luc also m>k$ v precisely 7z ,wall]ius _h done7 ! diff]5ce betwe5 vapor & air2 ! =m] be+ capable ( *ange ( consi/5ce by cold or pressure1 ! latt] n s4 ,pictet1 9 #aghf1 made a hygrometrical exp]im5t1 :i* appe>$ to him to confirm ,de ,luc's views2 & ,de ,luc1 9 #agib1 publi%$ a conclud+ essay on ! subject 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,pictet's ,essay on ,fire1 9 #agia1 also demon/rat$ t all ! tra9 ( hygrometrical ph5om5a takes place j z well1 inde$ r quick]1 9 a vacuum ?an 9 air1 provid$ ! same quantity ( moi/ure is pres5t4 ,?is essay1 & ,de ,luc's pap]1 gave ! dea?-bl[ to ! !ory ( ! solution ( wat] 9 air4 ,yet ?is !ory did n fall )\t an ob/9ate /ruggle4 ,x 0 tak5 up by ! new s*ool ( ,fr5* *emi/s1 & connect$ ) _! views ( heat4 ,inde$1 x long appe>s z ! preval5t op9ion4 #afi ,girtann]1#dgaj 9 8 ,gr\nds ( ! ,antiphlogi/ic ,!ory1 may be consid]$ z "o ( ! pr9cipal exp\nd]s ( ?is view ( ! matt]4 ,hube1 ( ,w>saw1 01 h[ev]1 ! /ronge/ ( ! def5d]s ( ! !ory ( solution1 & publi%$ ^u x repeat$ly ab\t #agij4 ,yet he appe>s to h be5 some:at emb>rass$ ) ! increase ( ! air's ela/icity by vapor4 ,p>rot1 9 #ahja1 propos$ ano!r !ory1 ma9ta9+ t ,de ,luc _h by no means successfully attack$ t ( solution1 b only ,de ,saussure's sup]flu\s additions to x4 ,note #dgaj3 ,fis*]1 vol4 vii4 #dgc4 ,x is difficult to see :at prev5t$ ! g5]al reception ( ! doctr9e ( indep5d5t vapor2 s9ce x expla9$ all ! facts v simply1 & ! ag5cy ( air 0 %[n ov] & ov] aga9 to be unnecess>y4 ,yet1 ev5 n[1 ! solution ( wat] 9 air is h>dly explod$4 ,m4 ,gay ,lussac1#dhaj 9 #ahjj1 talks ( ! quantity ( wat] held 9 solution by ! air2 :i*1 he says1 v>ies accord+ to its temp]ature & d5sity by a law :i* has n yet be5 discov]$4 ,& ,pr(essor ,robison1 9 ! article ,/eam1 9 ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica 7publi%$ ab\t #ahjj71 says1#diaj ,_m philosoph]s imag9e t spontane\s evaporation1 at l[ temp]atures1 is produc$ 9 ?is way 7by ela/icity alone74 ,b we _c be ( ?is op9ion2 & mu/ /ill ?9k t ?is k9d ( evaporation is produc$ by ! dissolv+ p[] ( ! air4 ,he !n gives "s reasons = 8 op9ion4 ,:5 moi/ air is sudd5ly r>efi$1 !re is always a precipitation ( wat]4 ,b by ?is new doctr9e ! v contr>y %\ld happ51 because ! t5d5cy ( wat] to appe> 9 ! ela/ic =m is promot$ by remov+ ! ext]nal pressure4 ,ano!r ma9 difficulty 9 ! way ( ! doctr9e ( ! m]e mixture ( vapor & air 0 suppos$ to be ?is2 t if !y 7 s mix$1 ! heavi] fluid w\ld take ! l[] "p1 & ! light] ! high] "p1 ( ! space :i* !y occupi$4 ,note #dhaj3 ,ann4 ,*im4 tom4 xliii4 ,note #diaj3 ,robison's ,works1 ii4 #cg4 ,! =m] ( ^! argum5ts 0 repell$ by ! consid]ation t 9 ! r>efaction ( air1 its specific heat is *ang$1 & ?us its temp]ature r$uc$ bel[ ! con/itu5t temp]ature ( ! vapor :i* x conta9s4 ,! latt] argum5t is answ]$ by a ref]5ce to ,dalton's law ( ! mixture ( gases4 ,we mu/ consid] ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is doctr9e 9 a new section1 z ! mo/ mat]ial /ep to ! true notion ( evaporation4 #agj ,sect4 #c4--;,dalton's ,doctr9e ( ,evaporation4 ,a ,,portion ( t :i* appe>s to be ! true notion ( evaporation 0 kn[n1 ) great] or less di/9ctness1 to sev]al ( ! physical philosoph]s ( :om we h spok54 ,!y 7 aw>e t ! vapor :i* exi/s 9 air1 9 an invisible /ate1 may be cond5s$ into wat] by cold3 & !y _h notic$ t1 9 any /ate ( ! atmosph]e1 !re is a c]ta9 temp]ature l[] ?an t ( ! atmosph]e1 to :i*1 if we depress bodies1 wat] =ms ^u !m 9 f9e drops l dew2 ?is temp]ature is !nce call$ ! dew-po9t4 ,! vapor ( wat] :i* exi/s any:]e may be r$uc$ bel[ ! degree ( heat :i* is necess>y to con/itute x vapor1 & ?us x ceases to be vapor4 ,h5ce ?is temp]ature is also call$ ! con/itu5t temp]ature4 ,?is 0 g5]ally kn[n to ! meteorological speculators ( ! la/ c5tury1 al?\gh1 9 ,engl&1 att5tion 0 pr9cipally call$ to x by ,dr4 ,wells's ,essay on ,dew1 9 #ahad4 ,?is doctr9e readily expla9s h[ ! cold produc$ by r>efaction ( air1 desc5d+ bel[ ! con/itu5t temp]ature ( ! conta9$ vapor1 may precipitate a dew2 & ?us1 z we h said1 refutes "o obvi\s objection to ! !ory ( indep5d5t vapor4 ,! o!r difficulty 0 fir/ fully remov$ by ,mr4 ,dalton4 ,:5 8 att5tion 0 drawn to ! subject ( vapor1 he saw insurm\ntable objections to ! doctr9e ( a *emical union ( wat] & air4 ,9 fact1 ?is doctr9e 0 a m]e nom9al explanation2 =1 on clos] exam9ation1 no *emical analogies support$ x4 ,aft] "s reflection1 & 9 ! sequel ( o!r g5]alizations conc]n+ gases1 he 0 l$ to ! p]suasion1 t :5 air & /eam are mix$ toge!r1 ea* foll[s its sep>ate laws ( equilibrium1 ! p>ticles ( ea* be+ ela/ic ) reg>d to ^? ( _! own k9d only3 s t /eam may be conceiv$ z fl[+ among ! p>ticles ( air#ejaj l a /ream ( wat] among pebbles2 & ! resi/ance :i* air (f]s to evaporation arises1 n f its weight1 b f ! in]tia ( its p>ticles4 ,note #ejaj3 ,man*e/] ,memoirs1 vol4 v4 p4 #eha4 ,x w be f\nd t ! !ory ( indep5d5t vapor1 und]/ood ) ^! conditions1 w include all ! facts ( ! case2--gradual evaporation 9 air2 sudd5 evaporation 9 a vacuum2 ! increase ( #aga ! air's ela/icity by vapor2 cond5sation by its v>i\s causes2 & o!r ph5om5a4 ,b ,mr4 ,dalton also made exp]im5ts to prove 8 fundam5tal pr9ciple1 t if two diff]5t gases communicate1 !y w diffuse !mselves ?r\gh ea* o!r2#eaaj--sl[ly1 if ! op5+ ( communication be small4 ,he obs]ves also1 t all ! gases _h equal solv5t p[]s = vapor1 :i* c\ld h>dly h happ5$1 _h *emical aff9ity be5 conc]n$4 ,nor does ! d5sity ( ! air make any diff]5ce4 ,note #eaaj3 ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy1 vol4 i4 p4 #aea4 ,tak+ all ^! circum/ances into ! acc\nt1 ,mr4 ,dalton ab&on$ ! idea ( solution4 ,9 ! autumn ( #ahja1 he says1 ,i hit ^u an idea :i* seem$ to be exactly calculat$ to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( vapor3 x gave rise to a great v>iety ( exp]im5ts1 :i* end$ 9 fix+ x 9 8 m9d z a true idea4 ,b1 he adds1 ! !ory 0 almo/ univ]sally misund]/ood1 & consequ5tly reprobat$4 ,mr4 ,dalton answ]s v>i\s objections4 ,b]?ollet _h urg$ t we c h>dly conceive ! p>ticles ( an ela/ic sub/ance add$ to ^? ( ano!r1 )\t increas+ its ela/icity4 ,to ?is ,mr4 ,dalton replies by adduc+ ! in/ance ( magnets1 :i* repel ea* o!r1 b d n repel o!r bodies4 ,"o ( ! mo/ curi\s & +5i\s objections is t ( ,m4 ,g\gh1 :o argues1 t if ea* gas is ela/ic ) reg>d to itself alone1 we %\ld he>1 produc$ by "o /roke1 f\r s\nds2 namely1 fir/1 ! s\nd ?r\gh aque\s vapor2 second1 ! s\nd ?r\gh azotic gas2 ?ird1 ! s\nd ?r\gh oxyg5 gas2 f\r?1 ! s\nd ?r\gh c>bonic acid4 ,mr4 ,dalton's answ] is1 t ! diff]5ce ( "t at :i* ^! s\nds w\ld come is v small2 & t1 9 fact1 we d he>1 s\nds d\ble & treble4 ,9 8 ,new ,sy/em ( ,*emical ,philosophy1 ,mr4 ,dalton consid]s ! objections ( 8 oppon5ts ) s+ul> c&or & imp>tiality4 ,he !re appe>s dispos$ to ab&on t "p ( ! !ory :i* negatives ! mutual repulsion ( ! p>ticles ( ! two gases1 & to attribute _! diffusion ?r\gh "o ano!r to ! diff]5t size ( ! p>ticles1 :i* w\ld1 he ?9ks1#ebaj produce ! same effect4 ,note #ebaj3 ,new ,sy/em1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahh4 ,9 select+1 z ( p]man5t importance1 ! really valuable "p ( ?is !ory1 we mu/ endeavor to leave out all t is d\btful or unprov$4 ,i believe x w be f\nd t 9 all !ories hi!rto #agb promulgat$1 all ass]tions respect+ ! prop]ties ( ! p>ticles ( bodies1 _! sizes1 di/ances1 attractions1 & ! l1 are insecure & sup]flu\s4 ,pass+ ov]1 !n1 su* hypo!ses1 ! inductions :i* rema9 are ^!2--t two gases :i* are 9 communication w1 by ! ela/icity ( ea*1 diffuse !mselves 9 "o ano!r1 quickly or sl[ly2 &--t ! quantity ( /eam conta9$ 9 a c]ta9 space ( air is ! same1 :atev] be ! air1 :atev] be its d5sity1 & ev5 if !re be a vacuum4 ,^! propositions may be includ$ toge!r by say+1 t "o gas is me*anically mix$ ) ano!r2 & we _c b ass5t to :at ,mr4 ,dalton says ( ! latt] fact1--?is is c]ta9ly ! t\*/one ( ! me*anical & *emical !ories4 ,?is doctr9e ( ! me*anical mixture ( gases appe>s to supply answ]s to all ! difficulties oppos$ to x by ,b]?ollet & o!rs1 z ,mr4 ,dalton has %[n2#ecaj & we may1 !re=e1 accept x z well e/abli%$4 ,note #ecaj3 ,new ,sy/em1 vol4 i4 p4 #afj1 c4 ,?is doctr9e1 along ) ! pr9ciple ( ! con/itu5t temp]ature ( /eam1 is applicable to a l>ge s]ies ( meteorological & o!r consequ5ces4 ,b be=e consid]+ ! applications ( !ory to natural ph5om5a1 :i* h be5 made1 x w be prop] to speak ( rese>*es :i* 7 c>ri$ on1 9 a great measure1 9 consequ5ce ( ! use ( /eam 9 ! arts3 ,i mean ! laws :i* connect its ela/ic =ce ) its con/itu5t temp]ature4 ,sect4 #d4--;,det]m9ation ( ! ,laws ( ! ,ela/ic ,=ce ( ,/eam4 ,,! expansion ( aque\s vapor at diff]5t temp]atures is gov]n$1 l t ( all o!r vapors1 by ! law ( ,dalton & ,gay-,lussac1 already m5tion$2 & f ?is1 its ela/icity1 :5 its expansion is resi/$1 w be kn[n by ! law ( ,boyle & ,m>iotte2 namely1 by ! rule t ! pressure ( airy fluids is z ! cond5sation4 ,b x is to be obs]v$1 t ?is process ( calculation goes on ! supposition t ! /eam is cut (f f contact ) wat]1 s t no m /eam c be g5]at$2 a case q diff]5t f ! common "o1 9 :i* ! /eam is m abundant z ! heat is great]4 ,! exam9ation ( ! =ce ( vapor1 :5 x is 9 contact ) wat]1 mu/ be briefly notic$4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( :i* we h be5 speak+1 ! progress ( ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( aque\s vapor 0 mu* accel]at$ #agc by ! gr[+ importance ( ! /eam-eng9e1 9 :i* ^? laws op]at$ 9 a practical =m4 ,james ,watts1 ! ma9 improv] ( t ma*9e1 0 ?us a great contributor to speculative k1 z well z to practical p[]4 ,_m ( 8 improvem5ts dep5d$ on ! laws :i* regulate ! quantity ( heat :i* goes to ! =mation or cond5sation ( /eam2 & ! obs]vations :i* l$ to ^! improvem5ts ent] into ! induction ( lat5t heat4 ,measurem5ts ( ! =ce ( /eam1 at all temp]atures1 7 made ) ! same view4 ,watts's att5tion _h be5 drawn to ! /eam-eng9e 9 #agei1 by ,robison1 ! =m] be+ !n an in/rum5t-mak]1 & ! latt] a /ud5t at ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[4#edaj ,9 #agfa or #agfb1 he tri$ "s exp]im5ts on ! =ce ( /eam 9 a ,pap9's ,dige/]2#eeaj & =m$ a sort ( work+ model ( a /eam-eng9e1 feel+ already 8 vocation to develope ! p[]s ( t inv5tion4 ,8 k 0 at t "t pr9cipally d]iv$ f ,desaguli]s & ,belidor1 b 8 own exp]im5ts add$ to x rapidly4 ,9 #agfd & #agfe1 he made a m sy/ematical c\rse ( exp]im5ts1 direct$ to asc]ta9 ! =ce ( /eam4 ,he tri$ ?is =ce1 h[ev]1 only at temp]atures above ! boil+-po9t2 & inf]r$ x at l[] degrees f ! suppos$ cont9uity ( ! law ?us obta9$4 ,8 fri5d ,robison1 also1 0 soon aft] l$1 by read+ ! acc\nt ( "s exp]im5ts ( ,"l ,*>les ,cav5di%1 & "s o!rs ( ,mr4 ,nairne1 to exam9e ! same subject4 ,he made out a table ( ! correspond5ce ( ! ela/icity & ! temp]ature ( vapor1 f ?irty-two to two hundr$ & eighty degrees ( ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]4#efaj ,! ?+ "h to be rem>k$1 is ! e/abli%m5t ( a law ( ! pressure ( /eam1 d[n to ! freez+-po9t ( wat]4 ,ziegl] ( ,basle1 9 #agfi1 & ,a*>d ( ,b]l91 9 #aghb1 made simil> exp]im5ts4 ,! latt] exam9$ also ! ela/icity ( ! vapor ( alcohol4 ,betanc\rt1 9 #agib1 publi%$ 8 ,memoir on ! expansive =ce ( vapors2 & 8 tables 7 = "s "t consid]$ ! mo/ exact4 #agd ,prony1 9 8 ,ar*itecture ,hydraulique 7#agif71 e/abli%$ a ma!matical =mula1#egaj on ! exp]im5ts ( ,betanc\rt1 :o began 8 rese>*es 9 ! belief t he 0 fir/ 9 ! field1 al?\gh he aft]w>ds f\nd t he _h be5 anticipat$ by ,ziegl]4 ,gr5 comp>$ ! exp]im5ts ( ,betanc\rt & ,de ,luc ) 8 own4 ,he asc]ta9$ an important fact1 t :5 wat] boils1 ! ela/icity ( ! /eam is equal to t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,s*midt at ,giess5 endeavor$ to improve ! app>atus us$ by ,betanc\rt2 & ,bik]1 ( ,rott]dam1 9 #ahjj1 made new trials = ! same purpose4 ,note #edaj3 ,robison's ,works1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aac4 ,note #eeaj3 ,d5is ,pap91 :o made _m ( ,boyle's exp]im5ts = him1 _h discov]$ t if ! vapor be prev5t$ f ris+1 ! wat] becomes hott] ?an ! usual boil+-po9t2 & _h h5ce inv5t$ ! in/rum5t call$ ,pap9's ,dige/]4 ,x is describ$ 9 8 book1 ,la manire d'amolir les os et de faire cuire t\tes sorts de vi&es en =t peu de temps et peu de frais4 ,p>is1 #afhb4 ,note #efaj3 ,^! 7 aft]w>ds publi%$ 9 ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica2 9 ! article ,/eam1 writt5 by ,robison4 ,note #egaj3 ,ar*itecture ,hydraulique1 ,seconde ,p>tie1 p4 #afc4 ,9 #ahja1 ,mr4 ,dalton communicat$ to ! ,philosophical ,society ( ,man*e/] 8 inve/igations on ?is subject2 obs]v+ truly1 t ?\gh ! =ces at high temp]atures are mo/ important :5 /eam is consid]$ z a me*anical ag5t1 ! progress ( philosophy is m imm$iately int]e/$ 9 accurate obs]vations on ! =ce at l[ temp]atures4 ,he also f\nd t 8 ela/icities = equidi/ant temp]atures resembl$ a geometrical progression1 b ) a ratio con/antly dim9i%+4 ,dr4 ,ure1 9 #ahah1 publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ,london1 exp]im5ts ( ! same k9d1 valuable f ! high temp]atures at :i* !y 7 made1 & = ! simplicity ( 8 app>atus4 ,! law :i* he ?us obta9$ approa*$1 l ,dalton's1 to a geometrical progression4 ,dr4 ,ure says1 t a =mula propos$ by ,m4 ,biot gives an error ( ne> n9e in*es out ( sev5ty-five1 at a temp]ature ( #bff degrees4 ,?is is v conceivable1 = if ! =mula be wrong at all1 ! geometrical progress rapidly inflames ! error 9 ! high] portions ( ! scale4 ,! ela/icity ( /eam1 at high temp]atures1 has also be5 exp]im5tally exam9$ by ,mr4 ,s\!rn1 ( ,soho1 & ,mr4 ,%>pe1 ( ,man*e/]4 ,mr4 ,dalton has attempt$ to d$uce c]ta9 g5]al laws f ,mr4 ,%>pe's exp]im5ts2 & o!r p]sons h (f]$ o!r rules1 z ^? :i* gov]n ! =ce ( /eam ) ref]5ce to ! temp]ature3 b no rule appe>s yet to h assum$ ! "* ( an e/abli%$ sci5tific tru?4 ,yet ! law ( ! expansive =ce ( /eam is n only requir$ 9 ord] t ! /eam-eng9e may be employ$ ) safety & to ! be/ advantage2 b mu/ also be an important po9t 9 e consi/5t !rmotical !ory4 #bnd ,ed4 ,to ! exp]im5ts on /eam made by private physici/s1 are to be add$ ! exp]im5ts made on a gr& scale by ord] ( ! gov]nm5ts ( ,france & ( ,am]ica1 ) a view to #age legislation on ! subject ( /eam-eng9es4 ,! ,fr5* exp]im5ts 7 made 9 #ahbc1 "u ! direction ( a commission consi/+ ( "s ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ memb]s ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces2 namely1 ,,mm4 de ,prony1 ,arago1 ,gir>d1 & ,dulong4 ,! ,am]ican exp]im5ts 7 plac$ 9 ! h&s ( a committee ( ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute ( ! ,/ate ( ,p5nsylvania1 consi/+ ( ,pr(4 ,ba*e & o!rs1 9 #ahcj4 ,! ,fr5* exp]im5ts w5t z high z #dce ( ,fahr5heit's !rmomet]1 correspond+ to a pressure ( #fj feet ( m]cury1 or #bd atmosph]es4 ,! ,am]ican exp]im5ts 7 made up to a temp]ature ( #cdf1 :i* correspond$ to #bgd in*es ( m]cury1 m ?an #i atmosph]es4 ,! ext5sive range ( ^! exp]im5ts af=ds great advantages = det]m9+ ! law ( ! expansive =ce4 ,! ,fr5* ,academy f\nd t _! exp]im5ts indicat$ an increase ( ! ela/ic =ce accord+ to ! fif? p[] ( a b9om9al #a mt1 :]e t is ! temp]ature4 ,! ,am]ican ,in/itute 7 l$ to a six? p[] ( a l b9om9al4 ,o!r exp]im5t]s h express$ _! results1 n by p[]s ( ! temp]ature1 b by geometrical ratios4 ,dr4 ,dalton _h suppos$ t ! expansion ( m]cury be+ z ! squ>e ( ! true temp]ature above its freez+-po9t1 ! expansive =ce ( /eam increases 9 geometrical ratio = equal increm5ts ( temp]ature4 ,& ! au?or ( ! article ,/eam 9 ! ,sev5? ,edition ( ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica 7,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,russell71 has f\nd t ! exp]im5ts are be/ satisfi$ by suppos+ m]cury1 z well z /eam1 to exp& 9 a geometrical ratio = equal increm5ts ( ! true temp]ature4 ,x appe>s by su* calculation1 t :ile dry gas increases 9 ! ratio ( #h to #aa1 by an increase ( temp]ature f freez+ to boil+ wat]2 /eam 9 contact ) wat]1 by ! same increase ( temp]ature above boil+ wat]1 has its expansive =ce increas$ 9 ! proportion ( #a to #ab4 ,by an equal increase ( temp]ature1 m]cury exp&s 9 ab\t ! ratio ( #h to #i4 ,rec5tly1 ,,mm4 ,magnus ( ,b]l91 ,holzmann & ,regnault1 h made s]ies ( obs]vations on ! relation betwe5 temp]ature & ela/icity ( /eam4#ehaj ,note #ehaj3 ,see ,taylor's ,sci5tific ,memoirs1 ,aug4 #ahde1 vol4 iv4 "p xiv41 & ,ann4 de ,*imie4 ,pr(4 ,magnus measur$ 8 temp]atures by an air-!rmomet]2 a process :i*1 ,i /at$ 9 ! fir/ edition1 seem$ to af=d ! be/ promise ( simplify+ ! law ( expansion4 ,8 result is1 t ! #agf ela/icity proce$s 9 a geometric s]ies :5 ! temp]ature proce$s 9 an ari?metical s]ies ne>ly2 ! diff]5ces ( temp]ature = equal augm5tations ( ! ratio ( ela/icity be+ some:at great] = ! high] temp]atures4 ,! =ces ( ! vapors ( o!r liquids 9 contact ) _! liquids1 det]m9$ by ,dr4 ,f>aday1 z m5tion$ 9 ,*ap4 ii4 ,sect4 #a1 are analog\s to ! ela/icity ( /eam "h spok5 (4 ,sect4 #e4--;,consequ5ces ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,evaporation4--,explanation ( ,ra91 ,dew1 & ,cl\ds4 ,,! discov]ies conc]n+ ! relations ( heat & moi/ure :i* 7 made dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 7 pr9cipally sugge/$ by meteorological inquiries1 & 7 appli$ to meteorology z fa/ z !y rose4 ,/ill !re rema9s1 on _m po9ts ( ?is subject1 s mu* d\bt & obscurity1 t we _c suppose ! doctr9es to h assum$ _! f9al =m2 & !re=e we are n "h call$ ^u to trace _! progress & connexion4 ,! pr9ciples ( atmology are pretty well und]/ood2 b ! difficulty ( obs]v+ ! conditions "u :i* !y produce _! effects 9 ! atmosph]e is s great1 t ! precise !ory ( mo/ meteorological ph5om5a is /ill to be det]m9$4 ,we h already consid]$ ! answ]s giv5 to ! "q3 ,accord+ to :at rules does transp>5t aque\s vapor resume its =m ( visible wat]8 ,?is "q includes1 n only ! problems ( ,ra9 & ,dew1 b also ( ,cl\ds2 = cl\ds are n vapor1 b wat]1 vapor be+ always invisible4 ,an op9ion :i* attract$ mu* notice 9 its "t1 0 t ( ,hutton1 :o1 9 #aghd1 endeavor$ to prove t if two masses ( air saturat$ ) transp>5t vapor at diff]5t temp]atures are mix$ toge!r1 ! precipitation ( wat] 9 ! =m ei!r ( cl\d or ( drops w take place4 ,! reason he assign$ = ! op9ion 0 ?is3 t ! temp]ature ( ! mixture is a mean betwe5 ! two temp]atures1 b t ! =ce ( ! vapor 9 ! mixture1 :i* is ! mean ( ! =ces ( ! two compon5t vapors1 w be great] ?an t :i* corresponds to ! mean temp]ature1 s9ce ! =ce increases fa/] ?an ! temp]ature2#eiaj & h5ce "s "p ( ! vapor w be precipitat$4 ,?is doctr9e1 x w be se51 speaks ( vapor z saturat+ air1 & is #agg !re=e1 9 ?is =m1 inconsi/5t ) ,dalton's pr9ciple2 b x is n difficult to modify ! expression s z to reta9 ! ess5tial "p ( ! explanation4 ,note #eiaj3 ,ed94 ,trans4 vol4 #a4 p4 #db4 ,dew4--,! pr9ciple ( a con/itu5t temp]ature ( /eam1 & ! explanation ( ! dew-po9t1 7 kn[n1 z we h said 7*ap4 iii4 sect4 #c17 to ! meteorologi/s ( ! la/ c5tury2 b we p]ceive h[ incomplete _! k 01 by ! v gradual mann] 9 :i* ! consequ5ces ( ?is pr9ciple 7 trac$ out4 ,we h already notic$1 z "o ( ! books :i* mo/ drew att5tion to ! true doctr9e1 9 ?is c\ntry at lea/1 ,dr4 ,wells's ,essay on ,dew1 publi%$ 9 #ahad4 ,9 ?is "w ! au?or gives an acc\nt ( ! progress ( 8 op9ions2#fjaj ,i 0 l$1 he says1 9 ! autumn ( #aghd1 by ! ev5t ( a rude exp]im5t1 to ?9k x probable t ! =mation ( dew is att5d$ ) ! production ( cold4 ,?is 0 confirm$ by ! exp]im5ts ( o!rs4 ,b "s ye>s aft]1 ^u consid]+ ! subject m closely1 ,i began to suspect t ,mr4 ,wilson1 ,mr4 ,six1 & myself1 _h all committ$ an error 9 reg>d+ ! cold :i* accompanies ! dew1 z an effect ( ! =mation ( ! dew4 ,he n[ consid]$ x r z ! cause3 & soon f\nd t he 0 able to acc\nt = ! circum/ances ( ?is =mation1 _m ( !m curi\s & p>adoxical1 by suppos+ ! bodies on :i* dew is deposit$1 to be cool$ d[n1 by radiation into ! cle> night-sky1 to ! prop] temp]ature4 ,! same pr9ciple w obvi\sly expla9 ! =mation ( mi/s ov] /reams & lakes :5 ! air is cool] ?an ! wat]2 :i* 0 put =w>d by ,davy1 ev5 9 #ahaj1 z a new doctr9e1 or at lea/ n famili>4 ,note #fjaj3 ,essay on ,dew1 p4 #a4 ,hygromet]s4--,accord+ z air has m or less ( vapor 9 comp>ison ) t :i* its temp]ature & pressure enable x to conta91 x is m or less humid2 & an in/rum5t :i* measures ! degrees ( su* a gradation is a hygromet]4 ,! hygromet]s :i* 7 at fir/ inv5t$1 7 ^? :i* measur$ ! moi/ure by its effect 9 produc+ expansion or contraction 9 c]ta9 organic sub/ances2 ?us ,de ,saussure devis$ a hair-hygromet]1 ,de ,luc a :alebone-hygromet]1 & ,dalton us$ a piece ( :ipcord4 ,all ^! contrivances 7 v>iable 9 ! am\nt ( _! indications "u ! same circum/ances2 &1 moreov]1 x 0 n easy to "k ! physical mean+ ( ! degree indicat$4 ,! dew-po9t1 or con/itu5t temp]ature ( ! vapor :i* exi/s 9 ! air1 is1 on #agh ! o!r h&1 bo? con/ant & def9ite4 ,! det]m9ation ( ?is po9t1 z a datum = ! moi/ure ( ! atmosph]e1 0 employ$ by ,le ,roi1 & by ,dalton 7#ahjb71 ! cond5sation be+ obta9$ by cold wat]3#faaj & f9ally1 ,mr4 ,daniell 7#ahab7 con/ruct$ an in/rum5t1 :]e ! cond5s+ temp]ature 0 produc$ by evaporation ( e!r1 9 a v conv5i5t mann]4 ,?is inv5tion 7,daniell's ,hygromet]7 enables u to det]m9e ! quantity ( vapor :i* exi/s 9 a giv5 mass ( ! atmosph]e at any "t ( obs]vation4 ,note #faaj3 ,daniell1 ,met4 ,ess4 p4 #adb4 ,man*4 ,mem4 vol4 v4 p4 #eha4 #bnd ,ed4 ,z a happy application ( ! ,atmological ,laws :i* h be5 discov]$1 ,i may m5tion ! completion ( ! !ory & use ( ! ,wet-bulb ,hygromet]2 an in/rum5t 9 :i*1 f ! depression ( temp]ature produc$ by wett+ ! bulb ( a !rmomet]1 we inf] ! fur!r depression :i* w\ld produce dew4 ,( ?is in/rum5t ! hi/ory is ?us summ$ up by ,pr(4 ,=bes3--,hutton inv5t$ ! me?od2 ,leslie reviv$ & ext5d$ x1 giv+ probably ! e>lie/1 ?\gh an imp]fect !ory2 ,gay-,lussac1 by 8 excell5t exp]im5ts & reason+ f !m1 complet$ ! !ory1 s f> z p]fectly dry air is conc]n$2 ,ivory ext5d$ ! !ory2 :i* 0 r$uc$ to practice by ,augu/e & ,bohn5b]g]1 :o det]m9$ ! con/ant ) accuracy4 ,engli% obs]v]s h done little m ?an confirm ! conclusions ( our indu/ri\s ,g]manic neighbors2 nev]!less ! exp]im5ts ( ,apjohn & ,pr9sep mu/ ev] be consid]$ z conclusively settl+ ! value ( ! coeffici5t ne> ! "o extremity ( ! scale1 z ^? ( ,kmtz h done = ! o!r4#fbaj ,note #fbaj3 ,second ,report on ,meteorology1 p4 #aja4 ,pr(4 ,=bes's two ,reports ,on ! ,rec5t ,progress & ,pres5t ,/ate ( ,meteorology giv5 among ! ,reports ( ! ,briti% ,association = #ahcb & #ahdj1 conta9 a complete & lum9\s acc\nt ( rec5t rese>*es on ?is subject4 ,x may p]haps be ask$ :y ,i h n giv5 ,meteorology a place among ! ,inductive ,sci5ces2 b if ! read] ref]s to ^! acc\nts1 or any o!r adequate view ( ! subject1 he w see t ,meteorology is n a s+le ,inductive ,sci5ce1 b ! application ( sev]al sci5ces to ! explanation ( t]re/rial & atmosph]ic ph5om5a4 ,( ! sci5ces s appli$1 ,!rmotics & ,atmology are ! pr9cipal ones4 ,b o!rs also come into play2 z ,optics1 9 ! explanation ( ,ra9b[s1 ,halos1 #agi ,p>helia1 ,coron1 ,glories1 & ! l2 ,electricity1 9 ! explanation ( ,?und] & ,lightn+1 ,hail1 ,aurora ,borealis2 to :i* o!rs might be add$4 ,cl\ds4--,:5 vapor becomes visible by be+ cool$ bel[ its con/itu5t temp]ature1 x =ms itself into a v f9e wat]y p[d]1 ! diamet] ( ! p>ticles ( :i* ?is p[d] consi/s be+ v small3 !y are e/imat$ by v>i\s writ]s1 f #aajj1jjj? to #abj1jjj? ( an in*4#fcaj ,su* p>ticles1 ev5 if solid1 w\ld desc5d v sl[ly2 & v slight causes w\ld suffice = _! susp5sion1 )\t recurr+ to ! hypo!sis ( vesicles1 ( :i* we h already spok54 ,inde$ t hypo!sis w n expla9 ! fact1 except we suppose ^! vesicles fill$ ) a r>] air ?an t ( ! atmosph]e2 &1 accord+ly1 ?\gh ?is hypo!sis is /ill ma9ta9$ by "s1#fdaj x is ass]t$ z a fact ( obs]vation1 prov$ by optical or o!r ph5om5a1 & n d$uc$ f ! susp5sion ( cl\ds4 ,yet ! latt] result is /ill v>i\sly expla9$ by diff]5t philosoph]s3 ?us1 ,m4 ,gay-,lussac#feaj acc\nts = x by upw>d curr5ts ( air1 & ,fresnel expla9s x by ! heat & r>efaction ( air 9 ! int]ior ( ! cl\d4 ,note #fcaj3 ,kmtz1 ,met4 i4 #cic4 ,note #fdaj3 ,ib4 i4 #cic4 ,robison1 ii4 #ac4 ,note #feaj3 ,ann4 ,*im4 xxv4 #ahbb4 ,classification ( ,cl\ds4--,a classification ( cl\ds c !n only be consi/5t & intelligible :5 x re/s ^u _! atmological conditions4 ,su* a sy/em 0 propos$ by ,mr4 ,luke ,h[>d1 9 #ahjb-c4 ,8 prim>y modifications are1 ,cirrus1 ,cumulus1 & ,/ratus1 :i* ! ,g]mans h translat$ by t]ms equival5t 9 ,engli% to fea!r-cl\d1 heap-cl\d1 & lay]-cl\d4 ,! cumulus increases by accumulations on its top1 & floats 9 ! air ) a horizontal base2 ! /ratus gr[s f bel[1 & spreads along ! e>?2 ! cirrus consi/s ( fibres 9 ! high] regions ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* gr[ e way4 ,betwe5 ! simple modifications are int]m$iate ones1 cirro-cumulus & cirro-/ratus2 &1 aga91 comp\nd ones1 ! cumulo-/ratus & ! nimbus1 or ra9-cl\d4 ,^! di/9ctions h be5 g5]ally accept$ all ov] ,europe3 & h r5d]$ a description ( all ! processes :i* g on 9 ! atmosph]e f> m def9ite & cle> ?an x c\ld be made be=e _! use4 ,i omit a mass ( facts & op9ions1 suppos$ laws ( ph5om5a & assign$ causes1 :i* ab\nd 9 meteorology m ?an 9 any o!r sci5ce4 ,! slighte/ consid]ation w %[ u :at a great #ahj am\nt ( labor1 ( p]sev]+ & comb9$ obs]vation1 ! progress ( ?is bran* ( k requires4 ,i d n ev5 speak ( ! condition ( ! m elevat$ p>ts ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! dim9ution ( temp]ature z we asc5d1 "o ( ! mo/ m>k$ ( atmosph]ic facts1 has be5 v>i\sly expla9$ by diff]5t writ]s4 ,?us ,dalton#ffaj 7#ahjh7 ref]s x to a pr9ciple t ea* atom ( air1 9 ! same p]p5dicul> column1 is possess$ ( ! same degree ( heat1 :i* pr9ciple he conceives to be entirely empirical 9 ?is case4 ,f\ri] says#fgaj 7#ahag71 ,?is ph5om5on results f sev]al causes3 "o ( ! pr9cipal is ! progressive ext9ction ( ! rays ( heat 9 ! successive /rata ( ! atmosph]e4 ,note #ffaj3 ,new ,sy/4 ( ,*em4 vol4 i4 p4 #abe4 ,note #fgaj3 ,ann4 ,*im4 vi4 #bhe4 ,leav+1 !re=e1 ! application ( !rmotical & atmological pr9ciples 9 p>ticul> cases1 let u consid] = a mom5t ! g5]al views to :i* !y h l$ philosoph]s4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,physical ,,!ories ,,( ,,heat4 ,,:5 we look at ! condition ( t bran* ( k :i*1 accord+ to ! phraseology already employ$1 we mu/ call ,physical ,!rmotics1 9 opposition to ,=mal ,!rmotics1 :i* gives u deta*$ laws ( ph5om5a1 we f9d ! prospect v diff]5t f t :i* 0 pres5t$ to u by physical a/ronomy1 optics1 & ac\/ics4 ,9 ^! sci5ces1 ! ma9ta9]s ( a di/9ct & compreh5sive !ory h pr(ess$ at lea/ to %[ t x expla9s & includes ! pr9cipal laws ( ph5om5a ( v>i\s k9ds2 9 ,!rmotics1 we h only attempts to expla9 a "p ( ! facts4 ,we h "h no example ( an hypo!sis :i*1 assum$ 9 ord] to expla9 "o class ( ph5om5a1 has be5 f\nd also to acc\nt exactly = ano!r2 z :5 c5tral =ces l$ to ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 or :5 ! explanation ( pol>ization expla9$ also d\ble refraction2 or :5 ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 z measur$ by ! b>omet]1 gave ! true velocity ( s\nd4 ,su* co9cid5ces1 or consili5ces1 z ,i h else:]e call$ !m1 are ! te/ ( tru?2 & !rmotical !ories _c yet exhibit cr$5tials ( ?is k9d4 #aha ,on look+ back at our view ( ?is sci5ce1 x w be se5 t x may be di/+ui%$ into two p>ts2 ! ,doctr9es ( ,conduction & ,radiation1 :i* we call ,!rmotics prop]2 & ! ,doctr9es respect+ ! relation ( ,heat1 ,airs1 & ,moi/ure1 :i* we h t]m$ ,atmology4 ,^! two subjects diff] 9 _! be>+ on our hypo!tical views4 ,!rmotical ,!ories4--,! ph5om5a ( radiant heat1 l ^? ( radiant light1 obvi\sly admit ( g5]al explanation 9 two diff]5t ways2--by ! emission ( mat]ial p>ticles1 or by ! propagation ( undulations4 ,bo? ^! op9ions h f\nd support]s4 ,probably mo/ p]sons1 9 adopt+ ,prevo/'s !ory ( ex*anges1 conceive ! radiation ( heat to be ! radiation ( matt]4 ,! undulation hypo!sis1 on ! o!r h&1 appe>s to be sugge/$ by ! production ( heat by friction1 & 0 accord+ly ma9ta9$ by ,rum=d & o!rs4 ,leslie#fhaj appe>s1 9 a great "p ( 8 ,inquiry1 to be a support] ( "s undulatory doctr9e1 b x is extremely difficult to make out :at 8 undulat+ m$ium is2 or r1 8 op9ions wav]$ dur+ 8 progress4 ,9 page #ca1 he asks1 ,:at is ?is calorific & frigorific fluid8 & aft] keep+ ! read] 9 susp5se = a mom5t1 he replies1 ,quod petis hic e/4 ,x is m]ely ! ambi5t ,,air4 ,b at page #aej1 he aga9 asks ! "q1 &1 at page #ahh1 he answ]s1 ,x is ! same subtile matt] t1 accord+ to its diff]5t modes ( exi/5ce1 con/itutes ei!r heat or light4 ,a p]son ?us vacillat+ betwe5 two op9ions1 "o ( :i* is palpably false1 & ! o!r lad5 ) exce$+ difficulties :i* he does n ev5 attempt to remove1 _h little "r to prote/ aga9/#fiaj ! sportive freaks ( "s intangible aura2 to rank all o!r hypo!ses ?an 8 own ) ! occult qualities ( ! s*ools2 & to class ! prejudices ( 8 oppon5ts ) ! t5ets ( ^? :o ma9ta9$ ! fuga vacui 9 opposition to ,torricelli4 ,x is wor? :ile notic+ ?is k9d ( rhetoric1 9 ord] to obs]ve1 t x may be us$ j z easily on ! wrong side z on ! "r4 ,note #fhaj3 ,an ,exp]im5tal ,inquiry into ! ,nature & ,propagation ( ,heat1 #ahjd4 ,note #fiaj3 ,ib4 p4 #dg4 ,till rec5tly1 ! !ory ( mat]ial heat1 & ( its propagation by emission1 0 probably ! "o mo/ 9 favor ) ^? :o _h /udi$ ma!matical !rmotics4 ,z we h said1 ! laws ( #ahb conduction1 9 _! ultimate analytical =m1 7 almo/ id5tical ) ! laws ( motion ( fluids4 ,f\ri]'s pr9ciple also1 t ! radiation ( heat takes place f po9ts bel[ ! surface1 & is int]cept$ by ! sup]ficial p>ticles1 appe>s to favor ! notion ( mat]ial emission4 ,accord+ly1 "s ( ! mo/ em95t mod]n ,fr5* ma!maticians h accept$ & ext5d$ ! hypo!sis ( a mat]ial caloric4 ,9 addition to ,f\ri]'s doctr9e ( molecul> extra-radiation1 ,laplace & ,poisson h ma9ta9$ ! hypo!sis ( molecul> intra-radiation1 z ! mode 9 :i* conduction takes place2 t is1 !y say t ! p>ticles ( bodies are to be consid]$ z discrete1 or z po9ts sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 & act+ on ea* o!r at a di/ance2 & ! conduction ( heat f "o "p to ano!r1 is p]=m$ by radiation betwe5 all neighbor+ p>ticles4 ,!y hold t1 )\t ?is hypo!sis1 ! diff]5tial equations express+ ! conditions ( conduction _c be made homog5e\s3 b ?is ass]tion re/s1 ,i conceive1 on an error1 z ,f\ri] has %[n1 by disp5s+ ) ! hypo!sis4 ,! necessity ( ! hypo!sis ( discrete molecul> action 9 bodies1 is ma9ta9$ 9 all cases by ,m4 ,poisson2 & he has ass]t$ ,laplace's !ory ( capill>y attraction to be defective on ?is gr\nd1 z ,laplace ass]t$ ,f\ri]'s reason+ respect+ heat to be s4 ,9 reality1 h[ev]1 ?is hypo!sis ( discrete molecules _c be ma9ta9$ z a physical tru?2 = ! law ( molecul> action1 :i* is assum$ 9 ! reason+1 aft] answ]+ its purpose 9 ! progress ( calculation1 vani%es 9 ! result2 ! conclusion is ! same1 :atev] law ( ! int]vals ( ! molecules be assum$4 ,! def9ite integral1 :i* expresses ! :ole action1 no m proves t ?is action is actually made ( ! diff]5tial p>ts by means ( :i* x 0 f\nd1 ?an ! processes ( f9d+ ! weight ( a body by integration1 prove x to be made up ( diff]5tial weights4 ,& !re=e1 ev5 if we 7 to adopt ! emission !ory ( heat1 we are by no means b\nd to take along ) x ! hypo!sis ( discrete molecules4 ,b ! rec5t discov]y ( ! refraction1 pol>ization1 & depol>ization ( heat1 has q alt]$ ! !oretical aspect ( ! subject1 &1 almo/ at a s+le bl[1 ru9$ ! emission !ory4 ,s9ce heat is reflect$ & refract$ l light1 analogy w\ld lead u to conclude t ! me*anism ( ! processes is ! same 9 ! two cases4 ,& :5 we add to ^! prop]ties ! prop]ty ( pol>ization1 x is sc>cely possible to believe o!rwise ?an t heat consi/s 9 #ahc transv]se vibrations2 = no wise philosoph] w\ld attempt an explanation by ascrib+ poles to ! emitt$ p>ticles1 aft] ! exp]i5ce :i* ,optics af=ds1 ( ! utt] failure ( su* ma*9]y4 ,b "h ! "q occurs1 ,if heat consi/s 9 vibrations1 :5ce arises ! extraord9>y id5tity ( ! laws ( its propagation ) ! laws ( ! fl[ ( matt]8 ,h[ is x t1 9 conduct$ heat1 ?is vibration creeps sl[ly f "o "p ( ! body to ano!r1 ! "p fir/ heat$ rema9+ hotte/2 in/ead ( leav+ its fir/ place & travell+ rapidly to ano!r1 z ! vibrations ( s\nd & light d8 ,! answ] to ^! que/ions has be5 put 9 a v di/9ct & plausible =m by t di/+ui%$ philosoph]1 ,m4 ,ampre1 :o publi%$ a ,note on ,heat & ,light consid]$ z ! results ( ,vibratory ,motion1#gjaj 9 #ahcd & #ahce2 & ?\gh ?is answ] is an hypo!sis1 x at lea/ %[s t !re is no fatal =ce 9 ! difficulty4 ,note #gjaj3 ,biblio?que ,univ]selle de ,g5ve1 vol4 xlix4 p4 #bbe4 ,ann4 ,*im4 tom4 lvii4 p4 #dcd4 ,m4 ,ampre's hypo!sis is ?is2 t bodies consi/ ( solid molecules1 :i* may be consid]$ z arrang$ at int]vals 9 a v r>e e!r2 & t ! vibrations ( ! molecules1 caus+ vibrations ( ! e!r & caus$ by !m1 con/itute heat4 ,on ^! suppositions1 we %\ld h ! ph5om5a ( conduction expla9$2 = if ! molecules at "o end ( a b> be hot1 & !re=e 9 a /ate ( vibration1 :ile ! o!rs are at re/1 ! vibrat+ molecules propagate vibrations 9 ! e!r1 b ^! vibrations d n produce heat1 except 9 proportion z !y put ! quiesc5t molecules ( ! b> 9 vibration2 & ! e!r be+ v r>e comp>$ ) ! molecules1 x is only by ! repeat$ impulses ( _m successive vibrations t ! ne>e/ quiesc5t molecules are made to vibrate2 aft] :i* !y comb9e 9 communicat+ ! vibration to ! m remote molecules4 ,we !n f9d necess>ily1 ,m4 ,ampre adds1 ! same equations z ^? f\nd by ,f\ri] = ! di/ribution ( heat1 sett+ out f ! same hypo!sis1 t ! temp]ature or heat transmitt$ is proportional to ! diff]5ce ( ! temp]atures4 ,s9ce ! undulatory hypo!sis ( heat c ?us answ] all obvi\s objections1 we may consid] x z ^u its trial1 to be confirm$ or modifi$ by future discov]ies2 & especially by an enl>g$ k ( ! laws ( ! pol>ization ( heat4 #bnd ,ed4 ,s9ce ! fir/ edition 0 writt51 ! analogies betwe5 light & heat h be5 fur!r ext5d$1 z ,i h already /at$4 ,x #ahd has be5 discov]$ by ,,mm4 ,biot & ,melloni t qu>tz impresses a circul> pol>ization ^u heat2 & by ,pr(4 ,=bes t mica1 ( a c]ta9 ?ickness1 produces ph5om5a su* z w\ld be produc$ by ! impression ( circul> pol>ization ( ! suppos$ transv]sal vibrations ( radiant heat2 & fur!r1 a rhomb ( rock-salt1 ( ! %ape ( ! glass rhomb :i* v]ifi$ ,fresnel's extraord9>y anticipation ( ! circul> pol>ization ( light1 v]ifi$ ! expectation1 f\nd$ ^u o!r analogies1 ( ! pol>ization ( heat4 ,by pass+ pol>iz$ heat ?r\gh v>i\s ?icknesses ( mica1 ,pr(4 ,=bes has attempt$ to calculate ! l5g? ( an undulation = heat4 ,^! analogies _c fail to produce a /rong disposition to believe t light & heat1 ess5ces s closely connect$ t !y c h>dly be sep>at$1 & ?us %[n to h s _m curi\s prop]ties 9 common1 are propagat$ by ! same ma*9]y2 & ?us we are l$ to an ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,heat4 ,yet su* a ,!ory has n yet by any means receiv$ full confirmation4 ,x dep5ds ^u ! analogy & ! connexion ( ! ,!ory ( ,light1 & w\ld h little weight if ^? 7 remov$4 ,= ! sep>ation ( ! rays 9 d\ble refraction1 & ! ph5om5a ( p]iodical int5sity1 ! two classes ( facts out ( :i* ! ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,optics pr9cipally grew1 h nei!r ( !m be5 detect$ 9 !rmotical exp]im5ts4 ,pr(4 ,=bes has assum$ alt]nations ( heat = increas+ ?icknesses ( mica1 b 9 8 exp]im5ts we f9d only "o maximum4 ,! occurr5ce ( alt]nate maxima & m9ima "u ! l circum/ances w\ld exhibit visible waves ( heat1 z ! fr+es ( %ad[s d ( light1 & w\ld ?us add mu* to ! evid5ce ( ! !ory4 ,ev5 if ,i conceiv$ ! ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,heat to be n[ e/abli%$1 ,i %\ld n v5ture1 z yet1 to describe its e/abli%m5t z an ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,x is only at an int]val ( "t aft] su* ev5ts h tak5 place t _! hi/ory & "* c be fully und]/ood1 s z to sugge/ lessons 9 ! ,philosophy ( ,sci5ce4 ,atmological ,!ories4--,hypo!ses ( ! relations ( heat & air almo/ necess>ily involve a ref]5ce to ! =ces by :i* ! composition ( bodies is produc$1 & ?us _c prop]ly be treat$ (1 till we h survey$ ! condition ( *emical k4 ,b we may say a few words on "o su* hypo!sis2 ,i mean ! hypo!sis on ! subject ( ! atmological laws ( heat1 propos$ by ,laplace1 9 ! twelf? ,book ( ! ,mcanique ,cl/e1 & publi%$ 9 #ahbc4 #ahe ,x w be recollect$ t ! ma9 laws ( ph5om5a = :i* we h to acc\nt1 by means ( su* an hypo!sis1 are ! foll[+3-- 7#a47 ,! law ( ,boyle & ,m>iotte1 t ! ela/icity ( an air v>ies z its d5sity4 ,see ,*ap4 iii41 ,sect4 #a ( ?is ,book4 7#b47 ,! ,law ( ,gay-,lussac & ,dalton1 t all airs exp& equally by heat4 ,see ,*ap4 ii4 ,sect4 #a4 7#c47 ,! production ( heat by sudd5 compression4 ,see ,*ap4 ii4 ,sect4 #b4 7#d47 ,dalton's pr9ciple ( ! me*anical mixture ( airs4 ,see ,*ap4 iii4 ,sect4 #c4 7#e47 ,! ,law ( expansion ( solids & fluids by heat4 ,see ,*ap4 ii4 ,sect4 #a4 7#f47 ,*anges ( consi/5ce by heat1 & ! doctr9e ( lat5t heat4 ,see ,*ap4 ii4 ,sect4 #c4 7#g47 ,! ,law ( ! expansive =ce ( /eam4 ,see ,*ap4 iii4 ,sect4 #d4 ,besides ^!1 !re are laws ( :i* x is d\btful :e!r !y are or are n includ$ 9 ! prec$+1 z ! l[ temp]ature ( ! air 9 ! high] p>ts ( ! atmosph]e4 7,see ,*ap4 iii4 ,sect4 #e47 ,laplace's hypo!sis#gaaj is ?is3--t bodies consi/ ( p>ticles1 ea* ( :i* ga!rs r\nd x1 by its attraction1 a quantity ( caloric3 t ! p>ticles ( ! bodies attract ea* o!r1 besides attract+ ! caloric1 & t ! p>ticles ( ! caloric repel ea* o!r4 ,note #gaaj3 ,mc4 ,cl4 t4 v4 p4 #hi4 ,9 gases1 ! p>ticles ( ! bodies are s f> remov$1 t _! mutual attraction is ins5sible1 & ! matt] t5ds to exp& by ! mutual repulsion ( ! caloric4 ,he conceives ?is caloric to be con/antly radiat+ among ! p>ticles2 ! d5sity ( ?is int]nal radiation is ! temp]ature1 & he proves t1 on ?is supposition1 ! ela/icity ( ! air w be z ! d5sity1 & z ?is temp]ature4 ,h5ce foll[ ! ?ree fir/ rules above /at$4 ,! same suppositions lead to ,dalton's pr9ciple ( mixtures 7#d71 ?\gh )\t involv+ 8 mode ( conception2 = ,laplace says t :atev] ! mutual action ( two gases be1 ! :ole pressure w be equal to ! sum ( ! sep>ate pressures4#gbaj ,expansion 7#e71 & ! *anges ( consi/5ce 7#f71 are expla9$ by suppos+#gcaj t 9 solids1 ! mutual attraction ( ! p>ticles ( ! body is ! greate/ =ce2 9 liquids1 ! attraction ( ! p>ticles = ! caloric2 9 airs1 ! repulsion ( #ahf ! caloric4 ,b ! doctr9e ( lat5t heat aga9 modifies#gdaj ! hypo!sis1 & makes x necess>y to include lat5t heat 9 ! calculation2 yet !re is n1 z we might suppose !re w\ld be if ! !ory 7 ! true "o1 any confirmation ( ! hypo!sis result+ f ! new class ( laws ?us ref]r$ to4 ,nor does x appe> t ! hypo!sis acc\nts = ! relation betwe5 ! ela/icity & ! temp]ature ( /eam4 ,note #gbaj3 ,ib4 p4 #aaj4 ,note #gcaj3 ,ib4 p4 #ib4 ,note #gdaj3 ,mc4 ,cl4 t4 v4 p4 #ic4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ,laplace's hypo!sis goes entirely ^u ! mat]iality ( heat1 & is inconsi/5t ) any vibratory !ory2 =1 z ,ampre rem>ks1 ,x is cle> t if we admit heat to consi/ 9 vibrations1 x is a contradiction to attribute to heat 7or caloric7 a repulsive =ce ( ! p>ticles :i* w\ld be a cause ( vibration4 ,an unfavorable judgm5t ( ,laplace's ,!ory ( ,gases is sugge/$ by look+ = t :i*1 9 speak+ ( ,optics1 0 m5tion$ z ! great *>act]i/ic ( a true !ory2 namely1 t ! hypo!ses1 :i* 7 assum$ 9 ord] to acc\nt = "o class ( facts1 are f\nd to expla9 ano!r class ( a diff]5t nature3--! consili5ce ( inductions4 ,?us1 9 !rmotics1 ! law ( an int5sity ( radiation proportional to ! s9e ( ! angle ( ! ray ) ! surface1 :i* is f\nd$ on direct exp]im5ts ( radiation1 is f\nd to be necess>y 9 ord] to expla9 ! t5d5cy ( neighbor+ bodies to equality ( temp]ature2 & ?is leads to ! high] g5]alization1 t heat is radiant f po9ts bel[ ! surface4 ,b 9 ! doctr9e ( ! relation ( heat to gases1 z deliv]$ by ,laplace1 !re is none ( ?is unexpect$ confirmation2 & ?\gh he expla9s "s ( ! lead+ laws1 8 assumptions be> a l>ge proportion to ! laws expla9$4 ,?us1 f ! assumption t ! repulsion ( gases arises f ! mutual repulsion ( ! p>ticles ( caloric1 he f9ds t ! pressure 9 any gas is z ! squ>e ( ! d5sity & ( ! quantity ( caloric2#geaj & f ! assumption t ! temp]ature is ! int]nal radiation1 he f9ds t ?is temp]ature is z ! d5sity & ! squ>e ( ! caloric4#gfaj ,h5ce he obta9s ! law ( ,boyle & ,m>iotte1 & t ( ,dalton & ,gay-,lussac4 ,b ?is view ( ! subject requires o!r assumptions :5 we come to lat5t heat2 & accord+ly1 he introduces1 to express ! lat5t heat1 a new quantity4#ggaj ,yet ?is quantity produces no effect on 8 calculations1 nor does he apply 8 reason+ to any problem 9 :i* lat5t heat is conc]n$4 #ahg ,note #geaj3 ,p #b ,h ,k #b;c#b 7#a7 p4 #ajg4 ,note #gfaj3 q' 7a7 c#b 7#b7 p4 #ajh4 ,note #ggaj3 ,! quantity i1 p4 #aac4 ,)\t1 !n1 decid+ ^u ?is !ory1 we may v5ture to say t x is want+ 9 all ! prom95t & /rik+ *>act]i/ics :i* we h f\nd 9 ^? great !ories :i* we look ^u z cle>ly & indisputably e/abli%$4 ,conclusion4--,we may obs]ve1 moreov]1 t heat has o!r be>+s & effects1 :i*1 z soon z !y h be5 analys$ into num]ical laws ( ph5om5a1 mu/ be att5d$ to 9 ! =mation ( !rmotical !ories4 ,*emi/ry w probably supply _m su*2 ^? :i* occur to u1 we mu/ exam9e h]eaft]4 ,b we may m5tion z examples ( su*1 ,,mm4 ,de la ,rive & ,m>cet's law1 t ! specific heat ( all gases is ! same2#ghaj & ,,mm4 ,dulong & ,petit's law1 t s+le atoms ( all simple bodies h ! same capacity = heat4#giaj ,?\gh we h n yet said any?+ ( ! relation ( diff]5t gases1 or expla9$ ! mean+ ( atoms 9 ! *emical s5se1 x w easily be conceiv$ t ^! are v g5]al & important propositions4 ,note #ghaj3 ,ann4 ,*im4 xxxv4 7#ahbg47 ,note #giaj3 ,ib4 x4 #cig4 ,?us ! sci5ce ( ,!rmotics1 imp]fect z x is1 =ms a highly-in/ructive "p ( our survey2 & is "o ( ! c>d9al po9ts on :i* ! doors ( ^? *amb]s ( physical k mu/ turn :i* hi!rto h rema9$ clos$4 ,=1 on ! "o h&1 ?is sci5ce is relat$ by /rong analogies & dep5d5cies to ! mo/ complete portions ( our k1 our me*anical doctr9es & optical !ories2 & on ! o!r1 x is connect$ ) prop]ties & laws ( a nature altoge!r diff]5t1--^? ( *emi/ry2 prop]ties & laws dep5d+ ^u a new sy/em ( notions & relations1 among :i* cle> & sub/antial g5]al pr9ciples are f> m difficult to lay hold ( & ) :i* ! future progress ( human k appe>s to be f> m conc]n$4 ,to ^! notions & relations we mu/ n[ proce$2 b we %all f9d an int]m$iate /age1 9 c]ta9 subjects :i* ,i %all call ! ,me*anico-*emical ,sci5ces2 viz41 ^? :i* h to d ) ,magnetism1 ,electricity1 & ,galvanism4 #ahi ,,book ,,xi4 ,,! ,,me*anico-,,*emical ,,sci5ces4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,electricity4 ,,p>va metu primo3 mox sese extollit 9 auras1 ,+r$iturque solo1 et caput int] nubila condit4 n4 iv4 #agf4 ,a timid brea? at fir/1 a transi5t t\*1 ,h[ soon x swells f little into mu*6 ,runs o'er ! gr\nd1 & spr+s into ! air1 ,& fills ! tempe/'s gloom1 ! lightn+'s gl>e2 ,:ile d5s] d>kness ?an ! c5tral /orm ,conceals ! secrets ( its inw>d =m4 #aia ,,introduction4 ,( ! ,me*anico-,*emical ,sci5ces4 ,,"u ! title ( ,me*anico-,*emical ,sci5ces1 ,i include ! laws ( ,magnetism1 ,electricity1 ,galvanism1 & ! o!r classes ( ph5om5a closely relat$ to ^!1 z ,!rmo-electricity4 ,?is gr\p ( subjects =ms a curi\s & int]e/+ portion ( our physical k2 & n ! lea/ ( ! circum/ances :i* give !m _! int]e/1 is t d\ble be>+ ^u me*anical & *emical pr9ciples1 :i* _! "n is int5d$ to imply4 ,inde$1 at fir/ sight !y appe> to be purely ,me*anical ,sci5ces2 ! attractions & repulsions1 ! pressure & motion1 :i* occur 9 ^! cases1 are ref]rible to me*anical conceptions & laws1 z completely z ! weight or fall ( t]re/rial bodies1 or ! motion ( ! moon & planets4 ,& if ! ph5om5a ( magnetism & electricity _h direct$ u only to su* laws1 ! correspond+ sci5ces mu/ h be5 arrang$ z bran*es ( me*anics4 ,b we f9d t1 on ! o!r side1 ^! ph5om5a h laws & be>+s ( a k9d altoge!r diff]5t4 ,magnetism is associat$ ) ,electricity by its me*anical analogies2 &1 m rec5tly1 has be5 discov]$ to be /ill m closely connect$ ) x by physical influ5ce2 electric is id5tifi$ ) galvanic ag5cy2 b 9 galvanism1 decomposition1 or "s action ( t k9d1 univ]sally appe>s2 & ^! appe>ances lead to v g5]al laws4 ,n[ composition & decomposition are ! subjects ( ,*emi/ry2 & ?us we f9d t we are ins5sibly b irresi/ibly l$ into ! doma9 ( t sci5ce4 ,! highe/ g5]alizations to :i* we c look1 9 advanc+ f ! elem5t>y facts ( electricity & galvanism1 mu/ involve *emical notions2 we mu/ !re=e1 9 lay+ out ! plat=m ( ^! sci5ces1 make provision = t conv]g5ce ( me*anical & *emical !ory1 :i* !y are to exhibit z we asc5d4 ,we mu/ beg91 h[ev]1 ) /at+ ! me*anical ph5om5a ( ^! sci5ces1 & ! r$uction ( su* ph5om5a to laws4 ,9 ?is po9t ( view1 ! ph5om5a ( :i* we h to speak are ^? 9 :i* bodies exhibit attractions & repulsions1 peculi>ly det]m9$ by _! nature & circum/ances2 z ! magnet1 & a #aib piece ( amb] :5 rubb$4 ,su* results are altoge!r diff]5t f ! univ]sal attraction :i*1 accord+ to ,newton's discov]y1 prevails among all p>ticles ( matt]1 & to :i* cosmical ph5om5a are ow+4 ,b yet ! diff]5ce ( ^! special attractions1 & ( cosmical attraction1 0 at fir/ s f> f be+ recogniz$1 t ! only way 9 :i* m5 c\ld be l$ to conceive or ass5t to an action ( "o body ^u ano!r at a di/ance1 9 cosmical cases1 0 by lik5+ x to magnetic attraction1 z we h se5 9 ! hi/ory ( ,physical ,a/ronomy4 ,& we %all1 9 ! fir/ "p ( our acc\nt1 n dwell mu* ^u ! peculi> conditions "u :i* bodies are magnetic or electric1 s9ce ^! conditions are n readily r$ucible to me*anical laws2 b1 tak+ ! magnetic or electric "* = grant$1 we %all trace its effects4 ,! habit ( consid]+ magnetic action z ! type or g5]al case ( attractive & repulsive ag5cy1 expla9s ! e>ly writ]s hav+ spok5 ( ,electricity z a k9d ( ,magnetism4 ,?us ,gilb]t1 9 8 book ,de ,magnete 7#afjj71 has a *apt]1#aaa ,de coitione ,magnitic1 primumque de ,succ9i attractione1 sive v]ius corporum ad ,succ9um applicatione4 ,! mann] 9 :i* he speaks1 %[s u h[ my/]i\s ! fact ( attraction !n appe>$2 s t1 z he says1 ! magnet & amb] 7 call$ 9 aid by philosoph]s z illu/rations1 :5 our s5se is 9 ! d>k 9 ab/ruse inquiries1 & :5 our reason c g no fur!r4 ,gilb]t speaks ( ^! ph5om5a l a g5u9e inductive philosoph]1 reprov+#baa ^? :o be=e him _h /uff$ ! booksell]s' %ops by copy+ f "o ano!r extravagant /ories conc]n+ ! attraction ( magnets & amb]1 )\t giv+ any reason f exp]im5t4 ,he himself makes "s important /eps 9 ! subject4 ,he di/+ui%es magnetic f electric =ces1#caa & is ! inv5tor ( ! latt] "n1 d]iv$ f 1 electron1 amb]4 ,he obs]ves rightly1 t ! electric =ce attracts all light bodies1 :ile ! magnetic =ce attracts iron only2 & he devises a satisfactory app>atus by :i* ?is is %[n4 ,he gives#daa a consid]able li/ ( bodies :i* possess ! electric prop]ty2 ,n only amb] & agate attract small bodies1 z "s ?9k1 b diamond1 sapphire1 c>buncle1 opal1 ame?y/1 ,bri/ol gem1 b]yli1 cry/al1 glass1 glass ( antimony1 sp> ( v>i\s k9ds1 sulphur1 ma/ic1 seal+-wax1 & o!r sub/ances :i* he m5tions4 ,ev5 8 speculations on ! g5]al laws ( ^! ph5om5a1 ?\gh vague & errone\s1 z #aic at t p]iod 0 unavoidable1 d him no discr$it :5 comp>$ ) ! doctr9es ( 8 successors a c5tury & a half aft]w>ds4 ,b su* speculations belong to a succe$+ "p ( ?is hi/ory4 ,note #aaa3 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 #b4 ,note #baa3 ,de ,magnete1 p4 #dh4 ,note #caa3 ,ib4 p4 #eb4 ,note #daa3 ,ib4 p4 #dh4 ,9 treat+ ( ^! ,sci5ces1 ,i w speak ( ,electricity 9 ! fir/ place2 al?\gh x is ?us sep>at$ by ! int]position ( ,magnetism f ! succe$+ subjects 7,galvanism1 c47 ) :i* its alliance seems1 at fir/ sight1 ! close/1 & al?\gh "s g5]al notions ( ! laws ( magnets 7 obta9$ at an e>li] p]iod ?an a k ( ! correspond+ relations ( electric ph5om5a3 = ! !ory ( electric attraction & repulsion is some:at m simple ?an ( magnetic2 01 9 fact1 ! fir/ obta9$2 & 0 ( use 9 sugge/+ & confirm+ ! g5]alization ( magnetic laws4 ,,*apt] #a4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,electric ,,ph5om5a4 ,,we h already se5 :at 0 ! /ate ( ?is bran* ( k at ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury2 & ! advances made by ,gilb]t4 ,we mu/ n[ notice ! additions :i* x subsequ5tly receiv$1 & especially ^? :i* l$ to ! discov]y ( g5]al laws1 & ! e/abli%m5t ( ! !ory2 ev5ts ( ?is k9d be+ ^? ( :i* we h m peculi>ly to trace ! conditions & causes4 ,among ! facts :i* we h ?us especially to att5d to1 are ! electric attractions ( small bodies by amb] & o!r sub/ances :5 rubb$4 ,boyle1 :o repeat$ & ext5d$ ! exp]im5ts ( ,gilb]t1 does n appe> to h arriv$ at any new g5]al notions2 b ,otto ,gu]icke ( ,magdeburg1 ab\t ! same "t1 made a v mat]ial /ep1 by discov]+ t !re 0 an electric =ce ( repulsion z well z ( attraction4 ,he f\nd t :5 a globe ( sulphur _h attract$ a fea!r1 x aft]w>ds repell$ x1 till ! fea!r _h be5 9 contact ) "s o!r body4 ,?is1 :5 v]ifi$ "u a due g5]ality ( circum/ances1 =ms a capital fact 9 our pres5t subject4 ,hawkesbee1 :o wrote 9 #agji 7,physico-,me*anical ,exp]im5ts7 also obs]v$ v>i\s ( ! effects ( attraction & repulsion ^u ?reads hang+ loosely4 ,b ! p]son :o appe>s to h fir/ fully seiz$ ! g5]al law ( ^! facts1 is #aid ,dufay1 ^: exp]im5ts appe> 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,fr5* ,academy1 9 #agcc1 #agcd1 & #agcg4eaa ,i discov]$1 he says1 a v simple pr9ciple1 :i* acc\nts = a great "p ( ! irregul>ities1 &1 if ,i may use ! t]m1 ! caprices t seem to accompany mo/ ( ! exp]im5ts 9 electricity4 ,?is pr9ciple is1 t electric bodies attract all ^? t are n s1 & repel !m z soon z !y are become electric by ! vic9ity or contact ( ! electric body4 4 4 4 ,^u apply+ ?is pr9ciple to v>i\s exp]im5ts ( electricity1 any "o w be surpris$ at ! numb] ( obscure & puzzl+ facts :i* x cle>s up4 ,by ! help ( ?is pr9ciple1 he endeavors to expla9 sev]al ( ,hawkesbee's exp]im5ts4 ,note #eaa3 ,prie/ley's ,hi/ory ( ,electricity1 p4 #de1 & ! ,memoirs quot$4 ,a little ant]ior to ,dufay's exp]im5ts 7 ^? ( ,grey1 :o1 9 #agbi1 discov]$ ! prop]ties ( conductors4 ,he f\nd t ! attraction & repulsion :i* appe> 9 electric bodies are exhibit$ also by o!r bodies 9 contact ) ! electric4 ,9 ?is mann] he f\nd t an ivory ball1 connect$ ) a glass tube by a /ick1 a wire1 or a pack?read1 attract$ & repell$ a fea!r1 z ! glass itself w\ld h done4 ,he 0 !n l$ to try to ext5d ?is communication to consid]able di/ances1 fir/ by asc5d+ to an upp] w9d[ & hang+ d[n 8 ball1 &1 aft]w>ds1 by c>ry+ ! /r+ horizontally support$ on loops4 ,z 8 success 0 complete 9 ! =m] case1 he 0 p]plex$ by failure 9 ! latt]2 b :5 he support$ ! /r+ by loops ( silk in/ead ( hemp5 cords1 he f\nd x aga9 become a conductor ( electricity4 ,?is he ascrib$ at fir/ to ! small] ?ickness ( ! silk1 :i* did n c>ry (f s mu* ( ! electric virtue2 b f ?is explanation he 0 aga9 driv51 by f9d+ t wires ( brass /ill ?9n] ?an ! silk de/roy$ ! effect4 ,?us ,grey p]ceiv$ t ! efficacy ( ! support dep5d$ on its be+ silk1 & he soon f\nd o!r sub/ances :i* answ]$ ! same purpose4 ,! diff]5ce1 9 fact1 dep5d$ on ! support+ sub/ance be+ electric1 & !re=e n itself a conductor2 = x soon appe>$ f su* exp]im5ts1 & especially#faa f ^? made by ,dufay1 t sub/ances might be divid$ into electrics p] se1 & non-electrics1 or conductors4 ,^! t]ms 7 introduc$ by ,desaguli]s1#gaa & gave a p]man5t curr5cy to ! results ( ! labors ( ,grey & o!rs4 ,note #faa3 ,mm4 ,acad4 ,p>4 #agcd4 ,note #gaa3 ,prie/ley1 p4 #ff4 ,ano!r v important discov]y belong+ to ?is p]iod is1 t #aie ( ! two k9ds ( electricity4 ,?is also 0 made by ,dufay4 ,*ance1 says he1 has ?r[n 9 my way ano!r pr9ciple m univ]sal & rem>kable ?an ! prec$+ "o1 & :i* ca/s a new light ^u ! subject ( electricity4 ,! pr9ciple is1 t !re are two di/9ct k9ds ( electricity1 v diff]5t f "o ano!r2 "o ( :i* ,i call vitre\s1 ! o!r res9\s1 electricity4 ,! fir/ is t ( glass1 gems1 hair1 wool1 c42 ! second is t ( amb]1 gum-lac1 silk1 c4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( ^! two electricities is1 t !y repel !mselves & attract ea* o!r4 ,?is discov]y does n1 h[ev]1 appe> to h drawn s mu* att5tion z x des]v$4 ,x 0 publi%$ 9 #agce2 79 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #agcc27 & yet 9 #agdg1 ,frankl9 & 8 fri5ds at ,philadelphia1 :o _h be5 suppli$ ) electrical app>atus & in=mation by p]sons 9 ,engl& well acqua9t$ ) ! !n pres5t /ate ( ! subject1 imag9$ t !y 7 mak+ obs]vations unkn[n to ,european sci5ce1 :5 !y 7 l$ to ass]t two conditions ( bodies1 :i* 7 9 fact ! opposite electricities ( ,dufay1 ?\gh ! ,am]ican exp]im5t]s ref]r$ !m to a s+le elem5t1 ( :i* electriz$ bodies might h ei!r excess or defect4 ,h5ce1 ,frankl9 says1 h aris5 "s new t]ms among u3 we say ,b1 :o receives a sp>k f glass1 & bodies 9 l circum/ances1 is electriz$ positively2 ,a1 :o communicates 8 electricity to glass1 negatively2 or r ,b is electriz$ plus1 ,a m9us4 ,dr4 7aft]w>ds ,sir ,william7 ,watson _h1 ab\t ! same "t1 arriv$ at ! same conclusions1 :i* he expresses by say+ t ! electricity ( ,a 0 m r>e1 & t ( ,b m d5se1 ?an x naturally w\ld h be54#haa ,b t :i* gave ! ma9 importance to ?is doctr9e 0 its application to "s rem>kable exp]im5ts1 ( :i* we mu/ n[ speak4 ,note #haa3 ,prie/ley1 p4 #aae4 ,electric action is accompani$1 9 _m cases1 by light & a crackl+ s\nd4 ,otto ,gu]icke#iaa obs]ves t 8 sulphur-globe1 :5 rubb$ 9 a d>k place1 gave fa9t fla%es1 su* z take place :5 sug> is cru%$4 ,& %ortly aft]1 a light 0 obs]v$ at ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ! b>omet]1 :5 %ak51 :i* 0 expla9$ at fir/ by ,b]n\lli1 on ! !n preval5t ,c>tesian pr9ciples2 b1 aft]w>ds1 m truly by ,hawkesbee1 z an electrical ph5om5on4 ,wall1 9 #agjh1 f\nd sp>ks produc$ by rubb+ amb]1 & ,hawkesbee obs]v$ ! light & ! snapp+1 z he calls x1 "u v>i\s modifications4 ,b ! electric sp>k f a liv+ body1 :i*1 z #aif ,prie/ley says1#ajaa makes a pr9cipal "p ( ! div]sion ( g5tlem5 & ladies :o come to see exp]im5ts 9 electricity1 0 fir/ obs]v$ by ,dufay & ! ,abb ,nollet4 ,nollet says#aaaa he %all nev] =get ! surprise :i* ! fir/ electric sp>k ev] drawn f ! human body excit$1 bo? 9 ,m4 ,dufay & 9 himself4 ,! draw+ ( a sp>k f ! human body 0 practis$ 9 v>i\s =ms1 "o ( :i* 0 famili>ly kn[n z ! electrical kiss4 ,o!r exhibitions ( electrical light 7 ! electrical />1 electrical ra91 & ! l4 ,note #iaa3 ,exp]im5ta ,magdeburgica1 #afgb1 lib4 iv4 cap4 #ae4 ,note #ajaa3 ,p4 p4 #dg4 ,note #aaaa3 ,prie/ley1 p4 #dg4 ,nollet1 ,leons de ,physique1 vol4 vi4 p4 #djh4 ,z electricians det]m9$ m exactly ! conditions ( electrical action1 !y succe$$ 9 r5d]+ m int5se ^? sudd5 actions :i* ! sp>k accompanies1 & ?us produc$ ! electric %ock4 ,?is 0 especially done 9 ! ,leyd5 phial4 ,?is app>atus receiv$ its "n1 :ile ! discov]y ( its prop]ty 0 attribut$ to ,cunu1 a native ( ,leyd51 :o1 9 #agdf1 h&l+ a vessel conta9+ wat] 9 communication ) ! electrical ma*9e1 & happ5+ ?us to br+ ! inside & ! outside into connexion1 receiv$ a sudd5 %ock 9 8 arms & brea/4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1#abaa t a %ock _h be5 receiv$ "u ne>ly ! same circum/ances 9 #agdf1 by ,von ,klei/1 a ,g]man prelate1 at ,cam91 9 ,pom]ania4 ,! /rang5ess ( ?is occurr5ce1 & ! sudd5ness ( ! bl[1 mu* exagg]at$ ! e/imate :i* m5 =m$ ( its =ce4 ,mus*5broek1 aft] tak+ "o %ock1 decl>$ he w\ld n take a second = ! k+dom ( ,france2 ?\gh ,boze1 ) a m magnanim\s _s1 wi%$#acaa t he might die by su* a /roke1 & h ! circum/ances ( ! exp]im5t record$ 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy4 ,b we may easily imag9e :at a new fame & int]e/ ?is discov]y gave to ! subject ( electricity4 ,x 0 repeat$ 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 ) v>i\s modifications3 & ! %ock 0 pass$ ?r\gh a l9e ( sev]al p]sons hold+ h&s2 ,nollet1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! k+ ( ,france1 s5t x ?r\gh a circle ( #ahj m5 ( ! gu>ds1 & along a l9e ( m5 & wires ( #ijj toises2#adaa & exp]im5ts ( ! same k9d 7 made 9 ,engl&1 pr9cipally "u ! direction ( ,watson1 on a scale s l>ge z to excite ! admiration ( ,mus*5broek2 :o says1 9 a lett] to ,watson1 ,magnific5tissimis tuis exp]im5tis sup]a/i conatus omnium4 ,! result 01 t ! transmission ( electricity ?r\gh a l5g? ( #ab1jjj feet 01 to s5se1 in/antane\s4 #aig ,note #abaa3 ,fis*]1 v4 #dij4 ,note #acaa3 ,fis*]1 p4 #hd4 ,note #adaa3 ,ibid4 v4 #eab4 ,! ess5tial circum/ances ( ! electric %ock 7 gradually unravell$4 ,watson f\nd t x did n increase 9 proportion ei!r to ! cont5ts ( ! phial or ! size ( ! globe by :i* ! electricity 0 excit$2 t ! outside coat+ ( ! glass 7:i*1 9 ! fir/ =m ( ! exp]im5t1 0 only a film ( wat]71 & its cont5ts1 might be v>i$ 9 diff]5t ways4 ,to ,frankl9 is due ! m]it ( cle>ly po9t+ out mo/ ( ! circum/ances on :i* ! efficacy ( ! ,leyd5 phial dep5ds4 ,he %[$1 9 #agdg1aeaa t ! inside ( ! bottle is electriz$ positively1 ! outside negatively2 & t ! %ock is produc$ by ! re/oration ( ! equilibrium1 :5 ! outside & inside are br\ght into communication sudd5ly4 ,b 9 ord] to complete ?is discov]y1 x rema9$ to be %[n t ! electric matt] 0 collect$ entirely at ! surface ( ! glass1 & t ! opposite electricities on ! two opposite sides ( ! glass 7 accumulat$ by _! mutual attraction4 ,monni] ! y\ng] discov]$ t ! electricity :i* bodies c receive1 dep5ds ^u _! surface r ?an _! mass1 & ,frankl9#afaa soon f\nd t ! :ole =ce ( ! bottle1 & p[] ( giv+ a %ock1 is 9 ! glass itself4 ,?is !y prov$ by decant+ ! wat] out ( an electriz$ into ano!r bottle1 :5 x appe>$ t ! second bottle did n become electric1 b ! fir/ rema9$ s4 ,?us x 0 f\nd t ! non-electrics1 9 contact ) ! glass1 s]v$ only to unite ! =ce ( ! sev]al p>ts4 ,note #aeaa3 ,lett]s1 p4 #ac4 ,note #afaa3 ,lett]s1 iv4 ,sect4 #af4 ,s f> z ! effect ( ! coat+ ( ! ,leyd5 phial is conc]n$1 ?is 0 satisfactory & complete3 b ,frankl9 0 n equally successful 9 trac+ ! action ( ! electric matt] ^u itself1 9 virtue ( :i* x is accumulat$ 9 ! phial2 inde$1 he appe>s to h ascrib$ ! effect to "s prop]ty ( ! glass4 ,! mode ( describ+ ?is action v>i$1 accord+ly z two electric fluids 7 suppos$ 7) ,dufay17 or "o1 :i* 0 ! view tak5 by ,frankl94 ,on ?is latt] supposition ! p>ts ( ! electric fluid repel ea* o!r1 & ! excess 9 "o surface ( ! glass expels ! fluid f ! o!r surface4 ,?is k9d ( action1 h[ev]1 came into mu* cle>] view 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,canton1 ,wilcke1 & p9us4 ,x 0 pr9cipally manife/$ 9 ! attractions & repulsions :i* objects ex]t :5 !y are 9 ! neighborhood ( electriz$ bodies2 or 9 ! electrical atmosph]e1 us+ ! phraseology ( ! "t4 ,at pres5t we say t bodies are electriz$ by induction1 :5 !y are #aih ?us made electric by ! electric attraction & repulsion ( o!r bodies4 ,canton's exp]im5ts 7 communicat$ to ! ,royal ,society 9 #agec1 & %[ t ! electricity on ea* body acts ^u ! electricity ( ano!r body1 at a di/ance1 ) a repulsive en]gy4 ,wilcke1 9 l mann]1 %[$ t p>ts ( non-electrics1 plung$ 9 electric atmosph]es1 acquire an electricity opposite to t ( su* atmosph]es4 ,& p9us devis$ a me?od ( exam9+ ! nature ( ! electricity at any "p ( ! surface ( a body1 by means ( :i* he asc]ta9$ its di/ribution1 & f\nd t x agre$ ) su* a law ( self-repulsion4 ,8 attempt to give ma!matical precision to ?is induction 0 "o ( ! mo/ important /eps t[>ds electrical !ory1 & mu/ be spok5 ( %ortly1 9 t po9t ( view4 ,b 9 ! mean "t we may obs]ve1 t ?is doctr9e 0 appli$ to ! explanation ( ! ,leyd5 j>2 & ! explanation 0 confirm$ by *>g+ a plate ( air1 & obta9+ a %ock f x1 9 a mann] :i* ! !ory po9t$ out4 ,be=e we proce$ to ! hi/ory ( ! !ory1 we mu/ m5tion "s o!r ( ! laws ( ph5om5a :i* 7 notic$1 & :i* !ory 0 expect$ to expla94 ,among ! mo/ celebrat$ ( ^!1 7 ! effect ( %>p po9ts 9 conductors1 & ! ph5om5a ( electricity 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,! =m] ( ^! circum/ances 0 "o ( ! fir/ :i* ,frankl9 obs]v$ z rem>kable4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! po9ts ( ne$les & ! l ?r[ (f & draw (f ! electric virtue2 ?us a bodk91 direct$ t[>ds an electriz$ ball1 at six or eight in*es' di/ance1 de/roy$ its electric action4 ,! latt] subject1 involv+ ! consid]ation ( ?und] & lightn+1 & ( _m o!r meteorological ph5om5a1 excit$ great int]e/4 ,! comp>ison ( ! electric sp>k to lightn+ _h v e>ly be5 made2 b x 0 only :5 ! dis*>ge _h be5 r5d]$ m p[]ful 9 ! ,leyd5 j>1 t ! comp>ison ( ! effects became v plausible4 ,frankl91 ab\t #agej1 _h (f]$ a few some:at vague conjectures#agaa respect+ ! exi/5ce ( electricity 9 ! cl\ds2 b x 0 n till ,wilcke & p9us _h obta9$ cle> notions ( ! effect ( electric matt] at a di/ance1 t ! real condition ( ! cl\ds c\ld be well und]/ood4 ,9 #ageb1 h[ev]1#ahaa ,d',alib>d1 & o!r ,fr5* philosoph]s1 7 desir\s ( v]ify+ ,frankl9's conjecture ( ! analogy ( ?und] & electricity4 ,?is !y did by erect+ a po9t$ iron rod1 =ty feet high1 #aii at ,m>li3 ! rod 0 f\nd capable ( giv+ out electrical sp>ks :5 a ?und]-cl\d pass$ ov] ! place4 ,?is 0 repeat$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe1 & ,frankl9 sugge/$ t a communication ) ! cl\ds might be =m$ by means ( a kite4 ,by ^!1 & simil> means1 ! electricity ( ! atmosph]e 0 /udi$ by ,canton 9 ,engl&1 ,mazeas 9 ,france1 ,becc>ia 9 ,italy1 & o!rs else:]e4 ,^! essays soon l$ to a fatal accid5t1 ! dea? ( ,ri*man at ,pet]sburg1 :ile he 01 on ,aug4 #f?1 #agec1 obs]v+ ! electricity collect$ f an approa*+ ?und]-cl\d1 by means ( a rod :i* he call$ an electrical gnomon3 a globe ( blue fire 0 se5 to leap f ! rod to ! head ( ! un=tunate pr(essor1 :o 0 ?us /ruck dead4 ,note #agaa3 ,lett] v4 ,note #ahaa3 ,frankl91 p4 #ajg4 #bnd ,ed4 ,z an important application ( ! doctr9es ( electricity1 ,i may m5tion ! contrivances employ$ to protect %ips f ! effects ( lightn+4 ,! use ( conductors 9 su* cases is att5d$ ) peculi> difficulties4 ,9 #aghj ! ,fr5* began to turn _! att5tion to ?is subject1 & ,le ,roi 0 s5t to ,bre/ & ! v>i\s sea-ports ( ,france = t purpose4 ,*a9s tempor>ily appli$ 9 ! rigg+ _h be5 previ\sly sugge/$1 b he endeavor$ to place1 he says1 su* conductors 9 %ips z might be fix$ & durable4 ,he devis$ c]ta9 long l9k$ rods1 :i* l$ f a po9t 9 ! ma/-head along a "p ( ! rigg+1 or 9 divid$ /ages along ! ma/s1 & 7 fix$ to plates ( metal 9 ! %ip's sides communicat+ ) ! sea4 ,b ^! 7 ei!r unable to /& ! work+ ( ! rigg+1 or o!rwise inconv5i5t1 & 7 f9ally ab&on$4#aiaa ,note #aiaa3 ,see ,le ,roi's ,memoir 9 ! ,hi/4 ,acad4 ,sc4 = #agij4 ,! conductor commonly us$ 9 ! ,engli% ,navy1 till rec5tly1 consi/$ ( a flexible copp] *a91 ti$1 :5 occasion requir$1 to ! ma/-head1 & rea*+ d[n into ! sea2 a contrivance recomm5d$ by ,dr4 ,watson 9 #agfb4 ,b not)/&+ ?is precaution1 ! %ipp+ suff]$ greatly f ! effects ( lightn+4 ,mr4 ,sn[ ,h>ris 7n[ ,sir ,william ,sn[ ,h>ris71 ^: electrical labors are notic$ above1 propos$ to ! ,admiralty1 9 #ahbj1 a plan :i* comb9$ ! conditions ( %ip-conductors1 s desirable1 yet s difficult to secure3--namely1 t !y %\ld be p]man5tly fix$1 & suffici5tly l>ge1 & yet %\ld 9 no way int]f]e ) ! motion ( ! rigg+1 or ) ! slid+ ma/s4 ,! me?od :i* he propos$ 0 to make ! ma/s !mselves conductors ( electricity1 #bjj by incorporat+ ) !m1 9 a peculi> way1 two lam9 ( %eet-copp]1 unit+ ^! ) ! metallic masses 9 ! hull by o!r lam91 & giv+ ! :ole a free communication ) ! sea4 ,?is me?od 0 tri$ exp]im5tally1 bo? on models & to a l>ge ext5t 9 ! navy itself2 & a ,commission appo9t$ to exam9e ! result report$ !mselves highly satisfi$ ) ,mr4 ,h>ris's plan1 & /rongly recomm5d$ t x %\ld be fully c>ri$ out 9 ! ,navy4#bjaa ,note #bjaa3 ,see ,mr4 ,sn[ ,h>ris's pap] 9 ,phil4 ,mag4 ,m>*1 #ahda4 ,x is n "h necess>y to trace ! /udy ( atmosph]ic electricity any fur!r3 & we mu/ n[ endeavor to see h[ ^! ph5om5a & laws ( ph5om5a :i* we h relat$1 7 work$ up into consi/5t !ories2 = ?\gh _m exp]im5tal obs]vations & measures 7 made aft] ?is "t1 !y 7 guid$ by ! !ory1 & may be consid]$ z hav+ r dis*>g$ ! (fice ( confirm+ ?an ( sugge/+ x4 ,we may obs]ve also t we h n[ describ$ ! p]iod ( mo/ ext5sive activity & int]e/ 9 electrical rese>*es4 ,^! naturally occurr$ :ile ! g5]al notions & laws ( ! ph5om5a 7 becom+1 & 7 n yet become1 fix$ & cle>4 ,at su* a p]iod1 a l>ge & popul> circle ( spectators & amateurs feel !mselves ne>ly ^u a level1 9 ! value ( _! trials & speculations1 ) m pr(\nd ?9k]s3 at a lat] p]iod1 :5 ! subject is become a sci5ce1 t is1 a /udy 9 :i* all mu/ be left f> beh9d :o d n come to x ) discipl9$1 in=m$1 & logical m9ds1 ! cultivators are f> m few1 & ! %\t ( applause less tumultu\s & less l\d4 ,we may add1 too1 t ! exp]im5ts1 :i* are ! mo/ /rik+ to ! s5ses1 lose mu* ( _! impressiv5ess ) _! novelty4 ,electricity1 to be n[ /udi$ rightly1 mu/ be reason$ ^u ma!matically2 h[ sl[ly su* a mode ( /udy makes its way1 we %all see 9 ! progress ( ! !ory1 :i* we mu/ n[ proce$ to n>rate4 #bnd ,ed4 ,a new mode ( produc+ electricity has excit$ mu* notice lately4 ,9 ,octob]1 #ahdj1 "o ( ! workm5 9 att5dance ^u a boil] belong+ to ! ,newca/le & ,durham ,railway1 report$ t ! boil] 0 full ( fire2 ! fact be+1 t :5 he plac$ 8 h& ne> x an electrical sp>k 0 giv5 out4 ,?is drew ! att5tion ( ,mr4 ,arm/rong & ,mr4 ,patt9son1 :o made ! circum/ance publicly kn[n4#baaa ,mr4 ,arm/rong pursu$ ! inve/igation #bja ) great zeal1 & aft] v>i\s conjectures 0 able to ann\nce#bbaa t ! electricity 0 excit$ at ! po9t :]e ! /eam is subject to friction 9 its emission4 ,he f\nd too t he c\ld produce a l effect by ! emission ( cond5s$ air4 ,foll[+ out 8 views1 he 0 able to con/ruct1 = ! ,polyte*nic ,in/itution 9 ,london1 a ,hydro-electric ,ma*9e1 ( great] p[] ?an any electrical ma*9e previ\sly made4 ,dr4 ,f>aday took up ! inve/igation z ! subject ( ! ,eighte5? ,s]ies ( 8 ,rese>*es1 s5t to ! ,royal ,society1 ,jan4 #bf1 #ahdb2 & 9 ?is he illu/rat$1 ) 8 usual comm& ( copi\s & lum9\s exp]im5ts1 a l view2--t ! electricity is produc$ by ! friction ( ! p>ticles ( ! wat] c>ri$ along by ! 9999/eam4 ,& ?us ?is is a new manife/ation ( t electricity1 :i*1 to di/+ui% x f voltaic electricity1 is sometimes call$ ,friction ,electricity or ,ma*9e ,electricity4 ,dr4 ,f>aday has1 h[ev]1 9 ! c\rse ( ?is inve/igation1 br\ght to light sev]al new electrical relations ( bodies4 ,note #baaa3 ,phil4 ,mag4 ,oct #ahdj4 ,note #bbaa3 ,phil4 ,mag4 ,jan4 #ahdh1 dat$ ,dec4 #i1 #ahda4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,electrical ,,!ory4 ,,! cause ( electrical ph5om5a1 & ! mode ( its op]ation1 7 naturally at fir/ spok5 ( 9 an indi/9ct & wav]+ mann]4 ,x 0 call$ ! electric fire1 ! electric fluid2 its effects 7 attribut$ to virtues1 effluvia1 atmosph]es4 ,:5 m5's me*anical ideas became some:at m di/9ct1 ! motions & t5d5cies to motion 7 ascrib$ to curr5ts1 9 ! same mann] z ! cosmical motions _h be5 9 ! ,c>tesian sy/em4 ,?is doctr9e ( curr5ts 0 ma9ta9$ by ,nollet1 :o ascrib$ all ! ph5om5a ( electriz$ bodies to ! contemporane\s afflux & efflux ( electrical matt]4 ,x 0 an important /ep t[>ds s\nd !ory1 to get rid ( ?is notion ( mov+ fluids1 & to consid] attraction & repulsion z /atical =ces2 & ?is appe>s to h be5 done by o!rs ab\t ! same "t4 ,dufay#bcaa consid]$ t he _h prov$ ! exi/5ce ( two electricities1 ! vitre\s & ! res9\s1 & conceiv$ ea* #bjb ( ^! to be a fluid :i* repell$ its own p>ts & attract$ ^? ( ! o!r3 ?is is1 9 fact1 ! outl9e ( ! !ory :i* rec5tly has be5 consid]$ z ! be/ e/abli%$2 b f v>i\s causes x 0 n at once1 or at lea/ n g5]ally adopt$4 ,! hypo!sis ( ! excess & defect ( a s+le fluid is capable ( be+ s treat$ z to give ! same results ) ! hypo!sis ( two opposite fluids & happ5$ to obta9 ! pref]5ce = "s "t4 ,we h already se5 t ?is hypo!sis1 accord+ to :i* electric ph5om5a arose f ! excess & defect ( a g5]ally diffus$ fluid1 sugge/$ itself to ,watson & ,frankl9 ab\t #agdg4 ,watson f\nd t :5 an electric body 0 excit$1 ! electricity 0 n creat$1 b collect$2 & ,frankl9 held1 t :5 ! ,leyd5 j> 0 *>g$1 ! quantity ( electricity 0 unalt]$1 ?\gh its di/ribution 0 *ang$4 ,symm]#bdaa ma9ta9$ ! exi/5ce ( two fluids2 & ,cigna suppli$ ! ma9 defect :i* belong$ to ?is t5et 9 ! way 9 :i* ,dufay held x1 by %[+ t ! two opposite electricities 7 usually produc$ at ! same "t4 ,/ill ! app>5t simplicity ( ! hypo!sis ( "o fluid procur$ x _m support]s4 ,x 0 t :i* ,frankl9 adopt$1 9 8 explanation ( ! ,leyd5 exp]im5t2 & ?\gh aft] ! fir/ conception ( an electrical *>ge z a di/urbance ( equilibrium1 !re 0 no?+ 9 ! developm5t or details ( ,frankl9's views :i* des]v$ to w9 = !m any peculi> au?ority1 8 reputation1 & 8 skill z a writ]1 gave a consid]able influ5ce to 8 op9ions4 ,inde$1 = a "t he 0 consid]$1 ov] a l>ge "p ( ,europe1 z ! creator ( ! sci5ce1 & ! t]ms#beaa ,frankl9ism1 ,frankl9i/1 ,frankl9ian sy/em1 occur 9 almo/ e page ( cont95tal publications on ! subject4 ,yet ! electrical ph5om5a to ! k ( :i* ,frankl9 add$ lea/1 ^? ( induction1 7 ^? by :i* ! progress ( ! !ory 0 mo/ promot$4 ,^!1 z we h already said1 7 at fir/ expla9$ by ! hypo!sis ( electrical atmosph]es4 ,"l ,mahon wrote a treatise1 9 :i* ?is hypo!sis 0 ma!matically treat$2 yet ! hypo!sis 0 v unt5able1 = x w\ld n acc\nt = ! mo/ obvi\s cases ( induction1 su* z ! ,leyd5 j>1 except ! atmosph]e 0 suppos$ to p5etrate glass4 ,note #bcaa3 ,ac4 ,p>4 #agcc1 p4 #dfg ,note #bdaa3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agei4 ,note #beaa3 ,prie/ley1 p4 #afj4 ,! ph5om5a ( electricity by induction1 :5 fairly consid]$ by a p]son ( cle> notions ( ! relations ( space & =ce1 7 se5 to accommodate !mselves v g5]ally to ! conception #bjc introduc$ by ,dufay2#bfaa ( two electricities ea* repell+ itself & attract+ ! o!r4 ,if we suppose t !re is only "o fluid1 :i* repels itself & attracts all o!r matt]1 we obta91 9 _m cases1 ! same g5]al results z if we suppose two fluids2 ?us1 if an electriz$ body1 ov]*>g$ ) ! s+le fluid1 act ^u a ball1 x drives ! electric fluid 9 ! ball to ! fur!r side by its repulsion1 & !n attracts ! ball by attract+ ! matt] ( ! ball m ?an x repels ! fluid :i* is ^u ! ball4 ,if we suppose two fluids1 ! positively electriz$ body draws ! negative fluid to ! ne>] side ( ! ball1 repels ! positive fluid to ! opposite side1 & attracts ! ball on ! :ole1 because ! attract$ fluid is ne>] ?an t :i* is repell$4 ,! v]ification ( ei!r ( ^! hypo!ses1 & ! det]m9ation ( _! details1 dep5d$ necess>ily ^u exp]im5t & calculation4 ,x 0 "u ! hypo!sis ( a s+le fluid t ?is trial 0 fir/ prop]ly made4 p9us ( ,pet]sburg publi%$1 9 #agei1 8 ,t5tam5 ,!ori ,electricitatis et ,magnetismi2 9 :i* he traces ma!matically ! consequ5ces ( ! hypo!sis ( an electric fluid1 attract+ all o!r matt]1 b repell+ itself2 ! law ( =ce ( ?is repulsion & attraction he did n pret5d to assign precisely1 conf9+ himself to ! supposition t ! mutual =ce ( ! p>ticles increases z ! di/ance decreases4 ,b x 0 f\nd1 t 9 ord] to make ?is !ory t5able1 an additional supposition 0 requir$1 namely1 t ! p>ticles ( bodies repel ea* o!r z mu* z !y attract ! electric fluid4#bgaa ,= if two bodies1 ,a & ,b1 be 9 _! natural electrical condition1 !y nei!r attract nor repel ea* o!r4 ,n[1 9 ?is case1 ! fluid 9 ,a attracts ! matt] 9 ,b & repels ! fluid 9 ,b ) equal en]gy1 & ?us no t5d5cy to motion results f ! fluid 9 ,a2 & if we fur!r suppose t ! matt] 9 ,a attracts ! fluid 9 ,b & repels ! matt] 9 ,b ) equal en]gy1 we h ! result+ mutual inactivity ( ! two bodies expla9$2 b )\t ! latt] supposition1 !re w\ld be a mutual attraction3 or we may put ! tru? m simply ?us2 two negatively electriz$ bodies repel ea* o!r2 if negative electrization 7 m]ely ! ab/raction ( ! fluid :i* is ! repulsive elem5t1 ?is result c\ld n foll[ except !re 7 a repulsion 9 ! bodies !mselves1 indep5d5t ( ! fluid4 ,& ?us p9us f\nd himself compell$ to assume ?is mutual repulsion ( mat]ial p>ticles2 he _h1 9 fact1 ! #bjd alt]native ( ?is supposition1 or t ( two fluids1 to *oose betwe51 = ! ma!matical results ( bo? hypo!ses are ! same4 ,wilcke1 a ,sw$e1 :o _h at fir/ ass]t$ & work$ out ! p9ian !ory 9 its orig9al =m1 aft]w>ds incl9$ to ! op9ion ( ,symm]2 & ,c\lomb1 :51 at a lat] p]iod1 he confirm$ ! !ory by 8 exp]im5ts & det]m9$ ! law ( =ce1 did n hesitate to pref]#bhaa ! !ory ( two fluids1 because1 he says1 x appe>s to me contradictory to admit at ! same "t1 9 ! p>ticles ( bodies1 an attractive =ce 9 ! inv]se ratio ( ! squ>es ( ! di/ances1 :i* is demon/rat$ by univ]sal gravitation1 & a repulsive =ce 9 ! same inv]se ratio ( ! squ>es ( ! di/ances2 a =ce :i* w\ld necess>ily be inf9itely great relatively to ! action ( gravitation4 ,we may add1 t by =c+ u ^u ?is doctr9e ( ! univ]sal repulsion ( matt]1 ! !ory ( a s+le fluid seems q to lose t sup]iority 9 ! way ( simplicity :i* _h orig9ally be5 its pr9cipal recomm5dation4 ,note #bfaa3 ,mm4 ,a4 ,p4 #agcc1 p4 #dfg4 ,note #bgaa3 ,robison1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ah4 ,note #bhaa3 ,mm4 ,ac4 ,p4 #aghh1 p4 #fga4 ,! ma!matical results ( ! supposition ( p9us1 :i* are1 z ,c\lomb obs]ves1#biaa ! same z ( t ( ! two fluids1 7 trac$ by ! au?or himself 9 ! "w ref]r$ to1 & %[n to agree1 9 a great numb] ( cases1 ) ! obs]v$ facts ( electrical induction1 attraction1 & repulsion4 ,app>5tly ?is "w did n make its way v rapidly ?r\gh ,europe2 = 9 #agga1 ,h5ry ,cav5di% /at$#cjaa ! same hypo!sis 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,royal ,society2 :i* he prefaces by say+1 ,s9ce ,i fir/ wrote ! foll[+ pap]1 ,i f9d t ?is way ( acc\nt+ = ! ph5om5a ( electricity is n new4 p9us1 9 8 ,t5tam5 ,!ori ,electricitatis et ,magnetismi1 has made use ( ! same1 or ne>ly ! same hypo!sis t ,i h2 & ! conclusions he draws f x agree ne>ly ) m9e z f> z he goes4 ,note #biaa3 ,ac4 ,p4 #aghh1 p4 #fgb4 ,note #cjaa3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agga1 vol4 lxi4 ,! confirmation ( ! !ory 01 ( c\rse1 to be f\nd 9 ! agreem5t ( its results ) exp]im5t2 & 9 p>ticul>1 9 ! facts ( electrical induction1 attraction1 & repulsion1 :i* sugge/$ ! !ory4 p9us %[$ t su* a confirmation appe>$ 9 a numb] ( ! mo/ obvi\s cases2 & to ^!1 ,cav5di% add$ o!rs1 :i*1 ?\gh n obvi\s1 7 ( su* a nature t ! calculations1 9 g5]al difficult or impossible1 c\ld 9 ^! in/ances be easily p]=m$2 z1 = example1 cases 9 :i* !re are plates or globes at ! two extremities ( a long wire4 ,9 all ^! cases ( #bje electrical action ! !ory 0 ju/ifi$4 ,b 9 ord] to give x full confirmation1 x 0 to be consid]$ :e!r any o!r facts1 n imm$iately assum$ 9 ! f\ndation ( ! !ory1 7 expla9$ by x2 a circum/ance :i*1 z we h se51 gave ! f9al /amp ( tru? to ! !ories ( a/ronomy & optics4 ,n[ we appe> to h su* confirmation1 9 ! effect ( po9ts1 & 9 ! ph5om5a ( ! electrical dis*>ge4 ,! !ory ( nei!r ( ^! 0 fully und]/ood by ,cav5di%1 b he made an approa* to ! true view ( !m4 ,if "o "p ( a conduct+ body be a sph]e ( small radius1 ! electric fluid ^u ! surface ( ?is sph]e w1 x appe>s by calculation1 be m d5se1 & t5d to escape m en]getically1 9 proportion z ! radius ( ! sph]e is small]2 &1 !re=e1 if we consid] a po9t z "p ( ! surface ( a sph]e ( imp]ceptible radius1 x foll[s f ! !ory t ! ef=t ( ! fluid to escape at t place w be enorm\s2 s t x may easily be suppos$ to ov]come ! resi/+ causes4 ,& ! dis*>ge may be expla9$ 9 ne>ly ! same mann]2 = :5 a conductor is br\ght ne>] & ne>] to an electriz$ body1 ! opposite electricity is m & m accumulat$ by attraction on ! side next to ! electriz$ body2 its t5sion becomes great] by ! increase ( its quantity & ! dim9ution ( ! di/ance1 & at la/ x is too /rong to be conta9$1 & leaps out 9 ! =m ( a sp>k4 ,! light1 s\nd1 & me*anical effects produc$ by ! electric dis*>ge1 made ! electric fluid to be n m]ely consid]$ z a ma!matical hypo!sis1 useful = r$uc+ ph5om5a to =mul 7z = a long "t ! magnetic fluid 071 b caus$ x to be at once & univ]sally accept$ z a physical reality1 ( :i* we le>n ! exi/5ce by ! common use ( ! s5ses1 & ( :i* measures & calculations are only want$ to tea* u ! laws4 ,! applications ( ! !ory ( electricity :i* ,i h pr9cipally consid]$ above1 are ^? :i* belong to conductors1 9 :i* ! electric fluid is p]fectly moveable1 & c take t di/ribution :i* ! =ces require4 ,9 non-conduct+ or electric bodies1 ! conditions to :i* ! fluid is subject are less easy to det]m9e2 b by suppos+ t ! fluid moves ) great difficulty among ! p>ticles ( su* bodies1--t nev]!less x may be dislodg$ & accumulat$ 9 p>ts ( ! surface ( su* bodies1 by friction & o!r modes ( excitem5t2 & t ! e>? is an inexhau/ible res]voir ( electric matt]1--! pr9cipal facts ( excitation & ! l receive a tol]ably satisfactory explanation4 #bjf ,! !ory ( p9us1 h[ev]1 /ill requir$ to h ! law ( action ( ! p>ticles ( ! fluid det]m9$4 ,if we 7 to call to m9d h[ mom5t\s an ev5t 9 physical a/ronomy 0 ! det]m9ation ( ! law ( ! cosmical =ces1 ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 & 7 to suppose ! importance & difficulty ( ! analog\s /ep 9 ?is case to be ( ! same k9d1 ?is w\ld be to mi/ake ! condition ( sci5ce at t "t4 ,! lead+ idea1 ! conception ( ! possibility ( expla9+ natural ph5om5a by means ( ! action ( =ces1 on rigor\sly me*anical pr9ciples1 _h already be5 promulgat$ by ,newton1 & 01 f ! fir/1 se5 to be peculi>ly applicable to electrical ph5om5a2 s t ! v mat]ial /ep ( cle>ly propos+ ! problem1 (t5 m important ?an ! solution ( x1 _h already be5 made4 ,moreov] ! confirmation ( ! tru? ( ! assum$ cause 9 ! a/ronomical case dep5d$ on tak+ ! "r law2 b ! electrical !ory c\ld be confirm$1 9 a g5]al mann] at lea/1 )\t ?is re/riction4 ,/ill x 0 an important discov]y t ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e prevail$ 9 ^! z well z 9 cosmical attractions4 ,x 0 impossible n to conjecture be=eh& t x w\ld be s4 ,cav5di% _h pr(ess$ 9 8 calculations n to take ! expon5t ( ! inv]se p[]1 on :i* ! =ce dep5d$1 to be /rictly #b1 b to leave x indet]m9ate betwe5 #a & #c2 b 9 8 applications ( 8 results1 he obvi\sly incl9es to ! assumption t x is #b4 ,exp]im5t]s tri$ to e/abli% ?is 9 v>i\s ways4 ,robison1#caaa 9 #agfi1 _h already prov$ t ! law ( =ce is v ne>ly or exactly ! inv]se squ>e2 & ,mey]#cbaa _h discov]$1 b n publi%$1 ! same result4 ,! cle> & satisfactory e/abli%m5t ( ?is tru? is due to ,c\lomb1 & 0 "o ( ! fir/ /eps 9 8 important s]ies ( rese>*es on ?is subject4 ,9 8 fir/ pap]#ccaa 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghe1 he proves ?is law = small globes2 9 8 second ,memoir he %[s x to be true = globes "o & two feet 9 diamet]4 ,8 inv5tion ( ! torsion-balance1 :i* measures v small =ces ) great c]ta9ty & exactness1 enabl$ him to set ?is "q at re/ = ev]4 ,note #caaa3 ,works1 iv4 p4 #fh4 ,note #cbaa3 ,biog4 ,univ4 art4 ,c\lumb1 by ,biot4 ,note #ccaa3 ,mm4 ,a4 ,p4 #aghe1 pp4 #efi1 #egh4 ,! law ( =ce be+ det]m9$ = ! p>ticles ( ! electric fluid1 x n[ came to be ! bus9ess ( ! exp]im5t] & ! #bjg ma!matician to comp>e ! results ( ! !ory 9 detail ) ^? ( exp]im5tal measures4 ,c\lomb und]took bo? portions ( ! task4 ,he exam9$ ! electricity ( portions ( bodies by means ( a little disk 78 tang5t plane7 :i* he appli$ to !m & !n remov$1 & :i* ?us act$ z a sort ( electric ta/]4 ,8 num]ical results 7! int5sity be+ /ill measur$ by ! torsion-balance7 are ! fundam5tal facts ( ! !ory ( ! electrical fluid4 ,)\t ent]+ into detail1 we may obs]ve t he f\nd ! electricity to be entirely collect$ at ! surface ( conductors 7:i* ,becc>ia _h be=e %[n to be ! case71 & t he exam9$ & record$ ! electric int5sity at ! surface ( globes1 cyl9d]s1 & o!r conduct+ bodies1 plac$ )9 ea* o!r's influ5ce 9 v>i\s ways4 ,! ma!matical calculation ( ! di/ribution ( two fluids1 all ! p>ticles ( :i* attract & repel ea* o!r accord+ to ! above law1 0 a problem ( no ord9>y difficulty2 z may easily be imag9$1 :5 x is recollect$ t ! attraction & repulsion det]m9e ! di/ribution1 & ! di/ribution reciprocally det]m9es ! attraction & repulsion4 ,! problem 0 ( ! same nature z t ( ! figure ( ! e>?2 & its rigor\s solution 0 beyond ! p[]s ( ! analysis ( ,c\lomb's "t4 ,he obta9$1 h[ev]1 approximate solutions ) mu* +5uity2 = in/ance1 9 a case 9 :i* x 0 obvi\s t ! electric fluid w\ld be mo/ accumulat$ at & ne> ! equator ( a c]ta9 sph]e1 he calculat$ ! action ( ! sph]e on two suppositions3 fir/1 t ! fluid 0 all collect$ precisely at ! equator2 & next1 t x 0 uni=mly diffus$ ov] ! surface2 & he !n assum$ ! actual case to be int]m$iate betwe5 ^! two4 ,by su* artifices he 0 able to %[ t ! results ( 8 exp]im5ts & ( 8 calculations gave an agreem5t suffici5tly ne> to entitle him to consid] ! !ory z e/abli%$ on a solid basis4 ,?us1 at ?is p]iod1 ma!matics 0 beh9d exp]im5t2 & a problem 0 propos$1 9 :i* !oretical num]ical results 7 want$ = comp>ison ) obs]vation1 b c\ld n be accurately obta9$2 z 0 ! case 9 a/ronomy also1 till ! "t ( ! approximate solution ( ! ,problem ( ,?ree ,bodies1 & ! consequ5t =mation ( ! ,tables ( ! ,moon & ,planets on ! !ory ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,aft] "s "t1 electrical !ory 0 reliev$ f ?is reproa*1 ma9ly 9 consequ5ce ( ! progress :i* a/ronomy _h occasion$ 9 pure ma!matics4 ,ab\t #ahja1 #bjh !re appe>$ 9 ! ,bullet9 des ,sci5ces1#cdaa an exact solution ( ! problem ( ! di/ribution ( electric fluid on a sph]oid1 obta9$ by ,m4 ,biot1 by ! application ( ! peculi> me?ods :i* ,laplace _h inv5t$ = ! problem ( ! figure ( ! planets4 ,& 9 #ahaa1 ,m4 ,poisson appli$ ,laplace's artifices to ! case ( two sph]es act+ ^u "o ano!r 9 contact1 a case to :i* _m ( ,c\lomb's exp]im5ts 7 ref]rible2 & ! agreem5t ( ! results ( !ory & obs]vation1 ?us extricat$ f ,c\lomb's numb]s1 obta9$ above =ty ye>s previ\sly1 0 v /rik+ & conv9c+4#ceaa ,x foll[$ also f ,poisson's calculations1 t :5 two electriz$ sph]es are br\ght ne> ea* o!r1 ! accumulation ( ! opposite electricities on _! ne>e/ po9ts increases )\t limit z ! sph]es approa* to contact2 s t be=e ! contact takes place1 ! ext]nal resi/ance w be ov]come1 & a sp>k w pass4 ,note #cdaa3 ,no4 li4 ,note #ceaa3 ,mm4 ,a4 ,p4 #ahaa4 ,?\gh ! relations ( non-conductors to electricity1 & v>i\s o!r circum/ances1 leave _m facts imp]fectly expla9$ by ! !ory1 yet we may v5ture to say t1 z a !ory :i* gives ! laws ( ! ph5om5a1 & :i* det]m9es ! di/ribution ( ^? elem5t>y =ces1 on ! surface ( electriz$ bodies1 f :i* elem5t>y =ces 7:e!r aris+ f ! pres5ce ( a fluid or n17 ! total effects result1 ! doctr9e ( ,dufay & ,c\lomb1 z develop$ 9 ! analysis ( ,poisson1 is securely & p]man5tly e/abli%$4 ,?is "p ( ! subject has be5 call$ /atical electricity4 ,9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! !ory ( ?is bran* ( sci5ce1 we mu/1 ,i conceive1 all[ to ,dufay m m]it ?an is g5]ally ascrib$ to him2 s9ce he saw cle>ly1 & enunciat$ 9 a mann] :i* %[$ t he duly appreciat$ _! capital "*1 ! two *ief pr9ciples1--! conditions ( electrical attraction & repulsion1 & ! app>5t exi/5ce ( two k9ds ( electricity4 ,8 views ( attraction are1 inde$1 p>tly express$ 9 t]ms ( ! ,c>tesian hypo!sis ( vortices1 !n preval5t 9 ,france2 b1 at ! "t :5 he wrote1 ^! =ms ( spee* indicat$ sc>cely any?+ besides ! p[] ( attraction4 ,frankl9's real m]it z a discov]] 01 t he 0 "o ( ! fir/ :o di/9ctly conceiv$ ! electrical *>ge z a d]angem5t ( equilibrium4 ,! great fame :i*1 9 8 day1 he enjoy$1 arose f ! cle>ness & _s ) :i* he n>rat$ 8 discov]ies2 f 8 deal+ ) electricity 9 ! impos+ =m ( ?und] & lightn+2 & p>tly1 p]haps1 f 8 "* z an #bji ,am]ican & a politician2 = he 0 already1 9 #agcf1 engag$ 9 public affairs z cl]k to ! ,g5]al ,assembly ( ,p5nsylvania1 ?\gh x 0 n till a lat] p]iod ( 8 life t 8 admir]s _h ! occasion ( say+ ( him ,eripuit clis fulm5 sceptrumque tyrannis2 ,born to control all lawless =ce1 all fi]ce & baleful sway1 ,! ?und]'s bolt1 ! tyrant's rod1 alike he wr5*$ away4 p9us & ,c\lomb 7 two ( ! mo/ em95t physical philosoph]s ( ! la/ c5tury1 & labor$ 9 ! way peculi>ly requir$ by t g5]ation2 ^: (fice x 0 to exam9e ! results1 9 p>ticul> subjects1 ( ! g5]al conception ( attraction & repulsion1 z introduc$ by ,newton4 ,! reason+s ( ! ,newtonian p]iod _h1 9 "s measure1 anticipat$ all possible !ories resembl+ ! electrical doctr9e ( p9us & ,c\lomb2 &1 on t acc\nt1 ?is doctr9e c\ld n be introduc$ & confirm$ 9 a sudd5 & /rik+ mann]1 s z to make a great epo*4 ,accord+ly1 ,dufay1 ,symm]1 ,watson1 ,frankl91 p9us & ,c\lomb1 h all a %>e 9 ! process ( induction4 ,) ref]5ce to ^! f\nd]s ( ! !ory ( electricity1 ,poisson holds ! same place :i* ,laplace holds ) ref]5ce to ,newton4 ,! reception ( ! ,c\lombian !ory 7s we mo/ call x1 = ! p9ian !ory implies "o fluid only17 has hi!rto n be5 s g5]al z might h be5 reasonably expect$ f its v beautiful accordance ) ! facts :i* x contemplates4 ,?is has p>tly be5 ow+ to ! extreme ab/rus5ess ( ! ma!matical reason+ :i* x employs1 & :i* put x out ( ! rea* ( mo/ exp]im5t]s & writ]s ( works ( g5]al circulation4 ,! !ory ( p9us 0 expla9$ by ,robison 9 ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica2 ! analysis ( ,poisson has rec5tly be5 pres5t$ to ! public 9 ! ,encyclopdia ,metropolitana1 b is ( a k9d n easily ma/]$ ev5 by mo/ ma!maticians4 ,on ^! acc\nts probably x is1 t 9 ,engli% compilations ( sci5ce1 we f9d1 ev5 to ?is day1 ! two !ories ( "o & ( two fluids /at$ z if !y 7 ne>ly on a p> 9 respect ( _! exp]im5tal evid5ce4 ,/ill we may say t ! ,c\lombian !ory is probably ass5t$ to by all :o h exam9$ x1 at lea/ z giv+ ! laws ( ph5om5a2 & ,i h n he>d ( any d5ial ( x f su* a qu>t]1 or ( any attempt to %[ x to be errone\s by detail$ & measur$ exp]im5ts4 ,mr4 ,sn[ ,h>ris #baj has rec5tly#cfaa describ$ "s important exp]im5ts & measures2 b 8 app>atus 0 ( su* a k9d t ! comp>ison ( ! results ) ! ,c\lombian !ory 0 n easy2 & inde$ ! ma!matical problems :i* ,mr4 ,h>ris's comb9ations (f]$1 require ano!r ,poisson = _! solution4 ,/ill ! m obvi\s results are su* z agree ) ! !ory1 ev5 9 ! cases 9 :i* _! au?or consid]$ !m to be inexplicable4 ,= example1 he f\nd t by d\bl+ ! quantity ( electricity ( a conductor1 x attract$ a body ) f\r times ! =ce2 b ! body n be+ insulat$1 w\ld h its electricity also d\bl$ by induction1 & ?us ! fact 0 :at ! !ory requir$4 ,note #cfaa3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcd1 p4 #b4 ,?\gh x is ?us highly probable t ! ,c\lombian !ory ( electricity 7or ! p9ian1 :i* is ma!matically equival5t7 w /& z a true repres5tation ( ! law ( ! elem5t>y actions1 we mu/ yet all[ t x has n receiv$ t complete evid5ce1 by means ( exp]im5ts & calculations add$ to ^? ( its f\nd]s1 :i* ! prec$5ts ( o!r p]man5t sci5ces h l$ u to look =4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,c\lomb1 :i* he us$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! !ory1 7 n v num]\s1 & !y 7 limit$ to a peculi> =m ( bodies1 namely sph]es4 ,9 ord] to =m ! prop] sequel to ! promulgation ( ?is !ory1 to give a full confirmation1 & to ensure its g5]al reception1 we ought to h exp]im5ts m num]\s & m v>i$ 7su* z ^? ( ,mr4 ,h>ris are7 %[n to agree 9 all respects ) results calculat$ f ! !ory4 ,?is w\ld1 z we h said1 be a task ( labor & difficulty2 b ! p]son :o %all execute x w des]ve to be consid]$ z "o ( ! real f\nd]s ( ! true doctr9e ( electricity4 ,to %[ t ! co9cid5ce betwe5 !ory & obs]vation1 :i* has already be5 prov$ = sph]ical conductors1 obta9s also = bodies ( o!r =ms1 w be a /ep 9 electricity analog\s to :at 0 done 9 a/ronomy1 :5 x 0 %[n t ! law ( gravitation appli$ to comets z well z to planets4 ,b al?\gh we consid] ! views ( p9us or ,c\lomb 9 a v high degree probable z a =mal !ory1 ! "q is v diff]5t :5 we come to exam9e !m z a physical !ory2--t is1 :5 we inquire :e!r !re really is a mat]ial electric fluid or fluids4 ,"q ( ,"o or ,two ,fluids4--,9 ! fir/ place z to ! "q :e!r ! fluids are "o or two2--,c\lomb's introduction ( #baa ! hypo!sis ( two fluids has be5 spok5 ( z a re=m ( ! !ory ( p9us2 x w\ld probably h be5 m safe to h call$ 8 labors an advance 9 ! calculation1 & 9 ! comp>ison ( hypo!sis ) exp]im5t1 ?an to h us$ language :i* impli$ t ! "q1 betwe5 ! rival hypo!ses ( "o or two fluids1 c\ld be treat$ z settl$4 ,=1 9 reality1 if we assume1 z p9us does1 ! mutual repulsion ( all ! p>ticles ( matt]1 9 addition to ! repulsion ( ! p>ticles ( ! electric fluid = "o ano!r & _! attraction = ! p>ticles ( matt]1 ! "o fluid ( p9us w give exactly ! same results z ! two fluids ( ,c\lomb4 ,! ma!matical =mul ( ,c\lomb & ( ,poisson express ! conditions ( ! "o case z well z ( ! o!r2 ! int]pretation only be+ some:at diff]5t4 ,! place ( ! =ces ( ! res9\s fluid is suppli$ by ! excess ( ! =ces ascrib$ to ! matt] above ! =ces ( ! fluid1 9 ! p>ts :]e ! electric fluid is defici5t4 ,! obvi\s argum5t aga9/ ?is hypo!sis is1 t we ascribe to ! p>ticles ( matt] a mutual repulsion1 9 addition to ! mutual attraction ( univ]sal gravitation1 & t ?is appe>s incongru\s4 ,accord+ly1 p9us says1 t :5 he 0 fir/ driv5 to ?is proposition x horrifi$ him4#cgaa ,b we may answ] x 9 ?is way v satisfactorily3--,if we suppose ! mutual repulsion ( matt] to be some:at less ?an ! mutual attraction ( matt] & electric fluid1 x w foll[1 z a consequ5ce ( ! hypo!sis1 t besides all obvi\s electrical action1 ! p>ticles ( matt] w\ld attract ea* o!r ) =ces v>y+ inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,?us gravitation itself becomes an electrical ph5om5on1 aris+ f ! residual excess ( attraction ov] repulsion2 & ! fact :i* is urg$ aga9/ ! hypo!sis becomes a confirmation ( x4 ,by ?is consid]ation ! pr]ogative ( simplicity passes ov] to ! side ( ! hypo!sis ( "o fluid2 & ! rival view appe>s to lose at lea/ all its sup]iority4 ,note #cgaa3 ,neque diffiteor cum ipsa se mihi (f]ret 4 4 4 4 me ad ipsam quodammodo exhorruisse4 ,t5tam5 ,!or4 ,elect4 p4 #ci4 ,v rec5tly1 ,m4 ,mosotti#chaa has calculat$ ! results ( ! p9ian !ory 9 a f> m complete mann] ?an _h previ\sly be5 p]=m$2 us+ ,laplace's coeffici5ts1 z ,poisson _h done = ! #bab ,c\lombian !ory4 ,he f9ds t1 f ! supposition ( a fluid & ( p>ticles ( matt] ex]cis+ su* =ces z t !ory assumes 7) ! v all[able additional supposition t ! p>ticles are small comp>$ ) _! di/ances71 x foll[s t ! p>ticles w\ld ex]t a =ce1 repulsive at ! smalle/ di/ances1 a little fur!r on vani%+1 aft]w>ds attractive1 & at all s5sible di/ances attract+ 9 proportion to ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,?us !re w\ld be a position ( /able equilibrium = ! p>ticles at a v small di/ance f ea* o!r1 :i* may be1 ,m4 ,mosotti sugge/s1 t equilibrium on :i* _! physical /ructure dep5ds4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 ! resi/ance ( bodies to compression & to ext5sion1 z well z ! ph5om5a ( /atical electricity & ! mutual gravitation ( matt]1 are acc\nt$ = by ! same hypo!sis ( a s+le fluid or e!r4 ,a !ory :i* (f]s a prospect ( su* a g5]alization is wor? att5tion2 b a v cle> & compreh5sive view ( ! doctr9es ( sev]al sci5ces is requisite to prep>e u to e/imate its value & probable success4 ,note #chaa3 ,sur les ,=ces qui rgiss5t la ,con/itution ,intrieure des ,corps4 ,tur94 #ahcf4 ,"q ( ! ,mat]ial ,reality ( ! ,electric ,fluid4--,at fir/ sight ! beautiful accordance ( ! exp]im5ts ) calculations f\nd$ ^u ! attractions & repulsions ( ! two hypo!tical fluids1 p]suade u t ! hypo!ses mu/ be ! real /ate ( ?+s4 ,b we h already le>n$ t we mu/ n tru/ to su* evid5ce too readily4 ,x is a curi\s in/ance ( ! mutual influ5ce ( ! hi/ories ( two prov9ces ( sci5ce1 b ,i ?9k x w be all[$ to be j1 to say t ! discov]y ( ! pol>ization ( heat has done mu* to %ake ! !ory ( ! electric fluids z a physical reality4 ,= ! doctr9e ( a mat]ial caloric appe>$ to be prov$ 7f ! laws ( conduction & radiation7 by ! same k9d ( ma!matical evid5ce 7! agreem5t ( laws respect+ ! elem5t>y actions ) ^? ( fluids71 :i* we h = ! doctr9e ( mat]ial electricity4 ,yet we n[ seem to see t heat _c be matt]1 s9ce its rays h sides1 9 a mann] 9 :i* a /ream ( p>ticles ( matt] _c h sides )\t inadmissible hypo!ses4 ,we see1 !n1 t x w n be contr>y to prec$5t1 if our electrical !ory1 repres5t+ ) p]fect accuracy ! laws ( ! actions1 9 all _! =ms1 simple & complex1 %\ld yet be fallaci\s z a view ( ! cause ( ! actions4 ,any true view ( electricity mu/ include1 or at lea/ be consi/5t )1 ! o!r classes ( ! ph5om5a1 z well z ?is /atical electrical action2 su* z ! conditions ( excitation & ret5tion ( #bac electricity2 to :i* we may add1 ! connexion ( electricity ) magnetism & ) *emi/ry2--a va/ field1 z yet dimly se54 ,n[1 ev5 ) reg>d to ! simple/ ( ^! que/ions1 ! cause ( ! ret5tion ( electricity at ! surface ( bodies1 x appe>s to be impossible to ma9ta9 ,c\lomb's op9ion1 t ?is is effect$ by ! resi/ance ( air to ! passage ( electricity4 ,! o!r que/ions are su* z ,c\lomb did n attempt to t\*2 !y ref]1 inde$1 pr9cipally to laws n suspect$ at 8 "t4 ,h[ wide & pr(\nd a !ory mu/ be :i* deals wor?ily ) ^!1 we %all obta9 "s indications 9 ! succe$+ "p ( our hi/ory4 ,b x may be said on ! o!r side1 t we h ! evid5ce ( our s5ses = ! reality ( an electric fluid2--we see x 9 ! sp>k2 we he> x 9 ! explosion2 we feel x 9 ! %ock2 & x produces ! effects ( me*anical viol5ce1 pi]c+ & te>+ ! bodies ?r\gh :i* x passes4 ,& ^? :o are dispos$ to ass]t a real fluid on su* gr\nds1 may appe> to be ju/ifi$ 9 do+ s1 by "o ( ,newton's ,rules ( ,philosophiz+1 9 :i* he directs ! philosoph] to assume1 9 8 !ories1 causes :i* are true4 ,! usual int]pretation ( a v]a causa1 has be51 t x implies causes :i*1 indep5d5tly ( !oretical calculations1 are kn[n to exi/ by _! me*anical effects2 z gravity 0 famili>ly kn[n to exi/ on ! e>?1 be=e x 0 ext5d$ to ! heav5s4 ,! electric fluid might seem to be su* a v]a causa4 ,to ?is ,i %\ld v5ture to reply1 t ?is reason+ %[s h[ delusive ! ,newtonian rule1 s int]pret$1 may be4 ,= a mom5t's consid]ation w satisfy u t none ( ! circum/ances1 above adduc$1 c really prove mat]ial curr5ts1 r ?an vibrations1 or o!r modes ( ag5cy4 ,! sp>k & %ock are q insuffici5t to supply su* a pro(4 ,s\nd is vibrations1--light is vibrations2 vibrations may affect our n]ves1 & may r5d a body1 z :5 glasses are brok5 by s\nds4 ,!re=e all ^! suppos$ indications ( ! reality ( ! electric fluid are utt]ly fallaci\s4 ,9 tru?1 ?is mode ( apply+ ,newton's rule consi/s 9 elevat+ our fir/ rude & unsci5tific impressions into a supremacy ov] ! results ( calculation1 g5]alization1 & sy/ematic induction49999#ciaa #bad ,note 9999#ciaa3 ,on ! subject ( ?is ,newtonian ,rule ( ,philosophiz+1 see fur!r ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 ,b4 xii4 c4 #ac4 ,i h giv5 an acc\nt ( ! hi/ory & evid5ce ( ! ,!ory ( ,electricity 9 ! ,reports ( ! ,briti% ,association = #ahce4 ,i may seem !re to h spok5 m favorably ( ! ,!ory z a ,physical ,!ory ?an ,i h done "h4 ,?is diff]5ce is pr9cipally due to a consid]ation ( ! pres5t aspect ( ! ,!ory ( ,heat4 ,?us our conclusion ) reg>d to ?is subject is1 t if we wi% to =m a /able physical !ory ( electricity1 we mu/ take into acc\nt n only ! laws ( /atical electricity1 :i* we h be5 *iefly consid]+1 b ! laws ( o!r k9ds ( ag5cy1 diff]5t f ! electric1 yet connect$ ) x4 ,= ! electricity ( :i* we h hi!rto spok51 & :i* is commonly excit$ by friction1 is id5tical ) galvanic action1 :i* is a result ( *emical comb9ations1 & belongs to *emical philosophy4 ,! connexion ( ^! diff]5t k9ds ( electricity ) "o ano!r leads u into a new doma92 b we mu/1 9 ! fir/ place1 consid] _! me*anical laws4 ,we n[ proce$ to ano!r bran* ( ! same subject1 ,magnetism4 #bae ,,book ,,xii4 ,,me*anico-,,*emical ,,sci5ces4 7,,cont9u$47 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,magnetism4 ,,effice1 ut int]ea f]a mun]a militia ,p] m>ia ac t]ras omneis sopita quiescant4 ,nam tu sola potes tranquilla pace juv>e ,mortales2 quoniam belli f]a mun]a ,mavors ,armipot5s regit1 9 gremium qui spe tuum se ,rejicit1 t]no devictus vuln]e amoris2 ,atque ita suspici5s t]eti c]vice repo/a1 ,pascit amore avidos inhians 9 te1 ,dea1 visus1 ,eque tuo p5det resup9i spiritus ore4 ,hunc tu1 ,diva1 tuo recubantem corpore sancto ,circumfusa sup]1 suaves ex ore loquelas ,funde1 pet5s placidam ,romanis1 incluta1 pacem4 ,,lucret4 i4 #ca4 ,o *>m+ ,goddess1 ^: my/]i\s sway ,! unse5 ho/s ( e>? & sky obey2 ,to :om1 ?\gh cold & h>d to all besides1 ,! ,iron ,god by /rong affection glides4 ,fl+s himself eag] to ?y close embrace1 ,& b5ds 8 head to gaze ^u ?y face2 ,d ?\1 :at "t ?y fondl+ arms are ?r[n ,ar\nd 8 =m1 & he is all ?y own1 ,d ?\1 ?y ,rome to save1 ?y p[] to prove1 ,beg him to grant a boon = ?y de> love2 ,beg him no m 9 battle-fields to deal4 ,or cru% ! nations ) 8 mail$ heel4 ,b1 t\*$ & s(t5$ by a wor?y flame1 ,quit sword & spe>1 & seek a bett] fame4 ,bid him to make all w> & slaught] cease1 ,& ply 8 g5u9e task 9 arts ( peace2 ,& by !e guid$ o'er ! trackless surge1 ,be> weal? & joy to ocean's f>!/ v]ge4 #bag ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,magnetic ,,ph5om5a4 ,,! hi/ory ( ,magnetism is 9 a great degree simil> to t ( ,electricity1 & _m ( ! same p]sons 7 employ$ 9 ! two tra9s ( rese>*4 ,! g5]al fact1 t ! magnet attracts iron1 0 ne>ly all t 0 kn[n to ! anci5ts1 & is frequ5tly m5tion$ & ref]r$ to2 = in/ance1 by ,pl9y1 :o wond]s & declaims conc]n+ x1 9 8 usual exagg]at$ /yle4#aab ,! writ]s ( ! ,/ation>y ,p]iod1 9 ?is subject z 9 o!rs1 employ$ !mselves 9 collect+ & adorn+ a numb] ( extravagant tales1 :i* ! slighte/ ref]5ce to exp]im5t w\ld h disprov$2 z1 = example1 t a magnet1 :5 x has lo/ its virtue1 has x re/or$ by goat's blood4 ,gilb]t1 ^: "w ,de ,magnete we h already m5tion$1 speaks ) becom+ indignation & pity ( ?is booki% folly1 & repeat$ly ass]ts ! p>am\nt value ( exp]im5ts4 ,he himself1 no d\bt1 act$ up to 8 own precepts2 = 8 "w conta9s all ! fundam5tal facts ( ! sci5ce1 s fully exam9$ inde$1 t ev5 at ?is day we h little to add to !m4 ,?us1 9 8 fir/ ,book1 ! subjects ( ! ?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? ,*apt]s are1--t ! magnet has poles1--t we may call ^! poles ! nor? & ! s\? pole1--t 9 two magnets ! nor? pole ( ea* attracts ! s\? pole & repels ! nor? pole ( ! o!r4 ,?is is1 inde$1 ! c>d9al fact on :i* our g5]alizations re/2 & ! read] w p]ceive at once its resemblance to ! lead+ ph5om5a ( /atical electricity4 ,note #aab3 ,hi/4 ,nat4 lib4 xxxvi4 c4 #be4 ,b ! doctr9es ( magnetism1 l ^? ( heat1 h an additional claim on our notice f ! mann] 9 :i* !y are exemplifi$ 9 ! globe ( ! e>?4 ,! subject ( t]re/rial magnetism =ms a v important addition to ! g5]al facts ( magnetic attraction & repulsion4 ,! prop]ty ( ! magnet by :i* x directs its poles exactly or ne>ly nor? & s\?1 :5 once discov]$1 0 ( imm5se importance to ! m>9]4 ,x does n #bah appe> easy to trace ) c]ta9ty ! p]iod ( ?is discov]y4 ,pass+ ov] c]ta9 leg5ds ( ! ,*9ese1 z at any rate n be>+ ^u ! progress ( ,european sci5ce1#bab ! e>lie/ notice ( ?is prop]ty appe>s to be conta9$ 9 ! ,poem ( ,guyot de ,prov5ce1 :o describes ! ne$le z be+ magnetiz$1 & !n plac$ 9 or on a /raw1 7float+ on wat]1 z ,i presume37 ,puis se torne la po9te t\te ,contre l'e/oile sans d\te2 t is1 x turns t[>ds ! pole-/>4 ,?is acc\nt w\ld make ! k ( ?is prop]ty 9 ,europe ant]ior to #abjj4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds f\nd#cab t ! ne$le does n po9t exactly t[>ds ! nor?4 ,gilb]t 0 aw>e ( ?is deviation1 :i* he calls ! v>iation1 & also1 t x is diff]5t 9 diff]5t places4#dab ,he ma9ta9$ on !oretical pr9ciples also1#eab t at ! same place ! v>iation is con/ant2 probably 9 8 "t !re 7 n any record$ obs]vations by :i* ! tru? ( ?is ass]tion c\ld be te/$2 x 0 aft]w>ds f\nd to be false4 ,! alt]ation ( ! v>iation 9 proce$+ f "o place to ano!r 01 x w be recollect$1 "o ( ! circum/ances :i* mo/ al>m$ ! companions ( ,columbus 9 #adib4 ,gilb]t says1#fab ,o!r le>n$ m5 h1 9 long navigations1 obs]v$ ! diff]5ces ( magnetic v>iations1 z ,?omas ,h>iot1 ,rob]t ,hues1 ,edw>d ,wright1 ,abraham ,k5dall1 all ,engli%m53 o!rs h inv5t$ magnetic in/rum5ts & conv5i5t modes ( obs]vation1 su* z are requisite = ^? :o take long voyages1 z ,william ,bor\gh 9 8 ,book conc]n+ ! v>iation ( ! compass1 ,william ,b>lo 9 8 supplem5t1 ,william ,norman 9 8 ,new ,attractive4 ,?is is t ,rob]t ,norman 7a good seaman & an +5i\s artific]17 :o fir/ discov]$ ! dip ( magnetic iron4 ,?is important discov]y 0 made#gab 9 #aegf4 ,f ! "t :5 ! diff]5ce ( ! v>iation ( ! compass 9 diff]5t places became kn[n1 x 0 important to m>9]s to regi/] ! v>iation 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,halley 0 appo9t$ to ! comm& ( a %ip 9 ! ,royal ,navy by ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,william & ,m>y1 ) ord]s to seek by obs]vation ! discov]y ( ! rule = ! v>iation ( ! compass4 ,he publi%$ ,magnetic ,*>ts1 :i* #bai h be5 s9ce correct$ & improv$ by v>i\s p]sons4 ,! mo/ rec5t are ^? ( ,mr4 ,yates 9 #ahag1 & ( ,m4 ,han/e54 ,! dip1 z well z ! v>iation1 0 f\nd to be diff]5t 9 diff]5t places4 ,m4 ,humboldt1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 travels1 collect$ _m su* obs]vations4 ,& bo? ! obs]vations ( v>iation & ( dip seem$ to indicate t ! e>?1 z to its effect on ! magnetic ne$le1 may1 approximately at lea/1 be consid]$ z a magnet1 ! poles ( :i* are n f> remov$ f ! e>?'s poles ( rotation4 ,?us we h a magnetic equator1 9 :i* ! ne$le has no dip1 & :i* does n deviate f> f ! e>?'s equator2 al?\gh1 f ! be/ obs]vations1 x appe>s to be by no means a regul> circle4 ,& ! ph5om5a1 bo? ( ! dip & ( ! v>iation1 9 high nor!rn latitudes1 appe> to indicate ! exi/5ce ( a pole bel[ ! surface ( ! e>? to ! nor? ( ,hudson's ,bay4 ,9 8 second rem>kable exp$ition into ^? regions1 ,capta9 ,ross is suppos$ to h rea*$ ! place ( ?is pole2 ! dipp+-ne$le !re po9t+ v]tically d[nw>ds1 & ! v>iation-compass turn+ t[>ds ?is po9t 9 ! adjac5t regions4 ,we %all h]eaft] h to consid] ! m complete & connect$ views :i* h be5 tak5 ( t]re/rial magnetism4 ,note #bab3 ,enc4 ,met4 art4 ,magnetism1 p4 #gcf4 ,note #cab3 ,be=e #abfi4 ,enc4 ,met4 p4 #gcg4 ,note #dab3 ,de ,magnete1 lib4 iv4 c4 #a4 ,note #eab3 c4 #c4 ,note #fab3 ,lib4 i4 c4 #a4 ,note #gab3 ,enc4 ,met4 p4 #gch4 ,9 #afcc1 ,gellibr& discov]$ t ! v>iation is n con/ant1 z ,gilb]t imag9$1 b t at ,london x _h dim9i%$ f elev5 degrees ea/ 9 #aehj1 to f\r degrees 9 #afcc4 ,s9ce t "t ! v>iation has become m & m we/]ly2 x is n[ ab\t tw5ty-five degrees we/1 & ! ne$le is suppos$ to h begun to travel ea/w>d aga94 ,! next important fact :i* appe>$ ) respect to t]re/rial magnetism 01 t ! position ( ! ne$le is subject to a small diurnal v>iation3 ?is 0 discov]$ 9 #agbb1 by ,graham1 a philosophical in/rum5t-mak]1 ( ,london4 ,! daily v>iation 0 e/abli%$ by "o ?\s& obs]vations ( ,graham1 & confirm$ by f\r ?\s& m made by ,canton1 & is n[ consid]$ to be out ( dispute4 ,x appe>$ also1 by ,canton's rese>*es1 t ! diurnal v>iation und]goes an annual inequality1 be+ ne>ly a qu>t] ( a degree 9 ,june & ,july1 & only half t quantity 9 ,decemb] & ,janu>y4 ,hav+ ?us notic$ ! pr9cipal facts :i* belong to t]re/rial magnetism1 we mu/ return to ! consid]ation ( ^? ph5om5a :i* gradually l$ to a consi/5t magnetic !ory4 ,gilb]t obs]v$ t bo? smelt$ iron & hamm]$ iron h ! magnetic virtue1 #bbj ?\gh 9 a weak] degree ?an ! magnet itself1#hab & he ass]t$ di/9ctly t ! magnet is m]ely an ore ( iron1 7lib4 i4 c4 #af1 ,quod magnes et v5a f]ri idem sunt47 ,he also not$ ! increas$ en]gy :i* magnets acquire by be+ arm$2 t is1 fitt$ ) a cap ( poli%$ iron at ea* pole4#iab ,b we d n f9d till a lat] p]iod any notice ( ! di/9ction :i* exi/s betwe5 ! magnetical prop]ties ( s(t iron & ( h>d /eel2--! latt] be+ susceptible ( be+ =m$ into artificial magnets1 ) p]man5t poles2 :ile s(t iron is only passively magnetic1 receiv+ a tempor>y pol>ity f ! action ( a magnet ne> x1 b los+ ?is prop]ty :5 ! magnet is remov$4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 v>i\s me?ods 7 devis$ ( mak+ artificial magnets1 :i* exce$$ 9 p[] all magnetic bodies previ\sly kn[n4 ,note #hab3 ,lib4 i4 c4 #i-ac4 ,note #iab3 ,lib4 ii4 c4 #ag4 ,! rema9+ exp]im5tal rese>*es _h s close an hi/orical connexion ) ! !ory1 t !y w be be/ consid]$ along ) x1 & to t1 !re=e1 we n[ proce$4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,progress ,,( ,,magnetic ,,!ory4 ,,!ory ,,( ,,magnetic ,,action4--,! assumption ( a fluid1 z a mode ( expla9+ ! ph5om5a1 0 f> less obvi\s 9 magnetic ?an 9 electric cases1 yet x 0 soon arriv$ at4 ,aft] ! usual philosophy ( ! middle ages1 ! =ms ( ,aqu9as1 ! efflux ( ,cusanus1 ! vapors ( ,co/u1 & ! l1 :i* are record$ by ,gilb]t1#ajab we h 8 own !ory1 :i* he also expresses by ascrib+ ! effects to a =mal effici5cy2--a =m ( prim>y globes2 ! prop] entity & exi/5ce ( _! homog5e\s p>ts1 :i* we may call a prim>y & radical & a/ral =m2--( :i* =ms !re is "o 9 ! sun1 "o 9 ! moon1 "o 9 ! e>?1 ! latt] be+ ! magnetic virtue4 ,note #ajab3 ,gilb4 lib4 ii4 c4 #c1 #d ,)\t attempt+ to analyse ! precise import ( ^! expressions1 we may proce$ to ,desc>tes's explanation ( magnetic ph5om5a4 ,! mode 9 :i* he pres5ts ?is subject#aaab is1 p]haps1 ! #bba mo/ p]suasive ( 8 physical attempts4 ,if a magnet be plac$ among iron fil+s1 ^! arrange !mselves 9 curv$ l9es1 :i* proce$ f "o pole ( ! magnet to ! o!r4 ,x 0 n difficult to conceive ^! to be ! traces ( curr5ts ( e!real matt] :i* circulate ?r\gh ! magnet1 & :i* are ?us r5d]$ s5sible ev5 to ! eye4 ,:5 ph5om5a c\ld n be expla9$ by means ( "o vortex1 sev]al 7 introduc$4 ,?ree ,memoirs on ,magnetism1 writt5 on su* pr9ciples1 _h ! prize adjudg$#abab by ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 #agdf4 ,note #aaab3 ,pr94 ,phil4 p>s c4 iv4 #adf4 ,note #abab3 ,c\lomb1 #aghi1 p4 #dhb4 ,b ! ,c>tesian philosophy gradually decl9$2 & x 0 n difficult to %[ t ! magnetic curves1 z well z o!r ph5om5a1 w\ld1 9 fact1 result f ! attraction & repulsion ( two poles4 ,! analogy ( magnetism ) electricity 0 s /rong & cle>1 t simil> !ories 7 naturally propos$ = ! two sets ( facts2 ! di/9ction ( bodies into conductors & electrics 9 ! "o case1 correspond+ to ! di/9ction ( s(t & h>d /eel1 9 _! relations to magnetism4 p9us publi%$ a !ory ( magnetism & electricity at ! same "t 7#agei72 & ! =m] !ory1 l ! latt]1 expla9$ ! ph5om5a ( ! opposite poles z results ( ! excess & defect ( a magnetic fluid1 :i* 0 dislodg$ & accumulat$ 9 ! ends ( ! body1 by ! repulsion ( its own p>ticles1 & by ! attraction ( iron or /eel1 z 9 ! case ( induc$ electricity4 ,! p9ian !ory ( magnetism1 z ( electricity1 0 reca/ by ,c\lomb1 & pres5t$ 9 a new %ape1 ) two fluids in/ead ( "o4 ,b be=e ?is !ory 0 r$uc$ to calculation1 x 0 obvi\sly desirable1 9 ! fir/ place1 to det]m9e ! law ( =ce4 ,9 magnetic1 z 9 electric action1 ! det]m9ation ( ! law ( attraction ( ! p>ticles 0 att5d$ at fir/ ) "s difficulty1 because ! action :i* a f9ite magnet ex]ts is a comp\nd result ( ! attractions & repulsions ( _m po9ts4 ,newton _h imag9$ ! attractive =ce ( magnetism to be inv]sely z ! cube ( ! di/ance2 b ,may] 9 #agfj1 & ,lamb]t a few ye>s lat]1 ass]t$ ! law to be1 9 ?is z 9 o!r =ces1 ! inv]se squ>e4 ,c\lomb has ! m]it ( hav+ fir/ cle>ly confirm$ ?is law1 by ! use ( 8 torsion-balance4#acab ,he e/abli%$1 at ! same "t1 o!r v important facts1 = in/ance1 t ! directive magnetic =ce1 :i* ! e>? ex]ts ^u a ne$le1 is a con/ant quantity1 p>allel #bbb to ! magnetic m]idian1 & pass+ ?r\gh ! same po9t ( ! ne$le :atev] be its position4 ,?is 0 ! m important1 because x 0 necess>y1 9 ! fir/ place1 to all[ = ! effect ( ! t]re/rial =ce1 be=e ! mutual action ( ! magnets c\ld be extricat$ f ! ph5om5a4#adab ,c\lomb !n proce$$ to correct ! !ory ( magnetism4 ,note #acab3 ,mem4 ,a4 ,p4 #aghd1 #b;d ,mem4 p4 #eic4 ,note #adab3 p4 #fjc4 ,c\lomb's re=m ( ! p9ian !ory1 9 ! case ( magnetism1 z 9 t ( electricity1 sub/itut$ two fluids 7an au/ral & a boreal fluid17 = ! s+le fluid2 & 9 ?is way remov$ ! necessity "u :i* p9us f\nd himself1 ( suppos+ all ! p>ticles ( iron & /eel & o!r magnetic bodies to h a peculi> repulsion = ea* o!r1 exactly equal to _! attraction = ! magnetic fluid4 ,b 9 ! case ( magnetism1 ano!r modification 0 necess>y4 ,x 0 impossible to suppose "h1 z 9 ! electrical ph5om5a1 t "o ( ! fluids 0 accumulat$ on "o extremity ( a body1 & ! o!r fluid on ! o!r extremity2 = ?\gh ?is might appe>1 at fir/ sight1 to be ! case 9 a magnetic ne$le1 x 0 f\nd t :5 ! ne$le 0 cut into two halves1 ! half 9 :i* ! au/ral fluid _h seem$ to pr$om9ate1 acquir$ imm$iately a boreal pole opposite to its au/ral pole1 & a simil> effect foll[$ 9 ! o!r half4 ,! same is true1 into h[ev] _m p>ts ! magnetic body be cut4 ,! way 9 :i* ,c\lomb modifi$ ! !ory s z to reconcile x ) su* facts1 is simple & satisfactory4 ,he supposes#aeab ! magnetic body to be made up ( molecules or integral p>ts1 or1 z !y 7 aft]w>ds call$ by ,m4 ,poisson1 magnetic elem5ts4 ,9 ea* ( ^! elem5ts1 7:i* are extremely m9ute17 ! fluids c be sep>at$1 s t ea* elem5t has an au/ral & a boreal pole2 b ! au/ral pole ( an elem5t :i* is adjac5t to ! boreal pole ( ! next1 neutralizes1 or ne>ly neutralizes1 its effect2 s t ! s5sible magnetism appe>s only t[>ds ! extremities ( ! body1 z x w\ld d if ! fluids c\ld p]meate ! body freely4 ,we %all h exactly ! same result1 z to s5sible magnetic =ce1 on ! "o supposition & on ! o!r1 z ,c\lomb %[$4#afab ,note #aeab3 ,mem4 ,a4 ,p4 #aghi1 p4 #dhh4 ,note #afab3 ,mem4 ,a4 ,p4 p4 #dib4 ,! !ory1 ?us fre$ f manife/ incongruities1 0 to be r$uc$ to calculation1 & comp>$ ) exp]im5t2 ?is 0 done 9 ,c\lomb's ,sev5? ,memoir4#agab ,! difficulties ( calculation 9 ?is1 z 9 ! electric problem1 c\ld n be entirely surm\nt$ by ! analysis ( ,c\lomb2 b by v>i\s artifices1 he obta9$ !oretically ! #bbc relative am\nt ( magnetism at sev]al po9ts ( a ne$le1#ahab & ! proposition t ! directive =ce ( ! e>? on simil> ne$les saturat$ ) magnetism1 0 z ! cube ( _! dim5sions2 conclusions :i* agre$ ) exp]im5t4 ,note #agab3 ,a4 ,p4 #aghi4 ,note #ahab3 p4 #dhe4 ,! agreem5t ?us obta9$ 0 suffici5t to give a great probability to ! !ory2 b an improvem5t ( ! me?ods ( calculation & a repetition ( exp]im5ts1 01 9 ?is z 9 o!r cases1 desirable1 z a confirmation ( ! labors ( ! orig9al !ori/4 ,^! requisites1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 7 suppli$4 ,! rese>*es ( ,laplace & ,leg5dre on ! figure ( ! e>? _h 7z we h already /at$17 introduc$ "s v peculi> analytical artifices1 applicable to ! attractions ( sph]oids2 & ^! me?ods 7 employ$ by ,m4 ,biot 9 #ahaa1 to %[ t on an elliptical sph]oid1 ! ?ickness ( ! fluid 9 ! direction ( ! radius w\ld be z ! di/ance f ! c5tre4#aiab ,b ! subject 0 tak5 up 9 a m complete mann] 9 #ahbd by ,m4 ,poisson1 :o obta9$ g5]al expressions = ! attractions or repulsions ( a body ( any =m :atev]1 magnetiz$ by influ5ce1 ^u a giv5 po9t2 & 9 ! case ( sph]ical bodies 0 able completely to solve ! equations :i* det]m9e ^! =ces4#bjab ,note #aiab3 ,bull4 des ,sc4 ,no4 li4 ,note #bjab3 ,a4 ,p4 = #ahba & #b1 publi%$ #ahbf4 ,previ\sly to ^! !oretical inve/igations1 ,mr4 ,b>l[ _h made a s]ies ( exp]im5ts on ! effect ( an iron sph]e ^u a compass ne$le2 & _h obta9$ empirical =mul = ! am\nt ( ! deviation ( ! ne$le1 accord+ to its dep5d5ce ^u ! position & magnitude ( ! sph]e4 ,he aft]w>ds d$uc$ ! same =mul f a !ory :i* 01 9 fact1 id5tical ) t ( ,c\lomb1 b :i* he consid]$ z diff]5t1 9 t x suppos$ ! magnetic fluids to be entirely collect$ at ! surface ( ! sph]e4 ,he _h inde$ f\nd1 by exp]im5t1 t ! surface 0 ! only "p 9 :i* !re 0 any s5sible magnetism2 & t a ?9 %ell ( iron w\ld produce ! same effect z a solid ball ( ! same diamet]4 ,b ?is 01 9 fact1 a mo/ complete v]ification ( ,c\lomb's !ory4 ,= ?\gh t !ory did n suppose ! magnetism to be collect$ solely at ! surface1 z ,mr4 ,b>l[ f\nd x1 x foll[$ f ! !ory1 t ! s5sible magnetic int5sity assum$ ! same di/ribution 7namely1 a surface di/ribution17 z if ! fluids c\ld p]meate ! :ole body1 in/ead ( ! magnetic elem5ts only4 ,c\lomb1 inde$1 _h n expressly notic$ ! result1 t ! s5sible #bbd magnetism w\ld be conf9$ to ! surface ( bodies2 b he _h f\nd t1 9 a long ne$le1 ! magnetic fluid might be suppos$ to be conc5trat$ v ne> ! extremities1 j z x is 9 a long electric body4 ,! !oretical confirmation ( ?is rule among ! o!r consequ5ces ( ! !ory1--t ! s5sible magnetism w\ld be collect$ at ! surface1--0 "o ( ! results ( ,poisson's analysis4 ,= x appe>$ t if ! sum ( ! electric elem5ts ( ! body 0 equal to ! :ole body1 !re w\ld be no diff]5ce betwe5 ! action ( a solid sph]e & v ?9 %ell4 ,we may1 !n1 consid] ! ,c\lombian !ory to be fully e/abli%$ & v]ifi$1 z a repres5tation ( ! laws ( magnetical ph5om5a4 ,we may add1 z a rem>kable & valuable example ( an ult]ior /ep 9 ! c\rse ( sci5ces1 ! application ( ! laws ( ! di/ribution ( magnetism to ! purposes ( navigation4 ,x _h be5 f\nd t ! mass ( iron :i* exi/s 9 a %ip produces a deviation 9 ! direction ( ! compass-ne$le1 :i* 0 t]m$ local attraction1 & :i* r5d]$ ! compass an errone\s guide4 ,mr4 ,b>l[ propos$ to correct ?is by a plate ( iron plac$ ne> ! compass2 ! plate be+ ( comp>atively small mass1 b1 9 consequ5ce ( its exp&$ =m1 & its proximity to ! ne$le1 ( equival5t effect to ! di/urb+ cause4 #bnd ,ed4 ,?is propos$ arrangem5t 0 n successful1 because z ! %ip turns into diff]5t positions1 x may be consid]$ z revolv+ r\nd a v]tical axis2 & z ?is does n co9cide ) ! magnetic axis1 ! relative magnetic position ( ! di/urb+ p>ts ( ! %ip1 & ( ! correct+ plate1 w be alt]$1 s t !y w n cont9ue to c\nt]act ea* o!r4 ,9 high magnetic latitudes ! correct+ plate 0 us$ ) success4 ,b :5 iron %ips became common1 a correction ( ! effect ( ! iron ^u ! %ip's compass 9 ! g5]al case became necess>y4 ,mr4 ,airy devis$ ! means ( mak+ ?is correction4 ,by plac+ a magnet & a mass ( iron 9 c]ta9 positions relative to ! compass1 ! effect ( ! re/ ( ! iron 9 ! %ip is completely c\nt]act$ 9 all positions4#baab ,note #baab3 ,see ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcf4 ,b we h /ill to trace ! progress ( ! !ory ( t]re/rial magnetism4 ,!ory ( ,t]re/rial ,magnetism4--,gilb]t _h begun a plausible c\rse ( speculation on ?is po9t4 ,we mu/ reject1 he says1#bbab 9 #bbe ! fir/ place1 t vulg> op9ion ( rec5t writ]s conc]n+ magnetic m\nta9s1 or a c]ta9 magnetic rock1 or an imag9>y pole at a c]ta9 di/ance f ! pole ( ! e>?4 ,=1 he adds1 we le>n by exp]i5ce1 t !re is no su* fix$ pole or t]m 9 ! e>? = ! v>iation4 ,gilb]t describes ! :ole e>? z a magnetic globe1 & attributes ! v>iation to ! irregul> =m ( its protub]ances1 ! solid p>ts only be+ magnetic4 ,x 0 n easy to confirm or refute ?is op9ion1 b o!r hypo!ses 7 tri$ by v>i\s writ]s2 = in/ance1 ,halley _h imag9$1 f ! =ms ( ! l9es ( equal v>iation1 t !re mu/ be f\r magnetic poles2 b ,eul]#bcab %[$ t ! ,halleian l9es w\ld1 = ! mo/ "p1 result f ! supposition ( two magnetic poles1 & assign$ _! position s z to repres5t pretty well ! kn[n /ate ( ! v>iation all ov] ! _w 9 #agdd4 ,b ! v>iation 0 n ! only ph5om5on :i* requir$ to be tak5 into acc\nt2 ! dip at diff]5t places1 & also ! int5sity ( ! =ce1 7 to be consid]$4 ,we h already m5tion$ ,m4 de ,humboldt's collection ( obs]vations ( ! dip4 ,^! 7 exam9$ by ,m4 ,biot1 ) ! view ( r$uc+ !m to ! action ( two poles 9 ! suppos$ t]re/rial magnetic axis4 ,hav+1 at fir/1 made ! di/ance ( ^! poles f ! c5tre ( ! e>? indef9ite1 he f\nd t 8 =mul agre$ m & m ne>ly ) ! obs]vations1 z ! poles 7 br\ght ne>]2 & t fact & !ory co9cid$ tol]ably well :5 bo? poles 7 at ! c5tre4 ,9 #ahji1bdab ,krafft simplifi$ ?is result1 by %[+ t1 on ?is supposition1 ! tang5t ( ! dip 0 twice ! tang5t ( ! latitude ( ! place z measur$ f ! magnetic equator4 ,b ,m4 ,han/e51 :o has devot$ to ! subject ( t]re/rial magnetism a great am\nt ( labor & skill1 has %[n t1 tak+ toge!r all ! obs]vations :i* we possess1 we are compell$ to suppose f\r magnetic poles2 two ne> ! nor? pole1 & two ne> ! s\? pole1 ( ! t]re/rial globe2 & t ^! poles1 no two ( :i* are exactly opposite ea* o!r1 are all 9 motion1 ) diff]5t velocities1 "s mov+ to ! ea/ & "s to ! we/4 ,?is curi\s collection ( facts awaits ! h& ( future !ori/s1 :5 ! rip5ess ( "t %all invite !m to ! task4 ,note #bbab3 ,lib4 iv4 c4 #a4 ,de ,v>iatione4 ,note #bcab3 ,ac4 ,b]l91 #ageg4 ,note #bdab3 ,enc4 ,met4 p4 #gdb4 #bnd ,ed4 ,i _h ?us writt5 9 ! fir/ edition4 ,! !ori/ :o 0 ne$$ to r$uce ?is accumulation ( facts to _! laws1 #bbf _h already laid 8 p[]ful h& ^u !m2 namely1 ,m4 ,gauss1 a ma!matician n inf]ior to any ( ! great m5 :o complet$ ! !ory ( gravitation4 ,& in/itutions _h be5 e/abli%$ = ext5d+ ! collection ( ! facts p]ta9+ to x1 on a scale :i* elevates ,magnetism into a companion%ip ) ,a/ronomy4 ,m4 ,han/e5's ,magnetismus d] ,erde 0 publi%$ 9 #ahai4 ,8 conclusions respect+ ! position ( ! f\r magnetic poles excit$ s mu* int]e/ 9 8 own c\ntry1 t ! ,norwegian ,/or?+1 or p>liam5t1 by a unanim\s vote1 provid$ funds = a magnetic exp$ition :i* he 0 to conduct along ! nor? ( ,europe & ,asia2 & ?is !y did at ! v "t :5 !y refus$ to make a grant to ! k+ = build+ a palace at ,*ri/iania4 ,! exp$ition 0 made 9 #ahbh-cj1 & v]ifi$ ,han/e5's anticipations z to ! exi/5ce ( a region ( magnetic conv]g5ce 9 ,sib]ia1 :i* he consid]$ z indicat+ a pole to ! nor? ( t c\ntry4 ,m4 ,erman also travell$ r\nd ! e>? at ! same "t1 mak+ magnetic obs]vations4 ,ab\t ! same "t ano!r magnetical ph5om5on attract$ att5tion4 ,besides ! g5]al motion ( ! magnetic poles1 & ! diurnal movem5ts ( ! ne$le1 x 0 f\nd t small & irregul> di/urbances take place 9 its position1 :i* ,m4 de ,humboldt t]m$ magnetic /orms4 ,& t :i* excit$ a /rong int]e/ on ?is subject 0 ! discov]y t ^! magnetic /orms1 se5 only by philosoph]s :o wat* ! ne$le ) microscopic exactness1 rage simultane\sly ov] l>ge tracts ( ! surface ( our globe4 ,?is 0 detect$ ab\t #ahbe by a comp>ison ( ! obs]vations ( ,m4 ,arago at ,p>is ) simultane\s obs]vations ( ,m4 ,kupff] at ,kasan 9 ,russia1 di/ant m ?an #dg degrees ( longitude4 ,at ! in/ance ( ,m4 de ,humboldt1 ! ,imp]ial ,academy ( ,russia adopt$ ) zeal ! prosecution ( ?is inquiry1 & =m$ a *a9 ( magnetic /ations across ! :ole ( ! ,russian empire4 ,magnetic obs]vations 7 e/abli%$ at ,pet]sburg & at ,kasan1 & correspond+ obs]vations 7 made at ,mosc[1 at ,nicolaieff 9 ! ,crimea1 & ,b>na\l & ,n]t*9sk 9 ,sib]ia1 at ,sitka 9 ,russian ,am]ica1 & ev5 at ,pek94 ,to ^! magnetic /ations ! ,russian gov]nm5t aft]w>ds add$1 ,ca?>9eburg 9 ,russia ,prop]1 ,hels+=s 9 ,f9l&1 ,teflis 9 ,georgia4 ,a comp>ison ( ! results obta9$ at f\r ( ^! /ations made by ,,mm4 de ,humboldt & ,dove1 9 ! ye> #ahcj1 %[$ t ! magnetic di/urbances 7 simultane\s1 & 7 = ! mo/ p>allel 9 _! progress4 #bbg ,important /eps 9 ! prosecution ( ?is subject 7 soon aft] made by ,m4 ,gauss1 ! great ma!matician ( ,gtt+54 ,he contriv$ in/rum5ts & modes ( obs]vation f> m p]fect ?an any be=e employ$1 & organiz$ a sy/em ( comp>ative obs]vations ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,9 #ahce1 /ations = ?is purpose 7 e/abli%$ at ,altona1 ,augsburg1 ,b]l91 ,br$a1 ,breslau1 ,cop5hag51 ,dubl91 ,freib]g1 ,gtt+51 ,gre5wi*1 ,hanov]1 ,leipsic1 ,m>burg1 ,milan1 ,muni*1 ,pet]sburg1 ,/ockholm1 & ,upsala4 ,at ^! places1 six times 9 ! ye>1 obs]vations 7 tak5 simultane\sly1 at int]vals ( five m9utes = #bd h\rs4 ,! ,results ( ! ,magnetic ,association 7,resultat5 des ,magnetis*5 ,v]e9s7 7 publi%$ by ,,mm4 ,gauss & ,web]1 beg9n+ 9 #ahcf4 ,briti% physici/s did n at fir/ take any lead+ "p 9 ^! plans4 ,b 9 #ahcf1 ,b>on ,humboldt1 :o by 8 long labors & important discov]ies 9 ?is subject might be consid]$ z peculi>ly entitl$ to urge its claims1 address$ a lett] to ! ,duke ( ,sussex1 !n ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society1 ask+ = ! co-op]ation ( ?is c\ntry 9 s l>ge & hopeful a s*eme = ! promotion ( sci5ce4 ,! ,royal ,society will+ly ent]ta9$ ?is appeal2 & ! progress ( ! cause 0 /ill fur!r promot$ :5 x 0 zeal\sly tak5 up by ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 assembl$ at ,newca/le 9 #ahch4 ,! ,association !re express$ its /rong int]e/ 9 ! ,g]man sy/em ( magnetic obs]vations2 & at ! in/igation ( ?is body1 & ( ! ,royal ,society1 f\r complete magnetical obs]vatories 7 e/abli%$ by ! ,briti% gov]nm5t1 at ,toronto1 ,/4 ,hel5a1 ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 & ,van ,diem5's ,l&4 ,! munific5ce ( ! ,directors ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company f\nd$ & furni%$ an equal numb] at ,simla 79 ! ,himalayah71 ,madras1 ,bombay1 & ,s9capore4 ,sir ,?omas ,brisbane add$ ano!r at 8 own exp5se at ,kelso1 9 ,scotl&4 ,besides ?is1 ! gov]nm5t s5t out a naval exp$ition to make discov]ies 7magnetic among o!rs71 9 ! ,ant>ctic regions1 "u ! comm& ( ,sir ,james ,ross4 ,o!r /ates l5t _! assi/ance also1 & f\nd$ or reorganiz$ _! magnetic obs]vatories4 ,besides ^? already m5tion$1 "o 0 e/abli%$ by ! ,fr5* gov]nm5t at ,algi]s2 "o by ! ,belgian1 at ,brussels2 two by ,au/ria1 at ,prague & ,milan2 "o by ,prussia1 at ,breslau2 "o by ,bav>ia1 at ,muni*2 "o by ,spa91 at ,cadiz2 !re are two 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 at ,philadelphia & ,cambridge2 "o at ,cairo1 f\nd$ by ! ,pa%a ( ,egypt2 & 9 ,india1 "o at ,trev&rum1 e/abli%$ by ! ,rajah ( ,travancore2 & "o by #bbh ! ,k+ ( ,oude1 at ,luckn[4 ,at all ^! di/ant /ations ! same plan 0 foll[$ out1 by obs]vations /rictly simultane\s1 made accord+ to ! same me?ods1 ) ! same in/rum5tal means4 ,su* a s*eme1 comb9+ _w-wide ext5t ) ! s+l5ess ( action ( an individual m9d1 is hi!rto )\t p>allel4 ,at fir/1 ! ,briti% /ations 7 e/abli%$ = ?ree ye>s only2 b x 0 ?\ght advisable to ext5d ?is p]iod ?ree ye>s long]1 to end 9 #ahde4 ,& :5 ! t]m9ation ( t p]iod arriv$1 a discussion 0 held among ! magneticians !mselves1 :e!r x 0 bett] to cont9ue ! obs]vations /ill1 or to exam9e & comp>e ! va/ mass ( obs]vations already collect$1 s z to see to :at results & improvem5ts ( me?ods !y po9t$4 ,?is "q 0 argu$ at ! meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association at ,cambridge 9 t ye>2 & ! conf]5ce end$ 9 ! magneticians reque/+ to h ! obs]vations cont9u$1 at "s ( ! obs]vatories = an indef9ite p]iod1 at o!rs1 till ! ye> #ahdh4 ,9 ! mean "t ! ,ant>ctic exp$ition _h br\ght back a ri* /ore ( obs]vations1 fitt$ to disclose ! magnetic condition ( ^? regions :i* x _h explor$4 ,^! 