,transcriber's ,notes ,text printed in italics has been transcribed between underscores1 bold face text between equal signs1 and blackletter text between tildes4 ,small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this e-text4 ,the ,rural ,science ,series ,,edited ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,,the ,,farmstead ,illustration ,,the ,,farmstead ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,the ,,rural ,,home ,,and ,,the ,,lay-,,out ,,of ,,the ,,farm ,,by ,,isaac ,,phillips ,,roberts ,director of the ,college of ,agriculture and ,professor of ,agriculture in ,cornell ,university2 author of 8,the ,fertility of the ,land0 ,,fifth ,,edition ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,london3 ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,ltd4 #aiaj ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #aijj ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,set up and electrotyped ,january1 #aijj ,reprinted ,august1 #aijb2 ,january1 #aije2 ,august1 #aijg2 ,june1 #aiaj ,mount ,pleasant ,press ,j4 ,horace ,mc,farland ,company ,harrisburg1 ,pennsylvania ,,contents ,,chapter ,,pages ,i4 ,,rural ,,homes #a-aa ,,ii4 ,,the ,,farm ,,as ,a ,,source ,,of ,,income #ab-db ,,iii4 ,,educational ,,opportunity ,,on ,,the ,,farm #dc-ec ,,iv4 ,,selection ,,and ,,purchase ,,of ,,farms #ed-fd ,v4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,farmer ,,to ,,the ,,lawyer 7,by ,hon4 ,de,forest ,van,vleet7 #fe-gc ,,vi4 ,,locating ,,the ,,house #gd-hf ,,vii4 ,,planning ,,rural ,,buildings #hg-aca ,,viii4 ,,building ,,the ,,house--,,general ,,lay-,,out #acb-aeg ,building the ,foundations #ach ,wooden ,houses--,the ,frame #adb ,,ix4 ,,building ,,the ,,house1 ,,concluded--,,outside ,,covering1 ,,painting #aeh-ahj ,veneered ,houses #afh ,old ,houses #agj ,painting the ,house #agc ,x4 ,,inside ,,finish1 ,,heating1 ,,and ,,ventilation #aha-aib ,heating and ,ventilation #aij ,,xi4 ,,house ,,furnishing ,,and ,,decoration 7,by ,professor ,mary ,roberts ,smith7 #aic-bjc ,,xii4 ,,cleanliness ,,and ,,sanitation--,,water ,,supply ,,and ,,sewage 7,by ,professor ,mary ,roberts ,smith7 #bjd-bbc ,water ,supply and ,sewage #bag ,,xiii4 ,,household ,,administration1 ,,economy1 ,,and ,,comfort 7,by ,professor ,mary ,roberts ,smith7 #bbd-bcf ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,home ,,yard 7,by ,professor ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey7 #bcg-bdh ,,xv4 ,a ,,discussion ,,of ,,barns #bdi-bfe ,location #bee ,planning the ,barn #bei ,water ,supply #bfa ,,xvi4 ,,building ,,the ,,barn--,,the ,,basement #bff-bhg ,excavation #bfh ,walls #bga ,floors #bgg ,stalls #bhj ,mangers and ,ties #bhe ,,xvii4 ,,building ,,the ,,barn--,,the ,,superstructure #bhh-big ,,xviii4 ,,remodeling ,,old ,,barns #bih-cje ,,xix4 ,,outbuildings ,,and ,,accessories #cjf-cbj ,poultry ,houses #cjf ,piggeries #caa ,the ,silo #caf ,,xx4 ,,lightning ,,protection 7,by ,h4 ,h4 ,norris1 ,m4,e47 #cba-cce ,metal ,roofs #cbd ,protecting ,wooden ,roofs #cbf ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,fields #ccf-cde ,fences #ccf ,orchards #cdj ,farm ,garden #cda ,,index #cdf ,,the ,,farmstead ,,chapter ,i ,,rural ,,homes ,man is made partly by heredity1 partly by environment2 both may be controlled and modified to a far greater extent than is generally supposed4 ,in speaking of farm life1 its disadvantages are frequently emphasized1 while its possible advantages as an environment for the development of the finest quality of human nature are as often ignored or overlooked4 ,nature1 with her ever-varying form and color1 beauty and symmetry1 is forgotten in the city2 the shady forest1 the meadow brook1 the waving fields1 are unknown4 ,there1 instead1 is incessant noise1 the clang and clash of trade1 towering and ugly buildings1 skies darkened by the smoke of factories1 children who never saw a tree or played elsewhere than upon a hard and filthy pavement2 and worst of all is the nerve-destroying haste and unequal competition1 wearing out body and soul4 ,in rural life1 however tame and lonely1 the home is not merely a few square feet hedged in by brick walls1 but the whole wide countryside3 the barns1 the fields1 the woods1 the orchards1 the animals wild and domesticated1 the outlook over hill and valley--these all constitute the farmer's home4 ,the manufacturer locates his factory in some by-street or suburb where land is cheap1 and as far as possible from the residence part of the city2 his home is far removed from these unsightly surroundings4 ,but the farmer must live within a few hundred feet of his barns and outbuildings1 and if these be ugly and dirty1 the beauty and comfort of the home are sadly marred4 ,if the farmer1 then1 has the whole landscape as a background for his home1 he must on the other hand modify his immediate surroundings so as to overcome their almost inevitable unsightliness4 ,besides the ever-present beauties of nature1 country life has certain other advantages over the city3 it is the place to develop the strong health-physique4 ,the luxury of rich and populous communities tends to produce puny and enervated citizens2 the excessive toil1 bad air1 limited space and scant food of the poor tend to degrade and destroy body and soul2 but the comfortable simplicity1 space1 air1 sunlight and abundant food of the open country give opportunity for the finest development of the human animal4 ,it is true that even on the farm there are sometimes overwork and privation2 but1 at the worst1 these cannot be so severe as in cities so long as the sun shines1 the wind blows1 and green things grow for the worker out of doors4 ,here the child may be born right and nourished by pure food and air4 ,it is surrounded by animals whose life and motion become an incentive to action1 and who become its companions without danger of moral contamination4 ,the lamb1 the calf1 the colt1 are far safer playmates than the city urchin precociously wise in evil ways4 ,professor ,amos ,g4 ,warner says that 8children reared in institutions are much below par because they lack the power of initiative40 ,the farm child has an incessant1 varied and unconscious training of the eye1 the hand1 and the mind4 ,while he is developing strength1 symmetry1 courage1 the mental is being cordinated with the physical4 ,the hand is made to obey the will1 while the fact that the handicraft is made useful lends charm and delight to the work4 ,the city child must try to learn1 by a course of manual training in some public school1 what the country child picks up unconsciously in the natural process of play and work4 ,after half a century1 ,i look back to one of the happiest moments of my life1 when ,i presented my mother with a dove-tailed wooden flower box1 painted bright red4 ,that flower box first taught me how to make wood take the form desired4 ,while the flower box has long since rotted1 the board-runner sled smashed1 the water wheel broken1 and the boat lies rotten in the bottom of the lake1 the time spent upon them was not thrown away1 for they gave me the inspiration and power to 8boss0 wood1 and this power has served me well in many an emergency4 ,as knowledge begins to dominate the hand and train it to change the form and character of things1 certain physical laws are discovered4 ,if the sail is made too large or the boat too narrow1 a cold bath is the result4 ,if the sled runners are too short and rough1 the school-mate arrives at the bottom of the hill first4 ,no schoolmaster was needed1 for when one of these natural laws was broken or ignored1 the penalty followed quickly and with full force4 ,so1 in a thousand ways1 the youth is taught respect for the laws which govern matter4 ,all this leads the youth on the farm1 if full play and direction are given1 to investigate everything in sight1 to discover that there are other than physical laws4 ,the higher laws puzzle him greatly1 give him much concern1 lead to doubts1 for they are too abstract and too far-reaching for his youthful comprehension4 ,the physical laws have been found by experience to be ever true and stable1 and the youth cannot but believe that moral and spiritual laws are equally so4 ,this is the sheet anchor which holds him to belief in them1 however imperfectly he may understand them4 ,he is anxious to investigate1 even to experiment along these lines1 but is disappointed because the results cannot be set down in pounds or feet or units of energy4 ,if here on the farm the mental and physical have been kept healthy and active1 the moral and spiritual will develop as naturally as the fruit from the blossom4 ,the development of spiritual fruit to high perfection is slow1 because the power to think and reason correctly and abstractly comes only with age1 experience and mental development4 ,but the greatest advantage of country life lies in the opportunity for the promotion of healthy family relations4 ,parents naturally find their chief happiness in the education and development of their children2 and in time the children stimulate the parents4 ,the sharing of common labors from babyhood up1 the working together for common interests and ambition1 which farm life especially entails1 produce the most wholesome family relations4 ,the most valuable part of any person's education is really in the home4 ,to 8help father and mother0 becomes the keynote of a child's life1 and unselfish1 willing service is the first and last and best lesson of morality and religion4 ,the pride in honest and capable ancestors1 the natural and wholesome ambition for the future of the children1 fill up a measure of contentment difficult to find elsewhere4 ,in such a family there need be nothing to conceal2 life takes on dignity in place of affectation1 honesty instead of sham2 it has simplicity1 pure affections1 fidelity4 ,artificial sex distinctions disappear2 men and women may do that which is needful and human1 the woman in the field1 the man in the house1 if desirable1 sharing their common1 healthful activities4 ,all this is very well1 some will say1 but how shall such a home be maintained on the income of the farm8 8,farming doesn't pay40 ,this statement is unverified1 and1 carrying on its face1 as it does1 a little truth1 is misleading4 ,does farming pay8 ,does anything pay8 ,what is pay8 ,all depends upon how you value the currency in which the pay is received4 ,is 8wisdom better than rubies80 ,are the sayings of the wisest and best of men true8 8,give me neither riches nor poverty4 ,get wisdom1 get understanding4 ,take fast hold of instruction40 ,a modern thinker1 ,professor ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey1 in the report of the ,secretary of the ,connecticut ,board of ,agriculture1 #ahih1 puts it in this wise3 8,but there is another cause of apprehension which ,i ought to mention1 perhaps founded upon the probable tendencies of our sociological and economic conditions1 especially as they apply to rural communities4 ,there is a tendency towards a division of estates as population increases1 and the profits of farming are often so small that educated tastes1 it is thought1 cannot be satisfied on the farm4 ,there are those who believe that because of these two facts we are ourselves drifting towards an ,american peasantry4 ,let us take the second proposition first1--that the profits of farming are so small that educated tastes cannot be satisfied and gratified on the farm4 ,now ,i grant this to be true if the measure of the satisfaction of an educated taste is money2 but ,i deny it most strenuously if the satisfaction of an educated taste lies in a purer and better life4 ,we must make this distinction very deep and broad1 for it is a fundamental one4 ,i believe we have made a mistake in teaching agriculture1 during the last few years1 by putting the emphasis on the money we make out of it4 ,i do not believe that people are to become wealthy on the farm1 as a few do in manufacturing2 ,i should not hold out that hope to men4 ,there are certain men here and there who have great executive ability1 who see the strategic points and take advantage of them1 who can make a success of farming the same as they would at the making of shoes1 or harnesses1 or buttons1 or anything else4 ,but as a general thing1 the farmer should be taught that the farm is not the place to become wealthy4 ,i do not believe it is4 ,certainly ,i should not go on the farm with that idea in view4 ,but if ,i wanted to live a happy life1 if ,i wanted to have at my command independence and the comforts of living1 ,i do not know where ,i could better find them than on the farm2 for those very things which appeal to an educated taste are the things which the farmer does not have to buy1--they are the things which are his already40 ,the wealthy few of the cities give voice to the thought that the farming classes in the ,united ,states are always on the verge of poverty1 yet in the last century they have rescued from barbarism and solitude nearly all of the arable land of the two billion acres of which the ,united ,states are composed4 ,more than four million five hundred thousand farm homes have been planted1 valued at more than thirteen billion dollars4 ,much hue and cry has been raised of late about farm mortgages4 ,if the facts were known1 it is more than probable that the farmers1 as a whole1 have assets in mortgages1 promissory notes and savings banks amply sufficient to liquidate all such outstanding obligations4 ,added to the real estate1 the farmers own implements and machines valued at five hundred millions of dollars1 and their live stock1 upon ten thousand hills1 numbers one hundred and seventy-five millions1 valued at more than two billions of dollars1 while the annual value of the farm products is between two and three billions of dollars4 ,it should be remembered that these values are nominal1 the true value being in most cases more than double these amounts4 ,the farmers are not now in danger of becoming paupers4 ,from the farms come more than half of the college students4 ,at the present time it is probable that the income of the farmers exceeds three billion dollars annually4 ,when it is considered that there is little or no direct outgo for rent of house1 and that nearly three-fourths of the food is produced at home1 and that these items are seldom taken into account in the statistics of income1 it appears that the farmer's real income is much larger than is usually estimated in money4 ,in other words1 a five hundred dollar net income on the farm1 under the conditions which now prevail1 provides for a more comfortable living than does a thousand dollars in the city4 ,but these results of the labors of the farmer as set forth in figures1 tell but half the story1 for nothing is said in these census reports of an empire redeemed1 of the thousands upon thousands of miles of road constructed1 of rivers spanned1 of the school house by every roadside1 or of the church spires which mark the progress of agriculture and civilization in countryside1 in village and in hamlet4 ,the census report does not give the number or value of the great men and noble women which the rural homes have produced1 though they are the most valuable product of the farms4 ,it says nothing about the perennial rural springs from which flow1 in a never-ending stream1 statesmen1 divines1 missionaries1 teachers1 students and business men4 ,although more than half of these life-giving energies of the nation and civilization come directly from the rural homes1 the census report gives no clue by which the value of these1 the nation's wealth and power1 can be ascertained4 ,looking over all the trades and professions which are followed by civilized and barbarous peoples1 none give opportunity for rearing the family under so nearly ideal conditions as does the profession of agriculture3 none furnish such good conditions for rearing children and for developing them into strong1 natural and useful men and women4 ,here1 then1 on these broad acres of ,america1 under the flag which we love1 we are to help transform the rude surroundings of the pioneer and the slovenly homes of the careless into pure and beautiful nurseries of ,american citizenship4 ,having shown1 in part1 what a rural life has to offer to those who are trained to appreciate the beauties of nature and to obey her laws1 and having shown that the average farmer always has an assured though modest income1 and that the better farmers have an ample income for maintaining improved rural homes1 the further discussion of how they may be made to minister to the natural longings for broader and more refined lives may be taken up4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,farm ,,as ,a ,,source ,,of ,,income ,if it cannot be shown that the profession of agriculture offers as good opportunities for securing1 with a fair degree of certainty1 what all should prize1--a beautiful and comfortable home and a modest surplus1--then this little volume will be for the most part useless and uncalled for1 as the following chapters presuppose an income sufficient for maintaining a home1 and for gratifying1 in part at least1 the simple1 educated tastes of the better class of ,american farmers4 ,in 8,the ,fertility of the ,land0 ,i attempted to set forth some fundamental principles which1 if followed1 should result in such increased incomes as to justify the present book4 ,a comfortable home must be secured from the products of field and stable1 with a reasonable expenditure of physical energy1 or farming in its highest sense is a failure4 ,in addition1 farming must give fair opportunity for training and educating families1 and for making provision for old age and unforeseen contingencies4 ,in the previous chapter the annual income of the farmer has been set forth1 and1 approximately1 the accumulated earnings of the rural population4 ,unfortunately1 we are so short-sighted that the present--the dollar--blunts the appreciation of the higher and more enduring values which spring from well conducted farms4 ,this being so1 of necessity much stress must be laid on immediate benefits which flow from a well ordered farm life4 ,while it is not proposed to write here of the details of farm management along the lines of greatest financial results1 yet something must be said1 at least in general1 about the methods most likely to produce the necessary competence4 ,a fairly liberal income and financial reserve give1 or should give1 some leisure4 ,leisure gives opportunity for study and recreation1 without which life becomes one ever-revolving round of work1 and results in producing an automatic animal4 ,if this is to be avoided1 far-reaching plans must be laid1 energy directed into its most efficient channels1 and time and resources economized4 ,all this implies training and education directed1 primarily1 along the lines which broaden and ennoble1 and those of the occupation to be followed4 ,for centuries1 the higher education has been in the direction of the humanities1 while education along technical and non-professional lines1 until recently1 has been conspicuous by its absence4 ,prior to the present century1 what provision was made for cordinating the hands and intellects of the industrial classes8 ,none at all4 ,is it any wonder1 then1 that the farmer and mechanic1 until recently1 received but meager rewards for their efforts8 ,all this is now changed4 ,already the industrial classes are enabled to secure far more of the necessaries and luxuries of life for a given period of work than could their ancestors4 ,in every state and territory one or more colleges have been equipped and endowed to teach1 among other things1 8such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts1 444 in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life40 ,in addition to this provision1 ,congress gives to each state and territory #ae1jjj annually for conducting experiments and investigations in agriculture4 ,in #ahij the ,federal government supplemented the benefactions of #ahfb by appropriating annually #ae1jjj to each of the ,land ,grant colleges2 this sum has now been increased and finally fixed at #be1jjj1 for the purpose of strengthening the departments of agriculture and mechanic arts4 ,most1 if not all1 of the states have made additional appropriations for agriculture1 in some cases very liberal ones4 ,at first1 there was a strong prejudice against these colleges devoted to the improvement of the industries and those engaged in them1 but this has nearly disappeared4 ,a broader view of education now prevails than formerly4 ,the modern colleges and universities think it not undignified to offer other than four year courses of study preceded by difficult entrance requirements4 ,many courses of from six weeks to one or two years are now open to those who prize knowledge above a diploma4 ,most of these courses are given at such seasons of the year as best suit the pupils4 ,in ,america all doors which lead to knowledge have at last been opened1 and all earnest students may enter and find teachers awaiting them4 ,the effect of the recent changes in college courses has been most marked and beneficial4 ,many of the colleges have1 as far as possible1 adopted the words of the founder of ,cornell ,university3 8,i would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study40 ,the following data show the incomes of the ,united ,states ,land ,grant colleges for the year ending ,june #cj1 #ahig4 ,the table is condensed from one recently published by the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture3 ,income of the ,u4 ,s4 ,land ,grant ,colleges for the ,year ,ending ,june #cj1 #ahig ,interest on ,interest ,u4 ,s4 ,appro- ,,states ,,and ,,territories ,land ,grant on ,other priations1 of #ahfb ,funds ,act of #ahij ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,alabama 7,auburn7 #bj1bhj4jj 444 #ab1jab4jj ,alabama 7,normal7 444 444 #i1ihh4jj ,arkansas 7,fayetteville7 #aj1djj4jj 444 #af1jjj4jj ,arkansas 7,pine ,bluff7 444 444 #f1jjj4jj ,california 7,berkeley7 #dc1fai4cc 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,colorado 7,fort ,collins7 #c1bch4iiaji1iig4ah #bb1jjj4jj ,connecticut 7,storrs7 #f1gej4jj 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,delaware 7,newark7 #d1ihj4jj 444 #ag1fjj4jj ,delaware 7,dover7 444 444 #d1djj4jj ,florida 7,lake ,city7 #i1ajg4jj 444 #aa1jjj4jj ,florida 7,tallahassee7 444 444 #aa1jjj4jj ,georgia 7,athens7 #af1ied4jj 444 #ad1fff4ff ,georgia 7,college7 444 444 #f1ccc4jj ,idaho 7,moscow7 444 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,illinois 7,champlain7 #bc1bda4aj #ejj4jj #bb1jjj4jj ,indiana 7,lafayette7 #ag1jjj4jj #c1hcj4dh #bb1jjj4jj ,iowa 7,ames7 #dg1gbi4ge 444 #bc1jjj4jj ,kansas 7,manhattan7 #ej1fhi4ej 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,kentucky 7,lexington7 444 444 #ah1haj4jj ,kentucky 7,frankfort7 444 444 #c1aij4jj ,louisiana 7,baton ,rouge7 444 444 444 ,louisiana 7,new ,orleans7 444 444 #aa1cdf4jj ,maine 7,orono7 #e1iae4jj #d1jjj4jj #bb1jjj4jj ,maryland 7,college ,park7 #f1adb4cj 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,massachusetts 7,amherst7 #g1cjj4jj #c1hbj4bc #ad1fff4ff ,massachusetts 7,boston7 #e1hif4jj #ce1jjj4jj #g1fff4fg ,michigan 7,agricultural ,college7 #ci1jji4ff #chf4cd #bb1jjj4jj ,minnesota 7,st4 ,anthony ,park7 #bg1daj4ee #ba1hef4jj #bc1jjj4jj ,mississippi 7,agricult'l ,college7 #e1iad4ej 444 #aj1bag4jh ,mississippi 7,west ,side7 #f1had4ej 444 #aa1jjj4jj ,missouri 7,columbia7 #af1ajj4jj #f1dfi4eh #bj1hjd4jb ,missouri 7,rolla7 #d1jbe4jj #f1dfi4eh #e1bja4jj ,missouri 7,jefferson ,city7 444 444 #a1aie4ih ,montana 7,bozeman7 444 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,nebraska 7,lincoln7 444 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,nevada 7,reno7 #d1dfd4hi #a1hjc4ee #bb1jjj4jj ,new ,hampshire 7,durham7 #d1hjj4jj #c1hhj4ej #bc1jjj4jj ,new ,jersey 7,new ,brunswick7 #f1fdd4jj 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,new ,mexico 7,mesilla ,park7 444 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,new ,york 7,ithaca7 #cd1dbh4hj #cad1djg4ea #bb1jjj4jj ,north ,carolina 7,west ,raleigh7 444 444 444 ,north ,carolina 7,greensboro7 444 444 444 ,north ,dakota 7,agri4 ,college7 444 #cib4if #bb1jjj4jj ,ohio 7,wooster7 #ca1dej4eh #a1eaa4fc #bb1jjj4jj ,oklahoma 7,stillwater7 444 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,oregon 7,corvallis7 #g1afd4fh 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,pennsylvania 7,state ,college7 #be1fcg4dc #e1chb4eg #bb1jjj4jj ,rhode ,island 7,kingston7 #a1ejj4jj #a1jjj4jj #bb1jjj4jj ,south ,carolina 7,clemson ,college7 #e1ged4jj #c1eab4cf #aa1jjj4jj ,south ,carolina 7,orangeburg7 #e1jjj4jj 444 #aa1jjj4jj ,south ,dakota 7,brookings7 444 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,tennessee 7,knoxville7 #bc1gfj4jj #a1fej4jj #bb1jjj4jj ,texas 7,college ,station7 #ad1bhj4jj 444 #af1ejj4jj ,texas 7,prairieview7 444 444 #e1ejj4jj ,utah 7,logan7 444 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,vermont 7,burlington7 #h1acj4jj #a1ejj4jj #bb1jjj1jj ,virginia 7,blacksburg7 #bj1feh4gb 444 #ad1fff4fg ,virginia 7,hampton7 #aj1cbi4cf #cj1bfd4fa #g1ccc4cc ,washington 7,pullman7 444 444 #bb1jjj4jj ,west ,virginia 7,morgantown7 #e1bbc4jj #a1dhe4jj #ag1jjj4jj ,west ,virginia 7,farm7 444 444 #e1jjj4jj ,wisconsin 7,madison7 #ab1bej4jj #ad1jjj4jj #bc1jjj4jj ,wyoming 7,laramie7 444 444 #bb1jjj4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,total #fji1iib4fdegd1abj4jha1jji1jig4jg ,state 444 ,,states ,,and ,,territories ,appropria- ,miscellane- tions ous ,total ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,alabama 7,auburn7 #h1gdf4hc #b1hba4bj #dc1hfj4jc ,alabama 7,normal7 #d1jjj4jj #af1hih4dd #cj1hhf4dd ,arkansas 7,fayetteville7 #bf1iaa4jj #a1bjj4jj #ed1faa4jj ,arkansas 7,pine ,bluff7 444 #dah4be #f1dah4be ,california 7,berkeley7 #acc1dae4df #ab1ahj4dh #caa1bab4de ,colorado 7,fort ,collins7 #ch1hib4ja 444 #fd1aca4jj ,connecticut 7,storrs7 #bf1hjj4jj 444 #ee1eej4jj ,delaware 7,newark7 444 #a1fbj4gd #bd1bjj4gd ,delaware 7,dover7 #d1jjj4jj 444 #h1djj4jj ,florida 7,lake ,city7 #e1jjj4jj #a1hif4hh #bg1jjc4jj ,florida 7,tallahassee7 #d1jjj4jj 444 #ae1jjj4jj ,georgia 7,athens7 #bi1jjj4jj #a1fjj4jj #fb1bbj4ff ,georgia 7,college7 444 444 #f1ccc4jj ,idaho 7,moscow7 #f1jjj4jj #cci4hj #bh1hci4hj ,illinois 7,champlain7 #aba1bad4ic #da1cje4ji #baa1eia4fj ,indiana 7,lafayette7 #eh1efb4if #bi1eeb4ce #abg1aae4ca ,iowa 7,ames7 #cg1bcb4aj #di1cig4di #aeg1cei4cd ,kansas 7,manhattan7 #af1eeg4gj #i1cbc4hh #ih1ega4jh ,kentucky 7,lexington7 #cb1dbi4cb #f1fhj4fa #eg1hai4ic ,kentucky 7,frankfort7 #e1jjj4jj #gf4jj #h1bff4jj ,louisiana 7,baton ,rouge7 444 444 444 ,louisiana 7,new ,orleans7 #i1jjj4jj #dci4df #bj1ghe4df ,maine 7,orono7 #bj1jjj4jj #bj1jja4ac #ga1iaf4ac ,maryland 7,college ,park7 #i1jjj4jj #ah1jjj4jj #ee1adb4cj ,massachusetts 7,amherst7 #ae1jjj4jj #a1ibj4jj #db1gjf4hi ,massachusetts 7,boston7 #be1jjj4jj #bec1jgf4bc #cah1fch4ij ,michigan 7,agricultural ,college7 #aj1jjj4jj #ab1hbe4fb #hd1bba4fb ,minnesota 7,st4 ,anthony ,park7 #agd1ccb4ei #gd1dif4dh #cba1jie4fb ,mississippi 7,agricult'l ,college7 #bb1ejj4jj #ad1eig4if #ec1bbg4ed ,mississippi 7,west ,side7 #g1jjj4jj 444 #bd1had4ej ,missouri 7,columbia7 #c1gfb4cd #e1jbb4gc #eb1aeh4fg ,missouri 7,rolla7 #e1dgf4fe #b1aib4af #bc1cfd4ci ,missouri 7,jefferson ,city7 444 444 #a1aie4ih ,montana 7,bozeman7 #b1ejj4aj #b1dci4eg #bf1ici4eg ,nebraska 7,lincoln7 #abc1egb4ej #g1hja4ec #aec1cgd4jc ,nevada 7,reno7 #af1bej4jj #cbg4ce #dd1hde4gi ,new ,hampshire 7,durham7 #e1ejj4jj #a1adh4jj #dj1cbh4ej ,new ,jersey 7,new ,brunswick7 444 #ba1agj4cg #di1had4cg ,new ,mexico 7,mesilla ,park7 #ai1gib4ja #hge4gj #db1ffg4ga ,new ,york 7,ithaca7 #be1jjj4jj #aia1ffj4jg #ehg1dif4ch ,north ,carolina 7,west ,raleigh7 444 444 444 ,north ,carolina 7,greensboro7 #ab1ejj4jj #aeg4ib #ab1feg4ib ,north ,dakota 7,agri4 ,college7 #bg1jjj4jj #c1ddf4fb #eb1hci4eh ,ohio 7,wooster7 #aah1ijf4ec #age1adj4ci #cdi1jji4ac ,oklahoma 7,stillwater7 #ejj4jj #c1cia4jj #be1eia4jj ,oregon 7,corvallis7 #a1hed4gi #a1cdb4cg #cb1cfa4hd ,pennsylvania 7,state ,college7 #de1jjj4jj #h1cdj4bg #ajf1cfj4bg ,rhode ,island 7,kingston7 #aj1jjj4jj #f1jjj4jj #dj1ejj4jj ,south ,carolina 7,clemson ,college7 #ed1jec4bi #gjj4jj #ge1jai4fe ,south ,carolina 7,orangeburg7 #ac1jjj4jj #a4jj #bi1jja4jj ,south ,dakota 7,brookings7 #e1ijj4jj #h1jch4ab #ce1ich4ab ,tennessee 7,knoxville7 #a1fgd4jj #g1bga4hi #ef1cee4hi ,texas 7,college ,station7 #bb1ejj4jj #i1cfa4ci #fb1fda4ci ,texas 7,prairieview7 #ae1gjj4jj #aj1hcf4gh #cb1jcf4gh ,utah 7,logan7 #bb1jjj4jj #e1haa4hc #di1haa4hc ,vermont 7,burlington7 #f1jjj4jj #af1fjc4ji #ed1bcc4ji ,virginia 7,blacksburg7 #ae1gej4jj #ab1ceb4dh #fc1dbg4hg ,virginia 7,hampton7 444 #aji1aaj4df #aeg1jcg4gf ,washington 7,pullman7 #bi1jjj4jj 444 #ea1jjj4jj ,west ,virginia 7,morgantown7 #ch1jfj4jj #aj1cae4ac #gb1jhc4ac ,west ,virginia 7,farm7 #ad1ejj4jj #fjj4jj #bj1ajj4jj ,wisconsin 7,madison7 #bhe1jjj4jj #dg1jjj4jj #cha1bej4jj ,wyoming 7,laramie7 #g1dbe4jj #gge4ei #cj1bjj4ei ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,total #a1hba1jgb4jaa1bci1ijb4ije1bjc1ehj4hb ,it has been thought strange that the farmers did not more quickly see and appreciate the valuable opportunities offered to their children4 ,but why should they at once appreciate and value the princely provisions which were being made for them8 ,with no opportunity for education along the lines of their profession1 following a more or less despised calling1 from being the butt and jest of those who had had educational advantages from time immemorial1 how could they at once understand the value and far-reaching effects of the new order of things8 ,then1 too1 these liberal provisions were made somewhat in advance of the times4 ,the pioneer must first redeem the land from the wilderness1 fight the physical battles and endure the hardships of a new country4 ,as soon as these primitive conditions passed away1 the farmers made an effort to bring their profession up to a high intellectual plane and make it a delightful and honorable calling4 ,the evolution from the primitive to the complex1 from the age of toil to the age of thought1 from excessive muscular effort to a more intelligent direction of energy1 from the narrow and prejudiced to the broad and liberal1 from the coarse and ugly to the refined and beautiful1 is proceeding rapidly1 and is in part realized4 ,what happier task than to give direction and help1 sympathy and encouragement to these new-born desires6 ,the part which the youths on the farm are taking in this evolution leads naturally to a higher intellectual plane1 and hence to a more rational understanding and fuller comprehension of what the rural home should be4 ,this desire to gratify the love for the true and beautiful1 which has been growing up by reason of the better education1 leads directly to the securing of an income sufficiently large to gratify the more refined and newly acquired tastes4 ,taking the rural population as we find it1 with added wants and new aspirations1 and with a somewhat better understanding of the value of a more extended culture1 it will be seen that a more rational system of agriculture1 a more economic expenditure of energy1 and a clearer comprehension of the highest and most economical use of money must be secured if the objects sought are attained4 ,to secure the results desired1 it must be shown how a competence can be secured without excessive toil1 how the results of work may be put to the best uses1 and lastly1 but not least1 it must be shown what is really valuable1 what real1 what substantial1 what polite1 what beautiful1 what worthy of intelligent ,americans4 ,on the other hand1 vulgar display must be shown to be vulgar1 shoddy must be unmasked1 the effect of aping the uncultured rich set forth1 and that which is unreal and that which goes for naught but vanity displayed under their true colors1--that comparisons may be made1 and that truer conceptions of life1 its duties and obligations1 may be secured4 ,how may a competence be obtained8 ,briefly1 by securing a knowledge of the laws which govern the business or undertaking entered into1 and by conducting the business or undertaking in obedience to the modes of action or laws which apply to the specific case in hand4 ,what are some of the dominant laws which should govern the farmer and farm practices8 ,the farmer should specialize along those lines for which his taste and training1 in part at least1 fit him4 ,to be more specific3 ,a farmer will show you his potato patch with pride1 but not a word will be said about his work animals and their offspring1 which look like ,barnum's woolly horse4 ,then the first principle of agriculture is1 follow up successes4 ,in this case1 the man has land and skill in potato culture which should lead him directly to success4 ,why not each year increase the output of potatoes1 and let some horseman breed the horses8 ,i have no ear or taste for music2 why should ,i spend time in thrumming a piano and in making the life of my neighbors miserable8 ,i love a bird and am interested in all its ways1 its beauty and its life4 ,why not study the birds1 and let them make the music8 ,much of life's energy is spent in trying to adjust square pegs to round holes and round pegs to square holes1 and life may be spent before the adjustment is complete4 ,modern civilization tends to specialization4 ,men vary as widely as do the stars4 ,there is a place for everyone and some one to fill the place1 if this great mass of unlike units can only be sorted and fitted into the complex problem of civilization4 ,the first question1 and the question which should be repeated often is1 ,what am ,i good for2 what branch or branches of agriculture will give me the greatest pleasure and profit8 ,having answered this question1 pursue the work through all discouragements to a successful issue4 ,it is possible you have no capacity for farm life1 and1 since you cannot buy a capacity1 better go directly to town and there fit yourself into your environment4 ,i have known men to toil many years on a farm1 and near the close of life to be driven to town by the sheriff4 ,there they made not only a living1 but secured a modest competence in conducting some little one-horse business1 the profits or losses of which could be counted up every night4 ,the farm1 with all its complexities1 with its profits and losses a year or five years in the future1 was too large and far-reaching for their narrow understandings4 ,all are not so fortunate4 ,some remind us of the ,quaker's dog which he sold to his friend and recommended as a good coon dog4 ,the dog proved to be a failure and was returned to the seller1 who said1 8,i am much surprised4 ,thee believes that nothing was created in vain1 does thee not1 ,ephraim80 8,most certainly ,i believe that the ,creator made all things for some beneficent purpose40 8,i1 too1 believe this1 and ,i had tried that dog for everything else under the heavens but coons1 so ,i was certain he must be a good coon dog40 ,a competency is always in sight in this country for those who do well those things which are suited to their tastes and training4 ,a competence may be secured by following those branches of farming which require the minimum of labor and the maximum of skill and training4 ,my friend of ,westfield1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,schoenfeld1 from ,germany1 has six acres of land1 a part of which is covered with glass4 ,he did that terrible thing1--ran in debt for the full purchase price of the land4 ,it and the valuable improvements upon it are now paid for4 ,his modest home is valued at #f1jjj4 ,while paying for it a large family has been raised and educated1 the eldest boy entering ,annapolis ,naval ,academy with a high standing4 ,it is possible that this son will one day be acknowledged as the intellectual and social equal of the aristocracy of ,germany should he ever visit the fatherland of his parents4 ,but why this long account of a not infrequent occurrence8 ,to show how it was done3 ,this ,german1 though untrained1 succeeded from the first in producing superior carnations4 ,he followed up his successes1 and sold the product of brains instead of the fertility of his little farm4 ,mr4 ,schoenfeld sold in ,buffalo during one year--,october #a1 #ahif1 to ,september #cj1 #ahig--;carnations 7#hj1idf flowers7 for the net sum1 over commissions1 of #gai4jh4 ,the amount of plant-food removed by the #hj1idf carnations was as follows3 ,nitrogen ,phosphoric acid ,potash #e lbs4 #d ozs4 #b lbs4 #c ozs4 #aj lbs4 #h ozs4 7valued at #a4cb7 ,the table below shows the amount of plant-food removed by #hef bushels of wheat1 being the amount which1 at #hd cents per bushel 7the average price of wheat for the last ten years in central ,new ,york71 would bring #gai4jh1 the amount received for the carnations4 ,nitrogen ,phosphoric acid ,potash #ijd lbs4 #dcg lbs4 #bih lbs4 7valued at #aeh4cd7 ,in addition1 #bj1jjj flowers used in making flower displays for weddings1 and the like1 were sold at retail1 by the dozen1 for #dej4hj4 ,the net returns for flowers sold during the fiscal year ending ,september #cj1 #ahig1 amounted to #a1afi4hh4 ,the expenses1 including taxes1 insurance and #aj per cent on the capital1 were #gij4fg4 ,this includes the cost of raising #ab1jjj plants1 about #f1jjj of which netted #bfc4bd4 ,in round numbers1 then1 the net income from the one leading industry--flowers--after paying #aj per cent on invested capital1 coal1 commission and workmen's bills1 was #fdb4de1 with an additional prospective income from the #f1jjj plants which remained unsold4 ,when ,i last visited this gentleman1 he informed me that he had all the land he wanted4 ,since that time he has purchased eight acres adjoining1 has made some improvements upon the land1 and now values it at #b1jjj4 ,he stated incidentally that the reason he made his purchase was that the land was in the market1 and he wanted control of it that he might choose his neighbor4 ,the land1 he says1 is now in the market1 although it paid #i per cent1 clear of all expenses1 on a valuation of #b1jjj4 ,the question is often discussed as to how much land is necessary to secure a competence4 ,here we find that six acres suffices4 ,a large family has been fed chiefly from the products of the orchards1 vineyard and garden1 and the children are receiving a practical and1 in some cases1 a liberal education4 ,all this has been accomplished because the man quickly learned the value of scientific agriculture and was wise enough to follow up his successes4 ,not only follow up success1 but learn to do the difficult things2 there will always be a throng seeking to do the easy things1--things which require the maximum of muscle and the minimum of brains4 ,why do such multitudes seek this hard1 easy work8 ,because they will not consent to endure the toil1 shall ,i say1 of acquiring the power to think deeply1 accurately and effectively4 ,some of our sympathy is thrown away upon these muscular workers4 ,their desires are few1 their wants simple1 their appetites good1 and their sleep peaceful4 ,let us show them the way to a higher life1 open the doors to those who choose to enter1 and fret not because all will not enter in4 8,some are and must be greater than the rest1 ,more rich1 more wise2 but who infers from hence ,that such are happier1 shocks all common sense40 ,the man who fells the trees in the woods may receive #ae cents per hour2 the man who controls the carriage of the great sawmill and decides on the instant what shape and dimensions the lumber shall take may receive #be cents per hour for simply moving a little lever2 a third man causes a piece of the wood to take on the forms of beauty for the great staircase1 and may receive #ej cents per hour2 the fourth furnishes the design for this beautiful staircase1 and may receive #a an hour4 ,the man who does the so-called 8hard0 work receives the least pay4 ,why8 ,because it is the least difficult4 ,this difference of remuneration holds good on the farm4 ,mushrooms sell for #ej cents per pound2 maize for one-half cent per pound4 ,why8 ,because anybody1 even a squaw1 can raise maize1 but only a specially skilled gardener can succeed in mushroom culture4 ,hothouse lambs bring from #f to #aj when two months old2 a poorly bred sheep at two years of age may bring from #b to #d4 ,why8 ,the breeding and feeding of the one is easy2 of the other difficult4 ,in #ahig the raising of potatoes was difficult4 ,the blights1 the bugs and the beetles were present in full force4 ,good potatoes in the middle and eastern states rose to #fe cents per bushel wholesale4 ,the man who watched and fought intelligently secured #cjj bushels per acre and a ready market2 the careless man and the man who should have been raising horses or chickens secured #cj bushels per acre and a slow market4 ,why8 ,because unusual difficulties were present1 and the man who was able to cope with them drew the prize of #aie per acre for his potatoes4 ,this successful potato raiser the previous year secured more than #cjj bushels per acre1 and sold them for #be cents per bushel1 but even at this low price they brought more than #ge per acre4 ,if from #bjj to #cjj per cent profit can be secured and the limit of profit not reached by raising one of the most common products of the farm1 what possibilities loom up for securing a competence from those products which require greater skill and knowledge than the raising of potatoes8 ,consider the crops which are supposed to give promise of securing little or no profits at the present low prices1 as wheat1 maize1 hay and oats4 ,one man1 on land naturally below the average1 has secured during the last fifteen years an average of nearly #ce bushels of wheat1 and in a few cases #dj bushels per acre4 ,the average yield for the whole ,united ,states in #ahhi was a shade less than #ad bushels per acre4 ,during the same year the average yield of oats was #bh4eg bushels per acre1 and hay1 including such other crops as are used for forage1 averaged #a4bf tons per acre4 ,good farmers secure #dj to #ej bushels of oats1 and #b to #b tons of hay1 and in propitious years #ej to #fj bushels of oats and #c tons of hay per acre4 7,compare ,figs4 #a and #b47 ,these latter yields always show large profits and lead to a competency1 while the average yield usually gives no profit4 ,if the average yield gives only a bare subsistence1 what must be the condition of those who secure much less than the average8 ,if one man raises #ce bushels of wheat1 five other men must each raise #aj bushels to secure an average yield of #ad bushels per acre4 ,some entire states--as1 for instance1 ,mississippi1 ,north ,carolina and ,tennessee1--have an average of #f1 #f and #i bushels1 respectively1 per acre4 ,what is the remedy8 ,stop raising wheat1 and raise something better adapted to soil and climate1 or go to town and sell peanuts4 ,some of these men who utterly fail to comprehend the laws of wheat culture may be good 8coon dogs10 after all4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,thirty-five-bushel wheat field 7,cornell ,university74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,eight-bushel wheat field1 on a farm adjoining that shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,it will be said that if the yield per acre be doubled1 the market will be so flooded that no one will receive profits4 ,this is the old scarecrow4 ,no farmer can control the prices of his product4 ,the law of supply and demand is inexorable4 ,what he may do is to improve quality1 diminish cost1 reduce area1 find the best market and the products most sought1 and increase the production from a given area4 ,if he raises the yield from #bj to #ce bushels1 while the yield of his neighbor remains at #aj bushels and prices remain low1 we shall soon see a fine illustration of 8the survival of the fittest40 ,the #ce bushels will yield a fair remuneration for the work expended in production when prices are at the lowest4 ,when they are high the profits are #bjj to #cjj per cent4 ,wheat1 for the last ten years1 has averaged #hd cents per bushel in ,june in central ,new ,york4 ,allow #c for the straw of the lower yield1 and if the wheat was sold at the average price1 the total income per acre would be #aa4dj4 ,for the straw of the larger yield allow #f1 which1 added to the wheat at the average price1 would give a gross income per acre of #ce4dj4 ,the cost of raising and marketing an acre of wheat1 including #e for rental of land and #b for fertilizers1 may be set down at from #ae to #bj in ,new ,york4 ,if the most successful compels the less successful farmer to stop raising wheat at a loss1 what will the latter do with his land8 ,better give it away than lose by farming it4 ,better abandon the farm and go to town and set up a second-hand clothing store4 ,there is always at least a small profit in that business4 ,in central ,new ,york a large herd of dairy cows was tested1 and the owner of the herd was informed that about one-fourth of his cows were quite profitable1 one-half paid their board bill and a little more1 and one-fourth were kept at a considerable loss4 ,he was advised to dispose of the unprofitable cows4 ,his answer was1 8,but what will ,i do for cows80 ,then1 to secure a competence1 the crops and the land which uniformly produce loss must be abandoned4 ,how it worries the city penny-a-liner and how it rejoices the successful farmer to see land thrown out of cultivation--8abandoned40 ,to me nothing is so encouraging in agriculture as this lately acquired knowledge which reveals the fact that vast areas have been cleared and brought under cultivation which should have been left undisturbed1 except to harvest the mature trees and protect the young plants from ravages of fire and cattle4 ,as the blackberry bushes1 year by year1 creep down the steep hillsides and over the rock-covered fields1 one rejoices at the pioneer work these modest1 hardy1 tap-rooted plants are accomplishing4 ,how wisely and well they fit the soil for a higher and more noble class of plants1 and how surely in time they cover the shame and nakedness of mother earth6 ,the rural population has made many serious mistakes1 toiling to reclaim land which was not worth reclaiming1 not worthy of an intelligent farmer4 ,but how could they know better8 ,not one college of forestry in all this great land up to #ahih1 and as yet but one in its infancy6 ,until the last generation not a single school of agriculture1 scarcely a book obtainable which might give direct help to the rural ,american boy and girl6 ,therefore1 the farmer should not be blamed for the wasteful and unscientific treatment of forest and field4 ,all this leads to the conclusion that to secure a competence1 lands of high and varied agricultural capabilities1 lands worthy of an intelligent ,american1 should be selected upon which to build and maintain rural homes4 ,quantity of farm products we have in abundance2 better quality is what is wanted1 since quality may improve prices and widen markets4 ,to assist in securing a competence some specialization is advisable4 ,sometimes this has been carried so far as to work serious disaster4 ,many farms in western ,new ,york have been almost exclusively devoted to the raising of grapes1 which1 when abundant or moderately so1 sold at ruinous prices4 ,it is noticed that where only an eighth or a fourth of the farm was devoted to vines1 the yield was not only proportionately larger but the quality better than where nearly all the land was used as a vineyard4 ,wherever diversified agriculture was carried on to a limited extent and plantations were restricted1 the low price of grapes made no serious inroads on the income4 ,where all the land was given up to grapes1 work was intermittent1 the farmer being overtasked at one season of the year and idle at another4 ,the demoralizing effect on the farmers and their families of this army of unrestrained youths and loungers of the city1 which1 for a brief period1 swarms in the districts devoted to specialized crops1 as grapes1 berries and hops1 is marked4 ,the baleful result of raising a single or few products in extended districts may be seen in ,california and the great wheat districts of the northwest4 ,in such localities there is little or no true home life1 with its duties and restraints2 men and boys are herded together like cattle1 sleep where they may1 and subsist as best they can4 ,the work is hard1 and from sun to sun for two or three months1 when it abruptly ceases1 and the workmen are left to find employment as best they may1 or adopt the life and habits of the professional tramp4 ,it is difficult to name anything more demoralizing to men1 and especially to boys1 than intermittent labor2 and the higher the wages paid and the shorter the period of service1 the more demoralizing the effect4 ,if there were no other reason for practicing a somewhat diversified agriculture1 the welfare of the workman and his family should form a sufficient one4 ,happily1 many large and demoralizing wheat ranches are being divided into small farms1 upon which are being reared the roof-tree1 children1 fruits and flowers4 ,to secure a competence1 no more activities should be entered into than can be prosecuted with vigor and at a profit4 ,on the other hand1 too few activities tend to stagnation and degeneration4 ,mental power1 like many other things1 increases with legitimate use and diminishes with disuse4 ,the farmer who simply raises and sells maize is often poor in pocket and deficient in understanding4 ,the college graduate who attempts but a few easy things seldom becomes a ripe scholar4 ,to secure a competence1 the petty outgoes should be met by weekly receipts from petty products4 ,i have known so many farmers to succeed by specializing moderately along one or two lines1 while holding on to diversified agriculture1 in part at least1 that ,i am tempted to give a single illustration as a sample of thousands which have come under my notice4 ,a ,scotchman and his family of four little children landed in northern ,indiana with three to four hundred dollars2 to this was added as much more by day labor4 ,a farm of about one hundred and fifty acres was purchased1 one hundred acres of which were adapted to wheat1 corn and clover4 ,thirty acres were marshy pasture land2 the balance1 timber4 ,wheat was selected as the great income crop1 which was supplemented by the sale of one to three horses yearly4 ,the butter from a dozen cows1 the chickens1 ducks1 and their eggs1 were taken to the city once each week4 ,the result was that at the end of the year there were no debts of subsistence to be paid4 ,this left all the money received for the wheat and horses to be applied towards liquidating the mortgage4 ,in a few years a large1 comfortable house was built4 ,this was followed by the purchase of another farm1 and still another1 until each child was provided with a home and facilities for securing a modest income4 ,this shrewd ,scotchman succeeded because he neglected neither little nor great things4 ,with what pride the writer1 in #ahfc1 deposited #a1gjj in bank1 the product of a single wool crop6--and the little farm of one hundred and twenty acres was not all devoted to wool-raising4 ,if a young man can secure a loving1 helpful wife1 four good cows and enough land to produce feed for them1 with room left for an ample garden1 a berry patch and a small orchard1 he may consider himself rich1 and if he be able and intelligent he will soon have a competence4 ,the farmer1 of necessity1 goes to the city or village once each week for supplies