,,! ,,tr\velot ,,a/ronomical ,,draw+s ,,manual ,,by ,e4 ,l4 ,,tr\velot1 ,,=m]ly ,,connect$ ,,) ,,! ,,obs]vatory ,,( ,,h>v>d ,,college2 ,,fell[ ,,( ,,! ,,am]ican ,,academy ,,( ,,arts ,,& ,,sci5ces1 ,,& ,,memb] ,,( ,,! ,,sel5o-,,graphical ,,society ,,( ,,great ,,brita92 ,,9 ,,*>ge ,,( ,a ,,gov]nm5t ,,exp$ition ,,to ,,obs]ve ,,! ,,total ,,sol> ,,eclipse ,,( #ahgh4 ,,new ,,york ,,*>les ,,scribn]',s ,,sons #ahhb ,,introduction ,dur+ a /udy ( ! heav5s1 :i* has n[ be5 cont9u$ = m ?an fifte5 ye>s1 ,i h made a l>ge numb] ( obs]vations p]ta9+ to physical a/ronomy1 toge!r ) _m orig9al draw+s repres5t+ ! mo/ int]e/+ cele/ial objects & ph5om5a4 ,) a view to mak+ ^! obs]vations m g5]ally useful1 ,i 0 l$1 "s ye>s ago1 to prep>e1 f ?is collection ( draw+s1 a s]ies ( a/ronomical pictures1 :i* 7 int5d$ to repres5t ! cele/ial ph5om5a z !y appe> to a tra9$ eye & to an exp]i5c$ draughtsman ?r\gh ! great mod]n telescopes1 provid$ ) ! mo/ delicate in/rum5tal appliances4 ,ov] two ye>s 7 sp5t 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is s]ies1 :i* consi/$ ( a numb] ( l>ge draw+s execut$ 9 pa/el4 ,9 #ahgf1 ^! draw+s 7 display$ at ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,c5t5nial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia1 =m+ a "p ( ! ,massa*usetts exhibit1 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,education & ,sci5ce4 ,! draw+s =m+ ! pres5t s]ies comprise only a "p ( ^? exhibit$ at ,philadelphia2 b1 al?\gh few] 9 numb]1 !y are q suffici5t to illu/rate ! pr9cipal classes ( cele/ial objects & ph5om5a4 ,:ile my aim 9 ?is "w has be5 to comb9e scrupul\s fidelity & accuracy 9 ! details1 ,i h also endeavor$ to pres]ve ! natural elegance & ! delicate outl9es peculi> to ! objects depict$2 b 9 ?is1 only a little m ?an a sugge/ion is possible1 s9ce no human skill c reproduce ^u pap] ! maje/ic beauty & radiance ( ! cele/ial objects4 ,! plates 7 prep>$ "u my sup]vision1 f ! orig9al pa/el draw+s1 & great c>e has be5 tak5 to make ! reproduction exact4 ,! in/rum5ts employ$ 9 ! obs]vations1 & 9 ! del9eation ( ! heav5ly bodies repres5t$ 9 ! s]ies1 h v>i$ 9 ap]ture f #f to #bf in*es1 accord+ to circum/ances1 & to ! nature ( ! object to be /udi$4 ,! great ,wa%+ton refractor1 k9dly plac$ at my disposal by ! late ,admiral ,c4 ,h4 ,davis1 has contribut$ to ?is "w1 z has also ! #bf in* telescope ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,virg9ia1 :ile 9 ! h&s ( its celebrat$ con/ructors1 ,alvan ,cl>k ,sons4 ,! spectroscope us$ 0 made by ,alvan ,cl>k ,sons4 ,atta*$ to x is an excell5t diffraction grat+1 by ,mr4 ,l4 ,m4 ,ru!rfurd1 to ^: k9dness ,i am indebt$ = x4 ,^? unacqua9t$ ) ! use ( optical in/rum5ts g5]ally suppose t all a/ronomical draw+s are obta9$ by ! photographic process1 & are1 !re=e1 comp>atively easy to procure2 b ?is is n true4 ,al?\gh photography r5d]s valuable assi/ance to ! a/ronom] 9 ! case ( ! ,sun & ,moon1 z prov$ by ! f9e photographs ( ^! objects tak5 by ,m4 ,janss5 & ,mr4 ,ru!rfurd2 yet1 = o!r subjects1 its products are 9 g5]al s blurr$ & indi/9ct t no details ( any great value c be secur$4 ,a well-tra9$ eye alone is capable ( seiz+ ! delicate details ( /ructure & ( configuration ( ! heav5ly bodies1 :i* are liable to be affect$1 & ev5 r5d]$ invisible1 by ! slighte/ *anges 9 our atmosph]e4 ,! me?od employ$ to secure correctness 9 ! proportions ( ! orig9al draw+s is simple1 b well adapt$ to ! purpose 9 view4 ,x consi/s 9 plac+ a f9e reticule1 cut on glass1 at ! common focus ( ! objective & ! eye-piece1 s t 9 view+ an object1 its telescopic image1 appe>+ project$ on ! reticule1 c be drawn v accurately on a %eet ( pap] rul$ ) correspond+ squ>es4 ,= a s]ies ( su* reticules ,i am indebt$ to ! k9dness ( ,pr(essor ,william ,a4 ,rog]s1 ( ! ,h>v>d ,college ,obs]vatory4 ,! draw+s repres5t+ telescopic views are inv]t$1 z !y appe> 9 a refract+ telescope--! ,s\? be+ upw>d1 ! ,nor? d[nw>d1 ! ,ea/ on ! "r1 & ! ,we/ on ! left4 ,! ,comet1 ! ,milky-,way1 ! ,eclipse ( ! ,moon1 ! ,aurora ,borealis1 ! ,zodiacal ,light & ! ,meteors are repres5t$ z se5 directly 9 ! sky ) ! nak$ eye4 ,! ,comet 01 h[ev]1 drawn ) ! aid ( ! telescope1 )\t :i* ! delicate /ructure %[n 9 ! draw+ w\ld n h be5 visible4 ,! plate repres5t+ ! ,novemb] ,meteors1 or s-call$ ,leonids1 may be call$ an ideal view1 s9ce ! %oot+ />s del9eat$1 7 n obs]v$ at ! same mom5t ( "t1 b dur+ ! same night4 ,ov] ?ree ?\s& ,meteors 7 obs]v$ betwe5 midnight & five o'clock 9 ! morn+ ( ! day on :i* ?is %[] occurr$2 a doz5 be+ sometimes 9 sight at ! same in/ant4 ,! pa?s ( ! ,meteors1 :e!r curv$1 wavy1 or crook$1 & also _! delicate colors1 are 9 all cases depict$ z !y 7 actually obs]v$4 ,9 ! ,manual1 ,i h endeavor$ to pres5t a g5]al outl9e ( :at is kn[n1 or suppos$1 on ! diff]5t subjects & ph5om5a illu/rat$ 9 ! s]ies4 ,! /atem5ts made are d]iv$ ei!r f ! be/ au?orities on physical a/ronomy1 or f my orig9al obs]vations1 :i* are1 = ! mo/ "p1 yet unpubli%$4 ,! figures 9 ! ,manual relat+ to di/ance1 size1 volume1 mass1 etc41 are n int5d$ to be /rictly exact1 be+ only r\nd numb]s1 :i* c1 !re=e1 be m easily rememb]$4 ,x gives me pleasure to ackn[l$ge t ! exp]i5ce acquir$ 9 mak+ ! a/ronomical draw+s publi%$ 9 ,volume ,,viii4 ( ! ,annals ( ! ,h>v>d ,college ,obs]vatory1 :ile ,i 0 connect$ ) t in/itution1 has be5 ( consid]able assi/ance to me 9 prep>+ ?is "w2 al?\gh no draw+s made :ile ,i 0 s connect$ h be5 us$ = ?is s]ies4 ,e4 ,l4 ,,tr\velot4 ,cambridge1 ,m>*1 #ahhb4 ,,cont5ts ,,introduction ,,li/ ,,( ,,plates ,,! ,,sun ,,g5]al ,,rem>ks ,,on ,,! ,,sun ,,sun-,,spots ,,& ,,veil$ ,,spots ,,sol> ,,protub]ances ,,total ,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun ,,! ,,auroral ,,& ,,zodiacal ,,lights ,,! ,,aurora ,,borealis ,,! ,,zodiacal ,,light ,,! ,,moon ,,! ,,moon ,,eclipses ,,( ,,! ,,moon ,,! ,,planets ,,! ,,planets ,,! ,,planet ,,m>s ,,! ,,planet ,,jupit] ,,! ,,planet ,,saturn ,,comets ,,& ,,meteors ,,comets ,,%oot+-,,/>s ,,& ,,meteors ,,! ,,/ell> ,,sy/ems ,,! ,,milky-,,way ,,or ,,galaxy ,,! ,,/>-,,clu/]s ,,! ,,nebul ,,app5dix ,,li/ ,,( ,,plates#a ,,plate ,i4 ,,gr\p ,,( ,,sun-,,spots ,,& ,,veil$ ,,spots4 ,obs]v$ ,june #ag1 #ahge1 at #g h4 #cjm4 ,a4 ,m4 ,,ii4 ,,sol> ,,protub]ances4 ,obs]v$ ,may #e1 #ahgc1 at #i;h4 #djm4 ,a4 ,m4 ,,iii4 ,,total ,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun4 ,obs]v$ ,july #bi1 #ahgh1 at ,cre/on1 ,wyom+ ,t]ritory4 ,,iv4 ,,aurora ,,borealis4 ,z obs]v$ ,m>* #a1 #ahgb1 at #i;h4 #bem4 ,p4 ,m4 ,v4 ,,! ,,zodiacal ,,light4 ,obs]v$ ,febru>y #bj1 #ahgf4 ,,vi4 ,,m>e ,,humorum4 ,f a /udy made 9 #ahge4 ,,vii4 ,,p>tial ,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,moon4 ,obs]v$ ,octob] #bd1 #ahgd4 ,,viii4 ,,! ,,planet ,,m>s4 ,obs]v$ ,septemb] #c1 #ahgg1 at #aa;h4 #eem4 ,p4 ,m4 ,,ix4 ,,! ,,planet ,,jupit]4 ,obs]v$ ,novemb] #a1 #ahhj1 at #i;h4 #cjm4 ,p4 ,m4 ,x4 ,,! ,,planet ,,saturn4 ,obs]v$ ,novemb] #cj1 #ahgd1 at #e?4 #ejm4 ,p4 ,m4 ,,xi4 ,,! ,,great ,,comet ,,( #ahha4 ,obs]v$ on ! night ( ,june #be-bf1 at #a;h4 #cjm4 ,a4 ,m4 ,,xii4 ,,! ,,novemb] ,,meteors4 ,z obs]v$ betwe5 midnight & #c o'clock ,a4 ,m41 on ! night ( ,novemb] #ac-ad1 #ahfh4 ,,xiii4 ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,milky-,,way4 ,f a /udy made dur+ ! ye>s #ahgd1 #ahge & #ahgf4 ,,xiv4 ,,/>-,,clu/] ,,9 ,,h]cules4 ,f a /udy made 9 ,june1 #ahgg4 ,,xv4 ,,! ,,great ,,nebula ,,9 ,,orion4 ,f a /udy made 9 ! ye>s #ahgc-gf4 ,footnote #a3 ,= ,key to ! ,plates1 see ,app5dix4 ,reproduc$ f ! ,orig9al ,draw+s1 by ,arm/rong ,company1 ,riv]side ,press1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,,g5]al ,,rem>ks ,,on ,,! ,,sun ,! ,sun1 ! c5tre ( ! sy/em :i* be>s its "n1 is a self-lum9\s sph]e1 con/antly radiat+ heat & light4 ,its app>5t diamet]1 z se5 at its mean f ! ,e>?1 subt5ds an angle ( #cb'1 or a little ov] half a degree4 ,a dime1 plac$ ab\t six feet f ! eye1 w\ld appe> ( ! same proportions1 & cov] ! ,sun's disk1 if project$ ^u x4 ,t ! diamet] ( ! ,sun does n appe> l>g]1 is due to ! great di/ance :i* sep>ates u f t body4 ,its di/ance f ! ,e>? is no less ?an #ib1jjj1jjj miles4 ,to bridge ?is imm5se gap1 w\ld require #aa1fbc globes l ! ,e>?1 plac$ side by side1 l beads on a /r+4 ,! ,sun is an enorm\s sph]e ^: diamet] is ov] #ajh times ! diamet] ( our globe1 or v ne>ly #hfj1jjj miles4 ,its radius is ne>ly d\ble ! di/ance f ! ,e>? to ! ,moon4 ,if we suppose1 = a mom5t1 ! ,sun to be holl[1 & our globe to be plac$ at ! c5tre ( ?is imm5se sph]ical %ell1 n only c\ld our satellite revolve ar\nd u at its mean di/ance ( #bch1hjj miles1 z n[1 b ano!r satellite1 plac$ #aij1jjj miles f>!r ?an ! ,moon1 c\ld freely revolve likewise1 )\t ev] com+ 9 contact ) ! sol> envelope4 ,! circumf]5ce ( ?is imm5se sph]e measures #b1hjj1jjj miles4 ,:ile a /eam]1 go+ at ! rate ( #cjj miles a day1 w\ld circumnavigate ! ,e>? 9 #hc days1 x w\ld take1 at ! same rate1 ne>ly #be ye>s to travel ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,! surface ( ! ,sun is ne>ly #ab1jjj times ! surface ( ! ,e>?1 & its volume is equal to #a1cjj1jjj globes l our own4 ,if all ! kn[n planets & satellites 7 unit$ 9 a s+le mass1 #fjj su* comp\nd masses w\ld be ne$$ to equal ! volume ( our lum9>y4 ,al?\gh ! d5sity ( ! ,sun is only "o-qu>t] t ( ! ,e>?1 yet ! bulk ( ?is body is s enorm\s t1 to c\nt]poise x1 no less ?an #cad1gfj globes l our ,e>? w\ld be requir$4 ,! ,sun uni=mly revolves ar\nd its axis 9 ab\t #be days4 ,its equator is incl9$ #g #ae' to ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 ! axis ( rotation =m+1 !re=e1 an angle ( #hb #de' ) ! same plane4 ,z ! ,e>? revolves ab\t ! ,sun 9 ! same direction z t ( ! ,sun's rotation1 ! app>5t "t ( ?is rotation1 z se5 by a t]re/rial spectator1 is prolong$ f #be days to ab\t #bg days & #g h\rs4 ,! rotation ( ! ,sun on its axis1 l t ( ! ,e>? & ! o!r planets1 is direct1 or accompli%$ f ,we/ to ,ea/4 ,to an obs]v] on ! ,e>?1 look+ directly at ! ,sun1 ! rotation ( ?is body is f left to "r1 or f ,ea/ to ,we/4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ! ,sun is t ( an int5sely lum9\s disk1 ^: limb1 or bord]1 is %>ply def9$ on ! heav5s4 ,:5 its telescopic image is project$ on a scre51 or fix$ on pap] by photography1 x is notic$ t its disk is n uni=mly bright ?r\gh\t1 b is notably m lum9\s 9 its c5tral p>ts4 ,?is ph5om5on is n accid5tal1 b p]man5t1 & is due 9 reality to a v r>e b ext5sive atmosph]e :i* surr\nds ! ,sun1 & absorbs ! light :i* t body radiates1 proportionally to its ?ickness1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 increases t[>ds ! limb1 to an obs]v] on ! ,e>?4 ,,! ,,envelop+ ,,lay]s ,,( ,,! ,,sun ,! lum9\s surface ( ! ,sun1 or t "p visible at all times1 & :i* =ms its disk1 is call$ ! ,photosph]e1 f ! prop]ty x is suppos$ to possess ( g5]at+ light4 ,! photosph]e does n ext5d to a great dep? bel[ ! lum9\s surface1 b =ms a comp>atively ?9 %ell1 #c1jjj or #d1jjj miles ?ick1 :i* is di/9ct f ! int]ior p>ts1 above :i* x seems to be kept 9 susp5se by int]nal =ces4 ,f ! obs]vations ( "s a/ronom]s x w\ld appe> t ! diamet] ( ! photosph]e is subject to slight v>iations1 &1 !re=e1 t ! sol> diamet] is n a con/ant quantity4 ,f ! nature ( ?is envelope1 su* a result does n seem at all impossible1 b r probable4 ,imm$iately above ! photosph]e lies a comp>atively ?9 /ratum1 less ?an a ?\s& miles 9 ?ickness1 call$ ! ,rev]s+ ,lay]4 ,?is /ratum is compos$ ( metallic vapors1 :i*1 by absorb+ ! light ( p>ticul> refrangibilities emanat+ f ! photosph]e bel[1 produces ! d>k ,fraunh(] l9es ( ! sol> spectrum4 ,above ! rev]s+ lay]1 & re/+ imm$iately ^u x1 is a %all[1 semi-transp>5t gase\s lay]1 :i* has be5 call$ ! ,*romosph]e1 f ! f9e t9ts :i* x exhibits dur+ total eclipses ( ! ,sun1 9 contra/ ) ! colorless :ite light radiat$ by ! photosph]e bel[4 ,al?\gh visible to a c]ta9 ext5t on ! disk1 ! *romosph]e is totally invisible on ! limb1 except ) ! spectroscope1 & dur+ eclipses1 on acc\nt ( ! nature ( its light1 :i* is ma9ly mono*romatic1 & too feeble1 comp>$ ) t emitt$ by ! photosph]e1 to be se54 ,! *romosph]ic lay]1 :i* has a ?ickness ( f #c1jjj to #d1jjj miles1 is unev51 & is usually upheav$ 9 c]ta9 regions1 its matt] be+ transport$ to consid]able elevations above its g5]al surface1 app>5tly by "s int]nal =ces4 ,! portions ( ! *romosph]e ?us lift$ up1 =m curi\s & complicat$ figures1 :i* are kn[n "u ! names ( ,sol> ,protub]ances1 or ,sol> ,flames4 ,above ! *romosph]e1 & ris+ to an imm5se b unkn[n height1 is ! sol> atmosph]e prop]1 :i* is only visible dur+ total eclipses ( ! ,sun1 & :i* !n surr\nds ! d>k body ( ! ,moon ) ! beautiful rays & glori\s nimbus1 call$ ! ,corona4 ,^! f\r envelopes3 ! photosph]e1 ! rev]s+ lay]1 ! *romosph]e1 & ! corona1 con/itute ! out] portions ( our lum9>y4 ,bel[ ! photosph]e little c be se51 al?\gh x is kn[n1 z w appe> bel[1 t at c]ta9 dep?s cl\d-l =ms exi/1 & freely float 9 an int]ior atmosph]e ( invisible gases4 ,beyond ?is all is my/]y1 & belongs to ! doma9 ( hypo!sis4 ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,photosph]e ,,& ,,*romosph]e ,! app>5t uni=mity ( ! sol> surface disappe>s :5 x is exam9$ ) a telescope ( suffici5t ap]ture & magnify+ p[]s4 ,se5 "u good atmosph]ic conditions1 ! great] "p ( ! sol> surface appe>s mottl$ ) an inf9ite numb] ( small1 bright granules1 irregul>ly di/ribut$1 & sep>at$ f ea* o!r by a gray-t9t$ backgr\nd4 ,^! objects are kn[n "u diff]5t names4 ,! t]ms granules & granulations answ] v well = ! purpose1 z !y d n imply any?+ positive z to _! =m & true nature4 ,!y h also be5 call$ ,lucul1 ,rice ,gra9s1 ,will[ ,leaves1 etc41 by diff]5t obs]v]s4 ,al?\gh hav+ diff]5t %apes1 ! granulations p>take m or less ( ! circul> or slightly elongat$ =m4 ,_! diamet]1 :i* v>ies consid]ably1 has be5 e/imat$ at f #j4e to #c1 or f #bbd to #a1cdd miles4 ,! granulations :i* atta9 ! l>ge/ size appe>1 "u good atmosph]ic conditions1 to be compos$ ( sev]al granules1 closely unit$ & =m+ an irregul> mass1 f :i* %ort app5dages protrude 9 v>i\s directions4 ,! numb] ( granulations on ! surface ( ! ,sun v>ies consid]ably "u ! action ( unkn[n causes4 ,sometimes !y are small & v num]\s1 :ile at o!r times !y are l>g]1 less num]\s1 & m widely sep>at$4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! granulations are bett] se5 9 ! c5tral regions ( ! ,sun ?an !y are ne> ! limb4 ,usually ! granulations are v un/able2 _! relative position1 =m1 & size und]go+ cont9ual *anges4 ,sometimes !y are se5 to congregate or to disp]se 9 an in/ant1 z if act+ "u ! influ5ce ( attractive & repulsive =ces2 assembl+ 9 gr\ps or files1 & (t5times =m+ caprici\s figures :i* are v rem>kable1 b usually ( %ort duration4 ,9 an area ( great sol> di/urbances1 ! granulations are (t5 /ret*$ to great di/ances1 & =m into p>allel l9es1 ei!r /raight1 wavy1 or curv$1 & !y h !n "s resemblance to ! fl[+ ( visc\s liquids4 ,! granulations are usually t]m9at$ ei!r by r\nd$ or %>ply po9t$ summits1 b !y d n all rise to ! same height1 z c be asc]ta9$ ) ! spectroscope :5 !y are se5 sidewise on ! limb4 ,9 ! regions :]e !y are mo/ abundant1 !y usually atta9 great] elevations1 & :5 obs]v$ on ! limb ) ! spectroscope1 !y appe> z sl5d] acute flames4 ,! granulations t]m9at$ by %>ply-po9t$ cre/s1 al?\gh obs]v$ 9 all latitudes1 seem to be *>act]i/ic ( c]ta9 regions4 ,a daily /udy ( ! *romosph]e1 ext5d+ ov] a p]iod ( t5 ye>s1 has %[n me t ! pol> regions are r>ely ev] free f ^! objects1 :i* are less frequ5t 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,sun4 ,9 ! pol> regions !y are sometimes s abundant t !y completely =m ! sol> limb4 ,^! =ms ( granulation are comp>atively r>e 9 ! equatorial zones1 & :5 se5 !re1 !y nev] h ! p]man5cy :i* !y exhibit 9 ! pol> regions4 ,:5 obs]v$ 9 ! equatorial regions1 !y usually appe> 9 small gr\ps1 9 ! vic9ity ( sun spots1 or !y are at lea/ enclos$ 9 areas ( di/urbances :]e su* spots are 9 process ( =mation4 ,9 ^! regions !y (t5 atta9 great] elevations ?an ^? se5 9 high latitudes4 ,z we are c]ta9 t 9 ! equatorial zones ^! sl5d] flames 7i4 e41 granulations7 are a sure sign ( local di/urbance1 x may be reasonably suppos$ t ! same k9d ( en]gy produc+ !m ne>ly always prevails 9 ! pol> regions1 al?\gh x is !re mu* weak]1 & nev] rea*es beyond c]ta9 n>r[ limits4 ,/udi$ ) ! spectroscope1 ! granulations are f\nd to be compos$ 9 ! ma9 ( inc&esc5t hydrog5 gas1 & ( an unkn[n sub/ance provisionally call$ helium4 ,among ! mo/ brilliant ( !m are f\nd traces ( inc&esc5t metallic vapors1 belong+ to v>i\s sub/ances f\nd on our globe4 ,! *romosph]e is n fix$1 b v>ies consid]ably 9 ?ickness 9 its diff]5t p>ts1 f day to day4 ,its ?ickness is usually great] 9 ! pol> regions1 :]e x sometimes exce$s #f1gjj miles4 ,9 ! equatorial regions ! *romosph]e v r>ely atta9s ?is height1 & :5 x does1 ! ris+ is local & occupies only a small area4 ,9 ^! regions x is sometimes s %all[ t its dep? is only a few seconds1 & is !n q difficult to measure4 ,^! numb]s give1 ( c\rse1 ! extreme limits ( ! v>iations ( ! *romosph]e2 b1 ne>ly always1 x is m %all[ 9 ! equatorial regions2 &1 z f> z my obs]vations g1 ! diff]5ce 9 ?ickness betwe5 ! pol> & equatorial zones is great] 9 ye>s ( calm ?an x is 9 ye>s ( great sol> activity4 ,b t5 ye>s ( obs]vation are n suffici5t to w>rant any def9ite conclusions on ?is subject4 ,!re is und\bt$ly "s relation betwe5 ! great] ?ickness ( ! *romosph]e 9 ! pol> regions1 & ! abundance & p]man5ce ( ! %>ply-po9t$ granulations obs]v$ 9 ! same regions4 ,?is becomes m evid5t :5 we "k t ! appe>ance ( simil>ly-po9t$ flames 9 ! equatorial zones is always accompani$ ) a local ?ick5+ ( ! *romosph]e4 ,! ?ick5+ 9 ! pol> regions may be only app>5t1 & n due to a great] accumulation ( *romosph]ic gases !re2 b may be caus$ by "s k9d ( repulsive action or pol>ity1 :i* lifts up & ext5ds ! summit ( ! granulations 9 a mann] simil> to ! well-kn[n mode ( electric repulsion & pol>ity4 ,z x seems v probable t ! heat & light emanat+ f ! ,sun are ma9ly g5]at$ at ! base ( ! granulations1 9 ! filam5t>y elem5ts compos+ ! *romosph]e & photosph]e1 x w\ld foll[ t1 z ! size & numb] ( ^! objects con/antly v>y1 ! am\nt ( heat & light emitt$ by ! ,sun %\ld also v>y 9 ! same proportion4 ,! granulations ( ! sol> surface are repres5t$ on ,plate ,i41 & =m ! g5]al backgr\nd to ! gr\p ( ,sun-spots =m+ ! picture4 ,,! ,,facul ,al?\gh ! sol> surface is ma9ly cov]$ ) ! lum9\s granulations & ! grayi% backgr\nd above describ$1 x is v r>e t its appe>ance is s simple & uni=m z already repres5t$4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 on ! contr>y1 x is div]sifi$ by l>g]1 bright]1 & m complicat$ =ms1 :i* are especially visible t[>ds ! bord] ( ! ,sun4 ,ow+ to _! extraord9>y brilliancy1 ^! objects h be5 call$ ,facul 7tor*es74 ,al?\gh ! facul are v seldom se5 well beyond #ej helioc5tric degrees f ! limb1 yet !y exi/1 & are z num]\s 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! disk z !y are t[>ds ! bord]2 s9ce !y =m a "p ( ! sol> surface1 & p>ticipate 9 its movem5t ( rotation4 ,_! appe>ance ne> ! limb has be5 attribut$ to ! effect ( absorption produc$ by ! sol> atmosph]e on ! light f ! photosph]e2 b ?is explanation seems inadequate1 & does n solve ! problem4 ,! well-kn[n fact t ! sol> protub]ances--:i* are 9 a great measure id5tical ) ! facul--are mu* bright] at ! base ?an !y are at ! summit1 p]haps gives a clue to ! explanation ( ! ph5om5on2 especially s9ce we "k t1 9 g5]al1 ! summit ( ! protub]ances is consid]ably broad] ?an _! base4 ,:5 ^! objects are obs]v$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! limb1 !y pres5t _! brighte/ p>ts to ! obs]v]1 s9ce1 9 ?is position1 !y are se5 m or less sidewise2 &1 !re=e1 !y appe> bright & di/9ct4 ,b z ! facul rec$e f ! limb1 _! sides1 be+ se5 "u a con/antly decreas+ angle1 appe> m & m =e%ort5$2 &1 !re=e1 ^! objects gr[ less bright & less di/9ct1 until !y f9ally become invisible1 :5 _! bases are cov]$ ov] by ! broad1 dusky summit g5]ally t]m9at+ ! protub]ances4 ,! facul appe> z bright & lum9\s masses or /reaks on ! granul> surface ( ! ,sun1 b !y diff] consid]ably 9 =m & size4 ,two types at lea/ are di/+ui%able4 ,9 _! simple/ =m !y appe> ei!r z isolat$ :ite spots1 or z gr\ps ( su* spots cov]+ l>ge surfaces1 & some:at resembl+ l>ge flakes ( sn[4 ,9 _! mo/ *>act]i/ic types !y appe> z int5sely lum9\s1 heavy masses1 f :i*1 9 mo/ cases1 issue intricate ramifications1 sometimes ext5d+ to great di/ances4 ,g5]ally1 ! ramifications issu+ f ! masses ( facul h _! l>ge/ bran*es direct$ 9 ! ma9 t[>ds ! ea/]n limb ( ! ,sun4 ,"s ( ^! bran*es h gigantic proportions4 ,occasionally !y ext5d ov] #fj & ev5 #hj ( ! sol> surface1 &1 !re=e1 atta9 a l5g? ( f #dej1jjj to #fjj1jjj miles4 ,al?\gh ! facul may be said to be se5 ev]y:]e on ! surface ( ! ,sun1 !re is a va/ diff]5ce 9 diff]5t regions1 ) reg>d to _! size1 numb]1 & brilliancy4 ,!y are l>ge/1 mo/ abundant1 & brighte/ on two int]m$iate zones p>allel to ! sol> equator1 & ext5d+ #ce or #dj to ! nor? & to ! s\? ( ?is l9e4 ,! bread? ( ^! zones v>ies consid]ably ) ! activity ( ! sol> =ces4 ,:5 !y are mo/ active1 ! facul spread on ei!r side1 b especially t[>ds ! equator1 :]e !y sometimes ne>ly meet ^? ( ! o!r zone4 ,9 ye>s ( little sol> activity ! belts =m$ by ! facul are v n>r[--! elem5ts compos+ !m be+ v few & small1 al?\gh !y nev] entirely disappe>4 ,! facul are v un/able1 & are con/antly *ang+3 ^? ( ! small types sometimes =m & vani% 9 a few m9utes4 ,:5 an area ( di/urbance ( ! sol> surface is obs]v$ = "s "t1 all seems 9 confusion2 ! movem5ts ( ! granulations become unusually viol5t2 !y congregate 9 all sorts ( ways1 & ?us frequ5tly =m tempor>y facul4 ,action ( ?is k9d is1 = ! mo/ "p1 peculi> to ! pol> regions ( ! ,sun4 ,! l>g] facul h und\bt$ly ano!r orig91 z !y seem to be ma9ly =m$ by ! ejection ( inc&esc5t gases & metallic vapors f ! int]ior ( ! photosph]e4 ,9 _! process ( developm5t "s ( ! heavy masses ( facul are swoll5 up to great heights1 be+ torn 9 all sorts ( ways1 %[+ l>ge r5ts & fissures ?r\gh :i* ! sight c p5etrate4 ,v few facul are repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,i42 sev]al /reaks are %[n at ! upp] left-h& corn]1 "s appe>+ z :iti% ramifications among ! granulations repres5t+ ! g5]al sol> surface4 ,,sun-,,spots ,,& ,,veil$ ,,spots ,,plate ,i ,besides ! brilliant facul already describ$1 mu* m conspicu\s m>k+s1 ?\gh ( a totally diff]5t "*1 are v frequ5tly obs]v$ on ! ,sun4 ,on acc\nt ( _! d>ki% appe>ance1 :i* is 9 /rong contra/ ) ! :ite envelope ( our lum9>y1 ^! m>k+s 7 call$ ,macul1 or ,sun-spots1 by _! e>li] obs]v]s4 ,! ,sun-spots are n equally di/ribut$ on ! sol> surface2 b l ! facul1 to :i* !y are closely relat$1 !y occupy two zones--"o on ea* side ( ! equator4 ,^! zones are compris$ betwe5 #aj & #ce ( nor? latitude1 & #aj & #ce ( s\? latitude4 ,betwe5 ^! two zones is a belt #bj 9 wid?1 :]e ! ,sun-spots are r>ely se54 ,above ! latitudes #ce nor? & s\?1 ! ,sun-spots are r>e1 & x is only occasionally1 & dur+ ye>s ( great sol> activity1 t !y appe> 9 ^! regions2 9 only a few cases h spots ( consid]able size be5 se5 !re4 ,a few obs]v]s1 h[ev]1 h se5 spots z f> z #dj & #ej f ! equator2 & ,la ,hire ev5 obs]v$ "o 9 #gj ( nor? latitude2 b ^! cases are exce$+ly r>e4 ,x is n uncommon1 h[ev]1 to see v small spots1 or gr\ps ( su* spots1 )9 #h or #aj f ! poles4 ,! activity ( ! ,sun is subject to consid]able fluctuation1 & accord+ly ! ,sun-spots v>y 9 size & numb] 9 diff]5t ye>s4 ,dur+ "s ye>s !y are l>ge1 complicat$1 & v num]\s2 :ile 9 o!rs !y are small & sc>ce1 & are sometimes totally abs5t = weeks & mon?s toge!r4 ,! fluctuations 9 ! frequ5cy ( ,sun-spots are suppos$ to be p]iodical 9 _! "*1 al?\gh _! p]iods d n always appe> to recur at exactly regul> int]vals4 ,sometimes ! p]iod is f\nd to be only n9e ye>s1 :ile at o!r times x ext5ds to twelve ye>s4 ,! p]iod g5]ally adopt$ n[ is #aa ye>s1 ne>ly2 b fur!r inve/igations are ne$$ to und]/& ! true nature ( ! ph5om5on4 ,! numb] ( ,sun-spots does n symmetrically augm5t & dim9i%1 b ! increase is m rapid ?an ! dim9ution4 ,! p]iod ( increase is only ab\t f\r ye>s1 :ile t ( decrease is ov] sev5 ye>s2 ea* p]iod ( ,sun-spot maximum be+ ne>] ! prec$+ p]iod ( ,sun-spot m9imum ?an x is to t next foll[+4 ,! cause ( ^! fluctuations 9 ! sol> en]gy is at pres5t :olly unkn[n4 ,"s a/ronom]s1 h[ev]1 h attribut$ x to ! influ5ce ( ! planets ,v5us & ,jupit]1 ! p]iod ( revolution ( ! latt] planet be+ n mu* long] ?an ! ,sun-spot p]iod2 b ?is supposition lacks confirmation f direct obs]vations1 :i*1 s f>1 d n seem to be 9 favor ( ! hypo!sis4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! sol> activity is on ! increase1 & ! ,sun-spots w probably rea* _! maximum 9 #ahhc4 ,! la/ m9imum occurr$ 9 #ahgi1 :5 only sixte5 small gr\ps ( spots 7 obs]v$ dur+ ! :ole ye>4 ,sun-spots v>y 9 size & appe>ance2 b1 unless !y are v small1 9 :i* case !y appe> z simple black dots1 !y g5]ally consi/ ( two di/9ct & well-*>act]iz$ p>ts1 ne>ly always pres5t4 ,!re is fir/1 a c5tral "p1 mu* d>k] ?an ! o!r1 & %>ply divid$ f x1 call$ ! ,umbra2 second1 a broad1 irregul> radiat$ fr+e ( light] %ade1 completely surr\nd+ ! fir/1 & call$ ! ,p5umbra4 ,r$uc$ to its simple/ expression1 a ,sun-spot is a funnel-%ap$ op5+ ?r\gh ! *romosph]e & ! photosph]e4 ,! inn] end ( ! funnel1 or op5+1 gives ! =m to ! umbra1 :ile its slop+ sides =m ! p5umbra4 ,! umbra ( ,sun-spots1 ^: outl9es approximately foll[ ! irregul>ities ( ! p5umbral fr+e1 has a diamet] :i* g5]ally exce$s ! wid? ( ! p5umbral r+4 ,sometimes x appe>s uni=mly black ?r\gh\t2 b x is only s by contra/1 z is prov$ :5 ei!r ,m]cury or ,v5us passes ne> a spot dur+ a transit ov] ! ,sun's disk4 ,! umbra !n appe>s grayi%1 :5 comp>$ ) ! jet-black disk ( ! planet4 ,! umbra ( spots is r>ely s simple z j describ$2 b x is frequ5tly occupi$1 ei!r p>tly or :olly1 by grayi% & rosy =ms1 some:at resembl+ loosely-entangl$ muscul> fibres4 ,^! =ms h be5 call$ ! ,gray & ,rosy ,veils4 ,frequ5tly ^! veils appe> z if p]=at$ by r\ndi% black holes1 improp]ly call$ ,nuclei1 :i* p]mit ! sight to p5etrate deep] into ! int]ior4 ,to all appe>ance ! gray & rosy veils are ( ! same nature z ! *romosph]e & ! facul1 & are !re=e ma9ly compos$ ( hydrog5 gas4 ,:atev] c be kn[n ab\t ! int]ior ( ! ,sun1 mu/ be le>n$ f ! obs]vations ( ^! op5+s1 :i* are comp>atively small4 ,b :atev] ?is int]ior may be1 we c]ta9ly "k t x is n homog5e\s4 ,app>5tly1 ! ,sun is a gigantic bubble1 limit$ by a v ?9 %ell4 ,bel[ ?is %ell exi/s a l>ge op5 space fill$ ) invisible gases1 9 :i*1 ?r\gh ! op5+s con/itut+ ! ,sun-spots1 ! gray & rosy veils describ$ above are occasionally se5 float+4 ,! fr+e =m+ ! p5umbra ( spots is mu* m complicat$ ?an ! umbra4 ,9 its simpl] =m1 x is compos$ ( a multitude ( bright1 indep5d5t filam5ts ( diff]5t =ms & sizes1 p>tly project+ "o above ! o!r1 on ! slop+ wall ( ! p5umbra1 f :i* !y seem to proce$4 ,se5 f ! ,e>?1 ^! filam5ts h some:at ! appe>ance ( ?at*$ /raw1 conv]g+ t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! umbra4 ,x is v r>e1 h[ev]1 t ! conv]g5ce ( ! p5umbral filam5ts is regul>1 & great confusion sometimes arises f ! entanglem5t ( ^! filam5ts4 ,"s ( ^! elem5ts appe> /raight1 o!rs are curv$ or loop-%ap$2 :ile /ill o!rs1 mu* l>g] & bright] ?an ! re/1 give a f9al t\* to ?is *aos ( filam5ts1 f :i* results ! g5]al ?at*$ & radiat+ appe>ance ( ! p5umbra4 ,! extremities ( ! p5umbral filam5ts1 especially ( ^? =m+ ! bord] ( ! umbra1 are usually club-%ap$ & appe> v brilliant1 z if ^! elem5ts _h be5 sup]heat$ by "s =ces escap+ ?r\gh ! op5+ ( ! spots4 ,besides ^! *>act]i/ics1 ! ,sun-spots h o!rs1 :i*1 al?\gh n always pres5t1 prop]ly belong to !m4 ,comp>atively few spots are s simple z ! =m j describ$4 ,v frequ5tly a spot is accompani$ by brilliant facul1 cov]+ "p ( its umbra & p5umbra1 & appe>+ to =m a "p ( ! spot itself4 ,:5 se5 project$ ov] ,sun-spots1 ! facul appe> int5sely bright1 & f ^! peculi>ities !y h be5 call$ ,lum9\s ,bridges4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 bridges1 b 9 mo/ cases !y are at consid]able heights above ! spots1 kept !re by invisible =ces4 ,:5 su* spots ) lum9\s bridges approa* ! ,sun's limb1 x is easy to see1 by ! rapid app>5t displacem5t :i* !y und]go1 t !y are above ! g5]al level4 ,:5 ! spots are clos+ up1 ! inv]se effect is sometimes obs]v$4 ,on sev]al occasions1 ,i h se5 huge masses ( facul advance sl[ly ov] ! p5umbra ( a spot & fall into ! dep?s ( ! umbra1 resembl+ gigantic cat>acts4 ,i h se5 n>r[ bran*es ( facul1 :i*1 aft] hav+ fall5 to great dep?s 9 ! umbra1 float$ across x & disappe>$ "u ! photosph]e on ! opposite side4 ,i h also se5 lum9\s bridges1 resembl+ cables1 tightly /ret*$ across ! spots1 slack5+ sl[ly1 z if loos5$ at "o end1 & g5tly curv+ into ! umbra1 :]e !y =m$ imm5se loops1 l>ge en\gh to receive our globe4 ,x is to be rem>k$ t1 9 desc5d+ "u ! photosph]ic %ell1 ! bright facul & ! lum9\s bridges gradually lose _! brilliancy4 ,at fir/ !y appe> grayi%1 b 9 desc5d+ f>!r !y assume m & m ! p9k color peculi> to ! rosy veils4 ,! p9ki% color acquir$ by ! facul :5 !y rea* a c]ta9 dep? "u ! photosph]e1 is precisely ! color ( ! *romosph]e & ( ! sol> protub]ances1 z se5 dur+ total eclipses ( ! ,sun--a fact :i* furni%es ano!r pro( t ! facul are ( ! same nature z ! protub]ances4 ,i record "h an obs]vation :i*1 at fir/ sight1 may appe> p>adoxical2 b :i* seems1 h[ev]1 to be ( consid]able importance1 z x %[s unmi/akably t ! sol> light is ma9ly1 if n entirely1 g5]at$ on its surface1 or at lea/ v ne> to x4 ,on ,may #bf1 #ahgh1 ,i obs]v$ a l>ge gr\p ( ,sun-spots at a little di/ance f ! ea/ limb ( ! ,sun4 ,! spot ne>e/ to ! limb 0 p>tly cov]$ ov] on its ea/]n & we/]n sides by bright & massive facul :i* conceal$ ab\t two-?irds ( ! :ole spot1 only a n>r[ op5+1 runn+ f nor? to s\?1 be+ left across ! middle ( ! spot4 ,ow+ to ! rotundity ( ! ,sun1 ! p5umbra ( ?is spot1 al?\gh p>tly cov]$ by ! facul1 c\ld1 h[ev]1 be se5 on its ea/]n side1 s9ce ! sight ( ! obs]v] c\ld !re p5etrate sidewise "u ! facul4 ,^u t "p ( ! p5umbra appe>$ a /rong %ad[1 repres5t+ p]fectly ! outl9e ( ! facul> mass situat$ above x4 ,! ph5om5on 0 s app>5t t no error ( obs]vation 0 possible1 & a good draw+ ( x 0 secur$4 ,if ?is facul _h be5 z bright b5ea? z x 0 above1 x is evid5t t no %ad[ c\ld h be5 produc$2 h5ce ! light ( ^! facul mu/ h be5 ma9ly g5]at$ on or v ne> _! ext]ior surfaces4 ,?is1 ) ! well-prov$ fact t ! bright facul lose _! light 9 fall+ into ! int]ior ( ! ,sun1 seems to sugge/ ! idea t ! bright light emitt$ by ! facul1 & v probably all ! sol> light1 c be g5]at$ only on its surface2 ! pres5ce ( ! coronal atmosph]e be+ p]haps necess>y to produce x4 ,sev]al times be=e ?is obs]vation1 ,i _h suspect$ t "s facul 7 ca/+ a %ad[1 b z ?is seem$ s improbable1 my att5tion 0 n awak5$ until ! ph5om5on became s prom95t t x c\ld n escape notice4 ,) due att5tion1 "s glimpses ( ! ph5om5on c frequ5tly be obs]v$ ?r\gh ! op5+s ( "s ( ! facul project+ ov] ! p5umbra ( ,sun-spots4 ,x is v seldom t ! /ructure ( ! p5umbra is se5 ?r\gh su* op5+s1 :i* usually appe> z d>k z ! umbra ( ! l>ge spots1 al?\gh !y d n p5etrate ?r\gh ! photosph]e l ! latt]4 ,x is only :5 ! r5ts 9 ! facul are num]\s & q l>ge1 t ! p5umbral /ructure is recogniz$ ?r\gh !m4 ,s9ce ^! sup]ficial r5ts 9 ! facul d n ext5d ?r\gh ! photosph]e1 & appe> black1 x seems evid5t t ! p5umbra se5 ?r\gh !m _c be z bright z x is :5 no facul are project$ ^u x1 & !re=e t ! facul int]cept light f ! ext]ior surface1 :i* w\ld o!rwise rea* ! p5umbra4 ,:ile ! matt] =m+ ! facul sometimes falls into ! int]ior ( ! ,sun1 ! same k9d ( matt] is frequ5tly eject$ 9 enorm\s quantities1 & ) great =ce1 f ! int]ior1 ?r\gh ! visible & invisible op5+s ( ! photosph]e1 & =m ! protub]ances describ$ 9 ! foll[+ section ( ?is manual 7,sol> protub]ances7 ,x is n only ! inc&esc5t hydrog5 gas or ! metallic vapors :i* are ?us eject$1 b also cool] hydrog5 gas1 :i* sometimes appe>s z d>k cl\ds on ! sol> surface4 ,on ,decemb] #ab1 #ahge1 ,i obs]v$ su* a cl\d ( hydrog5 issu+ f ! corn] ( a small ,sun-spot4 ,x travel$ sev]al ?\s& miles on ! sol> surface1 9 a nor?-ea/]ly direction1 be=e x became invisible4 ,sol> spots are =m$ 9 v>i\s ways2 b1 = ! mo/ "p1 ! app>ition ( a spot is ann\nc$ be=eh&1 by a great commotion ( ! sol> surface at ! place ( its appe>ance1 & by ! =mation ( l>ge & bright masses ( facul1 :i* are usually swoll5 into enorm\s bubbles by ! pressure ( ! int]nal gases4 ,^! bubbles become visible 9 ! spectroscope :ile !y are trav]s+ ! sol> limb1 z !y are !n pres5t$ to u sidewise4 ,"u ! action ( ! increas+ pressure1 ! base ( ! facul is consid]ably /ret*$1 &1 its weake/ side f9ally giv+ way1 ! facul> mass is torn 9 _m places f ! sol> surface1 & is p]=at$ by holes ( diff]5t sizes & =ms4 ,! holes ?us made along ! bord] ( ! facul appe> z small black spots1 sep>at$ m or less by ! rema9+ portion ( ! lac]at$ facul1 & !y enl>ge m & m at ! exp5se ( ! int]v5+ portions1 :i* ?us become v n>r[4 ,?is p]=at$ side ( ! facul1 (f]+ less resi/ance1 is gradually lift$ up1 z w\ld be ! cov] ( a box1 = example1 :ile its opposite side rema9s atta*$ to ! surface4 ,! facul> matt] sep>at+ ! small black holes is greatly /ret*$ dur+ ?is action1 & =ms long columns & filam5ts4 ,^! appe> z lum9\s bridges ^u ! l>ge & p]fectly-=m$ spot1 :i* is !n se5 "u ! lift$ facul> masses4 ,! spots ?us made visible are soon fre$ f ! facul> masses1 :i* are gradually %ift$ t[>ds ! opposite side4 ,9 su* cases ! spots are und\bt$ly =m$ "u ! facul be=e !y c be se54 ,?is becomes evid5t :5 su* spots1 n yet cle>$ f ! facul cov]+ !m1 are obs]v$ ne> ! ea/ limb2 s9ce 9 ?is position ! obs]v] c see ?r\gh ! side-op5+s ( ! facul1 & sometimes recognize ! spots "u _! cov]4 ,x frequ5tly occurs t ! spots ?us =m$ "u ! facul cont9ue to be p>tly cov]$ by ! facul> cl\ds1 ! =ces at "w 9 !m be+ app>5tly too feeble to %ift !m aside4 ,9 su* cases ^! spots are visible :5 !y are 9 ! vic9ity ( ! limb1 :]e !y are se5 sidewise2 b :5 obs]v$ 9 ! ea/1 9 be+ c>ri$ =w>d by ! sol> rotation t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! disk1 !y gradually dim9i% 9 size1 & f9ally become invisible4 ,! disappe>ance ( ^! spots1 h[ev]1 is only app>5t1 be+ due to ! fact t1 z !y advance t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! disk1 our lat]al view ( !m is gradually lo/1 & !y are f9ally hidd5 f sight by ! ov]hang+ facul :i* !n s]ve z a scre5 betwe5 ! obs]v] & ! spot4 ,?is class ( spots may be call$ ,lat]al ,spots1 f ! fact t !y c only be se5 lat]ally1 & ne> ! ,sun's limb4 ,sol> spots are also =m$ 9 v>i\s o!r ways4 ,"s1 l ^? repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,i41 appe>+ )\t be+ ann\nc$ by any app>5t di/urbance ( ! surface1 or by ! =mation ( any facul1 =m & develop 9 a v %ort "t4 ,o!rs1 appe>+ at fir/ z v small spots hav+ an umbra & a p5umbra1 sl[ly & gradually develop into v l>ge spots4 ,?is mode ( =mation1 :i* w\ld seem to be ! mo/ natural1 is1 h[ev]1 q r>e4 ,spots ( ?is class h a duration & p]man5ce n obs]v$ 9 ^? ( any o!r type4 ,^! spots ( sl[ & regul> developm5t are nev] accompani$ by facul or lum9\s bridges1 nor h !y any gray or rosy veils 9 _! int]ior2 a fact :i* may1 p]haps1 acc\nt = _! p]man5t "*4 ,ano!r class ( spots1 :i* is also r>e1 appe> z long & n>r[ crevasses %[+ ! p5umbral /ructure ( ! ord9>y spots2 b ^! r>ely h any umbra4 ,^! long1 & sometimes exce$+ly n>r[ fissures ( ! sol> envelopes1 ) _! radiat$ p5umbral /ructure1 /rongly sugge/ ! idea t ! photosph]e is compos$ ( a multitude ( filam5t>y elem5ts hav+ ! granulations = summits4 ,su* a crevasse is repres5t$ on ,plate ,i41 & unites ! two spots :i* =m ! gr\p4 ,! duration ( ,sun-spots v>ies greatly4 ,"s la/ only = a few h\rs2 :ile o!rs cont9ue = weeks & ev5 mon?s at a "t1 b n )\t und]go+ *anges4 ,! modes ( disappe>ance ( ,sun-spots are z v>i\s z ^? ( _! app>ition4 ,! spots r>ely close up by a gradual dim9ution or contraction ( _! umbra & p5umbra4 ,?is mode ( disappe>ance belongs exclusively to ! spots depriv$ ( facul & veils4 ,"o ( ! mo/ common modes ( ! disappe>ance ( a spot is its invasion by l>ge facul> masses1 :i* sl[ly advance ^u its p5umbra & umbra & f9ally cov] x entirely4 ,x is a process precisely ! rev]se ( t 9 :i* spots are =m$ by ! %ift+ aside ( ! facul1 z above describ$4 ,9 o!r types1 ! spots close up by ! gradual enl>gem5t ( ! lum9\s bridges trav]s+ !m1 :i* are sl[ly trans=m$ into bran*es ( ! photosph]e1 all ( ! *>act]i/ics ( :i* !y h acquir$4 ,9 _m cases1 ! spots cov]$ ov] by ! facul cont9ue to exi/ = "s "t1 hidd5 "u ^! masses1 z is (t5 prov$1 ei!r by ! appe>ance ( small spots on ! facul> mass left at ! place !y occupi$1 or ev5 by ! reappe>ance ( ! same spot4 ,ap>t f ! g5]al movem5t ( rotation ( ! sol> surface1 "s ( ! spots seem to be end[$ ) a prop] motion ( _! own1 :i* becomes great] ! ne>] ! spots are to ! sol> equator4 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,c>r+ton1 ! p]iod ( rotation ( ! ,sun1 z d$uc$ f ! obs]vations ( ! sol> spots dur+ a p]iod ( sev5 ye>s1 is #be days at ! equator2 :ile at #ej ( helioc5tric latitude x is #bg days4 ,b ! p]iod ( rotation1 z d]iv$ f ! obs]vations ( spots occupy+ ! same latitude1 is f> f be+ con/ant1 z x v>ies at diff]5t times1 ) ! frequ5cy ( ! spots & ) ! sol> activity1 s t at pres5t ! law ( ^! v>iations is n well kn[n4 ,f ! "* ( ! sol> envelope1 x seems v natural t ! rotation %\ld diff] 9 ! diff]5t zones & at diff]5t times1 s9ce ?is envelope is n rigid1 b v movable1 & gov]n$ by =ces :i* are !mselves v v>iable4 ,al?\gh x is a g5]al law t ! spots ne> ! equator h a m rapid motion ?an ^? situat$ 9 high] latitudes1 yet1 9 _m cases1 ! prop] motion ( ! spots is m app>5t ?an real4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 ! *anges ( =m & ! rapid displacem5ts obs]v$ 9 "s spots are only app>5t1 & due to ! fact t ! l>ge masses ( facul :i* are kept 9 susp5se above !m are v un/able1 & *ange position ) ! slighte/ *ange 9 ! =ces hold+ !m 9 susp5sion4 ,s9ce 9 ^! cases we view ! spots ?r\gh ! op5+s ( ! facul situat$ above !m1 ! slighte/ motion ( ^! objects produces an app>5t motion 9 ! spots1 al?\gh !y h rema9$ motionless4 ,accord+ly1 x has be5 rem>k$ t ( all ! spots1 ^? :i* h ! great] prop] motion are precisely ^? :i* h ! mo/ facul & lum9\s bridges2 :ile ! o!r spots 9 ! same regions1 b n att5d$ by simil> ph5om5a1 are comp>atively /eady 9 _! movem5t4 ,^! la/ spots are und\bt$ly bett] adapt$ ?an any o!rs to exhibit ! rotation ( ! ,sun2 b x is probable t ?is p]iod ( rotation w nev] be kn[n ) accuracy1 simply because ! sol> surface is un/able1 & does n rotate uni=mly4 ,! ,sun-spots h a rem>kable t5d5cy to =m into gr\ps ( v>i\s sizes1 b :atev] may be ! numb] ( spots ?us assembl$1 ! gr\p is ne>ly always compos$ ( two pr9cipal spots1 to :i* ! o!rs are only accessories4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! ,sun-spots to assemble 9 pairs is g5]al1 & is obs]v$ 9 all latitudes1 ev5 among ! m9ute tempor>y gr\ps =m$ 9 ! pol> regions4 ,:5ev] sev]al are situat$ q close toge!r1 ^? belong+ to ! same gr\p c be easily recogniz$ by ?is "*4 ,:atev] may be ! position ( ! axis ( ! two pr9cipal spots ( a gr\p :5 x is fir/ =m$1 ?is axis has a decid$ t5d5cy to place itself p>allel to ! sol> equator1 no matt] to :at latitude ! gr\p belongs2 & if x is di/urb$ f ?is position1 x soon returns to x :5 ! di/urbance has ceas$4 ,x is also rem>kable t ! spots obs]v$ at ! same "t rema9 9 ne>ly ! same p>allel ( latitude = a great] or less p]iod ( "t2 b !y keep *ang+ _! position f ye> to ye>1 _! latitude decreas+ ) ! activity ( ! sol> =ces4 ,among ! ,sun-spots1 ^? associat$ ) facul =m ! gr\ps :i* atta9 ! l>ge/ proportions4 ,:5 su* gr\ps acquire an app>5t diamet] ( #a' or m1 !y are pla9ly visible to ! nak$ eye1 s9ce = a spot to be visible to ! nak$ eye on ! ,sun1 x ne$ only subt5d an angle ( #ej4 ,i h sometimes se5 su* gr\ps ?r\gh a smoky atmosph]e1 :5 ! sol> light 0 s mu* r$uc$ t ! disk c\ld be obs]v$ directly & )\t injury to ! sight4 ,! l>ge/ spot :i* ev] came "u my obs]vation 0 se5 dur+ ! p]iod f ! #ac? to ! #ai? ( ,novemb]1 #ahgj4 ,?is spot1 :i* 0 on ! nor!rn hemisph]e ( ! ,sun1 0 conspicu\s among ! small] spots con/itut+ ! gr\p to :i* x belong$1 & foll[$ !m on ! ea/4 ,on ,novemb] #af?1 :5 x atta9$ its l>ge/ size1 ! diamet] ( its p5umbra occupi$ fully "o-fif? ( ! diamet] ( ! ,sun2 its real diamet] be+1 !re=e1 n less ?an #agb1jjj miles1 or ne>ly #bb times ! diamet] ( ! ,e>?4 ,z ! umbra ( ?is spot occupi$ a little m ?an "o-?ird ( its :ole diamet]1 sev5 globes l our own1 plac$ side by side on a /raight l9e1 c\ld easily h pass$ ?r\gh ?is imm5se gap4 ,to fill ! area ( ?is op5+1 ab\t #de su* globes w\ld h be5 ne$$4 ,?is spot 01 ( c\rse1 v easily se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 its diamet] be+ almo/ eight times t requir$ = a spot to be visible )\t a telescope4 ,anci5t hi/orians (t5 speak ( obscurations ( ! ,sun1 & x has be5 suppos$ by "s a/ronom]s t ?is ph5om5on might h be5 due 9 "s cases to ! app>ition ( l>ge spots4 ,a few spots on ! surface ( ! ,sun1 l t j describ$1 w\ld s5sibly r$uce its light4 ,besides ! ord9>y ,sun-spots already describ$1 o!rs are at times obs]v$ on ! surface ( ! ,sun1 :i* %[ "s ( ! same *>act]i/ics1 b nev] atta9 s l>ge proportions4 ,!y always appe> z if se5 ?r\gh a fog1 or veil1 betwe5 ! granulations ( ! sol> surface4 ,on acc\nt ( _! vagu5ess & ill-def9$ cont\rs1 ,i h propos$ = ^! objects ! t]m1 ,veil$ ,spots4 ,veil$ spots h a %ort] duration ?an ! ord9>y spots1 ! small] types sometimes =m+ & vani%+ 9 a few m9utes4 ,"s ( ! l>g] veil$ spots1 h[ev]1 rema9 visible = sev]al days 9 succession1 & %[ ! *>act]i/ics ( o!r spots 9 reg>d to ! arrangem5t ( _! p>ts4 ,! veil$ spots h no umbra or p5umbra1 al?\gh !y are usually accompani$ by facul resembl+ ^? se5 ne> ! ord9>y spots4 ,!y are frequ5tly se5 9 ! pol> regions1 b are !re always ( small size & ( %ort duration4 ,! veil$ spots are l>g]1 & m apt to arrange !mselves into gr\ps1 9 ! regions occupi$ by ! ord9>y spots1 & x is n r>e to obs]ve su* spots trans=m !mselves into ord9>y spots1 & vice v]sa4 ,! veil$ spots1 !re=e1 seem to be ord9>y spots fill$ up1 or cov]$ ov] by ! granulations & semi-transp>5t gases compos+ ! *romosph]ic lay]4 ,t x is s1 becomes m evid5t1 f ! fact t l>ge ,sun-spots 9 process ( dim9ution are sometimes gradually cov]$ ) fa9t & scatt]$ granules :i* desc5d 9 long1 n>r[ filam5ts1 & become less & less di/+ui%able z !y atta9 great] dep?4 ,?is ph5om5on1 associat$ ) ! fact t ! lum9\s bridges se5 ov] ! ,sun-spots :i* are clos+ up are sometimes trans=m$ into bran*es :i* %[ ! *>act]i/ic /ructure ( ! photosph]e1 goes f> to prove t ! sol> envelopes are ma9ly compos$ ( an innum]able quantity ( radial filam5ts ( v>y+ height4 ,,plate ,i4--,,gr\p ,,( ,,sun-,,spots ,,& ,,veil$ ,,spots4 ,obs]v$ on ,june #ag? #ahge at #g h4 #cj m4 ,a4,m4 ,! gr\p ( ,sun-spots repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,i41 0 obs]v$ & drawn on ,june #ag?1 #ahge1 at #g;h4 #cjm4 ,a4 ,m4 ,! fir/ traces ( ?is gr\p 7 se5 on ,june #ae?1 at noon1 & consi/$ ( ?ree small black dots dissem9at$ among ! granulations4 ,at t "t1 no di/urbance ( ! surface 0 noticeable1 & no facul 7 se5 9 ! vic9ity ( ^! spots4 ,on ,june #af?1 at #h o'clock ,a4 ,m41 ! ?ree small spots _h become consid]ably enl>g$1 &1 z usual1 ! gr\p consi/$ ( two pr9cipal spots4 ,betwe5 ^! two spots all 0 9 motion3 ! granulations1 /ret*$ into long1 wavy1 p>allel l9es1 _h some:at ! appe>ance ( a liquid 9 rapid motion4 ,at #a o'clock1 ,p4 ,m41 on ! same day1 ! gr\p _h consid]ably enl>g$2 ! facul1 ! granulations1 & ! p5umbral filam5ts be+ int]wov5 9 an indescribable mann]4 ,on ! morn+ ( ! #ag?1 ^! spots _h assum$ ! complicat$ =m & developm5t repres5t$ 9 ! draw+2 :ile at ! same "t two conspicu\s veil$ spots 7 se5 on ! left h&1 at "s di/ance above ! gr\p4 ,"s lum9\s bridges are visible ^u ! left h& spot1 trav]s+ ! p5umbra & umbra ( ?is spot 9 v>i\s directions4 ,! umbra ( "o ( ! spots is occupi$1 & p>tly fill$ ) gray & rosy veils1 simil> to ^? above describ$1 & ! granulations ( ! sol> surface =m a backgr\nd to ! gr\p ( spots4 ,?is gr\p ( spots 0 n s rem>kable = its size z = its complicat$ /ructure4 ,! diamet] ( ! gr\p f ea/ to we/ 0 only #b m9utes ( arc1 or ab\t #fg1jjj miles4 ,! upp] "p ( ! umbra ( ! spot situat$ on ! "r h& side ( ! gr\p 0 ne>ly #g1jjj miles 9 diamet]1 or less by #a1jjj miles ?an ! diamet] ( ! ,e>?4 ,"s ( ! long filam5ts compos+ t "p ( ! p5umbra1 situat$ on ! left h& side ( ! same spot1 7 #ag1jjj miles 9 l5g?4 ,"o ( ^! fi]y elem5ts w\ld be suffici5t to encircle two-?irds ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! ,e>?4 ,,sol> ,,protub]ances ,,plate ,,ii ,! *romosph]e =m+ ! outly+ envelope ( ! ,sun1 is subject1 z has be5 %[n above1 to great di/urbances 9 c]ta9 regions1 caus+ consid]able upheavals ( its surface & viol5t outbur/s ( its gases4 ,f ^! upheavals & outbur/s ( ! *romosph]e result c]ta9 curi\s & v int]e/+ =ms1 :i* are kn[n "u ! "n ( ,sol> ,protub]ances1 ,prom95ces1 or ,flames4 ,^! s+ul> =ms1 :i* c\ld1 until rec5tly1 be obs]v$ only dur+ ! %ort duration ( ! total eclipses ( ! ,sun1 c n[ be se5 on e cle> day ) ! spectroscope1 ?anks to ,messrs4 ,janss5 & ,locky]1 to ^: rese>*es sol> physics is s mu* indebt$4 ,,plate ,,ii4--,,sol> ,,protub]ances4 ,obs]v$ on ,may #e1 #ahgc at #i;h1 #djm4 ,a4,m4 ,! sol> protub]ances1 ! ,sun-spots1 & ! facul to :i* !y are closely relat$1 are conf9$ )9 ! same g5]al regions ( ! ,sun1 al?