7 discuss$1 & _! results exhibit$1 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahdc1 by ,col4 ,sab9e1 :o _h himself at v>i\s p]iods1 made magnetic obs]vations 9 ! ,arctic regions1 & 9 sev]al remote p>ts ( ! globe1 & _h always be5 a zeal\s labor] 9 ?is fruitful field4 ,! g5]al mass ( ! obs]vations 0 plac$ "u ! managem5t ( ,pr(essor ,lloyd1 ( ,dubl91 :o has enri*$ ! sci5ce ( magnetism ) sev]al valuable in/rum5ts & me?ods1 & :o1 along ) ,col4 ,sab9e1 made a magnetic survey ( ! ,briti% ,isles 9 #ahce & #ahcf4 ,i d n dwell ^u magnetic surveys ( v>i\s c\ntries made by _m excell5t obs]v]s2 z ,,mm4 ,quetelet1 ,=bes1 ,fox1 ,ba*e & o!rs4 ,! facts obs]v$ at ea* /ation 71 ! int5sity ( ! magnetic =ce2 ! decl9ation ( ! ne$le f ! m]idian1 sometimes call$ ! v>iation2 & its incl9ation to ! horizon1 ! dip2--or at lea/1 "s elem5ts equival5t to ^!4 ,! values ( ^! elem5ts at any giv5 "t1 if kn[n1 c be express$ by *>ts ( ! e>?'s surface1 on :i* are drawn ! isodynamic1 isogonal1 & isocl9al curves4 ,! second ( ^! k9ds ( *>ts conta9 ! ,halleian l9es spok5 ( 9 a previ\s page4 ,moreov] ! magnetic elem5ts at ea* place are to be obs]v$ 9 su* a #bbi mann] z to det]m9e bo? _! p]iodical v>iations 7! *anges :i* occur 9 ! p]iod ( a day1 & ( a ye>71 ! secul> *anges1 z ! gradual increase or dim9ution ( ! decl9ation at ! same place = _m ye>s2 & ! irregul> fluctuations :i*1 z we h said1 are simultane\s ov] a l>ge "p1 or ! :ole1 ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,:5 ^! ,facts h be5 asc]ta9$ ov] ! :ole ext5t ( ! e>?'s surface1 we %all /ill h to inquire :at is ! ,cause ( ! *anges 9 ! =ces :i* ^! ph5om5a disclose4 ,b z a basis = all speculation on t subject1 we mu/ "k ! law ( ! ph5om5a1 & ( ! =ces :i* imm$iately produce !m4 ,i h already said t ,eul] tri$ to acc\nt = ! ,halleian l9es by means ( two magnetic poles1 b t ,m4 ,han/e5 conceiv$ x necess>y to assume f\r4 ,b an entirely new light has be5 ?r[n ^u ?is subject by ! beautiful inve/igations ( ,gauss1 9 8 ,!ory ( ,t]re/rial ,magnetism1 publi%$ 9 #ahci4 ,he rem>ks t ! t]m poles1 z us$ by 8 pr$ecessors1 involves an assumption arbitr>y1 &1 z x is n[ f\nd1 false2 namely1 t c]ta9 def9ite po9ts1 two1 f\r1 or m1 act+ accord+ to ! laws ( ord9>y magnetical poles1 w expla9 ! ph5om5a4 ,he />ts f a m compreh5sive assumption1 t magnetism is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! mass ( ! e>? 9 an unkn[n mann]4 ,on ?is assumption he obta9s a function ,v1 by ! diff]5tials ( :i* ! elem5ts ( ! magnetic =ce at any po9t w be express$4 ,?is function ,v is well kn[n 9 physical a/ronomy1 & is obta9$ by summ+ all ! elem5ts ( magnetic =ce 9 ea* p>ticle1 ea* multipli$ by ! reciprocal ( its di/ance2 or z we may express x1 by tak+ ! sum ( ea* elem5t & its proximity jo9tly4 ,h5ce x has be5 propos$#beab to t]m ?is function ! integral proximity ( ! attract+ mass4#bfab ,by us+ ! mo/ ref9$ #bcj ma!matical artifices = d$uc+ ! values ( ,v & its diff]5tials 9 conv]g+ s]ies1 he is able to d]ive ! coeffici5ts ( ^! s]ies f ! obs]v$ magnetic elem5ts at c]ta9 places1 & h5ce1 to calculate !m = all places4 ,! comp>ison ( ! calculation ) ! obs]v$ results is1 ( c\rse1 ! te/ ( ! tru? ( ! !ory4 ,note #beab3 ,qu>t4 ,rev4 ,no4 #aca1 p4 #bhc4 ,note #bfab3 ,! function ,v is ( con/ant occurr5ce 9 inve/igations respect+ attractions4 ,x is introduc$ by ,laplace 9 8 inve/igations respect+ ! attractions ( sph]oids1 ,mc4 ,cl4 ,livr4 ,,iii4 ,art4 #d4 ,mr4 ,gre5 & ,pr(essor ,mac ,cullagh h propos$ to t]m ?is function ! ,pot5tial ( ! sy/em2 b ?is t]m 7?\gh sugge/$1 ,i suppose1 by analogy ) ! sub/antive ,expon5tial71 does n appe> conv5i5t 9 its =m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! t]m ,integral ,proximity does n indicate t :i* gives ! function its peculi> claim to di/9ction2 namely1 t its diff]5tials express ! p[] or attraction ( ! sy/em4 ,p]haps ,integral ,pot5tiality1 or ,integral ,attractivity1 w\ld be a t]m comb9+ ! recomm5dations ( bo? ! o!rs4 ,! degree ( conv]g5ce ( ! s]ies dep5ds ^u ! unkn[n di/ribution ( magnetism )9 ! e>?4 ,if we c\ld v5ture to assume1 says ,m4 ,gauss1 t ! memb]s h a s5sible influ5ce only z f> z ! f\r? ord]1 complete obs]vations f eight po9ts w\ld be suffici5t1 !oretically consid]$1 = ! det]m9ation ( ! coeffici5ts4 ,& "u c]ta9 limitations1 mak+ ?is assumption1 z ! be/ we c d at pres5t1 ,m4 ,gauss obta9s f eight places1 #bd coeffici5ts 7ea* supply+ ?ree elem5ts71 & h5ce calculates ! magnetic elem5ts 7int5sity1 v>iation & dip7 at #ia places 9 all p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,he f9ds 8 calculations approa* ! obs]v$ values ) a degree ( exactness :i* appe>s to be q conv9c+ z to ! g5]al tru? ( 8 results2 especially tak+ into acc\nt h[ entirely unlimit$ is 8 orig9al hypo!sis4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ curi\s results ( ?is inve/igation t accord+ to ! mo/ simple mean+ :i* we c give to ! t]m pole ! e>? has only two magnetic poles2 t is1 two po9ts :]e ! direction ( ! magnetic =ce is v]tical4 ,& ?us ! isogonal curves may be look$ ^u z de=mations ( ! curves d$uc$ by ,eul] f ! supposition ( two poles1 ! de=mation aris+ f ?is1 t ! e>? does n conta9 a s+le def9ite magnet1 b irregul>ly diffus$ magnetical elem5ts1 :i* /ill h collectively a di/9ct resemblance to a s+le magnet4 ,& in/ead ( ,han/e5's ,sib]ian pole1 we h a ,sib]ian region 9 :i* ! ne$les conv]ge2 b if ! app>5t conv]g5ce be pursu$ x n[h]e comes to a po9t2 & ! l is ! case 9 ! ,ant>ctic region4 ,:5 ! #bd ,gaussian elem5ts at any "t are kn[n ! magnetic condition ( ! globe is kn[n1 j z ! me*anical condition ( ! sol> sy/em is kn[n1 :5 we "k ! elem5ts ( ! orbits ( ! satellites & planets & ! mass ( ea*4 ,& ! comp>ison ( ?is magnetic condition ( ! globe at di/ant p]iods ( "t _c fail to supply mat]ials = future rese>*es & speculations ) reg>d to ! ag5cies by :i* ! condition ( ! e>? is det]m9$4 ,! condition ( :i* we "h speak mu/ necess>ily be its me*anico-*emical condition1 be+ express$1 z x w be1 9 t]ms ( ! me*anico-*emical sci5ces4 ,! #bca inve/igations ,i h be5 describ+ belong to ! me*anical side ( ! subject3 b :5 philosoph]s h to consid] ! causes ( ! secul> *anges :i* are f\nd to occur 9 ?is me*anical condition1 !y _c fail to be driv5 to electrical1 t is1 *emical ag5cies & laws4 ,i c only allude to ,gauss's inve/igations respect+ ! ,absolute ,measure ( ! ,e>?'s ,magnetic ,=ce4 ,to det]m9e ! ratio ( ! magnetic =ce ( ! e>? to t ( a kn[n magnet1 ,poisson propos$ to obs]ve ! "t ( vibration ( a second magnet4 ,! me?od ( ,gauss1 n[ univ]sally adopt$1 consi/s 9 obs]v+ ! position ( equilibrium ( ! second magnet :5 deflect$ by ! fir/4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! bus9ess ( magnetic obs]vation has be5 tak5 up by ! gov]nm5ts ( our "t makes ?is by f> ! greate/ sci5tific und]tak+ :i* ! _w has ev] se54 ,! result w be t we %all obta9 9 a few ye>s a k ( ! magnetic con/itution ( ! e>? :i* o!rwise x might h requir$ c5turies to accumulate4 ,! secul> magnetic *anges mu/ /ill require a long "t to r$uce to _! laws ( ph5om5a1 except obs]vation be anticipat$ or assi/$ by "s happy discov]y z to ! cause ( ^! *anges4 ,b besides ! special ga9 to magnetic sci5ce by ?is great plan ( jo9t action among ! nations ( ! e>?1 !re is !reby a beg9n+ made 9 ! recognition & execution ( ! duty ( =w>d+ sci5ce 9 g5]al by national ex]tions4 ,= at mo/ ( ! magnetic obs]vatories1 meteorological obs]vations are also c>ri$ on2 & su* obs]vations1 be+ f> m ext5sive1 sy/ematic1 & p]man5t ?an ^? :i* h usually be5 made1 c h>dly fail to produce important additions to sci5ce4 ,b at any rate !y d = sci5ce t :i* nations c d1 & individuals _c2 & !y seek = sci5tific tru?s 9 a mann] suitable to ! respect n[ pr(ess$ = sci5ce & to ! progress :i* its me?ods h made4 ,nor are we to ov]look ! effect ( su* obs]vations z means ( tra9+ m5 9 ! pursuit ( sci5ce4 ,!re is among/ u1 says "o ( ! magnetic obs]v]s1 a gr[+ recognition ( ! importance1 bo? = sci5ce & = practical life1 ( =m+ exact obs]v]s ( nature4 ,hi!rto a/ronomy alone has af=d$ a v p>tial opportunity = ! =mation ( f9e obs]v]s1 ( :i* few c\ld avail !mselves4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t magnetic obs]vations may s]ve z excell5t tra9+ s*ools 9 ?is respect4#bgab #bcb ,note #bgab3 ,lett] ( ,w4 ,web]4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahde1 p4 #ag4 ,! v>i\s o!r circum/ances :i* t]re/rial magnetism exhibits1--! diurnal & annual *anges ( ! position ( ! compass-ne$le2--! l>g] secul> *ange :i* affects x 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s2--! diff]5ce ( int5sity at diff]5t places1 & o!r facts1 h naturally occupi$ philosoph]s ) ! attempt to det]m9e1 bo? ! laws ( ! ph5om5a & _! causes4 ,b ^! attempts necess>ily dep5d1 n ^u laws ( /atical magnetism1 su* z !y h be5 expla9$ above2 b ^u ! laws by :i* ! production & int5sity ( magnetism 9 diff]5t cases are regulat$2--laws :i* belong to a diff]5t prov9ce1 & are relat$ to a diff]5t set ( pr9ciples4 ,?us1 = example1 we h n attempt$ to expla9 ! discov]y ( ! laws by :i* heat influ5ces magnetism2 & !re=e we _c n[ give an acc\nt ( ^? !ories ( ! facts relat+ to t]re/rial magnetism1 :i* dep5d ^u ! influ5ce ( temp]ature4 ,! conditions ( excitation ( magnetism are be/ /udi$ by comp>+ ?is =ce ) o!r cases :]e ! same effects are produc$ by v diff]5t app>5t ag5cies2 su* z galvanic & !rmo-electricity4 ,to ! hi/ory ( ^! we %all pres5tly proce$4 ,conclusion4--,! hypo!sis ( magnetic fluids1 z physical realities1 0 nev] widely or /rongly embrac$1 z t ( electric fluids 04 ,= ?\gh ! hypo!sis acc\nt$1 to a rem>kable degree ( exactness1 = l>ge classes ( ! ph5om5a1 ! pres5ce ( a mat]ial fluid 0 n indicat$ by facts ( a diff]5t k9d1 su* z ! sp>k1 ! dis*>ge f po9ts1 ! %ock1 & its me*anical effects4 ,?us ! belief ( a peculi> magnetic fluid or fluids 0 n =c$ ^u m5's m9ds2 & ! doctr9e above /at$ 0 probably ent]ta9$ by mo/ ( its adh]5ts1 *iefly z a means ( express+ ! laws ( ph5om5a 9 _! elem5t>y =m4 ,"o o!r obs]vation occurs "h4 ,we h se5 t ! supposition ( a fluid moveable f "o "p ( bodies to ano!r1 & capable ( accumulation 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! surface1 appe>$ at fir/ to be z di/9ctly au?oriz$ by magnetic z by electric ph5om5a2 & yet t x aft]w>ds appe>$1 by calculation1 t ?is mu/ be consid]$ z a d]ivative result2 no real transf] ( fluid tak+ place except )9 ! limits ( ! ins5sible p>ticles ( ! body4 ,)\t attempt+ to f\nd a =mula ( philosophiz+ on ?is circum/ance1 we may obs]ve1 t ?is occurr5ce1 l ! dispro( ( heat z a mat]ial fluid1 %[s ! possibility ( an hypo!sis :i* %all v exactly satisfy _m ph5om5a1 & yet be incomplete3 x #bcc %[s1 too1 ! necessity ( br++ facts ( all k9ds to be> on ! hypo!sis2 ?us1 9 ?is case x 0 requisite to take into acc\nt ! facts ( junction & sep>ation ( magnetic bodies1 z well z _! attractions & repulsions4 ,if we h se5 reason to d\bt ! doctr9e ( electric fluids z physical realities1 we _c help pron\nc+ ^u ! magnetic fluids z hav+ /ill m insecure claims to a mat]ial exi/5ce1 ev5 on ! gr\nds j /at$4 ,b we may add consid]ations /ill m decisive2 = at a fur!r /age ( discov]y1 z we %all see1 magnetic & electric action 7 f\nd to be connect$ 9 ! close/ mann]1 s z to lead to ! p]suasion ( _! be+ diff]5t effects ( "o common cause4 ,aft] ^? discov]ies1 no philosoph] w\ld dream ( assum+ electric fluids & magnetic fluids z two di/9ct mat]ial ag5ts4 ,yet ev5 n[ ! nature ( ! dep5d5ce ( magnetism ^u any o!r cause is extremely difficult to conceive4 ,b till we h notic$ "s ( ! discov]ies to :i* we h allud$1 we _c ev5 speculate ab\t t dep5d5ce4 ,we n[1 !re=e1 proce$ to sket* ! hi/ory ( ^! discov]ies4 #bce ,,book ,,xiii4 ,,me*anico-,,*emical ,,sci5ces4 7,,cont9u$47 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,galvanism1 ,,or ,,voltaic ,,electricity4 ,p]cusss gelido trepidant sub pectore fibr1 ,et nova desuetis subrep5s vita m$ullis ,miscetur morti3 tunc omnis palpitat artus ,t5duntur n]vi2 nec se tellure cadav] ,paullatim p] membra levat2 t]rque repulsum e/ ,erectumque simul4 ,,lucan4 vi4 #geb4 ,! =m :i* lay be=e in]t & dead1 ,sudd5 a pi]c+ ?rill ( *ange o'erspread2 ,return+ life gleams 9 ! /ony face1 ,! fibres quiv] & ! s9ews brace1 ,move ! /iff limbs2--nor did ! body rise ,) temp]$ /r5g? :i* g5ial life supplies1 ,b upright />t+1 its full /ature held1 ,z ?\gh ! e>? ! sup9e corse repell$4 #bcg ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,voltaic ,,electricity4 ,,we h giv5 ! "n ( me*anico-*emical to ! class ( sci5ces n[ "u our consid]ation2 = ^! sci5ces are conc]n$ ) cases 9 :i* me*anical effects1 t is1 attractions & repulsions1 are produc$2 :ile ! conditions "u :i* ^! effects occur1 dep5d1 z we %all h]eaft] see1 on *emical relations4 ,9 t bran* ( ^! sci5ces :i* we h j treat$ (1 ,magnetism1 ! me*anical ph5om5a 7 obvi\s1 b _! connexion ) *emical causes 0 by no means app>5t1 &1 inde$1 has n yet come "u our notice4 ,! subject to :i* we n[ proce$1 ,galvanism1 belongs to ! same gr\p1 b1 at fir/ sight1 exhibits only ! o!r1 ! *emical1 portion ( ! features ( ! class2 = ! connexion ( galvanic ph5om5a ) *emical action 0 soon made out1 b ! me*anical effects :i* accompany !m 7 n exam9$ till ! exam9ation 0 requir$ by a new tra9 ( discov]y4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 t ,i d n include 9 ! class ( me*anical effects ! convulsive motions 9 ! limbs ( animals :i* are occasion$ by galvanic action2 = ^! movem5ts are produc$1 n by attraction & repulsion1 b by muscul> irritability2 & ?\gh !y indicate ! exi/5ce ( a peculi> ag5cy1 _c be us$ to measure its int5sity & law4 ,! v>i\s examples ( ! class ( ag5ts :i* we "h consid]1--magnetism1 electricity1 galvanism1 electro-magnetism1 !rmo-electricity1--diff] f ea* o!r pr9cipally 9 ! circum/ances by :i* !y are call$ into action2 & ^! diff]5ces are 9 reality ( a *emical nature1 & w h to be consid]$ :5 we come to treat ( ! inductive /eps by :i* ! g5]al pr9ciples ( *emical !ory are e/abli%$4 ,9 ! pres5t "p ( our task1 !re=e1 we mu/ take = grant$ ! *emical conditions on :i* ! excitation ( ^! v>i\s k9ds ( action dep5ds1 & trace ! hi/ory ( ! discov]y ( _! me*anical laws only4 ,?is rule w mu* abridge ! acc\nt we h "h to give ( ! progress ( discov]y 9 ! prov9ces to :i* ,i h j ref]r$4 #bch ,! fir/ /ep 9 ?is c>e] ( discov]y 0 t made by ,galvani1 ,pr(essor ( ,anatomy at ,bologna4 ,9 #agij1 electricity1 z an exp]im5tal sci5ce1 0 ne>ly /ation>y4 ,! impulse giv5 to its progress by ! spl5did ph5om5a ( ! ,leyd5 phial _h almo/ di$ away2 ,c\lomb 0 employ$ 9 sy/ematiz+ ! !ory ( ! electric fluid1 z %[n by its /atical effects2 b 9 all ! o!r p>ts ( ! subject1 no great pr9ciple or new result _h = "s "t be5 detect$4 ,! fir/ ann\ncem5t ( ,galvani's discov]y 9 #agia excit$ great notice1 = x 0 giv5 =? z a manife/ation ( electricity "u a new & rem>kable "*2 namely1 z resid+ 9 ! muscles ( animals4#aac ,! limbs ( a dissect$ frog 7 obs]v$ to move1 :5 t\*$ ) pieces ( two diff]5t metals2 ! ag5t :i* produc$ ^! motions 0 conceiv$ to be id5tifi$ ) electricity1 & 0 t]m$ animal electricity2 & ,galvani's exp]im5ts 7 repeat$1 ) v>i\s modifications1 9 all p>ts ( ,europe1 excit+ mu* curiosity1 & giv+ rise to _m speculations4 ,note #aac3 ,de ,viribus ,electricis 9 ,motu ,muscul>i1 ,comm4 ,bonon4 t4 vii4 #agib4 ,x is our bus9ess to det]m9e ! "* ( ea* great discov]y :i* appe>s 9 ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,m5 are fond ( repeat+ t su* discov]ies are mo/ commonly ! result ( accid5t2 & we h se5 reason to reject ?is op9ion1 s9ce t prep>ation ( ?\ght by :i* ! accid5t produces discov]y is ! mo/ important ( ! conditions on :i* ! successful ev5t dep5ds4 ,su* accid5ts are l a sp>k :i* dis*>ges a gun already load$ & po9t$4 ,9 ! case ( ,galvani1 inde$1 ! discov]y may1 ) m propriety ?an usual1 be said to h be5 casual2 b 9 ! =m 9 :i* x 0 fir/ not$1 x exhibit$ no important novelty4 ,8 frog 0 ly+ on a table ne> ! conductor ( an electrical ma*9e1 & ! convulsions appe>$ only :5 a sp>k 0 tak5 f ! ma*9e4 ,if ,galvani _h be5 z good a physici/ z he 0 an anatomi/1 he w\ld probably h se5 t ! movem5ts s occasion$ prov$ only t ! muscles or n]ves1 or ! two toge!r1 =m$ a v s5sitive indicator ( electrical action4 ,x 0 :5 he produc$ su* motions by contact ( metals alone1 t he obta9$ an important & fundam5tal fact 9 sci5ce4 ,! analysis ( ?is fact into its real & ess5tial conditions 0 ! "w ( ,alex&] ,volta1 ano!r ,italian pr(essor4 ,volta1 inde$1 possess$ t k ( ! subject ( electricity :i* made a h9t l t ( ,galvani ! basis ( a new sci5ce4 ,galvani appe>s #bci nev] to h acquir$ mu* g5]al k ( electricity3 ,volta1 on ! o!r h&1 _h labor$ at ?is bran* ( k f ! age ( eighte51 ?r\gh a p]iod ( ne>ly ?irty ye>s2 & _h inv5t$ an electrophorus & an electrical cond5s]1 :i* %[$ great exp]im5tal skill4 ,:5 he turn$ 8 att5tion to ! exp]im5ts made by ,galvani1 he obs]v$ t ! au?or ( !m _h be5 f> m surpris$ ?an he ne$$ to be1 at ^? results 9 :i* an electrical sp>k 0 produc$2 & t x 0 only 9 ! cases 9 :i* no su* app>atus 0 employ$1 t ! obs]vations c\ld ju/ly be consid]$ z indicat+ a new law1 or a new k9d ( electricity4#bac ,he soon satisfi$ himself#cac 7ab\t #agid7 t ! ess5tial conditions ( ?is k9d ( action dep5d$ on ! metals2 t x is br\ght into play mo/ decid$ly :5 two diff]5t metals t\* ea* o!r1 & are connect$ by any moi/ body2--& t ! p>ts ( animals :i* _h be5 us$ dis*>g$ ! (fice bo? ( su* moi/ bodies1 & ( v s5sitive electromet]s4 ,! animal electricity ( ,galvani might1 he obs]v$1 be ) m propriety call$ metallic electricity4 ,note #bac3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agic1 p4 #ba4 ,note #cac3 ,see ,fis*]1 viii4 #fbe4 ,! recognition ( ?is ag5cy z a peculi> k9d ( electricity1 arose 9 "p p]haps1 at fir/1 f ! confusion made by ,galvani betwe5 ! cases 9 :i* 8 electrical ma*9e 01 & ^? 9 :i* x 0 n employ$4 ,b ! id5tity 0 confirm$ by its be+ f\nd t ! kn[n diff]5ce ( electrical conductors & non-conductors regulat$ ! conduction ( ! new influ5ce4 ,! m exact det]m9ation ( ! new facts to ^? ( electricity 0 a succe$+ /ep ( ! progress ( ! subject4 ,! t]m animal electricity has be5 sup]s$$ by o!rs1 ( :i* galvanism is p]haps ! mo/ famili>4 ,i ?9k x w appe> f :at has be5 said1 t ,volta's (fice 9 ?is discov]y is ( a mu* high] & m philosophical k9d ?an t ( ,galvani2 & x w\ld1 on ?is acc\nt1 be m fitt+ to employ ! t]m voltaic electricity2 :i*1 inde$1 is v commonly us$1 especially by our mo/ rec5t & compreh5sive writ]s4 ,volta m fully /ill e/abli%$ 8 claim z ! ma9 orig9ator ( ?is sci5ce by 8 next /ep4 ,:5 "s ( ^? :o repeat$ ! exp]im5ts ( ,galvani _h express$ a wi% t !re 0 "s me?od ( multiply+ ! effect ( ?is electricity1 su* z ! ,leyd5 phial supplies = common electricity1 !y probably ?\ght _! wi%es f> f a realization4 ,b ! voltaic pile1 :i* ,volta #bdj describ$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahjj1 completely satisfies ?is aspiration2 & 01 9 fact1 a m important /ep 9 ! hi/ory ( electricity ?an ! ,leyd5 j> _h be54 ,x has s9ce und]gone v>i\s modifications1 ( :i* ! mo/ important 0 t introduc$ by 9999,cruick%anks1 :o#dac sub/itut$ a tr\gh = a pile4 ,b 9 all cases ! pr9ciple ( ! in/rum5t 0 ! same2--a cont9u$ repetition ( ! triple comb9ation ( two metals & a fluid 9 contact1 s z to =m a circuit :i* returns into itself4 ,note #dac3 ,fis*]1 viii4 p4 #fhc4 ,su* an in/rum5t is capable ( caus+ effects ( great int5sity2 z se5 bo? 9 ! production ( light & heat1 & 9 *emical *anges4 ,b ! discov]y ) :i* we are "h conc]n$1 is n ! details & consequ5ces ( ! effects1 7:i* belong to *emi/ry17 b ! analysis ( ! conditions "u :i* su* effects take place2 & ?is we may consid] z complet$ by ,volta at ! epo* ( :i* we speak4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,reception ,,& ,,confirmation ,,( ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,voltaic ,,electricity4 ,,galvani',s exp]im5ts excit$ a great int]e/ all ov] ,europe1 9 consequ5ce p>tly ( a circum/ance :i*1 z we h se51 0 uness5tial1 ! muscul> contractions & v>i\s s5sations :i* !y occasion$4 ,galvani himself _h n only consid]$ ! animal elem5t ( ! circuit z ! orig9 ( ! electricity1 b _h fram$ a !ory1#eac 9 :i* he comp>$ ! muscles to *>g$ j>s1 & ! n]ves to ! dis*>g+ wires2 & a controv]sy 01 = "s "t1 c>ri$ on1 9 ,italy1 betwe5 ! adh]5ts ( ,galvani & ^? ( ,volta4#fac ,note #eac3 ,ib4 viii4 #fac4 ,note #fac3 ,ib4 viii4 #fai4 ,! galvanic exp]im5ts1 & especially ^? :i* appe>$ to h a physiological be>+1 7 v]ifi$ & ext5d$ by a numb] ( ! mo/ active philosoph]s ( ,europe1 & especially ,william von ,humboldt4 ,a commission ( ! ,in/itute ( ,france1 appo9t$ 9 #agig1 repeat$ _m ( ! kn[n exp]im5ts1 b does n seem to h decid$ any disput$ po9ts4 ,! rese>*es ( ?is #bda commission ref]r$ r to ! discov]ies ( ,galvani ?an to ^? ( ,volta3 ! latt] 71 inde$1 h>dly kn[n 9 ,france till ! conque/ ( ,italy by ,bonap>te1 9 #ahja4 ,france 01 at ! p]iod ( ^! discov]ies1 sep>at$ f all o!r c\ntries by w>1 & especially f ,engl&1#gac :]e ,volta's ,memoirs 7 publi%$4 ,note #gac3 ,biog4 ,univ41 art4 ,volta1 7by ,biot47 ,! political revolutions ( ,italy affect$1 9 v diff]5t mann]s1 ! two discov]]s ( :om we speak4 ,galvani refus$ to take an oa? ( allegiance to ! ,cisalp9e republic1 :i* ! ,fr5* conqu]or e/abli%$2 he 0 consequ5tly /ripp$ ( all 8 (fices2 & depriv$1 by ! calamities ( ! times1 ( mo/ ( 8 relations1 he sank into pov]ty1 melan*oly1 & debility4 ,at la/ 8 sci5tific reputation induc$ ! republican rul]s to decree 8 re/oration to 8 pr(essorial *air2 b 8 claims 7 recognis$ too late1 & he di$ )\t pr(it+ by ?is int5d$ favor1 9 #agih4 ,volta1 on ! o!r h&1 0 call$ to ,p>is by ,bonap>te z a man ( sci5ce1 & inve/$ ) honors1 emolum5ts1 & titles4 ,! conqu]or himself1 inde$1 0 /rongly int]e/$ by ?is tra9 ( rese>*4#hac ,he himself f\nd$ valuable prizes1 expressly ) a view to promote its prosecution4 ,at ?is p]iod1 !re 0 some?+ 9 ?is subject peculi>ly attractive to 8 ,italian m9d2 = ! fir/ glimpses ( discov]ies ( great promise h always excit$ an en?usia/ic activity ( speculation 9 ! philosoph]s ( ,italy1 ?\gh g5]ally accompani$ ) a want ( precise ?\ght4 ,x is n>rat$#iac ( ,bonap>te1 t aft] see+ ! decomposition ( ! salts by means ( ! voltaic pile1 he turn$ to ,corvis>t1 8 physician1 & said1 ,"h1 doctor1 is ! image ( life2 ! v]tebral column is ! pile1 ! liv] is ! negative1 ! bladd] ! positive1 pole4 ,! importance ( voltaic rese>*es is n less ?an x 0 e/imat$ by ,bonap>te2 b ! results to :i* x 0 to lead 7 ( a k9d altoge!r diff]5t f ^? :i* ?us sugge/$ !mselves to 8 m9d4 ,! connexion ( me*anical & *emical action 0 ! fir/ great po9t to be dealt )2 & = ?is purpose ! laws ( ! me*anical action ( voltaic electricity 7 to be /udi$4 ,note #hac3 ,becqu]el1 ,trait d',electr4 t4 i4 p4 #ajg4 ,note #iac3 ,ib4 t4 i4 p4 #ajh4 ,x w readily be suppos$ t ! voltaic rese>*es1 ?us begun1 op5$ a numb] ( int]e/+ topics ( exam9ation & discussion4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 x does n belong to our place to dwell ^u at pres5t2 s9ce !y =m$ p>ts ( ! !ory ( ! subject1 :i* #bdb 0 n complet$ till light _h be5 ?r[n ^u x f o!r qu>t]s4 ,! id5tity ( galvanism ) electricity1 = in/ance1 0 at fir/1 z we h intimat$1 r conjectur$ ?an prov$4 ,x 0 d5i$ by ,dr4 ,f[l]1 9 #agic2 0 suppos$ to be confirm$ by ,dr4 ,wells two ye>s lat]2 b 01 /ill lat]1 que/ion$ by ,davy4 ,! nature ( ! op]ation ( ! pile 0 v>i\sly conceiv$4 ,volta himself _h obta9$ a view ( x :i* succe$+ rese>*es confirm$1 :5 he ass]t$1#ajac 9 #ahjj1 t x resembl$ an electric batt]y feebly *>g$ & con/antly r5ew+ its *>ge4 ,9 pursuance ( ?is view1 ! common electrical action 01 at a lat] p]iod 7= in/ance by ,ampre1 9 #ahbj71 call$ electrical t5sion1 :ile ! voltaic action 0 call$ ! electrical curr5t1 or electromotive action4 ,! diff]5t effects produc$1 by increas+ ! size & ! numb] ( ! plates 9 ! voltaic tr\gh1 7 also v rem>kable4 ,! p[] ( produc+ heat 0 f\nd to dep5d on ! size ( ! plates2 ! p[] ( produc+ *emical *anges1 on ! o!r h&1 0 augm5t$ by ! numb] ( plates ( :i* ! batt]y consi/$4 ,! =m] effect 0 ref]r$ to ! increas$ quantity1 ! latt] to ! int5sity1 ( ! electric fluid4 ,we m5tion ^! di/9ctions at pres5t1 r = ! purpose ( expla9+ ! language 9 :i* ! results ( ! succe$+ inve/igations are n>rat$1 ?an ) ! int5tion ( repres5t+ ! hypo!ses & measures :i* !y imply1 z cle>ly e/abli%$1 at ! p]iod ( :i* we speak4 ,= t purpose new discov]ies 7 requisite1 :i* we h soon to relate4 ,note #ajac3 ,phil4 ,trans4 p4 #djc4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,! ,,mutual ,,attraction ,,& ,,repulsion ,,( ,,voltaic ,,curr5ts4--,,amp,,re4 ,,9 ord] to %[ ! place ( voltaic electricity among ! me*anico-*emical sci5ces1 we mu/ speak ( its me*anical laws z sep>ate f ! laws ( electro-magnetic action2 al?\gh1 9 fact1 x 0 only 9 consequ5ce ( ! =ces :i* conduct+ voltaic wires ex]t ^u magnets1 t ^? =ces 7 detect$ :i* !y ex]t ^u ea* #bdc o!r4 ,?is latt] discov]y 0 made by ,m4 ,ampre2 & ! extraord9>y rapidity & sagacity ) :i* he caught ! sugge/ion ( su* =ces1 f ! electro-magnetic exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,o]/$1 7( :i* we %all speak 9 ! next *apt]17 well entitle him to be consid]$ z a great & indep5d5t discov]]4 ,z he truly says1#aaac x by no means foll[$1 t because a conduct+ wire ex]t$ a =ce on a magnet1 two conduct+ wires mu/ ex]t a =ce on ea* o!r2 = two pieces ( s(t iron1 bo? ( :i* affect a magnet1 d n affect ea* o!r4 ,b imm$iately on ! promulgation ( ,o]/$'s exp]im5ts1 9 #ahbj1 ,ampre leapt =w>ds to a g5]al !ory ( ! facts1 ( :i* !ory ! mutual attraction & repulsion ( conduct+ voltaic wires 0 a fundam5tal supposition4 ,! supposition 0 imm$iately v]ifi$ by direct trial2 & ! laws ( ?is attraction & repulsion 7 soon det]m9$1 ) great exp]im5tal +5uity1 & a v rem>kable comm& ( ! res\rces ( analysis4 ,b ! exp]im5tal & analytical inve/igation ( ! mutual action ( voltaic or electrical curr5ts1 0 s mix$ up ) ! exam9ation ( ! laws ( electro-magnetism1 :i* _h giv5 occasion to ! inve/igation1 t we mu/ n treat ! two prov9ces ( rese>* z sep>ate4 ,! m5tion 9 ?is place1 premature z x might appe>1 ( ! labors ( ,ampre1 arises inevitably f 8 be+ ! au?or ( a beautiful & compreh5sive g5]alization1 :i* n only includ$ ! ph5om5a exhibit$ by ! new comb9ations ( ,o]/$1 b also disclos$ =ces :i* exi/$ 9 arrangem5ts already famili>1 al?\gh !y _h nev] be5 detect$ till ! !ory po9t$ out h[ !y 7 to be look$ =4 ,note #aaac3 ,?orie des ,phnom4 ,electrodynamiques1 p4 #aac4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,action4--,,o]/$4 ,,! impulse :i* ! discov]y ( galvanism1 9 #agia1 & t ( ! voltaic pile1 9 #ahjj1 _h giv5 to ! /udy ( electricity z a me*anical sci5ce1 _h ne>ly di$ away 9 #ahbj4 ,x 0 9 t ye> t ,m4 ,o]/$1 ( ,cop5hag51 ann\nc$ t ! conduct+ #bdd wire ( a voltaic circuit1 acts ^u a magnetic ne$le2 & ?us recall$ into activity t endeavor to connect magnetism ) electricity1 :i*1 ?\gh app>5tly on _m acc\nts s hopeful1 _h hi!rto be5 att5d$ ) no success4 ,o]/$ f\nd t ! ne$le has a t5d5cy to place itself at "r angles to ! wire2--a k9d ( action altoge!r diff]5t f any :i* _h be5 suspect$4 ,?is obs]vation 0 ( va/ importance2 & ! analysis ( its conditions & consequ5ces employ$ ! be/ philosoph]s 9 ,europe imm$iately on its promulgation4 ,x is impossible1 )\t great inju/ice1 to refuse great m]it to ,o]/$ z ! au?or ( ! discov]y4 ,we h already said t m5 appe> g5]ally incl9$ to believe rem>kable discov]ies to be accid5tal1 & ! discov]y ( ,o]/$ has be5 spok5 ( z a casual insulat$ exp]im5t4#abac ,yet ,o]/$ _h be5 look+ = su* an accid5t probably m c>efully & p]sev]+ly ?an any o!r p]son 9 ,europe4 ,9 #ahjg1 he _h publi%$#acac a "w1 9 :i* he pr(ess$ t 8 purpose 0 to asc]ta9 :e!r electricity1 9 its mo/ lat5t /ate1 _h any effect on ! magnet4 ,& he1 z ,i "k f 8 own decl>ation1 consid]$ 8 discov]y z ! natural sequel & confirmation ( 8 e>ly rese>*es2 z1 inde$1 x fell 9 readily & imm$iately ) speculations on ^! subjects !n v preval5t 9 ,g]many4 ,x 0 an accid5t l t by :i* a man guesses a riddle on :i* 8 m9d has long be5 employ$4 ,note #abac3 ,see ,s*ell+ ueb] ,f>aday's ,entdeckung1 p4 #bg4 ,note #acac3 ,ampre1 p4 #fi4 ,besides ! confirmation ( ,o]/$'s obs]vations by _m exp]im5t]s1 great additions 7 made to 8 facts3 ( ^!1 "o ( ! mo/ important 0 due to ,ampre4 ,s9ce ! e>? is 9 fact magnetic1 ! voltaic wire ought to be affect$ by t]re/rial magnetism alone1 & ought to t5d to assume a position dep5d+ on ! position ( ! compass-ne$le4 ,at fir/1 ! attempts to produce ?is effect fail$1 b soon1 ) a m delicate app>atus1 ! result 0 f\nd to agree ) ! anticipation4 ,x is impossible "h to dwell on any ( ! subsequ5t rese>*es1 except s f> z !y are ess5tial to our great object1 ! progress t[>ds a g5]al !ory ( ! subject4 ,i proce$1 !re=e1 imm$iately to ! attempts made t[>ds ?is object4 #bde ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,action4 ,,on attempt+ to analyse ! electro-magnetic ph5om5a obs]v$ by ,o]/$ & o!rs into _! simple/ =ms1 !y appe>$1 at lea/ at fir/ sight1 to be diff]5t f any me*anical actions :i* _h yet be5 obs]v$4 ,x seem$ z if ! conduct+ wire ex]t$ on ! pole ( ! magnet a =ce :i* 0 n attractive or repulsive1 b transv]se2--n t5d+ to draw ! po9t act$ on ne>]1 or to pu% x fur!r (f1 9 ! l9e :i* rea*$ f ! act+ po9t1 b urg+ x to move at "r angles to ?is l9e4 ,! =ces appe>$ to be su* z ,kepl] _h dreamt ( 9 ! infancy ( me*anical conceptions2 r ?an su* z ^? ( :i* ,newton _h e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce 9 ! sol> sy/em1 & su* z he1 & all 8 successors1 _h suppos$ to be ! only k9ds ( =ce :i* exi/ 9 nature4 ,! nor? pole ( ! ne$le mov$ z if x 7 impell$ by a vortex revolv+ r\nd ! wire 9 "o direction1 :ile ! s\? pole seem$ to be driv5 by an opposite vortex4 ,! case seem$ novel1 & almo/ p>adoxical4 ,x 0 soon e/abli%$ by exp]im5ts1 made 9 a great v>iety ( =ms1 t ! me*anical action 0 really ( ?is transv]se k9d4 ,& a curi\s result 0 obta9$1 :i* a little :ile be=e w\ld h be5 consid]$ z altoge!r incr$ible2--t ?is =ce w\ld cause a con/ant & rapid revolution ( ei!r ( ! bodies ab\t ! o!r2--( ! conduct+ wire ab\t ! magnet1 or ( ! magnet ab\t ! conduct+ wire4 ,?is 0 effect$ by ,mr4 ,f>aday 9 #ahba4 ,! laws :i* regulat$ ! int5sity ( ?is =ce1 ) ref]5ce to ! di/ance & position ( ! bodies1 n[ naturally came to be exam9$4 ,,mm4 ,biot & ,sav>t 9 ,france1 & ,mr4 ,b>l[ 9 ,engl&1 in/itut$ su* measures2 & satisfi$ !mselves t ! elem5t>y =ce foll[$ ! law ( magnitude ( all kn[n elem5t>y =ces1 9 be+ inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance2 al?\gh1 9 its direction1 x 0 s entirely diff]5t f o!r =ces4 ,b ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( ph5om5a ( ! subject 0 too closely connect$ ) ! *oice ( a me*anical !ory1 to be e/abli%$ #bdf previ\sly & indep5d5tly1 z _h be5 done 9 a/ronomy4 ,! exp]im5ts gave complex results1 & ! analysis ( ^! into _! elem5t>y actions 0 almo/ an indisp5sable /ep 9 ord] to dis5tangle _! laws4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 /ate ! progress ( ?is analysis4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,!ory ,,( ,,electrodynamical ,,action4 ,,amp,,re',s ,,!ory4--,no?+ c %[ 9 a m /rik+ mann] ! advanc$ condition ( physical speculation 9 #ahbj1 ?an ! r$uction ( ! /range & complex ph5om5a ( electromagnetism to a simple & g5]al !ory z soon z !y 7 publi%$4 ,in/ead ( a gradual e/abli%m5t ( laws ( ph5om5a1 & ( !ories m & m p]fect1 occupy+ ages1 z 9 ! case ( a/ronomy1 or g5]ations1 z 9 ! in/ances ( magnetism & electricity1 a few mon?s suffic$ = ! :ole process ( g5]alization2 & ! exp]im5ts made at ,cop5hag5 7 ann\nc$ at ,p>is & ,london1 almo/ at ! same "t ) ! skilful analysis & compreh5sive inductions ( ,ampre4 ,yet we %\ld err if we %\ld suppose1 f ! cel]ity ) :i* ! task 0 execut$1 t x 0 an easy "o4 ,!re 7 requir$ 9 ! au?or ( su* a !ory1 n only ^? cle> conceptions ( ! relations ( space & =ce1 :i* are ! fir/ conditions ( all s\nd !ory1 & a full possession ( ! exp]im5ts2 b also a ma/]ly comm& ( ! ma!matical arms by :i* alone ! victory c\ld be ga9$1 & a sagaci\s selection ( prop] exp]im5ts :i* might decide ! fate ( ! propos$ hypo!sis4 ,x is true1 t ! nature ( ! requisite hypo!sis 0 n difficult to see 9 a c]ta9 vague & limit$ way4 ,! conduct+-wire & ! magnetic ne$le _h a t5d5cy to arrange !mselves at "r angles to "o ano!r4 ,?is might be repres5t$ by suppos+ ! wire to be made up ( transv]se magnetic ne$les1 or by suppos+ ! ne$le to be made up ( transv]se conduct+-wires2 = x 0 easy to conceive =ces :i* %\ld br+ correspond+ elem5ts1 ei!r magnetic or voltaic1 into p>allel positions2 & !n ! #bdg g5]al ph5om5a above /at$ w\ld be acc\nt$ =4 ,& ! *oice betwe5 ! two modes ( conception1 appe>$ at fir/ sight a matt] ( indiff]5ce4 ,! majority ( philosoph]s at fir/ adopt$1 or at lea/ employ$1 ! =m] me?od1 z ,o]/$ 9 ,g]many1 ,b]zelius 9 ,sw$51 ,wolla/on 9 ,engl&4 ,ampre adopt$ ! o!r view1 accord+ to :i* ! magnet is made up ( conduct+-wires 9 a transv]se position4 ,b he did = 8 hypo!sis :at no "o did or c\ld d = ! o!r3 he %[$ t x 0 ! only "o :i* w\ld acc\nt1 )\t additional & arbitr>y suppositions1 = ! facts ( cont9u$ motion 9 electromagnetic cases4 ,& he fur!r elevat$ 8 !ory to a high] rank ( g5]ality1 by %[+ t x expla9$1--n only ! action ( a conduct+-wire ^u a magnet1 b also two o!r classes ( facts1 already spok5 ( 9 ?is hi/ory1--! action ( magnets ^u ea* o!r1--& ! action ( conduct+-wires ^u ea* o!r4 ,! d$uction ( su* p>ticul> cases f ! !ory1 requir$1 z may easily be imag9$1 "s complex calculations3 b ! d$uction be+ satisfactory1 x w be se5 t ,ampre's !ory con=m$ to t description :i* we h repeat$ly _h to po9t out z ! usual "* ( a true & /able !ory2 namely1 t besides acc\nt+ = ! class ( ph5om5a :i* sugge/$ x1 x supplies an un=ese5 explanation ( o!r kn[n facts4 ,= ! mutual action ( magnets1 :i* 0 suppos$ to be already r$uc$ to a satisfactory !oretical =m by ,c\lomb1 0 n contemplat$ by ,ampre 9 ! =mation ( 8 hypo!sis2 & ! mutual action ( voltaic curr5ts1 ?\gh tri$ only 9 consequ5ce ( ! sugge/ion ( ! !ory1 0 cle>ly a fact di/9ct f electromagnetic action2 yet all ^! facts fl[$ alike f ! !ory4 ,& ?us ,ampre br\ght into view a class ( =ces = :i* ! t]m electromagnetic 0 too limit$1 & :i* he designat$#adac by ! appropriate t]m electrodynamic2 di/+ui%+ !m by ?is expression1 z ! =ces ( an electric curr5t1 f ! /atical effects ( electricity :i* we _h =m]ly to treat (4 ,?is t]m has pass$ into common use among sci5tific writ]s1 & rema9s ! record & /amp ( ! success ( ! ,amp]ian induction4 ,note #adac3 ,ann4 de ,*im41 tom4 xx4 p4 #fj 7#ahbb74 ,! fir/ promulgation ( ,ampre's views 0 by a communication to ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ,septemb] ! #ah?1 #ahbj2 ,o]/$'s discov]ies hav+ rea*$ ,p>is only 9 ! prec$+ ,july4 #bdh ,at almo/ e meet+ ( ! ,academy dur+ ! rema9d] ( t ye> & ! beg9n+ ( ! foll[+ "o1 he _h new developem5ts or new confirmations ( 8 !ory to ann\nce4 ,! mo/ hypo!tical "p ( 8 !ory1--! proposition t magnets might be consid]$ 9 _! effects z id5tical ) spiral voltaic wires1--he ass]t$ f ! v fir/4 ,! mutual attraction & repulsion ( voltaic wires1--! laws ( ?is action1--! d$uction ( ! obs]v$ facts f x by calculation1--! det]m9ation1 by new exp]im5ts1 ( ! con/ant quantities :i* ent]$ into 8 =mul1--foll[$ 9 rapid succession4 ,! !ory mu/ be briefly /at$4 ,x _h already be5 se5 t p>allel voltaic curr5ts attract$ ea* o!r2 :51 in/ead ( be+ p>allel1 !y 7 situate 9 any directions1 !y /ill ex]t$ attractive & repulsive =ces dep5d+ on ! di/ance1 & on ! directions ( ea* elem5t ( bo? curr5ts4 ,add to ?is doctr9e ! hypo!tical con/itution ( magnets1 namely1 t a voltaic curr5t runs r\nd ! axis ( ea* p>ticle1 & we h ! means ( calculat+ a va/ v>iety ( results :i* may be comp>$ ) exp]im5t4 ,b ! laws ( ! elem5t>y =ces requir$ fur!r fixation4 ,:at functions are ! =ces ( ! di/ance & ! directions ( ! elem5ts8 ,to extract f exp]im5t an answ] to ?is inquiry 0 f> f easy1 = ! elem5t>y =ces 7 ma!matically connect$ ) ! obs]v$ facts1 by a d\ble ma!matical integration2--a long1 &1 :ile ! con/ant coeffici5ts rema9$ undef9$1 h>dly a possible op]ation4 ,ampre made "s trials 9 ?is way1 b 8 happi] g5ius sugge/$ to him a bett] pa?4 ,x occurr$ to him1 t if 8 integrals1 )\t be+ specially f\nd1 c\ld be %[n to vani% ^u ! :ole1 "u c]ta9 conditions ( ! problem1 ?is circum/ance w\ld correspond to arrangem5ts ( 8 app>atus 9 :i* a /ate ( equilibrium 0 pres]v$1 h[ev] ! =m ( "s ( ! p>ts might be *ang$4 ,he f\nd two su* cases1 :i* 7 ( great importance to ! !ory4 ,! fir/ ( ^! cases prov$ t ! =ce ex]t$ by any elem5t ( ! voltaic wire might be resolv$ into o!r =ces by a !orem resembl+ ! well-kn[n proposition ( ! p>allelogram ( =ces4 ,?is 0 prov$ by %[+ t ! action ( a /raight wire is ! same ) t ( ano!r wire :i* jo9s ! same extremities1 b is b5t & contort$ 9 any way :atev]4 ,b x /ill rema9$ necess>y to det]m9e two fundam5tal quantities2 "o :i* express$ ! p[] ( ! di/ance accord+ to :i* ! =ce v>i$2 ! o!r1 ! #bdi degree 9 :i* ! =ce is affect$ by ! obliquity ( ! elem5ts4 ,"o ( ! g5]al causes ( equilibrium1 ( :i* we h spok51 gave a relation betwe5 ^! two quantities2#aeac & z ! p[] 0 naturally1 &1 z x aft]w>ds appe>$1 rightly conjectur$ to be ! inv]se squ>e1 ! o!r quantity also 0 det]m9$2 & ! g5]al problem ( electrodynamical action 0 fully solv$4 ,note #aeac3 ,communication to ! ,acad4 ,sc41 ,june #aj1 #ahbb4 ,see ,ampre1 ,recueil1 p4 #bib4 ,if ,ampre _h n be5 an accompli%$ analy/1 he w\ld n h be5 able to discov] ! condition on :i* ! nullity ( ! integral 9 ?is case dep5d$4#afac ,& ?r\gh\t 8 labors1 we f9d reason to admire1 bo? 8 ma!matical skill1 & 8 /ead9ess ( ?\ght2 al?\gh ^! excell5ces are by no means accompani$ ?r\gh\t ) correspond+ cle>ness & elegance ( exposition 9 8 writ+s4 ,note #afac3 ,recueil1 p4 #cad4 ,reception ( ,ampre's ,!ory4--,cle> ma!matical conceptions1 & "s famili>ity ) ma!matical op]ations1 7 ne$$ by read]s also1 9 ord] to appreciate ! evid5ce ( ! !ory2 &1 !re=e1 we ne$ n feel any surprise if x 01 on its publication & e/abli%m5t1 hail$ ) f> less en?usiasm ?an s rem>kable a triumph ( g5]aliz+ p[] might appe> to des]ve4 ,= "s "t1 inde$1 ! great] portion ( ! public 7 naturally held 9 susp5se by ! oppos+ weight ( rival names4 ,! ,amp]ian !ory did n make its way )\t cont5tion & competition4 ,! electro-magnetic exp]im5ts1 f _! fir/ appe>ance1 gave a cle> promise ( "s new & wide g5]alization2 & held out a prize ( honor & fame to him :o %\ld be fir/ 9 giv+ ! "r int]pretation ( ! riddle4 ,9 ,france1 ! emulation = su* reputation is p]haps m vigilant & anxi\s ?an x is else:]e2 & we see1 on ?is z on o!r occasions1 ! sci5tific ho/ ( ,p>is spr++ ^u a new subject ) an impetuosity :i*1 9 a %ort "t1 runs into controv]sies = priority or = victory4 ,9 ?is case1 ,m4 ,biot1 z well z ,ampre1 endeavor$ to r$uce ! electro-magnetic ph5om5a to g5]al laws4 ,! discussion betwe5 him & ,ampre turn$ on "s po9ts :i* are curi\s4 ,m4 ,biot 0 dispos$ to consid] z an elem5t>y action1 ! =ce :i* an elem5t ( a voltaic wire ex]ts ^u a magnetic p>ticle1 & :i* is1 z we h se51 at "r angles to _! mutual di/ance2 & he conceiv$ t #bej ! equal reaction :i* necess>ily accompanies ?is action acts oppositely to ! action1 n 9 ! same l9e1 b 9 a p>allel l9e1 at ! o!r extremity ( ! di/ance2 ?us =m+ a primitive c\ple1 to use a te*nical expression borr[$ f me*anics4 ,to ?is ,ampre object$1#agac t ! direct opposition ( all elem5t>y action & reaction 0 a univ]sal & necess>y me*anical law4 ,he %[$ too t su* a c\ple z _h be5 assum$1 w\ld foll[ z a d]ivative result f 8 !ory4 ,& 9 comp>+ 8 own !ory ) t 9 :i* ! voltaic wire is assimilat$ to a collection ( transv]se magnets1 he 0 also able to prove t no su* assemblage ( =ces act+ to & f fix$ po9ts1 z ! =ces ( magnets d act1 c\ld produce a cont9u$ motion l t discov]$ by ,f>aday4 ,?is1 inde$1 0 only ! well-kn[n demon/ration ( ! impossibility ( a p]petual motion4 ,if1 in/ead ( a collection ( magnets1 ! adv]se !ori/s _h spok5 ( a magnetic curr5t1 !y might probably int]pret _! expressions s z to expla9 ! facts2 t is1 if !y consid]$ e elem5t ( su* a curr5t z a magnet1 & consequ5tly1 e po9t ( x z be+ a nor? & a s\? po9t at ! same in/ant4 ,b to introduce su* a conception ( a magnetic curr5t 0 to ab&on all ! laws ( magnetic action hi!rto e/abli%$2 & consequ5tly to lose all t gave ! hypo!sis its value4 ,! idea ( an electric curr5t1 on ! o!r h&1 0 s f> f be+ a new & haz>d\s assumption1 t x _h already be5 =c$ ^u philosoph]s f ! "t ( ,volta2 & 9 ?is curr5t1 ! relation ( prec$+ & succe$+1 :i* necess>ily exi/$ betwe5 ! extremities ( any elem5t1 introduc$ t relative pol>ity on :i* ! success ( ! explanations ( ! facts dep5d$4 ,& ?us 9 ?is controv]sy1 ! !ory ( ,ampre has a great & und5iable sup]iority ov] ! rival hypo!ses4 ,note #agac3 ,ampre1 ,?orie1 p4 #aed4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,consequ5ces ,,( ,,! ,,electrodynamic ,,!ory4 ,,x is n necess>y to /ate ! v>i\s applications :i* 7 soon made ( ! electro-magnetic discov]ies4 ,b we may notice "o #bea ( ! mo/ important1--! ,galvanomet]1 an in/rum5t :i*1 by enabl+ ! philosoph] to detect & to measure extremely m9ute electrodynamic actions1 gave an impulse to ! subject simil> to t :i* x receiv$ f ! inv5tion ( ! ,leyd5 ,phial1 or ! ,voltaic ,pile4 ,! /r5g? ( ! voltaic curr5t 0 measur$1 9 ?is in/rum5t1 by ! deflection produc$ 9 a compass-ne$le2 & its s5sibility 0 multipli$ by mak+ ! wire pass repeat$ly above & bel[ ! ne$le4 ,s*weigg]1 ( ,halle1 0 "o ( ! fir/ devis]s ( ?is app>atus4 ,! sub/itution ( electro-magnets1 t is1 ( spiral tubes compos$ ( voltaic wires1 = common magnets1 gave rise to a v>iety ( curi\s app>atus & speculations1 "s ( :i* ,i %all h]eaft] m5tion4 #bnd ,ed4 ,:5 a voltaic app>atus is 9 action1 !re may be conceiv$ to be a curr5t ( electricity runn+ ?r\gh its v>i\s elem5ts1 z /at$ 9 ! text4 ,! =ce ( ?is curr5t 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! circuit has be5 made ! subject ( ma!matical inve/igation by ,m4 ,ohm4#ahac ,! problem is 9 e respect simil> to t ( ! fl[ ( heat ?r\gh a body1 & tak5 g5]ally1 leads to complex calculations ( ! same k9d4 ,b ,dr4 ,ohm1 by limit+ ! problem 9 ! fir/ place by conditions :i* ! usual nature & =m ( voltaic app>atus sugge/1 has be5 able to give great simplicity to 8 reason+s4 ,^! conditions are1 ! l9e> =m ( ! conductors 7wires7 & ! /ead9ess ( ! electric /ate4 ,= ?is "p ( ! problem ,dr4 ,ohm's reason+s are z simple & z demon/rative z ! elem5t>y propositions ( ,me*anics4 ,! =mul = ! electric =ce ( a voltaic curr5t to :i* he is l$ h be5 exp]im5tally v]ifi$ by o!rs1 especially ,fe*n]1#aiac ,gauss1#bjac ,l5z1 ,jacobi1 ,pogg5dorf1 & ,p\illet4 ,note #ahac3 ,die ,galvanis*e ,kette ,ma!matis* be>beitet von ,dr4 ,g4 ,s4 ,ohm1 ,b]l91 #ahbg4 ,note #aiac3 9999,mass-be/immung5 b] die ,galvanis*e ,kette4 ,leipzig1 #ahca4 ,note #bjac3 ,results ( ! ,magnetic ,association4 ,among ourselves1 ,mr4 ,:eat/one has confirm$ & appli$ ! views ( ,m4 ,ohm1 9 a ,memoir#baac ,on ,new ,in/rum5ts & ,processes = det]m9+ ! ,con/ants ( a ,voltaic ,circuit4 ,he !re rem>ks t ! cle> ideas ( electromotive =ces & resi/ances1 sub/itut$ by ,ohm = ! vague notions ( quantity & int5sity :i* h long be5 preval5t1 give satisfactory explanations ( ! mo/ important difficulties1 & express ! laws ( a va/ numb] ( ph5om5a #beb 9 =mul ( rem>kable simplicity & g5]ality4 ,9 ?is ,memoir1 ,pr(essor ,:eat/one describes an in/rum5t :i* he t]ms ,rheo/at1 because x br+s to a common /&>d ! voltaic curr5ts :i* are comp>$ by x4 ,he g5]alizes ! language ( ! subject by employ+ ! t]m rheomotor = any app>atus :i* orig9ates an electric curr5t 7:e!r voltaic or !rmoelectric1 c47 & rheomet] = any in/rum5t to measure ! =ce ( su* a curr5t4 ,x appe>s t ! idea ( con/ruct+ an in/rum5t ( ! nature ( ! ,rheo/at _h occurr$ also to ,pr(4 ,jacobi1 ( ,/ ,pet]sburg4 ,note #baac3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahdc4 ,pt4 #aa4 ,! galvanomet] l$ to ! discov]y ( ano!r class ( cases 9 :i* ! electrodynamical action 0 call$ into play1 namely1 ^? 9 :i* a circuit1 compos$ ( two metals only1 became electro-magnetic by heat+ "o "p ( x4 ,?is discov]y ( !rmo-electricity 0 made by ,pr(essor ,seebeck ( ,b]l91 9 #ahbb1 & prosecut$ by v>i\s p]sons2 especially by ,pr(4 ,cumm+#bbac ( ,cambridge1 :o1 e>ly 9 #ahbc1 ext5d$ ! exam9ation ( ?is prop]ty to mo/ ( ! metals1 & det]m9$ _! !rmo-electric ord]4 ,b z ^! inve/igations exhibit$ no new me*anical effects ( electromotive =ces1 !y d n n[ fur!r conc]n u2 & we pass on1 at pres5t1 to a case 9 :i* su* =ces act 9 a mann] diff]5t f any ( ^? already describ$4 ,note #bbac3 ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 p4 #fb4 ,on ! ,developm5t ( ,electro-,magnetism by ,heat4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,diamagnetism4 #bnd ,ed4 ,by ! discov]ies j relat$1 a cyl9drical spiral ( wire ?r\gh :i* an electric curr5t is pass+ is id5tifi$ ) a magnet2 & ! effect ( su* a spiral is increas$ by plac+ 9 x a core ( s(t iron4 ,by ! use ( su* a comb9ation "u ! influ5ce ( a voltaic batt]y1 magnets are con/ruct$ f> m p[]ful ?an ^? :i* dep5d ^u ! p]man5t magnetism ( iron4 ,! electro-magnet employ$ by ,dr4 ,f>aday 9 "s ( 8 exp]im5ts w\ld su/a9 a hundr$-weight at ei!r end4 ,by ! use ( su* magnets ,dr4 ,f>aday discov]$ t1 besides iron1 nickel & cobalt1 :i* possess magnetism 9 a high degree1 _m bodies are magnetic 9 a slight degree4 ,& he made ! fur!r v important discov]y1 t ( ^? sub/ances :i* are n magnetic1 _m1 p]haps all1 possess an opposite prop]ty1 9 virtue ( :i* he t]ms !m diamagnetic4 ,! opposition is ( ?is #bec k9d2--t magnetic bodies 9 ! =m ( b>s or ne$les1 if free to move1 arrange !mselves 9 ! axial l9e jo9+ ! poles2 diamagnetic bodies "u ! same circum/ances arrange !mselves 9 an equatorial position1 p]p5dicul> to ! axial l9e4 ,& ?is t5d5cy he conceives to be ! result ( "o m g5]al2 t :]eas magnetic bodies are attract$ to ! poles ( a magnet1 diamagnetic bodies are repell$ f ! poles4 ,! li/ ( diamagnetic bodies includes all k9ds ( sub/ances2 n only metals1 z antimony1 bismu?1 gold1 silv]1 lead1 t91 z9c1 b _m cry/als1 glass1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 sug>1 gum1 wood1 ivory2 & ev5 fle% & fruit4 ,x appe>s t ,m4 le ,bailli _h %[n1 9 #ahbi1 t bo? bismu? & antimony & bismu? repell$ ! magnetic ne$le2 & z ,dr4 ,f>aday rem>ks1 x is a/oni%+ t su* an exp]im5t %\ld h rema9$ s long )\t fur!r results4 ,m4 ,becqu]el 9 #ahbg obs]v$1 & quot$ ,c\lomb z hav+ also obs]v$1 t a ne$le ( wood "u c]ta9 conditions po9t$ across ! magnetic curves2 & also /at$ t he _h f\nd a ne$le ( wood place itself p>allel to ! wires ( a galvanomet]4 ,?is he ref]r$ to a magnetism transv]se to ! l5g?4 ,b he does n ref] ! ph5om5a to elem5t>y repulsive action1 nor %[ t !y are common to an imm5se class ( bodies1 nor di/+ui% ?is diamagnetic f ! magnetic class1 z ,f>aday has taught u to d4 ,i d n dwell ^u ! peculi> ph5om5a ( copp] :i*1 9 ! same s]ies ( rese>*es1 are trac$ by ,dr4 ,f>aday to ! comb9$ effect ( its diamagnetic "*1 & ! electric curr5ts excit$ 9 x by ! electro-magnet2 nor to ! optical ph5om5a manife/$ by c]ta9 transp>5t diamagnetic sub/ances "u electric action2 z already /at$ 9 ,book ix4#bcac ,note #bcac3 ,see ! ,tw5tie? ,s]ies ( ,exp]im5tal ,rese>*es 9 ,electricity1 read to ! ,royal ,society1 ,dec4 #ah1 #ahde4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,magneto-,,electric ,,induction4--,,f>aday4 ,,x 0 cle>ly e/abli%$ by ,ampre1 z we h se51 t magnetic action is a peculi> =m ( electromotive actions1 & t1 9 #bed ?is k9d ( ag5cy1 action & reaction are equal & opposite4 ,x appe>$ to foll[ almo/ irresi/ibly f ^! consid]ations1 t magnetism might be made to produce electricity1 z electricity c\ld be made to imitate all ! effects ( magnetism4 ,yet = a long "t ! attempts to obta9 su* a result 7 fruitless4 ,f>aday1 9 #ahbe1 endeavor$ to make ! conduct+-wire ( ! voltaic circuit excite electricity 9 a neighbor+ wire by induction1 z ! conductor *>g$ ) common electricity w\ld h done1 b he obta9$ no su* effect4 ,if ?is attempt _h succe$$1 ! magnet1 :i*1 = all su* purposes1 is an assemblage ( voltaic circuits1 might also h be5 made to excite electricity4 ,ab\t ! same "t1 an exp]im5t 0 made 9 ,france by ,m4 ,arago1 :i* really involv$ ! effect ?us s\ght2 ?\gh ?is effect 0 n extricat$ f ! complex ph5om5on1 till ,f>aday began 8 spl5did c>e] ( discov]y on ?is subject 9 #ahcb4 ,arago's obs]vation 01 t ! rapid revolution ( a conduct+-plate 9 ! neighborhood ( a magnet1 gave rise to a =ce act+ on ! magnet4 ,9 ,engl&1 ,messrs4 ,b>l[ & ,*ri/ie1 ,h]s*el & ,babbage1 repeat$ & tri$ to analyse ?is exp]im5t2 b ref]r+ ! =ces only to conditions ( space & "t1 & ov]look+ ! real cause1 ! electrical curr5ts produc$ by ! motion1 ^! philosoph]s 7 altoge!r unsuccessful 9 _! labors4 ,9 #ahca1 ,f>aday aga9 s\ght = electro-dynamical induction1 & aft] "s futile trials1 at la/ f\nd x 9 a =m diff]5t f t 9 :i* he _h look$ = x4 ,x 0 !n se51 t at ! precise "t ( mak+ or break+ ! contact :i* clos$ ! galvanic circuit1 a mom5t>y effect 0 induc$ 9 a neighbor+ wire1 b disappe>$ in/antly4#bdac ,once 9 possession ( ?is fact1 ,mr4 ,f>aday ran rapidly up ! ladd] ( discov]y1 to ! g5]al po9t ( view4--,in/ead ( sudd5ly mak+ or break+ ! contact ( ! induc+ circuit1 a simil> effect 0 produc$ by remov+ ! inducible wire ne>] to or fur!r f ! circuit2#beac--! effects 7 increas$ by ! proximity ( s(t iron2#bfac--:5 ! s(t iron 0 affect$ by an ord9>y magnet in/ead ( ! voltaic wire1 ! same effect /ill recurr$2#bgac--;& ?us x appe>$1 t by mak+ & break+ magnetic contact1 a mom5t>y electric curr5t 0 produc$4 ,x 0 produc$ also by mov+ ! magnet2#bhac--or by mov+ ! wire ) ref]5ce to ! magnet4#biac ,f9ally1 x 0 f\nd t ! e>? might supply ! place ( a magnet #bee 9 ?is z 9 o!r exp]im5ts2#cjac & ! m]e motion ( a wire1 "u prop] circum/ances1 produc$ 9 x1 x appe>$1 a mom5t>y electric curr5t4#caac ,^! facts 7 curi\sly confirm$ by ! results 9 special cases4 ,!y expla9$ ,arago's exp]im5ts3 = ! mom5t>y effect became p]man5t by ! revolution ( ! plate4 ,& )\t us+ ! magnet1 a revolv+ plate became an electrical ma*9e2#cbac--;a revolv+ globe exhibit$ electro-magnetic action1#ccac ! circuit be+ complete 9 ! globe itself )\t ! addition ( any wire2--& a m]e motion ( ! wire ( a galvanomet] produc$ an electro-dynamic effect ^u its ne$le4#cdac ,note #bdac3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcb1 p4 #abg1 ,fir/ ,s]ies1 ,art4 #aj4 ,note #beac3 ,art4 #ah4 ,note #bfac3 ,art4 #bh4 ,note #bgac3 ,art4 #cg4 ,note #bhac3 ,art4 #ci4 ,note #biac3 ,art4 #ec4 ,note #cjac3 ,second ,s]ies1 ,phil4 ,trans4 p4 #afc4 ,note #caac3 ,art4 #ada4 ,note #cbac3 ,art4 #aej4 ,note #ccac3 ,art4 #afd4 ,note #cdac3 ,art4 #aga4 ,b ! "q occurs1 ,:at is ! g5]al law :i* det]m9es ! direction ( electric curr5ts ?us produc$ by ! jo9t effects ( motion & magnetism8 ,no?+ b a peculi> /ead9ess & cle>ness 9 8 conceptions ( space1 c\ld h enabl$ ,mr4 ,f>aday to detect ! law ( ?is ph5om5on4 ,= ! "q requir$ t he %\ld det]m9e ! mutual relations 9 space :i* connect ! magnetic poles1 ! position ( ! wire1 ! direction ( ! wire's motion1 & ! electrical curr5t produc$ 9 x4 ,?is 0 no easy problem2 inde$1 ! m]e relation ( ! magnetic to ! electric =ces1 ! "o set be+ p]p5dicul> to ! o!r1 is ( itself suffici5t to p]plex ! m9d2 z we h se5 9 ! hi/ory ( ! electrodynamical discov]ies4 ,b ,mr4 ,f>aday appe>s to h seiz$ at once ! law ( ! ph5om5a4 ,! relation1 he says1#ceac :i* holds betwe5 ! magnetic pole1 ! mov+ wire or metal1 & ! direction ( ! curr5t evolv$1 is v simple 7s x seem$ to him7 al?\gh r difficult to express4 ,he repres5ts x by ref]r+ position & motion to ! magnetic curves1 :i* g f a magnetic pole to ! opposite pole4 ,! curr5t 9 ! wire sets "o way or ! o!r1 accord+ to ! direction 9 :i* ! motion ( ! wire cuts ^! curves4 ,& ?us he 0 enabl$1 at ! end ( 8 ,second ,s]ies ( ,rese>*es 7,decemb]1 #ahca71 to give1 9 g5]al t]ms1 ! law ( nature to :i* may be ref]r$ ! extraord9>y numb] ( new & curi\s exp]im5ts :i* he has /at$2#cfac--namely1 t if a wire move s z to cut a magnetic curve1 a p[] is call$ into action :i* t5ds to urge a magnetic curr5t ?r\gh ! wire2 & t if a mass move s t its p>ts d n move 9 ! same direction across ! magnetic curves1 #bef & ) ! same angul> velocity1 electrical curr5ts are call$ into play 9 ! mass4 ,note #ceac3 ,fir/ ,s]ies1 ,art4 #aad4 ,note #cfac3 ,art4 #bef-bfd4 ,?is rule1 ?us simple f its g5]ality1 ?\gh inevitably complex 9 e special case1 may be look$ ^u z supply+ ! fir/ dem& ( philosophy1 ! law ( ! ph5om5a2 & accord+ly ,dr4 ,f>aday has1 9 all 8 subsequ5t rese>*es on magneto-electric induction1 appli$ ?is law to 8 exp]im5ts2 & has !reby unravell$ an imm5se am\nt ( app>5t inconsi/5cy & confusion1 = ^? :o h foll[$ him 9 8 mode ( conceiv+ ! subject4 ,b yet o!r philosoph]s h reg>d$ ^! ph5om5a 9 o!r po9ts ( view1 & h /at$ ! laws ( ! ph5om5a 9 a mann] diff]5t f ,f>aday's1 al?\gh = ! mo/ "p equival5t to 84 ,& ^! attempts to express1 9 ! mo/ simple & g5]al =m1 ! law ( ! ph5om5a ( magneto-electrical induction1 h naturally be5 comb9$ ) ! expression ( o!r laws ( electrical & magnetical ph5om5a4 ,fur!r1 ^! endeavors to connect & g5]alize ! ,facts h naturally be5 clo!d 9 ! g>b ( v>i\s ,!ories3--! laws ( ph5om5a h be5 express$ 9 t]ms ( ! suppos$ causes ( ! ph5om5a2 z fluids1 attractions & repulsions1 p>ticles ) curr5ts runn+ ?r\gh !m or r\nd !m1 physical l9es ( =ce1 & ! l4 ,su* views1 & ! conflict ( !m1 are ! natural & hopeful progno/ics ( a !ory :i* %all h>monize _! discords & include all t ea* conta9s ( ,tru?4 ,! f]m5tation at pres5t is p]haps too great to all[ u to see cle>ly ! tru? :i* lies at ! bottom4 ,b a few ( ! lead+ po9ts ( rec5t discussions on ^! subjects w be notic$ 9 ! ,additions to ?is volume4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,transition ,,to ,,*emical ,,sci5ce4 ,,! prec$+ tra9 ( g5]alization may ju/ly appe> ext5sive1 & ( itself well wor?y ( admiration4 ,yet we are to consid] all t has !re be5 e/abli%$ z only "o-half ( ! sci5ce to :i* x belongs1--"o limb ( ! colossal =m ( ,*emi/ry4 ,we #beg h asc]ta9$1 we w suppose1 ! laws ( ,electric ,pol>ity2 b we h !n to ask1 ,:at is ! relation ( ?is ,pol>ity to ,*emical ,composition8 ,?is 0 ! great problem :i*1 con/antly pres5t to ! m9ds ( electro-*emical inquir]s1 drew !m on1 ) ! promise ( "s deep & compreh5sive insight into ! me*anism ( nature4 ,long tasks ( rese>*1 ?\gh only subsidi>y to ?is1 7 *e]fully und]tak54 ,?us ,f>aday#cgac describes himself z compell$ to set ab\t satisfy+ himself ( ! id5tity ( common1 animal1 & voltaic electricity1 z ! decision ( a d\btful po9t :i* int]f]$ ) ! ext5sion ( 8 views1 & de/roy$ ! /rictness ( reason+4 ,hav+ e/abli%$ ?is id5tity1 he proce$$ ) 8 gr& und]tak+ ( electro-*emical rese>*4 ,note #cgac3 ,dec4 #ahcb4 ,rese>*es1 #bff4 ,! connexion ( electrical curr5ts ) *emical action1 ?\gh kept out ( sight 9 ! acc\nt we h hi!rto giv51 0 nev] =gott5 by ! exp]im5t]s2 =1 9 fact1 ! modes 9 :i* electrical curr5ts 7 excit$1 7 *emical actions2--! action ( acids & metals on ea* o!r 9 ! voltaic tr\gh1 or 9 "s o!r =m4 ,! dep5d5ce ( ! electrical effect on ^! *emical actions1 & /ill m1 ! *emical actions produc$ by ! ag5cy ( ! poles ( ! circuit1 _h be5 c>efully /udi$2 & we mu/ n[ relate ) :at success4 ,b 9 :at t]ms %all we pres5t ?is n>ration8 ,we h spok5 ( *emical actions1--b :at k9d ( actions are ^!8 ,decomposition2 ! resolution ( comp\nds into _! +r$i5ts2 ! sep>ation ( acids f bases2 ! r$uction ( bodies to simple elem5ts4 ,^! names op5 to u a new drama2 !y are words :i* belong to a diff]5t set ( relations ( ?+s1 a diff]5t tra9 ( sci5tific inductions1 a diff]5t sy/em ( g5]alizations1 f any ) :i* we h hi!rto be5 conc]n$4 ,we mu/ le>n to und]/& ^! phrases1 be=e we c advance 9 our hi/ory ( human k4 ,& h[ are we to le>n ! mean+ ( ?is collection ( words8 ,9 :at o!r language %all x be expla9$8 ,9 :at t]ms %all we def9e ^! new expressions8 ,to ?is we are compell$ to reply1 t we _c translate ^! t]ms into any ord9>y language2--t we _c def9e !m 9 any t]ms already famili> to u4 ,"h1 z 9 all o!r bran*es ( k1 ! mean+ ( words is to be s\ght 9 ! progress ( ?\ght2 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce is our #beh diction>y2 ! /eps ( sci5tific induction are our def9itions4 ,x is only by go+ back ?r\gh ! successful rese>*es ( m5 respect+ ! composition & elem5ts ( bodies1 t we c le>n 9 :at s5se su* t]ms mu/ be und]/ood1 s z to convey real k4 ,9 ord] t !y may h a mean+ = u1 we mu/ inquire :at mean+ !y _h 9 ! m9ds ( ! au?ors ( our discov]ies4 ,& ?us we _c advance a /ep1 till we h br\ght up our hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry to ! level ( our hi/ory ( ,electricity2--till we h /udi$ ! progress ( ! analytical1 z well z ! me*anical sci5ces4 ,we are compell$ to pause & look backw>ds "h2 j z happ5$ 9 ! hi/ory ( a/ronomy1 :5 we arriv$ at ! br9k ( ! great me*anical inductions ( ,newton1 & f\nd t we mu/ trace ! hi/ory ( ,me*anics1 be=e we c\ld proce$ to me*anical ,a/ronomy4 ,! t]ms =ce1 attraction1 in]tia1 mom5tum1 s5t u back into prec$+ c5turies !n1 j z ! t]ms composition & elem5t s5d u back n[4 ,nor is x to a small ext5t t we h ?us to d\ble back ^u our pa/ advance4 ,next to ,a/ronomy1 ,*emi/ry is "o ( ! mo/ anci5t ( sci5ces2--! field ( ! e>lie/ attempts ( man to comm& & und]/& nature4 ,x has held m5 = c5turies by a k9d ( fasc9ation2 & innum]able & endless are ! v>i\s labors1 ! failures & successes1 ! speculations & conclusions1 ! /range pret5ces & fanta/ical dreams1 ( ^? :o h pursu$ x4 ,to exhibit all ^!1 or give any acc\nt ( !m1 w\ld be impossible2 & = our design1 x w\ld n be p]t95t4 ,to extract f ! mass t :i* is to our purpose1 is difficult2 b ! attempt mu/ be made4 ,we mu/ endeavor to analyse ! hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry1 s f> z x has t5d$ t[>ds ! e/abli%m5t ( g5]al pr9ciples4 ,we %all ?us obta9 a sight ( g5]alizations ( a new k9d1 & %all prep>e ourselves = o!rs ( a high] ord]4 #bei ,,book ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,analytical ,,sci5ce4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,soon _h 8 crew ,op5$ into ! hill a spaci\s w\nd1 ,& digg$ out ribs ( gold 4 4 4 4 ,anon out ( ! e>? a fabric huge ,rose l an exhalation1 ) ! s\nd ,( dulcet symphonies & voices sweet1 ,built l a temple4 ,,milton4 ,p>adise ,lo/1 i4 #bfa ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,improvem5t ,,( ,,! ,,notion ,,( ,,*emical ,,analysis1 ,,& ,,recognition ,,( ,,x ,,z ,,! ,,spagiric ,,art4 ,,! doctr9e ( ! f\r elem5ts is "o ( ! olde/ monum5ts ( man's speculative nature2 goes back1 p]haps1 to times ant]ior to ,greek philosophy2 & z ! doctr9e ( ,ari/otle & ,gal51 reign$ = fifte5 hundr$ ye>s ov] ! ,g5tile1 ,*ri/ian1 & ,mohamm$an _w4 ,9 m$ic9e1 taught z ! doctr9e ( ! f\r elem5t>y qualities1 ( :i* ! human body & all o!r sub/ances are comp\nd$1 x _h a v p[]ful & ext5sive influ5ce ^u m$ical practice4 ,b ?is doctr9e nev] l$ to any attempt actually to analyse bodies into _! suppos$ elem5ts3 = composition 0 inf]r$ f ! resemblance ( ! qualities1 n f ! sep>ate exhibition ( ! +r$i5ts2 ! suppos$ analysis 01 9 %ort1 a decomposition ( ! body into adjectives1 n into sub/ances4 ,?is doctr9e1 !re=e1 may be consid]$ z a negative /ate1 antec$5t to ! v beg9n+ ( *emi/ry2 & "s progress beyond ?is m]e negation 0 made1 z soon z m5 began to endeavor to comp\nd & decomp\nd sub/ances by ! use ( fire or mixture1 h[ev] errone\s might be ! op9ions & expectations :i* !y comb9$ ) _! attempts4 ,al*emy is a /ep 9 *emi/ry1 s f> z x implies ! recognition ( ! "w ( ! cupel & ! retort1 z ! produce ( analysis & syn!sis4 ,h[ p]plex$ & p]v]t$ 7 ! =ms 9 :i* ?is recognition 0 clo!d1--h[ mix$ up ) my?ical follies & extravagancies1 we h already se52 & ! %>e :i* ,al*emy _h 9 ! =mation ( any s\nd] k1 is n su* z to ju/ify any fur!r notice ( t pursuit4 ,! result ( ! attempts to analyse bodies by heat1 mixture1 & ! l processes1 0 ! doctr9e t ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ?+s are ?ree1 n f\r2 namely1 salt1 sulphur1 & m]cury2 & t1 ( ^! ?ree1 all ?+s are comp\nd$4 ,9 reality1 ! doctr9e1 z ?us /at$1 conta9$ no tru? :i* 0 ( any value2 =1 ?\gh ! *emi/ c\ld extract f mo/ bodies portions :i* he call$ salt1 #bfb & sulphur1 & m]cury1 ^! names 7 giv51 r to save ! hypo!sis1 ?an because ! sub/ances 7 really ^? usually s call$3 & ?us ! suppos$ analyses prov$ no?+1 z ,boyle ju/ly urg$ aga9/ !m4#aad ,note #aad3 ,%aw's ,boyle4 ,skeptical ,*ymi/1 pp4 #cab1 #cac4 c4 ,! only real advance 9 *emical !ory1 !re=e1 :i* we c ascribe to ! s*ool ( ! ?ree pr9ciples1 z comp>$ ) ^? :o held ! anci5t dogma ( ! f\r elem5ts1 is1 ! ackn[l$gm5t ( ! *anges produc$ by ! *emi/'s op]ations1 z be+ *anges :i* 7 to be acc\nt$ = by ! union & sep>ation ( sub/antial elem5ts1 or1 z !y 7 sometimes call$1 ( hypo/atical pr9ciples4 ,! workm5 ( ?is s*ool acquir$1 no d\bt1 a consid]able acqua9tance ) ! results ( ! k9ds ( processes :i* !y pursu$2 !y appli$ _! k to ! prep>ation ( new m$ic9es2 & "s ( !m1 z ,p>acelsus & ,van ,helmont1 atta9$1 9 ?is way1 to great fame & di/9ction3 b _! m]its1 z reg>ds !oretical *emi/ry1 consi/ only 9 a tru] conception ( ! problem1 & ( ! mode ( attempt+ its solution1 ?an _! pr$ecessors _h ent]ta9$4 ,?is /ep is well m>k$ by a ^w :i*1 ab\t ! "t ( :i* we speak1 0 introduc$ to d5ote ! *emi/'s employm5t4 ,x 0 call$ ! ,spagiric art1 7(t5 misspelt ,spagyric17 f two ,greek words1 71 17 :i* mean to sep>ate p>ts1 & to unite !m4 ,^! two processes1 or 9 m mod]n language1 analysis & syn!sis1 con/itute ! :ole bus9ess ( ! *emi/4 ,we are n mak+ a fanciful arrangem5t1 !re=e1 :5 we m>k ! recognition ( ?is object z a /ep 9 ! progress ( *emi/ry4 ,i n[ proce$ to consid] ! mann] 9 :i* ! conditions ( ?is analysis & syn!sis 7 fur!r develop$4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,acid ,,& ,,alkali4--,,sylvius4 ,,among ! results ( mixture obs]v$ by *emi/s1 7 _m in/ances 9 :i* two +r$i5ts1 ea* 9 itself pung5t or de/ructive1 be+ put toge!r1 became mild & inop]ative2 ea* #bfc c\nt]act+ & neutraliz+ ! activity ( ! o!r4 ,! notion ( su* opposition & neutrality is applicable to a v wide range ( *emical processes4 ,! p]son :o appe>s fir/ to h /eadily seiz$ & g5]ally appli$ ?is notion is ,francis de la ,bo ,sylvius2 :o 0 born 9 #afad1 & practis$ m$ic9e at ,am/]dam1 ) a success & reputation :i* gave great curr5cy to 8 op9ions on t art4#bad ,8 *emical !ories 7 prop\nd$ z subord9ate to 8 m$ical doctr9es2 & f be+ ?us pres5t$ "u a mo/ important practical aspect1 excit$ f> m att5tion ?an m]e !oretical op9ions on ! composition ( bodies c\ld h done4 ,sylvius is spok5 ( by hi/orians ( sci5ce1 z ! f\nd] ( ! iatro-*emical sect among physicians2 t is1 ! sect :i* consid]s ! disord]s 9 ! human frame z ! effects ( *emical relations ( ! fluids1 & applies to !m modes ( cure f\nd$ ^u ?is doctr9e4 ,we h "h to speak1 n ( 8 physiological1 b ( 8 *emical views4 ,note #bad3 ,spr5gel4 ,ges*i*te d] ,arzneykunde1 vol4 iv4 ,?omson's ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry 9 ! correspond+ "p is translat$ f ,spr5gel4 ,! di/9ction ( acid & alkal9e bodies 7acidum1 lixivum7 0 famili> be=e ! "t ( ,sylvius2 b he fram$ a sy/em1 by consid]+ !m bo? z em95tly acrid & yet opposite1 & by apply+ ?is notion to ! human frame4 ,?us#cad ! lymph conta9s an acid1 ! bile an alkal9e salt4 ,^! two opposite acrid sub/ances1 :5 !y are br\ght toge!r1 neutralize ea* o!r 7infr+unt71 & are *ang$ into an int]m$iate & mild] sub/ance4 ,note #cad3 ,de ,me?odo ,m$5di1 ,am/4 #afgi4 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 #bh1 sects4 #h & #ec4 ,! progress ( ?is doctr9e1 z a physiological "o1 is an important "p ( ! hi/ory ( m$ical sci5ce 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury2 b ) t we are n "h conc]n$4 ,b z a *emical doctr9e1 ?is notion ( ! opposition ( acid & alkali1 & ( its v g5]al applicability1 /ruck deep root1 & has n be5 eradicat$ up to our own "t4 ,boyle1 inde$1 ^: disposition l$ him to suspect all g5]alities1 express$ d\bts ) reg>d to ?is view2#dad & argu$ t ! supposition ( acid & alkal9e p>ts 9 all bodies 0 prec>i\s1 _! (fices arbitr>y1 & ! notion ( !m unsettl$4 ,inde$ x 0 n difficult to %[1 t !re 0 no "o c]ta9 crit]ion to :i* all suppos$ acids con=m$4 ,yet ! g5]al conception ( su* a comb9ation z t ( acid & alkali 0 suppos$ to #bfd be1 s]v$ s well to express _m *emical facts1 t x kept its gr\nd4 ,x is f\nd1 = in/ance1 9 ,lem]y's ,*emi/ry1 :i* 0 "o ( ^? 9 mo/ g5]al use be=e ! introduction ( ! phlogi/ic !ory4 ,9 ?is "w 7:i* 0 translat$ into ,engli% by ,keill1 9 #afih7 we f9d alkalies def9$ by _! eff]vesc+ ) acids4#ead ,!y 7 di/+ui%$ z ! m9]al alkali 7soda71 ! vegetable alkali 7potassa71 & ! volatile alkali 7ammonia74 ,aga91 9 ,macqu]'s ,*emi/ry1 :i* 0 long ! text-book 9 ,europe dur+ ! reign ( phlogi/on1 we f9d acids & alkalies1 & _! union1 9 :i* !y rob ea* o!r ( _! *>act]i/ic prop]ties1 & =m neutral salts1 /at$ among ! lead+ pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce4#fad ,note #dad3 ,%aw's ,boyle1 iii4 p4 #dcb4 ,note #ead3 ,lem]y1 p4 #be4 ,note #fad3 ,macqu]1 p4 #ai4 ,9 tru?1 ! mutual relation ( acids to alkalies 0 ! mo/ ess5tial "p ( ! k :i* *emi/s possess$ conc]n+ !m4 ,! importance ( ?is relation arose f its be+ ! fir/ di/9ct =m 9 :i* ! notion ( *emical attraction or aff9ity appe>$4 ,= ! acrid or cau/ic "* ( acids & alkalies is1 9 fact1 a t5d5cy to alt] ! bodies !y t\*1 & ?us to alt] !mselves2 & ! neutral "* ( ! comp\nds 9999is ! abs5ce ( any su* proclivity to *ange4 ,acids & alkalies h a /rong disposition to unite4 ,!y comb9e1 (t5 ) vehem5ce1 & produce neutral salts2 !y exhibit1 9 %ort1 a prom95t example ( ! *emical attraction1 or aff9ity1 by :i* two +r$i5ts are =m$ into a comp\nd4 ,! relation ( acid & base 9 a salt is1 to ?is day1 "o ( ! ma9 gr\nds ( all !oretical reason+s4 ,! m di/9ct developm5t ( ! notion ( su* *emical attraction1 gradually made its way among ! *emi/s ( ! latt] "p ( ! sev5te5? & ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 z we may see 9 ! writ+s ( ,boyle1 ,newton1 & _! foll[]s4 ,bee*] speaks ( ?is attraction z a magnetism2 b ,i d n "k t any writ] 9 p>ticul>1 c be po9t$ out z ! p]son :o firmly e/abli%$ ! g5]al notion ( *emical attraction4 ,b ?is idea ( *emical attraction became bo? m cle> & m ext5sively applicable1 :5 x assum$ ! =m ( ! doctr9e ( elective attractions1 9 :i* %ape we mu/ n[ speak ( x4 #bfe ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,elective ,,attractions4 ,,ge(froy4 ,,b]gman4 ,,?\gh ! *emical comb9ations ( bodies _h already be5 ref]r$ to attraction1 9 a vague & g5]al mann]1 x 0 impossible to expla9 ! *anges t take place1 )\t suppos+ ! attraction to be great] or less1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! body4 ,yet x 0 "s "t be=e ! necessity ( su* a supposition 0 cle>ly se54 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,fr5* ,academy = #agah 7publi%$ #agai71 ! writ] ( ! introductory notice 7probably ,font5elle7 says1 ,t a body :i* is unit$ to ano!r1 = example1 a solv5t :i* has p5etrat$ a metal1 %\ld quit x to g & unite itself ) ano!r :i* we pres5t to x1 is a ?+ ( :i* ! possibility _h nev] be5 guess$ by ! mo/ subtle philosoph]s1 & ( :i* ! explanation ev5 n[ is n easy4 ,! doctr9e _h1 9 fact1 be5 /at$ by ,/ahl1 b ! ass]tion j quot$ %[s1 at lea/1 t x 0 n famili>4 ,! pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 is v cle>ly /at$#gad 9 a memoir 9 ! same volume1 by ,ge(froy1 a ,fr5* physician ( great tal5ts & v>i$ k1 ,we obs]ve 9 *emi/ry1 he says1 c]ta9 relations among/ diff]5t bodies1 :i* cause !m to unite4 ,^! relations h _! degrees & _! laws4 ,we obs]ve _! diff]5t degrees 9 ?is2--t among diff]5t matt]s jumbl$ toge!r1 :i* h a c]ta9 disposition to unite1 we f9d t "o ( ^! sub/ances always unites con/antly ) a c]ta9 o!r1 pref]ably to all ! re/4 ,he !n /ates t ^? :i* unite by pref]5ce1 h plus de rapport1 or1 accord+ to a phrase aft]w>ds us$1 m aff9ity4 ,& ,i h satisfi$ myself1 he adds1 t we may d$uce1 f ^! obs]vations1 ! foll[+ proposition1 :i* is v ext5sively true1 ?\gh ,i _c enunciate x z univ]sal1 n hav+ be5 able to exam9e all ! possible comb9ations1 to assure myself t ,i %\ld f9d no exception4 ,! proposition :i* he /ates 9 ?is admirable _s ( philosophical caution1 is ?is3 ,9 all cases :]e two sub/ances1 #bff :i* h any disposition to comb9e1 are unit$2 if !re approa*es !m a ?ird1 :i* has m aff9ity ) "o ( ! two1 ?is "o unites ) ! ?ird & lets g ! o!r4 ,he !n /ates ^! aff9ities 9 ! =m ( a ,table2 plac+ a sub/ance at ! head ( ea* column1 & o!r sub/ances 9 succession bel[ x1 accord+ to ! ord] ( _! aff9ities = ! sub/ance :i* /&s at ! head4 ,he all[s t ! sep>ation is n always complete 7an imp]fection :i* he ascribes to ! glut9osity ( fluids & o!r causes71 b1 ) su* exceptions1 he def5ds v resolutely & successfully 8 ,table1 & ! notions :i* x implies4 ,note #gad3 ,mm4 ,acad4 ,p>4 #agah1 p4 #bjb4 ,! value ( su* a tabulation 0 imm5se at ! "t1 & is ev5 /ill v great2 x enabl$ ! *emi/ to trace be=eh& ! results ( any op]ation2 s9ce1 :5 ! +r$i5ts 7 giv51 he c\ld see :i* 7 ! /ronge/ ( ! aff9ities br\ght into play1 &1 consequ5tly1 :at comp\nds w\ld be =m$4 ,ge(froy himself gave sev]al good examples ( ?is use ( 8 table4 ,x 0 spe$ily adopt$ into works on *emi/ry4 ,= in/ance1 ,macqu]#had places x at ! end ( 8 book2 tak+ x1 z he says1 to be ( great use at ! end ( an elem5t>y tract1 z x collects into "o po9t ( view1 ! mo/ ess5tial & fundam5tal doctr9es :i* are disp]s$ ?r\gh ! "w4 ,note #had3 ,pref41 p4 #ac4 ,! doctr9e ( ,elective ,attraction1 z ?us promulgat$1 conta9$ s l>ge a mass ( tru?1 t x 0 nev] s]i\sly %ak51 ?\gh x requir$ fur!r developm5t & correction4 ,9 p>ticul> ! celebrat$ "w ( ,torb]n ,b]gman1 pr(essor at ,upsala1 ,on ,elective ,attractions1 publi%$ 9 #agge1 introduc$ into x mat]ial improvem5ts4 ,b]gman obs]v$1 t n only ! ord] ( attractions1 b ! sum ( ^? attractions :i* _h to =m ! new comp\nds1 mu/ be tak5 acc\nt (1 9 ord] to judge ( ! result4 ,?us1#iad if we h a comb9ation ( two elem5ts1 ,p1 s1 7potassa & vitriolic acid71 & ano!r comb9ation1 ,l1 m1 7lime & muriatic acid17 ?\gh s has a great] aff9ity = ,p ?an = ,l1 yet ! sum ( ! attractions ( ,p to m1 & ( ,l to s1 is great] ?an t ( ! orig9al comp\nds1 & !re=e if ! two comb9ations are br\ght toge!r1 ! new comp\nds1 ,p1 m1 & ,l1 s1 are =m$4 ,note #iad3 ,elect4 ,attract41 p4 #ai4 ,! ,table ( ,elective ,attractions1 modifi$ by ,b]gman 9 pursuance ( ^! views1 & correct$ accord+ to ! advanc$ k ( ! "t1 became /ill m important ?an be=e4 ,! next /ep #bfg 0 to take into acc\nt ! quantities ( ! elem5ts :i* comb9$2 b ?is leads u into a new tra9 ( inve/igation1 :i* 01 inde$1 a natural sequel to ! rese>*es ( ,ge(froy & ,b]gman4 ,9 #ahjc1 h[ev]1 a *emi/ ( great em95ce1 ,b]?ollet1 publi%$ a "w 7,essai de ,/atique ,*imique71 ! t5d5cy ( :i* appe>$ to be to ?r[ ! subject back into ! condition 9 :i* x _h be5 be=e ,ge(froy4 ,= ,b]?ollet ma9ta9$ t ! rules ( *emical comb9ation 7 n def9ite1 & dep5d5t on ! nature ( ! sub/ances alone1 b indef9ite1 dep5d+ on ! quantity pres5t1 & o!r circum/ances4 ,pr\/ answ]$ him1 & z ,b]zelius says1#ajad ,b]?ollet def5d$ himself ) an acut5ess :i* makes ! read] hesitate 9 8 judgm5t2 b ! great mass ( facts f9ally decid$ ! po9t 9 favor ( ,pr\/4 ,be=e1 h[ev]1 we trace ! result ( ^! rese>*es1 we mu/ consid] ,*emi/ry z ext5d+ h] inquiries to combu/ion z well z mixture1 to airs z well z fluids & solids1 & to weight z well z quality4 ,^! ?ree /eps we %all n[ briefly treat (4 ,note #ajad3 ,*em4 t4 iii4 p4 #bc4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,acidification ,,& ,,combu/ion4--,,phlogi/ic ,,!ory4 ,,publication ( ! ,!ory by ,bec*] & ,/ahl4--,x w be recollect$ t we are trac+ ! hi/ory ( ! progress only ( ,*emi/ry1 n ( its errors2--t we are conc]n$ ) doctr9es only s f> z !y are true1 & h rema9$ "p ( ! receiv$ sy/em ( *emical tru?s4 ,! ,phlogi/ic ,!ory 0 depos$ & succe$$ by ! ,!ory ( ,oxyg54 ,b ?is circum/ance mu/ n lead u to ov]look ! really s\nd & p]man5t "p ( ! op9ions :i* ! f\nd]s ( ! phlogi/ic !ory taught4 ,!y br\ght toge!r1 z processes ( ! same k9d1 a numb] ( *anges :i* at fir/ appe>$ to h no?+ 9 common2 z acidification1 combu/ion1 respiration4 ,n[ ?is classification is true2 & its importance rema9s undim9i%$1 :atev] are ! explanations :i* we adopt ( ! processes !mselves4 ,! two *emi/s to :om are to be ascrib$ ! m]it ( ?is /ep1 & ! e/abli%m5t ( ! phlogi/ic !ory :i* !y connect$ #bfh ) x1 are ,john ,joa*im ,bec*] & ,george ,erne/ ,/ahl2 ! =m] ( :om 0 pr(essor at ,m5tz1 & physician to ! ,elector ( ,bav>ia 7born #afbe1 di$ #afhb72 ! latt] 0 pr(essor at ,halle1 & aft]w>ds royal physician at ,b]l9 7born #affj1 di$ #agcd74 ,^! two m51 :o ?us contribut$ to a common purpose1 7 v diff]5t f ea* o!r4 ,! fir/ 0 a frank & ard5t en?usia/ 9 ! pursuit ( *emi/ry1 :o speaks ( himself & 8 employm5ts ) a communicativ5ess & affection bo? amus+ & engag+4 ,! o!r 0 a tea*] ( great tal5ts & influ5ce1 b accus$ ( haught9ess & moros5ess2 a "* :i* is well borne out by ! mann] 9 :i*1 9 8 writ+s1 he anticipates an unfavorable reception1 & defies x4 ,b x is "r to add to ?is t he speaks ( ,bec*]1 8 pr$ecessor1 ) an ungrudg+ ackn[l$gm5t ( obligations to him1 & a vehem5t ass]tion ( 8 m]it z ! f\nd] ( ! true sy/em1 :i* give a /rong impression ( ,/ahl's ju/ice & magnanimity4 ,bec*]'s op9ions 7 at fir/ promulgat$ r z a correction ?an a refutation ( ! doctr9e ( ! ?ree pr9ciples1 salt1 sulphur1 & m]cury4 ,! ma9 peculi>ity ( 8 views consi/s 9 ! (fices :i* he ascribes to 8 sulphur1 ^! be+ su* z aft]w>ds induc$ ,/ahl to give ! "n ( ,phlogi/on to ?is elem5t4 ,bec*] _h ! sagacity to see t ! r$uction ( metals to an e>?y =m 7calx71 & ! =mation ( sulphuric acid f sulphur1 are op]ations connect$ by a g5]al analogy1 z be+ alike processes ( combu/ion4 ,h5ce ! metal 0 suppos$ to consi/ ( an e>?1 & ( some?+ :i*1 9 ! process ( combu/ion1 0 sep>at$ f x2 &1 9 l mann]1 sulphur 0 suppos$ to consi/ ( ! sulphuric acid1 :i* rema9$ aft] its combu/ion1 & ( ! combu/ible "p or true sulphur1 :i* flew (f 9 ! burn+4 ,bec*] insi/s v di/9ctly ^u ?is diff]5ce betwe5 8 elem5t sulphur & ! sulphur ( 8 ,p>acelsian pr$ecessors4 ,x mu/ be consid]$ z indicat+ great k & tal5t 9 ,/ahl1 t he p]ceiv$ s cle>ly :at "p ( ! views ( ,bec*] 0 ( g5]al tru? & p]man5t value4 ,?\gh he#aaad ev]y:]e gives to ,bec*] ! cr$it ( ! !oretical op9ions :i* he promulgates1 7,bec*]iana sunt qu pr(]o17 x seems c]ta9 t he _h ! m]it1 n only ( prov+ !m m completely1 & apply+ !m m widely ?an 8 =]unn]1 b also ( conceiv+ !m #bfi ) a di/9ctness :i* ,bec*] did n atta94 ,9 #afig1 appe>$ ,/ahl's ,zymote*nia ,fundam5talis 7! ,doctr9e ( ,f]m5tation71 simulque exp]im5tum novum sulphur v]um arte produc5di4 ,9 ?is "w 7besides o!r t5ets :i* ! au?or consid]$ z v important71 ! op9ion publi%$ by ,bec*] 0 n[ ma9ta9$ 9 a v di/9ct =m2--namely1 t ! process ( =m+ sulphur f sulphuric acid1 & ( re/or+ ! metals f _! calces1 are analog\s1 & consi/ alike 9 ! addition ( "s combu/ible elem5t1 :i* ,/ahl t]m$ phlogi/on 71 combu/ible74 ,! exp]im5t mo/ insi/$ on 9 ! "w n[ spok5 (1#abad 0 ! =mation ( sulphur f sulphate ( potass 7or ( soda7 by fus+ ! salt ) an alkali1 & ?r[+ 9 coals to supply phlogi/on4 ,?is is ! exp]im5tum novum4 ,?\gh ,/ahl publi%$ an acc\nt ( ?is process1 he seems to h regrett$ 8 op5ness4 ,he d5ies n1 he says1 t he %\ld p]adv5ture h dissembl$ ?is exp]im5t z ! true f\ndation ( ! ,bec*]ian ass]tion conc]n+ ! nature ( sulphur1 if he _h n be5 provok$ by ! pret5d+ arrogance ( "s ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,note #aaad3 9999,/ahl1 ,prf4 ad ,specim4 ,bec*4 #agjc4 ,note #abad3 ,p4 #aag4 ,f ?is "t1 ,/ahl's confid5ce 9 8 !ory may be trac$ becom+ m & m settl$ 9 8 succe$+ publications4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to obs]ve "h1 t ! explanations :i* 8 !ory gives are easily trans=m$ into ^? :i* ! m rec5t !ory supplies4 ,accord+ to mod]n views1 ! addition ( oxyg5 takes place 9 ! =mation ( acids & ( calces1 & 9 combu/ion1 in/ead ( ! subtraction ( phlogi/on4 ,! coal :i* ,/ahl suppos$ to supply ! combu/ible 9 8 exp]im5t1 does 9 fact absorb ! lib]at$ oxyg54 ,9 l mann]1 :5 an acid corrodes a metal1 &1 accord+ to exi/+ !ory1 comb9es ) & oxidates x1 ,/ahl suppos$ t ! phlogi/on sep>at$ f ! metal & comb9$ ) ! acid4 ,t ! explanations ( ! phlogi/ic !ory are s g5]ally capable ( be+ translat$ into ! oxyg5 !ory1 m]ely by inv]t+ ! suppos$ transf] ( ! combu/ible elem5t1 %[s u h[ important a /ep t[>ds ! mod]n doctr9es ! phlogi/ic !ory really 04 ,! "q1 :e!r ^! processes 7 9 fact addition or subtraction1 0 decid$ by ! balance1 & belongs to a succe$+ p]iod ( ! sci5ce4 ,b we may obs]ve1 t bo? ,bec*] & ,/ahl 7 aw>e ( ! increase ( weight :i* metals und]go 9 #bgj calc9ation2 al?\gh ! "t _h n yet arriv$ 9 :i* ?is fact 0 to be made "o ( ! bases ( ! !ory4 ,x has be5 said1#acad t 9 ! adoption ( ! phlogi/ic !ory1 t is1 9 suppos+ ! above-m5tion$ processes to be addition r ?an subtraction1 ( two possible roads ! wrong 0 *os51 z if to prove ! p]v]sity ( ! human m9d4 ,b we mu/ n =get h[ natural x 0 to suppose t "s "p ( a body 0 de/roy$ or remov$ by combu/ion2 & we may obs]ve1 t ! m]it ( ,bec*] & ,/ahl did n consi/ 9 ! selection ( "o road or two1 b 9 advanc+ s f> z to rea* ?is po9t ( sep>ation4 ,t1 hav+ done ?is1 !y w5t a little fur!r on ! wrong l9e1 0 an error :i* detract$ little f ! m]it or value ( ! progress really made4 ,x w\ld be easy to %[1 f ! writ+s ( phlogi/ic *emi/s1 :at important & ext5sive tru?s _! !ory enabl$ !m to express simply & cle>ly4 ,note #acad3 ,h]s*el's ,introd4 to ,nat4 ,phil4 p4 #cjj4 ,t an en?usia/ic temp] is favorable to ! production ( great discov]ies 9 sci5ce1 is a rule :i* suff]s no exception 9 ! "* ( ,bec*]4 ,9 8 preface#adad address$ to ! b5evol5t read] ( 8 ,physica ,subt]ranea1 he speaks ( ! *emi/s z a /range class ( mortals1 impell$ by an almo/ insane impulse to seek _! pleasure among smoke & vapor1 soot & flame1 poisons & pov]ty4 ,yet among all ^! evils1 he says1 ,i seem to myself to live s sweetly1 t1 may ,i die if ,i w\ld *ange places ) ! ,p]sian k+4 ,he is1 inde$1 well wor?y ( admiration1 z "o ( ! fir/ :o pursu$ ! labors ( ! furnace & ! laboratory1 )\t ! bribe ( gold5 hopes4 ,my k+dom1 he says1 is n ( ?is _w4 ,i tru/ t ,i h got hold ( my pit*] by ! "r h&le1--! true me?od ( treat+ ?is /udy4 ,= ! ,pseudo*ymi/s seek gold2 b ! true philosoph]s1 sci5ce1 :i* is m preci\s ?an any gold4 ,note #adad3 ,frank=t1 #afha4 ,! ,physica ,subt]ranea made no conv]ts4 ,/ahl1 9 8 indignant mann]1 says1#aead ,no "o w wond] t x nev] yet obta9$ a physician or a *emi/ z a disciple1 /ill less z an advocate4 ,& aga91 ,?is "w obta9$ v little reputation or e/imation1 or1 to speak +5u\sly1 z f> z ,i "k1 none :atev]4 ,9 #afga1 ,bec*] publi%$ a supplem5t to 8 "w1 9 :i* he %[$ h[ metal might be extract$ f mud & s&4 ,he (f]$ to execute #bga ?is at ,vi5na2 b f\nd t p !re c>$ no?+ ab\t su* novelties4 ,he 0 !n induc$1 by ,b>on ,d',isola1 to g to ,holl& = simil> purposes4 ,aft] v>i\s delays & qu>rels1 he 0 oblig$ to leave ,holl& = fe> ( 8 cr$itors2 & !n1 ,i suppose1 came to ,great ,brita91 :]e he exam9$ ! ,scotti% & ,corni% m9es4 ,he is said to h di$ 9 ,london 9 #afhb4 ,note #aead3 ,prf4 ,phys4 ,sub4 #agjc4 ,/ahl's publications appe> to h excit$ m notice1 & l$ to controv]sy on ! s-call$ sulphur4 ,! success ( ! exp]im5t _h be5 d\bt$1 :i*1 z he rem>ks1 x 0 fooli% to make a matt] ( discussion1 :5 any "o might decide ! po9t by exp]im5t2 & f9ally1 x _h be5 que/ion$ :e!r ! sub/ance obta9$ by ?is process 7 pure sulphur4 ,! orig9ality ( 8 doctr9e 0 also que/ion$1 :i*1 z he says1 c\ld n ) any ju/ice be impugn$4 ,he publi%$ 9 def5ce & developm5t ( 8 op9ion at v>i\s int]vals1 z ! ,specim5 ,bec*]ianum 9 #agjc1 ! ,docum5tum ,!ori ,bee*]ian1 a ,diss]tation ,de ,anatomia ,sulphuris ,artificialis2 & f9ally1 ,casual ,?\ghts on ! s-call$ ,sulphur1 9 #agah1 9 :i* he gave 79 ,g]man7 bo? a hi/orical & a sy/ematic view ( 8 op9ions on ! nature ( salts & ( 8 ,phlogi/on4 ,reception & ,application ( ! ,!ory4--,! !ory t ! =mation ( sulphuric acid1 & ! re/oration ( metals f _! calces1 are analog\s processes1 & consi/ 9 ! addition ( phlogi/on1 0 soon widely receiv$2 & ! ,phlogi/ic ,s*ool 0 ?us e/abli%$4 ,f ,b]l91 its orig9al seat1 x 0 diffus$ into all p>ts ( ,europe4 ,! g5]al reception ( ! !ory may be trac$1 n only 9 ! use ( ! t]m phlogi/on1 & ( ! explanations :i* x implies2 b 9 ! adoption ( a nom5clature f\nd$ on ^? explanations1 :i*1 ?\gh n v ext5sive1 is suffici5t evid5ce ( ! preval5ce ( ! !ory4 ,?us :5 ,prie/ley1 9 #aggd1 discov]$ oxyg51 & :5 ,s*eele1 a little lat]1 discov]$ *lor9e1 ^! gases 7 t]m$ dephlogi/icat$ air1 & dephlogi/icat$ m>9e acid2 :ile azotic acid gas1 hav+ no disposition to combu/ion1 0 suppos$ to be saturat$ ) phlogi/on1 & 0 call$ phlogi/icat$ air4 ,?is phraseology kept its gr\nd1 till x 0 expell$ by ! antiphlogi/ic1 or oxyg5 !ory4 ,= in/ance4 ,cav5di%'s pap]s on ! *emi/ry ( ! airs are express$ 9 t]ms ( x1 al?\gh 8 rese>*es l$ him to ! conf9es ( ! new !ory4 ,we mu/ n[ give an acc\nt ( su* rese>*es1 & ( ! consequ5t revolution 9 ! sci5ce4 #bgb ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,gases4--,,black4 ,,cav5di%4 ,,! /udy ( ! prop]ties ( ari=m sub/ances1 or ,pneumatic ,*emi/ry1 z x 0 call$1 occupi$ ! *emi/s ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & 0 ! ma9 occasion ( ! great advances :i* ! sci5ce made at t p]iod4 ,! mo/ mat]ial g5]al tru?s :i* came into view 9 ! c\rse ( ^! rese>*es1 71 t gases 7 to be numb]$ among ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( solid & fluid bodies2 & t1 9 ^!1 z 9 all o!r cases ( composition1 ! comp\nd 0 equal to ! sum ( its elem5ts4 ,! latt] proposition1 inde$1 _c be look$ ^u z a discov]y1 = x _h be5 frequ5tly ackn[l$g$1 ?\gh little appli$2 9 fact1 x c\ld n be ref]r$ to ) any advantage1 till ! ari=m elem5ts1 z well z o!rs1 7 tak5 into ! acc\nt4 ,z soon z ?is 0 done1 x produc$ a revolution 9 *emi/ry4 #bnd ,ed4 ,?\gh ! view ( ! mode 9 :i* gase\s elem5ts become fix$ 9 bodies & det]m9e _! prop]ties1 _h great additional light ?r[n ^u x by ,dr4 ,black's discov]ies1 z we %all see1 ! notion t solid bodies involve su* gase\s elem5ts 0 n new at t p]iod4 ,mr4 ,v]non ,h>c\rt has %[n#afad t ,newton & ,boyle admitt$ into _! speculations airs ( v>i\s k9ds1 capable ( fixation 9 bodies4 ,i h1 9 ! succe$+ *apt] 7*ap4 vi471 spok5 ( ! views ( ,rey1 ,hooke1 & ,may[1 connect$ ) ! function ( airs 9 *emi/ry1 & =m+ a prelude to ! ,oxyg5 ,!ory4 ,note #afad3 ,phil4 ,mag4 #ahdf4 ,not)/&+ ^! preludes1 ! cr$it ( ! fir/ great /ep 9 pneumatic *emi/ry is1 ) ju/ice1 assign$ to ,dr4 ,black1 aft]w>ds pr(essor at ,ed9burgh1 b a "y man ( ! age ( tw5ty-f\r at ! "t :5 he made 8 discov]y4#agad ,he f\nd t ! diff]5ce betwe5 cau/ic lime & common lime/one arose f ?is1 t ! latt] sub/ance consi/s ( ! =m]1 comb9$ ) a c]ta9 air1 :i*1 be+ ?us fix$ 9 ! solid body1 he call$ fix$ air 7c>bonic #bgc acid gas74 ,he f\nd1 too1 t magnesia1 cau/ic pota%1 & cau/ic soda1 w\ld comb9e ) ! same air1 ) simil> results4 ,?is discov]y consi/$1 ( c\rse1 9 a new int]pretation ( obs]v$ *anges4 ,alkalies appe>$ to be made cau/ic by contact ) quicklime3 at fir/ ,black imag9$ t !y und]w5t ?is *ange by acquir+ igne\s matt] f ! quicklime2 b :5 he p]ceiv$ t ! lime ga9$1 n lo/1 9 magnitude z x became mild1 he rightly suppos$ t ! alkalies 7 r5d]$ cau/ic by imp>t+ _! air to ! lime4 ,?is discov]y 0 ann\nc$ 9 ,black's inaugural diss]tation1 pron\nc$ 9 #agee1 on ! occasion ( 8 tak+ 8 degree ( ,doctor 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh4 ,note #agad3 ,?omson's ,hi/4 ,*em4 i4 #cag4 ,! *emi/ry ( airs 0 pursu$ by o!r exp]im5t]s4 ,! ,honorable ,h5ry ,cav5di%1 ab\t #agfe1 inv5t$ an app>atus1 9 :i* arial fluids are conf9$ by wat]1 s t !y c be manag$ & exam9$4 ,?is hydro-pneumatic app>atus1 or z x is sometimes call$1 ! pneumatic tr\gh1 f t "t 0 "o ( ! mo/ indisp5sable p>ts ( ! *emi/'s app>atus4 ,cav5di%1#ahad 9 #agff1 %[$ ! id5tity ( ! prop]ties ( fix$ air d]iv$ f v>i\s s\rces2 & po9t$ out ! peculi> qualities ( inflammable air 7aft]w>ds call$ hydrog5 gas71 :i*1 be+ n9e times light] ?an common air1 soon attract$ g5]al notice by its employm5t = rais+ balloons4 ,! promise ( discov]y :i* ?is subject n[ (f]$1 attract$ ! confid5t & busy m9d ( ,prie/ley1 ^: ,exp]im5ts & ,obs]vations on diff]5t k9ds ( ,air appe>$ 9 #agdd-gi4 ,9 ^! volumes1 he describes an extraord9>y numb] ( trials ( v>i\s k9ds2 ! results ( :i* 71 ! discov]y ( new k9ds ( air1 namely1 phlogi/icat$ air 7azotic gas71 nitr\s air 7nitr\s gas71 & dephlogi/icat$ air 7oxyg5 gas74 ,note #ahad3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agff4 ,b ! discov]y ( new sub/ances1 ?\gh valuable 9 supply+ *emi/ry ) mat]ials1 0 n s important z discov]ies respect+ _! modes ( composition4 ,among su* discov]ies1 t ( ,cav5di%1 publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #aghd1 & disclos+ ! composition ( wat] by ! union ( two gases1 oxyg5 & hydrog51 mu/ be consid]$ z hold+ a mo/ di/+ui%$ place4 ,he /ates1#aiad t 8 exp]im5ts 7 made pr9cipally ) a view to f9d out ! cause ( ! dim9ution :i* common air is well kn[n to suff]1 by all ! v>i\s ways 9 :i* x is phlogi/icat$4 ,&1 aft] describ+ v>i\s unsuccessful attempts1 he f9ds #bgd t :5 inflammable air is us$ 9 ?is phlogi/ication 7or burn+71 ! dim9ution ( ! common air is accompani$ by ! =mation ( a dew 9 ! app>atus4#bjad ,& ?us he inf]s#baad t almo/ all ! inflammable air1 & "o-fif? ( ! common air1 are turn$ into pure wat]4 ,note #aiad3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aghd1 p4 #aai4 ,note #bjad3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aghd1 p4 #abh4 ,note #baad3 ,ib4 p4 #abi4 ,lavoisi]1 to ^: rese>*es ?is result 01 z we %all soon see1 v important1 0 employ$ 9 a simil> attempt at ! same "t 7#aghc71 & _h already succe$$1#bbad :5 he le>n$ f ,dr4 ,blagd51 :o 0 pres5t at ! exp]im5t1 t ,cav5di% _h made ! discov]y a few mon?s soon]4 ,monge _h1 ab\t ! same "t1 made ! same exp]im5ts1 & communicat$ ! result to ,lavoisi] & ,laplace imm$iately aft]w>ds4 ,! syn!sis 0 soon confirm$ by a correspond+ analysis4 ,inde$ ! discov]y und\bt$ly lay 9 ! direct pa? ( *emical rese>* at ! "t4 ,x 0 ( great consequ5ce 9 ! view x gave ( exp]im5ts 9 composition2 = ! small quantity ( wat] produc$ 9 _m su* processes1 _h be5 q ov]look$2 ?\gh1 z x n[ appe>$1 ?is wat] (f]$ ! key to ! :ole int]pretation ( ! *ange4 ,note #bbad3 ,a4 ,p4 #agha1 p4 #dgb ,?\gh "s objections to ,mr4 ,cav5di%'s view 7 (f]$ by ,kirwan1#bcad on ! :ole !y 7 g5]ally receiv$ ) ass5t & admiration4 ,b ! be>+ ( ^! discov]ies ^u ! new !ory ( ,lavoisi]1 :o reject$ phlogi/on1 0 s close1 t we _c fur!r trace ! hi/ory ( ! subject )\t proce$+ imm$iately to t !ory4 ,note #bcad3 ,p4 ,t4 #aghd1 p4 #aed4 #bnd ,ed4 ,i h else:]e /at$1#bdad--) ref]5ce to rec5t attempts to deprive ,cav5di% ( ! cr$it ( 8 discov]y ( ! composition ( wat]1 & to transf] x to ,watt1--t ,watt n only did n anticipate1 b did n fully appreciate ! discov]y ( ,cav5di% & ,lavoisi]2 & ,i h express$ my concurr5ce ) ,mr4 ,v]non ,h>c\rt's views1 :5 he says1#bead t ,cav5di% p>$ (f f ! curr5t hypo!ses _! !ory ( combu/ion1 & _! aff9ities ( impond]able = pond]able matt]1 z complicat+ *emical ) physical consid]ations2 & he !n correct$ & adju/$ !m ) admirable skill to ! actual ph5om5a1 n b9d+ ! facts to ! !ory1 b adapt+ ! !ory to ! facts4 ,note #bdad3 ,philosophy1 b4 vi4 c4 #d4 ,note #bead3 ,address to ! ,briti% ,association1 #ahci4 ,i conceive t ! discussion :i* ! subject has rec5tly receiv$1 has left no d\bt on ! m9d ( any "o :o has p]us$ ! #bge docum5ts1 t ,cav5di% is ju/ly entitl$ to ! honor ( ?is discov]y1 :i* 9 8 own "t 0 nev] conte/$4 ,! publication ( 8 ,j\rnals ( ,exp]im5ts#bfad %[s t he succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ ! po9t 9 "q 9 ,july1 #agha4 ,8 exp]im5ts are ref]r$ to 9 an ab/ract ( a pap] ( ,prie/ley's1 made by ,dr4 ,maty1 ! secret>y ( ! ,royal ,society1 9 ,june1 #aghc4 ,9 ,june1 #aghc1 also1 ,dr4 ,blagd5 communicat$ ! result ( ,cav5di%'s exp]im5ts to ,lavoisi]1 at ,p>is4 ,watt's lett]1 conta9+ 8 hypo!sis t wat] is compos$ ( dephlogi/icat$ air & phlogi/on depriv$ ( "p ( _! lat5t or elem5t>y heat2 & t phlogi/icat$ or pure air is compos$ ( wat] depriv$ ( its phlogi/on & unit$ to elem5t>y heat & light1 0 n read till ,nov4 #aghc2 & ev5 if x c\ld h sugge/$ su* an exp]im5t z ,cav5di%'s 7:i* does n appe> likely71 is prov$1 by ! dates1 to h _h no %>e 9 do+ s4 ,note #bfad3 ,app5dix to ,mr4 ,v4 ,h>c\rt's ,address ,mr4 ,cav5di%'s exp]im5t 0 sugge/$ by an exp]im5t 9 :i* ,w>ltire1 a lectur] on *emi/ry at ,birm+ham1 explod$ a mixture ( hydrog5 & common air 9 a close vessel1 9 ord] to det]m9e :e!r heat 7 pond]able4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,epo* ,,( ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,oxyg54--,,lavoisi]4 ,sect4 #a4--,prelude to ! ,!ory4--,its ,publication4 ,,we arrive n[ at a great epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry4 ,few revolutions 9 sci5ce h imm$iately excit$ s mu* g5]al notice z ! introduction ( ! !ory ( oxyg54 ,! simplicity & symmetry ( ! modes ( comb9ation :i* x assum$2 &1 above all1 ! con/ruction & univ]sal adoption ( a nom5clature :i* appli$ to all sub/ances1 & :i* seem$ to reveal _! inmo/ con/itution by _! "n1 naturally gave x an almo/ irresi/ible sway ov] m5's m9ds4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 dispassionately trace ! c\rse ( its introduction4 #bgf ,anto9e ,laur5t ,lavoisi]1 an accompli%$ ,fr5* *emi/1 _h pursu$1 ) zeal & skill1 rese>*es su* z ^? ( ,black1 ,cav5di%1 & ,prie/ley1 :i* we h describ$ above4 ,9 #aggd1 he %[$ t1 9 ! calc9ation ( metals 9 air1 ! metal acquires z mu* weight z ! air loses4 ,x might appe> t ?is discov]y at once ov]turn$ ! view :i* suppos$ ! metal to be phlogi/on add$ to ! calx4 ,lavoisi]'s contempor>ies 71 h[ev]1 f> f all[+ ?is2 a great] mass ( argum5t 0 ne$$ to br+ !m to ?is conclusion4 ,conv9c+ pro(s ( ! new op9ion 71 h[ev]1 rapidly suppli$4 ,?us1 :5 ,prie/ley _h discov]$ dephlogi/icat$ air1 9 #aggd1 ,lavoisi] %[$1 9 #aggf1 t fix$ air consi/$ ( *>coal & ! dephlogi/icat$ or pure air2 = ! m]curial calx :i*1 heat$ by itself1 gives out pure air1 gives out1 :5 heat$ ) *>coal1 fix$ air1#bgad :i* has1 !re=e1 s9ce be5 call$ c>bonic acid gas4 ,note #bgad3 ,mm4 ,ac4 ,p>4 #agge4 ,aga91 ,lavoisi] %[$ t ! atmosph]ic air consi/s ( pure or vital air1 & ( an unvital air1 :i* he !nce call$ azot4 ,! vital air he f\nd to be ! ag5t 9 combu/ion1 acidification1 calc9ation1 respiration2 all ( ^! processes 7 analog\s3 all consi/$ 9 a decomposition ( ! atmosph]ic air1 & a fixation ( ! pure or vital portion ( x4 ,b he ?us arriv$ at ! conclusion1 t ?is pure air 0 add$1 9 all ! cases 9 :i*1 accord+ to ! receiv$ !ory1 phlogi/on 0 subtract$1 & vice v]s4 ,he gave ! "n#bhad ( oxyg5 7pr9cipe oxygne7 to ! sub/ance :i* ?us unites itself ) metals to =m _! calces1 & ) combu/ible sub/ances to =m acids4 ,note #bhad3 ,mm4 ,ac4 ,p>4 #agha1 p4 #ddh4 ,a new !ory 0 ?us produc$1 :i* w\ld acc\nt = all ! facts :i* ! old "o w\ld expla91 & _h besides ! evid5ce ( ! balance 9 its favor4 ,b !re /ill rema9$ "s app>5t objections to be remov$4 ,9 ! action ( dilute acids on metals1 inflammable air 0 produc$4 ,:5ce came ?is elem5t8 ,! discov]y ( ! decomposition ( wat] suffici5tly answ]$ ?is "q1 & conv]t$ ! objection into an argum5t on ! side ( ! !ory3 & ?us ! decomposition ( wat] 01 9 fact1 "o ( ! mo/ critical ev5ts = ! =tune ( ! ,lavoisi]ian doctr9e1 & "o :i*1 m ?an any o!r1 decid$ *emi/s 9 its favor4 ,9 succe$+ ye>s1 ,lavoisi] %[$ ! consi/5cy ( 8 !ory ) #bgg all t 0 discov]$ conc]n+ ! composition ( alcohol1 oil1 animal & vegetable sub/ances1 & _m o!r bodies4 ,x is n necess>y = u to consid] any fur!r ! evid5ce = ?is !ory1 b we mu/ record a few circum/ances respect+ its e>li] hi/ory4 ,rey1 a ,fr5* physician1 _h 9 #afcj1 publi%$ a book1 9 :i* he inquires into ! gr\nds ( ! increase ( ! weight ( metals by calc9ation4#biad ,he says1 ,to ?is "q1 !n1 support$ on ! gr\nds already m5tion$1 ,i answ]1 & ma9ta9 ) confid5ce1 t ! increase ( weight arises f ! air1 :i* is cond5s$1 r5d]$ heavy & adhesive1 by ! heat ( ! furnace4 ,hooke & ,may[ _h ent]ta9$ ! op9ion t ! air conta9s a nitr\s _s1 :i* is ! support] ( combu/ion4 ,b ,lavoisi] disclaim$ ! *>ge ( hav+ d]iv$ any?+ f ^! s\rces2 nor is x difficult to und]/& h[ ! receiv$ g5]alizations ( ! phlogi/ic !ory _h ?r[n all su* n>r[] explanations into obscurity4 ,! m]it ( ,lavoisi] consi/$ 9 8 comb9+ ! g5]ality ( ,/ahl ) ! v]ifi$ conjectures ( ,rey & ,may[4 ,note #biad3 ,?omson1 ,hi/4 ,*em4 ii4 #ie4 ,no "o c\ld h a bett] claim1 by 8 e>ly en?usiasm = sci5ce1 8 ext5sive k1 & 8 zeal\s labors1 to hope t a great discov]y might fall to 8 %>e1 ?an ,lavoisi]4 ,8 fa!r1#cjad a man ( consid]able =tune1 _h all[$ him to make sci5ce 8 only pr(ession2 & ! zeal\s philosoph] collect$ ab\t him a numb] ( ! mo/ active physical inquir]s ( 8 "t1 :o met & exp]im5t$ at 8 h\se "o day 9 ! week4 ,9 ?is s*ool1 ! new *emi/ry 0 gradually =m$4 ,a few ye>s aft] ! publication ( ,prie/ley's fir/ exp]im5ts1 ,lavoisi] 0 /ruck ) ! pres5tim5t ( ! !ory :i* he 0 aft]w>ds to produce4 ,9 #aggb1 he deposit$#caad ) ! secret>y ( ! ,academy1 a note :i* conta9$ ! g]m ( 8 future doctr9es4 ,at t "t1 he says1 9 expla9+ ?is /ep1 !re 0 a k9d ( rivalry betwe5 ,france & ,engl& 9 sci5ce1 :i* gave importance to new exp]im5ts1 & :i* sometimes 0 ! cause t ! writ]s ( ! "o or o!r ( ! nations disput$ ! discov]y ) ! real au?or4 ,9 #aggg1 ! editor ( ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy speaks ( 8 !ory z ov]turn+ t ( ,/ahl2 b ! g5]al acceptance ( ! new op9ion did n take place till lat]4 #bgh ,note #cjad3 ,biogr4 ,univ4 7,cuvi]47 ,note #caad3 ,?omson1 ii4 #ii4 ,sect4 #b4--,reception & ,confirmation ( ! ,!ory ( ,oxyg54 ,,! ,oxyg5 ,!ory made its way ) extraord9>y rapidity among ! be/ philosoph]s4#cbad ,9 #aghe1 t is1 soon aft] ,cav5di%'s syn!sis ( wat] _h remov$ "s ( ! mo/ =midable objections to x1 ,b]?ollet1 already an em95t *emi/1 decl>$ himself a conv]t4 ,inde$ x 0 s soon g5]ally adopt$ 9 ,france1 t ,f\rcroy promulgat$ its doctr9es "u ! "n ( ,la ,*imie ,franaise1 a title :i* ,lavoisi] did n altoge!r reli%4 ,! extraord9>y eloqu5ce & success ( ,f\rcroy z a lectur] at ! ,j>d9 des ,plantes1 _h no small %>e 9 ! diffusion ( ! oxyg5 !ory2 & ! "n ( ! apo/le ( ! new *emi/ry :i* 0 at fir/ giv5 him 9 ridicule1 0 ju/ly held by him to be a glori\s di/9ction4#ccad ,note #cbad3 ,?omson1 ii4 #acj4 ,note #ccad3 ,cuvi]1 ,eloges1 i4 p4 #bj4 ,guyton de ,morveau1 :o _h at fir/ be5 a /r5u\s advocate ( ! phlogi/ic !ory1 0 invit$ to ,p>is1 & br\ght ov] to ! op9ions ( ,lavoisi]2 & soon jo9$ 9 ! =mation ( ! nom5clature f\nd$ ^u ! !ory4 ,?is /ep1 ( :i* we %all %ortly speak1 fix$ ! new doctr9e1 & diffus$ x fur!r4 ,delame!rie alone def5d$ ! phlogi/ic !ory ) vigor1 & inde$ ) viol5ce4 ,he 0 ! editor ( ! ,j\rnal de ,physique1 & to evade ! influ5ce :i* ?is gave him1 ! antiphlogi/ians#cdad e/abli%$1 z ! vehicle ( _! op9ions1 ano!r p]iodical1 ! ,annales de ,*imie4 ,note #cdad3 ,?omson1 ii4 #acc4 ,9 ,engl&1 inde$1 _! success 0 n s imm$iate4 ,cav5di%1#cead 9 8 ,memoir ( #aghd1 speaks ( ! "q betwe5 ! two op9ions z d\btful4 ,!re are1 he says1 sev]al ,memoirs ( ,m4 ,lavoisi]1 9 :i* he entirely disc>ds phlogi/on2 & z n only ! =ego+ exp]im5ts1 b mo/ o!r ph5om5a ( nature1 seem explicable z well1 or ne>ly z well1 ^u ?is z ^u ! commonly believ$ pr9ciple ( phlogi/on1 ,cav5di% proce$s to expla9 8 exp]im5ts accord+ to ! new views1 express+ no decid$ pref]5ce1 h[ev]1 = ei!r sy/em4 ,b ,kirwan1 ano!r ,engli% *emi/1 conte/$ ! po9t mu* m resolutely4 ,8 !ory id5tifi$ inflammable air1 or hydrog51 ) phlogi/on2 & 9 ?is view1 he wrote a "w :i* 0 int5d$ z a confutation ( #bgi ! ess5tial "p ( ! oxyg5 !ory4 ,x is a /rong pro( ( ! /ead9ess & cle>ness ) :i* ! advocates ( ! new sy/em possess$ _! pr9ciples1 t !y imm$iately translat$ ?is "w1 add+1 at ! end ( ea* *apt]1 a refutation ( ! phlogi/ic doctr9es :i* x conta9$4 ,lavoisi]1 ,b]?ollet1 ,de ,morveau1 ,f\rcroy1 & ,monge1 7 ! au?ors ( ?is curi\s specim5 ( sci5tific polemics4 ,x is also rem>kable evid5ce ( ! c&or ( ,kirwan1 t not)/&+ ! prom95t "p he _h tak5 9 ! controv]sy1 he all[$ himself at la/ to be conv9c$4 ,aft] a /ruggle ( t5 ye>s1 he wrote#cfad to ,b]?ollet 9 #agif1 ,i lay d[n my arms1 & ab&on ! cause ( phlogi/on4 ,black foll[$ ! same c\rse4 ,prie/ley alone1 ( all ! *emi/s ( great "n1 w\ld nev] ass5t to ! new doctr9es1 ?\gh 8 own discov]ies _h contribut$ s mu* to _! e/abli%m5t4 ,he saw1 says ,cuvi]1#cgad )\t fl9*+1 ! mo/ skilful def5d]s ( ! anci5t !ory g ov] to ! enemy 9 succession2 & :5 ,kirwan _h1 almo/ ! la/ ( all1 abjur$ phlogi/on1 ,prie/ley rema9$ alone on ! field ( battle1 & ?rew out a new *all5ge1 9 a memoir address$ to ! pr9cipal ,fr5* *emi/s4 ,x happ5$1 curi\sly en\gh1 t ! *all5ge 0 accept$1 & ! argum5ts answ]$ by ,m4 ,adet1 :o 0 at t "t 7#agih17 ! ,fr5* ambassador to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 :i* c\ntry ,prie/ley's "w 0 publi%$4 ,ev5 9 ,g]many1 ! bir?-place & home ( ! phlogi/ic !ory1 ! /ruggle 0 n long protract$4 ,!re 01 inde$1 a controv]sy1 ! old] philosoph]s be+1 z usual1 ! def5d]s ( ! e/abli%$ doctr9es2 b 9 #agib1 ,klapro? repeat$1 be=e ! ,academy ( ,b]l91 all ! fundam5tal exp]im5ts2 & ! result 0 a full conviction on ! "p ( ,klapro? & ! ,academy1 t ! ,lavoisi]ian !ory 0 ! true "o4#chad ,^u ! :ole1 ! introduction ( ! ,lavoisi]ian !ory 9 ! sci5tific _w1 :5 comp>$ ) ! great revolution ( op9ion to :i* x comes ne>e/ 9 importance1 ! introduction ( ! ,newtonian !ory1 %[s1 by ! rapidity & temp] ) :i* x took place1 a great improvem5t1 bo? 9 ! means ( arriv+ at tru?1 & 9 ! _s ) :i* !y 7 us$4 ,note #cead3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aghd1 p4 #aej4 ,note #cfad3 ,pref4 to ,f\rcroy's ,*emi/ry1 xiv4 ,note #cgad3 ,cuvi]1 ,eloge de ,prie/ley1 p4 #bjh4 ,note #chad3 ,?omson1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acf4 ,"s ,engli% writ]s#ciad h express$ an op9ion t !re 0 #bhj little t 0 orig9al 9 ! new doctr9es4 ,b if !y 7 s obvi\s1 :at are we to say ( em95t *emi/s1 z ,black & ,cav5di%1 :o hesitat$ :5 !y 7 pres5t$1 or ,kirwan & ,prie/ley1 :o reject$ !m8 ,?is at lea/ %[s t x requir$ "s peculi> insight to see ! evid5ce ( ^! tru?s4 ,to say t mo/ ( ! mat]ials ( ,lavoisi]'s !ory exi/$ be=e him1 is only to say t 8 great m]it 01 t :i* mu/ always be ! great m]it ( a new !ory1 8 g5]alization4 ,! effect :i* ! publication ( 8 doctr9es produc$1 %[s u t he 0 ! fir/ p]son :o1 possess+ cle>ly ! idea ( quantitative composition1 appli$ x /eadily to a great range ( well-asc]ta9$ facts4 ,?is is1 z we h (t5 _h to obs]ve1 precisely ! univ]sal description ( an inductive discov]]4 ,x has be5 object$1 9 l mann]1 to ! orig9ality ( ,newton's discov]ies1 t !y 7 conta9$ 9 ^? ( ,kepl]4 ,!y 7 s1 b !y ne$$ a ,newton to f9d !m !re4 ,! orig9ality ( ! !ory ( oxyg5 is prov$ by ! conflict1 %ort z x 01 :i* accompani$ its promulgation2 its importance is %[n by ! *anges :i* x soon occasion$ 9 e "p ( ! sci5ce4 ,note #ciad3 ,br&e1 ,hi/4 ,diss4 9 ,enc1 ,brit4 p4 #ahb4 ,lunn1 ,*em4 9 ,enc4 ,met4 p4 #eif4 ,?us ,lavoisi]1 f> m =tunate ?an mo/ ( ^? :o _h1 9 e>li] ages1 produc$ revolutions 9 sci5ce1 saw 8 !ory accept$ by all ! mo/ em95t m5 ( 8 "t1 & e/abli%$ ov] a great "p ( ,europe )9 a few ye>s f its fir/ promulgation4 ,9 ! common c\rse ( ev5ts1 x might h be5 expect$ t ! lat] ye>s ( 8 life w\ld h be5 sp5t amid ! admiration & rev]5ce :i* naturally wait ^u ! patri>* ( a new sy/em ( ackn[l$g$ tru?s4 ,b ! times 9 :i* he liv$ all[$ no su* eu?anasia to em95ce ( any k9d4 ,! democracy :i* ov]?rew ! anci5t political in/itutions ( ,france1 & swept away ! nobles ( ! l&1 0 n1 z might h be5 expect$1 en?usia/ic 9 its admiration ( a great revolution 9 sci5ce1 & =w>d to (f] its homage to ! g5u9e nobility ( a great discov]]4 ,lavoisi] 0 ?r[n into prison on "s wret*$ *>ge ( hav+1 9 ! dis*>ge ( a public (fice :i* he _h held1 adult]at$ c]ta9 tobacco2 b 9 reality1 = ! purpose ( confiscat+ 8 prop]ty4#djad ,9 8 imprisonm5t1 8 philosophy 0 8 res\rce2 & he employ$ himself 9 ! prep>ation ( 8 pap]s = pr9t+4 ,:5 he 0 br\ght be=e ! revolution>y tribunal1 he begg$ = a respite ( a few days1 9 ord] to complete "s rese>*es1 ! results ( :i* #bha 71 he said1 important to ! good ( humanity4 ,! bruti% idiot1 :om ! /ate ( ! c\ntry at t "t _h plac$ 9 ! judgm5t-seat1 told him t ! republic want$ no savans4 ,he 0 dragg$ to ! guillot9e1 ,may ! #h?1 #agid1 & behead$1 9 ! fifty-second ye> ( 8 age2 a melan*oly pro( t1 9 p]iods ( political f]ocity1 innoc5ce & m]it1 private virtues & public s]vices1 amiable mann]s & ! love ( fri5ds1 lit]>y fame & exalt$ g5ius1 are all z no?+ to protect _! possessor f ! la/ extremes ( viol5ce & wrong1 inflict$ "u judicial =ms4 ,note #djad3 ,biog4 ,univ4 7,cuvi]47 ,sect4 #c4--,nom5clature ( ! ,oxyg5 ,!ory4 ,,z we h already said1 a p[]ful in/rum5t 9 e/abli%+ & diffus+ ! new *emical !ory1 0 a ,sy/ematic ,nom5clature f\nd$ ^u x1 & applicable to all *emical comp\nds1 :i* 0 soon con/ruct$ & publi%$ by ! au?ors ( ! !ory4 ,su* a nom5clature made its way into g5]al use ! m easily1 9 t ! want ( su* a sy/em _h already be5 sev]ely felt2 ! names 9 common use be+ fanta/ical1 arbitr>y1 & multipli$ beyond measure4 ,! numb] ( kn[n sub/ances _h become s great1 t a li/ ( names ) no regulative pr9ciple1 f\nd$ on accid5t1 caprice1 & error1 0 too cumbr\s & inconv5i5t to be tol]at$4 ,ev5 be=e ! curr5cy :i* ,lavoisi]'s !ory obta9$1 ^! evils _h l$ to attempts t[>ds a m conv5i5t set ( names4 ,b]gman & ,black _h con/ruct$ su* li/s2 & ,guyton de ,morveau1 a clev] & accompli%$ lawy] ( ,dijon1 _h =m$ a sy/em ( nom5clature 9 #aghb1 be=e he _h become a conv]t to ,lavoisi]'s !ory1 9 :i* task he _h be5 exhort$ & enc\rag$ by ,b]gman & ,macqu]4 ,9 ?is sy/em1#daad we d n f9d mo/ ( ! *>act]s ( ! me?od :i* 0 aft]w>ds adopt$4 ,b a few ye>s lat]1 ,lavoisi]1 ,de ,morveau1 ,b]?ollet & ,f\rcroy1 associat$ !mselves = ! purpose ( produc+ a nom5clature :i* %\ld correspond to ! new !oretical views4 ,?is appe>$ 9 #aghg1 & soon made its way into g5]al use4 ,! ma9 features ( ?is sy/em are1 a selection ( ! simple/ radical words1 by :i* sub/ances are designat$1 & a sy/ematic di/ribution ( t]m9ations1 to express _! relations4 ,?us1 sulphur1 comb9$ ) oxyg5 9 two diff]5t proportions1 =ms two acids1 ! #bhb sulphurous & ! sulphuric2 & ^! acids =m1 ) e>?y or alkal9e bases1 sulphides & sulphates2 :ile sulphur directly comb9$ ) ano!r elem5t1 =ms a sulphuret4 ,! t]m oxyd 7n[ usually writt5 oxide7 express$ a l[] degree ( comb9ation ) oxyg5 ?an ! acids4 ,! ,m?ode de ,nom5clature ,*imique 0 publi%$ 9 #aghg2 & 9 #aghi1 ,lavoisi] publi%$ a treatise on *emi/ry 9 ord] fur!r to expla9 ?is me?od4 ,9 ! preface to ?is volume1 he apologizes = ! great am\nt ( ! *anges1 & pleads ! au?ority ( ,b]gman1 :o _h exhort$ ,de ,morveau to sp>e no improp] names2 ^? :o are le>n$ w always be le>n$1 & ^? :o are ignorant w ?us le>n soon]4 ,to ?is maxim !y s f> con=m$1 t _! sy/em (f]s few anomalies2 & ?\gh ! progress ( discov]y1 & ! consequ5t *anges ( !oretical op9ion1 :i* h s9ce gone on1 appe> n[ to require a fur!r *ange ( nom5clature1 x is no small evid5ce ( ! skill ) :i* ?is s*eme 0 arrang$1 t = half a c5tury x 0 univ]sally us$1 & felt to be f> m useful & effective ?an any nom5clature 9 any sci5ce _h ev] be5 be=e4 ,note #daad3 ,j\rnal de ,physique1 #aghb1 p4 #cgj4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,application ,,& ,,correction ,,( ,,! ,,oxyg5 ,,!ory4 ,,s9ce a *emical !ory1 z f> z x is true1 mu/ enable u to obta9 a true view ( ! intimate composition ( all bodies :atev]1 x w readily be suppos$ t ! new *emi/ry l$ to an imm5se numb] ( analyses & rese>*es ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,^! x is n necess>y to dwell ^u2 nor w ,i ev5 m5tion ! names ( any ( ! intellig5t & dilig5t m5 :o h labor$ 9 ?is field4 ,p]haps "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ ( su* analyses 0 ,davy's decomposition ( ! e>?s & alkalies into metallic bases & oxyg51 9 #ahjg & #ahjh2 ?us ext5d+ /ill fur!r t analogy betwe5 ! e>?s & ! calces ( ! metals1 :i* _h _h s l>ge a %>e 9 ! =mation ( *emical !ories4 ,?is discov]y1 h[ev]1 bo? 9 ! means by :i* x 0 made1 & 9 ! views to :i* x l$1 be>s ^u subjects h]eaft] to be treat$ (4 ,! ,lavoisi]ian !ory also1 wide z 0 ! range ( tru? :i* x embrac$1 requir$ "s limitation & correction4 ,i d n n[ #bhc speak ( "s errone\s op9ions ent]ta9$ by ! au?or ( ! !ory2 z1 = in/ance1 t ! heat produc$ 9 combu/ion1 & ev5 9 respiration1 arose f ! conv]sion ( oxyg5 gas to a solid consi/5ce1 accord+ to ! doctr9e ( lat5t heat4 ,su* op9ions n be+ necess>ily connect$ ) ! g5]al idea ( ! !ory1 ne$ n "h be consid]$4 ,b ! lead+ g5]alization ( ,lavoisi]1 t acidification 0 always comb9ation ) oxyg51 0 f\nd unt5able4 ,! po9t on :i* ! conte/ on ?is subject took place 0 ! con/itution ( ! oxymuriatic & muriatic acids2--z !y _h be5 t]m$ by ,b]?ollet1 f ! belief t muriatic acid conta9$ oxyg51 & oxymuriatic a /ill l>g] dose ( oxyg54 ,9 opposition to ?is1 a new doctr9e 0 put =w>d 9 #ahji by ,gay-,lussac & ,!n>d 9 ,france1 & by ,davy 9 ,engl&2--namely1 t oxymuriatic acid 0 a simple sub/ance1 :i* !y t]m$ *lor9e1 & t muriatic acid 0 a comb9ation ( *lor9e ) hydrog51 :i* !re=e 0 call$ hydro*loric acid4 ,x may be obs]v$1 t ! po9t 9 dispute 9 ! controv]sy on ?is subject 0 ne>ly ! same :i* _h be5 debat$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! e/abli%m5t ( ! oxyg5 !ory2 namely1 :e!r 9 ! =mation ( muriatic acid f *lor9e1 oxyg5 is subtract$1 or hydrog5 add$1 & ! wat] conceal$4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is dispute1 x 0 all[$ on bo? sides1 t ! comb9ation ( dry muriatic acid & ammonia af=d$ an exp]im5tum crucis2 s9ce1 if wat] 0 produc$ f ^! elem5ts1 oxyg5 mu/ h exi/$ 9 ! acid4 ,davy be+ at ,ed9burgh 9 #ahab1 ?is exp]im5t 0 made 9 ! pres5ce ( sev]al em95t philosoph]s2 & ! result 0 f\nd to be1 t ?\gh a slight dew appe>$ 9 ! vessel1 !re 0 n m ?an might be ascrib$ to unavoidable imp]fection 9 ! process1 & c]ta9ly n s mu* z ! old !ory ( muriatic acid requir$4 ,! new !ory1 aft] ?is p]iod1 obta9$ a cle> sup]iority 9 ! m9ds ( philosophical *emi/s1 & 0 fur!r support$ by new analogies4#dbad ,note #dbad3 ,p>is1 ,life ( ,davy1 i4 #ccg4 ,=1 ! exi/5ce ( "o hydracid be+ ?us e/abli%$1 x 0 f\nd t o!r sub/ances gave simil> comb9ations2 & ?us *emi/s obta9$ ! hydriodic1 hydr(luoric1 & hydrobromic acids4 ,^! acids1 x is to be obs]v$1 =m salts ) bases1 9 ! same mann] z ! oxyg5 acids d4 ,! analogy ( ! muriatic & fluoric comp\nds 0 fir/ cle>ly urg$ by a philosoph] :o 0 #bhd n peculi>ly engag$ 9 *emical rese>*1 b :o 0 (t5 di/+ui%$ by 8 rapid & happy g5]alizations1 ,m4 ,ampre4 ,he support$ ?is analogy by _m +5i\s & orig9al argum5ts1 9 lett]s writt5 to ,davy1 :ile t *emi/ 0 engag$ 9 8 rese>*es on fluor sp>1 z ,davy himself decl>es4#dcad ,note #dcad3 ,p>is1 ,life ( ,davy1 i4 #cgj4 ,/ill fur!r *anges h be5 propos$1 9 t classification ( elem5t>y sub/ances to :i* ! oxyg5 !ory l$4 ,x has be5 held by ,b]zelius & o!rs1 t o!r elem5ts1 z1 = example1 sulphur1 =m salts ) ! alkal9e & e>?y metals1 r ?an sulphurets4 ,! "* ( ^! sulpho-salts1 h[ev]1 is /ill que/ion$ among *emi/s2 & !re=e x does n become u to speak z if _! place 9 hi/ory 7 settl$4 ,( c\rse1 x w easily be und]/ood t1 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* ! oxyg5 !ory introduc$ its own prop] nom5clature1 ! ov]?r[ or mat]ial trans=mation ( ! !ory w\ld require a *ange 9 ! nom5clature2 or r1 ! anomalies :i* t5d$ to di/urb ! !ory1 w\ld1 z !y 7 detect$1 make ! !oretical t]ms be felt z inappropriate1 & w\ld sugge/ ! necessity ( a re=mation 9 t respect4 ,b ! discussion ( ?is po9t belongs to a /ep ( ! sci5ce :i* is to come be=e u h]eaft]4 ,x may be obs]v$1 t 9 approa*+ ! limits ( ?is "p ( our subject1 z we are n[ do+1 ! doctr9e ( ! comb9ation ( acids & bases1 ( :i* we =m]ly trac$ ! rise & progress1 is /ill assum$ z a fundam5tal relation by :i* o!r relations are te/$4 ,?is rem>k connects ! /age ( *emi/ry n[ "u our notice ) its e>lie/ /eps4 ,b 9 ord] to po9t out ! *emical be>+ ( ! next subjects ( our n>rative1 we may fur!r obs]ve1 t metals1 e>?s1 salts1 are spok5 ( z kn[n classes ( sub/ances2 & 9 l mann] ! newly-discov]$ elem5ts1 :i* =m ! la/ trophies ( *emi/ry1 h be5 di/ribut$ into su* classes accord+ to _! analogies2 ?us potassium1 sodium1 b>ium1 h be5 ass]t$ to be metals2 iod9e1 brom9e1 fluor9e1 h be5 arrang$ z analogical to *lor9e4 ,yet !re is some?+ vague & indef9ite 9 ! b\nd>ies ( su* classifications & analogies2 & x is precisely :]e ?is vagu5ess falls1 t ! sci5ce is /ill obscure or d\btful4 ,we are l$1 !re=e1 to see ! dep5d5ce ( ,*emi/ry ^u ,classification2 & x is to ,sci5ces ( ,classification :i* we %all next proce$2 z soon z we h notic$ ! mo/ g5]al views #bhe :i* h be5 giv5 ( *emical relations1 namely1 ! views ( ! electro-*emi/s4 ,b be=e we d ?is1 we mu/ look back ^u a law :i* obta9s 9 ! comb9ation ( elem5ts1 & :i* we h hi!rto n /at$2 al?\gh x appe>s1 m ?an any o!r1 to reveal to u ! intimate con/itution ( bodies1 & to (f] a basis = future g5]alizations4 ,i speak ( ! ,atomic ,!ory1 z x is usually t]m$2 or1 z we might r call x1 ! ,doctr9e ( ,def9ite1 ,reciprocal1 & ,multiple ,proportions4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,!ory ,,( ,,def9ite1 ,,reciprocal1 ,,& ,,multiple ,,proportions4 ,sect4 #a4--,prelude to ! ,atomic ,!ory1 & its ,publication by ,dalton4 ,,! g5]al laws ( *emical comb9ation ann\nc$ by ,mr4 ,dalton are tru?s ( ! highe/ importance 9 ! sci5ce1 & are n[ n[h]e conte/$2 b ! view ( matt] z con/itut$ ( atoms1 :i* he has employ$ 9 convey+ ^? laws1 & 9 express+ 8 op9ion ( _! cause1 is nei!r s important nor s c]ta94 ,9 ! place :i* ,i "h assign to 8 discov]y1 z "o ( ! great ev5ts ( ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry1 ,i speak only ( ! law ( ph5om5a1 ! rules :i* gov]n ! quantities 9 :i* elem5ts comb9e4 ,?is law may be consid]$ z consi/+ ( ?ree p>ts1 accord+ to ! above description ( x2--t elem5ts comb9e 9 def9ite proportions2--t ^! det]m9+ proportions op]ate reciprocally2--& t :51 betwe5 ! same elem5ts1 sev]al comb9+ proportions occur1 !y are relat$ z multiples4 ,t elem5ts comb9e 9 c]ta9 def9ite proportions ( quantity1 & 9 no o!r1 0 impli$1 z soon z x 0 suppos$ t *emical comp\nds _h any def9ite prop]ties4 ,^? :o fir/ attempt$ to e/abli% regul> =mul#ddad = ! con/itution ( salts1 m9]als1 & #bhf o!r comp\nds1 assum$1 z ! basis ( ?is process1 t ! elem5ts 9 diff]5t specim5s _h ! same proportion4 ,w5zel1 9 #aggg1 publi%$ 8 ,lehre von d] ,v]w&s*aft d] ,krp]2 or1 ,doctr9e ( ! ,aff9ities ( ,bodies2 9 :i* he gave _m good & accurate analyses4 ,8 "w1 x is said1 nev] grew into g5]al notice4 ,b]?ollet1 z we h already /at$1 ma9ta9$ t *emical comp\nds 7 n def9ite2 b ?is controv]sy took place at a lat] p]iod4 ,x end$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! doctr9e1 t !re is1 = ea* comb9ation1 only "o proportion ( ! elem5ts1 or at mo/ only two or ?ree4 ,note #ddad3 ,?omson1 ,hi/4 ,*em4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bgi4 ,n only did ,w5zel1 by 8 v attempt1 presume ! fir/ law ( *emical composition1 ! def9it5ess ( ! proportions1 b he 0 also l$1 by 8 results1 to ! second rule1 t !y are reciprocal4 ,= he f\nd t :5 two neutral salts decompose ea* o!r1 ! result+ salts are also neutral4 ,! neutral "* ( ! salts %[s t !y are def9ite comp\nds2 & :5 ! two elem5ts ( ! "o salt1 ,p & s1 are pres5t$ to ^? ( ! o!r1 ,b & n1 if ,p be 9 su* quantity z to comb9e def9itely ) n1 ,b w also comb9e def9itely ) s4#dead ,note #dead3 ,i am told t ,w5zel 7^: book ,i h n se571 ?\gh he adduces _m cases 9 :i* d\ble decomposition gives neutral salts1 does n express ! proposition 9 a g5]al =m1 nor use lett]s 9 express+ x4 ,views simil> to ^? ( ,w5zel 7 also publi%$ by ,j]emiah ,b5jam9 ,ri*t]#dfad 9 #agib1 9 8 ,anfangsgrnde d] ,/*yometrie1 od] ,messkun/ ,*ymis*] ,elem5te1 7,pr9ciples ( ! ,measure ( ,*emical ,elem5ts7 9 :i* he took ! law1 j /at$1 ( reciprocal proportions1 z ! basis ( 8 rese>*es1 & det]m9$ ! num]ical quantities ( ! common bases & acids :i* w\ld saturate ea* o!r4 ,x is cle> t1 by ^! /eps1 ! two fir/ ( our ?ree rules may be consid]$ z fully develop$4 ,! *ange ( g5]al views :i* 0 at ?is "t go+ on1 probably prev5t$ *emi/s f feel+ s mu* int]e/ z !y might h done o!rwise1 9 ^! details2 ! ,fr5* & ,engli% *emi/s1 9 p>ticul>1 7 fully employ$ ) _! own rese>*es & controv]sies4 ,note #dfad3 ,?omson1 ,hi/4 ,*em4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhc4 ,?us ! rules :i* _h already be5 publi%$ by ,w5zel & ,ri*t] _h attract$ s little notice1 t we c h>dly consid] ,mr4 ,dalton z hav+ be5 anticipat$ by ^? writ]s1 :51 9 #ahjc1 he began to communicate 8 views on ! *emical con/itution ( #bhg bodies2 ^! views be+ su* z to include bo? ^! two rules 9 _! mo/ g5]al =m1 & fur!r1 ! rule1 at t "t /ill m new to *emi/s1 ( multiple proportions4 ,he conceiv$ bodies z compos$ ( atoms ( _! con/itu5t elem5ts1 gr\p$1 ei!r "o & "o1 or "o & two1 or "o & ?ree1 & s on4 ,?us1 if ,c repres5t an atom ( c>bon & ,o "o ( oxyg51 ,o ,c w be an atom ( c>bonic oxide1 & ,o ,c ,o an atom ( c>bonic acid2 & h5ce x foll[s1 t :ile bo? ^! bodies h a def9ite quantity ( oxyg5 to a giv5 quantity ( c>bon1 9 ! latt] sub/ance ?is quantity is d\ble ( :at x is 9 ! =m]4 ,! consid]ation ( bodies z consi/+ ( comp\nd atoms1 ea* ( ^! be+ compos$ ( elem5t>y atoms1 naturally l$ to ?is law ( multiple proportions4 ,9 ?is mode ( view+ bodies1 ,mr4 ,dalton _h be5 prec$$ 7unkn[n to himself7 by ,mr4 ,higg9s1 :o1 9 #aghi1 publi%$#dgad 8 ,comp>ative ,view ( ! ,phlogi/ic & ,antiphlogi/ic ,!ories4 ,he !re says1#dhad ,t 9 volatile vitriolic acid1 a s+le ultimate p>ticle ( sulphur is unit$ only to a s+le p>ticle ( dephlogi/icat$ air2 & t 9 p]fect vitriolic acid1 e s+le p>ticle ( sulphur is unit$ to two ( dephlogi/icat$ air1 be+ ! quantity necess>y to saturation2 & he reasons 9 ! same mann] conc]n+ ! con/itution ( wat]1 & ! comp\nds ( nitrog5 & oxyg54 ,^! obs]vations ( ,higg9s 71 h[ev]1 made casually1 & n foll[$ out1 & _c affect ,dalton's claim to orig9al m]it4 ,note #dgad3 ,turn]'s ,*em4 p4 #bag4 ,note #dhad3 ,p4 #cf & #cg4 ,mr4 ,dalton's g5]alization 0 fir/ sugge/$#diad dur+ 8 exam9ation ( olefiant gas & c>burett$ hydrog5 gas2 & 0 ass]t$ g5]ally1 on ! /r5g? ( a few facts1 be+1 z x 71 irresi/ibly recomm5d$ by ! cle>ness & simplicity :i* ! notion possess$4 ,mr4 ,dalton himself repres5t$ ! comp\nd atoms ( bodies by symbols1 :i* pr(ess$ to exhibit ! arrangem5t ( ! elem5t>y atoms 9 space z well z _! num]ical proportion2 & he atta*$ great importance to ?is "p ( 8 s*eme4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t ?is "p ( 8 doctr9e is n ess5tial to t num]ical comp>ison ( ! law ) facts1 on :i* its e/abli%m5t re/s4 ,^! hypo!tical configurations ( atoms h no value till !y are confirm$ by correspond+ facts1 su* z ! optical or cry/all9e prop]ties ( bodies may p]haps "o day furni%4 #bhh ,note #diad3 ,?omson1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bia4 ,sect4 #b4--,reception & ,confirmation ( ! ,atomic ,!ory4 ,,9 ord] to give a sket* ( ! progress ( ! ,atomic ,!ory into g5]al reception1 we _c d bett] ?an borr[ our in=mation ma9ly f ,dr4 ,?omson1 :o 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ conv]ts & mo/ effective promulgators ( ! doctr9e4 ,mr4 ,dalton1 at ! "t :5 he conceiv$ 8 !ory1 0 a tea*] ( ma!matics at ,man*e/]1 9 circum/ances :i* might h be5 consid]$ n>r[1 if he himself _h be5 less simple 9 8 mann] ( life1 & less mod]ate 9 8 worldly views4 ,8 exp]im5ts 7 g5]ally made ) app>atus ( :i* ! simplicity & *eapness correspond$ to ! re/ ( 8 habits4 ,9 #ahjd1 he 0 already 9 possession ( 8 atomic !ory1 & expla9$ x to ,dr4 ,?omson1 :o visit$ him at t "t4 ,x 0 made kn[n to ! *emical _w 9 ,dr4 ,?omson's ,*emi/ry1 9 #ahjg2 & 9 ,dalton's own ,sy/em ( ,*emi/ry 7#ahjh7 ! lead+ ideas ( x 7 v briefly /at$4 ,dr4 ,wolla/on's memoir1 on sup]acid & subacid salts1 :i* appe>$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahjh1 did mu* to secure ?is !ory a place 9 ! e/imation ( *emi/s4 ,"h ! au?or /ates1 t he _h obs]v$1 9 v>i\s salts1 ! quantities ( acid comb9$ ) ! base 9 ! neutral & 9 ! sup]acid salts to be z "o to two3 & he says t1 ?9k+ x likely ?is law might obta9 g5]ally 9 su* comp\nds1 x 0 8 design to h pursu$ ?is subject1 ) ! hope ( discov]+ ! cause to :i* s regul> a relation may be ascrib$4 ,b he adds1 t ?is appe>s to be sup]flu\s aft] ! publication ( ,dalton's !ory by ,dr4 ,?omson1 s9ce all su* facts are b special cases ( ! g5]al law4 ,we _c b rem>k "h1 t ! scrupul\s timidity ( ,wolla/on 0 probably ! only imp$im5t to 8 anticipat+ ,dalton 9 ! publication ( ! rule ( multiple proportions2 & ! =w>dness to g5]alize1 :i* belongs to ! "* ( ! latt]1 ju/ly secur$ him1 9 ?is in/ance1 ! "n ( ! discov]] ( ?is law4 ,! re/ ( ! ,engli% *emi/s soon foll[$ ,wolla/on & ,?omson1 ?\gh ,davy = "s "t resi/$4 ,!y object$1 inde$1 to ,dalton's assumption ( atoms1 &1 to avoid ?is hypo!tical /ep1 ,wolla/on us$ ! phrase *emical equival5ts1 & ,davy ! ^w proportions1 = ! numb]s :i* express$ ,dalton's atomic weights4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 v5ture to say t ! t]m atom is ! mo/ conv5i5t1 & x ne$ n be und]/ood z claim+ our ass5t to ! hypo!sis ( indivisible molecules4 #bhi ,z ,wolla/on & ,dalton 7 ?us arriv+ indep5d5tly at ! same result 9 ,engl&1 o!r *emi/s1 9 o!r c\ntries1 71 unkn[n to ea* o!r1 travell+ t[>ds ! same po9t4 ,9 #ahjg1 ,b]zelius1#ejad int5d+ to publi% a sy/em ( *emi/ry1 w5t ?r\gh sev]al works little read1 & among o!rs ! treatises ( ,ri*t]4 ,he 0 a/oni%$1 he tells u1 at ! light :i* 0 !re ?r[n ^u composition & decomposition1 & :i* _h nev] be5 turn$ to pr(it4 ,he 0 l$ to a long tra9 ( exp]im5tal rese>*1 &1 :5 he receiv$ in=mation ( ,dalton's ideas conc]n+ multiple proportions1 he f\nd1 9 8 own collection ( analyses1 a full confirmation ( ?is !ory4 ,note #ejad3 ,b]z4 ,*em4 ,b4 iii4 p4 #bg4 ,"s ( ! ,g]mans1 inde$1 appe> discont5t$ ) ! p>tition ( reputation :i* has tak5 place ) respect to ! ,!ory ( ,def9ite ,proportions4 ,"o#eaad ( !m says1 ,dalton has only done ?is2--he has wrapt up ! good ,ri*t] 7:om he knew2 comp>e ,s*weigg]1 ,t1 old] s]ies1 vol4 x41 p4 #cha27 9 a ragg$ suit1 pat*$ toge!r ( atoms2 & n[ poor ,ri*t] comes back to 8 own c\ntry 9 su* a g>b1 l ,ulysses1 & is n recogniz$4 ,x is to be recollect$1 h[ev]1 t ,ri*t] says no?+ ( multiple proportions4 ,note #eaad3 ,m>x4 ,ges*4 d] ,cry/4 p4 #bjb4 ,! g5]al doctr9e ( ! atomic !ory is n[ firmly e/abli%$ ov] ! :ole ( ! *emical _w4 ,!re rema9 /ill sev]al controv]t$ po9ts1 z1 = in/ance1 :e!r ! atomic weights ( all elem5ts are exact multiples ( ! atomic weight ( hydrog54 ,dr4 ,pr\t advanc$ sev]al in/ances 9 :i* ?is appe>$ to be true1 & ,dr4 ,?omson has ass]t$ ! law to be ( univ]sal application4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ,b]zelius & ,dr4 ,turn] decl>e t ?is hypo!sis is at v>iance ) ! results ( ! be/ analyses4 ,su* controv]t$ po9ts d n belong to our hi/ory1 :i* treats only ( ! progress ( sci5tific tru?s already recogniz$ by all compet5t judges4 ,?\gh ,dalton's discov]y 0 soon g5]ally employ$1 & univ]sally spok5 ( ) admiration1 x did n br+ to him any?+ b b>r5 praise1 & he cont9u$ 9 ! humble employm5t ( :i* we h spok51 :5 8 fame _h fill$ ,europe1 & 8 "n become a h\sehold ^w 9 ! laboratory4 ,aft] "s ye>s he 0 appo9t$ a correspond+ memb] ( ! ,in/itute ( ,france2 :i* may be consid]$ z a ,european recognition ( ! importance #bij ( :at he _h done2 &1 9 #ahbf1 two m$als = ! enc\ragem5t ( sci5ce hav+ be5 plac$ at ! disposal ( ! ,royal ,society by ! ,k+ ( ,engl&1 "o ( !m 0 assign$ to ,dalton1 = 8 developm5t ( ! atomic !ory4 ,9 #ahcc1 at ! meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce1 :i* 0 held 9 ,cambridge1 x 0 ann\nc$ t ! ,k+ _h be/[$ ^u him a p5sion ( #aejl42 at ! prec$+ meet+ at ,ox=d1 t univ]sity _h conf]r$ ^u him ! degree ( ,doctor ( ,laws1 a /ep ! m rem>kable1 s9ce he belong$ to ! sect ( ,quak]s4 ,at all ! meet+s ( ! ,briti% ,association he has be5 pres5t1 & has always be5 surr\nd$ by ! rev]5ce & admiration ( all :o feel any sympa?y ) ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,may he long rema9 among u ?us to rem9d u ( ! va/ advance :i* ,*emi/ry owes to him6 #bnd ,ed4 ,soon aft] ,i wrote ^! expressions ( hope1 ! p]iod ( ,dalton's soj\rn among u t]m9at$4 ,he di$ on ! #bg? ( ,july1 #ahdd1 ag$ #gh4 ,8 fell[-t[nsm51 ! inhabitants ( ,man*e/]1 :o _h s long tak5 a pride 9 8 resid5ce among !m1 soon aft] 8 dea? came to a det]m9ation to p]petuate 8 memory by e/abli%+ 9 8 honor a ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ,man*e/]4 ,sect4 #c4--,! ,!ory ( ,volumes4--,gay-,lussac4 ,,! atomic !ory1 at ! v epo* ( its introduction into ,france1 receiv$ a modification 9 virtue ( a curi\s discov]y !n made4 ,soon aft] ! publication ( ,dalton's sy/em1 ,gay-,lussac & ,humboldt f\nd a rule = ! comb9ation ( sub/ances1 :i* includes t ( ,dalton z f> z x goes1 b ext5ds to comb9ations ( gases only4 ,?is law is ! !ory ( volumes2 namely1 t gases unite toge!r by volume 9 v simple & def9ite proportions4 ,?us wat] is compos$ exactly ( #ajj measures ( oxyg5 & #bjj measures ( hydrog54 ,& s9ce ^! simple ratios #a & #a1 #a & #b1 #a & #c1 alone prevail 9 su* comb9ations1 x may easily be %[n t laws l ,dalton's law ( multiple proportions1 mu/ obta9 9 su* cases z he consid]$4 #bnd ,ed4 ,m4 ,s*rd]1 ( ,mannheim1 has endeavor$ to ext5d to solids a law 9 "s degree resembl+ ,gay-,lussac's law ( ! volumes ( gases4 ,accord+ to him1 ! volumes ( ! *emical equival5ts #bia ( simple sub/ances & _! comp\nds are z :ole numb]s4#ebad ,,mm4 ,kopp1 ,playfair1 & ,j\le h labor$ 9 ! same field4 ,note #ebad3 ,die molecul>-volume d] ,*emis*5 ,v]b9dung5 9 fe/5 und flss+5 ,zu/&e1 #ahdc4 ,i _c n[ attempt to trace o!r be>+s & developm5ts ( ?is rem>kable discov]y4 ,i ha/5 on to ! la/ g5]alization ( *emi/ry2 :i* pres5ts to u *emical =ces "u a new aspect1 & br+s u back to ! po9t f :i* we dep>t$ 9 comm5c+ ! hi/ory ( ?is sci5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,epo* ,,( ,,davy ,,& ,,f>aday4 ,sect4 #a4--,promulgation ( ! ,electro-*emical ,!ory by ,davy4 ,,! read] w recollect t ! ,hi/ory ( ,*emi/ry1 ?