,,barrier ,,beaches ,,of ,,the          
,,atlantic ,,coast4      ,,by           
,,frederick ,j4 ,h4 ,,merrill1 ,,ph4 ,d4
        ,,reprinted ,,from ,,the        
,,popular ,,science ,,monthly    ,,for  
,,october1 #ahij4      ,,new ,,york3    
,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4         
#ahij4            ,,barrier ,,beaches   
,,of ,,the    ,,atlantic ,,coast        
,,by    ,,frederick ,j4 ,h4 ,,merrill1  
,,ph4 ,d4      ,from ,cape ,cod to ,cape
 ,florida our coast is fringed with     
barrier  beaches4 ,they are the reefs of
 sand which protect the mainland shore  
from the storm-waves of the ocean4      
,isolated and uninhabited were  most of 
these sea-born barriers for a long      
period in the history of  our country1  
but the need of a breathing-place on the
 part of the  thousands who inhabit our 
crowded cities has caused1 within a few 
years1 a great transformation4 ,railroad
 and turnpike bridges have been  built1 
connecting many of them with the shore4 
,hotels and cottages1  club-houses and  

bathing-houses1 in short1 buildings for 
every purpose  which contributes to the 
pleasure and comfort of man have sprung 
up1 as  it were by magic1 on the south  
shore of ,long ,island1 on the coast of 
,new ,jersey1 ,virginia1 and the        
,carolinas1 on the famed sea-islands of 
,georgia1 and on the coast of eastern   
,florida4    ,much alike are these      
peninsulas and islands wherever we view 
them along  the coast4 ,the chief       
variation is in the vegetation which    
clothes them4  ,the beaches of ,long    
,island are almost barren1 but from ,new
 ,jersey  southward many are covered    
with dense forests which vary in their  
trees according to the latitude4 ,at    
,sandy ,hook1 oaks1 red cedars1         
hollies1 maples1 and sassafras-trees    
grow in wonderful luxuriance4 ,on       
,seven-,mile ,beach and ,holly ,beach   
the swamp magnolia abounds among the    
others4 ,in the ,carolinas the palmetto 
appears1 often ragged in outline  and   
blighted by the winter frosts4 ,in      

northern ,florida the palmettos  are    
more numerous and show the influence of 
a warmer climate1 while  on the southern
 extremity of the zone of barrier       
beaches the cocoanut  palm1 planted by  
accident or design1 rears its leafy     
crown in luxuriant  verdure4    ,it is  
not the design of the writer to describe
 in detail the beaches of  the ,atlantic
 coast1 but rather to consider their    
history and mode of  growth4 ,as it has 
been his fortune to spend much time on  
the sea-shore  of ,new ,jersey1 he      
proposes to discuss the barrier beaches 
of that ,state  as types of their genus4
    ,they are sandy islands and         
peninsulas1 from two to twenty miles in 
length and from half a mile to a mile in
 width1 separated by inlets  and usually
 divided from the mainland by an        
interval of several miles1  in which are
 broad expanses of salt meadow1 fringing
 and separating a  series of channels1  
bays1 and sounds4    ,the beaches which 
are now in their highest state of       

development are  ,sandy ,hook1          
,seven-,mile ,beach1 and ,holly ,beach  
near ,cape ,may4 ,these  typical        
examples of the sea-born barriers are   
much alike in structure1  and consist of
 four principal divisions4 ,the first   
division1 or  interior1 is an undulating
 area covered with heavy timber1 of     
which  the size suggests its age4       
,immense hollies1 oaks1 pines1 and red  
cedars abound1 many of the first        
measuring two feet in diameter1 and     
some of the latter attaining a          
circumference of four or five yards4    
,the sassafras grows in remarkable      
luxuriance and immense grape-vines  are 
everywhere to be seen1 overhanging a    
dense undergrowth4 ,in spring  and      
summer the ground is covered with       
fragrant blossoms2 columbines1  violets1
 pinks1 orchids1 and a host of other    
flowers lend their blight  colors to    
enhance the varied greens of the        
foliage4 ,this is the beach  primeval4  
,skirting it seaward is the second      