\gh ! protub]ances atta9 high] helioc5tric latitudes4 ,!re is c]ta9ly a v close relation betwe5 ! facul & ! sol> protub]ances1 s9ce :5 a gr\p ( ! facul trav]ses ! ,sun's limb1 protub]ances are always se5 at ! same place4 ,x seems v probable t ! facul & ! protub]ances are 9 ! ma9 id5tical4 ,! facul may be ! bright] portion ( ! protub]ances1 consi/+ ( gases :i* are /ill und]go+ a high temp]ature & pressure2 :ile ! gases :i* h be5 reliev$ f ?is pressure & h lo/ a consid]able am\nt ( _! heat1 may =m t "p ( ! protub]ances :i* is only visible on ! ,sun's limb4 ,a daily /udy ( ! sol> protub]ances1 cont9u$ = t5 ye>s1 has %[n me t ^! objects are di/ribut$ on two zones :i* are equidi/ant f ! sol> equator1 & p>allel ) x4 ,! zone arrangem5t ( ! protub]ances is m easily recogniz$ dur+ ! ye>s ( m9imum sol> activity1 z 9 ^! ye>s ! zones are v n>r[ & widely sep>at$4 ,dur+ ^! ye>s ! belt ( protub]ances is situat$ betwe5 #dj & #de ( latitude1 nor? & s\?4 ,9 ye>s ( great sol> activity ! zones spread consid]ably on ei!r side ( ^! limits1 especially t[>ds ! equator1 :i* !y ne>ly rea*1 only a n>r[ belt1 usually free f protub]ances1 rema9+ betwe5 !m4 ,t[>ds ! poles ! zones d n spread s mu*1 & !re ! space free f protub]ances is consid]ably great] ?an x is at ! equator4 ,dur+ ye>s ( maximum sol> activity1 ! protub]ances1 l ! ,sun-spots & ! facul1 are v num]\s1 v l>ge1 & v complicat$--sometimes occupy+ a great "p ( ! :ole sol> limb4 ,z _m z tw5ty di/9ct flames are sometimes obs]v$ at "o "t4 ,9 ye>s ( m9imum sol> activity1 on ! contr>y1 ! prom95ces are v few 9 numb]1 & !y are ( small size2 b1 z f> z my obs]vations g1 !y are nev] totally abs5t4 ,9 g5]al1 ! sol> flames und]go rapid *anges1 especially ^? :i* are situat$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ,sun-spots1 al?\gh !y occasionally rema9 un*ang$ 9 appe>ance & =m = sev]al h\rs at a "t4 ,! protub]ances situat$ 9 high] latitudes are less liable to great & sudd5 *anges1 (t5 reta9+ ! same =m = sev]al days4 ,! *anges obs]v$ 9 ! protub]ances ( ! equatorial regions are due 9 "p to ! comp>atively great *anges 9 _! position ) respect to ! spectator1 :i* are occasion$ by ! rotation ( ! ,sun4 ,?is rotation1 ( c\rse1 has a great] angul> velocity on ! equator ?an 9 high] latitudes4 ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 ! *anges ( ! equatorial protub]ances are too great & too sudd5 to be ?us expla9$4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 due to ! great] sol> activity develop$ 9 ! equatorial zones1 & :]ev] spots are mo/ num]\s4 ,! sol> protub]ances appe> "u v>i\s %apes1 & are (t5 s complicat$ 9 appe>ance t !y defy description4 ,"s resemble huge clumsy masses hav+ a few p]=ations on _! sides2 :ile o!rs =m a succession ( ar*es support$ by pill>s ( diff]5t /yles4 ,o!rs =m v]tical or incl9$ columns1 (t5 surm\nt$ by cl\d-l masses1 or by v>i\s app5dages1 :i* sometimes droop gracefully1 resembl+ gigantic palm leaves4 ,"s resemble flames driv5 by ! w9d2 o!rs1 :i* are compos$ ( a multitude ( long & n>r[ filam5ts1 appe> z imm5se fi]y bundles1 f :i* sometimes issue long & delicate columns surm\nt$ by tor*-l objects ( ! mo/ fanta/ic patt]n4 ,"s o!rs resemble trees1 or animal =ms1 9 a v /rik+ mann]2 :ile /ill o!rs1 app>5tly deta*$ f ! sol> limb1 float above x1 =m+ graceful /ream]s or cl\ds ( v>i\s %apes4 ,"s ( ! protub]ances are v massive1 :ile o!rs are s ?9 & transp>5t z to =m a m]e veil1 ?r\gh :i* m di/ant flames c easily be se54 ,not)/&+ ?is v>iety ( =m1 two pr9cipal classes ( sol> protub]ances may be recogniz$3 ! cl\d-l or quiesc5t1 & ! eruptive or metallic protub]ances4 ,! fir/ class1 :i* is ! mo/ common1 comprises all ! cl\d-l protub]ances re/+ ^u ! *romosph]e or float+ ab\t x4 ,! protub]ances ( ?is type (t5 obta9 enorm\s horizontal proportions1 & x is n r>e to see "s among !m occupy+ #bj & #cj ( ! sol> limb4 ,! height atta9$ by protub]ances ( ?is class does n correspond 9 g5]al to _! longitud9al ext5t2 al?\gh "s ( _! bran*es atta9 consid]able elevations4 ,^! prom95ces v seldom h ! brilliancy display$ by ! o!r type1 & are sometimes s fa9t z to be se5 ) difficulty4 ,al?\gh x is g5]ally /at$ by obs]v]s t "s ( ! protub]ances belong+ to ?is class are deta*$ f ! sol> surface1 & kept 9 susp5sion above ! surface1 l ! cl\ds 9 our atmosph]e1 yet x seems to me v d\btful :e!r protub]ances are ev] disconnect$ f ! *romosph]e1 s9ce1 9 an exp]i5ce ( t5 ye>s1 ,i h nev] be5 able to satisfy myself t su* a ?+ has occurr$4 ,_m ( !m h appe>$ to me at fir/ sight to be deta*$ f ! surface1 b ) a little pati5ce & att5tion ,i 0 always able to detect fa9t traces ( filam5t>y elem5ts connect+ !m ) ! *romosph]e4 ,q (t5 ,i h se5 bright protub]ances gradually lose _! light & become invisible1 :ile soon aft] !y _h rega9$ x1 & 7 z cle>ly visible z be=e4 ,obs]vations ( ?is k9d seem to %[ t :ile ! prom95ces are = ! mo/ "p lum9\s1 !re are also a few :i* are non-lum9\s & invisible to ! eye4 ,^! d>k & invisible =ms are mo/ g5]ally f\nd 9 ! vic9ity ( ,sun-spots 9 great activity4 ,:5 obs]v+ su* regions ) ! spectroscope1 x is n r>e to enc\nt] !m 9 ! =m ( l>ge d>k spots project+ on ! sol> spectrum ne> ! hydrog5 l9es4 ,on ,july #bh?1 #ahgb1 ,i obs]v$ ) ! spectroscope a d>k spot ( ?is k9d issu+ f ! vic9ity ( a l>ge ,sun-spot1 & ext5d+ ov] "o-fif? ( ! diamet] ( ! ,sun4 ,?is object _h be5 indep5d5tly obs]v$ 9 ,france a little e>li] by ,m4 ,*acornac ) ! telescope1 9 :i* x appe>$ z a blui% /reak4 ,! second class ( sol> protub]ances1 compris+ ! eruptive type1 is ! mo/ int]e/+1 inasmu* z x conveys to u a conception ( ! magnitude & viol5ce ( ! sol> =ces4 ,! protub]ances ( ?is class1 :i* are always int5sely bright1 appe> = ! mo/ "p 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ,sun-spots or facul4 ,^! protub]ances1 :i* seem to be due to ! outbur/ ( ! *romosph]e1 & to ! viol5t ejection ( inc&esc5t gases & metallic vapors f ! int]ior ( ! ,sun1 sometimes atta9 gigantic proportions & enorm\s heights4 ,:ile ! spectrum ( ! protub]ances ( ! cl\dy type is simple1 & usually compos$ ( f\r hydrog5 l9es & ! yell[ l9e ,d#c1 t ( ! eruptive class is v complicat$1 &1 besides ! hydrog5 l9es & ,d#c1 x (t5 exhibits ! bright l9es ( sodium1 magnesium1 b>ium1 titanium1 & iron1 & occasionally1 also1 a numb] ( o!r bright l9es4 ,! ph5om5a ( a sol> outbur/ are gr& & impos+4 ,sudd5ly imm5se & acute tongues & jets ( flames ( a dazzl+ brilliancy rise up f ! sol> limb & ext5d 9 v>i\s directions4 ,"s ( ^! fi]y jets appe> p]fectly rigid1 & rema9 app>5tly motionless 9 ! mid/ ( ! greate/ disord]4 ,imm5se /raps & columns =m & rise 9 an in/ant1 b5d+ & wav+ 9 all sorts ( ways & assum+ innum]able %apes4 ,sometimes p[]ful jets resembl+ molt5 metal spr+ up f ! ,sun1 describ+ graceful p>abolas1 :ile 9 _! desc5t !y =m num]\s fi]y drops :i* acquire a dazzl+ brilliancy :5 !y approa* ! surface4 ,! upw>d motion ( ! protub]ances 9 process ( =mation is sometimes v rapid4 ,"s protub]ances h be5 obs]v$ to asc5d 9 ! sol> atmosph]e at ! rate ( f #abj to #dig miles a second4 ,great z ?is velocity may appe>1 x is nev]!less insignificant :5 comp>$ ) t sometimes atta9$ by protub]ances mov+ 9 ! l9e ( sight in/ead ( directly upw>ds4 ,movem5ts ( ?is k9d are indicat$ by ! displacem5t ( ! bright or d>k l9es 9 ! spectrum4 ,a rem>kable in/ance ( ?is k9d occurr$ on ! #bf? ( ,june1 #ahgd4 ,on t day ,i obs]v$ a displacem5t ( ! hydrog5 ,c l9e correspond+ to a velocity ( motion ( #a1fjj miles p] second4 ,! mass ( hydrog5 gas 9 motion produc+ su* a displacem5t 01 accord+ to !ory1 mov+ t[>ds ! ,e>? at ?is incr$ible rate1 :5 x in/antly vani%$ f sight z if x _h be5 annihilat$1 & 0 se5 no m4 ,until rec5tly ! protub]ances _h n be5 obs]v$ to rise m ?an #bjj1jjj miles above ! sol> surface2 b1 on ,octob] #g?1 #ahhj1 a flame1 :i* _h an elevation ( #hj1jjj miles :5 ,i obs]v$ x at #h;h4 #eem4 ,a4 ,m41 _h atta9$ ! enorm\s altitude ( #cej1jjj miles :5 x 0 obs]v$ at noon by ,pr(essor ,c4 ,a4 ,"y4 ,if we _h su* a protub]ance on ! ,e>?1 its summit w\ld be at a height suffici5t n m]ely to rea*1 b to ext5d #ajj1jjj miles beyond ! ,moon4 ,al?\gh ! sol> protub]ances repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,ii4 h n ! enorm\s proportions atta9$ by "s ( ^! objects1 yet !y are z *>act]i/ic z any ( ! l>ge/ ones1 & af=d a good illu/ration ( ! purely eruptive type ( protub]ances4 ,! height ( ! l>ge/ column 9 ! gr\p equals #d' #dc1 or a little ov] #abf1jjj miles4 ,a l>ge gr\p ( ,sun-spots 0 9 ! vic9ity ( ^! protub]ances :5 !y 7 obs]v$ & del9eat$4 ,,total ,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun ,,plate ,,iii ,a sol> eclipse is due to ! passage ( ! ,moon directly betwe5 ! obs]v] & ! ,sun4 ,su* an eclipse c only occur at ,new ,moon1 s9ce x is only at t "t t our satellite passes betwe5 u & ! ,sun4 ,! ,moon's orbit does n lie precisely 9 ! same plane z ! orbit ( ! ,e>?1 b is incl9$ ab\t five degrees to x1 o!rwise an eclipse ( ! ,sun w\ld occur at e ,new ,moon1 & an eclipse ( ! ,moon at e ,full ,moon4 ,s9ce ! ,moon's orbit is incl9$ to t ( ! ,e>?1 x mu/ necess>ily int]sect ?is orbit at two opposite po9ts4 ,^! po9ts are call$ ! nodes ( ! ,moon's orbit4 ,:5 our satellite passes ?r\gh ei!r ( ! nodes :5 ! ,moon is new1 x appe>s int]pos$ to "s ext5t betwe5 ! ,sun & ! ,e>?1 & s produces a sol> eclipse2 :ile if x passes a node :5 ! ,moon is full1 x is m or less obscur$ by ! ,e>?'s %ad[1 :i* !n produces an eclipse ( ! ,moon4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! ,new ,moon & ! ,full ,moon d n co9cide ) ! passage ( our satellite ?r\gh ! nodes ( its orbit1 no eclipse c occur1 s9ce ! ,moon is n !n on a l9e ) ! ,sun & ! ,e>?1 b above or bel[ t l9e4 ,ow+ to ! ellipticity ( ! ,moon's orbit1 ! di/ance ( our satellite f ! ,e>? v>ies consid]ably dur+ ea* ( its revolutions ar\nd u1 & its app>5t diamet] is necess>ily subject to correspond+ *anges4 ,sometimes x is great]1 sometimes x is less1 ?an ! app>5t diamet] ( ! ,sun4 ,if x is great] at ! "t ( a sol> eclipse1 ! eclipse w be total to a t]re/rial obs]v] /ation$ ne>ly on ! l9e ( ! c5tres ( ! ,sun & ,moon1 :ile x w be only p>tial to ano!r obs]v] /ation$ fur!r f ?is l9e4 ,b ! ,moon's di/ance f ! ,e>? may be s great & its app>5t diamet] consequ5tly s small t ev5 ^? obs]v]s ne>e/ ! c5tral l9e ( ! eclipse see ! bord] ( ! ,sun all r\nd ! black disk ( ! ,moon2 ! eclipse is !n annul>4 ,ev5 dur+ ! progress ( "o & ! same eclipse ! di/ance ( ! ,moon f ! p>ts ( ! ,e>? t[>ds :i* its %ad[ is direct$ may v>y s mu* t1 :ile ! eclipse is total to "s obs]v]s1 o!rs equally ne> ! c5tral l9e1 b /ation$ at a diff]5t place1 w see x z annul>4 ,! %ad[ ca/ by ! ,moon on ! ,e>? dur+ total eclipses1 travels along ^u ! surface ( ! ,e>?1 9 consequ5ce ( ! daily movem5t ( rotation ( our globe comb9$ ) ! movem5ts ( ! ,e>? & ,moon 9 _! orbits4 ,! track ( ! ,moon's %ad[ ov] ! ,e>?'s surface has a g5]al ea/w>d c\rse1 s t ! m we/]ly obs]v]s see x e>li] ?an ^? ea/ ( !m4 ,an eclipse may cont9ue total at "o place = ne>ly eight m9utes1 b 9 ord9>y cases ! total phase is mu* %ort]4 ,! nodes ( ! ,moon's orbit d n inv>iably occupy ! same position1 b move ne>ly uni=mly1 _! position ) reg>d to ! ,sun1 ,e>?1 & ,moon be+ at any "t approximately :at x =m]ly 0 at a s]ies ( times sep>at$ by equal int]vals f ea* o!r4 ,ea* int]val comprises #bbc lunations1 or #ah ye>s1 #aa days1 & #g or #h h\rs4 ,! eclipses :i* occur )9 ?is int]val are almo/ exactly repeat$ dur+ ! next simil> int]val4 ,?is p]iod1 call$ ! ,s>os1 0 well kn[n to ! anci5ts1 :o 7 enabl$ by its means to pr$ict eclipses ) "s c]ta9ty4 ,,plate ,,iii4--,,total ,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun4 ,obs]v$ ,july #bi1 #ahgh1 at ,cre/on1 ,wyom+ ,t]ritory ,a total eclipse ( ! ,sun is a mo/ beautiful & impos+ ph5om5on4 ,at ! pr$ict$ "t ! p]fectly r\nd disk ( ! ,sun becomes slightly ind5t$ at its we/]n limb by ! yet invisible ,moon4 ,?is ph5om5on is kn[n z ! fir/ contact4 ,! slight ind5tation obs]v$ gradually increases ) ! advance ( ! ,moon f we/ to ea/1 ! irregul>ities ( ! surface ( our satellite be+ pla9ly visible on ! bord] ( ! d>k segm5t advanc+ on ! ,sun's disk4 ,) ! advance ( ! ,moon on ! ,sun1 ! light gradually dim9i%es on ! ,e>?4 ,e object puts on a dull & gloomy appe>ance1 z :5 night is approa*+2 :ile ! bright sky1 los+ its light1 *anges its pure azure = a livid grayi% color4 ,two or ?ree m9utes be=e totality beg9s1 ! sol> cresc5t1 r$uc$ to m9ute proportions1 gives comp>atively s little light t fa9t traces ( ! ,sun's atmosph]e appe> on ! we/]n side beh9d ! d>k body ( ! ,moon1 ^: limb !n becomes visible outside ( ! ,sun4 ,i obs]v$ ?is ph5om5on at ,cre/on dur+ ! eclipse ( #ahgh4 ,f #ae to #bj seconds be=e totality1 ! n>r[ arc ( ! ,sun's disk n yet obscur$ by ! ,moon seems to break & sep>ate t[>ds ! extremities ( its cusps1 :i*1 ?us divid$1 =m indep5d5t po9ts ( light1 :i* are call$ ,baily's beads4 ,a mom5t aft]1 ! :ole sol> cresc5t breaks into num]\s beads ( light1 sep>at$ by d>k int]vals1 &1 sudd5ly1 !y all vani% ) ! la/ ray ( ,sunlight1 & totality has begun ) ! second contact4 ,?is ph5om5on ( ,baily's beads is und\bt$ly caus$ by ! irregul>ities ( ! ,moon's bord]1 :i*1 on rea*+ ! sol> limb1 divide ! ?9 sol> cresc5t into z _m beads ( light & d>k int]vals z !re are peaks & rav9es se5 sidewise on t "p ( ! ,moon's limb4 ,) ! disappe>ance ( ! la/ ray ( light1 ! planets & ! />s ( ! fir/ & second magnitude seem to light up & become visible 9 ! sky4 ,! d>kness1 :i* _h be5 gradually creep+ 9 ) ! progress ( ! eclipse1 is !n at its maximum4 ,al?\gh subject to great v>iations 9 diff]5t eclipses1 ! d>kness is nev] s great z might be expect$ f ! complete obscuration ( our lum9>y1 z ! "p ( our atmosph]e :i* is /ill expos$ to ! direct rays ( ! ,sun1 reflects to u "s ( t light1 :i* ?us dim9i%es ! d>kness result+ f ! disappe>ance ( ! ,sun4 ,usually ! d>kness is suffici5t to prev5t ! read+ ( common pr9t1 & to deceive animals1 caus+ !m to act z if night 0 really approa*+4 ,dur+ totality ! temp]ature decreases1 :ile ! humidity ( ! atmosph]e augm5ts4 ,simultane\sly ) ! disappe>ance ( ,baily's beads1 a pale1 s(t1 silv]y light bur/s =? f beh9d ! ,moon1 z if ! ,sun1 9 disappe>+1 _h be5 vaporiz$ & exp&$ 9 all directions into s(t phosphoresc5t rays & /ream]s4 ,?is pale light is emitt$ by gases con/itut+ ! sol> atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! bright nucleus n[ obscur$ by ! d>k body ( our satellite4 ,?is sol> atmosph]e is call$ ,corona1 f its di/ant resemblance to ! aureola1 or glory1 repres5t$ by anci5t pa9t]s ar\nd ! heads ( sa9ts4 ,) ! bur/+ =? ( ! corona1 a v ?9 arc ( bright :ite light is se5 along ! ,moon's limb1 :]e ! sol> cresc5t has j disappe>$4 ,?is ?9 arc ( light is ! rev]s+ lay]1 :i*1 :5 obs]v$ ) ! spectroscope at t mom5t1 exhibits bright l9es answ]+ to ! d>k l9es ( ! ord9>y sol> spectrum4 ,imm$iately above ?is rev]s+ lay]1 & conc5tric ) x1 appe>s ! p9k-color$ *romosph]ic lay]1 ) its curi\sly %ap$ flames & protub]ances4 ,dur+ totality1 ! *romosph]e & protub]ances are se5 )\t ! aid ( ! spectroscope1 & appe> ( _! natural color1 :i*1 al?\gh some:at v>y+ 9 _! diff]5t p>ts1 is1 on ! :ole1 p9ki%1 & simil> to t ( pea*-blossoms2 yet x is mix$ "h & !re ) delicate prismatic hues1 among :i* ! p9k & /raw colors pr$om9ate4 ,! color ( ! corona seems to v>y 9 e eclipse1 b z its t9ts are v delicate1 x may dep5d1 9 a great measure1 ^u ! vision ( ! obs]v]2 al?\gh !re seems to be no d\bt t !re are real v>iations4 ,at ,cre/on1 9 #ahgh1 x appe>$ to bo? ,pr(essor ,w4 ,h>kness & myself ( a decid$ pale gre5i% hue4 ,! corona appe>s "u diff]5t =ms1 & has nev] be5 obs]v$ twice alike4 ,its dim5sions are also subject to consid]able v>iations4 ,sometimes x appe>s regul> & v little ext5d$1 its di/ribution ar\nd ! ,sun be+ almo/ uni=m2 al?\gh 9 g5]al x spreads a little m 9 ! direction ( ! ecliptic1 or ( ! sol> equator4 ,at o!r times x appe>s mu* l>g] & m complicat$1 & =ms v>i\s w+s & app5dages1 :i* 9 "s cases1 z 9 #ahgh1 ext5d to imm5se di/ances2 :ile delicate rays radiate 9 /raight or curv$ l9es f ! spaces left 9 ! pol> regions betwe5 ! w+s4 ,! corona has sometimes appe>$ z if divid$ by imm5se d>k gaps1 app>5tly free f lum9\s matt]1 & /rongly resembl+ ! d>k rifts se5 9 ! tails ( comets4 ,?is 0 obs]v$ 9 ,spa9 & ,sicily dur+ ! total eclipse ( ! ,sun 9 #ahgj4 ,diff]5t /ructures1 =m+ wisps & /ream]s ( great l5g?1 & int]lac$ 9 v>i\s ways1 are sometimes pres5t 9 ! corona1 :ile fa9t b m complicat$ =ms1 di/antly resembl+ enorm\s sol> protub]ances ) bright nuclei1 h also be5 obs]v$4 ,z ! ,moon cont9ues its ea/w>d progress1 x gradually cov]s ! *romosph]e & ! sol> protub]ances on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,sun2 :ile1 at ! same "t1 ! protub]ances & ! *romosph]e on ! opposite limb gradually appe> f "u ! retreat+ ,moon4 ,!n1 ! ?9 arc ( ! rev]s+ lay] is visible = an in/ant1 & is in/antly foll[$ by ! appe>ance ( a po9t ( dazzl+ :ite light1 succe$$ imm$iately by ! app>ition ( ,daily's beads on ea* side1 & totality is ov]1 ) ?is ?ird contact4 ,! corona cont9ues to be visible on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,sun = sev]al m9utes long]1 & !n rapidly vani%es4 ,! ?9 sol> cresc5t increases 9 bread? z ! ,moon advances2 :ile1 at ! same "t1 ! d>kness & gloom spread ov] nature gradually disappe>1 & t]re/rial objects beg9 to resume _! natural appe>ance4 ,f9ally ! limb ( ! ,moon sep>ates f t ( ! ,sun at ! in/ant ( f\r? contact1 & ! eclipse is ov]4 ,! ph5om5a exhibit$ by ! corona 9 diff]5t eclipses are v complex1 &1 s f>1 !y h n be5 suffici5tly /udi$ to enable u to und]/& ! true nature ( ! sol> atmosph]e4 ,f ! spectral analysis ( ! corona1 & ! ph5om5a ( pol>ization1 x has be5 le>n$1 at lea/1 t :ile ! matt] compos+ ! upp] "p ( ! sol> atmosph]e is *iefly compos$ ( an unkn[n sub/ance1 produc+ ! gre5 l9e #adgd1 its l[] "p is ma9ly compos$ ( hydrog5 gas at diff]5t temp]atures1 a "p ( :i* is self-lum9\s1 :ile ! o!r "p only reflects ! sol> light4 ,b ! proportion ( ! gase\s p>ticles emitt+ light1 to ^? simply reflect+ x1 is subject to consid]able v>iations 9 diff]5t eclipses4 ,at pres5t x w\ld seem t 9 ye>s ( great sol> di/urbances1 ! p>ticles emitt+ light are f\nd 9 great] quantity 9 ! corona ?an ^? reflect+ x2 b fur!r obs]vations w be requir$ to confirm ^! views4 ,x is v difficult to und]/& h[ ! corona1 :i* 9 c]ta9 eclipses ext5ds only "o diamet] ( ! ,sun1 %\ld1 9 o!r cases1 z 9 #ahgh1 ext5d to ! enorm\s di/ance ( twelve times ! same diamet]4 ,*anges ( su* magnitude 9 ! sol> atmosph]e1 if due to ! op]ation ( =ces ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 _c yet be acc\nt$ = by :at is kn[n ( su* =ces4 ,_! causes are /ill z my/]i\s z ^? conc]n$ 9 ! production ( ! mon/r\s tails display$ by "s comets on _! approa* to ! ,sun4 ,plate #c1 repres5t+ ! total eclipse ( ! ,sun ( ,july #bi?1 #ahgh1 0 drawn f my obs]vations made at ,cre/on1 ,wyom+ ,t]ritory1 = ! ,naval ,obs]vatory4 ,! eclipse is repres5t$ z se5 9 a refract+ telescope1 hav+ an ap]ture ( #f in*es1 & z x appe>$ a few seconds be=e totality 0 ov]1 & :5 ! *romosph]e 0 visible on ! we/]n limb ( ! ,sun4 ,! two long w+s se5 on ! ea/ & we/ side ( ! ,sun1 appe>$ consid]ably l>g] 9 ! sky ?an !y are repres5t$ 9 ! picture4 ,,! ,,aurora ,,borealis ,,plate ,,iv ,! "n ( ,pol> ,auroras is giv5 to c]ta9 v rem>kable lum9\s meteoric ph5om5a :i* appe> at int]vals above ! nor!rn or ! s\!rn horizons ( bo? hemisph]es ( ! ,e>?4 ,:5 ! ph5om5on is produc$ 9 our nor!rn sky1 x is call$ ,aurora ,borealis1 or ,nor!rn ,lights2 & :5 x appe>s 9 ! s\!rn sky1 x is call$ ,aurora ,au/ralis1 or s\!rn aurora4 ,m>k$ diff]5ces appe> 9 ! v>i\s auroras obs]v$ f our nor!rn latitudes4 ,:ile "s simply consi/ 9 a pale1 fa9t lum9osity1 h>dly di/+ui%able f twilight1 o!rs pres5t ! mo/ gorge\s & rem>kable effects ( brightness & colors4 ,a great aurora is usually indicat$ 9 ! ev5+ soon aft] twilight1 by a peculi> grayi% appe>ance ( ! nor!rn sky j above ! horizon4 ,! grayi% vapors giv+ t appe>ance1 cont9u+ to =m !re1 soon assume a d>k & gloomy aspect1 :ile !y gradually take ! =m ( a segm5t ( a circle re/+ on ! horizon4 ,at ! same "t t ?is d>k segm5t is =m+1 a s(t pe>ly light1 :i* seems to issue f its bord]1 spreads up 9 ! sky1 :]e x gradually vani%es1 be+ ! brighte/ at its base4 ,?is arc ( light1 gradually increas+ 9 ext5t z well z 9 brightness1 rea*es sometimes z f> z ! pol> />4 ,on "s r>e occasions1 "o or two1 & ev5 ?ree1 conc5tric ar*es ( bright light =m "o above ! o!r ov] ! d>k segm5t1 :]e !y appe> z brilliant conc5tric ra9b[s4 ,:ile ! aurora cont9ues to develop & spread out its imm5se arc1 ! bord] ( ! d>k segm5t loses its regul>ity & appe>s ind5t$ at sev]al places by pat*es ( light1 :i* soon develop into long1 n>r[1 div]g+ rays & /ream]s ( great beauty4 ,= ! mo/ "p ! auroral light is ei!r :iti% or ( a pale1 gre5i% t9t2 b 9 "s cases x exhibits ! mo/ beautiful colors1 among :i* ! r$ & gre5 pr$om9ate4 ,9 ^! cases ! rays & /ream]s1 :i* are usually ( diff]5t colors1 produce ! mo/ magnific5t effects by _! cont9ual *anges & trans=mations4 ,! brightness & ext5t ( ! auroral rays are likewise subject to cont9ual *anges4 ,an in/ant suffices = _! developm5t & disappe>ance1 :i* may be succe$$ by ! sudd5 appe>ance ( o!rs else:]e1 z ?\gh ! orig9al /ream]s _h be5 swiftly transport$ to a new place :ile invisible4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s t all ! /ream]s seem to move sidewise1 f we/ to ea/1 along ! ar*1 cont9u+ mean:ile to exhibit _! v>i\s *anges ( =m & color4 ,= a "t1 ^! appe>ances ( motion cont9ue to increase1 a succession ( /ream]s alt]nately %oot+ =? & aga9 fad+1 :5 a sudd5 lull occurs1 dur+ :i* all motion seems to h ceas$4 ,! /illness !n prevail+ is soon succe$$ by slight pulsations ( light1 :i* seem to orig9ate on ! bord]-( ! d>k segm5t1 & are propagat$ upw>ds along ! /ream]s1 :i* h n[ become m num]\s & active4 ,sl[ at fir/1 ^! pulsations quick5 by degrees1 & aft] a few m9utes ! :ole nor!rn sky seems to be 9 rapid vibration4 ,! lively upw>d & d[nw>d movem5t ( ^! /ream]s entitles !m to ! "n ( m]ry danc]s giv5 !m 9 nor!rn c\ntries :]e !y are frequ5t4 ,long waves ( light1 quickly succe$$ by o!rs1 are propagat$ 9 an in/ant f ! horizon to ! z5i?2 ^!1 9 _! rapid passage1 cause b5ds & curves 9 ! /ream]s1 :i* !n1 los+ _! orig9al /raightness1 wave & undulate 9 graceful folds1 resembl+ ^? ( a p5nant 9 a g5tle breeze4 ,al?\gh ! coruscations add to ! gr&eur ( ! spectacle1 !y t5d to de/roy ! div]g+ /ream]s1 :i*1 be+ disconnect$ f ! d>k segm5t1 or torn 9 v>i\s ways1 are1 z x 71 bodily c>ri$ up t[>ds ! z5i?4 ,9 ?is new phase ! aurora is trans=m$ into a glori\s cr[n ( light1 call$ ! ,corona4 ,f ?is corona div]ge 9 all directions long /ream]s ( diff]5t colors & =ms1 gracefully undulat+ 9 num]\s folds1 l s _m bann]s ( light4 ,"s ( ! l>ge/ ( ^! /ream]s appe> l fr+es compos$ ( %ort transv]se rays ( diff]5t int5sity & colors1 produc+ ! mo/ fanta/ic effects1 :5 trav]s$ by ! pulsations & coruscations :i* g5]ally run across ^! rays dur+ ! great auroral displays4 ,! aurora has n[ atta9$ its full developm5t & beauty4 ,x may cont9ue 9 ?is =m = half an h\r1 b usually ! cele/ial fires beg9 to fade at ! end ( fifte5 or tw5ty m9utes1 reviv+ f "t to "t1 b gradually dy+ out4 ,! nor!rn sky usually appe>s cov]$ by gray & lum9\s /reaks & pat*es aft] a great aurora1 ^! be+ occasionally rek9dl$1 b m (t5 !y gradually disappe>1 & ! sky resumes its usual appe>ance4 ,! numb] ( auroras :i* develop a corona ne> ! z5i? is comp>atively small 9 our latitudes2 b _m ( !m1 al?\gh n exhibit$ on s gr& a scale1 are nev]!less v int]e/+4 ,on "s v r>e occasions ! auroral display has be5 conf9$ almo/ exclusively to ! d>k segm5t1 :i* appe>$ !n z if pi]c$ along its bord] by _m squ>e op5+s1 l w9d[s1 ?r\gh :i* appe>$ ! bright auroral light4 ,,plate ,,iv4--,,aurora ,,borealis4 ,z obs]v$ ,m>* #a1 #ahgb1 at #i;h4 #bem4 ,p4,m4 ,among ! _m auroras :i* ,i h _h occasion to obs]ve1 none are m int]e/+1 except+ ! type fir/ describ$1 ?an ^? :i* =m an imm5se ar* ( light spann+ ! heav5s f ,ea/ to ,we/4 ,?is =m ( aurora1 :i* is q r>e1 ,i la/ obs]v$ on ,septemb] #ab?1 #ahha4 ,all ! nor!rn sky 0 cov]$ ) light vapors1 :5 a small auroral pat* appe>$ 9 ! ,ea/ at ab\t #bj above ! horizon4 ,?is pat* ( light1 gradually increas+ we/w>d1 soon rea*$ ! z5i?1 & cont9u$ its onw>d progress until x arriv$ at ab\t #bj above ! we/]n horizon1 :]e x /opp$4 ,! aurora !n appe>$ z a n>r[1 wavy b& ( light1 cross$ by num]\s p>allel rays ( diff]5t int5sity & color4 ,^! rays seem$ to h a rapid motion f ,we/ to ,ea/ along ! delicately-fr+$ /ream]1 :i*1 on ! :ole1 mov$ s\?w>d1 :ile its extremities rema9$ undi/urb$4 ,aside f ! app>5t displacem5t ( ! fr+es1 a s+ul> vibrat+ motion 0 obs]v$ 9 ! auroral b&1 :i* 0 trav]s$ by pulsations & long waves ( light4 ,! ph5om5a la/$ = ab\t tw5ty m9utes1 aft] :i* ! ar* 0 brok5 9 _m places1 & x sl[ly vani%$4 ,! aurora usually appe>s 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ev5+1 & atta9s its full developm5t betwe5 t5 & elev5 o'clock4 ,al?\gh ! auroral light may h app>5tly ceas$1 yet ! ph5om5on is n at an end1 z v (t5 a solit>y ray is visible f "t to "t2 & ev5 t[>ds morn+ ^! rays sometimes become q num]\s4 ,on "s occasions ! ph5om5on ev5 cont9ues ?r\gh ! foll[+ day1 & is manife/$ by ! radial direction ( ! cirrus-cl\ds 9 ! heights ( our atmosph]e4 ,9 #ahgb ,i1 myself1 obs]v$ an aurora :i* app>5tly cont9u$ = two or ?ree consecutive days & nights4 ,9 ,augu/1 #ahei1 ! nor!rn lights rema9$ visible 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = a :ole week4 ,! height atta9$ by ^! meteors is consid]able1 & x is n[ admitt$ t !y are produc$ 9 ! r>efi$ air ( ! upp] regions ( our atmosph]e4 ,f ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,elias ,loomis on ! great auroras obs]v$ 9 ,augu/ & ,septemb]1 #ahei1 x 0 asc]ta9$ t ! inf]ior "p ( ! auroral rays _h an altitude ( #df miles1 :ile t ( _! summits 0 #dbh miles4 ,^! rays _h1 !re=e1 a l5g? ( #chb miles4 ,f ! obs]vation ( ?irty auroral displays1 x has be5 f\nd t ! mean height atta9$ by ! summit ( ^! /ream]s above ! ,e>?'s surface 0 #dej miles4 ,b if ! auroral /ream]s are g5]ally manife/$ at great heights 9 our atmosph]e1 x w\ld appe> f ! obs]vations ( p]sons liv+ 9 ! regions :]e ! auroras are mo/ frequ5t1 z also f ^? :o h be5 /ation$ 9 high nor!rn & s\!rn latitudes1 t ! ph5om5on sometimes desc5ds v l[4 ,bo? ,sab9e & ,p>ry saw ! auroral rays project$ on a di/ant m\nta92 ,ross saw !m almo/ at sea-level project$ on ! pol> ice2 :ile ,wrangel1 ,frankl91 & o!rs obs]v$ simil> ph5om5a4 ,dr4 ,hjaltal91 :o has liv$ 9 latitude #fd #df' nor?1 & has made a p>ticul> /udy ( ! aurora1 on "o occasion saw ! aurora mu* bel[ ! summit ( a hill #a1fjj feet high1 :i* 0 n v f> (f4 ,! same aurora is sometimes obs]v$ on ! same night at places v f> di/ant f "o ano!r4 ,! great aurora borealis ( ,augu/ #bh?1 #ahei1 = in/ance1 0 se5 ov] a space occupy+ #aej 9 longitude--f ,cali=nia to ! ,ural ,m\nta9s 9 ,russia4 ,x ev5 appe>s n[ v probable t ! ph5om5on is univ]sal on our globe1 & t ! nor!rn lights obs]v$ 9 our hemisph]e are simultane\s ) ! aurora au/ralis ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,! aurora ( ,septemb] #b;d1 #ahei1 0 obs]v$ all ?r\gh ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 ,au/ralia1 & ,africa2 ! /ream]s & pulsations ( light ( ! nor? pole respond+ to ! rays & coruscations ( ! s\? pole4 ,( ?irty-f\r auroras obs]v$ at ,hob>t ,t[n1 9 ,tasmania1 tw5ty-n9e correspond$ ) aurora borealis obs]v$ 9 our hemisph]e4 ,! auroral ph5om5a1 al?\gh sometimes visible )9 ! tropics1 are1 h[ev]1 q r>e 9 ^! regions4 ,= ! mo/ "p !y are conf9$ )9 c]ta9 zones situat$ 9 high latitudes nor? & s\?4 ,! zone :]e !y are mo/ frequ5t 9 our hemisph]e =ms an ellipse1 :i* has ! nor? pole at "o ( its foci2 :ile ! o!r is situat$ some:]e 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 ! vic9ity ( ! magnetic pole4 ,! c5tral l9e ( ! zone ^u :i* ! auroras seem to be mo/ frequ5t passes f ! nor!rn coa/ ( ,alaska ?r\gh ,hudson's ,bay & ,labrador to ,icel&1 & !n foll[s ! nor!rn coa/ ( ,europe & ,asia4 ,! numb] ( auroras dim9i%es z ! obs]v] rec$es f ?is zone1 & x is only 9 exceptional cases t !y are se5 ne> ! equator4 ,ne> ! pole ! ph5om5on is less frequ5t ?an x is 9 ! region describ$4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica we occupy a favorable position = ! obs]vation ( auroras1 z we are ne>] ! magnetic poles ?an are ! ,europeans & ,asiatics1 & we consequ5tly h a great] numb] ( auroras 9 correspond+ latitudes4 ,! position ( ! d>k auroral segm5t v>ies ) ! place occupi$ by ! obs]v]1 & its c5tre always corresponds ) ! magnetic m]idian4 ,9 our ,ea/]n ,/ates ! auroral segm5t appe>s a little to ! we/ ( ! nor? po9t2 b z ! obs]v] proce$s we/w>d x gradually approa*es ?is po9t1 & is due nor? :5 se5 f ! vic9ity ( ,lake ,w9nipeg4 ,at ,po9t ,b>r[1 9 ! extreme nor?-we/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! aurora is obs]v$ 9 ! ea/4 ,9 ,melville ,isl&s1 ,p>ry saw x 9 ! s\?2 :ile 9 ,gre5l& x is directly 9 ! we/4 ,x is /at$ t auroras are m num]\s ab\t ! equ9oxes ?an !y are at any o!r seasons2 & also1 :5 ! e>? is 9 p]igee1 ?an :5 x is 9 apogee4 ,an exam9ation :i* ,i h made ( a catalogue by ,pr(essor ,loomis1 compris+ #d1acg auroras obs]v$ 9 ! temp]ate zone ( our hemisph]e f #aggf to #ahgc1 su/a9s ?is /atem5t4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod1 "o hundr$ m auroras 7 record$ dur+ ea* ( ! mon?s compris+ ! equ9oxes1 ?an dur+ any o!r mon?s ( ! ye>2 :ile eighty m auroras 7 obs]v$ :5 ! e>? 0 9 p]igee1 ?an :5 x 0 9 apogee4 ,b to e/abli% ! tru? ( ?is ass]tion on a solid basis1 m obs]vations 9 bo? hemisph]es w be requir$4 ,! aurora is n simply a t]re/rial ph5om5on1 b is associat$ 9 "s my/]i\s way ) ! conditions ( ! ,sun's surface4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t t]re/rial magnetism is influ5c$ directly by ! ,sun1 :i* creates ! diurnal oscillations ( ! magnetic ne$le4 ,betwe5 sunrise & two o'clock1 ! nor? pole ( ! ne$le moves t[>ds ! we/ 9 our nor!rn hemisph]e1 & 9 ! aft]noon & ev5+ x moves ! o!r way4 ,^! daily oscillations ( ! ne$le are n uni=m 9 ext5t2 !y h a p]iod ( regul> increase & decrease4 ,at a giv5 place ! daily oscillations ( ! magnetic ne$le increase & decrease ) regul>ity dur+ a p]iod :i* is equal to #aj ye>s4 ,z ?is p]iod closely co9cides ) ! ,sun-spot p]iod1 ! connection betwe5 ! v>iation ( ! ne$le & ^! sol> di/urbances has be5 recogniz$4 ,auroral ph5om5a g5]ally accompany ! extraord9>y p]turbations 9 ! oscillations ( ! magnetic ne$le1 :i* are commonly call$ magnetic /orms1 & ! great] ! auroral displays1 ! great] are ! magnetic p]turbations4 ,n only is ! ne$le subject to unusual displacem5ts dur+ an aurora1 b its movem5ts seem to be simultane\s ) ! pulsations & wav+ motions ( ! delicate auroral /ream]s 9 ! sky4 ,:5 ! aurora s5ds =? a coruscation1 or a /ream] 9 ! sky1 ! magnetic ne$le responds to x by a vibration4 ,! inf]5ce t ! auroral ph5om5a are connect$ ) t]re/rial magnetism is fur!r support$ by ! fact t ! c5tre ( ! corona is always situat$ exactly 9 ! direction ( t po9t 9 ! heav5s to :i* ! dipp+ ne$le is direct$4 ,x has be5 f\nd t ! aurora is a p]iodical ph5om5on1 & t its p]iod corresponds v closely ) ^? ( ! magnetic ne$le & ,sun-spots4 ,! ye>s :i* h ! mo/ ,sun-spots & magnetic di/urbances h also ! mo/ auroras4 ,!re is an almo/ p]fect simil>ity betwe5 ! c\rses ( ! ?ree sets ( ph5om5a1 f :i* x is conclud$ t ! aurora is connect$ 9 "s my/]i\s way ) ! action ( ! ,sun1 z well z ) ! magnetic condition ( ! e>?4 ,a v curi\s obs]vation1 :i* has be5 suppos$ to h "s connection ) ?is subject1 0 made on ,sept4 #a/1 #ahei1 by ,mr4 ,c>r+ton & ,mr4 ,hodgson1 9 ,engl&4 ,:ile ^! obs]v]s1 :o 7 situat$ _m miles f "o ano!r1 7 bo? engag$ at ! same "t 9 obs]v+ ! same ,sun-spot1 !y sudd5ly saw two lum9\s spots ( dazzl+ brilliancy bur/+ into sight f ! edge ( ! ,sun-spot4 ,^! objects mov$ ea/w>d = ab\t five m9utes1 aft] :i* !y disappe>$1 hav+ !n travel$ ne>ly #cd1jjj miles4 ,simultane\sly ) ^! appe>ances1 a magnetic di/urbance 0 regi/]$ at ,kew by ! self-regi/]+ magnetic in/rum5ts4 ,! v night t foll[$ ^! obs]vations1 great magnetic p]turbations1 accompani$ by brilliant auroral displays1 7 obs]v$ 9 ,europe4 ,a connection betwe5 ! t]re/rial magnetism & ! auroral ph5om5a is fur!r prov$ by ! fact t1 be=e ! appe>ance ( an aurora1 ! magnetic int5sity ( our globe consid]ably increases1 b dim9i%es z soon z ! fir/ fla%es %[ !mselves4 ,! auroral ph5om5a are also connect$ 9 "s way ) electricity1 & g5]ate s]i\s di/urbances 9 ! electric curr5ts trav]s+ our telegraphic l9es1 :i* are ?us (t5 r5d]$ useless = ! transmission ( messages dur+ great auroral displays4 ,x sometimes happ5s1 h[ev]1 dur+ su* displays1 t ! telegraphic l9es c be op]at$ = a long di/ance1 )\t ! assi/ance ( a batt]y2 ! aurora1 or at lea/ its cause1 furni%+ ! necess>y electric curr5t = ! work+ ( ! l9e4 ,dur+ auroras1 ! telephonic l9es are also greatly affect$1 & all k9ds ( noises & crepitations are he>d 9 ! in/rum5ts4 ,two obs]vations ( m9e1 :i* may h a be>+ on ! subject1 pres5t "s int]e/1 z !y seem to indicate ! action ( ! aurora on "s ( ! cl\ds ( our atmosph]e4 ,on ,janu>y #f?1 #ahgb1 aft] ,i _h be5 obs]v+ a brilliant aurora = ov] "o h\r1 an isolat$ black cumulus cl\d appe>$ at a little di/ance f ! we/]n extremity ( ! d>k auroral segm5t4 ,?is cl\d1 probably driv5 by ! w9d1 rapidly advanc$ ea/w>d1 & 0 soon foll[$ by a succession ( simil> cl\ds1 all />t+ f ! same po9t4 ,all ^! black cl\ds app>5tly foll[$ ! same pa?1 :i* 0 n a /raight l9e1 b p>allel to & conc5tric ) ! bord] ( ! d>k auroral segm5t4 ,:5 ! fir/ cl\d arriv$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! magnetic m]idian pass+ ?r\gh ! middle ( ! auroral arc1 x v rapidly dissolv$1 & on rea*+ ?is m]idian became invisible4 ,! same ph5om5on 0 obs]v$ ) ! succession ( black cl\ds foll[+1 ea* rapidly dissolv+ z x approa*$ ! magnetic m]idian4 ,?is ph5om5on ( black cl\ds vani%+ l phantoms 9 cross+ ! magnetic m]idian1 0 obs]v$ = ne>ly an h\r4 ,on ,june #ag?1 #ahgi1 ,i obs]v$ a simil> ph5om5on dur+ a f9e auroral display4 ,ab\t midway betwe5 ! horizon & ! pol> />1 b a little to ! we/ ( ! magnetic m]idian1 !re 0 a l>ge black cumulo-/ratus cl\d :i* v sl[ly advanc$ ea/w>d4 ,z x progress$ 9 t direction1 its ea/]n extremity 0 dissolv$ 9 trav]s+ ! magnetic m]idian2 :ile1 at ! same "t1 sev]al %ort & q bright auroral rays issu$ f its we/]n extremity1 :i* 9 its turn dissolv$ rapidly1 z if burn$ or melt$ away 9 ! production ( ! auroral flame4 ,x seems to be a well obs]v$ fact1 t dur+ auroras1 a /rong sulphur\s odor prevails 9 high nor!rn latitudes4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,hjaltal91 dur+ ^! ph5om5a1 ! ozone ( ! atmosph]e increases consid]ably1 & m5 & animals expos$ out ( doors emit a sulphur\s odor :5 ent]+ a heat$ room4 ,! ,esquimaux & o!r inhabitants ( ! nor!rn regions ass]t t great auroras are sometimes accompani$ by crepitations & crackl+ noises ( v>i\s sorts4 ,al?\gh ^! ass]tions h be5 d5i$ by sev]al travel]s :o h visit$ ! regions ( ^! ph5om5a1 !y are confirm$ by _m compet5t obs]v]s4 ,dr4 ,hjaltal91 :o has he>d ^! noises ab\t six times 9 a hundr$ obs]vations1 says t !y are especially audible :5 ! wea!r is cle> & calm2 b t :5 ! atmosph]e is agitat$ !y are n he>d4 ,he comp>es !m to ! peculi> s\nd produc$ by a silk clo? :5 torn asund]1 or to ! crepitations ( ! electric ma*9e :5 its motion is accel]at$4 ,:5 ! auroral light is mu* agitat$ & ! /ream]s %[ great movem5ts1 x is !n t ^! noises are he>d at diff]5t places 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,! spectrum ( ! auroral light1 al?\gh x v>ies ) almo/ e aurora1 always %[s a bright gre5 l9e on a fa9t cont9u\s spectrum4 ,9 addition to ?is gre5 l9e ,i h frequ5tly obs]v$ f\r broad diffus$ b&s ( great] refrangibility 9 ! spectra ( "s auroras4 ,9 two cases1 :5 ! auroras appe>$ r$ t[>ds ! we/1 ! spectrum %[$ a bright r$ l9e1 9 addition to ! gre5 l9e & ! broad b&s describ$4 ,^! facts evid5tly %[ t ! light ( ! aurora is due to ! pres5ce ( lum9\s vapors 9 our atmosph]e2 & x may reasonably be suppos$ t ^! vapors are r5d]$ lum9\s by ! passage ( electric dis*>ges ?r\gh !m4 ,,! ,,zodiacal ,,light ,,plate ,v ,9 our nor!rn latitudes may be se51 on e cle> w9t] & spr+ ev5+1 a column ( fa9t1 :iti%1 nebul\s light1 ris+ obliquely above ! we/]n horizon4 ,a simil> ph5om5on may also be obs]v$ 9 ! ea/1 be=e day-break1 on any cle> summ] or autumn night4 ,to ?is pale1 glimm]+ lum9osity ! "n ( ,zodiacal ,light has be5 giv51 f ! fact t x lies 9 ! zodiac along ! ecliptic4 ,9 common ) all ! cele/ial bodies1 ! zodiacal light p>ticipates 9 ! diurnal motion ( ! sky1 & rises & sets ) ! con/ellations 9 :i* x appe>s4 ,aside f ?is app>5t motion1 x is end[$ ) a motion ( its own1 accompli%$ f we/ to ea/1 9 a p]iod ( a ye>4 ,9 its motion among ! />s1 ! zodiacal light always keeps pace ) ! ,sun1 & appe>s z if =m+ two fa9t lum9\s w+s1 re/+ on opposite sides ( ?is body4 ,9 reality x ext5ds on ea* side ( ! ,sun1 its axis ly+ v ne>ly 9 ! plane ( ! ecliptic4 ,9 our latitudes ! ph5om5a c be obs]v$ mo/ advantage\sly t[>ds ! equ9oxes1 9 ,m>* & ,septemb]1 :5 twilight is ( %ort duration4 ,z we proce$ s\?w>d x becomes m prom95t1 & gradually increases 9 size & brightness4 ,x is )9 ! tropical regions t ! zodiacal light acquires all its spl5dor3 !re x is visible all ! ye> r\nd1 & always appe>s v ne>ly p]p5dicul> to ! horizon1 :ile at ! same "t its proportions & brilliancy are greatly increas$4 ,,plate ,v4--,,! ,,zodiacal ,,light4 ,obs]v$ ,febru>y #bj1 #ahgf ,! zodiacal light appe>s "u ! =m ( a spe>-head1 or ( a n>r[ cone ( light ^: base app>5tly re/s on ! horizon1 :ile its summit rises among ! zodiacal con/ellations4 ,9 g5]al appe>ance x some:at resembles ! tail ( a l>ge comet ^: head is bel[ ! horizon4 ,! mo/ favorable "t to obs]ve ?is ph5om5on 9 ! ev5+1 is imm$iately aft] ! la/ trace ( twilight has disappe>$2 & 9 ! morn+1 "o or two h\rs be=e twilight appe>s4 ,:5 obs]v$ ) att5tion1 x is se5 t ! light ( ! zodiacal cone is n uni=m1 b gradually increases 9 brightness inw>dly1 especially t[>ds its base1 :]e x sometimes surpasses 9 brilliancy ! brighte/ p>ts ( ! ,milky-,way4 ,9 g5]al1 its outl9es are vague & v difficult to make out1 s gradually d !y bl5d ) ! sky4 ,on "s favorable occasions1 ! lum9\s cone appe>s to be compos$ ( sev]al di/9ct conc5tric conical lay]s1 hav+ diff]5t degrees ( brightness1 ! inn] cone be+ ! mo/ brilliant ( all4 ,!re is a rem>kable di/9ction betwe5 ! ev5+ & morn+ zodiacal light4 ,9 our climate1 ! morn+ light is pale1 & nev] s bright nor s ext5d$ z ! ev5+ light4 ,9 g5]al1 ! zodiacal light is :iti% & colorless1 b 9 "s cases x acquires a w>m yell[i% or r$di% t9t4 ,^! *anges ( color may be accid5tal & due to atmosph]ic conditions1 & n to actual *ange 9 ! color ( ! object4 ,al?\gh ! zodiacal light is q bright1 & produces ! impression ( hav+ consid]able dep?1 yet its transp>5cy is great1 s9ce all ! />s1 except ! fa9t ones1 c be se5 ?r\gh its sub/ance4 ,! zodiacal light is subject to consid]able v>iations 9 brightness1 & also v>ies 9 ext5t1 ! apex ( its cone v>y+ 9 di/ance f ! ,sun's place1 f #dj to #ij degrees4 ,^! v>iations _c be attribut$ to atmosph]ic causes alone1 "s ( !m be+ due to real *anges 9 ! zodiacal light itself1 ^: light & dim5sions increase or decrease "u ! action ( causes at pres5t unkn[n4 ,f ! discussion ( a s]ies ( obs]vations on ! zodiacal light made at ,p>is & ,g5eva1 x appe>s c]ta9 t its light v>ies f ye> to ye>1 & sometimes ev5 f day to day1 indep5d5tly ( atmosph]ic causes4 ,"s ( my own obs]vations agree ) ^! results1 & "o ( !m1 at lea/1 seems to indicate *anges ev5 m rapid4 ,on ,decemb] #ah?1 #ahge1 ,i obs]v$ ! zodiacal light 9 a cle> sky free f any vapors1 at six o'clock 9 ! ev5+4 ,at t "t1 ! po9t ( its cone 0 a little to ! nor? ( ! ecliptic1 at a di/ance ( ab\t #ij degrees f ! ,sun's place4 ,t5 m9utes lat]1 its summit _h sunk d[n #ce degrees1 ! cone !n be+ r$uc$ to ne>ly "o-half ( its orig9al dim5sions4 ,t5 m9utes lat]1 x _h ris5 #be degrees1 & 0 !n #hj degrees f ! ,sun's place1 :]e x rema9$ all ! ev5+4 ,on ,m>* #bb;d1 #ahgh1 ! sky 0 v cle> & ! zodiacal light 0 bright :5 ,i obs]v$ x1 at eight o'clock4 ,at t mom5t ! apex ( ! cone ( light 0 a little to ! s\? ( ! ,pleiades1 b ?is cone pres5t$ an unusual appe>ance nev] notic$ by me be=e1 its nor!rn bord] appe>+ mu* bright] & %>p] ?an usual1 :ile at ! same "t its axis ( greate/ brightness appe>$ to be mu* ne>] to ?is nor!rn bord] ?an x 0 to ! s\!rn4 ,aft] a few m9utes ( obs]vation x became evid5t t ! nor!rn bord] 0 ext5d+ itself1 z />s :i* 7 at "s di/ance f x became gradually involv$ 9 its light4 ,at ! same "t t ?is bord] spread nor?w>d1 x seem$ to diffuse itself1 & aft] a "t ! cone pres5t$ its usual appe>ance1 hav+ its s\!rn bord] bright] & bett] def9$ ?an ! o!r4 ,x w\ld h be5 impossible to attribute ?is sudd5 *ange to an atmosph]ic cause1 s9ce only "o ( ! bord]s ( ! cone p>ticipat$ 9 x1 & s9ce "s v fa9t />s ne> ?is nor!rn bord] 7 n affect$ 9 ! lea/ :ile ! ph5om5on occurr$4 ,besides ^! obs]vations1 ,cass9i1 ,mairan1 ,humboldt1 & _m o!r compet5t obs]v]s h se5 pulsations1 coruscations & bick]+s 9 ! light ( ! cone1 :i* !y ?\ght c\ld n be attribut$ to atmosph]ic causes4 ,x has also be5 obs]v$ t at c]ta9 p]iods ! zodiacal light has %one ) unusual int5sity = mon?s toge!r4 ,:5 ?is ph5om5on is obs]v$ f ! tropical regions1 x is f\nd t its axis ( symmetry always corresponds ) its axis ( greate/ brightness1 & t bo? lie 9 ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 :i* divides its cone into two equal p>ts4 ,b :5 ! zodiacal light is obs]v$ 9 our latitude1 ! axis ( symmetry does n correspond ) ! axis ( greate/ brightness1 & bo? axes are a little to ! nor? ( ?is plane1 ! axis ( symmetry be+ ! f>!r remov$4 ,fur!rmore1 z already /at$1 ! s\!rn bord] ( ! cone always appe>s bett] def9$ & bright] ?an ! correspond+ nor!rn m>g94 ,x is v probable1 if n absolutely c]ta91 t ^! ph5om5a are exactly rev]s$ :5 ! zodiacal light is obs]v$ f correspond+ latitudes 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & t !re1 its axes1 bo? ( symmetry & ( greate/ brightness1 appe> s\? ( ! ecliptic1 :ile ! nor!rn m>g9 is ! brighte/4 ,?is seems to be e/abli%$ by ! valuable obs]vations ( ,rev4 ,george ,jones1 made on bo>d ! ,u4 ,s4 /eam frigate ,mississippi1 9 ,cali=nia1 ,japan1 & ! ,s\!rn ,ocean4 ,:5 ,i 0 nor? ( ! ecliptic1 says ?is obs]v]1 ! greate/ "p ( ! light ( ! cone appe>$ to ! nor? ( ?is l9e2 :5 ,i 0 to ! s\? ( ! ecliptic1 x appe>$ to be s\? ( x2 :ile :5 my position 0 on ! ecliptic1 or 9 its vic9ity1 ! zodiacal cone 0 equally divid$ by ?is l9e4 ,besides ! zodiacal light obs]v$ 9 ! ,ea/ & ,we/1 "s obs]v]s h recogniz$ an exce$+ly fa9t1 lum9\s1 gauzy b&1 ab\t #aj or #ab degrees wide1 /ret*+ along ! ecliptic f ! summit ( ! we/]n to t ( ! ea/]n zodiacal cone4 ,?is fa9t n>r[ belt has be5 call$ ! ,zodiacal ,b&4 ,x has be5 recogniz$ by ,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,lewis1 :o has made a /udy ( ?is ph5om5on1 t ! zodiacal b& has its s\!rn m>g9 a little bright] & a little %>p] ?an ! nor!rn bord]4 ,?is obs]vation is 9 accordance ) simil> ph5om5a obs]v$ 9 ! zodiacal light1 & may h consid]able importance4 ,9 #ahed1 ,brors5 recogniz$ a fa9t1 r\ndi%1 lum9\s spot 9 a po9t ( ! heav5s exactly opposite to ! place occupi$ by ! ,sun1 :i* he has call$ ,geg5s*e91 or c\nt]-gl[4 ,?is lum9\s spot has sometimes a small nucleus1 :i* is a little bright] ?an ! re/4 ,night aft] night ?is v fa9t object %ifts its position among ! con/ellations1 keep+ always at #ahj degrees f ! ,sun4 ,! position ( ! c\nt]-gl[1 l t ( ! zodiacal light & zodiacal b&1 is n precisely on ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 b a little to ! nor? ( ?is l9e4 ,x is v probable t ne> ! equator ! ph5om5on w\ld appe> diff]5t & !re w\ld correspond ) ?is plane4 ,!re seems to be "s confusion among obs]v]s 9 reg>d to ! spectrum ( ! zodiacal light4 ,"s h se5 a bright gre5 l9e 9 its spectrum1 correspond+ to t ( ! aurora borealis2 :ile o!rs c\ld only see a fa9t grayi% cont9u\s spectrum1 :i* diff]s1 h[ev]1 f t ( a fa9t sol> light1 by ! fact t x pres5ts a well-def9$ bright zone1 gradually bl5d+ on ea* side ) ! fa9t] light ( ! cont9u\s spectrum4 ,i h1 myself1 frequ5tly obs]v$ ! fa9t cont9u\s spectrum ( ! zodiacal light1 & on "o occasion recogniz$ ! gre5 l9e ( ! aurora2 b x might h be5 produc$ by ! aurora itself1 z yet invisible to ! eye1 & n by ! zodiacal light1 s9ce1 lat] 9 ! same ev5+1 !re 0 a brilliant auroral display4 ,if x 7 demon/rat$ t ?is gre5 l9e exi/s 9 ! spectrum ( ! zodiacal light1 ! fact w\ld h importance1 z t5d+ to %[ t ! aurora & ! zodiacal light h a common orig94 ,rev4 ,geo4 ,jones describes a v curi\s ph5om5on :i* he obs]v$ sev]al times a little be=e ! moon rose above ! horizon4 ,! ph5om5on consi/$ 9 a %ort1 oblique1 lum9\s cone ris+ f ! ,moon's place 9 ! direction ( ! ecliptic4 ,?is ph5om5on he has call$ ! ,moon ,zodiacal ,light4 ,9 #ahgd1 ,i _h an opportunity to obs]ve a simil> ph5om5on :5 ! ,moon 0 q high 9 ! sky4 ,by tak+ ! precaution to scre5 ! ,moon's disk by ! int]position ( "s build+s betwe5 x & my eye1 ,i saw two long & n>r[ cones ( light p>allel to ! ecliptic issu+ f opposite sides ( our satellite4 ,! ph5om5on c\ld n possibly be attribut$ to vapors 9 our atmosph]e1 s9ce ! sky 0 v cle> at ! mom5t ( ! obs]vation4 ,lat] on1 ^! app5dages disappe>$ ) ! =mation ( vapors ne> ! ,moon1 b !y reappe>$ an h\r lat]1 :5 ! sky _h cle>$ (f1 & cont9u$ visible = tw5ty m9utes long]1 & !n disappe>$ 9 a cle> sky4 ,al?