\gh highly important & in/ructive 9 itself1 has be5 an int]ruption ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,electro-dynamic ,rese>*3--a necess>y int]ruption1 h[ev]2 = till we became acqua9t$ ) ,*emi/ry 9 g5]al1 we c\ld n foll[ ! c\rse ( ,electro-*emi/ry3 we c\ld n e/imate its va/ yet philosophical !ories1 nor ev5 express its simple/ facts4 ,we h n[ to endeavor to %[ :at has ?us be5 done1 & by :at /eps2--to give a fitt+ view ( ! ,epo* ( ,davy & ,f>aday4 ,?is is1 d\btless1 a task ( difficulty & delicacy4 ,we _c execute x at all1 except we suppose t ! great tru?s1 ( :i* ! discov]y m>ks ?is epo*1 h already assum$ _! def9ite & p]man5t =m4 ,= we d n le>n ! j value & "r place ( imp]fect attempts & p>tial advances 9 sci5ce1 except by see+ to :at !y lead4 ,we judge prop]ly ( our trials & guesses only :5 we h ga9$ our po9t & guess$ rightly4 ,we might p]sonify philosophical !ories1 & might repres5t !m to ourselves z figures1 all press+ eag]ly onw>ds 9 ! same #bib direction1 :om we h to pursue3 & x is only 9 proportion z we ourselves ov]take ^? figures 9 ! race1 & pass beyond !m1 t we are enabl$ to look back ^u _! faces2 to disc]n _! real aspects1 & to cat* ! true "* ( _! c\nt5ances4 ,except1 !re=e1 ,i 7 ( op9ion t ! great tru?s :i* ,davy br\ght into sight h be5 firmly e/abli%$ & cle>ly develop$ by ,f>aday1 ,i c\ld n pret5d to give ! hi/ory ( ?is /rik+ portion ( sci5ce4 ,b ,i tru/1 by ! view ,i h to (f] ( ^! beautiful tra9s ( rese>* & _! result1 to ju/ify ! assumption on :i* ,i ?us proce$4 ,i mu/1 h[ev]1 /ate1 z a fur!r appeal to ! read]'s indulg5ce1 t1 ev5 if ! great pr9ciples ( electro-*emi/ry h n[ be5 br\ght out 9 _! due =m & ext5t1 ! discov]y is b a v few ye>s1 ,i might r say a few mon?s1 old1 & t ?is novelty adds mat]ially to ! difficulty ( e/imat+ previ\s attempts f ! po9t ( view to :i* we are ?us l$4 ,x is only sl[ly & by degrees t ! m9d becomes suffici5tly imbu$ ) ^? new tru?s1 ( :i* ! (fice is1 to *ange ! face ( a sci5ce4 ,we h to consid] famili> appe>ances "u a new aspect2 to ref] old facts to new pr9ciples2 & x is n till aft] "s "t1 t ! /ruggle & hesitation :i* ?is employm5t occasions1 subsides into a tranquil equilibrium4 ,9 ! newly acquir$ prov9ces ( man's intellectual empire1 ! d9 & confusion ( conque/ pass only gradually into quiet & security4 ,we h se51 9 ! hi/ory ( all capital discov]ies1 h[ h>dly !y h made _! way1 ev5 among ! mo/ intellig5t & c&id philosoph]s ( ! antec$5t s*ools3 we mu/1 !re=e1 n expect t ! metamorphosis ( ! !oretical views ( *emi/ry :i* is n[ go+ on1 w be effect$ )\t "s tr\ble & delay4 ,i %all endeavor to dim9i% ! difficulties ( my und]tak+1 by pres5t+ ! e>li] inve/igations 9 ! dep>tm5t ( :i* ,i h n[ to speak1 z mu* z possible accord+ to ! mo/ delib]ate view tak5 ( !m by ! great discov]]s !mselves1 ,davy & ,f>aday2 s9ce ^! philosoph]s are !y :o h taught u ! true import ( su* inve/igations4 ,!re is a fur!r difficulty 9 my task1 to :i* ,i might ref]2--! difficulty ( speak+1 )\t error & )\t (f5ce1 ( m5 n[ alive1 or :o 7 lately memb]s ( social circles :i* exi/ /ill ar\nd u4 ,b ! sci5tific hi/ory 9 :i* su* p]sons play a "p1 is s important to my purpose1 t ,i d n hesitate to incur #bic ! responsibility :i* ! n>ration involves2 & ,i h endeavor$ e>ne/ly1 & ,i hope n 9 va91 to speak z if ,i 7 remov$ by c5turies f ! p]sonages ( my /ory4 ,! ph5om5a obs]v$ 9 ! ,voltaic app>atus 7 naturally ! subject ( _m speculations z to _! cause1 & ?us gave rise to ,!ories ( ! ,pile4 ,among ^! ph5om5a !re 0 "o class :i* l$ to mo/ important results3 x 0 discov]$ by ,ni*olson & ,c>lisle1 9 #ahjj1 t wat] 0 decompos$ by ! pile ( ,volta2 t is1 x 0 f\nd t :5 ! wires ( ! pile 7 plac$ ) _! ends ne> ea* o!r 9 ! fluid1 a /ream ( bubbles ( air arose f ea* wire1 & ^! airs 7 f\nd on exam9ation to be oxyg5 & hydrog53 :i*1 z we h _h to n>rate1 _h already be5 f\nd to be ! con/itu5ts ( wat]4 ,?is 01 z ,davy says1#ecad ! true orig9 ( all t has be5 done 9 electro-*emical sci5ce4 ,x 0 f\nd t o!r sub/ances also suff]$ a l decomposition "u ! same circum/ances4 ,c]ta9 metallic solutions 7 decompos$1 & an alkali 0 sep>at$ on ! negative plates ( ! app>atus4 ,cruick%ank1 9 pursu+ ^! exp]im5ts1 add$ to !m _m important new results2 su* z ! decomposition ( muriates ( magnesia1 soda1 & ammonia by ! pile2 & ! g5]al obs]vation t ! alkal9e matt] always appe>$ at ! negative1 & ! acid at ! positive1 pole4 ,note #ecad3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbf1 p4 #chf4 ,su* 0 ! /ate ( ! subject :5 "o :o 0 de/9$ to d s mu* = its advance1 fir/ contribut$ 8 labors to x4 ,humphry ,davy 0 a "y man :o _h be5 appr5tic$ to a surgeon at ,p5zance1 & hav+ %[n an ard5t love & a /rong aptitude = *emical rese>*1 01 9 #agih1 made ! sup]9t5d5t ( a ,pneumatic ,in/itution1 e/abli%$ at ,bri/ol by ,dr4 ,b$does1 = ! purpose ( discov]+ m$ical p[]s ( factiti\s airs4#edad ,b 8 ma9 att5tion 0 soon drawn to galvanism2 & :51 9 consequ5ce ( ! reputation he _h acquir$1 he 01 9 #ahja1 appo9t$ lectur] at ! ,royal ,in/itution 9 ,london 7!n rec5tly e/abli%$71 he 0 soon put 9 possession ( a galvanic app>atus ( great p[]2 & ) ?is he 0 n long 9 obta9+ ! mo/ /rik+ results4 ,note #edad3 ,p>is1 ,life ( ,davy1 i4 #eh4 ,8 fir/ pap] on ! subject#eead is s5t f ,bri/ol1 9 ,septemb]1 #ahjj2 & describes exp]im5ts1 9 :i* he _h f\nd t ! decompositions obs]v$ by ,ni*olson & ,c>lisle g on1 al?\gh ! #bid wat]1 or o!r sub/ance 9 :i* ! two wires are plung$1 be sep>at$ into two portions1 provid$ ^! portions are connect$ by muscul> or o!r fibres4 ,?is use ( muscul> fibres 01 probably1 a remnant ( ! orig9al disposition1 or accid5t1 by :i* galvanism _h be5 connect$ ) physiology1 z mu* z ) *emi/ry4 ,davy1 h[ev]1 soon w5t on t[>ds ! conclusion1 t ! ph5om5a 7 altoge!r *emical 9 _! nature4 ,he _h already conjectur$1#efad 9 #ahjb1 t all decompositions might be pol>2 t is1 t 9 all cases ( *emical decomposition1 ! elem5ts might be relat$ to ea* o!r z electrically positive & negative2 a ?\ght :i* x 0 ! peculi> glory ( 8 s*ool to confirm & place 9 a di/9ct light4 ,at ?is p]iod su* a view 0 f> f obvi\s2 & x 0 cont5d$ by _m1 on ! contr>y1 t ! elem5ts :i* ! voltaic app>atus br\ght to view1 7 n lib]at$ f comb9ations1 b g5]at$4 ,9 #ahjf1 ,davy attempt$ ! solution ( ?is "q2 he %[$ t ! +r$i5ts :i* _h be5 suppos$ to be produc$ by electricity1 7 due to impurities 9 ! wat]1 or to ! decomposition ( ! vessel2 & ?us remov$ all prelim9>y difficulties4 ,& !n he says1#egad ref]r+ to my exp]im5ts ( #ahjj1 #ahja1 & #ahjb1 & to a numb] ( new facts1 :i* %[$ t inflammable sub/ances & oxyg51 alkalies & acids1 & oxidable & noble metals1 7 9 electrical relations ( positive & negative1 ,i drew ! conclusion1 t ! comb9ations & decompositions by electricity 7 ref]rible to ! law ( electrical attractions & repulsions1 & advanc$ ! hypo!sis1 t *emical & electrical attractions 7 produc$ by ! same cause1 act+ 9 ! "o case on p>ticles1 9 ! o!r on masses2 4 4 4 & t ! same prop]ty1 "u diff]5t modifications1 0 ! cause ( all ! ph5om5a exhibit$ by diff]5t voltaic comb9ations4 ,note #eead3 ,ni*olson's ,j\rnal1 #dto4 iv4 #bge4 ,note #efad3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbf4 ,note #egad3 ,ib4 #ahbf1 p4 #chi4 ,al?\gh ?is is ! enunciation1 9 tol]ably precise t]ms1 ( ! great discov]y ( 8 epo*1 x 01 at ! p]iod ( :i* we speak1 conjectur$ r ?an prov$2 & we %all f9d t nei!r ,davy nor 8 foll[]s1 = a consid]able p]iod1 appreh5d$ x ) t di/9ctness :i* makes a discov]y complete4 ,b 9 a v %ort "t aft]w>ds1 ,davy drew great additional notice to 8 rese>*es by effect+1 9 pursuance1 z x appe>$1 ( 8 !oretical views1 ! decomposition ( potassa into a metallic base & oxyg54 ,?is 01 z he truly said1 9 ! memor&um writt5 9 8 j\rnal at ! #bie in/ant1 a capital exp]im5t4 ,?is discov]y 0 soon foll[$ by t ( ! decomposition ( soda2 & %ortly aft]1 ( o!r bodies ( ! same k9d2 & ! int]e/ & activity ( ! :ole *emical _w 7 turn$ to ! subject 9 an int5se degree4 ,at ?is p]iod1 !re might be notic$ ?ree great bran*es ( speculation on ?is subject2 ! !ory ( ! pile1 ! !ory ( electrical decomposition1 & 9999! !ory ( ! id5tity ( *emical & electrical =ces2 :i* la/ doctr9e1 h[ev]1 0 f\nd to include ! o!r two1 z might h be5 anticipat$ f ! "t ( its fir/ sugge/ion4 ,x w n be necess>y to say mu* on ! !ories ( ! voltaic pile1 z sep>ate f o!r p>ts ( ! subject4 ,! contact-!ory1 :i* ascrib$ ! action to ! contact ( diff]5t metals1 0 ma9ta9$ by ,volta himself2 b gradually disappe>$1 z x 0 prov$ 7by ,wolla/on#ehad especially17 t ! effect ( ! pile 0 insep>ably connect$ ) oxidation or o!r *emical *anges4 ,! !ories ( electro-*emical decomposition 7 num]\s1 & especially aft] ! promulgation ( ,davy's ,memoir 9 #ahjf2 &1 :atev] might be ! defects "u :i* ^! speculations = a long "t labor$1 ! subject 0 p[]fully urg$ on 9 ! direction 9 :i* tru? lay1 by ,davy's discov]ies & views4 ,t !re rema9$ some?+ /ill to be done1 9 ord] to give full evid5ce & consi/5cy to ! !ory1 appe>s f ?is2--t "s ( ! mo/ important p>ts ( ,davy's results /ruck 8 foll[]s z extraord9>y p>adoxes2--= in/ance1 ! fact t ! decompos$ elem5ts are transf]r$ f "o "p ( ! circuit to ano!r1 9 a =m :i* escapes ! cognizance ( our s5ses1 ?r\gh int]v5+ sub/ances = :i* !y h a /rong aff9ity4 ,x 0 f\nd aft]w>ds t ! circum/ance :i* appe>$ to make ! process s wond]ful1 01 9 fact1 ! condition ( its go+ on at all4 ,davy's expressions (t5 seem to indicate ! mo/ exact notions3 = in/ance1 he says1 ,x is v natural to suppose t ! repell5t & attractive en]gies are communicat$ f "o p>ticle to ano!r ( ! same k9d1 s z to e/abli% a conduct+ *a9 9 ! fluid2 & t ! locomotion takes place 9 consequ5ce2#eiad & yet at o!r times he speaks ( ! elem5t z attract$ & repell$ by ! metallic surfaces :i* =m ! poles2--a diff]5t1 &1 z x appe>$ aft]w>ds1 an unt5able view4 ,mr4 ,f>aday1 :o suppli$ :at 0 want+1 ju/ly notices ?is vagu5ess4 #bif ,he says1#fjad t ?\gh1 9 ,davy's celebrat$ ,memoir ( #ahjf1 ! po9ts e/abli%$ are ( ! utmo/ value1 ! mode ( action by :i* ! effects take place is /at$ v g5]ally2 s g5]ally1 inde$1 t probably a doz5 precise s*emes ( electro-*emical action might be drawn up1 diff]+ ess5tially f ea* o!r1 yet all agree+ ) ! /atem5t !re giv54 ,& at a p]iod a little lat]1 be+ reproa*$ by ,davy's bro!r ) inju/ice 9 ?is expression1 he sub/antiat$ 8 ass]tion by an enum]ation ( twelve su* s*emes :i* _h be5 publi%$4 ,note #ehad3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahja1 p4 #dbg4 ,note #eiad3 ,p>is1 i4 #aed4 ,note #fjad3 ,rese>*es1 #dhb4 ,b yet we _c look ^u ?is ,memoir ( #ahjf1 o!rwise ?an z a great ev5t1 p]haps ! mo/ important ev5t ( ! epo* n[ "u review4 ,& z su* x 0 recogniz$ at once all ov] ,europe4 ,9 p>ticul>1 x receiv$ ! di/+ui%$ honor ( be+ cr[n$ by ! ,in/itute ( ,france1 al?\gh t c\ntry & ,engl& 7 !n engag$ 9 fi]ce ho/ility4 ,buonap>te _h propos$ a prize ( sixty ?\s& francs to ! p]son :o by 8 exp]im5ts & discov]ies %\ld advance ! k ( electricity & galvanism1 z mu* z ,frankl9 & ,volta did2 & ( ?ree ?\s& francs = ! be/ exp]im5t :i* %\ld be made 9 ! c\rse ( ea* ye> on ! galvanic fluid2 ! latt] prize 01 by ! ,fir/ ,class ( ! ,in/itute1 aw>d$ to ,davy4 ,f ?is p]iod he rose rapidly to honors & di/9ctions1 & rea*$ a height ( sci5tific fame z great z has ev] fall5 to ! lot ( a discov]] 9 s %ort a "t4 ,i %all n1 h[ev]1 dwell on su* circum/ances1 b conf9e myself to ! progress ( my subject4 ,sect4 #b4--;,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,electro-*emical ,!ory by ,f>aday4 ,,! defects ( ,davy's !oretical views w be se5 mo/ cle>ly by expla9+ :at ,f>aday add$ to !m4 ,mi*ael ,f>aday 0 9 e way fitt$ & l$ to become ,davy's successor 9 8 great c>e] ( discov]y4 ,9 #ahab1 be+ !n a booksell]'s appr5tice1 he att5d$ ! lectures ( ,davy1 :i* at t p]iod excit$ ! highe/ admiration4#faad ,my desire to escape f trade1 ,mr4 ,f>aday says1 :i* ,i ?\ght vici\s & selfi%1 & to ent] into ! s]vice ( sci5ce1 :i* ,i imag9$ made its pursu]s amiable & lib]al1 induc$ me at la/ to take ! bold & simple /ep ( writ+ to ,sir ,h4 ,davy4 ,he 0 favorably receiv$1 &1 9 ! next ye>1 became #big ,davy's assi/ant at ! ,in/itution2 & aft]w>ds 8 successor4 ,! ,in/itution :i* produc$ su* rese>*es z ^? ( ^! two m51 may well be consid]$ z a great s*ool ( exact & philosophical *emi/ry4 ,mr4 ,f>aday1 f ! beg9n+ ( 8 c\rse ( inquiry1 appe>s to h _h ! consci\sness t he 0 engag$ on a great connect$ "w4 ,8 ,exp]im5tal ,rese>*es1 :i* appe>$ 9 a s]ies ( ,memoirs 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions1 are divid$ into %ort p>agraphs1 numb]$ into a cont9u$ ord] f #a up to #aafj1 at ! "t at :i* ,i write2#fbad & de/9$1 probably1 to ext5d mu* fur!r4 ,^! p>agraphs are connect$ by a v rigor\s me?od ( inve/igation & reason+ :i* runs ?r\gh ! :ole body ( !m4 ,yet ?is unity ( purpose 0 n at fir/ obvi\s4 ,8 fir/ two ,memoirs 7 ^u subjects :i* we h already treat$ ( 7,b4 xiii4 c4 #e & c4 #h71 ,voltaic ,induction1 & ! evolution ( ,electricity f ,magnetism4 ,8 ,?ird ,s]ies has also be5 already ref]r$ to4 ,its object 01 z a prep>atory /ep t[>ds fur!r inve/igation1 to %[ ! id5tity ( voltaic & animal electricity ) t ( ! electrical ma*9e2 & z ma*9e electricity diff]s f o!r k9ds 9 be+ successively 9 a /ate ( t5sion & explosion1 in/ead ( a cont9u$ curr5t1 ,mr4 ,f>aday succe$$ 9 id5tify+ x ) !m1 by caus+ ! electrical dis*>ge to pass ?r\gh a bad conductor into a dis*>g+-tra9 ( va/ ext5t2 no?+ less1 inde$1 ?an ! :ole fabric ( ! metallic gas-pipes & wat]-pipes ( ,london4 ,9 ?is ,memoir#fcad x is easy to see already traces ( ! g5]al !oretical views at :i* he _h arriv$2 b ^! are n expressly /at$ till 8 ,fif? ,s]ies2 8 int]m$iate ,f\r? ,s]ies be+ occupi$ by ano!r subsidi>y labor on ! conditions ( conduction4 ,at l5g?1 h[ev]1 9 ! ,fif? ,s]ies1 :i* 0 read to ! ,royal ,society 9 ,june1 #ahcc1 he approa*es ! !ory ( electro-*emical decomposition4 ,mo/ prec$+ !ori/s1 & ,davy among/ ! numb]1 _h ref]r$ ?is result to attractive p[]s resid+ 9 ! poles ( ! app>atus2 & _h ev5 pret5d$ to comp>e ! int5sity ( ?is attraction at diff]5t di/ances f ! poles4 ,by a numb] ( s+ul>ly beautiful & skilful exp]im5ts1 ,mr4 ,f>aday %[s t ! ph5om5a c ) no propriety be #bih ascrib$ to ! attraction ( ! poles4#fdad ,z ! sub/ances evolv$ 9 cases ( electro-*emical decomposition may be made to appe> aga9/ air1#fead :i*1 accord+ to common language1 is n a conductor1 nor is decompos$2 or aga9/ wat]1#ffad :i* is a conductor1 & c be decompos$2 z well z aga9/ ! metal poles1 :i* are excell5t conductors1 b undecomposable2 !re appe>s b little reason to consid] ?is ph5om5on g5]ally z due to ! attraction or attractive p[]s ( ! latt]1 :5 us$ 9 ! ord9>y way1 s9ce simil> attractions c h>dly be imag9$ 9 ! =m] in/ances4 ,note #faad3 ,p>is1 ii4 #c4 ,note #fbad3 ,decemb]1 #ahce4 7,at pres5t1 :5 ,i am revis+ ! second edition1 ,septemb]1 #ahdf1 ,dr4 ,f>aday has rec5tly publi%$ ! ,tw5ty-fir/ ,s]ies ( 8 ,rese>*es end+ ) p>agraph #bdec47 ,note #fcad3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcc4 ,note #fdad3 ,rese>*es1 ,art4 #dig ,note #fead3 ,rese>*es1 ,arts4 #dfe1 #dfi4 ,note #ffad3 #die4 ,f>aday's op9ion1 &1 inde$1 ! only way ( express+ ! results ( 8 exp]im5ts1 01 t ! *emical elem5ts1 9 ob$i5ce to ! direction ( ! voltaic curr5ts e/abli%$ 9 ! decompos+ sub/ance1 7 evolv$1 or1 z he pref]s to say1 eject$ at its extremities4#fgad ,he aft]w>ds /ates t ! influ5ce :i* is pres5t 9 ! electric curr5t may be describ$#fhad z an axis ( p[]1 hav+ at ea* po9t contr>y =ces exactly equal 9 am\nt 9 contr>y directions4 ,note #fgad3 #dic4 ,note #fhad3 #eag4 ,hav+ arriv$ at ?is po9t1 ,f>aday rightly wi%$ to reject ! t]m poles1 & o!r words :i* c\ld h>dly be us$ )\t sugge/+ doctr9es n[ prov$ to be errone\s4 ,he consid]$1 9 ! case ( bodies electrically decompos$1 or1 z he t]m$ !m1 electrolytes1 ! elem5ts z travell+ 9 two opposite directions2 :i*1 ) ref]5ce to ! direction ( t]re/rial magnetism1 might be consid]$ z naturally ea/ & we/2 & he conceiv$ elem5ts z1 9 ?is way1 arriv+ at ! doors or outlets at :i* !y f9ally made _! sep>ate appe>ance4 ,! doors he call$ electrodes1 &1 sep>ately1 ! anode & ! ca?ode2#fiad & ! elem5ts :i* ?us travel he t]m$ ! anon & ! caton 7or ca?on74#gjad ,by means ( ?is nom5clature he 0 able to express 8 g5]al results ) mu* m di/9ctness & facility4 ,note #fiad3 #ffc4 ,note #gjad3 ,! analogy ( ! ,greek d]ivation requires caton2 b to make ! relation to ca?ode obvi\s to ! ,engli% read]1 & to avoid a violation ( ! habits ( ,engli% pronunciation1 ,i %\ld pref] ca?on4 ,b ?is g5]al view ( ! electrolytical process requir$ to be pursu$ fur!r1 9 ord] to expla9 ! nature ( ! action4 ,! id5tity ( electrical & *emical =ces1 :i* _h be5 haz>d$ z #bii a conjecture by ,davy1 & adopt$ z ! basis ( *emi/ry by ,b]zelius1 c\ld only be e/abli%$ by exact measures & rigor\s pro(s4 ,f>aday _h1 9 8 pro( ( ! id5tity ( voltaic & electric ag5cy1 attempt$ also to devise su* a measure z %\ld give him a comp>ison ( _! quantity2 & 9 ?is way he prov$ t#gaad a voltaic gr\p ( two small wires ( plat9um & z9c1 plac$ ne> ea* o!r1 & imm]s$ 9 dilute acid = ?ree seconds1 yields z mu* electricity z ! electrical batt]y1 *>g$ by t5 turns ( a l>ge ma*9e2 & ?is 0 e/abli%$ bo? by its mom5t>y electro-magnetic effect1 & by ! am\nt ( its *emical action4#gbad ,note #gaad3 ,rese>*es1 ,art4 #cga4 ,note #gbad3 #ecg4 ,x 0 9 8 ,sev5? ,s]ies1 t he f9ally e/abli%$ a pr9ciple ( def9ite measurem5t ( ! am\nt ( electrolytical action1 & describ$ an in/rum5t :i* he t]m$#gcad a volta-electromet]4 ,9 ?is in/rum5t ! am\nt ( action 0 measur$ by ! quantity ( wat] decompos$3 & x 0 necess>y1 9 ord] to give validity to ! m5suration1 to %[ 7z ,f>aday did %[7 t nei!r ! size ( ! electrodes1 nor ! int5sity ( ! curr5t1 nor ! /r5g? ( ! acid solution :i* act$ on ! plates ( ! pile1 di/urb$ ! accuracy ( ?is measure4 ,he prov$1 by exp]im5ts ^u a great v>iety ( sub/ances1 ( ! mo/ diff]5t k9ds1 t ! electro-*emical action is def9ite 9 am\nt accord+ to ! measurem5t ( ! new in/rum5t4#gdad ,he _h already1 at an e>li] p]iod1#gead ass]t$1 t ! *emical p[] ( a curr5t ( electricity is 9 direct proportion to ! absolute quantity ( electricity :i* passes2 b ! volta-electromet] enabl$ him to fix ) m precision ! mean+ ( ?is g5]al proposition1 z well z to place x beyond d\bt4 ,note #gcad3 #gci4 ,note #gdad3 ,arts4 #geh1 #had4 ,note #gead3 #cgg4 ,! va/ importance ( ?is /ep 9 *emi/ry soon came into view4 ,by ! use ( ! volta-electromet]1 ,f>aday obta9$1 = ea* elem5t>y sub/ance1 a numb] :i* repres5t$ ! relative am\nt ( its decomposition1 & :i* might prop]ly#gfad be call$ its electro-*emical equival5t4 ,& ! "q naturally occurs1 :e!r ^! numb]s bore any relation to any previ\sly e/abli%$ *emical measures4 ,! answ] is rem>kable4 ,!y 7 no o!r ?an ! atomic weights ( ! ,daltonian !ory1 :i* =m$ ! climax ( ! previ\s asc5t ( *emi/ry2 & ?us "h1 z ev]y:]e 9 #cjj ! progress ( sci5ce1 ! g5]alizations ( "o g5]ation are absorb$ 9 ! wid] g5]alizations ( ! next4 ,note #gfad3 #gib4 ,b 9 ord] to rea* securely ?is wid] g5]alization1 ,f>aday comb9$ ! two bran*es ( ! subject :i* we h already notic$2--! !ory ( electrical decomposition ) ! !ory ( ! pile4 ,= 8 rese>*es on ! orig9 ( activity ( ! voltaic circuit 78 ,eigh? ,s]ies71 l$ him to see m cle>ly ?an any "o be=e him1 :at1 z we h said1 ! mo/ sagaci\s ( prec$+ philosoph]s _h ma9ta9$1 t ! curr5t 9 ! pile 0 due to ! mutual *emical action ( its elem5ts4 ,he 0 l$ to consid] ! processes :i* g on 9 ! excit+-cell & 9 ! decompos+ place z ( ! same k9d1 b opposite 9 direction4 ,! *emical composition ( ! fluid ) ! z9c1 9 ! common app>atus1 produces1 :5 ! circuit is complet$1 a curr5t ( electric influ5ce 9 ! wire2 & ?is curr5t1 if x pass ?r\gh an electrolyte1 manife/s itself by decomposition1 ov]com+ ! *emical aff9ity :i* !re resi/s x4 ,an electrolyte _c conduct )\t be+ decompos$4 ,! =ces at ! po9t ( composition & ! po9t ( decomposition are ( ! same k9d1 & are oppos$ to ea* o!r by means ( ! conduct+-wire2 ! wire may prop]ly be spok5 (#ggad z conduct+ *emical aff9ity3 x all[s two =ces ( ! same k9d to oppose "o ano!r2#ghad electricity is only ano!r mode ( ! ex]tion ( *emical =ces2#giad & we might express all ! circum/ances ( ! voltaic pile )\t us+ any o!r t]m ?an *emical aff9ity1 ?\gh t ( electricity may be v conv5i5t4#hjad ,bodies are held toge!r by a def9ite p[]1 :i*1 :5 x ceases to dis*>ge t (fice1 may be ?r[n into ! condition ( an electric curr5t4#haad ,note #ggad3 ,rese>*es ,art4 #iah4 ,note #ghad3 #iaj4 ,note #giad3 #iae4 ,note #hjad3 #iag4 ,note #haad3 #hee4 ,?us ! great pr9ciple ( ! id5tity ( electrical & *emical action 0 completely e/abli%$4 ,x 01 z ,f>aday ) great c&or says1#hbad a confirmation ( ! g5]al views put =? by ,davy1 9 #ahjf1 & might be express$ 9 8 t]ms1 t *emical & electrical attractions are produc$ by ! same cause2 b x is easy to see t nei!r 0 ! full import ( ^! expressions und]/ood nor 7 ! quantities to :i* !y ref] conceiv$ z measurable quantities1 nor 0 ! ass]tion any?+ b a sagaci\s conjecture1 till ,f>aday gave ! int]pretation1 measure1 & pro(1 ( :i* we h spok54 ,! evid5ce ( ! incomplet5ess ( ! views ( 8 pr$ecessor we h already adduc$1 9 speak+ ( 8 vague & #cja inconsi/5t !oretical acc\nt ( decomposition4 ,! confirmation ( ,davy's discov]ies by ,f>aday is ( ! nature ( ,newton's confirmation ( ! views ( ,borelli & ,hooke respect+ gravity1 or l ,"y's confirmation ( ! undulatory !ory ( ,huygh5s4 ,note #hbad3 #ife4 ,we mu/ n omit to repeat "h ! moral :i* we wi% to draw f all great discov]ies1 t !y dep5d ^u ! comb9ation ( exact facts ) cle> ideas4 ,! =m] ( ^! conditions is easily illu/rat$ 9 ! case ( ,davy & ,f>aday1 bo? admirable & delicate exp]im5t]s4 ,davy's rapidity & res\rce 9 exp]im5t+ 7 extraord9>y1#hcad & extreme elegance & +5uity di/+ui% almo/ e process ( ,f>aday4 ,he _h publi%$1 9 #ahbi1 a "w on ,*emical ,manipulation1 9 :i* directions are giv5 = p]=m+ 9 ! neate/ mann] all *emical processes4 ,manipulation1 z he !re truly says1 is to ! *emi/ l ! ext]nal s5ses to ! m9d2#hdad & )\t ! supply ( fit mat]ials :i* su* s5ses only c give1 ! m9d c acquire no real k4 ,note #hcad3 ,p>is1 i4 #ade4 ,note #hdad3 ,pref4 p4 ii4 ,b /ill ! op]ations ( ! m9d z well z ! in=mation ( ! s5ses1 ideas z well z facts1 are requisite = ! atta9m5t ( any k2 & all great /eps 9 sci5ce require a peculi> di/9ctness & vividness ( ?\ght 9 ! discov]]4 ,?is x is difficult to exemplify 9 any bett] way ?an by ! discov]ies !mselves4 ,bo? ,davy & ,f>aday possess$ ?is vividness ( m9d2 & x 0 a consequ5ce ( ?is end[m5t1 t ,davy's 9999lectures ^u *emi/ry1 & ,f>aday's ^u almo/ any subject ( physical philosophy1 7 ( ! mo/ brilliant & captivat+ "*4 ,9 discov]+ ! nature ( voltaic action1 ! ess5tial intellectual requisite 0 to h a di/9ct conception ( t :i* ,f>aday express$ by ! rem>kable phrase1#head an axis ( p[] hav+ equal & opposite =ces2 & ! di/9ctness ( ?is idea 9 ,f>aday's m9d %9es =? 9 e "p ( 8 writ+s4 ,?us he says1 ! =ce :i* det]m9es ! decomposition ( a body is 9 ! body1 n 9 ! poles4#hfad ,b = ! mo/ "p he c ( c\rse only convey ?is fundam5tal idea by illu/rations4 ,?us#hgad he repres5ts ! voltaic circuit by a d\ble circle1 /udd$ ) ! elem5ts ( ! circuit1 & %[s h[ ! anons travel r\nd x 9 "o direction1 & ! ca?ons 9 ! opposite4 ,he consid]s#hhad ! p[]s at ! two places ( action z balanc+ aga9/ ea* o!r ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! conductors1 9 a mann] #cjb analog\s to t 9 :i* me*anical =ces are balanc$ aga9/ ea* o!r by ! int]v5tion ( ! lev]4 ,x is impossible to him#hiad to resi/ ! idea1 t ! voltaic curr5t mu/ be prec$$ by a /ate ( t5sion 9 its int]rupt$ condition1 :i* is reliev$ :5 ! circuit is complet$4 ,he appe>s to possess ! idea ( ?is k9d ( =ce ) ! same em95t di/9ctness ) :i* ,ar*im$es 9 ! anci5t1 & ,/ev9us 9 ! mod]n hi/ory ( sci5ce1 possess$ ! idea ( pressure1 & 7 ?us able to f\nd ! sci5ce ( me*anics4#ijad ,& :5 he _c obta9 ^! di/9ct modes ( conception1 he is dissatisfi$1 & consci\s ( defect4 ,?us 9 ! relation betwe5 magnetism & electricity1#iaad !re appe>s to be a l9k 9 ! *a9 ( effects1 a :eel 9 ! physical me*anism ( ! action1 z yet unrecogniz$4 ,all ?is v>iety ( expression %[s h[ deeply seat$ is ! ?\ght4 ,?is conception ( ,*emical ,aff9ity z a peculi> influ5ce ( =ce1 :i*1 act+ 9 opposite directions1 comb9es & resolves bodies2--:i* may be lib]at$ & ?r[n into ! =m ( a voltaic curr5t1 & ?us be transf]r$ to remote po9ts1 & appli$ 9 v>i\s ways2 is ess5tial to ! und]/&+1 z x 0 to ! mak+1 ( ^! discov]ies4 ,note #head3 ,art4 #eag4 ,note #hfad3 ,art4 #ffa4 ,note #hgad3 9999#ifc4 ,note #hhad3 #iag4 ,note #hiad3 ,art4 #iej4 ,note #ijad3 #iij4 ,note #iaad3 #aaad4 ,by ^? to :om ?is conception has be5 convey$1 ,i v5ture to tru/ t ,i %all be held to h giv5 a fai?ful acc\nt ( ?is important ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,we may1 be=e we quit ! subject1 notice "o or two ( ! rem>kable subord9ate features ( ,f>aday's discov]ies4 ,sect4 #c4--;,consequ5ces ( ,f>aday's ,discov]ies4 ,,f>aday',s volta-electromet]1 9 conjunction ) ! me?od he _h already employ$1 z we h se51 = ! comp>ison ( voltaic & common electricity1 enabl$ him to measure ! actual quantity ( electricity :i* is exhibit$1 9 giv5 cases1 9 ! =m ( *emical aff9ity4 ,8 results appe>$ 9 numb]s ( t enorm\s am\nt :i* s (t5 comes be=e u 9 ! expression ( natural laws4 ,"o gra9 ( wat]#ibad w require = its decomposition z mu* electricity z w\ld make a p[]ful fla% ( lightn+4 ,by fur!r calculation1 he f9ds ?is quantity to be n less ?an #hjj1jjj *>ges ( 8 ,leyd5 batt]y2#icad & ?is is1 by 8 !ory ( ! id5tity ( ! comb9+ ) ! decompos+ =ce1 ! quantity ( electricity #cjc :i* is naturally associat$ ) ! elem5ts ( ! gra9 ( wat]1 end[+ !m ) _! mutual aff9ity4 ,note #ibad3 9999#hec4 ,note #icad3 #hfa4 ,_m ( ! subord9ate facts & laws :i* 7 br\ght to light by ^! rese>*es1 cle>ly po9t to g5]alizations1 n includ$ 9 t :i* we h _h to consid]1 & n yet discov]$3 su* laws d n prop]ly belong to our ma9 plan1 :i* is to make our way up to ! g5]alizations4 ,b !re is "o :i* s evid5tly promises to h an important be>+ on future *emical !ories1 t ,i w briefly m5tion x4 ,! class ( bodies :i* are capable ( electrical decomposition is limit$ by a v rem>kable law3 !y are su* b9>y comp\nds only z consi/ ( s+le proportionals ( _! elem5t>y pr9ciples4 ,x does n belong to u "h to speculate on ! possible import ( ?is curi\s law2 :i*1 if n fully e/abli%$1 ,f>aday has r5d]$1 at lea/1 highly probable3#idad b x is impossible n to see h[ closely x connects ! ,atomic ) ! ,electro-*emical ,!ory2 & 9 ! connexion ( ^! two great memb]s ( ,*emi/ry1 is involv$ ! prospect ( its rea*+ wid] g5]alizations1 & pr9ciples m pr(\nd ?an we h yet caught sight (4 ,note #idad3 ,art4 #fig4 ,z ano!r example ( ?is connexion1 ,i w1 f9ally1 notice t ,f>aday has employ$ 8 discov]ies 9 ord] to decide1 9 "s d\btful cases1 :at is ! true *emical equival5t2#iead ,i h su* conviction1 he says1 t ! p[] :i* gov]ns electro-decomposition & ord9>y *emical attractions is ! same2 & su* confid5ce 9 ! ov]rul+ influ5ce ( ^? natural laws :i* r5d] ! =m] def9ite1 z to feel no hesitation 9 believ+ t ! latt] mu/ submit to !m too4 ,su* be+ ! case1 ,i c h no d\bt t1 assum+ hydrog5 z #a1 & dismiss+ small fractions = ! simplicity ( expression1 ! equival5t numb] or atomic weight ( oxyg5 is #h1 ( *lor9e #cf1 ( brom9e #ghd1 ( lead #ajce1 ( t9 #ei1 c42 not)/&+ t a v high au?ority d\bles sev]al ( ^! numb]s4 ,note #iead3 #hea4 ,sect4 #d4--,reception ( ! ,electro-*emical ,!ory4 ,,! epo* ( e/abli%m5t ( ! electro-*emical !ory1 l o!r great sci5tific epo*s1 mu/ h its sequel1 ! p]iod ( its reception & confirmation1 application & ext5sion4 ,9 t p]iod we #cjd are liv+1 & x mu/ be ! task ( future hi/orians to trace its c\rse4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 say a ^w on ! reception :i* ! !ory met )1 9 ! =ms :i* x assum$1 ant]ior to ! labors ( ,f>aday4 ,ev5 be=e ! great discov]y ( ,davy1 ,grot?uss1 9 #ahje1 _h writt5 ^u ! !ory ( electro-*emical decomposition2 b he &1 z we h se51 ,davy1 & aft]w>ds o!r writ]s1 z ,riffault & ,*ompr1 9 #ahjg1 ref]r$ ! effects to ! poles4#ifad ,b ! mo/ important attempt to appropriate & employ ! g5]alization :i* ^! discov]ies sugge/$1 0 t ( ,b]zelius2 :o adopt$ at once ! view ( ! id5tity1 or at lea/ ! univ]sal connexion1 ( electrical relations ) *emical aff9ity4 ,he consid]$1#igad t 9 all *emical comb9ations ! elem5ts may be consid]$ z electro-positive & electro-negative2 & made ?is opposition ! basis ( 8 *emical doctr9es2 9 :i* he 0 foll[$ by a l>ge body ( ! *emi/s ( ,g]many4 ,he held too t ! heat & light1 evolv$ dur+ cases ( p[]ful comb9ation1 are ! consequ5ce ( ! electric dis*>ge :i* is at t mom5t tak+ place3 a conjecture :i* ,f>aday at fir/ spoke ( ) praise4#ihad ,b at a lat] p]iod he m sagely says1#iiad t ! flame :i* is produc$ 9 su* cases exhibits b a small portion ( ! electric p[] :i* really acts4 ,^! !re=e may n1 _c1 be tak5 z evid5ces ( ! nature ( ! action2 b are m]ely incid5tal results1 incomp>ably small 9 relation to ! =ces conc]n$1 & supply+ no in=mation ( ! way 9 :i* ! p>ticles are active on ea* o!r1 or 9 :i* _! =ces are f9ally arrang$4 ,& comp>+ ! evid5ce :i* he himself _h giv5 ( ! pr9ciple on :i* ,b]zelius's speculations re/$1 ) ! speculations !mselves1 ,f>aday ju/ly conceiv$1 t he _h transf]r$ ! doctr9e f ! doma9 ( :at he calls d\btful k1 to t ( inductive c]ta9ty4 ,note #ifad3 ,f>aday 7,rese>*es1 ,art4 #dha1 #dib74 ,note #igad3 ,ann4 ,*im4 lxxxvi4 #adf1 = #ahac4 ,note #ihad3 ,rese>*es1 ,art4 #hgj ,note #iiad3 #ifj4 ,n[ t we are arriv$ at ! />t+-place1 f :i* ?is well-prov$ tru?1 ! id5tity ( electric & *emical =ces1 mu/ make its future advances1 x w\ld be trifl+ to dwell long] on ! details ( ! diffusion ( t d\btful k :i* prec$$ ?is m c]ta9 sci5ce4 ,our hi/ory ( *emi/ry is1 !re=e1 "h at an end4 ,i h1 z f> z ,i c\ld1 execut$ my task2 :i* 01 to m>k all ! #cje great /eps ( its advance1 f ! mo/ unconnect$ facts & ! mo/ imp]fect speculations1 to ! highe/ g5]alization at :i* *emical philosoph]s h yet arriv$4 ,yet x w appe> to our purpose to say a few words on ! connexion ( ?is sci5ce ) ^? ( :i* we are next to treat2 & t ,i n[ proce$ to d4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,transition ,,f ,,! ,,*emical ,,to ,,! ,,classificatory ,,sci5ces4 ,,x is ! object & ! boa/ ( *emi/ry to acquire a k ( bodies :i* is m exact & con/ant ?an any k borr[$ f _! s5sible qualities c be2 s9ce x p5etrates into _! intimate con/itution1 & discloses to u ! inv>iable laws ( _! composition4 ,b yet x w be se51 on a little reflection1 t su* k c\ld n h any exi/5ce1 if we 7 n also att5tive to _! s5sible qualities4 ,! :ole fabric ( *emi/ry re/s1 ev5 at ! pres5t day1 ^u ! opposition ( acids & bases3 an acid 0 c]ta9ly at fir/ kn[n by its s5sible qualities1 & h[ o!rwise1 ev5 n[1 d we p]ceive its quality8 ,x 0 a great discov]y ( mod]n times t e>?s & alkalies h = _! bases metals3 b :at are metals8 or h[1 except f lu/re1 h>dness1 weight1 & ! l1 d we recognize a body z a metal8 ,& h[1 except by su* *>act]s1 ev5 be=e its analysis1 0 x kn[n to be an e>? or an alkali8 ,we mu/ suppose "s classification e/abli%$1 be=e we c make any advance by exp]im5t or obs]vation4 ,x is easy to see t all attempts to avoid ?is difficulty by ref]r+ to processes & analogies1 z well z to sub/ances1 br+ u back to ! same po9t 9 a circle ( fallacies4 ,if we say t an acid & alkali are kn[n by comb9+ ) ea* o!r1 we /ill mu/ ask1 ,:at is ! crit]ion t !y h comb9$8 ,if we say t ! di/9ctive qualities ( metals & e>?s are1 t metals become e>?s by oxidation1 we mu/ /ill inquire h[ we recognize ! process ( oxidation8 ,we h se5 h[ important a "p combu/ion plays 9 ! hi/ory ( *emical speculation2 & we may usefully =m su* classes ( #cjf bodies z combu/ibles & support]s ( combu/ion4 ,b ev5 combu/ion is n capable ( be+ infallibly kn[n1 = x passes by ins5sible %ades into oxidation4 ,we c f9d no basis = our reason+s1 :i* does n assume a classification ( obvi\s facts & qualities4 ,b any classification ( sub/ances on su* gr\nds1 appe>s1 at fir/ sight1 to involve u 9 vagu5ess1 ambiguity1 & contradiction4 ,d we really take ! s5sible qualities ( an acid z ! crit]ion ( its be+ an acid8--= in/ance1 its s\rness8 ,prussic acid1 ars5i\s acid1 are n s\r4 ,i rememb]1 says ,dr4 ,p>is1#ajjad a *emi/ hav+ be5 expos$ to mu* ridicule f speak+ ( a sweet acid1--:y n8 ,:5 ,davy _h discov]$ potassium1 x 0 disput$ :e!r x 0 a metal2 = ?\gh its lu/re & texture are metallic1 x is s light z to swim on wat]4 ,& if potassium be all[$ to be a metal1 is silicium "o1 a body :i* wants ! metallic lu/re1 & is a non-conductor ( electricity8 ,x is cle> t1 at lea/1 ! obvi\s application ( a classification by physical *>act]s1 is att5d$ ) endless p]plexity4 ,note #ajjad3 ,life ( ,davy1 i4 #bfc4 ,b s9ce we _c ev5 beg9 our rese>*es )\t assum+ a classification1 & s9ce ! =ms ( su* a classification :i* fir/ occur1 end 9 app>5t confusion1 x is cle> t we mu/ look to our philosophy = a solution ( ?is difficulty2 & mu/ avoid ! emb>rassm5ts & contradictions ( casual & unreflective classification1 by obta9+ a consi/5t & philosophical arrangem5t4 ,we mu/ employ ext]nal *>act]s & analogies 9 a connect$ & sy/ematic mann]2 we mu/ h ,classificatory ,sci5ces1 & ^! mu/ h a be>+ ev5 on ,*emi/ry4 ,accord+ly1 ! mo/ philosophical *emi/s n[ proce$ ^u ?is pr9ciple4 ,! me?od :i* ,i h foll[$1 says ,m4 ,!n>d1 9 8 ,trait de ,*imie1 publi%$ 9 #ahbd1 is1 to unite 9 "o gr\p all analog\s bodies2 & ! advantage ( ?is me?od1 :i* is t employ$ by naturali/s1 is v great1 especially 9 ! /udy ( ! metals & _! comp\nds4#ajaad ,9 ?is1 z 9 all good sy/ems ( *emi/ry1 :i* h appe>$ s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! phlogi/ic !ory1 combu/ion1 & ! analog\s processes1 are "o great elem5t 9 ! arrangem5t1 :ile ! diff]5ce ( metallic & non-metallic1 is ano!r elem5t4 ,?us ,!n>d1 9 ! fir/ place1 speaks ( ,oxyg52 9 ! next place1 ( ! ,non-metallic ,combu/ibles1 z ,hydrog51 ,c>bon1 ,sulphur1 ,*lor9e2 & 9 ! next place1 ( ,metals4 ,b ! ,metals are aga9 divid$ into six ,sections1 ) ref]5ce1 #cjg pr9cipally1 to _! facility ( comb9ation ) oxyg54 ,?us1 ! ,fir/ ,section is ! ,metals ( ! ,e>?s2 ! ,second1 ! ,metals ( ! ,alkalies2 ! ,?ird1 ! ,easily ,oxidable ,metals1 z ,iron2 ! ,f\r?1 ,metals ,less ,oxidable1 z ,copp] & ,lead2 ! ,fif? ,section conta9s only ,m]cury & ,osmium2 & ! ,six?1 :at 7 at an e>li] p]iod t]m$ ! ,noble ,metals1 ,gold1 ,silv]1 ,plat9um1 & o!rs4 ,note #ajaad3 ,pref41 p4 viii4 ,h[ su* pr9ciples are to be appli$1 s z to produce a def9ite & consi/5t arrangem5t1 w be expla9$ 9 speak+ ( ! philosophy ( ! ,classificatory ,sci5ces2 b !re are "o or two peculi>ities 9 ! classes ( bodies ?us recogniz$ by mod]n *emi/ry1 :i* x may be useful to notice4 #a4 ,! di/9ction ( ,metallic & ,non-metallic is /ill employ$1 z ( fundam5tal importance4 ,! discov]y ( new metals is s mu* connect$ ) ! inquiries conc]n+ *emical elem5ts1 t we may notice ! g5]al progress ( su* discov]ies4 ,gold1 ,silv]1 ,iron1 ,copp]1 ,quicksilv]1 ,lead1 ,t91 7 kn[n f ! e>lie/ antiquity4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 m9e-directors1 l ,george ,agricola1 _h advanc$ s f> 9 practical metallurgy1 t !y _h discov]$ ! means ( extract+ ?ree additional metals1 ,z9c1 ,bismu?1 ,antimony4 ,aft] ?is1 !re 0 no new metal discov]$ = a c5tury1 & !n su* discov]ies 7 made by ! !oretical *emi/s1 a race ( m5 :o _h n exi/$ be=e ,bec*] & ,/ahl4 ,?us ,ars5ic & ,cobalt 7 made kn[n by ,br&t1 9 ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & we h a long li/ ( simil> discov]ies belong+ to ! same p]iod2 ,nickel1 ,manganese1 & ,tung/51 :i* 7 detect$ by ,cron/$t1 ,gahn1 & ,s*eele1 & ,delhuy>t1 respectively2 metals ( a v diff]5t k9d1 ,tellurium & ,molybd5um1 :i* 7 br\ght to light by ,mll]1 ,s*eele1 ,b]gman1 & ,hielm2 ,plat9um1 :i* 0 kn[n z e>ly z #agda1 b ) ! ore ( :i*1 9 #ahjb & #ahjc1 ! ,engli% *emi/s1 ,wolla/on & ,t5nant1 f\nd t no less ?an f\r o!r new metals 7,palladium1 ,rhodium1 ,iridium & ,osmium7 7 associat$4 ,f9ally1 7omitt+ "s o!r new metals17 we h ano!r p]iod ( discov]y1 op5$ 9 #ahjg1 by ,davy's discov]y ( ,potassium1 & includ+ ! resolution ( all1 or almo/ all1 ! alkalies & e>?s into metallic bases4 #bnd ,ed4 ,! next few ye>s made "s1 at lea/ "s conjectural1 additions to ! li/ ( simple sub/ances1 detect$ by a m m9ute scrut9y ( kn[n sub/ances4 ,?orium 0 discov]$ by ,b]zelius 9 #ahbh2 & ,vanadium by ,pr(essor ,sef/rm 9 #ahcj4 ,a #cjh metal nam$ ,c]ium1 0 discov]$ 9 #ahjc1 by ,his+] & ,b]zelius1 9 a r>e ,sw$i% m9]al kn[n by ! "n ( ,c]it4 ,mos&] m rec5tly has f\nd comb9$ ) ,c]ium1 o!r new metals :i* he has call$ ,lan?anium1 ,didymium1 ,erbium1 & ,t]bium3 ,m4 ,klaus has f\nd a new metal1 ,ru!nium1 9 ! ore ( ,plat9um2 & ,rose has discov]$ 9 ,tantalite two o!r new metals1 :i* he has ann\nc$ "u ! names ( ,pelopium & ,niobium4 ,svanb]g is said to h discov]$ a new e>? 9 ,eudialyt1 :i* is suppos$ to h1 l ! re/1 a new radical4 ,if ^! la/ discov]ies be confirm$1 ! numb] ( simple sub/ances w be rais$ to sixty-two4 #b4 ,attempts h be5 made to indicate ! classification ( *emical sub/ances by "s peculi>ity 9 ! ,"n2 & ! ,metals1 = example1 h be5 designat$ g5]ally by names 9 um1 l ! ,lat9 names ( ! anci5t metals1 aurum1 f]rum4 ,?is artifice is a conv5i5t nom5clature = ! purpose ( m>k+ a recogniz$ diff]5ce2 & x w\ld be wor? ! :ile ( *emi/s to agree to make x univ]sal1 by writ+ molybd5um & plat9um2 :i* is sometimes done1 b n always4 #c4 ,i am n n[ to attempt to det]m9e h[ f> ?is class1--,metals1--ext5ds2 b :]e ! analogies ( ! class cease to hold !re ! nom5clature mu/ also *ange4 ,?us1 "s *emi/s1 z ,dr4 ,?omson1 h conceiv$ t ! base ( ,silica is m analog\s to ,c>bon & ,boron1 :i* =m acids ) oxyg51 ?an x is to ! metals3 & he has accord+ly associat$ ?is base ) ^! sub/ances1 & has giv5 x ! same t]m9ation1 ,silicon4 ,b on ! validity ( ?is analogy *emi/s appe> n to be g5]ally agre$4 #d4 ,!re is ano!r class ( bodies :i* h attract$ mu* notice among mod]n *emi/s1 & :i* h also be5 assimilat$ to ea* o!r 9 ! =m ( _! names2 ! ,engli% writ]s call+ !m ,*lor9e1 ,fluor9e1 ,iod9e1 ,brom9e1 :ile ! ,fr5* use ! t]ms ,*lore1 ,phtore1 ,iode1 ,brome4 ,we h already notic$ ! e/abli%m5t ( ! doctr9e--t muriatic acid is =m$ ( a base1 *lor9e1 & ( hydrog51--z a great re=m 9 ! oxyg5 !ory2 ) reg>d to :i* rival claims 7 advanc$ by ,davy1 & by ,,mm4 ,gay-,lussac & ,!n>d 9 #ahjj4 ,iod9e1 a rem>kable body :i*1 f a d>k p[d]1 is conv]t$ into a violet-color$ gas by ! application ( heat1 0 also1 9 #ahac1 ! subject ( a simil> rivalry betwe5 ! same ,engli% & ,fr5* *emi/s4 ,brom9e #cji 0 only discov]$ z late z #ahbf2 & ,fluor9e1 or ,phtore1 z1 f its de/ructive nature1 x has be5 propos$ to t]m x1 has n be5 obta9$ z a sep>ate sub/ance1 & is inf]r$ to exi/ by analogy only4 ,! analogies ( ^! bodies 7,*lore1 ,phtore1 c47 are v peculi>2 = in/ance1 by comb9ation ) metals !y =m salts2 by comb9ation ) hydrog5 !y =m v /rong acids2 & all1 at ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 op]ate on o!r bodies 9 ! mo/ en]getic mann]4 ,b]zelius#ajbad proposes to call !m halog5\s bodies1 or halog5es4 ,note #ajbad3 ,*em4 i4 #bfb4 #e4 ,! numb] ( ,elem5t>y ,sub/ances :i* are at pres5t pres5t$ 9 our treatises ( *emi/ry#ajcad is fifty-?ree1 or r1 z we h said above1 sixty-two4 ,x is naturally (t5 ask$ :at evid5ce we h1 t all ^! are elem5t>y1 & :at evid5ce t !y are all ! elem5t>y bodies2--h[ we "k t new elem5ts may n h]eaft] be discov]$1 or ^! suppos$ simple bodies resolv$ into simpl] /ill8 ,to ^! que/ions we c only answ]1 by ref]r+ to ! hi/ory ( *emi/ry2--by po9t+ out :at *emi/s h und]/ood by analysis1 accord+ to ! prec$+ n>rative4 ,!y h consid]$1 z ! analysis ( a sub/ance1 t elem5t>y con/itution ( x :i* gives ! only intelligible explanation ( ! results ( *emical manipulation1 & :i* is prov$ to be complete z to quantity1 by ! balance1 s9ce ! :ole c only be equal to all its p>ts4 ,x is impossible to ma9ta9 t new sub/ances may n h]eaft] be discov]$2 = !y may lurk1 ev5 9 famili> sub/ances1 9 doses s m9ute t !y h n yet be5 miss$ amid ! inevitable slight inaccuracies ( all analysis2 9 ! way 9 :i* iod9e & brom9e rema9$ s long undetect$ 9 sea-wat]2 & new m9]als1 or old ones n yet suffici5tly exam9$1 c h>dly fail to add some?+ to our li/4 ,z to ! possibility ( a fur!r analysis ( our suppos$ simple bodies1 we may v5ture to say t1 9 reg>d to su* suppos$ simple bodies z compose a num]\s & well-*>act]iz$ class1 no su* /ep c be made1 except ?r\gh "s great *ange 9 *emical !ory1 :i* gives u a new view ( all ! g5]al relations :i* *emi/ry has yet discov]$4 ,! prop] evid5ce ( ! reality ( any suppos$ new analysis is1 t x is m consi/5t ) ! kn[n analogies ( *emi/ry1 to suppose ! process analytical ?an syn!tical4 ,?us1 z has already be5 said1 *emi/s admit ! exi/5ce ( fluor9e1 f ! analogy ( *lor9e2 & ,davy1 :5 x 0 f\nd #caj t ammonia =m$ an amalgam ) m]cury1 0 tempt$ to assign to x a metallic basis4 ,b !n he aga9 hesitates1#ajdad & d\bts :e!r ! analogies ( our k are n bett] pres]v$ by suppos+ t ammonia1 z a comp\nd ( hydrog5 & ano!r pr9ciple1 is a type ( ! composition ( ! metals4 ,note #ajcad3 ,turn]1 p4 #iga4 ,note #ajdad3 ,elem4 ,*em4 ,phil4 #ahab1 p4 #dha4 ,our hi/ory1 :i* is ! hi/ory ( :at we "k1 has little to d ) su* conjectures4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s n unimportant pr9ciples :i* be> ^u !m1 & :i*1 z !y are usually employ$1 belong to ! sci5ce :i* next comes "u our review1 ,m9]alogy4 #caa ,,book ,,xv4 ,,! ,,analytico-,,classificatory ,,sci5ce4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,m9]alogy4 1 1 ' 4 ' 1 1 4 ,,orpheus4 ,li?ica4 ,n[1 if ! bold b pi\s ?\ght be ?9e1 ,to rea* our spaci\s temple's inn] %r9e1 ,take 9 ?y rev]5t h&s ! cry/al /one1 ,:]e heav5ly light 9 e>?y %r\d is %[n3-- ,:]e1 m\ld$ into measur$ =m1 ) rays ,complex yet cle>1 ! et]nal ,e!r plays2 ,?is if ?\ firmly hold & rightly use1 ,n long ! gods ?y ard5t wi% refuse4 #cac ,,introduction4 ,sect4 #a4--,( ! ,classificatory ,sci5ces4 ,,! horizon ( ! sci5ces spreads wid] & wid] be=e u1 z we advance 9 our task ( tak+ a survey ( ! va/ doma94 ,we h se5 t ! exi/5ce ( ,*emi/ry z a sci5ce :i* decl>es ! +r$i5ts & ess5tial con/itution ( all k9ds ( bodies1 implies ! exi/5ce ( ano!r correspond+ sci5ce1 :i* %all divide bodies into k9ds1 & po9t out /eadily & precisely :at bodies !y are :i* we h analys$4 ,b a sci5ce ?us divid+ & def9+ bodies1 is b "o memb] ( an ord] ( sci5ces1 diff]5t f ^? :i* we h hi!rto describ$2 namely1 ( ! classificatory sci5ces4 ,su* sci5ces !re mu/ be1 n only hav+ ref]5ce to ! bodies ) :i* *emi/ry deals1 b also to all ?+s respect+ :i* we aspire to obta9 any g5]al k1 z1 = in/ance1 plants & animals4 ,inde$ x w be f\nd1 t x is ) reg>d to ^! latt] objects1 to organiz$ be+s1 t ! process ( sci5tific classification has be5 mo/ successfully ex]cis$2 :ile ) reg>d to inorganic sub/ances1 ! =mation ( a satisfactory sy/em ( arrangem5t has be5 f\nd extremely difficult2 nor has ! necessity ( su* a sy/em be5 recognis$ by *emi/s s di/9ctly & con/antly z x ought to be4 ,! be/ exemplification ( ^! bran*es ( k1 ( :i* we n[ h to speak1 w1 !re=e1 be f\nd 9 ! organic _w1 9 ,botany & ,zoology2 b we w1 9 ! fir/ place1 take a brief view ( ! sci5ce :i* classifies inorganic bodies1 & ( :i* ,m9]alogy is hi!rto ! v imp]fect repres5tative4 ,! pr9ciples & rules ( ! ,classificatory ,sci5ces1 z well z ( ^? ( ! o!r ord]s ( sci5ces1 mu/ be fully expla9$ :5 we come to treat ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,sci5ces2 & _c be introduc$ "h1 :]e we h to d ) hi/ory only4 ,b ,i may obs]ve v briefly1 t ) ! process ( class+1 is jo9$ ! process ( nam+2--t names imply classification2--& t ev5 ! rude/ & e>lie/ application ( language presupposes a di/ribution ( objects accord+ to _! k9ds2--b t su* a spontane\s #cad & unsy/ematic di/ribution _c1 9 ! cases we n[ h to consid]1 answ] ! purposes ( exact & g5]al k4 ,our classification ( objects mu/ be made consi/5t & sy/ematic1 9 ord] to be sci5tific2 we mu/ discov] m>ks & *>act]s1 prop]ties & conditions1 :i* are con/ant 9 _! occurr5ce & relations2 we mu/ =m our classes1 we mu/ impose our names1 accord+ to su* m>ks4 ,we c ?us1 & ?us alone1 arrive at t precise1 c]ta91 & sy/ematic k1 :i* we seek2 t is1 at sci5ce4 ,! object1 !n1 ( ! classificatory sci5ces is to obta9 ,,fix$ ,,*>act]s ( ! k9ds ( ?+s2 & ! crit]ion ( ! fitness ( names is1 t ,,!y ,,make ,,g5]al ,,propositions ,,possible4 ,i proce$ to review ! progress ( c]ta9 sci5ces on ^! pr9ciples1 & fir/1 ?\gh briefly1 ! sci5ce ( ,m9]alogy4 ,sect4 #b4--,m9]alogy z ! ,analytico-classificatory ,sci5ce4 ,,m9]alogy1 z x has hi!rto be5 cultivat$1 is1 z ,i h already said1 an imp]fect repres5tative ( ! dep>tm5t ( human k to :i* x belongs4 ,! attempts at ! sci5ce h g5]ally be5 made by collect+ v>i\s k9ds ( in=mation respect+ m9]al bodies2 b ! sci5ce :i* we require is a complete & consi/5t classifi$ sy/em ( all inorganic bodies4 ,= *emi/ry proce$s ^u ! pr9ciple t ! con/itution ( a body inv>iably det]m9es its prop]ties2 &1 consequ5tly1 its k9d3 b we _c apply ?is pr9ciple1 except we c speak ) precision ( ! k9d ( a body1 z well z ( its composition4 ,we _c atta* any s5se to ! ass]tion1 t soda or b>yta has a metal = its base1 except we "k :at a metal is1 or at lea/ :at prop]ties x implies4 ,x may n be1 inde$ x is n1 possible1 to def9e ! k9ds ( bodies by words only2 b ! classification mu/ proce$ by "s con/ant & g5]ally applicable process2 & ! k :i* has ref]5ce to ! classification w be precise z f> z ?is process is precise1 & vague z f> z ?is is vague4 ,!re mu/ be1 !n1 z a necess>y supplem5t to ,*emi/ry1 a ,sci5ce ( ^? prop]ties ( bodies by :i* we divide !m into k9ds4 ,m9]alogy is ! bran* ( k :i* has dis*>g$ ! (fice ( su* a sci5ce1 s f> z x has be5 dis*>g$2 &1 inde$1 ,m9]alogy has be5 gradually approa*+ to a cle> consci\sness ( h] real place1 & ( h] :ole task2 ,i %all give ! hi/ory ( "s ( ! advances :i* h ?us be5 made4 ,!y are1 pr9cipally1 #cae ! e/abli%m5t & use ( ,ext]nal ,*>act]s1 especially ( ,cry/all9e ,=m1 z a fix$ "* ( def9ite sub/ances2 & ! attempts to br+ into view ! connexion ( ,*emical ,con/itution & ,ext]nal ,prop]ties1 made 9 ! %ape ( m9]alogical ,sy/ems2 bo? ^? 9 :i* *emical me?ods ( arrangem5t are adopt$1 & ^? :i* pr(ess to classify by ! natural-hi/ory me?od4 #caf ,,cry/allography4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,! ,,epo* ,,( ,,de ,,lisle ,,& ,,ha,y4 ,,( all ! physical prop]ties ( bodies1 !re is none s fix$1 & 9 e way s rem>kable1 z ?is2--t ! same *emical comp\nd always assumes1 ) ! utmo/ precision1 ! same geometrical =m4 ,?is id5tity1 h[ev]1 is n imm$iately obvi\s2 x is (t5 obscur$ by v>i\s mixtures & imp]fections 9 ! sub/ance2 & ev5 :5 x is complete1 x is n imm$iately recogniz$ by a common eye1 s9ce x consi/s1 n 9 ! equality ( ! sides or faces ( ! figures1 b 9 ! equality ( _! angles4 ,h5ce x is n surpris+ t ! con/ancy ( =m 0 n detect$ by ! e>ly obs]v]s4 ,pl9y says1#aae ,:y cry/al is g5]at$ 9 a hexagonal =m1 x is difficult to assign a reason2 & ! m s1 s9ce1 :ile its faces are smoo!r ?an any art c make !m1 ! pyramidal po9ts are n all ( ! same k9d4 ,! qu>tz cry/als ( ! ,alps1 to :i* he ref]s1 are1 9 "s specim5s1 v regul>1 :ile 9 o!rs1 "o side ( ! pyramid becomes mu* ! l>ge/2 yet ! angles rema9 con/antly ! same4 ,b :5 ! :ole %ape v>i$ s mu*1 ! angles also seem$ to v>y4 ,?us ,conrad ,gessn]1 a v le>n$ naturali/1 :o1 9 #aefd1 publi%$ at ,zuri* 8 "w1 ,de r]um ,fossilium1 ,lapidum et ,gemm>um maxime1 ,figuris1 says1#bae ,"o cry/al diff]s f ano!r 9 its angles1 & consequ5tly 9 its figure4 ,& ,csalp9us1 :o1 z we %all f9d1 did s mu* 9 e/abli%+ fix$ *>act]s 9 botany1 0 l$ by "s ( 8 g5]al views to disbelieve ! fixity ( ! =m ( cry/als4 ,9 8 "w ,de ,metallicis1 publi%$ at ,nuremb]g 9 #afjb1 he says1#cae ,to ascribe to inanimate bodies a def9ite =m1 does n appe> cons5tane\s to reason2 = x is ! (fice ( organization to produce a def9ite =m2 #cag an op9ion v natural 9 "o :o _h be5 imm]s$ 9 ! /udy ( ! g5]al analogies ( ! =ms ( plants4 ,b ?\gh ?is is excusable 9 ,csalp9us1 ! rejection ( ?is def9it5ess ( =m a hundr$ ye>s lat]1 :5 its exi/5ce _h be5 prov$1 & its laws develop$ by num]\s obs]v]s1 _c be ascrib$ to any?+ b /rong prejudice2 yet ?is 0 ! c\rse tak5 by no less a p]son ?an ,buffon4 ,! =m ( cry/allization1 says he1#dae is n a con/ant "*1 b is m equivocal & m v>iable ?an any o!r ( ! *>act]s by :i* m9]als are to be di/+ui%$4 ,& accord+ly1 he makes no use ( ?is mo/ important feature 9 8 hi/ory ( m9]als4 ,?is /range p]v]s5ess may p]haps be ascrib$ to ! dislike :i* ,buffon is said to h ent]ta9$ = ,l9nu1 :o _h made cry/all9e =m a lead+ "* ( m9]als4 ,note #aae3 ,nat4 ,hi/4 xxvii4 #b4 ,note #bae3 p4 #be4 ,note #cae3 p4 #ig4 ,note #dae3 ,hi/4 des ,m94 p4 #cdc4 ,x is n necess>y to m>k all ! m9ute /eps by :i* m9]alogi/s 7 gradually l$ to see cle>ly ! nature & laws ( ! fixity ( cry/all9e =ms4 ,^! =ms 7 at fir/ notic$ 9 t sub/ance :i* is peculi>ly call$ rock-cry/al or qu>tz2 & aft]w>ds 9 v>i\s /ones & gems1 9 salts obta9$ f v>i\s solutions1 & 9 sn[4 ,b ^? :o obs]v$ ! rem>kable regul> figures :i* ^! sub/ances assume1 7 at fir/ impell$ onw>ds 9 _! speculations by ! natural t5d5cy ( ! human m9d to g5]alize & guess1 r ?an to exam9e & measure4 ,!y attempt$ to snat* at once ! g5]al laws ( geometrical regul>ity ( ^! occurr5ces1 or to connect !m ) "s doctr9e conc]n+ =mative causes4 ,?us ,kepl]1#eae 9 8 ,h>monics ( ! ,_w1 ass]ts a =matrix facultas1 :i* has its seat 9 ! entrails ( ! e>?1 &1 aft] ! mann] ( a pregnant woman1 expresses ! five regul> geometrical solids 9 ! =ms ( gems4 ,b ,philosoph]s1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 came to build m ^u obs]vation1 & less ^u ab/ract reason+s4 ,nicolas ,/5o1 a ,dane1 publi%$1 9 #affi1 a diss]tation ,de ,solido intra ,solidum ,naturalit] cont5to1 9 :i* he says1#fae t ?\gh ! sides ( ! hexagonal cry/al may v>y1 ! angles are n *ang$4 ,& ,dom9ic ,gulielm9i1 9 a ,diss]tation on ,salts1 publi%$ 9 #agjg1 says1#gae 9 a true inductive _s1 ,nature does n employ all figures1 b only c]ta9 ones ( ^? :i* are possible2 & ( ^!1 ! det]m9ation is n to be fet*$ f ! bra91 or prov$ priori1 b obta9$ by exp]im5ts & obs]vations4 ,& #cah he speaks#hae ) entire decision on ?is subject3 ,nev]!less s9ce !re is "h a pr9ciple ( cry/allization1 ! incl9ation ( ! planes & ( ! angles is always con/ant4 ,he ev5 anticipates1 v ne>ly1 ! views ( lat] cry/allograph]s z to ! mode 9 :i* cry/als are =m$ f elem5t>y molecules4 ,f ?is "t1 _m p]sons labor$ & speculat$ on ?is subject2 z ,cappell]1 ^: ,prodromus ,cry/allographi appe>$ at ,luc]n 9 #agbc2 ,b\rguet1 :o publi%$ ,lettres ,philosophiques sur la ,=mation de ,sels et de ,cri/aux1 at ,am/]dam1 9 #agib2 & ,h5ckel1 ! ,physicus ( ! ,elector ( ,saxony1 ^: ,pyritologia came =? 9 #agbe4 ,9 ?is la/ "w we h an example ( ! description ( ! v>i\s =ms ( special classes ( m9]als1 7iron pyrites1 copp] pyrites1 & ars5ic pyrites27 & an example ( ! en?usiasm :i* ?is app>5tly dry & labori\s /udy c excite3 ,nei!r tongue nor /one1 he exclaims1#iae c express ! satisfaction :i* ,i receiv$ on sett+ eyes ^u ?is s9t] cov]$ ) gal5a2 & ?us x con/antly happ5s1 t "o mu/ h m pleasure 9 :at seems wor?less rubbi%1 ?an 9 ! pure/ & mo/ preci\s ores1 if we "k aught ( m9]als4 ,note #eae3 ,l9z4 #afai1 p4 #afa4 ,note #fae3 p4 #fi4 ,note #gae3 p4 #ai4 ,note #hae3 p4 #hc4 ,note #iae3 p4 #cdc4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 ,h5ckel#ajae disclaims ! int5tion ( arrang+ m9]als accord+ to _! ma!matical =ms2 & ?is1 :i* may be consid]$ z ! fir/ decid$ /ep 9 ! =mation ( cry/allographic m9]alogy1 appe>s to h be5 fir/ attempt$ by ,l9nu4 ,9 ?is attempt1 h[ev]1 he 0 by no means happy2 nor does he himself appe> to h be5 satisfi$4 ,he beg9s 8 preface by say+1 ,li?ology is n :at ,i plume myself ^u4 7,li?ologia mihi cri/as non eriget47 ,?\gh 8 sagacity1 z a natural hi/orian1 l$ him to see t cry/all9e =m 0 "o ( ! mo/ def9ite1 & !re=e mo/ important1 *>act]s ( m9]als1 he fail$ 9 pr(it+ by ?is ?\ght1 because1 9 apply+ x1 he did n employ ! light ( geometry1 b 0 regulat$ by :at appe>$ to him resemblances1 arbitr>ily select$1 & (t5 delusive4#aaae ,?us he d]iv$ ! =m ( pyrites f t ( vitriol2#abae & br\ght toge!r alum & diamond on acc\nt ( _! common octoh$ral =m4 ,b he _h ! great m]it ( animat+ to ?is /udy "o to :om1 m p]haps ?an to any o!r p]son1 x owes its subsequ5t progress2 ,i mean ,rom de ,lisle4 ,in/ruct$1 ?is writ] says1 9 8 preface to 8 ,essais de ,cry/allographie1 by ! works ( ! celebrat$ ,von ,l9ne1 h[ #cai greatly ! /udy ( ! angul> =m ( cry/als might become int]e/+1 & fitt$ to ext5d ! sph]e ( our m9]alogical k1 ,i h foll[$ !m 9 all _! metamorphoses ) ! mo/ scrupul\s att5tion4 ,! views ( ,l9nu1 z to ! importance ( ?is "*1 _h inde$ be5 adopt$ by sev]al o!rs2 z ,john ,hill1 ! ,k+'s g>d5] at ,kew1 :o1 9 #aggg1 publi%$ 8 ,spa?og5esia2 & ,grignon1 :o1 9 #agge1 says1 ,^! cry/allizations may give ! means ( f9d+ a new !ory ( ! g5]ation ( cry/all9e gems4 ,note #ajae3 p4 #afg4 ,note #aaae3 ,m>x4 ,ges*4 p4 #ig4 ,note #abae3 ,sy/4 ,nat4 vi4 p4 #bbj4 ,! circum/ance :i* ?rew s mu* difficulty 9 ! way ( ^? :o tri$ to foll[ out 8 ?\ght 01 t 9 consequ5ce ( ! app>5t irregul>ity ( cry/als1 aris+ f ! ext5sion or contraction ( p>ticul> sides ( ! figure1 ea* k9d ( sub/ance may really appe> "u _m diff]5t =ms1 connect$ ) ea* o!r by c]ta9 geometrical relations4 ,^! may be conceiv$ by consid]+ a c]ta9 fundam5tal =m to be cut into new =ms 9 p>ticul> ways4 ,?us if we take a cube1 & cut (f all ! eight corn]s1 till ! orig9al faces disappe>1 we make x an octoh$ron2 & if we /op %ort ( ?is1 we h a figure ( f\rte5 faces1 :i* has be5 call$ a cubo-octoh$ron4 ,! fir/ p]son :o appe>s di/9ctly to h conceiv$ ?is truncation ( angles & edges1 & to h introduc$ ! ^w1 is ,dme/e2#acae al?\gh ,wall]ius#adae _h already said1 9 speak+ ( ! v>i\s cry/all9e =ms ( calcsp>1 ,i conceive x w\ld be bett] n to att5d to all diff]5ces1 le/ we be ov]:elm$ by ! numb]4 ,& ,w]n]1 9 8 celebrat$ "w ,on ! ,ext]nal ,*>act]s ( ,m9]als1#aeae _h =mally spok5 ( truncation1 acuation1 & acum9ation1 or replacem5t by a plane1 an edge1 a po9t respectively1 7ab/umpfung1 zus*rfung1 zuspitzung17 z ways 9 :i* ! =ms ( cry/als are modifi$ & (t5 disguis$4 ,he appli$ ?is process 9 p>ticul> to %[ ! connexion ( ! v>i\s =ms :i* are relat$ to ! cube4 ,b /ill ! ext5sion ( ! process to ! :ole range ( m9]als & o!r cry/all9e bodies1 0 due to ,rom de ,lisle4 #cbj ,note #acae3 ,lettres1 #aggi1 i4 #dh4 ,note #adae3 ,sy/ema ,m9]alogicum1 #aggb-e1 i4 #adc4 ,note #aeae3 ,leipzig1 #aggd4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,epo* ,,( ,,rom ,,de ,,lisle ,,& ,,ha,y4--,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,! ,,fixity ,,( ,,cry/all9e ,,angles1 ,,& ,,! ,,simplicity ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,d]ivation4 ,,we h already se5 t1 be=e #aghj1 sev]al m9]alogi/s _h recogniz$ ! con/ancy ( ! angles ( cry/als1 & _h se5 7z ,dme/e & ,w]n]17 t ! =ms 7 subject to modifications ( a def9ite k9d4 ,b nei!r ( ^! two ?\ghts 0 s appreh5d$ & s develop$1 z to sup]s$e ! occasion = a discov]] :o %\ld put =w>d ^! pr9ciples z :at !y really 71 ! mat]ials ( a new & complete sci5ce4 ,! m]it ( ?is /ep belongs jo9tly to ,rom de ,lisle & to ,hay4 ,! =m] ( ^! two m5 _h already1 9 #aggb1 publi%$ an ,essai de ,cry/allographie1 9 :i* he _h describ$ a numb] ( cry/als4 ,b 9 ?is "w 8 views are /ill rude & vague2 he does n e/abli% any connect$ sequ5ce ( transitions 9 ea* k9d ( sub/ance1 & lays little or no /ress on ! angles4 ,b 9 #aghc1 8 ideas#afae _h rea*$ a maturity :i*1 by comp>ison1 excites our admiration4 ,9 ?is he ass]ts1 9 ! mo/ di/9ct mann]1 ! inv>iability ( ! angles ( cry/als ( ea* k9d1 "u all ! *anges ( relative dim5sion :i* ! faces may und]go2#agae & he po9ts out t ?is inv>iability applies only to ! primitive =ms1 f ea* ( :i* _m second>y =ms are d]iv$ by v>i\s *anges4#ahae ,?us we _c d5y him ! m]it ( hav+ tak5 /eady hold on bo? ! h&les ( ?is discov]y1 ?\gh some?+ /ill rema9$ = ano!r to d4 ,rom pursues 8 g5]al ideas into detail ) great labor & skill4 ,he gives draw+s ( m ?an five hundr$ regul> =ms 79 8 fir/ "w he _h ins]t$ only "o hundr$ & t52 ,l9nu only knew =ty72 & assigns !m to _! prop] sub/ances2 = in/ance1 ?irty to calcsp>1 & sixte5 to felsp>4 ,he also inv5t$ & us$ a goniomet]4 ,we _c d\bt t he w\ld h be5 #cba look$ ^u z a great discov]]1 if 8 fame _h n be5 dimm$ by ! m brilliant success ( 8 contempor>y ,hay4 ,note #afae3 ,cri/allographie1 ou ,description de ,=mes propres t\s les ,corps du ,rgne ,m9ral4 #c vols4 & #a vol4 ( plates4 ,note #agae3 p4 #fh4 ,note #ahae3 p4 #gc4 ,rn-,j ,hay is rightly look$ ^u z ! f\nd] ( ! mod]n s*ool ( cry/allography2 = all ^? :o h1 s9ce him1 pursu$ ! /udy ) success1 h tak5 8 views = _! basis4 ,besides publi%+ a sy/em ( cry/allography & ( m9]alogy1 f> m complete ?an any :i* _h yet appe>$1 ! peculi> /eps 9 ! advance :i* belong to him are1 ! discov]y ( ! importance ( cleavage1 & ! consequ5t expression ( ! laws ( d]ivation ( second>y f prim>y =ms1 by means ( ! decrem5ts ( ! successive lay]s ( integrant molecules4 ,! latt] ( ^! discov]ies _h already be51 9 "s measure1 anticipat$ by ,b]gman1 :o _h1 9 #aggc1 conceiv$ a hexagonal prism to be built up by ! juxtaposition ( solid rhombs on ! planes ( a rhombic nucleus4#aiae ,x is n cle>#bjae :e!r ,hay 0 acqua9t$ ) ,b]gman's ,memoir1 at ! "t :5 ! cleavage ( a hexagonal prism ( calcsp>1 accid5tally obta9$1 l$ him to ! same conception ( its /ructure4 ,b h[ev] ?is might be1 he _h ! indisputable cr$it ( foll[+ out ?is conception ) all ! vigor ( orig9ality1 & ) ! mo/ labori\s & p]sev]+ e>ne/ness2 inde$ he made x ! bus9ess ( 8 life4 ,! hypo!sis ( a solid1 built up ( small solids1 _h ?is peculi> advantage 9 ref]5ce to cry/allography2 x r5d]$ a reason ( ?is curi\s fact2--t a c]ta9 s]ies ( =ms occur 9 cry/als ( ! same k9d1 :ile o!r =ms1 app>5tly int]m$iate betwe5 ^? :i* actually occur1 are rigor\sly exclud$4 ,! doctr9e ( decrem5ts expla9$ ?is2 = by plac+ a numb] ( regul>ly-decreas+ r[s ( equal solids1 z1 = in/ance1 ( bricks1 ^u "o ano!r1 we might =m a regul> equal-sid$ triangle1 z ! gable ( a h\se2 & if ! bread? ( ! gable 7 "o hundr$ bricks1 ! height ( ! triangle might be "o hundr$1 or fifty1 or tw5ty-five2 b x w\ld be f\nd t if ! height 7 an int]m$iate numb]1 z fifty-sev51 or =ty-?ree1 ! edge ( ! wall w\ld become irregul>2 & su* irregul>ity is assum$ to be inadmissible 9 ! regul> /ructure ( cry/als4 ,?us ?is mode ( conceiv+ cry/als all[s ( c]ta9 def9ite second>y =ms1 & no o!rs4 ,note #aiae3 ,de ,=mis ,cry/allorum4 ,nov4 ,act4 ,reg4 ,soc4 ,sc4 ,ups4 #aggc4 ,note #bjae3 ,trait de ,m9r4 #ahbb1 i4 #ae4 ,! ma!matical d$uction ( ! dim5sions & proportions #cbb ( ^! second>y =ms2--! inv5tion ( a notation to express !m2--! exam9ation ( ! :ole m9]al k+dom 9 accordance ) ^! views2--! production ( a "w#baae 9 :i* !y are expla9$ ) s+ul> cle>ness & vivacity2--are s]vices by :i* ,hay ri*ly e>n$ ! admiration :i* has be5 be/[$ ^u him4 ,! wond]ful copi\sness & v>iety ( ! =ms & laws to :i* he 0 l$1 ?or\ghly ex]cis$ & n\ri%$ ! _s ( d$uction & calculation :i* 8 discov]ies excit$ 9 him4 ,! read] may =m "s conception ( ! ext5t ( 8 labors1 by be+ told--t ! m]e geometrical propositions :i* he f\nd x necess>y to premise to 8 special descriptions1 occupy a volume & a half ( 8 "w2--t 8 diagrams are ne>ly a ?\s& 9 numb]2--t 9 "o s+le sub/ance 7calcsp>7 he has describ$ =ty-sev5 v>ieties ( =m2--& t he has describ$ "o k9d ( cry/al 7call$ by him f] sulfur p>alllique7 :i* has "o hundr$ & ?irty-f\r faces4 ,note #baae3 ,trait de ,m9ralogie1 #ahja1 #e vols4 ,9 ! c\rse ( a long life1 he exam9$1 ) consid]able c>e1 all ! =ms he c\ld procure ( all k9ds ( m9]al2 & ! int]pretation :i* he gave ( ! laws ( ^? =ms 01 9 _m cases1 fix$1 by means ( a "n appli$ to ! m9]al 9 :i* ! =m occurr$2 ?us1 he introduc$ su* names z quiaxe1 mta/atique1 unib9aire1 p]ihexahdre1 bisalt]ne1 & o!rs4 ,x is n n[ desirable to apply sep>ate names to ! diff]5t =ms ( ! same m9]al species1 b ^! t]ms answ]$ ! purpose1 at ! "t1 ( mak+ ! subjects ( /udy m def9ite4 ,a symbolical notation is ! m conv5i5t mode ( designat+ su* =ms1 & su* a notation ,hay inv5t$2 b ! symbols devis$ by him _h _m inconv5i5ces1 & h s9ce be5 sup]s$$ by ! sy/ems ( o!r cry/allograph]s4 ,ano!r ( ,hay's lead+ m]its 01 z we h already intimat$1 to h %[n1 m cle>ly ?an 8 pr$ecessors _h done1 t ! cry/all9e angles ( sub/ances are a crit]ion ( ! sub/ances2 & t ?is is peculi>ly true ( ! angles ( cleavage2--t is1 ! angles ( ^? edges :i* are obta9$ by cleav+ a cry/al 9 two diff]5t directions2--a mode ( division :i* ! /ructure ( _m k9ds ( cry/als all[$ him to execute 9 ! mo/ complete mann]4 ,z an in/ance ( ! employm5t ( ?is crit]ion1 ,i may m5tion 8 sep>ation ( ! sulphates ( b>yta & /rontia1 :i* _h #cbc previ\sly be5 conf\nd$4 ,among cry/als :i* 9 ! collections 7 rank$ toge!r z heavy sp>1 & :i* 7 s p]fect z to admit ( accurate measurem5t1 he f\nd t ^? :i* 7 br\ght f ,sicily1 & ^? ( ,d]by%ire1 diff]$ 9 _! cleavage angle by ?ree degrees & a half4 ,i c\ld n suppose1 he says1#bbae t ?is diff]5ce 0 ! effect ( any law ( decrem5t2 = x w\ld h be5 necess>y to suppose s rapid & complex a law1 t su* an hypo!sis might h be5 ju/ly reg>d$ z an abuse ( ! !ory4 ,he 01 !re=e1 9 great p]plexity4 ,b a little :ile previ\s to ?is1 ,klapro? _h discov]$ t !re is an e>? :i*1 ?\gh 9 _m respects x resembles b>yta1 is diff]5t f x 9 o!r respects2 & ?is e>?1 f ! place :]e x 0 f\nd 79 ,scotl&71 _h be5 nam$ ,/rontia4 ,! ,fr5* *emi/s _h asc]ta9$ t ! two e>?s _h1 9 "s cases1 be5 mix$ or conf\nd$2 & ,vauquel91 on exam9+ ! ,sicilian cry/als1 f\nd t _! base 0 /rontia1 & n1 z 9 ! ,d]by%ire ones1 b>yta4 ,! riddle 0 n[ read2 all ! cry/als ) ! l>g] angle belong to ! "o1 all ^? ) ! small]1 to ! o!r1 ( ^! two sulphates2 & cry/allometry 0 cle>ly recogniz$ z an au?oriz$ te/ ( ! diff]5ce ( sub/ances :i* ne>ly resemble ea* o!r4 ,note #bbae3 ,trait1 ii4 #cbj4 ,en\gh has be5 said1 probably1 to enable ! read] to judge h[ mu* ea* ( ! two p]sons1 n[ "u review1 contribut$ to cry/allography4 ,x w\ld be unwise to comp>e su* contributions to sci5ce ) ! great discov]ies ( a/ronomy & *emi/ry2 & we h se5 h[ ne>ly ! pr$ecessors ( ,rom & ,hay _h rea*$ ! po9t ( k on :i* ^! two cry/allograph]s took _! /&4 ,b yet x is impossible n to all[1 t 9 ^! discov]ies1 :i* ?us gave =m & sub/ance to ! sci5ce ( cry/allography1 we h a manife/ation ( no common sagacity & skill4 ,"h1 z 9 o!r discov]ies1 7 requir$ ideas & facts2--cle>ness ( geometrical conception :i* c\ld deal ) mo/ complex relations ( =m2 a m9ute & ext5sive acqua9tance ) actual cry/als2 & ! tal5t & habit ( ref]r+ ^! facts to ! g5]al ideas4 ,hay1 9 p>ticul>1 0 happily end[$ = 8 task4 ,)\t be+ a great ma!matician1 he 0 suffici5tly a geomet] to solve all ! problems :i* 8 und]tak+ dem&$2 & ?\gh ! ma!matical reason+ might h be5 made m comp5di\s #cbd by "o :o 0 m at home 9 ma!matical g5]alization1 probably ?is c\ld h>dly h be5 done )\t mak+ ! subject less accessible & less attractive to p]sons mod]ately discipl9$ 9 ma!matics4 ,9 all 8 reason+s ^u p>ticul> cases1 ,hay is acute & cle>2 :ile 8 g5]al views appe> to be sugge/$ r by a lively fancy ?an by a sage inductive _s3 & ?\gh he ?us misses ! "* ( a great philosoph]1 ! vivacity ( /yle1 & felicity & happ9ess ( illu/ration1 :i* grace 8 book1 & :i* agree well ) ! "* ( an ,abb ( ! old ,fr5* mon>*y1 _h a great & useful influ5ce on ! progress ( ! subject4 ,un=tunately ,rom de ,lisle & ,hay 7 n only rivals1 b 9 "s measure enemies4 ,! =m] might naturally feel "s vexation at f9d+ himself1 9 8 lat] ye>s 7he di$ 9 #agij71 ?r[n into %ade by 8 m brilliant successor4 ,9 ref]5ce to ,hay's use ( cleavage1 he speaks#bcae ( innovators 9 cry/allography1 :o may prop]ly be call$ cry/allocla/s4 ,yet he adopt$1 9 great measure1 ! same views ( ! =mation ( cry/als by lam91#bdae :i* ,hay illu/rat$ by ! de/ructive process at :i* he ?us sne]s4 ,8 s5sitiv5ess 0 kept alive by ! conduct ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 :i* took no notice ( him & 8 labors2#beae probably because x 0 l$ by ,buffon1 :o dislik$ ,l9nu1 & might dislike ,rom z 8 foll[]2 & :o1 z we h se51 despis$ cry/allography4 ,hay rev5g$ himself by r>ely m5tion+ ,rom 9 8 works1 ?\gh x 0 manife/ t 8 obligations to him 7 imm5se2 & by record+ 8 errors :ile he correct$ !m4 ,m =tunate ?an 8 rival1 ,hay 01 f ! fir/1 receiv$ ) favor & applause4 ,8 lectures at ,p>is 7 eag]ly li/5$ to by p]sons f all qu>t]s ( ! _w4 ,8 views 71 9 ?is mann]1 spe$ily diffus$2 & ! subject 0 soon pursu$1 9 v>i\s ways1 by ma!maticians & m9]alogi/s 9 e c\ntry ( ,europe4 ,note #bcae3 ,pref4 p4 xxvii4 ,note #bdae3 ,t4 ii4 p4 #ba4 ,note #beae3 ,m>x4 ,ges*4 d4 ,cry/4 #acj4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,reception ,,& ,,corrections ,,( ,,! ,,hau,,an ,,cry/allography4 ,i ,,h n hi!rto notic$ ! imp]fections ( ! cry/allographic views & me?ods ( ,hay1 because my bus9ess 9 ! la/ section #cbe 0 to m>k ! p]man5t additions he made to ! sci5ce4 ,8 sy/em did1 h[ev]1 require completion & rectification 9 v>i\s po9ts2 & 9 speak+ ( ! cry/allograph]s ( ! subsequ5t "t1 :o may all be consid]$ z ! cultivators ( ! ,hauan doctr9es1 we mu/ also consid] :at !y did 9 correct+ !m4 ,! ?ree ma9 po9ts 9 :i* ?is improvem5t 0 ne$$ 72--a bett] det]m9ation ( ! cry/all9e =ms ( ! special sub/ances2--a m g5]al & less arbitr>y me?od ( consid]+ cry/all9e =ms accord+ to _! symmetry2 & a detection ( m g5]al conditions by :i* ! cry/all9e angle is regulat$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! processes may be consid]$ z ! natural sequel ( ! ,hauan epo*3 ! o!r two mu/ be treat$ z sep>ate /eps ( discov]y4 ,:5 x appe>$ t ! angle ( natural or ( cleavage faces c\ld be us$ to det]m9e ! diff]5ces ( m9]als1 x became important to measure ?is angle ) accuracy4 ,hay's measurem5ts 7 f\nd v inaccurate by _m succe$+ cry/allograph]s3 ,mohs says#bfae t !y are s g5]ally inaccurate1 t no confid5ce c be plac$ 9 !m4 ,?is 0 said1 ( c\rse1 accord+ to ! m rigor\s notions ( accuracy to :i* ! e/abli%m5t ( ,hay's sy/em l$4 ,among ! p]sons :o pr9cipally labor$ 9 asc]ta9+1 ) precision1 ! cry/all9e angles ( m9]als1 7 sev]al ,engli%m51 especially ,wolla/on1 ,phillips1 & ,brooke4 ,wolla/on1 by ! inv5tion ( 8 ,reflect+ ,goniomet]1 plac$ an entirely new degree ( accuracy )9 ! rea* ( ! cry/allograph]2 ! angle ( two faces be+1 9 ?is in/rum5t1 measur$ by means ( ! reflect$ images ( bright objects se5 9 !m1 s t ! measure is ! m accurate ! m m9ute ! faces are4 ,9 ! use ( ?is in/rum5t1 no "o 0 m labori\s & successful ?an ,william ,phillips1 ^: p[] ( appreh5d+ ! mo/ complex =ms ) /ead9ess & cle>ness1 l$ ,wolla/on to say t he _h a geometrical s5se4 ,phillips publi%$ a ,treatise on ,m9]alogy1 conta9+ a great collection ( su* det]m9ations2 & ,mr4 ,brooke1 a cry/allograph] ( ! same exact & c>eful s*ool1 has also publi%$ sev]al works ( ! same k9d4 ,! precise measurem5t ( cry/all9e angles mu/ be ! famili> employm5t ( all :o /udy cry/allography2 &1 !re=e1 any fur!r enum]ation ( ^? #cbf :o h add$ 9 ?is way to ! /ock ( k1 w\ld be sup]flu\s4 ,note #bfae3 ,m>x4 p4 #aec4 ,nor ne$ ,i dwell long on ^? :o add$ to ! k :i* ,hay left1 ( d]iv$ =ms4 ,! mo/ rem>kable "w ( ?is k9d 0 t ( ,c\nt ,b\rnon1 :o publi%$ a "w on a s+le m9]al 7calcsp>7 9 ?ree qu>to volumes4#bgae ,he has "h giv5 repres5tations ( sev5 hundr$ =ms ( cry/als1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 only fifty-six are ess5tially diff]5t4 ,f ?is example ! read] may judge :at a l5g? ( "t1 & :at a numb] ( obs]v]s & calculators1 7 requisite to exhau/ ! subject4 ,note #bgae3 ,trait complet de la ,*aux ,c>bonate et d',aragonite1 p> ,m4 le ,comte de ,b\rnon4 ,london1 #ahjh4 ,if ! calculations1 ?us occasion$1 _h be5 conduct$ ^u ! basis ( ,hay's sy/em1 )\t any fur!r g5]alization1 !y w\ld h belong$ to t process1 ! natural sequel ( inductive discov]ies1 :i* we call d$uction2 & w\ld h ne$$ only a v brief notice "h4 ,b "s additional /eps 7 made 9 ! upw>d road to sci5tific tru?1 & ( ^! we mu/ n[ give an acc\nt4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,,! ,,di/9ction ,,( ,,sy/ems ,,( ,,cry/allization4--,,weiss ,,& ,,mohs4 ,,9 ,hay's views1 z g5]ally happ5s 9 new sy/ems1 h[ev] true1 !re 0 involv$ some?+ t 0 arbitr>y1 some?+ t 0 false or d\btful1 some?+ t 0 unnecess>ily limit$4 ,! pr9cipal po9ts ( ?is k9d 72--8 hav+ made ! laws ( cry/all9e d]ivation dep5d s mu* ^u cleavage2--8 hav+ assum$ an atomic con/itution ( bodies z an ess5tial "p ( 8 sy/em2 & 8 hav+ tak5 a set ( prim>y =ms1 :i*1 be+ select$ by no g5]al view1 7 p>tly sup]flu\s1 & p>tly defective4 ,h[ f> evid5ce1 su* z has be5 ref]r$ to by v>i\s philosoph]s1 has prov$1 or c prove1 t bodies are con/itut$ ( indivisible atoms1 w be m fully exam9$ 9 ! "w :i* treats ( ! ,philosophy ( ?is subject4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ! #cbg portion ( ,hay's doctr9e :i* mo/ rivet$ popul> att5tion & applause1 0 8 dissection ( cry/als1 9 a mann] :i* 0 suppos$ to lead actually to _! ultimate mat]ial elem5ts4 ,yet x is cle>1 t s9ce ! solids giv5 by cleavage are1 9 _m cases1 su* z _c make up a solid space1 ! prim>y conception ( a necess>y geometrical id5tity betwe5 ! results ( division & ! elem5ts ( composition1 :i* is ! sole f\ndation ( ! supposition t cry/allography po9ts out ! actual elem5ts1 disappe>s on be+ scrut9iz$3 & :5 ,hay1 press$ by ?is difficulty1 z 9 ! case ( fluor-sp>1 put 8 integrant octoh$ral molecules toge!r1 t\*+ by ! edges only1 8 me?od became an empty geometrical diagram1 ) no physical mean+4 ,! real fact1 dive/$ ( ! hypo!sis :i* 0 conta9$ 9 ! fiction ( decrem5ts1 01 t :5 ! relation ( ! d]ivative to ! prim>y faces is express$ by means ( num]ical indices1 ^! numb]s are integ]s1 & g5]ally v small ones2 & ?is 0 ! =m :i* ! law gradually assum$1 z ! me?od ( d]ivation 0 made m g5]al & simple by ,weiss & o!rs4 ,:51 9 #ahji1 ,i publi%$ my ,diss]tation1 says ,weiss1#bhae ,i %>$ ! common op9ion z to ! necessity ( ! assumption & ! reality ( ! exi/5ce ( a primitive =m1 at lea/ 9 a s5se n v diff]5t f ! usual s5se ( ! expression4 ,:ile ,i s\ght1 he adds1 ref]r+ to c]ta9 doctr9es ( g5]al philosophy :i* he & o!rs ent]ta9$1 a dynamical gr\nd = ?is1 in/ead ( ! unt5able atomi/ic view1 ,i f\nd t1 out ( my primitive =ms1 !re 0 gradually unfold$ to my h&s1 t :i* really gov]ns !m1 & is n affect$ by _! casual fluctuations1 ! fundam5tal relations ( ^? ,dim5sions accord+ to :i* a multiplicity ( int]nal oppositions1 necess>ily & mutually int]dep5d5t1 are develop$ 9 ! mass1 ea* hav+ its own pol>ity2 s t ! cry/all9e "* is co-ext5sive ) ^! pol>ities4 ,note #bhae3 ,mem4 ,acad4 ,b]l4 #ahaf1 p4 #cjg4 ,! ,dim5sions ( :i* ,weiss "h speaks1 are ! ,axes ( ,symmetry ( ! cry/al2 t is1 ^? l9es 9 ref]5ce to :i*1 e face is accompani$ by o!r faces1 hav+ l positions & prop]ties4 ,?us a rhomb1 or m prop]ly a rhomboh$ron1#biae ( #cbh calcsp> may be plac$ ) "o ( its obtuse corn]s upp]mo/1 s t all ! ?ree faces :i* meet !re are equally incl9$ to ! v]tical l9e4 ,9 ?is position1 e d]ivative face1 :i* is obta9$ by any modification ( ! faces or edges ( ! rhomboh$ron1 implies ei!r ?ree or six su* d]ivative faces2 = no "o ( ! ?ree upp] faces ( ! rhomboh$ron has any "* or prop]ty diff]5t f ! o!r two2 &1 !re=e1 !re is no reason = ! exi/5ce ( a d]ivative f "o ( ^! primitive faces1 :i* does n equally hold = ! o!r primitive faces4 ,h5ce ! d]ivative =ms w1 9 all cases1 conta9 none b faces connect$ by ?is k9d ( correspond5ce4 ,! axis ?us made v]tical w be an ,axis ( ,symmetry1 & ! cry/al w consi/ ( ?ree divisions1 rang$ r\nd ?is axis1 & exactly resembl+ ea* o!r4 ,accord+ to ,weiss's nom5clature1 su* a cry/al is ?ree-&-?ree-memb]$4 ,note #biae3 ,i use ?is "n = ! solid figure1 s9ce rhomb has always be5 us$ = a plane figure4 ,b ?is is only "o ( ! k9ds ( symmetry :i* cry/all9e =ms may exhibit4 ,!y may h ?ree axes ( complete & equal symmetry at "r angles to ea* o!r1 z ! cube & ! regul> octoh$ron2--or1 two axes ( equal symmetry1 p]p5dicul> to ea* o!r & to a ?ird axis1 :i* is n affect$ ) ! same symmetry ) :i* !y are2 su* a figure is a squ>e pyramid2--or !y may h ?ree rectangul> axes1 all ( unequal symmetry1 ! modifications ref]r+ to ea* axis sep>ately f ! o!r two4 ,^! are ess5tial & necess>y di/9ctions ( cry/all9e =m2 & ! introduction ( a classification ( =ms f\nd$ on su* relations1 or1 z !y 7 call$1 ,sy/ems ( ,cry/allization1 0 a great improvem5t ^u ! divisions ( ! e>li] cry/allograph]s1 = ^? divisions 7 sep>at$ accord+ to c]ta9 arbitr>ily-assum$ prim>y =ms4 ,?us ,rom de ,lisle's fundam5tal =ms 71 ! tetrah$ron1 ! cube1 ! octoh$ron1 ! rhombic prism1 ! rhombic octoh$ron1 ! dodecah$ron ) triangul> faces3 ,hay's prim>y =ms are ! cube1 ! rhomboh$ron1 ! oblique rhombic prism1 ! "r rhombic prism1 ! rhombic dodecah$ron1 ! regul> octoh$ron1 tetrah$ron1 & six-sid$ prism1 & ! bipyramidal dodecah$ron4 ,?is division1 z ,i h already said1 errs bo? by excess & defect1 = "s ( ^! prim>y =ms might be made d]ivatives f o!rs2 & no solid reason c\ld be assign$ :y !y 7 n4 ,?us ! cube may be d]iv$ f ! tetrah$ron1 by truncat+ ! edges2 & ! rhombic dodecah$ron aga9 f ! cube1 by truncat+ its edges2 :ile ! squ>e pyramid c\ld n be legitimately id5tifi$ ) ! d]ivative ( any ( ^! =ms2 = if we 7 to #cbi d]ive x f ! rhombic prism1 :y %\ld ! acute angles always suff] decrem5ts correspond+ 9 a c]ta9 way to ^? ( ! obtuse angles1 z !y mu/ d 9 ord] to give rise to a squ>e pyramid8 ,! introduction ( ! me?od ( ref]5ce to ,sy/ems ( ,cry/allization has be5 a subject ( controv]sy1 "s ascrib+ ?is valuable /ep to ,weiss1 & "s to ,mohs4#cjae ,x appe>s1 ,i ?9k1 on ! :ole1 t ,weiss fir/ publi%$ works 9 :i* ! me?od is employ$2 b t ,mohs1 by apply+ x to all ! kn[n species ( m9]als1 has _h ! m]it ( mak+ x ! basis ( real cry/allography4 ,weiss1 9 #ahji1 publi%$ a ,diss]tation ,on ! mode ( inve/igat+ ! pr9cipal geometrical "* ( cry/all9e =ms1 9 :i* he says1#caae ,no "p1 l9e1 or quantity1 is s important z ! axis2 no consid]ation is m ess5tial or ( a high] ord] ?an ! relation ( a cry/all9e plane to ! axis2 & aga91 ,an axis is any l9e gov]n+ ! figure1 ab\t :i* all p>ts are simil>ly dispos$1 & ) ref]5ce to :i* !y correspond mutually4 ,?is he soon foll[$ out by exam9ation ( "s difficult cases1 z ,felsp> & ,epidote4 ,9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,b]l9 ,academy1#cbae = #ahad-ae1 he publi%$ ,an ,exhibition ( ! natural ,divisions ( ,sy/ems ( ,cry/allization4 ,9 ?is ,memoir1 8 divisions are z foll[s3--,! regul> sy/em1 ! f\r-memb]$1 ! two-&-two-memb]$1 ! ?ree-&-?ree-memb]$1 & "s o!rs ( inf]ior degrees ( symmetry4 ,^! divisions are by ,mohs 7,outl9es ( ,m9]alogy1 #ahbb71 t]m$ ! tessul>1 pyramidal1 prismatic1 & rhomboh$ral sy/ems respectively4 ,hausmann1 9 8 ,inve/igations conc]n+ ! ,=ms ( ,inanimate ,nature1#ccae makes a ne>ly correspond+ arrangem5t2--! isometric1 monodimetric1 trimetric1 & monotrimetic2 & "o or o!r ( ^! sets ( t]ms h be5 adopt$ by mo/ succe$+ writ]s4 ,note #cjae3 ,ed94 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbc1 vols4 xv4 & xvi4 ,note #caae3 pp4 #af1 #db4 ,note #cbae3 ,ibid4 ,note #ccae3 ,gtt+51 #ahba4 ,9 ord] to make ! di/9ctions m app>5t1 ,i h purposely omitt$ to speak ( ! sy/ems :i* arise :5 ! prismatic sy/em loses "s "p ( its symmetry2--:5 x has only half or a qu>t] its complete numb] ( faces2--or1 accord+ to ,mohs's phraseology1 :5 x is hemih$ral or tet>toh$ral4 ,su* sy/ems are repres5t$ by ! s+ly-oblique or d\bly-oblique prism2 !y are t]m$ by ,weiss two-&-"o-memb]$1 & "o-&-"o-memb]$2 by o!r writ]s1 ,monokl9ometric1 & ,trikl9ometric ,sy/ems4 ,!re are also o!r #ccj peculi>ities ( ,symmetry1 su*1 = in/ance1 z t ( ! plagih$ral faces ( qu>tz1 & o!r m9]als4 ,! introduction ( an arrangem5t ( cry/all9e =ms into sy/ems1 accord+ to _! degree ( symmetry1 0 a /ep :i* 0 r f\nd$ on a di/9ct & compreh5sive p]ception ( ma!matical relations1 ?an on an acqua9tance ) exp]im5tal facts1 beyond :at e>li] m9]alogi/s _h possess$4 ,?is arrangem5t 01 h[ev]1 rem>kably confirm$ by "s ( ! prop]ties ( m9]als :i* attract$ notice ab\t ! "t n[ spok5 (1 z we %all see 9 ! next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,reception ,,& ,,confirmation ,,( ,,! ,,di/9ction ,,( ,,sy/ems ,,( ,,cry/allization4 ,,diffusion ,,( ,,! ,,di/9ction ,,( ,,sy/ems4--,! di/9ction ( sy/ems ( cry/allization 0 s f> f\nd$ on obvi\sly true views1 t x 0 spe$ily adopt$ by mo/ m9]alogi/s4 ,i ne$ n dwell on ! /eps by :i* ?is took place4 ,mr4 ,haid+]'s translation ( ,mohs 0 a pr9cipal occasion ( its introduction 9 ,engl&4 ,z an indication ( dates1 be>+ on ?is subject1 p]haps ,i may be all[$ to notice1 t !re appe>$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahbe1 ,a ,g5]al ,me?od ( ,calculat+ ! 9999,angles ( ,cry/als1 :i* ,i _h writt51 & 9 :i* ,i ref]r$ only to ,hay's views2 b t 9 #ahbf1cdae ,i publi%$ a ,memoir ,on ! ,classification ( ,cry/all9e ,comb9ations1 f\nd$ on ! me?ods ( ,weiss & ,mohs1 especially ! latt]2 ) :i* ,i _h 9 ! mean "t become acqua9t$1 & :i* appe>$ to me to conta9 _! own evid5ce & recomm5dation4 ,g5]al me?ods1 su* z 0 attempt$ 9 ! ,memoir j quot$1 are "p ( t process 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ces1 by :i*1 :5 ! pr9ciples are once e/abli%$1 ! ma!matical op]ation ( d$uc+ _! consequ5ces is made m & m g5]al & symmetrical3 :i* we h se5 already exemplifi$ 9 ! hi/ory ( cele/ial me*anics aft] ! "t ( ,newton4 ,x does n ent] into our plan1 to dwell ^u ! v>i\s /eps 9 ?is way #cca made by ,levy1 ,naumann1 ,grassmann1 ,kupff]1 ,hessel1 & by ,pr(essor ,mill] among ourselves4 ,i may notice t "o great improvem5t 01 ! me?od introduc$ by ,monteiro & ,levy1 ( det]m9+ ! laws ( d]ivation ( =ces by means ( ! p>allelisms ( edges2 :i* 0 aft]w>ds ext5d$ s t faces 7 consid]$ z belong+ to zones4 ,nor ne$ ,i attempt to enum]ate 7:at inde$ x w\ld be difficult to describe 9 words7 ! v>i\s me?ods ( notation by :i* x has be5 propos$ to repres5t ! faces ( cry/als1 & to facilitate ! calculations :i* h ref]5ce to !m4 ,note #cdae3 ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 p4 #cia4 #bnd ,ed4 ,my ,memoir ( #ahbe dep5d$ on ! views ( ,hay 9 s f> z t ,i />t$ f 8 primitive =ms2 b be+ a g5]al me?od ( express+ all =ms by co-ord9ates1 x 0 v little gov]n$ by ^! views4 ,! mode ( repres5t+ cry/all9e =ms :i* ,i propos$ seem$ to conta9 its own evid5ce ( be+ m true to nature ?an ,hay's !ory ( decrem5ts1 inasmu* z my me?od express$ ! faces at mu* l[] numb]s4 ,i det]m9e a face by means ( ! dim5sions ( ! prim>y =m divid$ by c]ta9 numb]s2 ,hay _h express$ ! face virtually by ! same dim5sions multipli$ by numb]s4 ,9 cases :]e my notation gives su* numb]s z 7#c1 #d1 #a71 7#a1 #c1 #g71 7#e1 #a1 #ai71 8 me?od involves ! high] numb]s 7#d1 #c1 #ab71 7#ba1 #g1 #c71 7#ai1 #ie1 #e74 ,my me?od h[ev] has1 ,i believe1 little value z a me?od ( calculat+ ! angles ( cry/als4 ,m4 ,neumann1 ( ,knigsb]g1 introduc$ a v conv5i5t & elegant mode ( repres5t+ ! position ( faces ( cry/als by correspond+ po9ts on ! surface ( a circumscrib+ sph]e4 ,he gave 79 #ahbc7 ! laws ( ! d]ivation ( cry/all9e faces1 express$ geometrically by ! int]section ( zones1 7,beitrge zur ,kry/allonomie47 ,! same me?od ( indicat+ ! position ( faces ( cry/als 0 aft]w>ds1 toge!r ) ! notation1 re-inv5t$ by ,m4 ,grassmann1 7,zur ,kry/allonomie und ,geometris*5 ,comb9ationslehre1 #ahbi47 ,aid+ himself by ! sugge/ions ( ^! writ]s1 & p>tly adopt+ my me?od1 ,pr(4 ,mill] has produc$ a "w on ,cry/allography rem>kable = ma!matical elegance & symmetry2 & has giv5 expressions really useful = calculat+ ! angles ( cry/all9e faces1 7,a ,treatise on ,cry/allography4 ,cambridge1 #ahci47 ,confirmation ( ! ,di/9ction ( ,sy/ems by ! ,optical ,prop]ties ( ,m9]als4--,brew/]4--,i mu/ n omit to notice ! /rik+ confirmation :i* ! di/9ction ( sy/ems ( cry/allization receiv$ f optical discov]ies1 especially ^? ( ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]4 ,( ! #ccb hi/ory ( ?is v ri* & beautiful dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 we h already giv5 "s acc\nt1 9 speak+ ( ,optics4 ,! fir/ facts :i* 7 notic$1 ^? relat+ to d\ble refraction1 belong$ exclusively to cry/als ( ! rhomboh$ral sy/em4 ,! spl5did ph5om5a ( ! r+s & lemniscates produc$ by dipol>iz+ cry/als1 7 aft]w>ds discov]$2 & ^! 71 9 #ahag1 classifi$ by ,sir ,david ,brew/]1 accord+ to ! cry/all9e =ms to :i* !y belong4 ,?is classification1 on comp>ison ) ! di/9ction ( ,sy/ems ( ,cry/allization1 resolv$ itself into a necess>y relation ( ma!matical symmetry3 all cry/als ( ! pyramidal & rhomboh$ral sy/ems1 :i* f _! geometrical "* h a s+le axis ( symmetry1 are also optically uniaxal1 & produce by dipol>ization circul> r+s2 :ile ! prismatic sy/em1 :i* has no su* s+le axis1 b ?ree unequal axes ( symmetry1 is optically biaxal1 gives lemniscates by dipol>iz$ light1 & accord+ to ,fresnel's !ory1 has ?ree rectangul> axes ( unequal ela/icity4 #bnd ,ed4 ,i h plac$ ,sir ,david ,brew/]'s arrangem5t ( cry/all9e =ms 9 ?is *apt]1 z an ev5t belong+ to ! confirmation ( ! di/9ctions ( =ms introduc$ by ,weiss & ,mohs2 because t arrangem5t 0 e/abli%$1 n on cry/allographical1 b on optical gr\nds4 ,b ,sir ,david ,brew/]'s optical discov]y 0 a mu* great] /ep 9 sci5ce ?an ! sy/ems ( ! two ,g]man cry/allograph]s2 & ev5 9 respect to ! cry/allographical pr9ciple1 ,sir ,d4 ,brew/] _h an indep5d5t %>e 9 ! discov]y4 ,he divid$ cry/all9e =ms into ?ree classes1 enum]at+ ! ,hauan primitive =ms :i* belong$ to ea*2 & z he f\nd "s exceptions to ?is classification1 7su* z idocrase1 c417 he v5tur$ to pron\nce t 9 ^? sub/ances ! receiv$ primitive =ms 7 probably errone\s2 a judgm5t :i* 0 soon confirm$ by a clos] cry/allographical scrut9y4 ,he also %[$ 8 p]ception ( ! m9]alogical importance ( 8 discov]y by publi%+ x1 n only 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 7#ahah71 b also 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,w]n]ian ,society ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,9 a second pap] ins]t$ 9 ?is lat] s]ies1 read 9 #ahbj1 he fur!r notices ,mohs's ,sy/em ( ,cry/allography1 :i* _h !n rec5tly appe>$1 & po9ts out its agreem5t ) 8 own4 ,ano!r reason :y ,i d n make 8 great optical discov]y a c>d9al po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( cry/allography is1 t z a cry/allographical sy/em x is incomplete4 ,al?\gh we are ?us l$ to di/+ui% ! tessul> & ! prismatic sy/ems 7us+ ,mohs's t]ms7 #ccc f ! rhomboh$ral & ! squ>e prismatic1 we are n l$ to di/+ui% ! latt] two f ea* o!r2 inasmu* z !y h no optical diff]5ce ( "*4 ,b ?is di/9ction is q ess5tial 9 cry/allography2 = ^! two sy/ems h faces =m$ by laws z diff]5t z ^? ( ! o!r two sy/ems4 ,moreov]1 ,weiss & ,mohs n only divid$ cry/all9e =ms into c]ta9 classes1 b %[$ t by do+ ?is1 ! d]ivation ( all ! exi/+ =ms f ! fundam5tal ones assum$ a new aspect ( simplicity & g5]ality2 & ?is 0 ! ess5tial "p ( :at !y did4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,i d n ?9k x is too mu* to say z ,i h else:]e said#ceae t ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]'s optical exp]im5ts mu/ h l$ to a classification ( cry/als into ! above sy/ems1 or some?+ ne>ly equival5t1 ev5 if cry/als _h n be5 s arrang$ by att5tion to _! =ms4 ,note #ceae3 ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,b4 viii4 ,c4 iii4 ,art4 #c4 ,_m o!r mo/ curi\s tra9s ( rese>* h confirm$ ! g5]al tru?1 t ! degree & k9d ( geometrical symmetry corresponds exactly ) ! symmetry ( ! optical prop]ties4 ,z an in/ance ( ?is1 em95tly /rik+ = its s+ul>ity1 we may notice ! discov]y ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 t ! plagih$ral cry/allization ( qu>tz1 by :i* x exhibits faces twi/$ to ! "r or ! left1 is accompani$ by "r-h&$ or left-h&$ circul> pol>ization respectively4 ,no "o acqua9t$ ) ! subject c n[ d\bt1 t ! correspond5ce ( geometrical & optical symmetry is ( ! mo/ complete & fundam5tal k9d4 #bnd ,ed4 ,our k ) respect to ! positions ( ! optical axes ( ! oblique prismatic cry/als is /ill imp]fect4 ,x appe>s to be asc]ta9$ t1 9 s+ly oblique cry/als1 "o ( ! axes ( optical ela/icity co9cides ) ! rectangul> cry/allographic axis4 ,9 d\bly oblique cry/als1 "o ( ! axes ( optical ela/icity is1 9 _m cases1 co9cid5t ) ! axis ( a pr9cipal zone4 ,i believe no m det]m9ate laws h be5 discov]$4 ,?us ! highe/ g5]alization at :i* ma!matical cry/allograph]s h yet arriv$1 may be consid]$ z fully e/abli%$2 & ! sci5ce ( ,cry/allography1 9 ! condition 9 :i* ^! place x1 is fit to be employ$ z "o ( ! memb]s ( ,m9]alogy1 & ?us to fill its appropriate place & (fice4 #ccd ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,correction ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,! ,,same ,,angle ,,= ,,! ,,same ,,sub/ance4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,isomorphism4 ,,mits*]li*4--,! discov]y ( :i* we n[ h to speak may appe> at fir/ sight too l>ge to be includ$ 9 ! hi/ory ( cry/allography1 & may seem to belong r to *emi/ry4 ,b x is to be recollect$ t cry/allography1 f ! "t ( its fir/ assum+ importance 9 ! h&s ( ,hay1 f\nd$ its claim to notice entirely ^u its connexion ) *emi/ry2 cry/all9e =ms 7 prop]ties ( some?+2 b :at t some?+ 01 & h[ x might be modifi$ )\t becom+ some?+ else1 no cry/allograph] c\ld v5ture to decide1 )\t ! aid ( *emical analysis4 ,hay _h assum$1 z ! g5]al result ( 8 rese>*es1 t ! same *emical elem5ts1 comb9$ 9 ! same proportions1 w\ld always exhibit ! same cry/all9e =m2 & reciprocally1 t ! same =m & angles 7except 9 ! obvi\s case ( ! tessul> sy/em1 9 :i* ! angles are det]m9$ by its be+ ! tessul> sy/em17 impli$ ! same *emical con/itution4 ,b ?is dogma c\ld only be consid]$ z an approximate conjecture2 = !re 7 _m gl>+ & unexpla9$ exceptions to x4 ,! explanation ( sev]al ( ^! 0 beautifully describ$ by ! discov]y t !re are v>i\s elem5ts :i* are isomorph\s to ea* o!r2 t is1 su* t "o may take ! place ( ano!r )\t alt]+ ! cry/all9e =m2 & ?us ! *emical composition may be mu* *ang$1 :ile ! cry/allographic "* is undi/urb$4 ,?is tru? _h be5 caught sight (1 probably z a guess only1 by ,fu*s z e>ly z #ahae4 ,9 speak+ ( a m9]al :i* _h be5 call$ ,gehl5ite1 he says1 ,i hold ! oxide ( iron1 n = an ess5tial compon5t "p ( ?is g5us1 b only z a vic>i\s elem5t1 replac+ s mu* lime4 ,we %all f9d x necess>y to consid] ! results ( sev]al analyses ( m9]al bodies 9 ?is po9t ( view1 if we wi%1 on ! "o h&1 to br+ !m into agreem5t ) ! doctr9e ( *emical proportions1 & on ! o!r1 to avoid unnecess>ily splitt+ up g5]a4 ,9 a lecture ,on ! ,mutual ,influ5ce ( #cce ,*emi/ry & ,m9]alogy1#cfae he aga9 draws att5tion to 8 t]m vic>i\s 7vic>ir5de71 :i* und\bt$ly expresses ! nature ( ! g5]al law aft]w>ds e/abli%$ by ,mits*]li* 9 #ahbb4 ,note #cfae3 ,muni*1 #ahbj4 ,b ,fu*s's conjectural expression 0 only a prelude to ,mits*]li*'s exp]im5tal discov]y ( isomorphism4 ,till _m c>eful analyses _h giv5 sub/ance & signification to ?is conception ( vic>i\s elem5ts1 x 0 ( small value4 ,p]haps no "o 0 m capable ?an ,b]zelius ( turn+ to ! be/ advantage any ideas :i* 7 curr5t 9 ! *emical _w2 yet we f9d him1#cgae 9 #ahbj1 dwell+ ^u a c]ta9 vague view ( ^! cases1--t oxides :i* conta9 equal doses ( oxyg5 mu/ h _! g5]al prop]ties common2 )\t trac+ x to any def9ite conclusions4 ,b 8 s*ol>1 ,mits*]li*1 gave ?is proposition a real cry/allographical import4 ,?us he f\nd t ! c>bonates ( lime 7calcsp>17 ( magnesia1 ( protoxide ( iron1 & ( protoxide ( manganese1 agree 9 _m respects ( =m1 :ile ! homolog\s angles v>y ?r\gh "o or two degrees only2 s aga9 ! c>bonates ( b>yta1 /rontia1 lead1 & lime 7arragonite71 agree ne>ly2 ! diff]5t k9ds ( felsp> v>y only by ! sub/itution ( "o alkali = ano!r2 ! phosphates are almo/ id5tical ) ! ars5iates ( sev]al bases4 ,^!1 & simil> results1 7 express$ by say+ t1 9 su* cases1 ! bases1 lime1 protoxide ( iron1 & ! re/1 are isomorph\s2 or 9 ! latt] in/ance1 t ! ars5ic & phosphoric acids are isomorph\s4 ,note #cgae3 ,essay on ! ,!ory ( ,*emical ,proportions1 p4 #abb4 ,s9ce1 9 "s ( ^! cases1 ! sub/itution ( "o elem5t ( ! isomorph\s gr\p = ano!r does alt] ! angle1 ?\gh slightly1 x has s9ce be5 propos$ to call su* gr\ps plesiomorph\s4 ,?is discov]y ( isomorphism 0 ( great importance1 & excit$ mu* att5tion among ! *emi/s ( ,europe4 ,! hi/ory ( its reception1 h[ev]1 belongs1 9 "p1 to ! classification ( m9]als2 = its effect 0 imm$iately to metamorphose ! exi/+ *emical sy/ems ( arrangem5t4 ,b ev5 ^? cry/allograph]s & *emi/s :o c>$ little = g5]al sy/ems ( classification1 receiv$ a p[]ful impulse by ! expectation1 :i* 0 n[ excit$1 ( discov]+ def9ite laws connect+ *emical con/itution ) cry/all9e =m4 ,su* inve/igations 7 soon c>ri$ on ) great activity4 ,?us1 at a rec5t p]iod1 ,abi* analys$ a numb] ( tessul> m9]als1 sp9elle1 pleona/e1 gahnite1 frankl9ite1 & *romic iron oxide2 & #ccf seems to h _h "s success 9 9999giv+ a common type to _! *emical =mul1 z !re is a common type 9 _! cry/allization4 #bnd ,ed4 ,x w be se5 by ! above acc\nt t ,pr(4 ,mits*]li*'s m]it 9 ! great discov]y ( ,isomorphism is n at all n>r[$ by ! previ\s conjectures ( ,m4 ,fu*s4 ,i am in=m$1 moreov]1 t ,m4 ,fu*s aft]w>ds 79 ,s*weigg]'s ,j\rnal7 retract$ ! op9ions he _h put =w>d on ?is subject4 ,dimorphism4--,my bus9ess is1 to po9t out ! connect$ tru?s :i* h be5 obta9$ by philosoph]s1 r ?an insulat$ difficulties :i* /ill /& out to p]plex !m4 ,i ne$ n1 !re=e1 dwell on ! curi\s cases ( dimorphism2 cases 9 :i* ! same def9ite *emical comp\nd ( ! same elem5ts appe>s to h two diff]5t =ms2 ?us ! c>bonate ( lime has two =ms1 calcsp> & arragonite1 :i* belong to diff]5t sy/ems ( cry/allization4 ,su* facts may puzzle u2 b !y h>dly int]f]e ) any receiv$ g5]al tru?s1 because we h z yet no tru?s ( v high ord] respect+ ! connexion ( *emical con/itution & cry/all9e =m4 ,dimorphism does n int]f]e ) isomorphism2 ! two classes ( facts /& at ! same /age ( inductive g5]alization1 & we wait = "s high] tru? :i* %all include bo?1 & rise above !m4 #bnd ,ed4 ,= additions to our k ( ! ,dimorphism ( ,bodies1 see ,pr(essor ,john/one's valuable ,report on t subject 9 ! ,reports ( ! ,briti% ,association = #ahcg4 ,sub/ances h also be5 f\nd :i* are trimorph\s4 ,we owe to ,pr(essor ,mits*]li* ! discov]y ( dimorphism1 z well z ( isomorphism3 & to him also we owe ! great] "p ( ! k to :i* ^! discov]ies h l$4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,e/abli% ,,! ,,fixity ,,( ,,o!r ,,physical ,,prop]ties4--,,w]n]4 ,,! reflections f :i* x appe>$1 7at ! end ( ! la/ ,book17 t 9 ord] to obta9 g5]al k respect+ bodies1 we mu/ give sci5tific fixity to our appreciation ( _! prop]ties1 applies to _! o!r prop]ties z well z to _! cry/all9e #ccg =m4 ,& ?\gh none ( ! o!r prop]ties h yet be5 ref]r$ to /&>ds s def9ite z t :i* geometry supplies = cry/als1 a sy/em has be5 introduc$ :i* makes _! measures f> m con/ant & precise ?an !y are to a common undiscipl9$ s5se4 ,! au?or ( ?is sy/em 0 ,abraham ,gottlob ,w]n]1 :o _h be5 educat$ 9 ! in/itutions :i* ! ,elector ( ,saxony _h e/abli%$ at ! m9es ( ,freib]g4 ,( an exact & me?odical intellect1 & ( great acut5ess ( ! s5ses1 ,w]n] 0 well fitt$ = ! task ( giv+ fixity to ! appreciation ( outw>d impressions2 & ?is he attempt$ 9 8 ,diss]tation on ! ext]nal ,*>act]s ( ,fossils1 :i* 0 publi%$ at ,leipzig 9 #aggd4 ,( ! precision ( 8 e/imation ( su* *>act]s1 we may judge f ! foll[+ /ory1 told by 8 biograph] ,fris*4#chae ,"o ( 8 companions _h receiv$ a quantity ( pieces ( amb]1 & 0 relat+ to ,w]n]1 !n v "y1 t he _h f\nd 9 ! lot "o piece f :i* he c\ld extract no signs ( electricity4 ,w]n] reque/$ to be all[$ to put 8 h& 9 ! bag :i* conta9$ ^! pieces1 & imm$iately drew out ! unelectrical piece4 ,x 0 yell[ *alc$ony1 :i* is di/+ui%able f amb] by its weight & coldness4 ,note #chae3 ,w]n]'s ,leb51 p4 #bf4 ,! pr9cipal ext]nal *>act]s :i* 7 subject$ by ,w]n] to a sy/ematic exam9ation 7 color1 lu/re1 h>dness1 & specific gravity4 ,8 subdivisions ( ! fir/ "* 7,color71 7 v num]\s2 yet x _c be d\bt$ t if we recollect !m by ! eye1 & n by _! names1 !y are def9ite & valuable *>act]s1 & especially ! metallic colors4 ,brei?aupt1 m]ely by ! aid ( ?is "*1 di/+ui%$ two new comp\nds among ! small gra9s f\nd along ) ! gra9s ( plat9um1 & usually conf\nd$ ) !m4 ,! k9ds ( ,lu/re1 namely1 glassy1 fatty1 adamant9e1 metallic1 are1 :5 us$ 9 ! same mann]1 equally valuable4 ,specific ,gravity obvi\sly admits ( a num]ical measure2 & ! ,h>dness ( a m9]al 0 pretty exactly def9$ by ! sub/ances :i* x w\ld scrat*1 & by :i* x 0 capable ( be+ scrat*$4 ,w]n] soon acquir$ a reputation z a m9]alogi/1 :i* drew p]sons f e "p ( ,europe to ,freib]g 9 ord] to he> 8 lectures2 & ?us diffus$ v widely 8 mode ( employ+ ext]nal *>act]s4 ,x 01 inde$1 impossible to att5d s closely to #cch ^! *>act]s z ! ,w]n]ian me?od requir$1 )\t f9d+ t !y 7 m di/9ctive ?an might at fir/ sight be imag9$2 & ! analogy :i* ?is mode ( /udy+ ,m9]alogy e/abli%$ betwe5 t & o!r bran*es ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 recomm5d$ ! me?od to ^? 9 :om a g5]al incl9ation to su* /udies 0 excit$4 ,?us ,pr(essor ,jameson ( ,ed9burgh1 :o _h be5 "o ( ! pupils ( ,w]n] at ,freib]g1 n only publi%$ works 9 :i* he promulgat$ ! m9]alogical doctr9es ( 8 ma/]1 b e/abli%$ 9 ,ed9burgh a ,w]n]ian ,society1 hav+ = its object ! g5]al cultivation ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,w]n]'s /&>ds & nom5clature ( ext]nal *>act]s 7 some:at modifi$ by ,mohs1 :o1 ) ! same k9ds ( tal5ts & views1 succe$$ him at ,freib]g4 ,mohs r$uc$ h>dness to num]ical measure by select+ t5 kn[n m9]als1 ea* h>d] ?an ! o!r 9 ord]1 f talc to corundum & diamond1 & by mak+ ! place :i* ^! m9]als occupy 9 ! li/1 ! num]ical measure ( ! h>dness ( ^? :i* are comp>$ ) !m4 ,! result ( ! application ( ?is fix$ measurem5t & nom5clature ( ext]nal *>act]s w appe> 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,classification1 to :i* we n[ proce$4 #cci ,,sy/ematic ,,m9]alogy4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,attempts ,,at ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,m9]als4 ,sect4 #a4--,prop] object ( ,classification4 ,,! fixity ( ! cry/all9e & o!r physical prop]ties ( m9]als is turn$ to acc\nt by be+ made ! means ( classify+ su* objects4 ,to use ! language ( ,ari/otle1#ciae ,classification is ! ar*itectonic sci5ce1 to :i* ,cry/allography & ! ,doctr9e ( ,ext]nal ,*>act]s are subord9ate & m9i/]ial1 z ! art ( ! bricklay] & c>p5t] are to t ( ! ar*itect4 ,b classification itself is useful only z subs]vi5t to an ult]ior sci5ce1 :i* %all furni% u ) k conc]n+ ?+s s classifi$4 ,to classify is to divide & to "n2 & ! value ( ! ,divisions :i* we ?us make1 & ( ! names :i* we give !m1 is ?is2--t !y r5d] exact k & g5]al propositions possible4 ,n[ ! k :i* we pr9cipally seek conc]n+ m9]als is a k ( _! *emical composition2 ! g5]al propositions to :i* we hope to be l$ are su* z ass]t relations betwe5 _! intimate con/itution & _! ext]nal attributes4 ,?us our ,m9]alogical ,classification mu/ always h an eye turn$ t[>ds ,*emi/ry4 ,we _c get rid ( ! fundam5tal conviction1 t ! elem5t>y composition ( bodies1 s9ce x fixes _! ess5ce1 mu/ det]m9e _! prop]ties4 ,h5ce all m9]alogical arrangem5ts1 :e!r !y pr(ess x or n1 mu/ be1 9 effect1 *emical2 !y mu/ h x = _! object to br+ into view a set ( relations1 :i*1 :atev] else !y may be1 are at lea/ *emical relations4 ,we may beg9 ) ! outside1 b x is only 9 ord] to rea* ! inn] #cdj /ructure4 ,we may classify )\t ref]5ce to *emi/ry2 b if we d s1 x is only t we may ass]t *emical propositions ) ref]5ce to our classification4 ,note #ciae3 ,e?4 ,nicom4 i4 #b4 ,b1 z we h already attempt$ to %[1 we n only may1 b we mu/ classify1 by o!r ?an *emical *>act]s1 9 ord] to be able to make our classification ! basis ( *emical k4 ,9 ord] to ass]t *emical tru?s conc]n+ bodies1 we mu/ h ! bodies kn[n by "s te/s n *emical4 ,! *emi/ _c ass]t t ,arragonite does or does n conta9 ,/rontia1 except ! m9]alogi/ c tell him :e!r any giv5 specim5 is or is n ,arragonite4 ,if *emi/ry be call$ ^u to supply ! def9itions z well z ! doctr9es ( m9]alogy1 ! sci5ce c only consi/ ( id5tical propositions4 ,yet *emi/ry has be5 mu* employ$ 9 m9]alogical classifications1 &1 x is g5]ally believ$1 ) advantage to ! sci5ce3 ,h[ is ?is consi/5t ) :at has be5 said8 ,to ?is ! answ] is1 t :5 ?is has be5 done ) advantage1 ! au?ority ( ext]nal *>act]s1 z well z ( *emical con/itution1 has really be5 br\ght into play4 ,we h two sets ( prop]ties to comp>e1 *emical & physical2 to exhibit ! connexion ( ^! is ! object ( sci5tific m9]alogy4 ,& ?\gh ?is connexion w\ld be mo/ di/9ctly ass]t$1 if we c\ld keep ! two sets ( prop]ties di/9ct1 yet x may be br\ght into view 9 a great degree1 by classifications 9 :i* bo? are ref]r$ to z guides4 ,s9ce ! gov]n+ pr9ciple ( ! attempts at classification is ! conviction t ! *emical con/itution & ! physical prop]ties h a def9ite relation to ea* o!r1 we appe> entitl$ to use bo? k9ds ( evid5ce1 9 proportion z we c be/ obta9 ea*2 & !n ! g5]al consi/5cy & conv5i5ce ( our sy/em w be ! security = its conta9+ sub/antial k1 ?\gh ?is be n pres5t$ 9 a rigor\sly logical or sy/ematic =m4 ,su* mix$ sy/ems ( classification1 re/+ p>tly on *emical & p>tly on physical *>act]s1 naturally appe>$ z ! e>lie/ attempts 9 ?is way1 be=e ! two memb]s ( ! subject _h be5 cle>ly sep>at$ 9 m5's m9ds2 & ^! sy/ems1 !re=e1 we mu/ fir/ give an acc\nt (4 ,sect4 #b4--,mix$ ,sy/ems ( ,classification4 ,e>ly ,sy/ems4--,! fir/ attempts at classify+ m9]als w5t ^u ! gr\nd ( ^? diff]5ces ( g5]al aspect :i* _h be5 #cda recogniz$ 9 ! =mation ( common language2 z e>?s1 /ones1 metals4 ,b su* arrangem5ts 7 manife/ly vague & confus$2 & :5 *emi/ry _h advanc$ to p[] & honor1 h] aid 0 naturally call$ 9 to introduce a bett] ord]4 ,hi>ne & ,bromell 71 z f> z ,i "k1 says#djae ,cron/$t1 ! fir/ :o f\nd$ any m9]al sy/em ^u *emical pr9ciples2 to !m we owe ! ?ree kn[n divisions ( ! mo/ simple m9]al bodies2 viz41 ! calc>ei1 vitresc5tes1 & apyri4 ,b ,cron/$t's own ,essay t[>ds a ,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy1 publi%$ 9 ,sw$i% 9 #ageh1 _h p]haps m influ5ce ?an any o!r1 ^u succe$+ sy/ems4 ,9 ?is1 ! di/9ction ( e>?s & /ones1 & also ( vitresc5t & non-vitresc5t e>?s 7apyri71 is reject$4 ,! e>?s are class$ z calc>e\s1 silice\s1 argillace\s1 & ! l4 ,aga91 calc>e\s e>? is pure 7calc sp>71 or unit$ ) acid ( vitriol 7gypsum71 or unit$ ) ! muriatic add 7sal ammoniac71 & ! l4 ,x is easy to see t ?is is ! me?od1 :i*1 9 its g5]al pr9ciple1 has be5 cont9u$ to our own "t4 ,9 su* me?ods1 x is suppos$ t we c recognize ! sub/ance by its g5]al appe>ance1 & on ?is assumption1 its place 9 ! sy/em conveys to u *emical k conc]n+ x4 ,note #djae3 ,m9]alogy1 ,pref4 p4 viii4 ,b z ! o!r bran*es ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 & especially ,botany1 assum$ a sy/ematic =m1 _m m9]alogi/s became dissatisfi$ ) ?is casual & sup]ficial mode ( tak+ acc\nt ( ext]nal *>act]s2 !y became conv9c$1 t 9 ,m9]alogy z 9 o!r sci5ces1 classification mu/ h its sy/em & its rules4 ,! views :i* ,w]n] ascribes to 8 tea*]1 ,pab/ van ,oha91#daae %[ ! rise ( ^? op9ions :i* l$ ?r\gh ,w]n] to ,mohs3 ,he 0 ( op9ion t a natural m9]al sy/em mu/ be con/ruct$ by *emical det]m9ations1 & ext]nal *>act]s at ! same "t 7me?odus mixta72 b t along ) ?is1 m9]alogi/s ought also to con/ruct & employ :at he call$ an artificial sy/em1 :i* might s]ve u z a guide 7loco indicis7 h[ to introduce newly-discov]$ fossils into ! sy/em1 & h[ to f9d easily & quickly ^? already kn[n & introduc$4 ,su* an artificial sy/em1 conta9+ n ! gr\nds ( classification1 b m>ks = recognition1 0 aft]w>ds attempt$ by ,mohs1 & t]m$ by him ! ,*>act]i/ic ( 8 sy/em4 ,note #daae3 ,fris*4 ,w]n]'s ,leb51 p4 #ae4 ,w]n]'s ,sy/em4--,b1 9 ! mean "t1 ,w]n]'s classification _h an ext5sive reign1 & ?is 0 /ill a mix$ sy/em4 ,w]n] himself1 inde$1 nev] publi%$ a sy/em ( m9]alogy4 ,we might #cdb almo/ imag9e1 ,cuvi] says1#dbae t :5 he _h produc$ 8 nom5clature ( ext]nal *>act]s1 he 0 affright$ ) 8 own creation2 & t ! reason ( 8 writ+ s little aft] 8 fir/ essay1 0 to avoid ! %ackles :i* he _h impos$ ^u o!rs4 ,8 sy/em 01 inde$1 made kn[n bo? 9 & out ( ,g]many1 by 8 pupils2 b 9 consequ5ce ( ,w]n]'s unwill+ness to give x on 8 own au?ority1 x assum$1 9 its publi%$ =ms1 ! appe>ance ( an extort$ secret imp]fectly told4 ,a ,notice ( ! ,m9]alogical ,cab9et ( ,m9e-,director ,pab/ von ,oha91 01 9 #agib1 publi%$ by ,k>/5 & ,h(fman1 "u ,w]n]'s direction2 & convey$ by example1 8 views ( m9]alogical arrangem5t2 &#dcae 9 #ahaf 8 ,doctr9e ( ,classification 0 surreptiti\sly copi$ f 8 manuscript1 & publi%$ 9 a ,g]man ,j\rnal1 t]m$ ,! ,hesp]us4 ,b x 0 only 9 #ahag1 aft] 8 dea?1 t !re appe>$ ,w]n]'s ,la/ ,m9]al ,sy/em1 edit$ f 8 pap]s by ,brei?aupt & ,khl]3 & by ?is "t1 z we %all soon see1 o!r sy/ems 7 com+ =w>ds on ! /age4 ,note #dbae3 ,cuv4 ,el4 ii4 #cad4 ,note #dcae3 ,fris*4 p4 #eb4 ,a v slight notice ( ,w]n]'s arrangem5t w suffice to %[ t x 01 z we h t]m$ x1 a ,mix$ ,sy/em4 ,he makes f\r great ,classes ( fossils1 ,e>?y1 ,sal9e1 ,combu/ible1 ,metallic3 ! e>?y fossils are 9 eight ,g5]a--,diamond1 ,zircon1 ,silica1 ,alum9a1 ,talc1 ,lime1 ,b>yta1 ,hallites4 ,x is cle> t ^! g5]a are 9 ! ma9 *emical1 = *emi/ry alone c def9itely di/+ui% ! diff]5t ,e>?s :i* *>act]ize !m4 ,yet ! ,w]n]ian arrangem5t suppos$ ! di/9ctions to be practically made by ref]5ce to ^? ext]nal *>act]s :i* ! tea*] himself c\ld employ ) su* surpass+ skill4 ,& ?\gh x _c be d\bt$1 t ! *emical views :i* prevail$ ar\nd him _h a lat5t influ5ce on 8 classification 9 "s cases1 he resolutely refus$ to b5d 8 sy/em to ! au?ority ( *emi/ry4 ,?us1#ddae :5 he 0 blam$ = hav+1 9 opposition to ! *emi/s1 plac$ diamond among ! e>?y fossils1 he p]si/$ 9 decl>+ t1 m9]alogically consid]$1 x 0 a /one1 & c\ld n be treat$ z any?+ else4 ,note #ddae3 ,fris*4 p4 #fb4 ,?is 0 an indication to t t5d5cy1 :i*1 "u 8 successor1 l$ to a complete sep>ation ( ! two gr\nds ( classification4 ,b be=e we proce$ to ?is1 we mu/ notice :at 0 do+ at ?is p]iod 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,hay's ,sy/em4--,?\gh ,w]n]1 on 8 own pr9ciples1 ought to #cdc h be5 ! fir/ p]son to see ! imm5se value ( ! mo/ m>k$ ( ext]nal *>act]s1 cry/all9e =m1 he did n1 9 fact1 atta* mu* importance to x4 ,p]haps he 0 9 "s measure fasc9at$ by a fondness = ^? *>act]s :i* he _h himself sy/ematiz$1 & ! /udy ( :i* did n direct him to look = geometrical relations4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ! glory ( giv+ to ,cry/allography its j importance 9 ,m9]alogy is due to ,france3 & ! ,treatise ( ,hay1 publi%$ 9 #ahja1 is ! basis ( ! be/ succe$+ works ( m9]alogy4 ,9 ?is "w1 ! arrangem5t is pr(ess$ly *emical2 & ! classification ?us e/abli%$ is employ$ z ! means ( enunciat+ cry/allographic & o!r prop]ties4 ,! pr9cipal object ( ?is ,treatise1 says ! au?or1#deae is ! exposition & developm5t ( a me?od f\nd$ on c]ta9 pr9ciples1 :i* may s]ve z a frame-"w = all ! k :i* ,m9]alogy c supply1 aid$ by ! diff]5t sci5ces :i* c jo9 h&s ) h] & m>* on ! same l9e49999 ,x is wor?y ( notice1 z *>act]i/ic ( ?is p]iod ( ,mix$ ,sy/ems1 t ! classification ( ,hay1 ?\gh f\nd$ on pr9ciples s diff]5t f ! ,w]n]ian ones1 deviates little f x 9 ! g5]al "* ( ! divisions4 ,?us1 ! fir/ ,ord] ( ! fir/ ,class ( ,hay is ,acidif]\s ,e>?y ,sub/ances2 ! fir/ g5us is ,lime2 ! species are1 ,c>bonate ( ,lime1 ,phosphate ( ,lime1 ,fluate ( ,lime1 ,sulphate ( ,lime1 & s on4 ,note #deae3 ,disc4 ,prl4 p4 xvii4 ,o!r ,sy/ems4--,su* mix$ me?ods 7 introduc$ also into ?is c\ntry1 & h prevail$1 we may say1 up to ! pres5t "t4 ,! ,m9]alogy ( ,william ,phillips1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #ahbd1 & :i* 0 an extraord9>y treasure ( cry/allographic facts1 0 arrang$ by su* a mix$ sy/em2 t is1 by a sy/em pr(ess$ly *emical2 b1 inasmu* z a rigid *emical sy/em is impossible1 & ! assumption ( su* a "o leads into gl>+ absurdities1 ! sy/em 01 9 ?is & o!r attempts ( ! same k9d1 correct$ by ! mo/ arbitr>y & lax application ( o!r consid]ations4 ,x is a curi\s example ( ! diff]5ce ( national intellectual "*1 t ! manife/ inconsi/5cies ( ! preval5t sy/ems1 :i* l$ 9 ,g]many1 z we %all see1 to bold & sweep+ attempts at re=m1 produc$ 9 ,engl& a sort ( contemptu\s despair ) reg>d to sy/ems 9 g5]al2--a belief t no sy/em c\ld be consi/5t or useful2--& a p]suasion t ! only valuable k is ! accumulation ( p>ticul> facts4 ,?is is n ! place to #cdd expla9 h[ errone\s & unphilosophical su* an op9ion is4 ,b we may notice t :ile su* a temp] prevails among u1 our place 9 ?is sci5ce c nev] be f\nd 9 advance ( t position :i* we are n[ consid]+ z exemplifi$ 9 ! p]iod ( ,w]n] & ,hay4 ,s long z we ent]ta9 su* views respect+ ! objects ( ,m9]alogy1 we c h no %>e 9 ! =tunes ( ! succe$+ p]iod ( its hi/ory1 to :i* ,i n[ proce$4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,attempts ,,at ,,! ,,re=m ,,( ,,m9]alogical ,,sy/ems4--,,sep>ation ,,( ,,! ,,*emical ,,& ,,natural ,,hi/ory ,,me?ods4 ,sect4 #a4--,natural ,hi/ory ,sy/em ( ,mohs4 ,,! *emical pr9ciple ( classification1 if pursu$ at r&om1 z 9 ! cases j spok5 ( leads to results at :i* a philosophical _s revolts2 x sep>ates widely sub/ances :i* are n di/+ui%able2 jo9s toge!r bodies ! mo/ dissimil>2 & 9 h>dly any in/ance does x br+ any tru? into view4 ,! vices ( classifications l t ( ,hay c\ld n long be conceal$2 b ev5 be=e "t _h expos$ ! weakness ( 8 sy/em1 ,hay himself _h po9t$ out1 cle>ly & )\t res]ve1#dfae t a *emical sy/em is only "o side ( ! subject1 & supposes1 z its c\nt]p>t1 a sci5ce ( ext]nal *>act]s4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! ,w]n]ians 7 becom+ m & m 9 love ) ! =m :i* !y _h giv5 to su* a sci5ce4 ,inde$1 ! exp]tness :i* ,w]n] & 8 s*ol>s acquir$ 9 ! use ( ext]nal *>act]s1 ju/ifi$ "s p>tiality = !m4 ,x is relat$ ( him1#dgae t1 by look+ at a piece ( iron-ore1 & pois+ x 9 8 h&1 he 0 able to tell1 almo/ precisely1 ! proportion ( pure metal :i* x conta9$4 ,& 9 ! la/ ye> ( 8 life1#dhae he _h m>k$ out1 z ! employm5t ( ! ensu+ w9t]1 ! /udy ( ! sy/em ( ,b]zelius1 ) a view to f9d out ! laws ( comb9ation z disclos$ by ext]nal *>act]s4 ,9 ! same _s1 8 pupil #cde ,brei?aupt#diae attempt$ to discov] ! +r$i5ts ( m9]als by _! peculi>ities ( cry/allization4 ,! p]suasion t !re mu/ be "s connexion betwe5 composition & prop]ties1 trans=m$ itself1 9 _! m9ds1 into a belief t !y c\ld seize ! nature ( ! connexion by a sort ( in/9ct4 ,note #dfae3 ,see 8 ,disc4 ,prl4 ,note #dgae3 ,fris*4 ,w]n]'s ,leb51 p4 #gh4 ,note #dhae3 ,fris*4 #c4 ,note #diae3 ,dresdn4 ,auswahl1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ig4 ,?is op9ion ( ! indep5d5cy ( ! sci5ce ( ext]nal *>act]s1 & ( its suffici5cy = its own object1 at la/ assum$ its complete =m 9 ! bold attempt to con/ruct a sy/em :i* %\ld borr[ no?+ f *emi/ry4 ,?is attempt 0 made by ,fr$]ick ,mohs1 :o _h be5 ! pupil ( ,w]n]1 & 0 aft]w>ds 8 successor 9 ! s*ool ( ,freib]g2 & :o1 by ! acute & me?odical "* ( 8 intellect1 & by 8 intimate k ( m9]als1 0 wor?y ( 8 pr$ecessor4 ,reject+ altoge!r all divisions ( :i* ! import 0 *emical1 ,mohs turn$ = guidance1 or at lea/ = ! light ( analogy1 to botany4 ,8 object 0 to con/ruct a ,natural ,sy/em ( m9]alogy4 ,:at ! conditions & advantages ( a natural sy/em ( any prov9ce ( nature are1 we mu/ delay to expla9 till we h be=e u1 9 botany1 a m lum9\s example ( su* a s*eme4 ,b fur!r2 9 m9]alogy1 z 9 botany1 besides ! ,natural ,sy/em1 by :i* we =m our classes1 x is necess>y to h an ,artificial ,sy/em by :i* we recognize !m2--a pr9ciple :i*1 we h se51 _h already tak5 root 9 ! s*ool ( ,freib]g4 ,su* an artificial sy/em ,mohs produc$ 9 8 ,*>act]i/ic ( ! ,m9]al ,k+dom1 :i* 0 publi%$ at ,dresd5 9 #ahbj2 & :i*1 ?\gh ext5d+ only to a few pages1 excit$ a /rong int]e/ 9 ,g]many1 :]e m5's m9ds 7 prep>$ to int]pret ! full import ( su* a "w4 ,"s ( ! traits ( su* a ,*>act]i/ic _h1 inde$1 be5 previ\sly drawn by o!rs2 z = example1 by ,hay1 :o notices t ea* ( 8 ,classes has peculi> *>act]s4 ,= in/ance1 8 ,fir/ ,class 7acidif]\s sub/ances17 alone possesses ^! comb9ations ( prop]ties2 division into a regul> octoh$ron1 )\t be+ able to scrat* glass2 specific gravity above #ce1 )\t be+ able to scrat* glass4 ,! ext5sion ( su* *>act]s into a s*eme :i* %\ld exhau/ ! :ole m9]al k+dom1 0 ! und]tak+ ( ,mohs4 ,su* a collection ( m>ks ( classes1 impli$ a classification previ\sly e/abli%$1 & accord+ly1 ,mohs _h creat$ 8 own m9]al sy/em4 ,8 aim 0 to con/ruct x1 z we %all h]eaft] see t o!r natural sy/ems are con/ruct$1 by tak+ into acc\nt all ! #cdf resemblances & diff]5ces ( ! objects classifi$4 ,x is obvi\s t to execute su* a "w1 impli$ a mo/ intimate & univ]sal acqua9tance ) m9]als2--a p[] ( comb9+ 9 "o vivid survey ! :ole m9]al k+dom4 ,to illu/rate ! _s 9 :i* ,pr(essor ,mohs p]=m$ 8 task1 ,i hope ,i may be all[$ to ref] to my own int]c\rse ) him4 ,at an e>ly p]iod ( my m9]alogical /udies1 :5 ! v conception ( a ,natural ,sy/em 0 new to me1 he1 ) great k9dl9ess ( temp]1 all[$ me habitually to propose to him ! scruples :i* arose 9 my m9d1 be=e ,i c\ld admit pr9ciples :i* appe>$ to me !n s vague & indef9ite2 & answ]$ my objections ) great pati5ce & mo/ in/ructive cle>ness4 ,among o!r difficulties1 ,i "o day prop\nd$ to him ?is2--,y h publi%$ a ,treatise on ,m9]alogy1 9 :i* y h describ$ all ! important prop]ties ( all kn[n m9]als4 ,on y\r pr9ciples1 !n1 x ought to be possible1 m]ely by kn[+ ! descriptions 9 y\r book1 & )\t see+ any m9]als1 to con/ruct a natural sy/em2 & ?is natural sy/em ought to turn out id5tical ) t :i* y h produc$1 by s c>eful an exam9ation ( ! m9]als !mselves4 ,he pond]$ a mom5t1 & !n he answ]$1 ,x is true2 b :at an enorm\s imag9ation 7e9bildungskraft1 p[] ( inw>d imag9+71 a man mu/ h = su* a "w6 ,vividness ( conception ( s5sible prop]ties1 & ! /eady intuition 7ans*auung7 ( objects1 7 deem$ by him1 & by ! ,w]n]ian s*ool 9 g5]al1 to be ! mo/ ess5tial conditions ( complete k4 ,x is n necess>y to describe ,mohs's sy/em 9 detail2 x may suffici5tly indicate its =m to /ate t ! foll[+ sub/ances1 su* z ,i be=e gave z examples ( o!r arrangem5ts1 calcsp>1 gypsum1 fluor sp>1 apatite1 heavy sp>1 are by ,mohs t]m$ respectively1 ,rhomboh$ral ,lime ,haloide1 ,gyps ,haloide1 ,octoh$ral ,fluor ,haloide1 ,rhomboh$ral ,fluor ,haloide1 ,prismatic ,hal ,b>yte4 ,^! sub/ances are ?us ref]r$ to ! ,ord]s ,haloide1 & ,b>yte2 to ,g5]a ,lime ,haloide1 ,fluor ,haloide1 ,hal ,b>yte2 & ! ,species is an additional p>ticul>ization4 ,mohs n only aim$ at fram+ su* a sy/em1 b 0 also ambiti\s ( giv+ to all m9]als ,names :i* %\ld accord ) ! sy/em4 ,?is design 0 too bold to succe$4 ,x is true1 t a new nom5clature 0 mu* ne$$ 9 m9]alogy3 x is true1 too1 t x 0 reasonable to expect1 f an improv$ classification1 an improv$ nom5clature1 su* z _h be5 s happily obta9$ 9 botany by ! #cdg re=m ( ,l9nu4 ,b besides ! defects ( ,mohs's sy/em1 he _h n prep>$ 8 v]bal novelties ) ! temp]ance & skill ( ! great botanical re=m]4 ,he call$ ^u m9]alogi/s to *ange ! "n ( almo/ e m9]al ) :i* !y 7 acqua9t$2 & ! propos$ appellations 7 mo/ly ( a cumbr\s =m1 z ! above example may s]ve to %[4 ,su* names c\ld h obta9$ g5]al curr5cy1 only aft] a g5]al & complete acceptance ( ! sy/em2 & ! sy/em did n possess1 9 a suffici5t degree1 t evid5ce :i* alone c\ld ga9 x a home 9 ! belief ( philosoph]s1--! co9cid5ce ( its results ) ^? ( ,*emi/ry4 ,b be=e ,i speak f9ally ( ! =tunes ( ! ,natural-hi/ory ,sy/em1 ,i w say some?+ ( ! o!r attempt :i* 0 made ab\t ! same "t to introduce a ,re=m into ,m9]alogy f ! opposite extremity ( ! sci5ce4 ,sect4 #b4--;,*emical ,sy/em ( ,b]zelius & o!rs4 ,,if ! /ud5ts ( ext]nal *>act]s 7 satisfi$ ( ! indep5d5ce ( _! me?od1 ! *emical analy/s 7 naturally no less confid5t ( ! legitimate supremacy ( _! pr9ciples3 & :5 ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury _h be5 di/+ui%$ by ! e/abli%m5t ( ! !ory ( def9ite proportions1 & by discov]ies :i* po9t$ to ! electro-*emical !ory1 x c\ld n appe> presumption to suppose1 t ! classification ( bodies1 s f> z x dep5d$ on *emi/ry1 might be pres5t$ 9 a =m m complete & sci5tific ?an at any previ\s "t4 ,! attempt to d ?is 0 made by ! great ,sw$i% *emi/ ,jacob ,b]zelius4 ,9 #ahaf1 he publi%$ 8 ,essay to e/abli% a purely ,sci5tific ,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy1 by means ( ! ,application ( ! ,electro-*emical ,!ory & ! ,*emical ,doctr9e ( ,def9ite ,proportions4 ,x is manife/ t1 = m9]als :i* are con/itut$ by ! law ( ,def9ite ,proportions1 ?is con/itution mu/ be a mo/ ess5tial "p ( _! "*4 ,! electro-*emical !ory 0 call$ 9 aid1 9 addition to ! composition1 because1 di/+ui%+ ! elem5ts ( all comp\nds z electro-positive & electro-negative1 & giv+ to e elem5t a place 9 a s]ies1 & a place def9$ by ! degree ( ^! relations1 x seem$ to af=d a rigor\s & complete pr9ciple ( arrangem5t4 ,accord+ly1 ,b]zelius1 9 8 ,fir/ ,sy/em1 arrang$ m9]als accord+ to _! electro-positive elem5t1 & ! elem5ts accord+ to _! electro-positive rank2 #cdh & suppos$ t he _h ?us remov$ all t 0 arbitr>y & vague 9 ! previ\s *emical sy/ems ( m9]alogy4 ,?\gh ! attempt appe>$ s well ju/ifi$ by ! /ate ( *emical sci5ce1 & 0 s plausible 9 its pr9ciple1 x 0 n long be=e ev5ts %[$ t !re 0 "s fallacy 9 ^! speci\s appe>ances4 ,9 #ahbj1 ,mits*]li* discov]$ ,isomorphism3 by t discov]y x appe>$ t bodies conta9+ v diff]5t electro-positive elem5ts c\ld n be di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r2 x 0 impossible1 !re=e1 to put !m 9 di/ant portions ( ! classification2--& ?us ! fir/ sy/em ( ,b]zelius crumbl$ to pieces4 ,b ,b]zelius did n s easily resign 8 project4 ,) ! mo/ unhesitat+ confession ( 8 fir/ failure1 b ) undaunt$ c\rage1 he aga9 gird$ himself to ! task ( rebuild+ 8 edifice4 ,defeat$ at ! electro-positive position1 he n[ resolv$ to make a /& at ! electro-negative elem5t4 ,9 #ahbd1 he publi%$ 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,sw$i% ,academy1 a ,memoir ,on ! ,alt]ations 9 ! ,*emical ,m9]al ,sy/em1 :i* necess>ily foll[ f ! ,prop]ty exhibit$ by ,isomorph\s ,bodies1 ( replac+ ea* o!r 9 giv5 ,proportions4 ,! alt]ation 01 9 fact1 an inv]sion ( ! sy/em1 ) an attempt /ill to pres]ve ! electro-*emical pr9ciple ( arrangem5t4 ,?us1 in/ead ( arrang+ metallic m9]als accord+ to ! metal1 "u iron1 copp]1 c41 all ! sulphurets 7 class$ toge!r1 all ! oxides toge!r1 all ! sulphates toge!r1 & s 9 o!r respects4 ,t su* an ord] 0 a great improvem5t on ! prec$+ "o1 _c be d\bt$2 b we %all see1 ,i ?9k1 t z a /rict sci5tific sy/em x 0 n successful4 ,! discov]y ( isomorphism1 h[ev]1 naturally l$ to su* attempts4 ,?us ,gmel9 also1 9 #ahbe1 publi%$ a m9]al sy/em1#ejae :i*1 l t ( ,b]zelius1 f\nd$ its lead+ di/9ctions on ! electro-negative1 or1 z x 0 sometimes t]m$1 ! =mative elem5t ( bodies2 &1 besides ?is1 took acc\nt ( ! numb]s ( atoms or proportions :i* appe> 9 ! composition ( ! body2 di/+ui%+1 = in/ance1 ,silicates1 z simple silicates1 d\ble silicates1 & s on1 to qu9tuple silicate 7,pe*/e97 & sextuple silicate 7,p]l/e974 ,9 l mann]1 ,nord5skild devis$ a sy/em re/+ on ! same bases1 tak+ into acc\nt also ! cry/all9e =m4 ,9 #ahbd1 ,beudant publi%$ 8 ,trait ,elm5taire de ,m9ralogie1 9 :i* he pr(esses to f\nd 8 arrangem5t on ! electro-negative elem5t1 & on ,ampre's circul> #cdi arrangem5t ( elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,su* s*emes exhibit r a play ( ! m]e logical faculty1 ex]cis+ itself on assum$ pr9ciples1 ?an any attempt at ! real int]pretation ( nature4 ,o!r su* pure *emical sy/ems may h be5 publi%$1 b x is n necess>y to accumulate in/ances4 ,i proce$ to consid] _! result4 ,note #ejae3 ,zeits*4 d] ,m94 #ahbe1 p4 #dce4 ,sect4 #c4--;,failure ( ! ,attempts at ,sy/ematic ,re=m4 ,,x may appe> presumptu\s to speak ( ! failure ( ^? :om1 l ,b]zelius & ,mohs1 we ackn[l$ge z our ma/]s1 at a p]iod :51 probably1 !y & "s ( _! admir]s /ill hold !m to h succe$$ 9 _! attempt to con/ruct a consi/5t sy/em4 ,b ,i conceive t my (fice z an hi/orian requires me to exhibit ! =tunes ( ?is sci5ce 9 ! mo/ di/9ct =m ( :i* !y admit1 & t ,i _c evade ! duty ( attempt+ to seize ! true aspect ( rec5t occurr5ces 9 ! _w ( sci5ce4 ,h5ce ,i v5ture to speak ( ! failure ( bo? ! attempts at fram+ a pure sci5tific sy/em ( m9]alogy1--t f\nd$ on ! *emical1 & t f\nd$ on ! natural-hi/ory pr9ciple2 because x is cle> t !y h n obta9$ t :i* alone we c\ld1 accord+ to ! views "h pres5t$1 consid] z success1--a co9cid5ce ( ea* ) ! o!r4 ,a ,*emical ,sy/em ( arrangem5t1 :i* %\ld br+ toge!r1 9 all cases1 ! sub/ances :i* come ne>e/ ea* o!r 9 ext]nal prop]ties2--a ,natural-hi/ory ,sy/em1 :i* %\ld be f\nd to arrange bodies 9 complete accordance ) _! *emical con/itution3--if su* sy/ems exi/$1 !y might1 ) ju/ice1 claim to h succe$$4 ,_! agreem5t w\ld be _! v]ification4 ,! int]ior & ext]ior sy/em are ! type & ! antitype1 & _! entire correspond5ce w\ld e/abli% ! mode ( int]pretation beyond d\bt4 ,b no?+ less ?an ?is w satisfy ! requisitions ( sci5ce4 ,& :51 !re=e1 ! *emical & ! natural-hi/ory sy/em1 ?\gh evid5tly1 z ,i conceive1 t5d+ t[>ds ea* o!r1 are /ill f> f com+ toge!r1 x is impossible to all[ t ei!r me?od has be5 successful 9 reg>d to its prop] object4 ,b we may1 ,i ?9k1 po9t out ! fallacy ( ! pr9ciples1 z well z ! imp]fection ( ! results1 ( bo? ( ^? me?ods4 ,) reg>d to t ( ,b]zelius1 inde$1 ! hi/ory ( ! subject obvi\sly betrays its uns\ndness4 ,! electro-positive pr9ciple 01 9 a v %ort "t aft] its adoption1 prov$ & ackn[l$g$ to be utt]ly unt5able3 :at security h we t ! electro-negative elem5t is #cej m tru/wor?y8 ,0 n ! necessity ( an entire *ange ( sy/em1 a pro( t ! gr\nd1 :atev] t 01 on :i* ! electro-*emical pr9ciple 0 adopt$1 0 an unf\nd$ assumption8 ,&1 9 fact1 d we n f9d t ! same argum5t :i* 0 all[$ to be fatal to ! ,fir/ ,sy/em ( ,b]zelius1 applies 9 exactly ! same mann] aga9/ ! ,second8 ,if ! electro-positive elem5ts be (t5 isomorph\s1 are n ! electro-negative elem5ts sometimes isomorph\s also8 = in/ance1 ! ars5ic & phosphoric acids4 ,b to g fur!r1 :at is ! gr\nd on :i* ! electro-*emical arrangem5t is adopt$8 ,grant$ t ! electrical relations ( bodies are important2 b h[ d we come to "k t ^! relations h any?+ to d ) m9]alogy8 ,h[ does x appe> t on !m1 pr9cipally1 dep5d ^? ext]nal prop]ties :i* m9]alogy mu/ /udy8 ,h[ does x appe> t because sulphur is ! electro-negative "p ( "o body1 & an acid ! electro-negative "p ( ano!r1 ^! two elem5ts simil>ly affect ! comp\nds8 ,h[ does x appe> t !re is any analogy :atev] 9 _! functions8 ,we all[ t ! composition mu/1 9 "s way1 det]m9e ! classifi$ place ( ! m9]al1--b :y 9 ?is way8 ,i d n dwell on ! rem>k :i* ,b]zelius himself#eaae makes on ,nord5skild's sy/em2--t x assumes a p]fect k ( ! composition 9 e case2 al?\gh1 consid]+ ! usual discrepancies ( analyses ( m9]als1 ?is objection mu/ make all pure *emical sy/ems useless4 ,b ,i may obs]ve1 t m9]alogi/s h n yet det]m9$ :at *>act]s are suffici5tly affix$ to det]m9e a species ( m9]als4 ,we h se5 t ! anci5t notion ( ! composition ( a species1 has be5 unsettl$ by ! discov]y ( isomorphism4 ,! t5et ( ! con/ancy ( ! angle is r5d]$ d\btful by cases ( plesiomorphism4 ,! optical prop]ties1 :i* are s closely connect$ ) ! cry/all9e1 are /ill s imp]fectly kn[n1 t !y are subject to *anges :i* appe> caprici\s & arbitr>y4 ,bo? ! *emical & ! optical m9]alogi/s h con/antly1 ( late1 f\nd occasion to sep>ate species :i* _h be5 unit$1 & to br+ toge!r ^? :i* _h be5 divid$4 ,ev]y?