which cannot well be produced on the farm4 ,he should return1 if possible1 with more money than he had when he left home4 ,it is not the big mortgage which was given for part of the purchase price of the farm which should make him unhappy1 but the steadily increasing little charges accumulating on the tradesmen's ledgers until this 8honest0 farmer dreads to meet a score of his town acquaintances4 ,the farmer who1 from his well-painted covered democrat wagon1 sells the product of his skill and labor looks to me quite as dignified as does the merchant who sells nails and codfish1 turpentine and bobbins1 patent medicines and jews'-harps1 none of which represents his own skill or labor4 ,farming will never be carried on in ,america by trusts or syndicates4 ,a combine can run fifty nail factories or breweries1 but not fifty farms1 at a profit1 because farming is too difficult1 requires too close supervision and frequent change of details and combinations1 and new plans to meet the ever-changing conditions of climate and soil4 ,the conditions which surround agriculture in ,america put a quietus forever on 8bonanza farming10 and tend to the rearing of ideal homes and the accumulation of modest incomes4 ,mining-farming on virgin1 fertile1 unobstructed areas can be successfully prosecuted only for a time4 8,the ,red river valley native soils contain from 4#ce to 4#dj of nitrogen1 while the soils which have been under cultivation 7in wheat7 for twelve to fifteen years contain from 4#b to 4#c of a per cent40#a ,another important point3 ,when humus is taken out of the native soil as above1 only 4#jb of a per cent of the phosphoric acid is soluble by ordinary chemical methods1 while in the native soil three or four times as much phosphoric acid is soluble and is associated with the humus4 ,allowing that an acre of soil one foot deep weighs #a1hjj tons1 the native soil would contain from #ab1fjj to #ad1djj pounds of nitrogen per acre1 while the cultivated soil would contain from #g1bjj to #aj1hjj pounds per acre4 ,if the average amount of nitrogen in native soils 7#ac1ejj pounds per acre71 and the average in the soil after it had been cropped twelve to fifteen years 7#i1jjj pounds per acre71 are compared1 it will be seen that the soil has lost #d1ejj pounds of nitrogen per acre1 or more than one-third 7probably one-half7 of the nitrogen which could well be made available1 and this in less than a quarter of a century4 #a ,henry ,snyder1 ,bulls4 #cj1 #dd1 ,minn4 ,exp4 ,sta4 ,see 8,fertility of the ,land10 p4 #bef4 ,fifteen crops of wheat of #be bushels per acre require #dcc pounds of nitrogen1 or one-tenth of the amount which the soil lost during the years of cropping4 ,this soil1 under 8bonanza farming10 has lost outright nitrogen sufficient for #aee crops1 each requiring as much nitrogen as does a crop of #be bushels of wheat per acre4 ,when the amount wasted on a single acre is multiplied by the acres of the vast1 fertile wheat plains of the west1 where 8bonanza farming0 is carried on1 the loss of nitrogen to our country is seen to be so great as to appal the thoughtful man who looks forward to the generations who will want this element in the not distant future4 ,happily1 this 8bonanza farming0 has its own cure4 ,when mining-farming reduces the yield so that profits vanish1 then these great farms will be cut up into modest-sized ones1 true homes will rise1 intermittent labor and the tramp harvest-hand will disappear1 and the last and only condition which tends to produce an uninstructed peasant class will cease to exist4 ,the other great 8bonanza0 industry which still remains and which affects agriculture1 and the land directly1 is lumbering4 ,this1 like 8bonanza0 wheat farming1 may be classed as a mining industry1 carried on at the surface instead of in the bowels of the earth4 ,without rational direction1 restraint or control1 this agricultural mining goes on until the sources from which the profits are drawn are so depleted as to be no longer profitable4 ,there is no home or competency for the farm boys in the lumber camp or on the great wheat farm4 ,here the rule is to take all and return nothing4 ,after the ax and the binder1 comes the fire to complete the wanton destruction4 ,the shade-giving and moisture-conserving brush1 stubble and straw1 and all living plants1 are destroyed1 and nothing but the mineral matter1 unmixed with surface humus1 remains4 ,a blackened waste1 devoid of animal or vegetable life1 is left behind4 ,no homes can be reared here1 no competence secured until nature1 assisted by man in the coming years1 slowly restores the covering and productivity of the soil4 ,this unwise treatment of the land must soon come to an end2 then the hardy home-builder will have opportunity to repair1 by more rational methods1 some of the wanton and unnecessary waste4 ,is it too much to hope that before the close of another decade every state and territory will have a school of forestry1 and that all national forest domains will have been brought under rational supervision and control8 ,the future home-builders will need them1 and the present owners of homes have a right to a share of the benefits which flow from intelligently managed forest preserves4 ,it is not enough to show that intelligent farming is highly remunerative at the present time2 provision must be made by which the children and the children's children1 for all generations1 may have opportunity for securing a competence from rural pursuits4 ,can a competence and a comfortable home be secured by the renter8 ,if not1 why not8 ,shall the farmer put his little capital into a home and run in debt for supplies and necessary equipment2 or had he better rent1 and start even8 ,this depends to a large extent upon the individual4 ,a successful country life does not depend upon owning the land in fee simple4 ,here is a picture of what may be called 8a country gentleman0 7,fig4 #c74 ,he1 his father and his grandfather1 all have been renters of the same farm4 ,he has a competence and an assured income4 ,this hue and cry about renting has no terrors for those who have been renters and have found that this is often the most satisfactory way to start when capital is limited4 ,the merchant of limited means invariably rents the building in which he does business1 because it is safer and usually more economical to rent than to purchase the business block4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,a farmer and a renter4 ,in an old city of #ab1jjj inhabitants1 it was found that #hd per cent of the business was carried on in rented rooms4 ,the trouble in renting farms in the ,united ,states lies chiefly in the fact that there are no well digested laws or old customs which help to guide the renter and rentee4 ,a few simple laws would provide for adjusting the value of betterments removed from or put upon the farm at any time4 ,long leases1 with inducements to long occupancy1 would give the rentee a permanent occupier4 ,the renter has quite as good a chance of finally securing a home in fee simple as has the man who purchases and mortgages heavily4 ,the possession of a valuable farm and an assured income1 especially in a new country1 is often most surely and easily secured by renting for a series of years4 ,good farming pays liberal profits even on rented land4 ,if there is failure1 it is the man and not the occupation which causes it4 ,the fault will not be 8in the moon10 but in ourselves if we fail or become underlings4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,educational ,,opportunity ,,on ,,the ,,farm ,more and more we are coming to believe that the rural district schools offer but few opportunities for educating the farmers' children4 ,various schemes have been recommended for providing better and more convenient educational facilities4 ,one proposition is first to improve the principal highways4 ,this1 it is thought1 will make it possible to run 'buses or carriages twice daily to transport the children to and from some centrally located graded school4 ,such schemes are usually proposed by some one who has seldom seen a country school-house and who is totally unacquainted with the conditions which prevail in rural communities4 ,admitting1 for the sake of comparison1 that teacher and pupil in the country are not so far advanced in book-lore as they are in the city1 how does it happen that the country youths are able to maintain themselves on an educational level with the pupils of the graded schools when they meet them in the academy and college8 ,is it not quite possible that the wide opportunities enjoyed by the country youth for becoming acquainted with natural objects of use and beauty are a full offset1 so far as training is concerned1 for the more systematic instruction given in the city schools8 ,i can but look with some degree of solicitude on the effect on civilization and on the home1 of palatial hotels1 and great school buildings1 filled with heterogeneous masses of children1 in which love1 solicitude and sacrifices1 each for all1 have little opportunity for growth and development4 ,the family seems to be the sacred unit of civilization and morality4 ,a full and sufficient reason must be given for massing men1 much more children1 in a single great structure1 thereby destroying the quiet and breaking the sacred ties of the home4 ,what good reasons can be offered for massing children between the ages of six and twelve in an uncomfortable school-room8 ,children do not study2 they learn little except when they read the lesson in the immediate presence of the teacher who is able to amplify and explain the lesson in hand4 ,sending these little ones to school is a relic of the primeval days1 when1 by reason of large families1 lack of training and excessive toil of the parents1 there was no other way but to make nursery maids of the school-teachers4 ,i have a vivid recollection of those early days when ,i was crowded into a #af #bj school-house1 with two score other bounding1 mischievous urchins1 all seated on the hard side of unbacked1 long-legged slab benches1 which left our bare legs1 for which the flies had a liking1 to dangle between heaven and earth4 ,true1 all this has now been improved1 and good and appropriate seats are usually provided1 but this only ameliorates the conditions2 it does not cure them4 ,if the parents who have lost something of their first love for their children1 or who are too lazy or careless or ignorant to teach them1 will go to these patent-seated school-rooms and sit for five mortal hours on one of these hard1 wooden1 uncushioned seats1 they will no longer place their tender children in these modernized stocks4 ,you who no longer have the hot blood and restless nervous energy of youth make long faces and complain bitterly from your well cushioned pew1 if the over-earnest pastor prolongs his sermon ten minutes beyond the customary time4 ,it may be said that many1 nevertheless1 secured a primary education under these unfavorable conditions4 ,but ,i did not2 ,i received it at my mother's knee in the old kitchen1 some of it before daylight4 ,about all ,i got in that old school-house were kicks and cuffs from boys who were older and stronger than ,i1 and round shoulders from sitting through many weary hours on backless benches1 and blistered hands in punishment for my unrestrained interest in things in general1 and in my school-mates in particular4 ,but what has all this to do with the opportunities which a farm life gives for education8 ,it is to emphasize the need of more home training1 more personal attention by the parents1 and a more natural and rational education of those whom it has been our responsibility to bring into existence1 and upon whose shoulders will rest the weal or woe of our country4 ,in these rural homes1 children should be reared and educated until they have reached the point beyond which their parents or the older children cannot carry them4 ,the child1 when only two or three years old1 begins to learn handicraft1 performs some little helpful act for another2 it is being taught to work4 ,as it becomes more mature it is to do useful things2 but who thinks of keeping the child of eight to ten years of age at continuous work for five or six hours daily8 ,why not carry on the child's mental education along these natural lines in the same manner as it receives its primary technical education8 ,i am almost persuaded that the farmers' children would be better off if the old red school-house on the dusty1 treeless four corners was abandoned1 and the responsibility for the education of the children up to twelve or fourteen years of age was thrown upon the parents4 ,as it is1 the parents who have received a fairly good primary education become rusty and illiterate simply from non-use of the education which they had when they left the schools4 ,if the unexcelled opportunities which rural life offers for securing a primary education were only utilized1 there would be fewer country youths hating even the sight of that red school-house which has received such honorable mention4 ,it has been glorified in every ,fourth of ,july oration1 but it still remains not only unevolutionized but even degenerated4 ,if you ever imagined that the best provision has been made for teaching the little ones1 spend a day in one of these school-houses4 ,take some book with you that is as abstract and useless to you as the children believe their books to be to them1 and make the attempt to memorize a single page1 or essay to write a composition on 8,the ,immortality of the ,soul10 or on 8,the ,wisdom of ,annexing the ,south ,sea ,islands40 ,meantime1 classes are reciting in falsetto voices2 the teacher is giving many admonitions and making dire threats2 a festive bumblebee has found its way through the open window and makes as much commotion among the timid girls as a mouse at a tea-party4 ,now a dog barks1 and the boys know that ,bowser has safely treed a squirrel4 ,before you have had time to collect your thoughts a lusty farm boy1 perched on a creaking wain1 whooping loudly to his team1 goes rattling by4 ,stay a week and finish your composition1 and see how fast your children are securing disjointed fractions of an education4 ,a half-hour of continuous1 quiet1 intensified study at home is worth more than a day in many a school-room where little muddy driblets of knowledge are being doled out to the children4 ,you may say that you have no time to teach children4 ,business is too pressing1 and you are already overworked4 ,you should have thought of that sooner1 and been wholly selfish and saved the money and time you spent to persuade that beautiful maiden to join you and help perform the duties and functions of life4 ,you will certainly agree that home education is the best1 the ideal education4 ,for a child1 an hour or two of study and recreation a day1 an equal time employed in useful work1 and the rest of the day spent in picking up fun and facts1 both of which may be found in abundance on the old farm1 is the natural way to secure a broad primary foundation1 upon which to rest a liberal education4 ,after the child has reached the age of ten or twelve and has had careful home training1 what provision can be made for continuing its education during the next four to six years8 ,two or more districts might be joined to form one1 for graded school purposes4 ,on every farm is1 or should be1 a spare horse and a light wagon2 a few dollars would provide a stable near the school building4 ,such an arrangement would permit the children to drive to and from the central school1 although the distance might be two or three miles4 ,all this means that the children will be around the family fireside in the evening instead of on the street1 as is too frequently the case when they are sent to the village or city school and remain during the week4 ,all this keeps the boys and girls in sympathy and healthful touch with home life and their parents1 until character has been strengthened by age and knowledge4 ,here1 in these country and village graded schools1 the home life1 with its restraints and duties1 is preserved4 ,only the mentally strong or the courageous and aspiring will seek the halls of higher learning1 from which1 if they tend to go astray or neglect their work1 they are quickly returned to the bosom of their families4 ,if the central graded school is impracticable in some cases1 then a few families might join and employ a private instructor2 this would be far cheaper and more satisfactory than to send the children away from home4 ,it is not so much lack of facilities as a lack of an appreciation of the true value of an education which debars the country youth from securing even a wholesome and logical primary education4 ,the value of an education for citizenship must be placed first1 and its value as a money-making power second4 ,now the first question that is usually asked is1 ,will an education help to secure a position or to make money8 ,the question1 ,will an education help to a nobler citizenship8 is not even thought of4 ,we shall have no evolution in rural training until the parents secure a clearer conception of the true value of an education4 ,evolution along educational lines has already begun1 and it is not difficult to see many beneficial effects of the changed methods4 ,m4 ,demolins' recent book has this to say3 8#8,it is useless to deny the superiority of the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,we may be vexed by this superiority1 but the fact remains1 despite our vexation4'444 ,considering the superiority conclusively proved1 the author proceeds to search for the cause of this superiority4 ,he finds the secret of this irresistible power of the ,anglo-,saxon world in the education of its youth1 in the direction given to studies1 to the spirit which reigns in the school4 ,the ,english and the people of the ,united ,states have perceived that the needs of the time require that youth should be trained to become practical1 energetic men1 and not public functionaries or pure men of letters1 who know life only from what they learn in books4 ,m4 ,demolins has personally studied with care some prominent ,english schools4 ,in these he found the school buildings1 not as in ,france1 immense structures with the aspect of a barrack or a prison1 but the pupils were distributed among cottages1 in which efforts were made to give the place the appearance of a home4 ,they were not surrounded by high walls1 but there was an abundance of air and light and space and verdure4 ,in place of the odious refectories of the ,french colleges1 the dining-room was like that of a family1 and the professors and director of the school1 with his wife and daughters1 sat at table with the pupils40#b #b ,editorial1 8,literary ,digest10 ,july #b1 #ahih4 ,here is seen the beginning of better methods in primary education4 ,in the rural districts of ,america1 this system needs but little modification to fit it to the rural home4 ,all else must yield to the inborn rights of the children4 ,if that ,brussels carpet which adorns the dark and unused parlor must be pulled up and some of the worst pictures relegated to the garret1 in order that provision for a school-room for the children of the family or for those of the immediate neighborhood may be made1 then pull it up4 ,receive the visitor in the sitting-room or on the veranda1 and let the neighborly chat be where there is 8air1 and light1 and space1 and verdure40 ,reduce the above picture of an ,english school to suit environment1 and we have the family as a unit2 the mother and her companion as teachers2 and we shall have not only the appearance of home1 but a true home1 where duty commands and love obeys4 ,this is no far-fetched picture2 it is one drawn from many observed instances of these farm home schools4 ,the youths on the farm have a right to a liberal education if they desire it2 they own the earth1 and why should they not have the best it affords if they make good use of what the earth and all that therein is has to offer4 ,when we come to the higher education1 there are good and sufficient reasons why pupils should be massed4 ,at the college1 expensive and rare appliances1 great laboratories and museums1 ample and expensive libraries1 and distinguished and able teachers1 must be provided4 ,then1 too1 the pupils of the college have arrived at that period of maturity which gives them a fair degree of self-restraint and discretion4 ,connected1 as ,i have been for more than a quarter of a century1 with college life1 ,i have had many opportunities to observe the freshness1 vigor and purity of many of the country lads and lasses who come directly from the healthy1 solid home instruction of their parents4 ,i am well aware that this chapter will not revolutionize rural primary education4 ,i do not want it to do so4 ,revolution destroys2 evolution builds4 ,but if these brief words of one who received until near manhood the thoughtful1 loving home training of a mother1 who said1 8,i received a better education than my parents did1 and1 come what will1 ,i determine that my children shall have better opportunities for securing an education than ,i had10 shall persuade some that the farm home is the natural1 the appointed place for training children until they have passed the critical mental and physical period of life1 ,i shall be content4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,selection ,,and ,,purchase ,,of ,,farms ,in selecting a farm1 many things should be considered4 ,one purchaser may lay stress on the quality or productivity of the land1 another on its location as to market1 another as to the outlook or scenery1 and another as to the society in the immediate locality4 ,some would be unhappy if far removed from city or town1 while others delight in many broad acres far removed from the busy crowd4 ,all these different phases of the subject1 with many others1 should be considered before the purchase is made4 ,it is seldom that a farm can be secured which fulfils all desirable conditions2 therefore1 such choice should be made as will most fully meet the desires and tastes of the purchaser4 ,some farms are purchased with little or no thought of their producing a livelihood1 while others are selected largely for the purpose of securing profits in their cultivation1 and others are bought because they are expected to furnish safe and profitable investments4 ,it is evident that no specific or even general rule can be formulated which will be applicable to all purchasers1 since tastes1 training1 needs and desires of the purchaser vary widely2 nevertheless1 a discussion of the subject may be profitable4 ,those who secure their income and profits by agriculture alone should lay stress on four things2 viz41 healthfulness1 environment1 quality of land1 and water supply4 ,without health1 life often becomes a burden2 therefore1 climatic conditions1 soil and surroundings1 so far as they relate to physical and mental vigor1 should be considered first4 ,but health and vigor are not all1 for if the moral1 intellectual and social conditions of the people in the neighborhood are undesirable1 the children may take the road which leads towards semi-barbarism4 ,this road is open to all1 in city and country1 but parents should avoid thrusting their children into it4 ,church1 and social congenial and ,god-fearing associates should be accessible to the growing family4 ,children are and must be active1 physically and mentally1 if they are to grow straight2 and if provisions are not made for directing their energies into proper channels1 they are likely to find improper ones4 ,wherever the farmer sows not a full abundance of good seeds1 weeds are certain to spring up4 ,the farm must provide a fair and liberal income1 because want brings lack of true pride1 breeds carelessness1 even hatred of others1 filches self-respect and courage4 ,therefore1 if profits are desired1 good land1 land of wide agricultural capabilities1 should be selected4 ,the greater variety of crops the land is capable of producing and the more varieties the farmer raises1 provided he does not exceed his mental and executive capabilities1 the better will be his education and training4 ,frequently the purchaser has too little means1 and feels that he must secure cheap lands1 which too often are situated far from the railway markets and centers of activity4 ,in such a case1 he places himself outside the activities of the towns1 which are extremely helpful to him if he be wise enough to choose the good and refuse the evil which they offer4 ,of course1 much depends on the good sense of the parents and the inheritance and training of the children as to how much they will imbibe of that which is good and how much they will refuse of that which is evil4 ,children cannot be placed entirely beyond evil influences1 but they can be prevented from becoming too familiar with them4 8,vice is a monster of so frightful mien1 ,as1 to be hated1 needs but to be seen2 ,yet seen too oft1 familiar with her face1 ,we first endure1 then pity1 then embrace40 ,already something has been said with regard to an abundant supply of water1 but it may not be out of place to emphasize the necessity of securing healthful water for household purposes4 ,modern science has revealed the fact that a large number of diseases are introduced into the system by means of drinking water 7see ,chapter ,,xii74 ,all drinking water may be boiled2 it may be said that it should be1 for in too many cases water that appears limpid and pure1 drawn from sources which have every appearance of being uncontaminated1 is not only dangerous but sometimes deadly4 ,careful physicians recommend that all water be filtered1 but so many of the filters are imperfect and are so badly neglected that there is no certainty that filtered water is entirely safe2 therefore1 it may be said that the only safe way is to boil all drinking water4 ,as the streams and soil become more and more contaminated by unsanitary conditions1 it is only in rare cases that safe water can be secured naturally4 ,when wells or streams become low1 or when streams are quickly flushed by heavy rains1 invariably there is danger that the water which they contain may be impure4 ,care should be taken to provide an abundance of water1 and that used for household purposes should be treated in such manner as will make it entirely healthful4 ,having discussed the subject from four leading standpoints1 those of less importance may be taken up4 ,it is usually not wise to purchase a farm1 however well it may fulfil the requirements of healthfulness1 desirable environment and productivity1 if the lands by which it is surrounded are poor1 since man1 in one respect1 is like the tree toad1 which partakes largely of the color of the thing to which it adheres4 ,the ,french have a proverb which runs in this wise3 8,tell me where you live1 and ,i will tell you your name40 ,translated into modern thought1 it would read3 8,tell me your environment1 and ,i will tell you your character40 ,beauty of natural scenery may not be entirely ignored1 although utility1 the dollar1 must be kept prominently in view4 ,one can afford to economize in the living expenses in many ways not dreamed of by those who load the farm table with a superabundance of good things1 if it be necessary to do so1 to secure beautiful surroundings4 ,it may be only a question of choice between a moderate subsistence and a reposeful environment1 or an overloaded table with uninspiring surroundings4 ,natural as well as artificial beauty and pleasurable environment have their values4 ,a certain lot on one street sells for #a1jjj1 another one on the same street for #ejj4 ,they are both within easy reach of the business center1 on the same street-car line1 of the same size1 and have the same elevation4 ,why the difference in price8 ,because of environment4 ,a seat in the dress circle at the theater costs a dollar1 one in the peanut gallery ten cents4 ,the play can be seen as well with a glass in the cheap seat as in the more expensive one4 ,then environment has value1 as well as land and buildings4 ,the value of the farm may be greatly modified by the improvements upon it4 ,it is well to ask1 ,is the house well located8 ,may it not have to be virtually rebuilt before it is at all satisfactory8 ,will it be necessary to move and repair barns before they are at all suited to their purposes8 ,the improvements may be too extended for the needs of the purchaser4 ,some farms are overloaded with buildings 7,fig4 #d72 some have badly arranged1 unsightly buildings1 too good to destroy and too ugly and unhandy for either economy or pleasure4 ,farm buildings are not a direct source of income and are expensive to keep in repair2 therefore1 there would better be a slight deficiency of them than an ill arranged surplus4 ,all other permanent improvements1 such as orchards1 plantations1 fences1 and the like1 should be carefully considered4 ,a good bearing orchard of only a few acres may serve to furnish enough profit each year to liquidate taxes and interest charges4 ,the orchard may be cheaper at #ejj per acre than the balance of the farm is at #ge per acre1 or it may be only an incumbrance of good land4 ,is the farm naturally or artificially drained8 ,if not1 will #ce per acre have to be spent in thorough draining before the land is really satisfactory8 ,if not drained1 will it bring constant disappointment8 ,fences1 lanes and the necessity for them1 the amount and location of inferior land as pasture land1 the kind of weeds about the farm1 as well as the amount1 kind and location of timber1 should be considered4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,too many buildings for eighty acres of land4 ,land devoted to market-gardening should be near the market town where the perishable products are to be sold4 ,vegetables should reach the market early in their season in a fresh and presentable condition and cheaply1 if satisfactory profits are desired4 ,then land which can be tilled early 7warm or sandy land71 though it may contain a comparatively small amount of natural plant-food1 will be more satisfactory than rich1 cold land situated farther from the market4 ,an acre of poor1 sandy land near the market may be worth1 to the gardener1 three or four times as much as an acre of the more distant fertile upland4 ,near the town1 manures1 which are so necessary to force many market-garden products1 can be procured cheaply and in abundance4 ,the added distance of even one or two miles from the switch or shipping station may have an important effect on profits4 ,land situated far from market may well be devoted to stock-raising and such other products as may be marketed infrequently or at leisure4 ,as yet1 agricultural methods in ,america are so new that they have not adjusted themselves to the growing cities1 nor have specialized crops found their appropriate localities4 ,too often are seen truck farms located half a score of miles from the city1 and the meat-producing farms within sight of it4 ,as the country becomes older1 the varied activities in agriculture will fit themselves into their appropriate localities1 as they have already done in many parts of ,europe4 ,the dairyman of the ,channel islands has long since learned that the piebald cattle of the poulders are not suited to his wants1 and the boer of the lowland knows that the meek-eyed1 thin-skinned ,jersey is not best adapted to his cold1 windy country and wet pastures4 ,cost of tillage should be considered when valuing land4 ,when produced on friable land1 crops may be secured at much less cost than on tenacious clay4 ,on the other hand1 while sandy soils are the most easily cultivated1 they are ever demanding more plant-food1 and hence are not well adapted to grass or general agriculture1 as the expense of keeping them productive is usually so great as to preclude profits4 ,except in special cases1 as in truck farming1 it is cheaper to purchase natural plant-food in the soil than artificial fertility4 ,one acre of land may have potential plant-food sufficient under superior tillage for one hundred crops1 while another unaided will yield but half as many1 and yet the two pieces of land are often priced at the same figure4 ,in other words1 land of high productive power is usually cheaper than land of low productive power4 ,a good farm may be cheaper at #ej per acre than a poor one as a gift4 ,last1 but not least1 is the road to the farm4 ,every free-born ,american demands a public highway in front of his house2 if farms are small there must then be a highway about every mile1 or1 at most1 every two miles4 ,this leads to cutting up the country into enlarged checkerboards1 to a multiplication of highways so great that none of them can be kept passably good without overtaxing the land which adjoins them4 ,on account of the contour of the land over which they pass1 some roads are extremely difficult and are well described by the man who1 when asked how far it was from a certain town to another one1 answered3 8,thirty miles1 and it's up hill both ways40 ,as ,i write this ,i look out upon a washed clay road which stretches up and on towards the horizon for six weary miles1 so steep that the team must maintain a walk for the whole distance in ascending or descending4 ,what is land worth at the other end of this road1 as compared with that which lies six miles away in the other direction1 along a smooth1 level pike8 ,every grown farm boy should have a good horse and a good road upon which to drive1 if he be worthy of such a noble animal as the horse4 ,when he starts for himself let him locate on a good road4 ,there are always enough persons who are not thankful for advice1 especially if it be in a book1 who are looking for cheap land at the end of the hilly road4 ,many farms are purchased by young men just starting out in life before judgment has been developed by experience1 while men of mature years take in the whole problem1 or rather series of problems1 easily and at once4 ,the novice would do well to make a list of the topics enumerated above1 and add to them such others as appeal to his tastes or conditions and then study them1 one at a time2 in fact1 there is nothing left for the young man to do but to make out a score-card upon which he records his judgment in numbers as he investigates each phase of the difficult problem of selecting a farm4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,farmer ,,to ,,the ,,lawyer ,doubtless more than one reader will be astonished1 perhaps even horrified1 to think that the writer should seriously suggest that there ought to be any relation whatever between the farmer and the lawyer4 ,it has come to be generally believed by many farmers that lawyers are at best a necessary evil1 which it is well to avoid if possible2 but1 strange as it may appear1 this very feeling is responsible for much of the litigation1 with its attendant loss and sometimes ruin1 in which too many farmers have been engaged4 ,it is not the purpose of this short chapter to treat of the subject of law1 or to try to lay down any rules to be blindly followed in legal matters4 ,an old and learned lawyer1 who had all his life been engaged in a country practice1 once told me that the most prolific sources of litigation were alleged text-books of law1 bearing such alluring and seductive titles as 8,every ,man his own ,lawyer10 or 8,the ,farmer's own ,law ,book40 ,several years ago1 a wealthy manufacturer of the state of ,new ,york sent a bright son to a law school1 to help prepare him for a business career4 ,at the end of his course the proud father was present at commencement1 and1 in the course of conversation with his son1 said3 8,well1 ,john1 ,i suppose you have learned a great deal40 ,john answered1 8,i have learned one thing which ,i think is of value2 and that is1 if any legal matter comes up in the course of my business1 to consult the very best lawyer ,i can find40 ,that young man had really learned something worth far more than the cost of his course in the college of law4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no other of the so-called learned professions which is so exacting and which requires more devotion and study for its mastery4 ,some of the brightest men in this country have devoted a lifetime to the study and practice of law1 only to have just entered its broad field as they have been compelled to lay down their work4 ,how futile1 then1 would be the attempt to make every man his own lawyer6 ,the real purpose of this chapter is to open the eyes of the farmer to the necessity of a closer relationship between himself and the lawyer1--the family lawyer1 if you please1 having his confidence to the same extent as that of the family doctor4 ,most farmers desire a comfortable and a beautiful home1 and it is to aid such that this book is written4 ,such a farmer would doubtless consult a builder or an architect as to the foundation1 walls1 plan and materials of the home to be constructed1 and he would act wisely2 but how many would think so far as to consult a lawyer as to the very foundation upon which his home and his future happy occupancy of it rest3 the title to the farm4 ,too many times he is satisfied with the services of the village solons1--the shoemaker who is a notary public1 the justice of the peace1 or the pettifogger who daily overrules the supreme court or the court of appeals4 ,years after he has purchased his farm1 he finds1 perhaps1 that some man has given a deed whose wife has not signed1 and upon the death of the woman's husband our farmer friend is confronted with a law suit2 and he finds that this wife1 who did not sign the deed1 is entitled to dower in his farm1 the use of one-third of its value at the time her husband gave the deed1 for life4 ,such cases are frequent1 and might easily be prevented by submitting an abstract of the title to a lawyer at a cost of #e or less4 ,the flaw in the title may be a mortgage or judgment1 or a failure of all the heirs of a deceased person1 somewhere along the chain of title1 to join in the deed2 all of which might be overlooked by the ordinary business man1 and yet be readily detected by a lawyer4 ,some day the farmer may be annoyed by the encroachment of a neighbor upon his farm1 and1 when in the midst of a litigation1 find that the description of his farm is so defective that there is no relief4 ,i have in my possession a deed of a valuable farm containing this description3 8,beginning on the ---- road at the south end of a pile of four-foot wood2 running thence westwardly to a black cherry tree1 thence northerly to a stake1 thence easterly to a pine stump in the center of the road1 and thence southerly to the place of beginning1 containing #ajj acres1 more or less40 ,for fifty years this description has been copied1 a score of times1 by the various justices of the peace and notaries public of the neighboring hamlet1 but fortunately1 however1 it has never devolved upon the owners to establish the boundaries of that farm4 ,the first lawyer who got hold of this particular deed insisted upon such a description as would be tangible and certain4 ,not many years ago a mortgage on a valuable farm in ,tompkins county1 ,n4 ,y41 was foreclosed1 and during the foreclosure it was discovered that this mortgage covered about fifty acres of ,cayuga lake1 and what had been supposed to be a valuable mortgage was depreciated one-half by reason of the neglect and incompetence of the country conveyancer4 ,so1 too1 there are questions as to line fences1 water courses1 rights of way1 encroachment upon the highway1 and an innumerable train of threatening evils1 continually arising1 any one of which1 if neglected or referred to the many wiseacres common to every community1 may lead to costly litigation1 or even to the loss of the farm itself4 ,a bit of counsel at the right time1 which is when the matter first appears1 will prevent1 at trifling cost1 all the attendant evils of a law suit4 ,such instances are very common in the experience of every lawyer who enjoys even a moderate country practice2 and it is an alarming fact that perhaps fifty per cent of the titles to all the farms1 especially in the older states1 have flaws more or less serious1 any one of which is a microbe of trouble1 liable to assert itself when least expected4 ,this being so1 the general and inflexible rule should ever prevail1 never to take a deed of property without an abstract of title which has been examined by a competent attorney4 ,the so-called maxims of law1 often repeated and distorted1 especially in farming communities1 are extremely dangerous to follow4 ,they may have some foundation in fact1 but as almost all rules of law have their exceptions1 and as no one not versed in the law is competent to pass upon them1 they should never be blindly followed by a layman4 ,to illustrate this point3 ,not long ago a prosperous farmer1 relying upon the oft-repeated assertion that twenty years of peaceable possession gave title1 became involved in a lawsuit with the town over a fence which had been built in the highway adjacent to his farm4 ,he was an astonished man when the lawyer whom he consulted told him that possession for a thousand years of the land claimed would not give him title as against the public4 ,it seems almost incredible that a farmer1 who will drive his horse for miles to have him shod by an expert1 or who will summon a veterinarian to treat a sick cow1 will be satisfied to consult what someone has brightly termed a necessity lawyer1--because necessity knows no law1--upon matters affecting his farm1 his home1 or his competence1 rather than the experienced lawyer4 ,the cow might be replaced for forty or fifty dollars if a mistake was made1 but the farm1 the competence1 have cost a lifetime of labor4 ,perhaps the most striking example of neglect on the part of the farmer is in regard to the disposal of the fruits of his life-work4 ,it is true that anybody can draw a will1 and yet the fact that men and women allow anybody to draw their wills is productive of more fat fees than arise from any other source4 ,not long ago an acquaintance1 who did not realize the truth of the old adage that 8a little knowledge is a dangerous thing10 drew his own will1 and1 being childless1 sought to leave his property to his wife1 who had been the partner of his labors in a long life of toil4 ,the law of the state of ,new ,york requires two witnesses to a will4 ,he procured only one1 and upon his death the property1 which husband and wife had with so much toil secured1 was for the most part scattered among distant relatives1 almost strangers1 because he was afraid of lawyers and their fees4 ,in all the varied business which a farmer will meet1--the giving of notes1 mortgages1 etc41 or1 better1 the taking of mortgages1 bills of sale1 and promissory notes1--it is well to remember that different conditions of fact make necessary different interpretations of the law1 and that it is usually unsafe to follow a neighborhood precedent4 ,oftentimes you may be called upon to transact business where it is not convenient to consult a lawyer4 ,in such cases1 and in all transactions of any magnitude or possible importance1 all talk1 or the essence of it1 should be reduced to writing4 ,then it cannot get away or be distorted or forgotten1 and is in good shape to submit1 at the first opportunity1 to your lawyer1 who1 if an error has been made1 can1 while the matter is fresh1 more easily correct it4 ,remember that a contract is simply a meeting of the minds of the contracting parties1 and the best drawn contract possible is one that states1 in language simple and concise1 what each means as expressed by word of mouth4 ,most of the litigation so much feared by the farmer is due to the farmer himself and his neglect to seek an ounce of preventive4 ,it is true that there are rascally lawyers2 so1 too1 there are dishonest men in every trade1 occupation or profession1 but they are generally easily located4 ,if this chapter shall lead the farmer to feel that his business is farming1 that 8a jack-at-all-trades is master of none10 and that the law1 justly interpreted and enforced by those who know it thoroughly and well1 is to be the foundation of his success1 the guarantee of his home through life1 and the channel of its proper disposal after death1 then it has not been written in vain4 ,remember that the province of the true lawyer is to keep his client out of trouble1 rather than to get him out of trouble4 ,an honest lawyer1 of whom1 thank ,heaven1 there are very many1 notwithstanding the popular prejudice of those who have suffered from litigation1 will always try to steer you clear of litigation and loss4 ,in conclusion1 then1 always consult a lawyer in matters affecting your farm or property4 ,the average fees of a lifetime will not exceed fifty dollars1 and oftentimes valuable advice will be given free4 ,select one in whom you have confidence1 and stick to him4 ,become his friend1 and let the relation be one of mutual confidence4 ,do not neglect to ask him a question because you fear he will think you dumb2 he probably knows less about farming than you do about law4 ,he will need your advice and influence in minor matters as much as you need his4 ,call on him when you are in town1 and he will be glad to see you4 ,very often he will answer your question gratis4 ,when he charges you what may seem a large fee1 remember that you are paying for skilled labor1 and that you are entitled to expend as much for the possible welfare and happiness of your family as you expend upon the choice stock in your stables4 ,farmers1 more than any other class of men1 perhaps1 are prone to neglect legal matters1 or place them in incompetent hands4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,locating ,,the ,,house ,since more than three-fourths of the life of the farmer and his family are spent in sight of home1 more than one-half of life in the house1 and more than one-fourth in bed1 the house1 the place where they live1 should receive most careful attention4 ,having secured sufficient land to maintain a home1 and having made certain that these lands are productive and profitable1 a problem is presented in locating and building the house which demands a high degree of intelligence1 long1 painstaking study1 and a good understanding of what constitutes fitness1 beauty and durability4 ,life in the country gives one the idea of repose1 of strength and breadth1 of largeness1 of solidity and durability1 of healthy1 symmetrical1 solid development4 ,things which are evanescent1 unreal1 shoddy2 things which are simply for show or vulgar display2 things which have the appearance of aping that which may be appropriate under different conditions1 but are totally out of place in rural life1 must be avoided if utility1 natural beauty and comfort1 economy and repose are to be secured4 ,the pioneer in the wooded districts built the home in some sequestered nook or valley at the base of the hill or table land1 where the spring or the stream issued from the wood-covered heights4 ,the rural house of the pioneer allowed free circulation of the frosty air2 the problem of ventilation they solved without knowing it4 ,unwittingly they adopted the correct principle2 viz41 ventilation by many small1 gentle streams of air instead of by a few large openings1 which create dangerous drafts4 ,it must be admitted that our forefathers overdid the ventilation in most cases1 and rheumatism and chilblains were the result2 but the principle was correct4 ,now the spring has dried up1 the water from the deforested hills comes rushing to the lowlands until the streams overflow their banks1 and these and other changed conditions indicate that the future farmsteads should be erected on higher land1 on the slopes of the hills4 ,from the one extreme we have gone1 in some cases1 to the other1 and the home has been built on the very apex of some lofty hill4 ,such locations may be well adapted for summer residences1 where little or no farming is carried on1 but are not suitable for the farm home4 ,now that the house is constructed by more skilled workmen than formerly1 and out of better material1 there is little need of locating the home in the sheltered nook1 except possibly in the extreme north1 or on plains subject to tornadoes4 ,the object in locating the house on somewhat elevated lands is fourfold4 ,first1 air drainage4 ,in deep1 crooked1 narrow valleys the air is pocketed1 especially at night1 and the damp1 cold air settles in the lowest land as certainly as water finds the low-lying pool4 ,in these pockets between the hills1 frosts come early and remain late4 ,while traveling in western ,north ,carolina in the late summer and fall1 ,i could not but observe how every little break in the hillside and every narrow valley was filled at sunrise1 to the crest of the adjoining hill1 with a dense fog4 ,slowly the sun1 as it approached the zenith1 dissipated the fog1 but the narrow valleys were often free from fog for only a few hours each day4 ,here the home might be situated well up the mountain side1 as shown at the right in ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,a house in the bottom of the valley and one on the mountain side4 ,in a little pocket about twenty feet deep1 formed by hills1 with a road embankment at its mouth1 fruits failed1 although they flourished on the adjoining land1 where there was good air drainage 7,fig4 #f74 ,if fruits do not thrive on these undrained areas1 the natural conclusion is that the children will not4 ,it is found that the upper stories of city buildings are healthier than the lower ones1 and that the ground floor is the most unhealthy of all4 ,this is the only objection to a one-story house4 ,on the level prairies little opportunity is offered for locating the house above the level of the surrounding country4 ,fortunately1 many of the prairies are undulating1 and furnish most beautiful locations for country homes4 ,much may be done1 even in the level country1 to overcome the disadvantages of the site by placing the cellar of the house only two or three feet in the ground and grading up to within a short distance of the top of the wall4 ,a pool or two1 or a miniature lake near the barns1 and skilful planting of trees will lend a diversity and charm well worth the attention and time given to them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,a frosty pocket4 ,a pool may be made by scooping a place in hard earth or by damming a stream 7,fig4 #g74 ,if no water is allowed to flow over the dam and it is raised some two feet above the overflows1 it will serve every purpose as well as an expensive grout or stone structure4 ,it will be noticed in the picture that provision has been made by digging shallow ditches on the right and left for carrying off the surplus water when the miniature lake is full4 ,in constructing the dam1 a trench two feet wide1 at right angles to the stream1 should be dug to the depth of one foot1 or until solid ground1 unmixed with vegetable matter1 is reached4 ,fill the trench with clayey earth which is free from humus1 which will prevent the dam from leaking at the bottom where it meets the natural soil4 ,the stream which feeds the lake or pond should be small1 and need not be perennial if the dam is raised as high as it should be4 ,if the water is dammed back to the depth of twelve to fourteen feet1 and the banks of the pond are rather steep 7,a1 ,fig4 #g71 a cool1 useful miniature lake will be formed1 and not an unsightly marsh1 during the dry months of