,cambridge ,natural ,sci5ce ,manuals4 ,,biological ,,s]ies4 ,,g5]al ,,editor3--,,ar?ur ,e4 ,,%ipley1 ,m4,a4 ,,fell[ ,,& ,,tutor ,,( ,,*ri/',s ,,college1 ,,cambridge4 ,,fossil ,,plants4 ,london3 ,c4 ,j4 ,,clay ,,& ,,sons1 ,,cambridge ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,w>eh\se1 ,,ave ,,m>ia ,,lane1 ,,& ,h4 ,k4 ,,lewis1 #acf1 ,,g[] ,,/reet1 ,w4,c4 ,illu/ration ,glasg[3 #bfc1 ,,argyle ,,/reet4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus4 ,new ,york3 ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,bombay3 ,e4 ,,seym\r ,,hale4 ,illu/ration3 ,,tree ,,/umps ,,9 ,a ,,c>bonif]\s ,,=e/4 ,,victoria ,,p>k1 ,,glasg[4 ,,fossil ,,plants ,,= ,,/ud5ts ,,( ,,botany ,,& ,,geology ,,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,sew>d1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,/ ,,john',s ,,college1 ,,cambridge1 ,,lectur] ,,9 ,,botany ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,cambridge4 ,,) ,,illu/rations4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,cambridge3 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press4 #ahih ,all ,rights res]v$4 ,cambridge3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,j4 ,,& ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press4 ,,preface4 ,9 acc$+ to ,mr ,%ipley's reque/ to write a book on ,fossil ,plants = ! ,cambridge ,natural ,hi/ory ,s]ies1 ,i am well aw>e t ,i h und]tak5 a "w :i* 0 consid]$ too s]i\s a task by "o :o has be5 call$ a 8f\nd] ( mod]n ,palaeobotany40 ,i owe m ?an ,i am able to express to ! fri5d%ip & guidance ( ! late ,pr(essor ,williamson2 & t ,i h attempt$ a "w to :i* he consi/5tly refus$ to commit himself1 requires a ^w ( explanation4 ,my excuse mu/ be t ,i h endeav\r$ to write a book :i* may r5d] m accessible to /ud5ts "s ( ! important facts ( ,palaeobotany1 & sugge/ l9es ( inve/igation 9 a subject :i* ,williamson _h s ?or\ghly at he>t4 ,! subject ( ,palaeobotany does n readily l5d itself to adequate treatm5t 9 a "w int5d$ = bo? geological & botanical /ud5ts4 ,! ,botani/ & ,geologi/ are n always acqua9t$ ) ea* o!r's subject 9 a suffici5t degree to appreciate ! significance ( ,palaeobotany 9 its sev]al po9ts ( contact ) ,geology & rec5t ,botany4 ,i h endeav\r$ to be> 9 m9d ! possibility t ! foll[+ pages may be read by bo? non-geological & non-botanical /ud5ts4 ,x ne$s b a slight acqua9tance ) ,geology = a ,botani/ to e/imate ! value ( ! mo/ important applications ( ,palaeobotany2 on ! o!r h&1 ! be>+ ( fossil plants on ! problems ( phylog5y & desc5t _c be adequately und]/ood )\t a fairly intimate k ( rec5t ,botany4 ,! /ud5t ( elem5t>y geology is n z a rule requir$ to conc]n himself ) vegetable palaeontology1 beyond a g5]al acqua9tance ) su* facts z are to be f\nd 9 geological text-books4 ,! advanc$ /ud5t w necess>ily f9d 9 ^! pages mu* ) :i* he is already famili>2 b ?is is to "s ext5t unavoidable 9 a book :i* is writt5 ) ! dual object ( appeal+ to ,botani/s & ,geologi/s4 ,:ile consid]+ ^? :o may wi% to ext5d _! botanical or geological k by an acqua9tance ) ,palaeobotany1 my aim has be5 to keep 9 view ! requirem5ts ( ! /ud5t :o may be induc$ to approa* ! subject f ! /&po9t ( an orig9al inve/igator4 ,z a possible assi/ance to ^? und]tak+ rese>* 9 ?is promis+ field ( "w1 ,i h giv5 m ref]5ces ?an may seem appropriate to an introductory treatise1 & !re are c]ta9 que/ions dealt ) 9 great] detail ?an an elem5t>y treatm5t ( ! subject requires4 ,9 sev]al in/ances ref]5ces are giv5 9 ! text or 9 footnotes to specim5s ( ,coal-,measure plants 9 ! ,williamson cab9et ( microscopic sections4 ,n[ t ?is invaluable collection ( slides has be5 acquir$ by ! ,tru/ees ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 ! /ud5t ( ,palaeobotany has ! opportunity ( inve/igat+ = himself ! hi/ology ( ,palaeozoic plants4 ,my plan has be5 to deal 9 "s detail ) c]ta9 select$ types1 & to ref] briefly to su* o!rs z %\ld be /udi$ by anyone desir\s ( pursu+ ! subject m ?or\ghly1 r ?an to cov] a wide range or to attempt to make ! li/ ( types complete4 ,( late ye>s !re has be5 a mu* wid] int]e/ ev9c$ by ,botani/s 9 ! /udy ( fossil plants1 & ?is is 9 great measure due to ! valuable & able "w ( ,graf zu ,solms-,lauba*4 ,8 ,e9leitung 9 die ,palaeophytologie mu/ long rema9 a con/ant book ( ref]5ce = ^? engag$ 9 palaeobotanical "w4 ,:ile ref]r+ to au?ors :o h advanc$ ! /udy ( petrifi$ plants ( ! ,coal p]iod1 "o %\ld n =get ! valuable s]vices t h be5 r5d]$ by su* m5 z ,butt]wor?1 ,b9ns1 ,wilde1 ,e>n%aw1 ,sp5c]1 ,nield1 ,lomax & ,hem+way1 by ^: skill ! specim5s describ$ by ,williamson & o!rs 7 fir/ obta9$ & prep>$ = microscopical exam9ation4 ,i am indebt$ to _m fri5ds1 bo? ,briti% & ,cont95tal1 = help ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,i w\ld 9 ! fir/ place express my ?anks to ,pr(essor ,t4 ,mc,kenny ,hughes = hav+ orig9ally p]suad$ me to beg9 ! /udy ( rec5t & fossil plants4 ,i am indebt$ to ,pr(4 ,na?or/ ( ,/ockholm1 ,dr ,h>tz ( ,cop5hag51 ,pr(4 ,zeill]1 ,dr ,r5ault & ,pr(4 ,muni]-,*almas ( ,p>is1 ,pr(4 ,b]tr& ( ,lille1 ,pr(4 ,/5zel & ! late ,pr(4 ,roem] ( ,breslau1 ,dr ,/]zel ( ,*emnitz1 ! late ,pr(4 ,weiss ( ,b]l91 ! late ,dr ,/ur ( ,vi5na1 & o!r cont95tal work]s1 z well z to ,mr ,kn[lton ( ,wa%+ton1 = facilities af=d$ me 9 ! exam9ation ( fossil plant collections4 ,my ?anks are due to ! memb]s ( ! ,geological & ,botanical dep>tm5ts ( ! ,briti% ,museum2 also to ,mr ,e4 ,t4 ,newton ( ! ,geological ,survey1 & to ^? 9 *>ge ( v>i\s prov9cial museums1 = _! nev]-fail+ k9dness 9 (f]+ me e assi/ance 9 ! inve/igation ( fossil plants "u _! *>ge4 ,pr(4 ,m>%all ,w>d has giv5 me ! b5efit ( 8 criticism on ! section deal+ ) ,fungi2 & my fri5d ,mr ,alfr$ ,h>k] has r5d]$ me a simil> s]vice z reg>ds ! *apt] on ,geological ,hi/ory4 ,i am especially grateful to my colleague1 ,mr ,francis ,d>w91 = hav+ read ?r\gh ! :ole ( ! pro(s ( ?is volume4 ,to ,mr ,%ipley1 z ,editor1 ,i am "u a debt ( obligation = sugge/ions & help 9 v>i\s =ms4 ,i w\ld also express my s5se ( ! unfail+ c\rtesy & skill ( ! /aff ( ! ,univ]sity ,press4 ,my fri5d ,mr ,kid/on ( ,/irl+ has always g5]\sly respond$ to my reque/s = ! loan ( specim5s f 8 private collection4 ,pr(4 ,bayley ,balf\r ( ,ed9burgh1 ,mr ,we!r$ ( ,*elt5ham & o!rs h assi/$ me 9 a simil> mann]4 ,i w\ld also express my gratitude to ,dr ,hoyle ( ,man*e/]1 ,mr ,platnau] ( ,york1 & ,mr ,r[ntree ( ,sc>bor\gh = ! loan ( specim5s4 ,to ,dr ,h5ry ,woodw>d ( ! ,briti% ,museum ,i am indebt$ = ! loan ( ! woodblocks made use ( 9 figs4 #aj1 #dg1 #fj1 #ff1 & #aja1 & to ,messrs ,macmillan = ! process-block ( fig4 #be4 ,= ! photographs reproduc$ 9 figs4 #ae1 #cd1 #fh1 #ajb & #ajc ,i owe an ackn[l$gm5t to ,mr ,edw9 ,wilson ( ,cambridge1 & to my fri5d ,mr ,c4 ,a4 ,b>b] = ! micro-photograph made use ( 9 fig4 #dj4 ,9 conclusion ,i wi% m p>ticul>ly to ?ank my wife1 :o has drawn by f> ! great] numb] ( ! illu/rations1 & has 9 _m o!r ways assi/$ me 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is ,volume4 ,9 ,volume ,,ii ! ,sy/ematic treatm5t ( ,plants w be conclud$1 & ! la/ *apt]s w be devot$ to su* subjects z geological floras1 plants z rock-build]s1 fossil plants & evolution1 & o!r g5]al que/ions connect$ ) ,palaeobotany4 ,a4 ,c4 ,,sew>d4 ,,botanical ,,laboratory1 ,,cambridge4 ,m>*1 #ahih4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,g5]al4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,hi/orical ,,sket*4 ,pp4 #a-aa4 ,fossil plants & ! ,flood4 ,/]nb]g & ,brongni>t4 ,! int]nal /ructure ( fossil plants4 ,engli% ,palaeobotani/s4 ,difficulties ( id5tification4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,relation ,,( ,,palaeobotany ,,to ,,botany ,,& ,,geology4 ,pp4 #ab-ba4 ,neglect ( fossils by ,botani/s4 ,fossil plants & di/ribution4 ,fossil plants & climate4 ,fossil plants & phylog5y4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,geological ,,hi/ory4 ,pp4 #bb-ec4 ,rock-build+4 ,calc>e\s rocks4 ,geological sections4 ,inv]sion ( /rata4 ,table ( ,/rata3 ,i4 ,ar*aean1 #cd-cf4 ,,ii4 ,cambrian1 #cf-cg4 ,,iii4 ,ordovician1 #cg-ch4 ,,iv4 ,silurian1 #ch4 ,v4 ,devonian1 #ci4 ,,vi4 ,c>bonif]\s1 #ci-de4 ,,vii4 ,p]mian1 #de-dg4 ,,viii4 ,trias41 #dg-dh4 ,,ix4 ,jurassic1 #dh-di4 ,x4 ,cretace\s1 #ej-ea4 ,,xi4 ,t]ti>y1 #ea-ec4 ,geological ,evolution4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,plants ,,z ,,fossils4 ,pp4 #ed-ib4 ,old surface-soils4 ,fossil wood4 ,conditions ( fossilisation4 ,drift+ ( trees4 ,mean+ ( ! t]m #8,fossil4' ,incru/ations4 ,ca/s ( trees4 ,fossil ca/s4 ,plants & coal4 ,fossils 9 half-relief4 ,petrifi$ trees4 ,petrifi$ wood4 ,pres]vation ( tissues4 ,coal-balls4 ,fossil nuclei4 ,fossil plants 9 volcanic a%4 ,conditions ( pres]vation4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,difficulties ,,& ,,s\rces ,,( ,,error ,,9 ,,! ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,fossil ,,plants4 ,pp4 #ic-aji4 ,ext]nal resemblance4 ,v5ation *>act]s4 ,decorticat$ /ems4 ,imp]fect ca/s4 ,m9]al deposits simulat+ plants4 ,traces ( wood-bor]s 9 petrifi$ tissue4 ,photography & illu/ration4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,nom5clature4 ,pp4 #aaj-aae4 ,rules = nom5clature4 ,! rule ( priority4 ,t]m9ology & conv5i5ce4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,sy/ematic4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,?allophyta4 ,pp4 #aaf-bbh4 ,,page ,i4 ,,p]id9iales #aag-aah ,,ii4 ,,coccosph]es ,,& ,,rhabdosph]es #aah-aba ,,iii4 ,,s*izophyta #aba-ach ,a4 ,,s*izophyceae 7,,cyanophyceae7 #abb-acb ,girvanella #abd-abf4 ,bor+s 9 %ells #abg-abi4 ,zonatri*ites #abi-acj4 ,b4 ,,s*izomycetes 7,,bact]ia7 #acb-ach ,bacillus ,p]micus #ace-acf4 ,b4 ,tieghemi & ,micrococcus ,guign>di #acf4 ,fossil ,bact]ia #acg-ach4 ,,iv4 ,,algae #ach-bje ,sc>city ( fossil algae4 ,fossils simulat+ ,algae4 ,recognition ( fossil algae4 ,algites c4 ,a4 ,,diatomaceae #aej-aef ,rec5t ,diatoms4 ,fossil ,diatoms4 ,bactryllium c4 ,b4 ,,*lorophyceae #aef-agh a4 ,,siphoneae #aeg-agg 4 ,caul]paceae #aeg-aei 4 ,codiaceae #aei-afd ,codium #aei-afj4 ,spha]ocodium #afj4 ,p5icillus #afa4 ,ovulites #afa-afd4 ,halim$a #afd4 4 ,dasycladaceae #afd-agg ,acetabul>ia #afe-aff4 ,acicul>ia #aff-afi4 ,cymopolia #afi-aga4 ,v]miporella #agb-agc4 ,sycidium #agc4 ,diplopora #agd-age4 ,gyroporella #age4 ,dactylopora1 ,palaeozoic & ,mesozoic ,siphoneae #age-agg4 b4 ,,conf]voideae #agg-agh ,c4,,inc]tae ,,s$is #agh-ahc ,boghead #8,coal4' ,re9s*ia #ahj-aha4 ,pila #aha-ahb4 ,d4 ,,rhodophyceae #ahc-aij ,,corall9aceae #ahc-aij ,li?o?amnion #ahe-ahi4 ,sol5opora #ahi-aij4 ,e4 ,,phaeophyceae #aia-bjb ,nematophycus #aib-bjb ,pa*y!ca #bjb-bjd ,algites #bjd-bje ,v4 ,,myxomycetes 7,,mycetozoa7 #bje-bjf ,myxomycetes ,mang9i #bjf4 ,,vi4 ,,fungi #bjg-bbb ,,ascomycetes4 ,,basidiomycetes4 ,pa?ology ( fossil tissues4 ,oo*ytrium ,lepidod5dri #baf-bag4 ,p]onosporites antiqu>ius #bag-bbj4 ,cladosporites bip>titus #bbj4 ,haplographites cat5ig] #bbj4 ,zygosporites #bbj-bba4 ,polyporus vapor>ius #bba4 ,,vii4 ,,*>ophyta #bbb-bbh ,,*>eae #bbc-bbh ,*>a #bbe-bbh4 ,c4 ,blei*]i #bbf4 ,c4 ,kn[ltoni #bbf-bbg4 ,c4 ,wrighti #bbg4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,bryophyta4 ,pp4 #bbi-bda4 ,i4 ,,hepaticae #bcj-bcf ,m>*antites #bcc-bce4 ,m4 ,sezann5sis #bcd-bce4 ,,ii4 ,,musci #bcf-bda ,muscites #bch-bda4 ,m4 polytri*aceus #bci-bdj4 ,palaeozoic ,mosses4 ,muscites f]rug9eus #bda4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,pt]idophyta 7,,vascul> ,,cryptograms74 ,pp4 #bdb-bid4 ,i4 ,,equisetales 7,,rec5t7 #bdd-bed ,,equisetaceae #bdd-bed ,equisetum #bdf-bed4 ,,ii4 ,,fossil ,,equisetales #bed-bid ,a4 ,,equisetites #beg-bha ,equisetites ,hem+wayi #bfc-bfd4 ,e4 spatulatus #bfd-bff4 ,e4 zeae=mis #bff4 ,e4 ar5aceus #bfh-bfi4 ,e4 column>is #bfi-bgj4 ,e4 ,beani #bgj-bge4 ,e4 lat]alis #bge-bgi4 ,e4 ,bur*>dti #bgi-bhj4 ,b4 ,,phyllo!ca #bha-bia ,phyllo!ca deliquesc5s #bhc-bhd4 ,p4 ,brongni>ti #bhf-bhg4 ,p4 indica & ,p4 au/ralis #bhg-bhi4 ,c4 ,,s*izoneura #bia-bid ,s4 gondwan5sis #bib-bic4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,equisetales 7cont9u$74 ,pp4 #bie-chh4 ,d4 ,,calamites #bie-chc ,i4 ,hi/orical sket* #bie-cjb ,,ii4 ,description ( ! anatomy ( ,calamites #cjb-cfd a4 ,/ems #cjd-cbi ,ar?ropitys1 ,ar?rod5dron1 & ,calamod5dron4 b4 ,leaves #cbi-cdb 4 ,calamocladus 7,a/]ophyllites7 #ccb-ccf4 ,c4 equiseti=mis #cce-ccf4 4 ,annul>ia #ccf-cdb4 ,a4 /ellata #cch-cdj4 ,a4 sph5ophylloides #cda-cdb4 c4 ,roots #cdb-cdi d4 ,cones #cdi-cfe ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana #cea-cee4 ,c4 ,ca%eana #cee-ceg4 ,palaeo/a*ya v]a #ceh-cfj4 ,calamo/a*ys1 ,palaeo/a*ya & ,macro/a*ya #cfa-cfd4 ,,iii4 ,pi?-ca/s ( ,calamites #cfe-chj ,calamit9a #cfg-cgd4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 ,gpp]ti #cgb-cgd4 ,/ylocalamites #cgd-cgf4 ,c4 7,/ylocalamites7 ,suck[i #cgd-cgf4 ,eucalamites #cgf-cgi4 ,c4 7,eucalamites7 cruciatus #cgh-cgi4 ,,iv4 ,conclusion #cha-chc ,e4 ,,ar*aeocalamites #chc-chh ,a4 scrobiculatus #chf-chg4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,sph5ophyllales4 ,pp4 #chi-dad4 ,i4 ,,sph5ophyllum #chi-dad ,a4 ,! anatomy ( ,sph5ophyllum #cib-djf a4 ,/ems #cib-cih ,sph5ophyllum insigne & ,s4 plurifoliatum #cig-cih4 b4 ,roots #cii c4 ,leaves #cii d4 ,cones #dja-djf ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys ,dawsoni #djb-dje4 ,s4 ,rm]i #dje-djf4 ,b4 ,types ( vegetative ,bran*es ( ,sph5ophyllum #djg-dab ,sph5ophyllum em>g9atum #djg-djh4 ,s4 tri*omatosum #djh-dji4 ,s4 ,?oni #daj-daa4 ,s4 speciosum #daa-dab4 ,c4 ,aff9ities1 ,range & ,habit ( ,sph5ophyllum #dab-dad ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations4 ,,frontispiece4 ,,tree ,,/umps ,,9 ,a ,,c>bonif]\s ,,=e/4 ,drawn f a photograph4 7,m4 ,sew>d47 ,,page #eg4 ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,lepidod5dron4 7,m4 ,s47 #aj #b4 ,geological section #bi #c4 ,table ( /rata #cb1 #cc #d4 ,geological section 7coal seam7 #dd #e4 ,neuropt]is ,s*eu*z]i ,h(fm4 7,m4 ,s47 #de #f4 ,subm]g$ ,=e/ at ,leas[e4 7,m4 ,s47 #ei #g4 ,ammonite on conif]\s wood4 7,m4 ,s47 #fa #h4 ,conif]\s wood 9 fl9t4 7,m4 ,s47 #fb #i4 ,bor$ fossil wood4 7,m4 ,s47 #fb #aj4 ,section ( an old pool fill$ up ) a mass ( ,*>a4 7,f block l5t by ,dr ,woodw>d7 #fi #aa4 ,equisetites column>is ,brongn4 7,m4 ,s47 #gb #ab4 ,/igm>ia ficoides ,brongn4 7,m4 ,s47 #gc #ac4 ,cordaites etc4 9 coal4 7,m4 ,s47 #gf #ad4 ,cry/allisation 9 petrifi$ tissues #ha #ae4 ,lepidod5dron4 7,f a photograph by ,mr ,edw9 ,wilson ( a specim5 l5t by ,mr ,kid/on7 #hb #af4 ,ca/ ( a fossil cell4 7,m4 ,s47 #hd #ag4 ,calc>e\s nodule f ! ,coal-,measures #he #ah4 ,lepidod5dron f ,arran4 7,m4 ,s47 #hi #ai4 ,trigonoc>pon se$s 9 a block ( s&/one4 7,m4 ,s47 #ia #bj4 ,re/io1 ,equisetum1 ,casu>9a & ,eph$ra4 7,m4 ,s47 #ie #ba4 ,polygonum equiseti=me ,sib?4 & ,sm4 7,m4 ,s47 #if #bb4 ,kaulfussia sculifolia ,blume4 7,m4 ,s47 #ig #bc4 ,a bran*$ ,lepidod5droid /em 7,knorria mirabilis ,r54 & ,zeill474 7,m4 ,s47 #ajb #bd4 ,p>tially disorganis$ petrifi$ tissue #ajg #be4 ,coccosph]es & ,rhabdosph]es4 7,l5t by ,messrs ,macmillan7 #aai #bf4 ,girvanella problematica ,e?4 & ,ni*4 7,m4 ,s47 #abd #bg4 ,fi%-scale & %ell p]=at$ by a bor+ organism4 7,m4 ,s47 #abh #bh4 ,bacillus ,tieghemi ,r54 & ,micrococcus ,guign>di ,r54 7,m4 ,s47 #ace #bi4 ,lam9>ia sp4 #adj #cj4 ,rill-m>k2 trail ( a seawe$2 tracks ( a ,poly*aet4 7,m4 ,s47 #adc #ca4 ,*ondrites v]isimilis ,salt4 7,m4 ,s47 #adf #cb4 ,li?o?amnion mamillosum ,gmb42 ,sycidium melo ,s&b42 ,bactryllium deplanatum ,he]2 ,calc>e\s pebble f a lake 9 ,mi*igan4 7,m4 ,s47 #aee #cc4 ,cymopolia b>bata 7,l472 ,acicul>ia ,&russ[i ,solms2 ,acicul>ia sp42 ,a4 ,s*5cki 7,mb472 ,a4 ,m$it]ranea ,lamx42 ,ovulites m>g>itula ,lamx42 ,p5icillus pyramidalis 7,lamx47 7,m4 ,s47 #afb #cd4 ,acetabul>ia m$it]ranea ,lamx4 7,photograph by ,mr ,edw9 ,wilson7 #afe #ce4 ,diplopora2 ,gyroporella2 ,p5icillus2 ,ovulites m>g>itula ,lam42 ,conf]vites *antransioides 7,born47 #agd #cf4 ,torbanite2 ,pila bibract5sis & ,re9s*ia au/ralis #ahj #cg4 ,li?o?amnion sp42 ,l4 suganum ,ro?42 ,spha]ocodium ,bornemanni ,ro?4 #ahf #ch4 ,sol5opora compacta 7,bill+s74 7,m4 ,s47 #ahi #ci4 ,nematophycus ,logani 7,daws47 #aif #dj4 ,nematophycus ,/orriei ,b>b4 7,photograph by ,mr ,c4 ,a4 ,b>b]7 #aii #da4 ,cells ( ,cycadeoidea gigantea ,sew41 ,osmundites ,d[k]i ,c>r & ,memecylon ) vacuolat$ cont5ts2 ,p]onosporites antiqu>ius ,smi?2 ,zygosporites #bad #db4 ,tra*eids ( conif]\s wood attack$ by ,trametes radicip]da ,h>t & ,ag>icus melleus ,vahl4 #bae #dc4 ,oo*ytrium ,lepidod5dri ,r542 ,polyporus vapor>ius ,fr4 v>4 succ9ea2 ,cladosporites bip>titus ,fel42 ,haplographites cat5ig] ,fel4 7,m4 ,s47 #bag #dd4 ,cells ( fossil plants ) fungal hyphae #bai #de4 ,*>a ,kn[ltoni ,sew42 ,*>a foetida ,a4 ,br4 7,a & ,b1 ,mr ,highley2 ,c-,e1 ,m4 ,s47 #bbd #df4 ,*>a ,blei*]i ,sap42 ,*>a8 sp42 ,c4 ,wrighti ,=bes4 7,m4 ,s47 #bbf #dg4 ,*>a ,kn[ltoni ,sew4 7,f block l5t by ,dr ,woodw>d7 #bbg #dh4 ,tri/i*ia hypnoides ,spr5g42 ,podoc>pus cupress9a ,br4 & ,b542 ,selag9ella ,oregana ,eat4 7,m4 ,s47 #bca #di4 ,m>*antites erectus 7,leck47 7,m4 ,s47 #bcc #ej4 ,m>*antites ,sezann5sis ,sap4 7,m4 ,s47 #bce #ea4 ,muscites polytri*aceus ,r54 & ,zeill4 7,m4 ,s47 #bci #eb4 ,equisetum maximum ,lam42 ,e4 arv5se ,l4 #bdf #ec4 ,equisetum palu/re ,l4 7,m4 ,s47 #bdg #ed4 ,plan ( ! vascul> bundles 9 an ,equisetum /em2 ,e4 arv5se ,l4 #bej #ee4 ,equisetum v>iegatum ,s*l42 ,e4 maximum ,lam4 #beb #ef4 ,calamitean leaf-%ea?4 7,m4 ,s47 #bfj #eg4 ,equisetites ,hem+wayi ,kid/4 7,mr ,highley7 #bfb #eh4 ,equisetites spatulatus ,zeill42 ,e4 zeae=mis 7,s*lo?472 ,equisetites lat]alis ,phill42 ,equisetites column>is ,brongn42 ,equisetum tra*yodon ,a4 ,br4 7,m4 ,s47 #bfe #ei4 ,equisetites platyodon ,brongn4 7,m4 ,s47 #bfg #fj4 ,equisetites ,beani 7,bunb474 7,f a block l5t by ,dr ,woodw>d7 #bga #fa4 ,equisetites ,beani 7,bunb474 7,m4 ,s47 #bgb #fb4 ,e4 ,beani 7,bunb474 7,m4 ,s47 #bgd #fc4 ,e4 lat]alis ,phill4 7,m4 ,s47 #bge #fd4 ,e4 lat]alis ,phill4 7,m4 ,s47 #bgh #fe4 ,e4 ,bur*>dti ,dunk4 7,m4 ,s47 #bgi #ff4 ,e4 ,yokoyamae ,sew4 7,f a block l5t by ,dr ,woodw>d7 #bhj #fg4 ,phyllo!ca8 sp4 7,f a photograph by ,mr ,edw9 ,wilson7 #bhe #fh4 ,phyllo!ca ,brongni>ti ,zigno2 ,p4 indica ,bunb42 ,calamocladus frondosus ,gr&',eury4 7,m4 ,s47 #bhg #fi4 ,s*izoneura gondwan5sis ,fei/4 7,m4 ,s47 #bic #gj4 ,transv]se section ( a ,calamite /em4 7,m4 ,s47 #bii #ga4 ,transv]se section ( a "y ,calamite /em #cje #gb4 ,longitud9al & transv]se sections ( ,calamites #cjh #gc4 ,transv]se section ( a ,calamite /em #caj #gd4 ,transv]se section ( ,calamites 7,ar?ropitys7 sp4 #cab #ge4 ,longitud9al section 7tang5tial7 ( ,calamites 7,ar?ropitys7 sp4 #cac #gf4 ,longitud9al section 7tang5tial7 ( ,calamites 7,ar?ropitys7 sp4 #cad #gg4 ,portion ( a ,calamite /em2 p>tially re/or$4 7,m4 ,s47 #caf #gh4 ,transv]se & longitud9al 7radial7 sections ( a ?ick #cah #gi4 ,calamite /em4 7,mr ,highley7 #cai #hj4 ,transv]se section ( a ,calamite %[+ callus wood #cbj #ha4 ,longitud9al section ( a "y ,calamite #cba #hb4 ,pi?-ca/s ( ,calamites 7,/ylocalamites7 sp4 7,m4 ,s47 #cbc #hc4 ,calamites 7,ar?rod5dron7 sp4 ,transv]se & longitud9al sections #cbg #hd4 ,transv]se section ( ,calamites 7,calamod5dron7 int]m$ius ,r54 #cbh #he4 ,leaves ( a ,calamite4 7,m4 ,s47 #ccj #hf4 ,transv]se section ( a ,calamite leaf #cca #hg4 ,calamocladus equiseti=mis 7,s*lo?47 7,miss ,g4 ,m4 ,woodw>d7 #ccd #hh4 ,annul>ia /ellata 7,s*lo?47 7,m4 ,s47 #cci #hi4 ,annul>ia sph5ophylloides ,z5k4 7,m4 ,s47 #cdj #ij4 ,pi?-ca/ ( a ,calamite1 ) roots4 7,m4 ,s47 #cdc #ia4 ,transv]se sections ( ,calamite roots #cde #ib4 ,root giv5 (f f a ,calamite /em #cdg #ic4 ,calamo/a*ys sp4 7,m4 ,s47 #cej #id4 ,c4 ,b9neyana 7,c>r474 7,mr ,highley7 #ceb #ie4 ,c4 ,b9neyana 7,c>r47 #ced #if4 ,c4 ,ca%eana ,w4 #cef #ig4 ,palaeo/a*ya p$unculata ,w4 7,m4 ,s47 #ceg #ih4 ,p4 v]a sp4 nov4 #cei #ii4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 ,gpp4 7,ett47 7,m4 ,s47 #cfh #ajj4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 approximatus ,brongn4 ,f a photograph by ,mr ,kid/on #cgj #aja4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 sp4 7,f a block l5t by ,dr ,woodw>d7 #cgc #ajb4 ,calamites 7,eucalamites7 cruciatus ,/]nb4 7,f a photograph by ,mr ,edw9 ,wilson7 #cgg #ajc4 ,ar*aeocalamites scrobiculatus 7,s*lo?474 7,f a photograph by ,mr ,edw9 ,wilson7 #che #ajd4 ,diagrammatic longitud9al section ( ,sph5ophyllum #cic #aje4 ,transv]se & longitud9al sections ( ,sph5ophyllum insigne 7,w47 & ,s4 plurifoliatum ,w4 & ,scott #cid #ajf4 ,sph5ophyllum plurifoliatum ,w4 & ,scott4 7,f a photograph by ,mr ,highley7 #cih #ajg4 ,sph5ophyllum /robilus1 /em & root #djj #ajh4 ,diagrammatic longitud9al section ( a ,sph5ophyllum /robilus4 7,m4 ,s47 #djb #aji4 ,sph5ophyllum em>g9atum 7,brongn47 7,m4 ,s47 #djg #aaj4 ,sph5ophyllum ,?oni ,mahr42 ,s4 tri*omatosum ,/ur4 7,m4 ,s47 #daj #aaa4 ,sph5ophyllum speciosum 7,royle74 7,m4 ,s47 #daa ,note4 ,! ref]5ces 9 ! footnotes require a ^w ( explanation4 ,! titles ( ! works ref]r$ to w be f\nd 9 ! ,bibliography at ! end ( ! volume4 ,9 ?is li/ ! au?ors' names are arrang$ alphabetically & ! pap]s ( ea* au?or are 9 *ronological ord]4 ,! numb]s 9 brackets aft] ! au?or's "n 9 ! footnotes1 & be=e 8 "n 9 ! bibliographical li/1 ref] to ! ye> ( publication4 ,except 9 cases :]e ! works 7 publi%$ prior to #ahjj1 ! fir/ two figures are omitt$3 ?us ,w>d 7#hd7 ref]s to a pap] publi%$ by ,l4 ,f4 ,w>d 9 #ahhd4 ,?is sy/em 0 sugge/$ by ,dr ,h4 ,h4 ,field 9 ! ,biologis*es ,c5tralblatt1 vol4 ,,xiii4 #ahic1 p4 #gec4 7,ueb] die ,art d] ,abfassung naturwiss5s*aftli*] ,litt]aturv]zei*nisse47 ,,"p ,i4 ,,g5]al4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,hi/orical ,,sket*4 8,b p>ticul> c>e ought to be _h n to consult or take relations f any b ^? :o appe> to h be5 bo? long conv]sant 9 ^! affairs1 & likewise p]sons ( ,sobriety1 ,fai?fulness & ,discretion1 to avoid ! be+ misl$ & impos$ ^u ei!r by falsehood1 or ! ignorance1 cr$ulity1 & fancifulness1 t "s ( ^! p are b too obnoxi\s unto40 ,,john ,,woodw>d1 #agbh4 ,! sci5tific /udy ( fossil plants dates f a comp>atively rec5t p]iod1 & palaeobotany has only atta9$ a real importance 9 ! eyes ( botani/s & geologi/s dur+ ! la/ few decades ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,x w\ld be out ( place1 9 a %ort treatise l ! pres5t1 to attempt a detail$ hi/orical sket*1 or to give an adequate acc\nt ( ! gradual rise & developm5t ( ?is mod]n sci5ce4 ,an excell5t ,sket* ( ,palaeobotany has rec5tly be5 drawn up by ,pr(4 ,le/] ,w>d#a1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 & an e>li] hi/orical retrospect may be f\nd 9 ! introduction to an important "w by an em95t ,g]man palaeobotani/1 ! late ,pr(4 ,gpp]t#b4 ,9 ! well-kn[n "w by ,p>k9son on ,! ,organic ,rema9s ( a ,=m] ,_w#c !re is mu* int]e/+ in=mation z to ! e>ly hi/ory ( our k ( fossil plants1 z well z a good exposition ( ! views held at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury4 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossil ,,plants ,,& ,,! ,,flood4 ,z a means ( br++ into relief ! mod]n developm5t ( ! sci5ce ( fossil plants1 we may briefly pass 9 review "s ( ! e>li] writ]s1 :o h conc]n$ !mselves 9 a great] or less degree ) a descriptive or speculative treatm5t ( ! records ( a pa/ vegetation4 ,9 ! e>ly "p ( ! pres5t c5tury1 & /ill m 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 ! occurr5ce ( fossil plants & animals 9 ! e>?'s cru/ =m$ ! subject ( animat$1 n to say acrimoni\s1 discussion4 ,! result 0 t _m /rik+ & +5i\s !ories 7 =mulat$ z to ! exact mann] ( =mation ( fossil rema9s1 & ! "p play$ by ! wat]s ( ! deluge 9 deposit+ fossilif]\s /rata4 ,! e>li] views on fossil vegetables are naturally b\nd up ) ! gradual evolution ( geological sci5ce4 ,x is f ,italy t we seem to h ! fir/ glimm]+ ( sci5tific views2 b we are l$ to =get ?is e>ly developm5t ( m ?an ?ree hundr$ ye>s ago1 :5 we turn to ! writ+s ( ,engli% & o!r au?ors ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 8,"u ^! :ite banks by ! roadside10 z a writ] on ,v]ona has express$ x1 80 born1 l a poor ,italian gipsy1 ! mod]n sci5ce ( geology40 ,e>ly 9 ! sixte5? c5tury ! g5ius ( ,leon>do da ,v9ci#d compell$ him to adopt a reasonable explanation ( ! occurr5ce ( fossil %ells 9 rocks f> above ! pres5t sea-level4 ,ano!r ,italian writ]1 ,fraca/>o1 ^: att5tion 0 direct$ to ?is matt] by ! discov]y ( num]\s %ells br\ght to light by excavations at ,v]ona1 express$ 8 belief 9 ! organic nature ( ! rema9s1 & w5t s f> z to call 9 "q ! ,mosaic deluge z a satisfactory explanation ( ! deposition ( fossil-be>+ /rata4 ,! p>tial recognition by "s obs]v]s ( ! true nature ( fossils m>ks ! />t+ po9t ( m rational views4 ,! admission t fossils 7 n m]e sports ( nature1 or ! result ( "s wond]ful #8vis lapidifica1' 0 naturally foll[$ by num]\s speculations z to ! mann] 9 :i* ! rema9s ( animals & plants came to be emb$d$ 9 rocks above ! sea-level4 ,= a long "t1 ! #8univ]sal flood' 0 held responsible by ne>ly all writ]s = ! exi/5ce ( fossils 9 anci5t s$im5ts4 ,dr ,john ,woodw>d1 9 8 ,essay t[>d a ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?1 prop\nd$ ! some:at revolution>y !ory1 t 8! :ole t]re/rial globe 0 tak5 all to pieces & dissolv$ at ! ,deluge1 ! p>ticles ( /one1 m>ble1 & all solid fossils dissev]$1 tak5 up into ! wat]1 & !re su/a9$ toge!r ) sea-%ells & o!r animal & vegetable bodies3 & t ! pres5t e>? consi/s1 & 0 =m$ out ( t promiscu\s mass ( s&1 e>?1 %ells1 & ! re/ fall+ d[n aga91 & subsid+ f ! wat]#e40 ,9 common ) o!r writ]s1 he endeav\r$ to fix ! exact date ( ! flood by means ( fossil plants4 ,speak+ ( "s hazel-nuts1 :i* 7 f\nd 9 a ,*e%ire moss pit1 he draws att5tion to _! unrip5$ condition1 & adds3 8,! deluge came =? at ! end ( ,may1 :5 nuts are n ripe40 ,z additional evid5ce1 he cites ! occurr5ce ( 8,p9e cones 9 _! v]nal /ate10 & ( "s ,coal-,measure fossils :i* he comp>es ) ,virg9ian ,maize1 8t5d]1 "y1 v]nal1 & n rip5$#f40 ,woodw>d 7#affe-agbh7 0 ,pr(essor ( ,physic 9 ,gre%am ,college2 he bequea!d 8 geological collections to ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 & f\nd$ ! ,*air :i* be>s 8 "n4 ,ano!r writ]1 ,m5des da ,co/a1 9 a pap] 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ageh1 speaks ( ! impressions ( 8f]ns & re$-l plants0 9 ! coal-b$s1 & describes "s fossils 7,sigill>ia & ,/igm>ia7 z probably unkn[n =ms ( plant life#g4 ,"h we h ! sugge/ion t 9 =m] ages !re 7 plants :i* diff]$ f ^? ( ! pres5t age4 ,discuss+ ! nature ( "s cones 7,lepido/robi7 f ! iron/one ( ,coalbrookdale 9 ,%rop%ire1 he concludes3 8,i firmly believe ^! bodies to be ( vegetable orig91 buri$ 9 ! /rata ( ! ,e>? at ! "t ( ! univ]sal deluge record$ by ,moses40 ,s*eu*z] ( ,zuri*1 ! au?or ( "o ( ! e>lie/ works on fossil plants & a 8great apo/le ( ! ,flood ,!ory10 figures & describes a specim5 z an e> ( corn1 & ref]s to its size & g5]al appe>ance z po9t+ to ! mon? ( ,may z ! "t ( ! deluge#h4 ,ano!r ,engli% writ]1 ,dr ,p>sons1 9 giv+ an acc\nt ( ! well-kn[n #8fossil fruits & o!r bodies f\nd 9 ! isl& ( ,%eppey1' is dispos$ to diss5t f ,woodw>d's views z to ! "t ( ! flood4 ,he sugge/s t ! fact ( ! ,%eppey fruits be+ f\nd 9 a p]fectly ripe condition1 po9ts to ! autumn z ! m probable "t = ! occurr5ce ( ! deluge#i4 ,9 look+ ?r\gh ! works ( ! old] writ]s1 & occasionally 9 ! pages ( latt]-day contributors1 we frequ5tly f9d curi\sly %ap$ /ones1 m9]al m>k+s on rock surfaces1 or c]ta9 fossil animals1 describ$ z fossil plants4 ,9 ,plot's ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,ox=d%ire1 publi%$ 9 #agje1 a peculi>ly %ap$ /one1 probably a fl9t1 is spok5 ( z "o ( ! #8,fungi le?ales non escul5ti#aj'2 & aga9 a piece ( coral#aa is comp>$ ) a #8,bryony root brok5 (f transv]sely4' ,on ! o!r h&1 t we may n und]value ! pa9/ak+ & labori\s ef=ts ( ^? :o help$ to lay ! f\ndations ( mod]n sci5ce1 we may note t su* au?ors z ,s*eu*z] & ,woodw>d 7 n misl$ by ! moss-l or d5dritic m>k+s ( oxide ( manganese on ! surface ( rocks1 :i* are n infrequ5tly se5 to-day 9 ! cab9ets ( amateurs z specim5s ( fossil plants4 ,! olde/ figures ( fossil plants f ,engli% rocks :i* are drawn ) any degree ( accuracy are ^? ( ,coal-,measure f]ns & o!r plants 9 an important "w by ,edw>d ,lhwyd publi%$ at ,ox=d 9 #agfjab4 ,pass+ beyond ^! presci5tific speculations1 brief ref]5ce may be made to "s ( ! m em95t pione]s ( palaeobotany4 ,! ,engli%man ,artis#ac des]ves m5tion = ! quality r ?an ! quantity ( 8 contributions to ,palaeozoic botany2 & among ,am]ican au?ors ,/e9hau]'s#ad "n mu/ hold a prom95t place 9 ! li/ ( ^? :o help$ to f\nd ?is bran* ( palaeontology4 ,among ,g]man writ]s1 ,s*lo!im /&s out prom95tly z "o :o fir/ publi%$ a "w on fossil plants :i* /ill rema9s an important book ( ref]5ce4 ,writ+ 9 #ahjd1 he draws att5tion to ! neglect ( fossils f a sci5tific /&po9t2 !y are simply look$ ^u1 he says1 z 8unimpea*able docum5ts ( ! flood#ae40 ,8 book conta9s excell5t figures ( _m ,coal-,measure plants1 & we f9d 9 its pages occasional comp>isons ( fossil species ) rec5t plants ( tropical latitudes4 ,among ! e>li] au?ors ^: writ+s soon become famili> to ! /ud5t ( fossil plants1 ref]5ce mu/ be made to ,graf ,/]nb]g1 :o 0 born ?ree ye>s be=e ,s*lo!im1 b ^: "w came out "s ye>s lat] ?an t ( ! latt]4 ,8 great contribution to ,fossil ,botany entitl$ ,v]su* e9] geogno/is*-botanis*5 ,d>/ellung d] ,flora d] ,vorwelt1 0 publi%$ 9 sev]al p>ts betwe5 ! ye>s #ahbj & #ahch2 x 0 drawn up ) ! help ( ! botani/ ,presl1 & includ$ a valuable contribution by ,corda#af4 ,9 addition to descriptions & num]\s figures ( plants f sev]al geological horizons1 ?is important "w includes discussions on ! =mation ( coal1 ) obs]vations on ! climates ( pa/ ages4 ,sid5ote3 ,,/]nb]g ,,& ,,brongni>t4 ,/]nb]g endeav\r$ to apply to fossil plants ! same me?ods ( treatm5t z ^? made use ( 9 ! case ( rec5t species4 ,ab\t ! same "t z ,/]nb]g's e>li] p>ts 7 publi%$1 ,adolphe ,brongni>t#ag ( ,p>is began to enri* palaeobotanical sci5ce by ^? spl5did rese>*es :i* h won = him ! title ( ! 8,fa!r ( palaeobotany40 ,9 ,brongni>t's ,prodrome1 & ,hi/oire des vgtaux fossiles1 & lat] 9 8 ,tableau des g5res de vgtaux fossiles1 we h n m]ely c>eful descriptions & a sy/ematic arrangem5t ( ! kn[n species ( fossil plants1 b a ma/]ly sci5tific treatise on palaeobotany 9 its v>i\s aspects1 :i* has to a l>ge ext5t =m$ ! model = ! be/ subsequ5t works on simil> l9es4 ,f ! same au?or1 at a lat] date1 !re is at lea/ "o contribution to fossil plant lit]ature :i* mu/ receive a pass+ notice ev5 9 ?is %ort sket*4 ,9 #ahci he publi%$ an exhau/ive acc\nt ( ! m9ute /ructure ( "o ( ! well-kn[n ,palaeozoic g5]a1 ,sigill>ia2 ?is is n only "o ( ! be/ ( ! e>lie/ monographs on ! hi/ology ( fossil species1 b x is "o ( ! few exi/+ acc\nts ( ! int]nal /ructure ( ?is common type#ah4 ,! fragm5t ( a ,sigill>ian /em :i* =m$ ! subject ( ,brongni>t's memoir is 9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum 9 ! ,j>d9 des ,plantes1 ,p>is4 ,x af=ds a /rik+ example ( ! p]fection ( pres]vation z well z ( ! great beauty ( ! silicifi$ specim5s f ,autun1 9 ,c5tral ,france4 ,brongni>t 0 n only a rem>kably gift$ inve/igator1 ^: lab\rs ext5d ov] a p]iod connect+ ! old] & m crude me?ods ( descriptive treatm5t ) ! mod]n developm5t ( microscopic analysis1 b he possess$ ! p[] ( inspir+ a y\ng] g5]ation ) a det]m9ation to keep up ! high /&>d ( ! palaeobotanical a*ievem5ts ( ! ,fr5* ,s*ool4 ,9 "s cases1 inde$1 8 disciples h all[$ a natural rev]5ce = ! ,ma/] to w>p _! sci5tific judgem5t1 :]e our m complete k has naturally l$ to ! correction ( "s ( ,brongni>t's conclusions4 ,)\t attempt+ to foll[ ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce to m rec5t times1 ! names ( ,he]1 ,lesqu]eux1 ,zigno1 ,massalongo1 ,saporta & ,ett+%aus5 %\ld be includ$ among ^? :o r5d]$ signal s]vice to ! sci5ce ( fossil plants4 ,! two ,swiss writ]s1 ,he]#ai & ,lesqu]eux#bj1 contribut$ num]\s books & pap]s on palaeobotanical subjects1 ! =m] be+ especially well kn[n 9 connection ) ! fossil floras ( ,switz]l& & ( ,arctic l&s1 & ! latt] = 8 valuable writ+s on ! fossil plants ( 8 adopt$ c\ntry1 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,zigno#ba & ,massalongo#bb p]=m$ l s]vices = ,italy1 & ! ,m>quis ( ,saporta's "n w always hold an hon\rable & prom95t position 9 ! li/ ( ! pione]s ( sci5tific palaeobotany2 8 "w on ! ,t]ti>y & ,mesozoic floras ( ,france be+ specially notewor?y among ! able inve/igations :i* we owe to 8 ability & en?usiasm#bc4 ,9 ,b>on ,ett+%aus5#bd we h ano!r repres5tative ( ^? /ud5ts ( anci5t vegetation :o h done s mu* t[>ds e/abli%+ ! sci5ce ( fossil plants on a philosophical basis4 ,z 9 o!r fields ( ,natural ,sci5ce1 s also 9 a m>k$ degree 9 fossil botany1 a new /imulus 0 giv5 to sci5tific inquiry by ! application ( ! microscope to palaeobotanical inve/igation4 ,9 #ahbh ,spr5gel publi%$ a "w entitl$ ,comm5tatio de ,ps>oli?is1 ligni fossilis g5]e#be2 9 :i* he dealt 9 "s detail ) ! well-kn[n silicifi$ f]n-/ems ( ,palaeozoic age1 f ,saxony1 bas+ 8 descriptions on ! *>act]i/ics ( anatomical /ructure reveal$ by microscopic exam9ation4 ,sid5ote3 ,,! ,,int]nal ,,/ructure ,,( ,,fossil ,,plants4 ,9 #ahcc ,h5ry ,)am ( ,l>t+ton br\ght out a "w on ,! ,int]nal ,/ructure ( ,fossil ,vegetables#bf2 ?is book1 foll[+ ! mu* small] & less important "w by ,spr5gel1 at once e/abli%$ palaeobotany on a firm] sci5tific basis1 & =m$ ! />t+ po9t = ^? m accurate me?ods ( rese>*1 :i* h yield$ su* a/oni%+ results 9 ! h&s ( mod]n work]s4 ,9 ! introduction ,)am writes1 8,my pr9cipal object 9 pres5t+ ?is "w to ! public1 is to impress ^u geologi/s ! advantage ( att5d+ m p>ticul>ly to ! intimate organization ( fossil plants2 & %\ld ,i succe$ 9 direct+ _! ef=ts t[>ds ! elucidation ( ?is obscure subject1 ,i %all feel a degree ( satisfaction :i* w amply repay my lab\r#bg40 ,on ano!r page he writes z foll[s1--8,f inve/igations made by ! mo/ active & exp]i5c$ botanical geologi/s1 we f9d reason to conclude t ! fir/ appe>ance ( an ext5sive vegetation occurr$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies2 & f a rec5t exam9ation ( ! m\nta9-lime/one gr\ps & coal-fields ( ,scotl&1 & ! nor? ( ,engl&1 we le>n t ^! e>ly vegetable productions1 s f> f be+ simple 9 _! /ructure1 z _h be5 suppos$1 are z complicat$ z ! phan]ogamic plants ( ! pres5t day4 ,?is discov]y necess>ily t5ds to de/roy ! once fav\rite idea1 t1 f ! olde/ to ! mo/ rec5t /rata1 !re has be5 a progressive developm5t ( vegetable & animal =ms1 f ! simple/ to ! mo/ complex#bh40 ,s9ce ,)am's day we h le>nt mu* z to ! morphology ( ,palaeozoic plants1 & c well und]/& ! op9ions to :i* he ?us gives expression4 ,x w\ld be difficult to ov]rate ! imm5se importance ( ?is publication f ! po9t ( view ( mod]n palaeobotany4 ,! art ( mak+ transp>5t sections ( ! tissues ( fossil plants seems to h be5 fir/ employ$ by ,s&]son1 a lapid>y1 & x 0 aft]w>ds consid]ably improv$ by ,nicol#bi4 ,?is mo/ important advance 9 me?ods ( exam9ation gave a new impetus to ! subject1 b x is some:at rem>kable t ! possibilities ( ! microscopical inve/igation ( fossil plants h be5 b v imp]fectly realis$ by botanical work]s until q rec5t ye>s4 ,z reg>ds su* a flora z t ( ! ,coal-,measures1 we c endorse ! op9ion express$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury 9 ref]5ce to ! /udy ( rec5t mosses--8,ohne das ,gtt]ges*5k des zusamm5gesetzt5 ,mikroskops i/ auf diesem ,felde dur*aus ke9e ,ernte#cj40 ,a useful summ>y ( ! hi/ory ( ! /udy ( int]nal /ructure is giv5 by ,kn[lton 9 a memoir publi%$ 9 #ahhica4 ,n long aft] ,)am's book 0 issu$ !re appe>$ a "w ( exceptional m]it by ,corda#cb1 9 :i* num]\s ,palaeozoic plants are figur$ & fully describ$1 ma9ly f ! /&po9t ( int]nal /ructure4 ,?is au?or lays special /ress on ! importance ( /udy+ ! microscopical /ructure ( fossil plants4 ,sid5ote3 ,,engli% ,,palaeobotani/s4 ,)\t paus+ to enum]ate ! contributions ( su* well-kn[n cont95tal au?ors z ,gpp]t1 ,cotta1 ,s*imp]1 ,/5zel1 ,s*5k & a ho/ ( o!rs1 we may glance = a mom5t at ! s]vices r5d]$ by ,engli% inve/igators to ! /udy ( palaeobotanical hi/ology4 ,un=tunately we _c always ext5d our exam9ation ( fossil plants beyond ! *>act]s ( ext]nal =m & surface m>k+s2 b 9 a few di/ricts !re are pres]v$ remnants ( anci5t floras 9 :i* fragm5ts ( /ems1 roots1 leaves & o!r /ructures h be5 petrifi$ 9 su* a mann] z to reta9 ) wond]ful complet5ess ! m9ute /ructure ( _! int]nal tissues4 ,dur+ ! deposition ( ! coal seams 9 p>ts ( ,york%ire & ,lanca%ire ! conditions ( fossilisation 7 exceptionally fav\rable1 & ?us ,engli% inve/igators h be5 =tunately plac$ = conduct+ rese>*es on ! m9ute anatomy ( ! ,coal-,measure plants4 ,! late ,mr ,b9ney ( ,man*e/] did excell5t s]vice by 8 "w on ! int]nal /ructure ( "s ( ! trees ( ! ,coal ,p]iod =e/s4 ,9 8 introductory rem>ks to a monograph on ! g5us ,calamites1 aft] speak+ ( ! desirability ( describ+ our ,engli% specim5s1 he goes on to say1 8,:5 ?is is done1 we are likely to possess a lit]ature on our ,c>bonif]\s fossils wor?y ( ! fir/ coal-produc+ c\ntry#cc40 ,! cont9uation & ext5sion ( ,b9ney's "w 9 ! h&s ( ,c>ru!rs1 ,williamson1 & o!rs1 ^: botanical qualifications enabl$ !m to produce "w ( great] sci5tific value1 has gone f> t[>ds ! fulfilm5t ( ,b9ney's prophecy4 ,sid5ote3 ,,difficulties ,,( ,,id5tification4 ,9 deal+ ) ! /ructure ( ,palaeozoic plants1 we %all be "u con/ant obligation to ! spl5did s]ies ( memoirs f ! p5 ( ,pr(4 ,williamson#cd4 ,z ! writ] ( a sympa!tic obitu>y notice has well said3 8,9 8 fifty-fif? ye> he began ! great s]ies ( memoirs :i* m>k ! culm9at+ po9t ( 8 sci5tific activity1 & :i* w assure to him1 = all "t1 9 conjunction ) ,brongni>t1 ! hon\rable title ( a f\nd] ( mod]n ,palaeobotany#ce40 ,if we look back ?r\gh a few decades1 & p]use ! pages ( ,l9dley & ,hutton's classic "w#cf on ! ,fossil flora ( ,great ,brita91 a book :i* is indisp5sable to fossil botani/s1 & read ! description ( su* a g5us z ,sigill>ia or ,/igm>ia2 or if we ext5d our retrospect to an e>li] p]iod & read ,woodw>d's description ( an unusually good specim5 ( a ,lepidod5dron1 & f9ally take /ock ( our pres5t k ( su* plants1 we realise :at enorm\s progress has be5 made 9 palaeobotanical /udies4 ,l9dley & ,hutton1 9 ! preface to ! fir/ volume ( ! ,flora1 claim to h demon/rat$ t bo? ,sigill>ia & ,/igm>ia 7 plants ) 8! highe/ degree ( organization1 su* z ,cactaeae1 or ,euphorbiaceae1 or ev5 ,asclepiadeae02 ,woodw>d describes 8 ,lepidod5dron 7,fig4 #a7 z 8an iron/one1 black & flat1 & wr\ght ov] "o surface v f9ely1 ) a /range cancellat$ "w#cg40 ,?anks l>gely to ! "w ( ,b9ney1 ,c>ru!rs1 ,hook]1 ,williamson1 & to ! lab\rs ( cont95tal botani/s1 we are at pres5t almo/ z famili> ) ,lepidod5dron & sev]al o!r ,coal-,measure g5]a z ) ! /ructure ( a rec5t =e/ tree4 ,:ile emphasiz+ ! value ( ! microscopic me?ods ( inve/igation1 we are n dispos$ to take su* a hopeless view ( ! possibilities ( ! det]m9ation ( fossil =ms1 9 :i* no int]nal /ructure is pres]v$1 z "s writ]s h express$4 ,! pres]vation ( m9ute /ructure is to be greatly desir$ f ! po9t ( view ( ! mod]n palaeobotani/1 b he mu/ recognise ! necessity ( mak+ su* use z he c ( ! numb]less examples ( plants ( all ages1 :i* occur only 9 ! =m ( /ructureless ca/s or impressions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,f\r leaf-cu%ions ( a ,lepidod5dron4 ,drawn f a specim5 9 ! ,woodw>d ,collection1 ,cambridge4 7,nat4 size47 ,9 look+ ?r\gh ! writ+s ( ! e>li] au?ors we _c help notic+ _! anxiety to mat* all fossil plants ) liv+ species2 b by degrees x 0 discov]$ t fossils are frequ5tly ! fragm5t>y samples ( ext9ct types1 :i* c be /udi$ only "u v unfav\rable conditions4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ^? *>act]s on :i* ! /ud5t ( liv+ plants relies z guides to classification1 x is usually impossible to arrive at any tru/wor?y conclusions z to precise botanical aff9ity4 ,brongni>t & o!r au?ors recognis$ ?is fact1 & in/itut$ sev]al conv5i5t g5]ic t]ms ( a purely artificial & provisional nature1 :i* are /ill 9 g5]al use4 ,! dang]s & risks ( error :i* necess>ily att5d our attempts to det]m9e small & imp]fect fragm5ts ( ext9ct species ( plants1 w be briefly t\*$ on 9 ano!r place4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,relation ,,( ,,palaeobotany ,,to ,,botany ,,& ,,geology4 8,la re*]*e du plan de la cration1 voil le b v]s lequel nos ef=ts peuv5t t5dre auj\rd'hui40 ,,gaudry1 #ahhc4 ,s9ce ! great] ref9em5ts & ?or\ghness ( sci5tific me?ods & ! enorm\s & ev]-increas+ mass ( lit]ature h inevitably l$ to extreme specialisation1 x is m ?an ev] important to look beyond ! imm$iate limits ( "o's own subject1 & to note its po9ts ( contact ) o!r l9es ( rese>*4 ,a palaeobotani/ is prim>ily conc]n$ ) ! det]m9ation & description ( fossil plants1 b he mu/ at ! same "t con/antly keep 9 view ! be>+ ( 8 "w on wid] que/ions ( botanical or geological importance4 ,f ! nature ( ! case1 we h 9 due measure to adapt ! me?ods ( "w to ! p>ticul> conditions be=e u4 ,x is impossible to foll[ 9 ! case ( all fossil species precisely ! same treatm5t z ) ! m complete & p]fect rec5t plants2 b x is ( ! utmo/ importance = a /ud5t ( palaeobotany1 by adh]+ to ! me?ods ( rec5t botany1 to pres]ve z f> z he is able ! cont9uity ( ! pa/ & pres5t floras4 ,palaeontological "w has (t5 be5 und]tak5 by m5 :o are pure geologi/s1 & ^: k ( zoology or botany is ( ! mo/ sup]ficial "*1 ) ! result t biologi/s h n be5 able to avail !mselves1 to any consid]able ext5t1 ( ! records ( ext9ct =ms ( life4 ,!y f9d ! lit]ature is (t5 *>act]is$ by a special palaeontological phraseology1 & by p>ticul> me?ods ( treatm5t1 :i* are unkn[n to ! /ud5t ( liv+ plants & animals4 ,f ?is & o!r causes a purely artificial division has be5 made betwe5 ! sci5ce ( ! organic _w ( to-day & t ( ! pa/4 ,sid5ote3 ,,neglect ,,( ,,fossils ,,by ,,botani/s4 ,fossils are naturally reg>d$ by a /ratigraphical geologi/ z records :i* enable him to det]m9e ! relative age ( fossil-be>+ rocks4 ,= su* a purpose x is sup]flu\s to inquire into ! que/ions ( biological int]e/ :i* c5tre r\nd ! relics ( anci5t floras4 ,prim>ily conc]n$1 !re=e1 ) fix+ ! age ( /rata1 x is easy to und]/& h[ geologi/s h be5 cont5t ) a special k9d ( palaeontology :i* is out ( t\* ) ! me?ods ( sy/ematic zoology or botany4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! botani/ ^: obs]vations & rese>*es h n ext5d$ beyond ! limits ( exi/+ plants1 sees 9 ! va/ majority ( fossil =ms m]ely imp]fect specim5s1 :i* x is impossible to det]m9e ) any degree ( sci5tific accuracy4 ,he pref]s to wait = p]fect mat]ial2 or 9 o!r words1 he decides t fossils mu/ be reg>d$ z outside ! range ( taxonomic botany4 ,x w\ld seem1 !n1 t ! unsatisfactory treatm5t or comp>ative neglect ( fossil plants1 has be5 9 a l>ge measure due to ! n>r[ness ( view :i* too (t5 *>act]ises palaeobotanical lit]ature4 ,?is has at once repell$ ^? :o h made a slight ef=t to recognise ! subject1 & has result$ 9 a "o-sid$ &1 f a biological /&po9t1 unsci5tific treatm5t ( ?is bran* ( sci5ce4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t palaeobotani/s h frequ5tly br\ght ! subject into disrepute by _! ov]-anxiety to in/itute specific names = fragm5ts :i* x is q impossible to id5tify4 ,?is ov]-eag]ness to det]m9e imp]fect specim5s1 & ! practice ( draw+ conclusions z to botanical aff9ity )\t any tru/wor?y evid5ce1 h naturally giv5 rise to consid]able scepticism z to ! value ( palaeobotanical records4 ,ano!r po9t1 :i* w be dealt ) at great] l5g? 9 a lat] *apt]1 is t geologi/s h usually %[n a di/9ct prejudice aga9/ fossil plants z indices ( geological age2 ?is aga91 is no d\bt to a l>ge ext5t ! result ( imp]fect & inaccurate me?ods ( description1 & ( ! neglect ( & consequ5t imp]fect acqua9tance ) fossil plants z comp>$ ) fossil animals4 ,! /ud5t ( fossil plants %\ld endeav\r to keep be=e him ! fact t ! *ief object ( 8 "w is to deal ) ! available mat]ial 9 ! mo/ natural & sci5tific mann]2 & by adopt+ ! me?ods ( mod]n botany1 he %\ld always aim to foll[ su* l9es z may be/ pres]ve ! cont9uity ( pa/ & pres5t types ( plants4 ,descriptions ( floras ( pa/ ages & li/s ( fossil species1 %\ld be s compil$ t !y may s]ve ! same purpose to a /ratigraphical geologi/1 :o is practically a geograph] ( =m] p]iods ( ! ,e>?'s hi/ory1 z ! acc\nts ( exi/+ floras to /ud5ts ( pres5t day physiography4 ,! effect ( c>ry+ out rese>*es on "s su* l9es z ^!1 %\ld be to r5d] available to bo? botani/s & geologi/s ! results ( ! speciali/'s "w4 ,9 "s cases1 palaeobotanical inve/igations may be ( ! utmo/ s]vice to botanical sci5ce1 & ( little or no value to geology4 ,! discov]y ( a completely pres]v$ gametophyte ( ,lepidod5dron or ,calamites1 or ( a petrifi$ ,moss plant 9 ,palaeozoic rocks w\ld appeal to mo/ botani/s z a matt] ( prim>y importance1 b = ! /ratigraphical geologi/ su* discov]ies w\ld possess b little value4 ,on ! o!r h& ! discov]y ( "s *>act]i/ic species ( ,coal-,measure plants f a deep bor+ ?r\gh ,mesozoic or ,t]ti>y /rata might be a matt] ( special geological importance1 b to ! botani/ x w\ld be ( no sci5tific value4 ,9 v _m in/ances1 h[ev]1 if ! palaeobotani/ foll[s su* l9es z h be5 briefly sugge/$1 ! results ( 8 lab\rs %\ld be at once useful & readily accessible to botani/s & geologi/s4 ,z ,humboldt has said 9 speak+ ( ,palaeontology1 8! analytical /udy ( primitive animal & vegetable life has tak5 a d\ble direction2 ! "o is purely morphological1 & embraces especially ! natural hi/ory & physiology ( organisms1 fill+ up ! *asms 9 ! s]ies ( /ill liv+ species by ! fossil /ructures ( ! primitive _w4 ,! second is m specially geogno/ic1 consid]+ fossil rema9s 9 _! relations to ! sup]position & relative age ( ! s$im5t>y =mations#ch40 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossil ,,plants ,,& ,,di/ribution4 ,to turn = a mom5t to "s ( ! mo/ obvi\s connections betwe5 palaeobotany & ! wid] sci5ces ( botany & geology4 ,! records ( fossil species mu/ occupy a prom95t position 9 ! data by :i* we may hope to solve "s at lea/ ( ! problems ( plant evolution4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( di/ribution1 palaeobotany is ( consid]able value1 n only to ! /ud5t ( geographical botany1 b to ! geologi/1 :o endeav\rs to map out ! positions ( anci5t cont95ts ) ! help ( palaeontological evid5ce4 ,! pres5t di/ribution ( plants & animals repres5ts b "o *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( life on ! ,e>?2 & to und]/& or appreciate ! facts :i* x records1 we h to look back ?r\gh su* pages z h be5 deciph]$ 9 ! e>li] *apt]s ( ! volume4 ,! di/ribution ( fossil plants lies at ! f\ndation ( ! pr9ciples ( ! pres5t gr\p+ ( floras on ! ,e>?'s surface4 ,^? :o h conf9$ _! /udy ( di/ribution to ! plant geography ( ! pres5t age1 mu/ supplem5t _! inve/igations by ref]5ce to ! "w ( palaeobotanical writ]s4 ,if ! li/s ( plant species drawn up by speciali/s 9 fossil botany1 h be5 prep>$ ) a due s5se ( ! important conclusions :i* botani/s may draw f !m f ! /&po9t ( di/ribution1 !y w be readily accept$ z s\nd l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( evid5ce4 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 if _m ( ! li/s ( anci5t floras 7 made use ( 9 su* inve/igations1 ! conclusions arriv$ at w\ld frequ5tly be ( little value on acc\nt ( ! untru/wor?y det]m9ations ( _m ( ! species4 ,9 ! case ( p>ticul> g5]a ! /udy ( ! di/ribution ( ! =m] species bo? 9 "t & space1 t is geologically & geographically1 po9ts to rational explanations (1 or gives add$ significance to1 ! facts ( pres5t day di/ribution4 ,t isolat$ conif]1 ,g9kgo biloba ,l4 n[ re/rict$ to ,japan & ,*9a1 0 9 =m] times abundant 9 ,europe & 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,x is cle>ly an exce$+ly anci5t type1 isolat$ n only 9 geographical di/ribution b 9 botanical aff9ities1 :i* has rea*$ ! la/ /age 9 its natural life4 ,! ,mammo? trees ( ,cali=nia 7,sequoia semp]vir5s ,endl41 & ,s4 gigantea ,l9dl4 & ,gord47 af=d o!r examples ( a p>allel case4 ,! ,tulip tree ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,*9a & o!r alli$ =ms are fairly common 9 ! ,t]ti>y plant b$s ( ,europe1 b ! liv+ repres5tatives are n[ exclusively ,nor? ,am]ican4 ,su* diff]5ces 9 di/ribution z are illu/rat$ by ^! dicotyl$on\s =e/ trees 9 ,t]ti>y times & at ! pres5t day1 h be5 cle>ly expla9$ ) ! help ( ! geological record4 ,=bes1 ,d>w91 ,asa ,gray#ci & o!rs h be5 able to expla9 _m app>5t anomalies 9 ! di/ribution ( exi/+ plants1 & to reconcile ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! pa/ & pres5t di/ribution ( _m g5]a by tak+ acc\nt ( ! effect on plant life ( ! glacial p]iod4 ,z ! ice gradually crept d[n f ! pol> regions & spread ov] ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,europe1 _m plants 7 driv5 fur!r s\? 9 se>* ( ! necess>y w>m?4 ,9 ! ,am]ican cont95t su* migration 0 r5d]$ possible by ! s\!rn l& ext5sion2 9 ,europe on ! o!r h& ! s\!rly retreat 0 cut (f by impassable b>ri]s1 & ! ext9ction ( sev]al g5]a 0 ! natural result4 ,! comp>atively abundant in=mation :i* we possess z to ! pa/ vegetation ( pol> regions & ! value ( su* k to geologi/s & botani/s alike is 9 /rik+ contra/ to ! abs5ce ( simil> data z reg>ds ,ant>ctic fossils4 ,d>w9 9 an exce$+ly int]e/+ lett] to ,hook] propos ( a =?com+ ,briti% ,association address1 ref]r+ to ?is subject writes z foll[s3-- 8,! extreme importance ( ! ,arctic fossil plants is self-evid5t4 ,take ! opportunity ( groan+ ov] our ignorance ( ! ,lignite plants ( ,k]guel5 ,l&1 or any ,ant>ctic l&4 ,x might d good#dj40 ,9 work+ out any collection ( fossil plants1 x w\ld be well1 !re=e1 to be> 9 m9d t our aim %\ld be r to reproduce an accurate fragm5t ( botanical hi/ory1 ?an to p]=m feats ( det]m9ation ) hopelessly inadequate specim5s4 ,_h ?is pr9ciple be5 g5]ally foll[$1 ! numb] ( fossil plant species w\ld be enorm\sly r$uc$1 b ! value ( ! records w\ld be consid]ably rais$4 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossil ,,plants ,,& ,,climate4 ,our k ( plant anatomy1 & ( ^? laws ( gr[? :i* gov]n c]ta9 classes ( plants to-day & 9 pa/ "t1 has be5 v mat]ially wid5$ & ext5d$ by ! facts reveal$ to u by ! detail$ /udy ( ,coal-,measure species4 ,! mod]n sci5ce ( ,plant ,biology1 ref\nd$ by ,*>les ,d>w91 has ?r[n consid]able light on ! laws ( plant life1 & x enables u to correlate /ructural *>act]i/ics ) physiological conditions ( gr[?4 ,apply+ ! k ga9$ f liv+ plants to ! /udy ( su* ext9ct types z p]mit ( close microscopic exam9ation1 we may obta9 a glimpse into ! secrets ( ! botanical b9omics ( ,palaeozoic times4 ,! wid] que/ions ( climatic conditions dep5d v l>gely ^u ! evid5ce ( fossil botany = a rational solution4 ,z an in/ance ( ! be/ au!nticat$ & mo/ /rik+ alt]nation 9 climatic conditions 9 comp>atively rec5t times1 we may cite ! glacial p]iod or ,ice-,age4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,arctic conditions has be5 prov$ by purely geological evid5ce1 b x receives additional confirmation1 & d]ives a wid] importance f ! te/imony ( fossil plants4 ,9 rocks deposit$ be=e ! spread ( ice f high nor!rn latitudes1 we f9d indubitable pro(s ( a widely di/ribut$ subtropical flora 9 ,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,europe4 ,pass+ f ^! rocks to m rec5t b$s !re are f\nd indications ( a fall 9 temp]ature1 & su* nor!rn plants z ! dw>f ,bir*1 ! ,arctic ,will[ & o!rs reveal ! s\!rn ext5sion ( ,arctic cold to our own latitudes4 ,! di/ribution ( plants 9 "t1 t is ! range ( classes1 families1 g5]a & species ( plants ?r\gh ! s]ies ( /rata :i* make up ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 is a matt] ( prim>y importance f a botanical z well z f a geological po9t ( view4 ,among ! e>li] writ]s1 ,brongni>t recognis$ ! m>k$ diff]5ces betwe5 ! e>li] & lat] floras1 & attempt$ to correlate ! p]iods ( maximum developm5t ( c]ta9 classes ( plants ) def9ite epo*s ( geological hi/ory4 ,he gives ! foll[+ classification 9 :i* are repres5t$ ! g5]al outl9es ( plant developm5t f ,palaeozoic to ,t]ti>y times#da4 ,i4 ,reign ( ,acrog5s #a4 ,c>bonif]\s epo*4 #b4 ,p]mian epo*4 ,,ii4 ,reign ( ,gymnosp]ms #c4 ,triassic epo*4 #d4 ,jurassic epo* 7includ+ ! ,weald574 ,,iii4 ,reign ( ,angiosp]ms #e4 ,cretace\s epo*4 #f4 ,t]ti>y epo*4 ,s9ce ,brongni>t's "t ?is me?od ( classification has be5 ext5d$ to _m ( ! small] subdivisions ( ! geological epo*s1 & species ( fossil plants are (t5 ( ! greate/ value 9 que/ions ( correlation4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! sy/ematic treatm5t ( ,coal-,measure & o!r plants 9 ! h&s ( v>i\s ,cont95tal & ,engli% writ]s has cle>ly demon/rat$ _! capabilities = ! purpose ( subdivid+ a s]ies ( /rata into /ages & zones#db4 ,! m complete becomes our k ( any flora1 ! great] possibility !re is ( mak+ use ( ! plants z indices ( geological age#dc4 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossil ,,plants ,,& ,,phylog5y4 ,n only is x possible to d]ive valuable aid 9 ! correlation ( /rata f ! facts ( plant di/ribution1 b we may (t5 foll[ ! v>i\s /ages 9 ! hi/ory ( a p>ticul> g5us z we trace ! records ( its occurr5ce ?r\gh ! geologic s]ies4 ,9 /udy+ ! m>* ( plant life ?r\gh pa/ ages1 ! botani/ may sometimes foll[ ! progress ( a g5us f its fir/ appe>ance1 ?r\gh ! "t ( maximum developm5t1 to its decl9e or ext9ction4 ,9 ! ,palaeozoic =e/s !re 0 p]haps no m conspicu\s or common tree ?an ! g5us long kn[n "u ! "n ( ,calamites4 ,?is plant atta9$ a height ( fifty or a hundr$ feet1 ) a proportionate gir?1 & increas$ 9 ?ickness 9 a mann] precisely simil> to t 9 :i* our =e/ trees gr[ 9 diamet]4 ,! exceptionally fav\rable conditions "u :i* specim5s ( calamitean plants h be5 pres]v$1 h enabl$ u to become almo/ z famili> ) ! m9ute /ructure ( _! /ems & roots1 z well z ) _! spore-produc+ organs1 z ) ^? ( a liv+ species4 ,9 %ort1 x is ?or\ghly e/abli%$ t ,calamites agrees 9 mo/ ess5tial respects ) our well kn[n ,equisetum1 & mu/ be includ$ 9 ! same ord]1 or at lea/ sub-class1 z ! rec5t g5us ( ,equisetaceae4 ,z we asc5d ! geologic s]ies f ! ,coal-,measures1 a m>k$ num]ical decl9e ( ,calamites is obvi\s 9 ! ,p]mian p]iod1 & 9 ! r$ s&/ones ( ! ,vosges1 :i* belong to ! same s]ies ( rocks z ! ,triassic /rata ( ! ,*e%ire pla91 ! true ,calamites is replac$ by a l>ge ,equisetum app>5tly id5tical 9 ext]nal appe>ance & habit ( gr[? ) ! species liv+ to-day4 ,9 ! m rec5t /rata ! ,horse-tails are /ill repres5t$1 b ! size ( ! ,t]ti>y species agrees m closely ) ! comp>atively small =ms :i* h su* a wide geographical di/ribution at ! pres5t "t4 ,?us we are able to trace out ! hi/ory ( a rec5t g5us ( ,vascul> ,cryptogams1 & to foll[ a p>ticul> type ( organisation f ! "t ( its maximum developm5t1 ?r\gh its gradual transition to ^? /ructural *>act]s :i* are repres5t$ 9 ! liv+ desc5dants ( ! arboresc5t ,calamites ( ! coal-p]iod =e/s4 ,! pages ( su* a hi/ory are frequ5tly imp]fect & occasionally miss+1 b o!rs1 aga91 are writt5 9 *>act]s z cle> z ^? :i* we deciph] by a microscopical exam9ation ( ! tissues ( a rec5t plant4 ,z "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ in/ances 9 :i* ! microscopic /udy ( fossil plants has %[n ! way to a satisfactory solution ( ! problems ( developm5t1 we may m5tion su* ext9ct g5]a z ,lyg9od5dron1 ,myeloxylon & o!rs4 ,ea* ( ^! g5]a w be dealt ) at "s l5g? 9 ! sy/ematic "p ( ! book1 & we %all aft]w>ds discuss ! importance ( su* types1 f ! po9t ( view ( plant evolution4 ,! botani/ :o w\ld trace out ! phylog5y ( any exi/+ class or family1 makes x 8 *ief aim to discov] po9ts ( contact betwe5 ! p>ticul> type ( /ructure :i* he is inve/igat+1 & t ( o!r m or less closely relat$ classes or families4 ,conf9+ himself to rec5t =ms1 he may discov]1 "h & !re1 c]ta9 anatomical or embryological facts1 :i* sugge/ promis+ l9es ( inquiry 9 ! que/ aft] su* aff9ities z po9t to a common desc5t4 ,)\t rec\rse to ! evid5ce af=d$ by ! plants ( pa/ ages1 we mu/ always admit t our exi/+ classification ( ! vegetable k+dom is an expression ( real gaps :i* sep>ate ! sev]al classes ( plants f "o ano!r4 ,on ! o!r h& our rec5tly acquir$ & m accurate k ( su* g5]a z h be5 allud$ to1 has made u acqua9t$ ) types ( plant /ructure :i* enable u to fill 9 "s ( ! lacunae 9 our exi/+ classification4 ,9 c]ta9 in/ances we f9d m]g$ 9 a s+le species morphological *>act]i/ics :i*1 9 ! case ( rec5t plants1 are reg>d$ z di/9ctive features ( diff]5t subdivisions4 ,x has be5 cle>ly demon/rat$ t 9 ,lyg9od5dron1 we h anatomical peculi>ities typical ( rec5t cycads1 comb9$ ) /ructural *>act]i/ics always associat$ ) exi/+ f]ns4 ,9 r>e cases1 x happ5s t ! rem>kably p]fect fossilisation ( ! tissues ( fossil plants1 enables u n only to give a complete description ( ! hi/ology ( ext9ct =ms1 b also to speak ) confid5ce z to "s ( ^? physiological processes :i* gov]n$ _! life4 ,sid5ote3 ,,geological ,,hi/ory4 ,s f>1 palaeobotany has be5 consid]$ 9 its be>+s on ! /udy ( rec5t plants4 ,f a geological po9t ( view ! records ( anci5t floras h sc>cely less importance4 ,9 rec5t ye>s1 facts h be5 br\ght to light1 :i* %[ t plants h play$ a m conspicu\s "p ?an has usually be5 suppos$ z ag5ts ( rock-build+4 ,z te/s ( geologic age1 !re are good gr\nds = believ+ t ! inf]iority ( plants to animals is m app>5t ?an real4 ,?is "q1 h[ev]1 mu/ be discuss$ at great] l5g? 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,en\gh has be5 said to %[ ! _m-sid$ nature ( ! sci5ce ( ,fossil ,plants1 & ! wide range ( ! problems :i* ! geologi/ or botani/ may reasonably expect to solve1 by means ( tru/wor?y data af=d$ by sci5tific palaeobotanical me?ods4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,geological ,,hi/ory4 8,b h[ c we "q dumb rocks ^: spee* is n cle>#dd80 ,9 attempt+ to sket* 9 briefe/ outl9e ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,e>?1 ! mo/ important object to keep 9 view is t ( reproduc+ z f> z possible ! broad features ( ! successive /ages 9 ! build+ ( ! ,e>?'s cru/4 ,x is obvi\sly impossible to g into any details ( description1 or to closely foll[ ! evolution ( ! pres5t cont95ts2 at mo/1 we c only ref] to su* facts z may s]ve z an introduction ( ! elem5ts ( /ratigraphical geology to non-geological read]s4 ,= a full] treatm5t ( ! subject ref]5ce mu/ be made to special treatises on geology4 ,= ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 x is cu/om>y 9 /ratigraphical geology z also 9 biology1 to make use ( our imp]fect k z an aid to classification4 ,if we possess$ complete records ( ! ,e>?'s hi/ory1 we %\ld h an unbrok5 sequ5ce1 n m]ely ( ! v>i\s =ms ( life t ev] exi/$1 b ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( rocks =m$ 9 ! successive ages ( pa/ "t4 ,z gaps exi/ 9 ! *a9 ( life1 s also d we f9d consid]able breaks 9 ! sequ5ce ( /rata :i* h be5 =m$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( geologic "t4 ,! dang] z well z ! conv5i5ce ( artificial classification mu/ be kept 9 view4 ,?is has be5 well express$ by ,freeman1 9 speak+ ( ar*itectural /yles1--8,our m9ds10 he says1 8are m us$ to def9ite p]iods2 !y neglect or =get transitions :i* d inde$ exi/#de40 ,! idea ( def9ite classification is liable to n>r[ our view ( uni=mity & ! natural sequ5ce ( ev5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,,rock-,,build+4 ,compos+ t "p ( ! e>? :i* is accessible to u1--or z x is g5]ally call$ ! e>?'s cru/1--!re are rocks ( v>i\s k9ds1 ( :i* "s h be5 =m$ by igne\s ag5cy1 ei!r z lavas or b$s ( a%es1 or 9 ! =m ( molt5 magmas :i* gradually cool$ & became cry/all9e bel[ a mass ( sup]9cumb5t /rata4 ,) ^! rocks we ne$ n conc]n ourselves4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! e>?'s cru/ consi/s ( su* mat]ials z s&/ones1 lime/ones1 %ales1 & simil> /rata :i* h be5 =m$ 9 precisely ! same mann] z deposits are be+ accumulat$ at ! pres5t day4 ,! :ole surface ( ! e>? is cont9ually expos$ to ! action ( de/ructive ag5cies1 & suff]s p]petual decay2 x is ! products ( ?is ceaseless we> & te> t =m ! build+ mat]ials ( new deposits4 ,! op]ation ( wat] 9 its v>i\s =ms1 ( w9d1 *anges ( temp]ature1 & o!r ag5ts ( de/ruction _c be fully dealt ) 9 ?is %ort summ>y4 ,a riv] fl[+ to ! sea or empty+ itself into an inl& lake1 c>ries its burd5 ( gravel1 s&1 & mud1 & soon] or lat]1 z ! rate ( fl[ slack5s1 x deposits ! mat]ials 9 ! riv]-b$ or on ! floor ( ! sea or lake4 ,fragm5ts ( rock1 *ipp$ (f by w$ges ( ice1 or deta*$ 9 o!r ways f ! p>5t mass1 f9d _! way to ! m\nta9 /reams1 & if n too heavy are convey$ to ! ma9 riv]1 :]e ! l>g] pieces come to re/ z m or less r\nd$ pebbles4 ,su* wat]-worn rocks accumulate 9 ! quiet] rea*es ( a swiftly fl[+ riv]1 or are ?r[n d[n at ! head ( ! riv]'s delta4 ,if su* a deposit ( loose wat]-worn mat]ial became cem5t$ toge!r ei!r by ! consolidat+ action ( "s solution p]colat+ ?r\gh ! g5]al mass1 or by ! pressure ( ov]ly+ deposits1 !re w\ld be =m$ a h>d rock made up ( r\nd$ fragm5ts ( v>i\s k9ds ( /rata d]iv$ f diff]5t s\rces4 ,su* a rock is kn[n z a ,,conglom]ate4 ,! same k9d ( rock may be =m$ equally well by ! action ( ! sea2 an old sea-bea* ) ! pebbles emb$d$ 9 a cem5t+ matrix af=ds a typical example ( a co>se conglom]ate4 ,plant rema9s are occasionally met ) 9 conglom]ates1 b usually 9 a fragm5t>y condition4 ,f a conglom]ate compos$ ( l>ge wat]-worn pebbles1 to a f9e homog5e\s s&/one !re are num]\s int]m$iate /ages4 ,a body ( wat]1 ) a velocity too small to c>ry along pebbles ( rock 9 susp5sion or to roll !m along ! b$ ( ! *annel1 is /ill able to transport ! f9] fragm5ts or gra9s ( s&1 b z a fur!r decrease 9 ! velocity occurs1 ^! are ev5tually deposit$ z b$s ( co>se or f9e s&4 ,! /ret*es ( s& on a gradually %elv+ sea %ore1 or ! deposits ( ! same mat]ial 9 a riv]'s delta1 h be5 =m$ by ! gradual we>+ away & dis9tegration ( v>i\s rocks1 ! detritus ( :i* has be5 spread out 9 m or less regul> b$s on ! floor ( a lake or sea4 ,su* accumulations ( f9e detrital mat]ial1 if compact$ or cem5t$ toge!r1 become typical ,,s&/ones4 ,9 trac+ b$s ( s&/one across a tract ( c\ntry1 x is frequ5tly f\nd t ! "* ( ! /rata gradually alt]s2 mud or clay becomes associat$ ) ! s&y deposit1 until f9ally ! s&/one is replac$ by b$s ( d>k col\r$ %ale4 ,simil>ly ! s&y detritus on ! ocean floor1 or 9 an inl& lake1 :5 foll[$ fur!r & fur!r f ! s\rce f :i* ! mat]ials 7 d]iv$1 passes by degrees into argillace\s s&1 & f9ally into %eets ( d>k clay or mud4 ,! h>d5$ b$s ( clay or f9e gra9$ mud become trans=m$ into ,,%ales4 ,z a g5]al rule1 !n1 %ales are rocks :i* h be5 laid d[n 9 places fur!r f ! l&1 or at a great] di/ance f ! s\rce ( orig9 ( ! detrital mat]ial1 ?an s&/ones or conglom]ates4 ,! conglom]ates1 or old %+le bea*es1 usually occur 9 some:at irregul> pat*es1 m>k+ old %ore-l9es or ! head ( a riv] delta4 ,co>se s&/ones1 or grits1 may occur 9 ! =m ( regul>ly b$d$ /rata /ret*+ ov] a wide area2 & %ales or clays may be foll[$ ?r\gh a consid]able ext5t ( c\ntry4 ,! f9] mat]ial compos+ ! clays & %ales has be5 held long] 9 susp5sion & deposit$ 9 deep] wat] 9 widespread & fairly horizontal lay]s4 ,9 "s di/ricts s&/ones occur 9 :i* ! individual gra9s %[ a well m>k$ r\nd+ ( ! angles1 & 9 :i* fossils are extremely r>e or entirely abs5t4 ,! close resemblance ( su* deposits to mod]n des]t s&s sugge/s a simil> me?od ( =mation2 & !re c be no d\bt t 9 "s in/ances !re h be5 pres]v$ ! w9d-worn des]t s&s ( =m] ages4 ,aeolian or w9d-=m$ accumulations1 al?\gh by no means common1 are ( suffici5t importance to be m5tion$ z illu/rat+ a c]ta9 type ( rock4 ,sid5ote3 ,,calc>e\s ,,rocks4 ,! ?ick masses ( lime/one :i* =m s prom95t a feature 9 p>ts ( ,engl& & ,irel&1 h be5 =m$ 9 a mann] diff]5t f t to :i* s&/ones & %ales owe _! orig94 ,on ! floor ( a cle> sea1 too f> f l& to receive any wat]-borne s$im5t1 !re is usually 9 process ( =mation a mass ( calc>e\s mat]ial1 :i* 9 a lat] age may rise above ! surface ( ! wat] z *alk or ,,lime/one4 ,^? organisms liv+ 9 ! sea1 :i* are enclos$ ei!r :olly or 9 "p by calc>e\s %ells1 are ag5ts ( lime/one-build+2 _! %ells con/antly accumulat+ on ! floor ( ! sea give rise 9 c\rse ( "t to a ?ick mass ( s$im5t1 compos$ 9 great "p ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,"s ( ! %ells 9 su* a deposit may reta9 _! orig9al =m1 ! calc>e\s body may on ! o!r h& be brok5 up into m9ute fragm5ts :i* are /ill recognisable ) ! help ( a microscope1 or ! %ells & o!r h>d p>ts may be dissolv$ or dis9tegrat$ beyond recognition1 leav+ no?+ 9 ! calc>e\s s$im5t to indicate its me?od ( =mation4 ,n a few lime/ones consi/ 9 "p ( fossil corals1 & owe _! orig9 to colonies ( coral polyps :i* built up reefs or banks ( coral 9 ! anci5t seas4 ,9 ! :ite cliffs ( ,dov]1 ,flambor\gh ,head & o!r places1 we h a some:at diff]5t =m ( calc>e\s rock1 :i* 9 "p consi/s ( millions ( m9ute %ells ( ,=am9if]a1 9 "p ( brok5 fragm5ts ( l>g] %ells ( ext9ct molluscs1 & to "s ext5t ( ! rema9s ( silice\s sponges4 ,z a g5]al rule1 lime/ones & *alk rocks are anci5t s$im5ts1 =m$ 9 cle> & comp>atively deep wat]1 compos$ 9 ! ma9 ( c>bonate ( lime1 9 "s cases ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bonate ( magnesium1 & occasionally ) a consid]able admixture ( silica4 ,9 su* rocks l&-plants mu/ necess>ily be r>e4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 lime/ones :i* :olly or 9 "p owe _! =mation to masses ( calc>e\s algae1 :i* grew 9 ! =m ( subm>9e banks or on coral reefs4 ,occasionally ! rema9s ( ^! algae are cle>ly pres]v$1 b frequ5tly all signs ( plant /ructure h be5 completely oblit]at$4 ,aga91 !re occur lime/one rocks =m$ by *emical means1 & 9 a mann] simil> to t 9 :i* b$s ( trav]t9e are n[ be+ accumulat$4 ,granites1 basalts1 volcanic lavas1 tuffs1 & o!r igne\s rocks ne$ n claim our att5tion1 except 9 su* cases z p]mit ( plant rema9s be+ f\nd 9 association ) ^! mat]ials4 ,%[]s ( a%es bl[n f a volcano1 may fall on ! surface ( a lake or sea & become mix$ ) s& & mud ( suba]ial orig94 ,/reams ( lava occasionally fl[ into wat]1 or !y may be p\r$ f subm>9e v5ts1 & s spread out on ! ocean b$ ) /rata ( s& or clay4 ,pass+ f ! nature & mode ( orig9 ( ! s$im5t>y /rata to ! mann] ( _! arrangem5t 9 ! ,e>?'s cru/1 we mu/ endeav\r to sket* 9 ! m]e/ outl9e ! me?ods ( /ratigraphical geology4 ,! surface ( ! ,e>? 9 "s places /&s out 9 ! =m ( b>e masses ( rock1 r\ghly hewn or f9ely c>v$ by ,nature's tools ( fro/1 ra9 or runn+ wat]2 9 o!r places we h g5tly undulat+ gr\nd ) b$s ( rock expos$ to view "h & !re1 b = ! mo/ "p cov]$ ) loose mat]ial su* z gravel1 s&s1 b\ld] clay & surface soil4 ,sid5ote3 ,,geological ,,sections4 ,9 ! flat l&s ( ! f5 di/ricts1 ! peat b$s & l[-ly+ salt m>%es =m ! surface features1 & are ! connect+ l9ks betwe5 ! rock-build+ n[ 9 progress & ! deposits ( an e>li] age4 ,if we c\ld remove all ^! surface accumulations ( s&1 gravel1 peat & surface soil1 & take a bird's eye view ( ! b>e surface ( ! rocky skeleton ( ! e>?'s cru/1 we %\ld h spread be=e u ! outl9es ( a geological map4 ,9 "s places fairly horizontal b$s ( rock /ret*+ ov] a wide ext5t ( c\ntry1 9 ano!r ! upturn$ edges ( almo/ v]tical /rata =m ! surface features2 or1 aga91 irregul> bosses ( cry/all9e igne\s rock occur "h & !re z pat*es 9 ! mid/ ( b$d$ s$im5t>y or volcanic /rata4 ,a map %[+ ! b\nd>ies & di/ribution ( ! rocks z se5 at ! surface1 tells u comp>atively little z to ! relative positions ( ! diff]5t rocks bel[ gr\nd1 or ( ! relative ages ( ! sev]al /rata4 ,if we supplem5t ?is sup]ficial view by an inspection ( ! position ( ! /rata z %[n on ! walls ( a deep tr5* cut across ! c\ntry1 we at once ga9 v important in=mation z to ! relative position ( ! b$s bel[ ! e>?'s surface4 ,! face ( a qu>ry1 ! side ( a riv] b$ or a railway cutt+1 af=d ,,horizontal ,,sections or ,,pr(iles :i* %[ :e!r c]ta9 /rata lie above or bel[ o!rs1 :e!r a s]ies ( rocks consi/s ( p>allel & regul>ly /ratifi$ b$s1 or :e!r ! succession ( ! /rata is int]f]$ ) by a great] or less div]g5ce f a p>allel arrangem5t4 ,if1 = example1 a section %[s comp>atively horizontal /rata ly+ across ! worn d[n edges ( a s]ies ( v]tical s$im5t>y rocks1 we may fairly assume t "s su* *anges z ! foll[+ h tak5 place 9 t p>ticul> area4 ,! und]ly+ b$s 7 orig9ally laid d[n z m or less horizontal deposits2 ^! 7 gradually h>d5$ & compact$1 !n elevat$ above sea-level by a fold+ ( ! e>?'s cru/2 ! cre/s ( ! folds 7 aft]w>ds worn d[n by d5udation1 & ! erod$ surface f9ally subsid$ bel[ sea-level & =m$ ! floor on :i* new] deposits 7 built up4 ,su* breaks 9 ! cont9uity ( /ratifi$ deposits are kn[n z ,,uncon=mities2 9 ! int]val ( "t :i* !y repres5t great *anges took place ( :i* ! records are ei!r entirely lo/1 or h to be s\ght else:]e4 ,9 c]ta9 m exceptional cases1 x is possible to obta9 :at is te*nically kn[n z a ,,v]tical ,,section2 = example if a deep bor+ is sunk ?r\gh a s]ies ( rocks1 & ! core ( ! bor+ exam9$1 we h z x 7 a sample ( ! e>?'s cru/ :i* may (t5 tea* u valuable lessons :i* _c be le>nt f maps or horizontal sections4 ,sid5ote3 ,,inv]sion ,,( ,,/rata4 ,x is obvi\s1 t 9 a giv5 s]ies ( b$s1 :i* are ei!r horizontal or m or less obliquely incl9$1 ! und]ly+ /rata 7 ! fir/ =m$1 & ! upp] b$s 7 laid d[n aft]w>ds4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we tru/$ solely to ! ord] ( sup]position 9 e/imat+ relative age1 our conclusions w\ld sometimes be v f> f ! tru?4 ,rec5t geological inve/igations h br\ght to light facts well nigh incr$ible z to ! magnitude & ext5t ( rock-fold+s4 ,9 regions ( great e>?-movem5ts1 ! cru/ has be5 brok5 along c]ta9 l9es1 & great masses ( /rata h be5 ?ru/ = miles along ! tops ( new] rocks4 ,?us x may be br\ght ab\t t ! natural sequ5ce ( a set ( b$s has be5 entirely alt]$1 & old] rocks h come to ov]lie s$im5ts ( a lat] geological age4 ,facts su* z ^! cle>ly illu/rate ! difficulties ( correct geological int]pretation4 ,9 ! horizontal section 7,fig4 #b71 f ! summit ( ,bzi/ock on ! left to ,saa/]g on ! "r1 we h a /rik+ case ( int5se rock-fold+ & dislocation#df4 ,pr(4 ,heim#dg ( ,g5eva has giv5 num]\s illu/rations ( ! almo/ incr$ible positions assum$ 9 ! ,swiss ,m\nta9s by va/ ?icknesses ( rocks1 & 9 ! accompany+ section tak5 f a rec5t "w by ,ro?pletz we h a compact example ( ! possibilities ( e>?-movem5ts z an ag5t ( rock-fold+4 ,! section illu/rates v cle>ly an exception to ! rule t ! ord] ( sup]position ( a set ( b$s indicates ! relative age ( ! /rata4 ,! horizontal l9e at ! base is drawn at a height ( #afej metres above sea-level1 & ! summit ( ,bzi/ock rea*es a height ( #bcdj m4 ,! y\nge/ rocks se5 9 ! diagram are ! ,eoc5e b$s e1 at ! base & z small isolat$ pat*es on ! "r-h& end ( ! section2 ! ma9 mass ( mat]ial compos+ ! high] gr\nd has be5 bodily ?ru/ ov] ! ,eoc5e rocks1 & 9 ?is process "s ( ! b$s1 b & c1 h be5 fold$ repeat$ly on !mselves4 ,simil> in/ances ( ! ov]?ru/+ ( a consid]able ?ickness ( /rata h be5 describ$ 9 ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s ( ,scotl&#dh & else:]e 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,x is important !re=e to draw att5tion to cases ( extreme fold+1 z su* ph5om5a are by no means exceptional 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,section f ,bzi/ock to ,saa/]g4 ,aft] ,ro?pletz1 7#id7 ,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #b4 a ,s]nifit or ,v]rucano 7,p]mian74 b ,r?idolomit etc4 7,p]mian74 c ,dogg] 7,jurassic74 d ,malm 7,jurassic74 e ,eoc5e4 ,! ord] ( sup]position ( /rata has af=d$ ! key to our k ( ! succession ( life 9 geologic "t1 & ! ref9em5ts ( ! /ratigraphical correlation ( s$im5t>y rocks are bas$ on ! comp>ison ( _! fossil cont5ts4 ,by a c>eful exam9ation ( ! relics ( fossil organisms obta9$ f rocks ( all ages & c\ntries1 x has be5 f\nd possible to re/ore 9 brok5 outl9e ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! ,e>?4 ,by means1 !n1 ( /ratigraphical & palaeontological evid5ce1 a classification ( ! v>i\s rocks has be5 e/abli%$1 ! l9es ( division be+ drawn 9 su* places z repres5t gaps 9 ! fossil records1 or /rik+ & widespread uncon=mities betwe5 diff]5t s]ies ( deposits4 ,x is only 9 a few regions t we f9d rocks :i* c reasonably be reg>d$ z ! f\ndation /ones ( ! ,e>?4 ,z ! globe gradually cool$1 & its molt5 mass became sk9n$ ov] ) a solid cru/1 cry/all9e rocks mu/ h be5 produc$ be=e ! dawn ( life1 & be=e wat] c\ld rema9 9 a liquid =m on ! rocky surface4 ,z soon z ! temp]ature became suffici5tly l[1 runn+ wat] & ra9 began ! "w ( d5udation & rock dis9tegration :i* has be5 ceaselessly c>ri$ on ev] s9ce4 ,9 ?is cont9ual break+ d[n & build+ up ( ! ,e>?'s surface1 x w\ld be no wond] if b few remnants 7 left ( ! fir/ =m$ s$im5ts ( ! e>lie/ age4 ,! action ( heat1 pressure & *emical *ange accompany+ rock-fold+s & cru/-wr9kl+s1 (t5 s f> alt]s s$im5t>y deposits1 t _! orig9al =m is entirely lo/1 & s&/one1 %ales & lime/ones become metamorphos$ into cry/all9e qu>tzites1 slates & m>bles4 ,! op]ation ( metamorphism is !re=e ano!r s]i\s difficulty 9 ! way ( recognis+ ! olde/ rocks4 ,! e>lie/ animals & plants :i* h be5 discov]$ are n su* z we %\ld expect to f9d z examples ( ! fir/ products ( organic life4 ,bel[ ! olde/ kn[n fossilif]\s rocks1 !re mu/ h be5 ?\s&s ( feet ( s$im5t>y mat]ial1 :i* has ei!r be5 alt]$ beyond recognition1 or f "s cause or o!r does n =m "p ( our pres5t geological record4 ,z a g5]al introduction to geological *ronology1 a %ort summ>y may be giv5 ( ! diff]5t =mations or gr\ps ( /rata1 to :i* c]ta9 names h be5 assign$ to s]ve z conv5i5t designations = succe$+ epo*s 9 ! _w's evolution4 ,! foll[+ table 7,fig4 #c1 pp4 #cb1 #cc7 repres5ts ! geological s]ies 9 a conv5i5t =m2 ! mo/ *>act]i/ic rocks ( ea* p]iod are indicat$ by ! usual conv5tional %ad+1 & ! mo/ important breaks or lacunae 9 ! records are %[n by gaps & unev5 l9es4 ,! relative ?ickness ( ! rocks ( ea* p]iod is approximately %[n2 b ! v]tical ext5t ( ! olde/ or ,ar*aean rocks z %[n 9 ,fig4 #c repres5ts :at is )\t d\bt b a fraction ( _! proportional ?ickness4 ,?is table is tak51 ) c]ta9 alt]ations1 f a pap] by ,pr(4 ,t4 ,mc,kenny ,hughes 9 ! ,cambridge ,philosophical ,proce$+s = #ahgi4 ,speak+ ( ! graphic me?od ( %[+ ! geological s]ies1 ! au?or ( ! pap] says1 8,x is conv5i5t to h a table ( ! kn[n /rata1 & al?\gh we _c arrange all ! rocks ( ! _w 9 p>allel columns1 & say t ,,abc ( "o area are exactly syn*ron\s ) ,a,b,c ( ano!r1 /ill if we take any "o c\ntry & e/abli% a gr\p+ = x1 we f9d s _m horizons at :i* equival5t =mations c be id5tifi$ 9 di/ant places1 t we g5]ally make an approximation to ,,homotaxis z ,huxley call$ x4 ,! mo/ conv5i5t gr\p+ is obvi\sly to bracket toge!r locally cont9u\s deposits1 i4e4 all ! s$im5t :i* 0 =m$ f ! "t :5 ! l& w5t d[n & accumulation began1 to ! "t :5 ! sea bottom 0 rais$ & ! "w ( de/ruction began4 ,9 ! accompany+ table ,i h giv5 ! rocks ( ,great ,brita9 classifi$ on ?is sy/em1 & be>+ 9 m9d t wa/e 9 "o place mu/ be repres5t$ by deposit else:]e1 ,i h repres5t$ ! p]iods ( degradation by int]vals e/imat$ :]e possible by ! am\nt ( d5udation kn[n to h tak5 place betwe5 ! p]iods ( deposition 9 ! same di/rict#di40 ,illu/ration3 ,,table ,,( ,,/rata4 ,,rec5t ,,glacial ,,quat]n>y ,,plioc5e ,,mioc5e ,,oligoc5e ,,t]ti>y ,,eoc5e ,,cretace\s ,,jurassic ,,mesozoic ,,trias ,,p]mian ,coal-,measures ,mill/one ,grit ,,c>bonif]\s ,yor$ale ,rocks ,m\nta9 ,lime/one ,devonian ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,,devonian ,s&/one ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,ludl[ ,,silurian ,w5lock ,,palaeozoic ,may ,hill ,upp] ,bala ,l[] ,bala ,,ordovician ,ll&eilo ,ar5ig ,tremadoc ,l+ula ,flags ,,cambrian ,m5evian ,h>le* ,,lavas1 ,,volcanic ,,a%es1 ,,granitoid ,,ar*aean ,,rocks ,,& ,,s*i/s ,,( ,,enorm\s ,,?ickness ,fig #c4 ,i4 ,ar*aean4 8,m5 c d no?+ )\t ! make-believe ( a beg9n+40 ,,george ,,eliot4 ,!re is p]haps no problem at once s difficult & s full ( int]e/ to ! /ud5t ( ! ,e>?'s hi/ory1 z ! int]pretation ( ! fragm5t>y records ( ! op5+ /ages 9 geological & organic evolution4 ,9 trac+ ! gr[? & developm5t ( ! human race1 x becomes increas+ly difficult to discov] & deciph] writt5 docum5ts z we p5etrate f>!r back t[>ds ! beg9n+ ( ! hi/orical p]iod2 ! records are usually incomplete & fragm5t>y1 or r5d]$ illegible by ! sup]pos$ writ+s ( a lat] date4 ,s 9 ! records ( ! rocks1 z we pass beyond ! olde/ /rata 9 :i* cle>ly pres]v$ fossils are met )1 we come to old] rocks :i* af=d ei!r no data z to ! p]iod 9 :i* !y 7 =m$1 or l ! palimpse/1 ) its orig9al *>act]s almo/ oblit]at$ by a late ,,ms41 ! old] portions ( ! ,e>?'s cru/ h be5 us$ & re-us$ 9 ! rock-build+ ( lat] ages4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is exce$+ly difficult to det]m9e ) any c]ta9ty :at rocks may be reg>d$ z tru/wor?y fragm5ts ( a primaeval l&4 ,?r\gh\t ! geological eras ! ,e>?'s surface has be5 subject$ to fold+s & wr9kl+s1 volcanic activity has be5 almo/ unceas+1 & !re is abundant evid5ce to %[ h[ ! orig9al *>act]s ( bo? igne\s & s$im5t>y rocks may be entirely effac$ by ! op]ation ( *emical & physical =ces4 ,x 0 =m]ly held t co>sely cry/all9e rocks su* z granite are ! olde/ portions ( ! cru/1 b mod]n geology has conclusively prov$ t _m ( ! s-call$ fundam5tal masses ( rock are m]ely piles ( anci5t s$im5ts :i* h be5 subject$ to ! repeat$ op]ation ( p[]ful physical & *emical =ces1 & h und]gone a complete re>rangem5t ( _! sub/ance4 ,z ! result ( m detail$ inve/igations1 _m regions =m]ly suppos$ to consi/ ( ! f\ndation /ones ( ! ,e>?'s cru/1 are n[ kn[n to h be5 c5tres ( volcanic di/urbance & widespread metamorphism1 & to be made up ( po/-ar*aean rocks4 ,sid5ote3 ,,! ,,olde/ ,,rocks4 ,! fir/ =m$ rocks no d\bt became at once ! prey ( d5udation & dis9tegration1 & on _! surface w\ld be accumulat$ ! products ( _! own de/ruction3 new] /rata w\ld entirely cov] up portions ( ! orig9al l&1 to be 9 _! turn succe$$ by /ill lat] deposits4 ,!re is reason to believe t 9 ! remote/ ages ( ! ,e>?'s hi/ory1 ! =ces ( d5udation & igne\s activity 7 m pot5t ?an 9 lat] times1 & ?us ! olde/ rocks c\ld h>dly reta9 _! orig9al /ructure ?r\gh ! long ages ( geologic "t4 ,! e>lie/ repres5tatives ( organic life 7 d\btless ( su* a p]i%able nature t _! rema9s c\ld n be pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate ev5 "u ! mo/ fav\rable conditions4 ,su* organisms1 :e!r plants or animals1 z possess$ any resi/ant tissues or h>d skeletons might be pres]v$ 9 ! olde/ rocks1 b z ^! /rata became involv$ 9 e>?-fold+s or 7 p5etrat$ by injections ( igne\s eruptions1 ! relics ( life w\ld be entirely de/roy$4 ,x is1 9 %ort1 practically hopeless to look = any fragm5ts ( ! primitive cru/ except su* z h und]gone v consid]able metamorphism1 & equally futile to se>* = any recognisable rema9s ( primitive life4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ! _w va/ ?icknesses ( rock occur bel[ ! olde/ kn[n fossilif]\s /rata2 ^! consi/ l>gely ( lam9at$ cry/all9e masses compos$ ( qu>tz1 felsp>1 & o!r m9]als1 hav+ 9 fact ! same composition z granite1 b diff]+ 9 ! regul> arrangem5t ( ! con/itu5t p>ts4 ,to su* rocks ! t]ms gneiss & s*i/ h be5 appli$4 ,rocks ( ?is k9d are by no means always ( ,ar*aean age1 b _m ( ! e>lie/ kn[n rocks consi/ ( gneisses ( v>i\s k9ds1 associat$ ) alt]$ lavas1 metamorphos$ a%es1 breccias & o!r products ( volcanic activity2 ) ^! !re may be lime/ones1 %ales1 s&/ones1 & o!r /rata m or less closely resembl+ s$im5t>y deposits4 ,su* a succession ( gneissic rocks has be5 describ$ z occupy+ a wide area 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,/ ,lawr5ce riv]1 & to ^! enorm\sly ?ick & widespread masses a late ,director ( ! ,canadian ,geological ,survey appli$ ! t]m ,laur5tian4 ,^! ,laur5tian rocks1 ) simil> /rata 9 ,sc&9avia1 ! nor?-we/ ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( su* m\nta9 ranges z ! ,alps1 ,pyr5ees1 ,c>pa?ians1 ,himalayas1 ,&es1 ,atlas1 c41 h be5 class$ toge!r z memb]s ( ! olde/ geological p]iod1 & are usually ref]r$ to "u ! "n ( ,ar*aean1 or less frequ5tly ,azoic rocks4 ,9 "s ( ! upp]mo/ ,ar*aean rocks !re h be5 rec5tly discov]$ a few und\bt$ traces ( fossil animals1 b ) ?is exception no fossils are kn[n ?r\gh\t ! great mass ( ,ar*aean /rata4 ,x is true t "s au?orities reg>d ! b$s ( graphite & o!r rocks z a pro( ( ! abundance ( plant life1 b ?is supposition is n support$ by any conv9c+ evid5ce4 ,! t]m ,azoic#ej appli$ by "s writ]s to ^! olde/ rocks sugge/s ! abs5ce ( life dur+ ! p]iod 9 :i* !y 7 =m$4 ,life !re mu/ h be51 ?\gh we are unable to discov] its records4 ,! p]iod ( "t repres5t$ by ! ,ar*aean or ,pre-,cambrian rocks mu/ be enorm\s1 & x 0 9 t e>lie/ era t ! fir/ l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( life 7 =g$4 ,,ii4 ,cambrian4 ,! t]m ,cambrian 0 adopt$ by ,s$gwick = a s]ies ( s$im5t>y rocks 9 ,nor? ,wales 7,cambria74 ,9 t di/rict1 9 ,s\? ,wales1 ! ,longmynd ,hills1 ! ,malv]ns1 9 ,scotl&1 & o!r regions !re occur m or less highly fold$ & contort$ b$s ( pebbly conglom]ate1 s&/ones1 %ales & slates re/+ on ! unev5 surface ( an ,ar*aean f\ndation4 ,x is 9 ^! ,cambrian rocks t tru/wor?y records ( organic life are fir/ met )4 ,among ! mo/ con/ant & *>act]i/ic fossils ( ?is p]iod are ! ext9ct & ab]rant memb]s ( ! cru/acea1 ! trilobites2 ^! ) "s bra*iopods1 sponges1 & o!r fossils comprise ! olde/ fauna1 ( :i* ! ance/ral types h yet to be discov]$4 ,dur+ ! la/ few decades ! numb] ( ,cambrian fossils has be5 consid]ably increas$1 & 9 c]ta9 regions ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,*9a !re are f\nd _m ?\s& feet ( /rata above ! typical ,ar*aean rocks & bel[ ! new] fossilif]\s b$s ( ,cambrian age4 ,x is reasonable to suppose t future rese>* may ext5d ! pres5t limits ( fossil-be>+ rocks bel[ ! horizon1 :i* is m>k$ by ! occurr5ce ( ! widely di/ribut$ & olde/ kn[n trilobite1 ! g5us ,ol5ellus4 ,! va/ ?ickness ( ,cambrian /rata 0 = ! mo/ "p laid d[n on ! floor ( a comp>atively deep sea2 o!r memb]s ( ! s]ies repres5t ! %+le bea*es & coa/ deposits accumulat$ on ! slopes ( ,ar*aean isl&s4 ,!re h be5 _m conjectures z to ! di/ribution ( l& & sea dur+ ! deposition ( ^! rocks2 b ! data are too imp]fect to enable u to re/ore ) any degree ( confid5ce ! physical geography ( ?is ,palaeozoic epo*1 ( :i* ! s$im5ts /ood out z isl&s ( ,cambrian l& dur+ _m succe$+ ages4 ,,iii4 ,ordovician4 ,s9ce ! days :5 ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison fir/ work$ out ! succession ( ,palaeozoic /rata 9 ,nor? ,wales1 !re has always exi/$ a consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion z to ! be/ me?od ( subdivid+ ! ,cambrian-,silurian /rata4 ,lat] rese>* has %[n t ! rocks includ$ by ,s$gwick 9 8 ,cambrian sy/em1 fall naturally into two gr\ps2 = ! upp] ( ^! ,pr(4 ,lapwor? has sugge/$ ! t]m ,ordovician1 f ! "n ( ! ,ordovices1 :o inhabit$ a "p ( nor!rn ,wales4 ,at ! base ( ! sy/em we h a s]ies ( volcanic & s$im5t>y rocks to :i* ,s$gwick gave ! "n ,ar5ig2 above ^! !re occur ! ,ll&eilo ,flags1 succe$$ by a consid]able ?ickness ( rocks kn[n z ! ,bala s]ies4 ,! rocks mak+ up ^! ,ordovician s$im5ts consi/ = ! mo/ "p ( slates1 s&/ones & lime/ones ) volcanic a%es & lavas4 ,mu* ( ! typical ,wel% sc5]y owes its "* to ! fold$ & wea!r$ rocks laid d[n on ! floor ( ! ,ordovician sea1 on :i* f _m c5tres ( volcanic activity lava /reams & %[]s ( a% 7 spread out betwe5 %eets ( m>9e s$im5t4 ,! ,ar5ig ,hills1 ,sn[donia1 & _m o!r p>ts ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,wales1 p>ts ( ,%rop%ire1 ,scotl&1 ,sw$51 ,russia1 ,bohemia1 ,nor? ,am]ica & o!r regions consi/ ( great ?icknesses ( ,ordovician /rata4 ,,iv4 ,silurian4 ,pass+ up a /age high] 9 ! geologic s]ies1 we h a succession ( conglom]ates1 s&/ones1 %ales1 & lime/ones2 9 o!r words1 a s]ies ( b$s :i* repres5t pebbly %ore deposits1 ! s&s & muds ( deep] wat]1 & ! accumulat$ dbris ( calc>e\s skeletons ( animals :i* liv$ 9 ! cle> wat] ( ! ,silurian sea4 ,! t]m ,silurian 7,siluria 0 ! c\ntry ( ,c>actacus & ! old ,britons kn[n z ,silures#ea7 0 fir/ appli$ by ,mur*ison 9 #ahce to a m compreh5sive s]ies ( rocks ?an are n[ includ$ 9 ! ,silurian sy/em4 ,! rocks ( ?is p]iod occur 9 ,wales1 ,%rop%ire1 p>ts ( ,scotl&1 ,irel&1 ,sc&9avia1 ,russia1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & o!r c\ntries4 ,aft] ! accumulation ( ! ?ick ,ordovician s$im5ts1 ! sea-floor 0 uprais$ & 9 places conv]t$ into ridges or isl&s ( l&1 ( :i* ! detritus =m$ "p ( ! mat]ial ( ,silurian deposits4 ,! lime/ones ( ! ,w5lock ridge h yield$ an abundant fauna1 consi/+ ( corals1 cr9oids1 molluscs & o!r inv]tebrates4 ,9 ?is p]iod we h ! fir/ repres5tatives ( ! ,v]tebrata1 discov]$ 9 ! rocks ( ,ludl[4 ,9 fact1 9 ! ,silurian p]iod1 8all ! great divisions ( ! ,animal ,k+dom 7 already repres5t$#eb40 ,v4 ,devonian4 ,by ! cont9u$ elevation ( ! ,silurian sea-floor1 l>ge portions became dry l&1 & dur+ ! succe$+ p]iod mo/ ( ! ,briti% area =m$ "p ( a cont95tal mass4 ,ov] ! s\!rn "p ( ,engl&1 !re /ill lay an arm ( ! sea1 & 9 ?is 7 laid d[n ! m>9e s$im5ts :i* n[ =m "p ( ,devon1 & f :i* ! "n ,devonian has be5 tak5 z a conv5i5t designation = ! /rata ( ?is p]iod4 ,9 p>ts ( ! nor!rn l&1 9 ! region n[ occupi$ by ,scotl&1 !re 7 l>ge inl& lakes1 on ! floor ( :i* va/ ?icknesses ( %+le b$s & co>se s&s 78,old ,r$ ,s&/one07 7 sl[ly accumulat$2 & x has be5 %[n by ,sir ,ar*ibald ,geikie & o!rs t dur+ ?is epo* !re 7 consid]able outp\r+s ( volcanic mat]ial 9 ! ,scot* area4 ,f>!r to ! ,we/ & ,s\?-we/ !re 0 ano!r l>ge lake 9 :i* ! s-call$ ,kiltorkan b$s ( ,irel& 7 deposit$4 ,9 ^! ,iri% s$im5ts1 & o!rs ( ! same age 9 ,belgium & else:]e a few =ms ( l& plants h be5 discov]$2 b x is f ! ,devonian rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica t mo/ ( our k ( ! flora ( ?is p]iod has be5 obta9$4 ,,vi4 ,c>bonif]\s4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( palaeobotany1 ! %ales1 s&/ones1 & seams ( coal includ$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em are ( special int]e/4 ,x is f ! relics ( ?is ,palaeozoic vegetation t ! mo/ important botanical lessons h be5 le>nt4 ,! foll[+ classification ( ,c>bonif]\s rocks %[s ! ord] ( succession ( ! v>i\s b$s1 & ! nature ( ! rocks :i* 7 =m$ at ?is /age 9 ! ,e>?'s hi/ory4 ,upp] ,coal-,measures4 ,coal-,measures#ec ,transition ,s]ies4 ,middle ,coal-,measures4 ,l[] ,coal-,measures4 ,mill/one ,grit4 ,,c>bonif]\s ,upp] lime/one %ales & ,yor$ale rocks4 ,c>bonif]\s lime/one ,c>bonif]\s or s]ies ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,l[] lime/one %ales4 ,basem5t conglom]ate4 ,9 ! classification ( ,c>bonif]\s rocks adopt$ 9 ,geikie's text-book ( ,geology ! foll[+ arrangem5t is foll[$ = ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one s]ies#ed3-- ,yor$ale gr\p ( %ales & grits pass+ d[n into d>k %ales & lime/ones4 ,?ick 7,scaur or ,ma97 lime/one 9 ! s\? & c5tre ( ,engl& & ,irel&1 pass+ nor?w>ds into s&/ones1 %ales & coals ) lime/ones4 ,c>bonif]\s ,l[] lime/one %ale ( ! s\? & lime/one s]ies c5tre ( ,engl&4 ,! ,calcif]\s s&/one gr\p ( ,scotl& 7m>9e1 e/u>9e1 & t]re/rial organisms7 probably repres5ts ! ,scaur lime/one & l[] lime/one %ale1 & graduates d[nw>ds ins5sibly into ! ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,! ?ick b$s ( m\nta9 lime/one1 ) _! *>act]i/ic m>9e fossil %ells & corals play an important "p 9 ,engli% sc5]y4 ,9 ,d]by%ire1 ,we/ ,york%ire1 & o!r places1 ! lime/one crags & hills are made up ( ! rais$ floor ( a comp>atively deep ,c>bonif]\s sea1 :i* cov]$ a consid]able portion ( ! ,briti% ,isles at ! beg9n+ ( ?is epo*4 ,sid5ote3 ,,c>bonif]\s ,,rocks4 ,! accumulation ( ! calc>e\s skeletons ( m>9e animals1 ) masses ( coral1 v]itable %ell-banks ( ext9ct oy/]-l lamellibran*s1 built up dur+ ! lapse ( a long p]iod ( "t1 =m$ widespread deposits ( calc>e\s s$im5ts4 ,^! 7 ev5tually succe$$ by less pure calc>e\s deposits1 ! sea became %all[]1 & l& detritus f\nd its way ov] an area =m]ly occupi$ by ! cle> wat]s ( an op5 sea4 ,! %all[+ process 0 gradually cont9u$1 & ! sea 0 by "s means conv]t$ into a m conf9$ fre%-wat] or bracki% area1 9 :i* 7 laid d[n _m hundr$ feet ( co>se s&y s$im5ts d]iv$ f ! wa/e ( granitic highl&s4 ,f9ally ! conditions became less con/ant2 ! cont9u\s deposition ( s&y detritus be+ int]rupt$ by ! m or less complete fill+ up ( ! area ( s$im5tation1 & ! =mation ( a l& surface :i* support$ a luxuriant vegetation1 ( :i* ! dbris 0 subsequ5tly conv]t$ into b$s ( coal4 ,by fur!r subsid5ce ! l& 0 aga9 subm]g$1 & ! =e/-cov]$ area became ov]spread ) s&s & muds4 ,su* are ! imp]fect outl9es ( ! g5]al physical conditions :i* are repres5t$ by ! s]ies ( s$im5t>y /rata includ$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em4 ,at ! close ( ?is p]iod1 ! ,e>?'s surface 9 ,we/]n ,europe 0 subject$ to cru/-fold+s on a l>ge scale1 along l9es runn+ approximately ,nor? & ,s\? & ,ea/ & ,we/1 ! two sets ( movem5ts result+ 9 ! =mation ( ridges ( ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,! upp]mo/ s]ies ( grits1 s&/ones & coal-seams 7 9 great "p remov$ by d5udation f ! cre/s ( ! elevat$ ridges1 b rema9$ 9 ! int]v5+ tr\ghs or bas9s :]e !y 7 less expos$ to d5udation4 ,x is ! direct consequ5ce ( ?is1 t we h our ,coal-,measures pres]v$ 9 ! =m ( deta*$ bas9s ( upp] ,c>bonif]\s b$s4 ,a clos] exam9ation ( ! comp>ative ?ickness & succession ( ,c>bonif]\s rocks 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,brita9 %[s v cle>ly t 9 ! nor!rn area ( ,scotl& & 9 ! ,nor? ( ,engl& ! conditions 7 diff]5t f ^? :i* obta9$ fur!r ,s\?4 ,see+ h[ mu* palaeobotanical int]e/ atta*es to ^! rocks1 x is important to treat a little m fully ( _! geology4 ,9 p>ts ( ,devon1 ,cornwall & ,we/ ,som]set1 ! ,devonian /rata are succe$$ by a s]ies ( fold$ & contort$ rocks :i* h yield$ a comp>atively small numb] ( ,c>bonif]\s fossils4 ,to ?is succession ( lime/ones1 %ales & grits ! t]m ,culm-,measures 0 appli$ by ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison 9 #ahcg4 ,! rocks ( ?is s]ies occupy a tr\gh betwe5 ! ,devonian rocks ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,devon4 ,:ile "s au?orities h correlat$ ! ,culm-,measures ) ! ,mill/one ,grit1 o!rs reg>d !m z repres5t+ a portion ( ! true ,coal-,measures1 z well z ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,l[] ,lime/one ,%ale#ee4 ,x has rec5tly be5 %[n t among ! l[] ,culm /rata !re occur b&s ( anci5t deep-sea s$im5ts1 consi/+ ( b$s ( *]t conta9+ silice\s ca/s ( v>i\s species ( ,radiol>ia4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! discov]y ( deep-sea fossils 9 ?is p>ticul> developm5t ( ! ,briti% ,c>bonif]\s sy/em leads to ! conclusion t 8:ile ! massive deposits ( ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one--=m$ ( ! skeletons ( calc>e\s organisms--7 9 process ( gr[? 9 ! seas to ! ,nor?1 !re exi/$ to ! ,s\?-we/ a deep] ocean 9 :i* silice\s organisms pr$om9at$ & =m$ ^! silice\s radiol>ian rocks#ef40 ,! ,upp] ,culm-,measures consi/ ( conglom]ates1 grits1 s&/ones & %ales ) "s plant rema9s & o!r fossils1 & con/itute a typical set ( %all[ wat] s$im5ts4 ,9 ,we/phalia1 ! ,h>z region1 ,?ur+ia1 ,silesia & ,moravia !re are rocks correspond+ to ! ,culm-,measures ( ,devon1 & "s ( ^! h also af=d$ evid5ce ( deep wat] conditions4 ,sid5ote3 ,,coal-,,measures4 ,s4 ,w4 ,engl&1 ,s4 ,wales1 ,d]by%ire & ,york%ire4 ,9 ^! di/ricts ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one rea*es a consid]able ?ickness2 9 ! ,m5dips x has a ?ickness ( #cjjj feet1 & 9 ! ,p5n9e *a9 ( #djjj feet4 ,at ! base ( ?is lime/one s]ies !re occurs 9 ! s\!rn di/ricts ! s-call$ l[] lime/one %ale1 consi/+ ( clays1 %ales & s&y b$s4 ,above ! lime/one we h ! ,mill/one grit & ,coal-,measures2 b 9 ! ,p5n9e di/rict !re is a s]ies ( rocks consi/+ ( impure lime/ones & %ales1 int]calat$ betwe5 ! ,mill/one grit & ,c>bonif]\s lime/one2 = ?is gr\p ( rocks ! t]m ,yor$ale s]ies has be5 propos$4 ,9 ! ,isle ( ,man & ,d]by%ire %eets ( lava are int]b$d$ ) ! calc>e\s s$im5ts1 af=d+ cle> pro( ( subm>9e volcanic eruptions4 ,n4 ,engl& & ,scotl&4 ,9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,nor?umb]l& we h di/9ct indications ( a %all[] sea4 ,! regul> succession ( lime/one /rata 9 ,we/ ,york%ire & o!r di/ricts1 gives place to a s]ies ( ?9n] b$s ( lime/ones1 int]/ratifi$ ) %ales & impure calc>e\s rocks4 ,we h come )9 ! range ( l& detritus :i* 0 spread out on ! floor ( a %all[ sea4 ,! l[e/ portion ( ! ,m\nta9 lime/one is "h repres5t$ by ab\t #bjj feet ( %ales & o!r rocks gr\p$ toge!r 9 ! ,tu$ian s]ies4 ,! ,upp] ,c>bonif]\s lime/one & ,yor$ale rocks ( ,york%ire are repres5t$ by s&/ones1 c>bonace\s lime/ones & "s seams ( coal1 includ$ 9 ! ,b]nician s]ies4 ,fur!r nor?1 aga91 ano!r classification has be5 propos$ = ! /ill m ab]rant succession ( rocks2 ! l[e/ be+ spok5 ( z ! ,calcif]\s s&/one1 & ! upp] z ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one4 ,! calcif]\s s&/one may be comp>$ ) ! l[] lime/one %ale & "p ( ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one ( ,engl&4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one ( ,scotl& probably repres5ts ! upp] "p ( ! lime/one ( ,engl& & ! ,yor$ale rocks ( ! ,p5n9e & o!r areas4 ,turn+ to ! upp] memb]s ( ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em--9 ! ,coal-,measures1 z !y 7 call$ 9 #ahag by ,william ,smi?1--we h a s]ies ( coal seams1 s&/ones1 %ales1 & iron/ones occurr+ = ! mo/ "p 9 bas9-%ap$ areas4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ea* seam ( coal1 :i* v>ies 9 ?ickness f "o in* to ?irty feet1 re/s on a *>act]i/ic un/ratifi$ argillace\s rock kn[n z ,und]clay4 ,! accompany+ diagram 7,fig4 #d7 illu/rates ! frequ5t int]calation ( small b&s ( argillace\s & s&y rocks associat$ ) ! seams ( coal4 ,! usual classification adopt$ = ! ,briti% ,coal-,measures is t ( ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,coal-,measures2 betwe5 ! ,upp] & ,middle divisions !re occur c]ta9 transition or passage b$s :i* are kn[n z ! ,transition s]ies4 ,cont95tal writ]s1 & m rec5tly ,mr ,kid/on ( ,/irl+1 h attempt$ ) consid]able success to correlate ! ,coal-produc+ /rata by means ( fossil plants#eg4 ,illu/ration3 #aj 94 ,massive clay-%ale ) a few coal films 9 ! l[] "p4 #aj 94 ,%ale full ( ?9 /reaks ( coal4 #ad 94 ,massive %ale ) a few /reaks ( coal & iron pyrites4 #e 94 ,ba/>d coal2 m coal ?an %ale4 #f 94 ,good coal1 ) masses ( iron pyrites4 #a 94 ,coal & seat-rock mix$4 #e 94 ,seat-rock4 ,fig4 #d4 ,v]tical section ( ! ,bassey or ,salts ,coal seam1 ,ru%ton ,colli]y1 ,blackburn 7,l[] ,coal-,measures74 ,f a specim5 #d feet #d in*es 9 height1 pres5t$ by ,mr ,p4 ,w4 ,pickup to ! ,man*e/] ,museum1 ,ow5s ,college4 ,f9ally1 "s ref]5ce mu/ be made to ! occurr5ce ( ,c>bonif]\s rocks und]nea? m rec5t /rata4 ,9 a geological map1 or bird's-eye view ( a c\ntry1 we see su* rocks z appe> at ! surface2 by means ( deep bor+s1 h[ev]1 we are occasionally enabl$ to foll[ ! c\rse ( old] b$s a consid]able di/ance bel[ ! usually accessible "p ( ! ,e>?'s cru/4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,london1 ,dov]1 & o!r places we h ,t]ti>y & ,mesozoic /rata =m+ ! surface ( ! c\ntry1 b bel[ ^! comp>atively rec5t =mations1 ! s9k+ ( deep wells & o!r bor+s h prov$ ! exi/5ce ( a ridge ( ,palaeozoic rocks /ret*+ f ! ,s\? ,wales ,coal-field ?r\gh ! ,s\?-ea/ ( ,engl& to nor!rn ,france1 ,belgium & ,we/phalia4 ,x is f rocks =m+ "p ( ?is old ridge t *>act]i/ic ,coal-,measure plants h be5 obta9$ f ! ,dov] bor+4 ,9 ,fig4 #e is %[n an almo/ complete p9nule ( ,neuropt]is ,s*eu*z]i ,h(fm41 a well-kn[n f]n1 m>k+ a def9ite horizon ( ,upp] ,c>bonif]\s rocks#eh4 ,! small hairs on ! p9nules1 %[n 9 ! figure z f9e l9es ly+ m or less p>allel to ! midrib & across ! lat]al ve9s1 are a *>act]i/ic feature ( ?is species4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,imp]fect p9nule ( ,neuropt]is ,s*eu*z]i ,h(fm41 %[+ ! *>act]i/ic hairs z f9e l9es trav]s+ ! lat]al ve9s4 ,f a specim5 obta9$ f ! ,dov] bor+ & n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,nat4 size4 ,,vii4 ,p]mian4 ,ref]5ce has already be5 made to ! e>?