+ %[s t1 9 ?is sci5ce1 we h our classification /ill to beg94 ,! detection ( t fixity ( *>act]s1 on :i* a "r e/abli%m5t ( species mu/ re/1 is n yet complete1 great z ! progress is :i* we h made1 by acquir+ a k ( ! laws ( cry/allization & ( #cea def9ite *emical con/itution4 ,our ignorance may surprise u2 b x may dim9i% our surprise to recollect1 t ! k :i* we seek is t ( ! laws ( ! physical con/itution ( all bodies :atev]2 = to u1 z m9]alogi/s1 all *emical comp\nds are m9]als4 ,note #eaae3 ,jahres ,b]i*t4 viii4 #ahh4 ,! defect ( ! pr9ciple ( ! natural-hi/ory classifi]s may be ?us /at$3--9 /udy+ ! ext]nal *>act]s ( bodies1 !y take = grant$ t !y c1 )\t any o!r light1 discov] ! relative value & importance ( ^? *>act]s4 ,! gr\p+ ( ,species into a ,g5us1 ( ,g5]a into an ,ord]1 accord+ to ! me?od ( ?is s*ool1 proce$s by no def9ite rules1 b by a lat5t tal5t ( appreciation1--a sort ( classify+ in/9ct4 ,b ?is c\rse _c reasonably be expect$ to lead to sci5tific tru?2 = x c h>dly be hop$1 by any "o :o looks at ! g5]al c\rse ( sci5ce1 t we %all discov] ! relation betwe5 ext]nal *>act]s & *emical composition1 o!rwise ?an by trac+ _! association 9 cases :]e bo? are kn[n4 ,x is urg$ t 9 o!r classificatory sci5ces1 9 botany1 = example1 we obta9 a natural classification f ext]nal *>act]s )\t hav+ rec\rse to any o!r s\rce ( k4 ,b ?is is n true 9 ! s5se "h meant4 ,9 fram+ a natural sy/em ( botany1 we h con/antly be=e our eyes ! pr9ciples ( physiology2 & we e/imate ! value ( ! *>act]s ( a plant by _! be>+ on its functions1--by _! place 9 its organization4 ,9 an unorganic body1 ! *emical con/itution is ! law ( its be+2 & we %all nev] succe$ 9 fram+ a sci5ce ( su* bodies b by /udi\sly direct+ our ef=ts to ! int]pretation ( t law4 ,on ^! gr\nds1 !n1 ,i conceive1 t ! bold attempts ( ,mohs & ( ,b]zelius to give new =ms to m9]alogy1 _c be deem$ successful 9 ! mann] 9 :i* _! au?ors aspir$ to succe$4 ,nei!r ( !m c be m>k$ z a p]man5t re=mation ( ! sci5ce4 ,i %all n inquire h[ f> !y h be5 accept$ by m5 ( sci5ce1 = ,i conceive t _! greate/ effect has be5 to po9t out improvem5ts :i* might be made 9 m9]alogy )\t go+ ! :ole l5g? ei!r ( ! pure *emical1 or ( ! pure natural-hi/ory sy/em4 ,sect4 #d4--,return to ,mix$ ,sy/ems ) ,improvem5ts4 ,,9 spite ( ! ef=ts ( ! puri/s1 m9]alogi/s return$ to mix$ sy/ems ( classification2 b ^! sy/ems are mu* bett] ?an !y 7 be=e su* ef=ts 7 made4 #ceb ,! ,second ,sy/em ( ,b]zelius1 ?\gh n t5able 9 its rigor\s =m1 approa*es f> ne>] ?an any previ\s sy/em to a complete "*1 br++ toge!r l sub/ances 9 a l>ge portion ( its ext5t4 ,! ,sy/em ( ,mohs also1 :e!r or n unconsci\sly sway$ by *emical doctr9es1 =ms ord]s :i* h a community ( *emical "*2 ?us1 ! m9]als ( ! ord] ,haloide are salts ( oxides1 & ^? ( ! ord] ,pyrites are sulphurets ( metals4 ,?us ! two me?ods appe> to be conv]g+ to a common c5tre2 & ?\gh we are unable to foll[ ei!r ( !m to ?is po9t ( union1 we may le>n f bo? 9 :at direction we are to look = x4 ,if we reg>d ! be/ ( ! pure sy/ems hi!rto devis$ z indications ( ! nature ( t sy/em1 p]fect bo? z a *emical & z a natural-hi/ory sy/em1 to :i* a m complete condition ( m9]alogical k may lead u1 we may obta91 ev5 at pres5t1 a tol]ably good approximation to a complete classification2 & su* a "o1 if we recollect t x mu/ be imp]fect1 & is to be held z provisional only1 may be ( no small value & use to u4 ,! be/ ( ! mix$ sy/ems produc$ by ?is compromise aga9 comes f ,freib]g1 & 0 publi%$ by ,pr(essor ,naumann 9 #ahbh4 ,mo/ ( 8 ord]s h bo? a *emical "* & great ext]nal resemblances4 ,?us 8 ,haloides1 divid$ into ,unmetallic & ,metallic1 & ^! aga9 into ,hydr\s & ,anhydr\s1 give good natural gr\ps4 ,! mo/ difficult m9]als to arrange 9 all sy/ems are ! silice\s ones4 ,^! ,m4 ,naumann calls ,silicides1 & subdivides !m into ,metallic1 ,unmetallic1 & ,amphot]ic or mix$2 & aga91 into ,hydr\s & ,anhydr\s4 ,su* a sy/em is at lea/ a good basis = future rese>*es2 & ?is is1 z we h said1 all t we c at pres5t hope =4 ,& :5 we recollect t ! natural-hi/ory pr9ciple ( classification has begun1 z we h already se51 to make its appe>ance 9 our treatises ( *emi/ry1 we _c d\bt t "s progress is mak+ t[>ds ! object :i* ,i h po9t$ out4 ,b we "k n yet h[ f> we are f ! end4 ,! comb9ation ( *emical1 cry/allographical1 physical & optical prop]ties into "s l(ty g5]alization1 is probably a triumph res]v$ = future & di/ant ye>s4 ,conclusion4--,! hi/ory ( ,m9]alogy1 bo? 9 its successes & by its failures1 tea*es u ?is lesson2--t 9 ! sci5ces ( classification1 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! fixity ( *>act]s1 & ! discov]y ( su* *>act]s z are fix$1 are /eps ( ! fir/ importance 9 ! progress ( ^! sci5ces4 ,! recollection ( ?is maxim may aid u 9 #cec %ap+ our c\rse ?r\gh ! hi/ory ( o!r sci5ces ( ?is k9d2 9 :i*1 f ! ext5t ( ! subject1 & ! mass ( lit]ature belong+ to x1 we might at fir/ almo/ despair ( ca/+ ! hi/ory into di/9ct epo*s & p]iods4 ,to ! mo/ prom95t ( su* sci5ces1 ,botany1 ,i n[ proce$4 #cee ,,book ,,xvi4 ,,classificatory ,,sci5ces4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,sy/ematic ,,botany ,,& ,,zoology4 4 4 4 4 4 ,vatem aspicies qu rupe sub alt ,fata canit1 foliisque notas et nom9a m&at4 ,qucunque 9 foliis descripsit c>m9a virgo ,dig]it 9 num]um atque antro seclusa rel9quit ,illa man5t immorta locis neque ab ord9e c$unt4 ,,virgil4 n4 iii4 #ddc4 ,behold ! ,sibyl6--,h] :o weaves a long1 ,a tangl$1 full1 yet sweetly fl[+ song4 ,wondr\s h] skill2 = leaf on leaf %e frames ,un]r+ symbols & endur+ names2 ,& z h] nicely measur$ l9e %e b9ds1 ,= leaf on leaf a fitt+ place %e f9ds2 ,_! place once f\nd1 no m ! leaves dep>t1 ,b fix$ re/3--su* is h] magic art4 #ceg ,,introduction4 ,,we n[ arrive at t /udy :i* (f]s ! mo/ copi\s & complete example ( ! sci5ces ( classification1 ,i mean ,botany4 ,& 9 ?is case1 we h be=e u a bran* ( k ( :i* we may say1 m prop]ly ?an ( any ( ! sci5ces :i* we h review$ s9ce ,a/ronomy1 t x has be5 con/antly advanc+1 m or less rapidly1 f ! infancy ( ! human race to ! pres5t day4 ,"o ( ! reasons ( ?is resemblance 9 ! =tunes ( two /udies s widely dissimil>1 is to be f\nd 9 a simplicity ( pr9ciple :i* !y h 9 common2 ! ideas ( ,lik5ess & ,diff]5ce1 on :i* ! k ( plants dep5ds1 are1 l ! ideas ( ,space & ,"t1 :i* are ! f\ndation ( a/ronomy1 readily appreh5d$ ) cle>ness & precision1 ev5 )\t any peculi> culture ( ! intellect4 ,b ano!r reason :y1 9 ! hi/ory ( ,botany1 z 9 t ( ,a/ronomy1 ! progress ( k =ms an unbrok5 l9e f ! e>lie/ times1 is precisely ! great diff]5ce ( ! k9d ( k :i* has be5 atta9$ 9 ! two cases4 ,9 ,a/ronomy1 ! discov]y ( g5]al tru?s began at an e>ly p]iod ( civilization2 9 ,botany1 x has h>dly yet begun2 & ?us1 9 ea* ( ^! dep>tm5ts ( /udy1 ! lore ( ! anci5t is homog5e\s ) t ( ! mod]n times1 ?\gh 9 ! "o case x is sci5ce1 9 ! o!r1 ! abs5ce ( sci5ce1 :i* p]vades all ages4 ,! resemblance ( ! =m ( _! hi/ory arises f ! div]sity ( _! mat]ials4 ,i %all n "h dwell fur!r ^u ?is subject1 b proce$ to trace rapidly ! progress ( ,sy/ematic ,botany1 z ! classificatory sci5ce is usually d5om9at$1 :5 x is requisite to di/+ui% betwe5 t & ,physiological ,botany4 ,my own imp]fect acqua9tance ) ?is /udy admoni%es me n to v5ture into its details1 fur!r ?an my purpose absolutely requires4 ,i tru/ t1 by tak+ my views pr9cipally f writ]s :o are g5]ally all[$ to possess ! be/ insight into ! sci5ce1 ,i may be able to draw ! l>g] features ( its hi/ory ) tol]able correctness2 & if ,i succe$ 9 ?is1 ,i %all atta9 an object ( great importance 9 my g5]al s*eme4 #ceh ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,imag9>y ,,k ,,( ,,plants4 ,,! appreh5sion ( su* diff]5ces & resemblances z ^? by :i* we gr\p toge!r & discrim9ate ! v>i\s k9ds ( plants & animals1 & ! appropriation ( words to m>k & convey ! result+ notions1 mu/ be presuppos$1 z ess5tial to ! v beg9n+ ( human k4 ,9 :atev] mann] we imag9e man to be plac$ on ! e>? by 8 ,creator1 ^! processes mu/ be conceiv$ to be1 z our ,scriptures repres5t !m1 contemporane\s ) ! fir/ ex]tion ( reason1 & ! fir/ use ( spee*4 ,if we 7 to indulge ourselves 9 fram+ a hypo!tical acc\nt ( ! orig9 ( language1 we %\ld probably assume z ! fir/-=m$ words1 ^? :i* dep5d on ! visible lik5ess or unlik5ess ( objects2 & %\ld arrange z ( subsequ5t =mation1 ^? t]ms :i* imply1 9 ! m9d1 acts ( wid] comb9ation & high] ab/raction4 ,at any rate1 x is c]ta9 t ! names ( ! k9ds ( vegetables & animals are v abundant ev5 9 ! mo/ unciviliz$ /ages ( man's c>e]4 ,?us we are in=m$#aaf t ! inhabitants ( ,new ,zeal& h a di/9ct "n ( e tree & plant 9 _! isl&1 ( :i* !re are six or sev5 hundr$ or m diff]5t k9ds4 ,9 ! acc\nts ( ! rude/ tribes1 9 ! e>lie/ leg5ds1 poetry1 & lit]ature ( nations1 p9es & oaks1 roses & violets1 ! olive & ! v9e1 & ! ?\s& o!r productions ( ! e>?1 h a place1 & are spok5 ( 9 a mann] :i* assumes1 t 9 su* k9ds ( natural objects1 p]man5t & infallible di/9ctions _h be5 obs]v$ & univ]sally recogniz$4 ,note #aaf3 ,yate's ,new ,zeal&1 p4 #bch4 ,= a long p]iod1 x 0 n suspect$ t any ambiguity or confusion c\ld arise f ! use ( su* t]ms2 & :5 su* inconv5i5ces did occur1 7z ev5 9 e>ly times !y did17 m5 7 f> f div9+ t ! prop] rem$y 0 ! con/ruction ( a sci5ce ( classification4 ,! loose & insecure t]ms ( ! language ( common life reta9$ _! place 9 botany1 long aft] _! #cei defects 7 sev]ely felt3 = in/ance1 ! vague & unsci5tific di/9ction ( vegetables into trees1 %rubs1 & h]bs1 kept its gr\nd till ! "t ( ,l9nu4 ,:ile x 0 ?us imag9$ t ! id5tification ( a plant1 by means ( its "n1 might prop]ly be tru/$ to ! common uncultur$ faculties ( ! m9d1 & to :at we may call ! in/9ct ( language1 all ! att5tion & /udy :i* 7 be/[$ on su* objects1 7 naturally employ$ 9 le>n+ & ?9k+ ^u su* circum/ances respect+ !m z 7 suppli$ by any ( ! common *annels ?r\gh :i* k & op9ion fl[ into m5's m9ds4 ,! read] ne$ h>dly be rem9d$ t 9 ! e>li] p]iods ( man's m5tal culture1 he acquires ^? op9ions on :i* he loves to dwell1 n by ! ex]cise ( obs]vation subord9ate to reason2 b1 f> m1 by 8 fancy & 8 emotions1 8 love ( ! m>vell\s1 8 hopes & fe>s4 ,x _c surprise u1 !re=e1 t ! e>lie/ lore conc]n+ plants :i* we discov] 9 ! records ( ! pa/1 consi/s ( my?ological leg5ds1 m>vell\s relations1 & extraord9>y m$ic9al qualities4 ,to ! lively fancy ( ! ,greeks1 ! ,n>cissus1 :i* b5ds its head ov] ! /ream1 0 orig9ally a y\? :o 9 su* an attitude became enamor$ ( 8 own beauty3 ! hyac9?1#baf on ^: petals ! notes ( grief 7 trac$ 7,a ,i1 ,a ,i71 record$ ! sorr[ ( ,apollo = ! dea? ( 8 favorite ,hyac9?us3 ! beautiful lotus ( ,india1#caf :i* floats ) its spl5did fl[] on ! surface ( ! wat]1 is ! *os5 seat ( ! goddess ,lack%mi1 ! daught] ( ,ocean4#daf ,9 ,egypt1 too1#eaf ,osiris swam on a lotus-leaf & ,h>pocrates 0 cradl$ 9 "o4 ,! lotus-eat]s ( ,hom] lo/ imm$iately _! love ( home4 ,e "o kn[s h[ easy x w\ld be to accumulate su* tales ( wond] or religion4 ,note #baf3 ,lilium m>tagon4 ,ipse suos gemitus foliis inscribit et ,a ,i1 ,a ,i1 ,flos habet inscriptum fune/aque lit]a ducta e/4--,,ovid4 ,note #caf3 ,nelumbium speciosum4 ,note #daf3 ,spr5gel1 ,ges*i*te d] ,botanik1 i4 #bg4 ,note #eaf3 ,ib4 i4 #bh4 ,^? :o att5d$ to ! effects ( plants1 might discov] 9 !m "s m$ic9al prop]ties1 & might easily imag9e m2 & :5 ! love ( ! m>vell\s 0 add$ to ! hope ( heal?1 x is easy to believe t m5 w\ld be v cr$ul\s4 ,we ne$ n dwell ^u ! examples ( ?is4 ,9 ,pl9y's ,introduction to t book ( 8 #cfj ,natural ,hi/ory :i* treats ( ! m$ic9al virtues ( plants1 he says1#faf ,antiquity 0 s mu* /ruck ) ! prop]ties ( h]bs1 t x affirm$ ?+s incr$ible4 ,xan?us1 ! hi/orian1 says1 t a man kill$ by a dragon1 w be re/or$ to life by an h]b :i* he calls bal92 & t ,?ylo1 :5 kill$ by a dragon1 0 recov]$ by ! same plant4 ,democritus ass]t$1 & ,!ophra/us believ$1 t !re 0 an h]b1 at ! t\* ( :i*1 ! w$ge :i* ! woodman _h driv5 into a tree w\ld leap out aga94 ,?\gh we _c cr$it ^! /ories1 mo/ p]sons believe t almo/ any?+ might be effect$ by means ( h]bs1 if _! virtues 7 fully kn[n4 ,h[ f> f a reasonable e/imate ( ! reality ( su* virtues 7 ! p]sons :o ent]ta9$ ?is belief we may judge f ! _m sup]/iti\s obs]vances :i* !y associat$ ) ! ga!r+ & us+ ( m$ic9al plants4 ,!ophra/us speaks ( ^!2#gaf ,! drug-sell]s & ! rhizotomi/s 7root-cutt]s7 tell u1 he says1 "s ?+s :i* may be true1 b o!r ?+s :i* are m]ely solemn quack]y2#haf ?us !y direct u to ga!r "s plants1 /&+ f ! w9d1 & ) our bodies ano9t$2 "s by night1 "s by day1 "s be=e ! sun falls on !m4 ,s f> !re may be some?+ 9 _! rules4 ,b o!rs are too fanta/ical & f> fet*$4 ,x is1 p]haps1 n absurd to use a pray] 9 pluck+ a plant2 b !y g fur!r ?an ?is4 ,we are to draw a sword ?ree times r\nd ! m&ragora1 & to cut x look+ to ! we/3 aga91 to dance r\nd x1 & to use obsc5e language1 z !y say ^? :o s[ cum9 %\ld utt] blasphemies4 ,aga91 we are to draw a l9e r\nd ! black hellebore1 /&+ to ! ea/ & pray+2 & to avoid an eagle ei!r on ! "r or on ! left2 =1 say !y1 'if an eagle be ne>1 ! cutt] w die 9 a ye>4' ,note #faf3 ,lib4 xxv4 #e4 ,note #gaf3 ,de ,plantis1 ix4 #i4 ,note #haf3 4 ,?is extract may s]ve to %[ ! ext5t to :i* ^! imag9ations 7 preval5t1 & ! mann] 9 :i* !y 7 look$ ^u by ,!ophra/us1 our fir/ great botanical au?or4 ,& we may n[ consid] t we h giv5 suffici5t att5tion to ^! fables & sup]/itions1 :i* h no place 9 ! hi/ory ( ! progress ( real k1 except to %[ ! /range *aos ( wild fancies & leg5ds out ( :i* x _h to em]ge4 ,we proce$ to trace ! hi/ory ( ! k ( plants4 #cfa ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,unsy/ematic ,,k ,,( ,,plants4 ,a ,,/ep 0 made t[>ds ! =mation ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,plants1 al?\gh und\bt$ly a slight "o1 z soon z m5 began to collect in=mation conc]n+ !m & _! prop]ties1 f a love & rev]5ce = k1 indep5d5t ( ! passion = ! m>vell\s & ! impulse ( practical utility4 ,?is /ep 0 v e>ly made4 ,! wisdom ( ,solomon1 & ! admiration :i* 0 be/[$ ^u x1 prove1 ev5 at t p]iod1 su* a work+ ( ! speculative faculty3 & we are told1 t among o!r evid5ces ( 8 be+ wis] ?an all m51 he spake ( trees1 f ! c$>-tree t is 9 ,lebanon ev5 unto ! hyssop t spr+e? out ( ! wall4#iaf ,! fa!r ( hi/ory1 ,h]odotus1 %[s u t a ta/e = natural hi/ory _h1 9 8 "t1 f\nd a place 9 ! m9ds ( ! ,greeks4 ,9 speak+ ( ! luxuriant vegetation ( ! ,babylonian pla91#ajaf he is s f> f desir+ to a/oni% m]ely1 t he says1 ! blades ( :eat & b>ley are full f\r f+]s wide2 b z to ! size ( ! trees :i* gr[ f millet & sesame1 ?\gh ,i c\ld m5tion x1 ,i w n2 kn[+ well t ^? :o h n be5 9 t c\ntry w h>dly believe :at ,i h said already4 ,he !n proce$s to describe "s rem>kable circum/ances respect+ ! f]tilization ( ! date-palms 9 ,assyria4 ,note #iaf3 #a ,k+s iv4 #cc4 ,note #ajaf3 ,h]od4 i4 #aic4 ,?is curi\s & active _s ( ! ,greeks l$ rapidly1 z we h se5 9 o!r in/ances1 to attempts at collect+ & sy/ematiz+ k on almo/ e subject3 & 9 ?is1 z 9 almo/ e o!r dep>tm5t1 ,ari/otle may be fix$ ^u1 z ! repres5tative ( ! highe/ /age ( k & sy/em :i* !y ev] atta9$4 ,! vegetable k+dom1 l e o!r prov9ce ( nature1 0 "o ( ! fields ( ! labors ( ?is univ]sal philosoph]4 ,b ?\gh 8 o!r works on natural hi/ory h come d[n to u1 & are a mo/ valuable monum5t ( ! /ate ( su* k 9 8 "t1 8 ,treatise on ,plants is lo/4 ,! book ,de ,plantis #cfb :i* appe>s ) 8 "n1 is an impo/ure ( ! middle ages1 full ( errors & absurdities4#aaaf ,note #aaaf3 ,mirbel1 ,botanique1 ii4 #eje4 ,8 disciple1 fri5d1 & successor1 ,!ophra/us ( ,eresos1 is1 z we h said already1 ! fir/ great writ] on botany ^: works we possess2 &1 z may be said 9 mo/ cases ( ! fir/ great writ]1 he (f]s to u a ri*] /ore ( g5u9e k & good s5se ?an all 8 successors4 ,b we f9d 9 him t ! ,greeks ( 8 "t1 :o aspir$1 z we h said1 to collect & sy/ematize a body ( in=mation on e subject1 fail$ 9 "o half ( _! object1 z f> z relat$ to ! vegetable _w4 ,_! attempts at a sy/ematic di/ribution ( plants 7 altoge!r futile4 ,al?\gh ,ari/otle's divisions ( ! animal k+dom are1 ev5 at ?is day1 look$ ^u ) admiration by ! be/ naturali/s1 ! arrangem5ts & comp>isons ( plants :i* 7 contriv$ by ,!ophra/us & 8 successors1 h n left ! slighte/ trace 9 ! mod]n =m ( ! sci5ce2 &1 !re=e1 accord+ to our plan1 are ( no importance 9 our hi/ory4 ,& ?us we c treat all ! miscellane\s in=mation conc]n+ vegetables :i* 0 accumulat$ by ! :ole ( ?is s*ool ( writ]s1 9 no o!r way ?an z some?+ antec$5t to ! fir/ progress t[>ds sy/ematic k4 ,! in=mation ?us collect$ by ! unsy/ematic writ]s is ( v>i\s k9ds2 & relates to ! economical & m$ic9al uses ( plants1 _! habits1 mode ( cultivation1 & _m o!r circum/ances3 x frequ5tly includes "s description2 b ?is is always extremely imp]fect1 because ! ess5tial conditions ( description _h n be5 discov]$4 ,( works compos$ ( mat]ials s het]og5e\s1 x c be ( little use to produce specim5s2 b ,i may quote a few words f ,!ophra/us1 :i* may s]ve to connect him ) ! future hi/ory ( ! sci5ce1 z be>+ ^u "o ( ! _m problems respect+ ! id5tification ( anci5t & mod]n plants4 ,x has be5 made a "q :e!r ! foll[+ description does n ref] to ! potato4#abaf ,he is speak+ ( ! diff]5ces ( roots3 ,"s roots1 he says1 are /ill diff]5t f ^? :i* h be5 describ$2 z t ( ! ara*idna#acaf plant3 = ?is be>s fruit und]gr\nd z well z above3 ! fle%y "p s5ds "o ?ick root deep into ! gr\nd1 b ! o!rs1 :i* be> ! fruit1 are m sl5d] #cfc & high] up1 & ramifi$4 ,x loves a s&y soil1 & has no leaf :atev]4 ,note #abaf3 ,!oph4 i4 #aa4 ,note #acaf3 ,mo/ probably ! ,ara*nis hypoga1 or gr\nd-nut4 ,! books ( ,ari/otle & ,!ophra/us soon took ! place ( ! ,book ( ,nature 9 ! att5tion ( ! deg5]ate philosoph]s :o succe$$ !m4 ,a /ory is told by ,/rabo#adaf conc]n+ ! fate ( ! works ( ^! great naturali/s4 ,9 ! case ( ! w>s & *anges :i* occurr$ among ! successors ( ,alex&]1 ! heirs ( ,!ophra/us tri$ to secure to !mselves 8 books1 & ^? ( 8 ma/]1 by bury+ !m 9 ! gr\nd4 ,!re ! manuscripts suff]$ mu* f damp & worms2 till ,apollonicon1 a book-collector ( ^? days1 pur*as$ !m1 & attempt$1 9 8 own way1 to supply :at "t _h oblit]at$4 ,:5 ,sylla m>*$ ! ,roman troops into ,a!ns1 he took possession ( ! libr>y ( ,apollonicon2 & ! works :i* x conta9$ 7 soon circulat$ among ! le>n$ ( ,rome & ,alex&ria1 :o 7 ?us enabl$ to ,ari/otelize#aeaf on botany z on o!r subjects4 ,note #adaf3 ,/rabo1 lib4 xiii4 c4 i4 #ed4 ,note #aeaf3 4 ,! libr>y collect$ by ! ,attalic k+s ( ,p]gamus1 & ! ,alex&rian ,museum1 f\nd$ & support$ by ! ,ptolemies ( ,egypt1 r fo/]$ ! comm5tatorial _s ?an promot$ ! increase ( any real k ( nature4 ,! ,romans1 9 ?is z 9 o!r subjects1 7 practical1 n speculative4 ,!y _h1 9 ! times ( _! national vigor1 sev]al writ]s on agriculture1 :o 7 highly e/eem$2 b no au?or1 till we come to ,pl9y1 :o dwells on ! m]e k ( plants4 ,& ev5 9 ,pl9y1 x is easy to p]ceive t we h be=e u a writ] :o extract$ 8 in=mation pr9cipally f books4 ,?is rem>kable man1#afaf 9 ! middle ( a public & active life1 ( campaigns & voyages1 contriv$ to accumulate1 by read+ & /udy1 an extraord9>y /ore ( k ( all k9ds4 ,s unwill+ 0 he to h 8 read+ & note-mak+ int]rupt$1 t1 ev5 be=e day-break 9 w9t]1 & f 8 litt] z he travell$1 he 0 wont to dictate to 8 amanu5sis1 :o 0 oblig$ to pres]ve 8 h& f ! numbness :i* ! cold occasion$1 by ! use ( gloves4#agaf ,note #afaf3 ,spr5gel1 i4 #afc4 ,note #agaf3 ,pl94 ,jun4 ,epi/4 #c1 #e4 ,x has be5 +5i\sly obs]v$1 t we may f9d traces 9 ! botanical "p ( 8 ,natural ,hi/ory1 ( ! errors :i* ?is hurri$ & brok5 habit ( /udy produc$2 & t he appe>s frequ5tly to h _h books read to him & to h he>d !m amiss4#ahaf ,?us1 #cfd among sev]al o!r in/ances1 ,!ophra/us hav+ said t ! plane-tree is 9 ,italy r>e1#aiaf ,pl9y1 misl$ by ! simil>ity ( ! ,greek ^w 7spanian1 r>e71 says t ! tree occurs 9 ,italy & ,spa94#bjaf ,8 "w has1 ) great propriety1 be5 call$ ! ,encyclopdia ( ,antiquity2 &1 9 tru?1 !re are few portions ( ! le>n+ ( ! times to :i* x does n ref]4 ,( ! ?irty-sev5 ,books ( :i* x consi/s1 no less ?an sixte5 7f ! twelf? to ! tw5ty-sev5?7 relate to plants4 ,! in=mation :i* is collect$ 9 ^! books1 is ( ! mo/ miscellane\s k9d2 & ! au?or admits1 ) little di/9ction1 tru? & error1 useful k & absurd fables4 ,! declamatory /yle1 & ! compreh5sive & l(ty tone ( ?\ght :i* we h already spok5 ( z *>act]i/ic ( ! ,roman writ]s1 are peculi>ly obs]vable 9 him4 ,! mann] ( 8 dea? is well kn[n3 x 0 occasion$ by ! eruption ( ,vesuvius1 ,a4,d4 #gi1 to :i*1 9 8 curiosity1 he v5tur$ s ne> z to be suffocat$4 ,note #ahaf3 ,spr5gel1 i4 #afc4 ,note #aiaf3 ,!oph4 iv4 #g4 1 ,note #bjaf3 ,pl94 ,nat4 ,hi/4 xii4 #c4 ,et alias 7platanos7 fuisse 9 ,italia1 ac nom9atim ,hispania1 apud auctores inv5itur4 ,pl9y's "w acquir$ an almo/ unlimit$ au?ority1 z "o ( ! /&>ds ( botanical k1 9 ! middle ages2 b ev5 m ?an 81 t ( 8 contempor>y1 ,p$anius ,dioscorides1 ( ,anaz>bus 9 ,cilicia4 ,?is "w1 writt5 9 ,greek1 is held by ! be/ judges#baaf to (f] no evid5ce t ! au?or obs]v$ = himself4 ,yet he says expressly 9 8 ,preface1 t 8 love ( natural hi/ory1 & 8 milit>y life1 h l$ him into _m c\ntries1 9 :i* he has _h opportunity to become acqua9t$ ) ! nature ( h]bs & trees4#bbaf ,he speaks ( six hundr$ plants1 b (t5 indicates only _! names & prop]ties1 giv+ no description by :i* !y c be id5tifi$4 ,! ma9 cause ( 8 great reputation 9 subsequ5t times 01 t he says mu* ( ! m$ic9al virtues ( vegetables4 ,note #baaf3 ,mirbel1 #eaj4 ,note #bbaf3 ,spr5gel1 i4 #acf4 ,we come n[ to ! ages ( d>kness & le?>gy1 :5 ! habit ( orig9al ?\ght seems to die away1 z ! tal5t ( orig9al obs]vation _h done be=e4 ,comm5tators & my/ics succe$ to ! philosophical naturali/s ( bett] times4 ,& ?\gh a new race1 altoge!r di/9ct 9 blood & "* f ! ,greek1 appropriates to itself ! /ores ( ,grecian le>n+1 ?is movem5t does n1 z might be expect$1 break ! *a9s ( lit]>y slav]y4 ,! ,arabs #cfe br+1 to ! cultivation ( ! sci5ce ( ! ,greeks1 _! own ori5tal habit ( submission1 _! ori5tal love ( wond]2 & ?us1 :ile !y swell ! h]d ( comm5tators & my/ics1 !y produce no philosoph]4 ,yet ! ,arabs dis*>g$ an important function 9 ! hi/ory ( human k1#bcaf by pres]v+1 & transmitt+ to m enlight5$ times1 ! intellectual treasures ( antiquity4 ,! unhappy diss5sions :i* took place 9 ! ,*ri/ian *ur* _h scatt]$ ^! treasures ov] ! ,ea/1 at a p]iod mu* antec$5t to ! rise ( ! ,s>ac5 p[]4 ,9 ! fif? c5tury1 ! adh]5ts ( ,ne/orius1 bi%op ( ,con/ant9ople1 7 decl>$ h]etical by ! ,c\ncil ( ,ephesus 7,a4,d4 #dca71 & driv5 into exile4 ,9 ?is mann]1 _m ( ! mo/ le>n$ & +5i\s m5 ( ! ,*ri/ian _w 7 remov$ to ! ,euphrates1 :]e !y =m$ ! ,*aldean *ur*1 erect$ ! celebrat$ ,ne/orian s*ool ( ,edessa1 & gave rise to _m (fsets f ?is 9 v>i\s regions4 ,already1 9 ! fif? c5tury1 ,hibas1 ,cumas1 & ,probus1 translat$ ! writ+s ( ,ari/otle into ,syriac4 ,b ! le>n$ ,ne/orians paid an especial att5tion to ! art ( m$ic9e1 & 7 ! mo/ zeal\s /ud5ts ( ! works ( ! ,greek physicians4 ,at ,djondisabor1 9 ,khusi/an1 !y became an o/5sible m$ical s*ool1 :o di/ribut$ academical honors z ! result ( public disputations4 ,! califs ( ,bagdad he>d ( ! fame & ! wisdom ( ! doctors ( ,djondisabor1 summon$ "s ( !m to ,bagdad1 & took measures = ! f\ndation ( a s*ool ( le>n+ 9 t city4 ,! value ( ! skill1 ! le>n+1 & ! virtues ( ! ,ne/orians1 0 s /rongly felt1 t !y 7 all[$ by ! ,mohamm$ans ! free ex]cise ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 & intru/$ ) ! conduct ( ! /udies ( ^? ( ! ,moslem91 ^: education 0 mo/ c>$ =4 ,! aff9ity ( ! ,syriac & ,arabic languages made ! task ( in/ruction m easy4 ,! ,ne/orians translat$ ! works ( ! anci5ts out ( ! =m] into ! latt] language3 h5ce !re are /ill f\nd ,arabic manuscripts ( ,dioscorides1 ) ,syriac words 9 ! m>g94 ,pl9y & ,ari/otle likewise assum$ an ,arabic dress2 & 71 z well z ,dioscorides1 ! f\ndation ( in/ruction 9 all ! ,arabian academies2 ( :i* a great numb] 7 e/abli%$ ?r\gh\t ! ,s>ac5 empire1 f ,bokh>a 9 ! remote/ ea/1 to ,m>occo & ,cordova 9 ! we/4 ,aft] "s "t1 ! ,mohamm$ans !mselves began to translate & #cff extract f _! ,syriac s\rces2 & at l5g? to write works ( _! own4 ,& ?us arose va/ libr>ies1 su* z t ( ,cordova1 :i* conta9$ #bej1jjj volumes4 ,note #bcaf3 ,spr5gel1 i4 #bjc4 ,! ,ne/orians are /at$#bdaf to h fir/ e/abli%$ among ! ,arabs ^? collections ( m$ic9al sub/ances 7,apo!c71 f :i* our t]m ,apo!c>y is tak52 & to h writt5 books 7,disp5satoria7 conta9+ sy/ematic in/ructions = ! employm5t ( ^! m$icam5ts2 a ^w :i* long cont9u$ to be impli$ 9 ! same s5se1 & :i* we also reta91 ?\gh 9 a modifi$ application 7,disp5s>y74 ,note #bdaf3 ,spr5gel1 i4 #bje4 ,! directors ( ^! collections 7 suppos$ to be intimately acqua9t$ ) plants2 & yet1 9 tru?1 ! k ( plants ow$ b little to !m2 = ! ,arabic ,dioscorides 0 ! s\rce & /&>d ( _! k4 ,! fl\ri%+ comm]ce ( ! ,arabians1 _! num]\s & di/ant j\rneys1 made !m1 no d\bt1 practically acqua9t$ ) ! productions ( l&s unkn[n to ! ,greeks & ,romans4 ,_! ,ne/orian tea*]s _h e/abli%$ ,*ri/ianity ev5 z f> z ,*9a & ,malab>2 & _! travell]s m5tion#beaf ! camphor ( ,sumatra1 ! aloe-wood ( ,socotra ne> ,java1 ! tea ( ,*9a4 ,b !y nev] le>n$ ! art ( conv]t+ _! practical into speculative k4 ,!y treat ( plants only 9 s f> z _! use 9 m$ic9e is conc]n$1#bfaf & foll[$ ,dioscorides 9 ! description1 & ev5 9 ! ord] ( ! plants1 except :5 !y arrange !m accord+ to ! ,arabic alphabet4 ,) little cle>ness ( view1 !y (t5 mi/ake :at !y read3#bgaf ?us :5 ,dioscorides says t ligu/icon gr[s on ! ,ap5n9e1 a m\nta9 n f> f ! ,alps2 ,avic5na1 misl$ by a resemblance ( ! ,arabic lett]s1 quotes him z say+ t ! plant gr[s on ,akabis1 a m\nta9 ne> ,egypt4 ,note #beaf3 ,spr5gel1 i4 #bjf4 ,note #bfaf3 ,ib4 i4 #bjg4 ,note #bgaf3 ,ib4 i4 #baa4 ,x is ( little use to enum]ate su* writ]s4 ,"o ( ! mo/ not$ ( !m 0 ,mesu1 physician ( ! ,calif ( ,kahirah4 ,8 "w1 :i* 0 translat$ into ,lat9 at a lat] p]iod1 0 entitl$1 ,on ,simple ,m$ic9es2 a title :i* 0 common to _m m$ical treatises1 f ! "t ( ,gal5 9 ! second c5tury4 ,inde$1 ( ?is opposition ( simple & comp\nd m$ic9es1 we /ill h traces 9 our language3 #cfg ,he w\ld ope 8 lea!rn scrip1 ,& %[ me simples ( a ?\s& names1 ,tell+ _! /range & vigor\s faculties4 ,,milton1 ,comus4 ,:]e ! subject ( our hi/ory is s entirely at a /&1 x is unpr(itable to dwell on a li/ ( names4 ,! ,arabians1 small z _! sci5ce 01 7 able to in/ruct ! ,*ri/ians4 ,_! writ+s 7 translat$ by le>n$ ,europeans1 = in/ance ,mi*ael ,scot1 & ,con/ant9e ( ,africa1 a ,c>?ag9ian :o _h liv$ =ty ye>s among ! ,s>ac5s#bhaf & :o di$ ,a4,d4 #ajhg4 ,among 8 works1 is a ,treatise1 ,de ,gradibus1 :i* conta9s ! ,arabian m$ic9al lore4 ,9 ! ?irte5? c5tury occur ,encyclopdias1 z t ( ,alb]tus ,magnus1 & ( ,v9c5t ( ,beauvais2 b ^! conta9 no natural hi/ory except traditions & fables4 ,ev5 ! anci5t writ]s 7 altoge!r p]v]t$ & disfigur$4 ,! ,dioscorides ( ! middle ages v>i$ mat]ially f ours4#biaf ,monks1 m]*ants1 & adv5tur]s travell$ f>1 b k 0 little increas$4 ,simon ( ,g5oa1#cjaf a writ] on plants 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury1 boa/s t he p]ambulat$ ! ,ea/ 9 ord] to collect plants4 ,yet 9 8 ,clavis ,sanationis1 says a mod]n botanical writ]1#caaf we discov] no trace ( an acqua9tance ) nature4 ,he m]ely comp>es ! ,greek1 ,arabic1 & ,lat9 names ( plants1 & gives _! m$ic9al effect aft] 8 pr$ecessors3--s little true is x1 t ! use ( ! s5ses alone necess>ily leads to real k4 ,note #bhaf3 ,spr5gel1 i4 #bcj4 ,note #biaf3 ,ib4 i4 #bci4 ,note #cjaf3 ,ib4 i4 #bda4 ,note #caaf3 ,ib4 ib4 ,?\gh ! gr[+ activity ( ?\ght 9 ,europe1 & ! reviv$ acqua9tance ) ! au?ors ( ,greece 9 _! g5u9e =m1 7 gradually dispell+ ! intellectual cl\ds ( ! middle ages1 yet dur+ ! fifte5? c5tury1 botany makes no approa* to a sci5tific =m4 ,! great] "p ( ! lit]ature ( ?is subject consi/$ ( ,h]bals1 all ( :i* 7 =m$ on ! same plan1 & appe>$ "u titles su* z ,hortus1 or ,ortus ,sanitatis4 ,!re are1 = example1 ?ree#cbaf su* ,g]man ,h]bals1 ) woodcuts1 :i* date ab\t #adij4 ,b an important peculi>ity 9 ^! works is t !y conta9 "s indig5\s species plac$ side by side ) ! old ones4 ,9 #aeaf1 ,! ,grete ,h]bal 0 publi%$ 9 ,engl&1 also ) woodcuts4 ,x conta9s an acc\nt ( m ?an f\r hundr$ vegetables1 & _! #cfh products2 ( :i* "o hundr$ & fifty are ,engli%1 & are no way di/+ui%$ f ! exotics by ! mode 9 :i* !y are ins]t$ 9 ! "w4 ,note #cbaf3 ,augsburg1 #adhh4 ,ma9z1 #adia4 ,lubec1 #adib4 ,we %all see1 9 ! next *apt]1 t :5 ! intellect ( ,europe began really to apply itself to ! obs]vation ( nature1 ! progress t[>ds g5u9e sci5ce soon began to be visible1 9 ?is z 9 o!r subjects2 b be=e ?is t5d5cy c\ld op]ate freely1 ! hi/ory ( botany 0 de/9$ to %[1 9 ano!r in/ance1 h[ mu* m grateful to man1 ev5 :5 r\s$ to intellig5ce & activity1 is ! /udy ( tradition ?an ! /udy ( nature4 ,:5 ! s*ol>s ( ,europe _h become acqua9t$ ) ! g5u9e works ( ! anci5ts 9 ! orig9al languages1 ! pleasure & admiration :i* !y felt1 l$ !m to ! mo/ zeal\s endeavors to illu/rate & apply :at !y read4 ,!y fell into ! error ( suppos+ t ! plants describ$ by ,!ophra/us1 ,dioscorides1 ,pl9y1 mu/ be ^? :i* grew 9 _! own fields4 ,& ?us ,ruellius1#ccaf a ,fr5* physician1 :o only travell$ 9 ! environs ( ,p>is & ,pic>dy1 imag9$ t he f\nd !re ! plants ( ,italy & ,greece4 ,! orig9ators ( g5u9e botany 9 ,g]many1 ,brunfels & ,tragus 7,bock71 committ$ ! same mi/ake2 & h5ce arose ! misapplication ( classical names to _m g5]a4 ,! labors ( _m o!r le>n$ m5 took ! same direction1 ( treat+ ! anci5t writ]s z if !y alone 7 ! s\rces ( k & tru?4 ,note #ccaf3 ,de ,natura ,/irpium1 #aecf4 ,b ! philosophical _s ( ,europe 0 already too vigor\s to all[ ?is sup]/iti\s erudition to ex]cise a la/+ sway4 ,leonic5us1 :o taught at ,f]r>a till he 0 almo/ a hundr$ ye>s old1 & di$ 9 #aebd1cdaf disput$1 ) great fre$om1 ! au?ority ( ! ,arabian writ]s1 & ev5 ( ,pl9y4 ,he saw1 & %[$ by _m examples1 h[ little ,pl9y himself knew ( nature1 & h[ _m errors he _h made or transmitt$4 ,! same indep5d5ce ( ?\ght ) reg>d to o!r anci5t writ]s1 0 manife/$ by o!r s*ol>s4 ,yet ! p[] ( anci5t au?ority melt$ away b gradually4 ,?us ,antonius ,brassavola1 :o e/abli%$ on ! banks ( ! ,po ! fir/ botanical g>d5 ( mod]n times1 publi%$ 9 #aecf1 8 ,exam5 omnium ,simplicium ,m$icam5torum2 &1 z ,cuvi] says1#ceaf ?\gh he /udi$ plants 9 nature1 8 book 7writt5 9 ! #cfi ,platonic =m ( dialogue71 has /ill ! "* ( a comm5t>y on ! anci5ts4 ,note #cdaf3 ,spr5gel1 i4 #beb4 ,note #ceaf3 ,hi/4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 p>tie ii4 #afi4 ,! ,g]mans appe> to h be5 ! fir/ to lib]ate !mselves f ?is ?raldom1 & to publi% works f\nd$ ma9ly on actual obs]vation4 ,! fir/ ( ! botani/s :o _h ?is great m]it is ,o?o ,brunfels ( ,m5tz1 ^: "w1 ,h]b>um ,viv ,icones1 appe>$ 9 #aecj4 ,x consi/s ( two volumes 9 folio1 ) wood-cuts2 & 9 #aecb1 a ,g]man edition 0 publi%$4 ,! plants :i* x conta9s are giv5 )\t any arrangem5t1 & ?us he belongs to ! p]iod ( unsy/ematic k4 ,yet ! progress t[>ds ! =mation ( a sy/em manife/$ itself s imm$iately 9 ! s]ies ( ,g]man botani/s to :i* he belongs1 t we might ) almo/ equal propriety transf] him to ! hi/ory ( t progress2 to :i* we n[ proce$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,=mation ,,( ,a ,,sy/em ,,( ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,plants4 ,sect4 #a4--,prelude to ! ,epo* ( ,csalp9us4 ,,! arrangem5t ( plants 9 ! e>lie/ works 0 ei!r arbitr>y1 or accord+ to _! use1 or "s o!r extrane\s circum/ance1 z 9 ,pl9y4 ,?is & ! division ( vegetables by ,dioscorides into aromatic1 alim5t>y1 m$ic9al1 v9\s1 is1 z w be easily se51 a m]ely casual di/ribution4 ,! ,arabian writ]s1 & ^? ( ! middle ages1 %[$ /ill m cle>ly _! ins5sibility to ! nature ( sy/em1 by adopt+ an alphabetical arrangem5t2 :i* 0 employ$ also 9 ! ,h]bals ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,brunfels1 z we h said1 adopt$ no pr9ciple ( ord]2 nor did 8 successor1 ,fu*s4 ,yet ! latt] writ] urg$ 8 c\ntrym5 to put aside _! ,arabian & b>b>\s ,lat9 doctors1 & to obs]ve ! vegetable k+dom = !mselves2 & he himself set ! example ( do+ ?is1 exam9$ plants ) zeal & accuracy1 & made above fifte5 hundr$ draw+s ( !m4#cfaf #cgj ,note #cfaf3 ,8 ,hi/oria ,/irpium 0 publi%$ at ,basil 9 #aedb4 ,! difficulty ( repres5t+ plants 9 any useful way by means ( draw+s1 is great]1 p]haps1 ?an x at fir/ appe>s4 ,s long z no di/9ction 0 made ( ! importance ( diff]5t organs ( ! plant1 a picture repres5t+ m]ely ! obvi\s g5]al appe>ance & l>g] p>ts1 0 ( comp>atively small value4 ,h5ce we are n to wond] at ! slight+ mann] 9 :i* ,pl9y speaks ( su* records4 ,^? :o gave su* pictures ( plants1 he says1 ,crateuas1 ,dionysius1 ,metrodorus1 h %[n no?+ cle>ly1 except ! difficulty ( _! und]tak+4 ,a picture may be mi/ak51 & is *ang$ & disfigur$ by copyi/s2 &1 )\t ^! imp]fections1 x is n en\gh to repres5t ! plant 9 "o /ate1 s9ce x has f\r diff]5t aspects 9 ! f\r seasons ( ! ye>4 ,! diffusion ( ! habit ( exact draw+1 especially among ! c\ntrym5 ( ,alb]t ,dur] & ,lucas ,crana*1 & ! inv5tion ( wood-cuts & copp]-plates1 rem$i$ "s ( ^! defects4 ,moreov]1 ! conviction gradually arose 9 m5's m9ds t ! /ructure ( ! fl[] & ! fruit are ! mo/ important circum/ances 9 fix+ ! id5tity ( ! plant4 ,!ophra/us speaks ) precision ( ! organs :i* he describes1 b ^! are pr9cipally ! leaves1 roots1 & /ems4 ,fu*s uses ! t]m apices = ! an!rs1 & gluma = ! blossom ( grasses1 ?us %[+ t he _h notic$ ^! p>ts z g5]ally pres5t4 ,9 ! next writ] :om we h to m5tion1 we f9d "s traces ( a p]ception ( ! real resemblances ( plants beg9n+ to appe>4 ,x is impossible to expla9 ! progress ( su* views )\t assum+ 9 ! read] "s acqua9tance ) plants2 b a v few words may suffice to convey ! requisite notions4 ,ev5 9 plants :i* mo/ commonly come 9 our way1 we may p]ceive in/ances ( ! resemblances ( :i* we speak4 ,?us1 ,m9t1 ,m>joram1 ,basil1 ,sage1 ,lav5d]1 ,?yme1 ,dead-nettle1 & _m o!r plants1 h a tubul> fl[]1 ( :i* ! m\? is divid$ into two lips2 h5ce !y are =m$ into a family1 & t]m$ ,labiat4 ,aga91 ! ,/ock1 ! ,wall-fl[]1 ! ,mu/>d1 ! ,cress1 ! ,lady-smock1 ! ,%eph]d's purse1 h1 among o!r simil>ities1 _! blossoms ) f\r petals arrang$ crosswise2 ^! are all ( ! ord] ,crucif]4 ,o!r fl[]s1 app>5tly m complex1 /ill resemble ea* o!r1 z ,daisy4 ,m>igold1 ,a/]1 & ,*amomile2 ^! belong to ! ord] ,composit4 ,& ?\gh ! memb]s ( ea* su* family may diff] widely 9 _! l>g] p>ts1 _! /ems & leaves1 ! close /udy ( nature leads ! botani/ irresi/ibly to consid] _! resemblances z #cga occupy+ a f> m important place ?an _! diff]5ces4 ,x is ! g5]al e/abli%m5t ( ?is conviction & its consequ5ces :i* we h n[ to foll[4 ,! fir/ writ] 9 :om we f9d ! traces ( an arrangem5t dep5d+ ^u ^! natural resemblances1 is ,hi]onymus ,tragus1 7,j]om ,bock17 a labori\s ,g]man botani/1 :o1 9 #aeea1 publi%$ a h]bal4 ,9 ?is "w1 sev]al ( ! species includ$ 9 ^? natural families to :i* we h allud$1#cgaf z = in/ance ! ,labiat1 ! ,crucif]1 ! ,composit1 are = ! mo/ "p br\ght toge!r2 & ?us1 al?\gh ) _m mi/akes z to su* connexions1 a new pr9ciple ( ord] is introduc$ into ! subject4 ,note #cgaf3 ,spr5gel1 i4 #bgj4 ,9 pursu+ ! developm5t ( su* pr9ciples ( natural ord]1 x is necess>y to recollect t ! pr9ciples lead to an assemblage ( divisions & gr\ps1 successively subord9ate1 ! l[] to ! high]1 l ! brigades1 regim5ts1 & companies ( an army1 or ! prov9ces1 t[ns1 & p>i%es ( a k+dom4 ,species are includ$ 9 ,g5]a1 ,g5]a 9 ,families or ,ord]s1 & ord]s 9 ,classes4 ,! p]ception t !re is "s connexion among ! species ( plants1 0 ! fir/ ess5tial /ep2 ! detection ( diff]5t m>ks & *>act]s :i* %\ld give1 on ! "o h&1 limit$ gr\ps1 on ! o!r1 compreh5sive divisions1 7 o!r highly important p>ts ( ?is advance4 ,to po9t out e successive movem5t 9 ?is progress w\ld be a task ( extreme difficulty1 b we may note1 z ! mo/ prom95t portions ( x1 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! gr\ps :i* imm$iately include ,species1 t is1 ! =mation ( ,g5]a2 & ! inv5tion ( a me?od :i* %\ld di/ribute into consi/5t & di/9ct divisions ! :ole vegetable k+dom1 t is1 ! con/ruction ( a ,sy/em4 ,to ! second ( ^! two /eps we h no difficulty 9 assign+ its prop] au?or4 ,x belongs to ,csalp9us1 & m>ks ! fir/ great epo* ( ?is sci5ce4 ,x is less easy to /ate to :at botani/ is due ! e/abli%m5t ( ,g5]a2 yet we may ju/ly assign ! great] "p ( ! m]it ( ?is inv5tion1 z is usually done1 to ,conrad ,gessn] ( ,zuri*4 ,?is em95t naturali/1 aft] publi%+ 8 great "w on animals1 di$#chaf ( ! plague 9 #aefe1 at ! age ( =ty-n9e1 :ile he 0 prep>+ to publi% a ,hi/ory ( ,plants1 a sequel to 8 ,hi/ory ( ,animals4 ,! fate ( ! "w ?us left #cgb unf9i%$ 0 rem>kable4 ,x fell into ! h&s ( 8 pupil1 ,gasp>d ,wolf1 :o 0 to h publi%$ x1 b want+ leisure = ! (fice1 sold x to ,joa*im ,cam]>ius1 a physician & botani/ ( ,nuremb]g1 :o made use ( ! engrav+s prep>$ by ,gessn]1 9 an ,epitome :i* he publi%$ 9 #aehf4 ,! text ( ,gessn]'s "w1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh v>i\s h&s1 0 publi%$ 9 #aged "u ! title ( ,gessn]i ,op]a ,botanica p] duo ,scula desid]ata1 c41 b is v incomplete4 ,note #chaf3 ,cuvi]1 ,leons sur l',hi/4 des ,sci5ces ,naturelles1 p>tie ii4 p4 #aic4 ,! imp]fect /ate 9 :i* ,gessn] left 8 botanical labors1 makes x necess>y to seek ! evid5ce ( 8 peculi> views 9 scatt]$ passages ( 8 correspond5ce & o!r works4 ,"o ( 8 great m]its 01 t he saw ! peculi> importance ( ! fl[] & fruit z af=d+ ! *>act]s by :i* ! aff9ities ( plants 7 to be detect$2 & t he urg$ ?is view ^u 8 contempor>ies4 ,8 plates pres5t to u1 by ! side ( ea* plant1 its fl[] & its fruit1 c>efully engrav$4 ,& 9 8 communications ) 8 botanical correspond5ts1 he repeat$ly insi/s on ^! p>ts4 ,?us#ciaf 9 #aefe he writes to ,zu+] conc]n+ "s =eign plants :i* ! latt] possess$3 ,tell me if y\r plants h fruit & fl[]1 z well z /alk & leaves1 = ^? are ( mu* ! great] consequ5ce4 ,by ^! ?ree m>ks1--fl[]1 fruit1 & se$1--,i f9d t ,saxifraga & ,consolida ,regalis are relat$ to ,aconite4 ,^! *>act]s1 d]iv$ f ! fructification 7z ! assemblage ( fl[] & fruit is call$71 are ! means by :i* g5]a are e/abli%$1 & h5ce1 by ! be/ botani/s1 ,gessn] is decl>$ to be ! inv5tor ( g5]a4#djaf #cgc ,note #ciaf3 ,epi/ol1 fol4 #aac a2 see also fol4 #fe b4 ,note #djaf3 ,hall]1 ,biblio ,botanica1 i4 #bhd4 ,me?odi ,botanic rationem primus p]vidit2--d>i nempe et g5]a qu plures species compreh5d]5t et classes qu multa g5]a4 ,v>ias etiam classes naturales expressit4 ,*>act]em 9 flore inque sem9e posuit1 c4--,rauwolfio ,socio ,epi/4 ,wolf1 p4 #ci4 ,l9nu1 ,g5]a ,plant>um1 ,pref4 xiii4 ,a fructificatione plantas di/+u]e 9 g5]a1 inf9it sapi5ti placuisse1 detexit po/]ior tas1 et quidem primus1 sculi sui ornam5tum1 ,conradus ,gessn]us1 uti patet ex ,epi/olis ejus po/remis1 et ,tabulis p] ,c>m]>ium editis4 ,cuvi] says 7,hi/4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 #b;e pe1 p4 #aic71 aft] speak+ to ! same effect1 ,il fit voir encore que t\tes les plantes qui ont des fleurs et des fruits semblables se ressembl5t p> leurs proprits1 et que qu& on rappro*e ces plantes on obti5t a9si une classification naturelle4 ,i d n "k if he "h ref]s to any p>ticul> passages ( ,gessn]'s "w4 ,! labors ( ,gessn] 9 botany1 bo? on acc\nt ( ! unf9i%$ /ate 9 :i* he left ! application ( 8 pr9ciples1 & on acc\nt ( ! abs5ce ( any pr9ciples manife/ly applicable to ! :ole ext5t ( ! vegetable k+dom1 c only be consid]$ z a prelude to ! epo* 9 :i* ^? defects 7 suppli$4 ,to t epo* we n[ proce$4 ,sect4 #b4--;,epo* ( ,csalp9us4--,=mation ( a ,sy/em ( ,arrangem5t4 ,,if any "o 7 dispos$ to "q :e!r ,natural ,hi/ory truly belongs to ! doma9 ( ,inductive ,sci5ce2--:e!r x is to be prosecut$ by ! same me?ods1 & requires ! same end[m5ts ( m9d z ^? :i* lead to ! successful cultivation ( ! ,physical ,sci5ces1--! circum/ances "u :i* ,botany has made its advance appe> fitt$ to remove su* d\bts4 ,! fir/ decid$ /ep 9 ?is /udy 0 m]ely ! con/ruction ( a classification ( its subjects4 ,we %all1 ,i tru/1 be able to %[ t su* a classification includes1 9 reality1 ! e/abli%m5t ( "o g5]al pr9ciple1 & leads to m4 ,b )\t "h dwell+ on ?is po9t1 x is wor? notice t ! p]son to :om we owe ?is classification1 ,&reas ,csalp9us ( ,arezzo1 0 "o ( ! mo/ philosophical m5 ( 8 "t1 pr(\ndly skill$ 9 ! ,ari/otelian lore :i* 0 !n e/eem$1 yet gift$ ) c\rage & sagacity :i* enabl$ him to weigh ! value ( ! ,p]ipatetic doctr9es1 to reject :at seem$ error1 & to look onw>ds to a bett] philosophy4 ,h[ are we to und]/&1 he inquires1 t we mu/ proce$ f univ]sals to p>ticul>s 7z ,ari/otle directs71 :5 p>ticul>s are bett] kn[n8#daaf ,yet he treats ! ,ma/] ) def]5ce1 &1 z has be5 obs]v$1#dbaf we see 9 8 great botanical "w deep traces ( ! be/ features ( ! ,ari/otelian s*ool1 logic & me?od2 &1 inde$1 9 ?is "w he frequ5tly ref]s to 8 ,qu/iones ,p]ipatetic4 ,8 book1 entitl$ ,de ,plantis libri xvi4 appe>$ at ,flor5ce 9 #aehc4 ,! aspect "u :i* 8 task pres5t$ itself to 8 m9d appe>s to me to possess s mu* int]e/1 t ,i w transcribe a few ( 8 reflections4 ,aft] speak+ ( ! spl5did multiplicity ( ! productions ( nature1 & ! confusion :i* has hi!rto prevail$ among writ]s on plants1 #cgd ! gr[+ treasures ( ! botanical _w2 he adds1#dcaf ,9 ?is imm5se multitude ( plants1 ,i see t want :i* is mo/ felt 9 any o!r unord]$ cr[d3 if su* an assemblage be n arrang$ into brigades l an army1 all mu/ be tumult & fluctuation4 ,& ?is accord+ly happ5s 9 ! treatm5t ( plants3 = ! m9d is ov]:elm$ by ! confus$ accumulation ( ?+s1 & ?us arise endless mi/ake & angry alt]cation4 ,he !n /ates 8 g5]al view1 :i*1 z we %all see1 0 adopt$ by 8 successors4 ,s9ce all sci5ce consi/s 9 ! collection ( simil>1 & ! di/9ction ( dissimil> ?+s1 & s9ce ! consequ5ce ( ?is is a di/ribution into g5]a & species1 :i* are to be natural classes gov]n$ by real diff]5ces1 ,i h attempt$ to execute ?is task 9 ! :ole range ( plants2--ut si quid pro +5ii mei t5uitate 9 hujusmodi /udio pr(ec]im1 ad communem utilitatem pr(]am4 ,we see "h h[ cle>ly he claims = himself ! cr$it ( be+ ! fir/ to execute ?is task ( arrangem5t4 ,note #daaf3 ,qu/iones ,p]ipatetic1 7#aefi17 lib4 i4 qu/4 i4 ,note #dbaf3 ,cuvi]1 p4 #aih4 ,note #dcaf3 ,d$icatio1 a #b4 ,aft] c]ta9 prep>atory speculations1 he says1#ddaf ,let u n[ endeavor to m>k ! k9ds ( plants by ess5tial circum/ances 9 ! fructification4 ,he !n obs]ves1 ,9 ! con/itution ( organs ?ree ?+s are ma9ly important--! numb]1 ! position1 ! figure4 ,& he !n proce$s to exemplify ?is3 ,"s h "u "o fl[]1 ,,"o se$1 z ,amygdala1 or ,,"o se$-receptacle1 z ,rosa2 or ,,two se$s1 z ,f]ul>ia1 or ,,two se$-receptacles1 z ,na/urtium2 or ?ree1 z ! ,ti?ymalum k9d h ,,?ree se$s1 ! ,bulbace ,,?ree receptacles2 or f\r1 z ,m>rubium1 ,,f\r se$s1 ,sil] ,,f\r receptacles2 or m1 z ,cicorace1 & ,acanace h ,,m se$s1 ,p9us1 ,,m receptacles4 ,note #ddaf3 ,lib4 i4 c4 #ac1 #ad4 ,x w be obs]v$ t we h "h t5 classes made out by means ( numb] alone1 add$ to ! consid]ation ( :e!r ! se$ is alone 9 its cov]+1 z 9 a *]ry1 or conta9$ 9 a receptacle ) sev]al o!rs1 z 9 a b]ry1 pod1 or capsule4 ,sev]al ( ^! divisions are1 h[ev]1 fur!r subdivid$ accord+ to o!r circum/ances1 & especially accord+ z ! vital "p ( ! se$1 :i* he call$ ! he>t 7cor#deaf71 is situat$ 9 ! upp] or l[] "p ( ! se$4 ,z our object "h is only to indicate ! pr9ciple ( ! me?od ( ,csalp9us1 ,i ne$ n fur!r dwell on ! details1 & /ill less on ! defects by :i* x is disfigur$1 z1 = in/ance1 ! ret5tion ( ! old di/9ction ( ,trees1 ,%rubs1 & ,h]bs4 #cge ,note #deaf3 ,corculum1 ( ,l9nu4 ,to "s p]sons x may appe> t ?is arbitr>y di/ribution ( ! vegetable k+dom1 accord+ to ! numb] ( p>ts ( a p>ticul> k9d1 _c des]ve to be spok5 ( z a great discov]y4 ,& if1 inde$1 ! di/ribution _h be5 arbitr>y1 ?is w\ld h be5 true2 ! real m]it ( ?is & ( e o!r sy/em is1 t :ile x is artificial 9 its =m1 x is natural 9 its results4 ,! plants :i* are associat$ by ! arrangem5t ( ,csalp9us1 are ^? :i* h ! close/ resemblances 9 ! mo/ ess5tial po9ts4 ,?us1 z ,l9nu says1 ?\gh ! fir/ 9 attempt+ to =m natural ord]s1 he obs]v$ z _m z ! mo/ successful ( lat] writ]s4 ,?us 8 ,legum9a#dfaf correspond to ! natural ord] ,legum9os2 8 g5us ,f]ulaceum#dgaf to ! ,umbellat2 8 ,bulbace#dhaf to ,liliace2 8 ,an!mides#diaf to ! ,composit2 9 l mann]1 ! ,borag9e are br\ght toge!r1#ejaf & ! ,labiat4 ,t su* assemblages are produc$ by ! application ( 8 pr9ciples1 is a suffici5t evid5ce t !y h _! f\ndation 9 ! g5]al laws ( ! vegetable _w4 ,if ?is _h n be5 ! case1 ! m]e application ( numb] or figure alone z a /&>d ( arrangem5t1 w\ld h produc$ only intol]able anomalies4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ,csalp9us _h arrang$ plants by ! numb] ( fl[]s on ! same /alk1 he w\ld h sep>at$ individuals ( ! same species2 if he _h di/ribut$ !m accord+ to ! numb] ( leaflets :i* compose ! leaves1 he w\ld h _h to place f> asund] diff]5t species ( ! same g5us4 ,or1 z he himself says1#eaaf ,if we make "o g5us ( ^? :i* h a r\nd root1 z ,rapum1 ,ari/olo*ia1 ,cyclam9us1 ,aton1 we %all sep>ate f ?is g5us ^? :i* mo/ agree ) x1 z ,napum & ,raphanum1 :i* resemble ,rapum1 & ! long ,ari/olo*ia1 :i* resembles ! r\nd2 :ile we %all jo9 ! mo/ remote k9ds1 = ! nature ( ,cyclam9us & ,rapum is altoge!r div]se 9 all o!r respects4 ,or if we att5d to ! diff]5ces ( /alk1 s z to make "o g5us ( ^? :i* h a nak$ /alk1 z ! ,junci1 ,cpe1 ,aphac1 along ) ,cicorace1 ,viol1 we %all /ill connect ! mo/ unlike ?+s1 & disjo9 ! close/ aff9ities4 ,& if we note ! diff]5ces ( leaves1 or ev5 fl[]s1 we fall into ! same difficulty2 = _m plants v diff]5t 9 k9d h leaves v simil>1 z ,polygonum & ,hyp]icum1 ,ernea & ,sesamois1 ,apium & ,ranunculus2 & plants ( ! same g5us h sometimes v diff]5t #cgf leaves1 z ! sev]al species ( ,ranunculus & ( ,lactuca4 ,nor w color or %ape ( ! fl[]s help u bett]2 = :at has ,vitis 9 common ) nan!1 except ! resemblance ( ! fl[]8 ,he !n goes on to say1 t if we seek a too close co9cid5ce ( all ! *>act]s we %all h no ,species2 & ?us %[s u t he _h cle>ly be=e 8 view ! difficulty1 :i* he _h to attack1 & :i* x is 8 glory to h ov]come1 t ( con/ruct+ ,natural ,ord]s4 ,note #dfaf3 ,lib4 vi4 ,note #dgaf3 ,lib4 vii4 ,note #dhaf3 ,lib4 x4 ,note #diaf3 ,lib4 xii4 ,note #ejaf3 ,lib4 xi4 ,note #eaaf3 ,lib4 i4 cap4 xii4 p4 #be4 ,b z ! pr9ciples ( ,csalp9us are ju/ifi$1 on ! "o h&1 by _! lead+ to ,natural ,ord]s1 !y are recomm5d$ on ! o!r by _! produc+ a ,sy/em :i* applies ?r\gh ! :ole ext5t ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,! p>ts f :i* he takes 8 *>act]s mu/ occur 9 all fl[]+-plants1 = all su* plants h se$s4 ,& ^! se$s1 if n v num]\s = ea* fl[]1 w be ( a c]ta9 def9ite numb] & ord]ly di/ribution4 ,& ?us e plant w fall into "o "p or o!r ( ! same sy/em4 ,x is n difficult to po9t out1 9 ?is induction ( ,csalp9us1 ! two elem5ts :i* we h s (t5 decl>$ mu/ occur 9 all inductive processes2 ! exact acqua9tance ) facts1 & ! g5]al & applicable ideas by :i* ^! facts are br\ght toge!r4 ,csalp9us 0 no m]e deal] 9 intellectual relations or le>n$ traditions1 b a labori\s & p]sev]+ collector ( plants & ( botanical k4 ,= _m ye>s1 he says 9 8 ,d$ication1 ,i h be5 pursu+ my rese>*es 9 v>i\s regions1 habitually visit+ ! places 9 :i* grew ! v>i\s k9ds ( h]bs1 %rubs1 & trees2 ,i h be5 assi/$ by ! labors ( _m fri5ds1 & by g>d5s e/abli%$ = ! public b5efit1 & conta9+ =eign plants collect$ f ! mo/ remote regions4 ,he "h ref]s to ! fir/ g>d5 direct$ to ! public /udy ( ,botany1 :i* 0 t ( ,pisa1#ebaf in/itut$ 9 #aedc1 by ord] ( ! ,gr& ,duke ,cosmo ! ,fir/4 ,! managem5t ( x 0 confid$ fir/ to ,lucas ,gh9i1 & aft]w>ds to ,csalp9us4 ,he _h collect$ also a h]b>ium ( dri$ plants1 :i* he calls ! rudim5t ( 8 "w4 ,tibi enim1 he says1 9 8 d$ication to ,francis ,m$ici1 ,gr& ,duke ( ,etruria1 apud quem extat ejus rudim5tum ex plantis libro agglut9atis a me compositum4 ,&1 ?r\gh\t1 he speaks ) ! mo/ famili> & vivid acqua9tance ( ! v>i\s vegetables :i* he describes4 ,note #ebaf3 ,cuv4 #ahg4 ,b ,csalp9us also possess$ fix$ & g5]al views conc]n+ ! relation & functions ( ! p>ts ( plants1 & ideas ( symmetry #cgg & sy/em2 )\t :i*1 z we see 9 o!r botani/s ( 8 & succe$+ times1 ! m]e accumulation ( a k ( details does n lead to any advance 9 sci5ce4 ,we h already m5tion$ 8 ref]5ce to g5]al philosophical pr9ciples1 bo? ( ! ,p]ipatetics & ( 8 own4 ,! fir/ twelve *apt]s ( 8 "w are employ$ 9 expla9+ ! g5]al /ructure ( plants1 & especially t po9t to :i* he ju/ly atta*es s mu* importance1 ! results ( ! diff]5t situation ( ! cor or corculum ( ! se$4 ,he %[s#ecaf t if we take ! root1 or /em1 or leaves1 or blossom1 z our guide 9 classification1 we %all sep>ate plants obvi\sly alike1 & approximate ^? :i* h m]ely sup]ficial resemblances4 ,& ?us we see t he _h 9 8 m9d ideas ( fix$ resemblance & symmetrical di/ribution1 :i* he s$ul\sly endeavor$ to apply to plants2 :ile 8 acqua9tance ) ! vegetable k+dom enabl$ him to see 9 :at mann] ^! ideas 7 n1 & 9 :at mann] !y 71 really applicable4 ,note #ecaf3 ,lib4 i4 cap4 xii4 ,! great m]it & orig9ality ( ,csalp9us h be5 g5]ally all[$1 by ! be/ ( ! m mod]n writ]s on ,botany4 ,l9nu calls him "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ! sci5ce2 ,primus v]us sy/ematicus2#edaf &1 z if n satisfi$ ) ! expression ( 8 admiration 9 prose1 hangs a poetical g>l& on ! tomb ( 8 h]o4 ,! foll[+ di/i* concludes 8 rem>ks on ?is writ]3 ,quisquis hic extit]it primos conc$et honores ,csalp9e tibi2 primaque s]ta dabit3 & simil> language ( praise has be5 appli$ to him by ! be/ botani/s up to ,cuvi]1#eeaf :o ju/ly t]ms 8 book a "w ( g5ius4 ,note #edaf3 ,philosoph4 ,bot4 p4 #ai4 ,note #eeaf3 ,cuv4 ,hi/4 #aic4 ,p]haps ! great advance made 9 ?is sci5ce by ,csalp9us1 is mo/ /rongly %[n by ?is2 t no "o appe>$1 to foll[ ! pa? :i* he _h op5$ to sy/em & symmetry1 = ne>ly a c5tury4 ,moreov]1 :5 ! progress ( ?is bran* ( k 0 resum$1 8 next successor1 ,morison1 did n *oose to ackn[l$ge t he _h borr[$ s mu* f s old a writ]2 & ?us1 h>dly m5tions 8 "n1 al?\gh he takes advantage ( 8 labors1 & ev5 transcribes 8 words )\t ackn[l$gem5t1 z ,i %all %[4 ,! pause betwe5 ! great inv5tion ( ,csalp9us1 & its natural sequel1 ! developem5t & improvem5t ( 8 me?od1 is s m>k$1 t ,i #cgh w1 9 ord] to avoid too great an int]ruption ( *ronological ord]1 record "s ( its circum/ances 9 a sep>ate section4 ,sect4 #c4--,/ation>y ,int]val4 ,,! me?od ( ,csalp9us 0 n1 at fir/1 g5]ally adopt$4 ,x _h1 inde$1 "s disadvantages4 ,employ$ 9 draw+ ! b\nd>y-l9es ( ! l>g] divisions ( ! vegetable k+dom1 he _h omitt$ ^? small] gr\ps1 ,g5]a1 :i* 7 bo? mo/ obvi\s to common botani/s1 & mo/ conv5i5t 9 ! description & comp>ison ( plants4 ,he _h also neglect$ to give ! ,synonyms ( o!r au?ors = ! plants spok5 ( by him2 an app5dage to botanical descriptions1 :i* ! increase ( botanical in=mation & botanical books _h n[ r5d]$ indisp5sable4 ,& ?us x happ5$1 t a "w1 :i* mu/ always be consid]$ z =m+ a great epo* 9 ! sci5ce to :i* x ref]s1 0 probably little read1 & 9 a %ort "t c\ld be treat$ z if x 7 q =gott54 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! sci5ce 0 gradually improv$ 9 its details4 ,clusius1 or ,*>les de l',ecluse1 fir/ taught botani/s to describe well4 ,be=e him1 says ,mirbel1#efaf ! descriptions 7 diffuse1 obscure1 indi/9ct2 or else concise1 incomplete1 vague4 ,clusius introduc$ exactitude1 precision1 neatness1 elegance1 me?od3 he says no?+ sup]flu\s2 he omits no?+ necess>y4 ,he travell$ ov] great "p ( ,europe1 & publi%$ v>i\s works on ! m r>e ( ! plants :i* he _h se54 ,among su* plants1 we may note n[ "o well kn[n1 ! potato2 :i* he describes z be+ commonly us$ 9 ,italy 9 #aehf2egaf ?us ?r[+ d\bt1 at lea/1 on ! op9ion :i* ascribes ! fir/ introduction ( x into ,europe to ,sir ,walt] ,raleigh1 on 8 return f ,virg9ia1 ab\t ! same p]iod4 ,z s]v+ to illu/rate1 bo? ?is po9t1 & ! descriptive /yle ( ,clusius1 ,i quote1 9 a note1 8 description ( ! fl[] ( ?is plant4#ehaf #cgi ,note #efaf3 ,physiol4 ,veg4 p4 #ebe4 ,note #egaf3 ,clusius4 ,exotic4 iv4 c4 #eb1 p4 lxxix4 ,note #ehaf3 ,papas ,p]uanorum4 ,ara*idna1 ,!oph4 =te4 ,flores elegantes1 uncialis amplitud9is aut majores1 angulosi1 s+ul>i folio con/antes1 s$ ita complicato ut qu9que folia discreta videantur1 coloris ext]ius ex purpura c&icantis1 int]ius purpurasc5tis1 radiis qu9que h]baceis ex umbilico /ell in/> prodeuntibus1 et totidem /am9ibus flavis 9 umbonem coeuntibus4 ,he says t ! ,italians d n "k :5ce !y _h ! plant1 & t !y call x ,t>at\ffli4 ,! "n ,potato 01 9 ,engl&1 previ\sly appli$ to ! ,sweet ,potato 7,convolvulus batatas71 :i* 0 ! common ,potato1 9 di/9ction to ! ,virg9ian ,potato1 at ! "t ( ,g]>d's ,h]bal4 7#aeig87 ,g]>d's figures ( bo? plants are copi$ f ^? ( ,clusius4 ,x may be se5 by ! description ( ,ara*idna1 already quot$ f ,!ophra/us1 7above17 t !re is little plausibility 9 ,clusius's conjecture ( ! plant be+ kn[n to ! anci5ts4 ,i ne$ n in=m ! botani/ t ?is op9ion is unt5able4 ,! addition ( exotic species to ! numb] ( kn[n plants 0 inde$ go+ on rapidly dur+ ! int]val :i* we are n[ consid]+4 ,francis ,h]n&ez1 a ,spani>d1 :o visit$ ,am]ica t[>ds ! end ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 collect$ & describ$ _m plants ( t c\ntry1 "s ( :i* 7 aft]w>ds publi%$ by ,rec*i4#eiaf ,b>nabas ,cobo1 :o w5t z a mission>y to ,am]ica 9 #aeif1 also describ$ plants4#fjaf ,! ,dut*1 among o!r ex]tions :i* !y made 9 _! /ruggle ) ! tyranny ( ,spa91 s5t out an exp$ition :i*1 = a "t1 conqu]$ ! ,brazils2 & among o!r fruits ( ?is conque/1 !y publi%$ an acc\nt ( ! natural hi/ory ( ! c\ntry4#faaf ,to avoid int]rupt+ ! connexion ( su* labors1 ,i w "h c>ry !m on a little fur!r 9 ! ord] ( "t4 ,paul ,h]man1 ( ,halle1 9 ,saxony1 w5t to ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope & to ,ceylon2 & on 8 return1 a/oni%$ ! botani/s ( ,europe by ! va/ quantity ( rem>kable plants :i* he introduc$ to _! k4#fbaf ,rhe$e1 ! ,dut* gov]nor ( ,malab>1 ord]$ descriptions & draw+s to be made ( _m curi\s species1 :i* 7 publi%$ 9 a l>ge "w 9 twelve folio volumes4#fcaf ,rumphe1 ano!r ,dut* consul at ,amboyna1#fdaf labor$ ) zeal & success ^u ! plants ( ! ,moluccas4 ,"s species :i* occur 9 ,madagasc> figur$ 9 a description ( t isl& compos$ by ! ,fr5* ,comm&ant ,flac\rt4#feaf ,%ortly aft]w>ds1 ,engelb]t ,kmpf]1#ffaf a ,we/phalian ( great acquirem5ts & undaunt$ c\rage1 visit$ ,p]sia1 ,arabia ,felix1 ! ,mogul ,empire1 ,ceylon1 ,b5gal1 ,sumatra1 ,java1 ,siam1 ,japan2 ,:el] travell$ 9 ,greece & ,asia ,m9or2 & ,%]>d1 ! ,engli% consul1 publi%$ an acc\nt ( ! plants ( ! neighborhood ( ,smyrna4 #chj ,note #eiaf3 ,nova ,plant>um ,regni ,mexicana ,hi/oria1 ,rom4 #afea1 fol4 ,note #fjaf3 ,spr5gel1 ,ges*4 d] ,botanik1 ii4 #fb4 ,note #faaf3 ,hi/oria ,naturalis ,brasili1 ,l4 ,b4 #afdh1 fol4 7,piso & ,m>egraf74 ,note #fbaf3 ,museum ,zeylanicum1 ,l4 ,b4 #agbf4 ,note #fcaf3 ,hortus ,malab>icus1 #afgj-agjc4 ,note #fdaf3 ,h]b>ium ,ambo95se1 ,am/]dam1 #agda-ea1 fol4 ,note #feaf3 ,hi/oire de la gr&e ,isle ,madagasc>1 ,p>is1 #affa4 ,note #ffaf3 ,amnitates ,exotic1 ,lemgov4 #agab4 #dto4 ,at ! same "t1 ! ,new ,_w excit$ also ! curiosity ( botani/s4 ,hans ,sloane collect$ ! plants ( ,jamaica2 ,john ,bani/] ^? ( ,virg9ia2 ,william ,v]non1 also an ,engli%man1 & ,david ,kriege1 a ,saxon1 ^? ( ,m>yl&2 two ,fr5*m51 ,surian & ,fa!r ,plumi]1 ^? ( ,sa9t ,dom+o4 ,we may add t public botanical g>d5s 7 ab\t ?is "t e/abli%$ all ov] ,europe4 ,we h already notic$ ! in/itution ( t ( ,pisa 9 #aedc2 ! second 0 t ( ,padua 9 #aede2 ! next1 t ( ,flor5ce 9 #aeef2 ! f\r?1 t ( ,bologna1 #aefh2 t ( ,rome1 9 ! ,vatican1 dates also f #aefh4 ,! fir/ transalp9e g>d5 ( ?is k9d arose at ,leyd5 9 #aegg2 t ( ,leipzig 9 #aehj4 ,h5ry ! ,f\r? ( ,france e/abli%$ "o at ,montpelli] 9 #aeig4 ,sev]al o!rs 7 in/itut$ 9 ,g]many2 b t ( ,p>is did n beg9 to exi/ till #afbf2 t ( ,upsal1 aft]w>ds s celebrat$1 took its rise 9 #afeg1 t ( ,am/]dam 9 #afhd4 ,morison1 :om we %all soon h to m5tion1 calls himself1 9 #afhj1 ! fir/ ,director ( ! ,botanical ,g>d5 at ,ox=d4 #bnd ,ed4 ,to :at is above said ( ,botanical ,g>d5s & ,botanical ,writ]s1 betwe5 ! times ( ,csalp9us & ,morison1 ,i may add a few circum/ances4 ,! fir/ academical g>d5 9 ,france 0 t at ,montpelli]1 :i* 0 e/abli%$ by ,pet] ,ri*i] de ,belleval1 at ! end ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,ab\t ! same p]iod1 r>e fl[]s 7 cultivat$ at ,p>is1 & pictures ( !m made1 9 ord] to supply ! embroid]]s ( ! c\rt-robes ) new patt]ns4 ,?us figures ( ! mo/ beautiful fl[]s 9 ! g>d5 ( ,pet] ,rob9s 7 publi%$ by ! c\rt-embroid]] ,pet] ,vallet1 9 #afjh1 "u ! title ( ,le ,j>d9 du ,roi ,h5ry ,,iv4 ,b ,rob9s' works 7 ( great s]vice to botany2 & 8 g>d5 assi/$ ! /udies ( ,r5ealmus 7,paul ,r5eaulme71 ^: ,specim5 ,hi/ori ,plant>um 7,p>is1 #afaa71 is highly spok5 ( by ! be/ botani/s4 ,rec5tly1 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,br[n has nam$ aft] him a new g5us ( ,iride 7,,r5ealmia72 add+1 ,dixi 9 memoriam ,,pauli ,,r5ealmi1 botanici sui vi accuratissimi1 atque /am9um primi scrutatoris2 qui non modo eorum num]um et situm1 s$ etiam filam5torum proportionem passim descripsit1 et *>act]em tetradynamicum siliquos>um p]spexit4 7,prodromus ,flor ,nov ,holl&i1 p4 #ddh47 ,! olde/ ,botanical ,g>d5 9 ,engl& is t at ,hampton ,c\rt1 f\nd$ by ,que5 ,elizabe?1 & mu* enri*$ by ,*>les ,,ii4 & ,william ,,iii4 7,spr5gel1 ,ges*4 d4 ,bot4 vol4 ii4 p4 #if47 ,9 ! mean "t1 al?\gh !re appe>$ no new sy/em :i* #cha comm&$ ! att5tion ( ! botanical _w1 ! feel+ ( ! importance ( ! aff9ities ( plants became cont9ually m /rong & di/9ct4 ,lobel1 :o 0 botani/ to ,james ! ,fir/1 & :o publi%$ 8 ,/irpium ,adv]s>ia ,nova 9 #aega1 br+s toge!r ! natural families ( plants m di/9ctly ?an 8 pr$ecessors1 & ev5 di/+ui%es 7z ,cuvi] /ates1#fgaf7 monocotyl$on\s f dicotyl$on\s plants2 "o ( ! mo/ compreh5sive division-l9es ( botany1 ( :i* succe$+ times discov]$ ! value m completely4 ,fabius ,columna1#fhaf 9 #afaf1 gave figures ( ! fructification ( plants on copp]1 z ,gessn] _h be=e done on wood4 ,b ! eld] ,bauh9 7,john71 not)/&+ all t ,csalp9us _h done1 retrograd$1 9 a "w publi%$ 9 #afai1 into ! less precise & sci5tific di/9ctions (--trees ) nuts2 ) b]ries2 ) acorns2 ) pods2 creep+ plants1 g\rds1 c43 & no cle> progress t[>ds a sy/em 0 any:]e visible among ! au?ors ( ?is p]iod4 ,note #fgaf3 ,cuv4 ,leons1 c4 #aih4 ,note #fhaf3 ,ib4 #bjf4 ,:ile ?is cont9u$ to be ! case1 & :ile ! mat]ials1 ?us de/itute ( ord]1 w5t on accumulat+1 x 0 inevitable t ! evils :i* ,csalp9us _h endeavor$ to rem$y1 %\ld become m & m griev\s4 ,! nom5clature ( ! subject#fiaf 0 9 su* disord]1 x 0 s impossible to det]m9e ) c]ta9ty ! plants spok5 ( by prec$+ writ]s1 t ?irty or =ty diff]5t botani/s _h giv5 to ! same plant almo/ z _m diff]5t names4 ,bauh9 call$ by "o appellation1 a species :i* ,lobel or ,ma!oli designat$ by ano!r4 ,!re 0 an actual *aos1 a univ]sal confusion1 9 :i* x 0 impossible = m5 to f9d _! way4 ,we c ! bett] und]/& su* a /ate ( ?+s1 f hav+1 9 our own "t1 se5 ano!r classificatory sci5ce1 ,m9]alogy1 9 ! v condition ?us describ$4 ,= su* a /ate ( confusion !re is no rem$y b ! e/abli%m5t ( a true sy/em ( classification2 :i* by its real f\ndation r5d]s a reason = ! place ( ea* species2 & :i*1 by ! fixity ( its classes1 af=ds a basis = a /&>d nom5clature1 z f9ally took place 9 ,botany4 ,b be=e su* a rem$y is obta9$1 m5 naturally try to alleviate ! evil by tabulat+ ! synonyms ( diff]5t writ]s1 z f> z !y are able to d s4 ,! task ( con/ruct+ su* a ,synonymy ( botany at ! p]iod ( :i* we speak1 0 und]tak5 by ,gasp>d ,bauh91 ! bro!r ( ,john1 b n9ete5 ye>s y\ng]4 ,?is "w1 ! ,p9ax ,!atri ,botanici1 0 pr9t$ #chb at ,basil 9 #afbc4 ,x 0 a useful und]tak+ at ! "t2 b ! want ( any g5u9e ord] 9 ! ,p9ax itself1 r5d]$ x impossible t x %\ld be ( great p]man5t utility4 ,note #fiaf3 ,ib4 #bab4 ,aft] ?is p]iod1 ! progress ( almo/ all ! sci5ces became languid = a :ile2 & "o reason ( ?is int]ruption 01 ! w>s & tr\bles :i* prevail$ ov] almo/ ! :ole ( ,europe4 ,! qu>rels ( ,*>les ! ,fir/ & 8 p>liam5t1 ! civil w>s & ! usurpation1 9 ,engl&2 9 ,france1 ! w> ( ! ,league1 ! /ormy reign ( ,h5ry ! ,f\r?1 ! civil w>s ( ! m9ority ( ,l\is ! ,?irte5?1 ! w> aga9/ ! ,prote/ants & ! w> ( ! ,fronde 9 ! m9ority ( ,l\is ! ,f\rte5?2 ! bloody & de/ructive ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> 9 ,g]many2 ! w> ( ,spa9 ) ! ,unit$ ,prov9ces & ) ,portugal2--all ^! dire agitations left m5 nei!r leisure nor disposition to direct _! be/ ?\ghts to ! promotion ( sci5ce4 ,! bas] spirits 7 brutaliz$2 ! bett] 7 occupi$ by high practical aims & /ruggles ( _! moral nature4 ,amid su* /orms1 ! intellectual p[]s ( man c\ld n "w ) _! due calmness1 nor 8 intellectual objects %9e ) _! prop] lu/re4 ,at l5g? a p]iod ( great] tranquillity gleam$ =?1 & ! sci5ces soon exp&$ 9 ! sun%9e4 ,botany 0 n in]t amid ?is activity1 & rapidly advanc$ 9 a new direction1 t ( physiology2 b be=e we speak ( ?is portion ( our subject1 we mu/ complete :at we h to say ( x z a classificatory sci5ce4 ,sect4 #d4--,sequel to ! ,epo* ( ,csalp9us4 ,fur!r ,=mation & ,adoption ( ,sy/ematic ,arrangem5t4 ,,soon aft] ! p]iod ( :i* we n[ speak1 t ( ! re/oration ( ! ,/u>ts to ! ?rone ( ,engl&1 sy/ematic arrangem5ts ( plants appe>$ 9 great numb]s2 & 9 a mann] su* z to %[ t ! m9ds ( botani/s _h gradually be5 rip5+ = ?is improvem5t1 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( prec$+ writ]s1 & ! gr[+ acqua9tance ) plants4 ,! p]son ^: "n is usually plac$ fir/ on ?is li/1 ,rob]t ,morison1 appe>s to me to be mu* less m]itori\s ?an _m ( ^? :o publi%$ v %ortly aft] him2 b ,i w give him ! prec$5ce 9 my n>rative4 ,he 0 a ,scot*man1 :o 0 w\nd$ fight+ on ! royali/ side 9 ! civil w>s ( ,engl&4 ,on ! triumph ( ! republicans1 he )drew to ,france1 :5 he became director ( ! g>d5 ( ,ga/on1 ,duke ( ,orlans at ,blois2 & !re he came "u ! notice ( our ,*>les #chc ! ,second2 :o1 on 8 re/oration1 summon$ ,morison to ,engl&1 :]e he became ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,royal ,g>d5s1 & also ( ! ,botanic ,g>d5 at ,ox=d4 ,9 #affi1 he publi%$ ,rem>ks on ! ,mi/akes ( ! two ,bauh9s1 9 :i* he proves t _m plants 9 ! ,p9ax are errone\sly plac$1 & %[s consid]able tal5t = appreciat+ natural families & g5]a4 ,8 great sy/ematic "w appe>$ f ! ,univ]sity press at ,ox=d 9 #afhj4 ,x conta9s a sy/em1 b a sy/em1 ,cuvi] says1#gjaf :i* approa*es r to a natural me?od ?an to a rigor\s di/ribution1 l t ( 8 pr$ecessor ,csalp9us1 or t ( 8 successor ,ray4 ,?us ! h]bace\s plants are divid$ into climb]s1 legum9\s1 siliquose1 unicapsal>1 bicapsul>1 tricapsul>1 quadricapsul>1 qu9quecapsul>2 ?is division be+ comb9$ ) *>act]s d]iv$ f ! numb] ( petals4 ,b along ) ^! num]ical elem5ts1 are introduc$ o!rs ( a loose & het]og5e\s k9d1 = in/ance1 ! classification ( h]bs z lactesc5t & emolli5t4 ,x is n unreasonable to say1 t su* a s*eme %[s no tal5t = con/ruct+ a complete sy/em2 & t ! mo/ di/9ct "p ( x1 t dep5d5t on ! fruit1 0 probably borr[$ f ,csalp9us4 ,t ?is is s1 we h1 ,i ?9k1 /rong pro(2 = ?\gh ,morison n[h]e1 ,i believe1 m5tions ,csalp9us1 except 9 "o place 9 a loose enum]ation ( botanical writ]s1#gaaf he mu/ h made consid]able use ( 8 "w4 ,= he has introduc$ into 8 own preface a passage copi$ lit]ally#gbaf f ! d$ication ( ,csalp9us2 :i* passage we h already quot$ 7p4 #cgd17 beg9n+1 ,s9ce all sci5ce consi/s 9 ! collection ( simil>1 & ! di/9ction ( dissimil> ?+s4 ,& t ! m5tion ( ! orig9al is n omitt$ by accid5t1 appe>s f ?is2 t ,morison appropriates also ! conclusion ( ! passage1 :i* has a p]sonal ref]5ce1 ,conatus sum id pr/>e 9 univ]sa plant>um hi/oria1 ut si quid pro +5ii mei t5uitate 9 hujusmodi /udio pr(ec]im1 ad communem utilitatem pr(]rem4 ,t ,morison1 ?us1 at s long an int]val aft] ! publication ( ! "w ( ,csalp9us1 borr[$ f him )\t ackn[l$gem5t1 & adopt$ 8 sy/em s z to mutilate x1 proves t he _h nei!r ! temp] nor ! tal5t ( a discov]]2 & ju/ifies u )hold+ f him ! cr$it :i* belongs to ^?1 :o1 9 8 "t1 resum$ ! great und]tak+ ( con/ruct+ a vegetable sy/em4 ,note #gjaf3 ,cuv4 ,leons1 c4 p4 #dhf4 ,note #gaaf3 ,pref4 p4 i4 ,note #gbaf3 ,ib4 p4 ii4 ,among ^? ^: ef=ts 9 ?is way _h ! greate/ & e>lie/ #chd influ5ce1 0 und\bt$ly our c\ntryman1 ,john ,ray1 :o 0 ,fell[ ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,cambridge1 at ! same "t ) ,isaac ,newton4 ,b ?\gh ,cuvi] /ates#gcaf t ,ray 0 ! model ( ! sy/emati/s dur+ ! :ole ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 ! ,g]mans claim a "p ( 8 m]it = "o ( _! c\ntrym51 ,joa*im ,jung1 ( ,lubeck1 pr(essor at ,hamburg4#gdaf ,conc]n+ ! pr9ciples ( ?is botani/1 little 0 kn[n dur+ 8 life4 ,b a manuscript ( 8 book 0 communicat$#geaf to ,ray 9 #affj1 & f ?is "t =w>ds1 says ,spr5gel1 !re might be notic$ 9 ! writ+s ( ,engli%m51 ^? bett] & cle>] views to :i* ,jung's pr9ciples gave bir?4 ,five ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,jung1 8 ,doxoscopia ,physica 0 publi%$1 9 #affb2 & 9 #afgh1 8 ,isagoge ,phytoscopica4 ,b nei!r ( ^! works 0 ev] mu* read2 & ev5 ,l9nu1 :om few ?+s escap$ :i* conc]n$ botany1 _h1 9 #agga1 se5 none ( ,jung's works4 ,note #gcaf3 ,leons ,hi/4 ,sc4 p4 #dhg4 ,note #gdaf3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #bg4 ,note #geaf3 ,ray ackn[l$ges ?is 9 8 ,index ,plant4 ,agri ,cantab4 p4 #hg1 & quotes f x ! def9ition ( caulis4 ,i "h pass ov] ,jung's improvem5ts ( botanical language1 & speak only ( ^? :i* he is ass]t$ to h sugge/$ 9 ! arrangem5t ( plants4 ,he exam9es1 says ,spr5gel1#gfaf ! value ( *>act]s ( species1 :i*1 he holds1 mu/ n be tak5 f ! ?orns1 nor f color1 ta/e1 smell1 m$ic9al effects1 "t & place ( blossom+4 ,he %[s1 9 num]\s examples1 :at plants mu/ be sep>at$1 ?\gh call$ by a common "n1 & :at mo/ be unit$1 ?\gh _! names are sev]al4 ,note #gfaf3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #bi4 ,i d n see 9 ?is mu* t int]f]es ) ! orig9ality ( ,ray's me?od1#ggaf ( :i*1 9 consequ5ce ( ! importance ascrib$ to x by ,cuvi]1 z we h already se51 ,i %all give an acc\nt1 foll[+ t great naturali/4#ghaf ,i conf9e myself to ! ord9>y plants1 & omit ! m obscure vegetables1 z mu%rooms1 mosses1 f]ns1 & ! l4 ,note #ggaf3 ,me?odus ,plant>um ,nova1 #afhb4 ,hi/oria ,plant>um1 #afhf4 ,note #ghaf3 ,cuv4 ,leons ,hi/4 ,sc4 #dhh4 ,su* plants are composite or simple4 ,! composite fl[]s are ^? :i* conta9 _m florets 9 ! same calyx4#giaf ,^! are subdivid$ accord+ z !y are compos$ altoge!r ( complete florets1 #che or ( half florets1 or ( a c5tre ( complete florets1 surr\nd$ by a circumf]5ce or ray ( demi-florets4 ,su* are ! divisions ( ! corymbif]1 or composit4 ,note #giaf3 ,involucrum1 9 mod]n t]m9ology4 ,9 ! simple fl[]s1 ! se$s are nak$1 or 9 a p]ic>p4 ,^? ) nak$ se$s are arrang$ accord+ to ! numb] ( ! se$s1 :i* may be "o1 two1 ?ree1 f\r1 or m4 ,if !re is only "o1 no subdivision is requisite3 if !re are two1 ,ray makes a subdivision1 accord+ z ! fl[] has five petals1 or a cont9u\s corolla4 ,"h we come to sev]al natural families4 ,?us1 ! fl[]s ) two se$s & five petals are ! ,umbellif]\s plants2 ! monopetal\s fl[]s ) two se$s are ! ,/ellat4 ,he f\nds ! division ( f\r-se$$ fl[]s on ! circum/ance ( ! leaves be+ opposite1 or alt]nate2 & ?us aga91 we h ! natural families ( ,asp]ifoli1 z ,e*ium1 c41 :i* h ! leaves alt]nate1 & ! ,v]ticillat1 z ,salvia1 9 :i* ! leaves are opposite4 ,:5 ! fl[] has m ?an f\r se$s1 he makes no subdivision4 ,s mu* = simple fl[]s ) nak$ se$s4 ,9 ^? :]e ! se$s are surr\nd$ by a p]ic>p1 or fruit1 ?is fruit is l>ge1 s(t1 & fle%y1 & ! plants are pomif]\s2 or x is small & juicy1 & ! fruit is a b]ry1 z a ,gooseb]ry4 ,if ! fruit is n juicy1 b dry1 x is multiple or simple4 ,if x be simple1 we h ! legum9ose plants4 ,if x be multiple1 ! =m ( ! fl[] is to be att5d$ to4 ,! fl[] may be monopetal\s1 or tetrapetal\s1 or p5tapetal\s1 or ) /ill m divisions4 ,! monopetal\s may be regul> or irregul>2 s may ! tetrapetal\s4 ,! regul> tetrapetal\s fl[]s are1 = example1 ! ,crucif]1 z ,/ock & ,caulifl[]2 ! irregul>1 are ! papilionace\s plants1 ,peas1 ,beans1 & ,vet*es2 & ?us we aga9 come to natural families4 ,! rema9+ plants are divid$ 9 ! same way1 into ^? ) imp]fect1 & ^? ) p]fect1 fl[]s4 ,^? ) imp]fect fl[]s are ! ,grasses1 ! ,ru%es 7,junci71 & ! l2 among ^? ) p]fect fl[]s1 are ! ,palmace1 & ! ,liliace4 ,we see t ! division ( plants is complete z a sy/em2 all fl[]s mu/ belong to "o or o!r ( ! divisions4 ,fully to expla9 ! *>act]s & fur!r subdivisions ( ^! families1 w\ld be to write a treatise on botany2 b x is easily se5 t !y exhau/ ! subject z f> z !y g4 ,?us ,ray con/ruct$ 8 sy/em p>tly on ! fruit & p>tly on ! fl[]2 or m prop]ly1 accord+ to ! expression ( ,l9nu1 #chf comp>+ 8 e>li] ) 8 lat] sy/em1 he began by be+ a fructici/1 & end$ by be+ a corolli/4#hjaf ,note #hjaf3 ,ray 0 a mo/ indu/ri\s h]baliz]1 & ,i _c und]/& on :at gr\nd ,mirbel ass]ts 7,physiol4 ,veg41 tom4 ii4 p4 #eca17 t he 0 bett] acqua9t$ ) books ?an ) plants4 ,z we h said1 a numb] ( sy/ems ( arrangem5t ( plants 7 publi%$ ab\t ?is "t1 "s f\nd$ on ! fruit1 "s on ! corolla1 "s on ! calyx1 & ^! employ$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,riv9us#haaf 7^: real "n 0 ,ba*man17 classifi$ by ! fl[] alone2 in/ead ( comb9+ x ) ! fruit1 z ,ray _h done4#hbaf ,he _h ! fur!r m]it ( be+ ! fir/ :o reject$ ! old division1 ( woody & h]bace\s plants2 a division :i*1 ?\gh at v>iance ) any sy/em f\nd$ ^u ! /ructure ( ! plants 0 employ$ ev5 by ,t\rne=t1 & only f9ally expell$ by ,l9nu4 ,note #haaf3 ,cuv4 ,leons1 #dia4 ,note #hbaf3 ,hi/oria ,g5]alis ad rem ,h]b>iam1 #afij4 ,x w\ld ?r[ little light ^u ! hi/ory ( botany1 especially = our purpose1 to dwell on ! peculi>ities ( ^! transitory sy/ems4 ,l9nu1#hcaf aft] 8 mann]1 has giv5 a classification ( !m4 ,riv9us1 z we h j se51 0 a corolli/1 accord+ to ! regul>ity & numb] ( ! petals2 ,h]mann 0 a fructici/4 ,*ri/oph] ,knaut#hdaf adopt$ ! sy/em ( ,ray1 b inv]t$ ! ord] ( its p>ts2 ,*ri/ian ,knaut did ne>ly ! same ) reg>d to t ( ,riv9us1 tak+ numb] be=e regul>ity 9 ! fl[]4#heaf ,note #hcaf3 ,philos4 ,bot4 p4 #ba4 ,note #hdaf3 ,enum]atio ,plant>um1 c41 #afhg4 ,note #heaf3 ,l9n4 ,( ! sy/ems :i* prevail$ previ\s to t ( ,l9nu1 ,t\rne=t's 0 by f> ! mo/ g5]ally accept$4 ,joseph ,pitton de ,t\rne=t 0 ( a noble family 9 ,prov5ce1 & 0 appo9t$ pr(essor at ! ,j>d9 du ,roi 9 #afhc4 ,8 well-kn[n travels 9 ! ,levant are int]e/+ on o!r subjects1 z well z botany4 ,8 ,in/itutio ,rei ,h]b>i1 publi%$ 9 #agjj1 conta9s 8 me?od1 :i* is t ( a corolli/4 ,he is guid$ by ! regul>ity or irregul>ity ( ! fl[]s1 by _! =m1 & by ! situation ( ! receptacle ( ! se$s bel[ ! calyx1 or )9 x4 ,?us 8 classes are--^? 9 :i* ! fl[]s are campani=m1 or bell-%ap$2 ^? 9 :i* !y are infundibuli=m1 or funnel-%ap$1 z ,tobacco2 !n ! irregul> fl[]s1 z ! ,p]sonat1 :i* resemble an anci5t mask2 ! ,labiat1 ) _! two lips2 ! ,cruci=m2 ! ,rosace1 ) fl[]s l a rose2 ! ,umbellif]2 ! ,c>yophylle1 z ! #chg ,p9k2 ! ,liliace1 ) six petals1 z ! ,tulip1 ,n>cissus1 ,hyac9?1 ,lily2 ! ,papilionace1 :i* are legum9\s plants1 ! fl[] ( :i* resembles a butt]fly1 z ,peas & ,beans2 & f9ally1 ! ,anomal\s1 z ,violet1 ,na/urtium1 & o!rs4 ,?\gh ?is sy/em 0 f\nd to be attractive1 z dep5d+1 9 an evid5t way1 on ! mo/ conspicu\s "p ( ! plant1 ! fl[]1 x is easy to see t x 0 mu* less def9ite ?an sy/ems l t ( ,riv9us1 ,h]mann1 & ,ray1 :i* 7 gov]n$ by numb]4 ,b ,t\rne=t succe$$ 9 giv+ to ! *>act]s ( g5]a a degree ( rigor nev] be=e atta9$1 & ab/ract$ !m 9 a sep>ate =m4 ,we h already se5 t ! reception ( botanical ,sy/ems has dep5d$ mu* on _! arrangem5t into ,g5]a4 ,t\rne=t's success 0 also mu* promot$ by ! au?or ins]t+ 9 8 "w a figure ( a fl[] & fruit belong+ to ea* g5us2 & ! figures1 drawn by ,aubriet1 7 ( great m]it4 ,! /udy ( botany 0 ?us r5d]$ easy1 = x c\ld be le>n$ by turn+ ov] ! leaves ( a book4 ,9 spite ( v>i\s defects1 ^! advantages gave ?is writ] an asc5dancy :i* la/$1 f #agjj1 :5 8 book appe>$1 = m ?an half a c5tury4 ,= ?\gh ,l9nu began to publi% 9 #agce1 8 me?od & 8 nom5clature 7 n g5]ally adopt$ till #agfj4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,re=m ,,( ,,l9n,,u4 ,sect4 #a4--;,introduction ( ! ,re=m4 ,,al?\gh1 p]haps1 no man ( sci5ce ev] ex]cis$ a great] sway ?an ,l9nu1 or _h m en?usia/ic admir]s1 ! mo/ intellig5t botani/s always speak ( him1 n z a great discov]]1 b z a judici\s & /r5u\s ,re=m]4 ,inde$1 9 8 own li/s ( botanical writ]s1 he places himself among ! ,re=matores2 & x is app>5t t ?is is ! nature ( 8 real claim to admiration2 = ! doctr9e ( ! sexes ( plants1 ev5 if he _h be5 ! fir/ to e/abli% x1 0 a po9t ( botanical physiology1 a prov9ce ( ! #chh sci5ce :i* no "o w\ld select z ! peculi> field ( ,l9nu's glory2 & ! =mation ( a sy/em ( arrangem5t on ! basis ( ?is doctr9e1 ?\gh att5d$ ) _m advantages1 0 n an improvem5t ( any high] ord] ?an ^? introduc$ by ,ray & ,t\rne=t4 ,b z a ,re=m] ( ! /ate ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 8 "t1 ,l9nu 0 admirable = 8 skill1 & unp>allel$ 9 8 success4 ,& we h already se51 9 ! in/ance ( ! re=m ( m9]alogy1 z attempt$ by ,mohs & ,b]zelius1 t m5 ( great tal5ts & k may fail 9 su* an und]tak+4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 only by means ( ! k :i* he displays1 & ( ! beauty & conv5i5ce ( ! improvem5ts :i* he proposes1 t any "o c acquire su* an influ5ce z to procure 8 sugge/ions to be adopt$4 ,& ev5 if orig9al circum/ances ( bir? or position c\ld inve/ any "o ) peculi> pr]ogatives & p[]s 9 ! republic ( sci5ce1 ,k>l ,l9n began 8 c>e] ) no su* advantages4 ,8 fa!r 0 a poor curate 9 ,smal&1 a prov9ce ( ,sw$52 8 boyhood 0 sp5t 9 pov]ty & privation2 x 0 ) great difficulty t1 at ! age ( tw5ty-"o1 he contriv$ to subsi/ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,upsal1 :i!r a /rong passion = natural hi/ory _h urg$ him4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 he 0 s f> =tunate1 t ,olaus ,rudbeck1 ! pr(essor ( botany1 committ$ to him ! c>e ( ! ,botanic ,g>d54#hfaf ,! p]usal ( ! works ( ,vaillant & ,patrick ,blair sugge/$ to him ! idea ( an arrangem5t ( plants1 =m$ ^u ! sexual organs1 ! /am5s & pi/ils2 & ( su* an arrangem5t he publi%$ a sket* 9 #agca1 at ! age ( tw5ty-f\r4 ,note #hfaf3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #bcb4 ,b we mu/ g =w>ds a few ye>s 9 8 life1 to come to ! p]iod to :i* 8 mo/ important works belong4 ,univ]sity & family qu>rels induc$ him to travel2 &1 aft] v>i\s *anges ( sc5e1 he 0 settl$ 9 ,holl&1 z ! curator ( ! spl5did botanical g>d5 ( ,george ,clif=d1 an opul5t bank]4 ,"h x 0#hgaf t he laid ! f\ndation ( 8 future greatness4 ,9 ! two ye>s ( 8 resid5ce at ,h>lecamp1 he publi%$ n9e works4 ,! fir/1 ! ,sy/ema ,natur1 :i* conta9$ a compreh5sive sket* ( ! :ole doma9 ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 excit$ g5]al a/oni%m5t1 by ! acut5ess ( ! obs]vations1 ! happy tal5t ( comb9ation1 & ! cle>ness ( ! sy/ematic views4 ,su* a "w c\ld n fail to procure consid]able respect = its au?or4 ,8 ,hortus ,clif=tiana #chi & ,musa ,clif=tiana add$ to ?is impression4 ,! weight :i* he _h ?us acquir$1 he proce$$ to use = ! improvem5t ( botany4 ,8 ,fundam5ta ,botanica & ,biblio!ca ,botanica appe>$ 9 #agcf2 8 ,critica ,botanica & ,g5]a ,plant>um 9 #agcg2 8 ,classes ,plant>um 9 #agch2 8 ,species ,plant>um 0 n publi%$ till #agec2 & all ^! works appe>$ 9 _m successive editions1 mat]ially modifi$4 ,note #hgaf3 ,ibid4 #bcd4 ,?is circulation ( 8 works %[$ t 8 labors 7 produc+ _! effect4 ,8 reputation grew2 & he 0 soon enabl$ to ex]t a p]sonal1 z well z a lit]>y1 influ5ce1 on /ud5ts ( natural hi/ory4 ,he became ,botani/ ,royal1 ,presid5t ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces at ,/ockholm1 & ,pr(essor 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,upsal2 & ?is (fice he held = ?irty-six ye>s ) unrivall$ cr$it2 ex]cis+1 by means ( 8 lectures1 8 con/ant publications1 & 8 conv]sation1 an extraord9>y p[] ov] a multitude ( zeal\s naturali/s1 belong+ to e "p ( ! _w4 ,9 ord] to und]/& m cle>ly ! nature & effect ( ! re=ms introduc$ by ,l9nu into botany1 ,i %all consid] !m "u ! f\r foll[+ heads2--,t]m9ology1 ,nom5clature1 ,artificial ,sy/em1 & ,natural ,sy/em4 ,sect4 #b4--,l9nan ,re=m ( ,botanical ,t]m9ology4 ,,x mu/ be recollect$ t ,i designate z ,t]m9ology1 ! sy/em ( t]ms employ$ 9 ! description ( objects ( natural hi/ory2 :ile by ,nom5clature1 ,i mean ! collection ( ! names ( species4 ,! re=m ( ! descriptive "p ( botany 0 "o ( ! tasks fir/ attempt$ by ,l9nu2 & 8 t]m9ology 0 ! in/rum5t by :i* 8 o!r improvem5ts 7 effect$4 ,?\gh mo/ read]s1 probably1 ent]ta91 at fir/1 a p]suasion t a writ] ought to cont5t himself ) ! use ( common words 9 _! common s5se1 & feel a repugnance to te*nical t]ms & arbitr>y rules ( phraseology1 z p$antic & tr\blesome2 x is soon f\nd1 by ! /ud5t ( any bran* ( sci5ce t1 )\t te*nical t]ms & fix$ rules1 !re c be no c]ta9 or progressive k4 ,! loose & infant9e grasp ( common language _c hold objects /eadily en\gh = sci5tific exam9ation1 or lift !m f "o /age ( g5]alization to ano!r4 ,!y mu/ be secur$ by ! rigid me*anism ( a sci5tific phraseology4 ,?is necessity _h be5 felt 9 all ! sci5ces1 f ! e>lie/ p]iods ( _! progress4 ,b ! #cij conviction _h nev] be5 act$ ^u s z to produce a di/9ct & adequate descriptive botanical language4 ,jung1 inde$1#hhaf _h already attempt$ to give rules & precepts :i* %\ld answ] ?is purpose2 b x 0 n till ! ,fundam5ta ,botanica appe>$1 t ! sci5ce c\ld be said to possess a fix$ & complete t]m9ology4 ,note #hhaf3 ,isagoge ,phytoscopica1 #afgi4 ,to give an acc\nt ( su* a t]m9ology1 is1 9 fact1 to give a description ( a diction>y & gramm>1 & is !re=e :at _c "h be done 9 detail4 ,l9nu's "w conta9s ab\t a ?\s& t]ms ( :i* ! mean+ & application are di/9ctly expla9$2 & rules are giv51 by :i*1 9 ! use ( su* t]ms1 ! botani/ may avoid all obscurity1 ambiguity1 unnecess>y prolixity & complexity1 & ev5 inelegance & b>b>ism4 ,( c\rse ! great] "p ( ! words :i* ,l9nu ?us recogniz$ _h previ\sly exi/$ 9 botanical writ]s2 & _m ( !m _h be5 def9$ ) te*nical precision4 ,?us ,jung#hiaf _h already expla9$ :at 0 a composite1 :at a p9nate leaf2 :at k9d ( a bun* ( fl[]s is a spike1 a panicle1 an umbel1 a corymb1 respectively4 ,l9nu ext5d$ su* di/9ctions1 reta9+ complete cle>ness 9 _! sep>ation4 ,?us1 ) him1 composite leaves are fur!r di/+ui%$ z digitate1 p9nate1 bip9nate1 p$ate1 & s on2 p9nate leaves are abruptly s1 or ) an odd "o1 or ) a t5dril2 !y are p9nate oppositely1 alt]nately1 int]rupt$ly1 articulately1 decursively4 ,aga91 ! infloresc5ce1 z ! mode ( assemblage ( ! fl[]s is call$1 may be a tuft 7fasciculus71 a head 7capitulum71 a clu/] 7racemus71 a bun* 7?yrsus71 a panicle1 a spike1 a catk9 7am5tum71 a corymb1 an umbel1 a cyme1 a :orl 7v]ticillus74 ,& ! rules :i* he gives1 ?\gh (t5 app>5tly arbitr>y & ne$less1 are f\nd1 9 practice1 to be ( great s]vice by _! fixity & connexion4 ,by ! good =tune ( hav+ _h a tea*] ) s mu* delicacy ( ta/e z ,l9nu1 9 a situation ( s mu* influ5ce1 ,botany possesses a descriptive language :i* w long /& z a model = all o!r subjects4 ,note #hiaf3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #bh4 ,x may1 p]haps1 appe> to "s p]sons1 t su* a t]m9ology z we h "h describ$ mu/ be enorm\sly cumbr\s2 & t1 s9ce ! t]ms are arbitr>ily inve/$ ) _! mean+1 ! inv5tion ( !m requires no k ( nature4 ,) respect to ! =m] d\bt1 we may obs]ve1 t te*nical description is1 9 reality1 ! only description :i* is cle>ly intelligible2 b t te*nical language _c be und]/ood )\t be+ le>nt z any o!r #cia language is le>nt2 t is1 ! read] mu/ connect ! t]ms imm$iately ) 8 own s5sations & notions1 & n m$iately1 ?r\gh a v]bal explanation2 he mu/ n h to guess _! mean+1 or to discov] x by a sep>ate act ( int]pretation into m famili> language z (t5 z !y occur4 ,! language ( botany mu/ be ! botani/'s mo/ famili> tongue4 ,:5 ! /ud5t has ?us le>nt to ?9k 9 botanical language1 x is no idle di/9ction to tell him t a bun* ( grapes is n a clu/]2 t is1 a ?yrsus n a raceme4 ,& ! t]m9ology ( botany is !n felt to be a useful implem5t1 n an oppressive burd54 ,x is only ! s*oolboy t compla9s ( ! irksom5ess ( 8 gramm> & vocabul>y4 ,! accompli%$ /ud5t possesses !m )\t ef=t or inconv5i5ce4 ,z to ! o!r "q1 :e!r ! con/ruction ( su* a botanical gramm> & vocabul>y implies an ext5sive & accurate acqua9tance ) ! facts ( nature1 no "o c d\bt :o is famili> ) any descriptive sci5ce4 ,x is true1 t a p]son might con/ruct an arbitr>y s*eme ( di/9ctions & appellations1 ) no att5tion to natural objects2 & ?is is :at %all[ & self-confid5t p]sons (t5 set ab\t do+1 9 "s bran* ( k ) :i* !y are imp]fectly acqua9t$4 ,b ! slighte/ attempt to use su* a phraseology leads to confusion2 & any cont9u$ use ( x leads to its demolition4 ,l a g>m5t :i* does n fit u1 if we attempt to "w 9 x we te> x 9 pieces4 ,! =mation ( a good descriptive language is1 9 fact1 an inductive process ( ! same k9d z ^? :i* we h already notic$ 9 ! progress ( natural hi/ory4 ,x requires ! discov]y ( fix$ *>act]s1 :i* discov]y is to be m>k$ & fix$1 l o!r inductive /eps1 by appropriate te*nical t]ms4 ,! *>act]s mu/ be s f> fix$1 t ! ?+s :i* !y connect mu/ h a m p]man5t & real association ?an ! ?+s :i* !y leave unconnect$4 ,if "o bun* ( grapes 7 really a racemus1 & ano!r a ?yrsus1 accord+ to ! def9ition ( ^! t]ms1 ?is "p ( ! ,l9nan language w\ld lose its value2 because x w\ld no long] enable u to ass]t a g5]al proposition ) respect to "o k9d ( plants4 ,sect4 #c4--,l9nan ,re=m ( ,botanical ,nom5clature4 ,,9 ! anci5t writ]s ea* recogniz$ k9d ( plants _h a di/9ct "n4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ,g5]a l$ to ! practice ( designat+ #cib ,species by ! "n ( ! g5us1 ) ! addition ( a phrase to di/+ui% ! species4 ,^! phrases1 7express$ 9 ,lat9 9 ! ablative case17 7 su* z n only to m>k1 b to describe ! species1 & 7 int5d$ to conta9 su* features ( ! plant z 7 suffici5t to di/+ui% x f o!rs ( ! same g5us4 ,b 9 ?is way ! designation ( a plant (t5 became a long & inconv5i5t assemblage ( words4 ,?us diff]5t k9ds ( ,rose 7 describ$ z1 ,rosa campe/ris1 sp9is c>5s1 biflora 7,rosa alp9a47 ,rosa aculeata1 foliis odoratis subtus rubig9osis 7,r4 eglant]ia47 ,rosa c>ol9a fragrans1 foliis m$io t5us s]ratis 7,r4 c>ol9a47 ,rosa sylve/ris vulg>is1 flore odorato inc>nato 7,r4 can9a47 ,& sev]al o!rs4 ,! prolixity ( ^! appellations1 _! v>iety 9 e diff]5t au?or1 ! insuffici5cy & confusion ( ! di/9ctions :i* !y conta9$1 7 felt z extreme inconv5i5ces4 ,! attempt ( ,bauh9 to rem$y ?is evil by a ,synonymy1 _h1 z we h se51 fail$ at ! "t1 = want ( any direct+ pr9ciple2 & 0 become /ill m defective by ! lapse ( ye>s & ! accumulation ( fre% k & new books4 ,hall] _h propos$ to di/+ui% ! species ( ea* g5us by ! numb]s #a1 #b1 #c1 & s on2 b botani/s f\nd t _! memory c\ld n deal ) su* arbitr>y ab/ractions4 ,! ne$ ( "s bett] nom5clature 0 sev]ely felt4 ,! rem$y :i* ,l9nu f9ally introduc$ 0 ! use ( trivial names2 t is1 ! designation ( ea* species by ! "n ( ! g5us along ) a s+le conv5tional ^w1 impos$ )\t any g5]al rule4 ,su* names are add$ above 9 p>5!ses1 to ! specim5s ( ! names previ\sly 9 use4 ,b ?\gh ?is rem$y 0 f\nd to be complete & satisfactory1 & is n[ univ]sally adopt$ 9 e bran* ( natural hi/ory1 x 0 n "o ( ! re=ms :i* ,l9nu at fir/ propos$4 ,p]haps he did n at fir/ see its full value2 or1 if he did1 we may suppose t x requir$ m self-confid5ce ?an he possess$1 to set himself to introduce & e/abli% t5 ?\s& new names 9 ! botanical _w4 ,accord+ly1 ! fir/ attempts ( ,l9nu at ! improvem5t ( ! nom5clature ( botany 71 ! proposal ( fix$ & c>eful rules = ! g5]ic "n1 & = ! descriptive phrase4 ,?us1 9 8 ,critica ,botanica1 he gives _m precepts conc]n+ ! selection ( ! names ( #cic g5]a1 int5d$ to secure conv5i5ce or elegance4 ,= in/ance1 t !y are to be s+le words2#ijaf he sub/itutes atropa = bella donna1 & leontodon = d5s leonis2 t !y are n to dep5d ^u ! "n ( ano!r g5us1#iaaf z acriviola1 agrimonoides2 t !y are n#ibaf to be sesquip$alia2 &1 says he1 any ^w is sesquip$alian to me1 :i* has m ?an twelve lett]s1 z kalophyllod5dron1 = :i* he sub/itutes calophyllon4 ,?\gh "s ( ^! rules may seem p$antic1 !re is no d\bt t1 tak5 altoge!r1 !y t5d exce$+ly1 l ! labors ( puri/s 9 o!r languages1 to exclude extravagance1 caprice1 & b>b>ism 9 botanical spee*4 ,note #ijaf3 ,phil4 ,bot4 #bbd4 ,note #iaaf3 ,ib4 #bbh1 #bbi4 ,note #ibaf3 ,ib4 #beb4 ,! precepts :i* he gives = ! matt] ( ! descriptive phrase1 or1 z x is t]m$ 9 ! language ( ! ,ari/otelian logicians1 ! diff]5tia1 are1 = ! mo/ "p1 results ( ! g5]al rule1 t ! mo/ fix$ *>act]s :i* c be f\nd are to be us$2 ?is rule be+ int]pret$ accord+ to all ! k ( plants :i* _h !n be5 acquir$4 ,! language ( ! rules 01 ( c\rse1 to be regulat$ by ! t]m9ology1 ( :i* we h already spok54 ,?us1 9 ! ,critica ,botanica1 ! "n ( a plant is consid]$ z consi/+ ( a g5]ic ^w & a specific phrase2 & ^! are1 he says1#icaf ! "r & left h&s ( ! plant4 ,b he !n speaks ( ano!r k9d ( "n2 ! trivial "n1 :i* is oppos$ to ! sci5tific4 ,su* names 71 he says1#idaf ^? ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & especially ( ! mo/ anci5t ( !m4 ,hi!rto#ieaf no rules _h be5 giv5 = _! use4 ,he manife/ly1 at ?is p]iod1 has small reg>d = !m4 ,yet1 he says1 trivial names may1 p]haps1 be us$ on ?is acc\nt1--t ! diff]5tia (t5 turns out too long to be conv5i5t 9 common use1 & may require *ange z new species are discov]$4 ,h[ev]1 he cont9ues1 9 ?is "w we set su* names aside altoge!r1 & att5d only to ! diff]5ti4 ,note #icaf3 ,ib4 #bff4 ,note #idaf3 ,ib4 #bfa4 ,note #ieaf3 ,ib4 #bfj4 ,ev5 9 ! ,species ,plant>um1 ! "w :i* gave g5]al curr5cy to ^! trivial names1 he does n seem to h yet d>$ to propose s great a novelty4 ,!y only /& 9 ! m>g9 ( ! "w4 ,i h plac$ !m !re1 he says 9 8 ,preface1 t1 )\t circumlocution1 we may call e h]b by a s+le "n2 ,i h done ?is )\t selection1 :i* w\ld require m "t4 ,& ,i besee* all sane botani/s to avoid mo/ religi\sly ev] #cid propos+ a trivial "n )\t a suffici5t specific di/9ction1 le/ ! sci5ce %\ld fall into its =m] b>b>ism4 ,x _c be d\bt$1 t ! g5]al reception ( ^! trivial names ( ,l9nu1 z ! curr5t language among botani/s1 0 due1 9 a v great degree1 to ! k1 c>e1 & skill ) :i* 8 *>act]s1 bo? ( g5]a & ( species1 7 con/ruct$4 ,! rigor\s rules ( selection & expression :i* are propos$ 9 ! ,fundam5ta ,botanica & ,critica ,botanica1 he himself con=m$ to2 & ?is scrupulosity 0 employ$ ^u ! results ( imm5se labor4 ,9 ord] t ,i might make myself acqua9t$ ) ! species ( plants1 he says1 9 ! preface to 8 "w ^u !m1 ,i h explor$ ! ,alps ( ,lapl&1 ! :ole ( ,sw$51 a "p ( ,norway1 ,d5m>k1 ,g]many1 ,belgium1 ,engl&1 ,france3 ,i h exam9$ ! ,botanical ,g>d5s ( ,p>is1 ,ox=d1 ,*elsea1 ,h>lecamp1 ,leyd51 ,utre*t1 ,am/]dam1 ,upsal1 & o!rs3 ,i h turn$ ov] ! ,h]bals ( ,burs]1 ,h]mann1 ,clif=d1 ,burmann1 ,old5l&1 ,gronovius1 ,roy]1 ,sloane1 ,%]>d1 ,bob>t1 ,mill]1 ,t\rne=t1 ,vaillant1 ,jussieu1 9999,surian1 ,beck1 ,br[n1 c43 my de> disciples h gone to di/ant l&s1 & s5t me plants f !nce2 ,k]l5 to ,canada1 ,hasselqui/ to ,egypt1 ,asbe* to ,*9a1 ,tor5 to ,surat1 ,sol&] to ,engl&1 ,al/rm] to ,s\!rn ,europe1 ,m>t9 to ,spitzb]g51 ,pont9 to ,malab>1 ,khl] to ,italy1 ,=skhl to ! ,ea/1 ,lfl+ to ,spa91 ,mont9 to ,lapl&3 my botanical fri5ds h s5t me _m se$s & dri$ plants f v>i\s c\ntries3 ,lag]/rm _m f ! ,ea/ ,indies2 ,gronovius mo/ ( ! ,virg9ian2 ,gmel9 all ! ,sib]ian2 ,burmann ^? ( ! ,cape4 ,& 9 consi/5cy ) ?is habit ( imm5se collection ( mat]ials1 is 8 maxim1#ifaf t a p]son is a bett] botani/ 9 proportion z he kn[s m species4 ,x w easily be se5 t ?is maxim1 l ,newton's decl>ation t discov]y requires pati5t ?\ght alone1 ref]s only to ! ex]tions ( :i* ! man ( g5ius is consci\s2 & leaves out ( sight 8 peculi> end[m5ts1 :i* he does n see because !y are "p ( 8 p[] ( vision4 ,) ! ta/e = symmetry :i* dictat$ ! ,critica ,botanica1 & ! tal5t = classification :i* appe>s 9 ! ,g5]a ,plant>um1 & ! ,sy/ema ,natur1 a p]son mu/ und\bt$ly rise to high] /eps ( classificatory k & skill1 z he became acqua9t$ ) a great] numb] ( facts4 ,note #ifaf3 ,phil4 ,bot4 #bei4 ,! ackn[l$g$ sup]iority ( ,l9nu 9 ! k ( ! #cie matt] ( 8 sci5ce1 induc$ o!r p]sons to def] to him 9 :at conc]n$ its =m2 especially :5 8 precepts 71 = ! mo/ "p1 recomm5d$ /rongly bo? by conv5i5ce & elegance4 ,! trivial names ( ! ,species ,plant>um 7 g5]ally receiv$2 & ?\gh "s ( ! details may h be5 alt]$1 ! imm5se advantage ( ! s*eme ensures its p]man5ce4 ,sect4 #d4--,l9nu's ,artificial ,sy/em4 ,,we h already se51 t1 f ! "t ( ,csalp9us1 botani/s _h be5 endeavor+ to frame a sy/ematic arrangem5t ( plants4 ,all su* arrangem5ts 7 necess>ily bo? artificial & natural3 !y 7 artificial1 inasmu* z !y dep5d$ ^u assum$ pr9ciples1 ! numb]1 =m1 & position ( c]ta9 p>ts1 by ! application ( :i* ! :ole vegetable k+dom 0 imp]atively subdivid$2 !y 7 natural1 inasmu* z ! ju/ification ( ?is division 01 t x br\ght toge!r ^? plants :i* 7 naturally relat$4 ,no sy/em ( arrangem5t1 = in/ance1 w\ld h be5 tol]at$ :i*1 9 a great proportion ( cases1 sep>at$ into di/ant p>ts ( ! plan ! diff]5t species ( ! same g5us4 ,z f> z ! ma9 body ( ! g5]a1 at lea/1 all sy/ems are natural4 ,b beg9n+ f ?is l9e1 we may con/ruct our sy/ems ) two opposite purposes1 accord+ z we endeavor to c>ry our assum$ pr9ciple ( division rigor\sly & consi/5tly ?r\gh ! sy/em1 or z we wi% to associate natural families ( a wid] k9d ?an g5]a4 ,! =m] prop5sity leads to an artificial1 ! latt] to a natural me?od4 ,ea* is a ,sy/em ( ,plants2 b 9 ! fir/1 ! emphasis is ?r[n on ! =m] ^w ( ! title1 9 ! o!r1 on ! latt]4 ,! /ronge/ recomm5dation ( an artificial sy/em1 7besides its approa*+ to a natural me?od17 is1 t x %all be capable ( easy use2 = :i* purpose1 ! facts on :i* x dep5ds mu/ be app>5t 9 _! relations1 & univ]sal 9 _! occurr5ce4 ,! sy/em ( ,l9nu1 f\nd$ ^u ! numb]1 position1 & o!r circum/ances ( ! /am9a & pi/ils1 ! reproductive organs ( ! plants1 possess$ ?is m]it 9 an em95t degree1 z f> z ^! *>act]s are conc]n$2 t is1 z f> z ! classes & ord]s4 ,9 its fur!r subdivision into g5]a1 its sup]iority 0 ma9ly due to ! exact obs]vation & description1 :i* we h already _h to notice z tal5ts :i* ,l9nu peculi>ly possess$4 ,! ,l9nan sy/em ( plants 0 m def9ite ?an t ( #cif ,t\rne=t1 :i* 0 gov]n$ by ! corolla2 = numb] is m def9ite ?an irregul> =m4 ,x 0 m readily employ$ ?an any ( ^? :i* dep5d on ! fruit1 = ! fl[] is a m obvi\s object1 & m easily exam9$4 ,/ill1 x c h>dly be d\bt$1 t ! circum/ance :i* gave ! ma9 curr5cy to ! sy/em ( ,l9nu 0 its physiological signification3 x 0 ! ,sexual ,sy/em4 ,! relation ( ! p>ts to :i* x direct$ ! att5tion1 int]e/$ bo? ! philosophical faculty & ! imag9ation4 ,& :51 soon aft] ! sy/em _h become famili> 9 our own c\ntry1 ! poet ( ,! ,botanic ,g>d5 peopl$ ! bell ( e fl[] ) ,nymphs & ,swa9s1 8 imag]y 0 felt to be by no means =c$ & f>-fet*$4 ,! hi/ory ( ! doctr9e ( ! sexes ( plants1 z a po9t ( physiology1 does n belong to ?is place2 & ! ,l9nan sy/em ( classification ne$ n be long] dwelt ^u = our pres5t purpose4 ,i w only expla9 a little fur!r :at has be5 said1 t x is1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 a natural sy/em4 ,sev]al ( ,l9nu's classes are1 9 a great measure1 natural associations1 kept toge!r 9 violation ( 8 own artificial rules4 ,?us ! class ,diadelphia1 9 :i*1 by ! sy/em1 ! filam5ts ( ! /am9a %\ld be b\nd toge!r 9 two p>cels1 does1 9 fact1 conta9 _m g5]a :i* are monadelph\s1 ! filam5ts ( ! /am9a all coh]+ s z to =m "o bundle only2 z 9 ,g5i/a1 ,sp>tium1 ,an?yllis1 ,lup9us1 c4 ,& :y is ?is violation ( rule8 ,precisely because ^! g5]a all belong to ! natural tribe ( ,papilionace\s plants1 :i* ! au?or ( ! sy/em c\ld n prevail ^u himself to te> asund]4 ,yet 9 o!r cases ,l9nu 0 true to 8 sy/em1 to ! injury ( natural alliances1 z he 01 = in/ance1 9 ano!r portion ( ?is v tribe ( ,papilionace2 = !re are plants :i* und\bt$ly belong to ! tribe1 b :i* h t5 sep>ate /am5s2 & ^! he plac$ 9 ! ord] ,dec&ria4 ,^u ! :ole1 h[ev]1 he incl9es r to admit transgression ( art ?an ( nature4 ,! reason ( ?is incl9ation 01 t he rightly consid]$ an artificial me?od z in/rum5tal to ! inve/igation ( a natural "o2 & to ?is "p ( 8 views we n[ proce$4 ,sect4 #e4--,l9nu's ,views on a ,natural ,me?od4 ,,! admir]s ( ,l9nu1 ! ,engli% especially1 7 = "s "t 9 ! habit ( putt+ 8 ,sexual ,sy/em 9 opposition to ! ,natural ,me?od1 :i* ab\t ! same "t 0 attempt$ 9 ,france4 ,& #cig z !y (t5 appe> to h imag9$ t ! ultimate object ( botanical me?ods 0 to "k ! "n ( plants1 !y naturally pref]r$ ! ,sw$i% me?od1 :i* is excell5t z a f9d]4 ,no p]son1 h[ev]1 :o wi%es to "k botany z a sci5ce1 t is1 z a body ( g5]al tru?s1 c be cont5t ) mak+ names 8 ultimate object4 ,su* a p]son w be con/antly & irresi/ibly l$ on to attempt to cat* sight ( ! natural arrangem5t ( plants1 ev5 be=e he discov]s1 z he w discov] by pursu+ su* a c\rse ( /udy1 t ! k ( ! natural arrangem5t is ! k ( ! ess5tial con/ruction & vital me*anism ( plants4 ,he w consid] an artificial me?od z a means ( arriv+ at a natural me?od4 ,accord+ly1 h[ev] mu* "s ( 8 foll[]s may h ov]look$ ?is1 x is :at ,l9nu himself always held & taught4 ,& ?\gh :at he execut$ ) reg>d to ?is object 0 b little1#igaf ! di/9ct mann] 9 :i* he pres5t$ ! relations ( an artificial & natural me?od1 may ju/ly be look$ ^u z "o ( ! great improvem5ts :i* he introduc$ into ! /udy ( 8 sci5ce4 ,note #igaf3 ,! natural ord]s :i* he propos$ are a b>e enum]ation ( g5]a1 & h n be5 g5]ally foll[$4 ,?us 9 ! ,classes ,plant>um 7#agdg71 he speaks ( ! difficulty ( ! task ( discov]+ ! natural ord]s1 & ( ! attempts made by o!rs4 ,yet1 he adds1 ,i too h labor$ at ?is1 h done some?+1 h mu* /ill to d1 & %all labor at ! object z long z ,i live4 ,he aft]w>ds propos$ sixty-sev5 ord]s1 z ! fragm5ts ( a natural me?od1 always pr(ess+ _! imp]fection4#ihaf ,& 9 o!rs ( 8 works#iiaf he lays d[n "s anti!ses on ! subject aft] 8 mann]4 ,! natural ord]s tea* u ! nature ( plants2 ! artificial ord]s enable u to recognize plants4 ,! natural ord]s1 )\t a key1 d n con/itute a ,me?od2 ! ,me?od ought to be available )\t a ma/]4 ,note #ihaf3 ,phil4 ,bot4 p4 #hj4 ,note #iiaf3 ,g5]a ,plant>um1 #agfd4 ,see ,prlect4 9 ,ord4 ,nat4 p4 xlviii4 ,t extreme difficulty mu/ att5d ! =mation ( a ,natural ,me?od1 may be se5 f ! v indef9ite nature ( ! ,aphorisms ^u ?is subject :i* ,l9nu has deliv]$1 & :i* ! be/ botani/s ( succe$+ times h ass5t$ to4 ,su* are ^!2--! ,natural ,ord]s mu/ be =m$ by att5tion1 n to "o or two1 b to all ! p>ts ( plants2--! same organs are ( great importance 9 regulat+ ! divisions ( "o "p ( ! sy/em1 & #cih ( small importance 9 ano!r "p2#ajjaf--! ,"* does n con/itute ! ,g5us1 b ! ,g5us ! ,"*2--! ,"* is necess>y1 n to make ! ,g5us1 b to recognize x4 ,! vagu5ess ( ^! maxims is easily se52 ! rule ( att5d+ to all ! p>ts1 implies1 t we are to e/imate _! relative importance1 ei!r by physiological consid]ations 7& ^! aga9 lead to arbitr>y rules1 z1 = in/ance1 ! sup]iority ( ! function ( nutrition to t ( reproduction71 or by a sort ( lat5t naturali/ in/9ct1 :i* ,l9nu 9 "s passages seems to recognize4 ,! ,habit ( a plant1 he says1#ajaaf mu/ be secretly consult$4 ,a practis$ botani/ w di/+ui%1 at ! fir/ glance1 ! plants ( diff]5t qu>t]s ( ! globe1 & yet w be at a loss to tell by :at m>k he detects !m4 ,!re is1 ,i "k n :at look1--s9i/]1 dry1 obscure 9 ,african plants2 sup]b & elevat$1 9 ! ,asiatic2 smoo? & *e]ful1 9 ! ,am]ican2 /unt$ & indurat$1 9 ! ,alp9e4 ,note #ajjaf3 ,phil4 ,bot4 p4 #agb4 ,note #ajaaf3 ,ib4 p4 #aga4 ,aga91 ! rule t ! same p>ts are ( v diff]5t value 9 diff]5t ,ord]s1 n only leaves u 9 want ( rules or reasons :i* may enable u to comp>e ! m>ks ( diff]5t ,ord]s1 b de/roys ! sy/ematic complet5ess ( ! natural arrangem5t4 ,if "s ( ! ,ord]s be regulat$ by ! fl[] & o!rs by ! fruit1 we may h plants1 ( :i* ! fl[] w\ld place !m 9 "o ,ord]1 & ! fruit 9 ano!r4 ,! answ] to ?is difficulty is ! maxim already /at$2--t no ,"* makes ! ,ord]2 & t if a ,"* d n enable u to recognize ! ,ord]1 x does n answ] its purpose1 & ought to be *ang$ = ano!r4 ,?is doctr9e1 t ! ,"* is to be employ$ z a s]vant & n z a ma/]1 0 a /umbl+-block 9 ! way ( ^? disciples :o look$ only = dogmatical & univ]sal rules4 ,"o ( ,l9nu's pupils1 ,paul ,dietri* ,giseke1 has giv5 u a v lively acc\nt ( 8 own p]plexity on hav+ ?is view prop\nd$ to him1 & ( ! way 9 :i* he /ruggl$ ) x4 ,he _h compla9$ ( ! want ( intelligible gr\nds1 9 ! collection ( natural ord]s giv5 by ,l9nu4 ,l9nu#ajbaf wrote 9 answ]1 ,y ask me = ! *>act]s ( ! ,natural ,ord]s3 ,i confess ,i _c give !m4 ,su* a reply naturally increas$ ,giseke's difficulties4 ,b aft]w>ds1 9 #agga1 he _h ! good =tune to sp5d "s "t at ,upsal2 & he n>rates a conv]sation :i* he held ) ! great #cii tea*] on ?is subject1 & :i* ,i ?9k may s]ve to %[ ! nature ( ! difficulty2--"o by no means easily remov$1 & by ! g5]al read]1 n ev5 readily compreh5d$ ) di/9ctness4 ,giseke began by conceiv+ t an ,ord] mu/ h t attribute f :i* its "n is d]iv$2--t ! ,umbellat mu/ h _! fl[] dispos$ 9 an umbel4 ,! mighty ma/] smil$1#ajcaf & told him n to look at names1 b at nature4 ,b 7said ! pupil7 :at is ! use ( ! "n1 if x does n mean :at x pr(esses to mean8 ,x is ( small import 7repli$ ,l9nu7 :at y call ! ,ord]1 if y take a prop] s]ies ( plants & give x "s "n1 :i* is cle>ly und]/ood to apply to ! plants :i* y h associat$4 ,9 su* cases z y ref] to1 ,i foll[$ ! logical rule1 ( borr[+ a "n a potiori1 f ! pr9cipal memb]4 ,c y 7he add$7 give me ! "* ( any s+le ,ord]8 ,giseke4 ,surely1 ! "* ( ! ,umbellat is1 t !y h an umbel8 ,l9nu4 ,good2 b !re are plants :i* h an umbel1 & are n ( ! ,umbellat4 ,g4 ,i rememb]4 ,we mu/ !re=e add1 t !y h two nak$ se$s4 ,l4 ,!n1 ,e*9ophora1 :i* has only "o se$1 & ,eryngium1 :i* has n an umbel1 w n be ,umbellat2 & yet !y are ( ! ,ord]4 ,g4 ,i w\ld place ,eryngium among ! ,aggregat4 ,l4 ,no2 bo? are beyond dispute ,umbellat4 ,eryngium has an involucrum1 five /am9a1 two pi/ils1 c4 ,try aga9 = y\r ,"*4 ,g4 ,i w\ld transf] su* plants to ! end ( ! ,ord]1 & make !m =m ! transition to ! next ,ord]4 ,eryngium w\ld connect ! ,umbellat ) ! ,aggregat4 ,l4 ,ah6 my good fri5d1 ! ,transition f ,ord] to ,ord] is "o ?+2 ! ,"* ( an ,ord] is ano!r4 ,! ,transitions ,i c\ld indicate2 b a ,"* ( a ,natural ,ord] is impossible4 ,i w n give my reasons = ! di/ribution ( ,natural ,ord]s :i* ,i h publi%$4 ,y or "s o!r p]son1 aft] tw5ty or aft] fifty ye>s1 w discov] !m1 & see ,i 0 9 ! "r4 ,note #ajbaf3 ,l9ni ,prlectiones1 ,pref4 p4 xv4 ,note #ajcaf3 ,subrisit 4 ,i h giv5 a portion ( ?is curi\s conv]sation 9 ord] to %[ t ! attempt to e/abli% ,natural ,ord]s leads to convictions :i* are out ( ! doma9 ( ! sy/ematic gr\nds on :i* !y pr(ess to proce$4 ,i believe ! real /ate ( ! case to be t ! sy/emati/1 9 su* in/ances1 is guid$ by an un=m$ & undevelop$ appreh5sion ( physiological functions4 ,! ideas ( ! =m1 #djj numb]1 & figure ( p>ts are1 9 "s measure1 ov]%ad[$ & sup]s$$ by ! ris+ p]ception ( organic & vital relations2 & ! philosoph] :o aims at a ,natural ,me?od1 :ile he is endeavor+ m]ely to explore ! ap>tm5t 9 :i* he _h plac$ himself1 t ( ,arrangem5t1 is l$ beyond x1 to a po9t :]e ano!r light beg9s1 ?\gh dimly1 to be se52 he is br\ght )9 ! influ5ce ( ! ideas ( ,organization & ,life4 ,! sci5ces :i* dep5d on ^! ideas w be ! subject ( our consid]ation h]eaft]4 ,b :at has be5 said may p]haps s]ve to expla9 ! ackn[l$g$ & inevitable imp]fection ( ! unphysiological ,l9nan attempts t[>ds a natural me?od4 ,artificial ,glasses are1 ,l9nu says1 a sub/itute = ,natural1 till ,natural are detect$4 ,b we h n yet a ,natural ,me?od4 ,nor1 he says1 9 ! conv]sation above cit$1 c we h a ,natural ,me?od2 = a ,natural ,me?od implies ,natural ,classes & ,ord]s2 & ^! ,ord]s mu/ h ,*>act]s4 ,& !y1 he adds 9 ano!r place1#ajdaf :o1 ?\gh !y _c obta9 a complete ,natural ,me?od1 arrange plants accord+ to ! fragm5ts ( su* a me?od1 to ! rejection ( ! ,artificial1 seem to me l p]sons :o pull d[n a conv5i5t vault$ room1 & set ab\t build+ ano!r1 ?\gh !y _c turn ! vault :i* is to cov] x4 ,note #ajdaf3 ,g54 ,plant4 9 ,prlect4 p4 xii4 ,h[ f> ^! consid]ations det]r$ o!r p]sons f turn+ _! ma9 att5tion to a natural me?od1 we %all %ortly see2 b 9 ! mean "t1 we mu/ complete ! hi/ory ( ! ,l9nan ,re=m4 ,sect4 #f4--,reception & ,diffusion ( ! ,l9nan ,re=m4 ,,we h already se5 t ,l9nu receiv$1 f 8 own c\ntry1 honors & emolum5ts :i* m>k 8 reputation z e/abli%$1 z e>ly z #agdj2 & by 8 publications1 8 lectures1 & 8 p]sonal communications1 he soon drew r\nd him _m disciples1 :om he impress$ /rongly ) 8 own doctr9es & me?ods4 ,x w\ld seem t ! sci5ces ( classification t5d1 at lea/ 9 mod]n times m ?an o!r sci5ces1 to collect ab\t ! *air ( ! tea*] a l>ge body ( zeal\s & ob$i5t pupils2 ,l9nu & ,w]n] 7 by f> ! mo/ p[]ful heads ( s*ools ( any m5 :o appe>$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,p]haps "o reason ( ?is is1 t 9 ^! sci5ces1 consi/+ ( su* an enorm\s multitude ( species1 ( descriptive #dja p>ticul>s1 & ( previ\s classifications1 ! le>n] is dep5d5t ^u ! tea*] m completely1 & = a long] "t ?an 9 o!r subjects ( speculation3 he _c s soon or s easily ca/ (f ! aid & influ5ce ( ! ma/]1 to pursue reason+s & hypo!ses ( 8 own4 ,:atev] ! cause may be1 ! fact is1 t ! reputation & au?ority ( ,l9nu1 9 ! latt] "p ( 8 life1 7 imm5se4 ,he enjoy$ also royal favor1 = ! ,k+ & ,que5 ( ,sw$5 7 bo? fond ( natural hi/ory4 ,9 #agec1 ,l9nu receiv$ f ! h& ( 8 sov]eign ! knigh?ood ( ! ,pol> ,/>1 an honor :i* _h nev] be=e be5 conf]r$ = lit]>y m]it2 & 9 #agef1 0 rais$ to ! rank ( ,sw$i% nobility by ! title ( ,von ,l9n2 & ?is di/9ction 0 confirm$ by ! ,diet 9 #agfb4 ,he liv$1 honor$ & c\rt$1 to ! age ( sev5ty-"o2 & 9 #aggh 0 buri$ 9 ! ca!dral ( ,upsal1 ) _m te/imonials ( public respect & v5]ation4 ,de ,c&olle#ajeaf assigns1 z ! causes ( ! successes ( ! ,l9nan sy/em1--! specific names1--! *>act]i/ic phrase1--! fixation ( descriptive language1--! di/9ction ( v>ieties & species1--! ext5sion ( ! me?od to all ! k+doms ( nature1--& ! practice ( introduc+ into x ! species mo/ rec5tly discov]$4 ,?is la/ c\rse ,l9nu con/antly pursu$2 ?us mak+ 8 works ! mo/ valuable = matt]1 z !y 7 ! mo/ conv5i5t 9 =m4 ,! g5]al diffusion ( 8 me?ods ov] ,europe may be dat$1 p]haps1 a few ye>s aft] #agfj1 :5 ! t5? & ! succe$+ editions ( ! ,sy/ema ,natur 7 9 circulation1 pr(ess+ to include e species ( organiz$ be+s4 ,b 8 pupils & correspond5ts effect$ no less ?an 8 books1 9 giv+ curr5cy to 8 sy/em4 ,9 ,g]many1#ajfaf x 0 def5d$ by ,ludwig1 ,gesn]1 ,fabricius4 ,b ,hall]1 ^: reputation 9 physiology 0 z great z t ( ,l9nu 9 me?odology1 reject$ x z too m]ely artificial4 ,9 ,france1 x did n make any rapid or ext5sive progress3 ! be/ ,fr5* botani/s 7 at ?is "t occupi$ ) ! solution ( ! great problem ( ! con/ruction ( a ,natural ,me?od4 ,& ?\gh ! rhetorician ,r\sseau *>m$1 we may suppose1 ) ! elegant precision ( ! ,philosophia ,botanica1 decl>$ x to be ! mo/ philosophical "w he _h ev] read 9 8 life1 ,buffon & ,&anson1 describ]s & philosoph]s ( a m ambiti\s s*ool1 felt a repugnance to ! rigor\s rules1 & limit$1 b f9i%$1 und]tak+s ( ! ,sw$i% naturali/4 ,to resi/ 8 #djb criticism & 8 influ5ce1 !y arm$ !mselves ) dislike & contempt4 ,note #ajeaf3 ,?or4 ,elm4 p4 #dj4 ,note #ajfaf3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #bdd4 ,9 ,engl& ! ,l9nan sy/em 0 v favorably receiv$3--p]haps ! m favorably1 = be+ a /rictly artificial sy/em4 ,= ! indef9ite & unf9i%$ =m :i* almo/ inevitably cl+s to a natural me?od1 appe>s to be peculi>ly di/a/eful to our c\ntrym54 ,x might seem z if ! susp5se & crav+ :i* comes ) k confess$ly incomplete 7 s disagreeable to !m1 t !y 7 will+ to avoid x1 at any rate :atev]2 ei!r by reject+ sy/em altoge!r1 or by accept+ a dogmatical sy/em )\t res]ve4 ,! =m] has be5 _! c\rse 9 rec5t times ) reg>d to ,m9]alogy2 ! latt] 0 _! proce$+ ) respect to ! ,l9nan ,botany4 ,x is 9 ?is c\ntry alone1 ,i believe1 t ,w]n]ian & ,l9nan ,societies h be5 in/itut$4 ,su* appellations some:at rem9d u ( ! ,ari/otelian & ,platonic s*ools ( anci5t ,greece4 ,9 ! same _s x 01 t ! ,artificial ,sy/em 0 at "o "t "h consid]$1 n z subsidi>y & prep>atory to ! ,natural ,ord]s1 b z oppos$ to !m4 ,?is 0 mu* z if ! disposition ( an army 9 a review %\ld be consid]$ z inconsi/5t ) ano!r arrangem5t ( x 9 a battle4 ,:5 ,l9nu visit$ ,engl& 9 #agcf1 ,sloane1 !n ! patron ( natural hi/ory 9 ?is c\ntry1 is said to h giv5 him a cool reception1 su* z 0 p]haps mo/ natural f an old man to a "y innovator2 & ,dill5ius1 ! ,pr(essor at ,ox=d1 did n accept ! sexual sy/em4 ,b z ,pult5ey1 ! hi/orian ( ,engli% ,botany1 says1 :5 8 works became kn[n1 ! simplicity ( ! classical *>act]s1 ! uni=mity ( ! g5]ic notes1 all conf9$ to ! p>ts ( ! fructification1 & ! precision :i* m>k$ ! specific di/9ctions1 m]its s new1 soon comm&$ ! ass5t ( ! unprejudic$4 ,p]haps ! progress ( ! introduction ( ! ,l9nan ,sy/em into ,engl& w be be/ und]/ood f ! /atem5t ( ,t4 ,m>tyn1 :o 0 ,pr(essor ( ,botany 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 f #agfa to #ahbe4 ,ab\t ! ye> #agej1 he says1#ajgaf ,i 0 a pupil ( ! s*ool ( our great c\ntryman ,ray2 b ! ri* ve9 ( k1 ! pr(\ndness & precision1 :i* ,i rem>k$ ev]y:]e 9 ! ,philosophia ,botanica1 7publi%$ 9 #agea17 )drew me f my fir/ ma/]1 & ,i became a decid$ conv]t to t sy/em ( botany :i* has s9ce be5 g5]ally receiv$4 ,9 #agec1 ! ,species #djc ,plant>um1 :i* fir/ introduc$ ! specific names1 made me a ,l9nan completely4 ,9 #agfc1 he introduc$ ! sy/em 9 8 lectures at ,cambridge1 & ^! 7 ! fir/ ,l9nan lectures 9 ,engl&4 ,/ill+fleet _h already1 9 #ageg1 & ,lee1 9 #agfj1 call$ ! att5tion ( ,engli% read]s to ,l9nu4 ,sir ,j4 ,hill1 7! k+'s g>d5] at ,kew17 9 8 ,flora ,britannica1 publi%$ 9 #agfj1 _h employ$ ! classes & g5]ic *>act]s1 b n ! nom5clature2 b ! latt] 0 adopt$ by ,hudson1 9 #agfb1 9 ! ,flora ,anglica4 ,note #ajgaf3 ,pref4 to ,language ( ,botany1 #crd edit4 #ahjg4 ,two "y ,sw$es1 pupils ( ,l9nu1 ,dry&] & ,sol&]1 settl$ 9 ,engl&1 & 7 9 intimate int]c\rse ) ! mo/ active naturali/s1 especially ) ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 ( :om ! =m] 0 libr>ian1 & ! latt] a fell[-travell] 9 ,cook's celebrat$ voyage4 ,james ,edw>d ,smi? 0 also "o ( ! mo/ zeal\s disciples ( ! ,l9nan s*ool2 &1 aft] ! dea? ( ,l9nu1 pur*as$ 8 ,h]b>iums & ,collections4 ,x is relat$1#ajhaf z a curi\s pro( ( ! high e/imation 9 :i* ,l9nu 0 held1 t :5 ! ,sw$i% gov]nm5t he>d ( ?is b>ga91 !y tri$1 ?\gh too late1 to prev5t ^! monum5ts ( _! c\ntryman's labor & glory be+ c>ri$ f 8 native l&1 & ev5 w5t s f> z to s5d a frigate 9 pursuit ( ! %ip :i* convey$ !m to ,engl&4 ,smi? _h1 h[ev]1 ! triumph ( br++ !m home 9 safety4 ,on 8 dea? !y 7 pur*as$ by ! ,l9nan ,society4 ,su* relics s]ve1 z w easily be imag9$1 n only to w>m ! rev]5ce ( 8 admir]s1 b to illu/rate 8 writ+s3 & s9ce !y h be5 9 ?is c\ntry1 !y h be5 ! object ( ! pilgrimage ( _m a botani/1 f e "p ( ,europe4 ,note #ajhaf3 ,trapp's ,transl4 ( ,/[]'s ,life ( ,l9nu1 p4 #cad4 ,i h purposely conf9$ myself to ! hi/ory ( ! ,l9nan sy/em 9 ! cases 9 :i* x is mo/ easily applicable1 omitt+ all consid]ation ( m obscure & disput$ k9ds ( vegetables1 z f]ns1 mosses1 fungi1 li*5s1 sea-we$s1 & ! l4 ,! nature & progress ( a classificatory sci5ce1 :i* x is our ma9 purpose to br+ into view1 w be/ be und]/ood by att5d+1 9 ! fir/ place1 to ! cases 9 :i* su* a sci5ce has be5 pursu$ ) ! mo/ decid$ success2 & ! advances :i* h be5 made 9 ! k ( ! m obscure vegetables1 are1 9 fact1 advances 9 artificial classification1 only 9 z f> z !y are advances 9 natural classification1 & 9 physiology4 ,to ^! subjects we n[ proce$4 #djd ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,progress ,,t[>ds ,a ,,natural ,,sy/em ,,( ,,botany4 ,,we h already said1 t ! =mation ( a ,natural ,sy/em ( classification mu/ result f a comp>ison ( all ! resemblances & diff]5ces ( ! ?+s class$2 b t1 9 act+ ^u ?is maxim1 ! naturali/ is necess>ily ei!r guid$ by an obscure & in/9ctive feel+1 :i* is1 9 fact1 an undevelop$ recognition ( physiological relations1 or else ackn[l$ges physiology = 8 guide1 ?\gh he is oblig$ to assume arbitr>y rules 9 ord] to int]pret its indications4 ,?us all ,natural ,classification ( organiz$ be+s1 ei!r beg9s or soon ends 9 ,physiology2 & c nev] advance f> )\t ! aid ( t sci5ce4 ,/ill1 ! progress ( ! ,natural ,me?od 9 botany w5t to su* a l5g? be=e x 0 gr\nd$ entirely on ! anatomy ( plants1 t x w be prop]1 & ,i hope in/ructive1 to attempt a sket* ( x "h4 ,z ,i h already _h occasion to rem>k1 ! e>li] sy/ems ( plants 7 natural2 & !y only ceas$ to be s1 :5 x appe>$ t ! problem ( con/ruct+ a sy/em admitt$ ( a v useful solution1 :ile ! problem ( devis+ a natural sy/em rema9$ insoluble4 ,b _m botani/s did n s easily r5\nce ! highe/ object ( _! sci5ce4 ,9 ,france1 especially1 a succession ( extraord9>y m5 labor$ at x ) no inconsid]able success3 & !y 7 second$ by wor?y fell[-labor]s 9 ,g]many & else:]e4 ,! precept ( tak+ into acc\nt all ! p>ts ( plants accord+ to _! importance1 may be appli$ accord+ to arbitr>y rules4 ,we may1 = in/ance1 assume t ! fruit is ! mo/ important "p2 or we may make a long li/ ( p>ts1 & look = agreem5t 9 ! greate/ possible numb] ( ^!1 9 ord] to con/ruct our natural ord]s4 ,! =m] c\rse 0 foll[$ by ,grtn]2#ajiaf ! latt] by ,adanson4 ,grtn]'s pr9ciples1 d$uc$ f ! dissection ( m ?an a ?\s& k9ds ( fruits1#aajaf ex]cis$1 9 ! sequel1 a great & #dje p]man5t influ5ce on ! =mation ( natural classes4 ,adanson's attempt1 bold & +5i\s1 belong$1 bo? 9 "t & "*1 to a some:at e>li] /age ( ! subject4#aaaaf ,en?usia/ic & labori\s beyond belief b self-confid5t1 & contemptu\s ( ! labors ( o!rs1 ,mi*ael ,adanson _h collect$1 dur+ five ye>s sp5t 9 ,s5egal1 an enorm\s mass ( k & mat]ials2 & _h =m$ plans = ! sy/ems :i* he conceiv$ himself ?us emp[]$ to rea*1 f> beyond ! /r5g? & ! lot ( man4#aabaf ,9 8 ,families ( ,plants1 h[ev]1 all agree t 8 labors 7 ( real value to ! sci5ce4 ,! me?od :i* he foll[$ is ?us describ$ by 8 eloqu5t & philosophical eulogi/4#aacaf ,note #ajiaf3 ,de ,fructibus et ,sem9ibus ,plant>um4 ,/uttg4 #aghh-agia4 ,note #aajaf3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #bij4 ,note #aaaaf3 ,familles des ,plantes1 #agfc4 ,note #aabaf3 ,cuvi]'s ,eloge4 ,note #aacaf3 ,cuv4 ,eloges1 tom4 i4 p4 #bhb4 ,consid]+ ea* organ by itself1 he =m$1 by pursu+ its v>i\s modifications1 a sy/em ( division1 9 :i* he arrang$ all kn[n species accord+ to t organ alone4 ,do+ ! same = ano!r organ1 & ano!r1 & s = _m1 he con/ruct$ a collection ( sy/ems ( arrangem5t1 ea* artificial1--ea* f\nd$ ^u "o assum$ organ4 ,! species :i* come toge!r 9 all ^! sy/ems are1 ( all1 naturally ! ne>e/ to ea* o!r2 ^? :i* are sep>at$ 9 a few ( ! sy/ems1 b contigu\s 9 ! greate/ numb]1 are naturally ne> to ea* o!r1 ?\gh less ne> ?an ! =m]2 ^? :i* are sep>at$ 9 a great] numb]1 are fur!r remov$ f ea* o!r 9 nature2 & !y are ! m remov$1 ! few] are ! sy/ems 9 :i* !y are associat$4 ,?us1 by ?is me?od1 we obta9 ! means ( e/imat+ precisely ! degree ( natural aff9ity ( all ! species :i* our sy/ems include1 indep5d5t ( a physiological k ( ! influ5ce ( ! organs4 ,b ! me?od has1 ,cuvi] adds1 ! inconv5i5ce ( presuppos+ ano!r k9d ( k1 :i*1 ?\gh x belongs only to descriptive natural hi/ory1 is no less difficult to obta92--! k1 namely1 ( all species1 & ( all ! organs ( ea*4 ,a s+le "o neglect$1 may lead to relations ! mo/ false2 & ,adanson himself1 9 spite ( ! imm5se numb] ( 8 obs]vations1 exemplifies ?is 9 "s in/ances4 ,we may add1 t 9 ! division ( ! /ructure into organs1 & 9 ! e/imation ( ! gradations ( ^! 9 ea* artificial sy/em1 !re is /ill room = arbitr>y assumption4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! two ,jussieus _h pres5t$ to ! _w a ,natural ,me?od1 :i* produc$ a /rong] impression ?an ! #djf ,univ]sal ,me?od ( ,adanson4 ,! fir/ au?or ( ! sy/em 0 ,b]n>d de ,jussieu1 :o appli$ x 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! g>d5 ( ! ,trianon1 9 #agei1 ?\gh he nev] publi%$ ^u x4 ,8 nephew1 ,anto9e ,laur5t de ,jussieu1 9 8 ,treatise ( ! ,arrangem5t ( ! ,trianon1#aadaf gave an acc\nt ( ! pr9ciples & ord]s ( 8 uncle1 :i* he adopt$ :5 he succe$$ him2 &1 at a lat] p]iod1 publi%$ 8 ,g5]a ,plant>um secundum ,ord9es ,naturales disposita2 a "w1 says ,cuvi]1 :i* p]haps =ms z important an epo* 9 ! sci5ces ( obs]vation1 z ! ,*imie ( ,lavoisi] does 9 ! sci5ces ( exp]im5t4 ,! object ( ! ,jussieus 0 to obta9 a sy/em :i* %\ld be gov]n$ by ! natural aff9ities ( ! plants1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 ! *>act]s by :i* ! ord]s 7 o/5sibly det]m9$1 %\ld be z cle>1 simple1 & precise1 z ^? ( ! be/ artificial sy/em4 ,! ma9 po9ts 9 ^! *>act]s 7 ! numb] ( ! cotyl$ons1 & ! /ructure ( ! se$3 & subord9ate to ?is1 ! ins]tion ( ! /am9a1 :i* !y di/+ui%$ z epigyn\s1 p]igyn\s1 & hypogyn\s1 accord+ z !y 7 ins]t$ ov]1 ab\t1 or "u1 ! g]m54 ,& ! classes :i* 7 =m$ by ! ,jussieus1 ?\gh !y h s9ce be5 modifi$ by succe$+ writ]s1 h be5 s f> reta9$ by ! mo/ pr(\nd botani/s1 not)/&+ all ! new c>e & new light :i* h be5 be/[$ ^u ! subject1 z to %[ t :at 0 done at fir/1 0 a real & important /ep 9 ! solution ( ! problem4 ,note #aadaf3 ,mm4 ,ac4 ,p4 #aggd4 ,! m]it ( ! =mation ( ?is natural me?od ( plants mu/ be divid$ betwe5 ! two ,jussieus4 ,x has be5 common to speak ( ! nephew1 ,anto9e ,laur5t1 z only ! publi%] ( 8 uncle's "w4#aaeaf ,b ?is appe>s1 f a rec5t /atem5t1#aafaf to be highly unju/4 ,b]n>d left no?+ 9 writ+ b ! catalogues ( ! g>d5 ( ! ,trianon1 :i* he _h arrang$ accord+ to 8 own views2 b ^! catalogues consi/ m]ely ( a s]ies ( names )\t explanation or reason add$4 ,! nephew1 9 #aggc1 und]took & execut$ = himself ! exam9ation ( a natural family1 ! ,ranunculace2 & he 0 wont to relate 7z 8 son in=ms u7 t x #djg 0 ?is employm5t :i* fir/ op5$ 8 eyes & r5d]$ him a botani/4 ,9 ! memoir :i* he wrote1 he expla9$ fully ! relative importance ( ! *>act]s ( plants1 & ! subord9ation ( "s to o!rs2--an ess5tial consid]ation1 :i* ,adanson's s*eme _h fail$ to take acc\nt (4 ,! uncle di$ 9 #aggg2 & 8 nephew1 9 speak+ ( him1 comp>es 8 arrangem5t to ! ,ord9es ,naturales ( ,l9nu3 ,bo? ^! au?ors1 he says1 h satisfi$ !mselves ) giv+ a catalogue ( g5]a :i* approa* ea* o!r 9 diff]5t po9ts1 )\t expla9+ ! motives :i* induc$ !m to place "o ord] be=e ano!r1 or to arrange a g5us "u a c]ta9 ord]4 ,^! two arrangem5ts may be conceiv$ z problems :i* _! au?ors h left = botani/s to solve4 ,l9nu publi%$ 82 t ( ,m4 de ,jussieu is only kn[n by ! manuscript catalogues ( ! g>d5 ( ! ,trianon4 ,note #aaeaf3 ,prodromus ,flor ,p59s4 ,ind4 ,ori5t4 ,wight & ,walk]-,arnott1 ,introd4 p4 xxxv4 ,note #aafaf3 ,by ,adri5 de ,jussieu1 son ( ,anto9e ,laur5t1 9 ! ,annales des ,sc4 ,nat41 ,nov4 #ahcd4 ,x 0 n till ! y\ng] ,jussieu _h employ$ himself = n9ete5 ye>s ^u botany1 t he publi%$1 9 #aghi1 8 ,g5]a ,plant>um2 & by ?is "t he _h s entirely =m$ 8 s*eme 9 8 head1 t he began ! impression )\t hav+ writt5 ! book1 & ! manuscript 0 nev] m ?an two pages 9 advance ( ! pr9t]'s type4 ,:5 ?is "w appe>$1 x 0 n receiv$ ) any en?usiasm2 inde$1 at t "t1 ! revolution ( /ates absorb$ ! ?\ghts ( all ,europe1 & left m5 little leisure to att5d to ! revolutions ( sci5ce4 ,! au?or himself 0 drawn into ! vortex ( public affairs1 & = "s ye>s =got 8 book4 ,! me?od made its way sl[ly & ) difficulty3 x 0 a long "t be=e x 0 compreh5d$ & adopt$ 9 ,france1 al?\gh ! botani/s ( t c\ntry _h1 a little :ile be=e1 be5 s eag] 9 pursuit ( a natural sy/em4 ,9 ,engl& & ,g]many1 :i* _h readily receiv$ ! ,l9nan me?od1 its progress 0 /ill m t>dy4 ,!re is only "o po9t1 on :i* x appe>s necess>y fur!r to dwell4 ,a ma9 & fundam5tal di/9ction 9 all natural sy/ems1 is t ( ! ,monocotyl$on\s & ,dicotyl$on\s plants2 t is1 plants :i* unfold !mselves f an embryo ) two little leaves1 or ) "o leaf only4 ,?is di/9ction produces its effects 9 ! sy/ems :i* are regulat$ by numb]s2 = ! fl[]s & fruit ( ! monocotyl$ons are g5]ally ref]rible to "s law 9 :i* ! numb] ?ree prevails2 a type :i* r>ely occurs 9 dicotyl$ons1 ^! affect+ mo/ commonly an arrangem5t f\nd$ on ! numb] five4 ,b x appe>s1 :5 we attempt to rise t[>ds a natural #djh me?od1 t ?is division accord+ to ! cotyl$ons is ( a high] ord] ?an ! o!r divisions accord+ to numb]2 & corresponds to a di/9ction 9 ! g5]al /ructure & organization ( ! plant4 ,! appreh5sion ( ! due rank ( ?is di/9ction has gradually gr[n cle>]4 ,cuvi]#aagaf conceives t he f9ds su* a division cle>ly m>k$ 9 ,lobel1 9 #aeha1 & employ$ by ,ray z ! basis ( 8 classification a c5tury lat]4 ,?is diff]5ce has _h its due place assign$ x 9 m rec5t sy/ems ( arrangem5t2 b x is only lat] /ill t its full import has be5 di/9ctly br\ght into view4 ,desfonta9es discov]$#aahaf t ! ligne\s fibre is develop$ 9 an opposite mann] 9 vegetables ) "o & ) two cotyl$ons2--t[>ds ! inside 9 ! =m] case1 & t[>ds ! outside 9 ! latt]2 & h5ce ^! two great classes h be5 s9ce t]m$ endog5\s & exog5\s4 ,note #aagaf3 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,nat4 ii4 #aig4 ,note #aahaf3 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,nat4 i4 pp4 #aif1 #bij4 ,?us ?is division1 accord+ to ! cotyl$ons1 appe>s to h ! /amp ( reality put ^u x1 by acquir+ a physiological mean+4 ,yet we are n all[$ to =get1 ev5 at ?is elevat$ po9t ( g5]alization1 t no "o "* c be imp]ative 9 a natural me?od4 ,lam>ck1 :o employ$ 8 great tal5ts on botany1 be=e he devot$ himself exclusively to o!r bran*es ( natural hi/ory1 publi%$ 8 views conc]n+ me?ods1 sy/ems1#aaiaf & *>act]s4 ,8 ma9 pr9ciple is1 t no s+le "p ( a plant1 h[ev] ess5tial1 c be an absolute rule = classification2 & h5ce he blames ! ,jussieuian me?od1 z giv+ ?is inadmissible au?ority to ! cotyl$ons4 ,roscoe#abjaf fur!r urges t "s plants1 z ,or*is morio1 & ,limodorum v]ecundum1 h no visible cotyl$ons4 ,yet ,de ,c&olle1 :o labor$ along ) ,lam>ck1 9 ! new edition ( ! ,flore ,franaise1 has1 z we h already intimat$1 be5 l$1 by ! mo/ c>eful application ( ! wise/ pr9ciples1 to a sy/em ( ,natural ,ord]s1 ( :i* ,jussieu's may be look$ ^u z ! basis2 & we %all f9d ! greate/ botani/s1 up to ! mo/ rec5t p]iod1 recogniz+1 & employ+ !mselves 9 improv+1 ,jussieu's ,natural ,families2 s t 9 ! progress ( ?is "p ( our k1 vague & p]plex+ z x is1 we h no exception to our g5]al aphorism1 t no real acquisition 9 sci5ce is ev] disc>d$4 #dji ,note #aaiaf3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #bif2 &1 !re quot$1 ,flore ,franaise1 t4 i4 #c1 #aggh4 ,mm4 ,ac4 ,p4 #aghe4 ,j\rn4 ,hi/4 ,nat4 t4 i4 ,= ,lam>ck's ,m?ode ,analytique1 see ,dum]il1 ,sc4 ,nat4 i4 ,art4 #cij4 ,note #abjaf3 ,roscoe1 ,l9n4 ,tr4 vol4 xi4 ,cuscuta also has no cotyl$ons4 ,! reception ( ! sy/em ( ,jussieu 9 ?is c\ntry 0 n s ready & cordial z t ( ,l9nu4 ,z we h already notic$1 ! two sy/ems 7 look$ ^u z rivals4 ,?us ,roscoe1 9 #ahaj1abaaf endeavor$ to %[ t ,jussieu's sy/em 0 n m natural ?an ! ,l9nan1 & 0 inf]ior z an artificial sy/em3 b he argues 8 po9ts z if ,jussieu's *>act]s 7 ! gr\nds ( 8 di/ribution2 :i*1 z we h said1 is to mi/ake ! con/ruction ( a natural sy/em4 ,9 #ahjc1 ,salisbury#abbaf _h already assail$ ! ma*9]y ( ! sy/em1 ma9ta9+ t !re are no cases ( p]igyn\s /am5s1 z ,jussieu assumes2 b ?is he urges ) great expressions ( respect = ! au?or ( ! me?od4 ,& ! m pr(\nd botani/s ( ,engl& soon %[$ t !y c\ld appreciate & ext5d ! natural me?od4 ,rob]t ,br[n1 :o _h accompani$ ,capta9 ,fl9d]s to ,new ,holl& 9 #ahja1 & :o1 aft] exam9+ t c\ntry1 br\ght home1 9 #ahje1 ne>ly f\r ?\s& species ( plants1 0 ! mo/ di/+ui%$ example ( ?is4 ,9 8 preface to ! ,prodromus ,flor ,nov ,holl&i1 he says1 t he f\nd himself "u ! necessity ( employ+ ! natural me?od1 z ! only way ( avoid+ s]i\s error1 :5 he _h to deal ) s _m new g5]a z occur 9 ,new ,holl&2 & t he has1 !re=e1 foll[$ ! me?od ( ,jussieu2 ! great] "p ( ^: ord]s are truly natural1 al?