summer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,a useful pond4 ,dryish1 gravelly soil and subsoil is to be much preferred as a site for a house to clayey or dark1 damp soil which contains much humus4 ,if the ideal soil cannot be secured1 then thorough drainage should be provided4 ,in locating on a gentle declivity1 there is a constant tendency for water to penetrate the wall next the hillside or to pass under the wall and appear in the bottom of the cellar4 ,unless this can certainly be prevented1 another location had better be selected4 ,the house should be situated on somewhat elevated ground1 to promote both surface and house drainage4 ,if it is the purpose to introduce into the house more water than has been furnished heretofore1 then full provision should be made for carrying all waste water and fecal matter to a safe distance from the house1 and to do this beyond a peradventure1 sufficient fall must be secured to give permanency to the work and an unobstructed outlet4 ,one of the objections urged against a country home is that it is 8too quiet10 too much shut up from the outside world4 ,this1 in part1 is true4 ,it detracts much from the enjoyment and beauty of the country home if vision is shut in to a few acres just about the house4 ,the ,american farmer is not content to live under the conditions which delight the ,transvaal ,dutch farmer1 so isolated that he cannot see the smoke from his neighbor's chimney nor hear the bark of his neighbor's dog4 ,when visiting the home of the ,hon4 ,edwin ,morgan1 ,i found that he was having three large trees cut down4 ,it seemed to the uninstructed like vandalism4 ,when asked the reason for sacrificing these noble trees1 nourished and tended for half a century1 he answered3 8,i have many more trees1 but ,i have but one lake--,cayuga--and ,i must have vistas through which ,i can watch the white sail1 the crested waves1 the ever-changing colors of the water as the winds open vistas in the fleecy clouds4 ,i love the trees not less1 but the soft reflection of the moonbeams on the rippling wave more1 and so the trees must give way40 ,the outlook from the vine-covered veranda should be broad and extended4 ,if possible1 the hill and dale1 the stream and wood1 neighbors' houses nestled in plantations of trees and shrubs1 all should be in sight4 ,as life advances1 ,i see more and more clearly the effect of that noble lake1 its now boisterous now placid surface of the rippling water which laved the stony beach4 ,i see its effect on that 8tow-headed0 lad who at one time breasted the waves1 at another sat dreamily casting pebbles into the clear expanse1 wondering what life had in store1 what the great unknown world offered for the nut-brown1 high-tempered1 crude country boy4 ,then plant the country home where nature in her happiest moods has showered her richest gifts6 ,but beauty loses much of its charm where healthy vigor gives not the power to appreciate and enjoy it4 ,so the house should be located on a healthy eminence4 ,but it is not easy to find a location which shall combine convenience1 beauty1 air and water drainage1 and healthfulness all in the highest degree4 ,in the case of the farmer1 convenience as to carrying on the various operations of the farm and healthfulness are paramount4 ,drainage may be artificially improved1 vistas opened1 miniature lakes constructed1 and surroundings made more beautiful4 ,the farm and its equipment is the workshop1 and must be convenient in all its appointments1 or much energy is spent for naught2 health must be maintained at the highest1 or work may become but toil and drudgery4 ,in locating a house1 its relation to the size of the farm1 its productiveness and agricultural capabilities should be considered4 ,in locating the site1 two places should be carefully avoided3 ,first1 at the end of a long lane in the middle of the farm4 ,it may be said that the buildings form the natural nucleus in and around which the work centers1 and therefore they should be placed near the middle of the estate4 ,but the work carried on in the fields forms but a small part of the farmer's activities4 ,he must ever1 in these modern times1 be in touch with the school1 the church1 the post office1 the railway1 the market1 and his neighbors4 ,when an infrequent call is made at the end of this long lane1 the children appear like frightened deer as they seek shelter in the shrubbery or behind the corner of a building1 and the more the inherited timidity and reserve1 the wilder they appear4 ,the other location to be avoided is within a few feet of the highway4 ,such locations are only admissible in the city1 where land sells by the square foot4 ,what fortunes are sometimes spent in the city to secure some amplitude of space between the dusty1 noisy street and the residence6 ,what dignity and repose an ample1 well kept house-yard gives to even a plain1 modest house6 ,the effect of the mistake of locating the house too close to the highway is often accentuated by locating the barns on the other side and immediately upon the highway1 and in front of the house4 ,the location of the house1 as to the highway1 should be governed1 in part1 by the size and productive power of the farm4 ,if ample acres and means are available1 then the grounds should be ample2 if limited1 the grounds should be made to correspond4 ,in moderate-sized holdings1 a clear space of from #ajj to #bjj feet between the house and the highway1 and width equal to or exceeding the length1 will give room for a few shade trees and an ample grass plat4 ,the site should be either suited to the house or the house to the site4 ,therefore1 the character of the proposed house and the site should be considered at the same time4 ,one location may be suited to a one-story1 another to a two-story house4 ,no location is suited to a story-and-a-half house4 ,it may be said that on most farms the house is already located1 and has grouped around it plantations and barns4 ,in many cases it would be inexpedient to change the site of the house1 as this would necessitate many changes of outbuildings and other permanent improvements4 ,but if a careful inspection is made of farmsteads1 it will appear that many of the houses are in need of repairs and additions1 and that the cost of making them would be but slightly increased if either the house or the outbuildings were removed to a more desirable site4 ,in the great majority of cases1 the old barns should be gathered together into one structure1 or into two at most1 and adapted to the needs of modern agriculture 7as will be explained in a subsequent chapter74 ,all changes presuppose well matured plans and long and careful study of problems which will have to be solved if the location of the house or barn is changed4 ,the scope1 and particularly the cost1 of the changes should be known approximately before the execution of the plan begins4 8,for which of you1 intending to build a tower1 sitteth not down and counteth the cost1 whether he have sufficient to finish it8 ,lest haply after he hath laid the foundation1 and is not able to finish it1 all that behold it begin to mock him1 saying1 this man began to build and was not able to finish40 ,far better live in the old house1 with its inconveniences1 and get the greatest possible happiness out of the ancient structure1 than to build a new one and cover it with shining paints of many colors and a mortgage which sticks longer than the paints4 ,some of these old farm houses embody many beautiful and reposeful characteristics1 are well located1 and need only slight modifications to make them fit the site as nicely as a bird fits its nest4 ,if thought can be awakened as to the possibilities of these neglected homes and some information imparted as to their treatment1 or1 in other words1 if the eyes and understanding can be trained to take in the fundamental principles of beauty1 dignity1 fitness1 and repose1 we shall soon see fewer architectural monstrosities4 ,that there are not more is a wonder4 ,what lad or lass has ever had the slightest instruction by teacher in rural or city school along the lines of fitness1 beauty1 and healthfulness of sites for country homes8 ,the few youths who reach the institutions of higher learning are scarcely better off4 ,some of these are taught to see the beauties and wonders of nature through a microscope1 and1 in rare cases1 one may be taught to observe the lines of symmetry and form as exhibited in a poor plaster cast of some mythological ,roman warrior2 but as for any instruction which leads directly to a broad understanding or keen appreciation of nature in her broader1 happier1 and grander aspects1 it is painfully conspicuous by its absence4 ,so1 is it any wonder that the farmer is deficient in appreciation of the fitness and beauty of the tree-clad1 gently rolling plateau for a home site1 when the 8liberally0 educated fail to see the innumerable beauty-spots which cover the face of nature8 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,planning ,,rural ,,buildings ,the farm house is not what is called1 a 8paying investment40 ,it is not a direct source of income2 neither can the other rural buildings be said to produce a direct income4 ,generally speaking1 the farm house can fulfil but four purposes if properly planned and well constructed3 the house may serve to keep the family warm in cold weather1 cool in hot weather1 dry in wet weather1 and to gratify a love for the beautiful4 ,since the farm house as a paying investment is usually a failure1 if it does not supply the wants of the household and fulfil its object1 it becomes a failure indeed4 ,the first great mistake which the prosperous farmer usually makes is to invest too much money in expensive1 hastily planned buildings4 ,the house should be built to serve its inmates2 too often the inmates become the servants of the house4 ,a farmer's wife cannot well afford to devote one room in the overcrowded house to the storage of expensive1 useless upholstery and bric-a-brac1 nor time to keep them presentable and in order4 ,the debt incurred for a part of the purchase price of the farm forbids the employment of help to keep in order this home museum of things useful and beautiful1 and things useless and ugly4 ,if plainness1 durability1 and natural beauty in parlor1 sitting-room and chamber would only become fashionable1 what a burden would be removed from the shoulders of housewives1 both in country and city6 ,the time is at hand when health and intelligence should count for more among ,american women than show and the possession of a miniature upholstery shop4 ,the furnishings of the rooms should minister to the comfort of their owner1 and not tend to make life burdensome4 ,not infrequently farmers of energy and ability become possessed of more than a competence near the close of life4 ,having lived in somewhat restricted circumstances1 they think to make the close of life more comfortable and luxurious4 ,so1 notwithstanding the fact that most of the children have left the paternal roof1 they set about building a large house1 tear down or remodel1 and add to the outbuildings2 and at the close of life they leave the possessions encumbered and a farm overloaded with buildings as an inheritance to a child unable1 by reason of youth and inexperience1 to secure a competence sufficient to live and keep up repairs4 ,a beautiful farm of #ahj acres1 in central ,new ,york1 is provided with the following buildings3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,the buildings on a #ahj-;acre farm4 ,a house1 part #b-1 and part #a-story1 #aaj feet long4 ,a horse barn1 #cj by #hj feet4 ,a grain barn1 #dj by #hj feet4 ,a straw shed1 #bj by #cj feet4 ,a machinery and husking barn1 #bj by #hj feet4 ,a hay barn1 #af by #cj feet4 ,a cart shed and chicken house1 #bj by #bd feet4 ,a piggery1 #bj by #bd feet4 ,a corn crib1 #ab by #ah feet4 ,a carriage house1 #bd by #cb feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,the farm house that is too big for the farm4 ,some of this lay-out is shown in ,figures #h1 #i1 and #aj4 ,these buildings could not have cost less than #ae1jjj4 ,a fair valuation of the farm at the present time would be #ad1jjj to #af1jjj4 ,the family which now occupies the house consists of man and wife1 one child1 and two regular employes1 one of whom has his own home4 ,the father overloaded the farm with buildings1 his son is struggling to keep them in repair1 and the wife labors to keep unused rooms presentable4 ,these buildings might well serve for a section of land and a family of twenty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,scattered farm buildings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a cosy farm house4 ,another house not far from this one was built nearly a century ago 7,fig4 #aa74 ,if the upper story was a full instead of a half-story1 it would fulfil all the demands of a house1 except possibly beauty4 ,it stands on a rather steep front slope1 which stops abruptly on the shore of one of our beautiful inland lakes 7,fig4 #ab74 ,by reason of the steep incline at the front of the house1 a tall building would be far less beautiful than this lean-to1 severely plain structure4 ,this simple old house has a restful1 almost beautiful appearance when viewed in conjunction with the trees1 the steep1 sloping lawn1 and the broad1 placid lake4 ,the shaded veranda gives the idea of social repose far more than does the formal1 stiff1 restricted one shown in ,fig4 #i1 which has scarcely room for two easy chairs1 and is so constructed that no grateful shade is secured4 ,woe be to the man who destroys this restful old house and substitutes for it a lofty1 narrow-waisted one adorned with peaks and spires1 bay windows and a filigree cornice6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,the lake view in front of the house4 ,before ground is broken for the foundation1 carefully considered plans suited to the site1 the size and productiveness of the farm1 and the probable income1 should have been made4 ,it may be said that the size of the house should be governed by the size1 or the probable size1 of the family4 ,but 8it is better to dwell in the corner of the house-top than in a wide house0 with insufficient means to maintain it4 ,the general plans should be outlined at least a year before a new building or extensive enlargement of the old is begun4 ,the houses which are to be built in the future should be planned with a view to greater economy1 convenience1 beauty1 and durability4 ,there is now little excuse for erecting poor1 uncomfortable1 inconvenient houses on the farm4 ,true1 the rural population is handicapped1 for few city architects have made any study of the plain rural house1 and fewer have paid any attention whatever to farm barn construction4 ,even if architects had given attention to the needs of the rural population1 the farmer would feel that he could hardly afford to pay #ajj to #bjj for the plans of a house costing #a1jjj to #b1jjj1 exclusive of the labor which the owner1 his men and teams were able to perform upon it4 ,the task of planning a country house is too great for the country carpenter2 he cannot even interpret plans correctly2 his range of observation and training have been too limited4 ,then1 who is to plan the house8 ,why1 the farmer and his family1 and it will take at least two years of study and observation of other houses and their modern conveniences before intelligent1 crude plans and instructions are ready to be placed in the hands of the draughtsman4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a house of seven gables4 ,few persons are original2 therefore1 if the little conveniences which help to lighten work and make life more pleasurable are to find a place in the house1 they must be seen in other houses4 ,all men have more ideas than any one man2 therefore1 the range of study should be wide1 that whatever is suitable to the conditions may be adopted4 ,after having built many farm houses and barns1 and having made a long and most careful study of them1 ,i estimate that from #cj to #dj per cent of the cost of farm buildings is useless1 and sometimes worse than thrown away4 ,a small farm house on a modest-sized farm is shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,the site is beautiful1 and is worthy of a house better fitted to the situation1 the farm1 and the farmer4 ,the illustration shows seven gables1 and the house1 therefore1 might serve as a model for a work of fiction2 but the left-hand side of the house is like unto the right-hand side1 so it will not do for fiction1 for if the truth must be told1 there are eleven gables and twenty-two valleys on this house4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,filigree work is expensive1 and does not look well on a farm house4 ,the vine-covered veranda is most beautiful1 and looks cool and comfortable1 but there are too many vines1 and1 with the exception of a few days in summer at midday1 the air under this veranda would be damp and uncomfortable4 ,it is far better to secure shade by means of awnings and a few tall1 well trimmed shade trees1 which preclude dampness and permit air drainage1 than to overburden the veranda with vines4 ,the covering of this veranda is an unprotected floor1 and extends along the front and well around both sides4 ,notice the too expensive balustrade and frequent fancy posts1 an enlarged section of which is shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,all of this expensive wooden material is exposed to our ever-changeful1 paint-destroying climate4 ,the tinsmith1 the painter1 and the carpenter will reap a rich harvest if the external part of this house is kept in order4 ,it seems hardly necessary to call attention to the chambers1 which1 of necessity1 must be of such a character as to preclude comfort1 beauty and repose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,ground plan of a house which is out of character on a farm4 ,a house built after the ground plan1 ,fig4 #ae1 might make a not unpleasing picture in the landscape1 but it would not be appropriate for the farm1 and would be unnecessarily expensive in construction and maintenance4 ,it would be difficult to heat1 on account of the great surface exposure due to the broken outlines and numerous corners1 which are seldom air-tight4 ,the style might not be altogether inappropriate for a cheap seaside cottage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,a good model for a farm house1 having strong lines and much character4 ,a rear view of a somewhat larger house is given 7,fig4 #af74 ,it would not cause the passerby to stop and stare4 ,it may be compared to a well1 appropriately1 and simply dressed lady1 while the other is a reminder of the over-dressed1 furbelowed damsel1 who attracts the prolonged stare and the thoughtless comments of every sidewalk idler4 ,here are seen repose1 beauty1 elements of durability1 and freedom from expensive ornamentation and repairs4 ,a back view of this house has been shown purposely to emphasize the fact that the rear side of a house may be made nearly as beautiful as the front side4 ,it would be improved both in looks and convenience if a partially enclosed porch were placed over the door and two of the windows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,ground plan of the house shown in ,figs4 #af and #ai4 ,the planning of a house is not difficult if wants are clearly defined and the principles of economy1 dignity1 durability and repose1 as applied to the exterior of the house1 are fairly well understood4 ,if the site is ample1 and it always is in the country1 you have but to draw a rectangle1 the length of which is one-third to one-fourth longer than its breadth4 ,fig4 #ag is a ground plan of the house shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,the farm house shown in ,fig4 #ah is located thirty feet from a dusty1 muddy1 much-traveled public highway4 ,opposite to it1 and immediately on the road1 are located the ill-kept farm buildings4 ,how the aromas of the stables and kitchen are to be kept each on its respective side of the road is a question difficult to solve4 ,here1 as in so many cases1 the wife showed better training and more commendable pride in her surroundings and her workshop than the husband4 ,she may coax him some day to set a few trees1 which may serve in part to hide his workshop on the other side4 ,there are many things about this farm house which are commendable1 and the only wonder is that so few mistakes were made in planning it4 ,farmers' wives must have a sort of natural intuition2 how else can the fewness of their mistakes be explained1 for they have seldom received the slightest instruction along the lines of house-building4 ,true1 the tower on the corner is expensive and inappropriate1 but if the house had an appropriate setting of trees and shrubs it might be beautiful4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,the house is too fancy4 ,the small projections make it look weak4 ,the view is not attractive4 ,the farm house should have one large bed-room on the first floor1 a well appointed kitchen and living room4 ,when the size1 number1 and arrangement of the other rooms are fixed1 the lines which bound the outside of the rooms will not1 of necessity1 always coincide with the rectangular lines4 ,on one side the house may extend slightly over1 on another fall short of the lines which bound the rectangle4 ,does the rectangle embody fitness and beauty8 ,if the manufactured things by which we are surrounded are noted1 it will be seen how many of them are rectangular4 ,the book1 the sheet of paper1 the pamphlet1 the photograph1 the picture frame on the wall1 the rug on the floor1 the writing case1 the chiffonier1 the trunk1 and thousands of objects of use and beauty naturally take the rectangular form3 then why not the house8 ,man constructs along the lines of acute1 obtuse1 and right angles unless there are specific reasons for adopting curves1 while nature's modes adhere closely to circular and curved outlines4 ,a front view of a substantial1 appropriate house fronting to the west is shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,it is the house of which a rear view is shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,the wide1 projecting eaves1 the simple roof over the second-story windows1 and the plain veranda1 all protect the windows from storm and the glaring afternoon sun4 ,the eave-trough near the edge of the roof serves to relieve the plainness of the projecting roof1 which really has no cornice4 ,the side and ends of some of the rafters are seen1 and no attempt has been made to box them in4 ,the treatment is dignified1 plain1 inexpensive1 and suitable1--therefore it is beautiful4 ,the planting at the left is too thick for any but a dry climate4 ,a lofty elm tree would serve better for shading the veranda in the late afternoon1 and permit of better air drainage4 ,the trees shown are deciduous1 and therefore cannot form an ideal winter windbreak4 ,if they were evergreens they would be entirely too close to the house4 ,the mournful sighing of evergreen trees in the bleak ,november winds does not promote cheerfulness4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,a dignified1 restful1 economical house4 ,four college buildings are shown in ,figs4 #bj1 #ba1 #bc1 and #bd4 ,school buildings can hardly be said to be a part of the farm lay-out1 but they will serve quite as well as farm buildings to educate the taste and to train the eye and the judgment4 ,the reader will see at once which two of these buildings are most dignified and pleasing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,university building1--gray stone and tile roof4 ,in the schools1 the people of the rural districts have had no instruction which would lead them to carefully observe and compare buildings of any kind2 and hence1 with but rare exceptions1 they are ill-qualified to make an intelligent study of them4 ,they are totally unprepared to grasp the fundamental principles which should govern the erection of structures on the farm1 and totally ignorant of the principles to be observed when large public buildings are planned and erected4 ,fortunately or unfortunately1 some farmers will be called upon to judge of the plans for school and other public buildings4 ,the plans for a president's house and an expensive college building were submitted to a board of thirteen trustees of a flourishing agricultural college4 ,ten of these trustees were farmers of more than local reputation4 ,i forbear giving illustrations of the results3 suffice it to say1 that happily the house fell down before it was roofed in4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,university building1--red brick and slate roof4 ,a school building for the higher education should be light and airy2 but light does not enter a building freely through narrow windows placed in thick stone or brick walls4 ,fig4 #bb shows the effect of narrow and wide windows in the lighting of a building4 ,observe the shadow cast by the wall between the two narrow windows4 ,the sun is directly in front of the windows for but a small part of the day4 ,usually it enters at a more or less acute angle1 in which case a window three feet wide may be more than twice as efficient in lighting a room as one two feet wide1 and a four-foot window three or four times as efficient as one half its width4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,showing the greater proportionate amount of light admitted by one broad window1 as compared with two narrow ones of equal combined opening4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,university laboratories1--red brick and slate roof4 ,figs4 #bj1 #ba1 #bc1 and #bd serve to illustrate some of the fundamental principles which should be observed in constructing expensive public buildings1 and they may also serve for comparison1 and for educating the eye and the judgment4 ,the knowledge acquired in a study of these buildings may be useful in the planning and erection of rural homes1 for in some respects all buildings should be alike4 ,the farmer seldom has opportunity to contrast and study large detached buildings in which beauty1 dignity1 durability1 and1 above all1 utility1 are combined1 and he seldom plans and erects more than one homestead2 therefore1 many buildings should be observed1 the desirable and undesirable features noted and discussed thoroughly before the erection of a new structure1 however simple it may be1 is begun4 ,it requires no little knowledge to construct in the best manner even a modern chicken house4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,university building1--gray stone and slate roof4 ,the consideration of these four school buildings1 so different in character1 may not be dismissed at once4 ,they are introduced for the purpose of arousing interest and for giving opportunity to study the principles of external construction4 ,the true principles once mastered1 their application to rural homes will not be difficult4 ,if ,fig4 #bj be studied carefully1 it will be noticed that the lines are dignified1 restful and even beautiful1 although the building is constructed on straight lines1 with little attempt at ornamentation4 ,this building is sometimes taken for an art gallery1 and so it is1 for in it is taught the fine art of butter making4 ,its strong tile roof1 ample projection of eaves1 and freedom from peaks and valleys give assurance that this building1 barring accidents1 will stand for centuries with slight repair1 and be more beautiful as time tones down and softens the colors4 ,the building shown in ,fig4 #ba satisfies neither eye nor judgment4 ,it is a noble building as to size and material1 but are not the twenty miniature peaks out of place8 ,it does not have the appearance of a restful school building1 but of a mammoth seaside hotel4 ,the many little gables might have been combined into a few large1 noble ones1 which would have given abundant light and lent dignity and charm to this well built structure4 ,if we now transfer our thought from the large buildings to the brick dwelling house 7,fig4 #be71 we find the same strong lines1 the same dignity1 and the same durability of roof structure1 with a little added ornamentation1 as are found in some school buildings4 ,it should have been two-story instead of a story and a half1 and the veranda might well have been more ample4 ,this house1 too1 like the large stone structure 7,fig4 #bj7 is restful and satisfying4 ,one instinctively sees that the cost of maintenance of this durable structure will be comparatively little4 ,if this house be compared with the one shown in ,fig4 #bf1 it will be easily seen how much more appropriate and beautiful it is4 ,one is built of cream brick and roofed with soft-colored tile2 the other is roofed with poor shingles1 has a cheap hemlock frame1 and is sided with wood1 which is covered with gaudy1 ready mixed earth paints1 which may fade out before the bill for them is paid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,a simple and attractive little dwelling house4 ,some day a genius will set forth for the farmer1 in simple language and illustrations1 the fundamental principles which should be followed in the building of rural homes4 ,when that time comes the present children will then be mature and will have been so energized by nature-study work1 which is now being introduced so extensively in the schools1 as to be able to appreciate and profit by such literature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,another type of dwelling house4 ,some of the tree-embowered farm houses have such a restful look and often embody such true lines of beauty that it seems almost sacrilegious to change them4 ,on the other hand1 some of them are so ill adapted to farm life1 so unhandy and uncomfortable1 that radical changes should be made4 ,after the farmer has prospered1 he naturally has a desire to build a new house or to transform the old one1 not only to secure needed conveniences1 but that greater beauty and a more luxurious home may be secured4 ,it is difficult for him to find adequate help to solve the problem if he keeps the cost within reasonable limits4 ,he may know where to begin2 he seldom knows where he will end4 ,usually the first thought should be to preserve the old home1 or the greater part of it4 ,the architect is almost certain to advise demolition and the erection of a new house1 asserting that the new structure will be no more expensive than the remodeling of the old1 which may or may not be true4 ,but he does not always know what is best1 as he is usually unfamiliar with the farmers' needs and traditions4 ,sacred associations usually cluster round the old farm house2 every room and door and window may be associated with some epoch in life's history4 ,through yonder door came the happy bride a half century ago2 in yonder room the children were born2--every nook and corner has some tale to tell1 some happy association4 ,we cross oceans and mountains to view the birthplaces and homes 7which happily sometimes are preserved and held sacred7 of a ,burns and a ,shakespeare4 ,then is it not well to preserve the farm houses1 where possibly are the birthplaces of many 8,cromwells guiltless of their country's blood40 ,the first thought1 then1 should be to save and improve the old house1 not to destroy it4 ,but most of these farm houses are either too low or too high3 that is1 they are neither one- nor two-storied1 but a story and a half4 ,a two-story wing may often be placed either at the front or side1 and may serve to give dignity to the house2 or a lower room or two1 a few comfortable chambers1 and an entrance hall or vestibule may be added4 ,such addition would make it possible to remove the low1 flat-roofed1 leaky kitchen to more appropriate quarters4 ,the formerly unused parlor might be transformed into a living-room1 the former living-room into a dining-room1 and the old dining-room into a kitchen4 ,the details by which this evolution is made must1 of necessity1 be worked out by those who are to occupy the house4 ,that home is enjoyed best which is planned by those who have to pay the bills2 therefore1 ,i shall not go into detail of arrangement4 ,my object will have been accomplished if ,i succeed in creating a greater respect and love for the houses of our ancestors1 and shall have stayed the hand of the iconoclast4 ,any one can destroy1 but few can create4 ,so reasoned the college graduate on his return to the old homestead4 ,the old house 7,fig4 #bg7 was improved by making slight additions and some minor changes4 ,even the green window blinds and the white siding were not disturbed1 only brightened by the use of old-fashioned1 unadulterated paints4 ,the major effort was along the line of improving the live stock and making the acres more productive1 soon resulting in surplus funds1 which were used to erect the large and commodious barn4 ,simultaneously with the barn came the icehouse1 and the windmill for pumping water4 ,the observant passer-by instinctively knows that here are all the outward indications of morality1 intelligence1 and a rational and progressive system of agriculture4 ,if the family be judged by what is seen in this picture of the farm above ground1 the conclusion must be reached that here is a true home4 ,how different the impression is when we look through the open roadside gate in the next picture 7,fig4 #bh76 ,lack of intelligent purpose and of neatness and thrift is written upon every structure1 and is especially shown by the want of any logical plan in the arrangement of the numerous small structures4 ,the house1 which stands just to the right of the beautiful tree1 is modern in many respects1 but the front is supported by numerous ,grecian columns nearly twenty feet long1 as inappropriate and as useless for a farm-house as is a coon's tail on a lady's hat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,the old homestead4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,lack of intelligent purpose4 ,instinctively we judge people at first sight1 and largely by the clothes they wear and the manner of wearing them4 ,so we judge1 and often very accurately1 of families by the houses which shelter them and the objects which surround them4 ,one can easily tell much of the character of a man by the style and tip of his hat4 ,what noble deeds1 what lofty aspirations in this day and age of plenty and opportunity1 should we expect to have birth and fruition in the house shown in illustration ,fig4 #bi6 ,this building is not located in the country1 but in the suburbs of a small1 prosperous inland city4 ,unfortunately1 this village is unlike many beautiful country villages and small cities in western ,new ,york in which there are no poor people4 ,what a depressing effect this building must have on the well bred country lad who passes it weekly on his journey to and from the post office6 ,but how easy to go from one extreme to the other6 ,too many farm houses stand alone1 unrelieved by noble trees or by modest planting of appropriate shrubbery1 looking in the distance at the setting sun like lofty1 whitewashed sepulchres4 ,on the other hand1 the house may be made dark and damp by over-planting4 ,the house shown in ,fig4 #cj is a comfortable1 fairly attractive stone structure1 but is made gloomy and damp by the superabundance of evergreen and deciduous trees which fill all the space1 barely thirty feet1 between the house and the highway4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,environment often makes the man4 ,the church1 as well as the farm house1 is or should be the home of the farmer2 but the church1 like the individual1 may become proud1 in which case the old meeting-house is demolished and replaced by a modern new one1 which may serve for a time to stimulate laggards and appear to take the place of changed purposes in life4 ,but the debt saddled on the congregation tends to drive the church-goers to the rear seats and eventually out of doors4 ,i have sometimes thought that a country church could not well be too small4 ,man is a gregarious animal1 and does not enjoy church-going when the seats are but partially occupied4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,buried in trees4 ,the opposite extreme from ,fig4 #bf4 ,the plain1 substantial stone church shown in ,fig4 #ca is located in a sparsely settled district on the windy prairies of ,kansas4 ,it is certainly most appropriate and fits its environment2 all it lacks to make it beautiful is a suitable setting of trees and shrubbery4 ,it would then serve as a reminder of 8,god's first temple not made with hands10 and not of one made with a jig-saw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,a plain1 substantial stone church4 8,it is a plain1 rugged1 austere structure1 like the men who built it1 and any proposal to modernize it would be received with disfavor2 for it means more to the people than merely a church building--it is a sacred possession that is a part of their life10 and it is an appropriate monument to the sturdy religious character of the pioneers who stood in the forefront as a wall guarding human rights and liberties in those stormy days of the past4 ,the country church should be as truly a part of the farm structure as are the house and barn1 located on land held in fee simple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,where horses are kept4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,where boys and girls are taught4 ,the school-house also1 as well as the church1 should form a part of the farm above ground4 ,we sometimes build parlors for the pictures1 and palaces for the horses and cattle1 and neglect the school-house4 ,a city of #ab1jjj inhabitants in central ,new ,york has many expensive stables1 some of them works of art4 ,the barn shown in ,fig4 #cb is not more than half a mile from the school-house shown in ,fig4 #cc4 ,the beautiful stable might serve as a well appointed dwelling house by making a few minor changes4 ,while such buildings are being constructed1 the country school-house1 the pride of the ,american1 is left to fall into decay2 or1 if rebuilt1 it is located too often on a little scrap of land which may be almost worthless1 as though land in ,america were the most precious of all our inheritance4 ,this school-house is designed to provide accommodations for both farm and city children living in the suburbs4 ,the school-house has not a tree for shade nor a shrub to admire1 situated on the commons among weeds and rocks1 provided with one dilapidated outhouse unscreened by fence or tree or vine or shrub1 while the stable is surrounded with rare trees and shrubs artistically arranged and a smoothly shaven lawn4 ,are horses and cattle worth more than boys and girls8 ,to leave the reader to infer that all school-houses are like the one shown would be misleading4 ,a more pleasing illustration is presented in ,fig4 #cd4 ,here the meeting-house1 the school-house1 and a bit of the farm are shown in juxtaposition1 as they were found at the meeting of the roads in a shady grove4 ,since moral character should be the foundation upon which to symmetrically build intelligence and industry1 the church may be treated first4 ,while taking the photograph1 ,i was struck by the inexpensive character of the meeting-house4 ,the outside covering was of plain1 matched1 vertical boards1 but they were kept well painted and therefore looked neat1 and the seats were entirely comfortable4 ,i judge that here true1 practical religion finds a congenial home1 for a long line of comfortable sheds were being built to house the horses during the hours of devotion4 ,then1 too1 the sheds will serve a doubly humane purpose1 for where the pupils live long distances from the school the horse driven in the morning will have comfortable quarters until the school closes in the evening4 ,a public water-trough near by1 kept full from a spring1 gave evidence that this little church and the school-house were potent factors in promoting civilization4 ,to the right is seen a lad plowing4 ,here1 then1 in this picture is represented the three great corner-stones of civilization upon which to build a symmetrical1 beautiful superstructure4 ,to build on either one alone is to insure disappointment2 when life is grounded on all three the result is practical religion and intelligence eventuating in a better understanding of the complex soil and the interrelations of nature's modes of action4 ,it means steady and effective employment1 the abandonment of nomadic life1 and in lieu thereof a permanent home and an abundant supply of the necessaries and comforts of life4 ,the ,bible1 the school book1 and the plow should all be engraven and intertwined in our modern civilization4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,school house and church at the corners4 ,so far the general characteristics1 fitness1 durability and beauty of the country farm house have been discussed and illustrated1 together with such public buildings as are directly related to rural life4 ,but having discussed the size1 best proportions1 and most suitable materials for the house1 and having put them into visible form1 the building may be made hideous and unnecessarily expensive by careless or ignorant treatment of external details4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,the sway-back house4 ,most of the farmers who now occupy the country west of the ,alleghanies came from the east and brought with them a varied assortment of styles of architecture inherited from the many ,european countries from which they or their ancestors came4 ,these people1 though of limited means1 had pride and tenacity of purpose1 and they could not easily change to the plain and appropriate exterior treatment of the farm house4 ,this inheritance and persistence1 as shown in the farm houses of the middle states1 is fitly illustrated by the expensive and heavy return cornice1 the massive columns1 and the complicated and ornate entablatures which are supposed to adorn an otherwise plain house4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,the expensive box cornice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,a plain and durable cornice4 ,i have said that there is no place for the story-and-a-half house4 ,here is shown 7,fig4 #ce7 the results of two serious mistakes2 viz41 an effort to build a cheap frame of such a form that it is almost impossible to tie the building together1 with the result that the roof is in danger of collapsing2 and the attempt to beautify this cheap structure by over-heavy1 complicated cornices4 ,an enlarged detailed drawing of a typical return cornice is shown in ,fig4 #cf4 ,on the right is shown a cross-section outline of the members of the cornice4 ,there are ten of them4 ,the mouldings are now 8stuck0 by machinery1 but these were made by hand1 and #aj and #h were formed of two pieces each1 making twelve members in all4 ,the infinite pains and labor in preparing the material and placing it cannot be realized except by a carpenter who has spent weeks and months in sawing out1 in planing and 8sticking10 and mitering such an elaborate system of useless ornamentation4 ,compare this with the cornice1 or rather projection1 of a house 7,fig4 #ai7 which cost #f1jjj4 ,fig4 #cf shows a projecting eave of scarcely one foot4 ,the next illustration 7,fig4 #cg7 shows one of nearly two feet4 ,the latter is far superior to the former in that it is quite as beautiful1 is inexpensive1 and protects the external paint and woodwork far more than does the former4 ,the piece at the top of the rafter serves to cover the projecting cornice1 and as a roof-board as well1 and gives opportunity to place the eave trough well outside1 which prevents damage to the house should it ever leak4 ,the frieze board is simple and serves its purpose well4 ,it has taken a long time to learn that a wooden roof which is at least one-third pitch is far more durable than the flat roof shown in ,fig4 #ch4 ,here the return cornice is carried across the entire end of the house1 and the gable is ceiled with plain matched boards1 both likely to leak and to rapidly become paintless4 ,many veranda and porch floors and outside doors have no roof over them1 or other protection4 ,this is poor economy4 ,it would be better to reduce the cornice to the fewest possible members1 if it were necessary to do so1 in order to secure means to roof the veranda1 which1 unprotected1 decays rapidly4 ,or the money expended on the cornice1 which results in neither use nor beauty1 might well suffice for the building of an additional room1 or to provide many conveniences1 such as hot and cold water1 storm sash1 and window screens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,the old-time gable end cornice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,framework of a ship4 ,when the farmer reached the fertile1 treeless prairies he was compelled to economize in lumber4 ,some genius soon discovered that the best and most scientific method of constructing the frame of a house was along the lines of ship construction 7,fig4 #ci73 that is1 ribs1 joined to a sill or sills1 encircling the entire structure and placed at equal distances apart4 ,two keels or sills joined together by joists1 straight ribs--joists--instead of curved ones1 a roof instead of a deck1 and the balloon frame 7,fig4 #dj7--the best of all frames when properly constructed1--was invented4 ,unwittingly the ship construction1 slightly modified1 was adopted4 ,in this frame the westerner departed radically from the style of his ancestors1 but he could not be satisfied with a plain oversail projection4 ,he could not afford the heavy box cornice4 ,having succeeded so well on the frame1 he set about inventing a new style of decoration for the projecting eaves1 but the cornice was not a success4 ,the decorations shown in ,figs4 #da and #db serve to make hideous many a cheap dry-goods-box house1 which blisters and cracks in the hot prairie winds4 ,these houses sometimes receive no paint or one coat1 or at most two1 and in a few years1 what with storm and sun1 mischievous boys and wind cracks1 this ginger-bread1 dog-eared cornice1 made of inch lumber by the use of scroll saw1 looks as dilapidated as a college boy after a cane-rush4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,the balloon frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,the jig-saw cornice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,too elaborate and short-lived4 ,the thought of permanent beauty1 as well as economy and usefulness1 should enter into the plans of a house4 ,but what is beauty8 ,i am well aware that many of my readers will not agree with me1 for 8,the standard of beauty ofttimes it doth vary3 ,two pretty girls are ,eliza and ,mary40 ,they may be very unlike1 yet both beautiful4 ,from the farmer's standpoint it may be said that the chief characteristics of beauty are fitness1 naturalness and simplicity4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,building ,,the ,,house--,,general ,,lay-,,out ,the reader will understand that no attempt is made to treat this subject in detail nor strictly from the architect's viewpoint4 ,a casual observation will make it self-evident that the structures on farms have received little attention as to beauty of form1 economy of construction1 or adaptation of means to ends4 ,like many others1 ,i have noted all this and have made a somewhat careful study of the causes which usually have produced this want of harmony1 durability1 adaptability and economy in the construction of rural homesteads4 ,the many illustrations of detail are designed to emphasize underlying principles4 ,principles are always the same3 details may be varied to suit conditions4 ,while the numerous illustrations are meant to explain the details1 it is believed that they will also give help to a large part of the rural population who have had little opportunity to secure any adequate instruction in the art and science of home building4 ,usually the cellar would better be extended under the entire house1 although it is neither wise nor healthy to store large quantities of material in it which1 if not cared for1 may decay and vitiate the air in the rooms above4 ,if the cellar be properly constructed there is no objection to storing family supplies of fruit and vegetables for the winter in this partly underground room4 ,large quantities of vegetables held for future sale should not find storage in the house cellar4 ,now that the floors of houses are made tight1 often double with paper between1 and carpets or rugs to cover them1 the cold no longer enters the cellar through the floor4 ,the cellar wall may therefore extend upwards on three sides1 well above ground1 that opportunity may be given for the introduction of light and air4 ,with only single-glazed cellar windows1 no building paper1 and floors and boarding of unseasoned lumber1 the pioneer was compelled to place the cellar well under ground1 or bank the walls with manure if the winter's supply of vegetables was to be made secure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,cellar under the upright only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,cellar under the entire house4 ,a common form of the foundation for farm houses is shown in ,fig4 #dc--;a main structure1 reinforced by a wing which1 in most cases1 has no cellar under it4 ,fig4 #dd shows the cellar under the whole structure4 ,if the walls of the unexcavated wing are placed #c feet below ground1 as they should be in a cold climate1 and extend #b feet above ground1 it will take more stone to construct the foundation walls of the house with a cellar under only a part than when it extends under the entire structure4 ,the stone saved by leaving out the wall between the two sections of the house will more than suffice for building the walls of the wing to their full height4 ,in the latter case1 it would cost slightly more for excavation than in the former4 ,since cellars1 when appropriately used1 are in some respects the most useful and cheapest rooms in the structure1 there is no economy in not placing them under the entire house4 ,a cellar may be divided by #d-;inch brick walls into various rooms1 corresponding in shape to those above1 thereby securing for the partitions in the superstructure1 separate compartments1 in order that the vegetables1 fruit1 milk1 and furnace may be separate one from the other4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,a footing course under the cellar wall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,showing a layer of material to stop vermin4 ,to prevent rats from entering the cellar under the walls1 either one of two methods may be adopted4 ,a footing-course projecting beyond the outside of the wall arrests the rodents1 for having dug down to it they have not sufficient intelligence to dig around the footing-course 7,fig4 #de74 ,or the desired result may be accomplished by placing a thin layer of refuse broken glass against the outside of the wall two to three feet from the surface of the ground 7,fig4 #df74 ,cellars would be much improved if they had higher ceilings4 ,at least #g feet should be allowed between the cellar floor and the under side of the overhead joists4 ,all cellars should have concrete floors and plastered ceilings1 for both warmth and cleanliness4 ,in an extremely rigorous climate1 the upper angle of the wall should be lathed and plastered as shown in ,fig4 #dg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,protecting