-fold+s :i* m>k$ ! close ( ,c>bonif]\s times2 8! op5 ,m$it]ranean sea ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod 9 ,europe 0 conv]t$ into a l>ge inl& sea1 l ! ,caspian ( ! pres5t day1 surr\nd$ by a rocky & hilly cont95t1 on :i* grew trees & plants ( v>i\s k9ds#ei40 ,9 p>ts ( ,lanca%ire1 ,we/morel&1 ! ,ed5 ,valley1 & 9 ! ,ea/ ( ,engl& f ,sund]l& to ,nott+ham1 !re occurs a succession ( lime/ones1 s&/ones1 clays & o!r rocks ) occasional b$s ( rock-salt & gypsum1 :i* repres5t ! v>i\s =ms ( s$im5t & *emical precipitates =m$ on ! floor ( ,p]mian lakes4 ,! pov]ty ( ! fauna & flora ( ,p]mian /rata po9ts to conditions unfav\rable to life2 & !re c be little d\bt t ! *>act]i/ic r$ rocks ( ,/ ,bees ,head1 & ! creamy lime/ones ( ! ,durham coa/ are ! uprais$ s$im5ts ( an inl& salt-wat] lake4 ,! t]m ,dyas 0 propos$ by ,m>c\ = ?is s]ies ( /rata z repres5t$ 9 ,g]many1 :]e ! rocks are conv5i5tly gr\p$ 9 two s]ies1 ! ,magnesian lime/one or ,ze*/e9 & ! r$ s&/ones or ,ro?lieg5des4 ,! old] & bett] kn[n "n ( ,p]mian 0 in/itut$ by ,mur*ison = ! rocks ( ?is age1 f _! extreme developm5t 9 ! old k+dom ( ,p]mia 9 ,russia4 ,un=tunately consid]able confusion has aris5 f ! employm5t ( diff]5t names = rocks ( ! same geological p]iod2 & ! gr\p+ ( ! b$s v>ies 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w4 ,x is ( int]e/ to note1 t 9 ! ,tyrol1 ,c>9?ia1 & o!r places !re are f\nd pat*es ( old m>9e b$s :i* 7 orig9ally laid d[n 9 an op5 sea1 :i* ext5d$ ov] ! site ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 into ,russia & ,asia4 ,9 ,bohemia1 ! ,h>z di/rict1 ,autun 9 ,burgundy1 & o!r regions1 !re are seams ( ,p]mian coal int]/ratifi$ ) ! m>ls & s&s4 ,f ^! la/ nam$ b$s _m fossil plants h be5 obta9$1 & important palaeobotanical facts br\ght to light by ! inve/igations ( cont95tal work]s4 ,volcanic eruptions1 accompani$ by lava /reams & %[]s ( a%1 h be5 recognis$ 9 ! ,p]mian rocks ( ,scotl&1 & else:]e4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 & ,india ! t]m ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s is (t5 made use ( 9 ref]5ce to ! cont9u\s & regul> sequ5ce ( b$s :i* 7 =m$ t[>ds ! close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s & into ! succe$+ ,p]mian epo*4 ,! enorm\s s]ies ( fre%wat] ,indian rocks1 to :i* geologi/s h giv5 ! "n ( ! ,,gondwana ,,sy/em1 includes ! s$im5ts ( m ?an "o geological p]iod1 "s ( ! old] memb]s be+ reg>d$ z ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s 9 age4 ,^! ,indian b$s1 ) o!rs 9 ,au/ralia1 ,s\? ,africa1 & ,s\? ,am]ica1 are ( special int]e/ on acc\nt ( ! *>act]i/ic s\!rn hemisph]e plants :i* !y h af=d$1 & f ! association ) ! fossilif]\s /rata ( ext5sive b\ld] b$s po9t+ to widespread glacial conditions4 ,,viii4 ,trias4 ,z we asc5d ! geologic s]ies1 & pass up to ! rocks ov]ly+ ! ,p]mian deposits1 !re are f\nd _m indications ( a m>k$ *ange 9 ! records ( animal & plant life4 ,_m ( ! *>act]i/ic ,palaeozoic fossils are no long] repres5t$1 & 9 _! place we meet ) fre% & 9 _m cases m highly diff]5tiat$ organisms4 ,! ?reefold division ( ! rocks ( ?is p]iod :i* sugge/$ ! t]m ,trias to ^? :o fir/ work$ out ! succession ( ! /rata1 is typically illu/rat$ ov] a wide area 9 ,g]many1 9 :i* ! l[e/ or ,bunt] s]ies is foll[$ by ! calc>e\s ,mus*elkalk1 & ?is aga9 by ! clays1 rock-salt1 & s&/ones ( ! ,keup] s]ies4 ,9 ! ,*e%ire pla9 & 9 ! l[ gr\nd ( ! ,midl&s1 we h a succession ( r$ s&/ones1 conglom]ates1 & lay]s ( rock-salt :i* correspond to ! ,bunt] & ,keup] b$s ( ,g]man geologi/s4 ,^! ,triassic rocks 7 obvi\sly =m$ 9 salt-wat] lakes1 9 :i* f "t to "t long cont9u$ evaporation gave rise to ext5sive deposit ( rock-salt & o!r m9]als4 ,f ! fact t x is ?is type ( ,triassic s$im5ts :i* 0 fir/ made kn[n1 x is (t5 =gott5 t ! ,briti% & ,g]man rocks are n ! typical repres5tatives ( ?is geological p]iod4 ,! #8,alp9e' ,trias ( ! ,m$it]ranean region1 9 ,asia1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & o!r c\ntries1 has a totally diff]5t facies1 & includes lime/ones & dolomites ( deep-sea orig94 8,! widespread ,alp9e ,trias is ! pelagic facies ( ! =mation2 ! m re/rict$ ,g]man ,trias1 on ! o!r h&1 is a %all[ %ore1 bay or inl& sea =mation#fj40 ,9 ! ,keup] b$s ( s\!rn ,sw$5 !re are f\nd workable seams ( coal1 & ! b$s ( ?is di/rict h yield$ num]\s well-pres]v$ examples ( ! ,triassic flora4 ,a m impure coal occurs 9 ! l[] ,keup] ( ,?ur+ia & ,s4-,w4 ,g]many1 & to ?is gr\p ( rocks ! t]m ,lett5kohle is occasionally appli$4 ,9 ! ,rhaetic ,alps ( ,lomb>dy1 9 ! ,tyrol1 & 9 ,engl&1 f ,york%ire to ,lyme ,regis1 ,devon%ire1 ,som]set%ire1 & o!r di/ricts !re are c]ta9 /rata at ! top ( ! ,triassic sy/em kn[n z ! ,rhaetic or ,p5>? b$s4 ,! upp]mo/ ,rhaetic b$s1 (t5 describ$ z ! ,:ite ,lias1 af=d evid5ce ( a *ange f ! salt lakes ( ! ,trias to ! op5 sea ( ! succe$+ ,jurassic p]iod4 ,pass+ beyond ?is p]iod ( salt lakes & w9d-swept b>r5 tracts ( l&1 we ent] on ano!r phase ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,,ix4 ,jurassic4 ,! ,jura m\nta9s ( we/]n ,switz]l& consi/ 9 great "p ( fold$ & contort$ rocks :i* 7 orig9ally deposit$ on ! floor ( a ,jurassic sea4 ,9 ,engl& ! ,jurassic rocks are ( special int]e/1 bo? = geological & hi/orical reasons1 z x is 9 !m t we f9d a ri* fauna & flora ( ,mesozoic age1 & x 0 ! classification ( ^! b$s by means ( _! fossil cont5ts t ga9$ = ,william ,smi? ! title ( ! ,fa!r ( ,engli% ,geology4 ,a glance at a geological map ( ,engl& %[s a b& ( ,jurassic rocks /ret*+ across f ! ,york%ire coa/ to ,dorset4 ,^! are 9 a l>ge measure calc>e\s1 argillace\s1 & ar5ace\s s$im5ts ( an op5 sea2 b t[>ds ! upp] limit ( ! s]ies1 bo? fre%wat] & t]re/rial b$s are met )4 ,num]\s fragm5ts ( old coral reefs1 sea-ur*9s1 cr9oids1 & o!r m>9e fossils are especially abundant2 9 ! fre%wat] b$s & old surface-soils1 z well z 9 ! m>9e s&/ones & %ales1 we h remnants ( an exce$+ly ri* & app>5tly tropical vegetation4 ,?is 0 an age ( ,reptiles z well z an age ( ,cycads4 ,an int]e/+ feature ( ^! widely di/ribut$ ,jurassic /rata is ! evid5ce !y af=d ( di/9ct climatal zones2 !re are cle> indications1 accord+ to ! late ,dr ,neumayr1 ( a ,m$it]ranean1 a middle ,european1 & a ,boreal or ,russian prov9ce#fa4 ,! subdivisions ( ! ,engli% ,jurassic rocks are z foll[s#fb3-- ,purbeck b$s ,portl& b$s ,upp] ,kim]idge clay ,corallian b$s ,,jurassic ,ox=d clay1 ) ,middle ,oolite4 ,kellaways rock ,great ,oolite s]ies ,l[] ,inf]ior ,oolite s]ies ,lias ,9 trac+ ! sev]al gr\ps across ,engl&1 & into o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 _! *>act]s are naturally f\nd to v>y consid]ably2 9 "o area a s]ies is made up ( typical cle> wat] or comp>atively deep sea s$im5ts1 & 9 ano!r we h %all[ wat] & %ore deposits ( ! same age4 ,! ,lias rocks h be5 fur!r subdivid$ into zones by means ( ! species ( ,ammonites :i* =m s *>act]i/ic a feature ( ! ,jurassic fauna4 ,9 ! l[] ,oolite /rata !re are %elly lime/ones1 clays1 s&/ones1 & b$s ( lignite & iron/one4 ,)\t discuss+ ! o!r subdivisions ( ! ,jurassic p]iod1 we may note t 9 ! upp]mo/ memb]s !re are pres]v$ pat*es ( old surface-soils expos$ 9 ! face ( ! cliffs ( ! ,dorset coa/ & ( ! ,isle ( ,portl&4 ,x4 ,cretace\s4 ,9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 & 9 "s o!r di/ricts1 x is difficult to draw any def9ite l9e betwe5 ! upp]mo/ /rata ( ! ,jurassic & ! l[e/ ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,! rocks ( ! s-call$ ,weald5 s]ies ( ,k5t1 ,surrey1 ,sussex1 & ! ,isle ( ,wight1 are usually class$ z ,l[] ,cretace\s1 b !re is /rong evid5ce 9 fav\r ( reg>d+ !m z s$im5ts ( ! ,jurassic p]iod4 ,! ,cretace\s rocks ( ,engl& are g5]ally speak+ p>allel to ! ,jurassic /rata1 & occupy a /ret* ( c\ntry f ! ea/ ( ,york%ire & ! ,norfolk coa/ to ,dorset 9 ! s\?-we/4 ,! ,*alk d[ns & cliffs repres5t ! mo/ famili> type ( ,cretace\s /rata4 ,9 ! :ite *alk ) its num]\s fl9ts1 we h "p ( ! elevat$ floor ( a comp>atively deep sea1 :i* ext5d$ 9 ,cretace\s times ov] a l>ge portion ( ! ea/ & s\?-ea/ ( ,engl& & o!r portions ( ! ,european cont95t4 ,on ! b$ ( ?is sea1 beyond ! rea* ( any riv]-borne detritus1 !re accumulat$ ?r\gh long ages ! calc>e\s & silice\s rema9s ( m>9e animals1 to be aft]w>ds conv]t$ into *alk & fl9ts4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! p]iod1 h[ev]1 o!r conditions obta9$1 & !re ext5d$ ov] ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 & p>ts ( nor? & nor?-we/ ,g]many & ,belgium1 a lake or e/u>y 9 :i* 7 built up deposits ( clay1 s& & o!r mat]ial1 =m+ ! delta ( "o or m l>ge riv]s4 ,= ^! s$im5ts ! "n ,weald5 0 sugge/$ 9 #ahbh4 ,ev5tually ! gradual subsid5ce ( ?is area l$ to an incursion ( ! sea1 & ! delta became ov]fl[$ by ! wat]s ( a l>ge ,cretace\s sea4 ,at fir/ ! sea 0 %all[1 & 9 x 7 laid d[n co>se s&s & o!r s$im5ts kn[n z ! ,l[] ,gre5s& rocks4 ,by degrees1 z ! subsid5ce cont9u$1 ! %all[s became deep wat]1 & calc>e\s mat]ial sl[ly accumulat$1 to be at la/ uprais$ z b$s ( :ite *alk4 ,! di/ribution ( fossils 9 ! ,cretace\s rocks ( nor? & s\? ,europe di/9ctly po9ts to ! exi/5ce ( two fairly well-m>k$ sets ( organisms 9 ! two regions2 no d\bt ! expression ( climatal zones simil> to ^? recognis$ 9 ,jurassic times4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,cretace\s rocks are spread ov] a wide area1 also 9 ,nor? ,africa1 ,india1 ,s\? ,africa1 & o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,)9 ! ,arctic ,circle /rata ( ?is age h become fam\s1 *iefly on acc\nt ( ! ri* flora describ$ f !m by ! ,swiss palaeobotani/ ,he]4 ,! fauna & flora ( ?is epo* are alike 9 _! advanc$ /ate ( developm5t & 9 ! great v>iety ( specific types2 ! highe/ class ( plants is fir/ met ) at ! base ( ! ,cretace\s sy/em4 ,,xi4 ,t]ti>y4 8,at ! close ( ! ,*alk age a *ange took place bo? 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 & also 9 ! developm5t ( organic life1 s great & univ]sal1 t x has sc>cely be5 equall$ at any o!r p]iod ( ! e>?'s geological hi/ory#fc40 ,! ,t]ti>y p]iod seems to br+ u sudd5ly to ! ?re%old ( our own times4 ,9 ,engl& at lea/1 ! deposits ( ?is age are ( ! nature ( loose s&s1 clays & o!r mat]ials conta9+ %ells1 bones1 & fossil plants be>+ a close resemblance to organisms ( ! pres5t era4 ,! *alk rocks1 upheav$ f ! ,cretace\s sea1 /ood out z dry l& ov] a l>ge "p ( ,brita92 mu* ( _! mat]ial 0 9 "t remov$ by ! action ( d5ud+ ag5ts1 & ! re/ gradually sank aga9 b5ea? ! wat]s ( ,t]ti>y lakes & e/u>ies4 ,9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 & 9 nor? ,europe g5]ally1 ! ,t]ti>y rocks h suff]$ b little di/urbance or fold+1 b 9 s\!rn ,europe & o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 ! ,t]ti>y s&s h be5 compact$ & h>d5$ into s&/ones1 & involv$ 9 ! gigantic cru/-movem5ts :i* gave bir? to _m ( our highe/ m\nta9 *a9s4 ,! ,alps1 ,c>pa?ians1 ,ap5n9es1 ,himalayas1 & o!r ranges consi/ to a l>ge ext5t ( pil$ up & /rangely fold$ lay]s ( old ,t]ti>y s$im5ts4 ,! volcanic activity ( ?is age 0 responsible = ! basaltic lavas ( ! ,giants' ,causeway1 ! ,isle ( ,/affa1 & o!r p>ts ( we/]n ,scotl&4 ,dur+ ! succe$+ phases ( ?is p]iod1 ! di/ribution ( l& & sea 0 cont9ually *ang+1 climatic conditions v>i$ )9 wide limits2 & 9 %ort :]ev] ,t]ti>y fossilif]\s b$s occur1 we f9d di/9ct evid5ce ( an age *>act]is$ by /rik+ activity bo? z reg>ds ! action ( dynamical z well z ( organic =ces4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell propos$ a subdivision ( ! /rata ( ?is p]iod into ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e1 f\nd+ 8 classification on ! p]c5tage ( rec5t species ( molluscs conta9$ 9 ! v>i\s sets ( rocks4 ,8 divisions h be5 g5]ally adopt$4 ,9 #ahed ,pr(4 ,beyri* propos$ to include ano!r subdivision 9 ! ,t]ti>y sy/em1 & to ?is he gave ! "n ,oligoc5e4 ,occupy+ a bas9-%ap$ area ar\nd ,london & ,p>is !re are b$s ( ,eoc5e s&s & clays :i* 7 orig9ally deposit$ z cont9u\s %eets ( s$im5t 9 wat] at fir/ salt1 aft]w>ds bracki% & to a c]ta9 ext5t fre%4 ,9 ! ,hamp%ire cliffs & 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 we h o!r pat*es ( ^! olde/ ,t]ti>y s$im5ts4 ,across ! s\? ( ,europe1 ,nor? ,africa1 ,arabia1 ,p]sia1 ! ,himalayas1 to ,java & ! ,philipp9e isl&s1 !re exi/$ 9 e>ly ,t]ti>y times a wide sea connect+ ! ,atlantic & ,pacific oceans2 & x may be t 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ( to-day we h a remnant ( ?is l>ge ,eoc5e ocean4 ,lat] 9 ! ,t]ti>y p]iod a simil> s]ies ( b$s 0 deposit$ :i* we n[ ref] to z ! ,oligoc5e /rata2 su* occurs 9 ! cliffs ( ,headon hill 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 conta9+ bones ( crocodiles1 & turtles1 ) ! relics ( a ri* flora pres]v$ 9 ! delta deposits ( an ,oligoc5e riv]4 ,at a /ill lat] /age ! ,briti% area 0 probably dry l&1 & an op5 sea exi/$ ov] ! ,m$it]ranean region4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,vi5na we h b$s ( ?is age repres5t$ by a succession ( s$im5ts1 at fir/ m>9e & aft]w>ds fre%wat]4 ,mioc5e b$s occur ov] a consid]able area 9 ,switz]l& & ! ,arctic regions1 & !y h yield$ a ri* h>ve/ to palaeobotanical inve/igators4 ,on ! coa/ ( ,essex1 ,suffolk1 ,norfolk1 ! s\? ( ,cornwall1 & o!r di/ricts !re occur b$s ( %elly s& & gravel long kn[n "u ! "n ( #8,crag4' ,! b$s h a v mod]n aspect2 ! s&s h n be5 conv]t$ into s&/ones1 & ! %ells h und]gone b little *ange4 ,^! mat]ials 7 = ! mo/ "p accumulat$ on ! b$ ( a %all[ sea :i* swept ov] a portion ( ,ea/ ,anglia 9 ,plioc5e times4 ,9 ! s$im5ts ( ?is age nor!rn =ms ( %ells & o!r organisms make _! appe>ance1 & 9 ! ,crom] =e/-b$ !re occur portions ( drift$ trees ) s&s1 clays & gravels1 repres5t+ 9 all probability ! dbris ?r[n d[n on ! banks ( an anci5t riv]4 ,at ?is "t ! great] "p ( ! ,nor? ,sea 0 probably a l[-ly+ =e/-cov]$ region1 ?r\gh :i* fl[$ ! wat]s ( a l>ge riv]1 ( :i* "p /ill exi/s 9 ! mod]n ,rh9e4 ,! l[]+ ( temp]ature :i* became di/9ctly pron\nc$ 9 ! ,plioc5e age1 cont9u$ until ! great] "p ( ,brita9 & nor? ,europe exp]i5c$ a glacial p]iod1 & su* conditions obta9$ z we f9d to-day 9 ice-cov]$ ,gre5l&4 ,f9ally ! ice-%eet melt$1 ! local glaci]s ( ,nor? ,wales1 ! ,engli% ,lake di/rict & o!r hilly regions1 retreat$1 & aft] repeat$ alt]ations 9 level1 ! l& ( ,great ,brita9 assum$ its mod]n =m4 ,! subm]g$ =e/s & peat b$s famili> 9 _m p>ts ( ! coa/1 ! diatomace\s deposits ( dri$ up lakes1 8rema9 z ! v f+] t\*es ( ! la/ geological *ange40 ,sid5ote3 ,,geological ,,evolution4 ,! ag5ts ( *ange & geological evolution1 :i* we h pass$ 9 brief review1 are /ill con/antly at "w c>ry+ "o /ep fur!r ! hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,a sup]ficial review ( geological hi/ory gives u an impression ( recurr+ & widespread convulsions1 & rapidly effect$ revolutions 9 organic life & geographical conditions2 on ! o!r h& a clos] comp>ison ( ! pa/ & pres5t1 ) due all[ance = ! enorm\s p]iod ( "t repres5t$ by ! records ( ! rocks1 helps u to realise ! cont9uity ( geological evolution4 8,s t )9 ! :ole ( ! imm5se p]iod indicat$ by ! fossilif]\s /ratifi$ rocks1 !re is assur$ly n ! slighte/ pro( ( any break 9 ! uni=mity ( ,nature's op]ations1 no indication t ev5ts h foll[$ o!r ?an a cle> & ord]ly sequ5ce#fd40 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,plants ,,z ,,fossils4 8,! ?+s1 we "k1 are nei!r ri* nor r>e1 ,b wond] h[ ! devil !y got !re40 ,,pope1 ,prologue to ! ,satires4 ,! discov]y ( a fossil1 :e!r z an impression on ! surface ( a slab ( rock or z a piece ( petrifi$ wood1 naturally leads u back to ! liv+ plant1 & invites speculation z to ! circum/ances :i* l$ to ! pres]vation ( ! plant fragm5t4 ,!re is a c]ta9 fasc9ation 9 endeav\r+1 ) m or less success1 to picture ! exact conditions :i* obta9$ :5 ! leaf or /em 0 c>ri$ along by runn+ wat] & f9ally seal$ up 9 a s$im5t>y matrix4 ,attempts to answ] ! "q--,h[ came ! plant rema9s to be pres]v$ z fossils8--are n m]ely ( ab/ract int]e/ appeal+ to ! imag9ation1 b are ( consid]able importance 9 ! correct int]pretation ( ! facts :i* are to be glean$ f ! records ( plant-be>+ /rata4 ,be=e describ+ any specific examples ( ! common] me?ods ( fossilisation2 we %all d well to briefly consid] h[ plants are n[ supply+ mat]ial = ! fossils ( a future age4 ,9 ! great majority ( cases1 an appreciation ( ! conditions ( s$im5tation1 & ( ! v>i$ circum/ances att5d+ ! transport & accumulation ( vegetable dbris1 supplies ! solution ( a problem ak9 to t ( ! fly 9 amb] & ! mann] 9 :i* x came !re4 ,sid5ote3 ,,old ,,surface-,,soils4 ,see+ t ! great] "p ( ! s$im5t>y /rata h be5 =m$ 9 ! sea1 & z ! sea r ?an ! l& has be5 = ! mo/ "p ! sc5e ( rock-build+ 9 ! pa/1 x is n surpris+ t fossil plants are f> less num]\s ?an fossil animals4 ,) ! exception ( ! algae & a few repres5tatives ( o!r classes ( plants1 :i* live 9 ! %all[-wat] belt r\nd ! coa/1 or 9 inl& lakes & seas1 plants are conf9$ to l&-surfaces2 & unless _! rema9s are swept along by /reams & emb$d$ 9 s$im5ts :i* are accumulat+ on ! sea floor1 ! *ance ( _! pres]vation is b small4 ,! /rata ri*e/ 9 fossil plants are (t5 ^? :i* h be5 laid d[n on ! floor ( an inl& lake or spread out z riv]-borne s$im5t "u ! wat]s ( an e/u>y4 ,unlike ! h>d endo- & exo-skeletons ( animals1 ! majority ( plants are compos$ ( comp>atively s(t mat]ial1 & are less likely to be pres]v$ or to reta9 _! orig9al =m :5 expos$ to ! we> & te> :i* mu/ (t5 accompany ! process ( fossilisation4 ,! ,coal-,measure rocks h furni%$ numb]less relics ( a ,palaeozoic vegetation1 & ^! occur 9 v>i\s =ms ( pres]vation 9 rocks laid d[n 9 %all[ wat] on ! edge ( a =e/-cov]$ l&4 ,! und]clays or un/ratifi$ argillace\s b$s :i* ne>ly always und]lie ea* seam ( coal h (t5 be5 describ$ z old surface-soils1 conta9+ num]\s rema9s ( roots & creep+ und]gr\nd /ems ( =e/ trees4 ,! ov]ly+ coal has be5 reg>d$ z a mass ( ! c>bonis$ & compress$ dbris ( luxuriant =e/s :i* grew on ! actual spot n[ occupi$ by ! b$s ( coal4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m argum5ts 9 fav\r ( reg>d+ ! coal seams z b$s ( alt]$ vegetable mat]ial :i* 0 spread out on ! floor ( a lagoon or lake1 :ile ! und]clay 0 an old soil cov]$ by %all[ wat] or possibly a swampy surface t5ant$ by m>%-lov+ plants#fe4 ,! ,jurassic b$s ( ! ,york%ire ,coa/1 long fam\s z "s ( ! ri*e/ plant-be>+ /rata 9 ,brita91 & ! ,weald5 rocks ( ! s\? coa/ af=d examples ( ,mesozoic s$im5ts :i* 7 laid d[n on ! floor ( an e/u>y or l>ge lake4 ,circum/ances h occasionally r5d]$ possible ! pres]vation ( old l&-surfaces ) ! /umps ( trees /ill 9 _! position ( gr[?4 ,"o ( ! be/ examples ( ?is 9 ,brita9 are ! s-call$ dirt-b$s or black b&s ( ,portl& & ! ,dorset ,coa/4 ,on ! cliffs imm$iately ea/ ( ,lulwor? ,cove1 ! surface ( a l$ge ( ,purbeck lime/one :i* juts out ne> ! top ( ! cliffs1 is se5 to h ! =m "h & !re ( r\nd$ project+ bosses or #8,burrs' sev]al feet 9 diamet]4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ea* boss !re is ei!r an empty depression1 or ! remnants ( a silicifi$ /em ( a conif]\s tree4 ,blocks ( lime/one #c to #e feet long & ( ab\t equal ?ickness may be f\nd ly+ on ! rocky l$ge pres5t+ ! appe>ance ( massive s>cophagi 9 :i* ! c5tral tr\gh /ill conta9s ! silicifi$ rema9s ( an entomb$ tree4 ,! calc>e\s s$im5t no d\bt ooz$ up to envelope ! ?ick /em z x sank into ! s(t mud4 ,an exam9ation ( ! rock j bel[ ! b$ be>+ ^! curi\s circul> elevations reveals ! exi/5ce ( a comp>atively n>r[ b& ( s(t] mat]ial1 :i* has be5 worn away by d5ud+ ag5ts m rapidly ?an ! ov]ly+ lime/one4 ,?is b& consi/s ( p>tially r\nd$ or subangul> /ones associat$ ) c>bonace\s mat]ial1 & probably m>ks ! site ( an old surface-soil4 ,?is old soil is well %[n 9 ! cliffs & qu>ries ( ,portl&1 & simil> dirt-b$s occur at v>i\s horizons 9 ! ,l[] & ,middle ,purbeck ,s]ies#ff4 ,9 ?is case1 !n1 we h int]calat$ 9 a s]ies ( lime/one b$s conta9+ m>9e & fre%wat] %ells two or ?ree plant b$s conta9+ num]\s & frequ5tly l>ge specim5s ( cycadean & conif]\s /ems1 ly+ horizontally or /&+ 9 _! orig9al position ( gr[?4 ,^! are ve/iges ( an anci5t =e/ :i* spread ov] a consid]able ext5t ( c\ntry t[>ds ! close ( ! ,jurassic p]iod4 ,! trunks ( cycads1 long famili> 9 ! ,isle ( ,portl& z fossil cr[s' ne/s1 h usually ! =m ( r\nd depress$ /ems ) ! c5tral portion some:at holl[$ out4 ,x 0 suppos$ by ! qu>rym5 t !y 7 petrifi$ birds' ne/s :i* _h be5 built 9 ! =ks ( ! trees :i* grew 9 ! ,portl& =e/4 ,! b$s sep>at+ ! surface-soils ( ! ,purbeck ,s]ies1 z se5 9 ! sections expos$ on ! cliffs or qu>ries1 po9t to ! subsid5ce ( a =e/-cov]$ area ov] :i* b$s ( wat]-borne s$im5t 7 gradually deposit$1 until 9 "t ! area became dry l& & 0 aga9 tak5 possession ( by a subtropical vegetation1 to be once m depress$ & seal$ up "u lay]s ( s$im5t#fg4 ,a /ill m /rik+ example ( ! pres]vation ( =e/ trees root$ 9 an old surface-soil is af=d$ by ! s-call$ fossil-grove 9 ,victoria ,p>k1 ,glasg[1 7,frontispiece74 ,! /umps ( sev]al trees1 v>y+ 9 diamet] f ab\t "o to ?ree feet1 are fix$ by long =k+ #8roots' 9 a b$ ( %ale4 ,9 "s cases ! spread+ #8roots1' :i* be> ! surface features ( ,/igm>ia1 ext5d = a di/ance ( m ?an t5 feet f ! base ( ! trunk4 ,! /em surface is m>k$ by irregul> wr9kl+s :i* sugge/ a fissur$ b>k2 b ! sup]ficial *>act]s are v imp]fectly pres]v$4 ,9 "o place a flatt5$ ,lepidod5dron /em1 ab\t #cj feet long1 lies prone on ! %ale4 ,ea* ( ! root$ /umps is oval or elliptical 9 section1 & ! long axes ( ! sev]al /ems are approximately p>allel1 po9t+ to "s cause op]at+ 9 a def9ite direction :i* gave to ! /ems _! pres5t =m4 ,ne> "o ( ! trees1 & at a some:at high] level ?an its base1 ! surface ( ! rock is cle>ly ripple-m>k$1 & takes u back to ! "t :5 ! s9k+ =e/ trees 7 wa%$ by waves :i* left an impress 9 ! s(t mud laid d[n ov] ! subm]g$ area4 ,! /umps appe> to be ^? ( ,lepidod5dron trees1 root$ 9 ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,f _! mann] ( occurr5ce x w\ld seem t we h 9 !m a corn] ( a ,palaeozoic =e/ 9 :i* ,lepidod5dra play$ a conspicu\s "p4 ,! %ales & s&/ones conta9+ ! fossil trees 7 orig9ally ov]la9 by a b$ ( igne\s rock :i* _h be5 =c$ up z a %eet ( lava into ! h>d5$ s&s & clays#fh4 ,o!r examples ( old surface-soils occur 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w & 9 rocks ( v>i\s ages4 ,z an in/ance ( a l& surface pres]v$ 9 a diff]5t mann]1 ref]5ce may be made to ! ?9 b&s ( r$di% or br[n mat]ial z well z clays & %ale :i* occasionally occur betwe5 ! %eets ( ,t]ti>y lava 9 ! ,we/]n ,isles ( ,scotl& & ! nor?-ea/ ( ,irel&4 ,9 ! int]vals betwe5 successive outp\r+s ( basaltic lava 9 ! nor?-we/ ( ,europe dur+ ! e>ly "p ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 ! heat$ rocks became gradually cool]1 & "u ! influ5ce ( wea!r+ ag5ts a surface-soil 0 produc$ fit = ! gr[? ( plants4 ,9 "s places1 too1 %all[ lakes 7 =m$1 & leaves1 fruits & twigs became emb$d$ 9 lacu/r9e s$im5ts1 to be aft]w>ds seal$ up by lat] /reams ( lava4 ,9 ! face ( ! cliff at ,ardtun ,head on ! coa/ ( ,mull a leaf-b$ is expos$ betwe5 two masses ( gravel und]ly+ a basaltic lava fl[2 ! impressions ( ! leaves ( ,g+ko & o!r plants f ! ,t]ti>y s$im5ts ( ?is di/rict are exceptionally beautiful & well pres]v$#fi4 ,a l>ge collection obta9$ by ,mr ,/>kie ,g>dn] may be se5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,9 #ahhc ! ,malayan isl& ( ,krakatoa1 #bj miles f ,sumatra & ,java1 0 ! sc5e ( an exceptionally viol5t volcanic explosion4 ,two-?irds ( ! isl& 7 bl[n away1 & ! remnant 0 left absolutely b>e ( organic life4 ,9 #ahhf x 0 f\nd t sev]al plants _h already e/abli%$ !mselves on ! h>d5$ & wea!r$ cru/ ( ! ,krakatoan rocks1 ! surface ( ! lavas hav+ be5 to a l>ge ext5t prep>$ = ! gr[? ( ! high] plants by ! action ( c]ta9 blue-gre5 algae :i* repres5t "s ( ! l[e/ types ( plant life#gj4 ,we may p]haps assume a some:at simil> /ate ( ?+s to h exi/$ 9 ! volcanic area 9 nor?-we/ ,europe1 :]e ! int]vals betwe5 successive outp\r+s ( lava are repres5t$ by ! ?9 b&s ( leaf-b$s & old surface-soils4 ,on ! ,*e%ire ,coa/ at ,leas[e#ga & o!r localities1 !re is expos$ at l[ wat] a tract ( black peaty gr\nd /udd$ ) old root$ /umps ( conif]s & o!r trees 7fig4 #f74 ,!re is little reason to d\bt t at all ev5ts ! majority ( ! trees are 9 _! natural place ( gr[?4 ,! peaty soil on :i* !y re/ conta9s num]\s flatt5$ /ems ( re$s & o!r plants1 & is p5etrat$ by roots1 probably ( "s aquatic or m>%y plants :i* spread ov] ! site ( ! =e/ z x became gradually subm]g$4 ,a l[] =e/-b$ re/s directly on a f\ndation ( b\ld] clay4 ,su* subm]g$ =e/s are by no means uncommon ar\nd ! ,briti% coa/2 _m ( !m belong to a comp>atively rec5t p]iod1 po/]ior to ! glacial age4 ,9 _m cases1 h[ev]1 ! tree /umps h be5 drift$ f ! places :]e !y grew & ev5tually deposit$ 9 _! natural position1 ! roots ( ! trees1 9 "s cases aid$ by /ones entangl$ 9 _! bran*es1 be+ heavi] ?an ! /em portion4 ,!re is a promis+ field = botanical inve/igation 9 ! c>eful analysis ( ! floras ( subm]g$ =e/s2 ! "w ( ,clem5t ,reid1 ,na?or/1 ,&]sson & o!rs1 s]ves to illu/rate ! value ( su* rese>* 9 ! h&s ( compet5t /ud5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,"p ( a subm]g$ ,=e/ se5 at l[ wat] on ! ,*e%ire ,coa/ at ,leas[e4 ,drawn f a photograph4 ,! foll[+ description by ,lyell1 tak5 f 8 ,am]ican travels1 is ( int]e/ z af=d+ an example ( ! pres]vation ( a surface-soil3 8,on our way home f ,*>le/on1 by ! railway f ,orangeburg1 ,i obs]v$ a ?9 black l9e ( *>r$ vegetable matt] expos$ 9 ! p]p5dicul> section ( ! bank4 ,! s& ca/ out 9 digg+ ! railway _h be5 ?r[n up on ! orig9al soil1 on :i* ! p9e =e/ grew2 & f>!r excavations _h laid op5 ! junction ( ! rubbi% & ! soil4 ,z geologi/s1 we may le>n f ?is fact h[ a ?9 seam ( vegetable matt]1 an in* or two ?ick1 is (t5 ! only monum5t to be look$ = ( an anci5t surface ( dry l&1 on :i* a luxuriant =e/ may h gr[n = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,ev5 ?is seam ( friable matt] may be wa%$ away :5 ! region is subm]g$1 &1 if n1 ra9 wat] p]colat+ freely ?r\gh ! s& may1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 gradually c>ry away ! c>bon#gb40 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossil ,,wood4 ,9 addition to ! remnants ( anci5t soils1 & ! pres]vation ( plant fragm5ts 9 rocks :i* h be5 =m$ on ! floor ( an inl& lake or an e/u>y1 x is by no means r>e to f9d fossil plants 9 obvi\sly m>9e s$im5ts4 ,9 fig4 #g we h a piece ( conif]\s wood ) ! %ell ( an ,ammonite 7,aegoc]as planico/a ,s[47 ly+ on x2 ! specim5 0 f\nd 9 ! ,l[] ,lias clay at ,lyme ,regis1 & illu/rates ! accid5tal association ( a drift$ piece ( a =e/ tree ) a %ell :i* m>ks at once ! age & ! m>9e "* ( ! b$s4 ,aga9 9 fig4 #h we h a block ( fl9t p>tially enclos+ a piece ( conif]\s wood 9 :i* ! int]nal /ructure has be5 cle>ly pres]v$ 9 silica4 ,?is specim5 0 f\nd 9 ! *alk1 a deposit laid d[n 9 ! cle> & deep wat] ( ! ,cretace\s sea4 ,! wood mu/ h float$ = "s "t be=e x became wat]-logg$ & sank to ! sea-floor4 ,9 ! light col\r$ wood !re occur "h & !re d>k spots :i* m>k ! position ( silice\s plugs b1 b fill+ up clean cut holes bor$ by ,t]$os 9 ! woody tissue4 ,! wood became at la/ enclos$ by silice\s s$im5t & its tissues p5etrat$ by silica 9 solution1 :i* gradually replac$ & pres]v$ 9 wond]ful p]fection ! =m ( ! orig9al tissue4 ,a simil> in/ance ( wood enclos$ 9 fl9t 0 figur$ by ,mantell 9 #ahdd 9 8 ,m$als ( ,creation#gc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,aegoc]as planico/a ,s[4 on a piece ( conif]\s wood1 ,l[] ,lias1 ,lyme ,regis4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,slightly r$uc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,piece ( conif]\s wood 9 fl9t1 f ! ,*alk1 ,croydon4 ,drawn f a specim5 pres5t$ to ! ,briti% ,museum by ,mr ,murton ,holmes4 ,9 ! side view1 %[n above 9 ! figure1 ! position ( ! wood is %[n by ! light] portion1 ) holes1 b1 b1 bor$ by ,t]$os or "s o!r wood-eat+ animal4 ,9 ! end view1 bel[1 ! wood is se5 z an irregul> cyl9d] w1 w1 emb$d$ 9 a matrix ( fl9t4 ,nat4 size4 ,! specim5 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #i illu/rates ! almo/ complete de/ruction ( a piece ( wood by "s bor+ animal4 ,! circul> & oval dott$ pat*es repres5t ! fill$ up cavities made by a ,t]$o or "s simil> wood-bor+ animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,piece ( wood f ! ,r$ ,crag ( ,suffolk1 riddl$ ) holes fill$ 9 ) mud4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,york ,museum4 ,nat4 size4 ,sid5ote3 ,,conditions ,,( ,,fossilisation4 ,be=e discuss+ a few m examples ( fossils illu/rat+ diff]5t me?ods ( fossilisation1 x may n be out ( place to quote a few extracts f travell]s' n>ratives :i* enable u to realise m readily ! circum/ances & conditions "u :i* plant rema9s h be5 pres]v$ 9 ! ,e>?'s cru/4 ,9 an acc\nt ( a j\rney d[n ! ,rawas riv] 9 ,sumatra1 ,=bes ?us describes ! flood$ c\ntry3-- 8,! :ole surface ( ! wat] 0 cov]$1 absolutely 9 a close %eet1 ) petals1 fruits & leaves1 ( innum]able species4 ,9 placid corn]s sometimes ,i not$ a collect$ mass ne>ly half a foot deep1 among :i*1 on exam9ation1 ,i c\ld sc>cely f9d a leaf t 0 p]fect1 or t rema9$ atta*$ to its rightful neighb\r1 s t 7 !y to become imb$d$ 9 "s s(t muddy spot1 & 9 aft] ages to reappe> 9 a fossil =m !y w\ld af=d a few difficult puzzles to ! palaeontologi/1 bo? to sep>ate & to put toge!r#gd40 ,an int]e/+ example ( ! mixture ( plants & animals 9 s$im5t>y deposits is describ$ by ,hook] 9 8 ,himalayan ,j\rnals3-- 8,to ! geologi/ ! ,jheels & ,sund]bunds are a mo/ in/ructive region1 z :atev] may be ! mean elevation ( _! wat]s1 a p]man5t depression ( t5 to fifte5 feet w\ld subm]ge an imm5se tract1 :i* ! ,ganges1 ,burrampoot]1 & ,soormah w\ld soon cov] ) b$s ( silt & s&4 8,!re w\ld be extremely few %ells 9 ! b$s ?us =m$1 ! s\!rn & nor!rn divisions ( :i* w\ld pres5t two v diff]5t floras & faunas1 & w\ld 9 all probability be ref]r$ by future geologi/s to widely diff]5t epo*s4 ,to ! nor?1 b$s ( peat w\ld be =m$ by grasses1 & 9 o!r p>ts temp]ate & tropical =ms ( plants & animals w\ld be pres]v$ 9 su* equally balanc$ proportions z to conf\nd ! palaeontologi/2 ) ! bones ( ! long-sn\t$ alligator1 ,gangetic porpoise1 ,indian c[1 buffalo1 rh9oc]os1 elephant1 tig]1 de]1 be>1 & a ho/ ( o!r animals1 he w\ld meet ) acorns ( sev]al species ( oak1 p9e-cones & magnolia fruits1 rose se$s1 & ,cycas nuts1 ) palm nuts1 screw-p9es1 & o!r tropical productions#ge40 ,9 ano!r place ! same au?or writes3 8,on ! #ab? ( ,janu>y1 #ahdh1 ! ,moozuff] 0 /eam+ among/ ! l[1 swampy isl&s ( ! ,sund]bunds4444 ,e n[ & !n ! paddles ( ! /eam] toss$ up ! l>ge fruits ( ,nypa fruticans1 ,?unb41 a l[ /emless palm t gr[s 9 ! tidal wat]s ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 & be>s a l>ge head ( nuts4 ,x is a plant ( no int]e/ to ! common obs]v]1 b ( mu* to ! geologi/1 f ! nuts ( a simil> plant ab\nd+ 9 ! ,t]ti>y =mations at ! m\? ( ! ,?ames1 hav+ float$ ab\t !re 9 z great pr(usion z "h1 till buri$ deep 9 ! silt & mud t n[ =ms ! isl& ( ,%eppey#gf40 ,sid5ote3 ,,drift+ ,,( ,,trees4 ,( ! drift+ ( timb]1 fruits1 c41 we f9d num]\s acc\nts 9 ! writ+s ( travell]s4 ,rodway ?us describes ! =mation ( vegetable rafts 9 ! riv]s ( ,nor!rn ,briti% ,guiana3-- 8,sometimes a great tree1 ^: timb] is light en\gh to float1 gets entangl$ 9 ! grass1 & becomes ! nucleus ( an imm5se raft1 :i* is cont9ually increas+ 9 size z x ga!rs up ev]y?+ t comes float+ d[n ! riv]#gg40 ,! und]m9+ ( riv] banks 9 times ( flood1 & ! transport ( ! drift$ trees to be ev5tually deposit$ 9 ! delta is a famili> occurr5ce 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! m /rik+ in/ances ( su* :olesale c>ry+ along ( trees are suppli$ by ,bates1 ,lyell & o!r writ]s4 ,9 8 description ( ! ,amazon ! =m] writes3 8,! curr5ts ran ) great =ce close to ! bank1 especially :5 ^! rec$$ to =m long bays or enseadas1 z !y are call$1 & !n we made v little headway4 ,9 su* places ! banks consi/ ( loose e>?1 a ri* crumbl+ vegetable m\ld1 support+ a gr[? ( mo/ luxuriant =e/1 ( :i* ! curr5ts almo/ daily c>ry away l>ge portions1 s t ! /ream = sev]al y>ds out is encumb]$ ) fall5 trees1 ^: bran*es quiv] 9 ! curr5t#gh40 ,9 ano!r place1 ,bates writes3 8,! ra9y season _h n[ set 9 ov] ! region ?r\gh :i* ! great riv] fl[s2 ! s&-banks & all ! l[] l&s 7 already "u wat]1 & ! te>+ curr5t1 two or ?ree miles 9 bread?1 bore along a cont9u\s l9e ( uproot$ trees & islets ( float+ plants#gi40 ,! rafts ( ! ,mississippi & o!r riv]s describ$ by ,lyell af=d in/ructive examples ( ! di/ant transport ( vegetable mat]ial4 ,! foll[+ passage is tak5 f ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology2 8,)9 ! tropics !re are no ice-floes2 b1 z if to comp5sate = t mode ( transportation1 !re are float+ islets ( matt$ trees1 :i* are (t5 borne along ?r\gh consid]able spaces4 ,^! are sometimes se5 sail+ at ! di/ance ( fifty or "o hundr$ miles f ! m\? ( ! ,ganges1 ) liv+ trees /&+ erect ^u !m4 ,! ,amazons1 ! ,or9oco1 & ! ,congo also produce ^! v]dant rafts#hj40 ,aft] describ+ ! enorm\s natural rafts ( ! ,at*afalaya1 an arm ( ! ,mississippi1 & ( ! ,r$ riv]1 ,lyell goes on to say3 8,! prodigi\s quantity ( wood annually drift$ d[n by ! ,mississippi & its tribut>ies is a subject ( geological int]e/1 n m]ely z illu/rat+ ! mann] 9 :i* abundance ( vegetable matt] becomes1 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature1 imb$d$ 9 subm>9e & e/u>y deposits1 b z atte/+ ! con/ant de/ruction ( soil & transportation ( matt] to l[] levels by ! t5d5cy ( riv]s to %ift _! c\rses4444 ,x is also f\nd 9 excavat+ at ,new ,orleans1 ev5 at ! dep? ( sev]al y>ds bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 t ! soil ( ! delta conta9s innum]able trunks ( trees1 lay] above lay]1 "s pro/rate z if drift$1 o!rs brok5 (f ne> ! bottom1 b rema9+ /ill erect1 & ) _! roots spread+ on all sides1 z if 9 _! natural position#ha40 ,! drift+ ( trees 9 ! ocean is record$ by ,d>w9 9 8 description ( ,keel+ ,isl&1 & _! action z vehicles = ! transport ( b\ld]s is illu/rat$ by ! same acc\nt4 8,9 ! *annels ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego l>ge quantities ( drift timb] are ca/ ^u ! bea*1 yet x is extremely r>e to meet a tree swimm+ 9 ! wat]4 ,^! facts may possibly ?r[ light on s+le /ones1 :e!r angul> or r\nd$1 occasionally f\nd emb$d$ 9 f9e s$im5t>y masses#hb40 ,fruits may (t5 be c>ri$ long di/ances f l&1 & pres]v$ 9 b$s f> f _! orig9al s\rce4 ,:il/ cruis+ among/ ! ,solomon ,isl&s1 ! ,*all5g] met ) fruits ( ,b>r+tonia speciosa c41 #acj-aej miles f ! coa/4 ,(f ! coa/ ( ,new ,gu9ea long l9es ( drift wood 7 se5 at "r angles to ! direction ( ! riv]2 uproot$ trees1 logs1 bran*es1 & b>k1 (t5 float+ sep>ately4 8,! midribs ( ! leaves ( a p9nate-leav$ palm 7 abundant1 & also ! /ems ( a l>ge cane grass 7,sac*>um71 l t s abundant on ! %ores ( ! great riv] 9 ,fiji4 ,v>i\s fruits ( trees & o!r fragm5ts 7 abundant1 usually float+ conf9$ 9 ! mid/ ( ! small aggregations into :i* ! float+ timb] 0 ev]y:]e ga!r$4444 ,leaves 7 abs5t except ^? ( ! ,palm1 on ! midrib ( :i* "s ( ! p9n 7 /ill pres5t4 ,! leaves evid5tly drop fir/ to ! bottom1 :il/ vegetable drift is float+ f a %ore2 ?us1 z ! dbris s9ks 9 ! sea wat]1 a deposit ab\nd+ 9 leaves1 b ) few fruits & little or no wood1 w be =m$ ne> %ore1 :il/ ! wood & fruits w s9k to ! bottom f>!r (f ! l&4 ,mu* ( ! wood 0 float+ susp5d$ v]tically 9 ! wat]1 & mo/ curi\sly1 logs & %ort bran* pieces ?us float+ (t5 occurr$ 9 sep>ate gr\ps ap>t f ! horizontally float+ timb]4 ,! sunk5 ends ( ! wood 7 n weight$ by any atta*$ masses ( soil or o!r load ( any k9d2 possibly ! wat] p5etrates c]ta9 k9ds ( wood m easily 9 "o direction ) reg>d to its gr[? ?an ! o!r1 h5ce "o end becomes wat]-logg$ be=e ! o!r4444 ,! wood :i* _h be5 longe/ 9 ! wat] 0 bor$ by a ,pholas#hc40 ,! be>+ ( ?is acc\nt on ! mann] ( pres]vation ( fossils1 & ! diff]5tial sort+ s frequ5tly se5 9 plant b$s1 is suffici5tly obvi\s4 ,z ano!r in/ance ( ! great di/ance to :i* l& plants may be c>ri$ out to sea & f9ally buri$ 9 m>9e /rata1 an obs]vation by ,bates may be cit$4 ,:5 #djj miles f ! m\? ( ! ma9 ,amazons1 he writes3 8,we pass$ num]\s pat*es ( float+ grass m+l$ ) tree trunks & )]$ foliage4 ,among/ ^! masses ,i espi$ _m fruits ( t peculi> ,amazonian tree ! ,ubuss ,palm2 ?is 0 ! la/ ,i saw ( ! great riv]#hd40 ,! foll[+ additional extract f ! n>rative ( ! ,cruise ( ,h4,m4,s4 ,*all5g] illu/rates 9 a /rik+ degree ! conflict+ evid5ce :i* ! cont5ts ( fossilif]\s b$s may occasionally af=d2 x describes :at 0 obs]v$ 9 an excursion f ,sydney to ,b][ra ,creek1 a bran* ( ! ma9 e/u>y or inlet into :i* fl[s ! ,hawkesbury riv]4 ,x 0 impossible to say :]e ! riv] came to an end & ! sea began4 ,! ,creek is describ$ z a long tortu\s arm ( ! sea1 #aj to #ae miles long1 ) ! side walls cov]$ ) or*ids & ,platyc]ium4 ,! f]ns & palms 7 abundant 9 ! lat]al %ady gl5s2 m>9e & inl& animals liv$ 9 close proximity4 8,"h is a n>r[ /rip ( ! sea wat]1 tw5ty miles di/ant f ! op5 sea2 on a s&y %all[ flat close to its head are to be se5 bask+ 9 ! sun numb]s ( /+-rays4444 ,all ov] ^! flats1 & ?r\gh\t ! :ole /ret* ( ! creek1 %oals ( ,grey ,mullet are to be met )2 num]\s o!r m>9e fi% inhabit ! creek4 ,porpoises *ase ! mullet "r up to ! comm5cem5t ( ! s&-flat4 ,at ! %ores ( ! creek ! rocks are cov]$ ) masses ( excell5t oy/]s & mussel1 & o!r %ell-be>+ molluscs are abundant1 :il/ a small crab is to be f\nd 9 numb]s 9 e crevice4 ,on ! o!r h& ! wat] is ov]hung by num]\s species ( =e/ trees1 by or*ids & f]ns1 & o!r vegetation ( all k9ds2 mangroves gr[ only 9 ! %all[ bays4 ,! gum trees lean ov] ! wat] 9 :i* swim ! ,trygon & mullet1 j z will[s hang ov] a pool ( c>p4 ,! s&y bottom is full ( bran*es & /ems ( trees1 & is cov]$ 9 pat*es "h & !re by _! leaves4 ,insects con/antly fall 9 ! wat]1 & are dev\r$ by ! mullet4 ,l& birds ( all k9ds fly to & fro across ! creek1 & :5 w\nd$ may easily be dr[n$ 9 x4 ,wallabies swim across occasionally1 & may add _! bones to ! dbris at ! bottom4 ,h5ce "h is be+ =m$ a s&y deposit1 9 :i* may be f\nd cetacean1 m>supial1 bird1 fi%1 & insect rema9s1 toge!r ) l& & sea %ells1 & fragm5ts ( a va/ l& flora2 yet h[ re/rict$ is ! area occupi$ by ?is deposit1 & h[ easily might surviv+ fragm5ts ( su* a record be miss$ by future geological explor]s6#he0 ,sid5ote3 ,,mean+ ,,( ,,! ,,t]m #8,,fossil4' ,! t]m #8fossil' sugge/s to ! lay m9d a petrifaction or a replacem5t by m9]al matt] ( ! plant tissues4 ,9 ! sci5tific s5se1 a fossil plant1 t is a plant or "p ( a plant :e!r 9 ! =m ( a true petrifaction or a /ructureless m\ld or ca/1 :i* has be5 buri$ 9 ! e>? by natural causes1 may be indi/+ui%able f a piece ( rec5t wood lately fall5 f ! p>5t tree4 ,9 ! geologically rec5t peat b$s su* little alt]$ fossils 7or sub-fossils7 are common en\gh1 & ev5 9 old] rocks ! m resi/ant p>ts ( plant fragm5ts are (t5 f\nd 9 a practically unalt]$ /ate4 ,9 ! leaf impressions on an imp]vi\s clay1 ! br[n-wall$ epid]mis %[s sc>cely any indication ( alt]ation s9ce x 0 deposit$ 9 ! s(t mud ( a riv]'s delta4 ,su* fossil leaves are common 9 ! ,engli% ,t]ti>y b$s1 & ev5 9 ,palaeozoic rocks x is n uncommon to f9d an impression ( a plant on a b$ ( %ale f :i* ! ?9 br[n epid]mis may be peel$ (f ! rock1 & if microscopically exam9$ x w be f\nd to h reta9$ intact ! cont\rs ( ! cuticul>is$ epid]mal cells4 ,a /rik+ example ( a simil> me?od ( pres]vation is af=d$ by ! s-call$ pap]-coal ( ,culm age f ! ,prov9ce ( ,t\la 9 ,russia#hf4 ,9 ! ,russian area ! ,c>bonif]\s or ,p]mian rocks h be5 subject$ to little lat]al pressure1 & unlike ! b$s ( ! same age 9 ,we/]n ,europe1 !y h n be5 fold$ & compress$ by widespread & ext5sive cru/-fold+s4 ,in/ead ( ! h>d seams ( coal !re occur b$s ( a d>k br[n lam9at$ mat]ial1 made up v l>gely ( ! cuticles ( ,lepidod5droid plants4 ,f su* examples we may naturally pass to fossils 9 :i* ! plant /ructure has be5 conv]t$ into c>bonace\s matt] or ev5 pure coal4 ,?is =m ( pres]vation is especially common 9 plant-be>+ b$s at v>i\s geological horizons4 ,9 o!r cases1 aga91 "s m9]al solution1 oxide ( iron1 talc1 & o!r sub/ances1 has replac$ ! plant tissues4 ,f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,switz]l& ,he] has figur$ num]\s specim5s ( f]n fronds & o!r plants 9 :i* ! leaf =m has be5 left on ! d>k col\r$ rock surface z a ?9 lay] ( :ite talcose mat]ial#hg4 ,9 ! ,bunt]s&/one ( ! ,vosges & o!r di/ricts ! r$ imp]fectly pres]v$ impressions ( plant /ems & leaves are famili> fossils#hh2 ! c>bonace\s sub/ance ( ! tissues has be5 replac$ by a br[n or r$ oxide ( iron4 ,sid5ote3 ,,incru/ations4 ,plants frequ5tly occur 9 ! =m ( incru/ations2 & 9 fact incru/ations1 :i* may assume a v>iety ( =ms1 are ! commone/ k9d ( fossil4 ,! action ( incru/+ spr+s1 or z !y are (t5 t]m$ petrify+ spr+s1 is illu/rat$ at ,kn>esbor\gh1 9 ,york%ire1 & _m o!r places :]e wat] highly *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime readily deposits calcium c>bonate on objects plac$ 9 ! pa? ( ! /ream4 ,! trav]t9e deposit$ 9 ?is mann] =ms an incru/ation on plant fragm5ts1 & if ! vegetable sub/ance is subsequ5tly remov$ by ! action ( wat] or decay1 a m\ld ( ! emb$d$ fragm5t is left 9 ! calc>e\s matrix4 ,an in/ructive example ( ?is =m ( pres]vation 0 describ$ 9 #ahfhhi by ,%>pe f an old gravel pit ne> ,nor?ampton4 ,he f\nd 9 a section eight feet high 7fig4 #aj71 a mass ( incru/$ plants ( ,*>a 7a7 re/+ on & ov]la9 by a calc>e\s pa/e 7c7 & 7d7 made up ( ! decompos$ mat]ial ( ! ov]ly+ rock1 & ?is aga9 re/+ on s&4 ,! place :]e ! section occurr$ 0 orig9ally ! site ( a pool 9 :i* ,/oneworts grew 9 abundance4 ,l>ge blocks ( ^! incru/$ ,*>as may be se5 9 ! fossil-plant gall]y ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,section ( an old pool fill$ up ) a mass ( ,*>a4 7,f ! ,geol4 ,mag4 vol4 v4 #ahfh1 p4 #efc47 ,9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum 9 ! ,j>d9 des ,plantes1 ,p>is1 "o ( ! table-cases conta9s :at appe> to be small models ( fl[]s 9 gre5 wax4 ,^! are 9 reality ca/s 9 wax ( ! m\lds or cavities left 9 a mass ( calc>e\s trav]t9e1 on ! decay & disappe>ance ( ! encru/$ fl[]s & o!r plant fragm5ts#ij4 ,?is por\s calc>e\s rock occurs ne> ,szanne 9 ,s\!rn ,france1 & is ( ,eoc5e age#ia4 ,! plants 7 probably bl[n on to ! fre%ly deposit$ c>bonate ( lime1 or !y may h simply fall5 f ! tree on to ! incru/+ matrix2 m mat]ial 0 aft]w>ds deposit$ & ! fl[]s 7 completely enclos$4 ,ev5tually ! plant sub/ance decay$1 & z ! matrix h>d5$ m\lds 7 left ( ! vegetable fragm5ts4 ,wax 0 artificially =c$ into ^! cavities & ! surr\nd+ sub/ance remov$ by ! action ( an acid1 & ?us p]fect ca/s 7 obta9$ ( ,t]ti>y fl[]s4 ,d>w9 has describ$ ! pres]vation ( trees 9 ,van ,diem5's l& by means ( calc>e\s sub/ances4 ,9 speak+ ( b$s ( bl[n s& conta9+ bran*es & roots ( trees he says3 8,! :ole became consolidat$ by ! p]colation ( calc>e\s matt]2 & ! cyl9drical cavities left by ! decay+ ( ! wood 7 ?us also fill$ up ) a h>d pseudo-/alactitical /one4 ,! wea!r is n[ we>+ away ! s(t] p>ts1 & 9 consequ5ce ! h>d ca/s ( ! roots & bran*es ( ! trees project above ! surface1 &1 9 a s+ul>ly deceptive mann]1 resemble ! /umps ( a dead ?icket#ib40 ,z a some:at analog\s me?od ( pres]vation to t 9 trav]t9e1 ! occurr5ce ( plants 9 amb] %\ld be m5tion$4 ,9 ,eoc5e times !re exi/$ ov] a region1 "p ( :i* is n[ ! ,nor?-ea/ ,g]man coa/1 an ext5sive =e/ ( conif]s & o!r trees4 ,"s ( ! conif]s 7 ri* 9 res9\s secretions :i* 7 p\r$ out f w\nd$ surfaces or f sc>s left by fall+ bran*es4 ,z ^! fl[$ z a /icky mass ov] ! /em or collect$ on ! gr\nd1 fl[]s1 leaves1 & twigs bl[n by ! w9d or fall+ f ! trees1 became emb$d$ 9 ! exud$ res94 ,evaporation gradually h>d5$ ! res9\s sub/ance until ! plant fragm5ts became seal$ up 9 a mass ( amb]1 9 precisely ! same mann] 9 :i* objects are artificially pres]v$ 9 ,canada balsam4 ,9 _m cases ! amb] acts z a petrify+ ag5t1 & by p5etrat+ ! tissues ( a piece ( wood x pres]ves ! m9ute /ructural details 9 wond]ful p]fection#ic4 ,dr ,?omas 9 an acc\nt ( ! amb] b$s ( ,ea/ ,prussia 9 #ahdh1 ref]s to ! occurr5ce ( l>ge fossil trees2 he writes3 8,! cont9u\s *anges to :i* ! coa/ is expos$1 (t5 br+ to light enorm\s trunks ( trees1 :i* ! common p _h long reg>d$ z ! trunks ( ! amb] tree1 be=e ! le>n$ decl>$ t !y 7 ! /ems ( palm trees1 & 9 consequ5ce det]m9$ ! position ( ,p>adise to be on ! coa/ ( ,ea/ ,prussia#id40 ,sid5ote3 ,,ca/s ,,( ,,trees4 ,9 #ahhg an enorm\s fossil plant 0 discov]$ 9 a s&/one qu>ry at ,clayton ne> ,brad=d#ie4 ,! fossil 0 9 ! =m ( a s&/one ca/ ( a l>ge & repeat$ly bran*$ ,/igm>ia1 & x is n[ 9 ! ,ow5s ,college ,museum1 :]e x 0 plac$ ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( ,pr(4 ,williamson4 ,! plant 0 f\nd spread out 9 its natural position on ! surface ( an ar5ace\s %ale1 & ov]la9 by a b$ ( h>d s&/one id5tical ) ! mat]ial ( :i* ! ca/ is compos$4 ,williamson has ?us describ$ ! mann] ( =mation ( ! fossil3 8,x is obvi\s t ! entire base ( ! tree became encas$ 9 a pla/ic mat]ial1 :i* 0 firmly m\ld$ ^u ^! roots :il/ ! latt] reta9$ _! organisation suffici5tly unalt]$ to enable !m to resi/ all sup]9cumb5t pressure4 ,?is ext]nal m\ld !n h>d5$ firmly1 & z ! organic mat]ials decay$ !y 7 float$ out by wat] :i* ent]$ ! bran*+ cavity2 at a /ill lat] p]iod ! same wat] 0 in/rum5tal 9 replac+ ! c>bonace\s elem5ts by ! s& ( :i* ! entire /ructure n[ consi/s#if40 ,al?\gh ! bran*es h n be5 pres]v$ = _! :ole l5g?1 !y ext5d a di/ance ( #bi feet #f in*es f "r to left1 & #bh feet 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! fossil repres5t$ 9 fig4 #a 7p4 #aj71 f ! collection ( ,dr ,john ,woodw>d1 af=ds a good example ( a well-def9$ impression4 ,! surface ( ! specim51 ( :i* a ca/ is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #a1 %[s v cle>ly ! *>act]i/ic leaf-cu%ions & leaf-sc>s ( a ,lepidod5dron4 ,! /em 0 emb$d$ 9 s(t s&1 & z ! latt] became h>d & set1 an impression 0 obta9$ ( ! ext]nal m>k+s ( ! ,lepidod5dron4 ,decay subsequ5tly remov$ ! sub/ance ( ! plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,equisetites column>is ,brongn4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum1 ,cambridge4 nat4 size4 ,9 fig4 #aa "s upright /ems ( a fossil ,horse-tail 7,equisetites column>is7 f ! ,l[] ,oolite rocks ne> ,sc>bor\gh1 are se5 9 a v]tical position 9 s&/one4 ,on ! surface ( ! fossils !re is a ?9 film ( c>bonace\s matt]1 :i* is all t rema9s ( ! orig9al plant sub/ance2 ! /ems 7 probably float$ into _! pres5t position & emb$d$ v]tically 9 an ar5ace\s matrix4 ,! holl[ pi?-cavity 0 fill$ ) s&1 & z ! tissues decay$ !y became 9 "p conv]t$ into a ?9 coaly lay]4 ,! v]tical position ( su* /ems z ^? 9 fig4 #aa naturally sugge/s _! pres]vation 9 situ1 b 9 ?is z 9 _m o!r cases ! erect mann] ( occurr5ce is due to ! settl+ d[n ( ! drift$ plants 9 ?is p>ticul> position4 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossil ,,ca/s4 ,an example ( ,/igm>ia drawn 9 fig4 #ab fur!r illu/rates ! =mation ( ca/s#ig4 ,! out] surface ) ! *>act]i/ic spirally arrang$ circul> depressions1 repres5ts ! wr9kl$ b>k ( ! dri$ plant2 ! small] cyl9d]1 on ! left side ( ! upp] end 7fig4 #ab1 #b1 p7 m>ks ! position ( ! pi? surr\nd$ by ! second>y wood1 :i* has be5 displac$ f its axial position4 ,! pi? decay$ fir/1 & ! space 0 fill$ 9 ) mud2 some:at lat] ! wood & cortex 7 p>tially de/roy$1 & ! rod ( mat]ial :i* _h be5 introduc$ into ! pi?-cavity dropp$ t[>ds "o side ( ! decay+ %ell ( b>k4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,/igm>ia ficoides ,brongn4 #a4 ,side view1 %[+ wr9kl$ surface & ! sc>s ( app5dages4 #b4 ,end view 7upp]7 %[+ ! displac$ c5tral cyl9d]2 p1 pi?1 x1 xylem1 r1 m$ull>y rays4 #c4 ,end view 7l[]74 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum4 nat4 size4 ,z ! p>5*ymat\s m$ull>y rays readily decay$1 ! mud 9 ! pi? ext5d$ outw>ds betwe5 ! segm5ts ( wood :i* /ill rema9$ intact1 & s spokes ( argillace\s mat]ial 7 =m$ :i* fill$ ! m$ull>y ray cavities4 ,! cortical tissues 7 decompos$1 & _! place tak5 by m argillace\s mat]ial4 ,at "o end ( ! specim5 7fig4 #ab1 #c7 we f9d ! wood has decay$ )\t its place be+ aft]w>ds fill$ up ) =eign mat]ial4 ,at ! opposite end ( ! specim51 ! woody tissue has be5 p>tially pres]v$ by ! infiltration ( a solution conta9+ c>bonate ( lime 7fig4 #ab1 #b74 ,num]\s in/ances h be5 record$ f rocks ( v>i\s geological ages ( ca/s ( /ems /&+ erect & at "r angles to ! b$d+ ( ! surr\nd+ rock4 ,^! v]tical trees occasionally atta9 a consid]able l5g?1 & h be5 =m$ by ! fill+ 9 by s& or mud ( a pipe left by ! decay ( ! /em4 ,x is frequ5tly a matt] ( "s difficulty to decide h[ f> su* fossils are 9 ! position ( gr[? ( ! tree1 or :e!r !y are m]ely ca/s ( drift$ /ems1 :i* happ5 to h be5 deposit$ 9 an erect position4 ,! weight+ ( float+ trees by /ones held 9 ! roots1 add$ to ! great] d5sity ( ! root wood1 has no d\bt (t5 be5 ! cause ( ?is v]tical position4 ,9 attempt+ to det]m9e if an erect ca/ is 9 ! orig9al place ( gr[? ( ! tree1 x is important to be> 9 m9d ! great l5g? ( "t t wood is able to resi/ decay1 especially "u wat]4 ,! wond]ful /ate ( pres]vation ( old piles f\nd 9 ! b$ ( a riv]1 & ! pres]vation ( wood5 portions ( an*ors ( :i* ! iron has be5 completely remov$ by dis9tegration1 illu/rate ?is p[] ( resi/ance4 ,9 ?is connection1 ! foll[+ passage f ,lyell's travels 9 ,am]ica is ( int]e/4 ,9 describ+ ! site ( an old =e/1 he writes#ih3 8,"s ( ! /umps1 especially ^? ( ! fir tribe1 take fifty ye>s to rot away1 ?\gh expos$ 9 ! air to alt]nations ( ra9 & sun%9e1 a fact on :i* e geologi/ w d well to reflect1 = x is cle> t ! trees ( a =e/ subm]g$ b5ea? ! wat]1 or /ill m1 if entirely exclud$ f ! air1 by becom+ imb$d$ 9 s$im5t1 may endure = c5turies )\t decay1 s t !re may h be5 ample "t = ! sl[ petrifaction ( erect fossil trees 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s & o!r =mations1 or = ! sl[ accumulation ar\nd !m ( a great succession ( /rata40 ,9 ano!r place1 9 speak+ ( ! trees 9 ! ,great ,dismal ,swamp1 ,lyell writes3--8,:5 ?r[n d[n1 !y are soon cov]$ by wat]1 & keep+ wet !y nev] decompose1 except ! sap wood1 :i* is less ?an an in* ?ick#ii40 ,we see1 !n1 t trees may h resi/$ decay = a suffici5tly long "t to all[ ( a consid]able deposition ( s$im5t4 ,x is v difficult to make any computation ( ! rate ( deposition ( a p>ticul> set ( s$im5t>y /rata1 &1 !re=e1 to e/imate ! l5g? ( "t dur+ :i* ! fossil /ems mu/ h resi/$ decay4 ,sid5ote3 ,,plants ,,& ,,coal4 ,! protective qualities ( humus acids1 ap>t f ! almo/ complete abs5ce ( ,bact]ia#ajj f ! wat]s ( ,moor- or ,peat-l&1 is a factor ( great importance 9 ! pres]vation ( plants aga9/ decay = _m ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,f examples ( fossil /ems or leaves 9 :i* ! organic mat]ial has be5 ei!r :olly or 9 "p replac$ by coal1 we may pass by a gradual transition to a mass ( opaque coal 9 :i* no plant /ructure c be detect$4 ,x is by no means uncommon to notice on ! face ( a piece ( coal a di/9ct impression ( a plant /em1 & 9 "s cases ! coal is obvi\sly made up ( a numb] ( flatt5$ & compress$ bran*es or leaves ( :i* ! orig9al tissues h be5 ?or\ghly c>bonis$4 ,a block ( ,fr5* coal1 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ac1 consi/s v l>gely ( lam9at$ b&s compos$ ( ! long p>allel ve9$ leaves ( ! g5us ,cordaites & ( ! b>k ( ,lepidod5dron1 ,sigill>ia1 & o!r ,coal-,measure g5]a4 ,! long rhizomes & roots bel[ ! coal are pres]v$ z ca/s 9 ! und]clay4 ,9 exam9+ ?9 sections ( coal1 pieces ( pitt$ tra*eids or cru%$ spores are frequ5tly met ) z fragm5ts ( plant /ructures :i* h )/ood decay m effectually ?an ! bulk ( ! vegetable dbris f :i* ! coal 0 =m$4 ,! coaly lay] on a fossil leaf is (t5 f\nd to be )\t any trace ( ! plant tissues1 b n infrequ5tly su* c>bonis$ leaves1 if treat$ ) c]ta9 reag5ts & exam9$ microscopically1 are se5 to reta9 ! outl9es ( ! epid]mal cells ( ! leaf surface4 ,if a piece ( ! ,c>bonace\s film deta*$ f a fossil leaf is left = "s days 9 a small quantity ( nitric acid conta9+ a cry/al ( *lorate ( pota%1 &1 aft] wa%+ ) wat]1 is transf]r$ to ammonia1 transp>5t film (t5 %[s v cle>ly ! outl9es ( ! epid]mal cell & ! =m ( ! /omata4 ,su* treatm5t has be5 f\nd useful 9 _m cases z an aid to det]m9ation#aja4 ,pr(4 ,zeill] in=ms me t he has f\nd x p>ticul>ly satisfactory 9 ! case ( cycadean leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,"p ( a coal seam l>gely made up ( ,cordaites leaves4 ,/igm>ia & ,/igm>iopsis %[n 9 ! rock 7und]clay7 und]ly+ ! coal4 7,aft] ,gr&',eury #hb ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #c47 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossils ,,9 ,,half-,,relief4 ,x is sometimes possible to deta* ! ?9 lam9a repres5t+ ! c>bonis$ leaf or o!r plant fragm5t f ! rock on :i* x lies & to m\nt x :ole on a slide4 ,good examples ( plants treat$ 9 ?is way may be se5 9 ! ,ed9burgh & ,briti% ,museums1 especially ,sph5opt]is fronds f ! ,c>bonif]\s oil %ales ( ,scotl&4 ,9 ! excell5t collection ( fossil plants 9 ,/ockholm !re are /ill f9] examples ( su* specim5s1 obta9$ by ,dr ,na?or/ f "s ( ! ,triassic plants ( ,s\!rn ,sw$54 ,9 a few in/ances ! tissues ( a plant h be5 conv]t$ into coal 9 su* a mann] z to reta9 ! =m ( ! individual cells1 :i* appe> 9 section z a black framework 9 a light] col\r$ matrix4 ,examples ( su* c>bonis$ tissues 7 figur$ by "s ( ! old] writ]s1 & ,solms-,lauba* has rec5tly#ajb describ$ sections ( ,palaeozoic plants pres]v$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! section repres5t$ 9 fig4 #gj is t ( a ,calamite /em 7#h #ie cm47 9 :i* ! wood has be5 conv]t$ into c>bonace\s mat]ial1 b ! m delicate tissues h be5 almo/ completely de/roy$4 ,! ?9 & irregul> black l9e a little di/ance outside ! r+ ( wood1 & =m+ ! limit ( ! draw+1 probably repres5ts ! cuticle4 ,! :ole section is emb$d$ 9 a homog5e\s matrix ( calc>e\s rock1 9 :i* ! m resi/ant tissues ( ! plant h be5 left z black pat*es & fa9t l9es4 ,m5tion %\ld be made ( a special =m ( pres]vation :i* has be5 describ$ z fossilisation 9 half-relief4 ,if a /em is imb$d$ 9 s& or mud1 ! matrix receives an impression ( ! plant surface1 & if ! holl[ pi?-cavity is fill$ ) ! surr\nd+ s$im5t1 ! surface ( ! m$ull>y ca/ w exhibit m>k+s diff]5t f ^? se5 on ! surface 9 contact ) ! outside ( ! /em4 ,! space sep>at+ ! pi?-ca/ f ! m\ld be>+ ! impression ( ! /em surface may rema9 empty1 or x may be fill$ ) s$im5t>y mat]ial4 ,9 half-relief fossils1 on ! o!r h&1 we h project+ f ! "u surface ( a b$ a m or less r\nd$ & prom95t ridge ) c]ta9 surface m>k+s1 & fitt+ into a correspond+ groove 9 ! und]ly+ rock on :i* ! same m>k+s h be5 impress$4 ,x is conceivable t su* a ca/ might be obta9$ if s(t plant fragm5ts 7 ly+ on a b$ ( s&1 & 7 press$ into x by ! weight ( sup]9cumb5t mat]ial4 ,! plant fragm5t w\ld be squeez$ into a depression1 & its sub/ance might ev5tually be remov$ & leave no o!r trace ?an ! half-relief ca/ & holl[ m\ld4 ,a twig ly+ on s& w\ld by its own weight gradually s9k a little bel[ ! surface2 if x 7 !n bl[n away or 9 "s mann] remov$1 ! depression w\ld %[ ! surface features ( ! twig4 ,:5 m s& came to be spread out ov] ! depression1 x w\ld f9d its way into ! patt]n ( ! m\ld1 & s produce a ca/4 ,if at a lat] p]iod :5 ! s& _h h>d5$1 ! upp] portion 7 sep>at$ f ! l[]1 f ! =m] !re w\ld project a r\nd$ ca/ ( ! holl[ m\ld4 ,! pres]vation ( s(t algae z half-relief ca/s has be5 d\bt$ by ,na?or/#ajc & o!rs z an unlikely occurr5ce 9 nature4 ,!y pref] to reg>d su* ridges on a rock face z ! ca/s ( ! trails or burr[s ( animals4 ,?is "q ( ! pres]vation ( ! two sides ( a m\ld %[+ ! same impression ( a plant has long be5 a difficult problem2 x is discuss$ by ,p>k9son 9 8 ,organic ,rema9s4 ,9 "o ( ! lett]s 7,no4 ,,xlvi471 he quotes ! objection ( a sceptical fri5d1 :o refuses to believe su* a mann] ( pres]vation possible1 8until10 says ,p>k9son1 8,i c in=m him if1 by involv+ a gu9ea 9 pla/] ( ,p>is1 ,i c\ld obta9 two impressions ( ! k+'s head1 )\t any impression ( ! rev]se#ajd40 ,x w\ld occupy too mu* space to attempt ev5 a brief ref]5ce to ! v>i\s mat]ials 9 :i* impressions ( plants h be5 pres]v$4 ,c>bonace\s matt] is ! mo/ usual sub/ance1 & 9 "s cases x occurs 9 ! =m ( graphite :i* on d>k grey or black rocks has ! appe>ance ( a plant drawn 9 lead p5cil4 ,! impressions ( plants on ! ,jurassic 7,kim]idgian7 slates ( ,sol5h(5#aje 9 ,bav>ia1 l ^? on ! ,triassic s&/ones ( ! ,vosges1 are usually m>k$ out 9 r$ iron oxide4 ,sid5ote3 ,,petrifi$ ,,trees4 ,s f> we h *iefly consid]$ examples ( plants pres]v$ 9 v>i\s ways by incru/ation1 t is1 by hav+ be5 enclos$ 9 "s m$ium :i* has receiv$ an impression ( ! surface ( ! plant 9 contact ) x4 ,by f> ! mo/ valuable fossil specim5s f a botanical po9t ( view are h[ev] ^? 9 :i* ! int]nal /ructure has be5 pres]v$2 t is 9 :i* ! pres]v+ m$ium has n s]v$ m]ely z an encas+ envelope or int]nal ca/1 b has p5etrat$ into ! body ( ! plant fragm5t & r5d]$ p]man5t ! organization ( ! tissues4 ,9 almo/ e ,natural ,hi/ory or ,geological ,museum "o meets ) specim5s ( petrifi$ trees or poli%$ sections ( fossil palm /ems & o!r plants1 9 :i* ! int]nal /ructure has be5 pres]v$ 9 silice\s mat]ial1 & admits ( detail$ inve/igation 9 ?9 sections "u ! microscope4 ,silica1 calcium c>bonate1 ) usually a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bonate ( iron & magnesium c>bonate1 iron pyrites1 amb]1 & m r>ely calcium fluoride or o!r sub/ances h tak5 ! place ( ! orig9al cell-walls4 ,( silicifi$ /ems1 ^? f ,antigua1 ,egypt1 ,c5tral ,france1 ,saxony1 ,brazil1 ,tasmania#ajf1 & num]\s o!r places af=d good examples4 ,d>w9 records num]\s silicifi$ /ems 9 ,nor!rn ,*ili1 & ! ,uspallata ,pass4 ,9 ! c5tral "p ( ! ,&es range1 #gjjj feet high1 he describes ! occurr5ce ( 8,sn[-:ite project+ silicifi$ columns4444 ,!y mu/ h gr[n10 he adds1 89 volcanic soil1 & 7 subsequ5tly subm]g$ bel[ sea-level1 & cov]$ ) s$im5t>y b$s & lava-fl[s#ajg40 ,a /rik+ example ( ! occurr5ce ( num]\s petrifi$ plant /ems has be5 describ$ by ,holmes f ! ,t]ti>y =e/s ( ! ,yell[/one ,p>k4 ,f ! face ( a cliff on ! nor? side ( ,ame?y/ m\nta9 8r[s ( upright trunks /& out on ! l$ges l ! columns ( a ru9$ temple4 ,on ! m g5tle slopes f>!r d[n1 b :]e x is /ill too /eep to support vegetation1 save a few p9es1 ! petrifi$ trunks fairly cov] ! surface1 & 7 at fir/ suppos$ by u to be ! %att]$ rema9s ( a rec5t =e/#ajh40 ,m>%#aji & ,conw5tz#aaj h describ$ silicifi$ trees m ?an fifty feet 9 l5g? f a locality 9 ,cali=nia :]e sev]al l>ge =e/ trees ( ,t]ti>y age h be5 pres]v$ 9 volcanic /rata4 ,9 ,s\? ,africa on ! ,drak5b]g hills !re occur num]\s silicifi$ trunks1 occasionally erect & (t5 ly+ on ! gr\nd1 probably ( ,triassic age#aaa4 ,9 "s in/ances ! specim5s measure sev]al feet 9 l5g? & diamet]4 ,"s ( ! conif]\s /ems se5 9 ,portl&1 & occasionally met ) re>$ up aga9/ a h\se side1 illu/rate ! silicification ( plant /ructure on a l>ge scale4 ,^! are ( ,upp] ,jurassic 7,purbeck7 age4 ,f ,gr&',croix 9 ,france a silicifi$ /em ( ,cordaites ( ,palaeozoic age has be5 record$ ) a l5g? ( tw5ty met]s4 ,! pres]vation ( plants by silice\s infiltrations has long be5 kn[n4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ descriptions ( ?is =m ( petrifaction 9 ! ,briti% ,isles is t ( /ems f\nd 9 ,l\gh ,neagh1 ,irel&4 ,9 8 lectures on ,natural ,philosophy1 publi%$ at ,dubl9 9 #agea1 ,b>ton gives sev]al figures ( ,iri% silicifi$ wood1 & records ! foll[+ occurr5ce 9 illu/ration ( ! peculi> prop]ties errone\sly attribut$ to ! wat]s ( ,l\gh ,neagh4 ,describ+ a c]ta9 specim5 7,no4 ,,xxvi71 he writes3-- 8,?is is a :et/one1 :i* z ,mr ,an?ony ,%ane1 apo!c>y1 :o 0 born v ne> ! lake1 & is n[ alive1 relates1 he made by putt+ a piece ( holly 9 ! wat] ( ! lake ne> 8 fa!r's h\se1 & fix+ x s z to )/& ! motion ( ! wat]1 & m>k+ ! place s z to di/+ui% x1 he w5t to ,scotl& to pursue 8 /udies1 & sev5 ye>s aft] took up a /one in/ead ( holly1 ! metamorphosis hav+ be5 made 9 t "t4 ,?is acc\nt he gave "u 8 h&writ+4 ,! %ore !reab\ts is altoge!r loose s&1 & two riv]s dis*>ge !mselves into ! lake v ne> t place#aab40 ,! well-kn[n petrifi$ trees f ! neighb\rhood ( ,l\gh ,neagh are probably ( ,plioc5e age1 b _! exact s\rce has be5 a matt] ( dispute#aac4 ,sid5ote3 ,,petrifi$ ,,wood4 ,9 #ahcf ,/okes describ$ c]ta9 /ems 9 :i* ! tissues _h be5 p>tially m9]alis$4 ,9 describ+ a specim5 ( bee* f a ,roman aqu$uct at ,eibs5 9 ,lippe ,bckeburg1 he says3-- 8,! wood is1 = ! mo/ "p1 9 ! /ate ( v old dry wood1 b !re are sev]al insulat$ portions1 9 :i* ! place ( ! wood has be5 tak5 by c>bonate ( lime4 ,^! portions1 z se5 on ! surface ( ! horizontal section1 are irregul>ly circul>1 v>y+ 9 size1 b g5]ally a little less or m ?an in* 9 diamet]1 & !y run ?r\gh ! :ole ?ickness ( ! specim5 9 sep>ate1 p]p5dicul> columns4 ,! vessels ( ! wood are di/9ctly visible 9 ! c>bonate ( lime1 & are m p]fect 9 _! =m & size 9 ^? portions ( ! specim5 ?an 9 t :i* rema9s un*ang$#aad40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,a4 ,arauc>ioxylon ,)ami 7,l4 & ,h474 ,radiat+ l9es ( cry/allisation 9 second>y wood1 z se5 9 transv]se section4 ,b4 ,lepidod5dron sp4 ,conc5tric l9es ( cry/allisation1 & scal>i=m tra*eids1 z se5 9 longitud9al section4 ,?is p>tial petrifaction ( ! /ructure 9 pat*es is (t5 met ) 9 fossil /ems1 & may be s]i\sly mislead+ to ^? unfamili> ) ! appe>ance pres5t$ by ! cry/allisation ( silica f scatt]$ c5tres 9 a mass ( vegetable tissue4 ,a good example ( ?is is af=d$ by ! gigantic /ems discov]$ 9 #ahbi 9 ! ,craiglei? ,qu>ry ne> ,ed9burgh#aae4 ,( ^? two l>ge /ems f\nd 9 ! ,s&/one rock1 ! longe/1 orig9ally #aa met]s long & #cc-ci met]s 9 gir?1 is n[ set up 9 ! gr\nds ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 & a l>ge poli%$ section 7#a m4 #hg cm47 is exhibit$ 9 ! ,fossil-plant ,gall]y4 ,! o!r /em is 9 ! ,botanic ,g>d51 ,ed9burgh4 ,transv]se sections ( ! wood ( ! ,london specim5 %[ scatt]$ circul> pat*es 7fig4 #ad ,a7 9 ! m9]alis$ wood 9 :i* ! tra*eids are v cle>ly pres]v$2 :ile 9 ! o!r portion ! pres]vation is mu* less p]fect4 ,! pat* ( tissue 9 fig4 #ad ,a %[s a portion ( ! wood ( ! ,craiglei? tree ,arauc>ioxylon ,)ami 7,l4 & ,h47 9 :i* ! m9]al matt]1 consi/+ ( dolomite ) a little silica "h & !re1 has cry/allis$ 9 su* a mann] z to produce :at is practically a cone-9-cone /ructure on a small scale1 :i* has p>tially oblit]at$ ! /ructural features4 ,?is m9ute cone-9-cone /ructure is n uncommon 9 petrifi$ tissues2 x is precisely simil> 9 appe>ance to t describ$ by ,cole#aaf 9 c]ta9 m9]als4 ,! cry/allisation has be5 set up along l9es radiat+ f diff]5t c5tres1 & ! p>ticles ( ! tissue h be5 pu%$ z x 7 along ^! l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,transv]se section ( ! c5tral cyl9d] ( a ,c>bonif]\s ,lepidod5droid /em 9 ! collection ( ,mr ,kid/on4 ,f ,dalm5y1 ,scotl&4 s4 ,silica fill+ up ! c5tral portion ( ! pi?4 p4 ,rema9s ( ! pi? tissue4 x4 ,prim>y xylem4 x4 ,second>y xylem4 c4 ,inn]mo/ cortex4 ,sid5ote3 ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,tissues4 ,a some:at diff]5t cry/allisation ph5om5on is illu/rat$ by ! extremely f9e section ( a ,lepidod5droid plant %[n 9 fig4 #ae4 ,! tissues ( ! prim>y & second>y wood 7x & x7 are well pres]v$ ?r\gh\t 9 silica1 b scatt]$ ?r\gh ! silice\s matrix !re occur num]\s circul> pat*es1 z se5 9 ! figure4 ,"o ( ^! is m cle>ly %[n 9 fig4 #ad ,b drawn f a longitud9al section ?r\gh ! second>y wood1 x2 x w be notic$ t :]e ! conc5tric l9es ( ! circul> pat* occur1 ! scal>i=m ?ick5+s ( ! tra*eids are %>ply def9$1 b imm$iately a tra*eid is free ( ! pat* ^! details are lo/4 ,x w\ld appe> t 9 ?is case silicification 0 fir/ complet$ r\nd def9ite isolat$ c5tres1 & ! second>y cry/allisation 9 ! matrix p>tially oblit]at$ "s ( ! m delicate /ructural features4 ,! same ph5om5on has be5 obs]v$ 9 oolitic rocks#aag1 9 :i* ! oolitic gra9s h resi/$ second>y cry/allisation & s reta9$ _! orig9al /ructure4 ,among ! mo/ important examples ( silicifi$ plants are ^? f a few localities 9 ,c5tral ,france4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,autun !re us$ to be f\nd 9 abundance loose nodules ( silice\s rock conta9+ num]\s fragm5ts ( se$s1 twigs1 & leaves ( diff]5t plants4 ,! rock ( :i* ! brok5 portions are f\nd on ! surface ( ! gr\nd 0 =m$ ab\t ! close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,at ! h&s ( ,fr5* inve/igators ! microscopic exam9ation ( ^! fragm5ts ( a ,palaeozoic vegetation h ?r[n a flood ( light on ! anatomical /ructure ( _m ext9ct types4 ,sometimes ! silica has p5etrat$ ! cavities ( ! cells & vessels1 & ! walls h decay$ )\t _! sub/ance be+ replac$ by m9]al mat]ial4 ,sections ( tissues pres]v$ 9 ?is mann]1 if soak$ 9 a col\r$ solution assume an appe>ance almo/ id5tical ) t ( /a9$ sections ( rec5t plants4 ,! spaces left by ! decay$ walls act z f9e capill>ies & suck up ! col\r$ solution#aah4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,int]nal ca/ ( a scl]5*ymat\s cell f ! root ( a ,cretace\s f]n 7,rhizod5dron oppoli5se ,gpp474 ,aft] ,/5zel 7#hf7 ,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #bi4 #bdj & r$uc$ to "o-half4 ,9 ! ,coal-,measure s&/ones ( ,engl& l>ge pieces ( woody /ems are occasionally met ) 9 :i* ! m9]alisation has be5 incomplete4 ,a br[n piece ( fossil /em ly+ 9 a b$ ( s&/one %[s on ! surface a di/9ct woody texture1 & ! l9es ( wood elem5ts are cle>ly visible4 ,! :ole is1 h[ev]1 v friable & falls to pieces if an attempt is made to cut ?9 sections ( x2 ! tra*eids ( ! wood easily fall ap>t ow+ to ! walls be+ imp]fectly pres]v$1 & ! abs5ce ( a connect+ framework su* z w\ld h be5 =m$ _h ! membranes be5 ?or\ghly silicifi$4 ,x is occasionally possible to obta9 f petrifi$ plant /ems p]fect ca/s 9 silica or o!r sub/ances ( ! cavity ( a scl]5*ymat\s fibre1 9 :i* ! m9]al has be5 deposit$ n only 9 ! cavity b 9 ! f9e pit-canals trav]s+ ! lignifi$ walls4 ,su* a ca/ is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #af1 ! f9e lat]al projections are ! delicate ca/s ( ! pit canals4 ,num]\s in/ances ( m9ute & delicate tissues pres]v$ 9 silica are record$ 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,a some:at unusual type ( silicification is met ) 9 "s ( ! ,gondwana rocks ( ,india1 9 :i* cycadean fronds occur z :ite porcellane\s specim5s %[+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( int]nal /ructure 9 a silice\s matrix4 ,specim5s ( su* leaves may be se5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,sid5ote3 ,,coal-,,balls4 ,9 ! ,coal-,measures ( ,engl&1 especially 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,halifax 9 ,york%ire1 & 9 ,s\? ,lanca%ire1 ! seams ( coal occasionally conta9 calc>e\s nodules v>y+ 9 size f a nut to a man's head1 & consi/+ ( ab\t #gj ( c>bonate ( calcium & magnesium1 & #cj ( oxide ( iron1 sulphide ( iron1 c4#aai ,! nodules1 (t5 spok5 ( by ,engli% writ]s z #8coal-balls1' conta9 num]\s fragm5ts ( plants 9 :i* ! m9ute cellul> /ructure is pres]v$ ) rem>kable p]fection4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! t]m coal-ball is also appli$ to r\nd$ or subangul> pieces ( coal :i* are occasionally met ) 9 coal seams1 & especially 9 c]ta9 ,fr5* coal fields4 ,to avoid confusion x is bett] to speak ( ! plant-conta9+ nodules z calc>e\s nodules1 re/rict+ ! t]m coal-ball to true coal pebbles4 ,a section ( a calc>e\s nodule1 :5 se5 "u ! microscope1 pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a matrix ( a cry/all9e calc>e\s sub/ance conta9+ a het]og5e\s mixture ( all k9ds ( plant tissues1 usually 9 ! =m ( brok5 pieces & 9 a confus$ mass4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,a ?9 section ( a calc>e\s nodule f ! ,coal-,measures4 ,b9ney collection1 ,woodw>dian ,museum1 ,cambridge4 ,v slightly r$uc$4 ,a l>ge section ( "o ( ^! nodules 7#abe cm4 #he cm47 is %[n 9 fig4 #ag4 ,x illu/rates ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( v>i\s fragm5ts ( diff]5t plants 9 :i* ! /ructure has be5 m or less p]fectly pres]v$4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> example we see sections ( ,myeloxylon 7,i71 ,calamites 7,,ii71 ,f]n petioles 7,ra*iopt]is7 7,,iii71 ,/igm>ian app5dages 7,,iv71 ,lepidod5droid leaves 7,v71 ,myeloxylon p9nules 7,,vi71 ,gymnosp]m\s se$s 7,,vii71 ,twig ( a ,lepidod5dron1 %[+ ! c5tral xylem cyl9d] & l>ge leaf-bases on ! out] cortex1 7,,viii71 ,sporangia & spores ( a /robilus 7,,ix71 ,tang5tial section ( a ,myeloxylon petiole 7,x71 ,ra*iopt]is sp4 7,,xi71 ,ra*iopt]is sp4 7,,xii71 ,b& ( scl]5*ymat\s tissue 7,,xiii71 ,ra*iopt]is sp4 7,,xiv74 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( a calc>e\s plant-nodule sugge/s a s(t pulpy mass ( decay+ vegetable dbris1 ?r\gh :i* roots 7 able to bore _! way1 z 9 a piece ( peat or leafy m\ld4 ,ov]ly+ ?is accumulation ( s(t mat]ial !re 0 spread out a b$ ( muddy s$im5t conta9+ num]\s calc>e\s %ells1 :i* suppli$ ! p]colat+ wat] ) ! mat]ial :i* 0 aft]w>ds deposit$ 9 portions ( ! vegetable dbris4 ,accord+ to ?is view ! calc>e\s nodules ( ! coal seams repres5t local pat*es ( a widespread mass ( dbris :i* 7 p5etrat$ by a c>bonat$ solution1 & s pres]v$ z samples ( a decay+ mass ( vegetation1 ( :i* by f> ! great] portion became ev5tually conv]t$ into coal#abj4 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossil ,,nuclei4 ,9 su* nodules1 we f9d t n only has ! framework ( ! tissues be5 pres]v$1 b frequ5tly ! rema9s ( cell cont5ts are cle>ly se54 ,9 "s cases ! cells ( a tissue may conta9 9 ea* cavity a d>k] col\r$ spot1 :i* is probably ! m9]alis$ cell nucleus4 7,fig4 #db1 ,a1 #a1 p4 #bad47 ,! cont5ts ( secretory sacs1 su* z ^? conta9+ gum or res91 are frequ5tly f\nd z black rods fill+ up ! cavity ( ! cell or canal4 ,! cont5ts ( cells 9 "s cases closely simulate />* gra9s1 & su* may h be5 actually pres5t 9 ! tissues ( a piece ( a fossil dicotyl$on\s /em describ$ by ,?iselton-,dy] f ! ,l[] ,eoc5e ,?anet b$s#aba1 & 9 ! rhizome ( a fossil ,osmunda record$ by ,c>ru!rs#abb4 7,fig4 #db1 ,b1 p4 #bad47 ,s*ultze 9 #aheeabc record$ ! discov]y ( cellulose by micro*emical te/s appli$ to mac]at$ tissue f ,t]ti>y lignite & coal4 ,) ref]5ce to ! possibility ( recognis+ cell cont5ts 9 fossil tissue x is int]e/+ to f9d t ,dr ,murray ( ,sc>bor\gh _h attempt$1 & app>5tly ) success1 to apply *emical te/s to ! tissues ( ,jurassic leaves4 ,9 a lett] writt5 to ,hutton 9 #ahcc ,murray speaks ( 8 exp]im5ts z foll[s3-- 8,rev]t+ to ! ,oolitic plants1 ,i h aga9 & ) bett] success be5 exp]im5t+ ^u ! ?9 transp>5t films ( leaves1 *iefly ( ,ta5iopt]is vittata & ,cyclopt]is1 :i* f _! t5uity (f] f9e objects = ! microscope4444 ,by _m delicate trials ,i h asc]ta9$ ! exi/5ce /ill 9 ^! leaves ( res9 & ( tann94444 ,i am seek+ among ! filmy leaves ( ! ,fucoides ( ,a4 ,brongni>t = iod9e1 b hi!rto )\t success1 & inde$ c h>dly expect x1 z probably did iod9e exi/ 9 !m1 x mu/ h long ago ent]$ into new comb9ations#abd40 ,ap>t f ?is difficulty1 x is n surpris+ t ,dr ,murray's se>* = iod9e 0 unsuccessful1 consid]+ h[ little algal nature mo/ ( ! s-call$ ,fucoids possess4 ,"s ( ! mo/ p]fectly pres]v$ tissues z reg>ds ! details ( cell cont5ts are ^? ( gymnosp]m\s se$s f ,autun4 ,9 sections ( "o ( ^! se$s :i* ,i rec5tly _h ! opportunity ( exam9+ 9 ,pr(4 ,b]tr&'s collection1 ! p>5*ymat\s cells conta9$ v di/9ct nuclei & protoplasmic cont5ts4 ,9 "o portion ( ! tissue 9 ! nucellus ( ,spha]osp]mum ! cell walls _h disappe>$1 b ! nuclei rema9$ 9 a rem>kable /ate ( pres]vation4 ,! cells %[n 9 fig4 #db are f ! gr\nd tissue ( a petiole ( ,cycadeoidea gigantea ,sew4#abe1 a magnific5t ,cycadean /em f ,portl& rec5tly add$ to ! ,briti% ,museum collection2 9 ! cell ,a1 #a1 ! nucleus is fairly di/9ct & 9 #b & #d ! contract$ cell-cont5ts is cle>ly se54 ,o!r int]e/+ examples ( fossil nuclei are se5 9 a ,lyg9od5dron leaf figur$ by ,williamson & ,scott 9 a rec5t ,memoir on t g5us#abf4 ,ea* mesophyll cell conta9s a s+le d>k nucleus4 ,! m9]alisation ( ! mo/ delicate tissues & ! pres]vation ( ! v>i\s =ms ( cell-cont5ts are n[ g5]ally admitt$ by ^? at all conv]sant ) ! possibilities ( plant petrifaction4 ,if we consid] :at ^! facts mean--! microscopic inve/igation ( n only ! f9e/ framework b ev5 ! v life-sub/ance ( ,palaeozoic plants--we feel t ! aeons s9ce ! days :5 ^! plants liv$ h be5 well-nigh oblit]at$4 ,occasionally ! plant tissues h assum$ a black & some:at ragg$ appe>ance1 giv+ ! impression ( *>r$ wood4 ,a section ( a rec5t burnt piece ( wood resembles v closely "s ( ! fossil twigs f ! coal seam nodules4 ,x is possible t 9 su* cases we h portions ( m9]alis$ tissues :i* 7 fir/ burnt 9 a =e/ fire or by lightn+ & !n infiltrat$ ) a petrify+ solution4 ,an example ( "o ( ^! black petrifi$ plants is %[n 9 fig4 #gd ,b4 ,*ap4 ,x4 ,9 _m ( ! fossil plants !re are di/9ct traces ( fungus or bact]ial ravages1 & occasionally ! section ( a piece ( m9]alis$ wood %[s circul> spaces or canals :i* h ! appe>ance ( be+ ! "w ( "s wood-eat+ animal1 & small oval bodies sometimes occur 9 su* spaces :i* may be ! coprolites ( ! xylophag\s intrud]4 7,fig4 #bd1 p4 #ajg47 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossil ,,plants ,,9 ,,volcanic ,,a%4 ,x is well kn[n to geologi/s t dur+ ! ,p]mian & ,c>bonif]\s p]iods ! s\!rn portion ( ,scotl& 0 ! sc5e ( widespread volcanic activity4 ,=e/s 7 ov]:elm$ by lava-/reams or %[]s ( a%1 & 9 "s di/ricts tree /ems & brok5 plant fragm5ts became seal$ up 9 a volcanic matrix4 ,laggan ,bay 9 ! nor?-ea/ corn] ( ! ,isle ( ,arran1 & ,pettycur a %ort di/ance f ,burntisl& on ! nor? %ore ( ! ,fir? ( ,=?1 are two localities :]e petrifi$ plants ( ,c>bonif]\s age occur 9 su* pres]vation z all[s ( a m9ute inve/igation ( _! int]nal /ructure4 ,! occurr5ce ( plants 9 ! =m] locality 0 fir/ discov]$ by ,mr ,wns* ( ,glasg[2 ! fossils occur 9 association ) h>d5$ %ales & b$s ( a%1 & are (t5 exce$+ly well pres]v$#abg4 ,9 fig4 #ah is reproduc$ a sket* ( a holl[ tree trunk f ,arran1 probably a ,lepidod5dron /em1 9 :i* only ! out] portion ( ! b>k has be5 pres]v$1 :ile ! inn] cortical tissues h be5 remov$ & ! space occupi$ by volcanic detritus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,diagrammatic sket* ( a slab cut f a fossil /em 7,lepidod5dron87 f ,laggan ,bay4 e1 ,imp]fectly pres]v$ b>k ( a l>ge /em1 ext5d+ 9 pat*es r\nd ! p]iph]y ( ! specim52 ! oval & circul> bodies 9 ! int]ior are ! xylem portions ( ! c5tral cyl9d]s ( ,lepidod5dron /ems1 x1 prim>y wood1 x1 second>y wood4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,b9ney collection1 ,woodw>dian ,museum1 ,cambridge4 nat4 size4 ,! small] cyl9drical /ructures 9 ! int]ior ( ! holl[ trunk are ! c5tral woody cyl9d]s ( ,lepidod5droid trees2 ea* consi/s ( an axial pi? surr\nd$ by a b& ( prim>y wood & a broad] zone ( second>y wood4 ,"o ( ! axes probably belong$ to ! /em ( :i* only ! %ell has be5 pres]v$1 ! o!rs mu/ h come f o!r trees & may h be5 float$ 9 by wat]#abh4 ,! microscopic details ( ! wood & out] cortex h 9 ?is in/ance be5 pres]v$ 9 a calc>e\s mat]ial1 :i* 0 no d\bt d]iv$ by wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh ! volcanic a%4 ,x is frequ5tly f\nd t 9 fossil trees or twigs a sep>ation ( ! tissues has tak5 place along su* natural l9es ( weakness z ! cambium or ! phellog51 be=e ! petrify+ m$ium _h "t to p]meate ! entire /ructure4 ,tree /ems rec5tly kill$ by lava /reams dur+ volcanic eruptions at ! pres5t day supply a p>allel ) ! ,palaeozoic =e/ trees ( ,c>bonif]\s times4 ,guillem>d 9 describ+ a volcanic crat] 9 ,celebes1 speaks ( burnt trees /ill /&+ 9 ! lava /ream1 8s *>r$ at ! base ( ! trunk t we c\ld easily pu% !m d[n#abi40 ,an int]e/+ case is quot$ by ,hook] 9 8 ,himalayan ,j\rnals1 illu/rat+ ! occurr5ce ( a holl[ %ell ( a tree1 9 :i* ! out] portions ( a /em _h be5 left :ile ! inn] portions _h disappe>$1 ! wood be+ holl[ & s fav\rable to ! production ( a curr5t ( air :i* accel]at$ ! de/ruction ( ! int]nal tissues4 ,on ! coa/ ne> ,burntisl& on ! ,fir? ( ,=? blocks ( rock are met ) 9 :i* num]\s plant fragm5ts ( ,c>bonif]\s age are scatt]$ 9 a confus$ mass ?r\gh a calc>e\s volcanic matrix4 ,! twigs1 leaves1 spores1 & o!r portions are 9 small fragm5ts1 & _! delicate cells are (t5 pres]v$ 9 wond]ful p]fection4 ,sid5ote3 ,,conditions ,,( ,,pres]vation4 ,! mann] ( occurr5ce ( plants 9 s&/ones1 %ales or o!r rocks is (t5 ( consid]able importance to ! botani/ & geologi/1 z an aid to ! correct int]pretation ( ! actual conditions :i* obta9$ at ! "t :5 ! plant rema9s 7 accumulat+ 9 b$s ( s$im5t4 ,to attempt to re/ore ! conditions "u :i* any set ( plants became pres]v$1 we h to c>efully consid] ea* special case4 ,a ne/ ( se$s pres]v$ z int]nal ca/s 9 a mass ( s&/one1 su* z is repres5t$ by ! block ( ,c>bonif]\s s&/one 9 fig4 #ai1 sugge/s a quiet spot 9 an eddy :]e se$s 7 deposit$ 9 ! s&y s$im5t4 ,delicate leaf /ructures ) sporangia /ill intact1 po9t to quietly fl[+ wat] & a transport ( no great di/ance4 ,occasionally ! l>ge numb] ( delicate & light plant fragm5ts1 associat$ x may be ) insect w+s1 may fav\r ! idea ( a w9d /orm :i* swept along ! light] pieces f a =e/-clad slope & deposit$ !m 9 ! wat] ( a lake4 ,9 "s ,t]ti>y plant-b$s ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( leaves & fl[]s is su* z to sugge/ a seasonal alt]nation1 & ! diff]5t lay]s ( plant dbris may be correlat$ ) def9ite seasons ( gr[?#acj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,piece ( ,coal-,measures ,s&/one ) ca/s ( ,trigonoc>pon se$s1 f ,peel ,qu>ry ne> ,wigan4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,man*e/] ,museum1 ,ow5s ,college4 nat4 size4 ,! pr$om9ance ( c]ta9 classes ( plants 9 a p>ticul> b$ may be due to purely me*anical causes & to diff]5tial sort+ by wat]1 or x may be t ! di/rict trav]s$ by ! /ream :i* c>ri$ d[n ! fragm5ts 0 occupi$ almo/ exclusively by "o set ( plants4 ,! trees f high] gr\nd may be deposit$ 9 a diff]5t "p ( a riv]'s c\rse to ^? gr[+ 9 ! pla9s or l[l& m>%es4 ,x is obvi\sly impossible to lay d[n any def9ite rules z to ! read+ ( plant records1 z aids to ! elucidation ( pa/ physical & botanical conditions4 ,ea* case mu/ be sep>ately consid]$1 & ! v>i\s probabilities tak5 into acc\nt1 judg+ by ref]5ce to ! analogy ( pres5t day conditions4 ,v>i\s attempts1 m or less successful1 h be5 made to imitate ! natural processes ( plant m9]alisation#aca4 ,by soak+ sections ( wood = "s "t 9 diff]5t solutions1 & !n expos+ !m to heat1 ! organic sub/ance ( ! cell walls has be5 replac$ by a deposit ( oxide ( iron & o!r sub/ances4 ,f]n leaves heat$ to r$ness betwe5 pieces ( %ale h be5 r$uc$ to a condition v simil> to t ( fossil fronds4 ,pieces ( wood left = c5turies 9 disus$ m9es h be5 f\nd 9 a /ate closely resembl+ lignite#acb4 ,attempts h also be5 made to reproduce ! conditions "u :i* vegetable tissues 7 conv]t$ into coal1 b z yet ^! h n yield$ results ( mu* sci5tific value4 ,! ,geys]s ( ,yell[/one ,p>k h ?r[n "s light on ! mann] 9 :i* wood may be petrifi$ by ! p]colation ( silice\s solutions2 & x has be5 sugge/$ t ! silicification ( plants may h be5 effect$ by ! wat]s ( hot spr+s hold+ silica 9 solution4 ,examples ( wood 9 process ( petrifaction 9 ! ,geys] di/rict ( ,nor? ,am]ica h be5 record$ by ,kuntze#acc1 & discuss$ by ,s*we9fur?#acd1 ,solms-,lauba*#ace & o!rs#acf4 ,! latt] expresses ! op9ion t by a long cont9uance ( su* action z may n[ be obs]v$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( hot spr+s1 ! organic sub/ance ( wood might be replac$ by silice\s mat]ial4 ,! exact mann] ( replacem5t ne$s m ?or\gh inve/igation4 ,kuntze describes ! appe>ance ( =e/ trees :i* h be5 rea*$ by ! wat]s ( neighb\r+ ,geys]s4 ,! silice\s solution rises 9 ! wood by capill>ity2 ! leaves1 bran*es & b>k are gradually lo/1 & ! out] tissues ( ! wood become h>d5$ & petrifi$ z ! result ( evaporation f ! expos$ surface ( ! /em4 ,! products ( decay go+ on 9 ! plant tissues mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt1 & ! d\ble decomposition :i* might result4 ,!re is no app>5t reason :y exp]im5ts und]tak5 ) pieces ( rec5t wood expos$ to p]meation by v>i\s calc>e\s & silice\s solutions "u diff]5t conditions %\ld n furni% useful results4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,difficulties ,,& ,,s\rces ,,( ,,error ,,9 ,,! ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,fossil ,,plants4 8,rob9son ,crusoe did n feel b\nd to conclude1 f ! s+le human footpr9t :i* he saw 9 ! s&1 t ! mak] ( ! impression _h only "o leg40 ,,huxley',s ,hume1 p4 #aje1 #ahgi4 ,! /ud5t ( palaeobotany has p]haps to face m ?an 8 due %>e ( difficulties & fruitful s\rces ( error2 b on ! o!r h& !re is ! comp5sat+ advantage t tru/wor?y conclusions arriv$ at possess a special value4 ,:ile always on ! al]t = rational explanations ( obscure ph5om5a by means ( ! analogy suppli$ by exi/+ causes1 & ready to draw f a wide k ( rec5t botany1 9 ! int]pretation ( problems furni%$ by fossil plants1 ! palaeobotani/ mu/ be con/antly alive to ! necessity = cauti\s /atem5t4 ,t !re is ! greate/ ne$ ( mod]ation & safe reason+ 9 deal+ ) ! botanical problems ( pa/ ages1 w be app>5t to anyone possess+ b a sup]ficial acqua9tance ) fossil plant lit]ature4 ,! necessity = a botanical & geological tra9+ has already be5 ref]r$ to 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,x w\ld s]ve no useful purpose1 & w\ld occupy no inconsid]able space1 to ref] at l5g? to ! num]\s mi/akes :i* h be5 committ$ by exp]i5c$ writ]s on ! subject ( fossil plants4 ,laym5 might f9d 9 su* a li/ ( blund]s a m]e com$y ( errors1 b ! palaeobotani/ mu/ see 9 !m s]i\s w>n+s aga9/ dogmatic conclusions or expressions ( op9ion on imp]fect data & insuffici5t evid5ce4 ,! description ( a fragm5t ( a h&le ( a ,w$gwood teapot z a curi\s =m ( ,calamite#acg & simil> in/ances ( unusual det]m9ations ne$ n deta9 u z examples ( in/ructive errors4 ,! late ,pr(4 ,williamson has on m ?an "o occasion express$ himself 9 no undecid$ mann] z to ! futility ( attempt+ to det]m9e specific =ms among fossil plants1 )\t ! aid ( int]nal /ructure#ach2 & ev5 9 ! case ( well-pres]v$ petrifactions he always refus$ to commit himself to def9ite specific diagnoses4 ,9 8 rem>ks 9 ?is connection1 ,williamson no d\bt all[$ himself to express a mu* ne$$ w>n+ 9 too sweep+ language4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ s]i\s drawbacks 9 palaeobotanical rese>*es t 9 ! majority ( cases ! specim5s ( plants are bo? fragm5t>y & )\t any trace ( int]nal /ructure4 ,specim5s 9 :i* ! anatomical *>act]s h be5 pres]v$ necess>ily possess f> great] value f ! botani/'s po9t ( view ?an ^? 9 :i* no su* petrifaction has occurr$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 h[ev]1 x is p]fectly possible ) due c>e to obta9 tru/wor?y & valuable results f ! exam9ation ( /ructureless ca/s & impressions4 ,9 deal+ ) ! less promis+ =ms ( plant fossils1 !re is 9 ! fir/ place ! dang] ( tru/+ to sup]ficial resemblance4 ,hundr$s ( fossil plants h be5 describ$ "u ! names ( exi/+ g5]a on ! /r5g? ( a suppos$ agreem5t 9 ext]nal =m2 b su* det]m9ations are v frequ5tly n only valueless b dang]\sly mislead+4 ,unless ! evid5ce is ( ! be/1 x is a s]i\s mi/ake to make use ( rec5t g5]ic designations4 ,if we consid] ! difficulties :i* w\ld att5d an attempt to det]m9e ! leaves1 fragm5ts ( /ems & o!r deta*$ portions ( v>i\s rec5t g5]a1 we c bett] appreciate ! great] probability ( error 9 ! case ( imp]fectly pres]v$ fossil fragm5ts4 ,sid5ote3 ,,ext]nal ,,resemblance4 ,! portions ( /ems repres5t$ 9 figures #bj & #ba1 exhibit a fairly close resemblance to "o ano!r2 9 ! abs5ce ( microscopical sections or ( ! reproductive organs x w\ld be practically impossible to discrim9ate ) any c]ta9ty betwe5 fossil specim5s ( ! plants %[n 9 ! draw+s4 ,examples su* z ^!1 & _m o!rs :i* might be cit$1 s]ve to illu/rate ! possibility ( confusion n m]ely betwe5 diff]5t g5]a ( ! same family1 b ev5 betwe5 memb]s ( diff]5t classes or gr\ps4 ,! long sl5d] bran*es ( ! ,polygonum repres5t$ 9 7fig4 #ba7 w\ld naturally be ref]r$ to ,equisetum 9 ! abs5ce ( ! fl[]s 7fig4 #bj ,b71 or )\t a c>eful exam9ation ( ! insignificant scaly leaves borne at ! nodes4 ,! resemblance betwe5 ,casu>9a & ,eph$ra & ! ,briti% species ( ,equisetum1 or su* a tropical =m z ,e4 debile1 speaks = itself4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,a4 ,re/io tetraphylla ,labill4 7,monocotyl$on74 ,b4 ,equisetum v>iegatum ,s*lei*4 7,vascul> ,cryptogam74 ,c4 ,equisetum debile ,roxb4 ,d4 ,casu>9a /ricta ,dry&4 7,dicotyl$on74 ,e4 ,eph$ra di/a*ya ,l9n4 7,gymnosp]m74 7,a-,e nat4 size74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,polygonum ,equiseti=me ,sib?4 & ,sm4 ,a4 ,%[+ habit ( plant4 nat4 size4 ,! two fl[]s t[>ds ! apex ( "o bran*1 drawn to a l>g] scale 9 ,b4 ,c4 ,node ) small leaf & o*rea *>act]i/ic ( ,polygonace4 ,f a plant 9 ! ,cambridge ,botanic ,g>d54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,kaulfussia sculifolia ,blume4 ,f a specim5 f ,java 9 ! ,briti% ,museum h]b>ium4 nat4 size4 ,endless examples might be quot$ illu/rat+ ! absolute futility1 9 _m cases1 ( rely+ on ext]nal features ev5 = ! purpose ( class di/9ction4 ,an acqua9tance ) ! g5]al habit & appe>ance ( only ! bett] kn[n memb]s ( a family1 frequ5tly leads to s]i\s mi/akes4 ,! specim5 %[n 9 fig4 #bb is a leaf ( a tropical f]n ,kaulfussia1 a g5us n[ liv+ 9 ,s\?-ea/]n ,asia1 & a memb] ( "o ( ! mo/ important & int]e/+ families ( ! ,filic91 ! ,m>rattiace2 its =m is widely diff]5t f t :i* "o is accu/om$ to associate ) f]n fronds4 ,x is unlikely t ! impression ( a /]ile leaf ( ,kaulfussia w\ld be recognis$ z a portion ( a f]n plant4 ,simil>ly 9 ano!r exce$+ly important gr\p ( plants1 ! ,cycadace#aci1 ! examples usually met ) 9 botanical g>d5s are q insuffici5t z /&>ds ( comp>ison :5 we are deal+ ) fossil =ms4 ,famili>ity ) a few common] types leads u to reg>d !m z typical = ! :ole family4 ,9 ,mesozoic times cycadean plants 7 f> m num]\s & widely di/ribut$ ?an at ! pres5t "t1 & to adequately /udy ! num]\s fossil examples we ne$ z ?or\gh an acqua9tance z possible ) ! comp>atively small numb] ( surviv+ g5]a & species4 ,! less common & m isolat$ species ( an exi/+ family may (t5 be ( f> great] importance to ! palaeobotani/ ?an ! common & m typical =ms4 ,?is importance ( r>e & little kn[n types w be m fully illu/rat$ 9 ! *apt]s deal+ ) ! ,cycadace & o!r plant gr\ps4 ,among ,dicotyl$ons1 ! ,natural ,ord] ,proteace1 at pres5t *>act]i/ic ( ,s\? ,africa & ,au/ralia1 & also repres5t$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & ! ,pacific ,isl&s1 is ( consid]able int]e/ to ! /ud5t ( fossil ,angiosp]ms4 ,9 a valuable address deliv]$ be=e ! ,l9nean ,society#adj 9 #ahgj ,b5?am drew att5tion to ! m>k$ #8protean' "* ( ! memb]s ( ?is family4 ,he laid special /ress on ?is p>ticul> division ( ! ,dicotyl$ons 9 view ( c]ta9 f>-rea*+ conclusions1 :i* _h be5 bas$ on ! occurr5ce 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,europe ( fossil leaves suppos$ to be ^? ( ,proteace\s g5]a#ada4 ,speak+ ( deta*$ leaves1 ,b5?am says3--8,i d n "k ( a s+le "o :i*1 9 outl9e or v5ation1 is exclusively *>act]i/ic ( ! ord]1 or ( any "o ( its g5]a40 ,species ( ,grevillea1 ,hakea & a few o!r g5]a are m or less famili> 9 plant h\ses1 b ! leaf-=ms illu/rat$ by ! common] memb]s ( ! family convey no idea ( ! enorm\s v>iation :i* is met ) n only 9 ! family z a :ole1 b 9 ! diff]5t species ( ! same g5us4 ,! /rik+ div]sity ( leaf )9 ! limits ( a s+le g5us w be dealt ) m fully 9 volume ,,ii4 "u ! head ( ,fossil ,dicotyl$ons4 ,sid5ote3 ,,v5ation ,,*>act]s4 ,!re is a common s\rce ( dang] 9 attempt+ to c>ry too f> ! v5ation *>act]s z te/s ( aff9ity4 ,! p>allel v5ation ( ,monocotyl$ons is by no means a safe guide to foll[ 9 all cases z a di/+ui%+ feature ( ?is class ( plants4 ,9 addition to su* leaves z ^? ( ! ,gymnosp]m ,cordaites & deta*$ p9n ( ,cycads1 !re are c]ta9 species ( ,dicotyl$ons :i* correspond 9 ! "* ( _! v5ation to ,monocotyl$on\s leaves4 ,eryngium montanum ,c\lt41 ,e4 ,lassauxi ,dcne41 & o!r species ( ?is g5us ( ,umbellif] agree closely ) su* a plant z ,p&anus or o!r ,monocotyl$ons2 simil>ly ! long l9e> leaves ( ,ri*ea dracophylla1 ,r4 ,br41 "o ( ! ,ericace1 are id5tical 9 =m ) _m monocotyl$on\s leaves4 ,in/ances might also be quot$ ( monocotyl$on\s leaves1 su* z species ( ,smilax & o!rs :i* ,l9dley includ$ 9 8 family ( ,dictyog5s :i* correspond closely ) "s types ( ,dicotyl$ons#adb4 ,v5ation *>act]s mu/ be us$ ) c>e ev5 9 det]m9+ classes or gr\ps1 & ) /ill great] res]ve if reli$ on z family or g5]ic te/s4 ,x is too frequ5tly ! case t :ile we are conv]sant ) ! mo/ detail$ hi/ological /ructure ( a fossil plant /em1 its ext]nal =m is a matt] ( conjecture4 ,! conditions :i* h fav\r$ ! petrifaction ( plant tissues h z a rule n be5 fav\rable = ! pres]vation ( good ca/s or impressions ( ! ext]nal features2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 9 ! be/ impressions ( f]n fronds or o!r plants1 9 :i* ! f9e/ ve9s are cle>ly m>k$1 !re is no trace ( int]nal /ructure4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly ! case t a k ( ! int]nal /ructure ( a p>ticul> plant enables u to int]pret c]ta9 features 9 a /ructureless ca/ :i* c\ld n be und]/ood )\t ! help ( hi/ological facts4 ,a p>ticul>ly int]e/+ example ( anatomical k af=d+ a key to app>5tly abnormal peculi>ities 9 a specim5 pres]v$ by incru/ation1 is af=d$ by ! fructification ( ! g5us ,sph5ophyllum4 ,"s few ye>s ago ,williamson describ$ 9 detail ! /ructure ( a fossil /robilus 7i4e4 cone7 f ! ,coal-,measures1 b ow+ to ! isolat$ occurr5ce ( ! specim5s he 0 unable to det]m9e ! plant to :i* ! /robilus belong$4 ,on re-exam9+ "s /robili ( ,sph5ophyllum1 pres]v$ by incru/ation1 9 ! light ( ,williamson's descriptions1 ,zeill] 0 able to expla9 c]ta9 features 9 8 specim5s :i* _h hi!rto be5 a puzzle1 & he demon/rat$ t ,williamson's cone 0 t ( a ,sph5ophyllum4 ,simil> examples might be quot$1 b en\gh has be5 said to emphasize ! importance ( deal+ z f> z possible ) bo? petrifactions & incru/ations4 ,! facts d]iv$ f a /udy ( a plant 9 "o =m ( pres]vation may enable u to int]pret or to amplify ! data af=d$ by specim5s pres]v$ 9 ano!r =m4 ,sid5ote3 ,,decorticat$ ,,/ems4 ,! fact t plants usually occur 9 deta*$ fragm5ts1 & t !y h (t5 be5 sort$ by wat]1 & t portions ( ! same plant h be5 emb$d$ 9 s$im5t consid]able di/ances ap>t1 is a con/ant s\rce ( difficulty4 ,decidu\s leaves1 cones1 or angiosp]m\s fl[]s1 & o!r portions ( a plant :i* become naturally sep>at$ f ! p>5t tree1 are met ) z deta*$ specim5s1 & x is comp>atively seldom t we h ! necess>y data = reunit+ ! isolat$ memb]s4 ,z ! result ( ! p>tial decay & sep>ation ( portions ( ! same /em or bran*1 ! wood & b>k may be sep>ately pres]v$4 ,d>w9#adc describes h[ ! b>k (t5 falls f ,eucalyptus trees1 & hangs 9 long %r$s1 :i* sw+ ab\t 9 ! w9d1 & give to ! woods a desolate & untidy appe>ance4 ,9 ! passage already quot$ f ! n>rative ( ! voyage ( ! ,*all5g]1 illu/rations are af=d$ ( ! mann] 9 :i* deta*$ portions ( plants are likely to be pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate4 ,! epid]mal lay] ( a leaf or ! surface tissues ( a twig may be deta*$ f ! und]ly+ tissues & sep>ately pres]v$#add4 ,x is exce$+ly common = a /em to be p>tially decorticat$ be=e pres]vation1 & ! appe>ance pres5t$ by a ca/ or impression ( ! surface ( a woody cyl9d]1 & by ! same /em ) a "p or ! :ole ( its cortex intact is /rik+ly diff]5t4 ,! late ,pr(4 ,balf\r#ade draws att5tion to ?is s\rce ( error 9 8 text-book ( palaeobotany1 & gives figures illu/rat+ ! diff]5t appe>ance pres5t$ by a bran* ( ,arauc>ia imbricata ,pav4 :5 se5 ) its b>k intact & m or less decorticat$4 ,specim5s t are n[ recognis$ z ca/s ( /ems f :i* ! cortex _h be5 m or less completely remov$ be=e pres]vation1 7 orig9ally describ$ "u di/9ct g5]ic names1 su* z ,b]g]ia1 ,knorria & o!rs4 ,^! are n[ kn[n to be imp]fect examples ( ,sigill>ian or ,lepidod5droid plants4 ,gr&',eury#adf quotes ! b>k ( ,lepidod5dron ,vel!imianum ,presl4 z a fossil :i* has be5 describ$ "u tw5ty-eight specific names1 & plac$ 9 sev]al g5]a4 ,s9ce ! microscopical exam9ation ( fossil plant-anatomy 0 r5d]$ possible1 a m correct int]pretation ( decorticat$ & incomplete specim5s has be5 consid]ably facilitat$4 ,! exam9ation ( tang5tial sections tak5 at diff]5t levels 9 ! cortex ( su* a plant z ,lepidod5dron br+s out ! di/ribution ( ?9 & ?ick-wall$ tissue4 ,regul>ly plac$ prom95ces on su* a /em z ! ,knorria %[n 9 fig4 #bc are due to ! exi/5ce 9 ! orig9al /em ( spirally dispos$ areas ( ?9-wall$ & less resi/ant tissue2 z decay proce$$1 ! ?9n] cells w\ld be ! fir/ to disappe>1 & depressions w\ld ?us be =m$ 9 ! surr\nd+ ?ick] wall$ & /rong] tissue4 ,if ! /em became emb$d$ 9 mud or s& be=e ! m resi/ant tissue _h "t to decay1 b aft] ! removal ( ! ?9-wall$ cells1 ! surr\nd+ s$im5t w\ld fill up ! depressions & f9ally1 aft] ! complete decay ( ! /em1 ! impression on ! m\ld or on ! ca/1 =m$ by ! fill+ up ( ! space left by ! /em1 w\ld h ! =m ( regul>ly dispos$ projections m>k+ ! position ( ! m delicate tissues4 ,! specim5 repres5t$ 9 ! figure is an exce$+ly int]e/+ & well pres]v$ example ( a ,coal-,measure /em comb9+ 9 itself repres5tatives ( :at 7 =m]ly spok5 ( z di/9ct g5]a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,a di*otom\sly bran*$ ,lepidod5droid /em 7,knorria mirabilis ,r54 & ,zeill474 ,aft] ,r5ault & ,zeill]#adg4 7 nat4 size47 ,! orig9al specim5 is 9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum1 ,p>is4 ,! surface ( ! fossil z se5 at e af=ds a typical example ( ! ,knorria type ( /em2 ! spirally dispos$ peg-l projections are ! ca/s ( cavities =m$ by ! decay ( ! delicate cells surr\nd+ ea* leaf-trace bundle on its way ?r\gh ! cortex ( ! /em4 ,! surface g exhibits a some:at diff]5t appe>ance1 ow+ to ! fact t we h ! ca/ ( ! /em tak5 at a slightly diff]5t level4 ,! surface ( ! ?ick lay] ( coal at a %[s v cle>ly ! outl9es ( ! leaf-cu%ions2 on ! some:at deep] surfaces b1 c & d ! leaf-cu%ions are b fa9tly indicat$1 & ! long n>r[ l9es on ! coal at c repres5t ! leaf-traces 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ! leaf-cu%ions4 ,sid5ote3 ,,imp]fect ,,ca/s4 ,x is n uncommon among ! old] plant-be>+ rocks to f9d a piece ( s&/one or %ale ( :i* ! surface exhibits a some:at irregul> reticulate patt]n1 ! long & oval me%es hav+ ! =m ( slightly rais$ bosses4 ,! size ( su* a reticulum may v>y f "o 9 :i* ! patt]n is b>ely visible to ! unaid$ eye to "o ) me%es m ?an an in* 9 l5g?4 ,! g5]ic "n ,lyg9od5dron#adh 0 propos$ sev]al ye>s ago 7#ahdc7 = a specim5 hav+ su* a patt]n on its surface1 b )\t any clue hav+ be5 f\nd z to ! mean+ ( ! elongat$ rais$ areas sep>at$ f "o ano!r by a n>r[ groove4 ,at a lat] date ,williamson inve/igat$ ! anatomy ( "s petrifi$ fragm5ts ( a ,c>bonif]\s plant :i* sugge/$ a possible explanation ( ! surface features 9 ! /ructureless specim5s4 ,! "n ,lyg9od5dron 0 appli$ to ?is newly discov]$ plant1 ( :i* "o *>act]i/ic 0 f\nd to be ! occurr5ce ( a hypod]mal b& ( /rong ?ick-wall$ tissue arrang$ 9 ! =m ( a network ) ! me%es occupi$ by ?9-wall$ p>5*yma4 ,if su* a /em 7 und]go+ gradual decay1 ! m delicate tissue ( ! me%es w\ld be de/roy$ fir/ & ! h>d] framework left4 ,a ca/ ( su* a p>tially decay$ /em w\ld take ! =m1 !re=e1 ( project+ areas1 correspond+ to ! holl[$ out areas ( decay$ tissue1 & int]v5+ depressions correspond+ to ! project+ framework ( ! m resi/ant fibr\s tissue4 ,a precisely simil> arrangem5t ( hypod]mal /r5g!n+ tissue occurs 9 v>i\s ,palaeozoic & o!r plants1 & ca/s pres5t+ a correspond+ appe>ance _c be ref]r$ ) c]ta9ty to "o special g5us2 su* ca/s are ( no real sci5tific value#adi4 ,! old g5]ic t]ms ,artisia & ,/]nb]gia illu/rate ano!r s\rce ( error :i* c be avoid$ only by means ( a k ( int]nal /ructure4 ,! =m] "n 0 propos$ by ,/]nb]g & ! latt] by ,artis = precisely simil> ,c>bonif]\s fossils1 hav+ ! =m ( cyl9drical bodies m>k$ by num]\s transv]se annul> ridges & grooves4 ,^! fossils are n[ kn[n to be ca/s ( ! l>ge discoid pi? ( ! g5us ,cordaites1 an ext9ct type ( ,palaeozoic ,gymnosp]ms4 ,calamites & ,tylod5dron af=d o!r in/ances ( plants 9 :i* ! suppos$ surface *>act]s h be5 %[n to be ^? ( ! pi?-ca/4 ,! =m] g5us is describ$ at l5g? 9 a lat] *apt]1 b ! latt] may be briefly ref]r$ to4 ,a ca/1 app>5tly ( a /em1 f ! ,p]mian rocks ( ,russia 0 figur$ 9 #ahgj "u ! "n ,tylod5dron2 ! surface be+ *>act]is$ by spirally arrang$ loz5ge-%ap$ projections1 describ$ z leaf-sc>s4 ,specim5s 7 ev5tually discov]$ 9 :i* ! suppos$ /em 0 %[n to be a ca/ ( ! l>ge pi? ( a plant possess+ second>y wood v l t ( ! rec5t g5us ,arauc>ia4 ,! project+ portions1 in/ead ( be+ leaf-cu%ions1 7 f\nd to be ! ca/s ( depressions 9 ! inn] face ( ! wood :]e /r&s ( vascul> tissue b5t outw>ds on _! way to ! leaves4 ,if a ca/ is made ( ! comp>atively l>ge pi? ( ,arauc>ia imbricata ! features ( ,tylod5dron are fairly closely reproduc$#aej4 ,a dri$ ,brack5 frond ly+ on ! gr\nd 9 ! ,autumn pres5ts a v diff]5t appe>ance z reg>ds ! =m ( ! ultimate segm5ts ( ! frond to t ( a fre%ly cut leaf4 ,9 ! =m] ! edges ( ! p9nules are /rongly recurv$1 & _! %ape is consid]ably alt]$4 ,imm]s$ 9 wat] = "s "t f]n fronds or o!r leaves und]go mac]ation1 & ! m delicate lam9a ( ! leaf rots away mu* m rapidly ?an ! scaffold+ ( ve9s4 ,among fossil f]n fronds diff]5ces 9 ! =m ( ! p9nules & 9 ! %ape & ext5t ( ! lam9a1 to :i* a specific value is assign$1 are no d\bt 9 _m cases m]ely ! expression ei!r ( diff]5ces 9 ! /ate ( ! leaves at ! "t ( fossilisation or ( ! diff]5t conditions "u :i* !y became emb$d$4 ,diff]5tial decay & disorganisation ( plant tissues are factors ( consid]able importance ) reg>d to ! fossilisation ( plants4 ,z ,l9dley#aea & lat] writ]s h sugge/$1 ! abs5ce or comp>ative sc>city ( c]ta9 =ms ( plants f a p>ticul> fossil flora may 9 "s cases be due to _! rapid decay & non-pres]vation z fossils2 x does n necess>ily mean t su* plants 7 unrepres5t$ 9 ! vegetation ( t p]iod4 ,! decay$ rhizomes ( ! ,brack5 f]n (t5 se5 hang+ f ! roadside banks on a hea? or moorl&1 & consi/+ ( flat d>k col\r$ b&s ( resi/ant scl]5*yma 9 a loose %ea? ( ! h>d %rivell$ tissue1 are 9 /rik+ contra/ to ! p]fect /em4 ,a rott+ ,palm /em is gradually r$uc$ to a loose /r+y mass consi/+ ( vascul> /r&s ( :i* ! connect+ p>5*ymat\s tissue has be5 entirely remov$4 ,x mu/ frequ5tly h happ5$ t deta*$ vascul> bundles or /r&s & plates ( h>d /r5g!n+ tissue h be5 pres]v$ z fossils & mi/ak5 = complete portions ( plants4 ,sid5ote3 ,,m9]al ,,deposits ,,simulat+ ,,plants4 ,ap>t f ! necessity ( keep+ 9 view ! possible diff]5ces 9 =m due to ! /ate ( ! plant fragm5ts at ! "t ( pres]vation1 & ! m>k$ contra/ betwe5 ! same species pres]v$ 9 diff]5t k9ds ( rock1 !re are num]\s s\rces ( error :i* belong to an entirely diff]5t category4 ,! s-call$ moss-agates & ! well-kn[n d5dritic m>k+s ( black oxide ( manganese1 are among ! bett] kn[n in/ances ( purely inorganic /ructures simulat+ plant =ms4 ,an int]e/+ example ( ?is /rik+ simil>ity betwe5 a purely m9]al deposit & ! ext]nal =m ( a plant is af=d$ by "s specim5s orig9ally describ$ z impressions ( ! olde/ kn[n f]n4 ,! frontispiece to a well-kn[n "w on fossil plants1 ,le monde des plantes avant l'app>ition de l'homme#aeb1 repres5ts a f]n-l fossil on ! surface ( a piece ( ,silurian slate4 ,! suppos$ plant 0 nam$ ,eopt]is ,mori]ei ,sap41 & x is occasionally ref]r$ to z ! olde/ l& plant 9 books ( comp>atively rec5t date4 ,9 ! ,museum ( ! ,s*ool ( ,m9es1 ,b]l91 !re are "s specim5s ( ,ang]s slate on "s ( :i* ! cleavage face %[s a %all[ longitud9al groove be>+ on ei!r side some:at irregul>ly oblong & oval app5dages ( :i* ! surface is trav]s$ by f9e ve9-l m>k+s4 ,a c>eful exam9ation ( ! slate reveals ! fact t ^! app>5t f]n p9nules are m]ely films ( iron pyrites deposit$ f a solution :i* 0 introduc$ along ! ra*is-l *annel4 ,_m ( ! extraord9>y /ructures describ$ z plants by ,re9s*#aec 9 8 ,memoir on ! m9ute /ructure ( coal h be5 %[n to be ( purely m9]al orig94 ,! innum]able ca/s ( animal-burr[s & trails z well z ! ca/s ( egg-cases & v>i\s o!r bodies1 :i* h be5 describ$ z fossil algae1 mu/ be includ$ among ! mo/ fruitful s\rces ( error4 ,x requires b a %ort exp]i5ce ( microscopical inve/igation ( fossil plant /ructures to discov] num]\s pitfalls 9 ! appe>ance pres5t$ by sections ( calc>e\s & silice\s nodules4 ,! juxtaposition ( tissues app>5tly p>ts ( ! same plant1 & ! p5etration by gr[+ roots ( p>tially decay$ plant dbris1 s]ve to mislead an unpractis$ obs]v]4 ,9 sections ( ! ,engli% #8calc>e\s nodules' "o v frequ5tly f9ds ! tissue ( ,/igm>ian app5dages occupy+ e conceivable position1 & pres]v$ 9 places admirably calculat$ to lead to false int]pretations4 ,! m m9ute inve/igation ( tissues is (t5 r5d]$ difficult by deceptive appe>ances simulat+ orig9al /ructures1 b :i* are 9 reality ! result ( m9]alisation4 ,x is no easy matt] 9 "s cases to discov] :e!r a p>ticul> cell 9 a fossil tissue 0 orig9ally ?ick-wall$1 or :e!r its scl]\s appe>ance is due to ! deposition ( m9]al matt] on ! inside ( ! ?9 cell-membrane4 ,examples ( su* s\rces ( error z h be5 briefly ref]r$ to1 & o!rs1 w be f\nd 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! descriptive portions ( ?is book4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,a4 ,section ( p>tially disorganis$ tissue attack$ by "s bor+ animal4 c1 c1 coprolites2 d1 a tunnel made by ! bor] ?r\gh ! plant tissue4 ,b4 ,transv]se section ( a ,lepidod5droid leaf1 ( :i* ! inn] tissues h be5 de/roy$ & ! cavity fill$ ) coprolites2 simulat+ a sporangium conta9+ spores4 7,a & ,b f specim5s 9 ! ,botanical ,laboratory collection1 ,cambridge47 ,sid5ote3 ,,traces ,,( ,,wood-,,bor]s ,,9 ,,petrifi$ ,,tissue4 ,!re is "o o!r =m ( pitfall :i* %\ld be briefly notic$4 ,9 sections ( petrifi$ plants "o occasionally f9ds clean cut canals p5etrat+ a mass ( tissue1 & diff]+ 9 _! mann] ( occurr5ce & 9 _! some:at l>g] size f ord9>y secretory ducts4 ,su* tunnels or canals are probably ! "w ( a wood-bor+ animal4 ,an example is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #bd ,a4 ,simil>ly x is n unusual to meet ) gr\ps or ne/s ( sph]ical or elliptical bodies ly+ among plant tissues1 & hav+ ! appe>ance ( spores4 ,su* spore-l bodies appe> on close exam9ation to be made up ( f9ely comm9ut$ p>ticles ( tissue1 & 9 all probability !y are ! coprolites ( "s xylophag\s animal4 ,examples ( su* coprolites are %[n 9 fig4 #bd ,a#aed1 & 9 fig4 #bd ,b an int]e/+ mann] ( occurr5ce ( ^! mislead+ bodies is repres5t$4 ,! framework ( cells enclos+ ! ne/ ( coprolites 9 fig4 #bd ,b1 repres5ts ! out] tissues ( a ,lepidod5droid or a ,sigill>ian leaf2 ! inn] tissues h be5 de/roy$ & ! cavity is n[ occupi$ by :at may possibly be ! excreta ( ! wood-eat+ animal4 ,"s ( ! oval spore-l /ructures met ) 9 plant tissues may1 z ,r5ault has sugge/$1 be ! eggs ( an ,ar?ropod#aee4 ,9 a section ( a calc>e\s ,coal-,measure nodule 9 ! ,williamson collection 7,briti% ,museum7#aef !re occur sev]al fungal spores or possibly oogonia ly+ among imp]fectly pres]v$ ,/igm>ian app5dages4 ,associat$ ) ^! are num]\s d>k col\r$ & l>g] bodies consi/+ ( a cavity b\nd$ by a simple membrane2 ! l>g] bodies may well be ! eggs ( "s ,ar?ropod or o!r animal4 ,sid5ote3 ,,photography ,,& ,,illu/ration4 ,9 look+ ?r\gh ! collections ( ,coal-,measure plants 9 ! ,museums ( ,b]l91 ,vi5na & o!r cont95tal t[ns1 "o _c fail to be /ruck ) ! l>g] size ( _m ( ! specim5s z comp>$ ) ^? usually se5 9 ,engli% ,museums4 ,! facilities af=d$ 9 ! ,/ate ,colli]ies ( ,g]many to ! sci5tific inve/igator may acc\nt 9 "p at lea/ = ! bett] specim5s :i* he is able to obta94 ,x w\ld no d\bt be a great ga9 to our collections ( ,coal-,measure plants if arrangem5ts c\ld be made 9 "s colli]ies = ! pres]vation ( ! f9] specim5s met ) 9 ! work+ ( ! seams1 in/ead ( break+ up ! slabs ( %ale & consign+ ev]y?