,,moving ,,pictures ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,made ,,and ,,worked ,,conquests ,,of ,,science ,uniform with this ,volume4 ,,by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,talbot ,,the ,,oil ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,lightships ,,and ,,lighthouses ,,the ,,railway ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,steamship ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company ,,london3 ,,william ,,heinemann ,illustration3 ,frontispiece4 ,,trick ,,cinematography--,,the ,,automobile ,,accident4 ,the producer giving instructions to the principal actor and his double1 the legless cripple4 ,the dummy legs in the foreground4--,see page #baa4 ,,conquests ,,of ,,science ,,moving ,,pictures ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,made ,,and ,,worked ,,by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,talbot ,,new ,,edition ,,illustrated ,,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,company ,,london3 ,,william ,,heinemann #aiad ,first ,printed1 ,january1 #aiab ,revised ,edition1 ,december1 #aiab ,new ,edition1 ,november1 #aiad ,printed in ,england4 ,,preface ,the marvellous1 universal popularity of moving pictures is my reason for writing this volume4 ,a vast industry has been established of which the great majority of picture-palace patrons have no idea1 and the moment appears timely to describe the many branches of the art4 ,i have endeavoured to deal with the whole subject in a popular and comprehensive manner4 ,i have been assisted by several friends1 who have enabled me to throw considerable light upon the early history of motion photography and the many problems that had to be mastered before it met with public appreciation3--,,mm4 ,weiss and ,bull1 the ,director and ,assistant-,director respectively of the ,marey ,institute in ,paris2 ,m4 ,georges ,demeny2 ,messrs4 ,frank ,l4 ,dyer1 the ,president of ,thomas ,a4 ,edison1 ,incorporated2 ,w4 ,f4 ,greene1 ,robert ,w4 ,paul1 ,james ,williamson1 ,lumire ,sons1 ,richard ,g4 ,hollaman1 the ,eastman ,kodak ,company1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,comandon1 ,f4 ,percy ,smith1 ,albert ,smith1 and the numerous firms engaged in one or other of the various branches of the industry4 ,i am indebted especially to the editor of ,l',illustration1 the well-known ,parisian illustrated weekly newspaper1 in conjunction with the ,socit des tablissements ,gaumont1 for permission to publish the photographs illustrating ,chapters ,,xix41 ,,xx41 and ,,xxi41 as well as the frontispiece2 also to ,mr4 ,a4 ,a4 ,hopkins1 the author of 8,magic10 and to ,messrs4 ,munn ,co41 the proprietors of ,the ,scientific ,american1 of ,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,the book makes no claim to being a practical manual1 because thereby intricate technicalities would have been unavoidable4 ,the information respecting the various mechanical aspects of cinematography are set forth in a readable manner1 so that the broad principles may be understood4 ,while the most popular features of motion photography are described fully1 ,i have not omitted to introduce the reader to the educational and scientific developments1 which are more wonderful and fascinating4 ,indeed1 the cinematograph will probably achieve greater triumphs in these fields than it has accomplished already as a source of amusement4 ,,frederick ,a4 ,,talbot4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,what ,,is ,,animated ,,photography8 #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,first ,,attempts ,,to ,,produce ,,moving ,,pictures #aj ,,iii4 ,,the ,,search ,,for ,,the ,,celluloid ,,film #bc ,,iv4 ,,the ,,kinetoscope3 ,,the ,,animatograph3 ,,the ,,cinematographe #cj ,v4 ,,how ,,the ,,celluloid ,,film ,,is ,,made #ej ,,vi4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,perforation ,,gauge #eg ,,vii4 ,,the ,,moving ,,picture ,,camera1 ,,its ,,construction1 ,,and ,,operation #fe ,,viii4 ,,developing ,,and ,,printing ,,the ,,pictures #gf ,,ix4 ,,how ,,the ,,pictures ,,are ,,shown ,,upon ,,the ,,screen #hh ,x4 ,,the ,,studio ,,for ,,staging ,,moving ,,picture ,,plays #ajc ,,xi4 ,,the ,,cinematograph ,,as ,a ,,recorder ,,of ,,topical ,,events3 ,,scenic ,,films #aaf ,,xii4 ,,the ,,cinematograph ,,theatre ,,and ,,its ,,equipment #acj ,,xiii4 ,,how ,a ,,cinematograph ,,play ,,is ,,produced #adf ,,xiv4 ,,moving ,,pictures ,,of ,,microbes #afa ,,xv4 ,,some ,,elaborate ,,picture ,,plays ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,were ,,staged #afi ,,xvi4 ,,pictures ,,that ,,move1 ,,talk1 ,,and ,,sing #agi ,,xvii4 ,,popular ,,science ,,as ,,revealed ,,by ,,the ,,cinematograph #aij ,,xviii4 ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced4-- ,i4 ,,the ,,first ,,attempts ,,at ,,cinematograph ,,magic ,,and ,,the ,,artifices ,,adopted #aig ,,xix4 ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced4-- ,,ii4 ,,dancing ,,furniture3 ,,strings1 ,,cords1 ,,and ,,wires3 8,,the ,,magnetic ,,gentleman03 ,,the 8,,stop ,,and ,,substitution03 8,,the ,,automobile ,,accident03 ,,reversal ,,of ,,action #bjg ,,xx4 ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced4-- ,,iii4 ,,manipulation ,,of ,,the ,,film3 ,,apparitions ,,and ,,gradual ,,disappearances ,,by ,,opening ,,and ,,closing ,,the ,,diaphragm ,,of ,,the ,,lens ,,slowly3 8,,the ,,siren03 ,,submarine ,,effects #bah ,,xxi4 ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced4-- ,,iv4 ,,lilliputian ,,figures3 8,,the ,,little ,,milliner',s ,,dream03 ,,the 8,,one ,,turn ,,one ,,picture0 ,,movement3 ,,how ,,some ,,extraordinary ,,incidents ,,are ,,produced3 8,,the ,,ski ,,runner0 #bca ,,xxii4 ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced4-- ,v4 8,,princess ,,nicotine0 ,,and ,,her ,,remarkable ,,caprices #bdb ,,xxiii4 ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced4-- ,,vi4 ,,some ,,unusual ,,and ,,novel ,,effects #bed ,,xxiv4 ,,electric ,,spark ,,cinematography #bfd ,,xxv4 ,,the 8,,animated0 ,,newspaper #bgg ,,xxvi4 ,,animation ,,in ,,natural ,,colours #bhg ,,xxvii4 ,,moving ,,pictures ,,in ,,the ,,home #cja ,,xxviii4 ,,motion-,,photography ,,as ,,an ,,educational ,,force #cab ,,xxix4 ,,recent ,,developments3 ,,the ,,growth ,,and ,,popularity ,,of ,,the ,,cinematograph3 ,,some ,,facts ,,and ,,figures3 ,,conclusion #cai ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,to face page ,trick ,cinematography--,the ,automobile ,accident ,frontispiece ,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,marey's ,famous ,experiments--,photographic ,gun of #ahhb #af ,consecutive ,pictures of a ,gull ,flying1 taken with the ,photographic ,gun #af ,chronophotographic ,apparatus for taking ,consecutive ,pictures upon a ,single ,glass ,plate #af ,dr4 ,marey's ,animated ,pictures made in #ahhd-f for the ,analysis of ,motion #ag ,edison's ,first ,kinetoscope #cb ,edison ,film made about #ahia for the ,kinetoscope #cc ,edison ,film made in #aiaa for the ,cinematograph #cc ,paul's ,camera showing ,mechanism for moving the ,film intermittently past the ,lens #cf ,the ,first ,kinetoscope ,film made in ,england #cf ,the 8,black ,maria10 the ,first ,edison ,studio for making ,kinetoscope ,films #cg ,the ,dissolving ,room #eb ,the ,mixing ,barrel #ec ,a ,battery of ,celluloid ,mixers #ed ,the ,liquid ,celluloid ,storage ,room #ee ,paul's ,rotary ,perforator #fj ,the ,first ,cinematograph ,studio-,stage #fj ,the ,williamson ,film ,perforator #fa ,the ,perforating ,room of the ,cines ,company in ,rome #ff ,the ,film-moving ,mechanism of a ,cinematograph ,camera #fg ,paul's ,complete ,developing1 ,printing1 and ,drying ,outfit #gj ,the ,first ,developing ,room in ,great ,britain1 at ,robert ,paul's ,pioneer ,film ,factory #gj ,after ,development and ,washing the ,films were transferred from the ,racks to the ,cylinders #ga ,the ,drying ,room1 showing ,films wound on the ,drying ,drums #ga ,the ,developing ,room at the ,path ,works #gh ,the ,drying ,room at the ,path ,works #gi ,a ,row of ,printing ,machines in the ,rome ,works of the ,cines ,company #hb ,the ,williamson ,printing ,machine #hc ,the ,projector and ,mechanism #ajj ,the ,complete ,projecting ,installation #ajj ,the 8,chrono0 ,projector #aja ,outstripping the ,human ,eye #aja ,an ,early ,open-,air ,studio-,stage for producing ,cinematograph ,plays #ajd ,the ,scene-,painters' ,shop at a ,path ,studio #aje ,battle ,scene from 8,the ,siege of ,calais0 #ajh ,exterior of the ,modern ,edison ,film-,play-,producing ,theatre #aji ,building a ,solid ,set for 8,the ,two ,orphans0 #aji ,building a ,scene on one of the ,path ,studio-,stages for a ,film ,play #aab ,the ,wardrobe ,room at the ,selig ,film ,factory #aac ,the ,selig ,stock ,company at ,los ,angeles #aac ,the ,first ,topical ,film #aah ,the ,fall from the ,balloon #aai ,the ,luxury of the ,modern ,picture ,palace #acd ,the ,lantern ,room of a ,modern ,cinematograph ,theatre #ace ,the ,trial ,scene from 8,rachel's ,sin0 #adj ,how the ,sound ,accompaniments to ,pictures are ,produced #ada ,the ,film-,play ,producer at ,work #adh ,taking ,three ,picture-,plays ,simultaneously #adi ,the ,fight for the ,boats in 8,atlantis0 #aeb 8,sauve qui peut0 at the ,wreck of the ,liner #aeb ,the ,sinking of the ,liner 8,roland0 #aec ,sorting1 ,examining1 and ,joining the ,strips of ,film #aef ,preparing the ,titles #aeg ,dr4 ,comandon's ,apparatus for taking ,moving ,pictures of ,microbes #afd ,the ,phenomenon of ,agglutination in a ,fowl's ,blood #afe ,the ,blood of a ,fowl suffering from ,spirochta ,gallinarum #afe ,a ,triumph of the ,cinematographer's ,art #agb ,the ,gigantic ,horse being ,hauled by the ,greeks under the ,walls of ,troy #agc 8,the ,fall of ,troy0 #agc ,the 8,battle of ,waterloo0 upon the ,film #agf ,building the ,scenery for the ,film ,performance of 8,hamlet0 #agg ,the ,ghost ,scene from 8,hamlet0 #agg ,nature and the ,cinematographer--,mr4 ,percy ,smith at ,work #aib ,fly ,seated in a ,diminutive ,chair ,balancing a ,cork #aic ,an ,unfamiliar ,juggler--,bluebottle ,balancing a ,piece of ,vegetable ,stalk #aic ,fly ,lying on its ,back ,spinning a ,wheel #aid ,juggling ,flies #aid ,the ,fly ,walking ,up the ,turning ,wheel #aid ,the ,life of the ,butterfly #aie ,the ,magic ,sword3 ,a ,medival ,mystery ,explained #bjj ,a ,christmas ,carol3 ,how ,scrooge saw ,bob ,cratchit's ,home #bja 8,ora ,pro ,nobis10 and ,how it was ,produced #bjb ,the ,secret of the ,haunted ,curiosity ,shop #bjc ,motoring ,round the ,ring of ,saturn #bjd ,the ,car ,circling the ,sun #bjd ,the ,animated ,swords #bje ,the ,travelling ,bed #bjh ,the ,magnetic ,gentleman #bji ,the ,pursuing ,man-hole ,cover is a ,wooden ,property #baj ,the ,lamp-,post is a ,stage ,article ,hinged in the ,centre #baj ,the ,trick ,picture--,the ,automobile ,accident3 ,the ,actor being replaced by the ,legless ,cripple with the ,dummy ,legs #baa ,the ,taxi-cab ,running over the ,sleeper and ,apparently ,cutting off his ,legs1 but in ,reality ,displacing the ,legless ,cripple's ,property ,limbs #bab ,observing the ,effects of the ,disaster1 the ,doctor ,proceeds to ,replace the ,severed ,legs #bac ,the ,limbs ,replaced1 the ,patient and ,doctor ,shake ,hands #bac ,the ,roysterer1 after being run over by the ,taxi-cab1 ,sitting up and ,brandishing his ,severed ,limbs #bad ,the ,legless ,cripple being ,prepared for the ,act #bad ,the ,fountain of ,youth #bae ,pumpkins ,running ,up-hill #bae ,the ,revolving ,table #bbj ,the ,secret of the ,fairy's ,disappearance3 ,while a ,length of ,film is being exposed the ,diaphragm is closed slowly #bba ,the same ,length of ,film is re-exposed after the ,fairy has entered the ,picture1 under a slowly opening ,diaphragm #bbb ,the ,effect of ,double ,exposure under closing and opening ,diaphragm #bbc ,the ,mystery of 8,the ,siren0 #bbf ,the ,mystery of 8,the ,siren0 revealed #bbg ,a ,workshop in which ,tools move without ,hands #bch ,the ,skater approaching the ,factory ,chimney #bch ,the ,result of the ,collision with the ,chimney #bci ,the ,ski-runner ,disappears into ,space #bci ,princess ,nicotine--,a ,dainty ,trick ,film #bdf ,the ,fairy1 ,buried in the ,heart of the ,rose1 ,smoking a ,cigarette #bdg ,the ,diminutive ,form of the ,fairy on the ,table #bdg ,the ,fairy ,imprisoned in the ,bottle4 ,this effect is obtained by double exposure #bej ,the ,fairy1 after ,coquetting with the ,bachelor1 is driven away by the ,smoke from his ,cigarette #bej ,the ,fairy proceeds to ,build a ,bonfire with ,matches #bea ,the ,fairy1 her ,accomplice1 and ,properties1 which are ,enlarged ,reproductions of the ,actual ,articles #bea ,the ,dissolution of the ,government #beh ,the ,latest ,craze in ,trick ,cinematography3 ,silhouettes with ,models #bei ,a ,quaint ,advertisement ,film #bfj ,mr4 ,asquith in ,cartoon #bfj ,a ,novel ,curtain ,idea #bfj ,the ,human ,butterfly3 ,how are the ,effects ,obtained8 #bfa ,m4 ,lucien ,bull's ,complete ,apparatus #bgj ,the ,novel ,camera showing ,stereoscopic ,lens #bgj ,a ,bee ,cinematographed in ,full ,flight #bga ,a ,dragon ,fly in ,flight #bgd ,cinematograph ,film of a ,bullet ,fired through a ,soap ,bubble #bge ,preparing the ,path ,colour ,films #bhh ,the ,path ,colour ,machine-,printing ,room #bhi ,the ,kinora ,camera #cjb ,the ,mechanism of the ,kinora ,camera showing ,paper ,negative ,film in position #cjb ,the ,reel of ,positive ,prints #cjc ,the ,kinora ,reproduction ,instrument #cjc ,the ,bettini ,glass ,plate ,cinematograph #cjh ,a ,section of a ,bettini ,glass ,plate ,record #cjh ,the ,birth of a ,flower #cji ,waging a ,health ,campaign by ,moving ,pictures #cji ,cinematographing ,africa from a ,locomotive #cad ,mount ,etna in ,eruption3 ,looking into the ,crater of the ,volcano #cae ,the ,plumes of ,smoke as seen from the ,observatory #cae ,the 8,cradle of ,cinematography03 ,the ,marey ,institute in ,paris #cbb ,the latest marvel in ,moving ,pictures3 ,combining the ,x-rays with the ,cinematograph #cbb ,after ,fifty ,years4 ,this ,film won the ,first ,prize of #be1jjj ,francs at the recent ,turin ,exhibition #cbc ,,chapter ,i ,,what ,,is ,,animated ,,photography8 ,from the day when it was found possible 7by the aid of sunlight7 to fix a permanent image of an object upon a sensitised surface1 inventors steadily applied their ingenuity to the problem of instantaneous photography4 ,in other words1 they strove to realise the possibility of photographing an object in motion4 ,in our days the idea of 8snap-shot0 photography is such a commonplace that we can no longer realise the proportions of the task which confronted the early inventors4 ,probably most of us are unacquainted with the conditions under which the first photographs were taken4 ,the writer has often heard a member of his family relate the amusing story of an ordeal which1 as a lad1 the latter underwent at the hands of the ,frenchman1 ,daguerre4 ,he was seized upon by the inventor as an experimental subject and was forced to sit in the brilliant sunlight for a long time4 ,it seems incredible1 but it is true1 that when photography was in its infancy1 an exposure of six hours was required to secure a recognisable impression of an object--a circumstance which left practically nothing but still life as feasible subjects for photography4 ,the problem which confronted the pioneers of instantaneous photography was the reduction of the period of exposure from about #bj1jjj seconds to a mere fraction of a second4 ,considering the magnitude of this difficulty1 it is not surprising that the average person was sceptical as to its solution4 ,the possibility of fixing a horse in the act of jumping1 a bird in the act of flying1 or an orator's lips at the moment of uttering a word1 must have seemed nearly as remote as the discovery of the ,philosopher's ,stone4 ,it is interesting to imagine the sensations of the sceptic of one hundred years ago1 to whom instantaneous photography appeared a chimerical idea1 should he be recalled to life to-day and be shown first a procession passing down the street1 and a few hours afterward the same procession repeating itself before his eyes upon a screen in a darkened room1 with all the semblance of reality in colour and animation4 ,in the end1 it was the chemist who solved the problem of instantaneous photography1 without which animated photography as we know it to-day would never have been even conceivable4 ,he carried out innumerable laboratory experiments for the purpose of rendering the sensitised surface more and more susceptible to light--accelerating its actinic speed1 as it is called--until at last he revolutionised photography1 as he has changed nearly every other field of our modern industrial life4 ,he succeeded in preparing a surface1 or emulsion1 so sensitive to light that it can take a picture clear1 distinct1 and full of detail1 not merely in the space of one second1 but in less than a thousandth part of a second--a picture equal1 if not superior1 to those which in the early days of photography required an exposure #bj1jjj1jjj times as long6 ,the wonderful achievement of instantaneous photography assumed at first a scientific rather than a commercial value4 ,many a 8snap-shot0 is taken which does not betray whether the plate has been exposed for six hours or only one-thousandth of a second2 but1 on the other hand1 a 8snap-shot0 of a quickly moving subject may seize upon and fix an interesting or characteristic motion4 ,it was this fact which led certain ingenious minds to perceive in instantaneous photography a valuable means of analysing motion4 ,if a single photograph reproduced the exact posture of a moving subject at any given instant of time1 they argued that a series of such photographs1 if taken in sufficiently rapid succession1 would form a complete record of the whole cycle of movements involved1 for instance1 in the jump of a horse or the flap of a bird's wing4 ,here1 again1 the inventor encountered a difficulty almost as great as the initial one of instantaneous photography4 ,not only had the chemist to devise a new sort of sensitised plate with a gelatine coating better and more convenient to handle than the medium before employed1 but the mechanical engineer1 the optical instrument maker1 and the lens maker had to co-operate on a special sort of camera which should minimise the interval between successive exposures4 ,as earlier inventors had reduced the duration of the period of exposure1 modern ones have succeeded in their turn in reducing the interval between exposures to a minute fraction of a second4 ,when this result was achieved animated photography became a reality4 ,it was possible to secure a long series of consecutive snap-shots1 or instantaneous pictures depicting motion1 recorded at such brief intervals that when they were passed swiftly before the eyes they produced the illusion of movement4 ,at this point it is best to consider the physiological basis upon which animated photography rests4 ,the word illusion1 as used above1 correctly describes what takes place4 ,the eye sees a swift succession of instantaneous photographs2 but it is deluded into believing that it sees actual movement4 ,we have all marvelled at the magician who causes bottles1 eggs1 birds1 and animals to appear and disappear mysteriously before our very eyes4 ,we know that it is trickery1 pure and simple3 that the eye is being deceived4 ,the camera is a far more perfect trickster than the most accomplished illusionist that has ever lived1 and moving pictures are the most cunning illusion that has ever been devised4 ,in order to convey this delusion1 the photographer has taken advantage of one deficiency of the human eye4 ,this wonderful organ of ours has a defect which is known as 8visual persistence40 ,briefly defined1 this means that the brain persists in seeing an object after it is no longer visible to the eye4 ,i will make this clear by further explanation4 ,the eye is in itself a wonderful camera4 ,the imprint of an object is received upon a nervous membrane which is called the retina4 ,this is connected with the brain1 where the actual conception of the impression is formed1 by the optic nerve4 ,the picture therefore is photographed in the eye and transmitted from that point to the brain4 ,now a certain period of time must elapse in the conveyance of this picture from the retina along the optic nerve to the brain1 in the same manner that an electric current flowing through a wire1 or water passing through a pipe1 must take a certain amount of time to travel from one point to another1 although the movement may be so rapid that the time occupied on the journey is reduced to an infinitesimal point and might be considered instantaneous4 ,when the picture reaches the brain a further length of time is required to bring about its construction1 for the brain is something like the photographic plate1 and the picture requires developing4 ,in this respect the brain is somewhat sluggish1 for when it has formulated the picture imprinted on the eye1 it will retain that picture even after the reality has disappeared from sight4 ,this peculiarity can be tested very easily4 ,suppose the eye is focussed upon a white screen4 ,a picture suddenly appears4 ,the image is reflected upon the retina of the eye1 and transmitted thence to the brain along the optic nerve4 ,before the impression reaches the brain the picture has vanished from the sight of the eye4 ,yet the image still lingers in the brain2 the latter persists in seeing what is no longer apparent to the eye1 just as plainly and as distinctly as if it were in full view4 ,when the image does disappear1 it fades away gradually from the brain4 ,true1 the duration of this continued impression in the brain is very brief4 ,in the average person it approximates about #b_/dhths of a second1 which appears so short as not to be worth consideration4 ,still1 in a fraction of time a good deal may happen1 and in the case of animated photography it suffices to bring a second picture before the eye ere the impression of the preceding image has faded from the brain4 ,the result is that the second picture becomes superimposed in the brain upon the preceding image2 and being stronger and more brilliant1 it causes the disappearing impression to merge or dissolve into itself4 ,indeed1 one might go farther1 and say that the brain acts in the same manner as a dissolving lantern4 ,this apparatus is very familiar to us all1 and in its most approved type one view is dissolved into another4 ,for the purpose two lanterns are required1 placed either side by side or one above the other1 and both focussed upon the screen4 ,for the purpose of illustrating our complex point we will consider that they are one above the other4 ,a slide is projected brilliantly from the uppermost lantern4 ,presently the moment arrives to change the slide4 ,if the operator withdrew it from the upper lantern and inserted another there would be a defined break or blank interval upon the screen betraying the change4 ,so he inserts the new slide in the lower lantern1 at the same time increasing the volume of light emitted from that lantern1 and diminishing the volume thrown from the upper lantern4 ,the result is that the picture projected from the upper lantern becomes fainter and fainter1 while that shown by the lower lantern becomes stronger and stronger1 until only the latter is seen upon the screen--the former has merged or dissolved into the latter4 ,the same action takes place in the brain in connection with cinematography4 ,a picture is thrown upon the screen1 and remains visible for #a_/cbnd part of a second4 ,it is then eclipsed by the shutter1 and--supposing that the photographs are taken at the rate of sixteen pictures per second--for the next #a_/cbnd part of a second the screen is darkened owing to the passage of the shutter4 ,this division of time is not strictly correct1 as we shall see later1 but for present purposes ,i have considered the intervals of exposure and eclipse to be of equal duration4 ,now as a picture will linger in the brain for #b_/dhths of a second after it has vanished from the sight of the eye1 the brain retains the impression during #a_/cbnd part of a second1 while the shutter is passing across the lens4 ,the second picture now comes before the eye1 and although the previous picture still will remain in the brain for another #a_/ifth part of a second--the difference between #a_/cbnd and #b_/dhths--the new picture1 being the more brilliant1 becomes superimposed upon that already obtained1 and consequently causes the former dying image to merge into the later and brighter impression4 ,this successive dissolution of one picture into the other continues until the whole string of snap-shots is exhausted4 ,it will be noticed that every picture remains on the screen for #a_/cbnd of a second1 followed by a period of darkness of nearly equal duration1 the pictures thus being projected at the rate of sixteen per second4 ,the illusion of movement is enhanced by the fact that all fixed and stationary objects retain their relative positions in each succeeding image4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that a series of pictures1 depicting a man walking along a street1 are being shown upon a screen4 ,in the first picture the man is shown with his left foot in the air4 ,this remains in sight for #a_/cbnd of a second1 and then disappears suddenly4 ,though the picture has vanished from the eye1 the brain still persists in seeing the left foot slightly raised4 ,one thirty-second part of a second later the next picture shows the man with his left foot on the ground4 ,the shops1 houses1 and other stationary objects in the second image occupy the positions shown in the first picture1 and consequently the dying impression of these objects is revived1 while the brain receives the impression that the man has changed the position of his foot in relation to the stationary objects1 and the left foot which was raised melts into the left foot upon the ground4 ,the eye imagines that it sees the left foot descend4 ,another #a_/cbnd part of a second passes1 and the right foot is seen elevated1 but the fixed objects retain their positions still1 and so on4 ,the brain only notices the difference in the position of the moving objects1 and thus secures an illusory idea that movement is taking place4 ,i have taken a very simple example to illustrate the idea4 ,as a matter of fact1 moving pictures of men walking are seldom perfectly successful1 generally having a jerky movement4 ,thus we have seen what we describe as animated photography is not animation at all4 ,all that happens is that a long string of snap-shot photographs1 taken at intervals of #a_/bdth or #a_/cbnd part of a second1 are passed at rapid speed before the eye4 ,if the pictures are projected at the rate of one per second they resemble ordinary magic lantern projections4 ,as the operator slowly and gradually increases the speed1 the figures shown in the pictures assume a spasmodic motion1 as if their limbs were moved jerkily by means of strings2 this action becoming less and less pronounced as the speed is accelerated1 until1 at last1 when the operator gains the requisite rate of projection1 the jerky movement becomes resolved into steady rhythmic action4 ,in the early days it was difficult to convey the impression that motion was being shown1 because the movement of the shutter cutting off the picture was so emphasised as to convey a distinct sense of blankness between the successive images4 ,this regular intermittent occurrence of invisibility1 described as 8flicker10 caused tremendous strain to the eyes1 and provoked nauseating headache4 ,when the flicker was eliminated the strain ceased2 the illusion was rendered more perfect as well4 ,in order to satisfy one's self that the semblance of animation is an illusion1 one has only to compare the projection of a moving object upon the screen1 and its appearance in the camera obscura4 ,in the latter case absolute continuous motion is shown4 ,it may be said that complete animation by photography is quite out of the question with the single camera and projector4 ,how it can be avoided and a more perfect camera obscura effect produced upon the screen is described later4 ,mechanical ingenuity has not succeeded yet in achieving such a result by means of a single lens4 ,as a matter of fact1 only one-half or less of the movement that actually takes place is recorded upon the film4 ,what is lost occurs during the period the shutter is closed after exposure1 in order to permit a fresh area of sensitised surface to be brought into position behind the lens4 ,however1 the lapses are equal in point of time2 and when sixteen pictures are taken per second1 the interruption in the movement is not detected by the brain4 ,it may be asked why the operator confines himself to photographing at a speed of about sixteen pictures per second4 ,this question is governed for the most part by economical motives4 ,film is expensive1 and therefore the obvious point is to consume the minimum of material to secure the illusion4 ,when ,edison produced the kinetoscope1 at least thirty pictures per second were necessary to bring about the illusion1 but ,messrs4 ,lumire and ,paul1 by means of their apparatuses1 which were the first commercial cinematographs1 reduced the number to sixteen pictures per second4 ,if twenty-four photographs were taken and projected per second the result would be practically no better than when only sixteen pictures were made in the same period1 so that the additional eight pictures and their requisite length of film represent so much wasted effort and material4 ,this law in regard to visual persistence concerning the number of pictures per second holds good only so long as pictures are taken and projected in monochrome or black and white4 ,when animation in colour is introduced1 the illusory effect produced upon the brain becomes disturbed1 as is explained in the chapter dealing with this latter development of the art4 ,an interesting illustration of the fact that the eye is deceived may be narrated4 ,a film of a train passing through a tunnel was required4 ,two trains were secured for the purpose1 and at the rear of the leading train the camera was mounted in order to photograph the one following1 care being observed to keep them an equal distance apart4 ,in the darkness of the tunnel the question of illumination for the purposes of the exposures was somewhat perplexing4 ,various expedients were attempted1 but all to no avail1 and it appeared as if the task would have to be abandoned4 ,one of the party thereupon suggested a novel solution of the difficulty4 ,a section of the track was marked off1 and subdivided into short sections4 ,the train was brought to the first mark and there stopped1 when a flashlight photograph was made4 ,it was then advanced to the next mark1 and another flashlight instantaneous picture was secured4 ,this process was repeated several times1 the train being moved forward about eighteen inches between each exposure4 ,about fifty exposures were made in this manner1 and the length of exposed film thus obtained was multiplied to form a continuous picture of great length4 ,when projected on the screen several hundred photographs were passed before the audience at the speed of sixteen pictures per second1 and the semblance of motion was perfect1 the train having the appearance of travelling through the tunnel at express speed4 ,this is one of the most interesting examples known to me of illusion by animated photography1 and although it was not motion at all that was recorded1 still it sufficed to convey the impression of movement to the public4 ,in the course of the following chapters1 however1 various successful illusions caused by this means are described1 especially in regard to 8trick pictures40 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,first ,,attempts ,,to ,,produce ,,moving ,,pictures ,the idea of producing apparent animation by means of pictures is by no means new4 ,the origin of the most primitive form of moving picture device is lost in the mists of antiquity2 but it is certain that long before photography was conceived animated pictures were in vogue1 and constituted a source of infinite amusement among children4 ,the illusion was secured by a simple device known as the ,zoetrope or the 8,wheel of ,life40 ,it consists of a small cylinder1 mounted on a vertical spindle in such a way that it is free to revolve horizontally4 ,a band of thin cardboard1 or thick paper1 on which is painted a series of pictures1 generally in colour1 depicting successive stages in a particular movement1 such as a horse jumping1 a child swinging1 or two youngsters playing see-saw1 is placed horizontally around the inside of the lower half of the cylinder4 ,the upper half is pierced at regular intervals by long narrow slits or vertical openings1 which come opposite the pictures and extend only about half-way down the length of the wall4 ,when the cylinder is rotated sharply and one looks through the slits1 the pictures portray apparent motion--the horse rises and falls in the jump1 the swing moves to and fro1 and the see-saw goes up and down--in accordance with the laws of visual persistence4 ,each successive picture1 it must be pointed out1 is interrupted by the space in the surface of the wall between two consecutive slits through which one peeps into the cylinder4 ,we have1 in fact1 a cinematograph in the most primitive form2 the space between the apertures corresponding to the opaque sector of the shutter of the camera and the projector1 whereby one picture is eclipsed from view on the screen to permit the next to be brought before the lens4 ,indeed1 one can easily convert the zoetrope into a cinematograph if1 instead of painted pictures1 prints of a cinematograph film are mounted in the same way4 ,as a matter of fact1 some ingenious person followed this practice years ago1 thus unconsciously producing the first animated pictures by photography1 and in a crude way anticipating the kinetoscope4 ,from time to time the zoetrope was modified and revived in the praxinoscope1 phenakistoscope1 zoopraxinoscope1 and a number of other forms with awe-inspiring names4 ,in every instance1 however1 it was merely our old friend in a new guise4 ,one of these modifications created a flutter of excitement in ,france in #ahgg4 ,it was called the 8praxinoscope10 and its creator1 ,m4 ,reynaud1 for the first time enabled a large audience to see animation upon the screen4 ,in this case projection was carried out in a highly novel manner4 ,the front1 or proscenium opening1 of the stage was occupied by a large white screen1 such as is used for magic lantern projection1 the operator and his apparatus being on the stage behind1 out of sight4 ,accordingly the audience saw the picture through the sheet4 ,at the back of the stage a limelight lantern was set up1 from which a still life picture was thrown1 filling the greater part of the surface of the screen4 ,the picture thus shown formed as it were the setting for the animated picture1 in just the same way as the scenery comprises the environment for a stage play4 ,below the level of the stage was a large rectangular table1 at each corner of which were placed small vertical rollers4 ,at one end of the table were two large spools1 fitted with handles which were revolved horizontally4 ,one spool carried a long band of transparent material1 on which were painted at regular intervals silhouette figures in colour in successive stages of movement4 ,the band led from this spool round the vertical roller immediately adjacent1 then along the side of the table to the next corner1 on to the next corner1 on to the third corner1 back to the fourth corner1 and then to the empty reel1 on which it was wound4 ,by simultaneously rotating the loaded spool with the left hand1 and the second reel with the right hand1 the transparent picture band was passed round the table from one spool to the other4 ,centrally with the sheet1 and on a level with the table1 there was a second limelight lantern1 the back of which was towards the audience4 ,this lantern threw its rays upward at an angle of forty-five degrees or so4 ,as the band of pictures travelled along the table edge from the first to the second corner roller1 it was passed through this second lantern1 which projected the silhouette picture into a mirror hung overhead at the back of the stage1 which in turn reflected the image on the screen4 ,the figures on the band thrown from the second lantern appeared in the scene of the slide shown by the first lantern4 ,as the band was moved forward1 bringing successive phases of action upon the screen1 apparent motion was produced4 ,in fact1 animated pictures were shown1 and it was possible with a number of spools of painted bands to produce a comedy1 tragedy1 or other stage play in pictures4 ,this crude apparatus was the first attempt to portray moving pictures upon a sheet before a large audience4 ,as instantaneous photography developed and efforts were made to adapt photographic records instead of painted pictures to the praxinoscope1 great difficulty was experienced in securing the consecutive pictures sufficiently close to one another so as to reduce the loss of action between two successive pictures to the minimum4 ,the cameras available were not suited to this work4 ,too much time was lost in removing the exposed sensitised surface to permit another unexposed area to be brought before the lens4 ,about #ahgb ,mr4 ,muybridge1 an ingenious ,englishman1 resident in ,san ,francisco1 conceived a novel means of obtaining snap-shot photographs in rapid succession4 ,he maintained that such photographs taken at regular intervals1 reproduced in such a manner as to simulate natural animation1 would reveal the peculiar attitudes of animals in motion and would prove of invaluable service to artists4 ,he approached ,governor ,stanford and unfolded his scheme4 ,stanford was so impressed that he placed every facility at ,muybridge's disposal for the completion of the experiment1 including the use of his valuable stud of horses and exercising track4 ,as it was impossible to secure the desired end with a single camera1 ,muybridge built a studio beside the track1 in which twenty-four cameras were placed side by side in a row4 ,on the opposite side of the track1 facing the studio1 he erected a high fence1 painted white1 while across the track between the studio and the screen twenty-four threads were stretched1 each of which was connected with a powerful spring1 which held in position the shutter of a camera4 ,when all was ready1 a horse was driven over this length of track at a canter1 gallop1 trot1 or walk1 as desired1 and as the animal passed each camera1 it broke the thread controlling its shutter1 so that the horse photographed itself in its progress4 ,in these experiments1 however1 ,muybridge made no effort to secure detail4 ,the photographs were taken in brilliant sunlight1 and the white screen threw a dazzling reflection1 causing the objects to stand out in bold relief1 so that the record appeared in silhouette4 ,as these photographs were taken for a specific purpose--the analysis of movement--the screen was subdivided into panels1 whereby it was possible to determine the distance between each successive picture4 7,fig4 #a47 ,illustration3 ,by ,permission of 8,the ,scientific ,american40 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,first ,,moving ,,pictures4 ,twelve successive photographs1 by ,mr4 ,muybridge1 of a horse in full gallop4 ,in the last figure the horse is seen standing still4 ,the speed of the horse was about #a1adb metres 7#c1gdf feet7 per minute4 ,as ,muybridge's experiments were carried out upon a somewhat private basis1 the information about them that reached ,europe was of a very meagre description4 ,in ,france1 however1 they aroused a strong curiosity and peculiar interest1 especially in artistic and scientific circles4 ,they appealed especially to one man--,meissonier4 ,the great artist1 whose accuracy in the most minute detail was proverbial1 was fascinated4 ,he had observed very closely the curious attitudes that horses assume when in rapid motion1 and had committed the observations to his canvases1 only to meet with strenuous hostile criticism from his colleagues and the public4 ,so when ,governor ,stanford1 while visiting ,paris1 displayed some of ,muybridge's photographs1 the great painter spent hours in studying them1 and characterised them as an incalculable aid to art4 ,through ,governor ,stanford1 he extended an invitation to ,muybridge4 ,in the following year the ,anglo-,american experimenter--who might be described as the father of animated photography--visited the ,french capital1 and received a warm greeting by ,meissonier4 ,the artist had been criticised for his views concerning muscular action1 as displayed by the animals on his canvases1 yet here was a man who could demonstrate1 by the conclusive evidence of photography1 that his views were correct4 ,meissonier arranged a private demonstration1 which ranked as one of the most important social events of the year in ,paris4 ,among those who accepted the invitation to witness the new wonder were ,gerome1 ,goupil1 ,steinheil1 ,detaill1 ,alexander ,dumas1 and ,dr4 ,mallez4 ,muybridge had brought a representative collection of photographs with him1 showing horses in movement1 dogs1 deer1 and other animals running and jumping1 as well as men wrestling1 leaping1 and performing other athletic exercises4 ,the pictures were examined at great length individually4 ,then by means of the zoopraxoscope1 a form of the wheel of life1 whereby pictures in action could be thrown upon the screen1 they were displayed in animation1 thereby conclusively demonstrating the fact that what appeared so incredibly singular an attitude in a painting or an individual photograph was in reality part of a graceful harmonious natural movement4 ,there was one feature of ,muybridge's work which must not be overlooked1 and which decidedly restricted its application4 ,a battery of cameras had to be employed1 placed side by side4 ,it was as if a number of photographers1 standing in a row1 pressed a button the instant the object in motion was opposite their respective cameras4 ,all the photographs were broadside views1 and taken from the same relative position4 ,the results were not as the following eye of one person saw them1 but as the eyes of twenty or thirty persons standing side by side grasped a glimpse of motion during the five-thousandth part of a second4 ,if ,muybridge had attempted to take #ijj photographic impressions1 such as the cinematograph camera records in the space of a minute to-day1 he would have required nine hundred cameras for the purpose4 ,of course1 such a plan had no commercial possibilities4 ,its real value lay in the fact that it stimulated the ingenuity of a host of inventive brains towards the solution of animated photography4 ,one and all were bent upon securing the same result that ,muybridge had achieved1 but with a single camera and from one point of view4 ,among these experimenters the names of ,greene and ,evans1 ,acres and ,paul stand pre-eminent in ,great ,britain1 while ,france and the ,united ,states had an equal number of contemporaneous investigators engaged upon the problem4 ,even ,muybridge himself attempted its solution1 for he realised only too well that a battery of cameras was impracticable to ensure the commercial success of animated photography4 ,it appears to be a sorry trick of fortune that every great invention1 or development1 should produce a bevy of claimants for the honour of being the 8original inventor40 ,the word 8original0 is somewhat obscure and ambiguous1 but it is employed frequently4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is a wise invention that can single out its creator4 ,animated photography has been no exception to the rule4 ,lawyers and the courts have reaped a rich harvest from protracted litigation in the effort to settle the question once and for all1 with the inevitable result--the law has left the matter in a more hazy condition than ever4 ,the claim to the discovery of animated photography can scarcely be sustained by any one man4 ,desvignes devised an apparatus in #ahfj2 ,du ,mont formulated the first tangible scheme of chronophotography1 as it is called1 in #ahfa1 which ,donisthorpe put into practice in #ahgf1 while a host of other experimenters contributed to the problem in some particular detail4 ,it was not invention1 for the simple reason that there was nothing to invent2 it was merely evolution and the perfection of details4 ,as we have seen1 what the experimenters had to accomplish was the reduction of the length of time occupied in bringing one sensitised surface before the lens after the preceding sensitised surface had been exposed4 ,this was a matter of mechanical detail1 for the chemist accelerated the speed of the sensitised surface more and more1 and finally evolved the celluloid film4 ,various means of bringing successive sections of a sensitised surface before the lens were evolved1 and produced a plethora of patents2 but the perfection of details does not affect the fundamental principle of animated photography4 ,in ,great ,britain many investigators were energetic in the quest1 but the great majority never succeeded beyond the model stage2 that is to say1 their apparatuses never possessed any practical value1 and only served to emphasise once more the truth of the well-worn axiom that there is a great gulf between the creative mind of the inventor and the commercial world with its enormous capacity for development and exploitation4 ,among the early ,british experimenters was ,w4 ,f4 ,greene1 who1 like others1 was handicapped by having to make use of glass plates4 ,in #ahhe he displayed his first apparatus for taking and producing moving pictures1 and two years later exhibited some pictures taken on glass in the window of his premises in ,piccadilly4 ,this unusual display created such interest1 and the curiosity-provoked public so crowded the pavement that traffic was impeded1 and the police called upon ,greene to remove his pictures4 ,in ,france even greater things were being accomplished4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,marey took up ,muybridge's work at the point where the ,anglo-,american abandoned it4 ,marey followed rather the lines laid down by the astronomical investigator ,jansen1 who in #ahgd evolved a photographic revolver to secure records at short intervals of the transit of ,venus across the sun's disc4 ,marey constructed a photographic gun in #ahhb1 with which he studied the flight of birds1 and which worked on the principle elaborated by ,jansen eight years before4 ,the object of his quest was the analysis of motion4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that in its very earliest stages the value of animated photography was conceded to be rather in the field of science than that of amusement4 ,this celebrated ,french experimenter realised the inestimable value of 8chronophotography0 for the study and investigation of moving bodies1 the rapidity in the changes of the position or form of which was impossible to follow otherwise4 ,marey1 however1 made no effort towards synthesis or reproduction of the motion thus obtained2 he did not seek projection upon a huge scale upon the screen1 but regarded chronophotography rather as a means of enabling photographic results to be resolved into diagrams for examining and elucidating obscure points incidental to motion4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,,marey's ,,famous ,,experiments ,,in ,,cinematography4 #a4 ,photographic gun of #ahhb1 to photograph birds in flight4 #b4 ,consecutive pictures of a gull flying1 taken with the photographic gun4 #c4 ,chronophotographic apparatus for taking consecutive pictures upon a single glass plate1 showing mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,marey',s ,,animated ,,pictures ,,made ,,in #ahhd-hf ,,for ,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,motion4 #a4 ,a man jumping4 #b4 ,a man walking4 #c4 ,a duck flying4 #d4 ,a man leaping4 ,the objects1 clothed in white1 passed before a black screen1 and the exposures averaged about #a_/bjj of a second4 ,special apparatus was evolved and was set up at the ,physiological ,station in ,paris1 and some wonderful results were communicated by this industrious scientist to the ,french ,association for the ,advancement of ,science at ,nancy in #ahhf4 ,investigations were being carried out upon a large and advanced scale in ,france while the ,english were merely dabbling with the idea4 ,marey secured records of action intermittently from a single point of view by the revolution of a handle1 and to a pronounced degree anticipated the present-day cinematograph4 ,marey's camera was successful in its details1 especially considering the extreme difficulties attending the use of glass plates4 ,he ascertained that in order to secure continuous motion it was imperative to cut off the light from the plate at regular intervals2 and he accomplished this interruption by rotating an opaque disc1 pierced with small radial slots1 which permitted the light to reach the plate only intermittently4 ,the general design of ,marey's camera is shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,the camera1 of the ordinary bellows type1 was mounted in the upper part of a wooden frame clamped to a special support4 ,beneath was the handle1 which rotated the shutter through gearing4 ,this shutter moved at the back of the bellows1 occupying the same position relatively as the focal plane shutter used in very rapid still-life instantaneous photography4 ,by means of this shutter1 the passage of a body across the field of the lens was split up into a number of consecutive units4 ,the interval between two successive images1 and the time of the exposure1 could be altered merely by varying the revolving speed of the shutter4 ,as a rule1 the exposures were made at the rate of ten per second1 but in some cases the length of the exposure was only #a_/b1jjjth part of a second1 with an interval of one-fifth second between two consecutive pictures4 ,marey used a black background1 and his figures were clothed in white4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,marey',s ,,camera1 ,,showing ,,shutter ,,with ,,radial ,,slots4 ,there was an important reason for this reversal of ,muybridge's procedure4 ,in the latter the shutter of each camera had to be opened as the horse or other object passed the lens4 ,in ,marey's system the sensitised surface of the plate is directed against a dead black screen1 and the lens may be left open without exercising any ill effect upon the photographic plate1 because the latter receives no light4 ,when a man clothed in white passed across this black surface in full sunlight1 only his figure was recorded upon the sensitised surface1 and thus was thrown in strong relief against the black background4 ,special arrangements1 however1 had to be made to ensure the success of the result4 ,a flat plane black background did not suffice1 as a certain amount of light was reflected therefrom into the lens1 resulting in the plate becoming fogged4 ,the black screen employed was in reality a black cavity1 known as 8,chevreul's black40 ,the cavity may be likened to a shed1 the front wall of which is removed1 and the whole interior blackened4 ,in the screen used by ,marey at the ,physiological ,station in ,paris1 the back of the shed was hung with black velvet1 the floor was covered with pitch1 while the sides and ceiling were treated with a dead black medium4 ,these arrangements enabled ,marey to secure more useful results than were possible to ,muybridge4 ,from the scientific point of view they proved of incalculable value4 ,his marvellous pictures widened our knowledge of animal motion to a remarkable extent1 and provided incontrovertible records of action4 ,professor ,marey ultimately recorded the sum of his experiments in a volume1 ,movement1 which is now regarded universally as a classic in physiological science1 and even to-day is consulted freely for the purpose of elucidating complex and obscure phases of motion4 ,other investigators at about this time were ,general ,sebert1 ,m4 ,l4 ,soret of ,geneva1 and ,ottomar ,anschtz of ,berlin4 ,soret succeeded in analysing some very intricate movements1 while ,anschtz produced a curious 8wheel of life10 which was called the 8electrical tachyscope40 ,a special camera was evolved whereby photographs were taken in rapid succession4 ,from these negatives glass transparencies similar to lantern slides were produced1 and mounted in sequence around the rim of a large wheel1 which had to be of sufficient diameter to contain the whole series of pictures4 ,it was mounted upon a massive iron pedestal1 and was revolved from the rear by means of a handle4 ,behind the wheel1 and at the highest point1 which corresponded to the level of the eyes of the average person while standing1 a small box was placed4 ,the front of this box was open1 the size of this aperture corresponding exactly to the dimensions of the transparency4 ,it was fitted with a small electric light--a ,geissler tube1 in fact1 through which a current was passed from a ,rhumkorff coil--and this light was switched on and off by each picture as it passed before the front of the lamp box4 ,as each picture came into position before the aperture a contact was established1 and an impulse of electricity was discharged through the lamp4 ,it was a mere flash1 but it served to illuminate the transparency immediately in front1 so that the people gazing at the wheel received a brilliant and well-defined impression of the picture1 which was shown in an apparently stationary position1 though1 in fact1 the wheel was revolving continuously4 ,when the wheel was rotated with sufficient speed1 the flashes occurred in such rapid sequence that1 in accordance with the phenomena of visual persistence1 the illusion of animation was secured4 ,this was an extremely ingenious apparatus1 but was too complicated1 expensive1 and elaborate to command any commercial value4 ,it was regarded generally as a scientific toy4 ,it was on view in ,london1 in the ,strand near ,chancery ,lane1 for a little while1 but failed to arouse very marked enthusiasm4 ,however1 the 8inventor's fiddle10 as the ,anschtz tachyscope was popularly called1 was adopted by several other inventors with certain modifications1 but its application was naturally extremely limited4 ,comparatively speaking1 only a very few pictures could be carried in the rim of the wheel1 and as the travelling speed was somewhat high in order to convey a tangible impression of continuous motion1 a subject was exhausted in a few seconds4 ,associated with ,dr4 ,marey in his experiments was another indefatigable spirit1 ,m4 ,georges ,demeny4 ,he displayed considerable ingenuity in breaking down the peculiar difficulties associated with this work4 ,unfortunately the value of ,m4 ,demeny's efforts have never been appreciated2 but he brought his mind to bear upon the subject at a critical period1 and devoted all his energies1 time1 and thought to the solution of complicated problems that defied contemporary experimenters4 ,he proved an indispensable colleague to ,professor ,marey1 which the author of ,movement did not fail to acknowledge4 ,so far as ,france is concerned1 he rightly deserves to be regarded as the pioneer in cinematography4 ,he not only photographed motion1 but he reproduced it upon the screen1 and devised an ingenious camera and projector to achieve his end4 ,m4 ,georges ,demeny was forestalled in ,great ,britain by ,messrs4 ,greene and ,evans1 who produced a chronophotographic apparatus which they patented in ,june1 #ahhi1 wherein the film was drawn intermittently before the lens for exposure4 ,two months previously1 in ,april1 #ahhi1 another inventor1 ,stern1 had filed a patent also1 and these constitute the first intimation at the ,british ,patent ,office of the pending developments in cinematography4 ,neither issued beyond the experimental and model stage1 for the simple reason that they were not reliable in their operation4 ,there was no satisfactory mechanical means for moving the sensitised surfaces forward an equal distance after each exposure1 and this omission of an indispensable feature proved fatal to their success4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,search ,,for ,,the ,,celluloid ,,film ,in the struggle towards the perfection of animated photography the use of glass plates was a great hindrance4 ,investigators were hampered very seriously2 they were thwarted at every turn4 ,true1 the appearance of the dry plate somewhat facilitated their efforts1 but nevertheless the inevitable glass was bulky1 heavy1 fragile1 and awkward to handle4 ,finally1 the number of pictures obtainable upon a single surface was limited4 ,realising the restrictions incidental to this sensitised medium1 the energies of many investigators were devoted to the discovery of a less bulky1 lighter1 and more convenient substitute4 ,gelatine appeared promising at first sight1 but failed to give the anticipated results because it lacked stability1 and when immersed in the developing solution precipitated a variety of unexpected disasters which placed it out of court completely4 ,the next expedient was the use of transparent paper1 similar to what we call grease-proof paper1 covered with the gelatine emulsion1 invented by ,morgan and ,kidd1 of ,richmond4 ,when the exposures were made1 the paper was opaque and resembled ordinary bromide paper1 the essential transparent effect being secured by an operation after development and fixing4 ,this failed to give a clear1 distinct positive1 and the grain of the paper so broke up the resultant picture that this alternative was abandoned4 ,a suggestion advocated by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,palmer also was attempted4 ,the picture1 after development and fixing1 was stripped from its opaque support1 and attached to a stiff sheet of insoluble gelatine4 ,this gave a somewhat better effect1 but it was a round-about method1 and the stripping operation was one of great delicacy1 involving extreme care1 and uncertain in its results4 ,these substitutes failing one after another1 the hopes of the experimenters became centred upon celluloid1 which from every point of view appeared the most suitable medium4 ,the application of celluloid to photographic purposes had been advocated many years previously1 but there were many obstacles of a technical character which prevented its use at the time4 ,the investigator1 however1 continued the struggle towards bringing the celluloid film into the realm of practicability4 ,he was baffled in one particular direction4 ,celluloid could not be employed with the collodion process1 for the collodion which constituted the sensitive surface in the old wet process with glass plates1 and which in itself is a solution of pyroxyline1 a kind of gun-cotton--one of the basic constituents of celluloid--dissolved the celluloid which was coated with it4 ,the perfection of the gelatino-bromide process removed this defect4 ,then another difficulty loomed up4 ,celluloid at that time was not made in sheets sufficiently thin to render it applicable to photography1 and the manufacturers of the commodity could not be prevailed upon to prepare the substance in this form4 ,they argued that there was no promise of a sufficiently remunerative market to warrant the design of special machinery for the manufacture of such a product4 ,consequently1 the experimenters were forced to prepare their own film bases4 ,the experiences of those who grappled with this question and faced trials and tribulations innumerable in this particular phase of operations make interesting reading4 ,one reduced the celluloid to a liquid consistency and poured the plastic mass over large glass plates1 rolling it out to form a thin skin4 ,the surface of the glass previously was cleaned carefully to prevent the mixture adhering thereto4 ,the pouring had to be carefully done so as to secure an even thickness1 and to avoid the formation of air bubbles4 ,in this way a thin sheet was secured--a decided forward step4 ,in the dark room this 8base10 as it is called1 had next to be covered with a thin layer of sensitised emulsion1 and the whole left to dry4 ,afterwards the sheet was cut into strips of the width required for the camera and apparatus4 ,unfortunately1 in drying1 the celluloid was found to play many sorry tricks4 ,it buckled1 twisted1 and shrank into strange contortions1 and the films thus produced were still somewhat too substantial1 being1 in fact1 very similar to those used in the pack-film camera of to-day4 ,another worker was more fortunate4 ,by dint of importunity he succeeded in inducing one manufacturing firm to produce sheets of celluloid no thicker than drawing paper for his experiments4 ,but when the sheets were delivered they were far from being satisfactory1 being deficient in uniformity of thickness4 ,before the surface could be coated with sensitised emulsion a tedious task had to be performed4 ,the inequalities had to be scraped and pared off1 and finally the whole sheet had to be made thinner by being rubbed down with emery cloth and sandpaper4 ,hours were occupied in this process1 and often a maddening accident happened in the final stages which irreparably injured the sheet and wasted not only time1 but costly material4 ,even when sensitising was carried out successfully1 it was found extremely difficult to keep the material flat4 ,it is not surprising that after a prolonged experience of these disadvantages1 this particular investigator abandoned his experiments for a time4 ,in the majority of these efforts the pictures obtained were about four inches in width by three inches deep1 while the modern cinematograph film is only #a of an inch in width by three-quarters of an inch deep1 and almost as thin as a shaving4 ,the celluloid made at that time was not very transparent1 and as the pictures were somewhat dense1 the results were far from being satisfactory4 ,it began to look as though celluloid were doomed to follow in the wake of the other expedients that had been tested and found wanting4 ,such would have been the case but for the indefatigable efforts of one man who persevered with his experiments in the face of heartrending failures and disappointing results4 ,this was ,mr4 ,eastman1 of ,rochester1 in the ,state of ,new ,york1 who worked in conjunction with ,mr4 ,walker4 ,these two gentlemen had established a dry photographic plate manufacturing process1 which had developed into a conspicuous success1 and become known as the ,eastman ,dry ,plate ,company1 now familiar as the ,eastman ,kodak ,company4 ,the story of their innumerable experiments and ultimate success constitutes a fascinating chapter in the story of animated photography4 ,as early as #ahhd ,mr4 ,eastman realised that a substitute for glass was in demand to facilitate ordinary photography4 ,accordingly he set out to discover a system of photographing on films4 ,as he admits himself1 it was by no means a new idea4 ,from time to time spasmodic attempts in the same direction had been made by enterprising inventors1 the earliest known dating back as far as #ahed1 a year or two before the invention of ,parkesine1 now known as celluloid1 by ,mr4 ,a4 ,parkes1 of ,birmingham4 ,all of these experimenters1 however1 had been baffled by the technical difficulties confronting their quest1 and ,mr4 ,eastman had no tangible assistance to aid him in his work of research4 ,he was compelled to create the foundation upon which to carry out his developments1 and to reap success from mortifying failures4 ,in #ahhd1 when ,messrs4 ,eastman and ,walker commenced operations1 the problem to be solved in the production of a suitable film1 and the evolution of the means to handle it in the camera1 were formidable obstacles4 ,the mechanical part of the work proved the easier1 and in #ahhe roller photography1 which has revolutionised the art of photography1 at any rate from the amateur point of view1 was invented and put on the market4 ,this principle is now well known4 ,a length of film1 wound upon one roller1 is passed behind the lens in sections for exposure1 and then rolled up on a second roller1 until the whole has been exposed4 ,the device simplified the process very appreciably1 and it may fairly be accused of being the parent of the modern 8,kodak fiend40 ,though the mechanical part of the problem had thus been solved successfully1 the film question was perfected only partially at this time4 ,the film itself was far from satisfactory1 but it sufficed to meet the requirements of the day1 and to enable roller photography to come into vogue4 ,to meet the peculiar demands of roller photography1 ,mr4 ,eastman had set himself the task of producing a transparent base or support for the sensitised emulsion4 ,that is to say1 he sought and produced a stable substitute for the glass plate upon which the sensitised emulsion to record the image could be mounted4 ,it was no easy search1 as he speedily found to his cost1 for it involved scores of experiments1 one after the other1 all of which resulted in heartrending failure4 ,he sought to build up such a base as he had in mind by means of successive layers of collodion and rubber1 but the result did not possess sufficient substance and strength4 ,then he had recourse to paper1 which he used merely as a temporary support4 ,the roll of paper was first coated with soluble gelatine1 and afterwards with the sensitised emulsion1 which was rendered insoluble in itself by the addition of chrome alum4 ,this produced a substantial film which was exposed by means of the roll holder attached to the ordinary camera4 ,the image was developed and fixed4 ,then1 still attached to the paper1 the film was placed while wet1 immediately after washing1 upon a piece of glass coated with a thin solution of rubber4 ,as soon as the surface had dried1 hot water was applied to the paper1 which as the gelatine dissolved became detached1 leaving the film adhering to the surface of the rubber-coated glass4 ,in place of the paper a moistened thin sheet of gelatine was substituted4 ,when the whole had dried thoroughly it was detached from the glass1 and the result was a perfectly transparent negative4 ,the process was necessarily somewhat intricate and occupied some time1 but the results obtained were sufficiently practicable to render it commercially exploitable4 ,mr4 ,eastman1 however1 soon recognised the fact that the trouble of transferring the image from the temporary paper base to the gelatine support decreased the practical value of the process4 ,he decided to dispense with the paper support entirely1 and in his search for a suitable substitute his thoughts turned toward celluloid4 ,he communicated with the various manufacturers of that material1 but not one was prepared to supply him with the substance in sheets of sufficient size and thinness4 ,consequently he was compelled to devise ways and means to supply the deficiency2 and this was achieved partially by accident4 ,in the early part of #ahhi some experiments were being made to discover a varnish to take the place of the gelatine sheets4 ,one of his chemists drew ,mr4 ,eastman's attention to a thick solution of gun-cotton in wood alcohol4 ,it was tested to prove its suitability to take the place of the gelatine1 but was found wanting in practical efficiency4 ,however1 ,mr4 ,eastman recognised the solution as one which might prove to be the film base for which he had been searching4 ,he had had such a medium in mind when engaged in his first experiments in #ahhd1 which resulted in the production of the stripping film4 ,he decided to utilise this solution of gun-cotton in wood alcohol and to fashion it into the foundation for the sensitised emulsion1 so that stripping and other troublesome operations of a like nature might be avoided4 ,he was moved to this experiment because this solution could be made almost as transparent practically as glass4 ,accordingly he set to work to devise a machine to prepare thin sheets such as he required from this mixture4 ,success crowned his efforts1 and in #ahhi the first long strip of celluloid film suited to cinematograph work appeared in the ,united ,states4 ,messrs4 ,eastman and ,walker had not been alone in their quest4 ,in ,england experiments were being carried out in the same field4 ,curiously enough1 the main idea in this instance was to evolve a form of roller photography1 the ,british experimenter being ,mr4 ,blair4 ,he likewise met with success2 and the film was manufactured at ,st4 ,mary ,cray in ,kent4 ,though this film was far from being perfect1 showing considerable variation in thickness1 it served to assist the experiments in animated photography to a marked degree4 ,the celluloid strip thus produced was about twice the width of that now used in cinematography1 and as in the early attempts towards moving pictures1 no effort was being made towards projection--the illusion was received by looking into an instrument through which the film travelled1 and behind which a light was placed--it was made with a matt surface1 so that it closely resembled ground glass1 upon which the images stood out distinctly and brilliantly4 ,the width of the film was gradually decreased2 but this film-manufacturing industry never got a firm foothold in ,england4 ,the ,blair company was merged in that of the ,eastman company in ,america1 and it was not until many years had passed that another bid for participation in the manufacture of celluloid film for moving picture purposes was made by a ,british firm4 ,so soon as it leaked out in ,america in #ahhi that ,mr4 ,eastman had succeeded in his difficult search1 and that a film with a transparent rigid support which was no more difficult to handle than a glass plate1 and yet which was flexible and free from fragility1 was commercially available1 another experimenter appeared on the scene4 ,he had been labouring in the field for some years1 but1 realising the futility of glass plates1 had postponed his investigations until such time that a substitute could be obtained4 ,his apparatus was ready1 but the film was the missing link4 ,immediately it was available he secured some of the material and completed his apparatus4 ,that man was ,thomas ,alva ,edison1 and his 8,kinetoscope10 was the first commercial appliance to show pictures in natural movement4 ,animated photography was lifted from the realm of experiment into that of commercial practicability4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,kinetoscope3 ,,the ,,animatograph3 ,,the ,,cinematograph ,the ,kinetoscope ,the ,world's ,fair at ,chicago drew huge crowds from all parts of the world in #ahic4 ,the innumerable and varied side-shows evinced keen rivalry to obtain popular patronage4 ,but there was one building sheltering a small instrument which made a particularly bold bid for public favour4 ,it was a novelty1 something that the man in the street had never seen before4 ,the announcement ran that 8,edison's ,kinetoscope1 showing photographs in motion1 was to be seen for the first time40 ,it worked automatically1 and to investigate the new wonder the curiosity-provoked sightseer dropped a nickel--a coin equal in value to #b;d4--into the slot1 and applied his eye to the peep-hole1 when he was treated to a new sensation for about #cj seconds4 ,he saw photographic pictures flit before his gaze in such rapid succession that they appeared to be imbued with life4 ,children skipped1 the lips of an orator moved in speaking1 and so on4 ,it certainly was a marvellous device1 and those who availed themselves of the opportunity to see it in operation by means of the nimble nickel1 expressed undisguised wonderment2 to many it appeared uncanny4 ,the ,kinetoscope1 ,fig4 #c1 was housed in a wooden cabinet with a hinged door at one side4 ,within was a wooden frame ,a1 which carried a series of small reels ,b and ,b arranged in two horizontal rows at either edge of the frame4 ,at the top of the frame there were two larger wheels ,c1 between which was a magnifying lens ,d4 ,behind the latter there was a small electric lamp and reflector ,f4 ,in front of the magnifying lens there was a disc having a narrow radial slot near its edge1 which constituted the shutter4 ,this was rotated continuously1 and completed one revolution during the passage of each image across the eye-piece or magnifying lens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,edison',s ,,first ,,kinetoscope4 ,the ribbon of pictures1 printed as transparencies upon a strip of celluloid film1 somewhat dense so as to bring out the detail1 formed an endless band ,e1 #dj feet in length4 ,this was threaded over the various reels in the manner shown in the illustration1 and finally passed over the first large wheel ,c1 thence to the second large wheel ,c1 and back once more on to the reels ,b ,b4 ,though #dj feet constituted the average length of film employed1 longer ones could be used within certain limits1 by increasing the number of reels on the frame4 ,as the film passed from one of the large wheels ,c to the other1 it had to traverse the field of the magnifying lens1 and the light1 striking through the transparency1 gave the person looking through the eye-piece a slightly magnified view of the picture4 ,the cabinet stood on end1 so that one had to bend over the instrument to peer through the small eye-piece4 ,when the coin dropped into the slot1 an electric motor was started1 setting the film and shutter in motion4 ,the film travelled from left to right1 while the shutter rotated in the opposite direction1 cutting up the band of pictures into separate images1 so that only one was seen at a time4 ,the band travelled continuously1 and each image was momentarily rendered visible by the light flashing through the radial slot in the shutter1 the effect being the same as if the electric incandescent lamp were extinguished and relighted intermittently1 at very brief intervals4 ,illustration3 ,,edison',s ,,first ,,kinetoscope4 ,this machine1 completed about #ahij1 was very crude4 ,it was known as the 8peep-hole10 because one peered into the cabinet through the eye-piece at side4 ,the shutter had to be revolved at sufficient speed to bring the radial slot near its edge centrally over an image2 in other words1 the shutter had to complete its revolution with sufficient speed to bring the opening over the picture at the moment the latter on the travelling celluloid film came into the centre of the field of the lens4 ,when this operation was carried out with sufficient velocity1 the images were seen in such rapid succession as to convey the idea of continuous motion1 by virtue of the principle of visual persistence4 ,one point must be borne in mind4 ,the band of pictures travelled continuously4 ,it did not1 as in the machine of to-day1 make a momentary pause as it came between the light and the lens4 ,the movement to-day is intermittent1 not continuous1 though1 curiously enough1 all the early experimenters strove first towards the perfection of the latter arrangement4 ,continuous motion of the film has proved to be impossible1 because the shutter must revolve at such a speed that the illumination is not sufficient to produce a bright impression upon the screen4 ,in order to prevent the film slipping in any way while travelling over the smooth reels by friction1 a toothed sprocket was introduced to ensure the film being fed regularly and steadily before the lens2 and to secure a purchase upon the film the latter was perforated uniformly along the margin to engage with the sprocket teeth4 ,edison found1 as a result of his experiments1 that four perforations per picture1 on either side of the film1 gave the best results1 though in his earliest investigations he confined himself to perforating only one edge in this manner4 ,illustration3 ,edison ,film made about #ahia for the kinetoscope4 ,edison ,film made in #aiaa for the cinematograph4 ,,twenty ,,years' ,,history ,,of ,,moving ,,pictures ,,in ,,films4 ,the only difference between the two films is that the kinetoscope film had to be made very dense4 ,the size of the picture1 #a-;inch wide by -inch deep1 and perforation gauge1 are identical4 ,although many years have passed since the ,kinetoscope first startled the public1 the film has undergone but little change4 ,the width remains the same2 the dimensions of the picture are identical2 and the perforation gauge has never been revised in regard to the number of holes per picture4 ,the only salient difference between two ,edison films1 taken at intervals of twenty years1 relates to the density of the picture1 which nowadays1 being projected upon a screen instead of being followed through a magnifying glass at short range1 is thinner and lighter4 ,brilliant as the ,kinetoscope was1 it made no great impression upon the public4 ,it became known as the 8peep-hole machine10 and was regarded1 like the telephone in its early days1 as a scientific toy4 ,edison appears to have failed to grasp its possibilities and the important part it was destined to play in our complex life1 for he did not patent it in ,great ,britain4 ,the ,animatograph ,among those who saw the instrument at the ,world's ,fair were two ,greek visitors from ,london4 ,one was a greengrocer1 the other a toy-maker4 ,with shrewd business instinct they perceived here an opportunity to make a fortune in ,england4 ,the ,kinetoscope was known only by name in ,london1 and the search for novelty in regard to new forms of amusement inevitably brings a rich reward to the ingenious exploiter4 ,the two men acquired a machine and brought it home with them1 their intention being to make duplicates and instal them in public places1 to work upon the penny-in-the-slot principle4 ,the two ,greeks evidently were not animated by very lofty ideas of business integrity1 for they did not trouble to ascertain if the ,kinetoscope were patented in ,great ,britain4 ,upon arrival in ,london they sought for a man who could duplicate the machine they had brought with them2 and they approached ,mr4 ,robert ,w4 ,paul1 an electrical engineer and scientific instrument maker1 who at that time had his workshops in ,hatton ,garden4 ,they brought the ,kinetoscope to him4 ,he had never seen it before1 and was deeply interested in its operation4 ,when1 however1 they suggested that he should produce copies of it to their order1 he declined1 for he felt sure that ,edison never would have omitted to secure its protection in ,great ,britain4 ,he pointed out to the ,greeks that reproduction would probably be illegal1 and that both he and they would expose themselves to litigation and heavy damages for infringing a patent4 ,his clients expressed dissatisfaction at this decision and departed with the instrument4 ,after they had gone1 ,paul was prompted to make a search at the ,patent ,office1 and to his intense surprise he found that ,edison had not protected his invention by taking out ,british patents4 ,he was thus at liberty to build as many machines as he desired1 and forthwith he set to work1 not only for his ,greek visitors1 but also for his own market4 ,the experience with the ,kinetoscope in the ,united ,states was duplicated in ,great ,britain1 as1 indeed1 it was in every other country where it was placed on exhibition4 ,several machines were set up at apparently suitable points1 but the public failed to respond4 ,two factors contributed to this result4 ,in the first place1 the machines were weighty1 and as the electricity for driving the motor and lighting the incandescent electric lamp was drawn from accumulators1 the whole apparatus was somewhat bulky and awkward to move from place to place4 ,besides1 it was difficult to secure the necessary films2 sufficient variety could not be supplied for the machines4 ,only one company was engaged at the time in their production--the ,american ,kinetoscope ,company--and the only studio in operation was at ,orange in ,new ,jersey1 the output of which was relatively small4 ,under these circumstances public curiosity could not be sustained4 ,the difficulty with the film supply presently became still more acute4 ,the ,american company learned that the ,kinetoscope was being manufactured in ,england1 and that ,american films were being used with ,english machines4 ,as manufacture could not be prevented1 owing to ,great ,britain being an open market1 and as1 consequently1 ,paul was perfectly justified in his action1 the ,american company decided on a novel method of frustrating ,mr4 ,paul's efforts4 ,two agents1 ,maguire and ,baucus1 came to ,london and endeavoured to corner the ,english market4 ,they secured the output of ,kinetoscope films from ,america1 and declined to sell them to anyone in ,great ,britain who did not possess an ,american-built machine4 ,the result was that all the purchasers of the ,paul ,kinetoscopes found themselves unable to secure further films2 even ,paul himself could not obtain supplies4 ,the ,americans regarded the outlook with complete self-satisfaction4 ,they believed that the ,english market was within their grasp4 ,but they reckoned without their host4 ,paul was determined not to be vanquished so easily1 especially as he had sold ,kinetoscopes to customers in all parts of the world1 and had a steady stream of buyers flocking to his workshops from points as remote as ,tokio1 ,south ,america1 and ,new ,zealand4 ,many of these early purchasers of the ,british-built ,kinetoscopes have since become famous in the world of cinematography either as producers or manufacturers1 notably ,monsieur ,charles ,path1 the founder of the celebrated ,french cinematograph film manufacturing establishment1 who was one of ,paul's first customers4 ,now although ,paul had manufactured several ,kinetoscopes1 he realised the disadvantages of the instrument4 ,only one person at a time could see the picture in animation4 ,what was required in order to popularise moving pictures was to devise a way to enable several hundreds1 or even thousands1 of people to witness the same subject simultaneously4 ,paul's first idea was to convert the ordinary ,kinetoscope into a projecting apparatus4 ,while he was quietly considering the feasibility of this scheme he was introduced to another inventor ,mr4 ,birt ,acres1 at that time in the employment of a firm engaged in the manufacture of dry plates and bromide papers4 ,acres had conceived a mechanical means of printing on bromide paper from glass negatives a number of copies of a subject at a very rapid rate1 and had committed to paper his crude suggestion4 ,he submitted his drawing to ,paul4 ,the negative was to be set in a frame1 beneath which the bromide paper travelled over rollers in a continuous length4 ,the coil of paper was to move a certain distance--the length of the negative1 in fact--and then to pause2 when a flat pad1 carried at the end of a lever beneath the paper1 was to rise up and press the latter flatly and tightly against the negative4 ,when the exposure had been made the clamping device1 as it was called1 fell back1 and permitted the paper to travel another short distance to bring a fresh unexposed surface beneath the negative1 when the same cycle of operations was repeated4 ,illustration3 ,,paul',s ,,camera ,,showing ,,mechanism ,,for ,,moving ,,the ,,film ,,intermittently ,,past ,,the ,,lens4 ,,the ,,film ,,was ,,carried ,,in ,,detachable ,,dark ,,boxes4 ,,the ,,first ,,kinetoscope ,,film ,,made ,,in ,,england4 ,the manufacture of films was commenced in ,england by ,robert ,paul to thwart the ,american attempt to corner the ,british market4 ,when ,acres brought his sketch to ,paul1 the latter was wrestling with the problem of photographing objects in motion4 ,it was imperative to perfect a camera in order to defeat the machinations of the ,americans bent upon the capture of the ,english film market4 ,in this task1 however1 the most satisfactory means of securing intermittent motion was the stumbling block4 ,he thought for a time that ,acres's ingenious method of printing bromide prints might offer a clue4 ,being a mechanical engineer1 ,paul recognised the inefficiency of ,acres's ideas as far as its application to cinematography was concerned1 because the clamping device was not actuated by a positive drive4 ,but the rough drawing which ,acres had made of his bromide printing process set ,paul thinking1 and gave birth in the end to an entirely different project4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,black ,,maria10 ,,the ,,first ,,edison ,,studio ,,for ,,making ,,kinetoscope ,,films4 ,it was a rambling building of cheap construction mounted centrally upon a pivot4 ,it revolved upon a circular track to face the sun4 ,see page #aje4 ,his efforts were accelerated by the tactics of ,maguire and ,baucus1 and it was not long before he produced a camera working with an intermittent motion4 ,with this camera some excellent films were obtained1 and in the first instance these were employed with the ,kinetoscope4 ,the purchasers of the ,paul machines consequently experienced no difficulty whatever in getting all the films they wanted1 and the ,american product was ignored4 ,it was not comparable with the ,english films in excellence or variety1 and ,maguire and ,baucus retired from the scene completely discomfited4 ,the attempt to obtain possession of the ,english market was a dismal failure owing to the unexpected enterprise of ,robert ,paul4 ,paul had already attempted to apply the principle governing the operation of the ,kinetoscope to the projection of a picture upon the screen4 ,he had contrived a special lantern through which the film was run continuously1 the revolution of the shutter serving to cut out each picture on the film1 and throw it individually upon the sheet1 thereby bringing it into a stationary position for a minute fraction of a second4 ,but the projecting efforts were somewhat disheartening4 ,the illusory effect was produced2 but the picture was so faint as to render the result of no commercial value4 ,the conditions attending the watching of the pictures at a range of about six or eight inches1 as in the ,kinetoscope1 and at one of ten times as many feet1 when thrown upon a whitened wall or screen1 were vastly different4 ,the shutter had to revolve at such a rapid rate to prevent blurring that a sufficient volume of light could not be passed through each picture in the short interval the shutter was open--less than #a_/a1jjjth of a second--so the resultant image was faint and ill-defined4 ,it was evident that the film would have to be brought momentarily1 by some means or other1 into a fixed position behind the lens1 so as to enable sufficient light to pass through to the screen1 to yield a picture comparing with that of a slide projected from a magic lantern2 and1 further1 that the picture would have to be moved during its eclipse by the shutter1 in order to allow the next image to be brought into place4 ,in other words1 instead of the film moving forwards continuously1 it would have to advance with a jerky or intermittent motion while the shutter was passing across the lens1 and cutting off the light from the screen4 ,paul concentrated his energies upon this problem4 ,it was by no means a simple undertaking1 for there were no previous efforts in the same direction to assist him4 ,the great point was how to bring successive pictures into position before the lens4 ,he thought out a clamping device1 which is known as the 8gate10 and which he attached behind the lens4 ,this gate was formed of two parts1 one fixed and the other having a swinging or opening movement4 ,the fixed part was pierced with an aperture which could be reduced by a sliding diaphragm4 ,the aperture of the second part was of the same shape and dimensions as the picture on the film4 ,the film was wound on a spool1 and from this it passed through the gate and thence over a sprocket1 the teeth of which engaged with the perforations in the edge of the celluloid band4 ,the sprocket had to move intermittently1 in such a way that a length of film corresponding to the depth of a picture was drawn through the gate at each movement1 while the shutter momentarily cut off the light1 otherwise there would have been a confusion of two consecutive pictures projected at the same time4 ,how this movement was evolved is described in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,it seems a simple task1 but it proved exasperatingly difficult to secure accuracy1 smoothness of motion1 and the steadiness of the picture when thrown on the screen4 ,about three o'clock one morning1 in the early months of #ahie1 the quietness of ,hatton ,garden was disturbed by loud and prolonged shouts4 ,the police rushed hurriedly to the building whence the cries proceeded1 and found ,paul and his colleagues in their workshop1 giving vent to whole-hearted exuberance of triumph4 ,they had just succeeded in throwing the first perfect animated pictures upon a screen4 ,to compensate the police for their fruitless investigation1 the film1 which was #dj feet in length and produced a picture #g feet square1 was run through the special lantern for their edification4 ,they regarded the strange spectacle as ample compensation1 and had the satisfaction of being the first members of the public to see moving pictures thrown upon the screen4 ,in ,february1 #ahif1 the first public demonstration with this projection apparatus1 described as the 8,theatrograph10 was given at the ,finsbury ,technical ,college1 and it caused a thrill of excitement and interest4 ,a few days later1 on ,february #bhth1 #ahif1 the apparatus was shown in the library of the ,royal ,institution4 ,again it stirred enthusiasm1 and ,mr4 ,robert ,paul was congratulated warmly upon the success of his work by many of the leading ,british scientists of the day4 ,this was the first demonstration of animated photography before a scientific institution in ,great ,britain4 ,the films displayed were those which had been taken by the patient experimenter and his collaborators for the ,kinetoscope1 and included1 among other things1 a 8,shoeblack at work in a ,london street10 and of 8,a ,rough ,sea at ,dover40 ,the fact that the display was given before one of the foremost scientific bodies in the world stamped it as being a development of signal importance4 ,the interest it created was universal4 ,among those who saw the demonstration was ,lady ,harris1 the wife of the famous impresario1 ,sir ,augustus ,harris1 who evinced the keenest enthusiasm in the apparatus1 and who plied the experimenter with searching questions as to how the apparent animation was obtained4 ,next morning ,paul received an urgent invitation from ,sir ,augustus ,harris to join him at breakfast4 ,the latter had heard from ,lady ,harris all about the remarkable exhibition at the ,royal ,institution1 and1 with a showman's keen instinct1 desired to glean further details without delay4 ,he said that he had heard in ,paris of a ,french invention similar to ,paul's4 ,this took the ,english experimenter by surprise1 for he had been labouring in absolute ignorance that other men were at work in the same field4 ,however1 the impresario was on business bent4 ,he saw the possibilities of the ,theatrograph as a form of amusement1 and ,paul was asked if he were willing to permit its being exploited at ,olympia1 which ,harris had acquired4 8,well1 ,i don't know10 rejoined the experimenter4 8,i have no idea of its value from the public point of view40 ,he thought that the indifference of the ,british public to the ,kinetoscope did not augur well for the new development4 8,now look here10 continued ,sir ,augustus ,harris4 8,it won't draw the public for more than a month4 ,they soon get tired of these novelties4 ,are you prepared to come in on sharing terms1 say1 #ej per cent4 of the receipts8 ,do you agree80 ,paul was somewhat doubtful of the results1 but he acquiesced1 and the agreement was drawn up there and then4 ,the sequel showed how ill-founded his apprehensions had been4 ,the ,theatrograph caught the popular fancy1 and proved the most powerful amusement-magnet at ,olympia4 ,it was the first picture palace in the world1 that is to say1 the first establishment devoted exclusively to the projection of moving pictures as a complete entertainment4 ,from it the whole modern development of cinematography may be said to have sprung4 ,indeed1 it is difficult to realise the effect produced upon the world at large1 through the skill and industry of ,robert ,w4 ,paul4 ,so far as ,great ,britain is concerned1 he certainly fathered the enterprise of animated photography1 as is evidenced by the fact that in ,british cinematographic circles he is known popularly as 8,daddy ,paul40 ,the lapse of time has not effected any essential change in the construction of the apparatus4 ,the camera and projector as used to-day are fundamentally the same as those ,paul first employed4 ,modifications have been made in details of the mechanism1 but they are of slight importance4 ,when the outcry against the danger of the cinematograph was raised in the early days of the industry1 as a result of the fire at the ,charity ,bazaar in ,paris1 it was found that ,paul had realised the danger and had endeavoured to guard against it1 though his idea1 being somewhat premature1 was disregarded at the time4 ,the success of the 8,theatrograph0 at ,olympia caused a wholesale demand for the new marvel4 ,people wanted to attach the device to existing magic lanterns1 so that animated pictures could be produced upon the screen whenever desired4 ,paul still cherished such little faith in his invention that he sold the projector attachment for the small sum of #e 7#be71 and it could be fixed to any lantern4 ,he was inundated with orders from all parts of the world4 ,many enthusiasts acquired a complete projecting outfit1 the price of which at that time was about #hj 7#djj74 ,the capacity of the workshop in ,hatton ,garden proved quite inadequate to the demand4 ,the men worked night and day turning out the projecting apparatus1 and the sale aggregated several hundreds sterling per week during the years #ahif and #ahig4 ,provincial showmen lost no time in acquiring the novelty1 or arranged with the inventor to provide such an item in their programmes4 ,within a short time twenty machines were being operated under ,paul's personal direction in the provinces4 ,london was by no means backward in following up the development4 ,the first to introduce moving pictures to a metropolitan vaudeville audience was ,mr4 ,moul1 the energetic manager of the ,alhambra ,theatre4 ,like ,sir ,augustus ,harris1 however1 he regarded it merely as a nine-days' wonder1 and did not think that the sensation it had created could be sustained for more than a week or so1 which shows how even the most astute showman may sometimes err in gauging the public taste1 and also parenthetically the professional estimation of the idea4 ,an arrangement was made whereby ,paul undertook to give a display with the 8,animatograph0--this name had been substituted for the original 8,theatrograph0--at the ,alhambra ,theatre1 for a fortnight from ,march #beth1 #ahif4 ,according to the terms of the contract1 if the display proved popular1 it was to be prolonged upon the same terms until moving pictures fell from public favour4 ,that engagement of fourteen days grew into one of four years6 ,for over #a1jjj nights ,paul personally superintended his moving pictures at the ,alhambra2 and then retired only because of pressure of work in other directions4 ,of course1 other music halls in the metropolis acquired the apparatus4 ,operators were scarce1 and they could not be trained rapidly enough to meet the demand4 ,as a rule1 men manipulating the limelight in the theatres were found to be the most suitable for the purpose1 and they readily accepted an opportunity to earn #d 7#bj7 per week for a few minutes' work every day4 ,times have changed since then1 and to-day operators can be secured for about half that sum as weekly wage4 ,at one time in the early days ,paul had no less than eight theatres in ,london demanding his personal attendance1 involving a nightly journey of twenty miles4 ,it is significant of the tremendous enthusiasm that was aroused by the moving pictures that the managers of the various halls had to arrange their programmes to suit the convenience of the operator1 so that there might be no interference with his carefully prepared time-table of his evening's movements from one place to another4 ,the exigencies of the manufacture of apparatus and films became at last of such a character that ,paul found the strain of operating to be intolerable1 so he retired from active work in the projecting world4 ,his film manufacturing business attained considerable proportions1 and this was continued until the latter part of #aijh1 when he abandoned all active participation in the industry he had initiated1 to devote himself to his work on precision instruments for electrical measurements4 ,his association with cinematography to-day is very slight1 being confined mostly to collaboration with eminent physicists and scientists in illustrating scientific subjects by the aid of motion photography4 ,the ,cinematograph4 ,while ,robert ,w4 ,paul was busy in his laboratory1 problems identical with his own were engaging the attention of ,french experimenters1 and notably of ,messrs4 ,lumire and ,sons1 of ,paris and ,lyons1 a firm famous in the manufacture of photographic apparatus1 dry plates1 and paper1 whose efforts to solve the problem of natural colour photography are well known to the world4 ,their attention1 like ,paul's1 was first directed to this new field by the ,kinetoscope1 which made its appearance in ,france about #ahic4 ,messrs4 ,lumire instantly realised its drawbacks and limitations1 the greatest of which1 from their point of view1 was the fact that the long ribbon of instantaneous pictures was visible to one person only4 ,then again they considered the number of pictures shown per second--thirty--to be too high4 ,they sought to devise an apparatus operating with an intermittent action1 whereby a short length of film corresponding to the depth of a picture was jerked into position behind the lens while the light was eclipsed by the shutter1 and afterwards to project the same pictures by a similar mechanism4 ,with the ,kinetoscope as a basis they set to work1 and1 by means of a reciprocating motion given to a hook frame under the movement of a triangular piece of mechanism1 they succeeded in stopping and starting the film alternately with such a degree of nicety that the successive sections of film were brought into position before the lens without damaging the guiding perforating holes or films4 ,this constituted the salient feature of the ,lumire device and the fundamental principle of the patent4 ,the ,lumire camera was distinctly ingenious1 simple and positive in its action1 as well as being light and compact4 ,the mechanism whereby the film was jerked down sufficiently after each exposure to bring another section of sensitised surface before the lens1 may be likened to two projecting fingers which engaged with a hole on either side of the film4 ,these two pins1 or hooks1 by the revolving action of a triangular eccentric1 were brought forward towards the film and engaged with the perforations4 ,when the shutter swung across the lens1 thus cutting off the light1 this pair of fingers dropped down1 smartly jerking the film with them4 ,the latter was then gripped and held firmly in position during the next exposure1 when the two fingers withdrew from the perforations1 rose sharply upwards1 and clutched the film once more by the next pair of perforations4 ,while the ,lumire experimenters adopted the width of film used in the ,kinetoscope and secured pictures of the same dimensions1 yet they made an important deviation from ,edison's idea4 ,instead of making four perforations per picture on either side of the film at regular intervals1 they made just one round hole on each side of the image4 ,these perforations were placed #bj millimetres--approximately #d_/e inch--apart4 ,the reason for this deviation from the ,edison method was that they had refrained from the use of toothed sprockets such as ,edison and ,paul had adopted1 and which had to mesh with the film so as to feed it regularly and steadily forward before the lens in both the camera and the projector4 ,from the mechanical point of view theirs was a preferable method1 inasmuch as the comparative closeness of the perforations in the ,edison gauge somewhat weakens the strength of the film1 and can easily result in tearing4 ,there is every reason to believe that ,messrs4 ,lumire were in ignorance of the efforts of ,paul1 in just the same way as the ,british investigator was oblivious of the work of the ,frenchmen4 ,in ,france the ,kinetoscope failed1 as it did in ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,from the ,french point of view a unique opportunity existed to establish a new industry2 accordingly they manufactured several films upon their principle4 ,the original bands of pictures were #ag metres--nearly #ef feet--in length4 ,unfortunately for the ,lumire firm1 the ,kinetoscope had1 thanks to ,paul1 been purchased more generally than was at first thought possible2 while ,paul had marketed in ,england a considerable number of films carrying the ,edison standard perforation4 ,the result was that they could not dispose of their films to people who were already possessed of the moving picture machine1 and who demanded films of the ,edison gauge4 ,messrs4 ,lumire ultimately abandoned the single perforation on either side of the picture in favour of that which had come into vogue through the ,kinetoscope and the work of ,paul4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,the ,,early ,,lumi,,re ,,projecting ,,system ,,showing ,,water ,,condenser ,b4 ,the early ,lumire projector was very interesting4 ,realising the high inflammability of the celluloid film1 and the intense heat produced by the focussing of the electric arc light through the condenser upon the film1 the experimenters sought to remove the danger of fire by counteracting the heat production of the rays of light4 ,a spherical bottle1 filled with water1 was placed between the electric arc and the lens to act as condenser1 ,fig4 #d4 ,the bottle ,b was encased in a metal cylinder ,e1 fixed to the front of the lantern ,a by four rods1 each terminating in a screw ,v4 ,the metal cylinder ,e was continued forwards in the form of a tube ,f1 the end of which was fitted with a hinged shutter ,g carrying a small piece of ground glass ,h4 ,when the film was set in motion this hinged shutter was lifted and laid back upon the top of the tube to which it was attached4 ,the spherical bottle1 which was filled with distilled water to which a few drops of acetic acid were added1 acted in exactly the same way as the glass condenser of to-day4 ,but it possessed this advantage4 ,the luminous rays were concentrated1 and there was no loss of luminous light2 only the heat rays were absorbed almost entirely by the water4 ,another beneficial result was that the light thrown through the picture1 and thence on to the screen1 was whiter1 because the condenser glass is greenish1 and imparts that tint to the light passing through it4 ,in the course of about #cj or #dj minutes the water under the action of the heat rays commenced to boil1 but no inconvenience resulted4 ,a piece of coke ,d1 attached to a short length of wire ,c1 was suspended in the decanter and placed just below the surface of the water1 thus causing it to boil with complete evenness2 there was no spurting of the contents1 and no bubbling to interfere with the light4 ,if the sphere of water were removed or broken during the operation of the lantern1 as the condensation of the light rays immediately ceased there was no danger of the film being set alight4 ,it may be pointed out1 in passing1 that ,edison introduced a bulb of alum water between the electric lamp and the film as a heat absorbent in his ,kinetoscope4 ,although highly efficient1 this expedient possessed certain drawbacks1 and consequently in the course of time it was superseded by the glass condenser4 ,mechanical ingenuity succeeded in devising a means of minimising the danger of combustion or provided some method of smothering it in its incipient stage4 ,although the ,lumire invention proved a great success in ,france1 and was the first commercial apparatus produced in that country1 it did not get a foothold in ,great ,britain1 owing to the contemporaneous work of ,paul4 ,the ,lumire apparatus was a well-built mechanism1 typical of ,french workmanship1 but if anything rather too light for general wear and tear4 ,it was introduced to the ,english public by ,professor ,treuw1 the famous ,french conjurer1 at the ,regent ,street ,polytechnic in #ahif1 but failed to provoke a sensation1 because ,paul's 8,theatrograph0 had already been seen at ,olympia and held first place in public esteem4 ,on the other hand1 it created widespread interest in the ,united ,states1 where1 at the time of its arrival1 projection upon the screen was unknown4 ,paul's machine had not penetrated to ,north ,america1 because the ,british market demanded his whole attention4 ,it is a curious irony of fate that1 although animated photography was first made possible in ,america by the ingenuity of an ,american inventor1 and the only films then available were the product of the ,edison 8,black ,maria0 at ,orange1 yet it was a ,french apparatus which laid the foundations of the cinematograph industry in the ,united ,states4 ,the product of ,messrs4 ,lumire was introduced mainly through the enterprise of one man1 ,mr4 ,richard ,g4 ,hollaman1 the energetic president of the ,eden ,muse ,company4 ,mr4 ,hollaman saw the ,kinetoscope at the ,chicago ,world's ,fair in the summer of #ahic1 but as it was crude and did not arouse great enthusiasm1 he took no especial interest in it4 ,in the following year1 however1 he acquired an improved ,kinetoscope from ,berlin1 which had been made by the celebrated electrical engineering firm1 ,siemens and ,halske4 ,this machine was circular in shape1 and showed the pictures in movement in much the same way as ,edison's contrivance4 ,two of the machines were installed in the ,eden ,muse and remained there for six months4 ,at the end of that time they were abandoned for the reason that no new films could be obtained4 ,in the spring of #ahif an exhibition was given in a shop in ,park ,row1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,in this instance the pictures were thrown upon the screen4 ,the machine had been devised and built by an experimenter named ,latham1 but it was exceedingly faulty4 ,the pictures shown depicted two prize fighters1 but the images vibrated so violently on the screen1 and were so scratched and imperfect1 that the eyes of spectators were subjected to a fearful strain1 and the apparatus was commercially valueless4 ,mr4 ,hollaman sought out the inventor with a view to the perfection of the device for his theatre1 but learned that lack of capital prevented ,latham from perfecting his apparatus4 ,a little later the president of the ,eden ,muse received a communication from a firm named ,raff and ,gammon4 ,they offered him the ,state rights for a moving picture machine which had been designed by ,edison1 and of which they were empowered to dispose on his behalf4 ,they invited ,mr4 ,hollaman to a demonstration at ,koster and ,bial's theatre1 where they threw a picture upon the screen which measured about #aj feet in width by #f feet in depth4 ,mr4 ,hollaman has told me that he recalled very vividly two of the films he saw there4 ,one depicted 8,mammy washing her child10 while the other was 8,the ,gardener playing the ,hose40 ,both these films were made by ,lumire and ,sons at ,lyons4 ,in the autumn of #ahif the ,lumire apparatus appeared in the ,united ,states4 ,it was introduced by ,mr4 ,hurd1 acting as agent for the ,french manufacturers1 and this was the first practical cinematograph apparatus to be seen in ,north ,america4 ,a demonstration was given1 and ,mr4 ,hollaman1 realising the tremendous strides it represented in the projection of moving pictures1 made a contract for its installation at the ,eden ,muse4 ,the picture thrown on the screen by this projector measured #bb by #af feet4 ,from the day the 8,cinematographe0 was first shown to the public in the ,eden ,muse in #ahif1 it has constituted a permanent feature of the place4 ,in fact1 ,mr4 ,hollaman has been the pioneer of all developments in the field of cinematography in ,north ,america4 ,the ,french machines had been in use for some time1 when ,lumire's agent1 who had let them out on lease1 suddenly called in all the projectors and retired from active operations in the ,united ,states4 ,another machine had to be secured for the ,eden ,muse1 and for three months a ,joli instrument was used1 followed by an ,american apparatus operated by its maker1 ,eberhard ,schneider4 ,another change was made in ,september1 #ahig1 when ,mr4 ,charles ,urban1 now identified with ,kinemacolor1 but at that time acting as salesman for ,maguire and ,baucus1 who had endeavoured in vain to oust ,paul in ,london and who had retired from the scene after meeting with failure1 approached the ,eden ,muse with a new projector1 which was installed4 ,some time later ,urban introduced a new machine which he had made himself1 and as it possessed several improvements it was adopted4 ,this was the first 8,bioscope10 as it was called1 that was ever shown to the public4 ,shortly afterwards ,maguire and ,baucus1 in company with ,urban1 left the ,united ,states for ,london1 to establish an ,english cinematograph firm under the name of the ,warwick ,trading ,company4 ,in #aijj ,mr4 ,hollaman secured the services of ,frank ,cannock1 an expert operator and mechanician1 for his cinematograph department1 which had now become of paramount importance2 and since that date the latter has manufactured all the machines required by the ,eden ,muse4 ,i have given a brief outline of the most interesting chapter in the story of cinematography1 the epoch in which experimenters in different countries were struggling to perfect the same idea1 independently of one another1 and by different methods4 ,several other investigators were engaged in the quest1 but their work was not of such importance as that of ,edison1 ,paul1 or ,lumire4 ,the first evolved the crude idea1 and the latter two1 in their respective countries1 produced successful apparatuses entirely different from one another4 ,the work of ,robert ,paul should command the greatest appreciation2 for the ,bioscope1 which amuses the multitude from morning to night every day between the two ,poles1 is fundamentally the same as that which he introduced to the theatrical world for the first time on ,march #beth1 #ahif4 ,,chapter ,v ,,how ,,the ,,celluloid ,,film ,,is ,,made ,i have already shown how the perseverance and ingenuity of ,eastman and ,walker aided in solving the problem of animated photography4 ,their film was used for the first time experimentally in the ,united ,states as far back as #ahhi1 although it did not enter the general market until about two years later4 ,from that time there was an increasing demand from the host of experimenters for large quantities of the narrow1 thin sensitised strip of celluloid4 ,as the demand increased the chemists associated with the subject redoubled their efforts2 their product was still far from perfection1 and even to-day they will admit that many abstruse problems remain to be unravelled4 ,although the present-day consumption of celluloid film for cinematograph purposes is enormous1 aggregating several million feet per week1 the manufacturing process is of such a peculiar character that the number of firms identified with its production can be counted upon the fingers of one hand4 ,in the ,united ,states it is controlled by the ,eastman ,kodak ,company1 who have extensive factories at ,rochester in the ,state of ,new ,york1 and a large establishment at ,harrow in ,england4 ,in ,france ,messrs4 ,lumire and ,sons1 and in ,germany the ,gaevert firm1 have large factories4 ,british effort is represented by the ,austin-,edwards ,company1 which produces an excellent film1 but the home industry is in its infancy4 ,the three first-named firms supply almost the entire demand4 ,the ,eastman firm has the largest output1 about #c1ejj1jjj feet per week1 which is due to the fact that in the ,united ,states there are over #ad1jjj picture palaces open every day from morning until midnight1 and many large firms engaged in the preparation of the film subjects4 ,most of the ,eastman supply is used in the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain4 ,aside from it and the ,french and ,german products1 some of the large ,european film producers prepare their own stock1 as the celluloid base is called4 ,if all these totals were added together1 the sum of them would show something like #f1jjj1jjj feet of film1 in both negatives and positives1 consumed every week4 ,each country has millions of pounds invested in the enterprise4 ,it is difficult to gauge the proportions of the entire industry4 ,if all its varied branches are taken into consideration1 it probably ranks as one of the largest in the world4 ,and the whole of this development has taken place within twenty years4 ,in order to gain an idea of one branch of the industry1 the manufacture of the film1 one must pay a visit to the extensive works of the ,eastman ,company1 the plant of which is able to turn out no less than #g1bjj1jjj lineal feet of film for moving pictures every week--truly a tremendous output4 ,this capacity has not been taxed to the utmost yet1 but when the requisite machinery was laid down1 the company decided to anticipate the future4 ,should the present pace of development be maintained1 there is no doubt that1 before the end of another twenty years1 this firm will find its present installation barely sufficient to meet the demand4 ,continued chemical research and improvement of processes is tending to reduce the cost of the material1 and while at the same time the moving picture business itself is expanding on all sides1 fresh markets are constantly being opened up for the products of the manufacturers4 ,at the ,eastman works is to be seen a striking illustration of the growth in the manufacture of celluloid film4 ,in the room where the ingredients are mixed together there is a small barrel1 which will hold #ejj pounds of the film mixture4 ,this little barrel1 together with another of the same capacity1 sufficed to meet all requirements in the year #ahia4 ,in the same building is a battery of fifty huge barrels1 each with eight times the capacity of the small one1 and these are run night and day to meet the present demand for the material4 ,the little barrel is no longer used2 but it is preserved as an honoured relic of the past and an eloquent witness of the tremendous growth of the film-manufacturing industry for cinematography4 ,the ingredients for the film are gun-cotton1 known technically as pyroxylin1 and wood alcohol4 ,the pyroxylin is prepared by treating cellulose devised from such vegetable materials as flax or cotton waste1 with a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids4 ,the ingredients are associated in large cylindrical tanks ranged in long rows upon the upper floor1 and discharged through trap doors into the barrels beneath4 ,the gun-cotton is then dissolved in the alcohol by mechanically rotating the huge barrels4 ,it is possible to treat in this way some #bjj1jjj pounds of material at one time4 ,the mixing process reduces the gun-cotton and wood alcohol to a viscous liquid of the consistency of extracted honey1 which substance forms the base of the film1 or support for the sensitive emulsion1 and is known technically as cellulose-nitrate4 ,when the gun-cotton has been dissolved to the requisite degree1 the syrup-like mixture is drawn from the barrels and stored in cylindrical tanks4 ,the next step is the conversion of the mixture into sheets of the requisite thinness4 ,it is not rolled out1 but poured upon suitably polished supports1 and spreads out1 like varnish1 in a thin film4 ,the ,eastman patent specifies three distinct kinds of receptacle for the pouring process3 a long sheet of polished glass1 an endless polished metallic belt1 and a revolving drum having a highly polished surface4 ,any of the three will produce the result2 and in each case the deposit has to be permitted to dry to a certain degree4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,eastman ,kodak ,company4 ,,the ,,dissolving ,,room4 ,the ingredients for the celluloid film are dissolved in large tanks4 ,the liquids are drawn off and led through the trap doors into in-mixing barrels4 ,when the drying is achieved1 the thin coating of transparent flexible material1 resembling a skin1 is stripped from its support and coated with the sensitive emulsion4 ,the latter is of two degrees of sensitiveness1 according to whether the film is to be used as a negative or a positive4 ,the former is of the very highest sensitiveness to light that it is possible to obtain1 since under normal circumstances it is only exposed for the fraction of a second2 while the film required for the positive1 which is used for projection1 is rendered less sensitive1 as it can be given a longer exposure in the printing operation4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,eastman ,kodak ,company4 ,,the ,,mixing ,,barrel4 ,this picture conveys a striking impression of the growth of the film manufacturing industry4 ,two small barrels1 each holding #ejj pounds1 made all the film base or 8dope10 as it is called1 in #ahia4 ,the larger barrel behind holds #d1jjj pounds4 ,the base1 with its sensitised coating1 is now permitted to become dry and hard4 ,at the conclusion of this operation the length of thin celluloid sheeting1 technically called a web1 which is about #c feet wide1 is slit into strips of the standard width now used in all cinematograph cameras and projectors--#a inches wide4 ,extreme care has to be taken to secure a uniform thickness4 ,the plant at the ,rochester works has reached such a degree of accuracy that the thickness of the film which is taken from the polished rolls1 although the web measures #b1jjj feet in length1 does not vary above the standard by more than #a_/d1jjjth part of an inch4 ,as ,i have already said1 however1 after all this care1 the product is far from being perfect1 and it sometimes displays strange caprices4 ,they are most pronounced in the tropics4 ,owing to the volatile character of the ingredients employed in its manufacture1 the film undergoes considerable shrinkage in hot climates owing to evaporation4 ,i have seen film shrunk so much that it failed to conform with the standard gauge1 and the teeth of the sprocket in the printing machine1 instead of engaging with the holes1 played upon the outer smooth edges of the film4 ,to maintain the prime condition of the film it is necessary to keep it somewhat moist1 and accordingly the packing boxes carry a certain amount of damped material4 ,but in tropical countries where the heat is intense1 it is by no means a simple matter to keep the film in condition2 and for this reason it is often difficult to secure satisfactory pictures of scenes in tropical countries4 ,a firm which dispatched an operator to ,central ,america to secure a series of scenic and industrial films failed to obtain a single length of pictures worth showing4 ,i saw the results of the expedition4 ,the film was badly distorted1 and the pictures in some instances were so thin or indistinct as to defy projection4 #ejj 7#b1ejj7 had been expended without result4 ,there is another eccentricity displayed occasionally by some films in tropical climes1 which is difficult to explain4 ,an operator will expose several hundred feet of film1 which1 when developed1 fails to show the slightest sign of exposure4 ,i have seen the results of a first-class cinematographer working between the limits of ,capricorn and ,cancer4 ,his films when developed were as clear as if they had never been exposed to the action of light4 ,the firm took one section of the exposed film and re-exposed it on a ,london street4 ,it showed on development the image of ,london traffic1 being as bare of any other image as if it had never seen the jungle4 ,heat and dry atmosphere seem to exercise some obscure chemical action1 which prevents the sensitive surface of the films from being affected by exposure2 yet when the film is returned to a naturally moist climate1 like that of ,england1 it appears to recover its original qualities4 ,as the component parts of a cinematograph film are of an inflammable nature1 the resultant fabric is naturally also highly inflammable4 ,this danger in the early days severely menaced the development of the industry1 especially since those occupied in projection were careless of the most elementary precautions4 ,the film1 after passing through the lantern1 fell a dishevelled mass into a basket1 where it formed a tangled heap of thin combustible material1 as inflammable as petrol-soaked shavings4 ,celluloid emits a vapour of an explosive nature1 and it is always dangerous to use a naked light in its close proximity4 ,yet custom rendered the operator heedless of the danger4 ,the outcome was inevitable4 ,legislation stepped in and ordained that the projector should be encased in a steel fire-proof chamber for the protection of the public4 ,the result was that the cinematograph was barred from many places where the magic lantern was used4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,eastman ,kodak ,company4 ,a ,,battery ,,of ,,celluloid ,,mixers4 ,fifty barrels1 holding #bjj1jjj pounds of the 8dope10 are run continually day and night4 ,moving pictures could not be shown at such establishments as schools1 merely because they did not possess a fire-proof chamber in which to operate them4 ,a non-inflammable film was1 of course1 the next demand4 ,to attempt to render celluloid non-combustible was akin to rendering gunpowder non-explosive4 ,an absolutely new film-base had to be found4 ,cellulose as a basic constituent could not be dispensed with--in fact1 chemical research has not yet succeeded in discovering an efficient substitute4 ,efforts were concentrated upon the treatment of the cellulose in such a manner as to prevent it being readily combustible1 with the resultant production of the preparation known as cellulose-acetate1 which is practically non-inflammable4 ,but while this substance complies with the letter of the law and does not burst into flame1 it does melt1 however1 under the influence of heat1 and in so doing sometimes emits copious clouds of smoke1 which are capable of producing panic in an audience quite as readily as an outburst of flame4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,eastman ,kodak ,company4 ,,the ,,liquid ,,celluloid ,,storage ,,room4 ,when the ingredients are mixed thoroughly the syrup-like mass is stored in cylindrical tanks until required by the machines to be made into the film4 ,each vessel is of five tons capacity4 ,under ordinary circumstances1 this non-inflammable film is quite safe to handle1 and from that point of view is adapted for the purpose of exhibiting in buildings where a special chamber is not provided4 ,the heat produced by the focussed rays in the lantern1 or the inadvertent contact of a naked light1 do not promote combustion4 ,the cellulose-acetate merely chars or melts1 the action being purely local4 ,the celluloid film is supplied generally in lengths of #afe feet1 which is approximately the capacity of the average film box4 ,the actual picture itself upon the film measures one inch in width by of an inch in depth4 ,the question naturally arises as to what becomes of the films which have passed through their allotted span of life4 ,when the celluloid film was first placed on the market this material was of a certain value4 ,the sensitised gelatine emulsion was stripped off1 and the base was converted into varnish4 ,but this practice has fallen into disuse4 ,practically speaking1 old films have no economic value4 ,as a rule they are burned4 ,if the junk film is obtained in sufficiently large quantities1 a slightly remunerative by-product can be obtained in the form of metallic silver from the ashes1 but the yield is so small and silver is so cheap that the trouble involved does not pay unless the waste is destroyed in tremendous bulk4 ,this is the era of the profitable utilisation of waste products1 and no doubt a large fortune is awaiting the chemist who succeeds in evolving a cheap process for turning the useless cinematograph film to commercial account4 ,newspapers1 old iron1 and other metals1 rubber1 sawdust1 and even garbage1 possess a certain economic value1 and there is no reason to suppose that used celluloid film is an exception to this general rule of utilising waste products4 ,one by-product1 as we have pointed out1 is certain of reclamation--the silver--but the other constituents might prove just as valuable if a cheap1 inexpensive method were contrived for their commercial reclamation4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,perforation ,,gauge ,we have seen that before the film can be used in the camera it has to be perforated on either side in order that successive areas of film of an inch deep--the equivalent of a picture--can be seized and brought into position behind the lens4 ,this perforation has become standardised in accordance with what is known as the 8,edison ,standard ,gauge10 which is #fd perforations per foot on either side4 ,this perforation is of an elongated form1 measuring about of an inch in width by approximately #a_/afth of an inch in depth4 ,the preliminary operation is carried out with a machine1 which stamps the holes by means of specially hardened steel punches4 ,extreme care has to be taken to carry out the task with mathematical accuracy1 in order that the film may be used with any type of camera and projector4 ,without it steadiness of the picture upon the screen is absolutely impossible4 ,it seems strange that all films should have to be perforated according to the ,edison system1 when it is remembered that the first commercial cinematographic apparatuses for the projection of pictures upon a screen were made1 not by ,edison1 but by ,paul and ,lumire1 who1 one might think1 would have established their own gauges4 ,this important point involves an interesting little story4 ,in the very earliest days of cinematography1 when a film of greater width was used than at present1 it was advanced by friction4 ,rollers1 or clutches1 gripped the edges of the film tightly1 and moved it forward the desired extent4 ,but their action was uncertain4 ,sometimes the rollers became slack and the film slipped1 the celluloid ribbon varied in thickness or was a trifle slippery1 with the result that the forward movement was irregular1 and the pictures did not appear in rhythmic succession4 ,some were askew1 others were overlapped by the preceding or succeeding image1 or a wide gap was left between consecutive pictures4 ,in order to overcome the drawback1 attempts were made to devise a system of moving the film forward by the aid of pins engaging with holes in the sides4 ,but the apparatus employed was mechanically defective4 ,the film dragged1 and the holes were either torn or became so worn that they did not engage accurately4 ,square holes were first tried1 but the wear and tear set up by the pins or sprocket teeth soon gave them a circular or elongated shape4 ,then circular perforations were adopted1 but they soon became elliptical4 ,the number of perforations per picture was varied also in the hope of securing steadiness of the film both in the camera and more especially in projection1 but every effort appeared to refuse to remove the difficulty4 ,one of the early investigators was discussing the subject one night with ,lord ,kelvin4 ,the eminent scientist became deeply interested in this trouble with regard to the perforations1 and the disadvantages of the respective shapes shown to him4 ,after a few minutes' reflection1 he remarked1 8,why not use perforations of triangular form8 ,they will not wear round or square4 ,they will always retain their shape more or less1 and at all events will give improved steadiness in running40 ,the advice of ,lord ,kelvin was followed1 and the triangular holes were found to give the best results achieved up to that time4 ,meanwhile the shape of the perforations and the gauge had settled itself in a curious manner4 ,the kinetoscope appeared with small rectangular perforations1 numbering four to each picture1 on either side of the film4 ,edison had settled on this plan for his apparatus1 finding that it afforded him the best results4 ,the machines were made and despatched to various parts of the world4 ,to maintain the interest in the novelty1 a number of films were prepared and sold to various customers possessing the kinetoscope4 ,when ,messrs4 ,lumire brought out their projecting apparatus1 only one brand of film available for demonstration purposes was on the market--that made for the kinetoscope4 ,when ,paul first entered the manufacturing field1 he1 of course1 prepared films for use with the kinetoscope of his own manufacture1 and he naturally adopted ,edison's gauge4 ,as already narrated1 ,lumire made an attempt to set up an independent gauge1 with one hole each side per picture1 but the ,edison and ,paul films with an identical gauge had become too firmly established1 especially as the famous ,american inventor commanded the situation in the ,united ,states4 ,there was no market for either machines or films deviating from ,edison's gauge4 ,exhibitors who had bought kinetoscopes and films1 when they acquired a ,lumire projector1 demanded that it should be so designed as to use the films which they owned already1 and which were highly expensive4 ,when other film-picture manufacturers entered the arena they followed in ,edison's footsteps1 because there was no market for their wares if they did otherwise4 ,consequently the ,edison perforation gauge became more and more firmly established as time progressed1 until at last it became regarded as the standard4 ,it must be pointed out that this result was largely attributable to ,paul1 who became the largest manufacturer of kinetoscope films in the world4 ,yet it must not be thought that the settlement came about smoothly4 ,there has been a battle of the gauges in the cinematographic as in the railway world4 ,the ,edison standard gauge has its admitted drawbacks1 the greatest of which is that there are too many holes per picture1 which weaken the film and tend to precipitate tearing4 ,two1 or even one1 hole per picture on either side would suffice1 as demonstration has conclusively proved4 ,an ,american rival attempted to swerve from the standard in another direction1 using a film #b inches wide--double the width of the kinetoscope film4 ,he eventually abandoned the wide band1 partly on economic grounds1 as a ribbon half the width produced pictures in every respect equal to those obtained from the wider film4 ,on one or two occasions the gauge has been revised slightly1 but the variations merely affected the dimensions of the hole to a microscopic degree4 ,fundamentally1 the gauge as set by ,edison for the first commercial apparatus for showing photographs in motion prevails to-day1 and is universally accepted4 ,the film is received from the manufacturers in a plain ribbon1 and the perforation has to be done shortly before the film is taken in hand for exposure4 ,the film manufacturers cannot possibly supply it perforated1 because the celluloid base undergoes continuous physical change while in storage4 ,under varying climatic conditions it shrinks and expands to an extent which may not be observable to the eye1 but becomes pronounced when the picture is projected upon the screen4 ,the necessity for mathematical precision in the matter of perforating is somewhat obscure to the uninitiated1 but its effects may be demonstrated very easily4 ,compare the vibrating or oscillating flickering picture of #ahif with that shown upon the screen to-day1 in which the effect produced comes very close to that of the camera obscura4 ,if the perforation errs the hundredth part of an inch1 steadiness in the picture is forfeited4 ,the films have to be punctured with the same mathematical accuracy that goes to the production of a tiny screw intended for the most delicate piece of mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,,paul',s ,,rotary ,,perforator4 ,to punch the holes in the margins of the film before it is exposed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,cinematograph ,,studio-,,stage4 ,built by ,robert ,paul1 at ,new ,southgate1 ,london4 ,it faced north4 ,the camera and operator were mounted on a platform which travelled upon rails4 ,see page #ajd4 ,this is especially the case in regard to the perforation of the negative film4 ,if this is not absolutely true to gauge1 the existing error will be magnified in the passage of the film through the camera2 and should the latter be ever so slightly at fault1 the defect becomes intensified still more4 ,by the time the picture reaches the projector the infinitesimally small defect in the first instance becomes increased fourfold or even more4 ,the picture will jump and flutter in the most distressing manner1 and no matter how dexterous the operator may be1 and despite the excellence of his projector1 he cannot by any means rectify or mitigate very appreciably defects arising from indifferent perforation4 ,the contribution of imperfect perforation to unsteadiness in projection was recognised in the earliest days2 and great technical skill was devoted to the elaboration of machines to puncture the film with scientific precision4 ,marvellous appliances have been produced for this purpose2 but despite the infinite labour bestowed upon their production the possibility of error is ever present4 ,still1 it has been reduced to infinitesimal proportions1 and1 given a careful operator1 a film can be perforated with the holes varying not a thousandth part of an inch from the gauge4 ,the very earliest type of perforating machine was known as the 8,rotary ,perforator10 ,paul leading the way in this1 as in several other ramifications of the industry4 ,the machine was driven by a mechanism identical with that utilised in the camera and projector2 because the film had to be advanced intermittently beneath the punches1 which were provided with an oscillating movement4 ,this type of machine is shown in the illustration4 ,paul's first appliance has always ranked as more simple1 efficient1 and reliable than any other4 ,during recent years the rotary perforator has fallen from favour1 on the plea that it soon becomes imperfect in working2 but such an accusation cannot fairly be brought against ,paul's machine1 since its designer used it continuously for four years1 during which time it punched millions of holes1 and to-day is as correct in its work as when first used4 ,it is impossible within the scope of this book to describe all the various types of perforation apparatus now in vogue1 more especially as their interest lies mainly in highly technical details4 ,i will content myself with describing three machines which exemplify the three most important methods of perforation4 ,as this operation has to be carried out in the dark room in the dim light of a ruby lamp1 it is imperative that the machines should be of the most simple design and operation1 demanding the minimum of labour on the part of the operator4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,williamson ,,film ,,perforator4 ,for explanation of design and operation see page #fb4 ,in the ,williamson perforator1 four holes on either side of the film are punched at one time1 and two films are perforated simultaneously1 the sensitised surfaces being face to face4 ,this arrangement obviates the danger of scratching or rubbing the sensitised surface during the operation4 ,one coil of plain film is mounted on the spool ,a1 and another on the lower spool ,b4 ,the leads from these two spools are taken between the rollers ,c on to a small platform or guide gate ,d1 where the two superimposed films are brought accurately together to pass under the punches4 ,these are mounted in two rows1 the requisite distance apart1 in a moving head piece ,e1 which descends at the critical moment1 the punches piercing the films cleanly and sharply1 the pieces of detached celluloid falling into a receptacle on the floor beneath4 ,when the head containing the punches rises1 the two hooked fingers or claws ,f engage a hole on either side of the films1 and pull them forward ready for the punching of the next four pairs of holes4 ,in addition to carrying four pairs of punches1 the head ,e carries four pairs of projecting pins1 set to the same gauge1 and before the punch descends these guide pins engage with the four preceding pairs of holes1 so that the distance between the sets of four holes on either side is bound to be exactly the same as between any two consecutive holes made simultaneously4 ,the result is that the holes are perforated with absolute mathematical accuracy4 ,as the film emerges from the perforator proper1 it is passed between two guide rollers and a toothed sprocket ,g1 which meshes with the perforations1 and thence the lower film passes to the re-winding spool ,h1 and the upper film to the spool ,j4 ,between the perforating plate and the respective rollers ,c and ,g1 small loops will be observed4 ,these are provided for the purpose of obviating any pull upon the film while in the guide gate1 and beneath the punches1 which might otherwise destroy the alignment and accuracy of the gauge4 ,these loops remain constant1 but they can be altered at will while the machine is running without disturbing the actual perforation4 ,the ,williamson perforator can be run under power at a relatively high speed1 the wheel ,k being capable of #djj revolutions per minute without impairing the accuracy of the work in the slightest degree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,the ,n4,s4 ,,film ,,perforator4 ,a different type of machine is represented in the 8,n4,s40 perforator1 ,fig4 #e4 ,in this instance the coil of plain film ,a is set up in a convenient position away from the machine1 but in such a manner that the feed thereto is in an easy curve4 ,the film enters the machine through two roller guides1 ,c and ,d1 to a channel ,f1 and then under the dies in the top plate ,l4 ,the punctured pieces of film fall away clear of the instrument through the tube ,n1 so that there is no probability of such particles fouling the mechanism and thus possibly upsetting the accurate working of the apparatus4 ,after being perforated the film is moved forward by means of guide pins1 and finally issues through a guide ,b to be re-coiled4 ,this apparatus is very convenient for driving by power1 is simple1 efficient in its operation1 and owing to the solidity of its construction there is little possibility of the precision of the gauge being upset by wear and tear1 or by other external influences4 ,the gauge1 moreover1 can be altered1 if desired1 to as small a degree as #a_/ajjth of an inch per foot4 ,as the positive film shrinks somewhat after development1 it is an advantage to be able to compensate for the contraction when perforating4 ,when the film is dry1 although it may have shrunk a trifle1 it is found that the gauge is perfectly accurate4 ,in the ,urban-,joy perforator1 only a single pair of holes is punched at a time--one on either side of the film4 ,at first sight this method appears somewhat slow1 but there is the distinct advantage that the holes are made with incontestable scientific precision1 and after all this is the all-important factor4 ,this machine is capable of the very finest adjustment1 it being possible to vary the stroke of the punch to the millionth part of an inch4 ,its simplicity of operation is another distinct point4 ,all strain upon the film is avoided for the simple reason that it is passed through the machine by the pendulum action of the punches4 ,when these are disengaged the film is held in position by a clamp working in opposite step to the action of the punches4 ,years of labour have been expended upon the evolution of the perforator4 ,the fruit of these efforts1 however1 is a material improvement in the steadiness of the picture upon the screen4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,perforating ,,room ,,of ,,the ,,cines ,,company ,,in ,,rome4 ,the operation has to be carried out in ruby light4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,moving ,,picture ,,camera1 ,,its ,,construction1 ,,and ,,operation ,although it was as far back as #ahid that the first commercial moving picture camera appeared in ,great ,britain1 the years have not produced many marked departures from the design as elaborated by ,paul4 ,time has proved his plan to be the most reliable and efficient4 ,but as the art has developed and many minds have been concentrated upon the apparatus1 it has undergone modification and improvement in minor details1 all tending towards greater excellence in the ultimate results4 ,paul's camera was a small wooden cabinet1 measuring only about six inches each way4 ,it contained merely the requisite intermittent mechanism to bring successive depths of the film before the lens1 and the tube to enable focussing to be carried out easily from the back1 and in such a way that it was impossible for the film to become fogged when the tube was left open inadvertently4 ,this instrument was a model of simplicity1 compactness1 portability and convenience4 ,the film was carried in separate dark boxes of a size to hold #afj1 #cej1 or #gjj feet1 according to requirements4 ,these were detached from the camera itself1 the box of unexposed film slipping into a device on top of the camera in such a way as to ensure a light-tight joint1 and locked into position to prevent accidental detachment4 ,from this box the film was led through the camera mechanism1 past the lens and into a second box1 similarly detachable4 ,the apparatus therefore was resolved into three main parts--the camera1 and the unexposed and exposed film boxes4 ,the modern cinematograph camera is completely self-contained2 the film boxes are incorporated within the case that carries the mechanism for moving the film forward4 ,further improvement is hard to imagine4 ,bulk and dimensions are reduced to the minimum1 with1 at the same time1 the maximum of efficiency4 ,the cinematograph camera1 unlike most machinery1 is called upon to face exigencies1 and to perform exceedingly hard work under the most adverse conditions4 ,to-day it may be in the broiling sun on a tropical desert2 a few weeks hence it is plunged into the extreme cold of the ,arctic circle2 a little later it is well-nigh submerged in a reeking swamp or vapour bath4 ,such varying conditions subject the material and workmanship of the instrument to a supreme ordeal4 ,consequently the greatest care has to be exercised in the selection of material1 the fashioning of the component parts1 and their fitting together4 ,only the best seasoned mahogany can be utilised to withstand the strains of warping1 shrinking1 and expansion under extremes of heat and cold1 and climatic fluctuations4 ,in the ordinary stand camera used for still-life work1 there is a bellows which can be racked to and fro to enable the subject to be focussed sharply upon the ground glass screen4 ,the cinematograph camera has no bellows1 and there is no fixed screen for focussing purposes4 ,in the simpler and cheaper cameras1 suited to amateur use1 the operator is not troubled with focussing details at all1 the lens being of a fixed focus as in certain types of snap-shot hand cameras2 but in the more expensive instruments1 designed for producing the finest classes of work1 focussing facilities are incorporated4 ,in order to grasp the operation of the camera1 we will open the hinged door with which it is provided on one side1 and gain access to its interior mechanism4 ,it would be invidious to select any special type of camera1 inasmuch as they all work more or less upon the same principle1 the differences being only in minor details4 ,by reference to the illustration it will be seen that the apparatus is in three main parts4 ,the rear half of the cabinet carries two square compartments1 ,a and ,b1 one above the other4 ,these are for the two film boxes1 ,a carrying the unexposed1 and ,b the exposed film4 ,it will be noticed that the cinematograph works upon the system of roller photography4 ,indeed1 it might be described almost as a semi-automatic application of the familiar snap-shot camera using roll-films4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,film-,,moving ,,mechanism ,,of ,a ,,cinematograph ,,camera4 ,the spool of unexposed film is carried in dark box ,a4 ,from this it is led over sprocket ,d1 through the 8gate0 between the lens and the focussing tube ,c1 where it is exposed4 ,the film is then jerked down the depth of a picture through the gate by claws ,f1 over sprocket and into exposed film box ,b1 where it is wound on a bobbin4 ,e is the eye-piece of the focussing tube4 ,the lens is set centrally in the front face of the camera1 and carries a screw1 by means of which focussing is effected by moving the lens itself to and fro a short distance within a horizontal tube1 which corresponds to the bellows in the ordinary camera4 ,in addition it is fitted with stopping facilities working upon the well-known ,iris principle1 whereby the size of the aperture may be increased or diminished by a rectilinear movement4 ,behind the lens1 and on a line with it in the interior1 a tubular connection ,c extends transversely through the width of the camera to the rear1 and through the outer wall to the external face of the case4 ,this is the focussing tube1 into which the operator looks through the small circular orifice ,e in the back face of the camera1 known as the eye-piece4 ,the mechanism by which1 with an intermittent motion1 the film is jerked forward three-quarters of an inch after each exposure1 is of the simplest design4 ,the film as it issues through a narrow slit from the unexposed film box ,a1 is passed under a small guide roller1 having a smooth face4 ,thence it passes upwards over a second roller and down under the sprocket wheel1 the teeth of which engage with the perforations in the edges of the film1 and thus guide it forward4 ,as the film passes upwards from the sprocket wheel1 it is kept in mesh by another guide roller1 which maintains an easy pressure upon the film to keep it in contact with the wheel1 this grip being ensured under the tension of a spring4 ,the roller is mounted on the end of a small lever1 which can be moved slightly so as to release the grip upon the sprocket wheel in order to insert the film4 ,the arrangement adopted enables the contact roller to ride over any variations in the thickness of the films should such exist--a remote possibility in view of the wonderful mathematical accuracy with which the films are made to-day4 ,it is impossible for the film to jump the sprocket wheel1 even when the machine is run at a very high speed4 ,the contact roller is so mounted1 however1 that it offers no resistance to the free passage of the film4 ,the film now passes behind the lens for exposure1 travelling through what is known as the 8gate10 which consists of two parts1 one fixed and rigid1 the other having a slight swinging movement4 ,by means of the gate the film is guided evenly into position1 and held rigidly behind the lens during exposure4 ,the swinging part of the gate is clamped to the fixed section by means of a spring catch1 so that when the gate is closed the film is imprisoned between two sheaths which hold it firmly1 and keep the surface flat and even during exposure4 ,the end of the focussing tube ,c presses against the moving part of the gate and tends to hold it rigid4 ,the film is pulled through the gate by an ingenious plan4 ,there are two claws or hooks ,f1 the points of which engage with a perforation on either side of the film4 ,these two fingers are controlled by an up-and-down cam movement attached to the bottom sprocket4 ,as the latter revolves1 the hooks are lifted and carried upward4 ,reaching the limit of their upward travel1 they drop upon the film1 clutching it by the perforations1 and as the claw action has a sharp downward movement1 the gripped film is pulled down suddenly and smartly through the gate three-quarters of an inch at a time4 ,the extent of the downward travel reached1 the claws are lifted so as to disengage with the film1 are swung upwards once more1 and the same cycle of operations is repeated until the whole length of film has been exposed4 ,after the exposure is made1 the film passes downwards and through mechanism which is almost a duplicate of that immediately above the lens4 ,it passes under the rocking contact roller1 which keeps the perforations meshed with the teeth on the sprocket wheel1 after passing round which it continues under a guide roller1 and enters the lower film box ,b1 where it is wound on a bobbin4 ,action is imparted by the rotary movement produced by the turning of the handle through suitable mechanism1 which is carried in a small space on the opposite side of the camera to that containing the film4 ,the handle1 however1 not only supplies the drive to the intermittent film moving action1 but also rotates the shutter steadily and continuously1 through gearing4 ,the shutter is mounted in a small special compartment behind the lens and in front of the film4 ,it is adjustable2 that is1 the opaque sector can be increased or reduced in area so as to increase or diminish the size of the opening2 thus the period of exposure can be varied according to the light1 and as a supplement to the stopping down of the lens4 ,the gearing is practically the same in all ,english cinematograph cameras1 namely1 #h to #a1 and the turning speed should be two revolutions per second1 which is practically the slowest speed permissible4 ,the preparation of the camera for exposure is as follows4 ,the operator has selected his working position1 and the camera has been set up rigidly and firmly on its tripod1 so that no oscillation can occur during exposure4 ,the side of the camera is opened1 and the loaded film box1 from the slit in the bottom of which the end of the film protrudes1 is slipped into the upper compartment4 ,next the subject is focussed4 ,the eye-piece of the focussing tube is made telescopic1 as a rule1 so that it can be extended a slight distance from the back face of the camera case to facilitate focussing2 it is fitted invariably with a light-tight screw cap or gravity fall shutter1 which closes over the eye-piece so that no light may enter through the tube to fog the film4 ,for focussing purposes a piece of transparent film with a rough 8,matt0 surface is used4 ,this is inserted in the film gate to act in the same way as the ground glass screen in the ordinary stand camera4 ,the object is focussed by turning the screw1 which racks the lens forward or backward as desired4 ,when the picture appears sharp and clearly defined the matt film is removed1 the cap is replaced on the eye-piece1 and the latter is pushed home flush with the surface of the wood casing4 ,the film is now threaded4 ,it will be observed that a slight loop is made at either end of the gate4 ,this is necessary in order to give sufficient play to the film to enable the latter to be jerked down without any strain with each movement of the hook-claws behind the lens4 ,if it were pulled directly off the top sprocket the film would be torn4 ,the loops are kept constant1 the upper being connected to the lower sprocket through mechanism so that they revolve simultaneously4 ,consequently three-quarters of an inch of film is fed into the top loop gate at the same time as three-quarters of an inch of film is jerked through the lower side of the gate4 ,in loading1 care must be taken that the sensitised surface is brought towards the lens1 and that the object is not taken through the thickness of the celluloid base4 ,in order to thread the film through the gate the focussing tube is pushed back slightly--it is made telescopic for the purpose--the spring catch of the gate is released1 and the moving part swung back4 ,the film is now slipped into the gate1 care being taken to see that the hooks of the device whereby it is intermittently pulled down after each exposure engage with the perforations4 ,the gate is now closed1 and the focussing tube under the action of a spring returns to its original position4 ,finally the film is led into the unexposed film box1 where it is secured by a clip to the spindle of the reel4 ,the box is shut1 the handle is given a turn to make sure that the mechanism runs evenly and smoothly1 and then the camera is closed1 all being ready for taking the pictures4 ,there is a popular impression that the operation of the cinematograph camera is as simple as turning a coffee-mill or a barrel-organ1 and that the cinematographer has nothing else to do but to revolve the crank4 ,never was there a greater fallacy4 ,illustration3 ,,paul',s ,,complete ,,developing1 ,,printing ,,and ,,drying ,,outfit4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,developing ,,room ,,in ,,great ,,britain1 ,,at ,,robert ,,paul',s ,,pioneer ,,film ,,manufactory4 ,see page #gg4 ,turning the handle appears remarkably easy at first sight1 but a short trial proves that appearances are deceptive4 ,it is essential that the handle should be rotated at uniform speed1 and occasionally it is no easy matter to resist the desire to slow down4 ,for instance1 when a funeral is passing1 there is an almost irresistible inclination to slacken speed4 ,the amateur responds to this desire1 and is astonished at the dislocated character of his pictures when projected upon the screen4 ,as a matter of fact1 the slowest funeral procession has to be taken with the same number of revolutions per second1 and the same number of exposures--sixteen pictures per second--as an express train travelling at #fj miles an hour2 the crawl of the tortoise has to be photographed just as rapidly as a horse race1 in order to secure natural motion4 ,if a subject has been photographed too slowly it cannot be corrected by accelerating the speed in projection4 ,the judgment of the actinic value of the sunlight1 and the requisite stop for the lens1 as well as the adjustment of the shutter1 are factors which only can be determined from experience4 ,illustration3 ,,after ,,development ,,and ,,washing ,,the ,,films ,,were ,,transferred ,,from ,,the ,,racks ,,to ,,the ,,cylinders4 ,illustration3 ,photos by permission of ,robert ,paul4 ,,the ,,drying ,,room1 ,,showing ,,films ,,wound ,,on ,,the ,,drying ,,drums4 ,see page #gg4 ,possibly the box ,a contains a roll of film measuring #cjj feet1 whereas the subject photographed only demands the exposure of #fj or #ajj feet4 ,then one makes a few punch marks on the film by the manipulation of a small brass knob projecting from the outside of the camera1 and marked 8film punch40 ,when the film reaches the developing room1 the operators working in the ruby light can tell by these marks the ends of a series of exposures4 ,when the upper box has been exhausted of film1 the lower box1 now charged with exposed film1 is removed1 the empty upper box is slipped out of its compartment and re-inserted into the lower recess1 to serve in turn as a receptacle for film after exposure1 and a fresh loaded film-box is placed in the upper space1 the mechanism being threaded as before4 ,the operator can ascertain at a glance how much film still remains to be used1 because on the outside of the case is a dial which registers in feet the amount of film exposed1 and which is set to zero whenever a fresh box of film is inserted4 ,the task of the operator is increased in difficulty where the subject being taken is moving at great speed horizontally and vertically at the same time1 when the object passes in a very short while beyond the field of the lens1 and in order to secure a good record the operator must follow the movements steadily and smoothly in such a way as to keep the object near the centre of the picture4 ,the development of aviation has taxed the capabilities of the cinematographer to a supreme degree2 for in photographing moving objects in the air the camera has to be trained in two directions at the same time4 ,for this work a special tripod is required4 ,it has a flat table1 but by means of two gear wheels the camera can be swung round panoramically1 that is1 in a horizontal direction1 while another wheel will move it up or down through as large a vertical arc as required4 ,rigidity and freedom from oscillation are essential to secure sharp1 well-defined pictures1 and consequently this moving table has to be of massive construction1 while the worm and wheel gearing has to be heavy to ensure steady movement4 ,the camera is fitted with a direct view finder1 whereby the operator can train his instrument so as to keep the subject well in the picture4 ,both horizontal and vertical training movements are carried out by means of hand-wheels4 ,one of the finest examples of the operator's skill that ,i have ever seen was a film of ,wilbur ,wright's flying exploits in ,france1 on the occasion of his first visit to ,europe4 ,the camera was manipulated by two men4 ,one concentrated his energies on the revolution of the photographing handle1 while the other1 with his eyes glued to a special direct view-finder devised for this particular operation1 kept the camera steadily and regularly trained both horizontally and vertically upon the aviator as he described his evolutions in the air4 ,their joint efforts were so successful that they produced a film free from that dislocated or jerky action which as a rule characterises the lateral or vertical movement of the camera while exposures are being made2 the results were just as if the camera had been kept stationary during the whole time4 ,the ordinary tripod is used generally for outdoor work4 ,many ,american and ,continental film producers1 however1 resort to a special type of support for the camera in the studio or for indoor operations1 such as the filming of plays4 ,this is a solid metal pillar1 recalling a machine-gun mounting1 fitted with wheels to facilitate movement from point to point1 and other adjusting devices4 ,it is an excellent support for indoor work1 as it ensures a solid foundation for the camera1 free from vibration4 ,in many instances the camera is driven by an electric motor4 ,it is sometimes desirable to secure two negative records of an important event or subject1 so that1 should one film prove defective1 the mechanism break down1 or the film be damaged or destroyed1 the duplicate is available and prevents a total loss4 ,for this purpose the camera is in duplicate1 though contained within a single case1 with two lenses mounted side by side as in a stereoscopic camera4 ,both sets of mechanism are operated by the single handle1 and one person suffices for the operation of the instrument4 ,within a few years1 cinematography has widened its sphere of usefulness in a novel and unexpected way4 ,forty years ago no expedition of importance set out without some member who possessed artistic ability1 that pictorial records of the life and character of the new country might be brought back to civilisation4 ,as photography developed1 the artist of palette and brush was superseded by a man armed with a camera4 ,to-day the latter gives way in his turn to the cinematographer1 who brings back to us marvellous animated pictures of the remote and unknown corners of the globe4 ,an ingenious camera has been devised for this especial field of enterprise4 ,it contains a unique feature that had not been previously applied to the art4 ,two investigators1 ,newman and ,sinclair1 by dint of considerable experiment and labour1 have succeeded in producing a moving-picture camera with a reflex attachment1 and this without increasing the size of the case1 or interfering with the action of the short-focus lenses4 ,by means of this apparatus focussing can be accomplished in fifteen seconds1 without disturbing the film in the gate1 which is threaded up1 ready for use1 before the camera is taken from the dark room4 ,in this way the camera can be operated in much less time than is possible by means of the ordinary cinematographic apparatus4 ,as may be seen from the diagram1 ,fig4 #f1 the internal mechanism of this handy little camera differs radically from the description given in the first part of the present chapter4 ,the two film boxes are placed side by side instead of one above the other4 ,the film goes into and out of them through narrow mouths1 which1 when the camera is closed and light-tight1 are automatically increased in size to facilitate the passage of the film1 and automatically decreased again when the camera is re-opened4 ,in order to see1 arrange1 and focus the picture1 it is only necessary to raise a knob on the top of the camera1 which renders the image visible by means of a magnifying eye-piece without disturbing the film4 ,the shutter is also adjusted from the outside of the camera1 and can be closed to give an exposure of #a_/ajjth of a second4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,the ,,newman-,,sinclair ,,reflex ,,moving ,,picture ,,camera4 ,this camera is one of the most compact1 portable1 and lightest cinematograph instruments yet evolved for the purposes of hard work4 ,it is designed to carry either #djj or #ejj feet of film1 and1 when a picture is finished1 the end of the subject on the film is indicated by a device which cuts a tongue-shaped opening in the film1 and which can be readily detected by touch when the film is uncoiled in the dark room4 ,it is an ideal instrument for travellers1 explorers1 scientists1 and others to whom quick work is imperative4 ,its many excellent qualities received recognition from ,captain ,r4 ,scott1 ,r4,n41 who included it in the scientific equipment for the latest ,british ,antarctic expedition4 ,for special work1 the usual form of camera is altered in certain details1 or equipped with special devices4 ,such modification is emphasised particularly for the purpose of taking trick pictures1 to which subject reference is made in subsequent chapters4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,developing ,,and ,,printing ,,the ,,pictures ,the history of the cinematograph impresses upon us at every turn the necessity which experimenters were under of devising special facilities and improved apparatus in all of the numerous fields that impinged upon their work4 ,they were obliged to break ground in every direction4 ,for instance1 besides securing the right kind of film1 they had also to find the best means of developing it4 ,a thin1 narrow ribbon of pictures #dj feet in length is a vastly different thing to handle from a rigid glass plate4 ,its flexibility presented many perplexing obstacles which had to be overcome4 ,those who used the old roll film with the snap-shot hand-camera of the early days1 can relate pathetic and humorous stories of the trials and tribulations they suffered in passing the awkward length of film through the developing and other baths4 ,when it was unwound from the roller preparatory to immersion in the developing solution1 it persisted in buckling and twisting into strange contortions4 ,development was carried out in an uneven or patchwork manner1 some parts of the film being fully developed before others had betrayed the slightest sign of yielding the latent image4 ,the plight of the animated photographer was even more unenviable2 the handling of sensitised celluloid about as thick as a substantial wooden shaving1 was infinitely more exasperating than that used in the ordinary hand camera1 for the latter was wider1 thicker1 and far shorter4 ,the developing methods at first advocated were of the crudest nature possible4 ,messrs4 ,lumire tried to assist the tyro by comprehensive explanation of a very simple way to carry out the task4 ,they suggested suspending the coil of exposed film upon a rod slipped through the centre of the bobbin to form a kind of spindle1 upon which the coiled film was free to revolve over the bath4 ,the operator was then told to unwind the coil very rapidly by hand1 passing it into the bath between the fingers1 which acted as a guide4 ,it appeared an absurdly simple operation1 but without considerable practice it defied success4 ,one had to be extremely careful not to damage the delicate sensitised emulsion of the film while uncoiling it2 that no greasy matter1 such as perspiration from the fingers1 might come into contact with the gelatine surface2 and no bubbles must be produced while feeding the slippery strip into the bath4 ,mr4 ,robert ,paul experienced these troubles1 and displayed considerable ingenuity in the evolution of special means to avoid them4 ,the efficiency of his method is proven by the fact that in the main it is practised to this day4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,butcher ,sons1 ,ltd4 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,how ,,the ,,film ,,is ,,wound ,,upon ,,the ,,wooden ,,frame ,,for ,,developing4 ,his solution of the problem was simple1 safe1 and satisfactory from every point of view4 ,he took a light1 square wooden frame1 similar to that in ,fig4 #g1 which rested loosely upon two uprights in such a way that it could revolve4 ,the free end of the film was fixed to one side of the frame1 and the film was then passed from one side to the other1 as if being wound upon a wheel1 as it was uncoiled from the spool1 the inner end of the film being likewise secured to the frame4 ,this rack was dipped first into a vertical tank to soak the film1 and then was placed in a flat tank or trough to be developed in the same way as an ordinary glass plate4 ,by this means every part of the exposed surface was developed equally4 ,development carried to the requisite degree1 the frame was withdrawn1 washed1 and finally immersed in the fixing tank1 which was of the same horizontal design4 ,when the image was fixed it was placed in another tank and received a thorough washing1 to remove all traces of the fixing solution1 as in the ordinary developing process4 ,this task completed1 the film was uncoiled from the flat rack to be re-coiled upon a wooden drum1 which was suspended from the ceiling in the drying chamber1 until the film was dry and hard4 ,as may be supposed1 different factories practise different methods of carrying out this operation4 ,nowadays a film may be as much as #cjj or #djj feet in length1 and consequently special methods