,,the ,,violin      ,,and ,,the ,,art   
,,of ,,its ,,construction4      ,a      
,treatise on the ,stradivarius ,violin  
by      ,,august ,,riechers1      ,bow  
and ,violin ,maker4      ,copyright of  
the ,german and ,english ,editions4     
,with four lithographed plates4         
,,goettingen4    ,,carl ,,spielmeyer',s 
,,nachfolger4    ,,franz ,,wunder4      
#ahie4      ,copyright entered at       
,stationers ,hall1 ,london4             
,to his highly revered ,friend and      
,patron      ,,dr4 ,,joseph ,,joachim   
this work is humbly dedicated      by   
,,the ,,author4          ,,preface4     
,the highly esteemed author of this     
treatise1 a renowned violin maker  and  
clever repairer1 of old instruments1    
having been denied the  pleasure of     
publishing the same himself1 death      
intervening on ,january  #dth1 #ahic1   
his work on the violin and the art of   
its construction is  now published1 in  
accordance with his last wishes4        
,this treatise will1 no doubt1 be all   

the more welcome to professionals  and  
amateurs alike1 as to my knowledge no   
such work has yet been  published       
treating the subject in such an able and
 thorough manner4    ,may1 therefore1   
the valuable labours of the deceased    
author meet with  that universal        
acknowledgment1 which in a very high    
degree they deserve4      ,gttingen1    
,april #ahie4      ,the ,editor4        
,index4        ,introduction            
,page #g      ,i4 ,of the ,wood         
0 #aj      ,,ii4 ,of the ,construction  
0 #aa      ,,iii4 ,the ,ribs            
0 #ab      ,,iv4 ,the ,back and ,edges  
0 #ab      ,v4 ,the ,belly              
0 #ac      ,,vi4 ,the ,arching          
0 #ac      ,,vii4 ,the ,purfling        
0 #ad      ,,viii4 ,working-out the     
,thicknesses of the ,belly and ,back    
0 #ae      ,,ix4 ,the ,f-holes          
0 #af      ,x4 ,the ,bass-bar           
0 #af      ,,xi4 ,the ,head or ,neck    
0 #ah      ,,xii4 ,the ,dimensions1     
,length of ,neck and ,body              

0 #ah      ,,xiii4 ,the ,finger-board   
and ,nut                                
0 #ba      ,,xiv4 ,the ,position of the 
,neck                                  0
 #ba      ,,xv4 ,the ,tail-piece        
0 #bb      ,,xvi4 ,the ,pegs            
0 #bd      ,,xvii4 ,the ,bridge         
0 #bd      ,,xviii4 ,the ,sound-post    
0 #be      ,,xix4 ,the ,strings         
0 #bg      ,,xx4 ,the ,varnish          
0 #bh      ,,xxi4 ,the ,cleaning and    
,care of the ,violin                    
0 #cb      ,,xxii4 ,the ,bow            
0 #cb          ,,introduction4      ,in 
giving publicity to this treatise on the
 construction of the violin1  ,i believe
 ,i am only meeting the wishes of many1 
both professionals and  amateurs1 who   
are desirous of learning more           
particulars concerning the  construction
 of their instruments1 but am also      
giving a few practical  hints to my     
younger comrades in the art of          
violin-making4 ,i hope also  to induce  
some of my older colleagues to give     

forth other works of the  same kind1    
which may serve to ennoble and promote  
our art4    ,times without number ,i    
have been asked by friends of the       
violin1 during  my #dj years' work as a 
violin maker1 to recommend books giving 
more  exact information on the          
construction of that instrument1 but the
 only  answer that ,i have been able to 
give has been that ,german technical    
literature on the subject is very       
meagre1 and that information from       
foreign works is mostly impoverished by 
feeble translations4    ,very few       
authors understand the general build of 
the violin thoroughly1  they pay most   
attention to individual points1 those   
most calculated  to attract the         
attention of amateurs2 for example1 the 
proportions of  single parts1 their     
size1 etc4 ,there is only one work ,i   
can recommend  which forms an exception 
to this rule and that is 8,the ,memoirs 
of  ,antonio ,bagatella0 7,padua #aghf7 
which has been published in a ,german   

translation by ,franz ,wunder at        
,gttingen4    ,it contains not only     
rules for the construction of violins1  
violas1  violincellos and basses1 as    
well as distinct instructions for the   
restoration of the outline of the belly 
and back of these instruments1  but also
 enters into particulars concerning the 
adjustment and  renovation of the same4 
,just as the celebrated violin makers of
 the last century took the  work of     
,amati as their model1 ,i have found my 
master1 to whom ,i1 in  common with all 
my colleagues1 look up with admiration1 
recognising in  him not only the gifted 
artist1 but also the industrious workman
 and  far-sighted observer--,i mean     
,antonio ,stradivarius4 ,even as a boy  
,i was  very fond of listening to the   
tales told me by my father1 who was a   
musician in ,hanover and as an          
autodidact occupied himself with violin 
work1 tales in which he described to me 
the wonderful productions  of the old   
,italian masters and more particularly  

those of ,amati1  ,stradivarius1 and    
,guarnerius4 ,he regarded it as a great 
distinction  shewn to him1 and often    
referred to the fact1 that he was       
allowed  to open and repair the         
,guarnerius violin of ,paganini4 ,after 
a time1  however1 he altered his tone   
and cursed the ,italian as well as his  
violin1 for the great artist1 although  
he praised my father's work and         
expressed himself perfectly satisfied   
with it1 objected to the payment  of    
three ,thalers for the repairs1         
considering it an exorbitant charge1    
and this1 coupled with similar          
experiences at the hands of others1 so  
incensed my father that he would not    
give his consent to my earnest  wish to 
enter the violin factory2 consequently  
,i was apprenticed at the  age of #ac   
years to a pianoforte manufacturer with 
whom ,i remained for  two years1 in     
spite of having shown aptitude in the   
other direction by  constructing a      
violin with my own hands at the age of  