\gh _! arrangem5t 9 classes1 z is1 he says1 conc$$ by _! au?or1 no less c&id ?an le>n$1 is (t5 artificial1 &1 z appe>s to me1 re/s on d\btful gr\nds4 ,note #abaaf3 ,l9n4 ,tr4 vol4 xi4 p4 #ej4 ,note #abbaf3 ,ibid4 vol4 viii4 ,f :at has already be5 said1 ! read] w1 ,i tru/1 see :at an ext5sive & exact k ( ! vegetable _w1 & :at compreh5sive views ( aff9ity1 mu/ be requisite 9 a p]son :o has to modify ! natural sy/em s z to make x suit$ to receive & arrange a great numb] ( new plants1 extremely diff]5t f ! g5]a on :i* ! arrangem5t 0 fir/ =m$1 z ! ,new ,holl& g5]a = ! mo/ "p 74 ,he w also see h[ impossible x mu/ be to convey by extract or description any notion ( ! nature ( ^! modifications3 x is en\gh to say1 t !y h excit$ ! applause ( botani/s :]ev] ! sci5ce is /udi$1 & t !y h induc$ ,m4 de ,humboldt & 8 fell[-labor]s1 !mselves botani/s ( ! fir/ rank1 to d$icate "o ( _! works to him 9 t]ms ( ! /ronge/ admiration4#abcaf ,mr4 ,br[n has also publi%$ #daj special disquisitions on p>ts ( ! ,natural ,sy/em2 z on ,jussieu's ,proteace2#abdaf on ! ,asclepiade1 a natural family ( plants :i* mu/ be sep>at$ f ,jussieu's ,apocyne2#abeaf & o!r simil> labors4 ,note #abcaf3 ,rob]to ,br[n1 ,britanni>um glori atque ornam5to1 totam ,botanices sci5tiam +5io mirifico complect5ti4 c4 ,note #abdaf3 ,l9n4 ,tr4 vol4 x4 #ahji4 ,note #abeaf3 ,mem4 ( ,w]n]ian ,n4 ,h4 ,soc4 vol4 i4 #ahji4 ,we h1 ,i ?9k1 be5 l$1 by our survey ( ! hi/ory ( ,botany1 to ?is po9t2--t a ,natural ,me?od directs u to ! /udy ( ,physiology1 z ! only means by :i* we c rea* ! object4 ,?is conviction1 :i* 9 botany comes at ! end ( a long s]ies ( attempts at classification1 (f]s itself at once 9 ! natural hi/ory ( animals1 :]e ! physiological signification ( ! resemblances & diff]5ces is s mu* m obvi\s4 ,i %all n1 !re=e1 consid] any ( ^! bran*es ( natural hi/ory 9 detail z examples ( m]e classification4 ,!y w come be=e u1 if at all1 m prop]ly :5 we consid] ! classifications :i* dep5d on ! functions ( organs1 & on ! correspond+ modifications :i* !y necess>ily und]go2 t is1 :5 we trace ! results ( ,physiology4 ,b be=e we proce$ to sket* ! hi/ory ( t "p ( our k1 !re are a few po9ts 9 ! progress ( ,zoology1 und]/ood z a m]e classificatory sci5ce1 :i* appe> to me suffici5tly in/ructive to make x wor? our :ile to dwell ^u !m4 #bnd ,ed4 ,mr4 ,l9dley's rec5t "w1 ,! ,vegetable ,k+dom 7#ahdf71 may be look$ ^u z conta9+ ! be/ view ( ! rec5t hi/ory ( ,sy/ematic ,botany4 ,9 ! ,introduction to ?is "w1 ,mr4 ,l9dley has giv5 an acc\nt ( v>i\s rec5t works on ! subject2 z ,ag>dh's ,classes ,plant>um 7#ahbf72 ,p]leb's ,lehrbu* d] ,naturges*i*te d] ,pflanz5rei* 7#ahbf72 ,dumorti]'s ,florula ,belgica 7#ahbg72 ,b>tl+'s ,ord9es ,naturales ,plant>um 7#ahcj72 ,hess's ,ueb]si*t d] ,phan]og5is*5 ,natrli*5 ,pflanz5famili5 7#ahcb72 ,s*ulz's ,natrli*es ,sy/em des ,pflanz5rei*'s 7#ahcb72 ,horan9['s ,prim ,l9e ,sy/ematis ,natur 7#ahcd72 ,fries's ,corpus ,flor>um prov9cialium ,sueci 7#ahce72 ,m>t9s's ,conspectus ,regni ,vegetablis secundum ,*>act]es ,morphologicos 7#ahce72 ,sir ,edw>d ,f4 ,bromhead's ,sy/em1 z publi%$ 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,j\rnal & o!r ,j\rnals 7#ahcf-ahdj72 ,endli*]'s ,g5]a ,plant>um secundum ,ord9es ,naturales disposita 7#ahcf-ahdj72 ,p]leb's ,clavis ,classicum ,ord9um et ,famili>um 7#ahch72 ,adolphe ,brongni>t's ,enumration des ,g5res de ,plantes 7#ahdc72 ,meisn]'s ,plant>um vascul>ium ,g5]a secundum ,ord9es ,naturales dige/a 7#ahdc72 ,horan9['s ,tetractys ,natur1 seu ,sy/ema qu9quemembre omnium ,naturalium #daa 7#ahdc72 ,adri5 de ,jussieu's 9999,c\rs ,elm5taire d',hi/oire ,naturelle4 ,botanique 7#ahdd74 ,mr4 ,l9dley1 9 ?is z 9 all 8 works1 urges /rongly ! sup]ior value ( natural z comp>$ ) artificial sy/ems2 8 pr9ciples be+1 ,i ?9k1 ne>ly su* z ,i h attempt$ to e/abli% 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,sci5ces1 ,book viii41 ,*apt] ii4 ,he /ates t ! lead+ idea :i* has be5 kept 9 view 9 ! compilation ( 8 "w is ?is maxim ( ,fries3 ,s+ula sphra 7sectio7 ideam qu&am exponit1 indeque ejus "* notione simplici optime exprimitur2 & he is h5ce l$ to ?9k t ! true *>act]s ( all natural assemblages are extremely simple4 ,"o ( ! lead+ features 9 ,mr4 ,l9dley's sy/em is t he has ?r[n ! ,natural ,ord]s into gr\ps subord9ate to ! high] divisions ( ,classes & ,sub-classes4 ,he _h already attempt$ ?is1 9 imitation ( ,ag>dh & ,b>tl+1 9 8 ,nixus ,plant>um 7#ahch74 ,! gr\ps ( ,natural ,ord]s 7 !re call$ ,nixus 7t5d5cies72 & !y 7 d5ot$ by names end+ 9 ales2 b ^! gr\ps 7 fur!r subord9at$ to ,cohorts4 ,?us ! fir/ memb] ( ! arrangem5t 0 ,class #a4 ,,exog54 ,sub-class #a4 ,,polypetal4 ,cohort #a4 ,,album9os4 ,nixus #a4 ,ranales4 ,natural ,ord]s includ$ 9 ?is ,nixus1 ,ranunculace1 ,s>ac5ice1 ,papav]ace1 c4 ,9 ! ,vegetable ,k+dom1 ! gr\ps ( ,natural ,ord]s are t]m$ ,alliances4 ,9 ?is "w1 ! ,sub-classes ( ! ,,exog5s are f\r3 ,i4 ,,dicl9\s2 ,,ii4 ,,hypogyn\s2 ,,iii4 ,,p]igyn\s2 ,,iv4 ,,epigyn\s2 & ! ,alliances are subord9at$ to ^! )\t ! int]v5tion ( ,cohorts4 ,mr4 ,l9dley has also1 9 ?is z 9 o!r works1 giv5 ,engli% names = ! ,natural ,ord]s4 ,?us = ,nymphace1 ,ranunculace1 ,tam>icace1 ,zygophyllace1 ,eleatr9ace1 he sub/itutes ,wat]-,lilies1 ,cr[foots1 ,tam>isks1 ,bean-,cap]s1 & ,wat]-,pepp]s2 = ,malvace1 ,aurantiace1 ,g5tianace1 ,primulace1 ,urtiace1 ,euphorbiace1 he employs ,mall[-worts1 ,citron-worts1 ,g5tian-worts1 ,prim-worts1 ,nettle-worts1 ,spurge-worts2 & ! t]ms ,or*ids1 ,hippurids1 ,am>yllids1 ,irids1 ,typhads1 ,arads1 ,cucurbits1 are tak5 z ,engli% equival5ts = ,or*idace1 ,haloragace1 ,am>yllidace1 ,iridace1 ,typhace1 ,arace1 ,cucurbitace4 ,all p]sons :o wi% success to ! /udy ( botany 9 ,engl& mu/ rejoice to see x t5d to assume ?is idiomatic %ape4 #dab ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,sy/ematic ,,zoology4 ,,! hi/ory ( ,sy/ematic ,botany1 z we h pres5t$ x1 may be consid]$ z a suffici5t type ( ! g5]al ord] ( progression 9 ! sci5ces ( classification4 ,x has appe>$1 9 ! survey :i* we h _h to give1 t ?is sci5ce1 no less ?an ^? :i* we fir/ consid]$1 has be5 =m$ by a s]ies ( inductive processes1 & has1 9 its hi/ory1 ,epo*s at :i*1 by su* processes1 decid$ advances 7 made4 ,! important /ep 9 su* cases is1 ! seiz+ ^u "s artificial m>k :i* con=ms to natural resemblances2--"s basis ( arrangem5t & nom5clature by means ( :i* true propositions ( consid]able g5]ality c be enunciat$4 ,! advance ( o!r classificatory sci5ces1 z well z botany1 mu/ consi/ ( su* /eps2 & _! c\rse1 l t ( botany1 mu/ 7if we att5d only to ! real additions made to k17 be gradual & progressive1 f ! e>lie/ times to ! pres5t4 ,to exemplify ?is cont9u$ & con/ant progression 9 ! :ole range ( ,zoology1 w\ld require va/ k & great labor2 & is1 p]haps1 ! less necess>y1 aft] we h dwelt s long on ! hi/ory ( ,botany1 consid]$ 9 ! same po9t ( view4 ,b !re are a few obs]vations respect+ ,zoology 9 g5]al :i* we are l$ to make 9 consequ5ce ( /atem5ts rec5tly promulgat$2 = ^! /atem5ts seem to repres5t ! hi/ory ( ,zoology z hav+ foll[$ a c\rse v diff]5t f t :i* we h j ascrib$ to ! classificatory sci5ces 9 g5]al4 ,x is held by "s naturali/s1 t n only ! =mation ( a sy/ematic classification 9 ,zoology dates z f> back z ,ari/otle2 b t 8 classification is1 9 _m respects1 sup]ior to "s ( ! mo/ admir$ & rec5t attempts ( mod]n times4 ,if ?is 7 really ! case1 x w\ld %[ t at lea/ ! idea ( a ,sy/ematic ,classification _h be5 =m$ & develop$ long previ\s to ! p]iod to :i* we h assign$ su* a /ep2 & x w\ld be difficult to reconcile su* an e>ly maturity ( ,zoology ) ! conviction1 :i* we h _h impress$ ^u u by ! o!r #dac p>ts ( our hi/ory1 t n only labor b "t1 n only "o man ( g5ius b sev]al1 & ^? succe$+ ea* o!r1 are requisite to ! =mation ( any consid]able sci5ce4 ,b1 9 reality1 ! /atem5ts to :i* we ref]1 respect+ ! sci5tific "* ( ,ari/otle's ,zoological sy/em1 are altoge!r )\t f\ndation2 & ?is sci5ce confirms ! lessons taught u by all ! o!rs4 ,! mis/atem5ts respect+ ,ari/otle's doctr9es are on ?is acc\nt s important1 & are s curi\s 9 !mselves1 t ,i mu/ dwell ^u !m a little4 ,ari/otle's n9e ,books ,on ,animals are a "w enum]at+ ! diff]5ces ( animals 9 almo/ all conceivable respects2--9 ! organs ( s5se1 ( motion1 ( nutrition1 ! int]ior anatomy1 ! ext]ior cov]+1 ! mann] ( life1 gr[?1 g5]ation1 & _m o!r circum/ances4 ,^! diff]5ces are v philosophically e/imat$4 ,! correspond+ p>ts ( animals1 he says1#abfaf besides ! diff]5ces ( quality & circum/ance1 diff] 9 be+ m or few]1 great] or small]1 &1 speak+ g5]ally1 9 excess & defect4 ,?us "s animals h cru/ace\s cov]+s1 o!rs h>d %ells2 "s h long beaks1 "s %ort2 "s h _m w+s1 "s h few2 ,"s aga9 h p>ts :i* o!rs want1 z cre/s & spurs4 ,he !n makes ! foll[+ important rem>k3 ,"s animals h p>ts :i* correspond to ^? ( o!rs1 n z be+ ! same 9 species1 nor by excess & defect1 b by analogy2 ?us a claw is analog\s to a ?orn1 & a nail to a ho(1 & a h& to ! nipp] ( a lob/]1 & a fea!r to a scale2 = :at a fea!r is 9 a bird1 t is a scale 9 a fi%4 ,note #abfaf3 ,lib4 i4 c4 i4 ,x w n1 h[ev]1 be necess>y1 9 ord] to und]/& ,ari/otle = our pres5t purpose1 t we %\ld discuss 8 notion ( ,analogy4 ,he proce$s to /ate 8 object1#abgaf :i* is1 z we h said1 to describe ! diff]5ces ( animals 9 _! /ructure & habits4 ,he !n obs]ves1 t = /ructure1 we may take ,man = our type1#abhaf z be+ be/ kn[n to u2 & ! rema9d] ( ! fir/ ,book is occupi$ ) a description ( man's body1 beg9n+ f ! head1 & proce$+ to ! extremities4 ,note #abgaf3 ,lib4 i4 c4 ii4 ,note #abhaf3 c4 iii4 ,9 ! next ,book1 7f :i* are tak5 ! pr9cipal passages 9 :i* 8 mod]n comm5tators detect 8 sy/em17 he proce$s to comp>e ! diff]5ces ( p>ts 9 diff]5t animals1 accord+ to ! ord] :i* he _h obs]v$ 9 man4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] he speaks #dad ( ! head & neck ( animals2 9 ! second1 ( ! p>ts analog\s to arms & h&s2 9 ! ?ird1 ( ! brea/ & paps1 & s on2 & ?us he comes1 9 ! sev5? *apt]1 to ! legs1 feet1 & toes3 & 9 ! elev5?1 to ! tee?1 & s to o!r p>ts4 ,! con/ruction ( a classification consi/s 9 ! selection ( c]ta9 p>ts1 z ^? :i* %all em95tly & peculi>ly det]m9e ! place ( ea* species 9 our arrangem5t4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t su* an enum]ation ( diff]5ces z we h describ$1 suppos+ x complete1 conta9s ! mat]ials ( all possible classifications4 ,b we c ) no m propriety say t ! au?or ( su* an enum]ation ( diff]5ces is ! au?or ( any classification :i* c be made by means ( !m1 ?an we c say t a man :o writes d[n ! :ole alphabet writes d[n ! solution ( a giv5 riddle or ! answ] to a p>ticul> "q4 ,yet x is on no o!r gr\nd ?an ?is enum]ation1 s f> z ,i c discov]1 t ,ari/otle's ,sy/em has be5 s decid$ly spok5 (1#abiaf & exhibit$ 9 ! mo/ =mal tabul> %ape4 ,! au?ors ( ?is ,sy/ema ,ari/otelicum1 h select$1 ,i presume1 ! foll[+ passages f ! "w ,on ,animals1 z !y might h select$ any o!r2 & by arrang+ !m accord+ to a subord9ation unkn[n to ,ari/otle himself h made = him a s*eme :i* und\bt$ly be>s a great resemblance to ! mo/ complete sy/ems ( mod]n times4 ,note #abiaf3 ,l9nan ,transactions1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #bd4 ,book ,i41 *ap4 v4--,"s animals are vivip>\s1 "s ovip>\s1 "s v]mip>\s4 ,! vivip>\s are su* z man1 & ! horse1 & all ^? animals :i* h hair2 & ( aquatic animals1 ! :ale k9d1 z ! dolph9 & c>tilag9\s fi%es4 ,book ,,ii41 *ap4 vii4--,( quadrup$s :i* h blood & are vivip>\s1 "s are 7z to _! extremities17 _m-clov51 z ! h&s & feet ( man4 ,= "s are _m-to$1 z ! lion1 ! dog1 ! pan!r2 "s are bifid1 & h ho(s in/ead ( nails1 z ! %eep1 ! goat1 ! elephant1 ! hippopotamus2 & "s h undivid$ feet1 z ! solid-ho($ animals1 ! horse & ass4 ,! sw9e k9d %>e bo? *>act]s4 ,*ap4 ii4--,animals h also great diff]5ces 9 ! tee?1 bo? :5 comp>$ ) ea* o!r & ) man4 ,= all quadrup$s :i* h blood & are vivip>\s1 h tee?4 ,& 9 ! fir/ place1 "s are ambid5tal1#acjaf 7hav+ tee? 9 bo? jaws27 & "s #dae are n s1 want+ ! front tee? 9 ! upp] jaw4 ,"s h nei!r front tee? nor horns1 z ! camel2 "s h tusks1#acaaf z ! bo>1 "s h n4 ,"s h s]rat$#acbaf tee?1 z ! lion1 ! pan!r1 ! dog2 "s h ! tee? unv>i$1#accaf z ! horse & ! ox2 = ! animals :i* v>y _! cutt+-tee? h all s]rat$ tee?4 ,no animal has bo? tusks & horns2 nor has any animal ) s]rat$ tee? ei!r ( ^? weapons4 ,! great] "p h ! front tee? cutt+1 & ^? )9 broad4 ,note #acjaf3 4 ,note #acaaf3 4 ,note #acbaf3 4 ,note #accaf3 4 ,^! passages und\bt$ly conta9 mo/ ( ! diff]5ces on :i* ! ass]t$ ,ari/otelian classification re/s2 b ! classification is =m$ by us+ ! *>act]s drawn f ! tee?1 9 ord] to subdivide ^? tak5 f ! feet2 :]eas 9 ,ari/otle ^! two sets ( *>act]s /& side by side1 along ) doz5s ( o!rs2 any selection ( :i*1 employ$ accord+ to any arbitr>y me?od ( subord9ation1 might ) equal ju/ice be call$ ,ari/otle's sy/em4 ,:y1 = in/ance1 9 ord] to =m subdivisions ( animals1 %\ld we n g on ) ,ari/otle's cont9uation ( ! second ( ! above quot$ passages1 in/ead ( caprici\sly leap+ to ! ?ird8 ,( ^! "s h horns1 "s h none 4 4 4 ,"s h a fetlock-jo9t1#acdaf "s h none 4 4 4 ,( ^? :i* h horns1 "s h !m solid ?r\gh\t1 z ! /ag2 o!rs1 = ! mo/ "p1 holl[ 4 4 4 ,"s ca/ _! horns1 "s d n4 ,if x be repli$1 t we c\ld n1 by means ( su* *>act]s1 =m a t5able zoological sy/em2 we aga9 ask by :at "r we assume ,ari/otle to h made or attempt$ a sy/ematic arrangem5t1 :5 :at he has writt51 tak5 9 its natural ord]1 does n admit ( be+ con/ru$ into a sy/em4 ,note #acdaf3 4 ,aga91 :at is ! object ( any classification8 ,?is1 at lea/1 among o!rs4 ,to enable ! p]son :o uses x to /udy & describe m conv5i5tly ! objects ?us classifi$4 ,if1 !re=e1 ,ari/otle _h =m$ or adopt$ any sy/em ( arrangem5t1 we %\ld see x 9 ! ord] ( ! subjects 9 8 "w4 ,accord+ly1 s f> z he has a sy/em1 he pr(esses to make ?is use ( x4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! fif? ,book1 :]e he is proce$+ to treat ( ! diff]5t modes ( g5]ation ( animals1 he says1 ,z we =m]ly made a ,division ( animals accord+ to _! k9ds1 we mu/ n[1 9 ! same mann]1 give a g5]al survey ( _! ,hi/ory 774 ,except1 inde$1 t 9 ! =m] case we made our comm5cem5t by a description #daf ( man1 b 9 ! pres5t in/ance we mu/ speak ( him la/1 because he requires mo/ /udy4 ,we mu/ beg9 !n ) ^? animals :i* h %ells2 we mu/ g on to ^? :i* h s(t] cov]+s1 z cru/acea1 s(t animals1 & insects2 aft] ^!1 fi%es1 bo? vivip>\s & ovip>\s2 !n birds2 !n l& animals1 bo? vivip>\s & ovip>\s4 ,x is cle> f ?is passage t ,ari/otle _h c]ta9 wide & indef9ite views ( classification1 :i* ?\gh n v exact1 are /ill highly cr$itable to him2 b x is equally cle> t he 0 q unconsci\s ( ! classification t has be5 ascrib$ to him4 ,if he _h adopt$ t or any o!r sy/em1 ?is 0 precisely ! place 9 :i* he mu/ h ref]r$ to & employ$ x4 ,! honor due to ! /up5d\s accumulation ( zoological k :i* ,ari/otle's works conta91 _c be t>ni%$ by our d5y+ him ! cr$it ( a sy/em :i* he nev] dreamt ( & :i*1 f ! nature ( ! progress ( sci5ce1 c\ld n possibly be con/ruct$ at t p]iod4 ,b1 9 reality1 we may ex*ange ! mi/ak5 claims :i* we h be5 conte/+ = a bett]1 because a tru] praise4 ,ari/otle does %[1 z f> z c\ld be done at 8 "t1 a p]ception ( ! ne$ ( gr\ps1 & ( names ( gr\ps1 9 ! /udy ( ! animal k+dom2 & ?us may ju/ly be held up z ! great figure 9 ! ,prelude to ! ,=mation ( ,sy/ems :i* took place 9 m advanc$ sci5tific times4 ,?is appe>s1 9 "s measure1 f ! passage la/ quot$4 ,= n only is !re1 9 t1 a cle> recognition ( ! value & object ( a me?od 9 natural hi/ory2 b ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! animal k+dom !re propos$ has consid]able sci5tific m]it1 & is1 = ! "t1 v philosophical4 ,b !re are passages 9 8 "w 9 :i* he %[s a wi% to c>ry ! pr9ciple ( arrangem5t m into detail4 ,?us1 9 ! fir/ ,book1 be=e proce$+ to 8 survey ( ! diff]5ces ( animals1#aceaf aft] speak+ ( su* classes z ,quadrup$s4 ,birds1 ,fi%es1 ,cetace\s1 ,te/ace\s1 ,cru/ace\s ,animals1 ,mollusks1 ,insects1 he says1 7*ap4 vii47 ,animals _c be divid$ into l>ge g5]a1 9 :i* "o k9d includes _m k9ds4 ,= "s k9ds are unique1 & h no diff]5ce ( species1 z man4 ,"s h su* k9ds1 b h no names = !m4 ,?us all quadrup$s :i* h n w+s1 h blood4 ,b ( ^!1 "s are vivip>\s1 "s ovip>\s4 ,^? :i* are #dag vivip>\s h n all hair2 ^? :i* are ovip>\s h scales4 ,we h "h a manife/ly int5tional subord9ation ( *>act]s3 & a k9d ( regret t we h n names = ! classes "h indicat$2 su*1 = in/ance1 z vivip>\s quadrup$s hav+ hair4 ,b he foll[s ! subject into fur!r detail4 ,( ! class ( vivip>\s quadrup$s1 he cont9ues1 !re are _m g5]a1#acfaf b ^! aga9 are )\t names1 except specific names1 su* z man1 lion1 /ag1 horse1 dog1 & ! l4 ,yet !re is a g5us ( animals t h names1 z ! horse1 ! ass1 ! oreus1 ! g9nus1 ! innus1 & ! animal :i* 9 ,syria is call$ hem9us 7mule72 = ^! are call$ mules1 f _! resemblance only2 n be+ mules1 = !y bre$ ( _! own k9d4 ,:]e=e1 he adds1 t is1 because we d n possess recogniz$ g5]a & g5]ic names ( ?is k9d1 we mu/ take ! species sep>ately1 & /udy ! nature ( ea*4 ,note #aceaf3 4 ,note #acfaf3 99994 ,^! passages af=d u suffici5t gr\nd = plac+ ,ari/otle at ! head ( ^? naturali/s to :om ! fir/ views ( ! necessity ( a zoological sy/em are due4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 v long be=e any wor?y successor appe>$1 = no additional /ep 0 made till mod]n times4 ,:5 ,natural ,hi/ory aga9 came to be /udi$ 9 ,nature1 ! bus9ess ( ,classification1 z we h se51 =c$ itself ^u m5's att5tion1 & 0 pursu$ ) int]e/ 9 animals1 z 9 plants4 ,! /eps ( its advance 7 simil> 9 ! two cases2--by successive naturali/s1 v>i\s sy/ems ( artificial m>ks 7 select$ ) a view to precision & conv5i5ce2--& ^! artificial sy/ems assum$ ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 natural gr\ps1 & ( a natural sy/em to :i* !y gradually t5d$4 ,b !re 0 ?is diff]5ce betwe5 botany & zoology3--! ref]5ce to physiological pr9ciples1 :i*1 z we h rem>k$1 influ5c$ ! natural sy/ems ( vegetables 9 a lat5t & obscure mann]1 botani/s be+ guid$ by its light1 b h>dly aw>e t !y 7 s1 affect$ ! /udy ( sy/ematic zoology m directly & evid5tly4 ,= m5 c nei!r ov]look ! g5]al physiological features ( animals1 nor avoid be+ sway$ by !m 9 _! judgm5ts ( ! aff9ities ( diff]5t species4 ,?us ! classifications ( zoology t5d$ m & m to a union ) comp>ative anatomy1 z ! sci5ce 0 m & m improv$4#acgaf ,b comp>ative anatomy belongs to ! subject ( ! next ,book2 & any?+ x may be prop] to say respect+ its influ5ce ^u zoological arrangem5ts1 w prop]ly f9d a place !re4 #dah ,note #acgaf3 ,cuvi]1 ,le4 d',anat4 ,comp4 vol4 i4 p4 #ag4 ,x w appe>1 & inde$ x h>dly requires to be prov$1 t ^? /eps 9 sy/ematic zoology :i* are due to ! light ?r[n ^u ! subject by physiology1 are ! result ( a long s]ies ( labors by v>i\s naturali/s1 & h be51 l o!r advances 9 sci5ce1 l$ to & produc$ by ! g5]al progress ( su* k4 ,we c h>dly expect t ! classificatory sci5ces c und]go any mat]ial improvem5t :i* is n ( ?is k9d4 ,v rec5tly1 h[ev]1 "s au?ors h attempt$ to introduce into ^! sci5ces c]ta9 pr9ciples :i* d n1 at fir/ sight1 appe> z a cont9uation & ext5sion ( ! previ\s rese>*es ( comp>ative anatomi/s4 ,i speak1 9 p>ticul>1 ( ! doctr9es ( a ,circul> ,progression 9 ! s]ies ( aff9ity2 ( a ,qu9>y ,division ( su* circul> gr\ps2 & ( a relation ( ,analogy betwe5 ! memb]s ( su* gr\ps1 entirely di/9ct f ! relation ( ,aff9ity4 ,! doctr9e ( ,circul> ,progression has be5 prop\nd$ pr9cipally by ,mr4 ,macleay2 al?\gh1 z he has %[n1#achaf !re are sugge/ions ( ! same k9d to be f\nd 9 o!r writ]s4 ,s f> z ?is view negatives ! doctr9e ( a m]e l9e> progression 9 nature1 :i* w\ld place ea* g5us 9 contact only ) ! prec$+ & succe$+ ones1 & s f> z x requires u to att5d to m v>i$ & ramifi$ resemblances1 !re c be no d\bt t x is support$ by ! result ( all ! attempts to =m natural sy/ems4 ,b :e!r t assemblage ( circles ( arrangem5t :i* is n[ (f]$ to naturali/s1 be ! true & only way ( exhibit+ ! natural relations ( organiz$ bodies1 is a mu* m difficult "q1 & "o :i* ,i %all n "h attempt to exam9e2 al?\gh x w be f\nd1 ,i ?9k1 t ^? analogies ( sci5ce :i* we h _h to /udy1 w\ld n fail to ?r[ "s light ^u su* an inquiry4 ,! preval5ce ( an inv>iable num]ical law 9 ! divisions ( natural gr\ps1 7z ! numb] five is ass]t$ to prevail by ,mr4 ,macleay1 ! numb] t5 by ,fries1 & o!r numb]s by o!r writ]s71 w\ld be a curi\s fact1 if e/abli%$2 b x is easy to see t no?+ %ort ( ! mo/ consummate k ( natural hi/ory1 jo9$ ) extreme cle>ness ( view & calmness ( judgm5t1 c\ld enable any "o to pron\nce on ! attempts :i* h be5 made to e/abli% su* a pr9ciple4 ,b ! doctr9e ( a relation ( ,analogy di/9ct f ,aff9ity1 9 ! mann] :i* has rec5tly be5 taught1 seems to be obvi\sly at v>iance ) t gradual approximation ( ! classificatory to ! #dai physiological sci5ces1 :i* has appe>$ to u to be ! g5]al t5d5cy ( real k4 ,x seems difficult to und]/& h[ a ref]5ce to su* relations z ^? :i* are (f]$ z examples ( analogy#aciaf c be o!rwise ?an a retrograde /ep 9 sci5ce4 ,note #achaf3 ,l9n4 ,trans4 vol4 xvi4 p4 #i4 ,note #aciaf3 ,= example1 ! goatsuck] has an aff9ity ) ! swall[2 b x has an analogy ) ! bat1 because bo? fly at ! same h\r ( ! day1 & fe$ 9 ! same mann]4--,swa9son1 ,geography & ,classification ( ,animals1 p4 #abi4 ,)\t1 h[ev]1 n[ dwell+ ^u ^! po9ts1 ,i w treat a little m 9 detail ( "o ( ! bran*es ( ,zoology4 #bnd ,ed4 ,= ! m rec5t progress ( ,sy/ematic ,zoology1 see 9 ! ,reports ( ! ,briti% ,association1 9 #ahcd1 ,mr4 ,l4 ,j5yns's ,report an ! ,rec5t ,progress & ,pres5t ,/ate ( ,zoology1 & 9 #ahdd1 ,mr4 ,/rickl&'s ,report on ! ,rec5t ,progress & ,pres5t ,/ate ( ,orni?ology4 ,9 ^! ,reports1 ! que/ions ( ! ,circul> ,arrangem5t1 ! ,qu9>y ,sy/em1 & ! relation ( ,analogy & ,aff9ity are discuss$4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,i*?yology4 ,,if x _h be5 already obs]v$ & admitt$ t sci5ces ( ! same k9d foll[1 & mu/ foll[1 ! same c\rse 9 ! ord] ( _! developm5t1 x w\ld be unnecess>y to give a hi/ory ( any special bran* ( ,sy/ematic ,zoology2 s9ce botany has already af=d$ u a suffici5t example ( ! progress ( ! classificatory sci5ces4 ,b we may be excus$ = introduc+ a sket* ( ! advance ( "o dep>tm5t ( zoology1 s9ce we are l$ to ! attempt by ! peculi> advantage we possess 9 hav+ a complete hi/ory ( ! subject writt5 ) great c>e1 & br\ght up to ! pres5t "t1 by a naturali/ ( unequall$ tal5ts & k4 ,i speak ( ,cuvi]'s ,hi/orical ,view ( ,i*?yology1 :i* =ms ! fir/ *apt] ( 8 great "w on t "p ( natural hi/ory4 ,! place & (fice 9 ! progress ( ?is sci5ce1 :i* is assign$ to ea* p]son by ,cuvi]1 w probably n be lightly conte/$4 ,x w1 !re=e1 be no small confirmation ( ! ju/ice ( ! views on :i* ! #dbj di/ribution ( ! ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( botany 0 f\nd$1 if ,cuvi]'s repres5tation ( ! hi/ory ( i*?yology (f]s to u obvi\sly a di/ribution almo/ id5tical4 ,we %all f9d t ?is is s2--t we h1 9 zoology z 9 botany1 a p]iod ( unsy/ematic k2 a p]iod ( misappli$ erudition2 an epo* ( ! discov]y ( fix$ *>act]s2 a p]iod 9 :i* _m sy/ems 7 put =w>d2 a /ruggle ( an artificial & a natural me?od2 & a gradual t5d5cy ( ! natural me?od to a manife/ly physiological "*4 ,a few ref]5ces to ,cuvi]'s hi/ory w enable u to illu/rate ^! & o!r analogies4 ,p]iod ( ,unsy/ematic ,k4--,x w\ld be easy to collect a numb] ( ! fabul\s /ories ( e>ly times1 :i* =m$ a portion ( ! imag9>y k ( m5 conc]n+ animals z well z plants4 ,b pass+ ov] ^!1 we come to a long p]iod & a great collection ( writ]s1 :o1 9 v>i\s ways1 & ) v>i\s degrees ( m]it1 contribut$ to augm5t ! k :i* exi/$ conc]n+ fi%1 :ile z yet !re 0 h>dly ev] any attempt at a classification ( t prov9ce ( ! animal k+dom4 ,among ^! writ]s1 ,ari/otle is by f> ! mo/ important4 ,inde$ he c>ri$ on 8 zoological rese>*es "u advantages :i* r>ely fall to ! lot ( ! naturali/2 if x be true1 z ,a!nu & ,pl9y /ate1#adjaf t ,alex&] gave him sums :i* am\nt$ to n9e hundr$ tal5ts1 to enable him to collect mat]ials = 8 hi/ory ( animals1 & put at 8 disposal sev]al ?\s&s ( m5 to be employ$ 9 hunt+1 fi%+1 & procur+ in=mation = him4 ,! works ( 8 on ,natural ,hi/ory :i* rema9 to u are1 n9e ,books ,( ! ,hi/ory ( ,animals2 f\r1 ,on ! ,p>ts ( ,animals2 five1 ,on ! ,g5]ation ( ,animals2 "o1 ,on ! ,go+ ( ,animals2 "o1 ,( ! ,s5sations1 & ! ,organs ( !m2 "o1 ,on ,sleep+ & ,wak+2 "o1 ,on ! ,motion ( ,animals2 "o1 ,on ! ,l5g? & ,%ortness ( ,life2 "o1 ,on ,y\? & ,old ,age2 "o1 ,on ,life & ,dea?2 "o1 ,on ,respiration4 ,! k ( ! ext]nal & int]nal con=mation ( animals1 _! habits1 in/9cts1 & uses1 :i* ,ari/otle displays 9 ^! works1 is spok5 ( z some?+ wond]ful ev5 to ! naturali/s ( our own "t4 ,& he may be tak5 z a suffici5t repres5tative ( ! :ole ( ! p]iod ( :i* we speak2 = he is1 says ,cuvi]1#adaaf n only ! fir/1 b ! only "o ( ! anci5ts :o has treat$ ( ! natural hi/ory ( fi%es 7! prov9ce to :i* #dba we n[ conf9e ourselves17 9 a sci5tific po9t ( view1 & 9 a way :i* %[s g5ius4 ,note #adjaf3 ,cuv4 ,hi/4 ,nat4 des ,poissons1 i4 #ac4 ,note #adaaf3 ,cuv4 p4 #ah4 ,we may pass ov]1 !re=e1 ! o!r anci5t au?ors f ^: writ+s ,cuvi]1 ) great le>n+ & sagacity1 has levi$ contributions to ! hi/ory ( i*?yology2 z ,!ophra/us1 ,ovid1 ,pl9y1 ,oppian1 ,a!nu1 lian1 ,ausonius1 ,gal54 ,we may1 too1 leave unnotic$ ! compil]s ( ! middle ages1 :o did little b ab/ract & disfigure ! portions ( natural hi/ory :i* !y f\nd 9 ! anci5ts4 ,i*?yological1 l o!r k1 0 sc>cely s\ght except 9 books1 & on t v acc\nt 0 n und]/ood :5 x 0 f\nd4 ,p]iod ( ,erudition4--,bett] times at l5g? came1 & m5 began to obs]ve nature = !mselves4 ,! ?ree great au?ors :o are held to be ! f\nd]s ( mod]n i*?yology1 appe>$ 9 ! middle ( ! sixte5? c5tury2 ^! 7 ,blon1 ,rondelet1 & ,salviani1 :o all publi%$ ab\t #aeee4 ,all ! ?ree1 v diff]5t f ! compil]s :o fill$ ! int]val f ,ari/otle to !m1 !mselves saw & exam9$ ! fi%es :i* !y describe1 & h giv5 fai?ful repres5tations ( !m4 ,b1 resembl+ 9 t respect ! f\nd]s ( mod]n botany1 ,briassavola1 ,ruellius1 ,tragus1 & o!rs1 !y resembl$ !m 9 ?is also1 t !y attempt$ to make _! own obs]vations a comm5t>y ^u ! anci5t writ]s4 ,fai?ful to ! _s ( _! "t1 !y are f> m c>eful to make out ! names :i* ea* fi% bore 9 ! anci5t _w1 & to br+ toge!r scraps ( _! hi/ory f ! au?ors 9 :om ^! names occur1 ?an to describe !m 9 a lucid mann]2 s t )\t _! figures1 says ,cuvi]1 x w\ld be almo/ z difficult to discov] _! species z ^? ( ! anci5ts4 ,! difficulty ( describ+ & nam+ species s t !y c be recogniz$1 is little appreciat$ at fir/1 al?\gh x is 9 reality ! ma9-spr+ ( ! progress ( ! sci5ces ( classification4 ,ari/otle nev] dreamt t ! nom5clature :i* 0 9 use 9 8 "t c\ld ev] become obscure2#adbaf h5ce he has tak5 no precaution to enable 8 read]s to recognize ! species ( :i* he speaks2 & 9 him & 9 o!r anci5t au?ors1 x requires mu* labor & great felicity ( div9ation to det]m9e :at ! names mean4 ,! p]ception ( ?is difficulty among mod]n naturali/s l$ to sy/ems1 & to nom5clature f\nd$ ^u sy/em2 b ^! did n come into #dbb be+ imm$iately at ! "t ( :i* we speak2 nor till ! evil _h gr[n to a m inconv5i5t magnitude4 ,note #adbaf3 ,cuvi]1 p4 #ag4 ,p]iod ( ,accumulation ( ,mat]ials4 ,exotic ,collections4--,! fi%es ( ,europe 7 = "s "t ! pr9cipal objects ( /udy2 b ^? ( di/ant regions soon came into notice4#adcaf ,9 ! sev5te5? c5tury ! ,dut* conqu]$ ,brazil1 & ,george ,m>grave1 employ$ by !m1 describ$ ! natural productions ( ! c\ntry1 & especially ! fi%es4 ,bontius1 9 l mann]1 describ$ "s ( ^? ( ,batavia4 ,?us ^! writ]s correspond to ,romphius & ,rhe$e 9 ! hi/ory ( botany4 ,_m o!rs might be m5tion$2 b we mu/ ha/5 to ! =mation ( sy/ems1 :i* is our ma9 object ( att5tion4 ,note #adcaf3 ,cuv4 p4 #dc4 ,epo* ( ! ,fixation ( ,*>act]s4 ,ray & ,will\ghby4--,9 botany1 z we h se51 ?\gh ,ray 0 "o ( ! fir/ :o inv5t$ a connect$ sy/em1 he 0 prec$$ at a consid]able int]val by ,csalp9us1 :o _h giv5 a g5u9e solution ( ! same problem4 ,x is n difficult to assign reasons :y a s\nd classification %\ld be discov]$ = plants at an e>li] p]iod ?an = fi%es4 ,! va/ly great] numb] ( ! kn[n species1 & ! facilities :i* belong to ! /udy ( vegetables1 give ! botani/ a great advantage2 & !re are num]ical relations ( a mo/ def9ite k9d 7= in/ance1 ! numb] ( p>ts ( ! se$-vessel employ$ by ,csalp9us z "o ( ! bases ( 8 sy/em71 :i* are tol]ably obvi\s 9 plants1 b :i* are n easily discov]$ 9 animals4 ,& ?us we f9d t 9 i*?yology1 ,ray1 ) 8 pupil & fri5d ,will\ghby1 appe>s z ! fir/ f\nd] ( a t5able sy/em4#addaf ,note #addaf3 ,francisci ,will\ghbeii1 ,armig]i1 de ,hi/oria ,piscium1 libri iv4 jussu et sumptibus ,societatis ,regi ,lond95sis editi1 c4 ,totum opus recognovit1 coaptavit1 supplevit1 librum etiam primum et secundum adjecit ,joh4 ,raius4 ,ox=d1 #affh4 ,! fir/ great division 9 ?is sy/em is into c>tilag9\s & bony fi%es2 a prim>y division1 :i* _h be5 recogniz$ by ,ari/otle1 & is reta9$ by ,cuvi] 9 8 late/ labors4 ,! subdivisions are det]m9$ by ! g5]al =m ( ! fi% 7z long or flat71 by ! tee?1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( v5tral f9s1 ! numb] ( dorsal f9s1 & ! nature ( ! sp9es ( ! f9s1 z s(t or prickly4 ,mo/ ( ^! *>act]s h pres]v$ _! importance 9 lat] sy/ems2 especially ! la/1 :i*1 "u ! t]ms malacopt]ygian & acan?opt]ygian1 holds a place 9 ! be/ rec5t arrangem5ts4 #dbc ,t ?is sy/em 0 a true fir/ approximation to a solution ( ! problem1 appe>s to be all[$ by naturali/s4 ,al?\gh1 says ,cuvi]1#adeaf !re are 9 x no g5]a well def9$ & well limit$1 /ill 9 _m places ! species are br\ght toge!r v naturally1 & 9 su* a way t a few words ( explanation w\ld suffice to =m1 f ! gr\ps ?us pres5t$ to u1 sev]al ( ! g5]a :i* h s9ce be5 receiv$4 ,ev5 9 botany1 z we h se51 g5]a 7 h>dly ma9ta9$ ) any degree ( precision1 till ! b9>y nom5clature ( ,l9nu made ?is division a matt] ( su* imm5se conv5i5ce4 ,note #adeaf3 ,cuvi]1 p4 #eg4 ,! am\nt ( ?is conv5i5ce1 ! value ( a brief & sure nom5clature1 _h n yet be5 duly e/imat$4 ,! "w ( ,will\ghby =ms an epo*1#adfaf & a happy epo*1 9 ! hi/ory ( i*?yology2 = ! sci5ce1 once sy/ematiz$1 c\ld di/+ui% ! new f ! old1 arrange me?odically1 describe cle>ly4 ,yet1 because ,will\ghby _h no nom5clature ( 8 own1 & no fix$ names = 8 g5]a1 8 imm$iate influ5ce 0 n great4 ,i w n attempt to trace ?is influ5ce 9 succe$+ au?ors1 b proce$ to ! next important /ep 9 ! progress ( sy/em4 ,note #adfaf3 p4 #eh4 ,improvem5t ( ! ,sy/em4 ,art$i4--,pet] ,art$i 0 a c\ntryman & intimate fri5d ( ,l9nu2 & r5d]$ to i*?yology ne>ly ! same s]vices :i* ,l9nu r5d]$ to botany4 ,9 8 ,philosophia ,i*?yologica1 he analys$#adgaf all ! int]ior & ext]ior p>ts ( animals2 he creat$ a precise t]m9ology = ! diff]5t =ms ( :i* ^! p>ts are susceptible2 he laid d[n rules = ! nom5clature ( g5]a & species2 besides 8 improvem5ts ( ! subdivisions ( ! class4 ,x is impossible n to be /ruck ) ! close resemblance betwe5 ^! /eps1 & ^? :i* are due to ! ,fundam5ta ,botanica4 ,! latt] "w appe>$ 9 #agcf1 ! =m] 0 publi%$ by ,l9nu1 aft] ! dea? ( ! au?or1 9 #agch2 b ,l9nu _h already1 z e>ly z #agce1 made use ( ,art$i's manuscripts 9 ! i*?yological "p ( 8 ,sy/ema ,natur4 ,we _c d\bt t ! two "y naturali/s 7!y 7 ne>ly ( ! same age71 mu/ h _h a great influ5ce ^u ea* o!r's views & labors2 & x w\ld be difficult n[ to asc]ta9 :at portion ( ! peculi> m]its ( ! ,l9nan re=m 0 d]iv$ f ,art$i4 ,b we may rem>k t1 9 i*?yology at lea/1 ,art$i appe>s to h be5 a naturali/ ( m orig9al views & pr(\nd] philosophy ?an 8 fri5d & editor1 :o aft]w>ds himself took up ! subject4 #dbd ,! re=ms ( ,l9nu1 9 all p>ts ( natural hi/ory1 appe> z if !y 7 ma9ly dictat$ by a love ( elegance1 symmetry1 cle>ness1 & def9it5ess2 b ! improvem5t ( ! i*?yological sy/em by ,art$i seems to h be5 a /ep 9 ! progress to a natural arrangem5t4 ,8 g5]a1#adhaf :i* are =ty-five 9 numb]1 are s well con/itut$1 t !y h almo/ all be5 pres]v$2 & ! subdivisions :i* ! con/antly-increas+ numb] ( species has compell$ 8 successors to introduce1 h v r>ely be5 su* t !y h l$ to ! transposition ( 8 g5]a4 ,note #adgaf3 p4 #bj4 ,note #adhaf3 ,cuvi]1 p4 #ga4 ,9 its bases1 h[ev]1 ,art$i's 0 an artificial sy/em4 ,8 *>act]s 7 positive & decisive1 f\nd$ 9 g5]al ^u ! numb] ( rays ( ! membrane ( ! gills1 ( :i* he 0 ! fir/ to m>k ! importance2--^u ! relative position ( ! f9s1 ^u _! numb]1 ^u ! "p ( ! m\? :]e ! tee? are f\nd1 ^u ! con=mation ( ! scales4 ,yet1 9 "s cases1 he has rec\rse to ! int]ior anatomy4 ,l9nu himself at fir/ did n v5ture to deviate f ! foot/eps ( a fri5d1 :o1 9 ?is sci5ce1 _h be5 8 ma/]4 ,b 9 #ageh1 9 ! t5? edition ( ! ,sy/ema ,natur1 he *ose to dep5d ^u himself & devis$ a new i*?yological me?od4 ,he divid$ "s g5]a1 unit$ o!rs1 gave to ! species trivial names & *>act]i/ic phrases1 & add$ _m species to ^? ( ,art$i4 ,yet 8 innovations are = ! mo/ "p disapprov$ ( by ,cuvi]2 z 8 transf]r+ ! *ondropt]ygian fi%es ( ,art$i to ! class ( reptiles1 "u ! title ( ,amphybia nantes2 & 8 reject+ ! di/9ction ( acan?opt]ygian & malacopt]ygian1 :i*1 z we h se51 _h prevail$ f ! "t ( ,will\ghby1 & introduc+ 9 its /ead a di/ribution f\nd$ on ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! v5tral f9s1 & on _! situation ) reg>d to ! pectoral f9s4 ,no?+1 says ,cuvi]1 m breaks ! true connexions ( g5]a ?an ^! ord]s ( apodes1 jugul>es1 ?oracici1 & abdom9ales4 ,?us ,l9nu1 ?\gh ackn[l$g+ ! value & importance ( natural ord]s1 0 n happy 9 8 attempts to con/ruct a sy/em :i* %\ld lead to !m4 ,9 8 detection ( good *>act]s = an artificial sy/em he 0 m =tunate4 ,he 0 always att5tive to numb]1 z a "*2 & he _h ! v great m]it#adiaf ( introduc+ into ! classification ! numb] ( rays ( ! f9s ( ea* species4 ,?is m>k is "o ( great importance & use4 ,& ?is1 z well z #dbe o!r bran*es ( natural hi/ory1 d]iv$ incalculable advantages f ! m g5]al m]its ( ! illu/ri\s ,sw$e2#aejaf--! precision ( ! *>act]s1 ! conv5i5ce ( a well-settl$ t]m9ology1 ! facility af=d$ by ! b9>y nom5clature4 ,^! recomm5dations gave him a pre-em95ce :i* 0 ackn[l$g$ by almo/ all ! naturali/s ( 8 "t1 & display$ by ! almo/ univ]sal adoption ( 8 nom5clature1 9 zoology1 z well z 9 botany2 & by ! almo/ exclusive employm5t ( 8 di/ributions ( classes1 h[ev] imp]fect & artificial !y might be4 ,note #adiaf3 p4 #gd4 ,note #aejaf3 ,cuvi]1 p4 #he4 ,& ev5#aeaaf if ,l9nu _h _h no o!r m]it ?an ! impulse he gave to ! pursuit ( natural sci5ce1 ?is alone w\ld suffice to immortalize 8 "n4 ,9 r5d]+ natural hi/ory easy1 or at lea/ 9 mak+ x appe> s1 he diffus$ a g5]al ta/e = x4 ,! great took x up ) int]e/2 ! "y1 full ( ardor1 ru%$ =w>ds 9 all directions1 ) ! sole int5tion ( complet+ 8 sy/em4 ,! civiliz$ _w 0 eag] to build ! edifice :i* ,l9nu _h plann$4 ,note #aeaaf3 ,ib4 p4 #hh4 ,?is _s1 among o!r results1 produc$ voyages ( natural hi/orical rese>*1 s5t =? by nations & sov]eigns4 ,george ! ,?ird ( ,engl& _h ! honor ( sett+ ! example 9 ?is noble c>e]1 by s5d+ out ! exp$itions ( ,byron1 ,wallis1 & ,c>t]et1 9 #agfe4 ,^! 7 foll[$ by ^? ( ,b\ga9ville1 ,cook1 ,=/]1 & o!rs4 ,russia also scatt]$ sev]al sci5tific exp$itions ?r\gh h] va/ dom9ions2 & pupils ( ,l9nu s\ght ! icy %ores ( ,gre5l& & ,icel&1 9 ord] to apply 8 nom5clature to ! productions ( ^? climes4 ,b we ne$ n attempt to convey any idea ( ! va/ /ores ( natural hi/orical treasures :i* 7 ?us collect$ f e "p ( ! globe4 ,i %all n endeavor to foll[ ,cuvi] 9 giv+ an acc\nt ( ! great works ( natural hi/ory to :i* ?is accumulation ( mat]ials gave rise2 su* z ! magnific5t "w ( ,blo* on ,fi%es1 :i* appe>$ 9 #aghb-aghe2 nor ne$ ,i attempt1 by 8 assi/ance1 to *>act]ize or place 9 _! due position ! sev]al sy/ems ( classification propos$ ab\t ?is "t4 ,b 9 ! c\rse ( ^! v>i\s essays1 ! di/9ction ( ! artificial & natural me?ods ( classification came m cle>ly into view ?an be=e2 & ?is is a po9t s important to ! philosophy ( ! subject1 t we mu/ devote a few words to x4 #dbf ,sep>ation ( ! ,artificial & ,natural ,me?ods 9 ,i*?yology4--,x has already be5 said t all s-call$ artificial me?ods ( classification mu/ be natural1 at lea/ z to ! n>r[e/ memb]s ( ! sy/em2 ?us ! artificial ,l9nan me?od is natural z to species1 & ev5 z to g5]a4 ,& on ! o!r h&1 all propos$ natural me?ods1 s long z !y rema9 unmodifi$1 are artificial z to _! *>act]i/ic m>ks4 ,?us a ,natural ,me?od is an attempt to provide positive & di/9ct *>act]s = ! wid] z well z = ! n>r[] natural gr\ps4 ,^! consid]ations are applicable to zoology z well z to botany4 ,b ! "q1 h[ we "k natural gr\ps be=e we f9d m>ks = !m1 01 9 botany1 z we h se51 susceptible only ( vague & obscure answ]s3--! m9d =ms !m1 x 0 said1 by tak+ ! aggregate ( all ! *>act]s2 or by e/abli%+ a subord9ation ( *>act]s4 ,& ea* ( ^! answ]s _h its difficulty1 ( :i* ! solution appe>$ to be1 t 9 attempt+ to =m natural ord]s we are really guid$ by a lat5t undevelop$ e/imate ( physiological relations4 ,n[ ?is pr9ciple1 :i* 0 s dimly se5 9 ! /udy ( vegetables1 %9es out ) mu* great] cle>ness :5 we come to ! /udy ( animals1 9 :i* ! physiological relations ( ! p>ts are s manife/ t !y _c be ov]look$1 & h s /rong an attraction = our curiosity t we _c help hav+ our judgm5ts influ5c$ by !m4 ,h5ce ! sup]iority ( natural sy/ems 9 zoology w\ld probably be f> m g5]ally all[$ ?an 9 botany2 & no arrangem5t ( animals :i*1 9 a l>ge numb] ( in/ances1 violat$ /rong & cle> natural aff9ities1 w\ld be tol]at$ because x answ]$ ! purpose ( enabl+ u easily to f9d ! "n & place ( ! animal 9 ! artificial sy/em4 ,e sy/em ( zoological arrangem5t may be suppos$ to aspire to be a natural sy/em4 ,b accord+ to ! v>i\s habits ( ! m9ds ( sy/ematiz]s1 ?is object 0 pursu$ m or less /eadily & successfully2 & ^! diff]5ces came m & m into view ) ! increase ( k & ! multiplication ( attempts4 ,blo*1 ^: i*?yological labors h be5 m5tion$1 foll[$ 9 8 great "w ! me?od ( ,l9nu4 ,b t[>ds ! end ( 8 life he _h prep>$ a g5]al sy/em1 f\nd$ ^u "o s+le num]ical pr9ciple2--! numb] ( f9s2 j z ! sexual sy/em ( ,l9nu is f\nd$ ^u ! numb] ( /am9a2 & he made 8 subdivisions accord+ to ! position ( ! v5tral & pectoral f9s2 ! same "* :i* ,l9nu _h employ$ = 8 prim>y #dbg division4 ,he c\ld n h done bett]1 says ,cuvi]1#aebaf if 8 object _h be5 to turn into ridicule all artificial me?ods1 & to %[ to :at absurd comb9ations !y may lead4 ,note #aebaf3 p4 #ajh4 ,cuvi] himself :o always pursu$ natural sy/ems ) a s+ul>ly wise & sagaci\s consi/5cy1 attempt$ to improve ! i*?yological arrangem5ts :i* _h be5 propos$ be=e him4 ,9 8 ,rgne ,animal1 publi%$ 9 #ahag1 he attempts ! problem ( arrang+ ?is class2 & ! views sugge/$ to him1 bo? by 8 successes & 8 failures1 are s in/ructive & philosophical1 t ,i _c illu/rate ! subject bett] ?an by cit+ "s ( !m4 ,! class ( fi%es1 he says1#aecaf is1 ( all1 t :i* (f]s ! greate/ difficulties1 :5 we wi% to subdivide x into ord]s1 accord+ to fix$ & obvi\s *>act]s4 ,aft] _m trials1 ,i h det]m9$ on ! foll[+ di/ribution1 :i* 9 "s in/ances is want+ 9 precision1 b :i* possesses ! advantage ( keep+ ! natural families entire4 ,note #aecaf3 ,rgne ,animal1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aaj4 ,fi% =m two di/9ct s]ies2--t ( *ondropt]ygians or c>tilag9\s fi%1 & t ( fi% prop]ly s call$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! s]ies has = its "*1 t ! palat9e bones replace1 9 x1 ! bones ( ! upp] jaw3 moreov] ! :ole ( its /ructure has evid5t analogies1 :i* we %all expla94 ,x divides itself into ?ree ,,ord]s3 ,! ,,cyclo/omes1 9 :i* ! jaws are sold]$ 7s\des7 into an immovable r+1 & ! bron*i are op5 9 num]\s holes4 ,! ,,selacians1 :i* h ! bron*i l ! prec$+1 b n ! jaws4 ,! ,,/uronians1 9 :i* ! bron*i are op5 z usual by a slit furni%$ ) an op]culum4 ,! second s]ies1 or t ( ord9>y fi%es1 (f]s me1 9 ! fir/ place1 a prim>y division1 into ^? ( :i* ! maxill>y bone & ! palat9e ar* are dovetail$ 7engr5s7 to ! skull4 ,( ^! ,i make an ord] ( ,,pectogna?s1 divid$ into two families2 ! gymnodonts & ! scl]od]ms4 ,aft] ^! ,i h ! fi%es ) complete jaws1 b ) bron*i :i*1 in/ead ( hav+ ! =m ( combs1 z 9 all ! o!rs1 h ! =m ( a s]ies ( little tufts 7h\ppes74 ,( ^! ,i aga9 =m an ord]1 :i* ,i call ,,lophobran*s1 :i* only includes "o family4 #dbh ,!re !n rema9s an innum]able quantity ( fi%es1 to :i* we c no long] apply any *>act]s except ^? ( ! ext]ior organs ( motion4 ,aft] long exam9ation1 ,i h f\nd t ! lea/ bad ( ^! *>act]s is1 aft] all1 t employ$ by ,ray & ,art$i1 tak5 f ! nature ( ! fir/ rays ( ! dorsal & ( ! anal f94 ,?us ord9>y fi%es are divid$ into ,,malacopt]ygians1 ( :i* all ! rays are s(t1 except sometimes ! fir/ ( ! dorsal f9 or ! pectorals2--& ,,acan?opt]ygians1 :i* h always ! fir/ portion ( ! dorsal1 or ( ! fir/ dorsal :5 !re are two1 support$ by sp9\s rays1 & 9 :i* ! anal has also "s su* rays1 & ! v5trals1 at lea/1 ea* "o4 ,! =m] may be subdivid$ )\t inconv5i5ce1 accord+ to _! v5tral f9s1 :i* are sometimes situate beh9d ! abdom51 sometimes adh]5t to ! app>atus ( ! %\ld]1 or1 f9ally1 are sometimes want+ altoge!r4 ,we ?us arrive at ! ?ree ord]s ( ,,abdom9al ,,malacopt]ygians1 ( ,,subbra*ians1 & ( ,,apodes2 ea* ( :i* includes "s natural families :i* we %all expla93 ! fir/1 especially1 is v num]\s4 ,b ?is basis ( division is absolutely impracticable ) ! ,acan?opt]ygians2 & ! problem ( e/abli%+ among ^! any o!r subdivision ?an t ( ! natural families has hi!rto rema9$ = me insoluble4 ,=tunately sev]al ( ^! families (f] *>act]s almo/ z precise z ^? :i* we c\ld give to true ord]s4 ,9 tru?1 we _c assign to ! families ( fi%es1 ranks z m>k$1 z = example1 to ^? ( mammif]s4 ,?us ! ,*ondropt]ygians on ! "o h& hold to reptiles by ! organs ( ! s5ses1 & by ^? ( g5]ation 9 "s2 & !y are relat$ to mollusks & worms by ! imp]fection ( ! skeleton 9 o!rs4 ,z to ,ord9>y ,fi%es1 if any "p ( ! organization is f\nd m develop$ 9 "s ?an 9 o!rs1 !re does n result f ?is any pre-em95ce suffici5tly m>k$1 or ( suffici5t influ5ce ^u _! :ole sy/em1 to oblige u to consult x 9 ! me?odical arrangem5t4 ,we %all place !m1 !re=e1 ne>ly 9 ! ord] 9 :i* we h j expla9$ _! *>act]s4 ,i h extract$ ! :ole ( ?is passage1 because1 ?\gh x is too te*nical to be und]/ood 9 detail by ! g5]al read]1 ^? :o h foll[$ ) any int]e/ ! hi/ory ( ! attempts at a natural classification 9 any dep>tm5t 9 nature1 w see "h a f9e example ( ! problems :i* su* attempts propose1 ( ! #dbi difficulties :i* x may pres5t1 & ( ! reason+s1 labors1 cautions1 & v>i$ res\rces1 by means ( :i* its solution is s\ght1 :5 a great philosophical naturali/ girds himself to ! task4 ,we see "h1 mo/ in/ructively1 h[ diff]5t ! endeavor to frame su* a natural sy/em1 is f ! proc$ure ( an artificial sy/em1 :i* c>ries imp]atively ?r\gh ! :ole ( a class ( organiz$ be+s1 a sy/em ( m>ks ei!r arbitr>y1 or con=mable to natural aff9ities 9 a p>tial degree4 ,& we h n (t5 ! advantage ( hav+ ! reasons = a sy/ematic arrangem5t s cle>ly & fully indicat$1 z is done "h1 & 9 ! descriptions ( ! sep>ate ord]s4 ,?is arrangem5t ,cuvi] adh]$ to 9 all its ma9 po9ts1 bo? 9 ! second edition ( ! ,rgne ,animal1 publi%$ 9 #ahba1 & 9 8 ,hi/oire ,naturelle des ,poissons1 ( :i* ! fir/ volume 0 publi%$ 9 #ahbh1 b :i* un=tunately 0 n complet$ at ! "t ( 8 dea?4 ,x may be suppos$1 !re=e1 to be 9 accordance ) ^? views ( zoological philosophy1 :i* x 0 ! bus9ess ( 8 life to =m & to apply2 & 9 a "w l ! pres5t1 :]e1 ^u s l>ge a "q ( natural hi/ory1 we mu/ be direct$ 9 a great measure by ! analogy ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 & by ! judgm5ts :i* seem mo/ to h ! "* ( wisdom1 we appe> to be ju/ifi$ 9 tak+ ,cuvi]'s i*?yological sy/em z ! ne>e/ approa* :i* has yet be5 made to a natural me?od 9 t dep>tm5t4 ,! true natural me?od is only "o3 artificial me?ods1 & ev5 good ones1 !re may be _m1 z we h se5 9 botany2 & ea* ( ^! may h its advantages = "s p>ticul> use4 ,on "s me?ods ( ?is k9d1 on :i* naturali/s !mselves h h>dly yet _h "t to =m a /able & di/9ct op9ion1 x is n our (fice to decide4 ,b judg+1 z ,i h already said1 f ! g5]al analogy ( ! natural sci5ces1 ,i f9d x difficult to conceive t ! i*?yological me?od ( ,m4 ,agassiz1 rec5tly prop\nd$ ) an especial ref]5ce to fossil fi%es1 c be o!rwise ?an an artificial me?od4 ,x is f\nd$ entirely on "o "p ( ! animal1 its scaly cov]+1 & ev5 on a s+le scale4 ,x does n con=m to t :i* almo/ all sy/ematic i*?yologi/s hi!rto h consid]$ z a p]man5t natural di/9ction ( a high ord]2 ! di/9ction ( bony & c>tilag9\s fi%es2 = x is /at$ t ea* ord] conta9s examples ( bo?4#aedaf ,i d n "k :at g5]al anatomical or physiological #dcj tru?s x br+s into view2 b !y ought to be v important & /rik+ ones1 to entitle !m to sup]s$e ^? :i* l$ ,cuvi] to 8 sy/em4 ,to ?is ,i may add1 t ! new i*?yological classification does n seem to =m1 z we %\ld expect t any great advance t[>ds a natural sy/em w\ld =m1 a connect$ sequel to ! pa/ hi/ory ( i*?yology2--a /ep to :i* ant]ior discov]ies & improvem5ts h l$1 & 9 :i* !y are reta9$4 ,note #aedaf3 ,dr4 ,buckl&'s ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #bgj4 ,b not)/&+ ^! consid]ations1 ! me?od ( ,m4 ,agassiz has probably v great advantages = 8 purpose2 = 9 ! case ( fossil fi%1 ! p>ts :i* are ! basis ( 8 sy/em (t5 rema91 :5 ev5 ! skeleton is gone4 ,& we may "h aga9 ref] to a pr9ciple ( ! classificatory sci5ces :i* we _c make too prom95t2--all arrangem5ts & nom5clatures are good1 :i* enable u to ass]t g5]al propositions4 ,tri$ by ?is te/1 we _c fail to set a high value on ! arrangem5t ( ,m4 ,agassiz2 = propositions ( ! mo/ /rik+ g5]ality respect+ fossil rema9s ( fi%1 ( :i* geologi/s be=e _h nev] dreamt1 are enunciat$ by means ( 8 gr\ps & names4 ,?us only ! two fir/ ord]s1 ! ,placodians & ,ganodians1 exi/$ be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ! cretace\s =mation3 ! ?ird & f\r? ord]s1 ! ,ct5odians & ,cyclodians1 :i* conta9 ?ree-f\r?s ( ! eight ?\s& kn[n species ( liv+ ,fi%es1 appe> = ! fir/ "t 9 ! cretace\s =mation3 & o!r geological relations ( ^! ord]s1 no less rem>kable1 h be5 asc]ta9$ by ,m4 ,agassiz4 ,b we h n[1 ,i tru/1 pursu$ ^! sci5ces ( classification suffici5tly f>2 & x is "t = u to ent] ^u t high] doma9 ( ,physiology to :i*1 z we h said4 ,zoology s irresi/ibly directs u4 #bnd ,ed4 ,i h reta9$ ! rem>ks :i* ,i v5tur$ at fir/ to make on ! ,sy/em ( ,m4 ,agassiz2 b ,i believe ! op9ion ( ! mo/ philosophical i*?yologi/s to be t ,cuvi]'s ,sy/em 0 too exclusively bas$ on ! int]nal skeleton1 z ,agassiz's 0 on ! ext]nal skeleton4 ,9 "s degree bo? sy/ems h be5 sup]s$$1 :ile all t 0 true 9 ea* has be5 reta9$4 ,mr4 ,ow51 9 8 ,lectures on ,v]tebrata 7#ahdf71 takes ,cuvi]ian *>act]s f ! endo-skeleton1 ,agassizian ones f ! exo-skeleton1 ,l9nan ones f ! v5tral f9s1 ,mll]ian ones f ! air-bladd]1 & comb9es !m by ! light ( 8 own rese>*es1 ) ! view ( =m+ a sy/em m truly natural ?an any prec$+ "o4 ,z ,i h said above1 naturali/s1 9 _! progress t[>ds a ,natural #dca ,sy/em1 are guid$ by physiological relations1 lat5tly 9 ,botany1 b conspicu\sly 9 ,zoology4 ,f ! epo* ( ,cuvi]'s ,rgne ,animal1 ! progress ( ,sy/ematic ,zoology is insep>ably dep5d5t on ! progress ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy4 ,h5ce ,i h plac$ ,cuvi]'s ,classification ( animal =ms 9 ! next ,book1 :i* treats ( ,physiology4 #dcc ,,book ,,xvii4 ,,organical ,,sci5ces4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,physiology ,,& ,,comp>ative ,,anatomy4 ,fe>ful & wondr\s is ! skill :i* m\lds ,our body's vital plan1 ,& f ! fir/ dim hidd5 g]m unfolds ,! p]fect limbs ( man4 ,:o1 :o c pi]ce ! secret8 tell u h[ ,some?+ is drawn f naught1 ,life f ! in]t mass8 ,:o1 ,"l6 b ?\1 ,^: h& ! :ole has wr\ght8 ,( ?is corporeal sub/ance1 /ill to be1 ,?9e eye a survey took2 ,& all my memb]s1 yet un=m$ by !e1 ,7 writt5 9 ?y book4 ,,psalm cxxxix4 #ac-af4 #dce ,,introduction4 ,( ! ,organical ,sci5ces ,,?\gh ! g5]al notion ( life is ackn[l$g$ by ! mo/ pr(\nd philosoph]s to be dim & my/]i\s1 ev5 up to ! pres5t "t2 & mu/1 9 ! e>ly /ages ( human speculation1 h be5 /ill m obscure & confus$2 x 0 suffici5t1 ev5 !n1 to give int]e/ & connexion to m5's obs]vations ^u _! own bodies & ^? ( o!r animals4 ,x 0 se51 t 9 liv+ ?+s1 c]ta9 peculi> processes 7 con/antly repeat$1 z ^? ( brea?+ & ( tak+ food1 = example2 & t a c]ta9 con=mation ( ! p>ts ( ! animal 0 subs]vi5t to ^! processes2 & ?us 7 gradually =m$ ! notions ( ,function & ( ,organization4 ,& ! sci5ces ( :i* ^! notions =m$ ! basis are cle>ly di/+ui%able f all ^? :i* we h hi!rto consid]$4 ,we conceive an organiz$ body to be "o 9 :i* ! p>ts are !re = ! sake ( ! :ole1 9 a mann] diff]5t f any me*anical or *emical connexion2 we conceive a function to be n m]ely a process ( *ange1 b ( *ange connect$ ) ! g5]al vital process4 ,:5 me*anical or *emical processes occur 9 ! liv+ body1 !y are in/rum5tal to1 & direct$ by1 ! peculi> p[]s ( life4 ,! sci5ces :i* ?us consid] organization & vital functions may be t]m$ organical sci5ces4 ,:5 m5 began to speculate conc]n+ su* subjects1 ! g5]al mode ( appreh5d+ ! process 9 ! cases ( "s functions1 appe>$ to be almo/ obvi\s2 ?us x 0 conceiv$ t ! gr[? ( animals arose f _! frame appropriat+ to itself a "p ( ! sub/ance ( ! food ?r\gh ! v>i\s passages ( ! body4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( su* g5]al conceptions1 speculative m5 7 naturally l$ to endeavor to obta9 m cle> & def9ite views ( ! c\rse ( ea* ( su* processes1 & ( ! mode 9 :i* ! sep>ate p>ts contribut$ to x4 ,along ) ! obs]vation ( ! liv+ p]son1 ! m se>*+ exam9ation :i* c\ld be c>ri$ on 9 ! dead body1 & ! comp>ison ( v>i\s k9ds ( animals1 soon %[$ t ?is pursuit 0 ri* 9 k & 9 int]e/4 #dcf ,moreov]1 besides ! int]e/ :i* ! m]e speculative faculty gave to ?is /udy1 ! ,art ( ,heal+ add$ to x a great practical value2 & ! effects ( diseases & ( m$ic9es suppli$ new mat]ials & new motives = ! reason+s ( ! philosoph]4 ,9 ?is mann] anatomy or physiology may be consid]$ z a sci5ce :i* began to be cultivat$ 9 ! e>lie/ p]iods ( civilization4 ,l mo/ o!r anci5t sci5ces1 its c>e] has be5 "o ( p]petual ?\gh v>iable progress2 & z 9 o!rs1 s 9 ?is1 ea* /ep has impli$ ^? :i* _h be5 previ\sly made1 & _c be und]/ood aright except we und]/& !m4 ,moreov]1 ! /eps ( ?is advance h be5 v _m & div]se2 ! cultivators ( anatomy h 9 all ages be5 num]\s & labori\s2 ! subject is "o ( va/ ext5t & complexity2 almo/ e g5]ation _h add$ some?+ to ! curr5t k ( its details2 & ! g5]al speculations ( physiologi/s h be5 subtle1 bold1 & le>n$4 ,x mu/1 !re=e1 be difficult or impossible = a p]son :o has n /udi$ ! sci5ce ) pr(essional dilig5ce & pr(essional advantages1 to =m j judgm5ts ( ! value ( ! discov]ies ( v>i\s ages & p]sons1 & to arrange !m 9 _! due relation to ea* o!r4 ,to ?is we may add1 t ?\gh all ! discov]ies :i* h be5 made ) respect to p>ticul> functions or organizations are und]/ood to be subord9ate to "o g5]al sci5ce1 ! ,philosophy ( ,life1 yet ! pr9ciples & doctr9es ( ?is sci5ce n[h]e exi/ 9 a %ape g5]ally receiv$ & ass5t$ to among physiologi/s2 & ?us we h n1 9 ?is sci5ce1 ! advantage :i* 9 "s o!rs we h possess$2--( disc]n+ ! true direction ( its fir/ movem5ts1 by kn[+ ! po9t to :i* !y ultimately t5d2--( runn+ on beyond ! e>li] discov]ies1 & ?us look+ !m 9 ! face1 & read+ _! true features4 ,) ^! disadvantages1 all t we c h to say respect+ ! hi/ory ( ,physiology mu/ ne$ great indulg5ce on ! "p ( ! read]4 ,yet "h1 z 9 o!r cases1 we may1 by guid+ our views by ^? ( ! greate/ & mo/ philosophical m5 :o h made ! subject _! /udy1 hope to avoid mat]ial errors4 ,nor c we well evade mak+ ! attempt4 ,to obta9 "s simple & consi/5t view ( ! progress ( physiological sci5ce1 is 9 ! highe/ degree important to ! completion ( our views ( ! progress ( physical sci5ce4 ,= ! physiological or organical sci5ces =m a class to :i* ! classes already treat$ (1 ! me*anical1 *emical1 & classificatory sci5ces1 are subord9ate & auxili>y4 ,aga91 ano!r #dcg circum/ance :i* makes physiology an important "p ( our survey ( human k is1 t we h "h a sci5ce :i* is conc]n$1 inde$1 ab\t mat]ial comb9ations1 b 9 :i* we are l$ almo/ beyond ! bord]s ( ! mat]ial _w1 into ! region ( s5sation & p]ception1 ?\ght & w4 ,su* a contemplation may (f] "s sugge/ions :i* may prep>e u = ! transition f physical to metaphysical speculations4 ,9 ! survey :i* we mu/1 = su* purposes1 take ( ! progress ( physiology1 x is by no means necess>y t we %\ld exhau/ ! subject1 & attempt to give ! hi/ory ( e bran* ( ! k ( ! ph5om5a & laws ( liv+ creatures4 ,x w be suffici5t1 if we foll[ a few ( ! l9es ( su* rese>*es1 :i* may be consid]$ z examples ( ! :ole4 ,we see t life is accompani$ & su/a9$ by _m processes1 :i* at fir/ (f] !mselves to our notice z sep>ate functions1 h[ev] !y may aft]w>ds be f\nd to be connect$ & id5tifi$2 su* are feel+1 dige/ion1 respiration1 ! action ( ! he>t & pulse1 g5]ation1 p]ception1 volunt>y motion4 ,! analysis ( any "o ( ^! functions may be pursu$ sep>ately4 ,& s9ce 9 ?is1 z 9 all g5u9e sci5ces1 our k becomes real & sci5tific1 only 9 s f> z x is v]ifi$ 9 p>ticul> facts1 & ?us e/abli%$ 9 g5]al propositions1 su* an orig9al sep>ation ( ! subjects ( rese>* is requisite to a true repres5tation ( ! gr[? ( real k4 ,! loose hypo!ses & sy/ems1 conc]n+ ! connexion ( diff]5t vital faculties & ! g5]al nature ( liv+ ?+s1 :i* h (t5 be5 promulgat$1 mu/ be exclud$ f ?is "p ( our plan4 ,we d n d5y all value & m]it to su* speculations2 b !y _c be admitt$ 9 ! e>li] /ages ( ! hi/ory ( physiology1 treat$ ( z an inductive sci5ce4 ,if ! doctr9e s prop\nd$ h a solid & p]man5t tru?1 !y w aga9 come be=e u :5 we h travell$ ?r\gh ! range ( m limit$ tru?s1 & are prep>$ to asc5d ) security & c]ta9ty into ! high] region ( g5]al physiological pr9ciples4 ,if !y _c be arriv$ at by su* a road1 !y are !n1 h[ev] plausible & pleas+1 no portion ( t real & progressive sci5ce ) :i* alone our hi/ory is conc]n$4 ,we proce$1 !re=e1 to trace ! e/abli%m5t ( "s ( ! m limit$ b c]ta9 doctr9es ( physiology4 #dch ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,organs ,,( ,,volunt>y ,,motion4 ,sect4 #a4--,k ( ,gal5 & 8 ,pr$ecessors4 ,,9 ! e>lie/ conceptions :i* m5 ent]ta9$ ( _! p[] ( mov+ _! own memb]s1 !y probably _h no ?\ght ( any me*anism or organization by :i* ?is 0 effect$4 ,! foot & ! h&1 no less ?an ! head1 7 se5 to be end[$ ) life2 & ?is p]vad+ life seem$ suffici5tly to expla9 ! p[] ( motion 9 ea* "p ( ! frame1 )\t its be+ held necess>y to seek out a special seat ( ! w1 or in/rum5ts by :i* its impulses 7 made effective4 ,b ! slighte/ inspection ( dissect$ animals %[$ t _! limbs 7 =m$ ( a curi\s & complex collection ( cordage1 & communications ( v>i\s k9ds1 runn+ along & connect+ ! bones ( ! skeleton4 ,^! cords & communications we n[ di/+ui% z muscles1 n]ves1 ve9s1 art]ies1 c42 & among ^!1 we assign to ! muscles ! (fice ( mov+ ! p>ts to :i* !y are atta*$1 z cords move ! p>ts ( a ma*9e4 ,?\gh ?is action ( ! muscles on ! bones may n[ appe> v obvi\s1 x 01 probably1 n at fir/ disc]n$4 ,x is obs]v$ t ,hom]1 :o describes ! w\nds :i* are inflict$ 9 8 battles ) s mu* app>5t anatomical precision1 n[h]e employs ! ^w muscle4 ,& ev5 ,hippocrates ( ,cos1 ! mo/ celebrat$ physician ( antiquity1 is held to h _h no di/9ct conception ( su* an organ4#aag ,he always employs ! ^w fle% :5 he means muscle1 & ! fir/ explanation ( ! latt] ^w 77 occurs 9 a spuri\s "w ascrib$ to him4 ,= n]ves1 s9ews1 ligam5ts1#bag he us$ indiscrim9ately ! same t]ms2 7 or 27 & ( ^! n]ves 77 he ass]ts t !y contract ! limbs4 ,nor d we f9d mu* m di/9ctness on ?is subject ev5 9 ,ari/otle1 a g5]ation or two lat]4 ,! orig9 ( ! 1 he says1#cag is f ! he>t2 !y connect #dci ! bones1 & surr\nd ! jo9ts4 ,x is cle> t he means "h ! muscles1 & !re=e x is ) inju/ice t he has be5 accus$ ( ! gross error ( d]iv+ ! n]ves f ! he>t4 ,& he is held to h really _h ! m]it#dag ( discov]+ ! n]ves ( s5sation1 :i* he calls ! canals ( ! bra9 7 72 b ! analysis ( ! me*anism ( motion is left by him almo/ unt\*$4 ,p]haps 8 want ( s\nd me*anical notions1 & 8 con/ant /ra9+ aft] v]bal g5]alities1 & sy/ematic classifications ( ! wide/ k9d1 supply ! true acc\nt ( 8 ?us miss+ ! solution ( "o ( ! simple/ problems ( ,anatomy4 ,note #aag3 ,spr5gel1 ,ges*i*te d] ,arzneikunde1 i4 #chb4 ,note #bag3 ,spr5gel1 ,ges*4 ,arz4 i4 #che4 ,note #cag3 ,hi/4 ,anim4 iii4 #e4 ,note #dag3 ,ib4 i4 #def4 ,9 ?is1 h[ev]1 z 9 o!r subjects1 8 imm$iate pr$ecessors 7 f> f rem$y+ ! defici5cies ( 8 doctr9es4 ,^? :o pr(ess$ to /udy physiology & m$ic9e 71 = ! mo/ "p1 /udi\s only to frame "s g5]al sy/em ( ab/ract pr9ciples1 :i* might give an appe>ance ( connexion & pr(undity to _! t5ets4 ,9 ?is mann] ! successors ( ,hippocrates became a m$ical s*ool1 ( great note 9 its day1 designat$ z ! ,dogmatic s*ool2#eag 9 opposition to :i* arose an ,empiric sect1 :o pr(ess$ to d$uce _! modes ( cure1 n f !oretical dogmas1 b f exp]i5ce4 ,^! rival p>ties prevail$ pr9cipally 9 ,asia ,m9or & ,egypt1 dur+ ! "t ( ,alex&]'s successors1--a p]iod ri* 9 names1 b poor 9 discov]ies2 & we f9d no cle> evid5ce ( any decid$ advance 9 anatomy1 su* z we are "h attempt+ to trace4 ,note #eag3 ,spr5gel1 ,ges*4 ,arz4 i4 #ehc4 ,! victories ( ,lucullus & ,pompeius1 9 ,greece & ,asia1 made ! ,romans acqua9t$ ) ! ,greek philosophy2 & ! consequ5ce soon 01 t %oals ( philosoph]s1 rhetoricians1 poets1 & physicians#fag /ream$ f ,greece1 ,asia ,m9or1 & ,egypt1 to ,rome & ,italy1 to traffic _! k & _! arts = ,roman weal?4 ,among ^!1 0 "o p]son ^: "n makes a great figure 9 ! hi/ory ( m$ic9e1 ,asclepiades ( ,prusa 9 ,bi?ynia4 ,?is man appe>s to h be5 a quack1 ) ! usual end[m5ts ( 8 class2--boldness1 s+ul>ity1 a contemptu\s rejection ( all previ\sly e/eem$ op9ions1 a new classification ( diseases1 a new li/ ( m$ic9es1 & ! ass]tion ( "s wond]ful cures4 ,he w\ld n1 on su* acc\nts1 des]ve a place 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 b t he became ! f\nd] ( a new s*ool1 ! ,me?odic1 :i* pr(ess$ to hold itself sep>ate bo? f ! ,dogmatics & ! ,empirics4 #ddj ,note #fag3 ,spr5gel1 ,ges*4 ,arz4 ii4 #e4 ,i h notic$ ^! s*ools ( m$ic9e1 because1 ?\gh ,i am n able to /ate di/9ctly _! respective m]its 9 ! cultivation ( anatomy1 a great progress 9 t sci5ce 0 und\bt$ly made dur+ _! dom9ation1 ( :i* ! praise mu/1 ,i conceive1 be 9 "s way divid$ among !m4 ,! am\nt ( ?is progress we are able to e/imate1 :5 we come to ! works ( ,gal51 :o fl\ri%$ "u ! ,anton9es1 & di$ ab\t ,a4,d4 #bjc4 ,! foll[+ passage f 8 works w %[ t ?is progress 9 k 0 n made )\t ! usual condition ( labori\s & c>eful exp]im5t1 :ile x implies ! curi\s fact ( su* exp]im5t be+ conduct$ by means ( family tradition & in/ruction1 s z to give rise to a ca/e ( dissectors4 ,9 ! op5+ ( 8 ,second ,book ,on ,anatomical ,manipulations1 he speaks ?us ( 8 pr$ecessors3 ,i d n blame ! anci5ts1 :o did n write books on anatomical manipulation2 ?\gh ,i praise ,m>9us1 :o did4 ,= x 0 sup]flu\s = !m to compose su* records = !mselves or o!rs1 :ile !y 71 f _! *ildhood1 ex]cis$ by _! p>5ts 9 dissect+1 j z famili>ly z 9 writ+ & read+2 s t !re 0 no m fe> ( _! =gett+ _! anatomy1 ?an ( =gett+ _! alphabet4 ,b :5 gr[n m51 z well z *ildr51 7 taught1 ?is ?or\gh discipl9e fell (f2 &1 ! art be+ c>ri$ out ( ! family ( ! ,asclepiads1 & decl9+ by repeat$ transmission1 books became necess>y = ! /ud5t4 ,t ! g5]al /ructure ( ! animal frame1 z compos$ ( bones & muscles1 0 kn[n ) great accuracy be=e ! "t ( ,gal51 is manife/ f ! nature ( ! mi/akes & defici5cies ( 8 pr$ecessors :i* he f9ds x necess>y to notice4 ,?us he obs]ves1 t "s anatomi/s h made "o muscle into two1 f its hav+ two heads2--t !y h ov]look$ "s ( ! muscles 9 ! face ( an ape1 9 consequ5ce ( n sk9n+ ! animal ) _! own h&s2--& ! l4 ,su* rem>ks imply t ! curr5t k ( ?is k9d 0 tol]ably complete4 ,gal5's own views ( ! g5]al me*anical /ructure ( an animal are v cle> & s\nd4 ,! skeleton1 he obs]ves1 dis*>ges#gag ! (fice ( ! pole ( a t5t1 or ! walls ( a h\se4 ,) respect to ! action ( ! muscles1 8 views 7 anatomically & me*anically correct2 9 "s in/ances1 he %[$ :at ?is action 01 by sev]+ ! muscle4#hag ,he himself add$ consid]ably to ! exi/+ k ( #dda ?is subject2 & 8 discov]ies & descriptions1 ev5 ( v m9ute p>ts ( ! muscul> sy/em1 are spok5 ( ) praise by mod]n anatomi/s4#iag ,note #gag3 ,de ,anatom4 ,adm9i/4 i4 #b4 ,note #hag3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #aeg4 ,note #iag3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #aej4 ,we may consid]1 !re=e1 t ! doctr9e ( ! muscul> sy/em1 z a collection ( cords & %eets1 by ! contraction ( :i* ! p>ts ( ! body are mov$ & support$1 0 firmly e/abli%$1 & completely foll[$ into detail1 by ,gal5 & 8 pr$ecessors4 ,b !re is ano!r class ( organs connect$ ) volunt>y motion1 ! n]ves1 & we mu/ = a mom5t trace ! op9ions :i* prevail$ respect+ ^!4 ,ari/otle1 z we h said1 notic$ "s ( ! n]ves ( s5sation4 ,b ,h]ophilus1 :o liv$ 9 ,egypt 9 ! "t ( ! fir/ ,ptolemy1 di/+ui%$ n]ves z ! organs ( ! w1#ajag & ,rufus1 :o liv$ 9 ! "t ( ,trajan1#aaag divides ! n]ves into s5sitive & motive1 & d]ives !m all f ! bra94 ,b ?is did n imply t m5 _h yet di/+ui%$ ! n]ves f ! muscles4 ,ev5 ,gal5 ma9ta9$ t e muscle consi/s ( a bundle ( n]ves & s9ews4#abag ,b ! important po9ts1 ! necessity ( ! n]ve1 & ! orig9ation ( all ?is app>atus ( motion f ! bra91 he insi/s ^u ) great cle>ness & =ce4 ,?us he prov$ ! necessity exp]im5tally1 by cutt+ ?r\gh "s ( ! bundles ( n]ves1#acag & ?us prev5t+ ! correspond+ motions4 ,& x is1 he says1#adag all[$ by all1 bo? physicians & philosoph]s1 t :]e ! orig9 ( ! n]ve is1 !re ! seat ( ! s\l 7 7 mu/ be3 n[ ?is1 he adds1 is 9 ! bra91 & n 9 ! he>t4 ,note #ajag3 ,ib4 i4 #ecd4 ,note #aaag3 ,ib4 ii4 #fg4 ,note #abag3 ,ibid4 ii4 #aeb4 ,gal51 ,de ,motu ,musc41 p4 #eec4 ,note #acag3 ,ib4 #aeg4 ,note #adag3 ,de ,hippocr4 et ,plat4 ,dog4 viii4 #a4 ,?us ! g5]al con/ruction & arrangem5t ( ! organization by :i* volunt>y motion is effect$1 0 well made out at ! "t ( ,gal51 & is f\nd di/9ctly deliv]$ 9 8 works4 ,we _c1 p]haps1 ju/ly ascribe any l>ge portion ( ! g5]al discov]y to him3 inde$1 ! conception ( ! me*anism ( ! skeleton & muscles 0 probably s gradually unfold$ 9 ! m9ds ( anatomical /ud5ts1 t x w\ld be difficult1 ev5 if we knew ! labors ( ea* p]son1 to select "o1 z peculi>ly ! au?or ( ! discov]y4 ,b x is cle> t all ^? :o did mat]ially contribute to ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is doctr9e1 mu/ h possess$ ! qualifications :i* we f9d 9 ,gal5 = su* a task2 namely1 cle> me*anical views ( :at ! #ddb t5sions ( collections ( /r+s c\ld d1 & an exact practical acqua9tance ) ! muscul> cordage :i* exi/s 9 ! animal frame2--9 %ort1 9 ?is z 9 o!r in/ances ( real advance 9 sci5ce1 !re mu/ h be5 cle> ideas & real facts1 unity ( ?\ght & ext5t ( obs]vation1 br\ght into contact4 ,sect4 #b4--,recognition ( ,f9al ,causes 9 ,physiology4 ,gal54 ,,!re is "o idea :i* ! rese>*es ( ! physiologi/ & ! anatomi/ s con/antly =ce ^u him1 t he _c help assum+ x z "o ( ! guides ( 8 speculations2 ,i mean1 ! idea ( a purpose1 or1 z x is call$ 9 ,ari/otelian phrase1 a f9al cause1 9 ! arrangem5ts ( ! animal frame4 ,x is impossible to d\bt t ! motive n]ves run along ! limbs1 9 ord] t !y may convey to ! muscles ! impulses ( ! w2 & t ! muscles are atta*$ to ! bones1 9 ord] t !y may move & support !m4 ,?is conviction prevails s /eadily among anatomi/s1 t ev5 :5 ! use ( any "p is altoge!r unkn[n1 x is /ill tak5 = grant$ t x has "s use4 ,! developem5t ( ?is conviction1--( a purpose 9 ! p>ts ( animals1--( a function to :i* ea* portion ( ! organization is subs]vi5t1--contribut$ greatly to ! progress ( physiology2 = x con/antly urg$ m5 =w>ds 9 _! rese>*es respect+ ea* organ1 till "s def9ite view ( its purpose 0 obta9$4 ,! assumption ( hypo!tical f9al causes 9 ,physics may h be51 z ,bacon ass]ts x to h be51 prejudicial to sci5ce2 b ! assumption ( unkn[n f9al causes 9 ,physiology1 has giv5 rise to ! sci5ce4 ,! two bran*es ( speculation1 ,physics & ,physiology1 7 equally l$1 by e new ph5om5on1 to ask _! "q1 ,:y8 ,b1 9 ! =m] case1 :y meant ?r\gh :at cause8 9 ! latt]1 = :at end8 ,& ?\gh x may be possible to introduce into physiology ! doctr9e ( effici5t causes1 su* a /ep c nev] oblit]ate ! obligations :i* ! sci5ce owes to ! p]vad+ conception ( a purpose conta9$ 9 all organization4 ,?is conception makes its appe>ance v e>ly4 ,inde$1 )\t any special /udy ( our /ructure1 ! ?\ght1 t we are fe>fully & wond]fully made1 =ces itself ^u m51 ) a my/]i\s impressiv5ess1 z a sugge/ion ( our ,mak]4 ,9 ?is be>+1 ! ?\ght is develop$ to a consid]able ext5t 9 ! well-kn[n passage 9 ,x5ophon's ,conv]sations ( ,socrates4 ,nor did x ev] lose its hold on sob]-m9d$ & in/ruct$ m54 ,! ,epicureans1 inde$1 #ddc held t ! eye 0 n made = see+1 nor ! e> = he>+2 & ,asclepiades1 :om we h already m5tion$ z an impud5t pret5d]1 adopt$ ?is wild dogma4#aeag ,su* ass]tions requir$ no labor4 ,x is easy1 says ,gal51#afag = p l ,asclepiades1 :5 !y come to any difficulty1 to say t ,nature has work$ to no purpose4 ,! great anatomi/ himself pursues 8 subject 9 a v diff]5t temp]4 ,9 a well-kn[n passage1 he breaks out into an en?usia/ic scorn ( ! folly ( ! a!i/ical notions4#agag ,try1 he says1 if y c imag9e a %oe made ) half ! skill :i* appe>s 9 ! sk9 ( ! foot4 ,"s "o _h spok5 ( a /ructure ( ! human body :i* he w\ld h pref]r$ to t :i* x n[ has4 ,see1 ,gal5 exclaims1 aft] po9t+ out ! absurdity ( ! imag9>y s*eme1 see :at bruti%ness !re is 9 ?is wi%4 ,b if ,i 7 to sp5d m words on su* cattle1 reasonable m5 might blame me = desecrat+ my "w1 :i* ,i reg>d z a religi\s hymn 9 honor ( ! ,creator4 ,note #aeag3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #ae4 ,note #afag3 ,de ,usu ,"p4 v4 #e1 7on ! kidneys47 ,note #agag3 ,de ,usu ,"p4 iii4 #aj4 ,gal5 0 f ! fir/ highly e/eem$ z an anatomi/4 ,he 0 orig9ally ( ,p]gamus2 & aft] receiv+ ! in/ructions ( _m m$ical & philosophical pr(essors1 & especially ( ^? ( ,alex&ria1 :i* 0 !n ! metropolis ( ! le>n$ & sci5tific _w1 he came to ,rome1 :]e 8 reputation 0 soon s great z to excite ! envy & hatr$ ( ! ,roman physicians4 ,! emp]ors ,m>cus ,aurelius & ,lucius ,v]us w\ld h reta9$ him ne> !m2 b he pref]r$ pursu+ 8 travels1 direct$ pr9cipally by curiosity4 ,:5 he di$1 he left beh9d him num]\s works1 all ( !m ( great value = ! light !y ?r[ on ! hi/ory ( anatomy & m$ic9e2 & ^! 7 = a long p]iod ! /oreh\se ( all ! mo/ important anatomical k :i* ! _w possess$4 ,9 ! "t ( intellectual b>r5ness & s]vility1 among ! ,arabians & ! ,europeans ( ! d>k ages1 ! writ+s ( ,gal5 _h almo/ unque/ion$ au?ority2#ahag & x 0 only by an uncommon ef=t ( indep5d5t ?9k+ t ,abdollatif v5tur$ to ass]t1 t ev5 ,gal5's ass]tions mu/ give way to ! evid5ce ( ! s5ses4 ,9 m mod]n times1 :5 ,vesalius1 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 accus$ ,gal5 ( mi/akes1 he drew ^u himself ! ho/ility ( ! :ole body ( physicians4 ,yet ! mi/akes 7 su* z might h #ddd be5 po9t$ out & confess$#aiag )\t acrimony1 if1 9 times ( revolution1 mildness & mod]ation 7 possible2 b an impati5ce ( ! sup]/ition ( tradition on ! "p ( ! innovators1 & an al>m ( ! subv]sion ( all recogniz$ tru?s on ! "p ( ! e/abli%$ tea*]s1 inflame & p]v]t all su* discussions4 ,vesalius's ma9 *>ge aga9/ ,gal5 is1 t 8 dissections 7 p]=m$ ^u animals1 & n ^u ! human body4 ,gal5 himself speaks ( ! dissection ( apes z a v famili> employm5t1 & /ates t he kill$ !m by dr[n+4 ,! natural difficulties :i*1 9 v>i\s ages1 h prev5t$ ! unlimit$ prosecution ( human dissection1 op]at$ /rongly among ! anci5ts1 & x w\ld h be5 difficult1 "u su* circum/ances1 to proce$ m judici\sly ?an ,gal5 did4 ,note #ahag3 ,spr5gel1 ii4 #cei4 ,note #aiag3 ,cuv4 ,leons sur l',hi/4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 p4 #be4 ,i %all n[ proce$ to ! hi/ory ( ! discov]y ( ano!r & less obvi\s function1 ! circulation ( ! blood1 :i* belongs to mod]n times4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,circulation ,,( ,,! ,,blood4 ,sect4 #a4--,prelude to ! ,discov]y4 ,,! blood-vessels1 ! ve9s & art]ies1 are z evid5t & peculi> 9 _! appe>ance z ! muscles2 b _! function is by no means s obvi\s4 ,hippocrates#bjag did n discrim9ate ,ve9s & ,art]ies2 bo? are call$ by ! same "n 77 & ! ^w f :i* art]y comes 77 means1 9 8 works1 ! w9dpipe4 ,ari/otle1 scanty z 0 8 k ( ! vessels ( ! body1 has yet ! m]it ( hav+ trac$ ! orig9 ( all ! ve9s to ! he>t4 ,he expressly contradicts ^? ( 8 pr$ecessors :o _h d]iv$ ! ve9s f ! head2#baag & ref]s to dissection = ! pro(4 ,if ! book ,on ! ,brea? be g5u9e 7:i* is d\bt$71 ,ari/otle 0 aw>e ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ve9s & art]ies4 ,e art]y1 #dde x is !re ass]t$1 is accompani$ by a ve92 ! =m] are fill$ only ) brea? or air4#bbag ,b :e!r or no ?is passage be ,ari/otle's1 he held op9ions equally errone\s2 z1 t ! w9dpipe conveys air into ! he>t4#bcag ,gal5#bdag 0 f> f hav+ views respect+ ! blood-vessels1 z s\nd z ^? :i* he ent]ta9$ conc]n+ ! muscles4 ,he held ! liv] to be ! orig9 ( ! ve9s1 & ! he>t ( ! art]ies4 ,he 01 h[ev]1 acqua9t$ ) _! junctions1 or ana/omoses4 ,b we f9d no mat]ial advance 9 ! k ( ?is subject1 till we ov]leap ! blank ( ! middle ages1 & rea* ! dawn ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,note #bjag3 ,spr5gel1 i4 #chc4 ,note #baag3 ,hi/4 ,animal4 iii4 #c4 ,note #bbag3 ,de ,spiritu1 v4 #ajgh4 ,note #bcag3 ,spr4 i4 #eja4 ,note #bdag3 ,ib4 ii4 #aeb4 ,! fa!r ( mod]n anatomy is held to be ,mond9o1#beag :o dissect$ & taught at ,bologna 9 #acae4 ,"s writ]s h trac$ 9 him ! rudim5ts ( ! doctr9e ( ! circulation ( ! blood2 = he says t ! he>t transmits blood to ! lungs4 ,b x is all[$1 t he aft]w>ds de/roys ! m]it ( 8 rem>k1 by repeat+ ! old ass]tion t ! left v5tricle ought to conta9 _s or air1 :i* x g5]ates f ! blood4 ,note #beag3 ,encyc4 ,brit4 #fib4 ,anatomy4 ,anatomy 0 cultivat$ ) great dilig5ce & tal5t 9 ,italy by ,a*ill9i1 ,c>pa1 & ,messa1 & 9 ,france by ,sylvius & ,/ephanus 7,dubois & ,eti5ne74 ,yet /ill ^! empty assumptions respect+ ! he>t & blood-vessels kept _! gr\nd4 ,vesalius1 a native ( ,brussels1 has be5 t]m$ ! f\nd] ( human anatomy1 & 8 great "w ,de ,humani ,corporis ,fabric is1 ev5 yet1 a spl5did monum5t ( art1 z well z sci5ce4 ,x is said t 8 figures 7 design$ by ,titian2 & if ?is be n exactly true1 says ,cuvi]1#bfag !y mu/1 at lea/1 be f ! p5cil ( "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ pupils ( ! great pa9t]2 = to ?is day1 ?\gh we h m f9i%$ draw+s1 we h no designs t are m arti/-l4 ,fallopius1 :o succe$$ ,vesalius at ,padua1 made "s additions to ! rese>*es ( 8 pr$ecessor2 b 9 8 treatise ,de ,pr9cipio ,v5>um1 x is cle>ly se5#bgag t ! circulation ( ! blood 0 unkn[n to him4 ,eu/a*ius also1 :om ,cuvi] gr\ps ) ,vesalius & ,fallopius1 z ! ?ree great f\nd]s ( mod]n anatomy1 wrote a treatise on ! ve9 azygos#bhag :i* is a little treatise on comp>ative anatomy2 b ! discov]y ( ! functions ( ! ve9s came f a diff]5t qu>t]4 #ddf ,note #bfag3 ,leons sur l',hi/4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 p4 #ba4 ,note #bgag3 ,cuv4 ,sc4 ,nat4 p4 #cb4 ,note #bhag3 ,ib4 p4 #cd4 ,! un=tunate ,s]vetus1 :o 0 burnt at ,g5eva z a h]etic 9 #aeec1 is ! fir/ p]son :o speaks di/9ctly ( ! small circulation1 or t :i* c>ries ! blood f ! he>t to ! lungs1 & back aga9 to ! he>t4 ,8 "w entitl$ ,*ri/ianismi ,re/itutio 0 also burnt2 & only two copies are kn[n to h escap$ ! flames4 ,x is 9 ?is "w t he ass]ts ! doctr9e 9 "q1 z a collat]al argum5t or illu/ration ( 8 subject4 ,! communication betwe5 ! "r & left v5tricle ( ! he>t1 is made1 he says1 n z is commonly believ$1 ?r\gh ! p>tition ( ! he>t1 b by a rem>kable artifice 7magno artificio7 ! blood is c>ri$ f ! "r v5tricle by a long circuit ?r\gh ! lungs2 is elaborat$ by ! lungs1 made yell[1 & transfus$ f ! v5a art]iosa into ! art]ia v5osa4 ,?is tru? is1 h[ev]1 mix$ ) v>i\s ( ! traditional fancies conc]n+ ! vital _s1 :i* has its orig9 9 ! left v5tricle4 ,x may be d\bt$1 also1 h[ f> ,s]vetus =m$ 8 op9ion ^u conjecture1 & on a hypo!tical view ( ! =mation ( ?is vital _s4 ,& we may1 p]haps1 m ju/ly ascribe ! real e/abli%m5t ( ! pulmon>y circulation z an inductive tru?1 to ,realdus ,columbus1 a pupil & successor ( ,vesalius at ,padua1 :o publi%$ a "w ,de ,re ,anatomic 9 #aeei1 9 :i* he claims ?is discov]y z 8 own4#biag ,note #biag3 ,encyc4 ,brit4 ,&rew ,csalp9us1 :o has already come "u our notice z "o ( ! fa!rs ( mod]n inductive sci5ce1 bo? by 8 metaphysical & 8 physical speculations1 describ$ ! pulmon>y circulation /ill m completely 9 8 ,qu/iones ,p]ipatetic1 & ev5 seem$ to be on ! eve ( discov]+ ! great circulation2 = he rem>k$ ! swell+ ( ve9s bel[ ligatures1 & inf]r$ f x a reflu5t motion ( blood 9 ^! vessels4#cjag ,b ano!r discov]y ( /ructure 0 ne$$1 to prep>e ! way = ?is discov]y ( function2 & ?is 0 made by ,fabricius ( ,acquap5d5te1 :o succe$$ 9 ! gr& li/ ( great pr(essors at ,padua1 & taught !re = fifty ye>s4#caag ,sylvius _h discov]$ ! exi/5ce ( ! valves ( ! ve9s2 b ,fabricius rem>k$ t !y are all turn$ t[>ds ! he>t4 ,comb9+ ?is disposition ) t ( ! valves ( ! he>t1 & ) ! abs5ce ( valves 9 ! art]ies1 he might h come to ! conclusion#cbag t ! blood moves 9 a diff]5t direction 9 ! art]ies & 9 ! ve9s1 & might ?us h discov]$ ! circulation3 b ?is glory 0 res]v$ = ,william ,h>vey3 s true #ddg is x1 obs]ves ,cuvi]1 t we are (t5 on ! br9k ( a discov]y )\t suspect+ t we are s2--s true is x1 we may add1 t a c]ta9 succession ( "t & ( p]sons is g5]ally necess>y to famili>ize m5 ) "o ?\ght1 be=e !y c advance to t :i* is ! next 9 ord]4 ,note #cjag3 ,ib4 ,note #caag3 ,cuv4 p4 #dd4 ,note #cbag3 p4 #de4 ,sect4 #b4--,! ,discov]y ( ! ,circulation made by ,h>vey4 ,,william ,,h>vey 0 born 9 #aegh1 at ,folke/one 9 ,k5t4#ccag ,he fir/ /udi$ at ,cambridge3 he aft]w>ds w5t to ,padua1 :]e ! celebrity ( ,fabricius ( ,acquap5d5te attract$ f all p>ts ^? :o wi%$ to be in/ruct$ 9 anatomy & physiology4 ,9 ?is city1 excit$ by ! discov]y ( ! valves ( ! ve9s1 :i* 8 ma/] _h rec5tly made1 & reflect+ on ! direction ( ! valves :i* are at ! entrance ( ! ve9s into ! he>t1 & at ! exit ( ! art]ies f x1 he conceiv$ ! idea ( mak+ exp]im5ts1 9 ord] to det]m9e :at is ! c\rse ( ! blood 9 its vessels4 ,he f\nd t :5 he ti$ up ve9s 9 v>i\s animals1 !y swell$ bel[ ! ligature1 or 9 ! "p fur!/ f ! he>t2 :ile art]ies1 ) a l ligature1 swell$ on ! side next ! he>t4 ,comb9+ ^! facts ) ! direction ( ! valves1 he came to ! conclusion t ! blood is impell$1 by ! left side ( ! he>t1 9 ! art]ies to ! extremities1 & !nce returns by ! ve9s into ! "r side ( ! he>t4 ,he %[$1 too1 h[ ?is 0 confirm$ by ! ph5om5a ( ! pulse1 & by ! results ( op5+ ! vessels4 ,he prov$1 also1 t ! circulation ( ! lungs is a cont9uation ( ! l>g] circulation2 & ?us ! :ole doctr9e ( ! d\ble circulation 0 e/abli%$4 ,note #ccag3 ,cuv4 p4 #ea4 ,h>vey's exp]im5ts _h be5 made 9 #afaf & #afah2 x is commonly said t he fir/ promulgat$ 8 op9ion 9 #afai2 b ! manuscript ( ! lectures1 deliv]$ by him z lectur] to ! ,college ( ,physicians1 is extant 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 &1 conta9+ ! propositions on :i* ! doctr9e is f\nd$1 ref]s !m to ,april1 #afaf4 ,x 0 n till #afbh t he publi%$1 at ,frank=t1 8 ,ex]citatio ,anatomica de ,motu ,cordis et ,sangu9is2 b he !re obs]ves t he _h = above n9e ye>s confirm$ & illu/rat$ 8 op9ion 9 8 lectures1 by argum5ts gr\nd$ ^u ocul> demon/rations4 #ddh ,sect4 #c4--,reception ( ! ,discov]y4 ,,)\t dwell+ long ^u ! circum/ances ( ! g5]al reception ( ?is doctr9e1 we may obs]ve t x 01 = ! mo/ "p1 readily accept$ by 8 c\ntrym51 b t abroad x _h to enc\nt] consid]able opposition4 ,al?\gh1 z we h se51 8 pr$ecessors _h approa*$ s ne> to ! discov]y1 m5's m9ds 7 by no means z yet prep>$ to receive x4 ,sev]al physicians d5i$ ! tru? ( ! op9ion1 among :om ! mo/ em95t 0 ,riolan1 pr(essor at ! ,collge de ,france4 ,o!r writ]s1 z usually happ5s 9 ! case ( great discov]ies1 ass]t$ t ! doctr9e 0 anci5t1 & ev5 t x 0 kn[n to ,hippocrates4 ,h>vey def5d$ 8 op9ion ) _s & temp]2 yet he appe>s to h reta9$ a lively recollection ( ! disagreeable nature ( ! /ruggles 9 :i* he 0 ?us involv$4 ,at a lat] p]iod ( 8 life1 ,ent1#cdag "o ( 8 admir]s1 :o visit$ him1 & urg$ him to publi% ! rese>*es on g5]ation1 on :i* he _h long be5 engag$1 gives ?is acc\nt ( ! mann] 9 :i* he receiv$ ! proposal3 ,& w\ld y !n advise me1 7smil+ly replies ! doctor17 to quit ! tranquillity ( ?is hav51 :]e9 ,i n[ calmly sp5d my days1 & aga9 commit myself to ! unfai?ful ocean8 ,y are n ignorant h[ great tr\bles my lucubrations1 =m]ly publi%$1 h rais$4 ,bett] x is1 c]ta9ly1 at "s "t1 to endeavor to gr[ wise at home 9 private1 ?an by ! ha/y divulgation ( su* ?+s to ! k :]e( y h atta9$ ) va/ labor1 to /ir up tempe/s t may deprive y ( y\r leisure & quiet = ! future4 ,note #cdag3 ,epi/4 ,d$ic4 to ,anatom4 ,ex]cit4 ,8 m]its 71 h[ev]1 soon g5]ally recogniz$4 ,he 0#ceag made physician to ,james ! ,fir/1 & aft]w>ds to ,*>les ! ,fir/1 & att5d$ t un=tunate mon>* 9 ! civil w>4 ,he _h ! p]mission ( ! p>liam5t to accompany ! k+ on 8 leav+ ,london2 b ?is did n protect him f hav+ 8 h\se plund]$ 9 8 abs5ce1 n only ( its furniture1 b1 :i* he felt m1 ( ! records ( 8 exp]im5ts4 ,9 #afeb1 8 bre?r5 ( ! ,college ( ,physicians plac$ a m>ble bu/ ( him 9 _! hall1 ) an inscription record+ 8 discov]ies2 & two ye>s lat]1 he 0 nom9at$ to ! (fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,college1 :i* h[ev] he #ddi decl9$ 9 consequ5ce ( 8 age & infirmities4 ,8 doctr9e soon acquir$ popul> curr5cy2 x 01 = in/ance1 tak5 by ,desc>tes#cfag z ! basis ( 8 physiology 9 8 "w ,on ,man2 & ,h>vey _h ! pleasure1 :i* is (t5 d5i$ to discov]]s1 ( see+ 8 discov]y g5]ally adopt$ dur+ 8 lifetime4 ,note #ceag3 ,biog4 ,brit4 ,note #cfag3 ,cuv4 #ec4 ,sect4 #d4--;,be>+ ( ! ,discov]y on ! ,progress ( ,physiology4 ,,9 consid]+ ! intellectual processes by :i* ,h>vey's discov]ies 7 made1 x is impossible n to notice1 t ! recognition ( a creative purpose1 :i*1 z we h said1 appe>s 9 all s\nd physiological reason+s1 prevails em95tly "h4 ,i rememb]1 says ,boyle1 t :5 ,i ask$ our fam\s ,h>vey :at 7 ! ?+s t induc$ him to ?9k ( a circulation ( ! blood1 he answ]$ me1 t :5 he took notice t ! valves 9 ! ve9s ( s _m p>ts ( ! body 7 s plac$1 t !y gave a free passage to ! blood t[>ds ! he>t1 b oppos$ ! passage ( ! v5al blood ! contr>y way2 he 0 incit$ to imag9e t s provid5t a cause z ,nature _h n plac$ s _m valves )\t design2 & no design seem$ m probable ?an t ! blood %\ld be s5t ?r\gh ! art]ies1 & return ?r\gh ! ve9s1 ^: valves did n oppose its c\rse t way4 ,we may notice fur!r1 t ?is discov]y impli$ ! usual conditions1 di/9ct g5]al notions1 c>eful obs]vation ( _m facts1 & ! m5tal act ( br++ toge!r ^! elem5ts ( tru?4 ,h>vey mu/ h possess$ cle> views ( ! motions & pressures ( a fluid circulat+ 9 ramify+ tubes1 to enable him to see h[ ! position ( valves1 ! pulsation ( ! he>t1 ! effects ( ligatures1 ( ble$+1 & ( o!r circum/ances1 ought to manife/ !mselves 9 ord] to confirm 8 view4 ,t he ref]r$ to a multipli$ & v>i$ exp]i5ce = ! evid5ce t x 0 s confirm$1 we h already said4 ,l all ! be/ philosoph]s ( 8 "t1 he insi/s rigidly ^u ! necessity ( su* exp]i5ce4 ,9 e sci5ce1 he says1#cgag be x :at x w1 a dilig5t obs]vation is requisite1 & s5se itself mu/ be frequ5tly consult$4 ,we mu/ n rely ^u o!r m5's exp]i5ce1 b our own1 )\t :i* no man is a prop] disciple ( any "p ( natural k4 ,& by publi%+ 8 exp]im5ts1 he tru/s1 he adds1 t he has enabl$ 8 read] to be an equitable #dej umpire betwe5 ,ari/otle & ,gal52 or r1 he might h said1 to see h[1 9 ! promotion ( sci5ce1 s5se & reason1 obs]vation & inv5tion1 h a mutual ne$ ( ea* o!r4 ,note #cgag3 ,g5]ation ( ,animals1 ,pref4 ,we may obs]ve fur!r1 t ?\gh ,h>vey's glory1 9 ! case n[ be=e u1 re/$ ^u 8 hav+ prov$ ! reality ( c]ta9 me*anical movem5ts & actions 9 ! blood1 ?is discov]y1 & all o!r physiological tru?s1 necess>ily involv$ ! assumption ( "s peculi> ag5cy belong+ to liv+ ?+s1 diff]5t bo? f me*anical ag5cy1 & f *emical2 & 9 %ort1 some?+ vital1 & n physical m]ely4 ,= :5 x 0 se5 t ! pulsation ( ! he>t1 its sy/ole & dia/ole1 caus$ ! circulation ( ! blood1 x might /ill be ask$1 :at =ce caus$ ?is con/antly-recurr+ contraction & expansion4 ,& aga91 circulation is closely connect$ ) respiration2 ! blood is1 by ! circulation1 c>ri$ to ! lungs1 & is !re1 accord+ to ! expression ( ,columbus & ,h>vey1 mix$ ) air4 ,b by :at me*anism does ?is mixture take place1 & :at is ! real nature ( x8 ,& :5 succe$+ rese>*es _h enabl$ physiologi/s to give an answ] to ?is "q1 z f> z *emical relations g1 & to say1 t ! *ange consi/s 9 ! ab/raction ( ! c>bon f ! blood by means ( ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e2 !y 7 /ill only l$ to ask fur!r1 h[ ?is *emical *ange 0 effect$1 & h[ su* a *ange ( ! blood fitt$ x = its uses4 ,e function ( :i* we expla9 ! c\rse1 ! me*anism1 or ! *emi/ry1 is connect$ ) o!r functions1--is subs]vi5t to !m1 & !y to x2 & all toge!r are p>ts ( ! g5]al vital sy/em ( ! animal1 m9i/]+ to its life1 b d]iv+ _! activity f ! life4 ,life is n a collection ( =ces1 or pol>ities1 or aff9ities1 su* z any ( ! physical or *emical sci5ces contemplate2 x has p[]s ( its own1 :i* (t5 sup]s$e ^? subord9ate relations2 & 9 ! cases :]e m5 h trac$ su* ag5ts 9 ! animal frame1 !y h always se51 & usually ackn[l$g$1 t ^! ag5ts 7 m9i/]ial to "s high] ag5cy1 m difficult to trace ?an ^!1 b m truly ! cause ( ! ph5om5a4 ,! discov]y ( ! me*anical & *emical conditions ( ! vital functions1 z a /ep 9 physiology1 may be comp>$ to ! discov]y ( ! laws ( ph5om5a 9 ! heav5s by ,kepl] & 8 pr$ecessors1 :ile ! discov]y ( ! =ce by :i* !y 7 produc$ 0 /ill res]v$ 9 my/]y = ,newton to br+ to light4 ,! subord9ate relation ( ! facts1 _! 9999dep5d5ce on space & "t1 _! r$uction to ord] & cycle1 _h be5 fully p]=m$2 b ! #dea ref]5ce ( !m to di/9ct ideas ( causation1 _! int]pretation z ! results ( me*anical =ce1 0 omitt$ or attempt$ 9 va94 ,! v notion ( su* ,=ce1 & ( ! mann] 9 :i* motions 7 det]m9$ by x1 0 9 ! highe/ degree vague & vacillat+2 & a c5tury 0 requisite1 z we h se51 to give to ! notion t cle>ness & fixity :i* made ! ,me*anics ( ! ,heav5s a possible sci5ce4 ,9 l mann]1 ! notion ( ,life1 & ( ,vital ,=ces1 is /ill too obscure to be /eadily held4 ,we _c connect x di/9ctly ) sev]e inductions f facts4 ,we c trace ! motions ( ! animal fluids z ,kepl] trac$ ! motions ( ! planets2 b :5 we seek to r5d] a reason = ^! motions1 l him1 we recur to t]ms ( a wide & pr(\nd1 b my/]i\s import2 to ,virtues1 ,influ5ces1 undef9$ ,p[]s4 ,yet we are n on ?is acc\nt to despair4 ,! v in/ance to :i* ,i am ref]r+ %[s u h[ ri* is ! promise ( ! future4 ,:y1 says ,cuvi]1#chag may n ,natural ,hi/ory "o day h its ,newton8 ,! idea ( ! vital =ces may gradually become s cle> & def9ite z to be available 9 sci5ce2 & future g5]ations may include1 9 _! physiology1 propositions elevat$ z f> above ! circulation ( ! blood1 z ! doctr9e ( univ]sal gravitation goes beyond ! explanation ( ! heav5ly motions by epicycles4 ,note #chag3 ,ossem4 ,foss4 ,introd4 ,if1 by :at has be5 said1 ,i h exemplifi$ suffici5tly ! nature ( ^? /eps 9 physiology1 :i*1 l ! discov]y ( ! ,circulation1 give an explanation ( ! process ( "s ( ! animal functions1 x is n necess>y = me to dwell long] on ! subject2 = to write a hi/ory1 or ev5 a sket* ( ! hi/ory ( ,physiology1 w\ld suit nei!r my p[]s nor my purpose4 ,"s fur!r analysis ( ! g5]al views :i* h be5 promulgat$ by ! mo/ em95t physiologi/s1 may p]haps be attempt$ 9 treat+ ( ! ,philosophy ( ,inductive ,sci5ce2 b ! e/imation ( ! value ( rec5t speculations & inve/igations mu/ be left to ^? :o h made ?is va/ subject ! /udy ( _! lives4 ,a few brief notices may1 h[ev]1 be "h introduc$4 #deb ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,! ,,*yle1 ,,& ,,consequ5t ,,speculations4 ,sect4 #a4--,! ,discov]y ( ! ,motion ( ! ,*yle4 ,,x may h be5 obs]v$ 9 ! previ\s c\rse ( ?is ,hi/ory ( ! ,sci5ces1 t ! discov]ies 9 ea* sci5ce h a peculi> physiognomy3 some?+ ( a common type may be trac$ 9 ! progress ( ea* ( ! !ories belong+ to ! same dep>tm5t ( k4 ,we may notice some?+ ( ?is common =m 9 ! v>i\s bran*es ( physiological speculation4 ,9 mo/1 or all ( !m1 we h1 z we h notic$ ! case to be ) respect to ! circulation ( ! blood1 cle> & c]ta9 discov]ies ( me*anical & *emical processes1 succe$$ by speculations f> m obscure1 d\btful1 & vague1 respect+ ! relation ( ^! *anges to ! laws ( life4 ,?is feature 9 ! hi/ory ( physiology may be fur!r in/anc$1 7x %all be done v briefly71 9 "o or two o!r cases4 ,& we may obs]ve1 t ! lesson :i* we are to collect f ?is n>rative1 is by no means t we are to conf9e ourselves to ! positive discov]y1 & reject all ! less cle> & c]ta9 speculations4 ,to d ?is1 w\ld be to lose mo/ ( ! *ances ( ult]ior progress2 = ?\gh x may be1 t our conceptions ( ! nature ( organic life are n yet suffici5tly precise & /eady to become ! guides to positive inductive tru?s1 /ill ! only way 9 :i* ^! peculi> physiological ideas c be made m di/9ct & precise1 & ?us br\ght m ne>ly into a sci5tific =m1 is by ?is /ruggle ) our ignorance or imp]fect k4 ,?is is ! lesson we h le>nt f ! hi/ory ( physical a/ronomy & o!r sci5ces4 ,we mu/ /rive to ref] facts :i* are kn[n & und]/ood1 to high] pr9ciples1 ( :i* we _c d\bt ! exi/5ce1 & ( :i*1 9 "s degree1 we c see ! place2 h[ev] dim & %ad[y may be ! glimpses we h hi!rto be5 able to obta9 ( _! =ms4 ,we may (t5 fail 9 su* attempts1 b )\t ! attempt we c nev] succe$4 #dec ,t ! food is receiv$ into ! /oma*1 !re und]goes a *ange ( its consi/5ce1 & is !n propell$ along ! inte/9es1 are obvi\s facts 9 ! animal economy4 ,b a discov]y made 9 ! c\rse ( ! sev5te5? c5tury br\ght into cle>] light ! sequel ( ?is s]ies ( processes1 & its connexion ) o!r functions4 ,9 ! ye> #afbb1 ,asellius or ,aselli#ciag discov]$ c]ta9 m9ute vessels1 t]m$ lacteals1 :i* absorb a :ite liquid 7! *yle7 f ! b[els1 & p\r x into ! blood4 ,^! vessels _h1 9 fact1 be5 discov]$ by ,eri/ratus1 9 ! anci5t _w1#djag 9 ! "t ( ,ptolemy2 b ,aselli 0 ! fir/ mod]n :o att5d$ to !m4 ,he describ$ !m 9 a treatise entitl$ ,de ,v5is ,lacteis1 cum figuris elegantissimis1 pr9t$ at ,milan 9 #afbg1 ! ye> aft] ! dea? ( ! au?or4 ,! "w is rem>kable z ! fir/ :i* exhibits color$ anatomical figures2 ! art]ies & ve9s are repres5t$ 9 r$1 ! lacteals 9 black4 ,note #ciag3 ,mayo1 ,physiology1 p4 #aef4 ,note #djag3 ,cuv4 ,hi/4 ,sc4 p4 #ej4 ,eu/a*ius1#daag at an e>li] p]iod1 _h describ$ 79 ! horse7 ! ?oracic duct by :i* ! *yle is p\r$ into ! subclavian ve91 on ! "r side ( ! neck4 ,b ?is description did n excite s mu* notice z to prev5t its be+ =gott51 & r$iscov]$ 9 #aeej1 aft] ! k ( ! circulation ( ! blood _h giv5 m importance to su* a discov]y4 ,up to ?is "t1#dbag x _h be5 suppos$ t ! lacteals c>ri$ ! *yle to ! liv]1 & t ! blood 0 manufactur$ !re4 ,?is op9ion _h prevail$ 9 all ! works ( ! anci5ts & mod]ns2 its falsity 0 discov]$ by ,pecquet1 a ,fr5* physician1 & publi%$ 9 #afea1 9 8 ,new ,anatomical ,exp]im5ts2 9 :i* are discov]$ a receptacle ( ! *yle1 unkn[n till !n1 & ! vessel :i* conveys x to ! subclavian ve94 ,pecquet himself & o!r anatomi/s1 soon connect$ ?is discov]y ) ! doctr9e1 !n rec5tly promulgat$1 ( ! circulation ( ! blood4 ,9 #affe1 ^! vessels1 & ! lymphatics :i* are connect$ ) !m1 7 fur!r illu/rat$ by ,ruys* 9 8 exhibition ( _! valves4 7,dilucidatio valvul>um 9 vasis lymphaticis et lacteis47 ,note #daag3 ,cuv4 ,hi/4 p4 #cd4 ,note #dbag3 ,ib4 p4 #cfe4 ,sect4 #b4--,! ,consequ5t ,speculations4 ,hypo!ses ( ,dige/ion4 ,,?us x 0 %[n t alim5ts tak5 into ! /oma* are1 by its action1 made to produce *yme2 f ! *yme1 gradually *ang$ #ded 9 its progress ?r\gh ! inte/9es1 *yle is absorb$ by ! lacteals2 & ?is1 p\r$ into ! blood by ! ?oracic duct1 repairs ! wa/e & n\ri%es ! gr[? ( ! animal4 ,b by :at p[]s is ! food made to und]go ^! trans=mations8 ,c we expla9 !m on me*anical or on *emical pr9ciples8 ,"h we come to a "p ( physiology less c]ta9 ?an ! discov]y ( vessels1 or ( ! motion ( fluids4 ,we h a numb] ( op9ions on ?is subject1 b no univ]sally ackn[l$g$ tru?4 ,we h a collection ( ,hypo!ses ( ,dige/ion & ,nutrition4 ,i %all conf9e myself to ! =m] class2 & )\t dwell+ long ^u ^!1 ,i %all m5tion "s ( !m4 ,! philosoph]s ( ! ,academy del ,cim5to1 & sev]al o!rs1 hav+ exp]im5t$ on ! /oma* ( gall9ace\s birds1 & obs]v$ ! a/oni%+ =ce ) :i* x breaks & gr9ds sub/ances1 7 l$ to consid] ! dige/ion :i* takes place 9 ! /oma* z a k9d ( trituration4#dcag ,o!r writ]s ?\ght x 0 m prop]ly describ$ z f]m5tation2 o!rs aga9 spoke ( x z a putrefaction4 ,v>ignon gave a m]ely physical acc\nt ( ! fir/ "p ( ! process1 ma9ta9+ t ! division ( ! alim5ts 0 ! effect ( ! dis5gagem5t ( ! air introduc$ into ! /oma*1 & dilat$ by ! heat ( ! body4 ,! op9ion t dige/ion is a solution ( ! food by ! ga/ric juice has be5 m ext5sively ent]ta9$4 ,note #dcag3 ,b\rdon1 ,physiol4 ,comp4 p4 #ead4 ,spallanzani & o!rs made _m exp]im5ts on ?is subject4 ,yet x is d5i$ by ! be/ physiologi/s1 t ! *anges ( dige/ion c be adequately repres5t$ z *emical *anges only4 ,! n]ves ( ! /oma* 7! pneumo-ga/ric7 are said to be ess5tial to dige/ion4 ,dr4 ,wilson ,philip has ass]t$ t ! influ5ce ( ^! n]ves1 :5 !y are de/roy$1 may be replac$ by a galvanic curr5t4#ddag ,?is might give rise to a supposition t dige/ion dep5ds on galvanism4 ,yet we _c d\bt t all ^! hypo!ses1--me*anical1 physical1 *emical1 galvanic--are altoge!r insuffici5t4 ,! /oma* mu/ h1 z ,dr4 ,pr\t says1#deag ! p[] ( #dee organiz+ & vitaliz+ ! diff]5t elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,x is impossible to imag9e t ?is organiz+ ag5cy ( ! /oma* c be *emical4 ,?is ag5cy is vital1 & its nature completely unkn[n4 ,note #ddag3 ,mll] 7,manual ( ,physiology1 ,b4 iii4 ,sect4 #a1 ,*ap4 iii47 speaks ( ,dr4 ,wilson ,philip's ass]tion t ! n]ves ( ! /oma* be+ cut1 & a galvanic curr5t kept up 9 !m1 dige/ion is /ill accompli%$4 ,he /ates t he & o!r physiologi/s h repeat$ su* exp]im5ts on an ext5sive scale1 & h f\nd no effect ( ?is k9d4 ,note #deag3 ,bridgewat] ,tr4 p4 #dic4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,process ,,( ,,reproduction ,,9 ,,animals ,,& ,,plants1 ,,& ,,consequ5t ,,speculations4 ,sect4 #a4--,! ,exam9ation ( ! ,process ( ,reproduction 9 ,animals4 ,,x w\ld n1 p]haps1 be necess>y to give any m examples ( :at has hi!rto be5 ! g5]al process ( inve/igations on ea* bran* ( physiology2 or to illu/rate fur!r ! comb9ation :i* su* rese>*es pres5t1 ( c]ta9 ) unc]ta9 k2--( solid discov]ies ( organs & processes1 succe$$ by indef9ite & d\btful speculation conc]n+ vital =ces4 ,b ! reproduction ( organiz$ be+s is n only a subject ( s mu* int]e/ z to require "s notice1 b also (f]s to u laws & pr9ciples :i* include bo? ! vegetable & ! animal k+dom2 & :i*1 !re=e1 are requisite to r5d] intelligible ! mo/ g5]al views to :i* we c atta91 respect+ ! _w ( organization4 ,! facts & laws ( reproduction 7 fir/ /udi$ 9 detail 9 animals4 ,! subject appe>s to h attract$ ! att5tion ( "s ( ! philosoph]s ( antiquity 9 an extraord9>y degree3 & inde$ we may easily imag9e t !y hop$1 by foll[+ ?is pa?1 if any1 to solve ! my/]y ( creation4 ,ari/otle appe>s to h pursu$ x ) peculi> complac5cy2 & 8 great "w ,on animals conta9s#dfag an extraord9>y collection ( curi\s obs]vations relative to ?is subject4 ,he _h le>nt ! modes ( reproduction ( mo/ ( ! animals ) :i* he 0 acqua9t$2 & 8 "w is /ill1 z a writ] ( our own times has said1#dgag orig9al aft] s _m copies1 & "y aft] two ?\s& ye>s4 ,8 obs]vations ref]r$ pr9cipally to ! ext]nal circum/ances ( g5]ation3 ! anatomical exam9ation 0 #def left to 8 successors4 ,)\t dwell+ on ! int]m$iate labors1 we come to mod]n times1 & f9d t ?is exam9ation owes its greate/ advance to ^? :o _h ! greate/ %>e 9 ! discov]y ( ! circulation ( ! blood2--,fabricius ( ,acquap5d5te1 & ,h>vey4 ,! =m]#dhag publi%$ a valuable "w on ! ,egg & ! ,*ick4 ,9 ?is are giv51 = ! fir/ "t1 figures repres5t+ ! developem5t ( ! *ick1 f its almo/ imp]ceptible beg9n+1 to ! mom5t :5 x breaks ! %ell4 ,h>vey pursu$ ! rese>*es ( 8 tea*]4 ,*>les#diag ! ,fir/ _h suppli$ him ) ! means ( mak+ ! exp]im5ts :i* 8 purpose requir$1 by sacrific+ a great numb] ( ! de] 9 ,w9dsor ,p>k 9 ! /ate ( ge/ation3 b 8 pr9cipal rese>*es 7 ^? respect+ ! egg1 9 :i* he foll[$ out ! views ( ,fabricius4 ,9 ! tr\bles :i* succe$$ ! dea? ( ! un=tunate ,*>les ! h\se ( ,h>vey 0 pillag$2 & he lo/ ! :ole ( ! labors he _h be/[$ on ! g5]ation ( insects4 ,8 "w1 ,ex]citationes de ,g5]atione ,animalium1 0 publi%$ at ,london 9 #afea2 x is m detail$ & p]fect ?an t ( ,fabricius2 b ! au?or 0 prev5t$ by ! unsettl$ condition ( ! c\ntry f gett+ figures engrav$ to accompany 8 descriptions4 ,note #dfag3 ,b\rdon1 p4 #afa4 ,note #dgag3 ,ib4 p4 #aja4 ,note #dhag3 ,cuv4 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,nat4 p4 #df4 ,note #diag3 ,ib4 p4 #ec4 ,_m succe$+ anatomi/s pursu$ ! exam9ation ( ! s]ies ( *anges 9 g5]ation1 & ( ! organs :i* are conc]n$ 9 !m1 especially ,malpighi1 :o employ$ ! microscope 9 ?is inve/igation1 & ^: "w on ! ,*ick 0 publi%$ 9 #afgc4 ,x is impossible to give "h any g5]al view ( ! result ( ^! labori\s s]ies ( rese>*es3 b we may obs]ve1 t !y l$ to an extremely m9ute & exact survey ( all ! p>ts ( ! ftus1 its envelopes & app5dages1 &1 ( c\rse1 to a designation ( ^! by appropriate names4 ,^! names aft]w>ds s]v$ to m>k ! attempts :i* 7 made to c>ry ! analogy ( animal g5]ation into ! vegetable k+dom4 ,!re is "o g5]alization ( ,h>vey :i* des]ves notice4#ejag ,he 0 l$ by 8 rese>*es to ! conclusion1 t all liv+ ?+s may be prop]ly said to come f eggs3 ,omne vivum ex ovo4 ,?us n only d ovip>\s animals produce by means ( eggs1 b 9 ^? :i* are vivip>\s1 ! process ( g5]ation beg9s ) ! developem5t ( a small vesicle1 :i* comes f ! ov>y1 & :i* exi/s be=e ! embryo3 & ?us vivip>\s or suckl+-bea/s1 #deg not)/&+ _! "n1 are born f eggs1 z well z birds1 fi%es1 & reptiles4#eaag ,?is pr9ciple also excludes t suppos$ production ( organiz$ be+s )\t p>5ts 7( worms 9 corrupt$ matt]1 = in/ance17 :i* 0 =m]ly call$ spontane\s g5]ation2 & ! be/ physiologi/s ( mod]n times agree 9 d5y+ ! reality ( su* a mode ( g5]ation4#ebag ,note #ejag3 ,ex]c4 lxiii4 ,note #eaag3 ,b\rdon1 p4 #bba4 ,note #ebag3 ,ib4 p4 #di4 ,sect4 #b4--,! ,exam9ation ( ! ,process ( ,reproduction 9 ,vegetables4 ,,! ext5sion ( ! analogies ( animal g5]ation to ! vegetable _w 0 f> f obvi\s4 ,?is ext5sion 0 h[ev] made2--) ref]5ce to ! embryo plant1 pr9cipally by ! microscopic obs]v]s1 ,nehemiah ,grew1 ,m>cello ,malpighi1 & ,antony ,leeuw5hoek2--) respect to ! exi/5ce ( ! sexes1 by ,l9nu & 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! microscopic labors ( ,grew & ,malpighi 7 patroniz$ by ! ,royal ,society ( ,london 9 its e>lie/ y\?4 ,grew's book1 ,! ,anatomy ( ,plants1 0 ord]$ to be pr9t$ 9 #afgj4 ,x conta9s plates repres5t+ extremely well ! process ( g]m9ation 9 v>i\s se$s1 & ! au?or's obs]vations exhibit a v cle> conception ( ! relation & analogies ( diff]5t portions ( ! se$4 ,on ! day on :i* ! copy ( ?is "w 0 laid be=e ! ,society1 a communication f ,malpighi ( ,bologna1 ,anatomes ,plant>um ,idea1 /at$ 8 rese>*es1 & promis$ figures :i* %\ld illu/rate !m4 ,bo? au?ors aft]w>ds w5t on ) a long tra9 ( valuable obs]vations1 :i* !y publi%$ at v>i\s times1 & :i* conta9 mu* t has s9ce become a p]man5t portion ( ! sci5ce4 ,bo? ,grew & ,malpighi 71 z we h rem>k$1 l$ to apply to vegetable g5]ation _m t]ms :i* imply an analogy ) ! g5]ation ( animals4 ,?us1 ,grew t]ms ! inn]mo/ coat ( ! se$1 ! secund9e2 speaks ( ! navel-fibres1 c4 ,_m m su* t]ms h be5 add$ by o!r writ]s4 ,&1 z has be5 obs]v$ by a mod]n physiologi/1#ecag ! resemblance is /rik+4 ,bo? 9 ! vegetable se$ & 9 ! f]tiliz$ animal egg1 we h an embryo1 *alaz1 a plac5ta1 an umbilical cord1 a cicatricula1 an amnios1 membranes1 n\ri%+ vessels4 ,! cotyl$ons ( ! se$ are ! equival5t ( ! vitellus ( birds1 or ( ! umbilical vesicle ( 9999suckl+-bea/s3 #deh ! album5 or p]isp]m ( ! gra9 is analog\s to ! :ite ( ! egg ( birds1 or ! allantoid ( vivip>\s animals4 ,note #ecag3 ,ib4 p4 #chd4 ,sexes ( ,plants4--,! attribution ( sexes to plants1 is a notion :i* 0 v e>ly adopt$2 b only gradually unfold$ into di/9ctness & g5]ality4#edag ,! anci5ts 7 acqua9t$ ) ! fecundation ( vegetables4 ,emp$ocles1 ,ari/otle1 ,!ophra/us1 ,pl9y1 & "s ( ! poets1 make m5tion ( x2 b _! notions 7 v incomplete1 & ! conception 0 aga9 lo/ 9 ! g5]al %ipwreck ( human k4 ,a ,lat9 poem1 compos$ 9 ! fifte5? c5tury by ,jovianus ,pontanus1 ! preceptor ( ,alphonso1 ,k+ ( ,naples1 is ! fir/ mod]n "w 9 :i* m5tion is made ( ! sex ( plants4 ,pontanus s+s ! loves ( two date-palms1 :i* grew at ! di/ance ( fifte5 leagues f ea* o!r3 ! male at ,brundusium1 ! female at ,otranto4 ,! di/ance did n prev5t ! female f becom+ fruitful1 z soon z ! palms _h rais$ _! heads above ! surr\nd+ trees1 s t no?+ int]v5$ directly betwe5 !m1 or1 to speak ) ! poet1 s t !y 7 able to see ea* o!r4 ,note #edag3 ,mirbel1 ,el4 ii4 #ech4 ,zaluzian1 a botani/ :o liv$ at ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 says t ! great] "p ( ! species ( plants are &rogynes1 t is1 h ! prop]ties ( ! male & ( ! female unit$ 9 ! same plant2 b t "s species h ! two sexes 9 sep>ate individuals2 & he adduces a passage ( ,pl9y relative to ! fecundation ( ! date-palm4 ,john ,bauh91 9 ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 cites ! expressions ( ,zaluzian2 & =ty ye>s lat]1 a pr(essor ( ,tb+51 ,rudolph ,jacob ,cam]>ius1 po9t$ out cle>ly ! organs ( g5]ation1 & prov$ by exp]im5ts on ! mulb]ry1 on maize1 & on ! plant call$ ,m]cury 7m]curialis71 t :5 by any means ! action ( ! /am9a ^u ! pi/ils is int]cept$1 ! se$s are b>r54 ,cam]>ius1 !re=e1 a philosoph] 9 o!r respects ( little note1 has ! honor assign$ him ( be+ ! au?or ( ! discov]y ( ! sexes ( plants 9 mod]n times4#eeag ,note #eeag3 ,mirbel1 ii4 #eci4 ,! m]it ( ?is discov]y w1 p]haps1 appe> m consid]able :5 x is recollect$ t x 0 reject$ at fir/ by v em95t botani/s4 ,?us ,t\rne=t1 misl$ by insuffici5t exp]im5ts1 ma9ta9$ t ! /am9a are excretory organs2 & ,reaumur1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 incl9$ to ! same doctr9e4 #dei ,^u ?is1 ,ge(froy1 an apo!c>y at ,p>is1 scrut9iz$ afre% ! sexual organs2 he exam9$ ! v>i\s =ms ( ! poll51 already obs]v$ by ,grew & ,malpighi2 he po9t$ out ! excretory canal1 :i* desc5ds ?r\gh ! /yle1 & ! micropyle1 or m9ute orifice 9 ! coats ( ! ovule1 :i* is opposite to ! extremity ( ?is canal2 ?\gh he committ$ "s mi/akes ) reg>d to ! nature ( ! poll54 ,soon aft]w>ds1 ,seba/ian ,vaillant1 ! pupil ( ,t\rne=t1 b ! corrector ( 8 error on ?is subject1 expla9$ 9 8 public lectures ! ph5om5on ( ! fecundation ( plants1 describ$ ! explosion ( ! an!rs1 & %[$ t ! florets ( composite fl[]s1 ?\gh =m$ on ! type ( an &rogyn\s fl[]1 are sometimes male1 sometimes female1 & sometimes neut]4 ,b ?\gh ! sexes ( plants _h ?us be5 notic$1 ! subject drew f> m att5tion :5 ,l9nu made ! sexual p>ts ! basis ( 8 classification4 ,cam]>ius & ,burk>d _h already ent]ta9$ su* a ?\ght1 b x 0 ,l9nu :o c>ri$ into effect1 & ?us made ! notion ( ! sexes ( vegetables almo/ z famili> to u z t ( ! sexes ( animals4 ,sect4 #c4--,! ,consequ5t ,speculations4--,hypo!ses ( ,g5]ation4 ,,! views ( ! processes ( g5]ation1 & ( _! analogies ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! organic _w1 :i* 7 ?us e/abli%$ & diffus$1 =m an important & sub/antial "p ( our physiological k4 ,t a numb] ( curi\s b d\btful hypo!ses %\ld be put =w>d1 = ! purpose ( giv+ fur!r significance & connexion to ^! discov]ies1 0 to be expect$4 ,we mu/ cont5t ourselves ) speak+ ( ^! v briefly4 ,we h su* hypo!ses 9 ! e>lie/ antiquity ( ,greece2 = z we h already said1 ! speculations ( cosmogony 7 ! s\rce ( ! ,greek philosophy2 & ! laws ( g5]ation appe>$ to (f] ! be/ promise ( k respect+ ! my/]y ( creation4 ,hippocrates expla9$ ! production ( a new animal by ! mixture ( se$ ( ! p>5ts2 & ! (fspr+ 0 male or female z ! sem9al pr9ciple ( ! fa!r or ( ! "m 0 ! m p[]ful4 ,accord+ to ,ari/otle1 ! "m suppli$ ! matt]1 & ! fa!r ! =m4 ,h>vey's doctr9e 01 t ! ov>y ( ! female is f]tiliz$ by a sem9al contagion produc$ by ! se$ ( ! male4 ,b an op9ion :i* obta9$ f> m g5]al reception 01 t #dfj ! embryo pre-exi/$ 9 ! "m1 be=e any union ( ! sexes4#efag ,x is easy to see t ?is doctr9e is accompani$ ) great difficulties2#egag = if ! "m1 at ! beg9n+ ( life1 conta9 9 h] ! embryos ( all h] future *ildr52 ^! embryos aga9 mu/ conta9 ! *ildr5 :i* !y are capable ( produc+2 & s on indef9itely2 & ?us ea* female ( ea* species conta9s 9 h]self ! g]ms ( inf9ite future g5]ations4 ,! p]plexity :i* is involv$ 9 ?is notion ( an endless s]ies ( creatures1 ?us encas$ "o )9 ano!r1 has naturally driv5 inquir]s to attempt o!r suppositions4 ,! microscopic rese>*es ( ,leeuw5hoek & o!rs l$ !m to ! belief t !re are c]ta9 animalcules conta9$ 9 ! se$ ( ! male1 :i* are ! ma9 ag5ts 9 ! "w ( reproduction4 ,?is sy/em ascribes almo/ ev]y?+ to ! male1 z ! "o la/ m5tion$ does to ! female4 ,f9ally1 we h ! sy/em ( ,buffon2--! fam\s hypo!sis ( organic molecules4 ,t philosoph] ass]t$ t he f\nd1 by ! aid ( ! microscope1 all nature full ( mov+ globules1 :i* he conceiv$ to be1 n animals z ,leeuw5hoek imag9$1 b bodies capable ( produc+1 by _! comb9ation1 ei!r animals or vegetables1 9 %ort1 all organiz$ bodies4 ,^! globules he call$ organic molecules4#ehag ,& if we inquire h[ ^! organic molecules1 proce$+ f all p>ts ( ! two p>5ts1 unite into a :ole1 z p]fect z ei!r ( ! prog5itors1 ,buffon answ]s1 t ?is is ! effect ( ! int]ior m\ld2 t is1 ( a sy/em ( int]nal laws & t5d5cies :i* det]m9e ! =m ( ! result z an ext]nal m\ld det]m9es ! %ape ( ! ca/4 ,note #efag3 ,b\rdon1 p4 #bjd4 ,note #egag3 ,ib4 p4 #bji4 ,note #ehag3 ,ib4 p4 #bai4 ,an admir] ( ,buffon1 :o has well %[n ! unt5able "* ( ?is sy/em1 has urg$1 z a k9d ( apology = ! promulgation ( ! hypo!sis1#eiag t at ! p]iod :5 its au?or wrote1 he c\ld n pres5t 8 facts ) any hope ( be+ att5d$ to1 if he did n connect !m by "s common tie1 "s dom9ant idea :i* might gratify ! m9d2 & t1 act+ "u ?is necessity1 he did well to sub/itute = ! extant !ories1 already sup]annuat$ & confess$ly imp]fect1 conjectures m orig9al & m probable4 ,)\t diss5t+ f ?is view1 we may obs]ve1 t ,buffon's !ory1 l ^? :i* prec$$ x1 is excusable1 & ev5 des]v+ ( admiration1 s f> z x gr\ps ! facts consi/5tly2 because 9 do+ ?is1 x exhibits ! necessity1 :i* ! physiological speculator ought to feel1 ( aspir+ to def9ite & solid g5]al pr9ciples2 & t ?us1 ?\gh #dfa ! !ory may n be e/abli%$ z true1 x may be useful by br++ into view ! real nature & application ( su* pr9ciples4 ,note #eiag3 ,ib4 p4 #bba4 ,x is1 !re=e1 accord+ to our views1 unphilosophical to d]ive despair1 in/ead ( hope1 f ! imp]fect success ( ,buffon & 8 pr$ecessors4 ,yet ?is is :at is done by ! writ] to :om we ref]4 ,= me1 says he1#fjag ,i v[ t1 aft] hav+ long m$itat$ on ! sy/em ( ,buffon1--a sy/em s rem>kable1 s +5i\s1 s well matur$1 s wond]fully connect$ 9 all its p>ts1 at fir/ sight s probable2--,i confess t1 aft] ?is long /udy1 & ! rese>*es :i* x requires1 ,i h conceiv$ 9 consequ5ce1 a di/ru/ ( myself a skepticism1 a disda9 ( hypo!tical sy/ems1 a decid$ pr$ilection & exclusive ta/e = pure & rational obs]vation1 9 %ort1 a di%e>t5+1 :i* ,i _h nev] felt be=e4 ,note #fjag3 ,b\rdon1 p4 #bgd4 ,! be/ rem$y ( su* feel+s is to be f\nd 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,kepl]1 :5 he _h be5 driv5 to reject ! solid epicycles ( ! anci5ts1 or a p]son :o _h admir$ ,kepl] z ,m4 ,b\rdon admires ,buffon1 b :o saw t 8 magnetic virtue 0 an unt5able fiction1 might1 9 ! same mann]1 h ?r[n up all hope ( a s\nd !ory ( ! causes ( ! cele/ial motions4 ,b a/ronom]s 7 too wise & too =tunate to yield to su* despond5cy4 ,! pr$ecessors ( ,newton sub/itut$ a solid sci5ce ( ,me*anics = ! vague notions ( ,kepl]2 & ! "t soon came :5 ,newton himself r$uc$ ! motions ( ! heav5s to a ,law z di/9ctly conceiv$ z ! ,motions _h be5 be=e4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em1 ,,& ,,consequ5t ,,speculations4 ,sect4 #a4--,! ,exam9ation ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em4 ,,x is h>dly necess>y to illu/rate by fur!r examples ! mann] 9 :i* anatomical obs]vation has produc$ conjectural & hypo!tical attempts to connect /ructure & action ) "s #dfb high] pr9ciple1 ( a m peculi>ly physiological k9d4 ,b x may /ill be in/ructive to notice a case 9 :i* ! pr9ciple1 :i* is ?us br\ght into view1 is f> m completely elevat$ above ! doma9 ( matt] & me*anism ?an 9 ^? we h yet consid]$2--a case :]e we h n only ,irritation1 b ,s5sation2--n only ,life1 b ,consci\sness & ,w4 ,a "p ( sci5ce 9 :i* sugge/ions pres5t !mselves1 br+s u1 9 a v /rik+ mann]1 to ! passage f ! physical to ! hyp]physical sci5ces4 ,we h se5 already 7*ap4 i47 t ,gal5 & 8 pr$ecessors _h satisfi$ !mselves t ! n]ves are ! *annels ( p]ception2 a doctr9e :i* _h be5 di/9ctly taught by ,h]ophilus#faag 9 ! ,alex&rian s*ool4 ,h]ophilus1 h[ev]1 /ill comb9$1 "u ! common "n ( ,n]ves1 ! ,t5dons2 ?\gh he di/+ui%$ su* ,n]ves f ^? :i* arise f ! bra9 & ! sp9al m>r[1 & :i* are subs]vi5t to ! w4 ,9 ,gal5's "t ?is subject _h be5 prosecut$ m into detail4 ,t anatomi/ has left a ,treatise expressly ^u ,! ,anatomy ( ! ,n]ves2 9 :i* he describes ! successive ,pairs ( ,n]ves3 ?us1 ! ,fir/ ,pair are ! visual n]ves3 & we see1 9 ! language :i* ,gal5 uses1 ! evid5ce ( ! c>e & int]e/ ) :i* he _h himself exam9$ !m4 ,^! n]ves1 he says1 are n resolv$ into _m fibres1 l all ! o!r n]ves1 :5 !y rea* ! organs to :i* !y belong2 b spread out 9 a diff]5t & v rem>kable mann]1 :i* x is n easy to describe or to believe1 )\t actually see+ x4 ,he !n gives a description ( ! ret9a4 ,9 l mann] he describes ! ,second ,pair1 :i* is di/ribut$ to ! muscles ( ! eyes2 ! ,?ird & ,f\r? ,pairs1 :i* g to ! tongue & palate2 & s on to ! ,sev5? ,pair4 ,?is division into ,sev5 ,pairs 0 e/abli%$ by ,m>9us1#fbag b ,vesalius f\nd x to be incomplete4 ,! exam9ation :i* is ! basis ( ! anatomical enum]ation ( ! ,n]ves at pres5t recogniz$ 0 t ( ,willis4 ,8 book1 entitl$ ,c]ebri ,anatome1 cui accessit ,n]vorum descriptio et usus1 appe>$ at ,london 9 #affd4 ,he made important additions to ! k ( ?is subject4#fcag ,?us he is ! fir/ :o describes 9 a di/9ct mann] :at has be5 call$ ! ,n]v\s ,c5tre1#fdag ! pyramidal em95ces :i*1 accord+ to m rec5t anatomi/s1 are ! communication ( ! bra9 ) ! sp9al m>r[3 & ( :i* ! ,decussation1 describ$ by ,santor9i1 af=ds ! explanation ( ! action ( a "p #dfc ( ! bra9 ^u ! n]ves ( ! opposite side4 ,willis prov$ also t ! ,rete ,mirabile1 ! rem>kable net-"w ( art]ies at ! base ( ! bra91 obs]v$ by ! anci5ts 9 rum9at+ animals1 does n exi/ 9 man4 ,he describ$ ! diff]5t ,pairs ( ,n]ves ) m c>e ?an 8 pr$ecessors2 & 8 mode ( numb]+ !m is employ$ up to ! pres5t "t4 ,he calls ! ,olfactory ,n]ves ! ,fir/ ,pair2 previ\sly to him1 ^! 7 n reckon$ a ,pair3 & ?us ! optic n]ves 71 z we h se51 call$ ! fir/4 ,he add$ ! ,six? & ! ,n9? ,pairs1 :i* ! anatomi/s :o prec$$ him did n reckon4 ,willis also exam9$ c>efully ! diff]5t ,ganglions1 or knots :i* occur ^u ! n]ves4 ,he trac$ !m :]ev] !y 7 to be f\nd1 & he gave a g5]al figure ( :at ,cuvi] calls ! n]v\s skeleton1 v sup]ior to t ( ,vesalius1 :i* 0 co>se & inexact4 ,willis also made v>i\s ef=ts to %[ ! connexion ( ! p>ts ( ! bra94 ,9 ! e>li] p]iods ( anatomy1 ! bra9 _h be5 exam9$ by slic+ x1 s z to obta9 a section4 ,v>olius endeavor$ to unravel x1 & 0 foll[$ by ,willis4 ,vicq d',azyr1 9 mod]n times1 has c>ri$ ! me?od ( section to great] p]fection ?an _h be=e be5 giv5 x2#feag z ,vieuss5s & ,gall h done ) respect to ! me?od ( ,v>olius & ,willis4 ,rec5tly ,pr(essor ,*aussi]#ffag makes ?ree k9ds ( ,n]ves3--! ,encephalic1 :i* proce$ f ! head1 & are twelve on ea* side2--! ,ra*idian1 :i* proce$ f ! sp9al m>r[1 & are ?irty on ea* side2--& ,comp\nd ,n]ves1 among :i* is ! ,great ,sympa!tic ,n]ve4 ,note #faag3 ,spr4 i4 #ecd4 ,note #fbag3 ,dic4 ,sc4 ,m$4 xxxv4 #dfg4 ,note #fcag3 ,cuv4 ,sc4 ,nat4 p4 #che4 ,note #fdag3 ,ibid4 ,note #feag3 ,cuv4 p4 #dj4 ,note #ffag3 ,dict4 ,sc4 ,nat4 xxxv4 #dfg4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important /eps ev] made 9 our k ( ! n]ves is1 ! di/9ction :i* ,bi*at is suppos$ to h e/abli%$1 ( a ganglionic sy/em1 & a c]ebral sy/em4 ,& we may add1 to ! discov]ies 9 n]v\s anatomy1 ! rem>kable "o1 made 9 our own "t1 t ! two (fices--( conduct+ ! motive impressions f ! c5tral seat ( ! w to ! muscles1 & ( propagat+ s5sations f ! surface ( ! body & ! ext]nal organs ( s5se to ! s5ti5t m9d--reside 9 two di/9ct portions ( ! n]v\s sub/ance3--a discov]y :i* has be5 decl>$#fgag to be d\btless ! mo/ important accession to physiological 7anatomical7 k s9ce ! "t ( ,h>vey4 ,?is doctr9e 0 fir/ publi%$ & taught by ,sir ,*>les ,bell3 aft] an int]val ( "s #dfd ye>s1 x 0 m di/9ctly deliv]$ 9 ! publications ( ,mr4 ,john ,%aw1 ,sir ,c4 ,bell's pupil4 ,soon aft]w>ds x 0 fur!r confirm$1 & "s "p ( ! evid5ce correct$1 by ,mr4 ,mayo1 ano!r pupil ( ,sir ,c4 ,bell1 & by ,m4 ,maj5die4#fhag ,note #fgag3 ,dr4 ,*>les ,h5ry's ,report ( ,brit4 ,assoc4 iii4 p4 #fb4 ,note #fhag3 ,z au?ority = ! expressions :i* ,i h n[ us$ 9 ! text1 ,i w m5tion ,mll]'s ,manual ( ,physiology 7#d? edition1 #ahdd74 ,9 ,book iii4 ,section #b1 ,*ap4 i41 ,on ! ,n]ves ( ,s5sation & ,motion1 ,mll] says1 ,*>les ,bell 0 ! fir/ :o _h ! +5i\s ?\ght t ! po/]ior roots ( ! n]ves ( ! sp9e--^? :i* are furni%$ ) a ganglion--gov]n s5sation only2 t ! ant]ior roots are appo9t$ = motion2 & t ! primitive fibres ( ^! roots1 aft] be+ unit$ 9 a s+le n]v\s cord1 are m+l$ toge!r 9 ord] to supply ! wants ( ! sk9 & muscles4 ,he develop$ ?is idea 9 a little "w 7,an ,idea ( a new ,anatomy ( ! ,bra91 ,london1 #ahaa71 :i* 0 n int5d$ to travel beyond ! circle ( 8 fri5ds4 ,mll] goes on to say1 t elev5 ye>s lat]1 ,maj5die prosecut$ ! same !ory4 ,b ,mr4 ,alex&] ,%aw1 9 #ahci1 publi%$ ,a ,n>rative ( ! ,discov]ies ( ,sir ,*>les ,bell 9 ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em1 9 :i* x appe>s t ,sir ,*>les ,bell _h fur!r exp\nd$ 8 views 9 8 lectures to 8 pupils 7p4 #hi71 & t "o ( ^!1 ,mr4 ,john ,%aw1 _h 9 v>i\s publications1 9 #ahba & #ahbb1 fur!r insi/$ ^u ! same views2 especially 9 a ,memoir ,on ,p>tial ,p>alysis 7p4 #ge74 ,,mm4 ,mayo & ,maj5die bo? publi%$ ,memoirs 9 ,augu/1 #ahbb2 & ^! & subsequ5t works confirm$ ! doctr9e ( ,bell4 ,mr4 ,alex&] ,%aw /ates 7p4 #ig71 t a mi/ake ( ,sir ,*>les ,bell's1 9 an exp]im5t :i* he _h made to prove 8 doctr9e1 0 discov]$ ?r\gh ! jo9t labors ( ,m4 ,maj5die & ,mr4 ,mayo4 ,sect4 #b4--,! ,consequ5t ,speculations4 ,hypo!ses respect+ ,life1 ,s5sation1 & ,volition4 ,i ,,%all n attempt to expla9 ! details ( ^! anatomical inve/igations2 & ,i %all speak v briefly ( ! speculations :i* h be5 sugge/$ by ! obvi\s subs]vi5ce ( ! n]ves to life1 s5sation1 & volition4 ,"s g5]al inf]5ces f _! di/ribution 7 suffici5tly obvi\s2 z1 t ! seat ( s5sation & volition is 9 ! bra94 ,gal5 beg9s 8 "w1 ,on ! ,anatomy ( ! ,n]ves1 ?us3 ,t none ( ! memb]s ( ! animal ei!r ex]cises volunt>y motion1 or receives s5sation1 & t if ! n]ve be cut1 ! "p imm$iately becomes in]t & ins5sible1 is ackn[l$g$ by all physicians4 ,b t ! orig9 ( ! n]ves is p>tly f ! bra91 & p>tly f ! sp9al m>r[1 ,i proce$ to expla94 ,& 9 8 "w ,on ! ,doctr9es ( ,plato & ,hippocrates1 he proves at #dfe great l5g?#fiag t ! bra9 is ! orig9 ( s5sation & motion1 refut+ ! op9ions ( e>li] days1 z t ( ,*rysippus1#gjag :o plac$ ! hegemonic or ma/]-pr9ciple ( ! s\l1 9 ! he>t4 ,b ?\gh ,gal5 ?\ght t ! rational s\l resides 9 ! bra91 he 0 dispos$ to agree ) ! poets & philosoph]s1 accord+ to :om ! he>t is ! seat ( c\rage & ang]1 & ! liv] ! seat ( love4#gaag ,! faculties ( ! s\l 7 by succe$+ physiologi/s conf9$ to ! bra92 b ! disposition /ill %[$ itself1 to attribute to !m di/9ct localities4 ,?us ,willis#gbag places ! imag9ation 9 ! corpus callosum1 ! memory 9 ! folds ( ! hemisph]es1 ! p]ception 9 ! corpus /riatum4 ,9 m rec5t times1 a sy/em f\nd$ ^u a simil> view has be5 fur!r develop$ by ,gall & 8 foll[]s4 ,! g]m ( ,gall's sy/em may be consid]$ z conta9$ 9 t ( ,willis2 = ,gall repres5ts ! hemisph]es z ! folds ( a great membrane :i* is capable ( be+ unwrapp$ & spread out1 & places ! diff]5t faculties ( man 9 ! diff]5t regions ( ?is membrane4 ,! *asm :i* int]v5es betwe5 matt] & motion on ! "o side1 & ?\ght & feel+ on ! o!r1 is br\ght into view by all su* sy/ems2 b none ( ! hypo!ses :i* !y involve c effectually bridge x ov]4 ,note #fiag3 ,lib4 vii4 ,note #gjag3 ,lib4 iii4 c4 #a4 ,note #gaag3 ,lib4 vi4 c4 #h4 ,note #gbag3 ,cuv4 ,sc4 ,nat4 p4 #chd4 ,! same obs]vation may be made respect+ ! attempts to expla9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! n]ves op]ate z ! in/rum5ts ( s5sation & volition4 ,p]haps a real /ep 0 made by ,glisson1#gcag pr(essor ( m$ic9e 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 :o di/+ui%$ 9 ! fibres ( ! muscles ( motion a peculi> prop]ty1 diff]5t f any m]ely me*anical or physical action4 ,8 "w ,on ! ,nature ( ! ,en]getic ,sub/ance1 or on ! ,life ( ,nature & ( its ,?ree ,fir/ ,faculties1 ,! ,p]ceptive1 ,appetitive1 & ,motive1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #afgb1 is r metaphysical ?an physiological4 ,b ! pr9ciples :i* he e/abli%es 9 ?is treatise he applies m specially to physiology 9 a treatise ,on ! ,/oma* & ,inte/9es 7,am/]dam1 #afgg74 ,9 ?is he ascribes to ! fibres ( ! animal body a peculi> p[] :i* he calls ,irritability4 ,he divides irritation into natural1 vital1 & animal2 & he po9ts out1 ?\gh briefly1 ! gradual diff]5ces ( irritability 9 diff]5t organs4 ,x is h>dly compreh5sible1 says ,spr5gel1#gdag h[ ?is #dff lucid & excell5t notion ( ! ,cambridge tea*] 0 n accept$ ) great] alacrity1 & fur!r unfold$ by 8 contempor>ies4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 s9ce be5 univ]sally adopt$4 ,note #gcag3 ,cuv4 ,sc4 ,nat4 p4 #dcd4 ,note #gdag3 ,spr4 iv4 #dg4 ,b ?\gh ! discrim9ation ( muscul> irritability z a peculi> p[] might be a useful /ep 9 physiological rese>*1 ! explanations hi!rto (f]$1 ( ! way 9 :i* ! n]ves op]ate on ?is irritability1 & dis*>ge _! o!r (fices1 pres5t only a s]ies ( hypo!ses4 ,glisson#geag assum$ ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 vital spirits1 :i*1 accord+ to him1 are a mild1 sweet fluid1 resembl+ ! spiritu\s "p ( :ite ( egg1 & resid+ 9 ! n]ves4--,?is hypo!sis1 ( a v subtle humor or _s exi/+ 9 ! n]ves1 0 inde$ v e>ly tak5 up4#gfag ,?is n]v\s _s _h be5 comp>$ to air by ,erasi/ratus1 ,asclepiades1 ,gal51 & o!rs4 ,! *emical t5d5cies ( ! sev5te5? c5tury l$ to its be+ describ$ z acid1 sulphure\s or nitr\s4 ,at ! end ( t c5tury1 ! hypo!sis ( an e!r attract$ mu* notice z a means ( acc\nt+ = _m ph5om5a2 & ?is e!r 0 id5tifi$ ) ! n]v\s fluid4 ,newton himself incl9es to ?is view1 9 ! rem>kable ,qu]ies :i* are annex$ to 8 ,opticks4 ,aft] ascrib+ _m physical effects to 8 e!r1 he adds 7,qu]y #bc71 ,is n vision p]=m$ *iefly by ! vibrations ( ?is m$ium1 excit$ 9 ! bottom ( ! eye by ! rays ( light1 & propagat$ ?r\gh ! solid1 pellucid1 & uni=m capillam5ta ( ! n]ves into ! place ( s5sation8 ,& 7,qu]y #bd71 ,is n animal motion p]=m$ by ! vibrations ( ?is m$ium1 excit$ 9 ! bra9 by ! p[] ( ! w1 & propagat$ f !nce ?r\gh ! capillam5ta ( ! n]ves into ! muscles = contract+ & dilat+ !m8 ,& an op9ion approa*+ ?is has be5 adopt$ by "s ( ! greate/ ( mod]n physiologi/s2 z ,hall]1 :o says1#ggag t1 ?\gh x is m easy to f9d :at ?is n]v\s _s is n ?an :at x is1 he conceives t1 :ile x mu/ be f> too f9e to be p]ceiv$ by ! s5se1 x mu/ yet be m gross ?an fire1 magnetism1 or electricity2 s t x may be conta9$ 9 vessels1 & conf9$ by b\nd>ies4 ,& ,cuvi] speaks to ! same effect3#ghag ,!re is a great probability t x is by an impond]able fluid t ! n]ve acts on ! fibre1 & t ?is n]v\s fluid is drawn f ! blood1 & secret$ by ! m$ull>y matt]4 ,note #geag3 ,spr4 iv4 #ch4 ,note #gfag3 ,hall]1 ,physiol4 iv4 #cfe4 ,note #ggag3 ,physiol4 iv4 #cha1 lib4 x4 sect4 viii4 #ae4 ,note #ghag3 ,rgne ,animal1 ,introd4 p4 #cj4 ,)\t presum+ to diss5t f su* au?orities on a po9t ( #dfg anatomical probability1 we may v5ture to obs]ve1 t ^! hypo!ses d n t5d at all to elucidate ! physiological pr9ciple :i* is "h involv$2 = ?is pr9ciple _c be me*anical1 *emical1 or physical1 & !re=e _c be bett] und]/ood by embody+ x 9 a fluid2 ! difficulty we h 9 conceiv+ :at ! mov+ =ce is1 is n got rid ( by expla9+ ! ma*9]y by :i* x is m]ely transf]r$4 ,9 trac+ ! ph5om5a ( s5sation & volition to _! cause1 x is cle> t we mu/ call 9 "s peculi> & hyp]physical pr9ciple4 ,! hypo!sis ( a fluid is n made m satisfactory by att5uat+ ! fluid2 x becomes subtle1 spiritu\s1 e!real1 impond]able1 to no purpose2 x mu/ cease to be a fluid1 be=e its motions c become s5sation & volition4 ,?is1 inde$1 is ackn[l$g$ by mo/ physiologi/s2 & /rongly /at$ by ,cuvi]4#giag ,! impression ( ext]nal objects ^u ! ,,me1 ! production ( a s5sation1 ( an image1 is a my/]y imp5etrable = our ?\ghts4 ,& 9 sev]al places1 by ! use ( ?is peculi> phrase1 ! me1 7le moi7 = ! s5ti5t & vol5t faculty1 he m>ks1 ) peculi> appropriat5ess & =ce1 t phraseology borr[$ f ! _w ( matt] w1 9 ?is subject1 no long] answ] our purpose4 ,we h "h to g f ,n\ns to ,pron\ns1 f ,?+s to ,p]sons4 ,we pass f ! ,body to ! ,s\l1 f ,physics to ,metaphysics4 ,we are come to ! bord]s ( mat]ial philosophy2 ! next /ep is into ! doma9 ( ,?\ght & ,m9d4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we beg9 to feel t we h rea*$ ! b\nd>ies ( our pres5t subject4 ,! exam9ation ( t :i* lies beyond !m mu/ be res]v$ = a philosophy ( ano!r k9d1 & = ! labors ( ! future2 if we are ev] enabl$ to make ! attempt to ext5d into t l(ti] & wid] sc5e1 ! pr9ciples :i* we ga!r on ! gr\nd we are n[ labori\sly tread+4 ,note #giag3 ,rgne ,animal1 ,introd4 p4 #dg4 ,su* speculations z ,i h quot$ respect+ ! n]v\s fluid1 proce$+ f "s ( ! greate/ philosoph]s :o ev] liv$1 prove only t hi!rto ! endeavor to compreh5d ! my/]y ( p]ception & w1 ( life & ?\ght1 h be5 fruitless & va94 ,_m anatomical tru?s h be5 discov]$1 b1 s f> z our survey has yet gone1 no g5u9e physiological pr9ciple4 ,all ! tra9s ( physiological rese>* :i* we h foll[$ h begun 9 exact exam9ation ( organization & function1 & h end$ 9 wide conjectures & arbitr>y hypo!ses4 ,! /ream ( k 9 all su* cases is #dfh cle> & lively at its outset2 b1 in/ead ( rea*+ ! great ocean ( ! g5]al tru?s ( sci5ce1 x is gradually spread abroad among s&s & des]ts till its c\rse c be trac$ no long]4 ,hi!rto1 !re=e1 we mu/ consid] t we h _h to tell ! /ory ( ! failures ( physiological speculation4 ,b ( late !re h come into view & use among physiologi/s c]ta9 pr9ciples :i* may be consid]$ z peculi> to organiz$ subjects2 & ( :i* ! introduction =ms a real advance 9 organical sci5ce4 ,?\gh ^! h hi!rto be5 v imp]fectly develop$1 we mu/ endeavor to exhibit1 9 "s measure1 _! hi/ory & be>+4 #bnd ,ed4 ,9 ord] to %[ t ,i am n unaw>e h[ imp]fect ! sket* giv5 9 ?is "w is1 z a ,hi/ory ( ,physiology1 ,i may ref] to ! fur!r discussions on ^! subjects conta9$ 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,book ix4 ,i h !re 7,*ap4 ii47 notic$ ! successive ,biological ,hypo!ses ( ! ,my/ical1 ! ,iatro*emical1 & ,iatroma!matical ,s*ools1 ! ,vital-,fluid ,s*ool1 & ! ,psy*ical ,s*ool4 ,i h 7,*aps4 iii41 iv41 v47 exam9$ sev]al ( ! attempts :i* h be5 made to analyze ! ,idea ( ,life1 to classify ,vital ,functions1 & to =m ,ideas ( ,sep>ate ,vital ,=ces4 ,i h consid]$ 9 p>ticul>1 ! attempts to =m a di/9ct conception ( ,assimilation & ,secretion1 ( ,g5]ation1 & ( ,volunt>y ,motion2 & ,i h 7,*ap4 vi47 fur!r discuss$ ! ,idea ( ,f9al ,causes z employ$ 9 ,biology4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,introduction ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,develop$ ,,& ,,metamorphos$ ,,symmetry4 ,sect4 #a4--,vegetable ,morphology4 ,g!4 ,de ,c&olle4 ,,be=e we proce$ to consid] ! progress ( pr9ciples :i* belong to animal & human life1 su* z h j be5 po9t$ at1 we mu/ look r\nd = su* doctr9es1 if any su* !re be1 z apply alike to all organiz$ be+s1 consci\s or unconsci\s1 fix$ or locomotive2--to ! laws :i* regulate vegetable z well z animal =ms & functions4 ,?\gh we are v f> f be+ able to pres5t a #dfi cle> & connect$ code ( su* laws1 we may ref] to "o law1 at lea/1 :i* appe>s to be ( g5u9e au?ority & validity2 & :i* is wor?y our att5tion z an example ( a prop]ly organical or physiological pr9ciple1 di/9ct f all me*anical1 *emical1 or o!r physical =ces2 & su* z _c ev5 be conceiv$ to be resolvable into ^?4 ,i speak ( ! t5d5cy :i* produces su* results z h be5 br\ght toge!r 9 rec5t speculations ^u ,morphology4 ,x may p]haps be reg>d$ z indicat+ h[ peculi> are ! pr9ciples ( organic life1 & h[ f> remov$ f any m]e me*anical action1 t ! lead+ idea 9 ^! speculations 0 fir/ /rongly & effectively appreh5d$1 n by a labori\s exp]im5t] & reason]1 b by a man ( s+ul>ly brilliant & creative fancy2 n by a ma!matician or *emi/1 b by a poet4 ,& we may add fur!r1 t ?is poet _h already %[n himself incapable ( rightly appreh5d+ ! relation ( physical facts to _! pr9ciples2 & _h1 9 try+ 8 p[]s on su* subjects1 exhibit$ a signal in/ance ( ! ineffectual & p]v]se op]ation ( ! me?od ( philosophiz+ to :i* ! con/itution ( 8 m9d l$ him4 ,! p]son ( :om we speak1 is ,john ,wolfgang ,g!1 :o is held1 by ! unanim\s voice ( ,europe1 to h be5 "o ( ! greate/ poets ( our own1 or ( any "t1 & ^: ,doctr9e ( ,colors we h already _h to describe1 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,optics1 z an entire failure4 ,yet 8 views on ! laws :i* connect ! =ms ( plants into "o simple sy/em1 h be5 g5]ally accept$ & foll[$ up4 ,we might almo/ be l$ to ?9k t ?is writ]'s poetical end[m5ts _h contribut$ to ?is sci5tific discov]y2--! love ( beauty ( =m1 by fix+ ! att5tion ^u ! symmetry ( plants2 & ! creative habit ( ?\ght1 by mak+ con/ant developem5t ( a famili> process4#hjag #dgj ,note #hjag3 ,we may quote "s ( ! poet's own v]ses z an illu/ration ( 8 feel+s on ?is subject4 ,!y are address$ to a lady4 ,di* v]wirret1 geliebte1 die taus5dfltige mis*ung ,dieses blum5gewhls b] dem g>t5 umh]2 ,viele nam5 hre/ du an1 und imm] v]drnget1 ,mit b>b>is*em klang1 e9] d5 &]n im ohr4 ,alle ge/alt5 s9d 9999hnli* und ke9e glei*et d] &]n2 ,und s deutet das *or auf e9 geheimes gesetz1 ,auf e9 heiliges r?sel4 ,o6 knnte i* di*1 liebli*e freund9n1 ,ueb]lief]n s glei* glckli* das ls5de wort4 ,?\1 my love1 art p]plext ) ! endless seem+ confusion ,( ! luxuriant weal? :i* 9 ! g>d5 is spread2 ,"n ^u "n ?\ he>e/1 & 9 ?y dissatisfi$ he>+1 ,) a b>b>ian noise "o drives ano!r along4 ,all ! =ms resemble1 yet none is ! same z ano!r2 ,?us ! :ole ( ! ?rong po9ts at a deep hidd5 law4 ,po9ts at a sacr$ riddle4 ,oh6 c\ld ,i to !e1 my belov$ fri5d1 ,:isp] ! =tunate ^w by :i* ! riddle is read6 ,b ?\gh we _c b rem>k ! peculi>ity ( our be+ indebt$ to a poet = ! discov]y ( a sci5tific pr9ciple1 we mu/ n =get t he himself held1 t 9 mak+ ?is /ep1 he _h be5 guid$1 n by 8 inv5tion1 b by obs]vation4 ,he repell$1 ) extreme repugnance1 ! notion t he _h sub/itut$ fancy = fact1 or impos$ ideal laws on actual ?+s4 ,:ile he 0 e>ne/ly pursu+ 8 morphological speculations1 he attempt$ to impress !m ^u ,s*ill]4 ,i exp\nd$ to him1 9 z lively a mann] z possible1 ! metamorphosis ( plants1 draw+ on pap]1 ) _m *>act]i/ic /rokes1 a symbolic plant be=e 8 eyes4 ,he he>d me1 ,g! says1#haag ) mu* int]e/ & di/9ct compreh5sion2 b :5 ,i _h done1 he %ook 8 head1 & said1 ',t is n ,exp]i5ce2 t is an ,idea3' ,i /opt ) "s degree ( irritation2 = ! po9t :i* sep>at$ u 0 m>k$ mo/ lum9\sly by ?is expression4 ,& 9 ! same "w he relates 8 botanical /udies & 8 habit ( obs]vation1 f :i* x is easily se5 t no common am\nt ( k & notice ( details1 7 involv$ 9 ! c\rse ( ?