have to be employed4 ,i have been in some establishments where development is carried out upon an extensive scale1 in which the films1 as withdrawn from the camera film box1 are wound at once upon a large wooden reel1 seven feet or so in length1 suspended upon brackets above the developing bath4 ,when the drum has received its full length of film it is lowered into a deep tank containing the desired solution1 and there kept revolving slowly and steadily until the treatment has been completed4 ,then the reel is withdrawn by two men and lowered into the next bath2 and so on until at last the reel finds its way into the drying room1 where the film is uncoiled from the developing drum and re-wound upon the drying reel4 ,the disadvantage of this process is that two men are required to handle the reel1 whereas1 when a frame is used1 one pair of hands is sufficient4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,developing ,,room ,,at ,,the ,,path ,,works4 ,the films are wound upon wooden frames and immersed in large tanks containing the various solutions4 ,the developing and printing rooms in a large film-picture factory are highly interesting hives of activity4 ,large troughs and tanks containing the various solutions are on every hand1 together with adequate supplies of running water4 ,everything1 of course1 is carried out in semi-darkness1 the only light available being that emitted from ruby lamps4 ,the fixing solution after it has served its purpose is not thrown away1 but is subjected to a chemical treatment to recover the bromide of silver which the hyposulphite of soda has dissolved from the sensitised emulsion on the film4 ,the silver in suspension is precipitated by chemical action in a thick sediment4 ,in large works this recovery process is profitable1 several pounds of this metallic silver being secured every week4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,drying ,,room ,,at ,,the ,,path ,,works4 ,this illustration shows the wooden frames upon which the lengths of film are wound and the overhead racks from which they are suspended4 ,the solution employed for development is either a combination of hydroquinone and metol1 or a bath of rodinal1 developing agents which are familiar to the amateur photographer1 while the fixing bath is a solution of hyposulphite of soda4 ,the developing formula is modified by various firms as a result of individual investigation4 ,the drying operation is one that has to be carried out very carefully2 the temperature of the chamber must be evenly maintained1 and the air which is circulated through the room must be filtered before admission1 in order to arrest all particles of dust which otherwise might settle upon the gelatine surface and wreak appreciable damage4 ,in the early days the fickle character of the film was a serious difficulty4 ,if it were dried too rapidly it evinced a tendency to curl1 and severe shrinkage often ensued4 ,to guard against this trouble the film was glycerined before being dried1 by being passed through a bath containing a solution of glycerine and alcohol4 ,the improvements effected in the manufacture of the film1 however1 have enabled this subsidiary treatment to be dispensed with4 ,in cases where a topical film must be rushed out quickly to catch the public in the height of its interest1 however1 drying is accelerated by subjecting the film to a bath of alcohol in some form or other4 ,although a spool of film1 measuring perhaps #cjj feet in length1 is handed over for development1 possibly that #cjj feet carries two1 four1 or more exposures1 i4e41 different sections were exposed at different times1 on different days1 or under different conditions of light1 c4 ,the camera operator has indicated the end of each exposure by means of the camera punch4 ,when the developing operator receives the spool1 he first searches for such marks as he uncoils the film1 and the latter is severed at those points1 and each exposure is developed separately4 ,when the developing process is completed1 therefore1 the film relating to one subject is in a fragmentary condition4 ,these odds and ends have to be sorted out1 all useless parts cut away1 and then arranged in sequence and joined together to form a continuous band containing1 in the ordinary case1 the whole subject4 ,if the series of pictures runs into two or three thousand feet1 the aggregate will be divided into #a1jjj feet sections1 which is the approximate capacity of the spool mounted on the projector4 ,the sections are united by means of a transparent cement1 known as amyl-acetate4 ,when the negative is dry and the gelatine surface has hardened enough to permit the sections to be handled and joined together1 the next stage is taken in hand4 ,this is printing the positive4 ,obviously a printing frame1 such as the amateur uses for printing from a single glass plate1 is quite out of the question with a negative several hundred feet in length4 ,invention born of necessity has met this question in a novel manner1 and the printing process is one of the most interesting phases in the preparation of a picture4 ,considerable mechanical ingenuity has been displayed1 and various types of printing machines produced2 but for the purposes of explaining the subject most lucidly and comprehensively two typical machines will suffice4 ,before printing1 however1 the raw film or stock intended for the purposes of the positive or transparency must be perforated1 an operation which is similar to that followed in perforating the negative film4 ,printing is carried out by contact2 that is to say1 the sensitised surface of the positive film is pressed tightly against the emulsion side of the negative film at the instant the exposure is made4 ,one image is printed at one time4 ,the two films are given an intermittent action1 the consecutive images on the negative film and the corresponding sections of sensitised surfaces on the positive film being brought before the illuminant during the brief period that the light is cut off from the printing box by the passage of the shutter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h--;,,front ,,and ,,side ,,views ,,of ,,newman-,,sinclair ,,printing ,,apparatus4 ,in the ,newman-,sinclair apparatus1 ,fig4 #h1 the negative film is wound upon spool #a1 while the positive film is carried on spool #b1 both being supported upon the projecting bracket #c4 ,the negative passes over the guide roller ,a1 and descends with the positive film to the toothed sprocket #d4 ,at this point the two films are brought together with the gelatine surfaces inside1 while the teeth of the sprocket mesh with the perforations in each4 ,the two films pass from this sprocket1 form a loop1 and together enter the gate1 which clamps them tightly and flatly together1 with their respective perforations exactly coinciding4 ,at the point where the two films come opposite the aperture through which passes the light from the lamp1 there is a mask1 by which the position of the picture relative to the exposure hole is corrected4 ,the mask also determines the shape of the positive picture4 ,it may be rectangular1 oval1 circular1 or have rounded corners as desired4 ,immediately behind the film1 in line with the exposing aperture1 is a red screen1 over which a shutter slides4 ,when this shutter is opened1 the operator can see the negative image through the positive film1 and thus can ascertain that the position of the picture is correct in relation to the exposure aperture1 and also that the perforations on the two films are in synchrony4 ,the light by which the exposure is made is contained in a light-tight box1 or may be placed on the outside of the wall of the printing room1 an aperture being cut in the partition to admit the light to the printing apparatus1 which is screwed to the wall4 ,between the light and the film there is a revolving shutter1 as in the camera1 which cuts off the light intermittently1 enabling the succeeding negative image and area of positive film to be brought into position before the exposure orifice4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,row ,,of ,,printing ,,machines ,,in ,,the ,,rome ,,works ,,of ,,the ,,cines ,,company4 ,this establishment is able to print #ajj1jjj feet of film per day4 ,the film is drawn through the machine by a pair of fingers or claws which engage with the perforations of the two films and pull them downwards together4 ,as the pictures are printed1 the negative and positive films pass into boxes or other suitable receptacles to be re-wound on their respective spools4 ,the machine can be operated either by hand or power according to the requirements of the establishment4 ,as the sensitised surface of the positive film is slower than that of the negative1 printing is carried out at a reduced speed1 the average recommended with this apparatus being about five pictures per second4 ,another printing machine has been recently produced which is regarded as the simplest1 most mechanically perfect1 most compact1 and self-contained apparatus yet devised for this work1 and which compels attention as much from its efficiency as from the point of view of mechanical excellence4 ,this is the ,williamson printer4 ,it is a complete unit1 and can be moved from place to place with facility4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,williamson ,,printing ,,machine4 ,for making the positive films4--,for explanation see page #hb4 ,it comprises a large rectangular box or cabinet1 standing on one end4 ,the front face carries the printing mechanism1 while the interior1 divided into two compartments1 contains the driving mechanism and the illuminating agency for printing4 ,the apparatus is so designed that after printing the films are wound upon separate spools at once1 thus saving time1 and dispensing with the necessity of a box or basket to gather the loose films1 which is both a dangerous and an unsatisfactory process1 inasmuch as the films are liable to become damaged by curling and cracking1 and through the surfaces rubbing against one another4 ,the negative film is placed upon the spool ,a immediately below which is the positive film spool ,b4 ,the sensitised surfaces of the two films face one another1 and the two are brought together as they pass under the grip rollers and over the toothed sprocket ,c1 where the teeth mesh with the perforations in the respective films4 ,issuing from this sprocket a loop is formed1 and then the films enter the gate ,d over the printing aperture4 ,this gate is side-hinged1 and when closed it presses evenly upon the whole surface of the films under exposure1 ensuring a perfect even contact4 ,there is a small red screen ,e1 which1 when released by means of a small lever1 drops down1 thus enabling the negative to be examined without danger of the positive film being fogged in the operation4 ,by this means the printer can satisfy himself that the picture is central to the exposure hole4 ,as the picture is printed1 a simple claw device ,f1 resembling two hooked fingers1 engages with the perforations in the two films and draws them downwards4 ,this claw device is of very simple construction1 working on a cam1 so that when the film has moved downwards the proper distance--sufficient to bring the succeeding picture and its area of unexposed positive film before the printing aperture--the fingers disengage themselves from the films1 rise1 and move upwards to drop into other perforations and repeat the operation4 ,as the film descends1 it forms a loop1 and passes under a double smooth-faced roller and a toothed sprocket ,g1 at which point the two films part company1 the positive to be wound upon the bobbin ,h1 while the negative film is wound upon the lower bobbin ,i4 ,these lower spools are driven by belt and pulleys from a bevel gear wheel1 which carries a spindle actuating the claw giving the intermittent movement to the films1 and which by means of another spindle rotates the upper and lower sprockets ,c and ,g so that the loops above and below the gate remain constant4 ,by this arrangement no pull or strain is imposed upon the films by the sprockets1 which act merely as guides and not tractive devices4 ,the compartment ,j is lined with asbestos1 and contains the illuminant by means of which the printing is done4 ,an electric lamp of #ej candle-power1 having a filament in the form of a grid1 is placed directly opposite the window through which the exposures are made4 ,this lamp is mounted upon a slide controlled by a lever on a quadrant on the face of the machine1 by means of which it may be moved as required from #b inches to #aj inches from the printing window4 ,the power of the light may be varied according to the density of the negative by means of a controller1 which increases or decreases its intensity in much the same way as a gas jet can be turned up or down1 it being possible to secure six variations in light intensity ranging between #af and #ej candle-power4 ,when the door of the chamber is closed the compartment is perfectly light-tight1 though ample ventilation is secured4 ,the lower compartment ,k carries the electric motor by means of which the apparatus is driven1 and the speed of printing is altered at will by means of a controller4 ,the motor is of #a_/ab horse-power1 and six direct speeds can be obtained4 ,the drive is communicated to the mechanism through a system of cone pulleys1 which enable three speeds to be obtained2 and as each of these three speeds can be given one of the six speeds of the motor by means of the regulating switch or controller1 the apparatus can be driven at eighteen different speeds1 according to requirements4 ,wide range of action1 combined with simplicity of control1 characterise this apparatus4 ,the printing speed varies according to the density of negative and the intensity of the light1 but the average speed in printing from a normal negative is about #ejj exposures of pictures per minute4 ,the positive film1 after being exposed1 is developed by a method similar to that used for the negative4 ,both these developing processes demand considerable skill and experience in order to ensure the best possible results4 ,an accomplished developer1 like his colleague working with glass plates1 can rectify many deficiencies arising during exposure4 ,the camera operator often has to work under the most adverse conditions concerning light1 and it is the task of the man in the dark room to obtain the utmost from a poor negative4 ,by care and attention1 combined with experience and knowledge1 he will be able to improve1 make up for under-exposure1 and mitigate the evils due to over-exposure4 ,it will be realised that development is the most critical stage in the whole operation1 for upon the manner in which it is carried out much of the excellence and merit of the projected picture depends4 ,the fact that the cinematograph camera is being regarded more and more as an indispensable unit in the impedimenta for travelling and exploring expeditions has resulted in attention being devoted to the perfection of a small portable developing outfit to enable films to be developed at once1 instead of sending them home for treatment1 as hitherto has been the case4 ,the 8,n4,s40 developing apparatus is an excellent appliance of this character4 ,it has been taken by ,captain ,scott1 ,r4,n41 upon his ,antarctic expedition1 and forms part of the photographic outfit carried by ,mr4 ,cherry ,kearton upon his travels4 ,the developing apparatus consists of a rotating cylinder and two or more semi-circular troughs4 ,the film is wound spirally upon the drum1 being held in position by means of wire staples1 and the apparatus is so designed that the drum with its film can be moved from one trough to the other by the simple movement of a lever4 ,the design of the apparatus ensures economy in the quantity of developer required4 ,three pints of solution are sufficient to treat #ge feet of film1 and the bath can be thrown away when work is finished or bottled for further use4 ,after washing1 the film is wound upon a collapsible drum1 which folds into a small space when not in use4 ,the outfit is made of pine1 with waterproofed joints1 the whole of the woodwork being treated with paraffin wax to render it impervious to the action of chemicals and moisture4 ,when packed1 the apparatus1 capable of dealing with #ej feet of film1 measures #c feet in length1 by #bf inches wide1 and #ah inches deep4 ,the outer packing constitutes the support for the apparatus when in operation4 ,waste is absolutely unavoidable in the cinematograph industry1 and no matter how carefully operations may be conducted1 it is bound to assume impressive proportions4 ,in a travelling expedition the operator records pictures of what he deems to be sufficiently interesting from various points of view--scenic1 ethnographic1 historical1 or merely anecdotal and humorous4 ,when the films are developed and a trial positive is struck for projection before the powers that be1 to receive official approbation and sanction to enter the market1 the critics in the private projecting room sometimes fail to see eye to eye with the cinematographer1 and deem this and that to be lacking in the essentials which render a film attractive to the public4 ,accordingly1 these sections are eliminated4 ,from #cjj to #c1jjj feet may be destroyed in this manner4 ,the waste is still greater in the filming of picture plays4 ,sometimes a scene1 occupying #ajj or #aej feet of film1 will have to be photographed three or four times4 ,i once saw a scene1 taking #bjj feet of film1 recorded six times before it gave satisfaction4 ,it was a picture involving the movements of a large crowd1 and in five instances something went wrong at one point or another1 despite the fact that rehearsals had been prosecuted with such energy and persistence that at last everything appeared to move with the precision of the wheels of a watch4 ,a thousand feet of film were spoiled in this particular case1 which1 at an average of #a;d4 7three cents7 a foot1 represented a waste of #f or #cj in film alone4 ,yet this is by no means an isolated instance2 the proportion often approximates #bj per cent42 that is to say1 #bjj feet out of #a1jjj feet are useless4 ,the bigger the production being recorded1 the heavier the waste in this direction4 ,when the positives have been dried and hardened sufficiently to enable them to be handled1 they are sent to a room where the different sections are identified and allotted to their positions in the subjects to which they belong4 ,the sections are joined together1 the lengths of film bearing the explanatory sub-titles are inserted in the proper places1 and the whole subject1 after a final examination1 is wound upon a spool ready for the market4 ,the examination of the films is carried out rigorously1 those suffering from the slightest blemish or coming below the firm's standard being discarded4 ,it has been seen from the foregoing that the preparations for developing and printing are somewhat elaborate1 and demand expensive apparatus in order to insure the most satisfactory results4 ,these considerations react against the amateur cinematographer4 ,but should one fall a victim to the fascinating glamour of cinematography1 one need not apprehend difficulties in connection with developing and printing4 ,there is no necessity to acquire perforators1 to establish a complete developing room1 or to invest in a printing machine4 ,the majority of cinematograph manufacturing establishments undertake to develop negatives1 and to supply positive prints ready for projection at a nominal figure4 ,it is far better to entrust the work to a skilled staff1 who can be trusted to handle the film successfully1 than to attempt to wrestle with unknown difficulties with a serpent-like film #bjj feet long1 in the murky gloom of the dark room4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,how ,,the ,,pictures ,,are ,,shown ,,upon ,,the ,,screen4 ,having obtained the positive film1 with its string of consecutive pictures1 we now proceed to reproduce upon a large scale the animation which has been1 so to speak1 harnessed by the camera4 ,for this purpose three essentials are necessary--a projecting apparatus1 a powerful and brilliant illuminant1 and a white surface or screen1 upon which the pictures are thrown4 ,in its general appearance the projector resembles the magic lantern1 which before the advent of the cinematograph held the field as a favourite source of amusement4 ,it has the small box or cabinet in which the light is placed1 and the condenser whereby the rays from the illuminant are converged into a powerful beam to be thrown through the picture and the lens upon the screen4 ,this part of the apparatus is practically the same as that required for the purpose of showing still-life lantern slides4 ,it is the mechanism required to bring the consecutive pictures singly before the lens in rapid succession that constitutes the real difference between the modern projector and the old stereopticon4 ,the projecting mechanism has the same task as the camera for securing the pictures4 ,that is to say1 a small section of film corresponding to the dimensions of a picture has to be brought into position before the lens in such a way as to permit the powerful concentrated beam of light from the lantern to pass through it and throw an enlarged1 brilliant1 and clearly defined picture upon the screen4 ,the image rests on the screen for the fraction of a second1 to be followed by the next picture4 ,one does not observe the change from one picture to the other1 as there is a revolving shutter1 the opaque blade or blades of which cut across the screen at regular intervals4 ,while the shutter is passing the lens1 thereby interrupting the passage of light to the screen1 the succeeding picture is brought into position2 and when the opaque blade has passed1 it is exposed in its turn and makes way for the next picture1 this alternate action continuing until the end of the film is reached4 ,it will be seen that an intermittent motion has to be given to the film in projection1 in precisely the same manner as is required in the camera for exposure4 ,although the evolution of a smooth-working and perfect camera taxed mechanical ingenuity to a high degree1 the proportions of the task were not to be compared with those involved in the design of the projector4 ,many factors had to be taken into consideration4 ,in the first place1 it was imperative that each picture should be superimposed exactly upon its predecessor1 that when the image reached the sheet it should stand as steadily and as still for the minute fraction of a second as if it were a lantern slide1 and that the change from one picture to the other should be carried out in such a way as to render the change as imperceptible as possible to the spectator4 ,in short1 every effort had to be made to reproduce by intermittent motion the effect obtainable with the camera obscura4 ,the perfection of this illusion has demanded years of unremitting experiment and research4 ,when animated pictures first came before the public they had a violent flickering1 oscillating1 and jumping motion1 which proved exceedingly painful to the eyes4 ,the effect was somewhat similar to that produced by gazing at a picture which is vibrating1 and blinking rapidly meanwhile1 or when a flicker-disc is rotated very rapidly before the limelight centred upon a stage scene and actors4 ,by dint of persistent effort and the perfection of mechanical details1 this serious flickering and jumping effect has been eliminated2 that is1 so far as is possible with an apparatus designed to convey the impression of continuous motion by intermittent action4 ,the projecting mechanism is of substantial design1 while the moving parts subjected to wear and tear are made of the strongest metals4 ,the wear and tear1 however1 is tremendous1 and as all the moving parts are liable to displacement they must be fitted with adjusting devices whereby all slackness can be taken up and the apparatus be kept tuned to a high pitch of efficiency4 ,great ingenuity has been displayed in the conception and manufacture of these details1 and the cinematograph projector of to-day is a wonderful piece of mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,messrs4 ,butcher ,sons1 ,ltd4 ,,fig4 #i4--,,the ,,optical ,,principle ,,of ,,the ,,cinematograph4 ,the optical principle of the cinematograph is exactly that of the magic lantern4 ,reference to ,fig4 #i will explain it fully4 ,the illuminant is represented by ,l and the centre of the light is opposite the centre of the condensers ,c ,c1 which receive the rays and condense them1 the point of convergence being in the lens or objective ,o1 from which they pass out in the form of an expanding cone of light to fall upon the screen4 ,the rays in passing from the condensers penetrate the picture ,f on the film in position before the lens4 ,it will be seen that the lens has to be mounted so that its longitudinal axis is level with the light4 ,the distance of the light ,l from the condensers1 and similarly the distance of the lens or objective ,o from the picture ,f is governed by the focus of the objective4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that the picture to be projected must be brought to a stop in a position central to the lens1 and for this purpose there is a film trap or gate1 where it makes a momentary halt1 in precisely the same way that the unexposed film is arrested in its progress through the camera4 ,the film to be projected is carried upon a spool mounted on an arm or bracket above the mechanism1 with the pictures upside down as in the ordinary magic lantern4 ,the spools used are of the open or the closed type4 ,the former is permissible in countries where there is no rigid legislation governing cinematograph displays1 or where non-inflammable films are used2 but in ,great ,britain the film must be wound upon a spool enclosed in a metallic case1 to provide protection against fire4 ,the best spool boxes are lined with asbestos1 which ensures a greater degree of safety4 ,from the spool the film is threaded over a toothed sprocket1 which engages with the perforations1 and also under a spring grip roller which keeps the film in contact with the sprocket4 ,a loop is then formed1 and from this the film passes into the gate behind the lens4 ,this gate consists1 as in the camera1 of two pieces1 one rigid1 the other swinging and hinged to the first1 so that it may be opened to enable the film to be introduced4 ,when closed1 the film is held flat and rigid4 ,as the shutter passes across the field of the lens1 cutting the picture off the sheet1 the film is given a sharp jerk downwards to bring the next picture into exactly the same position in the gate before the lens as that occupied by the preceding image4 ,the descending film passes round a second toothed sprocket1 with its grip roller1 and thence into the second spool box1 where it is coiled upon the bobbin4 ,the machine is operated either by hand or by power and belting passing over a pulley4 ,i have described the broad principle upon which the projector operates2 the details of the mechanism vary according to the ideas of various makers4 ,there are several excellent projecting mechanisms on the market1 each possessing departures in detail1 to some of which reference is made later4 ,the great difficulty was to impart intermittent motion to the mechanism which feeds the film to the lens at regular intervals from a continuous rotary drive1 the handle being revolved at uniform speed4 ,it occurred to ,paul1 who was the first man in ,england to attack the problem scientifically1 that it might be feasible to employ the type of intermittent gear used in watches1 known as the ,geneva stop4 ,he decided to adopt this mechanism4 ,the driving wheel when it completes a revolution falls into a notch of the driven wheel1 and in continuing its rotary movement moves the latter forward the extent of one notch1 but no more1 owing to the convex space between each notch1 or concave rim of each tooth1 which coincides with the curve of the driving wheel and fits closely against its circumference4 ,when the driving wheel makes its second revolution it engages with the second notch1 and so on1 with the result that in this case the driving wheel makes seven revolutions to one of the driven wheel4 ,each notch coincides with a picture2 that is to say1 each time the driving wheel forces the second wheel forward one notch1 a picture on the film is brought before the lens for projection4 ,this novel gear gave the desired result1 but it underwent considerable modification1 the number of teeth in the driven wheel being ultimately reduced to four4 ,the driving wheel was also altered4 ,instead of being notched as in the ,geneva stop movement1 it was fitted with a pin1 which1 when the wheel made a complete revolution1 fell into one of the deep notches in the driven wheel1 and so moved it forward4 ,by this modification the gearing was reduced to #d to #a2 the driving wheel made four revolutions to one of the driven wheel1 and each notch of the latter corresponded to a picture4 ,owing to the fact that the notches in this driven wheel resemble a ,maltese cross in form1 the device became known as the 8,maltese ,cross0 movement4 ,it is in use to-day4 ,the notched ,maltese cross wheel is attached to the spindle of the sprocket wheel below the lens1 and the movement forward of one notch suffices to jerk the film down smartly three-quarters of an inch or the depth of one picture4 ,the advantage of this movement is that the film is pulled down very quickly1 and as a result the flicker is reduced to a negligible quantity4 ,the gear is noiseless and enables a very steady picture to be obtained upon the screen4 ,on the other hand1 not being a true mechanical movement1 the forward motion of the film is accompanied by a certain degree of shock1 which not only imposes a strain upon the fragile film1 but at the same time sets up great wear and tear in the mechanism itself4 ,for these reasons another system of bringing the film into place was evolved4 ,a wheel having an eccentric movement is introduced below the film gate4 ,this wheel carries a projecting roller1 and with each revolution the roller strikes the film which passes over the wheel1 and pulls it down the depth of a picture4 ,this type of action is known as the 8dog0 movement1 and is incorporated in a variety of ways for the purpose of facilitating the smooth and regular movement of the film through the gate4 ,its disadvantages are that it is noisy2 and secondly1 that it is almost impossible to secure a steady picture upon the screen1 as the dog strikes the film so smartly as to set up a vibration which is communicated to the picture in the gate4 ,but it is simpler than the 8,maltese cross0 movement1 while the wear and tear upon the mechanism itself is so slight as to be almost non-existent4 ,these two movements have divided the cinematograph world into two camps1 one adhering to the 8,maltese cross10 the other staunch in its support of the 8dog0 movement4 ,but the former appears to be increasing in favour1 despite its acknowledged defects4 ,some years ago ,paul indicated an improvement on it which demands attention because it converts an indifferent mechanical movement into one scientifically correct4 ,the principle is shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,instead of having four notches or slots in the driven wheel1 as in the ,maltese cross1 he has only three slots4 ,the driving member ,a has an arm ,c carrying a roller ,e at its outer edge4 ,the driving member ,a when it completes a revolution1 enters the slot c in the driven wheel ,b1 and at the moment of entering the slot is at a tangent to the circular path a of ,e1 with the result that the roller ,e enters the slot without setting up any shock whatever1 carries the wheel ,b round1 and leaves the slot at a similar tangent to its path1 at the same time bringing the next slot tangent to the path of the roller ,e on arm ,a4 ,thus the film is given increasing speed without the slightest strain1 and as the movement enables the images to be changed rapidly without jarring1 it is possible to reduce the period of eclipse to almost nothing4 ,for this reason1 the opaque sector of the shutter can be cut down to one sixteenth of the area of the circle described by the shutter4 ,with the other movements the sector of the shutter must cover at least one-quarter of the superficies4 ,in other words1 the three-slot wheel cuts down the period of eclipse to less than one-quarter of that possible by any other mechanism1 and as the sector only covers one-sixteenth of the circle1 the period of light thrown through the film on to the screen is increased1 with an accompanying increase of brilliancy and a complete absence of flicker4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,paul',s ,,improved 8,,cross0 ,,driving ,,mechanism4 ,the shutter is one of the most important features of the projector4 ,in the majority of cases it is placed before the lens1 but in the ,gaumont 8chrono0 machine it is placed between the condenser and the picture4 ,in order to secure the best results1 the area of the opaque surface covering the lens while the next picture is brought into position should be reduced to the minimum1 and the eclipsing action should be so carried out as to reduce the flicker1 which is directly due to the cutting off of one picture to enable the next to be brought into position4 ,in the early days the shutter had one blade only2 when a brilliant light was used1 the alternate periods of light and darkness could be easily distinguished1 and the eyes suffered accordingly4 ,an effort to remedy this disastrous effect was made by the introduction of a violet-coloured sector of similar area to the opaque sector1 and set opposite to the latter1 which gave the shutter the appearance of a two-bladed propeller4 ,this is effective to a certain degree2 but it has been superseded by a shutter having three blades4 ,the shutter is mounted upon a spindle in front of the lens1 the distance therefrom being determined by the focus of the objective4 ,the heat concentrated upon the film by the converging rays of light from the condenser is tremendous4 ,the effect is identical with that produced by focussing the sun's rays with a lens upon a piece of paper4 ,if the rays are permitted to play upon one part of the celluloid film for four or five seconds it will become ignited4 ,so long as the film is moving little apprehension need be entertained2 the danger arises when the film is stopped to attempt focussing with a stationary picture1 or the film breaks during projection and stops in the gate4 ,several disastrous catastrophes have arisen from the firing of the film during projection4 ,it is impossible to lay too great a stress upon the danger1 for the average operator is little more than a cog in the machine1 and fails to concentrate attention upon the work in hand so as to anticipate and meet emergencies4 ,manufacturers have tried to remove the danger by the evolution of what is known as an automatic safety cut-off4 ,this is a second shutter1 which1 when the projector is at rest1 drops between the light and the lens4 ,the shutter is connected to the balls of a governor4 ,as the revolving speed of the governor is increased by the turning of the driving handle1 the balls assume a horizontal circle of rotation1 and in so doing1 lift the shutter until it rises clear of the aperture in the gate1 through which the light strikes the picture4 ,in the same way1 as the revolving speed of the governor is decreased1 the balls fall and the shutter descends4 ,the introduction of this automatic cut-off is somewhat to be deplored4 ,it makes the operator less careful2 he trusts blindly to his automatic friend1 which1 though it functions admirably1 is1 like all such mechanisms1 liable to fail at a critical moment4 ,when such a breakdown does occur1 the average operator is invariably caught napping1 and the film is fired before he realises what has happened4 ,the older system1 whereby the cut-off1 a shutter working upon a hinged flap principle1 had to be operated manually1 was far safer4 ,its opening or closing constituted a part of the cycle of operations in the preparations for projection1 thus calling for a definite movement on the part of the operator4 ,the most efficient safety appliance yet associated with the projector itself is the ,urban-,joy-,harris anti-firing device1 ,fig4 #aa1 a very simple arrangement1 whereby the rising and falling gate is converted1 to all intents and purposes1 into a fire-proof box4 ,when the film is threaded through the gate1 only that part before the lens1 upon which the light rays are converged1 is exposed to the air on the side nearest the light4 ,on the opposite side the exposure hole is contained in a tube1 holding the lens1 which consequently forms an air-tight chamber upon that side4 ,should the film catch fire while stationary in the gate1 the air contained in the lens chamber ,a becomes heated suddenly1 and expands1 so that the products of combustion are discharged through the exposure hole of ,h into the air4 ,the fire cannot creep up and down the film1 as small bars exactly above and below the exposure hole successfully prevent such action4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa--,,the ,,urban-,,joy-,,harris ,,anti-,,firing ,,device4 ,,the ,,dotted ,,lines ,,show ,,action ,,of ,,mechanism ,,closing ,,shutter ,c ,,when ,,film ,f ,,breaks ,,at ,k4 ,in addition there is the ,harris safety shutter1 which in the event of the film breaking below the gate1 and thus preventing its own passage owing to the interruption in the driving effort1 shuts off the light from the film1 and also stops the electric motor1 should the machine be driven by electricity4 ,this safety-shutter ,b holds a semi-circular flap ,d1 which is connected by a small lever to a rectangular flap ,c4 ,the flap ,d is so adjusted as to hang over the loop in the film ,e between the sprocket and the entrance to the film gate4 ,under normal conditions the loop ,e does not come into contact with the shutter ,d1 but when the film ,f becomes broken below at ,k1 the loop ,e is enlarged suddenly owing to the film not being able to pass through the gate1 with the result that it forces the flap ,d to a vertical position1 and this in turn throws the flap ,c down over the exposure hole4 ,there is a tube ,i which contains about half-an-ounce of mercury with an electrical contact at either end1 the object of which is to change the centre of gravity of the flap ,d1 and also to cut off the supply of electric energy to the motor4 ,when the machine is running smoothly this tube ,i is in a horizontal position making the electrical connection at either end1 but when the flap ,d rises1 owing to the enlargement of the loop ,e in the film1 the weight of mercury is thrown to one end of the tube1 causing it to cant in such a way as to retain the flap ,d in a vertical position4 ,if the film should take fire1 only the picture before the lens is consumed4 ,even the perforated edges remain untouched1 so that the film is not severed1 and can continue its travel through the machine when the breakdown is repaired4 ,to supply the light necessary to projection1 acetylene1 the oxy-hydrogen limelight1 and the electric arc have all been used2 but the last is the illuminant most generally favoured4 ,it enables the maximum amount of light to be collected by the condenser4 ,when the projection of moving pictures was first attempted an arc light was unavailable1 because that form of lighting had not been adapted to the magic lantern4 ,the late ,t4 ,c4 ,hepworth1 the eminent authority on the lantern1 was wrestling with the problem1 but there was no commercial apparatus suited to the cinematograph4 ,in using electric light a resistance is required to absorb or dissipate in the form of heat the current over and above that required for the light4 ,many types of resistances have been devised for this purpose1 to suit varying requirements4 ,this method of dealing with the surplus current is1 however1 distinctly wasteful1 and accordingly1 where picture projection is being carried out on a large scale1 a motor generator is adopted4 ,the current derived from the supply main is utilised to drive an electric motor1 which in turn actuates a dynamo1 whereby current is furnished for the light4 ,this seems a roundabout process1 but it effects a great economy in the consumption of electricity4 ,the mounting for the lantern is also important4 ,as there is continual movement in the mechanism owing to the communication of driving effort1 either by hand or by power1 the mounting chosen must be of a sufficiently massive character to absorb all the vibration set up4 ,paul devised an iron pillar1 to one side of the top of which the lantern was fixed1 while the projector was attached to the other4 ,the principle was similar to that used for the mounting of a machine gun1 and although the idea met with considerable criticism1 yet ,paul succeeded in producing steadier pictures than were possible with other forms of mounting4 ,that his idea was sound is witnessed to-day1 for the principle he advocated has been resuscitated in the ,brockliss ,motiograph1 which is mounted on a rigid pillar1 and undoubtedly throws a steadier picture than is possible from any other system of supporting the projector4 ,in the majority of projecting mechanisms a second lens is mounted upon the frame1 in line with and beside the cinematograph objective4 ,this second lens is used for the projection of lantern slides for the illustration of a song1 title announcement1 or other purposes4 ,in order to bring the light of the lamp into line with this second lens the lantern is moved bodily sideways the requisite distance2 the projector itself is not touched--it remains a rigid fixture4 ,paul also adopted a driving system which might be revived profitably to-day where manual operation is practised4 ,instead of the small handle placed somewhat high1 calling for quick rotation and fatiguing wrist movement1 he used a large wheel mounted at such a height that the operator1 when standing beside1 had the lowest travel of the handle almost at arm's length4 ,the wheel being of large diameter1 a slow1 steady revolution was sufficient1 which caused no fatigue1 the drive being transmitted through a pulley or chain to the projector4 ,in many of the latest picture palaces1 however1 the apparatus is driven by an electric motor1 which yields a more uniform speed and conduces to steadier projection4 ,i will now take up the distinctive features of some of the best known makes of projector4 ,a comparison of the latest ,edison model1 the 8,b ,underwriter10 with the first kinetoscope1 affords a striking illustration of the advance of cinematography in twenty years4 ,the new machine is constructed throughout of metal1 is wonderfully compact1 and the mechanism has been reduced to the acme of simplicity4 ,all moving parts subject to heavy wear and tear are made of lignum vit4 ,the shutter is of the three-bladed type1 while the intermittent action is conveyed by the ,maltese ,cross movement4 ,being rigidly mounted upon a heavy stand1 the picture projected is very steady and free from all disconcerting lateral and vertical movement4 ,in the 8,gaumont ,chrono0 projector1 the salient characteristic1 as ,i have mentioned already1 is the position of the shutter1 which is placed between the film and the condenser4 ,the film-trap is worthy of notice because it conduces very materially to the steadiness of the picture thrown with this machine4 ,the edges of the film are gripped by means of burnished steel runners or vertical clamps1 and they secure it in position during exposure with the exact degree of tension required to obtain steadiness1 yet without hindering the travel of the film through the gate1 or inflicting injury upon the celluloid4 ,the trap is fitted with an asbestos shield1 which serves to insulate the film while passing through the trap from the intense rays of the light1 which is continually playing upon the metal around the exposure hole4 ,the dog movement has been adopted in this apparatus1 but upon an improved principle4 ,instead of striking the film one smart blow to jerk it through the gate1 it imparts a steady pushing action4 ,the result is that the film does not suffer any injury4 ,a massive dog striking the film heavily is apt to produce cracks across the perforations at the points of impact1 which in time become weak spots in the film4 ,this well-conceived machine has met with remarkable popularity among moving picture theatres in this country2 it is an excellent example of ,french engineering skill1 wherein lightness is combined with strength and simplicity4 ,illustration3 ,the projector and mechanism4 ,the complete projecting installation4 ,,the ,,latest ,,edison ,,development ,,in ,,cinematography4 ,this outfit is in striking contrast to the original 8peep-hole0 machine facing page #cb4 ,the ,ernemann 8,imperator0 projector commands deserved attention4 ,it is built stoutly so as to last and withstand rough usage4 ,steel forms the constructional material throughout1 and a noticeable feature is that motion is communicated to all driving parts through heavy gearing4 ,in this machine the 8,maltese ,cross0 movement has been brought to its highest pitch of perfection1 being of large substantial construction1 and so designed as to obviate the objections to its use4 ,the driven part is made of hardened silver steel1 and there are means of taking up all slack arising from wear directly it becomes manifest4 ,instead of the cross being struck by a pin on the driving wheel1 the latter carries a roller which picks up the slotted wheel without jar or noise4 ,the mechanism is kept cool by running in an enclosed oil bath1 which tends to reduce the wear and tear to a minimum1 while at the same time the machine is light and easy running1 a feature which appeals to the operator4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,chrono0 ,,projector4 ,the main feature of the ,gaumont lantern is the position of the shutter between the film and the light1 instead of outside the lens4 ,illustration3 ,see page #cai4 ,,outstripping ,,the ,,human ,,eye4 ,the ,greene di-optic projector which shows on the sheet what the organ of sight misses during blinking4 ,another machine which possesses many interesting points is the 8,silent ,knight10 its chief claim to attention being1 as its name implies1 quietness in running1 combined with easy operation and steadiness of the pictures projected4 ,it has the fire-proof gate already described1 and also aluminium fire-proof spool boxes4 ,the movement is the ,maltese ,cross4 ,simplicity has been studied to the last degree1 and the necessity to withstand hard wear and tear1 as well as rough handling in inexperienced hands1 has not been overlooked4 ,all the vital parts are made of chilled steel running in an oil bath1 with the necessity for adjustments reduced to the minimum1 though capable of being carried out easily when the necessity arrives4 ,the foregoing by no means exhausts the variety of machines on the market4 ,there is the ,path machine1 a masterpiece of ,french manufacture2 the ,kamm projector1 the 8,empire10 remarkable for its many ingenious devices to secure protection against fire1 the chief of which is a contrivance whereby the light is cut off automatically in the event of the film breaking1 although the machine is still running1 and so on4 ,in every instance the direct aim is the evolution of a projector which will produce an absolutely steady picture1 free from flickering and fluttering1 and as noiseless in operation as human skill can contrive4 ,in this particular field ,england and the ,continent are ahead of the ,united ,states manufacturers4 ,except in one or two instances the ,american product is distinctly inferior4 ,it looks attractive1 but its results fail to stand comparison with the ,british and ,french machines4 ,the projecting features of the moving picture industry in the ,united ,states have not advanced to the high state of excellency attained in ,europe4 ,in projecting1 the pictures have to be thrown upon the screen at the same speed as that at which they were taken by the camera1 that is1 if steady continuous motion is to be secured4 ,the average speed is1 as ,i have said1 about sixteen pictures per second1 and it is essential that the handle should be rotated at a regular uniform pace4 ,outside influences appear to exercise a distinct effect upon this manual action1 just as we have seen them do in the process of taking the original picture4 ,the musical accompaniment is likely to induce the inexperienced operator inadvertently to accelerate or retard the speed of projection4 ,for this reason1 power driving is coming more and more into use1 the motion being communicated to the mechanism by means of a small electric motor4 ,the results are far superior to those produced by the average operator1 though not comparable to projection by a practised and intelligent hand4 ,the latter can tell the approximate speed at which the pictures were taken1 and can adjust his speed to a far greater nicety than is possible by a mechanical agency which maintains a constant speed4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,studio ,,for ,,staging ,,moving ,,picture ,,plays ,when the cinematograph made its bow to the public the latter were satisfied with the reproduction in animation of scenes and incidents associated with every-day life--rather trivial unrehearsed incidents which were void of newspaper interest4 ,there was the shoeblack at work1 the firing of a big gun1 athletes at practice1 and so on4 ,humour was presented in ,mammy washing her young hopeful1 a great favourite for many years1 likewise in a set of films depicting a mischievous youth indulging in pranks with the garden hose4 ,but the popular taste changed in the course of time4 ,the audience became fastidious1 and demanded novelty4 ,there was a clamour for picture-plays4 ,the man in the street saw no reason why dramas1 tragedies1 comedies and farces should not be reproduced in pantomime upon the screen4 ,this popular demand was by no means easy to meet4 ,obviously plays could not be photographed upon the ordinary stage in the theatre owing to difficulties of lighting4 ,special arrangements would entail a certain outlay1 to be entered upon without knowing whether the results would justify the expense incurred4 ,a further complication lay in the attitude of the showmen themselves4 ,they wanted plays1 but not with actors and actresses1 or 8anything theatrical02 and they protested against the incursion of the 8legitimate0 into their field4 ,robert ,paul decided to test the public taste with a little comedy which he called 8,the ,soldier's ,courtship40 ,the roof of the ,alhambra ,theatre1 in ,leicester ,square1 was extemporised as a stage1 and ,mr4 ,moul1 the manager1 who had realised the possibilities of the cinematograph1 acted as stage manager4 ,scenery and properties were brought up from the theatre below1 and the assistance of one or two actresses and actors were enlisted4 ,with much difficulty a film measuring #dj feet in length was obtained--the standard length of the time1 though it appears insignificant in comparison with the films of to-day1 which vary between #ejj and #c1jjj feet in length4 ,in #fdj consecutive pictures a pretty little 8tabloid0 comedy was expressed4 ,some apprehension was entertained as to the reception the effort would receive4 ,however1 all doubts and anxieties melted instantaneously when the picture was shown for the first time4 ,the audience gave it a hearty welcome1 and a new era dawned in the history of cinematography4 ,this initial effort--the first animated 8picture play0 produced in ,great ,britain--tempted ,paul to more ambitious undertakings4 ,a plot of land was acquired at ,new ,southgate in ,north ,london1 and here the first building was erected designed essentially for the staging of picture plays4 ,it was a combination of a theatre with an ordinary photographic studio utilised for portraiture1 in a commodious lofty hall1 with a proscenium opening measuring #ah feet in width by #ac feet in height4 ,the stage level was about #h feet above the ground1 the under part being available for working effects from below1 such as bridges1 stage traps1 and other artifices of the playhouse4 ,the front wall1 which faced the northern sky1 was divided vertically so as to permit the sections to be opened out on either side to any required extent to reveal the interior4 ,the front roof1 set at a sharp angle was glazed to give top light4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy1 8,the ,scientific ,american40 ,,an ,,early ,,open-,,air ,,studio ,,stage ,,for ,,producing ,,cinematograph ,,plays4 ,it was on the flat roof of a building in ,new ,york ,city4 ,the camera and operator were accommodated in the small hut4 ,the whole revolved on a massive iron turn-table so that the stage faced the sun throughout the day4 ,a special platform1 running on a wheeled carriage and track1 the deck of which was level with the floor of the stage1 was laid opposite and at right angles to the proscenium opening1 to accommodate the camera and operator4 ,looking into the studio from this point1 one saw a familiar theatre stage1 with wings1 flies1 and other facilities4 ,such was the earliest venture in what is now one of the most important branches in the cinematographic industry4 ,upon that stage ,paul himself produced several hundred plays of infinite variety1 comedy1 tragedy1 melodrama1 farce1 and magic4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,scene-,,painters' ,,shop ,,at ,a ,,path ,,studio4 ,the back-cloths and flats of canvas are stretched like carpets upon the floor for the artists4--,see page #aji4 ,in the ,united ,states a crude attempt in the same direction was made by ,thomas ,a4 ,edison in order to produce films for his kinetoscope4 ,his building was unpretentious in the fullest sense of the word4 ,it was of the flimsiest character1 with a movable top1 and covered externally with roofing material4 ,it became known colloquially as the 8,black ,maria10 a singularly appropriate name4 ,a notable feature was its central mounting upon a pivot1 and a circular track for wheels placed under the extreme edges of the building4 ,the structure could thus be rotated in either direction like a turn-table1 according to the position of the sun1 so that the studio could be used at any time of the day4 ,as the kinetoscope failed to arouse public enthusiasm1 work in the studio was abandoned1 until ,edison1 who had seen the tendency towards projecting pictures upon an enlarged scale before audiences1 was able to perfect his projector4 ,at about the same time another ,american firm commenced work in the same field--the ,american ,mutoscope ,company4 ,their studio was open-air in the fullest sense of the word2 the stage was the roof of their own building in ,new ,york ,city4 ,a heavy network of steel beams was laid down1 upon which the stage was erected4 ,opposite was a small hut built of corrugated iron1 which housed the camera1 its accessories1 and operator4 ,the stage could be swung round upon its track so that the bright sunlight fell squarely upon the scene1 and similarly the camera house could be moved over its wheeled track to assume the desired position for taking the pictures4 ,american enterprise1 however1 grew dissatisfied with the short lengths of the picture films then produced4 ,certain interests in ,new ,york resolved upon a masterstroke4 ,they cherished the idea of preparing something staggering in its sensationalism3 the production of a gigantic film upon some striking subject which should startle the cinematographic world1 and completely eclipse all previous efforts in the field4 ,they succeeded to an extent which surpassed their own most sanguine anticipations4 ,after prolonged discussion it was decided that the 8,passion ,play0 would prove a powerful magnet with the public4 ,but where was the man to be found sufficiently daring to attempt to carry out the project8 ,with the crude facilities available at that time the task was one not lightly to be undertaken4 ,the ,new ,york interests approached ,mr4 ,richard ,g4 ,hollaman1 the ,president of the ,eden ,muse1 who had been intimately identified with the popularisation of moving pictures ever since the days of the kinetoscope4 ,mr4 ,hollaman was somewhat startled by the proposals1 and at first considered the task entirely out of his province1 and quite beyond him4 ,however1 he deliberated upon the suggestion1 and at length consented to undertake the work4 ,he secured the assistance of ,mr4 ,john ,vincent as stage manager1 and ,mr4 ,albert ,eaves as costumier4 ,no expense was to be spared in its mounting--it was to be the most gorgeous production of the day4 ,the ,salmi ,morse version of the 8,passion ,play0 was prepared especially for the cinematograph1 and the company was enrolled4 ,the next obstacle was in getting the play staged4 ,no studio-theatre existed in ,america at that time1 and the open air roof-stages were far from being suited to the work even if they had been available4 ,as a result the producers had to make their own arrangements4 ,the roof of the ,grand ,central ,palace in ,new ,york was selected1 and in the middle of ,november1 #ahig1 rehearsals commenced4 ,several weeks were devoted to the preparation1 and no less than #af1jjj 7#c1bjj7 were spent upon the preliminaries4 ,the film ran to three reels1 or about #c1jjj feet1 and some #dh1jjj separate pictures4 ,it was the first three-reel film subject ever produced in the ,united ,states1 if not in the world4 ,the first exhibition took place at the ,eden ,muse1 and required about #ee minutes to project4 ,it created a tremendous sensation4 ,some idea of its popularity may be gathered from the fact that it ran continuously for six months4 ,copies of the film were printed off and sold broadcast throughout the ,united ,states1 the success of the ,new ,york display ensuring it a warm reception wherever it was exhibited4 ,few films have created such enthusiasm as did the 8,passion ,play10 and it has never lost its popularity4 ,as ,mr4 ,hollaman was not associated with the film-manufacturing side of the industry1 he accepted the first offer he received for the negative4 ,thus the 8,passion ,play0 passed into the hands of ,edison1 who starred the production in his catalogue of films for a considerable period4 ,meantime the movement went on in ,great ,britain4 ,shortly after ,paul brought his studio stage into full swing1 a second establishment came into existence at ,hove1 on the ,sussex coast4 ,the promoter of this enterprise was ,mr4 ,james ,a4 ,williamson1 who1 as the founder of the ,hove ,camera ,club1 had been introduced to the cinematograph in his official duties4 ,he became fascinated with the work1 and procured a projector1 but at first confined his efforts to showing moving pictures for the edification and enlightenment of his interested club-fellows4 ,then he decided to participate in the taking of the pictures4 ,the camera at that time1 however1 was so expensive that he resorted to an ingenious expedient4 ,he took the lantern projector1 which is similar in its design and operation to the camera mechanism1 and fitted this into a light-tight box carrying the spools for the unexposed and exposed films4 ,with this apparatus he secured many interesting albeit conventional subjects1 with which the public was content at that time4 ,meanwhile1 ,mr4 ,esm ,collings1 the well-known portrait photographer1 had entered into partnership with ,w4 ,f4 ,greene1 who produced the first model of a cinematographic or chronophotographic apparatus1 as it was called4 ,with his camera ,mr4 ,collings secured an excellent varied series of pictures4 ,but after a time he lost interest in cinematography1 when his stock of films was acquired by ,mr4 ,williamson4 ,the latter now decided to enter the stage-picture film field1 and a commodious and well-equipped studio was erected on the outskirts of ,hove4 ,his films1 owing to their high technical or photographic qualities1 attracted widespread attention1 especially in ,america4 ,in fact1 the ,united ,states constituted his most valuable market1 the ,williamson productions being in great demand4 ,several of his pictures1 as well as those of ,paul1 created a sensation1 and these two producers practically controlled the play-picture film market of the world for many years4 ,the period between #ahif and #aijj was most critical in the cinematograph industry1 and it was due mainly to the perseverance of the two pioneers that it became firmly established4 ,lovers of moving pictures to-day realise little of the innumerable difficulties which confronted ,paul and ,williamson1 and the puzzling obstacles which they had to break down4 ,they were dependent upon their own resources and ingenuity1 and had to learn by their own mistakes instead of by the example of others4 ,they had to be photographic artists1 scene painters1 stage carpenters1 and stage managers4 ,both ,paul and ,williamson have now retired from the play-picture producing business1 the first-named to revert entirely to his original occupation1 and the second to the mechanical side of the industry1 the manufacture of perforators1 printing machines1 and so forth4 ,his studio was acquired for the production of ,kinemacolor films1 and is in active use to-day during the summer months of the year for the production of plays in natural colours4 ,illustration3 ,,battle ,,scene ,,from 8,,the ,,siege ,,of ,,calais40 ,this film1 produced by ,path ,frres1 is the most ambitious ever attempted1 #b1ejj men and horses taking part therein4 ,paul and ,williamson led the way in the manufacturing of picture films1 and for a time controlled the market4 ,they were followed by several others1 until about half-a-dozen studio-theatres were scattered over the country4 ,the scope of their work was somewhat limited1 yet their products commanded a wide sale4 ,they dominated the ,american market2 ,williamson alone furnished some #fj or #hj films a week for the cinematograph theatres of the ,united ,states1 and he was patronised also by the ,german public4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the industry in ,great ,britain did not develop so promisingly as these early achievements augured4 ,the ,british producer does not appear to be able to gain the confidence of the capitalist2 he is still as ambitious and as capable as ever1 as witness the production of ,tennyson's 8,maud10 but he is handicapped on every side4 ,he finds it increasingly difficult to compete with his foreign rivals4 ,to-day there are only two fields in which he reigns supreme--popular drama and comedy2 and this slight modicum of success is due rather to the fact that the ,british public is somewhat insular in its tastes2 it does not understand foreign humour1 and will not tolerate foreign tragedy4 ,illustration3 ,,exterior ,,of ,,the ,,modern ,,edison ,,film-,,play-,,producing ,,theatre4 ,this structure contrasts with the 8,black ,maria40 ,it is a lofty glass building1 #ajj feet long by #fj feet wide and #de feet high1 and cost #bj1jjj4--,see page #aab4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,a ,,solid ,,set ,,for 8,,the ,,two ,,orphans40 ,this scene1 on one of the ,selig open-air stages1 shows the care and expense taken to mount a modern film-play4--,see page #aab4 ,about six years ago the cinematograph play underwent a great change4 ,up to that time the productions were somewhat conventional both in plot and mounting4 ,the scenery was commonplace1 and the dramatis person1 as a rule1 comprised only about half-a-dozen persons4 ,moreover1 the pictures betrayed a sad deficiency in stage technique1 a result due entirely to the fact that the producers were not conversant with stage-craft4 ,the ,french producers saw a unique opportunity1 and grasped it promptly4 ,foremost in the movement was the firm of ,path ,frres1 which is to-day one of the largest and most enterprising film-producing establishments in the world4 ,they launched out upon the most elaborate lines4 ,huge stages or studios1 with the latest appliances1 which from the technical point of view would rival the famous ,drury ,lane stage1 were constructed at immense cost1 eminent stage managers1 versed in every phase of the technique of production1 were obtained from the theatres1 while the services of the foremost ,french actors and actresses were secured4 ,the scenery was prepared upon an extensive scale1 the mounting was lavish1 and plays which hitherto had been considered beyond the scope of the picture-producer were taken in hand boldly4 ,if the ,british producers introduced the stage-play to the cinematograph film1 the ,french certainly perfected the idea1 and set the elaborate production upon its feet4 ,some of the plays which the ,french producers have filmed are extremely bold in their conception1 as well as being wonders of stage-craft1 scenery1 and photography4 ,at the present moment the ,path firm has no less than eight stage managers engaged in the production of picture plays of every description2 the ,gaumont establishment1 which is pressing the ,path hard for first rank1 has six producers1 while several other firms in the same country have elaborate organisations4 ,gorgeousness of production is the predominant key-note1 associated with acting excellence2 and the policy has been attended with merited success4 ,the triumph of the ,british and subsequently of the ,french film producers reached the ,united ,states4 ,like a huge wave the ,european films overwhelmed the country4 ,in comparison1 the ,american productions were trash4 ,the native firms were confronted with extinction unless they made a bold and united stand1 which was hardly to be expected1 for at that time the ,american cinematograph world was in a state of chaos4 ,litigation was raging on all sides4 ,edison was engaged in a deadly struggle to maintain his position according to his original1 or kinetoscope1 patent4 ,as a result of the turmoil1 the industry became unsettled1 and the money which should have been expended in the furtherance of the craft1 simply went to fill the pockets of hungry lawyers4 ,edison triumphed at last2 his claim was sustained by the ,supreme ,court4 ,the establishment of this contested point cleared the air1 and one outcome was the formation of a ,cinematograph ,trust or community of interests to resist foreign invasion4 ,several firms enlisted under the banner of the ,edison patent--other interests which still disputed his claim combined to form a second trust4 ,the first move of the combination was to eliminate the foreign competition from which it was suffering so disastrously4 ,special terms were drawn up which ,european firms were compelled to observe under threat of their films being forbidden to the country4 ,the ,european producers1 foreseeing the loss of a valuable market1 tried desperately to mitigate this drastic policy1 but in vain4 ,the ,american terms were3 either limited sale1 as stipulated by the trust1 or else complete boycott4 ,the ,british producers saw their most remunerative market eliminated at a stroke4 ,williamson suffered particularly from the decision1 for all standing contracts were cancelled4 ,as he never had made strenuous attempts to cultivate the ,british market1 which was open to producers in all parts of the world without the slightest restraint1 but had concentrated his efforts upon pleasing his ,united ,states clients1 he concluded that retirement from play production was the wisest course1 especially as the mechanical side of the industry was so full of attractive promise4 ,the ,american producers1 entrenched firmly behind the wall of protection1 set to work energetically to make up for lost time4 ,the story of the automobile industry1 which was similarly hindered in its infancy by patent wars1 was repeated4 ,the ,americans imitated the ,french example and embarked upon the most elaborate enterprises4 ,keen rivalry was displayed between the various concerns to acquire the best managers of the legitimate stage1 with the result that the theatre suffered heavily4 ,several stage managers1 seeing the trend of events1 and realising that cinematographic picture plays possessed a tremendous future1 abandoned their old field and gave their energies to the new one1 which offered such great scope for their abilities4 ,the ,american stage1 like that of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,italy1 had regarded the picture play with disdain1 and had ridiculed the possibility of its ever becoming a spirited competitor to their particular interests4 ,to-day the ,american stage is engaged in a struggle for supremacy with the moving-picture theatre4 ,the ,american picture producers erected huge studio-theatres1 with every convenience1 capable of producing any type of play demanded1 and giving the author greater opportunity for effect than ever the legitimate stage could hope to offer4 ,it is difficult to realise the proportions which these ,american studio-stages have attained1 or the work they can carry out4 ,take the ,edison ,company for instance4 ,we have seen the humble little 8,black ,maria0 which sufficed to supply the film needs of the ,kinetoscope in #ahib4 ,the present ,edison studio1 which cost something like #ajj1jjj 7#bj1jjj7 to build1 is a huge glass building measuring #ajj feet in length1 by #fj feet in width1 and has a height of #de feet4 ,the stage has a proscenium opening of #cj feet and an area of #b1djj feet4 ,in addition there is a huge water-tank with a capacity of #acj1jjj gallons1 which is used for aquatic spectacles4 ,the ,edison establishment is but one of many4 ,in ,brooklyn the ,vitagraph ,company has a huge building1 the ,lubin films are produced in spacious studios in ,philadelphia1 while ,chicago boasts the famous ,essanay and ,selig plants4 ,the latter is especially noteworthy owing to its great size and the remarkable plays which it produces for the delight of moving-picture lovers in all parts of the world4 ,it is devoted exclusively to making films1 and finds employment for #djj hands4 ,the main studio1 in which are two stages1 measures #agi feet in length by #hj feet wide4 ,in addition to this indoor establishment1 there are between two and three acres of surrounding land which have been enclosed for outdoor work4 ,this field1 if such it may be called1 presents a strange sight4 ,it is dotted with little groups of scenery4 ,here is a medival castle with ruined battlements2 a few yards away to the right is a modern street2 while on the left is the interior of a stately drawing-room4 ,in one corner are a number of artificial hills fashioned by the dumping of earth1 criss-crossed with paths and trails4 ,it is an incongruous medley of periods and scenes1 but one and all little assemblages of back-cloths and wings represent a stage1 and one and all face the southern sun4 ,upon these little stages the plays are produced4 ,illustration3 ,,building ,a ,,scene ,,on ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,path ,,studio-,,stages ,,for ,a ,,film ,,play4 ,the stage is fitted with every possible device1 such as overhead bridges1 to facilitate the moving and setting of scenery as well as for the working of effects4 ,the ,selig organisation is one of the largest in the ,united ,states1 having1 in addition to the ,chicago establishment1 another theatre at ,los ,angeles on the ,pacific coast1 devoted to the portrayal of pictures having a western setting4 ,there is the ,pacific ,ocean on one side to form a background for marine incidents2 the ,sierras1 frowning down upon the coast1 provide a natural background for subjects set among the mountains2 while within easy reach is the vast stretch of ,nevada desert1 where the atmosphere of the ,sahara of ,africa1 or the great wastes of ,australia1 can be reproduced4 ,the ,chicago studio is provided with an artificial pool of #fj1jjj gallons1 where a lake1 lagoon1 or swamp environment to a picture can be secured4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wardrobe ,,room ,,at ,,the ,,selig ,,film ,,factory4 ,over #g1jjj costumes of all descriptions are stored ready for instant use4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,selig ,,stock ,,company ,,at ,,los ,,angeles4 ,the remarkable development of the picture-play industry has resulted in the acquisition of leading actors and actresses by the largest producers4 ,high salaries are paid for the exclusive services of eminent artistes4 ,the modern cinematograph studio-stage is far more elaborately equipped for the production of effects than its counterpart behind the footlights1 while the attendant plant is overwhelmingly extensive4 ,the stage of ,drury ,lane ,theatre in ,london and of the ,opera ,house at ,paris respectively are considered marvellous homes of stage-craft1 and regarded as models of equipment4 ,but compared with the great ,french1 ,italian1 or ,american cinematograph studio-stages1 they are insignificant4 ,large1 well-lighted and spacious rooms are set apart for the stage carpenters and the scene painters to prepare the back-cloths1 wings1 and flats4 ,this work alone1 owing to the high pressure at which production is maintained1 affords employment to a large staff4 ,as the average output is three films per week--the ,edison establishment produces four or five subjects in that time--the scene painters are kept busily engaged from morning to night4 ,all scenery has to be painted in black and white1 and the excellence of the work plays an important part in the effect of the picture1 for the camera is ruthless in its exposure of indifferent work4 ,the scene may be the interior of a shack1 or a sylvan valley with a river winding like a ribbon of silver among the trees and a stately castle rearing above the foliage4 ,in each instance the same artistic care is demanded1 for it must be remembered that by the time the picture reaches the screen it is of the same dimensions as the original1 or even larger4 ,as the picture-play producer roams through all the periods of history in all countries1 a large stock of properties and an extensive wardrobe must be maintained4 ,the ,selig establishment in ,chicago has a wardrobe in which are carefully packed and labelled ready for instant use no fewer than #g1jjj costumes1 of all countries and peoples scattered between the ,arctic and ,antarctic circles1 and ranging from prehistoric times through the picturesque middle ages to the prosaic twentieth century4 ,from morning to night the studio-stage echoes the ring of hammers and the shouts of the stage carpenters as they set this scene or strike that4 ,frowning masonry castles are pulled down1 and suburban villas rise up with greater speed than their jerry-built prototypes in bricks and mortar4 ,the numerous dressing rooms are busy hives1 where actors and actresses change swiftly from one costume1 age1 and clime to another1 separated from it by centuries4 ,when the play is cinematographed indoors1 a battery of powerful electric lights is placed overhead in front of the stage1 corresponding to theatrical top-lights1 and throwing a powerful glare upon the scene4 ,they are controlled by switches1 so that the light can be concentrated as desired4 ,when the lights are in full blast1 more than #hj1jjj candle-power may be thrown upon the stage4 ,in addition1 other lights are disposed for the purpose of producing different effects1 so that upon a large studio-stage a body of well-trained electricians is indispensable4 ,the scene itself occupies but a small space1 generally about #ab or #af feet in width4 ,as a rule the camera is brought within a few feet of the picture1 in order that the actors may be photographed as large as possible4 ,on the floor on either side battens are laid to indicate the limits within which actors and actresses must move4 ,beyond these confines is to vanish from the scene1 and the stage manager may be heard over the whirr of the camera shouting peremptorily to one or other of the company to keep in the picture4 ,the large producer thinks expense is a secondary consideration in the preparation of plays4 ,a simple conventional modern comedy costs about #ej 7#bej71 while a gorgeous production runs well into #f1jjj 7#cj1jjj74 ,on the average1 about #aej1jjj feet of film are placed on the ,british market every week1 and this quantity is steadily increasing4 ,it is computed that there are some #ej1jjj picture theatres scattered throughout the world1 and as the number thereof is increasing daily the supply of films has by no means yet reached the limits of demand4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,cinematograph ,,as ,a ,,recorder ,,of ,,topical ,,events3 ,,scenic ,,films4 ,in spite of the fact that the programme of the average picture palace of to-day is chiefly occupied with film plays1 nevertheless the greatest attraction is undoubtedly the 8topical picture40 ,british audiences were first introduced to its possibilities by seeing the #ahif ,derby re-run before their eyes on the screen in the ,alhambra ,theatre1 creating a tremendous sensation4 ,in fact1 the reproduction of this classic ,british horse-race upon the white sheet twenty-four hours after it was run excited more attention than the actual race itself4 ,in those days cinematography was unfamiliar to the general public1 and those who followed the race upon the screen could not resist rubbing their eyes in amazement3 it seemed scarcely credible4 ,certainly1 very few items of sensational interest have ever created such a deep impression and brought such heavy receipts to the box-office of this famous vaudeville house as the first ,derby film4 ,the manner in which the film was obtained was typical of ,paul's quiet1 unassuming methods4 ,his 8animatograph0 had become established firmly at the ,alhambra1 and he was always on the alert to secure new and striking subjects4 ,when he decided to attempt the representation of the classic race1 he told no one1 and sought no favours to obtain commanding positions from which to photograph the contest4 ,on the morning of the race he appeared at ,epsom4 ,he chartered a wagonette1 upon the seats of which he intended to set up his tripod and camera4 ,he hoped to be able to secure a good position unobserved1 but he came near to having his plans upset4 ,when he arrived on the course1 one of the itinerant booth-holders1 a pugnacious1 gipsy-like individual1 thought the vehicle was some form of rival side-show and barred its progress4 ,an altercation ensued1 but ,paul drove on with the enraged gipsy in pursuit4 ,the latter1 seeing that his irate remonstrances were of no avail1 threatened to take the law into his own hands and to upset the offending vehicle and its strange contents4 ,paul thwarted this contingency by tying the wheels of his vehicle firmly to the rails1 along-side of which he had taken up his position1 and the film was secured without further untoward developments4 ,from the night on which the ,derby was run at the ,alhambra1 the success of the topical film has been established4 ,scarcely an item of absorbing public interest escapes being recorded4 ,probably no topical film has created such enthusiasm as that which ,paul secured of the 8,prince's ,derby0 when the late ,king ,edward ,,vii41 as ,prince of ,wales1 carried off the blue riband of the ,british turf4 ,the ,alhambra ,theatre was converted into a reproduction of the famous course1 for the entire audience cheered the moving pictures with as much gusto as if they were following the actual struggle on ,epsom ,downs1 and would not desist until the film had been passed across the screen three times4 ,paul cinematographed the ,derby on no less than six consecutive occasions1 and there is probably no established ,british annual event which he has not recorded4 ,in the early days1 as ,paul was practically in full possession of the topical film field1 there was an entire absence of that haste of competition4 ,then it was immaterial whether the film were shown one or two days after the event4 ,the many processes which had to be carried out between the securing of the negative and the production of the positive print for the projector were not hurried1 and in fact could not be accelerated very well1 if good results were desired4 ,but as other firms appeared on the scene1 keen rivalry sprang up4 ,the various establishments left no stone unturned to be first in projection1 and the theatres1 of course1 encouraged the enterprise4 ,consequently the race against time and rivals became more and more bitterly contested4 ,as a natural result1 great improvements were made in the developing1 drying1 and printing operations4 ,whereas twenty-four hours or so had been required to produce a positive ready for use1 it now became possible to reduce the time of preparation to about eight hours4 ,to-day a subject can be thrown upon the screen four hours after it has occurred4 ,the topical film appears while the subject to which it refers is still absorbing public interest2 and accordingly meets with overwhelming success4 ,the men armed with the camera have the same zeal that animates the reporter bent on securing exclusive information for his paper4 ,no effort or expense is spared to outstrip a rival1 as the following incident shows4 ,an ,american firm required a film of an event which it thought would be of absorbing interest to the ,american public4 ,it communicated with its agents in ,london to 8get it1 and ahead of anyone else40 ,the outlay was such that the firm could only hope to recoup itself by capturing the entire market for that particular firm4 ,as it happened1 only one other firm decided to exploit the same topical subject in the ,united ,states4 ,the first firm secured commanding positions for its camera operators1 and the films as they arrived were packed and dispatched to ,new ,york by special messenger4 ,the competitors failed to show such initiative1 and had their films transmitted in the usual manner4 ,not only did the first firm receive its negatives within the shortest possible space of time1 but it found itself in undisputed command of the whole country1 for the rival's product went astray in transit6 ,the successful establishment expended #cjj 7#a1ejj7 in acquiring the negatives1 but it proved an excellent investment4 ,the ,americans1 however1 have not made such a speciality of the topical film as it has become in ,england1 where there are several firms excelling in this particular field of activity4 ,under energetic management it is one of the most lucrative branches of the industry1 success attending those who display the greatest amount of energy and initiative4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,topical ,,film4 ,the ,derby of #ahif cinematographed by ,robert ,w4 ,paul1 and shown the day after the event at the ,alhambra ,theatre1 ,london4--,see page #aaf4 ,the power of the topical picture was demonstrated most convincingly by the ,coronation festivities of ,king ,george ,v4 ,for some weeks after that event the picture play fell into second position4 ,the ,coronation films were in urgent demand on every hand1 not only in ,great ,britain1 but in the ,colonies as well4 ,some theatres even found it profitable to give an extended run exclusively to ,coronation films and kindred subjects4 ,the most remarkable outcome of the popularity of the ,coronation films was the establishment of 8,kinemacolor0 in the