#ab years4    ,being released from my   
apprenticeship at the beginning of my   
fifteenth  year1 ,i wandered away to    
,markneukirchen1 there to study         
violin-making  under ,hans ,ficker2     
later on ,i was occupied for a longer   
period as  assistant to ,ludwig ,bausch1
 senior1 in ,leipsic1 to whom ,i owe a  
great  deal1 for he strengthened me in  
my love of the art and settled my       
belief in the unequalled excellence of  
,stradivarius4 ,my admiration for  this 
great master increased even more and    
more1 and in my fifteenth  year1 when ,i
 began to work for myself in ,hanover1  
,i learned even  more of his works and  
had the happiness to find that my       
reverence  for him was shared by my     
friend and patron ,dr4 ,joseph ,joachim4
 ,ten  years later1 the latter exchanged
 ,hanover for ,berlin1 and as ,i was  no
 longer contented in the former town    
after his departure in #ahgb1  ,i gladly
 responded to a call from him to        
prosecute my work in the  ,prussian     

capital and to continue to study the    
works of ,stradivarius1  in order to    
handle them more worthily and to infuse 
his ideas into my  own productions4 ,i  
venture to hope that ,i have succeeded  
in the first  part of my undertaking1   
for1 a great number of instruments have 
passed  through my hands in the course  
of years1 including the incomparable    
violins belonging to ,dr4 ,joachim4 ,the
 second part of my task ,i do  not      
consider accomplished4 ,i am ever taking
 more and more trouble in  working1 in  
the hope of bringing my attempt nearer  
and nearer to the  hitherto unattained  
excellence of ,stradivarius4 ,i         
therefore beg my  readers to regard the 
following chapters with a favourable eye
 and  to accept them in a friendly      
spirit as the result of long years of   
experience1 the confirmation or         
rectification of which ,i shall accept  
with joy4          ,i4 ,,of ,,the       
,,wood4      ,there can be no doubt     
whatever that a correct knowledge and   

choice of  the wood for the construction
 of violins is of the utmost importance4
  ,both these qualifications1 however1  
can only be gained by experience1  since
 that alone can prove which kind of wood
 is the most suitable and  produces the 
best results4    ,the back1 the ribs1   
the neck1 and the head should be of     
maple1 and  neither too hard1 nor too   
soft1 nor yet too deeply grained4 ,in   
every  case light wood should be        
selected1 and ,i consider ,hungarian    
maple the  best for the purpose4 ,for   
the belly1 the so-called white fir or   
pine  should be used1 as both kinds of  
wood possess sufficient resonance1 and  
are easily manipulated4 ,these woods too
 must be as light as possible1  and     
should have neither very narrow nor very
 broad1 but regular and  well-formed    
concentric circles4 ,the ,tyrol and the 
neighbouring cantons  of ,switzerland   
produce the best wood for this purpose4 
,it is to be  observed that the pieces  
used must be split and not cut4    ,in  

my opinion1 the much praised ,american  
pine is too soft and  resinous1 and     
neither do ,i consider the ,american    
maple qualified for  the construction of
 violins4 ,the wood used by myself is   
obtained from  ,schoenbach1 near ,eger1 
in ,bohemia1 where large supplies for   
the needs  of instrument makers are     
always on hand to be selected from4 ,the
 age  of the wood ,i consider of only   
very small importance2 if it has been   
laying by for five years1 ready cut or  
split1 as the case may be1 for  the     
construction of a violin1 it will then  
be sufficiently dry and will  need no   
further preparation4 ,i have exactly    
ascertained the weight  of wood which   
had been laid by for drying for five    
years1 and then1  having weighed it     
again at the end of twenty years1 have  
found it had  not become perceptibly    
lighter4 ,all the violins made by me1   
some #afjj  instruments1 have always    
weighed from #bfj to #bge grammes1      
without the  pegs1 finger-board1 and    

tail-piece1 a weight which ,i have      
generally  found to be that of the      
violins constructed by ,stradivarius4   
,,ii4 ,,of ,,the ,,construction4        
,for the space of thirty years ,i have  
worked upon the plan of  ,stradivarius  
solely1 for ,i consider that his        
instruments and their  proportions are  
the most perfect that can be found4     
,why1 therefore1  should ,i have taken  
any other as my model8 ,i have repaired 
at least  three hundred undoubtedly     
genuine violins constructed by this     
great  master1 besides having seen and  
handled many others1 and consequently   
have had frequent opportunities of      
thoroughly studying his work1 and of    
gauging and copying his most beautiful  
instruments4 ,as the creations  of this 
incomparable maker seem perfect in every
 detail1 ,i have never  attempted to    
make any additions of my own1 but have  
strictly adhered to  specimens produced 
by him in his prime 7#agjj to #agbj7 as 
my models1 and  have found that they    

differ but very slightly from one       
another4 ,in ,fig4  #a41 ,i have given  
the outlines of a violin of this period 
7#agac7 with  the blocks4               
,,iii4 ,,the ,,ribs 7,fig4 #a4 a74      
,the ribs should be #a m_/m4 thick1 and 
very neatly and evenly planed2  the     
height should be about #cj m_/m4 at     
first4 ,the ribs are curved to  their   
correct form by means of a hot bending  
iron1 or still better by  a copper clew1
 and then glued to the blocks4 ,after   
this1 the ribs next  to the back are to 
be made true to receive the linings4    
,the latter must  be #h m_/m4 high1 #b  
m_/m4 thick1 and must be made of        
lime-wood4 ,the  middle linings are to  
be let into the blocks1 so that they    
cannot break  loose4 ,the blocks must   
also be made of lime-wood4 ,the edges of
 the ribs  and the surface of the rim1  
before being glued on to the prepared   
back1  must again be very carefully     
adjusted1 so that they appear like one  
even surface4 ,this being done1 the     

superfluous wood of the blocks must  be 
cut away to the shape of the mould 7see 
,fig4 #e74 ,the ribs from the  bottom   
block to the side blocks are then       
regulated to a height of about  #cj     
m_/m41 and from the side blocks to the  
top block 7,fig4 #c7 they are  gradually
 decreased by #b m_/m41 that is1 until  
#bg m_/m4 is reached4  ,this diminution 
in the height is most practically       
thought out and  executed by            
,stradivarius1 the belly obtaining      
thereby a tension which  offers the     
necessary resistance to the neck4 ,the  
upper linings must be  adjusted to the  
ribs in the same way1 and as a matter of
 course1 they  must be curved to the    
shape of the ribs4 ,the superfluous wood
 of the  blocks being cut away1 the     
mould is removed4          ,,iv4 ,,the  
,,back ,,and ,,edges4      ,it is not of
 importance whether the back be made in 
one or two pieces2  nevertheless1       
,stradivarius seems to have given the   
preference to a  divided back4 ,i also  

consider it more advantageous1 as1 being
 joined1  it offers greater resistance1 
and is not so easily pressed outwards on
  the sound-post side1 as is the case   
with violins having the back cut in  one
 piece4 ,the edges of the mid-rib and   
corners should be #d m_/m4 thick1       
whereas the upper and lower edges of the
 back 7,fig4 #a ee_/ee71 gradually      
decreasing from the corners1 become #a  
m_/m4 thinner4          ,v4 ,,the       
,,belly4      ,the belly must be        
composed of two parts1 and has to be    
joined together  so exactly that the    
narrow year-rings are in the middle of  
the same2  the outer ring which should  
not be more than #b m_/m4 broad and very
  equally disposed1 may run towards the 
edges4 ,the edges must be of the  same  
thickness as those of the back4         
,,vi4 ,,the ,,arching4      ,it does not
 seem to me probable that ,stradivarius 
acted without  mature deliberation in   
making the arch of the back and belly1  
taken  together1 of the same height as  