\ght :i* l$ him to ! pr9ciple ( ! ,metamorphosis ( ,plants4 ,note #haag3 ,zur ,morphologie1 p4 #bd4 ,be=e ,i /ate ! hi/ory ( ?is pr9ciple1 ,i may be all[$ to endeavor to communicate to ! read]1 to :om ?is subject is new1 "s conception ( ! pr9ciple itself4 ,?is w n be difficult1 if he w imag9e to himself a fl[]1 = in/ance1 a common wild-rose1 or ! blossom ( an apple-tree1 z consi/+ ( a s]ies ( p>ts dispos$ 9 :orls1 plac$ "o ov] ano!r on an axis4 ,! l[e/ :orl is ! calyx ) its five sepals2 above ?is is ! corolla ) its five petals2 above ?is are a multitude ( /am5s1 :i* may be consid]$ z sep>ate :orls ( five ea*1 (t5 repeat$2 above ^! is a :orl compos$ ( ! ov>ies1 or :at become ! se$-vessels 9 ! fruit1 :i* are five unit$ toge!r 9 ! apple1 b indef9ite 9 numb] & sep>ate 9 ! rose4 ,n[ ! morphological view is #dga ?is2--t ! memb]s ( ea* ( ^! :orls are 9 _! nature id5tical1 & ! same z if !y 7 :orls ( ord9>y leaves1 br\ght toge!r by ! %ort5+ _! common axis1 & modifi$ 9 =m by ! successive elaboration ( _! nutrim5t4 ,fur!r1 accord+ to ?is view1 a :orl ( leaves itself is to be consid]$ z id5tical ) sev]al deta*$ leaves disp]s$ spirally along ! axis1 & br\ght toge!r because ! axis is %ort5$4 ,?us all ! p>ts ( a plant are1 or at lea/ repres5t1 ! successive metamorphoses ( ! same elem5t>y memb]4 ,! root-leaves ?us pass into ! common leaves2--^! into bracte2--^! into ! sepals2--^! into ! petals2--^! into ! /am5s ) _! an!rs2--^! into ! ov>ies ) _! /yles & /igmas2--^! ultimately become ! fruit2 & ?us we are f9ally l$ to ! se$ ( a new plant4 ,moreov] ! same notion ( metamorphosis may be appli$ to expla9 ! exi/5ce ( fl[]s :i* are n symmetrical l ^? we h j ref]r$ to1 b :i* h an irregul> corolla or calyx4 ,! papilionace\s fl[] ( ! pea tribe1 :i* is s m>k$ly irregul>1 may be d$uc$ by easy gradations f ! regul> fl[]1 7?r\gh ! mimose17 by exp&+ "o petal1 jo9+ "o or two o!rs1 & modify+ ! =m ( ! int]m$iate ones4 ,)\t attempt+ to g into detail respect+ ! pro(s ( t id5tity ( all ! diff]5t organs1 & all ! diff]5t =ms ( plants1 :i* is ?us ass]t$1 we may obs]ve1 t x re/s on su* gr\nds z ^!2--! trans=mations :i* ! p>ts ( fl[]s und]go by accid5ts ( nutrim5t or exposure4 ,su* *anges1 consid]$ z mon/rosities :]e !y are v rem>kable1 %[ ! t5d5cies & possibilities belong+ to ! organization 9 :i* !y occur4 ,= in/ance1 ! s+le wild-rose1 by culture1 trans=ms _m ( its num]\s /am5s into petals1 & ?us acquires ! deeply fold$ fl[] ( ! d\ble g>d5-rose4 ,we _c d\bt ( ! reality ( ?is *ange1 = we (t5 see /am5s 9 :i* x is incomplete4 ,9 o!r cases we f9d petals becom+ leaves1 & a bran* gr[+ out ( ! c5tre ( ! fl[]4 ,"s pe>-trees1 :5 9 blossom1 are rem>kable = _! t5d5cies to su* mon/rosities4#hbag ,aga91 we f9d t fl[]s :i* are usually irregul>1 occasionally become regul>1 & conv]sely4 ,! common snap-dragon 7,l9>ia vulg>is7 af=ds a curi\s in/ance ( ?is4#hcag ,! usual =m ( ?is plant is p]sonate1 ! corolla be+ divid$ into two lobes1 :i* diff] 9 =m1 & #dgb toge!r pres5t some:at ! appe>ance ( an animal's face2 & ! upp] portion ( ! corolla is prolong$ backw>ds into a tube-l spur4 ,no fl[] c be m irregul>2 b !re is a s+ul> v>iety ( ?is plants t]m$ ,peloria1 9 :i* ! corolla is /rictly symmetrical1 consi/+ ( a conical tube1 n>r[$ 9 front1 elongat$ beh9d into five equal spurs1 & conta9+ five /am5s ( equal l5g?1 in/ead ( ! two unequal pairs ( ! didynam\s ,l9>ia4 ,^! & ! l appe>ances %[ t !re is 9 nature a capacity =1 & t5d5cy to1 su* *anges z ! doctr9e ( metamorphosis ass]ts4 ,note #hbag3 ,l9dley1 ,nat4 ,sy/4 p4 #hd4 ,note #hcag3 ,h5sl[1 ,pr9ciples ( ,botany1 p4 #aaf4 ,g!'s ,metamorphosis ( ,plants 0 publi%$ #agij3 & 8 sy/em 0 ! result ( 8 own indep5d5t c\rse ( ?\ghts4 ,! view :i* x involv$ 0 n1 h[ev]1 absolutely new1 ?\gh x _h nev] be=e be5 unfold$ 9 s di/9ct & p]suasive a mann]4 ,l9nu consid]$ ! leaves1 calyx1 corolla1 /am5s1 ea* z evolv$ 9 succession f ! o!r2 & spoke ( x z prolepsis or anticipation1#hdag :5 ! leaves *ang$ accid5tally into bracte1 ^! into a calyx1 ?is into a corolla1 ! corolla into /am5s1 or ^! into ! pi/il4 ,& ,casp> ,wolf appreh5d$ 9 a m g5]al mann] ! same pr9ciple4 ,9 ! :ole plant1 says he1#heag we see no?+ b leaves & /alk2 & 9 ord] to prove :at is ! situation ( ! leaves 9 all _! lat] =ms1 he adduces ! cotyl$ons z ! fir/ leaves4 ,note #hdag3 ,spr5gel1 ,bot4 ii4 #cjb4 ,amn4 ,acad4 vi4 #cbd1 #cfe4 ,note #heag3 ,nov4 ,con4 ,ac4 ,petrop4 xii4 #djc1 xiii4 #dgh4 ,g! 0 l$ to 8 sy/em on ?is subject by 8 g5]al views ( nature4 ,he saw1 he says1#hfag t a :ole life ( tal5t & labor 0 requisite to enable any "o to arrange ! inf9itely copi\s organic =ms ( a s+le k+dom ( nature4 ,yet ,i felt1 he adds1 t = me !re mu/ be ano!r way1 analog\s to ! re/ ( my habits4 ,! appe>ance ( ! *anges1 r\nd & r\nd1 ( organic creatures _h tak5 /rong hold on my m9d4 ,imag9ation & ,nature appe>$ to me to vie ) ea* o!r :i* c\ld g on mo/ boldly yet mo/ consi/5tly4 ,8 obs]vation ( nature1 direct$ by su* a ?\ght1 l$ him to ! doctr9e ( ! metamorphosis4 ,note #hfag3 ,zur ,morph4 i4 #cj4 ,9 a lat] republication ( 8 "w 7,zur ,morphologie1 #ahag17 he gives a v agreeable acc\nt ( ! v>i\s circum/ances :i* affect$ ! reception & progress ( 8 doctr9e4 ,willd5[#hgag quot$ #dgc him ?us3--,! life ( plants is1 z ,mr4 ,g! v prettily says1 an expansion & contraction1 & ^! alt]nations make ! v>i\s p]iods ( life4 ,?is 'prettily1' says ,g!1 ,i c be well cont5t )1 b ! 'egregie1' ( ,u/]i is mu* m pretty & oblig+4 ,u/]i _h us$ ?is t]m respect+ ,g! 9 an edition ( ,jussieu4 ,note #hgag3 ,zur ,morph4 i4 #aba4 ,! application ( ! notion ( metamorphosis to ! explanation ( d\ble & mon/r\s fl[]s _h be5 made previ\sly by ,jussieu4 ,g!'s m]it 01 to h ref]r$ to x ! regul> =mation ( ! fl[]4 ,& z ,spr5gel ju/ly says1#hhag 8 view _h s pr(\nd a mean+1 made s /rong an appeal by its simplicity1 & 0 s fruitful 9 ! mo/ valuable consequ5ces1 t x 0 n to be wond]$ at if x occasion$ fur!r exam9ation ( ! subject2 al?\gh _m p]sons pret5d to slight x4 ,! task ( confirm+ & v]ify+ ! doctr9e by a g5]al application ( x to all cases1--a labor s important & necess>y aft] ! promulgation ( any great pr9ciple1--,g! himself did n execute4 ,at fir/ he collect$ specim5s & made draw+s ) "s su* view1#hiag b he 0 int]rupt$ & div]t$ to o!r matt]s4 ,& n[1 says he1 9 8 lat] publication1 :5 ,i look back on ?is und]tak+1 x is easy to see t ! object :i* ,i _h be=e my eyes 01 = me1 9 my position1 ) my habits & mode ( ?9k+1 unatta9able4 ,= x 0 no less ?an ?is3 t ,i 0 to take t :i* ,i _h /at$ 9 g5]al1 & pres5t$ to ! conception1 to ! m5tal intuition1 9 words2 & t ,i %\ld1 9 a p>ticul>ly visible1 ord]ly1 & gradual mann]1 pres5t x to ! eye2 s z to %[ to ! outw>d s5se t out ( ! g]m ( ?is idea might gr[ a tree ( physiology fit to ov]%ad[ ! _w4 ,note #hhag3 ,ges*4 ,botan4 ii4 #cjd4 ,note #hiag3 ,zur ,morph4 i4 9999#abi4 ,voigt1 pr(essor at ,j5a1 0 "o ( ! fir/ :o adopt$ ,g!'s view into an elem5t>y "w1 :i* he did 9 #ahjh4 ,o!r botani/s labor$ 9 ! direction :i* _h ?us be5 po9t$ out4 ,( ^? :o h ?us contribut$ to ! e/abli%m5t & developem5t ( ! metamorphic doctr9e4 ,pr(essor ,de ,c&olle1 ( ,g5eva1 is p]haps ! mo/ important4 ,8 ,!ory ( ,developem5t re/s ^u two ma9 pr9ciples1 abortion & adhesion4 ,by consid]+ "s p>ts z deg5]at$ or abs5t ?r\gh ! abortion ( ! buds :i* might h =m$ !m1 & o!r p>ts z adh]+ toge!r1 he holds t all plants may be r$uc$ to p]fect symmetry3 & ! actual & con/ant occurr5ce ( su* incid5ts is %[n beyond #dgd all d\bt4 ,& ?us ! snap-dragon1 ( :i* we h spok5 above1 is d]iv$ f ! ,peloria1 :i* is ! normal condition ( ! fl[]1 by ! abortion ( "o /am51 & ! deg5]ation ( two o!rs4 ,su* examples are too num]\s to ne$ to be dwelt on4 ,sect4 #b4--;,application ( ,vegetable ,morphology4 ,,! doctr9e1 be+ ?us fully e/abli%$1 has be5 appli$ to solve diff]5t problems 9 botany2 = in/ance1 to expla9 ! /ructure ( fl[]s :i* appe> at fir/ sight to deviate widely f ! usual =ms ( ! vegetable _w4 ,we h an in/ance ( su* an application 9 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,br[n's explanation ( ! real /ructure ( v>i\s plants :i* _h be5 entirely misund]/ood3 z1 = example1 ! g5us ,euphorbia4 ,9 ?is plant he %[$ t :at _h be5 held to be a jo9t$ filam5t1 0 a p$icel ) a filam5t above x1 ! int]m$iate corolla hav+ evanesc$4 ,9 ,or*ide 7! or*is tribe71 he %[$ t ! peculi> /ructure ( ! plant arose f its hav+ six /am5s 7two sets ( ?ree ea*71 ( :i* five are usually abortive4 ,9 ,conif] 7! cone-be>+ trees71 x 0 made to appe> t ! se$ 0 nak$1 :ile ! accompany+ app5dage1 correspond+ to a se$-vessel1 assum$ all =ms1 f a complete leaf to a m]e scale4 ,9 l mann] x 0 prov$ t ! pappus1 or d[n ( composite plants 7z ?i/les71 is a trans=m$ calyx4 ,along ) ?is successful application ( a pr(\nd pr9ciple1 x 0 natural t o!r botani/s %\ld make simil> attempts4 ,?us ,mr4 ,l9dley 0 l$ to take a view#ijag ( ! /ructure ( ,res$a 7mignonette7 diff]5t f t usually ent]ta9$2 :i*1 :5 publi%$1 attract$ a good deal ( att5tion1 & ga9$ "s conv]ts among ! botani/s ( ,g]many & ,france4 ,b 9 #ahcc1 ,mr4 ,l9dley says1 ) great c&or1 ,lately1 ,pr(essor ,h5sl[ has satisfactorily prov$1 9 "p by ! aid ( a mon/rosity 9 ! common ,mignonette1 9 "p by a sev]e application ( morphological rules1 t my hypo!sis mu/ necess>ily be false4 ,su* an agreem5t ( diff]5t botani/s respect+ ! consequ5ces ( morphological rules1 proves ! reality & univ]sality ( ! rules4 ,note #ijag3 ,l9dley1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 iii4 #ej4 ,we f9d1 !re=e1 t a pr9ciple :i* we may call ! ,pr9ciple ( ,develop$ & ,metamorphos$ ,symmetry1 is firmly e/abli%$ #dge & recogniz$1 & famili>ly & successfully appli$ by botani/s4 ,& x w be app>5t1 on reflection1 t ?\gh symmetry is a notion :i* applies to inorganic z well z to organic ?+s1 & is1 9 fact1 a conception ( c]ta9 relations ( space & position1 su* developem5t & metamorphosis z are "h spok5 (1 are ideas entirely diff]5t f any ( ^? to :i* ! physical sci5ces h l$ u 9 our previ\s survey2 & are1 9 %ort1 g5u9e organical or physiological ideas2--real elem5ts ( ! philosophy ( life4 ,we mu/1 h[ev] imp]fectly1 endeavor to trace ! application ( ?is idea 9 ! o!r great dep>tm5t ( ! _w ( life2 we mu/ foll[ ! hi/ory ( ,animal ,morphology4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,progress ,,( ,,animal ,,morphology4 ,sect4 #a4--,rise ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy4 ,,! mo/ g5]al & con/ant relations ( ! =m ( ! organs1 bo? 9 plants & animals1 are ! mo/ natural gr\nds ( classification4 ,h5ce ! fir/ sci5tific classifications ( animals are ! fir/ /eps 9 animal morphology4 ,at fir/1 a zoology 0 con/ruct$ by arrang+ animals1 z plants 7 at fir/ arrang$1 accord+ to _! ext]nal p>ts4 ,b 9 ! c\rse ( ! rese>*es ( ! anatomi/s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 x 0 se5 t ! int]nal /ructure ( animals (f]$ resemblances & transitions ( a f> m coh]5t & philosophical k9d1 & ! ,sci5ce ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy rose into favor & importance4 ,among ! ma9 cultivators ( ?is sci5ce#iaag at ! p]iod j m5tion$1 we f9d ,francis ,r$i1 ( ,arezzo2 ,gui*>d-,joseph ,duv]nay1 :o 0 = sixty ye>s ,pr(essor ( ,anatomy at ! ,j>d9 du ,roi at ,p>is1 & dur+ ?is lapse ( "t _h = 8 pupils almo/ all ! greate/ anatomi/s ( ! great] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury2 ,nehemiah ,grew1 secret>y to ! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 ^: ,anatomy ( ,plants we h already notic$4 ,note #iaag3 ,cuv4 ,leons sur l',hi/4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 #dad1 #dbj4 ,b ,comp>ative ,anatomy1 :i* _h be5 cultivat$ ) ardor #dgf to ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 01 9 "s measure1 neglect$ dur+ ! fir/ two-?irds ( ! eighte5?4 ,! progress ( botany 01 ,cuvi] sagaci\sly sugge/s1#ibag "o cause ( ?is2 = t sci5ce _h made its advances by conf9+ itself to ext]nal *>act]s1 & reject+ anatomy2 & ?\gh ,l9nu ackn[l$g$ ! dep5d5ce ( zoology ^u anatomy#icag s f> z to make ! numb] ( tee? 8 *>act]s1 ev5 ?is 0 felt1 9 8 me?od1 z a bold /ep4 ,b 8 influ5ce 0 soon oppos$ by t ( ,buffon1 ,daub5ton1 & ,pallas2 :o aga9 br\ght into view ! importance ( comp>ative anatomy 9 ,zoology2 at ! same "t t ,hall] prov$ h[ mu* might be le>nt f x 9 ,physiology4 ,john ,hunt] 9 ,engl&1 ! two ,monros 9 ,scotl&1 ,camp] 9 ,holl&1 & ,vicq d',azyr 9 ,france1 7 ! fir/ to foll[ ! pa? ?us po9t$ out4 ,camp] ?rew ! glance ( g5ius on a ho/ ( int]e/+ objects1 b almo/ all t he produc$ 0 a numb] ( sket*es2 ,vicq d',azyr1 m assidu\s1 0 /opt 9 ! mid/ ( a mo/ brilliant c>e] by a premature dea?4 ,note #ibag3 ,cuv4 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,nat4 i4 #cja4 ,note #icag3 ,ib4 ,su* is ,cuvi]'s outl9e ( ! e>li] hi/ory ( comp>ative anatomy4 ,we %all n g into detail ^u ?is subject2 b we may obs]ve t su* /udies _h fix$ 9 ! m9ds ( naturali/s ! conviction ( ! possibility & ! propriety ( consid]+ l>ge divisions ( ! animal k+dom z modifications ( "o common type4 ,belon1 z e>ly z #aeee1 _h plac$ ! skeleton ( a man & a bird side by side1 & %[n ! correspond5ce ( p>ts4 ,s f> z ! case ( v]tebrat$ animals ext5ds1 ?is correspond5ce is g5]ally all[$2 al?\gh x requir$ "s +5uity to detect its details 9 "s cases2 = in/ance1 to see ! analogy ( p>ts betwe5 ! head ( a man & a fi%4 ,9 trac+ ^! less obvi\s correspond5cies1 "s curi\s /eps h be5 made 9 rec5t times4 ,& "h we mu/1 ,i conceive1 aga9 ascribe no small m]it to ! same rem>kable man :o1 z we h already _h to po9t out1 gave s great an impulse to vegetable morphology4 ,g!1 ^: tal5t & disposition = speculat+ on all p>ts ( nature 7 truly admirable1 0 excit$ to ! /udy ( anatomy by 8 prop9quity to ! ,duke ( ,weim>'s cab9et ( natural hi/ory4 ,9 #aghf1 he publi%$ a little essay1 ! object ( :i* 0 to %[ t 9 man1 z well z 9 bea/s1 ! upp] jaw conta9s an int]maxill>y bone1 al?\gh ! sutures are oblit]at$4 ,aft] #agij1idag animat$ & impell$ by ! same passion = natural #dgg obs]vation & = g5]al views1 :i* _h produc$ 8 ,metamorphosis ( ,plants1 he pursu$ 8 speculations on ^! subjects eag]ly & successfully4 ,& 9 #agie1 he publi%$ a ,sket* ( a ,univ]sal ,introduction into ,comp>ative ,anatomy1 beg9n+ ) ,o/eology2 9 :i* he attempts to e/abli% an o/eological type1 to :i* skeletons ( all animals may be ref]r$4 ,i d n pret5d t ,g!'s anatomical works h _h any influ5ce on ! progress ( ! sci5ce comp>able ) t :i* has be5 ex]cis$ by ! labors ( pr(essional anatomi/s2 b ! +5uity & value ( ! views :i* !y conta9$ 0 ackn[l$g$ by ! be/ au?orities2 & ! cle>] introduction & application ( ! pr9ciple ( develop$ & metamorphos$ symmetry may be dat$ f ab\t ?is "t4 ,g! decl>es t1 at an e>ly p]iod ( ^! speculations1 he 0 conv9c$#ieag t ! bony head ( bea/s is to be d]iv$ f six v]tebr4 ,9 #ahjg1 ,ok5 publi%$ a ,program ,on ! ,signification ( ! ,bones ( ! ,skull1 9 :i* he ma9ta9$ t ^! bones are equival5t to f\r v]tebr72 & ,meckel1 9 8 ,comp>ative ,anatomy1 9 #ahaa1 also resolv$ ! skull into v]tebr4 ,b ,spix1 9 8 elaborate "w ,cephalog5esis1 9 #ahae1 r$uc$ ! v]tebr ( ! head to ?ree4 ,ok51 he says1#ifag publi%$ op9ions m]ely !oretical1 & consequ5tly contr>y to ^? ma9ta9$ 9 ?is "w1 :i* are drawn f obs]vation4 ,?is resolution ( ! head into v]tebr is ass5t$ to by _m ( ! be/ physiologi/s1 z expla9+ ! di/ribution ( ! n]ves1 & o!r ph5om5a4 ,spix fur!r ext5d$ ! application ( ! v]tebral !ory to ! heads ( all classes ( v]tebrate animals2 & ,bojanus publi%$ a ,memoir expressly on ! v]tebral /ructure ( ! skulls ( fi%es 9 ,ok5's ,isis = #ahah4 ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire pres5t$ a li?ographic plate to ! ,fr5* ,academy 9 ,febru>y #ahbd1 entitl$ ,composition de la ,tte 9999osseuse *ez l',homme et les ,animaux1 & develop$ 8 views ( ! v]tebral composition ( ! skull 9 two ,memoirs publi%$ 9 ! ,annales des ,sci5ces ,naturelles = #ahbd4 ,we _c fail to recognize "h ! attempt to apply to ! skeleton ( animals ! pr9ciple :i* leads botani/s to consid] all ! p>ts ( a fl[] z trans=mations ( ! same organs4 ,h[ f> ! application ( ! pr9ciple1 z "h propos$1 is j1 ,i mu/ leave philosophical physiologi/s to decide4 ,note #idag3 ,zur ,morphologie1 i4 #bcd4 ,note #ieag3 ,zur ,morphologie1 #bej4 ,note #ifag3 ,spix1 ,cephalog5esis4 ,by ^! & simil> rese>*es1 x is held by ! be/ physiologi/s #dgh t ! skull ( all v]tebrate animals is pretty well r$uc$ to a uni=m /ructure1 & ! laws ( its v>iations ne>ly det]m9$4#igag ,note #igag3 ,cuv4 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,nat4 iii4 #ddb4 ,! v]tebrate animals be+ ?us r$uc$ to a s+le type1 ! "q arises h[ f> ?is c be done ) reg>d to o!r animals1 & h[ _m su* types !re are4 ,& "h we come to "o ( ! important s]vices :i* ,cuvi] r5d]$ to natural hi/ory4 ,sect4 #b4--;,di/9ction ( ! ,g5]al ,types ( ! ,=ms ( ,animals4--,cuvi]4 ,,animals 7 divid$ by ,lam>ck into v]tebrate & inv]tebrate2 & ! g5]al analogies ( all v]tebrate animals are easily made manife/4 ,b ) reg>d to o!r animals1 ! po9t is f> f cle>4 ,cuvi] 0 ! fir/ to give a really philosophical view ( ! animal _w 9 ref]5ce to ! plan on :i* ea* animal is con/ruct$4 ,!re are1#ihag he says1 f\r su* plans2--f\r =ms on :i* animals appe> to h be5 modell$2 & ( :i* ! ult]ior divisions1 ) :atev] titles naturali/s h decorat$ !m1 are only v slight modifications1 f\nd$ on ! developm5t or addition ( "s p>ts :i* d n produce any ess5tial *ange 9 ! plan4 ,note #ihag3 ,rgne ,animal1 p4 #eg4 ,^! f\r great bran*es ( ! animal _w are ! v]tebrata1 mollusca1 articulata1 radiata2 & ! diff]5ces ( ^! are s important t a slight explanation ( !m may be p]mitt$4 ,! v]tebrata are ^? animals :i* 7z man & o!r suckl]s1 birds1 fi%es1 liz>ds1 frogs1 s]p5ts7 h a backbone & a skull ) lat]al app5dages1 )9 :i* ! visc]a are includ$1 & to :i* ! muscles are atta*$4 ,! mollusca1 or s(t animals1 h no bony skeleton2 ! muscles are atta*$ to ! sk91 :i* (t5 includes /ony plates call$ %ells2 su* molluscs are %ell-fi%2 o!rs are cuttle-fi%1 & _m pulpy sea-animals4 ,! articulata consi/ ( cru/acea 7lob/]s1 c471 insects1 spid]s1 & annulose worms1 :i* consi/ ( a head & a numb] ( successive annul> portions ( ! body jo9t$ toge!r 7to ! int]ior ( :i* ! muscles are atta*$71 :5ce ! "n4 ,f9ally1 ! radiata include ! animals kn[n "u ! "n ( zoophytes4 ,9 ! prec$+ ?ree bran*es ! organs ( motion & ( s5se 7 di/ribut$ symmetrically on ! two sides ( an axis1 #dgi s t ! animal has a "r & a left side4 ,9 ! radiata ! simil> memb]s radiate f ! axis 9 a circul> mann]1 l ! petals ( a regul> fl[]4 ,! :ole value ( su* a classification _c be und]/ood )\t expla9+ its use 9 enabl+ u to give g5]al descriptions1 & g5]al laws ( ! animal functions ( ! classes :i* x includes2 b 9 ! pres5t "p ( our "w our bus9ess is to exhibit x z an exemplification ( ! r$uction ( animals to laws ( ,symmetry4 ,! bip>tite ,symmetry ( ! =m ( v]tebrate & articulate animals is obvi\s2 & ! r$uction ( ! v>i\s =ms ( su* animals to a common type has be5 effect$1 by att5tion to _! anatomy1 9 a mann] :i* has satisfi$ ^? :o h be/ /udi$ ! subject4 ,! molluscs1 especially ^? 9 :i* ! head disappe>s1 z oy/]s1 or ^? :i* are roll$ into a spiral1 z snails1 h a less obvi\s ,symmetry1 b "h also we c apply c]ta9 g5]al types4 ,& ! ,symmetry ( ! radiat$ zoophytes is ( a nature q diff]5t f all ! re/1 & approa*+1 z we h sugge/$1 to ! k9d ( ,symmetry f\nd 9 plants4 ,"s naturali/s h d\bt$ :e!r#iiag ^! zoophytes are n ref]rible to two types 7acrita or polypes1 & true radiata17 r ?an to "o4 ,note #iiag3 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 iv4 #bbg4 ,?is f\rfold division 0 introduc$ by ,cuvi]4#ajjag ,be=e him1 naturali/s foll[$ ,l9nu1 & divid$ non-v]tebrate animals into two classes1 insects & worms4 ,i began1 says ,cuvi]1 to attack ?is view ( ! subject1 & (f]$ ano!r division1 9 a ,memoir read at ! ,society ( ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,p>is1 ! #ba/ ( ,floreal1 9 ! ye> ,,iii4 ( ! ,republic 7,may #aj1 #agie17 pr9t$ 9 ! ,dcade ,philosophique3 9 ?is1 ,i m>k ! *>act]s & ! limits ( molluscs1 insects1 worms1 e*9od]ms1 & zoophytes4 ,i di/+ui% ! r$-blood$ worms or annelides1 9 a ,memoir read to ! ,in/itute1 ! #aa? ,nivose1 ye> ,x4 7,decemb] #ca1 #ahja47 ,i aft]w>ds di/ribut$ ^! diff]5t classes into ?ree bran*es1 ea* co-ord9ate to ! bran* =m$ by ! v]tebrate animals1 9 a ,memoir read to ! ,in/itute 9 ,july1 #ahab1 pr9t$ 9 ! ,annales du ,musum d',hi/oire ,naturelle1 tom4 xix4 ,8 great sy/ematic "w1 ! ,rgne ,animal1 f\nd$ on ?is di/ribution1 0 publi%$ 9 #ahag2 & s9ce t "t ! division has be5 commonly accept$ among naturali/s4 ,note #ajjag3 ,rgne ,a4 #fa4 #bnd ,ed4 ,! "q ( ! ,classification ( ,animals is discuss$ 9 ! fir/ ( ,pr(4 ,ow5's ,lectures on ! ,inv]tebrate #dhj ,animals 7#ahdc74 ,mr4 ,ow5 obs]ves t ! arrangem5t ( animals into ,v]tebrate & ,inv]tebrate :i* prevail$ be=e ,cuvi]1 0 necess>ily bad1 inasmu* z no negative "* 9 ,zoology gives true natural gr\ps4 ,h5ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! sub-k+doms1 ,mollusca1 ,articulata1 ,radiata1 z co-ord9ate ) ,v]tebrata1 accord+ to ! arrangem5t ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 0 a mo/ important advance4 ,b ,mr4 ,ow5 has se5 reason to sep>ate ! ,radiata ( ,cuvi] into two divisions2 ! ,nematoneura1 9 :i* ! n]v\s sy/em c be trac$ 9 a filam5t>y =m 7includ+ ,e*9od]ma1 ,ciliobra*iata1 ,clelm9?a1 ,rotif]a17 & ! ,acrita or l[e/ division ( ! animal k+dom1 includ+ ,acalepha1 ,nudibra*iata1 ,/]elm9?a1 ,polyga/ria4 ,sect4 #c4--;,attempts to e/abli% ! ,id5tity ( ! ,types ( ,animal ,=ms4 ,,suppos+ ?is great /ep 9 ,zoology1 ( :i* we h giv5 an acc\nt1--! r$uction ( all animals to f\r types or plans1--to be q secure1 we are !n l$ to ask :e!r any fur!r advance is possible2--:e!r sev]al ( ^! types c be ref]r$ to "o common =m by any wid] ef=t ( g5]alization4 ,on ?is "q !re has be5 a consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire1#ajaag :o _h previ\sly endeavor$ to %[ t all v]tebrate animals 7 con/ruct$ s exactly ^u ! same plan z to pres]ve ! /ricte/ analogy ( p>ts 9 respect to _! o/eology1 ?\ght to ext5d ?is unity ( plan by demon/rat+1 t ! h>d p>ts ( cru/aceans & insects are /ill only modifications ( ! skeleton ( high] animals1 & t !re=e ! type ( v]tebrata mu/ be made to include !m also3--! segm5ts ( ! articulata are held to be /rictly analog\s to ! v]tebras ( ! high] animals1 & ?us ! =m] live )9 _! v]tebral column 9 ! same mann] z ! latt] live )\t x4 ,attempts h ev5 be5 made to r$uce mollusc\s & v]tebrate animals to a community ( type1 z we %all see %ortly4 ,note #ajaag3 ,mr4 ,j5yns1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 iv4 #aej4 ,ano!r application ( ! pr9ciple1 accord+ to :i* creatures ! mo/ diff]5t are developm5ts ( ! same orig9al type1 may be disc]n$#ajbag 9 ! doctr9e1 t ! embryo ( ! high] =ms ( animal life passes by gradations ?r\gh ^? =ms :i* are #dha p]man5t 9 inf]ior animals4 ,?us1 accord+ to ?is view1 ! human ftus assumes successively ! plan ( ! zoophyte1 ! worm1 ! fi%1 ! turtle1 ! bird1 ! bea/4 ,b x has be5 well obs]v$1 t 9 ^! analogies we look 9 va9 = ! precision :i* c alone support ! inf]5ce t has be5 d$uc$2#ajcag & t at ea* /ep1 ! high] embryo & ! l[] animal :i* x is suppos$ to resemble1 diff] 9 hav+ ea* diff]5t organs suit$ to _! respective de/9ations4 ,note #ajbag3 ,dr4 ,cl>k1 ,report1 ,ib4 iv4 #aac4 ,note #ajcag3 ,dr4 ,cl>k1 p4 #aad4 ,cuvi]#ajdag nev] ass5t$ to ?is view1 nor to ! attempts to ref] ! diff]5t divisions ( 8 sy/em to a common type4 ,he c\ld n admit1 says 8 biograph]1 t ! lungs or gills ( ! v]tebrates are 9 ! same connexion z ! bran*i ( molluscs & cru/aceans1 :i* 9 ! "o are situat$ at ! base ( ! feet1 or fix$ on ! feet !mselves1 & 9 ! o!r (t5 on ! back or ab\t ! arms4 ,he did n admit ! analogy betwe5 ! skeleton ( ! v]tebrates & ! sk9 ( ! articulates2 he c\ld n believe t ! tnia & ! sepia 7 con/ruct$ on ! same plan2 t !re 0 a simil>ity ( composition betwe5 ! bird & ! e*9us1 ! :ale & ! snail2 9 spite ( ! skill ) :i* "s p]sons s\ght gradually to efface _! discrepancies4 ,note #ajdag3 ,laurill>d1 ,elog4 de ,cuvi]1 p4 #ff4 ,:e!r x may be possible to e/abli%1 among ! f\r great divisions ( ! ,animal ,k+dom1 "s analogies ( a high] ord] ?an ^? :i* prevail )9 ea* division1 ,i d n pret5d to conjecture4 ,if ?is c be done1 x is cle> t x mu/ be by comp>+ ! types ( ^! divisions "u _! mo/ g5]al =ms3 & ?us ,cuvi]'s arrangem5t1 s f> z x is itself rightly f\nd$ on ! unity ( composition ( ea* bran*1 is ! sure/ /ep to ! discov]y ( a unity p]vad+ & unit+ ^! bran*es4 ,b ^? :o g5]alize surely1 & ^? :o g5]alize rapidly1 may travel 9 ! same direction1 !y soon sep>ate s widely1 t !y appe> to move f ea* o!r4 ,! p>tisans ( a univ]sal unity ( composition ( animals1 accus$ ,cuvi] ( be+ too in]t 9 foll[+ ! progress ( physiological & zoological sci5ce4 ,borr[+ _! illu/ration f ! political p>ties ( ! times1 !y ass]t$ t he belong$ to ! sci5ce ( resi/ance1 n to ! sci5ce ( ! movem5t4 ,su* a *>ge 0 highly honorable to him2 = no "o acqua9t$ ) ! hi/ory ( zoology c d\bt t he _h a great %>e 9 ! impulse by :i* ! movem5t 0 occasion$2 or t he #dhb himself made a l>ge advance ) x2 & x 0 because he 0 s pois$ by ! va/ mass ( 8 k1 s temp]ate 9 8 love ( d\btful g5]alizations1 t he 0 n swept on 9 ! wild] "p ( ! /ream4 ,to su* a *>ge1 mod]ate re=m]s1 :o appreciate ! value ( ! good :i* exi/s1 ?\gh !y try to make x bett]1 & :o "k ! k1 ?\ghtfulness1 & caution1 :i* are ne$ful 9 su* a task1 are naturally expos$4 ,= u1 :o c only decide on su* a subject by ! g5]al analogies ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 x may suffice to say1 t x appe>s d\btful :e!r ! fundam5tal conceptions ( aff9ity1 analogy1 transition1 & developem5t1 h yet be5 fix$ 9 ! m9ds ( physiologi/s ) suffici5t firmness & cle>ness1 or unfold$ ) suffici5t consi/5cy & g5]ality1 to make x likely t any great additional /ep ( ?is k9d c = "s "t be made4 ,we h "h consid]$ ! doctr9e ( ! id5tity ( ! seem+ly v>i\s types ( animal /ructure1 z an attempt to ext5d ! correspond5cies :i* 7 ! basis ( ,cuvi]'s division ( ! animal k+dom4 ,b ?is doctr9e has be5 put =w>d 9 ano!r po9t ( view1 z ! anti!sis to ! doctr9e ( f9al causes4 ,?is "q is s important a "o1 t we _c help attempt+ to give "s view ( its /ate & be>+s4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,f9al ,,causes ,,9 ,,physiology4 ,sect4 #a4--;,ass]tion ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,unity ( ,plan4 ,,we h repeat$ly se51 9 ! c\rse ( our hi/orical view ( ,physiology1 t ^? :o h /udi$ ! /ructure ( animals & plants1 h _h a conviction =c$ ^u !m1 t ! organs are con/ruct$ & comb9$ 9 subs]vi5ce to ! life & functions ( ! :ole4 ,! p>ts h a purpose1 z well z a law2--we c trace ,f9al ,causes1 z well z ,laws ( ,causation4 ,?is pr9ciple is peculi> to physiology2 & x might naturally be expect$ t1 9 ! progress ( ! sci5ce1 x w\ld come "u special consid]ation4 ,?is accord+ly has happ5$2 & ! pr9ciple has be5 drawn #dhc into a prom95t position by ! /ruggle ( two antagoni/ic s*ools ( physiologi/s4 ,on ! "o h&1 x has be5 ma9ta9$ t ?is doctr9e ( f9al causes is altoge!r unphilosophical1 & requires to be replac$ by a m compreh5sive & pr(\nd pr9ciple3 on ! o!r h&1 x is ass]t$ t ! doctr9e is n only true1 b t1 9 our own "t1 x has be5 fix$ & develop$ s z to become ! in/rum5t ( "s ( ! mo/ important discov]ies :i* h be5 made4 ,( ! views ( ^! two s*ools we mu/ endeavor to give "s acc\nt4 ,! disciples ( ! =m] ( ! two s*ools express _! t5ets by ! phrases unity ( plan1 unity ( composition2 & ! m detail$ developem5t ( ^! doctr9es has be5 t]m$ ! ,!ory ( ,analogies1 by ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire1 :o claims ?is !ory z 8 own creation4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 ! /ructure & functions ( animals are to be /udi$ by ! guidance ( _! analogy only2 our att5tion is to be turn$1 n to ! fitness ( ! organization = any end ( life or action1 b to its resemblance to o!r organizations by :i* x is gradually d]iv$ f ! orig9al type4 ,accord+ to ! rival view ( ?is subject1 we mu/ n assume1 & _c e/abli%1 t ! plan ( all animals is ! same1 or _! composition simil>4 ,! exi/5ce ( a s+le & univ]sal sy/em ( analogies 9 ! con/ruction ( all animals is entirely unprov$1 & !re=e _c be made our guide 9 ! /udy ( _! prop]ties4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! plan ( ! animal1 ! purpose ( its organization 9 ! support ( its life1 ! necessity ( ! functions to its exi/5ce1 are tru?s :i* are irresi/ibly app>5t1 & :i* may !re=e be safely tak5 z ! bases ( our reason+s4 ,?is view has be5 put =w>d z ! doctr9e ( ! conditions ( exi/5ce3 x may also be describ$ z ! pr9ciple ( a purpose 9 organization2 ! /ructure be+ consid]$ z hav+ ! function = its end4 ,we mu/ say a few words on ea* ( ^! views4 ,x _h be5 po9t$ out by ,cuvi]1 z we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt]1 t ! animal k+dom may be divid$ into f\r great bran*es2 9 ea* ( :i* ! plan ( ! animal is diff]5t1 namely1 v]tebrata1 articulata1 mollusca1 radiata4 ,n[ ! "q naturally occurs1 is !re really no resemblance ( con/ruction 9 ^! diff]5t classes8 ,x 0 ma9ta9$ by "s1 t !re is su* a resemblance4 ,9 #ahbj1ajeag ,m4 ,aud\91 a "y naturali/ ( ,p>is1 #dhd endeavor$ to fill up ! *asm :i* sep>ates insects f o!r animals2 & by exam9+ c>efully ! portions :i* compose ! solid frame-"w ( insects1 & foll[+ !m ?r\gh _! v>i\s trans=mations 9 diff]5t classes1 he conceiv$ t he f\nd relations ( position & function1 & (t5 ( numb] & =m1 :i* might be comp>$ ) ! relations ( ! p>ts ( ! skeleton 9 v]tebrate animals4 ,he ?\ght t ! fir/ segm5t ( an insect1 ! head1#ajfag repres5ts "o ( ! ?ree v]tebr :i*1 accord+ to ,spix & o!rs1 compose ! v]tebrate head3 ! second segm5t ( ! insects1 7! pro?orax ( ,aud\917 is1 accord+ to ,m4 ,ge(froy1 ! second v]tebra ( ! head ( ! v]tebrata1 & s on4 ,^u ?is speculation ,cuvi]#ajgag does n give any decid$ op9ion2 obs]v+ only1 t ev5 if false1 x leads to active ?\ght & useful rese>*4 ,note #ajeag3 ,cuv4 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,nat4 iii4 #dbb4 ,note #ajfag3 ,ib4 #dcg4 ,note #ajgag3 ,cuv4 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,nat4 iii4 #dda4 ,b :5 an attempt 0 fur!r made to id5tify ! plan ( ano!r bran* ( ! animal _w1 ! mollusca1 ) t ( ! v]tebrata1 ! radical opposition betwe5 su* views & ^? ( ,cuvi]1 broke out into an animat$ controv]sy4 ,two ,fr5* anatomi/s1 ,,mm4 ,laur5cet & ,meyranx1 pres5t$ to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 9 #ahcj1 a ,memoir conta9+ _! views on ! organization ( mollusc\s animals2 & on ! sepia or cuttle-fi% 9 p>ticul>1 z "o ( ! mo/ complete examples ( su* animals4 ,^! creatures1 inde$1 ?\gh ?us plac$ 9 ! same division ) %ell-fi% ( ! mo/ defective organization & obscure /ructure1 are f> f be+ scantily organiz$4 ,!y h a bra91#ajhag (t5 eyes1 & ^!1 9 ! animals ( ?is class1 7cephalopoda7 are m complicat$ ?an 9 any v]tebrates2#ajiag !y h sometimes e>s1 saliv>y gl&s1 multiple /oma*s1 a consid]able liv]1 a bile1 a complete d\ble circulation1 provid$ ) auricles & v5tricles2 9 %ort1 _! vital activity is vigor\s1 & _! s5ses are di/9ct4 ,note #ajhag3 ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire d5ies ?is4 ,pr9cipes de ,phil4 ,zoologique discuts en #ahcj1 p4 #fh4 ,note #ajiag3 ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire1 ,pr9cipes de ,phil4 ,zoologique discuts en #ahcj1 p4 #ee4 ,b /ill1 ?\gh ?is organization1 9 ! abundance & div]sity ( its p>ts1 approa*es t ( v]tebrate animals1 x _h n be5 consid]$ z compos$ 9 ! same mann]1 or arrang$ 9 ! same ord]1 ,cuvi] _h always ma9ta9$ t ! plan ( molluscs is n a cont9uation ( ! plan ( v]tebrates4 #dhe ,,mm4 ,laur5cet & ,meyranx1 on ! contr>y1 conceiv$ t ! sepia might be r$uc$ to ! type ( a v]tebrate creature1 by consid]+ ! back-bone ( ! latt] b5t d\ble backw>ds1 s z to br+ ! root ( ! tail to ! nape ( ! neck2 ! p>ts ?us br\ght into contact be+ suppos$ to coalesce4 ,by ?is mode ( conception1 ^! anatomi/s held t ! visc]a 7 plac$ 9 ! same connexion z 9 ! v]tebrate type1 & ! functions ex]cis$ 9 an analog\s mann]4 ,to decide on ! reality ( ! analogy ?us ass]t$1 cle>ly belong$ to ! jurisdiction ( ! mo/ em95t anatomi/s & physiologi/s4 ,! ,memoir 0 committ$ to ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire & ,latreille1 two em95t zoologi/s1 9 ord] to be report$ on4 ,_! report 0 extremely favorable2 & w5t almo/ to ! l5g? ( adopt+ ! views ( ! au?ors4 ,cuvi] express$ "s dissatisfaction ) ?is report on its be+ read2#aajag & a %ort "t aft]w>ds1#aaaag repres5t$ ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire z hav+ ass]t$ t ! new views ( ,laur5cet & ,meyranx refut$ completely ! notion ( ! great int]val :i* exi/s betwe5 mollusc\s & v]tebrate animals4 ,ge(froy prote/$ aga9/ su* an int]pretation ( 8 expressions2 b x soon appe>$1 by ! controv]sial "* :i* ! discussions on ?is & sev]al o!r subjects assum$1 t a real opposition ( op9ions 0 9 action4 ,note #aajag3 ,pr9c4 de ,phil4 ,zool4 discuts en #ahcj1 p4 #cf4 ,note #aaaag3 p4 #ej4 ,)\t attempt+ to expla9 ! exact views ( ,ge(froy1 7we may1 p]haps1 v5ture to say t !y are h>dly yet g5]ally und]/ood ) suffici5t di/9ctness to ju/ify ! m]e hi/orian ( sci5ce 9 attempt+ su* an explanation17 _! g5]al t5d5cy may be suffici5tly collect$ f :at has be5 said2 & f ! phrases 9 :i* 8 views are convey$4#aabag ,! pr9ciple ( connexions1 ! elective aff9ities ( organic elem5ts1 ! equilibrization ( organs2--su* are ! designations ( ! lead+ doctr9es :i* are unfold$ 9 ! prelim9>y disc\rse ( 8 ,anatomical ,philosophy4 ,elective aff9ities ( organic elem5ts are ! =ces by :i* ! vital /ructures & v>i$ =ms ( liv+ ?+s are produc$2 & ! pr9ciples ( connexion & equilibrium ( ^! =ces 9 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! organization prescribe limits & conditions to ! v>iety & developem5t ( su* =ms4 ,note #aabag3 ,phil4 ,zool4 #ae4 ,! "* & t5d5cy ( ?is philosophy w be1 ,i ?9k1 #dhf mu* m cle>1 if we consid] :at x excludes & d5ies4 ,x rejects altoge!r all conception ( a plan & purpose 9 ! organs ( animals1 z a pr9ciple :i* has det]m9$ _! =ms1 or c be ( use 9 direct+ our reason+s4 ,i take c>e1 says ,ge(froy1 n to ascribe to ,god any int5tion4#aacag ,& :5 ,cuvi] speaks ( ! comb9ation ( organs 9 su* ord] t !y may be 9 consi/5ce ) ! "p :i* ! animal has to play 9 nature2 8 rival rejo9s1#aadag ,i "k no?+ ( animals :i* h to play a "p 9 nature4 ,su* a notion is1 he holds1 unphilosophical & dang]\s4 ,x is an abuse ( f9al causes :i* makes ! cause to be eng5d]$ by ! effect4 ,& to illu/rate /ill fur!r 8 own view1 he says1 ,i h read conc]n+ fi%es1 t because !y live 9 a m$ium :i* resi/s m ?an air1 _! motive =ces are calculat$ s z to give !m ! p[] ( progression "u ^? circum/ances4 ,by ?is mode ( reason+1 y w\ld say ( a man :o makes use ( crut*es1 t he 0 orig9ally de/9$ to ! mis=tune ( hav+ a leg p>alys$ or amputat$4 ,note #aacag3 ,je me g>de de prt] ,dieu aucune int5tion4 ,phil4 ,zool4 #aj4 ,note #aadag3 ,je ne connais po9t d'animal qui ,,doive j\] un rle dans la nature4 p4 #fe4 ,h[ f> ?is doctr9e ( unity 9 ! plan 9 animals1 is admissible or probable 9 physiology :5 kept )9 prop] limits1 t is1 :5 n put 9 opposition to ! doctr9e ( a purpose involv$ 9 ! plan ( animals1 ,i d n pret5d ev5 to conjecture4 ,! "q is "o :i* appe>s to be at pres5t deeply occupy+ ! m9ds ( ! mo/ le>n$ & pr(\nd physiologi/s2 & su* p]sons alone1 add+ to _! k & zeal1 judicial sagacity & imp>tiality1 c tell u :at is ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! be/ rese>*es on ?is subject4#aaeag ,b :5 ! anatomi/ expresses su* op9ions1 & def5ds !m by su* illu/rations z ^? :i* ,i h j quot$1#aafag we p]ceive t he quits ! entr5*m5ts ( 8 sup]ior sci5ce1 9 :i* he might #dhg h rema9$ unassailable s long z ! "q 0 a pr(essional "o2 & ! discussion is op5 to ^? :o possess no peculi> k ( anatomy4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 v5ture to say a few words ^u x4 ,note #aaeag3 ,s f> z ?is doctr9e is g5]ally accept$ among ! be/ physiologi/s1 we _c d\bt ! propriety ( ,meckel's rem>k1 7,comp>ative ,anatomy1 #ahba1 ,pref4 p4 xi47 t x _c be truly ass]t$ ei!r to be new1 or to be peculi>ly due to ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire4 ,note #aafag3 ,x is h>dly wor? :ile answ]+ su* illu/rations1 b ,i may rem>k1 t ! "o quot$ above1 irrelevant & unbecom+ z x is1 tells altoge!r aga9/ its au?or4 ,! fact t ! wood5 leg is ( ! same l5g? z ! o!r1 proves1 & w\ld satisfy ! mo/ incr$ul\s man1 t x 0 int5d$ = walk+4 ,sect4 #b4--;,e/imate ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,unity ( ,plan4 ,,x has be5 s (t5 repeat$1 & s g5]ally all[$ 9 mod]n times1 t ,f9al ,causes ought n to be made our guides 9 natural philosophy1 t a prejudice has be5 e/abli%$ aga9/ ! introduction ( any views to :i* ?is designation c be appli$1 into physical speculations4 ,yet1 9 fact1 ! assumption ( an end or purpose 9 ! /ructure ( organiz$ be+s1 appe>s to be an intellectual habit :i* no ef=ts c ca/ (f4 ,x has prevail$ f ! e>lie/ to ! late/ ages ( zoological rese>*2 appe>s to be fa/5$ ^u u alike by our ignorance & our k2 & has be5 =mally accept$ by s _m great anatomi/s1 t we _c feel any scruple 9 believ+ ! rejection ( x to be ! sup]/ition ( a false philosophy1 & a result ( ! exagg]ation ( o!r pr9ciples :i* are suppos$ capable ( sup]s$+ its use4 ,& ! doctr9e ( unity ( plan ( all animals1 & ! o!r pr9ciples associat$ ) ?is doctr9e1 s f> z !y exclude ! conviction ( an intelligible s*eme & a discov]able end1 9 ! organization ( animals1 appe> to be utt]ly errone\s4 ,i w (f] a few reasons = an op9ion :i* may appe> presumptu\s 9 a writ] :o has only a g5]al k ( ! subject4 #a4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x appe>s to me t ! argum5tation on ! case 9 "q1 ! ,sepia1 does by no means turn out to ! advantage ( ! new hypo!sis4 ,! argum5ts 9 support ( ! hypo!tical view ( ! /ructure ( ?is mollusc 71 t by ?is view ! relative position ( ! p>ts 0 expla9$1 & confirmations :i* _h appe>$ altoge!r anomal\s1 7 r$uc$ to rule2 = example1 ! beak1 :i* _h be5 suppos$ to be 9 a position ! rev]se ( all o!r beaks1 0 %[n1 by ! assum$ po/ure1 to h its upp] m&ible long] ?an ! l[]1 & ?us to be regul>ly plac$4 ,b1 says ,cuvi]1#aagag suppos+ ! po/ure1 9 ord] t ! side on :i* ! funnel ( ! sepia is fold$ %\ld be ! back ( ! animal1 consid]$ z simil> to a v]tebrate1 ! bra9 ) #dhh reg>d to ! beak1 & ! sophagus ) reg>d to ! liv]1 %\ld h positions correspond+ to ^? 9 v]tebrates2 b ! positions ( ^! organs are exactly contr>y to ! hypo!sis4 ,h[1 !n1 c y say1 he asks1 t ! cephalopods & v]tebrates h id5tity ( composition1 unity ( composition1 )\t us+ words 9 a s5se entirely diff]5t f _! common mean+8 ,note #aagag3 ,g4 ,s4 ,h4 ,phil4 ,zool4 p4 #gj4 ,?is argum5t appe>s to be exactly ( ! k9d on :i* ! value ( ! hypo!sis mu/ dep5d4#aahag ,x is1 !re=e1 int]e/+ to see ! reply made to x by ! !ori/4 ,x is ?is3 ,i admit ! facts "h /at$1 b ,i d5y t !y lead to ! notion ( a diff]5t sort ( animal composition4 ,mollusc\s animals _h be5 plac$ too high 9 ! zoological scale2 b if !y are only ! embryos ( its l[] /ages1 if !y are only be+s 9 :i* f> few] organs come into play1 x does n foll[ t ! organs are de/itute ( ! relations :i* ! p[] ( successive g5]ations may dem&4 ,! organ ,a w be 9 an unusual relation ) ! organ ,c1 if ,b has n be5 produc$2--if a /oppage ( ! developem5t has fall5 ^u ?is latt] organ1 & has ?us prev5t$ its production4 ,& ?us1 he says1 we see h[ we may h diff]5t arrangem5ts1 & div]s con/ructions z !y appe> to ! eye4 ,note #aahag3 ,i d n dwell on o!r argum5ts :i* 7 employ$4 ,x 0 giv5 z a circum/ance sugge/+ ! suppos$ po/ure ( ! type1 t 9 ?is way ! back 0 color$1 & ! belly 0 :ite4 ,on ?is ,cuvi] obs]ves 7,phil4 ,zool4 pp4 #ic1 #fh71 ,i mu/ say1 t ,i d n "k any naturali/ s ignorant z to suppose t ! back is det]m9$ by its d>k color1 or ev5 by its position :5 ! animal is 9 motion2 !y all "k t ! badg] has a black belly & a :ite back2 t an inf9ity ( o!r animals1 especially among insects1 are 9 ! same case2 & t _m fi%es swim on _! side1 or ) _! belly upw>ds4 ,x seems to me t su* a concession z ?is entirely de/roys ! !ory :i* x attempts to def5d2 = :at arrangem5t does ! pr9ciple ( unity ( composition exclude1 if x admits unusual1 t is1 v>i\s arrangem5ts ( "s organs1 accompani$ by ! total abs5ce ( o!rs8 ,or h[ does ?is diff] f ,cuvi]'s mode ( /at+ ! conclusion1 except 9 ! introduction ( c]ta9 arbitr>y hypo!ses ( developem5t & /oppage8 ,i r$uce ! facts1 ,cuvi] says1 to _! true expression1 by say+ t ,cephalopods h sev]al organs :i* are common to !m & v]tebrates1 & :i* dis*>ge ! same (fices2 b t ^! organs are 9 !m diff]5tly di/ribut$1 & (t5 con/ruct$ 9 a diff]5t mann]2 #dhi & !y are accompani$ by sev]al o!r organs :i* v]tebrates h n2 :ile ^! on ! o!r h& h sev]al :i* are want+ 9 cephalopods4 ,we %all see aft]w>ds ! g5]al pr9ciples :i* ,cuvi] himself consid]$ z ! be/ guides 9 ^! reason+s4 ,b ,i w fir/ add a few words on ! disposition ( ! s*ool n[ "u consid]ation1 to reject all assumption ( an end4 #b4 ,t ! p>ts ( ! bodies ( animals are made 9 ord] to dis*>ge _! respective (fices1 is a conviction :i* we _c believe to be o!rwise ?an an irremovable pr9ciple ( ! philosophy ( organization1 :5 we see ! mann] 9 :i* x has con/antly =c$ itself ^u ! m9ds ( zoologi/s & anatomi/s 9 all ages2 n only z an inf]5ce1 b z a guide ^: indications !y c\ld n help foll[+4 ,i h already notic$ expressions ( ?is conviction 9 "s ( ! pr9cipal p]sons :o occur 9 ! hi/ory ( physiology1 z ,gal5 & ,h>vey4 ,i might add _m m1 b ,i w cont5t myself ) adduc+ a contempor>y ( ,ge(froy's ^: te/imony is ! m rem>kable1 because he obvi\sly %>es ) 8 c\ntryman 9 ! common prejudice aga9/ ! use ( f9al causes4 ,i consid]1 he says1 9 speak+ ( ! provisions = ! reproduction ( animals1#aaiag ) ! great ,bacon1 ! philosophy ( f9al causes z /]ile2 b ,i h else:]e ackn[l$g$ t x 0 v difficult = ! mo/ cauti\s man nev] to h rec\rse to !m 9 8 explanations4 ,aft] ! survey :i* we h _h to take ( ! hi/ory ( physiology1 we _c b see t ! assumption ( f9al causes 9 ?is bran* ( sci5ce is s f> f be+ /]ile1 t x has _h a l>ge %>e 9 e discov]y :i* is includ$ 9 ! exi/+ mass ( real k4 ,! use ( e organ has be5 discov]$ by />t+ f ! assumption t x mu/ h "s use4 ,! doctr9e ( ! circulation ( ! blood 01 z we h se51 cle>ly & pr(ess$ly due to ! p]suasion ( a purpose 9 ! circulatory app>atus4 ,! /udy ( comp>ative anatomy is ! /udy ( ! adaption ( animal /ructures to _! purposes4 ,& we %all soon h to %[ t ?is conception ( f9al causes has1 9 our own times1 be5 s f> f b>r51 t x has1 9 ! h&s ( ,cuvi] & o!rs1 enabl$ u to become intimately acqua9t$ ) va/ dep>tm5ts ( zoology to :i* we h no o!r mode ( access4 ,x has plac$ be=e u 9 a complete /ate1 #dij animals1 ( :i*1 = ?\s&s ( ye>s1 only a few fragm5ts h exi/$1 & :i* diff] widely f all exi/+ animals2 & x has giv5 bir?1 or at lea/ has giv5 ! greate/ "p ( its importance & int]e/1 to a sci5ce :i* =ms "o ( ! brighte/ p>ts ( ! mod]n progress ( k4 ,x is1 !re=e1 v f> f be+ a vague & empty ass]tion1 :5 we say t f9al causes are a real & inde/ructible elem5t 9 zoological philosophy2 & t ! exclusion ( !m1 z attempt$ by ! s*ool ( :i* we speak1 is a fundam5tal & mo/ mis*iev\s error4 ,note #aaiag3 ,cabanis1 ,rapports du ,physique et du ,morale de l',homme1 i4 9999#bii4 #c4 ,?us1 ?\gh ! physiologi/ may p]suade himself t he ought n to ref] to f9al causes1 we f9d t1 practically1 he _c help do+ ?is2 & t ! ev5t %[s t 8 practical habit is "r & well-f\nd$4 ,b he may /ill cl+ to ! speculative difficulties & d\bts 9 :i* su* subjects may be involv$ by priori consid]ations4 ,he may say1 z ,sa9t-,hilaire does say1#abjag ,i ascribe no int5tion to ,god1 = ,i mi/ru/ ! feeble p[]s ( my reason4 ,i obs]ve facts m]ely1 & g no fur!r4 ,i only pret5d to ! "* ( ! hi/orian ( :at is4 ,i _c make ,nature an intellig5t be+ :o does no?+ 9 va91 :o acts by ! %orte/ mode1 :o does all = ! be/4 ,note #abjag3 ,phil4 ,zool4 p4 #aj4 ,i am n go+ to ent] at any l5g? into ?is subject1 :i*1 ?us consid]$1 is metaphysical & !ological1 r ?an physiological4 ,if any "o ma9ta91 z "s h ma9ta9$1 t no manife/ation ( means app>5tly us$ = ends 9 nature1 c prove ! exi/5ce ( design 9 ! ,au?or ( nature1 ?is is n ! place to refute su* an op9ion 9 its g5]al =m4 ,b ,i ?9k x may be wor? :ile to %[1 t ev5 ^? :o incl9e to su* an op9ion1 /ill _c resi/ ! necessity :i* compels m5 to assume1 9 organiz$ be+s1 ! exi/5ce ( an end4 ,among ! philosoph]s :o h ref]r$ our conviction ( ! be+ ( ,god to our moral nature1 & h d5i$ ! possibility ( demon/ration on m]e physical gr\nds1 ,kant is p]haps ! mo/ em95t4 ,yet he has ass]t$ ! reality ( su* a pr9ciple ( physiology z we are n[ ma9ta9+ 9 ! mo/ emphatic mann]4 ,inde$1 ?is assumption ( an end makes 8 v def9ition ( an organiz$ be+4 ,an organiz$ product ( nature is t 9 :i* all ! p>ts are mutually ends & means4#abaag ,& ?is1 he says1 is a univ]sal & necess>y maxim4 ,he adds1 ,x is well kn[n t ! #dia anatomiz]s ( plants & animals1 9 ord] to inve/igate _! /ructure1 & to obta9 an insight into ! gr\nds :y & to :at end su* p>ts1 :y su* a situation & connexion ( ! p>ts1 & exactly su* an int]nal =m1 come be=e !m1 assume1 z indisp5sably necess>y1 ?is maxim1 t 9 su* a creature no?+ is 9 va91 & proce$ ^u x 9 ! same way 9 :i* 9 g5]al natural philosophy we proce$ ^u ! pr9ciple t no?+ happ5s by *ance4 ,9 fact1 !y c z little free !mselves f ?is teleological pr9ciple z f ! g5]al physical "o2 = z1 on omitt+ ! latt]1 no exp]i5ce w\ld be possible1 s on omitt+ ! =m] pr9ciple1 no clue c\ld exi/ = ! obs]vation ( a k9d ( natural objects :i* c be consid]$ teleologically "u ! conception ( natural ends4 ,note #abaag3 ,ur!ilskraft1 p4 #bif4 ,ev5 if ! read] %\ld n foll[ ! reason+ ( ?is celebrat$ philosoph]1 he w /ill h no difficulty 9 see+ t he ass]ts1 9 ! mo/ di/9ct mann]1 t :i* is d5i$ by ! au?or :om we h be=e quot$1 ! propriety & necessity ( assum+ ! exi/5ce ( an end z our guide 9 ! /udy ( animal organization4 #d4 ,x appe>s to me1 !re=e1 t :e!r we judge f ! argum5ts1 ! results1 ! practice ( physiologi/s1 _! speculative op9ions1 or ^? ( ! philosoph]s ( a wid] field1 we are l$ to ! same conviction1 t 9 ! organiz$ _w we may & mu/ adopt ! belief t organization exi/s = its purpose1 & t ! appreh5sion ( ! purpose may guide u 9 see+ ! mean+ ( ! organization4 ,& ,i n[ proce$ to %[ h[ ?is pr9ciple has be5 br\ght into additional cle>ness & use by ,cuvi]4 ,9 do+ ?is1 ,i may1 p]haps1 be all[$ to make a reflection ( a k9d some:at diff]5t f ! prec$+ rem>ks1 ?\gh sugge/$ by !m4 ,9 ano!r "w1#abbag ,i endeavor$ to %[ t ^? :o h be5 discov]]s 9 sci5ce h g5]ally _h m9ds1 ! disposition ( :i* 0 to believe 9 an intellig5t ,mak] ( ! univ]se2 & t ! sci5tific speculations :i* produc$ an opposite t5d5cy1 7 g5]ally ^? :i*1 ?\gh !y might deal famili>ly ) kn[n physical tru?s1 & conjecture boldly ) reg>d to ! unkn[n1 did n add to ! numb] ( solid g5]alizations4 ,9 ord] to judge :e!r ?is rem>k is di/9ctly applicable 9 ! case n[ consid]$1 ,i %\ld h to e/imate ,cuvi] 9 comp>ison ) o!r physiologi/s ( 8 "t1 :i* ,i d n presume to d4 ,b ,i may #dib obs]ve1 t he is all[$ by all to h e/abli%$1 on an inde/ructible basis1 _m ( ! mo/ important g5]alizations :i* zoology n[ conta9s2 & ! pr9cipal defect :i* 8 critics h po9t$ out1 has be51 t he did n g5]alize /ill m widely & boldly4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t he _c b be plac$ among ! great discov]]s 9 ! /udies :i* he pursu$2 & ?is be+ ! case1 ^? :o look ) pleasure on ! t5d5cy ( ! ?\ghts ( ! greate/ m5 to an ,intellig5ce f> high] ?an _! own1 mo/ be gratifi$ to f9d t he 0 an example ( ?is t5d5cy2 & t ! ackn[l$gem5t ( a creative purpose1 z well z a creative p[]1 n only ent]$ into 8 belief b made an indisp5sable & prom95t "p ( 8 philosophy4 ,note #abbag3 ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 ,b4 iii4 c4 vii4 & viii4 ,on ,inductive ,habits ( ,?\ght1 & on ,d$uctive ,habits ( ,?\ght4 ,sect4 #c4--;,e/abli%m5t & ,application ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,conditions ( ,exi/5ce ( ,animals4--,cuvi]4 ,,we h n[ to describe m 9 detail ! doctr9e :i* ,cuvi] ma9ta9$ 9 opposition to su* op9ions z we h be5 speak+ (2 & :i*1 9 8 way ( apply+ x1 we look ^u z a mat]ial advance 9 physiological k1 & !re=e give to x a di/9ct place 9 our hi/ory4 ,zoology has1 he says1#abcag 9 ! outset ( 8 ,rgne ,animal1 a pr9ciple ( reason+ :i* is peculi> to x1 & :i* x employs ) advantage on _m occasions3 ?is is ! pr9ciple ( ! ,conditions ( ,exi/5ce1 vulg>ly ! pr9ciple ( ,f9al ,causes4 ,z no?+ c exi/ if x d n comb9e all ! conditions :i* r5d] its exi/5ce possible1 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ea* be+ mu/ be co-ord9at$ 9 su* a mann] z to r5d] ! total be+ possible1 n only 9 itself1 b 9 its relations to ^? :i* surr\nd x2 & ! analysis ( ^! conditions (t5 leads to g5]al laws1 z cle>ly demon/rat$ z ^? :i* result f calculation or f exp]i5ce4 ,note #abcag3 ,rgne ,an4 p4 #f4 ,?is is ! enunciation ( 8 lead+ pr9ciple 9 g5]al t]ms4 ,to our ascrib+ x to him1 "s may object on ! gr\nd ( its be+ self-evid5t 9 its nature1#abdag & hav+ be5 v anci5tly appli$4 ,b to ?is we reply1 t ! pr9ciple mu/ be consid]$ z a real discov]y 9 ! h&s ( him :o fir/ %[s h[ to make x an in/rum5t ( o!r discov]ies4 ,x is true1 9 o!r cases z well z 9 ?is1 t "s vague appreh5sion1 ( true g5]al pr9ciples1 su* z #dic priori consid]ations c supply1 has long prec$$ ! k ( !m z real & v]ifi$ laws4 ,9 su* a way x 0 se51 be=e ,newton1 t ! motions ( ! planets mu/ result f attraction2 & s1 be=e ,dufay & ,frankl91 x 0 held t electrical actions mu/ result f a fluid4 ,cuvi]'s m]it consi/$1 n 9 see+ t an animal _c exi/ )\t comb9+ all ! conditions ( its exi/5ce2 b 9 p]ceiv+ t ?is tru? may be tak5 z a guide 9 our rese>*es conc]n+ animals2--t ! mode ( _! exi/5ce may be collect$ f "o "p ( _! /ructure1 & !n appli$ to int]pret or detect ano!r "p4 ,he w5t on ! supposition n only t animal =ms h "s plan1 "s purpose1 b t !y h an intelligible plan1 a discov]able purpose4 ,he proce$$ 9 8 inve/igations l ! deciph]] ( a manuscript1 :o makes out 8 alphabet f "o "p ( ! context1 & !n applies x to read ! re/4 ,! pro( t 8 pr9ciple 0 some?+ v diff]5t f an id5tical proposition1 is to be f\nd 9 ! fact1 t x enabl$ him to und]/& & arrange ! /ructures ( animals ) unprec$5t$ cle>ness & complet5ess ( ord]2 & to re/ore ! =ms ( ! ext9ct animals :i* are f\nd 9 ! rocks ( ! e>?1 9 a mann] :i* has be5 univ]sally ass5t$ to z irresi/ibly conv9c+4 ,^! results _c fl[ f a trifl+ or b>r5 pr9ciple2 & !y %[ u t if we are dispos$ to =m su* a judgm5t ( ,cuvi]'s doctr9e1 x mu/ be because we d n fully appreh5d its import4 ,note #abdag3 ,swa9son4 ,/udy ( ,nat4 ,hi/4 p4 #he4 ,to illu/rate ?is1 we ne$ only quote ! /atem5t :i* he makes1 & ! uses to :i* he applies x4 ,?us 9 ! ,introduction to 8 great "w on ,fossil ,rema9s he says1 ,e organiz$ be+ =ms an entire sy/em ( its own1 all ! p>ts ( :i* mutually correspond1 & concur to produce a c]ta9 def9ite purpose by reciprocal reaction1 or by comb9+ to ! same end4 ,h5ce none ( ^! sep>ate p>ts c *ange _! =ms )\t a correspond+ *ange 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! same animal2 & consequ5tly ea* ( ^! p>ts1 tak5 sep>ately1 indicates all ! o!r p>ts to :i* x has belong$4 ,?us1 if ! visc]a ( an animal are s organiz$ z only to be fitt$ = ! dige/ion ( rec5t fle%1 x is also requisite t ! jaws %\ld be s con/ruct$ z to fit !m = dev\r+ prey2 ! claws mu/ be con/ruct$ = seiz+ x & te>+ x to pieces2 ! tee? = cutt+ & divid+ its fle%2 ! entire sy/em ( ! limbs or organs ( motion = pursu+ & ov]tak+ x2 & ! organs ( s5se = discov]+ x at a di/ance4 ,nature mu/ also h end[$ ! bra9 ( ! animal ) in/9cts suffici5t = conceal+ itself & = lay+ plans to #did cat* its necess>y victims4#abeag ,by su* consid]ations he has be5 able to recon/ruct ! :ole ( _m animals ( :i* p>ts only 7 giv52--a positive result1 :i* %[s bo? ! reality & ! value ( ! tru? on :i* he wr\ght4 ,note #abeag3 ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 p4 #ij4 ,ano!r great example1 equally %[+ ! imm5se importance ( ?is pr9ciple 9 ,cuvi]'s h&s1 is ! re=m :i*1 by means ( x1 he introduc$ into ! classification ( animals4 ,"h aga9 we may quote ! view he himself has giv5#abfag ( ! "* ( 8 own improvem5ts4 ,9 /udy+ ! physiology ( ! natural classes ( v]tebrate animals1 he f\nd1 he says1 9 ! respective quantity ( _! respiration1 ! reason ( ! quantity ( _! motion1 & consequ5tly ( ! k9d ( locomotion4 ,?is1 aga91 furni%es ! reason = ! =ms ( _! skeletons & muscles2 & ! en]gy ( _! s5ses1 & ! =ce ( _! dige/ion1 are 9 a necess>y proportion to ! same quantity4 ,?us a division :i* _h till !n be5 e/abli%$1 l t ( vegetables1 only ^u obs]vation1 0 f\nd to re/ ^u causes appreciable1 & applicable to o!r cases4 ,accord+ly1 he appli$ ?is view to inv]tebrates2--exam9$ ! modifications :i* take place 9 _! organs ( circulation1 respiration1 & s5sation2 & hav+ calculat$ ! necess>y results ( ^! modifications1 he d$uc$ f x a new division ( ^? animals1 9 :i* !y are arrang$ accord+ to _! true relations4 ,note #abfag3 ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,nat4 i4 #bic4 ,su* h be5 "s ( ! results ( ! pr9ciple ( ! ,conditions ( ,exi/5ce1 z appli$ by its great ass]tor4 ,x is cle>1 inde$1 t su* a pr9ciple c\ld acquire its practical value only 9 ! h&s ( a p]son intimately acqua9t$ ) anatomical details1 ) ! functions ( ! organs1 & ) _! v>iety 9 diff]5t animals4 ,x is only by means ( su* nutrim5t t ! embryo tru? c\ld be develop$ into a va/ tree ( sci5ce4 ,b x is n ! less cle>1 t ,cuvi]'s imm5se k & great p[]s ( ?\ght l$ to _! results1 only by be+ employ$ "u ! guidance ( ?is ma/]-pr9ciple3 &1 !re=e1 we may ju/ly consid] x z ! di/9ctive feature ( 8 speculations1 & foll[ x ) a gratifi$ eye1 z ! ?read ( gold :i* runs ?r\gh1 connects1 & enri*es 8 zoological rese>*es3--gives !m a deep] int]e/ & a high] value ?an c belong to any view ( ! organical sci5ces1 9 :i* ! v ess5ce ( organization is kept out ( sight4 #die ,! real philosoph]1 :o kn[s t all ! k9ds ( tru? are intimately connect$1 & t all ! be/ hopes & enc\ragem5ts :i* are grant$ to our nature mu/ be consi/5t ) tru?1 w be satisfi$ & confirm$1 r ?an surpris$ & di/urb$1 ?us to f9d ! ,natural ,sci5ces lead+ him to ! bord]s ( a high] region4 ,to him x w appe> natural & reasonable1 t aft] j\rney+ s long among ! beautiful & ord]ly laws by :i* ! univ]se is gov]n$1 we f9d ourselves at la/ approa*+ to a ,s\rce ( ord] & law1 & intellectual beauty3--t1 aft] v5tur+ into ! region ( life & feel+ & w1 we are l$ to believe ! ,f\nta9 ( life & w n to be itself un9tellig5t & dead1 b to be a liv+ ,m9d1 a ,p[] :i* aims z well z acts4 ,to u ?is doctr9e appe>s l ! natural cad5ce ( ! tones to :i* we h s long be5 li/5+2 & )\t su* a f9al /ra9 our e>s w\ld h be5 left crav+ & unsatisfi$4 ,we h be5 l+]+ long amid ! h>monies ( law & symmetry1 con/ancy & developm5t2 & ^! notes1 ?\gh _! music 0 sweet & deep1 mu/ too (t5 h s\nd$ to ! e> ( our moral nature1 z vague & unmean+ melodies1 float+ 9 ! air ar\nd u1 b convey+ no def9ite ?\ght1 m\ld$ into no intelligible ann\ncem5t4 ,b "o passage :i* we h aga9 & aga9 caught by snat*es1 ?\gh sometimes int]rupt$ & lo/1 at la/ swells 9 our e>s full1 cle>1 & decid$2 & ! religi\s ,hymn 9 honor ( ! ,creator1 to :i* ,gal5 s gladly l5t 8 voice1 & 9 :i* ! be/ physiologi/s ( succe$+ times h ev] jo9$1 is fill$ into a ri*] & deep] h>mony by ! greate/ philosoph]s ( ^! lat] days1 & w roll on h]eaft] ! p]petual song ( ! temple ( sci5ce4 #dig ,,book ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,pal,,tiological ,,sci5ces4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,geology4 ,di quibus imp]ium e/ anim>um1 ,umbrque sil5tes1 ,et ,*aos1 et ,phlege?on1 loca nocte sil5tia late1 ,sit mihi fas audita loqui2 sit1 num9e ve/ro ,p&]e res alta t]r et calig9e m]sas4 ,,virgil4 n4 vi4 #bfd4 ,ye ,mighty ,ones1 :o sway ! ,s\ls t g ,amid ! m>vels ( ! _w bel[6 ,ye1 sil5t ,%ades1 :o sit & he> ar\nd6 ,*aos6 & ,/reams t burn b5ea? ! gr\nd6 ,all1 all =give1 if by y\r conv]se /irr$1 ,my lips %all utt] :at my e>s h he>d2 ,if ,i %all speak ( ?+s ( d\btful bir?1 ,deep sunk 9 d>kness1 z deep sunk 9 e>?4 #dii ,,introduction4 ,( ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces4 ,,we n[ approa* ! la/ ,class ( ,sci5ces :i* ent] into ! design ( ! pres5t "w2 & ( ^!1 ,geology is ! repres5tative1 ^: hi/ory we %all !re=e briefly foll[4 ,by ! ,class ( ,sci5ces to :i* ,i h ref]r$ x1 ,i mean to po9t out ^? rese>*es 9 :i* ! object is1 to asc5d f ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s to a m anci5t condition1 f :i* ! pres5t is d]iv$ by intelligible causes4 ,! sci5ces :i* treat ( causes h sometimes be5 t]m$ tiological1 f 1 a cause3 b ?is t]m w\ld n suffici5tly describe ! speculations ( :i* we n[ speak2 s9ce x might include sci5ces :i* treat ( ,p]man5t ,causality1 l ,me*anics1 z well z inquiries conc]n+ ,progressive ,causation4 ,! inve/igations :i* ,i n[ wi% to gr\p toge!r1 deal1 n only ) ! possible1 b ) ! actual pa/2 & a portion ( t sci5ce on :i* we are ab\t to ent]1 ,geology1 has prop]ly be5 t]m$ ,palontology1 s9ce x treats ( be+s :i* =m]ly exi/$4#aah ,h5ce1 comb9+ ^! two notions1#bah ,paltiology appe>s to be a t]m n inappropriate1 to describe ^? speculations :i* ?us ref] to actual pa/ ev5ts1 & attempt to expla9 !m by laws ( causation4 ,note #aah3 1 ,note #bah3 1 ,su* speculations are n conf9$ to ! _w ( in]t matt]2 we h examples ( !m 9 inquiries conc]n+ ! monum5ts ( ! art & labor ( di/ant ages2 9 exam9ations into ! orig9 & e>ly progress ( /ates & cities1 cu/oms & languages2 z well z 9 rese>*es conc]n+ ! causes & =mations ( m\nta9s & rocks1 ! imb$d+ ( fossils 9 /rata1 & _! elevation f ! bottom ( ! ocean4 ,all ^! speculations are connect$ by ?is bond1--t !y endeavor to asc5d to a pa/ /ate ( ?+s1 by ! aid ( ! evid5ce ( ! pres5t4 ,9 ass]t+1 ) ,cuvi]1 t #ejj ,! geologi/ is an antiqu>y ( a new ord]1 we d n m>k a fanciful & sup]ficial resemblance ( employm5t m]ely1 b a real & philosophical connexion ( ! pr9ciples ( inve/igation4 ,! organic fossils :i* occur 9 ! rock1 & ! m$als :i* we f9d 9 ! ru9s ( anci5t cities1 are to be /udi$ 9 a simil> _s & = a simil> purpose4 ,inde$1 x is n always easy to "k :]e ! task ( ! geologi/ ends1 & t ( ! antiqu>y beg9s4 ,! /udy ( anci5t geography may involve u 9 ! exam9ation ( ! causes by :i* ! =ms ( coa/s & pla9s are *ang$2 ! anci5t m\nd or sc>p$ rock may =ce ^u u ! problem1 :e!r its =m is ! "w ( nature or ( man2 ! ru9$ temple may exhibit ! traces ( "t 9 its *ang$ level1 & sea-worn columns2 & ?us ! antiqu>ian ( ! e>? may be br\ght into ! v middle ( ! doma9 belong+ to ! antiqu>ian ( art4 ,su* a union ( ^! diff]5t k9ds ( ar*ological inve/igations has1 9 fact1 repeat$ly occurr$4 ,! *anges :i* h tak5 place 9 ! temple ( ,jupit] ,s]apis1 ne> ,puzzuoli1 are ( ! sort :i* h j be5 describ$2 & ?is is only "o example ( a l>ge class ( objects2--! monum5ts ( art conv]t$ into records ( natural ev5ts4 ,& on a wid] scale1 we f9d ,cuvi]1 9 8 inquiries into geological *anges1 br++ toge!r hi/orical & physical evid5ce4 ,dr4 ,pri*>d1 9 8 ,rese>*es into ! ,physical ,hi/ory ( ,man1 has %[n t to execute su* a design z 81 we mu/ comb9e ! k ( ! physiological laws ( nature ) ! traditions ( hi/ory & ! philosophical comp>ison ( languages4 ,& ev5 if we refuse to admit1 z "p ( ! bus9ess ( geology1 inquiries conc]n+ ! orig9 & physical hi/ory ( ! pres5t population ( ! globe2 /ill ! geologi/ is compell$ to take an int]e/ 9 su* inquiries1 9 ord] to und]/& matt]s :i* rigor\sly belong to 8 prop] doma92 = ! asc]ta9$ hi/ory ( ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s (f]s ! be/ means ( ?r[+ light ^u ! causes ( pa/ *anges4 ,mr4 ,lyell quotes ,dr4 ,pri*>d's book m frequ5tly ?an any geological "w ( ! same ext5t4 ,aga91 we may notice ano!r common circum/ance 9 ! /udies :i* we are gr\p+ toge!r z paltiological1 div]se z !y are 9 _! subjects4 ,9 all ( !m we h ! same k9d ( manife/ations ( a numb] ( successive *anges1 ea* spr++ out ( a prec$+ /ate2 & 9 all1 ! ph5om5a at ea* /ep become m & m complicat$1 by involv+ ! results ( all t has prec$$1 modifi$ by sup]v5+ ag5cies4 ,! g5]al aspect ( all ^! #eja tra9s ( *ange is simil>1 & (f]s ! same features = description4 ,! relics & ru9s ( ! e>li] /ates are pres]v$1 mutilat$ & dead1 9 ! products ( lat] times4 ,! analogical figures by :i* we are tempt$ to express ?is relation are philosophically true4 ,x is m ?an a m]e fanciful description1 to say t 9 languages1 cu/oms1 =ms ( ,society1 political in/itutions1 we see a numb] ( =mations sup]-impos$ ^u "o ano!r1 ea* ( :i* is1 = ! mo/ "p1 an assemblage ( fragm5ts & results ( ! prec$+ condition4 ,?\gh our comp>ison might be bold1 x w\ld be j1 if we 7 to ass]t1 t ! ,engli% language is a conglom]ate ( ,lat9 words1 b\nd toge!r 9 a ,saxon cem5t2 ! fragm5ts ( ! ,lat9 be+ p>tly portions introduc$ directly f ! p>5t qu>ry1 ) all _! %>p edges1 & p>tly pebbles ( ! same mat]ial1 obscur$ & %ap$ by long roll+ 9 a ,norman or "s o!r *annel4 ,?us ! /udy ( paltiology 9 ! mat]ials ( ! e>?1 is only a type ( simil> /udies ) respect to all ! elem5ts1 :i*1 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?'s inhabitants1 h be5 con/antly und]go+ a s]ies ( connect$ *anges4 ,b1 wide z is ! view :i* su* consid]ations give u ( ! class ( sci5ces to :i* geology belongs1 !y ext5d /ill fur!r4 ,! sci5ce ( ! *anges :i* h tak5 place 9 ! organic k+doms ( nature1 7su* is ! description :i* has be5 giv5 ( ,geology1#cah7 may1 by foll[+ ano!r set ( connexions1 be ext5d$ beyond ! modifications ( ! surface ( our own planet4 ,= we _c d\bt t "s resemblance ( a clos] or loos] k9d1 has obta9$ betwe5 ! *anges & causes ( *ange1 on o!r bodies ( ! univ]se1 & on our own4 ,! appe>ances ( some?+ ( ! k9d ( volcanic action on ! surface ( ! moon1 are n to be mi/ak54 ,& ! inquiries conc]n+ ! orig9 ( our planet & ( our sol> sy/em1 inquiries to :i* ,geology irresi/ibly impels h] /ud5ts1 direct u to ask :at in=mation ! re/ ( ! univ]se c supply1 be>+ ^u ?is subject4 ,x has be5 ?\ght by "s1 t we c trace sy/ems1 m or less l our sol> sy/em1 9 ! process ( =mation2 ! nebul\s matt]1 :i* is at fir/ expansive & att5uat$1 cond5s+ gradually into suns & planets4 ,:e!r ?is ,nebul> ,hypo!sis be t5able or n1 ,i %all n "h inquire2 b ! discussion ( su* a "q w\ld be closely connect$ ) #ejb geology1 bo? 9 its int]e/s & 9 its me?ods4 ,if m5 are ev] able to frame a sci5ce ( ! pa/ *anges by :i* ! univ]se has be5 br\ght into its pres5t condition1 ?is sci5ce w be prop]ly describ$ z ,cosmical ,paltiology4 ,note #cah3 ,lyell1 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 p4 #a4 ,^! paltiological sci5ces might prop]ly be call$ hi/orical1 if t t]m 7 suffici5tly precise3 = !y are all ( ! nature ( hi/ory1 be+ conc]n$ ) ! succession ( ev5ts3 & ! "p ( hi/ory :i* deals ) ! pa/ causes ( ev5ts1 is1 9 fact1 a moral paltiology4 ,b ! phrase ,natural ,hi/ory has s accu/om$ u to a use ( ! ^w hi/ory 9 :i* we h no?+ to d ) "t1 t1 if we 7 to employ ! ^w hi/orical to describe ! paltiological sci5ces1 x w\ld be 9 con/ant dang] ( be+ misund]/ood4 ,! fact is1 z ,mohs has said1 t ,natural ,hi/ory1 :5 sy/ematically treat$1 rigor\sly excludes all t is hi/orical2 = x classes objects by _! p]man5t & univ]sal prop]ties1 & has no?+ to d ) ! n>ration ( p>ticul> & casual facts4 ,& ?is is an inconsi/5cy :i* we %all n attempt to rectify4 ,all paltiological sci5ces1 s9ce !y und]take to ref] *anges to _! causes1 assume a c]ta9 classification ( ! ph5om5a :i* *ange br+s =?1 & a k ( ! op]ation ( ! causes ( *ange4 ,^! ph5om5a1 ^! causes1 are v diff]5t1 9 ! bran*es ( k :i* ,i h ?us class$ toge!r4 ,! natural features ( ! e>?'s surface1 ! works ( art1 ! in/itutions ( society1 ! =ms ( language1 tak5 toge!r1 are und\bt$ly a v wide collection ( subjects ( speculation2 & ! k9ds ( causation :i* apply to !m are no less v>i$4 ,( ! causes ( *ange 9 ! inorganic & organic _w1--! peculi> pr9ciples ( ,geology--we %all h]eaft] h to speak4 ,z ^! mu/ be /udi$ by ! geologi/1 s1 9 l mann]1 ! t5d5cies1 in/9cts1 faculties1 pr9ciples1 :i* direct man to ar*itecture & sculpture1 to civil gov]nm5t1 to rational & grammatical spee*1 & :i* h det]m9$ ! circum/ances ( 8 progress 9 ^! pa?s1 mu/ be 9 a great degree kn[n to ! ,paltiologi/ ( ,art1 ( ,society1 & ( ,language1 respectively1 9 ord] t he may speculate s\ndly ^u 8 peculi> subject4 ,) ^! matt]s we %all n "h m$dle1 conf9+ ourselves1 9 our exemplification ( ! conditions & progress ( su* sci5ces1 to ! case ( ,geology4 ,! j\rney ( survey :i* we h attempt$ to p]=m ov] ! field ( human k1 al?\gh c>efully direct$ accord+ to ! pa?s & divisions ( ! physical sci5ces1 has already #ejc conduct$ u to ! b\nd>ies ( physical sci5ce1 & gives u a glimpse ( ! region beyond4 ,9 foll[+ ! hi/ory ( ,life1 we f\nd ourselves l$ to notice ! p]ceptive & active faculties ( man2 x appe>$ t !re 0 a ready passage f physiology to psy*ology1 f physics to metaphysics4 ,9 ! class ( sci5ces n[ "u notice1 we are1 at a diff]5t po9t1 c>ri$ f ! _w ( matt] to ! _w ( ?\ght & feel+1--f ?+s to m54 ,=1 z we h already said1 ! sci5ce ( ! causes ( *ange includes ! productions ( ,man z well z ( ,nature4 ,! hi/ory ( ! e>?1 & ! hi/ory ( ! e>?'s inhabitants1 z collect$ f ph5om5a1 are gov]n$ by ! same pr9ciples4 ,?us ! portions ( k :i* seek to travel back t[>ds ! orig91 :e!r ( in]t ?+s or ( ! works ( man1 resemble ea* o!r4 ,bo? ( !m treat ( ev5ts z connect$ by ! ?read ( "t & causation4 ,9 bo? we endeavor to le>n accurately :at ! pres5t is1 & h5ce :at ! pa/ has be54 ,bo? are hi/orical sci5ces 9 ! same s5se4 ,x mu/ be recollect$ t ,i am n[ speak+ ( hi/ory z tiological2--z x inve/igates causes1 & z x does ?is 9 a sci5tific1 t is1 9 a rigor\s & sy/ematic1 mann]4 ,& ,i may obs]ve "h1 ?\gh ,i _c n[ dwell on ! subject1 t all tiological sci5ces w consi/ ( ?ree portions2 ! ,description ( ! facts & ph5om5a2--! g5]al ,!ory ( ! causes ( *ange appropriate to ! case2--& ! ,application ( ! !ory to ! facts4 ,?us1 tak+ ,geology = our example1 we mu/ h1 fir/ ,descriptive or ,ph5om5al ,geology2 next1 ! exposition ( ! g5]al pr9ciples by :i* su* ph5om5a c be produc$1 :i* we may t]m ,geological ,dynamics2 &1 la/ly1 doctr9es h5ce d]iv$1 z to :at h be5 ! causes ( ! exi/+ /ate ( ?+s1 :i* we may call ,physical ,geology4 ,^! ?ree bran*es ( geology may be f\nd frequ5tly or con/antly comb9$ 9 ! works ( writ]s on ! subject1 & x may n always be easy to discrim9ate exactly :at belongs to ea* subject4#dah ,b ! analogy ( ?is sci5ce ) o!rs1 its pres5t #ejd condition & future =tunes1 w d]ive great illu/ration f su* a di/ribution ( its hi/ory2 & 9 ?is po9t ( view1 !re=e1 we %all briefly treat ( x2 divid+ ! hi/ory ( ,geological ,dynamics1 = ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 into two ,*apt]s1 "o ref]r+ to inorganic1 & "o to organic1 ph5om5a4 ,note #dah3 ,! ,w]n]ians1 9 di/+ui%+ _! /udy f ,geology1 & designat+ x z ,geognosy1 ! k ( ! e>?1 appe> to h int5d$ to select ,descriptive ,geology = _! peculi> field4 ,9 l mann]1 ! orig9al aim ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 :i* 0 =m$ 7#ahjg7 ) a view to record & multiply obs]vations1 recogniz$ ! possibility ( a ,descriptive ,geology sep>ate f ! o!r portions ( ! sci5ce4 #eje ,,descriptive ,,geology4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelude ,,to ,,sy/ematic ,,descriptive ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4--;,anci5t ,notices ( ,geological ,facts4 ,,! rec5t hi/ory ( ,geology1 z to its mo/ important po9ts1 is b\nd up ) :at is do+ at pres5t f day to day2 & t portion ( ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce :i* belongs to ! pa/1 has be5 amply treat$ by o!r writ]s4#eah ,i %all1 !re=e1 pass rapidly ov] ! s]ies ( ev5ts ( :i* ?is hi/ory consi/s2 & %all only attempt to m5tion :at may seem to illu/rate & confirm my own view ( its /ate & pr9ciples4 ,note #eah3 ,z ,,mm4 ,lyell1 ,fitton1 ,conybe>e1 9 our own c\ntry4 ,agreeably to ! ord] already po9t$ out1 ,i %all notice1 9 ! fir/ place1 ,ph5om5al ,geology1 or ! description ( ! facts1 z di/9ct f ! inquiry into _! causes4 ,x is manife/ t su* a m]ely descriptive k9d ( k may exi/2 & x probably w n be conte/$1 t su* k ought to be collect$1 be=e we attempt to frame !ories conc]n+ ! causes ( ! ph5om5a4 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$1 t we are "h speak+ ( ! =mation ( a sci5ce2 & t x is n a collection ( miscellane\s1 unconnect$1 un>rang$ k t c be consid]$ z con/itut+ sci5ce2 b a me?odical1 coh]5t1 &1 z f> z possible1 complete body ( facts1 exhibit+ fully ! condition ( ! e>? z reg>ds ^? circum/ances :i* are ! subject matt] ( geological speculation4 ,su* a ,descriptive ,geology is a pre-requisite to ,physical ,geology1 j z ,ph5om5al ,a/ronomy necess>ily prec$$ ,physical ,a/ronomy1 or z ,classificatory ,botany is a necess>y accompanim5t to ,botanical ,physiology4 ,we may obs]ve also t ,descriptive ,geology1 su* z we n[ speak (1 is "o ( ! classificatory sci5ces1 l #ejf ,m9]alogy or ,botany3 & w be f\nd to exhibit "s ( ! features ( t class ( sci5ces4 ,s9ce1 !n1 our ,hi/ory ( ,descriptive ,geology is to include only sy/ematic & sci5tific descriptions ( ! e>? or portions ( x1 we pass ov]1 at once1 all ! casual & insulat$ /atem5ts ( facts1 ?\gh !y may be geological facts1 :i* occur 9 e>ly writ]s2 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! rem>k ( ,h]odotus1#fah t !re are %ells 9 ! m\nta9s ( ,egypt2 or ! g5]al /atem5ts :i* ,ovid puts 9 ! m\? ( ,py?agoras3#gah ,vidi ego quod fu]at solidissima tellus1 ,esse fretum2 vidi factas ex quore t]ras1 ,et procul a pelago con* jacu]e m>94 ,note #fah3 ii4 #ab4 ,note #gah3 ,met4 xv4 #bfb4 ,we may rem>k "h already h[ g5]ally !re are m+l$ ) descriptive notices ( su* geological facts1 speculations conc]n+ _! causes4 ,h]odotus ref]s to ! circum/ance j quot$1 = ! purpose ( %[+ t ,egypt 0 =m]ly a gulf ( ! sea2 & ! passage ( ! ,roman poet is "p ( a s]ies ( exemplifications :i* he gives ( ! philosophical t5et1 t no?+ p]i%es b ev]y?+ *anges4 ,x w be only by con/ant att5tion t we %all be able to keep our prov9ces ( geology di/9ct4 ,sect4 #b4--;,e>ly ,descriptions & ,collections ( ,fossils4 ,,if we look1 z we h propos$ to d1 = sy/ematic & exact k ( geological facts1 we f9d no?+ :i* we c prop]ly adduce till we come to mod]n times4 ,b :5 facts su* z ^? already m5tion$1 7t sea-%ells & o!r m>9e objects are f\nd imb$d$ 9 rocks17 & o!r circum/ances 9 ! /ructure ( ! ,e>?1 _h attract$ consid]able att5tion1 ! exact exam9ation1 collection1 & record ( ^! circum/ances began to be attempt$4 ,among su* /eps 9 ,descriptive ,geology1 we may notice descriptions & pictures ( fossils1 descriptions ( ve9s & m9es1 collections ( organic & inorganic fossils1 maps ( ! m9]al /ructure ( c\ntries1 & f9ally1 ! discov]ies conc]n+ ! sup]position ( /rata1 ! con/ancy ( _! organic cont5ts1 _! correspond5ce 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 & su* great g5]al relations ( ! mat]ials & features ( ! e>? z h be5 discov]$ up to ! pres5t "t4 #ejg ,)\t attempt+ to assign to e important advance its au?or1 ,i %all briefly exemplify ea* ( ! modes ( contribut+ to descriptive geology :i* ,i h j enum]at$4 ,! /udy ( organic fossils 0 fir/ pursu$ ) connexion & sy/em 9 ,italy4 ,! hills :i* on ea* side skirt ! m\nta9-range ( ! ,ap5n9es are s+ul>ly ri* 9 rema9s ( m>9e animals4 ,:5 ^! rem>kable objects drew ! att5tion ( ?\ghtful m51 controv]sies soon arose :e!r !y really 7 ! rema9s ( liv+ creatures1 or ! productions ( "s caprici\s or my/]i\s p[] by :i* ! =ms ( su* creatures 7 mimick$2 & aga91 if ! %ells 7 really ! spoils ( ! sea1 :e!r !y _h be5 c>ri$ to ! hills by ! deluge ( :i* ! ,scripture speaks1 or :e!r !y indicat$ revolutions ( ! e>? ( a diff]5t k9d4 ,! e>li] works :i* conta9 ! descriptions ( ! ph5om5a h1 9 almo/ all in/ances1 by f> ! great] "p ( _! pages occupi$ ) ^! speculations2 inde$1 ! facts c\ld n be /udi$ )\t lead+ to su* inf]5ces1 & w\ld n h be5 collect$ b = ! int]e/ :i* su* reason+s possess$4 ,z "o ( ! fir/ p]sons :o appli$ a s\nd & vigor\s intellect to ^! subjects1 we may notice ! celebrat$ pa9t] ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 :om we h already _h to ref] to z "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ! mod]n me*anical sci5ces4 ,he /r5u\sly ass]ts ! cont5ts ( ! rocks to be real %ells1 & ma9ta9s ! reality ( ! *anges ( ! doma9 ( l& & sea :i* ^! spoils ( ! ocean imply4 ,y w tell me1 he says1 t nature & ! influ5ce ( ! />s h =m$ ^! %elly =ms 9 ! m\nta9s2 !n %[ me a place 9 ! m\nta9s :]e ! />s at ! pres5t day make %elly =ms ( diff]5t ages1 & ( diff]5t species 9 ! same place4 ,& h[1 ) t1 w y expla9 ! gravel :i* is h>d5$ 9 /ages at diff]5t heights 9 ! m\nta9s8 ,he !n m5tions sev]al o!r p>ticul>s respect+ ^! evid5ces t ! exi/+ m\nta9s 7 =m]ly 9 ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,leon>do di$ 9 #aeai4 ,at pres5t we ref] to geological essays l 81 only s f> z !y are descriptive4 ,go+ onw>ds ) ?is view1 we may notice ,fraca/oro1 :o wrote conc]n+ ! petrifactions :i* 7 br\ght to light 9 ! m\nta9s ( ,v]ona1 :51 9 #aeag1 !y 7 excavat$ = ! purpose ( repair+ ! city4 ,little 0 done 9 ! way ( collection ( facts = "s "t aft] ?is4 ,9 #affi1 ,/5o1 a ,dane resid5t 9 ,italy1 put =? 8 treatise1 ,de ,solido intra ,solidum naturalit] cont5to2 & ! #ejh foll[+ ye>1 ,augu/9o ,scilla1 a ,sicilian pa9t]1 publi%$ a ,lat9 epi/le1 ,de ,corporibus ,m>9is ,lapidesc5tibus1 illu/rat$ by good engrav+s ( fossil-%ells1 tee?1 & corals4#hah ,aft] ano!r int]val ( speculative controv]sy1 we come to ,antonio ,vallisn]i1 ^: lett]s1 ,de' ,corpi ,m>9i *e su' ,monti si trovano1 appe>$ at ,v5ice 9 #agba4 ,9 ^! lett]s he describes ! fossils ( ,monte ,bolca1 & attempts to trace ! ext5t ( ! m>9e deposits ( ,italy1#iah & to di/+ui% ! mo/ important ( ! fossils4 ,simil> descriptions & figures 7 publi%$ ) ref]5ce to our own c\ntry at a lat] p]iod4 ,9 #agff1 ,br&]'s ,fossilia ,hantoni5sia1 or ,hamp%ire ,fossils1 appe>$2 conta9+ excell5t figures ( fossil %ells f a "p ( ! s\? coa/ ( ,engl&2 & simil> works came =? 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,note #hah3 ,augu/9e ,scilla's orig9al draw+s ( fossil %ells1 tee?1 & corals1 f :i* ! engrav+s m5tion$ 9 ! text 7 execut$1 z well z ! natural objects f :i* ! draw+s 7 made1 7 b\ght by ,woodw>d1 & are n[ 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum at ,cambridge4 ,note #iah3 p4 #bj4 ,h[ev] exact might be ! descriptions & figures ?us produc$1 !y c\ld n give su* complete in=mation z ! objects !mselves1 collect$ & p]man5tly pres]v$ 9 museums4 ,vallisn]i says1#ajah t hav+ begun to collect fossils = ! purpose ( =m+ a grotto1 he select$ ! be/1 & pres]v$ !m z a noble div]sion = ! m curi\s4 ,! museum ( ,calceol>ius at ,v]ona conta9$ a celebrat$ collection ( su* rema9s4 ,a copi\s description ( x appe>$ 9 #afbb4 ,su* collections _h be5 made f an e>li] p]iod1 & catalogues ( !m publi%$4 ,?us ,gessn]'s "w1 ,de ,r]um ,fossilium1 ,lapidum et ,gemm>um ,figuris 7#aefe71 conta9s a catalogue ( ! cab9et ( petrifactions collect$ by ,john ,k5tman2 _m catalogues ( ! same k9d appe>$ 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4#aaah ,lhwyd's 9999,ly?ophylacii ,britannici ,iconographia1 publi%$ at ,ox=d 9 #affi1 & exhibit+ a v ample catalogue ( ,engli% ,fossils conta9$ 9 ! ,a%molean ,museum1 may be notic$ z "o ( ^!4 ,note #ajah3 p4 #a4 ,note #aaah3 ,p>k9son1 ,organic ,rema9s1 vol4 i4 p4 #bj4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable occurr5ces 9 ! progress ( descriptive geology 9 ,engl&1 0 ! =mation ( a geological museum by ,william ,woodw>d z e>ly z #afie4 ,?is collection1 =m$ ) great labor1 sy/ematically arrang$1 & c>efully catalogu$1 he bequea!d to ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge2 f\nd+ & end[+ #eji at ! same "t a pr(essor%ip ( ! /udy ( geology4 ,! ,woodw>dian ,museum /ill subsi/s1 a monum5t ( ! sagacity ) :i* its au?or s e>ly saw ! importance ( su* a collection4 ,collections & descriptions ( fossils1 includ+ 9 ! t]m specim5s ( m9]als ( all k9ds1 z well z organic rema9s1 7 frequ5tly made1 & especially 9 places :]e m9+ 0 cultivat$2 b "u su* circum/ances1 !y sc>cely t5d$ at all to t g5]al & complete k ( ! e>? ( :i* we are n[ trac+ ! progress4 ,9 m mod]n times1 collections may be said to be ! mo/ important books ( ! geologi/1 at lea/ next to ! /rata !mselves4 ,! id5tifications & arrangem5ts ( our be/ geologi/s1 ! imm5se /udies ( fossil anatomy by ,cuvi] & o!rs1 h be5 conduct$ ma9ly by means ( collections ( specim5s4 ,!y are m important 9 ?is /udy ?an 9 botany1 because specim5s :i* conta9 important geological in=mation are bo? m r>e & m p]man5t4 ,plants1 ?\gh ea* individual is p]i%able1 p]petuate & diffuse _! k9d2 :ile ! organic impression on a /one1 if lo/1 may nev] occur 9 a second in/ance2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 if x be pres]v$ 9 ! museum1 ! individual is almo/ z p]man5t 9 ?is case1 z ! species 9 ! o!r4 ,i %all proce$ to notice ano!r mode 9 :i* su* in=mation 0 convey$4 ,sect4 #c4--;,fir/ ,con/ruction ( ,geological ,maps4 ,,dr4 ,,li/]1 a le>n$ physician1 s5t to ! ,royal ,society1 9 #afhc1 a proposal = maps ( soils or m9]als2 9 :i* he sugge/$ t 9 ! map ( ,engl&1 = example1 ea* soil & its b\nd>ies might be di/+ui%$ by color1 or 9 "s o!r way4 ,su* a mode ( express+ & connect+ our k ( ! mat]ials ( ! e>? 01 p]haps1 obvi\s1 :5 ! mass ( k became consid]able4 ,9 #agbj1 ,font5elle1 9 8 obs]vations on a pap] ( ,de ,reaumur's1 :i* conta9$ an acc\nt ( a deposit ( fossil-%ells 9 ,t\ra9e1 says1 t 9 ord] to reason on su* cases1 we mu/ h a k9d ( geographical *>ts1 con/ruct$ accord+ to ! collection ( %ells f\nd 9 ! e>?4 ,b he ju/ly adds1 ,:at a quantity ( obs]vations1 & :at "t w\ld x n require to =m su* maps6 ,! execution ( su* projects requir$1 n m]ely great labor1 b #eaj sev]al /eps 9 g5]alization & classification1 be=e x c\ld take place4 ,/ill su* attempts 7 made4 ,9 #agdc1 0 publi%$1 ,a new ,philosophico-*orographical ,*>t ( ,ea/ ,k5t1 inv5t$ & del9eat$ by ,*ri/oph] ,packe1 ,m4,d42 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 ! ma9 object is r to express ! c\rse ( ! valleys ?an ! mat]ials ( ! c\ntry4 ,guett>d =m$ ! project ( a m9]alogical map ( ,france1 & ,monnet c>ri$ ?is s*eme into effect 9 #aghj1abah by ord] ( ! k+4 ,9 ^! maps1 h[ev]1 ! c\ntry is n consid]$ z divid$ into soils1 /ill less /rata2 b ea* "p is m>k$ ) its pr$om9ant m9]al only4 ,! _s ( g5]alization :i* con/itutes ! ma9 value ( su* a "w is want+4 ,note #abah3 ,atlas et ,description ,m9ralogique de la ,france1 entrepris p> ordre du ,roi1 p> ,,mm4 ,guett>d et ,monnet1 ,p>is1 #aghj1 pp4 #bab1 ) #ca maps4 ,geological maps belong /rictly to ,descriptive ,geology2 !y are free f ^? wide & d\btful speculations :i* =m s l>ge a portion ( ! e>li] geological books4 ,yet ev5 geological maps _c be usefully or consi/5tly con/ruct$ )\t consid]able /eps ( classification & g5]alization4 ,:51 9 our own "t1 geologi/s 7 become we>y ( controv]sies respect+ !ory1 !y appli$ !mselves ) extraord9>y zeal to ! con/ruction ( /ratigraphical maps ( v>i\s c\ntries2 flatt]+ !mselves t 9 ?is way !y 7 m]ely record+ inconte/able facts & diff]5ces4 ,nor d ,i mean to intimate t _! facts 7 d\btful1 or _! di/9ctions arbitr>y4 ,b /ill !y 7 facts int]pret$1 associat$1 & repres5t$1 by means ( ! classifications & g5]al laws :i* e>li] geologi/s _h e/abli%$2 & ?us ev5 ,descriptive ,geology has be5 br\ght into exi/5ce z a sci5ce by ! =mation ( sy/ems & ! discov]y ( pr9ciples4 ,at ?is we _c be surpriz$1 :5 we recollect ! _m /eps :i* ! =mation ( ,classificatory ,botany requir$4 ,we mu/ n[ notice "s ( ! discov]ies :i* t5d$ to ! =mation ( ,sy/ematic ,descriptive ,geology4 #eaa ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,=mation ,,( ,,sy/ematic ,,descriptive ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4--;,discov]y ( ! ,ord] & ,/ratification ( ! ,mat]ials ( ! ,e>?4 ,,t ! sub/ances ( :i* ! e>? is fram$ are n scatt]$ & mix$ at r&om1 b possess id5tity & cont9uity to a consid]able ext5t1 ,li/] 0 aw>e1 :5 he propos$ 8 map4 ,b !re is1 9 8 sugge/ions1 no?+ relat+ to /ratification2 nor any ord] ( position1 /ill less ( "t1 assign$ to ^! mat]ials4 ,woodw>d1 h[ev]1 appe>s to h be5 fully aw>e ( ! g5]al law ( /ratification4 ,on collect+ in=mation f all p>ts1 ! result 01 he says1 t 9 "t ,i 0 abundantly assur$ t ! circum/ances ( ^! ?+s 9 remot] c\ntries 7 mu* ! same ) ^? ( ours "h3 t ! /one1 & o!r t]re/rial matt] 9 ,france1 ,fl&]s1 ,holl&1 ,spa91 ,italy1 ,g]many1 ,d5m>k1 & ,sw$51 0 di/+ui%$ into /rata or lay]s1 z x is 9 ,engl&2 t ^! /rata 7 divid$ by p>allel fissures2 t !re 7 enclos$ 9 ! /one & all ! o!r d5s] k9ds ( t]re/rial matt]1 great numb]s ( ! %ells1 & o!r productions ( ! sea1 9 ! same mann] z 9 t ( ?is isl&4#acah ,s rem>kable a tru?1 ?us collect$ f a copi\s collection ( p>ticul>s by a pati5t induction1 0 an important /ep 9 ! sci5ce4 ,note #acah3 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?1 #agbc4 ,^! g5]al facts n[ began to be commonly recogniz$1 & foll[$ into detail4 9999,/ukeley ! antiqu>y#adah 7#agbd71 rem>k$ an important feature 9 ! /rata ( ,engl&1 t _! esc>pm5ts1 or /eepe/ sides1 are turn$ t[>ds ! we/ & nor?-we/2 & ,/ra*ey#aeah 7#agai71 gave a /ratigraphical description ( c]ta9 coal-m9es ne> ,ba?4#afah ,mi*ell1 appo9t$ ,woodw>dian ,pr(essor at ,cambridge #eab 9 #agfb1 describ$ ?is /ratifi$ /ructure ( ! e>? f> m di/9ctly ?an 8 pr$ecessors1 & po9t$ out1 z ! consequ5ce ( x1 t ! same k9ds ( e>?s1 /ones1 & m9]als1 w appe> at ! surface ( ! e>? 9 long p>allel slips1 p>allel to ! long ridges ( m\nta9s2 & s1 9 fact1 we f9d !m4#agah ,note #adah3 ,it9]>ium ,curiosum1 #agbd4 ,note #aeah3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agai1 & ,obs]vations on ,/rata1 c4 #agbi4 ,note #afah3 ,fitton1 ,annals ( ,philosophy1 ,n4 ,s4 vol4 i4 & ii4 7#ahcb1 '#c71 p4 #aeg4 ,note #agah3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agfj4 ,mi*ell 7z appe>$ by pap]s ( 8 :i* 7 exam9$ aft] 8 dea?7 _h made himself acqua9t$ ) ! s]ies ( ,engli% /rata :i* ?us occur f ,cambridge to ,york2--t is1 f ! *alk to ! coal4 ,^! relations ( position requir$ t geological maps1 to complete ! in=mation !y convey$1 %\ld be accompani$ by geological ,sections1 or imag9>y repres5tations ( ! ord] & mode ( sup]positions1 z well z ( ! sup]ficial ext5t ( ! /rata1 z 9 m rec5t times has usually be5 done4 ,! /rata1 z we travel f ! high] to ! l[]1 come f "u ea* o!r into view2 & ?is out-cropp+1 basset+1 or by :atev] o!r t]m x is describ$1 is an important feature 9 _! description4 ,x 0 fur!r notic$ t ^! relations ( position 7 comb9$ ) o!r important facts1 :i* irresi/ibly sugge/$ ! notion ( a relation 9 "t4 ,?is1 inde$1 0 impli$ 9 all !ories ( ! e>?2 b obs]vations ( ! facts mo/ require our notice4 ,/5o is ass]t$ by ,humboldt#ahah to be ! fir/ :o 79 #affi7 di/+ui%$ betwe5 rocks ant]ior to ! exi/5ce ( plants & animals ^u ! globe1 conta9+ !re=e no organic rema9s2 & rocks sup]-impos$ on ^!1 & full ( su* rema9s2 turbidi m>is s$im5ta sibi invicem imposita4 ,note #ahah3 ,essai 9999,gogno/ique4 ,r\elle is /at$1 by 8 pupil ,desm>e/1 to h made "s additional & important obs]vations4 ,he saw1 x is said1 t ! %ells :i* occur 9 rocks 7 n ! same 9 all c\ntries2 t c]ta9 species occur toge!r1 :ile o!rs d n occur 9 ! same b$s2 t !re is a con/ant ord] 9 ! arrangem5t ( ^! %ells1 c]ta9 species ly+ 9 di/9ct b&s4#aiah ,note #aiah3 ,encycl4 ,m?od4 ,geogr4 ,phys4 tom4 i4 p4 #daf1 z quot$ by ,fitton z above1 p4 #aei4 ,su* divisions z ^! requir$ to be m>k$ by te*nical names4 ,a di/9ction 0 made ( l'anci5ne t]re & la n\velle t]re1 to :i* ,r\elle add$ a travaille int]mdiaire4 ,r\elle di$ 9 #aggj1 hav+ be5 kn[n by lectures1 n by books4 ,lehman1 9 #agef1 claims = himself ! cr$it ( be+ ! fir/ to obs]ve & describe correctly ! /ructure ( /ratifi$ c\ntries2 be+ ignorant1 #eac probably1 ( ! labors ( ,/ra*ey 9 ,engl&4 ,he divid$ m\nta9s into ?ree classes2#bjah primitive1 :i* 7 =m$ ) ! _w2--^? :i* result$ f a p>tial de/ruction ( ! primitive rocks2--& a ?ird class result+ f local or univ]sal deluges4 ,9 #agei1 also1 ,ardu9e1#baah 9 8 ,memoirs on ! m\nta9s ( ,padua1 ,vic5za1 & ,v]ona1 d$uc$1 f orig9al obs]vations1 ! di/9ction ( rocks into prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y4 ,note #bjah3 ,lyell1 i4 #gj4 ,note #baah3 ,ib4 #gb4 ,! relations ( position & fossils 71 f ?is p]iod1 insep>ably connect$ ) op9ions conc]n+ succession 9 "t4 ,odo>di rem>k$1#bbah t ! /rata ( ! 9999,sub-,ap5n9e hills are uncon=mable to ^? ( ! ,ap5n9e1 7z ,/ra*ey _h obs]v$1 t ! /rata above ! coal 7 uncon=mable to ! coal2#bcah7 & 8 "w conta9$ a cle> argum5t respect+ ! diff]5t ages ( ^! two classes ( hills4 ,fu*sel 01 9 #agfb1 aw>e ( ! di/9ctness ( /rata ( diff]5t ages 9 ,g]many4 ,pallas & ,saussure 7 guid$ by g5]al views ( ! same k9d 9 obs]v+ ! c\ntries :i* !y visit$3 b1 p]haps1 ! g5]al circulation ( su* notions 0 mo/ due to ,w]n]4 ,note #bbah3 ,ib4 #gd4 ,note #bcah3 ,fitton1 p4 #aeg4 ,sect4 #b4--,sy/ematic =m giv5 to ,descriptive ,geology4--,w]n]4 ,,w]n] express$ ! g5]al relations ( ! /rata ( ! e>? by means ( classifications :i*1 s f> z g5]al applicability is conc]n$1 are extremely imp]fect & arbitr>y2 he promulgat$ a !ory :i* almo/ entirely neglect$ all ! facts previ\sly discov]$ respect+ ! gr\p+ ( fossils1--:i* 0 f\nd$ ^u obs]vations made 9 a v limit$ di/rict ( ,g]many1--& :i* 0 contradict$ ev5 by ! facts ( ?is di/rict4 ,yet ! acut5ess ( 8 discrim9ation 9 ! subjects :i* he /udi$1 ! g5]ality ( ! t5ets he ass]t$1 & ! *>m :i* he ?rew ab\t 8 speculations1 gave to ,geology1 or1 z he t]m$ x1 ,geognosy1 a popul>ity & reputation :i* x _h nev] be=e possess$4 ,8 sy/em _h ass]t$ c]ta9 univ]sal =mations1 :i* foll[$ ea* o!r 9 a con/ant ord]2--granite ! l[e/1--!n mica-slate & clay-slate2--^u ^! primitive rocks1 g5]ally highly incl9$1 re/ o!r transition /rata2--^u ^!1 lie second>y ones1 :i* be+ m ne>ly horizontal1 are call$ fltz or flat4 ,! t]m =mation1 #ead :i* we h ?us introduc$1 indicat+ gr\ps :i*1 by evid5ce ( all k9ds1--( _! mat]ials1 _! position1 & _! organic cont5ts1--are judg$ to belong to ! same p]iod1 implies no small am\nt ( !ory3 yet ?is t]m1 f ?is "t =?1 is to be look$ ^u z a t]m ( classification solely1 s f> z classification c be sep>ately att5d$ to4 ,w]n]'s di/9ctions ( /rata 7 = ! mo/ "p drawn f m9]alogical con/itution4 ,d\btless1 he c\ld n fail to p]ceive ! great importance ( organic fossils4 ,i 0 witness1 says ,m4 de ,humboldt1 "o ( 8 mo/ philosophical foll[]s1 ( ! lively satisfaction :i* he felt :51 9 #agib1 ,m4 de 9999,s*lot!im1 "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ geologi/s ( ! s*ool ( ,freib]g1 began to make ! relations ( fossils to /rata ! pr9cipal object ( 8 /udies4 ,b ,w]n] & ! disciples ( 8 s*ool1 ev5 ! mo/ enlight5$ ( !m1 nev] employ$ ! *>act]s d]iv$ f organic rema9s ) ! same boldness & p]sev]ance z ^? :o _h f ! fir/ consid]$ !m z ! lead+ ph5om5a3 ?us ,m4 de ,humboldt expresses d\bts :i* p]haps _m o!r geologi/s d n feel :51 9 #ahbc1 he says1 ,are we ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t all =mations are *>act]iz$ by p>ticul> species8 t ! fossil-%ells ( ! *alk1 ! mus*elkalk1 ! ,jura lime/one1 & ! ,alp9e lime/one1 are all diff]5t8 ,i ?9k ?is w\ld be pu%+ ! induction mu* too f>4#bdah ,9 ,pr(4 ,jamieson's ,geognosy1 :i* may be tak5 z a repres5tation ( ! ,w]n]ian doctr9es1 organic fossils are 9 no in/ance ref]r$ to z *>act]s ( =mations or /rata4 ,aft] ! curi\s & important evid5ce1 conta9$ 9 organic fossils1 :i* _h be5 br\ght into view by ! labors ( ,italian1 ,engli%1 & ,g]man writ]s1 ! promulgation ( a sy/em ( ,descriptive ,geology1 9 :i* all ?is evid5ce 0 neglect$1 _c be consid]$ o!rwise ?an z a retrograde /ep 9 sci5ce4 ,note #bdah3 ,gissem5t des ,ro*es1 p4 #da4 ,w]n] ma9ta9$ ! aque\s deposition ( all /rata above ! primitive rocks2 ev5 ( ^? trap rocks1 to :i*1 f _! resemblance to lava & o!r ph5om5a1 ,raspe1 ,ardu9o1 & o!rs1 _h already assign$ a volcanic orig94 ,! fi]ce & long controv]sy betwe5 ! ,vulcani/s & ,neptuni/s1 :i* ?is dogma excit$1 does n belong to ?is "p ( our hi/ory2 b ! discov]y ( ve9s ( granite p5etrat+ ! sup]9cumb5t slate1 to :i* ! controv]sy l$1 0 an important ev5t 9 descriptive geology4 ,hutton1 ! #eae au?or ( ! !ory ( igne\s causation :i* 0 9 ?is c\ntry oppos$ to t ( ,w]n]1 s\ght & f\nd ?is ph5om5on 9 ! ,grampian hills1 9 #aghe4 ,?is suppos$ v]ification ( 8 sy/em fill$ him ) delight1 & call$ =? su* m>ks ( joy & exultation1 t ! guides :o accompani$ him 7 p]suad$1 says 8 biograph]1#beah t he mu/ h discov]$ a ve9 ( silv] or gold4#bfah ,note #beah3 ,playfair's ,works1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ge4 ,note #bfah3 ,lyell1 i4 #ij4 ,desm>e/'s exam9ation ( ,auv]gne 7#agfh7 %[$ t !re 0 !re an in/ance ( a c\ntry :i* c\ld n ev5 be describ$ )\t t]ms imply+ t ! basalt1 :i* cov]$ s l>ge a portion ( x1 _h fl[$ f ! crat]s ( ext9ct volcanoes4 ,8 map ( ,auv]gne 0 an excell5t example ( a survey ( su* a c\ntry1 ?us exhibit+ features q diff]5t f ^? ( common /ratifi$ c\ntries4#bgah ,note #bgah3 ,lyell1 i4 #hf4 ,! facts connect$ ) metallif]\s ve9s 7 also objects ( ,w]n]'s att5tion4 ,a k ( su* facts is valuable to ! geologi/ z well z to ! m9]1 al?\gh ev5 yet mu* difficulty att5ds all attempts to !orize conc]n+ !m4 ,! facts ( ?is nature h be5 collect$ 9 great abundance 9 all m9+ di/ricts2 & =m a prom95t "p ( ! descriptive geology ( su* di/ricts2 z1 = example1 ! ,h>tz1 & ,cornwall4 ,)\t fur!r pursu+ ! hi/ory ( ! k ( ! inorganic ph5om5a ( ! e>?1 ,i turn to a /ill ri*] dep>tm5t ( geology1 :i* is conc]n$ ) organic fossils4 ,sect4 #c4--;,application ( ,organic ,rema9s z a ,geological ,"*4--,smi?4 ,,r\elle & ,odo>di _h p]ceiv$1 z we h se51 t fossils 7 gr\p$ 9 b&s3 b f ?is g5]al obs]vation to ! execution ( a survey ( a l>ge k+dom1 f\nd$ ^u ?is pr9ciple1 w\ld h be5 a va/ /ride1 ev5 if ! au?or ( x _h be5 aw>e ( ! doctr9es ?us ass]t$ by ^! writ]s4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 ,william ,smi? execut$ su* a survey ( ,engl&1 ) no o!r guide or help ?an 8 own sagacity & p]sev]ance4 ,9 8 employm5ts z a civil eng9e]1 he notic$ ! rem>kable cont9uity & con/ant ord] ( ! /rata 9 ! neighborhood ( ,ba?1 z discrim9at$ by _! fossils2 & ab\t ! ye> #agic1 he#bhah drew up a ,tabul> ,view ( ! #eaf /rata ( t di/rict1 :i* conta9$ ! g]m ( 8 subsequ5t discov]ies4 ,f9d+ 9 ! nor? ( ,engl& ! same /rata & associations ( /rata ) :i* he _h become acqua9t$ 9 ! we/1 he 0 l$ to "n !m & to repres5t !m by means ( maps1 accord+ to _! occurr5ce ov] ! :ole face ( ,engl&4 ,^! maps appe>$#biah 9 #ahae2 & a "w by ! same au?or1 entitl$ ,! ,engli% ,/rata id5tifi$ by ,organic ,rema9s1 came =? lat]4 ,b ! views on :i* ?is id5tification ( /rata re/s1 belong to a consid]ably e>li] date2 & _h n only be5 act$ ^u1 b freely imp>t$ 9 conv]sation _m ye>s be=e4 ,note #bhah3 ,fitton1 p4 #adh4 ,note #biah3 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahcb4 ,conybe>e1 p4 #cgc4 ,9 ! meantime ! /udy ( fossils 0 pursu$ ) zeal 9 v>i\s c\ntries4 ,lam>ck & ,defrance employ$ !mselves 9 det]m9+ ! fossil %ells ( ! neighborhood ( ,p>is2#cjah & ! int]e/ inspir$ by ?is subject 0 /rongly n\ri%$ & /imulat$ by ! memorable "w ( ,cuvi] & ,brongni>t1 ,on ! ,environs ( ,p>is1 publi%$ 9 #ahaa1 & by ,cuvi]'s subsequ5t rese>*es on ! subjects ?us br\ght "u notice4 ,= n[1 n only ! di/9ction1 succession1 & arrangem5t1 b _m o!r relations among fossil /rata1 irresi/ibly arre/$ ! att5tion ( ! philosoph]4 ,brongni>t#caah %[$ t v /rik+ resemblances occurr$ 9 _! fossil rema9s1 betwe5 c]ta9 /rata ( ,europe & ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 & prov$ t a rock may be s mu* disguis$1 t ! id5tity ( ! /ratum c only be recogniz$ by geological *>act]s4#cbah ,note #cjah3 ,humboldt1 ,giss4 d4 ,r4 p4 #ce4 ,note #caah3 ,hi/4 ,nat4 des ,cru/acs ,fossiles1 pp4 #eg1 #fb4 ,note #cbah3 ,humboldt1 ,giss4 d4 ,r4 p4 #de4 ,! ,italian geologi/s _h f\nd 9 _! hills1 = ! mo/ "p1 ! same species ( %ells :i* exi/$ 9 _! seas2 b ! ,g]man & ,engli% writ]s1 z ,gesn]1#ccah ,raspe1#cdah & ,br&]1#ceah _h p]ceiv$ t ! fossil-%ells 7 ei!r ( unkn[n species1 or ( su* z liv$ 9 di/ant latitudes4 ,to decide t ! animals & plants1 ( :i* we f9d ! rema9s 9 a fossil /ate1 7 ( species n[ ext9ct1 obvi\sly requir$ an exact & ext5sive k ( natural hi/ory4 ,& if ?is 7 s1 to assign ! relations ( ! pa/ to ! exi/+ tribes ( be+s1 & ! peculi>ities ( _! vital processes & habits1 7 tasks :i* c\ld n be p]=m$ )\t ! mo/ consummate physiological skill & tal5t4 ,su* tasks1 h[ev]1 h be5 ! famili> employm5ts ( geologi/s1 & naturali/s incit$ & #eag appeal$ to by geologi/s1 ev] s9ce ,cuvi] publi%$ 8 exam9ation ( ! fossil inhabitants ( ! ,p>is bas94 ,)\t attempt+ a hi/ory ( su* labors1 ,i may notice a few circum/ances connect$ ) !m4 ,note #ccah3 ,lyell1 i4 #gj4 ,note #cdah3 ,ib4 #gd4 ,note #ceah3 ,ib4 #gf4 ,sect4 #d4--;,advances 9 ,palontology4--,cuvi]4 ,,s long z ! organic fossils :i* 7 f\nd 9 ! /rata ( ! e>? 7 ! rema9s ( m>9e animals1 x 0 v difficult = geologi/s to be assur$ t ! animals 7 su* z did n exi/ 9 any "p or clime ( ! exi/+ ocean4 ,b :5 l>ge l& & riv] animals 7 discov]$1 diff]5t f any kn[n species1 ! p]suasion t !y 7 ( ext9ct races 0 =c$ ^u ! naturali/4 ,yet ?is op9ion 0 n tak5 up slightly1 nor acquiesc$ 9 )\t _m /ruggles4 ,bones suppos$ to belong to fossil elephants1 7 "s ( ! fir/ ) reg>d to :i* ?is conclusion 0 e/abli%$4 ,su* rema9s occur 9 va/ numb]s 9 ! soil & gravel ( almo/ e "p ( ! _w2 especially 9 ,sib]ia1 :]e !y are call$ ! bones ( ! mammo?4 ,!y _h be5 notic$ by ! anci5ts1 z we le>n f ,pl9y2#cfah & _h be5 ascrib$ to human giants1 to elephants import$ by ! ,romans1 & to _m o!r orig9s4 ,b 9 #agif1 ,cuvi] _h exam9$ ^! op9ions ) a m pr(\nd k ?an 8 pr$ecessors2 & he ?us /at$ ! result ( 8 rese>*es4#cgah ,) reg>d to :at h be5 call$ ! fossil rema9s ( elephants1 f ,t5tzelius to ,pallas1 ,i believe t ,i am 9 ! condition to prove1 t !y belong to animals :i* 7 v cle>ly diff]5t 9 species f our exi/+ elephants1 al?\gh !y resembl$ !m suffici5tly to be consid]$ z belong+ to ! same g5]a4 ,he _h f\nd$ ?is conclusion pr9cipally on ! /ructure ( ! tee?1 :i* he f\nd to diff] 9 ! ,asiatic & ,african elephant2 :ile1 9 ! fossil animal1 x 0 diff]5t f bo?4 ,b he also reason$ 9 "p on ! =m ( ! skull1 ( :i* ! be/-kn[n example _h be5 describ$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions z e>ly z #agcg4chah ,z soon1 says ,cuvi]1 at a lat] p]iod1 z ,i became acqua9t$ ) ,mess]s*midt's draw+1 & jo9$ to ! diff]5ces :i* x pres5t$1 ^? :i* ,i _h myself obs]v$ 9 ! inf]ior jaw & ! #eah mol> tee?1 ,i no long] d\bt$ t ! fossil elephants 7 ( a species diff]5t f ! ,indian elephant4 ,?is idea1 :i* ,i ann\nc$ to ! ,in/itute 9 ! mon? ( ,janu>y1 #agif1 op5$ to me views entirely new respect+ ! !ory ( ! e>?2 & det]m9$ me to devote myself to ! long rese>*es & to ! assidu\s labors :i* h n[ occupi$ me = tw5ty-five ye>s4#ciah ,note #cfah3 ,hi/4 ,nat4 lib4 xxxvi4 #ah4 ,note #cgah3 ,mm4 ,in/4 ,ma?4 et ,phys4 tom4 ii4 p4 #d4 ,note #chah3 ,describ$ by ,breyne f a specim5 f\nd 9 ,sib]ia by ,mess]s*midt 9 #agbb4 ,phil4 ,trans4 xl4 #ddf4 ,note #ciah3 ,ossem5s ,fossiles1 second edit4 i4 #agh4 ,we h "h1 !n1 ! />t+-po9t ( ^? rese>*es conc]n+ ext9ct animals1 :i*1 ev] s9ce t "t1 h attract$ s l>ge a %>e ( notice f geologi/s & f ! _w4 ,cuvi] c\ld h>dly h anticipat$ ! va/ /oreh\se ( mat]ials :i* lay "u 8 feet1 ready to supply him occupation ( ! mo/ int5se int]e/ 9 ! c>e] on :i* he _h ?us ent]$4 ,! exam9ation ( ! /rata on :i* ,p>is /&s1 & ( :i* its build+s consi/1 suppli$ him ) animals1 n only diff]5t f exi/+ ones1 b "s ( !m ( great size & curi\s peculi>ities4 ,a c>eful exam9ation ( ! rema9s :i* ^! /rata conta9 0 und]tak5 soon aft] ! p]iod we h ref]r$ to4 ,9 #ahjb1 ,defrance _h collect$ sev]al hundr$s ( undescrib$ species ( %ells2 & ,lam>ck#djah began a s]ies ( ,memoirs ^u !m2 remodell+ ! :ole ( ,con*ology1 9 ord] t !y might be includ$ 9 its classifications4 ,& two ye>s aft]w>ds 7#ahjd7 appe>s ! fir/ ( ,cuvi]'s gr& s]ies ( ,memoirs conta9+ ! re/oration ( ! v]tebrate animals ( ^! /rata4 ,9 ?is va/ natural museum1 & 9 contributions f o!r p>ts ( ! globe1 he discov]$ ! mo/ extraord9>y creatures3--! ,palo!rium1#daah :i* is int]m$iate betwe5 ! horse & ! pig2 ! ,anoplo!rium1 :i* /&s ne>e/ to ! rh9oc]os & ! tapir2 ! ,megalonix & ,mega!rium1 animals ( ! slo? tribe1 b ( ! size ( ! ox & ! rh9oc]os4 ,! ,memoirs :i* conta9$ ^! & _m o!r discov]ies1 set ! naturali/s to "w 9 e "p ( ,europe4 ,note #djah3 ,annales du ,musum d',hi/4 ,nat4 tom4 i4 p4 #cjh1 & ! foll[+ volumes4 ,note #daah3 ,daubuisson1 ii4 #daa4 ,ano!r v curi\s class ( animals 0 br\ght to light pr9cipally by ! geologi/s ( ,engl&2 animals ( :i* ! bones1 f\nd 9 ! lias /ratum1 7 at fir/ suppos$ to be ^? ( crocodiles4 ,b 9 #ahaf1dbah ,sir ,ev]>d ,home says1 ,9 tru?1 on a consid]ation ( ?is skeleton1 we _c b be incl9$ to believe1 t among ! animals de/roy$ by ! cata/rophes ( remote antiquity1 !re _h #eai be5 "s at lea/ t diff] s entirely 9 _! /ructure f any :i* n[ exi/ z to make x impossible to arrange _! fossil rema9s ) any kn[n class ( animals4 ,! animal ?us ref]r$ to1 be+ cle>ly int]m$iate betwe5 fi%es & liz>ds1 0 nam$ by ,mr4 ,knig1 ,i*?yosaurus2 & its /ructure & con/itution 7 m precisely det]m9$ by ,mr4 ,conybe>e 9 #ahba1 :5 he _h occasion to comp>e ) x ano!r ext9ct animal ( :i* he & ,mr4 de la ,be*e _h collect$ ! rema9s4 ,?is animal1 /ill m ne>ly approa*+ ! liz>d tribe1 0 by ,mr4 ,conybe>e call$ ,plesiosaurus4#dcah ,( ea* ( ^! two g5]a sev]al species 7 aft]w>ds f\nd4 ,note #dbah3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahaf1 p4 #bj4 ,note #dcah3 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 v4 ,be=e ?is "t1 ! diff]5ces ( ! races ( animals & plants belong+ to ! pa/ & ! pres5t p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 _h become a lead+ subject ( speculation among geological naturali/s4 ,! sci5ce produc$ by ?is /udy ( ! natural hi/ory ( =m] /ates ( ! e>? has be5 t]m$ ,palontology2 & !re is no bran* ( human k m fitt$ to /ir m5's wond]1 or to excite !m to ! wide/ physiological speculations4 ,b 9 ! pres5t "p ( our hi/ory ?is sci5ce requires our notice1 only s f> z x aims at ! re/oration ( ! types ( anci5t animals1 on cle> & und\bt$ pr9ciples ( comp>ative anatomy4 ,to %[ h[ ext5sive & h[ conclusive is ! sci5ce :5 ?us direct$1 we ne$ only ref] to ,cuvi]'s ,ossem5s ,fossiles2#ddah a "w ( va/ labor & pr(\nd k1 :i* has op5$ wide ! doors ( ?is "p ( geology4 ,i d n "h attempt ev5 to m5tion ! labors ( ! _m o!r em95t contributors to ,palontology2 z ,broc*i1 ,des ,hayes1 ,s[]by1 ,goldfuss1 ,agassiz1 :o h employ$ !mselves on animals1 & ,s*lot!im1 ,brongni>t1 ,hutton1 ,l9dley1 on plants4 ,note #ddah3 ,! fir/ edition appe>$ 9 #ahab1 consi/+ pr9cipally ( ! ,memoirs to :i* ref]5ce has already be5 made4 #bnd ,ed4 ,among ! _m valuable contributions to ,palontology 9 m rec5t times1 ,i may especially m5tion ,mr4 ,ow5's ,reports on ,briti% ,fossil ,reptiles1 on ,briti% ,fossil ,mammalia1 & on ! ,ext9ct ,animals ( ,au/ralia1 ) descriptions ( c]ta9 ,fossils indicative ( l>ge ,m>supial ,pa*yd]mata3 & ,m4 ,agassiz's ,report on ! ,fossil ,fi%es ( ! ,devonian ,sy/em1 8 ,synoptical ,table ( ,briti% ,fossil ,fi%es1 & 8 ,report on ! ,fi%es ( ! ,london ,clay4 ,all ^! are conta9$ 9 ! volumes produc$ by ! ,briti% ,association f #ahci to #ahde4 #ebj ,a new & mo/ important in/rum5t ( palontological inve/igation has be5 put 9 ! geologi/'s h& by ,pr(4 ,ow5's discov]y1 t ! int]nal /ructure ( tee?1 z disclos$ by ! microscope1 is a means ( det]m9+ ! k9d ( ! animal4 ,he has c>ri$ into e "p ( ! animal k+dom an exam9ation f\nd$ ^u ?is discov]y1 & has publi%$ ! results ( ?is 9 8 ,odontography4 ,z an example ( ! application ( ?is "* ( animals1 ,i may m5tion t a too? br\ght f ,riga by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison 0 9 ?is way asc]ta9$ by ,mr4 ,ow5 to belong to a fi% ( ! g5us ,d5drodus4 7,geology ( ,russia1 i4 #fg47 ,:5 x _h ?us be5 e/abli%$1 t ! /rata ( ! e>? are *>act]iz$ by innum]able rema9s ( ! organiz$ be+s :i* =m]ly inhabit$ x1 & t anatomical & physiological consid]ations mu/ be c>efully & skilfully appli$ 9 ord] rightly to int]pret ^! *>act]s1 ! geologi/ & ! palontologi/ obvi\sly _h1 br\ght be=e !m1 _m v wide & /rik+ que/ions4 ,( ^! we may give "s in/ances2 b1 9 ! fir/ place1 we may add a few words conc]n+ ^? em95t philosoph]s to :om ! sci5ce ow$ ! basis on :i* succe$+ speculations 7 to be built4 ,sect4 #e4--;,intellectual ,*>act]s ( ! ,f\nd]s ( ,sy/ematic ,descriptive ,geology4 ,,x w\ld be 9 accordance ) ! c\rse we h pursu$ 9 treat+ ( o!r subjects1 t we %\ld attempt to po9t out 9 ! f\nd]s ( ! sci5ce n[ "u consid]ation1 ^? intellectual qualities & habits to :i* we ascribe _! success4 ,! v rec5t date ( ! g5]alizations ( geology1 :i* has h>dly all[$ u "t to di/+ui% ! calm expression ( ! op9ion ( ! wise/ judges1 might1 9 ?is in/ance1 relieve u f su* a duty2 b s9ce our plan appe>s to sugge/ x1 we w1 at lea/1 endeavor to m>k ! *>act]s ( ! f\nd]s ( geology1 by a few ( _! prom95t l9es4 ,! ?ree p]sons :o mu/ be look$ ^u z ! ma9 au?ors ( geological classification are1 ,w]n]1 ,smi?1 & ,cuvi]4 ,^! ?ree m5 7 ( v diff]5t m5tal con/itution2 & x w1 p]haps1 n be difficult to comp>e !m1 9 ref]5ce to ^? qualities :i* we h all along repres5t$ z ! ma9 features ( ! discov]]'s g5ius1 cle>ness ( ideas1 ! possession ( num]\s facts1 & ! p[] ( br++ ^! two elem5ts into contact4 #eba ,9 ! ,g]man1 consid]+ him z a geologi/1 ! ideal elem5t pr$om9at$4 ,t ,w]n]'s p[]s ( ext]nal discrim9ation 7 extremely acute1 we h se5 9 speak+ ( him z a m9]alogi/2 & 8 tal5t & t5d5cy = classify+ 71 9 8 m9]alogical /udies1 fully f$ by an abundant /ore ( obs]vation2 b :5 he came to apply ?is me?odiz+ p[] to geology1 ! love ( sy/em1 s fo/]$1 appe>s to h be5 too /rong = ! collection ( facts he _h to deal )4 ,z we h already said1 he promulgat$1 z repres5t+ ! _w1 a s*eme collect$ f a prov9ce1 & ev5 too ha/ily ga!r$ f t n>r[ field4 ,yet 8 int5se _s ( me?od 9 "s measure comp5sat$ = o!r defici5cies1 & enabl$ him to give ! "* ( a sci5ce to :at _h be5 be=e a collection ( miscellane\s ph5om5a4 ,! ardor ( sy/em-mak+ produc$ a sort ( fusion1 :i*1 h[ev] sup]ficial1 s]v$ to b9d toge!r ! mass ( incoh]5t & mix$ mat]ials1 & ?us to =m1 ?\gh by /range & anomal\s means1 a /ructure ( no small /r5g? & durability1 l ! anci5t vitrifi$ /ructures :i* we f9d 9 "s ( our m\nta9 regions4 ,( a v diff]5t temp] & "* 0 ,william ,smi?4 ,no lit]>y cultivation ( 8 y\? awoke 9 him ! speculative love ( symmetry & sy/em2 b a s+ul> cle>ness & precision ( ! classify+ p[]1 :i* he possess$ z a native tal5t1 0 ex]cis$ & develop$ by exactly ^? geological facts among :i* 8 philosophical task lay4 ,"s ( ! advances :i* he made1 _h1 z we h se51 be5 at lea/ ent]$ ^u by o!rs :o prec$$ him3 b ( all ?is he 0 ignorant2 &1 p]haps1 w5t on m /eadily & eag]ly to "w out 8 own ideas1 f ! p]suasion t !y 7 entirely 8 own4 ,at a lat] p]iod ( 8 life1 he himself publi%$ an acc\nt ( ! views :i* _h animat$ him 9 8 e>li] progress4 ,9 ?is acc\nt#deah he dates 8 attempts to discrim9ate & connect /rata f ! ye> #agij1 at :i* "t he 0 tw5ty ye>s old4 ,9 #agib1 he _h consid]$ h[ he c\ld be/ repres5t ! ord] ( sup]position--cont9uity ( c\rse--& g5]al ea/]n decl9ation ( ! /rata4 ,soon aft]1 d\bts :i* _h aris5 7 remov$ by ! discov]y ( a mode ( id5tify+ ! /rata by ! organiz$ fossils respectively imb$d$ !re94 ,& ?us /or$ ) ideas1 z he expresses himself1 he began to communicate !m to 8 fri5ds4 ,9 all ?is1 we see great vividness #ebb ( ?\ght & activity ( m9d1 unfold+ itself exactly 9 proportion to ! facts ) :i* x _h to deal4 ,we are rem9d$ ( t cyclopean ar*itecture 9 :i* ea* /one1 z x occurs1 is1 ) wond]ful +5uity1 & ) ! lea/ possible alt]ation ( its =m1 %ap$ s z to fit its place 9 a solid & la/+ edifice4 ,note #deah3 ,phil4 ,mag4 #ahcc1 vol4 i4 p4 #ch4 ,diff]5t yet aga9 0 ! "* 7z a geological discov]]7 ( ! great naturali/ ( ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,9 t "p ( 8 labors ( :i* we h n[ to speak1 ,cuvi]'s dom9ant ideas 7 r physiological ?an geological4 ,9 8 views ( pa/ physical *anges1 he did n seek to include any ranges ( facts :i* lay mu* beyond ! n>r[ field ( ! ,p>is bas94 ,b 8 sagacity 9 apply+ 8 own great pr9ciple ( ! ,conditions ( ,exi/5ce1 gave him a peculi> & unp>allel$ p[] 9 int]pret+ ! mo/ imp]fect fossil records ( ext9ct anatomy4 ,9 ! con/itution ( 8 m9d1 all philosophical end[m5ts 7 s admirably develop$ & discipl9$1 t x 0 difficult to say1 :e!r m ( 8 p[] 0 due to g5ius or to culture4 ,! tal5t ( classify+ :i* he ex]cis$ 9 geology1 0 ! result ( ! mo/ complete k & skill 9 zoology2 :ile 8 views conc]n+ ! revolutions :i* _h tak5 place 9 ! organic & inorganic _w1 7 9 no small degree aid$ by an extraord9>y comm& ( hi/orical & o!r lit]ature4 ,8 guid+ ideas _h be5 =m$1 8 facts _h be5 /udi$1 by ! assi/ance ( all ! sci5ces :i* c\ld be made to be> ^u !m4 ,9 8 geological labors we seem to see "s beautiful temple1 n only firm & fair 9 itself1 b decorat$ ) sculpture & pa9t+1 & ri* 9 all t art & labor1 memory & imag9ation1 c contribute to its beauty4 #bnd ,ed4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell 7,b4 i4 c4 iv47 has quot$ ) approval :at ,i h else:]e said1 t ! advancem5t ( ?ree ( ! ma9 divisions ( geology 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury 0 promot$ pr9cipally by ! ?ree great nations ( ,europe1--! ,g]man1 ! ,engli%1 & ! ,fr5*3--,m9]alogical ,geology by ! ,g]man s*ool ( ,w]n]3--,second>y ,geology by ,smi? & 8 ,engli% successors2--,t]ti>y ,geology by ,cuvi] & 8 fell[-labor]s 9 ,france4 #ebc ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sequel ,,to ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,sy/ematic ,,descriptive ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4--,reception & ,diffusion ( ,sy/ematic ,geology4 ,,if our ne>ness to ! "t ( ! discov]ies to :i* we h j ref]r$1 emb>rasses u 9 speak+ ( _! au?ors1 x makes x /ill m difficult to n>rate ! reception ) :i* ^! discov]ies met4 ,yet "h we may notice a few facts :i* may n be )\t _! int]e/4 ,! impression :i* ,w]n] made ^u 8 he>]s 0 v /rong2 &1 z we h already said1 disciples 7 ga!r$ to 8 s*ool f e c\ntry1 & !n w5t =w>d into all p>ts ( ! _w1 animat$ by ! views :i* !y _h caught f him4 ,we may say ( him1 z has be5 s wisely said ( a philosoph] ( a v diff]5t k9d1#dfah ,he ow$ 8 influ5ce to v>i\s causes2 at ! head ( :i* may be plac$ t g5ius = sy/em1 :i*1 ?\gh x cramps ! gr[? ( k1 p]haps f9ally atones = t mis*ief by ! zeal & activity :i* x r\ses among foll[]s & oppon5ts1 :o discov] tru? by accid5t1 :5 9 pursuit ( weapons = _! w>f>e4 ,! li/ ( ,w]n]'s pupils = a consid]able p]iod includ$ mo/ ( ! pr9cipal geologi/s ( ,europe2 ,freisleb51 ,mohs1 ,esm>k1 d',&rada1 ,raum]1 ,engelh>t1 ,*>p5ti]1 ,broc*i4 ,alex&] von ,humboldt & ,leopold von ,bu* w5t =? f 8 s*ool to obs]ve ,am]ica & ,sib]ia1 ! ,isles ( ! ,atlantic1 & ! coa/ ( ,norway4 ,pr(essor ,jameson e/abli%$ at ,ed9burgh a ,w]n]ian ,society2 & 8 lecture-room became a second c5tre ( ,w]n]ian doctr9es1 :5ce proce$$ _m zeal\s geological obs]v]s2 among ^! we may m5tion z "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$1 ,m4 ,ami ,b\1 ?\gh1 l sev]al o!rs1 he soon ca/ away ! peculi> op9ions ( ! ,w]n]ian s*ool4 ,! classifications ( ?is s*ool 71 h[ev]1 diffus$ ov] ! civiliz$ _w ) #ebd extraord9>y success2 & 7 look$ ^u ) great respect1 till ! /udy ( organic fossils ?rew !m into ! %ade4 ,note #dfah3 ,mack9to% on ,hobbes1 ,diss]t4 p4 #agg4 ,smi?1 on ! o!r h&1 long pursu$ 8 own ?\ghts )\t aid & )\t sympa?y4 ,ab\t #agii he became acqua9t$ ) a few g5tlem5 7,dr4 ,&]son1 ,mr4 ,ri*>dson1 ,mr4 ,t[ns5d1 & ,mr4 ,davies71 :o _h already giv5 "s att5tion to organic fossils1 & :o 7 a/oni%$ to f9d 8 k s mu* m exact & ext5sive ?an _! own4 ,f ?is "t he conceiv$ ! int5tion ( publi%+ 8 discov]ies2 b ! want ( lit]>y leisure & habits long prev5t$ him4 ,8 k 0 orally communicat$ )\t res]ve to _m p]sons2 & ?us gradually & ins5sibly became "p ( ! public /ock4 ,:5 ?is diffusion ( 8 views _h gone on = "s "t1 8 fri5ds began to compla9 t ! au?or ( !m 0 depriv$ ( 8 well-m]it$ %>e ( fame4 ,8 delay 9 publication made x difficult to rem$y ?is wrong2 = soon aft] he publi%$ 8 ,geological ,map ( ,engl&1 ano!r appe>$1 f\nd$ ^u sep>ate obs]vations2 & ?\gh1 p]haps1 n q indep5d5t ( 81 yet 9 _m respects mu* m detail$ & correct4 ,?us1 ?\gh 8 g5]al ideas obta9$ univ]sal curr5cy1 he did n assume 8 due prom95ce z a geologi/4 ,9 #ahah1 a g5]\s attempt 0 made to direct a prop] degree ( public gratitude to him1 9 an article 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review1 ! production ( ,dr4 ,fitton1 a di/+ui%$ ,engli% geologi/4 ,& :5 ! em95t philosoph]1 ,wolla/on1 _h bequea!d to ! ,geological ,society ( ,london a fund f :i* a gold m$al 0 to be aw>d$ to geological s]vices1 ! fir/ ( su* m$als 01 9 #ahca1 giv5 to ,mr4 ,william ,smi?1 9 consid]ation ( 8 be+ a great orig9al discov]] 9 ,engli% geology2 & especially = 8 hav+ be5 ! fir/ 9 ?is c\ntry to discov] & to tea* ! id5tification ( /rata1 & to det]m9e _! succession by means ( _! imb$d$ fossils4 ,cuvi]'s discov]ies1 on ! o!r h&1 bo? f ! high philosophic fame ( _! au?or1 & f _! intr9sic importance1 arre/$ at once ! att5tion ( sci5tific ,europe2 &1 not)/&+ ! und\bt$ priority ( ,smi?'s labors1 = a long "t 7 look$ ^u z ! />t+-po9t ( our k ( organic fossils4 ,&1 9 reality1 al?\gh ,cuvi]'s memoirs d]iv$ ! greate/ "p ( _! value f 8 zoological conclusions1 !y reflect$ back no small portion ( int]e/ on ! classifications ( /rata :i* 7 involv$ 9 8 inf]5ces4 ,& ! views :i* he pres5t$ gave to geology an attractive & /rik+ "*1 & a connexion ) #ebe l>ge physiological z well z physical pr9ciples1 :i* add$ incomp>ably to its dignity & *>m4 ,9 trac+ ! reception & diffusion ( doctr9es su* z ^? ( ,smi? & ,cuvi]1 we ought n to omit to notice m especially ! =mation & hi/ory ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 j m5tion$4 ,x 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahjg1 ) a view to multiply & record obs]vations1 & pati5tly to await ! result ( "s future p]iod2 t is1 its f\nd]s resolv$ to apply !mselves to ,descriptive ,geology1 ?9k+ ! "t n come = t !oretical geology :i* _h !n long fir$ ! controv]sial ardor ( ,neptuni/s & ,plutoni/s4 ,! fir/ volume ( ! ,transactions ( ?is society 0 publi%$ 9 #ahaa4 ,! great] "p ( ! cont5ts ( ?is volume#dgah savor ( ! notions ( ! ,w]n]ian s*ool2 & !re are pap]s on "s ( ! di/ricts 9 ,engl& mo/ ri* 9 fossils1 :i* ,mr4 ,conybe>e says1 well exhibit ! l[ /ate ( second>y geology at t p]iod4 ,b a pap] by ,mr4 ,p>k9son ref]s to ! discov]ies bo? ( ,smi? & ( ,cuvi]2 & 9 ! next volume1 ,mr4 ,web/] gives an acc\nt ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 foll[+ ! admirable model ( ,cuvi] & ,brongni>t's acc\nt ( ! ,p>is bas94 ,if we comp>e ?is memoir ( ,mr4 ,web/] ) ! prec$+ "o ( ,dr4 ,b]g] 7also ( ! ,isle ( ,wight71 !y at once %[ !mselves to belong to two v di/9ct eras ( sci5ce2 & x is difficult to believe t ! int]val :i* elaps$ betwe5 _! respective publication 0 only ?ree or f\r ye>s4#dhah ,note #dgah3 ,conybe>e1 ,report4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 p4 #cgb4 ,note #dhah3 ,conybe>e1 ,report1 p4 #cgb4 ,among ! ev5ts belong+ to ! diffusion ( s\nd geological views 9 ?is c\ntry1 we may notice ! publication ( a little volume entitl$1 ,! ,geology ( ,engl& & ,wales1 by ,mr4 ,conybe>e & ,mr4 ,phillips1 9 #ahba2 an ev5t f> m important ?an1 f ! mode/ =m & "* ( ! "w1 x might at fir/ sight appe>4 ,by describ+ 9 detail ! geological /ructure & circum/ances ( ,engl& 7at lea/ z f> d[nw>ds z ! coal71 x enabl$ a v wide class ( read]s to und]/& & v]ify ! classifications :i* geology _h !n v rec5tly e/abli%$2 :ile ! ext5sive k & philosophical _s ( ,mr4 ,conybe>e r5d]$ x1 "u ! guise ( a topographical enum]ation1 9 reality a pr(\nd & in/ructive sci5tific treatise4 ,! va/ impulse :i* x gave to ! /udy ( s\nd descriptive geology 0 felt & ackn[l$g$ 9 o!r c\ntries1 z well z 9 ,brita94 #ebf ,s9ce t p]iod1 ,descriptive ,geology 9 ,engl& has con/antly advanc$4 ,! advance has be5 due ma9ly to ! labors ( ! memb]s ( ! ,geological ,society2 on ^: m]its z cultivators ( _! sci5ce1 none b ^? :o are !mselves ma/]s ( ! subject1 h a "r to dwell4 ,yet "s p>ts ( ! sci5tific "* ( ^! m5 may be appreciat$ by ! g5]al speculator2 = !y h %[n t !re are no tal5ts & no end[m5ts :i* may n f9d _! fitt+ employm5t 9 ?is sci5ce4 ,besides t !y h unit$ labori\s rese>* & compreh5sive views1 acut5ess & le>n+1 zeal & k2 ! philosophical eloqu5ce ) :i* !y h conduct$ _! discussions has _h a mo/ b5eficial influ5ce on ! tone ( _! speculations2 & _! rese>*es 9 ! field1 :i* h c>ri$ !m into e c\ntry & e class ( society1 h giv5 !m t prompt & lib]al _s1 & t op5 & cordial be>+1 :i* results f int]c\rse ) ! _w on a l>ge & unfett]$ scale4 ,x is n too mu* to say1 t 9 our "t1 ,practical ,geology has be5 "o ( ! be/ s*ools ( philosophical & g5]al culture ( m9d4 ,sect4 #b4--;,application ( ,sy/ematic ,geology4 ,geological ,surveys & ,maps4 ,,su* surveys z t :i* ,conybe>e & ,phillips's book pres5t$ ) respect to ,engl&1 7 n only a means ( dissem9at+ ! k impli$ 9 ! classifications ( su* a "w1 b !y 7 also an ess5tial "p ( ! ,application & ,ext5sion ( ! pr9ciples e/abli%$ by ! f\nd]s ( ,sy/ematic ,geology4 ,z soon z ! tru? ( su* a sy/em 0 g5]ally ackn[l$g$1 ! p]suasion ( ! propriety ( geological surveys & maps ( ea* c\ntry c\ld n b impress itself on m5's m9ds4 ,:5 ! e>li] writ]s1 z ,li/] & ,font5elle1 spoke ( m9]alogical & fossilological maps1 !y c\ld h>dly be said to "k ! mean+ ( ! t]ms :i* !y ?us us$4 ,b :5 subsequ5t classifications _h %[n h[ su* a sugge/ion might be c>ri$ into effect1 & to :at important consequ5ces x might lead1 ! task 0 und]tak5 9 v>i\s c\ntries 9 a vigor\s & consi/5t mann]4 ,9 ,engl&1 besides ,smi?'s map1 ano!r1 drawn up by ,mr4 ,gre5\gh1 0 publi%$ by ! ,geological ,society 9 #ahai2 &1 be+ f\nd$ on v num]\s obs]vations ( ! au?or & 8 fri5ds1 made ) great labor & co/1 0 n only an important #ebg correction & confirmation ( ,smi?'s labors1 b a valuable /oreh\se & /&>d ( :at _h !n be5 done 9 ,engli% geology4 ,leopold von ,bu* _h con/ruct$ a geological map ( a l>ge portion ( ,g]many1 ab\t ! same p]iod2 b1 aw>e ( ! difficulty ( ! task he _h ?us attempt$1 he /ill =bore to publi% x4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 & z mat]ials accumulat$1 m detail$ maps ( p>ts ( ,g]many 7 produc$ by ,h(fmann & o!rs4 ,! ,fr5* gov]nm5t entru/$ to a di/+ui%$ ,pr(essor ( ! ,s*ool ( ,m9es 7,m4 ,bro*ant de ,villi]s71 ! task ( con/ruct+ a map ( ,france on ! model ( ,mr4 ,gre5\gh's2 associat+ ) him two y\ng] p]sons1 select$ = _! en]gy & tal5ts1 ,,mm4 ,beaumont & ,dufrnoy4 ,we %all h occasion h]eaft] to speak ( ! execution ( ?is survey4 ,by v>i\s p]sons1 geological maps ( almo/ e c\ntry & prov9ce ( ,europe1 & ( _m p>ts ( ,asia & ,am]ica1 h be5 publi%$4 ,i ne$ n enum]ate ^!1 b ,i may ref] to ! acc\nt giv5 ( !m by ,mr4 ,conybe>e1 9 ! ,reports ( ! ,briti% ,association = #ahcb1 p4 #chd4 ,^! v>i\s essays may be consid]$ z contributions1 ?\gh hi!rto und\bt$ly v imp]fect ones1 to t at :i* ,descriptive ,geology ought to aim1 & :i* is requisite z a f\ndation = s\nd !ory2--a complete geological survey ( ! :ole e>?4 ,b we mu/ say a few words respect+ ! language 9 :i* su* a survey mu/ be writt54 ,z we h already said1 t condition :i* made su* maps & ! accompany+ descriptions possible1 0 t ! /rata & _! cont5ts _h previ\sly und]gone classification & arrangem5t at ! h&s ( ! fa!rs ( geology4 ,classification1 9 ?is z 9 o!r cases1 impli$ names :i* %\ld give to ! classes di/9ctness & p]man5ce2 & :5 ! s]ies ( /rata belong+ to "o c\ntry 7 ref]r$ to 9 ! description ( ano!r1 9 :i* !y appe>$1 z 0 usually ! case1 "u an aspect at lea/ some:at diff]5t1 ! suppos$ id5tification requir$ a peculi> /udy ( ea* case2 & ?us ,geology _h arriv$ at ! po9t1 :i* we h be=e _h to notice z "o ( ! /ages ( ! progress ( ,classificatory ,botany1 at :i* a te*nical nom5clature & a well-und]/ood synonymy 7 ess5tial p>ts ( ! sci5ce4 ,sect4 #c4--;,geological ,nom5clature4 ,,by ,nom5clature we mean a sy/em ( names2 & h5ce we c #ebh n speak ( a ,geological ,nom5clature till we come to ,w]n] & ,smi?4 ,! e>li] m9]alogi/s _h employ$ names1 (t5 artificial & arbitr>y1 = special m9]als1 b no te*nical & con/ant names = /rata4 ,! elem5ts ( ,w]n]'s names = ! memb]s ( 8 geological s]ies 7 words 9 use among m9]s1 z ,gneiss1 ,grauwacke1 ,?ons*ief]1 ,ro! todte lieg5de1 ,ze*/e92 or arbitr>y names ( ! m9]alogi/s1 z ,sy5ite1 ,s]p5t9e1 ,porphyry1 ,granite4 ,b ! m te*nical "p ( 8 phraseology 0 tak5 f t :i* is ! wor/ k9d ( "n1 arbitr>y num]ation4 ,?us he _h 8 fir/ s&/one =mation1 second s&/one1 ?ird s&/one2 fir/ fltz lime/one1 second fltz lime/one1 ?ird fltz lime/one4 ,su* names are1 beyond all o!rs1 liable to mi/ake 9 _! application1 & likely to be expell$ by ! progress ( k2 & accord+ly1 ?\gh ! ,w]n]ian names = rocks m9]alogically di/+ui%$1 h /ill "s curr5cy1 8 s&/ones & lime/ones1 aft] creat+ endless confusion :ile 8 au?ority _h any sway1 h utt]ly disappe>$ f good geological works4 ,! nom5clature ( ,smi? 0 f\nd$ ^u ,engli% prov9cial t]ms ( v b>b>\s aspect1 z ,cornbra%1 ,lias1 ,gault1 ,clun* ,clay1 ,coral ,rag4 ,yet ^! t]ms 7 widely diffus$ :5 8 classification 0 g5]ally accept$2 !y kept _! place1 precisely because !y _h no sy/ematic signification2 & _m ( !m are at pres5t "p ( ! geological language ( ! :ole civiliz$ _w4 ,ano!r k9d ( names :i* has be5 v preval5t among geologi/s are ^? borr[$ f places4 ,?us ! ,w]n]ians spoke ( ,alp9e ,lime/one & ,jura ,lime/one2 ! ,engli%1 ( ,kimm]idge ,clay & ,ox=d ,clay1 ,purbeck ,m>ble1 & ,portl& ,rock4 ,^! names1 ref]r+ to ! /ratum ( a kn[n locality z a type1 7 good1 z f> z an id5tity ) t type _h be5 trac$2 b :5 ?is _h be5 incompletely done1 !y 7 liable to great ambiguity4 ,if ! ,alps or ! ,jura conta9 sev]al =mations ( lime/one1 su* t]ms z we h notic$1 borr[$ f ^? m\nta9s1 cease to be necess>ily def9ite1 & may give rise to mu* confusion4 ,descriptive names1 al?\gh !y might be suppos$ to be ! be/1 h1 9 fact1 r>ely be5 =tunate4 ,! reason ( ?is is obvi\s2--! m>k :i* has be5 select$ = description may easily fail to be ess5tial2 & ! obvi\s connexions ( natural facts may ov]leap ! arbitr>y def9ition4 ,z we h already /at$ 9 ! hi/ory ( botany1 ! e/abli%m5t ( descriptive m>ks ( real classes presupposes ! important b difficult /ep1 ( ! discov]y ( su* m>ks4 #ebi ,h5ce ^? descriptive names only h be5 really useful 9 geology :i* _h be5 us$ )\t any scrupul\s reg>d to ! appropriat5ess ( ! description4 ,! ,gre5 ,s& may be :ite1 br[n1 or r$2 ! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one may occur only 9 valleys2 ! ,oolite may h no roe-l /ructure2 & yet ^! may be excell5t geological names1 if !y be appli$ to =mations geologically id5tical ) ^? :i* ! phrases orig9ally designat$4 ,! signification may assi/ ! memory1 b mu/ n be all[$ to subjugate ! faculty ( natural classification4 ,! t]ms :i* h be5 =m$ by geologi/s 9 rec5t times h be5 drawn f s\rces simil> to ^? ( ! old] ones1 & w h _! =tune det]m9$ by ! same conditions4 ,?us ,mr4 ,lyell has giv5 to ! divisions ( ! t]ti>y /rata ! appellations ,pleioc5e1 ,meioc5e1 ,eoc5e1 accord+ly z !y conta9 a majority ( rec5t species ( %ells1 a m9ority ( su* species1 or a small proportion ( liv+ species1 :i* may be look$ ^u z indicat+ ! dawn ( ! exi/+ /ate ( ! animate creation4 ,b 9 ?is case1 he wisely treats 8 di/9ctions1 n z def9itions1 b z ! m>ks ( natural gr\ps4 ,! plurality ( species indicat$ by ! "n pleioc5e mu/ n1 he says1#diah be und]/ood to imply an absolute majority ( rec5t fossil %ells 9 all cases1 b a comp>ative prepond]ance :]ev] ! pleioc5e are contra/$ ) /rata ( ! p]iod imm$iately prec$+4 ,note #diah3 ,geol4 iii4 #cib4 ,mr4 ,lyell might h add$1 t no precise p]c5tage ( rec5t species1 nor any num]ical crit]ion :atev]1 c be all[$ to ov]be> ! clos] natural relations ( /rata1 prov$ by evid5ce ( a sup]ior k9d1 if su* c be f\nd4 ,& ?is w\ld be ! prop] answ] to ! objection made by ,de la ,be*e to ^! names2 namely1 t x may happ5 t ! meioc5e rocks ( "o c\ntry may be ( ! same date z ! pleioc5e ( ano!r2 ! same =mation hav+ 9 "o place a majority1 9 ano!r a m9ority1 ( exi/+ species4 ,we are n to run into ?is incongruity1 = we are n s to apply ! names4 ,! =mation :i* has be5 call$ pleioc5e1 mu/ cont9ue to be s call$1 ev5 :]e ! majority ( rec5t species fails2 & all rocks t agree ) t 9 date1 )\t fur!r ref]5ce to ! num]ical relations ( _! fossils1 mu/ also %>e 9 ! "n4 ,to inv5t good names = ^! l>ge divisions ( ! s]ies ( /rata is inde$ extremely difficult4 ,! t]m ,oolite is an in/ance 9 :i* #ecj a descriptive ^w has become p]man5t 9 a case ( ?is k9d2 &1 9 imitation ( x1 ,pcilite 7f 1 v>i\s199997 has be5 propos$ by ,mr4 ,conybe>e#ejah z a "n = ! gr\p ( /rata inf]ior to ! oolites1 ( :i* ! ,v>iegat$ ,s&/one 7,bunt] ,s&/e91 ,grs ,big>r17 is a conspicu\s memb]4 ,= ! s]ies ( =mations :i* lies imm$iately ov] ! rocks 9 :i* no organic rema9s are f\nd1 ! t]m ,transition 0 long us$1 b ) extreme ambiguity & vagu5ess4 ,:5 ?is s]ies1 or r ! upp] "p ( x1 0 well exam9$ 9 ,s\? ,wales1 :]e x consi/s ( _m well-m>k$ memb]s1 & may be probably tak5 z a type = a l>ge portion ( ! re/ ( ! _w1 x became necess>y to give to ! gr\p ?us explor$ a "n n necess>ily lead+ to assumption or controv]sy4 ,mr4 ,mur*ison select$ ! t]m ,silurian1 borr[$ f ! =m] inhabitants ( ! c\ntry 9 :i* 8 types 7 f\nd2 & ?is is a t]m excell5t 9 _m respects2 b "o :i* w probably n q sup]s$e ,transition1 because1 9 o!r places1 transition rocks occur :i* correspond to none ( ! memb]s ( ! ,silurian region4 ,note #ejah3 ,report1 p4 #cgi4 ,?