favour of the public4 ,cinematography in natural colours had not in the earlier stages attracted more than passing interest1 and had languished somewhat4 ,but when the royal festivities were reproduced in the full glow and brilliancy of colour1 the success of this development of the art became assured4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,british and ,colonial ,kinematograph ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,the ,,fall ,,from ,,the ,,balloon4 ,sensationalism is a powerful feature in the modern cinematograph drama4 ,the above incident alone cost #cjj 7#a1ejj7 to obtain4 ,the ,coronation has probably been responsible for more achievements in the work of topical cinematography than any other event4 ,on all sides the keenest competition was displayed among the rival firms4 ,in ,london1 ere the ,royal procession left ,westminster ,abbey after the crowning ceremony1 films were being shown of the morning procession to the ,abbey2 and before the crowds in the evening were gazing upon the illuminated streets1 the return journey to ,buckingham ,palace was being thrown upon the screen of a multitude of theatres throughout the country4 ,possibly the most remarkable feat was that whereby ,english residents in ,paris and the ,french nation were enabled to see the ceremony within a few hours of its occurrence4 ,this was an achievement of the ,english branch of the well-known ,gaumont ,company1 which is probably unexcelled in time-saving ingenuity4 ,this firm had cameras and operators scattered freely along the route of the ,royal procession1 and all the films which were secured up to the time of the arrival at ,westminster ,abbey had been packed and entrusted to a special messenger4 ,the train was due to leave ,charing ,cross at #b4bj p4m4 ,the clock had barely struck two when the return journey commenced to ,buckingham ,palace4 ,the operator stationed near the ,abbey1 in a position to secure one of the best views along the route1 was suddenly seized with the idea to set up a new record4 ,a taxi-cab was engaged and held in readiness4 ,at about ten minutes past the hour the procession drew within the field of the camera and the filming commenced4 ,within about four minutes the coach bearing their ,majesties had passed beyond the lens4 ,the film was slipped out of the camera1 and the second operator1 snatching it up1 entered the cab and drove off at full speed to the station4 ,the train was caught in the nick of time1 the film was handed over to the special messenger1 and before the whole procession had left the precincts of ,westminster ,abbey1 the film bearing the passing of the crowned ,king and ,queen was bound for the ,french capital1 where the pictures were thrown upon the screen late that night4 ,on the occasion of the investiture of the ,prince of ,wales at ,carnarvon an even more astonishing performance was accomplished by the same firm4 ,a ,london manager1 ,mr4 ,laurrilard1 of the ,marble ,arch ,electric ,theatre1 desired to show the ceremonies on the evening of the day they took place1 if that were humanly possible4 ,he approached the ,gaumont ,company1 which decided to make the attempt4 ,a great difficulty was sure to be encountered in dispatching the film1 on account of the enormous crowds and the strictness of the traffic regulations2 moreover1 it was plain that in order to project the film in ,london the same evening it would have to be developed and prepared on the train4 ,with the greatest difficulty1 owing to the abnormally heavy traffic and arrangements already made for a large number of extra trains1 the ,gaumont firm succeeded in chartering a special train on the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway4 ,the railway company stipulated that the train must leave ,bangor at exactly the time designated by them1 in order not to interfere with the departure of trains after the ceremony was over4 ,two brake vans 7each measuring #ej feet in length7 were coupled up and converted into temporary dark-rooms4 ,they were fitted with tanks for developing1 fixing1 and washing1 together with a printing machine and a large drum upon which the films could be dried quickly4 ,a great difficulty was an adequate supply of water for washing the films1 #ge gallons at least being required for the purpose4 ,another quandary was the impossibility of obtaining electric current to use with the printing machine2 special lamps had finally to be acquired to enable this task to be carried out4 ,by the time the arrangements were completed over a ton of apparatus had been erected within the two vehicles4 ,this train was kept under steam at ,bangor ready to start at the pre-arranged minute4 ,the distance between ,bangor and ,carnarvon had to be covered by motor-cars chartered from ,chester1 #id miles distant4 ,the police arrangements would not permit these vehicles to approach within one-and-a-half miles of the castle1 and the latter stretch had to be covered on foot4 ,the whole ceremony was recorded by operators posted at convenient points1 each of whom had to carry his film-box at top speed to the waiting motor4 ,all worked smoothly4 ,there was some fear lest the final scene in the ceremony would have to be omitted1 but by keen judgment and quick work the last operator secured his film and left the scene1 the ceremony concluding at #d p4m4 ,the schedule had been drawn up so accurately that a little delay at any one point would have thrown the whole arrangements to the four winds4 ,however1 the train was caught and punctually to the minute the special drew out4 ,in addition to the cinematograph dark-room on wheels a third dark-room1 similarly improvised from a baggage car1 was attached for the ,daily ,graphic1 in order to enable this paper's photographic correspondents to develop their plates ready for the preparation of the process blocks for the next day's issue4 ,the complete character of the arrangements enabled the developing of the films to proceed without a hitch1 despite the fact that the train was making a steady sixty miles an hour4 ,within two hours the negatives had been developed1 washed1 and were being dried upon a huge drum4 ,printing was taken in hand1 and a single positive was hurried through its processes4 ,the parts were connected together in proper sequence1 and the various titles and sub-titles1 prepared in both ,english and ,welsh1 were duly inserted4 ,by the time the train reached ,willesden the film was completed and wound up ready for slipping into the projector4 ,arriving at ,euston seven minutes late1 the film was received by a waiting motor-car2 and at #aj4ae a large audience followed for some twelve minutes a ceremony which had been performed six hours before over #bjj miles away4 ,the film was #gej feet in length4 ,as it was the only moving picture record of the ,investiture of the ,prince of ,wales seen in ,london that night1 as may be supposed it created no slight sensation4 ,by working all night the firm made over #ajj copies of the subject1 varying from #ejj to #a1jjj feet in length1 and by seven o'clock had dispatched them to all parts of the country4 ,copies were hurried to the ,continent1 and were seen in the ,french capital several hours ahead of any rival4 ,a prize-fight between two famous champions provokes extraordinary energy on the part of the cinematographic artists4 ,fabulous prices are paid for exclusive rights to photograph the contest1 and no expense is spared to secure a continuous record4 ,in order to obtain adequate illumination of the ring1 a battery of powerful electric lamps has to be set up1 and the glare of tens of thousands of candle-power concentrated upon the combatants4 ,if the battle is short and sharp the results are disappointing both to the cinematographer and his public1 but if it be long1 requiring several hundred feet of film1 he is happy4 ,the prize-fight film1 however1 is meeting with considerable opposition1 which should be welcomed as a healthy sign even by the film-producers themselves4 ,the cinematograph can surely do more elevating1 profitable and entertaining work than the recording of a prize-fight4 ,furthermore1 the result has not always paid the speculators concerned1 and one or two more heavy losses in the field1 combined with popular censorship1 will result in the prize-fight being eliminated entirely from the category of 8topical0 films4 ,at the present moment the largest film-producing establishments refrain from practising in the 8topical0 world1 as the special requirements necessary to get the films quickly upon the market upsets the arrangements of a well-organised factory1 where the day's work must be very carefully scheduled4 ,when a topical subject is under contemplation1 it must be decided whether the financial results will compensate for the losses arising from the disorganisation of the film factory4 ,this point of view is responsible for the apathetic ,american attitude towards the 8topical10 as it is called in ,great ,britain4 ,topical work1 however1 not only possesses its fascinations1 but is beset with considerable danger at times4 ,a calamity of such dimensions as to send a deep thrill around the world is a powerful topical subject1 and in their haste to secure striking films1 the operators occasionally run extreme risks4 ,the ,messina earthquake was a striking case in point4 ,the first authoritative news of that catastrophe precipitated the rush of a small army of operators and cameras to the spot4 ,scarcely had the earth ceased its mighty devastating shivers when the cinematographer was among the tottering ruins securing records of the disaster4 ,now and again there was a rush to a point of safety to escape a collapsing wall4 ,sometimes the flight was so hurried that the operator had to abandon his camera1 and saw it buried beneath thousands of tons of dbris4 ,occasionally the operator himself was too slow and was overwhelmed while pursuing his dangerous work4 ,it is always possible for the film producer to realise large profits on a great national disaster of this kind1 provided he displays the requisite energy and initiative4 ,colliery accidents1 conflagrations1 railway collisions1 are all sources of income to him4 ,he has often to contend with innumerable adverse factors--the weather may be bad1 or the lighting conditions unadapted to this work2 but the film must be obtained by some means or other4 ,the public sometimes find fault with the quality of such pictures1 expecting the brilliance and perfect definition incidental to the average picture play1 and ignoring the fact that the film may have been exposed upon a dreary1 wintry day in the pelting rain1 or when the scene was enveloped in a blanket of fog4 ,now and again a stirring item of news enables striking success to be achieved4 ,during the battle with the anarchists in the ,east ,end of ,london1 an enterprising firm dispatched its operators and assistants to the scene without loss of time4 ,in the course of an hour a short length of film arrived at the factory1 which1 upon development1 was found to be capable of producing a sensation of the first rank4 ,instantly telegrams with replies prepaid were dispatched to all customers throughout the kingdom announcing that a film had been secured4 ,of course1 the event constituted at the time the sole topic of conversation in every walk of life4 ,the films were brought in as fast as possible2 and by four o'clock in the afternoon eighty copies thereof had been dispatched to all parts of the ,british ,isles2 in several instances being shown on the screen that evening whilst the newsboys outside the theatres were shouting out the latest details concerning the episode4 ,the topical film is a favourite in the ,british ,colonies1 for it enables audiences in the most remote parts of ,greater ,britain to become more vividly familiar with incidents and events in the ,home ,country than they could in any other way4 ,the ,derby may be run in the ,antipodes six weeks after the horses have sped over the course at ,epsom2 a prominent ,royal function may have slipped from memory1 but the film revives it in all its freshness4 ,when the film shows such subjects as the funeral of ,king ,edward ,,vii41 the unveiling of the ,queen ,victoria ,memorial1 or the ,coronation of ,king ,george ,v41 the sale of the films in the ,colonies aggregates several thousand feet per subject4 ,to be successful in the production of topical films one must have not only an extensive and well-equipped organisation1 but also facilities for working at high pressure4 ,the business1 moreover1 is speculative to a degree2 for the average topical film is little more than a six days' wonder--many of them are less--and the manufacturer can make a profit only by flooding the market within an hour or two of the occurrence of the incident4 ,every hour means money1 and every day depreciates the value of the film from the showman's point of view4 ,some of the firms concerned in the work of topical film production1 however1 are jeopardising its future by doing work of very indifferent quality4 ,this is partly due to heavy cutting in prices4 ,it is possible to purchase topical films for fifty per cent4 less than the price charged per foot for film plays2 at which figure the margin of profit is slight and quality must suffer4 ,the public is displaying its disapproval of these tactics1 and unless a radical improvement comes1 the topical film will be ousted from the picture palace by force of popular opinion4 ,indifferent workmanship certainly does not assist those who are endeavouring to lift this form of entertainment to its highest level4 ,if the topical film brings a glimpse of the great world into remote and unsettled corners of the earth1 the scenic film1 on the other hand1 does a like service for the dweller in cities2 it brings sweeping panoramas of nature1 magnificent and unfamiliar landscapes before his eyes4 ,he has the joys of travel without stirring from his comfortable chair in the cinematograph theatre6 ,in fact1 the best scenic film is that taken from the front of a railway locomotive1 with the camera and operator mounted upon the cow-catcher or its equivalent4 ,in this instance the illusion is conveyed that the audience are seated in the moving train2 the panorama is unfolded on all sides1 and there are the gleaming metals and the flitting in and out of tunnels to assist in the illusion of actually travelling4 ,the railway scenic film has been modified recently to conspicuous advantage4 ,instead of taking the picture from the front or rear of the train1 the practice of taking the film from the carriage windows has been introduced with strikingly convincing effects4 ,the camera is mounted near the rear of the train with the lens pointing towards the engine4 ,the result is that when the train swings round a sharp curve a glimpse of the leading carriages is caught1 giving a highly realistic result4 ,when the ,urban ,trading ,company sought to record some of the natural marvels of the ,tyrol in order to bring them before large audiences in distant theatres1 valuable assistance was extended by the ,imperial ,austrian ,railway ,ministry1 which placed a special engine and carriage at the disposal of the cinematographer1 so that he might be enabled to obtain his pictures under the best and most advantageous conditions4 ,similarly when ,kinemacolor set out to harness the gorgeous beauties of ,nature among the ,rocky ,mountains of ,british ,north ,america1 the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway1 which co-operated in the enterprise1 provided a special engine attached to a dark-room on wheels4 ,this 8,kinemacolor special0 moved at leisure among the snow-clad giants1 and some very impressive and beautiful pictures were obtained to delight vast concourses4 ,the cinematographer of to-day acts in the capacity of an explorer4 ,at great risk he ventures into unknown or forbidden territories1 and brings back scenes of wonderful interest1 though in many instances he has to resort to novel subterfuge to secure his results4 ,for instance1 when some films of the country1 habits and customs of the peoples of inland ,china were desired1 it was considered too dangerous to entrust a white man with the work4 ,instead1 an intelligent and highly cultured ,chinaman was obtained4 ,months were devoted to initiating him into the mysteries of the camera1 and when at last he obtained proficiency he sallied out upon his perilous mission4 ,equally daring was the expedition of the ,urban ,trading ,company into ,central ,africa4 ,the cinematographer followed the route of the ,cape to ,cairo ,railway so far as practicable1 securing magnificent film records as he proceeded along the line1 and then pushed on into the interior4 ,when the railway was left a number of native porters had to be pressed into service to fulfil the work of the iron horse1 the members of this human pack-train bearing the camera and its innumerable accessories1 together with the impedimenta of the operator1 upon their heads4 ,the ,victoria ,falls upon the ,zambesi ,river have proved a happy hunting ground for the cinematographer1 and this enormous tumble of water promises to rival the famous ,falls of ,niagara as a cinematographic centre of attraction4 ,since the bridge has been thrown across the gorge excellent coigns of vantage have been provided to secure impressively beautiful films of this cataract4 ,one of the most powerful pictures of this wonder of ,nature1 however1 was a close view of the ,boiling ,pot1 and the recording of the seething water bubbling and frothing provided a unique and thrilling experience for the operator4 ,there was only one means by which a close view of this awful spectacle could be secured--that was to lower the operator and camera by ropes from the bridge overhead to within a few feet of the raging waters4 ,the ropes were snubbed round friendly posts and the operator with his camera was lowered over the side for a distance of about #djj feet1 being steadied as much as possible while in that unenviable position by his comrades on the bridge above4 ,it was an eerie sensation dangling in mid-air1 and the cinematographer1 after swirling round at the end of the ropes1 like a joint on a roasting-jack1 gave a breath of relief when he was hauled up and felt his feet touching the roadway of the railway bridge once more4 ,possibly the greatest triumph of scenic cinematography is the convincing manner in which the sensitised celluloid band brings before the teeming thousands of the crowded cities of civilisation the terrible difficulties confronting polar exploration4 ,the still-life studies of the interminable wastes of snow and ice which were brought back by ,nansen1 ,jackson1 ,sverdrup1 ,captain ,scott1 and other intrepid spirits who ventured into the silent1 cold strongholds around the poles1 were indelibly powerful1 but they failed to convince the man in the street of the bitter hostility of those icy climes in such a vivid manner as those produced in movement upon the screen1 which were taken for the first time during the ,shackleton expedition4 ,this daring explorer indicated a new opportunity for motion photography1 and since that expedition no other party has ventured into those forbidding wastes without a cinematograph and a few thousand feet of film4 ,captain ,scott has a complete cinematographic equipment1 and his films initiated the masses into the inconceivable difficulties1 privations1 and peculiar existence of the small communities determined to penetrate ,farthest ,south4 ,similarly1 the ,duke of the ,abruzzi brought before one and all the topmost heights of the ,himalayas4 ,the ,roof of the ,world has been wrapped in much legend1 and has been the scene of many remarkable mountaineering exploits1 but the task of scaling those dizzy peaks has never been conveyed so realistically to the man in the armchair before as by the films that were taken on this occasion4 ,in a like manner another daring explorer has penetrated the innermost recesses of ,new ,guinea1 and in the heart of the unknown has made several exposures1 the value of which is not confined to the satisfaction of the curious4 ,the pictures are also of incalculable value to geographical and ethnographical science1 as we see how these unknown natives move1 live1 and have their being1 just as vividly as if we were transported to the spot by a magic carpet1 and viewed the sights with our own eyes1 while we become acquainted with the physical characteristics of the country4 ,theodore ,roosevelt also brought back striking films of life in the lesser-known recesses of the ,african jungle4 ,it is stated that the cinematographic records of his journey cost no less than #b1jjj 7#aj1jjj71 which affords an insight into the expense incurred to bring the uttermost parts of the earth to the city dweller4 ,nowadays an explorer may reap appreciable financial benefit by the display of a little forethought4 ,the manipulation of the moving picture camera does not demand a long course of tutelage to enable pictures to be taken4 ,accordingly1 whereas formerly the hand camera constituted a prominent part of the impedimenta1 the cinematograph now occupies the pre-eminent place4 ,the films obtained command a distinct value1 which fluctuates according to the popular interest created in the particular exploration achievement to which they refer4 ,any film manufacturing firm will undertake readily to place the subjects upon the market under a handsome royalty4 ,the ,gaumont firm has displayed considerable initiative in this direction2 for it introduced the films of ,shackleton's famous ,antarctic expedition to the masses1 and has recently acquired the films of ,captain ,scott relative to his ,antarctic expedition1 and also those of the daring journey into the innermost parts of ,new ,guinea4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,cinematograph ,,theatre ,,and ,,its ,,equipment ,when moving pictures made their first claim on popular interest1 they did so in the form of an item to the programme of the ordinary music-hall or vaudeville theatre4 ,in the front rank of this movement was ,t4 ,j4 ,west2 in fact1 he might be considered the pioneer of the travelling cinematograph show4 ,he had seen the popularity of the cinematograph feature on the programme of ,professor ,treuw1 the ,french prestidigitateur1 during his appearance at the ,regent ,street ,polytechnic4 ,the conjurer used a ,lumire apparatus and operated it himself4 ,when his engagement was concluded1 ,west decided that the ,polytechnic ought not to lose one of its greatest attractions2 accordingly he offered a complete entertainment in motion photography4 ,from this small beginning has grown up one of the largest individual cinematographic exhibition businesses in the world4 ,west realised the possibilities of the craft1 and with commendable enterprise organised a touring show1 with which he travelled not only through the towns and cities of the ,british ,isles1 but even in the remote colonies4 ,to-day he has no less than twenty permanent establishments devoted to the projection of moving pictures scattered throughout the ,british ,empire1 providing employment for over #fjj people4 ,the touring cinematograph proved conclusively the popularity of entertainments devoted exclusively to animated pictures4 ,permanent exhibitions were then tried1 at first in a somewhat unpretentious way4 ,empty shops in prominent thoroughfares1 which could be rented at a low price1 railway arches1 and so forth were acquired1 and converted at small expense into dark halls4 ,a screen and apparatus were purchased2 the seating accommodation comprised hard wooden seats similar to school forms4 ,the show was continuous3 it commenced about mid-day and continued without intermission for ten or twelve hours1 sufficient pictures being secured to provide amusement for about one hour1 and repeated throughout the day4 ,the prices of admission were very low1 averaging about one penny1 or two cents2 and as the expenses were trifling1 it did not require very extensive patronage to ensure a substantial weekly profit upon the investment4 ,in the ,united ,states the same practice was adopted4 ,the first steps there were taken just as warily as in ,great ,britain2 empty buildings were hired at a low price and turned into temporary 8store0 theatres1 as they were called4 ,if the enterprise proved unsuccessful1 the energetic showman simply closed down1 vacated the building1 and tried his fortune in a more promising situation4 ,this practice is still followed extensively throughout ,north ,america and ,canada1 and the initiative of the showman knows no limits4 ,he seeks to instal himself in a small community where there is no competition4 ,the experiment invariably proves successful from the financial point of view1 because in the outlying townships the cinematograph hall constitutes the sole centre of amusement for miles around4 ,if there is no available empty building1 the showman constructs a cheap wooden theatre4 ,often the frontier moving picture palace is only a shack built of logs1 capable of seating #ajj people or so1 the price of admission ranging between five and ten cents--#b;d4 to #e;d4 ,the cinematographic entertainment in ,north ,america is known colloquially as a 8nickel0 or 8dime0 show1 from the prices charged for admission4 ,in ,great ,britain it became known in the early days as a 8penny gaff10 which contemptuous colloquialism still remains in use1 though the price has gone up4 ,i have seen some very amusing and interesting manifestations of the showman's energy in remote districts of ,america4 ,when ,i visited ,cochrane1 a town which has sprung up in the wilderness of ,ontario within #age miles of the shores of ,hudson ,bay1 the picture showman had planted himself firmly in its midst4 ,there was only one masonry building in the place1 the majority of the #cjj inhabitants living in wooden shacks or tents1 because the town was in the formative stage4 ,the showman had come up with the first settlers1 cannily foreseeing that a little colony #aej miles from the nearest town would need some form of diversion to while away the long evenings4 ,he acquired a site upon one of the main streets1 and ran up a cheap wooden building with an attractive arched front1 gaily bedecked with small red1 white1 and blue lamps4 ,there was not a unit of electricity or a cubic foot of gas generated in the place1 but the indefatigable showman overcame these difficulties by recourse to substitutes4 ,the theatre was thronged the whole evening1 a result due in a great measure to the fact that ,cochrane was situate in the ,prohibition ,area1 and the theatre consequently had not to compete with the lures of the liquor saloon4 ,the ranks of the inhabitants were swelled every day by gangs of workmen passing to and from the great railway construction camps1 and the theatre was a distinct success and source of profit to the enterprising operator4 ,i encountered another quaint outburst of initiative at a far more inaccessible spot--the town of ,hazelton around the ,hudson ,bay post at the head of navigation on the ,skeena ,river1 in ,british ,columbia4 ,prince ,rupert1 #ahf miles away1 was the nearest town1 and that port is #eej miles from ,vancouver4 ,a cinematograph showman arrived in ,hazelton1 which at that time boasted a handful of white men1 and several ,indians4 ,the operator took over an excavation in the side of the hill overlooking the town1 which had been made for storing various goods1 but which at that time was empty4 ,in this cramped1 unventilated cellar he rigged his screen and lantern4 ,on the wooden door he nailed a large sheet of paper1 on which was scrawled the name of the 8,theatre0 and the programme of films 8now being shown40 ,the preparations demanded only a few hours4 ,boxes1 barrels1 and logs sufficed for seats1 while a good many patrons sat or sprawled upon the earthen floor4 ,the little vault was packed to suffocation on the opening night4 ,the ,indians were amazed and the whites were amused1 though the films would not have been tolerated in ,london or ,new ,york1 having long since passed their span of usefulness4 ,the show was kept going day after day until the audience became too small to defray the cost of the illuminant1 when the 8theatre0 was closed1 and the showman haunted the verandah of the hotel until he received some new subjects4 ,his supply of films was both uncertain and irregular4 ,he had to order them by post from ,vancouver1 whence they were brought up by boat4 ,if the fates were kind he received an entire change of programme in about a fortnight2 if the river were difficult to navigate1 a month passed before they reached him1 and often the boat came up without his goods1 owing to lack of space4 ,probably no showman ever offered to amuse the public under more difficult conditions4 ,it was doubtful if he would secure any films at all during the winter1 as1 the river being frozen1 communication between ,hazelton and ,prince ,rupert had to be maintained by dog trains1 which carried letter-mail only4 ,in comparison with the luxurious conditions under which the triumphs of the art may be seen in ,london1 ,new ,york1 or ,paris1 the 8,hazelton ,picture ,palace0 was a half-pathetic1 half-laughable spectacle--a strange link between civilisation and the aboriginal4 ,i saw it after being immured for several weeks in the primeval bush2 and though the pictures in the cellar danced and flickered on the screen1 they seemed to me like a welcome handshake with the great world4 ,about four years ago the cinematograph theatre underwent a fresh change4 ,the success of the 8halls0 extemporised from empty shops and railway arches induced a movement in favour of a theatre especially designed for the projection of moving pictures4 ,companies sprang up on all sides4 ,at first empty buildings of all descriptions1 disused slaughter houses1 empty factories1 roller-skating rinks1 chapels without congregations1 were taken over4 ,landlords who had despaired of ever receiving an income again from their vacant property reaped a golden harvest4 ,in the first enthusiasm little discrimination was displayed in the acquisition of premises4 ,the interiors1 having been cleared down to the bare walls and ceiling1 were redecorated1 and provided with comfortable theatre seats4 ,the converted building was not entirely successful4 ,moreover1 the cinematograph theatre needed established houses in order to compete with the vaudeville and legitimate theatres4 ,managers became more and more ambitious2 and to-day rivalry is being displayed between competitive interests to eclipse one another in the elaborate construction and palatial appointment of the building4 ,great improvement was made in the mechanical installations4 ,hitherto they had been more or less haphazard2 but expert electrical knowledge naturally soon entered the field1 and the electrical engineer has found a new opportunity for the display of his ability4 ,every large company retains a highly competent electrical engineer and an efficient corps of assistants1 and the success of the twentieth century picture palace is dependent to a very great extent upon electricity4 ,improvement in this particular field is probably responsible for the fact that1 taken on the whole1 the ,british picture theatre is the best in the world from every point of view1 as an inspection of the theatres on the ,continent and in ,north ,america will readily show4 ,the picture houses under the control of the ,provincial ,cinematograph ,theatres1 ,limited1 offer a good illustration of my point4 ,this company has studied the tastes of the ,british public and has set the pace in elaborate and comfortable buildings4 ,the day of the moving picture theatre comprising only the box office and the dark hall screened off from the street by heavy curtains is past2 and the comforts and conveniences of the vaudeville house and the legitimate theatre have been incorporated4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,provincial ,cinematograph ,theatres1 ,ltd4 ,,the ,,luxury ,,of ,,the ,,modern ,,picture ,,palace4 ,general interior view of the ,picture ,house1 ,briggate1 ,leeds4 ,our illustration shows the ,picture ,house at ,briggate1 ,leeds1 one of the chain of theatres belonging to the ,provincial ,theatre ,company4 ,the building is of fire-proof construction1 as every moving picture theatre should be2 the decorative details have been carried out upon a lavish scale1 and the seating arrangements have every device of luxurious comfort4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,provincial ,cinematograph ,theatres1 ,ltd4 ,,the ,,lantern ,,room ,,of ,a ,,modern ,,cinematograph ,,theatre4 ,the operating room of the ,picture ,house1 ,briggate1 ,leeds1 showing two film projectors and slide lantern4 ,the projecting hall has accommodation for about #fjj people1 and there is a lounge1 a tea-room1 and a smoking-room4 ,such a liberal policy brings the picture theatre on a level with the vaudeville house or legitimate theatre4 ,british law demands that the operating room shall be insulated by means of steel walls4 ,in the early days a cupboard-like box built of iron met this requirement2 but nowadays larger accommodation is necessary1 because the compartment has to house far more than the mere projector4 ,when a continuous show is given1 and the programme lasts about an hour1 the public insists upon full value for its money2 consequently the interval between each film must be reduced to the minimum4 ,under ordinary circumstances #a minutes suffice1 not only to enable the film to be changed easily1 but to give sufficient time for the audience to change4 ,the projecting apparatus should be in duplicate1 not only to provide a reserve apparatus in case of accident1 but to permit alternate use1 so that the lantern does not become overheated4 ,moreover1 the advent of ,kinemacolor has made the #b-lantern plan essential4 ,in colour work the projector requires a special type of shutter with alternate sectors of red and green glass1 or screens1 with intervening opaque sectors2 and thus1 obviously1 when black and white alternate with colour pictures in the programme1 a second projector is essential1 to obviate the necessity for repeated detachment and re-attachment of the ,kinemacolor shutter4 ,a third lantern is required for stationary projections1 such as announcements1 titles1 and so forth4 ,under these conditions a commodious lantern room is indispensable4 ,the front of the operating house is provided with small sliding shutters through which the pictures are projected4 ,if a film should catch fire these doors1 by a single movement1 close either from within or without the lantern room1 the fire is confined to the lantern house1 and the public within the theatre need receive no intimation of the mishap4 ,as the lantern house is provided with an ample ventilating system1 no smoke or gases find their way into the main building4 ,in the modern theatre1 however1 the lantern room has to fulfil other requirements beside merely housing the projectors4 ,from it control of the various electrical arrangements is effected4 ,the picture palace of to-day1 instead of being entirely dark during projection1 is suffused with the subdued glow of ruby lamps1 which do not affect projection1 or the brilliancy of the picture to any material degree4 ,under the old rgime darkness prevailed from one end of the programme to the other1 save1 perhaps1 during a short interval2 but now the lights are turned up throughout the hall while the films are being changed4 ,the conversion from darkness to brilliant light1 and vice vers1 which is so detrimental to the eyesight1 is not1 however1 carried out instantaneously1 but gradually4 ,when the end of the film is reached the hall is filled--for about five seconds--with a soft diffused light1 followed by full illumination2 darkness comes on in the same gradual manner when the next film is ready4 ,in the modern picture palace1 such as we illustrate1 the electrical equipment is of the most elaborate character4 ,the supply of current is derived1 as a rule1 from the public supply service1 and the pressure has to be broken down to meet the requirements of the projector and of the electric lighting arrangements throughout the building4 ,the supply service is generally in duplicate to guard against the failure of one installation1 while should the whole service break down some other form of illumination has to be in readiness for use until the fault in the electric system is repaired4 ,the electrical installation is essentially of technical interest1 appealing mostly to the engineer4 ,in many instances the projector mechanism is driven by electric power1 a small motor being fitted for this purpose4 ,for natural colour work1 indeed1 owing to the number of pictures projected per second1 a motor drive is imperative to secure satisfactory results4 ,after a film has been passed through the lantern it must be re-wound upon another reel to bring the first picture into the starting position once more4 ,this operation is carried out with a film-winder4 ,a large number of these devices are on the market1 all working upon the same fundamental principle1 but the 8,empire0 winders have achieved a high reputation1 being excellent machines for the work and capable of withstanding hard wear4 ,the operation is so simple that there is no necessity to describe the apparatus1 as the illustration1 ,fig4 #ab1 conveys its design and method of working4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,the 8,,empire0 ,,film-,,winder ,after a picture has been run through the projector it has to be re-wound upon its spool for the next display4 ,occasionally when a film is being run through the projector it becomes severed by some means or other4 ,before it can be used again the break must be repaired by splicing the two parts together4 ,this is a simple task4 ,the broken edge of one film is cut off about one-eighth of an inch below the line dividing one picture from the next4 ,the gelatine emulsion upon this small section is removed with a knife4 ,the other part of the film is trimmed exactly at the dividing line between two pictures1 and the two facing surfaces of the film are treated with film cement1 applied by means of a brush1 the overlapping edges then being pressed tightly together and allowed to dry for about three minutes4 ,this cement is a combination of amyl-acetate and acetone in the proportion of two to one for ordinary celluloid films4 ,when a non-inflammable film is used the constitution of the cement is varied4 ,to facilitate such splicing a small clamping device is used generally1 and1 although it is not essential to effect a good joint1 its use certainly enables the task to be performed more neatly and satisfactorily4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,the 8,,empire0 ,,film ,,mender4 ,,the ,,illustration ,,shows ,,how ,a ,,broken ,,film ,,is ,,rejoined4 ,though the excellence of a moving picture display depends primarily upon the projector and the film1 its brilliancy and clear definition can be made or marred by the screen4 ,when the pictures are being thrown from the front of the house and the audience see a reflected projection1 the screen must be opaque and prepared from a suitably woven cloth4 ,it is stretched taut1 and the surface is treated with a good whitewash or matt white paint4 ,recently1 various preparations have been placed on the market to enhance the brilliancy of the picture4 ,they may achieve the result2 but often at the price of introducing other flaws1 such as alteration of the tone values and occasionally the impoverishment of the pure whites in the picture4 ,if the audience is viewing the picture through the screen--that is1 if the projector is placed at the back of the stage and out of sight--the sheet must be made of transparent material4 ,this practice1 however1 has fallen into disuse4 ,the screen must be set perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the projector objective and condenser1 and if the machine is inclined slightly the sheet must be tilted in a corresponding degree1 or it will be impossible to secure a picture which is clear and sharp all over1 for the simple reason that some of the rays of light from the projector will be shorter than others4 ,if the former are focussed sharp and clear the latter will be blurred1 and vice vers4 ,in hanging the screen a certain amount of care must be taken to secure the best possible results4 ,the edges are covered with a black material--velvet is the best medium--carried for a small distance on all sides of the sheet1 giving the appearance of a white surface being set in a deep black frame4 ,such an arrangement improves the pictures by throwing them into stronger relief4 ,within the past two or three years the idea has come into vogue of accompanying movements in the pictures with characteristic sound effects4 ,when a horse gallops1 the sound of its feet striking the road are heard2 the departure of a train is accompanied by a whistle and a puff as the engine gets under weigh2 the breaking of waves upon a pebbly beach is reproduced by a roaring sound4 ,opinion appears to be divided as to the value of the practice4 ,some more cultivated motion photography lovers are opposed to it1 on the ground that unless every motion is given its distinctive sound1 none at all should be audible2 others contend that sound imparts an additional realism to the scene4 ,there is no doubt that at times the sound effects come as an unpleasant and disturbing shock1 especially when they are neither in time nor harmony with the motion--for example1 when the realism of a medival battle is heightened by the vigorous rattling of a machine gun1 or when horses galloping over the turf make a clatter that only a city pavement could cause4 ,but1 on the other hand1 since sound effects are indispensable to the legitimate stage1 why should they not be extended to the moving picture theatre8 ,what would ,macbeth be without the crashing of thunder1 and how could the impression of rattling hail1 or the howling and shrieking of the wind1 be conveyed without recourse to various devices in the wings8 ,even if the play be in pantomime1 all sound is not suppressed4 ,the players may be mute1 but yet one hears the slam of a door1 or the crash of an overturned chair as it strikes the floor1 and so on4 ,accordingly it would seem that sound effects are perfectly justifiable in moving pictures1 provided they are judiciously managed4 ,the first attempts to introduce sound effects provoked humorous situations4 ,the boy deputed to the task enjoyed the chance to make a noise1 and applied himself with a vigour of enthusiasm which overstepped the bounds of common sense4 ,nowadays such effects are employed with all the care and discrimination expended on the pictures themselves1 and the result is harmonious and pleasing4 ,of course1 it has been necessary to devise all sorts of contrivances for realistic sound production1 from the firing of a #ab-;inch gun to the squeak of a mouse4 ,the most interesting of these is the 8,allefex10 invented by ,mr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,moorhouse4 ,it is the most comprehensive and ingenious machine ever made for the mimicry of sound1 for although it measures only four feet in height1 by about three feet in width and depth1 it produces some fifty characteristic sounds1 including the howl of a storm1 the rushing of waterfalls1 the bark of a dog1 and the twittering of birds4 ,every artifice for producing these noises is contained within a small cubical space1 and the operation has been so simplified that one man is sufficient for the task4 ,illustration3 ,copyright the ,hepworth ,manufacturing ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,the ,,trial ,,scene ,,from 8,,rachel',s ,,sin40 ,a striking example of a ,british picture play4 ,from every point of view this film is equal to the finest foreign work4 ,the ,english home producers excel in domestic drama of this character4 ,a general impression of this machine may be gathered from the illustration4 ,it appears to be a maze of levers1 cranks1 plug-holes1 and bulbs1 but each attachment performs some definite purpose and produces one or more distinct sounds4 ,another striking feature is that its operation demands the minimum of practice1 for the majority of the effects are produced by straightforward action4 ,it is only here and there that a little practice is required1 such as1 for instance1 to imitate the bark of a dog1 or the cry of a baby4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,sound ,,effect ,,accompaniments ,,to ,,pictures ,,are ,,produced4 ,the ingenious 8,allefex0 machine1 whereby over fifty distinctive noises can be made4 ,it would be impossible to describe in one chapter all the various effects produced by means of this apparatus4 ,i will confine myself1 therefore1 to some of the more difficult sounds1 many of them apparently beyond the reach of mechanical mimicry4 ,the shot of a gun is imitated by striking a drum at the top of the machine1 on which a chain mat has been placed1 a smart blow with a felt drum-stick as near the centre as possible4 ,the same device serves to represent successive shots4 ,the interior of the drum is fitted with three drum-sticks1 which are manipulated by the turning of a handle1 the number of shots varying1 with the speed1 according to the picture4 ,at the bottom of the machine is a large bellows worked by the foot4 ,their manipulation in conjunction with one or other of the handles will produce the sound of exhaust steam issuing from a locomotive1 the rumbling of a train rushing through a tunnel1 and so on4 ,running water1 rain1 hail1 and the sound of rolling waves are obtained by turning a handle1 which rotates a ribbed wooden cylinder against a board set at an angle from the top of which hang a number of chains4 ,by varying the speed of the cylinder any of the above sounds may be obtained with accuracy4 ,the puffing of an engine is made by revolving a cylinder with projections against a steel brush2 the crash of china1 pots and pans1 c41 is due to the revolution of a shaft on which are mounted a series of tappets striking against hammers1 which in turn come into contact with a number of steel plates4 ,the crackling of a machine gun is caused by turning a shaft having tappets which strike and lift up wooden laths1 subsequently releasing them to strike smartly against the framework of the machine4 ,the same device also serves for imitating the crash attending the upsetting of chairs1 tables1 and so on4 ,pendant tubes serve to produce the effects of church bells1 fire alarm1 ship's bell1 and similar noises2 the sound of trotting horses is caused by revolving a shaft carrying three tappets which lift up inverted cups4 ,this shaft is slightly movable1 so that by adjustment a trot can be converted into a gallop and vice vers1 while distance effects are obtained by a muffling attachment4 ,thunder is made by shaking a sheet of steel hanging on one side of the machine2 the press of a bulb gives the bark of a dog2 the bellows and another attachment operate the warbling bird2 while the cry of the baby is emitted by the dexterous manipulation of plug-hole and bellows4 ,a machine like this is a distinct acquisition to the modern picture theatre1 for when skilfully controlled it provides a scientific and perfect mechanical apparatus for the production of distinctive sound1 correctly1 and at the proper moment4 ,at the same time1 it is so simple that little practice is demanded to make the operator expert in the art of mechanical mimicry4 ,during the past two years special attention has been devoted to what is called 8daylight projection10 i4e41 the display of pictures in broad daylight4 ,a method evolved by ,quentin for accomplishing this end was adopted at the ,cinma ,palace in ,paris nearly three years ago4 ,here the practice was to show the pictures upon the screen with half the lamps in the theatre lighted1 the projector being #ff feet from the screen1 the size of the picture being #aj by #h feet1 and the arc lamp taking normally a current of #cj amperes from the supply mains of a #aaj-volt circuit4 ,another system to the same end was evolved by ,antoine and ,prosper ,poch1 the image being projected upon a translucent screen placed between the spectators and the projector4 ,with this apparatus the pictures could be thrown upon a screen measuring about #bd by #cj inches1 so as to be clearly visible in the middle of the day by people passing along the street4 ,for this work the screen demands special treatment4 ,if it is to be used only temporarily1 the tracing cloth used by architects is a very satisfactory material4 ,one inventor produced what he called a 8rainbow screen10 prepared by soaking a suitable white material with fish glue and attaching thereto a thin layer of tinted fabric4 ,moving pictures 8without darkness0 have been exploited in the ,united ,states upon a small scale1 and on one or two occasions in this country4 ,the object of the plan1 however1 is not quite clear1 for moving pictures can obviously be seen at their best only in total darkness or a very slight suffused red glow4 ,it is claimed by the advocates of the daylight pictures that the eyes are fatigued less under such conditions4 ,the advantage1 however1 has not been recognised by the public1 for daylight projection is no more popular to-day than it was in #ahig1 when the appearance of a method for accomplishing it appeared and sank into oblivion after causing a passing interest4 ,a prominent feature of the development of the cinematograph theatre is the formation of 8moving picture circuits10 or chains of theatres controlled by one organisation4 ,this practice was taken over1 of course1 from the music hall and the legitimate stage2 and its application to the new field has been largely responsible for the improved status of the cinematographic industry4 ,keen and growing rivalry is displayed between the various circuits4 ,thus has developed a spirit of healthy competition1 resulting in the improvement of the picture theatre as a building1 and in the production of superior programmes4 ,when two or more rivals in a single town are making a common bid for popular favour1 the public naturally patronises the establishment which offers the most refined pictures combined with comfort in the seating arrangements4 ,the inferior film is being driven from the better class of cinematograph theatre1 where a programme is offered which is varied in character1 and of the highest excellence from the photographic1 dramatic1 and educational point of view1 as well as from that of sheer amusement4 ,in the ,united ,states the growth of the cinematograph theatre has been phenomenal4 ,the success of the first displays with the ,lumire machine at the ,eden ,muse prompted the proprietors of other places of entertainment to introduce the biograph in their programmes4 ,the news of its success at the ,alhambra in the ,english metropolis doubtless likewise influenced the development on the other side of the ,atlantic4 ,the first display in a ,new ,york music hall was at the ,union ,square ,theatre in the ,keith vaudeville circuit4 ,it did not meet with an immediately enthusiastic reception2 but in a few days it caught the public fancy1 and thereafter the house was always well filled4 ,the value of the moving picture machine to this house is reflected by the average weekly receipts4 ,at the time of its introduction the average receipts were #fjj 7#c1jjj7 per week2 a month later they had risen to #a1djj 7#g1jjj7--the cinematograph more than doubled the revenue of the theatre4 ,within a year there was not a music hall of repute in the country which did not possess its bioscope4 ,then came the first movement towards the creation of a moving picture palace1 in the same way that it occurred in ,england4 ,empty shops were taken on all sides1 and within a few years there were no less than #fjj of these 8store0 theatres1 or 8nickel0 and 8dime0 shows1 in ,new ,york alone1 while about #cj1jjj similar establishments dotted the country between the ,atlantic and the ,pacific ,oceans1 and from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the ,great ,lakes4 ,men who started with no more capital than was barely sufficient to purchase the outfit and rent the empty shop1 found that they had discovered an ,el ,dorado4 ,the more energetic started theatre after theatre1 and in a short time possessed 8circuits0 of twenty or more moving picture shows4 ,one of these pioneers1 ,marcus ,loew1 starting unpretentiously in a suburban district1 found himself in five years possessed of forty theatres1 from which the money rolled into his banking account in forty steady streams4 ,it must be borne in mind that this fortune was accumulated from the public in five and ten cent pieces4 ,at the present time the moving picture theatre in the ,united ,states is in a state of transition4 ,the palatial character of the ,british cinematograph theatre has spurred ambitious spirits in the ,united ,states to like achievements4 ,loew has built two palaces1 spending some #a1jjj1jjj 7#bjj1jjj7 upon the buildings and appointments4 ,moving pictures are rivalling all other forms of entertainment in the ,united ,states4 ,as suitable buildings fall vacant exorbitant bids are made by rival factions to secure their acquisition1 and the rents paid are very high4 ,william ,fox1 a man very similar in character to ,loew1 who entered the field a year later than he1 startled the cinematographic world by acquiring the lease of a legitimate theatre in the fashionable theatrical centre at a yearly rental of #aj1jjj 7#ej1jjj71 and converting it to cinematography4 ,scarcely had the excitement died down when it was announced that he had rented the ,academy of ,music at #bj1jjj 7#ajj1jjj7 per annum4 ,the price he is paying in rental to bring moving pictures before the public continuously throughout the day represents one-third of the original cost of erecting the building1 so that the proprietors may be said to have profited handsomely in the transaction4 ,gambling in sites for the establishment of picture palaces in the ,united ,states has reached a far greater climax than was ever attained in ,great ,britain in the height of the enthusiasm4 ,here the bubble has been pricked1 and the same outcome is anticipated in the ,united ,states4 ,probably the most luxurious picture palaces in the world are in ,south ,america2 there they are palaces in the fullest sense of the word4 ,that territory has scarcely been touched yet1 and is one of the most attractive fields for development4 ,it is in the 8land of to-morrow0 that animated pictures promise to attain their greatest heights of success4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,how ,a ,,cinematograph ,,play ,,is ,,produced ,when a stirring drama or uproarious farce is projected upon the screen the actions are so natural1 the situations develop so obviously--in fact1 the whole thing proceeds so smoothly--that the average person concludes that the production of a picture play is the simplest thing in the world4 ,but the average person was never more mistaken4 ,a visit to a studio-theatre to follow a production from the beginning to the end undeceives him very promptly and thoroughly4 ,the stage management of a play before the celluloid film is far more exacting than the staging of a play behind the footlights4 ,situations have to be handled which never develop on the legitimate stage4 ,the picture play is essentially pantomime and the camera is a searching1 unequivocal critic4 ,it produces a stern1 matter-of-fact representation of what is enacted before it4 ,there is no dialogue to conceal blemishes1 or mitigate the deficiencies of the actors and actresses4 ,words have to be converted into action and gestures4 ,in a picture-play every muscle of the body has practically to be called into use to convey to the spectator a lucid and coherent idea of the progress of the plot1 since there is nothing but the action to tell him 8what it is all about40 ,furthermore1 everything must be condensed to the irreducible minimum without forfeiting coherency4 ,the plot must be unravelled without the slightest interruption of the main thread of the story4 ,once the spectator loses grip of the theme1 interest is lost4 ,as brevity is the soul of wit1 so terseness is the keynote of success in a picture-play4 ,the producer must be a man of many parts4 ,he must have a keen instinct for dramatic situation1 possess wide histrionic ability and experience1 have a sharp eye for minute detail1 be supplied with unlimited energy1 and capacity to extract the utmost from his company4 ,one factor is all-important to him--time4 ,the stage-manager works on a time-schedule1 not of minutes1 but of seconds2 it must be remembered that every second of time is equivalent to twelve inches of film4 ,a producer will spend five minutes in the effort to condense by five seconds the action necessary for a certain situation4 ,in what form does the picture play reach the stage-manager's hands for production8 ,does the playwright prepare the contribution in detail complete with dialogue and business1 as if for the theatrical stage1 or does he supply a bare outline8 ,the answer varies according to the dramatist1 and to the stage-manager for whom he is working4 ,some authors cannot convey their ideas coherently without extensive dialogue4 ,others can achieve their end in #bjj words4 ,again1 one producer fails to see eye-to-eye with the author's idea unless the latter is worked out minutely1 while another will grasp the whole situation instantly4 ,as a result1 it is impossible to lay down any hard and fast rules1 as to how to write a picture-play2 but1 generally speaking1 the briefer the scenario or story of the play1 the more likely it is to find favour1 all other things being equal4 ,i have seen both methods in execution4 ,in one case the author's story had been worked out to the smallest detail1 the manuscript covering some fifty pages4 ,on the other hand1 a friend of mine who has produced many1 eminently successful picture films1 scribbles the bare idea on a single sheet of paper--the back of an envelope suffices sometimes--briefly indicating the progress of the plot step by step1 retaining all the stage business in his head1 and modifying his ideas as he proceeds1 to suit the circumstances4 ,equally divergent is the practice followed in production4 ,among the ,french producers the general method is to write out all the parts complete with dialogue1 and to hand the lines to the members of the company concerned1 to be committed to memory in the usual way4 ,actors and actresses thus become familiarised with the atmosphere of the story1 and are left to a great extent to their own histrionic instinct to interpret the character assigned1 the producer introducing his ideas as rehearsals proceed4 ,on the other hand1 many producers prefer to keep the members of their company in ignorance of the plot4 ,the story is carried through in brief sections1 step by step1 the lengths of each section being between #de and #ajj seconds or thereabouts4 ,the actors and actresses are given instructions as to how to make up their characters1 and are then marshalled upon the stage4 ,the first situation in the play is taken1 the producer showing each character concerned how the part is to be played4 ,the members are put through their paces time after time1 rehearsing being continued until the whole company moves like a machine1 and then the camera films the incident4 ,sometimes the producer himself will undertake a part1 and shout instructions on the stage as the action proceeds1 keeping every actor and actress moving just as he desires4 ,this method is followed very extensively in ,america4 ,its advantage is that the members of the company1 not knowing what is coming next1 are kept acutely expectant in order to fall naturally into the spirit of the parts and plot2 they work themselves to a high pitch of intensity2 and this gives the play the vim and animation which are peculiarly requisite for a picture-play4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,film-,,play ,,producer ,,at ,,work4 ,rehearsing at the ,edison ,cinematograph ,theatre4 ,this picture shows the stage setting1 the powerful battery of electric top-lights for illuminating the scene1 and the electrically driven camera4 ,by this method also the stage-manager compels the actors and actresses to interpret his ideas1 which he regards as suiting the man in the street4 ,the members of the company have no opportunity to thrust their own impressions before the camera4 ,when the lines are given out beforehand to the members of the company1 each naturally forms an individual opinion as to how this or that part should be played1 and once this impression has taken root1 it is difficult for the producer to modify it upon the lines he has conceived4 ,another disadvantage of the latter method is that an actor or actress sometimes fails to regard a part with sympathy1 and the result lacks realistic effect4 ,repeated rehearsals also tend to dull enthusiasm2 the members of the company become somewhat lethargic2 and there is a marked absence of zest and swing in the resultant picture4 ,illustration3 ,,taking ,,three ,,picture-,,plays ,,simultaneously4 ,this photograph of the ,selig ,cinematograph ,studios1 in ,chicago1 shows how scenes are set side by side4 ,the battens on the floor indicate the boundaries of each stage4 ,when the play reaches the producer's hands the first point is to settle the length of film to which it shall run4 ,this depends upon the character of the play itself4 ,the average length varies between #fjj and #a1jjj feet1 occupying from ten to sixteen minutes to project upon the screen4 ,if an elaborate or novel production is contemplated of a character able to sustain the interest of the audience1 the length may be doubled or quadrupled4 ,the film version of 8,a ,tale of ,two ,cities10 for instance1 ran to #c1jjj feet1 which meant that the screen was occupied for some sixty minutes4 ,that was an exceptional production1 however1 and there are few plays which could rivet the attention of an audience for an hour4 ,the actors and actresses1 like the producer1 are drawn from the legitimate theatre4 ,the majority of the large organisations collect and maintain their own stock companies1 ready to produce any character for any description of play4 ,this idea was first practised1 and is still continued to a limited extent1 in ,great ,britain1 the company averaging six or eight principals4 ,but in the early days the public resented the too frequent appearance of the same face upon the screen2 so the studios which were situated in the vicinity of the metropolis began to draw their material from the theatrical market1 securing an excellent selection1 and at the same time plenty of variety4 ,cinematograph studios situated farther afield availed themselves of the touring theatrical companies1 whose members benefited appreciably from the introduction of the film-play2 as it gave them an opportunity to increase an otherwise meagre weekly wage4 ,the practice is still in vogue in the ,british provinces1 and has been found very profitable to the producer1 because the varied experience of the average touring actor or actress is a valuable asset on the picture-play stage4 ,the film-play does not offer any opportunity to the amateur theatrical individual4 ,the camera emphasises far too acutely any weak points in histrionic ability4 ,the professional is the essential raw material1 and the heart-breaking drill of the legitimate stage renders the actor or actress all the better adapted to the exacting requirements of the film play2 though at times it demands indescribable patience and perseverance1 if not bullying1 on the part of the producer to compel the professional to adapt himself to changed conditions and realise the difference between the two phases of the histrionic art4 ,many producers1 in fact1 prefer to maintain their own stock company1 every member of which can grasp in an instant what the stage-manager demands1 thus saving much valuable time4 ,the nucleus is increased as necessity demands for special occasions or particular characters from the ranks of available touring companies1 while the supernumeraries are likewise recruited from a wide field4 ,the selection of the actors and actresses is by no means easy4 ,the cinematographic stage has its own peculiar requirements4 ,the pre-eminent one is that the actor or actress must not only act but look the part4 ,a young man cannot make up to take an old man's part--he must be an old man4 ,a woman of middle age may on the legitimate stage excel in a young girl's rle2 but she may not take it on the camera stage4 ,make-up has to be reduced to the minimum1 because the huge enlargement which the picture undergoes in projection renders such artifices hideous4 ,facial make-up is practically out of the question4 ,nowadays the practice is to abandon general make-up entirely1 and to whiten all the faces4 ,under the glare of many thousand candle-power emitted by several electric lamps it is possible in this way to secure striking contrasts in facial expressions4 ,when the features are torn by malignant hatred1 or uproarious mirth1 the shadows formed by the wrinkling of the skin as the muscles are brought into operation emphasise the expression4 ,there is another reason for the whitening process4 ,an actor or actress may have a natural high colour1 or dark complexion1 when the face comes out with a dark or black tone1 conveying the impression that the part has been performed by a negro or mulatto4 ,this method of making up1 however1 it must be explained1 applies only to black and white cinematograph production4 ,there is no dearth in the supply of actors or actresses1 consequently the producers are able to carry out a weeding process in order that they may secure the very best histrionic ability4 ,one large ,american company supplies every aspirant with a form in which to record full particulars of his or her stage career4 ,if the applicant has had no professional experience he or she is told at once that the company needs none but experienced artistes4 ,certain ,american producers have not only acquired a large stock company1 but have also1 by offering large salaries1 attracted old favourites1 whom they star precisely as in the legitimate theatre4 ,posters and photographs of their leading actors and actresses are circulated broadcast1 and the public has its favourites on the cinematographic as on the legitimate stage4 ,the ,edison ,company has fourteen principals at ,orange1 in ,new ,jersey2 and in addition a company of seven stationed in ,western ,america for plays having a western setting4 ,the ,selig ,company has thirty players permanently attached to its ,chicago and ,los ,angeles establishments4 ,the practice has by no means fallen into disuse in ,great ,britain4 ,the ,hepworth ,company1 from whose studios come some of the best films prepared especially to suit ,british and ,colonial tastes1 maintains two stock companies at ,walton-on-,thames2 while the ,kinemacolor plays are produced by a stock company of twelve players1 augmented as occasion demands1 which divide their time between the studio-stages at ,hove and ,nice1 frequenting the former during the ,english summer1 and spending the remaining six months of the year in the south of ,france1 being transported to and fro each season4 ,there has been considerable complaint1 to some extent justified1 of the indifferent character of the ,british film play productions4 ,british producers have not received sufficient encouragement to enable them to incur great expense in mounting or in the maintenance of a large and excellent stock company4 ,however1 there are signs of a change2 and as the technical quality of the picture is improving it should not be long before the ,british film play industry attains a position of importance4 ,as soon as this happens a wide success will be reaped2 for this country possesses unique and extensive opportunities for producing plays capable of making a world-wide appeal1 and is rich in the natural settings so much in demand for the attainment of atmosphere4 ,let us follow the production of a picture play at a large establishment having between three and six producers at work every day from morning to night4 ,the players upon arrival consult the 8call-board0 to see when rehearsals commence1 upon what stage1 and for what productions4 ,one artist may appear in two or three plays in a single day1 as a play is occasionally not photographed complete through all its scenes2 it may be interrupted for several days from some reason or other4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fight ,,for ,,the ,,boats ,,in 8,,atlantis40 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,nordisk ,co4 8,,sauve ,,qui ,,peut0 ,,at ,,the ,,wreck ,,of ,,the ,,liner ,,in 8,,atlantis40 ,at the pre-arranged time the company assembles upon its allotted stage4 ,the manager marshals those required in the scene and explains precisely what he wants each artist to do4 ,the business on the stage is demonstrated1 and those in waiting are told just how to make their entrances1 and all exits are indicated very concisely4 ,the stage-manager rehearses the first episode before those concerned1 to convey a general idea of his requirements1 and they immediately repeat it4 ,no dialogue is written1 but the actors of professional experience realise what words are demanded for different situations1 and accordingly extemporise as they proceed4 ,in the reproduction the movement of the lips renders the action distinctly more conclusive and realistic2 moreover1 the enunciation of suitable dialogue induces the correct facial expression1 one of the most important requirements in the picture play1 and the audience must at times derive from it the significance of the situation4 ,in this fragmentary manner the producer carries the company through the incident1 and it is now rehearsed time after time1 little modifications and improvements being made on each occasion to animate the action still further4 ,those waiting to enter are given the cue1 and when an exit has to be made it is announced in an emphatic manner by the manager4 ,the scene is repeated perhaps a dozen times before it goes with the swing that the producer desires4 ,then what may be termed a dress rehearsal is carried out4 ,watch in hand1 the camera operator follows it through from end to end4 ,the producer has decided the length of film the whole play shall occupy1 and has allotted to each incident a certain number of seconds1 that is1 of feet of film4 ,the final rehearsal completed1 the producer inquires1 8,how long80 8,seventy seconds10 replies the operator4 8,too long10 remarks the producer1 and forthwith the scene is rehearsed once more1 the producer abbreviating it as the action proceeds1 by shouting stentorian orders to the players to make a quicker entry1 cutting short a situation1 or by sharply and unceremoniously telling a member to 8get off0 if there is a sign of lingering in the exit4 8,fifty-five seconds10 remarks the operator4 ,it is still too long by five or six seconds4 ,the producer sees where he can compress the scene still more1 so decides to do this while the camera is working4 ,the operator takes his position1 and then a scene of great animation is witnessed4 8,are you ready80 shouts the manager4 ,the actors come to the alert4 8,right60 ,the camera commences its rhythmic purring1 and as the first strains of the buzz break out the manager gives vent to a loud 8,go60 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sinking ,,of ,,the ,,liner 8,,roland40 ,the ,nordisk ,company of ,copenhagen filmed ,gerhardt ,hauptman's striking novel 8,atlantis10 the most sensational feature in which is the sinking of a liner in ,mid-,atlantic4 ,this play cost #bj1jjj 7#ajj1jjj7 to produce4 ,the whole time the picture is being filmed the producer is shouting instructions1 giving abrupt cues1 and sharp orders as to how to improve the business4 ,although orders and commands are delivered in an endless stream1 not a single player loses his head4 ,one and all proceed as if the manager were non-existent4 ,it is a babel of noise2 the producer raps out breathless orders such as 8,look towards the camera0--8,shout out the dialogue0--8,come towards the front0--8,get off60--8,look happy0--8,not so quickly0--8,come in0--8,roll your eyes0--8,don't move your hands as if you were playing the piano0--8,cry60--8,hurry up60 and so on without ceasing4 ,the actors are worked up to an exciting pitch1 each man and woman singling out the comment which concerns him or her4 ,the scene is brought to a climax1 and there is a shout of 8,stop40 ,the purring of the camera ceases immediately4 8,how many feet80 inquires the producer4 8,fifty-three10 replies the operator4 8,good6 ,next scene6 ,twelve years later10 and forthwith every artist receives further explicit instructions4 ,perhaps the operator finds that he has not enough film in the box to carry him through the whole of a scene4 ,in such a case1 when by reference to the dial on the camera he finds that the film is on the verge of exhaustion1 he cries 8,stop60 ,immediately the actors become rooted to the spot and remain motionless until a new loaded box of film is inserted into the camera and threaded up1 an operation which takes half a minute or so4 ,occasionally the 8,stop0 call is given at an awkward moment1 when the stage hands rush forward to support artists who have been interrupted in the middle of some action1 and are caught in difficult positions4 ,when the word 8,go60 is given once more1 the supporters rush off the stage and the acting is resumed as if there had been no interference4 ,the first few pictures upon the new film are afterwards cut out1 and the connection between the two bands is effected so neatly that no evidence of a break in continuity is revealed upon the screen4 ,as on the legitimate stage1 so here also there is a tendency to pay more and more attention to realistic detail4 ,once upon a time it sufficed for a frontier scene if a shack were painted on the back cloth4 ,every time an actor touched the cloth a series of undulating waves went across it1 with ludicrous effect4 ,a disconcerting ripple of laughter would run through the house1 even in the midst of an intensely tragic situation4 ,the public soon lost interest in plays so ill mounted1 and their dissatisfaction1 of course1 generated the necessary improvement4 ,audiences demand nature and realism1 and the producer responds4 ,instead of improvising a railway station in canvas and battens upon the stage the producer transports his company1 lock1 stock1 and barrel1 together with all the properties in motor cars or cabs to an actual station to secure the required results in a natural setting4 ,if a scene is laid in a given thoroughfare1 the company is sent thither to act the story4 ,in the ,united ,states the demand for realism has developed almost into mania4 ,the ,american ,biograph ,company had arranged to produce a film version of the famous ,indian novel 8,ramona10 in which the great scene is the devastation of a white settlement by ,indians4 ,the story is laid in ,california2 so the firm assembled a company of sixty-five artists and dispatched them across the continent from ,new ,york to the ,pacific ,coast1 where they stayed five months so as to become saturated with the environment4 ,in order that the sacking and destruction of homes might be correct in every detail1 a small village was purchased and fired6 ,in another instance the same company wanted a modern fire scene4 ,they rented a plot of land1 upon which they built a house of the style required2 then they set it on fire and burned it to the ground4 ,but the ,selig ,company eclipsed even this performance4 ,one day a fire broke out in a large department store in the heart of the city of ,los ,angeles4 ,it was a unique opportunity to obtain a powerful play2 so the producers1 after securing over the telephone the sanction of the fire brigade authorities1 hurried principals and operators to the conflagration4 ,the film hero was garbed in the uniform of a fireman1 and at the head of a squad equipped with a hose1 he dashed into the burning building2 the whirring of the camera testified that this incident had been recorded4 ,shortly after1 a woman--one of the best actresses of the company--was observed at an upper window surrounded by fire and smoke4 ,she uttered a despairing cry for 8,help60 and in response1 the pseudo-fireman made a frantic rush up the ladder1 broke in the window1 and snatched the prostrate form of the actress from the flames4 ,the players ran great risks1 but the film producer was satisfied4 ,he had secured a sensational fire rescue in an actual big fire in a crowded thoroughfare1 with the fire engines1 a towering building1 smoking and well alight1 and a huge crowd looking on as a setting4 ,it is hard to imagine a stage-manager attempting this feat under similar conditions in ,london or any other ,european city4 ,the feverish clamour for realism has occasionally met the reward of rashness4 ,in ,south ,london1 in a scene where a railway locomotive played an important part1 one of the men in the act was run over and killed2 in another case an actor was drowned while engaged in a thrilling water scene4 ,mr4 ,edison relates that during the filming of a ,boer ,war play by his company1 one of the actors dropped a lighted match into a glass vessel containing gunpowder6 ,he has been picking stray pieces of glass from various parts of his anatomy ever since6 ,in another instance a superannuated cannon was used1 which killed one or two actors and injured many others4 ,an elaborate production1 which is a great favourite in the ,united ,states1 is 8,uncle ,tom's ,cabin10 which lends itself admirably to film treatment4 ,on the legitimate stage 8,uncle ,tom's ,cabin0 has become to the touring ,american manager what 8,east ,lynne0 is to his ,english contemporary4 ,it will fill a house2 and it has established the same rank for itself in the cinematograph theatre4 ,as an amusing comment on this fact1 ,i must tell the story of the introduction of the cinematographic version south of ,mason and ,dixon's line4 ,the stage version had never been played in the ,southern ,states--managers feared it would kindle smouldering fires in the breasts of the white population4 ,an invisible barrier was drawn across the country south of which the play never ventured4 ,the same apprehension was entertained in regard to the moving picture production4 ,however1 one manager took the risk and presented the film to a crowded house in ,new ,orleans4 ,it had been announced for a night or two only1 but its success was so overwhelming that it held the screen for two or three weeks1 the house being crowded at each projection4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,path ,frres4 ,,sorting1 ,,examining ,,and ,,joining ,,the ,,strips ,,of ,,film4 ,the positives are prepared in varying lengths4 ,the different sections of a subject have to be identified1 trimmed1 and connected together to form a continuous ribbon4 ,illustration3 ,,preparing ,,the ,,titles4 ,this is an important operation4 ,the title is designed upon a flat table1 and under powerful electric lights is photographed from above1 the lens of the camera pointing downwards vertically4 ,the cinematographer may be seen watch in hand1 with his instrument4--,see page #hg4 ,the moving picture producer is even capable of turning to account a disaster to his own plant4 ,while a play was in progress upon a studio-stage in ,new ,york the building caught fire1 and unrehearsed scenes were enacted4 ,the camera operator seized the opportunity4 ,while the building was blazing1 and the company were rushing wildly to and fro1 he kept his handle turning lustily1 and as a result filmed the whole subject4 ,in order to secure a dramatic automobile disaster the ,edison ,company drove a motor-car to the top of a lofty cliff4 ,a dummy was seated in the vehicle to take the part of the character who had been acting in the play up to this point1 the steering-wheel was fixed in its hand1 the car was started up1 and it was driven at full speed to the edge of the cliff1 over which it plunged4 ,the film operator caught it falling through the air1 as well as the splash produced by its headlong dive into the waves4 ,another company desired to secure a dynamite explosion at sea4 ,for this purpose it purchased an old schooner for #bjj 7#a1jjj71 stocked it with dynamite1 towed it beyond sight of land1 where the charge was detonated1 and a stirring series of pictures of the disaster was recorded from the deck of a yacht chartered especially for the occasion4 ,sometimes the struggle after realism provokes humorous situations4 ,the ,edison ,company once wanted a riot scene1 so they produced one in a quiet country district by the aid of their company and a number of local supernumeraries1 who entered into the plot with tremendous enthusiasm4 ,while the mock riot was at its height the myrmidons of the law swept down and arrested all the ringleaders1 who1 naturally1 were the principals of the play1 and promptly incarcerated them4 ,the players expostulated that it was all make-believe1 but the police were not to be hoodwinked2 they had heard that story before4 ,some time elapsed before the mock rioters were released from gaol2 but the manufacturers scored1 because the interference of the police imparted additional versimilitude to the whole proceeding4 ,in ,germany an hilarious party was rowing up a river4 ,suddenly all the gay company were seen struggling in the water--the boat had capsized4 ,there was a rush from all sides to bring help2 boats put off hurriedly1 while spectators either were rooted to the spot in horror or dived into the water on rescue bent4 ,the scene was intensely dramatic1 and it was not until one of the swimmers1 while bearing the frail form of a girl to the bank1 hearing a strange buzzing near his head1 looked round and saw an amused operator a few feet distant1 nonchalantly turning the handle of a camera4 ,then the fact dawned upon everyone that the anxious rescuers had unconsciously contributed to the greater success of a cinematograph play4 ,the ,french producers ,path ,frres once disturbed the peaceful life of a sleepy village by acting a scene in the deserted main street4 ,while the work was in progress one of the most prominent citizens hurried up4 ,he was bursting with righteous indignation at the noisy caprices of the crowd of roysterers4 ,while he was expostulating and uttering dire threats of action1 a policeman appeared1 and clapping a firm hand upon the shoulder of the interfering person1 threatened to arrest him for inciting a breach of the peace6 ,the admonished resident1 somewhat amazed at the turn of affairs1 moved crestfallen away1 and departed homewards4 ,he omitted to look round at the emissary of the law1 and ignored the guffaw of laughter which burst out at his discomfiture4 ,had he done so he would have observed a merry twinkle in the eye of the gendarme1 who was a member of the party6 ,a company desired to secure a love scene between an engine-driver and a country maiden2 so a small railway with the whole of its rolling-stock on the outskirts of a town was hired for a single day4 ,another firm1 the ,kalem ,company1 decided to picture a series of ,irish stories4 ,instead of passing off ,american scenery as that of the ,emerald ,isle1 