the cellar from frost by plastering across the upper corners4 ,if the front cellar wall and the greater part of the side walls extend #b to #c feet above the earth1 a good sized window 7which may be single- or double-glazed7 can be secured4 ,the rear walls should extend not more than one foot above ground4 ,if the earth slopes rearward1 then grade up to the wall until not more than two steps will be necessary to reach the kitchen floor2 it is easier to climb a gentle ascent than steps4 ,the front steps are used but a comparatively few times1 while the rear ones are used many times1 so it matters little if the front of the house is several steps above grade4 ,it makes a visitor unhappy to know that the busy housewife must descend three steps1 walk forty feet and ascend two steps to reach the well platform1 then reverse the journey1 to secure the drink of cold water desired 7,fig4 #dh74 ,the illustration in ,fig4 #di shows how the farmer solved the difficulty by building an elevated plank walk from the kitchen to the well4 ,fig4 #ej shows how he might have solved it in another way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,the daily route to the well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,a short-cut to the well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,an elevated earth walk to the well4 ,the hillside wall may be kept dry and the cellar free from water by drainage or by backing the wall with loose rubble stone1 or by both 7,fig4 #ea74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,a rubble stone backing and a drain at the bottom4 ,,building ,,the ,,foundations ,the walls should be placed below the frost line and have fairly broad bases1 standing on naturally or artificially drained earth4 ,perhaps no part of the house structure receives so little attention as do the foundation walls2 therefore1 ,i shall enter somewhat into the details of construction4 ,bricks which have been recently burned and those which do not contain considerable quantities of moisture should be thoroughly wet before they are placed in the wall4 ,if the mortar sets too quickly by reason of the dryness of the bricks1 a strong wall cannot be secured1 however good the mortar may be in which they are laid4 ,the foundation walls for most houses1 however1 are made of stones laid in mortar composed of lime or cement1 or a mixture of the two1 and sand4 ,a large proportion of all the sand used for foundation work is markedly inferior1 and the mortar is usually very imperfectly mixed4 ,if water lime is used with the sand it is frequently old1 and if old1 inferior4 ,even the cements deteriorate somewhat with age1 and the common stone lime is often used after it is partially or entirely air-slaked4 ,if the binding material be inferior and the sand have quantities of fine earth or vegetable matter mixed with it1 it will be seen how impossible it is to secure a strong and binding mortar4 ,even if fresh lime and sharp sand are used1 in accordance with the usual specifications in building contracts1 the mortar bond may still be weak by reason of careless or imperfect mixing4 ,all mortar1 even that used for laying stones and bricks1 should be mixed until a lime film surrounds every particle of sand4 ,plastering the outside of the wall below the grade line and pointing the wall above cannot make a firm1 good wall out of one which has been carelessly laid or one bedded in inferior mortar4 ,chimneys may provide for one or more flues4 ,better draft is likely to be secured when separate flues are provided for each stove or heater than when one flue serves for two or more stoves4 ,the diagram1 ,fig4 #eb1 shows three flues in one stack or chimney4 ,one is for the furnace1 another for the fireplace1 and another for the laundry stove4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,three flues in the chimney1 one of them leading from a fire-place4 ,all chimneys should have broad footing courses1 which should rest on solid earth to prevent settling4 ,they should not be supported by means of brackets 7,fig4 #ec7 or on the tops of small cupboards attached to the wall4 ,chimney walls of only #d-;inch thickness are not safe2 if they be double1 or #h inches thick1 the number of bricks required are increased by more than #ajj per cent1 and the cost of the foundation is also increased4 ,the heavy walls are objectionable by reason of added weight and cost1 and because of the room they occupy4 ,the introduction of fire-clay chimney lining makes it possible to construct safe chimneys with #d-;inch walls4 ,then1 too1 the lining costs rather less than the extra course of brick1 and the completed flue is smooth and of uniform dimensions on the inside4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,chimney standing on a bracket4 ,the openings made in the frame for the chimney are often too small1 in which case the chimney is likely to be 8hung0 on either the joists or rafters4 ,there should be a clear space between the woodwork and chimney4 ,if the opening in the frame is too small1 the mason will be tempted to clip the brick where the chimney passes by the wood and then restore the chimney to its full size when the obstruction is passed4 ,this results in hanging the chimney on some member of the frame4 ,should the foundation settle1 the wall may part and sparks may then easily reach the dry wood in the room or at the roof of the house4 ,it is believed that the farmer1 after reading these lines1 may secure a good wall and one which fulfils the specifications1 if he watches the work carefully as it progresses4 ,if he does1 he will have a much better wall than the average4 ,since the material and the kind of work desired vary so widely1 it is not wise to lay down any fast rule for the proportions of the binding material and sand which may be used4 ,it may be said1 however1 that the proportions vary from #a of lime or cement to #b of sand1 to #a of the former and #f of the latter4 ,,wooden ,,houses--,,the ,,frame ,almost any variety of wood will suffice for the frame of the house1 provided it does not twist and spring out of shape too much before or after it is put into the building4 ,since the sills are to be placed on solid1 continuous walls1 they need not be large4 ,the only objection to box and small sills is that they may allow too easy access of air and rodents from the walls of the rooms to the cellar1 and vice versa1 unless the spaces above the sills and between the studding are bricked in as high as the top of the first tier of joists4 ,a rough floor laid before the upright studding is placed is shown in ,fig4 #ed4 ,this first floor should be laid diagonally1 for the one which is laid immediately upon it should not be placed either parallel or at right angles to the boards of the first floor1 or parallel with the joists4 ,a little reflection will reveal the reasons for all this4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,the rough floor laid before the studding is erected4 ,joists should be bridged4 ,fig4 #ee shows the more common method of bridging4 ,the joists may be #b #h in small1 inexpensive houses1 and #b #aj or #b #ab in large ones1 bridged once in a #ab-;foot span1 twice in a #af-1 and three times in an #ah- or #bj-;foot span4 ,the bridging is of the utmost importance and should never be omitted1 as it serves to strengthen the floor joints and prevents the disagreeable trembling of the floors so annoying in many of the older houses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,bridging the joists4 ,the studding for a balloon frame is either #b #d1 #b #e or #b #f1 and the length desired4 ,the #b #d studding are too light for an ample two-story house1 and they do not give enough thickness of wall for the most desirable window- and door-jambs4 ,the doors are not held firmly in place1 and when they are closed quickly by the wind or by children1 the plastering is injured4 ,studding #e inches broad1 fortified by outside diagonal boarding 7,fig4 #ef71 gives the ideal conditions unless the house is unusually large1 in which case the studding should be #f inches broad4 ,the diagonal boarding costs a trifle more in material and labor than the horizontal1 but it is so much superior that the extra expense may well be incurred4 ,every board forms a double brace1 one where nailed to the studding and one where the siding or 8clap boards0 are nailed to the rough boards and the studs4 ,nothing has yet been discovered which is so satisfactory1 and which gives such strength and protection to the frame as does this preliminary diagonal boarding1 covered with paper4 ,when completed it forms a wall open enough to prevent dry rot and tight enough to prevent the entrance of wind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,a wall strengthened by diagonal sheathing4 ,the second-story joists rest on stringers or light girders #a #e inches1 as shown in ,fig4 #eg4 ,if the girder is set flush with the inside of the stud1 ,a1 the laths must lie directly upon the face of the girt4 ,this gives no room for the mortar to form clinches behind the lath4 ,this #e-;inch girder swells when the mortar is put on and shrinks when it dries1 which may result in a crack in the wall in the angle near ,a4 ,since1 by reason of faulty construction1 there are no clinches behind the lath1 the plastering becomes loosened1 and this is likely to be the beginning of serious trouble4 ,if the girder is let in so that its face is not flush with the inside of the stud and then furrowed out with small pieces of lath1 the effects of the shrinking of the girder will be obviated and room will be left for clinches behind the lath4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,second-story joist4 ,in windy1 cold climates1 where lumber is at all abundant1 a second boarding may be placed inside1 covered with paper and furrowed out with a single thickness of lath to allow1 as in the former case1 the formation of clinches4 ,there is no objection to boarding horizontally on the inside1 if the outside has been boarded diagonally4 ,the term 8rough boarding0 has been used1 but it should be said that the boarding which forms the first covering1 sometimes called sheathing1 should be brought to uniform thickness and matched or rabbeted4 ,wherever greater strength of wall is desired than can be formed by a single #b #e studding1 as at the corners1 or by a single #b #aj joist1 as where partitions are to be placed1 it is better to spike two or more pieces together than to have pieces sawed of the dimensions desired4 ,these made-up pieces or timbers are stronger than solid pieces of the same character and dimensions1 since the continuity of the cross-grain of the wood is broken in the made-up pieces4 ,in the construction of large bridges the timbers1 where exposed to the weather1 are made up of smaller timbers1 since they are then not only stronger but more durable and less subject to dry rot than if they are solid 7,fig4 #eh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,construction of a large bridge4 ,plates are made up of material #b inches thick and as broad as the studding is wide1 doubled1 with joints mismatched4 ,this most valuable principle of building up timbers of several thin pieces is a somewhat recent practice4 ,where very large timbers are required1 as in trussed or self-supporting roofs1 the timbers of which are not exposed to view1 they are frequently made up of boards #a inch thick and as broad as the vertical dimensions desired4 ,this method is sometimes used in constructing timbers for both houses and barns 7,fig4 #ei74 ,roofs of houses are1 of necessity1 extremely variable1 as the house is not planned to suit the roof1 but the roof to suit the house4 ,flat metal roofs of all kinds should be avoided1 as far as possible1 on the farm house1 however well they may be adapted to buildings in the city4 ,metal roofs are not objectionable in themselves1 but only when they are laid flat on farm houses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,a made-up plate1 constructed of boards4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,showing the principle of construction of ,fig4 #ei4 ,the pitch of roofs1 like their shape1 is also variable4 ,nothing below one-third pitch should be used except for special conditions4 ,in ,fig4 #ch1 page #abg1 is an illustration of the common pitch of roofs in fashion fifty years ago4 ,some roofs were even flatter than the one shown4 ,the fashion now is to construct house roofs with nearly or quite half pitch4 ,while steep roofs are desirable if made of wood1 there is some danger that the change from the nearly flat roof to the steep one will be carried too far 7see ,fig4 #ac1 page #ie74 ,various pitches of roofs are shown in ,fig4 #fa4 ,steep roofs do not require as strong rafters1 thrust less upon the plates1 are more durable1 and are less likely to leak than flat roofs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,pitches of roofs4--1 1 1 4 ,since roofs are of various pitches1 they require rafters of various lengths and bevels4 ,farmers and many carpenters have much difficulty in getting the length and bevels of both rafters and braces4 ,most carpenters' squares have so-called brace rules stamped upon their tongues4#c ,these give the length of the brace for the shorter and more common runs1#d but they do not give the angles of the ends of the brace4 ,then1 too1 the length is given in inches and hundredths of inches1 and carpenters' squares are not divided into hundredths1 so this complicated brace-rule is as useful as a steam whistle on an ox-cart4 #c ,the short end of the square4 #d ,the perpendicular and horizontal distances covered by the brace4 ,the methods by which the length and bevels of any member of a frame which departs from any other member at an angle are so easily understood that the wonder is that all are not familiar with them4 ,for a simple illustration1 let it be supposed that rafters for a building #ah feet broad1 with one-third pitch1 are to be laid out 7,fig4 #fb74 ,the rafter1 ,r1 takes the form of a brace4 ,the run is #i feet horizontally or half the width of the building1 and #f feet perpendicularly4 ,if the square be laid upon the stick designed for the rafter1 as #f is to #i1 one side of the square will give the shorter and the other the longer angle or bevel 7,fig4 #fc74 ,if the square is laid on #ab times at #i and #f inches1 it will give the length of the rafter1 for #ab times #i is #ajh1 half the width of the building1 and #ab times #f is #gb1 the height of the peak above the plates4 ,if the square is laid on #ah #ab inches1 the proportion is preserved1 and hence the angles2 the square would only have to be laid on six times4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,laying out a roof4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,laying out a rafter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,laying out a timber4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,a brace4 ,consider a building #bj feet broad and #f inches above one-third pitch4 ,the half of #bj feet equals #aj feet1 or #abj inches4 ,seven feet #b inches 7#hf inches7 is the height of the peak above the plate4 ,it is quickly seen that this problem1 like the other1 can be solved in more than one way4 ,if the long end of the square is laid on at #bj inches and the short end at #ad inches1 and this is repeated six times1 both the bevels and the length will be secured 7,fig4 #fd71 for #f multiplied by #bj equals #abj inches1 half the width of the building1 and #f multiplied by #ad equals #hf inches1 the height of the peak4 ,or the long end of the square might be laid on at #bd and the short end at #ae five times1 but squares are not marked in fifths of inches1 hence the previous method would be best4#e ,the same results would be reached by laying the square on at #ae and #aj inches2 eight steps would then be required instead of six4 ,the longer and fewer the steps within the limits of the square1 the better4 #e ,since the square is laid on1 see ,figs4 #fa1 #fb1 in the same manner as for cutting a stair2 each one of these spaces is called a 8step40 ,if it is desired to cut a brace #c #d feet run1 #c steps1 using the lengths #ab and #af1 will give both the length of the brace and the bevels 7,fig4 #fe74 ,take a rafter which has a projection requiring a notch to be cut in the lower side1 and the same rule will apply4 ,the line ,a1 ,fig4 #ff1 is horizontal and the face of the plate is perpendicular2 therefore1 the line ,b must be at right angles to ,a4 ,the only thing now to be determined is how deep the notch shall be1 for it is evident that if the line ,a represents the long end of the square and ,b the short end of the square1 the notch will fit the plate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,adjusting to the plate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,the rafter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,the rafter trimmed on the outer end4 ,that part of the rafter which extends over the building may be reduced in size1 but usually it is well to leave it entire 7as in ,fig4 #fg7 if the house is large4 ,if the lower end of the rafter should appear too heavy1 it may be treated as in ,fig4 #fh4 ,the bevels at the ends of the rafters are the same as at ,a and ,b 7,fig4 #ff74 ,the outlines of a story-and-a-half house1 which form is most undesirable for various reasons1 are shown in ,fig4 #fi4 ,the chambers cannot be well lighted or aired4 ,the outlines of the room interfere with the placing of furniture1 and such chambers are far more uncomfortable in warm weather than are those in two-story houses4 ,it will be seen that the collar-beam1 ,c1 must be placed so far above the foot of the rafters in order to get a fair height of ceiling1 that it has little binding power1 and that the building cannot be tied together at the plates in the center1 since the tie would interfere with the door in the cross wall4 ,it will also be seen that the second-story joists are so far below the plates that their power to hold the building together is small4 ,many of the one-and-a-half-story houses have 8sway-backed0 peaks because of this faulty construction4 7,see ,fig4 #ce1 page #abd1 broken-back house47 ,if story-and-a-half houses must be built1 then they should be covered by roofs having at least one-half pitch1 in which case the collar-beams could be placed relatively lower and the thrust on the plates would be very much diminished by the steeper roof 7,fig4 #gj74 ,one-1 two-1 three- or more storied houses are easily and certainly prevented from spreading since one tier of joists always coincides with the foot of the rafters1 to which they can be securely fastened4 ,fortunately1 the story-and-a-half house is less constructed than formerly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,outline of a story-and-a-half house4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,half pitch and an efficient collar-beam4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,building ,,the ,,house1 ,,concluded4--,,outside ,,covering1 ,,painting ,that part of the house which of necessity must be exposed to the buffetings of snow and rain1 wind and sun1 should be considered more carefully than any other part except the foundation4 ,if economy demands1 the doors1 floors1 bath rooms1 and wardrobes may be of plain and inexpensive material1 for later they may be replaced when means justify additional expenditure2 but if the outside covering be faulty1 the house is a partial failure from the beginning4 ,the first principle to be observed is to place all projections intended to serve as water-tables at somewhat acute angles1 for if placed at nearly right angles with the sides of the house1 rains accompanied by heavy winds will certainly reach the framework4 ,the water-tables which crown the top of the base-board are more exposed than those which are higher up1 and therefore should be steep and rabbeted to prevent the water from reaching the sills4 ,the too usual method is shown in ,fig4 #ga4 ,an enlarged view of a better style of water-table is shown in ,fig4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,a faulty water-table4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,a good water-table4 ,outside window frame sills which have insufficient pitch tend to become water-soaked1 and not infrequently the lower member of the window itself rots by reason of the water which drives in and remains under the sill of the window for considerable periods of time4 ,figs4 #gc and #gd show perfect and faulty methods of construction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,perfect construction of window sill4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,faulty construction4 ,the siding of a house for various reasons would better be put on horizontally1 although material put on this way1 unless it is kept well painted1 is not so durable as when placed vertically4 ,the horizontal covering is more beautiful1 lends itself better to the numerous openings1 and gives better protection from cold and wind than does the vertical covering4 ,if the building is not to be painted1 then the covering would better be placed vertically4 ,nearly all wooden houses are covered with either thin lap-siding or inch siding1 prepared in various ways and known by various names4 ,the inch or novelty siding was first introduced in the ,west1 and costs but little more than the lap-siding1 because1 being thicker1 it can be made of somewhat inferior lumber4 ,the novelty or rabbeted covering gives greater strength to the building and is much more quickly and cheaply put on4 ,it may be said that this style of covering is extremely faulty if placed on the building in the usual way1 namely1 before the doors and windows and corner boards are in position4 ,if the same method of placing the material be practiced as in placing the lap-siding1 then the objections to this class of siding disappear to a certain extent4 ,the diagram1 ,fig4 #ge1 shows the novelty1 or drop1 or ,o ,g siding 7,a71 the rabbeted 7,b7 and lap-siding 7,c74 ,it will readily be seen that if a drop 7,a7 or rabbeted 7,b7 siding be put on before the window frames are placed1 as is the usual custom1 an opening 7x7 is left under the facing of the window frame which extends through to the studding4 ,this permits the rain1 in a driving storm1 to pass horizontally along this opening to the studding and then downward along the framework of the building4 ,many instances could be cited in which these openings have had to be filled by triangular blocks of wood or putty1 and even then the water was not entirely excluded4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,forms of siding4 ,this method of covering houses or even barns with this new kind of siding is usually disappointing and wasteful of material4 ,all that is gained is a little more facility and cheapness in placing the covering4 ,if it is put on1 as it should be1 after the window and door frames are set1 it is more difficult and more expensive to place than lap-siding4 ,no way of covering a wooden house has been found superior to the one-half inch lap-siding with joints tight enough at the frames and corners1 in conjunction with the paint1 to make water-tight joints4 ,the lap should not be less than one inch1 and the nails should be so placed that in case of considerable shrinkage in the siding the inside will give or even check1 instead of the outside 7z74 ,if made as at y1 the outside will check4 ,this implies that the nails are to be driven rather more than one-half inch above the edge of the siding4 ,the nails which hold the outer covering should either be set and puttied1 or the heads should be left even with or slightly above the surface of the wood1 that the paint may cover all parts of the nail head4 ,if the nails are driven too far in the heads are not fully covered and protected by the paint1 in which case they will rust and present an unsightly appearance4 ,some one has said that if a woman's feet1 hands1 and head are well and appropriately clothed1 the balance of the dress may be plain and simple1 and yet she will have an elegant appearance4 ,so1 if a house has a good foundation and a suitable and well-placed roof1 the balance of the outside may be extremely plain and yet it will be beautiful4 ,some of our modern houses rest on unpointed1 poorly constructed1 and narrow foundations1 are bedecked with peaks1 pigeon lofts1 and dog-eared cornices1 and remind one of the suspenderless1 barefooted darky crowned with a cast-off silk hat4 ,if the foundation is too small and shabbily built1 no amount of paint and cornice can relieve the house from a look of shabby gentility4 ,a few brown or cream-colored stones or bricks1 when placed on the outside of the foundation where it shows above ground1 will give dignity1 beauty and a substantial look to the whole house4 ,it may do for it what a nickel does for one's shoes4 ,the roof of the farm house1 and for that matter of all other houses1 should1 in the trying climate of ,america1 have an ample projection4 ,an abbreviated cornice may be admissible if the building is constructed of stone which is of sufficient density to resist the ,american tooth of time4 ,fig4 #gf shows a section of an abbreviated and a well extended cornice4 ,the house which has this short-cut cornice stands within a few hundred feet of the one with the wide projecting eaves4 ,during the past twenty years it has been necessary to paint the former twice as often as the latter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,deep and narrow cornices4 ,the roof covering would better be of slate or tiles1 for the time has passed for building temporary1 make-shift houses1 though they might have served their purpose well in a new and rapidly developing country4 ,with rare exceptions1 the houses to be built in the future should be permanently located1 well built1 and of durable material4 ,the slates which compose a roof should be not more than #h inches wide and should not be put on roofs of less than one-third pitch1 since they are only double-lapped and do not lie as closely1 one upon the other1 as do shingles1 which are laid triple-lapped4 ,slate and tile roofs are comparatively heavy1 and hence require stronger roof structures than shingles4 ,the roof boarding for slate roofs should be matched--tongued and grooved--and covered with paper to prevent cold and draughts of air from passing into the attic4 ,since slates1 on account of their somewhat rough surfaces1 do not lie closely together1 the wind is likely to pass through the cracks in the roof1 if there are any1 and carry snow and rain into the upper part of the house2 therefore the roof covering immediately under the slates should be virtually air-tight4 ,the roof boards for a shingle roof should be narrow and laid with openings of from #a to #b inches between the boards4 ,rain and snow seldom drive up and through the shingle roof1 and since wooden roofs are more likely to rot out than to wear out1 the more perfectly the shingles are dried out after a storm the better4 ,the narrow roof boards and the spaces between them allow the shingles to dry quickly1 and therefore are better than matched boards4 ,the short1 or common1 shingle of commerce is #af inches long1 - to -inch thick at one end1 and of an inch at the other1 and is computed at #d inches wide4 ,a bunch of shingles contains one fourth of a thousand4 ,it should have #be double courses and the band should be #bj inches long4 ,not infrequently there is a course or two wanting1 or the bands are an inch or so short4 ,having this data1 one can easily determine if the bunch is of legal size4 ,a little cheating is not uncommonly done by placing the shingles in the bunch loosely4 ,this can be detected by examining the bunches at the thick ends of the shingles4 ,theoretically1 #a1jjj shingles should cover #aj feet square1 or #ajj square feet1 known in carpentry as 8a square10 if the shingles are laid #d inches to the weather4 ,since shingles are usually laid #d to #e inches to the weather1 #a1jjj shingles should cover about #abj square feet4 ,two-thirds of the lower part of the roof may be laid #d inches1 and the upper third #d or #e inches to the weather1 if the roof is not flat4 ,if shingles are treated with lime water or diluted gas tar1 or be painted as they are laid1 the life of the roof may be prolonged4 ,the painting of roofs with tar or common earth or mineral paints1 after they are laid1 does little or no good in preserving them4 ,sometimes painting is resorted to to make the roof harmonize with the color of the sides of the building4 ,neither extremely narrow nor extremely wide shingles are desirable4 ,those from #c to #f inches wide1 when carefully laid1 are satisfactory4 ,each shingle should receive but two nails2 one is usually enough1 and these should be placed about of an inch from the edges1 and about #a inch above the point where the butts of the next course will come4 ,when the courses above are laid upon the shingle having but one nail1 two or three other nails1 which are driven in the courses above1 will serve to help hold it in position4 ,the joints of shingle roofs should be double broken3 that is1 the joints in the shingles of one course should not coincide with the joints of the first or second course below4 ,consult ,fig4 #gg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,the laying of shingles4 ,if two nails be driven in the sides of an unseasoned shingle1 when it shrinks it is likely to split in the middle2 and in laying a roof the joint immediately above the course under consideration is likely to come at or near the middle of the shingle1 which splits by reason of the shrinking4 ,the case is still worse when three nails are put in a shingle1 for then it is almost certain to split in the middle and immediately in line with the joint in the course above4 ,unscientific placing of shingles and insufficient mixing of mortar results in an unsatisfactory house1 both inside and outside1 however good the materials may be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,a veneered wall4 ,,veneered ,,houses ,a most excellent way to secure a warm1 durable house1 and one that will require the minimum of care-taking1 is to first construct a #d-;inch wall after the balloon pattern1 as has been previously described4 ,to this frame1 sheathing surfaced on one side is attached4 ,the #d-;inch brick wall is securely fastened to the wooden structure by means of #cj-penny spikes1 one at each studding1 which are driven in at the top of every seven courses of brick4 7,see ,fig4 #gh47 ,a wooden house may also be veneered with stone1 the veneering being held in place by means of metal anchors attached to the boarding4 ,the foundation needs to be a little stronger than for the wooden house1 and must be provided with a stone water-table for receiving the veneering4 ,in a veneered house1 all the lightness and dryness of a wooden house are secured on the inside and on the outside all the durability and solidity of a brick or stone house4 ,when the veneering is of hard-burned1 cream-colored or neutrally tinted brick or brown stone1 the effect is extremely pleasing4 ,the first cost of such a house is somewhat more than an all-wood house1 but its greater durability and freedom from constant repairs makes it no more expensive in the end4 ,when one builds such a house and covers it with a steep slate roof1 he feels that he has builded for many coming generations4 ,it is not necessary to speak in detail of stone and brick houses1 since such structures are quite expensive1 and their construction should always be placed in the hands of experts4 ,it may be well1 however1 to discuss them generally4 ,the cost of building brick houses is nearly twice as great as those of wood2 stone houses cost more than brick houses4 ,the foundations of brick or stone structures must be broad and placed deep in the ground1 to sustain the great weight placed upon them4 ,however much pains has been taken1 the walls of the superstructure often crack by reason of the unequal settling of the foundation or by unequal strain on the walls1 due to the window and door openings4 ,once the walls are cracked they become unsightly1 and cannot well be restored without being rebuilt4 ,unless the windows are extra large the house will not be well lighted because of the thick walls4 7,see ,fig4 #bd1 p4 #ajh47 ,the walls do not heat and cool as quickly as do wooden walls1 hence brick and especially stone houses are likely to be damp1 since the warm air of the rooms tends to part with its moisture when it comes in contact with the relatively cool walls4 ,this tendency of the walls to condense moisture may be obviated by studding and plastering them on the inside1 but all this adds to the expense4 ,until building material becomes much less expensive than it now is1 the farmer would better build either a wooden or veneered house4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,re-siding an old wall4 ,,old ,,houses ,houses which were built some time ago and before building paper and better methods of construction were in vogue1 are usually too cold and often extremely unsatisfactory4 ,the outside covering may be warped and cracked and too often paintless4 ,where these conditions prevail the house may be re-sided without removing the old covering4 ,the window frames1 corner boards1 and like members which receive the siding are built out by placing bands around the frames and on the corner boards of sufficient thickness to receive the new second siding4 ,strong building paper is then placed over the old siding1 and strips one inch thick and two inches broad are nailed immediately upon it and over the several studs of the old frame4 7,fig4 #gi47 ,the house is now ready to receive new siding4 ,if paper be laid on the floors and a well seasoned second floor be laid upon it1 they will be greatly improved at slight cost4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,faulty gutter or eave trough4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,well constructed gutter4 ,eave troughs should be placed outside the perpendicular line of the walls to prevent water from entering the house should the troughs leak or overflow from being filled with ice4 ,eave troughs are frequently made of tin which is too narrow1 in which case1 especially on flat roofs1 the water will back up under the shingles and run over that part of the gutter which lies hidden in the roof4 ,the elevation of the front edge of the gutter should be at least #b inches below the extreme upper edge of the tin of which the gutter is made4 7,compare ,figs4 #hj and #ha47 ,gutters placed at the end of the rafters are usually not as durable as those placed on the roof1 but if carefully put up so that they will keep their position they serve their purpose well and may be made to give additional beauty to the eaves of the roof4 ,the conductors which lead the water from the gutters to the ground should be made large and of corrugated material1 that expansion may be provided for should they become filled with ice4 ,what has been said about using too narrow tin for gutters is doubly applicable to the valleys4 ,open valleys are better than closed4 ,all tin used for gutters or valleys should be painted on both sides before it is placed upon the roof1 and all used about the outside of the building should be kept well painted1 as it is more economical to paint often than to mend leaks4 ,,painting ,,the ,,house ,after much solicitude and money have been expended on the construction of the house1 it is poor economy to let it suffer for want of paint4 ,not infrequently the house is planned so large1 or so much is spent on its erection that means are not at hand for fully protecting the outside with suitable paints4 ,as to the colors of paints or their combinations1 little can be said1 since tastes and conditions are extremely variable4 ,a farm house should have its own distinctive features1 and its own personality1 and while it may be similar to many other houses it should not be a duplicate of any other one4 ,in manufacturing towns long rows of houses are built1 each one the exact duplicate of all the others in shape1 dimensions1 and color4 ,the effect is abominable4 ,this illustration of exact imitation only goes to show how necessary it is to have diversity of style in the houses themselves and variation in the colors of the paints if the maximum beauty of the home and adaptation to landscape and site are secured4 ,in painting the farm house beauty should not be ignored1 but beauty may not be compatible with durability and necessary economy4 ,the farm home may and should be placed in such beautiful environment that the paint which covers it sinks into comparative insignificance as compared to the painting of the city house2 therefore the elements of economy and durability play as important parts in the painting of farm houses as does beauty4 ,even a great1 plain1 two-story white farm house with green window-blinds can be made to look beautiful and home-like if it has a suitable setting of noble trees4 ,if the outside covering of the house is placed some time before it receives its first coat of paint1 the wood tends to check and usually becomes too dry for applying it4 ,if exposed for some days to the direct rays of the sun before painting1 so much of the oil of the paint will be taken up by the wood that there will not be enough left to bind the mineral matter of the paint to the wood4 ,this is especially the case where an attempt is made to complete the painting by the application of but two coats1 in which case1 the first or prime coat must contain relatively much mineral material and little oil1 and must be spread thickly if the surfaces are to be well covered by the two coats4 ,not infrequently1 the outside woodwork is swollen and somewhat displaced by rains before the roof is in place4 ,even after it has dried out the ideal conditions are not secured4 ,the roof should be placed as soon as the siding is completed1 or if possible before4 ,the carpenter should put on the first1 or prime1 coat as fast as the house is sided2 that is1 the woodwork which has been placed from one scaffold or stage should be painted from the scaffold before the one above is constructed4 ,the corner boards1 window sash1 and frame should receive one coat of paint before they leave the shop4 ,the prime coat may be of yellow ochre mixed with some white lead1 since the after painting with the desired color will cover the yellow if two coats be applied4 ,good yellow ochre is a most durable paint when properly mixed and spread1 although it may be said that the more white lead used in the prime coat the better4 ,yellow ochre should contain a large per cent of iron2 when ochres are composed largely of colored clay they are inferior4 ,the paint for the first coat should1 in any case1 be thin1 since the oil which it contains plays an important part4 ,this first coat tends1 or should tend1 to fill the wood with oil so that the oil in the after coat will mostly remain with the paint1 and not leave it and pass into the wood1 thereby destroying its binding force4 ,too much stress can hardly be laid on the necessity of rubbing the first coat into the wood by vigorous use of the brush4 ,to realize the value of this principle one has but to visit a first-class carriage manufactory and observe the methods which are in use to prepare a carriage body for its final coat of dark paint and varnish4 ,in too many cases the first coat of paint is mixed too thickly and is not pressed into the pores of the wood as it should be1 in which case the paint may either peel or rub off in a few years4 ,the country boy dressed in his best black suit often has a reminder of this if he chances to lean against the outside of the old country church while 8waiting for meeting to take up40 ,all outside painting1 with the exception of the first coat1 should be done1 as far as possible1 in cool weather4 ,early spring and late fall1 when flies and dust are not present1 are the best4 ,if the house is built in the summer1 the second coat may be put on in the fall and the third coat the following spring4 ,the paint of the second coat may be a little thicker than that of the first1 and that of the third a little thicker than the second4 ,if the best job is desired the paint for all three coats should be mixed thinner than is customary1 in which case a fourth coat will be required the following fall4 ,the house will now have a polish similar to the well painted carriage body1 and1 like it1 will resist moisture and remain good for a long time4 ,if a building is to be painted at all it would better be painted at the beginning and be kept well painted1 as it is the more economical in the end4 ,better curtail the size of the house than to build it so large that the outside covering must be neglected4 ,the oil used in paints is usually derived from the vegetable oil found in flax or linseed4 ,although many other kinds of oils have been tried1 nothing has been discovered which can take the place1 in paints1 of linseed oil4 ,this is most remarkable1 for there are many vegetable oils which are very similar to this one4 ,linseed oil is expensive as compared with several other kinds1 hence many attempts have been made to find an oil equally as good for painting2 so far as ,i am able to learn1 none have been discovered4 ,linseed oil in paints1 when dried1 forms a hard1 tough1 gluey coating which serves to bind firmly the particles of paint together1 and to the wood1 and to exclude water as no other oil does2 hence if any other oil is mixed with the linseed oil1 it is said to be adulterated4 ,at the present time linseed oil is adulterated in some cases1 and it is believed that this adulteration is the chief cause of the lack of durability in many of the ready-mixed paints4 ,if linseed oil be mixed with other oils which are wanting in its valuable characteristic1 it is certain that such oils will not bind the particles of paint together as they should be bound4 ,at present the only protection is to purchase guaranteed pure oil of dealers who are reliable beyond peradventure4 ,outside painting should be done with unboiled oil unless1 on account of the weather1 boiled oil must be used to hasten drying4 ,in extreme cases a drier 7litharge7 is used4 ,the drying process should not be rapid in outside painting1 as slow drying promotes durability4 ,the substances mixed with the oil to form paints are extremely variable in composition and color4 ,some are good1 and are usually relatively high priced4 ,others are inferior and relatively low priced4 ,now that so many brands of ready-mixed paints of many tints are in common use1 it is impracticable to analyze all of them and determine their quality so that the inferior may be distinguished from the superior4 ,there appears to be but two ways out of this serious dilemma3 use the best brands of the ready-mixed paints and await results1 or purchase pure white lead and zinc paints and pure oil1 and tint to suit tastes and conditions4 ,heretofore1 to do this successfully has required much skill and patience1 especially if the house was to be painted in many colors4 ,paints are now so universally adulterated that ,i deem it my duty to call attention to a company which virtually guarantees the material sold4 ,the ,national ,lead ,company makes white paints of pure white lead and pure linseed oil4 ,it also manufactures pure tinting colors1 at least the company so advertise1 and without doubt would be liable for damages should the paints prove to be adulterated4 ,sample tint cards are furnished and directions given as to the quantity and kind of tinting material to be mixed with the white paint to give the desired color4 ,all this greatly simplifies painting1 and if these paints are pure1 as represented1 the farmer will have no difficulty in securing pure paint of any tint desired4 ,the farmer who desires a beautifully painted house1 and simplicity1 may well restrict the colors of the paints he uses to two1 being careful that they are in harmony1 one with the other1 and with the character of the house and its surroundings4 ,the following figures show the composition of some common paints 7,no4 #a was analyzed at the ,cornell ,exp4 ,sta41 the others at the ,iowa ,station73 ,i4 ,the paint known as white lead1 when pure1 is a basic carbonate of lead mixed in oil4 ,a sample showed-- ,white lead #ic4fb ,oil and undetermined #f4ch ,there was no evidence of adulteration4 ,,ii4 ,white lead-- ,white lead #da4ab ,barium sulfate #cj4bi ,zinc oxide #bh4ei ,adulterated with barium sulfate and zinc oxide4 ,barium sulfate is very heavy2 in fact1 in nature it is known as heavy spar4 ,,iii4 ,venetian red1 dry-- ,ferric oxide #bd4ab ,calcium carbonate #ff4cf ,calcium sulfate ,undetermined #i4eb ,adulterated with calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate4 ,venetian red is ferric oxide1 or a natural red oxide of iron4 ,calcium carbonate is chalk or limestone1 and calcium sulfate is plaster4 ,,iv4 ,venetian red in oil-- ,ferric oxide #ab4hb ,calcium sulfate #c4ed ,barium sulfate #fc4ih ,oil and undetermined #ai4ff -------- #ajj4jj ,adulterated with barium sulfate and calcium sulfate4 ,,chapter ,x ,,inside ,,finish1 ,,heating1 ,,and ,,ventilation ,as a rule1 houses are built too quickly4 ,the frame timbers are only partly seasoned when placed2 the rains which fall before the house is roofed-in and the dampness caused by plastering all conspire to swell and make damp all portions of the wooden parts of the structure4 ,formerly1 the casings of doors and windows and the floors were placed before the rooms were plastered2 the better practice of plastering on 8grounds0#f and placing the woodwork after the mortar is dry is now observed by the builders of all good houses4 ,in most cases even these improved methods of construction do not result in securing what is wanted--tight floors and doors and casings which will not shrink and warp out of shape4 ,nearly all of this trouble may be traced to two principal causes3 the lumber which constitutes the inside finish may not be thoroughly seasoned1 or the house may be so damp that the finish swells after it is placed4 ,in either case1 when the house becomes thoroughly dried out by artificial heat or otherwise1 unsightly and dirt-holding cracks will appear4 ,when expensive hard wood polished floors are laid1 pains is taken to provide against shrinkage by kiln-drying the floor boards and by laying them where the air and sun unite to take up extraneous moisture in the rooms and in the floor boards used4 #f ,narrow strips of sufficient thickness to receive the lath and plaster1 placed on the frame and other places where needed4 ,comparatively few persons can afford hard wood floors1 but this fact does not preclude having floors without wide cracks1 which serve to retain dangerous and filthy material4 ,there is no reason why tight floors may not be made of hard pine or other suitable material1 provided a little extra pains be taken in their construction4 ,the laying of the floors should be the last carpenter work done in the new house4 ,all this implies that a rough1 cheap floor has been laid when the frame was constructed4 ,the rough1 diagonally laid sub-floor will cost something extra1 but it results in so many benefits that it should never be dispensed with4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,a plain base board4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,a complex base board4 ,windows and door frames must have inside casings1 and baseboards1 kitchen wainscoting and picture moldings cannot well be dispensed with4 ,all these should be of the simplest and plainest construction4 ,fig4 #hb shows a cross section of a plain baseboard1 and ,fig4 #hc one of complex construction4 ,two styles of facings are shown in ,fig4 #hd4 ,the one style forms lodging places for dirt2 the other reduces dust catching to the minimum4 ,i notice that some of the newer passenger coaches1 though most elegant1 are built with smooth inside finish4 ,with the exception of the window sills there are no lodging places for dust and cinders4 ,the old-fashioned doors with thin panels1 and numerous moldings have been discarded1 and those as plain and uniform in thickness as a pane of window glass1 substituted for them4 ,the picture molding1 as shown in ,fig4 #he1 may serve to support the picture and catch dirt as well4 ,the other illustration 7,fig4 #hf7 shows one which may serve quite as well for the purpose desired without forming a dust shelf4 ,if the window sashes are made with plain bevels and not molded1 and all other window fixtures1 as stops and the like1 are constructed in the same way1 the labor of keeping the house clean will be greatly reduced4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,two styles of facing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,the common but faulty picture moulding4 ,the wainscoting and the ceilings1 if they are made of wood1 should be constructed of wide boards1 the cracks being covered with beveled battens4 ,the old-fashioned1 beaded1 narrow ceiling material is not only difficult to keep tinted or varnished1 but almost forbids cleanliness4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,a sanitary picture molding4 ,most stairs are too steep2 some are little better than ladders and more dangerous4 ,the risers in the main stairway should not exceed #f inches1 nor the steps be less than #ab inches wide4 ,the back stair may have #g to #g inches risers1 and #aj- to #aa-;inch steps4 ,the best and most beautiful stair has one or more broad landings4 ,the spiral or 8corkscrew0 stair is worst of all4 ,the effort to economize space by cramping the stair is almost universal4 ,the difference between a cramped stair and an ample one may not amount to more than #ab square feet of space1 equivalent to the top of a small table4 ,true1 the children may go up an easy stair two steps at a time1 but when their hair whitens they will bless the man who knew the difference between an easy1 dignified stair and a step-ladder4 ,diminish the size of a room1 add a foot to the width of the house1 do anything rather than cramp the stairway4 ,as far as possible paint should be kept off the inside woodwork4 ,there are but few varieties of wood which may not be made smooth2 and by the use of hard oil1 which is really oil and varnish mixed together1 all woodwork becomes beautiful and can be easily cleaned4 ,it appears almost sacrilegious to cover the fine grain of our native woods with cheap1 adulterated paint4 ,if some of the woods1 such as ash1 oak and chestnut1 be sawed 8on the quarter0 and properly finished1 they become more elegant and are in better taste than any of the imported high-priced woods4 ,the farm house should be plain1 substantial1 and durable1 and in many cases there is sufficient wealth to make it elegant and even refined by decorating the walls with a few fine pictures and providing useful books4 ,we judge people somewhat by the furnishings of the rooms in which they live1 and by their appreciation of things which are really beautiful and useful4 ,the comfort and elegance of the rooms depend quite as much on the plastered walls as on their wooden finish4 ,few things are more annoying than poor walls1 which may fall at any time upon the furniture and rugs1 and may even endanger the lives of the little ones4 ,with quick-lime and sand and an honest and efficient workman1 a good1 durable wall may be secured2 provided1 however1 that the joists and studding are