the ribs1 viz43 #cj m_/m42 of course1   
,i am speaking now of the violins made  
during his prime4 ,if the back  and     
belly are placed one upon the other1 the
 height will amount to #cj  m_/m41 the  
entire external diameter1 therefore1    
must be #fj m_/m41 since  the ribs1 as  
already stated1 have a height of #cj    
m_/m4 ,i am certainly  of the opinion1  
that ,stradivarius substantiated these  
proportions  by experiments4 ,there are1
 however1 exceptions2 the greatest of   
the  deviations from this rule which has
 come under my notice1 consisted in  the
 middle line measuring #gj m_/m41       
reckoning from the upper edge of the    
belly to the lower edge of the back4 ,no
 doubt1 this violin1 made in  #agaj1 was
 an experiment1 the average measurement 
being considered to  be from #eh to #fb 
m_/m4 ,now and again1 ,stradivarius made
 the arch lower1  whether intentionally 
or from want of wood1 ,i am not in a    
position to  say4 ,in this case he makes
 the ribs correspondingly higher1 so    

that  the above-mentioned measurement   
may still be #fj m_/m4 ,stradivarius has
  also occasionally made the arch of the
 back less than #ae m_/m41 and by  way  
of compensation1 in this case1 has      
increased the arch of the belly4  ,i am 
of opinion1 however1 that these         
deviations are to be ascribed  more to  
experiment than to accident4 ,he never  
trusted to chance in  his work1 but in  
the most careful way reflected upon it  
and took into  consideration all        
circumstances in connection with it4    
,the arch given  as an example in ,fig4 
#f1 is taken from a ,stradivarius violin
 of the  year #agac1 and as the belly   
and back are both of equal height1 viz43
 #ae  m_/m41 the entire height amounts  
to #fj m_/m4          ,,vii4 ,,the      
,,purfling4      ,the purfling is always
 placed #d m_/m4 from the edge and is #a
 m_/m4  wide4 ,it consists of three     
parts1 the two outermost of which are   
prepared from maple and stained black1  
while the middle part is made of  the   

same kind of wood1 but unstained4 ,it is
 of the utmost importance  that the     
purfling should only be inserted to the 
depth of one-third  of the thickness of 
the edges1 otherwise the edge will very 
easily  break off4 ,in the work of      
,stradivarius1 one finds continually on 
the  back1 both above and below1 a peg  
of maple-wood1 by means of which he     
fastened the back to the block1 and the 
half of this peg is inserted  in the    
purfling4 ,in violins having a divided  
back1 one finds another  purfling on the
 bottom block1 along the joint of the   
ribs1 but with  backs made in one piece 
it scarcely ever occurs1 because then   
the under  ribs1 as far as the middle   
rib1 are prepared in one piece4 ,the    
purfling  is not to be regarded as an   
embellishment1 as many suppose it is4   
,it  considerably strengthens the back  
and the belly towards the edges1 and  at
 the same time offers a protection1     
especially for the belly1 against       
cracks1 if the instrument1 for example1 

should be opened for repairs  by an     
inexperienced workman4 ,i will even go  
so far as to assert that  if the        
purfling were not employed1 old violins 
could not exist without  numberless     
cracks1 for any violent blow would cause
 cracks1 without  the additional        
strength given by the purfling1 and the 
greater number  of old and costly       
violins would come down to us spoilt1 or
 at least  damaged4    ,the purfling    
also has this advantage that if         
perchance the edges get  broken off1    
they can easily be replaced and the good
 appearance of the  instrument restored 
without much trouble4          ,,viii4  
,,working-,,out ,,the ,,thicknesses ,,of
 ,,the ,,belly ,,and ,,back4      ,the  
thickness of the breast in the back     
amounts to #d m_/m4 at the spot  where  
the sound-post stands and remains the   
same to a distance of #ej  m_/m4 towards
 the bottom block1 and #fj m_/m4 towards
 the upper block1  while it decreases to
 #c m_/m4 towards the middle rib4 ,the  

cheeks must  be #a to #b m_/m4 thick4 ,i
 have assured myself by numberless      
measurements  that ,stradivarius often  
changed the thickness of the back2 and  
has even  gone so far as to make it #f  
m_/m41 while the belly which he made    
from  the soundest and most perfect     
wood1 with very evenly disposed grain1  
measured always exactly #b m_/m4        
,,ix4 ,,the ,f-,,holes4      ,a         
well-formed and proportioned ,f has a   
great deal to do with enhancing  the    
appearance of a violin4 ,the ,f         
represented in ,fig4 #g is a most       
perfect specimen of what it should be4  
,anyone wishing to cut the  ,f-holes in 
the belly1 should take ,fig4 #g and     
place it in such a way  that the line   
a_/a be exactly #aie m_/m4 from the     
outer and upper edge1  and b b almost   
upon the point of the belly4 ,this will 
give the right  position of the ,f-holes
 and at the same time the measurement of
 the  body4 ,the greatest width of the  
opening of the ,f-holes must be #f m_/m4

  ,the width of the breast between the  
two upper excisions must never be       
narrower than the width of the bridge4  
,in the accompanying illustration  these
 are very wide apart and might without  
disadvantage be placed #b  m_/m4 nearer 
together4 ,on violins where this        
distance of the ,f-holes  is less than  
#dj m_/m41 either a narrower bridge must
 be used or the  bass-bar must be cut   
out a little1 so that the latter may lie
 close  on to the upper ,f-hole4 ,the   
lower lobes of the ,f-holes are always  
slanted outwards by ,stradivarius1 thus 
presenting a more symmetrical           
appearance4 ,both incisions are small1  
but clearly cut4          ,x4 ,,the     
,,bass-,,bar4      ,after the ,f-holes  
have been cut out1 the bass-bar can be  
fixed4 ,it is  made of pine and should  
be prepared in such a way that the      
year-rings  lie perpendicularly to the  
belly4 ,the height of the bass-bar under
 the  bridge is #aj m_/m4 and at the two
 ends #d m_/m4 ,the bass-bar must be #f 