division1 which bears  smaller timber4  
,low cedars1 hollies1 and pines are here
 the chief forms  of arboreal           
vegetation1 and fewer flowering plants  
are seen4 ,this zone  is of later       
formation1 and its trees are younger    
than those of the  first4 ,adjoining it 
is the third division1 which consists of
 a belt of  undulating dunes a few      
hundred feet or yards in width1 and     
bearing  the mossy ,hudsonia or scrubby 
bushes of beach plum and wax-myrtle1 or 
in some places1 especially on the outer 
row of dunes1 only supporting  a meager 
growth of beach grass4 ,frequently1     
between two rows of dunes1  an expanse  
of salt meadow occurs1 or a sand flat   
bearing stunted forms  of plant life4   
,with this third division ends the      
domain of vegetation1  succeeded by the 
sloping strand upon which the tide rises
 and falls4  ,the sand-bar1 exposed at  
low water at the extremity of the beach1
  is constantly increased in length and 
height by the action of the  currents1  

and the process of beach formation is   
here continually in  progress4    ,as   
the tide falls1 the sand laid bare is   
rapidly dried by the wind  and carried  
above high-water mark4 ,then1 safe      
beyond the reach of  the waves1 the     
minute particles are borne still farther
 from the  water1 and striking against  
some piece of drift-wood1 bush1 or tuft 
of grass1 quickly build a hillock1 which
 grows larger and larger as  more sand  
falls upon it1 and a dune is formed many
 feet in height4  ,the material of which
 these dunes are composed is never at   
rest1 but  flies hither and thither with
 the wind1 and a hillock ten or fifteen 
feet high to-day may noiselessly be     
taken down to-morrow and rebuilt a      
hundred yards away4 ,in time1 as the    
beach grows seaward and the dunes       
increase in number1 those of earlier    
formation1 which are somewhat  protected
 from the breeze1 catch a few seeds1 and
 tufts of grass begin  to grow upon     
them4 ,still later1 the mossy ,hudsonia 

or some starveling  wax-myrtle finds a  
little sustenance1 and as years elapse  
the dunes  become so thickly covered    
with vegetation that under the          
protection of  the seaward hillocks they
 retain their form with comparatively   
little  change4    ,thus have the       
beaches grown4 ,first a sand flat built 
by ocean waves  and currents2 then a    
series of low1 shifting dunes2 next     
sheltered  hillocks1 on which grasses   
and shrubs fasten their protecting      
roots2  succeeding the latter a growth  
of small cedars and pines2 and1 finally1
  as centuries roll on1 majestic forest 
trees raise their spreading tops  and   
shelter a dense undergrowth4    ,these  
few words suffice to describe the       
beaches' growth1 their  physiology2 but 
many pages might be written upon their  
history1  the details of their          
development1 their changes and their    
decay4  ,unfortunately1 the records are 
but incomplete4 ,from the memories of   
old men we can glean some facts in      

regard to the former condition and      
extent of certain beaches and concerning
 marked changes in them which  have been
 notable events to men of quiet lives4  
,in a few instances1  surveys were made 
a century or two ago which can be       
compared with those  of to-day4 ,at     
present we can watch the changes which  
occur from year to  year4 ,as geological
 science advances we can speculate      
concerning the  past on the basis of    
present knowledge and observation4 ,we  
have little  accurate information1 but1 
after all1 we have much that is         
interesting4    ,the beach of ,sandy    
,hook forms the northern extremity of   
the ,new ,jersey  sea-coast4 ,previous  
to #aggh it was connected with the base 
of the  ,navesink ,highlands by a sandy 
isthmus1 the mouths of the ,navesink and
  ,shrewsbury ,rivers being open to the 
east2 but from that date until  about   
#ahcj1 and from #ahdh until #ahhi1 it   
has been united with the  mainland at   
,monmouth ,beach by a narrow strip of   

sand4    ,according to records in the   
office of the ,surveyor-,general of     
,east  ,jersey and in that of the       
,united ,states ,coast ,survey1 the     
point of  ,sandy ,hook advanced         
northward about one mile between #afhe  
and #ahhe4 ,the  lighthouse was built   
about #agfd near the water's edge1 and  
the ground  on which it stands had then 
existed for only fifteen years as a     
portion  of terra firma4    ,in #ahdd   
the point was about two hundred and     
fifty yards north of  its present limit4
 ,since that date it has receded slowly 
toward the  south1 and toward the west  
has extended a quarter of a mile4 ,we   
have  no evidence concerning the date of
 formation of the old 8,hook0 which     
existed before #afhe4 ,it is now well   
marked by immense forest trees1  which  
exceed in height and size of trunk any  
of their species known to  the writer in
 the neighborhood of ,new ,york4    ,the
 rapid growth of ,sandy ,hook is due to 
a current which flows  northward from   