\gh ! zodiacal light has be5 /udi$ = ov] two c5turies1 no :olly satisfactory explanation ( ! ph5om5on has yet be5 giv54 ,n[1 z 9 ,cass9i's "t1 x is g5]ally consid]$ by a/ronom]s to be due to a k9d ( l5s-%ap$ r+ surr\nd+ ! ,sun1 & ext5d+ a little beyond ! ,e>?'s orbit4 ,?is r+ is suppos$ to lie 9 ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 & to be compos$ ( a multitude ( indep5d5t meteoric p>ticles circulat+ 9 clos$ p>allel orbits ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,b _m difficulties lie 9 ! way ( ?is !ory4 ,x seems z incompet5t to expla9 ! sl[ & rapid *anges 9 ! light ( ?is object z x is to expla9 ! contractions & ext5sions ( its cone4 ,x fails1 moreov]1 to expla9 ! flick]+ motions1 ! coruscations obs]v$ 9 its light1 or ! displacem5t ( its cone & ( its axes ( brightness & symmetry by a m]e *ange 9 ! position ( ! obs]v]4 ,rev4 ,geo4 ,jones1 unable to expla9 by ?is !ory ! ph5om5a :i* came "u 8 obs]vation1 has propos$ ano!r1 :i* supposes ! zodiacal light to be produc$ by a lum9\s r+ surr\nd+ ! ,e>?1 ?is r+ n ext5d+ z f> z ! orbit ( ! ,moon4 ,b ?is !ory also fails 9 _m important po9ts1 s t at pres5t no satisfactory explanation ( ! ph5om5on c be giv54 ,z ! ph5om5on is connect$ 9 "s way ) ! ,sun1 & z we h _m reasons to believe ?is body to be always m or less electrifi$1 x might be suppos$ t ! ,sun1 act+ by induction on our globe1 develops feeble electric curr5ts 9 ! r>efi$ gases ( ! sup]ior regions ( our atmosph]e1 & !re =ms a k9d ( lum9\s ridge mov+ ) ! ,sun 9 a direction contr>y to ! diurnal motion1 & s produc+ ! zodiacal light4 ,on ?is hypo!sis1 ! c\nt]-gl[ w\ld be ! result ( a small] cone ( light g5]at$ by ! sol> induction on ! opposite po9t ( ! ,e>?4 ,plate #e1 :i* suffici5tly expla9s itself1 repres5ts ! zodiacal light z x appe>$ 9 ! ,we/ on ! ev5+ ( ,febru>y #bj?1 #ahgf4 ,all ! />s are plac$ 9 _! prop] position1 & _! relative brightness is approximately %[n by correspond+ v>iations 9 size--! usual & almo/ ! only available means ( repres5tation4 ,( c\rse1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t a /> does n1 9 fact1 %[ any disk ev5 9 ! l>ge/ telescopes1 :]e x appe>s z a m]e po9t ( light1 hav+ m or less brilliancy4 ,! cone ( light rises obliquely along ! ecliptic1 & ! po9t =m+ its summit is f\nd 9 ! vic9ity ( ! well-kn[n gr\p ( />s1 call$ ! ,pleiades1 9 ! con/ellation ( ,taurus1 or ! ,bull4 ,,! ,,moon ,,plate ,,vi ,9 its endless j\rney ?r\gh space1 our globe is n solit>y1 l "s ( ! planets1 b is att5d$ by ! ,moon1 our ne>e/ cele/ial neighbor4 ,al?\gh ! ,moon does n atta9 to ! dignity ( a planet1 & rema9s a second>y body 9 ! sol> sy/em1 yet1 ow+ to its proximity to our globe1 & to ! great influ5ce x ex]ts ^u x by its p[]ful attraction1 x is to u "o ( ! mo/ important cele/ial bodies4 ,:ile ! ,moon accompanies ! ,e>? ar\nd ! ,sun1 x also revolves ar\nd ! ,e>? at a mean di/ance ( #bch1hjj miles4 ,= a cele/ial di/ance ?is is only a trifl+ "o2 ! ,e>? 9 advanc+ on its orbit travels ov] su* a di/ance 9 less ?an f\r h\rs4 ,a cannon ball w\ld rea* our satellite 9 n9e days2 & a telegraphic dispat* w\ld be transmitt$ !re 9 #a seconds ( "t1 if a wire c\ld be /ret*$ betwe5 u & ! ,moon4 ,ow+ to ! ellipticity ( ! ,moon's orbit1 its di/ance f ! ,e>? v>ies consid]ably1 our satellite be+ sometimes #ch1jjj miles ne>] to u ?an x is at o!r times4 ,^! *anges 9 ! di/ance ( ! ,moon occasion correspond+ *anges f #bi' to #cc' 9 its app>5t diamet]4 ,! real diamet] ( ! ,moon is #b1afj miles1 or a little ov] "o-qu>t] ! diamet] ( our globe2 our satellite be+ #di times small] ?an ! ,e>?4 ,! mean d5sity ( ! mat]ials compos+ ! ,moon is only t ( ! mat]ials compos+ ! ,e>?1 & ! =ce ( gravitation at ! surface ( our satellite is six times less ?an x is at ! surface ( our globe4 ,if a p]son weigh+ #aej lbs4 on our ,e>? c\ld be transport$ to ! ,moon1 8 weight !re w\ld be only #be lbs4 ,! ,moon revolves ar\nd ! ,e>? 9 ab\t #bg days1 ) a mean velocity ( "o mile p] second1 ! revolution con/itut+ its sid]eal p]iod4 ,if ! ,e>? 7 motionless1 ! lun> mon? w\ld be equal to ! sid]eal p]iod2 b ow+ to its motion 9 space1 ! ,sun appe>s to move ) ! ,moon1 ?\gh m sl[ly1 s t aft] hav+ accompli%$ "o complete revolution1 our satellite has yet to advance #b days be=e rea*+ ! same app>5t position 9 reg>d to ! ,e>? & ! ,sun t x _h at fir/4 ,! int]val ( "t compris$ betwe5 two successive ,new ,moons1 :i* is a little ov] #bi days1 con/itutes ! synodical p]iod ( ! ,moon1 or ! lun> mon?4 ,! ,moon is n a self-lum9\s body1 b1 l ! ,e>? & ! planets1 x reflects ! light :i* x receives f ! ,sun1 & s appe>s lum9\s4 ,t su* is ! case is suffici5tly demon/rat$ by ! phases exhibit$ by our satellite 9 ! c\rse ( ! lun> mon?4 ,e "o is famili> ) ^! phases1 :i* are a consequ5ce ( ! motion ( ! ,moon ar\nd ! ,e>?4 ,:5 our satellite is situat$ betwe5 u & ! ,sun1 x is ,new ,moon2 s9ce we _c see its illum9at$ side1 :i* is !n turn$ away f u t[>ds ! ,sun4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 x rea*es t po9t ( its orbit :i*1 9 reg>d to u1 is opposite to ! ,sun's place1 x is ,full ,moon2 s9ce f ! ,e>? we c only see ! fully illum9at$ side ( our satellite4 ,aga91 :5 ! ,moon arrives at ei!r ( ! two opposite po9ts ( its orbit1 ! direction ( :i* f ! ,e>? is at "r angles ) t ( ! ,sun1 x is ei!r ! ,fir/ or ! ,la/ ,qu>t]2 s9ce 9 ^! positions we c only see "o-half ( its illum9at$ disk4 ,! curve describ$ by ! ,moon ar\nd ! ,e>? lies approximately 9 a plane1 ?is plane be+ incl9$ ab\t #e to ! ecliptic4 ,s9ce our satellite1 9 its motion ar\nd u & ! ,sun1 closely foll[s ! ecliptic1 :i* is incl9$ #bc to ! equator1 x results t :5 ?is plane is respectively high or l[ 9 ! sky1 ! moon is also high or l[ :5 cross+ ! m]idian ( ! obs]v]4 ,9 w9t] t "p ( ! ecliptic occupi$ by ! ,sun is bel[ ! equator1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! ,new ,moons occurr+ 9 t season are l[ 9 ! sky1 s9ce at ,new ,moon our satellite mu/ be on ! same side ( ! ecliptic ) ! ,sun4 ,b ! ,full ,moons 9 ! same season are necess>ily high 9 ! sky1 s9ce a ,full ,moon c only occur :5 our satellite is on ! opposite side ( ! ecliptic f ! ,sun1 9 :i* position x is1 ( c\rse1 z _m degrees above ! equator z ! ,sun is bel[4 ,! ,full ,moon :i* happ5s ne>e/ to ! autumnal equ9ox is commonly call$ ! ,h>ve/ ,moon1 f ! fact t1 aft] full1 its delays 9 ris+ on successive ev5+s are v brief & !re=e favorable = ! h>ve/ "w 9 ! ev5+4 ,! same ph5om5on occurs 9 e o!r lun> mon?1 b n suffici5tly ne> ! "t ( ,full ,moon to be noticeable4 ,:51 9 spr+1 a day or two aft] ,new ,moon1 our satellite beg9s to %[ its ?9 cresc5t1 its position on ! ecliptic is nor? z well z ea/ ( t occupi$ by ! ,sun2 h5ce1 its horns are ne>ly upright 9 direction1 & give x a crude resemblance to a tipp+ b[l1 f :i* _m p :o are unaw>e ( its cause1 & t ?is happ5s e ye>1 draw conclusions z to ! am\nt ( ra9 to be expect$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable features ( ! ,moon's motions is t our satellite rotates on its axis 9 exactly ! same p]iod ( "t occupi$ by its revolution ar\nd ! ,e>?1 f :i* x results t ! ,moon always pres5ts to u ! same face4 ,to expla9 ?is peculi>ity1 a/ronom]s h suppos$ t ! figure ( our satellite is n p]fectly sph]ical1 b elongat$1 s t ! attraction ( ! ,e>?1 act+ m p[]fully ^u its ne>e/ portions1 always keeps !m turn$ t[>d u1 z if ! ,moon 7 unit$ to our globe by a /r+4 ,x is n exactly true1 h[ev]1 t ! ,moon always pres5ts its same side to u1 al?\gh its p]iod ( rotation exactly equals t ( its revolution2 s9ce 9 consequ5ce ( ! incl9ation ( its axis ( rotation to its orbit1 comb9$ ) ! irregul>ities ( its orbital motion ab\t u1 app>5t oscillations 9 latitude & 9 longitude1 call$ librations1 are creat$1 f :i* x results t ne>ly ( ! ,moon's surface is visible f ! ,e>? at "o "t or ano!r4 ,! ,moon is a famili> object1 & e "o is aw>e t our satellite1 especially :5 x is fully illum9at$1 pres5ts a v>iety ( bright & d>k m>k+s1 :i*1 f _! di/ant resemblance to a human face1 are popul>ly kn[n z ! man 9 ! moon4 ,a day or two aft] ,new ,moon1 :5 ! ?9 cresc5t ( our satellite is visible above ! we/]n horizon aft] sunset1 ! d>k portion ( its disk is pla9ly visible1 & appe>s ( a pale1 a%y gray color1 al?\gh n directly illum9at$ by ! ,sun4 ,?is ph5om5on is due to ! ,e>?-%9e1 or to t portion ( sol> light :i* ! illum9at$ surface ( our globe reflects to ! d>k side ( ! ,moon1 exactly 9 ! same mann] t ! ,moon-%9e1 on our ,e>?1 is due to ! sol> light reflect$ to our globe by ! illum9at$ ,moon4 ,se5 ) a telescope ( mod]ate p[]1 or ev5 ) a good op]a-glass1 ! ,moon pres5ts a peculi> mottl$ appe>ance1 & has a /rong resemblance to a globe made ( pla/] ( ,p>is1 on ! surface ( :i* num]\s r\ndi%1 sauc]-%ap$ cavities ( v>i\s sizes are scatt]$ at r&om4 ,?is mottl$ /ructure is bett] se5 along ! b\nd>y l9e call$ ! t]m9ator1 :i* divides ! illum9at$ f ! d>k side ( ! ,moon4 ,! l9e ( ! t]m9ator always appe>s jagg$1 & x is v easy to recognize t ?is irregul>ity is due to ! unev5 & rugg$ /ructure ( ! surface ( our satellite4 ,a glance at ! ,moon ?r\gh a l>g] telescope %[s t ! bright spots recogniz$ ) ! nak$ eye belong to v unev5 & m\nta9\s regions ( our satellite1 :ile ! d>k ones belong to comp>atively smoo?1 l[ surfaces1 comp>able to ^? =m+ ! great /eppes & pla9s ( ! ,e>?4 ,:5 exam9$ ) suffici5t magnify+ p[]1 ! :ite1 rugg$ di/ricts ( ! ,moon appe> cov]$ ov] by num]\s elevat$ craggy plateaus1 m\nta9-*a9s1 & deep rav9es2 by /eep cliffs & ridges2 by peaks ( great height & cavities ( great dep?4 ,?is rugg$ =mation1 :i* is und\bt$ly ( volcanic orig91 gives our satellite a desolate & b>r5 appe>ance4 ,! rugg$ tract occupies m ?an "o-half ( ! visible surface ( ! ,moon1 =m+ sev]al di/9ct masses1 ! pr9cipal ( :i* occupy ! s\? & s\?-we/]n "p ( ! disk4 ,t ?is =mation is elevat$ above ! g5]al level is prov$ by ! fact t ! m\nta9s1 peaks1 & o!r objects :i* compose x1 all ca/ a %ad[ opposite to ! ,sun2 & fur!r1 t ! l5g? ( ^! %ad[s dim9i%es ) ! elevation ( ! ,sun above ! lun> horizon4 ,s9ce ,galileo's "t ! surface ( ! ,moon has be5 /udi$ by a ho/ ( a/ronom]s1 & accurate maps ( its topographical configuration h be5 made1 & names giv5 to all features ( any prom95ce4 ,x may ev5 be said t 9 its g5]al features1 ! visible surface ( our satellite is n[ bett] kn[n to u ?an is ! surface ( our own ,e>?4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ & common features ( ! m\nta9\s di/ricts ( ! ,moon1 is ! circul>1 r+-l disposition ( _! elevat$ p>ts1 :i* =m num]\s crat]-l objects ( diff]5t sizes & dep?s4 ,_m ?\s&s ( crat]-l objects are visible on ! ,moon ?r\gh a good telescope1 &1 consid]+ h[ num]\s ! small ones are1 !re is1 p]haps1 no great exagg]ation 9 fix+ _! numb] at #ej1jjj1 z has be5 done by "s a/ronom]s4 ,^! volcanic regions ( ! ,moon _c be comp>$ to any?+ we "k1 & f> surpass 9 ext5t ^? ( our globe4 ,! numb] & size ( ! crat]s ( our mo/ important volcanic regions 9 ,europe1 9 ,asia1 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 9 ,java1 9 ,sumatra1 & ,borneo1 are insignificant :5 comp>$ ) ^? ( ! ,moon4 ,! l>ge/ kn[n crat]s on ! ,e>? give only a fa9t idea ( ! magnitude ( "s ( ! lun> crat]s4 ,! great crat] ,haleakala1 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 probably ! l>ge/ ( ! t]re/rial volcanoes1 has a circumf]5ce ( ?irty miles1 or a diamet] ( a little less ?an t5 miles4 ,"s ( ! great lun> crat]s1 call$ wall$ pla9s1 su* z ,hipp>*us1 ,ptolemu1 etc41 h a diamet] m ?an t5 times l>g] ?an t ( ,haleakala1 t ( ! fir/ be+ #aae miles & t ( ! la/ #ajj miles4 ,^! are1 ( c\rse1 among ! l>ge/ ( ! crat]s ( ! ,moon1 al?\gh !re are on our satellite a great numb] ( crat]s above t5 miles 9 diamet]4 ,! crat]-=ms ( ! ,moon h evid5tly appe>$ at diff]5t p]iods ( "t1 s9ce small crat]s are frequ5tly f\nd on ! walls ( l>g] ones2 &1 inde$1 /ill small] crat]s are n r>ely se5 on ! walls ( ^! la/4 ,! walls ( ! lun> crat]s are usually q elevat$ above ! surr\nd+ surface1 "s ( !m atta9+ consid]able elevations1 especially at "s po9ts1 :i* =m peaks ( great height4 ,newton1 ! l(tie/ ( all1 rises at "o po9t to ! height ( #bc1jjj feet1 :ile _m o!rs range f t5 to tw5ty ?\s& feet 9 height4 ,sev]al crat]s h _! floor above ! g5]al surface--,plato1 = in/ance4 ,w>g5t9 has its floor ne>ly on a level ) ! summit ( its walls1 %[+ t at "s p]iod ( its hi/ory liquid lavas1 eject$ f )91 h fill$ x to ! brim & !n solidifi$4 ,! floors ( "s ( ! crat]s are smoo? & flat1 b 9 g5]al !y are occupi$ by peaks & abrupt m\nta9\s masses1 :i* usually =m ! c5tre4 ,_m ( _! outside walls are p>tly or :olly cov]$ by num]\s rav9es & gullies1 w9d+ d[n _! /eep declivities1 bran*+ out & sometimes ext5d+ to great di/ances f _! base4 ,x w\ld seem t ^! great volcanic m\?s h at "s "t p\r$ out torr5ts ( lavas1 :i*1 9 _! desc5t1 c>v$ _! passage by ! deep gullies n[ visible4 ,sometimes1 also1 ! crat] slopes are /rewn ) debris1 giv+ !m a peculi> volcanic appe>ance4 ,not)/&+ _! _m po9ts ( simil>ity ) ! volcanoes ( ! ,e>?1 ! lun> crat]s diff] f !m 9 _m p>ticul>s1 %[+ t volcanic =ces act+ on diff]5t globes may produce widely diff]5t results4 ,= example1 ! floors ( t]re/rial crat]s are usually situat$ at consid]able elevations above ! g5]al surface1 :ile ^? ( ! lun> crat]s are g5]ally mu* depress$1 ! height ( _! walls be+ only ab\t "o-half ! dep? ( _! cavities4 ,aga91 :ile on ! ,e>? ! mass ( ! volcanic cones f> exce$s ! capacity ( _! op5+s1 on ! ,moon x is n r>e to see ! capacity ( ! crat] cavities exce$+ ! mass ( ! surr\nd+ walls4 ,on ! ,e>?1 ! volcanic cones & m\?s are comp>atively regul> & smoo?1 & are g5]ally due to ! accumulation ( ! a%es & ! debris ( all k9ds :i* are eject$ f ! volcanic m\?s4 ,on ! ,moon1 v few crat]s %[ ?is "*1 & = ! mo/ "p _! walls h a v diff]5t /ructure1 be+ irregul>1 v rugg$1 & compos$ ( a succession ( conc5tric ridges1 ris+ at _m po9ts to great elevations1 & =m+ peaks ( /up5d\s height4 ,aga91 _m ( ! l>g] t]re/rial crat]s h _! int]ior occupi$ by a c5tral cone1 or sev]al su* cones1 hav+ a volcanic m\? on _! summits2 on ! ,moon su* c5tral cones are v r>e4 ,al?\gh _m ( ! l>ge lun> crat]s h _! int]ior occupi$ by c5tral masses :i* h be5 (t5 comp>$ to ! c5tral cones ( our great volcanoes1 yet ^! objects h a v diff]5t "* & orig94 ,= ! mo/ "p1 !y are m\nta9\s masses ( diff]5t =ms--hav+ v r>ely any crat]s on !m--& seem to h result$ f ! cr[d+ & lift+ up ( ! crat] floor by ! ph5om5a ( subsid5ce1 ( :i* ^! crat]s %[ abundant signs4 ,besides1 ! t]re/rial crat]s are *>act]iz$ by l>ge & important lava /reams1 :ile on ! ,moon ! traces ( su* ph5om5a are q r>e1 & :5 !y are %[n1 !y g5]ally diff] f ^? ( ! ,e>? by _! num]\s & complicat$ ramifications1 & also by ! fact t _m ( ^! lava /reamlets take _! orig9 at a consid]able di/ance f ! crat] slopes1 & are groov$ & depress$ z if ! burn+ liquids :i* are suppos$ to h produc$ !m _h subsequ5tly disappe>$1 by evaporation or o!rwise1 leav+ ! furr[ empty4 ,! d>k spots ( ! ,moon1 :5 view$ ?r\gh a telescope1 exhibit a totally diff]5t "*1 & %[ t !y belong to a diff]5t =mation f t ( ! bright] portions4 ,^! d>k] tracts d n seem to h _h a direct volcanic orig9 l ! latt]1 b r appe> to h result$ f ! solidification ( semi-fluid mat]ials1 :i* h ov]fl[$ va/ areas at diff]5t times4 ,! surface ( ?is sy/em is comp>atively smoo? & uni=m1 only "s small crat]s & l[ ridges be+ se5 ^u x4 ,! level & d>k appe>ance ( ^! areas l$ ! anci5t a/ronom]s to ! belief t !y 7 produc$ by a liquid /rongly absorb+ ! rays ( light1 & 7 seas l our seas4 ,accord+ly1 ^! d>k surfaces 7 call$ ,m>ia1 or ,seas1 a "n :i* x is conv5i5t to reta91 al?\gh x is well kn[n to h orig9at$ 9 an error4 ,! s-call$ seas ( ! ,moon are evid5tly l>ge flat surfaces simil> to ! des]ts1 /eppes1 pampas1 & prairies ( ! ,e>? 9 g5]al appe>ance4 ,! great pla9s ( ! ,moon are at a l[] level ?an t ( ! o!r =mation1 & t :i* fir/ attracts ! obs]v]'s att5tion is ! fact t !y are surr\nd$ almo/ on all sides by an irregul> l9e ( abrupt cliffs & m\nta9 *a9s1 %[+ ph5om5a ( dislocation4 ,?is "* ( dislocation1 :i* is g5]al1 & is visible ev]y:]e ^u ! cont\rs ( ! pla9s1 seems to indicate t ph5om5a ( subsid5ce1 ei!r sl[ or rapid1 h occurr$ on ! ,moon2 :ile1 at ! same "t1 ! sunk5 surfaces 7 ov]fl[$ by a semi-fluid liquid1 :i* solidifi$ aft]w>ds4 ,! evid5ces ( subsid5ce & ov]fl[+ become unmi/akable :5 we obs]ve t1 along ! bord]s ( ! gray pla9s1 num]\s crat]s are m or less emb$d$ 9 ! gray =mation1 only p>ts ( ! summit ( _! walls rema9+ visible1 to atte/ t once l>ge crat]s exi/$ !re4 ,! f>!r f ! bord] ( ! pla9 ! ve/iges ( ^! crat]s are obs]v$1 ! deep] !y are emb$d$ 9 ! gray =mation4 ,t ph5om5a ( subsid5ce h occurr$ on a gr& scale on ! ,moon1 is fur!r indicat$ by ! fact t ! s+ul> sy/ems ( fractures call$ clefts & rifts g5]ally foll[ closely ! outside bord] ( ! gray pla9s1 (t5 =m+ p>allel l9es ( dislocation & fractures4 ,9 ! int]ior regions ( ! gray =mation1 ^! fractures are comp>atively r>e4 ,! gray1 lava-l =mation is obvi\sly ( lat] orig9 ?an ! m\nta9\s sy/em to :i* belong ! emb$d$ crat]s above describ$4 ,its comp>atively rec5t orig9 might also be inf]r$ f ! smallness ( its crat]s & its l[ ridges4 ,! few l>ge crat]s obs]v$ on ?is =mation evid5tly belong to ! e>li] sy/em4 ,! color ( ?is sy/em ( gray pla9s is f> f be+ uni=m4 ,9 g5]al appe>ance x is ( a blui% gray1 b :5 obs]v$ att5tively1 l>ge areas appe> t9t$ ) a dusky olive-gre51 :ile o!rs are slightly t+$ ) yell[4 ,"s pat*es appe> br[ni%1 & ev5 purpli%4 ,a rem>kable example ( ! fir/ case is se5 on ! surface1 :i* encloses )9 a l>ge p>allelogram ! two conspicu\s crat]s1 ,ari/>*us & ,h]odotus4 ,?is surface evid5tly belongs to a diff]5t sy/em f t ( ! ,oceanus ,procell>um surr\nd+ x1 z1 besides its color1 :i* totally diff]s f t ( ! gray =mation1 its surface %[s ! rugg$ /ructure ( ! volcanic =mation4 ,:5 ! ,moon is full1 "s v curi\s :ite1 lum9\s /reaks are se5 radiat+ f diff]5t c5tres1 :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 are important crat]s1 occupi$ by int]ior m\nta9s4 ,! great crat] ,ty*o is ! c5tre ( ! mo/ impos+ ( ! sy/ems ( :ite /reaks4 ,"s ( ! div]g+ rays ( ?is great c5tre ext5d to a di/ance equal to "o-qu>t] ( ! ,moon's circumf]5ce1 or ab\t #a1gjj miles4 ,! true nature ( ^! lum9\s /reaks is unkn[n1 b x seems c]ta9 t !y h _! orig9 9 ! crat] f :i* !y div]ge4 ,!y d n =m any relief on ! surface1 & are se5 go+ up ov] ! m\nta9s & /eep walls ( ! crat]1 z well z d[n ! rav9es & on ! floors ( crat]s4 ,! ,moon seems to be depriv$ ( an atmosph]e2 or1 if x has any1 x mu/ be s excessively r>e t its d5sity is less ?an ( ! d5sity ( ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e1 s9ce delicate te/s af=d$ by ! occultation ( />s h fail$ to reveal its pres5ce4 ,al?\gh no atmosph]e ( any consequ5ce exi/s on ! ,moon1 yet ph5om5a :i* ,i h obs]v$ seem to indicate ! occasional pres5ce !re ( vapors ( "s sort4 ,on sev]al occasions1 ,i h se5 a purpli% light ov] "s p>ts ( ! ,moon1 :i* prev5t$ well-kn[n objects be+ z di/9ctly se5 z !y 7 at o!r times1 caus+ !m to appe> z if se5 ?r\gh a fog4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ ( ^! obs]vations 0 made on ,janu>y #d?1 #ahgc1 on ! crat] ,kant & its vic9ity1 :i* !n appe>$ z if se5 ?r\gh lum9\s purpli% vapors4 ,on "o occasion1 ! great crat] ,god91 :i* 0 entirely involv$ 9 ! %ad[ ( its we/]n wall1 appe>$ illum9at$ 9 its int]ior by a fa9t purpli% light1 :i* enabl$ me to recognize ! /ructure ( ?is int]ior4 ,! ph5om5on c\ld n be attribut$ 9 ?is case to reflection1 s9ce ! ,sun1 !n j ris+ on ! we/]n wall ( ! crat]1 _h n yet graz$ ! ea/]n wall1 :i* 0 invisible4 ,x is n impossible t a v r>e atmosph]e compos$ ( su* vapors exi/s 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! ,moon4 ,if ! ,moon has no air1 & no liquids ( any sort1 x seems impossible t its surface c ma9ta9 any =m ( life1 ei!r vegetable or animal1 analog\s to ^? on ! ,e>?4 ,9 fact1 no?+ indicat+ life has be5 detect$ on ! ,moon--our satellite look+ l a b>r51 lifeless des]t4 ,if life is to be f\nd !re at all1 x mu/ be ( a v elem5t>y nature4 ,aside f ! want ( air & wat] to su/a9 x1 ! climatic conditions ( our satellite are v unfavorable = ! developm5t ( life4 ,! nights & days ( ! ,moon are ea* equal to ne>ly fifte5 ( our days & nights4 ,= fifte5 consecutive t]re/rial days ! ,sun's light is abs5t f "o hemisph]e ( ! ,moon2 :ile = ! same numb] ( days ! ,sun p\rs d[n on ! o!r hemisph]e its light & heat1 ! effects ( :i* are n 9 any way mitigat$ by an atmosph]e4 ,dur+ ! long lun> nights ! temp]ature mu/ at lea/ fall to t ( our pol> regions1 :ile dur+ its long days x mu/ be f> above t ( our tropical zone4 ,x has be5 calculat$ t dur+ ! lun> nights ! temp]ature desc5ds to #bc bel[ z]o1 :ile dur+ ! days x rises to #dfh1 or #bef above ! boil+ po9t4 ,x has be5 a "q among a/ronom]s :e!r *anges are /ill tak+ place at ! surface ( ! ,moon4 ,aside f ! fact t *ange1 n con/ancy1 is ! law ( nature1 x does n seem d\btful t *anges occur on ! ,moon1 especially 9 view ( ! p[]ful influ5ces ( contraction & dilatation to :i* its mat]ials are submitt$ by its sev]e alt]nations ( temp]ature4 ,f ! di/ance at :i* we view our satellite1 we _c expect1 ( c\rse1 to be able to see *anges1 unless !y are produc$ on a l>ge scale4 ,!oretically speak+1 ! l>ge/ telescopes ev] con/ruct$ ought to %[ u ! ,moon z x w\ld appe> to ! nak$ eye f a di/ance ( #dj miles2 b 9 practice x is v diff]5t4 ,! difficulty is 9 ! fact t1 :ile we magnify ! surface ( a telescopic image1 we are unable to increase its light2 s t1 practically1 9 magnify+ an object1 we weak5 its light proportionally to ! magnify+ p[] employ$4 ,! light ( ! ,moon1 especially ne> ! t]m9ator1 :]e we almo/ always make our obs]vations1 is n suffici5tly bright to be> a v high magnify+ p[]1 & only mod]ate ones c be appli$ to its /udy4 ,:at we ga9 by enl>g+ an object1 we m ?an lose by ! weak5+ ( its light4 ,besides1 a high magnify+ p[]1 by increas+ ! di/urbances g5]ally pres5t 9 our atmosph]e1 r5d]s ! telescopic image un/eady & v indi/9ct4 ,on ! :ole1 ! l>ge/ telescopes n[ 9 exi/5ce d n %[ u our satellite bett] ?an if we c\ld see x ) ! nak$ eye f a di/ance ( #cjj miles or m4 ,at su* a di/ance only consid]able *anges w\ld be visible4 ,not)/&+ ^! difficulties1 x is believ$ t *anges h be5 detect$ 9 ,l9n1 ,m>ius1 ,messi]1 & sev]al o!r crat]s4 ,an obs]vation ( m9e seems to indicate t *anges h rec5tly tak5 place 9 ! great crat] ,eudoxus4 ,on ,febru>y #bj?1 #ahgg1 betwe5 #i;h4 #cjm4 & #aj;h4 #cjm41 ,i obs]v$ a /raight1 n>r[ wall cross+ ?is crat] f ea/ to we/1 a little to ! s\? ( its c5tre4 ,?is wall _h a consid]able elevation1 z 0 prov$ by ! %ad[ x ca/ on its nor!rn side4 ,t[>ds its we/]n end ?is wall appe>$ z a brilliant ?read ( light on ! black %ad[ ca/ by ! we/]n wall ( ! crat]4 ,! fir/ "t ,i _h occasion to obs]ve ?is crat] aga91 aft] ?is obs]vation1 0 a ye> lat]1 on ,febru>y #ag?1 #ahgh2 no traces ( ! wall 7 !n detect$4 ,_m times s9ce ,i h tri$ to f9d ?is n>r[ wall aga91 :5 ! ,moon pres5t$ ! same phase & ! same illum9ation1 b always ) negative results4 ,x seems probable t ?is /ructure has crumbl$ d[n1 yet x is v s+ul> t s prom95t a feature %\ld n h be5 notic$ be=e4 ,,plate ,,vi4--,,m>e ,,humorum4 ,f a /udy made 9 #ahge ,! ,m>e ,humorum1 or sea ( moi/ure1 z x is call$1 :i* is repres5t$ on ,plate ,,vi41 is "o ( ! small] gray lun> pla9s4 ,its diamet]1 :i* is v ne>ly ! same 9 all directions1 is ab\t #bgj miles1 ! total area ( ?is pla9 be+ ab\t #ej1jjj squ>e miles4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ di/9ct pla9s ( ! ,moon1 & is easily se5 ) ! nak$ eye on ! left-h& side ( ! disk4 ,! floor ( ! pla9 is1 l t ( ! o!r gray pla9s1 trav]s$ by sev]al sy/ems ( v ext5d$ b l[ hills & ridges1 :ile small crat]s are dissem9at$ ^u its surface4 ,! color ( ?is =mation is ( a dusky gre5i% gray along ! bord]1 :ile 9 ! int]ior x is ( a light] %ade1 & is ( br[ni% olivace\s t9t4 ,?is pla91 :i* is surr\nd$ by high clefts & rifts1 well illu/rates ! ph5om5a ( dislocation & subsid5ce4 ,! d\ble-r+$ crat] ,vitello1 ^: walls rise f #d1jjj to #e1jjj feet 9 height1 is se5 9 ! upp] left-h& corn] ( ! gray pla94 ,close to ,vitello1 at ! ea/1 is ! l>ge brok5 r+-pla9 ,lee1 & f>!r ea/1 & a little bel[1 is a simil>ly brok5 crat] call$ ,doppelmay]4 ,bo? ( ^! op5 crat]s h m\nta9\s masses & peaks on _! floor1 :i* is on a level ) t ( ! ,m>e ,humorum4 ,a little bel[1 & to ! left ( ^! objects1 is se5 a deeply emb$d$ oval crat]1 ^: walls b>ely rise above ! level ( ! pla94 ,on ! "r-h& side ( ! great pla91 is a long fault1 ) a sy/em ( fracture runn+ along its bord]4 ,on ?is "r-h& side1 may be se5 a "p ( ! l9e ( ! t]m9ator1 :i* sep>ates ! light f ! d>kness4 ,t[>ds ! l[] "r-h& corn]1 is ! great r+-pla9 ,gass5di1 #ee miles 9 diamet]1 ) its sy/em ( fractures & its c5tral m\nta9s1 :i* rise f #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet above its floor4 ,?is crat] slopes s\?w>d t[>ds ! pla91 %[+ ! subsid5ce to :i* x has be5 submitt$4 ,:ile ! nor!rn portion ( ! wall ( ?is crat] rises to #aj1jjj feet1 t on ! pla9 is only #ejj feet high1 & is ev5 :olly demoli%$ at "o place :]e ! floor ( ! crat] is 9 direct communication ) ! pla94 ,9 ! l[] "p ( ! m>e1 & a little to ! we/ ( ! middle l9e1 is f\nd ! crat] ,aga?>*ides1 :i* %[s bel[ its nor? wall ! m>ks ( rills impress$ by a flood ( lava1 :i* once issu$ f ! side ( ! crat]4 ,on ! left-h& side ( ! pla91 is se5 ! half-demoli%$ crat] ,hippalus1 resembl+ a l>ge bay1 :i* has its int]ior /rewn ) peaks & m\nta9s4 ,on ?is same side c be se5 "o ( ! mo/ important sy/ems ( clefts & fractures visible on ! ,moon1 ^! clefts v>y+ 9 l5g? f #aej to #bjj miles4 ,,eclipses ,,( ,,! ,,moon ,,plate ,,vii ,s9ce ! ,moon is n a self-lum9\s body1 b %9es by ! light :i* x borr[s f ! ,sun1 x foll[s t :5 ! ,sun's light is prev5t$ f rea*+ its surface1 our satellite becomes obscur$4 ,! ,e>?1 l all opaque bodies expos$ to sunlight1 ca/s a %ad[ 9 space1 ! direction ( :i* is always opposite to ! ,sun's place4 ,! =m ( ! ,e>?'s %ad[ is t ( a long1 %>ply-po9t$ cone1 :i* has our globe = its base4 ,its l5g?1 v>y+ ) ! di/ance ( ! ,e>? f ! ,sun1 is1 on an av]age1 #hee1jjj miles1 or #ajh times ! t]re/rial diamet]4 ,?is conical %ad[ ( ! ,e>?1 divid$ longitud9ally by ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 lies half above & half bel[ t plane1 on :i* ! summit ( ! %ad[ describes a :ole circumf]5ce 9 ! c\rse ( a ye>4 ,if ! ,moon's orbit 7 n incl9$ to ! ecliptic1 our satellite w\ld pass at e ,full ,moon directly ?r\gh ! ,e>?'s %ad[2 b1 ow+ to t incl9ation1 x usually passes above or bel[ ! %ad[4 ,twice1 h[ev]1 dur+ ea* ( its revolutions1 x mu/ cross ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 ! po9ts ( its orbit :]e ?is happ5s be+ call$ nodes4 ,accord+ly1 if x is ne> a node at ! "t ( ,full ,moon1 x w ent] ! %ad[ ( ! ,e>?1 & become ei!r p>tly or :olly obscur$1 accord+ to ! di/ance ( its c5tre f ! plane ( ! ecliptic4 ,! p>tial or total obscuration ( ! ,moon's disk ?us produc$ con/itutes a p>tial or total eclipse ( ! ,moon4 ,! ess5tial conditions = an eclipse ( ! ,moon are1 !re=e1 t our satellite mu/ n only be full1 b mu/ also be at or v ne> "o ( its nodes4 ,al?\gh inf]ior 9 importance to ! eclipses ( ! ,sun1 ! eclipses ( ! ,moon are1 nev]!less1 v int]e/+ & rem>kable ph5om5a1 :i* nev] fail to produce a deep impression on ! m9d ( ! obs]v]1 inasmu* z !y give him a cle> insight into ! sil5t motions ( ! planet>y bodies4 ,at ! mean di/ance ( ! ,moon f ! ,e>?1 ! diamet] ( ! conical %ad[ ca/ 9 space by our globe is m ?an twice z l>ge z t ( our satellite4 ,b1 besides ?is pure d>k %ad[ ( ! ,e>?1 its cone is envelop$ by a p>tial %ad[ call$ ,p5umbra1 :i* is produc$ by ! ,sun's light be+ p>tially1 b n :olly1 cut (f by our globe4 ,:ile ! ,moon is pass+ into ! p5umbra1 a slight r$uction ( ! light ( t "p ( ! disk :i* has ent]$ x1 is noticeable4 ,z ! progress ( ! ,moon cont9ues1 ! r$uction becomes m rem>kable1 giv+ ! impression t r>e & invisible vapors are pass+ ov] our satellite4 ,"s "t aft]1 a small d>k-ind5tation1 m>k+ ! in/ant ( fir/ contact1 appe>s on ! ea/]n or left-h& bord] ( ! ,moon1 :i* is always ! fir/ to enc\nt] ! ,e>?'s %ad[1 s9ce our satellite is mov+ f we/ to ea/4 ,! d>k ind5tation sl[ly & gradually enl>ges ) ! onw>d progress ( ! ,moon into ! ,e>?'s %ad[1 :ile ! lum9\s surface ( its disk dim9i%es 9 ! same proportion4 ,! =m ( ! ,e>?'s %ad[ on ! ,moon's disk cle>ly indicates ! rotundity ( our globe by its circul> outl9e4 ,little by little ! d>k segm5t cov]s ! ,moon's disk1 & its cresc5t1 at la/ r$uc$ to a m]e ?read ( light1 disappe>s at ! mom5t ( ! second contact4 ,) ?is ! phase ( totality beg9s1 our satellite be+ !n completely involv$ 9 ! ,e>?'s %ad[4 ,! ,moon rema9s s eclips$ = a p]iod ( "t :i* v>ies ) its di/ance f ! ,e>?1 & ) ! po9t ( its orbit :]e x crosses ! conical %ad[4 ,:5 x passes ?r\gh ! middle ( ?is %ad[1 :ile its di/ance f our globe is ! lea/1 ! total phase ( an eclipse ( ! ,moon may la/ ne>ly two h\rs4 ,! left-h& bord] ( our satellite hav+ gone fir/ into ! ,e>?'s %ad[1 is also ! fir/ to em]ge1 &1 at ! mom5t ( do+ s1 x receives ! ,sun's light1 & totality ends ) ! ?ird contact4 ,! lun> cresc5t gradually increases 9 bread? aft] its exit f ! %ad[1 & f9ally ! ,moon recov]s its fully illum9at$ disk z be=e1 at ! mom5t its we/]n bord] leaves ! ,e>?'s %ad[4 ,soon aft]1 x passes out ( ! p5umbra1 & ! eclipse is ov]4 ,9 total eclipses1 ! int]val ( "t f ! fir/ to la/ contact may la/ #e;h4 #cjm1 b x is usually %ort]4 ,soon aft] ! beg9n+ ( an eclipse1 ! d>k segm5t produc$ by ! ,e>?'s %ad[ on ! ,moon's disk g5]ally appe>s ( a d>k grayi% opaque color1 b ) ! progress ( ! ph5om5on1 ?is d>k t9t is *ang$ into a dull r$di% color1 :i*1 gradually increas+1 atta9s its greate/ int5sity :5 ! eclipse is total4 ,at t mom5t ! color ( ! ,moon is ( a dusky1 r$di%1 copp]y hue1 & ! g5]al features ( ! ,moon's surface are visible z d>k] & light] t9ts ( ! same color4 ,x sometimes happ5s1 h[ev]1 t our satellite does n exhibit ?is peculi> copp]y t9t1 b appe>s ei!r blacki% or blui%1 9 :i* case x is h>dly di/+ui%able f ! sky4 ,x is v r>e = ! ,moon to disappe> completely dur+ totality1 & ev5 :5 involv$ 9 ! deepe/ "p ( ! ,e>?'s %ad[1 our satellite usually rema9s visible to ! nak$ eye1 or1 at lea/1 to ! telescope4 ,?is ph5om5on is to be attribut$ to ! fact t ! portion ( ! sol> rays :i* trav]se ! l[] /rata ( our atmosph]e are /rongly refract$1 & b5d inw>d 9 su* a mann] t !y fall on ! ,moon1 & suffici5tly illum9ate its surface to make x visible4 ,! r$di% color obs]v$ is caus$ by ! absorption ( ! blue rays ( light by ! vapors :i* ord9>ily-saturate ! l[] regions ( our atmosph]e1 leav+ only r$ rays to rea* ! ,moon's surface4 ,( c\rse1 ^! ph5om5a are liable to v>y ) e eclipse1 & dep5d almo/ exclusively on ! meteorological conditions ( our atmosph]e4 ,9 "s cases ! phase ( totality la/s long] ?an x %\ld1 accord+ to calculation4 ,?is c be attribut$ to ! fact t ! ,e>? is envelop$ 9 a d5se atmosph]e1 9 :i* opaque cl\ds ( consid]able ext5t are (t5 =m+ at great elevations4 ,su* /rata ( cl\ds1 9 int]cept+ ! ,sun's light1 w\ld h1 ( c\rse1 ! effect ( increas+ ! diamet] ( ! ,e>?'s %ad[1 9 a direction correspond+ to ! place !y occupy1 &1 if ! ,moon 7 mov+ 9 ?is direction1 w\ld increase ! phase ( total obscuration4 ,! eclipses ( ! ,moon1 l ^? ( ! ,sun1 z %[n above1 h a cycle ( #ah ye>s1 #aa days & #g h\rs1 & recur aft] ?is p]iod ( "t 9 ne>ly ! same ord]4 ,!y c1 !re=e1 be approximately pr$ict$ by add+ #ahy4 #aa;d4 #g;h4 to ! date ( ! eclipses :i* h occurr$ dur+ ! prec$+ p]iod4 ,dur+ ?is cycle #gj eclipses w occur--#da be+ eclipses ( ! ,sun & #bi eclipses ( ! ,moon4 ,at no "t c !re ev] be m ?an sev5 eclipses 9 a ye>1 & !re are nev] less ?an two4 ,:5 !re are only two eclipses 9 a ye>1 !y are bo? eclipses ( ! ,sun4 ,al?\gh ! numb] ( sol> eclipses occurr+ at "s po9t or o!r ( ! ,e>?'s surface is great] ?an t ( ! eclipses ( ! ,moon1 yet at any s+le t]re/rial /ation ! eclipses ( ! ,moon are ! m frequ5t4 ,:ile an eclipse ( ! ,sun is only visible on a n>r[ belt1 :i* is b a v small fraction ( ! hemisph]e !n illum9at$ by ! ,sun1 an eclipse ( ! ,moon is visible f all ! po9ts ( ! ,e>? :i* h ! ,moon above _! horizon at ! "t4 ,fur!rmore1 an eclipse ( ! ,sun is n visible at "o "t ov] ! :ole l5g? ( its n>r[ tract1 b moves gradually f "o end ( x to ! o!r2 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 an eclipse ( ! ,moon beg9s & ends at ! v same in/ant = all places f :i* x c be se51 b1 ( c\rse1 n at ! same local "t1 :i* v>ies ) ! longitude ( ! place4 ,,plate ,,vii4--,,p>tial ,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,moon4 ,obs]v$ ,octob] #bd1 #ahgd ,! p>tial eclipse ( ! ,moon1 repres5t$ on ,plate ,,vii41 %[s q pla9ly ! configuration ( our satellite z se5 ) ! nak$ eye dur+ ! eclipse1 ) its bright & d>k spots1 & its radiat+ /reaks4 ,?is eclipse 0 obs]v$ on ,octob] #bd?1 #ahgd4 ,,! ,,planets ,ar\nd ! ,sun circulate a numb] ( cele/ial bodies1 :i* are call$ ,planets4 ,! planets are opaque bodies1 & appe> lum9\s because _! surfaces reflect ! light !y receive f ! ,sun4 ,! planets are situat$ at v>i\s di/ances f ! ,sun1 & revolve ar\nd ?is body 9 widely diff]5t p]iods ( "t1 :i* are1 h[ev]1 con/ant = ea* planet1 s f> z asc]ta9$1 & d\btless are s 9 ! o!r cases4 ,! ideal l9e trac$ 9 space by a planet 9 go+ ar\nd ! ,sun1 is call$ ! orbit ( ! planet2 :ile ! p]iod ( "t employ$ by a planet to travel ov] its entire orbit & return to its />t+ po9t1 is call$ ! sid]eal revolution1 or ye> ( ! planet4 ,! dim5sions ( ! orbits ( ! diff]5t planets necess>ily v>y ) ! di/ance ( ^! bodies f ! ,sun1 z does also ! l5g? ( _! sid]eal revolution4 ,! di/ance ( a planet f ! ,sun does n rema9 con/ant1 b is subject to v>iations1 :i* 9 c]ta9 cases are q l>ge4 ,^! v>iations result f ! fact t ! planet>y orbits are n p]fect circles hav+ ! ,sun = c5tre1 b curves call$ ,ellipses1 :i* h two c5tres1 or foci1 "o ( :i* is always occupi$ by ! ,sun4 ,?is is 9 accordance ) ,kepl]'s fir/ law4 ,! ideal po9t situat$ midway betwe5 ! two foci is call$ ! c5tre ( ! ellipse1 or orbit2 :ile ! imag9>y /raight l9e :i* passes ?r\gh bo? foci & ! c5tre1 ) its ends at opposite po9ts ( ! ellipse1 is call$ ! major axis ( ! orbit4 ,x is also kn[n z ! l9e ( ! apsides4 ,! ideal /raight l9e :i*1 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! orbit1 cuts ! major axis at "r angles1 & is prolong$ on ei!r side to opposite po9ts on ! ellipse1 is call$ ! m9or axis ( ! orbit4 ,:5 a planet rea*es t extremity ( ! major axis ( its orbit :i* is ! ne>e/ to ! ,sun1 x is said to be 9 its p]ihelion2 :ile1 :5 x arrives at ! o!r extremity1 :i* is f>!/ f ?is body1 x is said to be 9 its aphelion4 ,:5 a planet rea*es ei!r ( ! two opposite po9ts ( its orbit situat$ at ! extremities ( its m9or axis1 x is said to be at its mean di/ance f ! ,sun4 ,! rapidity ) :i* ! planets move on _! orbits v>ies ) _! di/ance f ! ,sun2 ! f>!r !y are f ?is body1 ! m sl[ly !y move4 ,! rapidity ( _! motion is greate/ :5 !y are 9 p]ihelion1 & lea/ :5 !y are 9 aphelion1 hav+ its mean rate :5 ^! bodies are cross+ ei!r ( ! extremities ( ! m9or axes ( _! orbits4 ,! imag9>y l9e :i* jo9s ! ,sun to a planet at any po9t ( its orbit1 & moves ) ?is planet ar\nd ! ,sun1 is call$ ! radius vector4 ,accord+ to ,kepl]'s second law1 :atev] may be ! di/ance ( a planet f ! ,sun1 ! radius vector sweeps ov] equal areas ( ! plane ( ! planet's orbit 9 equal times4 ,!re is a rem>kable relation betwe5 ! di/ance ( ! planets f ! ,sun & _! p]iod ( revolution1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! squ>es ( _! p]iodic times are respectively equal to ! cubes ( _! mean di/ances f ! ,sun4 ,f ?is ?ird law ( ,kepl]1 x results t ! m]e k ( ! mean di/ance ( a planet f ! ,sun enables "o to "k its p]iod ( revolution1 & vice v]sa4 ,! orbit describ$ by ! ,e>? ar\nd ! ,sun 9 a ye>1 or ! app>5t pa? ( ! ,sun 9 ! sky1 is call$ ! ecliptic4 ,l t ( all ! planet>y orbits1 ! plane ( ! ecliptic passes ?r\gh ! ,sun's c5tre4 ,! ecliptic has a great importance 9 a/ronomy1 inasmu* z x is ! fundam5tal plane to :i* ! orbits & motions ( all planets are ref]r$4 ,! orbits ( ! l>g] planets are n q p>allel to ! ecliptic1 b m or less incl9$ to ?is plane2 al?\gh ! incl9ation is small1 & does n exce$ eight degrees4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is incl9ation ( ! orbits1 ! planets1 9 accompli%+ _! revolutions ar\nd ! ,sun1 are sometimes above & sometimes bel[ ! plane ( ! ecliptic4 ,a belt ext5d+ #h on ea* side ( ! ecliptic1 &1 !re=e1 #af 9 wid?1 comprises )9 its limits ! orbits ( all ! pr9cipal planets4 ,?is belt is call$ ! ,zodiac4 ,s9ce all ! planets h ! ,sun = a common c5tre1 & h _! orbits incl9$ to ! ecliptic1 x foll[s t ea* ( ^! orbits mu/ necess>ily int]sect ! plane ( ! ecliptic at two opposite po9ts situat$ at ! extremities ( a /raight l9e pass+ ?r\gh ! ,sun's c5tre4 ,! two opposite po9ts on a planet>y orbit :]e its int]sections ) ! ecliptic occur1 are call$ ! ,nodes1 & ! imag9>y l9e jo9+ !m1 :i* passes ?r\gh ! ,sun's c5tre1 is call$ ! l9e ( ! nodes4 ,! node situat$ at ! po9t :]e a planet crosses ! ecliptic f ! s\? to ! nor?1 is call$ ! asc5d+ node :ile t situat$ :]e ! planet crosses f nor? to s\?1 is call$ ! desc5d+ node4 ,! planets circulat+ ar\nd ! ,sun are eight 9 numb]1 b1 beside ^!1 !re is a multitude ( v small planets1 commonly call$ a/]oids1 :i* also revolve ar\nd our lum9>y4 ,! numb] ( a/]oids at pres5t kn[n surpasses two hundr$1 & con/antly increases by new discov]ies4 ,9 _! ord] ( di/ance f ! ,sun ! pr9cipal planets are3 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,e>?1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 ,uranus & ,neptune4 ,! orbits ( ! a/]oids are compris$ betwe5 ! orbits ( ,m>s & ,jupit]4 ,:5 ! pr9cipal planets are consid]$ 9 reg>d to _! diff]5ces 9 size1 !y are sep>at$ into two di/9ct gr\ps ( f\r planets ea*1 viz43 ! small planets & ! l>ge planets4 ,! orbits ( ! small planets are :olly )9 ! region occupi$ by ! orbits ( ! a/]oids1 :ile ^? ( ! l>ge planets are :olly )\t ?is region4 ,:5 ! planets are consid]$ 9 reg>d to _! position ) ref]5ce to ! ,e>?1 !y are call$ inf]ior planets & sup]ior planets4 ,! inf]ior planets comprise ^? ^: orbits are )9 ! orbit ( our globe2 :ile ! sup]ior planets are ^? ^: orbits lie beyond ! orbit ( ! ,e>?4 ,s9ce ! orbits ( ! inf]ior planets lie )9 ! orbit ( ! ,e>?1 ! angul> di/ances ( ^! bodies f ! ,sun1 z se5 f ! ,e>?1 mu/ always be includ$ )9 fix$ limits2 & ^! planets mu/ seem to oscillate f ! ea/ to ! we/1 & f ! we/ to ! ea/ ( ! ,sun dur+ _! sid]eal revolution4 ,9 ?is process ( oscillation ^! planets sometimes pass betwe5 ! ,e>? & ! ,sun1 & sometimes beh9d ! ,sun4 ,:5 !y pass betwe5 u & ! ,sun !y are said to be 9 inf]ior conjunction1 :ile1 :5 !y pass beh9d ! ,sun1 !y are said to be 9 sup]ior conjunction4 ,:5 su* a planet rea*es its greate/ di/ance1 ei!r ea/ or we/1 x is said to be at its greate/ elongation ea/ or we/1 z ! case may be1 or 9 quadrature4 ,! sup]ior planets1 ^: orbits lie beyond t ( ! ,e>? & enclose x1 pres5t a diff]5t appe>ance4 ,a sup]ior planet nev] passes betwe5 ! ,e>? & ! ,sun1 s9ce its orbit lies beyond t ( our globe1 &1 !re=e1 no inf]ior conjunction ( su* a planet c ev] occur4 ,:5 "o ( ^! planets passes beyond ! ,sun1 j opposite to ! place occupi$ by ! ,e>?1 ! planet is said to be 9 conjunction2 :ile1 :5 x is on ! same side ( ! ,sun ) our globe1 x is said to be 9 opposition4 ,:ile occupy+ ?is la/ position1 ! planet is mo/ advantage\sly situat$ = obs]vation1 s9ce x is !n ne>] to ! ,e>?4 ,! p]iod compris$ betwe5 two successive conjunctions1 or two successive oppositions ( a planet1 is call$ its synodical p]iod4 ,?is p]iod diff]s = e planet4 ,x is suppos$ t all ! planets rotate f we/ to ea/1 l our globe2 al?\gh no direct evid5ce ( ! rotation ( ,m]cury ,uranus1 & ,neptune has yet be5 obta9$1 x is probable t ^! planets rotate l ! o!rs4 ,x results f ! rotation ( ! planets t !y h _! days & nights1 l our ,e>?1 b diff]+ 9 duration = e planet4 ,! axes ( rotation ( ! planets are m or less incl9$ to _! respective orbits1 & ?is incl9ation v>ies b little 9 ! c\rse ( "t4 ,f ! incl9ation ( ! axes ( rotation ( ! planets to _! orbits1 x results t ^! bodies h seasons l ^? ( ! ,e>?2 b1 ( c\rse1 !y diff] f our seasons 9 duration & int5sity1 accord+ to ! p]iod ( revolution & ! incl9ation ( ! axis ( ea* sep>ate planet4 ,,! ,,planet ,,m>s ,,plate ,,viii ,m>s is ! f\r? ( ! planets 9 ord] ( di/ance f ! sun2 ,m]cury1 ,v5us & ! ,e>? be+ respectively ! fir/1 second & ?ird4 ,ow+ to ! great ecc5tricity ( its orbit1 ! di/ance ( ,m>s f ! ,sun is subject to consid]able v>iations4 ,:5 ?is planet is 9 its aphelion1 its di/ance f ! ,sun is #aeb1jjj1jjj miles1 b at p]ihelion x is only #abf1jjj1jjj miles di/ant1 ! planet be+ !re=e #bf1jjj1jjj miles ne>] ! ,sun at p]ihelion ?an at aphelion4 ,! mean di/ance ( ,m>s f ! ,sun is #aci1jjj1jjj miles4 ,light1 :i* travels at ! rate ( #ahe1jjj miles a second1 occupies #ab m9utes 9 pass+ f ! ,sun to ?is planet4 ,:ile ! di/ance ( ,m>s f ! ,sun v>ies consid]ably1 its di/ance f ! ,e>? v>ies /ill m4 ,:5 ,m>s comes into opposition1 its di/ance f our globe is comp>atively small1 especially if ! opposition occurs 9 ,augu/1 z ! two planets are !n z ne> toge!r z x is possible = !m to be1 _! di/ance ap>t be+ only #cc1jjj1jjj miles4 ,b if ! opposition occurs 9 ,febru>y1 ! di/ance may be ne>ly twice z great1 or #fb1jjj1jjj miles4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ,m>s is 9 conjunction 9 ,augu/1 ! di/ance betwe5 ! two planets is ! greate/ possible1 or no less ?an #bde1jjj1jjj miles2 :ile1 :5 ! conjunction occurs 9 ,febru>y1 x is only #baf1jjj1jjj miles4 ,h5ce ! di/ance betwe5 ,m>s & ! ,e>? v>ies f 4#cc to #bde millions ( miles2 t is1 ?is planet may be #bab million miles ne>] to u at its ne>e/ oppositions ?an at its mo/ di/ant conjunctions4 ,f ^! v>y+ di/ances ( ,m>s f ! ,e>?1 necess>ily result great v>iations 9 ! brightness & app>5t size ( ! planet1 z se5 f our globe4 ,:5 ne>e/ to u x is a v conspicu\s object1 appe>+ z a /> ( ! fir/ magnitude1 & approa*+ ,jupit] 9 brightness2 b :5 x is f>!/ x is mu* r$uc$1 & is h>dly di/+ui%able f ! />s ( ! second & ev5 ?ird magnitude4 ,9 ! fir/ position1 ! app>5t diamet] ( ,m>s is #bf1 9 ! la/ x is r$uc$ to #c only4 ,! orbit ( ,m>s has ! v small incl9ation ( #a #ea' to ! plane ( ! ecliptic4 ,! planet revolves ar\nd ! ,sun 9 a p]iod ( #fhg days1 :i* con/itutes its sid]eal ye>1 ! ye> ( ,m>s be+ only #dc days less ?an two ( our ye>s4 ,m>s travels along its orbit ) a mean velocity ( #ae miles p] second1 be+ ab\t ( ! velocity ( our globe 9 its orbit4 ,! synodical p]iod ( ,m>s is #b ye>s & #dh days1 dur+ :i* ! planet passes ?r\gh all its degrees ( brightness4 ,m>s is a small] planet ?an ! ,e>?1 its diamet] be+ only #d1bjj miles1 & its circumf]5ce #ac1bjj miles4 ,x seems well e/abli%$ t x is a little flatt5$ at its poles1 b ! actual am\nt ( ?is flatt5+ is difficult to obta94 ,accord+ to ,pr(4 ,"y1 ! pol> compression is 4 ,! surface ( ?is planet is a little ov] ( ! surface ( our globe1 & its volume is #f times less ?an t ( ! ,e>?4 ,its mass is only ab\t :ile its d5sity is ab\t t ( ! ,e>?4 ,! =ce ( gravitation at its surface is ne>ly ( :at x is at ! surface ( our globe4 ,! planet ,m>s rotates on an axis incl9$ #fa #ah' to ! plane ( its orbit1 s t its equator makes an angle ( #bh #db' ) ! same plane4 ,! p]iod ( rotation ( ?is planet1 :i* con/itutes its sid]eal day1 is #bd h4 #cg m4 #bc s4 ,! ye> ( ,m>s1 :i* is compos$ ( #ffi ( ^! ,m>tial days1 equals #fhg ( our days1 ?is planet rotat+ #ffi times ^u its axis dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,b ow+ to ! movem5t ( ,m>s ar\nd ! ,sun1 ! numb] ( sol> days 9 ! ,m>tial ye> is only #ffh1 :ile1 ow+ to ! same cause1 ! sol> day ( ,m>s is a little long] ?an its sid]eal day1 & equals #bd h4 #ci m4 #ce s4 ,! days & nights on ,m>s are accord+ly ne>ly ( ! same l5g? z our days & nights1 ! diff]5ce be+ a little less ?an ?ree-qu>t]s ( an h\r4 ,b :ile ! days & nights ( ,m>s are ess5tially ! same z ours1 its seasons are almo/ twice z long z ^? ( ! ,e>?4 ,_! duration = ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 express$ 9 ,m>tial days1 is z foll[s3 ,spr+1 #aia2 ,summ]1 #aha2 ,autumn1 #adi2 ,w9t]1 #adg4 ,:ile ! ,spr+ & ,summ] ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e toge!r la/ #cgb days1 ! ,autumn & ,w9t] ( ! same hemisph]e la/ only #bif days1 or #gf days less4 ,s9ce ! summ] seasons ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e correspond to ! w9t] seasons ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & vice v]sa1 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ow+ to its long] summ]1 mu/ accumulate a l>g] quantity ( heat ?an ! la/4 ,b on ,m>s1 z on ! ,e>?1 !re is a c]ta9 law ( comp5sation result+ f ! ecc5tricity ( ! planet's orbit1 & f ! fact t ! middle ( ! summ] ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e ( ?is planet1 co9cides ) its p]ihelion4 ,f ! great] proximity ( ,m>s to ! ,sun at t "t1 ! s\!rn hemisph]e !n receives m heat 9 a giv5 "t ?an does ! nor!rn hemisph]e 9 its summ] season4 ,:5 ev]y?+ is tak5 into acc\nt1 h[ev]1 x is f\nd t ! s\!rn hemisph]e mu/ h w>m] summ]s & cold] w9t]s ?an ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 ,m>s appe>s z a fi]y r$ />1 ^: int5sity ( color is surpass$ by no o!r /> 9 ! heav5s4 ,se5 ?r\gh ! telescope1 x reta9s ! same r$ t9t1 :i*1 h[ev]1 appe>s less int5se1 & gradually fades away t[>d ! limb1 :]e x is replac$ by a :ite lum9\s r+4 ,,plate ,,viii4--,,! ,,planet ,,m>s4 ,obs]v$ ,septemb] #c1 #ahgg1 at #aa;h4 #eem4 ,p4,m4 ,m>s is a v difficult object to obs]ve1 ! atmosph]e surr\nd+ x be+ sometimes s cl\dy & foggy t ! sight c h>dly p5etrate ?r\gh its vapors4 ,:5 ?is planet is obs]v$ "u favorable atmosph]ic conditions1 & ) suffici5t magnify+ p[]1 its surface1 :i* is ( a g5]al r$di% t9t1 is f\nd to be div]sifi$ by :ite1 gray & d>k m>k+s4 ,! d>k m>k+s1 :i* are ! mo/ conspicu\s1 almo/ completely surr\nd ! planet4 ,!y are ( diff]5t =ms & sizes1 & v irregul>1 z c be se5 on ,plate ,,viii41 :i* repres5ts "o ( ! hemisph]es ( ?is planet4 ,_m ( !m1 especially ^? situat$ 9 ! tropical regions ( ! planet1 =m long n>r[ b&s1 ^: direction is 9 ! ma9 p>allel to ! ,m>tial equator4 ,! dusky spots diff] v mu*1 bo? f "o ano!r & 9 _! sev]al p>ts1 z reg>ds int5sity ( %ade4 ,"s appe> almo/ black1 :ile o!rs :i* appe> grayi%1 are s fa9t1 t !y c seldom be se54 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ! d>ke/ "p ( ! spots is g5]ally f\nd along _! nor!rn bord]2 especially :]e !re are deep ind5tations4 ,"s obs]v]s h describ$ ^! spots z be+ gre5i% or blui%1 b ,i h nev] be5 able to see ! fa9te/ trace ( ^! colors 9 !m1 except :5 !y 7 obs]v$ close to ! limb1 & involv$ 9 ! gre5i% t9t$ r+ :i* is always to be se5 !re4 ,x is probably an effect ( contra/1 s9ce gre5 & r$ are complem5t>y colors1 & s9ce ?is gre5i% t+e ar\nd ! limb cov]s all k9ds ( spots1 :e!r :ite or d>k4 ,:5 su* d>k spots1 involv$ 9 ! gre5i% t9t1 are c>ri$ by ! rotation t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! disk1 !y no long] %[ ?is gre5i% color4 ,to me1 ^! spots h always appe>$ d>k1 & ( su* t9ts z w\ld result f a mixture ( :ite & black 9 diff]5t proportions2 except t on _! light] portions !y %[ "s ( ! preval5t r$di% t9t ( ! ,m>tial surface4 ,x is to be rem>k$ t 9 mom5ts ( sup]ior def9ition ( ! telescopic image1 ! int5sity ( d>kness ( all ! spots is consid]ably increas$--"s ( !m appe>+ almo/ p]fectly black4 ,! m>k+s on ! surface ( ,m>s are n[ tol]ably well kn[n--especially ^? ( its s\!rn hemisph]e1 :i*1 ow+ to ! great] proximity ( ! planet to our globe :5 ?is hemisph]e is incl9$ t[>ds ! e>?1 h be5 bett] /udi$4 ,^? ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e are n s well kn[n1 s9ce :5 ?is hemisph]e is incl9$ t[>ds u1 ! di/ance ( ,m>s f ! ,e>? is #bf1jjj1jjj miles great]1 s t ! occasions = obs]v+ !m are n s favorable4 ,sev]al *>ts ( ,m>s are 9 exi/5ce1 b z ! same nom5clature has n be5 employ$ 9 all ( !m1 "s confusion has aris5 9 reg>d to ! names giv5 to ! mo/ rem>kable features ( ! planet's surface4 ,9 ord] to give cle>ness to ! subject1 x w be necess>y "h to give a brief description ( ! pr9cipal m>k+s repres5t$ on ,plate ,,viii4 ,9 ?is ! nom5clature w be employ$ :i* has be5 adopt$ by ! ,engli% obs]v]s 9 ! f9e *>t ( ,mr4 ,na?4 ,gre54 ,! l>ge d>k spot repres5t$ on ! left-h& side ( ! plate is call$ ,de ,la ,rue ,ocean4 ,! d>k oval spot1 isolat$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! c5tre ( ! disk1 is call$ ,t]by ,sea2 :ile ! d>k1 irregul> =m on ! "r1 ne> ! bord]1 repres5ts ! we/]n extremity ( ,m>aldi ,sea4 ,! dusky spots ( ,m>s seem to be p]man5t1 & to =m a "p ( ! g5]al surface ( ! planet4 ,t sev]al among !m1 at lea/1 are p]man5t1 is prov$ by ! fact t !y h be5 obs]v$ 9 ! same position1 & ) ! same g5]al =m1 = ov] two c5turies4 ,yet1 if we are to dep5d ^u ! draw+s made fifty ye>s ago by ,be] & ,ma$l]1 x w\ld seem t ! p]man5cy ( "s ( !m does n exi/1 s9ce a v l>ge spot repres5t$ by ^! a/ronom]s on _! *>t ( ,m>s is n visible n[4 ,?is object1 :i*1 on _! map1 has its middle at #bgj1 %\ld be precisely "u ! prom95t d>k oval spot call$ ,t]by ,sea1 se5 ne> ! c5tre ( ! picture1 & w\ld ext5d d[n almo/ z f> z ! nor!rn limb4 ,?is c h>dly be attribut$ to an error ( obs]vation1 s9ce ^! obs]v]s 7 bo? c>eful1 & _h great exp]i5ce 9 ?is class ( "w4 ,x is a v s+ul> fact t1 at ! v same place :]e ,ma$l] repres5t$ ! spot 9 "q1 ,i f\nd a conspicu\s d>k m>k on ,decemb] #af1 #ahha1 :i* 0 c]ta9ly n visible 9 #ahgg1 dur+ "o ( ! mo/ favorable oppositions :i* c ev] occur4 ,! object1 :i* is /ill visible 7,feb41 #ahhb71 consi/s ( an isolat$ spot situat$ a little to ! nor? ( ,t]by ,sea4 ,dur+ ! memorable opposition ( #ahgg1 ,i inve/igat$ ?or\ghly ! m>k+s ( ,m>s1 & made ov] #bjj draw+s ( its disk1 #cb ( :i* repres5t ! ,t]by ,sea2 b ?is isolat$ spot 0 n to be se51 unless x be id5tifi$ ) ! fa9t m>k1 repres5t$ on ! plate1 :i* occupi$ its place4 ,!re _c be ! slighte/ d\bt t a *ange has occurr$ at t place4 ,*anges 9 ! m>k+s h also be5 suspect$ on ! o!r hemisph]e ( ! planet4 ,! well-kn[n fact t ! cont95ts1 & especially ! m\nta9\s & d5ud$ di/ricts ( our globe1 reflect mu* m light ?an ! surfaces cov]$ by wat]1 has l$ a/ronom]s to suppose t ! d>k spots on ,m>s are produc$ by a liquid /rongly absorb+ ! rays ( light1 l ! liquids on ! surface ( ! ,e>?4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory ! d>k spots obs]v$ are suppos$ to be lakes1 seas1 & oceans1 simil> to our own seas & oceans1 :ile ! r$di% & :iti% surfaces sep>at+ ^! d>k spots1 are suppos$ to be isl&s1 p59sulas1 & cont95ts4 ,?is supposition seems c]ta9ly to h a great deal ( probability 9 its favor1 al?\gh "s ( ! light] m>k+s may h a diff]5t orig91 & p]haps be due to vegetation2 b no obs]v] has yet se5 9 !m any ( ! *anges :i* ought to result f *ange ( seasons4 ,"s ( ! *anges 9 ! d>k spots might also be attribut$ to ! flood+ or dry+ up ( m>%es & l[ l&4 ,! *ange :i* ,i h obs]v$ lately might be attribut$ to su* a cause1 especially z my obs]vation 0 made %ortly aft] ! spr+ equ9ox ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e ( ,m>s1 :i* occurr$ on ,decemb] #h?4 ,besides ! d>k spots j describ$1 !re are m>k+s ( a diff]5t "* & appe>ance4 ,among ! mo/ conspicu\s are two v brilliant :ite oval spots1 :i* always occupy opposite sides ( ! planet4 ,^! two bright spots1 :i* correspond v closely ) ! poles ( rotation ( ,m>s1 h be5 call$ pol> spots4 ,on acc\nt ( ! incl9ation ( ! axis ( rotation ( ?is planet to ! ecliptic1 x is r>e t bo? ( ^! spots are visible on ! disk at ! same "t2 & :5 ?is occurs1 !y are se5 consid]ably =e%ort5$1 z !y are !n bo? on ! limb ( ! planet4 ,usually only "o spot is visible1 & x appe>s to its be/ advantage :5 ! region to :i* x belongs atta9s its maximum ( incl9ation t[>ds ! ,e>?4 ,! pol> spots *ange consid]ably 9 size1 z !y d also 9 =m4 ,sometimes !y occupy ne>ly "o-?ird ( ! disk1 z is prov$ by _m ( my obs]vations2 :ile at o!r times !y are s mu* r$uc$ z to be totally invisible4 ,x is to be rem>k$ t ! r$uction ( ^! spots g5]ally corresponds ) ! summ] seasons1 & _! enl>gem5t ) ! w9t] seasons ( ! hemisph]es to :i* !y respectively belong4 ,f ^! well-obs]v$ facts x w\ld appe> t a relation exi/s betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! two hemisph]es ( ,m>s & ! v>iations ( ! :ite spots obs]v$ at its poles4 ,a simil> relation is kn[n to exi/ on our globe betwe5 ! progress ( ! seasons & ! melt+ away & ! accumulation ( sn[ 9 ! pol> regions4 ,a/ronom]s h be5 l$1 accord+ly1 to attribute ! pol> spots ( ,m>s1 ) all _! v>iations1 to ! alt]nate accumulation & melt+ ( sn[s4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 ! pol> spots ( ,m>s are sometimes also call$ sn[-spots4 ,errors h c]ta9ly be5 made by a/ronom]s 9 "s ( _! obs]vations ( ! s-call$ pol> sn[-spots1 o!r objects occupy+ _! place hav+ be5 mi/ak5 = !m4 ,a regul> s]ies ( obs]vations on ?is planet1 :i* ,i h n[ cont9u$ = sev5 ye>s1 has reveal$ ! fact t dur+ ! w9t] seasons ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e ( ,m>s1 ! pol> spots are mo/ ( ! "t invisible1 be+ cov]$ ov] by :ite1 opaque1 cl\d-l =ms1 /rongly reflect+ light4 ,9 #ahgg1 dur+ m ?an a mon?1 ,i1 myself1 mi/ook = ! pol> spots su* a canopy ( cl\ds1 :i* cov]$ at lea/ "o-fif? ( ! surface ( ! :ole disk4 ,i only became aw>e ( my error :5 ! opaque cl\d1 beg9n+ to dissolve at ! approa* ( ! ,m>tial summ]1 all[$ ! real pol> spot to be se5 ?r\gh its vapors1 z ?r\gh a mi/ at fir/1 & aft]w>ds ) great di/9ctness4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> case1 ! sn[-spot 0 consid]ably small] ?an ! cl\dy cap :i* cov]$ x1 & x is to be rem>k$ t x 0 n situat$ at ! c5tre ( ?is cl\dy cap1 b 0 ea/ ( t c5tre2 a fact :i* may acc\nt = ! s-call$ pol> spots n be+ always obs]v$ on exactly opposite sides ( ! disk4 ,f my obs]vations ( #ahgg1 #ahgh & #ahhj1 x appe>s t at ! approa* ( ! autumnal equ9ox ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e ( ,m>s1 l>ge1 opaque masses1 l cumulus cl\ds 9 =m1 began to ga!r 9 ! pol> regions ( t hemisph]e1 & cont9u$ ?r\gh autumn & w9t]1 dissolv+ only at ! approa* ( spr+4 ,^! cl\ds1 :i* v>i$ 9 =m & ext5t1 7 v un/eady at fir/1 b z ! w9t] drew ne>] !y enl>g$ & became m p]man5t1 cov]+ l>ge surfaces = mon?s at a "t4 ,t ! l>ge :ite spots "u consid]ation are real cl\ds 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,m>s1 & are n due to a fall ( sn[1 is prov$ by ! fact t ^! spots cov]$ bo? seas & cont95ts ) equal facility1 ev5 9 ! equatorial regions ( ! planet4 ,sn[1 ( c\rse1 c\ld n cov] ! seas ( ,m>s1 unless ^! 7 all froz5 ov]1 ev5 9 ! equatorial zones2 !re=e1 if ! d>k spots ( ,m>s are assum$ to be due to wat]1 ^! l>ge :ite spots _c well be ascrib$ to sn[4 ,! real pol> spots ( ,m>s seem to be 9 relief on ! surface ( ! planet1 s9ce ! s\!rn spot (t5 appe>$ slightly %ad$ on ! side opposite to ! ,sun dur+ my obs]vations 9 #ahgg4 ,9 c]ta9 cases1 :5 !y are on or v ne> ! limb1 !y h be5 obs]v$1 bo? by o!rs & by myself1 to project f ! disk slightly4 ,! pol> spots ( ,m>s are d\btless compos$ ( a mat]ial :i*1 l our sn[ or ice1 melts "u ! rays ( ! ,sun2 al?\gh x seems difficult to admit t ! ,m>tial sn[ is id5tical ) our t]re/rial sn[1 & t x melts at a l temp]ature4 ,! s\? pol> spot ( ,m>s entirely disappe>$ f sight 9 its summ] season 9 #ahgg1 al?\gh ! planet receives less ?an "o-half z mu* heat z we receive f ! ,sun2 yet on our globe ! arctic or ant>ctic ices & sn[ are p]petual--nev] melt+ entirely4 ,an important fact disclos$ by ! melt+ away ( ! s\!rn pol> spot is1 t 9 melt+ x is always surr\nd$ ) a v d>k surface1 :i* takes ! place ( ! melt$ portion ( ! spot1 z obs]v$ by myself 9 #ahgg-gh4 ,:5 ! pol> spot _h entirely disappe>$1 its place 0 occupi$ by a v d>k spot4 ,n[1 if ! pol> spot is really ice1 & ! d>k spots are actual seas1 ?is pol> spot mu/ be situat$ 9 mid-ocean1 s9ce1 on melt+ away1 x is replac$ by a d>k spot4 ,if ! pol> spots are compos$ ( a :ite sub/ance melt+ "u ! rays ( ! ,sun1 z seems altoge!r probable1 its melt+ po9t mu/ be above t ( t]re/rial sn[4 ,_m ( ! d>k spots ( ,m>s1 & especially ^? ^: nor!rn bord] =ms an irregul> belt ^u ! equatorial regions ( ?is planet1 are bord]$ on t side by a :ite lum9\s belt1 foll[+ all _! s9uosities4 ,^! :ite bord]s are v>iable4 ,sometimes !y are v prom95t & int5sely bright1 especially at "s po9ts1 :i* occasionally almo/ equal ! pol> spots 9 brilliancy2 :ile at o!r times !y are s fa9t1 t !y c h>dly be di/+ui%$1 or are ev5 invisible2 al?\gh ! atmosph]e is cle> & ! d>k spots appe> p]fectly well def9$4 ,:ile ^! :ite bord]s 7 invisible1 ,i h sometimes wat*$ = sev]al h\rs at a "t to see if ,i c\ld detect any traces ( !m 9 places :]e !y usually appe> ! mo/ prom95t1 b g5]ally )\t success4 ,on a few occasions1 h[ev]1 ,i _h ! good =tune to see "s ( ^! spots =m+ gradually 9 ! c\rse ( "o or two h\rs1 at places :]e no?+ ( !m c\ld be se5 be=e4 ,^! :iti% fr+es =m+ & vani%+ along ! coa/s ( ! ,m>tial seas h be5 v little /udi$ by a/ronom]s4 ,f my obs]vations made dur+ ! la/ sev5 ye>s1 x appe>s v probable t ?is belt & its :ite spots are ma9ly due to ! cond5sation ( vapors ar\nd1 & ov] high peaks1 & ext5sive m\nta9 *a9s1 =m+ ! ,m>tial sea-coa/s1 z ! ,&es & ,rocky ,m\nta9s =m ! sea-coa/s ( ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,^! high m\nta9s on ,m>s1 cond5s+ ! vapors into fogs or cl\ds above !m1 or at _! sides1 z (t5 happ5s 9 our m\nta9\s di/ricts1 w\ld c]ta9ly suffice to produce ! ph5om5a obs]v$4 ,"s ( ! highe/ peaks among ^! m\nta9 *a9s may ev5 h _! summits cov]$ ) p]petual sn[1 or "s sub/ance p>tak+ ( ! nature ( sn[4 ,! tempor>y visibility & invisibility ( ! :ite spots se5 on ,m>s1 z well z ! rapid trans=mations !y sometimes und]go1 may be expla9$ z caus$ by cl\ds hav+ a high reflective p[] & a liability to =m & disappe> quickly4 ,! assumption t ^! irregul> :iti% b&s & spots are =m$ by ! cond5sation ( vapors on m\nta9 *a9s1 & elevat$ table l&s1 is support$ by my obs]vations made 9 #ahgg & #ahgi4 ,:5 su* :ite spots 7 trav]s+ ! t]m9ator at sunrise1 !y v (t5 project$ f> into ! night side1 ?us indicat+ t !y 7 at a high] level ?an t ( ! g5]al surface4 ,ind5tations 9 ! t]m9ator1 correspond+ to l>ge d>k spots cross+ its l9e1 also cle>ly indicat$ ! depression ( ! d>k spots bel[ ! g5]al surface4 ,! highe/ m\nta9\s di/ricts ?us obs]v$ on ,m>s1 are situat$ betwe5 #fj & #gj ( s\? latitude1 t[>ds ! we/]n extremity ( ,gill ,l&4 ,! m\nta9 *a91 :i* almo/ completely =ms ! surface ( ?is l&1 is s elevat$ at "s po9ts1 t !y n only *ange ! =m ( ! t]m9ator :5 !y are se5 ^u x1 b also ! limb ( ! planet1 z se5 by myself4 ,!y !n appe> s brilliant1 t ! pr9cipal summit among !m has be5 mi/ak5 by sev]al obs]v]s = ! pol> spot itself1 z prov$ by ! wrong position assign$ to x on _! draw+s4 ,x seems probable t ?is high peak1 :i* appe>s always :ite1 is con/antly cov]$ ) sn[1 or ! simil> mat]ial replac+ x on ,m>s4 ,?is high region is situat$ betwe5 longitudes #ahj & #aij4 ,! highe/ m\nta9\s p>ts belong+ to ! hemisph]e repres5t$ on ,plate ,,viii41 :i* are ne>ly always m or less visible z :iti% spots & b&s1 =m a coa/ l9e along ! nor!rn 7l[]7 bord] ( ,de ,la ,rue ,ocean4 ,?is great spot1 :i* is n s simple z x has be5 repres5t$ by obs]v]s1 is 9 fact divid$ by two n>r[ i/hmuses1 "o 9 ! nor?1 ! o!r 9 ! ea/1 bo? jo9+1 9 ! int]ior ( ! great ocean1 a p59sula h]et(ore kn[n z ,hall ,isl&4 ,^u ! s\?-ea/]n extremity ( ?is p59sula1 a :ite spot1 call$ ,dawes ,ice ,isl&1 0 obs]v$ 9 #ahfe1 b x soon disappe>$1 & 0 aft] t se5 only n[ & !n4 ,x is v probable t ?is s-call$ ,ice ,isl& 0 due to cl\ds =m+ ar\nd ! summit ( "s high peak ( ?is p59sula4 ,on ! opposite hemisph]e to t repres5t$ on ,plate ,,viii41 ! :ite fr+es bord]+ ! d>k spots are mu* m conspicu\s ?an !y are on ?is side4 ,on ! ea/]n side ( a rem>kable d>k spot call$ ,kais] ,sea1 !y are v bright1 & almo/ always pres5t1 al?\gh !y v>y consid]ably1 bo? 9 brightness & 9 ext5t4 ,to ! s\? ( ,kais] ,sea1 !y are v conspicu\s on ! ea/]n bord] ( ,locky] ,l&1 =m+ an elevat$ & deeply ind5t$ coa/-l9e along ,lamb]t ,sea4 ,!re ! :ite spots nev] disappe> entirely1 be+ always visible on ! nor? side1 :]e !y turn we/w>d along ,dawes' ,ocean--! m\nta9 *a9 atta9+ !re its greate/ altitude4 ,v frequ5tly ,locky] ,l&1 :i* seems to be a va/ plateau1 appe>s ?r\gh\t :ite & brilliant1 ?is occurr+ usually t[>ds ! sunrise or sunset ( t region1 probably f ! cond5sation ( vapors & ! =mation ( fogs1 b g5]ally ?is :it5ess gradually disappe>s ) ! progress ( ! sun above ?is plateau4 ,inside ( ! great cont95ts ( ,m>s ^! tempor>y :ite spots are n s frequ5t1 b :5 visible !y occupy always ! same positions--a fact :i* probably indicates t !y occupy ! culm9at+ po9ts ( ^! cont95ts4 ,"o ( ^! tempor>y :ite spots inside ( ! cont95ts is repres5t$ on ,plate ,,viii41 on ! left-h& side1 bel[ ,de ,la ,rue ,ocean1 on ,ma$l] ,cont95t4 ,al?\gh l>ge1 opaque1 cumulus-%ap$1 cl\d-l =ms are se5 9 ! pol> regions ( ,m>s1 su* =ms are v seldom se5 9 ! tropical zones1 or1 at lea/1 x appe>s s1 f ! fact t my obs]vations1 cont9u$ dur+ ! la/ sev5 ye>s1 h disclos$ no real opaque cl\dy =ms !re4 ,al?\gh ! ,m>tial sky is frequ5tly ov]ca/ by d5se vapors or ?ick fogs 9 ^! regions1 yet no real opaque cl\ds 7 ev] se52 ! mo/ prom95t among ! dusky spots be+ fa9tly visible ?r\gh ! vapory veil1 :5 !y approa*$ ! c5tre ( ! disk4 ,besides ^! ph5om5a1 :i* prove t ,m>s is surr\nd$ by an atmosph]e hav+ a great deal ( simil>ity to our own1 a fur!r pro( is af=d$ by ! fact t ! d>k spots1 :i* appe> %>ply def9$ & black :5 !y are se5 ne> ! c5tre1 become less & less visible z !y advance t[>ds ! limb1 & are totally invisible be=e !y rea* x4 ,moreov]1 ! spectroscope also indicates ! exi/5ce ( an atmosph]e1 & ev5 ! pres5ce ( wat]y vapor 9 x4 ,a v curi\s /ate ( ! ,m>tial atmosph]e is reveal$ by my obs]vations ( #ahgg-gh4 ,dur+ eight consecutive weeks1 f ,decemb] #ab? to ,febru>y #f?1 a :ole hemisph]e ( ! planet--precisely t repres5t$ on ,plate ,,viii4--0 completely cov]$ by d5se vapors1 or a ?ick fog :i* b>ely all[$ ! d>k spots to be se5 ?r\gh x1 ev5 :5 !y 7 9 ! c5tre ( ! disk4 ,! opposite hemisph]e ( ,m>s appe>$ j z cle> & calm z possible2 !re all ! spots & _! m9ute/ details c\ld be se51 & :5 ! planet 0 obs]v$ at ! prop] "t1 ! l9e sep>at+ ! foggy f ! cle> side 0 pla9ly visible4 ,! r$di% t9t obs]v$ on ! cont95ts ( ,m>s has be5 suppos$ by "s a/ronom]s to be ! real color ( ! atmosph]e ( ?is planet4 ,b1 = _m reasons1 ?is explanation is n acceptable4 ,besides ! fact t ! bord] ( ! planet appe>s :ite1 :ile x %\ld be m r$ ?an ! o!r "p1 ow+ to ! great] dep? ( atmosph]e !re pres5t$ to u1 ! pol> spots1 ! :ite b&s along ! sea-coa/s1 & ! cl\d-l =ms appe> p]fectly :ite1 n ! slighte/ t9t ( r$ be+ visible on !m1 z w\ld be ! case if ^! objects 7 se5 ?r\gh an atmosph]e t9t$ r$4 ,o!r a/ronom]s h suppos$ t ! vegetation ( ?is planet has a r$di% color2 b ?is is n support$ by obs]vation4 ,x has be5 aga9 suppos$1 ) mu* m probability1 t ! surface ( ,m>s is compos$ ( an o*re\s mat]ial :i* gives ! planet its pr$om9ant ruddy color4 ,until lately ,m>s 0 suppos$ to be )\t a satellite1 b 9 ,augu/1 #ahgg1 ,pr(essor ,hall1 ( ! ,wa%+ton ,obs]vatory1 made "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable discov]ies ( ! "t1 & f\nd two satellites revolv+ ar\nd ?is planet4 ,^! satellites are among ! smalle/ kn[n heav5ly bodies1 _! diamet] hav+ be5 e/imat$ at f #f to #aj miles = ! out] satellite1 & f #aj to #dj miles = ! inn] "o4 ,! mo/ extraord9>y feature ( ^! bodies is ! proximity ( ! inn] satellite to ! planet1 & ! consequ5t rapidity ( its motion4 ,! di/ance ( ! inn] satellite f ! c5tre ( ,m>s is ab\t #f1jjj miles1 & f surface to surface x is less ?an #d1jjj miles1 or a little m ?an ! di/ance f ,new ,york to ,san ,francisco4 ,! %orte/ p]iod ( revolution ( any satellite previ\sly kn[n1 is t ( ! inn] satellite ( ,saturn1 :i* is a little m ?an #bb h\rs2 b ! inn] satellite ( ,m>s accompli%es its revolution 9 #g;h4 #chm41 or 9 #ag h\rs less ?an ! p]iod ( rotation ( ! planet ^u its axis4 ,! p]iod ( revolution ( ! out] satellite is great]1 ( c\rse1 & equals #cj;h4 #gm4 ,f ?is rapidity ( motion ( ! inn] satellite ( ,m>s1 a v curi\s result foll[s1 :i* at fir/ sight may appe> 9 contradiction ) ! fact t ?is body has a direct motion1 l t ( all ! planets ( ! sol> sy/em1 & moves ar\nd ,m>s f we/ to ea/4 ,:ile ! out] satellite ( ?is planet1 9 company ) all ! />s & planets1 rises 9 ! ea/ & sets 9 ! we/1 ! inn] satellite1 on ! contr>y1 rises 9 ! we/ & sets 9 ! ea/4 ,s9ce ! p]iod ( rotation ( ,m>s is great] ?an is ! p]iod ( revolution ( ?is satellite1 x necess>ily foll[s t ?is la/ body mu/ con/antly be ga9+ on ! rotation1 &1 consequ5tly1 t ! satellite sets 9 ! ea/ & rises 9 ! we/1 compass+ ! :ole heav5s ar\nd ,m>s ?ree times a day1 pass+ ?r\gh all its phases 9 #aa h\rs1 ea* qu>t] ( ?is s+ul> ,moon la/+ less ?an #c h\rs4 ,x has be5 %[n above t ,m>s has _m po9ts ( resemblance to ! ,e>?4 ,x has an atmosph]e con/itut$ v ne>ly l ours2 x has fogs1 cl\ds1 ra9s1 sn[s1 & w9ds4 ,x has wat]1 or at lea/ "s liquids resembl+ x2 x has riv]s1 lakes1 seas & oceans4 ,x has also isl&s1 p59sulas1 cont95ts1 m\nta9s & valleys4 ,x has two ,moons1 :i* mu/ create great & rapid tides 9 ! wat]s ( its seas & oceans4 ,x has its days & nights1 its w>m & cold seasons1 & v likely its vegetation1 its prairies & =e/s1 l ! ,e>?4 ,on ! o!r h&1 its ye> & seasons are d\ble ^? ( ! ,e>?1 & its di/ance f ! ,sun is great]4 ,is ?is planet1 :i* is c]ta9ly con/itut$ v ne>ly l our globe1 & seems s ne>ly fitt$ = ! wants ( ! human race1 inhabit$ by animals & intellig5t be+s8 ,to answ] ?is "q1 ei!r 9 ! negative or 9 ! affirmative1 w\ld be to /ep out ( ! pure prov9ce ( sci5ce1 & ent] ! b\ndless doma9 ( speculation1 s9ce no obs]v] has ev] se5 any?+ indicat+ t animal life exi/s on ,m>s1 or on any o!r planet or satellite4 ,s f> z obs]vation goes1 ,m>s seems to be a planet well suit$ to su/a9 animal life1 & we may reason f analogy t if animal life c exi/ at all outside ( ! ,e>?1 ,m>s mu/ h its flora & fauna2 x mu/ h its fi%es & birds1 its mammalia & m52 al?\gh all ^! liv+ be+s mu/ inevitably be v diff]5t 9 appe>ance f _! repres5tatives on ! ,e>?1 z c easily be imag9$ f ! diff]5ces exi/+ betwe5 ! two planets4 ,al?\gh all ?is is possible1 & ev5 v probable1 yet x mu/ be rememb]$ t we h n ! slighte/ evid5ce t x is s2 & until we h acquir$ ?is evid5ce1 we may only provisionally accept ?is idea z a pleas+ hypo!sis1 :i*1 aft] all1 may be wrong & totally unf\nd$4 ,,! ,,planet ,,jupit] ,,plate ,,ix ,jupit]1 ! giant ( ! planet>y _w1 is ! fif? 9 ord] ( di/ance f ! ,sun1 & is next to ,m>s1 our ruddy neighbor4 ,to ! nak$ eye1 ,jupit] appe>s z a v brilliant />1 ^: magnitude1 *ang+ ) ! di/ance ( ?is planet f ! ,e>?1 sometimes approa*es t ( ,v5us1 our bright morn+ & ev5+ />4 ,! mean di/ance ( ,jupit] f ! ,sun is #dge1jjj1jjj miles1 b ow+ to ! ecc5tricity ( its orbit1 its di/ance v>ies f #deb to #dih millions ( miles4 ,! di/ance ( ?is planet f ! ,e>? v>ies /ill m4 ,:5 ne>e/ to our globe1 or 9 opposition1 its di/ance is r$uc$ to #chd1jjj1jjj miles1 & its app>5t diamet] increas$ to #ej2 :ile :5 x is f>!/1 or 9 conjunction1 its di/ance is increas$ to #efg1jjj1jjj miles1 & its app>5t diamet] r$uc$ to #cj2 ,jupit] be+ ?us #ahc1jjj1jjj miles ne>] our globe :ile 9 opposition ?an :5 x is 9 conjunction4 ,?is planet revolves ar\nd ! ,sun 9 #aa ye>s1 #aj mon?s & #ag days1 or 9 only #ej days less ?an #ab t]re/rial ye>s4 ,su* is ! ye> ( ?is planet4 ,! plane ( its orbit is incl9$ #a #ai' to ! ecliptic4 ,no planet1 except ,uranus1 has an orbit exhibit+ a small] incl9ation4 ,! planet advances 9 its orbit at ! mean rate ( #h miles a second2 :i* is a little less ?an half ! orbital velocity ( ! ,e>?4 ,jupit] is ( enorm\s proportions4 ,its equatorial diamet] measures #hh1jjj miles1 & its circumf]5ce no less ?an #bgf1dfj miles1 ^! dim5sions be+ #aa times great] ?an ^? ( ! ,e>?4 ,?is planet1 not)/&+ its huge size1 rotates on its axis 9 n f> f #i;h4 #eem4 #cfs41 :i* p]iod con/itutes its day4 ,ow+1 h[ev]1 to ! *angeable appe>ance ( its surface1 ?is p]iod _c be asc]ta9$ ) v great exactitude4 ,9 consequ5ce ( its rapid rotation1 ! planet is f> f sph]ical1 its pol> diamet] be+ %ort] ?an ! equatorial by ab\t 1 or #e1ejj miles4 ,its surface is #abd times ! surface ( ! e>?2 :ile its volume is #a1chg times z great4 ,if ,jupit] occupi$ ! place ( our satellite 9 ! sky1 x w\ld appe> #dj times z l>ge z ! ,moon appe>s to u1 & w\ld cov] a surface ( ! heav5s #a1fjj times t cov]$ by ! full ,moon1 & w\ld subt5d an angle ( #ba4 ,jupit]'s mass does n correspond ) its great bulk1 & is only ( ! mass ( ! ,sun1 & #caj times ! mass ( ! e>?2 its d5sity be+ only ( t ( our globe4 ,! =ce ( gravitation at ! surface ( ?is planet is ov] #b times :at x is on ! ,e>?1 s t a t]re/rial object c>ri$ to ! surface ( ,jupit] w\ld weigh ov] two & a half times z mu* z on our globe4 ,obs]v$ ) a telescope1 ev5 ( mod]ate ap]ture1 ,jupit]1 ) its f\r att5d+ satellites & its dazzl+ brilliancy1 appe>s z "o ( ! mo/ magnific5t objects 9 ! sky4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ! disk is :ite2 b unlike t ( ,m>s1 x is brighte/ t[>ds its c5tral p>ts1 & a little d>k] ar\nd ! limb1 especially on ! side opposite to ! ,sun4 ,al?\gh an ext]ior planet1 & s f> f u1 ,jupit] %[s fa9t traces ( phases :5 obs]v$ ne> its quadratures1 b ?is gibbosity ( its disk is v slight1 & is indicat$ only by a k9d ( p5umbral %ad[ on ! limb4 ,:5 obs]v$ ) adequate p[]1 ! disk ( ,jupit] is f\nd to be highly div]sifi$4 ,! pr9cipal features consi/ ( a s]ies ( alt]nate light & d>k /reaks or b&s1 dispos$ mo/ ( ! "t p>allel ) ! ,jovian equator4 ,^! b&s diff] f ea* o!r 9 int5sity z well z 9 bread?2 ^? ne> ! equator be+ usually mu* m prom95t ?an ^? situat$ 9 high] latitudes nor? & s\?4 ,! equatorial zone ( ,jupit] is occupi$ mo/ ( ! "t by a broad1 prom95t belt #bj or #cj wide1 limit$ on ea* side by a v d>k n>r[ /reak4 ,betwe5 ^! two d>k bord]s1 b seldom occupy+ ! :ole space betwe5 !m1 appe>s an irregul> :ite belt1 app>5tly compos$ ( d5se masses ( cl\ds /rongly reflect+ ! ,sun's light1 "s ( ^! cl\dy masses be+ v brilliant4 ,! spaces left betwe5 ! cl\dy belt & ! d>k bord]s1 usually exhibit a delicate p9k or rosy color1 :i* produces a v h>moni\s effect ) ! v>y+ grayi% & blui% %ades ( "s ( ! belts & /reaks se5 on ! disk4 ,q (t5 ! cl\dy belt is brok5 up1 & consi/s ( indep5d5t cl\dy masses1 sep>at$ by l>g] or small] int]vals1 ^! int]vals disclos+ ! rosy backgr\nd ( ?is zone4 ,on ea* side ( ! equatorial belt !re is usually a broad :iti% belt1 succe$$ by a n>r[ gray b&2 ! space left on ea* hemisph]e betwe5 ^! la/ b&s & ! limb be+ usually occupi$ by two or ?ree alt]nate :ite & gray b&s4 ,a uni=m gray segm5t usually =ms a sort ( pol> cap to ,jupit]4 ,:5 obs]v$ "u v favorable conditions1 all ! light] belts appe> z if compos$ ( masses ( small cl\dlets1 resembl+ ! :ite opaque cl\ds se5 9 our atmosph]e4 ,?is1 z already /at$1 is p>ticul>ly noticeable on ! equatorial belt4 ,x is n unusual1 :5 ,jupit] is 9 quadrature1 to see "s ( ! mo/ conspicu\s :ite spots ca/+ a %ad[ opposite to ! ,sun2 a fact :i* suffici5tly indicates t ^! spots are at diff]5t levels4 ,!y probably =m ! summits ( va/ banks ( cl\ds float+ high up 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,jupit]4 ,:at we see ( ,jupit] is *iefly a vapor\s1 cl\dy envelope4 ,if our sight p5etrates any:]e deep] into ! int]ior1 x c only be ?r\gh ! n>r[ fissures ( ?is envelope1 :i* appe> z gray or d>k /reaks or spots4 ,t mo/ ( ! visible surface ( ,jupit] is simply a cl\dy cov]+1 is abundantly prov$ by ! prop] motion ( its spots1 :i* sometimes becomes v great4 ,9 p]iods ( calm1 v few *anges are noticeable 9 ! m>k+s ( ! planet1 except1 p]haps1 "s slight modifications ( =m 9 ! cl\dy1 equatorial belt :i*1 9 g5]al1 is mu* m liable to *anges ?an ! o!r belts4 ,b ! ,jovian surface is n always s tranquil1 great *anges be+ obs]v$ dur+ ! t]rific /orms :i* sometimes occur on ?is mighty planet1 :5 all becomes disord] & confusion on its usually calm surface2 & no?+ on ! ,e>? c give u a conception ( ! velocity ) :i* "s ( its cl\ds & spots are animat$4 ,new belts quickly =m1 :ile old ones disappe>4 ,! usual p>allelism ( ! belts no m exi/s4 ,huge1 :ite1 cumulus-l masses advance & spread out1 ! rosy equatorial belt enl>ges sometimes to two or ?ree times its usual size1 & occupies two-?irds1 or m1 ( ! disk1 ! rosy t9t spread+ out 9 a v %ort "t4 ,at times v d>k b&s ext5d+ across ! disk are trans=m$ into knots or d>k spots1 :i* encircle ! planet ) a belt1 z x 71 ( jet black beads4 ,sometimes1 also1 a second>y b n>r[] rosy belt =ms ei!r 9 ! nor!rn or ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & rema9s visible = a few days or = ye>s at a "t4 ,on ,may #be1 #ahgf1 ,i witness$ "o ( ! gr&e/ commotions :i* c be conceiv$ z tak+ place 9 an atmosph]e4 ,all ! s\!rn hemisph]e ( ,jupit]1 f equator to pole1 0 9 rapid motion1 ! belts & spots be+ transport$ entirely across ! disk1 f ! ea/]n to ! we/]n limb1 9 "o h\r's "t1 dur+ :i* ! equatorial belt swell$ to twice its orig9al bread?1 t[>ds ! s\?4 ,n[1 :5 "o /ops = a mom5t to ?9k :at is signifi$ by t motion ( ! d>k spots across ! little telescopic disk ( ,jupit] 9 an h\r's "t1 he may arrive at "s conception ( ! magnitude ( ! ,jovian /orms1 comp>$ ) ^? ( our globe4 ,! circumf]5ce ( ,jupit]'s equator1 z /at$ above1 is #bgf1dfj miles2 half ?is numb]1 or #ach1bcj miles1 repres5ts ! l5g? ( ! equatorial l9e se5 f ! ,e>?4 ,n[1 aft] tak+ into acc\nt ! rotation ( ! planet1 :i* some:at dim9i%es ! app>5t motion1 we arrive at ! a/oni%+ result t ! spots & m>k+s 7 c>ri$ along by ?is ,jovian /orm1 at ! enorm\s rate ( #aaj1ehd miles an h\r1 or ov] #cj4g miles a second4 ,on our globe1 a hurricane or tornado1 :i* bl[s at ! rate ( #ajj miles an h\r1 sweeps ev]y?+ be=e x4 ,:at1 !n1 mu/ be expect$ f a velocity ov] #a1aje times z great8 ,enorm\s z ?is motion may appe>1 its occurr5ce _c be d\bt$1 s9ce x is disclos$ by direct obs]vation4 ,! surface ( ,jupit]1 x w\ld seem1 has its p]iods ( calm & activity l t ( ! ,sun1 al?\gh x is n yet kn[n1 z x is = ! latt]1 t !y recur ) approximate regul>ity4 ,my obs]vations ( ?is planet1 :i* embrace a p]iod ( t5 ye>s1 seem to po9t 9 t direction1 = !y %[1 at lea/1 t ,jupit] has its ye>s ( calm & its ye>s ( di/urbances4 ,! ye> #ahgf 0 a ye> ( extraord9>y di/urbance on ,jupit]4 ,*anges 9 ! m>k+s 7 go+ on all ! "t1 & no "o =m c\ld be recogniz$ ! next day1 or ev5 sometimes ! next h\r1 z %[n above4 ,! cl\dy envelope ( ! planet 0 9 con/ant motion1 ! equatorial belt1 especially1 %[+ ! signs ( greate/ di/urbance1 be+1 = ! mo/ "p1 two or ?ree times z wide z 9 o!r ye>s4 ,aft] #ahgf ! calm 0 v great on ! planet1 only a slight *ange n[ & !n be+ noticeable1 ! same =ms be+ recogniz$ day aft] day1 mon? aft] mon?1 & ev5 ye> aft] ye>4 ,9 "o case ! same m>k+ has be5 obs]v$ = sev5te5 consecutive mon?s1 & 9 ano!r = tw5ty-eight mon?s4 ,?is /ate ( quietude la/$ until ,octob]1 #ahhj1 :5 consid]able commotion occurr$ on ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 :]e l>ge r\nd black spots1 some:at resembl+ ! ,sun-spots1 =m$ 9 ! cl\dy atmosph]e1 & f9ally *ang$1 t[>ds ! end ( ,decemb]1 into a n>r[ p9k belt1 :i* /ill exi/s4 ,,plate ,,ix4--,,! ,,planet ,,jupit]4 ,obs]v$ ,novemb] #a1 #ahhj1 at #i;h4 #cjm4 ,p4,m4 ,! mo/ curi\s m>k+ ev] se5 on ,jupit] is und\bt$ly ! great ,r$ ,spot1 obs]v$ on ! s\!rn hemisph]e ( ?is planet = ! la/ ?ree ye>s4 ,?is int]e/+ object1 se5 fir/ 9 ,july1 #ahgh1 disappe>$ = a "t1 reappe>$ on ,septemb] #be ( ! same ye>1 & has rema9$ visible until n[4 ,:5 se5 by me 9 ,septemb]1 x 0 mu* elongat$1 & %>ply po9t$ on "o side1 l a spe>-head1 b x subsequ5tly acquir$ an irregul> =m1 ) %ort app5dages protrud+ f its nor!rn bord]4 ,at fir/1 ! *anges 7 great & frequ5t1 b at l5g? x acquir$ ! regul> oval =m1 :i*1 ) b slight modifications1 x has reta9$ until n[4 ,dur+ ! mon? ( ,novemb]1 #ahhj1 ,i notic$ two small black specks ^u ?is ,r$ ,spot1 & !y 7 se5 aga9 9 ,janu>y ( ! succe$+ ye>1 by ,mr4 ,alvan ,cl>k1 ,jr4 ,:5 ! spot _h atta9$ its oval %ape1 x appe>$ "p ( ! "t surr\nd$ ) a :ite lum9\s r+ ( cl\dy =ms :i*1 h[ev]1 0 *ang+ m or less all ! "t1 be+ sometimes invisible4 ,! color ( ?is curi\s spot is a brilliant rosy r$1 t+$ ) v]milion1 & altoge!r diff]5t 9 %ade f ! p9ki% color ( ! equatorial belt4 ,! size ( ! spot v>ies1 b ( late its *anges h be5 slight4 ,its long] diamet] may be e/imat$ at #h1jjj miles1 & ! %ort] at #b1bjj miles4 ,! ,r$ ,spot is repres5t$ on ,plate ,,ix4 ) its natural color1 & z x appe>s at ! mom5ts mo/ favorable = obs]vation4 ,9 ord9>y cases its color does n appe> s brilliant1 b pal]4 ,x is difficult to acc\nt = ! color ( ! equatorial belt & t ( ! ,r$ ,spot2 b x is kn[n1 at lea/1 t ! mat]ial to :i* !y are due _c be situat$ at ! level ( ! g5]al surface visible to u1 & especially t ( ! cl\dy =ms ( ! equatorial zone4 ,und\bt$ly ! r$ lay] lies deep] ?an ! sup]ficial envelope ( ! planet1 al?\gh x does n seem to be v deeply depress$4 ,jupit] is att5d$ by f\r satellites1 :i* revolve ar\nd ! planet at v>i\s di/ances1 & %9e l />s ( ! #f? & #g? magnitude4 ,x is said t "u v favorable circum/ances1 & 9 a v cle> sky1 ! satellites c be se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 b ?is requires exceptionally ke5 eyes1 s9ce ! gl>e ( ! planet is s /rong z to ov]p[] ! comp>atively fa9t light ( ! satellites4 ,h[ev]1 ,i myself h sometimes se51 )\t ! aid ( ! telescope1 two or ?ree ( ! satellites z a s+le object1 :5 !y 7 closely gr\p$ on ! same side ( ,jupit]4 ,! f\r moons ( ,jupit] are all l>g] ?an our ,moon1 except ! fir/1 :i* has ab\t ! same diamet]4 ,!y range 9 size f #b1cjj to #c1djj miles 9 diamet]1 ! ?ird be+ ! l>ge/2 ! det]m9ation ( _! diamet] is by no means accurate1 h[ev]1 z x is difficult to measure su* small objects ) precision4 ,_! mean di/ance f ! c5tre ( ,jupit] v>ies f #bfg1jjj to #a1aib1jjj miles1 ! fir/ satellite1 ! ne>e/ to ! planet1 be+ a little f>!r f ,jupit] !n our satellite is f u4 ,! f\r satellites revolve ar\nd ! planet 9 orbits ^: planes h a slight incl9ation to ! equator ( ,jupit]1 & consequ5tly to ! ecliptic4 ,! diamet] ( ! l>ge/ satellite is ne>ly half t ( ! ,e>?1 or #c1dcf miles2 :ile its volume is five times t ( our ,moon4 ,! p]iod ( revolution ( ^! satellites v>ies f #a;d4 #ah;h4 = ! fir/1 to #af;d4 #af;h4 = ! la/4 ,ow+ to ! slight incl9ation ( ! plane ( _! orbits to t ( ! planet1 ! ?ree fir/ satellites1 & g5]ally ! f\r?1 pass 9 front ( ! disk & also ?r\gh ! %ad[ ( ! planet at e revolution1 & are accord+ly eclips$4 ,_! passages beh9d ,jupit]'s disk are call$ occultations2 ^? 9 front ( x1 transits4 ,! eclipses1 ! occultations & ! transits ( ! moons ( ,jupit] are int]e/+ & important ph5om5a2 ! eclipses be+ sometimes obs]v$ = ! r\gh det]m9ation ( longitudes at sea4 ,! satellites 9 transit pres5t "s curi\s ph5om5a4 ,:5 !y ent] ! disk1 !y appe> int5sely lum9\s ^u its grayi% bord]2 b z !y advance1 !y seem by degrees to lose _! brightness1 until !y f9ally become undi/+ui%able f ! lum9\s surface ( ,jupit]4 ,x sometimes happ5s1 h[ev]1 t ! fir/1 ! ?ird & ! f\r? satellites1 aft] ceas+ to appe> z bright spots1 cont9ue to be visible z d>k spots ^u ! bright c5tral portions ( ! planet's disk2 b 9 ^! cases _! disks appe> small] ?an ! %ad[s !y ca/4 ,und\bt$ly ^! satellites h ext5sive atmosph]es1 s9ce !y sometimes pass unp]ceiv$ across ! c5tral p>ts ( ,jupit]1 ?is be+ probably :5 _! atmosph]es are cond5s$ into cl\ds1 /rongly reflect+ light2 :ile :5 ^! cl\ds are abs5t1 we c see _! actual surface1 ) traces ( ! d>k spots ^u !m simil> to ^? on ,m>s4 ,f ! v>iation 9 ! brightness ( ^! satellites1 :i* is said to be always obs]v$ 9 ! same "p ( _! orbit1 ,william ,h]s*el 0 l$ to suppose t ^! bodies1 l our ,moon1 rotate ^u _! axes 9 ! same p]iod 9 :i* !y move r\nd ! planet1 s t !y always pres5t ! same face to ,jupit]2 b ^! conclusions h be5 d5i$4 ,f my obs]vations x is app>5t1 h[ev]1 t ! light reflect$ by !m v>ies 9 int5sity z well z 9 color4 ,b ?is is r to be attribut$ to ! pres5ce ( an atmosph]e surr\nd+ ^! bodies1 :i* :5 cl\dy reflects m light ?an :5 cle>1 ) correspond+ *anges 9 ! color ( ! light4 ,! satellites 9 transit are sometimes prec$$ or foll[$1 accord+ to ! position ( ! ,sun1 by a r\nd black spot hav+ ab\t ! same size z ! satellite itself4 ,?is black spot is ! %ad[ ( ! satellite ca/ on ! vapory envelope ( ,jupit]1 simil> to ! %ad[ ca/ by ! ,moon on ! ,e>?1 dur+ eclipses ( ! ,sun2 9 fact1 all ! ,jovian regions trav]s$ by ^! %ad[s h ! ,sun totally eclips$4 ,sometimes x happ5s t ! %ad[ appe>s elliptical4 ,?is occurs ei!r :5 x is obs]v$ v ne> ! limb1 or :5 ent]+ ^u a r\nd1 cl\d-l spot4 ,?is effect is attributable to ! p]spective "u :i* ! %ad[ is se5 on ! sph]ical globe or spot4 ,! prop] motion ( ! satellites 9 ! ,jovian sky is mu* m rapid ?an t ( ! ,moon 9 our sky4 ,dur+ "o ,jovian day ( t5 h\rs1 ! fir/ satellite advances #hd2 ! second1 #db2 ! ?ird1 #bj & ! f\r?1 #i4 ,! fir/ satellite passes f ,new ,moon to its fir/ qu>t] 9 a little m ?an a ,jovian day1 :ile ! f\r? occupies t5 su* days 9 atta9+ ! same phase4 ,9 d5sity1 z well z 9 physical con/itution1 ,jupit] diff]s widely f ! int]ior planets1 & especially f ! ,e>?2 &1 z has be5 %[n1 x is surr\nd$ by a d5se1 opaque1 cl\dy lay]1 :i* is almo/ always imp5etrable to ! sight1 & hides f view ! nucleus1 :i* we may conceive to exi/ "u ?is vapor\s envelope4 ,9 #ahgf1 ! ye> ( ! great ,jovian di/urbances1 ,i obs]v$ frequ5tly 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e ( ! planet a v curi\s ph5om5on1 :i* seems to prove t its cl\dy envelope is at times p>tially abs5t 9 "s places1 its vapors be+ app>5tly ei!r cond5s$1 or transport$ to o!r p>ts ( its surface1 & t1 !re=e1 a consid]able "p ( ! real globe ( ! planet 0 visible at ^! places4 ,! ph5om5on consi/$ 9 ! de=mation ( ! nor!rn limb1 :i* _h a mu* %ort] radius on all ( ?is hemisph]e situat$ nor?w>d ( ! :ite belt :i* adjo9s ! equatorial zone4 ,! de=mation ( ! limb on bo? sides1 :]e x pass$ f a long] to a %ort] radius1 0 abrupt1 & at "r angles to ! limb1 =m+ !re a /eplike ind5tation :i* 0 v prom95t4 ,! pol> segm5t hav+ a small] radius1 appe>$ unusually d>k1 & 0 n /rip$1 z usual1 b uni=m 9 t9t ?r\gh\t4 ,on ,septemb] #bg?1 ! ?ird satellite pass$ ov] ?is d>k segm5t1 & em]g$ f ! we/]n bord]1 a little bel[ ! place :]e ! limb 0 abruptly de=m$1 z above describ$4 ,:5 ! satellite _h fully em]g$ f ?is limb1 x 0 app>5t t if ! portion ( ! limb hav+ a long] radius _h be5 prolong$ a little bel[1 & z f> z ! satellite1 x w\ld h enclos$ x )9 its bord]1 & ?us ret>d$ ! "t ( em]sion4 ,! dep? ( de=mation ( ! limb 0 accord+ly great] ?an ! diamet] ( ! ?ird satellite1 & c]ta9ly m ?an #d1jjj miles4 ,t ! ph5om5on 0 real1 is prov$ by ! fact t ! egress ( ?is satellite occurr$ at lea/ f\r m9utes soon] ?an ! "t pr$ict$ = x 9 ! ,am]ican ,ephem]is4 ,o!r obs]vations seem to po9t 9 ! same direction1 s9ce "s ( ! satellites :i* 7 occult$ h be5 se5 ?r\gh ! limb ( ,jupit] by diff]5t a/ronom]s1 z if ?is limb 0 sometimes semi-transp>5t4 ,ano!r obs]vation ( m9e seems to confirm ^! conclusions4 ,on ,april #bd?1 #ahgg1 at #ae;h4 #bem4 ! %ad[ ( ! fir/ satellite 0 project$ on ! d>k b& =m+ ! nor!rn bord] ( ! equatorial belt1 ! %ad[ be+ !n n f> f ! ea/ limb4 ,close to ?is %ad[1 & on its we/]n side1 x 0 prec$$ by a second>y %ad[1 :i* 0 fa9t]1 b _h ! same app>5t size4 ,?is r\nd d>k spot 0 n ! satellite itself1 z ,i _h suppos$ at fir/1 s9ce ?is object 0 yet outside ( ! planet1 on ! ea/1 & ent]$ ^u x only at #af;h4 #dm4 ,i wat*$ closely ?is /range ph5om5on1 & at #af;h4 #dem41 :5 ! %ad[ _h already cross$ ab\t ( ! disk1 x 0 /ill prec$$ by ! second>y1 or mock %ad[1 z x may be call$2 ! same relative di/ance hav+ be5 kept all ! :ile betwe5 ! two objects1 :i* _h !re=e travel$ at ! same rate4 ,x is obvi\s t ?is d>k spot c\ld n be "o ( ! planet's m>k+s1 s9ce ! %ad[ ( ! fir/ satellite moves m quickly on ! surface ( ,jupit] ?an a spot on ! same surface travels by ! effect ( rotation1 s t 9 ?is case ! %ad[ w\ld soon h pass$ ov] ?is m>k+1 & left x beh9d1 dur+ ! "t occupi$ by ! obs]vation4 ,f ^! obs]vations x seems v probable t ,jupit] has a nucleus1 ei!r solid or liquid1 :i* lies sev]al ?\s& mites bel[ ! surface ( its cl\dy envelope4 ,x is also probable t ! uni=mly %ad$ d>k segm5t se5 9 #ahgf1 0 a portion ( ! surface ( ?is nucleus itself4 ,:5 ! cl\dy envelope is semi-transp>5t at ! place situat$ on a l9e ) an occult$ satellite & ! eye ( an obs]v]1 ?is satellite may accord+ly rema9 visible = a "t ?r\gh ! limb1 z %[n by obs]vation4 ,! ph5om5on ( ! mock %ad[ may also be attribut$ to a simil> cause1 :]e semi-transp>5t vapors receive ! %ad[ ( a satellite at _! surface1 :ile at ! same "t "p ( ?is %ad[1 pass+ ?r\gh ! semi-transp>5t vapors1 may be se5 at ! surface ( ! nucleus1 or ( a lay] ( opaque cl\ds situat$ at "s di/ance bel[ ! surface4 ,"s a/ronom]s are incl9$ to ?9k t ,jupit] is at a high temp]ature1 & self-lum9\s to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,if ?is planet is self-lum9\s to any degree1 we might expect t "s light w\ld be ?r[n ^u ! satellites :5 !y are cross+ ! %ad[ ca/ into space by ! planet2 b :5 !y cross ?is %ad[ !y are totally invisible 9 ! be/ telescopes1 a pro( t !y d n receive mu* light f ! non-illum9at$ side ( ,jupit]4 ,x w\ld1 inde$1 seem probable t "s ( ! int5sely :ite spots occasionally se5 on ! equatorial belt ( ! planet are self-lum9\s 9 a degree1 yet n en\gh to r5d] ! satellites visible :ile !y are imm]s$ 9 ,jupit]'s %ad[4 ,x does n seem impossible t ! planet %\ld h ! high temp]ature attribut$ to x1 :5 we rememb] ! t]rific /orms obs]v$ 9 its atmosph]e1 :i*1 ow+ to ! great di/ance ( ,jupit] f ! ,sun1 d n seem to be attributable to ?is body1 b r to "s local cause )9 ! envelope ( ! planet4 ,a/ronomy1 :i* is a sci5ce ( obs]vation1 is naturally sil5t ) reg>d to ! inhabitants ( ,jupit]4 ,if !re are any su* inhabitants1 !y are conf9$ to ! doma9 ( conjecture1 "u ! d5se cl\dy envelope ( ! planet4 ,! conditions ( habitability on ,jupit] mu/ diff] v widely f ^? ( our globe4 ,comp>atively little direct light f ! ,sun rea*es ! surface ( ! globe ( ,jupit]1 except t :i* passes ?r\gh ! n>r[ op5+s =m+ ! d>k cl\ds4 ,all ! re/ ( ! planet's surface1 be+ cov]$ p]petually by opaque cl\ds1 receives only diffus$ light4 ,on ,jupit] !re are practically no seasons1 s9ce its axis is ne>ly p]p5dicul> to its orbit4 ,! =ce ( gravity on ! surface ( ,jupit] be+ m ?an d\ble :at x is on ! ,e>?1 liv+ bodies w\ld !re h m ?an d\ble ! weight ( simil> bodies on ! ,e>?4 ,fur!rmore1 ,jupit] only receives #j4jaa ( ! light & heat :i* we receive f ! ,sun2 & its ye> is ne>ly equal to #ab ( our ye>s4 ,if !re are liv+ be+s on ,jupit]1 !y mu/1 !n1 be entirely diff]5t f any kn[n to u1 & !y may h =ms nev] dream$ ( 9 our mo/ fanta/ic conceptions4 ,! two r\nd black spots repres5t$ t[>ds ! c5tral p>ts ( ,plate ,,ix4 are ! %ad[s ( ! fir/ & second satellite2 :ile ! two r\nd :ite spots se5 on ! left ( ! disk1 are ! satellites !mselves1 z !y appe>$ at ! mom5t ( ! obs]vation4 ,! fir/ satellite & its %ad[ are ! ne>e/ to ! equator2 :ile ! second satellite & its %ad[ are high]1 ! la/ be+ project$ on ! ,great ,r$ ,spot4#b ,! r[ ( d>k circul> spots repres5t$ on ! nor!rn1 or l[] hemisph]e1 :5 !y fir/ appe>$1 _h "s resemblance to ,sun-spots )\t a p5umbra1 ) bright m>k+s ar\nd !m1 resembl+ facul4 ,^! r\nd spots subsequ5tly enl>g$ consid]ably1 until !y unit$ along ! entire l9e1 encircl+ ! planet1 & f9ally =m+ a n>r[ p9k belt1 :i* is /ill visible4 ,footnote #b3 ,by an accid5tal error 9 enl>g+ ! orig9al draw+1 ! satellites & %ad[s appe> 9 ,plate ,,ix4 ( d\ble _! actual size4 ,! error is "o easy ( m5tal correction4 ,,! ,,planet ,,saturn ,,plate ,x ,saturn1 :i* is next to ,jupit] 9 ord] ( di/ance f ! ,sun1 :ile n ! l>ge/1 is c]ta9ly ! mo/ beautiful & int]e/+ ( all ! planets1 ) 8 gr& & unique sy/em ( r+s1 & 8 eight satellites1 :i*1 l fai?ful s]vants1 att5d ! planet's int]m9able j\rney ?r\gh space4 ,se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 ,saturn %9es 9 ! night l a /> ( ! fir/ magnitude1 ^: dull1 s(t :it5ess is1 h[ev]1 f> f atta9+ ! brilliancy ( ,v5us or ,jupit]1 al?\gh x sometimes approa*es ,m>s 9 brightness4 ,saturn h>dly ev] exhibits ! ph5om5on ( sc9tillation1 or tw9kl+1 a peculi>ity :i* makes x easily di/+ui%able among ! />s & planets ( ! heav5s4 ,! synodical p]iod ( ,saturn occupies #a ye> & #ac days1 s t e #cgh days1 on an av]age1 ?is planet holds ! same position 9 ! sky relatively to ! ,sun & ! ,e>?4 ,! mean di/ance ( ,saturn f ! ,sun is a little ov] #i times t ( our globe1 or #hgb1jjj1jjj miles4 ,ow+ to ! orbital ecc5tricity1 ?is di/ance may increase to #iba1jjj1jjj miles1 :5 ! planet is 9 aphelion2 or decrease to #hbc1jjj1jjj miles1 :5 x is 9 p]ihelion2 ,saturn be+ !re=e #ih1jjj1jjj miles ne>] to ! ,sun :5 9 p]ihelion ?an 9 aphelion4 ,if gravitation 7 free to ex]t its influ5ce alone1 ,saturn w\ld fall into ! ,sun 9 #e ye>s & #b mon?s4 ,! di/ance ( ,saturn f ! ,e>? v>ies1 accord+ to ! position ( ! two planets 9 _! respective orbits4 ,at ! "t ( opposition1 :5 ! ,e>? lies betwe5 ! ,sun & ,saturn1 ?is di/ance is smalle/2 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 at ! "t ( conjunction1 :5 ! ,sun lies betwe5 ! ,e>? & ,saturn1 x is greate/4 ,ow+1 h[ev]1 to ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbits ( ,saturn & our globe1 & ! incl9ation ( _! planes to ea* o!r1 & ow+ also to ! v>iable helioc5tric longitude ( ! p]ihelion1 ! di/ance ( ! two planets f ea* o!r at _! successive conjunctions & oppositions is r5d]$ extremely v>iable4 ,at pres5t x is :5 ! oppositions ( ,saturn occur 9 ,decemb] t ?is planet comes ne>e/ to u2 :ile :5 ! conjunctions take place 9 ,june1 ! di/ance ( ,saturn f ! ,e>? is ! greate/ possible4 ,9 ! =m] case ! di/ance ( ! planet f our globe is only #gcj1jjj1jjj miles2 :ile 9 ! la/ x is #a1jad1jjj1jjj miles1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ne>e/ & f>!/ po9ts ( ,saturn's approa* to u be+ no less ?an #bhd1jjj1jjj miles1 or ov] ?ree times ! mean di/ance ( ! ,sun f ! ,e>?4 ,f ! great v>iations 9 ! di/ance ( ,saturn f ! ,e>?1 necess>ily result correspond+ *anges 9 ! brightness & app>5t diamet] ( ?is body4 ,:5 x is f>!/ f u1 its angul> diamet] measures b #ad2 :ile1 :5 x is ne>e/1 x measures #bj4 ,! orbit ( ,saturn is incl9$ #bcj' to ! ecliptic1 & its ecc5tricity1 :i* equals #j1jef1 is ov] ?ree times t ( ! ,e>?'s orbit4 ,?is planet revolves ar\nd ! ,sun 9 a p]iod ( #bi ye>s & #e mon?s1 or #aj1gei t]re/rial days1 :i* con/itutes its sid]eal ye>4 ,! ext5sion ( ! imm5se curve =m+ ! orbit ( ?is planet1 is no less ?an #e1eje1jjj1jjj miles1 :i* is trav]s$ by ! planet ) a mean velocity ( a little less ?an #f miles p] second1 or ?ree times less ?an ! motion ( our globe 9 space4 ,! real dim5sions ( ! globe ( ,saturn are n yet kn[n ) accuracy1 & ! equatorial diamet] has be5 v>i\sly e/imat$ by obs]v]s1 at f #ga1jjj to #gi1jjj miles4 ,if we adopt ! mean ( ^! numb]s1 #ge1jjj miles1 ! circumf]5ce ( ! ,saturnian equator w\ld measure #bce1fbj miles1 or #i times ! circumf]5ce ( our globe2 ! surface ( ,saturn w\ld be #hf times1 & its volume ov] #haj times t ( ! ,e>?4 ,h[ev] great ! volume ( ,saturn1 its mass is proportionally small1 be+ only #ij times great] ?an t ( our globe2 ! mean d5sity ( ! mat]ials compos+ ?is planet be+ less ?an t ( cork1 & only #j4fh ! d5sity ( wat]4 ,! =ce ( gravitation at ! surface ( ,saturn is great]1 by a little ov] 1 ?an x is at ! surface ( ! ,e>?2 a body fall+ 9 a vacuum at its surface1 w\ld travel #ag4ei feet dur+ ! fir/ second4 ,f obs]vations ( m>k+s se5 on ! surface ( ,saturn1 & f ! /udy ( _! app>5t displacem5ts on ! disk1 ,william ,h]s*el f\nd t ! planet rotat$ ^u its axis 9 #aj;h4 #afm4 #j4bds4 ,s9ce ,h]s*el's det]m9ation1 new rese>*es h be5 made1 & lately1 ,pr(essor ,hall1 notic+ a bright spot1 foll[$ x = ne>ly a mon?1 obs]v+ its transits across ! c5tral m]idian ( ! disk4 ,f ^! obs]vations he has obta9$ = ! rotation p]iod #aj;h4 #adm4 #bc4hs41 a result :i* agrees v closely ) t obta9$ #hb ye>s e>li] by ,h]s*el1 consid]+ ! fact t ! m>k+s f :i* ! p]iod ( rotation is asc]ta9$ are n fix$ on ! planet1 b are always m or less end[$ ) prop] motion4 ,! velocity ( rotation at ! equator is #ba1ech miles p] h\r1 or ne>ly #f miles p] second4 ,! axis ( rotation ( ,saturn is incl9$ #fd #ah' to ! plane ( ! orbit1 s t its equator makes an angle ( #be #db' ) ! same plane4 ,! seasons ( ?is planet !re=e pres5t great] extremes ( temp]ature ?an ^? ( ! ,e>?1 b n q s great v>iations z ! seasons ( ,m>s4 ,! globe ( ,saturn is n a p]fect sph]e1 b its figure is t ( an oblong sph]oid1 flatt5$ at ! poles4 ,! pol> compression ( ,saturn is great] ?an t ( any o!r planet1 surpass+ ev5 t ( ,jupit]4 ,?