m_/m4 thick in the middle1 decreasing in
 thickness by #a m_/m4 towards  the     
ends4 ,the length should be #bhj m_/m4  
,the bass-bar must be glued  on so that 
it lies #ce m_/m4 from the bottom edge  
and #dj m_/m4 from the  upper one4 ,in  
order to determine exactly the position 
of the beam1  the width of the bridge   
should be precisely marked as #dj m_/m4 
on the  inside of the belly and the     
bass-bar should then be placed to       
coincide  exactly with the ,g-foot of   
the bridge1 giving it at the same time  
such  a slanting position as to bring   
its upper end within #d or #f m_/m4 of  
the  middle line of the belly1 while its
 lower end should1 on the contrary1  be 
purposely placed farther away from it4  
7,see illustration74    ,in order that  
the bass-bar may obtain the right       
tension1 the side of  it lying next the 
belly must be slightly curved1          
sufficiently so for  both ends1 before  
they are glued1 to stand away about #b  
m_/m4 ,in the  process of glueing1 the  

ends must be firmly pressed down4 ,the  
height  of the bass-bar under the bridge
 should be #h m_/m41 while at the ends  
the measurement should amount to #d     
m_/m4 ,it is scarcely necessary to      
remark that the proportions of the      
bass-bar vary in different violins1     
according as they are smaller or larger1
 high or flat1 strong or weak4  ,a few  
examples are given here4 ,in a violin of
 the ordinary type1 no  matter whether  
it be large or small1 the proportions   
will be found to  coincide with the     
above statement1 while a highly arched  
violin has  a less slanting and less    
tightened beam than the latter4 ,in the 
case  of wood of a thickness less than  
#a m_/m41 the beam should be #a to #b   
m_/m4 more towards the interior1 and    
also be placed from #c to #e m_/m4  more
 slanting1 and must in that case also be
 from #a to #b m_/m4 thicker4  ,a       
bass-bar under strong tension gives a   
sharp and clear tone1 while  one of less
 tension gives a fuller and softer one4 

,with bass-bars of  the height of #ab   
and even #ae m_/m4 7so-called acoustic  
bass-bars71 it  is not possible to      
achieve any success4 ,the fixing of the 
bass-bar  completes the interior        
construction of the violin1 and         
consequently the  glueing-on of the     
belly can now be proceeded with4        
,,xi4 ,,the ,,head ,,or ,,neck4      ,in
 ,fig4 #h we have a very beautiful      
model1 representing as it does a        
perfect specimen of ,stradivarius4 ,its 
form can be obtained by exactly  copying
 the external outline and the           
measurements ,i-,,xv4 ,the inner  curve 
of the head must be worked out as shewn 
in ,fig4 #h b4 ,the back  at the head   
7,fig4 #h c7 should be #d m_/m4 thick on
 the upper side and  gradually increase 
by #c m_/m4 towards the under side1 so  
that at this  point it reaches a        
thickness of #g m_/m4 ,the peg-holes    
must be placed  exactly as shewn in the 
model4 ,if they have short heads1 they  
can be  placed a few millimetres nearer 

together from ,a to ,g without          
destroying  the appearance of the       
instrument4 ,the wood for the head and  
neck must  always be so chosen that the 
grain and surface lie horizontally4     
,,xii4 ,,the ,,dimensions1 ,,length ,,of
 ,,neck ,,and ,,body4      ,none of the 
old violin makers have attached more    
importance to the  right position of the
 ,f-holes than ,stradivarius2 hence we  
gather that  he fully recognised the    
importance of the dimensions of the     
body1 and  in his violins we always find
 that the same measurement is retained  
between the interior incision of the    
,f-holes and the upper edge4 ,we  shall 
see later on the great advantages that  
would accrue to the  musician1 if all   
violin makers would observe the same    
rules in the  adjustment of the         
dimensions4 ,i repeatedly have cut off  
the necks  of hundreds of violins1 and  
by correcting the proportions have made 
the possessors of them entirely         
contented4 ,how many a student has      

drudged on through life with a badly    
proportioned instrument1 and in         
consequence has never succeeded in      
obtaining that certainty on his         
instrument after which he has diligently
 striven4 ,we must now1 however1  enter 
rather more into particulars4    ,i hope
 that what is to follow1 may enable     
everyone to judge and prove  for        
himself1 whether his violin has the     
correct dimensions or not4 ,we  will    
adhere to the measurement accepted by   
,stradivarius 7see ,fig4 #a  a a a71    
which is exactly #aie m_/m4 from the    
upper edge to the incision  of the      
,f-hole1 and call it the normal         
measurement4 ,from this we learn  that  
the length of the neck1 that is to say1 
the distance from the  lower edge of the
 nut 7the point where the finger-board  
begins7 to the  upper edge of the belly 
7b b7 should be exactly #acj m_/m41 and 
the  whole length of the body should    
bear the same proportion to the length  
of the neck1 as #aie m_/m4 bears to #acj

 m_/m41 or to put it still more         
plainly1 if we take the total of the two
 lengths1 namely #cbe m_/m41 and  divide
 it by five1 the length of the body     
should be equal to three  of these parts
 and that of the neck to two of them4   
,should a violin  have a longer or      
shorter body measure than that given    
above1 the neck  must still be in       
proportion with it of two to three1 that
 is to say1  if the whole measure be    
divided into five parts1 two of such    
parts  will give the length of the neck4
 ,by these means1 correct dimensions    
will be obtained1 and a performer will  
easily accustom himself to the          
proportionate position of the neck1 and 
forthwith obtain certainty of           
execution4 ,if only the proportion of   
the neck to the body be correct1  a     
performer will scarcely notice1 whether 
the whole measure from the  bridge to   
the upper nut is #e to #aj m_/m4 longer 
or shorter4 ,great care  must be taken  
in placing the upper end of the         

finger-board2 it should  be placed      
exactly at right angles with the under  
curve of the head  7a71 a point which is
 often paid very little attention to1   
and yet is  one which is of the utmost  
importance4 ,for instance1 if the upper 
nut  be placed too far beyond the angle 
7a71 the hand must of necessity  be     
stretched backwards in an uncomfortable 
position1 or the fingers  will fall too 
high upon the strings4 ,on the other    
hand1 if the nut be  placed too low1 the
 hand has no certain position upon the  
curve of the  neck1 and consequently    
will play flat in the first position and
 sharp  in the third4 ,it has often been
 said to me by musicians1 and especially
  amateurs1 that their violins played   
sharp in the first position and  flat in
 the higher ones1 and the contrary also 
has often come under my  notice4 ,the   
sole cause of these imperfections is the
 disproportionate  relation in the      
length of the body and the neck1 for    
whatever may be  the distance between   