the vicinity of ,manasquan1 carrying    
with it a great  quantity of sand       
removed from the water-front of ,asbury 
,park1 ,long  ,branch1 ,seabright1 and  
that vicinity1 which is dropped along   
the border  of the 8,hook0 and its      
extremity4 ,the investigations of the   
,united  ,states ,coast and ,geodetic   
,survey have shown that the ebb and flow
 of  the tides from and to ,new ,york   
,bay produce this current by drawing a  
stream of water through ,false ,hook    
,channel1 which lies between ,sandy     
,hook and a submerged bar called ,false 
,hook half a mile to the east4  ,the    
stream flows northward more than seven  
hours out of twelve1 and  from this fact
 property-owners in the neighborhood of 
,long ,branch may  appreciate what      
becomes of their real estate when it    
disappears during  the storms4 ,if there
 were any means of identifying the soil1
 it might  all be found on the rapidly  
growing point of ,sandy ,hook4    ,about
 #aggh a channel was opened across the  

narrow isthmus which  united ,sandy     
,hook with the base of the ,navesink    
,highlands1 and a new  passage being    
thus afforded for the tidal currents of 
the ,navesink and  ,shrewsbury ,rivers1 
the old ,shrewsbury ,inlet1 which formed
 the common  mouth of those two         
estuaries1 was gradually closed by the  
northward  extension of the sand-spit   
which formed the southern limit1 and in 
#ahaj became impassable4 ,the barrier   
thus formed existed until #ahcj or      
#ahca1 when it was broken through and a 
second inlet was created4 ,by a  change 
in the tidal currents1 due to the       
formation of this new inlet1  the       
isthmus which formerly connected ,sandy 
,hook with the ,highlands of  ,navesink 
was again brought into existence and    
remained until #ahce4 ,an  artificial   
channel was then cut through it1 and    
this being gradually  deepened and      
widened by the ebb and flow of the      
tides1 has ever since  remained open4   
,the second ,shrewsbury inlet closed in 

#ahdj near ,island  ,beach1 having moved
 northward nearly three miles during its
 existence  of nine or ten years4 ,in   
#ahcg or #ahch the third and last inlet 
opened  near the present ,bellevue      
,hotel1 and afforded a better channel   
for  navigation than the second inlet1  
which it followed in its northward      
course and survived by about eight      
years4 ,from #ahdh until ,september1    
#ahhi1 no inlet has been opened2 but    
this fact is due rather to the  efforts 
of the railroad company to maintain its 
road-bed than to a  diminution of the   
tendency of the waves and tidal currents
 to open a  passage4    ,the facts and  
dates concerning the ,shrewsbury ,inlets
 have been obtained  chiefly by inquiry 
from old fishermen and sailors who have 
spent  their lives on or near the waters
 of the ,navesink and ,shrewsbury       
,rivers4 ,coming from a number of       
independent sources1 they agree very    
closely1 and those here given may be    
accepted as worthy of credence4  ,the   

tendency of the inlets to work          
northward1 periodically closing and     
reopening farther south1 has been       
observed in all those between ,point    
,pleasant and ,sandy ,hook1 especially  
in those of ,manasquan and ,shark       
,rivers4 ,between ,point ,pleasant and  
,cape ,may1 however1 all the inlets  are
 moving southward4    ,from ,monmouth to
 the head of ,barnegat ,bay there is no 
beach similar to  that of ,sandy ,hook4 
,instead of a sand-reef separated from  
the mainland  by a navigable channel1   
there is only the sloping strand        
adjoining1  as at ,long ,branch1 the    
foot of an upland bluff1 or as at       
,spring ,lake1  ,seagirt1 and ,point    
,pleasant1 with its crest on a level    
with the surface  of the upland4        
,between ,bay ,head and ,cape ,may1     
however1 there are twelve  beaches1     
mostly well developed and preserved1 and
 named respectively  ,squan1 ,island1   
,long1 ,island or ,little1 ,brigantine1 
,absecon1 ,peck's1  ,ludlam's1          