\gh n yet det]m9$ ) a great degree ( accuracy1 ! compression is kn[n to be betwe5 & ( ! equatorial diamet]2 t is1 a flatt5+ ( ab\t #c1hid miles1 at ea* pole1 ! pol> diamet] be+ #g1ghh miles %ort] ?an ! equatorial4 ,! int]nal condition ( ! planet ,saturn1 :e!r solid1 liquid or gase\s1 _c be discov]$ f ! exam9ation ( its surface1 z its globe is enwrapp$ 9 a d5se opaque lay] ( vapors & cl\d-l =ms1 ?r\gh :i* ! sight fails to p5etrate4 ,! appe>ance ( ?is vapory envelope is l t ( cumulus cl\ds1 & "o ( its *>act]i/ics is to arrange itself into alt]nate bright & d>k p>allel belts1 broad] ?an ^? se5 on ,jupit]1 & also m regul> & d>k4 ,^! belts1 :i* are p>allel to ! equator ( ! planet1 v>y 9 curvature ) ! incl9ation ( its axis ( rotation to ! l9e ( sight4 ,! belts ( ,saturn1 l ^? ( ,jupit]1 are n p]man5t1 b keep *ang+ m or less rapidly4 ,sometimes !y h be5 obs]v$ to be q num]\s2 :ile at o!r times !y are few4 ,occasionally conspicu\s :ite or d>k spots are se5 on ! surface1 al?\gh ! ph5om5on is q r>e4 ,x is f ! obs]vation ( su* spots t ,saturn's p]iod ( rotation has be5 det]m9$1 z /at$ above4 ,! equatorial zone ( ,saturn always appe>s m :ite & brilliant ?an ! o!r p>ts1 z x also appe>s m mottl$ & cl\d-l4 ,9 late ye>s ! globe has be5 *>act]iz$1 & mu* adorn$1 by a pale p9ki% t9t on its equatorial belt1 resembl+ t ( ,jupit]1 b some:at fa9t]4 ,on ei!r side ( ! equatorial belt !re is a n>r[] b&1 ^u :i* ! mottl$ appe>ance is visible4 ,bel[ ^!1 "o or two d>k belts1 sep>at$ by n>r[ :ite b&s1 are usually se52 b1 ( late1 ! b&s h be5 less num]\s1 be+ replac$ 9 high latitudes by a d>k segm5t1 :i* =ms a pol> cap to ,saturn4 ,! globe ( ,saturn does n any:]e appe> p]fectly :ite1 & :5 comp>$ ) its r+1 x looks ( a smoky yell[i% t9t1 :i* becomes an a%y gray on its %ad$ p>ts4 ,x usually appe>s d>k] ne> ! limb ?an 9 its c5tral portions2 al?\gh on "s occasions ,i h se5 portions ( ! limb appe> bright]1 z if "s :ite spots 7 trav]s+ x4 ,"s obs]v]s h se5 ! limb de=m$ & flatt5$ at diff]5t places1 & ,w4 ,h]s*el ev5 ?\ght su* a de=mation to be a p]man5t feature ( ?is globe1 :i* he t]m$ diamond-%ap$1 or squ>e %\ld]$4 ,b ?is 0 evid5tly an illusion1 s9ce ! planet's limb usually appe>s p]fectly elliptical1 al?\gh x occasionally appe>s z if flatt5$ at "s po9ts1 especially :]e x comes 9 app>5t contact ) ! %ad[ ca/ by ! globe on ! r+1 z obs]v$ by myself _m times4 ,b ) "s att5tion1 x is g5]ally f\nd t ?is de=mation is app>5t r ?an real1 & is caus$ by ! passage ( "s l>ge d>k spots ov] ! limb1 :i* is ?us r5d]$ indi/+ui%able f ! d>k backgr\nd ^u :i* x is project$4 ,:at di/+ui%es ,saturn f all kn[n planets1 or heav5ly bodies1 & makes x unique 9 our univ]se1 is ! m>vel\s broad flat r+ :i* encircles its equator at a consid]able di/ance f x4 ,) a l[ magnify+ p[] ?is flat r+ appe>s s+le1 b :5 c>efully exam9$ ) high] p[]s1 x is f\nd to consi/ ( sev]al di/9ct conc5tric r+s & zones1 all ly+ ne>ly 9 ! same plane ) ! planet's equator4 ,,plate ,x4--,,! ,,planet ,,saturn4 ,obs]v$ on ,novemb] #cj1 #ahgd1 at #e;h4 #cjm4 ,p4,m4 ,at fir/ sight only two conc5tric r+s are recogniz$1 ! out] & ! middle1 or int]m$i>y1 :i* are sep>at$ by a wide & cont9u\s black l9e1 call$ ! pr9cipal division4 ,?is l9e1 & inde$ all ! features ( ! surface ( ! r+s are bett] se51 & appe> m prom95t on t "p ( ! r+ on ei!r side call$ ! ansa1 or h&le4 ,besides ^! two conspicu\s r+s1 a ?ird1 ( v d>k blui% or purpli% color1 lies betwe5 ?is middle r+1 to :i* x is contigu\s1 & ! planet4 ,?is inn] r+1 :i* is q wide1 is call$ ! gauze or dusky r+4 ,clos] exam9ation %[s t ! out] r+ is itself divid$ by a n>r[1 fa9t1 grayi% l9e call$ ! p5cil l9e1 :i*1 f its extreme fa9tness1 is only visible on ! ans4 ,moreov]1 ! middle r+ is compos$ ( ?ree conc5tric zones1 or belts1 :i*1 al?\gh n app>5tly divid$ by any int]val ( space1 are di/+ui%$ by ! diff]5t %ad+s ( ! mat]ials compos+ !m4 ,! out] zone ( ?is comp\nd middle r+ is1 by f>1 ! brighte/ ( all ! sy/em ( r+s & belts1 especially close to its ext]nal bord]1 :]e1 on favorable occasions1 ,i h se5 x appe> on ! ans z if mottl$ ov]1 & cov]$ ?r\gh\t ) /rongly lum9\s cl\d-l masses4 ,on ! ans ( ! d\ble out] r+1 simil> cl\dy =ms h also be5 se5 at diff]5t times4 ,! second zone ( ! middle r+ is d>k] ?an ! fir/1 ! inn]mo/ be+ d>k] /ill4 ,all ! *>act]i/ic po9ts :i* h ?us be5 describ$1 are %[n 9 ,plate ,x4 ,al?\gh suspect$ 9 #ahch1 ! dusky r+ 0 n recogniz$ be=e #ahej1 :5 ,g4 ,p4 ,bond discov]$ x ) ! #ae-;in* refractor ( ! ,cambridge ,obs]vatory4 ,x 0 also indep5d5tly discov]$ ! same ye> 9 ,engl& by ,dawes & ,lassell4 ,! dusky r+ diff]s widely 9 appe>ance & 9 con/itution f ! o!r r+s1 inasmu* z ^! la/ are opaque1 & ei!r :ite or grayi%1 :ile ! =m] is v d>k1 & yet s transp>5t t ! limb ( ! planet is pla9ly se5 ?r\gh its sub/ance4 ,on p>ticul>ly favorable occasions1 ! appe>ance ( ?is r+ resembles t ( ! f9e p>ticles ( du/ float+ 9 a ray ( light trav]s+ a d>k *amb]4 ,:atev] may be ! mat]ial ( :i* ?is r+ is compos$1 x mu/ be q r>efi$1 especially t[>ds its inn] bord]1 :i* appe>s z if compos$ ( di/9ct & m9ute p>ticles ( matt] feebly reflect+ ! sol> light4 ,t ! inn] "p ( ! dusky r+ is compos$ ( sep>ate p>ticles1 is prov$ by ! fact t ! "p ( ! r+ :i* is se5 9 front ( ! globe ( ,saturn has its inn] bord] abruptly deflect$ & curv$ inw>d on ent]+ ^u ! disk1 caus+ x to appe> consid]ably n>r[] ?an x mu/ be 9 reality1 a peculi>ity :i* is %[n 9 ! ,plate4 ,?is ph5om5on may be attribut$ to an effect ( irradiation1 due to ! /rong light reflect$ by ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ball1 :i* s r$uces ! app>5t diamet] ( ! individual p>ticles t !y become invisible to u1 especially ^? ne> ! inn] bord]1 :i* are m scatt]$ & less num]\s ?an else:]e4 ,! dusky r+1 :i* 0 describ$ by ,bond1 ,lassell & o!r a/ronom]s z be+ equally transp>5t ?r\gh\t all its wid?1 has n be5 f\nd s by me 9 lat] ye>s4 ,! limb ( ! planet1 se5 by ^! obs]v]s ?r\gh ! :ole wid? ( ! dusky r+ 9 #ahej1 c\ld n be trac$ ?r\gh its out] half by myself 9 #ahgb & #ahgd1 & ?is ) ! v same in/rum5t us$ by ,bond 9 8 obs]vations ( #ahdh & #ahej4 ,moreov]1 ,i h pla9ly se5 t its transp>5cy 0 n ev]y:]e equal1 b greate/ on ! inn] bord]1 f :i* x gradually decreases1 until x becomes opaque1 z prov$ by ! gradual loss ( di/9ctness ( ! limb1 :i* vani%es at ab\t ! middle ( ! dusky r+4 ,^! facts1 :i* h be5 well asc]ta9$1 prove t ! p>ticles compos+ ?is r+ are n p]man5tly locat$1 & are und]go+ *anges ( relative position4 ,x w be %[n t ! surface ( ! o!r r+s is also subject to *anges1 :i* are sometimes v rapid4 ,! globe ( ,saturn is n self-lum9\s1 b opaque4 ,x %9es by ! sol> light1 z is prov$ by ! %ad[ x ca/s opposite ! ,sun ^u ! r+4 ,al?\gh receiv+ its light f ! ,sun1 ,saturn does n exhibit any traces ( phases1 l ! o!r planets ne>] to ! ,sun1 ow+ to its great di/ance f ! ,e>?4 ,:5 ne> its quadratures1 h[ev]1 ! limb opposite to ! ,sun appe>s mu* d>k]1 & %[s traces ( twilight4 ,z f> z c be asc]ta9$1 ! r+s1 ) ! exception ( ! inn] "o1 are opaque1 z prov$ by ! /rong %ad[ :i* !y ca/ on ! globe ( ,saturn4 ,! %ad[s ca/ by ! planet on ! r+1 & by ! r+ on ! planet1 are v int]e/+ ph5om5a1 inasmu* z !y enable ! a/ronom] to recognize ! =m ( ! surface :i* receives !m4 ,! %ad[ ca/ by ! r+ on ! ball is n q s int]e/+ z ! o!r1 al?\gh x has s]v$ to prove t ! surface ( ?is globe is n smoo?1 z is likewise sugge/$ by its mottl$ appe>ance4 ,i h sometimes f\nd1 z h also o!r obs]v]s1 t ! outl9e ( ?is %ad[ ^u ! ball 0 irregul> & ind5t$1 an obs]vation :i* proves ei!r t ! surface ( ! ball is irregul>1 or t ! bord] ( ! r+ ca/+ ! %ad[ 0 jagg$4 ,! %ad[ ( ! globe on ! r+s has mu* m int]e/1 z x enables u to get at "s k ( ! =m ( ! surface ( ! r+s1 :i* o!rwise is v difficult to discov]1 ow+ to ! oblique position 9 :i* we always see !m4 ,9 g5]al1 ! %ad[ ( ! ball on ! middle r+ has its outl9e concave t[>ds ! planet2 :ile on ! out] r+ x is usually slant+1 & at a great] di/ance f ! limb ?an on ! middle1 & dusky r+s4 ,?is =m ( ! %ad[ evid5tly proves t ! middle r+ /&s at a high] level ?an ! two o!rs1 especially t[>ds its out] m>g94 ,! sy/em seems to increase gradually 9 ?ickness f ! inn] bord] ( ! dusky r+ to ! vic9ity ( ! out] m>g9 ( ! middle r+1 aft] :i* x rapidly dim9i%es on ?is bord]1 :ile ! surface ( ! out] r+ is almo/ level4 ,b ?is surface is by no means fix$1 z its =m sometimes *anges1 z prov$ by my obs]vations & ^? ( o!rs4 ,z may be notic$ on ,plate ,x41 ! outl9e ( ! %ad[ ( ! planet on ! r+s is /rongly deviat$ t[>ds ! planet1 ne> ! out] m>g9 ( ! middle r+2 ! not* indicat+ an abrupt *ange ( level1 & a rise ( ! surface at t po9t4 ,"s obs]v]s h endeavor$ to expla9 ^! deviations by ! ph5om5a ( irradiation1 f :i* x w\ld foll[ t ! maximum effect ( deviation %\ld be obs]v$ :]e ! r+ is ! brighte/1 :i* does n accord ) obs]vation2 z ! deepe/ depression 9 ! %ad[ is n to be f\nd usually at ! brighte/ "p1 :i* is t[>ds ! out] bord] ( ! middle r+1 b occurs ne> its c5tre4 ,f ^! obs]vations x is und\bt$ly e/abli%$ t ! surface ( ! r+s is f> f be+ flat ?r\gh\t1 & is1 besides1 n p]man5t1 b *anges1 z w\ld1 = in/ance1 ! surface ( a l>ge mass ( cl\ds se5 f ! top ( a high m\nta94 ,9 g5]al1 ! sy/em is ?icke/ n v f> f ! out] bord] ( ! int]m$i>y r+4 ,"s int]e/+ ph5om5a :i* ,i _h occasion to obs]ve be=e & aft] ! passage ( ! ,sun ?r\gh ! plane ( ! r+s1 on ,febru>y #f?1 #ahgh1 conclusively %[ t ! surface ( ?is sy/em _c be ( a uni=m level1 b mu/ be ?ick] t[>ds ! out] bord] ( ! middle r+1 !nce gradually slop+ t[>ds ! planet4 ,_m ( my obs]vations irresi/ibly lead to ?is conclusion4 ,z x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be out ( place to h !m record$ "h 9 detail1 ,i w simply give "o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic among !m4 ,f ,decemb] #ah?1 #ahgg1 :5 ! ,sun 0 ab\t #da' above ! plane ( ! r+s1 to ,febru>y #f?1 #ahgh1 ! day ( its passage ?r\gh _! plane1 ! illum9at$ surface ( ?is sy/em gradually decreas$ 9 bread? ) ! l[]+ ( ! ,sun1 until x 0 lo/ sight (1 ,febru>y #e?1 on ! eve ( ! passage ( ! ,sun ?r\gh _! plane4 ,! ph5om5on 9 "q consi/$ 9 ! gradual invasion ( _! illum9at$ surface by :at appe>$ to be a black %ad[1 app>5tly ca/ by ! front "p ( ! out] portion ( ! middle r+ ! ne>e/ to ! ,sun4 ,on ,janu>y #be?1 :5 ! elevation ( ! ,sun above ! plane ( ! r+s 0 r$uc$ to #ae'1 ! %ad[ ?us ca/ _h ext5d$ s f> on _! surface t x rea*$ ! %ad[ ca/ by ! globe on ! opposite "p ( ! r+ 9 ! ea/1 & accord+ly ! rema9+ portion ( ! illum9at$ surface ( ! ea/]n ansa !n appe>$ entirely disconnect$ f ! ball1 by a l>ge d>k gap1 correspond+ 9 bread? to t ( ! globe's %ad[ on ! r+s4 ,on ,febru>y #d?1 :5 ! ,sun 0 only #e' above ! plane ( ! r+s1 _! illum9at$ & only visible surface 0 r$uc$ to a m]e ?read ( light1 :i* on ! #e? appe>$ brok5 into sep>ate po9ts4 ,x is evid5t t ! ph5om5on 0 n caus$ by ! obliquity ( ! r+ z se5 f our globe1 s9ce ! elevation ( ! ,e>? above ! plane ( ! r+s--:i* on ,decemb] #ah? 0 #c #bj'--0 /ill #a #bj' on ! #d? ( ,febru>y4 ,9 ord9>y circum/ances1 :5 ! ,sun is a little m elevat$1 & ! r+s se5 at ?is la/ angle1 !y appe> q broad & conspicu\s1 & ev5 ! d>k op5 space sep>at+ ! dusky r+ f ! planet is p]fectly visible on ! ans1 :]e ! ,e>?'s elevation above _! plane is r$uc$ to #dj'4 ,x is also evid5t t ! ph5om5on 0 n to be attribut$ to ! r$uction ( ! light :i* !y receiv$ f ! ,sun1 al?\gh ! illum9ation 9 ,febru>y might be expect$ to be comp>atively feeble1 s9ce ! ,sun !n %one ^u ! r+s s obliquely2 yet 7on ! supposition t _! surface is flat7 !y %\ld h be5 illum9at$ ?r\gh\t1 & if n v brightly1 suffici5tly s1 at lea/1 to make !m visible & z bright z 0 ! n>r[ ?read ( light obs]v$ on ! #d? ( ,febru>y4 ,! ph5om5on actually obs]v$ may be expla9$ mo/ readily by assum+1 z o!r ph5om5a also indicate1 t ! surface ( ! r+ is n flat1 b m elevat$ t[>ds1 or 9 ! vic9ity ( its out] bord]1 f :i* place x slopes inw>dly t[>ds ! planet4 ,on ?is assumption1 x is evid5t t ! elevat$ "p ( ! r+ ! ne>e/ to ! ,sun w\ld ca/ a %ad[1 :i*1 ) ! increas+ obliquity ( ! ,sun1 w\ld gradually cov] ! :ole surface compris$ )9 ! elevat$ "p1 & ?us become invisible to u4 ,sev]al obs]vations made by ,bond & o!r obs]v]s und\bt$ly %[ ! same ph5om5on1 & d n seem to be intelligible on any o!r supposition4 ,f my obs]vations made 9 #ahha x w\ld appe>1 h[ev]1 t ! opposite surfaces ( ! r+s d n exactly correspond 9 =m1 b ?is may n be a p]man5t feature1 z ! surface ( ?is sy/em is subject to *anges1 z already %[n4 ,! dim5sions ( ! r+s are great1 ! diamet] ( ! out] "o be+ no less ?an #agb1ihb miles1 ! di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! globe to ! out] bord] ( ! sy/em be+1 !re=e1 #hf1dia miles4 ,! bread? ( ! out] r+ is #i1ida miles2 t ( ! pr9cipal division1 #b1aca miles2 t ( ! middle r+1 #ai1ijb miles1 & t ( ! dusky r+1 #h1ggb miles4 ,! bread? ( all ! r+s tak5 toge!r is1 !re=e1 #dj1gdf miles4 ,! int]val betwe5 ! surface ( ,saturn & ! inn] bord] ( ! dusky r+ is #g1hdc miles4 ,! ?ickness ( ! sy/em ( r+s has be5 v>i\sly e/imat$ by a/ronom]s1 on acc\nt ( ! great difficulties att5d+ its det]m9ation4 ,:ile ,sir ,john ,h]s*el e/imat$ x at m ?an #bej miles1 ,g4 ,p4 ,bond r$uces x to #dj miles4 ,bo? ( ^! numb]s are evid5tly too small1 z s slight a ?ickness _c expla9 ! obs]v$ ph5om5on ( ! %ad[ ca/ by a portion ( ! r+ on its own surface1 :5 ! ,sun is v l[ 9 its horizon1 z %[n above4 ,! plane ( ! sy/em ( r+s is incl9$ #bg to ! planet's orbit1 & is p>allel1 or at lea/ v ne>ly s1 ) ! equator ( ! planet1 pass+1 !re=e1 ?r\gh its c5tre1 & divid+ its globe into nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es4 ,se5 f ! ,e>?1 a portion ( ! r+ always appe>s project$ 9 front ( ! planet1 ?us conceal+ a small "p ( its globe1 :ile ! opposite portion passes beh9d ! globe1 :i* hides x f sight4 ,z ! plane ( ! r+ is n affect$ by ! motion ( ! planet ar\nd ! ,sun1 b always rema9s p>allel to itself1 x foll[s t z ,saturn advances 9 its orbit ! r+s mu/ successively pres5t !mselves to u "u v>i\s angles ( incl9ation1 appe>+1 !re=e1 m or less elliptical1 & pres5t+ two maxima & two m9ima ( incl9ation 9 ! c\rse ( "o ( its revolutions4 ,z ! revolution ( ,saturn is accompli%$ 9 #bi ye>s1 ! maxima & ! m9ima mu/ recur e #ad ye>s & #i mon?s2 ! maxima be+ sep>at$ f ! m9ima by an int]val ( #g ye>s & #d mon?s4 ,:5 ,saturn arrives at ! two opposite po9ts ( its orbit1 :]e ! major axis ( its r+ is at "r angles to ! l9e jo9+ its c5tre to t ( ! ,sun1 ! r+1 :i* is !n view$ at an incl9ation ( #bg1 ! greate/ angle at :i* x c ev] be se51 has rea*$ its maximum op5+1 ! small] diamet] ( its ellipse be+ !n ab\t half t ( ! l>g]4 ,at ?is mom5t ! out] r+ projects nor? & s\? beyond ! globe1 :i* is !n completely enclos$ 9 its ellipse4 ,! maximum op5+ ( ! nor!rn surface ( ! r+ takes place1 at pres5t1 :5 ,saturn arrives 9 longitude #bfb1 9 ! con/ellation ,sagitt>ius1 & t ( ! s\!rn surface :5 x arrives 9 longitude #hb 9 ! con/ellation ,taurus4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 ,saturn rea*es ! two opposite po9ts ( its orbit1 :]e ! plane ( its r+ is p>allel to ! l9e jo9+ its c5tre to t ( ! ,sun1 ! op5+ vani%es1 z only ! ?9 edge ( ! r+ is !n pres5t$ to ! ,sun & receives its light1 ! re/ be+ 9 d>kness4 ,at ?is mom5t ! r+ disappe>s1 except 9 ! l>ge/ telescopes1 :]e x is se5 z an exce$+ly ?9 ?read ( light2 & ! ,saturnian globe1 hav+ app>5tly lo/ its r+1 appe>s solit>y 9 ! sky1 l ! o!r planets4 ,! disappe>ance ( ! r+ f ?is cause occurs n[ :5 ,saturn arrives at #ij f ei!r ( ! positions ( maximum incl9ation1 t is1 9 longitude #ceb 9 ! con/ellation ,pisces1 & 9 longitude #agb 9 ! con/ellation ,leo4 ,:5 ! planet is 9 any o!r position ?an "o ( ^! la/ two1 ei!r ! nor!rn or ! s\!rn surface ( ! r+ is illum9at$ by ! ,sun1 :ile ! opposite surface is 9 ! night1 & does n receive any direct sunlight4 ,at ! "t ( ! passage ( ! plane ( ! r+ ?r\gh ! ,sun's c5tre1 a *ange takes place 9 ! illum9ation ( ! r+4 ,if x is ! nor!rn surface :i* has receiv$ ! rays ( ! ,sun dur+ ! previ\s half ( ! ,saturnian ye>1 at ! mom5t ! plane has pass$ ! c5tre ( ! ,sun1 ! s\!rn surface1 aft] hav+ be5 buri$ 9 d>kness = #ad ye>s1 sees ! dawn ( its long day ( ! same l5g?4 ,su* a ph5om5on w n occur until #ahib1 :5 ! passage ( ! ,sun f ! nor!rn to ! s\!rn side ( ! r+ w close 9 twilight ! day comm5c$ 9 #ahgh4 ,aside f ! p]iodic disappe>ance ( ! r+1 result+ f ! passage ( ! ,sun ?r\gh its plane1 ! r+ may also disappe> f o!r reasons4 ,j be=e or j aft] ! "t ( ! passage ( ! ,sun ?r\gh ! plane ( ! r+1 ! ,e>? & ! ,sun may occupy su* positions1 t :ile ! "o is nor? ( ! plane ( ! r+1 ! o!r is s\? ( x1 or vice v]sa1 9 :i* ev5t ! r+ becomes invisible1 because its d>k & non-illum9at$ surface is pres5t$ to u4 ,! r+ may also become invisible to u :5 ! ,e>? passes ?r\gh its plane4 ,s9ce ! di/ance f ,saturn to ! ,sun is to ! di/ance ( ! ,e>? f ?is la/ body z #i4ed is to #a2 & s9ce ! circumf]5ce ( a circle increases 9 ! same proportion z its radius1 x foll[s t ! diamet] ( ! ,e>?'s orbit project$ on ! orbit ( ,saturn w\ld occupy only "p ( ! latt]1 or ab\t #ab #b'1 ?is be+ #f #a' on ei!r side ( ! nodes ( ! r+s4 ,to describe su* an arc on its orbit1 x takes ,saturn almo/ #cfj days on an av]age1 or almo/ a complete ye>2 ! ,e>? describ+ !re=e almo/ a :ole revolution ar\nd ! ,sun dur+ ! "t x takes ,saturn to advance #ab #b' on its orbit4 ,!n1 :5 ,saturn occupies a position compris$ )9 an arc #f #a' f ei!r side ( ! nodes ( its r+1 ! ,e>?1 by its motion1 is liable to enc\nt] ! plane ( ! r+1 :5 !re=e x w only pres5t its ?9 edge to u1 & becomes invisible4 ,at lea/ "o su* enc\nt] is unavoidable )9 ! "t dur+ :i* ,saturn occupies ei!r ( ^! positions on its orbit2 :ile ?ree frequ5tly happ51 & two are possible4 ,! natural impression receiv$ by look+ at ! r+s1 :ile see+ ! pond]\s globe ( ,saturn enclos$ 9 its int]ior1 is t ?is gigantic1 b v delicate /ructure1 9 ord] to avoid de/ruction1 mu/ be end[$ ) a swift movem5t ( rotation on an axis p]p5dicul> to its plane1 & t ! c5trifugal =ce !nce aris+ c\nt]balances ! p[]ful attraction ( ! planet1 & ?us keeps ! sy/em 9 equilibrium4 ,!oretically1 ! rotation ( ! r+s is admitt$ by e a/ronom]1 z be+ an ess5tial condition to ! exi/5ce ( ! sy/em1 :i* o!rwise1 x is ?\ght1 w\ld fall ^u ! planet4 ,al?\gh ! rotation ( ! r+s seems s probable t x is !oretically consid]$ z c]ta91 yet its exi/5ce has n be5 satisfactorily demon/rat$ by direct obs]vation1 :i* alone c e/abli% x on a firm basis z a matt] ( sci5tific k4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! p]iod ( rotation ( ! r+s1 :i* is suppos$ to be #aj;h4 #cbm4 #aes41 re/s only on ! obs]vations ( ,w4 ,h]s*el1 made 9 #agij1 f ! app>5t displacem5t ( irregul>ities on ! r+2 b 8 results h be5 contradict$ by o!r obs]vations1 & ev5 by ^? ( ,h]s*el himself1 made 9 lat] ye>s4 ,al?\gh ! sy/em ( r+s is v ne>ly conc5tric ) ! globe ( ,saturn1 yet ! co9cid5ce is n consid]$ z ma!matically exact4 ,x seems to h be5 satisfactorily demon/rat$ by direct obs]vations t ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! sy/em oscillates ar\nd t ( ! planet1 ?us describ+ a m9ute orbit4 ,?is peculi>ity is 9 accordance ) !ory1 :i* has %[n x to be ess5tial to ! /ability ( ! sy/em4 ,besides its sy/em ( r+s1 :i* makes ,saturn ! mo/ rem>kable planet ( ! sol> sy/em1 ?is globe is att5d$ by eight satellites1 mov+ 9 orbits ^: planes v ne>ly co9cide ) ! plane ( ! r+s1 except t ( ! mo/ di/ant "o1 :i* has an incl9ation ( ab\t #ab #ad'4 ,9 ! ord] ( _! di/ance f ! planets1 ! satellites ( ,saturn are z foll[s3 ,mimas1 ,enceladus1 ,te?ys1 ,dione1 ,rhea1 ,titan1 ,hyp]ion & ,iapetus4 ,! ?ree fir/ satellites are ne>] to ,saturn ?an ! ,moon is to ! ,e>?2 :ile ,iapetus1 ! f>!/1 is #i times ! di/ance ( our satellite f u4 ,all ! satellites1 ) ! exception ( ! f>!/1 move m rapidly ar\nd ,saturn ?an ! ,moon moves ar\nd ! ,e>?2 :ile ,iapetus1 on ! contr>y1 takes almo/ ?ree times z long to make "o revolution4 ,! p]iod ( revolution ( ! f\r inn] satellites is accompli%$ 9 less ?an ?ree days1 t ( ,mimas be+ only a little m ?an #bb h\rs4 ,f su* swiftness ( motion1 x is easily und]/ood h[ %ort mu/ be ! int]vals betwe5 ! diff]5t phases ( ^! satellites4 ,mimas1 = in/ance1 passes f ,new ,moon to ,fir/ ,qu>t] 9 less ?an #f h\rs4 ,! di/ance ( ! ne>e/ satellite f ! planet's surface is #hd1jjj miles1 & its di/ance f ! out] r+ only #cf1jjj miles4 ,x is difficult to det]m9e ! diamet] ( objects s fa9t & di/ant z are "s ( ^! satellites1 b ! diamet] ( ,titan1 ! l>ge/ ( all1 is pretty well kn[n1 & e/imat$ to be ! diamet] ( ! planet1 or m ?an half ! diamet] ( our globe4 ,iapetus is subject to consid]able v>iations 9 brilliancy1 & z ! maxima & m9ima always occur :5 ?is satellite occupies ! same p>ts ( its orbit1 x 0 conjectur$ by ,w4 ,h]s*el t1 l our ,moon1 x turns once ^u its axis dur+ ea* ( its revolutions ab\t ! planet4 ,x has be5 %[n by my obs]vations1 t ,iapetus atta9s its maximum brightness a little be=e x rea*es its greate/ we/]n elongation1 & its m9imum on ! opposite side4 ,z ! planes ( ! orbits ( ! satellites are incl9$ to ! planet's orbit1 x foll[s t _! transits1 occultations & eclipses1 are only possible :5 ,saturn is ne> its equ9oxes4 ,passages ( ! satellites & _! %ad[s across ! disk1 al?\gh r>e1 h be5 obs]v$1 & !y some:at resemble ! ph5om5a exhibit$ by ! satellites ( ,jupit] 9 transit4 ,:5 ! ,e>? is v ne> ! plane ( ! r+s1 ! satellites1 except ! f>!/1 appe> to be 9 a /raight l9e ne>ly co9cid5t ) ! plane ( ! r+s1 & are se5 occasionally mov+ along ! ?9 edge ( ! r+s1 appe>+ z lum9\s beads mov+ on a ?read ( light4 ,ow+ to ! consid]able incl9ation ( ! axis ( rotation ( ,saturn to its orbit1 ! seasons ( ?is planet mu/ h great] extremes ( temp]ature ?an ^? ( ! ,e>?4 ,z ! ye> ( ,saturn consi/s ( #be1bag ,saturnian days1 ea* season1 on ! av]age1 is compos$ ( #f1cjd ,saturnian days4 ,to an obs]v] on ,saturn1 ! imm5se ar*es =m$ by its r+s w\ld appe> z objects ( great magnific5ce1 spann+ ! sky l s(t colorless ra9b[s4 ,moreov]1 ! eight moons1 sev]al ( :i* are always visible1 w\ld be ( ! highe/ int]e/1 ) _! swift motions & rapid phases4 ,mimas1 travel+ 9 its orbit at ! rate ( #af ( arc p] m9ute ( "t1 moves ov] a space equal to ! app>5t diamet] ( our ,moon 9 two m9utes1 or at ! rate ( #af an h\r4 ,ow+ to ! globul> =m ( ,saturn1 ! r+s w\ld be invisible 9 latitudes situat$ above #fe f its equator1 & _! app>5t =m & bread? w\ld naturally v>y ) ! latitude4 ,at #fc only a v small portion ( ! out] r+ w\ld be visible above ! equatorial horizon1 :]e x w\ld appe> z a small segm5t ( a circle4 ,at #fb ! pr9cipal division w\ld j graze ! horizon4 ,at #df ! out] portion ( ! dusky r+ w\ld become visible1 :ile at #ce its inn] edge w\ld appe> above ! horizon4 ,f #fe ( latitude d[n to ! equator1 ! ar*es ( ! r+s w\ld be se5 m & m elevat$ above ! equatorial horizon1 b at ! same "t t !y are se5 high] up1 _! app>5t bread? gradually dim9i%es1 ow+ to ! effect ( =e%ort5+1 & at ! equator itself ! sy/em w\ld only pres5t its ?9 edge to view4 ,dur+ ! summ] seasons ( ei!r hemisph]e ( ,saturn1 ! surface ( ! r+s turn$ t[>ds su* hemisph]e1 be+ fully illum9at$ by ! ,sun1 is visible f ^! regions4 ,9 ! day "t its light mu/ be feeble & simil> to ! light reflect$ by our ,moon dur+ sun%9e2 b at night ! sy/em w\ld display all its beauty1 & ! diff]5t r+s1 ) _! divisions & _! v>i\s reflective p[]s1 mu/ pres5t a magnific5t sight4 ,dur+ ! nights ( ! long w9t] seasons on ,saturn1 on ! contr>y1 ! surface ( ! r+s turn$ t[>ds ! hemisph]e und]go+ w9t]1 receives no light f ! ,sun1 & is invisible1 or v ne>ly s1 except t[>ds morn+ & ev5+1 :5 x may be fa9tly illum9at$ by ! second>y light :i* x receives f ! illum9at$ globe ( ,saturn4 ,al?\gh d>k & invisible1 ! r+s may make _! =m app>5t at night by ! abs5ce ( />s f ! region :i* !y occupy 9 ! sky4 ,aga91 9 o!r seasons1 ! days pres5t v curi\s ph5om5a4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! diurnal rotation ( ! planet1 ! ,sun seems to move 9 circul> arcs1 :i*1 ow+ to ! incl9ation ( ,saturn's axis1 are m or less elevat$ above its horizon1 accord+ to ! position ( ! planet 9 its orbit4 ,z su* arcs describ$ by ! ,sun 9 ! sky ( ,saturn are liable to enc\nt] ! r+s1 ! ,sun 9 pass+ beh9d !m becomes eclips$4 ,x mu/ be a magnific5t spectacle to witness ! gradual disappe>ance ( ! fi]y globe beh9d ! out] r+1 & its e>ly reappe>ance1 b = a mom5t only1 ?r\gh ! n>r[ gap ( ! pr9cipal division2 to see x vani% aga9 beh9d ! middle r+1 to reappe> a little lat] ?r\gh ! semi-transp>5t dusky r+1 b v fa9t & r$ color$ at fir/2 & !n1 gradually bright5 up1 & f9ally em]ge 9 all its beauty f ! inn] edge ( ! dusky r+4 ,x is 9 latitude #bc t ! r+s produce ! mo/ prolong$ eclipses ( ! ,sun4 ,dur+ a p]iod equival5t to t5 ( our t]re/rial ye>s1 su* eclipses cont9ually succe$ ea* o!r ) b v %ort p]iods ( int]ruption2 & ev5 dur+ a long s]ies ( rotations ( ,saturn1 ! ,sun rema9s completely invisible 9 ^? regions :]e ! app>5t arcs :i* x describes co9cide ) ! arcs ( ! r+s4 ,9 neighbor+ latitudes1 ! eclipses ( ! ,sun1 al?\gh /ill frequ5t1 w\ld h a %ort] & %ort] duration z ! obs]v] %\ld travel nor? or s\?4 ,^! eclipses ( ! ,sun mu/ produce a p>tial d>kness ( ! regions involv$ 9 ! %ad[ ( ! r+s1 :i* may be comp>$ to ! d>kness produc$ on our globe by a total eclipse ( ! ,sun4 ,! frequ5t recurr5ce ( ^! eclipses1 & _! comp>atively long duration 9 "s regions1 mu/ /ill fur!r r$uce ! duration ( ! %ort ,saturnian days4 ,! globe ( ,saturn1 z already %[n1 ca/s a %ad[ on ! r+s1 :i*1 accord+ to ! position ( ! planet 9 its orbit1 ei!r ext5ds across _! :ole bread?1 or cov]s only a "p ( _! surface4 ,! %ad[ on ! r+s ris+ 9 ! ea/ aft] sunset1 asc5ds to ! culm9at+ po9t ( _! arcs 9 ! sky1 9 #b;h4 #cdm41 & z rapidly desc5ds on ! we/]n horizon1 to disappe> ) sunrise4 ,?is %ad[1 :5 project$ on ! r+s 9 ! sky1 mu/ be h>dly di/+ui%able f ! d>k backgr\nd ( ! heav5s1 except f ! abs5ce ( />s 9 ! regions :i* x occupies4 ,x mu/ appe> z a l>ge d>k gap1 sep>at+ ! r+s into two p>ts1 & con/antly mov+ f ea/ to we/4 ,possibly ! refraction ( ! sol> rays1 9 pass+ ?r\gh ,saturn's atmosph]e1 may ca/ "s color$ light on ! r+s1 simil> to t obs]v$ on ! ,moon dur+ its eclipses4 ,an obs]v] on ! r+s w\ld behold ph5om5a /ill m curi\s1 a long day ( #ad ye>s be+ foll[$ by a long night ( #ad ye>s4 ,! long days ( ,saturn's r+s are1 h[ev]1 div]sifi$ by num]\s eclipses ( ! ,sun1 :i* regul>ly occur e #aj h\rs2 ! ph5om5on be+ due to ! int]position ( ! globe ( ,saturn betwe5 ! r+s & ! ,sun4 ,^! eclipses produce p>tial obscurations ( _! surface1 la/+ f #a to #b h\rs at a "t4 ,al?\gh ! surface ( ! r+s nev] receives direct sunlight dur+ _! long nights1 yet !y are n plung$ all ! "t 9 total d>kness1 z !y receive "s reflect$ light f t "p ( ! globe ( ,saturn :i* is illum9at$ by ! ,sun4 ,to ! suppos$ obs]v] on ! r+s1 dur+ e #aj h\rs1 ! imm5se globe w\ld exhibit cont9ually *ang+ phases4 ,at fir/ he w\ld see a po9t ( light rapidly asc5d+ f ! horizon1 & appe>+ "u ! =m ( a half cresc5t ( consid]able radius2 #e h\rs lat]1 ! cresc5t hav+ gradually increas$1 w\ld appe> z a half circle1 cov]+ ( ! visible heav5s1 its surface be+ m ?an #bj1jjj times z l>ge z ! surface ( ! ,moon4 ,^u ?is brilliantly illum9at$ semi-circle w\ld be project$ ! %ad[s ( ! r+s1 appe>+ z black belts sep>at$ by a n>r[ lum9\s b&4 ,x is v difficult = "o to conceive h[ su* a delicate /ructure1 z ! sy/em ( r+s appe>s to be1 c keep toge!r 9 equilibrium & avoid de/ruction f ! p[]ful attraction ( ! planet on "o side & ! di/urb+ influ5ce ( ! satellites on ! o!r4 ,to expla9 x1 sev]al hypo!ses h be5 advanc$4 ,! r+s 7 fir/ suppos$ to be solid1 & ^u ?is supposition ,laplace det]m9$ ! necess>y conditions = _! equilibrium2 ! mo/ important ( :i* require t ! cross section ( ! r+s %\ld be an ellipse ( irregul> curvature1 & hav+ its major axis direct$ t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! planet1 & also t ! sy/em %\ld rotate ^u an axis p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( ! r+s4 ,?is !ory 0 sup]s$$ by ano!r1 :i* suppos$ ! r+s to be fluid4 ,?is "o 0 soon reject$ = a ?ird1 assum+ ! sy/em to be compos$ ( vapors or gases2 & m rec5tly1 all ^! !ories 7 consid]$ unt5able1 & replac$ by a f\r?1 :i* supposes ! sy/em ( r+s to be made up ( a congregation ( innum]able small1 indep5d5t bodies1 revolv+ ar\nd ,saturn 9 conc5tric zones4 ,naturally1 su* a div]g5ce ( op9ion c only result f our comp>ative ignorance ( ! subject1 & suffici5tly indicates our inability to expla9 ! ph5om5a2 & x mu/ be admitt$ t1 s f>1 no?+ is c]ta9ly kn[n ab\t ?is /range sy/em4 ,we %all probably rema9 9 ! same unc]ta9ty until ! rotation ( ! r+s is asc]ta9$ by direct obs]vations4 ,x is pretty c]ta91 h[ev]1 t none ( ^! !ories acc\nt = ! obs]v$ ph5om5a 9 _! details1 al?\gh a p>tial explanation may be obta9$ by borr[+ some?+ f ea* hypo!sis4 ,x has be5 conjectur$1 & a !ory has be5 advanc$1 t ! bread? ( ! :ole r+ sy/em is gradually increas+ inw>ds1 & t x w come 9 contact ) ! planet 9 ab\t #b1aej ye>s2 b ! "q seems to h be5 settl$ 9 ! negative by ! elaborate measurem5ts ( ! ,engli% obs]v]s4 ,x is likely t ! increase is only 9 ! def9+ p[] ( ! in/rum5ts4 ,,comets ,,plate ,,xi ,among ! cele/ial ph5om5a1 none are m int]e/+ ?an ^? my/]i\s app>itions f ! dep?s :i* unexpect$ly display _! /range =ms 9 our famili> con/ellations1 ?r\gh :i* !y w&] = a "t1 until !y disappe> l phantoms4 ,a comet1 ) its lum9\s diffus$ head1 :5ce proce$s a long vapory app5dage gradually fad+ away 9 ! sky1 pres5ts an extraord9>y aspect1 :i* may well a/oni% & deeply impress ! obs]v]4 ,al?\gh ^! visitors f inf9ite space d n n[ inspire dread1 z 9 by-gone times1 yet1 ow+ to ! my/]y 9 :i* ! ph5om5on is /ill involv$1 ! app>ition ( a l>ge comet1 ev5 9 our days1 nev] fails to create a pr(\nd s5sation1 & 9 "s cases t unconsci\s fe> :i* results f ! unkn[n4 ,! effect ( su* a spectacle l>gely dep5ds ^u its r>ity2 b s9ce ! telescope has be5 appli$ to ! s\nd+ ( ! heav5s1 x has be5 f\nd t ! appe>ance ( comets is by no means an unusual occurr5ce4 ,if s few comets1 comp>atively1 are se51 x is because mo/ ( !m are telescopic objects1 & are !re=e invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,mo/ ( ! telescopic comets are n only too fa9t to be p]ceiv$ by ! unaid$ eye1 b are insignificant objects1 ev5 :5 obs]v$ ?r\gh ! l>ge/ telescopes4 ,x 0 ,kepl]'s op9ion t comets are z num]\s 9 ! sky z fi%es are 9 ! ocean4 ,und\bt$ly ! numb] ( ^! bodies mu/ be great1 consid]+ t we c only see !m :5 !y come into ! neighborhood ( ! ,e>?1 & t _m ev5 "h rema9 invisible1 or at lea/ pass unp]ceiv$4 ,t _m ( !m h pass$ unp]ceiv$ h]et(ore1 is prov$ by ! fact t ! numb] ( ^? obs]v$ becomes great] e ye>1 ) ! increase ( ! numb] ( in/rum5ts us$ 9 _! se>*4 ,! numb] ( comets obs]v$ ) ! nak$ eye dur+ hi/oric times is ne>ly #fjj1 & t ( telescopic comets1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 all belong to ! la/ few c5turies1 is m ?an #bjj1 s t we h a total numb] ( ab\t #hjj comets ( :i* records h be5 kept4 ,f !oretical consid]ations1 ,lamb]t & ,arago e/imat$ _! entire numb] at sev]al millions1 b su* speculations h g5]ally no real value1 s9ce !y _c be e/abli%$ on a firm basis4 ,comets rema9 visible = m or less "t1 accord+ to _! size & ! nature & position ( _! orbits1 b 9 g5]al1 ! l>ge ones c be foll[$ ) ! telescope = sev]al mon?s aft] !y h become invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,! comet ( #ahfa1 = example1 rema9$ telescopically visible = a ye>1 & t ( #ahaa1 = #ag mon?s aft] disappe>+ f ord9>y sight4 ,:ile a comet rema9s visible1 x appe>s to revolve daily ab\t u l ! />s 9 g5]al2 b x also moves among ! con/ellations1 & f ?is movem5t its orbit may be comput$ l t ( a planet4 ,f ! app>5t diurnal motion ( a comet ) ! heav5s1 result ! *anges ( position :i* x seems to und]go 9 ! c\rse ( a night4 ,! direction ( ! head & tail ( a comet1 ( c\rse1 has only *ang$ 9 reg>d to ! horizon1 b n 9 reg>d to ! sky1 9 :i* !y occupy v ne>ly ! same position ?r\gh\t a giv5 night1 & ev5 = _m nights 9 succession4 ,! movem5ts ( ! comets 9 _! orbits are1 l ^? ( ! planets1 9 accordance ) ,kepl]'s laws1 ! ,sun occupy+ "o ( ! foci ( ! orbit !y describe2 b ! orbits ( comets diff]1 h[ev]1 9 sev]al po9ts f ^? ( ! planets4 ,_! ecc5tricity is always great1 be+ sometimes app>5tly inf9ite1 9 :i* case ! orbit is said to be p>abolic1 or hyp]bolic2 b ! smallness ( ! portion ( a comet>y orbit :i* c ord9>ily be obs]v$1 makes x difficult to det]m9e ?is ) c]ta9ty4 ,aga91 :ile ! planet>y orbits are usually ne> ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 ^? ( comets frequ5tly h great incl9ations to t plane1 & ev5 :5 ! incl9ation is less ?an #ij1 ! comet may h a retrograde movem5t1 or1 9 o!r words1 a movem5t contr>y to ! c\rse 9 :i* all ! planets revolve ab\t ! ,sun4 ,not)/&+ ^! diff]5ces betwe5 ! elem5ts ( ! orbits ( ! comets & ^? ( ! planets1 ! fact t ea* has ! ,sun 9 "o focus indicates t ! body mov+ 9 x is a memb] ( ! sol> sy/em1 ei!r = ! "t1 or p]man5tly1 accord+ to ! nature ( its orbit4 ,a di/9ction may accord+ly be made betwe5 ! comets :i* are p]man5t memb]s ( our sol> sy/em & ^? :i* are only accid5tal or tempor>y visitors4 ,^? mov+ 9 elliptical orbits ar\nd ! ,sun1 l ! planets1 & !re=e hav+ a det]m9ate p]iod ( revolution1 f :i* ! "t ( _! successive returns may be pr$ict$1 are p]man5t memb]s ( our sy/em1 & are call$ p]iodic comets4 ,all comets mov+ 9 p>abolical or hyp]bolical curves1 are only tempor>y memb]s ( ! sol> sy/em1 be+ app>5tly /rang]s :o h be5 div]t$ f _! c\rses by "s di/urb+ influ5ce4 ,no comet is class$ z p]iodical :i* does n foll[ a p]ceptibly elliptical orbit4 ,any comet pass+ ar\nd ! ,sun at ! mean di/ance ( ! ,e>? f ?is body1 ) a velocity ( #bf miles p] second1 w fly (f into inf9ite space1 to return to u no m4 ,! "t ( revolution ( ! diff]5t p]iodic comets ?us f> obs]v$ v>ies greatly1 z d also ! di/ances to :i* !y rec$e f ! ,sun at aphelion4 ,:il/ ! p]iod ( revolution ( ,encke's comet1 ! %orte/ ?us f> kn[n1 is only #c ye>s1 t ( ! comet ( #ahdd1 ,,ii41 is #ajb1jjj ye>s2 & :il/ ! orbit ( ! fir/ is compris$ )9 ! orbit ( ,jupit]1 t ( ! la/ ext5ds to a di/ance equal to #adg times ! di/ance ( ,neptune f ! ,sun4 ,b s va/ an orbit _c be accurately det]m9$ f ! imp]fect data at our disposal4 ,! p]iodic comets are usually divid$ into two classes4 ,! comets ^: orbits are )9 ! orbit ( ,neptune are call$ int]ior comets1 :ile ^? ^: orbits ext5d beyond t ( ,neptune are call$ ext]ior comets4 ,! kn[n int]ior p]iodic comets are twelve 9 numb]1 :ile1 includ+ all ! cases 9 :i* !re is "s slight evid5ce ( elliptic motion1 ! numb] ( ext]ior comets obs]v$ is six or sev5 times z great4 ,! p]iodic comets ( %ort p]iod are v int]e/+ objects1 inasmu* z by _! successive returns !y af=d an opportunity to calculate _! motions & to obs]ve ! physical *anges :i* !y und]go 9 _! int]vals ( abs5ce4 ,f obs]vation ( ! p]iodic comets1 x has be5 le>n$ t ! same comet nev] pres5ts twice ! same physical appe>ance at its diff]5t returns1 its size1 %ape & brilliancy v>y+ s greatly t a comet c nev] be id5tifi$ by its physical *>act]s alone4 ,x is only :5 its elem5ts h be5 calculat$1 & are f\nd to agree ) ^? ( a comet>y orbit previ\sly kn[n1 t ! two comets c be id5tifi$ "o ) ! o!r4 ,!re are reasons to believe t1 9 g5]al1 comets decrease 9 brightness & size at ea* ( _! successive returns1 & t !y are also cont9ually los+ "s ( _! matt] z !y trav]se _! orbits4 ,:5 v f> away f u1 all comets appe> ne>ly alike1 consi/+ ( a fa9t nebulosity1 ( v>y+ dim5sions4 ,:5 a comet fir/ appe>s 9 ! dep?s ( space1 & travels t[>ds ! ,sun1 x g5]ally resembles a fa9t1 uni=mly lum9\s nebulosity1 ei!r circul> or slightly elongat$ 9 =m4 ,z x approa*es ne>] to ! ,sun1 a slight cond5sation ( light appe>s t[>ds its c5tre1 & z x draws /ill ne>]1 x becomes bright] & bright]1 & 9 cond5s+ =ms a k9d ( diffus$ lum9\s nucleus4 ,at ! same "t t ! comet acquires ?is conc5tration ( light1 ! nebulosity gradually becomes elongat$ 9 ! direction ( ! ,sun4 ,^! effects g5]ally g on increas+ s long z ! comet is approa*+ ! ,sun2 ! cond5sation ( light sometimes =ms a bright nucleus1 comp>able to a v brilliant />1 :ile ! elongation becomes an imm5se app5dage or tail4 ,:5 ! comet has pass$ its p]ihelion & rec$es f ! ,sun1 ! inv]se ph5om5a are obs]v$2 ! comet1 decreas+ 9 brightness1 gradually loses its nucleus & tail1 resumes its nebul\s aspect1 & f9ally vani%es 9 space1 to appe> aga9 9 due c\rse1 if x *ance to be a p]iodic comet4 ,:ile all comets become bright] 9 approa*+ ! ,sun1 !y d n all1 h[ev]1 develop a l>ge tail1 "s ( !m %[+ only a slight elongation4 ,:5 a comet is fir/ discov]$ ) ! telescope at a great di/ance f ! ,sun1 x is difficult to pr$ict :e!r x w become visible to ! nak$ eye1 or w rema9 a telescopic object1 z x is only 9 approa*+ ! ,sun t ^! s+ul> bodies acquire _! full developm5t4 ,?us1 ,donati's comet1 ^: tail became s conspicu\s an object at its full appe>ance 9 #aheh1 rema9$ two mon?s aft] its discov]y by ! telescope )\t any indication ( a tail4 ,! comet ( ,halley1 :i* be=e & aft] its return 9 #agei1 rema9$ five ye>s inside ( ! orbit ( ,saturn1 %[$ n ! lea/ trace ( its pres5ce dur+ ! great] "p ( ?is "t4 ,no?+ b calculation c\ld !n indicate ! position 9 ! sky ( ?is invisible object1 :i* 0 s prom95t :5 x approa*$ ! ,sun4 ,ano!r curi\s ph5om5on exhibit$ by comets1 & fir/ notic$ by ,valz1 is t 9 approa*+ ! ,sun ! nebulosity compos+ ^! bodies contracts1 in/ead ( dilat+1 z w\ld be naturally suppos$ f ! great] am\nt ( sol> heat :i* !y mu/ !n receive4 ,9 rec$+ f ! ,sun1 on ! contr>y1 !y exp& gradually4 ,z comets approa* ! ,sun1 ! tail & nucleus are develop$1 :ile ! nebulosity orig9ally con/itut+ ^! comets contracts1 z if its mat]ial _h be5 p>tly consum$ 9 ?is developm5t4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se x may be said t ! comets are p>tly creat$ by ! ,sun2 9 m exact t]ms1 ! *anges ( =m :i* !y und]go are induc$ by ! ,sun's action ^u !m at diff]5t di/ances & "u v>y+ conditions4 ,moreov]1 !y are r5d]$ visible by its influ5ce1 )\t :i* !y w\ld pass unp]ceiv$ 9 our sky4 ,:5 a comet disappe>s f view1 x is n because its app>5t diamet] is s mu* r$uc$ by ! di/ance t x vani%es1 b r on acc\nt ( ! dim9ution ( its light1 bo? t :i* x receives f ! ,sun1 & its own light2 ^! bodies be+ 9 "s degree self-lum9\s1 z w be %[n bel[4 ,! l>ge comets1 su* z c be se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 always %[ ! foll[+ *>act]i/ics1 on exam9ation ) ! telescope4 ,a cond5sation ( light resembl+ a diffus$ /> =ms ! brighte/ "p ( ! comet1 ?is cond5sation be+ situat$ t[>ds ! extremity ! ne>e/ to ! ,sun4 ,x is ?is />like object :i* is call$ ! nucleus4 ,! nucleus seems to be entirely enclos$ 9 a lum9\s vapory envelope ( ! same g5]al texture1 call$ ! coma4 ,?is envelope1 :i* is q v>iable 9 brightness & =m1 is brighte/ next to ! nucleus1 & gradually fades away z x rec$es f x4 ,! nucleus & ! coma1 consid]$ z a :ole1 con/itute ! head ( a comet4 ,f ! head ( a comet proce$s a long trail ( pale nebul\s light1 :i* usually gr[s wid]1 b fa9t]1 z x rec$es f ! nucleus1 & ins5sibly vani%es 9 ! sky4 ,?is delicate app5dage1 or tail1 z x is commonly call$1 v>ies v mu* 9 size & %ape1 n only 9 diff]5t comets1 b 9 ! v same comet1 at diff]5t times4 ,its direction is g5]ally opposite to t ( ! ,sun f ! head ( ! comet4 ,! nuclei v>y v mu* 9 brightness1 9 size & 9 %ape2 & :ile 9 "s telescopic comets !y are ei!r abs5t or b>ely di/+ui%able z a small cond5sation ( light1 9 bright comets !y may become pla9ly visible to ! nak$ eye1 & !y sometimes ev5 surpass 9 brightness ! mo/ brilliant />s ( ! heav5s4 ,b :atev] may be ! size ( comet>y nuclei1 !y are subject to sudd5 & rapid *anges1 & v>y f day to day4 ,sometimes !y appe> exce$+ly brilliant & %>ply outl9$1 :ile at o!r times !y are s dim & diffus$ t !y are h>dly di/+ui%able f ! coma ( :i* !y seem !n to =m a "p4 ,,plate ,,xi4--,,! ,,great ,,comet ,,( #ahha4 ,obs]v$ on ! night ( ,june #be-bf at #a;h4 #cjm4 ,a4,m4 ,f my obs]vations ^u ! comets :i* h appe>$ s9ce ! ye> #ahgc1 x is app>5t t ! *anges 9 ! nucleus1 coma & tail1 are due to a sol> action1 :i* contracts or exp&s ^! objects 9 su* a mann] t ! nuclei become ei!r bright & />-l1 or dim & diffus$1 9 a v %ort "t4 ,i _h excell5t opportunity1 especially 9 ! two l>ge comets ( #ahha1 to obs]ve "s ( ^! curi\s *anges1 a description ( :i* w give an idea ( _! ext5t & rapidity4 ,on ,july #b;d1 #ahha1 at #i o'clock1 ! nucleus ( comet #ahha1 ,,iii41 :i* is repres5t$ on ,plate ,,xi41 appe>$ %>ply def9$1 bright & consid]ably flatt5$ crosswise2 b half an h\r lat] x _h consid]ably enl>g$ & _h become s diffus$ t x c\ld h>dly be di/+ui%$ f ! coma1 ) :i* x gradually bl5d$4 ,x is p]haps wor? m5tion t1 at ! "t ?is la/ obs]vation 0 made1 an aurora borealis 0 visible4 ,?is comet #ahha1 ,,iii41 und]w5t o!r v important *anges ( its nucleus1 coma & tail4 ,on ,june #be?1 ! nucleus1 :i* 0 bright & cle>ly def9$1 0 ornam5t$ ) f\r bright div]g+ conical w+s ( light1 z %[n on ,plate ,,xi4 ,on ! #bf? ^! lum9\s w+s _h gone1 & ! nucleus appe>$ "o-?ird small]4 ,on ! #bh? x _h enl>g$1 b on ! #bi? its %ape 0 consid]ably alt]$1 ! nucleus ext5d+ 9 "o direction to ?ree or f\r times its diamet] on previ\s nights1 & be+ curv$1 s z to resemble a comma4 ,on ! #f? ( ,july ! nucleus ( ?is comet %[$ ! greate/ di/urbances4 ,! nucleus1 :i* _h appe>$ p]fectly r\nd on ! ev5+ ( ! #e?1 0 f\nd mu* elongat$ at #aj o'clock on ! #f?1 =m+ !n a /raight1 acute1 & well-def9$ w$ge ( light1 incl9$ upw>ds to ! left4 ,! l5g? ( ! nucleus1 at ?is "t1 0 ?ree or f\r times its ord9>y diamet]4 ,at ! same "t rapid *anges occurr$2 ! /rangely %ap$ nucleus soon became un/eady1 ext5d+ & contract+ alt]nately1 & v>y+ greatly 9 brightness4 ,at #aj;h4 #dem41 ! elongat$ nucleus1 !n g5tly curv$1 took ! %ape ( a succession ( lum9\s knots1 :i* at times became s brilliant & di/9ct t !y seem$ to be ab\t to divide & =m sep>ate nuclei2 b su* a sep>ation did n actually occur1 at lea/ :ile ,i 0 obs]v+4 ,:ile ^! important *anges 7 go+ on 9 ! comet1 a bright auroral ar* appe>$ 9 ! nor?1 :i* la/$ only a %ort "t4 ,on ,july #g?1 ! sky be+ cl\dy1 no obs]vations 7 made1 b on ! #h? ,i obs]v$ ! comet aga94 ,! nucleus _h !n resum$ its circul> =m1 b x 0 yet v un/eady1 be+ sometimes small1 bright & %>p1 :ile a few seconds lat] x appe>$ twice z l>ge1 b dim 9 outl9es2 & sometimes an ill-def9$ second>y nucleus appe>$ at its c5tre4 ,on sev]al occasions ! nucleus appe>$ z if x 7 d\ble1 "o nucleus be+ app>5tly project$ p>tly ^u ! o!r4 ,! nuclei ( comets are sometimes v small1 & 9 o!r cases v l>ge4 ,among ^? :i* h be5 measur$1 ! nucleus ( ! comet ( #agih1 ,i41 0 only #bh miles 9 diamet]1 b t ( ,donati's comet1 9 #aheh1 0 #e1fjj miles1 & t ( ! comet ( #ahde 0 #h1jjj miles 9 diamet]4 ,! coma ( comets is f\nd to be ev5 m v>iable ?an ! nucleus4 ,! *anges obs]v$ 9 ! coma are g5]ally 9 close connection ) ^? ( ! nucleus & tail1 ! same p]turbations affect+ simultane\sly ! :ole comet4 ,:ile ! coma ( ! comet ( #ahdg 0 only #ah1jjj miles 9 diamet]1 t ( ,halley's comet1 9 #ahce1 0 #ceg1jjj miles1 & t ( ! comet ( #ahaa 0 #a1abe1jjj miles 9 diamet]4 ,9 g5]al1 z already /at$1 ! coma ( a comet decreases 9 size 9 approa*+ ! ,sun4 ,t ( ,encke's comet1 :i*1 on ,octob] #i?1 #ahch1 _h a diamet] ( #bha1jjj miles1 gradually decreas$ at a daily mean rate ( #d1jhh miles 9 go+ t[>ds ! ,sun2 s t1 on ,decemb] #ag?1 :5 ! di/ance ( ! comet f ! ,sun 0 m ?an f\r times less ?an x 0 on ! fir/ date1 its diamet] 0 r$uc$ to #c1jjj miles4 ,! =m ( ! coma1 9 t "p :i* is free f ! tail1 is 9 g5]al a portion ( a circle1 b is sometimes irregul>1 ) its bord] de=m$4 ,?us1 ! bord] ( ! coma ( ,halley's comet 0 depress$ at "o po9t t[>ds ! ,sun4 ,i obs]v$ a simil> ph5om5on 9 ,coggia's comet1 ) ! great refractor ( ! ,h>v>d ,college ,obs]vatory1 on ,july #ac?1 #ahgd1 :5 its bord] appe>$ deeply depress$ on ! side ne>e/ to ! ,sun1 z if repell$ by ?is body4 ,! coma ( comet #ahha1 ,,iii41 %[$ also v s+ul> outl9es on ! nights ( ! #be? & #bf? ( ,june1 :5 its bord] 0 s deeply depress$ t ! coma appe>$ z if x 7 d\ble4 ,lum9\s rays & jets (t5 radiate f ! nucleus across ! coma1 & describe graceful lat]al curves1 fall+ backw>ds & gradually fad+ away into ! tail1 ( :i* !y !n =m a "p4 ,! rays & jets emitt$ by ! nucleus seem at fir/ to obey ! sol> attraction & travel t[>ds ! ,sun2 b !y are soon repell$1 & move backw>d t[>ds ! tail4 ,x is a my/]y1 z yet unexpla9$1 h[ ^! comet>y jets1 :i* at fir/ seem to obey to ! laws ( attraction1 are compell$ to retreat app>5tly by sup]ior oppos+ =ces4 ,among ! =ces ( nature1 we "k ( no o!r ?an ^? ( an electrical sort1 :i* w\ld act 9 a simil> mann]2 b ?is explanation w\ld require u to assume "s direct electrical communication betwe5 ! comet & ! ,sun4 ,consid]+ ! di/ance betwe5 ! two bodies1 & ! probable abs5ce or great t5uity ( ! gase\s mat]ial 9 int]/ell> space1 su* an assumption is a difficult "o4 ,"u ! action ( ! sol> =ces1 ! coma also v frequ5tly =ms itself into conc5tric lum9\s arcs1 sep>at$ by comp>atively d>k int]vals4 ,^! lum9\s semi-circles v>y 9 numb]1 b sometimes !re are z _m z f\r or five at a "t4 ,all great comets %[ ^! conc5tric curves m or less1 b sometimes only a portion is visible1 ! re/ ( ! coma hav+ a diff]5t /ructure4 ,:5 great comets approa* ne> ! ,sun1 _! coma is g5]ally compos$ ( two di/9ct p>ts1 an inn] & an out] coma1 ! inn] "o be+ due to ! lum9\s jets issu+ f ! nucleus1 :i*1 nev] ext5d+ v f>1 =m a di/9ct1 bright zone )9 ! fa9t] ext]ior coma4 ,! tails ( comets1 :i* are 9 fact a prolongation ( ! coma1 are likewise extremely v>iable 9 =m4 ,!y are sometimes /raight l a rod2 aga91 are curv$ l a sabre1 or ev5 crook$ l an ,s1 z 0 t ( ! comet ( #agfi4 ,!y are also fan-%ap$1 po9t$1 or ( ! same wid? ?r\gh\t4 ,_m ( ^! app5dages appe> longitud9ally divid$ ?r\gh _! middle by a n>r[1 d>ki% rift1 ext5d+ f ! nucleus to ! extremity4 ,?is peculi>ity appe>s 9 ! comet %[n on ,plate ,,xi4 ,sometimes ! d>k rift does n comm5ce ne> ! nucleus1 b at "s di/ance f x1 z ,i obs]v$ 9 ! case ( comet #ahha1 ,,iii41 on ,june #bf?4 ,?is d>k rift is n a p]man5t feature ( a comet's tail1 b may be visible "o day & n at all ! next4 ,comet #ahha1 ,,iii41 :i* _h %[n a d>k rift t[>ds ! end ( ,june1 did n exhibit any su* rift dur+ ,july & ,augu/1 :51 on ! contr>y1 its tail appe>$ bright] 9 ! middle4 ,coggia's comet1 :i* %[$ s prom95t a d>k rift 9 ,july1 #ahgd1 _h none on ,june #aj?4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! tail 0 on t date v bright along its middle1 z also along ea* ( its edges4 ,! tail ( a comet does n inv>iably po9t directly away f ! ,sun1 z above m5tion$1 & sometimes ! deviation is consid]able2 = in/ance1 ! tail ( ! comet ( #aegg deviat$ #ba f ! po9t opposite to ! ,sun4 ,9 g5]al1 ! tail incl9es its extremity t[>ds ! regions ( space :i* x has j left1 always pres5t+ its convex bord] to ! regions t[>ds :i* x is mov+4 ,x is also a rem>kable fact t ?is convex bord]1 mov+ fir/ 9 space1 always appe>s bright] & %>p] ?an ! opposite "o1 :i* is (t5 diffus$4 ,f ^! peculi>ities x w\ld seem t 9 mov+ ab\t ! ,sun ! comets enc\nt] "s resi/ance to _! motion1 f ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* !y pass1 & t ?is resi/ance is suffici5t to curve _! tails away f ! c\rse 9 :i* !y move1 & to cr[d _! p>ticles toge!r on ! =w>d side4 ,x is especially :5 !y approa* _! p]ihelion1 & move m rapidly on a curve ( a %ort] radius1 t ! comets' tails %[ ! greate/ curvature1 unless _! position 9 reg>d to ! obs]v] prev5ts _! be+ advantage\sly se54 ,! tail ( ,donati's comet pres5t$ a fair illu/ration ( ?is peculi>ity1 its curvature hav+ augm5t$ ) ! velocity ( ! comet's motion ab\t ! ,sun4 ,b possibly ?is ph5om5on has ano!r cause1 & may be f\nd r 9 ! sol> repulsion :i* acts on comets & is n in/antane\sly propagat$ ?r\gh\t _! mass4 ,al?