\gh new names are inevitable accompanim5ts ( new views ( classification1 & ?\gh1 !re=e1 ! geological discov]] mu/ be all[$ a "r to co9 !m1 ?is is a privilege :i*1 = ! sake ( 8 own cr$it1 & ! circulation ( 8 tok5s1 he mu/ ex]cise ) great temp]ance & judgm5t4 ,m4 ,brongni>t may be tak5 z an example ( ! neglect ( ?is caution4 ,act+ ^u ! pr9ciple1 9 itself a s\nd "o1 t inconv5i5ces arise f geological t]ms :i* h a m9]alogical signification1 he has giv5 an entirely new li/ ( names ( ! memb]s ( ! geological s]ies4 ,?us ! primitive un/ratifi$ rocks are t]ra9s agalysi5s2 ! transition semi-compact are hemilysi5s2 ! s$im5t>y /rata are yzemi5s2 ! diluvial deposits are clysmi5s2 & ^! divisions are subdivid$ by designations equally novel2 ?us ( ! t]ra9s yzemi5s1 memb]s are--! t]ra9s cla/iques1 tritoni5s1 protques1 palo!ri5s1 epilymniques1 ?alassiques4#eaah ,su* a nom5clature appe>s to labor "u great inconv5i5ces1 s9ce ! t]ms are descriptive 9 _! d]ivation1 yet are n g5]ally intelligible1 & ref] to !oretical views yet h n ! recomm5dation ( sy/ematic connexion4 #eca ,note #eaah3 ,brongni>t1 ,tableau des ,t]ra9s1 #ahbi4 ,sect4 #d4--;,geological ,synonymy1 or ,det]m9ation ( ,geological ,equival5ts4 ,,x w easily be suppos$ t ) s _m diff]5t s\rces ( names z we h m5tion$1 ! same /ratum may be call$ by diff]5t designations2 & ?us a synonymy may be necess>y = geology2 z x 0 = botany 9 ! "t ( ,bauh91 :5 ! same plants _h be5 spok5 ( by s _m diff]5t appellations 9 diff]5t au?ors4 ,b 9 reality1 ! synonymy ( geology is a /ill m important "p ( ! subject ?an ! analogy ( botany w\ld lead u to suppose4 ,= 9 plants1 ! species are really fix$1 & easily kn[n :5 se52 & ! ambiguity is only 9 ! imp]fect communication or confus$ ideas ( ! obs]v]s4 ,b 9 geology1 ! id5tity ( a /ratum or =mation 9 diff]5t places1 ?\gh n an arbitr>y1 may be a v d\btful matt]1 ev5 to him :o has se5 & exam9$4 ,to assign its "r "* & place to a /ratum 9 a new c\ntry1 is1 9 a great degree1 to e/abli% ! :ole geological hi/ory ( ! c\ntry4 ,to assume t ! same names may rightly be appli$ to ! /rata ( diff]5t c\ntries1 is to take = grant$1 n inde$ ! ,w]n]ian dogma ( univ]sal =mations1 b a consid]able degree ( g5]ality & uni=mity 9 ! kn[n =mations4 ,& h[ f> ?is g5]ality & uni=mity prevail1 obs]vation alone c tea*4 ,! se>* = geological synonyms 9 diff]5t c\ntries br+s be=e u two que/ions2--fir/1 are !re su* synonyms8 & only 9 ! second place1 & z f> z !y occur1 :at are !y8 ,9 fact1 x is f\nd t al?\gh =mations :i* mu/ be consid]$ z geologically id5tical 7because o!rwise no classification is possible17 d ext5d ov] l>ge regions1 & pass f c\ntry to c\ntry1 _! id5tity includes c]ta9 modifications2 & ! det]m9ation ( ! id5tity & ( ! modifications are insep>ably involv$ ) ea* o!r1 & almo/ necess>ily entangl$ ) !oretical consid]ations4 ,& 9 two c\ntries1 9 :i* we f9d ?is modifi$ co9cid5ce1 in/ead ( say+ t ! /rata are id5tical1 & t _! designations are synonyms1 we may1 ) m propriety1 consid] !m z two correspond+ s]ies2 ( :i* ! memb]s ( ! "o may be treat$ z ! ,repres5tatives or ,equival5ts ( ! memb]s ( ! o!r4 ,?is doctr9e ( ,repres5tatives or ,equival5ts supposes t ! geological ph5om5a 9 ! two c\ntries h be5 ! results ( #ecb simil> s]ies ( ev5ts1 :i* h1 9 "s measure1 co9cid$ 9 "t & ord]2 & ?us1 z we h said1 ref]s u to a !ory4 ,b yet1 consid]$ m]ely z a /ep 9 classification1 ! comp>ison ( ! geological s]ies ( /rata 9 diff]5t c\ntries is1 9 ! highe/ degree1 important & int]e/+4 ,inde$ 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* ! sep>ation ( ,classificatory f ,*emical ,m9]alogy is necess>y = ! completion ( m9]alogical sci5ce1 ! comp>ative ,classification ( ! /rata ( diff]5t c\ntries accord+ to _! resemblances & diff]5ces alone1 is requisite z a basis = a ,!ory ( _! causes4 ,b1 z w easily be imag9$ f its nature1 ?is "p ( descriptive geology deals ) ! mo/ difficult & ! mo/ elevat$ problems2 & requires a r>e union ( labori\s obs]vation ) a compreh5sive _s ( philosophical classification4 ,9 ord] to give in/ances ( ?is process 7= ( ! va/ labor & great tal5ts :i* h be5 ?us employ$ 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many1 x is only in/ances t we c give17 ,i may ref] to ! geological survey ( ,france1 :i* 0 execut$1 z we h already /at$1 by ord] ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,9 ?is und]tak+ x 0 int5d$ to obta9 a k ( ! :ole m9]al /ructure ( ,france2 b no small portion ( ?is k 0 br\ght into view1 :5 a synonymy _h be5 e/abli%$ betwe5 ! ,second>y ,rocks ( ,france & ! correspond+ memb]s ( ! ,engli% & ,g]man s]ies1 :i* _h be5 s well /udi$ z to h become classical po9ts ( /&>d ref]5ce4 ,= ! purpose ( do+ ?is1 ! pr9cipal directors ( ! survey1 ,,mm4 ,bro*ant de ,villi]s1 ,de ,beaumont1 & ,dufrnoy1 came to ,engl& 9 #ahbb1 & foll[+ ! /eps ( ! be/ ,engli% geologi/s1 9 a few mon?s made !mselves acqua9t$ ) ! ,engli% s]ies4 ,!y !n return$ to ,france1 &1 />t+ f ! *alk ( ,p>is 9 v>i\s directions1 travell$ on ! l9es :i* c>ri$ !m ov] ! edges ( ! /rata :i* em]ge f b5ea? ! *alk1 id5tify+1 z !y c\ld1 ! /rata ) _! =eign analogues4 ,!y ?us recogniz$ almo/ all ( ! pr9cipal b$s ( ! oolitic s]ies ( ,engl&4#ebah ,at ! same "t !y f\nd diff]5ces z well z resemblances4 ,?us ! ,portl& & ,kimm]idge b$s ( ,france 7 f\nd to conta9 9 abundance a c]ta9 %ell1 ! grypha virgula1 :i* _h n be=e be5 mu* rem>k$ 9 ^? b$s 9 ,engl&4 ,) reg>d to ! synonyms 9 ,g]many1 on ! o!r h&1 a diff]5ce ( op9ion #ech arose betwe5 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont & ,m4 ,voltz1#ecah ! =m] consid]+ ! ,grs de ,vosges z ! equival5t ( ! ,ro! todte lieg5de1 :i* occurs b5ea? ! ,ze*/e91 :ile ,m4 ,voltz held t x 0 ! l[] portion ( ! ,r$ or ,v>iegat$ ,s&/one :i* re/s on ! ,ze*/e94 ,note #ebah3 ,de la ,be*e1 ,manual1 #cje4 ,note #ecah3 ,de la ,be*e1 ,manual1 #cha4 ,9 ! same mann]1 f ! fir/ promulgation ( ! ,w]n]ian sy/em1 attempts 7 made to id5tify ! ,engli% ) ! ,g]man memb]s ( ! geological alphabet2 b x 0 long be=e ?is alphabet 0 rightly read4 ,?us ! ,engli% geologi/s :o fir/ tri$ to apply ! ,w]n]ian s]ies to ?is c\ntry1 conceiv$ ! ,old & ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,engl& to be ! same ) ! ,old & ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,w]n]2 :]eas ,w]n]'s ,old ,r$1 ! ,ro! todte lieg5de1 is above ! coal1 :ile ! ,engli% ,old ,r$ is bel[ x4 ,?is mi/ake l$ to a fur!r errone\s id5tification ( our ,m\nta9 ,lime/one ) ,w]n]'s ,fir/ ,fltz ,lime/one2 & caus$ an almo/ inextricable confusion1 :i*1 ev5 at a rec5t p]iod1 has p]plex$ ! views ( ,g]man geologi/s respect+ ?is c\ntry4 ,aga91 ! ,lias ( ,engl& 01 at fir/1 suppos$ to be ! equival5t ( ! ,mus*elkalk ( ,g]many4 ,b ! error ( ?is id5tification 0 br\ght into view by exam9ations & discussions 9 :i* ,,mm4 y5haus5 & ,de*5 took ! lead2 & at a lat] p]iod1 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 by a labori\s exam9ation ( ! /rata ( ,engl&1 0 enabl$ to %[ ! true relation ( ?is "p ( ! geology ( ! two c\ntries4 ,accord+ to him1 ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,engl&1 consid]$ z "o great complex =mation1 may be divid$ into sev5 memb]s1 compos$ ( s&/ones1 lime/ones1 & m>ls2 five ( :i* repres5t respectively ! ,ro! todte lieg5de2 ! ,kupf] s*ief]2 ! ,ze*/e91 7) ! ,rau*wack1 ,as*e1 & ,/9k/e9 ( ! ,?ur+5wald27 ! ,bunt] s&/e92 & ! ,keup]3 :ile ! ,mus*elkalk1 :i* lies betwe5 ! two la/ memb]s ( ! ,g]man li/1 has n yet be5 discov]$ 9 our geological s]ies4 ,su* a co9cid5ce1 he obs]ves1#edah 9 ! subdivisions ( two di/ant me*anical deposits1 ev5 ^u ! supposition ( _! be+ /rictly contemporane\s1 is truly a/oni%+4 ,x has n be5 assum$ hypo!tically1 b is ! fair result ( ! facts :i* are record$ 9 ?is pap]4 ,note #edah3 ,geol4 ,trans4 ,second ,s]ies1 iii4 #aba4 ,z an example 9 :i* ! /udy ( geological equival5ts becomes /ill m difficult1 we may notice ! attempts to ref] ! /rata ( #ecd ! ,alps to ^? ( ! nor?-we/ ( ,europe4 ,! d>k-color$ m>bles & s*i/s resembl+ mica slate#eeah 71 dur+ ! preval5ce ( ! ,w]n]ian !ory1 ref]r$1 z 0 natural1 to ! transition class4 ,! /rik+ physical *>act]s ( ?is m\nta9 region1 & its long-/&+ celebrity z a subject ( m9]alogical exam9ation1 made a complete subv]sion ( ! receiv$ op9ion respect+ its place 9 ! geological s]ies1 an ev5t ( great importance 9 ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce4 ,yet ?is 0 :at occurr$ :5 ,dr4 ,buckl&1 9 #ahbj1 ?rew 8 pi]c+ glance ^u ?is di/rict4 ,he imm$iately po9t$ out t ^! masses1 by _! fossils1 approa* to ! ,oolitic ,s]ies ( ?is c\ntry4 ,f ?is view x foll[$1 t ! geological equival5ts ( t s]ies 7 to be f\nd among rocks 9 :i* ! m9]alogical *>act]s 7 altoge!r diff]5t1 & t ! loose lime/ones ( ,engl& repres5t "s ( ! highly-compact & cry/all9e m>bles ( ,italy & ,greece4 ,?is view 0 confirm$ by subsequ5t inve/igations2 & ! correspond5ce 0 trac$1 n only 9 ! g5]al body ( ! =mations1 b 9 ! occurr5ce ( ! ,r$ ,m>l at its bottom1 & ! ,gre5 ,s& & ,*alk at its top4 ,note #eeah3 ,de la ,be*e1 ,manual1 #cac4 ,! tal5ts & ! k :i* su* tasks require are ( no ord9>y k9d2 nor1 ev5 ) a consummate acqua9tance ) ! well-asc]ta9$ =mations1 c ! place ( problematical /rata be decid$ )\t imm5se labor4 ,?us ! exam9ation & del9eation ( hundr$s ( %ells by ! mo/ skilful con*ologi/s1 has be5 ?\ght necess>y 9 ord] to det]m9e :e!r ! calc>e\s b$s ( ,mae/ri*t & ( ,gosau are or are n int]m$iate1 z to _! organic cont5ts1 betwe5 ! *alk & ! t]ti>y =mations4 ,& sc>cely any po9t ( geological classification c be settl$ )\t a simil> union ( ! accompli%$ naturali/ ) ! labori\s geological collector4 ,x foll[s f ! views already pres5t$1 ( ?is "p ( geology1 t no attempt to apply to di/ant c\ntries ! names by :i* ! well-kn[n ,european /rata h be5 describ$1 c be ( any value1 if n accompani$ by a correspond+ attempt to %[ h[ f> ! ,european s]ies is really applicable4 ,?is mu/ be borne 9 m9d 9 e/imat+ ! import ( ! geological acc\nts :i* h be5 giv5 ( v>i\s p>ts ( ,asia1 ,africa1 & ,am]ica4 ,= in/ance1 :5 ! c>bonif]\s gr\p & ! new r$ s&/one are /at$ to #ece be f\nd 9 ,india1 we require to be assur$ t ^! =mations are1 9 "s way1 ! equival5ts ( _! synonyms 9 c\ntries bett] explor$4 ,till ?is is done1 ! results ( obs]vation 9 su* places w\ld be bett] convey$ by a nom5clature imply+ only ^? facts ( resemblance1 diff]5ce1 & ord]1 :i* h be5 asc]ta9$ 9 ! c\ntry s describ$4 ,we "k t s]i\s errors 7 incurr$ by ! attempts made to id5tify ! ,t]ti>y /rata ( o!r c\ntries ) ^? fir/ /udi$ 9 ! ,p>is bas94 ,fanci$ po9ts ( resemblance1 ,mr4 ,lyell obs]ves1 7 magnifi$ into undue importance1 & ess5tial diff]5ces 9 m9]al "* & organic cont5ts 7 slurr$ ov]4 #bnd ,ed4 ,! ext5sion ( geological surveys1 ! con/ruction ( geological maps1 & ! det]m9ation ( ! geological equival5ts :i* replace ea* o!r 9 v>i\s c\ntries1 h be5 c>ri$ on 9 cont9uation ( ! labors m5tion$ above1 ) enl>g$ activity1 range1 & means4 ,x is e/imat$ t "o-?ird ( ! l& ( ea* hemisph]e has be5 geologically explor$2 & t ?us ,descriptive ,geology has n[ be5 prosecut$ s f>1 t x is n likely t ev5 ! ext5sion ( x to ! :ole globe w\ld give any mat]ial novelty ( aspect to ,!oretical ,geology4 ,! rec5t lit]ature ( ! subject is s volum9\s t x is impossible = me to give any acc\nt ( x "h2 v imp]fectly acqua9t$1 z ,i am1 ev5 ) ! ,engli% portion1 & /ill m1 ) :at has be5 produc$ 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,:ile ,i admire ! en]getic & enlight5$ labors by :i* ! philosoph]s ( ,france1 ,belgium1 ,g]many1 ,italy1 ,russia1 & ,am]ica1 h promot$ sci5tific geology1 ,i may be all[$ to rejoice to see 9 ! v phraseology ( ! subject1 ! evid5ce t ,engli% geologi/s h n fail$ to contribute _! %>e to ! late/ advances 9 ! sci5ce4 ,! foll[+ ord] ( /rata proce$+ upw>ds is n[1 ,i ?9k1 recogniz$ ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,! ,silurian2 ! ,devonian 7,old ,r$ ,s&/one27 ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ! ,p]mian1 7,l[] "p ( ! new ,r$ ,s&/one s]ies27 ! ,trias1 7,upp] ?ree memb]s ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one s]ies27 ! ,lias2 ! ,oolite1 79 :i* are reckon$ by ,m4 ,d',orbigny ! ,etages ,ba?oni51 ,oxoni51 ,kimm]idgi51 & ,portl&i527 ! ,neocomi51 7,l[] ,gre5 ,s&17 ! ,*alk2 & above ^!1 ,t]ti>y & ,supra-,t]ti>y b$s4 ,( ^!1 ! ,silurian1 describ$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison f its types 9 ,s\? ,wales1 has be5 trac$ by ,european ,geologi/s ?r\gh ! ,ard5nes1 ,s]via1 ,turkey1 ! %ores ( ! ,gulf ( ,f9l&1 ! valley #ecf ( ! ,mississippi1 ! we/ coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ! m\nta9s ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,aga91 ! labors ( ,pr(4 ,s$gwick & ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 9 #ahcf1 '#g1 & '#h1 aid$ by ! sagacity ( ,mr4 ,lonsdale1 l$ to _! plac+ c]ta9 rocks ( ,devon & ,cornwall z a =mation int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,silurian & ,c>bonif]\s ,s]ies2 & ! ,devonian ,sy/em ?us e/abli%$ has be5 accept$ by geologi/s 9 g5]al1 & has be5 trac$1 n only 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe1 b 9 ,au/ralia & ,tasmania1 & 9 ! neighborhood ( ! ,alleganies4 ,above ! ,c>bonif]\s ,s]ies1 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison & 8 fell[ labor]s1 ,m4 de ,v]neuil & ,c\nt ,keys]l+1 h f\nd 9 ,russia a well-develop$ s]ies ( rocks occupy+ ! anci5t k+dom ( ,p]mia1 :i* !y h h5ce call$ ! ,p]mian =mation2 & ?is t]m also has f\nd g5]al acceptance4 ,! next gr\p1 ! ,keup]1 ,mus*elkalk1 & ,bunt] ,s&/e9 ( ,g]many1 has be5 t]m$ ,trias by ! cont95tal geologi/s4 ,! ,neocomi5 is call$ f ,neu*atel1 :]e x is l>gely develop$4 ,bel[ all ^! rocks come1 9 ,engl&1 ! ,cambrian on :i* ,pr(4 ,s$gwick has exp5d$ s _m ye>s ( valuable labor4 ,! comp>ison ( ! ,protozoic & ,hypozoic rocks ( diff]5t c\ntries is probably /ill incomplete4 ,! geologi/s ( ,nor? ,am]ica h made great progress 9 decyph]+ & describ+ ! /ructure ( _! own c\ntry2 & !y h wisely gone1 9 a great measure1 ^u ! plan :i* ,i h comm5d$ at ! end ( ! ?ird ,*apt]2--!y h comp>$ ! rocks ( _! own c\ntry ) ea* o!r1 & giv5 to ! diff]5t b$s & =mations names borr[$ f _! own localities4 ,?is c\rse w facilitate r ?an imp$e ! r$action ( _! classification to its synonyms & equival5ts 9 ! old _w4 ,( c\rse x is n to be expect$ nor desir$ t books belong+ to ,descriptive ,geology %all exclude ! o!r two bran*es ( ! subject1 ,geological ,dynamics & ,physical ,geology4 ,on ! contr>y1 among ! mo/ valuable contributions to bo? ^! dep>tm5ts h be5 speculations app5d$ to descriptive works4 ,& ?is is naturally & rightly m & m ! case z ! description embraces a wid] field4 ,! noble "w ,on ! ,geology ( ,russia & ! ,urals1 by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison & 8 companions1 is a great example ( ?is1 z ( o!r m]its 9 a geological book4 ,! au?or introduces into 8 pages ! v>i\s portions ( geological dynamics ( :i* ,i %all h to speak aft]w>ds2 & ?us endeavors to make out ! #ecg physical hi/ory ( ! region1 ! b\nd>ies ( its rais$ sea bottoms1 ! %ores ( ! great cont95t on :i* ! mammo?s liv$1 ! p]iod :5 ! gold ore 0 =m$1 & :5 ! wat]%$ ( ! ,ural *a9 0 elevat$4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,discov] ,,g5]al ,,laws ,,9 ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4--;,g5]al ,geological ,ph5om5a4 ,,besides ?us notic+ su* features 9 ! rocks ( ea* c\ntry z 7 necess>y to ! id5tification ( ! /rata1 geologi/s h _h _m o!r ph5om5a ( ! e>?'s surface & mat]ials pres5t$ to _! notice2 & ^! !y h1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 attempt$ to g5]alize1 s z to obta9 on ?is subject :at we h else:]e t]m$ ! ,laws ( ,ph5om5a1 :i* are ! be/ mat]ials = physical !ory4 ,)\t dwell+ long ^u ^!1 we may briefly note "s ( ! mo/ obvi\s4 ,?us x has be5 obs]v$ t m\nta9 ranges (t5 consi/ ( a ridge ( subjac5t rock1 on :i* lie1 on ea* side1 /rata slop+ f ! ridge4 ,su* a ridge is an ,anticl9al ,l9e1 a ,m9]alogical ,axis4 ,! slop+ /rata pres5t _! ,esc>pem5ts1 or /eep edges1 to ?is axis4 ,aga91 9 m9+ c\ntries1 ! ,ve9s :i* conta9 ! ore are usually a sy/em ( p>allel & ne>ly v]tical p>titions 9 ! rock2 & ^! are1 9 v _m cases1 int]sect$ by ano!r sy/em ( ve9s p>allel to ea* o!r & ne>ly p]p5dicul> to ! =m]4 ,rocky regions are (t5 int]sect$ by ,faults1 or fissures int]rupt+ ! /rata1 9 :i* ! rock on "o side ! fissure appe>s to h be5 at fir/ cont9u\s ) t on ! o!r1 & %ov$ aside or up or d[n aft] ! fracture4 ,aga91 besides ^! l>g] fractures1 rocks h ,jo9ts1--sep>ations1 or t5d5cies to sep>ate 9 "s directions r ?an 9 o!rs2 & a slaty ,cleavage1 9 :i* ! p>allel subdivisions may be c>ri$ on1 s z to produce lam9 ( indef9ite ?9ness4 ,z an example ( ^? laws ( ph5om5a ( :i* we h spok51 we may in/ance ! g5]al law ass]t$ by ,pr(4 #ech ,s$gwick 7n1 h[ev]1 z free f exception71 t 9 "o p>ticul> class ( rocks ! slaty ,cleavage nev] co9cides ) ! ,direction ( ! /rata4 ,! ph5om5a ( metallif]\s ve9s may be ref]r$ to1 z ano!r l>ge class ( facts :i* dem& ! notice ( ! geologi/4 ,x w\ld be difficult to po9t out briefly any g5]al laws :i* prevail 9 su* cases2 b 9 ord] to %[ ! curi\s & complex nature ( ! facts1 x may be suffici5t to ref] to ! description ( ! metallic ve9s ( ,cornwall by ,mr4 ,c>ne2#efah 9 :i* ! au?or ma9ta9s t _! v>i\s cont5ts1 & ! mann] 9 :i* !y cut across1 & /op1 or %ift1 ea* o!r1 leads naturally to ! assumption ( ve9s ( no less ?an six or eight diff]5t ages 9 "o k9d ( rock4 ,note #efah3 ,transactions ( ! ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,cornwall1 vol4 ii4 ,aga91 z important *>act]s belong+ to ! physical hi/ory ( ! e>?1 & !re=e to geology1 we may notice all ! g5]al laws :i* ref] to its temp]ature2--bo? ! laws ( climate1 z det]m9$ by ! iso!rmal l9es1 :i* ,humboldt has drawn1 by ! aid ( v num]\s obs]vations made 9 all p>ts ( ! _w2 & also ^? /ill m curi\s facts1 ( ! increase ( temp]ature :i* takes place z we desc5d 9 ! solid mass4 ,! latt] circum/ance1 aft] be+ = a :ile reject$ z a fable1 or expla9$ away z an accid5t1 is n[ g5]ally ackn[l$g$ to be ! true /ate ( ?+s 9 _m di/ant p>ts ( ! globe1 & probably 9 all4 ,aga91 to turn to cases ( ano!r k9d3 "s writ]s h endeavor$ to /ate 9 a g5]al mann] laws accord+ to :i* ! memb]s ( ! geological s]ies succe$ ea* o!r2 & to r$uce app>5t anomalies to ord] ( a wid] k9d4 ,among ^? :o h writt5 ) su* views1 we may notice ,alex&] von ,humboldt1 always1 & 9 all sci5ces1 =emo/ 9 ! race ( g5]alization4 ,9 8 attempt to ext5d ! doctr9e ( geological equival5ts f ! rocks ( ,europe#egah to ^? ( ! ,&es1 he has m>k$ by appropriate t]ms ! g5]al modes ( geological succession4 ,i h insi/$1 he says#ehah pr9cipally ^u ! ph5om5a ( alt]nation1 oscillation1 & local suppression1 & on ^? pres5t$ by ! passages ( =mations f "o to ano!r1 by ! effect ( an int]ior developem5t4 ,note #egah3 ,gissem5t des ,ro*es dans les deux ,hemisphres1 #ahbc4 ,note #ehah3 ,pref4 p4 vi4 ,! ph5om5a ( alt]nation to :i* ,m4 de ,humboldt "h ref]s are1 9 fact1 v curi\s3 z exhibit+ a mode 9 :i* ! transitions f "o =mation to ano!r may become gradual & ins5sible1 #eci in/ead ( sudd5 & abrupt4 ,?us ! coal measures 9 ! s\? ( ,engl& are above ! m\nta9 lime/one2 & ! di/9ction ( ! =mations is ( ! mo/ m>k$ k9d4 ,b z we advance nor?w>d into ! coal-field ( ,york%ire & ,durham1 ! subjac5t lime/one beg9s to be subdivid$ by ?ick masses ( s&/one & c>bonace\s /rata1 & passes into a complex deposit1 n di/+ui%able f ! ov]ly+ coal measures2 & 9 ?is mann] ! transition f ! lime/one to ! coal is made by alt]nation4 ,?us1 to use ano!r expression ( ,m4 de ,humboldt's 9 asc5d+ f ! lime/one1 ! coal1 be=e we quit ! subjac5t /ratum1 preludes to its full] exhibition 9 ! sup]ior b$s4 ,aga91 z to ano!r po9t3 geologi/s h gone on up to ! pres5t "t endeavor+ to discov] g5]al laws & facts1 ) reg>d to ! position ( m\nta9 & m9]al masses ^u ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,?us ,m4 ,von ,bu*1 9 8 physical description ( ! ,can>ies1 has giv5 a ma/]ly description ( ! l9es ( volcanic action & volcanic products1 all ov] ! globe4 ,&1 m rec5tly1 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont has (f]$ "s g5]alizations ( a /ill wid] k9d4 ,9 ?is new doctr9e1 ^? m\nta9 ranges1 ev5 9 di/ant p>ts ( ! _w1 :i* are ( ! same age1 accord+ to ! classifications already spok5 (1 are ass]t$ to be p>allel#eiah to ea* o!r1 :ile ^? ranges :i* are ( diff]5t ages lie 9 diff]5t directions4 ,?is v wide & /rik+ proposition may be consid]$ z be+ at pres5t ^u its trial among ! geologi/s ( ,europe4#fjah ,note #eiah3 ,we may obs]ve t ! notion ( p>allelism1 :5 appli$ to l9es drawn on remote portions ( a globul> surface1 requires to be int]pret$ 9 s arbitr>y a mann]1 t we c h>dly imag9e x to express a physical law4 ,note #fjah3 ,mr4 ,lyell1 9 ! six? edition ( 8 ,pr9ciples1 ,b4 i4 c4 xii41 has combat$ ! hypo!sis ( ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 /at$ 9 ! text4 ,he has argu$ bo? aga9/ ! cata/rophic "* ( ! elevation ( m\nta9 *a9s1 & ! p>allelism ( ! contemporane\s ridges4 ,x is evid5t t ! =m] doctr9e may be true1 ?\gh ! latt] be %[n to be false4 ,among ! organic ph5om5a1 also1 :i* h be5 ! subject ( geological /udy1 g5]al laws ( a v wide & compreh5sive k9d h be5 sugge/$1 & 9 a great] or less degree confirm$ by adequate assemblages ( facts4 ,?us ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongni>t has n only1 9 8 ,fossil ,flora1 repres5t$ & skilfully re/or$ a va/ numb] ( ! plants ( ! anci5t _w2 b he has also1 9 ! ,prodromus ( ! "w1 pres5t$ v>i\s important & /rik+ views ( ! g5]al "* ( ! vegetation ( =m] p]iods1 z #edj insul> or cont95tal1 tropical or temp]ate4 ,& ,m4 ,agassiz1 by ! exam9ation ( an incr$ible numb] ( specim5s & collections ( fossil fi%1 has be5 l$ to results :i*1 express$ 9 t]ms ( 8 own i*?yological classification1 =m rem>kable g5]al laws4 ,?us1 accord+ to him1#faah :5 we g bel[ ! lias1 we lose all traces ( two ( ! f\r ord]s "u :i* he compreh5ds all kn[n k9ds ( fi%2 namely1 ! ,cyclodean & ! ,ct5odean2 :ile ! o!r two ord]s1 ! ,ganodean & ,placodean1 r>e 9 our days1 sudd5ly appe> 9 great numb]s1 toge!r ) l>ge sauroid & c>nivor\s fi%es4 ,cuvi]1 9 con/ruct+ 8 great "w on i*?yology1 transf]r$ to ,m4 ,agassiz ! :ole subject ( fossil fi%es1 ?us %[+ h[ highly he e/eem$ 8 tal5ts z a naturali/4 ,& ,m4 ,agassiz has %[n himself wor?y ( 8 great pr$ecessor 9 geological natural hi/ory1 n only by 8 acut5ess & activity1 b by ! compreh5sive "* ( 8 zoological philosophy1 & by ! c\rage ) :i* he has address$ himself to ! va/ labors :i* lie be=e him4 ,9 8 ,report on ! ,fossil ,fi% discov]$ 9 ,engl&1 publi%$ 9 #ahce1 he briefly sket*es "s ( ! l>ge que/ions :i* 8 rese>*es h sugge/$2 & !n adds1#fbah ,su* is ! meagre outl9e ( a hi/ory ( ! highe/ int]e/1 full ( curi\s episodes1 b mo/ difficult to relate4 ,to unfold ! details :i* x conta9s w be ! bus9ess ( my life4 ,note #faah3 ,gre5\gh1 ,address to ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahce1 p4 #ai4 ,note #fbah3 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 p4 #gb4 #bnd ,ed4 ,9 proce$+ d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! s]ies ( =mations into :i* geologi/s h di/ribut$ ! rocks ( ! e>?1 "o class ( organic =ms aft] ano!r is f\nd to disappe>4 ,9 ! ,t]ti>y ,p]iod we f9d all ! classes ( ! pres5t _w3 ,mammals1 ,birds1 ,reptiles1 ,fi%es1 ,cru/aceans1 ,mollusks1 ,zoophytes4 ,9 ! ,second>y ,p]iod1 f ! ,*alk d[n to ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,mammals are n f\nd1 ) ! m9ute exception ( ! m>supial amphi!rium & phascolo!rium 9 ! ,/onesfield slate4 ,9 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,devonian p]iod we h no l>ge ,reptiles1 )1 aga91 a m9ute am\nt ( exception4 ,9 ! l[] "p ( ! ,silurian rocks1 ,fi%es vani%1 & we h no animal =ms b ,mollusks1 ,cru/aceans & ,zoophytes4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s1 ,devonian & ,silurian =mations1 ?us conta9+ ! olde/ =ms ( life1 h be5 t]m$ palozoic4 ,! b\nd>ies ( ! life-be>+ s]ies h n yet be5 det]m9$2 b ! s]ies 9 :i* v]tebrat$ animals d n appe> has be5 #eda provisionally t]m$ protozoic1 & ! l[] ,silurian rocks may probably be look$ ^u z its upp] memb]s4 ,bel[ ?is1 geologi/s place a hypozoic or azoic s]ies ( rocks4 ,geologi/s diff] z to ! "q :e!r ^! *anges 9 ! inhabitants ( ! globe 7 made by det]m9ate /eps or by ins5sible gradations4 ,m4 ,agassiz has be5 l$ to ! conviction t ! organiz$ population ( ! globe 0 r5ew$ 9 ! int]val ( ea* pr9cipal memb] ( its =mations4#fcah ,mr4 ,lyell1 on ! o!r h&1 conceives t ! *ange 9 ! collection ( organiz$ be+s 0 gradual1 & has propos$ on ?is subject an hypo!sis :i* ,i %all h]eaft] consid]4 ,note #fcah3 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report #ahdb1 p4 #hc4 ,sect4 #b4--,transition to ,geological ,dynamics4 ,,:ile we h be5 giv+ ?is acc\nt ( ! objects ) :i* ,descriptive ,geology is occupi$1 x mu/ h be5 felt h[ difficult x is1 9 contemplat+ su* facts1 to conf9e ourselves to description & classification4 ,conjectures & reason+s respect+ ! causes ( ! ph5om5a =ce !mselves ^u u at e /ep2 & ev5 influ5ce our classification & nom5clature4 ,our ,descriptive ,geology impels u to endeavor to con/ruct a ,physical ,geology4 ,?is close connexion ( ! two bran*es ( ! subject by no means invalidates ! necessity ( di/+ui%+ !m3 z 9 ,botany1 al?\gh ! =mation ( a ,natural ,sy/em necess>ily br+s u to physiological relations1 we /ill di/+ui% ,sy/ematic f ,physiological ,botany4 ,suppos+1 h[ev]1 our ,descriptive ,geology to be complet$1 z f> z c be done )\t consid]+ closely ! causes by :i* ! /rata h be5 produc$1 we h n[ to ent] ^u ! o!r prov9ce ( ! sci5ce1 :i* treats ( ^? causes1 & ( :i* we h already spok51 z ,physical ,geology4 ,b be=e we c treat ?is dep>tm5t ( speculation 9 a mann] suitable to ! conditions ( sci5ce1 & to ! analogy ( o!r p>ts ( our k1 a c]ta9 int]m$iate & prep>atory sci5ce mu/ be =m$1 ( :i* we %all n[ consid] ! orig9 & progress4 #edb ,,geological ,,dynamics4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,inorganic ,,geological ,,dynamics4 ,sect4 #a4--,necessity & ,object ( a ,sci5ce ( ,geological ,dynamics4 ,,:5 ! /ructure & arrangem5t :i* m5 obs]v$ 9 ! mat]ials ( ! e>? in/igat$ !m to speculate conc]n+ ! pa/ *anges & revolutions by :i* su* results _h be5 produc$1 !y at fir/ suppos$ !mselves suffici5tly able to judge :at w\ld be ! effects ( any ( ! obvi\s ag5ts ( *ange1 z wat] or volcanic fire4 ,x did n at once occur to !m to suspect1 t _! common & extemporane\s judgm5t on su* po9ts 0 f> f suffici5t = s\nd k2--!y did n =esee t !y mu/ create a special sci5ce1 ^: object %\ld be to e/imate ! g5]al laws & effects ( assum$ causes1 be=e !y c\ld pron\nce :e!r su* causes _h actually produc$ ! p>ticul> facts :i* _! survey ( ! e>? _h disclos$ to !m4 ,yet ! analogy ( ! progress ( k on o!r subjects po9ts out v cle>ly ! necessity ( su* a sci5ce4 ,:5 ph5om5al a/ronomy _h arriv$ at a high po9t ( complet5ess1 by ! labors ( ages1 & especially by ! discov]y ( ,kepl]'s laws1 a/ronom]s 7 vehem5tly desir\s ( kn[+ ! causes ( ^! motions2 & sangu9e m51 su* z ,kepl]1 readily conjectur$ t ! motions 7 ! effects ( c]ta9 virtues & influ5ces1 by :i* ! heav5ly bodies act$ ^u ea* o!r4 ,b x did n at fir/ occur to him & 8 fell[-speculators1 t !y _h n asc]ta9$ :at motions ! influ5ces ( "o body ^u ano!r c\ld produce3 & t1 !re=e1 !y 7 n prep>$ to judge :e!r su* causes z !y spoke (1 did really regulate ! motions ( ! planets4 ,yet su* 0 f\nd to be ! necess>y c\rse ( s\nd inf]5ce4 ,m5 ne$$ a sci5ce ( motion1 9 ord] to arrive at a sci5ce ( ! #edc heav5ly motions3 !y c\ld n advance 9 ! /udy ( ! ,me*anics ( ! heav5s1 till !y _h le>n$ ! ,me*anics ( t]re/rial bodies4 ,& ?us !y 71 9 su* speculations1 at a /& = ne>ly a c5tury1 f ! "t ( ,kepl] to ! "t ( ,newton1 :ile ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics 0 =m$ by ,galileo & 8 successors4 ,till t task 0 execut$1 all ! attempts to assign ! causes ( cosmical ph5om5a 7 fanciful guesses & vague ass]tions2 aft] t 0 done1 !y became demon/rations4 ,! sci5ce ( ,dynamics enabl$ philosoph]s to pass securely & completely f ,ph5om5al ,a/ronomy to ,physical ,a/ronomy4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ord] t we may advance f ,ph5om5al ,geology to ,physical ,geology1 we ne$ a sci5ce ( ,geological ,dynamics2--t is1 a sci5ce :i* %all inve/igate & det]m9e ! laws & consequ5ces ( ! kn[n causes ( *anges su* z ^? :i* ,geology consid]s3--& :i* %all d ?is1 n 9 an occasional1 imp]fect1 & unconnect$ mann]1 b by sy/ematic1 complete1 & conclusive me?ods2--%all1 9 %ort1 be a ,sci5ce1 & n a promiscu\s assemblage ( desultory essays4 ,! necessity ( su* a /udy1 z a di/9ct bran* ( geology1 is p]haps h>dly yet =mally recogniz$1 al?\gh ! rese>*es :i* belong to x h1 ( late ye>s1 assum$ a mu* m me?odical & sci5tific "* ?an !y be=e possess$4 ,mr4 ,lyell's "w 7,pr9ciples ( ,geology71 9 p>ticul>1 has em95tly contribut$ to place ,geological ,dynamics 9 its prop] prom95t position4 ,( ! f\r books ( 8 ,treatise1 ! second & ?ird are ^u ?is division ( ! subject2 ! second book treat+ ( aque\s & igne\s causes ( *ange1 & ! ?ird1 ( *anges 9 ! organic _w4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 sep>at+ ?is auxili>y geological sci5ce f !oretical ,geology itself1 9 :i* we apply our pr9ciples to ! explanation ( ! actual facts ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,! =m]1 if p]fect$1 w\ld be a demon/rative sci5ce deal+ ) g5]al cases2 ! latt] is an tiological view hav+ ref]5ce to special facts2 ! "o attempts to det]m9e :at always mu/ be "u giv5 conditions2 ! o!r is satisfi$ ) kn[+ :at is & has be51 & :y x has be52 ! fir/ /udy has a /rong resemblance to ,me*anics1 ! o!r to philosophical ,ar*ology4 ,s9ce ?is portion ( sci5ce is /ill s new1 x is sc>cely possible to give any hi/orical acc\nt ( its progress1 or any complete survey ( its %ape & compon5t p>ts4 ,i c only attempt a few notices1 #edd :i* may enable u 9 "s measure to judge to :at po9t ?is division ( our subject is t5d+4 ,we may rem>k1 9 ?is z 9 =m] cases1 t s9ce we h "h to consid] ! =mation & progress ( a sci5ce1 we mu/ treat z unimportant preludes to its hi/ory1 ! deta*$ & casual obs]vations ( ! effects ( causes ( *ange :i* we f9d 9 old] writ]s4 ,x is only :5 we come to sy/ematic collections ( in=mation1 su* z may af=d ! means ( draw+ g5]al conclusions2 or to rigor\s d$uctions f kn[n laws ( nature2--t we c recognise ! sep>ate exi/5ce ( geological dynamics1 z a pa? ( sci5tific rese>*4 ,! foll[+ may p]haps suffice1 = ! pres5t1 z a sket* ( ! subjects ( :i* ?is sci5ce treats3--! aque\s causes ( *ange1 or ^? 9 :i* wat] adds to1 takes f1 or transf]s1 ! mat]ials ( ! l&3--! igne\s causes2 volcanoes1 &1 closely connect$ ) !m1 e>?quakes1 & ! =ces by :i* !y are produc$2--! calculations :i* det]m9e1 on physical pr9ciples1 ! effects ( assum$ me*anical causes act+ ^u l>ge portions ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?2--! effect ( ! =ces1 :atev] !y be1 :i* produce ! cry/all9e texture ( rocks1 _! fissile /ructure1 & ! sep>ation ( mat]ials1 ( :i* we see ! results 9 metallif]\s ve9s4 ,aga91 ! e/imation ( ! results ( *anges ( temp]ature 9 ! e>?1 :e!r op]at+ by pressure1 expansion1 or 9 any o!r way2--! effects ( assum$ *anges 9 ! sup]ficial condition1 ext5t1 & elevation1 ( t]re/rial cont95ts ^u ! climates ( ! e>?2--! effect ( assum$ cosmical *anges ^u ! temp]ature ( ?is planet2--& rese>*es ( ! same nature z ^!4 ,^! rese>*es are conc]n$ ) ! causes ( *ange 9 ! inorganic _w2 b ! subject requires no less t we %\ld inve/igate ! causes :i* may modify ! =ms & conditions ( organic ?+s2 & 9 ! l>ge s5se 9 :i* we h to use ! phrase1 we may include rese>*es on su* subjects also z p>ts ( ,geological ,dynamics2 al?\gh1 9 tru?1 ?is dep>tm5t ( physiology has be5 cultivat$1 z x well des]ves to be1 indep5d5tly ( its be>+ ^u geological !ories4 ,! great problem :i* (f]s itself "h1 9 ref]5ce to ,geology1 is1 to exam9e ! value ( any hypo!ses by :i* x may be attempt$ to expla9 ! succession ( diff]5t races ( animals & plants 9 diff]5t /rata2 & ?\gh x may be difficult1 9 ?is inquiry1 to arrive at any positive result1 we #ede may at lea/ be able to %[ ! improbability ( "s conjectures :i* h be5 prop\nd$4 ,i %all n[ give a v brief acc\nt ( "s ( ! attempts made 9 ^! v>i\s dep>tm5ts ( ?is prov9ce ( our k2 & 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 ( ,inorganic ,*anges4 ,sect4 #b4--;,aque\s ,causes ( ,*ange4 ,,! controv]sies to :i* ! v>i\s !ories ( geologi/s gave rise1 proce$+ 9 v>i\s ways ^u ! effects ( ! exi/+ causes ( *ange1 l$ m5 to obs]ve1 ) "s att5tion & p]sev]ance1 ! actual op]ation ( su* causes4 ,9 ?is way1 ! kn[n effect ( ! ,rh9e1 9 fill+ up ! ,lake ( ,g5eva at its upp] extremity1 0 ref]r$ to by ,de ,luc1 ,kirwan1 & o!rs1 9 _! dispute ) ! ,huttonians2 & attempts 7 ev5 made to calculate h[ di/ant ! p]iod 01 :5 ?is alluvial deposit fir/ began4 ,o!r mod]n obs]v]s h att5d$ to simil> facts 9 ! natural hi/ory ( riv]s & seas4 ,b ! subject may be consid]$ z hav+ fir/ assum$ its prop] =m1 :5 tak5 up by ,mr4 ,von ,h(f2 ( ^: ,hi/ory ( ! ,natural ,*anges ( ! ,e>?'s surface :i* are prov$ by ,tradition1 ! fir/ "p1 treat+ ( aque\s *anges1 appe>$ 9 #ahbb4 ,?is "w 0 occasion$ by a ,prize ,"q ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,gtt+51 promulgat$ 9 #ahah2 9 :i* ^! *anges 7 propos$ z ! subject ( inquiry1 ) a special ref]5ce to geology4 ,al?\gh ,von ,h(f does n attempt to e/abli% any g5]al inductions ^u ! facts :i* 8 book conta9s1 ! collection ( su* a body ( facts gave almo/ a new aspect to ! subject1 by %[+ t *anges 9 ! relative ext5t ( l& & wat] 7 go+ on at e "t1 & almo/ at e place2 & t mutability & fluctuation 9 ! =m ( ! solid p>ts ( ! e>?1 :i* _h be5 suppos$ by mo/ p]sons to be a r>e exception to ! common c\rse ( ev5ts1 01 9 fact1 ! univ]sal rule4 ,b x 0 ,mr4 ,lyell's ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 be+ an attempt to expla9 ! =m] ,*anges ( ! ,e>?'s ,surface by ! ,causes n[ 9 action 7( :i* ! fir/ volume 0 publi%$ 9 #ahcj71 :i* disclos$ ! full effect ( su* rese>*es on geology2 & :i* attempt$ to pres5t su* assemblages ( special facts1 z examples ( g5]al laws4 ,?us ?is "w may1 z we h said1 be look$ ^u z ! beg9n+ ( ,geological ,dynamics1 at lea/ among u4 ,su* g5]alizations & applications z x conta9s give ! mo/ lively #edf int]e/ to a ?\s& obs]vations respect+ riv]s & floods1 m\nta9s & morasses1 :i* o!rwise appe> )\t aim or mean+2 & ?us ?is dep>tm5t ( sci5ce _c fail to be con/antly augm5t$ by contributions f e side4 ,at ! same "t x is cle>1 t ^! contributions1 volum9\s z !y mu/ become1 mu/1 f "t to "t1 be resolv$ into laws ( great] & great] g5]ality2 & t ?us alone ! progress ( ?is1 z ( all o!r sci5ces1 c be fur!r$4 ,i ne$ n attempt any detail$ enum]ation ( ! modes ( aque\s action :i* are "h to be consid]$4 ,"s are de/ructive1 z :5 ! riv]s erode ! *annels 9 :i* !y fl[2 or :5 ! waves1 by _! p]petual assault1 %att] ! %ores1 & c>ry ! ru9s ( !m into ! abyss ( ! ocean4 ,"s op]ations ( ! wat]1 on ! o!r h&1 add to ! l&2 z :5 deltas are =m$ at ! m\?s ( riv]s or :5 calc>e\s spr+s =m deposits ( trav]t94 ,ev5 :5 b\nd 9 icy fett]s1 wat] is by no mean depriv$ ( its active p[]2 ! glaci] c>ries into ! valley masses ( its native m\nta91 & (t51 becom+ ice-b]gs1 float ) a lad+ ( su* mat]ials f> into ! seas ( ! temp]ate zone4 ,x is indisputable t va/ b$s ( worn d[n fragm5ts ( ! exi/+ l& are n[ =m+ into /rata at ! bottom ( ! ocean2 & t _m o!r effects are con/antly produc$ by exi/+ aque\s causes1 :i* resemble "s1 at lea/1 ( ! facts :i* geology has to expla94 #bnd ,ed4 ,! effects ( glaci]s above m5tion$ are obvi\s2 b ! me*anism ( ^! bodies1--! me*anical cause ( _! motions1--0 an unsolv$ problem till )9 a v few ye>s4 ,t !y slide z rigid masses2--t !y advance by ! expansion ( _! mass2--t !y advance z a collection ( rigid fragm5ts2 7 doctr9es :i* 7 held by em95t physici/s2 ?\gh a v slight att5tion to ! subject %[s ^! op9ions to be unt5able4 ,9 ,pr(essor ,james ,=bes's !ory on ! subject 7publi%$ 9 8 ,travels ?r\gh ! ,alps1 #ahdc17 we f9d a solution ( ! problem1 s simple1 & yet s exact1 z to produce ! mo/ entire conviction4 ,9 ?is !ory1 ! ice ( a glaci] is1 on a great scale1 suppos$ to be a pla/ic or visc\s mass1 ?\gh small portions ( x are s5sibly rigid4 ,x advances d[n ! slope ( ! valley 9 :i* x lies z a pla/ic mass w\ld d1 accommodat+ itself to ! v>y+ %ape & size ( its b$1 & %[+ by its crevasses its mix$ "* betwe5 fluid & rigid4 ,x %[s ?is "* /ill m curi\sly by a ribbon$ #edg /ructure on a small scale1 :i* is common 9 ! solid ice ( ! glaci]4 ,! planes ( ^! ribbons are1 = ! mo/ "p1 at "r angles to ! crevasses1 ne> ! sides ( ! glaci]1 :ile1 ne> its c5tral l9e1 !y dip t[>ds ! upp] "p ( ! glaci]4 ,?is /ructure appe>s to arise f ! diff]5ce ( velocities ( contigu\s mov+ filam5ts ( ! icy mass1 z ! crevasses !mselves arise f ! t5sion ( l>g] portions4 ,mr4 ,=bes has1 9 successive publications1 remov$ ! objections :i* h be5 urg$ aga9/ ?is !ory4 ,9 ! la/ ( !m1 a ,memoir 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahdf1 7,illu/rations ( ! ,visc\s ,!ory ( ,glaci] ,motion17 he v naturally expresses a/oni%m5t at ! opposition :i* has be5 made to ! !ory on ! gr\nd ( ! rigidity ( small pieces ( ice4 ,he has himself %[n t ! ice ( glaci]s has a pla/ic flexibility1 by m>k+ =ty-five po9ts 9 a transv]se /raight l9e ^u ! ,m] de ,glace1 & obs]v+ !m = sev]al days4 ,! /raight l9e 9 t "t n only became oblique to ! side1 b also became visibly curv$4 ,bo? ,mr4 ,=bes & o!r philosoph]s h made x 9 ! highe/ degree probable t glaci]s h exi/$ 9 _m places 9 :i* !y n[ exi/ no long]1 & h ex]cis$ great p[]s 9 transport+ l>ge blocks ( rock1 furr[+ & poli%+ ! rocks along :i* !y slide1 & leav+ l9es & masses ( detritus or mora9e :i* !y _h c>ri$ along ) !m or pu%$ be=e !m4 ,x _c be d\bt$ t ext9ct glaci]s h produc$ "s ( ! effects :i* ! geologi/ has to endeavor to expla94 ,b ?is "p ( ! ma*9]y ( nature has be5 work$ by "s !ori/s into an exagg]at$ =m1 9 :i* x _c1 z ,i conceive1 h any place 9 an acc\nt ( ,geological ,dynamics :i* aims at be+ p]man5t4 ,! great problem ( ! diffusion ( drift & erratic blocks f _! p>5t rocks to great di/ances1 has driv5 geologi/s to ! consid]ation ( o!r hypo!tical ma*9]y by :i* ! effects may be acc\nt$ =3 especially ! great nor!rn drift & b\ld]s1--! rocks f ! ,sc&9avian *a9 :i* cov] ! nor? ( ,europe on a va/ area1 hav+ a l5g? ( #bjjj & bread? ( f #djj to #hjj miles4 ,! diffusion ( ^! blocks has be5 acc\nt$ = by suppos+ !m to be imb$d$ 9 iceb]gs1 deta*$ f ! %ore1 & float$ into oceanic spaces1 :]e !y h gr\nd$ & be5 deposit$ by ! melt+ ( ! ice4 ,& ?is mode ( action may to "s ext5t be safely admitt$ into geological speculation4 ,= x is a matt] ( fact1 t our navigators 9 arctic & ant>ctic regions h #edh repeat$ly se5 iceb]gs & icefloes sail+ along lad5 ) su* mat]ials4 ,! above explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( drift supposes ! l& on :i* ! travell$ mat]ials are f\nd to h be5 ! bottom ( a sea :]e !y 7 deposit$4 ,b x does n1 ev5 grant+ ! conditions1 acc\nt = "s ( ! facts obs]v$2--t ! drift & ! b\ld]s are deposit$ 9 tra9es or /reaks1 :i*1 9 direction1 div]ge f ! p>5t rock2--& t ! b\ld]s are ( small] & small] size1 z !y are f\nd m remote f t c5tre4 ,^! ph5om5a r sugge/ ! notion ( curr5ts ( wat] z ! cause ( ! di/ribution ( ! mat]ials into _! pres5t situations4 ,& ?\gh ! supposition t ! :ole area occupi$ by drift & b\ld]s 0 a sea-bottom :5 !y 7 scatt]$ ov] x mu* r$uces ! am\nt ( viol5ce :i* x is necess>y to assume 9 ord] to di/ribute ! loose masses1 yet /ill ! "w appe>s to be beyond ! possible effect ( ord9>y m>9e curr5ts1 or any movem5ts :i* w\ld be occasion$ by a sl[ & gradual ris+ ( ! c5tre ( di/ribution4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t a sudd5 rise ( ! c5tre ( di/ribution w\ld cause a motion 9 ! surr\nd+ ocean suffici5t to produce su* an effect3 & 9 confirmation ( ?is ref]5ce has be5 made to ,mr4 ,scott ,russell's inve/igations ) respect to waves1 already ref]r$ to4 7,book ,,viii47 ,! wave 9 ?is case w\ld be ! wave ( translation1 9 :i* ! motion ( ! wat] is z great at ! bottom z at ! top2 & x has h5ce be5 ass]t$ t by p>oxysmal elevations ( #ajj or #bjj feet1 a curr5t ( #be or #cj miles an h\r might be acc\nt$ =4 ,b ,i ?9k x has n be5 suffici5tly not$ t at ea* po9t ?is curr5t is transi5t3 x la/s only :ile ! wave is pass+ ov] ! po9t1 & !re=e x w\ld only ei!r c>ry a s+le mass ! :ole way ) its own velocity1 or move ?r\gh a %ort di/ance a s]ies ( masses ov] :i* x successively pass$4 ,x does n appe>1 !re=e1 t we h "h a complete acc\nt ( ! transport ( a collection ( mat]ials1 9 :i* ea* "p is transf]r$ ?r\gh great di/ances3--except1 inde$1 we 7 to suppose a num]\s succession ( p>oxysmal elevations4 ,su* a batt]y might1 by successive %ocks1 transmitt+ _! =ce ?r\gh ! wat]1 diffuse ! fragm5ts ( ! c5tral mass ov] any area1 h[ev] wide4 ,! fact t ! erratic blocks are f\nd to re/ on ! l[] drift1 is well expla9$ by suppos+ ! latt] to h be5 spread on ! #edi sea bottom :ile rock-be>+ ice-masses float$ on ! surface till !y deposit$ _! lad+4 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison has po9t$ out ano!r op]ation ( ice 9 produc+ m\nds ( rocky masses2 namely1 ! effects ( riv]s & lakes1 9 climates :]e1 z 9 ,russia1 ! wat]s c>ry rocky fragm5ts entangl$ 9 ! w9t] ice1 & leave !m 9 heaps at ! highe/ level :i* ! wat]s atta94 ,! ext5t to :i* ! effects ( glaci]s1 n[ vani%$1 are app>5t 9 _m places1 especially 9 ,switz]l& & 9 ,engl&1 & o!r ph5om5a ( ! l t5d5cy1 h l$ "s ( ! mo/ em95t geologi/s to ! conviction t1 int]ior to ! p]iod ( our pres5t temp]ature1 !re 0 a ,glacial ,p]iod1 at :i* ! temp]ature ( ,europe 0 l[] ?an x n[ is4 ,al?\gh ! /udy ( ! common op]ations ( wat] may give ! geologi/ su* an acqua9tance ) ! laws ( 8 subject z may mu* aid 8 judgm5t respect+ ! ext5t to :i* su* effects may proce$1 a long c\rse ( obs]vation & ?\ght mu/ be requisite be=e su* op]ations c be analys$ into _! fundam5tal pr9ciples1 & become ! subjects ( calculation1 or ( rigor\s reason+ 9 any mann] :i* is z precise & c]ta9 z calculation4 ,v>i\s portions ( ,hydraulics h an important be>+ ^u ^! subjects1 includ+ "s rese>*es :i* h be5 pursu$ ) no small labor by eng9e]s & ma!maticians2 z ! effects ( curr5ts & waves1 ! laws ( tides & ( riv]s1 & _m simil> problems4 ,9 tru?1 h[ev]1 su* subjects h n hi!rto be5 treat$ by ma!maticians ) mu* success2 & probably sev]al g5]ations mu/ elapse be=e ?is portion ( geological dynamics c become an exact sci5ce4 ,sect4 #c4--;,igne\s ,causes ( ,*ange4--,motions ( ! ,e>?'s ,surface4 ,,! effects ( volcanoes h long be5 not$ z important & /rik+ features 9 ! physical hi/ory ( our globe2 & ! probability ( _! connexion ) _m geological ph5om5a1 _h n escap$ notice at an e>ly p]iod4 ,b x 0 n till m rec5t times1 t ! full import ( ^! ph5om5a 0 appreh5d$4 ,! p]son :o fir/ look$ at su* op]ations ) t comm&+ g5]al view :i* %[$ _! ext5sive connexion ) physical geology1 0 ,alex&] von ,humboldt1 :o explor$ ! volcanic ph5om5a #eej ( ! ,new ,_w1 f #agii to #ahjd4 ,he rem>k$#fdah ! l9e> di/ribution ( volcanic domes1 consid]+ !m z v5ts plac$ along ! edge ( va/ fissures communicat+ ) res]voirs ( igne\s matt]1 & ext5d+ across :ole cont95ts4 ,he obs]v$1 also1 ! frequ5t sympa?y ( volcanic & t]remotive action 9 remote di/ricts ( ! e>?'s surface1 ?us %[+ h[ deeply seat$ mu/ be ! cause ( ^! convulsions4 ,^! views /rongly excit$ & influ5c$ ! speculations ( geologi/s2 & s9ce !n1 ph5om5a ( ?is k9d h be5 collect$ into a g5]al view z p>ts ( a natural-hi/orical sci5ce4 ,von ,h(f1 9 ! second volume ( ! "w already m5tion$1 0 "o ( ! fir/ :o did ?is2 ,at lea/1 he himself says1#feah 7#ahbd17 x 0 n kn[n to him t any "o be=e him _h endeavor$ to comb9e s l>ge a mass ( facts ) ! g5]al ideas ( ! natural philosoph]1 s z to =m a :ole4 ,o!r attempts 71 h[ev]1 soon made4 ,9 #ahbe1 ,m4 von ,ung]n-,/]nb]g publi%$ 8 book ,on ! ,nature & ,orig9 ( ,volcanoes1#ffah 9 :i*1 he says1 8 object is1 to give an empirical repres5tation ( ^! ph5om5a4 ,9 ! same ye>1 ,mr4 ,p\lett ,scrope publi%$ a "w 9 :i* he describ$ ! kn[n facts ( volcanic action2 n1 h[ev]1 conf9+ himself to description2 8 purpose be+1 z 8 title /ates1 to consid] ! probable causes ( _! ph5om5a1 ! laws :i* det]m9e _! m>*1 ! disposition ( _! products1 & _! connexion ) ! pres5t /ate & pa/ hi/ory ( ! globe2 lead+ to ! e/abli%m5t ( a new !ory ( ! e>?4 ,& 9 #ahbf1 ,dr4 ,daub5y1 ( ,ox=d1 produc$ ,a ,description ( ,active & ,ext9ct ,volcanoes1 includ+ 9 ! latt] phrase ! volcanic rocks ( c5tral ,france1 ( ! ,rh9e1 ( nor!rn & c5tral ,italy1 & _m o!r c\ntries4 ,inde$1 ! ne> connexion betwe5 ! volcanic effects n[ go+ on1 & ^? by :i* ! basaltic rocks ( ,auv]gne & _m o!r places _h be5 produc$1 01 by ?is "t1 no long] d\bt$ by any2 & !re=e ! l9e :i* "h sep>ates ! /udy ( exi/+ causes f t ( pa/ effects may seem to melt away4 ,b yet x is manife/ t ! assumption ( an id5tity ( scale & me*anism betwe5 volcanoes n[ active1 & ! igne\s cata/rophes ( :i* ! products h #eea surviv$ great revolutions on ! e>?'s surface1 is hypo!tical2 & all :i* dep5ds on ?is assumption belongs to !oretical geology4 ,note #fdah3 ,humboldt1 ,relation ,hi/orique2 & 8 o!r works4 ,note #feah3 ,vol4 ii4 ,prop4 #e4 ,note #ffah3 ,w]d5 und ,seyn des ,vulkanis*5 ,gebirges4 ,c>lsruhe1 #ahbe4 ,conf9+ ourselves1 !n1 to volcanic effects1 :i* h be5 produc$1 c]ta9ly or probably1 s9ce ! e>?'s surface assum$ its pres5t =m1 we h /ill an ample exhibition ( p[]ful causes ( *ange1 9 ! /reams ( lava & o!r mat]ials emitt$ 9 eruptions2 & /ill m 9 ! e>?quakes :i*1 z m5 easily satisfi$ !mselves1 are produc$ by ! same causes z ! eruptions ( volcanic fire4 ,mr4 ,lyell's "w 0 important 9 ?is z 9 o!r portions ( ?is subject4 ,he ext5d$ ! conceptions previ\sly ent]ta9$ ( ! effects :i* su* causes may produce1 n only by %[+ h[ great ^! op]ations are hi/orically kn[n to h be51 & h[ con/antly !y are go+ on1 if we take into our survey ! :ole surface ( ! e>?2 b /ill m1 by urg+ ! consequ5ces :i* w\ld foll[ 9 a long c\rse ( "t f ! con/ant repetition ( op]ations 9 !mselves ( no extraord9>y am\nt4 ,a lava-/ream _m miles long & wide1 & sev]al y>ds deep1 a subsid5ce or elevation ( a portion ( ! e>?'s surface ( a few feet1 are by no means extraord9>y facts4 ,let ^! op]ations1 said ,mr4 ,lyell1 be repeat$ ?\s&s ( times2 & we h results ( ! same ord] ) ! *anges :i* geology discloses4 ,! mo/ mitigat$ e>?quakes h1 h[ev]1 a "* ( viol5ce4 ,b x has be5 ?\ght by _m philosoph]s t !re is evid5ce ( a *ange ( level ( ! l& 9 cases :]e none ( ^! viol5t op]ations are go+ on4 ,! mo/ celebrat$ ( ^! cases is ,sw$52 ! :ole ( ! l& f ,gott5burg to ! nor? ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia has be5 suppos$ 9 ! act ( ris+1 sl[ly & ins5sibly1 f ! surr\nd+ wat]s4 ,! op9ion ( su* a *ange ( level has long be5 ! belief ( ! inhabitants2 & 0 ma9ta9$ by ,celsius 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,x has s9ce be5 conceiv$ to be confirm$ by v>i\s obs]vations ( m>ks cut on ! face ( ! rock2 b$s ( %ells1 su* z n[ live 9 ! neighbor+ seas1 rais$ to a consid]able height2 & o!r indications4 ,"s ( ^! pro(s appe> d\btful2 b ,mr4 ,lyell1 aft] exam9+ ! facts ^u ! spot 9 #ahcd1 says1 ,9 reg>d to ! proposition t ! l&1 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ,sw$51 is gradually ris+1 ,i h no hesitation 9 ass5t+ to x1 aft] my visit to ! di/ricts above allud$ to4#fgah ,if ?is conclusion be g5]ally accept$ by #eeb geologi/s1 we h "h a daily example ( ! op]ation ( "s p[]ful ag5t :i* belongs to geological dynamics2 & :i*1 = ! purposes ( ! geological !ori/1 does ! "w ( ! e>?quake ^u a v l>ge scale1 )\t assum+ its t]rors4 ,note #fgah3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 p4 #cb4 #bnd ,ed4 ,examples ( *anges ( level ( l>ge di/ricts occurr+ at p]iods :5 ! c\ntry has be5 agitat$ by e>?quakes are well asc]ta9$1 z ! ris+ ( ! coa/ ( ,*ili 9 #ahbb1 & ! subsid5ce ( ! di/rict ( ,cut*1 9 ! delta ( ! ,indus1 9 #ahai4 7,lyell1 ,b4 ,,ii4 c4 xv47 ,b ! cases ( m sl[ & tranquil movem5t seem also to be e/abli%$4 ,! gradual secul> rise ( ! %ore ( ! ,baltic1 m5tion$ 9 ! text1 has be5 confirm$ by subsequ5t inve/igation4 ,x appe>s t ! rate ( elevation increases f ,/ockholm1 :]e x is only a few in*es 9 a c5tury1 to ! ,nor? ,cape1 :]e x is sev]al feet4 ,x appe>s also t sev]al o!r regions are 9 a l /ate ( secul> *ange4 ,! coa/ ( ,gre5l& is s9k+4 7,lyell1 ,b4 ,,ii4 c4 xviii47 ,& ! exi/5ce ( rais$ bea*es along v>i\s coa/s is n[ g5]ally accept$ among geologi/s4 ,su* bea*es1 anci5tly =m+ ! m>g9 ( ! sea1 b n[ f> above x1 exi/ 9 _m places2 = in/ance1 along a great "p ( ! ,scot* coa/2 & among ! rais$ bea*es ( t c\ntry we ought probably1 ) ,mr4 ,d>w91 to include ! p>allel roads ( ,gl5roy1 ! subject1 9 =m] days1 ( s mu* controv]sy among geologi/s & antiqu>ies4 ,connect$ ) ! secul> rise & fall ( l>ge portions ( ! e>?'s surface1 ano!r ag5cy :i* plays an important "p 9 ,geological dynamics has be5 ! subject ( "s bold yet s+ul>ly p]suasive speculations by ,mr4 ,d>w94 ,i speak ( ! =mation ( ,coral1 & ,coral ,reefs4 ,he says t ! coral-build+ animal works only at small & def9ite di/ances bel[ ! surface4 ,h[ !n are we to acc\nt = ! va/ numb] ( coral isl&s1 r+s1 & reefs1 :i* are scatt]$ ov] ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans6 ,c we suppose t !re are s _m m\nta9s1 crat]s1 & ridges1 all exactly )9 a few feet ( ! same height ?r\gh ?is va/ portion ( ! globe's surface8 ,?is is incr$ible4 ,h[ !n are we to expla9 ! facts8 ,mr4 ,d>w9 replies1 t if we suppose ! l& to subside sl[ly b5ea? ! sea1 & at ! same "t suppose ! corall9e zoophytes to g on build+1 s t _! /ructure con/antly rises ne>ly to ! surface ( ! wat]1 we %all h ! facts expla9$4 ,a subm]g$ isl& w produce a r+2 a long coa/1 a b>ri] reef2 & s on4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 also notes o!r ph5om5a1 z #eec elevat$ b$s ( coral1 :i*1 occurr+ 9 o!r places1 indicate a rec5t ris+ ( ! l&2 & on su* gr\nds z ^! he divides ! surface ( ^? p>ts ( ! ocean into regions ( elevation & ( depression4 ,! labors ( corall9e zoophytes1 z ?us obs]v$1 =m masses ( coral1 su* z are f\nd fossiliz$ 9 ! /rata ( ! e>?4 ,b our k ( ! laws ( life :i* h probably affect$ ! di/ribution ( m>9e rema9s 9 /rata1 has receiv$ o!r v /rik+ accessions by ! labors ( ,pr(4 ,edw>d ,=bes 9 obs]v+ ! m>9e animals ( ! gean ,sea4 ,he f\nd t1 ev5 9 _! liv+ /ate1 ! mollusks & zoophytes are already di/ribut$ into /rata4 ,divid+ ! dep? into eight regions1 f #b to #bcj fa?oms1 he f\nd t ea* region _h its peculi> inhabitants1 :i* disappe>$ spe$ily ei!r 9 asc5d+ or 9 desc5d+4 ,! z]o ( animal life appe>$ to occur at ab\t #cjj fa?oms4 ,?is curi\s result be>s 9 v>i\s ways ^u geology4 ,mr4 ,=bes himself has giv5 an example ( ! mode 9 :i* x may be appli$1 by det]m9+ ! dep? at :i* ! subm>9e eruption took place :i* produc$ ! volcanic isle ( ,neokaim5i 9 #agjg4 ,by an exam9ation ( ! fossils emb$d$ 9 ! pumice1 he %[$ t x came f ! f\r? region4#fhah ,note #fhah3 ,briti% ,assoc4 ,reports1 #ahdc1 p4 #agg4 ,to ! modes 9 :i* organiz$ be+s op]ate 9 produc+ ! mat]ials ( ! e>?1 we mu/ add ^? po9t$ out by ! extraord9>y microscopic discov]ies ( ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g4 ,x appe>s t :ole b$s ( e>?y matt] consi/ ( ! cases ( c]ta9 infusoria1 ! rema9s ( ^! creatures be+ accumulat$ 9 numb]s :i* x conf\nds our ?\ghts to contemplate4 ,speculations conc]n+ ! causes ( volcanoes & e>?quakes1 & ( ! ris+ & s9k+ ( l&1 are a highly important portion ( ?is sci5ce1 at lea/ z f> z ! calculation ( ! possible results ( def9ite causes is conc]n$4 ,b ! v>i\s hypo!ses :i* h be5 prop\nd$ on ?is subject c h>dly be consid]$ z suffici5tly matur$ = su* calculation4 ,a mass ( matt] 9 a /ate ( igne\s fusion1 ext5d+ to ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 ev5 if we make su* an hypo!sis1 requires "s additional cause to produce eruption4 ,! supposition t ?is fire may be produc$ by int5se *emical action betwe5 comb9+ elem5ts1 requires fur!r1 n only "s ag5cy to br+ toge!r su* elem5ts1 b "s reason :y #eed !y %\ld be orig9ally sep>ate4 ,& if any o!r causes h be5 sugge/$1 z electricity or magnetism1 ?is has be5 done s vaguely z to elude all possibility ( rigor\s d$uction f ! hypo!sis4 ,! doctr9e ( a ,c5tral ,heat1 h[ev]1 has occupi$ s consid]able a place 9 !oretical geology1 t x ought und\bt$ly to =m an article 9 geological dynamics4 ,sect4 #d4--,! ,doctr9e ( ,c5tral ,heat4 ,,! e>ly geological !ori/s :o1 l ,leibnitz & ,buffon1 assum$ t ! e>? 0 orig9ally a mass 9 a /ate ( igne\s fusion1 naturally w5t on to d$uce f ?is hypo!sis1 t ! cru/ consolidat$ & cool$ be=e ! int]ior1 & t !re might /ill rema9 a c5tral heat1 capable ( produc+ _m important effects4 ,b x is 9 m rec5t times t we h measures ( su* effects1 & calculations :i* we c comp>e ) measures4 ,x 0 f\nd1 z we h said1 t 9 desc5d+ bel[ ! surface ( ! e>?1 ! temp]ature ( its mat]ials increas$4 ,n[ x foll[$ f ,f\ri]'s ma!matical inve/igations ( ! di/ribution ( heat 9 ! e>?1 t if !re be no primitive heat 7*aleur d'orig9e71 ! temp]ature1 :5 we desc5d bel[ ! cru/1 w be con/ant 9 ea* v]tical l9e4 ,h5ce an obs]v$ increase ( temp]ature 9 desc5d+1 appe>$ to po9t out a c5tral heat result+ f "s cause n[ no long] 9 action4 ,! doctr9e ( a c5tral heat has usually be5 comb9$ ) ! supposition ( a c5tral igne\s fluidity2 = ! heat 9 ! neighborhood ( ! c5tre mu/ be v int5se1 accord+ to any law ( its increase 9 desc5d+ :i* is consi/5t ) kn[n pr9ciples4 ,b to ?is c5tral fluidity x has be5 object$ t su* a fluid mu/ be 9 con/ant circulation by ! cool+ ( its ext]ior4 ,mr4 ,daniell f\nd ?is to be ! case 9 all fus$ metals4 ,x has also be5 object$ t !re mu/ be1 9 su* a c5tral fluid1 tides produc$ by ! moon & sun2 b ?is inf]5ce w\ld require sev]al additional suppositions & calculations to give x a precise =m4 ,aga91 ! supposition ( a c5tral heat ( ! e>?1 consid]$ z ! effect ( a m anci5t /ate ( its mass1 appe>$ to indicate t its cool+ mu/ /ill be go+ on4 ,b if ?is 7 s1 ! e>? might contract1 z mo/ bodies d :5 !y cool2 & ?is contraction might lead to me*anical results1 z ! %ort5+ ( ! day4 ,laplace satisfi$ himself1 by ref]5ce to anci5t a/ronomical records1 t no su* #eee alt]ation 9 ! l5g? ( ! day _h tak5 place1 ev5 to ! am\nt ( "o two-hundr$? ( a second2 & ?us1 !re 0 "h no confirmation ( ! hypo!sis ( a primitive heat ( ! e>?4 ,?\gh we f9d no evid5ce ( ! secul> contraction ( ! e>? 9 ! obs]vations ) :i* a/ronomy deals1 !re are "s geological facts :i* at fir/ appe> to po9t to ! reality ( a refrig]ation )9 geological p]iods2 z ! exi/5ce ( ! rema9s ( plants & %ells ( tropical climates1 9 ! /rata ( c\ntries :i* are n[ ne> to or )9 ! frigid zones4 ,^! facts1 h[ev]1 h giv5 rise to !ories ( ! *anges ( climate1 :i* we mu/ consid] sep>ately4 ,b we may notice1 z connect$ ) ! doctr9e ( c5tral heat1 ! mann] 9 :i* ?is hypo!sis has be5 appli$ to expla9 volcanic & geological ph5om5a4 ,x does n ent] into my plan1 to consid] explanations 9 :i* ?is c5tral heat is suppos$ to give rise to an expansive =ce1#fiah )\t any di/9ct ref]5ce to kn[n physical laws4 ,b we may notice2 z m likely to become useful mat]ials ( ! sci5ce n[ be=e u1 su* speculations z ^? ( ,mr4 ,babbage2 9 :i* he comb9es ! doctr9e ( c5tral heat ) o!r physical laws2#gjah z1 t solid rocks exp& by be+ heat$1 b t clay contracts2 t diff]5t rocks & /rata conduct heat diff]5tly2 t ! e>? radiates heat diff]5tly1 or at diff]5t p>ts ( its surface1 accord+ z x is cov]$ ) =e/s1 ) m\nta9s1 ) des]ts1 or ) wat]4 ,^! pr9ciples1 appli$ to l>ge masses1 su* z ^? :i* con/itute ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 might give rise to *anges z great z any :i* geology discloses4 ,= example3 :5 ! b$ ( a sea is cov]$ by a ?ick deposit ( new matt] worn f ! %ores1 ! /rata bel[ ! b$1 be+ protect$ by a bad conductor ( heat1 w be heat$1 &1 be+ heat$1 maybe exp&$2 or1 z ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el has obs]v$1 may produce explosion by ! conv]sion ( _! moi/ure into /eam4 ,su* speculations1 :5 f\nd$ on real data & s\nd calculations1 may h]eaft] be ( mat]ial use 9 geology4 ,note #fiah3 ,scrope ,on ,volcanoes1 p4 #aib4 ,note #gjah3 ,on ! ,temple ( ,s]apis1 #ahcd4 ,see also ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,in/4 vol4 ii41 quot$ 9 ,conyb4 & ,ph4 p4 xv4 ,lyell1 ,b4 ii4 c4 xix4 p4 #chc1 7#d? ed47 on ,expansion ( ,/one4 ,! doctr9e ( c5tral heat & fluidity has be5 reject$ by "s em95t philosoph]s4 ,mr4 ,lyell's reasons = ?is rejection belong #eef r to ,!oretical ,geology2 b ,i may "h notice ,m4 9999,poisson's op9ion4 ,he does n ass5t to ! conclusion ( ,f\ri]1 t once ! temp]ature increases 9 desc5d+1 !re mu/ be "s primitive c5tral heat4 ,on ! contr>y1 he consid]s t su* an increase may arise f ?is2--t ! e>?1 at "s =m] p]iod1 pass$ 7by ! motion ( ! sol> sy/em 9 ! univ]se17 9999?r\gh a portion ( space :i* 0 w>m] ?an ! space 9 :i* x n[ revolves 7by reason1 x may be1 ( ! heat ( o!r />s to :i* x 0 !n ne>]74 ,he supposes t1 s9ce su* a p]iod1 ! surface has cool$ d[n by ! influ5ce ( ! surr\nd+ circum/ances2 :ile ! int]ior1 = a c]ta9 unkn[n dep?1 reta9s ! trace ( ! =m] elevation ( temp]ature4 ,b ?is assumption is n likely to expel ! belief is ! t]re/rial orig9 ( ! subt]rane\s heat4 ,= ! supposition ( su* an inequality 9 ! temp]ature ( ! diff]5t regions 9 :i* ! sol> sy/em is plac$ at diff]5t times1 is altoge!r arbitr>y2 &1 if pu%$ to ! am\nt to :i* x mu/ be c>ri$1 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! ph5om5on1 is highly improbable4#gaah ,! doctr9e ( c5tral heat1 on ! o!r h&1 7:i* ne$ n be conceiv$ z imply+ ! univ]sal fluidity ( ! mass17 is n only naturally sugge/$ by ! subt]rane\s increase ( temp]atures1 b expla9s ! sph]oidal figure ( ! e>?2 & falls 9 ) almo/ any !ory :i* c be devis$1 ( volcanoes1 e>?quakes1 & great geological *anges4 ,note #gaah3 ,= ?is hypo!sis w\ld make x necess>y to suppose t ! e>? has1 at "s =m] p]iod1 d]iv$ f "s o!r /> or />s m heat ?an %e n[ d]ives f ! sun4 ,b ?is w\ld imply1 z highly probable1 t at "s p]iod "s o!r /> or />s mu/ h produc$ also a me*anical effect ^u ! sol> sy/em1 great] ?an ! effect ( ! sun4 ,n[ su* a pa/ op]ation ( =ces1 fitt$ to oblit]ate all ord] & symmetry1 is q inconsi/5t ) ! simple1 regul>1 & symmetrical relation :i* ! :ole sol> sy/em1 z f> z ,uranus1 be>s to ! pres5t c5tral body4 ,sect4 #e4--,problems respect+ ,elevations & ,cry/all9e ,=ces4 ,,o!r problems respect+ ! =ces by :i* great masses ( ! e>?'s cru/ h be5 displac$1 h also be5 solv$ by v>i\s ma!maticians4 ,x has be5 ma9ta9$ by ,von ,bu* t !re occur1 9 v>i\s places1 crat]s ( elevation2 t is1 m\nta9-masses resembl+ ! crat]s ( volcanoes1 b really produc$ by an expansive =ce f bel[1 bur/+ an ap]ture ?r\gh horizontal /rata1 #eeg & elevat+ !m 9 a conical =m4 ,aga9/ ?is doctr9e1 z exemplifi$ 9 ! mo/ not$ in/ances1 /rong argum5ts h be5 adduc$ by o!r geologi/s4 ,yet ! protrusion ( fus$ rock by subt]rane\s =ces ^u a l>ge scale is n d5i$3 & h[ f> ! examples ( su* op]ations may1 9 any cases1 be t]m$ crat]s ( elevation1 mu/ be consid]$ z a "q n yet decid$4 ,on ! supposition ( ! tru? ( ,von ,bu*'s doctr9e1 ,m4 de ,beaumont has calculat$ ! relations ( position1 ! fissures1 c41 :i* w\ld arise4 ,& ,mr4 ,hopk9s1#gbah ( ,cambridge1 has inve/igat$ 9 a mu* m g5]al mann]1 ^u me*anical pr9ciples1 ! laws ( ! elevations1 fissures1 faults1 ve9s1 & o!r ph5om5a :i* w\ld result f an elevatory =ce1 act+ simultane\sly at e po9t b5ea? ext5sive portions ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,an application ( ma!matical reason+ to ! illu/ration ( ! ph5om5a ( ve9s _h be=e be5 made 9 ,g]many by ,s*midt & ,zimm]man4#gcah ,! conclusion :i* ,mr4 ,hopk9s has obta9$1 respect+ ! two sets ( fissures1 at "r angles to ea* o!r1 :i* w\ld 9 g5]al be produc$ by su* =ces z he supposes1 may sugge/ int]e/+ po9ts ( exam9ation respect+ ! geological ph5om5a ( fissur$ di/ricts4 ,note #gbah3 ,trans4 ,camb4 ,phil4 ,soc4 vol4 vi4 #ahcf4 ,note #gcah3 ,phil4 ,mag4 ,july1 #ahcf1 p4 #b4 #bnd ,ed4 ,! !ory ( crat]s ( elevation probably errs r by mak+ ! elevation ( a po9t into a p>ticul> class ( volcanic ag5cy1 ?an by giv+ volcanic ag5cy too great a p[] ( elevation4 ,a mature consid]ation ( ! subject w make u hesitate to ascribe mu* value to ! labors ( ^? writ]s :o h appli$ ma!matical reason+ to geological que/ions4 ,su* reason+1 :5 x is c>ri$ to ! ext5t :i* requires symbolical processes1 has always be51 ,i conceive1 a s\rce1 n ( k1 b ( error1 & confusion2 = 9 su* applications ! real que/ions are slurr$ ov] 9 ! hypo!tical assumptions ( ! ma!matician1 :ile ! calculation misleads its foll[]s by a false aspect ( demon/ration4 ,all symbolical reason+s conc]n+ ! fissures ( a semi-rigid mass produc$ by elevatory or o!r =ces1 appe> to me to h turn$ out valueless4 ,at ! same "t x _c be too /rongly borne 9 m9d1 t ma!matical & me*anical habits ( ?\ght are requisite to all cle> ?9k+ on su* subjects4 ,o!r =ces1 /ill m secure 9 _! nature & laws1 h play$ a v important "p 9 ! =mation ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,i speak ( ! =ces by :i* ! cry/all9e1 slaty1 & jo9t$ /ructure ( #eeh m9]al masses has be5 produc$4 ,^! =ces are probably id5tical1 on ! "o h&1 ) ! cohesive =ces f :i* rocks d]ive _! solidity & _! physical prop]ties2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 !y are closely connect$ ) ! =ces ( *emical attraction4 ,no attempts1 ( any lucid & hopeful k9d1 h yet be5 made to br+ su* =ces "u def9ite me*anical conceptions3 & p]haps m9]alogy1 to :i* sci5ce1 z ! po9t ( junction ( *emi/ry & cry/allography1 su* attempts w\ld belong1 is h>dly yet ripe = su* speculations4 ,b :5 we look at ! univ]sal preval5ce ( cry/all9e =ms & cleavages1 at ! ext5t ( ! ph5om5a ( slaty cleavage1 & at ! segregation ( special m9]als into ve9s & nodules1 :i* has tak5 place 9 "s unkn[n mann]1 we _c d\bt t ! =ces ( :i* we n[ speak h act$ v widely & en]getically4 ,any elucidation ( _! nature w\ld be an important /ep 9 ,geological ,dynamics4 #bnd ,ed4 ,a po9t ( ,geological ,dynamics ( great importance is1 ! *ange :i* rocks und]go 9 /ructure aft] !y are deposit$1 ei!r by ! action ( subt]rane\s heat1 or by ! influ5ce ( cry/all9e or o!r corpuscul> =ces4 ,by su* ag5cies1 s$im5t>y rocks may be conv]t$ into cry/all9e1 ! traces ( organic fossils may be oblit]at$1 a slaty cleavage may be produc$1 & o!r l effects4 ,! possibility ( su* *anges 0 urg$ by ,dr4 ,hutton 9 8 ,!ory2 & ,sir ,james ,hall's v in/ructive & /rik+ exp]im5ts 7 made = ! purpose ( illu/rat+ ?is !ory4 ,9 ^! exp]im5ts1 p[d]$ *alk 01 by ! application ( heat "u pressure1 conv]t$ into cry/all9e calcsp>4 ,aft]w>ds ,dr4 ,mc,culloch's labors _h an important influ5ce 9 satisfy+ geologi/s ( ! reality ( correspond+ *anges 9 nature4 ,dr4 ,mc,culloch1 by 8 v lively & copi\s descriptions ( volcanic regions1 by 8 repres5tations ( !m1 by 8 classification ( igne\s rocks1 & 8 compreh5sive views ( ! ph5om5a :i* !y exhibit1 probably 0 ! means ( conv]t+ _m geologi/s f ! ,w]n]ian op9ions4 ,rocks :i* h und]gone *anges s9ce !y 7 deposit$ are t]m$ by ,mr4 ,lyell metamorphic4 ,! great ext5t ( metamorphic rock *ang$ by heat is n[ unconte/$4 ,! int]nal *anges :i* are produc$ by ! cry/all9e =ces ( m\nta9 masses h be5 ! subjects ( important & compreh5sive speculations by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick4 #eei ,sect4 #f4--,!ories ( ,*anges ( ,climate4 ,,z we h already /at$1 ,geology (f]s to u /rong evid5ce t ! climate ( ! anci5t p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory 0 hott] ?an t :i* n[ exi/s 9 ! same c\ntries4 ,?is1 & o!r circum/ances1 h l$ geologi/s to ! inve/igation ( ! effects ( any hypo!tical causes ( su* *anges ( condition 9 respect ( heat4 ,! love ( ! contemplation ( geometrical symmetry1 z well z o!r reasons1 sugge/$ ! hypo!sis t ! e>?'s axis _h orig9ally no obliquity1 b 0 p]p5dicul> to ! equator4 ,su* a con/ruction ( ! _w _h be5 ?\ght ( be=e ! "t ( ,milton1#gdah z :at might be suppos$ to h exi/$ :5 man 0 expell$ f ,p>adise2 & ,burnet1 9 8 ,sacr$ ,!ory ( ! ,e>? 7#afij71 adopt$ ?is notion ( ! p>adisiacal condition ( ! globe3 ,! spr+ ,p]petual smil$ on e>? ) v]dant fl[]s1 ,equal 9 days & nights4 ,note #gdah3 ,"s said he bade 8 angels turn askance ,! poles ( e>? twice t5 degrees & m ,f ! sun's axle1 c4--,p>adise ,lo/1 x4 #bad4 ,9 mod]n times1 too1 "s p]sons h be5 dispos$ to adopt ?is hypo!sis1 because !y h conceiv$ t ! pres5t pol> di/ribution ( light is inconsi/5t ) ! production ( ! fossil plants :i* are f\nd 9 ^? regions1#geah ev5 if we c\ld1 9 "s o!r way1 acc\nt = ! *ange ( temp]ature4 ,b ?is alt]ation 9 ! axes ( a revolution c\ld n take place )\t a subv]sion ( ! equilibrium ( ! surface1 su* z does n appe> to h occurr$2 & ! *ange has ( late be5 g5]ally decl>$ impossible by physical a/ronom]s4 ,note #geah3 ,lyell1 i4 #aee4 ,l9dley1 ,fossil ,flora4 ,! effects ( o!r a/ronomical *anges h be5 calculat$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el4 ,he has exam9$1 = in/ance1 ! !rmotical consequ5ces ( ! dim9ution ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 :i* has be5 go+ on = ages beyond ! records ( hi/ory4 ,he f9ds#gfah t1 on ?is acc\nt1 ! annual effect ( sol> radiation w\ld increase z we g back to remot] p]iods ( ! pa/2 b 7probably at lea/7 n 9 a degree suffici5t to acc\nt = ! app>5t pa/ #efj *anges ( climate4 ,he f9ds1 h[ev]1 t ?\gh ! effect ( ?is *ange on ! mean temp]ature ( ! ye> may be small1 ! effect on ! extreme temp]ature ( ! seasons w be mu* m consid]able2 s z to produce alt]nately1 9 ! same latitude ( ei!r hemisph]e1 a p]petual spr+1 or ! extreme vicissitudes ( a burn+ summ] & a rigor\s w9t]4#ggah ,note #gfah3 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bie4 ,note #ggah3 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bih4 ,mr4 ,lyell has trac$ ! consequ5ces ( ano!r hypo!sis on ?is subject1 :i* appe>s at fir/ sight to promise no v /rik+ results1 b :i* yet is f\nd1 ^u exam9ation1 to involve adequate causes ( v great *anges3 ,i ref] to ! suppos$ v>i\s di/ribution ( l& & wat] at diff]5t p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,if ! l& 7 all ga!r$ into ! neighborhood ( ! poles1 x w\ld become ! seat ( con/ant ice & sn[1 & w\ld ?us v greatly r$uce ! temp]ature ( ! :ole surface ( ! globe4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! pol> regions 7 pr9cipally wat]1 :ile ! tropics 7 occupi$ ) a belt ( l&1 !re w\ld be no "p ( ! e>?'s surface on :i* ! fro/ c\ld fa/5 a firm hold1 :ile ! torrid zone w\ld act l a furnace to heat ! :ole4 ,&1 suppos+ a cycle ( t]re/rial *anges 9 :i* ^! conditions %\ld succe$ ea* o!r1 ! w9t] & summ] ( ?is great ye> might diff] mu* m ?an ! elevat$ temp]ature :i* we are l$ to ascribe to =m] p]iods ( ! globe1 c be judg$ to h diff]$ f ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s4 ,! +5uity & plausibility ( ?is !ory _c be d\bt$3 & p]haps its results may h]eaft] be f\nd n q out ( ! rea* ( calculation4 ,"s progress has already be5 made 9 calculat+ ! movem5t ( heat into1 ?r\gh1 & out ( ! e>?2 b :5 we add to ?is ! effects ( ! curr5ts ( ! ocean & ! atmosph]e1 ! problem1 ?us involv+ s _m !rmotical & atmological laws1 op]at+ "u complex conditions1 is und\bt$ly "o ( extreme difficulty4 ,/ill1 x is some?+1 9 ?is z 9 all cases1 to h ! problem ev5 /at$2 & none ( ! elem5ts ( ! solution appe>s to be ( su* a nature t we ne$ all[ ourselves to yield to despair1 respect+ ! possibility ( deal+ ) x 9 a useful mann]1 z our k becomes m complete & def9ite4 #efa ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,progress ,,( ,,! ,,geological ,,dynamics ,,( ,,organiz$ ,,be+s4 ,sect4 #a4--,objects ( ?is ,sci5ce4 ,,p]haps 9 ext5d+ ! t]m ,geological ,dynamics to ! causes ( *anges 9 organiz$ be+s1 ,i %all be ?\ght to be employ+ a =c$ & inconv5i5t phraseology4 ,b x w be f\nd t1 9 ord] to treat geology 9 a truly sci5tific mann]1 we mu/ br+ toge!r all ! classes ( speculations conc]n+ kn[n causes ( *ange2 & ! ,organic ,dynamics ( ,geology1 or ( ,geography1 if ! read] pref]s ! ^w1 appe>s n an inappropriate phrase = "o "p ( ?is body ( rese>*es4 ,z has already be5 said1 ! species ( plants & animals :i* are f\nd emb$d$ 9 ! /rata ( ! e>?1 are n only diff]5t f ^? :i* n[ live 9 ! same regions1 b1 = ! mo/ "p1 diff]5t f any n[ exi/+ on ! face ( ! e>?4 ,! rema9s :i* we discov] imply a pa/ /ate ( ?+s diff]5t f t :i* n[ prevails2 !y imply also t ! :ole organic creation has be5 r5ew$1 & t ?is r5ewal has tak5 place sev]al times4 ,su* extraord9>y g5]al facts h naturally put 9 activity v bold speculations4 ,b x has already be5 said1 we _c speculate ^u su* facts 9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! globe1 )\t tak+ a l>ge survey ( its pres5t condition4 ,does ! pres5t animal & vegetable population diff] f ! pa/1 9 ! same way 9 :i* ! products ( "o region ( ! exi/+ e>? diff] f ^? ( ano!r8 ,c ! creation & diffusion ( ! fossil species be expla9$ 9 ! same mann] z ! creation & diffusion ( ! creatures among :i* we live8 ,& ^! que/ions lead u onw>ds ano!r /ep1 to ask1--,:at are ! laws by :i* ! plants & animals ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>? diff]8 ,:at 0 ! mann] 9 :i* !y 7 orig9ally diffus$8--,?us we h to include1 z portions ( our subject1 #efb ! ,geography ( ,plants1 & ( ,animals1 & ! ,hi/ory ( _! *ange & diffusion2 int5d+ by ! latt] subject1 ( c\rse1 paltiological hi/ory1--! exam9ation ( ! causes ( :at has occurr$1 & ! inf]5ce ( pa/ ev5ts1 f :at we "k ( causes4 ,x is unnecess>y = me to give at any l5g? a /atem5t ( ! problems :i* are includ$ 9 ^! bran*es ( sci5ce1 or ( ! progress :i* has be5 made 9 !m2 s9ce ,mr4 ,lyell1 9 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 has treat$ ^! subjects 9 a v able mann]1 & 9 ! same po9t ( view 9 :i* ,i am ?us l$ to consid] !m4 ,i w only briefly ref] to "s po9ts1 avail+ myself ( 8 labors & 8 ideas4 ,sect4 #b4--;,geography ( ,plants & ,animals4 ,,) reg>d bo? to plants & animals1 x appe>s1#ghah t besides su* diff]5ces 9 ! products ( diff]5t regions z we may naturally suppose to be occasion$ by climate & o!r ext]nal causes2 an exam9ation ( ! :ole organic population ( ! globe leads u to consid] ! e>? z divid$ into prov9ces1 ea* prov9ce be+ occupi$ by its own gr\p ( species1 & ^! gr\ps n be+ mix$ or int]fus$ among ea* o!r to any great ext5t4 ,& ?us1 z ! e>? is occupi$ by v>i\s nations ( m51 ea* appe>+ at fir/ sight to be ( a diff]5t /ock1 s ea* o!r tribe ( liv+ ?+s is scatt]$ ov] ! gr\nd 9 a simil> mann]1 & di/ribut$ into its sep>ate nations 9 di/ant c\ntries4 ,! places :]e species are ?us peculi>ly f\nd1 are1 9 ! case ( plants1 call$ _! /ations4 ,yet ea* species 9 its own region loves & selects "s peculi> conditions ( %ade or exposure1 soil or moi/ure3 its place1 def9$ by ! g5]al description ( su* conditions1 is call$ its habitation4 ,note #ghah3 ,lyell1 ,pr9ciples1 ,b4 iii4 c4 v4 ,n only ea* species ?us plac$ 9 its own prov9ce1 has its position fur!r fix$ by its own habits1 b m g5]al gr\ps & assemblages are f\nd to be det]m9$ 9 _! situation by m g5]al conditions4 ,?us x is ! "* ( ! flora ( a collection ( isl&s1 scatt]$ ?r\gh a wide ocean 9 a tropical & humid climate1 to conta9 an imm5se prepond]ance ( tree-f]ns4 ,9 ! same way1 ! situation & dep? at :i* c]ta9 g5]a ( %ells are f\nd h be5 tabulat$#giah by ,mr4 ,brod]ip4 ,su* g5]al inf]5ces1 if #efc !y c be securely made1 are ( extreme int]e/ 9 _! be>+ on geological speculations4 ,note #giah3 ,gre5\gh1 ,add4 #ahce1 p4 #bj4 ,! means by :i* plants & animals are n[ diffus$ f "o place to ano!r1 h be5 well describ$ by ,mr4 ,lyell4#hjah ,& he has consid]$ also1 ) due att5tion1 ! mann] 9 :i* !y become imb$d$ 9 m9]al deposits ( v>i\s k9ds4#haah ,he has ?us foll[$ ! hi/ory ( organiz$ bodies1 f ! g]m to ! tomb1 & !nce to ! cab9et ( ! geologi/4 ,note #hjah3 ,lyell1 ,b4 iii4 c4 v4 vi4 vii4 ,note #haah3 ,b4 iii4 c4 xiii4 xiv4 xv4 xvi4 ,b1 besides ! =tunes ( individual plants & animals1 !re is ano!r class ( que/ions1 ( great int]e/1 b ( great difficulty2--! =tunes ( ea* species4 ,9 :at mann] d species :i* 7 n1 beg9 to be8 z geology tea*es u t !y _m times h done2 &1 z ev5 our own reason+s conv9ce u !y mu/ h done1 at lea/ 9 ! case ( ! species among :i* we live4 ,we "h obvi\sly place be=e u1 z a subject ( rese>*1 ! ,creation ( ,liv+ ,?+s2--a subject %r\d$ 9 my/]y1 & n to be approa*$ )\t rev]5ce4 ,b ?\gh we may conceive1 t1 on ?is subject1 we are n to seek our belief f sci5ce alone1 we %all f9d1 x is ass]t$1 )9 ! limits ( all[able & unavoidable speculation1 _m curi\s & important problems :i* may well employ our physiological skill4 ,= example1 we may ask3--h[ we are to recognize ! species :i* 7 orig9ally creat$ di/9ct8--:e!r ! population ( ! e>? at "o geological epo* c\ld pass to ! =m :i* x has at a succe$+ p]iod1 by ! ag5cy ( natural causes alone8--& if n1 :at o!r acc\nt we c give ( ! succession :i* we f9d to h tak5 place8 ,! mo/ rem>kable po9t 9 ! attempts to answ] ^! & ! l que/ions1 is ! controv]sy betwe5 ! advocates & ! oppon5ts ( ! doctr9e ( ! transmutation ( species4 ,?is "q is1 ev5 f its m]e physiological import1 "o ( great int]e/2 & ! int]e/ is mu* enhanc$ by our geological rese>*es1 :i* aga9 br+ ! "q be=e u 9 a /rik+ =m1 & on a gigantic scale4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 briefly /ate ! po9t at issue4 ,sect4 #c4--,"q ( ! ,transmutation ( ,species4 ,,we see t animals & plants may1 by ! influ5ce ( bre$+1 & ( ext]nal ag5ts op]at+ ^u _! con/itution1 be greatly #efd modifi$1 s z to give rise to v>ieties & races diff]5t f :at be=e exi/$4 ,h[ diff]5t1 = in/ance1 is "o k9d & bre$ ( dog f ano!r6 ,! "q1 !n1 is1 :e!r organiz$ be+s c1 by ! m]e work+ ( natural causes1 pass f ! type ( "o species to t ( ano!r8 :e!r ! wolf may1 by dome/ication1 become ! dog8 :e!r ! ourang-outang may1 by ! p[] ( ext]nal circum/ances1 be br\ght )9 ! circle ( ! human species8 ,& ! dilemma 9 :i* we are plac$ is ?is2--t if species are n ?us int]*angeable1 we mu/ suppose ! fluctuations ( :i* ea* species is capable1 & :i* are app>5tly indef9ite1 to be b\nd$ by rigor\s limits2 :]eas1 if we all[ su* a transmutation ( species1 we ab&on t belief 9 ! adaptation ( ! /ructure ( e creature to its de/9$ mode ( be+1 :i* n only mo/ p]sons w\ld give up ) repugnance1 b :i*1 z we h se51 has con/antly & irresi/ibly impress$ itself on ! m9ds ( ! be/ naturali/s1 z ! true view ( ! ord] ( ! _w4 ,b ! /udy ( ,geology op5s to u ! spectacle ( _m gr\ps ( species :i* h1 9 ! c\rse ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 succe$$ ea* o!r at va/ int]vals ( "t2 "o set ( animals & plants disappe>+1 z x w\ld seem1 f ! face ( our planet1 & o!rs1 :i* did n be=e exi/1 becom+ ! only occupants ( ! globe4 ,& ! dilemma !n pres5ts itself to u anew3--ei!r we mu/ accept ! doctr9e ( ! transmutation ( species1 & mu/ suppose t ! organiz$ species ( "o geological epo* 7 transmut$ into ^? ( ano!r by "s long-cont9u$ ag5cy ( natural causes2 or else1 we mu/ believe 9 _m successive acts ( creation & ext9ction ( species1 out ( ! common c\rse ( nature2 acts :i*1 !re=e1 we may prop]ly call miracul\s4 ,?is latt] dilemma1 h[ev]1 is a "q conc]n+ ! facts :i* h happ5$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w2 ! delib]ation respect+ x belongs to physical geology itself1 & n to t subsidi>y sci5ce :i* we are n[ describ+1 & :i* is conc]n$ only ) su* causes z we "k to be 9 con/ant & ord]ly action4 ,! =m] "q1 ( ! limit$ or unlimit$ ext5t ( ! modifications ( animals & plants1 has receiv$ full & c>eful consid]ation f em95t physiologi/s2 & 9 _! op9ions we f9d1 ,i ?9k1 an indisputable prepond]ance to t decision :i* rejects ! transmutation ( species1 & :i* accepts ! =m] side ( ! dilemma2 namely1 t ! *anges ( :i* ea* species is #efe susceptible1 ?\gh difficult to def9e 9 words1 are limit$ 9 fact4 ,x is extremely int]e/+ & satisfactory ?us to receive an answ] 9 :i* we c confide1 to inquiries seem+ly s wide & bold z ^? :i* ?is subject involves4 ,i ref] to ,mr4 ,lyell1 ,dr4 ,pri*>d1 ,mr4 ,lawr5ce1 & o!rs1 = ! hi/ory ( ! discussion1 & = ! gr\nds ( ! decision2 & ,i %all quote v briefly ! ma9 po9ts & conclusions to :i* ! inquiry has l$4#hbah ,note #hbah3 ,lyell1 ,b4 iii4 c4 iv4 ,x may be consid]$1 !n1 z det]m9$ by ! ov]-balance ( physiological au?ority1 t !re is a capacity 9 all species to accommodate !mselves1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 to a *ange ( ext]nal circum/ances2 ?is ext5t v>y+ greatly accord+ to ! species4 ,!re may ?us arise *anges ( appe>ance or /ructure1 & "s ( ^! *anges are transmissible to ! (fspr+3 b ! mutations ?us sup]9duc$ are gov]n$ by con/ant laws1 & conf9$ )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,indef9ite div]g5ce f ! orig9al type is n possible2 & ! extreme limit ( possible v>iation may usually be rea*$ 9 a brief p]iod ( "t3 9 %ort1 species h a real exi/5ce 9 nature1 & a transmutation f "o to ano!r does n exi/4 ,?us1 = example1 ,cuvi] rem>ks1 t not)/&+ all ! diff]5ces ( size1 appe>ance1 & habits1 :i* we f9d 9 ! dogs ( v>i\s races & c\ntries1 & ?\gh we h 79 ! ,egyptian mummies7 skeletons ( ?is animal z x exi/$ ?ree ?\s& ye>s ago1 ! relation ( ! bones to ea* o!r rema9s ess5tially ! same2 &1 ) all ! v>ieties ( _! %ape#hcah & size1 !re are *>act]s :i* resi/ all ! influ5ces bo? ( ext]nal nature1 ( human int]c\rse1 & ( "t4 ,note #hcah3 ,ossem4 ,foss4 ,disc4 ,prl4 p4 #fa4 ,sect4 #d4--;,hypo!sis ( ,progressive ,t5d5cies4 ,,)9 c]ta9 limits1 h[ev]1 z we h said1 ext]nal circum/ances produce *anges 9 ! =ms ( organiz$ be+s4 ,! causes ( *ange1 & ! laws & limits ( _! effects1 z !y obta9 9 ! exi/+ /ate ( ! organic creation1 are 9 ! highe/ degree int]e/+4 ,&1 z has be5 already intimat$1 ! k ?us obta9$1 has be5 appli$ ) a view to expla9 ! orig9 ( ! exi/+ population ( ! _w1 & ! succession ( its pa/ conditions4 ,b ^? :o h attempt$ su* an explanation1 h f\nd x necess>y to assume c]ta9 additional laws1 9 ord] to enable !mselves to #eff d$uce1 f ! t5et ( ! transmutability ( ! species ( organiz$ be+s1 su* a /ate ( ?+s z we see ab\t u1 & su* a succession ( /ates z is evid5c$ by geological rese>*es4 ,& "h1 aga91 we are br\ght to que/ions ( :i* we mu/ seek ! answ]s f ! mo/ pr(\nd physiologi/s4 ,n[ ref]r+1 z be=e1 to ^? :i* appe> to be ! be/ au?orities1 x is f\nd t ^! additional positive laws are /ill m inadmissible ?an ! prim>y assumption ( indef9ite capacity ( *ange4 ,= example1 9 ord] to acc\nt1 on ?is hypo!sis1 = ! seem+ adaptation ( ! end[m5ts ( animals to _! wants1 x is held t ! end[m5ts are ! result ( ! wants2 t ! swiftness ( ! antelope1 ! claws & tee? ( ! lion1 ! trunk ( ! elephant1 ! long neck ( ! giraffe h be5 produc$ by a c]ta9 pla/ic "* 9 ! con/itution ( animals1 op]at$ ^u1 = a long c\rse ( ages1 by ! attempts :i* ^! animals made to atta9 objects :i* _! previ\s organization did n place )9 _! rea*4 ,9 ?is way1 x is ma9ta9$ t ! mo/ /rik+ attributes ( animals1 ^? :i* app>5tly imply mo/ cle>ly ! provid+ skill ( _! ,creator1 h be5 br\ght =? by ! long-repeat$ ef=ts ( ! creatures to atta9 ! object ( _! desire2 ?us animals ) ! highe/ end[m5ts h be5 gradually develop$ f ance/ral =ms ( ! mo/ limit$ organization2 ?us fi%1 bird1 & bea/1 h gr[n f small gelat9\s bodies1 petits corps gelat9eux1 possess+ "s obscure pr9ciple ( life1 & ! capacity ( developm5t2 & ?us man himself ) all 8 intellectual & moral1 z well z physical privileges1 has be5 d]iv$ f "s creature ( ! ape or baboon tribe1 urg$ by a con/ant t5d5cy to improve1 or at lea/ to alt] 8 condition4 ,z we h said1 9 ord] to arrive ev5 hypo!tically at ?is result1 x is necess>y to assume besides a m]e capacity = *ange1 o!r positive & active pr9ciples1 "s ( :i* we may notice4 ,?us1 we mu/ h z ! direct productions ( nature on ?is hypo!sis1 c]ta9 monads or r\gh draughts1 ! prim>y rudim5ts ( plants & animals4 ,we mu/ h1 9 ^!1 a con/ant t5d5cy to progressive improvem5t1 to ! atta9m5t ( high] p[]s & faculties ?an !y possess2 :i* t5d5cy is aga9 p]petually modifi$ & controll$ by ! =ce ( ext]nal circum/ances4 ,& 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! simultane\s exi/5ce ( animals 9 e /age ( ?is imag9>y progress1 we mu/ suppose t nature is compell$ to be con/antly produc+ ^? elem5t>y be+s1 f :i* all animals are successively develop$4 #efg ,i ne$ n /ay to po9t out h[ extremely arbitr>y e "p ( ?is s*eme is2 & h[ complex its ma*9]y w\ld be1 ev5 if x did acc\nt = ! facts4 ,x may be suffici5t to obs]ve1 z o!rs h done1#hdah t ! capacity ( *ange1 & ( be+ influ5c$ by ext]nal circum/ances1 su* z we really f9d x 9 nature1 & !re=e su* z 9 sci5ce we mu/ repres5t x1 is a t5d5cy1 n to improve1 b to det]iorate4 ,:5 species are modifi$ by ext]nal causes1 !y usually deg5]ate1 & d n advance4 ,& !re is no in/ance ( a species acquir+ an entirely new s5se1 faculty1 or organ1 9 addition to1 or 9 ! place (1 :at x _h be=e4 ,note #hdah3 ,lyell1 ,b4 ,,iii4 c4 iv4 ,n only1 !n1 is ! doctr9e ( ! transmutation ( species 9 itself disprov$ by ! be/ physiological reason+s1 b ! additional assumptions :i* are requisite1 to enable its advocates to apply x to ! explanation ( ! geological & o!r ph5om5a ( ! e>?1 are altoge!r gratuit\s & fanta/ical4 ,su* is ! judgm5t to :i* we are l$ by ! exam9ation ( ! discussions :i* h tak5 place on ?is subject4 ,yet 9 c]ta9 speculations1 occasion$ by ! discov]y ( ! ,siva!rium1 a new fossil animal f ! ,sub-,himalaya m\nta9s ( ,india1 ,m4 ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire speaks ( ! belief 9 ! immutability ( species z a conviction :i* is fad+ away f m5's m9ds4 ,he speaks too ( ! t]m9ation ( ! age ( ,cuvi]1 la clture du sicle de ,cuvi]1 & ( ! comm5cem5t ( a bett] zoological philosophy4#heah ,b ?\gh he expresses himself ) great animation1 ,i d n p]ceive t he adduces1 9 support ( 8 peculi> op9ions1 any argum5ts 9 addition to ^? :i* he urg$ dur+ ! lifetime ( ,cuvi]4 ,& ! read]#hfah may recollect t ! consid]ation ( t controv]sy l$ u to v diff]5t anticipations f 81 respect+ ! probable future progress ( physiology4 ,! discov]y ( ! ,siva!rium supplies no p>ticle ( pro( to ! hypo!sis1 t ! exi/+ species ( animals are desc5d$ f ext9ct creatures :i* are specifically di/9ct3 & we _c act m wisely ?an 9 li/5+ to ! advice ( t em95t naturali/1 ,m4 de ,bla9ville4#hgah ,aga9/ ?is hypo!sis1 :i*1 up to ! pres5t "t1 ,i reg>d z purely gratuit\s1 & likely to turn geologi/s out ( ! s\nd & excell5t road 9 :i* !y n[ are1 ,i will+ly raise my voice1 ) ! mo/ absolute conviction ( be+ 9 ! "r4 #efh ,note #heah3 ,compte ,r5du de l',acad4 des ,sc4 #ahcg1 ,no4 #c1 p4 #ha4 ,note #hfah3 ,see ,b4 ,,xvii4 c4 vii4 ,note #hgah3 ,compte ,r5du1 #ahcg1 ,no4 #e1 p4 #afh4 #bnd ,ed4 ,! hypo!sis ( ! progressive developem5t ( species has be5 urg$ rec5tly1 9 connexion ) ! physiological t5et ( ,ti$emann & ,de ,s]res1 notic$ 9 ,b4 ,,xvii4 c4 vii4 sect4 #c2--namely1 t ! embryo ( ! high] =ms ( animals passes by gradations ?r\gh ^? =ms :i* are p]man5t 9 inf]ior animals4 ,assum+ ?is t5et z exact1 x has be5 ma9ta9$ t ! high] animals :i* are f\nd 9 ! m rec5t /rata may h be5 produc$ by an ult]ior developm5t ( ! l[] =ms 9 ! embryo /ate2 ! circum/ances be+ su* z to favor su* a developem5t4 ,b all ! be/ physiologi/s agree 9 decl>+ t su* an extraord9>y developem5t ( ! embryo is inconsi/5t ) physiological possibility4 ,ev5 if ! progression ( ! embryo 9 "t h a g5]al correspond5ce ) ! ord] ( animal =ms z m or less p]fectly organiz$ 7:i* is true 9 an extremely incomplete & inexact degree71 ?is correspond5ce mu/ be consid]$1 n z any indication ( causality1 b z "o ( ^? m>ks ( univ]sal analogy & symmetry :i* are /amp$ ^u e "p ( ! creation4 ,mr4 ,lyell#hhah notices ?is doctr9e ( ,ti$emann & ,de ,s]res2 & obs]ves1 t ?\gh nature pres5ts u ) cases ( animal =ms degrad$ by incomplete developem5t1 %e (f]s none ( =ms exalt$ by extraord9>y developem5t4 ,mr4 ,lyell's own hypo!sis ( ! introduction ( new species ^u ! e>?1 n hav+ any physiological basis1 h>dly belongs to ?is *apt]4 ,note #hhah3 ,pr9ciples1 ,b4 ,,iii4 c4 iv4 ,sect4 #e4--,"q ( ,creation z relat$ to ,sci5ce4 ,,b s9ce we reject ! production ( new species by means ( ext]nal influ5ce1 d we !n1 x may be ask$1 accept ! o!r side ( ! dilemma :i* we h /at$2 & admit a s]ies ( creations ( species1 by "s p[] beyond t :i* we trace 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature8 ,to ?is "q1 ! hi/ory & analogy ( sci5ce1 ,i conceive1 tea* u to reply z foll[s3--,all paltiological sci5ces1 all speculations :i* attempt to asc5d f ! pres5t to ! remote pa/1 by ! *a9 ( causation1 d also1 by an inevitable consequ5ce1 urge u to look = ! beg9n+ ( ! /ate ( ?+s :i* we ?us contemplate2 b 9 none ( ^! cases h m5 be5 able1 by ! aid ( sci5ce1 to arrive at a beg9n+ :i* is homog5e\s ) ! #efi kn[n c\rse ( ev5ts4 ,! fir/ orig9 ( language1 ( civilization1 ( law & gov]nm5t1 _c be cle>ly made out by reason+ & rese>*2 j z little1 we may expect1 w a k ( ! orig9 ( ! exi/+ & ext9ct species ( plants & animals1 be ! result ( physiological & geological inve/igation4 ,b1 ?\gh philosoph]s h nev] yet demon/rat$1 & p]haps nev] w be able to demon/rate1 :at 0 t primitive /ate ( ?+s 9 ! social & mat]ial worlds1 f :i* ! progressive /ate took its fir/ dep>ture2 !y c /ill1 9 all ! l9es ( rese>* to :i* we h ref]r$1 g v f> back2--det]m9e _m ( ! remote circum/ances ( ! pa/ sequ5ce ( ev5ts2--asc5d to a po9t :i*1 f our position at lea/1 seems to be ne> ! orig92--& exclude _m suppositions respect+ ! orig9 itself4 ,:e!r1 by ! light ( reason alone1 m5 w ev] be able to d m ?an ?is1 x is difficult to say4 ,x is1 ,i ?9k1 no irrational op9ion1 ev5 on gr\nds ( philosophical analogy alone1 t 9 all ^? sci5ces :i* look back & seek a beg9n+ ( ?+s1 we may be unable to arrive at a consi/5t & def9ite belief1 )\t hav+ rec\rse to o!r gr\nds ( tru?1 z well z to hi/orical rese>* & sci5tific reason+4 ,:5 our ?\ghts w\ld appreh5d /eadily ! creation ( ?+s1 we f9d t we are oblig$ to summon up o!r ideas ?an ^? :i* regulate ! pursuit ( sci5tific tru?s2--to call 9 o!r p[]s ?an ^? to :i* we ref] natural ev5ts3 x _c1 !n1 be consid]$ z v surpriz+1 if1 9 ?is "p ( our inquiry1 we are compell$ to look = o!r ?an ! ord9>y evid5ce ( sci5ce4 ,geology1 =m+ "o ( ! paltiological class ( sci5ces1 :i* trace back ! hi/ory ( ! e>? & its inhabitants on philosophical gr\nds1 is ?us associat$ ) a numb] ( o!r k9ds ( rese>*1 :i* are conc]n$ ab\t language1 law1 art1 & consequ5tly ab\t ! int]nal faculties ( man1 8 ?\ghts1 8 social habits1 8 conception ( "r1 8 love ( beauty4 ,geology be+ ?us br\ght into ! atmosph]e ( moral & m5tal speculations1 x may be expect$ t h] inve/igations ( ! probable pa/ w %>e an influ5ce common to !m2 & t %e w n be all[$ to po9t to an orig9 ( h] own1 a m]ely physical beg9n+ ( ?+s2 b t1 z %e approa*es t[>ds su* a goal1 %e w be l$ to see t x is ! orig9 ( _m tra9s ( ev5ts1 ! po9t ( conv]g5ce ( _m l9es4 ,x may be1 t in/ead ( be+ all[$ to travel up to ?is focus ( be+1 we are only able to e/imate its place & nature1 & #egj to =m ( x su* a judgm5t z ?is2--t x is n only ! s\rce ( m]e vegetable & animal life1 b also ( rational & social life1 language & arts1 law & ord]2 9 %ort1 ( all ! progressive t5d5cies by :i* ! highe/ pr9ciples ( ! intellectual & moral _w h be5 & are develop$1 z well z ( ! succession ( organic =ms1 :i* we f9d scatt]$1 dead or liv+1 ov] ! e>?4 ,?is reflection conc]n+ ! natural sci5tific view ( creation1 x w be obs]v$1 has n be5 s\ght =1 f a wi% to arrive at su* conclusions2 b x has fl[$ spontane\sly f ! mann] 9 :i* we h _h to introduce geology into our classification ( ! sci5ces2 & ?is classification 0 fram$ f an unbiass$ consid]ation ( ! g5]al analogies & guid+ ideas ( ! v>i\s portions ( our k4 ,su* rem>ks z we h made may on ?is acc\nt be consid]$ m wor?y ( att5tion4 ,b su* a tra9 ( ?\ght mu/ be pursu$ ) caution4 ,al?\gh x may n be possible to arrive at a "r conviction respect+ ! orig9 ( ! _w1 )\t hav+ rec\rse to o!r ?an physical consid]ations1 & to o!r ?an geological evid5ce3 yet extrane\s consid]ations1 & extrane\s evid5ce1 respect+ ! nature ( ! beg9n+ ( ?+s1 mu/ nev] be all[$ to influ5ce our physics or our geology4 ,our geological dynamics1 l our a/ronomical dynamics1 may be inadequate to c>ry u back to an orig9 ( t /ate ( ?+s1 ( :i* x expla9s ! progress3 b ?is defici5cy mu/ be suppli$1 n by add+ sup]natural to natural geological dynamics1 b by accept+1 9 _! prop] place1 ! views suppli$ by a portion ( k ( a diff]5t "* & ord]4 ,if we include 9 our ,!ology ! speculations to :i* we h rec\rse = ?is purpose1 we mu/ exclude f !m our ,geology4 ,! two sci5ces may conspire1 n by hav+ any "p 9 common3 b because1 ?\gh widely div]se 9 _! l9es1 bo? po9t to a my/]i\s & invisible orig9 ( ! _w4 ,all t :i* claims our ass5t on ^? high] gr\nds ( :i* !ology takes cognizance1 mu/ claim su* ass5t z is consi/5t ) ^? gr\nds2 t is1 x mu/ require belief 9 respect ( all t be>s ^u ! highe/ relations ( our be+1 ^? on :i* dep5d our duties & our hopes4 ,doctr9es ( ?is k9d may & mu/ be convey$ & ma9ta9$1 by means ( in=mation conc]n+ ! pa/ hi/ory ( man1 & 8 social & mat]ial1 z well z moral & spiritual =tunes4 ,he :o believes t a ,provid5ce has #ega rul$ ! affairs ( mank9d1 w also believe t a ,provid5ce has gov]n$ ! mat]ial _w4 ,b any language 9 :i* ! n>rative ( ?is gov]nm5t ( ! mat]ial _w c be convey$1 mu/ necess>ily be v imp]fect & inappropriate2 be+ express$ 9 t]ms ( ^? ideas :i* h be5 select$ by m51 9 ord] to describe appe>ances & relations ( creat$ ?+s z !y affect "o ano!r4 ,9 all cases1 !re=e1 :]e we h to attempt to int]pret su* a n>rative1 we mu/ feel t we are extremely liable to err2 & mo/ ( all1 :5 our int]pretation ref]s to ^? mat]ial objects & op]ations :i* are mo/ =eign to ! ma9 purpose ( a hi/ory ( provid5ce4 ,if we h to consid] a communication conta9+ a view ( su* a gov]nm5t ( ! _w1 imp>t$ to u1 z we may suppose1 9 ord] to po9t out ! "r direction = our feel+s ( tru/1 & rev]5ce1 & hope1 t[>ds ! ,gov]nor ( ! _w1 we may expect t we %all be 9 no dang] ( collect+ f our au?ority errone\s notions ) reg>d to ! p[]1 & wisdom1 & goodness ( ,8 gov]nm5t2 or ) respect to our own place1 duties1 & prospects1 & ! hi/ory ( our race s f> z our duties & prospects are conc]n$4 ,b t we %all rightly und]/& ! detail ( all ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( man1 or ( ! skies1 or ( ! e>?1 :i* are n>rat$ = ! purpose ( ?us giv+ a "r direction to our m9ds1 is by no means equally c]ta92 & ,i d n ?9k x w\ld be too mu* to say1 t an immunity f p]plexity & error1 9 su* matt]s1 is1 on g5]al gr\nds1 v improbable4 ,x _c !n surprise u to f9d1 t p>ts ( su* n>rations :i* seem to ref] to occurr5ces l ^? ( :i* a/ronom]s & geologi/s h attempt$ to det]m9e ! laws1 h giv5 rise to _m int]pretations1 all inconsi/5t ) "o ano!r1 & mo/ ( !m at v>iance ) ! be/ e/abli%$ pr9ciples ( a/ronomy & geology4 ,x may be urg$1 t all tru?s mu/ be consi/5t ) all o!r tru?s1 & t !re=e ! results ( true geology or a/ronomy _c be irreconcileable ) ! /atem5ts ( true !ology4 ,& ?is univ]sal consi/5cy ( tru? ) itself mu/ be ass5t$ to2 b x by no means foll[s t we mu/ be able to obta9 a full insight into ! nature & mann] ( su* a consi/5cy4 ,su* an insight w\ld only be possible if we c\ld obta9 a cle> view ( t c5tral body ( tru?1 ! s\rce ( ! pr9ciples :i* appe> 9 ! sep>ate l9es ( speculation4 ,to expect t we %\ld see cle>ly h[ ! provid5tial gov]nm5t ( ! _w is consi/5t ) ! unv>y+ laws #egb by :i* its motions & developem5ts are regulat$1 is to expect to und]/& ?or\ghly ! laws ( motion1 ( developem5t1 & ( provid5ce2 x is to expect t we may asc5d f geology & a/ronomy to ! creative & legislative c5tre1 f :i* proce$$ e>? & />s2 & !n desc5d aga9 into ! moral & spiritual _w1 because its s\rce & c5tre are ! same z ^? ( ! mat]ial creation4 ,x is to say t reason1 :e!r f9ite or inf9ite1 mu/ be consi/5t ) itself2 & t1 !re=e1 ! f9ite mu/ be able to compreh5d ! inf9ite1 to travel f any "o prov9ce ( ! moral & mat]ial univ]se to any o!r1 to trace _! be>+1 & to connect _! b\nd>ies4 ,"o ( ! advantages ( ! /udy ( ! hi/ory & nature ( sci5ce 9 :i* we are n[ engag$ is1 t x w>ns u ( ! hopeless & presumptu\s "* ( su* attempts to und]/& ! gov]nm5t ( ! _w by ! aid ( sci5ce1 )\t ?r[+ any discr$it ^u ! reality ( our k2--t :ile x %[s h[ solid & c]ta9 ea* sci5ce is1 s long z x ref]s its own facts to its own ideas1 x conf9es ea* sci5ce )9 its own limits1 & condemns x z empty & helpless1 :5 x pron\nces ^u ^? subjects :i* are extrane\s to x4 ,! error ( p]sons :o %\ld seek a geological n>rative 9 !ological records1 w\ld be r 9 ! se>* itself ?an 9 _! int]pretation ( :at !y might f9d2 & 9 l mann] ! error ( ^? :o w\ld conclude aga9/ a sup]natural beg9n+1 or a provid5tial direction ( ! _w1 ^u geological or physiological reason+s1 w\ld be1 t !y _h expect$ ^? sci5ces alone to place ! orig9 or ! gov]nm5t ( ! _w 9 its prop] light4 ,?\gh ^! obs]vations apply g5]ally to all ! paltiological sci5ces1 !y may be p]mitt$ "h1 because !y h an especial be>+ ^u "s ( ! difficulties :i* h emb>rass$ ! progress ( geological speculation2 & ?\gh su* difficulties are1 ,i tru/1 ne>ly gone by1 x is important = u to see !m 9 _! true be>+4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x foll[s t geology & a/ronomy are1 ( !mselves1 incapable ( giv+ u any di/9ct & satisfactory acc\nt ( ! orig9 ( ! univ]se1 or ( its p>ts4 ,we ne$ n wond]1 !n1 at any p>ticul> in/ance ( ?is incapacity2 z1 = example1 t ( :i* we h be5 speak+1 ! impossibility ( acc\nt+ by any natural means = ! production ( all ! successive tribes ( plants & animals :i* h peopl$ ! _w 9 ! #egc v>i\s /ages ( its progress1 z geology tea*es u4 ,t !y 71 l our own animal & vegetable contempor>ies1 pr(\ndly adapt$ to ! condition 9 :i* !y 7 plac$1 we h ample reason to believe2 b :5 we inquire :5ce !y came into ?is our _w1 geology is sil5t4 ,! my/]y ( creation is n )9 ! range ( h] legitimate t]ritory2 %e says no?+1 b %e po9ts upw>ds4 ,sect4 #f4--,! ,hypo!sis ( ! regul> ,creation & ,ext9ction ( ,species4 #a4 ,creation ( ,species4--,we h already se51 h[ unt5able1 z a physiological doctr9e1 is ! pr9ciple ( ! transmutability & progressive t5d5cy ( species2 & !re=e1 :5 we come to apply to !oretical geology ! pr9ciples ( ! pres5t *apt]1 ?is portion ( ! subject w easily be dispos$ (4 ,i h>dly "k :e!r ,i c /ate t !re is any o!r pr9ciple :i* has be5 appli$ to ! solution ( ! geological problem1 & :i*1 !re=e1 z a g5]al tru?1 ought to be consid]$ "h4 ,mr4 ,lyell1 inde$1 has spok5#hiah ( an hypo!sis t ! successive creation ( species may con/itute a regul> "p ( ! economy ( nature3 b he has n[h]e1 ,i ?9k1 s describ$ ?is process z to make x appe> 9 :at dep>tm5t ( sci5ce we are to place ! hypo!sis4 ,are ^! new species creat$ by ! production1 at long int]vals1 ( an (fspr+ diff]5t 9 species f ! p>5ts8 ,or are ! species s creat$ produc$ )\t p>5ts8 ,are !y gradually evolv$ f "s embryo sub/ance8 or d !y sudd5ly />t f ! gr\nd1 z 9 ! creation ( ! poet8 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,p]fect =ms ,limb$ & full-gr[n3 out ( ! gr\nd up rose ,z f 8 lair1 ! wild bea/ :]e he wons ,9 =e/ wild1 9 ?icket1 brake1 or d52 4 4 4 ,! grassy clods n[ calv$2 n[ half appe>$ ,! tawny lion1 paw+ to get free ,8 h9d] p>ts2 !n spr+s z broke f b\nds1 ,& rampant %akes 8 br9d$ mane2 c4 c4 ,p>adise ,lo/1 ,b4 vii4 ,note #hiah3 ,b4 ,,iii4 c4 xi4 p4 #bcd4 ,"s selection ( "o ( ^! =ms ( ! hypo!sis1 r ?an ! o!rs1 ) evid5ce = ! selection1 is requisite to entitle u to #egd place x among ! kn[n causes ( *ange :i* 9 ?is *apt] we are consid]+4 ,! b>e conviction t a creation ( species has tak5 place1 :e!r once or _m times1 s long z x is unconnect$ ) our organical sci5ces1 is a t5et ( ,natural ,!ology r ?an ( ,physical ,philosophy4 #bnd ,ed4 ,mr4 ,lyell has expla9$ 8 !ory#ijah by suppos+ man to p a great des]t1 introduc+ into x liv+ plants & animals3 & he has trac$1 9 a v int]e/+ mann]1 ! results ( su* a hypo!sis on ! di/ribution ( vegetable & animal species4 ,b he supposes ! ag5ts :o d ?is1 be=e !y import species into p>ticul> localities1 to /udy att5tively ! climate & o!r physical conditions ( ea* spot1 & to use v>i\s precautions4 ,x is on acc\nt ( ! notion ( design ?us introduc$ t ,i h1 above1 describ$ ?is op9ion z r a t5et ( ,natural ,!ology ?an ( ,physical ,philosophy4 ,note #ijah3 ,b4 ,,iii4 c4 viii4 p4 #aff4 ,mr4 ,edw>d ,=bes has publi%$ "s highly int]e/+ speculations on ! di/ribution ( exi/+ species ( animals & plants4 ,x appe>s t ! mann] 9 :i* animal & vegetable =ms are n[ diffus$ requires u to assume c5tres f :i* ! diffusion took place by no means limit$ by ! pres5t divisions ( cont95ts & isl&s4 ,! *anges ( l& & wat] :i* h ?us occurr$ s9ce ! exi/+ species 7 plac$ on ! e>? mu/ h be5 v ext5sive1 & p]haps rea* into ! glacial p]iod ( :i* ,i h spok5 above4#iaah ,note #iaah3 ,see1 9 ,memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita91 vol4 i4 p4 #ccf1 ,pr(essor ,=bes's ,memoir ,on ! ,connection betwe5 ! ,di/ribution ( ! exi/+ ,fauna & ,flora ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 & ! ,geological ,*anges :i* h affect$ _! area1 especially dur+ ! epo* ( ! ,nor!rn ,drift4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,=bes's views1 = :i* he has (f]$ a great body ( v /rik+ & conv]g+ reasons1 ! pres5t vegetable & animal population ( ! ,briti% ,isles is to be acc\nt$ = by ! foll[+ s]ies ( ev5ts4 ,! m>9e deposits ( ! meioc9e =mation 7 elevat$ into a great ,atlantic cont95t1 yet sep>ate f :at is n[ ,am]ica1 & hav+ its we/]n %ore :]e n[ ! great semi-circul> belt ( gulf-we$ ranges f ! #ae? to ! #de? p>allel ( latitude4 ,?is cont95t !n became /ock$ ) life1 & ( its vegetable population1 ! flora ( ! we/ ( ,irel&1 :i* has _m po9ts 9 common ) ! flora ( ,spa9 & ! #ege ,atlantic isl&s 7! ,a/urian flora71 is ! record4 ,! region betwe5 ,spa9 & ,irel&1 & ! re/ ( ?is meioc5e cont95t1 0 de/roy$ by "s geological movem5t1 b !re 7 left traces ( ! connexion :i* /ill rema94 ,ea/w>ds ( ! flora j m5tion$1 !re is a flora common to ,devon & ,cornwall1 to ! s\?-ea/ "p ( ,irel&1 ! ,*annel ,isles1 & ! adjac5t prov9ces ( ,france2--a flora pass+ to a s\!rn "*2 & hav+ its c\rse m>k$ by ! rema9s ( a great rocky b>ri]1 ! de/ruction ( :i* probably took place ant]ior to ! =mation ( ! n>r[] "p ( ! *annel4 ,ea/w>d f ?is ,devon or ,norman flora1 aga91 we h ! ,k5ti% flora1 :i* is an ext5sion ( ! flora ( ,nor?-we/]n ,france1 insulat$ by ! brea* :i* =m$ ! /raits ( ,dov]4 ,!n came ! ,glacial p]iod1 :5 ! ea/ ( ,engl& & ! nor? ( ,europe 7 subm]g$1 ! nor!rn drift 0 di/ribut$1 & ,engl& 0 r$uc$ to a *a9 ( isl&s or ridges1 =m$ by ! m\nta9s ( ,wales1 ,cumb]l&1 & ,scotl&1 :i* 7 connect$ ) ! l& ( ,sc&9avia4 ,?is 0 ! p]iod ( glaci]s1 ( ! disp]sion ( b\ld]s1 ( ! groov+ & scrat*+ ( rocks z !y are n[ f\nd4 ,! climate be+ !n mu* cold] ?an x n[ is1 ! flora1 ev5 d[n to ! wat]'s edge1 consi/$ ( :at are n[ ,alp9e plants2 & ?is ,alp9e flora is common to ,sc&9avia & to our m\nta9-summits4 ,& ^! plants kept _! places1 :51 by ! elevation ( ! l&1 ! :ole ( ! pres5t ,g]man ,ocean became a cont95t connect+ ,brita9 ) c5tral ,europe4 ,= ! increas$ elevation ( _! /ations c\nt]balanc$ ! dim9i%$ cold ( ! succe$+ p]iod4 ,along ! dry b$ ( ! ,g]man ,sea1 ?us elevat$1 ! pr9cipal "p ( ! exi/+ flora ( ,engl&1 ! ,g]manic flora1 migrat$4 ,a l>ge portion ( our exi/+ animal population also came ov] ?r\gh ! same region2 & along ) ^?1 came hy5as1 tig]s1 rh9oc]os1 auro*s1 elk1 wolves1 beav]s1 :i* are ext9ct 9 ,brita91 & o!r animals :i* are ext9ct altoge!r1 z ! primig5ian elephant or mammo?4 ,b !n1 aga91 ! ,g]man ,ocean & ! ,iri% ,*annel 7 scoop$ out2 & ! climate aga9 *ang$4 ,9 our isl&s1 s deta*$1 _m ( ! l>g] bea/s p]i%$1 & _! bones 7 cov]$ up 9 peat-mosses & caves1 :]e we f9d !m4 ,?is di/+ui%$ naturali/ has fur!r %[n t ! population ( ! sea l5ds itself to ! same view4 ,mr4 ,=bes says t ! writ+s ( ,mr4 ,smi?1 ( ,jordan-hill1 ,on ! la/ ,*anges 9 ! relative ,levels ( ! ,l& & ,sea 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 publi%$ 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! #egf ,w]n]ian ,society = #ahcg-h1 mu/ be e/eem$ ! f\ndation ( a critical inve/igation ( ?is subject 9 ,brita94 #b4 ,ext9ction ( ,species4--,) reg>d to ! ext9ction ( species ,mr4 ,lyell has prop\nd$ a doctr9e :i* is des]v+ ( great att5tion "h4 ,broc*i1 :5 he _h satisfi$ himself1 by exam9ation ( ! ,sub-,ap5n9es1 t ab\t half ! species :i* _h liv$ at ! p]iod ( _! deposition1 _h s9ce become ext9ct1 sugge/$ z a possible cause = ?is occurr5ce1 t ! vital en]gies ( a species1 l t ( an individual1 might gradually decay 9 ! progress ( "t & ( g5]ations1 till at la/ ! prolific p[] might fail1 & ! species )] away4 ,su* a prop]ty w\ld be conceivable z a physiological fact2 = we see some?+ ( ! k9d 9 fruit-trees propagat$ by cutt+s3 aft] "s "t1 ! /ock appe>s to we> out1 & loses its peculi> qualities4 ,b we h no suffici5t evid5ce t ?is is ! case 9 g5]ations ( creatures cont9u$ by ! reproductive p[]s4 ,mr4 ,lyell conceives1 t1 )\t admitt+ any inh]5t con/itutional t5d5cy to det]iorate1 ! mis=tunes to :i* plants & animals are expos$ by ! *ange ( ! physical circum/ances ( ! e>?1 by ! alt]ation ( l& & wat]1 & by ! *anges ( climate1 mu/ v frequ5tly occasion ! loss ( sev]al species4 ,we h hi/orical evid5ce ( ! ext9ction ( "o conspicu\s species1 ! ,dodo1 a bird ( l>ge size & s+ul> =m1 :i* inhabit$ ! ,isle ( ,france :5 t isl& 0 fir/ discov]$1 & :i* n[ no long] exi/s4 ,sev]al o!r species ( animals & plants seem to be 9 ! c\rse ( vani%+ f ! face ( ! e>?1 ev5 "u our own obs]vation4 ,& tak+ into acc\nt ! great] *anges ( ! surface ( ! globe :i* geology compels u to assume1 we may imag9e _m or all ! exi/+ species ( liv+ ?+s to be extirpat$4 ,if1 = in/ance1 t r$uction ( ! climate ( ! e>? :i* appe>s1 f geological evid5ce1 to h tak5 place already1 be suppos$ to g on mu* fur!r1 ! advanc+ sn[ & cold ( ! pol> regions may de/roy ! great] "p ( our plants & animals1 & drive ! rema9d]1 or ^? ( !m :i* possess ! requisite faculties ( migration & accommodation1 to seek an asylum ne> ! equator4 ,& if we suppose ! temp]ature ( ! e>? to be /ill fur!r r$uc$1 ?is zone ( n[-exi/+ life1 hav+ no fur!r place ( refuge1 w p]i%1 & ! :ole e>? w be t5ant$1 if at all1 by a new creation4 ,o!r causes might produce ! same effect z a *ange ( climate2 &1 )\t suppos+ su* causes to affect ! :ole globe1 x is easy to #egg imag9e circum/ances su* z might entirely di/urb ! equilibrium :i* ! p[]s ( diffusion ( diff]5t species h produc$2--might give to "s ! opportunity ( invad+ & conqu]+ ! doma9 ( o!rs2 & 9 ! end1 ! means ( entirely suppress+ !m1 & e/abli%+ !mselves 9 _! place4 ,t ?is extirpation ( c]ta9 species1 :i*1 z we h se51 happ5s 9 a few cases "u common circum/ances1 might happ5 ^u a great] scale1 if ! range ( ext]nal *anges 7 to be mu* enl>g$1 _c be d\bt$4 ,! ext5t1 !re=e1 to :i* natural causes may acc\nt = ! ext9ction ( species1 w dep5d ^u ! am\nt ( *ange :i* we suppose 9 ! physical conditions ( ! e>?4 ,x mu/ be a task ( extreme difficulty to e/imate ! effect ^u ! organic _w1 ev5 if ! physical circum/ances 7 giv54 ,to det]m9e ! physical condition to :i* a giv5 /ate ( ! e>? w\ld give rise1 ,i h already not$ z ano!r v difficult problem4 ,yet ^! two problems mu/ be solv$1 9 ord] to enable u to judge ( ! suffici5cy ( any hypo!sis ( ! ext9ction ( species2 & 9 ! mean "t1 = ! mode 9 :i* new species come into ! places ( ^? :i* are ext+ui%$1 we h 7z we h se57 no hypo!sis :i* physiology c1 = a mom5t1 sanction4 ,sect4 #g4--,! ,imb$d+ ( ,organic ,rema9s4 ,,!re is /ill "o portion ( ! ,dynamics ( ,geology1 a bran* ( great & manife/ importance1 :i* ,i h to notice1 b ^u :i* ,i ne$ only speak v briefly4 ,! mode 9 :i* ! spoils ( exi/+ plants & animals are imb$d$ 9 ! deposits n[ =m+1 is a subject :i* has naturally attract$ ! att5tion ( geologi/s4 ,dur+ ! controv]sy :i* took place 9 ,italy respect+ ! fossils ( ! ,sub-,ap5n9e hills1 ,vitaliano ,donati1#ibah 9 #agej1 und]took an exam9ation ( ! ,adriatic1 & f\nd t deposits conta9+ %ells & corals1 extremely resembl+ ! /rata ( ! hills1 7 !re 9 ! act ( =mation4 ,b )\t dwell+ on o!r obs]vations ( l k9d1 ,i may /ate t ,mr4 ,lyell has treat$ ?is subject1 & all ! topics connect$ ) x1 9 a v full & satisfactory mann]4 ,he has expla9$1#icah by an excell5t collection ( illu/rative facts1 h[ deposits ( v>i\s sub/ance & cont5ts are =m$2 h[ plants & animals become fossil 9 peat1 9 bl[n s&1 9 volcanic matt]1 9 #egh alluvial soil1 9 caves1 & 9 ! b$s ( lakes & seas4 ,?is exposition is ( ! mo/ in/ructive "*1 z a means ( obta9+ "r conclusions conc]n+ ! causes ( geological ph5om5a4 ,inde$1 9 _m cases1 ! simil>ity ( pa/ effects ) op]ations n[ go+ on1 is s complete1 t !y may be consid]$ z id5tical2 & ! discussion ( su* cases belongs1 at ! same "t1 to ,geological ,dynamics & to ,physical ,geology2 j z ! problem ( ! fall ( meteorolites may be consid]$ z belong+ alike to me*anics & to physical a/ronomy4 ,! gr[? ( mod]n peat-mosses1 = example1 fully expla9s ! =mation ( ! mo/ anci5t3 objects are buri$ 9 ! same mann] 9 ! ejections ( active & ( ext9ct volcanoes2 )9 ! limits ( hi/ory1 _m e/u>ies h be5 fill$ up2 & 9 ! deposits :i* h occupi$ ^! places1 are /rata conta9+ %ells1#idah z 9 ! old] =mations4 ,note #ibah3 ,lyell1 ,b4 ,i4 c4 iii4 p4 #fg4 7#d? ed47 ,note #icah3 ,b4 ,,iii4 c4 xiii4 xiv4 xv4 xvi4 xvii4 ,note #idah3 ,lyell1 ,b4 ,,iii4 c4 xvii4 p4 #bhf4 ,see also 8 ,address to ! ,geological ,society 9 #ahcg1 = an acc\nt ( ! ,rese>*es ( ,mr4 ,/okes & ( ,pr(essor ,gpp]t1 on ! lapidification ( vegetables4 #egi ,,physical ,,geology4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,progress ,,( ,,physical ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4--,object & ,di/9ctions ( ,physical ,geology4 ,,be+1 9 consequ5ce ( ! /eps :i* we h attempt$ to describe1 9 possession ( two sci5ces1 "o ( :i* traces ! laws ( action ( kn[n causes1 & ! o!r describes ! ph5om5a :i* ! e>?'s surface pres5ts1 we are n[ prep>$ to exam9e h[ f> ! attempts to ref] ! facts to _! causes h be5 successful3 we are ready to ent] ^u ! consid]ation ( ,!oretical or ,physical ,geology1 z1 by analogy ) ,physical ,a/ronomy1 we may t]m ?is bran* ( speculation4 ,! di/9ction ( ?is f o!r portions ( our k is suffici5tly evid5t4 ,9 =m] times1 ,geology 0 always associat$ ) ,m9]alogy1 & sometimes conf\nd$ ) x2 b ! mi/ake ( su* an arrangem5t mu/ be cle>1 f :at has be5 said4 ,geology is connect$ ) ,m9]alogy1 only s f> z ! latt] sci5ce classifies a l>ge portion ( ! objects :i* ,geology employs z evid5ce ( its /atem5ts4 ,to conf\nd ! two is ! same error z x w\ld be to treat philosophical hi/ory z id5tical ) ! k ( m$als4 ,geology procures evid5ce ( h] conclusions :]ev] %e c2 f m9]als or f seas2 f inorganic or f organic bodies2 f ! gr\nd or f ! skies4 ,! geologi/'s bus9ess is to le>n ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! e>?2 & he is no m limit$ to "o or a few k9ds ( docum5ts1 z 8 s\rces ( in=mation1 ?an is ! hi/orian ( man1 9 ! execution ( a simil> task4 ,physical ,geology1 ( :i* ,i n[ speak1 may n be always easily sep>able f ,descriptive ,geology3 9 fact1 !y h g5]ally be5 comb9$1 = few h be5 cont5t to describe1 )\t attempt+ 9 "s measure to expla94 ,inde$1 if !y _h done s1 x is #ehj probable t _! labors w\ld h be5 f> less zeal\s1 & _! expositions f> less impressive4 ,we by no means regret1 !re=e1 ! mixture ( ^! two k9ds ( k1 :i* has s (t5 occurr$2 b /ill1 x is our bus9ess to sep>ate !m4 ,! works ( a/ronom]s be=e ! rise ( s\nd physical a/ronomy1 7 full ( !ories1 b ^! 7 advantage\s1 n prejudicial1 to ! progress ( ! sci5ce4 ,geological !ories h be5 abundant & v>i\s2 b yet our hi/ory ( !m mu/ be brief4 ,= our object is1 z mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 to exhibit ^!1 only s f> z !y are /eps discov]ably t5d+ to ! true !ory ( ! e>?3 & 9 mo/ ( !m we d n trace ?is "*4 ,or r1 ! portions ( ! labors ( geologi/s :i* d m]it ?is praise1 belong to ! two prec$+ divisions ( ! subject1 & h be5 treat$ ( !re4 ,! hi/ory ( ,physical ,geology1 consid]$ z ! advance t[>ds a sci5ce z real & /able z ^? :i* we h already treat$ ( 7& ?is is ! =m 9 :i* we ought to trace x71 hi!rto consi/s ( few /eps4 ,we h>dly "k :e!r ! progress is begun4 ,! hi/ory ( ,physical ,a/ronomy almo/ comm5ces ) ,newton1 & few p]sons w v5ture to ass]t t ! ,newton ( ,geology has yet appe>$4 ,/ill1 "s exam9ation ( ! attempts :i* h be5 made is requisite1 9 ord] to expla9 & ju/ify ! view :i* ! analogy ( sci5tific hi/ory leads u to take1 ( ! /ate ( ! subject4 ,?\gh f> f int5d+ to give ev5 a sket* ( all pa/ geological speculations1 ,i mu/ notice "s ( ! =ms su* speculations h at diff]5t times assum$4 ,sect4 #b4--,( ,fanciful ,geological ,op9ions4 ,,real & p]man5t geological k1 l all o!r physical k1 c be obta9$ only by inductions ( classification & law f _m cle>ly se5 ph5om5a4 ,! labor ( ! mo/ active1 ! tal5t ( ! mo/ intellig5t1 are requisite = su* a purpose4 ,b f> less ?an ?is is suffici5t to put 9 busy op]ation ! inv5tive & caprici\s fancy4 ,a few appe>ances ha/ily se51 & arbitr>ily int]pret$1 are en\gh to give rise to a wondr\s tale ( ! pa/1 full ( /range ev5ts & sup]natural ag5cies4 ,! my?ology & e>ly poetry ( nations af=d suffici5t evid5ce ( man's love ( ! wond]ful1 & ( 8 inv5tive p[]s1 9 e>ly /ages ( intellectual developm5t4 ,! sci5tific faculty1 on ! o!r h&1 #eha & especially t "p ( x :i* is requisite = ! induction ( laws f facts1 em]ges sl[ly & ) difficulty f ! cr[d ( adv]se influ5ces1 ev5 "u ! mo/ favorable circum/ances4 ,we h se5 t 9 ! anci5t _w1 ! ,greeks alone %[$ !mselves to possess ?is tal5t2 & :at !y ?us atta9$ to1 am\nt$ only to a few s\nd doctr9es 9 a/ronomy1 & "o or two extremely imp]fect tru?s 9 me*anics1 optics1 & music1 :i* _! successors 7 unable to reta94 ,no o!r nation1 till we come to ! dawn ( a bett] day 9 mod]n ,europe1 made any positive /ep at all 9 s\nd physical speculation4 ,empty dreams or useless exhibitions ( +5uity1 =m$ ! :ole ( _! essays at su* k4 ,x mu/1 !re=e1 indep5d5tly ( positive evid5ce1 be consid]$ z extremely improbable1 t any ( ^! nations %\ld1 at an e>ly p]iod1 h arriv$1 by obs]vation & induction1 at wide g5]al tru?s1 su* z ! philosoph]s ( mod]n times h only satisfi$ !mselves ( by long & pati5t labor & ?\ght4 ,if resemblances %\ld be discov]$ betwe5 ! ass]tions ( anci5t writ]s & ! discov]ies ( mod]n sci5ce1 ! probability 9 all cases1 ! c]ta9ty 9 mo/1 is t ^! are accid5tal co9cid5ces2--t ! anci5t op9ion is no anticipation ( ! mod]n discov]y1 b is "o guess among _m1 n a :it ! m valuable because its expression agrees ) a tru?4 ,! au?or ( ! guess c\ld n int5d ! tru?1 because 8 m9d 0 n prep>$ to compreh5d x4 ,^? ( ! anci5ts :o spoke ( ! h>mony :i* b9ds all ?+s toge!r1 c\ld n mean ! ,newtonian gravitation1 because !y _h nev] be5 l$ to conceive an attractive =ce1 gov]n$ by def9ite ma!matical laws 9 its quantity & op]ation4 ,9 agreem5t ) ^! views1 we mu/1 ,i conceive1 e/imate ! op9ions :i* we f9d among ! anci5ts1 respect+ ! *anges :i* ! e>?'s surface has und]gone4 ,^! op9ions1 :5 !y are at all ( a g5]al k9d1 are arbitr>y fictions ( ! fancy1 %[+ man's love ( g5]ality inde$1 b indulg+ x )\t t exp5se ( labor & ?\ght :i* alone c r5d] x legitimate4 ,we might1 !re=e1 pass by all ! traditions & speculations ( ,ori5tal1 ,egyptian1 & ,greek cosmogony1 z extrane\s to our subject4 ,b s9ce ^! h rec5tly be5 spok5 (1 z conclusions collect$1 h[ev] vaguely1 f obs]v$ facts1#ieah we may make a rem>k or two ^u !m4 #ehb ,note #ieah3 ,lyell1 ,b4 i4 c4 ii4 p4 #h4 7#d? ed47 ,! notion ( a s]ies ( creations & de/ructions ( worlds1 :i* appe>s 9 ! sacr$ volume ( ! ,h9doos1 :i* =m$ "p ( ! tradition>y lore ( ,egypt1 & :i* 0 aft]w>ds adopt$ into ! poetry & philosophy ( ,greece1 mu/ be consid]$ z a my?ological1 n a physical1 doctr9e4 ,:5 ?is doctr9e 0 dwelt ^u1 m5's ?\ghts 7 direct$1 n to ! t]re/rial facts :i* x seem$ to expla91 b to ! attributes ( ! deities :i* x illu/rat$4 ,! conception ( a ,supreme p[]1 impell+ & guid+ ! progress ( ev5ts1 :i* is p]man5t among all p]petual *ange1 & regul> among all seem+ *ance1 0 readily ent]ta9$ by contemplative & en?usia/ic m9ds2 & :5 natural ph5om5a 7 ref]r$ to ?is doctr9e1 x 0 r = ! purpose ( fa/5+ its impressiv5ess ^u ! s5ses1 ?an 9 ! way ( giv+ to x au?ority & support4 ,h5ce we p]ceive t 9 ! exposition ( ?is doctr9e1 an attempt 0 always made to fill & elevate ! m9d ) ! notions ( m>vell\s ev5ts1 & ( inf9ite times1 9 :i* va/ cycles ( ord] recurr$4 ,! great ye>1 9 :i* all cele/ial ph5om5a come r\nd1 (f]$ itself z capable ( be+ calculat$2 & a simil> great ye> 0 readily assum$ = t]re/rial & human ev5ts4 ,h5ce !re 7 to be br\ght r\nd by great cycles1 n only deluges & conflagrations :i* 7 to de/roy & r5ovate ! e>?1 b also ! s]ies ( hi/orical occurr5ces4 ,n only ! sea & l& 7 to recomm5ce _! alt]nations1 b !re 0 to be ano!r ,argo1 :i* %\ld c>ry w>riors on ! fir/ sea-=ay1#ifah & ano!r succession ( h]oic w>s4 ,look+ at ! passages ( anci5t au?ors :i* ref] to t]re/rial *anges 9 ?is view1 we %all see t !y are address$ almo/ entirely to ! love ( ! m>vell\s & ! inf9ite1 & _c ) propriety be tak5 z indications ( a _s ( physical philosophy4 ,= example1 if we turn to ! celebrat$ passage 9 ,ovid1#igah :]e ,py?agoras is repres5t$ z ass]t+ t l& becomes sea1 & sea l&1 & _m o!r *anges :i* geologi/s h v]ifi$1 we f9d t ^! obs]vations are associat$ ) _m fables1 z be+ matt] ( exactly ! same k9d2--! f\nta9 ( ,ammon :i* 0 cold by day & w>m by night2#ihah--! wat]s ( ,salmacis :i* effem9ate m52--! ,clitorian spr+ :i* makes !m loa! w9e2--! ,simplegades isl&s :i* 7 once moveable2--! ,tritonian lake :i* cov]$ m5's bodies ) fea!rs2--& _m simil> m>vels4 ,& ! g5]al purport ( #ehc ! :ole is1 to c\nt5ance ! doctr9e ( ! metempsy*osis1 & ! ,py?agorean injunction ( n eat+ animal food4 ,x is cle>1 ,i ?9k1 t facts s introduc$ mu/ be consid]$ z hav+ be5 contemplat$ r 9 ! _s ( poetry ?an ( sci5ce4 ,note #ifah3 ,virg4 ,eclog4 #d4 ,note #igah3 ,met4 ,lib4 xv4 ,note #ihah3 ,v4 #cji1 c4 ,we mu/ e/imate 9 ! same mann]1 ! v rem>kable passage br\ght to light by ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1#iiah f ! ,arabian writ]1 ,kazwiri2 9 :i* we h a repres5tation ( ! same spot ( gr\nd1 z be+1 at successive int]vals ( five hundr$ ye>s1 a city1 a sea1 a des]t1 & aga9 a city4 ,?is inv5tion is adduc$1 ,i conceive1 r to fe$ ! appetite ( wond]1 ?an to fix x ^u any reality3 z ! title ( 8 book1 ,! ,m>vels ( ,nature obvi\sly intimates4 ,note #iiah3 ,ann4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 xxv4 #chj4 ,! speculations ( ,ari/otle1 conc]n+ ! ex*anges ( l& & sea :i* take place 9 long p]iods1 are n =m$ 9 exactly ! same _s1 b !y are h>dly m sub/antial2 & seem to be q z arbitr>y1 s9ce !y are n confirm$ by any examples & pro(s4 ,aft] /at+1#ajjah t ! same spots ( ! e>? are n always l& & always wat]1 he gives ! reason4 ,! pr9ciple & cause ( ?is is1 he says1 t ! inn] p>ts ( ! e>?1 l ! bodies ( plants & animals1 h _! ages ( vigor & ( decl9e2 b 9 plants & animals all ! p>ts are 9 vigor1 & all gr[ old1 at once3 9 ! e>? diff]5t p>ts arrive at maturity at diff]5t times by ! op]ation ( cold & heat3 !y gr[ & decay on acc\nt ( ! sun & ! revolution ( ! />s1 & ?us ! p>ts ( ! e>? acquire diff]5t p[]1 s t = a c]ta9 "t !y rema9 moi/1 & !n become dry & old3 & !n o!r places are revivifi$1 & become p>tially wat]y4 ,we are1 ,i conceive1 do+ no inju/ice to su* speculations by class+ !m among fanciful geological op9ions4 ,note #ajjah3 ,meteorol4 i4 #ad4 ,we mu/ also1 ,i conceive1 range 9 ! same division ano!r class ( writ]s ( mu* m mod]n times2--,i mean ^? :o h tra9$ _! geology by int]pretations ( ,scripture4 ,i h already endeavor$ to %[ t su* an attempt is a p]v]sion ( ! purpose ( a div9e communication1 & _c lead to any physical tru?4 ,i d n "h speak ( geological speculations 9 :i* ! ,mosaic acc\nt ( ! deluge has be5 ref]r$ to2 = :atev] errors may h be5 committ$ on t subject1 x w\ld be z absurd to disreg>d ! mo/ anci5t hi/orical record1 9 attempt+ to trace back ! hi/ory ( ! e>?1 z x w\ld be1 gratuit\sly to reject any o!r #ehd s\rce ( in=mation4 ,b ! int]pretations ( ! acc\nt ( ! creation h gone fur!r beyond ! limits ( s\nd philosophy3 & :5 we look at ! arbitr>y & fanta/ical inv5tions by :i* a few phrases ( ! writ+s ( ,moses h be5 m\ld$ into complete sy/ems1 we _c d\bt t ^! int]pretations belong to ! pres5t ,section4 ,i %all n attempt to criticize1 nor ev5 to enum]ate1 ^! ,scriptural ,geologies1--,sacr$ ,!ories ( ! ,e>?1 z ,burnet t]m$ 84 ,ray1 ,woodw>d1 ,:i/on1 & _m o!r p]sons to :om sci5ce has consid]able obligations1 7 involv$1 by ! speculative habits ( _! times1 9 ^! essays2 & !y h be5 resum$ by p]sons ( consid]able tal5t & "s k1 on v>i\s occasions up to ! pres5t day2 b ! m geology has be5 /udi$ on its own prop] evid5ce1 ! m h geologi/s se5 ! unpr(itable "* ( su* labors4 ,i proce$ n[ to ! next /ep 9 ! progress ( ,!oretical ,geology4 ,sect4 #c4--,( ,premature ,geological ,!ories4 ,,:ile we 7 giv+ our acc\nt ( ,descriptive ,geology1 ! att5tive read] w\ld p]ceive t we did1 9 fact1 /ate sev]al /eps 9 ! advance t[>ds g5]al k2 b :51 9 ^? cases1 ! !oretical aspect ( su* discov]ies s(t5$ into an appe>ance ( m]e classification1 ! occurr5ce 0 assign$ to ! hi/ory ( ,descriptive r ?an ( ,!oretical ,geology4 ,( su* a k9d 0 ! e/abli%m5t1 by a long & vehem5t controv]sy1 ( ! fact1 t ! impressions 9 rocks are really ! traces ( anci5t liv+ ?+s2 su*1 aga91 7 ! division ( rocks into ,primitive1 ,second>y1 ,t]ti>y2 ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! ord]ly succession ( organic rema9s3 ! consequ5t fixation ( a /&>d s]ies ( =mations & /rata2 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! igne\s nature ( trap rocks2 & ! l4 ,^! are geological tru?s :i* are assum$ & impli$ 9 ! v language :i* geology uses2 ?us %[+ h[ 9 ?is1 z 9 all o!r sci5ces1 ! succe$+ /eps involve ! prec$+4 ,b 9 ! hi/ory ( geological !ory1 we h to consid] ! wid] attempts to comb9e ! facts1 & to assign !m to _! causes4 ,! close ( ! la/ c5tury produc$ two antagoni/ !ories ( ?is k9d1 :i* long ma9ta9$ a fi]ce & d\btful /ruggle2--t ( ,w]n] & t ( ,hutton3 ! "o t]m$ ,neptunian1 f its #ehe ascrib+ ! ph5om5a ( ! e>?'s surface ma9ly to aque\s ag5cy2 ! o!r ,plutonian or ,vulcanian1 because x employ$ ! =ce ( subt]rane\s fire z its pr9cipal ma*9]y4 ,! circum/ance :i* is mo/ wor?y ( notice 9 ^! rem>kable essays is1 ! endeavor to give1 by means ( su* mat]ials z ! au?ors possess$1 a complete & simple acc\nt ( all ! facts ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,! ,saxon pr(essor1 proce$+ on ! exam9ation ( a small di/rict 9 ,g]many1 ma9ta9$ ! exi/5ce ( a *aotic fluid1 f :i* a s]ies ( univ]sal =mations _h be5 precipitat$1 ! position ( ! /rata be+ brok5 up by ! fall+ 9 ( subt]rane\s cavities1 9 ! int]vals betwe5 ^! depositions4 ,! ,scot* philosoph]1 :o _h obs]v$ 9 ,engl& & ,scotl&1 ?\ght himself ju/ifi$ 9 decl>+ t ! exi/+ causes 7 suffici5t to spread new /rata on ! bottom ( ! ocean1 & t !y are consolidat$1 elevat$1 & fractur$ by volcanic heat1 s z to give rise to new cont95ts4 ,x w h>dly be n[ d5i$ t all t is to rema9 z p]man5t sci5ce 9 ea* ( ^! sy/ems mu/ be prov$ by ! exam9ation ( _m cases & limit$ by _m conditions & circum/ances4 ,!ories s wide & simple1 7 consi/5t only ) a comp>atively scanty collection ( facts1 & belong to ! e>ly /age ( geological k4 ,9 ! progress ( ! sci5ce1 ! !ory ( ea* "p ( ! e>? mu/ come out ( ! exam9ation ( t "p1 comb9$ ) all t is well e/abli%$1 conc]n+ all ! re/2 & a g5]al !ory mu/ result f ! comp>ison ( all su* p>tial !oretical views4 ,any attempt to snat* x be=e its "t mu/ fail2 & !re=e we may v5ture at pres5t to designate g5]al !ories1 l ^? ( ,hutton & ,w]n]1 z premature4 ,?is1 inde$1 is ! s5tim5t ( mo/ ( ! good geologi/s ( ! pres5t day4 ,! "t = su* g5]al sy/ems1 & = ! fi]ce w>s to :i* ! opposition ( su* g5]alities gives rise1 is probably n[ pa/ = ev]2 & geology w n aga9 witness su* a controv]sy z t ( ! ,w]n]ian & ,huttonian s*ools4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,z :5 two black cl\ds ,) heav5's artill]y fraught1 come rattl+ on ,ov] ! ,caspian3 !n /& front to front1 ,hov]+ a space1 till w9ds ! signal bl[ ,to jo9 _! d>k enc\nt] 9 mid-air4 ,s fr[n$ ! mighty combatants1 t hell ,grew d>k] at _! fr[n2 s mat*$ !y /ood3 ,= nev] b once m 0 ei!r l ,to meet s great a foe4 #ehf ,! ma9 po9ts really affect+ ! progress ( s\nd !oretical geology1 w f9d a place 9 "o ( ! two next ,sections4 #bnd ,ed4 ,i ?9k ,i d no inju/ice to ,dr4 ,hutton 9 describ+ 8 !ory ( ! e>? z premature4 ,pr(4 ,playfair's elegant "w1 ,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory 7#ahjb17 s ju/ly admir$1 conta9s _m doctr9es :i* ! m mature geology ( mod]n times rejects2 su* z ! igne\s orig9 ( *alk-fl9ts1 silice\s pudd+ /one1 & ! l2 ! univ]sal =mation ( riv]-b$s by ! riv]s !mselves2 & o!r po9ts4 ,) reg>d to ?is la/-m5tion$ "q1 ,i ?9k all :o h read ,deluc's ,geologie 7#ahaj7 w deem 8 refutation ( ,playfair complete4 ,b ?