,seven-,mile1 ,five-,mile or ,holly1    
,two-,mile1 and ,poverty4 ,the  majority
 of these1 however1 do not show the high
 degree of development  exhibited by    
,seven-,mile and ,five-,mile ,beaches4  
,some appear to be only  in the earlier 
stages of growth1 while others have     
passed their prime  and are now yielding
 to the attacks of wind and wave4       
,these agents have been hitherto        
considered only with reference to  their
 constructive effect on the beaches1 and
 it now remains to  consider their      
destructive action4    ,when the wind   
blows from the west it carries back to  
the sea much of  the sand which the east
 wind had piled up in dunes1 and1 but   
for the  fact that the latter wind      
prevails1 the sand-hills would not long 
exist4 ,by a surplus of constructive    
action1 however1 the beaches are  all   
moving to the west4 ,year after year    
sand is removed from their  eastern     
margin by the winter storms1 and carried
 north or south  according to the       

direction of the prevailing current4    
,the winds from  the ocean drive the    
dunes westward1 and1 with the possible  
exception of  ,sandy ,hook1 all the     
beaches are now underlaid by an old salt
 meadow1  originally formed in sheltered
 waters on their west side4 ,in this    
turf1  when exposed during an unusually 
low tide1 the footprints of cattle  are 
seen in many places1 made1 it is        
claimed1 when the salt meadow was  a    
pasture and lay on the shoreward side of
 the beach4 ,this westward  recession   
has1 in many cases1 amounted to more    
than a mile within two  centuries4      
,on many of the beaches south of ,point 
,pleasant the westward progress of  the 
dunes has been made over and through the
 native forest4 ,as a result  of this1  
gnarled cedars1 dying and dead1 are     
found among the dunes2 and  in many     
cases stumps may be seen in the sand    
within reach of the tide4    ,near the  
northern end of ,seven-,mile ,beach1 at 
the time of the writer's  visit in      

#ahhe1 an immense dune forty feet in    
height and half a mile  in length had   
been for many years encroaching steadily
 upon the dense  forest4 ,the tree-tops 
here projected above the summit of the  
ridge  like the heads of drowning men   
above the waves2 while on the outer     
flank of the overwhelming mass of sand  
the gnarled1 skeleton trunks  of those  
which had perished in it stood bare and 
grim1 showing with  dreary grayness the 
fate of the earlier victims of which the
 ragged and  wave-worn stumps alone     
remained4 ,a more desolate scene the    
writer has  never witnessed4    ,at     
,long ,branch the wear of the coast has 
been very great4 ,according to  the     
,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic    
,survey1 a strip of land varying  from  
three hundred to five hundred feet in   
width was removed between  ,deal ,beach 
and ,monmouth during the twenty-seven   
years preceding #ahfh4  ,in the vicinity
 of ,seabright the amount of wear was a 
little less  than two hundred feet      

during that period4 ,of late years the  
rate of  recession has been diminished  
in the neighborhood of ,long ,branch by 
the means of artificial protection      
employed1 but near ,seabright the  shore
 line is said to have receded at least  
two hundred feet during the  past       
quarter of a century4 ,at ,cape ,may the
 wear of the shore has been  continuous 
except where the land is protected by   
jetties or a stone  sea-wall1 the rate  
of encroachment varying from ten to     
thirty feet a  year4    ,besides these  
alterations produced in the beaches by  
their westward  progress1 the variations
 in the positions of the inlets and the 
subsidence of the coast have caused many
 important changes4 ,the history  of the
 ,shrewsbury ,inlets has already been   
given2 it remains to mention  a few of  
those south of ,point ,pleasant4        
,squan and ,island ,beaches1 which now  
form a peninsula about twenty miles     
long1 terminating at ,barnegat ,inlet1  
were separated from #agej to #ahab  by  

,cranberry ,inlet1 which was nearly     
opposite the mouth of ,tom's ,river4    
,since #ahab near the site of this old  
inlet there have been others of  brief  
duration1 and one is said to have       
existed before #agee opposite  the mouth
 of the ,metedeconk ,river1 which       
separated ,squan ,beach from the        
mainland4    ,the old ,barnegat         
,lighthouse is said to have stood nearly
 six hundred  yards north of the present
 south shore of the inlet1 at a point   
now  occupied by the center of the      
channel4 ,in #ahee the old tower was at 
the water's edge1 so that the inlet has 
moved southward approximately  twenty   
yards per year4    ,absecon ,inlet1     
which separates ,brigantine ,beach from 
,absecon ,beach1 has  encroached upon   
the latter about four hundred yards in  
twenty years2  and the ocean front of   
that portion of ,absecon ,beach which is
 occupied  by ,atlantic ,city extended  
in #ahee nearly half a mile farther east
 than  it did in #ahhe4 ,about #ahge    