strong enough to prevent vibration when the floors are walked upon or the doors are closed quickly4 ,in plastering1 the green-coat finish should not be adopted1 since poorer walls will inevitably be the result than by the scratch-coat method4 ,to the new settler on the prairies living in a covered wagon1 the time consumed in building a house was important2 therefore the second coat of plaster was put on a few hours after the first4 ,the pressure required to spread1 level1 and smooth the second coat often disturbed the clinches formed by the first coat4 ,the bond of these mortar clinches being broken or disturbed1 the wall was made weak4 ,it is well known that if the bond between the lath and mortar is once broken after the mortar sets1 it never reunites4 ,the only safe way to place a wall when the common mortar is used is by the scratch-coat method4 ,this consists in allowing the first coat to become fully dry1 having1 however1 scratched the surface of the plaster slightly soon after it is put on4 ,when it is perfectly dry the second coat is placed1 and when this is dry1 a third 7skim7 coat may be added1 which should be but little thicker than whitewash4 ,this leaves the wall smooth and nearly white4 ,however1 many walls are now finished on the second coat which is left level but rough1 and may be tinted by mixing coloring material with the mortar4 ,the quality of the wall depends largely upon the mixing of the mortar and the amount of firm troweling which it receives4 ,the fewer interstices between the particles of sand the better4 ,firm1 persistent troweling tends to reduce interstices1 and hence to make the wall firm and strong4 ,plastered walls are much strengthened by being painted1 and wherever such painting is appropriate1 as in the bathroom1 wardrobe1 and kitchen1 they should receive two coats of light cream color or other warm-colored paint4 ,a new mixture1 cement and hair1 or wood-fiber1 has been put on the market1 and is likely to be used extensively1 for when properly used a stronger1 harder1 and more durable wall is secured than by using the ordinary stone lime and sand mortar4 ,this cement is sold under a variety of names1 and is usually known by the builders under the generic name1 adamant or adamant plaster4 ,it is put up in barrel packages1 and sells in central ,new ,york from #b to #b4ej per barrel1 wholesale4 ,it is mixed in small quantities immediately before using1 in the proportion of one of cement to two of sharp sand4 ,one barrel suffices for thirty square yards of two-coat work1 three-fourth-inch grounds being used2 seven-eighth-inch grounds are required for three-coat work4 ,as mortar made of this material sets quickly1 the laths should be thoroughly wet before the mortar is applied1 and the rooms should be closed while the work is progressing1 or the mortar will harden too rapidly4 ,not only plastering mortar1 but that used for other purposes which depends on cement for its binding force1 should not be allowed to dry out rapidly4 ,one serious objection is urged against walls made of cement mortar1--it being said that they are so resonant as to be annoying4 ,to overcome this objection the walls of one public building were covered with burlap and painted4 ,notwithstanding the objections raised against cement plastered walls1 they are likely to come into common use1 since they are so superior in hardness and durability to the old style wall4 ,ordinarily1 a full year should be allotted for building the house1 and it should not be occupied until it has become thoroughly dried out4 ,perhaps this hint of the unsanitary condition of a damp house may be sufficient for the ,american4 ,in ,germany the law requires that a new house must have been completed a full half year before it may be occupied4 ,,heating ,,and ,,ventilation ,in the future as in the past1 most farm houses1 without doubt1 will be heated by stoves4 ,however1 some farmers will desire either an air1 water1 or steam heater4 ,air heaters are dangerous1 because if the valves are not properly managed1 the pipes may become superheated and may set the building on fire4 ,they carry fine dust into the rooms1 and the heat cannot be evenly distributed when the house is exposed to the full force of the wind1 as it usually is in the country4 ,the system of heating by means of hot water has many objections when used in the farm house4 ,the water in the pipes is likely to freeze at night in the unused rooms if it is cut off2 if it is left on1 all the rooms must be heated1 which is frequently not desirable4 ,then1 too1 heat cannot be secured as quickly in the morning as desired1 and in case of too much heat1 the rooms cool slowly unless doors or windows are opened4 ,the first cost of placing a steam heating plant is expensive1 but once in place it is most satisfactory4 ,wherever steam power can be used to advantage in the dairy1 the steam plant might well be placed in one end of the summer kitchen or in the wood house1 where it may be separated from the balance of the room by a partition4 ,there is no more danger of fire from a boiler than from a stove4 ,the one plant which furnishes steam and hot water for various purposes1 such as churning1 sawing wood1 and pumping water1 need not be more expensive if it also is made to serve for heating the house4 ,a simple contrivance now in common use1--when several buildings are heated from a central station1--serves to govern the amount and pressure of steam introduced into the building4 ,the farm steam plant should be situated1 when possible1 below the level of the radiators on the first floor1 that the warm water from the condensed steam may be used again in the boiler instead of cold water4 ,in the long run1 this system would heat the house more cheaply than stoves1 require less care-taking1 and be cleaner and more satisfactory in every way4 ,much has been written about ventilation2 and too often the systems applicable to ventilating large1 overcrowded rooms and public halls have been applied to dwellings4 ,however complex and difficult the ventilation of large buildings may be1 the ventilation of a room in a dwelling is simple4 ,if there are two or more windows in a room1 ideal ventilation can be secured by raising the lower and lowering the upper sash as much as desired4 ,by this method three streams of air are allowed to enter or leave the room1 as there will be openings at the top1 bottom and middle of the windows4 ,the impure air is largely found at the top of the room and at the bottom4 ,if1 then1 the warmer and lighter air is allowed to escape at the top1 the colder air will rush in at the bottom1 which will result in keeping it moving as water moves when the inflow is at or near the bottom of a vessel and the outflow near the top4 ,whenever only one window can be secured in the sleeping room1 large transoms should be placed over the doors into the hall4 ,while this method does not ventilate as well as the other1 it serves to keep the air pure in the chamber4 ,when there are many rooms situated on one hall1 the hall should be ventilated by means of windows at its end1 or at the top of the house4 ,many farm houses are over-ventilated in winter1 the cold air entering the loose casements until the wash water expands and breaks the pitcher4 ,in such cases storm sashes are a necessity1 and are more economical than feather beds or coal in preserving a living temperature4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,house ,,furnishing ,,and ,,decoration ,house furnishings do not exist for themselves1 but as a background for the people who live among them4 ,just as the trees1 rocks1 fields and animals have for their setting the green earth and the blue sky1 and as pictures have a background1 a middle distance and a foreground1 so human beings have their setting4 ,if the setting be more striking or more elegant than the people for whom it exists1 they are made uncomfortable and overshadowed by it2 if meaner and uglier than they1 the people are belittled by it4 ,how many houses there are whose furnishings are much more attractive than their inhabitants6 ,a woman of superficial education and trivial character has the distinction of having the most beautiful library in her state2 rows on rows of the best books1 in beautiful bindings1 in a room of the most artistic design1 and nobody to read them4 ,the contrast between the woman and her environment is pitiful4 ,the house and its contents should be an outgrowth of the tastes1 habits and occupation of its owners4 ,farm life in its best aspect is a synonym for breadth1 generosity1 simplicity1 cleanliness1 abundance of sunlight1 fresh air and good food1 the beauty of nature1 freedom from stiff formality--these are the things which the city dweller envies the farmer4 ,the equipment of the house should express this breadth1 beauty1 and freedom of life4 ,it follows from this that many pieces of furniture and some kinds of decoration which are offered in the shops are quite out of place in a country house4 ,imitation is1 therefore1 a dangerous principle1 for it is likely to lead to the choice and purchase of articles which1 however suitable for some other family and pretty in themselves1 are wholly inappropriate in the case of the purchaser4 ,there are three main considerations which should always be taken into account in house-furnishing3 health1 suitability1 and beauty4 ,the order of these is often reversed to the permanent injury of the housewife4 ,the first law of hygiene is that nothing can be suitable which is not wholesome for those who are to use it2 the first law of decorative art is that nothing is beautiful which is not wholly suitable4 ,if these principles should be applied to the furnishing of country houses1 they would taboo dark1 thick window draperies1 nearly all bric-a-brac1 heavy upholstered furniture1 parlor tea-tables filled with delicate 7and generally dusty7 china1 and many other things which have been copied from the unwholesome and perhaps necessary customs of city life4 ,taste is a matter of cultivation1 as much as efficiency or honesty2 the habitual application of its fundamental principles in one's own household1 and the seeing of beautiful things elsewhere1 are the chief means of its development4 ,man obtained his first conception of beauty from the form and color which he saw in the world about him1 and we have only to apply the principles which are there apparent1 in order to develop good taste4 ,nature provides an immense and comparatively neutral background2 ,nature always makes curves1 never angles2 ,nature blends the most sharply contrasting colors together in the butterfly's wing1 in the poppies in a meadow1 and in the feathers of the robin's breast4 ,the greater part of the world is in soft colors1 browns and grays1 dull greens and dull blues2 the brilliant yellows1 reds1 pinks1 purples and blues are always in very small quantities against this very large1 neutral background4 ,since the furnishings of a house are the setting of the people1 none of them should be more conspicuous than the people4 ,whatever brilliant color there is must be in relatively small quantities against a soft background4 ,nothing either in form or color should 8stick out40 ,if the general principles just laid down be applied to the details of house furnishing1 we shall find that many matters must be changed4 ,since the housewife must usually do her own work with very little or1 at most1 inadequate help1 everything should be planned to save her strength4 ,if we remember1 also1 that the first effort of good housekeeping is to keep dirt out of the house1 and the second to get it out at once1 it will appear that carpets are unsanitary4 ,it has already been shown that good floors are now to be had easily and cheaply4 ,if properly painted or finished with oil and wax1 they form the best foundation for tasteful and cleanly housekeeping4 ,carpets not only keep the dirt in the house1 but they involve that annual bugbear1 house-cleaning4 ,even when the floors are old and poor1 the space around the edge of a rug may be puttied and painted so as to look very well when the rug is put down4 ,by rugs1 ,i do not mean several little rugs1 like oases in the slippery surface1 or at the doorways to trip the unwary1 but a good1 generous-sized rug which just escapes the edges of the heavier furniture around the sides of the room2 which is substantial enough not to roll up1 and which is yet small enough to be carried in and out by one person4 ,if the woodwork and pictures be wiped with a damp cloth1 the windows washed1 the floor dusted1 and the rug beaten out of doors1 now and then1 no such terrible upheaval as house-cleaning usually implies1 is necessary4 ,rugs may be had ready-made of ingrain1 ,japanese cotton1 and jute1 ,brussels1 and more expensive materials1 but should always be heavy enough to lie flat without fastening and large enough to cover the entire portion of the floor which is to be walked upon4 ,the uncovered space should usually not be wider than one and one-half feet4 ,all furniture that is not actually built into or fastened to the wall and floors should be easily movable and easily cleaned4 ,this at once precludes the purchase of heavy1 upholstered chairs and large sofas4 ,wicker and rattan furniture1 though not so artistic and costly as antique wood1 is very light1 and with good removable hair cushions1 may be made quite as comfortable and far more cleanly than upholstered plush and damask4 ,the cushions may be beaten at the same time as the rugs1 and the dust thus taken out of the house4 ,white enameled bedsteads and washstands are rapidly superseding the heavy wooden ones4 ,it is a curious fact that although the persons of a family are of various sizes and ages1 chairs are still bought by the half dozen1 without reference to the people who are to sit upon them4 ,even in such minor matters as chairs and tea-cups1 some account should be taken of individuality4 ,if all furniture be selected with these simple principles in mind1 i4 e41 hygienic cleanliness1 the minimum of labor for the housewife1 and the comfort of those who are to use it1 there remains only one other way in which to go astray3 it may still be superlatively and positively ugly2 or it may be comfortable1 sanitary1 easily moved1 and yet be merely negatively ugly2 or it may be made decorative by its graceful form1 the color of its covering1 or the carving upon it4 ,the first principle of artistic decoration is that it must be wholly subordinated to the use of the object which it adorns4 ,for instance1 windows are for two purposes3 to light the house and for seeing out4 ,if a window opens on a barnyard or some unpleasant prospect1 you may put up a sash curtain of light silk or muslin4 ,thus you obtain light but no view4 ,but if you wish to see out of the window1 sash curtains are absurd4 ,in the ordinary private house1 elaborate and heavy window curtains are out of place1 both for sanitary and artistic reasons4 ,whenever cleanliness is a prime object1 drapery should be movable and washable4 ,silk and velvet draperies are only to be tolerated where there is a retinue of maids to keep them clean4 ,the facility and cheapness of mill-work and lathe-work in wood has vitiated the taste of ,americans to a terrible degree4 ,nearly all ready-made furniture is grooved1 machine-carved1 and ornamented in a way to violate not only the principles of beauty1 but of strength and cleanliness as well4 ,ornament that does not mean anything is not merely commonplace but ugly4 ,there are four chairs of different patterns1 and costing from #a4ej to #ae1 in the room where ,i sit2 all of them have legs4 ,now1 legs are intended as a support1 yet all these are grooved and beaded and hollowed out in spots1 so that twice as much material as is necessary has been used to insure support4 ,the ornamentation is not pretty1 the hollows are inevitably full of dust1 and they mean absolutely nothing to anybody who sees them4 ,on the front crosspiece of one large chair is glued a design of leaves in oak1 by way of ornament4 ,if these had been carved out upon a beautiful strip of wood by the hand of a cunning workman1 they would at least have meant a man's thought and skill4 ,as they are1 they suggest merely a machine and a glue pot1 and thousands of others as hideous as they4 ,contrast with this gingerbread furniture the plain1 substantial colonial chairs and tables and sideboards1 made of beautiful wood1 almost without ornamentation1 with shapely1 slender1 and strong legs and softly polished by hand4 ,cheapness and quantity have been secured by machinery at the expense of beauty and strength4 ,if the principle thus illustrated be true1 then it follows that patterns of any sort1 whether in carpets1 wall paper1 china1 or drapery1 must be very carefully used that they may not be more conspicuous than that which they decorate4 ,the floor and the wall are the basis both of color-scheme and decoration4 ,they are the background of the people who are to live there2 they should1 therefore1 be rather inconspicuous1 soft and indefinite in effect1 and as becoming as possible to the human figures4 ,if the climate be sunny and the room well lighted1 the walls and floor may be dark and rich in effect2 if the climate be uncertain and often cloudy1 or the room badly lighted1 the effect should be light and gay4 ,color is the chief means of producing this result3 the walls and floors of living rooms should be of soft1 neutral brown1 yellow1 red1 green1 or warm gray tints4 ,blue1 though very lovely when carefully used1 is cold in effect1 and seldom satisfactory for living rooms1 while the blue grays are positively chilling4 ,yellow in paler or richer shades1 depending on the lighting of the room1 is uniformly cheerful and satisfying2 next to it rank the various terra cotta shades4 ,neither rug nor wall-covering should have large1 striking designs2 if having pattern at all1 it should rather be of an indefinite1 wandering design like the ,japanese jute rugs1 or of small inconspicuous conventional design1 such as may be found in the best ,brussels carpet4 ,if the floors1 however1 be poor and old they may be covered very inexpensively with thick1 strong building paper which comes in beautiful tints and the rug may be laid on top of this2 or with denim on top of newspapers1 which is only a little more expensive1 and which may be had in a variety of beautiful shades2 or1 best of all1 with matting on top of paper4 ,matting is especially desirable because the dust sifts through below1 and does not rise easily when swept4 ,but the money spent to cover up a poor floor would often serve to lay a good new one1 and this should be done whenever possible4 ,for kitchen and1 in some cases1 for a dining room floor as well1 nothing is so satisfactory as linoleum4 ,it is impervious1 warm1 soft to the foot1 easily kept in order by an occasional coat of oil1 and to be had in agreeable patterns4 ,it may also be used like denim1 building paper1 and matting1 to cover up bad floors1 and as a basis for the rug2 while more expensive1 it is also much more satisfactory than anything except a good hardwood floor4 ,there is often far too great contrast between the furnishings of the living room and the parlor2 between the 8spare room0 and the family bedrooms4 ,the money spent in elegance which is shut up in a room rarely used would serve to add much to the comfort of the whole family4 ,the guest will enjoy the hospitality offered all the more if not treated too ceremoniously4 ,the furnishing of the living room should always include several easy chairs1 a good lounge1 a place for books and magazines1 and a thoroughly good reading lamp4 ,if it can be afforded1 a small room off the sitting room for writing and study is very desirable4 ,it should contain book shelves1 a large writing table or desk1 and a good lamp4 ,but if the extra room cannot be had1 the desk and book shelves may be placed in the parlor4 ,there should certainly be some place where the children may study or any member of the family may read and write uninterrupted4 ,it is as irksome to write without proper appliances as to bathe without proper facilities4 ,the furniture and decorations of bedrooms can scarcely be too simple2 the walls may be lighter and gayer than those of living rooms4 ,blue and white or pale green and white may be used as color-schemes for very sunny bedrooms1 yellow or pink and white for less sunny ones4 ,one or two single1 white1 enamelled iron bedsteads1 a washstand1 a bureau or a chest of drawers with glass above1 two or three low1 light chairs1 and a table or desk at which one may write1 is an ample furnishing1 if there be a good closet or wardrobe4 ,the rug need be only large enough to cover the space in front of the bed1 bureau1 and stand1 if the floor be well matched and painted or oiled4 ,a bedroom should give the impression of spotlessness and comfort2 everything should be washable or cleanable2 unless used also as a sitting room1 it should not have a superfluous article in it4 ,mats1 bric-a-brac1 even many pictures1 are quite out of place4 ,since cost1 styles and tastes differ so widely in different localities1 no detailed directions can or should be given that will be generally applicable4 ,if the principles illustrated in this chapter be correct1 they will serve to guide and to develop the taste of many different kinds of persons4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,cleanliness ,,and ,,sanitation--,,water ,,supply ,,and ,,sewage ,filth and disease have gone hand in hand from the beginning of the world2 but only during the last quarter-century have we known the true cause of infection1 and why it is so closely associated with dirt4 ,the danger of uncleanliness lies in the existence of certain microscopic organisms belonging to the vegetable kingdom1 known popularly as microbes or germs1 but more properly as bacteria4 ,bacteria1 like the plants with which we are more familiar1 thrive in moisture and moderate heat1 but differ from them in many respects4 ,some of the more striking differences are structure and method of reproduction1 many of them possessing the faculty of growing without sunlight4 ,bacteria are composed of minute masses of vegetable matter which vary from one ten-thousandth to one-thirty thousandth of an inch in length1 and they reproduce by simple division4 ,this process of multiplication may occur as often as once in half an hour2 thus immense numbers may develop in a very short time4 ,under conditions unfavorable for growth1 some species may form within their interior dense masses which are called spores4 ,these resemble the seeds of higher plants in their function of distributing the species and in preserving life through intervals of time unfavorable for continuous multiplication4 ,bacteria may be classified in several ways1 but for the discussion of cleanliness and sanitation1 the simplest division is into the harmless and the injurious4 ,the harmless forms live mostly on dead organic matter1 causing nitrification1 fermentation1 and putrefaction2 they break down the more complex organic compounds into simpler ones1 so that they can be used again as food for plants4 ,familiar examples of this are seen in the decay of meat and vegetables4 ,this class is more numerous1 much hardier than the other1 and comprises an overwhelmingly large proportion of the bacteria in nature4 ,bacteria are found almost constantly in water1 in soil1 and in air4 ,consequently they are present in all our food1 except that which has been heated to kill them4 ,certain bacteria are normal inhabitants of the mouth1 throat and intestines1 while others find suitable conditions for growth on the skin and in the accumulation of substances excreted in the perspiration4 ,owing to the short time which has been devoted to the study of bacteria and their functions1 closer attention has been paid to the harmful or pathogenic bacteria because of their relation to human health4 ,this one-sided study of bacteriology has blinded us to the beneficent action of many bacteria1 and has caused us much unnecessary fear of their presence in food4 ,the harmful bacteria cause disease either indirectly through poisons which they excrete in food products1 or directly by poisons or toxins which they form when living within the body4 ,although harmless bacteria are everywhere present1 the pathogenic or harmful varieties are ordinarily much less numerous4 ,it should be understood1 however1 that many of the so-called harmless bacteria are the cause of certain decompositions of vegetable and animal matter with the formation of substances which are detrimental to health4 ,this is illustrated by the occasional cases of meat1 fish1 and oyster poisoning4 ,the pathogenic bacteria1 such as those of tuberculosis1 typhoid fever1 diphtheria1 and the like1 constitute1 as has been already stated1 a small number of species4 ,these are disseminated through various channels1 such as the milk and the water supply1 and by persons directly4 ,when they are introduced into dirty and unwholesome homes1 they find in the filth suitable conditions for their multiplication1 with the usual consequence of causing more or less disease in the family4 ,the human body possesses more or less power of resistance to bacteria1 but if these natural forces cannot overcome their invasion1 they in turn will be successful and produce disease4 ,once infected with disease-producing bacteria1 a house should be renovated from attic to cellar1 and subjected to the action of agents possessing the power of destroying the pathogenic organisms4 ,numerous means are employed to kill bacteria1 among them being the use of disinfectants in the form of liquids or gases1 and the application of heat4 ,the list of chemical disinfectants is long1 but owing to their cost1 a relatively small number are available for the disinfection of houses4 ,the use of carbolic acid1 copperas1 whitewash1 and the fumes of burning sulfur are familiar disinfectants used for this purpose4 ,among the disinfectants which can be applied directly to wounds1 to prevent suppuration1 are weak solutions of corrosive sublimate and of carbolic acid4 ,the greater number of bacteria1 pathogenic or harmless1 which do not form spores1 are destroyed by a temperature of #aee degrees ,fahrenheit for twenty minutes4 ,very few resist the boiling point2 thus water may be made safe by boiling1 and milk by ,pasteurizing at #aee degrees for twenty minutes4 ,cold merely checks the growth of bacteria1 but1 ordinarily1 does not destroy them4 ,sunlight and fresh air are especially unfavorable to them2 therefore the house should be sunny1 and beds1 bedrooms and living rooms thoroughly aired4 ,if there be no organic matter to serve as nutriment for them1 they cannot multiply2 therefore the body1 the clothing1 and the dwelling should be kept as clean as possible4 ,for this reason the first test of good sanitation is the immediate removal of all waste matter from the house1 and the first preventive of disease is personal cleanliness4 ,in ,chapter ,,vi suggestions have been made concerning the site1 location1 and drainage of the farm house4 ,the kind1 number1 and convenience of the sanitary appliances1 such as hot water boilers1 closets1 lavatories1 and baths1 are chiefly dependent upon the water-supply4 ,if there be an abundance from a town water-main1 or from a windmill or house-tank which will give some pressure1 the problem of plumbing is comparatively easy2 but if there be no such supply1 it becomes far more difficult4 ,a good water supply in the house is of the first importance2 therefore1 for several reasons1 plumbing conveniences lessen the work of the housewife by half1 they encourage the practice of that virtue which is 8next to godliness10 and if properly arranged they do away with many sanitary dangers4 ,personal cleanliness is irksome enough with every convenience for washing and bathing4 ,when there is no convenience except a wash basin and a quart or two of hot water1 habitual cleanliness is practically impossible4 ,in this respect town and city life have an immense advantage over rural life4 ,a woman who had moved from town to country for the sake of her husband's health1 was asked how she liked it3 she said1 8,it is delightful1 but ,i sometimes think ,i cannot endure it on account of this nasty privy and no bath-room40 ,cleanliness of the skin is hygienically far more important than cleanliness of clothing4 ,in athletics and gymnastics1 the bath following the exercise is considered an essential part of their hygienic value2 how much more necessary1 then1 is opportunity for frequent bathing1 where the family1 both in and out of doors1 do daily manual labor which causes much perspiration1 and which is often very dirty6 ,the recent movement in cities to provide public bath-houses for the poor in tenements should not outstrip the farmer's effort to obtain equally good facilities4 ,if there be a sufficient water supply available1 there should be in every house a hot water boiler of at least twenty gallons capacity1 attached to the kitchen range1 to supply hot water for laundry work and bathing2 a kitchen sink and a bath-tub1 each with hot and cold water faucets and waste pipe to sewer or cesspool2 and a water-closet4 ,these are the essentials2 but1 if possible1 a stationary wash stand and two laundry tubs1 with hot and cold water pipes1 should also be provided4 ,in the farm house it will save expense and many steps for the housewife1 and will encourage frequent use1 if all these be located on the first floor2 the boiler in a cupboard in the wall of the kitchen1 which may be shut in summer and opened in winter2 the sink in the kitchen1 or if preferred1 in a pantry between the dining room and kitchen2 the bath-room and stationary washstand in a room either opening out of the kitchen or out of the family bedroom1 or out of a rear passage2 the water-closet should be in some well ventilated space1 on an outside wall1 where the noise of the fixture will be as little heard as possible4 ,it should have an outside as well as an inside entrance4 ,it is customary to place the closet in the bath-room1 but this often interferes with the general use of the washstand and bath-tub by the family1 and should be avoided4 ,the nearer all plumbing fixtures are to each other1 the less expensive they are to put in2 therefore in planning the first floor1 this point should receive special consideration4 ,certain general principles apply to all plumbing1 and may serve to test the various kinds of fixtures offered for sale4 ,all foul and effete matter should be immediately and completely removed from the house2 any back current of foul air into the house should be prevented1 and any communication between the sewer or the cesspool and the water supply should be made impossible4 ,fixtures should be as simple in construction as possible and easily accessible4 ,pipes were formerly enclosed in the walls1 but in the finest new buildings in cities1 are now placed altogether in sight1 and painted the color of the walls1 or of the woodwork4 ,the sewer pipe1 on reaching the level of the ground1 should pass directly out of the house1 and should never be carried along under the first floor of the house4 ,in the southern states and on the ,pacific coast1 pipes may run on the outside of the house1 thus fulfilling ideally the principle that waste matter should be removed from the house as soon as possible4 ,a few years ago there was much controversy over the placing of vent pipes in traps and in branches4 ,gerhard and the older sanitarians advise a complicated and elaborate use of them1 but ,putnam and the more recent authorities consider thorough ventilation of the soil pipe at top and bottom quite sufficient4 ,the material of fixtures should be good 7not extravagant71 and the workmanship should be of the very best4 ,the efficiency of any sanitary convenience depends almost as much upon the care with which it is put in as upon its material and style4 ,but of all the principles of sanitary plumbing1 probably the most important is frequent and thorough flushing1 if possible with hot water4 ,any fixture will become foul and dangerous if there is not water enough and under sufficient force to scour it out thoroughly4 ,having laid down certain principles which apply to plumbing fixtures generally1 we may now consider these fixtures more in detail4 ,pipes should be rather heavy4 ,waste pipes are generally too large1 and therefore do not scour well2 they need be only three to four inches in diameter for one or more closets in an ordinary house1 and from one to one and a-half inches for washbowls1 sinks1 and tubs2 they should always be of uniform size1 i4 e41 8full-bore0 throughout4 ,soil pipes should never run level1 but as nearly as possible at a uniform slope of not less than one foot in fifty4 ,the kitchen sink may be of white porcelain1 enameled iron1 painted iron1 or granite ware1 any of which materials are serviceable and desirable2 or of wood1 lined with lead1 zinc1 copper or slate1 all of which are more or less undesirable1 because after some use1 the water and filth is apt to get in between the wood and its covering1 or because they are not durable4 ,the sink should have as little woodwork about it as possible1 since wood is porous and1 therefore1 collects filth4 ,it should be set open on brackets1 and not over a dark1 moist1 dirt-collecting1 back-breaking closet4 ,flushing is especially important in the case of the kitchen sink because of the grease4 ,the best plumbing provides a grease-trap outside the house1 which may be easily cleaned2 but whether outside or immediately beneath the sink1 the trap should have a screw-plug1 so that it may be frequently cleaned4 ,it follows that the kitchen waste pipe should not be too large1 should have a good incline1 and if possible no abrupt curves1 so that cooling grease in the water may not harden on the sides of the pipe and finally fill it up4 ,the use of a cheap wire screen garbage basket in the sink will prevent the small particles of waste from passing down the pipe4 ,bath-tubs of white earthenware or 8porcelain0 are the most expensive1 the most durable and very heavy2 of white enameled iron1 are less expensive and heavy1 durable if carefully used1 impervious and cleanly2 those of copper1 tinned and planished1 dent easily and the tinning wears off1 but are fairly durable and still less expensive2 those of wood-fiber are not very common1 but are impervious1 light and cleanly4 ,the stationary washstand bowl and top are usually of marble2 the outlet of the bowl should not be smaller than the wastepipe2 the trap should be near the bowl1 and have a screw plug1 so that obstructions may be easily removed4 ,there is an immense variety of water-closets2 those should be especially avoided which have moveable machinery in connection with the bowl1 such as the pan1 valve1 and plunger closets4 ,some of these are very inexpensive1 but they are objectionable1 either because they rust and accumulate filth1 or because they get out of order easily4 ,the forms of closets without movable machinery in connection with the bowl1 that is1 in which the machinery is connected with the flushing cistern1 such as the hopper1 the siphon-jet1 and the washout closets1 are to be preferred4 ,any washout or hopper closet bought from a responsible firm is likely to give satisfaction1 if thoroughly flushed and kept in order4 ,stationary laundry tubs are of less importance than these other plumbing fixtures1 since there are several excellent washing machines the use of which does away with the necessity for them4 ,if one must choose between the two1 the washing machine will be most useful2 but if one wishes to have laundry tubs also1 they come in porcelain1 soapstone1 granite1 and wood1 the latter being the least desirable4 ,if the water supply be limited1 as when a tank is supplied by pumping from a cistern1 the hot water boiler1 the bath-tub1 and the stationary washstand may be arranged almost as easily as when there is an abundance of water2 but it may be necessary to substitute the dry-closet for the water-closet4 ,when no tank supply is available1 and all water must be carried from a cistern or from the well in the yard1 the cost of plumbing is very small and the discomfort very great4 ,warm water must be supplied chiefly from a reservoir at the back of the range1 thus making frequent bathing very inconvenient1 even if a regular bath-tub be provided4 ,if1 however1 a cesspool be built in the yard1 the kitchen sink1 the slop-hopper1 the bath-tub1 and the laundry tub may have waste pipes to it4 ,such waste pipes save just half the work1 for the water has to be carried only to the fixture1 not away from it again4 ,it thus seems worth while to have the fixtures1 even though they serve only half their purpose4 ,a slop-hopper with pipe to the cesspool1 on the same level and near the kitchen1 for waste wash water1 etc41 from the chambers1 saves many steps1 and is far more sanitary than throwing slops on the ground outside the house or carrying them to the outhouse4 ,the chief problem is the outhouse1 or privy vault4 ,there is no more disgusting or unsanitary feature of rural life than this ill-smelling1 dirty hole in the ground1 from which the filth permeates the surrounding soil1 and may contaminate the water supply4 ,much discomfort and some digestive ills arise from the necessity--especially for women--of going a considerable distance in cold weather and at night1 to such places4 ,the closet should1 therefore1 be as near the house as is compatible with decency1 and should be reached by a covered walkway4 ,if properly built and regularly disinfected and cleaned1 it need be neither disgusting nor unsanitary4 ,the wooden house should never be papered nor carpeted1 but should be painted or whitewashed yearly and kept scrupulously clean4 ,the habitual use of ashes or dry earth in the receptacle and an occasional application of some disinfectant1 such as copperas or chloride of lime1 is necessary4 ,if drawers are used in the privy1 they may be hauled out frequently by horse2 and with the liberal use of road dust1 no offense arises4 ,the writer knows a country house in which dry-earth closets are under the house-roof1 and yet there is no unpleasantness4 ,since the well is so easily contaminated by the seeping through the soil of manure and human waste matter1 it is of the utmost importance that the privy vault should be below the source of water supply and as far as possible from it4 ,in the following pages the details of construction of the privy vault are given1 the relative location of it1 and the water supply4 ,plumbing fixtures1 like all other mechanical contrivances1 to be efficient1 require to be kept in perfect order4 ,frequent1 thorough flushing with hot water whenever possible1 and disinfection of the closet and the sink1 are especially desirable4 ,if all fixtures be set 8open0 and all pipes in sight1 any leakage may be easily detected and remedied4 ,if the pipes be painted with white lead1 the defect will be discovered by the discoloration of the paint4 ,,water ,,supply ,,and ,,sewage ,water in abundance for the domestic animals should be provided by means of artificial pools or lakes1 situated on land higher than the barns1 but if they must be placed below the level of the buildings1 aermotors or windmills may be easily made to elevate it to any reasonable height4 ,it is difficult to explain why more miniature lakes1 in which to store water for all except culinary purposes1 are not constructed4 ,in ,fig4 #g it is shown how easily these pools may be made without expensive stone dams1 and after the fashion of those constructed in many of the southern states4 ,wells1 in many places1 must be deep1 and then often furnish but a meager supply of water1 while cisterns large enough to supply all wants are expensive4 ,in addition to artificial lakes1 wells1 and cisterns1 there are often streams1 or best of all1 springs1 to be drawn upon4 ,in any case1 a full and continuous supply of water should be provided before buildings are constructed if annoyance1 loss1 and unnecessary labor are to be obviated and the best sanitary conditions secured in the house4 ,unless the water is brought into the house under a constant pressure1 one or more storage tanks should be provided4 ,they should be placed at such elevations as will secure at least some pressure on the first floor above the cellar4 ,the storage tank may have a capacity of from one to five barrels1 and may be constructed of rough or planed two-inch planks and lined with galvanized iron1 if the water is to be used for culinary purposes2 if not1 it may be lined with lead4 ,the tank1 which may be of any shape desired1 may be placed on supports near the ceiling of the bath-room1 or the room which contains the commode1 or at one end in the upper part of the clothes-press2 provided1 however1 that the discharge pipe is made so large that under no contingencies will the tank overflow4 ,if the house is fairly large and the cistern capacious1 sufficient water may be pumped into the tank from the cistern in a few minutes to supply all wants for the day4 ,from the tank it will flow by gravity into the hot water boiler and to all other points desired which are not above the tank4 ,if water be raised by means of an aermotor1 a storage tank will still be necessary1 as the wind may fail to operate the motor for an entire day4 ,by whatever means water is secured1 the supply should be ample at all times4 ,springs and wells in the middle and northern states1 and cisterns in the southern states will1 in most cases1 serve to supply the potable water needed1 but these are too often inadequate to supply the large demand for water made by the animals1 and the extra demand for water in the house made by cleaner and more sanitary methods of living4 ,in using water in the household1 it becomes mixed with a great variety of organic substances which pollute it1 and which tend to putrefaction and decay4 ,as these various organic substances break down1 numerous compounds are produced1 many of which endanger not only health but life itself2 it is therefore evident that all soiled water should be removed from the house immediately and by the shortest practical route4 ,but what to do with the polluted water after it has been removed from the rooms1 becomes one of the most difficult problems of modern civilization4 ,the first thought is to empty this sewage into streams and lakes2 but those living on the streams and in the cities must secure their water-supply from these sources4 ,it is evident1 then1 that the streams should not be polluted4 ,the next thought is to distribute the sewage over the land1 but this method is usually an expensive one1 and seldom can enough sandy land be secured to absorb and filter the vast quantities of sewage which modern conditions make necessary4 ,on the farm the same difficulties are presented1 and the problem to be solved differs in degree rather than in kind4 ,if dry-earth closets are used on the farm1 there is still the kitchen and laundry sewage to be provided for4 ,while disposing of this1 provision may also be made for the night-soil1 thus obviating two systems of removing waste from the house4 ,however1 the earth-closet will reduce the amount of liquid sewage and increase the temptation to discharge it into the streams which1 above all things1 should be avoided4 ,if porous or sandy lands can be found within reasonable distance of the dwelling1 and yet not too near to it to endanger health or pollute the water supply1 a cesspool may be constructed4 ,a hole some ten feet in circumference and ten to twelve feet deep1 dug in the earth1 walled with stone without mortar1 may serve for catching and filtering the sewage4 ,on top of the wall1 which should not reach the surface of the ground by about two feet1 lay two pieces of railroad iron1 and on these place large flat stones1 covering all with dirt1 providing1 however1 for ventilation by means of a #d-;inch iron pipe1 which should be long enough to reach a little above the surface of the ground when all is completed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,plan of a cesspool4 ,if the soil is not as porous as is desired1 lay several tile or stone drains at a depth of three to five feet1 and extend them from the cesspool some distance out into the field or grounds beyond4 7,fig4 #hg47 ,these drains should have free outlets1 and the longer they are the better4 ,at the outlet of the drains plant willows or some other water-loving1 fast-growing trees4 ,these will take up and utilize vast quantities of liquid and decomposed solids1 and if the household is of only ordinary size no nuisance will result4 ,if water is limited and the dry-earth closet must be adopted1 then the cesspool for the kitchen and laundry liquids need not be made so large as described1 but may be built in the same manner4 ,the dry-earth closet may be built as follows3 ,construct a privy of suitable size1 #e to #bj feet from the most convenient rear door1 and connect it by a covered walk to the house4 ,the small building should be placed not less than two feet above the ground1 on a good1 tight wall1 which should extend under three sides of the building1 the other side to be furnished with a hinged door4 ,secure a large1 iron-top1 dump wheelbarrow1 which may serve to hold all fcal matter4 ,this may be emptied weekly or monthly into a nearby trench1 previously prepared4 ,a few shovelfuls of earth thrown upon the excreta will effectually arrest any offensive odors which might otherwise arise4 ,before the ground freezes in the fall dig a trench of sufficient length to contain the fcal matter during the winter4 ,in cold weather the barrow may be inverted over the trench1 and by the application of a few quarts of hot water to the iron bottom the frozen material will be released4 ,when the ground thaws1 the accumulated matter may be covered4 ,while the material is frozen there will be no danger from it4 ,it should be said that this trench would better be dug near a row of trees or other strong-growing perennial plants4 ,these will quickly take up the products of the night-soil which might1 in rare cases1 tend to contaminate the soil-water4 ,if but little of the night-soil be deposited in one place1 the earth and plants--two most efficient disinfectants--may be trusted to preserve good sanitary conditions4 ,however1 pains should be taken to discover if1 by any possible means1 the sewage may find its way into the well4 ,an intelligent inspection of the soil1 the stratification of it and the rocks1 will reveal the direction which the soil-water takes2 but if the cesspool and the drains are placed some distance from the dwelling1 no contamination will take place under any circumstances1 since the amount of sewage is so small and the power of plants and soil to take up the dangerous products of sewage is so great4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,household ,,administration1 ,,economy1 ,,and ,,comfort ,in colonial times1 before so many of the household operations were transferred to shops and manufactories1 women were producers almost as much as men2 but in modern times women are more and more concerned with how money shall be spent4 ,the woman is still a producer when she cooks an egg1 mends a garment1 or sweeps a room2 but the question of how much or how little can be had out of the family income has become relatively more and more her concern4 ,in ,europe1 far more than in the ,united ,states1 attention is given by the women to the economical expenditure of the family resources4 ,a provincial ,french girl is trained from her childhood for household duties4 ,she assists her mother not only in order to learn the finer arts of housewifery1 but especially the judicious expenditure of money4 ,the ,french husband leaves the apportionment of the family income almost wholly to his wife's discretion4 ,there can be no doubt that the prosperity of the family depends quite as much on the wise use of the income as upon the size of that income4 ,the first essential of good household management is that the housewife should know definitely how much there is to spend4 ,nothing is more productive of marital discontent than the habit which many husbands have of doling out money to the wife at irregular times and in indefinite amounts4 ,it destroys the wife's self-respect1 it places her in a degraded position before her children1 and it removes all incentive to thrift4 ,it not infrequently supplies a powerful motive for deceit4 ,if the wife is inexperienced1 unwise1 or extravagant in the use of money1 so much the more reason why the husband should patiently and firmly teach her how to spend1 both for her own sake and that of the family welfare4 ,an arrangement by which the wife controls the expenditure of a certain portion of the income is very easy whenever the man receives a salary or regular daily wages4 ,a regular income tends to develop thrift and to teach people to avoid debt2 but there is always a tendency to live up to the limit of it1 and the margin for saving and for extra pleasures is always small4 ,salaried people seldom get deeply in debt1 but they as seldom become very rich4 ,on the other hand1 whenever the family income is irregular1 as from farming and most other kinds of business1 the problem of household financiering is much more difficult and requires both greater self-control and better judgment4 ,it is usually possible for such families to determine upon a definite minimum amount which may be counted upon for ordinary living expenses4 ,the margin above this may vary widely1 but if the scale of living be habitually adjusted to come within the minimum income1 there will be no terror of debt4 ,the expenditure of the surplus1 when it comes1 becomes a unique and unexpected pleasure4 ,whatever the plan adopted for distributing the family income1 the wife should have at her command and should be expected to live within1 a definite share of the income4 ,after the minimum expenses of the family have been determined1 the next most important question is how and when they shall be paid out4 ,cash payments are much to be preferred4 ,they have two advantages3 whoever pays cash asks no favor of the tradesman1 and commands the best quality at a given price4 ,the tradesman who lends money by allowing the payment of bills to be postponed1 must pay for his goods and must have interest on the money necessary to carry on a credit business4 ,he must necessarily1 therefore1 reimburse himself by charging a higher price1 or by giving a poorer article4 ,it should never be forgotten that credit costs something4 ,the cash customer is always considered a good customer1 and can always have the first choice of the market1 and favors if any are desired4 ,whenever monthly or quarterly bills are run1 the debtor is apt to acquire a most dangerous habit--the habit of spending now1 to pay at some future time4 ,the more remote the time1 the more dangerous the habit4 ,it is evident that the oftener bills are paid1 the less likelihood there is of mistakes and deceit4 ,if bills must be run1 it should never be for longer than a month1 and prompt payment of them is a solemn obligation4 ,the article should be done without rather than the seller asked to wait for his money4 ,whatever plan the housewife adopts will be conditioned by the customs of the locality in which she lives and by the habits of the local tradesman4 ,women waste much time and energy in buying things one by one2 they spend in this way1 too1 much more than