\gh1 9 g5]al1 comets h b "o tail1 x is n v r>e to see !m ) multiple tails4 ,! comets ( #ahjg & #ahdc _h ea* a d\ble tail2 ,donati's comet1 9 #aheh1 %[$ sev]al n>r[1 long rectil9e> rays1 issu+ f its abruptly curv$ tail4 ,! comet ( #ahbe _h five bran*es1 :ile t ( #agdd exhibit$ no less ?an six di/9ct tails div]g+ f ! coma at v>i\s angles4 ,9 g5]al "* ! multiple & s+le tails are simil>4 ,:5 a comet has two tails1 x is n r>e = ! second to ext5d 9 ! g5]al direction ( ! ,sun1 z 0 ! case ) ! great comet ( #ahha1 ,,iii41 repres5t$ on ,plate ,,xi4 ,f ,july #ad? to ! #ba/ x exhibit$ q an ext5d$ conical tail1 />t+ obliquely d[nw>ds f ! "r side ( ! coma1 & direct$ t[>ds ! ,sun4 ,f ! #bd? ( ,july to ! #b;d ( ,augu/ ?is second>y tail 0 exactly opposite 9 its direction f t ( ! prim>y tail1 & gave to ! head a v elongat$ appe>ance4 ,comet #ahha1 ,,iv41 also exhibit$ a second>y app5dage1 n direct$ t[>ds ! ,sun1 b mak+ an angle ( ab\t #de ) ! ma9 tail4 ,^! comet>y app5dages sometimes atta9 prodigi\s dim5sions4 ,! comets ( #afhj & #agfi _h tails s ext5d$ t1 aft] _! heads _h set "u ! horizon1 ! extremities ( ^! imm5se app5dages 7 /ill se5 z f> up z ! z5i?4 ,9 a s+le day ! tail ( ! comet ( #ahdc ext5d$ #ajj1 & x 0 ?ru/ f ! comet z a d>t ( light to ! enorm\s di/ance ( #dh1ejj1jjj miles1 & yet ( ?is imm5se app5dage no?+ 0 left on ! foll[+ day4 ,! tail ( ,donati's comet1 9 #aheh1 atta9$ a real l5g? ( #db1jjj1jjj miles1 :ile t ( ! great comet ( #ahdc _h ! enorm\s l5g? ( #bjj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,if ?is la/ comet _h occupi$ ! position ( ! ,sun1 :i* x approa*$ v ne>ly = a mom5t1 ! extremity ( its tail w\ld h ext5d$ #fj1jjj1jjj miles beyond ! orbit ( ,m>s4 ,9 "s cases ! tails ( comets h be5 se5 undulat+ & vibrat+ 9 a mann] simil> to ! undulations & coruscations ( light *>act]i/ic ( "s auroras4 ,_m obs]v]s report hav+ se5 su* ph5om5a4 ,! comet ( #agfi 0 trav]s$ by lum9\s waves & pulsations1 comp>able to ^? se5 9 ! aurora borealis4 ,i myself obs]v$ ^! curi\s undulations 9 ,coggia's comet 9 #ahgd1 :ile ! head ( ?is object 0 bel[ ! horizon4 ,= an h\r ! undulations rapidly succe$$ ea* o!r1 & ran along ! :ole l5g? ( ! tail4 ,"s ( ! brighte/ comets h %one ) su* spl5dor t !y c\ld be obs]v$ easily 9 full sun%9e4 ,_m comets1 su* z ^? ( #aegg & #agdd1 h equal$ ,sirius & ,v5us 9 brilliancy4 ,! great comet ( #ahdc1 :i* sudd5ly appe>$ 9 our sky1 0 s brilliant t x 0 se5 by _m obs]v]s at noon "t1 )9 a few degrees f ! ,sun4 ,i rememb] t ,i myself saw ?is rem>kable object 9 ! day "t1 ) a numb] ( p]sons1 :o 7 gaz+ at ! wond]ful app>ition4 ,s brilliant 0 ?is comet1 t besides its nucleus & head1 a portion ( its tail 0 also visible 9 ! day "t1 provid$ ! obs]v] scre5$ 8 eyes f ! full sunlight by /&+ 9 ! %ad[ ( "s build+4 ,( all ! bodies revolv+ ar\nd ! ,sun1 none h be5 kn[n to approa* s ne> its surface z did ! comet ( #ahdc4 ,:5 x arriv$ at p]ihelion1 ! di/ance f ! c5tre ( its nucleus to ! surface ( ! ,sun's photosph]e 0 only #if1jjj miles1 :ile ! di/ance f surface to surface 0 less ?an #fj1jjj miles4 ,?is comet1 !n1 w5t ?r\gh ! sol> atmosph]e1 & 9 trav]s+ x ) its trem5d\s velocity ( #cff miles p] second1 may v possibly h swept ?r\gh "s sol> protub]ances1 _m ( :i* atta9 mu* high] elevations ?an t at :i* ! comet pass$4 ,! comet ( #afhj also approa*$ q ne> ! surface ( ! ,sun1 & ne> en\gh to enc\nt] "s ( ! high sol> protub]ances1 its di/ance at p]ihelion be+ ab\t two-?irds ( ! ,moon's di/ance f ! ,e>?4 ,! rapidity ( motion ( ! comet ( #ahdc 0 su*1 :5 x approa*$ ! ,sun1 t x swept ?r\gh all t "p ( its orbit :i* is situat$ nor? ( ! plane ( ! ecliptic 9 a little m ?an two h\rs1 mov+ 9 ?is %ort "t f "o node to ! o!r1 or #ahjj4 ,b if "s comets h a v %ort p]ihelion di/ance1 t ( o!rs is consid]able4 ,su* a comet 0 t ( #agbi1 ^: p]ihelion di/ance 0 #chc1jjj1jjj miles1 ! p]ihelion po9t be+ situat$ betwe5 ! orbits ( ,m>s & ,jupit]4 ,:ile "s comets come ne> en\gh to ! ,sun at p]ihelion to be volatiliz$ by its int5se heat1 o!rs rec$e s f> f x at aphelion t !y may be said to be froz54 ,! %orte/ comet>y aphelion di/ance kn[n is t ( ,encke's comet1 ^: greate/ di/ance f ! sun is #chh1jjj1jjj miles4 ,b t ( ! comet ( #ahdd is #djf1jjj1jjj1jjj miles f ! ,sun4 ,! comets ( #ahfc & #ahfd are s remote 9 space :5 !y rea* _! aphelion po9ts t light1 ) its velocity ( #ahe1ejj miles a second1 w\ld require #aga days 9 ! fir/ case1 & #bcj 9 ! la/1 to pass f !m to ! ,e>?4 ,! p]iod ( revolution ( diff]5t comets also v>ies imm5sely4 ,:ile t ( ,encke's comet is only #c ye>s1 t ( comet #ahfd1 ,,ii41 is #bhj1jjj ye>s4 ,among ! p]iodic comets ( %ort p]iod1 "s h exhibit$ highly int]e/+ ph5om5a4 ,encke's comet1 discov]$ 9 #ahah1 is rem>kable = ! fact t its p]iod ( revolution dim9i%es at ea* ( its successive returns1 & consequ5tly ?is comet1 ) ea* revolution1 approa*es ne>] & ne>] to ! ,sun4 ,! decrease ( ! p]iod is ab\t #b h\rs at ea* return4 ,al?\gh ! decrease is small1 if x g on 9 future z x does at pres5t1 ! inevitable consequ5ce w be t ?is comet w f9ally fall into ! ,sun4 ,?is curi\s ph5om5on ( ret>dation has be5 attribut$ by a/ronom]s to ! exi/5ce ( a resi/+ m$ium fill+ space1 b s r>e & e!real t x does n produce any s5sible effect on ! movem5ts ( ! planets4 ,b "s o!r causes may ret>d ?is comet1 z simil> ret>dations h n be5 obs]v$ 9 ! case ( o!r p]iodic comets ( %ort p]iod4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are n s ne> to ! ,sun1 & p]haps our lum9>y may be surr\nd$ by matt] ( extreme t5uity1 :i* does n exi/ at a great] di/ance f x4 ,ano!r ( ! p]iodic comets :i* has exhibit$ a v rem>kable ph5om5on ( trans=mation is ,biela's comet1 :i* divid$ into two di/9ct p>ts1 mov+ toge!r 9 ! same direction4 ,:5 ?is comet 0 fir/ detect$ at its return 9 #ahde1 x pres5t$ no?+ unusual1 b 9 ! e>ly "p ( #ahdf x 0 notic$ by sev]al a/ronom]s to be divid$ into two p>ts ( unequal brightness1 =m+ ?us a tw9 comet4 ,at its next return 9 #aheb1 ! two si/] comets 7 /ill travel+ 9 company1 b _! di/ance ap>t1 :i* 9 #ahdf 0 #aeg1jjj miles1 _h increas$ to #a1ejj1jjj miles4 ,at ! two next returns 9 #ahei & #ahfe1 _! position n be+ v favorably situat$ = obs]vation1 ! comets 7 n se54 ,9 #ahgb ! position %\ld h be5 favorable = obs]vation1 & !y 7 consequ5tly se>*$ =1 b 9 va92 nei!r comet 0 f\nd4 ,an a/ronom] 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 h[ev]1 f\nd a comet on ! track ( ,biela's1 b calculation has %[n t ! two objects are probably n id5tical1 s9ce ?is comet 0 two mon?s beh9d ! comput$ position = ,biela's4 ,x w be %[n 9 ! foll[+ *apt] t our globe probably cross$ ! orbit ( ,biela's comet on ,novemb] #bg?1 #ahgb1 & ! ph5om5a result+ f ?is passage w be !re describ$4 ,x is se5 f ^! obs]vations t comets may be lo/ or dissipat$ 9 space by causes entirely unkn[n to u4 ,biela's comet is n ! only "o :i* has be5 ?us dis9tegrat$4 ,anci5t hi/orians speak ( ! sep>ation ( l>ge comets into two or m p>ts4 ,9 #affa ,hevelius obs]v$ ! app>5t division ( ! comet ( t ye> & its r$uction to fragm5ts4 ,! return ( ?is comet1 calculat$ = #agij1 0 va9ly wait$ =2 ! comet 0 n se54 ,o!r comets1 ^: p]iods ( revolution 7 well kn[n1 h disappe>$1 probably nev] to return4 ,su* is ,lexell's comet1 ^: p]iod 0 #e ye>s2 also ,de ,vico's comet1 bo? ( :i* are n[ lo/4 ,x is suppos$ t ,lexell's comet1 :i* pass$ twice v ne> ! giant planet ,jupit]1 _h its orbit *ang$ f an ellipse to a p>abola1 by ! p[]ful di/urb+ influ5ce ( ?is planet1 & 0 ?us lo/ f our sy/em4 ,sev]al o!r comets1 9 travel+ ov] _! diff]5t orbits1 h approa*$ ne> en\gh to ,saturn1 ,jupit] & ! ,e>? to h _! orbits decid$ly alt]$ by ! p[]ful attraction ( ^! bodies4 ,b s9ce comets are liable to pass ne> ! planets1 & sev]al h orbits :i* approa* t ( ! ,e>?1 x becomes important = u to "k :e!r an enc\nt] ( su* a body ) our globe is possible1 & :at w\ld !n be ! result = u4 ,al?\gh t k w\ld n enable u to modify ! possibilities ( an enc\nt]1 yet x is bett] to "k ! dang]s ( our navigation ?r\gh space ?an to ignore !m4 ,?is "q ( a collision ( ! ,e>? ) a comet has be5 answ]$ 9 diff]5t ways1 accord+ to ! ideas ent]ta9$ 9 reg>d to ! mass ( ^! bodies4 ,:ile "s h pr$ict$ calamities ( all k9ds1 su* z deluges1 conflagrations1 or ! r$uction ( ! ,e>? to inc&esc5t gases1 o!rs h ass]t$ t x w\ld produce no m effect ?an does a fly on enc\nt]+ a railroad tra94 ,9 our days a/ronom]s ent]ta9 v little fe>s f su* an enc\nt]1 because ! probabilities ( dang] f an occurr5ce ( ?is sort are v slight1 ! mass ( an ord9>y comet be+ s small comp>$ ) t ( our globe4 ,we "k ) c]ta9ty t ! ,e>? has nev] _h an enc\nt] ) a comet by :i* x has be5 trans=m$ into gases1 at lea/ )9 ! sev]al millions ( ye>s dur+ :i* animal & vegetable life h left _! m>ks ^u ! /ony pages ( its hi/ory1 o!rwise ^! m>ks w\ld n n[ be se54 ,if1 !n1 su* an accid5t has n happ5$ dur+ ?is long p]iod1 ! *ances = its occurr+ mu/ be v small1 s small inde$ t !y might almo/ be left out ( ! "q4 ,x is true t our globe %[s signs ( great p]turbations ( its surface1 b we h n ! slighte/ pro(s t !y result$ f an enc\nt] ) a cele/ial body4 ,x seems v probable t our globe pass$ ?r\gh ! tail ( ! comet ( #ahfa1 be=e x 0 fir/ se5 on ,june #bi?2 b no?+ unusual 0 obs]v$1 except p]haps "s phosphoresc5t light 9 ! atmosph]e1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds attribut$ to ?is cause4 ,! d5sity & mass ( comets mu/ be comp>atively v small4 ,_! tails consi/ ( matt] ( su* extreme t5uity t x affects b v little ! light ( ! small />s ov] :i* !y pass4 ,! coma & nucleus1 h[ev]1 are n q s transp>5t1 & may h great] masses4 ,on sev]al occasions ,i h se5 ! light ( />s r$uc$ by ! int]position ( comet>y matt]1 comet #ahha1 ,,iii41 pres5t+ rem>kable cases ( ?is sort4 ,on ,july #h?1 at #aj;h4 #ejm41 sev]al small />s 7 involv$ 9 ?is comet1 "o ( :i* pass$ q ne> ! nucleus ?r\gh ! bright inn] coma4 ,at t "t ! comet 0 greatly di/urb$1 its nucleus 0 contract+ & enl>g+ rapidly1 & becom+ bright & aga9 fa9t 9 an in/ant4 ,e "t t ! nucleus grew l>g]1 ! /> became invisible1 b reappe>$ ! mom5t ! nucleus 0 r$uc$ 9 size4 ,?is ph5om5on c\ld n be attribut$ to an atmosph]ic effect1 s9ce1 :ile ! nucleus 0 enl>g+1 a v small inn] nucleus 0 visible )9 ! l>ge diffus$ "o1 ! matt] ( :i* _h app>5tly spread ov] ! "p ( ! coma 9 :i* ! /> 0 involv$1 mak+ x invisible4 ,t ! mass ( comets is small1 is prov$ by ! fact t !y h sometimes pass$ ne> ! planets )\t di/urb+ !m 9 any s5sible mann]4 ,lexell's comet1 :i* 9 #aggj rema9$ f\r mon?s v ne> ,jupit]1 did n affect 9 ! lea/ ! orbits1 or ! motions ( its satellites4 ,! same comet also came )9 less ?an #a1ejj1jjj miles f ! ,e>?1 & on ?is occasion x 0 calculat$ t its mass c\ld n h be5 ! "p ( t ( our globe1 s9ce o!rwise ! p]turbations :i* x w\ld h caus$ 9 ! elem5ts ( ! ,e>?'s orbit w\ld h be5 s5sible4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 no *ange4 ,if ?is comet's mass _h be5 equal to t ( our globe1 ! l5g? ( our ye> w\ld h be5 increas$ by #b;h4 #dgm4 ,! comet ( #ahcg rema9$ f\r days )9 #c1ejj1jjj miles ( ! ,e>?1 ) no s5sible effect4 ,x seems q difficult to admit t ! d5s] "p ( a comet =m+ ! nucleus is solid1 z suppos$ by "s physici/s1 s9ce x is s rapidly contract$ & dilat$ by ! sol> =ces1 :ile ! comet is yet at a too great di/ance f ! ,sun to all[ ^! effects to be attribut$ to sol> heat alone4 ,?is "p ( a comet1 z inde$ ! o!r p>ts1 seems r to be 9 ! gase\s ?an 9 ! solid /ate2 ! *anges obs]v$ 9 ! int5sity ( its light & 9 its /ructure may be conceiv$ z due to "s sol> action p>tak+ ( ! nature ( electricity4 ,x has be5 a "q :e!r comets are self-lum9\s1 or :e!r !y simply reflect ! sol> light4 ,:5 _! light is analyz$ by ! spectroscope1 x is f\nd t ! nucleus ( a comet g5]ally gives a cont9u\s spectrum1 :ile ! coma & tail give a spectrum consi/+ ( sev]al bright diffus$ b&s4 ,! spectrum giv5 by ! nucleus is r>ely bright en\gh to all[ ! d>k l9es ( ! sol> spectrum to be disc]n$ ^u x2 b su* l9es 7 report$ 9 ! spectrum ( comet #ahha1 ,,iii41 a fact prov+ t ?is nucleus at lea/ reflect$ "s sol> light4 ,! nucleus ( a comet may be p>tly self-lum9\s1 & ei!r solid1 liquid1 or compos$ ( inc&esc5t gases submitt$ to a great pressure4 ,z to ! coma & tail1 !y are evid5tly gase\s1 & p>tly1 if n entirely1 self-lum9\s1 z is prov$ by ! b& spectrum :i* !y give4 ,! position ( ^! b&s1 moreov]1 indicates t ! lum9\s gases ( :i* !y are compos$ conta9 c>bon4 ,! ph5om5a ( pol>ization1 h[ev]1 seem to prove t ^! p>ts ( comets also reflect "s sol> light4 ,no !ory s f> propos$1 to expla9 comets & ! /range ph5om5a !y exhibit1 seems to h be5 successful 9 its attempts1 & ! my/]y 9 :i* ^! bodies h be5 involv$ f ! beg9n+ ( _! app>ition1 seems to be n[ ne>ly z great z ev]4 ,x has be5 suppos$ t _! tails h no real exi/5ce1 b are due to an optical illusion4 ,pr(4 ,tyndall has endeavor$ to expla9 comet>y ph5om5a by suppos+ ^! bodies to be compos$ ( vapors subject to decomposition by ! sol> radiations1 & ?us made visible1 ! head & tail be+ an act9ic cl\d due to su* decompositions4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 ! tails ( comets w\ld n consi/ ( matt] project$ into spac] b simply ( matt] precipitat$ by ! sol> rays 9 trav]s+ ! comet>y nebulosity4 ,! endeavor has also be5 made to expla9 ! v>i\s ph5om5a pres5t$ by comets by an electrical action ( ! ,sun on ! gases compos+ ^! objects4 ,!ories tak+ ?is z a base seem to u to be m likely to lead to valuable results4 ,m4 ,faye1 :o has devot$ mu* "t & le>n+ to ?is subject1 assumes a real repulsive =ce ( ! ,sun1 act+ inv]sely to ! squ>e ( ! di/ance & proportionally to ! surface1 & n to ! mass z attraction does4 ,he supposes1 h[ev]1 t ?is repulsive =ce is g5]at$ by ! sol> heat1 & n by electricity4 ,pr(4 ,wm4 ,h>kness says t _m circum/ances seem to indicate t ! comets' tails are due1 9 a great measure1 to electrical ph5om5a4 ,! fact t ! tails ( comets are bett] def9$ & bright] on ! =w>d side1 associat$ ) ! o!r fact t !y curve ! mo/ :5 _! motion is mo/ rapid1 suffici5tly indicates t ^! app5dages are mat]ial1 & t !y ei!r enc\nt] "s resi/ance f ! m$ium 9 :i* !y move1 or f a sol> repulsion4 ,! ph5om5a ( cond5sation & ext5sion1 :i* ,i h obs]v$ 9 ! comets ( #ahgd & #ahha1 add$ to ! curi\s behavior exhibit$ by ! jets issu+ f ! nucleus1 seem to indicate ! action ( electrical =ces r ?an ( heat4 ,! ma9 difficulty enc\nt]$ 9 ! fram+ ( a !ory ( comets consi/s 9 expla9+ h[ s delicate & ext5d$ objects z _! tails seem to be1 c be transport$ & :irl$ ar\nd ! ,sun at _! p]ihelion ) su* an enorm\s velocity1 always keep+ opposite to ! ,sun1 &1 z express$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 9 defiance ( ! law ( gravitation1 nay1 ev5 ( ! receiv$ laws ( motion4 ,to consid] ! direction ( ! comets' tails z an indirect effect ( attraction1 seems out ( ! "q2 ! ph5om5on ( repulsion s pla9ly exhibit$ by ^! objects seems to po9t to a positive sol> repulsion1 z alone compet5t to produce ^! great *anges4 ,! repulsive action ( ! ,sun on comets' tails might be conceiv$1 = in/ance1 z act+ 9 a mann] simil> to t ( a p[]ful curr5t ( w9d />t+ f ! ,sun1 & con/antly *ang+ 9 direction1 b always keep+ on a l9e ) ! comet4 ,su* a curr5t1 act+ on a comet's tail z if x 7 a p5nant1 w\ld drive x beh9d ! nucleus j z obs]v$4 ,if x c\ld once be asc]ta9$ t ! great di/urbances on comets correspond ) ! magnetic di/urbances on our globe & ) ! display ( ! auroral light1 ! electric nature ( ! =ces act+ s /rangely on ! comets w\ld be sub/antially demon/rat$4 ,i h %[n t "s ( ! great di/urbances obs]v$ 9 ! comets ( #ahgd & #ahha h co9cid$ ) auroral displays1 & x w be %[n h]eaft] t simil> displays h also co9cid$ ) ! passage ( meteoric %[]s ?r\gh our atmosph]e4 ,:e!r ^! simultane\s ph5om5a 7 simple co9cid5ces hav+ no connection1 or :e!r !y are ! result ( a common cause1 c only be asc]ta9$ by long cont9u$ future obs]vations4 ,,%oot+-,,/>s ,,& ,,meteors ,,plate ,,xii ,:ile contemplat+ ! heav5s on a cle> moonless night1 we occasionally witness ! sudd5 blaz+ =? ( a />-l meteor1 :i* glides swiftly & sil5tly across "s ( ! con/ellations1 & z sudd5ly disappe>s1 leav+ sometimes along its track a phosphoresc5t trail1 :i* rema9s visible = a :ile & gradually vani%es4 ,^! /range app>itions ( ! night are call$ ,fall+ or ,%oot+-/>s4 ,!re is c]ta9ly no cle> night ?r\gh\t ! ye> dur+ :i* "s ( ^! meteors d n make _! appe>ance1 b _! numb] is q v>iable4 ,9 ord9>y nights only f\r or five w be obs]v$ by a s+le p]son 9 ! c\rse ( an h\r2 b on o!rs !y are s num]\s t x becomes impossible to c\nt !m4 ,:5 ! fall+ />s are only a few 9 numb]1 & appe> scatt]$ 9 ! sky1 !y are call$ ,sporadic ,meteors1 & :5 !y appe> 9 great numb]s !y con/itute ,meteoric ,%[]s or ,sw>ms4 ,probably !re is no cele/ial ph5om5on m impressive ?an are ^! wond]ful pyrote*nic displays1 dur+ :i* ! heav5s seem to break op5 & give passage to fi]y %[]s1 ^: lum9\s drops describe fanta/ic hi]oglyphics 9 ! sky4 ,:ile obs]v+ !m1 "o c fully realize ! t]ror ) :i* !y h sometimes fill$ behold]s1 to :om x seem$ t ! /ability ( ! univ]se _h come to an end1 & t all ! />s ( ! firmam5t 7 p\r+ d[n ^u ! ,e>? 9 deluges ( fire4 ,! anci5ts h left record ( _m great meteoric displays1 & ! mann] 9 :i* !y describe !m suffici5tly indicates ! fe> caus$ by ^! my/]i\s objects4 ,among ! _m meteoric %[]s record$ by anci5t hi/orians may be m5tion$ "o obs]v$ 9 ,con/ant9ople1 9 ! mon? ( ,novemb]1 #dgb1 :5 all ! sky appe>$ z if on fire ) meteors4 ,9 ! ye> #eii1 meteors 7 se5 on a c]ta9 night fly+ 9 all directions l fi]y gras%opp]s1 & giv+ mu* al>m to ! p4 ,9 ,m>*1 #gfc1 ! />s fell sudd5ly1 & 9 su* cr[d$ numb] t p 7 mu* fright5$1 & believ$ ! end ( ! _w _h come4 ,on ,april #aj?1 #ajie1 ! />s fell 9 su* enorm\s quantity f midnight till morn+ t !y 7 z cr[d$ z are ! hail /ones dur+ a sev]e /orm4 ,9 mod]n times ! fall ( ! %oot+-/>s 9 great numb] has be5 frequ5tly record$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable meteoric %[]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury occurr$ on ! night ( ,novemb] #ac?1 #agii1 & 0 obs]v$ ?r\gh\t ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,on ?is memorable night ?\s&s ( fall+ />s 7 se5 trav]s+ ! sky betwe5 midnight & morn+4 ,humboldt & ,b\pl&1 !n travel+ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 obs]v$ ! ph5om5a at ,cumana1 betwe5 two & five o'clock 9 ! morn+4 ,!y saw an innum]able numb] ( %oot+-/>s go+ f nor? to s\?1 appe>+ l brilliant fire-works4 ,sev]al ( ^! meteors left long phosphoresc5t trails 9 ! sky1 & _h nuclei ^: app>5t diamet]1 9 "s cases1 surpass$ t ( ! ,moon4 ,! %[] ( ,novemb] #ac?1 #ahcc1 0 /ill m rem>kable = ! great numb] ( meteors :i* trav]s$ ! heav5s1 & 0 visible ov] ! :ole ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,on t occasion ! fall+ />s 7 f> too num]\s to be c\nt$1 & !y fell s ?ickly t ,pr(4 ,olm/$1 ( ,new ,hav51 :o obs]v$ !m c>efully1 comp>$ _! numb] at ! mom5t ( _! maximum fall to half t ( ! flakes ( sn[ fall+ dur+ a heavy /orm4 ,?is obs]v] e/imat$ at #bdj1jjj ! numb] ( meteors :i* mu/ h trav]s$ ! heav5s above ! horizon dur+ ! sev5 h\rs :ile ! display 0 visible4 ,,plate ,,xii4--,,! ,,novemb] ,,meteors4 ,z obs]v$ betwe5 midnight & #e o'clock ,a4,m4 on ! night ( ,novemb] #ac-ad #ahfh4 ,9 ! ye>s #ahff1 #ahfg & #ahfh1 !re 7 also extraord9>y meteoric displays on ! night ( ,novemb] #ac?4 ,x 0 on ! la/ m5tion$ date t ,i _h ! opportunity to obs]ve ! rem>kable %[] ( %oot+-/>s ( :i* ,i h attempt$ to repres5t all ! *>act]i/ic po9ts 9 ,plate ,,xii4 ,my obs]vations 7 begun a little aft] midnight1 & cont9u$ )\t int]ruption till sunrise4 ,ov] ?ree ?\s& meteors 7 obs]v$ dur+ ?is int]val ( "t 9 ! "p ( ! sky visible f a nor!rn w9d[ ( my h\se4 ,! maximum fall occurr$ betwe5 f\r & five o'clock1 :5 !y appe>$ at a mean rate ( #ae 9 a m9ute4 ,9 g5]al1 ! fall+ />s 7 q l>ge1 _m be+ sup]ior to ,jupit] 9 brightness & app>5t size1 :ile a few ev5 surpass$ ,v5us1 & 7 s brilliant t opaque objects ca/ a /rong %ad[ dur+ _! flight4 ,a great _m left beh9d !m a lum9\s tra91 :i* rema9$ visible = m or less "t aft] ! nucleus _h vani%$4 ,9 g5]al1 ^! meteors appe>$ to move ei!r 9 /raight or slightly curv$ orbits2 b q a numb] among !m exhibit$ v extraord9>y motions1 & foll[$ v complicat$ pa?s1 "s ( :i* 7 q incompreh5sible4 ,:ile "s mov$ ei!r 9 wavy or zig-zag l9es1 /rongly acc5tuat$1 o!rs1 aft] mov+ = a "t 9 a /raight l9e1 gradually *ang$ _! c\rse1 curv+ upw>d or d[nw>d1 ?us mov+ 9 a new direction4 ,sev]al among !m1 :i* 7 app>5tly mov+ 9 a /raight l9e ) great rapidity1 sudd5ly alt]$ _! c\rse1 />t+ at an abrupt angle 9 ano!r direction1 ) no app>5t slack5+ 9 _! motion4 ,"o ( !m1 :i* 0 a v conspicu\s object1 0 mov+ sl[ly 9 a /raight c\rse1 :5 ( a sudd5 x made a %>p turn & cont9u$ to travel 9 a /raight l9e1 at an acute angle ) ! fir/1 retreat+1 & almo/ go+ back t[>ds ! regions f :i* x orig9ally came4 ,z ne>ly all ! meteors :i* exhibit$ ^! extraord9>y motions left ! trace ( _! passage 9 ! sky by a lum9\s trail1 x 0 easily asc]ta9$ t ^! appe>ances 7 n deceptive4 ,on "o occasion ,i notic$ t ! *ange ( direction 9 ! orbit correspond$ ) ! bright5+ up ( ! meteor ?us di/urb$ 9 its progress4 ,among ^! meteors1 "s travel$ v sl[ly1 & a few seem$ to advance z if by j]ks1 b 9 g5]al !y mov$ v rapidly4 ,"o ( ! meteors ?us appe>+ to move by j]ks left a lum9\s trail1 ^u :i* ! v>i\s j]ks seem$ to be left impress$ by a succession ( bright & fa9t spaces along ! tra94 ,"s ( ! l>ge/ meteors appe>$ to rotate ^u an axis z !y advanc$1 & mo/ ( ^! revolv+ meteors1 z also a great numb] ( ! o!rs1 seem$ to explode j be=e !y disappe>$1 s5d+ bright fi]y sp>ks ( diff]5t colors 9 all directions1 al?\gh no s\nd 0 at any "t he>d4 ,! l>ge/ & mo/ brilliant meteor obs]v$ on t night appe>$ at #e;h4 #cjm41 a little be=e sunrise4 ,x 0 v bright1 & appe>$ consid]ably l>g] ?an ,v5us1 hav+ q a di/9ct disk4 ,?is meteor mov$ v sl[ly1 leav+ beh9d a l>ge phosphoresc5t trail1 :i* seem$ to issue f ! inside ( ! nucleus z x advanc$4 ,= a mom5t ! tra9 increas$ 9 size & brightness close to ! nucleus1 :i* !n appe>$ z an empty transp>5t sph]e1 spr9kl$ all ov] ) m9ute fi]y sp>ks2 ! nucleus !n sudd5ly bur/ out into lum9\s p>ticles1 :i* imm$iately vani%$1 only ! lum9\s trail ( consid]able dim5sions be+ left4 ,_m ( ! trails ?us left by ! meteors reta9$ _! lum9osity = sev]al m9utes1 & sometimes = ov] a qu>t] ( an h\r4 ,^! trails sl[ly *ang$ _! =m & position2 b x is p]haps rem>kable t almo/ all ^? :i* ,i obs]v$ on t night assum$ ! same g5]al =m--t ( an op51 irregul> r+1 or horse-%oe1 some:at resembl+ ! lett] ,c4 ,?is r+ =m 0 subsequ5tly trans=m$ into an irregul>1 r\ndi% cumulus-l cl\d4 ,! trail left by a v l>ge meteor1 :i* ,i obs]v$ on ! ev5+ ( ,septemb] #e?1 #ahhj1 also exhibit$ ! same g5]al "* ( trans=mation4 ,:ile ,i 0 obs]v+ a long brilliant trail left by a meteor on ! night ( ,novemb] #ac?1 #ahfh1 x 0 sudd5ly cross$ by ano!r bright %oot+-/>4 ,! latt] app>5tly w5t ?r\gh ! lum9\s sub/ance =m+ ! trail1 :i* 0 sudd5ly alt]$ 9 =m1 & consid]ably dim9i%$ 9 brightness simultane\sly ) ?is passage1 al?\gh electrical action at "s di/ance might p]haps z well expla9 ! sudd5 *ange obs]v$4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ! meteors appe>$ :ite2 b _m1 especially ! l>ge/1 exhibit$ a v>iety ( brilliant colors1 among :i* ! r$1 blue1 gre51 yell[ & purple 7 ! mo/ common4 ,9 g5]al ! trails exhibit$ ab\t ! same color z ! nucleus1 b mu* fa9t]1 & !y 7 usually p]vad$ by a gre5i% t9t4 ,9 "s in/ances ! trails 7 ( q a diff]5t color f ! nucleus4 ,! lum9\s cl\d obs]v$ at #e;h4 #cjm4 on ! morn+ ( ,novemb] #ad?1 #ahfh1 aft] hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ! s]ies ( trans=mations above describ$1 rema9$ visible = a long :ile aft] sunrise1 appe>+ !n z a small cirrus cl\d1 exactly simil> 9 appe>ance to ! hundr$s ( small cirrus cl\ds !n visible 9 ! sky1 :i* _h probably ! same meteoric orig94 ,= ov] ?ree h\rs aft] sunrise1 ^! cirrus cl\ds rema9$ visible 9 ! sky1 mov+ all toge!r ) ! w9d 9 ! high regions ( ! atmosph]e4 ,al?\gh ,plate ,,xii4 is int5d$ to repres5t all ! *>act]i/ics exhibit$ by ! meteors obs]v$ on t night1 e =m repres5t$ hav+ be5 obta9$ by direct obs]vation1 yet ! numb] is mu* great] ?an x 0 at any s+le mom5t dur+ ! p>ticul> %[] ( #ahfh4 ,z reg>ds numb]1 ! int5tion 0 to give an idea ( a great meteoric %[]1 su* z t ( #ahcc1 = in/ance4 ,al?\gh _m ( ! fall+ />s seem to be close to ! ,e>?'s surface1 yet ?is is only an effect ( p]spective due to _! great di/ance1 v few ( ^! meteors ev] com+ into ! l[] regions ( our atmosph]e at all4 ,! ph5om5a exhibit$ dur+ o!r great meteoric %[]s h be5 simil> to ^? pres5t$ by ! %[] j describ$1 ! only diff]5ces consi/+ 9 v>iations ( size & brightness 9 ! meteors1 & also 9 ! trails1 :i* sometimes are n s num]\s z !y 7 9 #ahfh4 ,:ile "s %oot+-/>s move s rapidly t !y c h>dly be foll[$ 9 _! orbits1 o!rs move s sl[ly t ! sight c easily foll[ !m1 & ev5 rem>k ! peculi>ities ( _! movem5ts1 "s rema9+ visible = half a m9ute4 ,"s ( ! fall+ />s move at ! rapid rate ( #ajj miles a second1 b o!rs only #aj miles a second1 & ev5 less4 ,9 g5]al1 !y move ab\t half z fa/ aga9 z ! ,e>? 9 its orbit4 ,! arcs describ$ by ! meteors 9 ! sky are v>iable4 ,:ile "s ext5d #hj & ev5 #ajj1 o!rs are h>dly half a degree 9 l5g?4 ,:ile "s %oot+-/>s are s fa9t t !y c h>dly be se5 ?r\gh ! l>ge/ telescopes1 o!rs are s l>ge & brilliant t !y c be se5 9 ! day-"t4 ,9 g5]al1 a %oot+-/> ( av]age brightness resembles a /> ( ! ?ird or f\r? magnitude4 ,:atev] may be ! orig9 ( ! %oot+-/>s1 !y are1 :5 we see !m1 n 9 ! cele/ial spaces1 l ! planets1 ! comets1 or ! />s1 b 9 our atmosph]e1 ?r\gh :i* !y travel z long z !y rema9 visible4 ,! height at :i* !y appe> & disappe> is v>iable1 b 9 g5]al !y are ab\t #hj miles above ! surface ( our globe :5 !y are fir/ se51 & at ab\t #ee miles :5 !y disappe>4 ,9 _m cases1 h[ev]1 !y h be5 obs]v$ at great] elevations1 z also at small]4 ,a meteor simultane\sly obs]v$ at two diff]5t /ations fir/ appe>$ at ! height ( #bhe miles1 & 0 la/ se5 at #aib miles above ! ,e>?'s surface2 b 9 r>e cases ! fall+ />s h be5 se5 bel[ a lay] ( cl\ds completely cov]+ ! sky4 ,i myself saw "o su* %oot+-/> a few ye>s s9ce4 ,! fact t ! meteors are visible at s great elevations1 proves t our atmosph]e ext5ds mu* f>!r ?an 0 =m]ly suppos$1 al?\gh at ^! great heights x mu/ be extremely r>efi$1 & v diff]5t f :at x is 9 its l[] regions4 ,!re is a rem>kable diff]5ce betwe5 ! sporadic meteors se5 9 ! sky on e night1 & ! meteoric %[]s obs]v$ only at comp>atively r>e int]vals4 ,:ile ! fir/ appe> f diff]5t po9ts 9 ! sky & travel 9 all directions1 be+ p]fectly indep5d5t1 ! meteors ( a %[] all come f ! same po9t ( ! heav5s1 f :i* !y app>5tly div]ge 9 all directions4 ,?is po9t ( div]g5ce ( ! meteors is call$ ! radiant po9t ( ! %[]4 ,al?\gh ! meteors seem to div]ge 9 all directions f ! radiant po9t1 yet !y all move 9 approximately p>allel l9es1 ! div]g5ce be+ an effect ( p]spective4 ,:atev] may be ! position ( ! radiant po9t 9 ! con/ellations1 x rema9s z fix$ 9 ! sky z ! />s !mselves1 & p>ticipates ) !m 9 ! app>5t motion :i* !y und]go by ! effect ( ! diurnal motion1 & ?us rises & sets ) ! con/ellation to :i* x belongs4 ,?is fact is suffici5t to prove t ! orbits ( ^! meteors are indep5d5t ( ! ,e>?'s motion1 & t consequ5tly !y d n orig9ate 9 our atmosph]e4 ,x has be5 %[n by ,encke t ! radiant po9t ( ! meteoric %[] ( ,novemb] #ac? is precisely ! po9t t[>ds :i* our globe moves 9 space on ,novemb] #ac?2 a tang5t to ! ,e>?'s orbit w\ld pass ?r\gh ?is radiant po9t4 ,! meteoric %[]s are p>ticul>ly rem>kable1 n m]ely because ( ! l>ge numb] ( meteors :i* are visible & ! fact t !y all foll[ a common orbit1 b *iefly because !y h a p]iodic return1 ei!r aft] an int]val ( a ye>1 or aft] a lapse ( sev]al ye>s4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury only two meteoric %[]s 7 kn[n1 ^? ( ,augu/ #aj? & ( ,novemb] #ac?1 & _! p]iodicity _h n yet be5 recogniz$1 al?\gh x _h begun to be suspect$4 ,x 0 only 9 #ahcf t ,quetelet & ,olb]s v5tur$ to pr$ict ! reappe>ance ( ! ,novemb] meteors 9 ! ye> #ahfg4 ,hav+ made fur!r inve/igations1 ,pr(4 ,newton1 ( ,yale ,college1 ann\nc$ _! return 9 ! ye> #ahff4 ,9 bo? ( ^! ye>s1 z also 9 #ahfh1 ! meteors 7 v num]\s1 & 7 obs]v$ 9 ,europe & 9 ,am]ica on ! night ( ,novemb] #ac?4 ,! pr$ictions hav+ ?us be5 fulfill$1 ! p]iodicity ( ! meteors 0 e/abli%$4 ,s9ce !n1 o!r p]iodic %[]s h be5 recogniz$1 al?\gh !y are mu* less important 9 reg>d to numb] ?an ^? ( ,augu/ & ,novemb]1 except t ( ,novemb] #bg?1 :i* exhibit$ s brilliant a display 9 ,europe 9 #ahgb4 ,^! successive appe>ances h e/abli%$ ! ma9 fact t meteoric %[]s are m or less visible e ye> :5 ! ,e>? occupies c]ta9 positions 9 its orbit4 ,! meteoric %[] ( ! #aj? ( ,augu/ has its radiant po9t situat$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! v>iable /> ,algol1 9 ! con/ellation ,p]seus1 f :i* its meteors h receiv$ ! "n ( ,p]seids4 ,al?\gh v>y+ 9 spl5dor1 ?is meteoric sw>m nev] fails to make its appe>ance e ye>4 ,! ,p]seids move ?r\gh our atmosph]e at ! rate ( #cg miles p] second4 ,! %[] usually la/s ab\t six h\rs4 ,! meteoric %[] ( ,novemb] #ac? has its radiant po9t situat$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! /> ,gamma1 9 ! con/ellation ,leo1 f :i* its meteors h be5 call$ ,leonids4 ,b :ile ! ,augu/ meteors recur regul>ly e ye>1 ) slight v>iations1 ! %[] ( ,novemb] does n occur ) ! same regul>ity4 ,dur+ sev]al ye>s x is h>dly noticeable1 & is ev5 totally abs5t1 :ile 9 o!r ye>s x is v rem>kable4 ,e #cc ye>s an extraord9>y meteoric %[] occurs on ! #ac? ( ,novemb]1 & ! ph5om5on is repeat$ on ! two succe$+ ye>s at ! same date1 b ) a dim9ution 9 its spl5dor at ea* successive return4 ,! ,leonids move 9 an opposite direction to t ( ! ,e>?1 & travel 9 our atmosph]e ) an app>5t velocity ( #de miles p] second1 ?is be+ ab\t ! maximum velocity obs]v$ 9 fall+ />s4 ,b :5 ! motion ( our globe is tak5 into acc\nt1 & a d$uction is made ( ! #ah miles :i* x travels p] second1 x is f\nd t ^! meteors move at an actual mean rate ( #bg miles a second4 ,9 a meteoric %[] ! />s d n fall uni=mly ?r\gh\t ! night1 !re be+ a "t :5 !y appe> 9 great] numb]s4 ,usually x is t[>ds morn+1 betwe5 #d & #f o'clock1 t ! maximum occurs4 ,! probable cause ( ?is ph5om5on w be expla9$ 9 its place h]eaft]4 ,! orbits ( ! meteoric %[]s are n all approximately 9 ! same plane1 l ^? ( ! planets1 b r resemble ^? ( comets1 & h all possible incl9ations to ! ecliptic4 ,l ! comets1 too1 ! diff]5t meteoric %[]s h ei!r direct or retrograde motion4 ,! %oot+-/>s 7 =m]ly consid]$ z atmosph]ic meteors1 caus$ by ! combu/ion ( inflammable gases g5]at$ at ! surface ( ! ,e>?1 & transport$ to ! high regions ( our atmosph]e by _! l[ specific gravity4 ,b ! consid]able height at :i* !y usually appe>1 ! great velocity ( _! motion1 ! common orbit foll[$ by ! meteors ( ! same %[]1 & ! p]iodicity ( _! recurr5ce1 d n p]mit u n[ to ent]ta9 ^! ideas1 or to d\bt _! cosmical orig94 ,b :at is _! nature8 ,x is n[ g5]ally admitt$ t innum]able m9ute bodies1 mov+ 9 v>i\s directions ar\nd ! ,sun1 are scatt]$ 9 ! int]planet>y spaces ?r\gh :i* our globe travels4 ,x has be5 suppos$ t congregations ( su* m9ute bodies =m elliptical r+s1 )9 :i* !y are all mov+ 9 close p>allel orbits ar\nd ! ,sun4 ,on ! supposition t su* r+s int]sect ! orbit ( ! ,e>? at ! prop] places1 x 0 practicable to acc\nt = ! %oot+-/>s by ! passage ?r\gh our atmosph]e ( ! num]\s m9ute cosmical bodies compos+ ! r+s1 & ! ,leonid & ,p]seid %[]s 7 s expla9$4 ,b :5 ! elem5ts ( ! orbits ( ^! two la/ sw>ms came to be bett] kn[n1 & 7 comp>$ ) ^? ( o!r cele/ial bodies1 x 0 f\nd necess>y to alt] ?is !ory4 ,x _h = a long :ile be5 suspect$ t "s k9d ( relation exi/$ betwe5 ! %oot+-/>s & ! comets4 ,?is idea1 vaguely =mulat$ by ,kepl] m ?an two c5turies ago1 m cle>ly express$ by ,*ladni1 & /ill m by ,mr4 ,grey1 be=e ! ,briti% ,association1 at ,liv]pool1 9 #ahee1 has rec5tly receiv$ a brilliant confirmation by ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,s*iap>elli1 ,director ( ! ,obs]vatory ( ,milan4 ,a ?or\gh inve/igation ( ! orbits ( ! ,augu/ & ,novemb] meteors l$ ,s*iap>elli to ! discov]y ( a rem>kable relation betwe5 meteoric & comet>y orbits4 ,by comp>+ ! elem5ts ( ^! meteoric orbits ) ^? ( comets1 he f\nd a v close resemblance betwe5 ! orbit ( ! ,augu/ meteors & t ( ! comet #ahfb1 ,,iii41 & aga9 betwe5 ! orbit ( ! ,novemb] meteors & t ( ,tempel's comet1 #ahff1 ,i4 ,^! resemblances 7 too /rik+ to be ! result ( m]e *ance1 & demon/rat$ ! id5tity ( ^! comet>y orbits ) ^? ( ! ,p]seid & ,leonid %[]s4 ,9 accordance ) ^! new facts1 x is n[ admitt$ t ! meteoric %[]s result f ! passage ( our globe ?r\gh sw>ms ( meteoric p>ticles foll[+ ! orbits ( comets1 :i* int]sect ! orbit ( ! ,e>?4 ,pr(essor ,s*iap>elli has attempt$ to %[ h[ ^! meteoric sw>ms 7 orig9ally scatt]$ along ! orbits ( comets1 by suppos+ ^! bodies to orig9ate f nebul\s masses1 :i*1 9 ent]+ ! sph]e ( attraction ( ! ,sun1 are gradually scatt]$ along _! orbits1 & f9ally =m comets foll[$ by long trails ( meteoric p>ticles4 ,x has be5 %[n t 9 approa*+ ! ,sun ! comets become consid]ably elongat$1 _! p>ticles be+ dissem9at$ ov] imm5se di/ances by ! sol> repulsion4 ,x seems probable t1 ow+ to its feeble attractive p[]1 ! nucleus is incompet5t to recall ! scatt]$ comet>y p>ticles & reta9 !m 9 its grasp :5 !y are reliev$ f ! sol> repulsion1 s t !y rema9 free f ! nucleus1 al?\gh !y cont9ue to move along its orbit4 ,x is supposable t ^! comet>y p>ticles w scatt] m & m 9 c\rse ( "t4 ,=m+ at fir/ an elongat$ meteoric cl\d1 !y w f9ally spread along ! :ole orbit1 & ?us =m a r+ ( meteoric p>ticles4 ,s9ce our globe con/antly moves 9 its orbit & daily occupies a diff]5t position1 x foll[s t at any po9t :]e su* a comet>y orbit happ5s to cross t ( ! ,e>?1 our globe w necess>ily enc\nt] ! comet>y p>ticles z a %[] ( meteors4 ,?is enc\nt] w take place at a c]ta9 "t ( ! ye>1 ei!r ye>ly1 if !y =m a cont9u\s r+1 or aft] a succession ( ye>s1 if !y simply =m an elongat$ cl\d4 ,su* meteoric cl\ds or r+s w\ld n be visible 9 ord9>y circum/ances1 ev5 ?r\gh ! l>ge/ telescopes1 except on p5etrat+ ! upp] regions ( our atmosph]e1 :5 !y w\ld appe> z %[]s ( fall+ />s4 ,x is suppos$ t 9 p5etrat+ our atmosph]e1 ev5 9 its mo/ r>efi$ regions1 ^! meteors are heat$ by ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! air to _! motion1 fir/ becom+ lum9\s & !n be+ f9ally vaporiz$ & burnt be=e !y c rea* ! surface ( ! ,e>?4 ,! orbit ( ! comet ( #ahfb1 ,,iii41 :i* s closely corresponds ) t ( ! ,p]seid meteors1 is mu* m ext5d$ ?an t ( ,tempel's comet correspond+ ) t ( ! ,leonids4 ,:ile ! fir/ ext5ds f> beyond ! orbit ( ,neptune1 ! latt] only goes a little beyond t ( ,uranus4 ,! =m] orbit makes a consid]able angle ) ! plane ( ! ,e>?'s orbit1 b ! latt] is mu* ne>] to p>allelism ) x4 ,! p]iod ( revolution ( ! fir/ is #ajh ye>s1 & t ( ! la/ ab\t #cc ye>s4 ,f ! fact t ! ,p]seid %[] occurs ye>ly on ! #aj? ( ,augu/1 :5 ! ,e>? crosses ! orbit ( ! comet ( #ahfb1 ,,iii41 x is suppos$ t ! comet>y p>ticles produc+ ?is %[] are dissem9at$ along ! :ole orbit1 & =m a r+ encircl+ ! ,sun & ,e>?4 ,to expla9 ! ye>ly v>iations 9 ! numb] ( ! %oot+-/>s obs]v$1 ^! p>ticles are suppos$ to be unequally di/ribut$ ov] ! orbit1 be+ m cr[d$ at "o place ?an !y are at ano!r4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! meteoric %[] ( ,leonids1 :i* appe>s 9 all its spl5dor e #cc ye>s1 & !n ) dim9i%$ int5sity = two successive ye>s1 aft] :i* x is )\t importance1 x is suppos$ t ! comet>y p>ticles ( ! comet ( #ahff1 ,i41 h n z yet spread all along ! orbit1 a suffici5t "t n hav+ be5 all[$1 b =m an elongat$ meteoric cl\d1 m d5se 9 its front ?an 9 its re> "p4 ,f ^! consid]ations x has be5 suppos$ also t ! comet ( #ahff1 ,i41 is ( a m rec5t date ?an t ( #ahfb1 ,,iii4 ,:ile ,tempel's comet makes its revolution ar\nd ! ,sun 9 ab\t #cc ye>s1 ?is meteoric cl\d1 :i* has ! same p]iod & returns to ! same po9t ( its orbit e #cc ye>s1 enc\nt]s our globe = ?ree successive ye>s4 ,! fir/ ye> we are pass+ ?r\gh its d5se/ p>ts1 & ! two foll[+ ye>s 9 less & less cr[d$ p>ts1 f :i* result ! obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,an idea ( ! ext5t ( ?is meteoric cl\d may be =m$ f ! fact t1 ) its comet>y velocity ( motion1 x takes ?is cl\d ?ree ye>s at lea/ to cross ! ,e>?'s orbit4 ,f rec5t rese>*es x w\ld appe> t ! ,leonid cl\d is n s+le1 b t at lea/ two o!rs ( small] importance exi/1 & h p]iods ( #cc ye>s4 ,biela's comet1 :i* 0 divid$ into two p>ts 9 #ahdf1 is ano!r ( ! few comets ^: orbit approa*es t ( ! ,e>?4 ,possess+ ?is k1 & kn[+ !n ! close connection exi/+ betwe5 meteors & comets1 a/ronom]s suppos$ t !re 7 suffici5t reasons to expect a meteoric %[] :5 ?is comet 0 pass+ ne> ! ,e>?4 ,!y consequ5tly expect$ a meteoric display 9 #ahgb1 :5 our globe 0 to cross its orbit4 ,_! anticipation 0 pla9ly fulfill$1 & on ! night ( ,novemb] #bg?1 #ahgb1 a spl5did meteoric display1 hav+ its radiant po9t 9 ! con/ellation ,&rom$a1 0 obs]v$ 9 ,europe1 & also 9 ,am]ica1 b ! meteors se5 "h 7 n s num]\s z 9 ,europe4 ,o!r meteoric %[]s ( less importance1 su* z t ( ,april #bj?1 = in/ance1 h also be5 id5tifi$ ) comet>y orbits1 s t n[ no d\bt seems to rema9 z to ! id5tity ( comet>y p>ticles & %oot+-/>s4 ,! fact t ! maximum numb] ( meteors is always obs]v$ 9 ! morn+ h\rs1 supports ! hypo!sis ( ! cosmic orig9 ( ! %oot+-/>s1 s9ce ! regions ( ! ,e>? :]e x is morn+ are precisely ^? front+ ! regions t[>ds :i* our globe is mov+ 9 space1 & accord+ly enc\nt] m directly ! meteors mov+ 9 _! orbit4 ,! great] abundance ( fall+ />s at t "t may ?us be acc\nt$ =4 ,! numb] ( meteors p5etrat+ our atmosph]e mu/ be v great2 !re is n an h\r & probably n a m9ute dur+ :i* none fall4 ,f v>i\s consid]ations1 "s a/ronom]s h e/imat$ at f #fe1jjj1jjj1jjj to #adf1jjj1jjj1jjj ! total numb] ( %oot+-/>s ye>ly p5etrat+ 9 our atmosph]e4 ,! actual numb] is und\bt$ly great1 yet ! fact t ! meteors are r>ely se5 ?r\gh ! telescope :ile employ$ 9 obs]v+ v>i\s cele/ial objects1 does n indicate t !y are s num]\s z ^! figures imply4 ,x is only occasionally t "o is se5 trav]s+ ! field ( ! in/rum5t4 ,ev5 :5 ! sky is obs]v$ ) a l[ p[] eye-piece = sev]al h\rs 9 succession1 _m nights may pass )\t disclos+ "o1 al?\gh an obs]v]1 sweep+ ! sky m freely ) ! nak$ eye1 may (t5 p]ceive f\r or five dur+ an ord9>y night4 ,ab\t ! true nature ( ^! bodies no?+ is kn[n ) c]ta9ty4 ,f spectrum analysis x seems to be e/abli%$ t mo/ ( !m conta9 sodium & magnesium1 :ile a few indicate ! pres5ce ( /rontium & iron1 & 9 "s r>e cases !re are traces ( coal-gas4 ,"s ( ! nuclei give a cont9u\s spectrum1 & o!rs a spectrum ( l9es4 ,! trail always gives a spectrum ( bright l9es :i* indicates its gase\s /ate4 ,! traces ( coal-gas r>ely se5 9 meteors are1 h[ev]1 ( great importance1 z x id5tifies !m m closely ) ! comets1 :i* g5]ally %[ a simil> spectrum4 ,! cont9u\s spectra exhibit$ by "s nuclei w\ld indicate t !y are inc&esc5t & ei!r solid or liquid2 b x is difficult to conclude f _! spectra :at is _! true nature1 s9ce we d n "k exactly :at "p ! t]re/rial atmosph]e may play 9 produc+ ! results4 ,! mass ( ! %oot+-/>s is n kn[n ) c]ta9ty1 b ! fact t dur+ great meteoric %[]s1 none are se5 to rea* ! surface ( ! ,e>?1 all be+ consum$ 9 a few seconds1 suffici5tly indicates t x mu/ be v small4 ,x has be5 calculat$ t ^? equal to ,v5us 9 app>5t size & brilliancy may weigh sev]al p\nds1 :ile ! fa9t ones w\ld weigh only a few gra9s4 ,if ! %oot+-/>s h ev5 su* a mass z t "h attribut$ to "s ( !m1 ! extraord9>y motions :i* ,i h describ$ above seem to be unacc\ntable4 ,! *ange ( direction ( a heavy mass mov+ swiftly _c be sudd54 ,! semi-circul>1 ! wavy & ! angul> orbits obs]v$ c\ld n be describ$1 x w\ld seem1 by su* a mass animat$ ) a great velocity4 ,al?\gh ! meteors are said to be ignit$ by ! trans=mation ( "p ( _! progressive motion into molecul> motion1 yet x is n obs]v$ t ! velocity ( ! fall+ />s dim9i%es :5 !y are ab\t to disappe>4 ,! lum9\s trails !y leave 9 ! atmosph]e d n appe> to be end[$ ) any motion1 b rema9 = a "t 9 _! orig9al positions4 ,^! facts are app>5tly oppos$ to ! hypo!sis t su* meteors h any appreciable mass4 ,! extraord9>y motions exhibit$ by "s meteors seem to indicate t "s unsuspect$ =ce resides 9 ^! bodies1 & causes !m to deviate f ! laws ( ord9>y motion4 ,al?\gh x is v probable t ! ord9>y %oot+-/>s h no appreciable mass1 yet x is kn[n t v heavy meteoric masses sometimes fall at ! surface ( ! ,e>?4 ,su* falls are g5]ally prec$$ by ! sudd5 app>ition 9 ! sky ( a l>ge1 & usually v brilliant fire-ball1 :i* trav]ses ! air at a great spe$1 sometimes leav+ beh9d x a lum9\s trail1 aft] :i* x explodes ) a l\d s\nd1 & heavy fi]y meteoric fragm5ts1 div]g+ 9 all directions1 fall at ! surface ( ! ,e>?4 ,! "n ( ,a]olites or ,meteorolites is giv5 to ^! pond]\s fragm5ts4 ,z ^! meteors1 be=e !y explode & fall to ! gr\nd1 h _m po9ts ( resemblance ) ! %oot+-/>s1 !y are g5]ally suppos$ to be connect$ ) !m1 & to h a simil> comet>y orig94 ,! fact t ! a]olites diff] widely f ea* o!r 9 con/itution1 & are all compos$ ( sub/ances f\nd on ! ,e>?1 associat$ ) o!r facts giv5 bel[1 w\ld r seem to indicate a t]re/rial ?an a cele/ial orig94 ,if ! a]olites belong to ! same class ( bodies z ! fall+ />s1 diff]+ f !m only 9 size & mass1 x is difficult to see :y s v few %\ld fall ^u ! ,e>? dur+ ! great meteoric %[]s1 :5 ?\s&s ( %oot+-/>s trav]se our atmosph]e4 ,9 ,pr(4 ,kirkwood's ,meteoric ,a/ronomy are giv5 catalogues ( all ! falls ( a]olites & fire-balls :i* h be5 obs]v$ at ! "t ( ! p]iodic meteoric %[]s ( ! #aj? ( ,augu/ & ! #ac? ( ,novemb]1 dur+ a p]iod ( #bba ye>s = ! ,p]seids1 or ,augu/ %[]s1 & ( #cah ye>s = ! ,leonids1 or ,novemb] %[]s4 ,dur+ #bba ye>s1 #aj falls ( a]olites h be5 witness$ simultane\sly ) ! fall ( ! ,p]seids2 :ile dur+ #cah ye>s1 only #d su* falls h be5 record$ z hav+ occurr$ at ! "t ( ! ,leonid %[]4 ,if !re is any close connection betwe5 ! %oot+-/>s & ! a]olites1 we %\ld expect to f9d a maximum 9 _! fall at ! "t ( ! great meteoric displays4 ,s f>1 no maxima or m9ima h yet be5 discov]$ 9 ! fall ( a]olites2 !y d n seem1 l meteoric %[]s1 to be gov]n$ by a law ( p]iodicity4 ,a v rem>kable peculi>ity ( ! a]olites is t !y seem to h a t5d5cy to fall 9 c]ta9 regions4 ,su* are ! s\!rn "p ( ,france1 ! nor? ( ,italy1 ,h9do/an1 ! c5tral /ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ,mexico & ,brazil4 ,!re is a curi\s contra/ exi/+ betwe5 ! quick comet>y motion ( ! a]olites be=e _! explosion1 & ! comp>atively sl[ motion ( _! fragm5ts z !y rea* ! ,e>?2 motion :i* seems to be no great] ?an t correspond+ to _! natural fall imp$$ by ! resi/ance ( ! air4 ,9 g5]al1 _! p5etration into ! soil ^u :i* !y fall does n at all correspond to ! great velocity ) :i* !y move 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,! fragm5t>y /ructures ( ! a]olites1 _! id5tity ( sub/ance ) t ( our globe1 _! great resemblance to ! volcanic m9]als ( ! ,e>?1 & ! fractures & faults :i* "s ( !m exhibit1 d n correspond at all ) ! idea t !y are comet>y p>ticles fall5 on ! ,e>?4 ,z f> z _! /ructure & appe>ance is conc]n$1 !y seem r to be a volcanic product ( ! int]ior ( ! ,e>? ?an p>ts ( dis9tegrat$ comets4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t _! id5tity ) ! %oot+-/>s is f> f e/abli%$1 & t !y are /ill involv$ 9 my/]y4 ,! s-call$ meteoric du/ ga!r$ at sea & on high m\nta9s may h v>i\s orig9s1 & may be p>tly furni%$ by volcanic du/ c>ri$ to great di/ances 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,s9ce millions ( %oot+-/>s p5etrate our atmosph]e e ye> & rema9 9 x1 becom+ def9itively a "p ( ! ,e>?1 x foll[s t1 no matt] h[ small may be ! quantity ( matt] ( :i* !y are compos$1 !y mu/ gradually increase ! volume & mass ( our globe1 al?