jetties were built which arrested the   
action  of the tidal currents1 and1 the 
wear of the shore being thus prevented1 
a considerable area was restored4       
,submerged tree-stumps and other        
evidences of a subsidence of the coast  
may be found on the beaches and the salt
 meadows1 but a detailed  enumeration of
 them would be beyond the scope of the  
present article4    ,in ,cape ,may      
,county the depression has not been less
 than twenty feet1  and has possibly    
been much greater4 ,the evidence of some
 old buildings  on the shore of         
,delaware ,bay suggests a subsidence of 
about four feet  during the last two    
centuries4    ,it is doubtful whether   
depression alone has caused the wear of 
the coast4 ,a comparison of the present 
outline of ,holly ,beach with  that     
determined by a survey in #aggb shows an
 accretion on the south  and east1 since
 the latter date1 more than three and a 
half miles  long and averaging three    
eighths of a mile in width1 and on many 

other beaches a similar growth has taken
 place4 ,during the past five  years the
 ocean has rapidly encroached upon these
 beaches1 while the  subsidence of the  
coast1 so far as we know1 has been      
uniform throughout  the past two        
centuries4 ,it would appear1 therefore1 
that the growth  and decay of the       
beaches are more dependent upon the     
action of the  ocean currents and winds 
than upon other agencies4               
,unquestionably the  depression of the  
coast renders the beaches more subject  
to overflow  and erosion by the waves   
and currents2 but the evidence at many  
points  shows that the latter are       
capable of forming large areas of beach 
where the conditions of their existence 
and action favor construction  rather   
than destruction4 ,while these currents 
act as at present1 the  cost of         
preventing the ravages of the sea1 by   
the methods commonly  in use1 would     
probably be much greater than the value 
of the land  protected1 for the fine    

sand is so unstable when wet that       
bulkheads and  breakwaters are quite    
ephemeral4    ,after an extended        
examination of the various systems of   
shore defense  in use between ,sandy    
,hook and ,cape ,may1 it appears to the 
writer that  the only effectual means of
 protection is the construction of      
jetties  extending far enough from the  
shore to intercept the currents which   
carry away the sand loosened by the     
waves4 ,such jetties have added a  large
 area to the territory of ,atlantic     
,city1 and have protected the  shore at 
,cape ,may2 no doubt they would be      
effective everywhere if  properly       
constructed4    ,the experience of the  
past ten years on the ,new ,jersey coast
 shows  conclusively that the ocean     
front is not fit for building purposes1 
for  it is impossible to protect a house
 near the water's edge from injury  or  
destruction in the heaviest storms4 ,the
 height and force of the  waves in such 
a tempest as that of ,september #aj and 

#aa1 #ahhi1 render  them irresistible to
 any body or structure which nature or  
art has yet  produced1 and anything     
within their reach must suffer4 ,the    
immediate  water-front is only available
 for parks2 and1 if devoted to this use1
  when protected from the erosive action
 of the currents by suitable  jetties1  
would remain a neutral ground which1 in 
fair weather1 would  afford numberless  
attractions to the occupants of         
dwellings placed far  enough from the   
strand to be out of reach of the        
storm-waves4    ,property-owners along  
the ocean front of the beaches have     
generally  made the mistake of supposing
 that the domain of the ,atlantic was   
bounded by the high-water mark of the   
spring tides4 ,any one who  should build
 a dwelling on the strand below ordinary
 high-water mark  would be considered   
lacking in common sense1 yet it is      
scarcely less  foolish to build within  
reach of the storm-waves4 ,it is1 of    
course1  true that many cottages are now

 much nearer the water's edge than  they
 were a few years ago4 ,this is due to  
the wear of the shore by  currents      
already described as flowing parallel to
 it and removing the  sand which the    
waves have loosened4 ,if the action of  
these currents  should be stopped--and  
there is good evidence to show that a   
system  of jetties would intercept them 
and cause them to drop their stolen     
load of sand--the wear of the shore     
would be arrested and the yearly        
encroachments of the ocean would cease4 
,with regard to the inundation of       
,atlantic ,city by the sea in the  great
 ,september storm of #ahhi it should be 
said that this catastrophe  ought not to
 be considered very wonderful1 since the
 greater portion  of the city is less   
than ten feet above mean tide1 and the  
highest  point recorded by the ,new     
,jersey ,state ,survey is only thirteen 
feet  above that level4 ,as ordinary    
tides rise a foot above this plane1 and 
spring tides nearly two feet1 it is     