the bridge and the nut1 whether long or 
short1 the  position of the different   
tones themselves is exactly determined  
by  the laws of acoustics1 and always   
remains in the same relation to the     
vibrating string4    ,i have given in   
,fig4 #ab the exact position of the     
tones on the  ,a-string1 according to   
the normal measurement of #cbe m_/m4    
given above4  ,the first tone played 7,b
 flat7 is always exactly the eighteenth 
part of  the whole length of the string 
from the nut to the bridge2 the second  
tone is the eighteenth part from the    
first tone1 and so on4 ,if the          
finger-board is #bfh m_/m4 long1 the    
high ,e on the ,a-string will coincide  
with the lower end of the same4 ,the    
above-mentioned imperfection is  also   
caused by the neck being either too long
 or too short2 in the  first case a     
performer would play too sharp in the   
third position1 and  too flat in the    
second2 in the higher positions also1 he
 would have  difficulty in finding the  

correct place for the fingers4          
,,xiii4 ,,the ,,finger-,,board ,,and    
,,nut4      ,both these portions of the 
instrument must be made of ebony 7,fig4 
#ab74  ,before the finger-board is      
glued1 the surfaces to be joined must be
  made particularly smooth4 ,the length 
is #bfh m_/m4 in an instrument of       
normal size1 and in those which are     
longer and shorter1 the necessary       
proportion is easily determined4 ,the   
width of the upper end1 near the  nut1  
is #bd m_/m41 while at the lower end it 
measures #de m_/m4    ,the curve at the 
nut should be the same as the curve of  
the bridge1 the  thickness being from #d
 to #e m_/m4 ,whilst the centre of the  
finger-board  should form a straight    
line lengthways1 it must be hollowed out
 under  the ,e-string equally to the    
depth of #a m_/m41 and under the        
,g-string to  #a m_/m41 in order to     
prevent the jarring and rattling of the 
strings4  ,the thickness of the nut must
 be #e m_/m4 on the under side and #d   

m_/m4 on  the upper4 ,the distance      
between the two outer string-grooves    
must be  from #af to #ah m_/m4 ,the     
strings lie at the nut 7a7 in the case  
of ,e1  ,a1 and ,d-strings at a distance
 of  m_/m4 from the finger-board1 the   
,g-string #a m_/m4 ,the thickness of the
 neck1 including the finger-board1  is  
#ah m_/m4 at the upper curve 7,fig4 #h;b
 ,i47 for a hand of ordinary  size1 and 
#bd m_/m4 at the lower curve 7,fig4 #h;b
 ,,ii72 but this thickness  can be      
altered according to the wish of the    
performer4          ,,xiv4 ,,the        
,,position ,,of ,,the ,,neck4      ,the 
neck of the violin must be regulated    
according to the width of  the          
finger-board4 ,it must be cut about #g  
m_/m4 longer than the length  required1 
when in position1 in order to allow for 
its insertion in the  block2 the entire 
length of the neck from the nut to the  
end should  measure #ace m_/m4 ,when    
this has been duly arranged1 the neck   
can be  fitted into the block4 ,the     

small semi-circular elongation of the   
back  of the violin1 in common with the 
upper block1 serves principally to      
support the neck and keep it in         
position1 at the same time giving the   
performer a correct hold4    ,the       
finger-board having been glued to the   
neck1 it is of the utmost  importance   
that the latter should be fitted in very
 carefully1 so that  it protrude #e     
m_/m4 from the belly 7,fig4 #h;e74      
,if the gauge be placed on the centre of
 the finger-board in the line  a a      
7,fig4 ,i and ,,ii71 the end a 7,fig4   
#i1 third plate7 should fall  exactly on
 the line of connection between the     
innermost excisions of  the ,f-holes1   
having its centre under the place where 
the bridge stands1  so that the         
finger-board may exactly coincide with  
the measure4    ,this arrangement gives 
us not only the correct position of the 
finger-board1 but also1 as we shall see 
later on1 the right height of  the      
bridge1 #ce m_/m41 and also the suitable

 position of the strings  according to  
their height4 ,the measurement marked   
upon the gauge 7,fig4  #i71 viz43 from a
 7beginning of the nut7 as far as the   
upper edge  of the belly b 7end of the  
neck7 and thence to a 7place of the     
bridge7 must be in such proportion to   
one another as to give the violin       
practical dimensions and height of      
bridge4          ,,xv4 ,,the            
,,tail-,,piece 7,fig4 #aa74      ,this  
part of the instrument exercises a great
 influence on the tone1  although the   
fact is doubted by a great many         
performers4 ,i will  endeavour to       
briefly demonstrate my idea upon the    
subject4 ,in the  first place1 ,i would 
remark in reference to the shape and    
size of the  tail-piece that the upper  
curve must resemble the curve of the    
bridge4    ,the semi-circular ridge at  
the upper end is called the saddle and  
must project about #a m_/m4 ,the upper  
and movable end of the tail-piece  is   
not arranged at right angles with the   

middle line of the same1  but inclines  
about #a m_/m4 towards the ,g-string4   
,this is done in  order to balance1 so  
to speak1 the crooked position of the   
tail-piece  which has been occasioned by
 the greater tension of the ,e-string in
  comparison with the ,g-string1 and    
also to keep the upper edge of the      
tail-piece parallel with the upper edge 
of the bridge1 which is very  necessary 
to the elegant appearance of the lower  
portion of the violin4  ,the space      
between the incisions for ,g and        
,e-strings should be #cj m_/m4  ,the    
length of the strings below the bridge  
from the upper edge of the  same to the 
saddle on the tail-piece should be #ee  
m_/m41 and then the  ,a-string behind   
the bridge will give the high ,e4 ,if   
the proportion of  the tail-piece to the
 bridge be changed1 that is to say1     
lengthened or  shortened by the use of a
 larger or smaller tail-piece with the  
same  length of the tail-piece fastener1
 the tension of the strings also        

becomes altered1 and the tone and       
vibrations are thereby affected4    ,if1
 for instance1 the tail-piece is so     
constructed that the portion of  the    
,a-string behind the bridge gives ,f1   
the other strings must also be          
correspondingly slackened1 for the      
tension of a string reaches not only    
from the bridge to the nut as many      
suppose1 but from the tail-piece  to the
 peg4 ,in consequence of this1 the      
pressure of the strings on  the         
instrument can be increased or lessened 
by means of a longer or  shorter        
tail-piece1 whereby the tone is         
correspondingly modified4  ,the gut for 
the tail-piece should be from #a to #b  
m_/m4 thick4  ,the before-mentioned     
variations of tone can also be obtained 
by the  lengthening or shortening of the
 gut of the tail-piece4    ,the rest1   
over which the gut passes1 must be made 
of ebony and be #dj  m_/m4 long by #e   
m_/m4 wide1 and must rise #c m_/m4 from 
the belly4 ,the  button1 round which the