they realize1 and then they wonder where the money has gone4 ,china1 linen1 and the stock of clothing necessary for changes of season1 should be bought by the set1 or quantity1 marked and prepared for use at regular intervals4 ,women buy a collar or two1 a pair of stockings1 a bit of ribbon1 a bread plate1 a few glasses1 etc41 and then are surprised that they seem to have very little for the money4 ,unless the housewife be really poor1 or unless the money be doled out to her irregularly1 it will invariably pay to buy in quantity things which are not perishable1 and which the household wears out and1 therefore1 habitually needs4 ,handkerchiefs1 stockings1 underclothing1 china1 drinking glasses1 cost less by the dozen and half-dozen than by the piece4 ,lamp chimneys are continually broken1 toilet paper and soap used up1 yet very few housekeepers realize that they waste both time and energy1 beside suffering inconvenience1 when they buy these one at a time4 ,buying piecemeal is demoralizing1 as well as wasteful1 because it is unsystematic4 ,successful housekeeping involves attention to numberless details2 if by periodic instead of incessant attention some of these can be disposed of in the mass1 there will be immense saving of energy4 ,many housekeepers will object to this1 either because it involves the immediate expenditure of a larger sum of money for one class of articles1 or because1 not having more wholesome social and intellectual interests1 they find recreation in wandering from store to store1 or counter to counter1 pricing much and buying little2 or because they love to find 8a bargain40 ,the instinct to get something 8cheap10 that is1 to get something for nothing1 or1 more properly1 to get more than we pay for1 lies very deep in human nature4 ,because women have usually lived from hand to mouth1 without foresight1 it has perhaps been exaggerated in them4 ,there are the bargain-hunters1 and there are the bargain-scorners2 both are doubtless equally illogical4 ,when an article is phenomenally cheap1 it is so1 usually1 either because too many of its kind are on the market1 or because the seller is sacrificing a normal profit to draw general custom1 or because the people who have produced it have done so at less than a decent living wage1 or because it is going or gone out of fashion4 ,good buyers are rightfully suspicious of bargains4 ,no one should be willing to buy or use articles which have been produced at starvation wages under wretched sanitary conditions4 ,it is never good economy to buy things which are gone out of fashion unless one is quite satisfied to be out of fashion4 ,if the article offered on the bargain counter be of good quality1 and in staple use in the household1 it is often well worth buying4 ,flannels1 linens1 sometimes woolen dress goods of inconspicuous patterns1 may be bought at the end of the season much cheaper than at the beginning1 and are a good investment if one has money to spare and is sure what is going to be needed by the family4 ,over against the money saved in securing a bargain1 must always be reckoned the time and energy used in finding it1 and the risks that its quality may prove inferior1 or that it may be unsuitable when finally used4 ,if a woman has nothing better to do with her time and strength than to hunt bargains1 there is nothing further to be said2 but if she has1 it is usually more economical and more satisfactory to buy the articles needed for definite use at a reliable place and at a fair price4 ,all the suggestions that have been made imply accurate knowledge on the part of the housekeeper4 ,a thoroughly trained housekeeper of long experience may possibly keep all the household detail in hand without keeping books of account1 but it is absolutely impossible for the inexperienced or unsystematic housekeeper to do so4 ,the mental training involved in keeping an accurate account of family income and expenditure is as valuable as a course in mathematics4 ,for her own self-discipline1 as well as for the better distribution of the family income1 every housekeeper should keep an itemized account4 ,until she can balance her account accurately at the end of every month she has not learned the a b c of thorough housekeeping4 ,after having learned to do this easily1 she may1 perhaps1 allow herself a very small margin for those 8sundries0 which have not been put down1 and which would waste valuable time to hunt out4 ,every housewife knows by experience that it is not the regular meat and grocery bills that eat up the income2 if adequate care is taken of them1 they can be reduced to a definite scale and kept there2 but it is the incidentals4 ,a system of accurate accounts will speedily show how many of these are extravagant or unnecessary4 ,book-keeping is a bugbear to most women1 chiefly because the system which they undertake is too complicated4 ,the simplest form is the best4 ,any blank book may be used2 put down on the right hand side everything bought2 on the left side all money received2 at the end of the week or month the total sum of the right-hand column plus the money still on hand should equal the total of the left-hand column4 ,if it does not1 some item has been omitted or not accurately entered4 ,it is better in the beginning to balance the account at least once a week1 for then inaccuracies can be more easily traced4 ,the secret of success is to put down at the time of the transaction what has been received and spent4 ,when the account has been balanced1 a second step is much more interesting4 ,in another book or in the back of the day-book1 if it be large enough1 open several accounts on separate pages1 as follows3 groceries1 meats1 fuel1 clothing1 subscriptions and charities1 incidentals1 etc4 ,copy each item from the day-book into its proper account2 at the end of a month or year1 by adding up these separate accounts1 the housewife can tell exactly what proportion of the income has been spent for each class4 ,mr4 ,lawes1 the famous ,english agriculturist1 when traveling in ,america1 was able to quote accurately the cost of the various items of expenditure in his own house4 ,economy is a relative1 not an absolute thing4 ,economy of money is often wastefulness of life1 yet extravagance1 on the other hand1 is a serious cause of human degeneration4 ,with the exception of poor management1 poor service is probably the most wasteful factor of all in the household1 yet there are conditions in which poor service is certainly less wasteful of the family resources1 than none at all4 ,the end of housekeeping is the health1 comfort1 and serenity of the family4 ,the two main factors in producing this result are the family income and the mother's strength and energy4 ,saving1 however desirable1 is merely an incidental end4 ,the mother's intelligence1 therefore1 if she be in command of her fair share of the income1 must be used to save not only money but her own resources4 ,the lack of nutritious1 palatable food and of nursing in illness1 the lack of service when the mother is weakened by labor and child-bearing1 is sometimes economy with most disastrous results4 ,health and serenity are worth more to the family than houses and a bank account4 ,a good education given to an intelligent child is worth ten times its cost saved up for him to inherit in middle life4 ,every device1 therefore1 which saves the housewife's energy is a true economy4 ,a clothes-washing machine1 a cabinet table1 a slop-hopper for kitchen and chamber waste-liquids1 are all obtainable and of special value in saving labor4 ,in planning the kitchen1 economy of steps in reaching water and fuel should be considered4 ,china should be kept either in wall cupboards opening on one side into the dining-room1 on the other into the kitchen1 or in a pantry between dining-room and kitchen4 ,kitchen utensils need no longer be of black1 heavy1 ugly iron1 but of granite ware1 nickel plate1 and aluminum2 they may be placed in shelves close to the range1 or hung along the wall beside it4 ,a dumb waiter or hand elevator1 from kitchen to cellar1 saves much going up and down stairs4 ,the height of sinks and work-tables should be adapted to that of the woman who works over them4 ,a tall stool--a clerk's stool--in the kitchen allows the housewife to sit while doing some kinds of work4 ,distances between sink1 range1 dishes1 and store-room1 should be as short as possible1 while the ventilation and lighting of the kitchen should be particularly good4 ,every step up and down from kitchen to shed1 or kitchen to cellar1 is an extra drain on the overtaxed woman4 ,small1 cheap contrivances1 such as dish-mops1 iron dish-cloths1 pan-scrapers1 small scrubbing-brushes1 wire screen garbage-pans1 and many others1 lighten the work and make it possible for the housewife to be more dainty in her personal appearance4 ,in no respect does farm life differ more from city life than in the kind of food provided and the method of serving it4 ,the farmer's table is loaded down with a great abundance and variety of food1 all placed on the table at once1 and often rich and indigestible4 ,the city table has half as much1 both in variety and quantity1 served daintily in courses4 ,the city housewife provides variety from meal to meal1 seldom repeating any dish1 except the staple ones1 more than once or twice a week2 the rural housewife puts a large variety of the same things on the table at every meal4 ,abundance of well cooked1 appetizing food there should be1 but variety from meal to meal1 and from day to day1 is far preferable to excessive variety at any one meal4 ,not only is it better for the digestion to eat of a very few kinds of food at one meal2 but1 since novelty stimulates appetite1 any particular dish will be more appetizing if not served too frequently4 ,the farmer's family1 while very economical in the expenditure of money1 is often very wasteful of food4 ,vegetables1 fruit1 chickens1 pork raised on the farm1 seem to cost no money1 but they cost much vital energy1 which is quite as valuable4 ,the value of milk1 butter1 and eggs is recognized1 because it is customary to sell them in town2 but the cost in the labor of those who raise and those who prepare food1 is often overlooked4 ,the farmer's table is thus not only overloaded1 but really extravagant4 ,here1 again1 quality is more desirable than variety2 simplicity should accompany abundance4 ,since rural life involves a certain degree of isolation1 the family must keep in touch with the world chiefly through literature4 ,even at the sacrifice of some of the rich variety of food on the table or of new clothes1 books and papers should be provided4 ,the local newspaper is apt to contain little beside local gossip2 it should be supplemented with an agricultural paper and a family journal1 a housekeeping magazine1 a children's magazine1 if there be children1 and other general magazines if they can be afforded4 ,but better than the general magazines1 would be the gradual purchase of the standard works of history1 travel1 poetry1 and fiction4 ,a musical instrument1 a small library1 and interesting games will do more than admonition to keep young people at home4 ,children naturally want a good time2 if it is not provided for them at home they will go to other and perhaps less desirable places to get it4 ,with the increase of appliances1 and with the added social and intellectual demands1 country as well as city life is becoming more complicated and exacting4 ,the housewife1 whose physical strength is scarcely equal to the demands of housekeeping and child-bearing1 must develop her intelligence and whet her judgment4 ,she must find easier and wiser ways of doing the necessary drudgery1 and make brains do an increasing part of the labor formerly accomplished by muscle4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,home ,,yard ,the yard1 as well as the house1 should be planned4 ,it should be convenient1 neat1 handsome1 restful4 ,it will need planting with trees1 shrubs1 herbs and grass2 but these things should not be scattered promiscuously over the place1 for then they mean nothing4 ,every plant should have some relation to the general plan or design of the place4 ,the first thing to consider in the making of a fit setting for the house is to lay out the plan or design2 the last thing is to select the particular kinds of plants to be used4 ,the place should be a picture4 ,it should be one thing1 not many things4 ,if the design is correct and the planting is well done1 all parts will be in harmony and the place will appeal to one as a whole4 ,if the bushes and trees are scattered promiscuously over the yard1 then there is no central idea and the attention is fixed upon the details rather than upon the place4 ,figs4 #hh and #hi illustrate these contrasts4 ,the one central thought or idea in home grounds is the house4 ,therefore1 make the house emphatic4 ,let it stand out boldly1 as in ,fig4 #hi4 ,keep the center of the place open4 ,do not clutter it with trees1 flower beds and other distracting things4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,the common or nursery type of planting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,the proper or pictorial type of planting4 ,if the house is to be made emphatic1 give it a flanking4 ,plant trees or bushes1 or both1 on the sides4 ,back it up1 also1 with trees4 ,if it sets in front of a natural wood or an orchard1 the effect is better4 ,if the country is bare and bald behind it1 plant tall trees there4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,a modest and direct driveway4 ,make as few walks and drives as possible4 ,they are always unsightly and expensive4 ,let them lead to their destination by the most direct curves4 ,do not make them crooked2 for crooked walks and drives are expensive4 ,gentle curves are more retired and modest than awkward and laborious ones4 ,fig4 #ij shows a good1 easy curve4 ,if possible1 place the walk or drive at the side1 rather than in the center3 avoid cutting up the lawn4 ,most of the planting should be in masses4 ,plants present a bolder front when standing together4 ,a group is one thing2 scattered shrubs are many things1 and they divert and distract the attention4 ,by massing1 one secures endless combinations of light and shade1 of color1 and of form4 ,against the mass-planting1 flowers show off best2 they have a background1 as a picture has when it hangs on a wall4 ,one canna or geranium standing just in front of heavy foliage makes more show than do a dozen plants when standing in the middle of the lawn2 it is more easily cared for1 and it does not spoil the lawn4 ,a flower bed in the middle of the sward spoils a lawn1 as a spot soils the table-cloth4 ,flowers at the side1 or joined to the other planting1 are a part of the picture2 in the middle of the lawn they are only a spot of color and mean nothing except that the grower did not know where to put them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,a good house2 but the home is only half built4 ,take these suggestions to heart4 ,consider which you like the better1 ,fig4 #ia or #ib4 ,consider1 also1 how ,fig4 #ib would look if plants were scattered all over the yard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,a house and a home4 ,plants are difficult to grow in little holes in the sod4 ,the grass takes the moisture4 ,they are always in the way4 ,the yard in ,fig4 #ib can be mown with a field mower4 ,the bushes take care of themselves4 ,if one dies1 it matters little3 others fill the gaps4 ,if pigweeds come up amongst them1 little or no harm is done4 ,they add to the variety of foliage effect4 ,one does not feel that he must stop his cultivating or sheep-shearing to dig them out4 ,in the fall1 the leaves blow off the open lawn and are held in the bushes2 there they make an ideal mulch1 and they need not be removed in the spring4 ,in front of this shrubbery a space two or three feet wide may be left for flowers4 ,here sow and plant with a free hand4 ,have sufficient poppies and hollyhocks and pinks and lilies and petunias to supply every member of the family and every neighbor4 ,against the background they glow like coals or lie as soft as the snow4 ,fill in the corners of the place4 ,round off the angularities4 ,throw a mass of herbage into the corner by the steps 7,fig4 #ic73 then you will not need to saw off the grass with a butcher knife4 ,plant a vine and some low plants along the foundations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,the corner by the steps4 ,when these main or fundamental things are considered1 then some of the incidental things may be considered4 ,if you are fond of some particular plant1 as the hydrangea1 plant it in some prominent place in front of the shrub border4 ,you may want a tree to shade a window or a porch3 plant it4 ,you may want a pile of odd stones and relics3 put them in the back yard1 or at the side1 where you may enjoy them unmolested4 ,you may have any kind of plant you want1 only put it in the right place4 ,have an eye to the views4 ,build your house with reference to them1 if you can4 ,do not plant so as to hide the good ones4 ,plant heavily in the direction of offensive views4 ,plant so as to obscure the barnyard2 or else move the barnyard back of the barn1 or clean it up4 ,leave the front of the barn open3 you want to see it from the house4 ,,how ,,to ,,do ,,the ,,work ,the lawn1 then1 is the first consideration4 ,it is the canvas on which we are to paint a picture of home and comfort4 ,in many cases the yard is already level or well graded and has a good sod1 and it is not necessary to plow and re-seed4 ,it should be said that the sod on old lawns can be renewed without plowing it up4 ,in the bare or thin places1 scratch up the ground with an iron-toothed rake1 apply a little fertilizer1 and sow more seed4 ,weedy lawns are those in which the sod is poor4 ,it may be necessary to pull out the weeds2 but after they are out the land should be quickly covered with sod or they will come in again4 ,annual weeds1 as pigweeds and ragweed1 can usually be crowded out by merely securing a heavier sod4 ,a little clover seed will often be a good addition1 for it supplies nitrogen and has an excellent mechanical effect on the soil4 ,the ideal time to prepare the land is in the fall1 before the heavy rains come4 ,then sow in the fall1 and again in early spring on a late snow4 ,however1 the work may be done in the spring1 but the danger is that it will be put off so long that the young grass will not become established before the dry1 hot weather comes4 ,the best lawn grass for ,new ,york is ,june-grass1 or blue-grass4 ,seedsmen know it as ,poa pratensis4 ,it weighs but #ad pounds to the bushel4 ,not less than three bushels should be sown to the acre4 ,we want many very small stems of grass1 not a few large ones2 for we are making a lawn1 not a meadow4 ,do not sow grain with the grass seed4 ,the ,june-grass grows slowly at first1 however1 and therefore it is a good plan to sow timothy with it1 at the rate of two or three quarts to the acre4 ,the timothy comes up quickly and makes a green2 and the ,june-grass will crowd it out in a year or two4 ,if the land is hard and inclined to be too dry1 some kind of clover will greatly assist the ,june-grass4 ,red clover is too large and coarse for the lawn4 ,crimson clover is excellent1 for it is an annual1 and it does not become unsightly in the lawn4 ,white clover is perhaps best1 since it not only helps the grass but looks well in the sod4 ,one or two pounds of seed is generally sufficient for an acre4 ,at first the weeds will come up4 ,do not pull them4 ,mow the lawn as soon as there is any growth large enough to mow4 ,of course1 the lawn-mower is best1 but one can have a good place without it4 ,perhaps a hand lawn-mower 7one with large wheels and not less than #af-;inch cut7 can be used to keep the sward close just about the house2 then the field-mower may be used now and then for the remainder4 ,here is another advantage1 as ,i have said1 of the open-centered yard which ,i have recommended2 it is easily mown4 ,it would be a fussy matter to mow a yard planted after the fashion of ,fig4 #hh2 but one like ,fig4 #hi is easily managed4 ,the borders should be planted thickly4 ,plow up the strip4 ,never plant these trees and bushes in holes cut in the sod4 ,scatter the bushes and trees promiscuously in the narrow border4 ,in home grounds1 it is easy to run through these borders occasionally with a cultivator1 for the first year or two4 ,make the edges of the border irregular4 ,plant the lowest bushes on the inner edge toward the house4 ,for all such things as lilacs1 mock oranges1 ,japan quinces1 and bushes that are found along the roadsides1 two or three feet apart is about right4 ,some will die anyway4 ,cut them back one-half when they are planted4 ,they will look thin and stiff for two or three years2 but after that they will crowd the spaces full1 lop over on the sod1 and make a billow of green4 ,prepare the land well1 plant carefully1 and let the bushes alone4 ,we now come to the details1--the particular kinds of plants to use4 ,one great principle will simplify the matter3 the main planting should be for foliage effects4 ,that is1 think first of giving the place a heavy border-mass4 ,flowers are mere decorations4 ,select those trees and shrubs which are the commonest1 because they are cheapest1 hardiest and most likely to grow4 ,there is no farm so poor that enough plants cannot be secured1 without money1 for the home yard4 ,you will find the plants in the woods1 in old yards1 along the fences4 ,it is little matter if no one knows their names4 ,what is handsomer than a tangled fence-row8 ,scatter in a few trees along the fence and about the buildings1 particularly if the place is large and bare4 ,maples1 basswood1 elms1 ashes1 buttonwood1 pepperidge1 oaks1 beeches1 birches1 hickories1 poplars1 a few trees of pine or spruce or hemlock1--any of these are excellent4 ,if the country is bleak1 a rather heavy planting of evergreens about the border1 in the place of so much shrubbery1 is excellent4 ,for shrubs1 use the common things to be found in the woods and swales1 together with roots1 which can be had in every old yard4 ,willows1 osiers1 witch-hazel1 dogwood1 wild roses1 thorn apples1 haws1 elders1 sumac1 wild honeysuckles1--these and others can be found in abundance4 ,from old yards can be secured snowballs1 spireas1 lilacs1 forsythias1 mock oranges1 roses1 snowberries1 barberries1 flowering currants1 honeysuckles1 and the like4 ,vines can be used to excellent purpose on the outbuildings or on the porches4 ,the common wild ,virginia creeper is the most serviceable4 ,on brick or stone houses the ,boston ivy or ,japanese ampelopsis may be used1 unless the location is very bleak4 ,this is not hardy in the northern parts of the country4 ,honeysuckles1 clematis and bitter-sweet are also attractive4 ,bowers are always interesting to children2 and actinidia and akebia 7to be had at nurseries7 are best for this purpose4 ,if a regular flower garden is wanted1 place at the side or rear of the place1 where a liberal piece of land can be devoted to it4 ,into these native shrub borders1 throw some color from nursery-grown bushes if you choose4 ,mix in spireas1 weigelas1 roses--anything you like4 ,a rare or strange plant may be introduced now and then1 if there is any money with which to buy such things4 ,plant it at some conspicuous point just in front of the border1 where it will show off well1 be out of the way1 and have some relation to the rest of the planting4 ,two or three purple-leaved or variegated-leaved bushes will add much spirit and verve to the place2 but too many of them make the place look fussy and overdone4 ,you can have a botanic garden of your own1 even though you do not know the name of a single plant2 and your home will be a picture at the same time4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,a ,,discussion ,,of ,,barns ,modern agriculture requires large and commodious barns and other structures to house the crops1 the animals1 tools1 and implements4 ,especially is this true when mixed farming is conducted in an intensified and economical way4 ,in early days one or1 at most1 two low barns of #cj by #dj feet were supposed to supply all shelter accommodations required for a farm of one hundred acres4 ,at the present time1 on the same farms1 may often be seen a barn #fj by #hj feet and double the height of the old structures1 with a wing one-half of the capacity of the main barn to which it is attached1 this single structure providing more than six times the cubic space of two of the old barns4 ,one sizable farm in ,tompkins county1 ,new ,york1 had1 for many years1 a single barn #cj by #dj feet with #ad-;foot posts4 ,it now has a barn which provides more than fifteen times the room of the old one1 and yet it is scarcely large enough to house the animals and crops of this modest farm4 ,naturally1 the questions arise1 are these large structures necessary1 and what changes in agriculture have taken place to create a need for such mammoth structures8 ,they are necessarily expensive1 and too often dwarf and belittle the house when placed near it4 ,modern advanced farmers secure nearly or quite double the average yield of crops of their grandfathers4 ,this is an indisputable fact1 notwithstanding the hue and cry about the decadence of the rural population4 ,the facts are that some are farming much better than the older generations and some much worse4 ,much of the good land is producing more bountifully than ever before1 and some of the poorer lands have been so badly managed1 and have become so depleted in their productive power as to be nearly worthless1 and should be thrown out of cultivation and left to recuperate until unborn generations require them4 ,more live stock is kept now than formerly4 ,the number of milch cows1 horses1 and mules in the ,united ,states increased more than #ej per cent between #ahgj and #ahij1 and other cattle increased during the same period #aej per cent4 ,notwithstanding this fact1 the live stock on many farms has been greatly diminished4 ,then1 too1 progressive farmers believe it to be economy to provide shelter for animals and crops1 manures and implements4 ,the old custom of stacking the hay and grain1 of allowing the farm animals to toughen in the winter's blast in field and barnyard1 and the manures to leach and bleach under the eaves of the building has1 in part1 been abandoned and better methods substituted4 ,these new methods require better1 larger1 and more commodious farm barns4 ,the modern and humane thought is1 to make all of the animals as comfortable1 according to their needs and conditions1 as is their owner in his well appointed house1 and to protect everything that is worth protecting from the storms4 ,there are two fairly distinct methods of constructing farm buildings3 the concentrated and the distributive4 ,the one aims to provide the room needed by one or two large structures2 the other by means of many detached small buildings1 each1 where practicable1 devoted to a special purpose4 ,the last method was the outgrowth of the conditions which usually prevailed in a new country4 ,first came the rude house and the log stable4 ,the stable was followed by the modest barn1 usually of the regulation size1 #cj by #dj feet1 with #ab-1 #ad-1 or1 in rare cases1 #af-;foot posts4 ,as the arable land increased another barn was built1 then a shed1 then a wagon-house2 followed by a corn-crib1 a chicken-house1 a pig-pen1 and later a sheep-barn1 cow-barn1 a hay-barn1 all the room in the first and second barns being by this time required for grain4 ,outside the grain districts the buildings were modified to suit conditions1 but the practice of constructing many small structures was not changed4 ,the buildings were erected without any comprehensive plan as to the farmstead as a whole4 ,this necessitated many fences1 gates1 yards1 and a maze of muddy byways in which the dock and other weeds1 discarded implements1 and the flotsam and jetsam of the farm found opportunity to grow or to rot4 ,do what one might1 the farmstead could never be made to look neat and tidy4 ,not infrequently1 twelve to fifteen separate structures may be seen on a farm of eighty acres4 ,the farmers who own these structures are not to be criticised too severely4 ,they inherited the method of building and often the buildings1 and no one1 so far1 has deigned to give them help by treating such plebeian subjects as the improvement of unsightly stys1 stables1 sheds1 and barns4 ,if the concentrated method be adopted1 in case of fire all is swept away2 if the distributive1 some of the buildings may be saved4 ,there are so many things to be gained1 however1 by adopting the concentrated method that construction would better be along this line and then trust to the insurance company to make good the losses by fire1 should any occur4 ,compare ,figs4 #aad1 #aai4 ,farm laborers receive fully double the wages1 except in harvest time1 which they did fifty years ago2 therefore1 the barns should be planned with the view of economizing labor4 ,this can best be secured by rearing a single structure1 rather than several1 for it is evident that if the live stock1 tools1 implements and provender be placed in juxtaposition1 economy in performing the work about the buildings will be secured4 ,however1 it is often convenient to have a separate building open on one side for storing farm wagons and heavy implements and tools4 ,grain1 hay and stover are all unloaded most economically by means of slings and hay fork1 operated by horse-power1 but the unloading by horse-power implies high barns1 with mows measurably unobstructed by timbers4 ,economy of space also implies deep mows1 since a mow twenty feet deep holds more than two mows ten feet deep4 ,high1 large buildings require far less outside boarding and roof than small1 low1 detached buildings which contain1 together1 the same storage capacity4 ,economy in construction and maintenance1 convenience of temporarily sheltering and removing manures1 ease of carrying on work in the building1 and beauty1 all indicate the wisdom of adopting the concentrated method in the construction of farm barns4 ,efforts have been made to economize in barn construction by adopting the octagon form4 ,this form secures a greater enclosed area for a given surface covering than the square or rectangular form4 ,but all of the angles in the frame are more expensive to make than are right angles4 ,it requires more labor and time to saw off a timber at an angle of #ce degrees than at right angles4 ,true1 this form lends itself to a roof structure free from obstructing timbers1 but1 on the other hand1 it does not give opportunity for the placing of convenient tracks for elevating the provender4 ,so far the pros and cons may be said to balance4 ,it is only when the attempt is made to divide the octagon structure into stables and rooms1 compartments and mows1 that its inconvenient shape is fully realized4 ,everything is out of square4 ,the divisions form obtuse and acute angles1 or arcs of a circle1 almost without number4 ,all this implies extra expense in the internal construction and usually a great waste of space4 ,the illustrations of these barns have a certain charm difficult to resist1 but some of the most intelligent farmers who have made a study of the octagon barn and have used it1 decide that rectangular barns are much to be preferred4 ,some who have built octagon barns speak well of them1 but this might naturally be expected4 ,a woman generally speaks well of her husband after she has secured him1 however faulty he may be4 ,,location ,the location of the proposed structure should be considered with the most painstaking care before entering upon the construction of a new building or the remodeling of an old one4 ,too often a single idea dominates the location4 ,some thirty years since ,i decided to erect a large basement barn4 ,the house1 a modest1 comfortable structure1 was located at a suitable distance from the highway1 on a gentle slope4 ,to utilize the highway for driving the animals to and from pasture1 and to save the use of the fourth of an acre of land and the building of some twenty rods of fence1 the barn was located nearer the highway than the house4 ,this necessitated locating the barnyard between the highway and the barn4 ,i never discovered this foolish mistake till years afterwards1 when age and study had improved my judgment and opportunity had been given for wide observation and comparison4 ,now when ,i revisit the farm it is all too plain as to where the barn should have been located4 ,this large barn made the house appear much smaller than before1 and from one approach the farm had the appearance of being untenanted1 as the barn hid the house4 ,it is humiliating1 but how could ,i have known better at that time of life1 with ideas of barn building inherited and with neither book nor teacher to guide me8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,too many barn roofs1 and too near the house4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,how these barns may be moved and concentrated4 ,the barn should be located far enough from the house to prevent the aromas of the stables and kitchen from mingling1 and at such a distance as not to seriously endanger either one1 if the other should be destroyed by fire4 ,if possible1 the barn should be on lower ground than the house1 that no wash or seepage from it may tend toward the house1 and for other sanitary reasons4 ,the lower level will assist to make the barns inconspicuous4 ,one hundred feet is the minimum distance which should intervene between these inflammable and expensive structures1 except in a very cold climate1 where the house and the barn may be connected by a covered way4 ,see ,figs4 #id and #ie4 ,this way need not be expensive1 and should be so constructed that it can be pulled down in a few minutes in case of fire4 ,it need not be high1 and the roof might pitch but one way and be composed1 in part at least1 of glass4 ,if the entire roof was of glass one side of the covered walk might well be used in the spring for growing early vegetables4 ,if the manure be properly cared for at the far end of the barn1 good sanitary conditions would be preserved4 ,the refuse of the stables1 if left exposed at the barns in the summer1 forms breeding ground for flies1 which reach the house if it be near4 ,the substitution of electric street cars1 for horse cars which necessitated numerous stables1 has noticeably diminished flies in the cities4 ,there should be room between the house and barn for a score or more of large trees1 which may serve1 in part1 to screen each building from the other in case of fire1 to shade the walk between the two buildings1 and1 in part1 the barn itself4 ,no tree is better adapted for this purpose than the white elm4 ,the open barnyard should1 wherever possible1 be discarded1 for it tends to increase the wasting of manures and the cost of getting them to the field2 to the multiplication of fences and flies1 and to unnecessary exposure of animals4 ,why not substitute paddocks or small fields of a few acres for the wasteful1 expensive barnyard8 ,if the animals need exercise they should take it at suitable times in closely-sodded fields1 or covered yards1 rather than in confined barnyards filled with a mixture of straw1 mud and manure4 ,a few acres near the barn might be surrounded with a woven wire fence1 which would serve admirably for an exercising yard4 ,the sod on this small area might become seriously injured in a year or two1 but the field would be enriched by the droppings of the animals4 ,the field in such case could be plowed and the wire used to enclose another paddock4 ,but it will be many years before the open barnyard can be1 or will be1 entirely abandoned4 ,what may1 and should be done immediately1 is to place it at the rear1 instead of at the front of the barn1 and to cease using it for baptizing manures1 and as a storage area for miscellaneous odds and ends4 ,if some change is not made1 the farm boy may find a chamber window from which a more restful and inspiring view may be secured than from the one through which he now views daily the evidences of thriftlessness and waste4 ,,planning ,,the ,,barn ,make a good study of many barns at short range2 note what features are good1 what faulty1 what useless2 by this means much will have been learned and many mistakes will be avoided4 ,decide approximately the capacity which will be required4 ,first1 draw a rectangular diagram of the barn1 then proceed to the proposed location and take a seat2 make a most careful study of the approach1 the incline of the land1 note where fences and gates will be necessary1 where and how the water is to be introduced--in fact1 take in the whole problem of the environment of the proposed structure4 ,then imagine that you see the barn1 and that you have just arrived from town some stormy night with your wife and baby2 in imagination help them out of the carriage4 ,imagine you have a span of young1 restless horses which you have driven to get them used to city ways before selling them4 ,that will make you think of a platform onto which the family may step from the carriage while you are holding the colts4 ,consider how many big doors you will have to open before the colts are made comfortable for the night4 ,are the democrat wagon and the colts to be kept on the same floor1 or one up-stairs and the other down8 ,or is the carriage in one building situated four rods from the horses8 ,how many gates and doors have you opened and closed since you arrived8 ,think it all over1 and then go to the house and talk it over with your wife1 for some day she may drive to town1 and on her return find that both you and the farm hands are in the field1 and that there is no one to help her put the team away4 ,after imagination has pictured the conditions which are likely to prevail1 then begin to cautiously modify the rectangular diagram2 surround it with dotted lines1 which may represent roads1 fences1 gates1 lanes1 and adjunct buildings4 ,then take a rest2 lay the sketch away for a time2 study barns in the neighborhood2 council with the wife again1 for she may have to go to the barn often4 ,after a year of faithful and intelligent planning you may be able to place a well digested rough sketch of the proposed structure in the hands of a draughtsman4 ,,water ,,supply ,it would seem to be unnecessary to repeat the axiom1 8,no water1 no plant or animal life10 but so many buildings1 both public and private1 are located and constructed before the problem of supplying an ample1 perennial supply of potable water is solved1 that it seems necessary to briefly treat this subject4 ,several public institutions with which ,i have been familiar have erected expensive structures before supplying water for them4 ,three and sometimes five separate attempts were made to furnish water for the use of the plant1 none of which were entirely successful4 ,the amount of water needed and the conditions under which it must be secured are so variable that few specific directions can be given4 ,one simple1 certain and cheap way of securing water for the barn is usually neglected4 ,in some sections of the ,south1 by reason of peculiar geological formations1 the practice of constructing pools or storage reservoirs has become common4 ,a slight depression or draw or swale is selected and dammed by using the earth from the bottom of the proposed pool and from the higher land adjoining4 ,no stone or wood is necessary to support the dam4 ,the only precaution necessary is to have a broad base 7see ,fig4 #g71 and to provide sufficiently large outflows or spillways1 one on either end of the dam1 that the pool may never rise higher than within two feet from the top of the dam4 ,the surface soil1 if it contains much vegetable matter1 should be scraped off a strip three to four feet wide and as long as the dam1 and the depression filled with earth--clay is best--that contains little or no organic matter4 ,if the bottom of the dam where it meets the normal earth is constructed with sods1 or other material which will decay1 in time the water will find its way through the porous earth4 ,the pools of the ,south1 to which reference has been made1 sometimes have an extreme depth of #ab to #ae feet1 and may cover a fraction of an acre or several acres4 ,i have known one of these pools to furnish water for a hundred head of cattle during a long continued drought4 ,it is difficult to explain why more pools1 lakes and fish ponds are not constructed4 ,possibly the reasons are that there is a prejudice against them1 and well there may be1 since they are usually so shallow that the water becomes impure1 and since it is not generally realized that a substantial dam can be erected by the use of earth alone4 ,if it is thought advisable not to allow the animals to go to the pool1 it may be fenced1 since it is not expensive to lay a pipe in the dam1 when it is being constructed1 on a level with the bottom of the pool1 the outer end of the pipe being furnished with a ball and cock to regulate the flow of water into the trough4 ,usually it is not advisable to build cisterns for storing water for barn use1 since they are too expensive if built as large as needed4 ,a cow requires from forty to eighty pounds of water daily in the summer4 ,if sixty pounds be taken as the average1 it will be seen that it would require a cistern of three hundred and fifty barrels capacity to supply a herd of fifty animals for one month4 ,in some cases the water of a stream or well may be so highly charged with the products of magnesian limestone as to produce goitre1 in which case soft water should be supplied for the horses4 ,streams or springs are often available for summer1 but they seldom supply ideal water conditions in winter4 ,young animals1 and especially cows in milk1 should not be required to drink water at a low temperature or be forced to travel long distances for it in cold weather4 ,the only really satisfactory method of supplying the domestic animals with water is to bring it into the barn1 and if the water in the pipes is not under pressure1 a small storage tank may be placed in a mow and surrounded by straw4 ,such storage tank may be built1 if small1 out of rough #b-;inch plank1 spiked together1 or1 if large1 of #b- by #d-;inch scantling1 spiked flatwise one upon the other2 in both cases the tank is lined with galvanized iron4 ,all barns provided with steam boilers should also be provided with a few small steam pipes leading to the water boxes1 that the drinking water of the animals may be raised in winter to #ih ,fahr4 ,animals do not relish lukewarm water in the winter1 but they really enjoy hot water4 ,the economy and safety of using hot drinking water will justify the expense of providing it4 ,this is especially true in the winter dairy and when horses have severe winter work4 ,an overheated1 tired horse may drink all the hot water he desires without danger4 ,water taken into the stomach at #dj ,fahr4 must absorb heat enough from the system to raise it to about #ii4 ,to do this food must be burned1 as literally as coal is burned in the boiler to heat water4 ,it requires more units of heat to raise a pound of water one degree in temperature than any other substance except two or three of the gases4 ,there are now so many styles of really good air motors or wind mills1 that water from wells may be pumped at a minimum cost into storage tanks4 ,there is no longer any excuse for pumping water by hand for any considerable number of animals1 nor for compelling them to seek water in cold weather at some distant stream4 ,as has been said1 there are many ways of securing a supply of water for the barn4 ,the details of accomplishing the results desired are many1 but the result should always be the same3 an abundant supply of water within the barn under more or less pressure4 ,if this is not secured the plans of a barn1 as a whole1 are unsatisfactory4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,building ,,the ,,barn--,,the ,,basement ,squaring the foundation site is a simple operation1 yet few are able to perform it1 and it is seldom that a surveyor is at hand4 ,buildings are so generally placed with their fronts parallel to the highway or the private way1 that the road may be assumed to be the base line4 ,four stakes set in the middle of the road1 as shown in ,fig4 #if1 establish the base line1 from which is measured the distance from the road at which it is desired to place the building4 ,the stakes ,a and ,b should be placed farther apart than the width of the front of the building2 they are connected by a line which is parallel to the road and forms the permanent base line4 ,next the stakes ,c and ,d are placed1 and also connected by a line4 ,with a #aj-;foot pole1 six feet are measured off on either line1 beginning at the intersection of the lines1 and eight feet on the other line4 ,if the line ,c to ,d is at right angles to the line ,,ab1 the #aj-;foot measure will just reach from #f to #h1 since #f multiplied by #f1 plus #h multiplied by #h1 equals #ajj1 and the square root of #ajj is #aj4 ,should the #aj-;foot measure be longer than from #f to #h1 the stake ,d is moved to the left until the pole reaches from #f to #h2 if the measure is too short to reach from #f to #h1 the stake is moved to the right4 ,all of these measurements should be gone over two or three times1 as in moving the stake the lines may stretch or shrink4 ,either a pin or a pencil mark may be used to indicate the measurements on the lines at #f and #h4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,locating the barn4 ,if the building is to be #bf feet deep1 that distance is measured on the line ,,cd and the same distance from the line ,,ab4 ,stakes are then driven and a line drawn from ,e to ,f1 and in like manner a line is drawn from ,g to ,h4 ,the work is verified by squaring the last angle as in the first case4 ,the eight dots represent stakes driven in even with the surface of the ground1 at just #aj feet from the corners4 ,since it will be necessary to remove the lines before the horse scraper can be used in excavating1 and as the construction stakes at the corners will be disturbed1 the short stakes become necessary that the lines may be restored as the work proceeds and the excavation kept square and true4 ,it will be seen that a line drawn from ,a to ,b will restore the base line1 and in like manner the other lines may be quickly reproduced4 ,it will be necessary1 too1 to restore these lines before the foundation wall is begun4 ,by 8plumbing0 downward from the restored lines1 other lines may be placed in the bottom of the excavation1 which will be duplicates of those first drawn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,the original incline or slope is too steep4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,the original slope is not steep enough4 ,,excavation ,barns are now usually built with a basement story4 ,this implies that the building is to be placed on more or less sloping ground1 in which case the removal of some earth will be necessary4 ,the basement story should extend well above ground1 to economize construction and to secure dry walls and floors4 ,it is a great mistake to place animals in cellars4 ,the dotted line in ,fig4 #ig shows an incline rather too steep2 and in ,fig4 #ih one that is not steep enough4 ,it is better to place the barn where wanted1 even if the incline has to be changed1 than to place it in an unhandy position that the best slope may be secured4 ,it is not difficult to construct a basement barn on level or nearly level land4 ,in the latter case1 all of the basement walls may be of wood1 since provision can be made for a driveway to the second floor by means of a retaining wall built some ten or twelve feet from the barn2 the space between the wall and the barn may be bridged 7,fig4 #ii74 ,cast-off steel or iron rails form durable and excellent sleepers for such a bridge1 the plank being kept in place by spiking two-inch pieces1 one on either end on top of the bridge plank4 ,in case no retaining wall is built1 and the earth lies immediately against the basement wall 7,fig4 #ajj71 dampness may be largely prevented from reaching the stable and the animals by building a second wall across the side or end of the barn1 inclosing a space or room for roots immediately under the driveway4 ,the floor over this root-cellar should be deafened to prevent frost entering from above 7,fig4 #aja74 ,the second wall will remain comparatively dry1 since no damp earth rests against it4 ,this location of the root-cellar makes it convenient for unloading the roots through trap doors in the floor1 which are kept partly open for a time after the roots have been put in1 to prevent them from heating4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,bridge into the barn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,an embankment entrance1 with retaining walls holding the corners4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,deafening or packing the floor1 to keep out cold4 ,,walls ,the foundation walls for barns need not necessarily extend below frost1 if the earth is as dry as it should be2 for a slight settling of the building does not result in injury1 as in the plastered house4 ,all that is necessary is to make the walls broad and strong and to have them well drained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,good and faulty construction in a wall4 ,masons understand the necessity of bonding stone walls1 and know how to perform the work2 but too often they are careless1 and therefore need to be supervised4 ,in ,fig4 #ajb1 a well bonded wall is shown at the left end1 and one imperfectly bonded at the other4 ,if the wall should chance to pull endwise a crack would appear to the right of the dotted line1 since in the seven layers shown there is but one stone1 ,a1 that has sufficient contact to bond the two stones upon which it rests4 ,the wall should also have its face and back side tied together or bonded1 or it may split apart near the middle4 ,two walls1 one of which is properly bonded1 the other is not1 are shown in ,fig4 #ajc4 ,one layer only of stone can be shown in the diagram1 but it will readily be seen that if the course which is placed on the one shown is laid like it1--that is1 if the faulty bonding near the back side be continued for several courses--the wall will pull apart4 ,the small1 narrow stones have been placed at the back side of the wall1 and the good stones in the front of the wall2 this is all very well1 but some long stones should reach from the back side of the wall to near the face1 if the bond is made good4 ,no stone should reach entirely through the wall1 since in cold weather the frost will follow through such stones from face to rear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,poorly and properly bonded4 ,there is no economy in using mortar which is poorly mixed or that which contains too much sand and too little lime or cement4 ,if the lime or cement1 that is1 the binding material1 does not come into immediate contact with every particle of sand1 then the mortar will be weak4 ,if not enough of the cement or lime is used1 the bond will also be weak4 ,for stone walls not more than four parts of sand to one of cement or lime should be used4 ,if the sand be sharp and clean a much stronger mortar is secured than when it is composed in part of rotten sand mixed with vegetable