the company and properties were dispatched across the ,atlantic to the heart of the country which the author had selected as the scenes of his stories4 ,recently1 the ,gaumont ,company1 of ,london1 dispatched its company to ,scotland in order to stage ,rob ,roy4 ,the ,duke of ,argyll graciously assisted in furthering the fidelity of the setting1 by permitting scenes to be enacted upon his estate and extending invaluable aid1 volunteering suggestions in order that everything might be as correct as was humanly possible4 ,the ,vitagraph ,company undertook the filming of ,fennimore ,cooper's 8,leather-stocking0 stories4 ,they sent their company straightway to the scene of ,natty ,bumppo's adventures1 and although the forest has disappeared long since1 they pressed the lake into useful service4 ,williamson1 the ,english producer1 filmed a picture version of the tragic story of ,lady ,jane ,grey1 and the ,tower of ,london formed the stage for some of the incidents in the sad story1 culminating in the execution of the 8nine days' queen40 ,where do the moving picture producers obtain their plots8 ,i have heard this question asked on many occasions1 and the answer might be 8everywhere40 ,they have such an inexhaustible mine in which to delve that there is never any difficulty in finding an episode upon which to base a straightforward simple drama1 comedy1 tragedy1 or farce4 ,in this respect the cinematograph producer is far better off than his rival on the real stage4 ,situations1 scenes1 and episodes incapable of production by the latter1 can be produced very simply on the film4 ,novels1 short stories1 plays1 the ,bible1 ,greek inscriptions1 inventions1 little episodes and incidents in everyday life--anything and everything is grist for his mill4 ,of course1 fashions change just as in any other phase of our complex life4 ,to-day there is a demand for subjects of medival ,english history2 to-morrow the ,french revolutionary period holds the stage2 three weeks hence there is a cry for ,bible or ancient history subjects2 or a demand for something modern4 ,it is not difficult to meet each and every need4 ,most of the large producing establishments retain competent writers who know how to prepare plots for the picture producer1 and in addition there is a staff to consider plots submitted from outside sources4 ,the ,edison ,company receives #aej scenarios a week1 and other companies as large or even a larger number4 ,it will be discouraging but salutary to the beginner to hear that the chances of acceptance are very slender1 the number of suitable scenarios being not more than one per cent4 of those submitted4 ,the remuneration varies according to the merit of the work4 ,it may be taken merely for the title or one incident in the story1 and may be worth only four shillings or a dollar to the producer2 on the other hand1 it may command #be 7#abe74 ,there is no fixed scale4 ,the trained dramatist has realised that in the picture play he has a new and increasing source of revenue1 and as he is the best fitted for the task1 so he makes the greatest success in it4 ,french writers were the first to take advantage of the market1 and plays have been written and produced from the pen of many of the foremost dramatists--such accomplished men as ,capus and others4 ,the entrance of the dramatist has precipitated a new situation4 ,the suggestion has been discussed that well-known playwrights should decline to part with their work for a fixed sum1 but that they should earn a royalty precisely as they do from their stage productions4 ,it is an intricate question to solve1 but there is no doubt that the time will come when such writers will receive a certain percentage upon the price realised from the sale of every film copy of a picture play from their pens4 ,a recent outcome of the development of the picture play has been the appearance of 8independent producers10 who are in evidence mostly on the ,continent4 ,these men enrol their own companies1 rent or build a studio1 paint their own scenery1 and hire whatever properties are required from a theatrical costumier4 ,the plays thus produced are sold to some recognised manufacturing firm4 ,this 8free lance0 producer has an extensive market at his disposal1 but his enterprise demands a large initial outlay4 ,yet it is a movement worthy of being fostered1 inasmuch as such a producer is thrown entirely upon his own resources1 and it is only the merit of his work from all points of view which secures him a market4 ,the practice stimulates competition4 ,indeed1 some manufacturers have found that in this manner they can secure work superior in character and treatment to that produced in their own establishments4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,moving ,,pictures ,,of ,,microbes ,during the past two or three years the cinematograph has entered a new field1 which1 fifteen years ago1 would have been regarded as quite beyond its reach4 ,with truly wonderful ingenuity the camera is attached to the microscope in such a way as to make possible the production of the actual processes of germ life4 ,the microscope is always a source of infinite interest4 ,the thought of a whole world of organisms1 existent1 material1 yet so small as to be invisible1 has a peculiar fascination1 and we are eagerly curious to get some conception of their structure and movements4 ,but the possibility not merely of magnifying the red and white corpuscles of the blood till they appear like huge hoops1 or the parasite of the sleeping sickness to a length of some two feet1 to follow the attacks of these foes upon the human organism--such a possibility makes one feel that there is no limit to the power of man over the natural world4 ,micro-cinematography is surely one of the serious triumphs of animated photography4 ,here again the latter offers itself as a coadjutor to scientific research1 and proves its title to rank among the educational influences of the age4 ,micro-cinematography may be divided into two broad classes--the study of bacteria1 the most minute living organism which the scientific photographer has ever attempted to catch in motion1 and popular microscopy1 or the study of insects1 plants1 pond life1 and so on4 ,bacteriological micro-cinematography is an abstruse and difficult subject for investigation4 ,the microbe is so sensitive to various influences1 and so difficult to handle1 that it is a formidable task to bring it within reach of the sensitised celluloid film and seize it in its normal condition and environment4 ,a ,french professor1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,comandon1 of ,paris1 has been for years absorbed in the study of the blood1 its structure1 functions1 and the continuous warfare that is waged between the corpuscles1 and a host of parasites as seen under the microscope and the ultra-microscope4 ,one supposes that the microscope is an ideal instrument for the investigation of those objects which are so minute as to be beyond the capacity of the human eye4 ,this1 however1 is far from being the case4 ,briefly described1 the microscopic investigation of bacteria is carried out by one or more of three broad processes1 which are regarded almost as standardised methods4 ,all three1 however1 possess numerous shortcomings4 ,often the bacteria has to be destroyed2 and the slide has to be stained by means of aniline dyes1 in order to bring up the details of the object sufficiently strongly for examinations2 for the majority of the organisms under investigation are transparent1 and their image stands out faintly against the brilliant light4 ,greater success is possible with the ultra-microscope than with the microscope4 ,by its means objects so minute as to be invisible1 even with the microscope1 can be thrown as bright points upon a black background1 not necessarily with sizes and forms clearly defined1 but yet in such a way as to enable their positions and movements to be ascertained and followed4 ,the disadvantages of ordinary microscopic investigation are obvious4 ,in many instances as the investigator has to kill the germ before he examines it1 he has perforce to content himself with the study of coloured corpses of these infinitesimally small organisms4 ,it occurred to ,dr4 ,comandon that possibly the microscope could be combined with the cinematograph in such a manner that the microbes could be photographed distinctly and brilliantly upon the film1 and subsequently projected upon the screen with tremendous magnification1 without the organisms suffering any distortion or other ill-effects4 ,he realised that if this could be achieved1 the scientist would be provided with a more powerful weapon for the examination of a particular microbe than hitherto has been available4 ,furthermore1 if the object could be thrown on to the screen with perfect detail1 then1 owing to the tremendous magnification obtained1 the study of the life1 movement1 and habits of the parasite would be possible under easy and congenial conditions4 ,the eminent ,french investigator approached ,messrs4 ,path ,frres1 and unfolded his ideas4 ,the technical difficulties in the way were prodigious1 and the field was untested1 both in microscopy and cinematography4 ,however1 as there was the possibility of some startling results being achieved1 ,path ,frres decided to collaborate1 and promised to provide ,dr4 ,comandon with every facility he desired4 ,the work was commenced without delay1 and the manufacturers proceeded with the construction of the special apparatus that was required4 ,this had to be of an elaborate character1 owing to the peculiar conditions2 and exasperating failures attended the early work4 ,although a cinematograph picture only measures approximately #a inch in width by three-quarters of an inch in depth1 the first magnification was considerable1 ranging in the case of bacteria to #cjj diameters or more4 ,this had to be carried out with punctilious sharpness of detail1 because when it came to projection1 the magnification was multiplied enormously1 and any error in the original picture or negative would be proportionately increased4 ,bacteria are extremely sensitive to light and heat4 ,sunlight spells certain death to the microbe1 and as a ray of electric light is the nearest artificial approach to the luminosity of our sun1 its destructive component1 the ultra-violet rays1 had to be eliminated4 ,again1 as the rays from the electric arc in the lantern focussed a strong heat upon the object1 and as this likewise would bring about the sudden demise of the organism1 the heat rays had to be mitigated as much as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,comandon',s ,,apparatus ,,for ,,taking ,,moving ,,pictures ,,of ,,microbes4 ,the peculiar difficulties attending cinematographic work with germs demanded the preparation of special appliances4 ,about twelve months were spent in experiments4 ,these two adverse factors were removed entirely by a novel arrangement4 ,the illustration shows one of the apparatuses used by ,dr4 ,comandon to secure his wonderful pictures4 ,it is mounted on a rigid bench1 and the parts which have to be moved to and fro to obtain adjustment1 slide upon a horizontal triangular metal base1 to which they are clamped in the requisite positions to secure rigidity4 ,the lantern is mounted at the extreme end1 and the light1 supplied from an electric arc of #cj amperes1 is concentrated into a thin ray1 or pencil1 which falls upon the object to be photographed1 through which it passes to the film4 ,the illumination may be either direct--that is1 it may pass in a straight horizontal line from the lantern--or it may be reflected by means of a mirror in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the instrument1 or at right angles1 as in the ultra-microscope4 ,the principle adopted varies according to the subject under observation4 ,the organisms contained in a drop of blood1 for instance1 are dropped on to a carefully cleansed glass plate1 which is inserted in the microscope in the usual manner4 ,at the opposite end of the bench is the cinematograph camera1 which in this case is provided with extending bellows1 as in the ordinary camera1 for purposes of focussing4 ,at the back of the camera is a small attachment whereby the bacteria1 greatly magnified1 can be focussed sharply and clearly upon the film4 ,on top of the camera is mounted a small box containing the spool of unexposed sensitised film4 ,when the contents of this are exhausted the box can be removed quickly and easily1 and another charged film box substituted4 ,the film drops from this box through the gate in the camera1 and issues below into a second film box1 which can be removed similarly when filled1 to permit another empty case to be introduced4 ,the mechanism of the camera itself is the same as that of the usual animated photographic camera1 and it is operated in the same way1 by the turning of a handle4 ,for the purpose of absorbing the heat rays1 which in the concentrated beam of light would kill the microbes within a short space of time1 a glass cell is inserted outside the lantern through which the focussed beam of light is passed4 ,a stream of cold water is circulated continually through this water condenser1 thus absorbing the greater proportion of the heat contained in the ray of light1 without affecting its luminosity in any way4 ,it will be observed that this is a reversion to the first projecting system evolved by the firm of ,lumire for the cinematograph4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 ,path ,frres4 ,,cinematograph ,,films ,,of ,,microbes4 #a4 ,the phenomenon of agglutination in a fowl's blood4 #b4 ,the blood of a fowl suffering from ,spirochta gallinarum4 ,in order that the organism under photography should not be subjected to the action of the light any longer than is necessary1 a revolving disc1 or shutter1 is placed between the microscope and the lantern4 ,this shutter is fitted with opaque sectors or blades1 corresponding to those in the camera1 which at regular intervals eclipse the lens to enable the film to be jerked forward the depth of a picture intermittently after each exposure4 ,this cut-off revolves with the camera shutter1 so that when the lens aperture is closed1 the light is also cut off from the organism slide in the microscope4 ,by this arrangement the light passes through the slide of bacteria only during the fraction of a second that the celluloid film in the camera is exposed4 ,the evolution of this ingenious apparatus occupied several months of continuous work and hard thinking4 ,indeed1 nearly a year was spent in experiments before a perfect film1 suited to public exhibition1 was produced4 ,as a result of the persevering and patient experiments on the part of ,dr4 ,comandon and ,messrs4 ,path ,frres1 a new and strange world has been revealed4 ,the cinematograph1 in conjunction with the microscope1 has opened the gates of a kingdom long considered beyond the reach of all but the privileged few4 ,not only this2 the bacteriological scientist is provided with facilities to study at ease intricate subjects which had hitherto baffled his skill4 ,what the microscope is to the naked eye1 the micro-cinematograph is to the microscope4 ,some of the pictures obtained by ,dr4 ,comandon are startling to such a degree as to be incredible4 ,it was my privilege to see one of the first experimental films thrown upon the screen in the ,paris ,laboratory4 ,it depicted the main blood stream of the frog magnified about #be1jjj times4 ,the corpuscles were plainly visible1 being about the size of dinner plates4 ,but most extraordinary was the form and movement of the parasite in the blood stream4 ,this foreign organism resembled a tadpole in general appearance1 and it darted with lightning-like rapidity to and fro1 pressing home its attack upon the corpuscles of the blood with tremendous energy4 ,one could scarcely believe that the eye was following the movements of an organism which under natural circumstances is beyond the scope of that organ4 ,one had the sensation of gazing into a pond1 where the spawn of the frog was in course of incubation1 with specimens of the reptile in its first stages1 darting hither and thither through the water4 ,dr4 ,comandon introduced the spectator to still greater wonders in the under world4 ,one may see in movement on the screen a drop of blood such as courses through one's own body4 ,there are the red corpuscles1 or cells of circular shape as large as saucers1 and some are to be seen piled upon one another like coins4 ,the extent of the magnification in this film may be seen when it is borne in mind that a cubic space measuring #fa_/ajjjjjj of an inch contains some #e1jjj1jjj and #f1jjj red and white blood cells respectively4 ,but the most fascinating spectacle to which we have been introduced by ,dr4 ,comandon is the attack of the parasites upon the blood corpuscles1 and the defensive tactics followed by the latter4 ,there is one film showing blood infected with the trypanosome1 discovered by ,sir ,david ,bruce1 who was dispatched to ,uganda by the ,royal ,society to investigate sleeping sickness4 ,this malady is communicated by a species of the ,tsetse-fly1 which wreaks tremendous devastation among herds of cattle and horses in ,south ,africa4 ,for the purpose of this film ,dr4 ,comandon inoculated a mouse with the parasite1 and by the aid of the micro-cinematograph he shows the action of the disease germ through successive stages until the animal succumbs4 ,in the early part of the film the parasites are few in number2 they are seen to dart to and fro among the blood cells with striking vigour and rapidity1 jostling the corpuscles violently in all directions1 and causing them to bounce against one another like india-rubber balls4 ,as the film advances1 showing the progress of the disease1 the parasites are to be seen increasing rapidly in number4 ,at last they appear to overwhelm the blood corpuscles1 this multiplication continuing until death supervenes some four or five days after injection4 ,the film was shown lately before a gathering of medical men1 and created widespread interest1 as it introduced them to a phase in the life of the parasite which hitherto had been beyond their comprehension4 ,another film shows the 8phenomenon of agglutination40 ,the white cells of the blood act as the policemen of the stream and maintain a vigilant outlook for criminals in the form of parasites4 ,when the microbe offenders come within the strong arms1 or embrace1 of this guardian1 either they are seized1 or serum substances are thrown out by the white corpuscles1 which agglutinate1 kill1 and dissolve these enemies4 ,the film shows the blood of a fowl infected with spirochtes4 ,in the first instance1 the microbes are to be seen swimming about actively in the plasma--the liquid in which the red and white corpuscles are held4 ,the bird is recovering from the malady2 one sees the white cells engaged in their task of restoring law and order in the blood stream4 ,the spirochtes commence to congregate1 become sluggish in their movements1 forming first strings1 and then star-shaped groups4 ,the white cell appears on the scene1 and these enemies gather round him in a dense clump4 ,the policeman grasps them in a sticky embrace from which they cannot escape1 and in a short time all the spirochtes have joined one or other of the gatherings about a policeman4 ,the latter continues to throw out the agglutinate1 which locks the enemies as tightly together as if they were handcuffed4 ,at first they wriggle and endeavour to escape1 but the white blood cell is too powerful4 ,their struggles become weaker and weaker until at last they cease4 ,the policeman completes his victory by devouring the corpses4 ,one must see these pictures in animation upon the screen to observe the wonderful definition1 detail1 and brilliancy which they reveal4 ,the magnification is immense--the thousandth part of an inch is increased to three feet or more4 ,when the picture on the screen measures some #af feet in width1 the organism is magnified as much as #ej1jjj or possibly #ajj1jjj times2 a flea is so increased in size that it represents a fearful prehistoric monster as large as an ordinary dwelling house4 ,a magnification of #ajj1jjj times the diameter of the original1 however1 by no means indicates the limits of the eminent ,french investigator's work4 ,when the necessity arises1 the enlargement can be carried to a far greater degree without any sacrifice of essential details4 ,dr4 ,comandon's dogged perseverance in the face of disappointments has been crowned with complete success4 ,micro-cinematography is on the threshold of a vast field in which it has tremendous opportunities1 the limits of which it is impossible to define4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,some ,,elaborate ,,picture ,,plays ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,were ,,staged ,the first large film production1 8,the ,passion ,play10 running to #c1jjj feet1 made its appearance1 as we have seen1 as far back as #ahig--the result of unquenchable ,american ambition to be first in every field4 ,it proved an amazing success2 but it was regarded with greater favour by the public than by the manufacturers4 ,they all acknowledged it to be a wonderful piece of work1 but the prevailing opinion was that the public would tire of a picture lasting nearly an hour1 and monopolising the greater part of the entertainment4 ,moreover1 such films were considered to be too speculative4 ,the expense of staging them upon a scale suited to their length and importance was so heavy that the film-producers doubted whether the sales would be adequate to recoup the initial outlay4 ,that fallacy1 however1 has been completely exploded4 ,what was a marvel in #ahig is to-day a commonplace4 ,the 8,big ,picture ,play0 is as much part and parcel of the cinematograph industry as the spectacular stage play is of the legitimate theatre4 ,the movement was established and developed by the firm of ,path ,frres4 ,having fixed their popularity upon a firm basis and developed their organisation to a high pitch of efficiency and resource1 they decided to launch out upon a large scale into the new field4 ,striking historical subjects1 especially of the ,french revolutionary period1 offered them the greatest scope for gorgeous mounting2 they had some apprehension about the attitude of the public toward such subjects1 but their anxiety was quickly dissipated1 partly1 no doubt1 because the plays were carried through with a vigour and sustained interest that defied the possibility of boredom4 ,french history has been a rich mine to the picture-play producer4 ,the ,reign of ,terror and the ,life and ,times of ,napoleon are the melodramatic episodes which offer such peculiar scope to the film play4 ,they make an appeal to popular sentiment1 especially to the ,french audience2 the incidents in the career of the ,little ,corporal never failing to strike a strong emotional chord4 ,such productions impose great responsibilities upon the producer1 and demand a mastery of stage-craft1 both in mounting the scenes and in handling the necessarily large companies of actors and actresses4 ,there can be no consideration of expense2 money must be poured out like water4 ,weeks and even months must be expended upon preliminaries2 in order to achieve realism as many as possible of the scenes must be enacted in their natural surroundings1 or else research must be carried out in order to stage the action with absolute fidelity--an exacting task1 for the public is hypercritical4 ,in the first attempts the management of the crowds was perhaps the most troublesome factor4 ,large bodies of supernumeraries were enrolled1 many possessed of stage experience4 ,they had to be marshalled and put through their paces time after time1 first without the principals1 and then with them4 ,often days elapsed before the incidents in a scene dove-tailed tightly together1 but the patience and perseverance of the manager were rewarded4 ,such scenes as the execution of ,charlotte ,corday1 or the arraignment of the aristocrats before the ,tribunal of ,robespierre when thrown upon the screen stirred public enthusiasm to an extravagant degree4 ,from the perfect manner in which the ,french producers carried out this peculiar work1 films of ,french origin attained a well-deserved world-wide appreciation4 ,at first the ,american trade ridiculed the idea1 maintaining that the heavy expense attending the production of elaborate film plays never could be recouped1 and that the movement was purely ephemeral4 ,but their contentions were doomed to disappointment4 ,the cinema-loving public received films of this character with open arms3 they were a welcome relief to the tawdry domestic drama or comedy with the thread-bare plot1 and1 in which1 perhaps1 only half-a-dozen or so players participated4 ,accordingly the ,american producers were forced to embrace the movement1 though somewhat tardily4 ,they made striking headway1 but the most elaborate ,american film productions never have compared with those of ,european origin1 although such firms as the ,edison1 ,selig1 ,vitagraph1 the ,american ,biograph1 ,kalem1 ,lubin1 and one or two other companies have been responsible for many notable achievements4 ,technically their films are in every way equal to the product of the leading ,european manufacturers4 ,the ,vitagraph production of 8,a ,tale of ,two ,cities0 is a splendid example of the best ,american work4 ,it tells ,dickens's story in three chapters1 otherwise three reels1 and from every point of view--photographic1 staging1 and acting--it is an excellent production4 ,by the time the #c1jjj feet containing #dh1jjj pictures reached the public #d1jjj 7#bj1jjj7 had been expended1 while the preparations for staging occupied no less than three months4 ,curiously enough1 although the ,americans are keen admirers of the novelist who taught us how to laugh and cry1 the demand for this film came from ,europe1 and it is in ,europe that it has met with its greatest success4 ,within two or three weeks of its appearance over #cjj1jjj feet of this film were sold in ,london alone4 ,the same firm produced another wonderful play on the life of ,napoleon4 ,mr4 ,stuart ,blackton spent three months in ,france searching records and archives to secure unimpeachable historical accuracy of details4 ,the country was ransacked also for furniture of the period1 and for the staging of the interior scenes4 ,no less than #f1jjj 7#cj1jjj7 were sunk in this enterprise4 ,another ,american producer who has achieved world-wide fame from the striking and expensive character of his films1 is ,mr4 ,william ,n4 ,selig4 ,his studios are located in ,chicago and ,california1 while other studios are extemporised from time to time in other parts of the country4 ,mr4 ,selig's name is most intimately associated with daring and elaborate productions associated with life in the jungle1 and some of his plays of this character have been amazing4 ,he may be said to be the father of this type of picture-play4 ,it was an ingenious idea and he has carried it to perfection4 ,when he decided to exploit this untouched field he concluded rightly that unless the subjects were handled comprehensively and realistically the results would be indifferent1 so his first move was the acquisition of an elaborate menagerie4 ,this was one of the most difficult proposals1 inasmuch as menageries are not to be purchased at a moment's notice1 because the market therefor is1 to say the least1 extremely limited4 ,fortune assisted his resolve4 ,the opportunity to purchase a collection of wild animals1 complete enough to do credit to a large city1 arose1 and he grasped it4 ,the purchase comprised #ab lions and lionesses1 #i lion cubs1 elephants1 #c camels1 #aj leopards1 #g leopard cubs1 #e pumas1 #c bears1 #b deer1 #aj eskimo dogs1 #h grey wolves1 as well as monkeys and other animals4 ,as an investment this menagerie represented several thousands sterling4 ,this zoo has its home at ,chicago1 special arrangements having been completed1 at enormous expense1 for its accommodation under the most perfect conditions4 ,from time to time additions are made to the collection1 until at the present day the zoo is about twice its original size4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,triumph ,,of ,,the ,,cinematographer',s ,,art4 ,a thrilling incident from ,zola's 8,germinal10 filmed by ,messrs4 ,path ,frres1 showing the dramatic episode in the flooded coal mine1 which was built above ground4 ,the next matter in hand was the selection of the jungle4 ,would it be necessary to transport the actors and actresses1 human and otherwise1 to ,africa in order to secure the natural surroundings8 ,it was decided that ,florida would suit just as well1 because the flora near the coast is similar to that of some parts of the ,african jungle4 ,the menagerie1 together with the stock company of #cj performers1 as well as supernumeraries1 travelled by special train from ,chicago to ,florida1 a journey of several hundred miles4 ,as ,african natives were impossible1 ,florida negroes were employed4 ,illustration3 ,the gigantic horse being hauled by the ,greeks under the walls of ,troy4 ,illustration3 8,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,troy40 ,the repulsion of the ,greeks4 ,over #hjj actors appeared in this scene4 ,an ambitious film produced by the ,itala ,company4--,see page #age4 ,the production of the plays was naturally a thrilling affair1 and many unexpected scenes were recorded4 ,the animals were under the care of experienced trainers1 but there was an occasional reversion to original habits under the influence of the familiar environment4 ,in one scene the heroine was supposed to have lost herself in the dense bush1 and to sink down from sheer fatigue4 ,a leopard was to rush from the brush to spring upon her prostrate form4 ,the scene was rehearsed time after time to secure the requisite dramatic effect2 the operator was to stop the camera when the leopard was in the air springing towards the girl4 ,but when the picture was being taken the heroine did not accept her cue with sufficient alacrity4 ,she was late in falling1 and the leopard arriving exactly on his cue caught her in the act4 ,the woman had the presence of mind to bury her face in her hands1 but the animal's claws dug into her scalp4 ,had she made a movement1 the leopard would have mauled her terribly1 but she kept still1 and when the trainer cracked his whip the animal scuttled off according to pre-arrangement4 ,it was a narrow escape1 but it gave the film a touch of vivid reality4 ,in another picture the heroine was protected by two tame leopards who mounted guard over her dwelling4 ,the scene represented an attack upon her by a fierce lioness4 ,the girl released her two leopards1 and a terrific animal combat was the result4 ,the beasts took the matter seriously1 and fought until the lioness was killed by the two leopards4 ,during the fray the operator1 but a short distance away1 kept the camera handle turning as unconcernedly as if the battling beasts were in a cage4 ,surely such an unusual spectacle is sufficient to meet the most querulous demands of the public for realism6 ,from the tropical jungle with its dense vegetation1 to the ,arctic circles with its monotonous wastes of snow and ice1 is a far cry1 but the ,selig company dispatched its company northward to secure another powerful film play4 ,the plot was slender1 but the scenes portrayed the life of the frozen north with great fidelity and vigour1 showing the ,eskimo fishing through the ice1 and hunting the polar bear and walrus by his primitive methods4 ,a valuable polar bear was sacrificed to the desire for realism4 ,the ,jungle play has become a speciality of the house of ,selig1 and owing to the manner in which the subjects are handled1 giving no offence to humanitarian or animal-loving feelings1 they have proved unparalleled favourites with the public4 ,it is hard to estimate the educational service of scenes like these in broadening the outlook of an untravelled1 perhaps unlettered1 audience4 ,and what they must contribute to the expanding imagination of the child1 one would need to be a child again to know6 ,in the ,united ,states there are many theatres which can show bigger receipts at the box office from the presentation of moving pictures than from the staging of a play4 ,why are many of the foremost producers of stage plays forsaking the 8legitimate theatre0 to produce film plays1 if not because they recognise the future of the latter and the scope offered for their technical ability4 ,perhaps at this point ,i may be permitted to tell the story of the cinematograph in ,italy1 since its success there is phenomenal in its completeness4 ,less than ten years ago the cinematograph was scarcely a feature of the ,italian amusement world4 ,it suffered from the hostility of the theatres1 and there was but meagre enterprise enlisted in it4 ,the example of other countries gradually caused increased popular demand1 which was at first satisfied by ,french films4 ,then the ,italians saw their opportunity1 money and talent came to the service of the new development1 and the languishing enterprise not only came to rank among the largest of ,italian industries1 but introduced its own wares with great success into other countries4 ,there seems good ground for this state of things1 and a special fitness in the ,italian success4 ,the average ,italian is artist by temperament and a born actor2 the ,italian stage has long been famous for technique and stage-craft2 and these factors1 with the clear atmosphere1 brilliant sun1 and picturesque landscape1 make ,italy the natural home of the highest success in cinematograph production4 ,financially also the ,italian producers had an advantage over all competitors4 ,luxurious picture plays could be staged in ,italy for half the cost they have entailed in ,france1 ,england1 or ,america4 ,a ,french producer informed me that supernumeraries alone cost him from #ajs4 #f;d4 to #ahs4 7#b to #d4ej7 a day1 and that the salaries of the principals were rising to high figures4 ,in ,italy the remuneration was less than one-half4 ,but as time progressed the ,italian supernumerary realised his value4 ,he demanded recompense upon the scale of his ,french colleague1 and to-day is in receipt of remuneration upon a similar scale4 ,but the early financial advantage facilitated the firm foundation of the producing industry in ,italy1 and it still ranks as the premier country for 8,big ,picture ,plays10 the high cost of such works notwithstanding4 ,in this development the ,cines ,societa ,italiana has played a prominent part4 ,it had long been established in ,rome1 but its efforts were purely conventional4 ,in #aijh new blood was infused into the undertaking1 and its first ambitious effort was the pictorial representation of ,alexander ,dumas' famous novel1 8,the ,three ,musketeers10 which lent itself admirably to handsome mounting1 and fine acting in pantomime4 ,the film ran to #a1ejj feet4 ,it made an instant success4 ,in ,great ,britain alone over #ej copies of the film found an immediate sale1 and a far greater number in ,italy1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,russia4 ,in ,australia its reception was particularly enthusiastic4 ,other most successful presentations were 8,macbeth10 which cost #b1jjj 7#aj1jjj7 to produce1 ,shakespeare's tragedy being condensed into #bc1cfj pictures1 occupying #a1dfj feet of film2 8,the ,triumphant ,hero10 8,faust10 8,the ,sacking of ,rome10 8,agrippina10 and so on4 ,its greatest triumph was the film version of 8,quo ,vadis80 ,this film ranks as the biggest success ever known in the cinema world4 ,it built the fortunes of several showmen2 in fact1 one man made a round #ej1jjj 7#bej1jjj7 therefrom in less than a year4 ,one might be inclined to suppose that some of the foregoing subjects were somewhat beyond ,british taste1 but their success here has proved otherwise4 ,as many as #hj copies of one of these big films have been sold in ,great ,britain alone1 the total output for the world aggregating some #djj copies4 ,the experience of the ,cines ,company appears to confirm the theory that historical subjects make the strongest appeal4 ,the public is fairly well acquainted with the milestones in ,european history1 particularly those in connection with the rise and fall of ,rome4 ,moreover1 ,italy is especially rich in beautiful landscape and historical sites1 where the scenes can be re-enacted in their original setting--an advantage which the large companies realise to the uttermost4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,british and ,colonial ,kinematograph ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,the 8,,battle ,,of ,,waterloo0 ,,upon ,,the ,,film4 ,this desperate conflict was re-fought in ,england for the cinema at a cost exceeding #e1jjj 7#be1jjj74 ,the ,cines ,company is to-day one of the largest film-producing establishments in the world4 ,it has three studios devoted to the staging of picture-plays1 the premises in ,rome having an area exceeding #abh1jjj square feet4 ,everything is installed upon a large scale--#ajj1jjj feet of film can be turned out every day4 ,six new subjects of travel1 educational1 and dramatic interest are placed on the market every week4 ,the big productions1 however1 entail a strong element of risk4 ,the first difficulty is to select a subject which will make a world-wide appeal4 ,when the negative has been obtained 8sample0 positive prints are prepared and dispatched to the great cities4 ,at each centre the firm attracts a certain number of patrons--possibly the aggregate of the first order may be only forty copies4 ,since a film running to #c1jjj feet entails an outlay of #ej 7#bej7 on the part of the renter1 it is not surprising that he displays caution in making his purchases1 because half-a-dozen copies of varied ordinary subjects can be acquired for the same money1 with the additional advantage that the risks are spread over six subjects instead of being centred upon one4 ,the initial order is fulfilled1 and should the venture prove popular1 a steady stream of orders may be expected to follow4 ,however1 the producer does not breathe freely until the two hundredth copy has been dispatched4 ,should the play fail to please the public1 the manufacturer is faced with a heavy loss4 ,the system has certain drawbacks1 but it ensures the showman and the public being given the very best material1 and causes very keen rivalry among the producers to eclipse one another's efforts4 ,illustration3 ,building the scenery in a ,devonshire bay for the film performance of 8,hamlet40 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,gaumont ,co41 ,ltd4 ,,sir ,,henry ,,forbes ,,robertson',s ,,appearance ,,before ,,the ,,moving ,,picture ,,camera4 ,the ,ghost scene from 8,hamlet40 ,cinematography is far more realistic and convincing for this ,shakespearean play than the legitimate theatre4 ,there are certain subjects1 however1 which rarely fail of popular success1 those of religious interest being foremost in the group4 ,the 8,life of ,christ0 was possibly the most successful venture of this description4 ,it cost some #b1jjj to stage4 ,there were thirty-nine epochs1 divided into four parts1 and ranging from the 8,nativity0 to the 8,crucifixion40 ,over #c1jjj feet were required for their presentation4 ,the film was largely purchased by religious societies4 ,a certain 8renter0 is said to have amassed #cj1jjj from this single film4 ,the 8,miracle10 the story of 8,cain and ,abel10 8,the ,trial of ,abraham's ,faith10 8,the ,fall of ,babylon10 8,samson and ,delilah10 to name only a few1 have proved powerful magnets4 ,in the last-named the great scene was the destruction of the temple4 ,the edifice was built of cardboard1 and when ,samson bent his strength in a final effort upon the columns1 the whole structure came crashing to the ground4 ,the development of the 8,big ,film0 has been responsible for a new movement in cinema circles4 ,a firm which sinks1 say1 #aj1jjj 7#ej1jjj7 in one subject1 naturally is anxious to recoup this outlay with all possible speed4 ,this can be accomplished only in one way--the disposal of the sole rights for each country exclusively to speculating and enterprising individuals1 instead of by the slower sale of copies in the open market to renters4 ,it was not difficult to carry out operations upon the new basis4 ,cinema circles teem with bold and daring spirits4 ,unfortunately the development of this principle led to a certain degree of wild gambling4 ,fancy prices1 out of all proportion to the intrinsic or showing value of the films1 became the rage1 high water mark being reached with an ,italian version of 8,antony and ,cleopatra10 the limited rights in which for the ,british ,isles alone were sold for about #h1jjj 7#dj1jjj74 ,despite the antagonism of the 8renter10 the attitude of the public is distinctly favourable to the long film4 ,its production in ,italy is being carried out with great vigour4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,pictures ,,that ,,move1 ,,talk1 ,,and ,,sing ,when ,edison invented the 8,kinetoscope10 his ambition was1 not only to produce movement by the aid of pictures1 but sound by the aid of the phonograph4 ,but it proved a hopeless quest2 and accordingly ,edison confined his efforts for the time being to the perfection of animated photography4 ,in an earlier chapter ,i have described some devices for imitating sound4 ,in this chapter ,i am speaking1 not of imitation1 but of reproduction4 ,in order to secure perfect combination of movement and sound1 it is essential to secure absolute synchronism in the actuation of the camera and that of the talking machine4 ,this was ,edison's insuperable difficulty4 ,a single motor was utilised for both machines2 but the phonograph was easier to stop and to restart than the camera1 owing to the fact that the latter had to be driven at sufficient speed to secure #df pictures per second4 ,the moving and singing picture machine known as the 8,kinetograph10 which worked upon the automatic 8nickel-in-the-slot0 principle1 had a very brief existence4 ,it was placed in cigar shops1 railway stations1 and other convenient public places1 but it failed to interest the public1 and was withdrawn in a short time4 ,yet ,edison did not relinquish his original plan4 ,he cherished the idea that combined pictorial and audible records were feasible1 and for nineteen years he devoted his energies to the consummation of the task4 ,it was only a short time ago that the great inventor announced that he had succeeded at last4 ,in the meantime1 however1 he had been anticipated by industrious and energetic experimenters in ,europe4 ,in #aijh an attempt to produce motion and sound was made commercially with the 8,cinephone40 ,the solution presented in this apparatus is undoubtedly novel1 but the results are very unsatisfactory1 and its success is dependent entirely upon the skill of the operator4 ,the 8,cinephone0 is designed to accompany the motions of acting with the sounds pertaining thereto4 ,the pictures are fitted to the talking machine records--that is to say1 the cinematographer merely takes a gramophone record and produces a film suitable thereto4 ,edison's plan was far more comprehensive4 ,his idea was to prepare the phonographic record at the same time as the film pictures were made--for example1 while a football or baseball match was being cinematographed1 the phonograph was to record the applause1 cheers1 shouts--in short1 make as complete a record for the ear as the camera did for the eye4 ,the principle governing the operation of the ,cinephone is extremely simple4 ,an ordinary talking machine is employed1 without any modification beyond the addition of a small box with a governing dial1 and a similar dial in the pictures upon the screen4 ,the dial in each instance is fitted with a revolving hand1 similar to that of a clock1 and all that the operator is called upon to do is to keep the respective hands in relative positions by the manipulation of the projector4 ,the talking machine is mounted upon a baseboard1 which is extended in front a sufficient distance to carry a small box the front face of which is fitted with the dial4 ,the clock-like hand is transparent1 and when an electric lamp1 or other suitable illuminant1 is placed within the box1 it becomes illuminated1 so that its rotation may be followed easily4 ,the circle described by the hand is indicated at its four quarters by a small transparent point1 through which passes the light from within the box4 ,these four spots of light can be eclipsed and revealed by the movement of a shutter lever4 ,when the lights appear the operator knows that the talking machine is ready4 ,the hand of the rotating dial is actuated by mechanism driven by the motor of the talking machine1 through a horizontal spindle4 ,in the bottom left-hand corner of each picture thrown on the screen is a duplicate of the talking machine dial4 ,the position of the hand on each successive picture varies correspondingly with that on the gramophone1 because in the preparation of the pictures the speaking or singing characters have accompanied the gramophone with their acting4 ,when the picture is shown the speed of projection gives a steady forward motion to the hand on the picture dial4 ,when the apparatus is brought into play in the moving picture theatre the talking machine is placed on the stage in such a way that its illuminated dial is visible to the cinematograph operator4 ,the latter's duty is to run the film through the machine at such a speed that the position of the hand on the picture dial keeps step with that of the talking machine dial4 ,if this is done with precision1 the action in the picture coincides with the sounds emitted from the talking machine4 ,this apparatus can be applied to any type of projector without any preliminary preparations whatever1 and the mechanism of the latter has not to be modified or touched in any way4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there are grave defects4 ,synchrony between picture and talking machine is dependent upon the operator1 and until the latter has become accustomed to the combination1 the results are disconcerting4 ,it is no simple matter to keep the hands of the two dials rotating harmoniously4 ,when the film lags behind the talking machine1 a pronounced speeding up is requisite to bring the two hands into synchrony4 ,the increased work thrown upon the operator is also far from being a negligible quantity4 ,he has to watch the two dials intently1 and cannot centre his mind upon the projector1 as he should be free to do4 ,more than once ,i have seen a film snap under the strain imposed in the effort to catch up with the talking machine1 or the light has demanded attention1 and the result has been far from pleasing4 ,however1 the appearance of the 8,cinephone0 served to stimulate inventive effort in this particular field1 and proved to the public that the production of pictures that talked and sang1 as well as moved1 was by no means so forlorn a possibility as had been imagined generally4 ,the next attempt in the same direction met with better success--in the 8,vivaphone10 perfected by the ,hepworth ,manufacturing ,company1 ,limited4 ,in this machine the two dials were eliminated in favour of a single electric control or synchroniser4 ,in the projecting box by the operator's side is a small1 compact case4 ,this is the synchroniser1 consisting primarily of a vertical needle1 which can move to the right or to the left4 ,the movement or deflection of this needle is effected by means of two electromagnets4 ,one exerts a pull upon the needle towards the right1 while the other draws it in the opposite direction4 ,these two electromagnets are electrically connected to the cinematograph and to the talking machine respectively4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,the ,,electrical ,,synchronising ,,attachment ,,to ,,the ,,talking ,,machine ,,in ,,the 8,,vivaphone40 ,the attachments to the projector and the gramophone are very simple4 ,the electrical contact device or commutator is attached to the handle to establish connection between the two parts of the apparatus4 ,on the gramophone is another commutator 7,fig4 #ad74 ,it consists of an arm1 one edge of which rests on the case of the talking machine1 while the opposite end engages with the motor spindle of the gramophone projecting vertically through the turn-table4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,the ,,electrical ,,wiring ,,system ,,of ,,the 8,,vivaphone40 ,the installation of this apparatus 7,fig4 #ae7 is likewise simple4 ,the synchroniser ,a is placed in a convenient position in the operator's box1 while the gramophone ,b is set upon the stage4 ,from the projecting handle commutator ,c a pair of wires are run and attached to the connections ,k in the synchroniser1 while similarly a pair of wires are carried from the talking machine commutator to the connections ,g in the synchroniser4 ,two wires are led from the terminals ,b in the synchroniser to the battery ,f4 ,sufficient energy for the electric current is furnished from a #d or #f volt accumulator1 such as is used in automobile practice1 or from a dry storage battery4 ,ordinary bell wire suffices for the purposes of the connections4 ,if the distance between the screen and the projecting box is very great it is advisable to introduce an auxiliary cell ,d in the gramophone circuit4 ,behind the vertical needle of the synchroniser is a narrow transparent slot1 which1 when the synchrony is perfect1 is covered by the needle itself4 ,the upper end of the needle is fitted with two small glazed apertures or spectacle glasses1 one on either side1 fitted with red and green glass respectively4 ,when the apparatus is in use the two electromagnets controlled by the cinematograph and the gramophone respectively exert a pull in opposite directions--the gramophone endeavours to draw the needle one way1 and the projector electromagnet attempts to pull it in the other direction4 ,if the projector is lagging1 the needle moves over1 bringing the red spectacle before the light aperture1 and the red light thus shown warns the operator to accelerate the projector4 ,on the other hand1 if the projector is running too fast1 the needle moves in the opposite direction and brings the green light into prominence4 ,the degree of the deflection of the needle indicates how far the synchronisation is disturbed4 ,when the opposing forces of the electromagnets are exactly equal1 the needle maintains a vertical position1 and shows absolute synchrony4 ,it will be seen that the signalling system is very sensitive and accurate1 and at the same time enables the operator to have complete control over projection4 ,in fact this is the most perfect system of synchronising the pictures with the sounds emitted from the gramophone that has been yet produced in the combination of sound and movement4 ,some excellent subjects have been produced with this machine1 one of the finest being the sound and movement reproduction of 8,faust40 ,but1 after all1 these devices are far from representing the ideal singing and talking cinematograph4 ,the drawback is this3 the conditions prevent the pictures being secured at the same moment that the relative sounds are being recorded by the gramophone4 ,while ,edison was striving with the problem1 ,french investigators were active1 and the first practical success in the field must be credited to ,monsieur ,lon ,gaumont1 the head of the ,french cinematograph establishment of that name4 ,he succeeded where ,edison failed2 or rather1 he anticipated the famous ,american inventor by several years4 ,it was as far back as ,november #gth1 #aijb1 that ,monsieur ,gaumont introduced his achievement for the first time before the ,french ,photographic ,society4 ,the apparatus was not yet perfect1 but it served to demonstrate that the synchronous production of sound and movement by the aid of the cinematograph and the talking machine was within measurable distance of attainment4 ,the demonstration was held primarily to show how perfect a synchronising mechanism had been evolved4 ,the great difficulty encountered was in regard to the sensitive character of the material required for taking the records of sounds from a distance4 ,the ordinary process then in vogue was far from being suitable4 ,by the aid of several interested friends and collaborators1 however1 ,monsieur ,gaumont was able to conquer this obstacle1 and on ,december #bgth1 #aiaj1 the 8,chronophone10 as the new invention is called1 was submitted to the approval of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences and was regarded as eminently successful by that distinguished learned body4 ,synchronism--both in producing and reproducing--between the cinematograph and the talking machine is secured by electrical connections between motors which furnish the requisite power for driving the two essential parts of the apparatus4 ,in evolving such a combination as this the inventor had to bear in mind that portability and simplicity were two fundamental requisitions1 so that resort to heavy1 bulky1 and intricate mechanism was quite out of the question4 ,in comparison with the ,cinephone and ,vivaphone1 the ,chronophone appears somewhat complicated4 ,but this is only relative4 ,the apparatus is almost entirely automatic in its operation4 ,yet it can be operated by hand if necessary4 ,if the latter method is adopted1 the energy required to secure synchrony is derived from batteries or accumulators4 ,synchrony is obtained by means of a patented system1 which may be briefly described4 ,the two motors required for driving the talking machine and the cinematograph respectively are of identical design1 of approximately the same power1 and are operated by the same direct current4 ,the armatures of each motor are divided into sections1 and the corresponding sections of the two armatures are connected together4 ,by means of this arrangement the two armatures are rotated at the same speed1 notwithstanding the slight differences in the mechanical resistance opposed to the machines4 ,the talking machine1 driven by an electric motor1 is of the disc type1 fitted with two horns1 so as to diffuse the sounds through the building4 ,if the theatre is spacious the number of horns may be increased1 while the sound waves projected into the hall may be intensified in volume by means of compressed air1 as in the ,auxetophone devised by the ,hon4 ,c4 ,a4 ,parsons1 which is also capable of considerable adjustment1 so that the volume of sound may be accommodated to the acoustic properties of the building4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,the ,,gaumont 8,,chronophone40 ,in comparison with the ordinary bioscope mechanism the ,chronophone projector appears somewhat intricate1 but here again everything has been simplified to a remarkable degree1 while all adjustments are carried out automatically4 ,the projector installation 7,fig4 #af71 in addition to the lantern ,a and projecting mechanism ,b employed in the ordinary equipment1 consists of a small motor ,c1 which drives the projector mechanism proper and a differential ,d1 whereby error between sound and movement is corrected1 driven by a small motor ,e4 ,to start the apparatus1 the first picture of the film1 say that of the title1 is placed in the film gate before the exposure aperture1 and the needle of the talking machine sound box is placed on the first groove of the disc record4 ,the talking machine motor is started1 and the table carrying the record commences to revolve4 ,directly the needle reaches the point in the disc groove where the first sound wave has been recorded1 an electrical contact is established1 which is transmitted to the projector1 and sets the latter in motion4 ,but it may be that the speed is too much or not enough2 the pictures move too slowly or too quickly1 and the tone of the sound emitted by the talking machine is unnatural4 ,in this case the operator moves the rheostat handle ,f over its contacts1 this movement accelerating both the talking machine and the projector until the correct natural speed has been secured4 ,again it may be that the pictures are slightly in advance of the phonograph1 or vice vers2 the movements of the lips of the singer or actions of the performer do not coincide with the emission of sound4 ,this error may be rectified instantly4 ,there is a two-way commutator on the control board1 which the operator moves in one direction or the other according to requirements4 ,this instantly starts up the small dynamo ,e1 the power of which is transmitted through belt and pulley to the differential gearing ,d1 which works on the same shaft as that driving the projector4 ,if the projector is lagging it is speeded up1 so as to overtake the talking machine1 or if the pictures are in advance of the sound1 it is retarded until synchronism is restored4 ,this device is particularly useful1 inasmuch as the talking machine is somewhat sensitive to outside disturbance2 if the machine is not set quite level1 or receives a violent vibration1 the needle jumps suddenly from one groove into another4 ,by accelerating the projector this lead can soon be reduced without touching the talking machine in the slightest4 ,the operator need not follow the movement of the pictures upon the screen1 or listen to the talking machine in order to ascertain that synchrony is perfect4 ,he merely keeps his eye on an ingenious1 simple 8control board10 which is set up in a convenient position beside the projector operator4 ,it includes a starting gear1 whereby the talking machine is set in motion1 and which in turn actuates the cinematograph by the disc electrical contact1 an electric switch1 a volt meter1 which acts as a speed indicator1 its readings1 in fact1 having a constant relation to the revolving speed of the talking machine turn-table2 and a two-way commutator1 where the differential motor is started up4 ,the differential gearing is somewhat interesting4 ,it belongs to the four-wheel type4 ,there are two driven cog wheels #a and #b keyed to the ends of the interrupted shaft of the projector motor1 and between these two wheels1 and set at right angles thereto1 are two satellite wheels #c and #d1 which mesh with the former wheels4 ,if the cinematograph and the talking machine are moving in exact synchrony1 the wheels #a and #b run at similar speed1 but in opposite directions1 and in harmony with wheels #c and #d4 ,to the short end of the interrupted shaft a needle is attached1 and when synchrony is prevailing this needle maintains a vertical position4 ,now1 if the phonograph runs away from the projector1 this needle moves either to the right or to the left1 and as it slides over a graduated scale the operator can detect in an instant how many pictures the projector is lagging behind the talking machine4 ,the cinematograph projector accordingly must be speeded up1 and the operator moves the commutator on his control board in the desired direction4 ,then instead of the two satellite wheels meshing evenly with the two wheels #a and #b1 they become displaced1 with the result that the shaft driving the projector is rotated more rapidly1 and overtakes the talking machine1 the needle on the dial meanwhile moving towards zero1 until1 when it reaches its vertical position1 the differential gearing and its motor are stopped4 ,if the projector should have advanced before the talking machine1 it is retarded1 the needle deflecting in the opposite direction and requiring to be restored to zero4 ,it will be seen that the speed of the talking machine remains constant4 ,any correction that has to be made is effected by means of accelerating or retarding the speed of projection4 ,as1 however1 the records of movement and sound are made in synchrony1 and in view of the fact that both projector and talking machine run at the same speed1 if started simultaneously no displacement of one in relation to the other should result4 ,the differential1 however1 provides a means of correcting any accidental displacement of the phonograph needle when reproduction is carried out4 ,the ,gaumont apparatus has proved highly successful1 and has been turned to useful account already2 we have excerpts from operas1 ballets1 recitations1 and so forth recorded and projected with a perfect relationship between sound and movement4 ,through the energy and perseverance of ,monsieur ,gaumont the value of animated pictures has received a decisive forward impetus4 ,edison has devoted his energies in the solution of the problem to the perfection of a more sensitive material than the wax hitherto employed4 ,naturally he has confined his attention to adapting to this work the phonograph or cylinder talking machine in preference to the disc machine1 the former being his own invention4 ,what is the future of the phono-cinematograph8 ,in the first place1 until the peculiar nasal sound is eliminated from the talking machine it will not prove popular4 ,it is well-nigh impossible1 unless a speaker or singer has peculiar characteristics1 to identify voices on this instrument4 ,furthermore expression in tone is practically non-existent4 ,though the cinematographic world be flooded with talking and singing pictures1 unless they are of some peculiar interest1 the majority of picture-theatre lovers1 after the first wave of excitement and curiosity1 will patronise those establishments where they can see movement alone4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,popular ,,science ,,as ,,revealed ,,by ,,the ,,cinematograph ,the average audience before the micro-cinematographic film is very much in the attitude of the schoolboy in the natural history lesson4 ,scarcely any other subject holds such possibilities of interest for him2 yet the instruction must be given in some vivifying form1 or it fails to touch his latent sympathy1 and becomes a tiresome repetition of formul and inexplicable processes4 ,similarly an audience will sit absorbed before a film displaying infinitesimal organic life2 but only on condition that its human instincts are in some way appealed to4 ,science lessons must be humanised1 when they rival the most dramatic films in interest4 ,unfortunately the supply of this kind of film is extremely limited4 ,producers are not convinced of the heartiness of the demand2 and the labour1 expense1 and anxiety attending the preparation of such subjects prevent their development upon any but a small scale4 ,an account has been given of ,dr4 ,comandon's wonderful achievements in bacteriological micro-cinematography1 through the firm of ,path ,frres4 ,in popular science the world's market is practically supplied by an ,english company1 ,kineto1 ,limited4 ,this fact is due mainly to ,mr4 ,f4 ,percy ,smith1 who possesses the happy faculty of investing his subjects with a quaint fascination which compels appreciation4 ,it is doubtful whether any film has stirred popular interest so intensely as that which he prepared for the purpose of illustrating the physical energy possessed by the common house-fly4 ,when this film appeared the newspapers far and wide associated the cinematographer with strange powers1 and the capacity to train the bluebottle in much the same way as the lion tamer subdues the ,king of the ,forest4 ,nothing was farther from the truth4 ,the scientist merely devised unusual and novel devices to illustrate the points which he had in mind1 and the fly was left more or less to follow its own devices4 ,for instance1 it was seen to walk again and again up the rim of a small wheel in a vain effort to reach the highest point4 8,trickery60 was the verdict when the film was seen first1 and it was hard to make people believe that the picture was genuine4 ,as a matter of fact1 the fly performed the operation quite naturally1 though in order to induce it to do so the experimenter had to resort to an ingenious device4 ,a dark box was prepared with a very small door of thin glass at one end4 ,this piece of glass was fitted with a narrow slit in which a small toothed wheel1 similar to a watch escapement wheel1 was fitted in such a way as to be free to revolve4 ,the imprisoned fly1 seeing the daylight entering through the glazed end of the box1 attempted to escape in that direction1 but found its passage obstructed by the glass4 ,when it struck the latter1 it received a smart tap on the head from a tooth in the wheel1 which was caused to move through the fly's frantic efforts4 ,time after time the fly threw itself against the glass door1 and on every occasion it received a rap on the head4 ,at last frenzy gave way to tractability1 and it came to the conclusion that the best means of escape was by walking up the wheel4 ,of course1 as it advanced the wheel slipped round in the opposite direction4 ,while the insect was walking like a criminal on a treadmill1 the pictures were taken4 ,the results with the fly under restraint1 however1 were not entirely satisfactory1 so the experimenter set up the wheel in the open1 and withdrew a fly from its prison after it had become tractable4 ,time after time the blue-bottle would fly away directly it was placed on the wheel4 ,the camera1 however1 was kept in readiness for exposure the moment a fly did attempt to walk along the rim1 and at length it was successfully caught in the act4 ,again1 the fly was laid upon its back beneath the wheel1 and was seen to revolve the disc with its legs4 ,the simple explanation of this seemingly clever juggling trick was that the fly thought it was walking in the same way that it walks up a wall or along the ceiling4 ,one fly in the same film was seen seated in a diminutive chair nursing a smaller fly1 or balancing and juggling with articles such as tiny dumb-bells1 but of large size in comparison with its own bulk4 ,in this instance the fly was secured by a thin strand of silk passed around its body2 but here again1 in performing the apparent juggling feats1 it was merely following its instinct4 ,being prevented from flying1 it naturally endeavoured to make progress by walking4 ,the fly was to be seen endeavouring to balance a piece of cork1 and intense amusement was caused when it was seen to wipe its feet1 in the same way that a man rubs his hands together1 preparatory to making some kind of effort4 ,in reality1 the fly found that the suckers on its feet1 by means of which it secures a grip upon a surface when walking upside down1 were somewhat dusty4 ,the apparent preparation for a herculean attempt was nothing more than the fly cleaning its organs to achieve its purpose4 ,this film occupied several weeks in preparation4 ,extreme patience had to be exercised1 and when a desired phase of movement had been secured1 often it was found defective from the technical point of view1 so that the wearying round had to be repeated4 ,recently ,mr4 ,smith has continued his investigations1 and has produced another fascinating film1 demonstrating still more clearly the tremendous physical energy possessed by the bluebottle1 and the wonderful powers of its proboscis1 the movements of which1 to assist the legs1 are shown very distinctly4 ,illustration3 ,,nature ,,and ,,the ,,cinematographer--,,mr4 ,,percy ,,smith ,,at ,,work4 ,great ,britain has taken the lead in bringing the wonders of science popularly before the public4--,see page #aij4 ,another of ,mr4 ,smith's achievements is the film showing the hatching of a chicken's egg4 ,the period of incubation is extended over #ba days--about #ejj hours--and the egg naturally has to be preserved at an even temperature the whole time1 so some special means had to be devised to make the film without imperilling the life of the embryo4 ,the opaqueness of the shell constituted a formidable stumbling-block4 ,moreover1 in the initial stages the embryo is so small1 and its movement so slight1 that little difference is observable for the first #ej hours or more4 ,direct photography was seen to be out of the question4 ,illustration3 ,,fly ,,seated ,,in ,a ,,diminutive ,,chair ,,balancing ,a ,,cork4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,unfamiliar ,,juggler--,,bluebottle ,,balancing ,a ,,piece ,,of ,,vegetable ,,stalk4 ,an incubator was acquired1 and the eggs were placed in it4 ,at regular and frequent intervals during the incubation1 some were withdrawn1 and opened to ascertain the size and position of the embryo4 ,from these data diagrams of the early stages were prepared4 ,they were drawn carefully to scale and accurate in every detail4 ,this task had to be continued during the first #ed hours--the period when the movements of the embryo were unknown--and involved the preparation of no fewer than #a1jjj diagrams1 prepared in such a way that they resembled photographs4 ,from the number of these records and the period occupied in incubation1 it will be seen that they were prepared at intervals of about three minutes during both day and night4 ,this consecutive series were then cinematographed upon the film1 and thus a natural development lasting #b days was reduced to a period of about one minute upon the screen4 ,the early part of the film is not so interesting to the public as that showing the chick coming out of the shell4 ,here again an initial difficulty was encountered4 ,the hatching1 of course1 could not be cinematographed inside the incubator2 and to remove the egg from the temperature of #ajc in which it had been kept was to arrest the process at once4 ,fortunately the experiment was being made in summer1 and the thermometer read #ajc in the sun4 ,the camera was set up1 and at the moment the chick gave signs of breaking through its shell1 the egg was removed from the incubator and placed upon a table in the full glare and heat of the sun4 ,in a few seconds the chick made further efforts to break down the walls of its prison1 and very soon made the first breach in the shell4 ,as the heat of the sun was exactly that of the incubator1 hatching was continued under precisely natural conditions4 ,it was not long before the hole in the shell was widened sufficiently to enable the chick to wriggle its way into the world4 ,from the cinematographic point of view1 the hatch was as perfect as could be desired1 especially as the chick was strong and active after hatching4 ,mr4 ,smith once ventured into the ,sussex woods1 to obtain some animated photographs of the ,british adder in its natural haunts4 ,he succeeded in tracking down an excellent specimen1 of which some first-rate pictures were taken4 ,then he proceeded to record on the film the methods by which this reptile may be caught and handled in safety4 ,while holding a large specimen in his hand he provoked it to fury1 and caused it to strike out savagely1 so as to secure on the film some life-like pictures of an adder striking1 as well as details of its mouth and fangs4 ,as a contrast1 he then decided to show how an adder should not be handled4 ,he took the precaution to chloroform the reptile before mis-handling it1 but the snake recovered too soon from the ansthetic1 and striking out with its fangs1 caught the investigator a smart blow on the hand1 leaving two minute punctures4 ,the bite of the adder is seldom fatal1 but1 contrary to popular belief1 it is far from harmless1 producing delirium and precipitating collapse1 recovery from which occupies several hours1 or in some cases even weeks1 as ,mr4 ,smith found to his cost4 ,an unusually successful popular science film is the one showing the development of a flower from seed to blossom4 ,it has been encored more than once on being presented4 ,the average plant demands several weeks from seed to blossom4 ,mr4 ,smith made an ingenious apparatus for securing a continuous representation of growth4 ,the seed was shown first in the initial stages until the embryo burst from the protective or outer shell or husk2 and then continuously from the moment the first sign of the shoot appeared above the level of the soil4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 ,urban ,trading ,co41 ,ltd4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,,demonstrating ,,the ,,physical ,,energy ,,of ,,the ,,fly4 #a4 ,fly lying on its back spinning a wheel4 #b4 ,juggling flies4 #c4 ,the fly walking up the turning wheel4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,butterfly4 ,this remarkable film1 prepared by the ,ambrosio ,company of ,italy1 illustrates the fascinating evolution of the butterfly from the caterpillar4 ,it secured the premier award of #e1jjj francs for the best natural history film in the cinematograph section of the recent ,turin ,exhibition4--,see page #cbd4 ,the camera was set up and an automatic apparatus attached thereto1 which enabled an exposure to be made at predetermined intervals both during the day and night4 ,the apparatus was driven by a curious motor which obtained its power from dripping water2 and the arrangement was such that1 after the exposure was made1 the film was moved forward to bring the next area of sensitised surface before the lens4 ,the receptacle containing the seed was placed at the correct distance to ensure a large picture1 and for the purposes of illumination at night a special device was connected to the driving mechanism of the camera1 whereby the subject was brilliantly illuminated at the instant of exposure4 ,the exposures were made at average intervals of thirty minutes1 giving forty-eight exposures at different stages of the growth in the course of the twenty-four hours4 ,when projected on the screen at the normal rate of sixteen pictures per second1 it looks as though the growth of the plant had been forced to about #cj1jjj times its usual speed1 with the camera continuously in operation the whole time4 ,the great secret of ,mr4 ,smith's success is the simplicity of the apparatus he employs for his work4 ,each subject demands special arrangements4 ,his contrivances for the most part are extemporised from crude materials2 even the microscope1 which he sometimes uses1 being of the simplest and cheapest pattern4 ,he has found that elaborate apparatus often complicates his work without producing such good results as are procurable by the most primitive devices4 ,work in this field is attended with some curious results4 ,the eyes of some of the lower animals are extremely fine lenses1 and unless care is bestowed some sorry tricks are played at the expense of the scientist4 ,mr4 ,smith related to me that on one occasion he secured an excellent series of pictures of the frog at close quarters2 and congratulated himself upon his success4 ,his dismay was great when he projected the pictures for the first time4 ,although the frog itself was beyond reproach1 interest in it paled before the unexpected sight of the operator turning the handle of the cinematograph1 reflected with great distinctness in the frog's eye4 ,there is one great difficulty attending the photography of the smaller organisms of ,nature which is very difficult to surmount2 that is1 unnatural results arising either from the disturbance of the object under examination1 or its photography in a false environment4 ,this complexity is emphasised very strongly in connection with cinematography4 ,if it is desired1 for instance1 to record garden pests engaged in their destructive work1 it is trying indeed to convey a correct pictorial description of their methods4 ,troubles concerning illumination are particularly baffling of solution4 ,mr4 ,smith has devised a special apparatus1 which is very similar in its general characteristics to a heliograph1 mounted upon a tripod stand so that it can be revolved in any direction4 ,with this parabolic reflector the sunlight can be brought into position and concentrated upon the subject under cinematographic observation without disturbing it4 ,the photographs by this means of insects at work1 no matter how unreal they may appear at first sight1 are absolutely true to ,nature1 and are taken under incontestably natural conditions4 ,in fact1 the ray of illumination thrown upon the object by this means is so brilliant as to enable subjects to be photographed in their natural colours2 which fact may in the future afford scientists a wonderful opportunity of studying protective colouring in insects4 ,it is probably beyond dispute that the popular scientific film1 treated in such a manner as is indicated in this chapter1 is certain to command the approval of the public in the end4 ,at the present moment the popular scientific cinematograph picture is in its infancy4 ,it will be only through the perseverance of the scientist who has the happy faculty of amusing as well as entertaining a general audience that this class of film ever will have a vogue4 ,the tendency towards this state of affairs1 happily1 is improving every day1 for the cinematograph is appealing more and more to the cultured classes1 who1 after all1 constitute its most substantial support4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced ,i4--,the first attempts at cinematograph magic and the artifices adopted ,as soon as the cinematograph had established itself firmly in popular favour1 and there was every indication that it would become a permanent form of entertainment1 it entered one field after another of popular interest4 ,we have seen how the picture play was evolved from unrehearsed episodes in everyday life2 and when the studio-stage became an indispensable acquisition to the picture play producer1 another movement was created4 ,this was the trick film4 ,the pioneers realised that the intervals between the exposure of successive sections of film corresponding to an image offered extreme opportunities for the practice of chicanery1 and the presentation of weird1 fantastic1 and mystifying effects4 ,the trick-film owes its inception to a well-known ,french prestidigitateur1 ,monsieur ,mlies4 ,he was among the first to embark upon the manufacture of film subjects1 and it naturally occurred to him to impress magic into the service of the industry4 ,his first attempts were of the simplest description4 ,he confined himself to the performance before the camera of the same tricks that he offered an audience from behind the footlights4 ,having by this means tested the public and found it responsive1 he introduced all the devices known to the 8,black ,art40 ,furniture danced upon the screen1 and moved hither and thither about a room2 skeletons gambolled capriciously2 weird displays of 8,black ,magic0 were shown2 all sorts of inanimate objects were imbued with life2 dolls and toy animals and birds were given the semblance of natural action4 ,the films amused and mystified the public exceedingly1 and the ,mlies trick films enjoyed a remarkable vogue4 ,meanwhile1 ,robert ,paul in ,england had been considering the feasibility of the same idea1 but had feared that the personality of the magician would be missed4 ,seeing the success of the ,frenchman1 he decided to embark upon a similar line of activity4 ,he saw the possibility of producing far more startling effects than even the most accomplished and dexterous magician ever could hope to achieve4 ,but the task bristled with difficulties4 ,the stage had to be overhauled and equipped with elaborate devices to facilitate sudden disappearances1 apparitions1 etc4 ,a workshop also was necessary for the preparation of the properties1 and the character of the work rendered indispensable the services of an expert magician4 ,cinematographic knowledge was in its infancy2 and accordingly some of the methods used in the late nineties seem somewhat involved as compared with those practised to-day4 ,but it was upon these early struggles and failures that the present adequate equipment was built up4 ,indeed1 from the point of view of the audience many of these first films have never been surpassed4 ,to describe the methods adopted in the production of every trick picture is obviously impossible in the compass of this volume1 but ,i am able1 through the courtesy of ,mr4 ,robert ,paul1 to explain how many of the strange effects in his most striking trick films were achieved4 ,the processes most generally practised were the 8stop-motion0 and 8double printing10 which are explained fully in the next chapter1 but in addition to these methods he devised many others1 some of which have been superseded by easier operations4 ,for example1 where gradual disappearances and appearances were desired1 instead of using a rectilinear diaphragm stop in the lens as is now usual1 ,paul occasionally resorted to the chemical dissolution of the emulsion and image from the film--an intricate and delicate manipulation entailing considerable time and care1 because if the dissolution process were carried too far or undertaken by unskilled hands1 the film was spoiled and much labour fruitlessly expended4 ,sometimes the desired result was brought about by means of two special detachable stops1 which were placed in the lens4 ,each of these stops had a ,v-shaped opening of identical dimensions1 and were set at right-angles to one another4 ,as they were gradually drawn apart the aperture formed by the intersection of the ,v-openings through which the light passed to the film was enlarged1 while1 on the other hand1 as they were moved towards one another1 the aperture was decreased1 until at last the film scarcely recorded any impression of the subject photographed4 ,the gradual synchronous movement of these two ,v-shaped stops was somewhat difficult4 ,to-day their place is taken by the rectilinear stop in the lens1 whereby the same effect can be produced much more easily4 ,one of the best and most successful trick films ,paul ever produced was the medival mystery entitled 8,the ,magic ,sword40 ,it appealed to the grown-up because of the astonishing effects introduced1 and to the children for the reason that it provided an intimate glimpse of fairyland with its giants1 witches1 good and bad fairies1 and other strange beings not encountered in this world4 ,it was sumptuously produced1 and many of the tricks were introduced to the public for the first time4 ,the first scene shows a gallant knight meeting his lady-love on the battlements of the castle at midnight2 a ghost appears1 towards which the knight advances1 but it melts from his grasp4 ,a witch rides over the dark sky on her broom1 and the knight in turn endeavours to seize her1 but she eludes his attack and departs1 shaking her fist in rage4 ,an ogre no less than fifteen feet tall thrusts his head and shoulders over the battlements1 seizes the damsel and bears her off through the sky4 ,the lover is in the depths of despair1 but a good fairy comes to his aid1 gives him a flaming sword1 and bids him go in search of his lady-love4 ,the battlemented castle gradually dissolves into a witch's cavern1 to which the frightened lady is brought captive by the witch1 and transformed into a second hag4 ,many adventures follow2 finally the good fairy triumphs over evil1 and the witch is converted into a roll of carpet1 on which the lovers float through the air to fall from the sky upon the lady's parents while they are banqueting in the castle grounds4 ,the trick effects in this film were produced almost entirely by double printing1 two negative films being superimposed to make a positive4 ,the accompanying illustration shows how the appearance of the ogre was obtained4 ,the scene with the two principal players1 the knight and the lady1 first was acted and photographed upon one film4 ,the sky was a neutral back-cloth with a crescent moon