 gut passes1 must also be made of ebony1
 and has  to be inserted into the centre
 of the lower block4          ,,xvi4    
,,the ,,pegs4      ,these are generally 
made of ebony1 and care must be taken   
that they are  inserted exactly in the  
places marked in ,fig4 #h4 ,the distance
 of the  pegs from the upper edge of the
 outer side of the violin head should   
not be more than #aj m_/m4 ,the holes in
 the pegs1 through which the  strings   
pass1 should be #b m_/m4 from the inside
 of the head4 ,the outer  ends of the   
pegs should be level with the sides of  
the head and be  slightly rounded off4  
,,xvii4 ,,the ,,bridge 7,fig4 #aj74     
,the bridge is made of maple and should 
be #dj m_/m4 wide and #ce m_/m4  high1  
at the bottom it should be #d m_/m4     
thick1 on the top #a m_/m4 ,the  width  
of the feet is not to exceed #i m_/m4   
7,fig4 #aj a74    ,the feet must be     
fitted exactly to the belly and towards 
the back  should be sloped sufficiently1
 so that on the lower side of the bridge

  they form an exact right-angle with   
the centre line of the belly4    ,it is 
advisable to powder the feet a little   
with chalk to prevent the  bridge from  
being so easily displaced as would      
otherwise be the case4    ,the feet of  
the bridge should stand exactly on the  
line of connection  between the notches 
of the ,f-holes 7,fig4 #g a a7 and at an
 equal  distance from them on either    
side4 ,the notches on the bridge for the
 ,e  and ,g-strings are to be #cd m_/m4 
apart4    ,the lower end of the         
,e-string should not be more than #d    
m_/m4 from the  finger-board at the very
 most1 that of the ,g-string about #f   
m_/m41 but  never more4 ,the height of  
the strings is1 however1 very often     
adjusted  to the wish of the performer4 
,herr ,joachim1 the great violinist1    
always  adopts the above measurements on
 his violins4    ,a highly arched violin
 does not require so high a bridge as a 
flatter  one1 whilst an instrument with 
a thin belly needs a thicker bridge     

than one of stronger make4 ,these       
proportions must be carried out very    
precisely1 as well as the measurements  
with regard to the hardness or  softness
 of the wood and the strength or        
weakness of the bridge4    ,if the      
bridge be thick below and thin above1   
the tone will be clearer  than it would 
be if these conditions were reversed4   
,if the heart in the  bridge be cut     
rather small and high up1 the tone is   
rendered harder1  a large heart cut in  
the surface of the bridge will make the 
tone  fuller4 ,the use of hard wood for 
the belly necessitates soft wood for    
the bridge1 and loosely grained and soft
 wood needs a hard wood for the  latter4
          ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,sound-,,post4
      ,the sound-post must be made of   
pine2 in a violin with a belly of normal
  thickness its diameter should be #f   
m_/m4 and show by its year-rings an  age
 from #aj to #ab years4 ,with a thicker 
belly it should be made about  #a m_/m4 
less in diameter4 ,it must also be      

shaped so that both ends  exactly fit   
the arch of the violin4 ,when the       
sound-post has been placed  in position1
 its year-rings should be at right      
angles with those of the  belly1 and    
furthermore1 it should be of such a     
height as to raise the  belly  m_/m4    
,the sound-post must be placed upon the 
belly under the outer edge of  the      
,e-string foot of the bridge1 but it    
should rest upon the back from  #b to #d
 m_/m4 nearer the centre4 ,in its normal
 position the sound-post  must be placed
 nearer to the tail-piece than the      
bridge by about #b  m_/m41 that is to   
say1 by about the thickness of the      
belly4    ,if one wishes to procure any 
other tone than that obtained by the    
above-mentioned position1 the latter    
should not be altered1 at most1  by more
 than #a to #b m_/m4 ,a sound-post only 
m_/m4 longer1 renders  the tone sharper 
and thinner1 while if it be approached  
nearer the  bridge1 the tone becomes    
clearer and more acute4 ,if the         

sound-post be  moved more towards the   
centre of the instrument1 the ,g-string 
sounds  clearer and firmer1 but the     
,e-string on the other hand grows       
slacker  and softer2 if the sound-post  
be moved from its normal position about 
#a  m_/m4 further below the bridge1 the 
tone will be softer1 but at the same    
time more muffled4    ,i should like to 
warn very strongly all performers1      
whether  professionals or amateurs1     
against attempting to alter the position
 of  either the sound-post or the bridge
 themselves1 for such attempts will  in 
most cases be endless1 and very seldom  
lead to the desired end4 ,i  could      
adduce proofs of this in many cases1 but
 ,i will give only one  here by way of  
example4 ,the celebrated violinist ,ole 
,bull who1 after  the loss of all his   
property in ,america in the year #ahfj1 
took up his  residence with me in       
,hanover1 could not play for an hour    
together1  without experimenting with   
his violin1 it having become a perfect  

passion with him to be always altering  
the position of the bridge and  the     
sound-post4 ,indeed1 these experiments  
often lasted until quite a  short time  
before the beginning of a concert1 and  
usually ended with  a malediction on    
himself and his otherwise precious      
8,josephi0 7,joseph  ,guarnerius del    
,ges74    ,still1 ,i must confess that  
,i learned a great deal from his many   
researches by dint of observation4 ,when
 ,ole ,bull was playing at the  ,theatre
 in ,hanover in cold weather1 he always 
breathed a few times into  the ,f-holes 
of his violin before the curtain rose1  
in order to warm the  air in the        
interior of the instrument1 as he was of
 opinion that in  consequence the violin
 spoke better4 ,he may have been right4 
,he also  carried ,e-strings in his     
waist-coat pocket during wet weather1   
because  he maintained1 and perhaps     
justly1 that they then lasted better4   
,,xix4 ,,the ,,strings4      ,it is very
 difficult to decide on the quality of  

the strings2 their  being light or      
dark-coloured has no influence on their 
durability4 ,the  natural colour of the 
strings is dark1 those of a lighter     
shade having  been sulphured to render  
them so4 ,the ,italian strings are at   
present  unrivalled1 but care should be 
taken that they do not feel too hard4   
,the choice of strings according to     
their thickness really depends on       
personal preference1 but as a rule those
 only of medium size should be  chosen1 
which according to the ,french          
measurement of strings would be  #ad    
degrees for the ,g-string1 #bc for the  
,d-string1 #ad for the ,a-string  and   
#ab for the ,e-string4    ,the larger   
the violin is1 the weaker should be the 
strings4 ,the notion  that a half-sized 
violin should be thin-stringed1 is quite
 erroneous1  it should1 on the contrary1
 have strings as strong as a full-sized 
violin1 for owing to the shorter length1
 the strings1 if they be a  weak set1   
become too loose and do not give a true 