matter4 ,if the materials are good and they are mixed in the right proportion1 still good mortar will not be secured unless they be thoroughly mixed4 ,the best masons use the least mortar1 while poor masons are wasteful of it4 ,the prices given below are not applicable to the whole ,united ,states1 but they may serve to decide the relative proportions of sand and lime which should be used1 and the kind of lime which can be used most economically4 ,water lime retails at about eighty cents per barrel1 and three parts of sand and one of lime1 if the latter is fresh1 should make a strong mortar4 ,water lime deteriorates rapidly with age1 while the higher priced cements deteriorate quite slowly4 ,stone lime should be fresh and in no case air-slaked4 ,it costs about one dollar a barrel and may be mixed three of sand to one of lime4 ,rosendale cement costs about #a4be per barrel1 and may be mixed four to one4 ,portland cement costs about #c per barrel1 and if used instead of the cheaper materials named above1 may be mixed five to one4 ,it should always be used for pointing walls and in the construction of cemented floors1 in which case it should be mixed two or three to one4 ,all this presupposes that the mortar is so thoroughly mixed that a lime film will surround every particle of sand4 ,the cement and water lime is mixed with the sand before it is wet1 and this dry mixing should be most thorough1 as the strength of the mortar is largely dependent on the uniform incorporation of the cement with the sand4 ,this mixing can be much more perfectly done when the material is dry than after it is wet4 ,other precautions are necessary4 ,the mortar should contain the minimum of water which will permit it to work freely1 and when the mortar is used it should be solidified1 that is1 pushed together by means of a trowel or by the material which is laid upon it4 ,in case of cement or grout floors1 the material should be pounded thoroughly4 ,the object of all this is to compel each particle of sand to firmly touch other particles4 ,the tendency to 8water-log0 mortar1 to save labor in spreading it1 is too common4 ,if1 from any cause1 the basement walls must be largely of stone1 the tendency for them to gather moisture may be somewhat overcome by plastering them with cement mortar1 or studding may be placed against the walls upon which unmatched boards may be nailed 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,the warm air of the stable cannot then reach the relatively cold walls1 and little condensation will appear on the boards1 since they are always more nearly the temperature of the stable than are the stone4 ,wooden basement walls are preferable in all ways to those constructed of stone1 grout or brick1 wherever the earth does not rest against them4 ,an excellent method of constructing the walls of the basement story is shown in a section of the first story1 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,the studding should be #b #f inches1 with short pieces of #b #d placed edgewise between them to serve as outside nailing girts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,lining the basement wall4 ,a broad1 steep water-table is placed just above the upper end of the studding to receive the boarding above the basement and to improve the outside appearance of the building4 ,after the outside boarding of the basement and the window frames are placed1 the inside of the wall is boarded horizontally with unmatched seasoned lumber1 and as the boards are being put on1 the hollow wall space is filled with short straw or straw and chaff4 ,this construction has proved to be the most satisfactory of any tried4 ,the wall is cheap1 durable1 dry1 excludes the cold1 and still allows a little fresh air to enter the stables gradually4 ,objection has been made to this construction on the ground that it harbors mice and rats4 ,after having used buildings with walls of this character for a quarter of a century1 ,i must say that the objection is not well taken4 ,,floors ,the floor of the first story should be partly of wood and partly of cement or of brick4 ,all voidings of the animals should be removed from the stable at least once a day4 ,allowing the manure to drop through gratings1 with the view of letting it remain there more than one day1 is decidedly wrong1 and any arrangement which does not admit of the thorough cleaning and airing of the stable daily is objectionable4 ,nor is the practice of washing out the stables economical1 since it necessitates great waste of manure or too great expense in caring for and removing the diluted excreta4 ,if the floors and stable be well cleaned with shovel and broom1 and dusted with gypsum1 dry earth1 sawdust1 or chaffy material1 good sanitary conditions will be secured easily and cheaply4 ,while the stables are being cleaned and treated they should also be aired4 ,the animals meantime should be allowed to stretch their limbs1 by which it is not meant that they should be hooking one another around a muddy barnyard1 or running foot races up and down the lane4 ,on the one hand1 it may be all well enough for those who sell animals at fabulous prices and have long bank accounts1 to procure water-proof blankets for them1 and to accompany them on their regular daily 8constitutional40 ,the other extreme is where the animals are fastened by the head or neck by contrivances not always comfortable1 and left standing for six months without being removed from their stall4 ,is there not a happy medium between these two extremes8 ,illustration3 ,top left rooms3 #d #aj and #aj #aa4 ,midway width3 #aj4 ,over-all width3 #cb4 ,bottom left room3 #aj #aa4 ,width of stalls3 #c #f4 ,over-all length3 #hj4 ,room central bottom3 #c #f4 ,fig4 #aje4 ,basement cattle stable4 ,at the right is a cross-section of the stable1 showing the convex cement midway4 ,animals are more comfortable on a wooden floor than on one built of either brick1 cement1 or asphalt4 ,notwithstanding this1 most of the floor of the basement should be constructed of more durable material than wood4 ,if the animals are kept fully bedded1 as they usually are not1 then it would be best to discard wooden floors entirely4 ,fig4 #aje shows a basement floor designed for cattle4 ,the part where the animals stand is of wood1 the balance of hard or pavement brick set edgewise on a bed of sand4 ,the cement or grout floor may be substituted for the brick if desired4 ,if the cracks between the bricks in the floor are filled with thin cement mortar1 the floor becomes water-tight1 though this is not necessary except in the gutters4 ,the ground underneath the wooden floor should be leveled and pounded1 and covered with a thin layer of salt to preserve the wood4 ,the plank which forms the side of the drip should be of oak or some other durable wood4 ,the #b #d pieces to which the floor is nailed when first built1 need not be replaced when they rot1 since the dirt underneath will be smooth and hard4 ,the large nails which fasten the floor to the oak piece at the rear and the mangers combined will suffice to keep the floor plank in place2 the only object in placing the nailing pieces at first is to facilitate construction4 ,the plank of the floor should be of some uniform standard width1 as #h1 #aj1 or #ab inches wide1 that repairs may be made quickly when the floor gives way4 ,,stalls ,when a dairy of some size is kept1 the cows may be arranged in double rows4 ,fifty cows could be crowded into a barn #hj #cb feet4 ,but fifty cows of #hjj pounds each weigh #dj1jjj pounds2 and if the stable is ten feet from the top of the lower floor to the bottom of the upper floor1 it would contain only #be1fjj cubic feet of air space4 ,this is manifestly too little1 as #a cubic foot of air space should be allowed for each pound of live animal4 ,many stables1 in fact most stables1 provide but one-half of a cubic foot of air space for each pound of live animal kept in them2 in such case it is impossible to keep the air approximately pure or the stable decently sweet4 ,to realize what this means1 suppose a bedchamber be constructed for a man weighing #afj pounds4 ,if one foot of air space be provided for each pound of live weight1 the chamber might be built #d feet wide1 #g feet long and #f feet high4 ,this would give #afh cubic feet of air space4 ,if the bedchamber be made proportionally as large as are most cow stables1 its dimensions would be #c feet wide1 #f feet long and #d feet high4 ,to insure good air in such a sleeping room one side of it would have to be knocked out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,a swing window for stable4 ,if one or two box-stalls and one feed-bin are provided in an #hj #cb-;foot barn1 with #ab-;foot ceilings 7,fig4 #aje71 and room for a hallway1 #c feet wide1 be left at one end of the building1 it will then accommodate thirty-nine animals4 ,each one would have #hjj cubic feet of air space1 the required amount4 ,the first story of most cow stables is about seven feet4 ,it is seen how easily the stable may be overcrowded4 ,a high story gives opportunity for long windows and for placing them well up from the floor1 and for good ventilation4 ,if the ceiling is to be reduced in height1 which it well may be1 the building should be proportionately longer4 ,a section of a part of the inside of the wall with swing windows is shown in ,fig4 #ajf4 ,the windows should be of one sash and hung near the middle1 as shown1 by means of a piece of iron of an inch in diameter and #d inches long4 ,a hole for the reception of the iron1 and of the same size1 is made through the window sash and extends into the jambs of the frame about one inch4 ,a button on the side of the jamb is used to hold the window partly open when required4 ,this allows cool air to pass in at the bottom and the warm1 vitiated air to pass out at the top in small1 broken streams4 ,it will be noticed that in case of a storm no rain or strong current of air can reach the stable4 ,usually too few and too small windows are provided1 through which the manure from the stables is not unfrequently thrown4 ,some additional ventilators should be provided2 these may consist of wooden tubes extending from the ceiling through the roof1 so constructed that the foul air may enter them4 ,they need not be numerous or large1 as the windows when slightly open form excellent ventilators4 ,two things should be kept prominently in view in ventilation3 first1 no strong draughts of air1 or1 as a distinguished professor puts it1 8great gobs of raw air10 should be introduced2 second1 ventilators should ventilate both at the ceiling and the floor1 as in these two places will be found the most impure air4 ,ample air space is most economically secured by high ceilings1 rather than by horizontal enlargement4 ,the air can be kept reasonably pure by the introduction1 at several points near the lower floor1 of small volumes of slowly moving fresh air4 ,two stairs should lead from the basement to the second floor in all large barns to economize time2 the openings in the upper floor had best be provided with flap doors1 which can be left open in muggy1 warm weather to assist ventilation1 or closed in cold weather to economize warmth4 ,many varieties of stanchion for confining cattle in stalls are in use1 some really good1 but mostly defective in one or more respects4 ,it would take too much space to describe all of the various contrivances and to illustrate them and to call attention to their good and objectionable points4 ,some confine the animals too closely1 others give too much freedom and allow them to become soiled2 some are too expensive1 and some are not durable4 ,i shall describe but one kind of fastening and manger which1 after trying numerous patent arrangements1 has been found to be excellent4 ,it is quite possible that there are better ones4 ,the one thing which has been learned about stanchions by experimentation and observation is that they may be so complicated and handy as to be unhandy4 ,the size and character of the 8drip10 the comfort and cleanliness of the animals1 the ease of fastening and unfastening1 the noise or quiet of the stable1 and the effect on the animals1 should all be considered4 ,while using one stanchion1 the animals became wild and made frantic efforts to pull their heads out when the attendant approached to unfasten them4 ,as soon as another fastening was introduced they became docile4 ,with one stanchion they would lie down more frequently than with another4 ,with one kind of manger the animals are tempted to hook one another1 and in reaching for food would fall upon their knees and injure themselves4 ,most of the contrivances were not easily adjustable1 so that when the size1 or rather length1 of the animals varied the standing room was either too short or too long4 ,some had posts to sustain the stanchions2 these intercepted the light and prevented an unobstructed survey of the animal4 ,they gave the stables a forbidding1 dark1 prison-like appearance4 ,the individual stalls should be1 for smallish animals1 #c feet #f inches from center to center1 and #c feet #h inches for larger animals4 ,the partitions between the animals need extend only far enough backward and upward to prevent them from reaching each other with their horns4 ,when dishorning is practiced the partitions may be lower than when it is not4 ,,mangers ,,and ,,ties ,the cross section of a floor and the skeleton of a bracket upon which the mangers are built are shown in ,fig4 #ajg4 ,the mangers of cattle stables should be easily movable4 ,this can be accomplished in the following way3 ,construct one more bracket than the number of stalls required in the line of mangers4 ,place one of the brackets at the end and one intermediate between every pair of stalls2 fasten them lightly to the floor with nails1 which should be removed when the mangers are completed4 ,fig4 #ajg also shows the cross section of the brackets1 with bottom1 front1 and back side of the manger placed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,the building of a manger4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,newton cattle tie4 ,the ,newton cattle tie 7,fig4 #ajh71 though rather expensive1 has proved most satisfactory4 ,it is made of one piece of round1 durable wood1 as ash1 about #a inches in diameter and bent at the corners1 and is furnished with a flat ring which encircles the bow at the middle1 to which is attached a swivel2 to this is fastened a rope to encircle the animal's neck1 the rope being furnished with suitable fastenings at the ends4 ,the bows are attached to the divisions on a level or a little above the animal's throat when standing2 when lying down the bow rests on top of the manger1 which is about #a feet lower than the ends of the bow4 ,it will be seen that since the bow describes an arc of a circle in passing downward1 it tends to pull the animal towards the manger when it lies down1 and hence away from the soiled drip4 ,in midsummer window curtains1 drawn during milking time1 serve to quiet the flies and the cows1 as does also a light spraying of the animals with kerosene before they are turned out in the morning4 ,a blanket tacked over the entrance door to the cow stable will brush most of the flies off the cattle as they enter4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,building ,,the ,,barn--,,the ,,superstructure ,the kind of superstructure best to be adopted for the barn depends on many conditions4 ,the balloon construction may be used for small barns1 but large ones naturally require large timbers or many small ones1 hence the old style of frame-work1 with some modification1 is usually adopted4 ,in modern barn buildings the main timbers are reduced in size1 more and lighter braces are used in lieu of the large mortised and pinned braces4 ,they are cut with smooth1 angled ends and spiked to posts and beams4 ,a brace of #b #d inches is inexpensive1 and allows of following the old rule of placing a brace in every angle made by the principal timbers4 ,another modification should be adopted3 the joists1 so far as possible1 should rest on sills and beams and not be gained into them4 ,it is unwise and unscientific to cut gains for the reception of the ends of the joists at considerable expense1 since such gains weaken both joists and sills4 ,in most cases the joists may be placed on top of the sills1 thereby obviating the necessity of framing1 while preserving the strength of sill and joist entire4 ,when it is desirable1 as it often is in small structures1 to have the top of the sill or beam coincide with the tops of the joists1 it is cheaper and better to use a rather light timber and fortify it by nailing upon it #b #d-;inch studding 7,fig4 #aji71 thereby avoiding the necessity of cutting gains1 while giving additional strength to the timber which supports the joists4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,laying the joist4 ,the joists in barns should be bridged as in houses4 ,that part of the barn floor which is above the root-cellar should be deafened1 as shown in ,fig4 #aja4 ,cleats nailed on the sides of the joists serve to support the short boards which carry the deafening material4 ,the #b-;inch space between the false and the true floor is filled with mortar composed of about five or six parts of sand to one of lime or cement4 ,if all of the floor driven upon above the basement is deafened1 it will deaden sound and promote warmth in the lower story4 ,while the balloon frame has been almost universally adopted in the construction of houses1 it is only recently that large barn frames have been successfully constructed on the same general principles4 ,the plank frame has now been so modified and improved that it serves well for the largest farm building4 ,all of the frame timbers are sawed two inches thick and of variable widths1 as required4 ,instead of uniting the timbers by means of mortise and tenon1 they are fastened with wire spikes4 ,this new method secures as strong a frame as the old1 and saves from #cj to #dj per cent of material1 while the plank frame is more easily and cheaply erected than the large timbered frame is4 ,the #b-;inch frame material can be so placed as to direction and position that it will secure the maximum of strength with the minimum of lumber4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,barn frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,cross-section of the frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,built-up post4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #aaj7 shows one end of a #fg #ig-;ft4 barn1 posts #ah ft4 long1 recently erected at the ,pennsylvania ,agricultural ,college4 ,a cross-section at one side of the driving floor is also shown 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,a cross-section of a built-up post is seen in ,fig4 #aab4 ,it will be seen that the building is firmly tied together1 the roof fully supported1 and that no timbers obstruct the unloading of provender by horse power4 ,this new method of constructing large frames is so little known and the principles involved are so valuable that ,i append a foot note at the risk of being misunderstood4#g ,since long1 large timbers have become expensive1 it is probable that the plank frame will become as common in the near future1 in barn building1 as the balloon frame is in house building4 #g ,shawver ,bros41 ,bellefontaine1 ,ohio1 furnish models and bills of material for plank barns at a low cost4 ,it is frequently convenient to place horses or other animals on the second floor above other animals1 or above a covered yard1 in which case a tight floor may be made as follows 7,fig4 #aac73 ,lay an unmatched1 rough inch floor2 upon this place strong1 tarred building-paper1 with joints well lapped4 ,saw and prepare the #b-;inch planks which are to form the floors4 ,for every four hundred square feet of floor1 procure one barrel of hard ,trinidad asphalt and three gallons of gas tar4 ,a large iron kettle may be used for heating and mixing the material1 which should be in the proportion of about one to ten4 ,with an ax remove the barrel1 and chop off and place in the kettle pieces of asphalt until it is not much more than one-half full1 then add the due proportion of gas tar4 ,the kettle should be placed in a rude arch and at a little distance from the building4 ,by means of a slow fire heat the material4 ,when all is ready1 dip the hot mixture into a galvanized iron pail and pour it in a small stream on the paper1 spreading to the width of the plank intended to be laid1 by means of a shingle or paddle4 ,lay the plank in the hot material1 being careful that when it is spiked down the hot asphalt does not fly up into the face4 ,then proceed to lay other planks in like manner4 ,finally pour some of the material into the cracks if there should be any4#h #h ,a floor laid1 as described1 seventeen years ago1 is still in good repair4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,making a barn floor4 ,should the floor become worn in time and need repairing1 even up the surface by spreading thin cement mortar upon it1 and upon this lay a second plank floor4 ,the cement mortar will assist in making the floor water-tight and in preventing dry rot4 ,barn floors which have become much worn from driving over them may be treated in like manner4 ,where it seems advisable to place cows on the second floor1 and over a manure cellar1 the following plan may be adopted3 ,a tight floor1 as in the former case1 is built with drips as shown2 a small hole is placed between each pair of stalls1 through which the voidings of the animals may be dropped into the story below1 the floor of which is concreted4 ,the objection might be raised that the manure underneath the animals would be objectionable2 but since the floor of the stable described is tight when the openings in the drip are closed1 and the story below is well lighted and ventilated1 the objection does not hold good4 ,as far as possible1 horses should stand with their heads away from the windows1 as draughts of air and glaring sunlight are trying to their eyes4 ,a few box stalls are convenient1 and assist in providing the two cubic feet of air space which should be allowed for each pound of live weight in the horse barn4 ,the stable should be so situated that the fumes of ammonia arising from it cannot reach the harness and carriages1 if they are highly polished and expensive4 ,the horse stable may often be placed on the second floor of the wing1 as it brings it on a level with the main driving floor and near to where the wagons are likely to be kept4 ,the story beneath the horses makes an acceptable covered yard4 ,an office1 which may be warmed1 and a repair room should be provided in one corner of the barn or in a small detached building near to it4 ,if the farm is ample1 and large amounts of hay and grain are to be stored1 instead of building a wagon house1 the main barn might be extended twenty feet1 more or less1 in length4 ,this additional room may be used for carriages and light harness in part1 and in part for the storage of grain1 meal1 and the like4 ,the space underneath this room would serve to enlarge the cow stable4 ,the place for washing carriages might also be located on the lower floor1 where it would serve for storing the milk wagon as well1 and the space above it could be devoted to storing hay and the like4 ,barn windows should have small panes of glass1 as the cross bars of the windows serve not only to hold the glass but as fenders also4 ,since the glass in barn windows is likely to be broken1 the cost of repairs is reduced to a minimum if the panes are small4 ,a cupola1 if it is large and well proportioned1 may add beauty to the barn and serve to ventilate the mows1 thereby making them cooler for the workmen than they otherwise would be4 ,it may also give opportunity for lighting the mows and the floors1 thereby avoiding the necessity of windows at the side of the mows1 where they are likely to be broken and where they are covered as soon as the barn is partly filled4 ,hay and grain contain #bj to #be per cent of moisture when stored1 and hence tend to become warm4 ,the hot1 moist air1 due to this heating1 ascends to the roof or cupola and forms an easier passage to the earth for electrical discharges than the normal air of the building does4 ,thunder storms prevail largely about the time barns are filled1 hence they should be provided with good lightning rods1 that an easier and safer way may be provided for the discharges than by the ascending warm1 moist air of the building4 7,see lightning rods1 ,chap4 ,,xx47 ,barns not more than sixty feet wide may be covered by self-supporting roofs4 ,the curb or gambrel form is the best4 ,if the gables are clipped1 the cost will not be materially increased1 while the structure will be much improved in looks4 ,barns should have strong1 wide1 projecting roofs2 a few extra rows of shingles at the eaves will serve to protect the outside covering and the framework1 and will improve the looks of the structure4 ,should it be decided to paint the barn1 an ample projection will greatly reduce the expense of keeping the paint presentable4 ,financially speaking1 it does not pay to paint the barn unless the boarding is placed horizontally4 ,the boarding of many unpainted barns is still in a good state of preservation1 although they were built more than three-fourths of a century ago1 and had roofs projecting but a few inches over sides and ends4 ,protected by a roof projection of one to two feet1 rough1 vertical barn boards may last for one to two hundred years without paint4 ,it may be said1 then1 that properly constructed barns are painted to improve their looks and not to preserve them4 ,when the barns are well removed from the house and virtually hidden by trees1 they may be left unpainted1 but where they are conspicuous they should be painted1 that the barn may not mar the beauty of the home4 ,the oxide of iron1 which usually has a red or reddish tinge1 mixed with pure oil1 forms a most desirable and satisfactory barn paint4 7,see ,painting the ,house1 ,chap4 ,,ix47 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,remodeling ,,old ,,barns ,it is more difficult to remodel old barns than to build new ones4 ,if the attempt be made to unite several of the detached buildings with the view of making them into one symmetrical structure1 much study will be required4 ,the frames of the old buildings are so strong and durable that they should not be thrown aside as useless until it is certain that to utilize them would be more expensive than to tear them down and erect others of new material4 ,those massive oak sills and posts and poplar swing-beams have for me a meaning and charm which is lacking in the light plank and balloon frame constructed of knotty1 wind-shaken hemlock or some other cheap wood4 ,it needs no argument to prove that the numerous detached rural buildings so often seen on the farm should be remodeled2 but how8 ,to illustrate1 let the buildings shown in ,fig4 #aad1 which is from a photograph1 be taken4 ,move the four largest buildings to some suitable site without taking the frames down1 and out of the timbers of the other structures build a basement story4 ,it will take just one-half as much material to board the new structure as the four old ones1 plus that required to fill the gaps where the old structures do not join 7see plan1 ,fig4 #aae74 ,these openings1 eight and twelve feet1 are all so short that the frames may be made continuous by means of light pieces of material1 which will serve for nailing girts4 ,when the old buildings have been united1 some of the inside posts may be in inconvenient positions4 ,if so1 trusses appropriately placed in the mow story will permit the removal of the obstructing post1 as shown in ,figs4 #aaf and #aag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,the scattered buildings on a farm4 ,the profit of the farm is absorbed in doing the chores4 ,if a steep curb roof1 which may be self-supporting 7,fig4 #aah71 be adopted1 the remodeled structure 7,fig4 #aai7 will have more than three times the available space that the four old structures had4 ,it is probable that there would be nearly enough dimension stuff in the seven other small structures to construct the basement story4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,plan for condensing the buildings shown in ,fig4 #aad4 ,but it may chance that no basement story is wanted4 ,if so1 the building might be arranged as before1 or two more of the small structures might be united to the four larger ones which it was proposed to use in the former case4 ,the barn would then present a rather low appearance2 but if the peaks of the curb roof were properly treated1 that is1 clipped 7,fig4 #abj71 the structure would not be void of beauty4 ,the rebuilt structure1 in any case1 should be placed on continuous walls1 not on stone piers4 ,if the posts of the old structures are of unequal length1 the wall which supports those having the shorter posts may be built higher than for those having the longer posts1 provided1 however1 there is not too great a difference in the length of the posts of the several small structures4 ,if there are four or more feet difference1 it would then be best to splice the short posts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,trussing where a post is removed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,a trussed frame1 where a post is removed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,old style of roof below1 and new style curb roof above4 ,the first story in most of the old barns is entirely too low4 ,this may be remedied by building the outside supporting walls of the proposed remodeled building two to three feet above the level of the ground4 ,this will add as much to the lower story as the wall is above the ground1 less the room required for placing the basement floor4 ,if treated in this manner the old inside sills1 sleepers1 and joists should be removed and the inside post supported on stone or brick piers4 ,all this will give opportunity to construct the basement floors on the ground1 or near to it1 and of such shape and material as the new plans call for4 ,in this case the floor might well be made of grout1 since lumber is expensive1 and an effort should be made to build permanent and durable structures4 ,if stable floors are placed well up from the ground and have numerous cracks between the planks1 they are extremely uncomfortable for the animals4 ,they are1 perhaps1 the most uncomfortable of all floors1 as the air finds access to the stable through the floor1 and it is nearly impossible to keep such stables comfortable in cold weather4 ,such construction of floors is also wasteful of manures1 tends to produce 8scratches0 and other foot and leg diseases in horses1 and is unsanitary and altogether undesirable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,this shows the farmstead in ,fig4 #aad1 after the barns are gathered in4 ,finally1 it may be said that when these separate structures are treated in this inexpensive manner without added basement1 the available capacity of the building would be double that of the old ones1 the time of performing the work in the barns would be greatly diminished1 and the discomfort of both man and beast would be ameliorated4 ,for the sake of the farm boy and for the animal which he cares for1 to say nothing of economy1 beauty and neatness1 may ,i not ask those who have these scattered1 unhandy1 uncomfortable barns1 to study well the illustrations given1 which show the old and the new arrangement8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,treatment of the gable4 ,the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #aba7 of ,english farm buildings may be of interest1 though this style of barn and the arrangement would not be suitable in ,america1 with its rigorous climate and expensive farm labor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,english farmsteading plan4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,outbuildings ,,and ,,accessories ,there are various farm buildings which are better when more or less detached from the main barn2 and some of these may now be mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,a poultry establishment sufficient for #aej hens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,a moveable coop4 ,,poultry ,,houses ,until recently comparatively few persons have been financially successful in the poultry business when large numbers of fowls were kept in close quarters1 as the many abandoned dilapidated yard fences and buildings testify4 ,the reason for such failures was due1 usually1 to allowing too many fowls to run in one flock4 ,it takes a genius to see and note the conditions of each individual animal once daily in a flock of several hundred birds4 ,break the flock up into several small ones1 each of uniform size and character1 and the individual fowl may then be more easily noted4 ,a single diseased bird1 if not removed1 may serve to inoculate a whole flock with some contagious disease4 ,if the flock contains but twenty to thirty individuals1 the chance of discovering a drooping bird is greatly increased4 ,this indicates that the poultry house or houses should be easily divided into rather small compartments4 ,poultry houses usually are about #ab feet wide and not more than #cj to #dj feet long4 ,if more room is wanted than one house furnishes1 another structure should be erected some little distance from any other one4 ,this will give better opportunity to arrange for large runs or yards than does one long1 continuous building4 ,i have yet to see a large poultry establishment furnished with yards as large as they should be1 and ,i have seen but few yards which were properly or fully shaded4 ,the runs should be large and relatively narrow1 and set to fruit trees4 ,the plum is best1 and may be set the usual distance apart4 ,the trees should be sprayed and cared for as in well kept orchards1 since the fruit may chance to be more profitable than the poultry4 ,for the health of the fowls and the welfare of the trees1 clean culture of the runs should be adopted4 ,in the case of poultry buildings1 the distributive method of construction should be adopted rather than the concentrated one4 ,if the undertaking is begun with a well matured plan1 these several small structures may not be unsightly when viewed as a whole4 ,an illustration is given of a modest poultry plant large enough for #aej hens and #ejj chicks1 provided1 however1 that most of the chicks are sold when from three to six months old 7,fig4 #abb74 ,these structures are built on grout foundation walls to exclude vermin and moisture4 ,the floors are of wood1 the sills and plates #b #d inches4 ,the boarding is vertical and double1 with paper between the two boardings4 ,the outside boards are planed and battened2 the roof boards1 which are laid close together1 are covered with paper and then shingled4 ,the windows provide for light and1 in part1 for ventilation4 ,these structures are dry on the inside1 and the temperature1 though not always above the freezing point in cold weather1 is comfortable4 ,the buildings might be reduced in number or in size1 except the brooder house1 and yet provide for the same number of birds1 if movable coops for the smaller chickens were provided4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #abc7 shows a durable1 light1 movable coop large enough for twenty half pound chicks4 ,the coop was designed for use on the lawn4 ,it is inexpensive1 and protects the chicks from all their ordinary enemies1 both day and night4 ,it weighs but #ge pounds1 and can be moved easily by a child by means of a strap attached to one end4 ,when used on the lawn1 the coop should be moved and cleaned at least once daily1 as fresh pasture for the chicks is thereby provided1 injury to the grass prevented1 the lawn being benefited by the excrements4 ,the coop shown is #d #h feet and #bj inches high1 unfloored except the covered section1 which has a tight floor1 and roosts and suitable wooden and screen doors4 ,a brood of chicks in such a coop would form superior facilities for nature-study work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,a large portable coop4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,bracing the corners of the frame4 ,when poultry-raising is carried on on a large scale1 the movable coops might be built #ab #f or #af #h feet 7,fig4 #abd71 the latter the largest size which is easily movable without the aid of a horse4 ,the corners of the sills should be mitered and held together by triangular pieces 7,fig4 #abe74 ,these coops will be found to be entirely satisfactory when used in a pasture or grass paddock near the chicken house4 ,while experimenting with them1 it was found that the birds did better when as many as thirty or more chicks were assigned to each large coop than when kept in the large1 grassless runs4 ,the following bill of particulars may be of assistance in the construction of a lawn chicken-coop3 ,sills #a #d inches4 ,posts #b #b inches1 #bj inches long4 ,braces #a #a inch4 ,plates #a #b inches4 ,the covered part of the coop is made of -inch matched and beaded hard pine2 the floor of any light wood -inch or -inch1 matched1 but not beaded4 ,,piggeries ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,temporary shelter for a brood sow4 ,a piggery of any considerable size is the most difficult to plan of all farm structures4 ,one of two methods may be adopted in the ,east with fairly satisfactory results4 ,if there are woods and some pasture land adjoining or near to the barns1 cheap separate pens 7,fig4 #abf71 one for each brood animal1 may be built near the border of the wood or on the edge of it4 ,there need be little more than a slanting roof1 with the triangular corners at the ends boarded to keep out the wind4 ,the earth forms a most comfortable bed if kept dry and covered thinly with leaves or straw4 ,of course1 these pens are not suitable for brood animals farrowing during the winter months4 ,where but one litter of pigs is raised annually1 there is little difficulty2 if two litters a year be desired1 the first one should be farrowed in ,april or ,may1 and the other in ,september or ,october4 ,in either case these cheap detached pens may be not only satisfactory1 but they will serve to fit into a system of pig-raising which may be carried on at the minimum of labor and expense and supplementary foods4 ,by means of a tank or barrel mounted on wheels the animals may be fed1 either once or twice daily1 in large troughs placed in the pasture4 ,this system presupposes ample areas of grass and woodland1 which should furnish not only a healthful run for the animals but much food for them4 ,usually the mistake is made of confining pigs in small pens1 which may or may not have attached to them small yards or runs4 ,these are always devoid of grass1 and offensively dusty and filthy a part of the year1 and an impassable mud hole at other times4 ,wherever circumstances will permit1 there should be allotted to each brood animal and her offspring one-fourth acre of land4 ,two small fields might be provided1 one of which would serve for pasture ground for all the animals1 while the other would be used for raising crops for soiling the pigs or for other purposes4 ,when the lot became fertilized from the droppings of the animals and the grass injured1 it should be plowed1 cropped and seeded1 the animals being pastured meantime in the other field4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,pig pens4 ,at the left is shown a vertical section1 with the roof over the rear4 ,yard on the right4 ,cheap but somewhat more elaborate pens are shown in ,fig4 #abg4 ,these may be built in detached pairs1 or several pens may be placed in juxtaposition4 ,each pen1 including the small outside yard and feeding floor1 both unroofed1 is #af #af feet4 ,the part roofed is #h #h feet4 ,after the pigs have attained some size1 all doors are opened and the entire herd may be grazed in one field4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,a more elaborate piggery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,elevation of the house shown in ,fig4 #abh4 ,a better but more expensive piggery1 ,figs4 #abh and #abi1 shows five pens1 though the plan lends itself to a greater or lesser number4 ,the area devoted to each bed is #h #h feet4 ,the driveway1 which also serves for temporary storage of manures1 is #h feet wide and extends lengthwise through the building4 ,the floor of the driveway should be about one foot lower than the feeding and sleeping floors at the middle1 and should be paved or asphalted4 7,see cross section1 ,fig4 #abi47 ,the feeding floor upon which the troughs rest may be #d or #e feet long1 and should descend towards the driving floor4 ,ordinary gates are hung to the posts which serve1 with the boarding1 to separate the pens4 ,these gates are fastened at the other end of the posts which separate the feeding compartments4 ,when so fastened each brood animal has a bedroom #h #h1 a receptacle for manure #h #h1 and a feeding floor #d #h feet4 ,this arrangement presupposes that most of the foods will be fed in the troughs4 ,if1 when the animals are first placed in the pens1 the paved portion of the floor be soiled with dirt and water1 the excreta thereafter will be deposited by the animals on this floor and not in the bedroom4 ,the pig is really a cleanly animal if it is given a few timely sensible hints4 ,when it is desired to remove the manure the gates are all swung to the right or left1 as most convenient1 and they then serve to fasten all of the animals in the bed compartments1 and the driveway is left unobstructed4 ,one of the outside openings to the driveway should also be provided with a gate to swing in1 as well as an ordinary door to swing out4 ,these pens may all be thrown open in the summer when it is desired to pasture the herd4 ,the illustration shows a small wing attached which may serve many useful purposes4 ,a matched upper floor and abundant light and ventilation should be provided4 ,the roof story may be used for housing some corn in the ear and straw for bedding4 ,in cold weather the upper floor should have some straw left on it to promote warmth in the pens below4 ,the object in discussing these three styles of piggeries has been to emphasize cleanliness1 economy of labor in caring for the animals1 the comfort of the animals1 prevention of wanton waste of manure1 and economy in the production of healthy swine in piggeries so arranged that the animals may be conveniently grazed during the summer1 and kept reasonably clean and comfortable in winter4 ,,the ,,silo ,the ,egyptians1 the ,romans1 and the ,american ,indians all stored grain in pits or silos which were air-tight1 or as nearly so as large rude structures could be made4 ,the custom of using silos for storing grain in ,spain and ,france never became common1 though several attempts were made to preserve large quantities of grain for several years1 that the overproduction of one year might be kept until there were deficient harvests4 ,the subject of ensilaging green 8roughage0 material attracted attention in the ,united ,states soon after #ahgj4 ,as early as #ahge1 ,doctor ,manly ,miles1 then connected with the ,illinois ,industrial ,university1 was fairly successful in preserving the green tops of broom corn in an earthen silo4 ,interest in the subject of preserving green material in silos was widely aroused in ,america by the appearance of a book on ensilage1 translated in #ahgh-i4 ,the book was published in ,france in #ahgg1 by ,m4 ,auguste ,goffart4 ,when the practice of ensilaging green material for feeding animals was first introduced into the ,united ,states there was much discussion as to the construction of silos4 ,many advocated building them of stones1 brick1 or grout1 though some were built of wood4 ,as a rule1 they were built either square or in the form of a parallelogram1 in a few cases octagonal4 ,experience soon showed that the silage was preserved better in the wooden silo than in those constructed of other material4 ,for this reason1 and because the wooden silo is most cheaply constructed1 wood is now in universal use for building them4 ,at first heavy frames were erected which were covered with two1 three1 and even four thicknesses of boards4 ,sometimes building paper was placed between the inner and outer boards4 ,the octagon and the round silo soon supplanted those having square corners4 ,as built1 too often the walls could not be or were not fully ventilated4 ,the thick walls remained more or less damp throughout the entire year or1 if dried out when empty1 lack of ventilation superinduced dry rot4 ,cases were not infrequent where silos were found to be practically useless without rebuilding in four or five years4 ,where everything was at its best1 the frequent shrinking and swelling of the wood resulted finally in so destroying its elasticity that it did not return to its normal size when the silo was refilled4 ,since there was no means of tightening these silos the air soon entered them freely1 which resulted in serious loss of fodder4 ,by reason of the costliness and defects of stone and grout silos1 and the failure in many cases of square-cornered wooden ones to preserve the material satisfactorily1 and because of their perishable nature1 much attention has been given to the shape and material of silos4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,the stave silo4 ,from all the evidence attainable1 the conclusion is reached that the round1 tall1 stave silo is best4 ,it is simple in construction1 inexpensive as compared with most other kinds1 and reasonably durable4 ,the fact that it dries out fully during the summer1 thereby destroying all germs of decay1 coupled with the other fact that at any time it can be made tight by means of the hoops which serve to hold the staves in place1 makes the round1 stave silo par excellent4 ,the staves should be two inches thick and from four to six inches wide1 bevelled to suit the size of the structure4 ,the hoops are usually of round galvanized iron one-half inch in diameter4 ,they are placed about three feet apart1 the spaces between the hoops being wider near the top than they are near the bottom4 ,the hoops are made in sections of variable lengths2 the ends of each section are furnished with lugs1 that the hoop may be shortened and the silo tightened with ease4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #acj7 shows an emergency silo built of rough green hemlock plank unbevelled1 hooped with 8,american woven wire fence40 ,it is #bd feet high1 #ab feet in diameter1 cost #ce1 and has a nominal capacity of #ej tons4 ,a flat board roof serves to keep out the snow and most of the rain4 ,it is placed in the open to test its durability4 ,it has been in use one year1 and so far it is entirely satisfactory1 though the staves would be better if they had been beveled4 ,how long will this inexpensive silo last8 ,that remains to be determined4 ,judging from other silos of similar construction which were erected several years ago1 ,i judge it will last #ae or #bj years with slight repairs4 ,when left thus exposed1 will the silage freeze during the winter8 ,in extremely cold weather in central ,new ,york1 when the thermometer drops to #aj or #ae below zero1 the material at the top will freeze4 ,if straw be spread over the silage to the depth of a few inches1 it will prevent the escape of heat and freezing4 ,a portion of the straw covering is thrown back out of the way1 the silage wanted removed1 and the covering returned4 ,such precaution is only necessary during a few of the coldest days4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,protection ,,from ,,lightning ,a flash of lightning is one of the most feared of nature's manifestations of power2 and yet by the use of proper precautions its ability to injure persons and property can be lessened greatly4 ,speculations as to the nature of lightning were vague until ,benjamin ,franklin boldly sent a kite into the teeth of a storm and tapped the accumulated electricity in the cloud to charge one of his storage jars4 ,he connected the cloud with his jar by a wire made of a material which he knew would conduct the electrical charge1 and at the same time he took the precaution not to hold the end of this wire himself4 ,he introduced between the end of the wire and his hand a piece of silk cord1 which is a non-conductor of electricity4 ,had he taken hold of the end of the wire1 the charge would have passed through him with probably fatal results4 ,what is lightning8 ,one naturally inquires for the reason of this storage of electrical energy in the clouds4 ,the explanation is not forthcoming--at least there is none which is entirely satisfactory--but the facts are well known4 ,the mass of water-vapor which forms the clouds becomes electrically charged just as a rubber comb does when rubbed on the hair on a dry day1 or as an ebonite ruler does when rubbed on a cat-skin4 ,perhaps by contact with the air1 which is in motion1 the particles of water become charged1 and by the union of multitudes of these the clouds are charged to a tremendous pressure4 ,lightning can be produced artificially on a small scale by means of electric machines1 and the results of study of these artificial discharges have been to show the following facts3 ,the air is not a conductor of electricity1 but when the electrical pressure between two points becomes sufficiently great the electric charge jumps suddenly between the two points at which the pressure exists4 ,it punctures a hole for itself through the air4 ,lightning is the result4 ,this discharge is very violent1 and it is accompanied by a strong smell of ozone1 which is only very strong oxygen4 ,if one were to examine the points of the electric machine between which the discharge took place1 they might be found either hot or cold1 depending upon their size and the material of which they were made4 ,some materials offer more resistance to the passage of the electric charge than others1 and when a considerable resistance is offered1 heat is produced in appreciable amounts at the places at which the resistance is met4 ,the application of this principle will be seen when the effects of real lightning are considered4 ,in ,figs4 #aca1 #acb1 and #acc are shown lightning flashes taken by ,mr4 ,w4 ,n4 ,jennings4#i ,these flashes are so soon over that without the aid of the sensitive photographic plate it would be impossible to study them4 ,it will be noticed that the path of the charge is not straight1 but quite irregular2 this path being that in which there is the least resistance to the passage of the electricity4 ,one strange phenomenon which is brought out clearly in the pictures is that the discharge very frequently divides into several branches4 ,this is because it finds easy paths in several directions and divides into smaller discharges1 thus finally disappearing4 #i ,these three pictures are drawn1 by permission1 from photographic illustrations by ,mr4 ,jennings in ,journal of the ,franklin ,institute1 vol4 #acc 7#ahib74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,horizontal discharge of lightning4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,meandering discharge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,tree-form discharge4 ,protection from lightning4--,having noticed briefly something of the nature of lightning1 the next point to be considered is its