painted on it4 ,then the second film was prepared bearing the ghost1 the witch1 and the ogre respectively4 ,the spectral effect of the ghost named was realistically conveyed by under-exposing the second film1 so that the stone of the battlements could be distinguished plainly through the form of the figure4 ,the ogre was an actor of ordinary height1 but as he was photographed with a short-focus lens from a point nearer the object than the characters in the first scene1 when the print was made he appeared to be more than twice as tall as the other performers4 ,in this scene the wall over which he reached was covered with black cloth4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,magic ,,sword3 ,a ,,medi,,val ,,mystery ,,explained4 ,scene ,a was photographed first4 ,the ogre was photographed against a neutral background upon a second film1 ,b1 the camera being brought very close to the figure4 ,when the two films were superimposed and printed the startling picture ,c was obtained4 ,in order to get the effect of the witch riding in the sky1 ,paul invented a novel movement in the camera1 which is now in general use in trick cinematography4 ,the lens was arranged to be raised or lowered in relation to the area of film in the gate1 but still independently of the film itself4 ,this was done with a small gearing device whereby1 when the gear handle was turned1 the lens was moved upwards or downwards4 ,the witch astride her broom stood upon the floor of the stage1 which was covered with black cloth1 against a background of similar material4 ,by turning the gear handle of the lens attachment the latter was raised1 until the witch riding on her broom was lifted to the upper corner of the film and there photographed4 ,although she simulated the action of riding through space in the traditional manner1 in reality she merely moved across the black-covered floor of the stage4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,christmas ,,carol3 ,,how ,,scrooge ,,saw ,,bob ,,cratchit',s ,,home4 ,the scene of the ,xmas dinner1 ,a1 was photographed with the space at right4 ,on the second film ,scrooge and the spirit1 ,b1 were obtained4 ,these two films were placed together for printing the complete picture1 ,c4 ,the strange effects produced in the witch's cave were obtained both by double printing and the 8stop motion10 as well as by the manipulation of the stop in the lens4 ,the conversion of the captured lady into a witch was accomplished by stopping the camera2 and while the lens was covered by the shutter1 introducing a second actress1 already made up1 who stepped into the position occupied by the lady1 while the latter quickly left the stage4 ,the other actors maintained a rigid position while the camera lens was closed and the substitution took place4 ,the conversion of the witch into a roll of carpet was effected in a similar way4 ,when the 8stop0 call was given the witch disappeared from the stage1 and a roll of carpet took her place4 ,the journey of the lovers through space upon the magic carpet was carried out by the manipulation of the rising and falling lens already described4 ,when the solution of the baffling trick is given it appears absurdly simple1 but the elaboration of the idea entailed several weeks' preparation1 combined with hard thinking on the part of the producers1 while the filming alone occupied several days4 ,paul's studio was excellently adapted to producing strange variations in stature4 ,he could make a giant or ,lilliputian at will4 ,the camera was mounted upon a special trolley1 which could be moved forwards and backwards in relation to the stage over a pair of rails similar to a railway track4 ,the closer the camera was to the stage the larger were the figures4 ,a photograph at a distance of fifteen feet presented people of normal height4 ,but when the camera was advanced close to the stage the players photographed were of immense stature1 an effect emphasised still further when one film was printed over the other4 ,by varying the distance between the camera and the stage ,paul produced some delightful results4 ,one picture was called 8,the ,cheese ,mites10 or 8,lilliputians in a ,london ,restaurant40 ,a traveller entered a caf and took his seat before a window4 ,when he had finished his meal the waiter brought him a mug of beer1 out of which1 to the intense surprise of the traveller1 a little sailor about six inches in height climbed and executed a hornpipe on the diner's plate4 ,the sailor then went to the cheese1 which was about his own height1 and produced a lady therefrom4 ,the sailor and the lass were engaged in an animated conversation when another little man appeared on the scene4 ,the two men ultimately quarrelled and there was a spirited contest4 ,this introduction to modern ,lilliput is simple to explain4 ,on one film the diner and his actions were photographed1 the camera being1 say1 fifteen feet distant4 ,after this film was secured a second film was made of the ,lilliputians1 who1 of course1 were not midgets1 but people of normal stature4 ,they acted against a background of neutral tint2 but the camera was set about #aej feet from the stage1 and a long-focus lens was used4 ,the consequence was that the figures appeared very tiny upon the second film1 so that when the two films were superimposed for the purposes of printing the positive the contrast between the diner and the sailors was strangely impressive1 the latter being no taller than the jug upon the table4 ,some very astonishing results can be obtained by this superprinting operation1 either straightforwardly or in combination with the variation in the photographic range as described in the previous paragraph4 ,the soldier dying on the battlefield sees his home and mother in a dream which occupies the whole of one corner of the picture2 there is the vision of ,marley's ,ghost1 and so on4 ,one of the earliest of ,paul's simple trick subjects was a film illustrating the song 8,ora ,pro ,nobis10 wherein the starving1 ill-clad orphan was seen to sink in collapse in the snow outside the church door1 the climax being the death of the waif and the descent of the angel to receive and bear her spirit heavenwards4 ,this was effected purely by double printing1 the ascending and descending action of the angel being carried out by means of the gear-operated falling and rising lens of the camera4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy1 ,r4 ,w4 ,paul4 8,,ora ,,pro ,,nobis0 ,,and ,,how ,,it ,,was ,,produced4 ,the scene ,a was first recorded upon a film2 then ,b was cinematographed1 the angel and child being taken against a neutral background4 ,a special device provided the ascending movement of the angel with the spirit of the waif4 ,by placing ,b over ,a in printing the result ,c was obtained4 ,illustration3 ,by courtesy of ,r4 ,w4 ,paul4 ,,the ,,secret ,,of ,,the ,,haunted ,,curiosity ,,shop4 ,the scene1 ,a1 was photographed first1 the black space representing the interior of a wardrobe4 ,another film1 ,b1 was made of the skeleton against a neutral background4 ,when the two films were superimposed and printed the skeleton appeared to be imprisoned within the cupboard upon the positive1 ,c4 8,the ,haunted ,curiosity ,shop0 was a well-executed and startling trick film4 ,a floating skull was transformed into the bust of a charming lady1 while the second half of the body walked in and attached itself to the upper half4 ,the dealer attempted to grasp his strange visitor around the waist with a view to stealing a kiss1 but to his disgust the fair damsel changed into a grinning negress4 ,in anger he thrust her into an old wardrobe1 where she became white again4 ,the outline of the fair prisoner could be seen through the woodwork of the cupboard2 changing first into an ,egyptian mummy1 then a living ,egyptian1 and next into a skeleton4 ,the dealer made a lunge at the skeleton with a sword1 but the weapon struck the breast-plate of a man in armour4 ,the latter was then torn limb from limb1 and the dismembered body was thrown into a huge jar1 from which rose three gnomes1 who finally resolved themselves into one4 ,he was thrust back into the jar1 and a dense cloud of smoke rose1 from which the dealer fled in terror1 while a large head appeared from the smoke and advanced towards the audience4 ,this picture was produced by recourse to 8stop-motion0 and double printing4 ,the changes from white woman to negress1 mummy1 ,egyptian1 skeleton1 and man in armour1 were produced by substitution while the lens was closed by the shutter4 ,the space indicated by the wardrobe was a recess having a black back-cloth1 against which the skeleton was photographed1 and which when the two negatives were superimposed was shown to be standing before the astonished dealer4 ,the photographs of the girl were taken with the wardrobe doors open and well-exposed1 so as to obtain a strong image1 which could be seen through the other film showing the wardrobe doors closed4 ,the dismemberment of the man in armour was carried out with properties1 while the grotesque head was obtained by bringing the camera within a short distance of the stage so as to secure an enlarged photograph of an actor made up to suit the part4 8,the 787 ,motorist0 was an extraordinary example of ,paul's handiwork4 ,the effects were so startling and the situations so unconventional that the spectators were sorely puzzled as well as vastly entertained4 ,the picture opens with a motorist and a lady entering a small two-seated car4 ,they set off1 but presently a policeman attempts to stop them4 ,he is picked up and dropped over the back of the automobile4 ,the motorist continues on his way1 with the offended emissary of the law in pursuit4 ,presently a public-house bars the road1 but the car1 on reaching the obstruction1 runs up the wall1 to the dismay of a large crowd1 and shoots into space4 ,without a pause it speeds over the clouds1 visits the sun1 which it circles calmly1 and once more swinging into space runs over the clouds until it reaches ,saturn4 ,the ring round this planet constitutes an ideal motor track1 around which the automobile rushes in mad glee4 ,finally it shoots off this unusual highway and drops through space1 to crash into a court of justice4 ,after striking terra firma in this unconventional manner1 the car continues its journey out of the building1 followed by policemen1 magistrate1 and other officials4 ,to their amazement1 however1 just as they are about to arrest the delinquent it vanishes1 leaving in its place a countryman's cart1 in which a smock-frocked farmer and his wife are seated4 ,when the pursuers are at a safe distance1 the cart changes back to the motor1 and makes good its escape4 ,the point beyond the comprehension of the public was the journey of the motor across the clouds and round the sun and ,saturn4 ,it looked precisely as if the planets and the car were viewed through a telescope4 ,to get this effect models were used4 ,a suitable back-cloth was prepared painted with clouds1 stars1 the planets1 etc4 ,on the stage a large model was set up to represent ,saturn with its ring4 ,a small model of a motor-car was prepared1 in which two dolls representing the motorist and his companion were placed1 and propelled round the ring at increasing speed4 ,illustration3 ,motoring round the ring of ,saturn4 ,illustration3 ,the car circling the sun4 ,,the 8 ,,motorist--,a ,,startling ,,trick ,,picture4 ,both car and planets were small models4 ,a model of the sun was suspended upon the stage before the back-cloth4 ,the model of the car was attached to an arm1 which was pivoted to the back of the sun1 like a clock hand1 so that the wheels of the model car rested on the circumference of the model of the planet4 ,this was revolved1 thereby swinging the motor-car round and round1 conveying the impression that the car was travelling round the sphere under its own power4 ,for the journey through the clouds the model of the car was photographed against a back-cloth4 ,the idea of falling through space was conveyed by the manipulation of the rising and falling lens4 ,the success of this novel trick film prompted many imitations4 ,working with models1 however1 is by no means a simple operation1 because1 unless they are prepared and manipulated very skilfully1 the deception is palpable4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,animated ,,swords4 ,the public is mystified by the manner in which inanimate objects apparently come to life4 ,this picture shows one means of accomplishing this end4 ,the swords are manipulated by invisible wires1 indicated in this illustration to show method of application4--,see page #bji4 ,another of ,paul's films was the representation of a railway collision4 ,the scene represented a single railway line threading mountainous country4 ,a goods train came in sight and overshot the danger signal4 ,an attempt was made to back the train1 but before it could reach safety an express dashed from the tunnel ahead and crashed into the stationary train1 precipitating a scene of wreckage4 ,carriages1 locomotives1 and goods wagons were hurled down the embankment and piled upon one another by the force of the impact4 ,many people who saw this film marvelled at ,paul's good fortune in being on the scene to photograph such a disaster4 ,they were convinced that it was genuine4 ,as a matter of fact1 the scene of the accident was a field1 in which the scenery was erected with considerable care1 and a long length of model railway track was laid down1 while the trains were good toy models4 ,the film only measured forty feet1 as it was designed originally for the kinetoscope2 but its popularity was so complete that it was adopted extensively for the cinematograph4 ,certainly it produced forty of the most thrilling seconds it is possible to conceive1 for the disaster was perfect in its swiftness and wreckage2 and the cinematograph film images being less sharp and decisive than those obtained by a hand camera1 the illusion was conveyed very convincingly4 ,scores of trick pictures of infinite variety were produced by ,mr4 ,robert ,paul during his active connection with the cinematograph industry4 ,in common with other producers of trick films1 ,paul found that the time involved in their production was out of all proportion to the financial results4 ,it was no uncommon circumstance for a subject approximating #ajj feet in length to absorb a week or more of continuous work4 ,moreover1 his most successful subjects were seized by ,american houses and 8duped0--as unauthorised reproduction is called in cinematographic parlance in that country3 no copyright law existed on the subject4 ,some of the subjects thus exploited met with a phenomenal success1 from which he never received the slightest benefit or even recognition4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced ,,ii4--,dancing ,furniture3 ,strings1 ,cords and ,wires3 8,the ,magnetic ,gentleman03 ,the 8,stop and ,substitution03 8,the ,automobile ,accident03 ,reversal of ,action4 ,the achievements of ,mlies and ,paul set a very high standard of excellence in trick pictures4 ,their popularity precipitated a 8trick film0 fever4 ,the market became inundated with so-called magic pictures1 of which the majority were inane or conventional4 ,the inevitable happened2 the public appetite became satiated4 ,consequently1 to-day1 the popular taste demands extreme novelty4 ,unless the subject is original in theme1 and the atmosphere of mystification is sustained1 the effort is regarded with indifference1 if not with absolute contempt4 ,on the other hand1 a first-class trick film commands the highest admiration1 is regarded with as much satisfaction as were the products of the past masters in cinematographic magic of fifteen years ago1 and when once seen is not forgotten very readily4 ,there are certain producers who specialise in trick films with considerable success2 but their number is small4 ,on the other hand1 trick devices are introduced to a considerable extent into the ordinary picture play4 ,i recall a film which depicted a scene at sea1 where the vessel upon which the action took place was shown rolling and plunging in a truly appalling manner1 and was swept from stem to stern time after time by the angry waves and scud4 ,wonder and admiration were expressed by the public at the daring of the producer in venturing upon a small boat under such terrible climatic conditions merely to procure a sensational picture4 ,that scene was produced in the serenity and quietness of the glass-covered studio under the glare of electric lights4 ,the boat deck was a stage property1 comprising a platform built to resemble the deck of an actual vessel1 mounted upon rollers in such a way that when the latter were set in motion the boat was caused to rock1 roll1 and pitch in the most alarming manner4 ,the angry waves seen on the horizon as the craft dipped its nose or rose upon a crest were no more than back-cloths and flats worked out by the scene painter1 and set up by the stage carpenter1 while the driving spray and water came from nothing more formidable than hydrants4 ,behind the property boat deck1 and disposed in concealed positions1 were stage hands1 equipped with hoses and nozzles4 ,by manipulating these streams of water dexterously as the craft dipped1 the jets of water were played upon its sides at varying angles1 causing the foaming liquid to shoot into the air to produce the precise effect of a rolling boat dropping into the trough of the sea and smashing into an angry wave in its descent4 ,the company suffered a severe drenching1 it is true1 and one of the actresses was afflicted with an acute attack of mal-de-mer provoked by the violent movement of the platform6 ,in another instance the public was shown a seaport town bombarded by a hostile cruiser4 ,in the foreground were two big guns on the vessel's deck1 while in the distance was the town4 ,there was a puff of smoke1 and the next instant the buildings struck by the projectile were observed to crumble into heaps of debris4 ,the illusion was produced very simply4 ,the big guns were fabrications of wooden laths and painted canvas1 the smoke was a cloud of steam1 and the buildings collapsed because they were built up with hinged sections1 which were pulled down at the critical moment by means of concealed wires and cords1 controlled from the back of the stage4 ,through the courtesy of the ,gaumont ,company1 of ,london and ,paris1 who are in the front rank of masters in film magic1 at all events as far as ,europe is concerned1 ,i have been allowed to go behind the scenes in their studio1 and am in a position to explain to a puzzled public the secret of many an apparent miracle4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,travelling ,,bed4 ,the progress of the bed down the public street provokes amusement to the pedestrians and consternation to its owner1 but its movement is due to the fact that it is being pushed by concealed stage hands4 ,the film called 8,the ,travelling ,bed0 is a typical subject of mystification4 ,an aged tenant has fallen into arrears with his rent1 and the long-suffering landlord at last commands his eviction4 ,the bailiffs duly arrive upon the scene1 but are spared all trouble by the fact that directly they appear the chairs1 table1 and other articles burst into life4 ,they move about the room1 and finally file out of the door1 in the most methodical manner1 to pass in a procession into the street4 ,meanwhile the unhappy tenant is reclining upon his bed in the depths of despair4 ,he has no home and does not know where to search for one4 ,the bed1 however1 promptly sets out to solve the problem4 ,it bears its owner into the public highway4 ,the owner is overwhelmed with fright and dismay at the unexpected development1 and indulges in frantic gesticulations as the bed canters merrily down the centre of the road1 with the passers-by pursuing the unusual spectacle4 ,the mystery of the ,travelling ,bed is easily explained4 ,it moves for the simple reason that it is pushed from behind by stage hands4 ,these men are concealed from the camera1 which merely records the movement of the bed1 the alarm of the owner1 and the excitement of the crowd4 ,this is the simplest and most usual means of imparting animation to a lifeless object4 ,with such an article as a chair1 which cannot hide a stage hand1 recourse has to be made to wires or strings manipulated from a point in the wings1 this being contrived in such a way as to be invisible to the public4 ,for instance1 a gendarme is astonished to see his sword whisked away from him4 ,the accompanying illustration shows precisely how this is accomplished1 the cords responsible for the action being made visible purposely to explain the mystery1 whereas in the actual film these strings would be impossible of detection4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,magnetic ,,gentleman4 ,the man-hole cover rises to pursue1 and the lamp-post crashes over to strike the actor by the aid of wires1 a common expedient in trick cinematography4--,see page #baj4 ,there is no limitation to the variety of effects which can be produced by the invisible medium of cords1 strings1 and wires4 ,probably their possibilities are revealed to the most pronounced degree in such a film as 8,the ,magnetic ,gentleman40 ,this unfortunate individual has been the victim of an attack by ,paris ,apaches1 and forthwith vows never to venture through the streets again without a protective coat of mail beneath his conventional waistcoat4 ,but he unintentionally comes into close proximity to a dynamo1 with the result that his protective coat becomes highly magnetised4 ,as he passes shops where metallic articles are displayed for sale1 they jump towards him and cling tenaciously to his person4 ,to one and all of these articles thin wires or strings are attached1 the free ends of which are held either by stage hands or by the magnetic gentleman himself4 ,at the critical moment the cords are pulled1 and as the wires stretch across the path along which the magnetic gentleman is passing they appear to jump towards him4 ,the articles which actually adhere to his person are connected to cords held by the actor himself1 who merely pulls them to him as he passes the shops4 ,presently the magnetic gentleman passes over a man-hole cover set in the middle of the pavement4 ,to the amazement of the audience1 the cover is seen to rise up on its edge and to bowl along the street in pursuit of its disturbing factor4 ,the cover is a stage property made of wood1 manipulated by wires controlled by the actor4 ,when the cover is raised there is a short 8stop0 while a stage hand enters the picture to give the cover its hoop-like impetus necessary to start it rolling1 the actor then pulling it along by means of a wire1 so that the cover follows hard on the heels of the luckless individual1 until its career is arrested by two workmen1 who struggle with the strange runaway4 ,illustration3 ,the pursuing man-hole cover is a wooden property4 ,illustration3 ,the lamp-post is a stage article hinged in the centre4 ,,how ,,the ,,magnetic ,,gentleman ,,trick ,,film ,,was ,,produced4 ,but the magnetic gentleman's misadventures have by no means ended4 ,he is passing a lamp-post1 when suddenly the metal1 attracted by the coat of mail1 endeavours to jump towards him1 with the result that the post snaps in twain4 ,the lamp-post is a dummy or stage property1 hinged at about half of its height so as to permit the upper part to heel over like a flap4 ,wires are attached to the upper half1 and as the individual passes they are given a sharp tug from the stage hands stationed outside the picture1 or by the actor himself1 and it falls over4 ,in such instances as these the deception is improved by the scenes being enacted in the public streets4 ,every action appears to be carried out so naturally1 and the properties are designed so well and manipulated so carefully at the critical moments1 that the spectators are led to believe in the actuality of the episodes4 ,of course1 a film of this character demands considerable preparation1 and photographing it occupies a long time4 ,the picture is built up incident by incident1 in the same way that a picture play is produced1 there being an interval of time between each series of exposures to permit the arrangements for the next episode to be made2 and each phase is rehearsed over and over again before being filmed4 ,when the pieces of film are connected to form a complete band1 the continuity in action is so perfect that the public is unable to detect the points where the sequence was interrupted4 ,illustration3 ,,trick ,,picture--,,the ,,automobile ,,accident4 ,the actor being replaced by the legless cripple with the dummy legs4 ,a film which created a sensation when it appeared was the 8,automobile ,accident40 ,a workman1 who has imbibed not wisely but too well1 is homeward bound1 and describes grotesque geometrical patterns as he advances along the thoroughfare4 ,presently he is smitten with an irresistible desire to sleep4 ,although the couch is hard and dangerous he lies down in the middle of the road1 and in a few seconds is in the arms of ,morpheus4 ,while he is sleeping peacefully a taxi-cab comes along at a smart pace1 and1 not observing the slumbering form of the roysterer1 the chauffeur drives over him1 cutting off both his legs4 ,the shock awakes the man rudely1 and he is surprised to find his lower limbs scattered across the roadway4 ,the chauffeur is horrified by the unfortunate accident2 but his fare1 on the contrary1 a doctor1 is not much perturbed4 ,he descends from his carriage1 picks up the dismembered limbs1 replaces them in position1 assists the afflicted man to his feet1 and after shaking hands each proceeds on his separate way1 the workman resuming his journey as if nothing had happened4 ,illustration3 ,,trick ,,picture--,,the ,,automobile ,,accident4 ,the taxi-cab running over the sleeper and apparently cutting off his legs1 but in reality displacing the legless cripple's property limbs4 ,the requirements for this terrible calamity were very few4 ,they consisted of three actors1 to take the parts of the intoxicated workman1 the driver1 and the doctor respectively2 a cripple who had lost both legs through an accident1 and for properties a taxi-cab and a couple of artificial limbs4 ,the legless cripple is1 of course1 the key to the whole situation4 ,the great difficulty was to find such a luckless individual1 and1 when he had been discovered1 to bribe him to participate in a picture play4 ,probably the unfortunate had never before found his misfortune so profitable to him4 ,illustration3 ,observing the effects of the disaster1 the doctor proceeds to replace the severed legs4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,automobile ,,accident4 ,the limbs replaced1 the patient and doctor shake hands4 ,in a trick film like this1 success depends essentially upon what may be described as the 8,stop and ,substitution0 action4 ,when the legless cripple was found1 the leading actor was made up in such a manner as to be his exact counterpart4 ,the company then proceeded to the scene of the accident1 which was in the ,bois de ,vincennes4 ,the camera was set up and the producer outlined the story to the participants4 ,in taking the film the operations were as follows3 ,the leading actor1 dressed like a ,french workman1 ambled down the road simulating inebriation1 and presently prepared his couch in the dust4 ,while he was lying prone and asleep1 the taxi-cab drove up quickly in such a way as to run over the sleeper's legs just above the knees4 ,of course1 this did not actually take place1 the chauffeur drawing up a short distance from the prostrate form4 ,at precisely this point the camera stopped working1 and the cab slowly continued its way until its front wheels touched the prostrate man's legs at the required point4 ,the tracks of the vehicle's wheels were plainly visible on the road4 ,illustration3 ,,trick ,,picture--,,the ,,automobile ,,accident4 ,the roysterer after being run over by the taxi-cab sitting up and brandishing his severed limbs4 ,illustration3 ,the legless cripple being prepared for the act4 ,the second artist is made up as the cripple's double4 ,at this juncture the producer stepped forward with the legless cripple mounted on his self-propelled wheeled truck1 from which he was lifted4 ,the principal actor now got up and left the scene4 ,the cripple took his place in the road1 and the artificial legs were laid against his stumps in a natural position4 ,care had to be taken that the cripple occupied exactly the same position as that of the actor he had displaced1 so that no sign of the substitution could be observed on the film4 ,the cab was now backed to its former starting point and then re-started1 the chauffeur making it follow the tracks made by his wheels on the former journey4 ,as the automobile reached the point where it had stopped in the previous picture1 the camera started working again1 and the cab ran over the prostrate cripple1 cutting off both his legs--in reality displacing the dummy limbs and tumbling them across the road4 ,suddenly awakened in this rough manner1 the sleeper beholds his severed limbs with dismay1 and then hops after the vehicle which had been the cause of his disaster4 ,the cab stops1 the doctor alights1 picks up the severed limbs1 and1 while the cripple is seated on the ground1 restores the displaced artificial limbs to their natural positions4 ,the camera now stopped working once more4 ,the cripple was restored to his wheeled carriage and transported out of the picture1 while the dummy legs were thrown on one side4 ,in the place of the cripple the principal actor reappeared1 and when the camera started again it photographed him sitting upon the ground4 ,he is helped to his feet and resumes his journey4 ,in this picture we have seen two 8stop and substitution0 movements1 once when the principal actor was withdrawn from the scene to make way for the legless cripple1 and again when the reverse change was made4 ,owing to the neat and skilful manner in which the change from the actor to the cripple1 and back from the cripple to the actor1 is effected1 the public fails to observe either the stop or the substitution1 and thinks that one man acted the rle throughout4 ,the fact that the accident occurs on the high-road1 and the possibility of a man being run over in this manner1 helps in the deception4 ,the 8stop and substitution0 movement is probably practised more extensively than any other artifice in cinematography4 ,in picture dramas where a situation is presented such as the throwing of the villain over a cliff1 or before an approaching train1 or some other scene impossible to picture without sacrifice of life1 the camera is stopped immediately before the incident4 ,the actors engaged in the scene become rooted to the spot when the 8stop0 call is given1 signifying the fact that the camera has ceased its purring4 ,at this juncture the villain disappears from the picture1 a lay or dummy figure being substituted for him4 ,when the camera resumes operation the episode is completed with the dummy4 ,perhaps the best example of this expedient is that represented in the film illustrating the 8,fountain of ,youth10 a version of the fable in which a beggar woman is transformed suddenly into a beautiful maiden by the kiss of a young gallant of good heart4 ,a chivalrous young prince is strolling through a wood when he is confronted by an old and wrinkled witch1 who makes supplication to him4 ,in an instant the audience realises that her sombre garments have left her for brighter attire1 and that the haggard face has been converted into youthful beauty4 ,this wonderful transformation is worked by recourse to the 8stop and substitution0 action4 ,after the 8stop0 call is given and while the lens is closed by the shutter the hag leaves the scene1 a young actress1 suitably attired1 assumes her position1 the actor retaining his position while the change is effected4 ,as the new actress assumes the exact pose of the witch when the camera starts again1 there is a complete continuity of action recorded1 and the audience cannot detect that a pause and change has taken place between the two consecutive pictures4 ,the 8stop0 movement is1 as a rule1 the secret to all instantaneous disappearances4 ,it enables people in the scene to vanish and reappear apparently from space4 ,it explains the wrestling match1 in which the audience is startled to see that the challenger has disappeared suddenly--leaving his antagonist wrestling with the air--only to reappear just as startlingly in another part of the picture4 ,when the time arrives the 8stop0 call is given4 ,the disappearing actor slips out of the scene1 while every other holds the position in which he has been caught by the last exposure4 ,when the camera is re-started and the actors continue their movements1 the wrestler proceeds as if gripping an opponent4 ,when the 8stop0 call is given again a little later1 the elusive opponent steps into the picture once more1 assumes a suitable attitude1 and his movements are continued when the camera resumes operation4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fountain ,,of ,,youth4 ,the film is stopped between pictures #b and #c to permit the actress to change her costume4 ,illustration3 ,,pumpkins ,,running ,,uphill4 ,this unusual effect is obtained by running the film backwards through the projector4 ,,the 8,,stop ,,and ,,substitution10 ,,and 8,,reversal ,,of ,,action0 ,,trick ,,practices4 ,the power to stop the camera and arrest the action at any point provides the trick-film maker with boundless possibilities which are denied to his contemporary behind the footlights4 ,on the legitimate stage the sudden disappearance and appearance has to be made through a trap door1 and1 no matter how smartly the operation may be performed1 the public nevertheless sees the action taking place4 ,in the moving-picture record not the slightest trace of the movement can be noted4 ,the actor is seen in one picture and is missing from the next4 ,he appears to have dissolved into thin air1 and his reappearance is just as magically produced4 ,this mystification of the public is rendered all the more complete by the environment in which the action is photographed4 ,when performed by a magician or illusionist on the stage1 the public naturally thinks that it has been effected by the medium of a trap door or some other artifice4 ,when the magic takes place in the public street1 where no such trick facilities exist1 the natural surroundings lend the last touch to the illusion4 ,another class of picture which causes considerable speculation as to how it is contrived is that in which all natural action becomes reversed4 ,horses1 cabs1 omnibuses1 motor-cars1 and cycles run backwards1 pedestrians walk backwards1 and smoke1 instead of escaping from a chimney1 appears to flow into it4 ,everything is topsy-turvy3 the laws of gravitation appear to be defied4 ,this novel result is produced by 8reversal of action40 ,the action may be photographed in the natural forward manner1 but when the film is placed in the projector1 the last picture taken by the camera is shown first1 and consequently all movement becomes reversed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag--,,the 8,,empire0 ,,trick ,,camera4 ,it can be turned upside down while the film can be driven both forwards and backwards4 ,obviously the task could be simplified if the travel of the film were reversed through the camera during exposure1 but in ordinary circumstances this would involve rotating the handle in the reverse direction1 and cause unsteadiness in the picture4 ,however1 the camera manufacturer has solved this problem4 ,when a reversed motion is required1 the camera may be inverted upon its tripod1 both top and bottom faces having facilities for screwing to the turn-table4 ,when the camera is set upside down1 the handle is rotated in the natural forward manner1 but as the film is travelling backwards past the lens all movement is reversed4 ,by this means the necessity to run the film backwards through the projector is avoided4 ,it is not even necessary to turn the camera upside down now4 ,some manufacturers provide a second driving spindle1 on to which the handle is slipped and rotated in the usual manner1 the film being caused to travel backwards through reverse gearing4 ,some astonishing and highly ingenious pictures can be obtained in this manner4 ,for the purposes of illustrating the subject ,i have taken one of the most simple results4 ,it depicts a 8,pumpkin ,race10 in which the vegetables are seen to roll up a slope1 to give one or two preliminary bounces1 and then to fly into the air through an open window4 ,when this film was taken the pumpkins were thrown out of the window1 bounced and rolled down the declivity in the usual manner1 but as the film for the purposes of the exposure was run backwards through the camera1 when shown on the screen the opposite and apparently impossible effect is produced4 ,some years ago ,mr4 ,james ,williamson produced a subject of this class which provoked remarkable hilarity4 ,it was called 8,the ,workman's ,paradise40 ,a building was in course of construction1 and the bricklayer duly arrived upon the scene to carry out his task1 but he never stirred a hand4 ,as he stood on the ground the bricks jumped by invisible effort into the hod and set themselves side by side in the most approved manner4 ,then the load rose through the air to the scaffolding2 the bricks fell from the hod to the scaffold floor1 and finally leaped into the air one by one to settle themselves in position upon the growing wall4 ,meanwhile the bricklayer surveyed the scene with his pipe in his mouth and an air of supreme satisfaction4 ,when the photographs of this picture were taken1 the action was just the reverse of that seen upon the screen4 ,the wall was standing1 and the camera in reality photographed its demolition and the transport of the bricks to the ground4 ,but the film was run through the camera backwards1 so that the last picture made became the first projected upon the screen1 and so on4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced ,,iii4--,manipulation of the film3 ,apparitions and gradual disappearances by opening and closing the diaphragm of the lens slowly3 8,the ,siren03 ,submarine effects4 ,there are many curious and bewildering trick effects which cannot be produced by recourse to the methods ,i have already described4 ,it is impossible to detail every artifice employed2 for every film possesses some individual characteristics4 ,only the broad outlines of the general processes employed can be described in the course of these chapters1 but the information thus afforded will enable one to fathom how the majority of these miraculous pictures are elaborated4 ,we have all laughed and enjoyed the class of trick-film portraying frantic haste and its concomitant disasters or escapades4 ,the scene may represent a public street1 a park1 a hotel1 or even a private residence4 ,the fact that the ordinary members of the public figuring in the scene move at the normal speed throws the frenzied haste of the principal performers into more striking contrast4 ,i recall two excellent films of this character4 ,in one case the story represented the operation of a wonderful little machine which1 when its handle was turned1 radiated a magical influence of acceleration upon everyone within a certain range1 precipitating ludicrous incidents and situations4 ,one saw the vehicles and pedestrians flying along the crowded ,regent ,street of ,paris with terrible speed4 ,the dawdling nursemaid was galvanised into life when the apparatus was brought within a few feet of her--she rushed her perambulator and charged along the boulevard with the velocity of a racing car2 while the errand-boy completed his duties at the pace of an aeroplane1 and so on4 ,mr4 ,james ,williamson was responsible for the second film of this character1 which portrayed the ,british ,workman 8waking up0 and becoming a 8hustler0 of the first water4 ,the bricklayers ran up and down the ladders like squirrels racing up a tree1 while the bricks were laid so rapidly that one could not detect the movements of the workman's hands1 and the carpenter plied his saw so vigorously that it appeared to be a mere streak of light4 ,this peculiar effect may be produced easily by either of two methods4 ,one is to turn the handle of the camera very slowly while photographing2 but when the film is being shown to rotate the handle of the projector at a very high speed4 ,the result is that the pace of every moving object in the picture is increased upon projection four1 six1 or eight times that recorded by the camera4 ,in this case every moving object in the picture moves at the same pace4 ,there are no contrasts between frantic movement on the part of some and slow1 natural motion on the part of other people in the scene to enhance the ludicrous effect2 moreover1 the required result is left very much in the hands of the operator4 ,accordingly1 another and superior expedient was evolved and is now adopted universally4 ,the picture is taken at the normal speed of sixteen pictures per second1 but the film thus obtained after development is taken in hand1 and its length is reduced by cutting out every other picture --or perhaps even more4 ,if every alternate image is eliminated in this manner1 and the remaining pieces of film are re-joined1 the length of the film is reduced by one half1 and when thrown upon the screen at the normal speed of sixteen pictures per second1 the moving objects travel at twice the speed at which they were moving when photographed4 ,this removal of the images from the string of consecutive pictures is known as 8manipulation of the film40 ,it is a tedious and delicate process1 because joining together properly a series of images measuring only three-quarters of an inch in depth demands skill and patience4 ,by its means1 however1 some bewildering effects may be obtained1 one of which is shown in the illustration4 ,this film depicts a lad who has been hypnotised4 ,when he enters a dwelling his presence sets the furniture dancing violently1 while a circular table round which four people are seated1 revolves at a dizzy pace4 ,for the purposes of this film the table and those seated around were mounted upon a pivoted platform free to revolve1 which was driven from beneath the stage or from some other convenient point4 ,at the right moment the table commenced to spin around--at a comparatively slow pace1 so as not to unseat the performers by the results of centrifugal force--the camera meanwhile recording the movement4 ,after the film was developed images were cut out at certain points1 these excisions being so made as to reduce the length of film devoted to the table-spinning incident from #ajj feet as recorded by the camera to twenty-five feet or so for the projector4 ,accordingly1 when the film was thrown upon the screen at a speed of sixteen pictures per second1 the table appeared to whiz round at a fearful velocity4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,revolving ,,table4 ,the puzzling trick effect of a table rotating at dizzy speed is obtained by cutting out pieces of the film4 ,the white lines show where excisions have been made4 ,if double printing be associated with this manipulation of the film far more mirth-provoking and astounding situations can be produced4 ,for instance1 such stories as that of the magical apparatus described above1 which spurs into unwonted velocity the traffic in a crowded street1 may be prepared as follows3--,the camera is set up in a suitable position overlooking the thoroughfare1 and one film is taken very early in the morning1 when the traffic is either absent or very insignificant4 ,here and there may be a pedestrian or vehicle1 but their presence only heightens the effect4 ,perhaps #abe feet of film are expended upon this subject4 ,the camera is then left until later in the day1 when the traffic is at its highest1 and another film is secured of the now busy street from the same point of view4 ,thus the stationary objects--the shops1 lamp-posts1 and so forth--occupy the same relative positions in each film1 with the result that when they are placed one on the other a single impression of these fixed1 inanimate objects is obtained4 ,the second film1 however1 is longer than the first--perhaps it is #bej feet in length--but by cutting out each alternate image its length is reduced to #abe feet4 ,the two films are now of the same length2 one is placed on the other1 and the positive print is made4 ,when the picture is thrown upon the screen the greater part of the wheeled traffic is observed to fly along in mad haste1 while here and there a pedestrian or vehicle is seen sauntering in a very leisurely way--almost at a crawl by comparison4 ,the latter are those photographed upon the first film which has not been touched1 while the hastening vehicles and people are those photographed upon the second film1 which has been manipulated into half its length4 ,if the excisions are made more heavily1 and instead of every alternate picture being cut out1 three out of four consecutive images are eliminated1 the results are more ludicrous still4 ,suppose a man is being pursued1 and runs as for dear life2 if #ajj feet of this episode are photographed1 and the negative subsequently is reduced to twenty-five feet by manipulation1 the man will not appear to be running when the picture is shown upon the screen1 but will seem to be eluding capture by a series of long hops4 ,in this instance two films and superprinting are requisite to give the most satisfactory result1 the runaway being recorded upon one film and the pursuing crowd upon the second4 ,then while the man is shown to be leaping in a most extraordinary manner down the street1 the crowd will be seen running in a perfectly natural manner4 ,whereas the 8stop0 call is employed to effect sudden appearance or disappearance1 a different method is essential for a gradual disappearance4 ,let us suppose the scene represents a magic cave in which the daring young hero is imprisoned by the wicked magician4 ,instead of the good fairy springing into the picture through a trap-door in the floor of the stage1 as is the practice in legitimate pantomime1 she is seen to materialise from nothing4 ,the first sign of her advent is a slight nebulous haze in a certain part of the picture4 ,this mist grows stronger and stronger1 until at last it reveals the filmy outlines of the fairy1 who in due course becomes as distinct and as clearly defined as the young hero she has come to assist4 ,when the moment arrives for her disappearance she vanishes in the same mysterious manner1 her body seeming to dissolve into thin air4 ,this apparition effect always provokes considerable interest and curiosity4 ,it necessitates the use of a camera of such a design that the film can be driven both forwards and backwards1 instead of in the first-named direction only4 ,it must be fitted also with a special measuring indicator1 and an easily adjustable diaphragm stop to the lens4 ,the latter is of the rectilinear type1 the results therewith being produced more easily and positively than by any other means4 ,all these requirements are fulfilled in the 8trick0 camera1 which is especially designed for work of this character4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,secret ,,of ,,the ,,fairy',s ,,appearance4 #a4 ,while a length of film is being exposed the diaphragm is closed slowly4 ,for the purposes of explaining this operation ,i have obtained three films 7see illustrations7 by looking at which the process will be clearly understood4 ,it is well known that as the aperture of a lens is closed1 the quantity of light admitted to the sensitised surface behind is reduced1 and if this action is carried out gradually by means of the rectilinear stop1 without any variation in the length of the exposure1 the image upon successive sections of the film will become fainter and fainter until nothing at all is recorded4 ,the reverse action takes place as the lens aperture is increased in size by opening the diaphragm to admit a greater volume of light4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,secret ,,of ,,the ,,fairy',s ,,appearance4 #b4 ,the same length of film is re-exposed after the fairy has entered the picture1 under a slowly opening diaphragm4 ,i will first explain the operation in its simplest form4 ,the stop call is given and all the actors become stationary while the fairy stands alert to receive her cue to enter4 ,the operator notes the point upon his indicator of the length of film used up to the time the stop call is given4 ,for our purposes we will say it is #ajj feet4 ,the operator continues turning the handle at the same speed1 but while so doing he gradually closes the lens aperture by means of the rectilinear stop1 so that the images1 owing to decreasing volume of light admitted through the lens1 become fainter and fainter1 until at last merely a haze is recorded4 ,the effect of closing the stop in this manner is shown in the first film4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,secret ,,of ,,the ,,fairy',s ,,appearance4 #c4 ,the effect of double exposure under closing and opening diaphragm4 ,the subjects photographed twice upon the same length of film stand out with uniform distinctness1 but the fairy being photographed only once gradually materialises apparently from thin air4 ,the operator consults his film register and finds that two feet of film have been consumed1 representing thirty-two exposures1 to carry the picture gradually to extinction1 the indicator accordingly registering #ajb feet at the conclusion of the operation4 ,the fairy now receives her cue and steps into the required position in the picture4 ,the operator resumes his turning1 and during the next two feet of film1 that is1 another thirty-two exposures1 he opens the stop just as gradually as he closed it1 to its former aperture1 the image upon the film thereby becoming stronger and stronger as increasing light is admitted through the lens4 ,the effect produced by this process is shown in the illustration4 ,the first picture taken after the fairy has entered is scarcely discernible2 then it becomes a slight haze in the next image1 and as the aperture is increased her form slowly materialises until at last she is quite as distinct as that of the other actor in the scene1 who meantime has retained his rigid position during the whole #fd exposures4 ,when this second series of exposures have been completed1 the film indicator registers #ajd feet1 two feet of film having been used in closing and another two feet in opening the lens aperture4 ,now if the film is cut at the point representing #ajb feet1 and this second part of the film is superimposed upon the first in such a way that the second thirty-two exposures coinciding with the opening of the diaphragm are laid upon the thirty-two exposures representing the closing of the lens aperture1 in the resultant positive the actor and the surroundings will stand out with uniform brilliancy throughout the superimposed section1 and be equal in brilliancy and distinctness to the remainder of the film1 for the simple reason that image #cc--representing the first exposure under the opening of the stop and consequently the most indistinct picture--comes over image #a in the stopping-down series of pictures1 which is1 of course1 the most brilliant picture4 ,image #b comes under image #cd1 and so on throughout the whole thirty-two pictures4 ,as the pictures grow fainter on one film they become correspondingly stronger on the other film1 with the result that when the two are overlapped and printed the sum of the two exposures produces a complete and fully-detailed picture1 the second film supplying to the first precisely the complement of its incomplete exposure1 in the case of each image4 ,but this action only affects the actor and scenery recorded upon the two sections of film4 ,the fairy1 having entered at picture #cc1 when the unstopping process was commenced1 appears at first very indistinctly1 like a small patch of mist1 the nebulous haze resolving itself into her form slowly during the successive thirty-one pictures4 ,the sum of this double exposure is represented by the third illustration1 where the fairy is to be seen slowly materialising1 the other parts of the picture under the double printing being of uniform brilliancy throughout4 ,this was the method adopted in the early days1 but it was somewhat involved1 and demanded recourse to double printing4 ,the perfection of the camera mechanism has enabled the process to be considerably simplified4 ,now the operator makes a double exposure1 with closing and then opening diaphragm upon the same length of film4 ,when the 8stop0 signal is given he observes the indication on his film register4 ,we will say it is #ajj feet1 as in the previous case4 ,the actor becomes motionless and the operator resumes his turning while closing the stop slowly1 until #ajb feet of film are registered upon the dial1 thirty-two exposures1 or two feet of film having been made during stopping down4 ,he now winds the film backwards into the upper film box until his dial registers #ajj feet once more1 the lens being capped during this operation4 ,thus he has regained the point upon his film where stopping-down commenced1 and the two feet used in this process are ready to be exposed again4 ,at this point the fairy steps into position4 ,the camera is re-started1 and while the first thirty-two exposures are being made the lens aperture is opened1 just as slowly and gradually as it was closed during the previous exposures4 ,the result is that the portions of the films which in the first instance received a diminishing volume of light now receive a compensating increasing illumination1 so that the effect upon this particular two feet of film1 so far as the figure on the left and the scenery are concerned1 is just as if they had been exposed once under a full aperture4 ,the fairy1 however1 having been photographed only during the second exposure1 appears at first very indistinctly4 ,the result of the double exposure is shown in the illustration2 and the gradual appearance of the fairy may be followed very easily4 ,the outcome is exactly the same as obtained by double printing2 but it is infinitely easier1 and far more positive in its action than the delicate process followed by ,robert ,paul in the early days--the dissolution of the emulsion from the film by chemical action4 ,exceedingly clever effects are obtainable under this double exposure process4 ,transformations from one scene to another are carried out in a manner that completely eclipse the handiwork of the stage-manager behind the footlights4 ,success depends to a great degree upon the skilfulness of the operator1 because it is imperative that the stop of the lens should be closed and opened equally1 in order that the combined exposures upon each successive image should be equal to a single exposure with a full aperture1 so as to provide a uniform intensity and brilliancy throughout all the images4 ,the magic disappearances are worked in precisely similar manner1 only in this instance the character leaves the picture at the moment the last image under the closing diaphragm has been taken4 ,the film is wound back as before to the point where the 8stop0 call was given1 and is subjected to a second exposure under an opening stop4 ,there are no limitations to the application of this form of trickery4 ,spirit forms can be produced to float in the air1 recourse to the rising and falling lens front being made in conjunction with the manipulation of the diaphragm4 ,sylphs can be materialised from evening vapours2 and articles of furniture can be transformed into human forms4 ,many of the pictures obtained in this manner are startlingly weird and magical4 ,as a matter of fact1 the manipulation of the diaphragm may be considered as one of the most useful weapons of trickery and magic in the hands of the cinematographic wizard4 ,another miracle is performed when the public is introduced to the bottom of the sea to make acquaintance with the denizens of the deep1 and the strange mermaid population4 ,the audience is convinced that the pictures have been taken in the actual surroundings1 because divers descend into the depths and they can see the air-bubbles rise from their helmets during respiration4 ,the effect is certainly very realistic1 and as the difficulties attending under-water photography are well-known1 one wonders how these pictures can be obtained4 ,they can be produced by two methods4 ,one is by using a large tank with a glazed front1 in which the properties are distributed1 while behind is a painted back-cloth to represent a submarine scene4 ,the tank is filled with water1 and fish are introduced to heighten the effect4 ,divers are employed to carry out their evolutions in the tank1 which is brilliantly lighted1 so that the sensitised ribbon in the camera disposed before the front window may be able to secure a well-defined image4 ,it is obviously impossible to introduce mermaids actually under water1 since they could not breathe there2 so for this part of the effect recourse to trickery is indispensable4 ,a narrow tank with glazed back and front is set up on the stage1 filled with water1 and a few fish4 ,the camera is brought as near as possible to this large aquarium and photographs the tank1 the pictures being slightly under-exposed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mystery ,,of 8,,the ,,siren40 ,a beautiful woman is observed to be swimming gracefully in the depths of the sea1 and the public is mystified as to how she can exist under water4 ,the tank is then removed1 and a scene depicting the floor of the sea is prepared upon the stage1 with a back-cloth of a grey neutral tint4 ,perhaps a property ship to represent a sunken wreck is set up to enhance the effect4 ,actresses made up as mermaids disport themselves upon the sea-bed1 and divers are observed to make their descent from the surface1 which in this instance is the 8flies0 of the stage4 ,the film which the operator has exposed already upon the stage tank is now exposed again before this scene1 and the commingling of the two produces a very mystifying effect when shown upon the screen4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mystery ,,of 8,,the ,,siren0 ,,revealed4 ,the camera was placed in the flies with the lens pointing downwards upon the actress moving on the floor4 ,a fascinating film of this character was made by the ,gaumont establishment under the title of 8,the ,siren40 ,a beautiful woman was observed to be swimming and diving in the watery depths with various fish as her companions4 ,her movements were so graceful and natural that it seemed impossible for them to have been produced while the actress was suspended from the 8flies0 by the aid of wires4 ,how was it done8 was an expression ,i heard on several occasions during projection in the picture palaces4 ,the solution is very simple4 ,in the first place1 a large aquarium was set upon the stage4 ,it was stocked with fishes1 which gambolled in a realistic manner1 and the tank was photographed4 ,when this exposure was completed the 8,siren0 had to be introduced4 ,the floor of the stage was cleared1 and upon it1 like a carpet1 was laid a large back-cloth of a grey neutral tint1 bearing faint designs of submarine growths1 shells1 weeds1 and so forth1 the work of the scenic artist4 ,the operator carried his camera into the flies1 and from a central point overhead set it up with the lens pointing downwards1 and focussed the flat background spread out below4 ,the actress then entered1 and lying prone upon the back-cloth1 carried out the movements necessary to simulate swimming and diving1 moving the arms and legs and writhing the body to convey the correct natural impressions of under-water movement4 ,the rehearsals completed1 the operator re-exposed the same film which had been previously exposed before the aquarium1 and which had received a faint impression thereof4 ,when the picture was projected the public was completely deceived2 for the actress moved to and fro1 in the company of fishes which darted from point to point1 apparently unperturbed by the existence of the fair feminine form in their midst4 ,in such operations as this1 however1 where a photograph has to be taken of an aquarium in the first instance1 special attention has to be devoted to the lighting arrangements1 so as to prevent the camera and the operator being reflected upon the film--since the water acts in the same manner as a mirror4 ,the audiences in picture palaces are sorely puzzled at the antics of motorists1 cyclists1 and others who1 being pursued by an infuriated crowd whose anger they have raised for some reason or other1 elude capture by turning their vehicles and running up the vertical walls of houses and buildings4 ,the methods used in the presentation of the 8,siren0 are adopted here also4 ,a cloth carrying a painted impression of the wall with its windows1 doors1 stack-pipes1 and so forth1 is laid upon the floor1 and the camera lens is pointed thereon from a position in the flies4 ,the vehicles are driven over this back-cloth1 and the film conveys the idea that they have performed the impossible feat of riding up the wall4 ,the effect is often improved by following the upward progress of the vehicle4 ,this may be accomplished in two ways4 ,either the camera is moved horizontally along a track in the flies in synchrony with the advance of the vehicle1 or else the rising and falling front of the lens is brought into use4 ,another means is to have resort to the 8stop0 action1 the camera being rigid and the back-cloth moved across the floor a certain distance between each series of exposures4 ,for the production of elaborate trick pictures an extensive assortment of properties is demanded4 ,when the episodes are accompanied by ludicrous catastrophes and smashes the public is moved to extreme mirth4 ,in many of these pictures the performers are obtained from the vaudeville stage1 being accomplished masters of knock-about1 tumblers1 cyclists1 etc4 ,suppose a chase over house-tops is shown1 accompanied by falls through the roof1 the actors and actresses tumbling from floor to floor down to the basement4 ,these pictures are prepared in sections4 ,the first scene represents the roof1 which is built up on the stage1 while a back-cloth affords a vista of chimney-pots4 ,at certain points in the roof are concealed trap-doors which1 when the first actor brings his weight on them1 collapse by the movement of the bolt or other support concealed beneath4 ,the performers fall through the opening on to a soft mattress within1 the extent of the fall being about four or five feet4 ,in the next scene members of the company in turn fall through the ceiling of the sixth floor of the building4 ,this scene is built up on the floor of the stage1 the performers being stationed out of sight in the flies4 ,the ceiling is represented by a piece of painted canvas with attached pieces of cardboard and canvas to resemble splintered woodwork and broken plaster4 ,the ceiling is intact1 but when the cue is given the leading actor jumps or falls through the painted canvas followed by a mass of dbris and dust4 ,the dbris is merely properties thrown through the opening1 while steam or smoke driven through the hole serves as dust4 ,perchance a party is dining in the room when the tumblers make their unexpected entrance through the ceiling1 and the scene undergoes a complete disturbance as a result of the interruption4 ,the next floor is reproduced in turn in the same manner upon the floor of the stage1 and so on until the players come to a dead stop in the basement1 when the cardboard and canvas dbris produced by their hurried descent falls and practically buries them4 ,the force of the latter is increased by men stationed in the flies1 who hurl the material down pell-mell from their points of vantage through the hole the tumblers have made4 ,as seen upon the screen it appears as if the house were cut in two from top to bottom1 and the audience were permitted to follow the tumblers in their descent from floor to floor2 instead of which1 as we have seen1 each floor is reproduced individually upon the stage4 ,there is no indication whatever of this piecemeal preparation1 although if the picture is followed closely it is readily apparent1 because the performers in their descent do not comply with the laws governing the momentum of a falling body4 ,the laughable incidents showing men climbing laboriously through narrow chimney flues are attributable likewise to trickery4 ,the chimney is merely a stage property1 and generally is laid flat upon the stage1 with the operator and his camera stationed in the flies1 as in the production of the 8,siren02 though1 from the public point of view1 the players appear to be crawling upwards through the narrow vertical brickwork passage1 gathering an accumulation of soot in their advance4 ,the latter is applied to their faces by the actors themselves as they move forward4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced ,,iv4--,lilliputian figures3 8,the ,little ,milliner's ,dream03 the 8one turn one picture0 movement3 how some extraordinary incidents are produced3 8,the ,ski ,runner40 ,in ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,i made some reference to early methods of producing a class of films in which the principal performers were diminutive figures scarcely six inches in height4 ,this kind of picture has never lost its hold upon the public4 ,indeed1 experience has proved that it constitutes one of the most popular subjects which it is possible to throw upon the screen1 especially when the tiny actors and actresses are introduced into a play having a well-defined plot carried to a logical conclusion4 ,i have related how ,paul obtained the effect of pigmy actors by combining the possibilities of superprinting and photographing at varying distances from the stage4 ,this method is practised nowadays in somewhat modified form4 ,the stage is made so deep that there is no need to move the camera4 ,two of the most attractive films of this description produced during recent years were 8,the ,little ,milliner's ,dream0 and 8,princess ,nicotine40 ,curiously enough1 they represent two widely divergent methods of achieving the same result1 as practised by ,french and ,american producers respectively4 ,both are associated with many features of interest in cinematographic magic4 ,in 8,the ,little ,milliner's ,dream10 a young and charming milliner's assistant is sent by her employer to deliver a creation to a customer4 ,the girl sets out with the milliner's hat-box on her arm4 ,on the way she pauses to admire the glittering array of precious stones and gewgaws in a jeweller's shop4 ,while she is gazing at the articles longingly an old beau advances1 makes himself known1 and tries to force his company upon her4 ,with a coquettish shrug of her shoulders she rebuffs him and resumes her journey1 but presently1 overcome by the heat1 she sits down upon a seat in the street to take a rest4 ,presently she falls asleep4 ,in her dreams she sees the lid of the bonnet-box open1 and from the interior steps the old gallant4 ,at first he is no taller than a coffee-pot1 but he grows until he has attained life-size proportions4 ,next1 in the space occupied by the upturned lid of the bonnet-box1 a bevy of dancing girls appear4 ,they likewise are only a few inches in height1 but they increase in size until they assume normal stature4 ,to her astonishment each dancing girl proffers the apprentice a magnificent present4 ,in an instant1 as if under the magic spell of a fairy's wand1 she finds herself attired in the rich clothes of a lady of rank1 and taking the arm of her admirer--who1 by the way1 shoulders the bonnet-box--they march off together4 ,the bonnet-box is suddenly dropped and instantaneously becomes a luxurious motor-car4 ,the apprentice passes through many startling adventures in the world of fashion and gaiety1 but the final scene reveals her still seated upon the seat1 and being roughly awakened by a gendarme from her delightful dreams4 ,the first essential in such a picture as this is a deep stage1 so as to secure the impression of distance4 ,the ,gaumont ,theatre1 from which this film emanated1 is one of the best designed and largest in the world1 and the preparation of such scenes as 8,the ,little ,milliner's ,dream0 offers them no difficulties4 ,the street scene was merely a back-cloth painted to resemble one side of the street1 with its shops1 the roadway1 and the kerb of the second pavement4 ,before this was set up an ordinary seat1 such as is provided for the convenience of pedestrians along the highway1 and it was upon this that the little milliner snatched her brief rest with the bonnet-box beside her1 and but a few feet from the camera4 ,when she fell asleep the lid of the bonnet-box was opened by means of invisible wires1 and the lid came to rest in a vertical position against the back of the seat1 the top of the side of the box being level with the back rail of the seat4 ,the inner surface of the lid was a dead black4 ,at this moment the 8stop0 call was issued4 ,while the camera lens was closed the stage hands entered1 took away the bonnet-box lid1 and removed a panel in the back-cloth of the same shape and dimensions as the bonnet-box lid1 and immediately behind it4 ,this left a hole in the back-cloth1 through which could be seen the stage behind4 ,the lens of the camera1 however1 was on a level with the top of the bonnet-box1 so that the floor of the stage behind the back-cloth could not be seen through the panel4 ,at the extreme rear of the stage another back-cloth of black velvet was hung4 ,consequently1 looking at the picture from the lens point of view1 the black velvet1 seen through the panel in the scenic back-cloth1 appeared to be the inner surface of the bonnet-box lid2 and the audience imagines that what follows takes place upon the inside of the lid1 whereas it is1 of course1 seen through the back-cloth1 and enacted upon the back or rear half of the stage4 ,the camera is started up again4 ,suddenly the diminutive figure of the old gallant is observed to rise from the interior of the bonnet-box4 ,as a matter of fact1 he is at the extreme rear edge of the stage1 against the velvet back-cloth1 but seated below the line of sight of the camera until he received his cue4 ,the little milliner in her dream turns her head as if to gaze more closely into the lid of her box--in reality she is looking through the window in the back-cloth upon the scene taking place behind her4 ,the old beau1 having risen to his feet at the extreme rear of the stage1 and six or more times as far away from the camera as is the milliner herself1 appears1 in accordance with the laws of perspective1 to be no taller than a bottle1 this peculiarity being accentuated by the distortion of the lens as in every camera4 ,the old beau lifts his hat and instantly commences to grow in size4 ,this transformation was caused by his advancing towards the hole in the back-cloth1 which1 as the distance between him and the lens decreased1 caused his stature to enlarge4 ,at last the actor advanced to the limit of his forward movement1 when his figure occupied the full depth of the opening1 or of the supposititious bonnet-box lid4 ,at this moment the camera paused to permit the actor to walk round the back-cloth1 representing the street1 and when the camera was re-started he was seen before the bonnet-box as if he had stepped out of that receptacle4 ,being as close to the camera as the milliner1 he was now brought to life-size4 ,the spectacle of the dancing girls was carried out in the same manner4 ,when the little milliner was urged to look into the lid of the bonnet-box once more1 she peered through the back-cloth window4 ,to her amazement she saw six diminutive dancing forms rise up as if from the interior of the box1 but in reality from the floor against the black background1 at the point where the beau had first appeared4 ,they danced their way to the opening to a point marked on the floor of the stage behind the scenic back-cloth1 thereby growing gradually in stature4 ,then the camera made pause to permit the girls to come round the back-cloth and to assume the required position before the milliner near the camera1 where likewise they were brought to normal size4 ,they presented their gifts to the delighted girl1 and then there was another pause on the part of the camera4 ,during this stop the milliner changed her attire for that of a lady of fashion4 ,at the same time the stage hands replaced the panel in the back-cloth1 while the original bonnet-box lid was brought in and restored to its former position4 ,when the camera began again it recorded the beau closing the lid of the box1 and while he picked it up with one hand he offered his other arm to his fair friend and escorted her along the street4 ,presently he dropped the box4 ,another 8stop0 call was given1 during which the bonnet-box was taken away by the stage hands1 and an automobile brought into position at the point where the hat-box was dropped4 ,when the camera re-started it revealed the bonnet-box converted1 like ,cinderella's pumpkin1 into an automobile4 ,entering the vehicle1 the couple drive off to the ball4 ,the process of 8stop and substitution10 which has been described already1 is carried out from time to time to present sudden transformation effects2 the audience sees only the continuity of motion as produced by joining the pieces of film together2 and they marvel at the result4 ,the film was produced very cleverly and skilfully1 and it certainly ranks as one of the masterpieces of the ,gaumont establishment4 ,another favourite artifice1 with which some truly bewildering effects can be produced1 is known as the 8stop motion10 or 8one turn one picture10 movement4 ,as may be imagined from the latter explanatory title1 it resolves itself into a pause between each picture1 instead of continuous exposure to record sixteen images per second4 ,this feature may be illustrated by reference to a popular film which appeared a short time ago1 called 8,animated ,putty40 ,a lump of this material was shown upon a table4 ,suddenly it was observed to become agitated1 and to resolve itself gradually into statues and busts of well-known people1 so cleverly wrought as to be instantly identified4 ,in a similar picture a rose was seen to detach its petals1 which became scattered over the floor2 and just as mysteriously the petals came together once more and assumed their former positions4 ,another picture shows 8,boots0 going to sleep at his task1 and the foot-wear cleaning itself while he dreams1 brushes running to and fro to remove the dust1 apply the blacking1 and to give a vigorous polishing off4 ,upon waking1 ,boots gives vent to a self-satisfied smile upon beholding the completion of his work without any effort on his part4 ,in reality this is one of the simplest of trick effects2 but it is at the same time one of the most tedious to perform4 ,the method can be best explained by taking the 8,animated ,putty0 film as an example4 ,the lump of material lies upon the table1 to be fashioned into a bust of the ,king1 of the ,american ,president1 or some other illustrious personage4 ,the camera is set up4 ,the modeller advances to the table whilst the shutter is closed and moves the clay slightly towards the desired result4 ,he then steps out of the picture1 and the camera handle is turned sufficiently to expose one picture and to cover the lens again4 ,the modeller comes forward once more and advances a little further with his work2 after which he retires from the scene1 and the second stage is recorded upon the next picture4 ,again the modeller approaches the material to mould it a further step1 and upon his retirement the third picture is taken4 ,this alternate process of shaping the putty a little at a time1 and photographing every separate movement1 is continued until the bust is completed4 ,it is essential that the progress should be very gradual1 or else the material would look as if it took shape by spasmodic jumps1 and the illusion would be destroyed4 ,some films of this character demand slighter movement between each exposure than others4 ,it depends entirely upon the subject4 ,it will be observed1 however1 that this magical effect is not produced in accordance with the generally accepted principles governing cinematography4 ,it is merely a series of snap-shots taken at certain intervals1 and could be produced just as well by a hand-camera if one had sufficient plates or film4 ,as may be supposed1 the task calls for unremitting patience and perseverance1 because it is so exasperatingly slow4 ,several hours and even days are often expended in producing a single film of this character4 ,if1 for instance1 the film measures #bjj feet in length1 no less than #c1bjj distinct operations have been carried out and photographed consecutively2 yet when such a film is thrown upon the screen at the rate of #af pictures per second1 the successive snap-shots follow one another so regularly as to convey the impression of continuous motion4 ,the same operation is practised with the rose1 the petals being torn apart a little for each successive exposure1 while to convey the effect of rolling along the table they are moved a minute distance between each exposure1 and supported from behind in the requisite position while the shutter is opened and the film exposed one picture at a time between each movement of the rose4 ,in the case of the 8,boots0 who has his work done while he sleeps1 the brushes are manipulated by invisible wires4 ,the interruption in exposure can often be detected unless the task is carried out with consummate skill1 because the movement appears to be jerky in the picture4 ,an amusing film of this type appeared some time ago1 in which cotton and wool appeared to be imbued with life4 ,the cotton arranged itself into fantastic designs upon the table1 while a stocking was knitted before the eyes of the audience by unseen hands4 ,so far as the cotton designs were concerned this was the 8one turn one picture0 movement in its simplest form1 the design being furthered little by little between each exposure4 ,with regard to the mysterious knitting1 this was achieved by a combination of the 8one turn one picture0 and the 8reverse action0 artifices4 ,while the picture was being taken the producer stood behind a table1 concealed by a black cloth somewhat after the manner practised in 8black magic40 ,what the camera actually recorded was the unravelling of the stocking stitch by stitch1 the needles being manipulated meanwhile in the opposite direction4 ,as the stocking was unravelled the wool was pulled gently through a tube extending up the producer's sleeve to his back1 where it was secured by a confederate and rolled into a ball4 ,in this way the length of wool between the needles and the ball was kept fairly taut1 as would be the case if a person were knitting4 ,each movement of the needles was photographed1 the operator setting the needles in the requisite position and then withdrawing his hands from the scene4 ,the task was continued step by step until the sock had been completely unwound1 the last stitch pulled out and the end of the cotton and the needles were shown lying on the table4 ,the film itself was driven backwards through the camera while the exposures were made1 so that when the picture was printed and thrown upon the screen the movements were reversed--the destructive action recorded by the camera became constructive movement in the projector4 ,the public first saw the loose end of the wool and the needles4 ,they observed the needles rise up1 form the first stitch1 and then watched the sock grow at an amazing speed until it was completed1 the needles moving in a perfectly natural manner to form the stitches4 ,further realism was imparted to the picture by the needles and work being jerked every now and again to release a little wool from the ball4 ,the ,americans have brought the 8one turn one picture0 movement to a high state of perfection1 and have produced some astonishing pictures as a result of its application4 ,one is introduced to a magic carpenter's shop1 where tools are manipulated without hands and where the wood springs from the floor to the bench1 is planed1 sawn1 chiselled1 and fashions itself into a box or whatever article is desired by an apparently mysterious and invisible force4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,novel ,,trick ,,effects4 ,a workshop in which tools move without hands4 ,illustration3 ,a4--,the skater approaching the factory chimney4 ,the apparently impossible is brought about in this instance by resort to a combination of the 8one turn one picture10 the 8reversal of action10 and manipulation by wires1 strings1 and threads4 ,to secure the rising of the plank from the floor to the bench the camera is stopped when this incident is reached4 ,the plank is laid on the bench and a string is attached to it4 ,the camera operator runs his film forward a certain distance1 say twenty-four inches1 which is indicated upon the dial while the lens is covered4 ,he then gives the signal1 and the stage hand1 by pulling the wire attached to the plank1 causes it to fall to the floor4 ,the operator of the camera meanwhile runs the two feet of film backwards past the lens1 thus photographing the plank falling to the floor4 ,but as he has advanced his unexposed film two feet forwards and runs it backwards during exposure1 he has reversed the motion of the falling plank1 and the first image records the plank1 not as it moves off the bench1 but as it strikes the floor1 while the other images up to the thirtieth show it in the air2 and the last exposure displays it lying flat on the bench4 ,of course1 when the film is thrown upon the screen the last phase of the action is shown first1 and the first movement is the last image1 so that the plank appears to rise from instead of falling to the floor4 ,illustration3 ,b4--,the result of the collision with the chimney4 ,illustration3 ,the ski runner disappears into space4 ,,the ,,ski ,,runner4 ,the methods adopted for the production of this novel trick film are described in the text4 ,the movements of the saw1 chisel1 and plane are carried out upon the 8one turn one picture0 principle1 the tools being moved a slight distance between each exposure4 ,in planing1 when the shaving rises after the tool has reached the end of its stroke1 a piece of thread attached to the shaving is given a sharp jerk to flick it out of the way1 simulating the natural movement of the carpenter1 who invariably1 as he draws the plane back with his right hand1 whisks the previous shaving out of the tool with his left4 ,the hammer1 chisel1 and screwdriver can be manipulated by means of threads to give the varying positions of the particular tool in the driving process1 and so on4 ,a film which appeared some months ago aroused a lively interest and speculation4 ,it depicted a mysterious banquet where viands and liquors were consumed by unseen guests4 ,the knife came suddenly into action to cut the bread1 the various dishes were served and disappeared1 while glasses of wine were filled and raised into the air by invisible