+ to ! wa/e heaps4 ,!re is "o m po9t :i* %\ld be allud$ to 9 connection ) possible s\rces ( error1 & t is ! ess5tial importance ( accuracy 9 ! illu/ration ( specim5s1 especially z reg>d type-specim5s4 ,x is (t5 impossible to inspect ! orig9al fossils :i* h s]v$ z types1 & x is ( ! utmo/ importance t ! publi%$ figures %\ld be z fai?ful z possible4 ,m4 ,crp9#aeg ( ,brussels1 9 an article on ! use ( photography 9 illu/rat+1 has giv5 "s examples ( ! confusion & mi/akes caus$ by imp]fect draw+s4 ,x does n require a long exp]i5ce ( palaeobotanical "w to demon/rate ! ne$ ( c>e 9 ! execution ( draw+s = reproduction4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,nom5clature4 8,i d n ?9k m cr$it is due to a man = def9+ a species1 ?an to a c>p5t] = mak+ a box40 ,,*>les ,,d>w91 ,life & ,lett]s1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cga4 ,any attempt to discuss at l5g? ! difficult & ?orny "q ( nom5clature w\ld be entirely out ( place 9 an elem5t>y book on fossil plants1 b !re are c]ta9 important po9ts to :i* x may be well to draw att5tion4 ,:5 a /ud5t ent]s ! field ( indep5d5t rese>*1 he is usually b imp]fectly acqua9t$ ) ! pr9ciples ( nom5clature :i* %\ld be foll[$ 9 palaeontological "w4 ,aft] los+ himself 9 a maze ( endless synonyms & confus$ t]m9ology1 he recognises ! desirability ( adopt+ "s def9ite & consi/5t plan 9 8 me?od ( nam+ g5]a & species4 ,x is extremely probable t :atev] sy/em is made use (1 x w be call$ 9 "q by "s critics z n be+ 9 /rict con=mity ) accept$ rules4 ,! opportunities = criticism 9 matt]s relat+ to nom5clature are p>ticul>ly num]\s1 & ! critic :o may be b imp]fectly famili> ) ! subject-matt] ( a sci5tific "w is n sl[ to avail himself ( "s suppos$ ecc5tricity on ! "p ( ! au?or 9 ! mann] ( t]m9ology4 ,! true value ( "w may be obscur$ by lay+ too mu* emphasis on ! imp]fections ( a some:at het]odox nom5clature4 ,on ! o!r h& good sy/ematic "w is (t5 s]i\sly spoilt by a want ( att5tion to g5]ally accept$ rules 9 nam+ & def9+ species4 ,x is ess5tial t ^? :o take up sy/ematic rese>* %\ld pay att5tion to ! necess>y ?\gh second>y "q ( te*nical description4 ,sid5ote3 ,,rules ,,= ,,nom5clature4 ,9 inv5t+ a new g5]ic or specific "n1 x is well to adh]e to "s def9ite plan z reg>ds ! =m or t]m9ation ( ! words us$4 ,to deal ) ?is subject 9 detail1 or to recapitulate a s]ies ( rules z to ! be/ me?od ( con/ruct+ names :e!r descriptive or p]sonal1 w\ld take u beyond ! limits ( a s+le *apt]4 ,! /ud5t %\ld ref] = guidance to su* recognis$ rules z ^? drawn up by ! late ,mr ,/rickl& & o!rs at ! in/ance ( ! ,briti% ,association#aeh4 ,x is n infrequ5tly ! case t ! same g5]ic "n has be5 appli$ to a fossil & to a rec5t species4 ,su* a d\ble use ( ! same t]m %\ld always be avoid$ z likely to lead to confusion1 & z t5d+ to admit a divorce betwe5 botany & palaeobotany4 ,9 ! c\rse ( describ+ a collection ( fossil species1 v>i\s problems are b\nd to pres5t !mselves z reg>ds ! be/ me?od ( deal+ ) c]ta9 g5]ic or specific names4 ,a few g5]al sugge/ions may prove ( use to ^? :o are likely to be confront$ ) ! intricacies ( sci5tific & pseudosci5tific t]m9ology4 ,9 writ+ ! "n ( a species1 x is important to app5d ! "n1 (t5 9 an abbreviat$ =m1 ( ! au?or :o fir/ propos$ ! accept$ specific designation4 ,/igm>ia ficoides ,brongn4 writt5 9 ?is =m records ! fact t ,brongni>t 0 ! au?or ( ! specific "n ficoides4 ,x means1 moreov]1 t ,brongni>t n only sugge/$ ! "n1 b t he 0 ! fir/ to give ei!r a figure or a diagnosis ( ?is p>ticul> fossil4 ,x is frequ5tly ! case t a specific "n is propos$ = a new species1 )\t ei!r figures or description2 su* a "n is usually reg>d$ z a nom5 nudum1 & mu/ yield priority to ! "n :i* 0 fir/ accompani$ by "s description or illu/ration suffici5tly accurate to af=d a means ( recognition4 ,a practice :i* may be recomm5d$ on ! score ( conv5i5ce is to write ! "n ( ! au?or ( a species 9 brackets if he 0 n ! fir/ to use ! g5]ic z well z ! specific "n4 ,ony*iopsis ,mantelli 7,brongn47 tells u t ,brongni>t f\nd$ ! species1 b made use ( "s o!r g5]ic "n ?an t :i* is n[ accept$4 ,?is leads u to ano!r po9t ( "s importance4 ,brongni>t describ$ ?is *>act]i/ic ,weald5 f]n "u ! "n ,sph5opt]is ,mantelli2 ,sph5opt]is be+ "o ( ^? extremely useful provisional g5]ic t]ms :i* are us$ 9 cases :]e we h no satisfactory pro( ( precise botanical aff9ity4 ,sph5opt]is /&s = f]n fronds hav+ a c]ta9 habit1 =m ( segm5t & v5ation1 & 9 ?is wide s5se x necess>ily includes repres5tatives ( v>i\s divisions & g5]a ( ,filices4 ,if an example ( a sph5opt]oid frond is discov]$ ) sori or spores suffici5tly well pres]v$ to enable u to det]m9e its botanical position )9 n>r[] limits1 we may ) advantage employ ano!r g5us 9 place ( ! purely artificial =m-g5us :i* 0 orig9ally *os5 z a consequ5ce ( imp]fect k4 ,fronds ( ?is ,weald5 f]n h rec5tly be5 f\nd ) well def9$ f]tile segm5ts hav+ a =m app>5tly id5tical ) t :i* *>act]ises ! polypodiace\s g5us ,ony*ium4 ,= ?is reason ! "n ,ony*iopsis has be5 adopt$4 ,x is saf] & m conv5i5t to use a "n :i* diff]s 9 its t]m9ation f t ( ! rec5t plant ) :i* we believe ! fossil to be closely relat$4 ,a common cu/om is to slightly alt] ! rec5t "n by add+ ! t]m9ation -opsis or -ites4 ,!re are sev]al o!r provisional g5]ic t]ms t are (t5 us$ 9 ,fossil ,botany1 & :i* might be advantage\sly *os5 9 _m cases :]e ! mislead+ resemblance ( ext]nal =m has (t5 giv5 rise to ! use ( a "n imply+ aff9ities :i* _c be satisfactorily demon/rat$4 ,x 0 ! cu/om ( "s ( ! e>lie/ writ]s1 9 spite ( _! habit ( us+ ! names ( rec5t ,fl[]+ plants = ext9ct ,palaeozoic species ( ,vascul> ,cryptogams1 to adopt also g5]al & compreh5sive t]ms4 ,we f9d su* a "n z ,li?oxylon employ$ by ,lhwyd#aei 9 #afii z a conv5i5t designation = fossil wood4 ,sid5ote3 ,,! ,,rule ,,( ,,priority4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important & frequ5tly disput$ que/ions associat$ ) ! nam+ ( species is t ( priority4 ,no "n giv5 to a plant 9 pre-,l9naean days ne$ be consid]$1 z our pres5t sy/em ( nom5clature dates f ! in/itution ( ! b9om9al sy/em by ,l9naeus4 ,z a g5]al rule1 :i* x is advisable to foll[1 ! specific "n :i* 0 fir/ giv5 to a plant1 if accompani$ by a figure or diagnosis1 %\ld take priority ov] a "n ( lat] date4 ,if ,a 9 #ahej describes a species "u a c]ta9 "n1 & 9 #ahfj ,b proposes a new "n = ! same species1 ei!r 9 ignorance ( ! old] "n or f disapproval ( ,a's *oice ( a specific t]m1 ! lat] "n %\ld n be all[$ to sup]s$e ,a's orig9al designation4 ,su* a rule is n only j to ! orig9al au?or1 b is "o :i*1 if g5]ally obs]v$1 w\ld lead to less confusion & w\ld dim9i% unnecess>y multiplication ( specific names4 ,"s writ]s w\ld h u con=m 9 all cases to ?is rule ( priority1 :i* !y consi/5tly adh]e to ap>t f all consid]ations ( conv5i5ce or long-e/abli%$ cu/om4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 cog5t reasons = ma9ta9+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( fre$om4 ,:ile accept+ priority z a good rule 9 mo/ cases1 x is unwise to all[ ourselves to be too s]vile 9 our con=mity to a pr9ciple :i* 0 fram$ 9 ! int]e/s ( conv5i5ce1 if ! /rict application ( ! rule cle>ly makes = confusion & inconv5i5ce4 ,a "n may h be5 9 use = say eighty ye>s1 & has become p]fectly famili> z ! recognis$ designation ( a p>ticul> fossil2 x is discov]$1 h[ev]1 t an old] "n 0 propos$ = ! same species n9ety ye>s ago1 & !re=e accord+ to ! priority rule1 we mu/ accu/om ourselves to a new "n 9 place ( "o :i* is ?or\ghly e/abli%$ by long usage4 ,f a sci5tific po9t ( view1 ! ideal ( nom5clature is to be pla9 & intelligible4 ,to pref] priority to e/abli%$ usage entails obscurity & confusion4 ,if priority is to be ! rule :i* we mu/ inv>iably obey 9 ! %ad[y hope t by su* means f9ality 9 nom5clature#afj may be rea*$1 x becomes necess>y = ! /ud5t to devote no inconsid]able portion ( 8 "t to antiqu>ian rese>*1 ) a view to discov] :e!r a p>ticul> "n may be /amp$ ) ! hallm>k ( #8! v fir/4' ,:ile admitt+ ! advisability ( reta9+ z a g5]al pr9ciple ! orig9al g5]ic or specific "n1 ! extreme subs]vi5ce to #8! priority craze' )\t reg>d to conv5i5ce1 w\ld seem to lead irresi/ibly to ! view t 8botani/s :o wa/e _! "t ov] priority are l boys :o1 :5 s5t on an err&1 sp5d _! "t 9 play+ by ! roadside#afa40 ,sid5ote3 ,,t]m9ology ,,& ,,conv5i5ce4 ,!re is ano!r po9t :i* _c be satisfactorily settl$ 9 all cases by a rigid adh]5ce to an arbitr>y rule4 ,h[ f> %\ld we reg>d a g5]ic "n 9 ! s5se ( a m]e m>k or sign to d5ote a p>ticul> plant1 or to :at ext5t may we accept ! lit]al mean+ ( ! g5]ic t]m z an index ( ! aff9ity or "* ( ! plant8 ,if we consid] ! etymology ( _m g5]ic names1 we soon f9d t !y are entirely inappropriate z aids 9 recogniz+ ! true taxonomic position ( ! plants to :i* !y are appli$4 ,! g5]ic "n ,calamites 0 fir/ sugge/$ by ! suppos$ resemblance ( ?is ,palaeozoic plant to rec5t re$s4 ,if consid]$ etymologically1 x is m]ely a record ( a pa/ mi/ake1 b x w\ld be absurd to disc>d su* a well-kn[n "n on ! gr\nds t ! g5us is a ,vascul> ,cryptogam & f> remov$ f re$s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re (t5 arise cases :i* pres5t a real difficulty4 ,! foll[+ example conv5i5tly illu/rates two di/9ct po9ts ( view z reg>ds g5]ic nom5clature4 ,9 #ahge ,saporta describ$ & figur$ a fragm5t ( a fossil plant f ! ,jurassic b$s ( ,france z ,cycadora*is armata#afb2 ! "n be+ *os5 9 ! belief t ! specim5 0 "p ( a cycadean petiole1 & !re 7 good gr\nds = su* a view4 ,a few ye>s ago ,mr ,ruf=d discov]$ m p]fect specim5s1 9 ! ,weald5 rocks ( ,sussex1 cle>ly belong+ to ,saporta's g5us1 & ^! af=d$ def9ite evid5ce t ,saporta _h be5 deceiv$ by ! imp]fection ( ! specim5s z to _! true botanical position4 ,ow+ to ! obvi\sly mislead+ "n fir/ giv5 to ?is plant1 ,i v5tur$ to sub/itute ,)amia#afc = ,cycadora*is1 & *ose su* a t]m 9 pref]5ce to "o d5ot+ aff9ity1 on acc\nt ( ! difficulty ( plac+ ! plant 9 a def9ite class or family4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x has be5 object$ t ! orig9al "n1 despite its mean+less mean+--if ! expression may be us$--%\ld be reta9$4 ,a fri5dly critic#afd1 9 writ+ ( ! propos$ *ange ( ,cycadora*is1 urges ! importance ( adh]+ to ! "n :i* 0 fir/ appli$ to a g5us4 ,! same au?or p]t95tly rem>ks t we c no m disp5se ) a nom5clature ?an we c disp5se ) language4 ,we may ext5d ! comp>ison & po9t out t 9 language1 z 9 sci5tific nom5clature1 concis5ess1 cle>ness & conv5i5ce %\ld be kept 9 view z guid+ pr9ciples4 ,! /ud5t mu/ judge = himself :at c\rse to foll[ 9 ea* case4 ,:ile adh]+ z f> z possible to a consi/5t plan1 he mu/ take c>e t he does n all[ 8 own judgm5t to be completely ov]-ridd5 by a bl9d ob$i5ce to fix$ rules1 :i* if press$ too f> may defeat _! own ends4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,sy/ematic4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,?allophyta4 ,! divisions ( ! plant k+dom dealt ) 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s ( ,volume ,i4 are tak5 9 _! natural sequ5ce1 beg9n+ ) ! l[e/ & pass+ gradually to ! highe/ gr\ps4 ,! li/ ( ! classes & families includ$ 9 ,*apt]s ,,vii4-,,xi4 is giv5 9 ! table ( cont5ts prec$+ ,*apt] ,i4 ,?allophytes are ( ! simple/ type1 b !y exhibit a v wide range z reg>ds bo? ! /ructure & diff]5tiation ( ! vegetative body & ! me?ods ( reproduction4 ,9 "s cases ! individual consi/s ( a m9ute simple cell :i* multiplies by cell-division2 9 o!rs ! body or ?allus is made up ( a numb] ( simil> units1 :ile 9 a great numb] ( =ms !re is a well-m>k$ physiological division ( lab\r1 z express$ bo? 9 ! ext]nal division ( ! ?allus into di/9ct organs correspond+ 9 function to ! root1 /em1 & leaves ( ! high] plants1 & fur!r 9 ! high degree ( hi/ological diff]5tiation ( ! tissues4 ,9 o!r ?allophytes1 aga91 ! ?allus is a co5ocyte ei!r unseptate or incompletely septate2 t is1 ! individual consi/s ( a s+le cell diff]+ f a true plant-cell1 9 ! /rict] s5se ( ! t]m1 9 possess+ sev]al nuclei1 9 o!r words1 ! ?allus is divid$ up into comp>tm5ts by transv]se septa1 b ea* division conta9s m ?an "o nucleus4 ,su* co5ocytic plants may %[ well-m>k$ ext]nal diff]5tiation ( ! ?allus into memb]s or p>ts subs]v+ diff]5t functions4 ,a simil> wide range is cov]$ by ! me?ods ( reproduction among ?allophytes4 ,i4 ,,p]id9iales4 ,! organisms includ$ "u ?is head are ( little importance f a palaeontological po9t ( view1 b a brief ref]5ce may be made to !m z a section ( ! ,?allophyta4 ,! ,p]id9iales include v small s+le-cell$ organisms :i* h (t5 be5 describ$ z occupy+ a position on ! bord]l& betwe5 animals & plants1 ly+ on ! 8%ad[y b\nd>y betwe5 animal & vegetable life40 ,! individuals are r>ely nak$1 m frequ5tly !y are cov]$ ) a cellulose or mucilag9\s inve/m5t :i* has frequ5tly ! =m ( two or m m9ute arm\r-l plates ( a limit+ membrane4 ,! *romatophores are gre51 yell[1 br[n or col\rless4 ,simple division is ! usual me?od ( reproduction1 b spores h be5 describ$ z occurr+ 9 "s species4 ,! motile =ms are provid$ ) cilia4 ,! ,p]id9iaceae1 a section ( ! ,p]id9iales1 are reg>d$ z ne>ly relat$ to ! ,diatoms4 ,! ,p]id9iales play an important rle 9 ! ,plankton flora ( ! sea & fre%wat] lakes1 & h a _w-wide di/ribution4 ,9 ! n>rative ( ! ,*all5g] cruise !y are describ$ z occasionally fill+ ! t[-nets ) a yell[ col\r$ slime#afe4 ,"s g5]a1 su* z ,c]atium1 are f\nd 9 enorm\s numb]s (f ! ,briti% coa/4 ,z an example ( ! occurr5ce ( fossil repres5tatives ( ! ,p]id9iaceae ref]5ce may be made to "o ( two species ( ,p]id9ium describ$ by ,ehr5b]g 9 #ahcf4 ,^! 7 f\nd 9 a silice\s rock describ$ z ,cretace\s 9 age f ,delitzs* 9 ,saxony4 ,a comp>ison ( ,ehr5b]g's figures ( ! fossil species ,p]id9ium pyrophorum ,ehr5b4#aff1 ) ^? ( ! rec5t species ,p]id9ium div]g5s ,ehr5b41 z giv5 by ,s*tt#afg & o!r writ]s1 br+s out cle>ly ! v close resemblance if n id5tity ( ! two =ms4 ,bts*li#afh 9 8 acc\nt ( ! ,d9(lagellata 9 ,bronn's ,?i]-,rei* confirms ,ehr5b]g's det]m9ation ( ,p]id9ium pyrophorum1 & po9ts out its /rik+ agreem5t ) ! rec5t species4 ,,ii4 ,,coccosph]es ,,& ,,rhabdosph]es4 7,organisms ( d\btful aff9ity47 ,our k ( ^! m9ute calc>e\s organisms is d]iv$ f ,huxley's description ( coccoli?s f ! ,atlantic 9 #aheg1 & f ! acc\nts ( ,walli*1 ,john ,murray1 & o!r writ]s4 ,9 ! fir/ volume ( ! n>rative ( ! ,*all5g] cruise#afi & 9 ! volume on deep-sea deposits#agj ^! m9ute =ms ( life are figur$ & describ$4 ,9 ! latt] volume bo? g5]a are spok5 ( z extremely abundant 9 ! surface wat]s ( ! tropical & temp]ate regions ( ! op5 ocean1 & z =m+ an important con/itu5t ( ! ,globig]9e ooze2 !y are said to occur entangl$ 9 ! gelat9\s sub/ance ( ! ,radiol>ians1 ,diatoms1 & ,=am9if]a1 & are v common 9 ! /oma*s ( ,salps1 ,pt]opods & o!r pelagic animals4 ,rhabdosph]es are r>e 9 regions :]e ! temp]ature ( ! wat] s9ks bel[ #fe ,f42 ! ,coccosph]es occur 9 tropical & temp]ate latitudes1 & ext5d fur!r nor? & s\? ?an ! ,rhabdosph]es4 ,z reg>ds _! botanical position1 ,john ,murray expresses ! view t !y are 9 all probability pelagic algae4 ,9 ! int]e/+ memoir by ,s*tt on ! ,pflanz5leb5 d] ,ho*see#aga !re occurs a %ort ref]5ce to ! =ms describ$ 9 ! ,*all5g] ,reports1 b !y 7 n obta9$ by ! /aff ( ! ,h5s5 ,plankton ,exp$ition & ,s*tt's rem>ks are n bas$ !re=e on p]sonal obs]vations4 ,:ile admitt+ ! exi/5ce ( su* bodies1 he po9ts out t ,zoologi/s h ref]r$ ,coccosph]es & ,rhabdosph]es to ! algae z organisms :i* _c be includ$ 9 any gr\p ( animals1 & ,s*tt is unable to recognise a suffici5t reason = ref]r+ !m to ?is class ( plants4 ,x is sugge/$ inde$ t !y may be purely inorganic /ructures4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4 7,f ,murray & ,blackman74 ,a1 ,coccosph]e #acjj4 ,b1 ,rhabdosph]e #ijj4 ,c1 ,portion ( ! same #acjj4 ,d1 ,rhabdosph]e ( ano!r type1 9 optical section #aijj4 ,e1 ,! same 9 surface view #aijj4 ,f1 ,end ( "o ( ! trumpet-%ap$ app5dages ( ,e4 ,! mo/ rec5t acc\nt ( ^! two g5]a is by ,messrs ,g4 ,murray & ,blackman a %ort notice 9 ,nature = ,april #a1 #ahigagb4 ,num]\s examples ( ,coccosph]es & ,rhabdosph]es 7 obta9$ by ,capt4 ,miln] ( ! ,r4,m4,s4 ,p>a dur+ a voyage to ,b>bados by all[+ ! sea wat] to ent] ! fe$-pipe ( ! boil] ?r\gh a f9e musl9 net4 ,all ! =ms describ$ 9 ! ,*all5g] ,reports 7 met )1 & an exam9ation ( ! mat]ial by means ( extremely high objectives has confirm$ ! orig9al acc\nt ( ! g5]a1 & add$ "s po9ts to our previ\s k4 ,coccosph]es 7fig4 #be ,a74 ,sph]ical bodies ( exce$+ly small size1 consi/+ ( a c5tral protoplasmic vesicle cov]$ ) ov]lapp+ circul> calc>e\s scales1 ea* ( :i* is atta*$ to ! m9ute cell by a button-l projection4 ,! scales are frequ5tly f\nd deta*$ & are !n spok5 ( z ,coccoli?s4 ,rhabdosph]es 7fig4 #be ,b-,f74 ,sph]ical bodies1 extremely m9ute1 consi/+ ( a s+le cell1 on ! surface ( :i* are emb$d$ num]\s calc>e\s plates be>+ long blunt sp9es 7fig4 #be1 ,c7 or beautiful trumpet-l app5dages 7fig4 #be1 ,d-,f74 ,! deta*$ plates ( ,rhabdosph]es are kn[n z ,rhabdoli?s4 ,9 addition to ! text-figures ( ,coccosph]es & ,rhabdosph]es 9 ! ,*all5g] ,reports1 ! same /ructures are %[n 9 samples ( globig]9e ooze figur$ 9 ,plate ,,xi4 ( ! ,monograph on deep-sea deposits4 ,9 a rec5t numb] ( ,nature ,messrs ,dixon & ,joly#agc h ann\nc$ ! discov]y ( ,coccoli?s & ,coccosph]es 9 ! coa/al wat]s (f ,s\? ,c\nty ,dubl94 ,!y e/imate t 9 "o sample ( wat] tak5 ab\t ?ree miles f ! ,iri% coa/ !re 7 #bjj ,coccoli?s 9 ea* cubic c5timetre ( sea wat]4 ,! int]e/ ( ^! calc>e\s bodies f a palaeobotanical po9t ( view lies 9 ! fact t simil> =ms h be5 recogniz$ 9 ! ,*alk & ! ,upp] ,lias4 ,sorby1 9 8 memorable ,address deliv]$ be=e ! ,geological ,society 9 #ahgi1 ref]s to ! abundance ( ,coccoli?s 9 sections ( *alk :i* he exam9$#agd4 ,ro?pletz#age has rec5tly record$ ! occurr5ce ( num]\s ,coccoli?s1 #e-ab 9 diamet]1 associat$ ) ! skeleton ( a horny sponge 7,phymatod]ma7 ( ,liassic age4 ,! "q ( ! nature ( ,coccosph]es & ,rhabdosph]es _c be reg>d$ z def9itely settl$4 ,x has be5 %[n by ,j4 ,murray1 & m rec5tly by ,g4 ,murray & ,v4 ,h4 ,blackman1 t on ! solution ( ! calc>e\s mat]ial by a weak acid !re rema9s a small gelat9\s body app>5tly protoplasmic 9 nature4 ,we may at lea/ express ! op9ion t ,s*tt's sugge/ion z to _! be+ inorganic mu/ be rul$ out ( c\rt4 ,x w\ld appe> t !y are extremely m9ute unicellul> organisms *>act]is$ by a delicate calc>e\s arm\r consi/+ ( num]\s plates or scales4 ,we "k no?+ z to _! life-hi/ory1 & _c attempt to det]m9e _! aff9ities ) any degree ( c]ta9ty until fur!r facts are be=e u4 ,x is n improbable t !y are algae ( an extremely m9ute size1 & ! evid5ce s f> obta9$ w\ld lead u to reg>d !m z complete individuals r ?an ! reproductive cells ( "s l>g] organism4 ,mr ,george ,murray is ( op9ion t !y are c]ta9ly algae1 b he consid]s t !y _c be includ$ 9 any exi/+ family4 ,x is conceivable t !y may be m9ute eggs or reproductive cells ( animals or plants1 b on ! :ole ! balance ( probability w\ld seem to be 9 fav\r ( reg>d+ !m z autonom\s organisms4 ,,iii4 ,,s*izophyta4 ,a4 ,,s*izophyceae 7,,cyanophyceae74 ,b4 ,,s*izomycetes 7,bact]ia74 ,9 ?is gr\p are includ$ small s+le-cell$ plants ( an extremely l[ type ( organisation1 9 :i* reproduction takes ! =m ( multiplication by simple cell-division1 or ! =mation ( spores4 ,! *>act]i/ic me?od ( reproduction by division has giv5 rise to ! g5]al t]m ,fission-plants = ?is l[e/ sub-class 9 ! vegetable k+dom4 ,9 _m cases ! memb]s ( ?is sub-class conta9 *lorophyll1 & associat$ ) x a blue-gre5 col\r+ matt]2 su* plants are class$ toge!r z ! ,blue-gre5 algae1 ,cyanophyceae1 or ,s*izophyceae4 ,o!rs1 aga91 are de/itute ( *lorophyll1 & may be conv5i5tly designat$ ,s*izomycetes or ,fission-fungi4 ,see+ h[ close is ! resemblance & relation%ip betwe5 ! memb]s ( ! sub-class1 x has be5 ! cu/om to include !m z two p>allel s]ies "u ! g5]al head1 ,s*izophyta1 r ?an to incorporate !m among ! ,algae & ,fungi respectively4 ,a4 ,,s*izophyceae 7,,cyanophyceae or ,blue-gre5 ,algae74 ,*roococcaceae4 ,?allus ( a s+le cell1 ! cells may be ei!r free1 or m usually jo9$ toge!r 9 colonies envelop$ by a common gelat9\s matrix1 =m$ by ! mucilag9\s deg5]ation ( ! out] portion ( ! cell-walls4 ,reproduction by means ( simple division or re/+ cells4 ,no/ocaceae4 ,?allus consi/s ( simple or bran*$ r[s ( cells 9 :i* special cells kn[n z het]ocy/s (t5 occur4 ,reproduction by means ( g]m-plants or hormogonia1 or by re/+ cells specially modifi$ to resi/ unfav\rable conditions4 ,9 bo? families ! individuals are surr\nd$ by a gelat9\s envelope1 :i* 9 "s g5]a assumes ! =m ( a conspicu\s & comp>atively resi/ant %ea?4 ,m>9e1 fre%wat]1 & a]ial =ms are repres5t$ among rec5t g5]a4 ,sev]al species occur z endophytes1 liv+ 9 ! tissues or mucilage-conta9+ spaces 9 ! bodies ( high] plants4 ,9 addition to ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( blue-gre5 algae 9 fre%wat] /reams & on damp surfaces1 c]ta9 =ms are p>ticul>ly abundant 9 ! op5 sea#agf1 & 9 lakes or m]es#agg :]e !y are ! cause ( :at is kn[n 9 "s p>ts ( ! c\ntry z 8! break+ ( ! m]es0 78,fleurs d'eau074 ,f ! n>rative ( ! cruise ( ! ,*all5g]1 we le>n t ! ,oscill>iaceae are especially abundant 9 ! surface wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,! 8sea sawdu/0 s nam$ by ,cook's sailors#agh1 & ! same float+ scum collect$ by ,d>w9#agi1 af=ds an illu/ration ( ! abundance ( "s ( ^! blue-gre5 algae 9 ! sea4 ,ano!r mann] ( occurr5ce ( ^! plants has be5 record$ by diff]5t writ]s1 :i* is ( special importance f ! po9t ( view ( fossil algae4 ,on ! %ores ( ! ,great ,salt ,lake1 ,utah1 !re are f\nd num]\s small oolitic calc>e\s bodies ?r[n up by ! waves#ahj4 ,^! are coat$ ) ! cells ( ,glocapsa & ,glo!ca1 two g5]a ( ! ,*roococcaceae4 ,sections ( ! gra9s reveal ! pres5ce ( ! same =ms 9 ! int]ior ( ! calc>e\s matrix1 & x has be5 conclud$1 on good evid5ce t ! algae are responsible = ! deposition ( ! c>bonate ( lime ( ! oolitic gra9s4 ,by extract+ ! c>bonic acid :i* !y require z a s\rce ( food1 f ! wat]s ( ! lake1 ! solv5t p[] ( ! wat] is decreas$ & c>bonate ( lime is ?r[n d[n4 ,9 simil> :ite gra9s f ! ,r$ ,sea#aha !re is a c5tral nucleus 9 ! =m ( a gra9 ( s&1 & cells ( ,*roococcaceae occur 9 ! surr\nd+ c>bonate ( lime z 9 ! ,salt ,lake oolite4 ,pr(4 ,cohn ( ,breslau 9 #ahfb demon/rat$ ! importance ( l[ =ms ( plant life 9 ! deposition ( ! ,c>lsbad 8,sprudel/e9#ahb40 ,on ! bottom ( ,l\gh ,belv$]e1 ne> ,mull+> 9 ,irel&#ahc1 !re occur num]\s sph]ical calc>e\s pebbles1 ( all sizes up to t ( a filb]t4 ,f a pond 9 ,mi*igan 7,u4,s4,a47#ahd simil> bodies h be5 obta9$ v>y+ 9 diamet] f "o to ?ree & a half in*es4 ,9 ! =m] pebbles a species ( ,s*izo?rix1 "o ( ! ,no/ocaceae occurs 9 abundance1 9 ! =m ( *a9s ( small cells enclos$ 9 ! *>act]i/ic & comp>atively h>d tubul> %ea?1 & associat$ ) ,s*izo?rix fasciculata !re h be5 f\nd ,no/oc cells & ! silice\s fru/ules ( ,diatoms4 ,9 ! ,mi*igan nodules ! same ,s*izo?rix occurs1 associat$ ) ,/igonema & ,di*o?rix1 o!r g5]a ( ! ,no/ocaceae4 ,"o ( ! ,mi*igan pebbles is %[n 9 section 9 fig4 #cb ,d4 ,sid5ote3 ,,oolitic ,,/ructure4 ,! connection betwe5 ! well-kn[n oolitic /ructure1 *>act]i/ic ( rocks ( v>i\s ages 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 & ! pres5ce ( algal cells is ( ! greate/ int]e/ f a geological po9t ( view4 ,9 rec5t ye>s consid]able att5tion has be5 paid to ! /ructure ( oolitic rocks1 & 9 _m in/ances !re h be5 f\nd 9 ! calc>e\s gra9s tubul> /ructures sugge/ive ( simple cyl9drical plants1 :i* h probably be5 conc]n$ 9 ! deposition ( ! c>bonate ( lime ( :i* ! granules consi/4 ,9 #ahhj ,messrs ,ni*olson & ,e!ridge#ahe record$ ! occurr5ce ( su* a tubul> /ructure 9 calc>e\s nodules obta9$ f a rock ( ,ordovician age 9 ! ,girvan di/rict ( ,scotl&4 ,^! ,au?ors consid]$ ! tubes to be ^? ( "s ,rhizopod1 & propos$ to designate ! fossil ,girvanella4 ,girvanella 7fig4 #bf74 ,messrs ,ni*olson & ,e!ridge def9$ ! g5us z foll[s3-- 8,microscopic tubuli1 ) ar5ace\s or calc>e\s 787 walls1 flexu\s or contort$1 circul> 9 section1 =m+ loosely compact$ masses4 ,! tubes1 app>5tly simple cyl9d]s1 )\t p]=ations 9 _! sides1 & de/itute ( int]nal p>titions or o!r /ructures ( a simil> k9d40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,girvanella problematica1 ,e?4 & ,ni*4 ,tubules ( ,girvanella ly+ 9 v>i\s positions & surr\nd+ an inorganic #8nucleus' or c5tre4 ,f a section ( ,w5lock lime/one1 ,may ,hill4 #fe ,s9ce ?is diagnosis 0 publi%$ v _m examples ( simil> tubul> fossils h be5 describ$ by sev]al writ]s 9 rocks f widely sep>at$ geological horizons4 ,! accompany+ sket* 7,fig4 #bf71 drawn f a micro-photograph k9dly l5t to me by ,mr ,we!r$ ( ,*elt5ham1 :o has made oolitic gra9s a special subject ( c>eful inve/igation1 af=ds a good example ( ! occurr5ce ( su* tubul> /ructures 9 an oolitic gra9 ( ,silurian age f ! ,w5lock lime/one ( ,may ,hill1 ,gl\ce/]%ire#ahf4 ,9 ! c5tre is a cry/all9e core or nucleus r\nd :i* ! tubules h gr[n1 & presumably !y _h an important %>e 9 ! deposition ( ! calc>e\s sub/ance4 ,! nature ( ,girvanella1 & /ill m its exact position 9 ! organic _w1 is q unc]ta92 x is m5tion$ r z propos ( ! association ( rec5t ,cyanophyceae ) oolitic /ructure1 ?an z a well-def9$ g5us ( fossil algae4 ,9 ! typo description ( ! calc>e\s nodules f ,mi*igan1 ,murray speaks ( ! ,s*izo?rix filam5ts at ! surface ( ! pebbles z fairly intact1 :ile ne>] ! c5tre only %ea?s 7 met )4 ,x is conceivable t 9 "s ( ! tubul> /ructures ref]r$ to ,girvanella we h ! m9]alis$ %ea?s ( a fossil ,cyanophyce\s g5us#ahg4 ,! organic nature ( ^! tubules has be5 a matt] ( dispute1 b we may probably assume ) safety t 9 "s at lea/ ( ! fossil oolitic gra9s !re are di/9ct traces ( "s simple organism :i* 0 9 all likelihood a plant4 ,"s au?ors h sugge/$ t ,girvanella is a calc>e\s alga :i* %\ld be includ$ 9 ! family ,siphoneae#ahh4 ,z a matt] ( fact we mu/ be cont5t = ! pres5t to leave its precise nature z /ill sub judice1 & :ile reg>d+ x z probably an alga1 we may v5ture to consid] x m fitt+ly discuss$ "u ! ,s*izophyta ?an else:]e4 ,we!r$#ahi w\ld g s f> z to ref] oolitic /ructure 9 g5]al to an organic orig94 ,:ile admitt+ t a ,girvanella-l /ructure has be5 v frequ5tly met ) 9 oolitic rocks1 x w\ld be unwise to adopt s f>-rea*+ a conclusion4 ,x is at lea/ premature to ref] ! =mation ( all oolitic /ructure to algal ag5cy1 & ! evid5ce adduc$ is by no means conv9c+ 9 e case4 ,! discov]y ( ,girvanella & alli$ =ms 9 rocks f ! ,cambrian#aij1 ,ordovician1 ,silurian1 ,c>bonif]\s1 ,jurassic & o!r sy/ems is a /rik+ fact1 & l5ds support to ! view t oolitic /ructure is 9 _m cases intimately associat$ ) ! pres5ce ( a simple tubul> organism4 ,among rec5t algae we f9d diff]5t g5]a1 & repres5tatives ( diff]5t families1 gr[+ 9 su* a mann] & "u su* circum/ances z are fav\rable to ! =mation ( a ball-l mass ( algal ?reads1 :i* may or may n be encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,simil>ly z reg>ds oolitic gra9s ( v>i\s sizes1 & ! occurr5ce 9 rocks ( calc>e\s nodules1 ! tubul> /ructure is n always ( precisely ! same type1 & _c always be includ$ "u ! g5us ,girvanella4 ,sev]al obs]v]s h record$ ! occurr5ce ( l[ =ms ( plant-life 9 ! wat]s ( !rmal spr+s4 ,x has be5 already m5tion$ t ,cohn describ$ ! occurr5ce ( simple plants 9 ! w>m ,c>lsbad ,spr+s1 & fission-plants ( v>i\s types h be5 discov]$ 9 ! !rmal wat]s ( ,icel&1 ! ,azores#aia1 ,new ,zeal&1 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k1 ,japan1 ,india1 & num]\s o!r places4 ,a few ye>s ago ,mr ,we$1 ( ! geological survey ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 publi%$ an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! =mation ( calc>e\s trav]t9e & silice\s s9t] 9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k di/rict#aib4 ,?is au?or emphasizes ! important rle ( c]ta9 =ms ( plants 9 ! build+ up ( ! calc>e\s & silice\s mat]ial4 ,among o!r =ms ( frequ5t occurr5ce1 ,calo?rix gypsophila & a species ,lepto?rix are m5tion$1 ! =m] be+ a memb] ( ! ,no/ocaceae1 alli$ to ,rivul>ia1 & ! latt] a g5us ( ,s*izomycetes4 ,9 _m ( ! spr+s !re are f\nd masses ( algal jelly l ^? previ\sly describ$ by ,cohn 9 ! ,c>lsbad wat]s4 ,sections ( su* dri$ jelly %[$ a numb] ( int]lac$ filam5ts ) glassy silica betwe5 !m4 ,we$ ref]s to ! occurr5ce ( small gritty p>ticles 9 ?is mucilag9\s mat]ial4 ,^! are calc>e\s oolitic granules :i* are ev5tually cem5t$ toge!r into a compact & firm mass ( trav]t9e by ! cont9u$ deposition ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,! pres5ce ( ! plant filam5ts is (t5 difficult to recognise 9 ! 8lea!ry %eet ( t\gh gelat9\s mat]ial10 or 9 8! ske9s ( delicate :ite filam5ts0 :i* make up ! trav]t9e deposits4 ,sid5ote3 ,,bor+s ,,9 ,,%ells4 ,"u ! head ( ,cyanophyceae1 m5tion %\ld be made ( ! rec5t g5us ,hyella#aic1 :i* occurs z a p]=at+ or bor+ alga 9 ! calc>e\s %ells ( molluscs4 ,on dissolv+ ! c>bonate ( lime ( %ells p]=at$ by ?is alga1 ! latt] is isolat$ & appe>s to consi/ ( r[s ( small cells1 ) possibly "s sporangia conta9+ spores4 ,o!r bor+ algae h be5 record$ among ! ,*lorophyceae1 & rec5tly a memb] ( ! ,rhodophyceae#aid has be5 f\nd liv+ 9 ! sub/ance ( calc>e\s %ells4 ,su* examples are wor?y ( note 9 view ( ! n infrequ5t occurr5ce ( fossil corals1 %ells & fi%-scales1 :i* h evid5tly be5 bor$ by an organism resembl+ 9 =m & mann] ( occurr5ce ^! rec5t algal bor]s4 ,! occurr5ce ( small ramify+ tubes 9 rec5t & fossil corals1 fi%-scales1 & bones 0 long ago po9t$ out by ,quekett#aie1 ,kllik]#aif1 ,rose#aig & o!r writ]s#aih4 ,^! n>r[ tubul> cavities h g5]ally be5 attribut$ to ! bor+ action ( "s p>asitic organism1 ei!r a fungus or an alga4 ,9 #ahgf ,duncan publi%$ two important pap]s#aii deal+ ) ! occurr5ce ( su* tubes 9 rec5t corals1 z well z 9 ! calc>e\s skeleton ( ,calceol9a1 ,goniophyllum & o!r ,palaeozoic1 ,mesozoic & ,t]ti>y species ( corals4 ,?is writ] attribut$ ! =mation ( ! cavities 9 ! case ( ! fossil species to ! action ( a fungus :i* he nam$ ,palaea*lya p]=ans1 & consid]$ z v ne>ly relat$ to ,a*lya p5etrans f\nd 9 ! 8d5se scl]5*yma0 ( rec5t corals4 ,9 fig4 #bg ,a4 is reproduc$ "o ( ! draw+s giv5 by ,rose#bjj 9 8 pap] publi%$ 9 #ahee2 x %[s a section ( a fi%-scale f ! ,kim]idge clay :i* has be5 attack$ by a bor+ organism4 ,rose attributes ! di*otom\sly bran*$ canals to "s 8infusorial p>asite40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,a1 ,section ( a fi%-scale f ! ,kim]idge ,clay1 %[+ bran*$ canals1 made by a bor+ organism1 #he4 ,b1 ,section ( a ,sol5 %ell1 p5etrat$ 9 all directions by ! bor+ ?allus ( ,o/racoblabe 7a fungus871 #ccj4 ,c1 ,piece ( ! ?allus ( ,o/racoblabe isolat$ by decalcification1 #gde4 ,a1 aft] ,rose4 ,b & ,c1 aft] ,bornet & ,flahault4 ,9 ! important pap] by ,,mm4 ,bornet & ,flahault on p]=at+ algae a full description is giv5 ( v>i\s bor+ =ms belong+ to ! ,*lorophyceae & ! ,cyanophyceae#bja4 ,! canals :i* ^! algae produce 9 calc>e\s %ells & o!r h>d sub/ances are ( ! same type z ^? previ\sly describ$ 9 fossil corals1 fi%-scales & bones4 ,9 deal+ ) liv+ p]=at+ ,?allophytes ! col\r & o!r cell-cont5ts (t5 enable u to di/+ui% betwe5 algae & fungi1 b 9 fossil specim5s su* te/s _c be appli$4 ,! fossil tubul> bor+s may or may n %[ traces ( ! transv]se septa & reproductive cells2 x is (t5 ! case t no trace ( ! organism has be5 left1 b only ! canals by :i* x p5etrat$ ! calc>e\s or bony skeleton4 ,9 "s ( ! examples ( ,palaea*lya figur$ by ,duncan !re appe> to be num]\s spores 9 "s ( ! sections1 b x is g5]ally a v difficult & (t5 an impossible task to discrim9ate betwe5 ! bor+s ( fungi & algae 9 fossil mat]ial4 ,fig4 #bg ,b1 :i* is copi$ f "o ( ,bornet & ,flahault's draw+s1 repres5ts a piece ( ,sol5 %ell riddl$ ) small canals made by ! organism :i* has be5 nam$ by ! ,fr5* au?ors ,o/racoblabe implexa1 & reg>d$ by !m z a fungus4 ,fig4 #bg ,c repres5ts a small piece ( ! vegetative body ( ,o/racoblabe obta9$ f a decalcifi$ %ell4 ,9 endeav\r+ to det]m9e ! organism :i* has produc$ bor+s 9 fossil corals or %ells1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t "s =ms ( canals or passages may h be5 ! "w ( p]=at+ sponges1 b ^! are l>g] 9 diamet] ?an ^? made by algae or fungi4 ,by "s writ]s#bjb ! tubul> cavities 9 %ells h be5 ref]r$ to true algae1 b o!rs consid] !m to be ( fungal orig94 ,z an example ( a fossil alga ref]r$ to ! ,cyanophyceae1 ! g5us ,zonatri*ites#bjc may be quot$4 ,bornemann1 :o fir/ describ$ ! specim5s1 po9ts out ! close resemblance 9 habit to "s memb]s ( ! rec5t ,rivul>iaceae4 ,zonatri*ites4 ,! au?or ( ! g5us def9es x z foll[s3-- 8,a calc>e\s alga1 ) radially arrang$ filam5ts1 =m+ hemisph]ical or kidney-%ap$ lay]s1 gr[+ on or enclos+ o!r bodies4 ,p>allel or conc5tric zones are se5 9 cross-section1 =m$ by ! p]iodic gr[? ( ! alga1 ! old] & dead lay]s s]v+ z a f\ndation on :i* ! "y filam5ts gr[ 9 radially arrang$ gr\ps40 ,! nodules :i* are app>5tly =m$ by species ( ?is g5us occur 9 v>i\s sizes & %apes2 ,bornemann describes "o hemisph]ical mass #h cm4 broad & #d cm4 ?ick4 ,9 "s cases ! organism has giv5 rise to oolitic sph]ules1 :i* 9 radial section exhibit ! bran*$ tubul> cells spread+ 9 fan-%ap$ gr\ps f ! c5tre ( ! oolitic gra94 ,! section p>allel to ! surface ( a nodule pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a numb] ( circul> or elliptical tubes cut across transv]sely or m or less obliquely4 ,! resemblance betwe5 ! fossil & a specim5 ( ! rec5t species ,zonatri*ia calcivora ,braun1 is c]ta9ly v close1 b x is v difficult1 9 ! abs5ce ( mat]ial exhibit+ m detail$ /ructure ?an is %[n 9 ! specim5s describ$ by ,bornemann1 to decide ) any c]ta9ty ! true position ( ! fossil4 ,! figures d n enable u to recognise any trace ( cells 9 ! radiat+ tubes4 ,x is possible t we h 9 ,zonatri*ites an example ( a ,cyanophyce\s g5us 9 :i* only ! %ea?s ( ! filam5ts h be5 pres]v$4 ,9 any case x is probable t ?is ,mesozoic species af=ds ano!r in/ance ( a fossil alga :i* has be5 responsible = c]ta9 oolitic or o!r /ructures 9 lime/one rocks4 ,! species describ$ by ,bornemann 0 obta9$ f a ,breccia ne> ,lissau 9 ,silesia1 ( ,keup] age4 ,m4 ,r5ault has rec5tly describ$ c]ta9 m9ute /ructures 9 a ,palaeozoic coprolite to :i* he gives ! "n ,gloioconis ,borneti#bjd1 & :i* he reg>ds z a ,p]mian gelat9\s alga simil> to ! well-kn[n rec5t g5us ,glocapsa4 ,! appe>ances reveal$ 9 a section ( ! coprolite are int]pret$ by ?is au?or z a collection ( small colonies ( a unicellul> gelat9\s alga 9 v>i\s /ages ( developm5t4 ,r5ault's figure %[s a sph]ical gr\p ( fa9tly outl9$ & cl\dy bodies1 mo/ ( :i* include "o or two small d>k spots4 ,! latt] are reg>d$ z ! cells ( ! alga1 & ! surr\nd+ cl\dy sub/ance is describ$ z ! gelat9\s %ea?4 ,! abs5ce ( a nucleus 9 ^! extremely m9ute fossil cells 7#h-aj 9 diamet]7 is ref]r$ to z an argum5t 9 fav\r ( ref]r+ ! organism to ! ,cyanophyceae r ?an to ! ,*lorophyceae4 ,x is possible t ! ill-def9$ /ructure describ$ by ,r5ault may be a petrifi$ alga1 b !re is n suffici5t evid5ce to w>rant a decid$ op9ion2 ! abs5ce ( nuclei c h>dly be tak5 s]i\sly 9 su* a case z ?is z an argum5t 9 fav\r ( ! ,cyanophyceae4 ,sid5ote3 ,,cyanophyceae4 ,al?\gh our exact k ( fossil ,cyanophyceae is extremely small1 x is probable t su* simple =ms ( plants exi/$ 9 abundance dur+ ! pa/ ages 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,sev]al writ]s h express$ ! op9ion t ! blue-gre5 algae may be tak5 z ! mod]n repres5tatives ( ^? e>lie/ plants :i* fir/ exi/$ on an ar*aean l&-surface4 ,! liv+ species possess ! p[] ( resi/+ unfav\rable conditions 9 a m>k$ degree1 & are able to adapt !mselves to v diff]5t surr\nd+s4 ,_! occurr5ce 9 hot spr+s proves !m capable ( liv+ "u conditions :i* are fatal to mo/ plants1 & sugge/s ! possibility ( _! occurr5ce 9 ! heat$ wat]s :i* probably con/itut$ ! m$ium 9 :i* vegetable life began4 ,an int]e/+ example ( ! gr[? ( blue-gre5 algae "u unfav\rable conditions 0 record$ 9 #ahhf by ,dr ,treub#bje ( ! ,buit5zorg ,g>d5s1 ,java4 ,9 #ahhc a consid]able "p ( ! isl& ,krakatoa1 situat$ 9 ! ,/raits ( ,sunda1 betwe5 ,sumatra & ,java1 0 entirely de/roy$ by a t]rific volcanic explosion4 ,:at rema9$ _h be5 r$uc$ to a lifeless mass ( hot volcanic a%es4 ,?ree ye>s lat]1 ,treub visit$ ! isl&1 & f\nd t sev]al plants _h already e/abli%$ !mselves on ! volcanic rocks4 ,v>i\s f]ns & fl[]+ plants 7 record$ 9 ,treub's description ( ?is newly e/abli%$ flora4 ,x seem$ t ! b>r5 rocky surface _h be5 prep>$ = ! m highly organis$ plants by ! action ( c]ta9 =ms ( ,cyanophyceae1 :i* 7 able to live "u conditions :i* w\ld be fatal to m complex types4 ,9 ! petrifi$ tissues ( fossil plants !re are occasionally f\nd small sph]ical vesicles1 ) delicate limit+ membranes1 9 ! cavities ( p>5*ymat\s cells or 9 ! elem5ts ( vascul> tissue4 ,"s ( ^! sph]ical inclusions h be5 describ$ z possibly simple =ms ( endophytic algae#bjf1 su* z we are n[ famili> ) 9 species ( ! ,cyanophyceae & o!r algae4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 no record$ in/ance ( su* fossil endophytic algae is entirely satisfactory4 ,"s ( ! cells figur$ by ,williamson z possibly algae1 endophytic 9 ! tissues ( ,coal-,measure plants1 are no d\bt ?9-wall$ vesicles :i* =m$ "p ( a highly vacuolat$ cell-cont5ts4 ,examples ( su* vesicles 9 liv+ & fossil cells are %[n 9 fig4 #db4 ,! fact t ! cont5ts ( liv+ plant tissues h be5 errone\sly describ$ z endophytic organisms1 %\ld s]ve z a w>n+ aga9/ describ+ fossil endophytes )\t ! te/ ( good evid5ce to support !m4 ,! description ( a fossil ,no/oc by ! late ,pr(4 ,he]#bjg f ! ,t]ti>y rocks ( ,switz]l& _c be accept$ z a tru/wor?y example ( a fossil plant1 mu* less ( a g5us ( rec5t algae4 ,! application ( rec5t g5]ic names to fossils :i* are possibly n ev5 organic mu/ d m h>m ?an good4 ,b4 ,,s*izomycetes 7,bact]ia74 ,x is impossible to draw a %>p l9e betwe5 ! two subdivisions ( ! ,s*izophyta4 ,! s-call$ ,fission-,fungi or ,bact]ia diff] f ! ,s*izophyceae or ,fission-,algae 9 ! cell-cont5ts be+ ei!r col\rless1 blood-r$ or gre51 b nev] blue-gre54 ,we may reg>d ! ,bact]ia1 g5]ally1 z ! l[e/ =ms ( plants2 !y are extremely simple organisms :i* h be5 d]iv$ f "s primitive types :i* possess$ ! p[] ( indep5d5t exi/5ce & conta9$ *lorophyll--t important sub/ance :i* enables a plant to obta9 its c>bon fir/-h& f ! c>bon dioxide ( ! atmosph]e4 ,bact]ia may be briefly describ$ z s+le-cell$ plants1 & z de ,b>y sugge/$ comp>able 9 %ape to a billi>d ball1 a lead p5cil or a corkscrew#bjh4 ,a s+le sph]ical or cyl9drical cell measures ab\t #a 9 diamet]#bji4 ,!y occur ei!r s+ly or 9 filam5ts1 or z masses ( v>i\s %apes consi/+ ( numb]less bact]ial cells4 ,! nature & mann] ( life ( ,bact]ia1 & _! extraord9>y p[] ( successfully resi/+ ! mo/ unfav\rable conditions1 r5d] x probable t !y con/itute an extremely anci5t gr\p ( organisms4 ,! wond]ful p]fection ( pres]vation ( _m fossil plants enables u to inve/igate ! cont5ts ( petrifi$ cells & to exam9e 9 m9ute/ detail ! hi/ology ( ext9ct plants4 ,to ^? :o are famili> ) ! possibilities ( microscopical rese>* z appli$ to silicifi$ & calcifi$ fossil tissues1 x is by no means incr$ible t evid5ce has be5 detect$ ( ! exi/5ce ( ,bact]ia z f> back 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? z ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,devonian p]iods4 ,7 !re no tru/wor?y records ( ! occurr5ce ( ,bact]ia 9 ,palaeozoic times1 x w\ld /ill be a natural supposition t ^! ubiquit\s organisms mu/ h be5 abundantly repres5t$4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ z a probable conclusion t "s =ms ( ,bact]ia1 :i* produc$ *emical *anges 9 ! soil necess>y = ! nutrition ( plants1 mu/ h exi/$ contemporane\sly ) ! olde/ vegetation#baj4 ,! pap]-coal ( ,t\la1 :i* 9 "s places rea*es a ?ickness ( #bj cm41 is a plant-b$ ( exceptional int]e/4 ,x diff]s f ord9>y coal 9 be+ made up ( numb]less ?9 br[n-pap]y %eets associat$ ) a d>k] col\r$ sub/ance l>gely compos$ ( ulmic acid4 ,pr(4 ,zeill]#baa1 9 an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! pap]y lay]s1 has %[n t !y consi/ ( ! cuticles ( a ,lepidod5droid plant1 ,bo?rod5dron4 ,an exam9ation ( a piece ( "o ( ! %eets at once reveals ! exi/5ce ( a regul> network ( :i* ! walls ( ! me%es are ! outl9es ( ! epid]mal cells1 ! me%es be+ bridg$ across by a ?9 light br[n membrane :i* repres5ts ! lay] ( cuticul>is$ cell-wall ( ea* epid]mal cell4 ,at regul> int]vals & dispos$ 9 a spiral arrangem5t1 we f9d small gaps 9 ! pap]y cuticle :i* m>k ! position ( ! ,bo?rod5dron leaves4 ,^! ,palaeozoic cuticles are n petrifi$2 !y are only slightly alt]$1 & h reta9$ ! p[] ( swell+ 9 wat]1 be+ able to take up /a9s l rec5t tissues4 ,x may reasonably be assum$ t ! p]si/5t cuticles owe _! pres]vation to a great] p[] ( resi/ance to de/ructive ag5ts ?an 0 possess$ by ! o!r tissues ( ! plant4 ,x is by no means unlikely1 z ,r5ault#bab has rec5tly sugge/$1 t z ! ,bo?rod5dron /em-fragm5ts lay 9 ! swamps or m>%es ! tissues 7 gradually eat5 away by ,bact]ia1 b ! cuticles successfully resi/$ ! attacks ( ! bact]ial saprophytes4 ,! same obs]v] has describ$ :at he reg>ds z ! actual organism :i* effect$ ?is :olesale de/ruction1 "u ! "n ,micrococcus ,zeill]i4 ,he f9ds1 aft] treat+ ! cuticles ) ammonia to remove ! ulmic acid1 t !re occur num]\s m9ute sph]ical bodies1 ea* surr\nd$ by a ?9 envelope1 ei!r s+ly or 9 gr\ps on ! surface ( ! cuticul> membrane4 ,^! v>y 9 size f #e to #a 9 diamet]4 ,i h n be5 able to detect any satisfactory pro( ( su* ,micrococci 9 specim5s ( ! pap]-coal :i* 7 treat$ accord+ to ,r5ault's me?od1 b x is extremely probable t ?is unusual me?od ( pres]vation ( /em-cuticles is ! result ( selective bact]ial action4 ,r5ault believes t "s ( ! m9ute sph]ulitic /ructures :i* are se5 9 sections ( decay$ tissues ( ,palaeozoic plants owe _! orig91 9 "p1 to ! ravages ( bact]ia4 ,! disorganisation ( p>5*ymat\s cells gives rise to a gelat9\s sub/ance 9 :i* ne$le-l cry/als ( silica may be deposit$1 f a silice\s solution1 9 a matrix :i* has result$ f bact]ial activity4 ,9 "s ( ! sections ( tissues figur$ by ,r5ault#bac ! outl9es ( a few cells are /ill indicat$ by fragm5ts ( ! p>tially decay$ wall1 :ile 9 o!r cells ! walls h be5 completely de/roy$ by ,bact]ia ( :i* "s are pres]v$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! cell-area1 =m+ a k9d ( nucleus to ! silice\s sph]ulites4 ,sid5ote3 ,,bacilli4 ,9 addition to ! ,micrococcus describ$ by ,r5ault f ! ,t\la pap]-coal1 !re are a ho/ ( o!r =ms :i* h be5 m9utely diagnos$ & figur$ by ,pr(s4 ,r5ault & ,b]tr&#bad4 ,^! au?ors h discov]$ :at !y believe to be well-def9$ species ( ,micrococcus & ,bacillus rang+ 9 age f ,devonian to ,jurassic4 ,! mat]ial :i* has af=d$ ! some:at />tl+ results ( _! inve/igations consi/s p>tly ( ! coprolites ( reptiles & fi%es1 & ( silicifi$ & calcifi$ plant tissues4 ,bacillus ,p]micus4 ,r54 & ,b]t4#bae 7,fig4 #bh ,b47 ,?is ,bacillus1 :i* 0 discov]$ 9 sections ( a ,p]mian coprolite f ,c5tral ,france1 has ! =m ( cyl9drical rods #ab-ad 9 l5g?1 & #ac-ae broad1 r\nd$ at ea* end4 ,! rods occur ei!r s+ly or occasionally1 two or ?ree individuals are jo9$ end to end4 ,fig4 #bh ,b repres5ts a piece ( "o ( ,r5ault & ,b]tr&'s sections2 ! small rods are cle>ly se5 ly+ 9 v>i\s directions 9 ! homog5e\s matrix ( ! coprolite4 ,ea* individual is said to be surr\nd$ by an extremely m9ute empty space #d 9 wid?1 orig9ally occupi$ by ! ,bacillus membrane1 ! c5tral rod repres5t+ ! m9]alis$ cell-cont5ts4 ,9 ?is example ! petrify+ sub/ance 0 probably d]iv$ f ! phosphate ( calcium ( bones :i* 7 attack$ by ,bact]ia4 ,i am indebt$ to ,pr(4 ,r5ault = an opportunity ( exam9+ specim5s ( ?is & o!r fossil ,bact]ia1 & 9 ?is p>ticul> case !re is und\bt$ly /rong evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! au?or's det]m9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,a1 ,bacillus ,tieghemi ,r54 & ,micrococcus ,guign>di ,r54 ,b1 ,bacillus ,p]micus ,r54 7,aft] ,r5ault47 ,bacillus ,tieghemi ,r54#baf & ,micrococcus ,guign>di ,r54#bag 7,fig4 #bh ,a47 ,r5ault has giv5 ! "n ,bacillus ,tieghemi to c]ta9 m9ute rods #f-aj1 9 l5g?1 & #bb-ch broad1 (t5 conta9+ a d>k col\r$ sph]ical spore-l body #b 9 diamet]1 :i* h be5 f\nd 9 ! tissues ( a ,coal-,measure plant4 ,! "n ,micrococcus ,guign>di has be5 appli$ to m or less sph]ical bodies #bb 9 diamet]1 also met ) 9 silicifi$ plants4 ,a portion ( "o ( ,r5ault's figures is reproduc$ 9 ,fig4 #bh ,a4 ,! fa9t & brok5 l9es m>k ! position ( ! middle lamellae ( p>5*ymat\s cells f ! pi? ( a ,calamite4 ,! tissue has be5 almo/ completely de/roy$1 b ! m resi/ant middle lamellae h be5 p>tially pres]v$4 ,! %ort & broad rods repres5t :at ,r5ault t]ms ,bacillus ,tieghemi2 ! small circle 9 ! middle ( "s ( ^! be+ ref]r$ to z a spore1 & 9 "o specim5 %[n 9 ! figure1 ! second rod at "r angles to ! fir/ is describ$ z a small daught]-,bacillus =m$ by ! g]m9ation ( ! c5tral spore4 ,! isolat$ circles 9 ! figure are ref]r$ to ,micrococcus4 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossil ,,bact]ia4 ,x is unnecess>y to give an acc\nt ( ! num]\s examples ( ,micrococci & ,bacilli describ$ by ,r5ault f ,devonian1 ,c>bonif]\s1 ,p]mian & ,jurassic rocks4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 9 a few words consid] ! g5]al "q ( ! exi/5ce & possible det]m9ation ( fossil ,bact]ia4 ,9 #ahgg ,pr(4 ,van ,tieghem#bah ( ,p>is drew att5tion to ! me?od ( op]ation & plan ( attack ( ,bacillus amylobact] z a de/ructive ag5t 9 ! decay ( plant dbris 9 wat]4 ,he 0 able to foll[ ! gradual disorganisation ( ! tissues & ! v>i\s /eps 9 ! #8butyric f]m5tation' effect$ by ?is ,bact]ium4 ,simil>ly ! same au?or#bai 0 able to detect ! action ( an alli$ organism 9 "s silicifi$ tissues f ! ,c>bonif]\s nodules ( ,gr&-,croix1 a well-kn[n locality = petrifi$ plants ne> ,sa9t-ti5ne4 ,he recognis$ also ! traces ( ! ,bacillus itself 9 ! p>tially de/roy$ plant tissues4 ,! ,palaeozoic ,bact]ia made use ( "s cellulose-dissolv+ f]m5t ( :i* ! action is cle>ly demon/rat$ 9 sections ( silicifi$ tissues4 ,_m ( ! ph5om5a describ$ by ,r5ault & ,b]tr& z due to simil> ,bact]ial action1 af=d additional evid5ce t ! gradual disorganisation ( vegetable tissues 0 effect$ 9 precisely ! same mann] z at ! pres5t day4 ,9 "s cases we h ,i believe tru/wor?y examples ( ! ,bact]ia !mselves1 bo? 9 coprolites & plant-tissues1 b x is m ?an probable t "s ( ! record$ examples are n ( any sci5tific value4 ,! exam9ation ( petrifi$ tissues "u ! high] p[]s ( a microscope (t5 reveals ! exi/5ce ( num]\s sph]ical p>ticles & rod-l bodies :i* agree 9 %ape ) ,micrococci or ,bacilli4 ,m9ute cry/als ( m9]al sub/ances may occur 9 ! silice\s or calc>e\s matrix ( a petrifi$ plant :i* simulate m9ute organic =ms4 ,vogelsang#bbj 9 8 important "w die ,kry/allit5 has ?r[n consid]able light on ! ontog5y ( cry/als1 & ! m9ute globulites & o!r =ms ( incipi5t cry/allisation might well be mi/ak5 = ,bact]ial cells4 ,grant+1 h[ev]1 t we h satisfactory evid5ce1 bo? direct & indirect1 t "s =ms ( ,bact]ia liv$ 9 ! decay+ tissues ( ,palaeozoic plants1 & 9 ! inte/9es ( reptiles & o!r animals1 we _c safely proce$ to specific diagnoses & det]m9ations#bba4 ,r5ault has po9t$ out t fossil ,bact]ia may (t5 be m readily detect$ ?an liv+ =ms ow+ to ! pres5ce ( a br[n ulmic sub/ance :i* results f ! c>bonisation ( ! protoplasm4 ,he is =c$ to admit1 h[ev]1 t su* diagno/ic *>act]s z are obta9$ by ,bact]iologi/s by means ( cultures _c be utilis$ :5 we are deal+ ) fossil examples6 ,we are told t 8,p>t\t o n\s avons *]* des ,bact]iaces1 n\s en avons r5contr40#bbb ,?is inde$ is ! dang]2 an ext5d$ exam9ation ( fossil sections "u an imm]sion-l5s mu/ almo/ inevitably lead to ! discov]y ( m9ute bodies ( a m or less sph]ical =m :i* might be ,micrococci4 ,to measure1 & "n su* bodies z def9ite species ( ,micrococci is1 ,i believe1 b wa/$ en]gy & an attempt to compass ! impossible4 ,speciali/s tell u t ! accurate det]m9ation ( species ( rec5t ,bact]ia is practically hopeless3 may we n reasonably conclude t ! attempt to specifically diagnose fossil =ms is absolutely hopeless8 8,! imag9ation ( man is naturally sublime1 delight$ ) :atev] is remote & extraord9>y--01 b x is to be deplor$ if ! fasc9ation ( fossil bact]iology is all[$ to w>p s\nd sci5tific s5se4 ,,iv4 ,,algae4 ,a4 ,,diatomaceae4 7,diatoms47 ,b4 ,,*lorophyceae4 7,gre5 algae47 ,c4 ,,rhodophyceae4 7,r$ algae47 ,d4 ,,phaeophyceae4 7,br[n algae47 ,! pres5ce ( *lorophyll is "o common *>act]i/ic ( ! num]\s plants includ$ 9 ! ,algae4 ,! g5]ally adopt$ classification re/s 9 "p on an artificial di/9ction1 namely ! prevail+ col\r ( ! plant4 ,x mu/ be def9itely admitt$1 at ! outset1 t palaeobotany has s f> af=d$ extremely little tru/wor?y in=mation z to ! pa/ hi/ory ( algae4 ,7 we to measure ! importance ( ! geological hi/ory ( ^! plants by ! numb] ( record$ fossil species1 we %\ld arrive at a totally wrong & mislead+ e/imate4 ,by f> ! great] numb] ( ! suppos$ fossil algae h no claim to be reg>d$ z au!ntic records ( ?is class ( ,?allophytes4 ,x has be5 ju/ly said t palaeontologi/s h be5 9 ! habit ( ref]r+ to algae su* impressions or m>k+s on rocks z _c well be includ$ 9 any o!r gr\p4 8,a fossil alga10 has (t5 be5 ! d]ni] ressort ( ! d\btful /ud5t4 ,sid5ote3 ,,l>ge ,,seawe$s4 ,be=e discuss+ our k1 or r lack ( k1 ( fossil algae at great] l5g?1 x w be well to briefly consid] ! mann] ( occurr5ce & botanical nature ( exi/+ =ms4 ,9 ! sea & 9 fre% wat]1 z well z 9 damp places & ev5 9 situations subject to p]iods ( dr\ght1 algae occur 9 abundance 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,we f9d !m atta9+ full developm5t & reproduc+ !mselves at a temp]ature ( #a ,c4 9 ! ,arctic ,seas1 & aga9 liv+ 9 enorm\s numb]s 9 ! wat]s ( !rmal spr+s4 ,ar\nd ! coa/-l9e ( l& areas1 & on ! floor ( %all[ seas algae exhibit a rem>kable weal? ( =m & luxuriance ( gr[?4 ,z reg>ds habit & /ructure1 !re is e gradation f algae 9 :i* ! :ole individual consi/s ( a ?9-wall$ unseptate vesicle1 to ^? 9 :i* ! ?allus atta9s a l5g? unsurpass$ by any o!r plant1 & ( :i* ! anatomical features cle>ly express a well-m>k$ physiological division ( lab\r su* z occurs 9 ! highe/ plants4 ,! l>ge & lea!ry seawe$s :i* fl\ri% 9 ! extreme nor!rn & s\!rn seas are plants :i* x is reasonable to suppose might well h left traces ( _! exi/5ce 9 anci5t s$im5ts4 ,sir ,joseph ,hook]1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! ,ant>ctic flora#bbc1 inve/igat$ dur+ ,sir ,james ,ross's voyage 9 ,h4,m4 %ips ,erebus & ,t]ror1 has giv5 an exce$+ly int]e/+ description ( ! gigantic br[n seawe$s ( s\!rn latitudes4 ,! trunks are describ$ z usually #e-aj feet long1 & z ?ick z a human ?igh1 divid+ t[>ds ! summit into num]\s p5dul\s bran*es :i* are aga9 brok5 up into sprays ) l9e> #8leaves4' ,hook] records h[ a capta9 ( a brig employ$ 8 crew = two bitt]ly cold days 9 collect+ ,lessonia /ems :i* _h be5 wa%$ up on ! bea*1 ?9k+ !y 7 trunks ( trees fit = burn+4 ,on our own coa/s we are famili> ) ! common ,lam9>ia1 ! l>ge br[n seawe$ ) long & /rap-%ap$ or digitate fronds :i* gr[s on ! rocks bel[ l[-tide level4 ,! frond passes d[nw>ds into a ?ick & t\gh /ipe firmly atta*$ to ! gr\nd by special holdfa/s4 ,a transv]se section ( ! /alk ( a fairly old plant pres5ts an appe>ance n unlike t ( a section ( a woody plant4 ,9 ! c5tre !re is a well-def9$ axial region or pi? consi/+ ( ?ick wall$1 long & n>r[ tubes pursu+ a g5]ally v]tical ?\gh irregul> c\rse1 & emb$d$ 9 a matrix ( gelat9\s sub/ance d]iv$ f ! mucilag9\s deg5]ation ( ! out] portions ( ! cell-walls4 ,! great] "p ( su* a section consi/s1 h[ev]1 ( regul>ly dispos$ r[s ( cells :i* h obvi\sly be5 =m$ by ! activity ( a zone ( divid+ or m]i/ematic elem5ts4 ,! occurr5ce ( di/9ct conc5tric r+s 9 ?is second>y tissue cle>ly po9ts to "s p]iodicity ( gr[? :i* is express$ by ! alt]nation ( n>r[ & broad] cells4 ,9 ! ,ant>ctic g5us ,lessonia1 ! /em rea*es a gir? equal to t ( a man's ?igh1 & 9 /ructure x agrees closely ) ! small] /em ( ,lam9>ia4 ,9 ^! l>ge algal /ems1 ! cells are n lignifi$ z 9 woody plants1 & 9 longitud9al section !y h = ! mo/ "p ! =m ( some:at elongat$ p>5*yma1 diff]+ widely 9 appe>ance f ! tra*eids or vessels ( woody plants4 ,at ! p]iph]y ( ! ,lam9>ia /em1 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bi1 !re occur num]\s & comp>atively l>ge mucilage ducts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,a1 ,transv]se section ( ! /ipe ( a ,lam9>ia1 slightly enl>g$4 ,b1 ,a small piece ( ! tissue betwe5 ! c5tral #8pi?' & #8cortex' %[+ ! radially dispos$ second>y elem5ts m highly magnifi$4 ,9 c]ta9 algae ( diff]5t families ! ?allus is encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 & is ?us r5d]$ mu* m resi/ant4 ,! ,diatoms1 on ! o!r h&1 possess /ill m durable silice\s te/s :i* are p>ticul>ly well adapt$ to resi/ ! solv5t action ( wat] & o!r ag5ts ( de/ruction4 ,x is ^! calc>e\s & silice\s =ms :i* supply ! great] "p ( ! tru/wor?y data furni%$ by fossil algae4 ,sid5ote3 ,,sc>city ,,( ,,fossil ,,algae4 ,x rema9s to consid] "s ( ! causes to :i* we may attribute ! sc>city ( fossil algae1 & ! possible s\rces ( error :i* beset any attempt to describe or assign names to impressions & ca/s simulat+ algal =ms4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! delicate nature ( algal cells is a s]i\s ob/acle to fossilisation4 ,ev5 9 plants 9 :i* ! woody /ems h be5 pres]v$ by a silice\s or calc>e\s solution1 we frequ5tly f9d ! m delicate cells repres5t$ by a mass ( cry/all9e matt] )\t any trace ( ! cell-walls be+ pres]v$4 ,9 su* plants z algae1 :]e ! cell-walls are n lignifi$1 b consi/ ( cellulose or "s special =m ( cellulose1 :i* readily breaks d[n into a mucilag9\s product1 ! tissues h b a small *ance ( )/&+ ! we> & te> ( fossilisation4 ,! dang] ( rely+ on ext]nal =m z a means ( recognition is especially pat5t 9 ! case ( ^? num]\s m>k+s or impressions frequ5tly met ) on rocks1 & :i* resemble 9 outl9e ! ?allus ( rec5t algae4 ,among animals1 su* z c]ta9 ,polyzoa1 ! flat bran*+ body ( v>i\s algae is closely simulat$1 & 9 o!r plants1 su* z ! frondose liv]worts1 ! same ?alloid & bran*$ =m ( body is aga9 met )4 ,"s ( ! mu* dissect$ ,aphlebia leaves ( f]ns 7e4g4 ,rhacophyllum species7 be> a /rik+ resemblance to fossil algae2 & num]\s o!r examples might be quot$4 ,9 palaeobotanical lit]ature we f9d a ho/ ( names1 su* z ,*ondrites1 ,fucoides#bbd1 ,caul]pites & o!rs appli$ to indef9ite & indi/9ct surface m>k+s :i* happ5 to resemble 9 %ape c]ta9 ( ! bett] kn[n g5]a ( rec5t seawe$s4 ,! close p>allelism 9 outw>d =m display$ by diff]5t g5]a & families ( algae is 9 itself suffici5t argum5t aga9/ ! use ( rec5t g5]ic names = fossils ( :i* ! algal nature is (t5 m ?an d\btful4 ,7 ext]nal =m to be accept$ z a tru/wor?y guide1 9 ! abs5ce ( int]nal /ructure & reproductive organs1 su* a g5us z ,caul]pa#bbe w\ld af=d mat]ial = num]\s g5]ic designations4 ,a comp>ison ( ! diff]5t species ( ?is ,siphone\s gre5 alga br+s out v cle>ly ! exce$+ly protean nature ( ?is int]e/+ g5us1 & s]ves z "o in/ance among _m ( ! small taxonomic value :i* c be atta*$ to ext]nal configuration4 ,caul]pa pusilla ,m>t4 & ,h]41 ,c4 taxifolia 7,vahl471 ,c4 plum>is ,=sk41 ,c4 abies-m>9a ,j4 ,ag41 ,c4 ericifolia 7,turn471 ,c4 hypnoides 7,r4 ,br471 ,c4 cactoides 7,turn471 ,c4 scalpelli =mis 7,r4 ,br471 & o!rs cle>ly illu/rate ! almo/ endless v>iety ( =m exhibit$ by ! species ( a s+le g5us ( algae4 ,we con/antly f9d 9 ! sev]al classes ( plants a repetition ( ! same =m ei!r 9 ! :ole or 9 ! sep>ate memb]s ( ! vegetative body1 & b a slight acqua9tance ) plant types %\ld lead u to use ! te/ ( ext]nal resemblance ) ! greate/ possible caution4 ,to emphasize ?is dang] may seem m]ely ! ne$less reit]ation ( a self-evid5t fact1 b !re is1 p]haps1 no s\rce ( error :i* has be5 m responsible = ! creation ( num]\s wor?less species among fossil plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 #a4 ,rill-m>k 7aft] ,williamson74 #b4 ,trail made by a seawe$ dragg$ along a s(t pla/] ( ,p>is surface 7aft] ,na?or/74 #c4 ,tracks made by ,goniada maculata1 a ,poly*aet 7aft] ,na?or/74 #d4 ,burr[ ( an insect4 #d;a4 ,section ( ! gall]y 7aft] ,zeill]74 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r category ( impressions & ca/s ( common occurr5ce 9 s$im5t>y rocks :i* requires a brief notice4 ,v _m ( ! fossil algae describ$ 9 text-books & palaeobotanical memoirs h be5 %[n to be ( animal orig91 & to be m]ely ! ca/s ( tracks & burr[s4 ,a few examples w be/ s]ve to illu/rate ! id5tity ( _m ( ! fossils ref]r$ to algae ) animal trails & ) impressions produc$ by inorganic ag5cy4 ,dr ,na?or/ ( ,/ockholm has done m ?an any o!r work] to demon/rate ! true nature ( _m ( ! species ( ,*ondrites1 ,cruziana1 ,spirophyton1 ,eophyton1 & num]\s o!r g5]a4 ,9 #ahfg !re 7 discov]$ 9 c]ta9 ,cambrian b$s ( ,ve/rogo?ia1 long convex & furr[$ /ructures 9 s&/one rocks :i* 7 describ$ z ! rema9s ( "s comp>atively highly organis$ plant1 & describ$ "u ! g5]ic "n ,eophyton#bbf4 ,by _m au?ors ^! fossils h be5 ref]r$ to algae1 b ,na?or/ has %[n t ! frond ( an alga trail$ along ! surface ( s(t pla/] ( ,p>is produces a f9ely furr[$ groove 7fig4 #cj1 #b7 :i* w\ld af=d a ca/ simil> to t ( ,eophyton4 ,! same au?or has also adduc$ good reasons = believ+ t ! ,eophytons ( ,cambrian rocks may repres5t ! trails made by ! t5tacles ( a ,m$usa hav+ a habit simil> to t ( ,polydonia frondosa ,ag4 ,impressions ( ,m$usae h be5 describ$ by ,na?or/ f ! b$s 9 :i* ,eophyton occurs2 & ! specim5s 9 ! ,/ockholm ,museum af=d a rem>kable in/ance ( ! r>e pres]vation ( a s(t-bodi$ organism#bbg4 ,by all[+ v>i\s animals to crawl ov] a s(t-prep>$ surface x is possible to obta9 m\lds & ca/s :i* sugge/ 9 a /rik+ mann] ! bran*$ ?allus ( an alga4 ,! tracks ( ! ,poly*aet1 ,goniada maculata r/d4#bbh1 "o ( ! ,glyc]idae1 are always bran*$ & v algal-l 9 =m 7fig4 #cj1 #c74 ,_m ( ! s-call$ fossil algae are und\bt$ly m]e tracks or trails ( ?is type4 ,9 ! fossil-plant gall]y ( ! ,briti% ,museum !re are sev]al specim5s ( small bran*$ ca/s1 cle>ly m>k$ z :iti% fossils on a d>k grey rock ( ,l[] ,eoc5e age f ,bognor2 ^! 7 describ$ by ,mantell & ,brongni>t#bbi z an alga1 b !re is little d\bt ( _! be+ ( ! same category z ! track %[n 9 fig4 #cj1 #c4 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossils ,,simulat+ ,,algae4 ,! well-kn[n half-relief ca/s met ) 9 ,cambrian1 ,silurian & ,c>bonif]\s rocks1 & kn[n z ,cruziana or ,bilobites1 are probably ca/s ( ! tracks ( ,cru/aceans4 ,! impression left by a ,k+-,crab 7,limulus7 z x walks ov] a s(t surface af=ds an example ( ?is =m ( ca/4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t "s ( ! ,bilobites may be ! ca/s ( an organism l ,balanoglossus#bcj1 a worm-l animal suppos$ by "s to h v]tebrate aff9ities4 ,! resemblance betwe5 "s ( ! l[] ,palaeozoic ,bilobites & ! ext]nal features ( a ,balanoglossus is v /rik+1 & su* a comp>ison is wor? consid]+ 9 view ( ! fact t s(t-bodi$ animals h occasionally left di/9ct impressions on anci5t s$im5ts4 ,! lit]ature on ! subject ( fossil algae v]sus inorganic & animal m>k+s is too ext5sive & too we>isome to consid] 9 a %ort summ>y2 ! /ud5t w f9d a suffici5t am\nt ( su* controv]sial writ+--) ref]5ces to m--9 ! works quot$ bel[#bca4 ,9 ! ,/ockholm ,museum ( ,palaeobotany !re is an exce$+ly int]e/+ collection ( pla/] ca/s obta9$ by ,dr ,na?or/ 9 8 exp]im5ts on ! manufacture ( fossil #8algae1' :i* af=d conv9c+ pro( ( ! value & correctness ( 8 g5]al conclusions4 ,! pressure ( ! h& on a s(t moi/ surface produces a rais$ patt]n l a bran*$ & delicate ?allus4 ,! well-kn[n ,oldhamia antiqua ,=bes & ,oldhamia radiata ,=bes#bcb1 f ! ,cambrian rocks ( ,irel& may1 9 "p at lea/1 owe _! orig9 to me*anical causes1 & we h no suffici5t evid5ce = includ+ !m among ! select class ( true fossil algae4 ,sollas#bcc has %[n t ! /ructure kn[n z ,oldhamia radiata is n m]ely sup]ficial b t x ext5ds across ! cleavage-planes4 ,oldhamia is record$ f ,l[] ,palaeozoic rocks 9 ! ,pyr5ees#bcd by ,b>rois1 :o agrees ) ,salt]1 ,gpp]t & o!rs 9 class+ ! fossil among ! algae4 ,! photograph accompany+ ,b>rois' description does n1 h[ev]1 add fur!r evid5ce 9 fav\r ( accept+ ,oldhamia z a g5us ( fossil algae4 ,! burr[s made by ,gryllotalpa vulg>is ,latr41 ! ,mole-cricket1 h be5 %[n by ,zeill] to be> a close resemblance to a bran* ( a conif] 9 half-relief 7fig4 #cj1 #d71 or to su* a suppos$ algal g5us z ,phymatod]ma#bce4 ,9 fig4 #cj1 #a1 we h :at might well be describ$ z a fossil alga4 ,?is is m]ely a ca/ ( a m9iature riv]-sy/em su* z "o frequ5tly sees cut out by ! small rills ( wat] fl[+ ov] a g5tly-slop+ s&y bea*4 ,a ca/ figur$ & describ$ by ,newb]ry z an alga1 ,d5drophycus triassicus#bcf1 f ! ,trias ( ! ,connecticut ,valley1 is practically id5tical ) ! rill-m>ks %[n 9 fig4 #cj1 #a4 ,! cracks produc$ 9 dry+ & contract+ s$im5t may =m m\lds 9 :i* ca/s are subsequ5tly produc$ by ! deposition ( an ov]ly+ lay] ( s&1 & su* ca/s h be5 errone\sly ref]r$ to algal impressions#bcg4 ,dawson#bch has figur$ two good examples ( ,c>bonif]\s rill-m>ks f ,nova ,scotia 9 8 pap] on ,palaeozoic burr[s & tracks ( inv]tebrate animals4 ,sid5ote3 ,,recognition ,,( ,,fossil ,,algae4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,*ondrites v]isimilis ,salt4 ,w5lock lime/one1 ,dudley4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum 7,v4 #beej74 ,slightly r$uc$4 ,! specim5 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ca af=ds an example ( a fairly well-kn[n fossil f ! ,w5lock lime/one1 orig9ally describ$ by ,salt] z ,*ondrites v]isimilis ,salt1 f ,dudley#bci4 ,he reg>d$ x z an alga1 & ! graphitic impression agrees closely 9 =m ) ! ?allus ( "s small seawe$s4 ,a clos] exam9ation ( ! fossil reveals a curi\s & *>act]i/ic irregul> wr9kl+ on ! graphite surface1 :i* sugge/s an organism ( m *it9\s & firm] mat]ial ?an t ( an alga4 ,a simil> & probably an id5tical fossil is describ$ & figur$ by ,lapwor?#bdj 9 an app5dix to a pap] by ,walt] ,keep+ on ! geology ( ,c5tral ,wales1 "u ! "n ( ,odontocaulis ,keep+i ,lap4 & reg>d$ z a d5droid graptolite4 ,9 any case we h no satisfactory gr\nds = includ+ ^! fossils 9 ! plant-k+dom4 ,h[ !n are we to recognise ! traces ( anci5t algae8 ,!re is no gold5 rule1 & we mu/ admit ! difficulty ( sep>at+ real fossil algae f m>k+s made by animal or me*anical ag5cy4 ,! pres5ce ( a c>bonace\s film is occasionally a help1 b its occurr5ce is no sure te/ ( plant orig91 nor is its abs5ce a fatal objection to an organic orig94 ,:ile be+ fully alive to ! small value ( ext]nal resemblance1 & to ! num]\s ag5ts :i* h be5 %[n to be capable ( produc+ appe>ances indi/+ui%able f plant impressions1 we mu/ n g too f> 9 a purely negative direction4 ,an important contribution to ! subject ( fossil algae has lately appe>$ by ,pr(4 ,ro?pletz#bda4 ,he deals m p>ticul>ly ) ! mu* discuss$ ,flys*#bdb ,fucoids ( ,t]ti>y age1 & :ile refus+ to accept c]ta9 examples z fossil algae1 he br+s =w>d weighty argum5ts 9 fav\r ( includ+ sev]al o!r =ms among ! algae4 ,he is ( op9ion t mo/ ( ! ma9 divisions ( ! algae are repres5t$ among ! ,flys* ,fucoids1 b consid]s t ! ,phaeophyceae are ! mo/ num]\s4 ,ro?pletz's "w is *iefly int]e/+ z illu/rat+ ! application ( microscopic exam9ation & *emical analysis to ! det]m9ation ( fossil algae4 ,al?\gh he makes out a good case 9 fav\r ( re/or+ _m ( ! ,t]ti>y fossils to ! plant k+dom1 ! mat]ial at 8 disposal does n admit ( satisfactory botanical diagnosis4 ,no d\bt "s ( ! fossils f ! ,silurian & ,cambrian rocks are true algae1 & ,na?or/ has po9t$ out t su* a species z ,hall's ,sph5o?allus angu/ifolius#bdc may well be an alga4 ,additional examples might be quot$ f ,bornemann & o!r writ]s1 b 9 view ( ! attempts :i* are sometimes made to trace ! developm5t ( m rec5t plants to m ?an d\btful ,l[] ,palaeozoic ,algae1 "o mu/ agree ) ,na?or/'s op9ion1--8,je crois que l'on r5d un bi5 mauvais s]vice la ?orie de l'volution1 en essayant de bas] l'arbre gnalogique des algues fossiles sur des corps aussi d\teux que les ,bilobites1 ,crosso*orda1 ,eophyton1 etc4#bdd0 ,!re are _m c>bonace\s impressions on rocks ( diff]5t ages :i* x is reasonable to ref] to algal orig91 & al?\gh su* are ( little or no botanical value1 x may be a conv5i5ce to ref] to !m "u a def9ite t]m4 ,! compreh5sive g5]ic "n ,algites#bde has be5 sugge/$ z a conv5i5t designation = impressions or ca/s :i* are probably ^? ( algae4 ,sid5ote3 ,,suppos$ ,,fossil ,,algae4 ,"s ( ! fossils describ$ by ,mr ,kid/on f ,briti% ,c>bonif]\s rocks z probably algae pres5t an und\bt$ algal appe>ance1 & might be plac$ 9 ! g5us ,algites2 b 9 "s cases--e4g4 ,*ondrites plumosa#bdf ,kid/4 f ! ,calcif]\s ,s&/one ( ,eskdale1 "o feels mu* m d\btful2 9 ?is p>ticul> in/ance ! impressions sugge/ ! f9e roots ( a wat]-plant4 ,! /atem5t is occasionally made t ! num]\s fossil algae & ! abs5ce ( high] plants 9 ! old] /rata ju/ify ! description ( ! olde/ rocks z belong+ to ! #8age ( algae4' ,su* an ass]tion re/s on an uns\nd basis1 & is r ! expression ( :at might be expect$ ?an :at has be5 prov$ to be ! case4 ,! olde/ plants ) :i* we are at all closely acqua9t$ are ( su* a type z to =cibly sugge/ t 9 ! l[e/ fossilif]\s rocks we are /ill v f> f ! s$im5ts ( t age :i* witness$ ! dawn ( plant life4 ,_m ( ! obscure m>k+s on rock surfaces :i* h be5 ref]r$ to exi/+ g5]a ( algae or describ$ z new g5]a1 are mu* too d\btful to be includ$ ev5 "u su* a compreh5sive "n z ,algites4 ,space does n admit ( fur!r ref]5ce to det]m9ations ( ?is type :i* ab\nd 9 palaeontological lit]ature4 ,x w\ld be v difficult to produce satisfactory evid5ce = ! algal nature ( _m ( ! suppos$ fossil algae f ,cambrian rocks#bdg2 !re has be5 a special t5d5cy to recognise algal rema9s 9 ! olde/ fossilif]\s /rata1 due 9 "p no d\bt to ! fallacy t 9 t p]iod no?+ high] ?an ,?allophytes is likely to h exi/$4 ,! s-call$ ,phycodes ref]r$ to by ,cr$n]#bdh z *>act]i/ic ( ! ,cambrian rocks ( ! ,fi*telgebirge 78,phycod5-,s*ief]07 is probably ( inorganic orig91 & comp>able to ! g5us ,vexillum ( ,saporta#bdi & o!r writ]s1 :i* ,solms-,lauba* has describ$ z be+ =m$ e day 9 ! s(t mud ( our ponds :]e local curr5ts are *eck$ by bran*es & o!r ob/acles#bej4 ,!re are sev]al good specim5s ( ,phycodes 9 ! ,b]gakademie ( ,b]l9 & 9 ! ,leipzig ,museum :i*1 ,i believe1 cle>ly demon/rate ! abs5ce ( all satisfactory evid5ce ( an algal orig94 ,we may next pass to a %ort description ( a few repres5tative types ( algae1 :i* may reasonably be class$ "u def9ite families1 & accept$ z evid5ce possess+ "s botanical value4 ,a4 ,,diatomaceae 7,,bacill>iaceae74 ,?is family occupies a some:at isolat$ position among ! algae1 & is be/ consid]$ z a di/9ct subdivision r ?an z a family ( ! ,phaeophyceae or ,br[n algae1 ) :i* x possesses z a common *>act]i/ic a br[n-col\r+ matt]4 ,s+le-cell$ plants consi/+ ( a simple protoplasmic body conta9+ a nucleus & br[n col\r+ matt] 7diatom97 associat$ ) ! *lorophyll4 ,! cell-wall is 9 ! =m ( two halves1 kn[n z valves1 :i* fit into "o ano!r l ! two portions ( a pill-box4 ,! cell-wall conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( silica1 & ! silice\s cases ( ! diatoms are commonly spok5 ( z ! valves ( ! individual1 or ! fru/ules4 ,diatoms exhibit a *>act]i/ic creep+ movem5t1 & are reproduc$ by division1 also by ! developm5t ( spores 9 v>i\s =ms#bea4 ,! rec5t memb]s ( ! family h an exce$+ly wide di/ribution1 occurr+ bo? 9 fre%wat] & 9 ! sea4 ,ow+ to ! lightness ( ! fru/ules1 !y are frequ5tly c>ri$ along 9 ! air1 & atmosph]ic du/ fall+ on %ips at sea has be5 f\nd to conta9 l>ge numb]s ( diatoms#beb4 ,! silice\s valves are abundant 9 guano deposits1 & !y h be5 f\nd also 9 association ) volcanic mat]ial4 ,diatomace\s deposits are n[ be+ =m$ 9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k di/rict2 8!y cov] _m squ>e miles 9 ! vic9ity ( active or ext9ct hot spr+ v5ts ( ! p>k1 & are (t5 ?ree feet1 f\r feet1 & sometimes five to six feet ?ick#bec40 ,! gradual accumulation ( ! silice\s te/s on ! floor ( a fre%-wat] lake results 9 ! =mation ( a s$im5t consi/+ 9 "p ( pure silica4 ,su* deposits1 (t5 spok5 ( z kieselguhr or diatomite1 & us$ z a poli%+ mat]ial1 occur 9 _m p>ts ( ,brita91 m>k+ ! sites ( dri$-up pools or lakes4 ,at ! nor!rn end ( ! isl& ( ,skye !re occurs an unusually pure deposit ( diatomite ov]la9 by peat & turf1 & ext5d+ ov] an area ( fifty-eight squ>e miles4 ,_m ( ! individuals 9 ?is deposit 7 9 all probability c>ri$ into ! lake by runn+ wat]1 :ile o!rs liv$ 9 ! lake & aft] dea? _! te/s contribut$ to ! silice\s deposit#bed4 ,! late ,dr ,ehr5b]g publi%$ num]\s pap]s on diatomace\s deposits 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 & 9 8 great "w1 ,zur ,mikrogeologie#bee1 he gave num]\s & beautifully execut$ illu/rations ( su* silice\s accumulations4 ,9 _m ( ! samples he figures "o sees fragm5ts ( plant tissues1 spores ( conif]s & f]ns1 associat$ ) ! diatom te/s4 ,! occurr5ce ( ! poll5 gra9s ( conif]\s trees 9 lacu/r9e & m>9e deposits is n surpris+ 9 view ( _! abundance 9 ,lake ,con/ance & o!r lakes4 ,x is /at$ t ! poll5 ( conif]s 9 ! ,norwegian fiords plays an important "p 9 ! n\ri%m5t ( ! ,rhizopod ,saccam9a#bef4 ,sid5ote3 ,,diatomace\s ,,ooze4 ,9 ! wat]s ( ! ocean diatoms are ( frequ5t occurr5ce1 & v widely di/ribut$4 ,sir ,joseph ,hook] records ! exi/5ce ( masses ( diatomace\s ooze ov] a wide area 9 ,ant>ctic regions#beg4 ,along ! %ores ( ! ,victoria ,b>ri]1 a p]p5dicul> wall ( ice1 betwe5 "o & two hundr$ feet above sea-level1 ! s\nd+s 7 f\nd to be inv>iably *>g$ ) diatom rema9s1 & f ! base ( ! ice-wall !re appe>$ to be 9 process ( =mation a bank ( ^! te/s /ret*+ nor? = a di/ance ( #bjj miles4 ,! m ext5d$ rese>*es conduct$ dur+ ! cruise ( ! ,*all5g] h cle>ly prov$ ! enorm\s accumulations ( diatoms n[ be+ =m$ on ! ocean-b$#beh4 ,s\? ( latitude #de ,s4 !re is n[ be+ built up a va/ deposit :i* may be ev5tually uprais$ z a fairly pure silice\s rock4 ,f extreme nor!rn latitudes ,nans5 has rec5tly record$ ! occurr5ce ( ^! l[ly organis$ plants4 ,he writes1--8,i f\nd a :ole _w ( diatoms & o!r microscopical organisms1 bo? vegetable & animal1 liv+ 9 ! fre%-wat] pools on ! ,pol> drift-ice1 & con/antly travell+ f ,sib]ia to ! ea/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&#bei40 ,9 w>m] latitudes diatoms ab\nd 9 ! surface wat]s1 b !re !y are associat$ ) num]\s o!r =ms ( ! ,plankton vegetation4 ,! wat]s ( ! ,amazon c>ry ) !m into ! sea l>ge numb]s ( fre%-wat] =ms1 :i* are float$ out to sea & f9ally add$ to ! rock-build+ mat]ial :i* is con/antly accumulat+ on ! ocean floor#bfj4 ,no def9ite results h s f> be5 obta9$ z to ! geographical & ba?ymetrical di/ribution ( m>9e diatoms4 ,! enorm\s numb] ( rec5t species precludes any attempt to give a description ( ! bett]-kn[n =ms4 ,x is m important = u to realize h[ common & widely di/ribut$ are ! liv+ g5]a4 ,! h>d & almo/ inde/ructible valves h be5 frequ5tly f\nd 9 a fossil condition1 (t5 =m+ ?ick & ext5sive masses ( silice\s rock4 ,f diatom-b$s n[ =m+ 9 lakes & on ! ocean-b$ we pass to deposits su* z ^? 9 ,skye & else:]e1 :i* m>k ! site ( rec5tly dri$-up %eets ( wat]1 & s to old] rocks ( ,t]ti>y age =m$ "u simil> conditions4 ,among ! _m examples ( diatomace\s deposits ( ,t]ti>y & ,cretace\s age m5tion %\ld be made ( ^? ( ,b]l91 ,knigsb]g1 ,bil9 9 ,bohemia1 & ,ri*mond 9 ,virg9ia4 ,! diatoms 9 ! b$s ( ,b]l9 are reg>d$ z fre%-wat]1 & ^? ( ,ri*mond z m>9e4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out by ,pfitz] t x is a comp>atively easy matt] to di/+ui% betwe5 fre%-wat] & m>9e =ms ( diatoms4 ,! diatomace\s rocks ( ,bil9 are kn[n z poli%+ slates2 !y atta9 a ?ickness ( #ej feet4 ,9 ^!1 z 9 _m o!r cases1 ! deposit has become cem5t$ toge!r z a h>d fl9ty or glassy rock1 9 :i* ! cem5t+ mat]ial 0 =m$ by ! solution ( "s ( ! diatom te/s#bfa4 ,9 _m cases 9 :i* calc>e\s & silice\s rocks reveal no direct evid5ce ( organic orig9 x is probable t !y 7 orig9ally =m$ by ! accumulation ( plants ( :i* ! /ructure has be5 completely oblit]at$ by second>y causes4 ,! g5us ,gallionella plays an important "p 9 ! composition ( ! ,bil9 b$s4 ,occasionally impressions ( leaves & o!r organic rema9s are f\nd associat$ ) ! diatoms 9 ! silice\s rocks4 ,9 ! ,briti% ,museum 7,botanical dep>tm5t7 a l>ge block ( :ite p[d]y rock is exhibit$ z an example ( a diatomace\s deposit ( ,t]ti>y age f ,au/ralia4 ,x is describ$ z be+ l>gely made up ( ! te/s ( fre%-wat] diatoms1 su* z ,navicula1 ,gomphonema1 ,cymbella1 ,syn$ra1 & o!rs4 ,sid5ote3 ,,fossil ,,diatoms4 ,! abundance ( ,diatoms 9 ,cretace\s rocks ( ! ,p>is bas9 has rec5tly be5 record$ by ,cayeux#bfb2 x w\ld seem t ^! algae _h already assum$ an important rle z rock-build]s 9 pre-,t]ti>y times4 ,cayeux po9ts out t ! silica ( ^! ,cretace\s diatomace\s fru/ules has (t5 be5 replac$ by c>bonate ( calcium4 ,9 addition to ! occurr5ce ( ,diatoms 9 ! v>i\s diatomace\s deposits1 _! silice\s te/s may occasionally be recognis$ 9 argillace\s or o!r s$im5ts4 ,%rubsole & ,kitton#bfc h describ$ sev]al species ( ,diatoms f ! ,london ,clay ( ,l[] ,eoc5e age4 ,9 _m localities 9 ! ,london bas9 ! clay obta9$ f well-s9k+s pres5t$ ! appe>ance ( be+ du/$ ) sulphur-l p>ticles ( a d>k bronze or gold5 col\r :i* gli/5$ 9 ! sunlight4 ,^! yell[ bodies h be5 f\nd to be diatomace\s fru/ules 9 :i* ! silica has be5 replac$ by iron pyrites4 ,! g5us ,cosc9odiscus is "o ( ! commone/ =ms record$ f ! ,london ,clay#bfd4 ,)\t fur!r consid]+ individual examples ( diatomace\s rocks we may briefly notice ! g5]al facts ( ! geological hi/ory ( ! family4 ,z ,ehr5b]g po9t$ out sev]al ye>s ago1 ! ,t]ti>y & ,cretace\s species ( diatoms %[ a v m>k$ resemblance to liv+ =ms4 ,9 _m cases ! species are id5tical1 & ! fossil deposits z a :ole seem to diff] 9 no special respect f ^? n[ be+ built up4 ,) ! exception ( two species ( ,liassic ,diatoms1 no tru/wor?y examples ( ! ,diatomaceae h be5 f\nd bel[ ! ,cretace\s s]ies4 ,! olde/ kn[n ,diatoms 7 discov]$ by ,ro?pletz#bfe among ! fibres ( an ,upp] ,lias sponge f ,boll 9 ,wrttemb]g4 ,!y occur z small ?imble-%ap$ silice\s te/s ) coccoli?s & =am9if]a 9 ! horny skeleton ( ,phymatod]ma1 a g5us =m]ly reg>d$ z an alga4 ,ro?pletz describes two species :i* he includes 9 ! g5us ,pyxidicula1 ,p4 boll5sis & ,p4 liasica4 ,?is g5]ic "n ( ,ehr5b]g is us$ by ,s*tt#bff z a subg5us ( ,/ephanopyxis4 ,see+ h[ great a resemblance !re is betwe5 ! rec5t & ,cretace\s species1 & h[ _m examples !re are ( ,t]ti>y diatom deposits1 x is n a little surpris+ t ! pa/ hi/ory ( ^! plants has n be5 trac$ to e>li] p]iods4 ,9 #ahgf ,ca/racane#bfg1 an ,italian diatomi/1 gave an acc\nt ( c]ta9 species ( diatoms said to h be5 f\nd 9 a block ( coal f ,liv]pool obta9$ f ! ,engli% ,coal-,measures4 ,! species 7 f\nd to be id5tical ) rec5t =ms4 ,x is g5]ally agre$ t ^! specim5s _c h be5 f ! coal itself1 b t !y mu/ h be5 liv+ =ms :i* _h come to be associat$ ) ! coal4 ,! late ,pr(4 ,williamson sp5t _m ye>s exam9+ ?9 sections & o!r prep>ations ( coal f v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 b he nev] f\nd a trace ( any fossil diatom4 ,!re is no app>5t reason :y diatoms %\ld n be f\nd 9 ,pre-,cretace\s rocks1 & ! microscopic inve/igation ( old s$im5ts may well lead to _! discov]y4 ,pr(4 ,b]tr& ( ,lille1 :o has devot$ himself = "s "t pa/ to a detail$ microscopical exam9ation ( coal1 in=ms me t he has s f> fail$ to discov] any trace ( ,palaeozoic diatomace\s te/s4 ,sid5ote3 ,,bactryllium4 ,! g5us ,bactryllium is (t5 quot$ 9 text-books z a probable example ( a ,triassic diatom4 ,x 0 fir/ describ$ by ,he]#bfh f ! ,trias ( ,switz]l& & ,nor? ,italy1 also f ! neighb\rhood ( ,heidelb]g1 & reg>d$ z an ext9ct memb] ( ! ,diatomaceae4 ,he] def9$ ! g5us z foll[s3 8,small bodies1 ) p>allel sides1 r\nd$ at ei!r end1 ! surface trav]s$ by "o or two longitud9al grooves40 7fig4 #cb1 ,c47 ,sev]al species h be5 figur$ by ,he] f b$s ( ,mus*elkalk1 ,keup] & ,rhaetic age4 ,he describes ! wall z ?ick & firm 7fig4 #cb1 ,c4 ii47 & probably compos$ ( silica1 ) a holl[ int]ior4 ,! specim5 %[n 9 fig4 #cb1 ,c4 0 f\nd 9 ! ,rhaetic b$s1 & nam$ by ,he] ,bactryllium deplanatum2 x has a l5g? ( #de mm42 ! surface is transv]sely /riat$ & trav]s$ by a s+le longitud9al groove4 ,/efani#bfi has giv5 reasons 9 fav\r ( remov+ ,bactryllium f ! plant to ! animal k+dom2 he po9ts out t ! specim5s are too l>ge = diatoms1 & moreov] t !y are asymmetrical 9 =m & possess$ a calc>e\s & n a silice\s %ell4 ,he w\ld place ! fossil among ! ,pt]opods1 comp>+ x ) su* g5]a z ,cuvi]9a & ,hyalaea4 ,9 view ( ,/efani's op9ion we _c atta* any importance to ?is suppos$ diatom1 especially z x has g5]ally be5 reg>d$ z at be/ b an unsatisfactory g5us4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,a1 ,li?o?amnion mamillosum ,gmb4 7i7 ,9 section1 7ii7 surface view aft] ,gmbel4 7i7 #cbj1 7ii7 nat4 size4 ,b1 ,sycidium melo ,s&b4 7i7 ,surface view1 7ii7 transv]se section 7aft] ,deecke74 ,c1 ,bactryllium deplanatum ,he]4 7i7 ,surface view1 7ii7 section1 %[+ ! ?ick wall & holl[ int]ior 7aft] ,he]74 ,d1 ,calc>e\s pebble f a lake 9 ,mi*igan4 ,r less ?an nat4 size 7aft] ,murray74 ,b4 ,,*lorophyceae 7,,gre5 ,,algae74 ,?allus unseptate1 hav+ ! =m ( a vesicle or a v>i\sly bran*$ co5ocyte1 :i* may or may n be encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 or ( filam5ts compos$ ( cells conta9+ a s+le nucleus1 or ( cells 9 :i* m ?an "o nucleus occurs2 9 o!r in/ances consi/+ ( a plate ( cells or a cell-mass4 ,asexual reproduction by zoospores & o!r reproductive cells2 sexual reproduction by means ( ! conjugation ( simil> gametes or by ! f]tilisation ( a typical egg-cell by a motile sp]matozoid4 ,?is family ( algae is repres5t$ at ! pres5t day by num]\s & widely di/ribut$ m>9e & fre%-wat] g5]a1 z well z by g5]a gr[+ 9 moi/ air or z endophytes 9 ! tissues ( high] plants#bgj4 ,see+ h[ v few fossil =ms h be5 describ$ :i* h any claim to inclusion 9 ?is subdivision ( ! ,algae1 x is unnecess>y to enum]ate or def9e ! v>i\s families ( ! ,*lorophyceae4 ,x is true t _m species h be5 figur$ z examples ( diff]5t g5]a ( gre5 algae1 b few ( ^! possess any sci5tific value4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o division ( ! ,*lorophyceae1 ! ,siphoneae1 :i* mu/ be treat$ at "s l5g? on acc\nt ( its importance f a palaeobotanical & geological po9t ( view4 a4 ,,siphoneae4 ,?allus consi/+ ( simple or bran*$ cells v r>ely divid$ by septa1 & conta9+ _m nuclei4 ,9 c]ta9 g5]a ! bran*es =m a pseudop>5*ymat\s tissue by _! repeat$ bran*+1 & z a result ( ! intimate felt+ toge!r ( ! bran*$ cells4 ,reproduction is effect$ ei!r by ! conjugation ( simil> gametes or by ! f]tilisation ( an egg-cell4 ,vau*]ia & ,botrydium are two well-kn[n ,briti% g5]a ( ?is ord]1 b mo/ ( ! rec5t repres5tatives live 9 tropical & subtropical seas4 ,! mo/ /rik+ *>act]i/ic feature ( ?is division ( ! ,*lorophyceae is ! fact t ! ?allus ( a siphone\s alga consi/s ( an unseptate co5ocyte2 ! plant may be extremely small & simple1 or x may rea* a l5g? ( sev]al in*es1 b 9 all cases ! body does n consi/ ( m ?an "o cell or co5ocyte4 ,f a palaeontological /&po9t ! ,siphoneae are ( exceptional int]e/4 ,x is impossible to d m ?an ref] to a few ( ! liv+ & fossil g5]a4 ,!re are num]\s fossil repres5tatives already kn[n1 & !re c be little d\bt t fur!r rese>* w\ld be productive ( valuable results4 ,z examples ( ! ord]1 a few g5]a may be describ$ belong+ to ! ?ree families ,caul]paceae1 ,codiaceae1 & ,dasycladaceae4 4 ,caul]paceae4 ,?allus unseptate1 %[+ an extraord9>y v>iation 9 ! ext]nal diff]5tiation ( ! plant-body4 ,reproduction is effect$ by means ( deta*$ portions ( ! p>5t plant4 ,! g5us ,caul]pa1 repres5t$ by a few species 9 ! ,m$it]ranean & by _m tropical =ms1 has already be5 allud$ to z a /rik+ example ( a plant :i* appe>s "u a great _m diff]5t =ms#bga4 ,z a rec5t writ] has said1 8,nature seems to h %[n 9 ?is g5us ! utmo/ possibilities ( ! siphone\s ?allus#bgb10 ,fragm5ts ( conif]\s twigs1 ! tracks & burr[s ( v>i\s animals & o!r objects h be5 describ$ by sev]al au?ors z fossil species ( ,caul]pa4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! id5tification ( a v d\btful fossil z a species ( ,caul]pites1 ref]5ce may be made to su* a =m z ,c4 cactoides ,gpp4#bgc f ,silurian & ,cambrian rocks4 ,!re are sev]al examples ( ?is fossil 9 ! ,brussels ,museum :i* probably owe _! orig9 to "s burr[+ animal1 & may be comp>$ ) ,zeill]'s figures ( ! tunnels made by ! mole-cricket 7fig4 #cj1 #d7bgd4 ,mr ,murray1 ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 has rec5tly describ$ :at he reg>ds z a tru/wor?y example ( a fossil ,caul]pa f ! ,kim]idge ,clay ne> ,weym\?#bge4 ,specim5s ( ! fossil 7 fir/ figur$ 9 a book on ! geology ( ! ,dorset coa/ z ca/s ( an equisetace\s plant#bgf4 ,to ?is fossil ,murray has assign$ ! "n ,caul]pa ,c>ru!rsi1 & giv5 to x a sci5tific diagnosis4 ,! be/ specim5s h ! =m ( a sl5d] c5tral axis1 giv+ (f at fairly regul> int]vals :orls ( %ort & some:at clavate bran*es2 !y be> a sup]ficial resemblance to su* a rec5t species z ,caul]pa cactoides ,ag4 ,an exam9ation ( sev]al examples ( ?is fossil leads me to express ! op9ion t !re is n suffici5t reason = assign+ to !m ! "n ( a rec5t g5us ( algae#bgg4 ,to use ! g5]ic "n ( a rec5t plant )\t foll[+ ! common cu/om ( add+ on ! t]m9ation 8ites0 7i4e4 ,caul]pites7 is z a g5]al rule to be avoid$ 9 deal+ ) fossil =ms2 & !re are1 ,i believe1 no satisfactory gr\nds = ref]r+ to ^! fossils z tru/wor?y examples ( a ,mesozoic alga4 ,9 ! pres5t case ,i am dispos$ to reg>d ! ,caul]pa-l ca/s z ( animal r ?an plant orig94 ,! clavate bran*es h ! =m ( v deep m\lds 9 ! h>d br[n rock :i* h be5 fill$ 9 ) blue mud4 ,x is h>dly conceivable t ! bran*es ( a s(t wat]y plant su* z ,caul]pa c\ld leave m ?an a fa9t impression on an old sea-floor4 ,! specim5s occur 9 diff]5t positions 9 ! matrix ( ! rock & !y are n conf9$ to ! l9es ( b$d+2 9 none ( ! examples is !re any trace ( c>bonace\s matt] 9 association ) ! deep m\lds4 ,on ! :ole1 !n1 ?is ,kim]idge fossil _c1 ,i believe1 be accept$ z an au!ntic example ( a ,mesozoic ,caul]pa4 ,x is n improbable t "s ( ! suppos$ fossil algae may be ca/s ( egg-cases or spawn-clu/]s ( animals4 ,9 ,ellis' ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,corall9es#bgh !re is a draw+ repres5t+ a numb] ( disc-l ov>ies atta*$ to a t\gh ligam5t1 & ref]r$ to ! mollusc ,bucc9um1 :i* be>s a c]ta9 resemblance to ! ,weym\? fossil4 ,a simil> body is figur$ by ,fu*s#bgi 9 an important memoir on suppos$ fossil algae4 ,x is n sugge/$ t ! ,caul]pa ,c>ru!rsi ( ,murray %\ld be reg>d$ z ! ca/ ( "s molluscan egg-case atta*$ to a sl5d] axis1 b x is important to be> 9 m9d ! possibility ( mat*+ su* extremely d\btful fossils ) o!r organic bodies ?an ! ?allus ( a ,caul]pa4 ,9 an example ( an egg-case 9 ! ,cambridge ,zoological ,museum1 ref]r$ to a species ( ,pyrula1 !re is a h>d1 long & sl5d] axis1 be>+ a s]ies ( semicircul> *amb]s divid$ into radial comp>tm5ts4 ,! :ole is h>d & horny & might well be pres]v$ z a fossil4 4 ,codiaceae4 ,! memb]s ( ?is ,ord] pres5t a consid]able div]sity ( =m z reg>ds ! %ape ( ! plant-body2 ! ?allus ( "s species is encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,! ord] is widely di/ribut$ 9 tropical & temp]ate seas4 ,among ! rec5t g5]a ,p5icillus & ,codium may be *os5 z important types f ! po9t ( view ( fossil repres5tatives4 ,codium4 ,! ?allus ( ,codium consi/s ( a spongy mass ( tubul> cell-bran*es :i* are diff]5tiat$ into two fairly di/9ct regions1 an out] p]iph]al lay] 9 :i* ! bran*es h long club-%ap$ t]m9ations1 & an inn] region consi/+ ( loosely int]wov5 filam5ts4 ,codium ,bursa ,l4 & ,c4 tom5tosum ,huds4 are two well-kn[n ,briti% species1 ! =m] pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a spongy ball ( cells1 & 9 ! latt] ! ?allus is divid$ up into di*otom\sly =k$ bran*es#bhj4 ,9 ?is g5us ! ?allus is n encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 at lea/ 9 rec5t species4 ,spha]ocodium4 ,fig4 #cg1 ,d4 ,ro?pletz#bha in/itut$ ?is g5us = c]ta9 small sph]ical or oval bodies v>y+ f #a mm4 to #b cm4 9 diamet]1 :i* h be5 f\nd on cr9oid /ems or %ell fragm5ts ( ,triassic age4 ,ea* sph]ical body consi/s ( di*otom\sly bran*$ s+le-cell$ filam5ts1 betwe5 #ej & #ajj 9 bread?1 & f #cjj-ejj 9 height4 ,! tubul> cavities occasionally swell out into sph]ical spaces :i* are reg>d$ by ,ro?pletz z sporangia4 ,!re is n suffici5t evid5ce t ,spha]ocodium ,bornemanni ,ro?4 has be5 correctly ref]r$ to ! ,codiaceae4 ,! sporangia-l swell+s describ$ by ! au?or ( ! species are n by any means conclusive z *>act]s ( important taxonomic value4 ,figure #cg1 ,d1 illu/rates ! g5]al /ructure ( ! fossil z se5 9 a transv]se section ( "o ( ! calc>e\s gra9s4 ,l ,girvanella1 :i* has be5 ref]r$ by "s writ]s to ! ,siphoneae1 ,spha]ocodium occurs 9 ! =m ( oolitic gra9s4 ,9 ! ,triassic ,raibl] & ,/ ,cassian b$s ( ! ,tyrol1 z well z 9 rocks ( ,rhaetic age 9 ! ,ea/]n ,alps1 x makes up l>ge masses ( lime/one4 ,ro?pletz comp>es ! /ructure ( ?is g5us ) t ( ! rec5t alga ,codium adha]5s ,ag41 b x is wis] to reg>d su* tubul> /ructures z ,girvanella1 ,siphonema#bhb & ,spha]ocodium z closely alli$ organisms1 :i* are probably algae1 b too imp]fectly kn[n to be ref]r$ to any p>ticul> family4 ,p5icillus4 ,! rec5t g5us ,p5icillus is "o ( ^? algae =m]ly includ$ among animals4 ,fig4 #cc1 ,o1 has be5 copi$ f a draw+ ( a species ( ,p5icillus giv5 by ,lam\r\x#bhc "u ! g5]ic "n ( ,nesea 9 8 treatise on ! g5]a ( ,polyps publi%$ 9 #ahba4 ,he describes ! g5us z a bru%-l ,polyp ) a simple /em4 ,! ?allus consi/s ( a /\t /em t]m9at+ 9 a bru%-l tuft ( f9e di*otom\sly-bran*$ filam5ts4 ,! apical bran*es are divid$ by regul> con/rictions into %ort oval or rod-l segm5ts :i* may be encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,a few ( ! segm5ts f ! t]m9al tuft ( a rec5t ,p5icillus are %[n 9 fig4 #ce1 ,e4 ,ea* ( ^! calc>e\s segm5ts has ! =m ( an oval %ell p]=at$ at ea* end1 & ! wall is pi]c$ by num]\s f9e canals4 ,p5icillus is repres5t$ by ab\t #aj rec5t species1 :i* ) "o exception live 9 tropical seas4 ,! recognition ( ,p5icillus1 or a v simil> type1 9 a fossil condition is due to ,muni]-,*almas#bhd4 ,?is ke5 obs]v] has r5d]$ great s]vice to palaeobotany by direct+ att5tion to ! calc>e\s algae 9 ! ,p>is bas9 b$s1 & by prov+ t _m ( ! fossils f ^! ,t]ti>y deposits h be5 errone\sly includ$ by previ\s writ]s among ! ,=am9if]a#bhe4 ,x is greatly to be desir$ t ,pr(4 ,muni]-,*almas may soon publi% a monograph on ! fossil ,siphone\s =ms ( :i* he possesses a unique collection4 ,ovulites4 ,figs4 #cc1 ,k1 ,l1 & #ce1 ,f4 ,9 8 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,inv]tebrate ,animals1 ,lam>ck describ$ "s small oval bodies f ! ,calcaire ,grossi] 7,eoc5e7 ( ! ,p>is bas9 "u ! "n ( ,ovulites4 ,he def9$ !m z foll[s3--8,polypi] pi]reux1 libre1 ovuli=me ou cyl9drac1 creux intrieurem5t1 s\v5t p]c aux deux b\ts4 ,pores trs petits1 rgulirem5t disposs la surface#bhf40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,a & ,b1 ,cymopolia b>bata 7,l472 ,a1 transv]se section ( ! calc>e\s cyl9d]4 ,b1 v]ticillate bran*es & sporangium aft] removal ( ! calc>e\s matrix 7,a & ,b aft] ,muni]-,*almas74 ,c & ,d1 ,acicul>ia ,&russ[i ,solms 7,c1 aft] ,&russ[i2 ,d1 aft] ,solms74 ,e1 ,acicul>ia ,mioc5ica ,reuss2 section ( a spicula 7aft] ,reuss74 ,f & ,g1 ,acicul>ia sp4 7aft] ,c>p5t]71 ,f #dj2 ,g #bj4 ,h1 ,acicul>ia ,s*5cki 7,mb47 7aft] ,solms74 ,i1 ,acetabul>ia ,m$it]ranea ,lamx42 section ( ! cap 7aft] ,falk5b]g74 ,k & ,l1 ,ovulites m>g>itula 7,lam47 7aft] ,muni]-,*almas72 ,k slightly enl>g$2 ,l1 a piece ( ! ?allus m highly magnifi$4 ,m1 ,cymopolia b>bata 7,l47 7aft] ,ellis1 nat4 size74 ,n1 ,c4 b>bata 7,l472 ! surface ( ! ?allus2 magnifi$4 ,o1 ,p5icillus pyramidalis 7,lamx47 7aft] ,lam\r\x1 nat4 size74 ,! specim5s are ref]r$ to two species1 ,ovulites m>g>itula & ,o4 elongata4 ,by "s subsequ5t writ]s#bhg ^! calc>e\s fossils1 l m9iature birds' eggs ) a hole at ei!r end1 7 includ$ among ! ,zoophytes4 ,c>p5t] & o!rs aft]w>ds ref]r$ ,ovulites to ! ,=am9if]a1 & comp>$ ! g5us ) ,lag5a#bhh4 ,! s+le specim5s ( ,ovulites h a l5g? ( #b-f mm4 ,at ea* end !re is usually a fairly l>ge & some:at irregul> hole 7fig4 #ce1 ,f71 & 9 "s r>] cases !re may be two ap]tures at ! broad] end ( an ,ovulite4 ,a good example ( ,ovulites m>g>itula ) two pores at ! broad] end is figur$ by ,mi*el9#bhi4 ,! surface ( ! %ell :5 se5 "u a l[ magnify+ p[] appe>s to be cov]$ ov] ) regul>ly arrang$ circul> pores1 :i* are ! ext]nal op5+s ( f9e canals 7fig4 #cc1 ,l74 ,9 #ahgh ,muni]-,*almas express$ ! op9ion1 :i* 0 support$ by /rong evid5ce1 t ,ovulites %\ld be ref]r$ to ! siphone\s algae#bij4 ,he reg>d$ x z g5]ically id5tical ) ,p5icillus 7,coralliod5dron1 ,ktz+74 ,x has already be5 po9t$ out t 9 ,p5icillus ! apical tuft ( filam5ts is p>tially calc>e\s 7fig4 #cc1 ,o7#bia4 ,! individual calc>e\s segm5ts agree almo/ exactly ) ! fossil ,ovulites4 ,z a rule ! ,ovulites occur z sep>ate egg- or rod-l bodies1 b ,muni]-,*almas in=ms me t occasionally two or ?ree h be5 f\nd jo9$ end to end 9 _! natural position4 ,! t]m9al holes 9 ! fossil specim5s repres5t ! ap]tures left aft] ! deta*m5t ( ! calc>e\s segm5ts f ! uncalcifi$ filam5ts ( ! alga4 ,! segm5ts ) two holes at ! broad] end 7 no d\bt situat$ at ! base ( di*otomis+ bran*es z %[n 9 fig4 #cc1 ,k4 ,! re/oration ( ,ovulites1 %[n 9 fig4 #cc1 ,k1 be>s a /rik+ resemblance to ! figure ( an ,au/ralian ,p5icillus giv5 by ,h>vey 9 8 ,phycologia ,au/ralica#bib4 ,x is probable t ^! ,eoc5e =ms agre$ closely 9 habit ) ! rec5t species ( ,p5icillus4 ,! portions pres]v$ z fossils are segm5ts ( ! filam5ts :i* probably =m$ a t]m9al bru% ( f9e bran*es support$ on a /em4 ,! ret5tion ( ! orig9al g5]ic "n ,ovulites is on ! :ole bett] ?an ! inclusion ( ! fossil species 9 ! rec5t g5us4 ,! ,t]ti>y species liv$ 9 w>m seas ( ! ,l[] & ,middle ,eoc5e ( ,engl&1 ,belgium1 ,france & ,italy4 ,halim$a4 ,an example ( an ,eoc5e species ( ,halim$a has be5 record$ by ,fu*s f ,greif5/e9 "u ! "n ( ,halim$a ,saportae#bic4 ,! impression has ! =m ( a bran*$ plant consi/+ ( w$ge-%ap$ or oval segm5ts1 & !re is a close resemblance to ! ?allus ( a rec5t ,halim$a1 e4g4 ,h4 gracilis ,h>v4 ,x is n improbable t ,fu*s' det]m9ation is correct1 b )\t m def9ite evid5ce ?an is af=d$ by a m]e impression x is a little ra% to make use ( ! rec5t g5]ic "n4 4 ,dasycladaceae4 ,9 ?is family ( ,siphoneae are includ$ a numb] ( g5]a repres5t$ by species liv+ 9 tropical & subtropical seas4 ,! ?allus consi/s ( an elongat$ axial cell fix$ to ! sub/ratum by basal rhizoids1 & be>+ :orls ( lat]al app5dages ( limit$ gr[? :i* may be ei!r simple or bran*$4 ,_m ( ! lat]al bran*es be> sporangia or spores4 ,! ?allus is 9 _m species encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,! two g5]a ,acetabul>ia & ,cymopolia may be briefly describ$ z rec5t types :i* are repres5t$ by tru/wor?y fossil =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,acetabul>ia m$it]ranea ,lamx4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,cambridge ,botanical ,museum 7nat4 size74 ,acetabul>ia4 ,figs4 #cc1 ,i1 & #cd4 ,) ! exception ( ,a4 m$it]ranea ,lamx4 7fig4 #cd7 ! few liv+ species ( ?is g5us are conf9$ to tropical seas4 ,! habit ( ,acetabul>ia is well illu/rat$ by ! photograph ( a clu/] ( plants ( ,a4 m$it]ranea ,lamx4#bid reproduc$ 9 fig4 #cd4 ,! ?allus consi/s ( a delicate /alk atta*$ to ! sub/ratum by a tuft ( basal holdfa/s1 & exp&$ di/ally into a small circul> disc #aj-ab mm4 9 diamet] & m or less concave above4 ,?is t]m9al cap is made up ( a numb] ( lat]ally fus$ app5dages giv5 (f f ! upp] "p ( ! /alk 9 ! =m ( a cr[d$ :orl4 ,! :ole ?allus resembles a small & long-/alk$ calc>e\s fungus4 ,9 ea* radially elongat$ comp>tm5t ( ! f]tile cap 7fig4 #cc1 ,i7 !re are sev]al sporangia 7gametangia7 develop$2 ^! ev5tually op5 & produce num]\s ciliat$ gametes :i* give rise to zygospores by conjugation4 ,fig4 #cc1 ,i1 repres5ts ! cap ( an ,acetabul>ia 9 radial section & surface-view2 ! two radial comp>tm5ts se5 9 section conta9 ! elliptical gametangia2 ! circul> m>k+s at ! base ( ! figure are sc>s ( /]ile decidu\s bran*es4 ,! :ole plant is unicellul>1 ea* *amb] 9 ! disc be+ 9 op5 communication ) ! /em ( ! plant4 ,acicul>ia4 ,fig4 #cc1 ,c-,h4 ,9 a rec5t monograph on ! ,acetabul>ieae1 ,solms-,lauba*#bie has describ$ a new type ( ^! algae :i* is ( special importance f ! po9t ( view ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! family4 ,mbius describ$ an example ( ,acetabul>ia 9 #ahhi "u ! "n ,a4 ,s*5cki2 ?is species has s9ce be5 plac$ 9 ,d',ar*iac's g5us ,acicul>ia#bif4 ,acicul>ia ,s*5cki#big be>s a close resemblance z reg>ds ext]nal =m to ,acetabul>ia m$it]ranea4 ,9 ! latt] species ! walls ( ! t]m9al disc comp>tm5ts are calcifi$1 & ! cavity ( ea* ( ! lat]ally fus$ memb]s conta9s num]\s free spores2 9 ,acicul>ia1 ! cavity ( ea* disc-ray is occupi$ by a calc>e\s sub/ance 9 ! =m ( a spicule conta9+ num]\s cavities 9 ea* ( :i* is a s+le sporangium4 ,a s+le spicule is se5 9 fig4 #cc1 ,h1 %[+ ! sph]ical pockets 9 :i* ! sporangia 7 orig9ally situat$4 ,?is species1 ,acicul>ia ,s*5cki1 has be5 record$ f ,m>t9ique1 ,guadel\pe1 ,brazil1 & a few o!r places4 ,! g5us ,acicul>ia 0 f\nd$ by ,d',ar*iac = c]ta9 m9ute calc>e\s spicules f\nd 9 ! ,eoc5e s&s 7,calcaire ,grossi]7 ( ! ,p>is bas94 ,d',ar*iac describes "o species1 ,acicul>ia pavant9a1 :i* he def9es z foll[s3--8,polypi] aciculaire1 l>gi1 et lgrem5t comprim sa p>tie suprieure1 qui e/ *ancre au milieu4 ,surface c\v]te de petits pores simples1 nombreux1 disposs irrgulirem5t#bih40 ,! same species is figur$ also 9 ,mi*el9's ,iconographie ,zoophytologique1 & describ$ z an organism ( :i* ! exact zoological position is unc]ta9#bii4 ,aft] ^! fossils _h be5 plac$ 9 v>i\s divisions ( ! animal k+dom1 ,c>p5t]#cjj describ$ sev]al specim5s z portions ( =am9if]a4 ,f9ally1 ,muni]-,*almas remov$ ,acicul>ia to ! plant k+dom1 & 8) r>e div9ation0 plac$ ! g5us among ! ,acetabul>ieae4 ,! hi/ory ( our k ( ! true nature ( ,acicul>ia is ( unusual int]e/4 ,"s ( ! specim5s ( ?is g5us figur$ 9 ,c>p5t]'s monograph h ! =m ( imp]fect long & n>r[ bodies tap]+ to a po9t at "o end & broad at ! o!r 7fig4 #cc1 ,f & ,g72 !y are jo9$ toge!r lat]ally & pitt$ ) num]\s small cavities4 ,f ! resemblance ( su* specim5s to a fragm5t ( ! t]m9al f]tile disc ( ! rec5t ,acetabul>ias1 ,muni]-,*almas ref]r$ ! fossils to ?is type ( algae4 ,9 ! liv+ species :i* 7 !n kn[n ! radiat+ *amb]s ( ! disc conta9$ loose sporangia1 )\t any calc>e\s matrix fill+ ! cavity ( ! *amb]s4 ,9 ! fossil ,acicul>ias1 on ! o!r h&1 ! mann] ( pres]vation ( ! pitt$ calc>e\s spicules po9t$ to ! occurr5ce ( sporangia emb$d$ 9 cavities 9 a calc>e\s matrix4 ,subsequ5t to ,muni]-,*almas' some:at d>+ conclusions z to ! relation ( ,acicul>ia to ,acetabul>ia1 ,solms-,lauba* f\nd t ! species orig9ally describ$ by ,mbius z ,acetabul>ia ,s*5cki f ,guadel\pe pres5t$ exactly ^? *>act]s 9 :i* ! fossil specim5s diff] f ,acetabul>ia4 ,! g5us ,acicul>ia =m]ly re/rict$ to fossil species is n[ appli$ also to ?is s+le liv+ species ,acicul>ia ,s*5cki4 ,! g5us is ?us def9$ by ,solms-,lauba*3-- 8,discus f]tilis t]m9alis e radiis int] se conjunctis =matus1 coronis et inf]iore et sup]iore pra$itis1 sporae massa mucosa calce incru/ata coalitae1 pro radio spiculam solidam cuneatam =mantes#cja40 ,z ,solms-,lauba* po9ts out 9 8 rec5t monograph1 ,muni]-,*almas' conjecture1 8:i* _h little to support x 9 ! fossil mat]ial1 has be5 m rec5tly prov$ true 9 ! mo/ brilliant fa%ion by ! discov]y ( a liv+ species ( ?is g5us40 #a4 ,acicul>ia ,&russ[i ,solms#cjb4 ,fig4 #cc1 ,c & ,d4 ,?is species 0 fir/ describ$ by ,&russ[#cjc z ,acetabul>ia mioc5ica f ! ,crimea4 ,x occurs 9 ,mioc5e rocks s\? ( ,seva/opol1 &1 ) ,o/rea & ,pect51 =ms masses ( :ite lime/one4 ,9 ea* sporangial ray ( ! disc ! cavity conta9s a calc>e\s spicula be>+ spore cavities 9 f\r r[s4 8,r\nd ea* spore-cavity !re is a circul> zone :i* /&s out1 :5 view$ 9 reflect$ light1 ?r\gh its :ite col\r aga9/ ! c5tral mass ( ! spicule1 ?