\gh ! increase may be exce$+ly sl[4 ,suppos+ e "o ( ! %oot+-/>s p5etrat+ our atmosph]e to conta9 "o cubic millimet] ( matt]1 x has be5 calculat$ t x w\ld take ne>ly #ce1jjj ye>s to make a deposit "o c5timet] 9 ?ickness all ov] ! surface ( our globe4 ,insignificant z ?is may appe>1 x is probable t ! quantity ( matt] ( meteoric orig9 :i* is add$ to our globe is mu* less ?an has j be5 suppos$4 ,,! ,,milky-,,way ,,or ,,galaxy ,,plate ,,xiii ,dur+ cle> nights1 :5 ! ,moon is bel[ ! horizon1 ! />ry vault is greatly adorn$ by an imm5se belt ( s(t :ite light1 spann+ ! heav5s f "o po9t ( ! horizon to ! opposite po9t1 & girdl+ ! cele/ial sph]e 9 its delicate folds4 ,e "o is famili> ) ?is rem>kable cele/ial object1 call$ ! ,milky-way or ,galaxy4 ,se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 ! ,galaxy appe>s z an irregul>1 n>r[1 nebul\s belt1 app>5tly compos$ ( cl\d-l lum9\s masses ( diff]5t =ms & sizes1 sep>at$ by comp>atively d>k int]vals4 ,^! cl\d-l masses v>y mu* 9 lum9\s int5sity1 & :ile "s among !m are v bright & conspicu\s1 o!rs are s fa9t t !y are h>d to recognize4 ,9 g5]al1 ! brighte/ p>ts ( ! ,milky-way are situat$ along ! middle ( its belt1 :ile its bord]s1 :i* are usually v fa9t1 gradually vani% 9 ! sky4 ,"s p>ts ( ! ,galaxy1 h[ev]1 %[ v little ( ! cl\dy /ructure s *>act]i/ic ( o!r p>ts1 be+ almo/ uni=m ?r\gh\t1 except t[>ds ! bord]s1 :i* are always fa9t]4 ,^! p>ts %[+ great] uni=mity are also ! fa9te/4 ,su* is ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! ,milky-way on ord9>y nights1 b on r>e occasions1 :5 ! atmosph]e is p>ticul>ly pure1 x pres5ts "o ( ! gr&e/ sights t c be imag9$4 ,at su* favorable mom5ts ,i h se5 ! ,galaxy gleam+ ) light1 & appe>+ z if compos$ ( />-du/ or ( preci\s /ones4 ,! /range belt !n appe>$ all mottl$ ov] & fleecy1 its l>ge cl\d-l masses be+ subdivid$ into num]\s small1 irregul> cl\dlets ( great brilliancy1 :i* appe>$ project$ ^u a s(t lum9\s backgr\nd4 ,! wid? ( ! ,galaxy is f> f be+ uni=m2 :ile 9 "s places x is only #d or #e1 9 o!rs x is #ae & ev5 m4 ,9 "s places x appe>s wavy 9 outl9e1 at o!rs q /raight2 !n x contracts1 to exp& a few degrees di/ant2 :ile at o!r places x s5ds (f bran*es & loops1 v>y+ 9 =m1 size & direction1 "s ( :i* are q prom95t1 :ile o!rs are v fa9t4 ,al?\gh v irregul> 9 =m1 ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! galactic belt is t ( a regul> curve occupy+ "o ( ! great circles ( ! cele/ial sph]e4 ,! ,milky-way completely encircles ! heav5s1 b1 ( c\rse1 only "o-half is visible at any "o mom5t1 s9ce our globe prev5ts ! o!r half f be+ se54 ,if1 = a mom5t1 we imag9e ourselves left 9 space1 our globe hav+ vani%$ f "u our feet1 we %\ld !n see ! :ole ,galaxy =m+ a cont9u\s belt 9 ! heav5s1 at ! c5tre ( :i* we %\ld app>5tly be situat$4 ,:ile only "o-half ( ! galactic belt c be se5 at once f any po9t on ! ,e>?1 yet1 accord+ to ! position ( ! obs]v]1 a l>g] or small] portion ( ! :ole c be se5 at diff]5t times4 ,9 high nor!rn or s\!rn latitudes b little m ?an half c be se5 ev5 by cont9u\s obs]vations2 b z we approa* ! equatorial regions1 m & m ( x becomes visible1 until ! :ole may be se5 at diff]5t h\rs & seasons4 ,9 ! latitudes ( ! nor!rn /ates1 ab\t two-?irds ( ! ,galaxy is visible1 ! re/ rema9+ hidd5 bel[ ! horizon2 b f ! s\!rn /ates v ne>ly ! :ole c be se54 ,! half ( ! ,milky-way visible at any "o "t f any latitude on ! ,e>? nev] entirely sets bel[ ! horizon1 al?\gh 9 "s places x may be s ne> ! horizon z to be r5d]$ invisible by vapors4 ,9 ! latitude ( ,cambridge1 :5 9 its l[e/ position1 ! summit ( its arc is /ill ab\t #ab or #ae above ! nor!rn horizon4 ,! great circle ( ! cele/ial sph]e1 occupi$ by ! galactic belt1 is incl9$ at an angle ( ab\t #fc to ! cele/ial equator1 & int]sects ?is great circle on "o side 9 ! con/ellation ,monoc]os 9 #f;h4 #dgm41 & on ! opposite side 9 ! con/ellations ,aquila & ,ophiu*us 9 #ah;h4 #dgm4 ( "r asc5sion2 s t its nor!rn pole is situat$ 9 ! con/ellation ,coma ,b]5ices 9 ,r4 ,a4 #ab;h4 #dgm41 decl9ation ,n4 #bg1 & ! s\!rn 9 ! con/ellation ,cetus 9 ,r4 ,a4 #j;h4 #dgm41 decl9ation ,s4 #bg4 ,accord+ to ! seasons & to ! h\rs ( ! night at :i* x is obs]v$1 ! galactic ar* pres5ts diff]5t incl9ations 9 ! sky4 ,ow+ to its incl9ation to ! equator ( ! cele/ial sph]e1 its opposite p>ts exhibit opposite incl9ations :5 !y pass ! m]idian ( a place4 ,t "p ( ! ,galaxy :i* is repres5t$ on ,plate ,,xiii41 & :i* int]sects ! cele/ial equator 9 ! con/ellation ,aquila1 is incl9$ to ! left or t[>ds ! ea/1 :5 x is on ! m]idian2 :ile ! opposite "p1 situat$ 9 ,monoc]os1 is incl9$ to ! "r1 or t[>ds ! we/1 :5 x rea*es ! m]idian4 ,! =m] passes ! m]idian 9 ! ev5+ 9 ! summ] & autumn mon?s2 ! latt]1 9 ! w9t] & spr+ mon?s4 ,,plate ,,xiii4--,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,milky ,,way4 ,f a /udy made dur+ ! ye>s #ahgd1 #ahge & #ahgf ,by beg9n+ at its nor!rnmo/ "p1 repres5t$ at ! upp] "p ( ,plate ,,xiii41 situat$ 9 ! *air ( ! con/ellation ,cassiopeia1 & desc5d+ s\?w>dly1 & cont9u+ 9 ! same direction until ! :ole circle is complet$1 ! c\rse ( ! ,milky-way ?r\gh ! con/ellations may be briefly describ$ z foll[s3 ,f ,cassiopeia's *air1 ! ,galaxy1 =m+ two /reams1 desc5ds s\?1 pass+ p>tly ?r\gh ,lac]ta on ! left1 & ,cepheus on ! "r2 at ?is la/ po9t x approa*es ne>e/ to ! pol> />4 ,!n x ent]s ,cygnus1 :]e x becomes v complicat$ & bright1 & :]e sev]al l>ge cl\dy masses are se5 t]m9at+ its left bran*1 :i* passes to ! "r1 ne> ! bright /> ,d5eb1 ! lead] ( ?is con/ellation4 ,bel[ ,d5eb1 ! ,galaxy is app>5tly disconnect$ & sep>at$ f ! nor!rn "p by a n>r[1 irregul> d>k gap4 ,f ?is rupture1 ! ,milky-way divides into two great /reams sep>at$ by an irregul> d>k rift4 ,an imm5se bran* ext5ds to ! "r1 :i*1 aft] hav+ =m$ an important lum9\s mass betwe5 ! />s & 1 cont9ues its s\?w>d progress ?r\gh p>ts ( ,lyra1 ,vulpecula1 ,h]cules1 ,aquila & ,ophiu*us1 :]e x gradually t]m9ates a few degrees s\? ( ! equator4 ,! ma9 /ream on ! left1 aft] hav+ =m$ a bright mass ar\nd ,cygni1 passes ?r\gh ,vulpecula & !n ,aquila1 :]e x crosses ! equ9octial j bel[ ! /> aft] hav+ involv$ 9 its nebulosity ! bright /> ,altair1 ! lead] ( ,aquila4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e ! ,galaxy becomes v complicat$ & =ms a succession ( v bright1 irregul> masses1 ! upp] "o be+ 9 ,scutum ,sobieskii1 :ile ! o!rs are respectively situat$ 9 ,sagitt>ius & 9 ,scorpio2 ! la/1 j a little above our horizon1 be+ always consid]ably dimm$ by vapors4 ,f ,scutum ,sobieskii1 ! ,galaxy exp&s consid]ably on ! "r1 & s5ds a bran* into ,scorpio1 9 :i* ! fi]y r$ /> ,ant>es is some:at involv$4 ,cont9u+ its c\rse bel[ our horizon1 ! ,milky-way ent]s ,ara & ,norma1 & !n1 pass+ p>tly ?r\gh ,circ9us1 ,c5taurus & ,musca1 x rea*es ! ,s\!rn ,cross1 aft] hav+ be5 divid$ by ! l>ge d>k pe>-%ap$ spot kn[n to navigators z ! ,coal-,sack4 ,9 ,ara & ,crux ! ,milky-way atta9s its maximum ( brightness1 :i* !re surpasses its brighte/ p>ts 9 ,cygnus4 ,9 ,musca1 x makes its ne>e/ approa* to ! s\? pole ( ! heav5s4 ,x !n ent]s ,c>9a & ,vela1 :]e x spreads out l a fan1 & t]m9ates 9 ?is la/ con/ellation1 be=e rea*+ 1 be+ once m int]rupt$ by a d>k & v irregul> gap1 on a l9e ) ! two />s & 4 ,x is notewor?y t ?is second rupture ( cont9uity ( ! ,galaxy 9 ,vela is v ne>ly opposite1 or at ab\t #ahj f ! break ne> ,d5eb 9 ,cygnus4 ,cont9u+ its c\rse on ! o!r side ( ! break1 ! ,milky-way aga9 spreads out into ! %ape ( a fan1 gr[s n>r[] 9 ent]+ ,puppis1 :]e x is longitud9ally divid$ by d>ki% *annels4 ,x !n passes above our s\!rn horizon1 becom+ visible to u1 pass+ ?r\gh "p ( ,canis ,major1 :]e its bord] j grazes ! brilliant /> ,sirius4 ,b f ,puppis x gradually dim9i%es 9 brightness & complication1 becom+ fa9t & uni=m4 ,x ent]s ,monoc]os & ,orion1 :]e x aga9 crosses ! equator a little above 1 ! nor!rnmo/ ( ! ?ree bright />s 9 ! belt ( ,orion4 ,cont9u+ its nor?w>d c\rse x passes ?r\gh ,gem9i1 ext5d+ z f> z ,ca/or & ,pollux1 & !n ent]+ ,auriga1 :]e x beg9s to increase 9 brightness & 9 complication ( /ructure4 ,x passes p>tly ?r\gh ,camelop>dus & into ,p]seus1 :]e an important bran* proce$s f its s\!rn bord]4 ,?is bran* beg9n+ ne> ! /> 1 advances t[>ds ! celebrat$ v>iable /> ,algol1 ar\nd :i* x is q bright & complicat$4 ,cont9u+ its c\rse 9 ! same direction1 ! bran* rapidly loses its brightness1 becom+ v fa9t a little bel[ ,algol1 & pass+ ?r\gh ,p]sei1 x ent]s ,taurus1 leav+ ! ,pleiades on its extreme s\!rn m>g92 & aft] hav+ pass$ ?r\gh :]e x bran*es (f1 x rapidly curves t[>ds ! ma9 /ream1 :i* x jo9s ne> ,tauri1 ?us =m+ an imm5se loop4 ,! ramification project+ ne> ,tauri involves 9 its nebulosity ! ruddy /> ,aldeb>an & ! scatt]$ gr\p ( ! ,hyades4 ,x !n advances t[>ds ! ?ree bright />s 1 & ( ! belt ( ,orion1 :i*1 toge!r ) ! sextuple /> ,orionis1 are involv$ 9 its fa9t nebulosity1 & jo9s ! ma9 /ream on ! equ9octial1 hav+ ?us =m$ a second loop1 ^: int]ior "p is comp>atively free f nebulosity1 & conta9s ! f9e />s ,betelgeuse & ,bellatrix4 ,t portion ( ! ma9 galactic /ream :i* is compris$ betwe5 ! /> ,d5eb 9 ,cygnus1 & ,capella 9 ,auriga1 is divid$ longitud9ally by a v irregul>1 n>r[1 d>ki% cleft1 comp>atively devoid ( nebulosity1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is int]rupt$ at "s po9ts4 ,?is d>k gap s5ds %ort bran*es nor? & s\?1 ! mo/ important ( :i* are situat$ ne> ,cephei & ,cassiopei4 ,ano!r bran* runs f beyond ( ! con/ellation la/ m5tion$4 ,! ma9 /ream ( ! ,galaxy aft] leav+ ,p]seus1 ent]s ,cassiopeia1 & s5d+ %ort bran*es into ,&rom$a1 x completes its imm5se circle 9 ,cassiopeia's *air1 :]e ?is description 0 begun4 ,:5 exam9$ ?r\gh ! telescope1 ! appe>ance ( ! ,milky-way completely *anges1 & its nebul\s light is resolv$ into an imm5se numb] ( />s1 too fa9t to be individually se5 ) ! nak$ eye4 ,:5 ,galileo fir/ direct$ ! telescope to ! galactic belt1 its nebul\s1 cl\d-l masses 7 at once resolv$ into />s1 ev5 by ! feeble magnify+ p[] ( 8 in/rum5t4 ,:51 mu* lat]1 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el und]took 8 celebrat$ />-gaug+s ( ! ,galaxy1 millions ( />s blaz$ out 9 8 p[]ful telescopes4 ,! />s compos+ ?is great nebul\s belt are s num]\s t x is impossible to arrive at any def9ite idea z to _! numb]4 ,f 8 s\nd+s ,h]s*el e/imat$ at #aaf1jjj ! numb] ( />s :i*1 on "o occasion1 pass$ ?r\gh ! field ( 8 telescope 9 #ae m9utes1 by ! simple effect ( ! diurnal motion ( ! heav5s2 & on ano!r occasion1 a numb] e/imat$ at #bej1jjj cross$ ! field 9 #da m9utes4 ,9 a space ( #ej1 compris$ betwe5 & ,cygni1 %[n on ,plate ,,xiii41 he f\nd no less ?an #cca1jjj />s4 ,pr(4 ,/ruve has e/imat$ at #bj1ejj1jjj ! numb] ( />s se5 9 ! ,milky-way ?r\gh ! tw5ty-foot telescope employ$ by ,h]s*el 9 8 />-gaug+s4 ,great z ?is numb] may seem1 x is yet f> bel[ ! tru?2 z ! great mod]n telescopes1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,newcomb1 w\ld v probably d\ble ! numb] ( />s se5 ?r\gh ,h]s*el's l>ge/ telescope1 & detect f ?irty to fifty millions ( />s 9 ! ,milky-way4 ,al?\gh ! telescope resolves ! ,galaxy into millions ( />s1 yet ! l>ge/ in/rum5ts fail to p5etrate its imm5se dep?s4 ,! =ty-foot telescope ( ,h]s*el1 & ev5 ! giant telescope ( ,"l ,rosse1 h fail$ to resolve ! ,milky-way entirely into />s1 ! mo/ di/ant ones appe>+ 9 !m z nebulosities ^u :i* ! ne>] />s are se5 project$1 ! galactic /ratum be+ unfa?omable by ! l>ge/ telescopes yet made4 ,! />s compos+ ! ,milky-way are v unev5ly di/ribut$1 z might easily be suppos$ f ! cl\d-l appe>ance ( ?is belt4 ,9 "s regions !y are loosely scatt]$1 =m+ long r[s or /reams ( v>i\s figures1 :ile 9 o!rs !y congregate into /> gr\ps & clu/]s hav+ all imag9able =ms1 "s be+ compress$ into v d5se globul> masses4 ,! int]vals left betwe5 ! clu/]+ masses are poor] 9 />s1 & inde$ "s ( !m are ev5 totally devoid ( />s or nebulosity4 ,su* are ! great & small coal-sacks 9 ! s\!rn ,galaxy4 ,i h myself detect$ su* a d>k space devoid ( />s & nebulosity 9 "o ( ! brighte/ p>ts ( ! ,milky-way1 9 ! con/ellation ,sagitt>ius1 9 ab\t #ag;h4 #dem4 "r asc5sion1 & #bg #ce' s\? decl9ation4 ,x is a small m9iature coal-sack or op5+ 9 ! ,galaxy1 ?r\gh :i* ! sight p5etrates beyond ?is great assemblage ( />s4 ,close to ?is1 is ano!r n>r[ op5+ ne> a small1 loose clu/]4 ,al?\gh lack+ ! optical res\rces :i* n[ enable u to recognize ! /ructure ( ! ,milky-way1 "s ( ! anci5t philosoph]s _h succe$$ tol]ably well 9 _! speculations reg>d+ its nature4 ,x 0 ! op9ion ( ,democritus1 ,py?agoras & ,manilius1 t ! ,galaxy 0 no?+ else b a va/ & confus$ assemblage ( />s1 ^: fa9t light 0 ! true cause ( its milky appe>ance4 ,be=e ! inv5tion ( ! telescope1 no well-f\nd$ !ory 9 reg>d to ! /ructure ( ! ,milky-way c\ld1 ( c\rse1 be attempt$4 ,al?\gh ,kepl] ent]ta9$ diff]5t ideas 9 reg>d to ! /ructure ( ?is great belt f ^? n[ g5]ally admitt$1 yet 9 !m may be f\nd ! />t+ po9t ( ! mod]n conception ( ! /ructure ( ! ,galaxy & ( ! visible univ]se4 ,9 ! view ( ?is great m9d1 ! ,milky-way1 ) all its />s1 =m$ a va/ sy/em1 ! c5tre ( :i*1 & ( ! univ]se1 0 occupi$ by our ,sun4 ,kepl] reason$ t ! place ( ! ,sun mu/ be ne> ! c5tre ( ! galactic belt1 f ! fact ?is la/ object appe>s v ne>ly z a great circle ( ! cele/ial sph]e1 & t its lum9\s int5sity is ab\t ! same 9 all its p>ts4 ,half a c5tury lat]1 ano!r attempt to expla9 ! ,milky-way 0 made by ,wright1 ( ,durham1 :o reject$ ! idea ( an accid5tal & confus$ di/ribution ( ! />s z inconsi/5t ) ! appe>ance ( ! ,galaxy1 & reg>d$ !m z arrang$ along a fundam5tal plane correspond+ to t ( ! ,milky-way4 ,^! ideas :i* 7 subsequ5tly develop$ & enl>g$ by ,kant1 & !n by ,lamb]t1 con/itute :at is n[ kn[n z ,kant's !ory4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 ! />s compos+ ! ,galaxy are conceiv$ z be+ uni=mly arrang$ betwe5 two flat planes ( consid]able ext5sion1 b :i* are comp>atively ne> toge!r1 ! ,sun occupy+ a place n v f> f ! c5tre ( ?is imm5se />ry /ratum4 ,z we view ?is sy/em crosswise ?r\gh its ?9ne/ p>ts1 ! />s compos+ x appe> scatt]$ & comp>atively few 9 numb]1 b :5 we view x l5g?wis] ?r\gh its mo/ ext5d$ p>ts1 !y appe> cond5s$ & extremely num]\s1 ?us giv+ ! impression ( a lum9\s belt encircl+ ! heav5s4 ,9 ! conception ( ,kant1 ea* /> 0 a sun1 =m+ ! c5tre ( a planet>y sy/em4 ,^! sy/ems are n indep5d5t1 b are kept toge!r by ! bonds ( univ]sal gravitation4 ,! ,galaxy itself is "o ( ^! great sy/ems1 its pr9cipal plane be+ ! equival5t ( ! zodiac 9 our planet>y sy/em1 :ile a prepond]ant body1 :i* might be ,sirius1 is ! equival5t ( our ,sun1 & keeps ! galactic sy/em toge!r4 ,9 ! univ]se !re are o!r galaxies1 b z !y are too di/ant to be resolv$ into />s1 !y appe> z elliptical nebul4 ,su* are1 9 brief1 ! gr& speculations ( ,kant & ,lamb]t on ! ,milky-way1 & ! /ructure ( ! univ]se4 ,kant's !ory re/$ m on conjectures ?an on obs]v$ facts1 & ne$$ !re=e ! sanction ( direct obs]vations to be e/abli%$ on a firm basis4 ,) ?is view1 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el inve/igat$ ! subject1 by a long & labori\s s]ies ( obs]vations4 ,8 plan1 :i* 0 t ( />-gaug+1 consi/$ 9 c\nt+ all ! />s visible 9 8 tw5ty-foot telescope1 compris$ 9 a wide belt cutt+ ! ,galaxy at "r angles1 & ext5d+ f "o ( its sides to ! opposite "o1 ?us embrac+ #ahj ( ! cele/ial sph]e4 ,9 ?is belt he execut$ #c1djj telescopic />-gaug+s ( a qu>t] ( a degree ea*1 f :i* he obta9$ #fhc mean gaug+s giv+ ! /ell> d5sity ( ! correspond+ regions4 ,! g5]al result d]iv$ f ?is imm5se labor 0 t ! />s are fewe/ 9 regions ! mo/ di/ant f ! galactic belt2 :ile f ^! regions1 :i* correspond to ! pole ( ! ,galaxy1 !y gradually increase 9 numb] 9 approa*+ ! ,milky-way4 ,! /> d5sity 0 f\nd to be extremely v>iable1 & :ile "s ( ! telescopic gaug+s detect$ ei!r no /> at all1 or only "o or two1 o!r gaug+s gave #ejj />s & ev5 m4 ,! av]age numb] ( />s 9 a field ( view ( 8 telescope1 obta9$ = ! six zones1 ea* ( #ae1 into :i* ,h]s*el divid$ up ! portion ( 8 obs]v+ belt1 ext5d+ f ! ,galaxy to its pole1 is z foll[s3 ,9 ! fir/ zone1 comm5c+ at #ij f ! galactic belt & ext5d+ t[>ds x1 #d />s p] telescopic field 7 f\nd2 #e 9 ! second2 #h 9 ! ?ird2 #ad 9 ! f\r?2 #bd 9 ! fif? & #ec 9 ! six?1 :i* t]m9at$ 9 ! ,galaxy itself4 ,v ne>ly simil> results 7 aft]w>ds f\nd by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 = correspond+ regions 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,f ^! /udies1 ,h]s*el conclud$ t ! /ell> sy/em is ( ! g5]al =m suppos$ by ! ,kantian !ory1 & t its diamet] mu/ be five times z ext5d$ 9 ! direction ( ! galactic plane1 z x is 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to x4 ,to expla9 ! great bran* s5t out by ! ,galaxy 9 ,cygnus1 he suppos$ a great cleft divid+ ! sy/em edgewise1 ab\t half way f its circumf]5ce to its c5tre4 ,f suppositions f\nd$ on ! app>5t magnitude & arrangem5t ( />s1 he e/imat$ t x w\ld take light ab\t #g1jjj ye>s to rea* u f ! extremities ( ! ,galaxy1 & !re=e #ad1jjj ye>s to travel across ! sy/em1 f "o bord] to ! opposite "o4 ,b ,h]s*el's !ory conc]n+ ! ,milky-way re/$ on ! errone\s assumption t ! />s are uni=mly di/ribut$ 9 space1 & also t 8 telescopes p5etrat$ ?r\gh ! entire dep? ( ! ,galaxy4 ,fur!r /udy %[$ him t 8 telescope ( tw5ty feet1 & ev5 8 great =ty-foot telescope1 :i* 0 e/imat$ to p5etrate to a di/ance #b1cjj times t ( />s ( ! fir/ magnitude1 fail$ to resolve "s p>ts ( ! ,galaxy into />s4 ,mean:ile1 ! /ructure ( ! ,milky-way be+ bett] kn[n1 ! irregul> cond5sation ( its />s became app>5t1 :ile ! mutual relation exi/+ betwe5 b9>y & multiple sy/ems ( />s1 z also betwe5 ! />s :i* =m clu/]s1 0 recogniz$1 z %[+ evid5ce ( clos] association betwe5 c]ta9 gr\ps ( />s ?an betwe5 ! />s 9 g5]al4 ,h]s*el's sy/em1 :i* re/$ on ! assumption ( ! uni=m di/ribution ( ! />s 9 space1 & on ! supposition t ! telescopes us$ = 8 gauges p5etrat$ ?r\gh ! great] dep?s ( ! ,galaxy1 be+ ?us f\nd to contradict ! facts1 0 gradually ab&on$ by its au?or1 :o adopt$ ano!r me?od ( e/imat+ ! relative di/ances ( ! />s obs]v$ 9 8 gaug+s4 ,?is me?od1 f\nd$ on photometric pr9ciples1 consi/$ 9 judg+ ! p5etrat+ p[] ( 8 telescope by ! brightness ( ! />s1 & n1 z =m]ly1 by ! numb] :i* !y br\ght into view4 ,he !n /udi$ by ?is new me?od ! /ructure ( ! ,milky-way & ! probable di/ance ( ! clu/]+ masses ( :i* x is =m$1 conclud+ t ! portion ( ! ,galaxy trav]s+ ! con/ellation ,orion is ! ne>e/ to u4 ,?is la/ result seems indicat$ by ! fact t ?is portion ( ! ,milky-way is ! fa9te/ & ! mo/ uni=m ( all ! galactic belt4 ,m rec5tly ,otto ,/ruve inve/igat$ ! same subject1 & arriv$ at v ne>ly simil> conclusions1 :i* may be briefly /at$ z foll[s3 ,! galactic sy/em is compos$ ( a c\ntless numb] ( />s1 spread+ out on all sides along a v ext5d$ plane4 ,^! />s1 :i* are v unev5ly di/ribut$1 %[ a decid$ t5d5cy to clu/] toge!r into individual gr\ps ( diff]5t sizes & =ms1 sep>at$ by comp>atively vacant spaces4 ,?is lay] :]e ! />s congregate 9 su* va/ numb]s may be conceiv$ z a v irregul> flat disk1 s5d+ _m bran*es 9 v>i\s directions1 & hav+ a diamet] eight or t5 times its ?ickness4 ,! size ( ?is />ry disk _c be det]m9$1 s9ce x is unfa?omable 9 "s directions1 ev5 :5 exam9$ ) ! l>ge/ telescopes4 ,! ,sun1 ) its att5d+ planets1 is involv$ 9 ?is imm5se congregation ( suns1 ( :i* x =ms b a small p>ticle1 occupy+ a position at "s di/ance f ! pr9cipal plane ( ! ,galaxy4 ,accord+ to ,/ruve1 ?is di/ance is approximately equal to #bjh1jjj times ! radius ( ! ,e>?'s orbit4 ,! ,milky-way is ma9ly compos$ ( />-clu/]s1 two-?irds1 p]haps1 ( ! :ole numb] visible 9 ! heav5s be+ involv$ 9 ?is great belt4 ,9 conclusion1 our ,sun is only "o ( ! individual />s :i* con/itute ! galactic sy/em1 & ea* ( ^! />s itself is a sun simil> to our ,sun4 ,^! individual suns are n indep5d5t1 b are associat$ 9 gr\ps v>y+ 9 numb] f a few to sev]al ?\s&s1 ! ,galaxy itself be+ no?+ b an imm5se aggregation ( su* clu/]s1 ^: :ole numb] ( individual suns probably ranges betwe5 ?irty & fifty millions4 ,9 ?is va/ sy/em our globe is s insignificant t x _c ev5 be reg>d$ z "o ( its memb]s4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,g\ld1 !re are reasons to believe t our ,sun is a memb] ( a small1 flatt5$1 bifid clu/]1 compos$ ( m ?an #djj />s1 rang+ betwe5 ! fir/ & sev5? magnitude1 its position 9 ?is small sy/em be+ ecc5tric1 b n v f> f ! galactic plane4 ,! /udy ( ! ,milky-way1 ( :i* ,plate ,,xiii4 is only a "p1 0 und]tak5 to answ] a fri5dly appeal made by ,mr4 ,a4 ,m>?1 9 ! ,mon?ly ,notices ( ! ,royal ,a/ronomical ,society1 9 #ahgb4 ,i take pleasure 9 (f]+ him my ?anks = ! sugge/ion1 & = ! facility af=d$ me 9 ?is /udy by 8 ,li/ ( ,co-ord9ates ( ,/>s )9 & ne> ! ,milky-way1 :i* 0 publi%$ ) x4 ,,! ,,/>-,,clu/]s ,,plate ,,xiv ,x is a well-kn[n fact t ! />s visible to ! nak$ eye are v unequally di/ribut$ 9 ! heav5s1 & t :ile !y are loosely scatt]$ 9 "s regions1 9 o!rs !y are comp>atively num]\s1 sometimes =m+ gr\ps 9 :i* !y appe> q close toge!r4 ,9 our nor!rn sky are f\nd a few su* agglom]ations ( />s1 :i* are famili> objects to all obs]v]s ( cele/ial objects4 ,9 ! con/ellation ,coma ,b]5ices1 ! />s are small1 b q cond5s$1 & =m a loosely scatt]$1 fa9t gr\p4 ,9 ,taurus1 ! ,hyades & ! ,pleiades1 visible dur+ our w9t] nights1 are conspicu\s & famili> objects :i* _c fail to be recogniz$4 ,9 ! la/ gr\p1 six />s may be easily detect$ by ord9>y eyes on any cle> night1 b m c sometimes be se52 on r>e occasions1 :5 ! sky 0 especially favorable1 ,i h detect$ elev5 cle>ly & suspect$ sev]al o!rs4 ,! six />s ord9>ily visible1 are 9 ord] ( decreas+ brightness1 z foll[s3 ,alcyone1 ,electra1 ,atlas1 ,maia1 ,taygeta & ,m]ope4 ,glimpses ( ,celano & ,pleione are sometimes obta9$4 ,:5 ! sky is exam9$ ) "s att5tion on any cle>1 moonless night1 small1 hazy1 lum9\s pat*es1 hav+ a comet>y aspect1 are visible "h & !re to ! nak$ eye4 ,9 ! con/ellation ,canc] is f\nd "o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s1 call$ ,prsepe1 :i* =ms a small triangle ) ! two />s & 4 ,9 ,p]seus1 & involv$ 9 ! ,milky-way1 is f\nd ano!r lum9\s cl\d1 situat$ 9 ! sword-h&le1 & almo/ 9 a l9e ) ! two />s & ( ,cassiopeia's ,*air4 ,9 ! con/ellation ,h]cules1 ano!r nebul\s mass ( light1 b fa9t]1 is also visible betwe5 ! />s & :]e x appe>s z a fa9t comet1 9 ! dep?s ( space4 ,9 ,ophiu*us & ,monoc]os are likewise f\nd hazy1 lum9\s pat*es4 ,9 ! s\!rn sky1 sev]al su* objects are also visible to ! nak$ eye1 be+ f\nd 9 ,sagitt>ius1 9 ,canis ,major & 9 ,puppis2 b ! mo/ conspicu\s are ^? 9 ,c5taurus & ,t\can4 ,t 9 ,c5taurus involves ! /> 9 its pale diffus$ nebulosity1 & t 9 ,t\can is involv$ 9 ! less] ,magellanic cl\d4 ,:5 ! telescope is direct$ to ^! nebul\s objects1 _! hazy1 ill-def9$ aspect disappe>s1 & !y are f\nd to consi/ ( individual />s ( diff]5t magnitudes1 :i* be+ m or less closely gr\p$ toge!r1 app>5tly =m a sy/em ( _! own4 ,^! gr\ps1 :i* are s well adapt$ to give u an insight into ! /ructure & ! va/ness ( ! /ell> univ]se1 are call$ ,/>-clu/]s4 ,/>-clu/]s are f\nd ( all degrees ( aggregation1 & :ile 9 "s ( !m1 su* z 9 ! ,pleiades1 9 ,prsepe & 9 ,p]seus1 ! />s are s loosely scatt]$ t an op]a glass1 & ev5 ! nak$ eye1 w resolve !m2 9 o!rs1 su* z 9 ^? situat$ 9 ,h]cules1 ,aqu>ius1 ,t\can & ,c5taurus1 !y are s greatly compress$ t ev5 9 ! l>ge/ telescopes !y appe> z a confus$ mass ( blaz+ du/1 9 :i* comp>atively few individual />s c be di/9ctly recogniz$4 ,al?\gh only ab\t a doz5 ,/>-clu/]s c be se5 9 ! sky ) ! nak$ eye1 yet ne>ly elev5 hundr$ su* objects visible ?r\gh ! telescope1 h be5 catalogu$ by a/ronom]s4 ,! />s compos+ ! diff]5t clu/]s visible 9 ! heav5s v>y greatly 9 numb]1 & :ile 9 "s clu/]s !re are only a few1 9 o!rs !y are s num]\s & cr[d$ t x w\ld be idle to try to c\nt !m1 _! numb] am\nt+ to sev]al ?\s&s4 ,x has be5 calculat$ by ,h]s*el t "s clu/]s are s closely cond5s$1 t 9 an area n m ?an "p ( t cov]$ by ! ,moon1 at lea/ #e1jjj />s are agglom]at$4 ,:5 ! gr\p 9 ! ,pleiades is se5 ?r\gh ! telescope x appe>s m important ?an x does to ! nak$ eye1 & sev]al hundr$s ( />s are f\nd 9 x4 ,9 a /udy ( ,tempel's nebula1 :i* is involv$ 9 ! ,pleiades1 ,i h mapp$ out #bej />s1 mo/ly compris$ )9 ?is nebula1 ) ! telescope ( #f in*es ap]ture1 :i* ,i h us$ = ?is /udy4 ,z a type ( a loose1 co>se clu/]1 t 9 ,p]seus is "o ( ! f9e/ ( its class4 ,x appe>s to ! nak$ eye z a s+le object1 b 9 ! telescope x has two c5tres ( cond5sation1 ar\nd :i* clu/] a great numb] ( bright />s1 =m+ v>i\s curves & fe/oons ( great beauty4 ,among its compon5ts are f\nd sev]al yell[ & r$ />s1 :i* give a mo/ beautiful contra/ ( colors 9 ?is gorge\s & sp>kl+ region4 ,9 a /udy :i* ,i h made ( ?is tw9 clu/]1 ,i h mapp$ out #ffd />s belong+ to x1 among :i* are two yell[ & five r$ />s4 ,:ile "s clu/]s1 l ^? j describ$1 are v easily resolvable into />s ) ! smalle/ in/rum5ts1 o!rs yield ) ! greate/ difficulty1 ev5 to ! l>ge/ telescopes1 9 :i* _! />ry nature is b>ely suspect$4 ,ow+ to ?is peculi>ity1 />-clu/]s are usually divid$ into two pr9cipal classes4 ,9 ! fir/ class are compris$ all ! clu/]s :i* h be5 pla9ly resolv$ into />s1 & 9 ! second all ^? :i*1 al?\gh n pla9ly resolvable ) ! l>ge/ in/rum5ts n[ at our disposal1 %[ a decid$ t5d5cy to resolvability1 & convey ! impression t an increase ( p[] 9 telescopes is ! only ?+ ne$$ to resolve !m into />s4 ,( c\rse ?is classification1 :i* dep5ds on ! p[] ( telescopes to decide ! nature ( ^! objects1 is arbitr>y1 & a classification bas$ on spectrum analysis is n[ sub/itut$ = x4 ,! />-clu/]s are also divid$ into globul> & irregul> clu/]s1 accord+ to _! g5]al =m & appe>ance4 ,! globul> clu/]s1 :i* are ! mo/ num]\s1 are usually well-def9$ objects1 m or less circul> 9 _! g5]al outl9es4 ,! rapid increase ( brightness t[>ds _! c5tres1 :]e ! />s compos+ !m are greatly cond5s$1 readily conveys ! impression t ! g5]al =m ( ^! sp>kl+ masses is globul>4 ,! irregul> clu/]s are n s ri* 9 />s z ! =m]4 ,usually _! />s are less cond5s$ t[>ds ! c5tre1 & are1 = ! mo/ "p1 s loosely & irregul>ly di/ribut$1 t x is impossible to recognize ! outl9es ( ^! clu/]s or to decide :]e !y t]m9ate4 ,! globul> clu/]s are usually q easily resolvable into />s1 ei!r p>tly or :olly1 al?\gh "s among !m d n %[ ! lea/ traces ( resolvability1 ev5 9 ! l>ge/ in/rum5ts4 ,?is may result f diff]5t causes1 & may be attribut$ ei!r to ! m9ut5ess ( _! compon5ts or to _! great di/ance f ! ,e>?1 _m />-clu/]s be+ at su* imm5se di/ances t !y are beyond our means ( measurem5t4 ,z has be5 %[n 9 ! prec$+ section1 ! />-clu/]s are f\nd 9 great numb] 9 ! ,galaxy2 inde$1 x is 9 ?is region & 9 its vic9ity t ! great] portion ( !m are f\nd4 ,9 o!r regions1 ) ! exception ( ! ,magellanic cl\ds1 :]e !y are f\nd 9 great numb] & 9 e /age ( resolution1 ! clu/]s are few & scatt]$4 ,,plate ,,xiv4--,,/>-,,clu/] ,,9 ,,h]cules4 ,f a /udy made 9 ,june1 #ahgg ,! />-clu/] 9 ! con/ellation ,h]cules1 designat$ z ,no4 #d1bcj 9 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el's catalogue1 & :i* is repres5t$ on ,plate ,,xiv41 is "o ( ! brighte/ & mo/ cond5s$ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 al?\gh x is n s ext5d$ z sev]al o!rs1 its angul> diamet] be+ only #g' or #h'4 ,?is object1 :i* 0 discov]$ by ,halley 9 #agad1 is "o ( ! mo/ beautiful ( its class 9 ! heav5s4 ,accord+ to ,h]s*el1 x is compos$ ( ?\s&s ( />s betwe5 ! t5? & fifte5? magnitudes4 ,und\bt$ly ! />s compos+ ?is gr\p are v num]\s1 al?\gh ^? :i* c be di/9ctly se5 z individual />s1 & ^: position c be det]m9$1 are n s _m z a sup]ficial look at ! object w\ld lead u to suppose4 ,f a long /udy ( ?is clu/]1 :i* ,i h made ) in/rum5ts ( v>i\s ap]tures1 ,i h n be5 able to id5tify m />s ?an are repres5t$ on ! plate1 al?\gh ! nebulosity ( :i* ?is object ma9ly consi/s1 & especially ! region situat$ t[>ds its c5tre1 appe>$ at times granul> & blaz+ ) c\ntless po9ts ( light1 too fa9t & too flick]+ to be individually recogniz$4 ,t[>ds its c5tre !re is q an ext5d$ region1 ^: lum9\s int5sity is v great1 & :i* irresi/ibly conveys ! impression ( ! globul> /ructure ( ?is clu/]4 ,besides sev]al outly+ app5dages1 =m$ by its nebulosity1 ! l>g] />s recogniz$ 9 ?is clu/] are scatt]$ & di/ribut$ 9 su* a way t !y =m v>i\s bran*es1 correspond+ ) ^? =m$ by ! irresolvable nebulosity4 ,at lea/ six or sev5 ( ^! bran*es & w+s are recogniz$1 "s ( :i* are curv$ & b5t 9 v>i\s ways1 ?us giv+ ?is object a di/ant resemblance to "s cru/acean =ms4 ,al?\gh ,i h look$ = x ) c>e1 ,i h fail$ to recognize ! spiral /ructure attribut$ to ?is object by sev]al obs]v]s4 ,among ! six app5dages :i* ,i h recogniz$1 "s are slightly curv$2 b _! curves are sometimes 9 opposite directions1 & two bran*es ( ! upp] portion make s %ort a b5d t !y resemble a claw r ?an a spiral w+4 ,! spectrum ( ?is clu/]1 l t ( _m objects ( its class1 is cont9u\s1 ) ! r$ end defici5t4 ,a little to ! nor?-ea/ ( ?is object is f\nd ! clu/] ,no4 #d1bid1 :i*1 al?\gh small] & less bright ?an ! prec$+1 is /ill q int]e/+4 ,x appe>s z a di/9ctly globul> clu/] )\t w+s1 & mu* cond5s$ t[>ds its c5tre4 ,! />s individually recogniz$ 9 x1 al?\gh less bright ?an ^? ( ! o!r clu/]1 are s v curi\sly di/ribut$ 9 curv$ l9es t !y give a peculi> appe>ance to ?is cond5s$ region4 ,a little to ! nor? ( ,c5tauri may be f\nd ! great ,c5tauri clu/]1 ,no4 #c1eca1 already ref]r$ to above4 ,?is magnific5t object1 :i* appe>s z a blaz+ globe #bj' 9 diamet]1 is1 accord+ to ,h]s*el1 ! ri*e/ 9 ! sky1 & is resolv$ into a c\ntless numb] ( />s f ! twelf? to ! fifte5? magnitude1 :i* are greatly compress$ t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,! l>g] />s are s arrang$ z to =m a sort ( net-"w1 ) two d>k spaces 9 ! middle4 ,! great globul> clu/] ,no4 #eb1 involv$ 9 ! less] ,magellanic cl\d1 9 ! con/ellation ,t\can1 is a beautiful & rem>kable object4 ,x is compos$ ( ?ree di/9ct1 conc5tric lay]s ( />s1 v>y+ 9 brightness & 9 degree ( cond5sation 9 ea* lay]4 ,! c5tral mass1 :i* is ! l>ge/ & mo/ brilliant1 is compos$ ( an imm5se numb] ( />s greatly compress$1 ^: r$di% color gives to ?is blaz+ circle a spl5did appe>ance4 ,ar\nd ! sp>kl+ c5tre is a broad circle1 compos$ ( less compress$ />s1 ?is circle be+ itself involv$ 9 ano!r circul> lay]1 :]e ! />s are fa9t] & m scatt]$ & gradually fade away4 ,_m o!r great globul> clu/]s are f\nd 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! heav5s1 among :i* may be m5tion$ ! clu/] ,no4 #d1fgh1 9 ,aqu>ius4 ,?is object is compos$ ( sev]al ?\s& />s ( ! fifte5? magnitude1 greatly cond5s$ t[>ds ! c5tre1 &1 z rem>k$ by ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el1 s9ce ! brightness ( ?is clu/] does n exce$ t ( a /> ( ! six? magnitude1 x foll[s t 9 ?is case sev]al ?\s& />s ( ! fifte5? magnitude equal only a /> ( ! six? magnitude4 ,9 ! con/ellation ,s]p5s ! globul> clu/]s ,no4 #d1jhc & ,no4 #d1aah are bo? conspicu\s objects1 also ,no4 #d1fhg 9 ,capricornus4 ,9 ,scutum ,sobieskii ! clu/] ,no4 #d1dcg is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ?is region4 ,! />s compos+ x1 :i* are q l>ge & easily made out sep>ately1 =m v>i\s figures1 9 :i* ! squ>e pr$om9ates4 ,among ! loose irregul> clu/]s1 "s are v rem>kable = ! curi\s arrangem5t ( _! />s4 ,9 ! con/ellation ,gem9i ! clu/] ,no4 #a1cfj1 :i* is visible to ! nak$ eye1 is a magnific5t object se5 ?r\gh ! telescope1 9 :i* its sp>kl+ />s =m curves & fe/oons ( great elegance4 ,! clu/] ,no4 #a1dfg1 ( ! same con/ellation1 is rem>kable = its triangul> =m4 ,9 ! con/ellation ,ara ! clu/] ,no4 #d1bcc1 compos$ ( loosely scatt]$ />s1 =m+ v>i\s l9es & curves1 is enclos$ on ?ree sides by ne>ly /raight s+le l9es ( />s4 ,9 ,scorpio ! clu/] ,no4 #d1bbd is /ill m curi\s1 be+ compos$ ( a cont9u\s r+ ( loosely scatt]$ />s1 inside ( :i* is a r\nd1 loose clu/]1 :i* is divid$ into f\r p>ts by a d>k cross-%ap$ gap1 9 :i* no />s are visible4 ,among ! #a1jcd objects :i* are n[ classifi$ z clu/]s m or less resolvable1 #efe h be5 absolutely resolv$ into />s1 & #dfi h be5 only p>tly resolv$1 b are consid]$ z belong+ to ?is class ( objects4 ,9 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el's catalogue !re are #ajb clu/]s :i* are ,consid]$ z be+ globul>2 among !m #cj h be5 positively resolv$ into />s4 ,! agglom]ation ( ?\s&s ( />s into a globul> clu/] _c be conceiv$1 ( c\rse1 to be simply ! result ( *ance4 ,?is globul> =m seems cle>ly to indicate ! exi/5ce ( "s bond ( union1 "s g5]al attractive =ce act+ betwe5 ! diff]5t memb]s ( ^! sy/ems1 :i* keeps !m toge!r1 & cond5ses !m t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,h]s*el reg>ds ! loose1 irregul> clu/]s z sy/ems 9 a less advanc$ /age ( cond5sation1 b gradually conc5trat+ by _! mutual attraction into ! globul> =m4 ,al?\gh ! />s ( "s globul> clu/]s appe> v close toge!r1 !y are n necess>ily s1 & may be sep>at$ by great int]vals ( space4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! clu/]s are agglom]ation ( suns1 & t our ,sun itself is a memb] ( a clu/] compos$ ( sev]al hundr$s ( suns1 al?\gh1 f our po9t ( obs]vation1 ^! d n seem v close toge!r4 ,s f> z kn[n1 ! ne>e/ /> to u is a ,c5tauri1 b its di/ance f ! ,e>? equals #bba1jjj times ! di/ance ( ! ,sun f our globe1 a di/ance :i* _c be trav]s$ by light 9 less ?an ?ree ye>s & five mon?s4 ,x seems v probable t if ! suns compos+ ! globul> clu/]s appe> s ne> toge!r1 x is because1 9 ! fir/ place1 !y are at imm5se di/ances f u1 & 9 ! second1 because !y appe> ne>ly 9 a l9e ) o!r suns1 :i* are at a /ill great] di/ance f u1 & on :i* !y accord+ly are ne>ly project$4 ,if "o %\ld imag9e himself plac$ at ! c5tre ( ! clu/] 9 ,h]cules1 = in/ance1 ! />s1 :i* f our ,e>? seems to be s closely gr\p$1 w\ld !n q likely appe> v loosely scatt]$ ar\nd him 9 ! sky1 & w\ld resemble ! fix$ />s z se5 f our t]re/rial /ation4 ,judg+ by _! loose & irregul> di/ribution1 ! easily resolvable clu/]s w\ld appe>1 9 g5]al1 to be ! ne>] to u4 ,x is probable t ! globul> clu/]s d n possess1 to a v great degree1 ! regul> =m :i* !y ord9>ily pres5t to u4 ,x seems r m natural to inf] t !y are irregul>1 & compos$ ( _m w+s & bran*es1 su* z are obs]v$ 9 ! clu/] 9 ,h]cules2 b z ^! app5dages w\ld necess>ily be mu* poor] 9 />s ?an ! c5tral portions1 !y w\ld be likely to become invisible at a great di/ance1 & !re=e ! object w\ld appe> m or less globul>2 ! globul> =m be+ simply giv5 by ! close gr\p+ ( ! />s 9 ! c5tral portion4 ,x w\ld seem1 !n1 t 9 g5]al1 ! mo/ loosely scatt]$ & irregul> clu/]s are ! ne>e/ to u1 :ile ! smalle/ globul> clu/]s & ^? resolvable ) mo/ difficulty are ! mo/ di/ant4 ,9 accordance ) ! !ory t ! clu/]s are compos$ ( />s1 ! spectrum ( ^! objects is 9 g5]al cont9u\s2 al?\gh1 9 _m cases1 ! r$ end ( ! spectrum is ei!r v fa9t or altoge!r want+4 ,_m objects pres5t+ 9 a v high degree ! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics exhibit$ by ! true />-clu/]s1 namely1 a circul> or oval mass1 ^: lum9\s int5sity is greatly cond5s$ t[>d ! c5tre1 h n yield$1 h[ev]1 to ! resolv+ p[] ( ! l>ge/ telescopes1 al?\gh _! cont9u\s spectrum is 9 close agreem5t ) _! g5]al resemblance to ! />-clu/]s4 ,al?\gh su* objects may rema9 irresolvable =ev]1 yet x is highly probable t !y d n mat]ially diff] f ! resolvable & p>tly resolvable clu/]s1 except by _! enorm\s di/ance f u1 :i* probably rea*es ! extreme b\nd>y ( our visible univ]se4 ,,! ,,nebul ,,plate ,,xv ,besides ! foggy1 lum9\s pat*es :i* h j be5 describ$1 a few hazy spots ( a diff]5t k9d are also visible to ! nak$ eye on any cle>1 moonless night4 ,^! objects ma9ly diff] f ! =m] 9 ?is p>ticul>1 t :5 view$ ?r\gh ! l>ge/ telescopes 9 exi/5ce !y are n resolv$ into />s1 b /ill reta9 ! same cl\dy appe>ance :i* !y pres5t to ! unassi/$ eye4 ,on acc\nt ( ! mi/y & vapor\s appe>ance :i* !y exhibit1 ^! objects h be5 call$ ,nebul4 ,( ! #bf nebul\s objects visible to ! nak$ eye 9 ! :ole heav5s1 #ai belong to ! class ( />-clu/]s1 & #g to ! class ( nebul4 ,among ! mo/ conspicu\s nebul visible to ! unassi/$ eye1 are ^? 9 ! con/ellations ,argo ,navis1 ,&rom$a & ,orion4 ,besides ! sev5 nebul visible to ! nak$ eye1 a great numb] ( simil> objects are visible ?r\gh ! telescope4 ,9 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's catalogue ( nebul & clu/]s1 are f\nd #d1jec irresolvable nebul1 & ) e increase ( ! ap]ture ( telescopes1 new nebul1 invisible 9 small] in/rum5ts1 are f\nd4 ,not)/&+ _! irresolvability x is probable1 h[ev]1 t _m among !m h a /ell> /ructure1 :i* _! imm5se di/ance prev5ts u f recogniz+1 & are n !re=e true nebul4 ,! giant telescope ( ,"l ,rosse has %[n nebul s remote t x has be5 e/imat$ t x takes _! light #cj million ye>s to rea* ! ,e>?4 ,! nebul are v f> f be+ uni=mly di/ribut$ 9 space4 ,9 "s regions !y are r>e1 :ile 9 o!rs !y are num]\s & cr[d$ toge!r1 =m+ _m small1 irregul> gr\ps1 diff]+ 9 size & 9 ri*ness ( aggregation4 ,! gr\p+ ( ! nebul does n occur at r&om 9 any "p ( ! heav5s1 z might naturally be suppos$1 b1 on ! contr>y1 x is *iefly conf9$ to c]ta9 regions4 ,outside ( ^! regions nebul are r>e & are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by imm5se int]vals2 s t ^! isolat$ objects appe> z if !y 7 lo/ w&]]s f ! great nebul\s sy/ems4 ,! regions :]e ! nebul congregate 9 great numb] are v ext5sive1 & 9 a g5]al view !re are two va/ sy/ems ( nebul> agglom]ation1 occupy+ almo/ opposite po9ts ( ! heav5s1 ^: c5tres are n v di/ant f ! poles ( ! ,milky-way4 ,9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ! nebul\s sy/em is mu* ri*] & m cond5s$ ?an 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,! nor!rn nebul are pr9cipally conta9$ 9 ! con/ellations ,ursa ,m9or & ,major1 9 ,draco1 ,canes ,v5atici1 ,bootes1 ,leo ,major & ,m9or1 ,coma ,b]5ices1 & ,virgo4 ,9 ?is region1 :i* occupies ab\t ( ! :ole surface ( ! heav5s1 ( ! kn[n nebul are assembl$4 ,! s\!rn nebul are m ev5ly di/ribut$ & less num]\s1 ) ! exception ( two comp>atively small1 b v rem>kable c5tres ( cond5sation :i*1 toge!r ) _m />-clu/]s1 con/itute ! ,magellanic cl\ds4 ,^! two va/ nebul> gr\ps are by no means regul> 9 outl9e1 & s5d v>i\s bran*es t[>d ea* o!r4 ,!y are sep>at$ by a wide & v irregul> belt1 comp>atively free f nebul1 :i* encircles ! cele/ial sph]e1 & ^: m$ial l9e approximately co9cides ) t ( ! galactic belt4 ,! ,milky-way1 s ri* 9 />-clu/]s1 is v b>r5 9 nebul2 b x is a v rem>kable fact1 nev]!less1 t almo/ all ! brighte/1 l>ge/1 & mo/ complicat$ nebul ( ! heav5s are situat$ ei!r )9 x1 or 9 its imm$iate vic9ity4 ,su* are ! great nebul 9 ,orion & ,&rom$a2 ! nebula ( ,orionis2 ! ,r+ nebula 9 ,lyra2 ! bifurcate nebula 9 ,cygnus2 ! ,dumb-bell nebula 9 ,vulpecula2 ! ,fan1 ,horse-%oe1 ,trifid & ,w+$ nebul 9 ,sagitt>ius2 ! great nebula ar\nd ,argus ,navis1 & ! ,crab nebula 9 ,taurus4 ,aside f ! discov]y ( "s ( ! l>ge/ nebul by diff]5t obs]v]s1 & _! subsequ5t arrangem5t 9 catalogues by ,lacaille & ,messi]1 v little _h be5 done t[>ds ! /udy ( ^! objects be=e #aggi1 :5 ,sir ,w4 ,h]s*el began to obs]ve !m ) ! e>ne/ness ( purpose :i* 0 "o ( ! di/9ctive po9ts ( ! "* ( ?is great man4 ,he successively publi%$ ?ree catalogues 9 #aghf1 #aghi1 & #ahjb1 9 :i* ! position ( #b1ejj nebul\s objects 0 giv54 ,?is numb] 0 m ?an d\bl$ be=e #ahfd1 :5 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el publi%$ 8 catalogue ( #e1jgi nebul & />-clu/]s4 ,to ?is long li/ mu/ be add$ sev]al hundr$ simil> objects1 s9ce discov]$ by ,d',arre/1 ,/ephan1 ,g\ld & o!rs4 ,b1 z has be5 %[n above1 among ! s-call$ nebul are _m />-clu/]s :i* d n prop]ly belong to ! same class ( objects1 x be+ sometimes impossible 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k to "k :e!r a nebul\s object belongs to "o class or to ! o!r4 ,! nebul exhibit a great v>iety ( =ms & appe>ances1 &1 9 accordance ) _! mo/ typical *>act]s1 !y are usually divid$ into sev]al classes1 :i* are3 ! ,nebul\s />s1 ! ,circul>1 or ,planet>y1 ! ,elliptical1 ! ,annul>1 ! ,spiral & ,irregul> nebul4 ,,plate ,,xv4--,,! ,,great ,,nebula ,,9 ,,orion4 ,f a /udy made 9 ! ye>s #ahge-gf ,! s-call$ nebul\s />s consi/ ( a fa9t nebulosity1 usually circul>1 surr\nd+ a bright & %>p />1 :i* g5]ally occupies its c5tre4 ,! nebulosity surr\nd+ ^! />s v>ies 9 brightness z well z 9 ext5t1 & :ile1 9 g5]al1 its light gradually fades away1 x sometimes t]m9ates q sudd5ly4 ,su* nebulosities are usually bright] & m cond5s$ t[>ds ! c5tral />4 ,! />s ?us surr\nd$ d n seem1 h[ev]1 to be di/+ui%$ f o!rs by any additional peculi>ity4 ,"s nebul ( ?is k9d are r\nd1 ) "o /> 9 ! c5tre2 o!rs are oval & h two />s1 "o at ea* ( _! foci4 ,! nebul\s />1 ,orionis1 repres5t$ at ! upp] "p ( ,plate ,,xv41 above ! great nebula1 has a bright /> at its c5tre & two small] ones on ! side4 ,! association ( d\ble />s ) nebul is v rem>kable1 & may 9 "s cases indicate a mutual relation betwe5 !m4 ,! s-call$ planet>y nebul d]ive _! "n f _! lik5ess to ! planets1 :i* !y resemble 9 a m or less equable di/ribution ( light & 9 _! r\nd or slightly oval =m4 ,:ile "s ( !m h edges comp>atively %>p & well def9$1 ! outl9es ( o!rs are m hazy & diffus$4 ,^! nebul1 :i* are frequ5tly ( a blui% t9t1 are comp>atively r>e objects1 & mo/ ( ^? kn[n belong to ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,:5 se5 ?r\gh l>ge telescopes1 h[ev]1 !y pres5t a diff]5t aspect1 & _! app>5t uni=mity *anges4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! objects1 ,no4 #b1cdc ( ! ,g5]al ,catalogue1 is situat$ 9 ! ,great ,be>1 close to ! /> 4 ,its app>5t diamet] is1 accord+ to ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el1 #b'1 #dj1 & its light is equable1 except at ! edge1 :]e x is a little hazy4 ,9 a /udy :i* ,i made ( ?is object 9 #ahgf1 ) a refractor #f in*es 9 ap]ture1 ,i f\nd x decid$ly bright] on ! prec$+ side1 :]e ! brighte/ "p is cresc5t %ap$4 ,9 ,"l ,rosse's telescope its disk is trans=m$ into a lum9\s r+ ) a fr+$ bord]1 & two small />-l cond5sations are f\nd )94 ,ano!r planet>y nebula1 ne> ,&rom$1 has also %[n an annul> /ructure 9 ,rosse's telescope4 ,! elliptical nebul1 z _! "n implies1 are elongat$1 elliptical objects2 b :ile "s ( !m are only slightly elongat$ ovals1 o!rs =m ellipses ^: ecc5tricity is s great t !y appe> almo/ l9e>4 ,9 all ^! objects ! light is m or less cond5s$ t[>ds ! c5tre2 b :ile 9 "s ( !m ! cond5sation is gradual & slight1 9 o!rs x is s great & sudd5 t ! c5tre ( ! nebula appe>s z a l>ge diffus$ />1 some:at resembl+ ! nucleus ( a comet4 ,f ! g5]al appe>ance ( ^! objects1 x is n unlikely t "s ( !m are ei!r flatti%1 nebul\s disks1 l ! planet>y nebul1 or nebul\s r+s1 se5 m or less sidewise4 ,! cond5sation ( light at _! c5tres does n appe> to be /ell>1 b nebul\s l ! re/1 & x is a rem>kable fact t v few1 if any1 ( ^! objects are resolvable into />s4 ,sev]al elliptical nebul are rem>kable = hav+ a /> at or ne> ea* ( _! foci1 or at ea* ( _! extremities4 ,su* are ! elliptical nebul 9 ,draco1 ,c5taurus1 & ,sagitt>ius1 ,nos4 #d1dai1 #c1gjf & #d1cie ( ! ,g5]al ,catalogue1 ! la/ ( :i* is 9 ! vic9ity ( ! triple /> ,sagit>ii4 ,ea* ( ^! nebul has a /> at ea* ( its foci1 :ile ,no4 #a1 9 ,cetus1 has a /> at ea* ( its extremities4 ,among ! mo/ rem>kable elliptic nebul may be m5tion$ ,nos4 #a1hfa & #b1cgc ( ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el's catalogue1 bo? situat$ 9 ! con/ellation ,leo4 ,! fir/ is "o ( ,"l ,rosse's spiral nebul1 & ! la/1 :i* is a v elongat$ object1 is =m$ ( conc5tric oval r+s1 :i* are especially visible t[>ds its c5tral "p4 ,! con/ellation ,draco is p>ticul>ly rem>kable = ! numb] ( elliptical nebul f\nd )9 its b\nd>ies4 ,among !m are ,nos4 #c1ici1 #d1jeh1 #d1jfd1 #d1jhg1 #d1dae1 etc41 :i* are q rem>kable objects ( _! class4 ,no4 #d1jeh1 ( :i* ,i h made a /udy1 is bright1 & has a decid$ l5ticul> =m ) a cond5sation 9 ! c5tre4 ,its foll[+ edge is bett] def9$ ?an ! prec$+4 ,9 ,"l ,rosse's telescope ?is object exhibits a n>r[1 d>k1 longitud9al1 gap 9 its int]ior4 ,by f> ! l>ge/ & ! f9e/ object ( ?is class is ! great nebula 9 ,&rom$a4 ,al?\gh ?is object belongs r to ! class ( irregul> nebul1 yet x is g5]ally consid]$ z an elliptic nebula1 s9ce its complicat$ /ructure1 be+ less prom95t1 0 n recogniz$ until #ahdh1 :5 x 0 p]ceiv$ by ,george ,p4 ,bond1 ,director ( ! ,h>v>d ,college ,obs]vatory4 ,?is1 ! fir/ nebula discov]$1 0 f\nd 9 #afab by ,simon ,m>ius4 ,x is situat$ 9 ! con/ellation ,&rom$a1 9 ! vic9ity ( ! /> 1 & almo/ 9 a l9e ) ! />s & ( ! same con/ellation4 ,x is visible to ! nak$ eye1 & appe>s z a fa9t comet-l object4 ,x is repres5t$ at ! upp] left h& corn] ( ,plate ,,xiii41 on ! bord] ( ! ,milky-way1 z x appe>s to ! nak$ eye4 ,! nebula 9 ,&rom$a is "o ( ! brighte/ 9 ! heav5s1 & is closely att5d$ by two small] nebul4 ,p]haps x w\ld be r m correct to say t x has ?ree c5tres ( cond5sation1 z ! two small nebul ref]r$ to are entirely involv$ 9 ! same fa9t & ext5sive nebulosity4 ,its g5]al =m is t ( an irregul> oval1 upw>ds ( "o degree 9 bread? & two & a half degrees 9 l5g?4 ,its brighte/ & mo/ prom95t "p1 :i* alone 0 se5 by ! e>li] obs]v]s1 consi/s 9 a v elongat$ l5ticul> mass1 :i* gradually cond5ses t[>ds its c5tre into a blaz+1 />-l nucleus1 surr\nd$ by a brilliant nebul\s mass4 ,at a little di/ance to ! s\? ( ?is c5tral cond5sation is f\nd "o ( ! less] c5tres ( cond5sation not$ above1 :i* is globul> 9 appe>ance1 ) a bright1 />-l nucleus l ! =m]4 ,! o!r c5tre ( cond5sation is f\nd to ! nor?-we/ ( ! c5tre ( ! pr9cipal mass1 & is q elongat$1 ) a c5tre ( cond5sation t[>ds its s\!rn extremity1 b x is n s bright z ! o!rs4 ,close to ! we/]n edge ( ! bright l5ticul> mass fir/ describ$1 & mak+ a v slight angle ) its long] axis1 are f\nd two n>r[ & ne>ly rectil9e> d>k rifts1 runn+ almo/ p>allel to ea* o!r1 & bo? t]m9at+ 9 a sl5d] po9t 9 ! s\?4 ,^! d>k rifts1 :i* are almo/ totally devoid ( nebul\s matt]1 are q r>e 9 nebul1 & af=d a good opportunity to wat* ! *anges :i* ?is "p ( ! nebul may und]go4 ,?is nebula has nev] be5 positively resolv$ into />s1 al?