sound1 and offer  insufficient          
resistance under the pressure of the    
bow4          ,,xx4 ,,the ,,varnish4    
,there has been for many years a warm   
and to a certain extent undecided       
discussion going on1 as to whether the  
varnishes used by ,italian  violin      
makers were oily and slow-drying ones or
 spirit varnishes4 ,to  investigate this
 matter still further1 and to arrive at 
a correct  decision1 will have to be    
left to the future4    ,i am1 however1  
of the opinion that the old masters made
 use of spirit  or turpentine-oil until 
the middle of last century1 but never of
  linseed-oil or turpentine-oil varnish1
 as has been often asserted4    ,my     
opinion is supported by the following   
fact4 ,in the year #ahfj ,i had  the    
good fortune to buy a real ,nicolas     
,amati lute which1 although very  much  
knocked about1 still retained a thick   
varnish of a most beautiful  gold       
colour4 ,for my information ,i took the 
varnish off1 in order to  submit it to  

the analysis of a clever chemist who1   
being a talented  amateur violinist and 
also a pupil of ,spohr1 showed great    
interest in  the matter and communicated
 to me1 as the result of his            
investigations1  this fact that among   
the quantity of varnish which ,i had    
placed at  his command1 there was not a 
trace of evidence which could lead to   
the conclusion that linseed-oil varnish 
had been employed4 ,in my own           
researches ,i found that the varnish was
 immediately dissolved in spirit  of    
only #ij per cent41 while in oil of     
turpentine and linseed-oil it was       
scarcely affected1 and by boiling only a
 small portion was removed4  ,again1 it 
is not probable that ,stradivarius1 in  
whose workshops about  #cjjj violins    
were constructed1 would have employed   
linseed-oil varnish1  seeing that it    
would have required1 in each case1 six  
months for the  violin to get thoroughly
 dry4    ,there are many resins which   
can be dissolved in spirit or oil of    

turpentine and used as a varnish1 but   
the preference is generally  given to   
spirit-varnish1 as it dries more        
quickly4 ,if the spirit or              
turpentine-oil has evaporated1 only the 
resin remains4    ,the greatest         
attention must be paid to the relative  
hardness of the  resin and the wood1 for
 both should be of equal density4 ,hard 
resin  hinders the vibration of the     
wood1 and consequently the quality of   
tone  suffers4    ,in my opinion shellac
 is quite useless for varnishing1 it    
being much  too hard1 but nevertheless  
it has been employed from #aggj until   
the  present day1 in spite of the fact  
that the best ,italian instrument  might
 be completely ruined by being varnished
 with it4 ,in all  ,italian instruments 
the old varnish is always very porous   
and soft1  and can easily be dissolved  
by the application of spirit1 while1  on
 the contrary1 it requires great labour 
to effect the same with  turpentine-oil4
    ,many people affirm that the art of 

mixing the old ,italian varnish which   
so charms us with its brilliancy and    
transparency1 is no longer known1  in   
fact that it is for ever lost4 ,i am1   
however1 of a different opinion  and    
maintain that our modern varnishes are  
quite equal to the old1 but  what we    
have until now been unable to produce   
scientifically1 is the  golden-brown    
underground which the wood of older     
violins has acquired  through age and   
other influences4 ,the proof of this ,i 
have practically  demonstrated by       
varnishing old instruments with new     
varnish1 in  imitation1 with such       
success as to arouse the wonder of      
connoisseurs1  the varnish being quite  
as transparent and brilliant-coloured as
 that  used for violins in the last     
century4    ,to one other point ,i      
should like to call the attention of the
 reader4  ,in repairing old instruments 
of the time of ,stradivarius1 ,i have   
found  that an extraordinary cleanliness
 and lustre is obtained by rubbing  them

 with fine glass-paper1 which is not the
 case with ,tyrolean and  ,german       
violins of the same period4 ,at a later 
period this peculiarity  was not met    
with so frequently and from the year    
#agej not at all4  ,this fact ,i        
primarily attribute to the action of the
 resin on the  wood1 being also of      
opinion that the fine dust of the same  
gets firmly  embedded in the pores of   
the wood1 and in this way1 in course of 
time1  a more or less thick coating is  
formed4    ,for one of these practical  
experiments ,i took a violin which ,i   
had  made myself and the tone of which1 
through years of constant use1  was     
therefore quite familiar to me1 and gave
 it a coating of melted  resin on the   
inside4 ,after this was thoroughly dry  
and hardened1 ,i  polished the interior 
and remarked the before-mentioned       
smoothness  and brilliancy1 the         
obtaining of which firmly convinced me  
that ,i had  discovered the truth of the
 matter4 ,although1 after the glueing-on

 of  the belly1 all the former          
conditions of the violin remained       
unchanged1  yet ,i was astonished to    
find what a common-place squeaking tone 
the  instrument had acquired1 thus      
proving to me that with the melted resin
  ,i had obtained in the end exactly the
 opposite effect to that which  ,i had  
hoped for4 ,i was obliged to rest       
contented with my failure for  a long   
time1 when a lucky chance came to my    
help4 ,it was this4 ,i  received a real 
,caspar da ,salo violoncello to repair1 
which had never  been opened and seemed 
to have been very little played upon1   
for on it  ,i found an old bridge which 
,i kept as an ornament and curiosity1   
and  which1 on closer examination1 ,i   
found was varnished4    ,when ,i opened 
the cello1 it was proved without a doubt
 that the  interior had also received a 
coating1 probably to protect it from    
dust1  etc4 ,the celebrated old violin  
makers1 in so doing1 have pursued the   
right course4 ,this discovery also      

corroborated my own supposition1  that  
the old masters varnished both the      
interior and bridge of the  instruments 
they made4    ,now1 in order to obtain a
 ground-priming1 ,i paint the violin1   
when  the wood of which it is           
constructed is in its natural state1    
three  times with pyroligneous acid1    
with which a golden-brown underground   
is obtained1 then follows a single      
coating of spirit and balsam of  ,peru  
in equal proportions1 and after this one
 or two coats of a weak  solution of    
gamboge or anotta1 and finally1 over all
 this ,i lay on #bj  or #cj coats of    
varnish1 according to the thickness     
required1 and which  ,i prepare as      
follows3--    ,dissolve three parts of  
sandarac and one of mastic in spirit1   
and in  order that it may be laid on    
more easily1 add to each half a litre#a 
of varnish1 ten drops of oil of         
turpentine4 ,the colouring of the       
varnish ,i obtain from turmeric and     
bright red sandal-wood by means  of     