\gh a %>p cont\r is n visible#cjd40 ,fig4 #cc1 ,c1 is tak5 f a some:at diagrammatic sket* by ,&russ[2 x %[s t5 ( ! f]tile rays ( ! disc4 ,! ?ick walls ( ! *amb]s are se5 9 ! two l[e/ rays1 & 9 ! next two rays ! spore-cavities are repres5t$4 ,a m accurate draw+1 f ,solms-,lauba*'s memoir1 is reproduc$ 9 fig4 #cc1 ,d4 ,! calc>e\s spicule ) num]\s spore-cavities %[n 9 fig4 #cc1 ,h1 is f a f]tile ray ( ! rec5t species ,acicul>ia ,s*5cki4 ,?is corresponds to ! spore-conta9+ calc>e\s matrix 9 ea* ray ( ! disc ( ,acicul>ia ,&russ[i ,solms4 ,! spicule copi$ 9 fig4 #cc1 ,f f "o ( ,c>p5t]'s draw+s#cje ( an ,eoc5e specim5 be>s ! close/ resemblance to ! rec5t spicule ( fig4 #cc1 ,h1 & emphasizes ! v close relation%ip betwe5 ! fossil =ms & ! s+le r>e tropical species4 #b4 ,acicul>ia mioc5ica ,reuss4 ,ano!r ,t]ti>y species has be5 describ$ "u ?is "n by ,reuss#cjf f ! ,mioc5e ( ! ,vi5na di/rict1 f ! ,lei?akalk ( ,moravia & else:]e4 ,x agrees v closely ) ! rec5t species ,a4 ,s*5cki4 ,a section ( "o ( ! spicules ( ?is species is %[n 9 fig4 #cc1 ,e2 ! d>k pat*es repres5t ! pockets 9 ! calc>e\s spicule :i* 7 orig9ally occupi$ by sporangia & spores4 ,cymopolia4 ,fig4 #cc1 ,a1 ,b1 ,m & ,n4 ,! g5us ,cymopolia is at pres5t repres5t$ by two species1 ,c4 b>bata 7,l47 & ,c4 mexicana1 ,ag41 liv+ 9 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico & (f ! ,can>y ,isl&s4 ,cymopolia & ,acetabul>ia1 ) sev]al o!r calc>e\s algae1 are figur$ by ,ellis & o!r writ]s z memb]s ( ! animal k+dom4 ,ellis speaks ( ! species ( ,cymopolia :i* he figures z ! ,ros>y ,bead-,corall9e ( ,jamaica4 ,fig4 #cc1 ,m1 has be5 drawn f a figure publi%$ by ,ellis 9 8 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,corall9es publi%$ 9 #ageecjg4 ,! ?allus has ! =m ( a repeat$ly =k$ body1 ( :i* ! bran*es are divid$ into cyl9drical jo9ts ?ickly encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 b con/rict$ & uncalcifi$ at ! limits ( ea* segm5t4 ,a tuft ( hairs is giv5 (f f ! t]m9al segm5t ( ea* bran*4 ,! axis ( ea* bran* ( ! ?allus is occupi$ by a cyl9drical & unseptate cell :i* gives (f cr[d$ :orls ( lat]al bran*es4 ,9 ! l[] "p ( fig4 #cc1 ,m1 ! calc>e\s inve/m5t has be5 remov$1 & ! bran*es are se5 z f9e hair-l app5dages ( ! c5tral cell4 ,! bran*es giv5 (f f ! con/rict$ portions ( ! axis are unbran*$ simple app5dages1 b ! o!rs t]m9ate 9 bladd]-l swell+s1 ea* ( :i* be>s an apical sporangium4 ,! sporangia are surr\nd$ & enclos$ by ! swoll5 tips ( f\r to six bran*es :i* spr+ f ! summit ( ! sporangial bran*4 ,fig4 #cc1 ,a1 repres5ts "p ( a transv]se section ?r\gh ! calc>e\s out] portion ( a bran* ( ,cymopolia2 ! d>k] portions or cavities 9 ! calc>e\s matrix 7 orig9ally occupi$ by ! lat]al bran*es & sporangia#cjh4 ,9 ,fig4 #cc1 ,b1 ! sporangial bran* ) ! t]m9al sporangium & ?ree ( ! inve/+ bran*es are m cle>ly %[n1 ! surr\nd+ calc>e\s inve/m5t & ! ?allus hav+ be5 remov$ by ! action ( an acid4 ,9 a transv]se section ( a bran* f :i* ! organic matt] _h be5 remov$1 & only ! calc>e\s matrix left1 "o w\ld see a c5tral circul> cavity surr\nd$ by a ?ick calc>e\s wall p]=at$ by radially dispos$ canals & conta9+ globul> cavities2 ! canals & cavities be+ occupi$ 9 ! liv+ plant by bran*es & sporangia respectively4 ,! two circul> cavities %[n 9 ! figure m>k ! position ( ! sporangia :i* are borne on bran*es ) some:at swoll5 tips4 ,f ! summit ! left-h& sporangial bran* %[n 9 fig4 #cc1 ,a1 ?ree ( ! second>y bran*es are repres5t$ by *annels 9 ! calc>e\s matrix2 ! two black dots on ! face ( ! sporangiophore be+ ! sc>s ( ! rema9+ two second>y bran*es4 ,by ! lat]al contact ( ! swoll5 ends ( ! ultimate bran*es enclos+ ! sporangia ! :ole surface ( ! ?allus1 :5 exam9$ ) a l5s1 pres5ts a pitt$ appe>ance4 ,ea* pit or circul> depression 7fig4 #cc1 ,n7 m>ks ! position ( ! swoll5 tip ( a bran*4 ,?is =m ( ?allus repres5ts a type :i* is met ) 9 sev]al memb]s ( ! ,dasycladaceae4 ,x w\ld c>ry u beyond ! limits ( a %ort acc\nt to describe additional rec5t g5]a :i* ?r[ light on ! num]\s fossil species4 ,= fur!r in=mation z to ! rec5t memb]s ( ! family1 ! /ud5t %\ld ref] to ,murray's ,seawe$s#cji1 & = a m detail$ memoir on ! gr\p to ,wille's rec5t contribution to ! ,pflanz5famili5#caj ( ,engl] & ,prantl4 ,among ! v>i\s special contributions to our k ( ! ,dasycladaceae1 ^? by ,muni]-,*almas#caa1 ,cram]#cab1 ,solms-,lauba*#cac1 & ,*ur*#cad1 may be m5tion$4 ,sid5ote3 ,,palaeozoic ,,siphoneae4 ,! publication ( a %ort prelim9>y note by ,pr(4 ,muni]-,*almas 9 ! ,comptes ,r5dus = #ahgg 0 ! means ( call+ att5tion to ! exceptional importance ( ! calc>e\s ,siphoneae z algae possess+ an int]e/+ pa/ hi/ory1 ( :i* satisfactory records _h be5 pres]v$ 9 rocks ( v>i\s ages4 ,decaisne _h po9t$ out 9 #ahdb t c]ta9 m>9e organisms previ\sly reg>d$ z animals %\ld be transf]r$ to ! plant k+dom4 ,su* seawe$s z ,halim$a1 ,udotea1 ,p5icillus & o!rs 7 ?us assign$ to _! correct position4 ,_m fossil algae belong+ to ?is gr\p cont9u$ to be dealt ) z ,=am9if]a until ,muni]-,*almas demon/rat$ _! true aff9ities4 ,9 ,gmbel's monograph on ! s-call$ ,nullipores f\nd 9 lime/one rocks1 publi%$ 9 #ahgacae1 sev]al examples ( siphone\s algae are includ$ among ! fossil ,protozoa4 ,9 rec5t ye>s !re h be5 sev]al additions to an already long li/ ( fossil ,siphoneae4 ,9 addition to ! num]\s & well-pres]v$ specim5s1 repres5t+ a l>ge numb] ( g5]ic & specific =ms1 :i* h be5 collect$ f ! ,eoc5e ( ! ,p>is bas91 !re is pl5ty ( evid5ce ( ! abundance ( ! memb]s ( ! ,dasycladaceae 9 ! ,triassic seas4 ,9 ! ,triassic lime/ones ( ! ,tyrol1 z well z 9 o!r regions1 ! calc>e\s bodies ( siphone\s algae h play$ no inconsid]able "p z ag5ts ( rock-build+#caf4 ,g5]a h be5 record$ f ,silurian & o!r ,palaeozoic horizons1 & !re is no d\bt t ! ,v]ticillate ,siphoneae ( to-day are ! remnants ( an extremely anci5t family1 :i* 9 =m] p]iods 0 repres5t$ by a mu* m widely di/ribut$ & m v>i$ assemblage ( species4 ,!re is probably no m promis+ field ( "w 9 ! doma9 ( fossil algae ?an ! fur!r inve/igation ( ! num]\s =ms includ$ 9 ,muni]-,*almas' class ( ,siphoneae ,v]ticillatae4 ,a brief description ( a few g5]a f diff]5t geological horizons mu/ suffice to draw att5tion to ! "* ( ! data = a phylog5etic hi/ory ( ?is gr\p4 ,! fossil examples ( ! g5us ,cymopolia 7,polytrypa7 7 orig9ally describ$ by ,defrance#cag 9 ! ,dictionnaire des ,sci5ces ,naturelles z small polyps "u ! g5]ic "n ,polytrypa4 ,9 ! ,eoc5e s&s ( ! ,p>is bas9 !re h be5 f\nd num]\s specim5s ( %ort1 calc>e\s tubes :i* ,muni]-,*almas has %ewn are no d\bt ! isolat$ segm5ts ( an alga practically id5tical ) ! rec5t ,cymopolia4 ,a section#cah ?r\gh "o ( ! fossil segm5ts pres5ts precisely ! same features z ^? :i* are repres5t$ 9 fig4 #cc1 ,a4 ,! habit ( ! ,eoc5e alga & its m9ute /ructure 7 app>5tly almo/ id5tical ) ^? ( ! rec5t species1 ,cymopolia b>bata4 ,! two draw+s ( ,cymopolia reproduc$ 9 fig4 #cc1 ,a & ,b1 h be5 copi$ f ,muni]-,*almas' note 9 ! ,comptes ,r5dus#cai2 ! correspond+ figures giv5 by ?is au?or ( ! ,eoc5e species 7,cymopolia elongata ,deb47 are practically id5tical ) figs4 ,a & ,b1 & %[ no po9ts ( real diff]5ce4 ,! segm5ts ( ! ?allus ( ! fossil species1 z figur$ by ,defrance#cbj1 appe> to be r long] ?an ^? ( ! rec5t species4 ,! calc>e\s inve/m5t ( ! axial cell ( ! ?allus 0 trav]s$ by regul> v]ticils ( bran*es or #8leaves'2 ! c5tral bran* ( ea* :orl t]m9ates 9 an oval sporangial cavity1 exactly z 9 fig4 #cc1 ,a & ,b2 & f ! top ( ?is bran* !re is giv5 (f a r+ ( sl5d] prolongations :i* t]m9ate on ! surface ( ! calc>e\s tube z regul>ly dispos$ depressions1 :i* 7 no d\bt orig9ally occupi$ by _! swoll5 di/al ends z 9 ! rec5t species4 ,v]miporella4 ,?is g5]ic "n 0 propos$ by ,/olley = c]ta9 bran*$ & curv$ tubes f\nd 9 ,silurian b\ld]s f ! ,nor? ,g]man drift#cba4 ,! tubes h a diamet] ( #e-a mm41 & are p]=at$ by radial canals :i* probably m>k ! position ( v]ticils ( bran*es giv5 (f at "r angles to ! c5tral axis4 ,! surface ( ! tubes is divid$ into regul> hexagonal areas4 ,! resemblance ( ^! ,silurian fossils to ,diplopora & o!r g5]a fav\rs _! inclusion 9 ! ,v]ticillate ,siphoneae4 ,sycidium4 ,fig4 #cb1 ,b4 ,! fossils includ$ 9 ?is g5us 7 fir/ describ$ by ,s&b]g] f ! middle ,devonian rocks ( ! ,eifel1 & ref]r$ by him to ! animal k+dom4 ,m rec5tly ,deecke has sugge/$ ! removal ( ! g5us to ! calc>e\s ,siphoneae1 & su* a view appe>s p]fectly reasonable1 al?\gh )\t m data x is n possible to speak ) absolute c]ta9ty4 ,sycidium melo4 7,s&b47 ,fig4 #cb1 ,b4 ,! specim5 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #cb1 ,b 7i71 7ii71 drawn f ,deecke's figures#cbb1 has ! =m ( a small oval calc>e\s body1 #a mm4 9 transv]se diamet] & #a-ac mm4 9 longitud9al diamet]4 ,x is po9t$ at "o end & flatt5$ at ! o!r4 ,at ! flatt] end !re is a circul> depression1 cont9u$ into a funnel-%ap$ cavity1 & on ! walls ( ?is cavity !re are #ah-bj radially dispos$ ribs1 :i* ext5d ov] ! surface ( ! :ole body4 ,a s]ies ( transv]se ribs int]sects ! v]tical ribs at "r angles4 ,! calc>e\s wall is p]=at$ by num]\s :orls ( circul> pores1 & ! int]nal cavity is a simple undivid$ space4 ,ea* ( ^! oval bodies 7fig4 #cc1 ,b7 is probably ! segm5t ( a ?allus1 & ! p]=ations 9 ! wall may h be5 orig9ally occupi$ by lat]al prolongations f ! unseptate axial cell ( ! ?allus4 ,sycidium be>s a fairly close resemblance to ! ,t]ti>y ,ovulites4 ,diplopora4 ,fig4 #ce1 ,a & ,b4 ,?is g5us ( algae is *>act]i/ic ( ,triassic rocks1 & is especially abundant 9 ,mus*elkalk & ,l[] ,keup] lime/ones ( ! ,alps1 ,silesia1 & else:]e4 ,! ?allus1 or r ! calc>e\s portion ( ! ?allus1 has ! =m ( a ?ick-wall$ tube1 ) a diamet] ( ab\t #d mm41 & occasionally rea*+ a l5g? ( #ej mm4 ,at "o end ! tube has a r\nd$ & clos$ t]m9ation1 & ! wall is pi]c$ ?r\gh\t its :ole l5g? by regul> :orls ( f9e canals4 ,diplopora agrees ) ,cymopolia 9 its ma9 features4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,a1 ,b1 ,diplopora4 #b4 ,c1 ,d1 ,gyroporella 7aft] ,b5ecke4 #d74 ,e1 ,calc>e\s segm5ts ( ,p5icillus1 f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 #e4 ,f1 a s+le segm5t ( ,ovulites m>g>itula ,lam4 #d4 ,g1 ,conf]vites *antransioides ,born4 7aft] ,bornemann4 #aej74 ,fig4 #ce1 ,a1 af=ds a diagrammatic view ( a ,diplopora tube1 & %ews ! arrangem5t ( ! num]\s :orls ( canals4 ,9 fig4 #ce1 ,b1 a piece ( lime/one is repres5t$ conta9+ sev]al ,diploporas cut across transv]sely & m or less obliquely4 ,9 an obliquely transv]se section ( a tube p]=at$ by horizontal canals ! cavities ( ! canals necess>ily appe> z holes or discont9u\s canals 9 ! sub/ance ( ! calc>e\s wall4 ,! mann] ( occurr5ce ( ! specim5s po9ts to ! abundance ( ?is g5us 9 ! ,triassic seas1 & sugge/s t ! calc>e\s tubes ( ,diplopora may h be5 important factors 9 ! build+ up ( lime/one s$im5ts#cbc4 ,9 _m in/ances no d\bt ! c>bonate ( lime ( ! ?allus has be5 dissolv$ & recry/allis$1 & ! orig9al =m completely oblit]at$4 ,z 9 ! rocks built up l>gely ( calc>e\s ,florideae 7p4 #ahe7 :i* h lo/ _! /ructure1 x is a legitimate inf]5ce t "s ( ! lime/one rocks :i* %ew no trace ( organic /ructure may h be5 9 "p d]iv$ f ! calc>e\s incru/ation ( v>i\s algal g5]a4 ,gyroporella4 ,fig4 #ce1 ,c & ,d4 ,9 ?is g5us f ! ,alp9e ,trias ! /ructure ( ! calc>e\s tube is v simil> to t 9 ,diplopora1 b 9 ,gyroporella ! canals =m less di/9ct :orls & are clos$ ext]nally by a small plate1 z se5 9 figs4 #ce1 ,c & ,d4 ,z ,solms-,lauba* has po9t$ out1 ! bran*-sy/ems ( ,diplopora1 ,gyroporella & o!r old] g5]a are mu* simpl] ?an 9 ! ,t]ti>y g5]a ,dactylopora & o!rs#cbd4 ,a species ( ,gyroporella1 ,g4 bell]ophontis1 has rec5tly be5 describ$ by ,ro?pletz#cbe f ,p]mian rocks 9 ! ,s\!rn ,tyrol4 ,! ?allus is tubul> 9 =m & has a diamet] ( #e-a mm4 ,dactylopora4 ,! g5us ,dactylopora 0 f\nd$ by ,lam>ck#cbf on "s fossil specim5s f ! ,calcaire ,grossi] & includ$ among ! ,zoophytes4 ,d',orbigny aft]w>ds includ$ x among ! ,=am9if]a1 & ! /ructure ( ! calc>e\s body has be5 describ$ by ,c>p5t]#cbg & o!r writ]s on ! ,=am9if]a4 ,9 a specim5 ( ,dactylopora cyl9dracea ,lam4 f ! ,p>is bas91 = :i* ,i am indebt$ to ,muni]-,*almas1 ! tubul> ?allus measures #d mm4 9 diamet]2 at ! complete end x is clos$ & bluntly r\nd$4 ,! wall ( ! tube is p]=at$ by num]\s canals1 & conta9s oval cavities :i* 7 no d\bt orig9ally occupi$ by sporangia4 ,! %ape ( ! specim5s is simil> to t ( ,diplopora1 b ! canals & cavities pres5t a *>act]i/ic & m complex appe>ance1 :5 se5 9 a transv]se section ( ! wall1 ?an 9 ! old] g5us ,diplopora4 ,gmbel has giv5 a detail$ acc\nt ( ?is ,t]ti>y g5us 9 8 memoir on ,die sog5annt5 ,nullipor5#cbh2 he di/+ui%es betwe5 ,dactyloporella & ,gyroporella by ! exi/5ce ( cavities 9 ! calc>e\s wall ( ! tube 9 ! =m] g5us1 & by _! abs5ce 9 ! latt]4 ,! oval cavities 9 a ,dactyloporella 7 orig9ally occupi$ by sporangia2 9 ,diplopora & ,gyroporella ! sporangia 7 probably borne ext]nally & on an uncalcifi$ portion ( ! ?allus4 ,9 addition to ! few examples ( fossil species describ$ above !re are num]\s o!rs ( consid]able int]e/1 :i* illu/rate ! great weal? ( =m among ! ,t]ti>y & o!r repres5tatives ( ! ,v]ticillate ,siphoneae4 ,ref]5ce has already be5 made to ,v]miporella z an example ( a ,silurian g5us4 ,o!r g5]a h be5 describ$ by ,/olley f ,silurian b\ld]s 9 ! ,nor?-,g]man drift "u ! names ,palaeoporella1 ,dasyporella & ,rhabdoporella#cbi2 ! latt] g5us is comp>$ ) ! ,triassic ,diplopora1 & ! two prec$+ ) ! rec5t ,bornetella4 ,s*lt] has transf]r$ a suppos$ ,devonian ,=am9if]al g5us1 ,coelotro*ium#ccj1 to ! li/ ( ,palaeozoic ,siphoneae4 ,muni]-,*almas reg>ds "s ( ! fossils describ$ by ,saporta "u ! "n ( ,goniol9a#cca1 & class$ among ! infloresc5ces ( pro-angiosp]m\s plants1 z examples ( ,jurassic ,siphoneae4 ,! %ape & surface-features ( "s ( ! examples ( ,goniol9a sugge/ a comp>ison ) ,e*9oid sp9es1 b ! resemblance :i* _m ( ! =ms 9 ! ,sorbonne collection pres5t to l>ge calc>e\s ,siphoneae is /ill m /rik+4 ,a comp>ison ( ,saporta's fig4 #e1 ,pl4 xxxiii4 & fig4 #d1 ,pl4 xxxii4 9 volume iv4 ( ! ,flore ,jurassique1 ) ! figures giv5 by ,solms-,lauba*#ccb & ,cram]#ccc ( species ( ,bornetella br+s out a close simil>ity betwe5 ,goniol9a & rec5t algae2 ! *ief diff]5ce be+ ! great] size ( ! fossil =ms4 ,! possibility ( conf\nd+ ,e*9oid sp9es ) calc>e\s ,siphoneae is illu/rat$ by ,ro?pletz#ccd1 :o has express$ ! op9ion t ,gmbel's ,haploporella fasciculata is n an alga b ! sp9e ( a sea-ur*94 ,among ,cretace\s =ms1 9 addition to ,goniol9a1 :i* passes upw>ds f ,jurassic rocks1 ,triploporella#cce & o!r g5]a h be5 record$4 ,ut]ia#ccf is an int]e/+ type ( ,t]ti>y g5]a2 x occurs 9 ! =m ( b>rel-%ap$ r+s1 :i* are probably ! deta*$ segm5ts ( a =m 9 :i* ! c5tral axial cell 0 encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 b ! sporangia & ! :orls ( bran*es diff]$ f ^? ( ,cymopolia 9 be+ )\t a calc>e\s inve/m5t4 b4 ,,conf]voideae4 ,)\t attempt+ to describe at l5g? ! fossil =ms ref]r$ to ?is division ( ! ,*lorophyceae1 !re is "o fossil :i* des]ves a pass+ notice4 ,brongni>t 9 #ahbhccg in/itut$ ! g5]ic t]m ,conf]vites = filam5t\s fossils resembl+ rec5t species ( conf]void algae4 ,num]\s fossils h be5 ref]r$ to ?is g5us by diff]5t au?ors1 b !y are = ! mo/ "p valueless & ne$ n be fur!r consid]$4 ,9 #ahhg ,bornemann describ$ "s new =ms :i* he ref]r$ to ?is g5us f ! ,cambrian rocks ( ,s>d9ia4 ,he describes ! r$ m>ble ( ,san ,pietra1 ne> ,masne1 z be+ 9 places full ( ! delicate rema9s ( algae hav+ ! =m ( bran*$ filam5ts1 & appe>+ 9 sections ( ! rock z :ite l9es on a d>k cry/all9e matrix4 ,9 fig4 #ce1 ,g1 "o ( ^! ,s>d9ian specim5s is repres5t$4 ,?is =m is nam$ ,conf]vites ,*antransioides#cch2 ! ?allus consi/s ( bran*$ cell-filam5ts1 hav+ a bread? ( #f-g1 & compos$ ( ovate cells4 ,x is possible t ?is is a fragm5t ( a ,cambrian alga1 b ! figures & descriptions d n af=d by any means conv9c+ evid5ce4 ,f po/-,t]ti>y b$s v>i\s g5]a1 su* z ,vau*]ia & o!rs1 h be5 record$1 b !y possess b little botanical value4 ,c4 ,,inc]tae ,,s$is4 ,fossils 9 ,boghead #8,coal' ref]r$ by "s au?ors to ! ,*lorophyceae4 ,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s mu* has be5 writt5 by two ,fr5* au?ors1 ,dr ,r5ault & ,pr(4 ,b]tr&1 on ! subject ( ! s-call$ ,boghead ( ,france1 ,scotl&1 & o!r c\ntries4 ,!y hold ! view t ! =mation ( ! ext5sive b$s ( ?is c>bonace\s mat]ial 0 due to ! accumulation & pres]vation ( enorm\s numb]s ( m9ute algae :i* liv$ 9 ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s lakes4 ,9 an article contribut$ to ,sci5ce-,progress 9 #ahie ,i v5tur$ to express d\bts z to ! correctness ( ! conclusions ( ,,mm4 ,r5ault & ,b]tr&#cci4 ,s9ce !n ,pr(4 ,b]tr& has v k9dly demon/rat$ to me _m ( 8 microscopic prep>ations ( v>i\s ,bogheads1 & ,i am indebt$ to ,pr(4 ,bayley ,balf\r ( ,ed9burgh = an opportunity ( exam9+ a s]ies ( sections ( ! ,scot* ,boghead4 ,! exam9ation ( ^! specim5s has conv9c$ me ( ! difficulties ( ! problems :i* _m inve/igators h tri$ to solve1 b x has by no means l$ me to entirely adopt ! views express$ by ,,mm4 ,b]tr& & ,r5ault4 ,sid5ote3 ,,boghead4 ,! ,boghead or ,torbanite ( ,scotl& 0 r5d]$ fam\s by a protract$ lawsuit tri$ 9 ,ed9burgh f ,july #bi? to ,augu/ #d?1 #ahec4 ,a lease _h be5 grant$ by ,mr & ,mrs ,gillespie1 ( ,torbanehill1 9 ,fife%ire1 to ,messrs ,james ,russell & ,son1 coal-ma/]s ( ,falkirk1 ( 8! :ole coal1 iron/one1 iron-ore1 lime/one1 & fire-clay 7b n to compreh5d copp]1 or any o!r m9]als :atsoev]1 except ^? specifi$7 ) l&s ( ,torbanehill#cdj40 ,aft] ! ,boghead _h be5 work$ = two ye>s ! ,gillespies *all5g$ ! "r ( ,messrs ,russell1 & argu$ t ! valuable m9]al ,torbanite 0 n includ$ among ! sub/ances nam$ 9 ! agreem5t4 ,! def5dants ma9ta9$ t x 0 a coal1 kn[n z gas-1 cannel- or p>rot-coal4 ,a v]dict 0 giv5 = ! def5dants4 ,"s ( ! sci5tific exp]ts :o gave evid5ce at ! trial consid]$ t ! ,boghead af=d$ indications ( organic /ructure1 :ile o!rs reg>d$ x z ess5tially m9]al 9 orig94 ,! ,torbanite or ,boghead is a close-gra9$ br[n rock1 ( peculi> t\ghness & hav+ a subcon*oidal fracture4 ,x conta9s ab\t #fe c>bon1 ) "s hydrog51 oxyg51 sulphur1 & m9]al sub/ances4 ,a ?9 section exam9$ "u ! microscope pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a d>k & amorph\s matrix1 conta9+ num]\s oval1 sph]ical & irregul>ly %ap$ bright orange-yell[ pat*es4 ,fig4 #cf1 #a %[s ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( ! yell[ bodies 9 a piece ( ,scot* ,boghead1 z se5 9 a slightly magnifi$ horizontal section4 ,"u a high] p[] ! light pat*es 9 ! figure reveal traces ( a fa9t radial /riation1 :i* 9 "s cases sugge/s ! occurr5ce ( a numb] ( oval or polygonal cells4 ,! ,autun ,boghead possesses practically ! same /ructure4 ,! yell[ bodies are (t5 suffici5tly abundant to imp>t a bright yell[ col\r to a ?9 section4 ,if ! section is v]tical ! col\r$ bodies are se5 to be arrang$ 9 m or less regul> lay]s p>allel to ! plane ( b$d+4 ,! ,k]os5e %ale ( ,new ,s\? ,wales agrees closely ) ! ,scot* & ,fr5* ,boghead2 x is approximately ( ! same geological age1 & is l>gely made up ( orange or yell[ bodies simil> to ^? ( ! ,european ,boghead1 b mu* m cle>ly pres]v$4 ,! nature & mann] ( =mation ( ! v>i\s =ms ( coal %\ld be dealt ) 9 a lat] *apt] devot$ to ! subject ( plants z rock-build]s1 b 9 view ( ! rec5t /atem5ts z to ! algal nature ( ^! bitum9\s deposits x may n be out ( place to /ate briefly ! ma9 conclusions ( ! ,fr5* au?ors4 ,,mm4 ,r5ault & ,b]tr& reg>d ea* ( ! yell[ bodies 9 ! ,european & ,au/ralian ,boghead z ! ?allus ( an alga4 ,to ! =m :i* is mo/ abundant 9 ! ,k]os5e %ale !y h giv5 ! g5]ic "n ( ,re9s*ia1 :ile t 9 ! ,scot* & ,fr5* ,boghead is nam$ ,pila4 ,re9s*ia4 ,fig4 #cf1 #c4 ,a section ( a piece ( ,k]os5e %ale at "r angles to ! b$d+ appe>s to be made up ( fairly regul> lay]s ( flatt5$ elliptical sacs ( an orange or yell[ col\r4 ,ea* sac or ?allus is ab\t #cjj 9 l5g? & #aej broad 7fig4 #cf1 #c74 ,a s+le r[ ( cells con/itutes ! wall surr\nd+ ! c5tral globul> cavity4 ,! cells are m or less pyri=m 9 %ape1 & ! cell-cavities are fill$ ) a d>k sub/ance1 describ$ by ,r5ault & ,b]tr& z protoplasm1 & ! cell-walls are fairly ?ick4 ,9 "s ( ! l>g] specim5s !re are (t5 f\nd a few small] sacs enclos$ 9 ! cavity ( ! p>tially disorganis$ "m-?allus4 ,9 ! l>g] specim5s ! wall is usually invag9at$ 9 sev]al places1 giv+ ! :ole ?allus a lob$ or bra9-l appe>ance4 ,! suppos$ alga1 :i* makes up ?s ( ! cont5ts ( a block ( ,k]os5e %ale1 is nam$ ,re9s*ia ,au/ralis2 x is reg>d$ by ! au?ors ( ! species z ne>ly relat$ to ! ,hydrodictyaceae or ,volvoc9eae4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf1 #a4 ,section ( a piece ( ,scot* ,torbanite4 ,slightly enl>g$4 #b4 ,pila bibract5sis f ! ,autun ,boghead1 #bhb 7aft] ,b]tr&74 #c4 ,re9s*ia ,au/ralis1 f ! ,k]os5e %ale ( ,new ,s\? ,wales1 #eib 7aft] ,b]tr&74 ,9 ! ,k]os5e %ale f c]ta9 localities 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales ,b]tr& recognises a second =m ( ?allus1 :i* he ref]s to ! g5us ,pila1 *>act]i/ic ( ! ,european ,bogheads4 ,pila4 ,fig4 #cf1 #b4 ,! 8?allus0 *>act]i/ic ( ! ,scot* ,boghead has be5 nam$ ,pila scotica1 & t ( ! ,autun ,boghead1 ,pila bibract5sis4 ,9 ! latt] =m1 :i* has be5 /udi$ 9 m detail by ,,mm4 ,r5ault & ,b]tr&1 ! ?allus consi/s ( ab\t #f-gjj cells1 & is irregul>ly ellipsoidal 9 =m1 f #ahi-bbemm4 9 l5g?1 & #acf-afjmm4 broad4 ,! surface-cells are radially dispos$ & pyramidal 9 %ape1 ! int]nal cells are polygonal 9 outl9e & less regul>ly arrang$ 7fig4 #cf1 #b74 ,! ,pila ?alli make up ?s ( ! mass 9 an av]age sample ( ! ,autun ,boghead4 ,! ,autun ,boghead (t5 conta9s silice\s nodules1 & sections ( ^! occasionally include cells ( a ,pila 9 :i* ! protoplasmic cont5ts & nuclei h be5 describ$ by ! ,fr5* au?ors4 ,! evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( ^! suppos$ nuclei is1 h[ev]1 n entirely satisfactory2 sections ( silicifi$ ?alli :i* 7 %[n to me by ,pr(4 ,b]tr& did n satisfy me z to ! m9ute hi/ological details recognis$ by ,b]tr& & ,r5ault4 ,! species ( ,pila are comp>$ ) ! rec5t g5us ,cela/rum1 & reg>d$ z mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! ,*roococcaceae or ,pleurococcaceae among rec5t algae4 ,pr(4 ,bornet#cda has sugge/$ ,gomphospha]ia z a g5us :i* pres5ts a resemblance to ! ,autun ,pila4 ,9 addition to ! ,bogheads ( ,autun1 ,torbanehill1 & ,new ,s\? ,wales1 !re are simil> ,palaeozoic deposits 9 ,russia1 ,am]ica1 & v>i\s o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,full details ( ! /ructure ( ,boghead & ! suppos$ algae ref]r$ to ,re9s*ia1 ,pila1 & o!r g5]a w be f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( ,b]tr& & ,r5ault#cdb4 ,! ,k]os5e %ale ( ,new ,s\? ,wales af=ds ! mo/ /rik+ & well-pres]v$ examples ( ! cellul> orange & yell[ bodies ref]r$ to z ! globul> ?alli ( algae4 ,x is almo/ impossible to conceive a purely inorganic mat]ial assum+ su* =ms z ^? :i* occur 9 ! ,au/ralian ,boghead4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is h>dly less easy to und]/& ! possibility ( su* explanations z h be5 sugge/$ ( ! organic orig9 ( ^! *>act]i/ic bodies4 ,! gr\nd-mass or matrix ( ! ,boghead is ref]r$ to a br[n ulmic precipitate ?r[n d[n on ! floor ( a ,p]mian or ,c>bonif]\s lake1 probably "u ! action ( calc>e\s wat]4 ,9 ?is mat]ial !re accumulat$ c\ntless ?alli ( m9ute gelat9\s algae1 :i* probably at c]ta9 seasons completely cov]$ ! surface ( ! wat]s1 z ! fleurs d'eau 9 _m ( our fre%-wat] lakes4 ,9 addition to ! ?alli ( ,re9s*ia & ,pila ! ,bogheads conta9 a few rema9s ( v>i\s plant fragm5ts1 poll5-gra9s1 & pieces ( wood4 ,fi%-scales & ! coprolites ( reptiles & fi%es occur 9 "s ( ! b$s4 ,on a piece ( ,k]os5e %ale 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum1 ,cambridge1 !re are two well-pres]v$ graphitic impressions ( ! tongue-%ap$ fronds ( ,glossopt]is ,br[niana1 ,brongn4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ! b$s ( ,boghead 7 deposit$ "u wat] z memb]s ( a regul> sequ5ce ( s$im5t>y /rata4 ,! yell[ bodies :i* =m s great a "p ( ! b$s are practically all ( ! same type4 ,re9s*ia & ,pila _c always be di/+ui%$1 & x w\ld seem t !re are no adequate gr\nds = in/itut+ two di/9ct g5]a & ref]r+ !m to diff]5t families ( rec5t algae4 ,/at$ briefly1 my conclusion is t ! algae ( ! ,fr5* au?ors may be def9ite organic bodies1 b x is unwise to attempt to det]m9e _! aff9ities )9 su* n>r[ limits z h be5 ref]r$ to 9 ! above rsum4 ,! /ructure ( ! bitum9\s deposits is wor?y ( c>eful /udy1 & x is by no means impossible t fur!r rese>* might lead u to accept ! view ( ! e>li] inve/igators1 t ! brightly col\r$ organic-l bodies may be inorganic 9 orig94 ,d4 ,,rhodophyceae4 7,,florideae4 ,,r$ ,,algae47 ,! ?allus ( ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p assumes v>i\s =ms1 & consi/s ( bran*$ cell-filam5ts ( a m or less complex /ructure4 ,cells ( ! ?allus conta9 a r$ col\r+ matt] 9 addition to ! gre5 *lorophyll4 ,! reproduction is asexual & sexual2 ! =mation ( asexual reproductive cells 7tetraspores7 9 gr\ps ( f\r 9 sporangia is a *>act]i/ic me?od ( reproduction4 ,sexual reproduction is effect$ by means ( di/9ct male & female cells4 ,) ! exception ( a few fre%-wat] g5]a all ! r$ algae are m>9e4 ,! ,rhodophyceae1 l ! ,cyanophyceae & ,*lorophyceae1 include a %ell-bor+ =m :i* has be5 f\nd 9 ! common razor-%ell#cdc4 ,sev]al g5]a live z endophytes 9 ! tissues ( o!r algae4 ,! rec5t species ( ?is section ( algae are *>act]i/ic ( temp]ate & tropical seas4 ,"o subdivision ( ! r$ algae1 ! ,corall9aceae1 is extremely important f a geological po9t ( view & mu/ be dealt ) 9 "s detail4 ,,corall9aceae4 ,! ?allus is usually encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime2 x is ( a bran*$ cyl9drical =m 9 ! well-kn[n ,corall9a (fic9alis1 ,l9n4 ( ! ,briti% coa/s1 ( an encru/+ & foliace\s type1 9 ! g5us ,li?ophyllum1 & ( a m coral-l =m 9 ! g5us ,li?o?amnion4 ,! reproductive organs occur 9 conceptacles1 hav+ ! =m ( small depress$ cavities 9 ! ?allus1 or project+ z w>ty swell+s above ! surface ( ! plant4 ,asexual reproduction is by means ( tetraspores =m$ 9 conceptacles resembl+ ^? conta9+ ! sexual cells4 ,! ,corall9aceae may be subdivid$ into ! two families ,melobesieae & ,corall9eae#cdd4 ,melobesieae4 ,?allus encru/+1 leaf- or coral-l2 unsegm5t$4 7,melobesia1 ,li?ophyllum1 ,li?o?amnion47 ,corall9eae4 ,cyl9drical filam5t\s & segm5t$ ?allus4 7,amphiroa & ,corall9a47 ,! g5us ,corall9a is ! be/ kn[n ,briti% repres5tative ( ! ,corall9aceae4 ,) o!r memb]s ( ! gr\p x 0 long reg>d$ z a corall9e animal1 & x is only comp>atively rec5tly t ! plant-nature ( ^! =ms has be5 g5]ally admitt$4 ,li?ophyllum1 ,li?o?amnion1 ,melobesia1 & o!r g5]a ( ! ,corall9aceae & "s ( ! ,siphoneae play a v important "p 9 ! build+ & cem5t+ ( coral-reefs4 ,! p9k or rose-col\r$ calc>e\s ?allus ( "s ( ^! calc>e\s algae or ,nullipores imp>ts to coral-reefs a *>act]i/ic appe>ance4 ,9 "s cases1 inde$1 ! coral-reefs are v l>gely compos$ ( algae4 ,saville ,k5t#cde describes ! ,corall9es or ,nullipores ( ! ,au/ralian ,b>ri]-reef z furni%+ a consid]able quota t[>ds ! composition ( ! coral rock4 ,mr ,/anley ,g>d9]1 :o accompani$ ! coral-bor+ exp$ition to ! isl& ( ,funafuti1 has k9dly all[$ me to quote ! foll[+ extract f 8 notes1 :i* af=ds an int]e/+ example ( ! importance ( calc>e\s algae z reef-build+ organisms4 8,x is q a misnom] to speak ( ! out] edge ( a reef l ?is 7,rotuma ,isl&7 z be+ =m$ ( coral4 ,x w\ld be f> bett] to call x a ,nullipore reef1 z x is completely encru/$ by ^! algae1 :ile outside 9 ! p]fectly cle> wat]1 #aj to #ae fa?oms 9 dep?1 ! bottom has a mo/ brilliant appe>ance f masses ( r$1 :ite & p9k ,nullipores1 ) only a /ray coral "h & !re40 ,agassiz#cdf has giv5 an acc\nt ( ! occurr5ce ( imm5se masses ( ,nullipores 7,udotea1 ,halim$a etc47 9 ! ,florida reefs2 8 description is illu/rat$ by good figures ( ^! algae4 ,9 ! ,m$it]ranean !re are true ,nullipore reefs1 :i* are int]e/+ geologically z well z botanically4 ,wal!r#cdg has describ$ "o ( ^! lime/one-banks 9 ! ,gulf ( ,naples :i* occurs ab\t #a kilometre f ! coa/ & #cj metres bel[ ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,e dr$g+1 he says1 br+s up numb]less masses ( ,li?o?amnion fasciculatum 7,lam>ck71 & ,l4 crassum 7,phil474 ,betwe5 ! bran*es ( ! algae1 ga/]opods & o!r animals become completely enclos$ by ! gr[+ plants1 :ile diatoms1 =am9if]a1 & o!r =ms ( life are abundant4 ,wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh ! mass gradually de/roys ! /ructure ( ! algal ?alli1 & 9 places r$uces ! :ole bank to a compact /ructureless lime/one4 ,! same au?or#cdh has also call$ att5tion to ! importance ( ,li?ophyllum z a con/ructive elem5t 9 ! coral-reefs (f ! ,s9ai p59sula4 ,li?o?amnion a typical g5us ( ! ,corall9aceae may be briefly describ$4 ,li?o?amnion4 ,fig4 #cg4 ,philippi#cdi 0 ! fir/ writ] to describe ?is & o!r g5]a z plants4 ,he gave ! foll[+ def9ition ( ,li?o?amnion3 8,/irps calc>ea rigida1 e ramis cyl9dricis vel compressiusculis di*otoma ramosis con/ans40 ,! ?allus ( ,li?o?amnion gr[s atta*$ to ! face ( a rock or o!r f\ndation1 & =ms a h>d1 /ony mass1 assum+ v>i\s corall9e %apes4 ,! expos$ face may h ! =m ( num]\s %ort bran*es or ( an irregul> w>ty surface4 ,9 section 7fig4 #cg1 ,a47 ! l[] "p ( ! ?allus is se5 to be made up ( r[s ( cells radiat+ out f a c5tral po9t1 & ! upp] portion consi/s ( v]tical & horizontal r[s ( cells4 ,! :ole body is divid$ up into a l>ge numb] ( small cells by anticl9al & p]icl9al walls1 & possesses an evid5t cellul> z di/9ct f a tubul> /ructure4 ,conceptacles conta9+ reproductive organs are ei!r sunk 9 ! ?allus or project above ! surface4 ,! two types ( /ructure 9 a s+le ?allus are %[n 9 fig4 #cg1 ,a1 also a conceptacle conta9+ tetraspores4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg1 ,a4 ,section ( a rec5t ,li?o?amnion 7aft] ,rosan(f#cej1 #bjj74 ,b4 ,section ( ,li?o?amnion suganum1 ,ro? 7aft] ,ro?pletz#cea1 #ajj74 ,c4 ,a conceptacle ) tetraspores f a ,t]ti>y ,li?o?amnion 7aft] ,frh#ceb1 #cjj74 ,d4 ,spha]ocodium ,bornemanni ,ro?1 7aft] ,ro?pletz1 #aej74 ,9 ! closely alli$ ,li?ophyllum ! ?allus is encru/+1 & 9 section x pres5ts ! same appe>ance z ! l[] "p ( a ,li?o?amnion ?allus4 ,species ( ,li?o?amnion occur 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea1 & are abundant 9 ! arctic regions#cec1 :ile on ! ,briti% coa/s ! g5us is repres5t$ by f\r species#ced4 ,"s l>ge specim5s ( ,li?o?amnion & ,li?ophyllum are exhibit$ 9 "o ( ! %[-cases 9 ! botanical dep>tm5t ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,= ! be/ figures & descriptions ( rec5t species ref]5ce %\ld be made to ! works ( ,hauck1 ,rosan(f1 ,ros5v+e1 ,kjellman & ,solms-,lauba*#cee4 ,x is to be expect$ t su* calc>e\s algae z ,li?o?amnion %\ld be widely repres5t$ by fossil =ms4 ,9 addition to ! botanical importance ( ! data furni%$ by ! fossil species z to ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! ,corall9aceae1 !re is mu* ( geological int]e/ to be le>nt f a /udy ( ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( bo? ! fossil & rec5t repres5tatives4 ,z ag5ts ( rock-build+ ! corall9e algae are especially important4 ,! late ,pr(4 ,ung]#cef 9 #aheh gave an acc\nt ( ! s-call$ ,lei?akalk ( ! ,t]ti>y ,vi5na bas91 & recognis$ ! importance ( fossil algae z rock-=m+ organisms4 ,! ,mioc5e ,lei?akalk1 :i* is widely us$ 9 ,vi5na z a build+ /one#ceg1 consi/s 9 "p ( lime/one rocks consi/+ to a l>ge ext5t ( ,li?o?amnion4 ,s9ce ! publication ( ,ung]'s "w sev]al writ]s h describ$ num]\s fossil species ( ,li?o?amnion f v>i\s geological horizons4 ,a few examples w suffice to illu/rate ! range & /ructure ( ?is & o!r g5]a ( ! ,corall9aceae4 ,9 deal+ ) ! fossil species x is (t5 impossible to make use ( ^? *>act]s :i* are ( prim>y importance 9 ! recognition ( rec5t species4 ,! fossil ?allus is usually too intimately associat$ ) ! surr\nd+ rock to admit ( any use be+ made ( ext]nal =m z a diagno/ic feature4 ,! size & =m ( ! cells mu/ be tak5 z ! *ief basis on :i* to det]m9e specific diff]5ces4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( conceptacles or reproductive organs x is n always easy to di/+ui% calc>e\s algae f fossil ,hydrozoa or ,bryozoa4 ,9 _m in/ances1 h[ev]1 ap>t f ! nature & size ( ! elem5ts compos+ ! ?allus1 ! conceptacles af=d a valuable aid to id5tification4 ,an example ( a fossil conceptacle conta9+ tetraspores is %[n 9 fig4 #cg1 ,c2 x is f a ,t]ti>y species ( ,li?o?amnion1 describ$ by ,frh f ,montvraz 9 ,switz]l&4 #a4 ,li?o?amnion mamillosum ,gmb4 ,fig4 #cb1 ,a 7i7 & 7ii74 7p4 #aee47 ,?is species 0 fir/ record$ by ,gmbel#ceh f ! ,upp] ,cretace\s 7,danian7 rocks ( ,pet]sb]gs1 ne> ,ma/ri*t1 on ! ,belgian fronti]4 ,x 0 orig9ally describ$ z a ,bryozoan4 ,! ?allus has ! =m ( an encru/+ calc>e\s /ructure be>+ on its upp] surface ?ick nodul> bran*es1 z %[n 9 fig4 #cb1 ,a 7ii72 9 section1 ,a 7i71 ! ?allus consi/s ( a regul> s]ies ( rectangul> cells4 ,! specific "n mamillosum has also be5 giv5 to a rec5t species by ,hauck#cei1 b probably 9 ignorance ( ! exi/5ce ( ,gmbel's ,cretace\s species4 #b4 ,li?o?amnion suganum ,ro?4 ,fig4 #cg1 ,b4 ,! section ( ?is =m giv5 9 fig4 #cg1 ,b %[s ?ree oval conceptacles fill$ ) cry/all9e mat]ial4 ,! two l[] conceptacles orig9ally communicat$ ) ! surface ( ! ?allus1 b z 9 rec5t species ! deep] portions ( ! algal body became cov]$ ov] by additions to ! surface1 =m+ m]ely dead f\ndations = new & ov]ly+ liv+ tissues4 ,! cells ( ! ?allus h a bread? ( #g-i1 & a l5g? ( #i-ab4 ,! specim5 0 obta9$ f a ,li?o?amnion bank1 probably ( ,upp] ,oligoc5e age1 9 ,val ,sugana#cfj1 9 ! ,au/rian ,tyrol4 ,num]\s o!r species ( ,jurassic1 ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y age might be quot$1 b ! above may suffice to illu/rate ! g5]al *>act]s & mode ( occurr5ce ( ! g5us4 ,x is important t ! /ud5t %\ld become famili> ) ! ,li?o?amnion & ,li?ophyllum types ( ?allus1 9 view ( _! frequ5t occurr5ce 9 cry/all9e lime/one rocks & 9 su* comp>atively rec5t deposits z ^? ( uprais$ coral-reefs4 ,! coral-rock ( ,b>bados & o!r ,we/-,indian isl&s af=ds a good illu/ration ( ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( fossil corall9e algae 9 association ) corals & o!r organisms#cfa4 ,9 ! fossil species ( ,li?o?amnion hi!rto record$ !re d n appe> to be any important features 9 :i* !y diff] f rec5t =ms2 ! geological hi/ory ( ! g5us s f> z x is kn[n1 fav\rs ! view t ! g5]ic *>act]s are ( consid]able antiquity4 ,sol5opora4 ,fig4 #ch4 ,mr ,a4 ,br[n#cfb1 ( ,ab]de51 has rec5tly br\ght =w>d good evid5ce = includ+ v>i\s calc>e\s fossils1 describ$ by sev]al au?ors "u diff]5t names & ref]r$ to v>i\s g5]a ( fossil animals1 9 ! g5us ,sol5opora1 :i* he places among ! corall9e algae4 ,species ( ?is g5us h be5 describ$ f ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 ,e/honia1 ,russia1 & o!r c\ntries4 ,! geological range ( ,sol5opora appe>s to be f ,ordovician to ,jurassic rocks2 9 "s cases x is an important con/itu5t ( b$s ( lime/one4 ,sol5opora compacta 7,bill+s74 ,fig4 #ch4 ,?is species 0 orig9ally describ$ by ,bill+s z ,/romatopora compacta1 & aft]w>ds def9$ by ,ni*olson & ,e!ridge4 ,! ?allus =ms sub-sph]oidal masses1 f ! size ( a hemp-se$ to t ( an orange4 ,! ext]nal surface is lobulate2 ! fractur$ surface has a porcellane\s & sometimes a fibr\s appe>ance1 & is usually :ite or light br[n 9 col\r4 ,9 v]tical section 7fig4 #ch1 ,b7 ! cells are elongat$ & arrang$ 9 a radiat+ & p>allel fa%ion2 !y (t5 occur 9 conc5tric lay]s4 ,! cells h a diamet] ( ab\t mm4 & possess di/9ctly undulat+ walls1 z se5 9 a tang5tial section 7fig4 #ch1 ,a74 ,br[n describes c]ta9 l>g] cells 9 ! ?allus 7fig4 #ch1 ,a7 z sporangia#cfc1 b x is difficult to recognise any di/9ct sporangial cavities 9 ! draw+4 ,! example figur$ is f ! ,tr5ton lime/one ( ,canada2 a v>iety ( ! same species has be5 record$ f ! ,ordovician rocks ( ,girvan 9 ,ayr%ire4 ,!re appe> to be good reasons = accept+ ,br[n's conclusion t ,sol5opora belongs to ! ,corall9aceae r ?an to ! ,hydrozoa1 among :i* x 0 orig9ally includ$4 ,aft] comp>+ ,sol5opora ) rec5t g5]a ( ,florideae1 ,br[n concludes t 8! =ms ( ! cells & cell-walls1 ! me?od ( increase1 & ! arrangem5t ( ! tissue cells 9 ! v>i\s species ( ,sol5opora be> /rong evid5ce ( relation%ip betwe5 t g5us & ! calc>e\s algae#cfd40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,sol5opora compacta 7,bill+s74 ,a4 ,tang5tial section4 #ajj4 ,b4 ,v]tical section4 #ej4 7,aft] ,br[n47 ,! importance ( ! calc>e\s ,rhodophyceae has be5 frequ5tly emphasis$ by rec5t rese>*es1 & our k ( ! rock-build+ =ms is already fairly ext5sive4 ,we possess evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( species ( diff]5t g5]a 9 ,ordovician seas1 z well z 9 ^? ( ! ,silurian1 ,triassic1 ,jurassic1 & m rec5t p]iods4 ,x is reasonable to prophesy t fur!r rese>*es into ! /ructure ( anci5t lime/ones w consid]ably ext5d our k ( ! geological & botanical hi/ory ( ! ,corall9aceae4 ,num]\s fossils h be5 describ$ z examples ( o!r g5]a#cfe ( ,rhodophyceae ?an ^? includ$ 9 ! ,corall9aceae1 b ^! possess little or no sci5tific value & ne$ n be consid]$4 ,e4 ,,phaeophyceae 7,,br[n ,,algae74 ,olive-br[n algae1 ?allus (t5 lea!ry 9 texture1 compos$ ( cell-filam5ts or p>5*ymat\s tissue1 9 "s cases exhibit+ a consid]able degree ( int]nal diff]5tiation4 ,! sexual reproductive organs may be ei!r 9 ! =m ( passive egg-cells & motile an!rozoids or ( motile cells %[+ no ext]nal sexual diff]5ce4 ,) "o or two exceptions all ! g5]a are m>9e4 ,!y h a wide di/ribution at ! pres5t day1 & are especially *>act]i/ic ( f> nor!rn & extreme s\!rn latitudes4 ,! gigantic =ms ,lessonia1 ,macrocy/is & o!rs already allud$ to1 belong to ?is gr\p2 also ! g5us ,s>gassum1 ( :i* ! numb]less float+ plants con/itute ! *>act]i/ic vegetation ( ! ,s>gasso ,sea4 ,palaeobotanical lit]ature is full ( descriptions ( suppos$ fossil repres5tatives ( ! br[n algae1 b only a few ( ! record$ species possess m ?an a v d\btful value2 mo/ ( !m are wor?less z tru/wor?y botanical records4 ,_m ( ! num]\s impressions ref]r$ to z species ( ,fucoides & o!r g5]a pres5t a sup]ficial resemblance to ! ?allus ( ! common ,bladd]-wrack & o!r br[n seawe$s4 ,su* simil>ity ( =m1 h[ev]1 9 ! case ( flat & bran*$ algal-l fossils is ( no sci5tific value4 ,9 _m in/ances ! impressions are probably ^? ( an alga1 b !y are ( no botanical int]e/4 ,! flat & =k$ type ( ?allus ( ,fucus1 ,*ondrus crispus 7,l47 & o!r memb]s ( ! ,phaeophyceae is met ) also among ! r$ & gre5 algae1 to say no?+ ( its occurr5ce 9 ! gr\p ( ?alloid ,liv]worts1 or ( ! almo/ id5tical =m ( v>i\s memb]s ( ! animal k+dom4 ,! v>iety ( =m ( ! ?allus 9 "o species is well illu/rat$ by ! common ,*ondrus crispus 7,l474 ,?is alga 0 describ$ by ,turn]#cff 9 8 classic "w on ! ,fuci "u ! "n ( ,fucus crispus z 8a m>9e ,proteus40 ,x af=ds an int]e/+ example ( ! diff]5t appe>ance pres5t$ by ! same species "u diff]5t conditions1 & at ! same "t x furni%es ano!r pro( ( ! futility ( rely+ on imp]fectly pres]v$ ext]nal features z taxonomic *>act]s ( prim>y importance4 ,an example ( a suppos$ ,jurassic ,fucus is %[n 9 fig4 #di1 & briefly describ$ 9 ! ,*apt] deal+ ) fossil ,bryophytes4 ,sev]al species ( ,flys* ,algae h rec5tly be5 ref]r$ by ,ro?pletz#cfg to ! ,phaeophyceae "u ! provisional g5]ic "n ,phycopsis1 b !y are ( no special botanical int]e/4 ,! extremely int]e/+ g5us ,nematophycus has lately be5 assign$ by a ,canadian au?or#cfh to a position 9 ! ,phaeophyceae4 ,al?\gh ! p>ticul> po9ts on :i* he *iefly relies are n p]haps ?or\ghly e/abli%$1 !re are c]ta9 consid]ations :i* lead u to include ,nematophycus z a d\btful memb] ( ! pres5t gr\p ( algae4 ,nematophycus4 ,! /em atta9s a diamet] ( betwe5 #b & #c feet 9 ! l>ge/ specim5s2 x is made up ei!r ( comp>atively wide & loosely arrang$ tubes pursu+ a slightly irregul> v]tical c\rse accompani$ by a plexus ( mu* n>r[] tubes1 or ( tubes v>y+ 9 diamet] b n divisible into two di/9ct types4 ,r+s ( gr[? occur 9 "s =ms b n 9 o!rs4 ,radially elongat$ or isodiametric spaces occur 9 ! /em tissues 9 :i* ! tubes are less abundant4 ,reproductive organs unkn[n1 ) ! possible exception ( "s v d\btful bodies describ$ z spores4 ,9 #ahef ,sir ,william ,dawson propos$ ! g5]ic "n ,prototaxites = "s l>ge silicifi$ trunks discov]$ 9 ! ,l[] & ,middle ,devonian rocks ( ,canada4 ,a few ye>s lat] ! same writ]#cfi publi%$ a detail$ acc\nt ( ! new fossils & arriv$ at ! conclusion t ! ,devonian /em %[$ def9ite po9ts ( aff9ity ) ! rec5t g5us ,taxus1 & ! g5]ic "n sugge/s t he reg>d$ x z ! type ( ,conif]\s trees belong+ to ! sub-family ,tax9eae4 ,! reasons = ?is det]m9ation 7 aft]w>ds %[n by ,c>ru!rs to be errone\s4 ,dawson ?\ght he recognis$ pits & spiral ?ick5+s 9 ! walls ( ! tubul> elem5ts1 z well z po9t$ ends 9 "s ( ! latt]4 ,! spiral m>k+s 7 9 reality small hyphal tubes pass+ obliquely across ! face ( ! wid] tubes1 & ! app>5t ends ( ! suppos$ tra*eids 7 deceptive appe>ances due to ! fact t ! tubes _h 9 "s cases be5 cut ?r\gh 9 an oblique direction4 ,9 #ahgj ,c>ru!rs#cgj express$ ! op9ion t ,dawson's ,prototaxites 0 a 8colossal fossil seawe$0 & n a conif]\s plant4 ,! same au?or#cga 9 #ahgb publi%$ a full & able acc\nt ( ! g5us1 & conclusively prov$ t ,prototaxites c\ld n be accept$ z a ,phan]ogam2 he br\ght =w>d almo/ conv9c+ evid5ce 9 fav\r ( includ+ ! g5us among ! algae4 ,! "n ,prototaxites 0 n[ *ang$ = t ( ,nematophycus4 ,c>ru!rs comp>es ! r+s ( gr[? 9 ! fossil /ems ) ^? 9 ! l>ge ,ant>ctic ,lessonia /ems1 b he reg>ds ! hi/ological *>act]s z po9t+ to ! ,siphoneae z ! mo/ likely gr\p ( rec5t algae 9 :i* to include ! ,palaeozoic g5us4 ,we may pass ov] v>i\s notes & additional contributions by ,dawson1 :o did n admit ! corrections to 8 orig9al descriptions :i* ,c>ru!rs' "w suppli$4 ,9 #ahhi an important memoir appe>$ by ,p5hall[#cgb ( ,montreal 9 :i* he confirm$ ,c>ru!rs' decision z to ! algal nature ( ,prototaxites2 he contribut$ "s new facts to ! previ\s acc\nt by ,c>ru!rs1 & express$ himself 9 fav\r ( reg>d+ ! fossil plant z a ne> ally ( ! rec5t ,lam9>iae4 ,! next addition to our botanical k ( ?is g5us 0 made by ,b>b]#cgc :o describ$ a new specific type ( ,nematophycus--,n4 ,/orriei--f\nd by ,/orrie 9 b$s ( ,w5lock lime/one age ne> ,c>diff4 ,solms-,lauba*#cgd1 9 a rec5t memoir on ,devonian plants1 record$ ! occurr5ce ( ano!r species ( ?is g5us 9 ,middle ,devonian rocks ne> ,grfra? on ! ,l[] ,rh9e4 ,la/ly ,p5hall[#cge1 9 describ+ a new species1 lays /ress on ! resemblance ( "s ( ! tubul> elem5ts 9 ! /em to ! sieve-hyphae ( ! rec5t seawe$s ,macrocy/is & ,lam9>ia4 ,he concludes t ! new facts he records make x cle> t ,nematophycus 8is an alga1 & ( an alliance ) ! ,lam9>ias40 ,! rec5t evid5ce br\ght =w>d by ,p5hall[ is n entirely satisfactory2 ! draw+s & descriptions ( ! suppos$ trumpet-%ap$ sieve-hyphae are n conclusive4 ,on ! :ole x is probably ! bett] c\rse to speak ( ,nematophycus z a possible ally ( ! br[n algae r ?an z an ext9ct type ( ! ,siphoneae1 b until our k is m complete x is practically impossible to decide ! exact position ( ?is ,siluro-,devonian g5us4 ,solms-,lauba*#cgf has sugge/$ t ! g5]ic "n ,nematophyton1 us$ by ,p5hall[ 9 pref]5ce to ,c>ru!rs' t]m ,nematophycus1 is ! m suitable z be+ a neutral designation & n "o :i* assumes a def9ite botanical position4 ,9 view ( ! nature ( ! evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! algal aff9ities ( ! fossil1 ! reasons = disc>d+ ,c>ru!rs' orig9al "n are h>dly suffici5t4 ,be=e discuss+ m fully ! di/ribution & botanical position ( ,nematophycus we may describe at l5g? "o ( ! be/ kn[n species1 & give a %ort acc\nt ( "s o!r =ms4 #a4 ,nematophycus ,logani 7,daws474 ,fig4 #ci1 ,a-,e4 ,! /em possesses well m>k$ conc5tric r+s ( gr[? due to a p]iodic diff]5ce 9 size ( ! l>ge tubul> elem5ts4 ,! tissues consi/ ( two di/9ct k9ds ( tubul> elem5ts1 ! l>g] tubes loosely arrang$ & pursu+ a fairly regul> longitud9al c\rse1 & hav+ a diamet] ( #ac-ce2 ! small] tubes1 ) a diamet] ( #e-f1 ramify 9 diff]5t directions & =m a loose plexus among ! l>g] & m regul>ly dispos$ elem5ts4 ,bran*+ occurs 9 bo? k9ds ( tubes2 septa h be5 recognis$ only 9 ! small] tubes4 ,irregul> & discont9u\s radial spaces trav]se ! /em tissues1 hav+ a sup]ficial resemblance 9 _! mann] ( occurr5ce to ! m$ull>y rays ( ! high] plants4 ,! be/ specim5s ( ?is species 7 obta9$ by ,sir ,william ,dawson f ! ,devonian ,s&/ones ( ,gasp 9 ,new ,brunswick4 ,! l>ge/ /ems _h a diamet] ( #c feet & rea*$ a l5g? ( sev]al feet#cgg2 9 "s examples ,dawson f\nd lat]al app5dages atta*$ to ! /em :i* he describ$ z 8spread+ roots40 ,ext]nally ! specim5s 7 occasionally cov]$ ) a lay] ( friable coal1 & int]nally ! tissues 7 f\nd to be m or less p]fectly pres]v$ by ! infiltration ( a silice\s solution4 ,mo/ ( ! examples ( ,nematophycus f ,brita9 & ,g]many are mu* small] & less p]fectly pres]v$ ?an ^? f ,canada4 ,! ,pet] ,r$pa? ,museum1 ,montreal1 conta9s sev]al v l>ge blocks ( ,nematophycus1 9 _m ( :i* "o sees ! conc5tric r+s ( gr[? cle>ly et*$ out by wea!r+ ag5ts 9 a cross section ( a l>ge /em4 ,9 fig4 #ci1 ,a1 a sket* is giv5 ( a ?9 transv]se section ( a /em1 drawn natural size4 ,! l9es ( gr[? are cle>ly se51 & z 9 conif]\s /ems ! bread? ( ! conc5tric zones v>ies consid]ably4 ,! %ort l9es trav]s+ ! tissues 9 a radial direction repres5t ! m$ull>y-ray-l spaces ref]r$ to 9 ! specific diagnosis4 ,a transv]se section exam9$ "u a l[-p[] objective pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a numb] ( ?ick-wall$ & comp>atively wide tubes loosely arrang$2 !y may be 9 contact or sep>at$ f "o ano!r4 ,if ! microscope be c>efully focuss$ ?r\gh ! ?ickness ( ! section ! transv]sely-cut tubes appe> to move lat]ally1 produc+ a curi\sly dazzl+ effect if ! objective is rais$ or l[]$ rapidly4 ,?is lat]al movem5t is due to ! undulat+ v]tical c\rse ( ! tubes4 ,"u a high] p[] ! light]-col\r$ matrix 9 :i* ! tubes are emb$d$ %[s a numb] ( v mu* small] & ?9n]-wall$ hyphal elem5ts2 "s ( ^! are cut across transv]sely1 o!rs m or less obliquely & o!rs aga9 longitud9ally4 ,^! small] tubes con/itute an irregul> plexus surr\nd+ & ramify+ betwe5 ! l>g] elem5ts4 ,! diamet] ( ! l>g] tubes decreases = a c]ta9 di/ance 9 a radial direction z se5 9 a transv]se section1 & ?is *ange 9 size gives rise to ! appe>ance ( conc5tric l9es indicat+ p]iodic *anges 9 gr[?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,nematophycus ,logani 7,daws474 ,a4 ,"p ( a transv]se section f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 7,nat4 size47 ,b4 ,transv]se section f specim5s 9 ,mr ,b>b]'s possession4 ,c4 ,longitud9al section4 7,b & ,c #afj47 ,d4 ,transv]se section %[+ a radial space4 ,e4 ,transv]se section2 a few #8cells' m highly magnifi$4 ,d & ,e f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,! radial spaces are *>act]is$ by ! p>tial abs5ce ( ! l>g] tubes1 & z se5 9 longitud9al sections ^! spaces con/itute regions 9 :i* ! small] tubes bran* v freely4 ,fig4 #ci1 ,b1 repres5ts a small piece ( a transv]se section se5 "u a fairly high p[]4 ,9 fig4 #ci1 ,c1 ! tubes are se5 9 longitud9al section4 ,! l>g] elem5ts are unseptate & n v regul> 9 _! v]tical c\rse ?r\gh ! /em2 ! small] elem5ts are se5 z f9e tubes ly+ betwe5 & across ! l>g] tubes4 ,9 ! sections ,i h exam9$ no und\bt$ transv]se septa 7 detect$ 9 any ( ! tubul> elem5ts4 ,! "q z to ! possible connection betwe5 ! l>g] & small] elem5ts is "o :i* is n z yet satisfactorily dispos$ (4 ,p5hall[#cgh reg>ds ! f9] hyphal elem5ts z bran*es ( ! l>g] tubes1 b ,b>b]#cgi1 :o has c>efully exam9$ good mat]ial ( ,nematophycus ,logani1 0 unable to detect any organic connection betwe5 ! two4 ,my own obs]vations are 9 accord ) ^? ( ,b>b]4 ,fur!r details & num]\s figures ( ?is species ( ,nematophycus w be f\nd 9 ! memoirs ( ,c>ru!rs1 ,p5hall[ & ,b>b]4 ,"s specim5s ( silicifi$ ,nematophycus /ems af=d p>ticul>ly in/ructive examples ( ! /ate ( pres]vation or me?od ( m9]alisation z a s\rce ( error 9 hi/ological "w4 ,! sket*es reproduc$ 9 fig4 #ci1 ,d & ,e1 7 made f a section ( a l>ge specim5 ( ,nematophycus 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,9 fig4 ,d we h "o ( ! radial spaces conta9+ "s indi/9ct small elem5ts1 ! tissue surr\nd+ ! space appe>s to consi/ ( polygonal cells sugge/+ ord9>y p>5*ymat\s tissue4 ,9 fig4 ,e a few ( ^! #8cells' are se5 m cle>ly1 !y h black & ragg$ walls1 & (t5 conta9 v small & fa9t circles ( :i* ! precise nature is unc]ta94 ,! true int]pretation ( ?is =m ( /ructure 0 fir/ suppli$ by ,p5hall[#chj4 ,! black network simulat+ p>5*ymat\s tissue consi/s ( ! sub/ance ( ,nematophycus tubes :i* has be5 completely r$i/ribut$ dur+ fossilisation & collect$ along fairly regul> l9es1 z se5 9 figs4 ,d & ,e4 ,! orig9al /ructure has be5 almo/ completely de/roy$1 & ! mat]ial compos+ ! walls ( ! l>ge tubes has f9ally be5 re>rang$ z a network1 int]rupt$ "h & !re by ! *>act]i/ic radial spaces :i* rema9 z evid5ce ( ! orig9al ,nematophycus *>act]s4 ,x is possible 9 "s cases to trace e gradation f sections exhibit+ ! normal /ructure ?r\gh ^? hav+ ! appe>ance %[n 9 figs4 ,d & ,e to o!rs 9 :i* ! /ructure is completely lo/4 ,p5hall[ describes ?is me?od ( fossilisation 9 ,n4 crassus 7,daws472 an exam9ation ( sev]al specim5s 9 ! ,national ,collection leads me to entirely confirm 8 g5]al conclusions1 & also to ! op9ion t ,n4 ,logani %[s exactly ! same mann] ( m9]alisation z ,n4 crassus4 ,! *ief po9t ( int]e/ z reg>ds ?is me?od ( pres]vation lies 9 ! fact t a fossil describ$ by ,dawson#cha z ,celluloxylon primaevum1 & ref]r$ to z a probable conif]1 is und\bt$ly a badly pres]v$ ,nematophycus4 ,p5hall[ exam9$ ,dawson's specim5s & obta9$ conv9c+ evid5ce ( _! id5tity ) c]ta9 =ms ( highly alt]$ ,nematophycus /ems4 #b4 ,nematophycus ,/orriei ,b>b]4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,! specim5s on :i* ,b>b]#chb f\nd$ ?is species 7 obta9$ by ,mr ,/orrie f ! ,tymawr qu>ry ne> ,c>diff1 9 b$s ( ,w5lock age4 ,! fragm5t>y nature ( ! mat]ial is l>gely comp5sat$ = by ! excell5ce ( ! pres]vation4 ,we may briefly def9e ! species z foll[s3 ,! /em consi/s ( sep>ate int]lac+ undivid$ & usually unbran*$ tubes ( v>y+ diamet]4 ,spaces m or less isodiametric 9 dim5sions are scatt]$ ?r\gh ! tissue4 ,! spaces con/itute regions 9 :i* ! tubul> elem5ts bran* freely4 ,! ma9 di/+ui%+ features ( ?is ,briti% species are 7i7 ! abs5ce ( two di/9ct & well-def9$ =ms ( tubul> elem5ts4 ,! ma9 "p ( ! /em consi/s ( ?ick wall$ tubes simil> to ^? ( ,n4 ,logani1 b ! spaces betwe5 !m are occupi$ by ?9n]-wall$ & small] tubes v>y+ consid]ably 9 diamet]2 7ii7 ! =m ( ! spaces :i* are n radially elongat$ z 9 ,n4 ,logani4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,nematophycus ,/orriei ,b>b4 ,longitud9al section1 f a photograph by ,mr ,c4 ,a4 ,b>b]4 #de4 ,fig4 #dj %[s ! undulat+ c\rse ( ! tubes z se5 9 a longitud9al section2 ! black col\r ( "s ( ! elem5ts is due to ! fact t ! surface ( ! wall is se51 :ile 9 ! light]-col\r$ portions ( ! tubes ! wall has be5 cut ?r\gh4 ,! light] pat* ab\t ! middle ( ! figure %[s ! =m ( "o ( ! spaces 9 :i* ! tubes are freely bran*$4 ,9 addition to ! two species already describ$ six o!rs h be5 record$1 b ) ^! we ne$ n conc]n ourselves 9 detail4 ,"o ( ^! species1 ,n4 ,hicksi1 0 f\nd by ,dr ,hicks#chc 9 ! ,d5bigh%ire grits qu>ry ( ,p5-y-,glog ne> ,corw5 9 ,nor? ,wales4 ,! position ( ^! b$s has rec5tly be5 det]m9$ by ,mr ,lake#chd z correspond+ to t ( ! ,w5lock lime/one4 ,?is species & ,n4 ,/orriei are bo? ,silurian examples ( ! g5us4 ,x is possible1 z ,b>b] has sugge/$1 t ! specim5s describ$ "u ^! two names %\ld be ref]r$ to "o species4 ,! specim5s f\nd by ,hicks 7 small & imp]fectly pres]v$ fragm5ts2 ,e!ridge has giv5 a full description ( _! /ructure1 & ,b>b] has subsequ5tly exam9$ ! mat]ial4 ,! pres]vation is n su* z w admit ( any v precise specific diagnosis2 ! fragm5ts are correctly ref]r$ to ,nematophycus1 b _! specific *>act]s _c be cle>ly det]m9$4 ,solms-,lauba*#che has describ$ "s fragm5ts ( ano!r species ( ,nematophycus f ! ,devonian rocks ( ! ,l[] ,rh9e4 ,8 specim5s are *iefly int]e/+ z ext5d+ ! geographical range ( ! g5us1 & z af=d+ examples ( a curi\s me?od ( pres]vation4 ,! specim5s obta9$ 7 small fragm5ts1 flatt5$ & v d>k br[n 9 col\r4 ,! tubul> elem5ts consi/$ ( an ext]nal membrane ( black coal1 enclos+ a c5tral core ( d>k r$ iron-oxide4 ,on burn+ ! fragm5t on a piece ( plat9um foil ! coal compos+ ! wall ( ! tubes 0 remov$ & ! deep-r$ ca/s ( ! tube-cavities rema9$#chf4 ,! inve/igation ( ! /ructural *>act]s ( ?is imp]fect mat]ial 0 conduct$ by reflect$ light4 ,"u c]ta9 conditions1 :5 x is impossible to obta9 ?9 sections = exam9ation by transmitt$ light1 x is possible to accompli% mu*1 z %[n by ,solms-,lauba*'s "w1 by means ( obs]vation ) direct light4 ,! la/ species to be notic$ is ,nematophycus ,ortoni rec5tly describ$ by ,p5hall[4 ,!re are no conc5tric r+s ( gr[?1 no radial spaces & no small] hyphae 9 ! tissues ( ?is type ( /em4 ,9 longitud9al section1 ! tubes %[ occasional local expansions ( ! lum5 :i* ,p5hall[ comp>es ) ! #8trumpet-hyphae' ( "s rec5t br[n algae4 ,no actual sieve-plates or transv]se walls h be5 detect$1 b ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! tubes is consid]$ to af=d di/9ct evid5ce ( ! orig9al exi/5ce ( su* walls4 ,! figures accompany+ ! description d n c>ry conviction z to ! correctness ( ! ref]5ce ( ! tubes to imp]fectly pres]v$ sieve-hyphae4 ,! foll[+ li/1 tak51 ) a few alt]ations1 f ,p5hall['s memoir#chg1 %[s ! geographical & geological range ( ! species ( ,nematophycus hi!rto record$4 ,l[] ,devonian ( ,gasp4 ,nematophycus ,logani 7,daws47 ,silurian ,w5lock ( ,engl&4 ,silurian ( ,new ,brunswick4 ,n4 ,hicksi 7,e?47 ,silurian4 7,w5lock7 ( ,n4 ,wales4 ,n4 crassus 7,daws47#chh ,middle ,devonian ( ,gasp & ,new ,york4 ,n4 laxus 7,daws47 ,l[] ,devonian ( ,gasp4 ,n4 t5uis 7,daws47 ,l[] ,devonian ( ,gasp4 ,n4 ,/orriei 7,b>b47 ,silurian 7,w5lock7 ( ,wales 7,c>diff74 ,n4 de*5ianus 7,pi$47 ,upp] ,devonian ( ,g]many 7,grfra?74 ,n4 ,ortoni 7,p547 ,upp] ,erian ( ,ohio4 ,9 summ+ up our in=mation z to ! /ructure ( ,nematophycus we f9d !re are c]ta9 po9ts n def9itely settl$1 & :i* are ( consid]able importance4 ,! few record$ in/ances ( spore-l bodies by ,p5hall[ & ,b>b] are n satisfactory2 we are /ill ignorant ( ! nature ( ! reproductive organs4 ,su* in/ances ( lat]al app5dages z h be5 ref]r$ to d n ?r[ mu* light on ! habit ( ! plant4 ,s f> z we "k at pres5t ! /em ( ,nematophycus 0 n diff]5tiat$ int]nally into a cortical & c5tral region4 ,x may be t ! specim5s h be5 only p>tially pres]v$1 & ! coaly lay] :i* occasionally surr\nds a /em may repres5t a c>bonis$ cortex :i* has nev] be5 petrifi$4 ,! l>ge & loosely arrang$ tubes con/itute ! *ief *>act]i/ic feature ( ! g5us2 9 "s cases 7,n4 ,logani7 !re is an accompany+ plexus ( small] hyphae1 9 o!rs 7,n4 ,/orriei7 !re is no def9ite division ( ! tissue into two sets ( tubes ( uni=m size1 & 9 ,n4 ,ortoni ! tubul> elem5ts are all ( ! l>ge type4 ,p5hall[ has recognis$ ! bran*+ ( l>ge tubes 9 ,n4 ,logani & ,n4 crassus giv+ rise to ! small hyphal elem5ts4 ,9 mo/ specim5s1 h[ev]1 no su* mode ( orig9 ( ! small] tubes c be detect$4 ,! spaces :i* int]rupt ! homog5eity ( ! tissues 9 "s =ms h be5 describ$ z bran*+ depots1 on acc\nt ( ! frequ5t occurr5ce 9 ^! areas ( mu* bran*$ hyphae4 ,! function ( ^! spaces 7fig4 #ci1 ,d1 & fig4 #dj7 may be connect$ ) a]ation ( ! /em-tissues4 ,z ,c>ru!rs fir/ po9t$ out ! unseptate nature ( ! elem5ts & ! occurr5ce ( l>ge & small tubes =m+ a comp>atively lax tissue sugge/$ aff9ities ) su* rec5t g5]a z ,p5icillus1 ,halim$a1 ,udotea & o!r memb]s ( ! ,siphoneae4 ,9 ^? fossil /ems :i* possess tubes ( two di/9ct sizes1 we _c z a rule trace any organic connection betwe5 ! two sets ( tubul> elem5ts4 ,transv]se septa h be5 detect$ 9 ! tubes ( "s specim5s ( ,n4 ,logani4 ,^! consid]ations & ! l>ge size & habit ( gr[? ( ! /em leave "o sceptical z to ! wisdom ( assign+ ! fossil g5us to ! ,siphoneae4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ap>t f ! d\btful sieve-hyphae ( ,p5hall[1 ! mann] ( gr[? ( ! plant1 ! conc5tric r+s1 m>k$ by a decrease 9 ! diamet] ( ! tubes1 ! lax arrangem5t & irregul> c\rse ( ! elem5ts1 af=d po9ts ( agreem5t ) "s rec5t ,phaeophyceae4 ,! /em ( a ,lam9>ia 7fig4 #bi7 or ( a ,lessonia are ! mo/ obvi\s /ructures ) :i* to comp>e ,nematophycus4 ,! m$ull>y region ( a ,lam9>ia or ,fucus & ( o!r g5]a pres5ts a c]ta9 resemblance to ! tissues ( ! fossil /ems4 ,on ! :ole we may be cont5t to leave ,nematophycus = ! pres5t z probably an ext9ct type ( alga1 m closely alli$ to ! l>ge memb]s ( ! ,phaeophyceae ?an to any o!r rec5t seawe$s4 ,pa*y!ca4 7,a fossil ( unc]ta9 aff9ity47 ,!re is ano!r fossil occasionally associat$ ) ,nematophycus & ref]r$ by _m writ]s to ! ,algae1 :i* calls = a brief notice4 ,pa*y!ca is too d\btful a g5us to ju/ify a detail$ treatm5t 9 ! pres5t "w4 ,al?\gh1 z ,i h else:]e sugge/$#chi1 we are h>dly 9 a position to speak ) any degree ( c]ta9ty z to its aff9ity1 x is n improbable t x may ev5tually be %[n to be an alga4 ,)\t attempt+ a full diagnosis ( ! g5us1 we may briefly ref] to its mo/ /rik+ *>act]s4 ,pa*y!ca usually occurs 9 ! =m ( small sph]ical bodies1 ab\t #e cm4 9 diamet]1 9 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one or ,silurian rocks4 ,9 section a s+le sph]e is f\nd to consi/ ( two well m>k$ regions2 9 ! c5tre1 ( a numb] ( ramify+ & irregul>ly plac$ n>r[ tubes1 & 9 ! p]iph]al or cortical region1 ( num]\s regul> & radially dispos$ simple or =k$ septate tubes4 ,! tubul> elem5ts ( ! two regions are 9 organic connection4 ,! "n 0 propos$ by ,sir ,joseph ,hook] = "s specim5s f\nd by ,dr ,/rickl&#cij 9 ! ,ludl[ bone-b$ 7,silurian7 ( ,woolhope & ,may-,hill4 ,examples 7 subsequ5tly record$ f ! ,w5lock lime/one ( ,malv]n & f ,silurian & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one rocks ( o!r di/ricts4 ,hicks#cia f\nd ,pa*y!ca 9 ! ,p5-y-,glog grits ( ,corw5 9 association ) ,nematophycus1 & ! two fossils h be5 f\nd toge!r else:]e4 ,?is association l$ to ! sugge/ion t ,pa*y!ca might be ! sporangium ( ,nematophycus1 & ,dawson#cib1 9 con=mity ) 8 belief 9 ! conif]\s "* ( ! latt] plant1 ref]r$ to ,pa*y!ca z a true se$4 ,! be/ sections ( ?is fossil h be5 prep>$ ) rem>kable skill by ,mr ,/orrie ( ,c>diff2 !y 7 c>efully exam9$ & describ$ by ,b>b] 9 two memoirs#cic publi%$ 9 ! ,annals ( ,botany1 ! acc\nt be+ illu/rat$ by sev]al well execut$ draw+s & microphotographs4 ,among o!r difficulties to cont5d aga9/ 9 ! int]pretation ( ,pa*y!ca !re is t ( m9]alisation4 ,! pres]vation is su* z to r5d] ! discrim9ation ( orig9al /ructure z di/9ct f /ructural features ( second>y orig91 consequ5t on a p>ticul> mann] ( cry/allisation ( ! silice\s mat]ial1 a matt] ( consid]able difficulty4 ,sugge/ions z to ! nature ( ,pa*y!ca h be5 p>ticul>ly num]\s2 x has be5 ref]r$ to mo/ classes ( plants & relegat$ by "s writ]s to ! animal k+dom4 ,! mo/ rec5t addition to our k ( ?is problematic fossil 0 ! discov]y ( a specim5 by ,mr ,/orrie 9 :i* ! ,pa*y!ca sph]e re/$ 9 a small cup1 l an acorn fruit 9 its cupule4 ,?is specim5 0 figur$ & describ$ by ,mr ,george ,murray#cid 9 #ahie2 he expresses ! op9ion t ! discov]y makes ! taxonomic position ( ! g5us /ill m obscure4 ,solms-,lauba* briefly ref]s to ,pa*y!ca 9 connection ) ,nematophycus1 & reg>ds its precise nature almo/ z mu* an unsolv$ riddle n[ z x 0 :5 fir/ discov]$4 ,= a full] acc\nt ( ?is fossil ref]5ce mu/ be made to ! contributions ( ,hook]#cie1 ,b>b]#cif & o!rs4 ,! lit]ature is quot$ by ,b>b] & m rec5tly by ,solms-,lauba*#cig4 ,!re are sev]al specim5s & microscopic sections ( ,pa*y!ca 9 ! geological & botanical dep>tm5ts ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,! g5us has be5 record$ f ,%rop%ire1 ,nor? ,wales1 ,malv]n1 ,h]e=d%ire1 ,p]?%ire & o!r ,briti% localities1 z well z f ,canada2 x occurs 9 bo? ,silurian & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one rocks4 ,algites4 ,a g5]ic "n = ^? fossils :i* 9 all probability belong to ! class ,algae1 b :i*1 by reason ( ! abs5ce ( reproductive organs1 int]nal /ructure1 or *>act]s ( a tru/wor?y nature 9 ! det]m9ation ( aff9ity1 _c be ref]r$ ) any degree ( c]ta9ty to a p>ticul> rec5t g5us or family4 ,?is t]m 0 sugge/$ 9 #ahidcih z a provisional & compreh5sive designation "u :i* might be includ$ su* impressions or ca/s z might reasonably be ref]r$ to ,algae4 ,! practice ( apply+ to alga-l fossils names sugge/ive ( a def9ite alliance ) rec5t g5]a is z a rule uns\nd4 ,x w\ld simplify nom5clature1 & avoid ! multiplication ( g5]ic names1 if ! t]m ,algites 7 appli$ to su* algal fossils f rocks ( v>i\s ages z af=d no tru/wor?y data by :i* _! family or g5]ic aff9ity c be e/abli%$4 ,v4 ,,myxomycetes 7,,mycetozoa74 ,?is class ( organisms af=ds an int]e/+ example ( ! impossibility ( ma9ta9+ a h>d & fa/ l9e betwe5 ! animal & plant k+dom4 ,zoologi/s & ,botani/s usually include ! ,myxomycetes#cii 9 ! text-books ( _! respective subjects1 & ! "n ,animal-fungi :i* has be5 appli$ to ^! organisms expresses _! dual relation%ip4 ,!y con/itute "o ( ?ree gr\ps :i* we may include 9 t int]m$iate zone or #8buff]-/ate' betwe5 ! two k+doms4 ,f a palaeobotanical po9t ( view ! ,myxomycetes are ( little int]e/1 b a v brief ref]5ce may be made to !m r = ! sake ( avoid+ unnecess>y incomplet5ess 9 our classification ?an f _! importance z possible fossils4 ,!y are organisms )\t *lorophyll1 consi/+ ( a nak$ mass ( protoplasm1 kn[n z ! plasmodium1 :i* may atta9 a size ( sev]al in*es4 ,su* plasmodia creep ov] ! surface ( decay+ organic sub/rata1 & 9 =m+ _! asexual reproductive cells !y are conv]t$ into some:at complex fruits conta9+ spores4 ,! spores produce motile sw>m-cells1 :i* ev5tually coalesce toge!r to =m a new plasmodium4 ,a few examples ( fossil ,myxomycetes h be5 record$ f ! ,palaeozoic & m rec5t =mations1 b none ( !m are entirely beyond suspicion4 ,we may m5tion ?ree examples ( fossils ref]r$ to ?is gr\p1 b only "o ( ^! is entitl$ to s]i\s consid]ation4 ,myxomycetes ,mang9i ,r54#djj ,x is n uncommon to f9d di/9ct traces ( orig9al or second>y cell-cont5ts 9 well pres]v$ petrifi$ plant-tissues4 ,!re is (t5 a difficulty1 h[ev]1 9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! true cell-cont5ts & ! cells ( "s p>asitic or saprophytic intrud]4 ,9 "s petrifi$ corky tissue 9 a silicifi$ nodule f ! ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s b$s ( ,autun1 ,r5ault has rec5tly discov]$ :at he believes to be traces ( a ,myxomycet\s plasmodium4 ,! cork-cells w\ld be )\t protoplasmic cont5ts ( _! own1 & _! cavities conta9 a numb] ( f9e /r&s /ret*+ f ! cell-walls 9 diff]5t directions & unit+ 9 places z irregul> or m or less sph]ical masses4 ,! draw+s giv5 by ,r5ault ( ^! irregul> reticulat$ /ructures ) scatt]$ pat*es ( :at may possibly be petrifi$ plasmodial protoplasm be> a /rik+ resemblance to ! plasmodium ( a ,myxomycete4 ,a figure ( ! capillitium ( a species ( ,leoc>pus figur$ by ,s*rt]#dja 9 8 acc\nt ( ! ,myxomycetes 9 ,engl] & ,prantl's "w is v simil> to t ( ,r5ault's #8plasmodium4' ,x is by no means inconceivable t ! ,myxomycetes ,mang9i may be correctly ref]r$ to ?is gr\p1 b ! wisdom ( assign+ a "n to su* /ructures may well be que/ion$4 ,! o!r two examples call = little notice4 ,messrs ,ca% & ,hick#djb 9 a pap] on fossil fungi f ! ,coal-,measures ref] to "s small sph]ical bodies z possibly ! spores ( a ,myxomycete4 ,!y might be ref]r$ equally well to num]\s o!r organisms4 ,gpp]t & ,m5ge#djc 9 _! monograph on plants 9 ! ,baltic ,t]ti>y ,amb]1 express ! op9ion t an ill-def9$ tangle ( ?reads :i* !y figure may be a ,myxomycete4 ,x w\ld s]ve no useful purpose to quote o!r in/ances ( possible repres5tatives ( fossil ,mycetozoa2 b ! consid]ation ( ! above examples may s]ve to emphasize ! desirability ( refra9+ f conv]t+ a possibility into an app>5tly recognis$ fact by ! application ( def9ite g5]ic & specific names4 ,,vi4 ,,fungi4 ,! mo/ /rik+ diff]5ce betwe5 ! fungi & algae is ! abs5ce ( *lorophyll 9 ! =m]1 & ! consequ5t inability ( fungi to manufacture _! organic comp\nds f inorganic mat]ial4 ,fungi live !re=e ei!r z p>asites or saprophytes1 & z ! same species may pass "p ( its life 9 a liv+ ho/ to occur at ano!r /age ( its developm5t z a saprophyte1 x is impossible to di/+ui% def9itely betwe5 p>asitic & saprophytic =ms4 ,! vegetative body ( a fungus1 t is ! portion :i* is conc]n$ ) provid+ n\ri%m5t & prep>+ ! pla/ic food-sub/ance = ! reproductive organs1 is kn[n z ! mycelium4 ,x consi/s ei!r ( a s+le & bran*$ tubul> cell kn[n z a hypha1 or ( sev]al hyphae or ?read-l elem5ts 7filam5t\s fungi74 ,! hyphal filam5ts may be closely pack$ toge!r & =m a felt$ mass ( compact tissue1 :i* 9 cross section closely simulates ! p>5*yma ( ! high] plants4 ,?is pseudop>5*ymat\s =m ( ?allus is p>ticul>ly well illu/rat$ by ! s-call$ scl]otia2 ^! are %>ply def9$ & (t5 tub]\s masses ( hyphal tissue cov]$ by a firm r9d & conta9+ supplies ( food 9 ! inn] hyphae4 ,!y are able to rema9 9 a quiesc5t /ate = "s "t1 & to resi/ unfav\rable conditions until g]m9ation & ! =mation ( a new individual take place4 ,! reproductive /ructures assume v>i\s =ms2 9 "s ( ! simpl] fungi 7,phycomycetes7 sexual organs occur1 z 9 ! p>allel gr\p ( ,siphoneae among ! algae1 b 9 ! high] fungi ! reproduction is usually entirely asexual4 ,an int]e/+ case has rec5tly be5 record$ among ! m highly diff]5tiat$ fungi 9 :i* di/9ct sexuality has be5 e/abli%$#djd4 ,9 addition to ! reproductive organs1 su* z oogonia & an!ridia1 ! asexual cells or spores are borne ei!r 9 special sporangia1 or !y occur z expos$ conidia on support+ hyphae or conidiophores4 ,?ick-wall$ & resi/ant re/+-spores ( v>i\s =ms are also met )4 ,)\t go+ into fur!r details we may v briefly ref] to ! l>g] subdivisions ( ?is gr\p ( ,?allophytes4 ,,phycomycetes4 ,mycelium usually consi/+ ( a s+le cell4 ,,zygomycetes1 ,reproduction by means ( conidia1 & 9 _m ,,oomycetes1 cases also by ! conjugation ( two simil> includ+ hyphae or by ! f]tilisation ( an egg-cell ,*ytridiaceae1 conta9$ 9 an oogonium4 c4 ,,mesomycetes1 includ+ ! ,int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,phycomycetes & ,sub-classes ! high] fungi4 ,multicellul> hyphae4 ,no ,,hemiasci & sexual organs4 ,,hemibasidii4 ,,mycomycetes4 ,septate vegetative mycelium4 ,no sexual includ+ ! reproduction--z a g5]al rule4 ,asexual conidia ,sub-classes & o!r =ms ( spores4 ,9 ! ,ascomycetes ,,ascomycetes & ! spores are f\nd 9 *>act]i/ic ,,basidiomycetes4 club-%ap$ cases or asci2 9 ! ,basidiomycetes ! spores are borne on special bran*es f swoll5 cells kn[n z basidia4 ,! sporophore or spore-be>+ body 9 ?is gr\p may atta9 a consid]able size 7e4g4 ,ag>icus1 ,polyporus1 c47 & exhibit a di/9ct int]nal diff]5tiation4 ,be=e describ+ a few examples ( fossil fungi1 x is important to consid] ! g5]al "q ( _! mann] ( occurr5ce & det]m9ation4 ,consid]+ ! small size & delicate nature ( mo/ fungi1 x is n surpris+ t we h b few satisfactory records ( well-def9$ fossil =ms4 ,! l>ge lea!ry sporophores ( ,polyporus & o!r g5]a ( ! ,basidiomycetes1 :i* are famili> objects z yell[ or br[n brackets project+ f ! trunks ( diseas$ =e/ trees1 h be5 f\nd 9 a fairly p]fect condition 9 ! ,cambridge%ire peat-b$s1 & examples h be5 describ$ also by cont95tal writ]s#dje4 ,z a g5]al rule1 h[ev]1 we h to dep5d on ! *ance m9]alisation or petrifaction ( ! hyphae ( a fungus-mycelium :i* has invad$ ! liv+ or dead tissues ( "s high] plant4 ,9 ! lit]ature on fossil plants !re are num]\s record$ species ( fungi f\nd$ on d>k col\r$ spots & blot*es on ! impression ( a leaf4 ,mo/ ( su* records are wor?less2 ! ext]nal features be+ usually too imp]fect to all[ ( accurate id5tification4 ,! occurr5ce ( rec5t fungi z discol\rations on leaves is exce$+ly common1 & ! *>act]i/ic p]i!cia or compact & m or less sph]ical cases enclos+ a gr\p ( sporangia 9 c]ta9 ,ascomycet\s species1 might be readily pres]v$ 9 a fossil condition4 ,sid5ote3 ,,ascomycetes4 ,"s examples ( possible ,ascomycet\s fungi h be5 rec5tly record$ by ,potoni f leaves & o!r portions ( plants ( ,p]mian age4 ,!re is a di/9ct sup]ficial resemblance betwe5 ! specim5s he figures & ! fructifications ( rec5t ,ascomycetes1 b 9 ! abs5ce ( int]nal /ructure1 x w\ld be ra% to d m ?an sugge/ ! probable nature ( ! m>k+s he describes4 ,= "o ( ! fungus-l impressions ,potoni proposes ! g5]ic "n ,rosell9ites2 he comp>es c]ta9 irregul>ly %ap$ projections on a piece ( ,p]mian wood ) ! p]i!cia ( ,rosell9ia1 a memb] ( ! ,spha]iaceae1 & describes !m z ,rosell9ites ,beys*lagii ,pot4#djf ,v>i\s o!r records ( simil> ,ascomycetes-l fossils may be f\nd 9 palaeobotanical lit]ature#djg1 b x is unnecess>y to exam9e ^! 9 detail4 ,unless we are able to det]m9e ! nature ( ! suppos$ fungus by microscopical me?ods our id5tifications _c 9 mo/ cases be ( any great value4 ,an example ( ! p]i!cia ( a fungus 7,rosell9ia congregata ,beck7#djh has be5 record$ f ! ,oligoc5e ( ,saxony1 :i* w\ld appe> to re/ on a m satisfactory basis ?an is (t5 ! case4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> in/ance ! small projections on a piece ( fossil conif]\s /em pres5t a =m :i* naturally sugge/s a fungus p]i!cium4 ,9 cases :]e ! black spots on a fossil /em or leaf possess a def9ite =m & /ructure1 x is p]fectly legitimate to ref] !m to a gr\p ( fungi2 b 9 v _m in/ances ! =ms ref]r$ to su* g5]a z ,spha]ites & o!rs are ( little or no value4 ,_m =ms ( scale-insects & galls on leaves pres5t an obvi\s sup]ficial resemblance to epiphyll\s fungi1 & might readily be mi/ak5 = ! fructifications ( c]ta9 ,ascomycet\s species4 ,z examples ( scale-insects simulat+ fungi1 ref]5ce may be made to su* g5]a ( ! ,cocc9eae z ,aspidiotus1 ,diaspis1 ,lecanium1 ,coccus1 & o!rs4 ,! female insects ly+ on ! surface ( a leaf1 if pres]v$ z a fossil impression1 might easily be mi/ak5 = p]i!cia#dji4 ,ano!r pitfall 9 fossil mycology may be illu/rat$ by a description ( a suppos$ fungus1 ,scl]otites ,salisburiae#daj1 ,mass4 on a ,t]ti>y ,g9kgo leaf4 ,! figure giv5 by ,massalongo repres5ts a ,g9kgo leaf ) well m>k$ ve9s1 ! lam9a betwe5 ! ve9s be+ trav]s$ by %ort discont9u\s & longitud9ally-runn+ l9es2 ! latt] are ref]r$ to z ! fungus4 ,9 a rec5t ,g9kgo leaf "o may easily detect ) ! nak$ eye a numb] ( %ort l9es betwe5 & p>allel to ! ve9s1 :i* if exam9$ 9 section are f\nd to be secretory canals4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ,scl]otites ,salisburiae owes its exi/5ce to ! pres]vation ( ^! canals4 ,! li/ ( fossil fungi giv5 by ,mes*9elli 9 ,sacc>do's ,sylloge ,fungorum#daa includes c]ta9 species :i* are ( no botanical value1 & %\ld h no place 9 any li/ :i* claims to be au!ntic4 ,among ! num]\s examples ( fossil #8fungi' :i* h no claim to be class$ ) plants1 !re are "s :i* are 9 all probability ! gall]ies ( wood-eat+ animals4 ,! radiat+ grooves frequ5tly f\nd on ! inn] face ( ! b>k ( a p9e tree made by species ( ! beetle ,bo/ry*us might be mi/ak5 = ! impressions ( ! firm /r&s ( mycelial tissue ( "s ,basidiomycet\s fungus4 ,9 "s notes on fossil fungi by ,j4 ,f4 ,james#dab contribut$ to ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,mycology 9 #ahic1 x is po9t$ out t a suppos$ fungus describ$ by ,lesqu]eux f ! ,l[] ,coal-,measures z ,rhizomorpha ,sigill>iae#dac1 be>s a /rong lik5ess to "s insect-burr[s1 su* z ^? ( ,bo/ry*us4 8,a new fungus f ! ,coal-,measures0 describ$ by ,h]z] 9 #ahicdad may probably be ref]r$ to animal ag5cy4 ,9 any case !re is no evid5ce z to ! fungoid nature ( ! object repres5t$ 9 ! figure accompany+ ,h]z]'s description4 ,sid5ote3 ,,basidiomycetes4 ,m tru/wor?y evid5ce ( fossil fungi is af=d$ by ! m>ks ( disease 9 petrifi$ tissue & by ! pres5ce ( true mycelia4 ,9 exam9+ closely ! calc>e\s & silice\s plant-tissues f ! ,coal-,measures & o!r geological horizons1 "o occasionally sees f9e ?read-l hyphae ramify+ ?r\gh ! cells or tra*eal cavities2 9 _m cases ! hyphae be> no reproductive organs & _c z a rule be ref]r$ to a p>ticul> type ( fungus4 ,if ! hyphal filam5ts are unseptate1 !y mo/ likely belong to "s ,phycomycet\s species2 or if !y are obvi\sly septate ! ,mesomycetes or ! ,mycomycetes are ! m probable gr\ps4 ,occasionally !re may be f\nd indications ( ! *>act]i/ic clamp-connections 9 ! septate filam5ts2 a small semicircul> bran*1 :i* is giv5 (f f a mycelium imm$iately above a transv]se wall1 b5ds r\nd to fuse ) ! filam5t j bel[ ! septum1 ?us s]v+ z a small loop-l9e connect+ ! cell-cavity above & bel[ a cross wall4 ,su* clamp-connections are usually conf9$ to ! hyphae ( ,basidiomycetes & ?us s]ve z a useful aid 9 id5tification4 ,a good example ( a clamp-connection 9 a fossil mycelium is figur$ by ,conw5tz#dae 9 8 monograph on ! ,baltic amb]-trees ( ,oligoc5e age4 ,! /\t & ?ick type ( hypha f\nd 9 "s fossil woods agrees closely ) t ( ,polyporus1 ,ag>icus melleus & o!r well-kn[n rec5t ,basidiomycetes4 ,9 a section ( a piece ( lignifi$ conif]\s wood rec5tly br\ght by ,col4 ,feild5 f ,kolguev isl&#daf1 ! br[n & /\t hyphae ( a fungus are cle>ly se5 z di/9ct d>k l9es trav]s+ ! tra*eal tissue4 ,! occurr5ce ( septa & ! l>ge diamet] ( ! mycelial bran*es at once sugge/ a comp>ison ) su* rec5t =ms z ,ag>icus melleus1 ,polyporus & o!r ,basidiomycetes4 ,! age ( ! ,kolguev wood is n kn[n ) any c]ta9ty4 ,! vesicul> swell+s su* z ^? repres5t$ 9 fig4 #da1 ,a1 ,b1 ,d & ,e1 may easily be mis9t]pret$4 ,su* sph]ical expansions 9 a mycelium1 ei!r t]m9al or int]cal>y1 may be sporangia1 oogonia or l>ge re/+-spores1 or non-fungal cell-cont5ts1 & x is usually impossible 9 ! abs5ce ( ! cont5ts to det]m9e _! precise nature4 ,h>tig#dag & o!rs h drawn att5tion to ! occurr5ce ( su* bladd]-l swell+s 9 ! mycelia ( rec5t fungi1 :i* h no?+ to d ) reproductive purposes2 "u c]ta9 conditions ! hyphae ( a fungus gr[+ 9 ! cavity ( a cell or tra*ea may =m su* vesicles1 & ^!1 z 9 fig4 #db1 ,d1 m may completely fill up ! cavity ( a l>ge tra*eid4 ,"s good examples ( bladd]-l swell+s1 su* z occur 9 ! mycelium ( ,ag>icus melleus & o!r rec5t fungi1 h be5 figur$ by ,conw5tz#dah 9 fossil wood ( ,t]ti>y age f ,k>lsdorf4 ,! swell+s 9 ?is fossil fungus might easily be mi/ak5 = oogonia or sporangia2 especially z !y are few 9 numb] & sph]ical 9 =m4 ,a simil> appe>ance is pres5t$ by a mass ( tyloses 9 ! cavity ( an old vessel or tra*eid2 & vesicul> cell-cont5ts1 z 9 ! cells ( fig4 #da1 ,a1 #b-e1 may closely simulate a numb] ( ?9-wall$ fungal spores or sporangia4 ,a good example ( su* a vesicul> tissue1 9 addition to t already quot$1 is af=d$ by a specim5 ( an ,eoc5e f]n1 ,osmundites ,d[k]i ,c>r4#dai describ$ by ,c>ru!rs 9 #ahgj4 ,! gr\nd-tissue cells conta9 traces ( di/9ct fungal hyphae 7fig4 #da1 ,b71 & 9 _m ( ! p>5*ymat\s elem5ts ! cavity is completely fill$ ) sph]ical vesicles2 9 o!r cases "o f9ds hyphae 9 ! c5tre ( ! cell :ile vesicles l9e ! wall1 z %ewn 9 fig4 #da1 ,b4 ,c>ru!rs ref]s to ^! bladd]s z />* gra9s1 & ?is may be _! true nature2 _! appe>ance & abundant occurr5ce 9 ! p>5*yma c]ta9ly sugge/ vesicul> cell-cont5ts r ?an fungal cells4 ,i c\ld detect no pro( ( any connection betwe5 ! hyphae & bladd]s1 & ! abs5ce ( ! latt] 9 ! cavities ( ! tra*eids1 fig4 #da1 ,c1 fav\r$ ! view ( _! be+ ei!r />*-gra9s or o!r vacuolat$ cont5ts simil> to t 9 ! cells ( ! ,portl& ,cycad 7fig4 #da1 ,a7 ref]r$ to on p4 #hh4 ,sid5ote3 ,,pa?ology ,,( ,,fossil ,,tissues4 ,! vacuolat$ cell-cont5ts p>tially fill+ ! cells 9 fig4 #da1 ,d1 pres5t a /rik+ resemblance to ! cont5ts ( ! cells #b-e 9 fig4 #da1 ,a4 ,9 fig4 ,d ! fro?y & contract$ sub/ance might be easily mi/ak5 = a p>asitic or saprophytic fungus1 b ?is resemblance is entirely mislead+4 ,x is by no means uncommon to f9d ! cells ( rec5t plants occupi$ by su* vacuolat$ cont5ts1 especially 9 diseas$ tissues 9 :i* a pa?ological effect produces an appe>ance :i* has m ?an once misl$ ! mo/ practis$ obs]v]s4 ,9 ! important "w rec5tly publi%$ by ,r5ault on ! ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s flora ( ,autun1 !re is a small spore-l body describ$ z a teleutospore1 & class$ ) ! ,pucc9eae#dbj4 ,we h z yet no satisfactory evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( ?is section ( ,fungi 9 ,palaeozoic times1 & ,r5ault's description ( ,teleutospora ,milloti f ,autun might be s]i\sly mislead+ if accept$ )\t ref]5ce to 8 figure4 ,! fragm5t he describes _c be accept$ z suffici5t evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( a ,palaeozoic ,pucc9ia4 ,! same au?or ref]s ano!r ,palaeozoic fungus to ! ,mucor9eae "u ! "n ( ,mucor ,combr5sis#dba2 ?is id5tification is bas$ on a mycelium hav+ a resemblance to ! bran*$ ?allus ( ,mucor1 b 9 ! abs5ce ( reproductive organs su* resemblance is h>dly adequate z a means ( recognition4 ,! occurr5ce ( hyphal cells 9 calc>e\s %ells & corals has already be5 allud$ to4#dbb ,9 addition to ! examples ref]r$ to above1 !re is "o :i* has be5 describ$ by ,e!ridge#dbc f a ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s coral4 ,?is obs]v] records ! occurr5ce ( tubul> cavities 9 ! calices ( ,/5opora cr9ita ,lonsd41 & attributes _! orig9 to a fungus :i* he names ,palaeop]one endophytica2 he m5tions "o case 9 :i* a tube conta9s f9e sph]ical spore-l bodies :i* he comp>es ) ! spores ( a ,saprolegnia4 ,z po9t$ out above 7p4 #abh71 x is almo/ impossible to decide h[ f> ^! tubes 9 %ells & corals %\ld be attribut$ to fungi1 & h[ f> to algae4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,a4 ,cells ( ,cycadeoidea gigantea ,sew4 #cee4 ,b & ,c4 ,p>5*ymat\s cells & scal>i=m tra*eids ( ,osmundites ,d[k]i ,c>r4 #bcj4 ,d4 ,epid]mal cells ( ,memecylon 7,mela/omaceae7 ) vacuolat$ cont5ts4 ,e4 ,p]onosporites antiqu>ius ,smi?1 7,no4 #aibc 9 ! ,williamson collection74 #bcj4 ,f4 ,zygosporites4 #bcj4 7,a1 ,b1 ,c & ,e drawn f specim5s 9 ! ,briti% ,museum2 ,d f a draw+ by ,pr(4 ,m>%all ,w>d2 ,f f a specim5 9 ! ,botanical ,laboratory ,collection1 ,cambridge47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,tra*eids ( conif]\s wood attack$ by ,trametes radicip]da ,h>t4 7,polyporus annosus ,fr47 ,d & ,e4 ,tra*eids attack$ by ,ag>icus melleus ,vahl4 ,a1 #fej1 ,b-,e1 #cfj4 7,aft] ,h>tig47 ,pass+ f ! direct evid5ce obta9$ f ! pres5ce ( fungal hyphae 9 petrifi$ tissues1 we mu/ draw att5tion to ! indirect evid5ce ( fungal action af=d$ by _m fossil plants4 ,x is important to be famili> ) at lea/ ! m /rik+ effects ( fungal ravages 9 rec5t wood 9 ord] t we may escape "s ( ! mi/akes to :i* pa?ological ph5om5a may lead u 9 ! case ( fossils#dbd4 ,! gradual dissociation ( ! elem5ts 9 a piece ( fossil wood ow+ to ! de/ruction ( ! middle lamellae1 ! occurr5ce ( v>i\s =ms ( slit-l ap]tures 9 ! walls ( tra*eids 7fig4 #db1 ,e7 & ! production ( a sy/em ( f9e p>allel /riation on ! walls ( a vessel are among ! results produc$ by p>asitic & saprophytic fungi4 ,) ! help ( a f]m5t secret$ by its hyphae1 a fungus is able to eat away ei!r ! ?ick5+ cell lay]s or ! middle lamellae or bo?1 & if1 z 9 fig4 #db1 ,a1 only ! middle lamellae are left "o might easily reg>d su* tissue 9 a fossil condition z consi/+ ( delicate ?9-wall$ elem5ts4 ,! oblique /riae on ! walls ( a tra*eid may (t5 be due to ! action ( a f]m5t :i* has dissolv$ ! membrane 9 su* a mann] z to et* out a sy/em ( spiral l9es1 probably z a consequ5ce ( ! orig9al /ructure ( ! tra*eids4 ,9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! woods ( ,conif]s ! pres5ce ( spiral ?ick5+ lay]s 9 ! wood elem5t is an important diagno/ic "*1 & x is necess>y to gu>d aga9/ ! confusion ( purely second>y /ructures1 due to fungal action1 ) orig9al features :i* may be ( value 9 det]m9+ ! g5]ic aff9ity ( a piece ( fossil wood4 ,oo*ytrium ,lepidod5dri1 ,r54 ,fig4 #dc1 #a4 ,"u ?is "n ,r5ault has rec5tly describ$ a filam5t\s fungus endophytic 9 ! cavities ( ! scal>i=m tra*eids ( a ,lepidod5dron#dbe4 ,! mycelium has ! =m ( sl5d] bran*$ hyphae ) transv]se septa4 ,num]\s ovoid & m or less sph]ical sporangia occur z t]m9al swell+s ( ! mycelial ?reads4 ,! long axis ( ! ovoid =ms measures #ab-ae 1 & ! %ort] axis #i-aj 2 ! cont5ts may be se5 z a slightly contract$ mass 9 ! sporangial cavity4 ,9 "s ( ! sporangia "o sees a %ort apical prolongation 9 ! =m ( a small elongat$ papilla1 z %[n 9 fig4 #dc1 #a4 ,r5ault ref]s ?is fungus to ! ,*ytrid9eae1 & comp>es x ) ,clado*ytrium1 ,woron9a1 ,olpidium1 & o!r rec5t g5]a4 ,9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( two ( ! sporangia %[n 9 ! upp]mo/ tra*eid ( fig4 #dc1 #a1 !re are se5 a few m9ute d>k dots :i* are describ$ z spores petrifi$ 9 ! act ( escap+ f a lat]al pore4 ,?is int]pretation /rikes "o z lack+ 9 sci5tific caution4 ,! sporangia ( ,hypho*ytrium infe/ans#dbf1 z figur$ by ,fis*] 9 ,rab5hor/'s "w be> a close resemblance to ^? ( ! fossil4 ,x w\ld seem v probable t ,r5ault's species may be reasonably ref]r$ to ! ,*ytrid9eae1 z he proposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 #a4 ,oo*ytrium ,lepidod5dri1 ,r54 7,aft] ,r5ault47 #b4 ,polyporus vapor>ius ,fr4 v>4 succ9ea4 7,aft] ,conw5tz47 #c4 ,cladosporites bip>titus ,fel4 7,aft] ,felix47 #d4 ,haplographites cat5ig] ,fel4 7,aft] ,felix47 ,p]onosporites antiqu>ius ,w4 ,smi?4 ,fig4 #da1 ,e4 ,9 an address to ! ,geologi/s' ,association deliv]$ by ,mr ,c>ru!rs 9 #ahgf a brief ref]5ce1 accompani$ by a small-scale draw+1 is made to ! discov]y ( a fungus 9 ! scal>i=m tra*eids ( a ,lepidod5dron f ! ,engli% ,coal-,measures#dbg4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> ,wor?+ton ,smi? publi%$ a full] acc\nt ( ! fungus1 & propos$ = x ! above "n#dbh1 :i* he *ose on ! gr\nd ( a close simil>ity betwe5 ! mycelium & reproductive organs ( ! fossil =m & rec5t memb]s ( ! ,p]onosporeae4 ,9 ,smi?'s description ! mycelium is describ$ z be>+ sph]ical swell+s conta9+ zoospores4 ,^! sph]ical organs are fairly abundant & n infrequ5tly met ) 9 sections ( petrifi$ plant-tissues f ! ,engli% ,coal-,measures2 !y may be oogonia or sporangia1 or 9 "s cases m]e vesicul> expansions ( a purely vegetative hypha4 ,no confirmation has be5 giv5 to ! suppos$ spores ref]r$ to by ,smi?4 ,pr(4 ,williamson & o!rs h c>efully exam9$ ! specim5s1 b !y h fail$ to detect any trace ( reproductive cells enclos$ 9 ! sph]ical sacs#dbi4 ,! mycelium does n appe> to %[ any satisfactory evid5ce ( its be+ septate z figur$ by ,smi?4 ,! example %[n 9 fig4 #da ,e has be5 drawn f "o ( ! ,williamson specim5s3 x illu/rates ! =m & mann] ( occurr5ce ( ! *>act]i/ic swell+s4 ,x is probable t "s at lea/ ( ! vesicles are ei!r sporangia or oogonia1 b we _c speak ) absolute confid5ce z to _! precise nature4 ,! g5]al habit & /ructure ( ! fungus fav\r its inclusion 9 ! class ( ,phycomycetes4 ,! occurr5ce ( sev]al ( ! vesicles close toge!r on %ort hyphal bran*es1 z %[n 9 ,williamson's figures1 sugge/s ! sph]ical swell+s on vegetative hyphae1 b x is impossible to speak ) absolute confid5ce4 ,!re is a close resemblance betwe5 ?is ,engli% =m & "o rec5tly describ$ by ,r5ault z ,palaeomyces gracilis ,r54#dcj2 ! two fossils %\ld probably be plac$ 9 ! same g5us4 ,! examples ref]r$ to bel[ & orig9ally record$ by ,ca% & ,hick no d\bt belong to ! same type z ,smi?'s ,p]onosporites4 ,! sket*es reproduc$ 9 fig4 #dd h be5 drawn f specim5s orig9ally describ$ by ,ca% & ,hick 9 #ahghdca4 ,! sections 7 cut f a calc>e\s nodule f ! ,halifax ,coal-,measures conta9+ fragm5ts ( v>i\s plants & among o!rs a piece ( cortical tissue1 probably ( a ,lepidod5dron or ,/igm>ia4 ,9 a transv]se section ( ?is tissue "o sees "u a mod]ately high p[] t ! cells h become p>tially sep>at$ f "o ano!r by ! de/ruction ( ! middle lamellae 7fig4 #dd ,a74 ,! cell-cavities & ! spaces betwe5 ! isolat$ cells conta9 num]\s f9e fungal hyphae1 :i* "h & !re t]m9ate 9 sph]ical swell+s4 ,"o su* swell+ is %[n "u a l[ p[] 9 fig4 #dd ,a1 9 ! middle upp]mo/ cell1 & m highly magnifi$ 9 fig4 #dd ,b4 ,9 fig4 ,c !re are two su* swell+s 7! l>g] "o hav+ a diamet] ( #jjc mm47 9 contact1 b ! connection does n appe> to be organic4 ,! cell-walls ( ! infect$ tissue pres5t a ragg$ & untidy appe>ance1 & 9 places 7e4g4 fig4 #dd ,d7 ! membrane has be5 pi]c$ by "s ( ! mycelial bran*es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,cells ) fungal hyphae4 ,a4 ,a piece ( disorganis$ tissue1 %[+ ! sep>ation ( ! cells4 ,b4 ,"p ( ,a m highly magnifi$4 ,c4 ,a s+le cell conta9+ two swoll5 hyphae4 ,d4 ,p>tially de/roy$ cell-membranes pi]c$ by fungal hyphae4 7,drawn f sections 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,botanical ,museum1 orig9ally describ$ by ,ca% & ,hick47 ,?is fungus be>s a close resemblance to ,p]onosporites antiqu>ius1 b x is impossible to det]m9e its precise botanical position )\t fur!r data4 ,9 ,ca% & ,hick's pap] 9 :i* ! above fungus is briefly dealt )1 "s small spore-l bodies are figur$ :i* ! au?ors speak ( z possibly a ,myxomycet\s fungus#dcb4 ,!re is h[ev] no s\nd reason = su* a supposition4 ,z examples ( ,ascomycet\s fungi f\nd 9 silicifi$ wood ( ,t]ti>y age1 two species may be quot$ f ,felix4 ,cladosporites bip>titus ,felix#dcc1 fig4 #dc1 #c4 ,! mycelium & conidia ( ?is =m 7 discov]$ 9 "s ,eoc5e silicifi$ wood f ,p]ekes*kul ne> ,baku1 on ! %ores ( ! ,caspian4 ,! conidia are elliptical or pyri=m 9 %ape & divid$ by a transv]se septum into two cells4 ,no traces 7 f\nd ( any special conidiophores4 ,! mycelium consi/s ( septate bran*$ hyphae1 r5d]$ conspicu\s by a br[n col\ration4 ,felix comp>es ! fossil ) ! rec5t g5]a ,cephalo!cium & ,cladosporium4 ,haplographites cat5ig] ,felix#dcd1 fig4 #dc1 #d4 ,! conidia ( ?is =m 7 f\nd to be fairly abundant 9 ! silicifi$ tissue inve/igat$ by ,felix2 !y occur usually 9 *a9s ( #b to #f conidia hav+ an ovoid or flask-%ap$ =m1 ) a ?ick membrane 7fig4 #dc1 #d74 ,! mycelium consi/s ( bran*$ hyphae divid$ into long cyl9drical cells by transv]se septa2 occasional in/ances 7 f\nd ( an ,h-%ap$ fusion betwe5 lat]al bran*es ( p>allel hyphae4 ,felix comp>es ?is species ) examples ( ! g5]a ,haptographium & ,dematium ( ! family ,spha]iaceae2 x 0 f\nd 9 ! woody tissue ( a dicotyl$on\s /em f ,p]ekes*kul4 ,zygosporites sp4 ,! object repres5t$ 9 fig4 #da ,f consi/s ( a /alk$ sph]ical sac be>+ a numb] ( radiat+ arms :i* are divid$ di/ally into delicate t]m9ations4 ,we f9d simil> bodies figur$ by ,williamson#dce 9 8 ,i,xth & ,x? ,memoirs on ! ,coal-,measure plants2 he includes "s ( !m "u ! g5]ic t]m ,zygosporites1 & comp>es !m ) ! zygospores ( ! fre%wat] algae ,desmideae4 ,hi!rto ^! spore-l fossils h only be5 record$ z isolat$ sph]es1 b 9 ! example %[n 9 fig4 #da ,f !re is a di/9ct tubul> & ?9-wall$ /alk atta*$ to ! ,zygosporites4 ,! specim5 0 f\nd 9 ! p>tially disorganis$ cortical tissue ( a ,lyg9od5dron /em f ! ,engli% ,coal-,measures4 ,x is difficult to decide z to ! precise nature ( ! fossil1 b ! pres5ce ( ! hyphal /alk po9ts to a fungus r ?an an alga z ! mo/ probable type ( plant ) :i* to connect x4 ,x may possibly be a sporangium ( a fungus comp>able ) ! common m\ld ,mucor1 or x may be a zygospore =m$ by ! conjugation ( two hyphae ( :i* only "o has be5 pres]v$4 ,sid5ote3 ,,polyporus4 ,= an example ( a fossil repres5tative ( ! ,basidiomycetes we may turn to ! excell5t monograph by ,conw5tz on ! ,baltic amb] trees1 & quote "o ( ! =ms :i* he has describ$4 ,polyporus vapor>ius ,fr4 f4 succ9ea#dcf1 fig4 #dc1 #b4 ,9 sev]al prep>ations ( ! wood pres]v$ by petrifaction 9 amb] ,conw5tz f\nd di/9ct indications ( ! ravages ( a fungus1 :i* sugge/$ ! pres5ce ( ! rec5t species ,polyporus vapor>ius ,fr4 ,) ! help ( ! indirect evid5ce af=d$ by ! pa?ological effects z se5 9 ! tissues ( ! ho/-plant1 & ! direct evid5ce ( ! fungal mycelium ,conw5tz 0 l$ to ?is id5tification4 ,! mycelium is br[n 9 col\r1 9 "p ?ick-wall$1 & 9 "p ) ?9 walls1 transv]sely septate & n mu* bran*$4 ,9 ! portion ( "o ( ,conw5tz' figures reproduc$ 9 fig4 #dc1 #b1 ! r5ts & holes 9 ! tra*eid walls are cle>ly %[n2 !y af=d ! indirect evid5ce ( fungal attacks1 & are ( ! same nature z ^? %[n 9 fig4 #db1 ,b1 ,c & ,e4 ,en\gh has be5 said to call att5tion to ! paucity ( exact data on :i* to g5]alise z to ! geological hi/ory ( fungi4 ,! types select$ = description or pass+ allusion h n be5 *os5 9 ea* case because ( _! special intr9sic value1 b r z conv5i5t examples by :i* to illu/rate au!ntic records or to s]ve z w>n+s aga9/ possible s\rces ( error4 ,x w\ld seem t we h fairly good & conclusive evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce 9 ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s times ( ,phycomycet\s fungi1 b x is n until we pass to po/-,palaeozoic or ev5 ,t]ti>y plants t we discov] satisfactory repres5tatives ( ! high] fungi or ,mycomycetes4 ,if special att5tion 7 paid to ! inve/igation ( fossil fungi1 x is q possible t our k ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! gr\p might be consid]ably ext5d$4 ,x is ess5tial t ! greate/ caution %\ld be ex]cis$ 9 ! id5tification ( =ms & 9 _! ref]5ce to def9ite families2 o!rwise our li/s ( fossil species w s]ve to mislead1 & to emphasize ! untru/wor?y "* ( palaeobotanical data4 ,unless we feel satisfi$ z to ! position ( a fossil fungus x is unwise to use a g5]ic t]m sugge/ive ( a def9ite family or rec5t g5us4 ,su* a "n z ,r5ault has us$ 9 "o in/ance1 ,palaeomyces1 might be employ$ z a useful & compreh5sive designation4 ,,vii4 ,,*>ophyta4 ,,*>ace4 ,,nitelle4 ,x has be5 ! g5]al cu/om to include ! ,*>ace or ,/oneworts among ! ,*lorophyceae 7gre5 algae71 ( :i* !y =m a di/9ctly isolat$ family4 ,on ! :ole1 x w\ld seem bett] to foll[ ! c\rse lately adopt$ by ,migula#dcg & all[ ! ,*>ace to rank z a family ( a di/9ct gr\p1 ,*>ophyta4 ,:ile agree+ 9 _m respects ) plants high] 9 ! scale ?an ,?allophytes1 ! ,/oneworts d n suffici5tly resemble ! ,bryophyta to be includ$ 9 t gr\p4 ,! ,*>ophyta are plants conta9+ *lorophyll1 liv+ 9 fre% & bracki% wat]2 ! /em is jo9t$1 & be>s at ! nodes :orls ( leaves1 on :i* are borne ! reproductive organs4 ,! an!ridia are sph]ical 9 %ape & ( complex /ructure1 conta9+ num]\s biciliate an!rozoids4 ,! oogonia are oval 9 =m & conta9 a s+le l>ge egg-cell4 ,! ,*>a-plant is develop$ f a protonema =m$ f ! g]m9at+ oospore4 ,vegetative reproduction is effect$ by means ( bulbils1 accessory %oots1 etc4 ,! ,nitelle h n be5 recognis$ 9 a fossil condition4 ,! abs5ce or feeble developm5t ( a calc>e\s incru/ation r5d]s ! g5]a ( ?is family less likely to be pres]v$ ?an su* a g5us z ,*>a4 ,*>eae4 ,leaves & /ems ) or )\t a cortical inve/m5t4 ,fruit ) a five-cell$ corona4 ,! envelope ( ! #8fruit' & o!r p>ts ( ! plant are frequ5tly encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,9 ! g5us ,*>a1 ! be/ kn[n memb] ( ! family1 ! plant z a :ole resembles 9 its g5]al habit & ext]nal diff]5tiation ( p>ts ! high] plants4 ,! /em consi/s ( long int]nodes sep>at$ by %ort nodes be>+ :orls ( leaves4 ,ea* int]node consi/s ( a long cyl9drical cell1 :i* becomes enclos$ by a cortical %ea? compos$ ( r[s ( cells :i* h gr[n upw>ds & d[nw>ds f ! p]iph]al nodal cells4 ,! cortical cells are usually spirally twi/$ & imp>t to ! /em a *>act]i/ic appe>ance2 !y are divid$ by transv]se walls into num]\s cells "s ( :i* occasionally gr[ out into %ort processes 7fig4 #de c74 ,! leaves repeat on a small] scale ! /ructural features ( ! /em1 b possess a limit$ gr[?1 :]eas ! /em has an unlimit$ p[] ( gr[? by means ( a l>ge hemisph]ical apical cell4 ,bran*es arise 9 ! axils ( ! leaves4 ,! plants are ei!r monoeci\s or dioeci\s4 ,! oogonium is elliptical 9 %ape1 & is borne on a %ort /alk-cell1 x conta9s a s+le oosph]e4 ,! wall ( ! oogonium is =m$ ( five spirally twi/$ cells :i* h gr[n ov] x f ! five p]iph]al cells ( a leaf-node4 ,! tips ( ! inve/+ cells project at ! apex 9 ! =m ( a t]m9al cr[n or corona 7fig4 #de1 ,e1 c74 ,! an!ridia h a complex /ructure1 & produce a v l>ge numb] ( motile an!rozoids4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,a & ,b4 ,*>a ,kn[ltoni ,sew4 ,f a section 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,c4 ,/em ( ,*>a foetida ,a4 ,br4 9 transv]se section 7aft] ,migula4 #ah74 ,d4 ,int]ior ( oogonium ( ,c4 foetida4 ,e4 ,oogonium ( ,c4 foetida 7,d & ,e aft] ,migula4 #ej74 ,aft] f]tilisation1 ! egg-cell becomes surr\nd$ by a membrane1 at fir/ col\rless1 b aft]w>ds yell[ or br[n4 ,! inn] cell-walls ( ! cells surr\nd+ ! oospore become ?ick] & d>k] 9 col\r2 ! out] walls rema9 ?9 & ev5tually fall away4 ,! lat]al walls may or may n become ?ick5$4 ,9 mo/ ( ! ,*>eae a calc>e\s deposit is =m$ betwe5 ! h>d %ell & ! out] walls ( ! cells envelop+ ! oospore4 ,?is calc>e\s %ell is develop$ subsequ5tly to ! ?ick5+ & h>d5+ ( ! inn] walls ( ! fruit-case4 ,! cells ( ! corona & /alk d n become calc>e\s4 ,9 ! fossil ,*>as1 x is ?is calc>e\s %ell t is pres]v$4 ,9 ! memb]s ( ! ,*>eae ! /ems are usually encru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 & ?us h a mu* bett] *ance ( pres]vation ?an ! slightly calc>e\s ,nitelle4 ,*>a4 ,! g5]ic *>act]s h already be5 describ$ 9 ! brief acc\nt ( ! family ,*>eae4 ,! g5]ic "n 0 propos$ by ,vaillant 9 #agaidch1 & adopt$ by ,l9naeus1 :o class$ ! ,/oneworts ) aquatic phan]ogams4 ,z long ago z #afbcdci a figure ( ,*>a 0 publi%$ by ,casp> ,bauh9 z a =m ( ,equisetum4 ,! g5]ic "n ,*>a has usually be5 appli$ to rec5t & fossil species alike4 ,! exi/+ species h a wide di/ribution2 ,*>a foetida1 ,a4 ,br41 a common ,briti% =m1 occurs 9 practically all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,/ems & calc>e\s #8fruit-cases' occur fairly commonly 9 a fossil /ate1 & diff] b little f rec5t species1 at lea/ z reg>ds ess5tial features4 ,x is difficult to say at :at geological horizon ! ,/oneworts are fir/ repres5t$4 ,! fir/ c]ta9 traces ( ,*>a occur 9 ,jurassic rocks1 b c]ta9 spirally m>k$ subsph]ical bodies h be5 record$ f ,devonian & ,c>bonif]\s /rata1 :i* closely resemble ,*>a oogonia1 & may be ,palaeozoic repres5tatives ( ! g5us4 ,9 #ahhi ,mr ,kn[lton#ddj ( ! ,am]ican ,geological ,survey describ$ "s #8problematic organisms' f\nd 9 ,devonian rocks at ! falls ( ! ,ohio4 ,examples ( ^! fossils are %[n 9 fig4 #df b & c2 ! spirally groov$ body measures f #aej to #ahj mm4 9 diamet]1 & ab\t #agj mm4 9 l5g?4 ,! ,*>a-l "* ( ! fossils _h be5 previ\sly sugge/$ by ,meek#dda 9 #ahgc4 ,)\t go+ into ! argum5ts = or aga9/ plac+ ^! fossils 9 ! ,*>eae1 !y may at lea/ be m5tion$ z possible b n c]ta9 ,palaeozoic =ms ( ,*>a or an alli$ g5us4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4 a4 ,*>a ,blei*]i ,sap4 #cj4 b & c4 ,devonian ,*>a8 sp4 circa #ab4 d & e4 ,*>a ,wrighti ,=bes4 circa #ab4 #a4 ,*>a ,blei*]i1 ,saporta4 ,fig4 #df1 a4 ,9 ?is =m ! #8fruits' are m9ute & subsph]ical1 #ci-dd mm4 long1 & #ce-dj mm4 broad1 %[+ 9 side view #e-f slightly oblique spiral b&s4 ,ea* spiral b& be>s a r[ ( slightly project+ tub]cles4 ,?is species 0 fir/ describ$ by ,saporta#ddb f ! ,ox=dian 7,jurassic7 rocks ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,lot 9 ,france2 x is comp>$ by ! au?or ( ! species ) ,*>a ,jacc>di ,he]1 describ$ by ,he] f ! ,upp] ,jurassic rocks ( ,switz]l&4 #b4 ,c4 ,kn[ltoni1 ,sew>d4 ,fig4 #de1 a & b1 & ,fig4 #dg4 ,! ,oogonia are broadly oval1 ab\t #emm4 9 l5g?1 & at ! broade/ "p ( ab\t ! same bread?4 ,! surface is m>k$ by elev5 or twelve b&s 9 ! =m ( a flatt5$ spiral4 ,! /ems possess inve/+ cortical cells4 ,?is species 0 f\nd$ on specim5s f ! ,weald5 b$s ( ,sussex#ddc1 b num]\s examples ( ,*>a #8fruits' & /ems h long be5 kn[n f ! upp]mo/ ,jurassic rocks ( ! ,dorset coa/ & ! ,isle ( ,wight1 :i* may probably be includ$ 9 ?is species4 ,^! fossil ,*>as are abundant#ddd 9 ! ,*]t b$s ( ,purbeck age se5 9 ! cliffs ne> ,swanage4 ,pieces ( corticat$ /ems f ?is locality are repres5t$ 9 fig4 #de ,a & ,b4 ,! cortical cells surr\nd+ a l>ge int]nodal cell are v cle>ly se5 9 ! section %[n 9 fig4 #de ,b1 & 9 ! longitud9al view 9 fig4 #de ,a4 ,! resemblance ( ^! specim5s to ! /ems ( rec5t ,/oneworts is v /rik+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,*>a ,kn[ltoni1 ,sew4 #cj4 ,! s+le oogonium ( fig4 #dg 0 f\nd 9 ! ,weald5 b$s ne> ,ha/+s4 #c4 ,*>a ,wrighti1 ,=bes4 ,fig4 #df1 d & e4 ,?is species is *>act]is$ by globul> or some:at elliptical oogonia1 ) six or sev5 spiral b&s4 ,x is v abundant 9 ! ,l[] ,headon b$s ( ,hordwell ,cliffs on ! ,hamp%ire coa/#dde4 ,v>i\s species ( ,*>a are commonly met ) 9 ! ,oligoc5e b$s ( ! ,isle ( ,wight & ,hamp%ire1 z well z 9 ! ,p>is bas9 b$s1 & else:]e4 ,well pres]v$ #8fruits' & /em fragm5ts are met ) 9 a silice\s rock ( ,upp] ,oligoc5e age import$ f ,montmor5cy 9 ! ,p>is bas91 & us$ z a /one = gr9d+ phosphates at "s *emical works ne> ,upw>e1 a few miles f ,cambridge4 ,_m o!r species ( fossil ,*>as are kn[n f v>i\s horizons & localities1 b ! above examples suffice z illu/rative types4 ,9 ,po/-,t]ti>y deposits masses ( ,*>a & plant fragm5ts occasionally occur =m+ blocks ( ,trav]t9e4 ,examples ( su* ,*>a b$s h be5 record$ by ,%>pe f ,nor?ampton#ddf1 by ,lyell#ddg f ,=f>%ire1 & by o!r writ]s f sev]al o!r di/ricts4 ,b$s ( calc>e\s m>l are occasionally se5 z :iti% /reaks 9 ! peat ( ! ,f5l&#ddh2 ^! (t5 consi/ 9 great "p ( ,*>as4 ,a season's gr[? ( ,*>a 9 a %all[ lake or m]e 9 ! ,f5s may appe> z a :ite l9e 9 a section ( peaty & o!r mat]ial :i* has be5 =m$ on ! site ( old pools or lakes4 ,! recognition ( specific *>act]s 9 ! isolat$ ,*>a #8fruits' usually met ) 9 a fossil /ate is exce$+ly unsatisfactory2 ! features usually reli$ on 9 ! liv+ species are n pres]v$1 & great c>e %\ld be tak5 9 ! sep>ation ( ! v>i\s =ms4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,bryophyta 7,musc9eae74 ,i4 ,,hepaticae 7,liv]worts74 ,,ii4 ,,musci 7,mosses74 ,! ,bryophyta are small plants1 v>y+ 9 size f #a mm4 to ab\t #cj cm41 creep+ or erect1 hav+ a ?alloid1 or m usually a foliose body1 consi/+ ( a cell-mass exhibit+ 9 mo/ cases a di/9ct int]nal diff]5tiation4 ,!y possess no true roots & no true vascul> tissue4 ,! life-hi/ory ( ! memb]s ( ! gr\p is *>act]is$ by a well-m>k$ & def9ite alt]nation ( g5]ations4 ,! ,moss or ,liv]wort plant is ! sexual g5]ation 7gametophyte71 & z a result ( ! f]tilisation ( an egg-cell ! asexual or spore-be>+ g5]ation 7sporophyte7 is produc$4 ,! sporophyte nev] exhibits a diff]5tiation into /em & leaves4 ,asexual & vegetative reproduction are effect$ by means ( spores1 bulbils1 or deta*$ portions ( ! plant-body4 ,sexual reproduction is by means ( biciliate an!rozoids produc$ 9 an!ridia & egg-cells =m$ s+ly 9 ar*egonia4 ,9 ! ,bryophytes ! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics are m con/ant & well-def9$ ?an 9 ! ,?allophytes4 ,9 ! =m] ! plant nev] consi/s ( a s+le cell or co5ocyte1 b is always multicellul>1 & exhibits 9 mo/ cases a def9ite physiological division ( lab\r z express$ 9 ! hi/ological diff]5tiation ( di/9ct tissue-sy/ems4 ,9 ! ,?allophytes !re is no true alt]nation ( g5]ation 9 ! same s5se z 9 ! ,mosses & ,liv]worts & 9 ! high] plants4 ,9 ! ,bryophytes ! sexual reproduction has rea*$ a high] /age ( developm5t & a mu* great] con/ancy z reg>ds ! nature ( ! reproductive organs4 ,on ! g]m9ation ( ! spore !re is usually =m$ a fairly di/9ct /ructure kn[n z ! protonema1 f :i* ! ,moss or ,liv]wort developes z a bud#ddi4 ,,m>*antiales4 ,i4 ,,hepaticae4 ,,an?oc]otales4 ,,jung]manniales4 ,! vegetative plant-body possesses a diff]5t organisation on ! v5tral & dorsal side2 x has ! =m ( a ?alloid creep+ plant 7,?alloid ,liv]worts71 or ( a delicate /em ) ?9 app5dages or leaves )\t a midrib 7,foliose ,liv]worts74 ,9 mo/ cases ! body ( ! plant is made up ( p>5*ymat\s tissue1 %[+ b little int]nal diff]5tiation2 9 "o or two g5]a a few /r5g!n+ or me*anical fibres occur among ! ?9n] wall$ gr\nd-tissue4 ,on ! g]m9ation ( ! spore1 a feebly develop$ protonema is produc$1 :i* gives rise to ! ,liv]wort plant4 ,reproduction z 9 ! gr\p ,bryophyta4 ,sid5ote3 ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,liv]worts4 ,! ,liv]worts h a v wide geographical di/ribution1 & are specially abundant 9 moi/ %ady situations2 !y gr[ on /ones or damp soil1 & occur z epiphytes on o!r plants4 ,m>*antia1 ,pellia1 & ,jung]mannia are among ! bett] kn[n ,briti% repres5tatives ( ! class4 ,consid]+ ! s(t nature ( ! body ( rec5t ,liv]worts1 x is n surpris+ t !y are poorly repres5t$ 9 a fossil /ate4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ! sexual reproductive organs1 or ( ! sporophytes1 :i* h sc>cely ev] be5 pres]v$1 exact id5tification is almo/ hopeless4 ,! difficulties already ref]r$ to 9 deal+ ) ! algae1 z reg>ds ! mislead+ simil>ity betwe5 ! =m ( ! ?allus & ! bodies ( o!r plants1 h to be fac$ 9 ! case ( ! ,liv]worts4 ,_m ( ! ?alloid ,liv]worts1 if pres]v$ 9 ! =m ( a ca/ or impression )\t int]nal /ructure or reproductive organs1 c\ld h>dly be di/+ui%$ f v>i\s g5]a ( algae 9 :i* ! ?allus has ! =m ( a =k$ plate-l body4 ,su* g5]a z ,pellia1 ,m>*antia1 ,lunul>ia1 ,reb\lia1 & o!rs be> a /rik+ resemblance to ,fucus1 ,*ondrus & _m o!r algae4 ,imp]fect specim5s ( c]ta9 ,li*5s1 n to m5tion "s ( ! ,polyzoa1 might easily be mi/ak5 = ,liv]worts4 ,among ! high] plants1 !re are "s =ms ( ! ,podo/emaceae :i* simulate 9 habit bo? ?alloid & foliose ,liv]worts z well z ,mosses#dej4 ,! memb]s ( ?is ,dicotyl$on\s family are describ$ z wat]-plants ) a ,moss- or ,liv]wort-l =m2 !y occur on rocks 9 quickly-fl[+ wat] 9 ! tropics4 ,9 "o in/ance a rec5t ,podo/emace\s g5us has be5 describ$ z a memb] ( ! ,an?oc]otales2 ! g5us ,bl&[ia#dea1 ref]r$ to by ,willd5[ z a ,liv]wort1 has s9ce be5 recognis$ z "o ( ! ,podo/emaceae4 ,! resemblance betwe5 "s ( ! foliose ,hepaticae & g5]a ( ,mosses is (t5 v close4 ,9 c]ta9 ,mosses1 su* z ,hook]ia p5nata#deb1 ! l>ge two-rank$ leaves sugge/ ! bran*es ( a ,selag9ella4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,a4 ,tri/i*ia hypnoides ,spr5g4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,b4 ,podoc>pus cupress9a ,br4 & ,b54 7,aft] ,br[n & ,b5nett#dec47 ,c4 ,selag9ella ,oregana ,eat4 ,f a plant 9 ! ,cambridge ,botanic ,g>d54 ,a1 ,b & ,c v slightly r$uc$4 ,! plant reproduc$ 9 fig4 #dh ,a 7,tri/i*ia71 "o ( ! ,podo/emaceae1 might easily be mi/ak5 = a foliose ,liv]wort if f\nd z a fragm5t>y fossil4 ,su* species ( ,selag9ella z ,s4 ,oregana ,eat4 & ,s4 rupe/ris ,spr+ 7fig4 #dh ,c7 h a di/9ctly moss-l habit & d n pres5t a v obvi\s resemblance to ! m typical & bett] kn[n ,selag9ellas4 ,! twig ( a ,podoc>pus 7,p4 cupress9a7#ded 9 fig4 #dh ,b af=ds an in/ance ( a conif] :i* simulates to "s ext5t c]ta9 ( ! l>g]-leav$ ,liv]worts2 x be>s a resemblance also to "s fossil fragm5ts ref]r$ to ,selag9ellites or ,lycopodites4 ,a small fossil specim5 figur$ by ,na?or/#dee f ,japan z possibly a ,lycopodites may be comp>$ ) a conif]\s twig1 & ) "s ( ! l>g] ,liv]worts1 e4g4 species ( ,plagio*ila#def4 ,podoc>pus cupress9a is1 h[ev]1 *iefly in/ructive z an example ( ! /rik+ diff]5ces :i* are met ) among species ( ! same g5us2 x diff]s consid]ably f ! ord9>y species ( ,podoc>pus1 & might well be id5tifi$ z a memb] ( "s o!r gr\p ?an t ( ! ,conif]ae4 ,we h no records ( ,palaeozoic ,hepaticae4 ,! fossils :i* ,zeill] has figur$ 9 8 ,flore de ,brive z ,s*izopt]is di*otoma ,gmb4#deg & ,s4 tri*omanoides ,gpp4 be> a resemblance to "s =ms ( hepatics1 b !re is no satisfactory evid5ce = remov+ !m f ! position assign$ to !m by ! ,fr5* writ]4 ,9 ,mesozoic rocks a few specim5s are kn[n :i* be> a close resemblance z reg>ds ! =m ( ! ?alloid body to rec5t ,liv]worts1 b ! id5tification ( su* fossils _c be absolutely tru/$4 ,two ,fr5* au?ors1 ,,mm4 ,fli*e & ,blei*]#deh1 h describ$ a plant f ,l[] ,oolite rocks ne> ,nancy z a species ( ,m>*antia1 ,m4 ooli?us1 b !y po9t out ! close agreem5t ( su* =k$ lam9> /ructures to algae & li*5s4 ,f ,t]ti>y & ,po/-,t]ti>y b$s a c]ta9 numb] ( fossil species h be5 record$1 b !y possess no special botanical int]e/4 ,,ord] ,,m>*antiales4 ,! plant-body is always ?alloid1 be>+ rhizoids on ! l[] surface1 & hav+ an epid]mis ) pores limit+ ! upp] or dorsal surface4 ,m>*antites4 ,?is conv5i5t g5]ic "n 0 propos$ by ,brongni>t 9 #ahdidei2 x may be briefly def9$ z foll[s3 ,vegetative body ( lam9> =m1 ) app>5tly di*otom\s bran*es1 & agree+ 9 habit ) ! rec5t ?alloid ,hepaticae1 z repres5t$ by su* a g5us z ,m>*antia4 ,! "n ,m>*antites is pref]able to ,m>*antia1 z ! latt] implies id5tity ) ! rec5t g5us1 :]eas ! =m] is us$ 9 a wide s5se & ref]s r to a def9ite =m ( vegetative body ?an to a p>ticul> g5]ic type4 #a4 ,m>*antites erectus 7,leck5by74 ,fig4 #di4 ,?is species may be describ$ z foll[s3 ,! ?alloid body is divid$ into spread+ di*otom\sly bran*$ segm5ts1 obtusely po9t$ apically4 ,! slightly wr9kl$ surface %[s a di/9ct & comp>atively broad d>k] & %ort] m$ian b&1 ) light] col\r$ & ?9n] m>g9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,m>*antites erectus 7,leck474 ,f ! type-specim5 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum4 ,nat4 size4 ,9 #ahfd ,leck5by describ$ ?is plant f ! ,l[] ,oolite b$s ( ! ,york%ire coa/ ne> ,sc>bor\gh1 z ,fucoides erectus1 reg>d+ x z a fossil alga4 ,i rec5tly po9t$ out t ! g5]al appe>ance & mode ( occurr5ce ( ! specim5s sugge/ a liv]wort r ?an an alga1 & propos$ ! sub/itution ( ! g5us ,m>*antites#dfj4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be unwise to speak ) any great confid5ce z to ! real aff9ities ( ! fossil4 ,! example %[n 9 ! figure is ! type-specim5 ( ,leck5by#dfa3 ! bread? ( ! bran*es is ab\t #c mm4 ,"u a l[ magnify+ p[] ! surface %[s di/9ct & some:at oblique wr9kl+s1 ! g5]al appe>ance be+ v simil> to t ( "s rec5t =ms ( ! g5us ,m>*antia4 ,a closely alli$ species has rec5tly be5 describ$ f ! ,weald5 b$s ( ,ecclesb\rne1 ne> ,ha/+s1 on ! ,sussex coa/1 z ,m>*antites ,zeill]i ,sew4#dfb4 ,9 a rec5t monograph on ,jurassic plants f ,pol&1 app>5tly conta9+ mu* t is ( ! greate/ value1 b :i* is un=tunately writt5 9 ! ,poli% language1 ,raciborski#dfc describes a new species ( ?alloid ,liv]wort "u ! "n ( ,paleohepatica ,ro/af9ski4 ,! specim5s are b>r5 plants l>g] ?an any ,jurassic species hi!rto describ$2 !y agree closely 9 habit ) ,saporta's ,t]ti>y species ,m>*antites ,sezann5sis4 #b4 ,m>*antites ,sezann5sis ,saporta4 ,fig4 #ej4 ,! body is broadly l9e> & di*otom\sly bran*$1 ) a some:at undulat+ m>g94 ,midrib on ! dorsal surface depress$1 b m prom95t on ! v5tral surface4 ,! upp] surface is divid$ into hexagonal areas1 9 ea* ( :i* occurs a c5tral pore4 ,!re are two r[s ( scales along ! m$ian l9e on ! l[] surface4 ,/alk$ male receptacles4 ,brongni>t#dfd fir/ m5tion$ ?is fossil hepatic1 :i* 0 f\nd 9 ! calc>e\s trav]t9e ( ,szanne ( ,oligoc5e age 9 ! ,prov9ce ( ,m>ne4 ,! specim5s figur$ by ,saporta#dfe %[ v cle>ly ! *>act]s ( "o ( ! ,m>*antiaceae1 & 9 ?is case we h ! additional evid5ce ( ! *>act]i/ic male receptacles :i* are giv5 (f f a po9t t[>ds ! apex ( ! lobes1 & arise f a slight m$ian depression4 ,9 "o ( ,saporta's figures 7reproduc$ 9 fig4 #ej ,a7 !re are repres5t$ "s m$ian sc>s :i* may m>k ! position ( cups simil> to ^? :i* occur on rec5t species ( ,m>*antia1 & 9 :i* gemm or bulbils are produc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,m>*antites ,sezann5sis ,sap4 ,a4 ,surface view ( ! ?allus2 g1 8 cups ) gemm4 ,b4 ,a male bran*4 ,c4 ,a portion ( ,a magnifi$ to %[ ! surface features4 7,aft] ,saporta47 ,! collection ( ,szanne fossils 9 ! ,sorbonne includes "s v beautiful ca/s ( ,m>*antites 9 :i* ! /ructural details are pres]v$ mu* m p]fectly ?an 9 ! examples describ$ by ,saporta4 ,9 a few specim5s :i* ,pr(4 ,muni]-,*almas rec5tly %[$ me ! reproductive bran*es 7 exce$+ly well %[n4 ,! fossils occur z m\lds 9 ! trav]t9e1 & ! museum specim5s are 9 ! =m ( pla/]-ca/s tak5 f ! natural m\lds4 ,sev]al species ( ,liv]worts belong+ to ! ,m>*antiales & ,jung]manniales h be5 record$ f ! amb] ( ,nor? ,g]many1 ( ,oligoc5e age4 ,^! appe> to be repres5t$ by small fragm5ts1 su* z are figur$ by ,gpp]t & ,b]5dt#dff 9 _! monograph on ! amb] plants1 publi%$ 9 #ahde4 ,! det]m9ations h s9ce be5 revis$ by ,gotts*e#dfg1 :o recognises species ( ,frullania1 ,jung]mannia1 & o!r g5]a4 ,,sphagnales4 ,,ii4 ,,musci4 ,,&reaeales4 ,,bryales4 ,! plant-body 7gametophyte7 9 ! ,musci consi/s ( a /em be>+ ?9 leaves1 usually spirally dispos$1 r>ely 9 two r[s4 ,! int]nal diff]5tiation ( ! /em is g5]ally well m>k$1 & 9 "s cases is comp>able 9 complexity ) ! /ructure ( ! high] plants4 ,a protonema arises f ! spore1 hav+ ! =m ( a bran*$ filam5t\s1 or m r>ely a ?alloid /ructure4 ,reproduction z 9 ! gr\p ,bryophyta4 ,mosses l ,liv]worts h an extremely wide di/ribution1 & occur 9 v>i\s habitats4 ,9 _m di/ricts va/ tracts ( c\ntry are practically monopolis$ by peat-=m+ g5]a1 su* z ,sphagnum & o!r ,mosses4 ,"s g5]a are f\nd on rocks at high altitudes 9 dry regions1 a few gr[ z saprophytes1 & _m occur ei!r z epiphytes on ! leaves & /ems ( o!r plants1 or c>pet+ ! gr\nd "u ! %ade ( =e/ trees4 ,sid5ote3 ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,mosses4 ,9 ! simpl] ,mosses1 ! /em consi/s ( a p>5*ymat\s gr\nd-tissue ) a few out] lay]s ( ?ick]-wall$ & small] cells4 ,9 o!rs !re is a di/9ct c5tral cyl9d] :i* occupies ! axis ( ! /em1 & consi/s ( long & n>r[ cells2 9 ! m complex =ms ! /ructure ( ! axial tissues sugge/s ! c5tral cyl9d] or /ele ( high] plants4 ,! g5us ,polytri*um1 s abundant on ,engli% moors1 illu/rates ?is high] type ( /em diff]5tiation4 ,9 a transv]se section ( ! /em ! p]iph]al tissue is se5 to be compos$ ( ?ick-wall$ cells1 pass+ int]nally into l>ge p>5*ymat\s tissue4 ,! axial "p is occupi$ by a def9ite c5tral cyl9d] consi/+ 9 ! c5tre ( elongat$ elem5ts ) d>k-col\r$ & ?ick walls hav+ ?9 transv]se septa2 surr\nd+ ?is c5tral tissue !re are ?9n] wall$ elem5ts1 ( :i* "s closely agree 9 =m ) ! sieve-tubes ( ! high] plants4 ,! c5tral tissue may be reg>d$ z a rudim5t>y type ( xylem1 & ! surr\nd+ tissue z a rudim5t>y phloem4 ,ea* leaf is trav]s$ by a m$ian conduct+ /r& :i* passes into ! /em & ev5tually becomes connect$ ) ! axial cyl9d]4 ,! f]tilisation ( ! egg-cell gives rise to ! developm5t ( a long sl5d] /alk t]m9at+ di/ally 9 a l>ge spore-capsule4 ,9 section ! /alk or seta closely resembles ! leafy axis ( ! moss plant4 ,consid]+ ! fairly close approa* ( "s ( ! mosses to ! high] plants z reg>ds hi/ological *>act]s1 x is conceivable t imp]fectly petrifi$ /ems ( fossil mosses might be mi/ak5 = twigs ( ,vascul> ,cryptogams4 ,l ,liv]worts1 ,mosses h left v few traces ( _! exi/5ce 9 plant-be>+ rocks4 ,)\t ! aid ( ! *>act]i/ic moss-#8fruit' or sporogonium x is almo/ impossible to recognise fossil moss-plant fragm5ts4 ,9 species ( ! tropical g5]a ,spirid5s & ,dawsonia1 e4g4 ,s4 longifolius#dfh ,l9d4 or ,d4 sup]ba#dfi ,grev4 & ,d4 polytri*oides#dgj ,r4 ,br41 ! plant rea*es a consid]able l5g?1 & resembles twigs ( plants high] 9 ! scale ?an ! ,bryophytes4 ,! f9] bran*es ( species ( ! ext9ct g5us ,lepidod5dron are extremely moss-l 9 appe>ance4 ,aga91 ,cya?ophyllum bulbosum ,muell#dga1 ) its two k9ds ( leaves arrang$ 9 r[s1 is n at all unlike species ( ,selag9ella or ! hepatic g5us ,gotts*ea4 ,x is by no means improbable t "s ( ! ,palaeozoic specim5s describ$ z twigs ( ,lycopodites1 ,selag9ites1 or ,lepidod5dron1 may be portions ( mosses4 ,! f]tile bran*es ( ,lycopodium phlegm>ia 9 a fossil condition might be easily mi/ak5 = fragm5ts ( a moss4 ,9 "s conif]s ) small & cr[d$ scale-leaves !re is a c]ta9 resemblance to ! /\t] =ms ( moss /ems4 ,su* possible s\rces ( error %\ld be prom95tly kept 9 view :5 we are consid]+ ! value ( negative evid5ce z reg>ds ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,musci4 ,a rec5t writ]#dgb on mosses has express$ ! op9ion t no d\bt ! ,musci play$ an exce$+ly important rle 9 pa/ "t4 ,al?\gh we h no pro( t ?is 0 s1 yet x is f> f improbable1 & ! abs5ce ( fossil mosses mu/ no d\bt be attribut$ 9 "p to _! failure to be pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate4 ,9 ! num]\s samples ( ,coal-,measure vegetation pres]v$ 9 extraord9>y p]fection 9 ! calc>e\s nodules ( ,engl&1 no c]ta9 trace ( a moss has s f> be5 discov]$4 ,! mo/ delicate tissue 9 ! l>g] ,palaeozoic plants has (t5 be5 pres]v$1 & 9 view ( su* possibilities ( petrifaction x might appe> /range t if moss-l plants exi/$ no fragm5ts _h be5 pres]v$4 ,_! abs5ce is1 h[ev]1 no pro( ( ! non-exi/5ce ( ,palaeozoic mosses1 b x is a fact :i* c]ta9ly t5ds t[>ds ! assumption t mosses 7 probably n v abundant 9 ! ,coal ,p]iod =e/s4 ,epiphytic mosses frequ5tly occur on ! /ems & leaves ( f]ns & o!r plants 9 tropical =e/s4 ,su* small & comp>atively delicate plants w\ld1 h[ev]1 be easily rubb$ (f or de/roy$ 9 ! process ( fossilisation1 & x is extremely r>e to f9d among petrifi$ ,palaeozoic plants ! ext]nal features well pres]v$4 ,x is probable t ! =e/s ext5d$ ov] l[ ly+ & swampy regions1 & t1 9 "p1 ! trees 7 root$ 9 a subm]g$ surface4 ,"u su* conditions ( gr[? !re w\ld n be ! same abundance ( ,bryophytes z 9 mo/ ( our mod]n =e/s4 ,to :atev] cause ! abs5ce ( mosses may be be/ attribut$1 x is a fact t %\ld n be too /rongly emphasis$ 9 discussions on plant-evolution4 ,muscites4 ,?is compreh5sive g5us may be def9$ z foll[s3-- ,/em fili=m1 simple or bran*$1 be>+ small sessile leaves1 ) a delicate lam9a1 )\t ve9s or ) a s+le m$ian ve91 arrang$ 9 a spiral mann] on ! /em4 ,muscites#dgc is "o ( ^? conv5i5t g5]ic designations :i* limit$ k & incomplete data r5d] necess>y 9 palaeontology4 ,fossil plants :i* 9 _! g5]al habit be> a suffici5tly /rik+ resemblance to rec5t mosses1 may be includ$ "u ?is g5]ic "n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,muscites polytri*aceus ,r54 & ,zeill4 7aft] ,r5ault & ,zeill]74 #a4 ,muscites polytri*aceus ,r5ault & ,zeill]4 ,9 ?is species ! /ems are ab\t #c-d cm4 long & #ac m4 broad1 usually simple1 b sometimes giv+ (f a few bran*es1 & m>k$ ext]nally by v delicate longitud9al grooves4 ,! leaves are alt]nate1 closely arrang$1 lanceolate1 ) an acute apex1 gradually n>r[$ t[>ds ! base1 #a-b mm4 long1 trav]s$ by a s+le m$ian ve94 ,"o ( ! ,fr5* specim5s1 on :i* ! species 0 f\nd$#dgd1 is %[n 9 fig4 #ea1 & ! =m ( ! leaves is m cle>ly se5 9 ! small enl>g$ piece ( /em4 ,! au?ors ( ! species po9t out t ! tuft$ habit ( ! specim5s1 _! small size1 & ! membran\s "* ( ! leaves1 all po9t to ! ,musci z ! ,class to :i* ! plant %\ld be ref]r$ 9 spite ( ! abs5ce ( reproductive organs4 ,among rec5t mosses1 ! g5us ,rhizogonium1--"o ( ! ,mniaceae1--& ,polytri*um are spok5 ( z (f]+ a close resemblance to ! fossil =m4 ,! type-specim5 0 f\nd 9 ! ,coal-,measures ( ,comm5try1 & is n[ 9 ! ,museum ( ! cole des ,m9es 9 ,p>is2 ! figure giv5 by ,,mm4 ,r5ault & ,zeill] fai?fully repres5ts ! appe>ance ( ! plant4 ,x has be5 sugge/$#dge t "s small twigs figur$ by ,lesqu]eux#dgf f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,nor? ,am]ica z ,lycopodites ,meeki ,lesq41 may possibly be mosses4 ,! specim5s d n appe> to be at all conv9c+1 & _c well be includ$ z probable repres5tatives ( ,palaeozoic ,musci4 ,lycopodites ,meeki ,lesq4 be>s a close resemblance to ! rec5t ,selag9ella ,oregana %[n 9 fig4 #dh1 ,c4 ,f ,mesozoic rocks we h no absolutely tru/wor?y fossil mosses4 ,! late ,pr(4 ,he]#dgg has quot$ ! occurr5ce ( c]ta9 fossil ,cat]pill>s 9 ,liassic b$s z indicative ( ! exi/5ce ( mosses1 b evid5ce ( ?is k9d _c be accept$ z sci5tifically s\nd4 ,9 #ahej ,buckman#dgh describ$ & figur$ a few fragm5ts ( plants f a fre%wat] lime/one at ! base ( ! ,lias s]ies ne> ,bri/ol4 ,among o!rs he describ$ c]ta9 specim5s z examples ( a fossil ,monocotyl$on1 "u ! g5]ic "n ,najadita4 ,mr ,/>kie ,g>dn]#dgi subsequ5tly exam9$ ! specim5s1 & sugge/$ t ! ,lias fragm5ts ref]r$ to ,najadita %\ld be comp>$ ) ! rec5t fre%wat] moss ,font9alis4 ,9 ?is op9ion he 0 support$ by ,mr ,c>ru!rs & ,mr ,murray ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,9 a footnote to ! memoir 9 :i* ?is sugge/ion is made1 ,g>dn] ref]s to a moss-capsule f ! same b$s1 :i* he _h receiv$ f ,mr ,brodie4 ,?r\gh ! k9dness ( ! latt] g5tleman1 ,i h _h an opportunity ( exam9+ ! suppos$ capsule1 & h no hesitation 9 describ+ x z absolutely indet]m9able4 ,x is 9 ! =m ( an irregul>ly oval br[n /a9 on ! surface ( ! rock1 ) ! sugge/ion ( a /alk at "o end1 b !re are no gr\nds = describ+ ! specim5 z a moss-capsule1 or inde$ any?+ else4 ,! type-specim5s figur$ by ,brodie & subsequ5tly ref]r$ to a moss are n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum2 !y are small & imp]fect fragm5ts ( sl5d] /ems be>+ r long oval leaves :i* might well h belong$ to a moss4 ,! mat]ial is h[ev] too fragm5t>y to all[ ( accurate diagnosis or det]m9ation4 #b4 ,muscites f]rug9eus 7,ludg474 ,?is species possesses a sl5d] /em be>+ cr[d$ ovate-acum9ate leaves4 ,! capsules are cup-%ap$1 borne on a %ort /alk1 ) a circul> op5+ )\t m>g9al tee?4 ,?is fossil 0 fir/ figur$ & describ$ by ,ludwig#dhj f a br[n iron/one ( ,mioc5e age at ,d]nba* 9 ,nassau4 ,! au?or ( ! species plac$ x 9 ! rec5t g5us ,gymno/omum1 & ,s*imp]#dha aft]w>ds *ang$ ! g5]ic "n to ,sphagnum1 at ! same "t alt]+ ! specific "n to ,ludwigi4 ,! evid5ce is h>dly /rong en\gh to ju/ify a g5]ic designation :i* implies id5tity ) a p>ticul> rec5t g5us1 & x is a mu* saf] plan to adopt ! non-committal t]m ,muscites1 at ! same "t reta9+ ,ludwig's orig9al specific "n4 ,)\t hav+ exam9$ ! type-specim5 x is impossible to express a def9ite op9ion z to ! accuracy ( ! description giv5 by ,ludwig2 if ! capsule is correctly id5tifi$ x is ! olde/ example hi!rto record$ ( a fossil moss-sporogonium4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,pt]idophyta 7,vascul> ,cryptogams74 ,! ,pt]idophytes include plants :i* v>y 9 size f a few millimetres#dhb to sev]al metres 9 height4 ,! spore on g]m9ation gives rise to a small ?alloid /ructure1 ! pro?allium1 on :i* ! sexual organs are develop$2 ?is is ! gametophyte or sexual g5]ation4 ,! sexual organs h ! =m ( typical ar*egonia & an!ridia4 ,f ! f]tilis$ egg-cell !re is develop$ ! ,pt]idophyte plant or sporophyte1 :i* be>s ! spores4 ,?is asexual g5]ation %[s a well-m>k$ ext]nal diff]5tiation into /em & leaves1 & be>s true roots4 ,int]nally ! tissues exhibit a high degree ( diff]5tiation into di/9ct tissue-sy/ems4 ,true vascul> bundles occur1 :i* may or may n be capable ( second>y ?ick5+ by means ( a cambium1 i4e4 a def9itely localis$ zone ( m]i/ematic tissue4 ,! sporangia are borne ei!r on ! ord9>y foliage leaves or on special spore-be>+ leaves call$ sporophylls1 :i* diff] 9 a great] or less degree f ! /]ile leaves4 ,! majority ( ! be/ kn[n & mo/ important ,palaeozoic g5]a are ei!r true ,vascul> ,cryptogams1 or possess c]ta9 ( ! pt]idophytic *>act]i/ics comb9$ ) ^? ( high] plants4 ,x is n m]ely ! common] & m famili> rec5t g5]a ) :i* ! /ud5t ( ext9ct types mu/ be acqua9t$1 b x is extremely important t he %\ld make himself famili> ) ! r>]1 less kn[n & m isolat$ rec5t =ms1 :i* (t5 ?r[ mo/ light on ! aff9ities ( ! old] repres5tatives ( ! gr\p4 ,x is (t5 ! case1 ! m isolat$ liv+ plants are1 ! m likely are !y to af=d valuable assi/ance 9 ! int]pretation ( g5]a repres5t+ a class1 :i* rea*$ its maximum developm5t 9 ! e>li] p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,! importance ( pay+ special att5tion to su* rec5t plants z may be look$ ^u z survivals ( a class n[ t5d+ t[>ds ext9ction1 w be m ?or\ghly realis$ aft] ! ext9ct vascul> cryptogams h be5 dealt )4 ,a comp>ison ( ! ,pt]idophyta & ,bryophyta br+s out c]ta9 po9ts ( div]g5ce4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! sporophyte assumes 9 ! =m] class a mu* m prom95t rle1 & ! gametophyte has suff]$ v consid]able r$uction4 ,! gametophyte1 i4e4 ! /ructure :i* is =m$ on ! g]m9ation ( ! asexually-produc$ spore1 is usually %ort-liv$1 small1 & m or less dep5d5t on ! sporophyte = its nutrition4 ,9 a few cases only is x capable ( provid+ itself ) ! ess5tial elem5ts ( food4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! sporophyte1 at a v e>ly /age ( its developm5t becomes free f ! gametophyte & is entirely self-support+4 ,reproduction is effect$ z 9 ! ,bryophyta by sexual reproductive organs & by asexual me?ods4 ,n only h we 9 ! ,pt]idophytes a mu* m complete ext]nal division ( ! plant-body into def9ite memb]s1 :i* subs]ve di/9ct functions1 & behave z well-def9$ physiological organs adapt$ = tak+ a c]ta9 %>e 9 ! life-functions ( ! individual1 b ! int]nal diff]5tiation has rea*$ a mu* high] /age4 ,true vascul> tissue1 consi/+ ( xylem & phloem1 occurs = ! fir/ "t 9 ?is class4 ,! :ole plant is trav]s$ by "o or m vascul> /r&s compos$ ( xylem & phloem elem5ts1 :i* are respectively conc]n$ ) ! di/ribution ( inorganic & organic food sub/ances4 ,! ,pt]idophyta include ! mo/ important fossil plants4 ,x is f a /udy ( ! int]nal /ructure ( v>i\s ext9ct repres5tatives ( ?is class1 t palaeobotani/s h be5 able to contribute facts ( ! greate/ int]e/ & importance t[>ds ! advancem5t ( botanical sci5ce4 ,! botani/'s *ief aim 9 ! anatomical inve/igation ( ,palaeozoic g5]a is to discov] data :i* po9t ! way to a solution ( ! problems ( plant-evolution4 ,9 ! abundant mat]ial af=d$ by ! petrifi$ remnants ( anci5t floras we h ! means ( trac+ ! pa/ hi/ory ( exi/+ gr\ps or individual =ms1 & x is f ! ,palaeozoic ,pt]idophytes t our mo/ valuable results h be5 s f> obta9$4 ,9 ?is & ! foll[+ *apt]s ( ,volume ,i4 two divisions ( ! ,pt]idophyta are dealt ) 9 su* detail z ! nature ( ! book all[s4 ,9 ! e>li] *apt]s ( ,volume ,,ii4 ! rema9+ repres5tatives ( ?is class w be describ$4 ,z 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s su* rec5t plants w be describ$ z are mo/ ess5tial = ! correct int]pretation ( ! fossil =ms4 ,x is impossible to d m ?an conf9e our att5tion to a few only ( ! g5]a ( liv+ plants :i* directly conc]n u2 "s acqua9tance ) ! g5]al facts ( plant morphology mu/ be assum$4 ,among ! mo/ useful text-books or books ( ref]5ce on ! ,pt]idophyta ! /ud5t may consult ^? m5tion$ 9 ! footnote#dhc4 ,i4 ,,equisetales4 ,leaves usually small 9 proportion to ! size ( ! :ole plant1 arrang$ 9 :orls at ! nodes4 ,sporangia borne on specially modifi$ sporophylls or sporangiophores1 :i* are aggregat$ to =m a def9ite /robilus or spore-be>+ cone4 ,,equisetaceae4 7,rec5t ,species47 ,! leaves are 9 :orls1 coh]5t 9 ! =m ( a %ea?1 & trav]s$ by longitud9al ve9s :i* d n =k or ana/omose4 ,! /em is divid$ into comp>atively long int]nodes sep>at$ by ! leaf-be>+ nodes1 & ! bran*es arise 9 ! leaf-axils at ! nodes4 ,! f]tile leaves or sporophylls diff] f ! /]ile leaves1 & usually occur 9 def9ite aggregations or /robili conta9+ spores ( "o k9d 7isospor\s74 ,9 ! s+le liv+ g5us ,equisetum1 ! out] coat ( ! mature spore =ms two hygroscopically s5sitive filam5t\s /ructures or elat]s4 ,on ! g]m9ation ( ! spore ! gametophyte is develop$ 9 ! =m ( a small lob$ pro?allium #a-b cm4 9 l5g?4 ,9 mo/ cases !re are di/9ct male & female pro?allia4 ,! g5us ,equisetum ,l41 ! common ,horse-tail1 is ! sole liv+ repres5tative ( ?is ,family4 ,x occurs z a common native plant 9 ,brita91 & has a wide geographical di/ribution4 ,species ( ,equisetum are abundant 9 ! temp]ate zones ( bo? hemisph]es1 & occur 9 arctic z well z tropical latitudes4 ,wallace#dhd speaks ( ,horse-tails1 8v l our own species10 gr[+ at a height ( #ejjj feet on ! ,pang]ango m\nta9 9 ,java4 ,9 fav\rable situations ! l>ge ,briti% ,horse-tail1 ,equisetum maximum ,lam4 7 ,e4 ,telmateia ,erhb471 occasionally rea*es a height ( ab\t six feet1 & gr[+ 9 ?ick clu/]s =ms m9iature =e/s ( trees ) sl5d] erect /ems & regul> circles ( long & ?9 bran*es4 ,a tropical species1 ,equisetum giganteum ,l9n4#b liv+ 9 ! m>%es ( ,mexico & ,cuba#dhe1 & ext5d+ s\?w>d to ,bu5os ,ayres & ,*ili1 rea*es a height ( tw5ty to =ty feet1 b ! /em always rema9s sl5d]1 & does n exce$ an in* 9 diamet]4 ,groves ( su* tall sl5d] plants on ! ea/]n slopes ( ! ,&es#dhf sugge/ to ! palaeobotani/ an enfeebl$ =e/-gr[? recall+ ! arboresc5t ,calamites ( a ,palaeozoic vegetation4 ,! tw5ty-five exi/+ species ( ,equisetum are remnants ( v>i\s g5]ic types ( =m] epo*s1 & possess a special int]e/ f ! po9t ( view ( ! geological hi/ory ( plants4 ,a brief description ( ! ma9 *>act]s ( ! rec5t g5us w enable ! /ud5t to appreciate ! po9ts ( diff]5ce & agreem5t betwe5 ! ext9ct & pres5t repres5tatives ( ! ,equisetales4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,equisetum maximum ,lam4 ,a4 ,f]tile %oot ) /robilus & /]ile leaf-%ea?s aft] ,lu]ss5 7#hi72 slightly less ?an nat4 size4 ,b4 ,sporophyll be>+ op5 sporangia 7aft] ,lu]ss52 slightly enl>g$74 ,c4 ,"p ( a transv]se section 7diagrammatic72 v1 vallecul> canals1 e1 endod]mis1 c1 c>9al canals 7aft] ,lu]ss52 #bj74 ,d4 ,equisetum arv5se ,l4 ,"p ( a transv]se section ( an int]node ( a /]ile %oot4 v1 cortex1 e1 endod]mis1 x1 xylem tra*eids1 a rema9s ( annul> tra*eids ( ! protoxylem1 c1 c>9al canal 7aft] ,/rasburg]2 #ij74 ,equisetum4 ,! plant consi/s ( a p]5nial und]gr\nd creep+ rhizome1 bran*+ into second>y rhizomes1 divid$ into well-m>k$ nodes & int]nodes4 ,f ! nodes are giv5 (f two sets ( buds1 :i* may develope into asc5d+ a]ial %oots or desc5d+ roots4 ,at ea* node is a leaf-%ea? m or less deeply divid$ along ! upp] m>g9 into tee? repres5t+ ! tips ( coh]5t leaves 7fig4 #eb1 ,a74 ,9 "s species "o or m int]nodes ( und]gr\nd bran*es become consid]ably swoll5 & assume ! =m ( ovate or elliptical />*-/or+ tub]s1 :i* are capable ( giv+ rise to new plants by vegetative reproduction4 ,tub]s1 ei!r s+ly or 9 *a9s1 occur 9 ,e4 arv5se ,l9n41 ,e4 sylvaticum ,l9n41 ,e4 maximum ,lam41 among ,briti% species4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,rhizome 7,r7 ( ,equisetum palu/re ,l4 ) a ?9 %oot giv+ (f roots & tub]\s bran*es f a node aft] ,duval-,j\ve 7#fd74 ,9 ! example %[n 9 fig4 #ec 7,equisetum palu/re ,l4#dhg7 ! /\t rhizome ,r gives (f f its node1 m>k$ by a small & irregul> leaf-%ea?1 two ?9 roots & a s+le %oot4 ,! latt] has a leaf-%ea? at its base1 & f ! second node1 ) a l>g] leaf-%ea?1 !re h be5 develop$ bran*es ) tub]\s int]nodes2 ! con/rictions betwe5 ! tub]s & ! tips ( ! t]m9al tub]s be> small leaf-%ea?s4 ,bran*$ roots are also giv5 (f f ! upp] node ( ! erect %oot4 ,ne> ! surface ( ! gr\nd ! buds on ! rhizome nodes develope into gre5 erect %oots4 ,! %oot axis is m>k$ out into long int]nodes sep>at$ by nodes be>+ ! leaf-%ea?s4 ,! surface ( ea* int]node is trav]s$ by regul> & m or less prom95t longitud9al ridges & grooves2 ea* ridge m>k+ ! position ( an int]nal longitud9al vascul> /r&4 ,9 ! axil ( ea* leaf1 t is 9 ! axil ( ea* portion ( a leaf-%ea? correspond+ to a m>g9al uni-n]v$ too?1 !re is produc$ a lat]al bud :i* may ei!r rema9 dormant or break ?r\gh ! leaf-%ea? & em]ge z a lat]al bran*4 ,at ! base ( ea* bran* an adv5titi\s root may be =m$ f a cell imm$iately bel[ ! fir/ leaf-%ea?1 b 9 a]ial %oots ! roots usually rema9 undevelop$4 ,! lat]al bran*es repeat on a small] scale ! g5]al features ( ! ma9 axis4 ,9 "s species1 ! %oots are unbran*$1 & 9 o!rs ! sl5d] bran*es arise 9 cr[d$ :orls f ea* node4 ,leaves1 roots & bran*es are giv5 (f 9 :orls1 & ! :orls f ea* node alt]nate ) ^? f ! node next above & next bel[4 ,sid5ote3 ,,anatomy ,,( ,,equisetum4 ,9 "s species ( ,equisetum ! a]ial /em t]m9ates 9 a conical gr\p ( sporophylls1 :ile 9 o!rs ! /robilus is =m$ at ! apex ( a pale-col\r$ f]tile %oot1 :i* nev] atta9s any consid]able l5g? & dies d[n e>ly 9 ! season ( gr[? 7fig4 #eb1 ,a74 ,bel[ ! t]m9al cone or /robilus !re occur "o or two modifi$ leaf-%ea?s4 ,su* a r+ ( incompletely develop$ leaves int]v5+ betwe5 ! cone ( sporangiophores & ! normal leaves1 is kn[n z ! annulus4 ,! annulus is se5 9 fig4 #eb1 ,a1 imm$iately bel[ ! l[e/ :orl ( sporophylls2 x has ! =m ( a l[ %ea? ) a ragg$ m>g94 ,9 ! region ( ! cone ! int]nodes rema9 %ort]1 & ! :orls ( app5dages1 kn[n z sporophylls or sporangiophores1 h ! =m ( /alk$ /ructures t]m9at+ di/ally 9 a hexagonal peltate disc1 :i* be>s on its inn] face a r+ ( five to t5 oval sporangia 7fig4 #eb1 ,b74 ,ea* sporangium conta9s num]\s spores :i* ev5tually escape by ! longitud9al dehisc5ce ( ! sporangial wall4 ,! op5+ ( ! sporangia is probably assi/$ by ! movem5ts ( ! *>act]i/ic elat]s =m$ f ! out] wall ( ea* spore4 ,! spores1 :i* are capable ( liv+ only a %ort "t1 gr[ into a]ial gre5 pro?allia1 #a-b cm4 9 l5g?2 ^! h ! =m ( irregul>ly & m or less deeply lob$ /ructures4 ,on ! l>g] & m deeply lob$ pro?allia ! ar*egonia or female reproductive organs are borne1 & ! small] or male pro?allia be> ! an!ridia4 ,on ! f]tilisation ( an egg-cell1 ! ,equisetum plant is gradually develop$4 ,= a %ort "t p>asitic on ! female pro?allium or gametophyte1 ! "y plant soon takes root 9 ! gr\nd & becomes completely indep5d5t4 ,z se5 9 transv]se section ?r\gh a "y /em ne> ! apex1 ! axis consi/s ( a mass ( p>5*yma1 9 :i* may be di/+ui%$ a c5tral l>g]-cell$ tissue1 surr\nd$ by a r+ ( small]-cell$ gr\ps m>k+ ! position ( a circle ( embryonic vascul> /r&s4 ,9 ea* "y vascul> /r&1 a few ( ! cells next ! pi? may be se5 to h ?ick] walls & to be provid$ ) a r+-l int]nal ?ick5+2 ^! h pass$ ov] into ! condition ( annul> tra*eids & repres5t ! protoxylem elem5ts4 ,at a lat] /age1 a transv]se section ?r\gh ! /em %[s a c5tral holl[ pi?1 =m$ by ! te>+ ap>t & subsequ5t disappe>ance ( ! m$ull>y p>5*ymat\s cells1 :i* 7 unable to keep pace ) ! gr[? 9 ?ickness ( ! /em4 ,! pi? cavity is bridg$ across at ea* node by a multi-lay]$ plate ( p>5*yma1 :i* =ms ! s-call$ nodal diaphragm4 ,! inn] edge ( ea* vascul> /r& is n[ f\nd to be occupi$ by a small irregul>ly circul> canal 7fig4 #eb1 ,c1 c1 & ,d1 c7 9 :i* may be se5 "s ( ! r+s ( protoxylem tra*eids 7,d1 a7 :i* h be5 torn ap>t & almo/ completely de/roy$4 ,^! canals1 kn[n z c>9al canals1 h aris5 by ! te>+ & disruption ( ! ?9-wall$ cells 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ! protoxylem4 ,ea* c>9al canal is b\nd$ by a lay] ( elongat$ p>5*ymat\s cells :i* =m "p ( ! xylem ( ! vascul> bundle1 & is succe$$ int]nally by ! g5]al gr\nd-tissue ( ! /em4 ,! xylem p>5*yma next a c>9al canal is succe$$ ext]nally by phloem tissue1 consi/+ ( %ort protoplasmic cells & long] elem5ts1 )\t nuclei & poor 9 cont5ts2 ! latt] may be reg>d$ z sieve-tubes4 ,on ei!r side ( ! phloem1 ! xylem occurs 9 two sep>ate b&s or gr\ps ( annul> & reticulately ?ick5$ tra*eids4 ,9 "s species1 e4g4 ,equisetum xylo*aetum ,mett54#dhh & ,e4 giganteum#dhi ,l4 a native ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! xylem has ! =m ( two b&s compos$ ( fairly num]\s tra*eids1 b 9 mo/ species ! xylem tra*eids occur 9 small gr\ps1 z %[n 9 ! figure ( ,e4 maximum 7fig4 #eb1 ,d74 ,9 ! %ape ( ! vascul> bundle1 & 9 ! =mation ( ! c>9al canal1 !re is a di/9ct resemblance betwe5 ! vascul> bundles ( ,equisetum & ^? ( a monocotyl$on\s /em4 ,^! collat]al /em-bundles ( xylem & phloem trav]se ea* int]node z di/9ct /r&s1 & at ! nodes ea* /r& =ks into two bran*es 7fig4 #ed1 ,a71 :i* ana/omose ) ! alt]nat+ bundles pass+ into ! /em f ! leaf-%ea?4 ,?us ! vascul> /r&s ( ea* int]node alt]nate 9 position ) ^? ( ! next int]node4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,a4 ,plan ( ! vascul> bundles 9 ! /em ( an ,equisetum2 b1 bran*es pass+ out to buds 7aft] ,/rasburg]72 l1 vascul> /r&s pass+ to ! leaf-segm5ts4 ,b4 ,longitud9al section ?r\gh a node ( ,e4 arv5se ,l4 7aft] ,duval-,j\ve2 #bj74 ,explanation 9 ! text4 ,!re are c]ta9 po9ts connect$ ) ! vascul> bundles 9 ! nodal region ( a %oot1 :i* h an important be>+ on ! /ructure ( fossil equisetace\s /ems4 ,fig4 #ed ,b repres5ts a diagrammatic longitud9al section ?r\gh ! node ( a rhizome ( ,equisetum arv5se f :i* a root h is pass+ (f 9 a d[nw>d direction1 & a bran* 9 an upw>d direction4 ,! black b& c 9 ! p>5t /em %[s ! position ( ! vascul> /r&s2 9 ! region ( ! node ! vascul> tissue atta9s a consid]able ?ickness1 z se5 at d 9 ! figure4 ,! b&s pass+ out to ! left f d g to supply ! bran* & root respectively4 ,! increas$ bread? ( ! xylem /r&s at ! node is due to ! int]calation ( a numb] ( %ort tra*eids4 ,fig4 #ee1 #d %[s a transv]se section ?r\gh a mature node ( ,equisetum maximum2 px m>ks ! position ( ! protoxylem & e t ( ! endod]mis4 ,on comp>+ ?is section ) t ( ! int]nodal vascul> bundle 9 fig4 #eb1 ,d1 ! mu* great] developm5t ( wood 9 ! =m] is obvi\s2 ! c>9al canal ( ! int]nodal bundle is abs5t 9 ! section ?r\gh a node4 ,! disposition ( ! xylem tra*eids 9 fig4 #ee1 #d %[s a c]ta9 regul>ity :i*1 ?\gh n v well m>k$1 sugge/s ! developm5t ( wood elem5ts z ! result ( cambial activity4 ,longitud9al sections ?r\gh ! nodal region demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( 8cells simil> to ^? ( an ord9>y cambium1 & a cell-=mation result+ f _! division :i* is simil> to t 9 an ord9>y second>y ?ick5+40#dij ,! %ort tra*eids :i* make up ?is nodal mass ( xylem diff] f ^? 9 ! int]nodal bundle 9 _! small] size1 & 9 be+ reticulately ?ick5$4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 evid5ce t 9 ! nodes ( "s ,equisetum /ems additional xylem elem5ts are produc$ by a me?od ( gr[? comp>able ) ! cambial activity :i* br+s ab\t ! gr[? 9 ?ickness ( a =e/-tree#dia4 ,! significance ( ^! /atem5ts w be realis$ :5 ! /ructure ( ! ext9ct g5us ,calamites is describ$ & comp>$ ) t ( ,equisetum4 ,! small draw+ 9 fig4 #ee1 #c %[s "p ( ! r+ ( ?ick nodal wood2 ! section cuts ?r\gh two bundles ab\t _! po9t ( bifurcation1 ! /r& x is pass+ out 9 a radial direction to a lat]al bran*1 ! /r& to ! "r ( x & ! sep>ate fragm5t ( a /r& to ! left ( x are portions ( leaf-trace bundles on _! way to ! leaf-%ea?4 ,rev]t+ to fig4 #ed1 ,b1 ! o!r /ructures se5 9 ! section are ! leaf-%ea?s 7l & m71 ! vallecul> canal 7f71 ! epid]mis1 cortex & pi? 7k1 e & a7 ( ! /em4 ,! epid]mis :i* has be5 ruptur$ by ! root & bran* is indicat$ at i1 i2 ! dott$ l9es trav]s+ ! upp] "p ( ! pi? ( ! lat]al bran* m>k ! position ( a nodal diaphragm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 #a4 ,transv]se section ( a root ( ,equisetum v>iegatum ,s*l41 e endod]mis1 or out] lay] ( ! phloeot]ma 7aft] ,pfitz]2 #afj74 #b4 ,transv]se section ( rhizome ( ,e4 maximum1 slightly enl>g$4 #c4 ,transv]se section ?r\gh a node ( ,e4 maximum1 x1 bran* ( vascul> /r& 7slightly enl>g$74 #d4 ,transv]se section ?r\gh a node ( ,e4 maximum %[+ ! mass ( xylem1 px protoxylem 7 #age74 7,figs4 #c & #d aft] ,cormack47 ,imm$iately ext]nal to ea* vascul> /r&1 z se5 9 transv]se section1 !re is a lay] ( cells conta9+ />*1 & ?is is foll[$ by a di/9ct endod]mis1 ( :i* ! cells %[ ! *>act]i/ic black dot 9 ! cuticul>is$ radial walls 7fig4 #eb1 ,d74 ,beyond ! endod]mis !re is ! l>ge-cell$ p>5*yma ( ! re/ ( ! cortex4 ,tann9 cells occur "h & !re scatt]$ among ! gr\nd tissue4 ,on ! same radius on :i* ea* vascul> /r& occurs1 ! cortical p>5*yma passes into a mass ( sub-epid]mal ?ick-wall$ me*anical tissue or /]eome4 ,alt]nat+ ) ! ridges ( /]eome1 ! grooves are occupi$ by ?9-wall$ *lorophyll-conta9+ tissue :i* c>ries on mo/ ( ! assimilat+ functions1 & communicates ) ! ext]nal atmosph]e by means ( /omata arrang$ 9 v]tical r[s d[n ea* int]node4 ,! cont9uity ( ! cortical tissue is int]rupt$ by ! occurr5ce ( l>ge longitud9al vallecul> canals alt]nat+ 9 position ) ! /em ridges & vascul> /r&s 7fig4 #eb1 ,c1 v74 ,! epid]mis consi/s ( a s+le lay] ( cells1 conta9+ /omata1 & ) ! out] cell-walls impregnat$ ) silica4 ,9 c]ta9 species ( ,equisetum1 e4g4 ,e4 palu/re ,l41 ! :ole circle ( vascul> /r&s is enclos$ by an endod]mis1 & has ! /ructure typical ( a mono/elic /em4 ,9 o!rs e4g4 ,e4 litorale ,khl4 ea* vascul> /r& is surr\nd$ by a sep>ate endod]mis1 & 9 "s =ms e4g4 ,e4 sylvaticum ,l4 !re is an inn] z well z an out] endod]mal lay]#dib4 ,)\t discuss+ ! explanation giv5 to ?is v>iation 9 ! occurr5ce ( ! endod]mis1 x may be /at$ t 9 all species ( ,equisetum ! /em may be reg>d$ z mono/elic#dic4 ,9 ! rhizome ! /ructure agrees 9 ! ma9 ) t ( ! gre5 %oots1 b ! vallecul> canals atta9 a l>g] size1 & ! pi? is solid4 ,a slightly enl>g$ transv]se section ( a rhizome ( ,equisetum maximum is %[n 9 fig4 #ee1 #b1 ! small circles surr\nd+ ! pi? m>k ! position ( ! vascul> bundles & c>9al canals2 ! mu* l>g] spaces betwe5 ! c5tral cyl9d] & ! surface ( ! /em are ! vallecul> canals4 ,! c5tral cyl9d] or /ele ( ! root is ( ! di>*1 tri>* or tetr>* type2 i4e4 !re may be #b1 #c or #d gr\ps ( protoxylem 9 ! xylem ( ! root /ele4 ,! axial portion is occupi$ by l>ge tra*eids1 & ! small] tra*eids ( ! xylem occur z radially dispos$ gr\ps1 alt]nat+ ) gr\ps ( phloem4 ,ext]nal to ! xylem & phloem /r&s !re occur two lay]s ( cells1 usually spok5 ( z a d\ble endod]mis1 b x has be5 sugge/$ t x is pref]able to describe ! d\ble lay] z ! phloeot]ma#did1 ( :i* ! inn] lay] has ! functions ( a p]icycle1 & ! out] t ( an endod]mis4 ,a transv]se section ( a root is se5 9 fig4 #ee1 #a1 ! d>k cells on ! left are "p ( a ?ick b& ( scl]5*yma 9 ! cortex ( ! root1 ! lay] e is ! out] lay] ( ! phloeot]ma4 ,)\t describ+ 9 detail ! developm5t#die ( ! sporangia1 x %\ld be not$ t ! sporangial wall is at fir/ #c to #d cells ?ick1 b x ev5tually consi/s ( a s+le lay]4 ,! cells h spiral ?ick5+ b&s on ! v5tral surface1 & r+s on ! cells :]e ! longitud9al splitt+ takes place4 ,ea* sporangium is suppli$ by a vascul> bundle :i* is giv5 (f f t ( ! sporangiophore axis4 ,! /robili are isospor\s4 ,a4 ,,equisetites4 ,b4 ,,phyllo!ca4 ,,ii4 ,,fossil ,,equisetales4 ,c4 ,,s*izoneura4 ,d4 ,,calamites4 ,e4 ,,ar*aeocalamites4 ,9 deal+ ) ! fossil ,equisetales1 we w fir/ consid] ! g5]a ,equisetites1 ,phyllo!ca & ,s*izoneura1 & aft]w>ds describe ! old] & bett] kn[n g5]a ,calamites & ,ar*aeocalamites4 ,a ?or\ghly satisfactory classification ( ! memb]s ( ! ,equisetales is practically impossible )\t m data ?an we at pres5t possess4 ,x has be5 ! cu/om to include ,equisetites1 ,phyllo!ca & ,s*izoneura 9 ! family ,equisetaceae1 & to ref] ,calamites & ,ar*aeocalamites to ! ,calam>ieae2 su* a division re/s 9 "p on assumption1 & _c be consid]$ f9al4 ,:5 we attempt to def9e ! ,equisetales & ! two families ,equisetaceae & ,calam>ieae1 we f9d ourselves s]i\sly hamp]$ by lack ( k ( c]ta9 important *>act]s1 :i* %\ld be tak5 into acc\nt 9 fram+ diagnoses4 ,!re is little h>m 9 reta9+ provisionally ! two families already ref]r$ to1 if we d n all[ a purely arbitr>y classification to prejudice our op9ions z to ! aff9ities ( ! sev]al memb]s ( ! ,equisetales4 ,! ,equisetaceae might be def9$ z a family includ+ plants :i* 7 usually h]bace\s b 9 "s cases arboresc5t1 be>+ v]ticils ( leaves 9 ! =m ( %ea?s m or less deeply divid$ into segm5ts or tee?4 ,! /robili 7 isospor\s & consi/$ ( a c5tral axis be>+ v]ticils ( di/ally exp&$ sporophylls ) sporangia1 z 9 ,equisetum4 ,! g5us ,equisetites might be includ$ 9 ?is family1 b x mu/ be admitt$ t we "k next to no?+ z to its anatomy1 & we _c be sure t ! /robili 7 always isospor\s4 ,! g5us ,s*izoneura is too imp]fectly kn[n to be def9$ ) any approa* to complet5ess1 or to be assign$ to a family def9$ )9 c]ta9 prescrib$ limits4 ,phyllo!ca is ano!r g5us ab\t :i* we possess b little satisfactory k2 we are /ill )\t evid5ce z to its /ructure1 & ! descriptions ( ! few /robili t are kn[n are n consi/5t4 ,rec5t "w po9ts to a probability ( ,phyllo!ca be+ closely alli$ to ,annul>ia1 a g5us includ$ 9 ! ,calam>ieae1 & /&+ = a c]ta9 type ( ,calamitean foliage-%oots4 ,9 comp>+ ! ,calam>ieae ) ! ,equisetaceae1 ! alt]nation ( /]ile & f]tile :orls 9 ! /robilus1 & ! free l9e> leaves at ! nodes in/ead ( leaf-%ea?s are two *>act]s made use ( z di/+ui%+ features ( ! g5us ,calamites z ! type ( ! ,calam>ieae4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! /robili ( ,phyllo!ca appe> to agree ) ^? ( ,calamites r ?an ) ^? ( ,equisetum1 & /robili ( ,ar*aeocalamites h be5 f\nd exhibit+ ! typical ,equisetum *>act]s4 ,! %ea?-l =m ( ! leaves is n necess>ily peculi> to ! ,equisetaceae1 & we h evid5ce t leaf-%ea?s occurr$ on ! nodes ( ,calamitean plants4 ,9 ,ar*aeocalamites ! leaves possess *>act]i/ic features1 & c h>dly be said to agree m closely ) ^? ( ,calamites ?an ) ! leaves ( ,phyllo!ca or ,sph5ophyllum1 a g5us belong+ to ano!r class ( ,pt]idophytes4 ,on ! :ole1 !n1 )\t discuss+ fur!r ! possibilities ( a subdivision ( ! ,equisetales1 we may reg>d ! g5]a ,calamites1 ,ar*aeocalamites1 ,equisetites1 ,equisetum1 ,phyllo!ca & ,s*izoneura z s _m memb]s ( ! ,equisetales1 )\t insi/+ on a classification :i* _c be support$ by satisfactory evid5ce4 ,our k ( ,calamites is fairly complete4 ,abundant & well-pres]v$ mat]ial f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,engl&1 & f ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,france1 ,g]many & else:]e1 has enabl$ palaeobotani/s to inve/igate ! anatomical *>act]s ( bo? ! vegetative & reproductive /ructures ( ?is g5us4 ,we are 9 a position to give a detail$ diagnosis ( ,calamitean /ems1 roots & /robili1 & to det]m9e ! place ( ?is type ( plant 9 a sy/em ( classification4 ,calamites n only illu/rates ! possibilities ( palaeobotanical rese>*1 b x demon/rates ! importance ( fossil =ms z f\ndations on :i* to con/ruct ! mo/ rational classification ( exi/+ plants4 ,! close alliance betwe5 ,calamites & ! rec5t ,equisetaceae has be5 cle>ly e/abli%$1 & c]ta9 *>act]i/ics ( ! =m] g5us r5d] necess>y an ext5sion & modification ( ! def9ition ( ! class to :i* bo? ,calamites & ,equisetites belong4 ,! ,calamites broad5 our conception ( ! ,equisetace\s alliance1 & by _! resemblance to o!r ext9ct ,palaeozoic types !y furni% u ) important l9ks t[>ds a phylog5etic s]ies1 :i* ! o!r memb]s ( ! ,equisetales d n supply4 ,f ! ,upp] ,devonian to ! ,p]mian epo* ,calamites & o!r closely relat$ types play$ a prom95t "p 9 ! vegetation ( ! _w4 ,we h no good evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( ,calamites 9 ,triassic times2 9 its place !re 7 gigantic ,equisetums :i* resembl$ mod]n ,horse-tails 9 a rem>kable degree4 ,9 ! succe$+ ,jurassic p]iod tree-l ,equisetums 7 /ill 9 exi/5ce1 & species ( ,equisetites are met ) 9 rocks ( ?is age 9 ne>ly all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,a few widely di/ribut$ species are kn[n f ,weald5 rocks1 b z we asc5d ! geologic s]ies f ! ,jurassic /rata1 ! ,equisetums become less num]\s & ! individual plants gradually assume proportions practically id5tical ) ^? ( exi/+ =ms4 ,a4 ,equisetites4 ,! g5]ic "n ,equisetites 0 propos$ by ,/]nb]g 9 #ahchdif z a conv5i5t designation = fossil /ems be>+ a close resemblance to rec5t species ( ,equisetum4 ,"s au?ors h pref]r$ to apply ! "n ,equisetum to fossil & rec5t species alike1 b 9 spite ( ! app>5t id5tity 9 ! ext]nal *>act]s ( ! fossil /ems ) ^? ( exi/+ ,horse-tails1 & a close simil>ity z reg>ds ! cones1 !re are c]ta9 reasons = reta9+ ,/]nb]g's g5]ic "n4 ,x is important to avoid su* nom5clature z might appe> to express m ?an ! facts admit4 ,if ! cu/om ( add+ ! t]m9ation -ites to ! root ( a rec5t g5]ic t]m is g5]ally foll[$1 x at once s]ves to %[ t ! plants s nam$ are fossil & n rec5t species4 ,moreov]1 9 ! case ( fossil ,equisetums we "k no?+ ( _! int]nal /ructure1 & our comp>isons are limit$ to ext]nal *>act]s4 ,/ems1 cones1 tub]s1 & leaves are (t5 v well pres]v$ z s&/one ca/s ) di/9ct surface-m>k+s1 b we are /ill 9 want ( petrifi$ specim5s4 ,!re is inde$ evid5ce t "s ( ! ,triassic & ,jurassic species ( ,equisetites1 l ! old] ,calamites1 possess$ ! p[] ( second>y gr[? 9 ?ickness1 b our d$uctions are bas$ solely on ext]nal *>act]s4 ,9 ! foll[+ pages a few ( ! bett] kn[n species ( ,equisetites are briefly describ$1 ! examples be+ *os5 p>tly ) a view to illu/rate ! geological hi/ory ( ! g5us1 & p>tly to contribute some?+ t[>ds a full] k ( p>ticul> species4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ facts to be glean$ f a g5]al survey ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! ,equisetaceae is ! p]si/5ce s9ce ! latt] "p ( ! ,palaeozoic p]iod ( t type ( plant :i* is repres5t$ by exi/+ ,equisetums4 ,!re is p]haps no g5us 9 exi/5ce :i* illu/rates m vividly ?an ,equisetum ! survival ( an extremely anci5t gr\p1 :i* is repres5t$ to-day by num]\s & widely spread species4 ,! ,equisetace\s *>act]i/ics m>k an isolat$ division ( exi/+ ,vascul> ,cryptogams1 & )\t ref]5ce to ext9ct types x is practically impossible to d m ?an vaguely guess at ! g5ealogical connections ( ! family4 ,:5 we g back to ,palaeozoic plants !re are indications ( guid+ l9es :i* po9t ! way to connect+ bran*es betwe5 ! old] ,equisetales & o!r classes ( ,pt]idophytes4 ,! rec5tly discov]$ g5us ,*eiro/robus#dig is especially important f ?is po9t ( view4 ,sid5ote3 ,,leaf-,,%ea?s ,,( ,,equisetites4 ,! accurate description ( species1 & ! det]m9ation ( ! value ( su* diff]5ces z are exhibit$ 9 ! surface *>act]s ( /ructureless ca/s1 are practically impossible 9 _m ( ! fossil =ms4 ,9 c]ta9 liv+ ,horse-tails we f9d /rik+ diff]5ces betwe5 f]tile & /]ile %oots1 & betwe5 bran*es ( diff]5t ord]s4 ,! isolat$ occurr5ce ( fragm5ts ( fossil /ems (t5 leads to an artificial sep>ation ( #8species' l>gely f\nd$ on diff]5ces 9 diamet]1 or on slight v>iations 9 ! =m ( ! leaf-%ea?s4 ,x is wis] to admit t 9 _m cases we are )\t ! means ( accurate diagnosis1 & t ! specific names appli$ to fossil ,equisetums d n always possess mu* value z crit]ia ( taxonomic diff]5ces4 ,! specim5s ( fossil ,equisetums are usually readily recognis$ by ! coh]5t leaf-segm5ts 9 ! =m ( nodal %ea?s resembl+ ^? ( rec5t species4 ,! tissues ( ! cortex & c5tral cyl9d] are occasionally repres5t$ by a ?9 lay] ( coal press$ on to ! surface ( a s&/one ca/1 or cov]+ a flatt5$ /em-impression on a piece ( %ale4 ,x is sometimes possible "u ! microscope to recognise on ! c>bonis$ epid]mal tissues ! rema9s ( a surface-ornam5tation simil> to t 9 rec5t species1 :i* is due to ! occurr5ce ( silice\s pat*es on ! sup]ficial cells4 ,longitud9al r[s ( /omata may also be detect$ "u fav\rable conditions ( pres]vation4 ,! nodal diaphragms ( /ems h occasionally be5 pres]v$ ap>t1 b su* circul> & radially-/riat$ bodies may be mislead+ if f\nd z isolat$ objects4 ,ca/s ( ! wide holl[ pi? ( ,equisetites1 ) longitud9al ridges & grooves1 & fairly deep nodal con/rictions1 h (t5 be5 mi/ak5 = ! m$ull>y ca/s ( ,calamites4 ,sev]al species ( ,equisetites h be5 record$ f ! ,upp] ,coal-,measures & ov]ly+ ,p]mian rocks1 b ^! pres5t special difficulties4 ,9 "o in/ance describ$ bel[1 7,equisetites ,hem+wayi ,kid/471 ! species 0 f\nd$ on a ca/ ( :at appe>$ to be a /robilus made up ( sporophylls simil> to ^? 9 an ,equisetum cone4 ,9 o!r ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s species ! *oice ( ! g5]ic "n ,equisetites has be5 det]m9$ by ! occurr5ce ( leaf-%ea?s ei!r isolat$ or atta*$ to ! node ( a /em4 ,! "q to consid] is1 h[ f> may ! ,equisetum-l leaf-%ea? be reg>d$ z a *>act]i/ic feature ( ,equisetites z di/9ct f ,calamites8 ,9 ! g5us ,calamites ! leaves are g5]ally describ$ z simple l9e> leaves arrang$ 9 a :orl at ! nodes1 b n coh]5t 9 ! =m ( a %ea? 7fig4 #he74 ,! fusion ( ! segm5ts into a cont9u\s %ea? or coll> is reg>d$ z a di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ic ( ,equisetites & ,equisetum4 ,! typical leaf-%ea? ( a rec5t ,horse-tail has already be5 describ$4 ,9 "s species we h fairly l>ge & p]si/5t free tee? on ! upp] m>g9 ( ! leaf-%ea?1 b 9 o!r ,equisetums ! rim ( ! %ea? is practically /raight & has a truncat$ appe>ance1 ! di/al ends ( ! segm5ts be+ sep>at$ f "o ano!r by v slight depressions1 z 9 a portion ( ! %ea? ( ,equisetum ramosissimum ,desf4 ( fig4 #eh1 ,c4 ,9 o!r leaf-%ea?s ( ?is species !re are delicate & po9t$ tee? adh]5t to ! m>g9 ( ! coh]5t segm5ts2 ! tee? are decidu\s1 & aft] !y h fall5 ! %ea? pres5ts a truncat$ appe>ance4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! %ea?s to :i* ! tee? are /ill atta*$ & ^? f :i* !y h fall5 is illu/rat$ by fig4 #eh1 ,b & ,c2 x is "o :i* %\ld be borne 9 m9d 9 ! description ( fossil species1 & has probably be5 responsible = errone\s specific diagnoses4 ,9 "s rec5t ,horse-tails ! %ea? is occasionally divid$ 9 "o or two places by a slit rea*+ to ! base ( ! coh]5t segm5ts#dih2 ?is %[s a t5d5cy ( ! segm5ts t[>ds ! free mann] ( occurr5ce :i* is usually consid]$ a ,calamitean "*4 ,9 c]ta9 fossils ref]r$ to ! g5us ,annul>ia1 ! nodes be> :orls ( long & n>r[ leaves :i* are fus$ basally into a coll> 7fig4 #eh1 ,d74 ,!re are good gr\nds = believ+ t at lea/ "s ,annul>ias 7 ! foliage %oots ( true ,calamites4 ,aga91 9 "s species ( ,calamit9a1 a sub-g5us ( ,calamites1 ! leaves appe> to h be5 unit$ basally into a n>r[ %ea?4 ,we see1 !n1 t x is a mi/ake to atta* great importance to ! sep>ate or coh]5t "* ( leaf-segm5ts 9 attempt+ to draw a l9e betwe5 ! true ,calamites & ,equisetites4 ,potoni#dii :ile po9t+ out t ?is di/9ction does n possess mu* value z a g5]ic "*1 reta9s ! g5us ,equisetites = c]ta9 ,palaeozoic ,equisetum-l leaf-%ea?s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,calamitean leaf-%ea?4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum4 a1 base ( leaf-%ea?2 7v slightly r$uc$74 ,fig4 #ef repres5ts a r fa9t impression ( a leaf-%ea? & nodal diaphragm4 ,! specim5 is f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,ardwick1 ,man*e/]4 ,! lett] a probably po9ts to ! atta*m5t ( ! %ea? to ! node ( ! /em4 ,! flatt5$ %ea? is indi/9ctly divid$ into segm5ts1 & at ! middle ( ! free m>g9 !re appe>s to be a s+le free too?4 ,! l[] "p ( ! specim51 z se5 9 ! figure1 %[s ! position ( ! nodal diaphragm4 ,betwe5 ! diaphragm & ! %ea? !re are sev]al slight ridges conv]g+ t[>ds ! nodal l9e2 ^! agree ) ! *>act]i/ic ridges & grooves ( ,calamite ca/s :i* are describ$ 9 detail 9 ,*apt] ,x4 ,!re is ano!r specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum :i* illu/rates1 r m cle>ly ?an t %[n 9 fig4 #ef1 ! association ( a fus$ leaf-%ea? ) a type ( ca/ usually reg>d$ z belong+ to a ,calamitean /em4 ,"s leaf-%ea?s ( ,p]mian age describ$ by ,zeill]#ejj z ,equisetites ,vaujolyi be> a close resemblance to ! %ea? 9 fig4 #eh ,e4 ,! nature ( ! true ,calamite leaves is consid]$ m fully on a lat] page4 ,sid5ote3 ,,palaeozoic ,,equisetites4 ,! examples ( suppos$ ,equisetites %ea?s ref]r$ to bel[ may s]ve to illu/rate ! k9d ( evid5ce on :i* ?is g5us has be5 record$ f ,upp] ,palaeozoic rocks4 ,i h reta9$ ! "n ,equisetites 9 ! description ( ! species1 b x w\ld probably be bett] to speak ( su* specim5s z #8,calamitean leaf-%ea?s' r ?an to describe !m z def9ite species ( ,equisetites4 ,we h n z yet any ?or\ghly satisfactory evid5ce t ! ,equisetites ( ,triassic & po/-,triassic times exi/$ 9 ! vegetation ( e>li] p]iods4 ,9 ,gr&',eury's ,flore du ,g>d#eja a fossil /robilus is figur$ "u ! "n ,calamo/a*ys t5uissima ,gr&',eury1 :i* consi/s ( a sl5d] axis be>+ s]ies ( sporophylls & sporangia app>5tly resembl+ ^? ( an ,equisetum4 ,!re are no /]ile app5dages or bracts alt]nat+ ) ! sporophylls2 & ! abs5ce ( ! =m] sugge/s a comp>ison ) ,equisetites r ?an ,calamites4 ,gr&',eury ref]s to ! fossil z 8p>fois pe9e p]ceptible10 & a rec5t exam9ation ( ! specim5 leads me to ?or\ghly endorse ?is description4 ,x 0 impossible to recognise ! features repres5t$ 9 ,gr&',eury's draw+4 ,sett+ aside ?is fossil1 !re are o!r /robili record$ by ,r5ault#ejb & ref]r$ by him to ! g5us ,bornia 7,ar*aeocalamites71 :i* also exhibit ! ,equisetum-l "*2 ! axis be>s sporophylls only & no /]ile bracts4 ,x w\ld appe> !n t 9 ! ,palaeozoic p]iod ! ,equisetace\s /robilus1 z we "k x 9 ,equisetum1 0 repres5t$ 9 "s ( ! memb]s ( ! ,equisetales4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,a4 ,equisetites ,hem+wayi ,kid/4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 nat4 size4 ,b4 ,diaphragm & %ea? ( an ,equisetace\s plant1 f ! ,coal-,measures4 nat4 size4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 #a4 ,equisetites ,hem+wayi ,kid/4 ,fig4 #eg1 ,a4 ,mr ,kid/on#ejc f\nd$ ?is species on a few specim5s ( cones f\nd 9 ! ,middle ,coal-,measures ( ,b>nsley 9 ,york%ire4 ,! be/ example ( ! cone describ$ by ,kid/on has a l5g? ( #be cm41 & a bread? ( #ae cm42 ! surface is divid$ up into sev]al hexagonal areas #d mm4 high & #e mm4 wide4 ,ea* ( ^! plates %[s a fairly prom95t project+ po9t 9 its c5tre2 ?is is reg>d$ z ! po9t ( atta*m5t ( ! sporangiophore axis :i* exp&$ di/ally into a hexagonal plate be>+ sporangia4 ,an exam9ation ( ,mr ,kid/on's specim5s enabl$ me to recognise ! close resemblance :i* he insi/s on betwe5 ! fossils & su* a rec5t ,equisetace\s /robilus z t ( ,equisetum limosum ,sm4 ,no?+ is kn[n ( ! /ructure ( ! fossils beyond ! "* ( ! sup]ficial patt]n ( ! impressions1 & x is impossible to speak ) absolute confid5ce z to _! nature4 ,! au?or ( ! species makes use ( ! g5]ic "n ,equisetum2 b 9 view ( our ignorance ( /ructural features x is bett] to adopt ! m usual t]m ,equisetites4 ,s9ce ,kid/on's description 0 publi%$ ,i notic$ a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum collection :i* ?r[s "s fur!r light on ?is d\btful fossil4 ,"p ( ?is specim5 is %[n 9 fig4 #eg1 ,a4 ,! /em is #ba cm4 9 l5g? & ab\t #e mm4 broad2 x is divid$ into di/9ct nodes & int]nodes2 ! =m] be+ a little exagg]at$ 9 ! draw+4 ,! surface is m>k$ by f9e & irregul> /riations1 & 9 "o or two places !re occur brok5 pieces ( n>r[ l9e> leaves 9 ! neighb\rhood ( a node4 ,portions ( f\r cones occurr+ 9 contact ) ! /em1 appe> to be sessile on ! nodes1 b ! pres]vation is n suffici5tly good to enable "o to speak ) c]ta9ty z to ! mann] ( atta*m5t4 ,ea* cone consi/s ( regul> hexagonal depressions1 :i* agree exactly ) ! surface *>act]s ( ,kid/on's type-specim54 ,! mann] ( occurr5ce ( ! cones po9ts to a lat]al & n a t]m9al atta*m5t4 ,! /em does n %[ any traces ( ,equisetace\s leaf-%ea?s at ! nodes1 & su* fragm5ts ( leaves z occur appe> to h ! =m ( sep>ate l9e> segm5ts2 !y are n su* z are met ) on ,equisetites4 ,x agrees ) "s ( ! sl5d] foliage-%oots ( ,calamitean plants (t5 describ$ "u ! g5]ic "n ,a/]ophyllites4 ,z reg>ds ! cones2 !y diff] f ! kn[n ,calamitean /robili 9 ! abs5ce ( /]ile bracts1 & appe> to consi/ entirely ( di/ally exp&$ sporophylls z 9 ,equisetum4 ,! g5]al impression af=d$ by ! fossil is t we h n suffici5t evid5ce = def9itely associat+ ?is /em & cones ) a true ,equisetites4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 adh]e to ?is g5]ic title until m satisfactory data are available4 #b4 ,equisetites spatulatus ,zeill4 ,fig4 #eh1 ,a4 ,?is species is *os5 z an example ( a ,fr5* ,equisetites ( ,p]mian age4 ,x 0 rec5tly f\nd$ by ,zeill]#ejd on "s specim5s ( imp]fect leaf-%ea?s1 & def9$ z foll[s3-- ,%ea?s spread+1 erect1 =m$ ( num]\s un9]v$ coh]5t leaves1 convex on ! dorsal surface1 spatulate 9 =m1 #e-f cm4 9 l5g? & #b-c mm4 broad at ! base1 & #e-aj mm4 broad at ! apex1 r\nd$ at ! di/al end4 ,! specim5 %[n 9 fig4 #eh1 ,a1 repres5ts "p ( a flatt5$ %ea?1 ! n>r[] cr5ulat$ end be+ ! base ( ! %ea?4 ,! limits ( ! coh]5t segm5ts & ! position ( ! ve9s are cle>ly m>k$4 ,zeill]'s description accurately repres5ts ! "* ( ! %ea?s4 ,!y agree closely ) an ,equisetace\s leaf-%ea?1 b z ,i h already po9t$ out1 we _c feel c]ta9 t %ea?s ( ?is k9d 7 n orig9ally atta*$ to a ,calamite /em4 ,! portion ( a leaf-%ea? & a diaphragm repres5t$ 9 fig4 #eg1 ,b1 agrees closely ) ,zeill]'s examples4 ,?is specim5 is f ! ,engli% ,coal-,measures1 b x is n advisable to attempt any specific diagnosis on su* fragm5t>y mat]ial4 ,x is que/ionable1 inde$1 if ^! deta*$ fossil leaf-%ea?s %\ld be designat$ by specific names4 ,ano!r simil> =m ( %ea?1 h>dly di/+ui%able f ,zeill]'s species1 has rec5tly be5 describ$ by ,potoni f ! ,p]mian 7,ro?lieg5de7 ( ,?ur+ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,a4 ,equisetites spatulatus1 ,zeill4 ,leaf-%ea?4 nat4 size4 7,aft] ,zeill]47 ,b4 ,e4 column>is1 ,brongn4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 nat4 size4 ,c4 ,equisetum ramosissimum1 ,desf4 #b4 ,d4 ,annul>ia /ellata 7,s*lo?474 ,leaf-%ea?4 ,slightly enl>g$4 7,aft] ,potoni47 ,e4 ,equisetites zeae=mis 7,s*lo?474 ,leaf-%ea?4 nat4 size4 7,aft] ,potoni47 ,f4 ,e4 lat]alis1 ,phill4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,sc>bor\gh ,museum4 ,nat4 size4 #c4 ,equisetites zeae=mis 7,s*lo?47#eje ,fig4 #eh1 ,e4 ,! %ea?s consi/ ( l9e> segm5ts fus$ lat]ally z 9 ,equisetum4 ,9 "s specim5s ! compon5t p>ts ( ! %ea? are m or less sep>ate f "o ano!r1 & 9 ?is =m !y are app>5tly id5tical ) ! leaves ( ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 v>ians1 ,/]nb4 ,! example %[n 9 fig4 #eh1 ,e is probably a "y leaf-%ea?2 ! segm5ts are fus$1 & ea* is trav]s$ by a s+le ve9 repres5t$ by a d>k l9e 9 ! figure4 ,! regul> cr5ulat$ l[] m>g9 is ! base ( ! %ea?1 & corresponds to ! upp] portion ( fig4 #eh1 ,a4 ,?is species af=ds1 !re=e1 an int]e/+ illu/ration ( ! difficulty ( sep>at+ ,equisetites leaves f ^? ( true ,calamites4 ,potoni has sugge/$ t ! leaf-%ea? ( a "y ,calamite might well be split up into di/9ct l9e> segm5ts z ! result ( ! increase 9 gir? ( ! /em4 ,o!r ,palaeozoic species ( ,equisetites h be5 record$1 b ) "o exception ^! ne$ n be dealt )1 z !y d n add any?+ to our k ( botanical importance4 ,! specim5 describ$ 9 ! ,flore de ,comm5try z ,equisetites ,monyi1 by ,r5ault & ,zeill]#ejf1 diff]s f mo/ ( ! o!r ,palaeozoic species ( ,equisetites1 9 ! fact t we h a /em ) %ort int]nodes be>+ a leaf-%ea? at ea* node divid$ into comp>atively long & di/9ct tee?4 ,?is species pres5ts a close agreem5t ) specim5s ( ,calamit9a1 b ,r5ault & ,zeill] consid] t x is g5]ically di/9ct4 ,!y sugge/ t ! ,engli% species1 orig9ally describ$ & figur$ by ,l9dley & ,hutton#ejg z ,hippurites gigantea1 & n[ usually spok5 ( z ,calamit9a1 %\ld be nam$ ,equisetites4 ,x w\ld probably be bett] to adopt ! "n ,calamit9a = ! ,fr5* species4 ,! type-specim5 ( ?is species is 9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum1 ,p>is4 ,sid5ote3 ,,equisetites ,,platyodon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,equisetites platyodon ,brongn4 7,aft] ,s*o5le91 slightly r$uc$47 ,:5 we pass f ! ,p]mian to ! ,triassic p]iod1 we f9d l>ge ca/s ( v mod]n-look+ ,equisetace\s /ems :i* mu/ cle>ly be ref]r$ to ! g5us ,equisetites4 ,! portion ( a /em repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ei kn[n z ,equisetites platyodon ,brongn4#ejh af=ds an example ( a ,triassic ,equisetace\s /em ) a cle>ly pres]v$ leaf-%ea?4 ,! /em measures ab\t #f cm4 9 diamet]4 ,"o ( ! olde/ kn[n ,triassic species is ,equisetites ,m\geoti#eji 7,brongn47 f ! ,bunt] s]ies ( ! ,vosges4 ,! ,keup] species ,e4 ar5aceus is1 h[ev]1 m completely kn[n4 ,! specim5s ref]r$ to ?is species are v /rik+ fossils2 !y agree 9 all ext]nal *>act]s ) rec5t ,horse-tails b greatly exce$ !m 9 dim5sions4 #d4 ,equisetites ar5aceus ,bronn4 ,?is plant has be5 f\nd 9 ! ,triassic rocks ( v>i\s p>ts ( ,g]many & ,france2 x occurs 9 ! ,lett5kohl gr\p 7,l[] ,keup]71 z well z 9 ! ,middle ,keup] ( ,/uttg>t & else:]e4 ,! species may be def9$ z foll[s3-- ,rhizome f #h-ad cm4 9 diamet]1 ) %ort int]nodes1 be>+ lat]al ovate tub]s4 ,a]ial %oots f #d-ab cm4 9 diamet]1 be>+ :orls ( bran*es1 & leaf-%ea?s made up ( #aaj-abj coh]5t uni-n]v$ l9e> segm5ts t]m9at+ 9 an apical lanceolate too?4 ,/robili oval1 consi/+ ( cr[d$ sporangiophores ) p5tagonal & hexagonal peltate t]m9ations4 ,! ca/s ( bran*es1 rhizomes1 tub]s1 buds & cones enable u to =m a fairly exact e/imate ( ! size & g5]al appe>ance ( ?is l>ge/ fossil ,horse-tail4 ,! ,/rassburg ,museum conta9s _m good examples ( ?is species1 & a few specim5s may be se5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,9 ! cole des ,m9es1 ,p>is1 !re are "s exceptionally cle> impressions ( cones ( ?is species f a lignite m9e 9 ! ,vosges4 ,x is e/imat$ t ! plant rea*$ a height ( #h to #aj met]s1 ab\t equal to t ( ! talle/ rec5t species ( ,equisetum1 b 9 ! diamet] ( ! /ems ! ,triassic plant f> exce$$ any exi/+ species4 ,x is int]e/+ to det]m9e z f> z possible1 9 ! abs5ce ( petrifi$ specim5s1 if ?is ,keup] species increas$ 9 gir? by means ( a cambium4 ,!re are occasionally f\nd s&/one ca/s ( ! pi?-cavity :i* pres5t an appe>ance v simil> to t ( ,calamitean m$ull>y ca/s#eaj4 ,! nodes are m>k$ by comp>atively deep con/rictions1 :i* probably repres5t ! project+ nodal wood4 ,! surface ( ! ca/s is trav]s$ by regul> ridges & grooves z 9 an ord9>y ,calamite1 & x is probable t 9 ,equisetites ar5aceus1 z 9 ,calamites1 ^! surface-features are ! impression ( ! inn] face ( a cyl9d] ( second>y wood 7cf4 p4 #caj74 ,excell5t figures ( ?is species ( ,equisetites are giv5 by ,s*imp] 9 8 ,atlas ( fossil plants#eaa1 also by ,s*imp] & ,koe*l9-,s*lumb]g]#eab1 & by ,s*o5le9 & ,s*5k#eac4 #e4 ,equisetites column>is ,brongn4 ,figs4 #aa & #eh1 ,b4 ,?is species1 :i* is by f> ! be/ kn[n ,briti% ,equisetites1 0 f\nd$ by ,brongni>t#ead on "s specim5s f ! ,l[] ,oolite b$s ( ! ,york%ire coa/4 ,ca/s ( /ems are famili> to ^? :o h collect$ fossils on ! coa/ betwe5 ,:itby & ,sc>bor\gh2 !y are (t5 f\nd 9 an erect position 9 ! s&/one1 & are usually describ$ z occurr+ 9 ! actual place ( gr[?4 ,z previ\sly po9t$ out 7p4 #gb71 su* /ems h g5]ally be5 deposit$ by wat]1 & h assum$ a v]tical position 7fig4 #aa74 ,"y & ,bird#eae figur$ a specim5 ( ?is species 9 #ahbb1 & 9 view ( its /rik+ resemblance to ! sug>-cane1 !y reg>d$ ! fossil z be+ ( ! same family z ,sac*>um (fic9>um1 if n specifically id5tical4 ,a specim5 0 describ$ by ,knig#eaf 9 #ahbi1 f ! ,l[] ,oolite rocks ( ,brora 9 ! nor? ( ,scotl& "u ! "n ( ,oncylogonatum c>bon>ium1 b ,brongni>t#eag po9t$ out its id5tity ) ! ,engli% species ,equisetites column>is4 ,our acqua9tance ) ?is species is practically limit$ to ! ca/s ( /ems4 ,a typical /em ( ,e4 column>is measures #c to #f cm4 9 diamet] & has fairly long int]nodes4 ,! l>ge/ /em 9 ! ,briti% ,museum collection has int]nodes ab\t #ad cm4 long & a diamet] ( ab\t #e cm4 ,9 "s cases ! /em ca/s %[ irregul> lat]al projections 9 ! neighb\rhood ( a node1 b !re is no evid5ce t ! a]ial %oots ( ?is species gave (f v]ticils ( bran*es4 ,9 habit ,e4 column>is probably closely resembl$ su* rec5t species z ,equisetum hiemale ,l41 ,e4 tra*yodon ,a4 ,br4 & o!rs4 ,! /ems (t5 %[ a di/9ct swell+ at ! nodes2 ?is may be due1 at lea/ 9 "p1 to ! exi/5ce ( transv]se nodal diaphragms :i* enabl$ ! dead %oots to resi/ contraction 9 ! region ( ! nodes4 ,! leaf-%ea?s consi/ ( num]\s long & n>r[ segm5ts (t5 truncat$ di/ally1 z 9 fig4 #eh1 ,b1 & z 9 ! %ea? ( su* a rec5t ,horse-tail z ,e4 ramosissimum %[n 9 fig4 #eh1 ,c4 ,9 "s specim5s "o occasionally f9ds indications ( delicate acum9ate tee? ext5d+ above ! limits ( a truncat$ %ea?4 ,brongni>t speaks ( ! exi/5ce ( caduc\s acum9ate tee? 9 8 diagnosis ( ! species1 & ! example repres5t$ 9 fig4 #eh1 ,b1 demon/rates ! exi/5ce ( su* decidu\s app5dages4 ,!re is a v close resemblance betwe5 ! fossil %ea? ( fig4 #eh1 ,b1 ) & )\t ! tee?1 & ! leaf-%ea? ( ! rec5t ,equisetum 9 fig4 #eh1 ,c4 ,9 "s specim5s ( ,e4 column>is 9 :i* ! ca/ is cov]$ ) a c>bonace\s film1 ea* segm5t 9 a leaf-%ea? is se5 to be slightly depress$ 9 ! m$ian portion1 :i* is (t5 di/9ctly m>k$ by num]\s small dots1 ! edges ( ! segm5t be+ flat & smoo?4 ,! m$ian region is t 9 :i* ! /omata are f\nd & on :i* deposits ( silica occur4 #f4 ,equisetites ,beani 7,bunb474 ,figs4 #fj-fb4 ,bunbury#eah propos$ ! "n ,calamites ,beani = "s fossil /ems f ! ,l[] ,oolite b$s ( ! ,york%ire coa/1 :i* ,bean _h previ\sly ref]r$ to 9 unpubli%$ notes z ,c4 giganteus4 ,! latt] "n 0 n adopt$ by ,bunbury on acc\nt ( ! possible confusion betwe5 ?is species & ! ,palaeozoic species ,calamites gigas ,brongn4 ,! g5]ic "n ,calamites mu/ be replac$ by ,equisetites n[ t we are famili> ) m p]fect specim5s :i* demon/rate ! ,equisetean *>act]s ( ! plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,equisetites ,beani 7,bunb474 nat4 size4 ,aft] ,/>kie ,g>dn] 7#hf7 ,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #b4 ,s*imp]#eai speaks ( ?is species z possibly ! pi?-ca/ ( ,equisetites column>is1 b 8 op9ion _c be ma9ta9$2 ! species fir/ describ$ by ,bunbury has consid]ably l>g] /ems ?an ^? ( ,e4 column>is4 ,x is n impossible1 h[ev]1 t ,e4 column>is & ,e4 ,beani may be portions ( ! same species4 ,! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 ^! =ms is t ( size2 b we h n suffici5t data to ju/ify ! inclusion ( bo? =ms "u "o "n4 ,zigno#ebj1 9 8 "w on ! ,oolitic ,flora1 figures an imp]fect /em ca/ ( ,e4 ,beani "u ! "n ( ,calamites ,beani1 b ! species has receiv$ little att5tion at ! h&s ( rec5t writ]s4 ,9 #ahhf ,/>kie ,g>dn]#eba figur$ a specim5 :i* 0 id5tifi$ by ,williamson z an example ( ,bunbury's species2 b ! latt] po9t$ out ! great] resemblance1 z reg>ds ! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! ,jurassic /em1 to "s ( ! rec5t arboresc5t ,gram9eae#ebb ?an to ! ,equisetaceae4 ,williamson1 ) 8 usual caution1 adds t su* appe>ances h v little taxonomic value4 ,fig4 #fj is reproduc$ f ! block us$ by ,g>dn] 9 8 memoir on ,mesozoic ,angiosp]ms2 he quotes ! specim5 z possibly a ,monocotyl$on\s /em4 ,! fossil is an imp]fect ca/ ( a /em %[+ two cle>ly m>k$ nodal regions1 b no trace ( leaf-%ea?s4 ,a rec5t exam9ation ( specim5s 9 ! museums ( ,:itby1 ,sc>bor\gh1 ,york & ,london has conv9c$ me t ! plant nam$ by ,bunbury ,calamites ,beani is a l>ge ,equisetites4 ,z a rule ! specim5s d n %[ any indications ( ! leaf-%ea?s1 b 9 a few cases ! %ea?s h left fairly di/9ct impressions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,equisetites ,beani 7,bunb474 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 nat4 size4 7,no4 ,v4 #bgbe47 ,9 ! portion ( /em %[n 9 fig4 #fa ! impressions ( ! leaf segm5ts are cle>ly m>k$4 ,?is specim5 af=ds mu* bett] evid5ce ( ! ,equisetace\s "* ( ! plant ?an ^? :i* are simply int]nal ca/s4 ,! n>r[ project+ l9es ext5d+ upw>ds f ! nodes 9 ! figur$ specim5 probably repres5t ! divisions betwe5 ! sev]al segm5ts ( ea* leaf-%ea?4 ,9 ! museums ( ,:itby & ,sc>bor\gh !re are "s long specim5s1 9 "o case #dd cm4 9 l5g?1 & #cc cm4 9 circumf]5ce1 :i* are probably ca/s ( ! broad pi?-cavity4 ,^! ca/s are (t5 transv]sely brok5 across at ! nodes1 s t !y consi/ ( ?ree or f\r sep>ate pieces :i* fit toge!r by clean-cut faces4 ,?is mann] ( occurr5ce is mo/ probably due to ! exi/5ce ( l>ge & resi/ant nodal diaphragms :i* sep>at$ ! s&-ca/s ( adjac5t int]nodes4 ,9 ! ,york museum !re are "s l>ge diaphragms1 #aj cm4 9 diamet]1 pres]v$ sep>ately 9 a piece ( rock conta9+ a ca/ ( ,equisetites ,beani4 ,! nodal diaphragms ( "s ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,calamites 7 ! seat ( cork developm5t#ebc1 & x may be t ! frequ5t pres]vation ( ,equisetace\s diaphragms 9 ,triassic & ,jurassic rocks is due to ! protection af=d$ by a corky inve/m5t4 ,! /em %[n 9 fig4 #fb appe>s to be a portion ( a %oot ( ,e4 ,beani n f> f its apical region4 ,f ! l[] nodes !re ext5d cle>ly m>k$ & regul> l9es or slight grooves tap]+ gradually t[>ds ! next high] node2 ^! are no d\bt ! impressions ( segm5ts ( leaf-%ea?s4 ,! %ea?s !mselves h be5 deta*$ & only _! impressions rema94 ,! flatt5$ b&s at ! node ( ! /em 9 fig4 #fj1 & %[n also 9 fig4 #fa1 m>k ! place ( atta*m5t ( ! leaf-%ea?s4 ,on "s ( ^! nodal b&s "o is able to recognise small sc>s :i* are mo/ likely ! ca/s ( outgo+ leaf-trace bundles4 ,"s ( ! int]nal ca/s ( ?is species are m>k$ by num]\s closely arrang$ longitud9al l9es1 :i* are probably ! impressions ( ! inn] face ( a c5tral woody cyl9d]4 ,9 ! small] specim5 %[n 9 fig4 #fb we h ! apical portion ( a %oot 9 :i* ! upp]mo/ int]nodes are 9 an unexp&$ condition4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,equisetites ,beani 7,bunb474 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,sc>bor\gh ,museum4 ,v slightly r$uc$4 ,x is impossible to give a satisfactory diagnosis ( ?is species )\t bett] mat]ial4 ,! plant is *>act]is$ *iefly by ! great bread? ( ! /em1 & by ! possession ( leaf-%ea?s consi/+ ( num]\s long & n>r[ segm5ts4 ,equisetites ,beani mu/ h almo/ equall$ 9 size ! ,triassic species1 ,e4 ar5aceus1 describ$ above4 #g4 ,equisetites lat]alis ,phill4 ,figs4 #eh1 ,f1 #fc1 & #fd4 ,?is species is describ$ at "s l5g? z af=d+ a useful illu/ration ( ! mislead+ "* ( c]ta9 features :i* are entirely due to me?ods ( pres]vation4 ,! specific "n 0 propos$ by ,phillips 9 8 fir/ edition ( ! ,geology ( ! ,york%ire ,coa/ = "s v imp]fect /ems f ! ,l[] ,oolite rocks ne> ,:itby#ebd4 ,! *oice ( ! t]m lat]alis illu/rates a misconception2 x 0 giv5 to ! plant 9 ! belief t c]ta9 *>act]i/ic :eel-l m>ks on ! /ems 7 ! sc>s ( bran*es4 ,l9dley & ,hutton#ebe figur$ a specim5 ( ?is species 9 _! ,fossil ,flora1 & quot$ a rem>k by 8,mr ,williamson junior0 7aft]w>ds ,pr(4 ,williamson7 t ! s-call$ sc>s (t5 occur z isolat$ discs 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! /ems4 ,bunbury#ebf describ$ an example ( ! same species ) n>r[ spread+ leaves l ^? ( a ,palaeozoic ,a/]ophyllites1 & propos$ ?is g5]ic "n z m appropriate ?an ,equisetites4 ,9 all probability ! example %[n 9 fig4 #fc is t :i* ,bunbury describ$4 ,x is c]ta9ly ! same z "o figur$ by ,zigno#ebg z ,calamites lat]alis 9 8 ,flora fossilis =mationis ,ooli?icae4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,equisetites lat]alis ,phill4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,slightly r$uc$4 ,?is specim5 illu/rates a fur!r misconception 9 ! diagnosis ( ! species4 ,! long l9e> app5dages spread+ f ! nodes are1 ,i believe1 sl5d] bran*es & n leaves2 !y h n ! =m ( delicate filmy m>k+s on ! rock face1 b are comp>atively ?ick & almo/ woody 9 appe>ance4 ,! true leaves are di/9ctly indicat$ at ! nodes1 & exhibit ! ord9>y features ( too!d %ea?s4 ,he]#ebh propos$ to transf] ,phillips' species to ! g5us ,phyllo!ca1 & ,s*imp]#ebi pref]r$ ! g5]ic t]m ,s*izoneura4 ,! sugge/ion = ! use ( ^! two names w\ld probably n h be5 made _h ! pres5ce ( ! ,equisetum %ea?s be5 recognis$4 ,! circul> depressions a %ort di/ance above ea* node are ! #8bran* sc>s' ( v>i\s writ]s4 ,s*imp] sugge/$ t ^! radially m>k$ circles might be displac$ nodal diaphragms4 ,&rae#ecj figur$ ! same objects 9 #ahec b reg>d$ !m z bran* sc>s1 al?\gh 9 ! specim5 he describes1 !re are sev]al ( !m ly+ ap>t f ! /ems1 & to "o ( !m is atta*$ a portion ( a leaf-%ea?4 ,solms-,lauba*#eca po9ts out t ! int]nodal position ( ^! suppos$ sc>s is an obvi\s difficulty2 we %\ld n expect to f9d bran*es aris+ f an int]node4 ,aft] ref]r+ to "s specim5s 9 ! ,ox=d museum1 he adds--8,9 pres5ce ( ^! facts ! usual explanation ( ^! /ructures appe>s to me1 z to ,he]1 v d\btful4444 ,we are driv5 to ! v arbitr>y assumption t !y repres5t ! l[e/ nodes ( ! lat]al bran*es :i* 7 ins]t$ above ! l9e ( ! nodes ( ! /em40 ,circul> discs simil> to ^? ( ,e4 lat]alis h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,jurassic rocks ( ,sib]ia#ecb & else:]e4 ,!re are "o or two examples ( su* discs f ,sib]ia 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,if ! nodal diaphragms 7 fairly h>d & /\t1 x is easy to conceive t !y might h be5 press$ out ( _! orig9al position :5 ! /ems 7 flatt5$ 9 ! process ( fossilisation4 ,x is n q cle> :at ! radial spoke-l l9es ( ! discs are due to2 possibly !y m>k ! position ( b&s ( m resi/ant tissue or ( outgo+ /r&s ( vascul> bundles4 ,a deta*$ diaphragm is se5 9 fig4 #fd ,c2 9 ! c5tre x consi/s ( a flat plate ( tissue1 & ! p]iph]al region is trav]s$ by ! radiat+ l9es4 ,9 ! /em ( fig4 #fd1 ,a ! deeply divid$ leaf-%ea?s are cle>ly se51 & an imp]fect impression ( a diaphragm is pres]v$ on ! face ( ! middle int]node4 ,9 fig4 #fd ,b a flatt5$ leaf-%ea? is %[n ) ! free acum9ate tee? fus$ basally into a cont9u\s coll>#ecc4 ,! %ort piece ( /em ( ,equisetites lat]alis %[n 9 fig4 #eh1 ,f1 %[s h[ ! free tee? may be outspread 9 a mann] :i* be>s "s resemblance to ! leaves ( ,phyllo!ca1 b a comp>ison ) ! specim5s already describ$1 & a c>eful exam9ation ( ?is specim5 itself1 demon/rate ! g5]ic id5tity ( ! species ) ,equisetites4 ,! c>bonace\s film on ! surface ( su* /ems z ^? ( fig4 #eh1 ,f1 & #fd1 ,a1 %[s a *>act]i/ic %agre5 texture :i* may possibly be due to ! pres5ce ( silica 9 ! epid]mis z 9 rec5t ,horse-tails4 ,!re is ano!r species ( ,equisetites1 ,e4 ,mn/]i1 ,s*k41 f a l[] geological horizon :i* has be5 comp>$ ) ,e4 lat]alis1 & l5ds support to ! view t ! s-call$ bran*-sc>s are nodal diaphragms#ecd4 ,?is species also af=ds additional evid5ce 9 fav\r ( reta9+ ! g5]ic "n ,equisetites = ,phillips' species4 ,equisetites ,mn/]i is a typical ,rhaetic plant2 x has be5 f\nd at ,beyreu? & ,kuhnba*1 z well z 9 ,switz]l&1 ,hung>y & else:]e4 ,a specim5 ( ,equisetites orig9ally describ$ by ,buckman z ,e4 ,brodii#ece1 f ! ,l[] ,lias ( ,worce/]%ire1 may possibly be id5tical ) ,e4 ,mn/]i4 ,! leaf-%ea?s ( ?is ,rhaetic species consi/ ( broad segm5ts prolong$ into acum9ate tee?2 "s ( ! examples figur$ by ,s*5k#ecf %[ cle>ly m>k$ impressions ( displac$ nodal diaphragms exactly z 9 ,e4 lat]alis4 ,ano!r =m1 ,equisetum rotif]um describ$ by ,t5ison-,woods#ecg f ,au/ralia1 is closely alli$ to1 or possibly id5tical ) ,e4 lat]alis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,equisetites lat]alis ,phill4 ,a4 ,"p ( a /em %[+ leaf-%ea?s & an imp]fect diaphragm4 ,b4 ,a s+le flatt5$ leaf-%ea?4 ,c4 ,a deta*$ nodal diaphragm4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,york ,museum4 ,slightly r$uc$4 #h4 ,equisetites ,bur*>dti ,dunk]#ech4 ,fig4 #fe4 ,?is species ( ,equisetites is fairly common 9 ! ,weald5 b$s ( ! ,sussex coa/ ne> ,ha/+s1 & also 9 ,we/phalia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,equisetites ,bur*>dti ,dunk4 ,%[+ a node ) two tub]s & a root4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,nat4 size4 ,x is *>act]is$ by hav+ long & sl5d] int]nodes1 be>+ at ! nodes leaf-%ea?s ) five or six po9t$ segm5ts1 & by ! frequ5t =mation ( bran*-tub]s4 ,^! tub]\s bran*es closely resemble ^? :i* are =m$ on ! und]gr\nd %oots ( ,equisetum arv5se ,l41 ,e4 sylvaticum ,l4 & o!rs2 !y occur ei!r s+ly or 9 *a9s#eci4 ,9 ! specim5 %[n 9 ! figure ! left-h& tub] is rem>kably well pres]v$1 its surface is some:at sunk & %rivell$1 & ! apex is surr\nd$ by a nodal leaf-%ea?4 ,a ?9 bran*$ root is giv5 (f j bel[ ! po9t ( ins]tion ( ! oval tub]4 ,no o!r species ( ,equisetites af=ds su* num]\s examples ( tub]s z ?is ,weald5 plant4 ,by "s ( ! e>li] writ]s ! deta*$ tub]s ( ,e4 ,bur*>dti 7 describ$ z fossil se$s "u ! "n ,c>poli?us4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,equisetites ,yokoyamae ,sew4 ,f specim5s 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,nat4 size4 ,! specim5s %[n 9 fig4 #ff h be5 ref]r$ to ano!r species1 ,e4 ,yokoyamae ,sew4#edj2 !y 7 obta9$ f ! ,weald5 b$s ( ,sussex1 b accord+ to ,mr ,ruf=d1 :o discov]$ !m1 ! small] tub]s ( ?is species are n f\nd 9 association ) ^? ( ,e4 ,bur*>dti4 ,! /ems are v n>r[ & ! tub]s h a *>act]i/ic elliptical =m2 ! species is ( little value botanically1 b x af=ds ano!r in/ance ( ! common occurr5ce ( ^! tub]\s bran*es 9 ! ,weald5 ,equisetums4 ,simil> fossil tub]s1 on a mu* l>g] scale1 h be5 f\nd 9 association ) ! ,triassic ,equisetites ar5aceus2 ) ,e4 ,p>latori ,he]#eda1 a ,t]ti>y species f ,switz]l&1 & ) o!r ,mesozoic & ,t]ti>y /ems4 ,e4 ,burej5sis#edb1 describ$ by ,he] f ! ,jurassic rocks ( ,sib]ia1 be>s a close resemblance to ! ,weald5 species4 ,! description ( ! above species by no means exhau/s ! mat]ial :i* is available t[>ds a hi/ory ( fossil ,equisetums4 ,! examples :i* h be5 select$ may s]ve to illu/rate ! k9d ( specim5s t are usually met )1 z well z "s ( ! possible s\rces ( error :i* h to be borne 9 m9d 9 ! description ( species4 ,su* ,t]ti>y species z h be5 record$ ne$ n be consid]$2 !y furni% u ) no facts ( p>ticul> int]e/ f a morphological po9t ( view4 ,! wide di/ribution ( ,equisetites1 especially dur+ ! ,jurassic p]iod1 is "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ lessons to be le>nt f a review ( ! fossil =ms4 ,no d\bt a detail$ comp>ison ( ! sev]al species f diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w w\ld lead u to r$uce ! numb] ( specific names2 & at ! same "t x w\ld emphasize ! app>5t id5tity ( fossils :i* h be5 describ$ f widely sep>at$ latitudes "u diff]5t names4 ,specim5s ( ,equisetites are occasionally f\nd 9 plant-be>+ b$s ap>t f ! o!r memb]s ( a ,flora2 ?is isolat$ mann] ( occurr5ce sugge/s t ! plant grew 9 a diff]5t /ation f t occupi$ by ,cycads & o!r elem5ts ( ! vegetation#edc4 ,a selection ( ,triassic & ,jurassic species arrang$ 9 a tabul> =m demon/rates ! _w-wide di/ribution ( ?is p]si/5t type ( plant#edd4 ,b4 ,phyllo!ca4 ,! g5]ic "n ,phyllo!ca 0 propos$ by ,brongni>t#ede 9 #ahbh = "s small fossil /ems f ! ,hawkesbury riv]1 ne> ,port ,jackson1 ,au/ralia4 ,! /ems ( ?is g5us are divid$ into nodes & int]nodes & possess leaf-%ea?s z 9 ,equisetum1 b ,phyllo!ca diff]s f o!r ,equisetace\s plants 9 ! =m ( ! leaves & 9 ! "* ( its sporophylls4 ,we may def9e ! g5us z foll[s3-- ,plants resembl+ 9 habit ! rec5t ,equisetums4 ,/ems simple or bran*$1 divid$ into di/9ct nodes & int]nodes1 ! latt] m>k$ by longitud9al ridges & grooves2 f ! nodes are giv5 (f leaf-%ea?s consi/+ ( l9e>-lanceolate un9]v$ segm5ts coh]5t basally1 b hav+ ! =m ( free n>r[ tee? = ! great] "p ( _! l5g?4 ,! long free tee? are usually spread out 9 ! =m ( a cup & n adpress$ to ! /em1 ! tips ( ! tee? are (t5 incurv$4 ,! sporangia are borne on peltate sporangiophores atta*$ to ! /em betwe5 :orls ( /]ile leaves4 ,our k ( ,phyllo!ca is un=tunately f> f complete4 ,! *ief *>act]i/ic ( ! vegetative %oots consi/s 9 ! cup-l leaf-%ea?s2 ^! are divid$ up into sev]al l9e> segm5ts1 :i* diff] f ! tee? ( an ,equisetum leaf-%ea? 9 _! great] l5g? & 9 _! m op5 & spread+ habit ( gr[?4 ,! l>ge loose %ea?s ( ! f]tile %oots ( "s rec5t ,horse-tails be> a c]ta9 resemblance to ! %ea?s ( ,phyllo!ca4 ,! diagnosis ( ! f]tile %oots is f\nd$ pr9cipally on "s ,p]mian specim5s ( ! g5us describ$ by ,s*malhaus5 f ,russia#edf & r$escrib$ m rec5tly by ,solms-,lauba*#edg4 ,pr(4 ,zeill]#edh has1 h[ev]1 lately receiv$ "s examples ( ,phyllo!ca f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,asia ,m9or :i* be> /robili l ^? ( ! g5us ,annul>ia1 a type :i* is dealt ) 9 ! succe$+ *apt]4 ,a description ( a few species w s]ve to illu/rate ! features usually associat$ ) ?is g5]ic type1 z well z to emphasize ! unsatisfactory /ate ( our k z to ! real significance ( su* suppos$ g5]ic *>act]i/ics4 ,!re are a few fossil /ems f ,p]mian rocks ( ,sib]ia1 f ,jurassic /rata 9 ,italy1 & f ,l[] ,mesozoic & ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s b$s 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,s\? ,africa1 ,india & ,au/ralia :i* d n con=m 9 all po9ts to ! usually accept$ def9ition ( ,equisetites1 & s ju/ify _! inclusion 9 an alli$ g5us4 ,on ! o!r h& !re are num]\s in/ances ( /ems or bran*es :i* h be5 ref]r$ to ,phyllo!ca on insuffici5t gr\nds4 ,our k ( ?is ,equisetace\s plant has rec5tly be5 ext5d$ by ,zeill]#edi1 :o has record$ its occurr5ce 9 ! ,coal-,measures ( ,asia ,m9or associat$ ) typical ,upp] ,c>bonif]\s plants4 ,! same au?or#eej has also br\ght =w>d good evid5ce = ! ,p]mian age ( ! b$s 9 ,sib]ia & ,altai1 :]e ,phyllo!ca has long be5 kn[n4 ,x is true t ,zigno's species ( ! g5us occurs 9 ,italian ,jurassic rocks1 b on ! :ole x w\ld seem t ?is g5us is r a ,p]mian ?an a ,jurassic type4 ,! species :i* ,zeill] describes "u ! "n ,phyllo!ca ,rallii f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,h]akleion 7,asia ,m9or7 %[s "s po9ts ( contact ) ,annul>ia4 ,x is mu* to be desir$1 h[ev]1 t we might le>n m z to ! reproductive organs ( ?is memb] ( ! ,equisetales2 until we possess a clos] acqua9tance ) ! fructification we _c hope to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion z to ! exact position ( ! g5us among ! ,calam>ian & ,equisetace\s =ms4 ,m4 ,zeill]#eea in=ms me t 8 specim5s ( ,p4 ,rallii1 :i* are to be fully describ$ 9 a =?com+ "w1 include fossil /robili resembl+ ^? ( ,annul>ia radiata4 ,! v]ticils ( l9e> leaves fus$ basally into a %ea? agree 9 appe>ance ) ! />-l leaves ( ,annul>ia1 b 9 ,phyllo!ca ,rallii ! segm5ts appe> to spread 9 all directions & are n ext5d$ 9 "o plane z 9 ! typical ,annul>ia#eeb4 #a4 ,phyllo!ca deliquesc5s 7,gpp474 ,9 an acc\nt ( "s fossil plants collect$ by ,t*ikat*eff 9 ,altai1 ,gpp]t#eec describes & figures two imp]fect /ems ( an ,equisetum-l plant4 ,ow+ to ! app>5t abs5ce ( nodal l9es on ! surface ( ! /em ! g5]ic "n ,an>?rocanna is propos$ = ! fossils2 & ! mann] 9 :i* ! ma9 axis appe>s to break up into sl5d] bran*es sugge/$ ! specific "n deliquesc5s4 ,s*malhaus5#eed aft]w>ds recognis$ ! g5]ic id5tity ( ,gpp]t's fragm5ts ) ! ,indian & ,au/ralian /ems ref]r$ to ! g5us ,phyllo!ca by ,mc,coy#eee & ,bunbury#eef4 ,we may def9e ! species z foll[s3-- ,/em rea*+ a diamet] ( #b-c cm4 ) int]nodes z mu* z #d cm4 long1 ! surface ( :i* is trav]s$ by longitud9al ridges & grooves :i* are cont9u\s & n alt]nate at ! nodes4 ,bran*es arise 9 v]ticils f ! nodes4 ,! leaves h ! =m ( funnel-%ap$ %ea?s split up into n>r[ & spread+ l9e> segm5ts1 ea* ( :i* is trav]s$ by a m$ian ve94 ,! f]tile %oot t]m9ates 9 a loose /robilus be>+ alt]nat+ :orls ( /]ile bracts & sporangiophores4 ,! specim5s on :i* ?is diagnosis is f\nd$ are = ! mo/ "p fragm5ts ( /]ile bran*es4 ,"s ( ^! pres5t ! appe>ance ( ,calamitean /ems 9 :i* ! ridges & grooves cont9ue 9 /raight l9es f "o int]node to ! next4 ,simil> /em-ca/s h be5 ref]r$ by "s writ]s to ! alli$ g5us ,s*izoneura1 & x w\ld appe> to be a hopeless task to decide ) c]ta9ty "u :i* g5]ic designation su* specim5s %\ld be describ$4 ,! portion ( /em %[n 9 fig4 #fg af=ds an example ( an ,equisetace\s plant1 probably 9 ! =m ( a ca/ ( a holl[ pi?1 :i* might be ref]r$ to ei!r ,phyllo!ca or ,s*izoneura4 ,! specim5 0 f\nd 9 c]ta9 ,s\? ,african rocks :i* are probably ( ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s age#eeg4 ,x agrees closely ) "s /ems f ,india describ$ by ,fei/mantel#eeh z ,s*izoneura gondwan5sis1 & x also resembles equally closely ! ,au/ralian specim5s ref]r$ by ,fei/mantel#eei to ,phyllo!ca au/ralis & "s /ems ( ,phyllo!ca indica figur$ by ,bunbury#efj4 ,! longitud9al ridges & grooves %[n 9 fig4 #fg probably repres5t ! broad m$ull>y rays & ! project+ w$ges ( second>y wood surr\nd+ a l>ge holl[ pi?1 z 9 ,calamites4 ,9 ! ,calamitean ca/s ! ridges & grooves ( ea* int]node usually alt]nate 9 position ) ^? ( ! next1 z 9 ,equisetum 7fig4 #ed1 ,a71 b 9 ,phyllo!ca1 ,s*izoneura & ,ar*aeocalamites !re is no su* regul> alt]nation at ! nodes ( ! int]nodal vascul> /r&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,phyllo!ca8 nat4 size4 ,f a ,s\? ,african specim5 ( ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s age 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,9 ,phyllo!ca & ,s*izoneura !re are no ca/s ( #8infranodal canals' bel[ ea* nodal l9e1 b ^! are by no means always f\nd 9 true ,calamites4 ,x is !re=e practically impossible to det]m9e ! g5]ic position ( su* fossils z t %[n 9 fig4 #fg )\t fur!r evid5ce ?an is af=d$ by leafless ca/s4 ,a few examples ( ,phyllo!ca deliquesc5s h be5 describ$ by ,s*malhaus5 9 :i* a bran* be>s clu/]s ( sporangiophores1 alt]nat+ ) v]ticils ( /]ile bracts4 ,! sporangiophores appe> to h ! =m ( /alk$ peltate app5dages be>+ sporangia1 v simil> to ! sporangiophores ( ,equisetum4 ,solms-,lauba*#efa has exam9$ ! be/ ( ,s*malhaus5's specim5s1 & a c>efully drawn figure ( "o ( ! f]tile bran*es is giv5 9 8 ,fossil ,botany4 ,! significance ( ?is mann] ( occurr5ce ( sporangiophores & :orls ( /]ile bracts on ! f]tile bran* w be bett] und]/ood aft] a description ( ! /robilus ( ,calamites4 ,9 ,phyllo!ca ! sporangiophores appe> to h be5 giv5 (f 9 :orls1 :i* 7 sep>at$ f "o ano!r by :orls ( /]ile bracts1 :]eas 9 ,equisetum !re are no /]ile app5dages associat$ ) ! sporangiophores ( ! /robilus1 ) ! exception ( ! annulus at ! base ( ! cone4 ,he]#efb fir/ drew att5tion to ! fact t 9 ,phyllo!ca we h a =m ( /robilus or f]tile %oot to a c]ta9 ext5t int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 ,equisetum & ,calamites4 ,9 abnormal f]tile %oots ( ,equisetum1 sporophylls occasionally occur above & bel[ a /]ile leaf-%ea?4 ,potoni#efc has figur$ su* an example 9 :i* an apical /robilus is succe$$ at a l[] level by a /]ile leaf-%ea?1 & ?is aga9 by a second clu/] ( sporophylls4 ,z ,potoni po9ts out1 ?is alt]nation ( f]tile & /]ile memb]s af=ds an int]e/+ resemblance betwe5 ,phyllo!ca & ,equisetum4 ,x sugge/s a p>tial rev]sion t[>ds ! ,calamitean type ( /robilus4 #b4 ,phyllo!ca ,brongni>ti ,zigno4 ,fig4 #fh1 ,a4 ,?is species ( ,phyllo!ca f ! ,l[] ,oolite rocks ( ,italy is kn[n only 9 ! =m ( /]ile bran*es4 ,! leaves are fus$ basally into an op5 cup-l %ea? :i* is dissect$ into sev]al spread+ & incurv$ l9e> segm5ts4 ,! int]nodes are /riat$ longitud9ally2 !y are ab\t #b mm4 9 diamet] & #aj mm4 9 l5g?4 ,! specim5 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fh1 ,a1 0 orig9ally describ$ by ! ,italian palaeobotani/ ,zigno#efd2 x s]ves to illu/rate ! po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5 ?is g5us & ! ord9>y ,equisetum4 ,! op5 & spread+ %ea?s clasp+ ! nodes & ! erect solit>y bran*es give ! plant a di/9ctive appe>ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,a4 ,phyllo!ca ,brongni>ti1 ,zigno4 ,nat4 size4 7,aft] ,zigno47 ,b4 ,calamocladus frondosus1 ,gr&',eury4 7,aft] ,gr&',eury47 ,slightly enl>g$4 ,c4 ,phyllo!ca indica1 ,bunb4 ,"p ( a leaf-%ea?4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,geological ,society4 ,slightly enl>g$4 #c4 ,phyllo!ca indica ,bunb4 & ,p4 au/ralis ,brongn4 ,fig4 #fh1 ,c4 ,sir ,*>les ,bunbury#efe describ$ sev]al imp]fect specim5s f ! ,nagpur di/rict ( ,india "u ?is "n1 b he express$ ! op9ion t x 0 n cle> to him if ! plant 0 specifically di/9ct f ! ,phyllo!ca au/ralis ,brongn4 previ\sly record$ f ,new ,s\? ,wales4 ,fei/mantel#eff subsequ5tly describ$ a few o!r ,indian specim5s1 b did n mat]ially add to our k ( ! g5us4 ,bunbury's specim5s 7 obta9$ f ,bh>atwd 9 ,nagpur1 9 b$s belong+ to ! ,damuda s]ies ( ! ,l[] ,gondwana rocks1 usually reg>d$ z ( ab\t ! same age z ! ,p]mian rocks ( ,europe4 ,phyllo!ca indica is repres5t$ by brok5 & imp]fect fragm5ts ( leaf-be>+ /ems4 ,! species is ?us diagnos$ by ,bunbury3--8,/em bran*$1 furr[$2 %ea?s lax1 some:at bell-%ap$1 di/9ctly /riat$2 leaves n>r[ l9e>1 ) a /rong & di/9ct midrib1 widely spread+ & (t5 recurv$1 ne>ly twice z long z ! %ea?s40 ,an exam9ation ( ! specim5s 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 on :i* ?is acc\nt 0 bas$1 has l$ me to ! op9ion t x is practically impossible to di/+ui% ! ,indian examples f ,p4 au/ralis describ$ by ,brongni>t#efg f ,new ,s\? ,wales4 ,! few specim5s ( ! latt] species :i* ,i h _h an opportunity ( exam9+ be> out ?is view4 ,9 ! small] bran*es ! axis ( ,p4 indica is divid$ into r %ort int]nodes on :i* ! ridges & grooves are fa9tly m>k$4 ,9 ! l>g] /ems ! ridges & grooves are mu* m prom95t1 & cont9u\s 9 direction f "o int]node to ! next2 a few bran*es are giv5 (f f ! nodes ( "s ( ! specim5s4 ,! leaves are n v well pres]v$2 !y consi/ ( a n>r[ coll>-l basal %ea? divid$ up into num]\s1 long & n>r[ segm5ts1 :i* are sev]al times z long z ! bread? ( ! %ea?1 & n m]ely twice z long z ,bunbury describ$ !m4 ,ea* leaf-%ea? has ! =m ( a v %all[ cup-l rim clasp+ ! /em at a node1 ) long free spread+ segm5ts :i* are (t5 b5t back 9 _! di/al region4 ,! g5]al habit ( ! leafy bran*es appe>s to be id5tical ) t ( ,p4 au/ralis z figur$ by ,mc,coy4 ,pr(4 ,zeill] in=ms me t 9 ! type-specim5 on :i* ,brongni>t f\nd$ ! species1 ,p4 au/ralis1 ! %ea? appe>s to be closely appli$ to ! /em ) a v]ticil ( n>r[ spread+ segm5ts radiat+ f its m>g94 ,x may be1 !re=e1 t 9 ! ,au/ralian =m !re 0 n su* an op5 & cup-l %ea? z 9 ,p4 indica2 b x w\ld be difficult1 )\t bett] mat]ial be=e u1 to feel confid5ce 9 any well m>k$ specific di/9ctions betwe5 ! ,indian & ,au/ralian ,phyllo!cas4 ,on ! broad] /ems1 su* z t ( fig4 #fg1 we h cle>ly m>k$ n>r[ grooves & broad] & slightly convex ridges1 :i* pres5t an appe>ance id5tical ) t ( "s ,calamitean /ems4 ,9 ! specim5 figur$ by ,bunbury#efh 9 8 ,pl4 ,x1 fig4 #f1 !re is a circul> depression on ! l9e ( ! node :i* repres5ts ! impression ( ! basal end ( a bran*2 on ! edges ( ! node !re are indications ( two o!r lat]al bran*es4 ,! nature ( ?is /em-ca/ po9ts umni/akeably to a woody /em l t ( ,calamites4 ,! precise mean+ ( ! ridges & grooves on ! ca/ is describ$ 9 ! ,*apt] deal+ ) ,calamitean plants4 ,sid5ote3 ,,calamocladus4 ,gr&',eury#efi 9 8 monograph on ! coal-bas9 ( ,g>d1 has rec5tly describ$ "u ! "n ( ,calamocladus frondosus :at he believes to be ! leaf-be>+ axes ( a ,calamitean plant4 ,! ?ick] bran*es are almo/ exactly id5tical 9 appe>ance ) ! broad] specim5s ( ,phyllo!ca4 ,! f9] bran*es ( ,calamocladus be> cup-l leaf-%ea?s :i* are divid$ into long & n>r[ recurv$ segm5ts 7fig4 #fg1 ,b71 precisely z 9 ,phyllo!ca4 ,^! comp>isons lead "o to ! op9ion t ! ,phyllo!ca ( ,au/ralia & ,india may be a close ally ( ! ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s ,calamitean plants4 ,! =m ( ! leaf-:orls ( ,annul>ia 7,calam>ian leaf-be>+ bran*es7 & ( ,calamocladus is ( ! same type z 9 ,phyllo!ca2 ! "* ( ! m$ull>y ca/s is also ! same4 ,! nature ( ! f]tile %oot ( ,phyllo!ca describ$ by ,s*malhaus5 f ,sib]ia1 ) its alt]nat+ :orls ( /]ile & f]tile leaves1 is ano!r po9t ( agreem5t betwe5 ?is g5us & ,calamitean plants4 ,an ,equisetace\s species has be5 describ$ f ! ,newca/le ,coal-,measures ( ,au/ralia by ,e!ridge#egj 9 :i* !re are two =ms ( leaves1 "s ( :i* closely resemble ^? ( ,phyllo!ca indica1 :ile o!rs are comp>$ ) ! /]ile bracts ( ,c+ul>ia1 a ,calamitean g5us in/itut$ by ,weiss#ega4 ,:5 we turn to o!r record$ =ms ( ,phyllo!ca _m ( !m appe> on exam9ation to h be5 plac$ 9 ?is g5us on unsatisfactory gr\nds4 ,he] figures sev]al /em fragm5ts f ! ,jurassic rocks ( ,sib]ia z ,p4 ,sibirica ,he]#egb1 & x 0 ! resemblance betwe5 ?is =m & ! ,engli% ,equisetites lat]alis :i* l$ to ! sub/itution ( ,phyllo!ca = ,equisetites 9 ! latt] species4 ,)\t exam9+ ,he]'s mat]ial x is impossible to criticise 8 conclusions ) any complet5ess1 b sev]al ( 8 specim5s1 appe> to possess leaf-%ea?s m l ^? ( ,equisetum ?an ( ,phyllo!ca4 ,! frequ5t occurr5ce ( isolat$ diaphragms & ! comp>atively long acum9ate tee? ( ! leaf-%ea? af=d obvi\s po9ts ( resemblance to ,equisetites lat]alis4 ,"s ( ! examples figur$ by ,he] appe> to be /em fragm5ts1 ) num]\s long & n>r[ fili=m leaves diff]5t 9 appe>ance f ^? ( o!r specim5s :i* he figures4 ,x may be t "s ( ! less di/9ct pieces ( /ems are badly torn specim5s 9 :i* ! int]nodes h be5 divid$ into fili=m ?reads4 ,he] also figures a f]tile axis associat$ ) ! /]ile /ems1 & ?is does n1 z ,he] admits1 %[ ! alt]nat+ /]ile bracts su* z ,s*malhaus5 has describ$4 ,s f> z x is possible to judge f an exam9ation ( ,he]'s figures & a few specim5s f ,sib]ia 9 ! ,briti% ,museum--& ?is is by no means a safe basis on :i* to f\nd def9ite op9ions--!re appe>s to be little evid5ce 9 fav\r ( sep>at+ ! fossils describ$ z ,phyllo!ca ,sibirica f ,equisetites4 ,?is ,sib]ian =m may inde$ be specifically id5tical ) ,equisetites lat]alis ,phill4 ,v>i\s species ( ,phyllo!ca h be5 describ$ f ,jurassic & ,upp] ,palaeozoic rocks 9 ,au/ralia4 ,"s ( ^! possess cup-l leaf-%ea?s1 & 9 ! case ( ! ?ick] specim5s !y %[ cont9u\s ridges & grooves on ! int]nodes1 z well z a habit ( bran*+ simil> to t 9 "s ( ! ,italian ,phyllo!cas4 ,9 "s ( ! /ems x is h[ev] difficult to recognise any *>act]s :i* ju/ify ! use ( ! t]m ,phyllo!ca4 ,a fragm5t figur$ by ,t5ison-,woods#egc z a new species ( ,phyllo!ca1 ,p4 c>nosa1 f ,ipswi*1 ,que5sl&1 af=ds an example ( ! wor?less mat]ial on :i* species h n infrequ5tly be5 f\nd$4 ,! au?or ( ! species describes 8 s+le specim5 z a 8fa9t impression02 ! figure accompany+ 8 description sugge/s a fragm5t ( "s conif]\s bran*1 z ,fei/mantel has po9t$ out 9 8 monograph on ,au/ralian plants4 ,x is important t a ?or\gh comp>ative exam9ation %\ld be made ( ! v>i\s fossil ,phyllo!cas ) a view to det]m9e _! sci5tific value1 & to discov] h[ f> ! sep>ation ( ,phyllo!ca & ,equisetites is legitimate 9 ea* case4 ,!re is too (t5 a t5d5cy to all[ geographical di/ribution to decide ! adoption ( a p>ticul> g5]ic "n1 & ?is seems to h be5 especially ! case z reg>ds sev]al ,mesozoic & ,palaeozoic ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e plants4 ,! geological & geographical range ( ,phyllo!ca is a "q ( consid]able int]e/1 b z already po9t$ out x is desirable to c>efully exam9e ! v>i\s records ( ! g5us be=e attempt+ to g5]alise z to ! range ( ! species4 ,phyllo!ca is (t5 spok5 ( z a *>act]i/ic memb] ( ! ,glossopt]is ,flora ( ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e1 & its geological age is usually consid]$ to be ,mesozoic r ?an ,palaeozoic4 ,c4 ,s*izoneura4 ,! plants includ$ "u ?is g5us 7 orig9ally designat$ by ,brongni>t#egd ,convall>ites & class$ z ,monocotyl$ons4 ,"s ye>s lat] ,s*imp] & ,m\geot#ege _h ! opportunity ( exam9+ m p]fect mat]ial f ! ,bunt] b$s ( ! ,vosges1 & propos$ ! new "n ,s*izoneura 9 place ( ,brongni>t's t]m1 on ! gr\nds t ! specim5s 7 9 all probability portions ( ,equisetace\s /ems1 & n ,monocotyl$ons4 ,our k ( ?is g5us is v limit$1 b ! *>act]i/ics are on ! :ole bett] def9$ ?an 9 ! case ( ,phyllo!ca4 ,! foll[+ diagnosis illu/rates ! *ief features ( ,s*izoneura4 ,holl[ /ems ) nodes & int]nodes z 9 ,equisetum2 ! surface ( ! int]nodes is trav]s$ by regul> ridges & grooves1 :i* are cont9u\s & n alt]nate 9 _! c\rse f "o int]node to ! next4 ,! leaf-%ea?s are l>ge & consi/ ( sev]al coh]5t segm5ts2 ! %ea?s are usually split into two or m elongate ovate lobes1 & ea* lobe conta9s m ?an "o ve94 ,f]tile %oots are unkn[n4 ,two ( ! be/ kn[n & mo/ satisfactory species are ,s*izoneura gondwan5sis ,fei/4 & ,s4 p>adoxa ,s*imp4 & ,m\g4 ,s*izoneura gondwan5sis ,fei/4 ,fig4 #fi1 ,a & ,b4 ,?is species is repres5t$ by num]\s specim5s f ! ,l[] ,gondwana rocks ( ,india#egf2 x is *>act]is$ by n>r[ articulat$ /ems :i* be> l>ge leaf-%ea?s at ! nodes4 ,! %ea?s may h ! =m ( two l>ge & spread+ elongate-oval lobes1 ea* ( :i* is trav]s$ by sev]al ve9s 7fig4 #fi1 ,b71 or ! lobes may be fur!r dissect$ into long l9e> s+le-ve9$ segm5ts1 z 9 fig4 #fi1 ,a4 ,x is suppos$ t 9 ! "y condition ea* node be>s a leaf-%ea? consi/+ ( lat]ally coh]5t segm5ts :i*1 z developm5t proce$s1 split into two or m lobes4 ,fei/mantel records ?is species f ! ,tal*ir1 ,damuda & ,pan*et divisions ( ! ,l[] ,gondwana s]ies ( ,india2 ^! divisions are reg>d$ z equival5t to ! ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s & ,triassic rocks ( ,europe4 ,! two specim5s %[n 9 fig4 #fi are f ! ,l[] ,gondwana rocks ( ! ,raniganj ,coal-field1 ,india4 ,z already po9t$ out#egg1 "s ( ! specim5s ( flat & broad] /ems ref]r$ by ,fei/mantel to ,s*izoneura are id5tical 9 appe>ance ) /ems :i* h be5 describ$ f ,india & else:]e z species ( ,phyllo!ca4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,s*izoneura gondwan5sis ,fei/4 7,aft] ,fei/mantel2 slightly r$uc$47 ,!re are a few specim5s ( ,s4 gondwan5sis 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 b ! g5us is poorly repres5t$ 9 ,european collections4 ,a simil> plant 0 describ$ 9 #ahdd by ,s*imp] & ,m\geot#egh f ! ,bunt] rocks ( ! ,vosges z ,s*izoneura p>adoxa4 ,?is species be>s a v close resemblance to ! ,indian =ms1 & inde$ x is difficult to po9t to any di/9ction ( taxonomic importance4 ,fei/mantel consid]s t ! ,european plant has r few] segm5ts 9 ! leaf-%ea?s1 & t ! ,indian plant _h some:at /rong] /ems4 ,bo? ( ^! diff]5ces are su* z might easily be f\nd on bran*es ( ! same species4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 int]e/+ to notice ! v close resemblance betwe5 ! ,l[] ,trias ,european plant & ! some:at old] memb] ( ! ,glossopt]is flora record$ f ,india & o!r regions1 :i* probably once =m$ "p ( t ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e ,cont95t :i* is kn[n z ,gondwana ,l&#egi4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,i4 ,,equisetales 7cont9u$74 7,,calam>ieae47 ,9 ord] to m9imise repetition & digression ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! ,calam>ieae is divid$ into sections1 "u ea* ( :i* a c]ta9 "p ( ! subject is m p>ticul>ly dealt )4 ,aft] a brief sket* ( ! hi/ory ( our k ( ,calamites1 & a %ort description ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ! g5us1 ! morphological features are m fully consid]$4 ,a description ( ! mo/ /rik+ features ( ! bett] kn[n ,calamitean types is foll[$ by a %ort discussion on ! "q ( nom5clature & classification1 & ref]5ce is made to ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( ,calamites & to "s ( ! possible s\rces ( error 9 id5tification4 ,d4 ,,calamites4 ,i4 ,hi/orical ,sket*4 ,9 ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! ,calam>ieae ! g5]ic "n ,calamites is us$ 9 a some:at compreh5sive s5se4 ,z previ\s writ]s h po9t$ out1 x is probable t "u ?is g5]ic "n !re may be includ$ m ?an "o type ( plant wor?y ( g5]ic designation4 ,ow+ to ! v>i\s op9ions :i* h be5 held by diff]5t au?ors1 z to ! relation%ip & botanical position ( plants n[ g5]ally includ$ 9 ! ,calam>ieae1 !re has be5 no little confusion 9 nom5clature4 ,facts z to ! nature ( ! g5us ,calamites h occasionally to be select$ f writ+s conta9+ _m speculative & errone\s views1 b ! data at our disposal enable u to give a fairly complete acc\nt ( ! morphology ( ?is ,palaeozoic plant4 ,9 ! e>lie/ works on fossil plants we f9d sev]al figures ( ,calamites1 :i* are 9 mo/ cases describ$ z ^? ( fossil re$s or grasses4 ,! ,h]b>ium diluvianum ( ,s*eu*z]#ehj conta9s a figure ( a ,calamitean ca/ :i* is describ$ z probably a re$4 ,ano!r specim5 is figur$ by ,volkmann#eha 9 8 ,silesia subt]ranea & comp>$ ) a piece ( sug>-cane4 ,a simil> flatt5$ ca/ 9 ! old ,woodw>dian collection at ,cambridge is describ$ by ,woodw>d#ehb z 8"p ( a broad long flat leaf1 appe>+ to be ( "s ,iris1 or r an ,aloe1 b 'tis /riat$ )\t40 ,s*ulze#ehc1 "o ( ! e>li] ,g]man writ]s1 figur$ a ,calamitean bran* be>+ v]ticils ( leaves1 & describ$ ! fossil z probably ! impression ( an ,equisetace\s plant4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out by ano!r ,g]man writ] t ! ,equisetace\s "* ( ,calamites 0 recognis$ by laym5 _m ye>s be=e speciali/s %>$ ?is view4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ & important ( all ! old] records ( ,calamites is t publi%$ by ,suck[#ehd 9 #aghd4 ,suck[ is usually quot$ z ! au?or ( ! g5]ic "n ,calamites2 he does n attempt any diagnosis ( ! plant1 b m]ely speaks ( ! specim5s he is describ+ z 8,calamit540 ,! examples figur$ 9 ?is classic pap] are *>act]i/ic ca/s f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,we/]n ,g]many4 ,suck[ describes !m z ribb$ /ems1 :i* 7 f\nd 9 an oblique position 9 ! /rata & t]m$ by ! workm5 ,jupit]'s nails 78,ngel074 ,previ\s writ]s _h reg>d$ ! fossils z ca/s ( re$s1 b ,suck[ correctly po9ts out t ! ribb$ "* is h>dly consi/5t ) ! view t ! ca/s are ^? ( re$s or grasses4 ,he goes on to say t ! mat]ial fill+ up ! holl[ pi? ( a re$ w\ld n h impress$ ^u x a numb] ( ribs & grooves su* z occur on ! ,calamites4 ,he consid]s x m probable t ! ca/s are ^? ( "s well-develop$ tree1 probably a =eign plant4 ,equisetum giganteum ,l4 is m5tion$ z a species ) :i* ,calamites may be comp>$1 al?\gh ! /em ( ! ,palaeozoic g5us 0 mu* l>g] ?an t ( ! rec5t ,horse-tail4 ,! tree ( :i* ! ,calamites are ! ca/s mu/1 he adds1 h possess$ a ribb$ /em1 & ! b>k mu/ also h be5 m>k$ by v]tical ribs & grooves on its inn] face4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t ,suck[ incl9$ to ! view t ,calamites %\ld be reg>d$ z an int]nal ca/ ( a woody plant4 ,su* an int]pretation ( ! fossils 0 g5]ally accept$ by palaeobotani/s only a comp>atively few ye>s ago1 & ! fir/ sugge/ion ( ?is view is usually attribut$ to ,g]m>1 ,dawes1 & o!r au?ors :o wrote m ?an fifty ye>s lat] ?an ,suck[4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ notices ( ,calamites 9 ! pres5t c5tury is by ,/e9hau]#ehe1 :o publi%$ a memoir 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,am]ican ,philosophical ,society 9 #ahah on ,fossil reliquia ( unkn[n vegetables 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,he gives "s good figures ( ,calamitean ca/s "u ! g5]ic "n ( ,phytoli?us1 "o ( ^? g5]al t]ms (t5 us$ by ! old] writ]s on fossils4 ,among ,engli% au?ors1 ,m>t9#ehf may be m5tion$ z figur+ ca/s ( ,calamites1 :i* he describes z probably grass /ems4 ,by f> ! be/ ( ! e>li] figures are ^? by ,artis#ehg 9 8 ,ant$iluvian ,phytology4 ,?is writ] does n discuss ! botanical nature ( ! specim5s beyond a brief ref]5ce to ! views ( e>li] au?ors4 ,adolphe ,brongni>t#ehh1 writ+ 9 #ahbb1 expresses ! op9ion t ! ,calamites are relat$ to ! g5us ,equisetum1 & ref]s to ,m4 de ,c&olle z hav+ fir/ sugge/$ ?is view4 ,9 a lat] "w ,brongni>t#ehi includes species ( ,calamites z figur$ by ,suck[1 ,s*lo!im1 ,/]nb]g & ,artis 9 ! family ,equisetaceae4 ,l9dley & ,hutton#eij give sev]al figures ( ,calamites 9 _! ,fossil flora1 b d n commit !mselves to an ,equisetace\s aff9ity4 ,an important advance 0 made 9 #ahce by ,cotta#eia1 a ,g]man writ]1 :o gave a %ort acc\nt ( ! int]nal /ructure ( "s ,calamite /ems1 :i* he ref]r$ to a new g5us ,calamitea4 ,! ,briti% ,museum collection includes "s silicifi$ fragm5ts ( ! /ems figur$ & describ$ by ,cotta 9 8 ,d5droli!n4 ,"s ( ! specim5s describ$ by ?is au?or z examples ( ,calamitea h s9ce be5 recognis$ z memb]s ( ano!r family4 ,sid5ote3 ,,petzholdt ,,& ,,ung]4 ,9 #ahdj ,ung]#eib publi%$ a note on ! /ructure & aff9ities ( ,calamites1 & express$ 8 belief 9 ! close relation%ip ( ! ,palaeozoic plant & rec5t ,horse-tails4 ,an important contribution to our k ( ,calamites 0 suppli$ by ,petzholdt#eic 9 #ahda4 ,8 ma9 cont5tion 0 ! ,equisetace\s "* ( ?is ,palaeozoic g5us4 ,! ext]nal resemblance betwe5 ,calamite ca/s & ,equisetum /ems _h long be5 recognis$1 b aft] ,cotta's acc\nt ( ! int]nal /ructure x 0 believ$ t ! app>5t relation betwe5 ,equisetum & ,calamites 0 n confirm$ by ! facts ( anatomy4 ,petzholdt bas$ 8 conclusions on c]ta9 p>tially pres]v$ ,p]mian /ems f ,plau5s*] ,grund1 ne> ,dresd54 ,al?