hands2 toasts were given1 the glasses were tilted for the act of drinking1 and became empty4 ,the effect was somewhat uncanny1 but it afforded a striking instance of the possibilities attending the utilisation of the 8one turn one picture0 movement1 in conjunction with wires and threads4 ,each glass of wine was lifted into the air by two invisible threads1 one being placed around the stem of the glass1 while the other was connected to the bowl4 ,these threads were controlled by stage hands on the overhead bridge4 ,the glasses were lifted a slight distance between each exposure and photographed1 and when the drinking act was demanded1 while the thread attached to the bowl was held stationary1 the second1 attached to the stem1 was steadily raised1 giving the desired tilt4 ,the liquid as it escaped from the glass fell to the floor1 but its escape in this manner was not shown upon the screen1 for the simple reason that the liquid fell out and was caught in a vessel held by a stage hand while the lens of the camera was closed1 the exposure being made after the slightest quantity had fallen from the glass1 this process being repeated until the toast was drained4 ,in the early days of the art superprinting was the favourite subterfuge used by the cinematographer magician to produce strange effects2 as ,i have described already in regard to the pioneer work of ,robert ,paul4 ,the composite construction of pictures has not been abandoned by any means1 despite the advances in cinematographic magic4 ,indeed1 some of the most startling productions seen to-day are prepared in this manner1 two or even three films being used for the purpose4 ,one of the most telling recent examples of this method is evinced in the pictures of the 8ski-runner40 ,when first seen the actor is skating along a track in the usual manner4 ,he approaches a towering factory chimney2 but instead of avoiding the obstruction he crashes into it4 ,the solid mass does not bring about the skater's extinction1 but instead collapses to the ground4 ,in the last picture the demon skater is seen ski-ing through the air1 over the clouds1 into oblivion4 ,the first part of the scene was taken in the vicinity of the ,gaumont factory1 and the chimney seen in film ,a belongs to the works of the company4 ,the skater seems to strike the side of the chimney1 but as a matter of fact he glides behind it1 as might be supposed1 and the film is cut short at this point4 ,if one examines the film ,b closely it will be observed that the chimney there shown under collapse is not the same as that depicted in film ,a4 ,as a matter of fact1 the scene was changed4 ,when this film was taken in hand the producers had heard that a chimney was to be felled in a certain place by the method of cutting away the masonry base1 and supporting the structure temporarily upon wooden members1 which are afterwards burned through to raze the chimney to the ground4 ,accordingly a camera and operator were dispatched to the scene to film this interesting operation1 and a striking picture of the falling chimney was secured4 ,the combination which presented the illusion that the chimney was knocked over by the ski-runner was carried out as follows3--,a special back-cloth of a neutral grey tint was prepared for the studio stage4 ,when the ski-runner ran across the stage before the camera only the actor himself was seen in the resultant film4 ,when this film of the ski-runner was superimposed upon that showing the demolition of the chimney1 the former was seen to be forging ahead through the air after apparently knocking the structure out of his way4 ,it will be observed that the idea is so worked out that the ski-runner appears to pursue the chimney as it crashes over1 conveying the impression that he is continuously pushing the crumbling mass out of his way4 ,for the final disappearance of the skater into thin air two similar films were prepared4 ,one was exposed to a cloudy sky1 the lens being stopped down very severely to give a small aperture and an under-exposed result4 ,in the studio the skater once more rushed across the stage before the neutral-tinted background1 the lens stop in this instance being more open so as to secure a stronger image1 but when the end of his mad career was required1 the closing diaphragm was adopted4 ,the first film was superimposed on the second to print the positive1 and the result on the screen is of the ski-runner moving like a spectre through the clouds1 to disappear finally into a haze4 ,this film proved a conspicuous success owing to its novelty and realistic appearance4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced ,v4--8,princess ,nicotine0 and her remarkable caprices 8,princess ,nicotine0 ranks as one of the finest trick films ever made in the ,united ,states1 and was the handiwork of two producers who rank as the leading ,american exponents of this strange craft--,messrs4 ,j4 ,stuart ,blackton and ,albert ,s4 ,smith4 ,in its production1 all the subterfuges known to the cinematographic trick art were pressed into service1 rendering it completely mystifying from beginning to end4 ,some years ago these two artists were responsible for a trick-film1 8,the ,haunted ,hotel10 which was so puzzling and so cleverly worked out that it was regarded as a masterpiece of cinematographic chicanery4 ,it was a prodigious success2 some idea of its widespread popularity may be gathered from the fact that over #aej copies of the subject were disposed of in ,europe alone1 while its total sales were well over #djj copies2 for its success in the land of its origin was quite as marked as that which it scored in the ,old ,world4 ,for a long time it ranked as the finest trick-film the ,united ,states had produced1 and it precipitated a 8boom0 in 8haunted0 subjects4 ,the success of that film1 however1 threatens to be surpassed by 8,princess ,nicotine10 which1 in addition to being a distinct novelty1 is dainty in its conception1 fascinating in its theme1 and finished in its production4 ,the story of the play may be briefly related4 ,the scene opens with a young bachelor reclining in an armchair at a table4 ,before him are scattered the indispensable adjuncts to a bachelor's comfort--a box of cigars1 a tobacco-box1 a corncob pipe1 a box of matches1 a square white bottle standing upon the cigar-box1 a bottle of whisky and a syphon of soda-water4 ,in addition1 there is a large1 round reading-glass with a handle4 ,the bachelor fills his pipe1 lights it1 leans back and dozes4 ,suddenly the lid of the tobacco-box is opened and a small fairy1 ,princess ,nicotine1 jumps out and falls over the pipe1 which arrests her attention and gives her a brilliant idea4 ,laughingly she returns to the tobacco-box and helps out a second and smaller sprite1 whom she leads to the pipe and unfolds her scheme4 ,the fairies are no larger than the man's hand1 and the contrast between their diminutive figures and the bachelor is decidedly grotesque4 ,at first sight one might think the two tiny forms were dolls1 but their movements are so graceful1 steady1 and natural that this idea is quickly abandoned4 ,the two wee plotters pull out the tobacco1 and the smaller fairy jumps into the bowl and is buried beneath a layer of the shredded weed1 which is pushed in by ,princess ,nicotine1 who afterwards hides in the tobacco-box4 ,the bachelor wakes up1 and after yawning turns to his pipe once more4 ,to his amazement the tobacco will not light1 and he looks at it closely4 ,he starts in amazement and picks up the hand-magnifying glass to examine the contents4 ,he reveals what he sees to the public1 for the magnifying-glass is held up as it were before the spectators1 who see the elfish face of the fairy peeping from the tobacco and enveloped in wreaths of smoke4 ,the startled bachelor then inverts the pipe and raps out the contents in true smoker's fashion upon the table1 emptying the fairy in the process4 ,she struggles to her feet from the tobacco dbris1 and rushes to the tobacco-box1 into which she jumps1 pulling the lid down after her4 ,princess ,nicotine thrusts her arm out of the box1 which the bachelor grasps1 but instead of withdrawing the fairy1 he seizes a rose1 which he proceeds to smell2 but he is seized with a violent fit of coughing caused by a cloud of smoke which issues from the flower4 ,he examines the rose through the magnifying glass1 this view as it appears to him being held before the audience as before1 so that it sees the form of the fairy embedded among the petals1 smoking a cigarette4 ,the man drops the rose and rushes out of the room4 ,the rose falls to pieces gradually1 the petals accumulating on the table and turning into a cigar4 ,the bachelor re-enters1 picks up the cigar1 lights it1 the smoke rises and whirls round rapidly1 and presently rushes into the white bottle4 ,startled at the extraordinary action of the smoke1 the bachelor picks up the bottle1 examines it and sees the fairy imprisoned within and vainly endeavouring to escape4 ,the man breaks the bottle1 and the fairy is seen standing on the tobacco-box4 ,she picks up a packet of cigarettes1 proffers one to the bachelor1 and dances before him on the table4 ,the bachelor commences to tease ,princess ,nicotine4 ,he lights a match and holds it towards her4 ,she shrinks from it in fear1 and in revenge she approaches the match-box1 extracts the matches1 stacks them in a pile1 and lights them4 ,the magnifying-glass is held up as before1 and the audience sees the pile of matches burning like a big bonfire4 ,the last scene shows the man1 somewhat terrified at the blazing pile on the table1 picking up the soda-syphon and endeavouring to quench the outbreak1 at the same time deluging himself in the process4 ,through the kindness of ,messrs4 ,blackton and ,smith ,i am able to explain how this apparently miraculous picture is produced1 and the various tricks employed4 ,in describing the 8,little ,milliner's ,dream0 ,i have shown how the appearance of a fairy can be produced1 by placing the performers fulfilling the rle at the very back of the stage1 a long distance from the camera1 whereas the principal actor is caused to carry through his part but a few feet away from the lens4 ,the same effect can be produced by the aid of a mirror placed at the back of the scene2 when the players fulfilling the rles of fairies enact their parts on a stage placed beside the camera1 the film records simply their reflection in the mirror1 and the impression of extremely small stature is conveyed4 ,by pressing the mirror into service a great saving in stage space is gained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,how ,,the ,,stage ,,was ,,set ,,for ,,taking ,,the ,,trick ,,film 8,,princess ,,nicotine40 ,two stages are required for the effect3 the set stage on which the scene is built up1 and on which the bachelor figures1 and a temporary stage placed beside the camera1 whereon the fairies carry through their parts4 ,the diagram1 ,fig4 #ah1 shows the setting of the stage4 ,the mirror is placed some distance behind the back-cloth of the stage scene1 immediately behind a curtained window1 which is really an opening in the back-cloth4 ,as the action takes place at night all is darkness outside the window4 ,the lens is exactly flush with the top of the table in the scene1 so that when the reflections of the fairies are caught they appear to be moving upon the top of the table4 ,the mirror at the back of the stage is so disposed as to appear to be the glass in the window of the back-cloth behind the actor1 and is arranged so skilfully as to betray no evidence of its existence4 ,the stage set up beside the camera is of such dimensions that it keeps the actresses taking the parts of the two fairies within the limits of the centre of the table2 while its floor is marked accurately for other purposes1 which will be described later4 ,if the principle adopted for presenting the diminutive players in 8,the ,little ,milliner's ,dream0 had been followed in this instance instead of using a mirror1 the fairies would have had to carry out their work at a point equal to twice the distance between the camera and the mirror to present the same effect4 ,it may be pointed out1 in passing1 that during the whole play the actor fulfilling the part of the bachelor sees nothing upon the table in front of him beyond the articles placed there for his own comfort4 ,illustration3 ,,princess ,,nicotine--,a ,,dainty ,,trick ,,film4 ,this subject1 produced by the ,vitagraph ,company of ,america1 has proved to be one of the most popularly successful subjects of this description seen during recent years4 ,the rle of ,princess ,nicotine was fulfilled by an actress of average height1 while her companion was a little girl of about twelve years of age4 ,in addition1 certain properties were required1 all of which were enlarged facsimiles of objects in daily use4 ,these comprised a cigar-box of huge dimensions capable of permitting the fairies to stand up-right within it2 a huge corn-cob pipe1 the bowl of which was as big as a barrel2 a property match-box containing matches measuring about thirty inches in length1 with paper rolled round one end to convey the impression of phosphorus heads2 a property packet of cigarettes nearly six feet in height1 containing cigarettes thirty-six inches long formed of rolls of paper stuffed with straw1 and more straw to represent the tobacco4 ,these properties had to be prepared carefully to scale1 while the actresses themselves had to be accomplished performers4 ,the play demanded searching rehearsals1 as in a trick picture of this character the slightest slip in the acting destroys the illusion4 ,illustration3 ,the fairy1 buried in the heart of the rose1 smoking a cigarette4 ,the blossom is a large paper property flower4 ,illustration3 ,,princess ,,nicotine4 ,the diminutive form of the fairy on the table4 ,the bachelor1 although astonished1 in reality sees nothing4 ,the properties were used on the second stage beside the camera operator1 and when reflected in the mirror they appeared no larger than the smoker's companions lying upon the table4 ,behind the fairies' stage a back-cloth of black canvas was stretched1 so that all their movements were against a black background1 and this served to sustain the impression of darkness behind the back-cloth window of the scene1 beyond the window in which the mirror was placed4 ,in addition to these properties stage hands were required at various intervals to complete certain operations1 but were concealed out of the sight of the lens of the camera4 ,their tasks also will be described in due course4 ,in the opening scene the bachelor uses his own materials lying upon the table4 ,the camera stops1 and in the interval their place is taken by the properties1 which are placed upon the second stage to produce a reflection in the mirror4 ,when the fairy appears to jump out of the bachelor's cigar-box on the table she actually steps from the property cigar-box on the second stage1 the lid of which is opened by means of a thread pulled by a stage hand concealed behind4 ,the antics of the fairies1 which appear to take place on the table before the bachelor1 are carried out upon the second stage1 beside the camera1 the smaller fairy climbing into the property pipe4 ,when the bachelor wakes up and tries to light his pipe the fairy stage properties are removed from the fairy stage1 and those of the bachelor replaced upon the table4 ,accordingly1 the audience see him vainly endeavouring to light his own pipe1 which finally he examines with the magnifying-glass4 ,when the scene revealed to the smoker is flashed to the public on the screen in such a way that the audience appear to be looking through the magnifying-glass1 they are not looking at the bachelor's pipe1 but at the property one4 ,to produce the effect of magnification the second stage is photographed directly from a short distance instead of by means of the reflection in the mirror4 ,the smoke curling lazily about the smaller fairy and issuing from the pipe is produced by steam1 there being a tube carried beneath the table and connected to the bottom of the bowl of the property pipe4 ,when the scene is flashed back once more1 and the bachelor is again seen seated at his table1 photographing is resumed of the mirror's reflected image4 ,the second stage is cleared again1 and we see the man empty the ashes of his pipe upon the table4 ,the dbris containing the fairy is again thrown upon the screen in an enlarged form1 as if through the magnifying-glass2 that is to say1 the second stage and its properties are being photographed once more to show the little lady laughing and running among the smoking1 half-burnt tobacco4 ,the tobacco is straw and the smoke is steam4 ,the scene reverts to the table showing the man4 ,by reflection the fairy is observed to jump into her property cigar-box1 leaving an arm protruding4 ,this is a property arm built to scale in the same manner as all the other properties used on the fairies' stage1 and when the man seizes it1 in reality he grasps the stem of a paper property rose of natural size protruding from the cigar-box standing on his own table4 ,he turns the rose over to smell it1 but beneath the table is a stage hand1 who puffs a stream of smoke through a flexible pipe connected to the stalk of the rose which the bachelor is holding2 the smoke provokes a fit of sneezing and coughing1 and the bachelor has recourse to his magnifying-glass to examine the rose4 ,again the second stage is brought into play1 a large property rose lying thereon1 revealing the head of the fairy within smoking a cigarette4 ,every time the audience is permitted1 as it were1 to see what the bachelor discovers beneath his magnifying-glass the second stage is photographed direct1 the camera being placed about eight feet away4 ,the fact that the properties used are of large dimensions does not strike the public1 as they put themselves in the position of the bachelor at the table and look through the magnifying-glass at the articles lying upon the table1 which naturally would undergo tremendous magnification4 ,this 8flashing0 to and fro1 as it is called1 is so cleverly accomplished that the public does not realise the fact that it is being deceived4 ,everything that the bachelor handles on the table is of natural size2 every duplicate article which the audience sees through the magnifying-glass belongs to the large-sized properties upon the second stage4 ,in the next scene the bachelor is seen to drop his rose and flee from the room4 ,the rose instantly falls gradually to pieces1 petal by petal1 each of which runs across the table to roll into and form a cigar4 ,to produce this effect recourse has to be made to the 8one turn one picture0 movement described in the previous chapter4 ,each petal is displaced by hand and moved a slight distance by the stage-manager between each exposure4 ,this destruction of the rose and fabrication of the cigar from the petals occupies hours1 but it passes across the screen in the course of a few seconds4 ,when this strange act is completed1 and while the camera is not working1 a real cigar is substituted on the table for that apparently made from the rose4 ,when the bachelor returns he picks it up and lights it4 ,thenceforward various tricks1 the principle of all of which has been described already1 are practised in rapid succession4 ,for instance1 the bachelor as he puffs the smoke into the air is astonished to see it whirling rapidly1 instead of curling slowly in the usual way4 ,the film is manipulated to produce this effect1 as explained in ,chapter ,,xx4 ,the actor retains a fixed position1 puffing while the operator runs a few feet of film to record the smoke4 ,after development several images on the film--perhaps fifty per cent4 of the movement obtained--are cut out1 and thereby the smoke is accelerated in its motion so as to become a whirl upon the positive4 ,while smoking the bachelor is somewhat astonished to see the smoke disobey natural laws by rushing into the square bottle beside him4 ,this illusion is produced by reversal of motion4 ,the operator placed the cap upon the lens and ran the film forward a certain distance1 observing the length of its travel on the measuring device4 ,the camera action was reversed1 and the film run backwards the length of the unexposed section4 ,the smoke in the bottle was supplied from beneath the table1 there being a hole in the base connected to a pipe1 through which steam was driven4 ,naturally the steam flows from the mouth of the bottle1 but by turning the film backwards the smoke is made to appear to rush into the bottle4 ,when this incident has been recorded the lens is capped1 the film run forward the distance it was reversed1 and everything is ready for the next episode4 ,the bachelor1 somewhat puzzled by the behaviour of the smoke1 picks up the bottle and looks at it4 ,to his astonishment he sees the fairy within dancing and endeavouring to escape4 ,he picks up his magnifying-glass and examines it closely1 and the bottle containing the girl1 as seen through the glass1 is seen by the audience4 ,the illusion is produced by double exposure1 a process fully described already4 ,the bottle was stood against a dark background and photographed4 ,then the reflected image of the fairy was photographed upon the same film4 ,the stage upon which she acted was marked out1 and she had to keep within these limits while making her assumed efforts to escape4 ,thus the whole of her movements are brought within the area of the image of the bottle already secured upon the film1 so that when the latter is developed she appears to be imprisoned within the bottle4 ,if she should step outside the limits during this incident1 the reflection would be shown outside the bottle and the illusion would be lost4 ,illustration3 ,the fairy imprisoned in the bottle4 ,this effect is obtained by double exposure4 ,illustration3 ,,princess ,,nicotine4 ,the fairy1 after coquetting with the bachelor1 is driven away by the smoke from his cigarette4 ,the smoke effect is produced with steam4 ,the man breaks the bottle with a hammer1 and the released fairy is seen standing upon the cigar-box4 ,the 8stop motion0 has been requisitioned to produce this effect1 the camera being stopped when the bottle is broken to enable the fairy to assume her position upon the property cigar-box on the second stage1 the box and bottle on the table in the meantime having been removed4 ,gratified at her release1 the fairy stoops down and draws out a packet of cigarettes--the property package concealed behind her property cigar-box on the second stage--and withdrawing one of the cigarettes she offers it to the bachelor4 ,although the cigarette she holds is three feet long1 the reflection in the mirror representing her standing apparently on the table1 brings the cigarette down to the natural size4 ,the bachelor holds out his hand to receive it1 and at this point the 8stop0 is called to enable the bachelor to place a real cigarette in the position of the property one1 the stage-manager informing the actor when the real article covers the reflection1 because the actor himself can see nothing4 ,the property cigarette is withdrawn1 and the camera resumes4 ,the bachelor places the cigarette in his mouth1 and as the audience cannot detect the 8stop0 it appears as if he had taken the cigarette from the fairy4 ,illustration3 ,enraged1 the fairy proceeds to build a bonfire with matches4 ,the property matches are used for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,princess ,,nicotine4 ,the fairy1 her accomplice1 and properties1 which are enlarged reproductions of the actual articles4 ,the smoker lights the cigarette and takes a fiendish delight in blowing the smoke at his diminutive companion1 meanwhile coquetting with her4 ,the little lady resents the smoke2 and as the bachelor again takes up the magnifying-glass the public apparently looks through it at her plight4 ,the fairy is surrounded with cigarette smoke1 coughing and sneezing and shaking her fist furiously at the bachelor1 who is out of the picture1 because in this instance1 as before1 the actual scene is photographed direct1 and not its reflection in the mirror4 ,the magnifying-glass is laid down and the audience sees the bachelor strike a match1 from which his tiny visitor shrinks in fear4 ,the man laughs heartily at her discomfiture4 ,the fairy is bent upon revenge1 and steals stealthily towards the match-box4 ,the bachelor follows the fairy's operations through the magnifying-glass1 and the scene is flashed to the spectators4 ,they see the infuriated fairy tearing out the matches and stacking them into a pile4 ,of course she is handling the property matches1 which1 as ,i have already said1 are good-sized sticks4 ,she strikes a match and fires the pile upon her stage4 ,the scene is flashed back to the table1 but in the meantime the real matches have been taken out of the smoker's box and arranged in a pile1 which is burning upon the table1 so that they appear to have been fired by the fairy4 ,the bachelor picks up the syphon of soda-water and directs a stream upon the burning mass of matches4 ,a final glimpse of the fairy is given through the magnifying-glass as a stream of water1 this time from a hose1 plays upon the blazing property pile1 and she falls over and disappears4 ,the preparation of a film of this character involves the utmost care in stage management1 so that there may be no disconcerting interruptions in the continuity of the action4 ,the greatest difficulty is to obtain exact overlapping of the reflected and the real articles upon the bachelor's table2 moreover1 as the actor cannot see anything1 but has to act to an imaginary diminutive person on the table1 his every action has to be guided by the producer4 ,the actresses must be faultless in their movements4 ,a film of this description requires days to prepare1 especially since it entails resort almost to every subterfuge known to trick cinematography4 ,it will be observed that the work resolves itself into two essential parts--the photographing of the bachelor in his sitting-room when in company with the fairies1 as shown by the mirror reflections1 and the photographing of the fairies and their properties4 ,whenever the latter have to be taken1 the idea of looking through the magnifying-glass is adopted1 and is artfully conveyed by the circular mask of the picture4 ,the magnification explains the apparently abnormal proportions of the articles used2 but the public do not realise them as properties because they have been watching the little ladies on the table4 ,naturally1 when the magnifying-glass is turned upon them1 the audience thinks that the fairies and their attributes have been enlarged proportionately1 whereas1 as a matter of fact1 they are not enlarged at all1 but are photographed direct from a distance of only a few feet4 ,in such a film as this the producer1 having sketched out the work and arranged the scenes1 photographs all the incidents pertaining to the reflection one after the other1 and subsequently photographs the views apparently taken through the magnifying-glass upon either the same or another stage4 ,the trick effects1 such as the conversion of the rose into the cigar and so forth1 are taken at other times4 ,when the numerous strips of film are developed the various sections are sorted out and placed in rotation1 to be connected up to form one continuous subject showing the natural progress of the play4 ,such is the story of the production of one of the prettiest and apparently most miraculous trick-films that has ever been seen4 ,it should be said that such charming and mystifying productions as 8,princess ,nicotine0 appear only at very long intervals1 but their rarity is compensated fully by their fascination and novelty1 which1 it may be pointed out1 is a salient feature of the productions of the ,vitagraph ,company in this particular field4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,trick ,,pictures ,,and ,,how ,,they ,,are ,,produced ,,vi4--,some ,unusual and ,novel ,effects ,at times a trick picture cannot possibly be produced by any of the methods ,i have so far described4 ,accordingly1 the producer has to rely upon his own ingenuity and inventiveness to cope with an unusual situation or effect4 ,some years ago an extraordinary film was produced by ,mr4 ,james ,williamson which created no little astonishment4 ,it was entitled 8,a ,big ,swallow10 and was decidedly startling in its effect4 ,it depicted a man to whom the sight of a cinematographer acted as a red rag to a bull4 ,on this occasion he was goaded to such desperation that he advanced towards the camera with open mouth4 ,upon reaching it he gave a terrific bite1 and swallowed the whole apparatus and operator1 the final scenes showing him retracing his footsteps apparently enjoying his strange meal1 and satisfied that he had disposed of one cinematographic fiend at least4 ,curiously enough1 although the idea adopted in this instance offers illimitable possibilities1 it apparently has never been exploited since4 ,this particular film never failed to arouse the enthusiasm of the public1 and there was considerable speculation upon all sides as to how it was carried out4 ,through the courtesy of ,mr4 ,williamson ,i am enabled to unravel the mystery4 ,it is well known by amateur photographers that when a person is focussed a certain distance from the camera1 if he steps towards the instrument the focus is immediately upset4 ,when the individual is taken in motion1 and in such a way that he comes right up to the lens1 this difficulty is enhanced4 ,it is impossible to keep adjusting the focus of a cinematograph camera while the subject is advancing1 because the focussing tube is obstructed by the passing of the film through the gate4 ,accordingly1 ,mr4 ,williamson resorted to a combination of the cinematograph with the racking bellows of the ordinary camera4 ,the latter1 of special design1 was attached to the front of the cinematograph instrument1 the bellows attachment carrying the lens4 ,the camera was set up1 and the distance between the apparatus and the actor was measured and marked off upon the ground4 ,observations were made to ascertain at what points the actor in advancing should be re-focussed1 and these points were indicated upon the ground4 ,the camera bellows was then racked out until the figure was focussed sharply once more1 and this point was indicated upon the base-board of the bellows4 ,the figure then advanced still closer1 until a similar result was observed1 when the bellows was racked out a little farther1 focussed1 and a second mark was placed on the base-board corresponding to that on the ground4 ,the process was continued until the figure had advanced right up to the camera4 ,the picture had to be taken under the 8stop motion0 principle4 ,at the word 8,go60 the actor advanced to the first mark1 where he stood stock-still1 while the camera bellows was racked to the point indicating the correct focus4 ,the second picture was taken under the same conditions1 and so on1 until the actor's face almost touched the lens of the outstretched bellows4 ,in the first photo the actor was seen at full length1 with the lens set in a horizontal line with his mouth4 ,as he approached the camera1 less and less of the lower part of his body was to be seen in each successive picture4 ,presently only his head was recorded2 then nothing but the open mouth and teeth2 and at last1 when he almost touched the lens1 nothing but a black cavity was revealed upon the film4 ,the actual swallowing operation had now to be carried out4 ,for this purpose a large window opening into a darkened room was required4 ,the window was covered with dead-black material1 leaving only the opening4 ,the camera was set upon a stage1 and the window cavity focussed in such a way that the opening occupied the whole of the picture4 ,on the inside of the building a thick mattress was placed with stage hands in readiness4 ,the camera and operator were set up before this cavity as if photographing the approaching irate individual1 and were photographed by a second camera4 ,this was intended to represent the former scene from the moment where the man's mouth only was visible upon the picture in the form of a black space1 and for which the opened window sufficed4 ,at the critical moment the camera was pushed gently over through the window opening1 and immediately afterwards the operator dived into the chasm1 the last sign of him being his upturned feet as he fell downwards head first into the interior through the window1 to alight upon the mattress placed below to receive him4 ,when he had disappeared in this manner the third scene had to be taken4 ,this represented the actor stepping back from the camera after he had devoured his antagonist4 ,when he retreated to the mark on the ground nearest to the camera1 the bellows was racked in to its corresponding mark on the base2 then the second backward step was made by the actor to the next mark on the ground while the bellows was racked back to the next mark1 this succession of stop-motions being in the reverse direction to the advance4 ,as the actor retreated1 his teeth were seen to close with a snap1 and the look on his face as it came into view revealed intense satisfaction with his strange feast4 ,retreat was carried out in this series of steps until the actor had regained his original position4 ,in this film the difficulty of keeping an advancing and retreating figure in focus was solved very ingeniously2 and when the pictures were projected upon the screen the illusion was perfect1 not the slightest sign of a stop between the exposures being detected4 ,as a matter of fact1 the advance and retreat series of pictures were produced at one time1 the disappearance of the camera and operator being taken later2 and upon the development of the negatives1 the last episode was introduced between the other two at the correct point4 ,as the area of the open mouth when close to the lens more than covered the sensitised picture1 the opening in the blackened window as it appeared upon the screen gave no intimation as to the manner in which an ordinary individual contrived to swallow a camera1 tripod1 and operator at one gulp4 ,during a recent ,general ,election infinite amusement was provoked by the display upon the public screens1 which appear to have become an inseparable feature of such political events1 of a film depicting 8,the ,dissolution of the ,government40 ,the dissolution was complete in the fullest sense of the word4 ,a picture--a conventional portrait--of one of the members of the ,cabinet was thrown upon the screen4 ,slowly it was observed to undergo a strange and ludicrous transformation4 ,an eye slipped down into the collar1 the chin fell away1 the nose was lengthened abnormally1 and the forehead narrowed to nothing4 ,the conditions presented were the most extraordinary to conceive1 and the manner in which the features melted into oblivion leaving a transparent surface1 or only a series of indecipherable streaks1 aroused indescribable merriment in the crowd4 ,it is certain that no 8election0 film ever has proved such a diversion as this trick picture4 ,the idea was worked out by ,mr4 ,f4 ,percy ,smith4 ,like many other displays of cinematographic magic1 its success was due to its simplicity4 ,every amateur photographer in his earliest days has endeavoured to force the drying of a glass plate after development by placing it before the fire4 ,invariably the effort ends in disaster4 ,the gelatine melts and causes the emulsion to run all over the plate1 producing grotesque results4 ,in order to produce this bizarre film a primitive apparatus was contrived1 consisting of a small tank the back and front of which were cut out to admit pieces of glass4 ,this tank was filled with water and placed upon an ordinary spirit stove4 ,the cinematograph camera was placed in front1 and at the rear a powerful electric light was arranged in such a manner that the illumination was diffused equally over the rear glazed part of the tank4 ,a transparency portrait of the politician was then copied upon a small glass dry photographic plate1 developed and fixed4 ,it was then suspended in the small tank between the camera lens and the electric light1 so that the illuminating rays passed through it1 throwing the features in the picture up brilliantly4 ,the water was heated by the spirit lamp beneath1 the rise in the temperature being followed closely with a thermometer2 and when the requisite degree of heat was obtained1 the features upon the transparent plate1 owing to the melting of the gelatine emulsion1 commenced to slip and slide about over the glass surface1 and were caught in the act by the camera4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dissolution ,,of ,,the ,,government4 ,one of the most mystifying and amusing trick films ever produced4 ,although the process appears absurdly simple1 considerable time had to be expended upon the subject to secure the most grotesque results4 ,one portrait frequently had to be prepared and boiled in this manner six or more times before a sufficiently ludicrous effect was secured4 ,owing to the capriciousness of the gelatine emulsion1 occasionally the whole coating would slip bodily off its glass support4 ,the temperature of the water had to be judged to a nicety1 and suitable arrangements had to be made to prevent the boiling water from marring the photographic effect upon the celluloid film by the interposition of bubbles4 ,our illustration shows a member of the ,government under photographic dissolution in this manner4 ,the treatment has almost infinite possibilities1 for no two plates are affected alike4 ,this film appealed to the ,american taste4 ,after the ,british ,government had been dissolved in this manner1 a second film had to be prepared1 in response to the demand from the ,united ,states1 dealing with the dissolution of the ,american ,government at the time of the last ,presidential ,election1 the portraits subjected to this drastic and peculiar treatment being those of members of the ,united ,states ,cabinet4 ,this film created just as great hilarity in the ,united ,states as attended its exhibition in this country4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 ,c4 ,armstrong4 ,,the ,,latest ,,craze ,,in ,,trick ,,cinematography4 ,silhouettes with models4 ,during the past two years the silhouette trick film has come to the front owing to the novelty of the fundamental theme and the successful combination of humour with mystery4 ,we all know the old shadowgraph play1 wherein the actors carry through their parts behind a white sheet before a powerful light1 which casts their shadows upon the screen4 ,the idea is now applied to cinematography4 ,one or two films of this character made their appearance some time ago from foreign sources1 but it has been left to an ,english experimenter1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,armstrong1 to reduce this ingenious trick subject to an exact science4 ,in an ,american attempt in this direction1 living actors were used1 but the outcome was scarcely happy1 inasmuch as the trick effects were very limited1 being confined mostly to weird contrasts in the sizes of the figures thrown upon the screen1 arising from the proximity of the actor to the light4 ,if he stood near the illuminant his stature was that of an immense giant1 while if he enacted his rle near the screen1 his shadow was just life-size4 ,mr4 ,armstrong has improved upon this method by resorting to the use of models1 constructed of flat material1 with jointed limbs1 like dolls1 in order to secure ludicrous poses and situations and impossible statures4 ,seeing that only silhouette figures are required1 it seems a very simple and easy matter to fashion the models and move them through their parts to obtain the desired effect2 but such is far from being the case4 ,both preparation and manipulation demand unremitting care and patience4 ,it may be pointed out at once that exclusive use has to be made of 8the one turn one picture0 movement1 the models being shifted a small fraction of an inch between each exposure4 ,when one has a group of figures to move in this manner1 the work is exceedingly tedious1 weeks often being spent upon the production of a single film4 ,when ,mr4 ,armstrong embarked upon this enterprise he concluded that the work could be accomplished without any great effort1 but he was soon disillusioned4 ,moreover1 he found1 to his dismay1 that in order to produce really striking trick effects1 combined with complex movements1 perfect in every detail1 it was not only the construction of the models which presented many difficulties and required great mechanical skill1 but that the most intricate part of the work1 involving a vast amount of patience and extremely delicate manipulation1 proved to be the actual taking of the negatives4 ,innumerable failures attended the first attempts4 ,it was only after months of practice1 and after he had devised numerous special accessories1 that ,mr4 ,armstrong gradually brought his methods to perfection4 ,the outcome of his perseverance was seen at the ,palace ,theatre1 ,london4 ,the film was entitled 8,the ,clown and his ,donkey10 and it provoked the audience to unrestrained mirth4 ,such work not only demands the conception of a suitable subject1 its adaptation to technical requirements1 and the preparation of the negatives to express humour and produce movements portraying distinct traits of character and temper2 but1 as ,i have said1 the construction of the models presents singular difficulty1 in view of the complexity of the movements4 ,it is indispensable that the person who takes the negatives should also construct the models1 the mechanical peculiarities of which must be understood to a nicety4 ,the supplementary devices necessitated by the work seem to be without limit2 and to overcome the constantly recurring technical obstacles1 it is essential that the operator should be endowed with quite exceptional mechanical resourcefulness2 otherwise he will be baulked time after time4 ,frequently he will find himself faced with a difficulty1 successful extrication from which1 without compromising the subject upon which he is working1 will tax his ingenuity to the last degree4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 ,c4 ,armstrong4 ,,the ,,possibilities ,,of ,,trick ,,silhouette ,,cinematography4 #a4 ,a quaint advertisement film4 #b4 ,mr4 ,asquith in cartoon4 #c4 ,a novel curtain idea4 ,the most lucrative field for silhouette trick cinematography should lie in its application to the production of animated advertisements and caricatures2 for the idea possesses the indispensable attribute of novelty1 which is the mainspring of commercial success4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 ,r4 ,w4 ,paul4 ,,the ,,human ,,butterfly3 ,,how ,,are ,,the ,,effects ,,obtained8 ,the search for novelty in trick cinematography is very keen4 ,this illustrates a new idea which so far has never been exploited4 ,see page #bfc4 ,as for caricature1 despite the promising look of the field1 there are certain practical obstacles to success3 first1 the time occupied in production1 and second1 a hostility on the part of the theatres to political films of a party character--an attitude easily explainable1 as it is the aim of such establishments to appeal to one and all4 ,we give a few illustrations showing1 in caricature1 ,mr4 ,asquith speaking4 ,the various attitudes clearly show the wonderful possibilities of silhouette trickery1 and also demonstrate strikingly what can be done by a skilful operator with finely executed models4 ,the ones in the illustration are made of metal4 ,in regard to advertising1 the innovation is unquestionably of real importance1 and ,i am told that use has been made of it with conspicuous success by a prominent ,european cigarette manufacturing company4 ,this concern acquired a film measuring #cjj feet in length1 which figured continuously in the programmes of the picture palaces4 ,it was most ingeniously conceived and worked out1 the actors being a large burly figure endowed with a movable nose1 which changed from snub to aquiline1 a baby boy1 and a chimpanzee1 all of which characters are shown in the illustration4 ,the movements were carried out with perfect realism4 ,the burly figure is at one side of the stage1 while the words1 8,the ,best ,cigarette is----0 appears at the top of the picture4 ,the chimpanzee and the baby come forward from opposite sides1 each picks up a rod from the ground1 by means of which the letters forming the name of the firm are jerked up alternately4 ,they then drop the rods2 a box comes flying along1 and is caught by the monkey1 who tenders it to the baby4 ,the latter takes out a cigarette1 which he throws across the stage straight into the burly figure's mouth2 he then does a somersault across the monkey's back1 steps on to one of the hands of the large figure1 and after he is raised to the requisite height1 the baby produces a match and lights the cigarette4 ,the burly man puffs away1 demonstrating his satisfaction with the quality of the cigarette by facial contortions4 ,in the meantime the baby has descended1 and the large figure having lowered the hand holding the cigarette leisurely1 the baby seizes it1 and1 placing it in his mouth1 sends forth a big puff of smoke4 ,the effect of this absolutely novel advertisement seems to have been extraordinary in ,germany4 ,one company after another is being formed in that country1 systematising publicity in the picture halls1 affiliating a number of them under contracts involving sole rights for showing advertising films on terms of payment according to the length of film shown4 ,the halls seem1 naturally1 to prefer humorous and trick films to sober industrial subjects4 ,things seem to move more slowly in this country4 ,many halls would no doubt welcome good trick advertising films1 which would yield them an additional substantial income1 and at the same time would amuse and mystify their audiences4 ,finally1 we would refer to the excellent purposes to which this invention is being applied in the matter of announcement films1 to replace the conventional lantern slides4 ,a typical subject of this description1 8,ta-,ta1 ,come ,again10 is illustrated4 ,the actors comprise a baby elephant1 a jackdaw1 a chimpanzee1 and a tiny monkey4 ,the elephant and jackdaw alternately draw letters from a box and throw them into the air to form the title4 ,the last letter1 ,n1 while being slowly raised into position by the elephant1 is snatched up by the jackdaw1 who flies away to set it in position4 ,the tiny monkey then appears1 carrying an exclamation sign1 which he balances on the tip of one of his feet1 and finally tosses into its place4 ,he then steps on to the tip of the elephant's tail4 ,the chimpanzee now advances1 seizes the elephant by the trunk1 and pulls him sliding off the stage4 ,silhouette trick films1 the production of which has become the speciality of this manufacturer1 lend themselves to vast development4 ,i have seen some subjects produced by ,european and ,american firms which represent possibly the high-water mark of this form of magic cinematography4 ,but the enterprise has one distinct disadvantage4 ,the preparation of the films is slow1 and the process is unavoidably expensive4 ,novelty in trick cinematography1 which is essential to popular success1 is difficult to hit upon4 ,some years ago ,mr4 ,robert ,paul experimented with a new idea1 the result of which is shown in the illustration4 ,the strange poses of the actor will occasion interest and speculation as to how they were obtained4 ,the camera1 while the exposures were being made1 was revolved1 the actor on the stage meanwhile maintaining his feet4 ,the resultant pictures conveyed the impression that the subject photographed was rolling over and over1 and flying through the air4 ,this idea does not appear to have been exploited1 although it should offer opportunities to produce some highly bewildering effects4 ,time and cost are the most adverse factors in this ramification of moving pictures4 ,the market could absorb four times the number of trick subjects that are produced at present1 so long as they were comparable with 8,the ,little ,milliner's ,dream0 and 8,princess ,nicotine40 ,but their popularity would not always compensate the producer for the time and expense of the preparation4 ,under the present conditions governing the manufacture of trick films1 distinct arrangements and facilities must be provided for their manufacture1 so as not to disturb the routine preparation of ordinary subjects4 ,these are the main reasons why to-day trick films worthy of classification in the first rank are so rarely seen--the majority of so-called trick films are pure inanities4 ,in fact1 the trick film of the highest order is in danger of extinction1 because for every trick film that is produced half a dozen ordinary film plays can be placed on the market4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,electric ,,spark ,,cinematography ,although we commonly think of the human senses as very acute1 yet in reality they possess many imperfections4 ,for instance1 our vision is too slow to follow the excessively rapid and brief movements of insects4 ,strive as one may1 one cannot detect the flapping motion of a fly's wing1 or follow the different methods of flying practised by the dragon-fly and the bee4 ,i have spoken early in this work of ,marey's wonderful researches1 which were spread over a prolonged period1 and carried out with the express object of extending our knowledge of animal motion4 ,marey's experiments1 however1 were limited in their scope1 as he soon realised4 ,the dry glass plate was not a convenient medium for recording the impressions of rapid motion1 while extreme difficulties were encountered in connection with the illuminant and the exposure4 ,these drawbacks became baffling when it was attempted to record the movements of insects4 ,he endeavoured to solve the problem by concentrating a pencil of brilliant sunlight upon a condenser1 so as to secure such a powerful luminous cone of light as to enable an exposure to be made in #a_/db1jjjth of a second4 ,marey wrestled with the task in a most determined manner1 and his efforts were supported by eminent physiologists in other countries2 but the obstacles were so formidable and the available resources so limited that they could not arrive at any practical result4 ,it has been left to ,monsieur ,lucien ,bull1 the accomplished assistant director of the ,marey ,institute1 to overcome the difficulty4 ,through his courtesy ,i am enabled to describe his fascinating researches1 as well as the peculiar and efficient apparatus he has evolved for the purpose4 ,the beautiful and highly interesting results he has achieved are shown in the accompanying illustrations4 ,it was obvious at the outset that the familiar cinematograph camera and its system of operation were unsuited to recording such excessively rapid movements as take place in the oscillation of a fly's wing4 ,intermittent motion was quite out of the question4 ,no device working on this principle was capable of enabling one hundred exposures or more to be made in the short space of one second4 ,if it were attempted the film would only be torn and twisted before it had moved twelve inches4 ,in its place continuous motion on the part of the film was imperative1 and finally this requisite was supplied in a decidedly novel manner4 ,the general characteristics of the apparatus conceived and fashioned by ,monsieur ,bull may be gathered from the illustrations4 ,as the usual illuminants were unsuited to photography of extremely rapid motion1 recourse was had to the electric spark1 which is of tremendous luminous intensity4 ,these sparks are generated at uniform intervals and as rapidly as the exigencies of the experiment demand4 ,in order to grasp the details of the installation a vertical sectional diagram1 ,fig4 #ai1 is given1 and by its means the design and operation of the apparatus may be gathered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,,diagram ,,of ,,apparatus ,,employed ,,by ,m4 ,,lucien ,,bull ,,to ,,photograph ,,insects ,,in ,,flight4 ,instead of the ordinary camera there is a cylindrical wheel ,r1 mounted rigidly upon a shaft supported on brackets at either end4 ,the flat rim of this wheel carries the sensitised film1 which1 as the wheel is #ac inches in diameter1 is #db inches in length4 ,this band is of the standard width and is sufficiently long to receive fifty-four pictures of the ordinary cinematographic dimensions during one revolution of the wheel4 ,as the pictures are only three-quarters of an inch in depth1 the deformation arising from the impression being made upon a curved surface is so slight as to be unworthy of consideration4 ,the arrangement adopted has the advantage of enabling the wheel to be rotated very rapidly1 so that consecutive pictures may be taken at very brief intervals of time4 ,as the work is carried out in the laboratory in full daylight1 the wheel carrying the ribbon of sensitised film is enclosed in an octagonal light-tight box ,b1 the upper half of which is hinged so that when the box is dismounted and taken into the dark-room it can be opened easily to permit the exposed film to be withdrawn and a new strip inserted4 ,the shaft upon which the cylinder revolves is fitted with an interrupter ,i1 whereby the primary circuit of the induction coil ,a may be broken at regular intervals during the revolution of the wheel4 ,if desired1 as many as #b1jjj interruptions can be made in one second1 by rotating the wheel at a very high speed1 if the necessities of the experiment demand such a high number of exposures2 each interruption producing an electric spark in the spark gap ,e placed behind the condenser ,c4 ,this condenser converges the luminous rays into the objective ,o1 which is mounted in front of the travelling sensitised ribbon4 ,the lens is mounted in a small box ,v attached to the front vertical face of the octagonal box1 the latter being pierced at this point to permit the light to pass from the objective to the film behind4 ,in this lens box1 between the back of the objective and the exposure aperture1 there is a mirror ,m1 attached at its top to a horizontal rod having a milled screw head4 ,when the mirror is in the position shown in the diagram1 the image reflected therein through the lens is thrown on to a ground-glass screen ,d1 set in the top of the lens box4 ,this serves consequently as a view-finder4 ,when the exposures are to be made the screw controlling the mirror is turned1 and this swings the mirror upwards like a flap until it lies flat against the under side of the ground-glass ,d1 forming a light-tight joint4 ,the wheel carrying the sensitised film is driven by an electric motor1 the shaft of the wheel being extended beyond the box on one side to carry a small grooved pulley1 the drive from the motor being transmitted through a small belt4 ,the motor may be driven at varying speeds1 so that the number of exposures per second may be varied according to the revolutions of the box completed in that period of time4 ,the interrupter--also mounted outside the film-box--whereby the make and break in the primary circuit of the induction coil is controlled1 and consequently the frequency of the spark between the points ,e in the secondary coil circuit1 is a disc of ebonite1 into which are compressed fifty-four strips of copper spaced equidistantly--each strip corresponding to a picture on the film--which are pressed by two metal brushes as in the commutator of the ordinary dynamo4 ,as the copper strips in the ebonite disc pass beneath these two brushes the electric circuit of the induction coil is opened and closed1 thereby producing an electric spark in the secondary circuit of the coil4 ,the intensity of the spark is augmented by means of a small condenser ,l1 which is placed in parallel in the secondary circuit4 ,the sparks are produced between two pointed magnesium electrodes1 less than #a_/abth of an inch in thickness1 while the spark is about #a_/beth of an inch in length4 ,the spark is very rich in the ultra-violet rays1 which possess a powerful photographic quality4 ,in order that these rays shall not be absorbed during their passage through the condensers ,c1 the latter are made of ,iceland spar4 ,to secure improved results1 a small condenser c is sometimes placed immediately in front of the spark-gap ,e4 ,the general arrangement of the apparatus for operation is shown on page #bff1 the whole being mounted upon a bench with the induction coil upon a shelf beneath4 ,the photographs obtained in this manner1 however1 are purely of a silhouette character1 and often it is very difficult to interpret correctly the movement of the wings of an insect from such a result4 ,in order to obviate this drawback1 ,monsieur ,bull introduced a stereoscopic system1 wherein two lenses are mounted side by side before the film box1 with two spark-gaps in the same circuit4 ,this enables two sparks to be produced simultaneously with each interruption of the primary circuit1 to give two images of the object upon the sensitised celluloid films4 ,in order that the two exposures should be made upon the films exactly at the same time1 a special type of shutter had to be evolved1 whereby the exposure apertures were opened simultaneously at the critical moment when the cylinder commenced to revolve1 and which closed in concert when the rotation was completed1 because1 as the films were travelling continuously1 there was no necessity for an alternate closing and opening shutter movement1 as is required in ordinary cinematography working upon the intermittent motion principle4 ,the interval between the sparks acts in the same manner as a shutter swinging across the lens1 and serves to secure a succession of instantaneous pictures upon the films4 ,the images are obtained in such rapid succession that there is no possibility of the films becoming fogged through the objective apertures being open the whole time the wheel completes a revolution4 ,the two sparks being in the same circuit1 they must be produced in absolute synchrony4 ,the crucial question was how to open and close the shutter simultaneously at the critical moments4 ,this was solved in an ingenious manner4 ,the shutter itself is made of brass and is placed close to the film4 ,there are two apertures1 side by side1 corresponding to the size of the image upon the cinematograph film4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,the ,,ingenious ,,stereoscopic ,,shutter ,,to ,,the ,,bull ,,camera4 ,the operation of the shutters is shown in ,fig4 #bj4 ,when the cylinder is at rest1 the exposure holes are closed by a single curtain ,a1 consisting of a thin sheet of steel of sufficient length to cover the two holes4 ,it is held in position by means of an electromagnet controlling an extended spring4 ,when the cylinder commences to revolve the spring connected to the shutter is released under an electric impulse discharged through the electromagnet4 ,the shutter falls1 exposing the two apertures f#a and f#b4 ,when the cylinder has completed its revolution1 another electric impulse releases a second steel curtain ,b1 held in position by a second spring1 controlled by an electromagnet1 so that it drops also and falls over the exposure holes4 ,this system is both simple and positive in its operation1 and it may be pointed out that this control is quite independent of the interrupter1 which works in conjunction with the electric spark4 ,the interval of time elapsing between each picture is determined by means of a tuning fork making #ej double vibrations per second1 which operates an electric signal4 ,this tuning fork is set up in such a manner that the ends of its vibrating tongues are photographed upon the film throughout the experiment4 ,as the vibrations of the tuning fork are known1 it is only necessary1 in order to determine the interval of time between each exposure1 to count the number of photographs taken successively during a complete vibration of the tuning fork4 ,as a result of experiment1 however1 it has been found that the ear can be trained to determine with astonishing accuracy the speed at which the apparatus revolves--and consequently the number of pictures taken per second--by the succession of sparks produced by a tuning fork the vibrations of which are known4 ,this means that in conjunction with the photographic record1 the speed at which the exposures were made can be determined without effort1 and this velocity can be varied very easily4 ,in addition1 a measured scale1 engraved on glass1 is placed in the field of the lens1 whereby the investigator is enabled to determine the exact displacement of the insect in the field of vision within a given period4 ,such is the apparatus1 devised so far back as #aijd1 with which ,monsieur ,lucien ,bull has accomplished some remarkable work of incalculable value to science1 and with striking precision4 ,illustration3 ,m4 ,,lucien ,,bull',s ,,complete ,,apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,novel ,,camera ,,showing ,,stereoscopic ,,lens4 ,taking #b1jjj moving pictures per second4--,see page #bfe4 ,i will now proceed to explain how the photographs are taken4 ,in the first place1 in order to obtain natural and conclusive data regarding the flight of insects1 it is imperative that they should be cinematographed while in full liberty1 but the point arose as to how to control the instrument so that the camera and film did not commence to revolve until the moment the insect entered the field of the lens4 ,the habits of insects vary greatly4 ,some fly off immediately they are released1 while others hesitate for a minute fraction of a second4 ,as the apparatus makes only one complete revolution at a time1 and that in the fraction of a second1 the control has to be of such a finely adjusted character that the record obtained is of movement purely and simply1 and not of the insect in a quiescent state preparatory to flight4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,bee ,,cinematographed ,,in ,,full ,,flight4 ,at the left is the glass tube from which it has escaped4--,see page #bgc4 ,another question was how to induce the insect to cross the field of the lens4 ,all insects instinctively fly towards a light4 ,the apparatus therefore was set near a window1 the insect being released from the side away from the window1 so that in order to reach the light it had to traverse the field of the lens4 ,as the latter is very small1 it was essential that the release should be carried out in such a way that the insect did not fly above or below the field of the lens during exposure of the film4 ,at first sight these obstacles appeared insurmountable4 ,it was obvious that the release of a fly from the hand would be too slow and uncertain1 while the movement of the insect after securing its liberty would be unnatural1 because no matter how delicately it might be handled1 there would be the liability of injuring its fragile frame4 ,the governing point was to devise ways and means of opening the shutter just at the moment the insect started to fly from one side of the lens field to the other1 under completely natural conditions4 ,this delicate problem was resolved by ,monsieur ,bull in an ingenious manner1 but not before he had carried out innumerable experiments attended by dispiriting failures4 ,at last he succeeded in evolving means whereby the insect automatically and instantaneously opened the shutter of the camera at the moment it started to fly4 ,the artifices by which this end was achieved are shown in ,fig4 #ba4 ,the system1 however1 had to be modified for different types of insect4 ,that marked ,a was used for the ordinary house-fly and for dragon flies4 ,it comprised a small pair of pincers1 or clamp1 which held the fly firmly captive by means of a small electromagnet1 but in such a way as not to inflict the slightest injury4 ,this clamp was introduced in the stereoscopic shutter electrical circuit4 ,the two legs of the clamp have a natural tendency to fly apart under the action of a spring1 but are held closed by a tooth at the end of a rocking arm1 mounted on one leg1 engaging with a fixed tooth on the second leg of the clamp4 ,the latter is placed in an electrical circuit with the shutter of the camera4 ,when all arrangements are completed1 the experimenter closes this circuit4 ,this action causes the electromagnet of the clamp to pull down the projecting end of the toothed arm2 the two legs are allowed to fly apart1 liberating the insect1 and as the clamp releases the fly the stereoscopic shutter is opened4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,the ,,ingenious ,,devices ,,employed ,,by ,m4 ,,lucien ,,bull ,,to ,,release ,,the ,,insect ,,at ,,the ,,critical ,,moment4 ,this system1 however1 was of no avail in connection with the ,hymenoptera group of insects1 since wasps1 bees1 and similar insects hesitate slightly before they seek safety in flight4 ,consequently the device ,b was evolved4 ,this consists of a small glass tube1 in which the insect is introduced at one end4 ,the opposite end is cut obliquely1 and is fitted with a very light hinged shutter of mica1 having a fragile spring1 which covers about one-half of the opening4 ,the spring closes the electric circuit operating the stereoscopic shutter of the camera4 ,let us suppose a bee is to be cinematographed in flight4 ,it is pushed head foremost into the free end of the tube1 which is large enough to carry it comfortably1 and the half-closed mouth is pointed towards the window4 ,the insect naturally endeavours to approach the light1 and accordingly crawls along the tube until at last it reaches the mica shutter1 beneath which it endeavours to escape4 ,as it crawls out of the tube it lifts the mica flap1 and the circuit is broken4 ,but the shutter does not open1 because at this moment the operator himself closes the contact4 ,by this time the insect has emerged a sufficient distance from the tube to complete its final preparations preliminary to flying away4 ,just as it springs from the tube the mica shutter falls1 the electrical circuit is closed once more1 the shutter is opened1 and pictures of the bee on the wing are recorded upon the celluloid film4 ,for the ,coleoptera group of insects--beetles--where there is still a more marked hesitation before flight1 the device ,c was prepared4 ,in this instance ,monsieur ,bull compels the weight of the insect1 which is relatively heavy1 to establish the necessary contact to operate the shutter4 ,a glass tube without an oblique mouth is used for this purpose1 and instead of the mica flap1 a very light horizontal plate of aluminium1 balanced by a counterweight at one end1 is passed through the tube4 ,this plate is mounted on a central pivot1 and extends a certain distance from either end of the tube4 ,the counterweight is slightly lighter than the weight of the insect1 and rests in contact with a platinum point4 ,the beetle is introduced into the tube at this end1 and crawls along the rod towards the opposite end4 ,when it has passed about half-way through the tube1 and has crossed the fulcrum of the beam1 it causes the contact end to rise like a see-saw1 thereby breaking the electrical contact4 ,in this case1 as with the device ,b1 the operator recloses the break in the circuit4 ,the beetle continues its journey1 and finally emerges from the tube upon the flattened end of the beam1 on which it completes its arrangements to fly away4 ,directly it leaves the platinum beam1 the latter1 under the action of the counterweight1 falls upon the platinum point1 re-establishes the contact1 the circuit is closed1 the shutter is opened1 and the flight is caught upon the sensitised band4 ,monsieur ,bull has devised a wide variety of these ingenious appliances1 whereby he is able to secure the flight of any insect1 and by the employment of which the chances of failure are reduced to the minimum4 ,indeed1 when the apparatus is set up correctly1 is in the hands of a skilled operator1 and every arrangement has been completed satisfactorily1 failure can only result from one cause--the refusal of the insect to fly away4 ,the best results are obtained from insects which are in a fresh1 healthy condition4 ,if they have been imprisoned for too long a period1 or are fatigued1 the chances are that the results will be very disappointing4 ,the records which ,monsieur ,bull has secured1 showing insects in flight1 illustrate some very interesting facts1 and are of far-reaching value from the scientific point of view4 ,at the present moment they are of additional interest owing to the absorbing fascination of aviation1 inasmuch as they enable us to study with ease the movement of the wings of powerful1 speedy fliers1 which hitherto has been impossible under natural conditions1 owing to the excessive velocity with which the wings move1 and the brief character of the motion4 ,with such an apparatus as ,i have described1 any very rapid motion can be cinematographed1 for the system is very elastic1 and capable of very extensive application4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,dragon-,,fly ,,in ,,flight4 ,at left is the electric clamp from which the insect has been released1 and at right the tuning fork to determine the interval of time between successive pictures4 ,another vast field of research which has been opened by the cinematograph is the study of the flight of projectiles4 ,this subject has occupied earnest attention among military authorities for some time past4 ,a few years ago ,professor ,vernon ,boys carried out some wonderful experiments in this direction1 and produced some very striking results4 ,his work has been continued recently1 by cinematographic means1 by an eminent ,german investigator1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,cranz1 professor at the ,berlin ,military ,academy4 ,he has succeeded in accelerating the exposures of the film to such a degree that #ejj consecutive pictures can be taken in #a_/ajth of a second1 the exposures varying from #a_/a1jjj1jjjth to #a_/aj1jjj1jjjth part of a second1 the last-named period being such an infinitesimal fraction of time as to be beyond human comprehension4 ,the pictures obtained are of the standard dimensions1 and a striking feature1 despite the tremendous speed at which they are taken1 and the extremely brief exposure1 is the clearness and definition obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,cinematograph ,,film ,,of ,a ,,bullet ,,fired ,,through ,a ,,soap ,,bubble4 ,the flight of the missile may be followed easily4 ,it will be seen that the bubble breaks not when the bullet enters1 but when it emerges4--,see page #bgf4 ,in this instance1 also1 the electric spark is called upon to serve as the illuminant to enable the images to be recorded upon the sensitised band1 but the means whereby the interruption of the primary circuit of the induction coil is secured differs materially from that practised by ,bull4 ,obviously the film travels with a continuous1 instead of with an intermittent1 motion1 the sensitised band in this instance being run over two steel cylinders4 ,the tremendous speed at which the film moves may be gathered from the fact that1 at the rate of exposures made1 over #bhj feet of film must pass before the exposure aperture in the short space of one second--more than #b miles per minute4 ,the apparatus evolved by this ,german investigator is more complicated than that of his ,french contemporary1 and the method of operation is widely dissimilar4 ,the arrangements1 too1 for preventing the film receiving more than one series of pictures--the film is rotated before the exposure aperture in the form of an endless band--demanded a special electrical contact control system1 while the manipulation of the apparatus varies according to the character of the experiment4 ,the results obtained are startling4 ,although taken at such a tremendous speed1 the pictures when thrown upon the screen under normal conditions enable every motion to be followed quite easily because everything moves slowly4 ,for instance1 one can see the hammer of an automatic pistol fall1 and follow exactly what takes place during the whole firing operation1 and the ejection of the spent cartridge4 ,similarly1 when the pistol is fired1 and the bullet is photographed as it emerges from the muzzle or when it strikes1 passes through and emerges from a steel plate1 the movement can be followed with complete facility1 as it appears to move across the screen no more rapidly than a person walks1 because1 although the exposures are made at the rate of #cj1jjj pictures per second1 they are projected at a speed of only #af pictures per second4 ,by this means analysis of extremely rapid motion in all its details can be effected--a result of far-reaching possibilities to the study of ballistics4 ,facilities are provided to enable the progress of the missile1 both vertically and horizontally1 to be measured1 so that the speed of the projectile may be determined with unimpeachable accuracy4 ,fluctuations in the speed of a missile can be ascertained and investigated4 ,suppose the speed of the projectile is measured as it emerges from the arm1 and again as it reaches the end of an extensive free trajectory2 losses in velocity due to resistance of the air and other causes can be calculated4 ,individual pictures1 when enlarged--and the sharp1 well-defined character of the images on the band enables this enlargement to be carried out to a very wide limit--supply a ready means to investigate any particular phase and phenomenon at close quarters4 ,it is not generally known that about twelve years ago the ,british ,government set up such an installation at ,devonport to investigate the phenomena of bullets in flight4 ,here also illumination was carried out by means of the electric spark1 but the rate of exposures was considerably slower4 ,the results of the work of ,monsieur ,bull and ,professor ,cranz1 however1 has opened up another and more wonderful province for the cinematograph1 and the investigation of rapid motion4 ,the efforts of these two scientists prove conclusively that motion photography is capable of recording the most rapid movements known with perfect success1 although the circumstances may demand such extraordinarily short exposure as the #aj1jjj1jjjth part of a second4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the 8,,animated0 ,,newspaper ,we have seen how the topical picture has developed into one of the most attractive and extensively appreciated phases of the art4 ,events of annual occurrence like the ,derby or the ,grand ,national1 or those which have been advertised widely on all sides1 such as an aeroplane race1 are always anticipated with a keen curiosity4 ,at the same time1 however1 there are many incidents of daily occurrence which are of absorbing passing interest1 such as the launch of a battleship1 a railway collision1 a big fire1 or a public demonstration4 ,such subjects are not adapted to presentation as individual films of great length1 being insufficiently momentous to grip the public for several minutes in the same way as the ,international ,yacht ,race1 or some other dramatic item in our complex social and industrial life4 ,for some time occurrences like these were ignored4 ,sometimes weeks slipped by without any public event being presented on the screen1 owing to lack of opportunity4 ,at this juncture one or two enterprising firms conceived a brilliant idea of turning these events to interesting and profitable account4 ,why not secure short lengths of film on various subjects of passing interest1 and join them together to form one film between #bjj and #cej feet in length1 to provide a regular weekly topical feature8 ,these little 8topicals0 were secured--a few feet of this1 and a few feet of that1 subject depicting the most striking or interesting phases in each news feature--and joined to form a continuous miscellaneous moving mirror of the world's happenings4 ,when the idea was first carried into execution the film could scarcely be described as 8topical40 ,there was no attempt to serve up the pictures to the public in a 8red-hot0 condition4 ,the incidents portrayed in many instances had passed beyond the allotted nine days of wonder1 and having been almost forgotten1 aroused but a flicker of interest4 ,the experiment recalled the days when newspapers first resorted to photographic illustrations2 when the pictures were published often two or three days after the occurrence of the event to which they referred4 ,yet the results achieved sufficed to prove that a new and promising field in cinematography had been tapped4 ,great possibilities awaited enterprise and energy4 ,all that was required was to supply the pictures while the events were still fresh in the minds of the public4 ,haphazard methods promised only failure2 a special organisation was essential to cope with the situation4 ,in order to emphasise the motive of the undertaking1 the topical film1 which presented in tabloid form an assortment of news1 was given a newspaper title2 the animated 8,chronicle10 8,gazette10 and 8,graphic0 appeared2 while to render the newspaper idea more pronounced1 the exteriors of the picture palaces were emblazoned with placards drawn up in the most approved newspaper style4 ,in the course of a few weeks1 as the operators displayed keener competition to outstrip rivals in securing the first pictorial representation of something of importance1 and the pictures assumed a more and more up-to-date aspect1 the moving picture newspaper established its significance4 ,showmen were tempted to assist in the enterprise by being able to purchase the newspaper film at a lower price than the ordinary subject4 ,although the animated newspaper has been amongst us for only a few months1 yet it has already developed into an institution4 ,many people would as soon think of missing the 8newspaper0 item as they would think of overlooking an opportunity to see the ,derby re-run upon the screen4 ,from a cursory view no difficulty appears to be attached to the preparation of a film of odds and ends of topical interest2 but as a matter of fact the task is quite as exacting and strenuous as the production of the morning newspaper4 ,the work can be handled successfully only by a firm having an extensive organisation1 and with better chances of success if it has specialised in the ordinary 8topical40 ,there must be an editor to direct operations and to prepare the film4 ,he must possess a large and scattered staff1 so that no part of the world is left uncovered by a cinematograph4 ,his scouts must be active and keen1 always on the alert1 and ready to secure on the instant a few feet of any incident of importance in their respective localities4 ,in the offices a number of skilled operators must be ready to hurry off at a moment's notice to any desired spot4 ,the first-named emissaries constitute the special foreign correspondents1 while the office staff feed the film in the same manner that the newspaper staff reporters supply the columns of the morning newspaper with material4 ,there is one feature in which the man with the camera holds an undisputed advantage over his confrre armed with notebook and pencil4 ,he gives a truthful pictorial account of what takes place1 not the garbled product of a vivid imagination4 ,as a result the editor of the animated picture newspaper is spared the menace which hangs always over the head of the newspaper director4 ,he is immune from the pains and penalties of the libel law6 ,in order to secure a more intimate impression of the work of the moving newspaper1 we will go behind the scenes of one of the most flourishing and successful of these animated news-sheets--,the ,gaumont ,graphic--and follow it through its successive phases of production4 ,when the proprietors of this pictorial record embarked upon this new development1 they had the experience of some twelve years' work in the 8topical0 field1 and their machinery and staff had acquired the instinct to 8get there first40 ,there is1 of course1 the editorial sanctum in which the presiding genius holds autocratic sway1 and directs the many threads which control the acquisition of news4 ,at his elbow the tape machine ticks merrily the livelong day4 ,the telegraphic ribbon reels out the bald announcement that a big fire is raging in the ,city1 that a devastating explosion has spread death and ruin somewhere in the north of ,scotland1 or that a ,transatlantic liner has run on the rocks off some remote part of the coast4 ,an operator is rushed to the scene1 and there left to his own devices to secure a sensational few feet of film4 ,he may succeed or he may not2 it all depends upon the circumstances and conditions4 ,maybe he may have to wait four or five hours perched in an uncomfortable position1 but if a few feet of film can be exposed to advantage he will not have failed4 ,the country is divided up into districts where cinematographic reporters are retained in readiness for any emergency1 and they have command over a certain radius around that centre4 ,for instance1 if an accident happens in northern ,scotland a telegram to the operator responsible for that locality hastens him to the spot4 ,the editor of the ,gaumont ,graphic has branch offices at ,newcastle--which covers the north-east of ,england--at ,glasgow for ,scotland1 and at ,liverpool and ,manchester for the north-west of ,england1 the ,liverpool operators being ready to proceed to ,ireland or the ,isle of ,man should the necessity arise4 ,in addition1 there are what might be described as sub-offices at ,bristol and ,birmingham1 whence any point in the ,midlands and the west of ,england can be gained1 as well as another at ,scarborough1 so that the whole of ,great ,britain may be said to be mapped out and covered cinematographically4 ,as far as the foreign areas are concerned1 owing to offices being established in all the large centres from ,china to ,peru1 no difficulty is experienced in gathering items of interest from all parts of the world4 ,operators are searching constantly for films of general interest from the industrial1 commercial1 scenic1 travel1 or some other point of view1 and in the course of their work secure pictorial snippets of topical interest4 ,as a result a steady stream of items recorded in animation pour in constantly from all parts of the world4 ,the ,european and ,asiatic items in the form of lengths of film pass to the ,french headquarters in ,paris1 while those of ,canadian and ,australian interest flow to ,london4 ,a daily record of the films of a news interest received from foreign correspondents is received from ,france for the ,london editor to sift and select what he considers of interest4 ,when this has been done1 he telegraphs to ,paris for what he requires--so many feet of this and so many feet of that film4 ,in addition1 he has a tabulated statement of what may be described as 8fixed0 functions1 such as a race meeting1 a motor competition1 a flying-machine test1 a society wedding1 and what not1 to which operators are dispatched4 ,in due course the small lengths of exposed film filter in by train and post4 ,so soon as they arrive they are developed and printed4 ,proofs are handed over to the editor to be scanned and revised1 sections which he considers the most suitable and likely to interest