control1 so that the dangerous effects of a sudden discharge may be avoided4 ,it has long been known that by repeating ,franklin's experiment and connecting the clouds with the earth1 dangerous flashes of lightning can be avoided to some extent2 and this fact has given rise to much swindling on the part of the 8lightning-rod man10 who has frequently imposed on the people through their fear of the results of lightning bolts4 ,any person of average intelligence1 with the knowledge of a few simple principles1 can put up a rod himself for the protection of his barn or dwelling at a very reasonable expense4 ,,metal ,,roofs ,it has been noticed that metal roofs protect buildings even when no lightning rods are used1 especially if there are tin or iron water pipes running to the ground4 ,even steam and gas pipes are good if connected with the roof4 ,tin and copper roofs are not so common in the country as in the city1 and this is one of the many reasons why city houses are less frequently struck by lightning than country ones4 ,copper roofs are not used now as they once were on account of the great expense2 but from the electrical standpoint they are an excellent protection to a house in a thunder storm4 ,the writer has noticed in a room in a city house1 in which steam heat is used1 that the lightning will come in and down on the steam pipes without doing any harm4 ,if one will go into a telegraph station during a storm he will frequently notice the discharges of lightning which take place through devices provided for the purpose1 and this without the least fire risk4 ,this is an illustration of the fact that1 if properly provided for1 the dangerous element can be largely eliminated from a lightning discharge4 ,,protecting ,,wooden ,,roofs ,if a metal roof is out of the question1 the protection of the wooden roof must be provided for4 ,very little attention has been paid in this country to the proper erection and maintenance of lightning rods4 ,it is not sufficient to put up a point in an out-of-the-way place1 and with a careless ground connection1 and then expect immunity from lightning4 ,the lightning rod will protect a wooden-roofed building if it is properly installed2 and in order that this simple but important piece of apparatus be thoroughly understood it will now be considered in detail4 ,in the first place1 it should be noted that there are two forms of electric discharge or lightning which are provided for in equipping a building with lightning protection3 the brush discharge and the disruptive discharge4 ,the brush-form is so named because the fine streamers of sparks which are emitted have somewhat the appearance of a brush4 ,this discharge is harmless1 and one of the important functions of the bunch of points on the upper end of the lightning rod is to quietly take from the surrounding atmosphere the electricity there generated1 and thus prevent its accumulation to a dangerous extent4 ,very high towers1 such as steel windmills1 high trees1 and steeples do the community a good service in this respect4 ,but sometimes the discharges cannot be dissipated through the brush form1 but reach a high pressure1 and exhibit themselves with great violence1 producing the booming and crackling noise of thunder4 ,this is the second form2 and although the points may be useful in this case too1 yet if they are too far apart the discharge may not seek them1 but may take a shorter path through the moist hay from which the hot1 damp air is rising to the roof and forming another lightning conductor4 ,protection from this can be partly provided by the use of several points1 not over forty feet apart2 but in cases in which lightning is very violent and frequent1 the conductor should be run all around the edges of the roof1 and in several places to the ground4 ,an experiment made by a noted electrician some years ago will illustrate this point3 ,a frame was made of iron wire in the shape of a barn1 the wire representing the edges of the walls and roof4 ,the frame was connected to the ground1 or 8grounded10 as the electricians say1 and then artificial lightning was allowed to play upon it from a distance of a foot or more above4 ,this gave a model about in proportion to the real barn and actual lightning4 ,all the discharge followed the wire frame1 and did not ignite a dummy of gun-cotton which was placed inside4 ,the instant that the metal barn frame was removed the dummy was struck and burned violently4 ,one can draw his own conclusions from an experiment of this sort4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,proper adjustment of lightning rods on a barn4 ,a barn properly fitted with lightning rods is shown in ,fig4 #acd4 ,the location of the points is such that there is not more than forty feet between two adjacent ones4 ,the rod projects about six feet above the roof1 and these projections are all connected by means of rod of the same form as the vertical conductors4 ,sharp turns are avoided in erecting the conductor1 for an electric discharge would prefer to go straight through the air rather than turn a corner4 ,it will now be necessary to go into some practical details of the construction of lightning rods1 and the suggestions that will be made have been included here because good points or rods may not always be readily obtainable4 ,their manufacture is easy and can be performed with the limited facilities of a small village4 ,if the raw materials have to be bought at a distance1 this can be easily done by correspondence4 ,parts of the system3 ,the equipment will consist of three parts--the conductor and its support1 the points1 and the ground connection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,supporting a rod4 ,the conductor1 or so-called 8rod10 first demands attention4 ,all metals conduct electricity to some extent1 but certain ones are very much better than others4 ,for example1 lead1 platinum1 brass1 and iron are poor conductors1 which is equivalent to saying that they heat up readily on the passage of an electric current4 ,on the other hand1 silver1 copper1 and aluminum are good conductors4 ,in making a lightning rod1 the best all-round conductor should be used1 when cost and conductivity are the basis for the selection4 ,as an example1 take the metals iron1 copper1 and aluminum for comparison4 ,iron is cheapest in price per pound1 but its electrical conductivity is small1 while copper1 though more expensive1 has so much more conductivity that to get rid of a certain charge of electricity requires much less of it4 ,so with aluminum1 which has slightly less conductivity and which costs more than copper1 but which is so light that a rod having the same conducting ability when made of this metal actually costs less than one made of copper1 and the price of aluminum is constantly lessening1 while that of copper cannot fall much on account of the limited supply4 ,to compare actual figures1 call the conductivity of copper #ajj1 then that of steel or iron will be about #ah1 and that of aluminum about #fj4 ,as to relative weights1 copper weighs about #eej pounds per cubic foot1 iron or steel #dhj1 and aluminum #afj4 ,as the prices of these materials are constantly varying1 it would be impossible to say at this time what the relative costs would be at any other time2 but it can be said that on the score of cost there is little choice among them4 ,for a number of reasons aside from cost1 copper is at present the best material1 and these reasons are3 ,that it is smaller than the others for a given conducting ability1 and thus is more sightly2 that it is easier to support on account of this small size1 and that it can be readily soldered to the ground plate1 which will be considered later4 ,in addition to the material of the lightning rod1 its form is a matter of considerable importance4 ,the cable forms have been used extensively and successfully1 but the ribbon or flat form is better on account of the smaller cost1 and because there is a greater area exposed for the dissipation of the heat generated by the lightning in passing from the points to the ground4 ,a rectangular section of three-quarters by one-eighth of an inch is recommended4 ,in supporting the conductor from the wall or roof1 it should be separated or 8insulated0 from these surfaces4 ,there is a slight chance that the lightning might leave the conductor if the building were wet4 ,a more important reason for the use of the insulator is that the heat which is generated on the surface of the rod when a heavy discharge occurs will not be able1 if supported away from the wall1 to heat up any inflammable material near it4 ,fig4 #ace shows a method of support in which one of the standard insulators used in running electric light and other wires is employed4 ,these insulators1 which are made of porcelain and iron1 can be screwed into the wood or into a plug driven into the joints between the stones very readily4 ,the insulator shown is manufactured by the ,general ,electric ,company1 of ,schenectady1 ,new ,york1 and similar ones are made by other manufacturers of electrical materials4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,efficient points for a lightning rod4 ,in order to attract the discharge1 the rods must project some distance above the roof1 about #f feet being the proper height4 ,this projection must be supported1 and there are two ways to do this4 ,the first is to screw or nail a piece of timber to the side of the building1 projecting about #e feet above the roof4 ,two insulators on this will provide the necessary support for the rod4 ,as this might be considered unsightly in some places1 a neater but more expensive method is to use a piece of -inch copper1 brass or iron rod for the upper #i or #aj feet of the rod4 ,this can be easily joined and soldered to the copper ribbon and is strong enough to support itself in any wind4 ,a brace from the vertical to the horizontal rod will provide additional support if desired1 and will give a more substantial appearance4 ,at the point at which the horizontal rod passes through a timber support1 in case such plan is used1 a hole #a inches should be bored in the timber to avoid any risk of its being burned4 ,in joining the horizontal to the vertical rod1 the former should be bent up at right angles for an inch1 and the surfaces should then be well cleaned and soldered4 ,the points for attracting the discharge should be made very carefully1 and with a view to accommodating the brush discharge particularly4 ,as a rule1 the more points in the bunch at the head of the rod the better will the brush discharge be attracted2 and for the same reason these points should be sharp and bright4 ,these facts have been determined by experiment1 from which it has been learned that the discharge is quieter and at a lower pressure from sharp1 bright terminals than from others4 ,aluminum wire fulfils the requirements for the points better than any other metal of reasonable cost4 ,unfortunately this metal is difficult to solder1 but if the directions here given are carefully followed there will be no difficulty in producing a good bunch4 ,the sketch 7,fig4 #acf7 shows the general construction4 ,in the end of a block of copper of the dimensions shown1 drill a hole of an inch in diameter and #a inch deep4 ,cut off a number of pieces of aluminum wire1 of about of an inch in diameter1 about #d inches long4 ,this wire can be obtained from the ,pittsburg ,reduction ,company1 of ,pittsburg1 ,pennsylvania4 ,these wires must then be filed to sharp points on one end1 the opposite ends being roughened with coarse sandpaper4 ,push as many of the wires into the hole in the block as it will hold and bend the points back so as to form a brush4 ,now heat some solder in a ladle and pour in around the lower ends of the aluminum wires1 having first taken the precaution to heat the copper block so that the solder will flow well4 ,the conductor rod is then soldered into a slot filed in the lower end of the block1 and the bunch of points is complete4 ,the ground connection is the most important part of the whole equipment4 ,with poor ground connections1 the rods become a menace to a building rather than a protection4 ,examples could be cited where buildings were actually struck and destroyed1 even though 8apparently properly rodded40 ,in one case the wire entered but two inches into dry soil1 while in another the lower end was buried in concrete4 ,it is absolutely essential that the lower end of the rod be connected with moist earth in some way1 as this is the only method which will insure safety4 ,if there are water pipes in the building1 they should be attached to the rod in the basement in addition to the main ground connection4 ,as the charge is to be dissipated in the earth1 it will be necessary to expose a considerable area of metal under ground4 ,if a spring is near1 the rod should be run to the vicinity of the spring and there soldered to the ground plate1 which should be below the level of the surface of the spring4 ,moist soil is the only kind which will conduct electricity1 hence the insistence on a moist place for the terminal of the rod4 ,in case the plate must be planted some distance from water1 either it must go quite deep or it may be placed in a barrel of charcoal or coke buried under the surface4 ,these materials will hold whatever water they receive1 and it is a simple matter to wet the soil above such a terminal from time to time4 ,the plate itself should be of copper and of an area of at least #be square feet1 including both sides4 ,an old copper boiler1 flattened out1 makes a cheap and effective ground plate4 ,there is no doubt that many buildings have been saved from destruction by means of properly installed lightning rods1 and it is plain that they are not difficult nor expensive to install4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,fields ,while it is the primary object of this book to discuss the lay-out of buildings and their accessories1 it would be incomplete if something were not said of the general plan of the fields themselves4 ,,fences ,some ten years since1 someone estimated that for every dollar's worth of live stock kept in ,new ,york another dollar was expended in fences to restrain it4 ,it is probable that this estimate is below rather than above the facts4 ,be this as it may1 the first cost of fences and their maintenance is a serious draft on the resources of the farmer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,the old-time fence system on the right2 the present condition on the left4 ,in the pioneer days1 when even the best of fencing material was so abundant that it was burned to clear the land1 there was great temptation to split the tender logs into great rails and construct fences with them4 ,each winter a few acres of land were cleared and each year's clearing was surrounded by a great ten-rail fence1 which served to discourage some of the larger wild animals from destroying the crops4 ,it is easily seen why our ancestors in the wooded districts fenced the farm into small fields4 ,in some cases the surface stones were so numerous on the land that the larger ones had to be removed to make way for the plow4 ,naturally they were used for constructing fences1 for the most economical way to get rid of these too numerous stones was to make fences of them4 ,the haul was short and the fences could be increased in width and height until storage room was provided for all the rocks which the farmer cared to remove4 ,so here1 too1 the temptation was great to fence the farm into small fields4 ,the following diagrams show the fields and the fences as they were on the old homestead1 and also as they are at the present time 7,fig4 #acg74 ,changed agricultural conditions imply fewer fences and the adoption1 in part at least1 of the soiling system4 ,then1 too1 the introduction of the horn-fly makes a radical change imperative in the summering of the dairy4 ,this worst of all dairy pests robs the cow of flesh and the owner of profit4 ,now that the silo is an assured success1 except under rare conditions1 soiling1 or the partial soiling system1 should be adopted on many farms1 especially in the dairy districts4 ,the object should be to provide a continuous and full supply of food1 and comfortable conditions for the animals at all times4 ,in ,may and ,june the pastures are succulent and the grasses usually abundant1 and the annoying flies are not present4 ,when the animals are first turned out on the pastures the nights may be too cold and damp for comfort1 in which case they may be stabled and fed a small supplemental ration2 in fact1 cows in milk should always receive some dry1 concentrated food for the first few weeks after they are turned out to grass4 ,often the early grass is over-succulent and deficient in food constituents to such an extent that the cows cannot eat enough to sustain life and produce the most profitable quantities of milk4 ,when the pastures begin to fail1 the flies appear and the days are hot1 manifestly the animals will be most comfortable in the stables in the day time and in the pastures at night4 ,this system will permit of reducing the pastures nearly one-half1 and the removal of all fences except those which surround the permanent pasture land4 ,if it is desired occasionally to pasture a part of the unenclosed land1 a light woven wire fence1 which can be easily erected and removed1 may be constructed4 ,all changes in the present system of summering animals should be towards smaller areas of pasture-land1 fewer fences1 more comfortable conditions for animals1 economy of effort1 and control of food-supplies for the animals at all seasons of the year4 ,in most of the states the laws require each farmer to restrain his own animals without the aid of the neighbors2 hence the road-fence1 often the most unsightly and ill kept of all the fences1 may be discarded4 ,how many of the inside fences would best be removed depends upon circumstances2 but certain it is that a more rational system of restraining and feeding cattle will be adopted than the one now almost universally in use4 ,we cannot destroy the hornfly2 we can remove the useless fences and house the animals in stables from which the pestiferous flesh- and milk-reducing flies are excluded4 ,,orchards ,in some fruit districts the farmers are cutting down their orchards1 saying that they cannot afford to bother with them1 and that fruit-raising must be carried on in a large way by specialists to be profitable4 ,this is tantamount to saying that they are not intelligent and enterprising enough to manage six or eight acres of orchard successfully1 while their neighbor is competent to care for ten times that acreage4 ,the man who owns the smaller orchard should1 other things being equal1 secure a relatively larger profit than the owner of the large orchard1 since he will be able to give it more personal attention4 ,the man who overcomes the difficulties of fruit-raising is constantly adding to his education and power1 while the man who is appalled with the difficulties of orcharding1 and falls back on rye1 buckwheat and oats as money-crops1 sinks in intelligence and loses courage4 ,the orchard1 when intelligently cared for1 seldom fails to give much larger profits than a like area devoted to the cereals4 ,as a rule1 the most difficult crop to raise or the most difficult business is the one which brings the most liberal reward after the difficulties have been surmounted4 ,when convenient1 the orchard might well be set to the north or west of the buildings1 in most sections of the ,united ,states1 but not so close to them as to prevent a good air passage between it and the dwelling4 ,low-headed fruit trees should not be set in the house yard or near to it4 ,the trees in most orchards are set too close together1 and even when set appropriate distances apart it will be found to be unprofitable1 in the long run1 to grow two crops on the same land at the same time1 as wheat or oats and apples4 ,specific directions for the care and management of orchards can now be found in well written books and bulletins2 therefore there is no occasion for treating orchards in detail here4 ,suffice it to say that the farmer without an abundance of fruits in their season is like the lad with empty pockets outside the circus tent3 lots of fruit and fun1 ready to be enjoyed by those who have made thoughtful provision for the gratification of desires which always come1 sooner or later4 ,every farmer should grow most of the fruits suited to his soil and climate1--enough to eat and to sell and to give to the worthy poor4 ,,farm ,,garden ,the farm garden should be ample and contain not only enough vegetable and small fruits for the use of the family1 but a surplus to sell or to give away4 ,the farmer used to large areas is reluctant to undertake anything so small as he imagines the garden to be2 hence1 too often he plows it and leaves the planting and cultivation of it to the 8women folks40 ,if he knew how to manage a garden he would find that the half-acre of land devoted to small fruits and vegetables could be made the most profitable and pleasurable part of the farm4 ,higher remuneration is received for the time spent in harvesting the products of a large1 well kept garden1 than in harvesting the cereals or milking the cows4 ,it must be said1 however1 that there are good reasons for the farmer's distaste for gardening1 for the gardens1 as usually laid out1 necessitate the maximum of hand-culture and the minimum of horse-culture4 ,the result of such gardens is a minimum of products secured by maximum of effort1 and a resultant surplus of weeds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,plan of a home garden4 ,the garden should be about four times as long as it is broad1 unfenced when possible1 near to the house1 and should be1 in miniature1 a farm with the cereals1 grasses1 and large fruits left out 7,fig4 #ach74 ,the side farthest from the dwelling should be devoted to the perennial plants1 such as grapes1 currants and other bush-fruits4 ,everything should be planted in straight rows1 with spaces sufficiently wide between the rows to admit of horse-hoe culture4 ,the grapes and blackberries might occupy one row1 the raspberries and currants a second row1 rhubarb1 asparagus and like plants a third row4 ,the spaces between these various fruits should be eight feet1 as it is poor economy to so crowd vines and bushes as to force them to struggle the year through for plant-food and moisture4 ,a rod or two of land1 more or less1 virtually amounts to nothing on the farm2 crowding the plants is only admissible in the city or village4 ,here the plants may receive unusual care1 and often may be irrigated at fruiting time from the city hydrant4 ,the rows of ordinary vegetables may be thirty inches apart1 except in case of such plants as onions1 lettuce1 and early beets4 ,these small1 slow-growing esculents should be planted in double rows4 ,starting from the last row of potatoes a thirty inch space is measured off1 a row of lettuce planted1 and then one foot from this a row of beets or onions2 then leave a space thirty inches wide and again plant double rows1 if more of the small esculents are wanted4 ,the larger spaces may be cultivated by horse-hoe and the smaller spaces by hand-hoe4 ,the entire garden which is to be planted in the spring should be kept fertile and plowed early in the spring1 leaving that part of it which is not designed for immediate planting unharrowed4 ,it may be necessary to replow4 ,it certainly will be necessary to cultivate several times that part of the garden which is used for late-growing crops1 such as cabbage and celery4 ,as a rule1 the farmer cannot afford to attempt to raise two crops on the same land the same year1 since labor is everything and the use of land nothing2 therefore1 better prepare the ground by two or three plowings for the late crops1 than to attempt to raise them on land which has parted with much of its readily available plant-food in producing the early crop4 ,then1 too1 land which has produced one crop is likely to be deficient in moisture1 while land that has been plowed two or three times during the summer and kept well harrowed will be moist and contain an abundance of readily available plant-food4 ,early in the spring1 when the land is cold and often too moist1 it is best to leave the soil rough for a time if it is not to be planted immediately1 that it may become somewhat dry and warm4 ,as a rule1 the garden should not be fenced1 but the chickens should be restrained by fences a part of the time2 at other times they may have free access to the garden1 where they are often very beneficial in reducing the insect enemies4 ,,index ,abandoned lands1 significance of1 #ca4 ,agricultural statistics1 #h2 what they do not show1 #aj4 ,agriculturists1 what they have done1 #h4 ,air space required in cow stables1 #bha4 ,anglo-,saxon1 cause of superiority1 #ej4 ,animal1 necessity of exercise for1 #bgh2 voidings1 how cared for in stables1 #bgg4 ,asphalt for stable floors1 #bib4 ,bailey1 ,professor ,l4 ,h41 quoted1 #g4 ,bailey1 chap4 xiv1 #bcg4 ,balloon frames1 #abi4 ,barns1 #bhh2 basement1 location of1 #bfh2 building the basement1 #bff2 connected by covered way to house1 #beg2 discussion of1 #bdi2 distance to locate from house1 #beg2 economy in construction1 #bec2 excavations for1 #bfh2 high large ones preferable1 #bec2 location of1 #bee2 octagonal1 discussion of1 #bed2 planning1 #bei2 size required1 #bdi2 water supply for1 #bfa2 why large ones are required1 #bej4 ,barnyards1 open ones objectionable1 #beh2 paddocks are preferable to1 #bei4 ,basement barns1 bridging for1 #bfi2 location of1 #bfh2 on level ground1 #bfi2 floors1 how to construct1 #bgg2 walls1 how to prevent dampness on1 #bge2 wood preferable to stone1 #bge4 ,beauty and utility should be combined1 #ajg4 ,bonanza farming1 cause of decline1 #cf-ch4 ,brick used in stable floors1 #bgh4 ,building the barn1 chap4 xvii1 #bhh2 framing1 #bhi2 horse stables1 #bid2 lightning rods on barns1 #bif2 painting the barn1 #bif2 plank frames1 #bij2 protecting the root-cellar1 #bhi2 repairing old barn floors1 #bic2 roof of barns1 #bif2 stable floors1 #bib2 windows1 #bie4 ,cattle1 stanchions for1 #bhd4 ,cement1 ,portland1 cost and mixing of1 #bgd2 proportion of1 to sand in mortar1 #bgc4 ,changes in houses1 considerations1 #he4 ,children1 city and country compared1 #c4 ,cisterns as a source of water supply1 #bfc4 ,cleanliness1 and sanitation1 water supply and sewage1 chap4 xii1 #bjd2 bacteria1 harmful and beneficial1 #bjd-bjf2 bath room1 #baj2 bath tubs1 #bac2 cess pools1 #bbj2 closets1 #baj2 disinfectants1 #bjg2 dry-earth closets1 #bbb2 kitchen sink1 #bab2 laundry1 #bad2 outhouses1 #baf2 personal cleanliness1 #bji2 pipes1 #bab2 sewage1 #bai2 water closets1 #bad2 water supply1 #bag4 ,college buildings and what they illustrate1 #ajd4 ,colleges4 ,land ,grant1 aim of1 #ad2 endowment1 #ad2 data of incomes1 #ae4 ,competence1 how obtained1 #bj4 ,concentration of barns1 #hd4 ,counsel at the right time1 #fi4 ,country churches1 #aai4 ,country life1 what it stands for1 #gd2 what things have no place in it1 #gd4 ,country school houses1 #aai-abb4 ,cows1 air space required for1 #bhj1 #bha2 mangers for1 section of1 #bhf4 ,crops1 good and poor1 #bg2 specialized1 baleful results of1 #cc4 ,dams for artificial pools1 how to construct1 #bfb4 ,decorations inside1 #aic4 ,deeds and abstracts1 #fg4 ,demolins1 ,m41 quoted1 #ej4 ,economy1 #bbd4 ,educating the eye and judgment1 #ajg4 ,education1 by contact with nature1 #d2 higher1 concentration necessary1 #eb2 higher1 in the past1 #ac2 industrial1 #ad4 ,evolution of high wages1 #be4 ,external construction1 principles of1 #ajh4 ,farm buildings1 concentrated and distributive1 #bea2 concentrated system preferable1 #beb2 examples of mistakes1 #hi4 ,farm laborers1 wages received by1 #bec4 ,farmers' contribution to economic status of the ,united ,states1 #i4 ,farms1 selection of--climatic conditions1 #ee2 cheap lands1 #ef2 water supply1 #eg4 ,farms overloaded with buildings1 #hh4 8,farming doesn't pay10 #f4 ,fences1 #ccf4 ,fields1 the1 chap4 xxi1 #ccf4 ,filigree work1 not for farm houses1 #if4 ,first impressions1 #aaf4 ,floors1 basement1 how to construct1 #bgg2 cows to stand upon1 #bhj2 stable1 wooden ones preferable1 #bgh4 ,foundations for buildings1 how squared1 #bff4 ,foundation walls1 properly and improperly bonded1 #bgb4 ,frost pockets1 #gf4 ,furnishing1 #aic4 ,garden1 farm1 #cda2 planting the1 #cdb4 ,gingerbread cornices1 #acj4 ,ground floor unhealthy1 #gg4 ,gypsum1 use of in stables1 #bgg4 ,heating1 #aij4 ,home education suggestions1 #dh4 ,home1 old 7should be preserved71 #aab2 suggestions for improvement of1 #aac4 ,home training1 #df4 ,homestead1 improving the old1 #aad4 ,horn-fly1 reference to1 #ccg4 ,house1 building the1 chap4 viii1 #acb2 brick and stone houses1 #afi2 chimneys--flue linings1 #adj1 openings for1 #ada2 excluding vermin from the1 #ace2 foundations1 building the1 #ach2 mortar for foundations1 #aci2 protecting from frost1 #acf2 the cellar1 #acc1 #acd2 ,wooden houses--the frame1 #adb2 bridging the joists1 #adc2 cutting braces and rafters1 #aej2 diagonal boarding1 #add2 girders for second-story joists1 #ade2 made-up timbers1 #adf2 old houses1 #agj2 roofs--kinds of1 #adg1 pitch of1 #adi2 studding1 size of1 #adc2 the story-and-a-half1 #aee4 ,house furnishing and decoration1 chap4 xi1 #aic2 carpets vs4 rugs1 #aif2 decorations1 #bjj2 draperies1 #aih2 general principles1 #aic-aif4 ,house1 location of1 #gd2 extremes1 #ge2 on elevated lands1 #gf1 #hj1 #hb4 ,house of pioneer1 where located1 #ge4 ,house1 old farm1 an example of a good1 #ij-ia4 ,house sites--old and new1 #hd4 ,house sites to be avoided1 #hb2 near middle of estate1 #hc2 and highway1 #hc4 ,house with many gables1 #if4 ,houses1 exposed and overshaded1 #aag1 #aah2 planning1 #id2 studying other models1 #ie2 useless cost of1 #ie4 ,houses1 farm1 not a direct source of income1 #hg2 mistakes in building1 #hg2 what they are for1 #hg4 ,houses1 old farm1 #he4 ,houses1 veneered1 #afh4 ,household administration1 economy and comfort1 chap4 xiii1 #bbd2 a definite income1 #bbe2 bargain-hunting1 #bbi2 cash vs4 credit1 #bhf2 economy of health1 #bcb2 keeping accounts1 #bcj2 reading matter1 #bce2 systematic buying1 #bbg2 the farmer's diet1 #bcd2 the wife's share1 #bbe4 ,improvements on the farm1 #ei4 ,inappropriate styles of architecture1 #abd4 ,inside finish1 heating and ventilation1 chap4 x1 #aha2 baseboards1 #ahc2 facings1 #ahf2 finish1 hard oil1 #ahf2 floors1 #ahb2 patent mortars1 #ahh2 plastered walls1 #ahf-ahh2 picture moulding1 #ahd2 stairs1 #ahe2 wainscoting1 #ahe2 ,heating--steam recommended1 #aia2 systems of1 compared1 #aij2 ,ventilation1 #aia4 ,land for market-gardening1 #fa4 ,lands1 cheap1 #ef4 ,lawns1 #bdc4 ,lawyer and the farmer1 #gc4 ,lawyer1 province of the true1 #gb4 ,lawyers1 #fe4 ,level country1 disadvantages of location in1 overcome1 #gh4 ,leisure and study1 #ac4 ,light and air1 #ajf4 ,lightning1 artificial1 #cbb2 brush discharge1 #cbf2 discharges1 #cbc2 disruptive discharge1 #cbf2 protection from1 #cbd2 protection from by metal roofs1 #cbd2 protection from by steam and gas pipes1 #cbe2 protecting wooden roofs from1 #cbf4 ,lightning protection1 chap4 xx1 #cba4 ,lightning rods1 #cbh-ccf2 insulation of1 #cca2 joints for1 #ccc2 the conductor1 #cbi2 the ground connection1 #ccd4 ,lime1 proportion of1 to sand in mortar1 #bgc4 ,lime1 stone1 retail price of per bbl41 #bgd2 water1 retail price of per bbl41 #bgd4 ,lumbering1 effect of1 #ch4 ,manger for cows1 cross-section of1 #bhf2 how constructed1 #bhe4 ,market-gardening1 land for1 #fa4 ,mistakes in locating1 #ajj4 ,mortar1 amount of water to use in mixing1 #bge2 how to mix1 #bgc4 ,nature study1 #aaa4 ,newton cattle tie illustrated and described1 #bhf4 ,norris1 ,h4 ,h41 chap4 xx1 #cba4 ,occupation1 selection of1 #ba4 ,old barns1 remodeling1 #bih4 ,orchards1 #cdj2 care of1 #cda4 ,outbuildings and accessories1 chap4 xix1 #cjf2 piggeries1 #caa2 portable coops1 #cji2 poultry houses1 #cjf2 the silo1 #caf4 ,outside covering1 painting1 chap4 ix1 #aeh2 cornices1 #afd2 painting the house1 #agc2 adulterated paints1 #agi2 analyses of paints1 #ahj2 oils for painting1 #agg2 roofs--construction of1 #afe2 shingles1 #afe2 shingling1 #afg2 siding--novelty and lap1 #afj2 the projections1 #aeh1 #afd2 the water-table1 #aeh2 valleys1 #agc4 ,parents as teachers1 #de4 ,piggeries1 #caa4 ,plain cornices1 #abf4 ,plan1 ground1 not adapted to country1 #ih2 adapted to country1 #ii1 #aja4 ,plant-food1 natural cheaper than artificial1 #fb4 ,pools in level country1 #gh4 ,pools in the ,south1 how constructed1 #bfb4 ,poultry ,houses1 #cjf4 ,quality in farm products1 #cb4 ,red ,river valley soil1 nitrogen in1 #cg4 ,remodeling old barns1 chap4 xviii1 #bih2 combining several old frames1 #bii2 form of roof1 #cjb2 trussing to eliminate posts1 #cja4 ,remuneration in agriculture1 #g4 ,renter and renting discussed1 #dj4 ,road to farm1 #fc4 ,road fences1 may be discarded1 #cci4 ,root cellar1 location of in barn1 #bgj4 ,rosendale cement1 proportion to mix1 #bgd4 ,rural life2 advantages and disadvantages1 #b2 greatest advantage of1 #e4 ,rural population1 wants and aspirations1 #ai4 ,sanitation1 #bjd4 ,scenery1 natural1 its value1 #eh4 ,schoenfeld1 ,mr4 ,g41 an intensive agriculturist1 #bb2 his crops and their value1 #bc4 ,school1 district1 sketch of a day in1 #dg4 ,school children1 effects of massing1 #dd4 ,schools1 rural1 #dc4 ,sewage1 #bjd4 ,shadows cast by walls1 #ajf4 ,ship construction of houses1 #abh4 ,silos1 #caf4 ,silo1 reference to use of1 #ccg4 ,smith1 ,mrs4 ,m4 ,r41 chap4 xi1 #aic2 chap4 xii1 #bjd2 chap4 xiii1 #bbd4 ,soil and subsoil for house location1 #hj4 ,soiling system1 referred to1 #ccg1 #cch4 ,stable floors1 #bib2 wooden ones preferable1 #bgh2 drip in1 how constructed1 #bhj2 how to secure sanitary conditions in1 #bgg2 stanchions for cattle1 #bhd4 ,stalls for cows1 how constructed1 #bhe4 ,stock on the farms in ,u4 ,s4 in #ahgj and #ahij1 #bej4 ,tillage1 cost of1 considered in land value1 #fb4 ,types of dwelling houses1 #aji4 ,van,vleet1 ,d4,f41 chap4 v1 #fe4 ,ventilation1 #aia2 principles of1 #bhc2 secured by swing windows1 #bhb4 ,ventilators for stables1 how constructed1 #bhb4 ,veranda--a poor example1 #if2 outlook from1 #ha2 shading1 #ajc4 ,vistas and views brought into the landscape1 #ha4 ,warner1 ,prof4 ,amos ,g41 quoted1 #c4 ,walls1 stone1 how to bond1 #bgb4 ,water for animals1 temperature best in winter1 #bfd4 ,water supply and sewage1 #bjd4 ,water supply1 artificial pools for1 #bfb2 for animals1 should be in barn1 #bfd2 for buildings1 #bfa2 springs and streams1 #bfd4 ,water1 cold1 effect upon the animal1 #bfe2 lime1 retail price of per bbl41 #bgd4 ,wells1 #ga4 ,wheat1 production and cost of1 #cj4 ,windows1 swing1 how constructed in stables1 #bhb4 ,writing1 matters of importance should be in1 #ga4 ,yard 7the house yard71 chap4 xiv1 #bcg2 driveways and walks1 #bci2 flowers1 #bdg2 planting1 scattered and in groups1 #cci2 the lawn1 #bdc2 vines and creepers1 #bdg4 ,,cyclopedia ,,of ,,american ,,horticulture ,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,of ,cornell ,university1 assisted by ,,wilhelm ,,miller1 and many ,expert ,cultivators and ,botanists ,,four ,,volumes--,,over #bhjj ,,original ,,engravings--,,cloth--,,octavo--#bj ,,net ,,per ,,set--,,half ,,morocco1 #cb ,,net ,,per ,,set ,this great work comprises directions for the cultivation of horticultural crops and original descriptions of all the species of fruits1 vegetables1 flowers and ornamental plants known to be in the market in the ,united ,states and ,canada4 8,it has the unique distinction of presenting for the first time1 in a carefully arranged and perfectly accessible form1 the best knowledge of the best specialists in ,america upon gardening1 fruit-growing1 vegetable culture1 forestry1 and the like1 as well as exact botanical information4444 ,the contributors are eminent cultivators or specialists1 and the arrangement is very systematic1 clear and convenient for ready reference40 8,we have here a work which every ambitious gardener will wish to place on his shelf beside his ,nicholson and his ,loudon1 and for such users of it a too advanced nomenclature would have been confusing to the last degree4 ,with the safe names here given there is little liability to serious perplexity4 ,there is a growing impatience with much of the controversy concerning revision of names of organisms1 whether of plants or animals4 ,those investigators who are busied with the ecological aspects of organisms1 and also those who are chiefly concerned with the application of plants to the arts of agriculture1 horticulture1 and so on1 care for the names of organisms under examination only so far as these aid in recognition and identification4 ,to introduce unnecessary confusion is a serious blunder4 ,professor ,bailey has avoided the risk of confusion4 ,in short1 in range1 treatment and editing1 the ,cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful3444 a work worthy of ranking by the side of the ,century ,dictionary40--,the ,nation4 ,this work is sold only by subscription1 and terms and further information may be had of the publishers4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,books ,,on ,,agriculture ,on ,selection of ,land1 etc4 ,thomas ,f4 ,hunt's ,how to ,choose a ,farm #a #ge net ,e4 ,w4 ,hilgard's ,soils3 ,their ,formation1 and ,relations to ,climate and ,plant ,growth #d #jj net ,isaac ,p4 ,roberts' ,the ,farmstead #a #ej net ,on ,tillage1 ,crops1 etc4 ,f4 ,h4 ,king's ,the ,soil #a #ej net ,isaac ,p4 ,roberts' ,the ,fertility of the ,land #a #ej net ,elwood ,mead's ,irrigation ,institutions #a #be net ,f4 ,h4 ,king's ,irrigation and ,drainage #a #ej net ,wm4 ,e4 ,smythe's ,the ,conquest of ,arid ,america #a #ej net ,edward ,b4 ,voorhees' ,fertilizers #a #be net ,edward ,b4 ,voorhees' ,forage ,crops #a #ej net ,h4 ,snyder's ,chemistry of ,plant and ,animal ,life #a #be net ,h4 ,snyder's ,soils and ,fertilizers4 ,third edition #a #be net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,principles of ,agriculture #a #be net ,w4 ,c4 ,welborn's ,elements of ,agriculture1 ,southern and ,western #ge net ,j4 ,f4 ,duggar's ,agriculture for ,southern ,schools #ge net ,on ,plant ,diseases1 etc4 ,george ,massee's ,plant ,diseases #a #fj net ,j4 ,g4 ,lipman's ,bacteria in ,relation to ,country ,life #a #ej net ,e4 ,c4 ,lodeman's ,the ,spraying of ,plants #a #be net ,h4 ,m4 ,ward's ,disease in ,plants 7,english7 #a #fj net ,a4 ,s4 ,packard's ,a ,text-book on ,entomology #d #ej net ,on ,production of ,new ,plants ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,plant-,breeding #a #be net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,the ,survival of the ,unlike #b #jj net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,the ,evolution of our ,native ,fruits #b #jj net ,w4 ,s4 ,harwood's ,new ,creations in ,plant ,life #a #ge net ,on ,garden ,making ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,practical ,garden-,book #a #jj net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,garden-,making #a #ej net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,vegetable-,gardening #a #ej net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,horticulturist's ,rule ,book #ge net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,forcing-,book #a #be net ,a4 ,french's ,book of ,vegetables #a #ge net ,on ,fruit-growing1 etc4 ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,nursery-,book #a #ej net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,fruit-growing #a #ej net ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,the ,pruning-,book #a #ej net ,f4 ,w4 ,card's ,bush ,fruits #a #ej net ,on the ,care of ,live ,stock ,nelson ,s4 ,mayo's ,the ,diseases of ,animals #a #ej net ,w4 ,h4 ,jordan's ,the ,feeding of ,animals #a #ej net ,i4 ,p4 ,roberts' ,the ,horse #a #be net ,george ,c4 ,watson's ,farm ,poultry #a #be net ,on ,dairy ,work ,henry ,h4 ,wing's ,milk and ,its ,products #a #ej net ,c4 ,m4 ,aikman's ,milk #a #be net ,harry ,snyder's ,dairy ,chemistry #a #jj net ,w4 ,d4 ,frost's ,laboratory ,guide in ,elementary ,bacteriology #a #fj net ,i4 ,p4 ,sheldon's ,the ,farm and the ,dairy #a #jj net ,on ,economics and ,organization ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,the ,state and the ,farmer #a #be net ,henry ,c4 ,taylor's ,agricultural ,economics #a #be net ,i4 ,p4 ,roberts' ,the ,farmer's ,business ,handbook #a #be net ,george ,t4 ,fairchild's ,rural ,wealth and ,welfare #a #be net ,s4 ,e4 ,sparling's ,business ,organization #a #be net ,in the ,citizen's ,library4 ,includes a chapter on ,farming4 ,kate ,v4 ,st4 ,maur's ,a ,self-,supporting ,home #a #ge net ,kate ,v4 ,st4 ,maur's ,the ,earth's ,bounty #a #ge net ,on ,everything ,agricultural ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey's ,cyclopedia of ,american ,agriculture3 ,vol4 ,i4 ,farms1 ,climates1 and ,soils4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,farm ,crops4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,farm ,animals4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,the ,farm and the ,community4 ,price of sets3 ,cloth1 #bj net2 half-morocco1 #cb net4 ,for further information as to any of the above1 address the publishers ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,lessons ,,with ,,plants ,suggestions for ,seeing and ,interpreting ,some of the ,common ,forms of ,vegetation ,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,with delineations from nature by ,w4 ,s4 ,,holdsworth1 of the ,agricultural ,college of ,michigan ,,seventh ,,edition--#dia ,,pages--#ddf ,,illustrations--#ab,,mo--,,cloth--#a4aj ,,net ,there are two ways of looking at nature4 ,the old way1 which you have found so unsatisfactory1 was to classify everything--to consider leaves1 roots1 and whole plants as formal herbarium specimens1 forgetting that each had its own story of growth and development1 struggle and success1 to tell4 ,nothing stifles a natural love for plants more effectually than that old way4 ,the new way is to watch the life of every growing thing1 to look upon each plant as a living creature1 whose life is a story as fascinating as the story of any favorite hero4 8,lessons with ,plants0 is a book of stories1 or rather1 a book of plays1 for we can see each chapter acted out if we take the trouble to look at the actors4 8,i have spent some time in most delightful examination of it1 and the longer ,i look1 the better ,i like it4 ,i find it not only full of interest1 but eminently suggestive4 ,i know of no book which begins to do so much to open the eyes of the student--whether pupil or teacher--to the wealth of meaning contained in simple plant forms4 ,above all else1 it seems to be full of suggestions that help one to learn the language of plants1 so they may talk to him40--,,darwin ,l4 ,,bardwell1 ,superintendent of ,schools1 ,binghamton4 8,it is an admirable book1 and cannot fail both to awaken interest in the subject1 and to serve as a helpful and reliable guide to young students of plant life4 ,it will1 ,i think1 fill an important place in secondary schools1 and comes at an opportune time1 when helps of this kind are needed and eagerly sought40--,professor ,v4 ,m4 ,,spalding1 ,university of ,michigan4 ,,first ,,lessons ,,with ,,plants ,an ,abridgement of the above #aag ,,pages--#aaf ,,illustrations--#dj ,,cents ,,net ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,botany ,an ,elementary ,text for ,schools ,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,,twelfth ,,edition--#dca ,,pages--#ejj ,,illustrations--#a4aj ,,net 8,this book is made for the pupil3 #8,lessons ,with ,plants' was made to supplement the work of the teacher40 ,this is the opening sentence of the preface1 showing that the book is a companion to 8,lessons ,with ,plants10 which has now become a standard teacher's book4 ,the present book is the handsomest elementary botanical text-book yet made4 ,the illustrations illustrate4 ,they are artistic4 ,the old formal and unnatural ,botany is being rapidly outgrown4 ,the book disparages mere laboratory work of the old kind3 the pupil is taught to see things as they grow and behave4 ,the pupil who goes through this book will understand the meaning of the plants which he sees day by day4 ,it is a revolt from the dry-as-dust teaching of botany4 ,it cares little for science for science's sake1 but its point of view is nature-study in its best sense4 ,the book is divided into four parts1 any or all of which may be used in the school3 the plant itself2 the plant in its environment2 histology1 or the minute structure of plants2 the kinds of plants 7with a key1 and descriptions of #cjj common species74 ,the introduction contains advice to teachers4 8,an exceedingly attractive text-book40--,educational ,review4 8,it is a school book of the modern methods40--,the ,dial4 8,it would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for individual use40--,the ,outlook4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,for ,,the ,,student ,,of ,,agricultural ,,chemistry ,by ,,harry ,,snyder1 ,b4,s4 ,professor of ,agricultural ,chemistry1 ,university of ,minnesota1 and ,chemist of the ,minnesota ,agricultural ,experiment ,station ,the ,chemistry of ,plant and ,animal ,life ,illustrated4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 #djf pages4 #a4be2 by mail1 #a4ce4 8,the language is1 as it should be1 plain and simple1 free from all needless technicality1 and the story thus told is of absorbing interest to every one1 man or woman1 boy or girl1 who takes an intelligent interest in farm life40--,the ,new ,england ,farmer4 8,although the book is highly technical1 it is put in popular form and made comprehensible from the standpoint of the farmer2 it deals largely with those questions which arise in his experience1 and will prove an invaluable aid in countless directions40--,the ,farmer's ,voice4 ,dairy ,chemistry ,illustrated4 #aij pages4 #a net2 by mail1 #a4aj4 8,the book is a valuable one which any dairy farmer1 or1 indeed1 any one handling stock1 may read with profit40--,rural ,new ,yorker4 ,soils and ,fertilizers ,third ,edition4 ,illustrated4 #a4be net2 by mail1 #a4ch4 ,a book which presents in a concise form the principles of soil fertility and discusses all of the topics relating to soils as outlined by the ,committee on ,methods of ,teaching ,agriculture4 ,it contains #cej pages1 with illustrations1 and treats of a great variety of subjects1 such as ,physical ,properties of ,soils2 ,geological ,formation1 etc42 ,nitrogen of the ,soil and ,air2 ,farm ,manures2 ,commercial ,fertilizers1 several chapters2 ,rotation of ,crops2 ,preparation of ,soil for ,crops1 etc4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,new ,,books ,,for ,,the ,,farm ,,library ,,mr4 ,,bolton ,,hall',s ,three ,acres and ,liberty ,the author discusses the possibilities of an acre2 where to find idle land2 how to select it1 clear and cultivate it2 the results to be expected2 what an acre may produce2 methods1 tools1 equipment1 capital1 hotbeds and greenhouses2 other uses of land2 flowers2 poultry and novel live stock2 and nearly every other imaginable topic of intensive farming in clear1 definite statements which are easily verified4 ,it is a practical book from cover to cover4 ,cloth4 ,illustrated4 #a4ge net1 by mail1 #a4hh4 ,by ,,allen ,,french ,a ,book of ,vegetables and ,garden ,herbs ,a ,practical ,handbook and ,planting ,table for the ,home ,garden ,this book gives complete directions for growing all vegetables cultivable in the climate of the northern ,united ,states4 ,besides a description of each plant1 its habit1 value1 and use1 the book contains detailed cultural directions1 covering the soil1 planting distances1 times for sowing1 thinning and transplanting1 fertilizing1 picking1 winter protection1 renewal1 storage1 and management of diseases and pests4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 ,illustrated4 #a4ge net1 by mail1 #a4hh4 ,by ,,kate ,v4 ,,st4 ,,maur ,a ,self-supporting ,home 8,each chapter is the detailed account of all the work necessary for one month--in the vegetable garden1 among the small fruits1 with the fowls1 guineas1 rabbits1 cavies1 and in every branch of husbandry to be met with on the small farm40--,louisville ,courier-,journal4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 ,fully illustrated from photographs4 #a4ge net1 by mail1 #a4hh4 ,by ,w4 ,s4 ,,harwood ,the ,new ,earth ,a ,recital of the ,triumphs of ,modern ,agriculture in ,america4 ,mr4 ,harwood shows in a very entertaining way the remarkable progress which has been made during the past two generations along all the lines which have their focal point in the earth4 ,cloth4 #abmo4 ,illustrated4 #a4ge net1 by mail1 #a4hh4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,,cyclopedia ,,of ,,american ,,agriculture ,edited by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,of ,cornell ,university1 ,editor of 8,cyclopedia of ,american ,horticulture10 ,author of 8,plant ,breeding10 8,principles of ,agriculture10 etc4 ,,with #ajj ,,full-,,page ,,plates ,,and ,,more ,,than #b1jjj ,,illustrations ,,in ,,the ,,text--,,four ,,volumes--,,the ,,set3 ,,cloth1 #bj ,,net--,,half-,,morocco1 #cb ,,net--,,carriage ,,extra ,volume ,i--,farms ,the ,agricultural ,regions--,the ,projecting of a ,farm--,the ,soil ,environment--,the ,atmosphere ,environment4 ,volume ,,ii--,crops ,the ,plant and ,its ,relations--,the ,manufacture of ,crop ,products--,north ,american ,field ,crops4 ,volume ,,iii--,animals ,the ,animal and ,its ,relations--,the ,manufacture of ,animal ,products--,north ,american ,farm ,animals4 ,volume ,,iv--,the ,farm and the ,community ,economics--,social ,questions--,organizations--,history--,l iterature1 etc4 8,indispensable to public and reference libraries 444 readily comprehensible to any person of average education40--,the ,nation4 8,the completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on modern agricultural methods4 ,it is safe to say that many years must pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness1 accuracy1 practical value1 and mechanical excellence4 ,it ought to be in every library in the country40--,record ,herald1 ,chicago4 ,published by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,,new ,,york ,transcriber's ,notes ,the language used in this e-book is that used in the source document2 inconsistent1 unusual and archaic spelling1 hyphenation and capitalisation have been retained1 except as mentioned under ,changes below4 ,depending in the hard- and software used and their settings1 not all elements may display as intended4 ,some of the larger elements are best viewed in a wide window or on a wide screen4 ,page #aeb1 ,footnote #e3 the reference should be to ,figs4 #fc and #fd4 ,changes3 ,illustrations have been moved outside text paragraphs4 ,footnotes have been moved to directly underneath the paragraph in which they are referenced4 ,some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently4 ,in multiplications and dimensions1 x and have been standardised to 4 ,page vi3 ,the ,index has been added to the ,table of ,contents4 ,page #af-ag3 ,the table has been split in order to fit the available width4 ,page #add3 444 window and door-jambs 444 changed to 444 window- and door-jambs 4444 ,page #bgd3 ,rosedale cement changed to ,rosendale cement4 ,page #ccc3 #a-af changed to for consistency4 ,page #cej3 ,schnfield changed to ,schoenfeld as in text2 ,van ,vleet1 ,d4 ,f4 changed to ,van,vleet1 ,d4,f4 as in ,table of ,contents4