\gh 8 acc\nt ( ! fossils is n accurate 8 g5]al conclusions are correct4 ,! specim5s describ$ by ,petzholdt diff] f ! common ,calamite ca/s 9 hav+ "s c>bonis$ remnants ( cortical & woody tissue4 ,a transv]se section ( "o ( ! ,plau5s*] ,grund fossils is %[n 9 fig4 #gj4 ,! irregul> black pat*es 7 describ$ by ,petzholdt z portions ( cortical tissue1 :ile he reg>d$ ! spaces z m>k+ ! position ( canals l ! vallecul> canals 9 an ,equisetum4 ,our m complete k ( ! /ructure ( a ,calamite /em enables u to correlate ! pat*es 9 :i* no tissue has be5 pres]v$ ) ! broad m$ull>y rays1 :i* sep>at$ ! w$ge-%ap$ gr\ps ( xylem elem5ts2 ! latt] be+ m resi/ant 7 conv]t$ into a black coaly sub/ance1 :ile ! cells ( ! m$ull>y rays left little or no trace 9 ! s&/one matrix4 ,! ?9 black l9e1 :i* =ms ! limit ( ! draw+ 9 fig4 #gj1 ext]nal to ! c>bonis$ wood1 no d\bt m>ks ! limit ( ! cortex1 & ! app5dage indicat$ 9 ! l[] "p ( ! figure may possibly be an adv5titi\s root4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ,ung]#eid 9 #ahdd express$ ! op9ion1 :i* we n[ "k to be correct1 t ! coaly mass 9 ! specim5s describ$ by ,petzholdt repres5t$ ! wood1 & t !re 0 no pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( canals 9 ! cortex z ,petzholdt believ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,transv]se section ( a ,calamite /em1 %[+ c>bonis$ remnants ( second>y wood4 ,f a specim5 7no4 #djicd71 pres5t$ to ! ,briti% ,museum by ,dr ,petzholdt f ,plau5s*] ,grund1 ,dresd54 nat4 size4 ,turn+ to ,brongni>t's lat] "w#eie we f9d an important proposal :i* l$ to no little controv]sy4 ,:ile reta9+ ! g5us ,calamites = su* specim5s z possess a ?9 b>k & a ribb$ ext]nal surface1 %[+ occasional bran*-sc>s at ! nodes1 & hav+ su* *>act]s z w>rant _! inclusion 9 ! ,equisetaceae1 he proposes a second g5]ic "n = o!r specim5s :i* _h hi!rto be5 includ$ 9 ,calamites4 ,! fossils assign$ to 8 new g5us ,calamod5dron are describ$ z hav+ a ?ick woody /em1 & z diff]+ f ,equisetum 9 _! arboresc5t nature4 ,brongni>t's g5us ,calamod5dron is made to include ! plants = :i* ,cotta in/itut$ ! "n ,calamitea1 & x is plac$ among ! ,gymnosp]ms4 ,?is di/9ction betwe5 ! ,vascul> ,cryptogam ,calamites & ! suppos$ ,gymnosp]m ,calamod5dron is bas$ on ! pres5ce ( second>y wood 9 ! latt] type ( /em4 ,! prom95ce =m]ly assign$ to ! p[] ( second>y ?ick5+ possess$ by a plant z a taxonomic feature1 is n[ kn[n to h be5 ! result ( imp]fect k4 ,! occurr5ce ( a cambium lay] & ! ability ( a plant to increase 9 gir? by ! activity ( a def9ite m]i/em1 is a feature :i* "s rec5t ,vascul> ,cryptogams#eif %>e ) ! high] plants2 & 9 =m] ages _m ( ! ,pt]idophytes possess$ ?is me?od ( gr[? 9 a /rik+ degree4 ,al?\gh ,brongni>t's di/9ction betwe5 ,calamites & ,calamod5dron has n be5 borne out by subsequ5t rese>*es1 ! latt] t]m is /ill us$ z a conv5i5t designation = a special type ( ,calamitean /ructure4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ acc\nts ( ! anatomy ( ,calamod5dron /ems is by ,m\geot#eig1 :o publi%$ figures & descriptions ( two species1 ,calamod5dron /riatum & ,c4 bi/riatum4 ,"s ye>s lat] ,gpp]t#eih1 :o 0 "o ( ! greate/ ( ! old] palaeobotani/s1 in/itut$ ano!r g5us1 ,ar?ropitys#eii1 = c]ta9 specim5s ( silicifi$ /ems f ! ,p]mian rocks ( ,*emnitz 9 ,saxony1 :i* ,cotta _h previ\sly plac$ 9 8 g5us ,calamitea "u ! "n ( ,calamitea bi/riata#fjj4 ,gpp]t rightly decid$ t ! plants s nam$ by ,cotta diff]$ 9 important hi/ological *>act]s f o!r species ( ,calamitea4 ,! g5]ic "n ,ar?ropitys has be5 widely adopt$ = a type ( ,calamitean /em *>act]is$ by def9ite /ructural features4 ,! great majority ( ! petrifi$ ,calamite /ems f\nd 9 ! ,engli% ,coal-,measures belong to ,gpp]t's ,ar?ropitys4 ,sid5ote3 ,,williamson4 ,! next proposal to be notic$ is "o by ,williamson#fja 9 #ahfh2 he in/itut$ ! g5]ic "n ,calamopitys = a few examples ( ,engli% /ems1 :i* diff]$ 9 ! /ructure ( ! wood & prim>y m$ull>y rays f previ\sly record$ types4 ,we h ?us f\r names :i* all /& = g5]ic types ( ,calamitean /ems4 ,( ^! ,calamod5dron & ,ar?ropitys are /ill us$ z conv5i5t designations = /ems ) well-def9$ anatomical *>act]s4 ,! g5us ,calamitea is no long] 9 use1 & ,williamson's "n ,calamopitys _h previ\sly be5 made use ( by ,ung]#fjb = plants :i* d n belong to ! ,calam>ieae4 ,z x is conv5i5t to h "s t]m to apply to su* /ems z ^? :i* ,williamson made ! type ( ,calamopitys1 ! "n ,ar?rod5dron is sugge/$ by my fri5d ,dr ,scott#fjc z a sub/itute = ,williamson's g5us4 ,! tw(old division ( ! ,calamites in/itut$ by ,brongni>t has already be5 allud$ to1 & = _m ye>s x 0 g5]ally agre$ t bo? ,pt]idophytes & ,gymnosp]ms 7 repres5t$ among ! ,palaeozoic fossils kn[n z ,calamites4 ,! "w ( ,pr(4 ,williamson 0 l>gely in/rum5tal 9 prov+ ! uns\nd basis = ?is artificial sep>ation2 he insi/$ on ! inclusion ( all ,calamites 9 ! ,vascul> ,cryptogams1 irrespective ( ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( second>y wood4 ,by degrees ! adh]5ts ( ,brongni>t's views ackn[l$g$ ! =ce ( ! ,engli% botani/'s cont5tion4 ,x is "o ( ! _m signs ( ! value ( ,williamson's "w t !re is n[ almo/ complete accord among palaeobotanical writ]s z to ! aff9ities ( ,calamitean plants4 ,9 ! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! ,calamites1 ! g5]ic "n ,calamites is us$ 9 a wide s5se z includ+ /ems possess+ diff]5t types ( int]nal /ructure2 :5 x is possible to recognise any ( ^! /ructural types ! t]ms ,calamod5dron1 ,ar?ropitys or ,ar?rod5dron are us$ z subg5]a4 ,! reasons = ?is nom5clature are discuss$ 9 a lat] "p ( ! ,*apt]4 ,?is t]m 0 orig9ally appli$ ,g5us ,calamites1 ,suck[1 #agad to ! common pi?-ca/s ( ,calamitean /ems1 )\t ref]5ce to int]nal /ructure4 ,subg5]a ,calamod5dron1 ,brongni>t1 #ahdi ,^! names h ,ar?ropitys ,gpp]t1 #ahfd prim>ily ref]5ce ,ar?rod5dron ,scott #ahig to int]nal 7 ,calamopitys ,williamson1 #ahga7 /ructure4 ,,ii4 ,description ( ! anatomy ( ,calamites4 a4 ,/ems4 b4 ,leaves4 c4 ,roots4 d4 ,cones4 ,no fossils are bett] kn[n to collectors ( ,coal-,measure plants ?an ! ca/s & impressions ( ! num]\s species ( ,calamites4 ,9 s&/one qu>ries ( ,upp] ,c>bonif]\s rocks !re are frequ5tly f\nd cyl9drical or some:at flatt5$ fossils1 v>y+ f "o to sev]al in*es 9 diamet]1 m>k$ on ! surface by longitud9al ridges & grooves1 & at m or less regul> int]vals by regul> transv]se con/rictions4 ,simil> specim5s are /ill m abundant z flatt5$ ca/s 9 ! blocks ( %ale f\nd on ! rubbi% heaps ( colli]ies4 ,! s&/one ca/s are (t5 sep>at$ f ! surr\nd+ rock by a loose br[n or black crumbl+ mat]ial1 & ! specim5s 9 ! %ale are frequ5tly cov]$ by a ?9 lay] ( coal4 ,mo/ ( ! e>li] writ]s reg>d$ su* specim5s z ! impressions ( ! ribb$ /ems ( plants simil> to or id5tical ) re$s or grasses4 ,suck[1 & aft]w>ds ,dawes & o!rs1 express$ ! op9ion t ! ord9>y ,calamite ca/ repres5t$ a h>d5$ mass ( s& or m>l1 :i* _h fill$ up ! pi? ( a /em ei!r orig9ally fi/ul> or r5d]$ holl[ by decay4 ,! inve/igation ( ! int]nal /ructure confirm$ ?is view1 & prov$ t ! surface-features ( a ,calamite /em d n repres5t ! ext]nal m>k+s ( ! orig9al plant1 b ! =m ( ! inn] face ( ! cyl9d] ( wood4 ,! ribs repres5t ! m$ull>y rays ( ! orig9al /em or bran*1 & ! int]v5+ grooves m>k ! position ( ! /r&s ( xylem :i* are arrang$ 9 a r+ r\nd a l>ge holl[ pi?#fjd4 ,) ?is brief prelim9>y acc\nt we may pass to a detail$ description ( ! anatomical *>act]s ( ,calamites4 ,! g5us ,calamites may be briefly def9$ z foll[s3-- ,arboresc5t plants rea*+ a height ( sev]al met]s1 & hav+ a diamet] ( proportional size4 ,9 habit ( gr[? ! ,calamites bore a close resemblance to ,equisetum2 an und]gr\nd rhizome giv+ (f lat]al bran*es & erect a]ial %oots be>+ bran*es1 ei!r 9 :orls f regul>ly recurr+ bran*-be>+ nodes1 or two or ?ree f ea* node2 & 9 "s cases ! /ems bore occasional bran*es f widely sep>at$ nodes4 ,! leaves 7 dispos$ 9 :orls ei!r z />-%ap$ v]ticils on sl5d] foliage %oots1 or 9 ! =m ( a circle ( long n>r[ leaves on ! node ( a ?ick] bran*4 ,adv5titi\s roots 7 develop$ f ! nodal regions ( und]gr\nd & a]ial /ems4 ,! cones _h ! =m ( long & n>r[ /robili consi/+ ( a c5tral axis be>+ :orls ( /]ile & f]tile app5dages2 ! latt] 9 ! =m ( sporangiophores be>+ gr\ps ( sporangia4 ,! /robili 7 het]ospor\s 9 "s cases1 isospor\s 9 o!rs4 ,! /ems _h a l>ge holl[ pi? bridg$ across by a transv]se diaphragm at ! nodes 9 ! c5tre ( ! s+le /ele2 ! latt] consi/$ ( a r+ ( collat]al bundles sep>at$ f "o ano!r by prim>y m$ull>y rays4 ,ea* gr\p ( xylem 0 compos$ ( spiral1 annul>1 scal>i=m & occasionally reticulate tra*eids1 ! position ( ! protoxylem be+ m>k$ by a longitud9al c>9al canal4 ,! %oots & roots grew 9 ?ickness by means ( a regul> cambium lay]4 ,! cortex consi/$ ( p>5*ymat\s & scl]5*ymat\s cells1 ) scatt]$ secretory sacs4 ,! increase 9 gir? ( ! c5tral cyl9d] 0 (t5 accompani$ by a consid]able developm5t ( cortical p]id]m4 ,! roots diff]$ f ! %oots 9 hav+ no c>9al canals1 & 9 ! possession ( a solid pi? & c5tripetally develop$ prim>y xylem gr\ps alt]nat+ ) /r&s ( phloem4 ,! above incomplete diagnosis includes only "s ( ! m important /ructural features ( ! g5us4 ,?anks to ! rese>*es begun by ! late ,mr ,b9ney ( ,man*e/] & consid]ably ext5d$ by ,c>ru!rs1 ,williamson & lat] inve/igators1 we are n[ 9 a position to give a fairly complete acc\nt ( ,calamites4 ,! type ( /em mo/ frequ5tly met ) 9 a petrifi$ condition 9 ! ,engli% rocks is t to :i* ,gpp]t appli$ ! "n ,ar?ropitys1 & x is ?is subg5us t =ms ! subject ( ! foll[+ description4 ,our k ( ,calamitean anatomy is bas$ on ! exam9ation ( num]\s fragm5ts ( petrifi$ twigs & o!r portions ( diff]5t specific types ( ! g5us4 ,x is seldom possible to diff]5tiate specifically betwe5 ! isolat$ fragm5ts ( /ems & bran*es :i* are met ) 9 calc>e\s or silice\s nodules4 ,z s frequ5tly happ5s 9 fossil-plant mat]ial1 l>ge specim5s %[+ good surface features & brok5 fragm5ts ) well-pres]v$ int]nal /ructure h to be dealt ) sep>ately4 ,sid5ote3 ,,"y ,,/em4 a4 ,/ems4 ,a transv]se section ( a "y twig1 su* z is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ga1 illu/rates ! *ief *>act]i/ics ( ! prim>y /ructure ( a "y bran* ( ,calamites4 ,! figure has be5 drawn f a section orig9ally describ$ by ,hick#fje 9 #ahid4 ,a v "y ,calamite twig be>s an exce$+ly close resemblance to ! /em ( a rec5t ,equisetum4 ,! axial region ( ! /em may be occupi$ by p>5*ymat\s cells1 or ! abs5ce ( cells 9 ! c5tre may indicate ! beg9n+ ( ! gradual =mation ( ! holl[ pi?1 :i* is "o ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ,calamites4 ,! /ud5t ( petrifi$ ,palaeozoic plants mu/ con/antly be on 8 gu>d aga9/ ! possible mis9t]pretation ( ,/igm>ian #8rootlets1' :i* are frequ5tly f\nd 9 intimate association ) fossil tissues4 ,! intrusion ( ^! rootlets is admirably illu/rat$ by a section ( a ,calamite /em 9 ! ,williamson ,collection 7,no4 #aeeh7 9 :i* ! holl[ pi?1 #b cm4 broad1 conta9s m ?an a doz5 ,/igm>ian app5dages4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,transv]se section ( a "y ,calamite /em4 c1 c>9al canals2 mr1 prim>y m$ull>y rays2 a1 b1 & d1 cortex2 e1 epid]mis4 ,f a section 9 ! ,man*e/] ,museum1 ,ow5s ,college1 #fj4 ,9 ! figur$ specim5 ( a ,calamite twig 7fig4 #ga7 !re is a cle>ly m>k$ diff]5tiation into a cortical region & a l>ge /ele or c5tral cyl9d]4 ,! pi?-cells are already p>tially disorganis$1 b !re /ill rema9 a few fairly l>ge p>5*ymat\s cells int]nal to ! r+ ( vascul> bundles4 ,! few irregul> projections into ! cavity ( ! l>ge pi? consi/ ( small fragm5ts ( cells1 :i* may be ! result ( fungal action4 ,mycelia ( fungi are occasionally met ) 9 ! tissues ( old] ,calamite /ems4 ,! position ( ! prim>y xylem gr\ps is %[n by ! conspicu\s & regul>ly plac$ canals1 c2 ^! h be5 =m$ 9 precisely ! same mann] z ! correspond+ spaces 9 an ,equisetum /em1 & !y are spok5 ( 9 bo? g5]a z ! c>9al canals4 ,ea* canal owes its orig9 to ! disorganization & te>+ ap>t ( ! protoxylem elem5ts & ! surr\nd+ cells4 ,?is may be occasionally se5 9 examples ( v "y ,calamites2 ! canals ( a "y twig (t5 conta9 app>5tly isolat$ r+s :i* are coils ( elongat$ spiral ?reads4 ,fig4 #gb1 ,b repres5ts ! canal ( a twig1 cut 9 an oblique direction1 9 :i* ! rema9s ( spiral tra*eids are di/9ctly se54 ,9 ! /em ( fig4 #ga ! developm5t has n advanc$ f> en\gh to enable u to cle>ly def9e ! exact limits ( ea* xylem /r&4 ,! small] elem5ts bord]+ ! canals con/itute ! prim>y xylem1 !y are fairly di/9ct on ! out] m>g9 ( "s ( ! canals se5 9 ! section4 ,betwe5 ! small pat*es ( prim>y xylem ! outw>d ext5sions ( ! p>5*yma ( ! pi? con/itute ! prim>y m$ull>y rays1 mr4 ,! di/9ct l9e encircl+ ! canals & prim>y xylem has be5 describ$ by ,hick z m>k+ ! position ( ! endod]mis1 b x may possibly owe its exi/5ce to ! te>+ ( ! tissues along ! l9e :]e cambial activity is j beg9n+4 ,?is lay] ( delicate divid+ cells w\ld con/itute a natural l9e ( weakness4 ,ext]nal to ?is l9e we h a zone ( tissue a1 d1 conta9+ "h & !re l>g] cells ) black cont5ts1 :i* are no d\bt secretory sacs4 ,x is impossible to di/+ui% ) c]ta9ty any def9ite phloem gr\ps1 b 9 o!r specim5s ^! h be5 recognis$ imm$iately ext]nal to ea* prim>y xylem gr\p2 ! bundles 7 typically collat]al 9 /ructure4 ,t[>ds ! p]iph]y ( ! twig ! pres]vation is mu* less p]fect2 ! out] portion ( ! inn] cortex1 d1 consi/s ( r small] & ?ick]-wall$ cells1 b ?is is succe$$ by an ill-def9$ zone conta9+ a few scatt]$ cells1 b1 :i* h be5 m p]fectly pres]v$4 ,! twig is too "y to %[ any second>y tissue 9 ! cortex2 b ! tang5tial walls 9 "s ( ! cortical cells af=d evid5ce ( m]i/ematic activity1 :i* probably repres5ts ! beg9n+ ( cork-=mation4 ,! limit+ l9e1 e1 possibly repres5ts ! cuticul>is$ out] walls ( an epid]mal lay]4 ,! irregul>ly wavy "* ( ! surface ( ! specim5 is probably ! result ( %r9k+1 & does n indicate orig9al surface features4 ,sid5ote3 ,,vascul> ,,sy/em4 ,9 exam9+ sections ( calc>e\s nodules f ! coal seams "o meets ) num]\s fragm5ts ( small ,calamitean twigs ) little or no second>y wood2 9 "s ( ^! !re is a small numb] ( c>9al canals1 9 o!rs ! canals are mu* m abundant4 ,! =m] probably repres5t ! small] ramifications ( a plant1 & ! latt] may be reg>d$ z ! "y /ages ( bran*es capable ( develop+ into /\t woody %oots#fjf4 ,longitud9al sections ( small bran*es tea* u t ! xylem elem5ts next ! c>9al canals are ei!r spiral or reticulate 9 "*1 ! old] tra*eids be+ = ! mo/ "p ( ! scal>i=m type1 ) bord]$ pits on ! radial walls4 ,?is & o!r hi/ological *>act]s are admirably %[n 9 ! illu/rations accompany+ ,williamson & ,scott's memoir on ,calamites4 ,! /ud5t %\ld treat ! acc\nt ( ! anatomy ( ,calamites giv5 9 ^! pages z introductory to ! mu* m complete description by ^! au?ors4 ,!y ?us describe ! c\rse ( ! vascul> bundles 9 a ,calamitean bran*3-- 8,! bundle-sy/em ( ,calamites be>s a g5]al resemblance to t ( ,equisetum4 ,a s+le leaf-trace ent]s ! /em f ea* leaf1 & passes v]tically d[nw>ds to ! next node4 ,9 ! simple/ cases ! bundle "h =ks1 its two bran*es atta*+ !mselves to ! alt]nat+ bundles :i* ent] ! /em at ?is node4 ,9 o!r cases bo? ! =ks atta* !mselves to ! same bundle1 s t1 9 ?is case1 !re is no regul> alt]nation4 ,9 o!r cases1 aga91 ! bundle runs pa/ "o node )\t =k+1 & ultimately =ms a junction ) ! traces ( ! second node bel[ its />t+-po9t4 ,^! v>iations may all occur 9 ! same specim54 ,! xylem at ! node usually =ms a cont9u\s r+1 = :]e ! regul> di*otom\s =ks ( ! bundles are abs5t _! place is usually tak5 by ana/omoses#fjg40 ,z 9 ,equisetum1 ! xylem at ! nodes possesses c]ta9 *>act]i/ic features :i* di/+ui% x f ! int]nodal /r&s4 ,x has already be5 po9t$ out t ! xylem ( ,equisetum increases 9 bread? at ! nodes 7p4 #bea1 fig4 #ee1 #d72 ! same is true ( ,calamites4 ,9 fig4 #gb1 ,c1 we h "p ( a radial section ( a ,calamite twig 9 :i* ! broad mass ( %ort nodal tra*eids is cle>ly %[n2 ?is nodal wood =ms a prom95t projection t[>ds ! pi?4 ,9 ! l[] "p ( ! section ! rema9s ( "s spiral protoxylem tra*eids are se5 9 a c>9al canal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,a4 ,ext]nal xylem elem5ts & cambium1 c1 ) imp]fect phloem1 #ajj4 ,b4 ,c>9al canal conta9+ protoxylem1 px4 #fe4 ,c4 ,radial longitud9al section ?r\gh nodal xylem1 px4 #ce4 ,d4 ,phloem elem5ts2 s1 sieve-tubes2 p1 p1 p>5*ymat\s cells4 7,a-,c4 ,aft] ,williamson & ,scott4 ,d4 ,aft] ,r5ault47 ,! tra*eids ( ! nodal wood are (t5 reticul>ly pitt$1 & s diff] 9 appe>ance f ! ord9>y scal>i=m elem5ts4 ,x is r>e to f9d ! phloem cle>ly pres]v$1 b 9 specim5s :]e x has be5 possible to exam9e ?is portion ( ! vascul> bundles1 x is f\nd to consi/ ( elongat$ cambi=m cells & sieve-tubes4 ,an unusually p]fect specim5 has be5 describ$ by ,r5ault#fjh 9 :i* ! phloem elem5ts are pres]v$ 9 silica4 ,fig4 #gb1 ,d1 is copi$ f "o ( ,r5ault's draw+s1 ! sieve-tubes1 s1 s1 %[ sev]al di/9ct sieve-plates on ! lat]al walls ( ! tubes1 rem9d+ "o to "s ext5t ( ! sieve-tubes 9 a ,brack5 ,f]n4 ,! cells1 p1 p1 associat$ ) ! sieve-tubes are squ>e-end$ elongat$ p>5*ymat\s elem5ts4 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic feature illu/rat$ by longitud9al sections is ! nodal diaphragm2 except 9 ! smalle/ bran*es ! int]ior ( ea* int]node is holl[1 & ! r+ ( vascul> bundles is sep>at$ f ! pi?-cavity by a b& ( p>5*ymat\s tissue4 ,at ea* node ?is p>5*yma ext5ds across ! c5tral cavity 9 ! =m ( a nodal diaphragm1 z 9 ! /em ( ,equisetum4 ,by f> ! great] numb] ( ! petrifi$ fragm5ts ( ,calamites af=d pro( ( cambial activity1 & possess obvi\s second>y tissues4 ,9 exceptionally p]fect specim5s ! xylem tra*eids are f\nd to be succe$$ ext]nally by a few flatt5$ ?9-wall$ cells :i* are 9 a m]i/ematic condition 7fig4 #gb1 ,a1 c72 ^! con/itute ! cambium zone1 & x is ! second>y /ructure t results f ! activity ( ! m]i/ematic cells t we h n[ to consid]4 ,sid5ote3 ,,second>y ,,?ick5+4 ,9 petrifi$ examples ( bran*es 9 :i* ! second>y ?ick5+ has rea*$ a fairly advanc$ /age1 ! wood is usually ! out]mo/ tissue pres]v$1 ! m ext]nal tissues hav+ be5 deta*$ along ! l9e ( cambium cells4 ,x is only 9 a few cases t we are able to exam9e all ! tissues ( old] examples4 ,! specim5 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #gc illu/rates v cle>ly ! ext5sion ( ! holl[ pi? up to ! inn] surface ( ! vascul> r+2 ! disorganisation ( ! pi?-cells :i* _h already begun 9 ! twig ( fig4 #ga has "h advanc$ mu* fur!r4 ,! bluntly r\nd$ projections repres5t ! prom95t prim>y xylem /r&s1 ea* ( :i* is trav]s$ by ! *>act]i/ic c>9al canal4 ,alt]nat+ ) ! w$ge-%ap$ gr\ps ( second>y xylem1 x1 we h ! broad pr9cipal m$ull>y rays1 mr1 :i* become slightly n>r[] t[>ds ! outside4 ,! inn] face ( ea* ( ^! wide rays has a concave =m1 due to ! less resi/5t nature ( ! m$ull>y-ray cells z comp>$ ) ! /rong] xylem4 ,! regul>ly s9u\s =m ( ! inn] face ( ! vascul> cyl9d] enables "o to realise h[ ! ,calamite-ca/s 7figs4 #hb1 #ii1 & #aja7 h come to h ! regul> ridges & grooves on _! surface4 ,! broad ridges on ! ca/ m>k ! position ( ! wide m$ull>y rays1 :ile ! grooves correspond to ! m prom95t ends ( ! vascul> /r&s4 ,! tissues ext]nal to ! wood h n be5 pres]v$ 9 ! example %[n 9 fig4 #gc4 ,"s silicifi$ specim5s describ$ by ,/ur#fji f ,bohemia & n[ 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,au/rian ,geological ,survey1 ,vi5na1 admirably illu/rate ! connection betwe5 ! surface features ( a ,calamite ca/ & ! anatomy ( ! /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,transv]se section ( a ,calamite /em4 mr1 m$ull>y ray4 ,aft] ,williamson4 x1 x1 xylem4 7,no4 #aicc ,a4,a4 9 ! ,williamson ,collection47 ,sid5ote3 ,,ar?ropitys4 ,9 ! l>ge section ( a calc>e\s nodule diagrammatically %[n 9 fig4 #ag ,,ii4 7p4 #he7 ! second>y wood ( a slightly flatt5$ ,calamite is ! mo/ prom95t plant fragm5t4 ,! pi?-cavity has be5 almo/ oblit]at$ by ! lat]al compression ( ! woody cyl9d]1 b ! pres5ce ( ! c>9al canals along ! inn] edge ( ! wood may /ill be readily recognis$4 ,! appe>ance pres5t$ by a transv]se section ( ! second>y wood ( a ,calamite is t ( regul> radial s]ies ( r small rectangul> tra*eids1 ) occasional second>y m$ull>y rays consi/+ ( n>r[ & radially elongat$ p>5*ymat\s cells4 ,! pr9cipal rays#faj 9 ! ,ar?ropitys type ( a ,calamite /em are (t5 f\nd to gradually decrease 9 bread? z !y pass into ! second>y wood1 until 9 ! out] portion ( ! wood ! prim>y m$ull>y rays are practically oblit]at$ by ! =mation ( int]fascicul> xylem4 ,9 fig4 #gd1 ,a1 we h a portion ( a s+le xylem gr\p ( a ?ick woody /em4 ,! /em f :i* ! figure has be5 drawn 0 orig9ally describ$ by ,b9ney#faa z ,calamod5dron commune2 we n[ recognise x z a typical example ( ! subg5us ,ar?ropitys4 ,! specific t]m communis 0 us$ by ,ett+%aus5#fab 9 #ahee 9 a compreh5sive s5se to include m ?an tw5ty species ( ! g5us ,calamites1 b s9ce ,b9ney's use ( ! t]m x has come to be associat$ ) a def9ite type ( ,ar?ropitys /em1 9 :i* ! prim>y m$ull>y rays decrease rapidly 9 bread? t[>ds ! p]iph]y ( ! wood4 ,! wood ( ,b9ney's /em#fac measures #be cm4 across1 b ! pi?-cavity has be5 cru%$ to ! limits ( a n>r[ b& repres5t$ 9 ! figure by ! %ad$ portion4 ,! /r& ( cells1 s1 9 ! pi? is a portion ( a ,/igm>ian app5dage 78rootlet071 :i* p5etrat$ into ! holl[ /em ( ! ,calamite & became petrifi$ by ! same ag5cy to :i* ! pres]vation ( ! /em is due4 ,^! intrud$ ,/igm>ian app5dages are ( con/ant occurr5ce 9 ! calc>e\s nodules2 _! intimate association ) ! tissues ( o!r plants is (t5 a s]i\s s\rce ( error 9 ! id5tification ( petrifi$ tissues4 ,! inn] portion ( "o ( ! xylem gr\ps is %[n 9 fig4 #gd1 ,a4 ,ext]nal to ! c>9al canal1 ! xylem tra*eids are dispos$ 9 regul> s]ies & associat$ ) num]\s n>r[ second>y m$ull>y rays4 ,! wid? ( ! xylem w$ge increases gradually z we pass outw>ds1 ?is is due to ! =mation ( int]fascicul> xylem1 :i* 9 ! m p]iph]al portion ( ! /em ext5ds across ! prim>y m$ull>y rays4 ,! few prim>y m$ull>y-ray cells %[n 9 ! draw+ illu/rate ! *>act]i/ic tang5tially elongat$ =m & l>ge size ( ! p>5*ymat\s elem5ts4 ,williamson & ,scott h po9t$ out t ! tang5tially elongat$ =m ( ! m$ull>y-ray cells is ! result ( active gr[?1 & n m]ely ! expression ( ! tang5tial /ret*+ ( ! /em consequ5t on second>y ?ick5+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,a4 ,transv]se section ( "p ( a ,calamite /em4 ,calamites 7,ar?ropitys7 communis 7,b9ney74 s1 ,/igm>ian app5dage4 x1 xylem4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,b9ney ,collection1 ,cambridge1 #ej4 ,b4 ,transv]se section ( a /em4 h1 hypod]mal tissue2 c1 inn] cortex4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,williamson ,collection 7no4 #fb74 #ce4 ,a glance at ! complete transv]se section ( ! /em1--( :i* a small portion is %[n 9 fig4 #gd ,a1--sugge/s ! exi/5ce ( annual r+s 9 ! wood1 b ?is appe>ance ( r+s is m]ely ! result ( compression4 ,! second>y wood ( a ,calamite does n exhibit any regul> zones ( gr[? comp>able ) ! annual r+s ( our =e/ trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,longitud9al tang5tial section ne> ! inn] edge ( ! wood ( ! ,calamite ( fig4 #gd4 x1 x1 second>y xylem & m$ull>y rays2 m1 pr9cipal m$ull>y ray4 ,f a section 9 ! ,b9ney ,collection1 #ej4 ,be=e pass+ to o!r examples ( ,calamitean /ems1 ref]5ce may be made to ! sections %[n 9 figs4 #ge & #gf1 :i* illu/rate "s fur!r po9ts 9 ! /ructure ( ,b9ney's /ems4 ,9 fig4 #ge ! xylem tra*eids are %[n at x1 & betwe5 !m ! second>y m$ull>y rays pres5t ! appe>ance ( long & n>r[ p>5*ymat\s cells2 z ! section is tang5tial ! *>act]i/ic scal>i=m "* ( ! tra*eids is n %[n1 ! ladd]-l bord]$ pits be+ conf9$ to ! radial walls ( ! tra*eal elem5ts4 ,! mu* great] l5g? ?an bread? ( ! cells :i* =m ! rays associat$ ) ! xylem tra*eids1 is a *>act]i/ic feature 9 ,calamitean /ems4 ,! bread? ( ! pr9cipal ray1 m1 %[s t ! section has pass$ ?r\gh ! wood a %ort di/ance f ! pi?2 9 a tang5tial section cut fur!r into ! wood ! bread? ( ! pr9cipal rays w\ld be consid]ably r$uc$4 ,! l>ge m$ull>y-ray tissue consi/s ( squ>e-wall$ p>5*ymat\s cells4 ,! m highly magnifi$ section1 9 fig4 #gf1 %[s a c5tral gr\p ( p>5*yma conta9+ a few transv]sely cut tra*eids1 b ! two k9ds ( elem5ts are n cle>ly diff]5tiat$ 9 ! figure2 ?is gr\p ( cells is an outgo+ leaf-trace :i* is enclos$ by ! /rongly curv$ tra*eids ( ! /em4 ,! section is tak5 f ! node ( a /em :]e sev]al leaf-trace bundles are pass+ out to a :orl ( leaves2 ! few cells int]calat$ betwe5 ! tra*eids belong to ! p>5*yma ( ! second>y m$ull>y rays4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,longitud9al tang5tial section ( ! same ,calamite z t ( figs4 #gd & #ge1 %[+ a leaf-trace & curv$ tra*eids at a node4 ,f a section 9 ! ,b9ney ,collection1 #ajj4 ,sid5ote3 ,,ar?ropitys4 ,,surface ,,features4 ,9 ! small portion ( a /em repres5t$ 9 fig4 #gd ,b1 ! cortical tissues h be5 p>tially pres]v$2 at ! inn] edge1 next ! holl[ pi?1 !re are two xylem gr\ps1 ea* ) a c>9al canal1 & betwe5 !m is "p ( a broad 8pr9cipal0 m$ull>y ray#fad4 ,! cambium has n be5 pres]v$1 b beyond ?is region we h "s ( ! l>ge cells1 c1 ( ! inn] cortex2 ^! are foll[$ by a few remnants ( a small]-cell$ tissue1 & ext]nal to ?is "p ( ! cortex !re is a s]ies ( triangul> gr\ps1 h1 consi/+ ( small ?ick-wall$ cells alt]nat+ ) spaces :i* 7 orig9ally occupi$ by m delicate p>5*yma4 ,! d>k] gr\ps con/itute hypod]mal /r&s ( me*anical tissue or /]eome :i* l5t support to ! /em4 ,! surface ( a /em possess+ su* support+ /r&s w\ld probably assume a longitud9ally wr9kl$ or groov$ appe>ance on dry+2 ! int]v5+ p>5*yma1 contract+ & yield+ m readily1 w\ld t5d to produce %all[ grooves alt]nat+ ) ! ridges above ! /]eome /r&s4 ,! complete section ( ! /em ( :i* a small portion is %[n 9 fig4 #gd ,b1 is figur$ by ,williamson#fae 9 8 #ab? memoir on ,coal-,measure plants4 ,! section 0 obta9$ f ,a%ton-"u-,lyne 9 ,lanca%ire2 x illu/rates v cle>ly a me?od ( pres]vation :i* is occasionally met ) among petrifi$ plants4 ,! walls ( ! v>i\s tissue elem5ts are black 9 col\r & some:at ragg$1 & ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! section is simil> to t ( a section ( a *>r$ piece ( /em4 ,x is possible t ! ,calamite twig 0 r$uc$ to *>coal be=e petrifaction by a lightn+ fla% or "s o!r cause4 ,x is (t5 said t ! surface ( a ,calamite /em 0 probably m>k$ by regul> ridges & grooves simil> to ^? ( ! pi?-ca/1 & t su* ext]nal features are connect$ ) ! arrangem5t ( ! tissues 9 ! vascul> cyl9d]4 ,! indication ( grooves & ridges on ! b>k ( fossil ,calamites is no d\bt ! result ( ! exi/5ce 9 ! hypod]m ( firm /r&s alt]nat+ ) /r&s ( less resi/ant cells4 ,x is v common to f9d ,calamite pi?-ca/s cov]$ ) a lay] ( coal pres5t+ a ribb$ surface1 b ?is is simply due to ! m\ld+ ( ! coaly film on an int]nal pi?-ca/4 ,! broad grooves on su* a specim5 z t ( fig4 #gg are1 on ! o!r h&1 probably an indication ( ! exi/5ce ( hypod]m b&s simil> to ^? 9 fig4 #gd ,b1 h4 ,! specim5 f :i* fig4 #gg is drawn %[s _m int]e/+ features4 ,! figure giv5 by ,gr&',eury1 ( :i* fig4 #gg is a copy1 is some:at idealis$1 b ! v>i\s surfaces c be made out 9 ! fossil4 ,! surface ( ! coaly envelope surr\nd+ ! pi?-ca/1 a1 is di/9ctly groov$1 b ! depressions h no?+ to d ) ! surface features ( ! wood or ! pi?-ca/2 !y are no d\bt due to ! occurr5ce ( alt]nat+ b&s ( ?ick- & ?9-wall$ tissue 9 ! hypod]mal region ( ! cortex2 ! p]iph]al /r&s ( ba/ cells w\ld /& out z prom95t ribs z ! /em tissue contract$ dur+ fossilisation4 ,at b 7fig4 #gg7 we h a view ( ! wood 9 :i* ! position ( ! pr9cipal rays is indicat$ by f9e longitud9al l9es at regul> int]vals2 ! oval projections j bel[ ! nodal l9e are probably ! ca/s ( infranodal canals 7cf4 p4 #cbd74 ,at a ! *>act]i/ic pi?-ca/ is se5 ) a small bran*-sc> on ! node4 ,! sc> on ! middle node1 ,n #b1 is probably t ( a root1 & a root ,r is /ill atta*$ to ! node1 ,n #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,portion ( a ,calamite /em1 %[+ ! surface ( ! b>k1 c2 ! wood1 b2 ! surface ( ! pi?-ca/1 a4 ,n4#a-,n4#c4 ,nodes4 ,r4 ,root4 7,aft] ,gr&',eury4 ,p>tially re/or$ f a specim5 9 ! cole des ,m9es1 ,p>is47 nat4 size4 ,sid5ote3 ,,p]id]m ,,9 ,,/ems4 ,an int]e/+ feature obs]v$ 9 "s specim5s ( old] ,calamite bran*es is ! developm5t ( p]id]m or cork4 ,?is is illu/rat$ on a l>ge scale by a unique specim5 orig9ally describ$ by ,williamson 9 #ahghfaf4 ,figs4 #gh & #gi repres5t transv]se & longitud9al sections ( ?is /em4 ,?is unusually l>ge petrifi$ /em 0 f\nd 9 ! ,coal-,measures ( ,oldham1 9 ,lanca%ire4 ,9 ! slightly r$uc$ draw+1 fig4 #gh1 ! l>ge & some:at flatt5$ pi?1 p1 #db cm4 9 diamet]1 is %[n t[>ds ! bottom ( ! figure4 ,surr\nd+ ?is we h #eh or #ei w$ge-%ap$ project+ xylem gr\ps & broad m$ull>y rays2 ! latt] soon become indi/+ui%able z !y are trac$ radially ?r\gh ! ?ick mass ( second>y wood1 #e cm4 wide1 compos$ ( scal>i=m tra*eids & second>y m$ull>y rays 7fig4 #gh1 #c74 ,! second>y wood pres5ts ! features *>act]i/ic ( ,calamites 7,ar?ropitys7 communis 7,b9ney74 ,ext]nal to ! wood !re is a brok5-up mass1 ab\t #ee cm4 wide compos$ ( regul>ly arrang$ 7fig4 #gh1 #b7 & r ?ick-wall$ cells2 ?is consi/s ( p]id]m1 a second>y tissue1 :i* has be5 develop$ by a cork-cambium dur+ ! increase 9 gir? ( ! plant4 ,! m delicate cortical tissues h n be5 pres]v$1 & ! m resi/ant portion ( ! b>k has be5 brok5 up into small pieces ( corky tissue1 among :i* are se5 num]\s ,/igm>ian app5dages1 pieces ( sporangia & o!r plant fragm5ts4 ,^! associat$ /ructures _c ( c\rse be %[n 9 ! small-scale draw+ ( ! figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 #a4 ,transv]se section ( a ?ick ,calamite /em4 p1 pi?2 x1 second>y wood2 c1 b>k4 7 nat4 size47 #b4 ,p]id]m cells ( b>k4 #c4 ,xylem & m$ull>y rays4 7#b & #c1 #hj47 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,williamson ,collection 7no4 #gi74 ,9 ! radial longitud9al section 7fig4 #gi7 we see ! pi? ) ! project+ wood & ! rema9s ( a diaphragm at ! node4 ,! mottl$ or wat]$ appe>ance ( ! wood is due to num]\s m$ull>y rays :i* sweep across ! tra*eids4 ,! p]id]m elem5ts1 z se5 9 longitud9al section1 are fibr\s 9 =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,longitud9al section ( ! specim5 /em 9 fig4 #gh4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,williamson ,collection1 ,briti% ,museum 7no4 #hj74 nat4 size4 ,sid5ote3 ,,callus ,,wood4 ,! developm5t ( cork 9 a y\ng] ,calamite /em is cle>ly %[n 9 a specim5 describ$ by ,williamson & ,scott 9 _! ,memoir ( #ahid4 ,9 a transv]se section ( ! /em sev]al l>ge cells ( ! inn] cortex are se5 to be 9 process ( division by tang5tial walls1 & giv+ rise to radially arrang$ p]id]m tissue#fag4 ,! section diagrammatically sket*$ 9 fig4 #hj is t ( a ,calamite twig 9 :i* ! wood appe>s to h be5 injur$1 & ! w\nd has be5 almo/ cov]$ ov] by ! =mation ( callus wood4 ,! "y trees 9 a ,palaeozoic =e/ might easily be injur$ by "s ( ! l>ge amphibians1 :i* 7 ! highe/ repres5tatives ( animal life dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 j z our =e/ trees are (t5 b>k$ by de]1 rabbits1 & o!r animals4 ,fissures might also be =m$ by ! expansion ( ! b>k "u ! heat+ influ5ce ( ! sun's rays#fah4 ,su* a specim5 z t ( fig4 #hj gives an air ( liv+ reality to ! petrifi$ fragm5ts ( ! ,coal p]iod trees4 ,x is well kn[n h[ a w\nd on ! bran* ( a =e/ tree becomes gradually ov]gr[n by ! activity ( ! cambium giv+ rise to a ?ick callus1 :i* gradually closes ov] ! w\nd$ surface 9 ! =m ( two lips ( wood :i* f9ally meet ov] ! middle ( ! sc>4 ,! two lips ( callus are cle>ly %[n 9 ! fossil bran* ar*+ ov] ! te> 9 ! wood j beyond ! r+ ( c>9al canals4 ,! tissue ext]nal to ! wood repres5ts ! imp]fectly pres]v$ cortex4 ,a section :i* 0 cut p>allel to t ( fig4 #hj %[s a cont9u\s b& ( wood beyond ! w\nd1 & ! latt] has ! =m ( a small triangul> gap2 ?is section appe>s to h pass$ across ! w\nd :]e x 0 n>r[] & has already be5 clos$ ov] by ! callus4 ,! =mation ( a r diff]5t k9d ( callus wood has be5 describ$ by ,r5ault#fai & by ,williamson & ,scott#fbj1 9 /ems :]e abort$ or decidu\s bran*es h be5 ov]gr[n & seal$ up by cambial activity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,diagrammatic sket* ( a transv]se section ( a ,calamite twig1 %[+ callus wood4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,cambridge ,botanical ,laboratory ,collection4 ca4 #aj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,calamites4 ,longitud9al section 7,r1 radial2 ,t1 tang5tial7 ( a small bran*4 b1 position ( a lat]al bran*4 ,f a specim5 7no4 #aicg7 9 ! ,williamson ,collection4 ,slightly enl>g$4 ,"s ( ! features to be notic$ 9 longitud9al sections ( ,calamite /ems h already be5 describ$1 at lea/ z reg>ds y\ng] bran*es4 ,! specim5 %[n 9 fig4 #ha illu/rates ! g5]al appe>ance ( a /em z se5 9 tang5tial & radial section4 ,9 ! l[] portion1 ,t1 ! c\rse ( ! vascul> bundles is %[n by ! black l9es :i* repres5t ! xylem tra*eids1 bifurcat+ & usually alt]nat+ at ea* node4 ,betwe5 ! xylem /r&s are ! broad pr9cipal m$ull>y rays4 ,at b a bran* has be5 cut ?r\gh on its passage out f ! p>5t /em1 j above ! nodal l9e4 ,9 tang5tial sections ( ,calamite /ems "o frequ5tly sees bo? bran*es & leaf-trace bundles 7fig4 #hc1 ,a71 pass+ horizontally ?r\gh ! wood & enclos$ by /rongly curv$ & twi/$ tra*eids4 ,9 ! upp] "p ( ! figure 7#ha1 ,r71 ! section has pass$ ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! /em1 & ! wood is se5 9 radial view2 ea* node is bridg$ across by a diaphragm ( p>5*ymat\s cells capable ( giv+ rise to a surface lay] ( p]id]m#fba4 ,an outgo+ bran*1 z se5 9 a tang5tial section ( a /em1 consi/s ( a p>5*ymat\s pi? surr\nd$ by a r+ ( vascul> bundles1 9 :i* ! *>act]i/ic c>9al canals h n yet be5 =m$1 b if ! section has cut ! bran* fur!r f its base1 !re may be se5 a circle ( irregul> gaps m>k+ ! position ( ! c>9al canals4 ,su* gaps are (t5 occupi$ by ?9 p>5*yma1 & conta9 protoxylem elem5ts4 ,! outgo+ bran*es1 z se5 9 a tang5tial section ( a ,calamite /em1 are se5 to be connect$ ) ! wood ( ! p>5t /em by curv$ & s9u\s tra*eids1 :i* give to ! /em-wood a curi\sly *>act]i/ic appe>ance#fbb1 z if ! xylem elem5ts _h be5 pu%$ aside & contort$ by ! pressure ( ! outgo+ memb]4 ,a tang5tial section ?r\gh a ,p9e /em#fbc 9 ! region ( a lat]al bran* pres5ts precisely ! same features z 9 ,calamites4 ,! bran*es are giv5 (f f ! /em imm$iately above a node & usually betwe5 two outgo+ leaf-trace bundles4 ,sid5ote3 ,,rhizome ,,( ,,calamites4 ,specim5s ( pi?-ca/s occasionally pres5t ! appe>ance ( a curv$ & rapidly tap]$ ram's horn1 & ! n>r[ end ( su* a ca/ is sometimes f\nd 9 contact ) ! node ( ano!r ca/4 ,?is juxtaposition ( ca/s is %[n unusually well 9 fig4 #hb4 ,9 "s ( ! publi%$ re/orations ( ,calamites ! plant is repres5t$ z hav+ ?ick bran*es atta*$ to ! ma9 /em by little m ?an a po9t4 ,williamson#fbd cle>ly expla9$ ?is app>5tly unusual & inde$ physically impossible me?od ( bran*+1 by means ( sections ( petrifi$ /ems4 ,! bran*es se5 9 fig4 #hb are ( c\rse pi?-ca/s1 & 9 ! liv+ plant ! pi? ( ea* bran* 0 surr\nd$ by a mass ( second>y wood develop$ f z _m prim>y gr\ps ( xylem z !re are grooves on ! surface ( ! ca/1 ea* ( ! grooves on an int]node correspond+ to ! project+ edge ( a xylem gr\p4 ,at ! junction ( "o bran* ) ano!r ! pi? 0 mu* n>r[] & ! enclos+ wood ?ick]1 s t ! tap]$ ends ( ! ca/ m]ely %[ ! cont9uity by a n>r[ union betwe5 ! pi?-cavities ( diff]5t bran*es4 ,mo/ probably ! ca/s ( fig4 #hb are ^? ( a bran*$ rhizome :i* grew und]gr\nd1 giv+ (f a]ial %oots & adv5titi\s roots4 ,!re is a fairly close resemblance betwe5 ! ,calamite ca/s ( fig4 #hb & a /\t bran*+ rhizome ( a ,bamboo1 e4g4 ,bambusa arund9acea ,willd42 x is n surpris+ t ! e>li] writ]s look$ ^u ! ,calamite z a re$-l plant4 ,be=e leav+ ! consid]ation ( /em /ructures !re is ano!r feature to :i* att5tion mu/ be drawn4 ,on ! ca/s %[n 9 fig4 #hb !re is a circle ( small oval sc>s situat$ j bel[ ! nodes1 ^! are cle>ly %[n at c1 c1 c4 ,ea* ( ! sc>s is 9 reality a slight projection f ! upp] end ( an int]nodal ridge4 ,z ! ridges correspond to ! broad inn] faces ( m$ull>y rays1 ! small projection at ! upp] end ( ea* ridge is a ca/ ( a depression or canal :i* exi/$ 9 ! m$ull>y tissue ( ! liv+ plant4 ,!re h be5 v>i\s sugge/ions z to ! mean+ ( ^! oval projections2 sev]al writ]s h ref]r$ to !m z ! po9ts ( atta*m5ts ( roots or o!r app5dages1 b ,williamson prov$ !m to be ! ca/s ( canal-l gaps :i* trav]s$ ! upp] ends ( pr9cipal m$ull>y rays 9 a horizontal direction4 ,9 a tang5tial section ( a ,calamite /em ! summit ( ea* prim>y m$ull>y ray (t5 conta9s a gr\p ( small] elem5ts :i* are 9 process ( disorganisation1 & 9 "s cases ^! cells give place to an oval & some:at irregul> canal4 ,9 ! diagrammatic tang5tial section repres5t$ 9 fig4 #hc1 ,a ! upp] end ( ea* ray is p]=at$ by a l>ge oval space1 :i* has be5 =m$ z ! result ( ! break+ d[n ( a horizontal b& ( cells4 ,williamson designat$ ^! spaces infranodal canals4 ,:ile prov+ t !y _h no?+ to d ) ! atta*m5t ( lat]al memb]s1 he sugge/$ t !y might be conc]n$ ) secretion2 b _! physiological significance is /ill a matt] ( speculation4 ,! ca/s ( infranodal canals are especially l>ge & conspicu\s 9 ! subg5us ,ar?rod5dron1 a =m ( ,calamite *>act]is$ by c]ta9 hi/ological features to be ref]r$ to lat]4 ,williamson#fbe orig9ally reg>d$ ! pres5ce ( infranodal canals z "o ( ! di/+ui%+ features ( ,ar?rod5dron1 b !y occur also 9 ! ca/s ( ! common] type ,ar?ropitys4 ,z a rule we h only ! ca/ ( ! inn] ends ( ! infranodal canals pres]v$ z slight projections l ^? 9 fig4 #hc1 ,a2 b 9 "o exceptionally int]e/+ pi?-ca/ describ$ by ,williamson1 ^! ca/s ( ! infranodal canals h be5 pres]v$ z sl5d] spoke-l columns radiat+ f ! upp] ends ( ! ridges ( ! infranodal region ( a pi?-ca/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,bran*$ rhizome ( ,calamites4 nat4 size4 ,c1 ,c1 nodes %[+ ca/s ( infranodal canals4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,man*e/] ,museum1 ,ow5s ,college4 ,?is specim51 :i* 0 figur$ by ,williamson#fbf 9 two ( 8 pap]s1 & by ,lyell#fbg 9 ! fif? edition ( 8 ,elem5t>y ,geology1 is hi/orically int]e/+ z be+ "o ( ! fir/ important plants obta9$ by ,williamson e>ly 9 ! fifties1 :5 he began 8 rese>*es into ! /ructure ( ,c>bonif]\s plants4 ,a jo9]1 :o 0 employ$ by ,williamson to make a piece ( ma*9]y = gr9d+ fossils1 br\ght a numb] ( s&/one fragm5ts z an (f]+ to 8 employ]1 :om he f\nd to be int]e/$ 9 /ones4 ,! specim5s 87 9 ! ma9 ! m]e/ rubbi%1 b among/ !m10 writes ,williamson1 8,i detect$ a fragm5t :i* 0 equally elegant & rem>kable4444 ,9 lat] days1 :5 ! specim5 s oddly & accid5tally obta9$1 came to be intellig5tly /udi$1 its hi/ory became cle> en\gh1 & ! priceless fragm5t is n[ "o ( ! mo/ preci\s gems 9 my cab9et#fbh40 ,comp>ison ( ?ree types ( /ructure met ) 9 ,calamitean /ems1--,ar?ropitys1 ,ar?rod5dron1 & ,calamod5dron4 ,sid5ote3 ,,ar?ropitys4 ,! anatomical features :i* h s f> be5 describ$ z *>act]i/ic ( ,calamites repres5t ! common type met ) 9 ! ,engli% ,coal-,measures4 ,! same type occurs also 9 ,france1 ,g]many & else:]e4 ,x is t =m ( /em kn[n z ,ar?ropitys1 a sub-g5us ( ,calamites4 ,ar?ropitys may be briefly diagnos$ z foll[s1--conf9+ our att5tion to ! /ructure ( ! /em3 ,a r+ ( collat]al bundles surr\nds a l>ge holl[ pi?1 ea* prim>y xylem /r& t]m9ates int]nally 9 a m or less bluntly r\nd$ apex trav]s$ by a longitud9ally c>9al canal4 ,! pr9cipal m$ull>y rays consi/ ( l>ge-cell$ p>5*yma1 ( :i* ! individual elem5ts are usually tang5tially elongat$ z se5 9 transv]se section1 & f\r or five times long] ?an broad z se5 9 a tang5tial longitud9al section4 ,! second>y xylem consi/s ( scal>i=m & reticulately pitt$ tra*eids2 ! int]fascicul> xylem may be =m$ completely across ea* prim>y ray at an e>ly /age 9 ! gr[? ( ! /em#fbi1 or x may be develop$ m gradually s z to leave a tap]+ pr9cipal ray ( p>5*yma betwe5 ea* prim>y xylem bundle4 ,9 ! latt] case ! pr9cipal rays pres5t ! *>act]i/ic appe>ance %[n 9 figs4 #ga1 #gd1 ,a1 #ge & #gh1 a type ( /em :i* we may ref] to z ,calamites 7,ar?ropitys7 communis4 ,9 ! =m] case ! /em pres5ts ! appe>ance %[n 9 fig4 #hc1 ,d#fcj4 ,a ?ird v>iety ( ,ar?ropitys /em is "o :i* 0 orig9ally nam$ by ,gpp]t ,ar?ropitys bi/riata2 9 ?is =m ! pr9cipal rays reta9 _! individuality z b&s ( p>5*yma ?r\gh\t ! :ole ?ickness ( ! wood#fca4 ,su* /ems z ^? ( figs4 #gc & #gd1 ,b1 may be "y examples ( ,ar?ropitys communis or possibly ( ,a4 bi/riata4 ,! n>r[ second>y m$ull>y rays ( ,ar?ropitys usually consi/ ( a s+le r[ ( cells :i* are ?ree to five times high] ?an broad1 z se5 9 tang5tial longitud9al section4 ,infranodal canals occur 9 "s examples ( ,ar?ropitys4 ,sid5ote3 ,,ar?rod5dron4 ,9 ! subg5us ,ar?rod5dron1 a type ( /em fir/ recognis$ by ,williamson & nam$ by him ,calamopitys#fcb1 ! pr9cipal m$ull>y rays consi/ ( pros5*ymat\s cells 7i4e4 elongat$ po9t$ elem5ts7 & n p>5*yma4 ,^! elongat$ elem5ts are n pitt$ l tra*eids1 & !y are %ort] & broad] ?an ! xylem elem5ts4 ,9 "s examples ( ?is subg5us ! prim>y rays are bridg$ across at an e>ly /age by ! =mation ( second>y int]fascicul> xylem1 & 9 o!rs !y p]si/ z b&s ( ray tissue1 z 9 ,ar?ropitys4 ,o!r *>act]i/ics ( ,ar?rod5dron are ! abundance ( reticulat$ in/ead ( scal>i=m tra*eids 9 ! second>y wood1 & ! l>ge size ( ! infranodal canals4 ,fig4 #hc1 ,d repres5ts "p ( a transv]se section ( ,ar?rod5dron2 9 ?is /em ! rays h be5 occupi$ by int]fascicul> xylem at a v e>ly /age ( ! second>y gr[?4 ,! section f :i* fig4 #hc1 ,d is drawn 0 describ$ by ,williamson 9 #ahga2 ! complete section %[s ab\t #hj c>9al canals & prim>y xylem gr\ps4 ,! pros5*ymat\s =m ( ! pr9cipal m$ull>y rays is se5 9 fig #hc1 ,c1 & ! reticulate pitt+ on ! radial wall ( a tra*eid is %[n 9 fig4 #hc1 ,b4 ,fig4 #hc1 ,a illu/rates ! l>ge infranodal canals z se5 9 a tang5tial section ( a /em4 ,! same section %[s also ! c\rse ( ! vascul> bundles *>act]i/ic ( ,calamites z ( ,equisetum1 & ! position ( outgo+ leaf-traces is repres5t$ by un%ad$ areas 9 ! black vascul> /r&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,calamites 7,ar?rod5dron74 ,a4 ,tang5tial section 7diagrammatic7 %[+ ! c\rse ( ! vascul> /r&s1 also leaf-traces & infranodal canals4 ,b4 ,radial face ( a tra*eid4 ,c4 ,pros5*ymat\s elem5ts ( a pr9cipal m$ull>y ray4 ,d4 ,transv]se section ( ! wood4 7,aft] ,williamson47 ,no4 #cf 9 ! ,williamson ,collection4 ,! subg5us ,ar?rod5dron is v r>ely met )1 & our in=mation z to ?is type is f> f complete#fcc4 ,! ?ird subg5us ,calamod5dron has n be5 discov]$ 9 ,engli% rocks1 & our k ( ?is type is d]iv$ f ,fr5* & ,g]man silicifi$ specim5s#fcd4 ,!re is ! same l>ge holl[ pi? surr\nd$ by a r+ ( collat]al bundles ) c>9al canals1 z 9 ! two prec$+ subg5]a4 ,! tra*eids are scal>i=m & reticulate1 & ! second>y m$ull>y rays consi/ ( r[s ( p>5*ymat\s cells :i* are long] ?an broad1 z 9 ,ar?ropitys & ,ar?rod5dron4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,calamites 7,calamod5dron7 int]m$ium1 ,r54 ,transv]se section ?r\gh two vascul> bundles4 a1 a1 xylem tra*eids1 b1 b1 b&s ( pros5*yma1 c1 m$ull>y ray4 7,aft] ,r5ault47 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic feature ( ,calamod5dron is ! occurr5ce ( sev]al r[s ( radially dispos$ ?ick-wall$ pros5*ymat\s elem5ts 7fig4 #hd1 b7 on ei!r flank ( ea* w$ge-%ap$ gr\p ( xylem4 ,ea* pr9cipal ray is ?us ne>ly fill$ up by b&s ( fibr\s cells on ! sides ( adjac5t xylem gr\ps1 b ! c5tre ( ea* pr9cipal ray is occupi$ by a n>r[ b& ( p>5*yma 7fig4 #hd1 c74 ,! relative bread? ( ! xylem & pros5*ymat\s b&s has be5 made use ( by ,r5ault z a specific "* 9 ,calamod5dron /ems4 ,fig4 #hd is copi$ f a draw+ rec5tly publi%$ by ?is ,fr5* au?or ( a new species ( ,calamod5dron1 ,c4 int]m$ium#fce4 ,9 ?is case ! b&s ( fibr\s cells1 b1 are slightly broad]1 z se5 9 a transv]se section ( ! /em1 ?an ! b&s ( xylem tra*eids1 a4 ,! n>r[ b&1 c1 consi/s ( f\r r[s ( ! p>5*ymat\s tissue ( a m$ull>y ray4 ,at ! inn] end ( ea* gr\p ( tra*eids !re is a l>ge c>9al canal4 ,! "q ( ! recognition ( ! pi?-ca/s ( /ems possess+ ! /ructure ( any ( ! ?ree subg5]a ( ,calamites is ref]r$ to 9 a lat] section ( ?is *apt]4 b4 ,leaves ,leaves ( ,calamites & ,calamitean foliage-%oots1 includ+ an acc\nt ( 77 ,calamocladus 7,a/]ophyllites7 & 77 ,annul>ia4 ,our k ( ! /ructure & mann] ( occurr5ce ( ,calamite leaves is v incomplete4 ,!re are num]\s foliage-%oots among ! fossils ( ! ,coal-,measures :i* are no d\bt ,calamitean1 b z !y are ne>ly always f\nd ap>t f ! ma9 bran*es & /ems1 x is g5]ally impossible to d m ?an speak ( !m z probably ! leaf-be>+ bran*es ( a ,calamite4 ,! famili> fossils kn[n z ,a/]ophyllites1 & 9 rec5t ye>s (t5 ref]r$ to ! g5us ,calamocladus1 are no d\bt ,calamitean %oots2 b !y are usually f\nd z isolat$ fragm5ts1 & x is seldom t we are able to ref] !m to def9ite =ms ( ,calamites4 ,ano!r common ,coal-,measure g5us1 ,annul>ia1 is also ,calamitean1 & at lea/ "s ( ! species are no d\bt leafy %oots ( ,calamites4 ,al?\gh x is g5]ally accept$ t ! fossils ref]r$ to z ,a/]ophyllites or ,calamocladus are portions ( ,calamites1 & n di/9ct plants1 x is conv5i5t1 & inde$ necess>y1 to reta9 su* a t]m z ,calamocladus z a means ( record+ foliage-%oots1 :i* may possess bo? a botanical & a geological value4 ,"s ( ! ,calamite ca/s1 especially ^? ref]r$ to ! subg5us ,calamit9a1 are occasionally f\nd ) leaves atta*$ to ! nodes4 ,9 "s /ems ! leaves are arrang$ 9 a close v]ticil1 & ea* leaf has a n>r[ l9e> =m & is trav]s$ by a s+le m$ian ve94 ,figures ( ,calamite /ems ) v]ticils ( long & n>r[ leaves may be f\nd 9 ,l9dley & ,hutton#fcf1 & 9 ! writ+s ( _m o!r au?ors#fcg4 ,9 ! specim5 %[n 9 fig4 #he ! leaves are pres]v$ ap>t f ! /em1 b f _! close association ) a ,calamite ca/1 & f ! pro(s af=d$ by o!r specim5s1 x is q c]ta9 !y =m$ "p ( a :orl ( leaves atta*$ to ! node ( a true ,calamite1 & a /em hav+ t p>ticul> type kn[n z ,calamit9a#fch 7figs4 #ii1 #ajj74 ,x is probable t 9 "s ,calamites1 & especially 9 y\ng] %oots1 ! leaves _h ! =m ( n>r[ %ea?s split up into l9e> segm5ts4 ,?is "q has already be5 ref]r$ to 9 deal+ ) c]ta9 ,palaeozoic fossils ref]r$ to ,equisetites#fci4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,l9e> leaves ( a ,calamite 7,calamit9a74 ,aft] ,weiss1 slightly r$uc$4 ,a few ye>s ago ! late ,?omas ,hick#fdj1 ( ,man*e/]1 describ$ ! /ructure ( "s leaves :i* he believ$ to be ^? ( a ,calamite4 ,he f\nd !m atta*$ to a sl5d] axis :i* possess$ ! *>act]i/ics ( a "y ,calamite bran*4 ,!re c be little d\bt t 8 specim5s are true ,calamite leaves4 ,! sket*es ( fig4 #hf h be5 made f ! sections orig9ally describ$ by ,hick4 ,fig4 #hf1 #a %[s a leaf 9 transv]se section2 on ! outside !re is a well-def9$ epid]mal lay] ) a limit+ cuticle4 ,int]nal to ?is we h radially elongat$ p>5*ymat\s cells =m+ a loose or spongy tissue1 ! cells be+ (t5 sep>at$ by fairly l>ge spaces 7fig4 #hf1 #e71 especially 9 ! region ( ! blunt lat]al w+s ( ! leaf4 ,"s ( ^! cells conta9 a s+le d>k dot1 :i* 9 all probability is ! m9]alis$ nucleus4 ,^! pallisade-l cells probably conta9$ *lorophyll & con/itut$ ! assimilat+ tissue ( ! leaf4 ,9 ! c5tre !re is a circul> /r& ( cells limit$ by a lay] ( l>g] cells ) black cont5ts1 enclos+ an inn] gr\p ( small-cell$ p>5*yma & trav]s$ by a few spiral or scal>i=m tra*eids con/itut+ ! s+le m$ian ve94 ,x is h>dly possible to recognise any phloem elem5ts 9 ! small vascul> bundle2 !re appe> to be a few n>r[ tra*eids surr\nd$ by l>g] p>5*ymat\s elem5ts 7fig4 #hf1 #b74 ,at "o po9t 9 ! epid]mis ( fig4 #hf1 #a1 !re appe>s to be a /oma1 b ! details are n v cle>ly %[n 7fig4 #hf1 #d72 ! two cells1 s1 s1 bord]+ ! small ap]ture are probably gu>d-cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,a leaf ( ,calamites4 #a4 ,transv]se section2 t1 vascul> bundle2 x1 %ea? ( cells4 #ce4 #b4 ,vascul> bundle consi/+ ( a few small tra*eids1 t4 #c4 ,a tra*eid & a few p>5*ymat\s cells1 ! latt] ) nuclei4 #d4 ,a /oma2 s1 s1 gu>d-cells4 #e4 ,pallisade cells & int]cellul> spaces4 ,f a section 9 ! ,man*e/] ,museum1 ,ow5s ,college4 ,! nature ( ! assimilat+ tissue1 ! comp>atively ?ick b& ( ?9-wall$ cells ) int]cellul> spaces1 & ! expos$ position ( ! /omata sugge/ t ! plant liv$ 9 a fairly damp climate2 at lea/ !re is no?+ to indicate any adaptation to a dry climate4 ,9 ! ,b9ney collection ( plants 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum1 ,cambridge1 !re is a species ( a v small %oot be>+ ?ree or f\r v]ticils ( leaves :i* possess ! same /ructure z ^? ( fig4 #hf4 ,we may probably reg>d su* twigs z ! sl5d] t]m9al bran*es ( ,calamitean %oots4 4 ,calamocladus 7,a/]ophyllites74 ,! g5]ic "n ,a/]ophyllites 0 propos$ by ,brongni>t#fda 9 #ahbb = a fossil previ\sly nam$ by ,s*lo!im#fdb ,casu>9ites1 & aft]w>ds transf]r$ to ,/]nb]g's g5us ,annul>ia4 ,9 #ahbh ,brongni>t#fdc gave ! foll[+ diagnosis ( ! fossils :i* he includ$ "u ! g5us ,a/]ophyllites3--8,/ems r>ely simple1 usually bran*$1 ) opposite bran*es1 :i* are always dispos$ 9 ! same plane2 leaves flat1 m or less l9e>1 po9t$1 trav]s$ by a simple m$ian ve91 free to ! base40 ,l9dley & ,hutton describ$ examples ( ,brongni>t's g5us z species ( ,hippurites#fdd1 & o!r au?ors adopt$ diff]5t names = specim5s aft]w>ds ref]r$ to ,a/]ophyllites4 ,at a lat] date ,ett+%aus5#fde & o!r writ]s express$ ! view t ! fossils :i* ,brongni>t reg>d$ z a di/9ct g5us 7 ! foliage-%oots ( ,calamites1 & ,ett+%aus5 w5t s f> z to include !m 9 t g5us4 ,9 view ( ! g5]ally express$ op9ion z to ! ,calamitean nature ( ,a/]ophyllites1 ,s*imp]#fdf propos$ ! conv5i5t g5]ic "n ,calamocladus = 8rami et ramuli foliosi0 ( ,calamites4 ,"s rec5t au?ors h adopt$ ?is g5us1 b o!rs pref] to reta9 ,a/]ophyllites4 ,9 a rec5t important monograph by ,gr&',eury#fdg ,calamitean foliage-%oots are includ$ "u ! two names1 ,a/]ophyllites & ,calamocladus2 ! latt] type ( foliage-%oots he associates ) ! /ems ( ! subg5us ,calamod5dron1 & ! =m] he connects ) ^? ,calamitean /ems :i* belong to ! subg5us ,ar?ropitys4 ,x is an almo/ hopeless task to attempt to connect ! v>i\s =ms ( foliage-%oots ) _! respective /ems1 & to det]m9e :at p>ticul> anatomical features *>act]is$ ! plants be>+ ^! v>i\s =ms ( %oots4 ,we may adopt ,s*imp]'s g5]ic "n ,calamocladus 9 ! same s5se z ,a/]ophyllites1 b z includ+ su* o!r foliage-%oots z we h reason to believe belong$ to ,calamites4 ,^? leaf-be>+ bran*es :i* con=m to ! type kn[n z ,annul>ia are h[ev] n includ$ 9 ,calamocladus1 z we _c def9itely ass]t t ^! foliage-%oots belong 9 all cases to ,calamitean /ems4 ,gr&',eury's use ( ,calamocladus 9 a m re/rict$ s5se is inadvisable z lead+ to confusion1 see+ t ?is "n 0 orig9ally def9$ 9 a m compreh5sive mann] z includ+ ,calamitean leaf-be>+ bran*es g5]ally4 ,we may def9e ,calamocladus z foll[s3-- ,bran*$ or simple articulat$ bran*es be>+ :orls ( uni-n]v$ l9e> leaves at ! nodes2 ! leaves may be ei!r free to ! base or fus$ basally into a cup-l %ea? 7e4g4 ,gr&',eury's ,calamocladus74 ,! sev]al acicul> l9e> leaves or segm5ts :i* are giv5 (f f ! nodes spread out radially 9 an op5 mann] 9 all directions2 !y may be ei!r almo/ at "r angles to ! axis or incl9$ at diff]5t angles4 ,ea* segm5t is trav]s$ by a s+le ve9 & t]m9ates 9 an acum9ate apex4 ,z a typical example ( a ,calamitean foliage-%oot ! species ,calamocladus equiseti=mis 7,s*lo?47 may be briefly describ$4 ,! synonymy ( ! common] species ( fossil plants is a con/ant s\rce ( confusion & difficulty2 9 ord] to illu/rate ! necessity ( c>eful comp>ison ( specim5s & publi%$ illu/rations1 x may be helpful to quote a few synonyms ( ! species m p>ticul>ly dealt )4 ,! exhau/ive li/s drawn up by ,kid/on 9 8 ,catalogue ( ,palaeozoic plants 9 ! ,briti% ,museum w be f\nd extremely useful by ^? conc]n$ ) a sy/ematic /udy ( ! old] plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,calamocladus equiseti=mis 7,s*lo?474 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum 7,mc,murtrie ,collection1 no4 ,v4 #bifc74 ca4 nat4 size4 ,calamocladus equiseti=mis 7,s*lo?474 ,fig4 #hg4 #ahji4 ,phytoli?us1 ,m>t9#fdh4 #ahbj4 ,casu>9ites equiseti=mis1 ,s*lo!im#fdi4 #ahbe4 ,bornia equiseti=mis1 ,/]nb]g#fej4 #ahbh4 ,a/]ophyllites equiseti=mis1 ,brongni>t#fea4 #ahcf4 ,hippurites longifolia1 ,l9dley & ,hutton#feb4 #ahee4 ,calamites equiseti=mis1 ,ett+%aus5#fec4 #ahfi4 ,calamocladus equiseti=mis1 ,s*imp]#fed4 #ahfi4 ,annul>ia calamitoides1 ,s*imp]#fed4 ,! above synonyms d n exhau/ ! li/#fee1 b !y suffice to illu/rate ! necessity ( a c>eful comp>ison 9 draw+ up tables ( species1 9 connection ) geographical di/ribution or = o!r purposes4 ,calamocladus equiseti=mis may be briefly def9$ z foll[s3--,a c5tral axis possess+ a holl[ pi? ( ,calamitean "*1 divid$ ext]nally into well-m>k$ slightly con/rict$ nodes & int]nodes2 f ! nodes long n>r[ & free leaves are borne 9 :orls2 f ! axils ( "s ( ! leaves lat]al bran*es are giv5 (f incl9$ at a fairly wide angle to ! ma9 axis1 & be>+ cr[d$ v]ticils ( spread+ acicul> leaves4 ,! unusually good specim51 #che cm4 long1 %[n on a mu* r$uc$ scale 9 fig4 #hg1 illu/rates ! *>act]i/ic habit ( ?is =m ( ,calamocladus4 ,x is f ! ,rad/ock coal-field ( ,som]set%ire1 "o ( ! be/ ,engli% localities = ,coal-,measure plants4 ,an exce$+ly good collection ( ,rad/ock plants has rec5tly be5 pres5t$ to ! ,briti% ,museum by ,mr ,j4 ,mc,murtrie2 x includes _m f9e specim5s ( ,calamites4 ,a small example--probably ( ?is species--f ,coalbrook ,dale1 ne> ,dudley1 9 ,%rop%ire1 & n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 illu/rates v well ! appe>ance ( a "y & p>tially exp&$ ,calamitean foliage-%oot4 ,! c5tral axis1 #fe cm4 9 l5g?1 includes ab\t #ae int]nodes1 & t]m9ates 9 a bud cov]$ by sev]al small leaves4 ,lat]al bran*es are giv5 (f at a wide angle1 & small unexp&$ buds occur 9 ! axils ( sev]al ( ! leaves4 ,z an example ( ! leaf-be>+ bran*es :i* ,gr&',eury has rec5tly describ$ z ,calamocladus1 us+ ! g5us 9 a m re/rict$ s5se ?an is adopt$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 ref]5ce may be made to ! fragm5t %[n 9 fig4 #fh1 ,a4 ,! foliage-%oots ( ?is type bore v]ticils ( l9e> leaves1 coh]5t basally 9 ! =m ( a cup1 at ! ends ( bran*es & n 9 a succession ( :orls on ea* bran*4 ,! association ( reproductive organs1 9 ! =m ( long & n>r[ /robili1 ) ,calamocladus is ref]r$ to 9 ! sequel4 ,! specim5s describ$ by ,gr&',eury are 9 ! cole des ,m9es ,museum1 ,p>is2 "s ( ! %oots :i* are well pres]v$ be> a resemblance 9 habit ( gr[? to ! g5us ,ar*aeocalamites4 4 ,annul>ia4 ,9 #ahbj ?is g5]ic "n 0 appli$ by ,/]nb]g#fef to "s specim5s ( bran*es be>+ v]ticils ( l9e> leaves4 ,9 #ahbh ,brongni>t#feg ?us def9$ ! g5us ,annul>ia3--8,sl5d] /em1 articulat$1 ) opposite bran*es aris+ above ! leaves4 ,leaves v]ticillate1 flat1 frequ5tly obtuse1 trav]s$ by a s+le ve91 fus$ basally & ( unequal l5g?40 ,9 ! works ( e>li] writ]s we f9d frequ5t illu/rations ( specim5s ( ,annul>ia1 :i* are comp>$ ) ,a/]s & o!r rec5t fl[]+ plants4 ,lehmann#feh contribut$ a pap] to ! ,royal ,academy ( ,b]l9 9 #agef1 9 :i* he ref]r$ to c]ta9 fossil plants z probable examples ( fl[]s1 among !m be+ a specim5 ( ,annul>ia4 ,he ref]s to ! occurr5ce ( fossil f]ns & o!r plants1 & asks :y we d n f9d fl[]s ( ! rose or tulip2 8 object be+ 8n to acquire va9 glory1 b to give occasion = o!rs to look into ! matt] m cle>ly40 ,! g5]al habit ( ! fossils :i* are n[ includ$ "u ,annul>ia agrees closely ) t ( ,calamocladus4 ,!re is ! same spread+ =m & a simil> foliage 9 ! two g5]a1 b 9 ,annul>ia ! memb]s ( a :orl are always fus$ into a basal %ea?1 & ! segm5ts are n ( equal l5g?4 ,we may ?us summ>ise ! *>act]i/ic features ( ! g5us3-- ,opposite bran*es are giv5 (f 9 "o plane f ! nodes ( a ma9 axis2 ! leaves are 9 ! =m ( n>r[ %ea?s divid$ into num]\s & unequal l9e> or n>r[ lanceolate segm5ts1 ea* ) a m$ian ve94 ,! segm5ts 9 ea* :orl appe> to be spread out 9 "o plane v oblique to ! axis ( a bran*1 in/ead ( spread+ radially 9 all directions2 ! lat]al segm5ts are usually long] ?an ! upp] & l[] memb]s ( a :orl4 ,! vegetative bran*es possess ! same type ( /ructure z ,calamites4 ,a comp>ison ( ,annul>ia & ,phyllo!ca has already be5 made 9 ,*apt] ,,ix4 7p4 #bhb74 ,potoni#fei has rec5tly giv5 a detail$ acc\nt ( ,annul>ian leaves2 he comp>es !m ) ^? ( ,equisetum1 & describes ! occurr5ce on ! lam9a ( ea* leaf-segm5t ( a broad c5tral b& or midrib1 ) a groove1 probably conta9+ /omata1 on ei!r side4 ,he %[s t 9 well-pres]v$ specim5s ( ,annul>ia1 x is possible to recognise c]ta9 m9ute surface-features1 su* z ! pres5ce ( hairs & /omata1 :i* enable "o to detect a close resemblance betwe5 ! leaves ( ,calamite /ems & ^? ( ,annul>ian %oots4 ,x is n always easy to di/+ui% betwe5 ,annul>ia & ,calamocladus2 ! coll>-l basal %ea? 9 ! leaves ( ! =m] is a *>act]i/ic feature1 b t _c always be recognis$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! leaves ( ,calamocladus may sometimes be flatt5$ out on ! surface ( ! rock & simulate ! deeply cut %ea?s ( ,annul>ia4 ,x is difficult to decide h[ f> ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( ,annul>ian leaves 9 "o plane1 :i* is commonly insi/$ on z a g5]ic "*1 is an orig9al feature1 or h[ f> x is ! result ( compression 9 fossilisation4 ,probably ! leaves ( a liv+ ,annul>ia 7 spread out at "r angles to ! axis1 z 9 ! #8v]ticils' ( su* a plant z ,galium4 ,dawson#ffj has describ$ "s fossils f ! ,devonian rocks ( ,canada z species ( ,a/]ophyllites2 ! figures be> a clos] resemblance to ! g5us ,annul>ia4 ,! same au?or figures "s irregul>ly :orl$ impressions z ,protannul>ia1 :i* appe> to be id5tical ) a fossil describ$ by ,ni*olson#ffa f ! ,skiddaw slates 7,ordovician7 ( ,cumb]l& z ,bu?otrephis radiata1 b ! specim5s are too imp]fect to admit ( accurate det]m9ation4 ,annul>ia /ellata 7,s*lo?474 ,fig4 #hh4 #ahbj4 ,casu>9ites /ellatus1 ,s*lo!im#ffb4 #ahbf4 ,bornia /ellata1 ,/]nb]g#ffc4 #ahbh4 ,annul>ia longifolia1 ,brongni>t#ffd4 #ahcd4 ,a/]ophyllites equiseti=mis1 ,l9dley & ,hutton#ffe4 #ahfh4 ,a/]ophyllites longifolius1 ,b9ney#fff4 #ahhg4 ,annul>ia ,ge9itzi1 ,/ur#ffg4 #ahhg4 ,annul>ia we/phalica1 ,/ur4 ,?is species 0 figur$ by ,s*eu*z]#ffh 9 8 ,h]b>ium ,diluvianum1 & comp>$ by him ) a species ( ,galium 7,b$/raw74 ,brongni>t fir/ made use ( ! g5]ic "n ,annul>ia = ?is common ,coal-,measure species1 :i* may be def9$ z foll[s3-- ,/em rea*+ a diamet] ( ab\t #f-h cm41 ) int]nodes #f-ab cm4 9 l5g?1 ! surface ei!r smoo? or fa9tly ribb$4 ,prim>y bran*es giv5 (f 9 opposite pairs f ! nodes1 ! lat]al bran*es giv+ (f small] bran*es dispos$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,! small] bran*es be> v]ticils ( leaves at ea* node2 bo? leaves & ultimate bran*es be+ 9 "o plane4 ,! leaves are n>r[1 lanceolate-spa?ulate 9 =m1 broade/ ab\t ! middle1 #a-e cm4 9 l5g? & #a-c mm4 broad1 hairy on ! upp] surface#ffi2 ea* leaf is trav]s$ by a s+le ve94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,bran* ( ,annul>ia /ellata 7,s*lo?474 nat4 size4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,collection ( ,mr ,r4 ,kid/on4 ,upp] ,coal-,measures1 ,rad/ock4 ,ea* :orl conta9s #af-cb segm5ts1 :i* are connect$ basally into a coll> or n>r[ %ea?2 ! lat]al segm5ts are usually long] ?an ! upp] & l[]4 ,! bran*es are ab\t #f-bj mm4 broad1 ) f9ely ribb$ int]nodes #c-g cm4 long1 be>+ v]ticils ( leaves2 ! ultimate bran*es arise 9 pairs 9 ! axils ( ! lat]al segm5ts ( ! v]ticils4 ,! /robili are ( ! ,calamo/a*ys#fgj type & are borne on ! ma9 bran*es or possibly on ! /em2 !y h a long & n>r[ =m & are atta*$ 9 v]ticils at ! nodes4 ,ea* /robilus consi/s ( a c5tral axis be>+ alt]nate :orls ( l9e> lanceolate /]ile bracts & sporangiophores1 ab\t half z num]\s z ! /]ile bracts2 ea* sporangiophore be>s f\r ovoid sporangia4 ,! anatomical /ructure ( a specim5 ref]r$ to ,annul>ia /ellata has be5 describ$ by ,r5ault#fga4 ,! cortex consi/s ( p>5*yma trav]s$ by lacunae & limit$ p]iph]ally by a d5s] hypod]mal tissue4 ,9 ! /ele ,r5ault describes #ad xylem /r&s1 ea* ) a l>ge c>9al canal4 ,! pi? 0 app>5tly l>ge & holl[4 ,! same au?or describes an ,annul>ia /robilus 9 :i* ! l[] sporangiophores be> macrosporangia1 & ! upp] microsporangia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,annul>ia sph5ophylloides 7,z5k474 ,a4 ,/robilus 7,/a*annul>ia cala?if]a1 ,weiss74 nat4 size4 ,b4 ,vegetative %oot4 nat4 size4 ,f specim5s 9 ! ,collection ( ,mr ,r4 ,kid/on4 ,upp] ,coal-,measures1 ,rad/ock4 ,! ref]5ces 9 ! footnote %\ld be consult$ = figures ( ?is species ( ,annul>ia2 x is f ! exam9ation ( su* specim5s z are ref]r$ to 9 ! note t ! above diagnosis has be5 compil$#fgb4 ,annul>ia sph5ophylloides 7,z5k474 ,fig4 #hi4 #ahcc4 ,galium sph5ophylloides1 ,z5k]#fgc4 #ahfe4 ,annul>ia brevifolia1 ,he]#fgd1 ,/robilus4 #ahgf4 ,calamo/a*ys 7,/a*annul>ia7 cala?if]a1 ,weiss#fge4 ,pr9cipal bran*es #h-ab mm4 wide1 ) int]nodes #h-aj cm4 9 l5g?1 giv+ (f two opposite bran*es at ! nodes2 f ! second>y bran*es arise small] bran*es 9 opposite pairs4 ,! leaf-v]ticils & bran*es are all 9 "o plane4 ,ea* v]ticil consi/s ( #ab-ah spa?ulate segm5ts1 #c-aj mm4 long1 cunei=m at ! base & broad] above1 ) an acum9ate tip2 ! lat]al segm5ts are slightly long] ?an ! upp] & l[] memb]s ( a :orl4 ,! small & cr[d$ leaf-:orls give to ?is species a *>act]i/ic appe>ance1 :i* readily di/+ui%es x f ! l>g]-leav$ =ms su* z ,annul>ia /ellata4 ,a fossil figur$ by ,lhwyd#fgf 9 #afii z ,rubeola m9]alis is no d\bt an example ( ,annul>ia sph5ophylloides4 ,annul>ian bran*es are occasionally f\nd ) cones giv5 (f f ! axils ( "s ( ! leaf-:orls4 ,an int]e/+ specim51 :i* is n[ 9 ! ,leipzig ,museum1 0 describ$ by ,/]zel 9 #ahhbfgg1 %[+ cones atta*$ to a vegetative %oot ( ,annul>ia sph5ophylloides4 ,! long & n>r[ /robili--#be cm4 long & ab\t #f mm4 broad--appe> v l>ge 9 proportion to ! size ( ! vegetative bran*es4 ,a f]tile %oot consi/s ( a c5tral axis be>+ :orls ( bracts alt]nat+ ) sporangiophores1 to ea* ( :i* are atta*$ f\r sporangia4 ,! specim5 9 fig4 #hi1 ,a1 does n %[ ! details cle>ly2 ea* transv]se con/riction repres5ts ! atta*m5t ( a :orl ( l9e> bracts2 ! :ole cone appe>s to consi/ ( a s]ies ( %ort broad segm5ts4 ,! divisions 9 ! l[] half ( ea* segm5t m>k ! position ( ! /]ile bracts1 :ile ^? ( ! upp] half repres5t ! outl9es ( ! upp] sporangia ( ea* :orl ( sporangiophores1 ! l[] sporangia be+ hidd5 by ! r+ ( l9e> bracts#fgh4 ,on "s portions ( ! specim5 ( fig4 #hi1 ,a1 x is possible to recognise ! outl9es ( cells on ! coaly surface-film2 ^! probably belong to ! sporangium wall4 ,?is type ( cone is includ$ "u ! g5us ,calamo/a*ys1 a "n appli$ to ,calamitean /robili ) c]ta9 morphological *>act]s1 z describ$ on p4 #cea4 c4 ,roots4 ,9 #ahga ,williamson#fgi describ$ "s sections ( :at he consid]$ to be a di/9ct v>iety ( a ,calamite /em4 ,! *ief peculi>ity :i* he notic$ lay 9 ! abs5ce ( c>9al canals1 & 9 ! solid pi?4 ,"s ye>s lat] ! same obs]v]#fhj came to ! conclusion t ! specim5s 7 probably ^? ( a plant g5]ically di/9ct f ,calamites2 he accord+ly propos$ a new "n ,a/romyelon4 ,subsequ5tly ,ca% & ,hick#fha gave an acc\nt ( "s examples ( app>5tly ano!r =m ( plant1 to :i* !y gave ! "n ,myriophylloides ,williamsonis2 & ,williamson#fhb sugge/$ ! t]m ,helophyton z a m suitable g5]ic designation4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 demon/rat$ by ,sp5c]#fhc t ! plant describ$ by ,ca% & ,hick 0 id5tical ) ,williamson's ,a/romyelon4 ,williamson#fhd !n gave an acc\nt ( sev]al specim5s ( ?is type illu/rat+ v>i\s /ages 9 ! gr[? & developm5t ( ! ,a/romyelon #8/ems1' :i* he comp>$ ) ! rhizome ( ! rec5t g5us ,m>silia4 ,9 #ahhe ,r5ault#fhe publi%$ an acc\nt ( ,a/romyelon 9 :i* he br\ght =w>d good evid5ce 9 fav\r ( reg>d+ x z a ,calamitean root4 ,! same au?or has rec5tly giv5 "s excell5t figures & a detail$ description ( c]ta9 specific types ( ^! ,calamite roots1 & ,williamson & ,scott's memoir on ! roots ( ,calamites has r5d]$ our k ( ,a/romyelon almo/ complete4 ,"s ( ! f9e/ specim5s1 9 :i* ! organic connection betwe5 typical ,calamite /ems & ,a/romyelon roots is cle>ly demon/rat$1 are 9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum1 ,p>is4 ,!re are sev]al sections also f ,engli% mat]ial :i* %[ ! connection betwe5 root & /em v cle>ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,pi?-ca/ ( a ,calamite /em1 ) roots2 emb$d$ 9 s&/one & %ale4 7,aft] ,gr&',eury47 ,mu* r$uc$4 ,ca/s ( ! holl[ pi? ( ,calamite rhizomes or a]ial bran*es are occasionally f\nd 9 :i* sl5d] app5dages are giv5 (f ei!r s+ly or 9 tufts f ! nodal regions4 ,_m examples ( su* ca/s h be5 figur$ by ,l9dley & ,hutton#fhf1 ,b9ney#fhg1 ,gr&',eury#fhh1 ,weiss#fhi1 ,/ur1 & o!r writ]s#fij4 ,! l>ge /em-ca/ ( fig4 #ij illu/rates ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( long bran*$ roots on ! nodes ( a ,calamite gr[+ 9 s&y or clay soil4 ,! l[] & m d>kly %ad$ portion ( ! specim5 is cov]$ by a lay] ( coal repres5t+ ! c>bonis$ wood & cortex1 :i* has be5 m\ld$ on to ! s&/one pi?-ca/4 ,9 fig4 #gg 7p4 #caf7 a fairly ?ick root is se51 9 organic connection ) "o ( ! nodes1 ,n #c1 & on ,n #b !re is a sc> ( ano!r root4 ,!re are c]ta9 ext]nal *>act]s by :i* "o may (t5 recognise a ,calamitean root4 ,!re is no division into nodes & int]nodes z 9 /ems1 & z ! pi? ( ! root 0 usually solid ! p>allel ribs & grooves ( /em-ca/s are n pres5t4 ,9 small] flatt5$ roots !re may sometimes be se5 a c5tral or exc5tric black l9e repres5t+ ! /ele1 & ! surface ( ! root pres5ts a curi\s wr9kl$ or %agre5 texture1 probably due to ! %r9kage ( ! loose lacun> cortex4 ,! occasional exc5tric position ( ! /ele is no d\bt due to ! displacem5t ( ! vascul> cyl9d] z a result ( ! rapid decay ( ! cortical tissues4 ,9 ! ,b]gakademie ( ,b]l9 !re are "s unusually good examples ( ,calamite ca/s be>+ well-pres]v$ root-impressions2 ^! include ! orig9al specim5s figur$ by ,weiss#fia4 ,no d\bt "s ( ! roots figur$ by v>i\s writ]s "u ! names ,p9nul>ia#fib & ,hydatica#fic belong to ,calamites1 b x is (t5 impossible to id5tify deta*$ specim5s ) any c]ta9ty4 ,! section figur$ diagrammatically 9 fig4 #ia ,a %[s ! *>act]i/ic s+le s]ies ( l>ge lacunae1 l1 9 ! middle cortical region4 ,9 ! c5tre !re is a wide solid pi? surr\nd$ by a r+ ( vascul> tissue1 x4 ,! appe>ance ( ! middle cortex is v l t ( ! /em ( a wat]-plant su* z ,myriophyllum1 ! ,wat] ,milfoil2 x %[s t ! ,calamite roots grew ei!r 9 wat] or swampy gr\nd4 ,9 fig4 #ia ,b1 ! root *>act]s are cle>ly se52 ! c5tre ( ! /ele is occupi$ by l>ge p>5*ymat\s cells :i* are r long] ?an broad 9 longitud9al view2 at ! p]iph]y !re are f\r protoxylem gr\ps px1 alt]nat+ ) f\r gr\ps ( phloem1 ph1 ! latt] be+ situat$ a little fur!r f ! c5tre ( ! /ele4 ,! /ructure is !re=e t ( a typical tetr>* root4 ,9 ! example repres5t$ 9 ! figure second>y ?ick5+ has begun1 & ! cambial cells int]nal to ea* phloem gr\p h giv5 rise to a few radially dispos$ tra*eids1 x4 ,beyond ! phloem !re are two lay]s ( p>5*yma repres5t+1 z reg>ds position1 a p]icycle & an endod]mis4 ,9 ! ord9>y p]icycle & endod]mis ( ! roots ( mo/ plants ! cells ( ! two lay]s are on alt]nate radii1 b 9 ! ,calamite root1 z 9 ,equisetum roots1 ! cells ( ^! lay]s are plac$ on ! same radii1 z se5 9 ! neighb\rhood ( x 9 ! figure4 ,?is correspond5ce ( ! radial walls ( ! endod]mal & p]icyclic cells po9ts to ! developm5t ( bo? lay]s f "o "m-lay]1 & sugge/s ! #8d\ble endod]mis' or phloeot]ma ( ,equisetum 7p4 #bed74 ,! cells 9 ! out] ( ^! two lay]s h slight ?ick5+s on ! radial walls recall+ ! usual "* ( endod]mal cells4 ,! phloeot]ma is succe$$ by a few lay]s ( p>5*yma1 con/itut+ ! inn] cortex1 & beyond ?is we h ! l>ge lacunae sep>at$ f "o ano!r by sl5d] trabeculae ( cells4 ,! out] cortex is limit$ by a well-def9$ lay] ( ?ick-wall$ cells1 :i* may be spok5 ( z ! epid]moidal#fid lay]4 ,roots possess+ ?is sup]ficial lay] ( ?ick] cells h no d\bt lo/ ! orig9al surface-lay] :i* produc$ ! absorptive root-hairs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,a4 ,diagrammatic sket* ( a transv]se section ( a "y root ( ,calamites4 x1 xylem2 l1 lacuna4 ,aft] ,hick4 ,b4 ,c5tral cyl9d] 7/ele7 ( root1 px1 protoxylem2 ph1 phloem2 x1 second>y xylem2 l1 phloeot]ma4 #ge4 ,aft] ,williamson & ,scott4 ,! xylem elem5ts h ! =m ( spiral1 reticulate & scal>i=m tra*eids4 ,9 roots or rootlets small] ?an t %[n 9 fig4 #ia ,b1 ! prim>y xylem may ext5d to ! c5tre ( ! /ele1 & =m a cont9u\s axial /r&2 9 su* examples ! /ructure may be di>*1 tri>* or tetr>*4 ,! orig9 ( ! cambium agrees ) t 9 rec5t roots1 ! cells imm$iately ext]nal to ! protoxylem tra*eids become m]i/ematic1 z also ^? int]nal to ! phloem4 ,ano!r root-"* is se5 9 ! endog5\s orig9 ( lat]al memb]s4 ,good examples ( bran*+ roots are figur$ by ,williamson#fie & by ,williamson & ,scott#fif4 ,old] roots#fig are usually f\nd 9 a decorticat$ condition4 ,a transv]se section ( root 9 :i* second>y ?ick5+ has be5 active = "s "t pres5ts on a sup]ficial view a close resemblance to a /em ( ,calamites1 b a c>eful comp>ison at once reveals important po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,! specim5 diagrammatically sket*$ 9 fig4 #ib illu/rates v cle>ly ! orig9 ( a root f ! node ( a ,calamite /em4 ,! section has pass$ ?r\gh a /em 9 a tang5tial direction1 %[+ ! *>act]i/ic arrangem5t ( ! vascul> bundles x1 & pr9cipal m$ull>y rays m4 ,! small leaf-traces1 t1 t1 af=d ano!r feature *>act]i/ic ( a ,calamite /em4 ,! portion ( /em to ! "r ( ! figure has be5 slightly displac$1 & betwe5 ?is piece & ! root ,r1 "o ( ! ubiquit\s ,/igm>ian app5dages1 s1 has ins]t$ itself4 ,at ,r a fairly ?ick & decorticat$ root is se5 9 oblique transv]se section2 at ! upp] end ! root tra*eids are se5 9 direct cont9uity ) ! xylem ( ! /em4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! root is ! l>ge solid pi? surr\nd$ by twelve bluntly po9t$ xylem gr\ps1 compos$ 9 ! ma9 ( radially dispos$ scal>i=m elem5ts ) n>r[ second>y m$ull>y rays l ^? 9 a /em4 ,betwe5 ea* xylem gr\p !re is a broad m$ull>y ray1 :i* tap]s rapidly t[>ds ! outside1 & is soon oblit]at$ by ! =mation ( int]fascicul> second>y xylem4 ,at ,r a portion ( ano!r root is se5 9 transv]se section1 & ,r ! inn] "p ( a s+le xylem gr\p is %[n m cle>ly4 ,! solid pi? & ! abs5ce ( c>9al canals are ! two mo/ obvi\s di/+ui%+ features ( ! roots4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,tang5tial section ?r\gh a node ( ,calamites1 %[+ a root 9 organic connection ) ! /em4 ,r1 ,r4 ,root 7,a/romyelon7 9 transv]se & oblique section1 x1 xylem2 m1 prim>y m$ull>y ray2 t1 leaf-trace2 s1 ,/igm>ian app5dage4 ,r1 ! inn] portion ( "o ( ! xylem w$ges ( ,r m highly magnifi$4 ,sket*$ f a section 9 ! ,cambridge ,botanical ,laboratory ,collection4 ,z ,r5ault po9ts out1 roots ( ,calamites h be5 figur$ by "s writ]s#fih z examples ( /ems1 b x is usually comp>atively easy to di/+ui% betwe5 roots & /ems4 ,on exam9+ ! xylem gr\ps m closely1 "o notices t ! apex ( ea* is occupi$ by a triangul> gr\p ( c5tripetally-develop$ prim>y tra*eids1 ! n>r[ spiral protoxylem elem5ts occupy+ ! outw>dly direct$ apex4 ,! protoxylem apex is usually foll[$ ext]nally by a ray ( "o or two radially dispos$ s]ies ( p>5*ymat\s cells4 ,?is ray is n di/+ui%$ 9 fig4 #ib ,r f ! r[s ( xylem tra*eids4 ,ea* xylem gr\p is ?us =m$ p>tly ( c5tripetal xylem & 9 "p ( second>y c5trifugal xylem2 ! latt] is associat$ ) second>y m$ull>y rays1 z 9 /ems1 & conta9s a broad] ray 7fascicul> ray ( ,williamson & ,scott#fii7 imm$iately opposite ea* protoxylem /r&4 ,9 ! roots ( rec5t plants 7e4g4 ,cucurbita1 ,phaseolus1 c47 a broad m$ull>y ray is (t5 f\nd opposite ! protoxylem1 & su* an arrangem5t is a p]fectly normal /ructure 9 roots#gjj4 ,r5ault has rec5tly describ$ sev]al species ( ,calamite roots :i* he designates by specific names1 "s ( !m belong+ to /ems ) ! ,ar?ropitys /ructure1 & o!rs to ,calamod5dron4 ,"s ( ! roots figur$ by ! ,fr5* au?or h an axial /r& ( xylem ) #g-ae project+ angles ( protoxylem#gja4 ,^! he consid]s true roots1 b ! l>g] specim5s ) a wide pi? he pref]s to reg>d z /olons4 ,9 ! latt] he m5tions ! union ( ! prim>y c5tripetal ) ! second>y c5trifugal wood z a di/+ui%+ feature4 ,x has be5 %[n1 h[ev]1 t ea* gr\p ( second>y xylem includes a m$ian ray ( p>5*yma1 & t ! :ole /ructure is ess5tially t ( a root1 & n t ( a modifi$ /em or /olon4 ,! organs describ$ by ,r5ault z true roots are probably rootlets1 & z ,williamson & ,scott h demon/rat$1 !re is e gradation betwe5 ! small] specim5s ) a solid xylem axis & ^? ) a l>ge c5tral pi?4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ,r5ault's figures ( ,calamod5dron roots %[ ! close/ resemblance to ^? ( ! subg5us ,ar?ropitys4 d4 ,cones4 ,! occurr5ce ( fossil plants 9 ! =m ( isolat$ fragm5ts is a con/ant s\rce ( difficulty1 & is well illu/rat$ by ! num]\s examples ( /robili :i* _c be connect$ ) _! p>5t /ems4 ,we are1 h[ev]1 usually able to recognise ,calamitean cones if ! impressions or petrifi$ specim5s are fairly well pres]v$1 b x is seldom possible to correlate p>ticul> types ( cones ) ! correspond+ species ( foliage-%oots or /ems4 ,palaeobotanical lit]ature conta9s num]\s illu/rations & descriptions ( long & n>r[ /robili designat$ by diff]5t g5]ic t]ms su* z ,volkmannia1 ,brukmannia1 ,calamo/a*ys1 ,macro/a*ya & o!rs2 _m ( ^! h s9ce be5 recognis$ z ! cones ( ,calamites1 :ile "s species ( ,volkmannia h be5 id5tifi$ ) ,sph5ophyllum /ems4 ,be=e fur!r consid]+ ! g5]al "q ( ,calamite cones1 a few examples may be describ$ 9 detail z types ( fructification :i* are kn[n to h be5 borne by ,calamites4 ,! examples select$ are species ( ! two provisional g5]a ,calamo/a*ys & ,palaeo/a*ya4 ,! usual =m ( a ,calamite cone is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #ic1 :i* repres5ts a f]tile %oot be>+ a few n>r[ l9e> leaves ( ! ,calamocladus type2 9 ! axils ( "s ( ^! are borne ! long /robili4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,calamo/a*ys sp4 ,a f]tile ,calamitean %oot4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,geological ,survey ,museum1 ,j]myn ,/reet1 ,london4 ,f ! ,upp] ,coal-,measures ( ,monm\?%ire 7,no4 #eeci74 ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana 7,c>r474 ,figs4 #id & #ie4 ,9 #ahfg ,c>ru!rs#gjb gave an acc\nt ( ! /ructural features ( ! species ( cones nam$ by him ,volkmannia ,ludwigi & ,v4 ,b9neyi1 ! g5]ic t]m hav+ be5 orig9ally us$ by ,/]nb]g#gjc = "s impressions ( ,c>bonif]\s /robili4 ,brongni>t#gjd 9 #ahdi ref]r$ to ! v>i\s =ms ( ,volkmannia z cones ( ,a/]ophyllitean bran*es1 & ! latt] he reg>d$ z ! foliage-%oots ( a ,calamite /em4 ,9 #ahfh ,b9ney#gje publi%$ a description1 ) sev]al illu/rations1 ( ! cones nam$ by ,c>ru!rs ,volkmannia ,b9neyi1 & ref]r$ to !m z ! fructification ( t type ( ,calamite /em spok5 ( 9 a previ\s section ( ?is *apt] 7p4 #caa7 z ,calamites 7,ar?ropitys7 communis 7,b9ney74 ,?is cone is n[ usually spok5 ( z ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana2 ! specific "n ,b9neyana be+ sugge/$ by ,s*imp]#gjf 9 #ahfi z m euphoni\s ?an t propos$ by ,c>ru!rs4 ,9 rec5t ye>s our k ( bo? ,c4 ,b9neyana & ,c4 ,ludwigi has be5 consid]ably ext5d$4 ,we %all conf9e our att5tion 9 ! foll[+ acc\nt to ! =m] species#gjg4 ,"s excell5t figures ( ! latt] species may be f\nd 9 ,weiss' ,memoir#gjh on ,calam>ieae4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/ examples ( ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana s f> record$ has a l5g? ( #c-d cm4 & a maximum diamet] ( ab\t #ge mm4 ,! axis ( ! cone be>s :orls ( /]ile leaves or bracts at equal di/ances2 ! l9e> bracts ( ea* :orl are coh]5t basally z a disc or plate ( tissue atta*$ at "r angles to ! c5tral axis ( ! cone4 ,! p]iph]y ( ea* ( ^! discs divides up into twelve l9e> segm5ts1 :i* curve upw>ds 9 a direction m or less p>allel to ! /robilus axis1 & at "r angles to ! coh]5t portion ( ea* :orl4 ,! mann] ( occurr5ce ( ! :orls is %[n 9 fig4 #id1 :i* has be5 sket*$ f a l>ge section 9 ! ,williamson collection4 ,! segm5ts ( ! successive /]ile v]ticils alt]nate ) "o ano!r1 s t 9 ! surface-view ( a cone ! long & n>r[ free bracts appe> spirally dispos$4 ,midway betwe5 ^! alt]nat+ /]ile v]ticils !re is a s]ies ( f]tile app5dages1 also giv5 (f 9 regul> :orls4 ,ea* f]tile :orl consi/s ( ab\t half z _m memb]s z ! segm5ts ( a /]ile :orl1 & ! memb]s ( ! sev]al f]tile :orls are sup]pos$ & n alt]nate4 ,ea* memb] has ! =m ( a /alk or sporangiophore giv5 (f at "r angles f ! cone axis2 ?is is exp&$ di/ally into a peltate disc be>+ f\r sporangia atta*$ to its inn] face4 ,9 fig4 #id we c only see ! basal portions ( ! sporangiophores1 :i* are %[n 9 ! upp] "p ( ! sket* z po9t$ projections1 ,sp1 f ! cone axis4 ,ea* sporangiophore is trav]s$ by a vascul> /r& :i* s5ds (f a bran* to ! base ( a sporangium 7fig4 #ie1 ,a1 t74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana 7,c>r47 9 longitud9al 7radial & tang5tial7 section4 ,sp1 sporangiophores2 ,s1 sporangia4 7,f specim5 no4 #ajbb 9 ! ,williamson ,collection1 ,briti% ,museum47 ,! axis ( ! cone is occupi$ by a s+le /ele1 usually triangul> 9 section2 ! /ele consi/s ( a solid pi? ( elongat$ cells surr\nd$ by six vascul> bundles1 two at ea* corn]4 ,a some:at irregul> gap m>ks ! position ( ! protoxylem ( ea* /r&1 & portions ( spiral or annul> tra*eids may occasionally be se5 9 ! cavity4 ,^! cavities1 :i* may be spok5 ( z ! c>9al canals1 disappe> at ! nodes1 :]e !re is a mass ( %ort reticulately pitt$ tra*eids1 z 9 a ,calamite /em4 ,vascul> bundles pass upw>ds 9 an oblique direction f ! c5tral /ele to supply ! bracts1 ea* ( :i* is trav]s$ by a s+le /r& ( tra*eids4 ,! coh]5t portion1 or disc1 ( ea* /]ile :orl consi/s ( scl]5*ymat\s elem5ts t[>ds ! upp] surface1 & ( p>5*yma bel[4 ,! p$icel ( ! sporangiophores consi/s ( fairly ?ick-wall$ cells trav]s$ by a s+le vascul> /r&1 & ! peltate di/al portions are made up ( p>5*ymat\s cells arrang$ 9 a palisade-l =m at "r angles to ! free surface ( ! sporangiophores4 ,! vascul> /r& ( ! p$icel =ks into two halves j bel[ ! peltate head1 & ^! bran*es aga9 bifurcate to s5d a bran* to ea* sporangium4 ,! f\r sporangia ( ea* sporangiophore are atta*$ by a n>r[ b& ( tissue to ! %ield-%ap$ di/al expansion 7fig4 #ie1 ,a74 ,9 a tang5tial section ( a cone1 su* z ! l[] portion ( fig4 #id & 9 fig4 #ie1 ,b1 ! sporangiophores pres5t ! appe>ance ( n>r[ /alks 7fig4 #ie1 ,b1 a7 9 ! middle ( a clu/] ( sporangia1 & ! latt] appe> m or less squ>e 9 outl9e4 ,! wall ( a sporangium is made ( a s+le lay] ( cells 7fig4 #ie1 ,b7 :i* pres5t a *>act]i/ic appe>ance 9 surface-view 7fig4 #ie1 ,c71 ! ?9 walls be+ cross$ at "r angles by small v]tical plates4 ,9 ! tang5tial section ( ! coh]5t /]ile :orls 7fig4 #ie1 ,b1 b & b7 ! vascul> /r&s are occasionally se5 9 transv]se section 7fig4 #ie1 ,b1 t71 z !y pass outw>ds to ! sev]al free bracts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana 7,c>r474 ,a4 ,a sporangiophore & "o sporangium4 t1 vascul> bundle4 #de4 ,b4 ,tang5tial section %[+ portions ( two /]ile discs1 b1 b2 a sporangiophore1 a1 ) its f\r sporangia1 9 two ( :i* are se5 ! spores2 t1 vascul> bundle4 #ce4 ,c4 ,surface-view ( cells ( a sporangium wall4 #acj4 ,d4 ,spores & rema9s ( "m-cells4 #acj4 7,aft] ,williamson & ,scott47 ,! spores 9 ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana are all ( ! same size1 & no macrospores h ev] be5 se54 ,9 well pres]v$ specim5s tetrads ( spores may be se51 /ill enclos$ by ! wall ( ! spore-"m-cell 7fig4 #ie1 ,a & ,d72 & ! torn remnants ( ! "m-cell sometimes simulate 9 appe>ance ! elat]s ( an ,equisetum spore4 ,9 surface-view a spore (t5 %[s cle>ly ! ?ree-ray$ m>k+1 :i* is a *>act]i/ic feature ( daught]-cells =m$ 9 a tetrad f a "m-cell4 ,! spores ( a tetrad are 9 "s cases ( unequal size1 "s hav+ develop$ m vigor\sly ?an o!rs4 ,?is unequal gr[? & n\ri%m5t ( spores is cle>ly %[n 9 fig4 #if1 :i* repres5ts a sporangium ( a het]ospor\s ,calamitean /robilus1 ,c4 ,ca%eana4 ,williamson & ,scott#gji h describ$ /rik+ examples ( spores 9 diff]5t /ages ( abortion1 & ^! au?ors draw att5tion to ! importance ( ! ph5om5on f ! po9t ( view ( ! orig9 ( a het]ospor\s =m ( cone4 ,! abortion ( "s ( ! memb]s ( a spore-tetrad & ! consequ5t increas$ nutrition ( ! m fav\r$ daught]-cells1 might well be ! />t+-po9t ( a process1 :i* w\ld ultimately lead to ! production ( well def9$ macrospores & microspores4 ,! "y microsporangia & macrosporangia ( rec5t ,vascul> ,cryptogams su* z ,selag9ella1 ,salv9ia & o!r het]ospor\s g5]a are id5tical 9 appe>ance#gaj2 x is n until ! spore-produc+ tissue beg9s to diff]5tiate into gr\ps ( spores1 t ! sporangia assume ! =m ( macrosporangia & microsporangia4 ,dur+ ! evolution ( ! v>i\s kn[n types ( pt]idophytic plants het]ospory gradually succe$$ isospory1 & ?is no d\bt occurr$ sev]al times & 9 diff]5t phyla ( ! plant k+dom4 ,9 ! mature sporangia ( "s ( ! ,calamitean /robili we h 9 ! inequality ( ! spores 9 "o sporangium an indication ( ! /eps by :i* het]ospory arose2 & 9 ! immature sporangia ( "s rec5t g5]a we are c>ri$ back to a /age /ill ne>] ! />t+-po9t ( ! sub/itution ( ! het]ospor\s = ! isospor\s condition4 ,calamo/a*ys ,ca%eana ,w4 ,fig4 #if4 ,to ,williamson#gaa aga9 is l>gely due ! in=mation we possess z to ! /ructure ( ?is type ( ,calamitean /robilus4 ,its special int]e/ lies 9 ! occurr5ce ( macrospores & microspores 9 ! same cone4 ,! /robilus axis agrees 9 /ructure ) t ( ,c4 ,b9neyana1 b 9 ,c4 ,ca%eana a b& ( second>y xylem =ms ! p]iph]al portion ( ! triangul> /ele4 ,7 any fur!r pro( ne$$ ( ! n[ well-e/abli%$ fact t second>y gr[? 9 ?ickness is by no means unkn[n z an attribute ( ,vascul> ,cryptogams1 ! co-exi/5ce 9 ! same cone ( a cambium lay] produc+ second>y wood & b>k1 & cryptogamic macrospores & microspores1 af=ds conclusive evid5ce#gab4 ,! dogma accept$ by _m writ]s = a consid]able numb] ( ye>s t ! p[] ( second>y ?ick5+ is evid5ce aga9/ a cryptogamic aff9ity1 has be5 responsible = no little confusion 9 palaeobotanical nom5clature4 ,on ! axis ( ,calamo/a*ys ,ca%eana !re are borne alt]nate :orls ( f]tile & /]ile app5dages simil> to ^? 9 ! homospor\s ,c4 ,b9neyana1 b !y are incl9$ m obliquely to ! axis ( ! cone4 ,macrospores & microspores h be5 f\nd 9 sporangia borne on ! same sporangiophore4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,calamo/a*ys ,ca%eana ,w4 ,a sporangium ) macrospores & abortive spores4 #fe4 7,aft] ,williamson & ,scott47 ,! spore-tetrads 9 ! macrosporangia occasionally include abort$ si/]-cells l ^? notic$ 9 ,c4 ,b9neyana2 ?is ph5om5on is well illu/rat$ by ! unequally n\ri%$ spores 9 ! sporangium ( fig4 #if1 b no su* />v$ spores h be5 f\nd 9 ! microsporangia4 ,9 ?is cone1 !n1 het]ospory has become firmly e/abli%$1 b ! occurr5ce ( und]siz$ spores 9 a macrospore-tetrad leads u back to ! probable l9es ( developm5t ( het]ospory1 :i* are se5 9 ,c4 ,b9neyana at _! />t+-po9t4 ,9 ! two species ( /robili :i* h be5 describ$1 ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana & ,c4 ,ca%eana1 ! sporangiophores or sporophylls are giv5 (f at "r angles to ! axis1 & midway betwe5 ! /]ile :orls4 ,^! are two ( ! mo/ important di/+ui%+ features ( ! ,calamitean cones includ$ "u ! g5]ic t]m ,calamo/a*ys4 ,9 ano!r =m ( cone1 :i* also belongs to ,calamitean /ems1 ! sporangiophores arise 9 ! axil ( ! /]ile leaves1 & are incl9$ obliquely to ! axis ( ! cone4 ,to ?is type ! g5]ic "n ,palaeo/a*ya has be5 appli$ by ! late ,pr(4 ,weiss#gac ( ,b]l94 ,! portion ( a cone %[n 9 fig4 #ig %[s ! arrangem5t ( ! /]ile & f]tile app5dages *>act]i/ic ( ,palaeo/a*ya4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,palaeo/a*ya p$unculata ,w4 ,"p ( a cone1 #c4 7,aft] ,weiss47 ,x is practically impossible to di/+ui% betwe5 cones ( ! ,calamo/a*ys & ,palaeo/a*ya type 9 ! case ( imp]fectly pres]v$ impressions2 inde$ we _c assume t all long & n>r[ cones ) spirally dispos$ v]ticillate bracts are ,calamitean4 ,we mu/ h ! additional evid5ce ( int]nal /ructure or ( ! direct association ( ! cones ) ,calamitean foliage4 ,palaeo/a*ya v]a sp4 nov4 ,fig4 #ih4 ,9 #ahfi ,williamson#gad describ$ a fragm5t ( a /robilus :i* %[$ c]ta9 anatomical features indicative ( a close relation%ip or ev5 id5tity ) ,calamites4 ,"s ye>s lat]#gae a mu* m p]fect example 0 obta9$ f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,lanca%ire1 & ! additional evid5ce :i* x af=d$ def9itely confirm$ ! e>li] views ( ,williamson4 ,! cone 0 m fully describ$ by ,williamson 9 #ahhh1 z 8! true fruit ( ,calamites40 ,x is cle>ly a =m ( ,weiss' g5us ,palaeo/a*ya2 ,williamson & ,scott#gaf ref] to x 9 _! ,memoir z ,calamites p$unculatus4 ,x is pref]able1 h[ev]1 to reta9 ! g5]ic designation ,palaeo/a*ya = cones ( ?is type4 ,z ! "n ,p4 p$unculata has previ\sly be5 adopt$ by ,weiss#gag = a cone figur$ by ,williamson#gah 9 #ahgd1 & aft]w>ds ref]r$ to by t au?or 9 writ+ z ,p4 p$unculata1 x is propos$ to sub/itute ! specific "n v]a2 ?is specific "n be+ *os5 ) a view to put on record ! fact t x 0 ?is type ( cone t ,williamson fir/ prov$ to be ! true fructification ( ! ,calamite4 ,! axis ( ,p4 v]a is practically id5tical 9 /ructure ) a ,calamitean twig4 ,!re is a holl[ pi? 9 ! c5tre ( ! /ele surr\nd$ by a r+ ( #af-bj collat]al bundles1 ea* ( :i* is accompani$ by a c>9al canal z 9 a vegetative %oot4 ,z ! p$icel ( ! /robilus passes into ! cone prop] x und]goes "s modification 9 /ructure1 b reta9s ! *>act]i/ic features ( a ,calamite4 ,! diagrammatic longitud9al section ( fig4 #ih1 :i* is copi$ f a draw+ by ,williamson#gai1 %[s ! broad5+ ( ! vascul> /r&s at ! nodes1 & "h & !re a c>9al canal is se5 int]nal to ! wood4 ,! axis ( ! cone be>s :orls ( bracts at "r angles to ! c5tral column4 ,ea* :orl consi/s ( ab\t #cj-dj segm5ts coh]5t basally into a disc ( pros5*ymat\s & p>5*ymat\s tissue4 ,! free l9e> bracts curve %>ply upw>ds f ! p]iph]y ( ! disc1 approximately p>allel to ! axis ( ! cone4 ,f ea* ( ^! /]ile :orls !re are giv5 (f #af-bj long & sl5d] obliquely-incl9$ sporangiophores1 sp1 :i* arise f ! upp] surface ( ! disc close to ! axis4 ,ea* sporangiophore no d\bt bore f\r sporangia1 ,s1 conta9+ spores ( "o size1--ab\t #jge mm4 9 diamet]4 ,! specim5s ( ,palaeo/a*ya v]a s f> obta9$ d n %[ ! actual mann] ( atta*m5t ( ! sporangia1 b m complete examples ( o!r species ( ,palaeo/a*ya#gbj enable u to assume ) c]ta9ty t ! sporangiophores t]m9at$ 9 a di/al peltate expansion be>+ f\r sporangia on its inn] face4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,diagrammatic longitud9al section ( ,palaeo/a*ya v]a1 sp4 nov4 ,s1 ,s1 ,s1 sporangia2 x1 xylem2 sp1 sporangiophore4 7,aft] ,williamson47 ,a transv]se section ( ! axis ( ! cone 9 ! region ( ! /]ile & f]tile app5dages %[s ! vascul> bundles arrang$ 9 pairs4 ,9 a section ?r\gh ! p$uncle ( ! cone1 bel[ ! l[e/ :orl ( bracts1 ! bundles ( ! /ele are situat$ at equal di/ances ap>t4 ,! cortical tissue ( ! p$uncle is trav]s$ by a r+ ( l>ge canals#gba simil> to ! vallecul> canals ( an ,equisetum /em4 ,isospory is n a con/ant *>act]i/ic ( ,palaeo/a*ya2 "s =ms h be5 f\nd ) macrospores & microspores#gbb4 ,o!r ,calamitean cones1 & examples illu/rat+ ! connection betwe5 ,cones & ,vegetative ,%oots4 ,x w\ld be out ( place 9 an introduction to ,palaeobotany to attempt an exhau/ive acc\nt ( ! v>i\s cones :i* 7 probably borne by ,calamitean plants1 b !re are a few g5]al po9ts to :i* ! att5tion ( ! /ud5t %\ld be direct$4 ,! examples dealt ) 9 ! =ego+ description illu/rate ! fact1 t plants includ$ "u ! compreh5sive g5us ,calamites bore cones possess+ di/9ct morphological features4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r types ( /robili :i* h be5 f\nd 9 organic connection ) ,calamites2 & "s ( ^! mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 9 deal+ ) ,calam>ian plants4 ,! g5]a ,volkmannia1 ,brukmannia1 ,huttonia1 ,macro/a*ya1 9 addition to ,calamo/a*ys & ,palaeo/a*ya & o!rs1 h be5 appli$ by diff]5t writ]s to ,calamitean cones4 ,z ,solms-,lauba*#gbc has sugge/$1 x is wis] to disc>d ,volkmannia & ,brukmannia1 z !y h be5 made to d duty = cones ( widely diff]5t =ms4 ,x is bett] to adh]e to ! provisional g5]ic names us$ by ,weiss1 z !y enable u to conv5i5tly sy/ematise ! v>i\s ,calam>ian /robili4 ,! foll[+ classification may be giv5 ( ! bett] kn[n cones1 "s ( :i* we are able to describe 9 consid]able detail1 :ile o!rs are /ill v imp]fectly kn[n4 ,we h good evid5ce t all ^! /robili 7 borne by vegetative %oots ( ! type ( ,calamites1 ,calamocladus or ,annul>ia4 #a4 ,calamo/a*ys#gbd 7includ+ ,p>acalamo/a*ys & ,/a*annul>ia74 ,cones long & n>r[1 consi/+ ( a c5tral axis be>+ alt]nate :orls ( /]ile & f]tile app5dages1 ! latt] hav+ ! =m ( sporangiophores atta*$ at "r angles to ! axis midway betwe5 ! /]ile v]ticils1 & be>+ f\r sporangia on ! inn] face ( a peltate di/al expansion4 ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana ,s*imp41 ,c4 ,ludwigi ,c>r41 ,c4 ,ca%eana ,w41 may be ref]r$ to z examples ( ?is type ( cone2 also "s ( ! /robili describ$ by diff]5t au?ors z species ( ,volkmannia#gbe1 ,brukmannia#gbf1 c4 ,al?\gh "o _c make out ! detail$ /ructure ( a ,calamite cone 9 ! abs5ce ( int]nal /ructure1 x is (t5 possible to recognise ! ess5tial features 9 specim5s pres]v$ 9 iron/one nodules1 su* z ^? f ,coalbrook ,dale 9 ,%rop%ire1 or by c>efully exam9+ ! c>bonis$ impressions on %ale "u a simple microscope4 ,weiss applies ! t]m ,p>acalamo/a*ys#gbg to cones ( ! ,calamo/a*ys =m1 b 9 :i* ! mann] ( atta*m5t _c be made out4 ,su* a cone z t ( fig4 #ic %\ld probably be ref]r$ to ?is sub-type ( ,calamo/a*ys 9 ! abs5ce ( def9ite evid5ce z to ! position ( ! sporangia4 ,ano!r t]m ,/a*annul>ia1 orig9ally us$ by ,weiss z a g5us#gbh1 0 aft]w>ds#gbi appli$ to cones ( ! same g5]al type z ,calamo/a*ys1 9 :i* ! sporangiophores h ! =m ( ?orn-l /ructures be>+ on _! upp] side a lamell> expansion4 ,!re is h[ev] "s d\bt z to ! correct int]pretation ( ! features associat$ ) cones includ$ 9 ,/a*annul>ia2 = an acc\nt ( su* =ms ref]5ce mu/ be made to ! writ+s ( ,weiss1 ,r5ault#gcj1 ,solms-,lauba*#gca & o!rs#gcb4 ,calamo/a*ys cones h be5 f\nd 9 organic union ) bran*es be>+ leaves ( ! ,annul>ia type1 also ) ,calamocladus foliage1 & ! bran*es be>+ su* cones h be5 f\nd 9 actual connection ) ,calamitean /ems4 ,! association ( cones & vegetative /ems & bran*es is %[n 9 tabul> =m on p4 #cfc4 #b4 ,palaeo/a*ya#gcc4 ,9 ?is g5us ! g5]al habit agrees ) t ( ,calamo/a*ys1 & 9 imp]fectly pres]v$ specim5s x may be impossible to discrim9ate betwe5 ,calamo/a*ys & ,palaeo/a*ya4 ,! latt] =m is *>act]is$ by ! atta*m5t ( ! sporangiophores 9 ! axil ( ! /]ile bracts1 or imm$iately above !m1 z %[n 9 figs4 #ig & #ih4 ,,examples4 ,palaeo/a*ya v]a sp4 nov41 ,p4 p$unculata ,w4 af=d examples ( ?is =m ( /robilus4 ,! g5us ,palaeo/a*ya includes sev]al species previ\sly describ$ "u ! g5us ,volkmannia#gcd4 ,/robili ( ?is g5]ic type are kn[n 9 organic association ) ,annul>ian bran*es1 z well z ) ,calamocladus & ,calamites4 #c4 ,macro/a*ya4 ,?is g5]ic "n 0 orig9ally appli$ by ,s*imp]#gce to c]ta9 =ms ( ,calamitean /ems1 ( ! type aft]w>ds ref]r$ to ! sub-g5us ,calamit9a by ,weiss1 be>+ long & ?ick cones4 ,! "n is1 h[ev]1 m appropriately re/rict$ to /robili1 :i* diff] f ! two prec$+ g5]a 9 _! great] l5g? 7#ad-af cm47 & 9 ! m cr[d$ & imbricat+ :orls ( bracts4 ,! int]nodes ( ! cones are v %ort1 & ea* :orl ( bracts consi/s ( ab\t #bj coh]5t memb]s sep>at$ at ! p]iph]y ( ! disc into %ort po9t$ tee?4 ,! int]nal /ructure ( ,macro/a*ya has n be5 satisfactorily det]m9$4 ,an acc\nt by ,r5ault#gcf ( a petrifi$ specim5 does n pres5t a v cle> idea z to ! /ructural features ( ?is =m ( ,calamitean /robilus4 ,,! ,,association ,,( ,,calamitean ,,vegetative ,,%oots ,,& ,,cones4 ,/robilus ,foliage-%oot ,/em ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,calamo/a*ys ,annul>ia ramosa ,calamites ramosus 7,/a*annul>ia7 ,weiss ,artis ramosa ,weiss#gcg ,c4 7,/a*annul>ia7 ,a4 sph5ophylloides ,/em be>+ v]ticils ( cala?if]a ,z5k4 long & n>r[ ,weiss#gch leaves#gci4 ,probably a "y ,calamites ,c4 7,/a*annul>ia7 ,a4 /ellata tub]culata 7,/]n47 7,s*lo?47#gdj ,calamites sp4#gda 7,a4 longifolia ,brongn47 ,c4 ,solmsi#gdb ,weiss ,calamocladus sp4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 sp4 ,c4 longifolia ,calamocladus sp4 7,/]n47#gdc ,palaeo/a*ya ,calamocladus p$unculata ,w4#gdd ,p4 arboresc5s ,calamites 7,/]n47#gde 7,/ylocalamites7 arboresc5s 7,/]n47 ,macro/a*ya#gdf ,calamocladus ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 equiseti=mis sp4 7,s*lo?47 ,sid5ote3 ,,huttonia4 ,! g5]ic "n ,huttonia1 sugge/$ by ,/]nb]g#gdg 9 #ahcg1 is appli$ to cones :i* closely resemble ,macro/a*ya 9 habit1 b diff]--s f> z our scanty k enables u to judge--9 ! arrangem5t ( ! memb]s4 ,! /ud5t mu/ ref] to ,weiss#gdh1 ,solms-,lauba*#gdi & o!r writ]s#gej = a fur!r acc\nt ( ^! types1 & ( ano!r r>e & little-kn[n =m ( cone1 call$ by ,weiss ,c+ul>ia#gea4 ,macro/a*yan cones h be5 f\nd atta*$ to /ems ( ,calamites :i* are includ$ 9 ! sub-g5us ,calamit9a 7p4 #cfg74 ,! l>g] size ( ,macro/a*ya z a di/+ui%+ feature is n always a safe te/2 "s cones :i* belong to ,palaeo/a*ya e4g4 ,p4 arboresc5s ,/]nb4 & ,calamo/a*ys 7e4g4 ,c4 ,solmsi7 are mu* ?ick] & l>g] ?an ! majority ( species ( ^! two g5]a4 ,x w\ld appe> f ! examples select$ to illu/rate ! connection betwe5 /robili & vegetative %oots1 t ! ,annul>ia type ( bran* usually be>s cones :i* con=m to ! g5us ,calamo/a*ys 7,/a*annul>ia72 :ile ! ,a/]ophyllitean bran*es--,calamocladus--are associat$ ) ,palaeo/a*ya & ,macro/a*ya4 ,b ?is rule is n con/ant1 & we are n 9 a position to speak ( cones ( a p>ticul> type z necess>ily *>act]i/ic ( def9ite types ( ,calamitean %oots4 ,al?\gh x is admitt$ by ! great majority ( ,palaeobotani/s t ! ,calamites 7 all true ,vascul> ,cryptogams1 ! old] view t "s memb]s ( ! ,calam>ieae are gymnosp]m\s has n be5 giv5 up by ,r5ault#geb4 ,?is obs]v] has rec5tly describ$ "s se$s :i* he believes 7 borne by ,calamitean /ems2 he admits1 h[ev]1 t no und\bt$ female cones ( ,calamod5dron h s f> be5 f\nd4 ,9 view ( ! unsatisfactory evid5ce on :i* ,r5ault's op9ion is bas$1 we ne$ n fur!r discuss ! que/ions :i* he raises4 ,! foll[+ specim5s 9 ! ,williamson ,cab9et 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 may be f\nd useful 9 illu/ration ( ! /ructure ( ,calamites4 ,/ems4 7i4 ,ar?ropitys47 ,"y twigs & small bran*es #a1 #b1 #f1 #aj1 #ad1 #ai1 #aaf991 #ajjb1 #ajjg1 #ajbj4 ,old] /ems 7transv]se sections7 #ae-ag1 #fb1 #gg-hg1 #aae a1 #aag991 #aah991 #abj1 #abb99-abd991 #aicc ,a1 #aicd1 #aida4 7,tang5tial sections7 #bj1 #bd1 #bf1 #cg1 #ch1 #di1 #ij1 #ia1 #acj1 #ach1 #aicg1 #aidc4 7,radial sections7 #bj1 #bj ,a1 #ba1 #bb1 #dh1 #fe-fh1 #hc-ia1 #acg991 #ach991 #aicg4 7ii4 ,ar?rod5dron7 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #eb1 #ed4 ,roots4 #acce1 #acdg1 #acej1 #acef4 ,/robili4 i4 ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana4 #iia1 #iif1 #iig1 #ajjj1 #ajjc1 #ajje1 #ajjg1 #ajjh1 #ajaa1 #ajac1 #ajaf1 #ajag1 #ajbb1 #ajbc1 #ajcg ,a1 #ajdc4 ii4 ,c4 ,ca%eana4 #ajbd1 #ajbe1 #aehg1 #aehh4 iii4 ,palaeo/a*ya v]a4 #aaj1 #aefd1 #aefg1 #aefi1 #aegi1 #aehc4 ,,iii4 ,pi?-ca/s ( ,calamites4 ,a4 ,calamit9a4 ,b4 ,/ylocalamites4 ,c4 ,eucalamites4 ,palaeobotanical lit]ature conta9s a l>ge numb] ( species ( ,calamites f\nd$ on pi?-ca/s alone4 ,_m ( ^! s-call$ species are ( little or no value botanically1 b :ile we may admit ! futility ( attempt+ to recognise specific types 9 ! same s5se z 9 ! det]m9ation ( rec5t plants1 x is necess>y to pay att5tion to su* *>act]s z are likely to prove ( value = descriptive & comp>ative purposes4 ,f ! nature ( ! specim5s x is cle> t _m ( ! diff]5ces may be su* z are likely to be met ) 9 diff]5t bran*es ( ! same species1 :ile 9 o!rs ! pi?-ca/s ( di/9ct species or g5]a may be almo/ id5tical4 ,! mo/ /rik+ diff]5ces obs]vable 9 ,calamite ca/s are 9 ! "* ( ! int]nodes1 ! infranodal canals1 ! numb] & disposition ( bran*-sc>s1 & o!r surface features4 ,occasionally x is possible to recognise c]ta9 anatomical *>act]s 9 ! coaly lay] :i* (t5 surr\nds a %ale- or s&/one-ca/1 & ! surface ( a well pres]v$ ca/ may give a clue to ! nature ( ! wood 9 ! fa9t outl9es ( cells :i* c sometimes be detect$ on ! ca/ itself#gec4 ,! bread? ( ! c>bonace\s envelope on a ca/ has be5 frequ5tly reli$ on by "s writ]s z an important "*4 ,x has be5 sugge/$#ged t we may arrive at ! orig9al ?ickness ( ! wood ( a /em by measur+ ! coaly lay] & multiply+ ! bread? by #bg2 ! explanation be+ t a zone ( wood #bg mm4 9 ?ickness is r$uc$ 9 ! process ( c>bonisation to a lay] #a mm4 ?ick4 ,! bread? ( ! coal on ! same =m ( ca/ may v>y consid]ably2 on ?is acc\nt1 & = v>i\s o!r reasons1 su* a "* c h b little value4 ,our k ( anatomy may (t5 help u to int]pret c]ta9 features ( int]nal ca/s & to appreciate app>5tly unimportant details4 ,"o occasionally notices t a ,calamite pi?-ca/ has l>ge infranodal canals1 & 9 "s specim5s ea* int]nodal ridge may be trav]s$ by a n>r[ m$ian l9e or small groove2 l>ge infranodal canal ca/s sugge/ ! type ( /em ref]r$ to ! subg5us ,ar?rod5dron1 & ! m$ian l9e on ! ridges may be due to b&s ( h>d tissue 9 ea* pr9cipal m$ull>y ray4 ,9 attempt+ to id5tify pi?-ca/s ! /ud5t mu/ keep 9 view ! probable diff]5ces pres5t$ by ! bran*+ rhizome1 ! ma9 a]ial bran*es & ! f9] %oots ( ! same individual4 ,! long int]nodal ridges ( "s ca/s may be mi/ak5 = ! p>allel ve9s ( su* a leaf z ,cordaites1 a ,palaeozoic ,gymnosp]m1 if !re are no nodes visible on ! specim54 ,! fossil figur$ by ,l9dley & ,hutton#gee z ,poacites1 & reg>d$ by !m z a ,monocotyl$on1 is no d\bt a portion ( a ,calamite ) v long int]nodes4 ,an int]e/+ example ( incorrect det]m9ation has rec5tly be5 po9t$ out by ,na?or/#gef 9 ! case ( c]ta9 ca/s f ,be> ,isl&1 orig9ally describ$ by ,he] z examples ( ,calamites2 ! v]tical r[s ( leaf-trace ca/s on a ,knorria 7 mi/ak5 = ! ribs ( a ,calamite /em4 ,! specim5s 9 ! ,/ockholm ,museum fully be> out ,na?or/'s int]pretation4 ,! undulat+ c\rse ( int]nodal ridges & grooves is n 9 itself a "* ( specific value4 ,if a ,calamite /em 7 b5t slightly1 ! wood & m$ull>y-ray tissues on ! concave side might adapt !mselves to ! %ort5+ ( ! /em by becom+ m or less fold$1 & a ca/ ( su* a /em w\ld %[ undulat+ ridges & grooves on "o side & /raight ones on ! o!r#geg4 ,a conv5i5t classification ( ,calamite ca/s 0 propos$ by ,weiss 9 #ahhd1 f\nd$ *iefly on ! numb] & mann] ( occurr5ce ( bran*-sc>s--or r bran*-depressions--on ! surface ( pi?-ca/s4 ,weiss#geh recognis$ ! imp]fection ( 8 propos$ gr\p+1 & ,zeill]#gei has also express$ reasonable d\bts z to ! sci5tific value ( su* gr\p-*>act]s4 ,weiss in/itut$ ?ree subg5]a--,calamit9a1 ,eucalamites & ,/ylocalamites1 :i* are made use ( z conv5i5t t]ms 9 descriptive treatm5t ( ,calamite ca/s4 ,! foll[+ acc\nt ( a few ( ! m typical ca/s may s]ve to illu/rate ! me?ods employ$ 9 ! description ( su* specim5s2 ! synonomy giv5 = ! diff]5t species is n int5d$ to be complete1 b x is add$ ) a view to draw+ att5tion to ! necessity = c>eful comp>ison 9 sy/ematic "w4 ,a4 ,calamit9a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 ,gpp]ti 7,ett474 b1 bran* sc>s4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,man*e/] ,museum1 ,ow5s ,college4 nat4 size4 ,?is sub-g5us ( ,calamites1 z in/itut$ by ,weiss#gfj1 includes ,calamitean /ems or bran*es1 :i* are *>act]is$ by ! p]iodic occurr5ce ( bran*-:orls usually repres5t$ by fairly l>ge oval or circul> sc>s j above a nodal l9e 7figs4 #ii1 #ajj & #aja74 ,! bran*-sc>s may =m a r[ ( contigu\s discs1 or a :orl may consi/ ( a small] numb] ( bran*es :i* are n 9 contact basally4 ,a =m describ$ by ,weiss z ,c4 pauciramis1 ,weiss#gfa1 has only "o bran* 9 ea* :orl1 z repres5t$ by a s+le l>ge oval sc> on "s ( ! nodes ( ! ca/4 ,a /em ( ?is =m is by no means a typical ,calamit9a1 b x s]ves to %[ ! exi/5ce ( =ms connect+ ,weiss' sub-g5]a ,calamit9a & ,eucalamites4 ,! numb] ( int]nodes & nodes betwe5 ! bran* :orls v>ies 9 diff]5t specim5s1 & is inde$ n con/ant 9 ! same plant4 ,ea* nodal l9e be>s num]\s elliptical sc>s :i* m>k ! po9ts ( atta*m5t ( leaves2 ea* bran*-:orl is situat$ imm$iately above a node1 & 9 "s =ms ?is nodal l9e pursues a some:at irregul> c\rse across ! /em1 foll[+ ! outl9es ( ! sev]al bran*-sc>s#gfb4 ,! surface ( ! int]nodes is ei!r p]fectly smoo? or x is m frequ5tly trav]s$ by %ort longitud9al ridges or grooves probably repres5t+ fissures 9 ! b>k ( ! liv+ /em2 ^! are indicat$ by l9es 9 fig4 #ii & by elongat$ elliptical ridges 9 fig4 #aja4 ,on "y /ems ! leaves are occasionally f\nd 9 place1 z = example 9 an example figur$ by ,weiss#gfc 7,c4 ,gpp]ti71 or we may h leaf-v]ticils /ill 9 place 9 mu* old] & ?ick] bran*es#gfd 7cf4 fig4 #he1 p4 #ccj74 ,x occasionally happ5s t ! b>k ( ,calamit9a /ems has be5 pres]v$ z a deta*$ %ell#gfe rem9d+ "o ( ! %eets ( ,bir* b>k (t5 met ) 9 =e/s1 ! sep>ation be+ no d\bt due 9 ! fossil z 9 ! rec5t trees to ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( ! cork-cambium4 ,9 a few cases bran*es h be5 pres]v$ /ill atta*$ to a /em or bran* ( high] ord]2 examples ( su* specim5s are figur$ by ,l9dley & ,hutton#gff1 ,/ur#gfg1 & o!rs4 ,gr&',eury#gfh has giv5 an idealis$ draw+ ( a typical ,calamit9a be>+ a :orl ( bran*es ) ! foliage & habit ( ,a/]ophyllites equiseti=mis4 ,! specim5 on :i* ?is draw+ is bas$ is 9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum1 ,p>is2 x %[s ,a/]ophyllitean bran*es 9 organic connection ) a ,calamitean /em1 b x is n q cle> if ! /em is a true ,calamit9a4 ,a l>ge draw+ ( ?is int]e/+ specim5 is giv5 by ,/ur#gfi 9 8 monograph on ,calamites1 also a small] sket* by ,r5ault#ggj 9 8 ,c\rs de botanique fossile4 ,simil> bran*es ( ! ,a/]ophyllites type atta*$ to an und\bt$ ,calamit9a are figur$ also by ,l9dley & ,hutton4 ,!re is1 9 %ort1 good evid5ce t /ems ( ?is sub-g5us bore bran*es ) ,a/]ophyllitean %oots4 ,! wood ( /ems ( ! ,calamit9a gr\p ( ,calamites1 9 "s in/ances at lea/1 0 ( ! ,ar?ropitys type2 ?is has be5 %[n to be ! case 9 "s ,fr5* specim5s f ! ,comm5try coal-field#gga & 9 o!rs describ$ by ,/ur#ggb4 ,! pi?