\gh ,hutton's !ory 0 premature1 z well z ,w]n]'s1 ! =m] _h a f> great] value z an important /ep on ! road to tru?4 ,_m ( its bolde/ hypo!ses & g5]alizations h become a "p ( ! g5]al cre$ ( geologi/s2 & its publication is p]haps ! greate/ ev5t :i* has yet occurr$ 9 ! progress ( ,physical ,geology4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,two ,,antagoni/ ,,doctr9es ,,( ,,geology4 ,sect4 #a4--,( ! ,doctr9e ( ,geological ,cata/rophes4 ,,t great *anges1 ( a k9d & int5sity q diff]5t f ! common c\rse ( ev5ts1 & :i* may !re=e prop]ly be call$ cata/rophes1 h tak5 place ^u ! e>?'s surface1 0 an op9ion :i* appe>$ to be =c$ ^u m5 by obvi\s facts4 ,reject+1 z a m]e play ( fancy1 ! notions ( ! de/ruction ( ! e>? by cataclysms or conflagrations1 ( :i* we h already spok51 we f9d t ! fir/ really sci5tific exam9ation ( ! mat]ials ( ! e>?1 t ( ! ,sub-,ap5n9e hills1 l$ m5 to draw ?is inf]5ce4 ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 :om we h already notic$ = 8 e>ly & /r5u\s ass]tion ( ! real m>9e orig9 ( fossil impressions ( %ells1 also ma9ta9$ t ! bottom ( ! sea _h become ! top ( ! m\nta92 yet 8 mode ( expla9+ ?is may p]haps be claim$ by ! mod]n advocates ( uni=m causes z m alli$ to _! #ehg op9ion1 ?an to ! doctr9e ( cata/rophes4#ajaah ,b ,/5o1 9 #affi1 approa*$ ne>] to ?is doctr9e2 = he ass]t$ t ,tuscany mu/ h *ang$ its face at int]vals1 s z to acquire six diff]5t configurations1 by ! successive break+ d[n ( ! old] /rata into incl9$ positions1 & ! horizontal deposit ( new ones ^u !m4 ,/rabo1 inde$1 at an e>li] p]iod _h rec\rse to e>?quakes1 to expla9 ! occurr5ce ( %ells 9 m\nta9s2 & ,hooke publi%$ ! same op9ion lat]4 ,b ! ,italian geologi/s prosecut$ _! rese>*es "u ! advantage ( hav+1 close at h&1 l>ge collections ( conspicu\s & consi/5t ph5om5a4 ,lazz>o ,moro1 9 #agdj1 attempt$ to apply ! !ory ( e>?quakes to ! ,italian /rata2 b bo? he & 8 expositor1 ,cirillo ,g5]elli1 incl9$ r to r$uce ! viol5ce ( ^! op]ations )9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature1#ajbah & ?us leant to ! doctr9e ( uni=mity1 ( :i* we h aft]w>ds to speak4 ,moro 0 enc\rag$ 9 ?is l9e ( speculation by ! extraord9>y occurr5ce1 z x 0 deem$ by mo/ p]sons1 ( ! rise ( a new volcanic isl& f a deep "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 ne> ,santor9o1 9 #agjg4ajcah ,b 9 o!r c\ntries1 z ! geological facts 7 /udi$1 ! doctr9e ( cata/rophes appe>$ to ga9 gr\nd4 ,?us 9 ,engl&1 :]e1 ?r\gh a l>ge "p ( ! c\ntry1 ! coal-measures are extremely incl9$ & contort$1 & cov]$ ov] by m horizontal fragm5t>y b$s1 ! op9ion t "s viol5t cata/rophe _h occurr$ to dislocate !m1 be=e ! sup]9cumb5t /rata 7 deposit$1 0 /rongly held4 ,x 0 conceiv$ t a p]iod ( viol5t & de/ructive action mu/ h succe$$ to "o ( repose2 & t1 = a "t1 "s unusual & p>oxysmal =ces mu/ h be5 employ$ 9 elevat+ & break+ ! pre-exi/+ /rata1 & we>+ _! fragm5ts into smoo? pebbles1 be=e nature subsid$ into a new age ( tranquillity & vitality4 ,9 l mann] ,cuvi]1 f ! alt]nations ( fre%-wat] & salt-wat] species 9 ! /rata ( ,p>is1 collect$ ! op9ion ( a s]ies ( great revolutions1 9 :i* ! ?read ( induction 0 brok54 ,deluc & o!rs1 to :om we owe ! fir/ /eps 9 geological dynamics1 attempt$ c>efully to di/+ui% betwe5 causes n[ 9 action1 & ^? :i* h ceas$ to act2 9 :i* latt] class !y reckon$ ! causes :i* h #ehh elevat$ ! exi/+ cont95ts4 ,?is di/9ction 0 ass5t$ to by _m succe$+ geologi/s4 ,! =ces :i* h rais$ into ! cl\ds ! va/ *a9s ( ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,alps1 ! ,&es1 mu/ h be51 x 0 deem$1 some?+ v diff]5t f any ag5cies n[ op]at+4 ,note #ajaah3 ,"h is a "p ( ! e>? :i* has become m light1 & :i* rises1 :ile ! opposite "p approa*es ne>] to ! c5tre1 & :at 0 ! bottom ( ! sea is become ! top ( ! m\nta94--,v5turi's ,lon>do da ,v9ci4 ,note #ajbah3 ,lyell1 i4 #c4 p4 #fd4 7#d? ed47 ,note #ajcah3 ,ib4 p4 #fj4 ,?is op9ion 0 fur!r confirm$ by ! appe>ance ( a complete *ange 9 ! =ms ( animal & vegetable life1 9 pass+ f "o =mation to ano!r4 ,! species ( :i* ! rema9s occurr$1 7 entirely diff]5t1 x 0 said1 9 two successive epo*s3 a new creation appe>s to h int]v5$2 & x 0 readily believ$ t a transition1 s entirely out ( ! common c\rse ( ! _w1 might be accompani$ by p>oxysms ( me*anical en]gy4 ,su* views prevail ext5sively among geologi/s up to ! pres5t "t3 = in/ance1 9 ! compreh5sive !oretical g5]alizations ( ,elie de ,beaumont & o!rs1 respect+ m\nta9-*a9s1 x is suppos$ t1 at c]ta9 va/ int]vals1 sy/ems ( m\nta9s1 :i* may be recogniz$ by ! p>allelism ( c\rse ( _! incl9$ b$s1 h be5 di/urb$ & elevat$1 lift+ up ) !m ! aque\s /rata :i* _h be5 deposit$ among !m 9 ! int]v5+ p]iods ( tranquillity1 & :i* are recogniz$ & id5tifi$ by means ( _! organic rema9s3 & accord+ to ! adh]5ts ( ?is hypo!sis1 ^! sudd5 elevations ( m\nta9-*a9s h be5 foll[$1 aga9 & aga91 by mighty waves1 desolat+ :ole regions ( ! e>?4 ,! peculi> be>+ ( su* op9ions ^u ! progress ( physical geology w be bett] und]/ood by att5d+ to ! doctr9e ( uni=mity1 :i* is oppos$ to !m1 & ) ! consid]ation ( :i* we %all close our survey ( ?is sci5ce1 ! la/ bran* ( our pres5t task4 ,sect4 #b4--,( ! ,doctr9e ( ,geological ,uni=mity4 ,,! op9ion t ! hi/ory ( ! e>? _h involv$ a s]i\s ( cata/rophes1 confirm$ by ! two great classes ( facts1 ! symptoms ( me*anical viol5ce on a v l>ge scale1 & ( complete *anges 9 ! liv+ ?+s by :i* ! e>? _h be5 t5ant$1 took /rong hold ( ! geologi/s ( ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many4 ,hutton1 ?\gh he d5i$ t !re 0 evid5ce ( a beg9n+ ( ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 & ref]r$ _m processes 9 ! =mation ( /rata to exi/+ causes1 did n ass]t t ! elevatory =ces :i* raise cont95ts f ! bottom ( ! ocean1 7 ( ! same ord]1 #ehi z well z ( ! same k9d1 ) ! volcanoes & e>?quakes :i* n[ %ake ! surface4 ,8 doctr9e ( uni=mity 0 f\nd$ r on ! suppos$ analogy ( o!r l9es ( speculation1 ?an on ! exam9ation ( ! am\nt ( *anges n[ go+ on4 ,! ,au?or ( nature1 x 0 said1 has n p]mitt$ 9 ,8 works any symptom ( infancy or ( old age1 or any sign by :i* we may e/imate ei!r _! future or _! pa/ duration3 & ! example ( ! planet>y sy/em 0 ref]r$ to 9 illu/ration ( ?is4#ajdah ,& a g5]al p]suasion t ! *ampions ( ?is !ory 7 n dispos$ to accept ! usual op9ions on ! subject ( creation1 0 all[$1 p]haps v unju/ly1 to weigh /rongly aga9/ !m 9 ! public op9ion4 ,note #ajdah3 ,lyell1 i4 #d1 p4 #id4 ,:ile ! re/ ( ,europe _h a decid$ bias t[>ds ! doctr9e ( geological cata/rophes1 ! ph5om5a ( ,italy1 :i*1 z we h se51 _h already t5d$ to s(t5 ! rigor ( t doctr9e1 9 ! progress ( speculation f ,/5o to ,g5]elli1 7 de/9$ to mitigate x /ill m1 by conv]t+ to ! belief ( uni=mity transalp9e geologi/s :o _h be5 br$ up 9 ! cata/rophi/ cre$4 ,?is effect 01 inde$1 gradual4 ,= a "t ! di/9ction ( ! rec5t & ! t]ti>y p]iod 0 held to be m>k$ & /rong4 ,broc*i ass]t$ t a l>ge portion ( ! ,sub-,ap5n9e fossil %ells belong$ to a liv+ species ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea3 b ! geologi/s ( ! re/ ( ,europe turn$ an incr$ul\s e> to ?is ,italian t5et2 & ! p]suasion ( ! di/9ction ( ! t]ti>y & ! rec5t p]iod 0 deeply impress$ on mo/ geologi/s by ! memorable labors ( ,cuvi] & ,brongni>t on ! ,p>is bas94 ,/ill1 z o!r t]ti>y deposits 7 exam9$1 x 0 f\nd t !y c\ld by no means be consid]$ z contemporane\s1 b t !y =m$ a *a9 ( po/s1 advanc+ ne>] & ne>] to ! rec5t p]iod4 ,above ! /rata ( ! bas9s ( ,london & ,p>is1#ajeah lie ! new] /rata ( ,t\ra9e1 ( ,b\rdeaux1 ( ! valley ( ! ,bormida & ! ,sup]ga ne> ,tur91 & ( ! bas9 ( ,vi5na1 explor$ by ,m4 ,con/ant ,prevo/4 ,new] & high] /ill ?an ^!1 are f\nd ! ,sub-,ap5n9e =mations ( ,nor!rn ,italy1 & probably ( ! same p]iod1 ! ,engli% crag ( ,norfolk & ,suffolk4 ,& mo/ ( ^! m>9e =mations are associat$ ) volcanic products & fre%-wat] deposits1 s z to imply app>5tly a long tra9 ( alt]nations ( correspond+ processes4 ,x may easily be suppos$ t1 :5 ! subject _h assum$ ?is =m1 ! b\nd>y ( ! pres5t & pa/ condition ( ! e>? #eij 0 9 "s measure obscur$4 ,b x 0 n long be=e a v able attempt 0 made to oblit]ate x altoge!r4 ,9 #ahbh1 ,mr4 ,lyell set out on a geological t\r ?r\gh ,france & ,italy4#ajfah ,he _h already conceiv$ ! idea ( class+ ! t]ti>y gr\ps by ref]5ce to ! numb] ( rec5t species :i* 7 f\nd 9 a fossil /ate4 ,b z he pass$ f ! nor? to ! s\? ( ,italy1 he f\nd1 by communication ) ! be/ fossil con*ologi/s1 ,borelli at ,tur91 ,guidotti at ,p>ma1 ,co/a at ,naples1 t ! numb] ( ext9ct species decreas$2 s t ! la/-m5tion$ naturali/1 f an exam9ation ( ! fossil %ells ( ,otranto & ,calabria1 & ( ! neighbor+ seas1 0 ( op9ion t few ( ! t]ti>y %ells 7 ( ext9ct species4 ,to complete ! s]ies ( pro(1 ,mr4 ,lyell himself explor$ ! /rata ( ,is*ia1 & f\nd1 #bjjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 %ells1 :i* 7 all pron\nc$ to be ( species n[ inhabit+ ! ,m$it]ranean2 & soon aft]1 he made collections ( a simil> description on ! flanks ( ,etna1 9 ! ,val di ,noto1 & 9 o!r places4 ,note #ajeah3 ,lyell1 #a/ ed4 vol4 iii4 p4 #fa4 ,note #ajfah3 #a/ ed4 vol4 iii4 ,pref4 ,! impression produc$ by ^! rese>*es is describ$ by himself4#ajgah ,9 ! c\rse ( my t\r ,i _h be5 frequ5tly l$ to reflect on ! precept ( ,desc>tes1 t a philosoph] %\ld once 9 8 life d\bt ev]y?+ he _h be5 taught2 b ,i /ill reta9$ s mu* fai? 9 my e>ly geological cre$ z to feel ! mo/ lively surprize on visit+ ,sort9o1 ,p5talica1 ,syracuse1 & o!r p>ts ( ! ,val di ,noto1 at behold+ a lime/one ( enorm\s ?ickness1 fill$ ) rec5t %ells1 or sometimes ) m]e ca/s ( %ells1 re/+ on m>l 9 :i* %ells ( ,m$it]ranean species 7 imb$d$ 9 a high /ate ( pres]vation4 ,all idea ( necess>ily atta*+ a high antiquity to a regul>ly-/ratifi$ lime/one1 9 :i* ! ca/s & impressions ( %ells alone 7 visible1 vani%$ at once f my m9d4 ,at ! same "t1 ,i 0 /ruck ) ! id5tity ( ! associat$ igne\s rocks ( ! ,val di ,noto ) well-kn[n v>ieties ( 'trap' 9 ,scotl& & o!r p>ts ( ,europe2 v>ieties :i* ,i _h also se5 ent]+ l>gely into ! /ructure ( ,etna4 ,note #ajgah3 ,lyell1 #a/ ed4 ,pref4 x4 ,i occasionally amus$ myself1 ,mr4 ,lyell adds1 ) speculat+ on ! diff]5t rate ( progress :i* geology might h made1 _h x be5 fir/ cultivat$ ) success at ,catania1 :]e ! ph5om5a above allud$ to1 & ! great elevation ( ! mod]n t]ti>y b$s 9 ! ,val di ,noto1 & ! *anges produc$ 9 ! hi/orical era by ! ,calabrian e>?quakes1 w\ld h be5 famili>ly kn[n4 #eia ,be=e ,mr4 ,lyell ent]$ ^u 8 j\rney1 he _h put into ! h&s ( ! pr9t] ! fir/ volume ( 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 be+ an attempt to expla9 ! =m] ,*anges ( ! ,e>?'s ,surface by ref]5ce to ! ,causes n[ 9 ,op]ation4 ,& aft] view+ su* ph5om5a z we h spok5 (1 he1 no d\bt1 judg$ t ! doctr9e ( cata/rophes ( a k9d entirely diff]5t f ! exi/+ c\rse ( ev5ts1 w\ld nev] h be5 g5]ally receiv$1 if geologi/s _h at fir/ =m$ _! op9ions ^u ! ,sicilian /rata4 ,! b\nd>y sep>at+ ! pres5t f ! ant]ior /ate ( ?+s crumbl$ away2 ! diff]5ce ( fossil & rec5t species _h disappe>$1 &1 at ! same "t1 ! *anges ( position :i* m>9e /rata _h und]gone1 al?\gh n inf]ior to ^? ( e>li] geological p]iods1 might be ascrib$1 x 0 ?\ght1 to ! same k9d ( e>?quakes z ^? :i* /ill agitate t region4 ,bo? ! suppos$ pro(s ( cata/rophic transition1 ! organical & ! me*anical *anges1 fail$ at ! same "t2 ! "o by ! removal ( ! fact1 ! o!r by ! exhibition ( ! cause4 ,! p[]s ( e>?quakes1 ev5 su* z !y n[ exi/1 71 x 0 suppos$1 if all[$ to op]ate = an illimitable "t1 adequate to produce all ! me*anical effects :i* ! /rata ( all ages display4 ,& x 0 decl>$ t all evid5ce ( a beg9n+ ( ! pres5t /ate ( ! e>?1 or ( any mat]ial alt]ation 9 ! en]gy ( ! =ces by :i* x has be5 modifi$ at v>i\s epo*s1 0 entirely want+4 ,o!r circum/ances 9 ! progress ( geology t5d$ ! same way4 ,?us1 9 cases :]e !re _h appe>$ 9 "o c\ntry a sudd5 & viol5t transition f "o /ratum to ! next1 x 0 f\nd1 t by trac+ ! =mations into o!r c\ntries1 ! *asm betwe5 !m 0 fill$ up by int]m$iate /rata2 s t ! passage became z gradual & g5tle z any o!r /ep 9 ! s]ies4 ,= example1 ?\gh ! conglom]ates1 :i* 9 "s p>ts ( ,engl& ov]lie ! coal-measures1 appe> to h be5 produc$ by a complete discont9uity 9 ! s]ies ( *anges2 yet 9 ! coal-fields ( ,york%ire1 ,durham1 & ,cumb]l&1 ! transition is smoo!d d[n 9 su* a way t ! two =mations pass into ea* o!r4 ,a simil> passage is obs]v$ 9 ,c5tral-,g]many1 & 9 ,?ur+ia is s complete1 t ! coal-measures h sometimes be5 consid]$ z subord9ate to ! todtlieg5des4#ajhah ,note #ajhah3 ,de la ,be*e1 p4 #dad1 ,manual4 ,^u su* evid5ce & su* argum5ts1 ! doctr9e ( #eib cata/rophes 0 reject$ ) "s contempt & ridicule2 & x 0 ma9ta9$1 t ! op]ation ( ! causes ( geological *ange may prop]ly & philosophically be held to h be5 uni=m ?r\gh all ages & p]iods4 ,on ?is op9ion1 & ! gr\nds on :i* x he be5 urg$1 we %all make a few conclud+ rem>ks4 ,x mu/ be grant$ at once1 to ! advocates ( ?is geological uni=mity1 t we are n arbitr>ily to assume ! exi/5ce ( cata/rophes4 ,! degree ( uni=mity & cont9uity ) :i* t]remotive =ces h act$1 mu/ be collect$1 n f any gratuit\s hypo!sis1 b f ! facts ( ! case4 ,we mu/ suppose ! causes :i* h produc$ geological ph5om5a1 to h be5 z simil> to exi/+ causes1 & z dissimil>1 z ! effects tea* u4 ,we are to avoid all bias 9 favor ( p[]s deviat+ 9 k9d & degree f ^? :i* act at pres5t2 a bias :i*1 ,mr4 ,lyell ass]ts1 has ext5sively prevail$ among geologi/s4 ,b :5 ,mr4 ,lyell goes fur!r1 & consid]s x a m]it 9 a c\rse ( geological speculation t x rejects any diff]5ce betwe5 ! int5sity ( exi/+ & ( pa/ causes1 we conceive t he errs no less ?an ^? :om he c5sures4 ,an e>ne/ & pati5t endeavor to reconcile ! =m] indication ( *ange1#ajiah ) any re/rict$ class ( causes1--a habit :i* he enjo9s1--is n1 we may sugge/1 ! temp] 9 :i* sci5ce ought to be pursu$4 ,! effects mu/ !mselves tea* u ! nature & int5sity ( ! causes :i* h op]at$2 & we are 9 dang] ( error1 if we seek = sl[ & %un viol5t ag5cies fur!r ?an ! facts naturally direct u1 no less ?an if we 7 p>simoni\s ( "t & prodigal ( viol5ce4 ,"t1 inexhau/ible & ev] accumulat+ 8 efficacy1 c und\bt$ly d mu* = ! !ori/ 9 geology2 b ,=ce1 ^: limits we _c measure1 & ^: nature we _c fa?om1 is also a p[] nev] to be slight$3 & to call 9 ! "o to protect u f ! o!r1 is equally presumptu\s1 to :i*ev] ( ! two our sup]/ition leans4 ,to invoke ,"t1 ) t5 ?\s& e>?quakes1 to ov]turn & set on edge a m\nta9-*a91 %\ld ! ph5om5a indicate ! *ange to h be5 sudd5 & n successive1 w\ld be ill excus$ by plead+ ! obligation ( fir/ appeal+ to kn[n causes4#aajah #eic ,note #ajiah3 ,lyell1 ,b4 iv4 c4 i4 p4 #cbh1 #d? ed4 ,note #aajah3 #bnd ,ed4 ,i h1 9 ! text1 quot$ ! f\r? edition ( ,mr4 ,lyell's ,pr9ciples1 9 :i* he recomm5ds an e>ne/ & pati5t endeavor to reconcile ! =m] indications ( *ange ) ! evid5ce ( gradual mutation n[ 9 progress4 ,9 ! six? edition1 9 t :i* is1 ,i presume1 ! correspond+ passage1 al?\gh x is transf]r$ f ! f\r? to ! fir/ ,book 7,b4 i4 c4 xiii4 p4 #cbe7 he recomm5ds1 in/ead1 an e>ne/ & pati5t inquiry h[ f> geological appe>ances are reconcileable ) ! effect ( *anges n[ 9 progress4 ,b :ile ,mr4 ,lyell has ?us s(t5$ ! advocate's "* 9 8 language 9 ?is passage1 ! transposition :i* ,i h notic$ appe>s to me to h an opposite t5d5cy4 ,= 9 ! =m] edition1 ! causes n[ 9 action 7 fir/ describ$ 9 ! second & ?ird ,books1 & ! great problem ( ,geology1 /at$ 9 ! fir/ ,book1 0 attempt$ to be solv$ 9 ! f\r?4 ,b by incorporat+ ?is f\r? ,book ) ! fir/1 & ?us prefix+ to ! /udy ( exi/+ causes argum5ts aga9/ ! belief ( _! geological insuffici5cy1 !re is an appe>ance z if ! au?or wi%$ 8 read] to be prep>$ by a previ\s plead+ aga9/ ! doctr9e ( cata/rophes1 be=e he w5t to ! /udy ( exi/+ causes4 ,! ,doctr9es ( ,cata/rophes & ( ,uni=mity1 & ! o!r lead+ que/ions ( ! ,paltiological ,sci5ces1 are fur!r discuss$ 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,book x4 ,9 tru?1 we "k causes only by _! effects2 & 9 ord] to le>n ! nature ( ! causes :i* modify ! e>?1 we mu/ /udy !m ?r\gh all ages ( _! action1 & n select arbitr>ily ! p]iod 9 :i* we live z ! /&>d = all o!r epo*s4 ,! =ces :i* h produc$ ! ,alps & ,&es are kn[n to u by exp]i5ce1 no less ?an ! =ces :i* h rais$ ,etna to its pres5t height2 = we le>n _! am\nt 9 bo? cases by _! results4 ,:y1 !n1 d we make a m]it ( us+ ! latt] case z a measure = ! =m]8 ,or h[ c we "k ! true scale ( su* =ce1 except by compreh5d+ 9 our view all ! facts :i* we c br+ toge!r8 ,9 reality :5 we speak ( ! uni=mity ( nature1 are we n oblig$ to use ! t]m 9 a v l>ge s5se1 9 ord] to make ! doctr9e at all t5able8 ,x includes cata/rophes & convulsions ( a v ext5sive & int5se k9d2 :at is ! limit to ! viol5ce :i* we mu/ all[ to ^! *anges8 ,9 ord] to enable ourselves to repres5t geological causes z op]at+ ) uni=m en]gy ?r\gh all "t1 we mu/ measure our "t by long cycles1 9 :i* repose & viol5ce alt]nate2 h[ long may we ext5d ?is cycle ( *ange1 ! repetition ( :i* we express by ! ^w uni=mity8 ,& :y mu/ we suppose t all our exp]i5ce1 geological z well z hi/orical1 includes m ?an "o su* cycle8 ,:y mu/ we insi/ ^u x1 t man has be5 long en\gh an obs]v] to obta9 ! av]age ( =ces :i* are *ang+ ?r\gh immeasurable "t8 #eid ,! analogy ( o!r sci5ces has be5 ref]r$ to1 z sanction+ ?is attempt to ref] ! :ole tra9 ( facts to kn[n causes4 ,to h done ?is1 x has be5 said1 is ! glory ( ,a/ronomy3 %e seeks no hidd5 virtues1 b expla9s all by ! =ce ( gravitation1 :i* we witness op]at+ at e mom5t4 ,b let u ask1 :e!r x w\ld really h be5 a m]it 9 ! f\nd]s ( ,physical ,a/ronomy1 to assume t ! cele/ial revolutions result$ f any select$ class ( kn[n causes8 ,:5 ,newton fir/ attempt$ to expla9 ! motions ( ! moon by ! =ce ( gravity1 & fail$ because ! measures to :i* he ref]r$ 7 errone\s1 w\ld x h be5 philosophical 9 him1 to insi/ t ! diff]5ce :i* he f\nd ought to be ov]look$1 s9ce o!rwise we %\ld be compell$ to g to causes o!r ?an ^? :i* we usually witness 9 action8 ,or 0 !re any praise due to ^? :o assum$ ! cele/ial =ces to be ! same ) gravity1 r ?an to ^? :o assimilat$ !m ) any o!r kn[n =ce1 z magnetism1 till ! calculation ( ! laws & am\nt ( ^! =ces1 f ! cele/ial ph5om5a1 _h cle>ly sanction$ su* an id5tification8 ,we are n to select a conclusion n[ well prov$1 to p]suade ourselves t x w\ld h be5 wise to assume x ant]ior to pro(1 & to attempt to philosophize 9 ! me?od ?us recomm5d$4 ,aga91 ! analogy ( ,a/ronomy has be5 ref]r$ to1 z confirm+ ! assumption ( p]petual uni=mity4 ,! analysis ( ! heav5ly motions1 x has be5 said1 supplies no trace ( a beg9n+1 no promise ( an end4 ,b "h1 also1 ?is analogy is errone\sly appli$4 ,a/ronomy1 z ! sci5ce ( cyclical motions1 has no?+ 9 common ) ,geology4 ,b look at ,a/ronomy :]e %e has an analogy ) ,geology2 consid] our k ( ! heav5s z a paltiological sci5ce2--z ! /udy ( a pa/ condition1 f :i* ! pres5t is d]iv$ by causes act+ 9 "t4 ,is !re !n no evid5ce ( a beg9n+1 or ( a progress8 ,:at is ! import ( ! ,nebul> ,hypo!sis8 ,a lum9\s matt] is cond5s+1 solid bodies are =m+1 are arrang+ !mselves into sy/ems ( cyclical motion2 9 %ort1 we h exactly :at we are told1 on ?is analogy1 we ought n to h2--! beg9n+ ( a _w4 ,i w n1 to ju/ify ?is argum5t1 ma9ta9 ! tru? ( ! nebul> hypo!sis2 b if geologi/s wi% to borr[ maxims ( philosophiz+ f a/ronomy1 su* speculations z h l$ to t hypo!sis mu/ be _! model4 ,or1 let !m look at any ( ! o!r prov9ces ( paltiological speculation2 at ! hi/ory ( /ates1 ( civilization1 ( languages4 ,we #eie may assume "s resemblance or connexion betwe5 ! pr9ciples :i* det]m9$ ! progress ( gov]nm5t1 or ( society1 or ( lit]ature1 9 ! e>lie/ ages1 & ^? :i* n[ op]ate2 b :o has speculat$ successfully1 assum+ an id5tity ( su* causes8 ,:]e d we n[ f9d a language 9 ! process ( =mation1 unfold+ itself 9 inflexions1 t]m9ations1 *anges ( v[els by grammatical relations1 su* z *>act]ize ! olde/ kn[n languages8 ,:]e d we see a nation1 by its natural faculties1 inv5t+ writ+1 or ! arts ( life1 z we f9d !m 9 ! mo/ anci5t civiliz$ nations8 ,we may assume hypo!tically1 t man's faculties develop !mselves 9 ^! ways2 b we see no su* effects produc$ by ^! faculties1 9 our own "t1 & n[ 9 progress1 )\t ! influ5ce ( =eign]s4 ,is x n cle>1 9 all ^! cases1 t hi/ory does n exhibit a s]ies ( cycles1 ! aggregate ( :i* may be repres5t$ z a uni=m /ate1 )\t indication ( orig9 or t]m9ation8 ,does x n r seem evid5t t1 9 reality1 ! :ole c\rse ( ! _w1 f ! e>lie/ to ! pres5t times1 is b "o cycle1 yet unf9i%$2--(f]+1 inde$1 no cle> evid5ce ( ! mode ( its beg9n+2 b /ill less entitl+ u to consid] x z a repetition or s]ies ( repetitions ( :at _h gone be=e8 ,?us we f9d1 9 ! analogy ( ! sci5ces1 no confirmation ( ! doctr9e ( uni=mity1 z x has be5 ma9ta9$ 9 ,geology4 ,yet we disc]n1 9 ?is analogy1 no gr\nd = resign+ our hope1 t future rese>*es1 bo? 9 ,geology & 9 o!r paltiological sci5ces1 may ?r[ mu* additional light on ! "q ( ! uni=m or cata/rophic progress ( ?+s1 & on ! e>lie/ hi/ory ( ! e>? & ( man4 ,b :5 we see h[ wide & complex is ! range ( speculation to :i* our analogy has ref]r$ u1 we may well be dispos$ to pause 9 our review ( sci5ce2--to survey f our pres5t position ! gr\nd t we h pass$ ov]2--& ?us to collect1 s f> z we may1 guidance & enc\ragem5t to enable u to advance 9 ! track :i* lies be=e u4 ,be=e we quit ! subject n[ "u consid]ation1 we may1 h[ev]1 obs]ve1 t :at ! analogy ( sci5ce really tea*es u1 z ! mo/ promis+ means ( promot+ ?is sci5ce1 is ! /r5u\s cultivation ( ! two subord9ate sci5ces1 ,geological ,k ( ,facts1 & ,geological ,dynamics4 ,^! are ! two prov9ces ( k--correspond+ to ,ph5om5al ,a/ronomy1 & ,ma!matical ,me*anics--:i* may lead on to ! epo* ( ! ,newton ( #eif geology4 ,we may1 inde$1 readily believe t we h mu* to d 9 bo? ^! dep>tm5ts4 ,:ile s l>ge a portion ( ! globe is geologically unexplor$2--:ile all ! g5]al views :i* are to ext5d our classifications satisfactorily f "o hemisph]e to ano!r1 f "o zone to ano!r1 are /ill un=m$2 :ile ! organic fossils ( ! tropics are almo/ unkn[n1 & _! g5]al relation to ! exi/+ /ate ( ?+s has n ev5 be5 conjectur$2--h[ c we expect to speculate rightly & securely1 respect+ ! hi/ory ( ! :ole ( our globe8 ,& if ,geological ,classification & ,description are ?us imp]fect1 ! k ( ,geological ,causes is /ill m s4 ,z we h se51 ! necessity & ! me?od ( con/ruct+ a sci5ce ( su* causes1 are only j beg9n+ to be p]ceiv$4 ,"h1 !n1 is ! po9t :]e ! labors ( geologi/s may be usefully appli$2 & n 9 premature attempts to decide ! wide/ & ab/ruse/ que/ions :i* ! human m9d c propose to itself4 ,x has be5 /at$1#aaaah t :5 ! ,geological ,society ( ,london 0 =m$1 _! pr(ess$ object 0 to multiply & record obs]vations1 & pati5tly to await ! result at "s future "t2 & _! favorite maxim 01 x is add$1 t ! "t 0 n yet come = a ,g5]al ,sy/em ( ,geology4 ,?is 0 a wise & philosophical temp]1 & a due appreciation ( _! position4 ,& ev5 n[1 _! task is n yet f9i%$2 _! mission is n yet accompli%$4 ,!y h /ill mu* to d1 9 ! way ( collect+ ,facts2 & 9 ent]+ ^u ! exact e/imation ( ,causes1 !y h only j ?r[n op5 ! door ( a va/ ,labyr9?1 :i* x may employ _m g5]ations to trav]se1 b :i* !y mu/ ne$s explore1 be=e !y c p5etrate to ! ,oracul> ,*amb] ( ,tru?4 ,note #aaaah3 ,lyell1 ,b4 i4 c4 iv4 p4 #ajc4 ,i ,,rejoice1 on _m acc\nts1 to f9d myself arriv+ at ! t]m9ation ( ! task :i* ,i h attempt$4 ,"o reason :y ,i am glad to close my hi/ory is1 t 9 x ,i h be5 compell$1 especially 9 ! latt] "p ( my labors1 to speak z a judge respect+ em95t philosoph]s :om ,i rev]5ce z my ,tea*]s 9 ^? v sci5ces on :i* ,i h _h to pron\nce a judgm5t2--if1 inde$1 ev5 ! appellation ( ,pupil be n too presumptu\s4 ,b ,i d\bt n t su* m5 are z full ( c&or & tol]ance1 z !y are ( k & ?\ght4 ,& if !y deem1 z ,i did1 t su* a hi/ory ( #eig sci5ce ought to be attempt$1 !y w "k t x 0 n only ! hi/orian's privilege1 b 8 duty1 to e/imate ! import & am\nt ( ! advances :i* he _h to n>rate2 & if !y judge1 z ,i tru/ !y w1 t ! attempt has be5 made ) full integrity ( int5tion & no want ( labor1 !y w look ^u ! inevitable imp]fections ( ! execution ( my "w ) indulg5ce & hope4 ,!re is ano!r s\rce ( satisfaction 9 arriv+ at ?is po9t ( my labors4 ,if1 aft] our long w&]+ ?r\gh ! region ( physical sci5ce1 we 7 left ) m9ds unsatisfi$ & unrais$1 to ask1 ,:e!r ?is be all8--our employm5t might well be deem$ we>y & idle4 ,if x appe>$ t all ! va/ labor & int5se ?\ght :i* has pass$ "u our review _h produc$ no?+ b a b>r5 ,k ( ! ext]nal _w1 or a few ,arts m9i/]+ m]ely to our gratification2 or if x seem$ t ! me?ods ( arriv+ at tru?1 s successfully appli$ 9 ^! cases1 aid u n :5 we come to ! high] aims & prospects ( our be+2--?is ,hi/ory might well be e/imat$ z no less melan*oly & unpr(itable ?an ^? :i* n>rate ! w>s ( /ates & ! wiles ( /atesm54 ,b su*1 ,i tru/1 is n ! impression :i* our survey has t5d$ to produce4 ,at v>i\s po9ts1 ! rese>*es :i* we h foll[$ out1 h (f]$ to lead u f matt] to m9d1 f ! ext]nal to ! int]nal _w2 & x 0 n because ! ?read ( inve/igation snapp$ 9 our h&s1 b r because we 7 resolv$ to conf9e ourselves1 = ! pres5t1 to ! mat]ial sci5ces1 t we did n proce$ onw>ds to subjects ( a clos] int]e/4 ,x w appe>1 also1 ,i tru/1 t ! mo/ p]fect me?od ( obta9+ speculative tru?1--t ( :i* ,i h _h to relate ! result1--is by no means conf9$ to ! lea/ wor?y subjects2 b t ! ,me?ods ( le>n+ :at is really true1 ?\gh !y mu/ assume diff]5t aspects 9 cases :]e a m]e contemplation ( ext]nal objects is conc]n$1 & :]e our own int]nal _w ( ?\ght1 feel+1 & w1 supplies ! matt] ( our speculations1 h yet a unity & h>mony ?r\gh\t all ! possible employm5ts ( our m9ds4 ,to be able to trace su* connexions z ?is1 is ! prop] sequel1 & w\ld be ! high rew>d1 ( ! labor :i* has be5 be/[$ on ! pres5t "w4 ,& if a p]suasion ( ! reality ( su* connexions1 & a prep>ation = /udy+ !m1 h be5 convey$ to ! read]'s m9d :ile he has be5 accompany+ me ?r\gh our long survey1 8 "t may n h be5 employ$ on #eih ^! pages 9 va94 ,h[ev] vague & hesitat+ & obscure may be su* a p]suasion1 x belongs1 ,i d\bt n1 to ! dawn+ ( a bett] ,philosophy1 :i* x may be my lot1 p]haps1 to develop m fully h]eaft]1 if p]mitt$ by t ,sup]ior ,p[] to :om all s\nd philosophy directs our ?\ghts4 #eii ,,additions ,,to ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,,book ,,viii4 ,,ac\/ics4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,s\nd4 ,! ,velocity ( ,s\nd 9 ,wat]4 ,,! ,sci5ce ( :i* ! hi/ory is n>rat$ 9 ?is ,book has = its objects1 ! m9ute ,vibrations ( ! p>ts ( bodies su* z ^? by :i* ,s\nds are produc$1 & ! prop]ties ( ,s\nds4 ,! ,vibrations ( bodies are ! result ( a c]ta9 t5sion ( _! /ructure :i* we t]m ,ela/icity4 ,! ,ela/icity det]m9es ! rate ( ,vibration3 ! rate ( ,vibration det]m9es ! audible note3 ! ,ela/icity det]m9es also ! velocity ) :i* ! vibration travels ?r\gh ! sub/ance4 ,^! po9ts ( ! subject1 ,ela/icity1 ,rate ( ,vibration1 ,velocity ( ,propagation1 ,audible ,note1 are connect$ 9 ea* sub/ance1 & are diff]5t 9 diff]5t sub/ances4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ?is ,sci5ce1 consid]$ z t5d+ to a satisfactory g5]al !ory1 ! ,problems :i* h obvi\sly (f]$ !mselves 71 to expla9 ! prop]ties ( ,s\nds by ! relations ( _! con/itu5t vibrations2 & to expla9 ! exi/5ce ( vibrations by ! ela/icity ( ! sub/ances 9 :i* !y occurr$3 z 9 ,optics1 philosoph]s h expla9$ ! ph5om5on ( light & colors by ! ,undulatory ,!ory1 & are /ill engag$ 9 expla9+ ! requisite modulations by means ( ! ela/icity ( ! ,e!r4 ,b ! ,undulatory ,!ory ( ,s\nd 0 se5 to be true at an e>ly p]iod ( ! ,sci5ce3 & ! explanation1 9 a g5]al way at lea/1 ( all k9ds ( su* undulations by means ( ! ela/icity ( ! vibrat+ sub/ances has be5 p]=m$ by a s]ies ( ma!maticians ( :om ,i h giv5 an acc\nt 9 ?is ,book4 ,h5ce ! po9ts ( ! subject already m5tion$ 7,ela/icity1 ,vibrations & _! ,propagations1 #fjj & ,note71 h a kn[n mat]ial dep5d5ce1 & ea* may be employ$ 9 det]m9+ ! o!r3 = in/ance1 ! ,note may be employ$ 9 det]m9+ ! velocity ( s\nd & ! ela/icity ( ! vibrat+ sub/ance4 ,*ladni1#a;,b & ! ,web]s1#b;,b _h made valuable exp]im5tal inquiries on su* subjects4 ,b m complete inve/igations ( ?is k9d h be5 conduct$ ) c>e & skill by ,m4 ,w]!im4#c;,b ,= in/ance1 he has det]m9$ ! velocity ) :i* s\nd travels 9 wat]1 by mak+ an organ-pipe to s\nd by ! passage ( wat] ?r\gh x4 ,?is is a matt] ( "s difficulty2 = ! m\?piece ( an organ-pipe1 if x be n prop]ly & c>efully con/ruct$1 produces s\nds ( its own1 :i* are n ! g5u9e musical note ( ! pipe4 ,& ?\gh ! note dep5ds ma9ly ^u ! l5g? ( ! pipe1 x dep5ds also1 9 a small degree1 on ! bread? ( ! pipe & ! size ( ! m\?piece4 ,note #a;,b3 ,trait d',ac\/ique1 #ahji4 ,note #b;,b3 ,well5lehre1 #aheb4 ,note #c;,b3 ,mmoires de ,physique ,mcanique4 ,p>is1 #ahdh4 ,if ! pipe 7 a m]e l9e1 ! "t ( a vibration w\ld be ! "t 9 :i* a vibration travels f "o end ( ! pipe to ! o!r2 & ?us ! note = a giv5 l5g? 7:i* is det]m9$ by ! "t ( vibration71 is connect$ ) ! velocity ( vibration4 ,he ?us f\nd t ! velocity ( a vibration along ! pipe 9 sea-wat] is #aaeg mtres p] second4 ,b ,m4 ,w]!im conceiv$ t he _h previ\sly %[n1 by g5]al ma!matical reason+1 t ! velocity ) :i* s\nd travels 9 an unlimit$ expanse ( any sub/ance1 is to ! velocity ) :i* x travels along a pipe or l9e> /rip ( ! same sub/ance z ! squ>e root ( #c to ! squ>e root ( #b4 ,h5ce ! velocity ( s\nd 9 sea-wat] w\ld be #aded mtres a second4 ,! velocity ( s\nd 9 air is #ccb mtres4 ,m4 ,w]!im also employ$ ! vibrations ( rods ( /eel & o!r metals 9 ord] to det]m9e _! modulus ( ela/icity--t is1 ! quantity :i* det]m9es = ea* sub/ance1 ! ext5t to :i*1 9 virtue ( its ela/icity1 x is compress$ & exp&$ by giv5 pressures or t5sions4 ,= ?is purpose he caus$ ! rod to vibrate ne> to a tun+-=k ( giv5 pit*1 s t bo? ! rod & ! tun+-=k by _! vibrations trac$ undulat+ curves on a revolv+ disk4 ,! curves trac$ by ! two c\ld be comp>$ s z to give _! relative rate1 & ?us to det]m9e ! ela/icity ( ! sub/ance4 #fja ,,book ,,ix4 ,,physical ,,optics4 ,photography4 ,i ,,h1 at ! end ( ,*apt] xi41 /at$ t ! !ory ( :i* ,i h endeavor$ to sket* ! hi/ory pr(esses to expla9 only ! ph5om5a ( radiant visible light2 & t ?\gh we "k t light has o!r prop]ties--= in/ance1 t x produces *emical effects--^! are n contemplat$ z includ$ )9 ! doma9 ( ! !ory4 ,! *emical effects ( light _c z yet be includ$ 9 exact & g5]al tru?s1 su* z ^? :i* con/itute ! undulatory !ory ( radiant visible light4 ,b ?\gh ! pres5t age has n yet atta9$ to a ,sci5ce ( ! *emi/ry ( ,light1 x has be5 enri*$ ) a mo/ exquisite ,art1 :i* involves ! pr9ciples ( su* a sci5ce1 & may h]eaft] be made ! in/rum5t ( br++ !m into ! view ( ! philosoph]4 ,i speak ( ! ,art ( ,photography1 9 :i* *emi/ry has discov]$ ! means ( produc+ surfaces almo/ z s5sitive to ! modifications ( light z ! mo/ s5sitive ( organic textures1 ! ret9a ( ! eye3 & has giv5 p]man5ce to images :i* 9 ! eye are only mom5t>y impressions4 ,h]eaft]1 :5 ! laws %all h be5 !oretically e/abli%$1 :i* connect ! *emical con/itution ( bodies ) ! action ( light ^u !m1 ! prom95t names 9 ! ,prelude to su* an ,epo* mu/ be ^? :o by _! insight1 inv5tion1 & p]sev]ance1 discov]$ & c>ri$ to _! pres5t m>vell\s p]fection ! processes ( photographic ,art3--,niepce & ,dagu]re 9 ,france1 & our own accompli%$ c\ntryman1 ,mr4 ,fox ,talbot4 ,fluoresc5ce4 ,z already rem>k$1 x is n )9 ! prov9ce ( ! undulatory !ory to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( ! absorption ( light :i* take place 9 v>i\s ways :5 ! light is transmitt$ ?r\gh v>i\s #fjb m$iums4 ,i h1 at ! end ( ,*apt] iii41 giv5 ! reasons :i* prev5t my ass5t+ to ! ass]tion ( a special analysis ( light by absorption4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ) reg>d to o!r effects produc$ by m$ia ^u light1 x is suffici5t = ! def5ce ( ! !ory t x %\ld be consi/5t ) ! possibility ( ! laws ( ph5om5a :i* are obs]v$1 n t x %\ld expla9 ^? laws2 = !y belong1 app>5tly1 to ano!r prov9ce ( philosophy4 ,"s ( ! optical prop]ties ( bodies :i* h rec5tly attract$ notice appe> to be ( ?is k9d4 ,x 0 notic$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1#d;,b t a c]ta9 liquid1 sulphate ( qu99e1 :i* is "u common circum/ances colorless1 exhibits 9 c]ta9 aspects & "u c]ta9 incid5ces ( light1 a beautiful cele/ial blue color4 ,x appe>$ t ?is color proce$$ f ! surface on :i* ! light fir/ fell2 & color ?us produc$ ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el call$ epipolic colors1 & spoke ( ! light z epipoliz$4 ,sir ,david ,brew/] _h previ\sly not$ effects ( color 9 transp>5t bodies :i* he ascrib$ to int]nal disp]sion3#e;,b & he conceiv$ t ! colors obs]v$ by ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el 7 ( ! same class4 ,pr(essor ,/okes#f;,b ( ,cambridge appli$ himself to ! exam9ation ( ^! ph5om5a1 & 0 l$ to ! conviction t !y arise f a p[] :i* c]ta9 bodies possess1 ( *ang+ ! color1 & ) x1 ! refrangibility ( ! rays ( light :i* fall ^u !m3 & he trac$ ?is prop]ty 9 v>i\s sub/ances1 into v>i\s rem>kable consequ5ces4 ,z ?is *ange ( refrangibility always makes ! rays less refrangible1 x 0 propos$ to call x a degradation ( ! light2 or aga91 dep5d5t emission1 because ! light is emitt$ 9 ! mann] ( self-lum9\s bodies1 b only 9 dep5d5ce ^u ! active rays1 & s long z ! body is "u _! influ5ce4 ,9 ?is respect x diff]s f phosphoresc5ce1 9 :i* light is emitt$ )\t su* dep5d5ce4 ,! ph5om5on occurs 9 a conspicu\s & beautiful mann] 9 c]ta9 k9ds ( fluor sp>3 & ! t]m fluoresc5ce1 sugge/$ by ,pr(essor ,/okes1 has ! advantage ( ins]t+ no hypo!sis1 & w probably be f\nd ! mo/ g5]ally acceptable4#g;,b ,note #d;,b3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahde4 ,note #e;,b3 ,ed9b4 ,trans4 #ahcc4 ,note #f;,b3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aheb & #ahed4 ,note #g;,b3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aheb4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ,pr(essor ,/okes rejects altoge!r ! doctr9e t light ( def9ite refrangibility may /ill be comp\nd1 & maybe analys$ by absorption4 ,he says1 ,i h n ov]look$ ! rem>kable effect ( absorb+ m$ia 9 caus+ app>5t *anges #fjc ( color 9 a pure spectrum2 b ?is ,i believe to be a subjective ph5om5on dep5d+ ^u contra/4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,undulatory ,,!ory4 ,direction ( ! ,transv]se ,vibrations 9 ,pol>ization4 ,,9 ! conclusion ( ,*apt] xiii4 ,i h /at$ t !re is a po9t 9 ! undulatory !ory :i* 0 reg>d$ z left undecid$ by ,"y & ,fresnel1 & on :i* ! two diff]5t op9ions h be5 ma9ta9$ by diff]5t ma!maticians2 namely1 :e!r ! vibrations ( pol>iz$ light are p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( pol>ization or 9 t plane4 ,pr(essor ,/okes ( ,cambridge has attempt$ to solve ?is "q 9 a mann] :i* is1 !oretically1 exce$+ly +5i\s1 ?\gh x is difficult to make ! requisite exp]im5ts 9 a decisive mann]4 ,! me?od may be briefly describ$4 ,if pol>iz$ light be diffract$ 7see ,*ap4 xi4 sect4 #b71 ea* ray w be b5t f its position1 b w /ill be pol>iz$4 ,! orig9al ray & ! diffract$ ray1 ?us =m+ a brok5 l9e1 may be suppos$ to be connect$ at ! angle by a univ]sal jo9t 7call$ a ,hooke's ,jo9t71 su* t :5 ! orig9al ray turns ab\t its axis1 ! diffract$ ray also turns ab\t its axis2 z 9 ! case ( ! long h&le ( a telescope & ! screw :i* is turn$ by x4 ,n[ if ! motion ( ! orig9al ray r\nd its axis be uni=m1 ! motion ( ! diffract$ ray r\nd its axis is n uni=m3 & h5ce if1 9 a s]ies ( cases1 ! planes ( pol>ization ( ! orig9al ray diff] by equal angles1 9 ! diffract$ ray ! planes ( pol>ization w diff] by unequal angles4 ,!n if vibrations be p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( pol>ization1 ! planes ( pol>ization 9 ! diffract$ rays w be cr[d$ toge!r 9 ! neighborhood ( ! plane 9 :i* ! diffraction takes place1 & w be m r>ely di/ribut$ 9 ! neighborhood ( ! plane p]p5dicul> to ?is1 9 :i* is ! diffract+ ?read or groove4 ,on mak+ ! exp]im5t1 ,pr(4 ,/okes conceiv$ t he f\nd1 9 8 exp]im5ts1 su* a cr[d+ ( ! planes ( diffract$ pol>ization t[>ds ! plane ( diffraction2 & ?us he held t ! #fjd hypo!sis t ! transv]se vibrations :i* con/itute pol>ization are p]p5dicul>ly transv]se to ! plane ( pol>ization 0 confirm$4#h;,b ,note #h;,b3 ,camb4 ,trans41 vol4 ix4 "p i4 #ahdi4 ,b ,mr4 ,holtzmann1#i;,b :o1 ass5t+ to ! reason+1 has made ! exp]im5t 9 a some:at diff]5t mann]1 has obta9$ an opposite result2 s t ! po9t may be reg>d$ z /ill d\btful4 ,note #i;,b3 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,feb4 #aheg4 ,f9al ,dispro( ( ! ,emission ,!ory4 ,z ,i h /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory1 we _c prop]ly say t !re ev] 0 an ,emission ,!ory ( ,light :i* 0 ! rival ( ! ,undulatory ,!ory3 = :ile ! undulatory !ory provid$ explanations ( new classes ( ph5om5a z fa/ z !y arose1 & exhibit$ a consili5ce ( !ories 9 ^! explanations1 ! hypo!sis ( emitt$ p>ticles requir$ new ma*9]y = e new set ( facts1 & soon ceas$ to be capable ev5 ( express+ ! facts4 ,! simple cases ( ! ord9>y reflexion & refraction ( light 7 expla9$ by ,newton on ! supposition t ! transmission ( light is ! motion ( p>ticles3 & ?\gh 8 explanation includes a some:at h>% assumption 7t a refract+ surface ex]cises an attractive =ce ?r\gh a fix$ f9ite space71 ! au?ority ( 8 great "n gave x a sort ( p]man5t notoriety1 & made x to be reg>d$ z a /&>d po9t ( comp>ison betwe5 a suppos$ ,emission ,!ory & ! undulation !ory4 ,& ! way 9 :i* ! !ories 7 to be te/$ 9 ?is case 0 obvi\s3 9 ! ,newtonian !ory1 ! velocity ( light is increas$ by ! refract+ m$ium2 9 ! undulatory !ory1 x is dim9i%$4 ,on ! =m] hypo!sis ! velocity ( light 9 air & 9 wat] is z #c to #d2 9 ! latt]1 z #d to #c4 ,b ! imm5se velocity ( light made x appe> impossible to measure x1 )9 ! limits ( any f9ite space :i* we c occupy ) refract+ matt]4 ,! velocity ( light is kn[n f a/ronomical ph5om5a2--f ! eclipses ( ,jupit]'s satellites1 by :i* x appe>s t light occupies #h m9utes 9 com+ f ! sun to ! e>?2 & f ! ab]ration ( light1 by :i* its velocity is %[n to be #aj1jjj times ! velocity ( ! e>? 9 its orbit4 ,is x1 !n1 possible to make app>5t s small a diff]5ce z t betwe5 its pass+ ?r\gh a few y>ds ( air & ( wat]8 ,mr4 ,:eat/one1 9 #ahca1 inv5t$ a ma*9e by :i* ?is c\ld #fje be done4 ,8 object 0 to det]m9e ! velocity ( ! electric %ock4 ,8 app>atus consi/$ 9 a small mirror1 turn+ ) great velocity ab\t an axis :i* is 9 its own plane1 l a co9 sp9n+ on its edge4 ,! velocity ( sp9n+ may be made s great1 t an object reflect$ %all *ange its place p]ceptibly aft] an almo/ inconceivably small fraction ( a second4 ,! application ( ?is contrivance to measure ! velocity ( light1 01 at ! sugge/ion ( ,arago1 :o _h se5 ! times ( ! rival !ories ( light1 und]tak5 by y\ng] m5 at ,p>is1 8 eyesight n all[+ him to prosecute su* a task himself4 ,x 0 necess>y t ! mirrors %\ld turn m ?an #ajjj times 9 a second1 9 ord] t ! two images1 produc$1 "o by light com+ ?r\gh air1 & ! o!r by light com+ ?r\gh an equal l5g? ( wat]1 %\ld h places p]ceptibly diff]5t4 ,! me*anical difficulties ( ! exp]im5t consi/$ 9 keep+ up ?is great velocity by ! ma*9]y )\t de/roy+ ! ma*9]y1 & 9 transmitt+ ! light )\t too mu* enfeebl+ x4 ,^! difficulties 7 ov]come 9 #ahej1 by ,m4 ,fizeau & ,m4 ,lon ,f\cault sep>ately3 & ! result 01 t ! velocity ( light 0 f\nd to be less 9 wat] ?an 9 air4 ,& ?us ! ,newtonian explanation ( refraction1 ! la/ remnant ( ! ,emission ,!ory1 0 prov$ to be false4 #fjf ,,book ,x4 ,,!rmotics4--,,atmology4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,vap\r ,,& ,,air4 ,sect4 #d4--;,=ce ( ,/eam4 ,,! exp]im5ts on ! ela/ic =ce ( /eam made by ! ,fr5* ,academy are fitt$ 9 an especial mann] to decide ! "q betwe5 rival =mul1 9 consequ5ce ( ! great am\nt ( =ce to :i* !y ext5d2 namely1 #fj feet ( m]cury1 or #bd atmosph]es3 = =mul :i* give results almo/ indi/+ui%able 9 ! l[] "p ( ! scale div]ge widely at ^? elevat$ po9ts4 ,mr4 ,wat]/on#aj;,b has r$uc$ bo? ^! & o!r exp]im5ts to a rule 9 ! foll[+ mann]3--,he takes ! z]o ( gase\s t5sion1 det]m9$ by o!r exp]im5t]s 7,rudb]g1 ,magnus1 & ,regnault17 to be #dfa bel[ ! z]o ( ,fahr5heit1 or #bgd bel[ ! z]o ( ! c5tigrade scale3 & temp]atures reckon$ f ?is z]o he calls ,g temp]atures4 ,! squ>e root ( ! ,g temp]atures is ! elem5t to :i* ! ela/ic =ce is ref]r$ 7= c]ta9 !oretical reasons71 & x is f\nd t ! d5sity ( /eam is z ! six? p[] ( ?is elem5t4 ,! agreem5t ( ?is rule ) ! special results is /rik+ly close4 ,a l rule 0 f\nd by him to apply g5]ally to _m o!r gases 9 contact ) _! liquids4 ,note #aj;,b3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aheb4 ,b ,m4 ,regnault has rec5tly inve/igat$ ! subject 9 ! mo/ complete & ample mann]1 & has obta9$ results some:at diff]5t4#aa;,b ,he is l$ to ! conclusion t no =mula proce$+ by #fjg a p[] ( ! temp]ature c repres5t ! exp]im5ts4 ,he also f9ds t ! rule ( ,dalton 7t z ! temp]atures increase 9 ari?metical progression1 ! ela/ic =ce increases 9 geometric progression7 deviates f ! obs]vations1 especially at high temp]atures4 ,dalton's rule w\ld be express$ by say+ t ! v>iable "p ( ! ela/ic =ce is z at1 :]e t is ! temp]ature4 ,?is fail+1 ,m4 ,regnault makes trial ( a =mula sugge/$ by ,m4 ,biot1 consi/+ ( a sum ( two t]ms1 "o ( :i* is z at1 & ! o!r is bt3 & 9 ?is way satisfies ! exp]im5ts v closely4 ,b ?is c only be consid]$ z a =mula ( int]polation1 & has no !oretical basis4 ,m4 ,ro*e _h propos$ a =mula 9 :i* ! =ce is z az1 z dep5d+ ^u ! temp]ature by an equation#ab;,b to :i* he _h be5 l$ by !oretical consid]ations4 ,?is agrees bett] ) obs]vation ?an any o!r =mula :i* includes only ! same numb] ( coeffici5ts4 ,note #aa;,b3 ,mm4 de l',in/itut1 vol4 xxi4 7#ahdg74 ,m4 ,regnault's ,memoir occupies #gfg pages4 ,note #ab;,b3 ,! equation z t 7#a mt74 ,among ! exp]im5tal !rmotical laws ref]r$ to by ,m4 ,regnault are1 ! ,law ( ,watt1#ac;,b t ! quantity ( heat :i* is requir$ to conv]t a p9t ( wat] at a temp]ature ( z]o into /eam1 is ! same :atev] be ! pressure4 ,also1 ! ,law ( ,s\!rn1 t ! lat5t heat ( vaporization1 t is ! heat absorb$ 9 ! passage f ! liquid to ! gase\s consi/5ce1 is con/ant = all purposes3 & t we obta9 ! total heat 9 add+ to ! con/ant lat5t heat ! numb] :i* repres5ts ! lat5t heat ( /eam4 ,s\!rn f\nd ! lat5t heat ( ! /eam ( wat] to be repres5t$ by ab\t #iej degrees ( ,fahr5heit4#ad;,b ,note #ac;,b3 ,see ,robison's ,me*anical ,philosophy1 vol4 ii4 p4 #h4 ,note #ad;,b3 ,ib4 p4 #afj4 ,sect4 #e4--,temp]ature ( ! ,atmosph]e4 ,i ,,may notice1 z important additions to our k on ?is subject1 ! results ( f\r balloon asc5ts made 9 #aheb1ae;,b by ! ,committee ( ! ,meteorological ,obs]vatory e/abli%$ at ,kew by ! ,briti% ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce4 ,9 ^! asc5ts ! obs]v]s m\nt$ to m ?an #ac1jjj1 #ah1jjj1 & #ai1jjj feet1 & 9 ! la/ to #bb1cgj2 by :i* asc5t ! temp]ature fell f #di degrees to ne>ly #aj degrees bel[ z]o2 & ! dew-po9t fell f #cg to #ab4 ,p]haps ! mo/ m>k$ result ( ^! obs]vations is ! #fjh foll[+3--,! temp]ature ( ! air decreases uni=mly z we asc5d above ! e>?'s surface2 b ?is decrease does n g on cont9u\sly4 ,at a c]ta9 elevation1 v>y+ on diff]5t days1 ! decrease is arre/$3 & = a dep? ( two or ?ree ?\s& feet ( air1 ! temp]ature decreases little1 or ev5 increases 9 asc5d+4 ,above ?is1 ! dim9ution aga9 takes place at ne>ly ! same rate z 9 ! l[] regions4 ,?is int]m$iate region ( undecreas+ temp]ature ext5d$ 9 ! v>i\s asc5ts1 f ab\t altitude #djjj to #fjjj feet1 #fejj to #aj1jjj1 #bjjj to #dejj1 & #djjj to #hjjj4 ,?is int]ruption 9 ! decrease ( temp]ature is accompani$ by a l>ge & abrupt fall 9 ! temp]ature ( ! dew-po9t1 or by an actual cond5sation ( vapor4 ,?us1 ?is region is ! region ( ! cl\ds1 & ! increase ( heat appe>s to arise f ! lat5t heat lib]at$ :5 aque\s vapor is =m$ into cl\ds4 ,note #ae;,b3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahec4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,!ories ,,( ,,heat4 ,! ,dynamical ,!ory ( ,heat4 ,,t ! transmission ( radiant ,heat takes place by means ( ! vibrations ( a m$ium1 z ! transmission ( ,s\nd c]ta9ly does1 & ! transmission ( ,light mo/ probably1 is a !ory :i*1 z ,i h endeavor$ to expla91 has /rong argum5ts & analogies 9 its favor4 ,b t ,heat itself1 9 its ess5ce & quantity1 is ,motion is a hypo!sis ( q ano!r k9d4 ,?is hypo!sis has be5 rec5tly ass]t$ & ma9ta9$ ) great ability4 ,! doctr9e ?us ass]t$ is1 t ,motion may be conv]t$ into ,heat1 & ,heat into ,motion2 t ,heat & ,motion may produce ea* o!r1 z we see 9 ! r>efaction & cond5sation ( air1 9 /eam-eng9es1 & ! l3 & t 9 all su* cases ! ,motion produc$ & ! ,heat exp5d$ exactly measure ea* o!r4 ,! f\ndation ( ?is !ory is conceiv$ to h be5 laid by ,mr4 ,j\le ( ,man*e/]1 9 #ahdd3 & x has s9ce be5 prosecut$ by him & by ,pr(essor ,?omson ( ,glasg[1 by exp]im5tal inve/igations ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,x is difficult to make ^! exp]im5ts s z to be q satisfactory2 = x is #fji difficult to measure all ! heat ga9$ or lo/ 9 any ( ! *anges "h contemplat$4 ,t friction1 agitation ( fluids1 cond5sation ( gases1 conv]sion ( gases into fluids & liquids into solids1 produce heat1 is und\bt$3 & t ! quantity ( su* heat may be measur$ by ! me*anical =ce :i* produces x1 or :i* x produces1 is a g5]alization :i* w v likely be f\nd a f]tile s\rce ( new propositions1 & probably ( important consequ5ces4 ,z an example ( ! conclusions :i* ,pr(essor ,?omson draws f ?is doctr9e ( ! mutual conv]sion ( motion & heat1 ,i may m5tion 8 speculations conc]n+ ! cause :i* produces & su/a9s ! heat ( ! sun4#af;,b ,he conceives t ! support ( ! sol> heat mu/ be meteoric matt] :i* is p]petually fall+ t[>ds ! globe ( ! sun1 & has its motion conv]t$ into heat4 ,he incl9es to ?9k t ! meteors conta9+ ! /ores ( en]gy = future ,sun-light mu/ be pr9cipally )9 ! e>?'s orbit2 & t we actually see !m !re z ! ,zodiacal ,light1 an illum9at$ %[]1 or r tornado1 ( /ones4 ,! inn] p>ts ( ?is tornado are always gett+ caught 9 ! ,sun's atmosph]e1 & drawn to 8 mass by gravitation4 ,note #af;,b3 ,on ! ,me*anical ,en]gies ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em4 ,ed9b4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,xxi4 "p i4 7#ahed71 p4 #fg4 #faj ,,book ,,xi4 ,,electricity4 ,,g5]al ,,rem>ks4 ,,electricity 9 ! =m 9 :i* x 0 orig9ally /udi$--,frankl9ic1 frictional1 or /atical electricity--has be5 s completely id5tifi$ ) electricity 9 its m compreh5sive =m--,voltaic1 *emical1 or dynamical electricity--t any additions we might h to make to ! hi/ory ( ! e>li] =m ( ! subject are includ$ 9 ! lat] sci5ce4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 sev]al subjects :i* may /ill be reg>d$ r z bran*es ( ,electricity ?an ( ! ,cognate ,sci5ces4 ,su* are1 = in/ance1 ,atmosph]ic ,electricity1 ) all t belongs to ,?und]/orms & ,lightn+ ,conductors4 ,! obs]vation ( ,atmosph]ic ,electricity has be5 prosecut$ ) great zeal at v>i\s meteorological obs]vatories2 & especially at ! ,obs]vatory e/abli%$ by ! ,briti% ,association at ,kew4 ,! ,aurora ,borealis1 aga91 is pla9ly an electrical ph5om5on2 b probably belong+ r to dynamical ?an to /atical electricity4 ,= x /rongly affects ! magnetic ne$le1 & its position has ref]5ce to ! direction ( magnetism2 b x has n be5 obs]v$ to affect ! electroscope4 ,! g5]al features ( ?is ph5om5on h be5 describ$ by ,m4 de ,humboldt1 & m rec5tly by ,m4 de ,bravais2 & !ories ( ! mode ( its production h be5 prop\nd$ by ,,mm4 ,biot1 ,de la ,rive1 ,kaemtz1 & o!rs4 ,aga91 !re are sev]al fi%es :i* h ! p[] ( giv+ an electrical %ock3--! torp$o1 ! gymnotus1 & ! silurus4 ,! ag5cy ( ^! creatures has be5 id5tifi$ ) electricity 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se4 ,! peculi> en]gy ( ! animal has be5 made to produce ! effects :i* are produc$ by an electrical dis*>ge or a voltaic curr5t3--n only to de/roy life 9 small animals1 b to #faa deflect a magnet1 to make a magnet1 to decompose wat]1 & to produce a sp>k4 ,dr4 ,f>aday's ,views ( ,/atical ,electric ,induction4 ,accord+ to ! !ories ( electricity ( p9us & ,c\lomb1 :i* 9 ?is ,book ( our ,hi/ory are reg>d$ z con/itut+ a ma9 "p ( ! progress ( ?is portion ( sci5ce1 ! p>ticles ( ! electric fluid or fluids ex]t =ces1 attractive & repulsive1 ^u ea* o!r 9 /raight l9es at a di/ance1 9 ! same way 9 :i*1 9 ! ,newtonian !ory ( ! univ]se1 ! p>ticles ( matt] are conceiv$ z ex]t+ attractive =ces ^u ea* o!r4 ,an electriz$ body pres5t$ a conduct+ body ( any =m1 det]m9es a new arrangem5t ( ! electric fluids 9 ! conductor1 attract+ ! l fluid to its own side1 & repell+ ! opposite fluid to ! opposite side4 ,?is is ,electrical ,induction4 ,& z1 by ! !ory1 ! attraction is great] at ! small] di/ances1 ! di/ribution ( ! fluid ^u ! conductor 9 virtue ( ?is ,induction w n be symmetrical1 b w be gov]n$ by laws :i* x w require a complex & difficult calculation to det]m9e--z we h se5 0 ! case 9 ! inve/igations ( ,c\lomb1 ,poisson1 & o!rs4 ,in/ead ( ?is action at a di/ance4 ,dr4 ,f>aday has be5 l$ to conceive ,electrical ,induction to be ! result ( an action tak+ place betwe5 ! electriz$ body & ! conductor ?r\gh l9es ( contigu\s p>ticles 9 ! mass ( ! int]m$iate body1 :i* he calls ! ,dielectric4 ,& ! irregul>ities ( ! di/ribution ( ! electricity 9 ^! cases ( ,induction1 & inde$ ! exi/5ce ( an action 9 po9ts protect$ f direct action by ! protub]ant sides ( ! conductor1 are ! causes1 ,i conceive1 :i* lead him to ! conclusion t ,induction takes place 9 curv$ l9es#ag;,b ( su* contigu\s p>ticles4 ,note #ag;,b3 ,rese>*es1 #aafe1 c4 ,) ref]5ce to ?is1 ,i may rem>k t1 z ,i h said1 ! di/ribution ( electricity on a conductor 9 ! pres5ce ( an electriz$ body is s complex a ma!matical problem t ,i d n conceive any m]ely popul> way ( reg>d+ ! result c entitle u to say1 t ! di/ribution :i* we f9d _c be expla9$ by ! ,c\lombian !ory1 & mu/ =ce u ^u ! assumption ( an action 9 curv$ l9es3--:i* is1 inde$1 itself a !ory1 & s vague a "o #fab t x requires to be made mu* m precise be=e we c say :at consequ5ces x does or does n lead to4 ,pr(essor ,w4 ,?omson has arriv$ at a ma!matical pro( t ! effect ( induction on ! view ( ,c\lomb & ( ,f>aday mu/1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 be necess>ily & univ]sally ! same4 ,) reg>d to ! influ5ce ( diff]5t ,dielectrics ^u ,induction1 ! inquiry appe>s to be ( ! highe/ importance2 & may c]ta9ly necessitate "s addition to ! !ory4 #fac ,,book ,,xii4 ,,magnetism4 ,rec5t ,progress ( ,t]re/rial ,magnetism4 ,,9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,i h notic$ ! hi/ory ( ,t]re/rial ,magnetism2 ,han/e5's map publi%$ 9 #ahai2 ! discov]y ( magnetic /orms ab\t #ahbe2 ! *a9 ( associat$ magnetic obs]vations1 sugge/$ by ,m4 de ,humboldt1 & promot$ by ! ,briti% ,association & ! ,royal ,society2 ! dem& = ! cont9uation ( ^! till #ahdh2 ! magnetic obs]vations made 9 sev]al voyages2 ! magnetic surveys ( v>i\s c\ntries4 ,& ,i h spok5 also ( ,gauss's !ory ( ,t]re/rial ,magnetism1 & 8 directions & requirem5ts conc]n+ ! obs]vations to be made4 ,i may add a few words ) reg>d to ! m rec5t progress ( ! subject4 ,! magnetic obs]vations made ov] l>ge portions ( ! ,e>?'s surface by v>i\s p]sons1 & on ! ,ocean by ,briti% (fic]s1 h be5 transmitt$ to ,woolwi*1 :]e !y h be5 employ$ by ,g5]al ,sab9e 9 con/ruct+ magnetic maps ( ! ,e>? = ! ye> #ahdj4ah;,b ,foll[+ ! c\rse ( inquiry describ$ 9 ! "p ( ! hi/ory ref]r$ to1 ^! maps exhibit ! decl9ation1 incl9ation1 & int5sity ( ! magnetic =ce at e po9t ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,! curves :i* m>k equal am\nts ( ea* ( ^! ?ree elem5ts 7! l9es ( equal decl9ation1 incl9ation1 & =ce3--! isogonal1 ! isocl9al1 & ! isodynamic l9es17 are1 9 _! g5]al =m1 complex & irregul>2 & x has be5 made a matt] ( "q 7! facts be+ agre$ ^u7 :e!r x be m prop] to say t !y indicate f\r poles1 z ,halley & z ,han/e5 said1 or only two poles1 z ,gauss ass]ts4 ,! matt] appe>s to become m cle> if we draw magnetic m]idians2 t is1 l9es obta9$ by foll[+ ! directions1 or po9t+s1 ( ! magnetic ne$le to ! nor? or to #fad ! s\?1 till we arrive at ! po9ts ( conv]g5ce ( all _! directions2 = !re are only two su* poles1 "o 9 ! ,arctic & "o 9 ! ,ant>ctic region4 ,b 9 consequ5ce ( ! irregul>ity ( ! magnetic con/itution ( ! e>?1 if we foll[ ! incl9ation ( ! magnetic =ce r\nd ! e>? on any p>allel ( latitude1 we f9d t x has two maxima & two m9ima1 z if !re 7 f\r magnetic poles4 ,! isodynamic map is a new pres5tation ( ! facts ( ?is subject2 ! fir/ hav+ be5 con/ruct$ by ,colonel ,sab9e 9 #ahcg4 ,note #ah;,b3 ,^! maps are publi%$ 9 ,mr4 ,kei? ,john/one's ,physical ,atlas4 ,i h /at$ also t ! magnetic elem5ts at ea* place are to be obs]v$ 9 su* a mann] z to br+ into view bo? _! p]iodical1 _! secul>1 & _! irregul> or occasional *anges4 ,! obs]vations made at ,toronto 9 ,canada1 & at ,hob>t ,t[n 9 ,van ,diem5's ,l&1 two /ations at equal di/ances f ! two poles ( ! e>?1 & also at ,/ ,hel5a1 a /ation )9 ! tropics1 h be5 discuss$ by ,g5]al ,sab9e ) great c>e1 & ) an am\nt ( labor approa*+ to t employ$ ^u r$uctions ( a/ronomical obs]vations4 ,& ! results h be5 curi\s & unexpect$4 ,! decl9ation 0 fir/ exam9$4#ai;,b ,?is magnetical elem5t is1 z we h already se5 7p4 #bcb71 liable bo? to a diurnal & to an annual inequality2 & also to irregul> p]turbations :i* h be5 t]m$ magnetic /orms4 ,n[ x 0 f\nd t all ^! inequalities w5t on increas+ gradually & /eadily f #ahdc to #ahdh1 s z to become1 at ! end ( t "t1 above twice z l>ge z !y 7 at ! beg9n+ ( x4 ,a new p]iodical *ange 9 all ^! elem5ts appe>$ to be cle>ly e/abli%$ by ?is exam9ation4 ,m4 ,lamont1 ( ,muni*1 _h already rem>k$ indications ( a dec5nial p]iod 9 ! diurnal v>iation ( ! decl9ation ( ! ne$le4 ,! duration ( ! p]iod f m9imum to maximum be+ ab\t five ye>s1 & !re=e ! :ole p]iod ab\t t5 ye>s4 ,! same conclusion 0 f\nd to foll[ /ill m decid$ly f ! obs]vations ( ! dip & int5sity4 ,note #ai;,b3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aheb & #ahef4 ,?is p]iod ( t5 ye>s _h no famili> mean+ 9 a/ronomy2 & if none su* _h be5 f\nd = x1 its occurr5ce z a magnetic p]iod mu/ h be5 reg>d$1 z ,g5]al ,sab9e says1#bj;,b 9 ! light ( a fragm5t>y fact4 ,b x happ5$ ab\t ?is "t t ! sci5tific _w 0 made aw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( a l p]iod 9 a #fae ph5om5on :i* no "o w\ld h guess$ to be connect$ ) t]re/rial magnetism1 namely1 ! spots 9 ! ,sun4 ,m4 ,s*wabe1 ( ,dessau1 _h obs]v$ ! ,sun's disk ) imm5se p]sev]ance = #bd ye>s3--(t5 exam9+ x m ?an #cjj days 9 ! ye>2 & _h f\nd t ! spots _h1 z to _! quantity & frequ5cy1 a p]iodical "*4 ,! ye>s ( maximum are #ahbh1 #ahch1 #ahdh1 9 :i* !re 7 respectively #bbe1ba;,b #bhb1 #ccj gr\ps ( spots4 ,! m9imum ye>s1 #ahcc1 #ahdc1 _h only #cc & #cd su* gr\ps4 ,?is curi\s fact#bb;,b 0 fir/ made public by ,m4 de ,humboldt1 9 ! ?ird volume ( 8 ,kosmos 7#ahej74 ,! co9cid5ce ( ! p]iods & epo*s ( ^! two classes ( facts 0 po9t$ out by ,g5]al ,sab9e 9 a ,memoir pres5t$ to ! ,royal ,society 9 ,m>*1 #aheb4 ,note #bj;,b3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahef1 p4 #chb4 ,note #ba;,b3 ,9 #ahcg !re 7 #ccc4 ,note #bb;,b3 ,! obs]vations up to #ahdd 7 publi%$ 9 ,pogg5dorf's ,annal54 ,( c\rse x 0 natural to suppose1 ev5 be=e ?is discov]y1 t ! diurnal & annual inequalities ( ! magnetic elem5t at ea* place dep5d ^u ! action ( ! sun1 9 "s way or o!r4 ,dr4 ,f>aday _h endeavor$ to po9t out h[ ! effect ( ! sol> heat ^u ! atmosph]e w\ld1 accord+ to ! kn[n relations ( heat & magnetism1 expla9 _m ( ! ph5om5a4 ,b ?is new feature ( ! ph5om5a1 _! qu9qu5nial increase & decrease1 makes u d\bt :e!r su* an explanation c really be ! true "o4 ,( ! secul> *anges 9 ! magnetic elem5ts1 n mu* m is kn[n ?an 0 kn[n "s ye>s ago4 ,^! *anges g on1 b _! laws are imp]fectly kn[n1 & _! causes n ev5 conjectur$4 ,m4 ,han/e51 9 a rec5t memoir1#bc;,b says t ! decrease ( ! incl9ation goes on progressively dim9i%+4 ,) u ?is rate ( decrease appe>s to be at pres5t ne>ly uni=m4 ,we _c help conjectur+ t ! sun1 :i* has s pla9 a connexion ) ! diurnal1 annual1 & occasional movem5ts ( ! ne$le1 mu/ also h "s connexion ) its secul> movem5ts4 ,note #bc;,b3 ,see ,k4 ,john/one's ,physical ,atlas4 ,9 #ahdj ! obs]vations made at v>i\s places _h to a great ext5t enabl$ ,gauss1 9 connexion ) ,w4 ,web]1 to apply 8 ,!ory to ! actual condition ( ! ,e>?2#bd;,b & he calculat$ ! ,decl9ation1 ,incl9ation1 & ,int5sity at above #ajj places1 & f\nd #faf ! agreem5t1 z he says1 f> beyond 8 hopes4 ,!y %[1 he says1 t ! ,!ory comes ne> to ! ,tru?4 ,note #bd;,b3 ,atlas des ,erdmagnetismus na* d5 ,elem5t5 d] ,!orie ,entworf54 ,see ,preface4 ,correction ( ,%ip's ,compasses4 ,! magnetic ne$le _h become ( importance :5 x 0 f\nd t x always po9t$ to ! ,nor?4 ,s9ce t "t ! hi/ory ( magnetism has _h its ev5ts reflect$ 9 ! hi/ory ( navigation4 ,! *ange ( ! decl9ation aris+ f a *ange ( place t]rifi$ ! companions ( ,columbus4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! laws ( ?is *ange 0 ! object ( ! voyage ( ,halley2 & has be5 pursu$ ) ! utmo/ en]gy 9 ! ,arctic & ,ant>ctic regions by navigators up to ! pres5t "t4 ,probably ! dep5d5ce ( ! magnetic decl9ation ^u place is n[ kn[n well en\gh = ! purposes ( navigation4 ,b a new s\rce ( difficulty has 9 ! meantime come into view2 ! effect ( ! iron 9 ! %ip ^u ! ,compass4 ,& ?is has gone on increas+ z guns1 cables1 /ays1 knees1 h be5 made ( iron2 !n /eam-eng9es ) funnels1 :eels1 & screws1 h be5 add$2 & f9ally ! :ole %ip has be5 made ( iron4 ,h[ c ! compass be tru/$ 9 su* cases8 ,i h already said 9 ! hi/ory t ,mr4 ,b>l[ propos$ to correct ! error ( ! compass by plac+ ne> to ! compass an iron plate1 :i* f its proximity to ! compass might c\nt]balance magnetically ! :ole effect ( ! %ip's iron ^u ! compass4 ,?is correction 0 n effectual1 because ! magnetic =ces ( ! plate & ( ! %ip d n *ange _! direction & value accord+ to ! same law1 ) ! *ange ( position4 ,i h fur!r /at$ t ,mr4 ,airy devis$ o!r means ( correct+ ! error4 ,i may add a few words on ! subject2 = ! subject has be5 fur!r exam9$ by ,mr4 ,airy#be;,b & by o!rs4 ,note #be;,b3 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahef4 ,x appe>s1 by ma!matical reason+1 t ! magnetic effect ( ! iron 9 a %ip may be reg>d$ z produc+ two k9ds ( deviation :i* are add$ toge!r2--a pol>-magnet deviation1 :i* *anges f positive to negative z ! direction ( ! %ip's keel1 9 a horizontal revolution1 passes f semicircle to semicircle2 & a quadrantal deviation1 :i* *anges f positive to negative z ! keel turns f quadrant to quadrant4 ,! latt] deviation may be rem$i$ completely by a mass ( unmagnetiz$ iron plac$ on a level #fag ) ! compass1 ei!r 9 ! a?w>t%ip l9e or 9 ! =e-&-aft l9e1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,! pol>-magnet-deviation may be correct$ at any giv5 place by a magnet or magnets1 b ! magnets ?us appli$ at "o place w n always correct ! deviation 9 ano!r magnetic latitude4 ,= x appe>s t ?is deviation arises p>tly f a magnetism inh]5t 9 ! mat]ials ( ! %ip1 n *ang+ ) ! *ange ( magnetic position1 & p>tly f ! effect ( t]re/rial magnetism ^u ! %ip's iron4 ,b ! errors aris+ f bo? s\rces may be rem$i$ by adju/+1 at a new locality1 ! positions ( ! corrective magnets4 ,! inh]5t magnetism ( ! %ip1 ( :i* ,i h spok51 may be mu* affect$ by ! position 9 :i* ! %ip 0 built2 & may *ange f "t to "t2 = in/ance1 by ! effect ( ! batt]+ ( ! waves1 & o!r causes4 ,h5ce x is call$ by ,mr4 ,airy sub-p]man5t magnetism4 ,ano!r me?od ( correct+ ! errors ( a %ip's compass has be5 propos$1 & is us$ to "s ext5t2 namely1 by sw++ ! %ip r\nd 79 h>bor7 to all po9ts ( azimu?1 & ?us con/ruct+ a ,table ( ,compass ,errors = t p>ticul> %ip4 ,b to ?is me?od x is object$ t ! ,table loses its value 9 a new magnetic latitude mu* m ?an ! correction by magnets does2 besides ! inconv5i5ces ( /e]+ a %ip by a ,table4 #fah ,,book ,,xiii4 ,,voltaic ,,electricity4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,magneto-,,electric ,,induction4 ,,f>aday',s discov]y t1 9 comb9ations l ^? 9 :i* a voltaic curr5t 0 kn[n to produce motion1 motion w\ld produce a voltaic curr5t1 naturally excit$ great att5tion among ! sci5tific m5 ( ,europe4 ,! g5]al nature ( 8 discov]y 0 communicat$ by lett]#bf;,b to ,m4 ,ha*ette at ,p>is1 9 ,decemb]1 #ahca2 & exp]im5ts hav+ ! l results 7 =?) made by ,,mm4 ,becqu]el & ,ampre at ,p>is1 & ,,mm4 ,nobili & ,ant9ori at ,flor5ce4 ,note #bf;,b3 ,ann4 de ,*imie1 vol4 xlviii4 7#ahca71 p4 #djb4 ,x 0 natural also t 9 a case 9 :i* ! relations ( space :i* det]m9e ! results are s complicat$1 diff]5t philosoph]s %\ld look at !m 9 diff]5t ways4 ,!re _h be51 f ! fir/ discov]y by ,o]/$ ( ! effect ( a voltaic curr5t ^u a magnet1 two rival me?ods ( reg>d+ ! facts4 ,electric & magnetic l9es ex]t an ef=t to place !mselves transv]se to ea* o!r 7see *apt] iv4 ( ?is ,book71 & 7z ,i h already said7 two ways (f]$ !mselves ( simplify+ ?is g5]al tru?3--to suppose an electric curr5t made up ( transv]se magnetic l9es2 or to suppose magnetic l9es made up ( transv]se electric curr5ts4 ,on ei!r ( ^! assumptions1 ! result 0 express$ by say+ t l curr5ts or l9es 7electric or magnetic7 t5d to place !mselves p>allel2 :i* is a law m g5]ally intelligible ?an ! law ( transv]se position4 ,f>aday _h adopt$ ! =m] view2 _h tak5 ! l9es ( magnetic =ce = ! fundam5tal l9es ( 8 sy/em1 & def9$ ! direction ( ! magneto-electric curr5t ( induction by ! relation #fai ( ! motion to ^! l9es4 ,ampre1 on ! o!r h&1 suppos$ ! magnet to be made up ( transv]se electric curr5ts 7*ap4 vi472 & _h d$uc$ all ! facts ( electro-dynamical action1 ) great felicity1 f ?is conception4 ,! "q naturally arose1 9 :at mann]1 on ?is view1 7 ! new facts ( magneto-electric induction by motion to be expla9$1 or ev5 express$8 ,v>i\s philosoph]s attempt$ to answ] ?is "q4 ,p]haps ! =m 9 :i* ! answ] has obta9$ mo/ g5]al acceptance is t 9 :i* x 0 put by ,l5z1 :o disc\rs$ on ! subject to ! ,academy ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg 9 #ahcc4bg;,b ,8 g5]al rule is to ?is effect3 :5 a wire moves 9 ! neighborhood ( an electric curr5t or a magnet1 a curr5t takes place 9 x1 su* z1 exi/+ indep5d5tly1 w\ld h produc$ a motion opposite to ! actual motion4 ,?us two p>allel =w>d curr5ts move t[>ds ea* o!r3--h5ce if a curr5t move t[>ds a p>allel wire1 x produces 9 x a backw>d curr5t4 ,a moveable wire conduct+ a curr5t d[nw>ds w move r\nd ! nor? pole ( a magnet 9 ! direction ,n41 ,w41 ,s41 ,e43--h5ce if1 :5 ! wire h 9 x no curr5t1 we move x 9 ! direction ,n41 ,w41 ,s41 ,e41 we produce 9 ! wire an upw>d curr5t4 ,& ?us1 z ,m4 de la ,rive rem>ks1#bh;,b 9 cases 9 :i* ! mutual action ( two curr5ts produces a limit$ motion1 z attraction or repulsion1 or a deviation "r or left1 ! correspond+ magneto-electric induction produces an in/antane\s curr5t only2 b :5 ! electrodynamic action produces a cont9u$ motion1 ! correspond+ motion produces1 by induction1 a cont9u$ curr5t4 ,note #bg;,b3 ,acad4 ,petrop4 ,nov4 #bi1 #ahcc4 ,pogg4 ,ann4 vol4 xxxi4 p4 #dhc4 ,note #bh;,b3 ,trait de l',electricit1 vol4 i4 p4 #dda 7#ahed74 ,look+ at ?is mode ( /at+ ! law1 x is impossible n to reg>d ?is effect z a sort ( reaction2 & accord+ly1 ?is view 0 at once tak5 ( x4 ,pr(essor ,rit*ie said1 9 #ahcc1 ,! law is f\nd$ on ! univ]sal pr9ciple t action & reaction are equal4 ,?us1 if voltaic electricity induce magnetism "u c]ta9 arrangem5ts1 magnetism w1 by simil> arrangem5ts1 react on a conductor & induce voltaic electricity4#bi;,b ,note #bi;,b3 ,on ! ,r$uction ( ,mr4 ,f>aday's discov]ies 9 ,magneto-electric ,induction to a ,g5]al ,law4 ,trans4 ( ,r4 ,s4 9 ,phil4 ,mag4 ,n4,s4 vol4 iii4 #cg1 & vol4 iv4 p4 #aa4 ,9 ! second edition ( ?is hi/ory ,i us$ ! l expressions4 ,!re are /ill o!r ways ( look+ at ?is matt]4 ,i h else:]e po9t$ out t :]e pol> prop]ties co-exi/1 !y are #fbj g5]ally f\nd to be connect$1#cj;,b & h illu/rat$ ?is law 9 ! case ( electrical1 magnetical1 & *emical pol>ities4 ,if we reg>d motion backw>ds & =w>ds1 to ! "r & ! left1 & ! l1 z pol> relations1 we see t magneto-electric induction gives u a new manife/ation ( connect$ pol>ities4 ,note #cj;,b3 ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 ,b4 v4 c4 ii4 ,diamagnetic ,pol>ity4 ,b ! manife/ation ( co-exi/5t pol>ities :i* are br\ght into view 9 ?is mo/ curi\s dep>tm5t ( nature is n yet exhau/$ by ^? :i* we h describ$4 ,i h already spok5 7*ap4 9999vii47 ( ,dr4 ,f>aday's discov]y t !re are diamagnetic z well z magnetic bodies2 bodies :i* are repell$ by ! pole ( a magnet1 z well z bodies :i* are attract$4 ,"h is a new opposition ( prop]ties4 ,:at is ! exact def9ition ( ?is opposition 9 connexion ) o!r pol>ities8 ,to ?is1 at pres5t1 diff]5t philosoph]s give diff]5t answ]s4 ,"s say t diamagnetism is completely ! opposite ( ord9>y magnetism1 or1 z ,dr4 ,f>aday has t]m$ x = ! sake ( di/9ction1 ( p>amagnetism4 ,!y say t z a nor? pole ( a magnet gives to ! neighbor+ extremity ( a piece ( s(t iron a s\? pole1 s x gives to ! neighbor+ extremity ( a piece ( bismu? a nor? pole1 & t ! bismu? becomes = a "t an inv]t$ magnet2 & h5ce1 arranges itself across ! l9e ( magnetis$ =ce1 in/ead ( along x4 ,dr4 ,f>aday himself at fir/ adopt$ ?is view2#ca;,b b he n[ conceives t ! bismu? is n made pol>1 b is simply repell$ by ! magnet2 & t ! transv]se position :i* x assumes1 arises m]ely f its elongat$ =m1 ea* end try+ to rec$e z f> z possible f ! repulsive pole ( ! magnet4 ,note #ca;,b3 ,f>aday's ,rese>*es1 ,art4 #bdbi1 #bdcj4 ,sev]al philosoph]s ( great em95ce1 h[ev]1 :o h exam9$ ! subject ) great c>e1 adh]e to ,dr4 ,f>aday's fir/ view ( ! nature ( ,diamagnetism--z ,w4 ,web]1#cb;,b ,plck]1 & ,mr4 ,tyndall among ourselves4 ,if we translate ?is view into ! language ( ,ampre's !ory1 x comes to ?is3--t z curr5ts are induc$ 9 iron & magnetics p>allel to ^? exi/+ 9 ! induc+ magnet or batt]y wire2 s 9 bismu?1 heavy glass1 & o!r diamagnetic bodies1 ! curr5ts induc$ are 9 ! contr>y #fba directions3--^! hypo!tical curr5ts be+ 9 non-conduct+ diamagnetic1 z 9 magnetic bodies1 n 9 ! mass1 b r\nd ! p>ticles ( ! matt]4 ,note #cb;,b3 ,pogg5dorf's ,ann4 ,j\4 #ahdh4 ,magneto-optic ,effects & ,magnecry/allic ,pol>ity4 ,n ev5 yet h we t]m9at$ ! enum]ation ( ! co-exi/5t pol>ities :i* 9 ?is prov9ce ( nature h be5 br\ght into view4 ,light has pol> prop]ties2 ! v t]m pol>ization is ! record ( ! discov]y ( ^!4 ,! =ces :i* det]m9e ! cry/all9e =ms ( bodies are ( a pol> nature3 cry/all9e =ms1 :5 complete1 may be def9$ z ^? =ms :i* h a c]ta9 degree ( symmetry 9 ref]5ce to opposite poles4 ,n[ has ?is optical & cry/all9e pol>ity any relation to ! electrical pol>ity ( :i* we h be5 speak+8 ,h[ev] mu* we might be dispos$ be=eh& to conjecture t !re is "s relation betwe5 ^! two gr\ps ( pol> prop]ties1 yet 9 ?is z 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ?is hi/ory ( discov]ies respect+ pol>ities1 no conjecture hits ! nature ( ! relation1 su* z exp]im5t %[$ x to be4 ,9 ,novemb]1 #ahdf1 ,f>aday ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( :at he !n call$ ! action ( magnets on light4 ,b ?is action 0 manife/$1 n on light directly1 b on light pass+ ?r\gh c]ta9 k9ds ( glass4#cc;,b ,:5 ?is glass1 subject$ to ! action ( ! p[]ful magnets :i* he us$1 transmitt$ a ray ( light p>allel to ! l9e ( magnetic =ce1 an effect 0 produc$ ^u ! light4 ,b ( :at nature 0 ?is effect8 ,:5 light 0 ord9>y light1 no *ange 9 its condition 0 discov]able4 ,b if ! light 7 light pol>iz$ 9 any plane1 ! plane ( pol>ization 0 turn$ r\nd ?r\gh a c]ta9 angle :ile ! ray pass$ ?r\gh ! glass3--a great] angle1 9 proportion z ! magnetic =ce 0 great]1 & ! ?ickness ( ! glass great]4 ,note #cc;,b3 ,silicat$ borate ( lead4 ,see ,rese>*es1 #baea1 c4 ,also fl9t glass1 rock salt1 wat] 7#bbae74 ,a p[] 9 "s respects ( ?is k9d1 namely1 a p[] to rotate ! plane ( pol>ization ( a ray pass+ ?r\gh !m1 is possess$ by "s bodies 9 _! natural /ate2 = in/ance1 qu>tz cry/als1 & oil ( turp5t9e4 ,b yet1 z ,dr4 ,f>aday rem>ks1#cd;,b !re is a great diff]5ce 9 ! two cases4 ,:5 pol>iz$ rays pass ?r\gh oil ( turp5t9e1 9 :atev] direction !y pass1 !y all ( !m h _! #fbb plane ( pol>ization rotat$ 9 ! same direction2 t is1 all to ! "r or all to ! left2 b :5 a ray passes ?r\gh ! heavy glass1 ! p[] ( rotation exi/s only 9 a plane p]p5dicul> to ! magnetic l9e1 & its direction z "r or left-h&$ is rev]s$ by rev]s+ ! magnetic pol>ity4 ,note #cd;,b3 ,rese>*es1 ,art4 #bbca4 ,9 ?is case1 we h optical prop]ties1 :i* d n dep5d on cry/all9e =m1 affect$ by ! magnetic =ce4 ,b x has also be5 f\nd t cry/all9e =m1 :i* is s f]tile a s\rce ( optical prop]ties1 af=ds indications ( magnetic =ces4 ,9 #ahdg1 ,m4 ,plck]1#ce;,b ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,bonn1 us+ a p[]ful magnetic app>atus1 simil> to ,f>aday's1 f\nd t cry/als 9 g5]al are magnetic1 9 ?is s5se1 t ! axes ( cry/all9e =m t5d to assume a c]ta9 position ) ref]5ce to ! magnetic l9es ( =ce4 ,! possession ( "o optic axis or ( two is "o ( ! broad di/9ctions ( ! diff]5t cry/all9e =ms3 & us+ ?is di/9ction1 ,m4 ,plck] f\nd t a cry/al hav+ a s+le optic axis t5ds to place itself ) ?is axis transv]se to ! magnetic l9e ( =ce1 z if its optic axis 7 repell$ by ea* magnetic pole2 & cry/als ) two axes act z if ea* ( ^! axes 7 repell$ by ! magnetic poles4 ,?is =ce is indep5d5t ( ! magnetic or diamagnetic "* ( ! cry/al2 & is a directive1 m prop]ly ?an an attractive or repulsive =ce4 ,note #ce;,b3 ,taylor's ,sci5tific ,memoirs1 vol4 v4 ,soon aft]w>ds 79 #ahdh7 ,f>aday also discov]$#cf;,b an effect ( magnetism dep5d+ on cry/all9e =m1 :i* at fir/ sight appe>$ to be diff]5t f ! effects obs]v$ by ,m4 ,plck]4 ,he f\nd t a cry/al ( bismu?1 ( :i* ! =m is ne>ly a cube1 b m truly a rhomboh$ron ) "o diagonal a little long] ?an ! o!rs1 t5ds to place itself ) ?is diagonal 9 ! direction ( ! l9es ( magnetic =ce4 ,at fir/ he conceiv$#cg;,b ! prop]ties ?us detect$ to be diff]5t f ^? obs]v$ by ,m4 ,plck]2 s9ce 9 ?is case ! =ce ( a cry/all9e axis is axial1 :]eas 9 ^?1 x 0 equatorial4 ,b a fur!r consid]ation ( ! subject1 l$ him#ch;,b to a conviction t ^! =ces mu/ be fundam5tally id5tical3 = x 0 easy to conceive a comb9ation ( bismu? cry/als :i* w\ld behave 9 ! magnetic field z a cry/al ( calcsp> does2 or a comb9ation ( calcsp> cry/als :i* w\ld behave z a cry/al ( bismu? does4 ,note #cf;,b3 ,rese>*es1 ,art4 #bded1 c4 ,note #cg;,b3 ,art4 #bdfi4 ,note #ch;,b3 ,art #beic1 #bfja4 ,& ?us we h fre% examples to %[ t ! ,connexion ( coexi/5t ,pol>ities is a ?\ght deeply seat$ 9 ! m9ds ( ! #fbc pr(\nde/ & mo/ sagaci\s philosoph]s1 & p]petually v]ifi$ & illu/rat$1 by un=ese5 discov]ies 9 unguess$ =ms1 ?r\gh ! labors ( ! mo/ skilful exp]im5t]s4 ,magneto-electric ,ma*9es4 ,! discov]y t a voltaic wire mov$ 9 pres5ce ( a magnet1 has a curr5t g5]at$ 9 x1 0 employ$ z ! gr\nd ( ! con/ruction ( ma*9es to produce electrical effects4 ,9 ,saxton's ma*9e two coils ( wire includ+ a core ( s(t iron revolv$ opposite to ! ends ( a horse%oe magnet1 & ?us1 z ! two coils came opposite to ! ,n4 & ,s4 & to ! ,s4 & ,n4 poles ( ! magnet1 curr5ts 7 g5]at$ alt]nately 9 ! wires 9 opposite directions4 ,b by arrang+ ! connexions ( ! ends ( ! wires1 ! successive curr5ts might be made to pass 9 correspond+ directions4 ,! alt]nations or successions ( curr5ts 9 su* ma*9es are gov]n$ by a contrivance :i* alt]nately int]rupts & p]mits ! action2 ?is contrivance has be5 call$ a rheotome4 ,cl>ke gave a new =m to a ma*9e ( ! same nature z ,saxton's4 ,b ! l effect may be produc$ by us+ an electro-magnet in/ead ( a common magnet4 ,:5 ?is is done1 a curr5t is produc$ :i* by induction produces a curr5t 9 ano!r wire1 & ! action is alt]nately excit$ & int]rupt$4 ,:5 ! induc+ curr5t is int]rupt$1 a mom5t>y curr5t 9 an opposite direction is produc$ 9 ! induc$ wire2 & :5 ?is curr5t /ops1 x produces 9 ! induc+ wire a curr5t 9 ! orig9al direction1 :i* may be adju/$ s z to re9=ce ! resum$ action ( ! orig9al curr5t4 ,?is 0 po9t$ out by ,m4 ,de la ,rive 9 #ahdc4ci;,b ,ma*9es h be5 con/ruct$ on su* pr9ciples by him & o!rs4 ,( su* ma*9es ! mo/ p[]ful hi!rto kn[n is t con/ruct$ by ,m4 ,ruhmkorff4 ,! effects ( ?is in/rum5t are exce$+ly en]getic4 ,note #ci;,b3 ,trait de l',elect4 i4 #cia4 ,applications ( ,electrodynamic ,discov]ies4 ,! great s]ies ( discov]ies ( :i* ,i h _h to speak h be5 appli$ 9 _m important ways to ! uses ( life4 ,! ,electric ,telegraph is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ^!4 ,by wires ext5d$ to ! mo/ di/ant places1 ! electric curr5t is transmitt$ #fbd ?i!r 9 an imp]ceptible "t2 & by means ( well-devis$ sy/ems ( op]ation1 is made to convey f man to man words1 :i* are n[ mo/ emphatically w+$ words4 ,9 ! mo/ civilis$ /ates su* wires n[ =m a net-"w across ! l&1 :i* is famili> to our ?\ghts z ! highway is to our feet2 & wide seas h su* pa?ways ( human ?\ght buri$ deep 9 _! waves f %ore to %ore4 ,aga91 by us+ ! *emical effects ( electrodynamic action1 ( :i* we %all h to speak 9 ! next ,book1 a new means has be5 obta9$ ( copy+1 ) an exactness unatta9able be=e1 any =ms :i* art or nature has produc$1 & ( cov]+ !m ) a surface ( metal4 ,! ,electrotype ,process is n[ "o ( ! great p[]s :i* manufactur+ art employs4 ,b ^! discov]ies h also be5 employ$ 9 expla9+ natural ph5om5a1 ! causes ( :i* _h be=e be5 altoge!r inscrutable4 ,?is is ! case ) reg>d to ! diurnal v>iation ( ! magnetic ne$le2 a fact :i* z to its exi/5ce is univ]sal 9 all places1 & :i* yet is s curi\sly div]se 9 its c\rse at diff]5t places4 ,dr4 ,f>aday has %[n t "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ^! div]sities1 & probably all1 seem to be acc\nt$ = by ! diff]5t magnetic effects ( air at diff]5t temp]atures3 al?\gh1 z ,i h already said1 99997,book xii47 ! discov]y ( a dec5nial p]iod 9 ! diurnal *anges ( magnetic decl9ation %[s t any explanation ( ^? *anges :i* ref]s !m to causes exi/+ 9 ! atmosph]e mu/ be v incomplete4#dj;,b ,note #dj;,b3 ,rese>*es1 ,art4 #bhib4 #fbe ,,book ,,xiv4 ,,*emi/ry4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,electro-,,*emical ,,!ory4 ,,among ! consequ5ces ( ! ,electro-*emical ,!ory1 mu/ be rang$ ! v>i\s improvem5ts :i* h be5 made 9 ! voltaic batt]y4 ,daniel introduc$ betwe5 ! two metals a p>tition p]meable by *emical action1 b su* z to all[ ( two diff]5t acid solutions be+ 9 contact ) ! two metals4 ,mr4 ,grove's batt]y1 9 :i* ! p>tition is ( por\s porcela91 & ! metals are plat9um & amalgamat$ z9c1 is "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful hi!rto kn[n4 ,ano!r has be5 con/ruct$ by ,dr4 ,callan1 9 :i* ! negative or conduct+ plate is a cyl9d] ( ca/ iron1 & ! positive elem5t a cyl9d] ( amalgamat$ z9c plac$ 9 a por\s cell4 ,?is also has great en]gy4 ,! ,numb] ( ,elem5t>y ,sub/ances4 ,!re h n be51 ,i believe1 any well-e/abli%$ additions to ! li/ ( ! simple sub/ances recogniz$ by *emi/s4 ,inde$ ! t5d5cy at pres5t appe>s to be r to d5y ! sep>ate elem5t>y "* ( "s already ann\nc$ z su* sub/ances4 ,pelopium & ,niobium 71 z ,i h said1 two ( ! new metals4 ,b ,naumann1 9 8 ,elem5te d] ,m9]alogie 7#d? ed4 #ahee71 says1 9 a foot note 7page #be73 ,pelopium is happily aga9 got rid (2 = ,pelopic ,acid & ,niobic ,acid possess ! same ,radical4 ,don>ium _h a /ill %ort] exi/5ce4 ,9 ! same way1 :5 ,h]mann imag9$ t he _h discov]$ a new simple metallic sub/ance 9 ! m9]al ,sam>skite f ,miask1 ! discov]y 0 disprov$ by ,h4 ,rose 7,pogg4 ,ann4 ,b4 #gc1 s4 #ddi74 #fbf ,9 g5]al ! insulation ( ! new simple sub/ances1 ! metallic bases ( ! e>?s1 & ! l1--_! sep>ation f _! comb9ations1 & ! exhibition ( !m 9 a metallic =m--has be5 a difficult *emical process1 & has r>ely be5 execut$ on any consid]able scale4 ,b 9 ! case ( ,alum9ium1 ! basis ( ! e>? ,alum9a1 ! process ( its extraction has rec5tly be5 s mu* facilitat$1 t ! metal c be produc$ 9 abundance4 ,?is be+ ! case1 x w probably soon be appli$ to special economical uses1 = :i* x is fitt$ by possess+ special prop]ties4 #fbf ,,book ,,xv4 ,,m9]alogy4 ,,by ! k9dness ( ,w4 ,h4 ,mill]1 ,esq41 ,pr(essor ( ,m9]alogy 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 ,i am able to add to ?is "p ! foll[+ notices ( books & memoirs4 #a4 ,cry/allography4 ,elem5te d] ,kry/allographie1 neb/ e9] tabell>is*5 ,ueb]si*t d] ,m9]ali5 na* d] ,kry/all=m51 von ,gu/av ,rose4 #b4 ,auflage4 ,b]l91 #ahch4 ,! cry/allographic me?od "h adopt$ is1 = ! mo/ "p1 t ( ,weiss4 ,! me?od ( ?is "w has be5 foll[$ 9 ,a ,sy/em ( ,cry/allography1 ) its ,applications to ,m9]alogy4 ,by ,john ,joseph ,griff94 ,glasg[1 #ahda4 ,mr4 ,griff9 has1 h[ev]1 modifi$ ! notation ( ,rose4 ,he has con/ruct$ a s]ies ( models ( cry/all9e =ms4 ,frank5heim's ,sy/em d] ,kry/alle4 #ahdb4 ,?is "w adopts ne>ly ! ,mohsian sy/ems ( cry/allization4 ,x conta9s ,tables ( ! *emical con/itution1 incl9ations ( ! axis1 & magnitude ( ! axes ( all ! cry/als ( :i* a description 0 to be f\nd1 includ+ ^? =m$ 9 ! laboratory1 z well z ^? usually call$ m9]als2 #gac 9 all4 ,fr4 ,aug4 ,qu5/$t1 ,me?ode d] ,kry/allographie1 #ahdj1 employs a fanciful me?od ( repres5t+ a cry/al by project+ ^u "o face ( ! cry/al all ! o!r faces4 ,?is inv5tion appe>s to be m curi\s ?an useful4 ,dr4 ,k>l ,naumann1 :o is spok5 ( 9 ,*ap4 ix4 ( ?is ,book1 z ! au?or ( ! be/ ( ! ,mix$ ,sy/ems ( ,classification1 publi%$ also ,grundriss d] ,kry/allographie1 ,leipzig1 #ahbf4 ,9 ?is & o!r works he modifies ! notation ( ,mohs 9 a v advantage\s mann]4 #fbh ,pr(essor ,dana1 9 8 ,sy/em ( ,m9]alogy1 ,new ,hav5 7,u4,s471 #ahcg1 foll[s ,naumann = ! mo/ "p1 bo? 9 cry/allography & 9 m9]al classification4 ,9 ! latt] "p ( ! subject1 he has made ! attempt1 :i* 9 all cases is a s\rce ( confusion & ( failure1 to introduce a :ole sy/em ( new names ( ! memb]s ( 8 classification4 ,! geometry ( cry/allography has be5 inve/igat$ 9 a v orig9al mann] by ,m4 ,bravais1 9 pap]s publi%$ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,ecole ,polyte*nique1 entitl$ ,mmoires sur les ,sy/mes =ms p> des ,po9ts4 #ahej4 ,etudes ,cry/allographiques4 #ahea4 ,h]mann ,kopp 7,e9leitung 9 die ,kry/allographie1 ,brauns*weig4 #ahdi7 has giv5 ! description & measurem5t ( ! angles ( a l>ge numb] ( laboratory cry/als4 ,rammelsb]g 7,kry/allographis*e ,*emie1 ,b]l91 #ahee7 has collect$ an acc\nt ( ! sy/ems1 simple =ms & angles ( all ! laboratory cry/als ( :i* he c\ld obta9 descriptions4 ,s*abus ( ,vi5na 7,be/immung d] ,kry/allge/alt5 99999 ,*emis*5 ,laboratori5 erzeugt5 ,producte1 ,wi51 #ahee2 a successful ,prize ,essay7 has giv5 a description1 accompani$ by measurem5ts1 ( #ij cry/all9e species f 8 own obs]vations4 ,to ^! attempts made 9 o!r c\ntries to simplify & improve cry/allography1 ,i may add a rem>kable ,essay v rec5tly made "h by ,mr4 ,brooke1 & sugge/$ to him by 8 exact & famili> k ( ,m9]alogy4 ,x is to ?is effect4 ,all ! cry/all9e =ms ( any giv5 m9]al species are d]iv$ f ! primitive =m ( t species2 & ! degree ( symmetry1 & ! p>amet]s1 ( ?is =m det]m9e ! angles ( all d]ivative =ms4 ,b h[ is ?is primitive =m select$ & its p>amet]s det]m9$8 ,! selection ( ! k9d ( ! primitive =m dep5ds ^u ! degree ( symmetry :i* appe>s 9 all ! d]ivative =ms2 accord+ to :i* !y belong to ! rhomboh$ral1 prismatic1 squ>e pyramidal1 or "s o!r sy/em3 & ?is det]m9ation is commonly cle>4 ,b ! p>amet]s1 or ! angles1 ( ! primitive =m1 are commonly det]m9$ by ! cleavage ( ! m9]al4 ,is ?is a suffici5t & necess>y gr\nd ( su* det]m9ation8 ,may n a simplification be effect$1 9 "s cases1 by tak+ "s o!r p>amet]s8 by tak+ a primitive =m :i* belongs to ! prop] sy/em1 b :i* has "s o!r angles ?an ^? giv5 by cleavage8 ,mr4 ,brooke has tri$ :e!r1 = in/ance1 cry/als ( ! rhomboh$ral sy/em may n be ref]r$ ) advantage to primitive rhomboh$rons :i* h1 9 all #fbi ! species1 ne>ly ! same angles4 ,! advantage to be obta9$ by su* a *ange w\ld be ! simplification ( ! laws ( d]ivation 9 ! d]ivative =ms3 & !re=e we h to ask1 :e!r ! indices ( d]ivation are small] numb]s 9 ?is way or ) ! hi!rto accept$ fundam5tal angles4 ,x appe>s to me1 f ! examples giv51 t ! advantage ( simplicity 9 ! indices is on ! side ( ! old sy/em3 b :e!r ?is be s or n1 x 0 a great b5efit to cry/allography to h ! two me?ods comp>$4 ,mr4 ,brooke's ,essay is a ,memoir pres5t$ to ! ,royal ,society 9 #ahef4 #b4 ,optical ,prop]ties ( ,m9]als4 ,! ,h&bu* d] ,optik1 von ,f4 ,w4 ,g4 ,radicke1 ,b]l91 #ahci1 conta9s a *apt] on ! optical prop]ties ( cry/als4 ,! au?or's *ief au?ority is ,sir ,d4 ,brew/]1 z might be expect$4 ,m4 ,haid+] has devot$ mu* att5tion to exp]im5ts on ! pleo*roism ( m9]als4 ,he has inv5t$ an in/rum5t :i* makes ! di*roism ( m9]als m evid5t by exhibit+ ! two colors side by side4 ,! pleo*roism ( m9]als1 & especially ! rem>kable cl\ds t 9 ! cases ( ,iolite1 ,&alusite1 ,augite1 ,epidote1 & ,ax9ite1 bord] ! positions ( ei!r optical axis1 h be5 mo/ successfully imitat$ by ,m4 de ,s5>mont by means ( artificial cry/allizations4 7,ann4 de ,*im4 #c ,s]4 xli4 p4 #cai47 ,m4 ,pa/eur has f\nd t ,racemic ,acid consi/s ( two diff]5t acids1 hav+ ! same d5sity & composition4 ,! salts ( ^! acids1 ) bases ( ,ammonia & ( ,potassa1 are hemih$ral1 ! hemih$ral faces :i* occur 9 ! "o be+ want+ 9 ! o!r4 ,! acids ( ^! diff]5t cry/als h circul> pol>ization ( opposite k9ds4 7,ann4 de ,*im4 #c ,s]4 xxviii4 #ef1 #ii47 ,?is discov]y 0 m>k$ by ! assignation ( ! ,rum=d ,m$al to ,m4 ,pa/eur 9 #ahef4 ,m4 ,m>ba* has discov]$ t cry/als ( *lorate ( soda1 :i* app>5tly belongs to ! cubic or tessul> sy/em1 exhibit hemih$ral faces ( a peculi> "*2 & t ! cry/als h circul> pol>ization ( opposite k9ds 9 accordance ) ! diff]5ces ( ! plagih$ral faces4 7,pogg5dorf's ,annal51 xci4 #dhb47 ,m4 ,seybolt ( ,vi5na has f\nd a means ( detect+ plagih$ral faces 9 qu>tz cry/als :i* d n reveal !m ext]nally4 7,akad4 d4 ,wiss5s*aft zu ,wi51 ,b4 xv4 s4 #ei47 #fcj #c4 ,classification ( ,m9]als4 ,9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ,b4 ,,viii4 ,c4 iii41 ,i h treat$ ( ! ,application ( ! ,natural-hi/ory ,me?od ( ,classification to ,m9]alogy1 & h spok5 ( ! ,sy/ems ( ?is k9d :i* h be5 propos$4 ,i h !re especially discuss$ ! sy/em propos$ 9 ! treatise ( ,m4 ,neck]1 ,le ,rgne ,m9ral ram5 aux ,m?odes d',hi/oire ,naturelle 7,p>is1 #ahce74 ,m rec5tly h be5 publi%$ ,m4 ,beudant's ,c\rs lm5taire d',hi/oire ,naturelle1 ,m9ralogie 7,p>is1 #ahda72 & ,m4 ,a4 ,dufresnoy's ,trait de ,m9ralogie 7,p>is1 #ahde74 ,bo? ^! works are s f> gov]n$ by m]e *emical views t !y lapse into ! inconv5i5ces & defects :i* are avoid$ 9 ! be/ sy/ems ( ,g]man m9]alogi/s4 ,! la/ m9]al sy/em ( ,b]zelius has be5 develop$ by ,m4 ,rammelsb]g 7,nrnb]g1 #ahdg74 ,x is 9 pr9ciple su* z we h describ$ x 9 ! hi/ory4 ,m4 9999,nord5skild's sy/em 7#crd ,ed4 #ahdi17 has be5 criticis$ by ,g4 ,rose1 :o obs]ves t x removes ! defects ( ! sy/em ( ,b]zelius only 9 "p4 ,he himself proposes :at he calls a ,kry/allo-,*emis*es ,sy/em1 9 :i* ! cry/all9e =m det]m9es ! g5us & ! *emical composition ! species4 ,8 classes are-- #a4 ,simple ,sub/ances4 #b4 ,comb9ations ( ,sulphur1 ,sel5ium1 ,titanium1 ,ars5ic1 ,antimony4 #c4 ,*lorides1 ,fluorides1 ,bromides1 ,iodides4 #d4 ,comb9ations ) ,oxyg54 ,we h already said t = u1 all *emical comp\nds are m9]als1 9 s f> t !y are includ$ 9 our classifications4 ,! propriety ( ?is mode ( deal+ ) ! subject is confirm$ by our f9d+ t !re is really no t5able di/9ction betwe5 native m9]als & ! products ( ! laboratory4 ,a great numb] ( em95t *emi/s h be5 employ$ 9 produc+1 by artificial means1 cry/als :i* _h be=e be5 kn[n only z native products4 #fca ,,book ,,xvi4 ,,classificatory ,,sci5ces4 ,,botany4 ,,= ! purpose ( giv+ to my read] "s indication ( ! pres5t t5d5cy ( ,botanical ,sci5ce1 ,i conceive t ,i _c d bett] ?an direct 8 att5tion to ! reflections1 proc$ure1 & reason+s :i* h be5 sugge/$ by ! mo/ rec5t ext5sions ( man's k ( ! vegetable _w4 ,& z a specim5 ( ^!1 ,i may take ! labors ( ,dr4 ,joseph ,hook]1 on ! ,flora ( ! ,ant>ctic ,regions1#da;,b & especially ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,dr4 ,hook] 0 ! ,botani/ to an exp$ition comm&$ by ,sir ,james ,ross1 s5t out ma9ly = ! purpose ( inve/igat+ ! ph5om5a ( ,t]re/rial ,magnetism ne> ! ,s\? ,pole2 b direct$ also to ! improvem5t ( ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,! ext5sion ( botanical descriptions & classifications to a l>ge mass ( new objects necess>ily sugge/s wid] views ( ! value ( classes 7g5]a1 species1 c417 & ! conclusions to be drawn f _! con/ancy or incon/ancy4 ,a few ( ,dr4 ,hook]'s rem>ks may %[ ! nature ( ! views tak5 "u su* circum/ances4 ,note #da;,b3 ,! ,botany ( ! ,ant>ctic ,voyage ( ,h4 ,m4 ,discov]y ,%ips ,erebus & ,t]ror1 9 ! ye>s #ahci-dj4 ,publi%$ #ahdg4 ,flora ,nov ,zel&i4 #ahec4 ,i may notice1 9 ! fir/ place1 7s9ce ?is "w is int5d$ = g5]al r ?an = sci5tific read]s17 ,dr4 ,hook]'s te/imony to ! value ( a te*nical descriptive language = a classificatory sci5ce--a ,t]m9ology1 z x is call$4 ,he says1 ,x is impossible to write ,botanical descriptions :i* a p]son ignorant ( ,botany c und]/&1 al?\gh x is suppos$ by _m unacqua9t$ ) sci5ce t ?is c & %\ld be done4 ,& h5ce1 he says1 ! /ate ( botanical sci5ce dem&s ,lat9 descriptions ( ! plants2 & ?is is a lesson :i* he especially urges ^u ! ,coloni/s :o /udy ! indig5\s plants4 #fcb ,dr4 ,hook]'s rem>ks on ! limits ( species1 _! disp]sion & v>iation1 are /rik+ & in/ructive4 ,he is ( op9ion t species v>y m1 & are m widely diffus$1 ?an is usually suppos$4 ,h5ce he conceives t ! numb] ( species has be5 ne$lessly & errone\sly multipli$1 by di/+ui%+ ! specim5s :i* occur 9 diff]5t places1 & v>y 9 uness5tial features4 ,he says t ?\gh1 accord+ to ! l[e/ e/imate ( compil]s1 #ajj1jjj is ! commonly receiv$ numb] ( kn[n plants1 he ?9ks t half t numb] is mu* ne>] ! tru?4 ,?is1 he says1 may be well conceiv$1 :5 x is notori\s t n9ete5 species h be5 made ( ! ,common ,potatoe1 & _m m ( ,solanum nigrum alone4 ,pt]is aquil9a has giv5 rise to num]\s book species2 ,v]nonia c9]ea ( ,india to fifte5 at lea/4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,_m m plants are common to mo/ c\ntries ?an is suppos$2 ,i h f\nd #fj ,new ,zeal& fl[]+ plants & #i ,f]ns to be ,european ones1 besides inhabit+ num]\s int]m$iate c\ntries4 4 4 4 4 4 ,s long ago z #ahad1 ,mr4 ,br[n drew att5tion to ! importance ( su* consid]ations1 & gave a li/ ( #aej ,european plants common to ,au/ralia4 ,z an example ( ! ext5t to :i* uness5tial diff]5ces may g1 he says 7p4 xvii417 ,! few rema9+ native ,c$>s ( ,lebanon may be abnormal /ates ( ! tree :i* 0 once spread ov] ! :ole ( ! ,lebanon2 = !re are n[ gr[+ 9 ,engl& v>ieties ( x :i* h no exi/5ce 9 a wild /ate4 ,"s ( !m closely resemble ! ,c$>s ( ,atlas & ( ! ,himalayas 7,deod>27 & ! abs5ce ( any valid botanical diff]5ces t5ds to prove t all1 ?\gh g5]ally suppos$ to be diff]5t species1 are "o4 ,/ill ! great majority ( ! species ( plants 9 ^? ,s\!rn regions are peculi>4 ,!re are upw>ds ( #ajj g5]a1 subg5]a1 or o!r well m>k$ gr\ps ( plants1 entirely or ne>ly conf9$ to ,new ,zeal&1 ,au/ralia1 & extra-tropical ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,!y are repres5t$ by "o or m species 9 two or m ( ^? c\ntries1 & ?us effect a botanical relation%ip or aff9ity betwe5 !m all :i* e botani/ appreciates4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! ,hi/ory ( ,botany1 ,i h receiv$ corrections & rem>ks f ,dr4 ,hook]1 ) :i* ,i am all[$ to enri* my pages4 ,p4 #cei4 ,note #c4 ,note #caf ,nelumbium speciosum1 ! ,lotus ( ,india4 ,! ,nelumbium does n float1 b raises bo? leaf & fl[] sev]al feet above ! wat]3 ! ,nympha ,lotus has float+ leaves4 ,bo? ent] l>gely into ! symbolism ( ! ,h9doos1 & are (t5 conf\nd$4 #fcc ,p4 #cfb4 ,note #e4 ,note #acaf ,= ,ara*nis read ,ara*is4 ,! ,ara*idna ( ,!ophra/us _c1 h[ev]1 be ! ,ara*is or gr\nd-nut4 ,pp4 #chh & #cid4 ,= ,h>lecamp read ,h>tecamp4 ,p4 #cid4 ,= ,k]l5 read ,kalm4 ,p4 #cid4 ,= ,asbe* read ,osbeck4 ,p4 #chf4 ,john ,ray4 ,ray 0 fur!r ! au?or ( ! pres5t ,natural ,sy/em 9 its mo/ compreh5sive s5se4 ,he fir/ divid$ plants into ,fl[]less & ,fl[]+2 & ! latt] into ,monocotyl$on\s & ,dicotyl$on\s3--',florif]as dividemus 9 ,,dicotyl$ones1 qu>um sem9a sata b9is foliis1 sem9alibus dictis1 qu cotyl$onorum usum pr/ant1 e t]ra exeunt1 vel 9 b9os saltem lobos dividuntur1 quamvis eos supra t]ram foliorum specie non eff]ant2 et ,,monocotyl$ones1 qu nec folia b9a sem9alia eff]unt nec lobos b9os condunt4 ,hc divisio ad arbores etiam ext5di pote/2 siquidem ,palm et cong5]es hoc respectu eodem modo a reliquis arboribus diff]unt quo ,monocotyl$ones a reliquis h]bis4' ,p4 #djh4 ,endog5\s & ,exog5\s ,gr[?4 ,! exact c\rse ( ! wood fibres :i* trav]se ! /ems ( bo? ,monocotyl$on\s & ,dicotyl$on\s plants has be5 only lately discov]$4 ,9 ! ,monocotyl$ons1 ^? fibres are collect$ 9 bundles1 :i* foll[ a v peculi> c\rse3--f ! base ( ea* leaf !y may be foll[$ d[nw>ds & inw>ds1 t[>ds ! axis ( ! trunk1 :5 !y =m an ar* ) ! convexity to ! c5tre2 & curv+ outw>ds aga9 rea* ! circumf]5ce1 :]e !y are lo/ among/ ! previ\sly deposit$ fibres4 ,! intrusion ( ! bases ( ^! bundles among/ ^? already deposit$1 causes ! circumf]5ce ( ! /em to be h>d] ?an ! c5tre2 & z all ^! arcs h a %ort c\rse 7_! *ords be+ ne>ly equal71 ! trunk does n increase 9 gir?1 & gr[s at ! apex only4 ,! wood-bundles are "h def9ite4 ,9 ! ,dicotyl$on\s trunks1 ! lay]s ( wood run 9 p>allel c\rses f ! base to ! top ( ! trunk1 ea* ext]nally to t la/ =m$1 & ! trunk increases bo? 9 height & gir?2 ! wood-bundles are "h indef9ite4 ,) reg>d to ! ,cotyl$ons1 ?\gh x is (t5 difficult to di/+ui% a ,monocotyl$on\s ,embryo f a ,dicotyl$on\s1 !y may always be discrim9at$ :5 g]m9at+4 ,! ,cotyl$ons1 :5 two or m1 & primordial leaves 7:5 no ,cotyl$ons are visible7 ( a ,monocotyl$on1 are alt]nate2 ^? ( a ,dicotyl$on are opposite4 ,a fur!r physiological di/9ction betwe5 ,monocotyl$ons & #fcd ,dicotyl$ons is obs]v$ 9 g]m9ation1 :5 ! ,dicotyl$on\s radicle elongates & =ms ! root ( ! "y plant2 ! ,monocotyl$on\s radicle does n elongate1 b pu%es out rootlets f itself at once4 ,h5ce ! n v good t]ms1 exorhizal = ,dicotyl$on\s1 & endorhizal = ,monocotyl$on\s4 ,! highe/ physiological g5]alization 9 ! vegetable k+dom is betwe5 ,phnogama & ,cryptogama4 ,9 ! =m]1 f]tilization is effect$ by a poll5-tube t\*+ ! nucleus ( an ovule2 9 ,cryptogams1 ! same process is effect$ by ! contact ( a sp]m-cell1 usually ciliat$ 7an!rozoid71 ^u ano!r k9d ( cell call$ a g]m-cell4 ,9 ,phnogams1 fur!r1 ! organs ( fructification are all modifi$ leaves2 ^? ( ,cryptogams are n homolog\s4 7,j4 ,d4 ,h47 ,,zoology4 ,i h exemplifi$ ! consid]ations :i* gov]n zoological classification by quot+ ! reflexions :i* ,cuvi] gives u1 z hav+ l$ him to 8 own classification ( ,fi%es4 ,s9ce ! v>ieties ( ,quadrup$s1 or ,mammals 7omitt+ :ales1 c471 are m famili> to ! common read] ?an ^? ( ,fi%es1 ,i may notice "s ( ! /eps 9 _! classification2 ! m s z "s curi\s que/ions h rec5tly aris5 !reupon4 ,l9nu fir/ divides ,mammals into two gr\ps1 z !y h ,claws1 or ,ho(s 7unguiculata1 ungulata47 ,b he !n aga9 divides !m into six ord]s 7omitt+ :ales1 c471 accord+ to _! numb] ( incisor1 lani>y1 & mol> tee?2 namely3-- ,primates4 7,man1 ,monkey1 c47 ,bruta4 7,rh9oc]os1 ,elephant1 c47 ,f]4 7,dog1 ,cat1 ,be>1 ,mole1 c47 ,glires4 7,m\se1 ,squirrel1 ,h>e1 c47 ,pecora4 7,camel1 ,giraffe1 ,/ag1 ,goat1 ,%eep1 ,ox1 c47 ,bellu4 7,horse1 ,hippopotamus1 ,tapir1 ,s[1 c47 ,9 ! place ( ^!1 ,cuvi]1 z ,i h /at$ 9 ! ,philosophy 7,on ! ,language ( ,sci5ces1 ,aphorism xvi471 introduc$ ! foll[+ ord]s3 ,bimanes1 ,quadrumanes1 ,c>nassi]s1 ,rongeurs1 ,ed5ts1 ,pa*yd]ms1 ,rum9ans4 ,( ^!1 ! ,c>nassi]s correspond to ! ,f] ( ,l9nu2 ! ,rongeurs to 8 ,glires2 ! ,ed5ts are a new ord]1 tak+ ! ,slo?s1 ,ant-eat]s1 c41 f ! ,bruta ( ,l9nu1 ! ,mega!rium f ext9ct animals1 & ! ,orni?orhyn*us1 c41 f ! new animals ( ,au/ralia2 ! ,rum9ans agree ) ! #fce ,pecora2 ! ,pa*yd]ms include "s ( ! ,bruta & ! ,bellu1 compreh5d+ also ext9ct animals1 z ,anoplo!rium & ,palo!rium4 ,b ! two ord]s ( ,ho($ ,animals1 ! ,pa*yd]ms & ! ,rum9ants1 =m a gr\p :i* is held by ,mr4 ,ow5 to admit ( a bett] sep>ation1 on ! gr\nd ( a "* already po9t$ out by ,cuvi]2 namely1 z to :e!r !y are two-to$ or ?ree-to$4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 ! ,horse is connect$ ) ! ,tapir1 ! ,palo!rium1 & ! ,rh9oc]os1 n only by 8 tee?1 b by 8 feet1 = he has really ?ree digits4 ,& ,cuvi] notices t 9 ! two-to$ or ev5-to$ ,pa*yd]ms1 ! a/ragalus bone has its face divid$ into two equal p>ts by a ridge2 :ile 9 ! unev5-to$ pa*yd]ms x has a n>r[ cuboid face4 ,mr4 ,ow5 has adopt$ ?is division ( ,pa*yd]ms & ,rum9ants1 giv+ ! names artiodactyla & p]issodactyla to ! two gr\ps2 ! =m] includ+ ! ,ox1 ,hog1 ,pecc>y1 ,hippopotamus1 c42 ! latt] compreh5d+ ! ,horse1 ,tapir1 ,rh9oc]os1 ,hyrax1 c4 ,& ?us ! ,rum9ants take _! place z a subord9ate gr\p ( ! great natural ev5-to$ ,division ( ! ,ho($ ,section ( ,mammals2 & ! ,horse is widely sep>at$ f !m1 inasmu* z he belongs to ! odd-to$ division4#db;,b ,note #db;,b3 ,ow51 ,odontography4 ,z we h se51 ^! mod]n classifications are s con/ruct$ z to include ext9ct z well z liv+ species ( animals2 & inde$ ! species :i* h be5 discov]$ 9 a fossil /ate h t5d$ to fill up ! gaps 9 ! s]ies ( zoological =ms :i* _h m>r$ ! sy/ems ( mod]n zoologi/s4 ,?is has be5 ! case ) ! division ( :i* we are speak+4 ,mr4 ,ow5 _h e/abli%$ two g5]a ( ext9ct ,h]bivor\s ,animals1 on ! /r5g? ( fossil rema9s br\ght f ,s\? ,am]ica3--,toxodon1 & ,nesodon4 ,9 a rec5t communication to ! ,royal ,society#dc;,b he has consid]$ ! be>+ ( ^! g5]a ^u ! divisions ( odd-to$ & ev5-to$ animals4 ,he _h already be5 l$ to ! op9ion t ! ?ree sections1 ,proboscidea1 ,p]issodactyla1 & ,artiodactyla1 =m$ a natural division ( ,ungulata2 & he is n[ l$ to ?9k t ?is division implies ano!r gr\p1 a di/9ct division ( ! ,ungulata1 ( equal value1 if n ) ! ,p]issodactyla & ,artiodactyla at lea/ ) ! ,proboscidea4 ,?is gr\p he proposes to call ,toxodonta4 ,note #dc;,b3 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahec4 #fcf ,,book ,,xvii4 ,,physiology ,,& ,,comp>ative ,,anatomy4 ,,vegetable ,,morphology4 ,morphology 9 ,l9nu4 ,i ,,h /at$ t ,l9nu _h "s views on ?is subject4 ,dr4 ,hook] conceives ^! views to be m complete & correct ?an is g5]ally all[$1 ?\gh unhappily clo!d 9 metaphorical language & mix$ ) speculative matt]4 ,by 8 p]mission ,i ins]t "s rem>ks :i* ,i h receiv$ f him4 ,! fundam5tal passage on ?is subject is 9 ! ,sy/ema ,natur2 9 ! ,introduction to :i* "w ! foll[+ passage occurs3-- ,prolepsis 7,anticipation7 exhibits ! my/]y ( ! metamorphosis ( plants1 by :i* ! h]b1 :i* is ! l>va or imp]fect condition1 is *ang$ into ! decl>$ fructification3 = ! plant is capable ( produc+ ei!r a leafy h]b or a fructification4 4 4 4 4 4 ,:5 a tree produces a fl[]1 nature anticipates ! produce ( five ye>s :]e ^! come out all at once2 =m+ ( ! bud-leaves ( ! next ye> bracts2 ( ^? ( ! foll[+ ye>1 ! calyx2 ( ! foll[+1 ! corolla2 ( ! next1 ! /am9a2 ( ! subsequ5t1 ! pi/ils1 fill$ ) ! granulat$ m>r[ ( ! se$1 ! t]m9us ( ! life ( a vegetable4 ,dr4 ,hook] says1 ,i d]ive my idea ( 8 hav+ a bett] k ( ! subject ?an mo/ ,botani/s admit1 n only f ! ,prolepsis1 b f 8 pap] call$ ,re=matio ,botanices 7,amn4 ,acad4 vol4 vi472 a rem>kable "w1 9 respect ( 8 c&or 9 speak+ ( 8 pr$ecessors' labors1 & ! sagacity he %[s 9 indicat+ rese>*es to be und]tak5 or complet$4 ,among/ ! latt] is ,v4 ',prolepsis plant>um1 ult]ius ext5d5da p] e>um metamorphoses4' ,! la/ ^w occurs r>ely 9 8 ,prolepsis2 b :5 x does x seems to me t he uses x z indicat+ a normal *ange & n an accid5tal "o4 #fcg ,9 ! ,prolepsis ! speculative matt]1 :i* ,l9nu himself c>efully di/+ui%es z su*1 mu/ be sep>at$ f ! re/1 & ?is may ,i ?9k be done 9 mo/ ( ! sections4 ,he />ts ) expla9+ cle>ly & well ! orig9 & position ( buds1 & _! con/ant pres5ce1 :e!r develop$ or n1 9 ! axil ( ! leaf3 add+ abundance ( acute obs]vations & exp]im5ts to prove 8 /atem5ts4 ,! leaf he decl>es to be ! fir/ ef=t ( ! plant 9 spr+3 he proce$s to %[1 successively1 t bracts1 calyx1 corolla1 /am5s1 & pi/il are ea* ( !m metamorphos$ leaves1 9 e case giv+ ,,_m ,,examples1 bo? f mon/]s & f *>act]s pres5t$ by ^? organs 9 _! normal condition4 ,! 7to me7 obscure & critical "p ( ! ,prolepsis 0 t relat+ to ! *ange ( ! /yle ( ,c>duus into two leaves4 ,mr4 ,br[n has expla9$ ?is4 ,he says x 0 a puzzle to him1 till he w5t to ,upsala & consult$ ,fries & ,wahl5b]g1 :o in=m$ him t su* mon/r\s ,c>dui grew 9 ! neighborhood1 & procur$ him "s4 ,consid]+ h[ m9ute & mask$ ! organs ( ,composit are1 x %[s no little skill 9 ,l9nu1 & a v cle> view ( ! :ole matt]1 to h trac$ ! metamorphosis ( all _! floral organs into leaves1 except _! /am5s1 ( :i* he says1 ',sexti anni folia e /am9ibus me non 9 compositis vidisse fateor1 s$ illorum loco folia pi/illacea1 qu 9 compositis aut pl5is sunt frequ5tissima4' ,i mu/ say t no?+ c\ld well be cle>] to my m9d ?an ! full & accurate appreciation :i* ,l9nu %[s ( ! :ole s]ies ( ph5om5a1 & _! rationale4 ,he ov] & ov] aga9 ass]ts t ^! organs are leaves1 e "o ( !m1--,i d n und]/& him to say t ! prolepsis is an accid5tal *ange ( leaves into bracts1 ( bracts into calyx1 & s =?4 ,ev5 7 ! language m obscure1 mu* might be inf]r$ f ! wide range & accuracy ( ! obs]vations he details s sci5tifically4 ,x is inconceivable t a man %\ld h trac$ ! sequ5ce ( ! ph5om5a "u s _m v>i$ aspects1 & %[n su* skill1 k1 +5uity1 & accuracy 9 8 me?ods ( obs]v+ & describ+1 & yet miss$ ! rationale ( ! :ole4 ,elim9ate ! speculative p>ts & !re is n a s+le error ( obs]vation or judgm5t2 :il/ 8 hi/ory ( ! developem5t ( buds1 leaves1 & floral organs1 & ( v>i\s o!r obscure matt]s ( equal int]e/ & importance1 are ( a v high ord] ( m]it1 are1 9 fact1 = ! "t pr(\nd4 ,!re is no?+ 9 all ?is t detracts f ! m]it ( ,goe!'s #fch re-discov]y4 ,) ,goe! x 01 ,i ?9k1 a d$uctive process1--) ,l9nu an inductive4 ,analyse ,l9nu's obs]vations & me?od1 & ,i ?9k x w prove a good example ( inductive reason+4 ,p4 #dgc4 ,p]haps ,pr(essor ,augu/e ,/ ,hilaire ( ,montpelli] %\ld %>e ) ,de ,c&olle ! honor ( contribut+ l>gely to e/abli% ! metamorphic doctr9e2--_! labors 7 cotemporane\s4 ,p4 9999#dgd4 ,l9nu po9t$ out t ! pappus 0 calyx3 ',et pappum gigni ex qu>ti anni foliis1 9 jam nom9atis ,c>duis4'--,prol4 ,plant4 #cch4 7,j4 ,d4 ,h47 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,animal ,,morphology4 ,,! subject ( ,animal ,morphology has rec5tly be5 exp&$ into a =m /rik+ly compreh5sive & sy/ematic by ,mr4 ,ow52 & suppli$ by him ) a copi\s & c>efully-*os5 language2 :i* 9 8 h&s facilitates va/ly ! comp>ison & appreciation ( ! previ\s labors ( physiologi/s1 & op5s ! way to new tru?s & philosophical g5]alizations4 ,?\gh ! /eps :i* h be5 made _h be5 prep>$ by previ\s anatomi/s1 ,i w borr[ my view ( !m ma9ly f him2 ) ! less scruple1 inasmu* z he has br\ght into full view ! labors ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,i h /at$ 9 ! ,hi/ory t ! skeletons ( all v]tebrate animals are conceiv$ to be r$ucible to a s+le ,type1 & ! skull r$ucible to a s]ies ( v]tebr4 ,b inasmu* z ?is r$uction includes n only a detail$ correspond5ce ( ! bones ( man ) ^? ( bea/s1 b also ) ^? ( birds1 fi%es1 & reptiles1 x may easily be conceiv$ t ! simil>ities & connexions are ( a v>i\s & (t5 remote k9d4 ,! views ( su* relations1 held by previ\s ,comp>ative ,anatomi/s1 h l$ to ! designations ( ! bones ( animals :i* h be5 employ$ 9 anatomical descriptions2 & ^! designations hav+ be5 fram$ & adopt$ by anatomi/s look+ at ! subject f diff]5t sides1 & hav+ diff]5t views ( analogies & relations1 h be5 v v>i\s & un/able2 besides be+ (t5 ( cumbr\s l5g? & inconv5i5t =m4 ,! correspond+ p>ts 9 diff]5t animals are call$ homologues1 #fci a t]m fir/ appli$ to anatomy by ! philosoph]s ( ,g]many2 & ?is t]m ,mr4 ,ow5 adopts1 to ! exclusion ( t]ms m loosely d5ot+ id5tity or simil>ity4 ,& ! ,homology ( ! v>i\s bones ( v]tebrates hav+ be5 9 a great degree det]m9$ by ! labors ( previ\s anatomi/s1 ,mr4 ,ow5 has propos$ names = ea* ( ! bones3 ! condition ( su* names be+1 t ! homologues 9 all v]tebrates %all be call$ by ! same "n1 & t ^! names %all be f\nd$ ^u ! t]ms & phrases 9 :i* ! great anatomi/s ( ! #af?1 #ag?1 & #ah? c5turies express$ ! results ( _! rese>*es respect+ ! human skeleton4 ,^! names1 ?us select$1 s f> z conc]n$ ! bones ( ! ,head ( ,fi%es1 "o ( ! mo/ difficult cases ( ?is ,special ,homology1 he publi%$ 9 a ,table1#dd;,b 9 :i* !y 7 comp>$1 9 p>allel columns1 ) ! names or phrases us$ = ! l purpose by ,cuvi]1 ,agassiz1 ,ge(froy1 ,hallman1 ,smm]+1 ,meckel1 & ,wagn]4 ,z an example ( ! consid]ations by :i* ?is selection ( names 0 det]m9$1 ,i may quote :at he says ) reg>d to "o ( ^! bones ( ! skull4 ,note #dd;,b3 ,lectures on ,v]tebrates4 #ahdf1 p4 #aeh4 ,& ,on ! ,ar*etype & ,homologies ( ! ,v]tebrate ,skeleton4 #ahdh1 p4 #agb4 ,) reg>d to ! 'squamosal' 7squamosum4 ,lat4 p>s squamosa ossis temporis4--,smm]+71 x might be ask$ :y ! t]m 'temporal' might n be reta9$ = ?is bone4 ,i reply1 because t t]m has long be51 & is n[ univ]sally1 und]/ood 9 human anatomy to signify a peculi>ly an?ropotomical coalesc$ cong]ies ( bones1 :i* includes ! 'squamosal' toge!r ) ! 'petrosal1' ! 'tympanic1' ! 'ma/oid1' & ! '/ylohyal4' ,x seems pref]able1 !re=e1 to re/rict ! signification ( ! t]m 'temporal' to ! :ole 79 ,man7 ( :i* ! 'squamosal' is a "p4 ,to ?is "p ,cuvi] has un=tunately appli$ ! t]m 'temporal' 9 "o class1 & 'jugal' 9 ano!r2 & he has also transf]r$ ! t]m 'temporal' to a ?ird equally di/9ct bone 9 fi%es2 :ile to increase ! confusion ,m4 ,agassiz has %ift$ ! "n to a f\r? diff]5t bone 9 ! skull ( fi%es4 ,:atev]1 !re=e1 may be ! value assign$ to ! argum5ts :i* w be pres5tly set =?1 z to ! special homologies ( ! 'p>s squamosa ossis temporis1' ,i h felt compell$ to express ! conclusion by a def9ite t]m1 & 9 ! pres5t in/ance1 h select$ t :i* recalls ! be/ accept$ an?ropomorphical designation ( ! "p2 al?\gh 'squamosal' mu/ be und]/ood & appli$ 9 an arbitr>y s5se2 & n z descriptive ( a scale-l #fdj =m2 :i* 9 ref]5ce to ! bone s call$1 is r its exceptional ?an normal figure 9 ! v]tebrate s]ies4 ,! pr9ciples :i* ,mr4 ,ow5 "h adopts 9 ! selection ( names = ! p>ts ( ! skeleton are wise & temp]ate4 ,!y agree ) ! aphorisms conc]n+ ! language ( sci5ce :i* ,i publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces2 & ,mr4 ,ow5 does me ! great honor ( quot+ ) approval "s ( ^? ,aphorisms4 ,i may p]haps take ! lib]ty ( rem>k+ t ! sy/em ( t]ms :i* he has con/ruct$1 may1 accord+ to our pr9ciples1 be call$ r a ,t]m9ology 9999?an a ,nom5clature3 t is1 !y are analog\s m ne>ly to ! t]ms by :i* botani/s describe ! p>ts & organs ( plants1 ?an to ! names by :i* !y d5ote g5]a & species4 ,z we h se5 9 ! ,hi/ory1 plants z well z animals are subject to morphological laws2 & ! names :i* are giv5 to organs 9 consequ5ce ( ^? laws are a "p ( ! ,t]m9ology ( ! sci5ce4 ,nor is ?is di/9ction betwe5 ,t]m9ology & ,nom5clature )\t its use2 = ! rules ( prud5ce & propriety 9 ! selection ( words 9 ! two cases are diff]5t4 ,! ,nom5clature ( g5]a & species may be arbitr>y & casual1 z is ! case to a great ext5t 9 ,botany & 9 ,zoology1 especially ( fossil rema9s2 names be+ giv51 = in/ance1 simply z m>ks ( honor to individuals4 ,b 9 a ,t]m9ology1 su* a mode ( d]ivation is n admissible3 "s significant analogy or idea mu/ be adopt$1 at lea/ z ! orig9 ( ! "n1 ?\gh n necess>ily true 9 all its applications1 z we h se5 9 ! case ( ! squamosal j quot$4 ,?is diff]5ce 9 ! rules respect+ two classes ( sci5tific words is /at$ 9 ! ,aphorisms xiii4 & xiv4 conc]n+ ! ,language ( ,sci5ce4 ,su* a ,t]m9ology ( ! bones ( ! skeletons ( all v]tebrates z ,mr4 ,ow5 has ?us prop\nd$1 _c be o!rwise ?an an imm5se acquisition to sci5ce1 & a means ( asc5d+ f :at we "k already to wid] tru?s & new morphological doctr9es4 ,) reg>d to "o ( ^! doctr9es1 ! resolution ( ! human head into v]tebr1 ,mr4 ,ow5 n[ reg>ds x z a great tru?1 & replies to ! objections ( ,cuvi] & ,m4 ,agassiz1 9 detail4#de;,b ,he gives a ,table 9 :i* ! ,bones ( ! ,head are resolv$ into f\r v]tebr1 :i* he t]ms ! ,occipital1 ,p>ietal1 ,frontal1 & ,nasal ,v]tebra1 respectively4 ,^! f\r v]tebr agree 9 g5]al ) :at ,ok5 call$ ! ,e>-v]tebra1 ! ,jaw-v]tebra1 ! ,eye-v]tebra1 & #fda ! ,nose-v]tebra1 9 8 "w ,on ! ,signification ( ! ,bones ( ! ,skull1 publi%$ 9 #ahjg3 & 9 v>i\s degrees1 ) simil> views promulgat$ by ,spix 7#ahae71 ,bojanus 7#ahah71 ,ge(froy 7#ahbd71 ,c>us 99997#ahbh74 ,& ,i believe t ^! views1 bold & fanciful z !y at fir/ appe>$1 h n[ be5 accept$ by mo/ ( ! pr9cipal physiologi/s ( our "t4 ,note #de;,b3 ,ar*etype & ,homologies ( ! ,v]tebrate ,skeleton4 #ahdh1 p4 #ada4 ,b ano!r aspect ( ?is g5]alization has be5 prop\nd$ among physiologi/s2 & has1 l ! o!rs1 be5 ext5d$1 sy/ematiz$1 & provid$ ) a conv5i5t language by ,mr4 ,ow54 ,s9ce animal skeletons are ?us made up ( v]tebr & _! p>ts are to be und]/ood z developem5ts ( ! p>ts ( v]tebr1 ,ge(froy 7#ahbb71 ,c>us 7#ahbh71 ,mll] 7#ahcd71 ,cuvi] 7#ahcf71 _h employ$ c]ta9 t]ms :ile speak+ ( su* developem5ts2 ,mr4 ,ow5 9 ! ,geological ,transactions 9 #ahch1 :ile discuss+ ! o/eology ( c]ta9 fossil ,saurians1 us$ t]ms ( ?is k9d1 :i* are m sy/ematic ?an ^? ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & to :i* he has giv5 curr5cy by ! quantity ( valuable k & ?\ght :i* he has embodi$ 9 !m4 ,accord+ to 8 ,t]m9ology1#df;,b a v]tebra1 9 its typical complet5ess1 consi/s ( a c5tral "p or c5trum2 at ! back ( ?is1 two plates 7! neural apophyses7 & a ?ird outw>d project+ piece 7! neural sp9e71 :i* ?ree1 ) ! c5trum1 =m a canal = ! sp9al m>r[2 at ! front ( ! c5trum two o!r plates 7! hmal apophyses7 & a project+ piece1 =m+ a canal = a vascul> trunk4 ,fur!r lat]al elem5ts 7pleuro-apophyses7 & o!r projections1 are 9 a c]ta9 s5se dep5d5t on ^! pr9cipal bones2 besides :i* ! v]tebra may support div]g+ app5dages4 ,^! p>ts ( ! v]tebra are fix$ toge!r1 s t a v]tebra is by "s anatomi/s describ$ z a s+le bone2 b ! p>ts n[ m5tion$ are usually develop$ f di/9ct & indep5d5t c5tres1 & are !re=e call$ by ,mr4 ,ow5 autog5\s elem5ts4 ,note #df;,b3 ,ar*etype & ,homologies ( ! ,v]tebrate ,skeleton4 #ahdh1 p4 #ha4 ,! ,g5]al ,homology ( ! v]tebral skeleton is ! ref]5ce ( all ! p>ts ( a skeleton to _! true types 9 a s]ies ( v]tebr3 & ?us1 z special homology ref]s all ! p>ts ( skeletons to a giv5 type ( skeleton1 say t ( ,man1 g5]al homology ref]s all ! p>ts ( e skeleton1 say t ( ,man1 to ! p>ts ( a s]ies ( ,v]tebr4 ,& ?us z ,ok5 prop\nd$ 8 views ( ! ,head z a resolution ( ! ,problem ( ! ,signification ( ! ,bones ( ! ,head1 #fdb s h we 9 l mann]1 = ! purposes ( ,g5]al ,homology1 to solve ! ,problem ( ! ,signification ( ,limbs4 ,! :ole ( ! animal be+ a /r+ ( v]tebr1 :at are arms & legs1 h&s & paws1 claws & f+]s1 w+s & f9s1 & ! l8 ,?is inquiry ,mr4 ,ow5 has pursu$ z a necess>y "p ( 8 inquiries4 ,9 giv+ a public lecture ^u ! subject 9 #ahdi1dg;,b he conceiv$ t ! phrase :i* ,i h j employ$ w\ld n be cle>ly appreh5d$ by an ,engli% ,audi5ce1 & entitl$ 8 ,disc\rse ,on ! ,nature ( ,limbs3 & 9 ?is disc\rse he expla9$ ! modifications by :i* ! v>i\s k9ds ( limbs are d]iv$ f _! rudim5ts 9 an ar*etypal skeleton1 t is1 a m]e s]ies ( v]tebr )\t head1 arms1 legs1 w+s1 or f9s4 ,note #dg;,b3 ,on ! ,nature ( ,limbs1 a disc\rse deliv]$ at a ,meet+ ( ! ,royal ,in/itution1 #ahdi4 ,f9al ,causes ,x has be5 m5tion$ 9 ! ,hi/ory t 9 ! discussions :i* took place conc]n+ ! ,unity ( ,plan ( animal /ructure1 ?is pr9ciple 0 9 "s measure put 9 opposition to ! pr9ciple ( ,f9al ,causes3 ,morphology 0 oppos$ to ,teleology4 ,x is natural to ask :e!r ! rec5t /udy ( ,morphology has affect$ ?is anti!sis4 ,if !re be advocates ( ,f9al ,causes 9 ,physiology :o w\ld pu% _! doctr9es s f> z to ass]t t e feature & e relation 9 ! /ructure ( animals h a purpose discov]able by man1 su* reason]s are liable to be p]petually ?w>t$ & emb>rass$ by ! progress ( anatomical k2 = ?is progress (t5 %[s t an arrangem5t :i* _h be5 expla9$ & admir$ ) ref]5ce to "s purpose1 exi/s also 9 cases :]e ! purpose disappe>s2 & aga91 t :at _h be5 not$ z a special teleological arrangem5t is ! result ( a g5]al morphological law4 ,?us to take an example giv5 by ,mr4 ,ow53 t ! ossification ( ! head orig9ates 9 sev]al c5tres1 & ?us 9 its e>ly /ages admits ( compression1 has be5 po9t$ out z a provision to facilitate ! bir? ( vivip>\s animals2 b our view ( ?is provision is di/urb$1 :5 we f9d t ! same mode ( ! =mation ( ! bony framework takes place 9 animals :i* are born f an egg4 ,& ! numb] ( po9ts f :i* ossification beg9s1 dep5ds 9 a wid] s5se on ! g5]al homology ( ! animal frame1 accord+ to :i* ea* "p is compos$ ( a c]ta9 numb] ( autog5\s v]tebral elem5ts4 ,9 ?is #fdc way1 ! admission ( a new view z to ,unity ( ,plan w almo/ necess>ily displace or modify "s ( ! old views respect+ ,f9al ,causes4 ,b ?\gh ! view ( ,f9al ,causes is displac$1 x is n oblit]at$2 & especially if ! advocate ( ,purpose is also ready to admit visible correspond5ces :i* h n a discov]able object1 z well z contrivances :i* h4 ,& 9 tru?1 h[ is x possible = ! /ud5t ( anatomy to %ut 8 eyes to ei!r ( ^! two evid5t aspects ( nature8 ,! arm & h& ( man are made = tak+ & hold+1 ! w+ ( ! sp>r[ is made = fly+2 & ea* is adapt$ to its end ) subtle & manife/ contrivance4 ,!re is pla9ly ,design4 ,b ! arm ( man & ! w+ ( ! sp>r[ correspond to ea* o!r 9 ! mo/ exact mann]1 bone = bone4 ,:]e is ! ,use or ! ,purpose ( ?is correspond5ce8 ,if x be said t !re may be a purpose ?\gh we d n see x1 t is grant$4 ,b ,f9al ,causes = u are contrivances ( :i* we see ! end2 & no?+ is add$ to ! evid5ce ( ,design by ! p]ception ( a unity ( plan :i* 9 no way t5ds to promote ! design4 ,x may be said t ! design appe>s 9 ! modification ( ! plan 9 special ways = special purposes2--t ! v]tebral plan ( an animal be+ giv51 ! =e limbs are modifi$ 9 ,man & 9 ,sp>r[1 z ! nature & life ( ea* require4 ,& ?is is truly said2 & is inde$ ! tru? :i* we are endeavor+ to br+ into view3--t !re are 9 su* speculations1 two elem5ts2 "o giv51 ! o!r to be work$ out f our exam9ation ( ! case2 ! datum & ! problem2 ! homology & ! teleology4 ,mr4 ,ow51 :o has done s mu* = ! =m] ( ^! portions ( our k1 has also be5 con/antly at ! same "t contribut+ to ! o!r4 ,:ile he has be5 aid+ our advances t[>ds ! ,unity ( ,nature1 he has be5 ev] alive to ! p]ception ( an ,intellig5ce :i* p]vades ,nature4 ,:ile 8 morphological doctr9es h mov$ ! po9t ( view f :i* he sees ,design1 !y h nev] obscur$ 8 view ( x1 b1 on ! contr>y1 h l$ him to pres5t x to 8 read]s 9 new & /rik+ aspects4 ,?us he has po9t$ out ! f9al purposes 9 ! diff]5t c5tres ( ossification ( ! long bones ( ! limbs ( mammals1 & %[n h[ & :y !y diff] 9 ?is respect f reptiles 7,ar*etype1 p4 #ajd74 ,& 9 ?is way he has be5 able to po9t out ! insuffici5cy ( ! rule laid d[n bo? by ,ge(froy ,/4 ,hilaire & ,cuvi]1 = asc]ta9+ ! true numb] ( bones 9 ea* species4 #fdd ,f9al ,causes1 or ,evid5ces ( ,design1 appe>1 z we h said1 n m]ely z contrivances = evid5t purposes1 b z modifications ( a giv5 g5]al ,plan = special giv5 ends4 ,if ! g5]al ,plan be discov]$ aft] ! contrivance has be5 notic$1 ! discov]y may at fir/ seem to obscure our p]ception ( ,purpose2 b x w soon be f\nd t x m]ely transf]s u to a high] po9t ( view4 ,! adaptation ( ! ,means to ! ,end rema9s1 ?\gh ! ,means are p>ts ( a m g5]al s*eme ?an we 7 aw>e (4 ,no g5]alization ( ! ,means c or ought p]man5tly to %ake our conviction ( ! ,end2 because we mu/ ne$s suppose t ! ,intellig5ce :i* contemplates ! ,end is an intellig5ce :i* c see at a glance along a vi/a ( ,means1 h[ev] long & complex4 ,& on ! o!r h&1 no special contrivance1 h[ev] cle> be its arrangem5t1 c be unconnect$ ) ! g5]al correspond5ces & h>monies by :i* all p>ts ( nature are p]vad$ & b\nd toge!r4 ,& ?us no lum9\s teleological po9t c be ext+ui%$ by homology2 nor1 on ! o!r h&1 c x be deta*$ f ! g5]al expanse ( homological light4 ,! ref]5ce to ,f9al ,causes is sometimes spok5 ( z unphilosophical1 9 consequ5ce ( ,francis ,bacon's comp>ison ( ,f9al ,causes 9 ,physics to ,ve/al ,virg9s devot$ to ,god1 & b>r54 ,i h repeat$ly %[n t1 9 ,physiology1 almo/ all ! great discov]ies :i* h be5 made1 h be5 made by ! assumption ( a purpose 9 animal /ructures4 ,) ref]5ce to ,bacon's simile1 ,i h else:]e said t if he _h _h occasion to develope its be>+s1 full ( lat5t mean+ z 8 similes s (t5 are1 he w\ld probably h said t to ^? ,f9al ,causes b>r5ness 0 no reproa*1 see+ !y ought to be n ! ,mo!rs b ! ,daught]s ( our ,natural ,sci5ces2 & t !y 7 b>r51 n by imp]fection ( _! nature1 b 9 ord] t !y might be kept pure & undefil$1 & s fit m9i/]s 9 ! temple ( ,god4 ,i might add t 9 ,physiology1 if !y are n ,mo!rs1 !y are admirable ,nurses2 skilful & sagaci\s 9 p]ceiv+ ! signs ( pregnancy1 & helpful 9 br++ ! ,infant ,tru? into ! light ( day4 ,!re is ano!r aspect ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,ar*etypal ,unity ( ,composition ( ,animals1 by :i* x po9ts to an ,intellig5ce f :i* ! frame ( nature proce$s2 namely ?is3--t ! ,ar*etype ( ! ,animal ,/ructure be+ ( ! nature ( an ,idea1 implies a m9d 9 :i* ?is ,idea exi/$2 & t ?us ,homology itself po9ts ! way to ! ,div9e ,m9d4 ,b :ile we ackn[l$ge ! full #fde value ( ?is view ( !ological be>+ ( physiology1 we may v5ture to say t x is a view q diff]5t f t :i* is describ$ by speak+ ( ,f9al ,causes1 & "o mu* m difficult to pres5t 9 a lucid mann] to ord9>y m9ds4 #fdf ,,book ,,xviii4 ,,geology4 ,,) reg>d to ,geology1 z a ,paltiological ,sci5ce1 ,i d n "k t any new light ( an important k9d has be5 ?r[n ^u ! g5]al doctr9es ( ! sci5ce4 ,surveys & exam9ations ( special ph5om5a & special di/ricts h be5 c>ri$ on ) activity & intellig5ce2 & ! animals ( :i* ! rema9s p ! /rata1 h be5 recon/ruct$ by ! skill & k ( zoologi/s3--( su* recon/ructions we h1 = in/ance1 a f9e assemblage 9 ! publications ( ! ,palontological ,society4 ,b ! great que/ions ( ! mann] ( ! creation & succession ( animal & vegetable species ^u ! e>? rema91 ,i ?9k1 at ! po9t at :i* !y 7 :5 ,i publi%$ ! la/ edition ( ! ,hi/ory4 ,i may notice ! views prop\nd$ by "s *emi/s ( c]ta9 be>+s ( ,m9]alogy ^u ,geology4 ,z we h1 9 m9]al masses1 organic rema9s ( =m] organiz$ be+s1 s h we cry/all9e rema9s ( =m] cry/als2 namely1 :at are commonly call$ pseudomorphoses--! %ape ( "o cry/al 9 ! sub/ance ( ano!r4 ,m4 ,g4 ,bis*(f#dh;,b consid]s ! /udy ( pseudomorphs z important 9 geology1 & z frequ5tly ! only means ( trac+ processes :i* h tak5 place & are /ill go+ on 9 ! m9]al k+dom4 ,note #dh;,b3 ,*emical & ,physical ,geology4 ,i may notice also ,pr(essor ,brei?aupt's rese>*es on ! ord] ( succession ( diff]5t m9]als1 by obs]v+ ! mode 9 :i* !y occur & ! ord] 9 :i* diff]5t cry/als h be5 deposit$1 promise to be ( great use 9 foll[+ out ! geological *anges :i* ! cru/ ( ! globe has und]gone4 7,die ,p>ag5esis d] ,m9]ali54 ,freib]g4 #ahdi47 ,9 conjunction ) ^! may be tak5 ,m4 de ,s5>mont's exp]im5ts on ! =mation ( m9]als 9 ve9s2 & besides ,bis*(f's #fdg ,*emical ,geology1 ,s>torius von ,walt]haus5's ,obs]vations on ! occurr5ce ( m9]als 9 ,amygdaloid4 ,z a rec5t example ( speculations conc]n+ ,botanical ,paltiology1 ,i may give ,dr4 ,hook]'s views ( ! probable hi/ory ( ! ,flora ( ! ,pacific4 ,9 speculat+ ^u ?is "q1 ,dr4 ,hook] is l$ to ! discussion ( geological doctr9es conc]n+ ! =m] cont9uity ( tracts ( l& :i* are n[ sep>ate1 ! elevation ( l[ l&s into m\nta9 ranges 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 & ! l4 ,we h already se51 9 ! speculations ( ! late lam5t$ ,edw>d ,=bes1 7see ,book xviii4 *ap4 vi4 ( ?is ,hi/ory17 an example ( a hypo!sis prop\nd$ to acc\nt = ! exi/+ ,flora ( ,engl&3 a hypo!sis1 namely1 ( a =m] ,connexion ( ! ,we/ ( ! ,briti% ,isles ) ,portugal1 ( ! ,alps ( ,scotl& ) ^? ( ,sc&9avia1 & ( ! pla9s ( ,ea/ ,anglia ) ^? ( ,holl&4 ,9 l mann] ,dr4 ,hook] says 7p4 xxi47 t he 0 l$ to speculate on ! possibility ( ! plants ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean be+ ! rema9s ( a ,flora t _h once spread ov] a l>g] & m cont9u\s tract ( l& ?an n[ exi/s 9 ! ocean2 & t ! peculi> ,ant>ctic g5]a & species may be ! ve/iges ( a ,flora *>act]iz$ by ! pr$om9ance ( plants :i* are n[ scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! ,s\!rn isl&s4 ,he conceives ?is hypo!sis to be greatly support$ by ! obs]vations & reason+s ( ,mr4 ,d>w91 t5d+ to %[ t su* ris+s & s9k+s are 9 active progress ov] l>ge portions ( ! cont95ts & isl&s ( ! ,s\!rn hemisph]e3 & by ! speculations ( ,sir ,c4 ,lyell respect+ ! influ5ce ( climate on ! migrations ( plants & animals1 & ! influ5ce ( geological *anges ^u climate4 ,9 ,zoology ,i may notice 7foll[+ ,mr4 ,ow57#di;,b rec5t discov]ies ( ! rema9s ( ! animals :i* come ne>e/ to man 9 _! /ructure4 ,at ! "t ( ,cuvi]'s dea?1 9 #ahcb1 no evid5ce _h be5 obta9$ ( fossil ,quadrumana2 & he suppos$ t ^!1 z well z ,bimana1 7 ( v rec5t introduction4 ,soon aft]1 9 ! olde/ 7eoc5e7 t]ti>y deposits ( ,suffolk1 rema9s 7 f\nd prov+ ! exi/5ce ( a monkey ( ! g5us ,macacus4 ,9 ! ,himalayan t]ti>ies 7 f\nd petrifi$ bones ( a ,semnopi!cus2 9 ,brazil1 rema9s ( an ext9ct platyrh9e monkey ( great size2 & la/ly1 9 ! middle t]ti>y s]ies ( ! ,s\? ( ,france1 0 discov]$ a fragm5t ( ! jaw ( ! long-arm$ ape 7,hylobates74 ,b no fossil human #fdh rema9s h be5 discov]$ 9 ! regul>ly deposit$ lay]s ( any divisions 7n ev5 ! pleioc5e7 ( ! t]ti>y s]ies2 & ?us we h evid5ce t ! plac+ ( man on ! e>? 0 ! la/ & peculi> act ( ,creation4 ,note #di;,b3 ,brit4 ,asso4 #ahed1 p4 #aab4 ,,! ,,end4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,:ewell's book 0 orig9ally publi%$ 9 #c volumes 9 ,london 9 #ahcg4 ,a second edition appe>$ 9 #ahdg1 & a ?ird 9 #aheg4 ,a #b-volume v]sion ( ! #crd edition 0 publi%$ 9 ,new ,york 9 #aheh1 repr9t$ #ahge4 ,?is ,project ,gut5b]g text1 comb9+ bo? volumes 9 sequ5ce1 0 d]iv$ f ! #ahge v]sion1 rely+ ^u res\rces k9dly provid$ by ! ,int]net ,ar*ive4 ,?ree items h be5 add$ to ! ,cont5ts ( ! ,fir/ ,volume2 !y are m>k$ (f by 1 z are any o!r additions to ! text4 ,pr9t$ page numb]s h be5 transcrib$ 9 2 pages )\t a pr9t$ numb] h be5 indicat$ by 4 ,:]e words 7 hyph5at$ across pages1 ! numb] has be5 plac$ be=e ! ^w4 ,fractions h be5 transcrib$ z num]ator_/d5om9ator1 occasionally us+ p>5!ses to disambiguate4 ,! orig9al sometimes has num]ator ov] a l9e ) d5om9ator bel[1 at o!r times num]ator hyph5 d5om9ator4 ,sup]script$ *>act]s are m>k$ by a be=e ! "*4 ,footnotes 9 ! orig9al text 7 numb]$ by *apt]2 "h !y h be5 numb]$ by ,book 7! numb] ( :i* is giv5 aft] a 1 = ! two app5dices to ! #crd edition ,a has be5 us$ = volume #a1 ,b = volume #b74 ,!y are plac$ aft] ! p>agraph 9 :i* !y occur1 & are transcrib$ ,note mn3 4444 ,footnote an*ors are transcrib$ mn4 ,all o!r squ>e brackets are 9 ! orig9al text4 ,"o difficult item is ! use ( numb]s )9 a r+ z names ( a/]oids2 "h ! numb]s are 9 7 74 ,corrections to ! text h be5 m>k$ ) 99994 ,!y are li/$ bel[1 & 7 usually confirm$ by ref]5ce to ,engli% pr9t+s ( ! text4 ,inconsi/5cies1 especially ) respect to acc5ts & =matt+1 are num]\s & h 9 g5]al n be5 adju/$1 ?\gh ,greek quotations h be5 *eck$ aga9/ o!r v]sions :]e available4 ,nor h ,:ewell's unbalanc$ quotation m>ks be5 mod]nis$4 ,! ,engli% v]sions h be5 us$ to re/ore ,:ewell's gesp]rt emphases 9 "s ,greek passages4 ,location #ahge ,text ,correction ,vol4 #a p4 #be ,cruik%anks ,cruick%ank p4 #cj #ai #fe p4 #cj 3 2 p4 #cc 7?rice7 #ahd #ahb p4 #cf #ahd #ahb p4 #ga ,arisotelians ,ari/otelians p4 #ge p4 #gi p4 #aja note #ab #f #g p4 #age ecliptical elliptical note #ad iv4 vi4 note #ged ,summ ,summa note #aje iii4 iv4 p4 #bga 7twice7 ,ma/l9 ,m/l9 p4 #bhb ,dialogo ,dialogo p4 #bhd semil semel p4 #bhg endeav] endeavor note #gf #a4 i4 note #hf ,dial4 i4 p4 #dj4 p4 #ada4 note #if ,speculutionum ,speculationum p4 #cbe ,gualti] ,gualt] p4 #cda & #cdb ,m>s5ne ,m]s5ne p4 #cgd ( p4 #cgg prep5dicul>ity p]p5dicul>ity p4 #djc note #cjg ,cosmo!ros ,cosmo!oros p4 #dae casual causal p4 #daf 7 p4 #dai p4 #dca a a note #fig #adec #agec note #hdg ,a/4 ,ass4 p4 #dfc ,philosphical ,philosophical p4 #dga p4 #efd prevalance preval5ce ,vol4 #b p4 #ej p4 #hd p4 #he viii4 vii4 p4 #aae #ahec #ahbc p4 #adi 1 4 p4 #afb ,footnote numb] miss+ 9 text p4 #bja /ream /eam p4 #bac & note #ciaa same numb] z ! prec$+ note p4 #bdj ,cruik%anks ,cruick%ank note #ahac ,mass-be/imm5g5 ,mass-be/immung5 p4 #bfd 9 is note #aaad ,/ahl ,/ahl p4 #bie ! ! note #ghad ! entire text ( ?is note is miss+ p4 #cja lecture lectures note #hgad #if4 #ifc4 note #ibad #aec #hec p4 #ccj ,angels ,angles p4 #ccf giv5 giv+ p4 #cdc p4 #cid ,suri5 ,surian p4 #daa ,c\rs ,elm5taire ,c\rs ,elm5taire note #acfaf p4 #dej dep5dance dep5d5ce p4 #deg suck+-bea/s suckl+-bea/s note #hjag hli* hnli* note #hiag #bbi #abi p4 #dgg osseuze osseuse note #aaiag #bbi #bii99 p4 #ejh ,ly?ophylaccii ,ly?ophylacii p4 #eaa ,/ukely ,/ukeley note #ahah ,gogna/ique ,gogno/ique p4 #eac ,sabap5n9e ,sub-,ap5n9e p4 #ead ,s*lo!im ,s*lot!im p4 #ecj 1 7 17 p4 #eef ,poissons ,poisson's p4 #fbj iv4 vii4 p4 #fbd 7 p4 #fbh 9 7n italicis$ 9 text7 p4 #fcj ,nord5skiold's ,nord5skild's p4 #fch #cij #dgd p4 #fdj !n ?an p4 #fda #ahbh 7#ahbh7 99 ,?is is ! page numb] giv5 9 ! ,engli% edition4 ,9 ! only v]sion ( ! text ref]r$ to t ,i h f\nd1 ! quotation is 9 a footnote on page #ceb ( ! second edition 7#ahje72 ! note 0 n 9 ! fir/ edition4