evident that a prolonged easterly  storm
 would soon cause a considerable area to
 be overflowed4 ,since the  bays and    
channels which lie between the beach and
 the mainland are  almost completely    
landlocked and the inlets are relatively
 narrow1 the  water-level is soon raised
 to a height of two or three feet above 
the  meadows1 and this is sufficient to 
cover most of the railroad tracks4  ,to 
be sure1 no such inundation as the      
recent one has occurred since  ,atlantic
 ,city became a place of importance1 nor
 do the old residents  on the coast     
remember such a storm in former years2  
but it is evident  that1 while the      
beaches were uninhabited1 such a storm  
as the one in  question would attract   
less attention1 since it would cause    
little if  any loss of property4    ,the
 genesis of the beaches is still a      
matter for speculation1 but  it may be  
safely affirmed that they originated as 
sand-bars1 formed  under water by wave  
and current action4 ,how these bars were

 brought  above water1 so that the wind 
could exert its constructive power1 is  
uncertain4 ,a plausible hypothesis is1  
that while the ocean was breaking  on   
the mainland shore and forming the      
,quaternary terraces1 which may be  seen
 there1 sand-bars were made under water1
 and that the continental  elevation    
which raised these terraces to their    
present position  from twenty-five to   
eighty feet above tide1 brought these   
sand-bars  above water into a horizon of
 olian action4 ,once above the sea1 the 
beaches would maintain their existence4 
,a continued elevation of the  coast    
would add to their seaward extent and a 
depression would cause  a westward      
recession until they were brought to    
rest by contact with  the mainland      
shore4 ,in ,new ,jersey the latter      
condition may be observed  between ,long
 ,branch and ,point ,pleasant and also  
at ,cape ,may4    ,so far as it is known
 to the writer1 the only way in which a 
beach can  be entirely destroyed is by  

an inlet shifting its position4 ,in this
  case the beach obliterated is replaced
 by the extension of an adjacent  beach4
    ,of the beaches south of ,new       
,jersey not enough is known to the      
writer  to permit of a detailed         
biographical sketch4 ,their form and    
structure  show that they have been     
subject to the same formative agencies  
and  vicissitudes as those already      
described4 ,in addition to the ,georgia 
sea-islands of ante-bellum fame1 may be 
mentioned as familiar  examples the     
barriers which in ,virginia and ,north  
,carolina separate  ,albemarle and      
,pamlico ,sounds from the ocean2 in     
,florida1 ,amelia ,island  on which is  
built the city of ,fernandina2          
,anastasia ,island1 in front  of ,st4   
,augustine2 and the beaches which       
separate ,halifax and ,indian  ,rivers  
from the ,atlantic4 ,the last named     
rivers are the lagoons which  separate  
the barriers from the mainland shore4   
,lake ,worth is one of  these lagoons1  

of which the inlet has been closed4     
,to what extent the ,florida ,keys may  
be included in the category of  barrier 
beaches must be decided by future       
investigation4 ,key ,west  is evidently 
a wave-built sand-bar composed of       
fragments of coral1  molluscan shells1  
and foraminifera1 and it seems likely   
that ,cayo ,largo  and others of that   
type may be of similar origin4 ,the     
coquina deposits  of the vicinity of    
,st4 ,augustine are also wave-formed4   
,the hypothesis of ,prof4 ,louis        
,agassiz1 that the ,florida ,keys are   
all  of organic origin--i4 e41 that they
 were formed by the growth of coral     
reefs--may be true so far as the        
determination of their location and     
direction4 ,a submerged reef of coral   
may have formed a nucleus on  which the 
waves and currents deposited a load of  
calcareous sand1 but  the superficial   
portion is evidently similar in origin  
to that of the  beaches farther north4  
,barrier beaches are found on all the   

sea-coasts of the world where           
opportunity for their growth has been   
afforded1 and those of ,new ,jersey  may
 be regarded as types of these          
formations in all their essential       
features4          ,,transcriber',s     
,,notes3        ,italicized text is     
surrounded by underscores3 italics4     
,inconsistencies in hyphenation have    
been standardized4      ,archaic or     
variant spelling has been retained4     
,the cover image for this e,book was    
created by the transcriber and is       
entered into the public domain4