-ca/s ( ,calamit9a are *>act]is$ by comp>atively %ort int]nodes sep>at$ by deep nodal con/rictions1 z %[n 9 fig4 #ajj4 ,f ,p]mian specim5s f ,neu ,paka 9 ,bohemia1 describ$ by ,/ur#ggc1 we le>n t !re 7 ! usual ,calamite diaphragms bridg+ across ! wide pi?-cavity at ea* node4 ,su* a ca/ z t %[n 9 fig4 #ajj is (t5 ref]r$ to z ,calamites approximatus ,brongn42 ! l5g? ( ! int]nodes & ! p]iodic occurr5ce ( bran*-sc>s 9 ! =m ( circul> or oval depressions along a nodal l9e enable u to recognise ! ,calamit9a ca/s4 ,weiss#ggd po9ts out t 9 pi?-ca/s ( ?is =m ! bran*-sc>s occur on ! nodal con/riction1 & n imm$iately above ! node z is ! case on ! surface ( a typical ,calamit9a4 ,?is di/9ction is h[ev] ( little or no value2 ! po9t ( atta*m5t ( a bran* may be above ! nodal l9e1 :ile on ! pi?-ca/ ( ! same /em ! po9t ( orig9 ( ! vascul> bundles ( ! bran* is on ! nodal con/riction#gge4 ,! specim5 %[n 9 fig4 #ajj illu/rates ! appe>ance ( a ,calamit9a ca/4 ,!re is a v]ticil ( bran*-sc>s on ! l[e/ nodal con/riction2 on ! "r ( ! pi?-ca/ ! broad b& ( wood is fa9tly indicat$ by ! smoo? surface ( ! rock 7x74 ,o!r examples demon/rat+ ! exi/5ce ( a broad woody cyl9d] 9 ,calamit9a /ems h be5 figur$ by ,weiss#ggf & o!r writ]s1 & "s good examples may be se5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 approximatus ,brongn4 ,l[] ,coal-,measures ( ,ayr%ire4 x1 impression ( ! wood4 7,f a specim5 9 ! collection ( ,mr ,r4 ,kid/on47 ,we h s f> notic$ ! connection ( c]ta9 =ms ( pi?-ca/s 7e4g4 ,calamites approximatus71 & ,a/]ophyllitean %oots ) /ems ( ! sub-g5us ,calamit9a4 ,z reg>ds ! /robili our k is f> f satisfactory4 ,/ur#ggg figures "s f]tile bran*es be>+ long & n>r[ /robili1 ei!r ,palaeo/a*ya or ,calamo/a*ys1 9 close association ) ,calamit9a /ems1 & ,r5ault & ,zeill]#ggh give illu/rations ( ! association ( ,calamit9a /ems ) l>ge /robili ( ! ,macro/a*ya =m4 ,be=e ,weiss propos$ ! t]m ,calamit9a1 v>i\s au?ors _h figur$ ?is =m ( ,calamite "u a di/9ct g5]ic "n 7e4g4 ,hippurites ( ,l9dley & ,hutton#ggi1 ,cyclocladia#ghj1 ,macro/a*ya#gha1 c474 ,/ems ( ?is type h also be5 describ$ by m rec5t writ]s "u diff]5t names1 & consid]able confusion has be5 caus$ by ! use ( num]\s g5]ic designations = =ms ( ,calamit9a4 ,"s small fragm5ts ( ,calamit9a /ems 7 describ$ by ,salt]#ghb 9 #ahfc z portions ( a new species ( ! ,cru/acean ,eurypt]us 7,e4 mammatus74 ,9 #ahfi ,gr&',eury propos$ ! g5]ic "n ,calamophyllites#ghc = /ems be>+ v]ticils ( ,a/]ophyllites %oots2 8 description ( su* /ems agrees ) ,weiss' ,calamit9a1 b z ,gr&',eury's "n is us$ 9 a n>r[] s5se z imply+ a connection ) ,a/]ophyllites1 x is m conv5i5t to adopt ,weiss' t]m 9 spite ( ! priority ( ,calamophyllites4 ,9 ! ,fossil flora ( ,comm5try we f9d "s flatt5$ /ems ( ! ,calamit9a type describ$ "u diff]5t g5]ic names1 z ,ar?ropitys approximatus#ghd & z ,macro/a*ya#ghe4 ,! det]m9ation ( di/9ct species ( ! sub-g5us ,calamit9a is r5d]$ almo/ hopeless by ! v>iation 9 ! diff]5t bran*es ( ! same individual1 & by ! difficulty ( connect+ surface-impressions ) ca/s ( ! pi?-cavity4 ,a typical example ( ! ,calamit9a type ( ,calamites 0 figur$ by ,/]nb]g#ghf 9 #ahba z ,calamites v>ians4 ,?is has be5 adopt$ by ,weiss#ghg z a compreh5sive species includ+ sev]al diff]5t #8=ms' ( /ems1 :i* diff] f ,/]nb]g's fossil 9 su* po9ts z ! numb] ( nodes betwe5 ! bran*-:orls & ! numb] ( bran*es 9 ea* :orl4 ,! result ( ?is sy/em ( nom5clature is ! sep>ation ( portions ( "o specific type "u diff]5t =m-names4 ,x mu/ be cle>ly recognis$ t accurate specific diagnoses are practically impossible :5 we h to deal ) fragm5ts ( plants1 "s ( :i* are m]e pi?-ca/s1 :ile o!rs %[ ! surface features4 ,! specim5 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ii agrees ) a /em describ$ by ,ett+%aus5#ghh 9 #ahee z ,calamites ,gpp]ti1 & z a matt] ( conv5i5ce a memb] ( ! ,calamit9a gr\p %[+ su* *>act]s may be ref]r$ to z ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 ,gpp]ti 7,ett474 ,! foll[+ li/1 :i* includes a few synonyms ( ?is =m1 may suffice to illu/rate ! difficulties connect$ ) accurate sy/ematic det]m9ations4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 ,gpp]ti 7,ett474 ,fig4 #ii4 #ahee4 ,calamites ,gpp]ti1 ,ett+%aus5#ghi4 #ahfi4 ,calamites 7,calamophyllites7 ,gpp]ti1 ,gr&',eury#gij4 #ahgd4 ,cyclocladia major1 ,fei/mantel#gia4 #ahgd4 ,calamites v]ticillatus1 ,williamson#gib4 #ahgf4 ,calamit9a ,gpp]ti1 ,weiss#gic4 #ahhd4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 v>ians abbreviatus1 ,weiss#gid4 #ahhd4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 v>ians incon/ans1 ,weiss#gie4 #ahhg4 ,calamites ,sa*sei1 ,/ur#gif4 #ahhh4 ,calamophyllites ,gpp]ti1 ,zeill]#gig4 ,?is species is *>act]is$ by ! smoo? b>k1 :i* may be trav]s$ by a few irregul> longitud9al fissures2 mo/ ( ! nodes be> a s]ies ( small leaf-sc>s1 & at fairly regul> int]vals a node is imm$iately succe$$ by a circle ( contigu\s bran*-sc>s1 #h-ab 9 a :orl4 ,! pi?-ca/ ( ?is type ( /em has %ort ribb$ int]nodes sep>at$ by r deep nodal con/rictions2 ! bran*-:orls be+ repres5t$ by a s]ies ( pits on ! nodal con/rictions recurr+ at correspond+ int]vals to ! :orls ( bran*-sc>s on ! surface ( ! /em4 ,leaves n>r[ & l9e> 9 =m1 l ^? on ,a/]ophyllitean bran*es1 are occasionally associat$ ) ?is type ( /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 sp4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 7,aft] ,c>ru!rs47 ,slightly r$uc$4 ,! fragm5t ( a ,calamit9a /em %[n 9 fig4 #aja is ! c\nt]p>t ( a specim5 orig9ally figur$ by ,/e9hau]#gih 9 #ahah z a species ( ,phytoli?us4 ,?is may be specifically id5tical ) ,c4 ,gpp]ti2 b x is bett] to speak ( s small a specim5 z m]ely "o ( ! ,calamit9a /ems1 to be comp>$ ) ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 ,gpp]ti4 ,! specim5 measures #ade cm4 9 l5g? & #g cm4 9 bread?4 ,! =m ( pi?-ca/ repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ajj is no d\bt t ( "o ( ! ,calamit9a species1 b z x is seldom possible to det]m9e ! connection betwe5 su* ca/s & ! p>ticul> species ( /ems to :i* !y belong1 !y are (t5 ref]r$ to z ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 approximatus 7,brongn474 ,! specim5 ( :i* fig4 #ajj is a photograph 0 orig9ally describ$ & figur$ by ,mr ,kid/on#gii f ! l[] ,coal-,measures ( ,ayr%ire4 ,bo? ,calamites 7,calamit9a7 ,gpp]ti 7,ett47 & ,c4 7,calamit9a7 approximatus 7,brongn47 are record$ f ! ,transition1 ,middle & ,l[] ,coal-,measures#hjj4 ,b4 ,/ylocalamites4 ,9 ! memb]s ( ?is sub-g5us ! bran*-sc>s are ei!r irregul> 9 _! occurr5ce or abs5t4 ,9 "s ,calamites ! bran*-sc>s are v few & f> betwe51 & o!r species appe> to h be5 almo/ )\t bran*es2 pi?-ca/s ( su* /ems may be ref]r$ to ! sub-g5us ,/ylocalamites#hja4 ,an exce$+ly common ,calamitean ca/1 ,c4 ,suck[i ,brongn4 7fig4 #hb7 af=ds a good illu/ration ( ?is type ( /em4 ,9 ! specim5 %[n 9 fig4 #hb we h a ca/ ( a rhizome1 :i* is r exceptional 9 %[+ ?ree bran*es 9 connection ) "o ano!r4 ,! appe>ance ( ! fossil sugge/s a rhizome1 r ?an an a]ial %oot1 be>+ lat]al bran*es2 ! n>r[+ ( ! bran*es & ! rapid decrease 9 ! l5g? ( ! int]nodes t[>ds ! po9t ( atta*m5t be+ features associat$ ) rhizomes r ?an ) a]ial bran*es4 ,calamites 7,/ylocalamites7 ,suck[i1 ,brongn4 ,fig4 #hb4 #ahah4 ,phytoli?us sulcatus1 ,/e9hau]#hjb4 #ahbe4 ,calamites decoratus1 ,artis#hjc4 #ahbh4 ,calamites ,suck[i1 ,brongni>t#hjd4 #ahcc4 ,calamites cannae=mis1 ,l9dley & ,hutton#hje4 ,= m complete li/s ( synonyms ( ?is species ref]5ce %\ld be made to ,kid/on#hjf1 ,zeill]#hjg1 & o!r au?ors4 ,ca/s ( ,calamites ,suck[i are *>act]is$ by flat or slightly convex int]nodal ridges sep>at$ by %all[ depressions1 ! ridges are r\nd$ at ! upp] end ( ea* int]node1 & usually be> circul> ca/s ( infranodal canals4 ,!re are "s unusually l>ge examples ( ca/s ( ?is species 9 ! ,briti% ,museum f ! ,rad/ock ,coal-,measures2 "o ( ^! has a l5g? ( #ha cm41 & a diamet] ( #bg cm4 ,specim5s are n infrequ5tly f\nd ) v]ticils ( sl5d] roots 9 close proximity to ! nodes ( ! ca/2 figures ( su* root-be>+ ca/s h be5 giv5 by ,l9dley & ,hutton#hjh1 ,weiss#hji1 & o!r au?ors4 ,r5ault#haj has drawn att5tion to ! ?9ness ( ! lay] ( wood :i* is (t5 associat$ ) l>ge ca/s ( ,c4 ,suck[i2 he concludes t ! /ems mu/ h possess$ little or no second>y wood4 ,9 a m rec5t "w by ,gr&',eury#haa ,calamites ,suck[i is spok5 ( z hav+ _h wood ( ! ,calamod5dron type1 b z wood ( ?is k9d has n be5 f\nd 9 ,engl&1 x is sugge/$ t ! plant may n h assum$ an arboresc5t habit until late 9 ! ,coal-,measure p]iod4 ,dur+ ! ,l[] & ,middle ,coal-,measures1 at :i* horizon x commonly occurs 9 ,engl&1 x may h be5 h]bace\s4 ,?is sugge/ion has little to comm5d x2 ! close agreem5t betwe5 ,c4 ,suck[i f ,engli% & ,fr5* localities po9ts to a plant ( ! same =m1 & we h no satisfactory evid5ce z to any diff]5ce 9 /em-/ructure 9 ! two cases4 ,/ur has figur$ a specim5 ( a ,calamite ca/1 :i* he comp>es ) ,c4 ,suck[i1 surr\nd$ by a b& ( silicifi$ wood app>5tly ( ! ,ar?ropitys type4 ,f ?is & o!r facts x w\ld appe> probable t "s ( ! ,engli% /ems ) ! ,ar?ropitys /ructure possess$ ca/s ref]able to ,calamites 7,/ylocalamites7 ,suck[i4 ,we are n 9 a position to speak ) confid5ce z to ! /robili ( ,c4 ,suck[i1 b ,/ur adduces evid5ce 9 support ( a connection betwe5 ?is species ( ,calamite & c]ta9 ,a/]ophyllitean bran*es 7,calamocladus equiseti=mis7 be>+ ,calamo/a*yan cones4 ,he does n appe> to h f\nd ! foliage-%oots & /ems 9 organic contact1 b draws ?is conclusion f ! association ( ! f]tile bran*es & /ems 9 ! same rocks#hab4 ,?is species is abundant 9 ! ,l[]1 ,middle & ,upp] ,coal-,measures2 x has also be5 record$ f ! ,mill/one ,grit#hac4 ,c4 ,eucalamites4 ,9 ?is sub-g5us bran*-sc>s occur on e node2 ! sc>s nev] =m a contigu\s :orl z 9 ,calamit9a1 b !re may be f #c to #aj on ea* node4 ,! sc>s ( successive nodes (t5 alt]nate 9 position1 & ?us =m m or less regul> v]tical s]ies z %[n 9 fig4 #ajb4 ,! mo/ obvi\s feature z reg>ds ! arrangem5t ( ! bran*-sc>s is _! spiral disposition on ! surface ( ! pi?-ca/4 ,! int]nodes are fairly uni=m 9 l5g?1 & !re is no p]iodic recurr5ce ( n>r[] int]nodes z 9 ,calamit9a4 ,f an exam9ation ( specim5s ( ,eucalamites 9 :i* ! pi?-ca/ is cov]$ ) a coaly lay] repres5t+ ! c>bonis$ rema9s ( ! wood & cortex1 x w\ld appe> t ! surface ( ! /ems 0 practically smoo?4 ,! coaly inve/m5t on ,eucalamites ca/s v>ies consid]ably 9 ?ickness#had2 x is v unsafe to make use ( ! ?ickness ( ?is lay] z a te/ ( ! bread? ( ! wood 9 ,calamitean /ems4 ,! bran*-sc>s z se5 9 a surface-view ( a /em are situat$ a little above ! nodal l9es1 :ile depressions on ! pi?-ca/s occur 9 ! slight nodal con/riction or imm$iately above x4 ,small leaf-sc>s h be5 describ$ z occurr+ on ! nodes betwe5 ! bran*-sc>s 9 specim5s %[+ ! surface features#hae4 ,! species long kn[n z ,calamites cruciatus ,/]nb4 is usually tak5 z ! type ( ! sub-g5us ,eucalamites4 ,weiss#haf has subdivid$ ?is species into sev]al #8=ms1' :i* he bases on ! numb] ( bran*-sc>s on ea* node & on o!r *>act]s2 a m ext5d$ subdivision ( ,c4 cruciatus has rec5tly be5 made by ,/]zel#hag1 :o admits ! impossibility ( sep>at+ ! specific =ms by means ( ! data at our disposal1 b = purposes ( geological correlation he pref]s to express slight diff]5ces by means ( def9ite #8=ms' or v>ieties4 ,! m compreh5sive use ( ! specific "n cruciatus z adopt$ by ,zeill] 9 8 ,flore de ,val5ci5nes#hah is1 ,i believe1 ! bett] me?od to adopt4 ,! specim5 %[n 9 fig4 #ajb af=ds a good example ( a typical ,calamites cruciatus1 x 0 f\nd 9 ! ,middle ,coal-,measures ne> ,b>nsley1 ,york%ire4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,calamites 7,eucalamites7 cruciatus1 ,/]nb4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,b>nsley ,museum1 ,york%ire4 nat4 size4 ,calamites 7,eucalamites7 cruciatus 7,/]nb474 ,fig4 #ajb4 #ahbf4 ,calamites cruciatus1 ,/]nb]g#hai4 #ahbh4 ,calamites cruciatus1 ,brongni>t#hbj4 #ahca4 ,calamites alt]nans1 ,g]m> & ,kaulfuss#hba4 #ahcg4 ,calamites approximatus1 ,l9dley & ,hutton#hbb4 #ahgg4 ,calamod5dr(loyos cruciatus1 ,gr&',eury#hbc4 #ahgh4 ,calamod5dron cruciatum1 ,zeill]#hbd4 #ahhd4 ,calamites 7,eucalamites7 cruciatus t]n>ius1 ,weiss#hbe4 #ahhd4 quat]n>ius1 ,weiss#hbe4 #ahhd4 g5>ius1 ,weiss#hbe4 #ahhd4 multiramis1 ,weiss#hbe4 #ahhh4 ,calamites 7,calamod5dron7 cruciatus1 ,zeill]#hbf4 ,?is species occurs 9 ! ,upp]1 ,middle & ,l[] ,coal-,measures#hbg4 ,! ca/s ( ! cruciatus type h be5 f\nd associat$ ) wood possess+ ! /ructural features ( ! sub-g5us ,calamod5dron#hbh1 b our k ( ! /ructure ( ! /em1 & ( ! f]tile bran*es ( ,c4 cruciatus is v imp]fect4 ,a re/oration ( ,calamites 7,eucalamites7 cruciatus is giv5 by ,/ur#hbi 9 8 classic "w on ! ,calamites1 b he does n make q cle> ! suppos$ connection ) ! /ems & ! f]tile %oots ( ! ,a/]ophyllites type#hcj :i* he describes4 ,ano!r memb] ( ! ,eucalamites gr\p1 :i* is bett] kn[n z reg>ds its foliage-%oots1 is ,calamites ramosus1 a species fir/ describ$ by ,artis#hca 9 #ahbe4 ,/ems ( ?is species h be5 f\nd 9 connection ) ! bran*es & leaves ( ! ,annul>ia#f type1 be>+ ,calamo/a*ys#hcb cones4 ,9 all probability pi?-ca/s includ$ 9 ! sub-g5us ,eucalamites belong$ to /ems ) foliage-%oots & probably also ) cones ( m ?an "o =m4 ,sid5ote3 ,,nom5clature4 ,9 ! above acc\nt ( a few common pi?-ca/s x has be5 po9t$ out t !re is occasionally satisfactory evid5ce = connect+ c]ta9 ca/s ) wood ( a p>ticul> /ructure1 & ) /]ile & f]tile foliage-%oots ( a def9ite type4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 impossible 9 _m cases to recognise ) any c]ta9ty ! leaf-be>+ bran*es & /robili ( ! diff]5t ca/s ( ,calamites2 x is equally impossible to det]m9e :at type ( pi?-ca/ or :at type ( foliage-%oots belongs to petrifi$ /em-fragm5ts 9 :i* x is possible to inve/igate ! microscopical features4 ,! scatt]$ & piece-meal nature ( ! mat]ial on :i* our g5]al k ( ,calamitean plants is bas$1 necessitates a sy/em ( nom5clature :i* is artificial & clumsy2 b ! app>5t absurdity ( atta*+ diff]5t names to fragm5ts1 :i* we believe to be portions ( ! same g5us1 is ( conv5i5ce f ! po9t ( view ( ! geologi/ & ! sy/emati/4 ,z our mat]ial increases x w be possible to fur!r simplify ! nom5clature = ,calam>ian plants1 b x is unwise to all[ our desire = a simpl] t]m9ology to lead u into proposals :i* are bas$ r on suppositions ?an on e/abli%$ fact4 ,if x 7 possible to discrim9ate betwe5 pi?-ca/s ( /ems hav+ ! diff]5t anatomical *>act]s designat$ by ! ?ree sub-g5]a1 ,ar?ropitys1 ,ar?rod5dron & ,calamod5dron1 ! g5us ,calamites might be us$ 9 a mu* n>r[] & probably m natural s5se ?an t :i* we h adopt$4 ,! te/s made use ( by "s au?ors = sep>at+ pi?-ca/s ( ,calamod5dron & ,ar?ropitys /ems d n appe> to be satisfactory2 we want "s t]m to apply to all ,calamitean ca/s irrespective ( ! anatomical features ( ! /ems1 or ( ! precise nature ( ! foliage-bran*es4 ,z us$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 ,calamites /&s = plants diff]+ 9 c]ta9 features b possess+ common /ructural *>act]s1 :i* mu/ be def9$ 9 a broad s5se s z to include types :i* may be wor?y ( g5]ic rank1 b :i* = conv5i5ce sake are includ$ 9 a compreh5sive g5]ic "n4 ,! attempts to associate c]ta9 =ms ( foliage ) ,ar?ropitys on ! "o h& & ) ,calamod5dron on ! o!r1 _c be said to be entirely satisfactory2 we /ill lack data = a tru/wor?y diagnosis ( di/9ct ,calam>ian g5]a :i* %all include ext]nal *>act]s z well z hi/ological features4 ,if we re/rict$ ! g5us ,calamites to /ems ) an ,ar?ropitys /ructure & an ,a/]ophyllitean foliage1 we %\ld be driv5 into unavoidable error4 ,)9 c]ta9 limits x is possible to di/+ui% g5]ically or ev5 specifically betwe5 petrifi$ bran*es1 & we already possess mat]ial en\gh = fairly complete diagnoses f\nd$ on int]nal /ructure2 b x is n possible to make a p>allel classification = pi?-ca/s & foliage-%oots4 ,= ?is reason1 & especially be>+ 9 m9d ! importance ( nam+ isolat$ foliage-%oots & /em-ca/s = geological purposes1 ,i believe x is bett] to admit ! artificially wide application ( ! "n ,calamites1 & to express m accurate k1 :]e possible1 by ! addition ( a subg5]ic t]m4 ,9 deal+ ) di/9ctions exhibit$ by ,calamitean /ems x may be advisable to make use ( specific names1 b we mu/ keep be=e u ! probability ( ! pi?-ca/ & petrifi$ /em-fragm5t ( ! same plant receiv+ diff]5t specific names4 ,if ! /ructural type is designat$ by a special sub-g5us1 ?is w t5d to m9imise ! anomaly ( us+ m ?an "o b9om9al designation = :at may be ! same individual4 ,sid5ote3 ,,calamites ,,& ,,equisetum4 ,! foll[+ summ>y may s]ve to br+ toge!r ! diff]5t g5]ic & subg5]ic t]ms :i* h be5 us$ 9 ! =ego+ acc\nt ( ,calamites4 ,,calamites4 ,subg5]a hav+ ref]5ce to ! me?od ( bran*+ z se5 9 ca/s or impressions ( ! /em-surface or 9 pi?-ca/s4 ,calamit9a1 ,eucalamites1 ,/ylocalamites4 ,subg5]a f\nd$ on anatomical *>act]s 9 /ems & bran*es4 ,ar?ropitys1 ,calamod5dron1 ,ar?rod5dron 7new sub-g5us sub/itut$ = ,calamopitys74 ,g5us propos$ = roots ( ,calamites be=e _! real nature 0 recognis$4 ,! "n ref]s to anatomical *>act]s4 ,a/romyelon4 ,g5]a ( :i* "s species1 if n all1 are ! leaf-be>+ bran*es ( ,calamites4 ,calamocladus 7includ+ ,a/]ophyllites71 ,annul>ia4 ,g5]ic names appli$ to /robili belong+ to ,calamites4 ,calamo/a*ys1 ,palaeo/a*ya1 ,macro/a*ya1 etc4 ,g5us includ+ impressions ( ,calamite roots4 ,p9nul>ia4 ,,iv4 ,conclusion4 ,a brief sket* ( ! ma9 features ( ,calamites suffices to br+ out ! _m po9ts ( agreem5t betwe5 ! arboresc5t ,calamite plants & ! rec5t ,equisetums4 ,! slight v>iation 9 morphological "* among ! pres5t-day ,horse-tails1 contra/s ) ! great] range z reg>ds /ructural features among ! types includ$ 9 ,calamites4 ,! ,horse-tails probably repres5t "o ( sev]al l9es ( developm5t :i* t5d to conv]ge 9 ! ,palaeozoic p]iod2 ! ,calamite itself w\ld appe> to m>k ! culm9at+ po9t ( a c]ta9 phylum ( :i* we h "o deg5]ate b closely alli$ desc5dant 9 ! g5us ,equisetum4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 be 9 a bett] position to consid] ! g5]al "q ( plant-evolution aft] we h made ourselves famili> ) o!r types ( ,palaeozoic plants4 ,gr&',eury's#hcc /rik+ descriptions ( =e/s ( ,calamites 9 ! ,coal-,measures ( c5tral ,france1 enable u to =m "s idea ( ! habit ( gr[? ( ^! plants ) _! /\t bran*+ rhizomes & erect a]ial %oots4 ,by piec+ toge!r ! evid5ce d]iv$ f diff]5t s\rces we may =m "s idea ( ! appe>ance ( a liv+ ,calamite4 ,a /\t bran*+ rhizome asc5d$ obliquely or spread horizontally ?r\gh s& or clay1 ) num]\s :orls or tufts ( roots p5etrat+ into swampy soil4 ,f ! und]gr\nd rhizome /rong erect bran*es grew up z column> /ems to a height ( fifty feet or m2 9 ! l[] & ?ick] portions ! b>k 0 fissur$ & some:at rugg$1 b smoo!r ne>] ! summit4 ,look+ up ! /em we %\ld see old & p>tially oblit]at$ sc>s m>k+ ! position ( a r+ ( lat]al bran*es1 & at a high] level ti]s ( bran*es giv5 (f at regul> or gradually decreas+ int]vals1 be>+ on _! upp] portions graceful gre5 bran*lets ) :orls ( n>r[ l9e> leaves4 ,on ! y\ng] p>ts ( ! ma9 %oot r+s ( long & n>r[ leaves 7 borne at %ort int]vals1 sev]al leaf-circles succe$+ "o ano!r 9 ! int]vals betwe5 ea* radiat+ s]ies ( bran*es4 ,on "s ( ! leaf-be>+ bran*lets long & sl5d] cones w\ld be f\nd "h & !re tak+ ! place ( ! ord9>y leafy twigs4 ,pass+ to ! apical region ( ! /em ! lat]al bran*es giv5 (f at a less & less angle w\ld appe> m cr[d$1 & at ! actual tips !re w\ld be a cr[d$ succession ( leaf-segm5ts =m+ a s]ies ( ov]lapp+ circles ( n>r[ %ea?s ) ?9 sl5d] tee? b5d+ ov] ! apex ( ! tree4 ,?us we may feebly attempt to picture to ourselves "o ( ! _m types ( ,calamite trees 9 a ,palaeozoic =e/1 gr[+ 9 a swampy m>% or on g5tly slop+ gr\nd on ! %ores ( an inl& sea1 into :i* runn+ wat] c>ri$ its burd5 ( s& & mud1 & brok5 twigs ( ,calamites & o!r trees :i* contribut$ to ! ,coal ,p]iod s$im5ts4 ,! l>ge proportions ( a ,calamite tree are /rik+ly illu/rat$ by "s ( ! broad & long pi?-ca/s occasionally se5 9 ,museums2 9 ! ,breslau ,collection !re is a ca/ ( a /em belong+ to ! sub-g5us ,calamit9a1 :i* measures ab\t #b m4 9 l5g? & #bc cm4 9 bread?1 ) #cf nodes4 ,9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum1 ,p>is1 !re is a ca/ ne>ly #b metres long & m ?an #bj cm4 wide1 :i* is ref]r$ to ! sub-g5us ,calamod5dron4 ,e4 ,,ar*aeocalamites4 ,9 ! ,upp] ,devonian & ,culm rocks ca/s ( a well-def9$ ,calamitean plant are *>act]i/ic fossils2 /ems1 leaf-be>+ bran*es1 roots & cones h be5 describ$ by sev]al au?ors1 & ! g5us ,ar*aeocalamites has be5 in/itut$ = _! reception4 ,al?\gh ?is g5us agrees 9 c]ta9 respects ) ,calamites1 & z rec5t "w has %[n ?is agreem5t ext5ds to int]nal /ructure1 x has be5 ! cu/om to reg>d ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s & ,devonian plants z g5etically di/9ct4 ,! surface features ( ! /em-ca/s1 ! =m ( ! leaves1 & app>5tly ! cones1 possess c]ta9 di/9ctive *>act]s :i* w\ld seem to ju/ify ! ret5tion ( a sep>ate g5]ic designation4 ,we may briefly summ>ise ! *>act]i/ics ( ! g5us z foll[s3-- ,pi?-ca/s articulat$1 ) v slightly con/rict$ nodes2 ! int]nodes trav]s$ by longitud9al ribs slightly elevat$ or almo/ flat1 sep>at$ by %all[ grooves4 ,! ribs & grooves are cont9u\s f "o int]node to ano!r1 & d n usually %[ ! *>act]i/ic alt]nation ( ,calamites#hcd4 ,along ! nodal l9e !re are occasionally f\nd %ort longitud9al depressions1 probably m>k+ ! po9ts ( orig9 ( outgo+ bundles4 ,bran*es 7 giv5 (f f ! nodes )\t any regul> ord]2 a pi?-ca/ may h bran*-sc>s on _m ( ! nodes1 or !re may be no trace ( bran*es on ca/s consi/+ ( sev]al nodes4 ,! leaves#hce are 9 :orls2 9 "s cases !y occur z free1 l9e>1 lanceolate leaves1 or on y\ng] bran*es !y are long1 fili=m & repeat$ly =k$4 ,! /ructure ( ! wood agrees ) t ( "s =ms ( ,ar?ropitys4 ,! /robili consi/ ( an articulat$ axis be>+ :orls ( sporangiophores1 & ea* sporangiophore has f\r sporangia4 ,our k ( ! f]tile %oots is1 h[ev]1 v imp]fect4 ,r5ault#hcf has rec5tly describ$ ! /ructure ( ! wood 9 "s small silicifi$ /ems ( ,ar*aeocalamites f ,autun4 ,a l>ge holl[ pi? is surr\nd$ by a cyl9d] ( wood consi/+ ( w$ge-%ap$ gr\ps ( xylem tra*eids associat$ ) second>y m$ull>y rays2 at ! apex ( ea* prim>y xylem gr\p !re is a c>9al canal4 ,! prim>y m$ull>y rays appe> to h be5 bridg$ across by b&s ( xylem at an e>ly /age ( second>y ?ick5+1 z 9 ! ,calamite ( fig4 #hc1 ,d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,ar*aeocalamites scrobiculatus 7,s*lo?474 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum1 ,cambridge4 ,f ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one ( ,nor?umb]l&4 nat4 size4 ,our k ( ! cones ( ,ar*aeocalamites is f> f satisfactory4 ,r5ault#hcg has rec5tly describ$ a small f]tile bran* be>+ a succession ( v]ticils ( sporangiophores2 ea* sporangiophore /&s at "r angles to ! axis ( ! cone & be>s f\r sporangia1 z 9 ,calamo/a*ys4 ,x is n cle> h[ f> !re is bett] evid5ce ?an t af=d$ by ! association ( ! specim5 ) pi?-ca/s ( /ems1 = ref]r+ ?is cone to ,ar*aeocalamites1 b ! association ( vegetative & f]tile %oots c]ta9ly sugge/s an organic connection4 ,! cone describ$ by ! ,fr5* au?or agrees ) ,equisetum 9 ! abs5ce ( /]ile bracts betwe5 ! :orls ( sporangiophores4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t su* a di/9ctly ,equisetace\s /robilus is kn[n to h exi/$ 9 ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,/ur#hch has also describ$ ,ar*aeocalamites at consid]able l5g?2 he gives sev]al good figures ( /em-ca/s & foliage-%oots be>+ long & (t5 =k$ n>r[ leaves4 ,! same writ] describes specim5s ( imp]fectly pres]v$ cones 9 :i* portions ( :orls ( =k$ fili=m leaves are giv5 (f f ! base ( ! /robilus#hci4 ,kid/on#hdj publi%$ an important memoir on ! cones ( ,ar*aeocalamites 9 #ahhc1 9 :i* he advanc$ good evid5ce 9 support ( ! view t c]ta9 /robili1 :i* 7 orig9ally describ$ z ,monocotyl$on\s infloresc5ces1 "u ! g5]ic "n ,po?ocites#hda1 are ! f]tile %oots ( ?is ,calam>ian g5us4 ,kid/on's conclusions are bas$ on ! occurr5ce on ! ,po?ocites cones1 ( leaves l ^? ( ,ar*aeocalamites1 on ! non-alt]nation ( ! sporangiophores ( successive :orls1 & on ! close resemblance betwe5 8 specim5s & ^? describ$ by ,/ur4 ,good specim5s ( ! cones1 =m]ly kn[n z ,po?ocites1 may be se5 9 ! ,botanical ,museum 9 ! ,royal ,g>d5s1 ,ed9burgh2 z !y are 9 ! =m ( ca/s )\t int]nal /ructure x is difficult to =m a cle> conception z to _! morphological features4 ,! fossils includ$ "u ,ar*aeocalamites h be5 ref]r$ by diff]5t au?ors to v>i\s g5]a1 & consid]able confusion has aris5 9 bo? g5]ic & specific nom5clature4 ,! foll[+ synonomy ( ! be/ kn[n species1 ,a4 scrobiculatus 7,s*lo?47 illu/rates ! un=tunate use ( sev]al t]ms = ! same plant4 ,ar*aeocalamites scrobiculatus 7,s*lo?474 ,fig4 #ajc4 #agbj4 ,li?oxylon1 ,volkmann#hdb4 #ahbj4 ,calamites scrobiculatus1 ,s*lo!im#hdc4 #ahbe4 ,bornia scrobiculata1 ,/]nb]g#hdd4 #ahbh4 ,calamites radiatus1 ,brongni>t#hde4 #ahda4 ,po?ocites ,grantoni1 ,pat]son#hdf4 #aheb4 ,calamites transitionis1 ,gpp]t#hdg4 ---- ,/igmatocanna ,volkmanniana1 ibid4 ---- ,an>?rocanna tub]culata1 ibid4 ---- ,calamites v>iolatus1 ibid4 ---- ,c4 obliquus1 ibid4 ---- ,c4 t5uissimus1 ibid4 ---- ,a/]ophyllites elegans1 ibid4 #ahff4 ,calamites laticulatus1 ,ett+%aus5#hdh4 ---- ,equisetites ,gpp]ti1 ibid4 ---- ,sph5ophyllum furcatum1 ibid4 #ahgc4 ,a/]ophyllites spaniophyllus1 ,fei/mantel#hdi4 #ahhj4 ,a/]ocalamites scrobiculatus1 ,zeill]#hej4 ,= o!r li/s ( synonyms ref]5ce may be made to ,b9ney#hea1 ,/ur#heb1 ,kid/on#hec & o!r au?ors4 ,"s ( ! be/ specim5s ( ?is species are to be se5 9 ! ,museums ( ,breslau & ,vi5na1 :i* conta9 ! orig9al examples describ$ by ,gpp]t & ,/ur4 ,an exam9ation ( ! orig9al specim5s1 figur$ by ,gpp]t "u v>i\s names1 enables "o to ref] !m ) confid5ce to ! s+le species1 ,ar*aeocalamites scrobiculatus4 ,! g5]ic "n ,ar*aeocalamites1 :i* has be5 employ$ by "s au?ors1 0 sugge/$ by ,s*imp]#hed 9 #ahfb1 z a subg5us ( ,calamites1 on acc\nt ( ! occurr5ce ( a deeply divid$ leaf-%ea?1 atta*$ to ! node ( a pi?-ca/1 :i* seem$ to diff] f ! usual type ( ,calamitean leaf4 ,! specim5s describ$ by ,s*imp] are 9 ! ,/rassburg ,museum2 ! leaf-%ea? :i* he figures is n v accurately repres5t$4 ,! example giv5 9 fig4 #ajc %ews v cle>ly ! cont9u\s c\rse ( ! ribs & grooves ( ! pi?-ca/4 ,ea* rib is trav]s$ by a n>r[ m$ian groove :i* w\ld seem to repres5t ! project+ edge ( "s h>d tissue 9 ! middle ( ea* pr9cipal m$ull>y ray ( ! /em4 ,! specim5 0 f\nd 9 a ,c>bonif]\s lime/one qu>ry1 ,nor?umb]l&2 !re is a simil> ca/ f ! same locality 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,geological ,survey4 ,aff9ities ( ,ar*aeocalamites4 ,?is g5us agrees v closely ) ,calamites bo? 9 ! anatomical /ructure ( ! /em & 9 ! v]ticillate disposition ( ! leaves4 ,! /robili appe> to be ,equisetace\s 9 "*1 & !re is no satisfactory evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( :orls ( /]ile bracts 9 ! cone1 su* z occur 9 ,calamo/a*ys & 9 o!r ,calamitean /robili4 ,! cont9u\s c\rse ( ! vascul> bundles ( ! /em f "o int]node to ! next is ! mo/ /rik+ feature 9 ! ord9>y specim5s ( ! g5us2 b x sometimes happ5s t ! grooves on a pi?-ca/ %ew ! same alt]nation at ! node z 9 ,calamites4 ,?is is ! case 9 a specim5 9 ! ,gpp]t collection 9 ! ,breslau ,museum1 & ,fei/mantel#hee has call$ att5tion to su* an alt]nation 9 specim5s f ,ro?walt]sdorf4 ,9 ! true ,calamites1 on ! o!r h&1 ! usual nodal alt]nation ( ! vascul> /r&s is by no means a con/ant "*#hef4 ,/ur#heg1 ,ro?pletz#heh1 & o!r au?ors h po9t$ out ! resemblance ( ,ar*aeocalamites to ,sph5ophyllum4 ,! deeply divid$ leaves ( "s ,sph5ophyllums & ^? ( ,ar*aeocalamites are v simil> 9 =m2 & ! c\rse ( ! vascul> /r&s 9 ,sph5ophyllum may be comp>$ ) t 9 ,ar*aeocalamites4 ,b ! /rik+ diff]5ce 9 ! /ructure ( ! /ele =ms a wide gap betwe5 ! two g5]a4 ,we h evid5ce t ! ,calamites & ,sph5ophyllums 7 probably desc5d$ f a common ance/ral /ock1 & x may be t 9 ,ar*aeocalamites1 "s ( ! ,sph5ophyllum *>act]s h be5 reta9$2 b !re is no close aff9ity betwe5 ! two plants4 ,on ! :ole1 consid]+ ! age ( ,ar*aeocalamites & ! few *>act]s ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 x is probable t ?is g5us is v closely relat$ to ! typical ,calamites1 & may be reg>d$ z a type :i* is 9 ! direct l9e ( developm5t ( ! m mod]n ,calamite & ! liv+ ,equisetum4 ,weiss#hei includes ,ar*aeocalamites z "o ( 8 subg5]a ) ,calamit9a & o!rs1 & x is q possible t ! g5us has n m claim to /& alone ?an o!r =ms at pres5t includ$ 9 ! compreh5sive g5us ,calamites4 ,! /ud5t w f9d detail$ descriptions ( ?is g5us 9 ! works :i* h be5 ref]r$ to 9 ! prec$+ pages4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,ii4 ,,sph5ophyllales4 ,sph5ophyllum4 ,! g5us ,sph5ophyllum is plac$ 9 a special class1 z repres5t+ a type :i* _c be legitimately includ$ 9 any ( ! exi/+ gr\ps ( ,vascul> ,cryptogams4 ,al?\gh ?is ,palaeozoic g5us possesses po9ts ( contact ) v>i\s liv+ plants1 x is g5]ally admitt$ by palaeobotani/s t x con/itutes a some:at isolat$ type among ! ,pt]idophytes ( ! ,coal-,measures4 ,our k ( ! anatomy ( bo? vegetative %oots & /robili is n[ fairly complete1 & ! facts t we possess are 9 fav\r ( exclud+ ! g5us f any ( ! ?ree ma9 divisions ( ! ,pt]idophyta4 ,9 ,s*eu*z]'s ,h]b>ium ,diluvianum !re is a c>eful draw+ ( "s fragm5ts ( sl5d] twigs1 f an ,engli% locality1 be>+ v]ticils ( cunei=m leaves1 :i* ! au?or comp>es ) ! common ,galium#hfj4 ,z reg>ds sup]ficial ext]nal resemblance1 ! ,galium ( our h$g][s agrees v closely ) :at mu/ h be5 ! appe>ance ( fre% gre5 %oots ( ,sph5ophyllum4 ,a twig ( ! same species ( ,sph5ophyllum is figur$ by ,s*lo!im#hfa 9 ! fir/ "p ( 8 "w on fossil plants2 he reg>ds x z probably a fragm5t ( "s species ( ,palm4 ,/]nb]g#hfb 0 ! fir/ to in/itute a g5]ic "n = ?is g5us ( plants1 & specim5s 7 describ$ by him 9 #ahbe z a species ( ! g5us ,rotul>ia4 ,! "n ,sph5ophyllites 0 propos$ by ,brongni>t#hfc 9 #ahbb z a sub/itute = ,s*lo!im's g5us1 & 9 a lat] "w#hfd ! ,fr5* au?or in/itut$ ! g5us ,sph5ophyllum4 ,dawson#hfe 0 ! fir/ to make any ref]5ce to ! anatomy ( ?is g5us2 b x is f ! exam9ation ( ! mu* m p]fect mat]ial f ,/4 ti5ne1 ,autun1 & o!r cont95tal localities1 ! ,nor? ( ,engl& & ,pettycur 9 ,scotl&1 by ,r5ault1 ,williamson1 ,zeill] & ,scott1 t our m complete k has be5 acquir$4 ,! aff9ity ( ,sph5ophyllum has always be5 a matt] ( speculation2 x has be5 comp>$ ) ,dicotyl$ons1 ,palms1 ,conif]s 7,g9kgo & ,phyllocladus71 & v>i\s ,pt]idophytes1 su* z ,ophioglossum1 ,tmesipt]is1 ,m>silia1 ,salv9ia1 ,equisetum & ! ,lycopodiaceae#hff4 ,sid5ote3 ,,def9ition4 ,we may def9e ! g5us ,sph5ophyllum z foll[s3-- ,/em comp>atively sl5d] 7#ae-ae mm4871 articulat$1 usually some:at tumid at ! nodes2 ! surface ( ! int]nodes is m>k$ by m or less di/9ct ribs & grooves :i* d n alt]nate at ! nodes1 b foll[ a /raight c\rse f "o int]node to ! next4 ,a s+le bran* is occasionally giv5 (f f a node4 ,adv5titi\s roots are v r>ely se51 _! surface does n %[ ! ridges & grooves ( ! foliage-%oots4 ,! leaves are borne 9 v]ticils at ! nodes1 ^? 9 ! same :orl be+ usually ( ! same size1 b 9 "s =ms two ( ! leaves are di/9ctly small] ?an ! o!rs4 ,ea* v]ticil conta9s normally #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ah or m leaves1 :i* are sep>ate to ! base & n fus$ into a %ea?2 ! numb] ( leaves 9 a v]ticil is n always a multiple ( six4 ,!y v>y 9 =m f cunei=m ) a n>r[ tap]$ base1 & a lam9a trav]s$ by sev]al =k$ ve9s1 to n>r[ un9]v$ leaves & leaves ) a lam9a dissect$ into di*otom\sly bran*$ l9e> segm5ts4 ,! leaves ( successive :orls are sup]pos$4 ,! /robili are long & n>r[ 9 =m1 hav+ a l5g? 9 "s cases ( #ab cm41 & a diamet] ( #ab mm42 !y occur z %ortly /alk$ lat]al bran*es1 or t]m9ate long leaf-be>+ %oots4 ,! axis ( ! cone be>s :orls ( num]\s l9e> lanceolate bracts fus$ basally into a coh]5t funnel-%ap$ disc1 be>+ on its upp] surface sporangiophores & sporangia4 ,! /robili are usually isospor\s1 b possibly het]ospor\s 9 "s =ms4 ,! /em is mono/elic1 ) a tri>* or hex>* triangul> /r& ( c5tripetally develop$ prim>y xylem1 consi/+ ( reticulate1 scal>i=m & spiral tra*eae2 ! protoxylem elem5ts be+ situat$ at ! blunt corn]s ( ! xylem-/r&4 ,foli> bundles are giv5 (f1 ei!r s+ly or 9 pairs1 f ea* angle ( ! c5tral prim>y /r&4 ,! second>y xylem consi/s ( radially dispos$ reticulate or scal>i=m tra*eae1 develop$ f a cambium-lay]4 ,! phloem is made up ( ?9-wall$ elem5ts1 includ+ sieve-tubes & p>5*yma4 ,bo? xylem & phloem include second>y m$ull>y rays ( p>5*ymat\s cells4 ,! cortex consi/s 9 "p ( fairly ?ick-wall$ elem5ts2 9 old] /ems ! great] "p ( ! cortical region is cut (f by ! developm5t ( deep-seat$ lay]s ( p]id]m4 ,! roots are app>5tly di>* 9 /ructure1 ) a lacun> & smoo? cortex4 ,! bran* ( ,sph5ophyllum em>g9atum ,brongn4 giv5 9 fig4 #aji %[s ! *>act]i/ic appe>ance ( ! g5us z repres5t$ by ?is well-kn[n species :i* ,brongni>t figur$ 9 #ahbb4 ,! ,indian species %[n 9 fig4 #aaa illu/rates ! occurr5ce ( unequal leaves 9 ! same :orl1 & 9 fig4 #aaj1 ,b1 we h a =m ( v]ticil 9 :i* ! leaves are deeply divid$ into fili=m segm5ts4 ,a l>g]-leav$ =m is repres5t$ by ,s4 ,?oni1 ,mahr4 7fig4 #aaj1 ,a71 a species occasionally met ) 9 ,p]mian rocks4 ,no specim5s ( ,sph5ophyllum h s f> be5 f\nd atta*$ to a ?ick /em2 !y always occur z sl5d] %oots1 :i* sometimes rea* a consid]able l5g?4 ,"o ( ! longe/ examples kn[n is 9 ! collection ( ! ,au/rian ,geological ,survey2 ! axis is #d mm4 9 bread? & #he cm4 long1 be>+ a sl5d] bran* #fa cm4 9 l5g?4 ,! mann] ( occurr5ce ( ! specim5 z a curv$ sl5d] /em on ! surface ( ! rock sugge/s a weak plant1 :i* mu/ h dep5d$ = support on "s ext]nal aid1 ei!r wat] or ano!r plant4 ,! anatomical /ructure & o!r features d n fav\r ! sugge/ion ( "s writ]s t ,sph5ophyllum 0 a wat]-plant#hfg1 b !re w\ld seem to be no s]i\s ob/acle 9 ! way ( reg>d+ x z possibly a sl5d] plant :i* flung itself on ! bran*es & /ems ( /rong] =e/ trees = support4 ,a4 ,! anatomy ( ,sph5ophyllum4 ,! foll[+ acc\nt ( ! /ructural features ( ! /em & root is bas$ on ! "w ( ,r5ault#hfh1 ,williamson#hfi & ,williamson & ,scott#hgj4 ,we may fir/ consid] su* *>act]s z h be5 recognis$ 9 diff]5t examples ( ! g5us1 & !n notice briefly ! di/+ui%+ peculi>ities ( two well-m>k$ specific types4 a4 ,/ems4 i4 ,prim>y /ructure4 ,9 a transv]se section ( a "y ,sph5ophyllum /em su* z t diagrammatically sket*$ 9 fig4 #aje1 ,a1 we f9d 9 ! c5tre ! xylem portion ( a s+le /ele ) a *>act]i/ic triangul> =m4 ,! prim>y xylem consi/s ma9ly ( fairly l>ge tra*eae ) num]\s pits on _! walls2 t[>ds ! end ( ea* arm ! tra*eids become scal>i=m1 & at ! apex !re is a gr\p ( n>r[] spiral protoxylem elem5ts4 ,9 ! ,briti% species !re is a s+le protoxylem gr\p at ! apex ( ea* arm1 b ,r5ault has describ$ "s ,fr5* /ems 9 :i* ! /ele appe>s to be hex>*1 hav+ two protoxylem gr\ps at ! end ( ea* ( ! ?ree rays ( ! /ele4 ,! prim>y xylem /r& ( ,sph5ophyllum has !re=e a root-l /ructure1 ! tra*eids hav+ be5 develop$ c5tripetally f ! ?ree initial protoxylem gr\ps4 ,?is type ( /ructure is typical ( roots1 b x also occurs 9 ! /ems ( "s rec5t ,vascul> ,cryptogams4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,diagrammatic longitud9al section ( ,sph5ophyllum4 c1 out] cortex2 b1 space next ! /ele1 orig9ally occupi$ by phloem etc42 a1 xylem /r&4 7,aft] ,r5ault#hga47 #g4 ,z a rule ! tissue next ! xylem has n be5 petrifi$1 b 9 exceptionally well-pres]v$ examples x is se5 to consi/ ( a b& ( ?9-wall$ elem5ts1 ( :i* ^? 9 contact ) ! xylem may be spok5 ( z phloem1 & ^? beyond z ! p]icycle4 ,succe$+ ?is b& ( delicate tissue !re is a broad] b& ( ?ick]-wall$ & some:at elongat$ elem5ts1 con/itut+ ! cortex4 ,! specim5 drawn 9 fig4 #aje1 ,a1 %[s v prom95t grooves 9 ! cortex opposite ! middle ( ea* bay ( ! prim>y wood4 ,x is ^! grooves t give to ! ord9>y ca/s ( ,sph5ophyllum bran*es ! appe>ance ( longitud9al l9es trav]s+ ea* int]node4 ,9 a longitud9al section ( a /em1 ! cortical tissue 7fig4 #ajd1 c7 is f\nd to be broad] 9 ! nodal regions1 ?us giv+ rise to ! tumid nodes ref]r$ to 9 ! diagnosis4 ,! increas$ bread? at ! nodes does n mean t ! xylem is broad] 9 ^! regions1 z x is 9 ,calamite /ems4 ,small /r&s ( vascul> tissue are giv5 (f f ! ?ree edges ( ! triangul> /ele 7fig4 #aje ,a7 at ea* node2 ^! bran* 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! cortex on _! way to ! v]ticils ( leaves4 ,! space b 9 ! diagrammatic section ( fig4 #ajd 0 orig9ally occupi$ by ! phloem & inn] cortex4 ,9 "s species ( ,sph5ophyllum ! apex ( ea* arm ( ! xylem /r&1 z se5 9 transv]se section1 is occupi$ by a longitud9al canal surr\nd$ by spiral tra*eids1 z 9 ! prim>y xylem ( ! old /em %[n 9 fig4 #aje1 ,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,sph5ophyllum4 ,a4 ,transv]se section ( "y /em4 ,b4 ,transv]se section ( ! wood ( a "y /em2 px1 protoxylem2 x1 second>y xylem4 7,a & ,b4 ,sph5ophyllum plurifoliatum47 #bj4 ,c4 ,transv]se section ( an old /em2 7,s4 insigne72 a1 phloem2 b1 p]id]m2 c1 fascicul> second>y xylem2 d1 int]fascicul> second>y xylem4 #i4 7,no4 #iad 9 ! ,williamson ,collection47 ,d4 ,longitud9al section ( ! reticulate tra*eae & m$ull>y rays2 r1 r1 r1 ( ,s4 plurifoliatum4 #cf4 ,e4 ,simil> section ( ,s4 insigne4 #ge4 7,d & ,e aft] ,williamson & ,scott47 ii4 ,second>y /ructure4 ,) ! exception ( v "y twigs ! petrifi$ ,sph5ophyllum /ems usually %[ a great] or less developm5t ( second>y wood4 ,9 ! xylem-/r& ( fig4 #aje1 ,b1 ! broad concave bays ( ! prim>y wood h be5 fill$ 9 by ! developm5t ( two r[s ( l>ge second>y tra*eids1 x1 b opposite ! protoxylem gr\ps1 px1 !re are no signs ( cambial activity4 ,9 ! unusually l>ge /em repres5t$ by a r\gh sket* 9 fig4 #aje1 ,c1 ! triangul> prim>y xylem lies 9 ! c5tre ( a ?ick mass ( second>y vascul> tissue4 ,! second>y & prim>y wood toge!r h a diamet] ( ab\t #e mm4 ,aft] ! bays betwe5 ea* protoxylem corn] h be5 fill$ 91 ! =mation ( second>y wood proce$s uni=mly along ! /em radii1 b ! r[s ( tra*eids & m$ull>y rays :i* are develop$ opposite ! corn]s ( ! prim>y /r&1 c1 diff] 9 c]ta9 *>act]s f ! broad] masses ( wood opposite ! bays4 ,= conv5i5ce1 ! second>y wood1 c1 opposite ! protoxylem gr\ps has be5 spok5 ( z fascicul> wood1 & ! re/1 d1 z int]fascicul> wood4 ,! second>y xylem consi/s ei!r ( tra*eae ) num]\s bord]$ pits on _! radial walls 7fig4 #aje1 ,d71 or ( tra*eae ) broad & bord]$ scal>i=m pits 7fig4 #aje1 ,e74 ,! sugge/ion ( conc5tric r+s ( gr[? 9 ! wood 9 fig4 #aje1 ,c1 is r deceptive2 !re are no well-m>k$ regul> r+s 9 ,sph5ophyllum /ems1 b irregul> b&s ( small] elem5ts occasionally int]rupt ! uni=mity ( ! second>y xylem4 ,9 "s /ems ! m$ull>y rays h ! =m ( r[s ( p>5*ymat\s cells1 :i* 9 tang5tial longitud9al section are f\nd to consi/ frequ5tly ( a s+le r[ ( radially dispos$ elem5ts2 ?is type ( m$ull>y rays occurs 9 ! species ,sph5ophyllum insigne1 9 :i* ! tra*eae are scal>i=m4 ,?ree m$ull>y rays1 r1 are se5 on ! radial face ( ! scal>i=m tra*eids 9 fig4 #aje1 ,e1 :i* repres5ts a radial section ( ?is species4 ,9 o!r species1 e4g4 ,s4 plurifoliatum1 ! m$ull>y rays h a peculi> & *>act]i/ic /ructure2 9 a transv]se section ( ! /em !y appe> z gr\ps ( a few p>5*ymat\s cells 9 ! spaces betwe5 ! truncat$ angles ( ! l>ge tra*eae 7fig4 #ajf74 ,9 longitud9al section ^! m$ull>y-ray elem5ts resemble ?ick b>s /ret*+ radially across ! face ( ! tra*eae 7fig4 #aje1 ,d1 r72 ! app>5t septa or b>s are h[ev] ?9-wall$ cells connect+ ! diff]5t gr\ps ( m$ull>y-ray cells1 z se5 9 a transv]se section4 ,^! radial connect+ cells are occasionally se5 z %ort rays 9 transv]se sections ( /ems4 ,! cambium & phloem elem5ts are occasionally pres]v$ 9 good specim5s ( old] /ems2 ! =m] consi/ ( tabul> flatt$ ?9-wall$ cells1 & ! latt] 9 "s cases include l>ge sieve-tubes & n>r[] p>5*ymat\s elem5ts4 ,! sections %[n 9 fig4 #ajg1 ,e & ,f1 illu/rate ! pres]vation ( cambial & phloem tissue4 ,9 ! transv]se section ( fig4 #ajg1 ,f1 ! second>y xylem ) ! m$ull>y rays1 r1 is succe$$ by a few tabul> cambium cells1 & ext]nal to ^! !re are ?9-wall$ elem5ts ( unequal size repres5t+ ! phloem4 ,9 fig4 #ajg1 ,e1 ! scal>i=m tra*eids are succe$$ by n>r[ ?9-wall$ cells1 & ! l>g] elem5ts ) transv]se & oblique septa are no d\bt sieve-tubes4 ,9 ! l>ge /em ( fig4 #aje1 ,c1 ! xylem is succe$$ by a b& ( tissue1 a1 :i* is no d\bt phloem1 & ext]nal to ?is !re is a consid]able developm5t ( p]id]m 7b74 ,! p]id]m 9 ,sph5ophyllum /ems _h a deep-seat$ orig91 ! phellog5 or cork-cambium occasionally be+ =m$ 9 ! second>y phloem-p>5*yma1 & 9 o!r cases 9 ! p]icycle1 z 9 ! /ems ( "s liv+ dicotyl$ons4 ,williamson & ,scott#hgb describe /ems 9 :i* a succession ( phellog5s 7 =m$ at diff]5t levels1 ?us produc+ a scaly type ( b>k1 su* z we f9d 9 ! ,p9e or ! ,plane tree4 ,sid5ote3 ,,sph5ophyllum ,,plurifoliatum4 ,be=e describ+ ! /ructure ( ! /robili ( ,sph5ophyllum1 we may briefly po9t out ! di/+ui%+ features ( two specific types ( ! g5us rec5tly describ$ by ,williamson & ,scott4 ,"o ( ^! species1 ,s4 insigne1 0 orig9ally describ$ by ,williamson z an ,a/]ophyllites2 ! num]\s n>r[ l9e> leaves 9 ea* v]ticil l$ to ! inclusion ( ! specim5s 9 ! latt] g5us4 ,! mat]ial on :i* ?is species is f\nd$ is f ! volcanic b$s ( ,pettycur1 ,burntisl&1 on ! coa/ ( ! ,fir? ( ,=?4 #a4 ,sph5ophyllum insigne 7,w474 ,figs4 #aje1 ,c & ,e1 & #ajg1 ,e & ,f4 #ahia4 ,a/]ophyllites insignis4 ,williamson#hgc4 ,an int]cellul> space occurs at ea* angle ( ! ?ree-ray$ prim>y xylem /r&1 & spiral tra*eae are abundant4 ,! tra*eae ( ! second>y wood h scal>i=m m>k+s on ! radial walls4 ,regul> m$ull>y rays ext5d ?r\gh ! second>y wood4 ,! phloem conta9s l>ge sieve-tubes4 ,?is species occurs 9 ! ,calcif]\s s&/one rocks ( ,burntisl&1 & has lately be5 record$ f ,g]many4 ,x *>act]ises a l[] horizon ?an ,s4 plurifoliatum 7,w4 & ,scott74 #b4 ,sph5ophyllum plurifoliatum 7,williamson & ,scott7#hgd4 ,figs4 #aje1 ,a1 ,b1 & ,d1 & #ajf4 #ahia4 ,a/]ophyllites sph5ophylloides4 ,w4#hge ,! specific "n plurifoliatum 0 propos$ by ,williamson & ,scott = a type ( /em orig9ally describ$ by ,williamson#hgf z an ,a/]ophyllites1 f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,oldham1 ,lanca%ire4 ,?is =m ( /em has n s f> be5 connect$ ) any ( ! old] species f\nd$ on ext]nal *>act]s1 b x evid5tly bore foliage 9 :i* ! leaves 7 deeply divid$1 z 9 ,sph5ophyllum tri*omatosum 7fig4 #aaj1 ,b74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,sph5ophyllum plurifoliatum1 ,w4 & ,scott4 ,f a photograph by ,mr ,highly f a section 9 ! ,williamson ,collection 7no4 #hii74 #bg4 ,9 ?is species !re are no canals at ! angles ( ! prim>y xylem1 & !re are few] spiral tra*eae ?an 9 ,s4 insigne4 ,! tra*eae ( ! second>y wood h num]\s small pits on ! radial walls1 & ! m$ull>y rays are *iefly compos$ ( p>5*ymat\s cells1 :i* appe> 9 transv]se section z gr\ps ( cells betwe5 ! truncat$ angles ( ! tra*eae4 ,! *>act]s are fairly well se5 9 ! xylem portion ( a /ele %[n 9 fig4 #ajf4 ,! fascicul> wood includes "s r[s ( p>5*ymat\s m$ull>y-ray cells 9 addition to ! *>act]i/ic gr\ps1 z se5 9 ! figure4 ,a slightly oblique transv]se section ( a /em is (t5 conv5i5t 9 ! int]pretation ( hi/ological features2 "o ( ! sections ( ,s4 plurifoliatum 9 ! ,williamson collection 7no4 #hic71 :i* has be5 cut some:at obliquely1 %[s v cle>ly ! diff]5ces 9 pitt+ exhibit$ by ! diff]5t xylem elem5ts4 b4 ,roots4 ,our k ( ! anatomy ( ,sph5ophyllum roots is v limit$4 ,r5ault has describ$ a some:at imp]fect example ( a silicifi$ root f ,/4 ti5ne & ,autun4 ,! draw+ 9 fig4 #ajg1 ,b1 :i* is copi$ f "o ( ,r5ault's figures1 %[s a cyl9drical mass ( xylem ) a small b& ( n>r[] elem5ts occupy+ ! c5tre1 & surr\nd$ by r[s ( l>g] second>y tra*eae4 ,! c5tral bipol> b& is describ$ z ! di>* prim>y xylem1 ar\nd :i* ! second>y pitt$ elem5ts h be5 develop$4 ,x is probable t ! specim5 describ$ by ,r5ault is a root ( ,sph5ophyllum1 b my impression ga9$ f an exam9ation ( ! section 0 t ! di>* prim>y /r& is n q s cle> z 9 ! publi%$ figures4 ,until we possess bett] mat]ial we _c attempt any v satisfactory description ( ! anatomical features ( ! roots ( ?is g5us4 ,a section ( a ,sph5ophyllum /em has be5 figur$ by ,felix#hgg1 9 :i* a lat]al memb] is be+ giv5 (f2 ?is may possibly repres5t ! orig9 ( an adv5titi\s root1 b ! pres]vation is n suffici5tly di/9ct to r5d] ?is c]ta94 c4 ,leaves4 ,r5ault#hgh has describ$ "s silicifi$ leaves ( ,sph5ophyllum f ,autun 9 :i* ! lam9ae consi/ ( ?9-wall$ loose p>5*yma1 trav]s$ by small gr\ps ( tra*eids con/itut+ ! simple or =k$ ve9s4 ,! epid]mis is made up ( a s+le lay] ( cells1 ) "h & !re indi/9ct indications ( /omata4 ,a m p]fect /oma has1 h[ev]1 be5 describ$ by ,solms-,lauba* f ! epid]mis ( a bract 9 a /robilus 7fig4 #ajg1 ,a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,a4 ,/oma 9 a bract ( ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys4 ,b4 ,root ( ,sph5ophyllum4 ,c4 ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys ,rm]i1 ,solms4 s1 sporangiophore1 b1 bract4 ,d4 ,sporangium4 ,e & ,f4 ,sections ?r\gh ! cambium1 phloem & second>y xylem ( ,sph5ophyllum insigne 7,w474 s1 sieve-tube4 ,g4 ,sporangium & p$icel4 ,a1 ,c1 ,d4 ,aft] ,solms-,lauba*4 ,b4 ,aft] ,r5ault4 ,e-,g4 ,aft] ,williamson & ,scott4 ,e4 ,f4 #ajj4 ,g4 #aae4 d4 ,cones4 ,! hi/ory ( ! recognition ( ! cones ( ,sph5ophyllum has already be5 briefly allud$ to 9 *apt] ,v41 p4 #ajj4 ,! ma9 po9ts 9 ! /ructure ( ! cones ( ?is g5us 7 kn[n = sev]al ye>s1 be=e ! fact 0 e/abli%$ t !y belong$ to ,sph5ophyllum /ems4 ,9 #ahga ,williamson#hgi publi%$ an acc\nt ( an imp]fect fossil /robilus f ! ,l[] ,coal-,measures ( ,oldham1 ,lanca%ire1 "u ! "n ( ,volkmannia ,dawsoni4 ,! g5]ic t]m ,volkmannia has be5 us$ by diff]5t writ]s = cones v>y+ consid]ably 9 /ructural features2 9 ! case ( ,williamson's fossil1 ,weiss#hhj sub/itut$ ! "n ,b[manites1 a g5us in/itut$ by ,b9ney#hha = a /robilus app>5tly ( ! same type z ,volkmannia ,dawsoni4 ,9 #ahia ,williamson#hhb describ$ "s additional specim5s ( ,b[manites ,dawsoni1 &1 z 9 8 e>li] pap]1 he comp>$ ! /robilus ) ,a/]ophyllites & ,sph5ophyllum1 b x 0 /ill a matt] ( speculation z to :at 0 ! =m ( ! vegetative bran*es4 ,soon aft] ! m complete acc\nt ( ! ,engli% cones 0 publi%$1 ,zeill]#hhc recognis$ a close agreem5t betwe5 "s ,fr5* & ,belgian specim5s ( ,sph5ophyllum /robili & ! /robilus describ$ by ,williamson4 ,a clos] comp>ison ?or\ghly e/abli%$ ! connection betwe5 ,b[manites ,dawsoni & ,sph5ophyllum2 & !re is little d\bt t ?is /robilus belongs to ! /em kn[n z ,sph5ophyllum cuneifolium 7,/]nb47--a well-kn[n species ( ! g5us4 ,sid5ote3 ,,/robilus4 ,! mo/ important morphological features ( ! /robilus ( ,sph5ophyllum may be/ be illu/rat$ by a detail$ acc\nt ( "o specific type1 & by a brief ref]5ce to o!r =ms :i* are *>act]is$ by c]ta9 diff]5ces 9 ! numb] & atta*m5t ( ! sporangia4 ,:5 we "k t a giv5 /robilus mu/ h gr[n on a ,sph5ophyllum /em1 ! obvi\s "n to assign to x w\ld seem to be t ( ! plant :i* bore x2 b !re are advantages 9 mak+ use ( special g5]ic t]ms = deta*$ cones1 :i* _c be ref]r$ ) c]ta9ty to a p>ticul> species ( /em4 ,! g5us ,calamo/a*ys af=ds an example ( a "n :i* is int5d$ to d5ote t a cone s call$ belongs to a ,calam>ian plant2 simil>ly su* a "n z ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys may be us$ = ,sph5ophylloid cones :i* _c be connect$ ) c]ta9ty to p>ticul> species ( ,sph5ophyllum4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! g5us ,b[manites1 fir/ us$ = a cone :i* 0 aft]w>ds recognis$ z belong+ to a ,sph5ophyllum1 %\ld be employ$ in/ead ( ! sesquip$alian t]m ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys4 ,! latt] is us$ "h z be+ 9 accordance ) a g5]ally accept$ & conv5i5t sy/em ( nom5clature1 & z a "n :i* at once d5otes ! fact t ! fossil is n only a cone b t x belongs to a ,sph5ophyllum4 ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys ,dawsoni 7,w474 ,figs4 #ajg1 ,a & ,g1 #ajh4 ,probably ! /robilus ( ,sph5ophyllum cuneifolium 7,/]nb474 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,diagrammatic longitud9al section ( a ,sph5ophyllum /robilus4 ,! upp] figure repres5ts a portion ( a :orl ( bracts4 7,! small] figure1 aft] ,zeill]47 ,! cone consi/s ( a c5tral axis be>+ a numb] ( v]ticils ( bracts coh]5t 9 _! l[] portions 9 ! =m ( a widely op5 funnel-%ap$ disc1 :i* splits up p]iph]ally into #ad-bj l9e>-lanceolate segm5ts4 ,! free segm5ts ( ea* v]ticil h an obliquely asc5d+ or almo/ v]tical position1 & ext5d upw>ds = a di/ance ( ab\t six int]nodes4 ,! small] draw+ 9 fig4 #ajh %[s ! appe>ance 9 side view ( ! n>r[ bracts ( a s+le :orl4 ,a transv]se section ( a /robilus w\ld include1 !re=e1 sections ( sev]al conc5tric s]ies ( asc5d+ bracts4 ,! v]ticils ( ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys ,dawsoni are probably sup]pos$1 b ?is po9t has n be5 def9itely settl$4 ,f ! upp] surface ( ! coh]5t basal portion ( ea* v]ticil1 !re are giv5 (f twice z _m sporangiophores z !re are free segm5ts1 & ^! are atta*$ close to ! l9e ( junction ( ! axis ( ! cone & ! funnel-%ap$ disc4 ,ea* sporangiophore has ! =m ( a sl5d] /alk :i* b5ds inw>ds at its di/al end & be>s a s+le sporangium 7cf4 fig4 #ajg1 ,d74 ,! sporangiophores giv5 (f f ! same v]ticil ( bracts v>y 9 l5g?4 ,all ! sporangiophores are atta*$ to ! coh]5t bracts at ! same di/ance f ! axis ( ! cone2 b z ! sporangia betwe5 ea* v]ticil ( bracts are arrang$ 9 two or ?ree conc5tric s]ies1 x foll[s t ! l5g? ( ! sporangiophores v>ies consid]ably4 ,! diagrammatic longitud9al section ( a /robilus 9 fig4 #ajh %[s ?ree conc5tric s]ies ( sporangia betwe5 successive bract-v]ticils4 ,a simil> diagram 0 publi%$ by ,williamson 9 #ahibhhd1 & aft]w>ds copi$ by ,potoni#hhe1 b 9 ,williamson's re/oration ! sporangiophores ( ! ?ree s]ies ( sporangia are errone\sly repres5t$ z aris+ f diff]5t po9ts on ! surface ( ! bracts4 ,!re is little d\bt1 z reg>ds ! /robilus ( ,s4 cuneifolium1 t ! sporangiophores 7 giv5 (f 9 a s+le s]ies close to ! axils ( ! bracts1 z is p>tially %[n 9 fig4 #ajh4 ,! c5tral "p ( ! axis ( ! cone is occupi$ by a s+le triangul> /ele l t ( ! /em1 except t ea* ray ( ! xylem /r& has a comp>atively broad blunt t]m9ation1 & is n tap]$ to a n>r[ arm z 9 fig4 #aje1 ,a & ,b4 ,! wood consi/s ( pitt$ tra*eae1 ) two gr\ps ( protoxylem elem5ts at ea* ( ! truncat$ angles ( ! solid /r& ( xylem4 ,f ! angles ( ! /ele bran*es ( vascul> tissue pass out ?r\gh ! cortex to supply ! /]ile & f]tile segm5ts ( ea* v]ticil4 ,"o ( ! transv]se sections ( ! ,sph5ophyllum cone 9 ! ,briti% ,museum ,collection 7no4 #ahih ,e7 af=ds a good example ( ! mislead+ appe>ance occasionally pres5t$ by an intrud$ #8rootlet' ( ,/igm>ia2 ! vascul> tissue ( ! cone has disappe>$1 & a ,/igm>ian app5dage ) its vascul> bundle occupies ! position ( ! /el> tissues4 ,! bracts consi/ ( p>5*ymat\s tissue limit$ ext]nally by an epid]mis conta9+ /omata4 ,a s+le /oma ) subsidi>y cells is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ajg1 ,a4 ,! sporangiophores are compos$ int]nally ( ?9-wall$ cells ) /rong] cells t[>ds ! surface4 ,! long] sporangiophores 9 a s]ies may be m or less coh]5t = "p ( _! l5g? to ! upp] surface ( ! v]ticil ( bracts4 ,9 fig4 #ajh ! sl5d] sporangiophores d n appe> to come (f always f ! same portion ( ! bracts1 b ?is is due to "s ( !m ly+ on ! surface ( ! latt] dur+ "p ( _! c\rse to support ! ext]nal circle ( sporangia4 ,! hook-l di/al end ( a sporangiophore1 t[>ds ! po9t ( atta*m5t ( ! sporangium1 is *>act]is$ by ! l>g] size & great] prom95ce ( ! surface cells2 ^! l>g] cells1 :i* pass ov] ! upp] surface ( a sporangium base1 probably con/itute a k9d ( annulus :i* det]m9es ! dehisc5ce ( ! sporangial wall#hhf4 ,fig4 #ajg1 ,g1 repres5ts a sporangiophore & its sporangium cut ?r\gh transv]sely j bel[ ! po9t ( atta*m5t ( ! latt] to ! end ( ! hook-l t]m9ation ( ! =m]4 ,! spores are *>act]is$ by an irregul>ly reticulate ?ick5+ ( ! out] coat or exospore1 z se5 9 ! figure4 ,"o ( ! *ief po9ts ( int]e/ sugge/$ by a ,sph5ophyllum cone is ! exact morphological nature ( ! sporangiophores4 ,are !y bran*es borne 9 ! axils ( bracts1 or may we reg>d ea* sporangiophore z a modifi$ leaf1 :i* has become coh]5t ) ! :orls ( /]ile leaves8 ,or is a sporangiophore m]ely a /alk ( a sporangium2 or a v5tral lobe ( a leaf1 ( :i* ! /]ile bracts repres5t ! dorsal lobes8 ,al?\gh x is impossible )\t ! evid5ce ( developm5t to decide ) c]ta9ty betwe5 ^! alt]natives1 x w\ld seem mo/ probable t a sporangiophore may be look$ ^u z a v5tral lobe ( a leaf1 ! /]ile lobes =m+ ! bracts or memb]s ( ! /]ile :orls ( ! cone4 ,?is "q is discuss$ by ,zeill]#hhg & ,williamson & ,scott#hhh1 also m rec5tly by ,scott#hhi 9 8 memoir on ,*eiro/robus4 ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys ,rm]i 7,solms-,lauba*7#hij4 ,fig4 #ajg1 ,c & ,d4 ,9 ano!r type ( ,sph5ophyllum /robilus1 rec5tly describ$ by ,solms-,lauba*1 ! incurv$ end ( ea* sporangiophore bore two sporangia4 ,9 mo/ respects ?is species1 :i* has n be5 f\nd 9 connection ) a vegetative %oot1 agrees ) ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys ,dawsoni4 ,9 fig4 #ajg1 ,c1 :i* is copi$ f "o ( ,solms-,lauba*'s draw+s#hia1 we h an oblique transv]se section ( "p ( a /robilus1 includ+ portions ( two s]ies ( sporangia borne on "o v]ticil ( bracts1 & at ! "r-h& edge ! section has pass$ ?r\gh ! sporangia belong+ to ano!r :orl ( bracts4 ,!re 7 probably ?ree conc5tric s]ies ( sporangia atta*$ to ea* v]ticil ( bracts1 z 9 ! case ( fig4 #ajh4 ,! un%ad$ area1 b 7fig4 #ajg1 ,c71 repres5ts ! bracts ( two successive /]ile :orls 9 transv]se section4 ,! %ad$ areas are ! sporangia1 ) _! sporangiophores1 s4 ,! relative position ( ! sporangia & sporangiophores sugge/s t ea* p$icel bore two sporangia at its tip1 in/ead ( "o1 z 9 ! /robilus ( ,sph5ophyllum cuneifolium 7,/]nb474 ,a fur!r v>iation 9 ! /ructure ( ! /robili is illu/rat$ by "s specim5s ( ,s4 tri*omatosum ,/ur1 describ$ by ,kid/on#hib1 f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,b>nsley4 ,ea* :orl ( bracts be>s a s+le s]ies ( oval sporangia :i* appe> to be sessile on ! basal portion ( ! :orl4 ,x is possible t delicate sporangiophores may h be5 pres5t1 b 9 ! imp]fect examples 9 ,kid/on's collection#hic ! sporangia pres5t ! appe>ance ( be+ seat$ directly on ! surface ( ! bracts4 ,z ! specim5s d n %[ any int]nal /ructure1 x w\ld be unwise to lay too mu* /ress on ! app>5t abs5ce ( ! *>act]i/ic sporangiophores4 ,9 any case1 ,kid/on's cones af=d an illu/ration ( ! occurr5ce ( a s+le s]ies ( sporangia 9 ea* :orl1 in/ead ( ! pluris]iate mann] ( occurr5ce 9 "s o!r species4 ,! /atem5t is occasionally met ) t "s ,sph5ophyllum cones possess$ two k9ds ( spores1 b we are /ill 9 want ( satisfactory evid5ce t ?is 0 really ! case4 ,r5ault has describ$ an imp]fect specim51 :i* he consid]s po9ts to ! het]ospor\s nature ( a ,sph5ophyllum cone1 b ,zeill] & ,williamson & ,scott h express$ d\bts z to ! correctness ( ,r5ault's conclusions4 ,:ile admitt+ ! possibility ( und\bt$ het]ospor\s /robili be+ discov]$1 we are n 9 a position to ref] to ,sph5ophyllum z hav+ borne /robili conta9+ two k9ds ( spores#hid4 ,sid5ote3 ,,sph5ophyllum ,,em>g9atum4 ,! foll[+ are "s ( ! specim5s 9 ! ,williamson ,cab9et :i* illu/rate ! /ructure ( ,sph5ophyllum3-- ,s4 plurifoliatum4 #hgd1 #hhb1 #hhd1 #hic1 #hid1 #hig1 #hii1 #ija1 #ijc1 #ijh1 #ahic4 ,s4 insigne4 #iaj1 #iad1 #iai1 #iba1 #ibb1 #ibd1 #ibf1 #adbj1 #ahih4 ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys4 #ajdi;,a-#ajdi;,c1 #ahih4 ,b4 ,types ( vegetative bran*es ( ,sph5ophyllum4 #a4 ,sph5ophyllum em>g9atum 7,brongni>t74 ,fig4 #aji4 #ahbb4 ,sph5ophyllites em>g9atus1 ,brongni>t#hie4 #ahbh4 ,sph5ophyllum em>g9atum1 ,brongni>t#hif4 #ahbh4 ,sph5ophyllum truncatum1 ,brongni>t#hif4 #ahbh4 ,rotul>ia m>sileaefolia1 ,bis*(f#hig4 #ahfb4 ,sph5ophyllum osnabrug5se1 ,rm]#hih4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 ,sph5ophyllum em>g9atum 7,brongni>t74 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,collection ( ,mr ,r4 ,kid/on1 ,upp] ,coal-,measures1 ,rad/ock4 nat4 size4 ,?is species ( ,sph5ophyllum be>s v]ticils ( six or eight w$ge-%ap$ leaves v>y+ 9 bread? & 9 ! ext5t ( dissection ( ! lam9ae2 !y are truncat$ di/ally1 & t]m9ate 9 a m>g9 *>act]is$ by blunt or obtusely-r\nd$ tee?1 ea* ( :i* receives a s+le ve94 ,! l>g] leaves are usually m or less deeply divid$ by a m$ian slit4 ,! n>r[ base ( ea* leaf receives a s+le ve9 :i* bran*es repeat$ly 9 a di*otom\s mann] 9 ! sub/ance ( ! lam9a4 ,sev]al draw+s h be5 giv5 by ,/]zel#hii 9 a memoir on ,p]mian plants1 %[+ ! v>iation 9 leaf-=m 9 ,sph5ophyllum em>g9atum1 b z ,kid/on#ijj & ,zeill]#ija h po9t$ out ,/]zel's specim5s probably belong to ,s4 cuneifolium 7,/]nb474 ,bran*es are giv5 (f s+ly f ! nodes1 & ! cones are borne at ! tips ( bran*es or bran*lets4 ,! cone ( ,s4 em>g9atum agrees v closely ) t ( ,s4 cuneifolium1 & is ( ! same type z t %[n 9 fig4 #ajh4 ,! small bran* ( ,s4 em>g9atum repres5t$ 9 fig4 #aji does n %[ cle>ly ! detail$ *>act]s ( ! species1 z ! leaf-m>g9s are n well pres]v$4 ,9 "o ( ! l>ge/ specim5s ( ?is species :i* ,i h se51 9 ! ,leipzig ,museum1 ! ma9 /em has int]nodes ( ab\t #ci cm4 9 l5g?1 f :i* a lat]al bran* ) mu* %ort] int]nodes is giv5 (f f a node4 ,x is important to notice ! close resemblance1 z po9t$ out by ,zeill]1 betwe5 "s ( ! n>r[]-leav$ =ms ( ,s4 em>g9atum & ,s4 cuneifolium 7,/]nb47#ijb2 b 9 ! latt] species ! m>g9s ( ! leaves h %>p1 & n blunt tee?4 ,! cone describ$ & figur$ by ,weiss#ijc z ,b[manites g]manicus1 s9ce inve/igat$ by ,solms-,lauba*#ijd1 mu/ be ref]r$ to ?is species4 ,ge9itz#ije figur$ a cone 9 #ahee z t ( ,s4 em>g9atum1 b 8 det]m9ation ( ! species is a little d\btful4 ,good figures ( ! true cone ( ,s4 em>g9atum h be5 giv5 by ,zeill]#ijf 9 8 ,flore de ,val5ci5nes1 z well z 9 8 important memoir on ! fructification ( ,sph5ophyllum4 ,sid5ote3 ,,leaves4 #b4 ,sph5ophyllum tri*omatosum ,/ur4 ,fig4 #aaj1 ,b4 ,! f9ely-divid$ leaves ( ! s+le :orl %[n 9 fig4 #aaj1 ,b 7f ! ,middle ,coal-,measures ( ,b>nsley1 ,york%ire71 af=d an example ( a =m ( ,sph5ophyllum :i* is repres5t$ by su* species z ,s4 t5]rimum ,ett4#ijg1 ,s4 tri*omatosum ,/ur#ijh1 & ,s4 myriophyllum#iji ,crp4 ,probably ! specim5 %\ld be ref]r$ to ,s4 tri*omatosum1 b x is almo/ impossible to speak ) c]ta9ty z to ! specific value ( an isolat$ leaf-:orl ( ?is =m4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t ! leaves ( ,sph5ophyllum may v>y consid]ably1 z reg>ds ! size ( ! segm5ts1 on ! same plant2 & ! occurr5ce ( su* f9ely-divid$ leaves has l5t support to an op9ion :i* 0 =m]ly held by "s writ]s1 t ,a/]ophyllites & ,sph5ophyllum c\ld n be reg>d$ z well-def9$ sep>ate g5]a4 ,?is het]ophylly ( ,sph5ophyllum has ?us be5 responsible = c]ta9 mi/ak5 op9ions bo? z to ! relation ( ! g5us to ,calamocladus#iaj 7,a/]ophyllites71 & z reg>ds ! view t ! f9ely-divid$ lam9ae belong$ to subm]g$ leaf-:orls1 :ile ! broad] segm5ts 7 ^? ( float+ or suba]ial :orls4 ,!re is a v close resemblance betwe5 "s ( ! deeply-cut & l9e> segm5ts ( a ,sph5ophyllum & ! leaves ( ,calamocladus1 b 9 ! =m] g5us ! l9e> segm5ts are f\nd to be connect$ basally into a n>r[ common %ea?4 ,! ass]tion#iaa t ! deeply-cut leaves occur on ! l[] portions ( /ems is n support$ by ! facts4 ,kid/on#iab has po9t$ out t ! cones are (t5 borne on bran*es ) su* leaves1 & ! same au?or ref]s to a figure by ,g]m>1 9 :i* entire & mu*-divid$ leaves occur mix$ toge!r 9 ! same individual specim54 ,m4 ,zeill] rec5tly po9t$ out to me a simil> irregul> association ( broad] & n>r[] leaf-segm5ts on ! same %oots 9 "s l>ge specim5s 9 ! cole des ,m9es1 ,p>is4 ,cones ( ,sph5ophyllum t5]rimum h be5 figur$ by ,/ur#iac & o!rs2 !y are *>act]is$ by _! small size & by ! dissection ( ! sl5d] free portions ( ! n>r[ bracts#iad4 #c4 ,sph5ophyllum ,?oni ,mahr4 ,fig4 #aaj1 ,a4 ,ano!r type ( ,sph5ophyllum is illu/rat$ by ,s4 ,?oni ,mahr z %[n 9 fig4 #aaj1 ,a4 ,?is species 0 fir/ describ$ by ,mahr#iae f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,ilm5au1 & has s9ce be5 figur$ by ,zeill] & o!r au?ors4 ,ea* :orl consi/s ( six l>ge obcunei=m leaves ) ! broad m>g9 some:at irregul>ly fr+$4 ,! unusually good specim5 ( :i* fig4 #aaj1 ,a1 repres5ts a s+le v]ticil 0 orig9ally describ$ & figur$ by ,zeill] 9 #ahhjiaf2 x is n[ 9 ! cole des ,m9es ,museum1 ,p>is4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,a4 ,sph5ophyllum ,?oni1 ,mahr4 7,aft] ,zeill]47 ,b4 ,sph5ophyllum tri*omatosum1 ,/ur4 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum2 f ! ,coal-,measures ( ,b>nsley1 ,yorks4 ,a & ,b nat4 size4 ,! leaf-=ms illu/rat$ by figs4 #aji & #aaj are "s ( ! m extreme types ( ,sph5ophyllum leaves2 b ^! are m or less connect$ by a s]ies ( int]m$iate =ms4 ,= a m complete sy/ematic acc\nt ( ! diff]5t species ! /ud5t %\ld consult su* works z ^? by ,coemans & ,kickx#iag1 ,zeill]1 ,s*imp]1 & o!rs4 #d4 ,sph5ophyllum speciosum 7,royle74 ,fig4 #aaa4 #ahcd4 ,trizygia speciosa1 ,royle#iah4 ,! species %[n 9 fig4 #aaa has be5 usually describ$ z a sep>ate g5us ,trizygia1 a "n in/itut$ by ,royle 9 #ahcd = "s ,indian fossils f ! ,l[] ,gondwana rocks ( ,india#iai4 ,zeill]#ibj has lately po9t$ out ! advisability ( includ+ ?is ,asiatic type 9 ! g5us ,sph5ophyllum4 ,! sl5d] /em be>s v]ticils ( cuneate leaves 9 ?ree pairs at ea* node1 ! ant]ior pair be+ small] ?an ! two lat]al pairs4 ,! *>act]i/ic ,sph5ophyllum v5ation is cle>ly se5 9 ! enl>g$ leaf1 fig4 #aaa1 ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,sph5ophyllum speciosum 7,royle74 ,a4 ,nat4 size4 ,b4 enl>g$ leaf4 ,f ! ,raniganj ,coal-field1 ,india4 7,aft] ,fei/mantel47 ,! inequality ( ! memb]s ( a s+le :orl1 :i* *>act]ises ?is ,indian plant1 is sometimes met ) 9 ,european species4 ,a specim5 ( ,sph5ophyllum oblongifolium1 :i* ,pr(4 ,zeill] %[$ me 9 illu/ration ( ?is po9t1 0 practically indi/+ui%able f ,trizygia#iba4 ,9 "s ( ! e>li] descriptions ( ! ,indian species ! g5]ic "n ,sph5ophyllum#ibb 0 us$ by ,mc,clelland & o!rs1 b ! suppos$ diff]5ce 9 ! leaf-:orls 0 made ! gr\nd ( rev]t+ to ! di/9ct g5]ic t]m ,trizygia4 ,n[ t a simil> type ( leaf-:orl is kn[n to occur 9 ,sph5ophyllum1 x is bett] to adopt t g5us r ?an to all[ ! "q ( locality to unduly influ5ce ! *oice ( a sep>ate g5]ic "n = an ,indian plant4 ,sid5ote3 ,,geological ,,range4 ,c4 ,aff9ities1 range & habit ( ,sph5ophyllum4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out 9 ! description ( ,sph5ophyllum1 t ! mo/ widely sep>at$ families ( rec5t plants h be5 select$ by diff]5t au?ors z ! ne>e/ liv+ allies ( ?is ,palaeozoic g5us4 ,x is n[ g5]ally admitt$ t ,sph5ophyllum is a g5]ic type ap>t2 x _c be class$ 9 any family or sub-class ( rec5t or fossil plants1 )\t consid]ably ext5d+ or modify+ ! recognis$ *>act]i/ics ( exi/+ divisions ( ! plant-k+dom4 ,! anatomical *>act]s ( ! ,sph5ophyllum /em are su* z "o f9ds 9 "s rec5t g5]a ( ! ,lycopod9eae1 especially ,psilotum4 ,if ! /ele ( ,psilotum 7 compos$ int]nally ( a solid /r& ( xylem1 we %\ld h a close correspond5ce betwe5 ! c5tripetally-develop$ wood ( ?is g5us & t ( ,sph5ophyllum4 ,simil> comp>isons might be drawn ) o!r exi/+ g5]a1 b ! m detail$ consid]ation ( ! aff9ities ( ! ,palaeozoic plant w be m easily dealt ) aft] o!r memb]s ( ! ,pt]idophytes h be5 describ$4 ,! rec5t discov]y ( an entirely new type ( ,c>bonif]\s /robilus 9 rocks ( ,calcif]\s s&/one age on ! %ores ( ! ,fir? ( ,=? has ?r[n new light on ! position ( ,sph5ophyllum4 ,*eiro/robus ,pettycur5sis1 ! new cone :i* ,scott has describ$ 9 an able memoir1 af=ds c]ta9 po9ts ( contact ) ,sph5ophyllum on ! "o h& & ) ,calamites on ! o!r4 ,?is important "q w be dealt ) aft] we h giv5 an acc\nt ( ,*eiro/robus#ibc4 ,to put ! matt] %ortly1 ,sph5ophyllum agrees ) "s ,lycopod9\s plants 9 its anatomical features2 ) ! ,equisetales x is connect$ by ! v]ticillate disposition ( ! leaves1 & "s ( ! =ms ( ,sph5ophyllum /robili pres5t features :i* also po9t to ,equiset9\s aff9ities4 ,9 8 ,presid5tial address to ! ,botanical ,section at ! ,briti% ,association ,meet+ ( #ahif ,scott#ibd ?us ref]s to ! ,sph5ophyllums3--8,we may haz>d ! guess t ?is int]e/+ gr\p may h be5 d]iv$ f "s unkn[n =m ly+ at ! root ( bo? ,calamites & ,lycopods4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! ,sph5ophyllae c]ta9ly sugge/s ! probability ( a common orig9 = ^! two s]ies40 ,! result ( ! subsequ5t inve/igation ( ! new cone ,*eiro/robus amply ju/ifies ?is op9ion z to ! position ( ,sph5ophyllum4 ,x is probable t ,sph5ophyllum liv$ dur+ ! ,devonian p]iod1 b ! unsatisfactory specim5s on :i* ,dawson has f\nd$ a species ( ?is age1 ,s4 antiquum#ibe1 c h>dly be said to af=d positive evid5ce ( ! ,pre-,c>bonif]\s exi/5ce ( ! g5us4 ,f ! ,culm rocks & o!r /rata old] ?an ! ,coal-,measures1 we h su* species z ,s4 insigne 7,w471 ,sph5ophyllo/a*ys ,rm]i 7,solms-,lauba*71 & ,sph5ophyllum t5]rimum1 ,ett4#ibf :ile ,s4 em>g9atum#e1 ,brongn4 occurs 9 ! ,upp] ,coal-,measures & 9 ! ,transition rocks4 ,s4 cuneifolium#ibg 7,/]nb47 has be5 record$ f ! ,transition1 ,middle & ,l[] ,coal-,measures4 ,sph5ophyllum oblongifolium1 ,g]m4#ibh1 is record$ f ,l[] ,p]mian rocks1 z is also ,s4 ,?oni#ibi1 ,mahr4 ,! comp>ison :i* has naturally be5 drawn betwe5 ,sph5ophyllum ) its sl5d] /ems be>+ occasionally dimorphic leaves1 & wat]-plants is n1 ,i believe1 support$ by ! facts ( anatomy or ext]nal *>act]s4 ,! entire & f9ely-dissect$ leaves d n exhibit t regul>ity ( relative disposition :i* is *>act]i/ic ( aquatic plants2 ! two =ms ( leaves may occur indiscrim9ately on ! same bran*4 ,! well-develop$ & ?ick xylem is n 9 accordance ) ! anatomical features usually associat$ ) wat]-plants4 ,x is true t 9 "s liv+ dicotyl$ons ( ! family ,legum9osae1 :i* inhabit swampy places1 ! second>y xylem is repres5t$ by a ?ick mass ( unlignifi$ & ?9-wall$ p>5*yma1 z 9 ! g5us ,aes*ynom5e#icj1 f :i* ! mat]ial ( #8pi?'-helmets is obta9$2 b ! wood ( ,sph5ophyllum 0 obvi\sly ?ick-wall$ & ?or\ghly lignifi$4 ,x is n improbable t ! long & sl5d] /ems ( ?is plant may h gr[n l small lianas 9 ! ,coal-,measure =e/s1 support+ !mselves to a l>ge ext5t on ! /\t] bran*es ( ,calamites & o!r trees4 ,! anatomical /ructure ( a ,sph5ophyllum /em w\ld seem to be 9 accord ) ! requirem5ts ( a climb+ plant4 ,x has be5 %ewn#ica t 9 rec5t climb+ plants ! tra*eae & sieve-tubes are *>act]is$ by _! l>ge diamet]1 a fact :i* may be correlat$ ) ! small diamet] ( climb+ /ems & ! ne$ = rapid transport ( food mat]ial4 ,9 ,sph5ophyllum ! tra*eae ( ! xylem h a wide bore1 & 9 ,s4 insigne ! phloem conta9s unusually wide sieve-tubes4 ,! c5tral position ( ! /ele is ano!r feature :i* is n inconsi/5t ) a climb+ habit4 ,s*w5d5] & o!rs#icb h demon/rat$ t 9 climb+ organs1 z 9 und]gr\nd /ems & roots1 !re is a t5d5cy t[>ds a c5tripetal conc5tration ( me*anical or /r5g!n+ tissue4 ,! axial xylem /r& ( ,sph5ophyllum w\ld af=d an effici5t resi/ance to ! t5sion or pull+ =ce :i* climb+ /ems enc\nt]4 ,,li/ ,,( ,,works ,,ref]r$ ,,to ,,9 ,,! ,,text4 ,adamson1 ,s4 ,a4 7#hh7 ,notes on a rec5t discov]y ( ,/igm>ia ficoides at ,clayton1 ,york%ire4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xliv4 p4 #cge1 #ahhh4 ,agassiz1 ,s4 7#hh7 ,?ree ,cruises ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,coa/ & ,geodetic ,survey ,/eam] 8,blake0 9 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 9 ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 & along ! ,atlantic ,coa/ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 f #ahgg to #ahhj4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,&rae1 ,k4 ,j4 7#ec7 ,fossile ,flora ,sieb5brg5s und des ,banates4 ,abh&4 k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/4 ,bd4 ,,ii4 ,ab?4 ,,iii4 ,no4 #d1 #ahec4 ,&russ[1 ,n4 7#hg7 ,e9e fossile ,acetabul>ia als ,ge/e9-bild5d] ,organismus4 ,ann4 k4 k4 nat4 hi/4 ,h(museum1 ,wi54 ,bd4 ,,ii4 ,heft ,,ii4 p4 #gg1 #ahhg4 d',ar*iac1 ,e4 ,j4 ,a4 7#dc7 ,description gologique du dp>tem5t de l',aisne4 ,mm4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,france1 vol4 ,v4 pt4 ,,ii4 p4 #abi1 #ahdc4 ,artis1 ,f4 ,t4 7#be7 ,ant$iluvian ,phytology4 ,london1 #ahbe4 ,bak]1 ,j4 ,g4 7#hg7 ,h&book ( ! ,f]n-,allies4 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,balf\r1 ,j4 ,h4 7#gb7 ,palaeontological ,botany4 ,ed9burgh1 #ahgb4 ,b>b]1 ,c4 ,a4 7#hi7 ,! ,/ructure ( ,pa*y!ca4 ,annals ,bot4 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #ada1 #ahhi4 ---- 7#ij7 ,! ,/ructure ( ,pa*y!ca4 ,ibid4 vol4 ,v4 p4 #ade1 #ahij4 ---- 7#ib7 ,nematophycus ,/orriei1 nov4 sp4 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #cbi1 #ahib4 ,b>rois1 ,c4 7#hh7 ,note sur l'exi/5ce du g5re ,oldhamia dans les ,pyrnes4 ,ann4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,nord1 vol4 ,,xv4 p4 #aed1 #ahhh4 ,b>ton1 ,r4 7#agea7 ,lectures 9 ,natural ,philosophy4 ,dubl91 #agea4 ,b>y1 ,a4 de4 7#hd7 ,comp>ative anatomy ( ! vegetative organs ( ! ,phan]ogams & ,f]ns4 ,ox=d1 #ahhd4 ---- 7#hg7 ,lectures on ,bact]ia4 ,ox=d1 #ahhg4 ,bates1 ,h4 ,w4 7#fc7 ,! ,naturali/ on ! ,riv] ,amazons4 ,london1 #ahfc4 #b vols4 ,bateson1 ,w4 ,b4 7#hh7 ,sugge/ion t c]ta9 fossils kn[n z ,bilobites may be reg>d$ z ca/s ( ,balanoglossus4 ,proc4 ,camb4 ,phil4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #bih1 #ahhh4 ,batt]s1 ,e4 ,a4 7#ij7 ,vide ,holmes1 ,e4 ,m4 ---- 7#ib7 ,on ,con*ocelis1 a new g5us ( p]=at+ ,algae4 ,phycological ,memoirs4 ,london1 p4 #be1 #ahib4 ,b5ecke1 ,e4 ,w4 7#gf7 ,geogno/is*-palontologis*e ,beitrge4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,heft ,,iii41 #ahgf4 ,b5nett1 ,j4 ,j4 & ,br[n1 ,r4 7#ch74 ,plantae ,javanicae4 ,london1 #ahch-eb4 ,b5?am1 ,g4 7#gj7 ,presid5tial ,address4 ,proc4 ,l9n4 ,soc4 p4 lxxiv4 #ahfi-gj4 ,b]tr&1 ,c4 ,e4 7#ic7 ,les ,bogheads ,algues4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,belg4 ,gol4 ,palont4 ,hydrol4 vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #de1 #ahic4 ---- 7#if7 ,n\velles rem>ques sur le ,k]os5e ,%ale de la ,n\velle-,galles du ,sud4 ,soc4 d'hi/4 nat4 ,autun1 #ahif4 ,b]tr&1 ,c4 ,e4 & ,r5ault1 ,b4 7#ib7 ,pila bibract5sis et le ,boghead d',autun4 ,soc4 d'hi/4 nat4 ,autun41 #ahib4 ---- 7#id7 ,re9s*ia ,au/ralia et premires rem>ques sur le ,k]os5e ,%ale de la ,n\velle-,galles du ,sud4 ,soc4 d'hi/4 nat4 ,autun1 #ahid4 ,b9ney1 ,e4 ,w4 7#fh7 ,obs]vations on ! ,/ructure ( ,fossil plants f\nd 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s ,/rata4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,calamites & ,calamod5dron4 ,palaeont4 ,soc4 ,london1 #ahfh4 ---- 7#ga7 ,ibid4 ,pt4 ,,ii4 ,lepido/robus & "s alli$ cones4 ,bis*(f1 ,g4 ,w4 7#bh7 ,die cryptogamis*5 ,gew*se4 ,nrnb]g1 #ahbh4 ,bornemann1 ,j4 ,g4 7#ef7 b] organis*e ,re/e d] ,lett5kohl5-,gruppe ,?r+5s4 ,leipzig1 #ahef4 ---- 7#hf7 ,geologis*e ,alg5/udi54 ,jahrb4 ,k4 ,preuss4 ,geol4 ,l&esan/4 ,b]gakad41 #ahhf4 ---- 7#hg7 ,die ,v]/e9]ung5 des ,cambris*5 ,s*i*t5sy/ems d] ,insel ,s>d9i54 ,nova ,acta ,acad4 ,caes4 ,leop4 ,c>4 vol4 ,,li41 #ahhg4 ---- 7#ia7 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,lvi41 #ahia4 ,bornet1 ,e4 & ,flahault4 7#hi7 ,note sur deux n\veaux g5res d'algues p]=antes4 ,j\rn4 ,bot4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #afa1 #ahhh4 ---- 7#hi7 ,sur quelques plantes vivant dans le te/ calcaire des mollusques4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 ,france1 vol4 ,,xxxvi4 p4 clxvii41 #ahhi4 ,b[]1 ,f4 ,o4 7#id7 ,/udies 9 ! morphology ( ,spore-produc+ memb]s4 ,equiset9eae & ,lycopod9eae4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,clxxxv4 ,b4 p4 #dgc1 #ahid4 ,brongni>t1 ,a4 7#bb7 ,sur la classification et la di/ribution des vgtaux fossiles en gnral4 ,mm4 ,mus4 ,hi/4 ,nat4 ,p>is1 vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #bcc1 #ahbb4 ---- 7#bh7 ,prodrome d'une hi/oire des vgtaux fossiles4 ,p>is1 #ahbh4 ---- 7#bh7 ,hi/oire des vgtaux fossiles4 ,p>is1 #ahbh4 ---- 7#ci7 ,obs]vations sur la /ructure intrieure du ,sigill>ia elegans4 ,ar*4 ,mus4 d'hi/4 nat4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #dje1 #ahci4 ---- 7#di7 ,tableau des g5res de vgtaux fossiles4 ,extrait du ,dictionnaire d'hi/oire naturelle1 vol4 ,,xiii4 p4 #di4 ,p>is1 #ahdi4 ,br[n1 ,a4 7#id7 ,on ! /ructure & aff9ities ( ! g5us ,sol5opora4 ,geol4 ,mag4 #d vol4 ,i4 p4 #ade1 #ahid4 ,br[n1 ,r4 7#aa7 ,"s obs]vations on ! p>ts ( fructification 9 ,mosses1 ) *>act]s & descriptions ( two new g5]a ( t ord]4 ,trans4 ,l9n4 ,soc4 vol4 ,x4 p4 #cab1 #ahaa4 ---- 7#ch7 ,vide ,b5nett1 ,j4 ,j4 ,bryce1 ,j4 7#gb7 ,! ,geology ( ,arran4 ,glasg[ & ,london1 #ahgb4 ,buckl&1 ,w4 7#cg7 ,geology & ,m9]alogy consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ,natural ,!ology4 ,london1 #aheh4 ,buckman1 ,j4 7#ej7 ,on "s fossil plants f ! ,l[] ,lias4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #dac1 #ahej4 ,bunbury1 ,c4 ,j4 ,f4 7#ea7 ,on "s fossil plants f ! ,jurassic ,/rata ( ! ,york%ire ,coa/4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #agi1 #ahea4 ---- 7#fa7 ,notes on a collection ( fossil plants f ,ngpur1 ,c5tral ,india4 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,xvii4 p4 #cbe1 #ahfa4 ---- 7#hc7 ,botanical ,fragm5ts4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,bts*li1 ,o4 7#hc7 ,bronn's ,klass5 und ,ordnung5 des ,?i]-,rei*s1 vol4 ,i4 ,leipzig & ,heidelb]g1 #ahhc-hg4 ,campbell1 ,d4 7#ie7 ,! /ructure & developm5t ( ! ,mosses & ,f]ns4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,c>p5t]1 ,w4 ,b41 ,p>k]1 ,w4 ,k4 & ,jones1 ,t4 ,r4 7#fb7 ,introduction to ! /udy ( ! ,=am9if]a4 7,ray ,society7 ,london1 #ahfb4 ,c>ru!rs1 ,w4 7#fg7 ,on ! /ructure ( ! fruit ( ,calamites4 ,j\rn4 ,bot4 ,vol4 ,v4 #ahfg4 ---- 7#gj7 ,on ! /ructure ( a ,f]n /em f ! ,l[] ,eoc5e ( ,h]ne ,bay4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xxvi4 p4 #cdi1 #ahgj4 ---- 7#ga7 ,on "s suppos$ vegetable fossils4 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,xxvii4 p #ddc1 #ahga4 ---- 7#gb7 ,on ! hi/ory1 hi/ological /ructure1 & aff9ities ( ,nematophycus ,logani1 ,c>r4 7,prototaxites ,logani1 ,dawson71 an alga ( ,devonian age4 ,micros4 ,j\rn4 vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #afj1 #ahgb4 ---- 7#gb7 ,vide ,woodw>d1 ,h41 p4 #afh4 -- 7#gf7 ,address be=e ! ,geologi/s' ,association1 #ahgf-gg4 ,proc4 ,geol4 ,assoc4 vol4 ,v4 p4 #ag1 #ahgf4 ,ca%1 ,w4 & ,hick1 ,t4 7#gh7 ,a contribution to ! flora ( ! ,l[] ,coal-,measures ( ! ,p>i% ( ,halifax1 ,york%ire4 ,proc4 ,yorks4 ,geol4 ,polyt4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #gc1 #ahgh-ha4 ---- 7#gh7 ,on fossil fungi f ! ,l[] ,coal-,measures ( ,halifax4 ,proc4 ,yorks4 ,geol4 ,polyt4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #aae1 #ahgh4 ---- 7#ha7 ,a contribution to ! flora ( ! ,l[] ,coal-,measures ( ! ,p>i% ( ,halifax1 ,york%ire4 ,pt4 ,,iii4 ,proc4 ,yorks4 ,geol4 ,polyt4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #djj1 #ahha4 ,ca/racane1 ,f4 7#gf7 ,die ,diatome5 9 d] ,kohl5p]iode4 ,pr+%eim's ,jahrb4 vol4 ,x4 p4 #a1 #ahgf4 ,cayeux1 ,l4 7#ib7 ,sur la prs5ce de nombreuses ,diatomes dans les gaizes crtaces du bass9 de ,p>is4 ,compt4 ,r5d4 vol4 ,,cxiv4 p4 #cge1 #ahib4 ---- 7#ig7 ,contribution l'tude micrographique des t]ra9s sdim5taires4 ,mm4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,nord1 vol4 ,,iv4 ii4 ,lille1 #ahig4 8,*all5g]40 ,reports on ! ,sci5tific results ( ! ,voyage ( ,h4,m4,s4 8,*all5g]0 dur+ ! ye>s #ahgc-gf1 "u ! comm& ( ,capta9 ,n>es & ,capta9 ,?omson4 ,prep>$ "u ! ,sup]9t5d5ce ( ,sir ,c4 ,wyville ,?omson & ,john ,murray4 ,london1 #ahhj-ie4 ---- 7#he7 ,n>rative1 vols4 ,i4 & ,,ii4 #ahhb-he4 ---- 7#ia7 ,deep ,sea ,deposits4 ,j4 ,murray & ,a4 ,f4 ,r5>d1 #ahia4 ,*ri/ison1 ,r4 7#gf7 ,notice ( ,fossil trees rec5tly discov]$ 9 ,craiglei? ,qu>ry ne> ,ed9burgh4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 ,,xxvii4 p4 #bjc1 #ahgf4 ,*ur*1 ,a4 ,h4 7#ie7 ,! /ructure ( ! ,?allus ( ,neom]is dumetosa1 ,lam4 ,annals ,bot4 vol4 ,,ix4 p4 #eha1 #ahie4 ,coemans1 ,e4 & ,kickx1 ,j4 ,j4 7#fd7 ,monographie des ,sph5ophyllum d',europe4 ,bull4 ,acad4 ,roy4 ,belg4 vol4 ,,xviii4 #b p4 #afj1 #ahfd4 ,cohn1 ,f4 7#fb7 b] die ,alg5 des ,c>lsbad] ,sprudels und d]5 ,an!il an d] ,bildung des ,sprudel-,s9t]s4 ,abh4 ,s*les4 ,ges4 vat]l&4 ,cultur1 #ahfb1 p4 #fe4 ,cole1 ,g4 7#id7 ,on "s examples ( cone-9-cone /ructure4 ,m9]al4 ,j\rn4 vol4 ,x4 #ahid4 ,com/ock1 ,t4 ,h4 7#hh7 ,an introduction to ,entomology4 ,i?aca1 #ahhh4 ,conw5tz1 ,h4 7#gh7 b] e9 t]tires ,vorkomm5 ,cypress5>tig] ,hlz] bei ,cali/oga 9 ,cali=ni54 ,neues ,jahrb4 p4 #hjj1 #ahgh4 ---- 7#hj7 ,die fossil5 ,hlz] von ,k>lsdorf am ,zobt54 #ahhj4 ---- 7#ij7 ,monographie d] baltis*5 ,b]n/e9bume4 ,danzig1 #ahij4 ---- 7#if7 ,on ,engli% ,amb] & ,amb] g5]ally4 ,nat4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 ,,ix4 p4 #ii1 #ahif4 ,corda1 ,a4 ,j4 7#de7 ,beitrge zur ,flora d] ,vorwelt4 ,prag1 #ahde4 7,new edition1 unalt]$1 #ahfg47 ,cormack1 ,b4 ,g4 7#ic7 ,on a cambial developm5t 9 ,equisetum4 ,annals ,bot4 vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #fc1 #ahic4 ,co/a1 ,m5des da4 7#ageh7 ,an acc\nt ( ! impressions ( plants on ! slates ( coal4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,s4 ,london1 vol4 ,l4 p4 #bbh1 #ageh4 ,cotta1 ,c4 ,b4 7#ej7 ,die ,d5droli!n 9 ,beziehung auf ihr5 inn]5 ,bau4 ,dresd51 #ahej4 7,orig9al edition1 #ahcb47 ,cram]1 ,c4 7#hg7 b] die v]ticillat5 ,siphone51 besond]s ,neom]is und ,cymopolia4 ,d5ks*4 ,s*weiz4 ,nat4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xxv4 #ahhg4 ---- 7#ij7 b] die v]ticillat5 ,siphone51 besond]s ,neom]is und ,bornetella4 ,d5ks*4 ,s*weiz4 ,nat4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xxxii4 #ahij4 ,cr$n]1 ,h4 7#hg7 ,elem5te d] ,geologie4 ,leipzig1 #ahhg4 ,crp91 ,f4 7#ha7 ,l'emploi de la ,photographie p\r la reproduction des empre9tes vgtales4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 ,belg4 vol4 ,,xx4 pt4 ,,ii4 #ahha4 ,damon1 ,r4 7#hh7 ,a supplem5t to ! geology ( ,weym\? & ! ,isle ( ,portl&4 ,weym\?1 #ahhh4 ,d>w91 ,c4 7#hb7 ,! ,orig9 ( ,species4 7,edit4 #f47 ,london1 #ahhb4 ---- 7#hg7 ,! life & lett]s ( ,*>les ,d>w94 ,edit$ by ,francis ,d>w94 ,london1 #ahhg4 7,edit4 #b47 ---- 7#ij7 ,a ,naturali/'s ,voyage4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,dawson1 ,j4 ,w4 7#ei7 ,on fossil plants f ! ,devonian rocks ( ,canada4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xv4 p4 #dgg1 #ahei4 ---- 7#ff7 ,on ! conditions ( ! deposition ( coal4 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,xxii4 p4 #ie1 #ahff4 ---- 7#ga7 ,! fossil plants ( ! ,devonian & ,upp] ,silurian =mations ( ,canada4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,canada1 #ahga4 ---- 7#ha7 ,notes on new ,erian 7,devonian7 plants4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xxxvii4 p4 #bii1 #ahha4 ---- 7#hb7 ,notes on ,prototaxites & ,pa*y!ca discov]$ by ,dr ,hicks 9 ! ,d5bigh%ire ,grits ( ,corw51 ,nor? ,wales4 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,xxxviii4 p4 #ajc1 #ahhb4 ---- 7#hh7 ,! geological hi/ory ( plants4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ---- 7#ij7 ,on burr[s & tracks ( inv]tebrate animals 9 ,palaeozoic rocks4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xlvi4 p4 #eie1 #ahij4 ,deecke1 ,w4 7#hc7 b] e9ige neue ,siphone54 ,neues ,jahrb4 ,jahrg4 ,i4 p4 #a1 #ahhc4 ,defrance4 7#bf7 ,dictionnaire des ,sci5ces naturelles4 ,article ,polytrype1 vol4 ,,xlii4 p4 #dec1 #ahbf4 ,delgado1 ,j4 ,f4 ,n4 7#hf7 tude sur les ,bilobites4 ,secc4 ,trav4 ,gol4 ,portugal4 ,lisbon1 #ahhf4 ,dixon1 ,h4 ,h4 & ,joly1 ,j4 7#ig7 ,coccoli?s 9 our coa/al wat]s4 ,nature1 vol4 ,,lvi4 p4 #dfh1 #ahig4 ,dixon1 ,h4 ,n4 & ,jameson1 ,h4 ,g4 7#if7 ,! ,/ud5t's ,h&book ( ,briti% ,mosses4 ,london1 #ahif4 ,duncan1 ,p4 ,m4 7#gf7 ,on "s unicellul> algae p>asitic )9 ,silurian & ,t]ti>y ,corals1 ) a notice ( _! pres5ce 9 ,calceol9a s&al9a & o!r fossils4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xxxii4 p4 #bje1 #ahgf4 ---- 7#gf7 ,on "s ,?allophytes p>asitic )9 rec5t ,madrepor>ia4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xxv4 p4 #bch1 #ahgf4 ,dunk]1 ,w4 7#df7 ,monographie d] norddeuts*5 ,weald5bildung4 ,brauns*weig1 #ahdf4 ,duval-,j\ve1 ,j4 7#fd7 ,hi/oire naturelle des ,equisetum de ,france4 ,p>is1 #ahfd4 ,ehr5b]g1 ,c4 ,g4 7#cf7 b] das ,mass5v]hltniss d] jetzt leb5d5 ,kieselfusori5 und b] e9 neues ,infusiori5-,conglom]at als ,polirs*ief] von ,ja/rabo 9 ,ung>n4 ,abh4 k4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,b]l91 #ahcf1 p4 #aji4 ---- 7#ed7 ,mikrogeologie4 ,leipzig1 #ahed4 ,ellis1 ,j4 7#agee7 ,an essay t[>ds a ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,corall9es4 ,london1 #agee4 ,engelh>dt1 ,h4 7#hg7 b] ,rossel9ia conjugata 7,beck47 e9e neue ,pilz>t aus d] ,braunkohl5-=mation ,sa*s5s4 ,ges4 ,isis4 ,dresd51 ,abh4 #d1 p4 #cc1 #ahhg4 ,e!ridge1 ,r4 7#ha7 ,vide ,hicks1 ,h4 ,e!ridge1 ,r4 junr4 7#ib7 ,on ! occurr5ce ( microscopic fungi1 alli$ to ! g5us ,palaea*yla1 ,duncan1 9 ! ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,new ,s\? ,wales & ,que5sl&4 ,rec4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,n4,s4,w4 ,pt4 ,,iii4 p4 #ie1 #ahib4 ---- 7#ie7 ,on ! occurr5ce ( a plant 9 ! ,newca/le or ,upp] ,coal-,measures possess+ *>act]s bo? ( ! g5]a ,phyllo!ca ,brongn4 & ,c+ul>ia ,weiss4 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,iv4 ,pt4 ,,iv4 p4 #adh1 #ahie4 ,ett+%aus51 ,c4 von4 7#ee7 ,die ,/e9kohl5flora von ,radnitz 9 ,bhm54 ,abh&4 k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #a1 #ahee4 ---- 7#ff7 ,die fossile ,flora des ,mhris*-,s*lesis*5 ,da*s*ief]s4 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,xxv4 p4 #gg1 #ahff4 ,ett+%aus51 ,c4 von & ,g>dn]1 ,j4 ,s4 7#gi7 ,a monograph ( ! ,briti% ,eoc5e ,flora4 ,palaeontographical ,society4 ,london1 #ahgi-ahhb4 ,feild51 ,h4 ,w4 7#if7 ,note on ! glacial ,geology ( ,arctic ,europe & its isl&s4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,kolguev ,isl&4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,lii4 p4 #eb1 #ahif4 ,app5dix by ,a4 ,c4 ,sew>d1 p4 #fa4 ,fei/mantel1 ,o4 7#gc7 ,das ,kohl5vorkomm5 bei ,ro?walt]sdorf 9 d] ,grafs*aft ,glatz und dess5 organis*e ,e9s*lsse4 ,zeit4 ,deuts*4 ,geol4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xxv4 p4 #dfc1 #ahgc4 ---- 7#ge7 ,die ,v]/e9]ung5 d] bhmis*5 ,kohl5ablag]ung54 ,palaeontograph4 vol4 ,,xxiii4 p4 #a1 #ahge-gf4 ---- 7#ha7 ,! ,fossil ,flora ( ! ,gondwana ,sy/em4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,india1 7,s]4 ,,xii47 vol4 ,,iii4 #ahha4 7,! ,flora ( ! ,damuda-,pan*et ,divisions1 pp4 #a-gg4 ,pls4 ,i4 ,a-,,xvi4 ,a bis1 #ahhj47 ---- 7#ij7 ,geological & palaeontological relations ( ! ,coal & plant-be>+ b$s ( ,palaeozoic & ,mesozoic age 9 ,ea/]n ,au/ralia & ,tasmania4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,n4 ,s4 ,wales4 ,palaeontology1 ,no4 #c1 #ahij4 ,felix1 ,j4 7#hf7 ,unt]su*ung5 b] d5 inn]5 ,bau we/flis*] ,c>bon-,pflanz54 ,abh4 ,geol4 ,l&esan/4 #ahhf1 p4 #aec4 ---- 7#id7 ,/udi5 b] fossile ,pilze4 ,zeit4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges4 ,heft ,i4 p4 #bfi1 #ahid4 ---- 7#if7 ,unt]su*ung5 b] d5 inn]5 ,bau we/flis*] ,c>bon-pflanz54 ,fldtani ,kzlny1 vol4 ,,xxvi4 p4 #afe1 #ahif4 ,fis*]1 ,a4 7#ib7 ,die ,pilze4 ,rab5hor/'s ,kryptogam5 ,flora1 vol4 ,i4 ,abt4 ,,iv4 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 ,fli*e1 ,p4 & ,blei*]1 --4 tude sur la flore de l'ooli! infrieure aux environs de ,nancy4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,sci4 ,nancy1 vol4 ,v4 #b p4 #ed1 #ahha4 ,=bes1 ,e4 7#ef7 ,on ! ,t]ti>y fluviom>9e =mation ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 #ahef4 ,=bes1 ,h4 ,o4 7#he7 ,a ,naturali/'s ,w&]+s 9 ! ,ea/]n ,ar*ipelago4 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,frh1 ,j4 7#ij7 ,zur ,k5ntniss d] ge/e9bild5d5 ,alg54 ,abh4 ,s*weiz4 pal4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xviii4 #ahij4 ,fu*s1 ,t4 7#id7 b] e9e fossile ,halim$a aus dem ,eocn5 ,s&/e9 von ,greif5/e94 ,sitzb]i*t4 ,abh4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,ciii4 ,abt4 ,i4 p4 #cjj1 #ahid4 ---- 7#ie7 ,/udi5 b] ,fucoid5 und ,hi]oglyph54 ,d5ks*4 ,akad4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,lxii4 p4 #cfi1 #ahie4 ,g>dn]1 ,j4 ,s4 7#gi7 ,vide ,ett+%aus54 ---- 7#hd7 ,fossil plants4 ,proc4 ,geol4 ,assoc4 vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #bii1 #ahhd4 ---- 7#hf7 ,on ,mesozoic ,angiosp]ms4 ,geol4 ,mag4 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #aic1 #ahhf4 ---- 7#hg7 ,on ! leaf-b$s & gravels ( ,ardtun1 ,c>saig1 c41 9 ,mull4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xliii4 p4 #bgj1 #ahhg4 ,geikie1 ,a4 7#ic7 ,a ,text-book ( ,geology4 ,london1 #ahic4 7,edit iii47 ,ge9itz1 ,h4 ,b4 7#ee7 ,die ,v]/e9]ung5 d] ,/e9kohl5=mation 9 ,sa*s54 ,leipzig1 #ahee4 ,g]m>1 ,e4 ,f4 7#dd7 ,die ,v]/e9]ung5 des ,/e9kohl5gebirges von ,wett9 und ,lbejn 9 ,saalkreis1 bildli* d>ge/ellt und bes*rieb54 ,halle1 #ahdd-ec4 ,g]m>1 ,e4 ,f4 & ,kaulfuss1 ,f4 7#ca7 b] e9ige m]kwrdige ,pflanz5-,abdrcke4 ,nova ,acta ,leop4 ,c>4 vol4 ,,xv4 #ahca4 ,gies5hag51 ,k4 7#ib7 b] hygrophile ,f>ne4 ,flora1 vol4 ,,lxxvi4 p4 #aeg1 #ahib4 ,gomont1 ,m4 7#hh7 ,re*]*es sur les enveloppes cellulaires des no/ocaces filam5teuses4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 ,france1 vol4 ,,xxxv4 p4 #bjd1 #ahhh4 ---- 7#ib7 ,monographie des ,oscill>ies4 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,nat4 vol4 ,,xv4 #g p4 #bfc1 #ahib4 ,gpp]t1 ,h4 ,r4 7#cf7 b] d5 ,zu/& 9 wel*em si* die fossil5 ,pflanz5 bef9d51 und b] d5 ,v]/e9]ungsprocess insbesond]e4 ,pogg5dorf's ,annal51 vol4 ,,xxxviii4 p4 #efa1 #ahcf4 7,also ! ,ed9burgh ,new ,philosophical ,j\rnal1 vol4 ,,xxiii4 p4 #gc1 #ahcg47 ---- 7#cf7 ,die fossil5 ,f>nkrut]4 ,nova ,acta ,leop4 ,c>4 vol4 ,,xvii4 7,supplt47 #ahcf4 ---- 7#de7 ,t*ihat*eff's ,voyage ,sci5tifique dans l',alta ori5tal1 pp4 #cgi-cij4 ,p>is1 #ahde4 ---- 7#eb7 b] die ,flora des b]gangsgebirges4 ,nova ,acta ,ac4 ,caes4 ,leop4 ,c>4 vol4 ,,xxii4 7,supplt47 #aheb4 ---- 7#eg7 b] d5 v]/e9t5 ,wald von ,rad[5z bei ,ad]sba* 9 ,bhm5 und b] d5 ,v]/e9]ungsprocess b]haupt4 ,jahrb4 k4 k4 ,geol4 ,rei*s4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #gbe1 #aheg4 ---- 7#fj7 b] die fossile ,flora d] ,siluris*51 d] ,devonis*5 und unt]5 ,kohl5=mation4 ,nova ,acta ,ac4 ,caes4 ,leop4 ,c>4 vol4 ,,xxvii4 p4 #dbg1 #ahfj4 ---- 7#fd7 ,die fossile ,flora d] ,p]mis*5 ,=mation4 ,palaeontograph4 vol4 ,,xii4 #ahfd-fe4 ,gpp]t1 ,h4 ,r4 & ,b]5dt1 ,g4 ,c4 7#de7 ,d] ,b]n/e9 und die 9 ihm bef9dli*5 ,pflanz5re/e d] ,vorwelt4 ,b]l91 #ahde4 ,gpp]t1 ,h4 ,r4 & ,m5ge1 ,a4 7#hc7 ,die ,flora des ,b]n/e9s4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,danzig1 #ahhc4 ,gotts*e1 ,c4 ,m4 7#hf7 b] die im ,b]n/e9 e+es*loss55 ,leb]moose4 ,bot4 ,c5tral4 vol4 ,,xxv4 p4 #ie1 #ahhf4 ,gr&',eury1 ,c4 7#fi7 ,obs]vations sur les ,calamites et les ,a/]ophyllites4 ,compt4 ,r5d4 vol4 ,,lxviii4 p4 #gje1 #ahfi4 ---- 7#gg7 ,flora ,c>bonifre du dpt4 de la ,loire et du c5tre de la ,france4 ,mm4 ,ac4 ,sci4 ,p>is1 vol4 ,,xxiv4 #ahgg4 ---- 7#hb7 ,mmoire sur la =mation de la h\ille4 ,ann4 ,m9es1 vol4 ,i4 #ahhb4 ---- 7#hg7 ,=mation des c\*es de h\ille et du t]ra9 h\ill]4 ,mm4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,france1 vol4 ,,iv4 #c #ahhg4 ---- 7#hi7 ,calam>ies4 ,ar?ropitus et ,calamod5dron4 ,compt4 ,r5d4 vol4 ,,cviii4 p4 #ajhf1 #ahhi4 ---- 7#ij7 ,gologie et palontologie du bass9 h\ill] du ,g>d4 ,/4 ti5ne1 #ahij4 ,greville1 ,r4 ,k4 7#dg7 ,notice ( a new species ( ,dawsonia4 ,ann4 ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hi/4 vol4 ,,xix4 p4 #bbf1 #ahdg4 ,guillem>d1 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 7#hf7 ,! ,cruise ( ! 8,m>*esa0 to ,kams*atka & ,new ,gu9ea4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,gmbel1 ,c4 ,w4 7#ga7 ,die sog5annt5 ,nullipor54 ,pt4 ii4 ,abh4 k4 ,mn*5] ,akad4 ,wiss4 vol4 ,,xi4 p4 #bca1 #ahga4 ,gutbi]1 ,a4 von4 7#di7 ,die ,v]/e9]ung5 des ,ro?lieg5des 9 ,sa*s54 ,dresd5 & ,leipzig1 #ahdi4 ,hab]l&t1 ,g4 7#if7 ,physiologis*e ,pflanz5anatomie 7edit4 #b74 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 ,hall1 ,j4 7#dg7 & 7#eb7 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,new ,york4 ,palaeontology4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,albany1 #ahdg1 vol4 ,,ii4 ,albany1 #aheb4 ,h>k]1 ,a4 7#ie7 ,petrology = /ud5ts4 ,cambridge1 #ahie4 ,h>p]1 ,r4 ,a4 7#ie7 ,die ,entwickelung des ,p]i!ciums bei ,spha]o!ca ,ca/agnei4 ,b]i*t4 deuts*4 ,bot4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xiii4 p4 #dge1 #ahie4 ,h>rison1 ,j4 ,b4 7#ia7 ,vide ,jukes-,br[ne4 ,h>tig1 ,r4 7#gh7 ,die ,z]setzungs]s*e9ung5 des ,holzes d] ,nadelholzbume und d] ,ei*e 9 fr/li*] botanis*] und *emis*] ,ri*tung be>beitet4 ,b]l91 #ahgh4 ---- 7#id7 ,text-book ( ! diseases ( trees4 7,translation by ,w4 ,som]ville47 ,london1 #ahid4 ,h>vey1 ,w4 ,h4 7#eh7 ,phycologia ,au/ralica4 ,london1 #aheh4 ,hauck1 ,f4 7#he7 ,die ,me]esalg5 ,deuts*l&s und ,oe/]rei*s4 ,rab5hor/'s ,kryptogam5 ,flora1 vol4 ,,ii4 ,leipzig1 #ahhe4 ,he]1 ,o4 7#ec7 ,bes*reibung d] angefhrt5 ,pflanz5 und ,insekt54 ,neue ,d5ks*4 ,s*weiz4 ,ges4 gesammt4 ,wiss4 ,vol4 ,,xiii4 #e1 p4 #aag1 #ahec4 7,app5dix to a ,memoir by ,a4 ,es*] v4 d4 ,l9?47 ---- 7#ee7 ,flora ,t]ti>ia ,helvetiae4 ,w9t]?ur1 #ahee4 ---- 7#fe7 ,die ,urwelt d] ,s*weiz4 ,zri*1 #ahfe4 ---- 7#fh7 ,flora fossilis ,arctica4 ,die fossile ,flora d] ,pol>lnde4 ,vol4 ,i4 #ahfh4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #ahga4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 #ahge4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 #ahgg4 ,vol4 ,v4 #ahgh4 ,vols4 ,,vi4 & ,,vii41 ,flor4 foss4 ,grn4 ,die fossile ,flora ,grnl&s4 #ahhb-hc4 ---- 7#gf7 ,flora fossilis ,helvetiae4 ,zri*1 #ahgf4 ---- 7#gg7 ,beitrge zur ,jura-,flora ,o/-,sibiri5s und des ,amurl&es4 ,flora fossilis ,arctica1 vol4 ,v4 ,zri*1 #ahgg4 ---- 7#hb7 ,na*trge zur ,jura-,flora ,sibiri5s4 7,flor4 foss4 ,grnl&ica1 ,?4 i47 ,flora foss4 ,arct4 vol4 ,,vi4 ,zri*1 #ahhb4 ,heim1 ,a4 7#gh7 ,unt]su*ung5 b] d5 ,me*anismus d] ,gebirgsbildung4 ,basel1 #ahgh4 ,he9ri*]1 ,e4 7#hb7 ,die nh]5 ,vorgnge bei d] ,spor5bildung d] ,salv9a natans v]gli*5 mit d5 d] brig5 ,rhizoc>pe54 ,sitzb]4 kais4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,lxxxvii4 ,abt4 ,i4 p4 #did1 #ahhb4 ,h5s51 ,v4 7#ib7 ,ergebnisse d] 9 dem ,atlantis*5 ,ocean ,plankton-,exp$ition d] ,humboldt ,/iftung4 ,kiel & ,leipzig1 vol4 ,i4 #ahib4 ,h]z]1 ,h4 7#ic7 ,a new fungus f ! ,coal-,measures4 ,am]ican ,geologi/1 vol4 ,,xi4 p4 #cfe1 #ahic4 ,hick1 ,t4 7#gh7 & 7#ha7 ,vide ,ca%1 ,w4 ---- 7#ic7 ,calamo/a*ys ,b9neyana1 ,s*imp4 ,proc4 ,yorks4 ,geol4 ,polyte*4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xii4 pt4 ,,iv4 p4 #bgi1 #ahic4 ---- 7#ic7 ,! fruit-spike ( ,calamites4 ,nat4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ced1 #ahic4 ---- 7#id7 ,on ! prim>y /ructure ( ! /em ( ,calamites4 ,proc4 ,lit4 & ,phil4 ,soc4 #d vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #aeh4 ,man*e/]1 #ahid4 ---- 7#ie7 ,on ! /ructure ( ! leaves ( ,calamites4 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,ix4 #d p4 #agi1 #ahie4 ---- 7#if7 ,on a sporangif]\s spike1 f ! ,middle ,coal-,measures1 ne> ,ro*dale4 ,ibid4 vol4 ,x4 #d p4 #gc1 #ahif4 ,hicks1 ,h4 7#ha7 ,on ! discov]y ( "s rema9s ( plants at ! base ( ! ,d5bigh%ire grits1 ne> ,corw51 ,n4 ,wales2 ) an app5dix by ,r4 ,e!ridge4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xxxvii4 p4 #dhb1 #ahha4 ,h9de1 ,g4 ,j4 & ,fox1 ,h4 7#ie7 ,on a well-m>k$ horizon ( ,radiol>ian rocks 9 ! ,l[] ,culm-,measures ( ,devon1 ,cornwall & ,we/ ,som]set4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,li4 p4 #fji1 #ahie4 ,hirs*wald1 ,j4 7#gc7 b] ,umw&lung von v]/rzt] ,holzzimm]ung 9 ,braunkohle im alt5 ,mann d] ,grube ,doro!a bei ,clau/hal4 ,zeit4 deuts*4 geol ,ges4 vol4 ,,xxv4 p4 #cfd1 #ahgc4 ,holmes1 ,e4 ,m4 & ,batt]s1 ,e4 ,a4 7#ij7 ,a revis$ li/ ( ,briti% m>9e algae4 ,annals ,bot4 vol4 ,v4 p4 #fc1 #ahij-ia4 ,holmes1 ,w4 ,h4 7#hj7 ,fossil =e/s ( ! ,volcanic ,t]ti>y =mations ( ! ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k4 ,bull4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv4 vol4 ,v4 no4 #b1 #ahhj4 ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 7#dd7 ,! ,botany ( ! ,ant>ctic voyage ( ,h4 ,m4 ,discov]y ,%ips 8,erebus0 & 8,t]ror0 9 ! ye>s #ahci-dc4 ,london1 #ahdd4 ---- 7#ec7 ,vide ,/rickl&4 ---- 7#ha7 ,presid5tial ,address be=e ,section ,e ( ! ,york meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association4 ,annual ,report1 p4 #gbg1 #ahha4 ---- 7#hi7 ,on ,pa*y!ca4 ,annals ,bot4 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #ace1 #ahhi4 ---- 7#ia7 ,himalayan ,j\rnals4 ,london1 #ahia4 7,m9]va ,libr>y ,edition47 ,hook]1 ,w4 ,j4 7#bj7 ,musci ,exotici4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,london1 #ahbj4 ---- 7#fa7 ,a second c5tury ( f]ns4 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,h[se1 ,r4 7#hh7 ,a catalogue ( fossil plants f ! ,hutton ,collection4 ,newca/le1 #ahhh4 ,hughes1 ,t4 ,mc,kenny 7#gi7 ,on ! relation ( ! appe>ance & duration ( ! v>i\s =ms ( life ^u ! e>? to ! breaks 9 ! cont9uity ( ! s$im5t>y /rata4 ,proc4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,cambridge1 vol4 ,,iii4 pt4 ,,vi4 p4 #bdg1 #ahgi4 ---- 7#hd7 ,on "s tracks ( t]re/rial & fre%wat] animals4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xl4 p4 #agh1 #ahhd4 ,humboldt1 ,a4 von4 7#dh7 ,cosmos4 7,translat$ by ,e4 ,c4 ,ott47 ,london1 #ahdh4 ,huxley1 ,t4 ,h4 7#ic7 ,sci5ce & ,hebrew tradition4 ,collect$ ,essays1 vol4 ,,iv4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,jg]1 ,g4 ,f4 7#bg7 b] die ,pflanz5v]/e9]ung5 wel*e 9 dem ,baus&/e9 von ,/uttg>t vorkomm54 ,/uttg>t1 #ahbg4 ,james1 ,j4 ,f4 7#ic7 ,/udies 9 ! problematic organisms4 ,no4 #b4 ,! g5us ,fucoides4 ,j\rn4 ,c9c9nati ,soc4 ,nat4 ,hi/4 #ahic4 ---- 7#ic7 ,notes on fossil fungi4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dpt4 ,agriculture1 vol4 ,,vii4 no4 #c1 p4 #bfh1 #ahic4 ---- 7#ic7 ,fossil fungi4 ,translat$ f ! ,fr5* ( ,r4 ,f]ry1 ) rem>ks4 ,j\rn4 ,c9c9nati ,soc4 ,nat4 ,hi/4 #ahic1 p4 #id4 ,judei*1 ,j4 ,f4 & ,nits*e1 ,f4 7#ie7 ,lehrbu* d] mitteleuropis*5 ,=/9sekt5kunde4 ,vi5na1 #ahie4 ,jukes-,br[ne1 ,a4 ,j4 7#hf7 ,! ,/ud5t's ,h&book ( ,hi/orical ,geology4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,jukes-,br[ne1 ,a4 ,j4 & ,h>rison1 ,j4 ,b4 7#ia7 ,! ,geology ( ,b>bados4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xlvii4 p4 #aig1 #ahia4 ,kays]1 ,e4 7#ie7 ,text-book ( ,comp>ative ,geology4 7,translat$ & edit$ by ,p4 ,lake47 ,london1 #ahie4 ,k5t1 ,s4 7#ic7 ,! ,great ,b>ri] ,reef ( ,au/ralia4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,kickx1 ,j4 ,j4 7#fd7 ,vide ,coemans1 ,e4 ,kid/on1 ,r4 7#hc7 ,report on fossil plants collect$ by ! ,geological ,survey ( ,scotl& 9 ,eskdale & ,liddesdale4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 ,,xxx4 p4 #eca1 #ahhc4 ---- 7#hc7 ,on ! aff9ities ( ! g5us ,po?ocites1 ,pat]son2 ) ! description ( a specim5 f ,gl5c>?olm1 ,eskdale4 ,trans4 ,bot4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 ,,xvi4 p4 #bh4 ---- 7#hf7 ,catalogue ( ! ,palaeozoic plants 9 ! dep>tm5t ( geology & palaeontology1 ,briti% ,museum4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ---- 7#hh7 ,vide ,"y4 ---- 7#ij7 ,on ! fructification ( ,sph5ophyllum tri*omatosum1 ,/ur1 f ! ,york%ire ,coal-field4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,phys4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 ,,xi4 p4 #ef1 #ahij-ia4 ---- 7#ij7 ,note on ! ,palaeozoic species m5tion$ 9 ,l9dley & ,hutton's fossil ,flora4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,phys4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 ,x4 p4 #cde1 #ahij-ia4 ---- 7#ib7 ,on ! occurr5ce ( ! g5us ,equisetum 7,e4 ,hem+wayi1 ,kid/on7 9 ! ,york%ire ,coal-,measures4 ,annals ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hi/4 vol4 ,,ix4 #f p4 #ach1 #ahib4 ---- 7#ic7 ,on ! fossil plants ( ! ,kilm>nock1 ,gal/on1 & ,kilw9n+ ,coal-fields1 ,ayr%ire4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 ,,xxxvii4 pt4 ,,ii4 p4 #cjg1 #ahic4 ---- 7#id7 ,on ! v>i\s divisions ( ,briti% ,c>bonif]\s rocks z det]m9$ by _! fossil flora4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,phys4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 ,,xii4 p4 #ahc1 #ahid4 ,k9ahan1 ,j4 ,r4 7#eh7 ,! g5us ,oldhamia4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,iri% ,acad4 vol4 ,,xxiii4 p4 #edg1 #aheh4 ,kippis1 ,a4 7#gh7 ,a n>rative ( ! voyage r\nd ! _w1 p]=m$ by ,capta9 ,james ,cook4 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,kitton1 ,f4 7#ha7 ,vide ,%rubsole1 ,w4 ,h4 ,k,jellman1 ,f4 ,r4 7#hc7 ,! ,algae ( ! ,arctic ,sea4 ,kongl4 ,sv5sk ,vet5skaps ,akad4 ,h&4 vol4 ,,xx4 no4 #e1 #ahhc4 ,kn[lton1 ,f4 ,h4 7#hi7 ,fossil wood & lignite ( ! ,potomac =mation4 ,bull4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv4 no4 #ef1 #ahhi4 ---- 7#hi7 ,description ( a problematic organism f ! ,devonian at ! falls ( ! ,ohio4 ,am]4 ,j\rn4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 ,,xxxvii4 #c p4 #bjb1 #ahhi4 ---- 7#id7 ,fossil plants z aids to geology4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 vol4 ,,ii4 no4 #d1 p4 #cfe1 #ahid4 ---- 7#if7 ,! nom5clature "q4 ,bot4 ,gazette1 vol4 ,,xxi4 p4 #hb1 #ahif4 ,koe*l9-,s*lumb]g]1 ,j4 ,vide ,s*imp]1 ,w4 ,p4 ,kllik]1 ,a4 7#ei7 ,on ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( vegetable p>asites 9 ! h>d /ructures ( animals4 ,annals ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hi/4 vol4 ,,iv4 #c p4 #cjj1 #ahei4 ---- 7#ei7 b] das ausgebreitete ,vorkomm5 von pflanzli*5 ,p>asit5 9 d5 ,h>tgebild5 ni$]] ,?i]e4 ,zeits*4 wiss4 ,zool4 vol4 ,x4 p4 #bae1 #ahei4 ,knig1 ,c4 7#bi7 ,vide ,mur*ison 7#bi7 p4 #bih4 ,kuntze1 ,o4 7#hj7 b] ,geysirs und neb5an ent/eh5de v]kieselte ,bume4 ,ausl&1 #ahhj1 p4 #cfa4 ,lake1 ,p4 7#ie7 ,! ,d5bigh%ire s]ies ( ,s\? ,d5bigh%ire4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,li4 p4 #i1 #ahie4 ,lam>ck1 de4 7#af7 ,hi/oire naturelle des animaux sans v]tbres4 ,p>is1 vol4 ,,ii4 #ahaf4 ,lam\r\x1 ,j4 7#ba7 ,exposition m?odique des g5res de l'ordre des ,polypi]s4 ,p>is1 #ahba4 ,lapwor?1 ,c4 7#ha7 ,app5dix to ,w4 ,keep+'s ,geology ( ,c5tral ,wales4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xxxvii4 p4 #aga1 #ahha4 ,leck5by1 ,j4 7#fd7 ,on ! s&/ones & %ales ( ! ,oolites ( ,sc>bor\gh1 ) descriptions ( "s new species ( fossil plants4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xx4 p4 #gd1 #ahfd4 ,lehmann4 7#agef7 ,diss]tation sur les fleurs de l',a/] montanus4 ,hi/4 ,acad4 ,r4 ,sci4 et bell4 lett4 ,b]l91 #agef4 ,lesqu]eux1 ,l4 7#ff7 ,geological ,survey ( ,ill9ois4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,new ,york1 #ahff4 ---- 7#gj7 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,iv4 #ahgj4 ---- 7#gi7 ,atlas to ! ,coal ,flora ( ,p5nsylvania & ( ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,second ,geol4 ,surv4 ,p5n4 ,report ( ,progress ,p4 ,h>risburg1 #ahgi4 ---- 7#hj7 ,description ( ! ,coal ,flora ( ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation 9 ,p5nsylvania & ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,ibid4 #ahhj & #ahhd4 ---- 7#hd7 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,iii4 #ahhd4 ---- 7#hg7 ,a species ( ,fungus rec5tly discov]$ 9 ! %ale ( ! ,d>l+ton ,coal b$ at ,canneton1 ,p5nsylvania4 ,proc4 ,am]4 ,phil4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xvii4 p4 #agc1 #ahhg4 ,lhwyd 7,luidius71 ,e4 7#agfj7 7#afii7 ,li?ophylacii ,britannici i*nographia4 ,ox=d1 #agfj4 7,fir/ edition publi%$ 9 #afii47 ,limpri*t1 ,k4 ,g4 7#ij7 ,die ,laubmoose4 ,rab5hor/'s ,kryptogam5 ,flora1 vol4 ,,iv4 ,leipzig1 #ahij4 ,l9d5b]g1 ,j4 ,b4 ,w4 7#ci7 ,species ,hepatic>um4 ,bonn1 #ahci4 ,l9dley1 ,j4 & ,hutton1 ,w4 7#ca7 ,! fossil ,flora ( ,great ,brita94 ,london1 #ahca-cg4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,pls4 #a-gi2 #ahca-cc4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,pls4 #hj-aef2 #ahcc-ce4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,pls4 #aeg-bcj2 #ahcg4 ,l9n>sson1 ,j4 ,g4 ,o4 7#fi7 ,on "s fossils f\nd 9 ! ,eophyton ,s&/ones at ,lugns 9 ,sw$54 ,geol4 ,mag4 vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #cic1 #ahfi4 ,li/]1 ,a4 7#id7 ,a monograph ( ! ,mycetozoa1 be+ a descriptive ,catalogue ( ! species 9 ! ,h]b>ium ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,ludwig1 ,r4 7#eg7 ,fossile ,pflanz5 aus d] jng/5 ,wett]au] ,braunkohle4 ,palaeontograph1 vol4 ,v4 p4 #ha1 #aheg4 ---- 7#ei7 ,fossile ,pflanz5 aus d] lte/5 ,ab!ilung d] ,rhe9is*-,wett]au] ,t]tir-,=mation4 ,palaeontograph1 vol4 ,,viii4 ,lu]ss51 ,c4 7#hi7 ,die ,f>npflanz5 od] ,gefssbndelkryptogam54 ,rab5hor/'s ,krypt4 ,flora1 vol4 ,,iii4 ,leipzig1 #ahhi4 ,lydekk]1 ,r4 7#hi7 ,vide ,ni*olson4 ,lyell1 ,c4 7#bi7 ,on a rec5t =mation ( fre%wat] lime/one 9 ,=f>%ire4 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,ii4 #b p4 #gc1 #ahbi4 ---- 7#de7 ,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,london1 #ahde4 ---- 7#ee7 ,a manual ( ,elem5t>y ,geology4 ,london1 #ahee1 7,edit4 #e74 ---- 7#fg7 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology4 ,london1 #ahfg1 7,edit4 #aj74 ---- 7#gh7 ,elem5ts ( ,geology4 ,london1 #ahgh1 7,edit4 #c74 ,m#8,coy1 ,f4 7#dg7 ,on ! ,fossil ,botany & ,zoology ( ! rocks associat$ ) ! coal ( ,au/ralia4 ,annals ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hi/4 vol4 ,,xx4 p4 #ade1 #ahdg4 ,mahr1 -- 7#fh7 b] ,sph5ophyllum ,?oni1 e9e neue ,art aus dem ,/e9kohl5gebirge von ,ilm5au4 ,zeit4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xx4 p4 #dcc1 #ahfh4 ,mantell1 ,g4 7#dd7 ,m$als ( ,creation4 ,,london1 #ahdd4 ,m>%1 ,o4 ,c4 7#ga7 ,notice ( a fossil =e/ 9 ! ,t]ti>y ( ,cali=nia4 ,am]4 ,j\rn4 ,sci4 vol4 ,i4 #c p4 #bff1 #ahga4 ,m>t91 ,w4 7#ji7 ,petrificata ,d]bi5sia4 ,wigan1 #ahji4 ,maskell1 ,w4 ,m4 7#hg7 ,! ,scale-insects4 ,well+ton1 #ahhg4 ,massalongo1 ,e4 ,g4 7#ea7 ,sopra le piante fossili dei t]r5i t]zi>j del ,vic5t9o1 ,oss]vazioni1 c4 ,padova1 #ahea4 ---- 7#ei7 ,/udii sulla flora fossile e geologia /ratigrafica del ,s5igalliese4 ,imola1 #ahei4 ,mat!w1 ,g4 ,f4 7#hi7 ,! ,cambrian organisms 9 ,acadia4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,canada 7,sect4 ,,iv47 #ahhi1 p4 #ace4 ,meek1 ,f4 ,b4 7#gc7 ,report ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,ohio4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,mes*9elli1 ,a4 7#ib7 ,fungi fossiles4 ,9 ,p4 ,a4 ,sacc>do's ,sylloge ,fungorum4 ,vol4 ,x4 p4 #gda1 ,patavii1 #ahib4 ,mi*el91 ,h4 7#dj7 ,iconographie zoophytologique4 ,p>is1 #ahdj-dg4 ,migula1 ,w4 7#ij7 ,die ,*>ace54 ,rab5hor/'s ,kryptogam5 ,flora1 vol4 ,v4 ,leipzig1 #ahij4 ,milde1 ,j4 7#fg7 ,monographia ,equisetorum4 ,nova ,act4 ,acad4 ,caes4 ,leop4 ,c>4 vol4 ,,xxxii4 p4 #a1 #ahfg4 ,morris1 ,j4 7#ed7 ,a catalogue ( ,briti% fossils4 ,london1 #ahed1 7,edit4 #b74 ,morton1 ,g4 ,h4 7#ia7 ,! geology ( ! c\ntry ar\nd ,liv]pool4 ,london1 #ahia1 7,edit4 #b74 ,moseley1 ,h4 ,n4 7#ge7 ,notes on fre%wat] algae obta9$ at ! boil+ spr+s at ,furnas1 ,/4 ,mi*ael's1 ,azores1 & ! neighb\rhood4 ,) notes by ,w4 ,t4 ,?iselton-,dy]4 ,j\rn4 ,l9n4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xiv4 7,botany7 p4 #cba1 #ahge4 ,m\geot1 ,a4 7#dd7 ,vide ,s*imp]4 ---- 7#eb7 ,essai d'une flore du n\veau ,grs ,r\ge des ,vosges4 ,ep9al1 #aheb4 ,muni]-,*almas1 ,e4 7#gg7 ,obs]vations sur les algues calcaires app>t5ant au gr\pe des ,siphones v]ticilles 7,dasyclades ,h>v47 et confondues avec les ,=am9ifres4 ,compt4 ,r5d4 vol4 ,,lxxxv4 p4 #had1 #ahgg4 ---- 7#gi7 ,obs]vations sur les algues calcaires confondues avec les ,=am9ifres et app>t5ant au gr\pe des ,siphones di*otomes4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 #c vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #ffa1 #ahgi4 ,mur*ison1 ,r4 ,i4 7#bi7 ,on ! ,coal-field ( ,brora 9 ,su!rl&%ire1 & "s o!r /ratifi$ deposits 9 ! ,nor? ( ,scotl&4 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #b vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bic4 ---- 7#gb7 ,siluria4 7,edit4 #e47 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,murray1 ,g4 7#ib7 ,on a fossil alga belong+ to ! g5us ,caul]pa1 f ! ,oolite4 ,phycological ,memoirs1 pt4 ,i4 p4 #aa1 #ahib4 ---- 7#ie7 ,an introduction to ! /udy ( seawe$s4 ,london1 #ahie4 ---- 7#ie7 ,calc>e\s pebbles =m$ by ,algae4 ,phycol4 ,mem4 pt4 ,,iii4 p4 #gd1 #ahie4 ---- 7#ie7 ,a new "p ( ,pa*y!ca4 ,ibid4 p4 #ga1 #ahie4 ---- 7#ig7 ,on ! reproduction ( "s m>9e ,diatoms4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 ,,xxi4 p4 #bjg1 #ahig4 ,murray1 ,g4 & ,blackman1 ,v4 ,h4 7#ig7 ,coccosph]es & ,rhabdosph]es4 ,nature1 vol4 ,,lv4 p4 #eaj1 #ahig4 ,murray1 ,j4 & ,r5>d1 ,a4 7#ia7 ,vide 8,*all5g]40 ,na?or/1 ,a4 ,g4 7#hj7 ,reseb]ttelse4 fv]sigt ,kongl4 ,vet5skaps-,akad4 ,frh4 #ahhj1 no4 #e1 p4 #bc4 ---- 7#ha7 ,om spr af ngra ev]tebr]ade djur m4 m4 o* d]as paleontologiska betydelse4 ,k4 ,sv5sk4 ,vet4-,akad4 ,h&4 vol4 ,,xviii4 no4 #g1 #ahha4 ---- 7#ha7 ,om ,aftryck af ,m$us> i ,sv]iges ,kambriska lay]4 ,k4 ,sv5sk4 ,vet4-,akad4 ,h&4 vol4 ,,xix4 no4 #a1 #ahha4 ---- 7#hc7 ,quelques rem>ques conc]nant la "q des algues fossiles4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 #c vol4 ,,xi4 p4 #deb1 #ahhc4 ---- 7#hc7 ,fossil ,algae4 7,lett]47 ,nature1 vol4 ,,xxviii4 p4 #eb1 #ahhc4 ---- 7#hf7 ,n\velles obs]vations sur des traces d'animaux et autres phnomnes d'orig9e purem5t mcanique dcrits comme 8algues fossiles40 ,kongl4 ,sv5sk4 ,vet5skaps-,akad4 ,h&4 vol4 ,,xxi4 no4 #ad4 ,/ockholm1 #ahhf4 ---- 7#ij7 ,beitrge zur mesozois*5 ,flora ,japans4 ,d5ks*r4 k4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,lviii4 #ahij4 ---- 7#id7 ,zur palozois*5 ,flora d] arktis*5 ,zone4 ,kongl4 ,sv5sk4 ,vet5skaps-,akad4 ,h&4 vol4 ,,xxvi4 no4 #d1 #ahid4 ---- 7#id7 ,sv]iges ,geologi4 ,/ockholm1 #ahid4 ,naunyn1 ,b4 7#if7 ,a treatise on ,*oleli?iasis4 7,translation by ,a4 ,e4 ,g>rod47 ,new ,syd5ham ,society1 ,london1 #ahif4 ,neumayr1 ,m4 7#hc7 b] klimatis*e ,zon5 whr5d d] ,jura- und ,kreidezeit4 ,d5ks*r4 k4 ,ak4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,xlvii4 #ahhc4 ,newb]ry1 ,j4 ,s4 7#hh7 ,fossil fi%es & fossil plants ( ! ,triassic rocks ( ,new ,j]sey & ! ,connecticut ,valley4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv4 7,monographs71 vol4 ,,xiv4 #ahhh4 ---- 7#ia7 ,! g5us ,sph5ophyllum4 ,j\rn4 ,c9c9nati ,soc4 ,nat4 ,hi/4 #ahia1 p4 #bab4 ,ni*olson1 ,h4 ,a4 7#fi7 ,on ! occurr5ce ( plants 9 ! ,skiddaw ,slates4 ,geol4 ,mag4 vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #did1 #ahfi4 ,ni*olson1 ,h4 ,a4 & ,e!ridge1 ,r4 junr4 7#hj7 ,a monograph ( ! ,silurian fossils ( ! ,girvan di/rict 9 ,ayr%ire4 ,ed9burgh1 #ahhj4 ,ni*olson1 ,h4 ,a4 & ,lydekk]1 ,r4 7#hi7 ,a manual ( ,palaeontology4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,nicol1 ,w4 7#cd7 ,obs]vations on ! /ructure ( rec5t & fossil ,conif]ae4 ,ed9b4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 ,,xvi4 p4 #acg1 #ahcd4 ,noll1 ,f4 7#ie7 ,lehrbu* d] ,botanik fr ,ho*s*ul54 ,/rasburg]1 ,noll1 ,s*imp] und ,s*5k4 ,j5a1 #ahie1 p4 #bdh 7,edit4 #b74 ,p>k9son1 ,j4 7#aa7 ,organic ,rema9s ( a =m] _w4 ,london1 #ahaa4 7,vol4 ,i4 #ahaa1 vol4 ,,ii4 #ahjh1 vol4 ,,iii4 #ahaa47 ,p>sons1 ,j4 7#ageg7 ,an acc\nt ( "s fossil fruits & o!r bodies f\nd 9 ! isl& ( ,%eppey4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,l4 pt4 ,i4 p4 #cif1 #ageg4 ,pat]son 7#da7 ,description ( ,po?ocites ,grantoni1 a new fossil vegetable f ! ,coal ,=mation4 ,trans4 ,bot4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #de1 #ahda4 ,p5hall[1 ,d4 ,p4 7#hi7 ,on ,nematophyton & alli$ =ms f ! ,devonian 7,erian7 ( ,gasp & ,bay des ,*aleurs4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,canada1 vol4 ,,vi4 sect4 #d 7#ahhh74 ---- 7#ic7 ,notes on ,nematophyton crassum4 ,proc4 ,u4 ,s4 ,nat4 ,museum1 vol4 ,,xvi4 p4 #aae1 #ahic4 ---- 7#if7 ,nematophyton ,ortoni1 n4 sp4 ,annals ,bot4 vol4 ,x4 p4 #da1 #ahif4 ,petzholdt1 ,a4 7#da7 b] ,calamit5 und ,/e9kohl5bildung4 ,dresd5 & ,leipzig1 #ahda4 ,pfitz]1 ,e4 ,h4 ,h4 7#fg7 b] die ,s*utzs*eide4 ,pr+%4 ,jahrb4 ,wiss4 ,bot4 vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #bib1 #ahfg-fh4 ---- 7#ga7 ,unt]su*ung5 b] ,bau und ,entwickelung d] ,bacill>iace54 ,han/e9's ,bot4 ,abh&4 #ahga4 ,philippi1 ,r4 ,a4 7#cg7 ,beweis das die ,nullipor5 ,pflanz5 s9d4 ,wiegmann1 ,ar*iv4 vol4 ,i4 ,jahrg4 #c1 p4 #chg1 #ahcg4 ,phillips1 ,j4 7#bi7 ,illu/rations ( ! ,geology ( ,york%ire4 ,york1 #ahbi4 ---- 7#ge7 ,ibid4 7,edit4 #c7 edit$ by ,r4 ,e!ridge4 ,london1 #ahge4 ,phillips1 ,w4 7#ic7 ,! break+ ( ! ,%rop%ire ,m]es4 ,midl& ,naturali/1 vol4 ,,xvi4 p4 #ef1 #ahic4 ,plot1 ,r4 7#agje7 ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,ox=d%ire4 ,ox=d1 #agje4 ,potoni1 ,r4 7#hg7 ,die fossile ,pflanz5-,gattung ,tylod5dron4 ,jahrb4 k4 ,preuss4 geol4 ,l&esan/4 #ahhg1 p4 #cac4 ---- 7#ij7 ,d] im ,li*?( d] ,knigl4 ,geol4 ,l&esan/alt und ,b]gakademie aufge/ellte ,baum/umpf mit ,wurzeln aus dem ,c>bon des ,piesb]ges4 ,ibid4 #ahij1 p4 #bdf4 ---- 7#ib7 ,d] uss]e ,bau d] ,bltt] von ,annul>ia /ellata 7,s*lo?47 mit ausblick5 auf ,equisetites zeae=mis 7,s*lo?47 ,&rae1 und auf die ,bltt] von ,calamites v>ians ,/]nb4 ,b]4 deuts*4 bot4 ,ges4 vol4 ,x4 ,heft #h1 p4 #efa1 #ahib4 ---- 7#ic7 ,die ,flora des ,ro?lieg5d5 von ,?r+54 7,?4 ,i47 ,jahrb4 k4 ,preuss4 geol4 ,l&esan/4 vol4 ,,ix4 #ahic4 ---- 7#id7 b] die ,/ellung d] ,sph5ophyllum im ,sy/em4 ,b]4 deuts*4 bot4 ,ges4 ,bd4 ,,xii4 ,heft #d1 p4 #ig1 #ahid4 ---- 7#if7 ,die flori/is*e ,gli$]ung des deuts*5 ,c>bon und ,p]m4 ,abh&4 k4 ,preuss4 geol4 ,l&esan/4 7,n4 ,f47 ,heft4 ,,xxi4 p4 #a1 #ahif4 ---- 7#if7 ,palaeophytologis*e ,notiz54 ,naturwiss4 ,wo*5s*rift1 vol4 ,,xi4 no4 #aj1 p4 #aae1 #ahif4 ,quekett1 ,j4 7#ed7 ,lectures on ,hi/ology4 ,vols4 ,i4 & ,,ii4 ,london1 #aheb-ed4 ,raciborski1 ,m4 7#id7 ,flora ,kopalna ogniotrwaly* ,gl9ek ,krak[ski*4 ,pamit4 ,akad4 ,umiejtnoci1 #ahid4 ,re9s*1 ,p4 ,f4 7#ha7 ,neue ,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,mikro/ruktur d] ,/e9kohle4 ,leipzig1 #ahha4 ,r5ault1 ,b4 7#gc7 ,re*]*es sur l'organisation des ,sph5ophyllum et des ,annul>ia4 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,nat4 #e vol4 ,,xviii4 p4 #e1 #ahgc4 ---- 7#gf7 ,re*]*es sur la fructification de quelques vgtaux4 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,nat4 #f vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #e1 #ahgf4 ---- 7#gf7 ,n\velles re*]*es sur la /ructure des ,sph5ophyllum4 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,nat4 #f vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #bgg1 #ahgf4 ---- 7#hb7 ,c\rs de botanique fossile4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,p>is1 #ahhb4 ---- 7#he7 ,re*]*es sur les vgtaux fossiles du g5re ,a/romyelon ,ann4 ,sci4 ,gol4 vol4 ,,xvii4 #ahhe4 ---- 7#ic7 ,bass9 ,h\ill] et ,p]mi5 d',autun et d',ep9ac4 7,atlas47 tudes des gtes m9raux de la ,france1 ,fasc4 ,,iv4 ,p>is1 #ahic4 ---- 7#ie7 ,note sur les cuticles de ,tov>kovo4 ,soc4 ,hi/4 ,nat4 d',autun1 #ahie4 ---- 7#ie7 ,sur quelques ,bactries des temps primaires4 ,autun1 #ahie4 ---- 7#if7 ,bass9 ,h\ill] et ,p]mi5 d',autun et d',ep9ac4 7,text47 tudes des gtes m9raux de la ,france1 ,fasc4 ,,iv4 ,p>is1 #ahif4 ---- 7#if7 ,notice sur les travaux sci5tifiques4 ,autun1 #ahif4 ---- 7#if7 ,re*]*es sur les ,bactriaces fossiles4 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,nat4 #h vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bge1 #ahif4 ,r5ault1 ,r4 & ,b]tr& 7#id7 ,sur une bactrie coprophile de l'poque ,p]mi5ne4 ,compt4 ,r5d4 vol4 ,,cxix4 p4 #cgg1 #ahid4 ,r5ault1 ,r4 & ,zeill]1 ,r4 7#hh7 tudes sur le t]ra9 h\ill] de ,comm5try4 ,/ ti5ne1 #ahhh-ij4 ,pt4 ,i4 pp4 #a-cff1 #ahhh4 ,pt4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cfg-gdf1 #ahij4 8,report0 7#fb7 ,report ( ! ,jury trial 9 ! action ( decl>ation1 c4 at ! in/ance ( ,mr & ,mrs ,gillespie1 ( ,torbanehill1 aga9/ ,messrs ,james ,russell & ,son1 ,coal-ma/]s1 ,falkirk4 ,ed9burgh1 #ahfb4 ,reuss1 ,a4 ,e4 7#fa7 b] die fossile ,gattung ,acicul>ia d',ar*iac4 ,sitzb4 d4 k4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,bd4 ,,xliii4 ,ab?4 ,i4 p4 #g1 #ahfa4 ,rodway1 ,j4 7#ie7 ,9 ! ,guiana ,=e/4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,rm]1 ,a4 7#ed7 ,beitrge zur geologis*5 ,k5ntniss des nordwe/li*5 ,h>zgebirges von ,fri$ri*4 ,palaeontograph4 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #a1 #ahed4 ,rm]1 ,f4 7#fb7 ,beitrge zur geologis*5 ,k5ntniss des nordwe/li*5 ,h>zgebirges4 ,palaeontograph4 vol4 ,,ix4 #ahfb4 ---- 7#gj7 ,geologie von ,ob]s*lesi54 ,breslau1 #ahgj4 ,rosan(f1 ,s4 7#ff7 ,re*]*es anatomiques sur les ,mlobsies4 ,mm4 ,soc4 ,sci4 nat4 ,*]b\rg1 vol4 ,,xi4 #ahfe4 ,rose1 ,c4 ,b4 7#ee7 ,on ! discov]y ( p>asitic bor+s 9 fossil fi%-scales4 ,trans4 mic4 soc4 7,n4 ,s47 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #g1 #ahee4 ,ros5v+e1 ,l4 ,k4 7#ic7 ,grnl&s ,havalg]4 ,conspectus florae ,gro5l&icae4 ,pt4 ,,iii4 p4 #gfe4 ,grnl&s ,havalg]4 7,m$delels] om ,grnl&4 ,,iii4 ,supplt4 #c71 #ahhg-id4 ,ro?pletz1 ,a4 7#hj7 ,die ,flora und ,fauna d] ,c>bon ,culm=mation bei ,ha9is*5 9 ,sa*s54 ,bot4 ,c5t4 vol4 ,,ii4 7,gratis ,beilage #c71 #ahhj4 ---- 7#ij7 b] ,spha]ocodium ,bornemanni1 e9e neue fossile ,kalkalge aus d5 ,raibl] ,s*i*t5 d] ,o/alp54 ,bot4 ,c5t4 vol4 ,,xli4 p4 #i1 #ahij4 ---- 7#ia7 ,fossile ,kalkalg5 aus d5 ,famili5 d] ,codiace5 und d] ,corall9e54 ,zeit4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xliii4 p4 #bie1 #ahia4 ---- 7#ib7 b] die ,bildung d] ,ooli!4 ,bot4 ,c5t4 vol4 ,,li4 p4 #bfe1 #ahib4 ---- 7#ib7 b] die ,diadematid5-,/a*eln und ,haploporella fasciculata aus dem ,oligocn von ,a/rupp4 ,bot4 ,c5t4 vol4 ,,lii4 p4 #bce1 #ahib4 ---- 7#id7 ,e9 geologis*] ,qu]s*nitt dur* die ,o/-,alp5 neb/ ,anhang b] die sog5annte ,gl>n] ,doppelfalte4 ,/uttg>t1 #ahid4 ---- 7#if7 b] die ,flys*-,fucoid5 und e9ige &]e fossile ,alg5 s[ie b] liassis*e ,diatome5 fhr5de ,horns*wmme4 ,zeit4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xlviii4 p4 #hed1 #ahif4 ,royle1 ,j4 ,f4 7#ci7 ,illu/rations ( ! ,botany & o!r bran*es ( ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,himalayan ,m\nta9s & ( ! flora ( ,ca%m]e4 ,london1 #ahci4 ,rultey1 ,f4 7#ib7 ,notes on ,cry/allites4 ,m94 ,mag4 vol4 ,,ix4 p4 #bfa1 #ahia4 ,salt]1 ,j4 ,w4 7#fc7 ,on "s fossil cru/acea f ! ,coal-,measures & ,devonian rocks ( ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xix4 p4 #ge1 #ahfc4 ---- 7#gc7 ,a catalogue ( ,cambrian & ,silurian fossils4 ,cambridge1 #ahgc4 ,saporta1 de ,g4 7#fh7 ,prodrome d'une flore fossile des trav]t9s anci5s de ,szanne4 ,mm4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,france1 vol4 ,,viii4 #b #ahfe-fh4 ---- 7#gb7 ,plantes ,jurassiques4 ,palont4 ,fran4 ,vgtaux1 vols4 ,i-,,iv4 #ahgb-ahia4 ---- 7#gc7 ,ibid4 vol4 ,i4 ,algues1 quistaces1 ,*>aces1 ,f\gres1 #ahgc4 ---- 7#ge7 ,ibid4 vol4 ,,ii4 ,cycades1 #ahge4 ---- 7#gg7 ,sur la dc\v]te d'une plante t]re/re dans la p>tie moy5ne du t]ra9 ,siluri54 ,compt4 ,r5d4 vol4 ,,lxxxv4 p4 #ejj1 #ahgg4 ---- 7#gi7 ,le monde des plantes avant l'app>ition de l'homme4 ,p>is1 #ahgi4 ---- 7#ha7 ,vide ,saporta & ,m>ion4 ---- 7#hb7 ,a propos des algues fossiles4 ,p>is1 #ahhb4 ---- 7#hd7 ,les organismes problmatiques des anci5nes m]s4 ,p>is1 #ahhd4 ---- 7#hf7 ,n\veaux docum5ts relatifs des fossiles vgtaux et des traces d'inv]tbrs associs dans les anci5s t]ra9s4 ,bull4 ,soc4 bot4 ,france1 vol4 ,,xiv4 #c p4 #djg1 #ahhf4 ---- 7#ia7 ,plantes ,jurassiques4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,p>is1 #ahia4 ,saporta1 de ,g4 & ,m>ion1 ,a4 ,f4 7#ha7 ,l'volution du rgne vgtal4 ,les ,cryptogames4 ,p>is1 #ahha4 ,s*5k1 ,a4 7#fe7 ,vide ,s*o5le94 ---- 7#fg7 ,die fossile ,flora d] ,gr5zs*i*t5 des ,keup]s und ,lias ,frank5s4 ,wiesbad51 #ahfg4 ---- 7#hc7 ,pflanzli*e ,v]/e9]ung54 ,ri*?(5's 8,*9a10 vol4 ,,iv4 ,b]l91 #ahhc4 ---- 7#hh7 ,die fossile ,pflanz5re/e4 7,h&bu* d] ,botanik47 ,breslau1 #ahhh4 ---- 7#ij7 ,vide ,s*imp]4 ,s*eu*z]1 ,j4 ,t4 7#agbc7 ,h]b>ium diluvianum4 ,lugduni ,batavorum1 #agbc4 ,s*iffn]1 ,v4 & ,mll]1 ,c4 7#ie7 ,engl] und ,prantl2 ,die natrli*5 ,pflanz5famili54 ,teil ,i4 ,abt4 #c4 ,leipzig1 #ahie4 ,s*imp]1 ,w4 ,p4 7#fe7 ,eupty*ium ,muscorum ,neocal$onicorum g5us novum et g5us ,spirid5s4 ,nova ,acta ,acad4 ,caes4 ,leop4 ,c>4 vol4 ,,xxxii4 #ahfe4 ---- 7#fi7 ,trait de ,palontologie vgtale4 ,p>is1 vol4 ,i4 #ahfi1 vol4 ,,ii4 #ahgj-gb1 vol4 ,,iii4 #ahgd4 ---- 7#gd7 ,ibid4 ,atlas4 ,s*imp]1 ,w4 ,p4 & ,koe*l9-,s*lumb]g]1 ,j4 7#fb7 ,mmoire sur le ,t]ra9 de transition des ,vosges4 ,mm4 ,soc4 ,sci4 ,nat4 ,/rasb\rg1 vol4 ,v4 #ahfb4 ,s*imp]1 ,w4 ,p4 & ,m\geot 7#dd7 ,monographie des plantes fossiles du grs big>r de la ,*ane des ,vosges4 ,leipzig1 #ahdd4 ,s*imp]1 ,w4 ,p4 & ,s*5k1 ,a4 7#ij7 ,palaeophytologie4 ,zittel's ,h&bu* d] ,palaeontologie1 ,abt4 ,,ii4 ,muni* & ,leipzig1 #ahij4 ,s*lo!im1 ,e4 ,f4 von4 7#jd7 ,bes*reibung m]kwrdig] ,krut]-,abdrcke und ,pflanz5-,v]/e9]ung54 ,go?a1 #ahjd4 ---- 7#bj7 ,die ,petrefact5kunde auf ihrem jetzig5 ,/&punkte dur* die ,bes*reibung se9] ,sammlung v]/e9]t] und fossil] b]re/e des ,?i]- und ,pflanz5rei*s d] ,vorwelt erlut]t4 ,go?a1 #ahbj4 ---- 7#bb7 ,na*trge zur ,petrefact5kunde4 ,go?a1 #ahbb-bc4 ,s*lt]1 ,c4 7#gi7 ,coelotro*ium ,de*5i1 e9e ,=am9if]e aus dem ,mitteldevon4 ,zeit4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xxxi4 p4 #ffh1 #ahgi4 ,s*malhaus51 ,j4 7#gi7 ,beitrge zur ,juraflora ,russl&s4 ,mm4 ,acad4 imp4 ,/ ,pt]sb\rg1 #g vol4 ,,xxvii4 no4 #d1 #ahgi4 ,s*mitz1 ,f4 7#ig7 ,rhodophyceae4 ,engl] und ,prantl2 ,die natrli*5 ,pflanz5famili54 ,teil ,i4 ,abt4 #b4 ,leipzig1 #ahig4 ,s*o5le91 ,j4 ,l4 & ,s*5k1 ,a4 7#fe7 ,abbildung5 von fossil5 ,pflanz5 aus dem ,keup] ,frank5s4 ,wiesbad51 #ahfe4 ,s*rt]1 ,j4 7#hi7 ,engl] und ,prantl2 ,die natrli*5 ,pflanz5famili54 ,teil ,i4 ,ab?4 #a4 #ahhi4 ,s*ulze1 ,c4 ,f4 7#agee7 ,kurtze ,betra*tung d]] ,krut]abdrcke im ,/e9rei*e4 ,dresd5 & ,leipzig1 #agee4 ,s*ulze1 ,f4 7#ee7 b] das ,vorkomm5 wohl]halt5] ,cellulose 9 ,braunkohle und ,/e9kohle4 ,b]i*t4 k4 ,preuss4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,b]l91 #ahee1 p4 #fgf4 ,s*tt1 ,f4 7#ic7 ,das ,pflanz5leb5 d] ,ho*see4 ,kiel & ,leipzig1 #ahic4 7,f ,h5s5's ,plankton-,exp$ition47 ---- 7#if7 ,bacill>iales4 ,engl] und ,prantl2 ,die natrli*5 ,pflanz5famili54 ,teil ,i4 ,abt4 #a4 b4 #ahif4 ,s*we9fur?1 ,g4 7#hb7 ,zur ,beleu*tung d] ,frage b] d5 v]/e9]t5 ,wald4 ,zeit4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xxxiv4 p4 #aci1 #ahhb4 ,s*w5d5]1 ,s4 7#gd7 ,das me*anis*e ,pr9cip im anatomis*5 ,bau d] ,monocotyl54 #ahgd4 ,scott1 ,d4 ,h4 7#id7 7#ie7 7#if7 ,vide ,williamson1 ,w4 ,c4 ---- 7#if7 ,an introduction to /ructural ,botany4 ,pt4 ,,ii4 ,fl[]less plants4 ,london1 #ahif4 ---- 7#if7 ,presid5tial address4 7,liv]pool ,meet+47 ,briti% ,assoc4 ,report1 p4 #iib1 #ahif4 ---- 7#ig7 ,on ! /ructure & aff9ities ( fossil plants f ! ,palaeozoic rocks4 ,on ,*eiro/robus1 a new type ( fossil cone f ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s /rata 7,calcif]\s ,s&/one ,s]ies74 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,clxxxix4 ,b4 p4 #a1 #ahig4 ,seeman1 ,b4 7#fe7 ,a gigantic ,equisetum4 ,j\rn4 ,bot4 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #abc1 #ahfe4 ,sew>d1 ,a4 ,c4 7#hh7 ,on ,calamites undulatus4 ,geol4 ,mag4 vol4 ,v4 p4 #bhi1 #ahhh4 ---- 7#hi7 ,sph5ophyllum z a bran* ( ,a/]ophyllites4 ,mem4 & ,proc4 ,lit4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,man*e/]1 vol4 ,,iii4 #d p4 #a1 #ahhi-ij4 ---- 7#id7 ,algae z rock-build+ organisms4 ,sci5ce ,progress1 vol4 ,,ii4 no4 #g1 p4 #aj1 #ahid4 ---- 7#id7 ,catalogue ( ! ,mesozoic plants 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,geology1 ,briti% ,museum4 ,! ,weald5 ,flora1 ,pt4 ,i4 ,london1 #ahid4 ---- 7#ie7 ,ibid4 ,pt4 ,,ii4 ,london1 #ahie4 ---- 7#ie7 ,coal3 its /ructure & =mation4 ,sci5ce ,progress1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cee1 #ahie4 ---- 7#ie7 ,notes on ,pa*y!ca4 ,proc4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,cambridge1 vol4 ,,viii4 pt4 #e1 p4 #bgh1 #ahie4 ---- 7#if7 ,notes on ! geological hi/ory ( ,monocotyl$ons4 ,annals ,bot4 vol4 ,x4 p4 #bje1 #ahif4 ---- 7#if7 ,vide ,feild51 ,h4 ,w4 ---- 7#ig7 ,on ,cycadeoidea gigantea1 a new ,cycadean /em f ! ,purbeck b$s ( ,portl&4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,liii4 p4 #bb1 #ahig4 ---- 7#ig7 ,on ! association ( ,sigill>ia & ,glossopt]is 9 ,s\? ,africa4 ,ibid4 p4 #cae1 #ahig4 ,%>pe1 ,s4 7#fh7 ,on a rem>kable incru/ation 9 ,nor?ampton%ire4 ,geol4 ,mag4 vol4 ,v4 p4 #efc1 #ahfh4 ,%]born1 ,c4 ,d4 7#ic7 ,an index to ! g5]a & species ( ! ,=am9if]a4 ,smi?sonian ,miscellane\s ,collections1 #hef4 ,wa%+ton1 #ahic4 ,%rubsole1 ,w4 ,h4 & ,kitton1 ,f4 7#ha7 ,! ,diatoms ( ! ,london ,clay4 ,j\rn4 ,r4 ,mic4 ,soc4 #b vol4 ,i4 p4 #cha1 #ahha4 ,sk]t*ly1 ,j4 ,b4 ,j4 7#gg7 ,! geology ( ! ,f5l&4 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 #ahgg4 ,smi?1 ,w4 ,g4 7#gg7 ,a fossil ,p]onospora4 ,g>d4 ,*ron4 ,oct4 #bj1 #ahgg1 p4 #dii4 ,sollas1 ,w4 ,j4 7#hf7 ,on a specim5 ( slate f ,bray-,head trav]s$ by ! /ructure kn[n z ,oldhamia radiata4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,dubl9 7,n4,s47 vol4 ,v4 pp4 #cee1 #ceh1 #ahhf-hg4 ,solms-,lauba*1 ,graf zu4 7#ha7 ,die corall95 ,alg5 des ,golfes von ,neapel und d] augr5z5d5 ,me]es-,abs*nitte4 ,fauna und ,flora des ,golfes von ,neapel1 vol4 ,,iv4 ,leipzig1 #ahha4 ---- 7#ia7 ,fossil ,botany4 ,ox=d1 #ahia4 ---- 7#ic7 b] die ,alg5-g5]a ,cymopolia1 ,neom]is und ,bornetella4 ,ann4 ,j>d4 ,buit5zorg1 vol4 ,,xi4 p4 #fa1 #ahic4 ---- 7#ie7 ,william ,craw=d ,williamson4 7,obit4 notice47 ,nature1 vol4 ,,lii4 p4 #dda1 #ahie4 ---- 7#ie7 b] ,devonis*e ,pflanz5re/e aus d5 ,l5nes*ief]n d] ,geg5d von ,grfra? am ,ni$]rhe94 ,jahrb4 k4 preuss4 geol4 ,l&esan/4 ,b]l91 #ahie1 p4 #fg4 ---- 7#ie7 ,monograph ( ! ,acetabul>ieae4 ,trans4 ,l9n4 ,soc4 #b vol4 ,v4 pt4 #a4 p4 #a1 #ahie4 ---- 7#ie7 ,b[manites ,rm]i1 e9e neue ,sph5ophylle5-,fructification4 ,jahrb4 k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,xlv4 ,heft #b1 p4 #bbe1 #ahie4 ---- 7#if7 b] die se9]zeit von ,ung] bes*rieb55 ,/ruktur biet5d5 ,pflanz5re/e des ,unt]culm von ,saalfeld 9 ,?r+54 ,abh&4 k4 ,preus4 ,geol4 ,l&esan/4 7,n4,f47 ,heft ,,xxiii4 ,b]l91 #ahif4 ---- 7#ig7 b] die 9 d5 ,kalk/e95 des ,culm von ,gltzis* ,falk5b]g 9 ,s*lesi5 en?alt55 ,/ructur biet5d5 ,pflanz5re/e4 ,bot4 ,zeit4 ,heft ,,xii4 p4 #bai1 #ahig4 ,sorby1 ,h4 ,c4 7#gi7 ,presid5tial ,address4 ,proc4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahgh-gi1 p4 #ef4 ,sp5c]1 ,j4 7#ha7 ,a/romyelon & its aff9ities4 ,geol4 ,polyte*4 ,soc4 ,w4 ,r4 ,yorks4 #ahha1 p4 #dci4 ,spr5gel1 ,a4 7#bh7 ,comm5tatio de ,ps>oli?is4 ,halle1 #ahbh4 ,/efani1 ,k4 de4 7#hb7 ,vorlufige ,mit!ilung b] die rhtis*5 ,fossil5 d] apuanis*5 ,alp54 ,v]h&4 k4 k4 ,geol4 ,rei*san/4 ,wi51 #ahhb1 p4 #if4 ,/e9hau]1 ,h4 7#ah7 ,on fossil ,reliquia ( unkn[n vegetables 9 ! ,coal ,/rata4 ,trans4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,am]ica1 ,n4 ,s4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bfe1 #ahah4 ,/e9mann1 ,g4 7#hj7 ,zur ,k5ntniss fossil] ,kalkalg5 7,siphoneae74 ,neues ,jahrb4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #acj1 #ahhj4 ,/5zel1 ,g4 7#hf7 ,rhizod5dron oppoli5se1 ,gpp4 ,jahresb]i*t4 ,s*les4 ,ges4 ,vat4-,cult4 ,ergnzheft ,,lxiii4 #ahhf4 ,/]nb]g1 ,c4 von4 7#bj7 ,v]su* e9] geogno/is*-botanis*5 ,d>/ellung d] ,flora d] ,vorwelt4 ,fasc4 ,i4 ,leipzig1 #ahbj4 ---- 7#ba7 ,ibid4 ,fasc4 ,,ii4 ---- 7#be7 ,ibid4 ,fasc4 ,,iv4 ---- 7#ch7 ,ibid4 ,fasc4 ,,viii4 ,/]zel1 ,j4 ,t4 7#hb7 b] die ,fru*thr5 von ,annul>ia ,sph5ophylloides 7,z5k474 ,zeit4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xxxiv4 p4 #fhe1 #ahhb4 ---- 7#hf7 ,die ,flora des ,ro?lieg5d5 im nordwe/li*5 ,sa*s54 ,pal4 ,abh4 ,dames und ,kays]1 vol4 ,,iii4 ,heft #d1 #ahhf4 ---- 7#ic7 ,die ,flora des ,ro?lieg5d5 im ,plau5s*] ,grunde bei ,dresd54 ,abh&4 k4 ,s*s4 ,ges4 ,wiss4 vol4 ,,xix4 ,leipzig1 #ahic4 ,/okes1 ,c4 7#dj7 ,notice respect+ a piece ( rec5t wood p>tly petrifi$ by c>bonate ( lime1 ) "s rem>ks on fossil wood4 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #b vol4 ,v4 p4 #bjg1 #ahdj4 ,/olley1 ,e4 7#ic7 b] ,siluris*e ,siphone54 ,neues ,jahrb4 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ace1 #ahic4 ,/rasburg]1 ,e4 7#ia7 b] d5 ,bau und die ,v]ri*tung5 d] ,leitungsbahn5 9 d5 ,pflanz54 ,hi/ologis*e ,beitrge1 ,heft ,,iii4 ,j5a1 #ahia4 ,/rickl&1 ,h4 ,e4 & ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 7#ec7 ,on ! di/ribution ( organic cont5ts ( ! ,ludl[ bone-b$ 9 ! di/ricts ( ,woolhope & ,may ,hill4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,ix4 p4 #h1 #ahec4 ,/ur1 ,d4 7#ge7 ,die ,culm-,flora4 ,heft #a4 ,die ,culm-,flora des mhris*s*lesis*5 ,da*s*ief]s4 ,heft #b4 ,die ,culm-,flora des ,o/rau] und ,wald5burg] ,s*i*t54 ,abh&4 k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,viii4 #ahge-gg4 ---- 7#he7 b] die 9 ,fltz5-re9] ,/e9kohle en?alt55 ,/e9-,rundmass5 und ,torf-,sphrosid]ite4 ,jahrb4 k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,xxxv4 ,heft #c1 p4 #fac1 #ahhe4 ---- 7#hg7 ,die ,c>bon-,flora d] ,s*atzl>] ,s*i*t54 ,abt4 ,,ii4 ,die ,calam>i54 ,abh&4 k4 k4 geol4 ,rei*san/4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,xi4 ,abt4 #b1 #ahhg4 ,suck[1 ,g4 ,a4 7#aghd7 ,bes*reibung e9ig] m]kwrdig5 ,abdrcke von d] ,art d] sog5annt5 ,calamit54 ,hi/4 ,comm4 ,acad4 elect4 ,sci4 litt4 ,!od4-,palat4 vol4 ,v4 p4 #cee4 ,mannheim1 #aghd4 ,t5ison-,woods1 ,j4 ,e4 7#hc7 ,on ! ,fossil ,flora ( ! ,coal deposits ( ,au/ralia4 ,proc4 ,l9n4 ,soc4 ,new ,s\? ,wales1 vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #cg4 ,sydney1 #ahhd4 ,?iselton-,dy]1 ,w4 ,t4 7#gb7 ,on "s fossil wood f ! ,l[] ,eoc5e4 ,geol4 ,mag4 vol4 ,,ix4 ,p4 #bda1 #ahgb4 ---- 7#ia7 ,note on ,mr ,b>b]'s pap] on ,pa*y!ca4 ,annals ,bot4 vol4 ,v4 p4 #bbc1 #ahij-ia4 ---- 7#ie7 ,presid5tial address4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 ,ipswi*1 p4 #hcf1 #ahie4 ,?omas1 ,k4 7#dh7 ,on ! ,amb] ( ,ea/ ,prussia4 ,annals ,mag4 vol4 ,,ii4 #b p4 #cfi1 #ahdh4 van ,tieghem1 ,p4 7#gg7 ,sur le ,bacillus amylobact] et son r#a;e dans le putrfaction des tissues vgtaux4 ,bull4 ,soc4 bot4 vol4 ,,xxiv4 p4 #abh1 #ahgg4 ---- 7#gi7 ,sur le f]m5t butyrique 7,bacillus amylobact]7 l'poque de la h\ille4 ,compt4 ,r5d4 vol4 ,,lxxxix4 p4 #aajb1 #ahgi4 ---- 7#ia7 ,trait de ,botanique4 ,p>is1 #ahia4 ,tild51 ,j4 ,e4 7#ig7 ,on "s algal *>act]i/ics ( ! ,yell[/one ,p>k4 ,bot4 ,gazette1 vol4 ,,xxiv4 p4 #aid1 #ahig4 ,treub1 ,m4 7#hh7 ,notice sur la n\velle ,flore de ,krakatoa4 ,ann4 j>d4 bot4 ,buit5zorg1 vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #bac1 #ahhh4 ,turn]1 ,d4 7#aa7 ,hi/oria ,fucorum4 ,london1 #ahaa4 ,ung]1 ,f4 7#dj7 b] die ,/ruktur d] ,calamit5 und ihre ,rangordnung im ,gew*srei*e4 ,flora1 ,jahrg4 ,,xiii4 p4 #fed1 #ahdj4 ,ung]1 ,f4 7#dd7 ,e9 ,wort b] ,calamit5 und ,s*a*telhalmhnli*e ,pflanz5 d] ,vorwelt4 ,bot4 ,zeit4 ,jahrg4 #b1 p4 #agg1 #ahdd4 ---- 7#ej7 ,g5]a et species ,plant>um fossilium4 ,vi5na1 #ahej4 ---- 7#eh7 ,beitrge zur nh]5 ,k5ntniss des ,lei?akalkes4 ,d5ks*4 k4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,mn*51 vol4 ,,xiv4 p4 #ac1 #aheh4 ,vaillant1 --4 7#agai7 ,c>actres de quatorze g5res de plantes4 ,hi/4 ,acad4 ,roy4 ,sci5ces1 ,ann4 #agai1 p4 #i4 ,p>is1 #agba4 ,v9ci1 ,leon>do da4 7#hc7 ,lit]>y works4 ,compil$ & edit$ f ! orig9al ,,mss4 by ,j4 ,p4 ,ri*t]4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,v9es1 ,s4 ,h4 7#ie7 ,a /ud5t's text-book ( ,botany4 ,london1 #ahie4 ,vogelsang1 ,h4 7#gd7 ,die ,kry/allit54 ,bonn1 #ahgd4 ,volkmann1 ,g4 ,a4 7#agbj7 ,silesia subt]ranea4 ,leipzig1 #agbj4 ,wallace1 ,a4 ,r4 7#hf7 ,! ,malay ,ar*ipelago4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,wal!r1 ,j4 7#he7 ,die ,ge/e9bild5d5 ,kalkalg5 des ,golfes von ,neapel und die ,ent/ehung /ructurlos] ,kalke4 ,zeit4 deuts*4 geol4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xxxvii4 p4 #cbi1 #ahhe4 ---- 7#hh7 ,die ,korall5riffe d] ,s9aihalb9sel4 ,abh4 ma?4 phys4 ,cl4 ,k4 ,s*s4 ,ges4 vol4 ,,xiv4 #ahhh4 ,w>d1 ,l4 ,f4 7#hd7 ,sket* ( ,palaeobotany4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,fif? ,ann4 ,report4 ,wa%+ton1 #ahhc-hd4 ---- 7#ib7 ,pr9ciples & me?ods ( geologic correlation by means ( fossil plants4 #ahib4 ---- 7#if7 ,fossil plants ( ! ,weald54 ,sci5ce1 ,june #ab1 p4 #hfi1 #ahif4 ,w>m+1 ,e4 7#if7 ,lehrbu* d] kologis*5 ,pflanz5geographie4 7,g]man edit47 ,b]l91 #ahif4 ,watelet1 ,ad4 7#ff7 ,description des plantes fossiles du ,bass9 de ,p>is4 ,p>is1 #ahff4 ,w$l1 ,c4 7#ei7 b] die ,b$eutung d] 9 d5 ,s*al5 von man*5 ,acephal5 und ,ga/]opod5 vorkomm5d5 ,cle4 ,sitzb]i*t4 ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,wi51 vol4 ,,xxxiii4 p4 #dea1 #ahei4 ,we$1 ,w4 ,h4 7#hg7 ,! =mation ( ,trav]t9e & silice\s ,s9t]4 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,annual ,rep4 ,,ix4 #ahhg-hh4 ,weiss1 ,c4 ,e4 7#gf7 ,/e9kohl5-,calam>i51 mit besond]] ,b]cksi*tigung ihr] ,fructification54 ,abh&4 geol4 ,specialk>te von ,preuss5 und d5 ,?r+is*5 ,/aat51 ,bd4 ,,ii4 ,heft #a1 #ahgf4 ---- 7#hd7 ,/e9kohl5-,calam>i54 ,ibid4 ,bd4 ,v4 ,heft #b1 #ahhd4 ,we/]mai]1 ,m4 & ,ambronn1 ,h4 7#ha7 ,beziehung5 zwis*5 ,leb5sweise und ,/ructur d] ,s*l+- und ,klett]pflanz54 ,flora1 #ahha1 p4 #dag4 ,we!r$1 ,e4 7#ic7 ,on ! microscopic /ructure ( ! ,w5lock lime/one4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,xlix4 p4 #bcf1 #ahic4 ,:itney1 ,j4 ,d4 & ,wadswor?1 ,m4 ,e4 7#hd7 ,! ,azoic sy/em4 ,bull4 ,mus4 ,comp4 ,zool4 ,h>v>d ,coll4 ,,vii4 #ahhd4 ,wille1 ,n4 7#ig7 ,die ,*lorophyceae4 ,engl] und ,prantl2 ,die natrli*5 ,pflanz5famili54 ,teil ,i4 ,abt4 #b4 ,leipzig1 #ahig4 ,williamson1 ,w4 ,c4 7#ga7 ,on ! organization ( ! ,fossil ,plants ( ! ,coal-,measures4 ,memoir ,i4 ,calamites4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 vol4 ,,clxi4 p4 #dgg1 #ahga4 ---- 7#ga7 ,on ! /ructure ( ! woody zone ( an undescrib$ =m ( ,calamite4 ,proc4 ,lit4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,man*e/]1 vol4 ,,iv4 #c p4 #aee1 #ahga4 ---- 7#ga7 ,on a new =m ( ,calamitean ,/robilus f ! ,lanca%ire ,coal-,measures4 ,proc4 ,lit4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,man*e/]1 vol4 ,,iv4 #c p4 #bdh1 #ahga4 ---- 7#gc7 ,on ! organization1 c4 ,mem4 ,,iv4 ,dictyoxylon1 ,lyg9od5dron & ,het]angium4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxiii4 p4 #cgg1 #ahgc4 ---- 7#gd7 ,ibid4 ,mem4 ,v4 ,a/]ophyllites4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxiv4 p4 #da1 #ahgd4 ---- 7#gf7 ,on ! organization ( ,volkmannia ,dawsoni1 an undescrib$ v]ticillate /robilus f ! ,l[] ,coal-,measures ( ,lanca%ire4 ,proc4 ,lit4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,man*e/]1 vol4 ,v4 #c p4 #bh1 #ahgf4 ---- 7#gh7 ,on ! organization1 c4 ,mem4 ,,ix4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxix4 p4 #cai1 #ahgh4 ---- 7#hj7 ,ibid4 ,mem4 ,x4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxxi4 p4 #dic1 #ahhj4 ---- 7#ha7 ,ibid4 ,mem4 ,,xi4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxxii4 p4 #bhc1 #ahha4 ---- 7#hb7 ,helophyton ,williamsonis4 ,nature1 vol4 ,,xxv4 p4 #abd1 #ahhb4 ---- 7#hc7 ,on "s anomal\s ,oolitic & ,palaeozoic =ms ( vegetation4 ,r4 ,in/it4 ,great ,brita94 7,weekly ,ev5+ ,meet+71 ,feb4 #af1 #ahhc4 ---- 7#hc7 ,on ! organization1 c4 ,mem4 ,,xii4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxxiv4 p4 #dei1 #ahhc4 ---- 7#he7 ,on "s undescrib$ tracks ( inv]tebrate animals f ! ,yor$ale rocks4 ,proc4 ,lit4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,man*e/]1 vol4 ,x4 #c p4 #ai1 #ahhe4 ---- 7#hg7 ,a monograph ( ! morphology & hi/ology ( ,/igm>ia ficoides4 ,palaeont4 ,soc4 ,london1 #ahhg4 ---- 7#hg7 ,on ! relations ( ,calamod5dron to ,calamites4 ,proc4 ,lit4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,man*e/]1 vol4 ,x4 #c p4 #bee1 #ahhg4 ---- 7#hh7 ,on "s anomal\s cells develop$ )9 ! int]ior ( ! vascul> & cellul> tissues ( ! fossil plants ( ! ,coal-,measures4 ,annals ,bot4 vol4 ,i4 #cae1 #ahhh4 ---- 7#hh7 ,on ! organisation c4 ,mem4 ,,xiv4 ,! true fructification ( ,calamites4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxxix4 p4 #dg1 #ahhh4 ---- 7#hi7 ,ibid4 ,mem4 ,,xv4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxxx4 p4 #aee1 #ahhi4 ---- 7#ia7 ,g5]al1 morphological & hi/ological ,index to ! ,au?or's ,collective ,memoirs on fossil plants ( ! ,coal-,measures4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,proc4 ,lit4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,man*e/]1 vol4 ,,iv4 #c #ahia4 ---- 7#ia7 ,on ! organisation c4 ,mem4 ,,xviii4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxxxii4 ,b4 p4 #bee1 #ahia4 ---- 7#ib7 ,! g5us ,sph5ophyllum4 ,nature1 vol4 ,,xlvii4 p4 #aa1 #ahib4 ---- 7#if7 ,rem9isc5ces ( a ,york%ire ,naturali/ 7edit$ by ,mrs ,craw=d ,williamson74 ,london1 #ahif4 ,williamson1 ,w4 ,c4 & ,scott1 ,d4 ,h4 7#id7 ,fur!r obs]vations on ! organisation ( ! fossil plants ( ! ,coal-,measures4 ,pt4 ,i4 ,calamities1 ,calamo/a*ys & ,sph5ophyllum4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxxxv4 p4 #hfc1 #ahid4 ---- 7#ie7 ,ibid4 ,pt4 ,,ii4 ,! roots ( ,calamites4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxxxvi4 p4 #fhc1 #ahie4 ---- 7#if7 ,ibid4 ,pt4 ,,iii4 ,lyg9od5dron & ,het]angium4 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 ,,clxxxvi4 p4 #gjc1 #ahif4 ,wilson1 ,j4 ,s4 ,g4 7#hg7 ,! ,diatomite ( ,cui?ir4 ,m94 ,mag4 vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #ce1 #ahhg4 ,)am1 ,h4 7#ca7 ,a description ( a fossil tree discov]$ 9 ! qu>ry at ,craiglei? ne> ,ed9burgh4 ,nat4 ,hi/4 ,soc4 ,nor?umb]l&1 ,durham & ,newca/le-on-,tyne1 #ahca4 ---- 7#cc7 ,! int]nal /ructure ( fossil vegetables f\nd 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,oolitic deposits ( ,great ,brita94 ,ed9burgh1 #ahcc4 ,woodw>d1 ,h4 7#gb7 ,a monograph ( ! ,briti% fossil ,cru/acea belong+ to ! ord] ,m]o/omata4 ,palaeont4 ,soc4 #ahff-gh4 ,woodw>d1 ,h4 ,b4 7#hg7 ,! ,geology ( ,engl& & ,wales4 ,london1 #ahhg4 ---- 7#ie7 ,! ,jurassic rocks ( ,brita94 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 vol4 ,v4 #ahie4 ,woodw>d1 ,j4 7#afie7 ,an essay t[>d a ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?4 ,london1 #afie4 ---- 7#agbh7 ,a catalogue ( ! additional ,engli% fossils 9 ! collection ( ,j4 ,woodw>d1 ,m4,a4 ,london1 vol4 ,,ii4 #agbh4 ---- 7#agbi7 ,an attempt t[>ds a ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! fossils ( ,engl&2 9 a catalogue ( ! ,engli% fossils 9 ! collection ( ,j4 ,woodw>d1 ,m4,a4 ,london1 vol4 ,i4 #agbi4 ,"y1 ,g4 & ,bird1 ,j4 7#bb7 ,a ,geological ,survey ( ! ,york%ire ,coa/4 ,:itby1 #ahbb4 ,"y1 ,j41 ,gl51 ,d4 ,c4 & ,kid/on1 ,r4 7#hh7 ,notes on a section ( ,c>bonif]\s /rata conta9+ erect /ems ( fossil trees c4 9 ,victoria ,p>k1 ,:ite9*4 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,glasg[1 vol4 ,,viii4 p4 #bbg1 #ahhh4 ,zeill]1 ,r4 7#hj7 ,vgtaux du t]ra9 h\ill] de la ,france4 ,l'explication de la c>te gologique de la ,france1 vol4 ,,iv4 ,p>is1 #ahhj4 ---- 7#hb7 ,obs]vations sur quelques cuticles fossiles4 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,nat4 vol4 ,,xiii4 #f p4 #bag1 #ahhb4 ---- 7#hd7 ,sur des traces d'insectes simulant des empre9tes vgtales4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,france1 #c vol4 ,,xii4 p4 #fgf1 #ahhd4 ---- 7#hh7 ,bass9 h\ill] de ,val5ci5nes4 ,description de la flore fossile4 tudes ,gtes ,m94 ,france4 ,p>is1 #ahhh4 ---- 7#hh7 ,vide ,r5ault1 ,b4 ---- 7#ia7 ,sur la valeur du g5re ,trizygia4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,france1 vol4 ,,xix4 #c p4 #fgc1 #ahia4 ---- 7#ib7 ,sur les empre9tes du sondage de ,d\vres4 ,compt4 ,r5d4 ,oct4 #bd1 #ahib4 ---- 7#ib7 ,bass9 h\ill] et p]mi5 de ,brive4 tudes ,gtes ,m94 ,france4 ,p>is1 #ahib4 ---- 7#ic7 tude sur la con/itution de l'app>eil fructificateur des ,sph5ophyllum4 ,mm4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,france1 #ahic1 p4 #c4 ---- 7#id7 ,note sur la flore des ,c\*es p]mi5nes de ,tri5ba* 7,alsace74 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,france1 vol4 ,,xxii4 #c p4 #aic1 #ahid4 ---- 7#ie7 ,notes sur la flore des ,gisem5ts h\ill]s de la ,rhune et d',ibantelly 7,basses-,pyrnes74 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,france1 vol4 ,,xxiii4 #c p4 #dhb1 #ahie4 ---- 7#ie7 ,sur la flore des dpts h\ill]s d',asie ,m9eure et sur la prs5ce1 dans cette flore1 du g5re ,phyllo!ca4 ,compt4 ,r5d4 vol4 ,,cxx4 p4 #abbh1 #ahie4 ---- 7#if7 ,rem>ques sur la flore fossile de l',alta4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,france1 vol4 ,,xxiv4 #c p4 #dff1 #ahif4 ,z5k]1 ,f4 ,c4 7#cc7 ,bes*reibung von ,galium sph5ophylloides4 ,neues ,jahrb4 ,m94 #ahcc1 p4 #cih4 ,zigno1 ,a4 de 7#ef7 ,flora fossilis =mationis ,ooli?icae4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,padova1 #ahef4 ,,index4 ,acetabul>ia1 #afe1 #aff ,a4 m$it]ranea1 #afb1 #afe1 #aff ,a*yla1 #abg ,acicul>ia1 #afb1 #aff1 #afg ,a4 ,&russ[i1 #afb1 #afh ,a4 mioc5ica1 #afb1 #afh ,a4 pavant9a1 #afg ,a4 ,s*5cki1 #afb1 #aff1 #afh ,aegoc]as planico/a1 #fa ,aeolian rocks1 #be ,aes*ynom5e1 #dad ,africa1 ,s\?1 #hj1 #bhd ,ag>icus melleus1 #baa1 #bab1 #bae ,algae1 #ach-bjb ,algites1 #adh1 #adi1 #bjd1 #bje ,amazons1 #ff ,amb]1 #gj1 #ga1 #bjf1 #baa1 #bba1 #bee ,am]ica1 #ahb ,amphiroa1 #ahd ,an>?rocanna1 #bhc ,a4 tub]culata1 #chf ,&]sson1 ,g41 #fj ,&rae1 ,k4 ,j41 #bgf ,&reaeales1 #bcf ,&russ[1 ,n41 #afh ,annul>ia1 #bee1 #bfj1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhi1 #cbi1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #ccf-cci1 #cdj1 #cfa1 #cfb1 #cgi1 #cha ,a4 calamitoides1 #cce ,a4 ,ge9itzi1 #cch ,a4 longifolia1 #cch1 #cda ,a4 radiata1 #bhc ,a4 ramosa1 #cfc ,a4 sph5ophylloides1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cfc ,a4 /ellata1 #cch-cda1 #cfc ,a4 we/phalica1 #cch ,antigua1 #gi ,aphlebia1 #adb ,arauc>ia imbricata1 #aja1 #ajd ,arauc>ioxylon ,)ami1 #ha1 #hb ,ar*aean sy/em1 #cd-cf ,ar*aeocalamites1 #bed1 #bee1 #bef1 #bfc1 #bhe1 #ccf1 #chc-chh ,a4 scrobiculatus1 #che-chg d',ar*iac1 ,a41 #aff1 #afg ,arctic plants1 #af1 #ag ,ar5ig s]ies1 #cg ,arran1 #hh1 #hi ,ar?rod5dron1 #cja1 #cjb1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cbg1 #cff1 #cgi1 #cha ,ar?ropitys1 #cjj1 #cja1 #cjb1 #cjd1 #caa1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cbh1 #ccc1 #cdi1 #cfi1 #cge1 #cgi1 #chj1 #cha1 #chd ,a4 approximata1 #cga ,a4 bi/riata1 #cbf ,ar?ropod eggs1 #ajh ,artis1 ,f4 ,t41 #d1 #ajd1 #big ,artisia1 #ajd ,ascomycetes1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bbj ,asia ,m9or1 ,coal-,measures (1 #bhb1 #bhc ,a/]ocalamites scrobiculatus1 #chf ,a/]ophyllites1 #bfd1 #bgf1 #cbi1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #cch1 #cfi1 #cga1 #cgi1 #cig1 #dji ,a4 elegans1 #chf ,a4 equiseti=mis1 #cce1 #cch ,a4 insignis1 #cig ,a4 longifolius1 #cch ,a4 spaniophyllus1 #chf ,a4 sph5ophylloides1 #cig ,a/romyelon1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cha ,au/ralia1 #agi1 #bij1 #bia ,autun1 #f1 #df1 #hc1 #agi1 #aha1 #ahb1 #bjf1 #cij1 #cii ,azoic sy/em1 #cf ,bacill>iaceae1 #aej-aef ,bacillus1 #ace1 #acf ,b4 amylobact]1 #acf ,b4 p]micus1 #ace ,b4 ,tieghemi1 #ace1 #acf ,bact]ia1 #ge1 #acb1 #ach ,bactryllium1 #aed-aef ,b4 deplanatum1 #aee ,bala s]ies1 #cg ,balanoglossus1 #ade ,balf\r1 ,bayley1 #agh ,balf\r1 ,j4 ,h41 #aja ,bambusa arund9acea1 #cbb ,b>bados1 #ahh ,b>b]1 ,c4 ,a41 #aic1 #aig1 #aih1 #bjc1 #bjd ,b>rois1 ,c41 #adf ,b>ton1 ,r41 #hj de ,b>y1 ,a41 #acb ,basidiomycetes1 #bjh1 #baa1 #bab ,bates1 ,h4 ,w41 #fd1 #ff ,bauh91 ,c41 #bbe ,be> ,isl&1 #cff ,b5?am1 ,g41 #ih1 #ii ,b]g]ia1 #aja ,b]nician s]ies1 #dc ,b]tr&1 ,c4 ,e41 #hg1 #aed1 #agh1 #aha ,beyri*1 ,e41 #eb ,bil91 #aeb ,bilobites1 #adh ,b9ney1 ,e4 ,w41 #i1 #aj1 #cjd1 #caa1 #cdc1 #cea1 #chf1 #dja ,bitum9\s deposits1 #agh-ahc ,blackman1 ,v4 ,h41 #aai1 #abj ,bl&[ia1 #bca ,boghead1 #agh-ahc ,bor+ algae1 #abg1 #abh ,bor+ fungi1 #abg1 #abh ,bornemann1 ,j4 ,g41 #abi1 #acj1 #adh1 #agg ,bornet1 ,e41 #aha ,bornet1 ,e4 & ,flahault1 #abh1 #abi ,bornetella1 #agg ,bornia1 #bfc ,b4 equiseti=mis1 #cce ,b4 scrobiculata1 #chf ,b4 /ellata1 #cch ,bo/ry*us1 #baj1 #baa ,bo?rod5dron1 #acc1 #acd ,botrydium1 #aeg ,b[manites1 #dja1 #djb ,b4 ,dawsoni1 #dja ,b4 ,g]manicus1 #djh ,brazil1 #gi ,brodie1 ,p4 ,b41 #bdj ,brongni>t1 ,a41 #e1 #f1 #i1 #aa1 #ag1 #ah1 #aaa1 #aab1 #ade1 #agg1 #bcc1 #bfi1 #bha1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #bia1 #big1 #bii1 #cjj1 #cja1 #ccb1 #ccf1 #cea1 #cij1 #cia ,bronn1 ,h4 ,g41 #aah ,brora1 #bfi ,br[n1 ,a41 #ahi1 #aij ,brukmannia1 #cej1 #cfj1 #cfa ,bryales1 #bcf ,bryophyta1 #bbi-bda1 #bdc ,bryozoa1 #ahg ,bucc9um1 #aei ,buckman1 ,j41 #bdj1 #bgh ,bunbury1 ,sir ,c4 ,j4 ,f41 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgc1 #bhd1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #bhi ,bunt] s]ies1 #dg1 #bfg1 #bib1 #bic ,burntisl&1 #hh1 #ij1 #cig ,bu?otrephis radiata1 #cch ,bzi/ock1 #bh ,calam>ieae1 #bee1 #bie-chh ,calamitea1 #bih1 #cjj1 #cja1 #cjc ,c4 bi/riata1 #cja ,calamites1 #ah1 #ai1 #gg1 #hf1 #id1 #ajd1 #aad1 #beb1 #bed-beg1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfb1 #bfd1 #bfi1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #bhi1 #bie-chc1 #chf-chh1 #dac ,calamites1 sub-g5]a (1 #cha ,c4 alt]nans1 #cgh ,c4 approximatus1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #cgd1 #cgh ,c4 arboresc5s1 #cfc ,c4 ,beani1 #bgj1 #bgc ,c4 cannae=mis1 #cgd ,c4 communis1 #cbf1 #cea ,c4 cruciatus1 #cgf-cgh ,c4 decoratus1 #cgd ,c4 equiseti=mis1 #cce ,c4 giganteus1 #bga ,c4 gigas1 #bga ,c4 ,gpp]ti1 #cfh1 #cgb-cgd ,c4 lat]alis1 #bgf ,c4 laticulatus1 #chf ,c4 obliquus1 #chf ,c4 p$unculatus1 #ceh ,c4 ramosus1 #cfc ,c4 ,sa*sei1 #cgb ,c4 scrobiculatus1 #chf ,c4 ,suck[i1 #cgb1 #cgd1 #cge ,c4 transitionis1 #chf ,c4 v>ians1 #cga ,c4 v>iolatus1 #chf ,c4 v]ticillatus1 #cgb ,calamit9a1 #bfj1 #bff1 #bfg1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #cfb1 #cfd1 #cfe1 #cfg-cgf1 #cha1 #chc1 #chh ,c4 pauciramis1 #cfg ,calamocladus1 #bbg1 #bhi1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cej1 #cfa-cfd1 #cha1 #dji ,c4 equiseti=mis1 #ccc-cce1 #cfc ,c4 frondosus1 #bhi ,calamod5dron1 #cjj-cjb1 #cbh1 #cdi1 #cfd1 #cge1 #cgh1 #cgi1 #chj1 #chb ,c4 bi/riatum1 #cjj ,c4 commune1 #caa1 #cag ,c4 cruciatum1 #cgh ,c4 int]m$ium1 #cbh ,c4 /riatum1 #cjj ,calamophyllites1 #cga ,c4 ,gpp]ti1 #cgb ,calamopitys1 #cja1 #cjb1 #cha ,calamo/a*ys1 #cci1 #cdb1 #cej1 #cea-ceg1 #cfb1 #cga1 #cgi1 #cha1 #chd1 #chg1 #djb ,c4 ,b9neyana1 #cea-cee1 #cef1 #ceg1 #cfa ,c4 cala?if]a1 #cda1 #cfc ,c4 ,ca%eana1 #cee-ceg1 #cfa ,c4 longifolia1 #cfc ,c4 ramosa1 #cfc ,c4 ,solmsi1 #cfc1 #cfd ,c4 t5uissima1 #bfa ,c4 tub]culata1 #cfc ,calcif]\s s&/one1 #dc1 #adh1 #cig1 #dab ,callus wood1 9 ,calamites1 #cai1 #cbj ,calo?rix1 #abf ,cambrian1 #cf1 #cg1 #adi1 #agg de ,c&olle1 ,a41 #big ,c>bonif]\s lime/one1 #dj1 #db1 #dc1 #chg ,c>bonif]\s sy/em1 #ci-de ,c>9al canals1 #bdi1 #cjf1 #cjg1 #cjh ,c>lsbad1 #abc1 #abf ,c>p5t]1 ,w4 ,b41 #afg ,c>poli?us1 #bhj ,c>ru!rs1 ,w41 #i1 #aj1 #hg1 #aic1 #aig1 #bjb1 #bab1 #bag1 #bdj1 #cjd1 #cea ,ca%1 ,w4 & ,hick1 ,t41 #bjf1 #bah1 #bai1 #cdb ,ca/racane1 ,f41 #aed ,casu>9a /ricta1 #ie1 #if ,casu>9ites1 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#cgh1 #djh ,/igm>ia & ,/igm>ian app5dages1 #c1 #aj1 #eg1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #ajf1 #aaa1 #abc1 #bah1 #cje1 #caa1 #cdh1 #djd ,/igmatocanna ,volkmanniana1 #chf ,/okes1 ,c41 #hj ,/olley1 ,e41 #agb ,/oneworts1 #bbb-bbh ,/orrie1 ,j41 #aih1 #bjc1 #bjd ,/rata1 table (1 #ca1 #cb1 #cc ,/ratigraphical ,geology1 #bf ,/rickl&1 ,h4 ,e41 #aaa1 #bjc ,/romatopora compacta1 #ahi ,/ur1 ,d41 #caj1 #cdc1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #cge1 #cgf1 #cgh1 #chd1 #che1 #chf1 #chg1 #dji ,/ylocalamites1 #cfg1 #cgd-cgf ,subm]g$ =e/s1 #ei1 #fj ,suck[1 ,g4 ,a41 #bif1 #big1 #cjb ,surface-soils1 #ee-fj ,swanage1 #bbg ,sycidium1 #agc ,s4 melo1 #aee1 #agc ,syn$ra1 #aec ,t*ikat*eff1 ,p4 de1 #bhc ,teleutospora ,milloti1 #bac ,t5ison-,woods1 ,j4 ,e41 #bgi1 #bia ,t]$o1 #fa1 #fb ,t]ti>y ,p]iod1 #ea-ec ,?allophyta1 #aaf-bbh ,?iselton-,dy]1 ,w4 ,t41 #hg ,?omas1 ,k41 #ga van ,tieghem1 #acf ,tmesipt]is1 #cij ,torbanehill1 #agi1 #ahb ,torbanite1 #agh1 #agi ,t\la pap]-coal1 #fh1 #acc ,trametes radicip]da1 #bae ,transition s]ies1 #dj1 #dd1 #dac ,trav]t9e1 #fi1 #gj1 #bcd1 #bce ,treub1 ,m41 #aca ,triassic sy/em1 #dg1 #dh1 #gg1 #gh1 #hj1 #adf1 #aee1 #afj1 #aga1 #agd1 #age1 #bef1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bib-bid ,tri*omanes ,goebelianum1 #bdb ,trigonoc>pon1 #ia ,triploporella1 #agg ,tri/i*ia hypnoides1 #bca1 #bcb ,trizygia1 #daa1 #dab ,t4 speciosa1 #daa ,tu$ian s]ies1 #dc ,tulip tree1 #af ,turn]1 ,d41 #aia ,tylod5dron1 #ajd ,udotea1 #aga1 #ahe1 #bjb ,uncon=mity1 #bg ,und]clay1 #dc ,ung]1 ,f41 #ahg1 #bih1 #bii1 #cja ,ut]ia1 #agg ,vaillant1 ,s41 #bbe ,vascul> ,cryptogams1 #bdb-dad ,vau*]ia1 #aeg1 #agh ,v5ation1 #ii ,v]miporella1 #agb1 #agf ,vexillum1 #adi ,v9ci1 ,leon>do da1 #b ,vogelsang1 ,h41 #acg ,volcanic rocks1 #cd1 #ea1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij ,volkmann1 ,g4 ,a41 #bif ,volkmannia1 #cej1 #cfj1 #cfa1 #cfb ,v4 ,b9neyi1 #cea ,v4 ,dawsoni1 #dja ,v4 ,ludwigi1 #cea ,wallace1 ,a4 ,r41 #bde ,w>d1 ,l41 #a ,weald51 #ej1 #ee1 #aab1 #aad1 #bcd1 #beg1 #bgi1 #bhj ,we$1 ,w4 ,h41 #abf ,weiss1 ,c4 ,e41 #bij1 #cdc1 #cdd1 #cea1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cfj-cfd1 #cfg1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #cga1 #cge1 #cgg1 #chh1 #dja1 #djh ,w5lock s]ies1 #ch1 #abd1 #bjj1 #bjc ,we!r$1 ,e41 #abd ,willd5[1 ,k4 ,l41 #bca ,wille1 ,n41 #agj ,williamson1 ,w4 ,c41 #i1 #aj1 #ga1 #id1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #acb1 #aed1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bca1 #bgc1 #bgf1 #cja1 #cjd1 #cae1 #cbb1 #cbd-cbf1 #cdb1 #cdf1 #cee1 #ceh1 #cij1 #cib1 #cig1 #dja1 #djc ,williamson1 ,w4 ,c4 & ,scott1 ,d4 ,h41 #hh1 #cjg1 #cab1 #cai1 #cbj1 #cdb1 #cdf1 #cdi1 #cee1 #ceh1 #cij1 #cib1 #cif1 #cig1 #dje1 #djf ,)am1 ,h41 #g1 #h ,)amia1 #aae ,wood-bor+ insects1 #ajg ,woodw>d1 ,j41 #c1 #aj1 #cd1 #ga1 #bif ,woron9a1 #baf ,wns*1 #hi ,yell[/one ,p>k1 #gi1 #ib1 #abf1 #aej ,yor$ale rocks1 #dj1 #dc ,york%ire coa/1 #ee ,"y1 ,g4 & ,bird1 ,j41 #bfi ,ze*/e9 s]ies1 #df ,zeill]1 ,r41 #gf1 #ajj1 #acc1 #adf1 #bcb1 #bfa1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhi1 #cfg1 #cge1 #cgh1 #cij1 #dja1 #djc1 #dje1 #djf1 #djh1 #dji1 #daj1 #daa ,zigno1 ,a4 de1 #f1 #bga1 #bgf1 #bhg ,zonatri*ia calcivora1 #acj ,zonatri*ites1 #abi1 #acj ,zygosporites1 #bad1 #bbj1 #bba ,,cambridge3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,j4 ,,& ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,w>d 7#hd74 #b ,gpp]t 7#cf74 #c ,p>k9son 7#aa71 vol4 ,i4 #d ,= an acc\nt ( ! e>ly views on fossils1 v4 ,lyell 7#fg71 ,vol4 ,i4 ,vide also ,leon>do da ,v9ci 7#hc74 #e ,woodw>d1 ,j4 7#afie71 ,preface4 #f ,woodw>d1 ,j4 7#agbh71 p4 #ei4 #g ,m5des da ,co/a 7#ageh71 p4 #bcb4 #h ,s*eu*z] 7#agbc71 p4 #g1 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #a4 #i ,p>sons 7#ageg71 p4 #djb4 #aj ,plot 7#agje71 p4 #abe1 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #b4 #aa ,ibid4 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #b4 #ab ,lhwyd 7#agfj74 #ac ,artis 7#be74 #ad ,/e9hau] 7#ah74 #ae ,s*lo!im 7#jd74 #af ,/]nb]g 7#bj74 #ag ,brongni>t 7#bh7 7#bh7 7#di74 #ah ,brongni>t 7#ci74 #ai ,he] 7#ee7 7#fh7 7#gf74 #bj ,lesqu]eux 7#ff7 7#gj7 7#hj7 etc4 #ba ,zigno 7#ef74 #bb ,massalongo 7#ea74 #bc ,saporta 7#gb7 7#gc74 #bd ,ett+%aus5 7#gi74 ,also num]\s pap]s on fossil plants f ,au/ria & o!r c\ntries4 #be ,spr5gel 7#bh74 #bf ,)am 7#cc74 #bg ibid41 p4 #c4 #bh ,)am 7#cc71 p4 #e4 #bi ,nicol 7#cd74 ,see note by ,pr(4 ,jameson on p4 #aeg ( ! pap] quot$1 to ! effect t he has long kn[n ( ?is me?od ( prep>+ sections4 #cj ,limpri*t 7#ij7 9 ,rab5hor/1 vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #gc4 #ca ,kn[lton 7#hi74 #cb ,corda 7#de74 #cc ,b9ney 7#fh71 ,introductory rem>ks4 #cd ,williamson 7#ga71 etc4 #ce ,solms-,lauba* 7#ie71 p4 #ddb4 #cf ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca74 #cg ,woodw>d 7#agbi71 ,pt4 ii4 p4 #ajf4 #ch ,humboldt 7#dh71 vol4 ,i4 p4 #bgd4 #ci ,vide ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 7#ha71 = ref]5ces to o!r writ]s on ?is subject2 also ,d>w9 7#hb71 *4 ,,xii4 #dj ,d>w9 7#hg71 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #bdg4 #da ,brongni>t 7#di71 p4 #id4 #db ,gr&',eury 7#gg71 ,potoni 7#if71 ,kid/on 7#id71 c4 #dc ,w>d 7#ib71 ,kn[lton 7#id71 ,gr&',eury 7#ij71 p4 #aee4 #dd ,old ,p]sian writ]1 quot$ by ,e4 ,g4 ,br[ne 9 ,a ,ye> among ! ,p]sians1 p4 #bbj1 ,london1 #ahic4 #de ,w4 ,r4 ,w4 ,/eph5s1 ,life ( ,freeman1 p4 #acb1 ,london1 #ahie4 #df ,ro?pletz 7#id74 #dg ,heim 7#gh74 #dh ,geikie 7#ic71 p4 #gjf4 #di ,hughes 7#gi71 p4 #bdh4 #ej ,:itney & ,wadswor? 7#hd74 #ea ,mur*ison 7#gb71 p4 #e4 #eb ,kays] & ,lake 7#ie71 p4 #hh4 #ec ,kid/on 7#id74 #ed ,geikie 7#ic71 p4 #hbe4 #ee ,woodw>d1 ,h4 ,b4 7#hg71 p4 #aig4 #ef ,h9de & ,fox 7#ie71 p4 #ffb4 #eg ,kid/on 7#id74 #eh ,vide ,zeill] 7#ib7 = a li/ ( species ( ,coal-,measure plants f\nd 9 ! pieces ( %ale includ$ 9 ! core br\ght up by ! bor]4 #ei ,jukes-,br[ne 7#hf71 p4 #beb4 #fj ,kays] & ,lake 7#ie71 p4 #aif4 #fa ,neumayr 7#hc74 #fb ,woodw>d1 ,h4 ,b4 7#hg71 p4 #bee4 #fc ,kays] & ,lake 7#ie71 p4 #cbf4 #fd ,huxley 7#ic71 p4 #bg4 #fe ,discuss$ at great] l5g? 9 vol4 ,,ii4 #ff ,woodw>d1 ,h4 ,b4 7#ie71 ,figs4 #abd & #acc f photographs by ,mr ,/rahan4 #fg ,buckl& 7#cg7 ,pl4 ,,lvii4 #fh ,"y1 ,gl51 & ,kid/on 7#hh74 #fi ,g>dn] 7#hg71 p4 #bgi4 #gj ,treub 7#hh74 #ga ,morton 7#ia71 p4 #bbh4 #gb ,lyell 7#de71 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ahj4 #gc ,mantell 7#dd71 vol4 ,i4 p4 #afh4 #gd ,=bes1 ,h4 ,o4 7#he71 p4 #bed4 #ge ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 7#ia71 p4 #dgg4 #gf ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 7#ia71 p4 #a4 ,!re are sev]al good specim5s ( ! black pyritis$ nipadite fruits 9 ! ,briti% ,museum & o!r collections4 #gg ,rodway 7#ie71 p4 #ajf4 #gh ,bates 7#fc71 p4 #aci4 #gi ,bates 7#fc71 p4 #bci4 #hj ,lyell 7#fg7 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cfa4 #ha ,lyell 7#fg7 vol4 ,i4 p4 #dde4 #hb ,d>w9 7#ij7 p4 #ddc4 #hc ,*all5g] 7#he71 ,n>rative1 vol4 ,i4 ,pt4 ii4 p4 #fgi4 #hd ,bates 7#fc7 p4 #chi4 #he ,*all5g] 7#he71 ,n>rative1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #dei4 #hf ,zeill] 7#hb7 & ,r5ault 7#ie74 #hg ,he] 7#gf74 #hh ,s*imp] & ,m\geot 7#dd74 #hi ,%>pe1 ,s4 7#fh7 p4 #efc4 #ij ,!re are /ill m p]fect ca/s f ,szanne 9 ,pr(4 ,muni]-,*almas' ,geological collection 9 ! ,sorbonne4 ,! be/ examples h n yet be5 figur$4 #ia ,saporta 7#fh74 #ib ,d>w9 7#ij7 p4 #dcb4 #ic ,= figures ( fossil plants 9 amb]1 vide ,gpp]t & ,b]5dt 7#de71 ,conw5tz 7#ij71 ,conw5tz 7#if7 c4 #id ,?omas 7#dh74 #ie ,adamson 7#hh74 #if ,williamson 7#hg7 ,pl4 ,,xv4 p4 #de4 ,a v f9e specim51 simil> to t 9 ! ,man*e/] ,museum1 has rec5tly be5 add$ to ! ,s*ool ( ,m9es ,museum 9 ,b]l92 ,potoni 7#ij74 #ig ,! ,briti% ,museum collection conta9s a specim5 ( ,/igm>ia pres]v$ 9 ! same mann] z ! example %[n 9 fig4 #ab4 #ih ,lyell 7#de7 vol4 ,i4 p4 #fj4 #ii ,lyell 7#de7 vol4 ,i4 p4 #adg4 #ajj ,w>m+ 7#if7 p4 #agj4 #aja ,bornemann 7#ef71 ,s*5k 7#fg71 ,zeill] 7#hb74 #ajb ,solms-,lauba* 7#ie74 #ajc ,na?or/ 7#hf7 p4 #i4 ,see also ,delgado 7#hf74 #ajd ,p>k9son 7#aa7 vol4 ,i4 p4 #dca4 #aje ,! ,briti% ,museum collection conta9s _m good examples ( ! ,sol5h(5 plants4 #ajf ,!re is a spl5did silicifi$ tree /em f ,tasmania ( ,t]ti>y age sev]al feet 9 height 9 ! ,national ,museum4 #ajg ,d>w9 7#ij7 p4 #cag4 #ajh ,holmes 7#hj7 p4 #abf1 fig4 #a4 #aji ,m>% 7#ga74 #aaj ,conw5tz 7#gh74 #aaa ,a l>ge piece f "o ( ^! ,s\? ,african trees is 9 ! ,fossil-plant ,gall]y ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 #aab ,b>ton 7#agea7 p4 #eh4 #aac ,g>dn] 7#hd7 p4 #cad4 #aad ,/okes 7#dj7 p4 #bjg4 #aae ,)am 7#ha71 ,*ri/ison 7#gf74 #aaf ,cole 7#id71 figs4 #a & #c4 #aag ,h>k] 7#ie7 p4 #bcc1 fig4 #ef4 #aah ,i am indebt$ to ,dr ,r5ault ( ,p>is = %[+ to me sev]al prep>ations illu/rat+ ?is me?od ( petrifaction4 #aai ,ca% & ,hick 7#gh74 #abj ,/ur 7#he74 #aba ,?iselton-,dy] 7#gb7 ,pl4 ,,vi4 #abb ,c>ru!rs 7#gj74 #abc ,s*ultze 7#ee74 #abd ,i am indebt$ to ,pr(4 ,leb\r ( ! ,durham ,college ( ,sci5ce = ! loan ( ?is lett]4 #abe ,sew>d 7#ig74 #abf ,williamson & ,scott 7#if7 ,pl4 ,,xxiv4 fig4 #af4 #abg ,bryce 7#gb7 p4 #abf1 fig4 #bc4 #abh ,an errone\s int]pretation ( ! ,arran /ems is giv5 9 ,lyell's ,elem5ts ( ,geology3 ,lyell 7#gh7 p4 #edg4 #abi ,guillem>d 7#hf7 p4 #cbb4 #acj ,he] 7#ee74 #aca ,gpp]t 7#cf71 etc4 #acb ,hirs*wald 7#gc74 #acc ,kuntze 7#hj7 p4 #h4 #acd ,s*we9fur? 7#hb74 #ace ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia71 p4 #bi4 #acf ,gpp]t 7#eg74 ,"s ( ! l>ge silicifi$ trees m5tion$ by ,gpp]t may be se5 9 ! ,breslau ,botanic g>d5s4 #acg ,an example ref]r$ to by ,c>ru!rs 7#ga7 p4 #ddd4 #ach ,williamson 7#ga7 p4 #ejg4 #aci ,dealt ) m fully 9 vol4 ,,ii4 #adj ,b5?am 7#gj74 #ada ,see also ,bunbury 7#hc7 p4 #cji4 #adb ,sew>d 7#if7 p4 #bjh4 #adc ,d>w9 7#ij7 p4 #daf4 #add ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 p4 #i4 #ade ,balf\r 7#gb7 p4 #e4 #adf ,gr&',eury 7#gg7 ,pt4 i41 p4 #c4 #adg #a ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh7 ,pl4 ,,lx4 fig4 #a4 #adh ,williamson 7#gc7 p4 #cic1 ,pl4 ,,xxvii4 ,describ$ 9 detail 9 vol4 ,,ii4 ,see also ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 p4 #g1 fig4 #a4 #adi ,a good example is figur$ by ,newb]ry 7#hh7 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 z a decorticat$ conif]\s /em ( ,triassic age4 #aej ,potoni 7#hg74 #aea ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca7 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #d4 ,see also ,s*5k 7#hh7 p4 #bjb4 #aeb ,saporta 7#gi7 7#gg74 ,eopt]is is includ$ among ! f]ns 9 ,s*imp] & ,s*5k's volume ( ,zittel's ,h&bu* d] ,palaeontologie 7p4 #aae71 & 9 "s o!r mod]n works4 #aec ,re9s* 7#ha74 #aed ,williamson has drawn att5tion to ! occurr5ce ( su* bor+s & coprolites 9 ,coal-,measure plant tissues4 ,e4g4 ,williamson 7#hj7 ,pl4 #bj1 figs4 #fe & #ff4 #aee ,r5ault 7#if7 p4 #dcg4 #aef ,slide ,no4 #aibc 9 ! ,williamson collection4 #aeg ,crp9 7#ha74 #aeh ,rules = ,zoological ,nom5clature1 drawn up by ! late ,h4 ,e4 ,/rickl&1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,london1 #ahgh4 #aei ,lhwyd 7#afii74 #afj ,kn[lton 7#if7 p4 #hb4 #afa ,?iselton-,dy] 7#ie7 p4 #hdf4 #afb ,saporta 7#ge7 p4 #aic4 #afc ,sew>d 7#ie7 p4 #agc4 #afd ,w>d 7#if7 p4 #hgd4 #afe ,*all5g] 7#he7 p4 #icd4 #aff ,ehr5b]g 7#cf7 p4 #aag1 ,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #a & #d1 & ,ehr5b]g 7#ed7 ,pl4 ,,xxxvii4 fig4 vii4 #afg ,s*tt 7#if7 p4 #bb4 #afh ,bts*li 7#hc-hg7 p4 #ajbh4 #afi ,*all5g] ,reports 7#he7 p4 #ici4 #agj ,*all5g] ,reports 7#ia7 p4 #beg4 #aga ,h5s5 7#ib71 ,s*tt 7#ic7 p4 #dd4 #agb ,murray1 ,g41 & ,blackman1 ,v4 ,h4 7#ig74 #agc ,dixon & ,joly 7#ig74 #agd ,sorby 7#gi7 p4 #gh4 #age ,ro?pletz 7#if71 p4 #iji1 ,pl4 ,,xxiii4 fig4 #d4 #agf ,*all5g] 7#he7 passim4 ,s*tt 7#ic74 #agg ,phillips ,w4 7#ic74 #agh ,kippis 7#gh7 p4 #aae4 #agi ,d>w9 7#ij7 p4 #ac4 #ahj ,ro?pletz 7#ib74 #aha ,wal!r 7#hh74 #ahb ,cohn 7#fb74 #ahc ,murray1 ,g4 7#ie74 #ahd ,?iselton-,dy] 7#ia7 p4 #bbf4 #ahe ,ni*olson & ,e!ridge 7#hj7 p4 #bh1 ,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #bd4 #ahf ,we!r$ 7#ic7 p4 #bcg4 #ahg ,= figures ( ! %ea?s ( ,cyanophyce\s algae1 see ,murray 7#ie71 ,pl4 ,,xix4 fig4 #e4 ,gomont 7#hh7 & 7#ib72 etc4 #ahh ,br[n 7#id7 p4 #bjc4 #ahi ,= ref]5ces to ! pap]s ( ,we!r$ & o!rs1 see ,sew>d 7#id71 p4 #bd4 #aij ,e4 ,g4 ,bornemann 7#hg71 ,pl4 ,,ii4 #aia ,moseley1 ,h4 ,n4 7#ge71 p4 #cba4 #aib ,we$ 7#hg-hh71 vide also ,tild5 7#ig74 #aic ,bornet & ,flahault 7#hi7 ,pl4 ,,xi4 #aid ,batt]s 7#ib74 #aie ,quekett 7#ed71 fig4 #gh4 #aif ,kllik] 7#ei7 & 7#ei72 good figures 9 ! latt] pap]4 #aig ,rose 7#ee71 ,pl4 ,i4 #aih ,= o!r ref]5ces vide ,bornet & ,flahault 7#hi74 #aii ,duncan 7#gf7 & 7#gf74 #bjj ,simil> bor+s are figur$ by ,kllik] 7#ei71 ,pl4 ,,xvi4 #ad1 9 a scale ( ,b]yx ornatus f ! ,*alk4 #bja ,bornet & ,flahault 7#hi74 #bjb ,e4 ,g4 ,w$l 7#ei74 ,good figures are giv5 9 ?is pap]4 #bjc ,bornemann 7#hf71 p4 #abf1 ,pls4 ,v4 & ,,vi4 #bjd ,r5ault 7#if7 p4 #ddf4 #bje ,treub 7#hh74 #bjf ,williamson 7#hh74 #bjg ,he] 7#ee7 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ba1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #b4 #bjh de ,b>y 7#hg7 p4 #i4 ,a good acc\nt ( ! ,s*izomycetes has lately be5 writt5 by ,migula 9 ,engl] & ,prantl's ,pflanz5famili51 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 #bji #a #jjja millimetres4 #baj ,james 7#ih71 translation ( a pap] by ,m4 ,f]ry 9 ! ,revue ,mycologique1 #ahic4 #baa ,zeill] 7#hb74 #bab ,r5ault 7#ie71 7#if7 p4 #dgh1 7#if7 p4 #ajf4 7,sev]al figures ( ! cuticles are giv5 9 ^! publications47 #bac ,r5ault 7#if7 p4 #dib4 #bad ,r5ault 7#ie71 7#if71 7#if74 #bae ,r5ault & ,b]tr& 7#id74 ,see also ,r5ault 7#ie7 p4 #c1 7#if7 p4 #ddi1 ,pl4 ,,lxxxix4 7#if7 p4 #id1 & 7#if7 p4 #bhj1 fig4 #c4 #baf ,r5ault 7#ie7 p4 #ag1 fig4 #i1 7#if7 p4 #dfj1 fig4 #ajb1 & 7#if7 p4 #bib1 fig4 #aj4 #bag ,r5ault 7#if7 p4 #big1 fig4 #ad4 #bah ,van ,tieghem 7#gg74 #bai ,van ,tieghem 7#gi74 #bbj ,vogelsang 7#gd74 ,vide also ,rutley 7#ib74 #bba ,i am indebt$ to ,pr(4 ,kan?ack = call+ my att5tion to an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ,bacilli 9 small /ones f\nd 9 gall-bladd]s2 a mann] ( occurr5ce comp>able to t ( ! fossil =ms 9 petrifi$ tissues4 ,vide ,naunyn 7#if7 p4 #ea4 #bbb ,r5ault 7#if7 p4 #bgg4 #bbc ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 7#dd7 p4 #deg4 ,pls4 ,,clxvii4 ,,clxviii4 & ,,clxxi4 ,d4 #bbd ,an ,am]ican writ] has rec5tly discuss$ ! lit]ature & hi/ory ( ,fucoides2 he gives a li/ ( #he species4 ,x is v d\btful if su* "w z ?is is wor? ! lab\r4 7,james #ic47 #bbe ,wille 7#ig7 p4 #acf1 also ,murray1 ,g4 7#ie7 p4 #aba4 #bbf ,l9n>sson 7#fi7 ,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #c4 ,!re are _m good specim5s ( ?is fossil 9 ! ,geological ,survey ,museum1 ,/ockholm4 #bbg ,na?or/ 7#ha71 & 7#if74 #bbh ,na?or/ 7#ha7 p4 #ad4 #bbi ,mantell 7#cc7 p4 #aff4 ,vide also ,morris 7#ed7 p4 #f4 #bcj ,bateson 7#hh74 #bca ,na?or/ 7#ha71 7#hf7 c4 ,dawson 7#hh7 p4 #bf et seq4 ,dawson 7#ij7 ,delgado 7#hf7 ,williamson 7#he7 ,hughes 7#hd7 ,zeill] 7#hd7 ,saporta 7#ha7 7#hb7 7#hd7 7#hf7 ,fu*s 7#ie7 ,ro?pletz 7#if74 #bcb ,k9ahan 7#eh74 #bcc ,sollas 7#hf74 #bcd ,b>rois 7#hh74 ,ref]5ces to o!r records ( ?is g5us may be f\nd 9 ,b>rois' pap]4 #bce ,zeill] 7#hd74 ,phymatod]ma is probably a horny sponge 7vide p4 #aed74 #bcf ,newb]ry 7#hh7 p4 #hb1 ,pl4 ,,xxi4 ,!re are "s l>ge specim5s ( ?is suppos$ alga 9 ! ,national ,museum1 ,wa%+ton2 !y are und\bt$ly ( ! nature ( rill-m>ks4 #bcg ,vide ,williamson 7#he74 #bch ,dawson 7#ij7 p4 #fae4 #bci ,salt] 7#gh7 p4 #ii4 #bdj ,lapwor? 7#ha7 p4 #agf1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #g4 #bda ,ro?pletz 7#if74 #bdb ,a t]m appli$ to a c]ta9 facies ( ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e rocks 9 ,c5tral ,europe4 #bdc ,hall 7#dg7 ,pl4 ,,lxviii4 #a & #b1 p4 #bfa4 #bdd ,na?or/ 7#hc7 p4 #dec4 #bde ,sew>d 7#id7 p4 #d4 #bdf ,kid/on 7#hc7 ,pl4 ,,xxxii4 fig4 #b4 ,specim5s ( ?is =m may be se5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum collection4 #bdg ,cf4 ,mat!w1 ,g4 ,f4 7#hi74 ,hall call$ att5tion 9 #aheb to ! preval5t habit ( describ+ #8algae' f ! old] /rata1 )\t any evid5ce = a vegetable orig94 7,hall #eb p4 #ah47 #bdh ,cr$n] 7#hg7 p4 #dca4 #bdi ,saporta 7#hd7 p4 #de1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 #bej ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 p4 #ea4 #bea ,a monograph on ! ,diatomaceae has rec5tly be5 writt5 by ,s*tt = ,engl] & ,prantl's sy/ematic "w4 ,see also ,murray1 ,g4 7#ig7 & ,pfitz] 7#ga74 #beb ,d>w9 7#ij7 p4 #e4 #bec ,we$ 7#hg74 #bed ,wilson 7#hg74 #bee ,ehr5b]g 7#ed74 #bef ,noll 7#ie7 p4 #bdh4 #beg ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 7#dd7 vol4 ,i4 p4 #ejc4 #beh ,murray1 ,j4 & ,r5>d 7#ia7 p4 #bjh4 #bei ,nans51 ,daily ,*ronicle1 ,nov4 #b1 #ahif4 #bfj ,s*tt 7#ic7 p4 #aj4 #bfa ,ehr5b]g 7#cf7 p4 #gg4 #bfb ,cayeux 7#ib71 7#ig74 #bfc ,%rubsole & ,kitton 7#ha74 #bfd ,i am indebt$ to ,mr ,murton ,holmes = specim5s ( ^! ,london ,clay ,diatoms4 #bfe ,ro?pletz 7#if7 p4 #iaj1 fig4 #c1 ,pl4 ,,xxiii4 fig4 #bjc4 #bff ,s*tt 7#if7 p4 #fb4 #bfg ,ca/racane 7#gf74 #bfh ,he] 7#gf7 p4 #ff1 ,pl4 ,,xxiii4 & 7#ec7 p4 #aag1 ,pl4 ,,vi4 #bfi ,/efani 7#hb7 p4 #ajc4 #bgj ,! ,*lorophyceae h rec5tly be5 exhau/ively dealt ) by ,wille 7#ig7 9 ,engl] & ,prantl's ,pflanz5famili54 #bga ,vide p4 #adb4 #bgb ,murray ,g4 7#ie7 p4 #abc4 #bgc ,gpp]t 7#fj7 p4 #dci4 ,pl4 ,,xxxiv4 fig4 #h4 #bgd ,zeill] 7#hd74 #bge ,murray ,g4 7#ib7 p4 #aa2 also 7#ie7 p4 #abg4 #bgf ,damon 7#hh7 ,pl4 ,,xix4 fig4 #ab4 #bgg ,vide also ,ro?pletz 7#if7 p4 #hid4 #bgh ,ellis 7#agee7 ,pl4 ,,xxxiii4 p4 #hf4 #bgi ,fu*s 7#if7 ,pl4 ,,viii4 fig4 #c4 #bhj ,murray ,g4 7#ie7 ,pl4 ,,iii4 figs4 #a & #b4 #bha ,ro?pletz 7#ij71 & 7#ia7 ,pls4 ,,xv4 & ,,xvi4 #bhb ,bornemann 7#hg7 p4 #ag1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 pp4 #a-d4 #bhc ,lam\r\x 7#ba7 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 fig4 #e1 p4 #bc4 #bhd ,muni]-,*almas 7#gi74 #bhe ,= ref]5ces to g5]a ( calc>e\s algae previ\sly ref]r$ to ,=am9if]a1 vide ,%]born 7#ic74 #bhf ,lam>ck 7#af7 p4 #aic4 #bhg ,defrance 7#bf7 ,pl4 ,,xlviii4 fig4 #b1 & ,pl4 ,l4 fig4 #f4 #bhh ,c>p5t] 7#fb7 p4 #agi1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 figs4 #i & #aj4 #bhi ,mi*el9 7#dj-dg7 ,pl4 ,,xlvi4 fig4 #bd4 #bij ,muni]-,*almas 7#gi74 #bia ,lam\r\x 7#ba7 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 fig4 #f1 p4 #bc4 #bib ,h>vey 7#eh7 ,vol4 ,i4 ,pl4 ,,xxii4 fig4 #c4 #bic ,fu*s 7#id74 #bid ,lam\r\x gives a figure ( ,acetabul>ia1 & includes ?is g5us ) sev]al o!r algae 9 ! animal k+dom 7,lam\r\x #ba p4 #ai71 ,pl4 ,,lxix474 #bie ,solms-,lauba* 7#ie74 #bif ,d',ar*iac 7#dc7 p4 #chf1 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 fig4 #h4 #big ,solms-,lauba* loc4 cit4 p4 #cc1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 #bih ,d',ar*iac 7#dc7 p4 #chf1 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 fig4 #h4 #bii ,mi*el9 7#dj7 p4 #agf1 ,pl4 ,,xlvi4 fig4 #ad4 #cjj ,c>p5t] 7#fb7 p4 #acg1 ,pl4 ,,xi4 figs4 #bg-hb4 #cja ,solms-,lauba* loc4 cit4 p4 #cb4 #cjb ,ibid4 p4 #cd1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #ac4 #cjc ,&russ[ 7#hg74 #cjd ,solms-,lauba* 7#ie7 p4 #aa4 #cje ,c>p5t] 7#fb7 ,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #cb4 #cjf ,reuss 7#fa7 p4 #h1 figs4 #e-h4 #cjg ,ellis 7#agee7 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 ,c4 #cjh ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 p4 #ch gives a detail$ description ) two figures ( a rec5t species ( ,cymopolia4 #cji ,murray ,g4 7#ie74 #caj ,wille 7#ig74 #caa ,muni]-,*almas 7#gg74 #cab ,cram] 7#hg7 7#ij74 #cac ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 7#ic7 7#ie74 #cad ,*ur* 7#ie74 #cae ,gmbel 7#ga74 #caf ,b5ecke 7#gf74 #cag ,defrance 7#bf7 p4 #dec4 #cah ,muni]-,*almas 7#gg7 p4 #hae4 #cai ,muni]-,*almas ibid4 #cbj ,defrance 7#bf7 ,pl4 ,,xlviii4 fig4 #a4 #cba ,/olley 7#ic74 #cbb ,deecke 7#hc74 #cbc ,b5ecke 7#gf7 ,pl4 ,,xxiii4 #cbd ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 p4 #db4 #cbe ,ro?pletz 7#id7 p4 #bd4 #cbf ,lam>ck 7#af7 p4 #ahh4 #cbg ,c>p5t] 7#fb7 ,pl4 ,x4 #cbh ,gmbel 7#ga74 ,vide also ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 p4 #ci4 #cbi ,/olley 7#ic74 #ccj ,s*lt] 7#gi74 #cca ,saporta 7#ia7 ,pl4 ,,xxxii4 c4 #ccb ,solms-,lauba* 7#ic71 ,pl4 ,,ix4 figs4 #a1 #h4 #ccc ,cram] 7#ij74 #ccd ,ro?pletz 7#ib7 p4 #bce4 #cce ,/e9mann 7#hj74 #ccf ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia71 p4 #dj4 fig4 #c4 ,vide also ,deecke 7#hc7 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #ab4 #ccg ,brongni>t 7#bh7 p4 #baa4 #cch ,bornemann 7#ia7 p4 #dhe4 ,pls4 #db & #dc4 #cci ,sew>d 7#ie7 p4 #cfg4 #cdj ,report ( ! ,trial 7#fb74 #cda ,b]tr& & ,r5ault 7#ib7 p4 #bi4 #cdb ,b]tr& 7#ic71 ,b]tr& & ,r5ault 7#ib7 7#id71 ,b]tr& 7#if71 ,r5ault 7#if74 ,additional ref]5ces may be f\nd 9 ^! memoirs4 #cdc ,batt]s 7#ib74 ,vide also ,s*mitz 7#ig7 p4 #cae4 #cdd ,hauck 7#he7 9 ,rab5hor/'s ,kryptogam5 ,flora1 vol4 ,,ii4 #cde ,k5t 7#ic7 p4 #adj4 #cdf ,agassiz 7#hh7 vol4 ,i4 p4 #hb4 #cdg ,wal!r 7#he74 #cdh ,ibid4 7#hh7 p4 #dgh4 #cdi ,philippi 7#cg7 p4 #chg4 #cej ,rosan(f7#ff7 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #aj4 #cea ,ro?pletz 7#ia7 ,pl4 ,,xvii4 fig4 #d4 #ceb ,frh 7#ij7 fig4 #ab4 #cec ,kjellman 7#hc74 #ced ,holmes & ,batt]s 7#ij7 p4 #ajb4 #cee ,hauck 7#he74 ,rosan(f 7#ff74 ,ros5v+e 7#ic7 p4 #ggi4 ,kjellman 7#hc7 p4 #hh4 ,solms-,lauba* 7#ha74 #cef ,ung] 7#eh74 #ceg ,a microscopic section ( ! ,vi5na ,lei?akalk is figur$ 9 ,ni*olson & ,lydekk]'s ,manual ( ,palontology 7#hi7 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #adig4 #ceh ,gmbel 7#ga7 ,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #g1 p4 #da4 #cei ,hauck 7#he7 p4 #bgb4 #cfj ,ro?pletz 7#ia7 ,pl4 ,,xvii4 fig4 #d4 #cfa ,vide ,wal!r 7#hh7 p4 #dii2 also ,jukes-,br[ne & ,h>rison 7#ia7 passim4 ,i am indebt$ to ,mr ,g4 ,f4 ,franks1 :o has /udi$ ! ,b>badian reefs1 = ! opportunity ( exam9+ sections ( ,we/-,indian coral-rock4 #cfb ,br[n ,a4 7#id74 #cfc ,br[n ,a4 7#id7 p4 #adg4 #cfd ibid4 p4 #bjj4 #cfe e4g4 ,saporta 7#hb7 p4 #ab4 #cff ,turn] 7#aa7 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ea4 #cfg ,ro?pletz 7#if74 #cfh ,p5hall[ 7#if7 p4 #de4 #cfi ,dawson 7#ei74 #cgj ,vide #8,academy' #ahgj1 p4 #af4 #cga ,c>ru!rs 7#gb74 #cgb ,p5hall[ 7#hi74 #cgc ,b>b] 7#ib74 #cgd ,solms-,lauba* 7#ie74 #cge ,p5hall[ 7#if74 #cgf loc4 cit4 p4 #hc4 #cgg ,dawson 7#ei71 also 7#ga7 p4 #ag4 #cgh ,p5hall[ 7#hi7 & 7#if7 p4 #df4 #cgi ,b>b] 7#ib7 p4 #ccf4 #chj ,p5hall[ 7#hi7 & 7#ic74 #cha ,dawson 7#ha7 p4 #cjb4 #chb ,b>b] 7#ib74 #chc ,hicks 7#ha7 p4 #dij4 #chd ,lake 7#ie7 p4 #bb4 #che ,solms-,lauba* 7#ie74 #chf ,a simil> me?od ( fossilisation has be5 not$ by ,ro?pletz 9 ! case ( ! ,l[] ,devonian alga ,ho/9ella4 ,ro?pletz 7#if7 p4 #hif4 #chg ,p5hall[ 7#if7 p4 #dg4 #chh ,c>ru!rs 7#gb7 p4 #afb reg>ds ?is species z id5tical ) ,n4 ,logani4 #chi ,sew>d 7#ie74 #cij ,/rickl& & ,hook] 7#ec74 #cia ,hicks 7#ha7 p4 #dhd4 #cib ,dawson 7#hb7 p4 #ajd4 #cic ,b>b] 7#hi7 & 7#ij74 #cid ,murray ,g4 7#ie74 #cie ,hook] ,j4 ,d4 7#hi74 #cif loc4 cit4 #cig ,solms-,lauba* 7#ie7 p4 #ha4 #cih ,sew>d 7#id7 p4 #d4 #cii ,an excell5t monograph on ! ,mycetozoa has lately be5 issu$ by ! ,tru/ees ( ! ,briti% ,museum "u ! au?or%ip ( ,mr ,a4 ,li/] 7#id74 ,vide also ,s*rt] 7#hi7 9 ,engl] & ,prantl's ,natrli*5 ,pflanz5famili54 #djj ,r5ault 7#if7 p4 #dbb1 figs4 #ge & #gf4 #dja ,s*rt] 7#hi7 p4 #cb1 fig4 #ah ,b4 #djb ,ca% & ,hick 7#gh7 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #c4 #djc ,gpp]t & ,m5ge 7#hc7 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 fig4 #ajf4 #djd ,h>p] 7#ie74 #dje e4g4 ,ludwig 7#eg7 ,pl4 ,,xvi4 fig4 #a4 #djf ,potoni 7#ic7 p4 #bg1 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #h4 #djg ,ref]5ces are giv5 by ,potoni to illu/rations by ,zeill] 7#ib7 ,pl4 ,,xv4 fig4 #f1 ,gr&' ,eury 7#gg7 ,pl4 ,,xxxiii4 fig4 #g1 & o!rs 9 :i* possible fungi are repres5t$4 #djh ,engelh>dt 7#hg74 #dji ,= figures ( ! ,cocc9eae1 see ,com/ock 7#hh71 ,maskell 7#hg71 ,judei* & ,nits*e 7#ie7 c4 #daj ,massalongo 7#ei7 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #a1 p4 #hg4 #daa ,mes*9elli 7#ib74 #dab ,james1 ,j4 ,f4 7#ic74 #dac ,lesqu]eux 7#hg74 #dad ,h]z] 7#ic74 #dae ,conw5tz 7#ij7 ,pl4 ,,xii4 fig4 #e4 #daf ,feild51 ,h4 ,w4 7#if72 ,sew>d 7#if7 p4 #fb1 app5dix to ,feild5's pap]4 ,i am indebt$ to ,dr ,bonney = an opportunity ( exam9+ ! plant rema9s f ! ,feild5 collection4 #dag ,h>tig 7#gh74 #dah ,conw5tz 7#hj7 ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #ag4 #dai ,c>ru!rs 7#gj7 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 fig4 #c4 #dbj ,r5ault 7#if7 p4 #dbg1 fig4 #hj1 d4 #dba ibid4 p4 #dbg1 fig4 #hj1 a-c4 #dbb p4 #abg4 #dbc ,e!ridge 7#ib7 ,pl4 ,,vii4 #dbd ,h>tig 7#gh7 & 7#id71 ,gpp]t & ,m5ge 7#hc74 #dbe ,r5ault 7#if7 p4 #dbe1 fig4 #gh4 #dbf ,fis*] 9 ,rab5hor/1 vol4 i4 7#ib7 p4 #add4 #dbg ,c>ru!rs 7#gf7 p4 #bb1 fig4 #a4 #dbh ,smi?1 ,w4 ,o4 7#gg7 p4 #dii4 #dbi ,williamson 7#ha7 ,pl4 ,,xlviii4 p4 #cja4 #dcj ,r5ault 7#if7 p4 #dci1 figs4 #hh & #hi4 #dca ,ca% & ,hick 7#gh74 #dcb ,ca% & ,hick1 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #c4 #dcc ,felix 7#id7 p4 #bgf1 ,pl4 ,,xix4 fig4 #a4 #dcd ibid4 p4 #bgd1 ,pl4 ,,xix4 figs4 #e & #f4 #dce ,williamson 7#gh7 & 7#hj74 #dcf ,conw5tz 7#ij7 p4 #aai1 ,pl4 ,,xi4 pp4 #b1 #c1 ,pl4 ,,xv4 fig4 #h4 #dcg ,migula 7#ij7 9 ,rab5hor/'s ,kryptogam5 ,flora1 vol4 ,v4 #dch ,vaillant 7#agai7 p4 #ag4 #dci ,migula 7#ij7 p4 #ec4 #ddj ,kn[lton 7#hi74 #dda ,meek 7#gc7 p4 #bai4 #ddb ,saporta 7#gc7 p4 #bad1 ,pl4 ,,ix4 figs4 #h-aa4 #ddc ,sew>d 7#id7 p4 #ac1 fig4 #a4 #ddd ,woodw>d1 ,h4 ,b4 7#ie7 pp1 #bcd1 #bfa1 etc4 #dde ,=bes1 ,e4 7#ef7 p4 #afj1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 #ddf ,vide p4 #fi1 fig4 #aj4 #ddg ,lyell 7#bi74 #ddh ,sk]t*ly 7#gg7 p4 #fj4 #ddi ,s*iffn] & ,mll] 9 ,engl] & ,prantl 7#ie71 ,campbell 7#ie71 ,dixon & ,jameson 7#if7 are among ! be/ ( mod]n writ]s on ! ,bryophyta4 #dej ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 7#ia7 p4 #eac4 #dea ,s*iffn] 7#ie7 p4 #adj4 #deb ,hook]1 ,w4 ,j4 7#bj7 ,pl4 ,,clxiii4 #dec ,b5nett & ,br[n 7#ch71 ,pl4 ,v4 #ded ,b5nett & ,br[n 7#ch7 p4 #ce4 #dee ,na?or/ 7#ij7 ,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #c4 #def ,l9d5b]g 7#ci7 ,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #a4 #deg ,zeill] 7#ib7 ,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #g & #h4 #deh ,fli*e & ,blei*] 7#ha74 #dei ,brongni>t 7#di7 p4 #ab4 #dfj ,sew>d 7#id7 p4 #ag4 #dfa ,leck5by 7#fd7 ,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #c4 #dfb ,sew>d loc4 cit4 p4 #ah1 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #c4 #dfc ,raciborski 7#id7 p4 #aj1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 figs4 #a-c4 #dfd ,brongni>t 7#di7 p4 #ab4 #dfe ,saporta 7#fh7 p4 #cjh1 ,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #a-h4 ,vide also ,watelet 7#ff7 p4 #dj1 ,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #f4 #dff ,gpp]t & ,b]5dt 7#de7 ,pl4 ,,vi4 & 7#ec74 #dfg ,gotts*e 7#hf74 #dfh ,s*imp] 7#fe7 ,pl4 ,,iii4 #dfi ,greville 7#dg7 ,pl4 ,,xii4 #dgj ,br[n1 ,r4 7#aa7 ,pl4 ,,xxiii4 #dga ,hook]1 ,w4 ,j4 7#bj7 ,pl4 ,,clxii4 #dgb ,limpri*t 7#ij7 p4 #fg4 #dgc ,brongni>t 7#bh7 p4 #ic4 #dgd ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh7 p4 #hd1 ,pl4 ,,xli4 figs4 #b-d4 #dge ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 p4 #ahf4 #dgf ,lesqu]eux 7#gi7 ,pl4 ,,lxii4 fig4 #a4 #dgg ,he] 7#fe7 p4 #hi4 #dgh ,buckman 7#ej7 #a4 #dgi ,g>dn] 7#hf7 p4 #bjc4 #dhj ,ludwig 7#ei7 p4 #afe1 ,pl4 ,,lxiii4 fig4 #i4 #dha ,s*imp] & ,s*5k 7#ij7 p4 #ge4 #dhb e4g4 ! ,f]n ,tri*omanes ,goebelianum ,gies4 ,gies5hag5 7#ib7 p4 #aeg4 #dhc ,scott 7#if7 a text-book = elem5t>y /ud5ts2 a full acc\nt is giv5 ( ,equisetum & o!r g5]a ( prim>y importance4 ,v9es 7#ie7 ,"p iii4 ,campbell 7#ie71 ,lu]ss5 7#hi7 9 ,rab5hor/'s ,kryptogam5-,flora1 vol4 ,,iii41 ,van ,tieghem 7#ia71 de ,b>y 7#hd71 ,bak] 7#hg74 #dhd ,wallace 7#hf7 p4 #aag4 #dhe ,bak] 7#hg7 p4 #d4 ,hook]1 ,w4 ,j4 7#fa7 ,pl4 ,,lxxiv4 ,vide also ,milde 7#fg7 = figures ( ,equisetum4 #dhf ,seeman 7#fe74 #dhg ,duval-,j\ve 7#fd7 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #e4 #dhh ,milde 7#fg7 ,pl4 ,,xix4 fig4 #h4 #dhi ibid4 ,pl4 ,,xxxi4 fig4 #c4 #dij ,cormack 7#ic7 p4 #ga4 #dia ,williamson & ,scott 7#id7 p4 #hgg4 ,^! au?ors1 9 ref]r+ to ,cormack's description ( ! second>y nodal wood ( ,e4 maximum1 express d\bts z to ! exi/5ce ( su* second>y gr[? 9 all species ( ! g5us4 #dib ,pfitz] 7#fg74 #dic ,/rasburg] 7#ia7 p4 #ddc4 #did ,/rasburg] 7#ia7 p4 #dce4 #die ,b[] 7#id7 p4 #die4 #dif ,/]nb]g 7#ch7 p4 #dc4 #dig ,scott 7#ig74 ,?is g5us w be describ$ 9 ,volume ,,ii4 #dih ,potoni 7#ic7 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 fig4 #a;a4 #dii ibid4 p4 #agi4 ,vide also ,potoni 7#ib74 #ejj ,zeill] 7#ib7 p4 #ef1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,o!r simil> leaf-%ea?s h be5 figur$ by ,g]m> 7#dd7 ,pl4 ,x41 ,s*imp] 7#gd7 ,pl4 ,,xvii4 & o!rs4 #eja ,gr&',eury 7#ij7 p4 #bbc1 ,pl4 ,,xv4 fig4 #af4 #ejb ,r5ault 7#ic7 ,pl4 ,,xlii4 figs4 #f & #g4 #ejc ,kid/on 7#ib74 #ejd ,zeill] 7#ie74 #eje ,potoni 7#ic7 p4 #agi1 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 figs4 #b-d4 #ejf ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh7 p4 #cif1 ,pl4 ,,lvii4 fig4 #g4 #ejg ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca7 ,pl4 ,,cxiv4 #ejh ,s*o5le9 & ,s*5k 7#fe7 ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #a4 #eji ,s*imp] & ,m\geot 7#dd7 p4 #eh1 ,pl4 ,,xxix4 #eaj ,jg] 7#bg74 #eaa ,s*imp] 7#gd7 ,pls4 ,,ix-,,xi4 #eab ,s*imp] & ,koe*l9-,s*lumb]g] 7#fb74 #eac ,s*o5le9 & ,s*5k 7#fe7 ,pls4 ,i-,,iv4 #ead ,brongni>t 7#bh7 p4 #aae1 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 #eae ,"y & ,bird 7#bb7 p4 #ahe1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #c4 #eaf ,knig1 9 ,mur*ison 7#bi7 p4 #bic1 ,pl4 ,,xxxii4 #eag ,mur*ison 7#bi7 p4 #cfh4 #eah ,bunbury 7#ea7 p4 #ahi4 #eai ,s*imp] 7#fi7 p4 #bfg4 #ebj ,zigno 7#ef7 ,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #a1 p4 #de4 #eba ,g>dn] 7#hf7 ,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #c4 #ebb ,williamson 7#hc7 p4 #d4 #ebc ,williamson & ,scott 7#id7 p4 #hhi1 ,pl4 ,,lxxix4 fig4 #ai4 #ebd ,phillips ,j4 7#bi7 ,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #ac4 #ebe ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca7 ,pl4 ,,clxxxvi4 #ebf ,bunbury 7#ea7 p4 #ahi4 #ebg ,zigno 7#ef7 ,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #c1 p4 #df4 #ebh ,he] 7#gg7 p4 #dc1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 #ebi ,s*imp] 7#fi7 p4 #bhd4 ,vide also ,na?or/ 7#hj7 p4 #ed4 #ecj ,&rae 7#ec7 ,pl4 ,,vi4 figs4 #a-e4 #eca ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 p4 #ahj4 #ecb cf4 p4 #bhc4 #ecc ,!re is a simil> specim5 9 ! ,ox=d ,museum4 #ecd ,s9ce ?is 0 writt5 ,i h f\nd a specim5 ( ,equisetites lat]alis 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum1 9 :i* a diaphragm l t 9 fig4 #fd1 ,c1 occurs 9 ! c5tre ( a flatt5$ leaf-%ea? simil> to t ( fig4 #fd1 ,b4 #ece ,buckman 7#ej7 p4 #dad4 #ecf ,s*5k 7#fg74 #ecg ,t5ison-,woods 7#hc71 ,pl4 ,,vi4 figs4 #e & #f4 ,specim5 no4 ,v4 #cceh 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 #ech ,dunk] 7#df7 p4 #b1 ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #g4 #eci ,sew>d 7#id7 p4 #cj4 #edj ,sew>d 7#id7 p4 #cc4 #eda ,he] 7#ee7 vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #aeh1 ,pl4 ,,cxlv4 #edb ,he] 7#gg7 p4 #ii1 ,pl4 ,,xxii4 #edc ,vide ,saporta 7#gc7 p4 #bbg4 #edd ,! di/ribution w be dealt ) 9 ,volume ,,ii4 #ede ,brongni>t 7#bh7 p4 #aea4 #edf ,s*malhaus5 7#gi7 p4 #ab1 ,pl4 ,i4 figs4 #a-c4 #edg ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 p4 #aha4 #edh ,zeill] 7#if74 #edi ,zeill] 7#if74 #eej ibid4 7#if74 #eea ,lett]1 ,july #cj1 #ahig4 #eeb ,on ?is "* ( ,annul>ian leaves1 vide p4 #ccg4 #eec ,gpp]t 7#de7 p4 #cgi1 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 figs4 #a1 #b4 #eed ,s*malhaus5 7#gi7 p4 #ab4 #eee ,mc,coy 7#dg7 ,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #g4 #eef ,bunbury 7#fa7 ,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #a4 #eeg ,sew>d 7#ig7 p4 #cbd1 ,pl4 ,,xxiv4 fig4 #a4 #eeh ,fei/mantel 7#ha7 ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,a4 fig4 #g1 c4 #eei ibid4 7#ij7 ,pl4 ,,xiv4 fig4 #e4 #efj ,bunbury 7#fa7 ,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #a4 #efa ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia7 p4 #aha1 fig4 #ag4 #efb ,he] 7#hb7 p4 #i4 #efc ,potoni 7#if7 p4 #aae1 fig4 #c4 #efd ,zigno 7#ef7 ,pl4 ,,vii4 p4 #ei4 #efe ,bunbury 7#fa74 #eff ,fei/mantel 7#ha71 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,a4 #efg ,brongni>t 7#bh7 p4 #aeb4 #efh ,bunbury 7#fa74 #efi ,gr&',eury 7#ij7 p4 #bba4 #egj ,e!ridge 7#ie74 #ega ,weiss 7#gf7 p4 #hh4 #egb ,he] 7#gg7 p4 #dc1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 7#gh7 p4 #d1 ,pl4 ,i4 #egc ,t5ison-,woods 7#hc7 ,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #b4 #egd ,brongni>t 7#bh7 p4 #abh4 #ege ,s*imp] & ,m\geot 7#dd7 p4 #dh1 ,pls4 ,,xxiv-,,xxvi4 #egf ,fei/mantel 7#ha7 p4 #ei1 ,pls4 ,i4 ,a-,x4 ,a4 #egg ante1 p4 #bhd4 #egh ,s*imp] & ,m\geot 7#dd7 p4 #ej1 ,pls4 ,,xxiv-,,xxvi4 #egi ,sew>d 7#ig74 #ehj ,s*eu*z] 7#agbc71 p4 #ai1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #a4 #eha ,volkmann 7#agbj71 p4 #aaj1 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 fig4 #g4 #ehb ,woodw>d1 ,j4 7#agbh71 ,pt4 ,,ii4 p4 #aj4 #ehc ,s*ulze1 ,c4 ,f4 7#agee71 ,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #a4 #ehd ,suck[ 7#aghd71 p4 #cfc4 #ehe ,/e9hau] 7#ah71 ,pls4 ,v4 & ,,vi4 #ehf ,m>t9 7#ji71 ,pls4 ,,viii4 ,,xxv4 & ,,xxvi4 #ehg ,artie 7#be74 #ehh ,brongni>t 7#bb71 p4 #bah4 #ehi ,brongni>t 7#bh71 p4 #cd4 #eij ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca74 #eia ,cotta 7#ej74 ,i am indebt$ to ,pr(4 ,/5zel ( ,breslau = call+ my att5tion to ! fact t ,cotta's "w appe>$ 9 #ahcb1 b 9 #ahej ! same "w 0 sold ) a new title-page be>+ ?is date4 #eib ,ung] 7#dj74 #eic ,petzholdt 7#da74 #eid ,ung] 7#dd74 #eie ,brongni>t 7#di71 p4 #di4 #eif ,e4g4 ,isoetes1 ,botry*ium1 c4 #eig ,m\geot 7#eb74 #eih ,gpp]t 7#fd71 p4 #ahc4 #eii 1 jo9t2 1 ,p9e-tree4 #fjj ,! orig9al specim5s describ$ by ,gpp]t are 9 ! ri* palaeobotanical ,collection ( ! ,breslau ,museum4 #fja ,williamson 7#ga71 p4 #agd4 #fjb vide ,solms-,lauba* 7#if74 #fjc ,lett]1 ,novemb] #ahig4 #fjd ,vide p4 #caj4 #fje ,hick 7#id71 ,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #a4 #fjf ,on ?is po9t vide ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #hfi4 #fjg ,williamson & ,scott1 loc4 cit4 p4 #hgf4 #fjh ,r5ault 7#ic71 ,pl4 ,,xlvii4 fig4 #d4 #fji ,/ur 7#hg74 #faj ,! t]m prim>y ray may be conv5i5tly re/rict$ to ! truly prim>y int]fascicul> tissue1 & ! t]m pr9cipal ray may be us$ = ! outw>d ext5sion ( ! prim>y rays by ! cambium ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #hgh4 #faa ,b9ney 7#fh74 #fab ,ett+%aus5 7#ee74 #fac ,! sections ( fossil plants describ$ by ,b9ney 7 pres5t$ to ! ,woodw>dian ,museum1 ,cambridge1 by 8 son 7,mr ,j4 ,b9ney74 #fad ,vide footnote1 p4 #caa4 #fae ,williamson 7#hc71 ,pl4 ,,xxxiii4 fig4 #ai4 #faf ,williamson 7#gh71 p4 #cbc1 ,pl4 ,,xx4 figs4 #ad & #ae4 #fag ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #hhh4 #fah ,h>tig 7#id71 pp4 #adi1 #big1 etc4 #fai ,r5ault 7#if71 p4 #ia4 #fbj ,williamson & ,scott1 loc4 cit4 p4 #hic4 ,vide specim5s #acc99-ace99 9 ! ,williamson ,collection4 #fba ,e4g4 specim5 #acb999999 9 ! ,williamson ,collection4 #fbb ,vide ,williamson 7#ga71 ,pl4 ,,xxviii4 fig4 #ch2 7#ga71 ,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #ae2 7#gh71 ,pl4 ,,xxi4 figs4 #bf-bh4 ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 ,pl4 ,,lxxii4 figs4 #e & #f4 ,r5ault 7#ic71 ,pl4 ,,xlv4 figs4 #d-f1 etc4 ,felix 7#if71 ,pl4 ,,iv4 figs4 #b & #c4 #fbc ,/rasburg] 7#ia71 ,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #dj4 #fbd ,williamson 7#gh74 #fbe ,williamson 7#ga71 p4 #ejg4 #fbf ,williamson 7#ga71 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #a2 7#gh71 ,pl4 ,,xxi4 fig4 #ca4 #fbg ,lyell 7#ee71 p4 #cfh4 #fbh ,williamson 7#if71 p4 #aid4 #fbi ,vide specim5s #ae-ag1 etc4 9 ! ,williamson ,collection4 #fcj ,! /em ( fig4 #hc is an example ( ,ar?rod5dron1 b ! appe>ance ( ! second>y xylem agrees ) t 9 "s =ms ( ,ar?ropitys4 #fca ,= figures ( ?is type ( /em vide ,gpp]t 7#fd72 ,cotta 7#ej71 ,pl4 ,,xv4 7specim5s #acghg 9 ! ,briti% ,museum ,collection72 ,m\geot 7#eb71 ,pl4 ,v42 ,/ur 7#hg71 pp4 #bg-ca2 ,r5ault 7#ic71 ,pls4 ,,xliv4 & ,,xlv4 etc4 #fcb ,williamson 7#ga71 7#ga71 7#hg71 fig4 #e4 #fcc ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #hgi #fcd ,vide ,williamson 7#hg74 ,9 ?is pap] ,williamson comp>es ! ?ree subg5]a ( ,calamite /ems4 ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pl4 ,,lxxv4 ,r5ault 7#ic71 ,pls4 ,,lviii4 & ,,lix4 #fce ,r5ault 7#if71 p4 #abe2 7#ic71 ,pl4 ,,lix4 fig4 #b4 #fcf ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pls4 ,,cxiv41 ,,cxc4 etc4 ,mo/ ( ! specim5s figur$ by ^! au?ors are 9 ! ,newca/le ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum4 ,= notes on ! type-specim5s ( ,l9dley & ,hutton1 vide ,h[se 7#hh7 & ,kid/on 7#ij74 #fcg ,weiss 7#hh71 ,/ur 7#hg71 etc4 #fch ,vide1 p4 #cfg4 #fci ,ante1 p4 #bfj4 #fdj ,hick 7#ie74 #fda ,brongni>t 7#bb71 p4 #bce4 #fdb ,s*lo!im 7#bj74 #fdc ,brongni>t 7#bh71 p4 #aei4 #fdd ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pl4 ,,cxc4 #fde ,ett+%aus5 7#ee74 #fdf ,s*imp] 7#fi71 p4 #cbc4 #fdg ,gr&',eury 7#ij74 #fdh ,m>t9 7#ji71 ,pl4 ,,xx4 figs4 #d & #f4 #fdi ,s*lo!im 7#bj71 p4 #cig4 #fej ,/]nb]g 7#be71 p4 xxviii4 #fea ,brongni>t 7#bh71 p4 #aed4 #feb ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pl4 ,,cxci4 #fec ,ett+%aus5 7#ee71 p4 #bh4 #fed ,s*imp] 7#fi71 ,pls4 ,,xxii4 & ,,xxvi4 fig4 #a4 #fee ,= o!r li/s & synonyms1 vide ,zeill] 7#hh71 p4 #cfh1 & ,kid/on 7#hf71 p4 #ch & 7#ic71 p4 #caf1 also ,potoni 7#ic71 p4 #afb4 #fef ,/]nb]g 7#bj74 #feg ,brongni>t 7#bh71 p4 #aee4 #feh ,lehmann 7#agef71 p4 #abg4 ,vide also ,volkmanns 7#agbj71 ,pl4 ,,xv4 p4 #aac4 #fei ,potoni 7#ic71 pp4 #afi et seq41 ,pl4 ,,xxiv4 #ffj ,dawson 7#ga74 #ffa ,ni*olson 7#fi7 ,pl4 ,,xviii4 ,b4 ,ni*olson's specim5s are 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum1 ,cambridge4 #ffb ,s*lo!im 7#bj71 p4 #cig4 #ffc ,/]nb]g 7#bf71 p4 xxviii4 #ffd ,brongni>t 7#bh71 p4 #aef4 #ffe ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pl4 ,,cxxiv4 #fff ,b9ney 7#fh71 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #c4 #ffg ,/ur 7#hg71 ,pl4 ,,xvi b1 & ,pls4 ,,iv b & ,,xiii4 #ffh ,s*eu*z] 7#agbc71 p4 #fc1 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 fig4 #c4 #ffi ,potoni 7#ic71 p4 #aff4 #fgj ,vide pp4 #cea et seq4 #fga ,r5ault 7#if71 p4 #ff2 7#ic71 ,pl4 ,,xxviii4 #fgb ,"o ( ! f9e/ specim5s ( ,annul>ia /ellata is figur$ by ,/ur 7#hg71 ,pl4 ,,xvi b2 x is 9 ! ,leipzig ,museum4 ,,vide also ,s*5k 7#hc71 ,pl4 ,,xxxix42 ,g]m> 7#dd71 ,pl4 ,,ix42 ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pls4 ,,xlv4 & ,,xlvi4 ,!re are "s well-pres]v$ impressions ( ,a4 /ellata 9 ! ,briti% ,museum f ,rad/ock1 ,newca/le & else:]e4 #fgc ,z5k] 7#cc71 ,pl4 ,v4 pp4 #f-i4 #fgd ,he] 7#fe71 fig4 #f1 p4 #i1 & o!r au?ors4 #fge ,weiss 7#gf71 p4 #bg1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 fig4 #b4 #fgf ,lhwyd 7#afii71 ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #bjb4 #fgg ,/]zel 7#hb74 #fgh ,vide ,weiss 7#gf71 ,pl4 ,,iii4 & ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #agh4 #fgi ,williamson 7#ga71 p4 #dhg1 ,pls4 ,,xxv4 & ,,xxvi4 #fhj ,ibid4 7#gh71 p4 #cai1 ,pl4 ,,xix4 #fha ,ca% & ,hick 7#ha71 p4 #djj4 #fhb ,williamson 7#ha71 vide also ,sp5c] 7#ha74 #fhc ,sp5c] 7#hc71 p4 #dei4 #fhd ,williamson 7#hc71 p4 #dei1 ,pls4 ,,xxvii4-,,xxx4 #fhe ,r5ault 7#he74 #fhf ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pls4 ,,lxxviii4 & ,,lxxix4 7,! specim5s are figur$ 9 a rev]s$ position47 #fhg ,b9ney 7#fh71 p4 #e1 fig4 #a4 #fhh ,gr&',eury 7#gg71 ,pls4 ,i4 & ,,ii42 7#hg71 ,pls4 ,,xxvii41 ,,xxviii4 #fhi ,weiss 7#hd71 ,pls4 ,,ii4-,,iv41 ,,viii4 & ,,ix4 #fij ,/ur 7#hg71 ,pls4 ,,iii41 ,,vi41 ,,vii41 etc42 ,zeill] 7#hf71 ,pl4 ,,liv4 #fia ,weiss 7#gf71 7#hd74 #fib ,= ref]5ces1 vide ,kid/on 7#hf71 p4 #eh4 #fic ,artis 7#be71 ,pl4 ,v4 #fid ,williamson & ,scott 7#ie71 p4 #fid4 #fie ,williamson 7#hc71 ,pl4 ,,xxix4 fig4 #g4 #fif ,williamson & ,scott 7#ie71 ,pls4 ,,xv4-,,xvii4 #fig ,= figures vide ,williamson1 loc4 cit41 ,williamson & ,scott1 & ,r5ault 7#he71 7#ic74 #fih ,e4g4 ,s*5k 7#ij7 9 ,zittel's ,h&bu*1 p4 #bcg4 #fii ,williamson & ,scott1 loc4 cit4 p4 #fhi4 #gjj de ,b>y 7#hd71 p4 #dgd2 van ,tieghem 7#ia71 p4 #gbj4 #gja ,r5ault 7#if71 pp4 #aah1 #abf2 7#ic71 ,pl4 ,,lv4 #gjb ,c>ru!rs 7#fg71 ,pl4 ,,lxx4 #gjc ,/]nb]g 7#be71 ,pl4 ,,xlviii4 & ,,li4 #gjd ,brongni>t 7#di71 p4 #ea4 #gje ,b9ney 7#fh71 p4 #bc1 ,pls4 ,,iv4 & ,v4 #gjf ,s*imp] 7#fi71 p4 #ccj4 #gjg ,= figures & descriptions ( ?is type ( cone vide ,williamson 7#gc71 7#hj71 7#hi72 ,hick 7#ic71 7#id7 & ,williamson & ,scott 7#id74 #gjh ,weiss 7#hd71 ,pls4 ,,xxii4--,,xxiv4 #gji ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #iaa1 ,pls4 ,,lxxxi4 & ,,lxxxii4 #gaj ,vide ,he9ri*] 7#hb72 ,b[] 7#id71 p4 #die2 ,campbell 7#ie71 pp4 #cif1 #ejc4 #gaa ,williamson 7#ha71 ,pl4 ,,liv4 #gab ,an excell5t figure illu/rat+ ! co-exi/5ce ( het]ospory & second>y ?ick5+ is giv5 by ,williamson & ,scott1 loc4 cit41 ,pl4 ,,lxxxii4 fig4 #cf4 #gac ,weiss 7#gf71 p4 #ajc4 #gad ,williamson 7#ga74 #gae ,ibid4 7#hh74 #gaf ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #ijj4 #gag ,weiss 7#hd71 ,pl4 ,,xxi4 fig4 #d4 #gah ,williamson 7#gd71 ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #cb4 #gai ,williamson 7#hh71 ,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #bj4 #gbj ,e4g4 ,r5ault 7#hb71 ,pl4 ,,xix4 fig4 #a2 7#if71 ,pl4 ,,xxix4 figs4 #a & #d4 #gba ,williamson 7#hh71 ,pl4 ,,viii4 figs4 #a & #d4 #gbb ,r5ault 7#ic71 ,pl4 ,,xxix4 fig4 #g4 #gbc ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia71 p4 #cbe4 #gbd ,weiss 7#hd7 p4 #afa4 ,solms-,lauba*1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cbf4 #gbe ,e4g4 ,volkmannia ,ludwigi ,c>r41 also ,volkmannia elongata ,presl4 ,solms 7#ia71 p4 #ccb & ,weiss 7#gf71 p4 #ajh4 #gbf ,e4g4 ,brukmannia ,gr&',euryi ,r54 ,r5ault 7#gf74 #gbg ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #aij4 #gbh ,weiss 7#gf71 p4 #a4 #gbi ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #afa4 #gcj ,r5ault 7#hb71 p4 #aci2 7#gf74 #gca ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia71 p4 #ccj4 #gcb ,s*5k 7#hh71 p4 #acb2 7#hc71 p4 #bcb4 #gcc ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #afa4 #gcd ,e4g4 ,volkmannia gracilis ,/]nb4 ,r5ault 7#gf71 ,pl4 ,,ii44 #gce ,s*imp] 7#fi71 p4 #ccb4 ,vide also ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh71 p4 #dbj4 #gcf ,r5ault 7#hb71 p4 #abj1 ,pl4 ,,xix42 7#ic71 ,pl4 ,,xxix4 figs4 #h-ad2 7#if71 p4 #gg4 #gcg ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #ih1 ,pl4 ,,xx4 etc4 #gch ,/]zel 7#hb74 #gci ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pl4 ,,xlvi4 fig4 #g4 #gdj ,kid/on 7#hf71 p4 #dg2 7#ic71 p4 #cai4 ,vide also ,r5ault 7#ic71 ,pl4 ,,xxviii4 #gda ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pl4 ,,xlv4 #gdb ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia71 p4 #cci4 ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #aei4 #gdc ,weiss 7#hd71 ,pl4 ,,xx4 fig4 #f4 #gdd ,weiss 7#hd71 ,pl4 ,,xx4 fig4 #g2 ,pl4 ,,xxi4 fig4 #d4 #gde ,ibid4 ,pls4 ,,xiv4 & ,,xv4 ,cf4 also ,/ur 7#hg71 ,pls4 ,,vi4 & ,,vii b1 & ,lesqu]eux 7#hd71 ,pl4 ,,xc4 fig4 #a4 #gdf ,gr&',eury 7#ij71 pp4 #bje1 #bjh4 ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pl4 ,,li4 #gdg ,vide ,ung] 7#ej71 p4 #fc4 #gdh ,weiss1 loc4 cit4 #gdi ,solms-,lauba* 7#ia71 p4 #cbh4 #gej ,s*5k 7#hc71 p4 #bcd4 #gea ,weiss 7#gf71 p4 #hh2 7#hd71 p4 #afb4 ,solms-,lauba*1 loc4 cit4 p4 #ccd1 fig4 #dg4 #geb ,r5ault 7#if71 p4 #acb4 #gec ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pl4 ,,liv4 fig4 #d4 #ged ,/ur 7#hg71 p4 #ag4 #gee ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pl4 ,,cxlii ,b4 ,! orig9al specim5 is 9 ! ,univ]sity ,college ,collection1 ,london4 #gef ,na?or/ 7#id71 p4 #ef1 ,pl4 ,,xv4 figs4 #a & #b4 #geg ,sew>d 7#hh74 #geh ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #ed4 #gei ,zeill] 7#hh71 p4 #cbi4 #gfj ,weiss 7#gf71 p4 #aag2 7#hd71 p4 #ee4 #gfa ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #ic1 ,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #a4 #gfb ,vide ,weiss 7#hd71 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 fig4 #b2 ,pl4 ,,xvi a1 etc4 #gfc ,weiss 7#gf71 ,pl4 ,,xvii4 fig4 #a4 #gfd ,weiss 7#hd71 ,pl4 ,i4 #gfe ,gr&',eury 7#ij71 p4 #bjh1 & 7#gg71 ,pl4 ,v4 #gff ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pl4 ,,cxc4 #gfg ,/ur 7#hg71 ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #a4 #gfh ,gr&',eury 7#gg71 ,pl4 ,,iv4 #gfi ,/ur 7#hg71 ,pl4 ,,xvii4 #ggj ,r5ault 7#hb71 ,pl4 ,,xvii4 fig4 #b4 #gga ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pt4 ,,ii4 p4 #dcd1 ,pls4 ,,lii4 & ,,liii4 #ggb ,/ur 7#hg71 p4 #cg1 fig4 #ag4 ,vide also ,gr&',eury 7#ij71 p4 #bjh4 #ggc ,/ur1 loc4 cit4 #ggd ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #fa4 #gge ,vide ,gr&',eury 7#gg71 ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #e4 #ggf ,weiss1 loc4 cit4 ,pl4 ,,xxi4 fig4 #e4 #ggg ,/ur 7#hg71 ,pl4 ,,xi4 fig4 #a4 #ggh ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pt4 ,,ii4 ,pl4 ,,li4 p4 #dbc4 #ggi ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pl4 ,,cxiv4 & ,pl4 ,,cxc4 ,! orig9al specim5s are 9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum1 ,newca/le-on-,tyne4 #ghj ,ibid4 ,pl4 ,,cxxx4 & ,fei/mantel 7#ge71 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #h4 #gha ,lesqu]eux 7#gi71 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 fig4 #ad4 #ghb ,salt] 7#fc71 figs4 #f & #g4 ,vide also ,c>ru!rs 9 ,woodw>d1 ,h4 7#gb71 p4 #afh4 #ghc ,gr&',eury 7#fi72 vide also 7#gg7 & 7#ij74 #ghd ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pt4 ,,ii4 ,pls4 ,,lii4 & ,,ciii4 #ghe ,ibid4 ,pl4 ,,li4 #ghf ,/]nb]g 7#ba71 ,pl4 ,,xii4 #ghg ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #fa4 #ghh ,ett+%aus5 7#ee71 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #d4 #ghi ,ett+%aus51 loc4 cit4 #gij ,gr&',eury 7#fi71 p4 #gji4 #gia ,fei/mantel 7#ge71 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #h4 #gib ,williamson 7#gd71 ,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #de4 #gic ,weiss 7#gf71 ,pl4 ,,xvii4 figs4 #a & #b4 #gid ,weiss 7#hd71 ,pl4 ,,xvi a4 figs4 #aj & #aa4 #gie ,ibid4 ,pl4 ,,xxv4 fig4 #b4 #gif ,/ur 7#hg71 ,pl4 ,,ii4 etc4 #gig ,zeill] 7#hh71 p4 #cfc1 ,pl4 ,,lvii4 fig4 #a4 #gih ,/e9hau] 7#ah71 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #a4 #gii ,kid/on 7#ic71 p4 #caa1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 #hjj ,kid/on 7#id71 p4 #bdh4 #hja ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #aai4 #hjb ,/e9hau] 7#ah71 ,pl4 ,v4 figs4 #a & #b4 #hjc ,artis 7#be71 ,pl4 ,,xxiv4 #hjd ,brongni>t 7#bh71 ,pls4 ,,xv4 & ,,xvi4 #hje ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pl4 ,,lxxix4 #hjf ,kid/on 7#ic71 p4 #cad2 7#hf71 p4 #bd4 #hjg ,zeill] 7#hh71 p4 #ccc4 #hjh ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pl4 ,,lxxix4 #hji ,weiss 7#hd71 ,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #a4 #haj ,r5ault & ,zeill] 7#hh71 p4 #che4 #haa ,gr&',eury 7#ij71 p4 #bad4 #hab ,/ur 7#hg71 p4 #afj1 ,pl4 ,,ix4 fig4 #b4 #hac ,kid/on 7#id71 p4 #bdi4 #had ,gr&',eury 7#hi71 p4 #ajhg4 #hae ,zeill] 7#hh71 p4 #cee4 #haf ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #if4 #hag ,/]zel 7#ic71 p4 #ff4 #hah ,zeill]1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cec4 #hai ,/]nb]g 7#be71 ,pl4 ,,xlix4 fig4 #e4 #hbj ,brongni>t 7#bh71 p4 #abh1 ,pl4 ,,xix4 #hba ,g]m> & ,kaulfuss 7#ca71 p4 #bba1 ,pl4 ,,xlv4 fig4 #a4 #hbb ,l9dley & ,hutton 7#ca71 ,pl4 ,,ccxvi4 #hbc ,gr&',eury 7#gg71 p4 #bic4 #hbd ,zeill] 7#hj71 ,pl4 ,,clxxiv4 7expl4 plates7 fig4 #c4 #hbe ,weiss 7#hd71 pp4 #aab1 #aac1 #aad4 #hbf ,zeill] 7#hh71 p4 #cec4 #hbg ,kid/on 7#id71 p4 #bdi4 #hbh ,gr&',eury 7#ij71 p4 #baf 7expl4 plates74 #hbi ,/ur 7#hg71 p4 #fh4 #hcj ,/ur 7#hg71 ,pl4 ,x4 #hca ,artis 7#be71 ,pl4 ,,ii4 #hcb ,weiss1 loc4 cit4 ,pls4 ,v4 ,,vi4 & ,x4 #hcc ,gr&',eury 7#gg71 7#ij74 #hcd ,vide ,/ur 7#ge71 etc4 = rem>ks on ! c\rse ( ! vascul> /r&s4 #hce ,= good figures ( ! leaves vide ,/ur 7#ge71 ,ro?pletz 7#hj71 ,ett+%aus5 7#ff71 ,solms 7#if74 #hcf ,r5ault 7#if71 p4 #hj2 7#ic71 ,pls4 ,,xlii4 & ,,xliii4 ,s9ce ! above 0 writt5 an acc\nt ( ! int]nal /ructure ( ,ar*aeocalamites has be5 publi%$ by ,solms-,lauba* 7#ig72 he describes ! wood z be+ ( ! ,ar?ropitys type4 #hcg ,r5ault1 loc4 cit4 ,pl4 ,,xlii4 figs4 #f & #g4 #hch ,/ur 7#ge71 p4 #b1 ,pls4 ,,ii4-,v4 #hci ,an exam9ation ( ! specim5s 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,au/rian ,geology ,survey did n enable me to satisfactorily v]ify ! features ( ! cone z describ$ by ,/ur2 ! impressions are f> f cle>4 #hdj ,kid/on 7#hc74 #hda ,vide ,pat]son 7#da72 ,lyell 7#fg71 vol4 ,i4 p4 #adi etc4 #hdb ,volkmann 7#agbj71 p4 #ic1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 fig4 #b4 #hdc ,s*lo!im 7#bj71 p4 #djb1 ,pl4 ,,xxii4 fig4 #d4 #hdd ,/]nb]g 7#be74 #hde ,brongni>t 7#bh71 p4 #abb1 ,pl4 ,,xxvi4 figs4 #a & #b4 #hdf ,pat]son 7#da71 ,pl4 ,,iii4 #hdg ,gpp]t 7#eb71 ,pls4 ,,iii41 ,v41 ,,vi41 ,,viii41 ,,xxxviii4 #hdh ,ett+%aus5 7#ff71 ,pls4 ,i4-,,iv4 #hdi ,fei/mantel 7#gc71 ,pl4 ,,xiv4 fig4 #e4 #hej ,zeill] 7#hj71 p4 #ag4 #hea ,b9ney 7#fh71 p4 #g4 #heb ,/ur 7#ge71 p4 #c4 #hec ,kid/on 7#hf71 p4 #ce4 #hed ,s*imp] & ,koe*l9-,s*lumb]g] 7#fb71 ,pl4 ,i4 ,! orig9al specim5s ( ,s*imp]'s figures are 9 ! ,/rassburg ,museum4 #hee ,fei/mantel 7#gc71 p4 #dia1 ,pl4 ,,xxiv4 figs4 #c & #d4 #hef ,vide specim5s #bj ,a1 #bj ,b1 #bd 9 ! ,williamson ,collection4 #heg ,/ur 7#ge71 p4 #ag4 #heh ,ro?pletz 7#hj71 p4 #h4 #hei ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #ef4 #hfj ,s*eu*z] 7#agbc71 p4 #ai1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #a4 #hfa ,s*lo!im 7#jd71 ,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #bd1 p4 #eg4 #hfb ,/]nb]g 7#be71 p4 #cb4 #hfc ,brongni>t 7#bb71 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 fig4 #h1 p4 #bcd4 #hfd ,ibid4 7#bh71 p4 #fh4 #hfe ,dawson 7#ff71 p4 #aec1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 #hff ,= ref]5ce vide an excell5t monograph by ,coemans & ,kickx 7#fd71 also ,potoni 7#id74 #hfg e4g4 ,newb]ry 7#ia74 #hfh ,r5ault 7#gc71 7#gf71 7#if74 #hfi ,williamson 7#gd71 7#gh74 #hgj ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #iai4 #hga ,specim5 #ibi 9 ! ,williamson ,cab9et is a longitud9al section ( ! ,fr5* ,sph5ophyllum1 z describ$ by ,r5ault 7#gf74 #hgb ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #ibf4 #hgc ,williamson 7#ia71 p4 #ah4 #hgd ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #ibj4 #hge ,williamson 7#ia71 p4 #ab4 #hgf ,ibid4 7#gd74 #hgg ,felix 7#hf71 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #b4 #hgh ,= figures vide ,r5ault 7#hb71 ,pl4 ,,xvi4 fig4 #a1 7#gf7 ,pls4 ,,vii4 & ,,ix4 #hgi ,williamson 7#ga74 #hhj ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #bjj4 #hha ,b9ney 7#ga74 #hhb ,williamson 7#ia74 #hhc ,zeill] 7#ic74 #hhd ,williamson 7#ib74 #hhe ,potoni 7#id71 fig4 #a4 #hhf ,= a m complete acc\nt ( ?is /robilus vide ,zeill] 7#ic71 & ,williamson 7#ia71 etc4 #hhg ,zeill] 7#ic71 p4 #cg4 #hhh ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #idc4 #hhi ,scott 7#ig71 p4 #bd4 #hij ,solms-,lauba* 7#ie74 #hia ,ibid4 ,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #f4 #hib ,kid/on 7#ij74 #hic ,i am indebt$ to my fri5d ,mr ,kid/on = an opportunity ( exam9+ ^! specim5s4 #hid ,vide ,r5ault 7#gg71 7#if71 p4 #aeh4 ,zeill] 7#ic71 p4 #cd4 ,williamson & ,scott 7#id71 p4 #idb4 #hie ,brongni>t 7#bb71 p4 #bcd1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #h4 #hif ,brongni>t 7#bh71 p4 #fh4 #hig ,bis*(f 7#bh71 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 fig4 #a4 #hih ,rm]1 ,f4 7#fb71 p4 #ba1 ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #b4 #hii ,/]zel 7#hf71 pp4 #bf1 #bg1 etc4 #ijj ,kid/on 7#ic71 p4 #ccc4 #ija ,zeill] 7#hh71 p4 #dad4 #ijb ,ibid4 p4 #daa4 #ijc ,weiss 7#hd71 p4 #bja1 ,pl4 ,,xxi4 fig4 #ab4 #ijd ,solms-,lauba* 7#ie71 p4 #bcb4 #ije ,ge9itz 7#ee71 ,pl4 ,,xx4 fig4 #g4 #ijf ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pl4 ,,lxiv4 figs4 #c-e1 & 7#ic71 p4 #bd1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #d4 #ijg ,/ur 7#ge71 p4 #ajh4 #ijh ,/ur 7#hg71 ,pl4 ,,xv4 & ,kid/on 7#ij71 p4 #ei1 ,pl4 ,i4 #iji ,zeill] 7#hh71 ,pl4 ,,lxii4 figs4 #b-d4 #iaj ,/ur 7#hg72 ,williamson 7#gd72 ,sew>d 7#hi71 etc4 #iaa ,r5ault 7#hb71 p4 #hd1 & ,newb]ry 7#ia74 #iab ,kid/on 7#ij71 p4 #fb4 #iac ,/ur 7#ge71 p4 #aad1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 #iad ,zeill] 7#ic71 p4 #cb4 #iae ,mahr 7#fh71 ,pl4 ,,viii4 #iaf ,zeill] 7#hj71 p4 #cd1 ,pl4 ,,clxi4 fig4 #i4 #iag ,coemans & ,kickx 7#fd72 ,zeill] 7#hj71 7#hh72 ,s*imp] 7#fi74 #iah ,royle 7#ci71 p4 #dca4 #iai ,= o!r figures ( ?is plant1 vide ,fei/mantel 7#ha71 ,pls4 ,,xi4 ,a & ,,xii4 ,a4 #ibj ,zeill] 7#ia74 #iba ,vide also ,zeill] 7#ib71 p4 #ge4 #ibb ,fei/mantel 7#ha71 p4 #fi4 #ibc ,scott 7#ig74 #ibd ,scott 7#if71 p4 #ae4 #ibe ,dawson 7#fa71 p4 #aj1 fig4 #g4 #ibf ,kid/on 7#id71 p4 #bej4 #ibg ,kid/on 7#id71 p4 #bej4 #ibh ,/]zel 7#ic71 p4 #adc4 #ibi ,zeill] 7#id71 p4 #agb4 #icj ,de ,b>y 7#hd71 p4 #dii4 #ica ,we/]mai] & ,ambronn 7#ha74 #icb ,s*w5d5] 7#gd71 p4 #abd4 ,hab]l&t 7#if71 p4 #afe4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 - ,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics 7italics74 - ,text enclos$ by equals is 9 bold 7bold74 - ,text enclos$ by tildes is 9 antiqua 7antiqua74 - ,blank pages h be5 remov$4 - ,obvi\s typographical errors h be5 sil5tly correct$4 - ,odd-numb]$ page head+s are ent]$ at approximate locations z sid5otes1 except :]e repeat$1 or duplicat$ 9 head+s4 - ,errata f ,vol4 ,,ii4 appli$4 - ,"s head+s & table ( cont5ts h be5 modifi$ to be m consi/5t1 includ+ removal ( section li/ "u ,*apt] ,,ix z sections ,,ii-,,iv are 9 o!r *apt]s4