\gh ,pr(4 ,geo4 ,bond & o!rs h /rongly suspect$ its resolvability4 ,9 a /udy :i* ,i h made ( x1 ) ! same in/rum5t employ$ by ,bond1 & also ) ! great ,wa%+ton telescope1 ,i detect$ a decid$ mottl$ appe>ance 9 sev]al places1 :i* might be attributable to a beg9n+ ( resolvability2 b ,i d n consid] ?is a conclusive indication t ! nebula is resolvable4 ,! cont9u\s spectrum giv5 by ?is nebula1 %[+ t x is n 9 ! gase\s /ate :i* its appe>ance seems to indicate1 w>rants ! conclusion1 h[ev]1 t x w ultimately be f\nd to be resolvable4 ,?is object1 be+ situat$ on ! edge ( ! ,galaxy & involv$ 9 its diffus$ light1 has a great numb] ( small />s belong+ to ?is belt project$ ^u x4 ,dur+ my obs]vations ,i h mapp$ out #a1cbc ( ^! />s1 none ( :i* seems to be 9 physical connection ) ! nebula4 ,among ! circul> & elliptical nebul a few exhibit a v rem>kable /ructure1 be+ app>5tly p]=at$1 & =m+ ei!r r\nd1 slightly oval1 or elongat$ r+s ( great beauty4 ,^! ,annul> nebul are among ! r>e/ objects 9 ! heav5s4 ,9 ,scorpio1 two su* nebul are f\nd involv$ 9 ! ,milky-way1 & also "o 9 ,cygnus4 ,"o ( ^? 9 ,scorpio has two />s involv$ )9 its r+1 at ! extremities ( its smalle/ int]ior diamet]4 ,a v elongat$ nebula 9 ! vic9ity ( ! f9e triple /> ,&rom$ is also annul>1 & has two />s symmetrically plac$ at ! extremities ( its greate/ int]ior axis4 ,ano!r elongat$ annul> nebula is also f\nd nor? ( ,pegasi4 ,! gr&e/ & mo/ rem>kable ( ! annul> nebul is f\nd 9 ! con/ellation ,lyra1 ab\t midway betwe5 ! two />s & 4 ,x is slightly elliptical 9 =m1 & accord+ to ,pr(4 ,e4 ,s4 ,hold51 its major axis is #gg4c & ! m9or #eh4 ,f a /udy & sev]al draw+s :i* ,i h made ( ?is object1 ) in/rum5ts ( v>i\s ap]tures1 ,i h f\nd x decid$ly bright] t[>ds its out] bord]1 at ! extremities ( its m9or axis1 ?an at ! ends ( ! major axis4 ,on v favorable occasions1 "s ( its brighte/ p>ts h appe>$ decid$ly1 b v fa9tly mottl$1 & ,i h recogniz$ ?ree small c5tres ( cond5sation4 ,its int]ior1 9 :i* ,pr(essor ,hold5 has detect$ a v fa9t />1 is q /rongly nebul\s4 ,9 ,"l ,rosse's telescope1 ?is nebula is completely surr\nd$ by wisps & app5dages ( all sorts ( =ms1 :i* ,i h fail$ to trace1 h[ev]1 bo? ) ! refractor ( ! ,h>v>d ,college ,obs]vatory & ) t ( ! ,naval ,obs]vatory at ,wa%+ton2 ,rosse1 ,sec*i & ,*acornac1 h se5 ?is nebula glitt]+ z if x 7 a heap ( /> du/1 al?\gh its spectrum indicates t x is gase\s4 ,! nebula ,no4 #a1eda1 9 ,camelop>dus1 ( :i* ,i h also made a /udy & a draw+1 is closely alli$ to ! class ( annul> nebul4 ,?is object1 :i* is q bright1 has a rem>kable appe>ance4 ,x consi/s pr9cipally ( some:at m ?an half ( an oval r+1 surr\nd+ a bright1 nebul\s mass :i* cond5ses ar\nd a />2 ?is mass be+ sep>at$ f ! imp]fect r+ by a d>k int]val4 ,^u ! bright portion ( ! r+1 & on opposite po9ts1 are f\nd two bright />s1 betwe5 :i* lies ! /> occupy+ ! c5tral mass4 ,! c5tral mass ext5ds at "s di/ance outside ( ! r+ on its op5 side4 ,sev]al />s are involv$ 9 ?is object4 ,! ,spiral nebul are v curi\s & complicat$ objects1 b !y are visible only 9 ! l>ge/ telescopes4 ,prom95t above all is ! d\ble spiral nebula ,no4 #c1egb1 9 ,canes ,v5atici1 :i* is n f> f ,ursa ,majoris4 ,9 ,"l ,rosse's telescope1 ?is object pres5ts a wond]ful spiral disposition1 look+ some:at l "o ( ! fire-works call$ p9-:eels1 & =m+ long1 curv$ wisps1 div]g+ f two bright c5tres4 ,! spectrum ( ?is object1 h[ev]1 is n t ( a gas4 ,9 ! con/ellation ,virgo1 ,rosse has detect$ ano!r su* nebula4 ,9 ,cepheus1 ,triangulum1 & ,ursa ,major1 are f\nd o!r spiral nebul ( small] size4 ,"l ,rosse has recogniz$ #dj spiral nebul & suspect$ a simil> /ructure 9 #cj o!rs4 ,! class ( ! ,irregul> nebul1 :i* w be n[ consid]$1 diff]s greatly 9 "* f ! o!rs1 & includes ! l>ge/1 ! brighte/ & ! mo/ extraord9>y nebul 9 ! heav5s4 ,! nebul ( ?is class diff] f ^? belong+ to ! o!r classes by a want ( symmetry 9 _! =m & 9 ! di/ribution ( _! light1 z well z by _! caprici\s %apes1 & _! v complicat$ /ructure4 ,ano!r & p]haps ! pr9cipal diff]5ce betwe5 !m & ! objects above describ$1 consi/s 9 ! rem>kable fact already /at$1 t !y are n1 except 9 r>e cases1 to be f\nd 9 ! regions :]e ! o!r nebul ab\nd4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y are f\nd 9 or v ne> ! ,milky-way1 precisely :]e ! o!r nebul are ! mo/ r>e4 ,?is fact1 recogniz$ by ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el1 l$ him to consid] !m z outly+1 v di/ant1 & z x 7 deta*$ fragm5ts ( ! great /ratum ( ! ,galaxy4 ,x seems v probable t ! reason :y ^! objects diff] s greatly f ! o!r nebul 9 size1 brightness & complication ( /ructure1 is simply because !y are mu* ne>] to u ?an are mo/ ( ! o!rs4 ,!y are p]haps nebul\s memb]s ( our ,galaxy4 ,! same rem>k :i* has be5 made ( />-clu/]s may be appli$ to nebul4 ,! ne>] !y are to u1 ! l>g]1 ! bright] & ! m complicat$ !y w appe>1 :ile ! f>!r !y are remov$1 ! m simple & regul> & r\nd !y w appe>1 only _! brighte/ & deepe/ p>ts be+ !n visible4 ,! ,crab ,nebula ( ,"l ,rosse1 ne> ,tauri1 ,no4 #a1aeg1 is "o ( ! int]e/+ objects ( ?is class4 ,x has curi\s app5dages /ream+ (f f an oval1 lum9\s mass1 :i* give x a di/ant resemblance to ! animal f :i* x d]ives its "n4 ,! ,bifid nebula 9 ,cygnus1 ,nos4 #d1djj & #d1faf1 is ano!r object ( ?is class4 ,x consi/s ( a long1 n>r[1 crook$ /reak1 =k+ out at sev]al places1 & pass+ ?r\gh ,cygni4 ,obs]v]s1 hav+ fail$ to recognize ! connection exi/+ betwe5 its diff]5t c5tres ( brightness1 h made di/9ct nebul ( ?is ext5d$ object4 ,! ,dumb-bell nebula 9 ,vulpecula1 ,no4 #d1ecb1 is a bright & curi\s object1 ) a g5]al resemblance to ! in/rum5t f :i* x d]ives its "n4 ,"l ,rosse's telescope has %[n _m />s 9 x1 project$ on a nebul\s backgr\nd1 & ,pr(4 ,bond seems to h ?\ght t x %[$ traces ( resolvability1 al?\gh 9 ! /udy :i* ,i made ( ?is nebula ) ! same in/rum5t us$ by ! latt] obs]v]1 ,i fail$ to p]ceive any su* traces4 ,dr4 ,hugg9s f9ds its spectrum gase\s4 ,! />-clu/]1 ,no4 #d1djj1 9 ,scutum ,sobieskii1 :i* is describ$ by ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el z a loose clu/] ( at lea/ #ajj />s1 ,i h f\nd to be involv$ 9 an ext5sive1 al?\gh n v bright1 nebula1 :i* w\ld seem to h escap$ 8 scrut9y4 ,9 a /udy & draw+ ( ?is nebula made 9 #ahgf1 its g5]al =m is t ( an op5 fan1 ) ! exception t ! h&le is want+1 ) deeply ind5t$ bran*es on ! prec$+ side1 :]e ! brighte/ />s ( ! clu/] are gr\p$4 ,f its peculi> =m1 ?is object might appropriately be call$ ! ,fan nebula4 ,! ,omega or ,horse-%oe nebula1 9 ,sagitt>ius1 ,no4 #d1djc1 ( :i* ,i h made a /udy & two draw+s1 "o ) a refractor #f in*es 9 ap]ture1 & ! o!r conjo9tly ) ,pr(4 ,hold51 ) ! great telescope ( ! ,naval ,obs]vatory1 is a bright & v complicat$ object4 ,its g5]al appe>ance 9 small in/rum5ts1 ) l[ p[]1 is t ( a long1 n>r[ pisci=m mass ( light1 f :i* proce$s on ! prec$+ side1 ! great d\ble loop f :i* x d]ives its "n4 ,b 9 ! great ,wa%+ton refractor its /ructure becomes v complicat$1 =m+ v>i\s bright nebul\s masses & wisps ( great ext5sion4 ,pr(4 ,hold51 :o has made a c>eful1 comp>ative /udy ( ! publi%$ draw+s ( ?is object1 ?9ks !re are reasons to believe t its we/]n bran* has mov$ relatively to ! />s f\nd )9 its loop4 ,! spectrum ( ?is nebula is gase\s4 ,! ,trifid nebula1 ,no4 #d1cee1 9 ! same con/ellation1 is also a v rem>kable object1 al?\gh x is n s bright z ! la/4 ,?is nebula1 :i* ,i h /udi$ ) ! refractor ( ! ,cambridge ,obs]vatory1 consi/s ( f\r pr9cipal masses ( light1 sep>at$ by a wide & irregul> gap bran*+ out 9 sev]al places4 ,^! masses1 :i* are bright] along ! d>k gap1 gradually fade away ext]nally4 ,a gr\p ( />s1 two ( :i* are q bright1 is f\nd ne> ! c5tre ( ! nebula1 on ! inn] edge ( ! foll[+ mass1 & close to ! pr9cipal bran* ( ! d>k *annel4 ,a little to ! nor?1 & app>5tly =m+ a "p ( ?is nebula1 is a globul>-look+ nebula1 hav+ a pale yell[ /> at its c5tre4 ,pr(4 ,hold5's /udies on ?is nebula %[ t ! triple />1 :i* 0 c5trally situat$ 9 ! d>k gap f #aghd to #ahcc1 0 f\nd involv$ 9 ! bord] ( ! nebul\s mass foll[+ x1 f #ahci to #ahgg2 ! *ange1 he ?9ks1 is attributable ei!r to ! prop] motion ( ! gr\p ( />s or to t ( ! nebula itself4 ,9 ! same vic9ity is f\nd ! spl5did & v ext5sive nebula ,no4 #d1cfa1 9 :i* is involv$ a loose1 b v brilliant />-clu/]4 ,?is nebula & clu/]1 :i* ,i h /udi$ & drawn ) a #f in* telescope1 is v complicat$ 9 /ructure1 & divid$ by a d>k irregul> gap into ?ree pr9cipal masses ( light1 cond5s+ at "o po9t ar\nd a />1 & at o!rs =m+ long1 bright1 g5tly-curv$ bran*es1 :i* give to ?is object a /rong resemblance to ! w+s ( a bird :5 ext5d$ upw>ds 9 ! action ( fly+4 ,f ?is peculi>ity ?is object might appropriately be call$ ! ,w+$ nebula4 ,its spectrum is t ( a gas4 ,! v>iable /> ,argus is completely surr\nd$ by ! great nebula ( ! same "n1 ,no4 #b1aig1 fir/ del9eat$ by ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el1 dur+ 8 resid5ce at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 9 #ahch4 ,?is object1 :i* cov]s m ?an ( a squ>e degree1 is divid$ into ?ree unequal masses1 sep>at$ by d>k oval spots1 comp>atively free f nebulosity1 & is suspect$ to h und]gone *anges s9ce ,h]s*el's "t4 ,9 ! same field ) ! d\ble />1 ,orionis1 ! mo/ ea/]ly ( ! ?ree bright />s 9 ! belt ( ,orion1 is f\nd ano!r irregul> nebula ( ! ,trifid type4 ,f ! draw+s :i* ,i h made ( ?is object1 x appe>s to be compos$ ( ?ree pr9cipal unequal masses1 sep>at$ by a wide1 irregul>1 d>k *annel1 two ( ! masses be+ q complicat$ 9 /ructure1 & =m+ curv$1 nebul\s /reams ( consid]able l5g? & bread?4 ,?is nebula1 l ! next to be describ$1 seems to be connect$ ) ! ,galaxy by ! great galactic loop describ$ 9 ano!r section4 ,by f> ! mo/ conspicu\s irregul> nebula visible f our nor!rn ,/ates1 is ! great nebula 9 ,orion1 ,no4 #a1agi1 repres5t$ on ,plate ,,xv4 ,?is object1 visible to ! nak$ eye1 is ! brighte/ & ! mo/ wond]ful nebula 9 ! heav5s4 ,x is situat$ a little to ! s\? ( ! ?ree bright />s 9 ! belt ( ,orion1 & may be readily detect$ surr\nd+ ! /> 1 situat$ betwe5 & 9 a l9e ) two fa9t />s1 ! ?ree be+ 9 a /raight l9e :i* po9ts directly t[>ds 1 ! middle /> ( ! ?ree 9 ,orion's belt4 ,! area occupi$ by ?is nebula is ab\t equal to t occupi$ by ! ,moon4 ,9 its brighte/ p>ts ! nebula 9 ,orion appe>s z a lum9\s cl\d ( a p5tagonal =m1 f :i* issue _m lum9\s app5dages ( v>i\s %apes & l5g?s4 ,?is pr9cipal mass is divid$ into second>y masses1 sep>at$ by d>ki%1 irregul> int]vals4 ,^! second>y masses 9 _! turn appe> mottl$ & fleecy4 ,t[>ds ! l[] "p ( ! p5tagonal mass is f\nd a r\ndi% d>k space1 comp>atively devoid ( nebulosity1 9 :i* are involv$ f\r bright />s =m+ a trapezium1 & sev]al fa9t] ones4 ,! f\r bright />s ( ! trapezium con/itute ! quadruple /> ,orionis1 f :i* ! nebula has receiv$ its "n4 ,! cl\d-l p5tagonal =m is brighte/ on ! nor?-we/ ( ! trapezium1 & is surr\nd$ on ?ree sides by long1 s(t1 curv$ wisps1 fad+ ins5sibly into ! out] nebul\s mass 9 :i* !y are involv$4 ,on ! ea/ a broad1 wavy w+ spreads out1 & s5ds an important bran* s\?w>d4 ,s\?-ea/ ( ! trapezium are f\nd sev]al curi\s d>k spaces1 comp>atively devoid ( nebulosity1 especially ^? on ! ea/1 :i* give to ?is nebula a s+ul> "*4 ,close to ! nor?-ea/]n "p ( ! nebula1 or r 9 contact ) x1 is f\nd a small1 curi\sly-%ap$ nebula1 cond5s+ ar\nd a bright /> into a blaz+ nucleus4 ,f ?is c5tre x cont9ues nor?w>d 9 a n>r[ diffus$ /ream1 :i* spreads out 9 pass+ ov] ! />s c#a & c#b2 & aft] hav+ s5t %ort bran*es nor?w>d1 x curves back to ! s\? & jo9s ! ma9 nebula on ! we/ ( its />t+ po9t1 hav+ ?us =m$ a great loop :i* is n %[n on ! ,plate4 ,! nebula also =ms a loop t[>ds ! s\?1 :i* is p>tly %[n on ,plate ,,xv41 a small bran* ( :i*1 pass+ ?r\gh ,orionis1 ! nebul\s /> %[n at ! top ( ! ,plate1 & ext5d+ s\?w>d1 is n "h repres5t$4 ,on ord9>y nights ! nebula 9 ,orion is a spl5did object1 & inspires ! obs]v] ) amazem5t2 b ?is is z no?+ comp>$ ) ! gr& & magnific5t sight :i* x pres5ts dur+ ! v r>e mom5ts :5 our atmosph]e is p]fectly cle> & /eady4 ,i h se5 ?is nebula b once "u ^! favorable circum/ances1 & ,i 0 surpris$ by ! gr&eur ( ! sc5e4 ,!n c\ld be detect$ features to be se5 at no o!r "t1 & its fleecy1 flocul5t1 cl\d-l masses glitt]$ ) su* int5sity t x seem$ z if ?\s&s ( />s 7 go+ to blaze out ! next mom5t4 ,al?\gh ,i obs]v$ ! nebula "u su* favorable conditions1 & ) ! fifte5-in* refractor ( ! ,cambridge ,obs]vatory1 yet ,i 0 disappo9t$ 9 my expectations1 & di/+ui%$ no new />s or po9ts ( light1 & no?+ m ?an a v bright mass1 f9ely divid$ into m9ute blaz+ cl\dlets4 ,al?\gh ,i fail$ to resolve ?is nebula into />s1 yet ,"l ,rosse1 ,bond & ,sec*i ?\ght !y _h caught glimpses ( /> du/4 ,its spectrum1 h[ev]1 proves to be ma9ly t ( inc&esc5t gases1 probably hydrog5 & nitrog54 ,9 ! curv$ wisps f\nd 9 ?is nebula1 ,"l ,rosse & o!rs saw indications ( a spiral /ructure4 ,sev]al bright />s are f\nd scatt]$ ov] ?is nebula1 & besides ^? =m+ ! trapezium1 !re are ?ree 9 a r[1 a little to ! s\?-ea/ ( t gr\p1 :i* are q bright & rem>kable4 ,among ! />s involv$ 9 ?is nebula1 few %[ signs ( hav+ a physical connection ) x1 al?\gh x seems probable t ! gr\p ( ! trapezium is s connect$4 ,"s ( ^! />s are v>iable4 ,! small />s repres5t$ on ?is ,plate1 z on o!rs ( ! s]ies1 are some:at exagg]at$ 9 size1 z 0 unavoidable ) any process ( reproduction :i* c\ld be adopt$4 ,9 #ahaa1 ,w4 ,h]s*el 0 l$ to suspect t "s *anges _h occurr$ 9 ?is nebula1 b *anges 9 su* complicat$ & delicate objects are n easily asc]ta9$1 s9ce1 = ! mo/ "p1 we h = comp>ison ) our lat] obs]vations only co>se draw+s made by h&s unskill$ 9 del9eation4 ,al?\gh comp>atively r>e1 d\ble & multiple nebul may be f\nd 9 ! sky4 ,:5 ?is occurs1 _! con/itu5ts mo/ commonly belong to ! class ( sph]ical nebul4 ,sometimes ! compon5ts are sep>at$ & di/9ct1 at o!r times "o ( !m is project$ ^u ! o!r1 ei!r really or by ! effect ( p]spective4 ,sometimes "o is r\nd & ! o!r elongat$4 ,x is probable t :ile "s ( ^! nebul are physically associat$ & =m a sy/em1 o!rs appe> to be s only because !y happ5 to be almo/ 9 a l9e ) ! obs]v]4 ,a d\ble nebula 9 ,draco1 ,nos4 #d1abg & #d1abh1 :i* ,i h drawn1 is a fair type ( ^? :i* are sep>at$4 ,! fir/ is a globul> nebula1 & ! la/ an oval "o1 ) a /> at its c5tre4 ,! d\ble nebula1 ,nos4 #heh & #hei1 9 ,taurus1 :i* ,i h also /udi$1 is a type ( ! cases 9 :i* "o nebula is p>tly project$ on ano!r4 ,9 ?is in/ance bo? ! nebul are globul>4 ,! nebul 9 g5]al %[ v little color 9 _! light1 :i* is ord9>ily :iti% & pale4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 pres5t a decid$ blui% or gre5i% t9t4 ,! great nebula 9 ,orion has a gre5i% ca/1 & we h se5 t "s planet>y nebul are blui%4 ,x has be5 a "q :e!r nebul are *ang+4 ,x has already be5 /at$ t ,pr(4 ,hold5 believes !re is gr\nd to suspect t ! ,trifid & ,horse-%oe nebul h und]gone "s *anges4 ,a nebula ne> ,tauri has be5 lo/ & f\nd aga9 sev]al times4 ,two o!r nebul 9 ! same con/ellation h pres5t$ curi\s v>iations4 ,"o1 ne> a /> ( ! t5? magnitude1 exhibit$ v>iations ( brightness l ^? ( ! /> itself1 & = a "t disappe>$4 ,! o!r1 ne> ,tauri1 increas$ 9 brightness = ?ree mon?s1 aft] :i* x disappe>$4 ,9 #ahei ,tempel discov]$ a nebula 9 ! ,pleiades1 :i* has %[n "s fluctuations4 ,9 #ahge ,i made a long /udy ( ?is object1 & drew x c>efully a doz5 times1 b ,i 0 n able to see any *anges 9 x )9 ! two or ?ree mon?s dur+ :i* my obs]vations 7 cont9u$4 ,b on ,nov4 #bd1 #ahgf1 x 0 f\nd ( a diff]5t color1 be+ purpli% & v fa9t4 ,on ,dec4 #bc1 #ahhj1 x 0 f\nd j z bright & visible z :5 ,i drew x 9 #ahge1 & on ,oct4 #bj1 #ahha1 x appe>$ fa9t & purpli% aga91 z 9 #ahgf4 ,on ?is la/ night1 & on ^? :i* foll[$ x1 x 0 impossible = me to trace ! nebulosity z f> z 9 #ahge4 ,i consid] ?is z due to a v>iation 9 ! light ( ?is object1 :i* 9 #ahge 0 bright en\gh to be well se5 :ile ! ,moon aft] h] ,fir/ ,qu>t] 0 )9 t5 or fifte5 degrees f ! ,pleiades4 ,f ! obs]vations ( ,m4 ,laugi]1 x appe>s t "s nebul h a prop] motion1 comp>able to t ( />s4 ,f ! displacem5t ( ! l9es ( _! spectra by _! motion 9 ! l9e ( sight1 ,dr4 ,hugg9s f\nd t no nebula obs]v$ by him has a prop] motion surpass+ #be miles p] second4 ,! ,r+ nebula 9 ,lyra appe>s to move f u at ! rate ( #c miles p] second1 & t 9 ,orion rec$es ab\t #ag miles p] second4 ,! important "q arises1 are all ! irresolvable nebul 9 ! heav5s to be consid]$ z s _m />-clu/]s1 diff]+ only f !m by ! m9ut5ess ( _! compon5ts1 or _! imm5se di/ance f u2 or are !y cosmical cl\ds1 compos$ ( lum9\s vapors1 simil> to ! matt] compos+ ! heads & tails ( comets8 ,orig9ally1 ,w4 ,h]s*el1 ) _m a/ronom]s1 ?\ght t all ^! objects 7 /ell> aggregations1 too di/ant to be resolv$ into />s2 b he subsequ5tly modifi$ 8 op9ion1 & accept$ ! idea t "s ( !m are ( a gase\s nature4 ,no direct pro( t ! nebul are gase\s c\ld be obta9$1 h[ev]1 be=e ! spectroscope 0 kn[n4 ,! attempt to analyze ! light ( ! nebul ) ?is in/rum5t 0 made 9 #ahfd1 by ,dr4 ,hugg9s1 :o direct$ 8 spectroscope to ! planet>y nebula1 ,no4 #d1cgc1 9 ,draco4 ,its spectrum 0 f\nd to consi/ ( ?ree bright1 di/9ct l9es1 ! brighte/ ( :i* correspond$ ) ! /ronge/ nitrog5 l9e1 & ! feeble/ ) ! hydrog5 ,c l9e4 ,besides ^! l9es1 x gave also a v fa9t1 cont9u\s spectrum1 app>5tly due to a c5tral po9t ( cond5sation4 ,by ?is obs]vation1 ! gase\s nature ( a nebula 0 = ! fir/ "t demon/rat$4 ,dr4 ,hugg9s ?us analyz$ #gj nebul1 ( :i* "o-?ird gave a gase\s spectrum1 consi/+ ( sev]al bright l9es1 ! brighte/ ( :i* inv>iably correspond$ ) ! l9es ( nitrog54 ,! o!rs gave a cont9u\s spectrum1 ) ! r$ end usually defici5t4 ,^! results indicate t if "s ( ! s-call$ nebul are due to an aggregation ( />s1 ei!r too m9ute or too remote 9 space to be individually resolv$1 o!rs are 9 a gase\s /ate4 ,yet ! fa9t1 cont9u\s spectrum1 giv5 by "s nebul1 9 addition to _! gase\s spectra1 seems to %[ t ^! nebul h "s />s or matt] 9 a diff]5t /ate1 ei!r involv$ 9 !m or project$ on _! surface4 ,! idea ( diffus$ matt] di/ribut$ "h & !re 9 space1 & gradually cond5s+ into />s1 is by no means new4 ,z e>ly z #aegb1 ,ty*o ,brah propos$ su* an hypo!sis1 to expla9 ! sudd5 app>ition ( a new /> 9 ,cassiopeia1 :i* he consid]$ z =m$ by ! rec5t agglom]ation ( ! cele/ial matt] diffus$ 9 space4 ,kepl] adopt$ ! same idea to expla9 ! new /> :i* appe>$ 9 ,ophiu*us1 9 #afjd4 ,halley1 ,lacaille1 ,mairan & o!rs1 ent]ta9$ ! same op9ion4 ,! hypo!sis ( a self-lum9\s1 nebul\s matt] diffus$ 9 space1 & =m+ "h & !re imm5se masses1 has be5 propos$ f ! orig9 ( ! telescope1 & 0 adopt$ by ,sir ,william ,h]s*el1 :o 9 8 gr& speculations on ! univ]se consid]$ ! nebul z imm5se masses ( phosphoresc5t vapors1 gradually cond5s+ ar\nd "o or sev]al c5tres into />s or clu/]s ( />s4 ,! evid5ce af=d$ by ! spectroscope seems to be 9 favor ( su* an hypo!sis1 & %[s u t gase\s agglom]ations exi/ 9 space4 ,accord+ to our mod]n conception1 ! visible univ]se is b an inf9itely small portion ( ! inf9ite univ]se p]ceiv$ by our m9d4 ,! great blaz+ c5tre ar\nd :i* our little1 non-lum9\s globe pursues its endless j\rney1 is only an humble memb] ( a clu/] compris+ f\r hundr$ equally p[]ful suns1 z !y are believ$ to be1 al?\gh !y appe> to u z little tw9kl+ />s4 ,! ne>e/ ( ^! />s is #bba1jjj times z f> f ! ,sun z ! ,sun is f ! ,e>?1 & yet ?is entire clu/] is only "o among ! sev]al hundr$ ,/>-clu/]s compos+ ! great galactic nebula 9 :i* we are involv$1 compris+ ?irty or fifty millions ( su* suns4 ,among ! #d1jjj irresolvable nebul 9 ! sky1 p]haps ov] "o-half are suppos$ to be galaxies1 l our own galaxy1 compos$ ( />-clu/]s1 & millions ( />s4 ,besides ^! remote galaxies1 va/ agglom]ations ( yet uncond5s$1 nebul\s matt] exi/ 9 space1 & =m ! nebul prop]1 9 :i* ! g5esis ( suns is sl[ly elaborat$4 ,al?\gh ! visible univ]se is limit$ by ! p5etrat+ p[] ( our in/rum5ts1 yet we see 9 imag9ation ! inf9ite univ]se /ret*+ f>!r & f>!r2 b we "k n :e!r ?is invisible univ]se is totally devoid ( matt]1 or :e!r x also is fill$ ) millions & millions ( suns & galaxies4 ,,app5dix ,,key ,,to ,,! ,,plates ,,plate ,i4--,,gr\p ,,( ,,sun-,,spots ,,& ,,veil$ ,,spots4 ,obs]v$ ,june #ag1 #ahge1 at #g;h4 #cjm4 ,a4 ,m4 ,! backgr\nd %[s ! sun's visible surface1 or photosph]e1 z se5 ) a telescope ( high p[] at ! mo/ favorable mom5ts1 compos$ ( innum]able light m>k+s1 or granules1 sep>at$ by a network ( d>k] gray4 ,! granules1 ea* "s hundr$s ( miles 9 wid?1 are ?\ght to be ! flame-l summits ( ! radial filam5ts or columns ( gas & vapor :i* compose ! photosph]ic %ell4 ,! two pr9cipal sun-spots ( ! gr\p "h repres5t$ %[ ! *>act]i/ic d>k umbra 9 ! c5tre1 ov]hung by ! ?at*-l p5umbra1 compos$ ( :iti% gray filam5ts4 ,! p5umbral filam5ts are n suppos$ to diff] 9 _! nature f ^? con/itut+ ! ord9>y photosph]e1 save t !y are se5 "h elongat$ & viol5tly di/urb$ by ! =ce ( gase\s curr5ts4 ,bo? spots are trav]s$ p>tly or :olly by bright ov]ly+ facul1 or s-call$ lum9\s bridges1 depress$ portions ( :i*1 9 ! left-h& spot1 =m ! gray & rosy veils commonly att5dant ^u ?is class ( spots4 ,9 ea* ( ^! spots1 also1 ! inn] ends ( project+ p5umbral filam5ts h fall5 s f> )9 ! umbra z to appe> mu* d>k] ?an ! re/4 ,at ! "r ( ! upp] portion ( ! left-h& spot1 is a mass ( :ite facul> cl\ds1 honey-comb$ by d>k spaces1 ?r\gh :i* are se5 traces ( ! undevelop$ ?ird spot ( ! triple gr\p fir/ obs]v$4 ,if se5 ^u ! sun's limb1 ?is w\ld h pres5t$ ! appe>ance ( a lat]al spot4 ,above ! "r-h& spot is a small black dot1 or incipi5t spot1 )\t di/9ct p5umbra4 ,! irregul> d>k rift bel[ ! two l>ge spots & connect+ !m is a spot ( ! crevasse type1 ) v slight umbra1 a /ill bett] example ( :i* is se5 9 a we/w>d prolongation ( ! p5umbra ( ! left-h& spot4 ,9 ! upp] left-h& corn] ( ! ,plate are se5 sev]al small facul1 appe>+ z irregul> :iti% /reaks among/ ! granules4 ,9 ! pe>-%ap$ d>k5+ ( ! sol> surface bel[ & at _! left1 is se5 a veil$ spot1 two ( :i* att5d$ ?is gr\p4 ,approximate scale1 #bejj miles--#a in*4 ,,plate ,,ii4--,,sol> ,,protub]ances4 ,obs]v$ ,may #e1 #ahgc1 at #i;h4 #djm4 ,a4 ,m4 ,a view ( an upheaval ( ! *romosph]e1 or ?ird outly+ envelope ( ! sun1 z obs]v$ ) ! tele-spectroscope1 or telescope ) spectroscope atta*$4 ,! me?od ( ! obs]vation requires a ^w ( explanation4 ,save on ! r>e occasions ( a total sol> eclipse1 no direct telescopic view ( ! sol> prom95ces or flames is possible1 ow+ to ! fact t ! int5se :ite light f ! sun's ma9 disk entirely obscures ! feeble p9k light ( ! *romosph]e4 ,a few ye>s ago ,messrs4 ,janns5 & ,locky] f\nd t a spectroscope ( high disp]sive p[] s weak5s ! spectrum ( ord9>y sun-light z to %[ ! spectrum ( bright l9es giv5 by ! *romosph]e1 on any cle> day4 ,! telescope is adju/$ s t a portion ( ! sun's limb1 usually ne> a gr\p ( active sun-spots1 %all be pres5t$ be=e ! op5$ slit ( ! spectroscope4 ,! light ( ! *romosph]e ?us admitt$ along ) "s diffus$ sun-light f ! e>?'s atmosph]e1 produces a spectrum ( int5sely bright l9es1 widely sep>at$1 on ! fa9t] backgr\nd ( ! /rongly disp]s$ spectrum ( sun-light4 ,! mo/ prom95t ( ^! bright l9es are ^? kn[n z ! ,c l9e 7sc>let71 ,f l9e 7blue71 :i* ) sev]al o!rs are due to ! hydrog5 pres5t 9 ! *romosph]e1 ! ,d#c l9e 7orange7 ascrib$ to a little kn[n sub/ance call$ helium1 & occasionally ! sodium l9es ,d#a1 ,d#c1 7yell[74 ,by adju/+ ! slit ^u ! sc>let ,c l9e1 ! appe>ances repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,ii4 7 obs]v$ z ?r\gh an atmosph]e ( sc>let light3 9 ! ,d or ,f l9es id5tical appe>ances may be se51 b some:at less cle>ly def9$1 z ?r\gh yell[ or blue light respectively4 ,h5ce ! sol> times1 z "h obs]v$ ) ! spectroscope 9 ! hydrog5 ,c l9e1 are se5 ?r\gh a portion only 7! sc>let rays7 ( ! light com+ f b "o sub/ance 7hydrog57 ( ! companion inc&esc5t sub/ances pres5t 9 ! *romosph]e4 ,! color ( ! collective *romosph]ic light is se5 directly ) ! telescope dur+ an eclipse 7,see ,plate ,,iii47 to be a delicate rosy p9k4 ,description ( ! ,plate4--,! black backgr\nd repres5ts ! g5]al d>kness ( ! eye-piece to ! spectroscope4 ,! broad r$ /ripe /ret*+ f top to bottom ( ! ,plate is a portion ( ! r$ b& ( ! spectrum1 magnifi$ ab\t #ajj times z comp>$ ) ! actual spectroscopic view4 ,! upp] & l[] edges ( ! cross-section ( dusky r$ correspond ) ! edges ( ! slit1 op5$ widely en\gh to admit a view ( ! *romosph]ic cre/ & ( ! :ole height ( ! protub]ances at once4 ,) a n>r[] op5+ ( ! slit ?is backgr\nd w\ld h be5 ne>ly black1 its r$di% ca/ increas+ ) ! am\nt ( op5+ & consequ5t admission ( diffus$ sun-light4 ,ris+ above ! l[] edge ( ! op5+ is se5 a small out] segm5t ( ! *romosph]e1 :i*1 z a portion ( ! sun's ea/]n limb1 %\ld be imag9$ z mov+ directly t[>ds ! behold]4 ,! seams & rifts by :i* its surface is brok51 z well z ! di/ort$ =ms ( ! huge protub]ances %[ ! *romosph]e to be 9 viol5t agitation4 ,"s ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic %apes ( ! eruptive protub]ances are pres5t$1 z also cl\d-l =ms ov]topp+ ! re/4 ,9 ! imm$iate =egr\nd ! bases ( two t[]+ columns appe> deeply depress$ bel[ ! g5]al horizon ( ! segm5t obs]v$1 %[+ an extraord9>y velocity ( motion ( ! :ole uplift$ mass t[>d ! obs]v]4 ,! highe/ ( ^! protub]ances 0 #abf1jjj miles 9 height at ! mom5t ( obs]vation4 ,! triple protub]ance at ! left ) two droop+ w+s & a tall sway+ spire tipp$ ) a v bright flame1 %[s by its m brilliant color ! high] temp]ature 7& possibly compression7 to :i* its gases h be5 subject$4 ,! irregul> black b&s beh9d ?is protub]ance indicate ! pres5ce !re ( less cond5s$ & cool] cl\ds ( ! same gases4 ,! dimm] jets ( dame ris+ f ! *romosph]e are ei!r vani%+ protub]ances1 or1 z 9 ! case ( ! smalle/ jet %[n at ! extreme "r ( ! horizon1 are ! tops ( protub]ances j com+ into view4 ,approximate scale1 #fjjj miles--#a in*4 ,,plate ,,iii4--,,total ,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,sun4 ,obs]v$ ,july #bi1 #ahgh1 at ,cre/on1 ,wyom+ ,t]ritory4 ,a telescopic view ( ! sun's corona or extreme out] atmosph]e & ( ! sol> flames or prom95ces dur+ a total eclipse4 ,at ! mom5t ( obs]vation ! d>k disk ( ! moon1 :ile /ill hid+ ! sun's ma9 body1 _h pass$ f> en\gh ea/w>d to all[ ! rosy p9k *romosph]ic prom95ces to be se5 on its we/]n bord]4 ,on all sides ( ! sun's hidd5 disk1 ! corona %[s its pale gre5i% light ext5d+ 9 halo-l rays & /ream]s1 & two v rem>kable w+s /ret* ea/w>d & we/w>d v ne>ly 9 ! plane ( ! ecliptic & 9 ! direction ( ! positions ( ,m]cury & ,v5us respectively at ! "t ( obs]vation4 ,! full ext5t ( ^! w+s c\ld n be %[n 9 ! ,plate )\t r$uc+ its scale mat]ially1 s9ce ! we/]ly w+ ext5d$ no less ?an twelve times ! sun's diamet]1 & ! ea/]ly w+ ne>ly z f>1 or ov] t5 million miles4 ,a circlet ( bright light imm$iately bord]+ ! moon's disk is ! s-call$ inn] corona1 next to :i* ! w+s & /ream]s arc brighte/1 !nce %ad+ (f imp]ceptibly into ! twilight sky ( ! eclipse4 ,o!r notewor?y peculi>ities ( ! corona1 z obs]v$ dur+ ?is eclipse1 are ! v>y+ angles at :i* ! radiat+ /ream]s are se5 to project1 ! comp>atively d>k int]vals betwe5 !m1 & ! curv$1 wisp-l projections se5 ^u ! w+s4 ,an especially noticeable gap appe>s :]e ! mo/ we/]ly ( ! upw>d /ream]s abruptly cuts (f ! view ( ! long w+4 ,! l>ge/ & brighte/ ( ! curv+ /ream]s on ! we/]ly w+ co9cides ) ! highe/ flame-l protub]ance4 ,to "s obs]v]s ( ?is eclipse ! upw>d & d[nw>d /ream]s seem$ po9t$ at _! out] extremities & less regul> 9 =m4 ,approximate scale1 #ace1jjj miles--#a in*4 ,,plate ,,iv4--,,aurora ,,borealis4 ,z obs]v$ ,m>* #a1 #ahgb1 at #i;h4 #bem4 ,p4 ,m4 ,! view pres5ts ! r>e spectacle ( an aurora spann+ ! sky f ea/ to we/ 9 conc5tric ar*es4 ,! ,pol> ,/> is ne>ly c5tral 9 ! backgr\nd1 ! con/ellation ( ! ,great ,be> on ! "r & ,cassiopeia's *air on ! left4 ,! l>ge /> at "s di/ance above ! horizon on ! "r is ,arcturus4 ,! almo/ black inn] segm5t ( ! aurora re/+ ^u ! horizon1 has its summit 9 ! magnetic m]idian1 :i* 0 9 ?is case a little we/ ( nor?1 its arc be+ ind5t$ by ! bases ( ! asc5d+ /ream]s4 ,bo? /ream]s & ar*es 71 :5 obs]v$1 tremul\s ) upw>d pulsations & !re 0 also a wave-l movem5t ( ! /ream]s f we/ to ea/4 ,! prevail+ color ( ?is aurora is a pale :iti% gre5 & ! complem5t>y r$ appe>s especially at ! we/ end ( ! auroral ar*4 ,! summits ( ! /ream]s are f f\r hundr$ to live hundr$ miles above ! e>? & ! aurora is !re=e a ph5om5on ( ! t]re/rial atmosph]e r ?an ( a/ronomical obs]vation prop]4 ,,plate ,v4--,,! ,,zodiacal ,,light4 ,obs]v$ ,febru>y #bj1 #ahgf4 ,an obs]vation ( ! cone ( light ^: axis lies along ! ,zodiac1 :5ce x d]ives its "n4 ,x is drawn z se5 9 ! we/1 ) its base 9 ! con/ellation ,pisces1 & its apex ne> ! famili> gr\p ( ! ,pleiades 9 ! con/ellation ,taurus4 ,! fir/ bright /> above ! horizon 9 ! base ( ! cone is ! planet ,v5us & at "s di/ance above is ! r$di% disk ( ,m>s1 ! two be+ 9 r>e companion%ip z ev5+ />s4 ,above ! con/ellation ,pisces1 two bright />s ( ,aries lie j outside ! cone at ! "r4 ,! ne>e/ bright /> above ^! at ! "r is ,beta1 ! lead+ /> ( ! con/ellation ,triangula4 ,fur!r at ! "r ! ?ree prom95t />s ne>ly 9 a l9e are1 9 asc5d+ ord]1 ,delta1 ,beta & ,gamma ( ! con/ellation ,&rom$a4 ,above ^! at ! left1 ! brighte/ /> ( a quadrangul> gr\p ( f\r is ! rem>kable v>iable /> ,algol 7,beta7 ( ! con/ellation ,p]seus1 :i* *anges f ! second to ! f\r? magnitude 9 a p]iod ( less ?an ?ree days4 ,at ! left & a little above ! ,pleiades is ! ruddy /> ,aldeb>an1 "o ( ! ,hyades & *ief /> 9 ! con/ellation ,taurus4 ,^! are ! pr9cipal />s visible 9 ?is portion ( ! sky at ! "t ( ! obs]vation4 ,_! relative positions are repres5t$ z se5 9 ! sky & n by ! common me?od ( />-atlases1 :i* all[s = ! *ange f a sph]ical to a plane surface4 ,_! magnitude 9 ! ord] ( brightness is indicat$ only approximately4 ,,plate ,,vi4--,,m>e ,,humorum4 ,f a /udy made 9 #ahge4 ,a view ( "o ( ! lun> pla9s1 or s-call$ seas 7,m>ia71 ) an encircl+ m\nta9\s wall consi/+ ( volcano-l crat]s 9 v>i\s /ages ( subsid5ce & dislocation4 ,! sun-light com+ f ! we/ ca/s /rong %ad[s f all ! elevations ea/w>d1 & is j ris+ on ! t]m9ator1 :]e ! rugg$ /ructure ( ! ,moon's surface is be/ se54 ,! light] portions are ! m elevat$ m\nta9\s tracts & crat] summits4 ,! detail$ description ( ?is ,plate giv5 9 ! body ( ! ,manual is repeat$ "h = conv5i5ce ( ref]5ce3 ,! ,m>e ,humorum1 or sea ( moi/ure1 z x is call$1 is "o ( ! small] gray lun> pla9s4 ,its diamet]1 :i* is v ne>ly ! same 9 all directions1 is ab\t #bgj miles1 ! total area ( ?is pla9 be+ ab\t #ej1jjj squ>e miles4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ di/9ct pla9s ( ! ,moon1 & is easily se5 ) ! nak$ eye on ! left-h& side ( ! disk4 ,! floor ( ! pla9 is1 l t ( ! o!r gray pla9s1 trav]s$ by sev]al sy/ems ( v ext5d$ b l[ hills & ridges1 :ile small crat]s are dissem9at$ ^u its surface4 ,! color ( ?is =mation is ( a dusky gre5i% gray along ! bord]1 :ile 9 ! int]ior x is ( a light] %ade1 & is ( br[ni% olivace\s t9t4 ,?is pla91 :i* is surr\nd$ by high clefts & rifts1 well illu/rates ! ph5om5a ( dislocation & subsid5ce4 ,! d\ble-r+$ crat] ,vitello1 ^: walls rise f #d1jjj to #e1jjj feet 9 height1 is se5 9 ! upp] left-h& corn] ( ! gray pla94 ,close to ,vitello at ! ea/ is ! l>ge brok5 r+-pla9 ,lee1 & f>!r ea/1 & a little bel[1 is a simil>ly brok5 crat] call$ ,doppelmay]4 ,bo? ( ^! op5 crat]s h m\nta9\s masses & peaks on _! door1 :i* is on a level ) t ( ! ,m>e ,humorum4 ,a little bel[1 & to ! left ( ^! objects1 is dimly se5 a deeply imb$d$ oval crat]1 ^: walls b>ely rise above ! level ( ! pla94 ,on ! "r-h& side ( ! great pla9 is a long fault1 ) a sy/em ( fracture runn+ along its bord]4 ,on ?is "r-h& side may be se5 a "p ( ! l9e ( ! t]m9ator1 :i* sep>ates ! light f ! d>kness4 ,t[>ds ! l[] "r-h& corn] is ! great r+-pla9 ,gass5di1 #ee miles 9 diamet]1 ) its sy/em ( fractures & its c5tral m\nta9s1 :i* rise f #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet above its floor4 ,?is crat] slopes t[>ds ! pla91 %[+ ! subsid5ce to :i* x has be5 submitt$4 ,:ile ! nor!rn portion ( ! wall ( ?is crat] rises to #aj1jjj feet1 t on ! pla9 is only #ejj feet high1 & is ev5 :olly demoli%$ at "o place :]e ! floor ( ! crat] is 9 direct communication ) ! pla94 ,9 ! l[] "p ( ! sea1 & a little to ! we/ ( ! middle l9e1 is f\nd ! crat] ,aga?>*ides1 :i* %[s bel[ its nor? wall ! m>ks ( rills impress$ by a flood ( lava1 :i* once issu$ f ! side ( ! crat]4 ,on ! left-h& side ( ! pla9 is se5 ! half-demoli%$ crat] ,hippalus resembl+ a l>ge bay1 :i* has its int]ior /rewn ) peaks & m\nta9s4 ,on ?is same side c be se5 "o ( ! mo/ important sy/ems ( clefts & fractures visible on ! ,moon1 ^! clefts v>y+ 9 l5g? f #aej to #bjj miles4 ,approximate scale1 #ae miles--#a in*4 ,,plate ,,vii4--,,p>tial ,,eclipse ,,( ,,! ,,moon4 ,obs]v$ ,octob] #bd1 #ahgd4 ,a view ( ! ,moon p>tially obscur$ by ! ,e>?'s %ad[1 ^: outl9e gives ocul> pro( ( ! e>?'s rotundity ( =m4 ,! %ad[$ "p ( ! ,moon's surface is r5d]$ visible by ! diffus$ sun-light refract$ ^u x f ! e>?'s atmosph]e4 ,its r$di% br[n color is due to ! absorption1 by vapors pres5t ne> ! e>?'s surface1 ( a consid]able "p ( ?is dim light4 ,on bo? ! obscur$ & illum9at$ tracts ! configurations ( ! ,moon's surface are se5 z ) ! nak$ eye4 ,! crat]s appe> z di/9ct pat*es ( light] color1 & ! noticeably d>k] areas are ! depress$ pla9s or ,m>ia4 ,! l>ge crat] ,ty*o1 at ! l[] "p ( ! disk1 is ! mo/ prom95t ( ^! objects1 ) its ext5sive sy/em ( radiat+ /reaks4 ,! l>ge/ crat] above is ,cop]nicus1 at ! left ( :i* is ,kepl] & /ill above are ,ari/>*us & ,h]odotus appe>+ z if bl5d$ 9 "o4 ,above & at ! left ( ! great crat] ,ty*o1 ! fir/ d>k tract is ! ,m>e ,humorum ( ,plate ,,vi41 se5 9 its natural position1 ) ! crat] ,gass5di at its nor!rn 7upp]7 extremity & ,vitello on its s\!rn 7l[]7 bord]4 ,! advanc+ bord] ( ! %ad[ appe>s1 z always1 noticeably d>k] ?an ! rema9d]1 an effect probably ( contra/4 ,! illum9at$ segm5t ( ! ,moon's disk has its usual appe>ance1 ! light] portions be+ ! m elevat$ m\nta9\s surfaces1 & ! d>k spaces ! floors ( ext5sive pla9s4 ,approximate scale1 #adj miles--#a in*4 ,,plate ,,viii4--,,! ,,planet ,,m>s4 ,obs]v$ ,septemb] #c1 #ahgg1 at #aa;h4 #eem4 ,p4 ,m4 ,a view ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e ( ,m>s1 :5 9 ! mo/ favorable position = obs]vation1 & :5 exceptionally free f ! cl\ds1 :i* v frequ5tly hide its surface configurations4 ,s9ce1 ( all ! planets1 ,m>s is mo/ l ! e>?1 ,plate ,,viii4 may give a fair idea ( ! appe>ance ( our globe to a suppos$ obs]v] on ,m>s4 ,! d>k gray & black m>k+s1 are reg>d$ z tracts ( wat]1 or ( "s liquid ) simil> p[]s ( absorb+ light2 &1 = ! same reason1 ! light] portions1 ( a prevail+ r$di% t9t1 are suppos$ to be bodies ( l&1 :ile ! bright :ite portions are v>i\sly due to cl\ds1 to pol> sn[ or ice1 & ! bright rim ( :ite along ! limb1 to ! dep? ( ! atmosph]e ?r\gh :i* ! limb is se54 ,! *ief p]man5t features ( ! planet's surface h be5 nam$ 9 honor ( v>i\s a/ronom]s4 ,! l>ge d>k tract on ! left is ,de ,la ,rue ,ocean1 ! isolat$ oval spot ne> ! c5tre is ,t]by ,sea1 & on ! "r is ! we/]n end ( ,m>aldi ,sea1 ) /rongly ind5t$ bord]4 ,directly nor? ( 7bel[7 ,de ,la ,rue ,ocean1 is ,ma$l] ,cont95t2 above x /ret*es ,jacob ,l&2 & surr\nd+ ,t]by ,sea is ,sec*i ,cont95t4 ,ext5d+ into ! c5tre ( ,de ,la ,rue ,ocean is a curi\s d\ble p59sula1 call$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! dimness ( =m] obs]vations1 ,hall ,isl&4 ,! %>ply def9$1 :ite-cre/$ nor!rn bord]s ( ,de ,la ,rue ,ocean & ,m>aldi ,sea may indicate ! exi/5ce !re ( l(ty coa/ ranges1 m or less con/antly cov]$ ) opaque cl\ds /rongly reflect+ light4 ,! :ite spot 9 ! c5tre ( ,ma$l] ,cont95t1 ( a tempor>y nature1 has a simil> explanation4 ,! int]vals ( olivace\s gray on ,sec*i ,cont95t & else:]e may p]haps be ascrib$ to ! flood+ & dry+ up ( m>%es & l[l&s1 z ^! m>k+s h be5 obs]v$ to v>y some:at 9 connection ) ! *ange ( seasons on ,m>s4 ,! gre5i% t9ts obs]v$ along ! planet's limb1 alike on ! d>k] & light] surfaces1 are probably due to an optical effect1 ! gre5 be+ complem5t>y to ! prevail+ r$ ( ! disk4 ,! brilliant oval :ite spot ne> ! s\!rn 7upp]7 pole ( ! planet is a s-call$ pol> spot1 9 all probability consi/+ ( a mat]ial simil> to sn[ or ice & "h obs]v$ 9 ! mid/ ( a d>k op5 sea4 ,approximate scale1 #cjj miles--#a in*4 ,,plate ,,ix4--,,! ,,planet ,,jupit]4 ,obs]v$ ,novemb] #a1 #ahhj1 at #i;h4 #cjm4 ,p4 ,m4 ,?is planet is p]petually wrapp$ 9 d5se cl\ds :i* hide its inn] globe f view4 ,! draw+ %[s ,jupit]'s out] cl\d$ surface ) its usual s]ies ( alt]nate light & d>k belts1 ! disk z a :ole appe>+ bright] 9 ! c5tre ?an ne> ! limb4 ,! d>k] gray & black m>k+s indicate 9 g5]al ! l[] cl\d-levels2 t is1 p>tial breaks or rifts 9 ! cl\dy envelope1 ^: prevail+ dep? app>5tly exce$s f\r ?\s& miles4 ,:ile ! deepe/ depression 9 ! cl\dy envelope is )9 ! limits ( ! ,great ,r$ ,spot1 ! vision may n ev5 "h p5etrate v deeply4 ,two ( ,jupit]'s f\r moons pres5t bright disks ne> ! planet's we/]n limb1 & ca/ _! %ad[s f> ea/w>d on ! disk1 t ( ! second satellite fall+ ^u ! ,r$ ,spot4 ,on ! ,r$ ,spot are se5 9 addition two small black spots1 no explanation ( :i* c yet be (f]$4 ,! broad :ite r+ ( cl\ds bord]+ ! ,r$ ,spot appe>$ 9 con/ant motion4 ,! c5tral1 or equatorial belt1 %[s brilliant cl\dy masses ( bo? ! cumulus & /ratus types1 & ! und]ly+ gray & black cl\dy surfaces are p]vad$ ) ! p9ki% color *>act]i/ic ( ?is belt4 ,! d>k circul> spots on ! wide :ite belt next nor? %[$ 9 _! mode ( =mation /rik+ resemblances to sun-spots4 ,!y aft]w>d coalesc$ into a cont9u\s p9k belt4 ,! diffusion ( p9ki% color ov] ! ?ree nor!rnmo/ d>k b&s1 z "h obs]v$1 is unusual4 ,ab\t ei!r pole is se5 ! uni=m gray segm5t or pol> cap4 ,! equatorial diamet] is noticeably long] ?an ! pol> diamet]1 a consequ5ce ( ! planet's extraord9>y swiftness ( rotation4 ,to ! same cause may also be due *iefly ! di/ribution ( ! cl\dy belts p>allel to ! planet's equator1 ?\gh ! analogy ( ! t]re/rial trade-w9ds fails to expla9 all ! obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,approximate scale1 #e1ejj miles--#a in*4 ,,plate ,x4--,,! ,,planet ,,saturn4 ,obs]v$ ,novemb] #cj1 #ahgd1 at #e;h4 #ejm4 ,p4 ,m4 ,saturn is unique among/ ! planets 9 t its globe is encircl$ by a s]ies ( conc5tric r+s1 :i* lie 9 ! plane ( its equator1 & consi/1 accord+ to pres5t !ories1 ( va/ ?rongs ( m9ute bodies revolv+ ab\t ! planet1 l s _m satellites1 9 closely p>allel orbits4 ,! globe ( ,saturn1 l t ( ,jupit]1 is surr\nd$ by cl\dy belts p>allel to its equator4 ,! broad equatorial belt1 ( a delicate p9ki% t9t1 is bo? bright] & m mottl$ ?an ! n>r[] yell[i% :ite belts1 :i* alt]nate ) d>k] belts ( a%y gray on bo? ! nor? & s\? sides1 b are se5 "h only on ! nor!rn side4 ,! disk has an oval %ape1 ow+ to ! extreme pol> compression ( ! globe4 ,! out]1 middle & inn] r+s1 ) _! v>i\s subdivisions1 are cle>ly %[n 9 ,plate ,x41 & are be/ se5 on ! s-call$ ans1 or h&les1 project+ on ei!r side4 ,! gray out] r+ is sep>at$ by ! dusky p5cil l9e into two divisions1 bo? ( :i* appe> slightly mottl$ on ! ans1 z if ) cl\ds4 ,! middle r+ has ?ree sub-divisions :i* are cle>ly di/+ui%able1 al?\gh sep>at$ by no d>k int]val1 viz41 a brilliant :ite out] zone1 di/9ctly mottl$1 z se5 on ! extremities ( ! ans1 & two int]ior zones ( gradually dim9i%+ brightness4 ,! gauze or dusky r+ is se5 at its full wid? on ! ans1 b on ! backgr\nd ( ! /rongly illum9at$ globe only its out] & presumably d5s] bord] is visible4 ,! %ad[ ( ! globe on ! r+s is se5 on ! l[] portion ( ! ea/]n ans4 ,! %ad[ on ! dusky r+ is ) difficulty p]ceptible2 ! %ad[ on ! middle r+ is slightly concave t[>d ! planet1 :i* concavity is abruptly increas$ on ! out] zone ( ?is r+2 :ile ! %ad[ on ! out] r+ slants away f ! globe4 ,^! appe>ances are fully acc\nt$ = by suppos+ a g5]al increase ( level f ! inn] edge ( ! dusky r+ to ! out] m>g9 ( ! middle r+1 & a uni=m l[] level on ! out] r+4 ,o!r obs]v]s h reg>d$ ! deflection ( ! %ad[ z an effect ( irradiation4 ,! inn] m>g9 ( ! d\ble out] r+ pres5ts on bo? ans a numb] ( slight ind5tations1 :i*1 if n actual irregul>ities 9 ! cont\r ( ?is r+1 may be expla9$ z %ad[s caus$ by elevations on ! out] bord] ( ! middle r+1 or possibly by ov]-hang+ cl\ds4 ,approximate scale1 #f1ejj miles--#a in*4 ,,plate ,,xi4--,,! ,,great ,,comet ,,( #ahha4 ,obs]v$ on ! night ( ,june #be-bf1 at #a;h4 #cjm4 ,a4 ,m4 ,a view ( ! comet #ahha1 ,,iii41 drawn z if se5 ) ! nak$ eye1 ! m9ute details1 h[ev]1 be+ reproduc$ z se5 ) ! telescope4 ,! />-l nucleus is att5d$ by f\r conical w+s :i* cause x to appe> diamond-%ap$4 ,! coma appe>s d\ble1 ! brilliant inn] coma1 imm$iately envelop+ ! nucleus1 be+ surr\nd$ by a fa9t] ext]ior coma1 :i* has a noticeable depression correspond+ to t ( ! inn] edge ( ! pr9cipal coma4 ,! tail is divid$ l5g?wise by a d>k rift & is brighte/ on its convex or =w>d side4 ,an inn] portion ( ! tail1 bright] ?an ! re/1 is m /rongly curv$1 z if by sol> repulsion4 ,/>s are se5 ?r\gh ! bright] p>ts ( ! tail1 z !y may be se5 ev5 ?r\gh ! coma & nucleus1 ) little dim9ution ( _! light4 ,,plate ,,xii4--,,! ,,novemb] ,,meteors4 ,z obs]v$ on ! night ( ,novemb] #ac-ad1 #ahfh4 ,a p>tially ideal view ( ! ,novemb] ,meteors1 comb9+ =ms obs]v$ at diff]5t times dur+ ! night ( ,nov4 #ac?1 #ahfh4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 a fanciful view1 s9ce a mu* l>g] numb] ( meteors 7 obs]v$ fall+ at once dur+ ! %[] ( ,novemb]1 #ahcc1 & at o!r times4 ,! locality ( ! obs]vation is %[n by ! ,pol> ,/> se5 ne> ! c5tre ( ! ,plate1 & ,cassiopeia's ,*air at ! left4 ,! g5]al direction ( ! pa?s ( ! meteors is f ! nor?-ea/1 ! radiant po9t ( ! %[] hav+ be5 9 ! con/ellation ,leo1 beyond & above ,ursa ,major4 ,:ile ! orbits ( ! meteors are1 9 g5]al1 curv$ regul>ly & slightly1 sev]al are %[n ) v ecc5tric pa?s1 among !m "o :i* *ang$ its c\rse at a %>p angle4 ,9 ! upp] left-h& corn] appe> two vani%+ trails ( ! r+-=m1 & sev]al o!rs /ill fur!r trans=m$ into fa9t lum9\s pat*es ( cl\d4 ,r$1 yell[1 gre51 blue & purple t9ts 7 obs]v$ 9 ! meteors & _! trails1 z repres5t$ 9 ! ,plate4 ,,plate ,,xiii4--,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,milky ,,way4 ,f a /udy made dur+ ! ye>s #ahgd1 #ahge & #ahgf4 ,! c\rse ( ! portion ( ! ,galaxy repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,xiii4 is z foll[s3 ,f ,cassiopeia's *air1 ?ree bright />s ( :i* appe> at ! upp] edge ( ! ,plate1 ! ,galaxy1 =m+ two /reams1 desc5ds s\?1 pass+ p>tly ?r\gh ,lac]ta on ! left1 & ,cepheus on ! "r2 at ?is la/ po9t x approa*es ne>e/ to ! ,pol> ,/>1 :i* is itself outside ( ! field ( view4 ,!n x ent]s ,cygnus1 :]e x becomes v complicat$ & bright1 & :]e sev]al l>ge cl\dy masses are se5 t]m9at+ its left bran*1 :i* passes to ! "r1 ne> ! bright /> ,d5eb1 ! lead] ( ?is con/ellation4 ,bel[ ,d5eb1 ! ,galaxy is app>5tly disconnect$ & sep>at$ f ! nor!rn "p by a n>r[1 irregul> d>k gap4 ,f ?is rupture1 ! ,milky-way divides into two great /reams1 sep>at$ by an irregul> d>k rift4 ,an imm5se bran* ext5ds to ! "r1 :i*1 aft] hav+ =m$ an important lum9\s mass betwe5 ! />s ,gamma & ,beta1 cont9ues its s\?w>d progress ?r\gh p>ts ( ,lyra1 ,vulpecula1 ,h]cules1 ,aquila & ,ophiu*us1 :]e x gradually t]m9ates a few degrees s\? ( ! equator4 ,! ma9 /ream on ! left1 aft] hav+ =m$ a bright mass ar\nd ,epsilon ,cygni1 passes ?r\gh ,vulpecula & !n ,aquila1 :]e x crosses ! equ9octial j bel[ ! /> ,eta1 aft] hav+ involv$ 9 its nebulosity ! bright /> ,altair1 ! lead] ( ,aquila4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e ! ,galaxy becomes v complicat$ & =ms a succession ( v bright1 irregul> masses1 ! upp] "o be+ 9 ,scutum ,sobieskii1 :ile ! o!rs are respectively situat$ 9 ,sagitt>ius & 9 ,scorpio2 ! la/1 j a little above our horizon1 be+ always consid]ably dimm$ by vapors4 ,f ,scutum ,sobieskii1 ! ,galaxy exp&s consid]ably on ! "r1 & s5ds a bran* into ,scorpio1 9 :i* ! fi]y r$ /> ,ant>es is some:at involv$4 ,9 ! upp] left-h& corn] ( ! ,plate1 at "s di/ance f ! ,milky-way1 is se5 dimly ! ,nebula 9 ,&rom$a1 :i* becomes s magnific5t an object to telescopic view4 ,,plate ,,xiv4--,,/>-,,clu/] ,,9 ,,h]cules4 ,f a /udy made 9 ,june1 #ahgg4 ,9 ! con/ellation ,h]cules1 a small nebul\s mass is fa9tly visible to ! eye1 a telescopic view ( :i* is pres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,xiv4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ beautiful ( ! easily resolvable globul> clu/]s4 ,! brilliancy ( ! c5tre gives ! clu/] a di/9ctly globul> appe>ance1 :ile ! sev]al w+s curv+ 9 v>i\s directions1 h sugge/$ to "s obs]v]s an irregul>ly spiral /ructure4 ,! l>ge />s ( ! clu/] are arrang$ 9 sev]al gr\ps :i* correspond1 9 a g5]al way1 ) ! fa9tly lum9\s w+s4 ,,plate ,,xv4--,,! ,,great ,,nebula ,,9 ,,orion4 ,f a /udy made 9 ! ye>s #ahge-gf4 ,?is nebula1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/ brilliant & wond]ful ( telescopic objects1 readily visible to ! nak$ eve z a pat* ( nebul\s light imm$iately surr\nd+ ! middle /> ( ! ?ree :i* =m ! sword ( ,orion1 & a little s\? ( ! ?ree well-kn[n />s =m+ ! belt4 ,! small />s 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r ,plates ( ! s]ies1 are some:at exagg]at$ 9 size1 z 0 unavoidable ) any mode ( reproduction t c\ld be employ$4 ,! bright p5tagonal c5tre ( ! nebula is trav]s$ by less lum9\s rifts1 ! sev]al subdivisions ?us outl9$ be+ irregul>ly mottl$ z if by bright fleecy cl\ds4 ,t[>d ! l[] "p ( ?is bright p5tagonal c5tre is a comp>atively d>k space conta9+ f\r bright />s :i* =m a trapezium & toge!r con/itute ! quadruple /> ,!ta ,orionis1 :i*1 to ! nak$ eye1 appe>s z ! s+le /> 9 ! c5tre ( ! sword4 ,on ?ree sides ( ! c5tral mass ext5d long bright wisps1 ^: curves fail1 h[ev]1 to reveal ! spiral /ructure (t5 attribut$ to ?is nebula4 ,on ! ea/ a broad w+1 ) wave-%ap$ inn] bord]1 /ret*es s\?w>d4 ,ea/ ( ! trapezium are two especially noticeable d>k spaces4 ,close to ! ma9 nebula on ! nor?-ea/1 a small fa9t nebula surr\nds a bright />1 & a bran* f ano!r fa9t /ream ( nebul\s matt] =m+ a loop to ! s\?w>d1 encloses ! nebul\s /> 7,iota ,orionis7 %[n at ! top ( ! ,plate4