spirit1 using more or less of it1       
according as to the lighter or  darker  
tone required2 if a brown varnish is    
required1 some soot from  turpentine-oil
 must be added to the spirit4    ,i have
 made innumerable experiments with other
 resins and colouring  matters1 but in  
the end ,i always return to those       
mentioned above as the  best to be used4
 ,dragon's-blood must not be employed1  
the colour not  being fast4    ,when the
 varnish is dry1 it must be very        
carefully polished with finely  powdered
 pumice-stone and linseed-oil1 applied  
with a piece of felt4    #a ,half a     
litre is very little less than a pint4  
,,xxi4 ,,the ,,cleaning ,,and ,,care    
,,of ,,the ,,violin4      ,the          
instrument must always be kept          
thoroughly clean and after use  should  
be carefully wiped with a silken duster4
 ,if any dirt should  adhere to it in   
spite of this precaution1 it can be     
easily removed by  gently rubbing it    
with a piece of linen1 moistened with   

water1 and  afterwards wiping it over   
with oil of turpentine4 ,the resin which
  accumulates on the finger-board and   
strings can in case of necessity be     
removed by the application of a little  
spirit1 or better still1 by that  of    
,eau de ,cologne1 but great care must be
 taken in the application1 so  that the 
spirit does not touch the varnish of the
 belly4 ,spirit will  also clean the    
strings and remove from them the effect 
of perspiration2  the bridge may also be
 cleaned with it from time to time1 but 
as stated  before1 it must be done      
cautiously1 especially in the case of   
old and  valuable instruments of the    
time of ,stradivarius4 ,the more        
recently  constructed violins are mostly
 varnished with shellac1 and            
consequently  are not at all or1 at     
most1 very little affected by the       
application of  spirit4    ,the interior
 of a violin should also sometimes be   
cleaned2 this can be  done by putting   
through the ,f-holes two or three       

handsfull of coarse  kitchen salt2 these
 should then be covered with a cloth and
 the salt  well shaken about1 as it will
 thus collect all the dust1 resin and   
other dirt which may be in the violin1  
and when shaken out will carry  all     
these impurities with it4 ,the strings  
need not be taken off in  order to      
effect this4          ,,xxii4 ,,the     
,,bow4      ,the rank of ,franois       
,tourte among violin-bow makers is as   
prominent a  one as that of             
,stradivarius among violin makers4 ,each
 has supplemented  the other4 ,tourte   
died in ,paris in the year #ahce at the 
age of #hh1  after a life of usefulness 
almost as long as that of ,stradivarius4
 ,he  brought the making of bows for    
stringed instruments to such perfection1
  that those bow makers who have        
succeeded him1 have never deviated very 
far from the models he left4    ,i shall
 here make a few observations on the    
characteristics of real  ,tourte bows   
which have crossed my path4    ,the     

quality1 as well as money value1 of a   
bow seems entirely to depend  upon its  
shape1 whether the stick is round or    
angular4 ,the whole length  of the bow  
from the point to the end of the nut    
should be #gc to #gd  centimetres4 ,the 
length of the hair from the lower part  
of the head to  the nut should measure  
#fc to #fd centimetres2 the height of   
the head1  including the stick and      
little plate1 should be #bc m_/m42 the  
height of  the nut with the stem to the 
outer ring where the hair begins #bf    
m_/m42  the breadth of the hair on the  
nut should be #aa m_/m4 and on the head 
#aj  m_/m4 ,tourte used from #hj to #ajj
 hairs for each bow1 but now from #aej  
to  #afj are taken4    ,the stick is    
made of pernambuco-wood and the nut of  
ebony2 tortoise  shell is however       
sometimes used for the latter4 ,the     
decoration may  be in ,german silver1   
silver or gold1 according to the taste  
of the  possessor4    ,the stick must be
 cut straight and lengthwise with the   

year-rings1 and  is manipulated in such 
a way that the side-view of the bow     
shows the  horizontal lines4 ,in this   
condition the prepared stick must be    
held  over a charcoal fire1 be gradually
 and equally heated1 until it can be    
scarcely retained in the hand1 and then 
it must immediately be bent  across the 
knee to such a degree1 as to allow the  
hair of the finished  bow to lie upon   
the stick4 ,to accomplish this          
successfully1 a certain  amount of      
practice and caution is required4 ,the  
weight of a bow when  finished should   
not exceed #ed to #eg grammes4          
,tourte never polished nor varnished his
 bows1 but only rubbed them  smooth with
 pumice-stone and linseed-oil4 ,if      
varnish or polish of any  kind is ever  
found on one of his bows1 it has been   
put there by other  hands than his4     
,it has often been asserted that ,tourte
 only left the bows unpolished  and     
unvarnished from indifference1 and ,i   
must confess that ,i also was  once     

inclined to this opinion until          
experience taught me better4 ,about  #cj
 years ago ,i bought a beautiful ,tourte
 bow which ,i handed to ,herr  ,joachim 
to test4    ,it seemed to him a little  
too heavy and ,i1 in my want of         
experience1  imagined that ,i could     
easily meet the wish for diminished     
weight by  a little work4 ,i therefore  
commenced to work with a file upon this 
master-piece1 but ,i found the outer    
layer of the wood as hard as iron1  so  
that ,i had a great deal of trouble to  
lessen the circumference of  the stick4 
,this circumstance surprised me at the  
outset of the work1  as in the making of
 new bows it never occurred to me       
before4 ,i was in  great fear1 however1 
at the conclusion of my troublesome     
work1 for ,i  found that the bow had    
lost all elasticity and power4    ,later
 on1 the opportunity presented itself to
 me of proving that  pernambuco-wood    
when exposed to the air hardens very    
rapidly1 and ,i  am therefore convinced 

that this fact was known to ,tourte and 
that  consequently he only rubbed his   
bows with linseed-oil1 in order to      
leave them open to the influence of the 
air1 so that the sticks might  become   
hardened and strengthened4    ,if an old
 bow has become slightly twisted1 which 
may happen with bows  of the best make1 
this fault can be rectified by          
cautiously bending  it back to its      
original form over a charcoal fire1 and 
the bow will  regain its former         
elasticity4    ,if any of my readers    
desire to study more closely the history
 of  stringed instruments1 ,i can       
recommend to them very highly the work  
upon  the subject from the pen of       
,julius ,rhlmann4      ,gttingen1 ,druck
 der ,dieterich'schen                   
,univ4-,buchdruckerei von ,w4 ,fr4      
,kstner4          ,transcriber's ,notes 
,the figures referenced throughout the  
text are not present in the  original   
,english edition4 ,you can find them in 
the original ,german ,die  ,geige und   

ihr ,bau on ,google ,books4    ,the     
numbering of the chapter on the back and
 edges was corrected to ,,iv4  instead  
of ,,vi4 in the table of contents4      
,page #aj3 8intsrument makers0 changed  
to 8instrument makers0    ,page #bh3    
8,my opininon0 changed to 8,my opinion0 
,page #cd3 8opon this master-piece0     
changed to 8upon this master-piece0