the public being snipped from each film-proof1 by the aid of the indispensable scissors4 ,possibly much of the material when it reaches the editor's eye fails to win his appreciation1 and meets an inglorious and premature end in the editorial waste-paper basket4 ,a certain amount of wasted effort is unavoidable2 for space1 that is to say1 length of film1 is limited1 and when the ,graphic appeared only once a week1 sifting was of a searching character4 ,when a considerable amount of incident has occurred and has been cinematographed during the week1 the selection process is by no means easy2 many interesting items find themselves crowded out to be held over until the next issue1 or destroyed4 ,as the pieces of each film are selected1 they are 8pasted0 together1 and each incident receives its full explanatory title and sub-title4 ,these revised proofs are connected up so as to form a continuous length of film1 and copies are reeled off in the printing1 developing1 and drying rooms at tip-top speed1 the operation corresponding with the printing machine room of the newspaper4 ,the first complete proof is submitted to the editor's approval by being projected on the screen just as it will be submitted to the public4 ,further revision may be requisite1 in which event the film undergoes another trimming process with the scissors1 or possibly some late news has been received1 and space has to be found for its inclusion at the expense of some other item4 ,the 8composition10 or1 as it is called1 the 8make-up10 of the animated news film is just as complex as that of a newspaper or magazine4 ,it is essential that it should be diversified in its contents so as to appeal to the tastes of all classes of the community4 ,there are the big items which stand pre-eminent1 and which range from ,london to ,south ,america1 and from ,paris to ,china4 ,around these have to be disposed various other features of lesser importance4 ,seeing that the length of the film newspaper is limited to between #ejj and #fej feet1 and is built up of from ten to seventeen subjects which vary in length according to their respective importance1 careful discrimination is necessary4 ,the public has become hypercritical in regard to animated pictures1 and the appeal has to be made to the great majority4 ,as a rule1 endeavour is made to incorporate regular features in each issue4 ,sport is represented by some one or other of the many branches of athletics and racing2 society finds itself displayed in a wedding1 garden-party1 ball1 or other fashionable function2 the woman's page has its equivalent in the animated portrayal of the latest ,paris fashions as displayed by the manequins--generally in order to give an enhanced effect this section is reproduced in colour--and so forth4 ,effort is made also to incorporate1 if possible1 a special function of some description performed by some personage looming prominently in the public eye4 ,variety is the keynote of success as much in the successful cinematograph newspaper as in its ink-and-paper contemporary4 ,the ,gaumont ,graphic has an extensive and influential foreign and colonial circulation1 and accordingly special attention has to be devoted to the requirements of these readers1 or rather spectators4 ,the special topical films are ransacked1 and little excerpts made4 ,for instance1 in the ,coronation number of the ,gaumont ,graphic1 two or three of the greatest features of the long ,coronation film were cut out and pasted together to form a prominent item of news2 the same applies to the inter-,university boat race and other sports1 the ,derby and great race meetings1 the ,football ,final2 in short1 to every important annual event4 ,this procedure is necessary1 for the animated newspaper reaches remote parts of the world1 where perchance the complete film of an individual event may never find its way4 ,one noticeable feature is the friendliness extended to the cinematographic news-gatherer1 who often meets with greater appreciation than his confrre1 the ,press snap-shotter4 ,the latter1 armed with his small camera1 often allows his zeal and enthusiasm to overstep his discretion--a fact that is particularly noticeable with regard to society and royal events4 ,the cinematograph operator1 on the contrary1 being burdened with a somewhat cumbrous apparatus1 is forced to remain at a fixed point4 ,the apparent drawback is really a blessing in disguise1 because special care is invariably taken to afford him an advantageous position4 ,the outcome is that cinematographic portraiture ninety-nine times out of a hundred is far better than that secured by the snap-shotting fiend1 who thrusts himself forward and catches his quarry1 perchance1 in an unhappy moment4 ,yet the editor of the film newspaper is not relieved from worries and anxieties4 ,cinematography is dependent mainly upon a bright light2 thus the success of a film1 at least in ,great ,britain1 is never certain beforehand4 ,when the elements are adverse it is difficult indeed to collect the news4 ,the operator may wait for hours to film a subject1 or perhaps he makes his exposures in despair1 and with a blind trust in luck4 ,when heavy fogs hang like blankets over the great centres1 passing events of importance defy recording1 and it is a sheer waste of film to endeavour to secure pictures4 ,as a result the film newspaper is much easier to produce in summer than in winter1 and this climatic influence probably constitutes a unique feature in newspaperdom4 ,the animated newspaper even has its stop-press feature2 that is to say1 it can deal with pictorial records of events which occur after the paper is being printed off or has been circulated4 ,a short film of some great incident trickles into the editorial room4 ,it cannot be delayed until the next issue--by that time public interest in the item will have vanished4 ,consequently it is rushed through1 and all subscribers scattered throughout the country are advised by telegraph that a record of such-and-such a topical subject has been obtained1 and can be dispatched at once for display in the form of supplement to the animated newspaper now being shown4 ,the late item is sent out1 and upon arrival at the picture palace is attached to the end of the newspaper film already received1 its inclusion perhaps necessitating sacrifice of some other item of less importance4 ,when the ,gaumont ,graphic first appeared1 it was issued weekly1 and accordingly corresponded to the weekly illustrated newspaper4 ,now it is published twice weekly1 and with increased success4 ,indeed1 the pictorial news film reaches its subscribers in the colonies and foreign countries contemporaneously1 or even prior to the arrival of the illustrated weeklies1 which are dispatched by mail4 ,in ,australasia1 ,canada1 ,india1 and the smaller ,british colonies1 the idea of giving the week's news in animation has met with a remarkably hearty reception1 inasmuch as it serves to bring the world's happenings far more vividly before the public in those remote parts of the world than can be done in a brief newspaper cablegram or a single photograph published in the pages of the illustrated weeklies4 ,the history of the world is re-enacted before them2 they are brought to the localities where the episodes occurred--a miracle of transportation not to be effected by any other known scientific means4 ,how does the film newspaper affect the cinematograph theatre8 ,what is the attitude towards the idea8 ,does the showman regard it with favour8 ,these are questions which naturally occur to the mind4 ,opinion is best reflected by the success of the enterprise4 ,now that the picture paper is published twice a week1 the expenditure of the showman is doubled2 but this fact does not appear to have exercised a deterrent influence4 ,when the ,gaumont ,graphic was published weekly1 its circulation approximated #bjj copies per week4 ,in other words1 #bjj showmen subscribed towards this feature4 ,this1 by the way does not represent its full circulation1 as a single subscriber may control two or more halls in one city1 and very often the one film suffices for several picture palaces under one control4 ,these #bjj copies of the film newspaper1 then1 were seen1 at a modest computation1 by several millions of people weekly4 ,seeing that the subscriber is unable to hire the film newspaper for the week1 but has to purchase it outright at a uniform price of #b;d4 7#e cents7 per foot1 and that its average length is #fjj feet1 his outlay amounts to #f 7#cj7 for a subject1 the exhibition life of which is restricted to three or seven days4 ,as the average showman is a keen and shrewd business man1 it is not to be supposed for a moment that the investment of such a sum every week is otherwise than remunerative from his point of view4 ,will the cinematographic newspaper ever supplant its printed rival8 ,by no means4 ,it acts rather as an illustrated supplement to printed details2 it renders the latter more comprehensive by bringing scenes and actors vividly and naturally before the eye1 thereby causing a more living and detailed impression than can be obtained through the medium of words4 ,on the other hand1 it is beginning to rival the illustrated paper1 which depends upon photographic contents1 and this competition will be felt more keenly as time goes on4 ,the day is probably still far distant when a man1 instead of giving a penny for a printed daily newspaper to see what has happened during the previous twenty-four hours1 will spend the same sum to enter a picture palace1 and devote a quarter of an hour to seeing in full animation what paper and ink merely describe4 ,the modern business man acknowledges that he only has time to glance through the staring headlines of his morning newspaper2 and surely comprehensive titles and a series of excellent pictures would perform the same service for him1 and more besides4 ,producers would aid the development by giving careful attention to titles and headlines4 ,thus the era of the daily cinematographic newspaper is not so remote as may be thought at first sight4 ,the ,gaumont ,graphic is quite ready to appear daily if the demand should arise4 ,the organisation is perfect so far as the news-film collecting1 printing1 developing1 and other technical details are concerned4 ,a complete paper could be turned out in four hours4 ,that is to say1 films could be received up to about ten o'clock at night1 and the newspaper could be ready for projection by two o'clock in the morning4 ,the early special trains which now leave the great cities at express speed for the delivery of printed newspapers to remote parts of the country may yet be called upon to carry small boxes of daily news-film for similar distribution4 ,the manufacturing cost of the film is being constantly reduced2 and once this essential is brought to a very low figure1 enterprising showmen will not hesitate to spend a few shillings per day to reproduce in animation before the general public the chief episodes of the preceding twenty-four hours4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,animation ,,in ,,natural ,,colours ,the perfection attained in the projection of animation upon the screen in black and white naturally stimulated efforts towards the achievement of similar results in natural colours4 ,as a matter of fact1 experiments in this direction were undertaken long before monochrome cinematography was perfected4 ,w4 ,f4 ,greene indicated the development when he produced his instrument in #ahhi2 while as far back as #ahig ,frederick ,e4 ,ives1 celebrated for his efforts to solve the problem of still-life natural colour photography1 outlined a means of applying his process to cinematography with glass plates1 the celluloid film not having appeared at that date4 ,no doubt he was urged to this development by the wonderful results achieved in chronophotography with glass plates by ,dr4 ,marey in ,paris4 ,since that year experimenters without end have grappled with the problem2 but little material success has been achieved4 ,indeed1 commercial cinematography in the true colours of ,nature appears to be as far from realisation as a simple process of still-life colour photography4 ,nature defies the photographic investigator to capture and reproduce the myriad tints and hues in which she is garbed4 ,we see colour pictures upon the white screen1 but with one or two exceptions the tints are the result of the artist's handiwork4 ,an ordinary black and white film is taken1 and then coloured1 in the same way that the photographic artist tints his portraits4 ,if the work is skilfully performed the results are distinctly pleasing and effective4 ,after one has been watching brilliant black and white pictures1 the introduction of a coloured film comes as a restful interlude to the eyes4 ,the coloured cinematograph film was introduced by ,robert ,paul1 shortly after he established his studio4 ,as lantern slides could be coloured by hand with brush and paints1 he saw no reason why a film #dj feet in length should not be treated in the same way4 ,accordingly he enlisted the services of an expert artist to make the experiment4 ,but it was a laborious undertaking4 ,a picture measuring only #a inch wide by ths of an inch in depth is a base of operations quite different from a lantern slide measuring #c inches square4 ,a magnifying glass had to be used1 and a considerable length of time was needed to treat a whole film4 ,one of the earliest colour effects to which the public were introduced was a film produced by ,james ,williamson1 in the 'nineties of the last century4 ,it depicted a fire4 ,the conflagration was enacted realistically1 an abandoned house being used for the purpose4 ,the flames and the entire scene were coloured1 giving additional sensationalism to the picture4 ,at that time the coloured film was very rarely seen1 owing to the expense involved in its production1 and when ,williamson put his handiwork on the market it received an extraordinary reception4 ,the lurid tinting of the flames caught the public fancy4 ,illustration3 ,,preparing ,,the ,,path ,,colour ,,films4 ,the colour system perfected by this famous ,french firm produces beautiful effects4 ,when the film measuring #djj feet or more came into vogue it was recognised that hand colouring was no longer feasible4 ,the method was too slow and costly4 ,accordingly a stencil process was evolved1 and is in use to-day1 giving many of the beautiful effects seen in the moving picture theatres4 ,a mechanical method of tinting the films by means of these stencils was next taken in hand1 and finally1 after prolonged experiment1 was perfected4 ,in this development the ,french firm of ,path ,frres played the most prominent part1 and to-day1 despite the strides made in natural colour cinematography1 their productions still rank first in popular estimation1 owing to the delicacy of the colouring4 ,this ,parisian firm has made the colour film a prominent feature of its business1 and laid down an extensive and well-equipped establishment especially for colouring operations4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,path ,,colour ,,machine ,,printing ,,room4 ,probably everyone knows what a stencil is4 ,it is a pattern cut out of a solid thin flat surface1 which is afterwards laid upon the subject to be treated1 and paint applied by means of a brush or some other medium4 ,the colouring only can reach the surface beneath the cut spaces in the plate1 and consequently is applied just where it is desired4 ,the process is practised freely in the printing of wall-papers1 and in applying designs to other surfaces1 as it is both cheap1 rapid1 and highly effective4 ,cutting the stencils for a moving picture film is a long and exacting task4 ,three stencils have to be prepared for each subject4 ,in the first the spaces corresponding to the red tones in the picture have to be cut2 in the second1 those for the yellow2 and in the third stencil1 those for the blue4 ,by putting one over the other the various mixtures and tones are obtained4 ,the process may be likened to the preparation of the three process blocks for heliochromic illustrations in letterpress printing4 ,since each picture measures only #a inch wide by ths of an inch in depth1 we may gather some idea of the labour involved for the treatment of1 say1 #h1jjj pictures contained in a film #ejj feet long4 ,it follows that unless a film is likely to have a large demand1 colouring is not attempted4 ,in one case which ,i have in mind1 the firm will not attempt colouring unless they are certain of the sale of #bjj copies of the subject4 ,the colours--aniline dyes--are applied successively by means of rollers1 the film to be coloured being passed through special machines contrived for the purpose4 ,in view of the expense and time entailed1 it is not surprising that many inventors have devoted their energies to devise ways and means of taking colour pictures direct from ,nature4 ,greene evolved the first cinematographic process for taking and projecting moving pictures in natural colours1 and his patent constitutes the base upon which all other experimenters have worked1 just as to-day in ,america the kinetoscope is regarded as the progenitor of the cinematograph4 ,six months later another process working upon the same broad principle was patented by ,lee and ,turner4 ,but ,greene's process was premature2 at that time it was unworkable4 ,the ,lee and ,turner system1 fundamentally the same1 suffered from a similar defect1 as ,i shall explain a little later4 ,natural light is the result of waves oscillating at a tremendous speed per second1 just as other waves1 heavier and travelling far more slowly in comparison with light waves1 produce sound4 ,our familiar conception of natural light1 or daylight1 is that it is white2 but we also know that when a narrow beam is permitted to fall upon a length of glass of triangular section1 known as a prism1 the light which on the outer side appears white is found to be resolved into colours on the opposite side4 ,in passing through the prism the beam of light has been deflected from a straight path1 and the result is that the waves of varying length1 of which white light is composed1 have been sorted out4 ,the shortest rays are red1 while the longest rays have a violet tinge4 ,the analysis of light1 as revealed by the spectrum in a dark chamber1 is performed for us by ,nature in the rainbow4 ,if we examine that phenomenon we shall see that the innumerable tints constituting it fall into three broad groups--red1 green1 and violet4 ,these therefore are regarded as the primary colours4 ,by combining any two1 or all three1 of these1 the multitudinous hues with which we are familiar may be produced4 ,the average person1 when he hears red1 green1 and violet described as the primary colours1 is inclined to remonstrate4 ,at school or when using his box of paints1 he was taught to regard yellow1 red1 and blue as the primary colours1 and green1 a mixture of blue and yellow1 as a secondary or complementary colour4 ,but the two instances deal with totally different forms of light4 ,the former is transmitted1 and the second is reflected1 light4 ,this confusion of thought led to the undoing of many early experimenters in colour photography4 ,they took their images through successive screens of red1 yellow1 and blue1 and when projecting used the complementary coloured screens--orange1 green1 and violet4 ,the results were startling4 ,it was not until ,greene took his pictures through the red1 green1 and violet screens1 and subsequently projected them through screens of the same colours--that is to say1 the picture taken through the green glass was projected through the green glass1 the red through the red1 and the violet through the violet--that any tangible progress was made4 ,when the celluloid film came into vogue the experimenters lost no time in commercialising a system of natural-colour cinematography4 ,the idea was to take a picture through each successive screen4 ,in other words1 the first picture was taken through the red screen2 the film was jerked forward1 and the second picture was taken through the green screen2 lastly1 a fresh area of sensitised surface was brought before the lens and third or violet screen4 ,thus three consecutive pictures1 taken through three different screens1 were secured4 ,the screens comprised sectors of red1 green1 and violet respectively1 each colour screen being succeeded by an opaque sector4 ,thus the shutter was divided into six parts--three colour screens and three opaque sectors alternately4 ,after exposure through one screen1 as the following opaque sector flitted across the lens1 the film was jerked into position to bring a fresh surface of sensitised surface before the next screen in the revolving shutter4 ,when the red screen is brought into position before the lens1 the colours in the object are filtered1 as it were1 only the red rays being permitted to pass through the screen to the film4 ,the picture on the film1 therefore1 is a photograph of the red tones in the subject4 ,similarly the green screen absorbs all but the green rays1 and photographs a record of the green tones in the subject4 ,the same is true of the violet screen4 ,the developed film possesses no tinge of colour in itself4 ,it is merely a black-and-white image4 ,close examination of three consecutive pictures1 however1 reveals varying densities according to the filtering action of the respective screens4 ,in projecting1 the picture taken through the red screen is thrown through a red screen1 the green image through a green screen1 and the violet though a violet screen4 ,thus the lantern reconstructs upon the sheet what the camera dissects when photographing the object4 ,experimenters anticipated that1 in virtue of the law of visual persistence1 if these pictures were projected at a sufficient speed upon the sheet1 the three images taken through the red1 green1 and violet screens would be superimposed one on the next1 thereby conveying to the eye a faithful colour record of ,nature4 ,it sounds feasible and seems attractively simple to perform2 but ,nature has not been caught yet4 ,at the very outset the investigators were baffled4 ,the sensitised emulsion on the film was too slow to render the application possible4 ,every photographer knows that the red light is non-actinic--he uses it for the illumination of his dark-room while developing his plates4 ,obviously1 therefore1 it was hopeless to endeavour to take a photograph through the red screen in #a_/ajjth part of a second4 ,for this reason ,greene's process failed1 as did also that of ,lee and ,turner4 ,then another miscalculation was revealed4 ,with black-and-white pictures a speed of sixteen pictures is the minimum capable of conveying the impression of continuous motion to the brain4 ,as the pictures are in monochrome1 the perfection of the illusion is facilitated4 ,but when it came to projecting the pictures taken in three different colours1 one after the other1 this law was seriously upset4 ,when only sixteen pictures per second are shown1 the eye and brain are able to single out the respective colours4 ,the pictures do not run together to give a natural colour-effect1 but are merely successive flashes of red1 green1 and violet light4 ,accordingly1 the rate of projection had to be increased three times at least--forty-eight pictures per second--and the strain of this speed upon the film was so great that often it succumbed4 ,consequently1 before colour-cinematography could advance beyond the year #ahii--when the first patent was filed by ,greene--the chemist had to be called in once more to accomplish a miracle and make possible the dreams of inventors4 ,the sensitised emulsion had to be speeded up to such a degree that it was sensitive even to red light4 ,by this means the film is made 8panchromatic10 as it is called2 that is to say1 it becomes so sensitive that it will permit an exposure to be made as rapidly through the red as through the green screen4 ,but 8panchromatism0 brought its own drawbacks4 ,the film could no longer be handled in the dark-room illumined with a ruby lamp1 for fear of becoming fogged4 ,it has not been found practicable to impart panchromatism to the film at the time it is manufactured4 ,i do not mean to say that it cannot be done at that stage1 but the demand for such a film is so small that it is not worthy of present consideration on the part of the manufacturer4 ,until colour-cinematography becomes generally practised1 those engaged in its exploitation will be compelled to render their film panchromatic preparatory to exposure4 ,this means that the film as it arrives from the manufacturer must be submitted to a preliminary operation to augment its sensitiveness to light4 ,for this purpose it is passed through a 8colour-sensitising0 solution4 ,the precise constitution of this sensitising bath is jealously guarded1 though the materials employed in the process are well known1 and several formul which will render a film panchromatic have been published4 ,any one of three chemicals can be utilised to render the ordinary film so sensitive to light that the ruby lamp will fog it4 ,these are pinachrome1 pinacyanol1 and ethyl-violet4 ,the proportion of these fundamental chemicals varies1 the majority of investigators having evolved a particular formula which they have found to be the best suited to their own requirements4 ,the published formul1 however1 have proved quite reliable1 and have been productive of some excellent results2 and they provide the experimenter with a basis upon which to carry out his work4 ,recently a further development has been recorded4 ,w4 ,f4 ,greene1 the pioneer1 has successfully employed a new colour sensitiser1 which is faster than either of the three above-mentioned mediums4 ,panchromatising is a tedious operation4 ,the work has to be carried out practically in total darkness1 or at the utmost in the faint glimmer of a blue-black light4 ,even this slight illumination has to be used very sparingly1 being switched on only for a few seconds at a time4 ,after being passed through the colour sensitiser the film is wound upon a large drum and dried1 this operation being accelerated by rotating the drum at a high speed in a current of warm air4 ,when dry the film is wound upon the spool ready for use4 ,as may be supposed1 the operation is somewhat slow1 about three hours being occupied under the most favourable conditions in the process of sensitising and drying4 ,it is imperative that the film1 after being sensitised1 should be used as soon as possible4 ,it deteriorates rapidly2 the sensitiveness of the emulsion to red light becomes impoverished through keeping1 the life of stock so treated being1 as a rule1 one of only a few weeks4 ,another objection to colour cinematography is the expense4 ,when the three primary colours--red1 green1 and violet--are used1 demanding a photographing and projecting speed of forty-eight pictures per second--sixteen per second through each screen--as compared with sixteen pictures per second with black and white work1 three times the quantity of film has to be used4 ,accordingly1 the expense of the film alone is three times as heavy4 ,the further necessity for panchromatising the film before use increases the cost of the material still more4 ,by the time the 8stock0 has been treated with the colour sensitiser its cost is increased from #a;d41 or #c cents1 to about #c;d41 or #g cents1 per foot4 ,when tricolour cinematography is attempted1 three feet of film are required to record the movements of the subject during the space of one second1 as against one foot for black and white work4 ,with a view to reducing this heavy cost1 inventors concentrated their attention on the possibility of securing approximately true natural colours by the aid of two screens only--the green and the red4 ,in this way a third less film was required and the cost was reduced by an equal proportion4 ,this development was led by ,w4 ,f4 ,greene4 ,realising the disadvantages of the three screens1 he abandoned that system--although it has since been exploited--and in #aije perfected the first practical method of natural-colour cinematography through two screens--red and green4 ,a demonstration was given in the ,library of the ,royal ,institution on ,january #bfth1 #aijf4 ,this was not ,greene's first demonstration in two-colour work1 as in #aijj he devised a machine for achieving the same object1 which was exhibited before the ,royal ,photographic ,society in that year4 ,another diligent investigator in this field was ,mr4 ,albert ,smith1 who was striving towards colour cinematography at the same time as ,greene1 but independently of him4 ,the art fascinated him in the early days2 and although he prosecuted his experiments first in black and white1 the result of ,ives's efforts in still-life colour photography prompted him to wrestle with the problem of producing natural colours in moving pictures4 ,the elimination of the third or blue screen was his special study1 and years were expended in researches to this end1 involving countless experiments with the red and green screens1 varying in density and intensity from the colour point of view1 and in relation to one another4 ,for instance1 one screen1 say1 of emerald-green and the other of orange-red would first be used4 ,this proving unsatisfactory1 the proportion of the red in the one screen was increased1 the green remaining untouched4 ,then the green would be varied1 and then the red again1 the process being continued until a satisfactory result was obtained4 ,the search was rendered all the more exasperating when the screens which produced satisfaction on one day with a subject1 failed altogether with another subject the next day1 owing to variation in the light4 ,at last1 in #aijf1 ,mr4 ,smith's patent1 known as 8,kinemacolor10 made its appearance some eighteen months behind that of ,greene2 though it was not perfected sufficiently to be introduced to the public until #aijh4 ,undoubtedly 8,kinemacolor0 is at present the best-known commercial natural colour system4 ,the appearance of this process has stimulated the movement in colour cinematography to a pronounced degree1 and its improved appearance in #aiaa created a sensation4 ,some of the effects produced have been very beautiful1 and although they are far from perfect1 as those identified with the process will readily admit1 yet it constitutes an excellent stepping-stone for further improvement4 ,the statement that the blue screen has been eliminated will doubtless provoke discussion as to how the hues of a pronounced blue or purple effect so common in nature can be obtained4 ,if one picture is photographed through the red screen and the second through the green screen1 this alternation of exposure being continued throughout the film1 it seems certain that the result will be pictures wherein only green and red tones exist1 since no combination of these colours will give purple4 ,this1 in fact1 is the case1 and it constitutes the foremost imperfection in 8,kinemacolor02 the pictures do have a prevailing green or red tone4 ,but these tints become modified slightly4 ,the essential blue tone is partially supplied in two ways4 ,in the first place there is a certain proportion of blue associated with the green screen2 secondly1 when the electric arc light is used there is a pronounced blue tone in the light4 ,the combination of these factors1 to a certain but very small degree1 compensates for the absence of the blue screen4 ,on the other hand1 resort to the two screens serves to emphasise the direct colours4 ,the red and green tones do stand out with startling purity--8unnaturally vivid0 is a criticism that ,i have often heard--but the intermediate tones1 particularly those of the browns1 are strikingly soft4 ,some of the pictures are assailed as being unnatural in tone2 and to a certain extent the criticism is a just one4 ,in some instances1 however1 it is due to the fact that the spectator has never actually concentrated his attention upon colour effects in ,nature4 ,his eye has never given him a faithful report of their quality4 ,that 8,kinemacolor0 has severe limitations cannot be denied1 especially when it comes to dealing with ,nature direct4 ,fidelity to the myriad hues of ,nature1 ranging from one extreme end of the spectrum to the other1 cannot possibly be obtained by recourse to two screens4 ,one searches in vain for the true blue and the rich1 deep purple1 while the pure yellow also is absent1 being represented by varying tones of orange4 ,so far as the blues and purples are concerned1 they never can be obtained by resort to the two screens--red and green respectively--because what is known as the lower end of the spectrum is lost entirely by 8,kinemacolor40 ,the hues stop short at the boundary where green meets blue4 ,the public has sometimes drawn attention to another defect in colour cinematography4 ,it appears to photograph the subject in a brilliant sunlight1 regardless of the fact that sunlight kills colours4 ,every amateur photographer knows that if he exposes his plate upon a brilliantly lighted subject the tones are hard1 everything being practically resolved into an intense white and black1 while the leaves of trees appear to be covered with snow4 ,when such a disadvantage afflicts the black and white worker1 what can be said of a colour subject taken under the same conditions8 ,the brilliantly lighted points are lacking in tone1 and some very bizarre effects are produced in consequence4 ,when an essentially scenic subject is thrown upon the screen these defects are very manifest1 but when it is applied to such a subject as the ,coronation of the ,king the flaws are overlooked1 because public interest is concentrated upon the principal actors4 ,it cannot be denied that from the popular point of view the ,kinemacolor records of the ,coronation1 the ,investiture of the ,prince of ,wales1 and other ,royal subjects of the same time left little to be desired4 ,they brought the scene before millions with a wonderful realism and gorgeous blaze of colour such as never before in the history of moving pictures had been witnessed upon the screen4 ,the excellence of these portrayals established 8,kinemacolor0 firmly in the mind of the public4 ,another disconcerting feature which has aroused considerable comment in the public mind is the apparent duplication of the outlines of figures near the camera4 ,the most uninitiated observer cannot fail to see the outlines in green and red1 as if the superimposition were out of register4 8,fringing10 as this defect is called1 is difficult to eliminate in many instances1 and although often it is only momentary1 it is decidedly distressing4 ,it is due to diffraction1 the glass screen as the light passes through acting somewhat as a prism1 and splitting up the light into its component parts or groups of wave-lengths4 8,kinemacolor0 has vast possibilities in the presentation of picture-plays2 indeed1 this may be said to be its true province4 ,here one can prepare the scenery and costumes to come within the limitations of the two screens adopted2 the drawbacks can be eliminated by proper staging1 and all those colours omitted which cannot be faithfully reproduced4 ,even if the latter expedient is not practised1 the colour-distortion is not seen upon the screen4 ,the audience cannot see that a rich purple cloak has turned to a whitish-green1 or a brilliant yellow become reddish-orange4 ,in justice1 however1 it must be said that ,kinemacolor is only in its infancy2 it occupies the same position to-day that black-and-white cinematography did in the early 'nineties4 ,the combined efforts of several independent investigators will eliminate the defects one by one and effect steady improvements4 ,black-and-white cinematography has passed beyond the formative period and reached an advanced stage of development2 natural-colour cinematography must go through the self-same ordeal4 ,operators have not become accustomed to the new order of things1 and have not realised the many new factors that have to be taken into consideration4 ,the sooner they do so1 the more profitable will the art become4 ,a new rival1 8,biocolor10 has recently made its appearance4 ,this process is based upon the ,greene patents1 and the results achieved so far1 in combination with this indefatigable experimenter's latest discoveries1 represent a marked advance in the art4 ,not only are the tones purer to ,nature1 but 8fringing0 and other defects have been eliminated1 while the process is much simpler and cheaper4 ,considerable attention has been centred upon a new natural-colour cinematographic process which has recently made its appearance4 ,the three primary colours are used1 and are projected upon the screen simultaneously to present merely one image before the public1 as in the ,ives system of lantern-slide colour-projection4 ,the pictures are projected at the rate of sixteen per second in groups of three1 and the lighting arrangement is carried out upon different lines4 ,instead of a revolving shutter eclipsing the red image to permit the green picture to be brought into place1 the light is extinguished1 projection being carried out upon a flash system1 whereby a powerful beam of light is thrown momentarily through the three images and screens1 the pictures being changed in the period of darkness4 ,the flashing must be carried out with uniformity1 which is assured by electric-mechanical means1 independently of the operator4 ,the results1 it is stated1 show the most distinct advance so far made in natural-colour cinematography4 ,although colour-cinematography has made remarkable strides1 the monochrome picture has become established more firmly than ever4 ,the appearance of the new rival has stimulated perfection in the technical excellence of the latter process4 ,the monochrome possesses one overwhelming advantage over its competitor--it is far cheaper4 ,a subject which in black and white requires1 say1 #ejj feet of film1 demands1 as we have seen1 #a1jjj feet1 or twice the quantity of material1 for the two-colour record of the same subject4 ,at present also the monochrome film possesses finer and more brilliant detail1 is clearer1 and1 from the photographic standpoint1 leaves little to be desired4 ,it is becoming quite a common practice to relieve the monotonous black-and-white by the introduction of colouring effects4 ,for instance1 the impression of a bright moon-light night is conveyed by giving the pictures a prevailing blue tone2 for other scenes brown or red tones are given4 ,these effects are secured by steeping the film in a chemical solution in precisely the same way as platinotype and bromide papers are tinted after development4 8,toning10 as it is called1 is coming into extensive use1 especially in connection with the most artistic films4 ,the treatment imparts a solidity to the figures in the picture1 and gives a pleasing softness1 so that the pictures upon the screen possess a quasi-stereoscopic effect highly pleasing to the eye4 ,the beauty of this treatment is revealed very significantly in the films of ,italian manufacture1 and especially in the 8art0 productions of the ,cines ,company1 of ,rome4 ,there is no limitation to subsequent improving processes such as these1 and their effect is to implant the monochrome pictures more and more firmly in public estimation4 ,consequently1 the black-and-white picture is far from being eclipsed by its new rival2 in fact1 such a contingency is more remote to-day than it was ten years ago4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,moving ,,pictures ,,in ,,the ,,home ,will the cinematograph ever enter home life8 ,will the world and his wife ever become wedded to a camera with which they can secure life in motion by some simple and easy method1 just as now they can obtain still-life pictures by the aid of the hand-camera8 ,will the cinematograph become as popular as the ubiquitous ,kodak8 ,there is no doubt that the widespread favour extended to cinematography has brought about a popular desire to follow the art in an amateur manner1 as is possible in ordinary photography4 ,hitherto certain obstacles have stood in the way of the amateur enthusiast2 but these difficulties have been broken down in an ingenious manner4 ,the desire to practise the new cult has been increased by the number of firms engaged in the making of topical pictures and by the increasing demand for such subjects4 ,occasionally pictures command a high value1 fluctuating in proportion to public interest4 ,for instance1 the dramatic manner of ,blriot's flight across the ,channel caught the professional cinematographers by surprise4 ,elaborate arrangements had been made to secure pictorial records of this journey1 but only one man1 a wide-awake amateur1 obtained a film of the embarkation4 ,although his film was deficient in technique and photographic quality1 it commanded a high price2 and the enterprising photographer never had occasion to regret his enterprise1 for his initial expense was recouped several times over4 ,the cost of the camera and the expense of the film are the chief drawbacks to the popularisation of cinematography2 the bulkiness of the apparatus has also militated against its adoption by the amateur4 ,recently1 however1 these admitted drawbacks have been overcome1 and by methods which claim the distinct merit of ingenuity and resource4 ,about #ahhf a novel device known as the 8,kineograph0 appeared4 ,it was an anticipation of the 8,mutoscope10 which made such a bold bid for public appreciation in the early 'nineties and1 like the ,kineograph itself1 failed to make its mark4 ,a number of instantaneous photographs were printed and mounted upon separate leaves4 ,the pictures were placed in consecutive order and bound at one side to form a kind of book4 ,when the leaves were turned over rapidly1 giving fleeting though distinct glimpses of the successive pictures1 the idea was conveyed that motion was being represented4 ,recently this idea has been revived in the 8,kinora0 motion photography system4 ,this likewise made its first appearance some years ago1 but failed of success1 although it was distinctly ingenious4 ,it offered to the home in pictures just what the phonograph provides in regard to sound--the capture of a particular incident to be reproduced at leisure4 ,in a highly improved form the same device has recently reappeared1 and its reception augurs well for its future4 ,the amateur is provided with facilities for taking his own photographs1 a special camera having been evolved for the purpose of simple design and operation4 ,in general appearance it resembles the ordinary hand-camera1 measuring #i inches in length by #f inches wide by #g inches deep4 ,when loaded it does not weigh more than #g pounds4 ,externally it possesses few fittings4 ,there is the lens1 which can be focussed by moving the lens tube to and fro in an outer sleeve1 as in a telescope2 the view-finder1 placed on the top1 and the actuating handle at the right-hand side4 ,at the rear is the dial1 whereby is indicated the length of film exposed1 a focussing tube and the device whereby focussing is carried out4 ,illustration3 ,the ,kinora camera4 ,illustration3 ,the mechanism of the ,kinora camera showing paper negative film in position4 ,,moving ,,pictures ,,at ,,home4 ,the mechanism of the camera is very simple4 ,the sensitised ribbon is placed in a circular spool box and then is threaded through the film-gate and the intermittent gear1 to be taken finally in a second circular spool-box4 ,the intermittent gear differs entirely from that in the ordinary camera1 which works upon a claw or finger system with the film running over sprockets4 ,in the ,kinora camera below the gate there are two eccentric rollers1 mounted side by side1 acting in the same way as the rollers of the domestic mangle4 ,these rollers are split at one point through their entire length1 and when these two edges1 rotating synchronously but in opposite directions1 come together and in contact with the film1 which is fed between them1 they grip and pull it down the depth of one picture4 ,it may be pointed out that a similar movement was adopted in the very earliest cinematograph cameras built by ,greene and other experimenters1 in order to secure the requisite intermittent motion4 ,their imperfection was the uncertain motion of the rollers2 but in the ,kinora camera this defect has been completely overcome4 ,illustration3 ,the reel of positive prints4 ,the pictures are mounted separately upon leaves fixed to a core4 ,illustration3 ,,moving ,,pictures ,,at ,,home4 ,the ,kinora reproduction instrument4 ,it resembles a stereoscope1 and the pictures are exposed singly by rotating the handle4 ,the apparatus can be used either with a paper negative or the celluloid film4 ,the former is very satisfactory and inexpensive1 and it may be stated that this is the first occasion in which the paper negative has been applied successfully to motion-photography4 ,the camera is adapted to carry forty feet of ribbon1 which is sufficient for #fdj consecutive pictures1 the latter being precisely of the same dimensions as those obtained upon the ordinary celluloid cinematograph film--one inch in width by three-quarters of an inch deep4 ,paper is suited to ordinary work1 although the grain destroys sharpness to a slight extent2 however1 as such sensitised ribbon costs only #as4 #f;d4 7#cf cents7 per length of forty feet1 the drawback is slight4 ,if desired1 celluloid film can be used1 in which case the ribbon is one inch in width--three-eighths of an inch narrower than the standard cinematographic film1 although there is no variation in the size of the image1 since the necessity of perforating the edges has been obviated4 ,celluloid film printed in this manner cannot be used for the purposes of projection upon a screen4 ,moreover1 the celluloid film is expensive2 the paper sensitised ribbon is more suitable for home-work4 ,the paper negative is developed in the ordinary manner1 but as the operation is somewhat delicate1 the exposed ribbon should be sent to the manufacturers1 who also prepare the positive for a modest outlay4 ,in any case1 the positive must be prepared by the manufacturers1 as it is a somewhat intricate process1 demanding resort to special machinery2 the pictures have to be printed one by one1 on successive leaves in rotation1 and attached by one end to a bobbin so as to present a circular reel for use in the ,kinora projecting apparatus1 as shown in the illustration4 ,the pictures are printed upon bromide paper in such a way that the image stands upon a black background4 ,the latter is obtained by exposing the sensitised paper surrounding the negative image to the light at the same time that the negative is printed2 and as it becomes thoroughly exposed1 development brings it out perfectly black4 ,it looks as though the positive were printed upon paper and afterwards cut out and mounted upon a black background4 ,the positive has next to be submitted to a treatment whereby the back of the paper is coated with a dead black4 ,the strip of paper carrying the images is then cut to the requisite size by means of special machinery1 so that each picture forms a leaf about #c inches long by #a inch deep4 ,the blank end of each leaf is attached to a central core or reel1 some #fdj leaves being mounted edge-wise in this manner1 and the positive is then ready for projection4 ,the apparatus by means of which the motion is reproduced varies slightly in the different types4 ,in its simplest form it recalls the stereoscope in design1 only instead of two lenses it has one large rectangular magnifying-glass4 ,the reel is mounted upon the opposite end of the instrument in a horizontal manner so that the pictures stand vertically and parallel to the lens4 ,there is a small handle at one side whereby the reel of pictures is rotated through simple gearing1 while a metal finger rests lightly upon the extreme outer edge of the leaves in such a way as to permit only one picture to turn over at a time4 ,when this handle is turned and one is looking through the magnifying-glass1 the leaves fly over in rapid sequence1 producing a vivid illusion of animation4 ,in the second type of machine the reel is mounted in a cabinet1 which is fitted with two or more lenses1 so that two or more people can follow the movement of the pictures simultaneously4 ,the actuating mechanism is driven by clockwork1 as in a gramophone4 ,endless pleasure can be obtained with this instrument in the home4 ,pretty little incidents of domestic life1 such as children playing1 animals gambolling1 and so forth1 can be photographed and reproduced upon the reel6 ,if one is more ambitious one can cinematograph great events1 such as a horse race1 a boxing contest1 an express train at full speed--in short1 anything in motion4 ,it is only necessary to set the camera upon some rigid foundation1 if a tripod is not carried1 to secure steadiness during exposure4 ,there is one great benefit accruing from the use of this apparatus4 ,unless wanton carelessness is displayed1 one need not worry about under- or over-exposure4 ,the paper negatives are coated with an exceedingly rapid emulsion of considerable orthochromatic quality1 so that true colour-values are ensured4 ,a very noticeable feature is the ingenious focussing device4 ,instead of opening the camera and removing the film from the gate1 as in the ordinary cinematograph camera1 one has merely to slide a stop projecting from the back of the camera to the length of its slot4 ,by so doing the whole of the internal mechanism is moved bodily to one side to bring a small square of ground glass attached to the gate into position before the lens-tube1 when focussing can be carried out very easily and readily4 ,as already pointed out1 if celluloid films are employed with this camera1 they cannot be used for projection purposes1 because positives cannot be printed from them upon the standard perforated positive film4 ,consequently1 the amateur who wishes to take motion pictures for projection on the screen will find the ,kinora system valueless4 ,it was designed especially for the production of positive bromide prints mounted upon a reel to be used with the special viewing machine4 ,the true future for this ingenious development of the art undoubtedly lies in the possibility of purchasing at a reasonable price reels of 8star0 events and subjects of general interest or picture plays1 in the same way that one can purchase talking-machine records4 ,in this way motion-photography can indeed be brought to the fireside4 ,how can the art of cinematography be brought within the reach of the amateur8 ,this is the absorbing question of the moment4 ,moving pictures having become so popular1 the traveller wishes to secure animated records of the scenes which he has witnessed in foreign climes1 to reveal them to his friends1 exactly as he saw them1 within the home circle4 ,unfortunately1 such an achievement is impossible under existing conditions4 ,the apparatus1 both recording and projecting1 is expensive2 the film is costly2 while the problem incidental to the illuminant is not easily solved in the average home4 ,obviously1 in view of the fact that the film is so expensive1 some other system of recording and projecting animation must be employed4 ,at the same time1 any invention of this character aspiring for commercial success must be simple1 inexpensive1 immune from danger1 and compact4 ,at first sight it seems an almost impossible quest to secure all these essentials in a single stroke4 ,but it has been accomplished1 and what is more1 with absolute perfection4 ,to-day the amateur can take moving pictures and project them upon a screen at will1 for the edification of his friends1 more easily and cheaply than he can 8,kodak0 and project snap-shots by lantern-slides4 ,moreover1 the results thus obtained and shown are far superior to those obtainable with the methods and apparatus now in vogue4 ,this revolutionary achievement has been attained through the efforts of an indefatigable ,italian worker1 ,m4 ,gianni ,bettini4 ,this persevering inventor recognised that a totally different system would have to be evolved to meet the requirements of the millions4 ,the celluloid film was quite impracticable1 so he reverted to the early days when investigators strove1 and in vain1 to utilise glass for their purposes4 ,the early experimenters1 as ,i have described already1 followed the principle of one plate one picture4 ,the operation of changing the standard-size plate in its holder1 no matter how deftly accomplished1 occupied an appreciable interval of time1 which disturbed the rhythmic character of the action photographed4 ,monsieur ,bettini recognised this insurmountable drawback1 so set to work to devise a means of taking several successive images upon a single plate1 and his success in this direction constitutes one of the vital features of his invention4 ,the pictures are taken in a series of rows--sixteen to a row--and at the rate of sixteen per second4 ,but there is a radical departure from prevalent practice4 ,with the ordinary cinematograph apparatus the lens is fixed and the film is moved intermittently4 ,in the ,bettini system the sensitised surface is held rigidly1 and it is the lens which moves4 ,now1 this raises an important and novel point4 ,as the lens is moved continually to and fro a matter of #d inches--no two successive pictures in a row1 in fact1 are taken at the same focus--one would naturally expect that the pictures would vary in sharpness4 ,but such is not the case3 the picture at the left-hand extremity of the row is as sharp as that at the opposite end4 ,the whole principle of the ,bettini cinema--plaque1 as it is called1 is entirely new4 ,the camera itself1 a small contrivance1 wrought in aluminium1 measuring some #h inches in length by #d inches wide and #c inches high1 is no larger or heavier than a ,kodak snap-shot camera4 ,this box contains the actuating mechanism1 which comprises a longitudinal shaft1 carrying a peculiar thread1 on which is mounted1 and along which moves1 the objective1 motion being imparted thereto by the revolution of the handle in the ordinary way4 ,the sensitised plate1 instead of being slipped in position at the rear of the box and facing the lens1 is inserted at one side and at right-angles to the front aperture4 ,the objective is a combined lens and a prism mounted upon the travelling part4 ,the light1 passing through the front aperture1 enters the prism and thus is bent at right-angles through the objective on to the plate4 ,the plate itself measures #acj by #bae millimetres 7#e by #h inches71 and is mounted in a toothed rod on one side4 ,this rack is vertical and is moved downwards1 #f millimetres 7 inch7 at a time1 by the mechanism on which the objective is mounted1 when the latter has completed its length of travel4 ,the plate is held in its holder upon the left-hand side1 but the top and bottom edges of the respective first and last rows of pictures are flush with the edge of the plate4 ,the latter is slipped into the camera and travels downwards intermittently4 ,instead of a slide being used there are light-tight bags1 both top and bottom1 forming the magazines4 ,directly the plate has passed through the camera it falls into the lower bag1 while simultaneously a second plate follows in its train through the camera from the upper bag4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bettini ,,glass ,,plate ,,cinematograph4 ,the camera is used for projection in conjunction with an ordinary lantern4 ,the glass plates are mounted in a rack1 passed through the projector and collected in a magazine bag beneath4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,section ,,of ,a ,,bettini ,,glass ,,plate ,,record4 ,the plate measures #h inches long by #e inches wide4 ,there are sixteen successive pictures1 each measuring in4 by #c_/af in41 to a row and #cf rows1 representing #egf images1 on a plate4 ,as mentioned previously1 the depth of a row of pictures is one-quarter of an inch1 while the width of each image is three-tenths of an inch4 ,in commencing operations1 we will suppose that the objective is at the left-hand side of the plate1 and the first row of pictures is to be taken4 ,the handle is revolved1 and the lens moves across the sensitised surface intermittently1 until it reaches the right-hand edge4 ,the first row of pictures is completed4 ,at this moment1 while the shutter is closed1 the plate descends the depth of a picture--one-quarter of an inch--thereby bringing another strip of unexposed surface before the objective4 ,the lens now travels in the reverse direction1 i4e41 to the left-hand side of the plate1 in a similar manner4 ,when it gains the limit of its travel1 the plate again drops the depth of a line of images1 and the lens moves once more from left to right1 this see-sawing across the plate in parallel rows continuing until the bottom edge of the plate is reached4 ,as the toothed rack of the exposed plate falls away the toothed holder of the succeeding plate is taken up by the mechanism and the cycle of operations continued until the incident is recorded4 ,there is no break whatever between two successive plates1 as the feed is positive and accurate1 while similarly there is no interruption in the animation when the travelling lens reaches the end of a line1 because the movement of the plate takes place during the fraction of a second when the lens is covered by the opaque sector of the shutter4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,birth ,,of ,a ,,flower4 ,a wonderful ,kinemacolor film4 ,the pictures represent the stages of growth on the second1 fourth1 sixth1 and eighth days respectively4--,see page #aid4 ,illustration3 ,copyright1 ,kineto1 ,ltd4 ,,waging ,a ,,health ,,campaign ,,by ,,moving ,,pictures4 ,this film1 representing flies upon putrid meat1 was used in the ,united ,states in the war against the house fly with conspicuous success4 ,as each plate carries #cf rows of pictures1 each line containing #af images1 it will be seen that no less than #egf images1 each measuring three-tenths of an inch in width by one-quarter of an inch in depth1 can be recorded upon a single plate4 ,although so small the pictures are remarkably sharp1 clear1 distinct1 and full of detail2 indeed1 they rival the images upon the celluloid film in this respect4 ,having obtained the negative1 the positive is obtained by contact printing upon another glass surface as with a lantern slide4 ,now1 for projection the operator uses the camera with which the pictures were taken1 in conjunction with an ordinary projecting1 or magic1 lantern1 and the movement of the apparatus is precisely the same as in taking the photos4 ,the positive plate in its toothed rack is slipped into the camera and the handle revolved1 thereby causing the lens to travel across the plate intermittently4 ,when it reaches the end of a row of pictures1 the plate is forced downwards1 one-quarter of an inch at a time1 while another rack and positive plate are inserted when one plate is exhausted4 ,the principle of projection is decidedly novel and may be understood from the accompanying diagram1 ,fig4 #bb4 ,the objective with its prism is mounted on one side of the plate1 while on the other side of the latter is a second prism on the longitudinal axis of the lantern condenser4 ,the light from the lantern ,b strikes the prism ,c and there is bent at right-angles towards the image on the plate ,a4 ,passing through the plate1 it enters the lens ,d1 to which the prism ,e is attached1 and once more the ray is deflected at right-angles to be thrown upon the screen ,f4 ,an ordinary magic lantern suffices for the purpose1 and the incandescent mantle and gas may be used as an illuminant--petrol gas and acetylene are equally suitable--if electricity or the oxy-hydrogen light is not available4 ,the picture on the screen may be of any desired dimensions1 inasmuch as the small images1 owing to their sharpness1 clearness1 and striking wealth of detail1 enable enlargement to be carried to any degree1 so long as the illuminant is sufficiently powerful4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb--,,the ,,optical ,,principle ,,of ,,projection ,,with ,,the ,,bettini cinema--plaque4 ,there is one point which must be explained4 ,when the lens in the camera is at the left-hand edge of the plate1 owing to the greater distance of the objective from the object photographed1 everything will be of smaller proportions than when the lens is at the right-hand edge1 as then it is brought #d inches nearer the subject4 ,in other words1 as the lens moves across the plate from left to right1 the dimensions increase2 on the other hand1 they diminish as the lens moves back again4 ,this might be considered to be an insurmountable obstacle1 but it is not1 because when the positive is projected a different effect is produced4 ,the picture at the left-hand edge of the plate1 which in the camera was the smallest1 owing to its greater distance from the object1 now becomes enlarged to a greater degree than that at the opposite end of the row1 since the former is #d inches farther from the screen4 ,by this arrangement a correction takes place1 the objects in all the images in a row being brought to a uniform size4 ,seeing that continuity of motion is governed purely by the feeding of the plates1 it will be seen that the whole of the longest incidents may be photographed4 ,a magazine can take twelve plates1 or more1 according to desire4 ,in the former instance a total of #f1iab pictures may be obtained4 ,seeing that each row of pictures upon a plate is equivalent to a foot of celluloid film1 a single plate will carry the same number of pictures as thirty-six feet of the latter4 ,on this basis a dozen plates will be equivalent to #dcb feet1 or more than two spools of celluloid film1 seeing that a spool as fed into the camera generally represents a length of #bjj feet4 ,the most influential factor1 however1 is that of running costs1 if the expense in regard to sensitised surface may be so termed4 ,a strip of film thirty-six feet in length1 the equivalent of a ,bettini plate1 at #b;d41 or #e cents1 per foot1 would represent #gs4 #f;d41 or approximately #b4 ,the glass plate costs two pence or four cents 7both negative and positive71 so that with the ,bettini glass plate system an incident recorded in #f1iab pictures1 and occupying about seven minutes to take and project1 would cost only #ds4 7#a7 for both negative and positive plates1 as compared with #d #ajs41 or #bb4ej1 for positive and negative film1 to carry the same pictorial record4 ,the possibilities of the ,bettini cinema--plaque system1 therefore1 are obvious4 ,the invention brings the art of cinematography within reach of the amateur2 introduces moving pictures to the drawing-room as completely and cheaply as the phonograph conveys sound to the fireside2 provides the photographer with a far more fascinating hobby2 while its professional applications are illimitable4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,motion-,,photography ,,as ,,an ,,educational ,,force ,there remains no doubt whatever that the cinematograph has completely won over the great public--the many millions who are constantly seeking fresh fields of amusement and diversion4 ,of all the classes that patronise the moving-picture entertainment1 the children form the one most open to its influence and most responsive to what it offers them2 and it is this well-known impressionableness of the young mind that has set people thinking of the educational responsibility of the moving-picture show4 ,from this it is but a step to the question1 ,may not the cinematograph be brought into the schoolroom8 ,the subject has several aspects that are worth treating somewhat at length4 ,the firm of ,path ,frres has here1 as in so many other directions1 been first in the field4 ,let us examine some of its educational films4 ,the peculiar properties possessed by the magnet are profoundly mysterious to the child4 ,text-books may be written in the simplest language and freely illustrated with diagrams1 but the points still remain somewhat obscure4 ,this ,french manufacturing company has prepared a film1 8,the ,magnet10 in which the well-known subject-matter of the school book is illustrated1 and the phenomena described therein are demonstrated in a simple manner by visual records of the peculiar properties possessed by the magnet4 ,the familiar experiments with the magnet and iron filings are treated simply and with endless variety4 ,if the pupils see the teacher perform the manipulations with filings and magnet in the usual way1 the experiment conveys no tangible idea1 and interest is not greatly aroused4 ,but when the same magnet is thrown upon the screen in movement1 and is ten feet or so in height1 while the iron filings are so magnified that they resemble not dust1 but thorns or long pins1 a more convincing and indelible impression is conveyed4 ,one may have seen many diagrams showing the lines of force1 as they are called4 ,but no diagram can produce the unforgettable impression gained by the sight of the phenomenon itself occurring before the eyes4 ,the iron filings may be seen resolving themselves into the two distinct groups about the poles1 as if imbued with life1 and the process may be followed from beginning to end with perfect ease1 owing to the size to which the filings are magnified in projection4 ,the operation of natural laws is indelibly impressed upon the schoolboy when he is shown some novel experiment in physics carried out upon the screen4 ,physiology and anatomy can be taught by producing pictures taken by ,x-ray photography4 ,history ought surely to be a successful field for the educational cinematograph4 ,the portrayal by ,path ,frres of episodes during the ,reign of ,terror and the ,napoleonic era2 the representation of the ,normans landing in ,england1 the discovery of ,america by ,columbus--these and similar pictures have already shown the wide possibilities of the historical film4 ,of course1 great care must be taken to adhere to strict historical truth in fact and setting2 when they will greatly serve to fix in the pupil's mind events and historical atmosphere1 and aid him in distinguishing various periods4 ,a film worthy of introduction into the class-room is that described in ,chapter ,,xvii41 showing the birth of a flower4 ,the fact that this film is produced in natural colours enhances its effect2 a schoolboy would be hard indeed to impress if he failed to appreciate the wonderful significance of this evolution of the hyacinth from the bulb to the flowering stage4 ,again1 he is enabled to witness upon the screen the birth of the common house-fly1 and its entire span of existence4 ,he can see how ants work and live1 and how the bee manufactures its honey4 ,as a corollary to the matter-of-fact and uninteresting text-book the cinematograph film cannot be excelled4 ,it presents in actual movement what mere words1 which have to be committed to memory1 seek to convey without any durable result4 ,indeed1 there is not the slightest doubt that a thousand pictures will impress themselves upon the schoolboy's mind1 and impart to him more definite knowledge of their subject in one minute than hours of hammering with the aid of text-book and blackboard4 ,even actual ocular demonstration fails to be so convincing as a projection upon a whitened sheet1 where everything immediately concerned is magnified to an extreme degree4 ,illustration3 ,,cinematographing ,,africa ,,from ,a ,,locomotive4 ,in order to secure scenes along the ,cape to ,cairo ,railway a special platform was erected over the cow-catcher of a railway engine for the convenience of ,mr4 ,butcher and his cameras4--,see page #abe4 ,the inventor of the ,kinetoscope1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,alva ,edison1 is of opinion that the cinematograph will displace all other methods in the schoolroom for the teaching of geography4 ,both teachers and pupils will be inclined to agree with this dictum4 ,a teacher may talk for hours about the tremendous height of the peaks in the ,andes1 the racial characteristics of the natives of ,abyssinia1 or the manner in which rivers are born on the flanks of mighty glaciers4 ,but words sometimes convey very little to the immature mind4 ,throw upon the screen a series of pictures of an actual journey1 and the youngster gleans the facts without the slightest effort4 ,he sees the towering1 snow-capped rocks with their precipitous flanks2 the melting snow and ice flowing down from the mighty glacier and forming a tempestuous1 rushing river2 he sees in their natural surroundings the folk of a hundred strange and distant tribes4 ,perhaps he is transported for the time to the deck of a steamer driving its way up through the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river and the ,great ,lakes4 ,books and pictures have given him but a faint idea of these noble waters2 but when he sees their beauty1 and witnesses the enormous traffic carried upon their broad bosoms1 figures and facts take on new significance1 and are never forgotten4 ,whatever scene he sees1 from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 from the ,arctic to the ,antarctic circle1 that scene becomes henceforth not a mere spot on the map1 but a living reality4 ,illustration3 ,looking into the ,crater of the ,volcano4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of ,jury's ,imperial ,pictures1 ,ltd4 ,,mount ,,etna ,,in ,,eruption4 ,the plumes of smoke as seen from the ,observatory4 ,one of the most daring and striking cinematograph films ever taken4 ,one of the most remarkable series of pictures worthy of inclusion in this category is that obtained of ,mount ,etna in eruption4 ,the cinematograph operator displayed wonderful daring in venturing to the verge of the crater of this vent to internal fires4 ,the reward for his intrepidity certainly conveys a more realistic and vivid impression of a belching volcano than the most imaginative flights of description in text-books4 ,the success of the educational campaign of the cinematograph depends upon the suitability of the film4 ,the cinematographer has roved through all the fields of science securing interesting pictures in metallurgy1 natural history1 manufacturing industries1 electricity1 agriculture1 horticulture1 and so forth4 ,the educational value of the films now produced is beyond dispute2 but it may be that they are somewhat too old for children4 ,the film manufacturers have1 up to the present1 chiefly consulted the tastes of adults2 and the films of a distinctly educational character which they produce appeal to the mature rather than to the child mind4 ,on the other hand1 it should not be at all difficult to produce films which1 like the one already described1 representing experiments with the magnet1 would give regular instead of incidental instruction upon subjects actually treated in schools--animated text-books1 in short4 ,but as yet the picture producer has not received sufficient encouragement from the educational authorities to warrant him in preparing such films4 ,unfortunately1 the feeling against the moving picture has not been entirely eliminated1 despite its tremendous popularity4 ,once an energetic ,board of ,education realises the possibilities of cinematography as a supplement to the information conveyed by text-books and manuals1 the film manufacturers will hasten to supply the demand thus created4 ,the last obstacle will have been removed2 for the field presents no special mechanical difficulties1 the only serious one having been removed by the discovery of the non-inflammable film4 ,the perfecting of this film has obviated the necessity of confining the installation within an iron box--a requirement which militated very appreciably against the introduction of the cinematograph into schools4 ,a striking illustration of the educational value of moving pictures is revealed in the beautiful series of 8,empire0 pictures which are being secured by ,messrs4 ,william ,butcher and ,sons4 ,they are completing what may be described best as a cinematographic encyclopdia of ,greater ,britain--its peoples1 resources1 industries1 sports1 and scenic beauties4 ,every corner of the ,empire is being searched for entrancing pictorial contributions to this project4 ,as might have been expected1 others beside educational institutions have seen in the moving-picture show a powerful instrument of propaganda4 ,political1 charitable1 municipal1 and numerous other organisations have pressed the celluloid ribbon into service to aid them in their crusades4 ,it has been of far-reaching utility in preaching the gospel of sanitation and prosecuting the war against disease1 for the films convey their lessons in a terribly realistic manner4 ,the ,americans have produced a striking film for the dissemination of information as to how to combat advantageously the ravages of the great 8,white ,plague0 of consumption4 ,the various ,american hygiene associations also have pressed home their campaign against the common house-fly with commendable vigour by means of the cinematograph4 ,other photographs of a similar character have been produced in various places for the purpose of initiating the public into the causes of certain diseases and maladies1 and the best means of prevention or treatment4 ,medical science has profited materially from the perfection of the art and its application to surgery4 ,it is not always possible for students to be present at a peculiarly delicate and abnormal operation4 ,although the subject may be described at length in the technical papers1 words fail to be so emphatic as a pictorial reproduction of the feat4 ,not only can the operation be followed closely when reproduced upon the screen1 but1 if desired1 any particular phase in the achievement can be selected1 and by enlargement upon photographic paper it can be subjected to closer and more minute investigation at leisure4 ,even the ,government has not failed to recognise the power of the cinematograph4 ,some years ago ,mr4 ,robert ,paul applied to the ,war ,office for permission to film scenes in a soldier's life4 ,the facilities were granted1 and some first-class pictures were obtained4 ,they proved immensely popular with the public1 and were far more potent as a means of inducing enlistment with the colours than the most glowing word-pictures painted by glib1 persuasive recruiting sergeants4 ,this idea has been copied by other nations1 and to-day the cinematograph is regarded as an indispensable weapon for attracting recruits to the land and sea services4 ,religious institutions have not been backward in realising the value of animated pictures in preaching the gospel of faith4 ,the producer1 by means of the stage and actors1 can present any episode from the ,creation to the ,resurrection4 ,the world before the ,deluge1 the toil of the ,israelites in the land of the ,pharaohs1 the ,sacrifice of ,abraham1 the ,passage of the ,red ,sea1 with the destruction of the ,egyptian hosts1 the story of ,samson and ,delilah1 the ,fall of ,babylon1 scenes from the ,life of ,christ--all these and many others help to familiarise both old and young with the ,bible stories1 and add wonderfully to their convincingness1 as the following episode shows3--,a teacher was describing the ,passage of the ,red ,sea4 ,the children followed his words intently2 and his peroration was accompanied by a piping voice exclaiming3 8,yes1 teacher1 ,i know that is right60 8,why80 asked the somewhat startled teacher4 8,because ,i saw it60 ,the teacher was perhaps prepared to chide at this flight of imagination2 but the child soon explained that the previous evening she had been to a picture theatre and had seen the ,israelites crossing the ,red ,sea4 ,among the ,american preachers the significance of the cinematograph is beginning to be recognised4 ,ministers see in the projector a valuable adjunct to their teaching1 and are disposed to introduce it into their churches4 ,i am at liberty to quote in this connection a letter from one of the leading luminaries in ,american church circles1 which was received by ,mr4 ,richard ,g4 ,hollaman4 ,the divine wrote3 8,my opinion is that the moving picture is the coming great educator4 ,this ,i believe to be true1 not only in the education of the youth1 but in the church4 ,i believe in a very few years every well-equipped church will have a moving-picture apparatus1 so that the minister will appeal to the eye more than to the ear40 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,recent ,,developments3 ,,the ,,growth ,,and ,,popularity ,,of ,,the ,,cinematograph3 ,,some ,,facts ,,and ,,figures3 ,,conclusion ,in the opening chapter of this book cinematography is described as an illusion3 that the eye believes it sees continuous animation in the pictures thrown upon the screen in accordance with the law of visual persistence4 ,i referred also to the fact that an effort had been made to remove this illusory effect1 and to produce upon the white wall by photographic agency results identical with those obtainable by the aid of the camera obscura4 ,the outcome of these investigations1 which have been pursued patiently for many years by one whose name is associated inseparably with the art from its earliest days1 ,w4 ,f4 ,greene1 is a new type of camera and projector4 ,the camera is fitted with two lenses mounted side by side4 ,it is as if two cameras of the usual type were clamped together to form a single instrument1 the two film-moving mechanisms being driven by one handle1 and a single shutter1 mounted centrally1 serving to open and close each lens in turn4 ,in this system two spools of film are required1 one for each half of the camera1 and an image is recorded upon each sensitised band alternately4 ,the shutter with its opaque sector1 being mounted between the two lenses1 eclipses one while the other is exposed4 ,the result is that two different cinematograph film records of the same subject are obtained4 ,the left-hand camera photographs those incidents which are lost while the film is being moved in the right-hand camera during the fraction of a second the lens of the latter is covered1 and vice vers4 ,if the camera is run at a speed of thirty-two pictures per second1 representing sixteen pictures for each lens1 either of the two films when run through the ordinary projector gives a faithful representation of the event photographed4 ,at the same time1 however1 each film gives a different record1 for the simple reason that one film carries the moving incidents which the other has lost during the regularly intermittent closing of the lens4 ,the projector works upon a similar principle4 ,there are the two objectives with attendant mechanisms driven by a single handle1 mounted side by side1 and with a common shutter mounted centrally between4 ,projection is identical with recording4 ,the picture is thrown from the right-hand objective1 while the left lens is covered1 and vice vers4 ,at first sight the advantage of such a double system might seem somewhat obscure1 but a little explanation will demonstrate its advantages4 ,with the single camera and projector the pictures shown on the screen are isolated incidents--some phase of motion must be lost while the lens is closed to permit a further area of unexposed film to be brought into position behind the lens1 although the interval of eclipse is very short indeed4 ,with the double and alternating system complete continuous motion is photographed and projected4 ,as a matter of fact1 this double camera and projector actually records and throws on the screen more than the eye sees4 ,the human organ works upon the same principle broadly as the single camera1 because the periodical eclipse of the eye by the lid1 which is known as 8blinking10 interrupts continuous vision1 in just the same manner as the shutter of the lens in its eclipsing action4 ,although the lid falls and rises very quickly so that the interruption of sight is exceedingly brief1 a certain phase of movement is lost4 ,this is apparent when a very swiftly moving object passes before the eyes4 ,in order to lose no part of the movement the eyes are strained1 and the periodical action of the eyelid is postponed so long as possible4 ,with the double cinematograph1 therefore1 as a section of sensitised surface always is exposed during the running of the machine1 either through the right or left-hand lens1 it follows that the whole of the movement must be photographed4 ,in fact1 the action is exactly the same as if the eyelids closed and opened alternately4 ,it might be explained in connection with this physical action that no apparent interruption in the sight is conveyed to the brain1 because the movement of the lids is very rapid1 and owing to the principles of the law of visual persistence4 ,the pictures thrown from this double projector produce an effect upon the screen precisely similar to that of the camera obscura4 ,there is only one difficulty attending its use4 ,unless the instrument is used in a large hall1 and the picture is thrown from a great distance1 the images do not superimpose correctly4 ,they are thrown upon the sheet at converging angles to one another1 and the rays of light accordingly from each lens do not strike the sheet at right-angles to the longitudinal axis of each objective4 ,the result is that the picture is narrower slightly at one end than the other1 and the position of the narrow end flits from one side of the sheet to the other1 according as to whether the picture is being thrown from the left or right-hand lens4 ,at short range and with a small picture this peculiarity is very pronounced1 but as the length of the throw--the distance of the lantern from the sheet--is increased1 it becomes less and less observable until at last it escapes detection4 ,although the mechanism requires two spools of film1 the total length needed to record faithfully a particular event is no greater than with a single camera and projector4 ,in the latter case a minimum speed of about sixteen pictures per second is required4 ,with the double instrument a similar number of exposures suffices1 for the simple reason that each lens records one half the movement while the other photographs the second moiety of the movement4 ,this means eight pictures per second for each lens1 making sixteen pictures per second for the two--the same as by the ordinary instrument4 ,the disadvantage1 of course1 is that two rolls of film are required to give a complete picture1 and care has to be displayed to keep the positive films in pairs for the projector1 while threading up the latter is a somewhat longer process4 ,again1 should one film break and it become necessary to cut out a few pictures to obtain a perfect joint1 it would be necessary to remove the relative pictures to an equal extent upon the second film4 ,under these circumstances1 therefore1 it would appear that the di-optic projector would be reserved to the more delicate phases of cinematography1 such as scientific research4 ,the development of cinematography in the past has been attributable in a very great degree to the enterprise of the ,french nation1 and that country still remains ahead of all others in this peculiar work4 ,the valuable investigations of ,dr4 ,marey never have been forgotten1 and the work with which he was identified is continued still by enthusiastic investigators in cinematographic science4 ,the 8,marey ,institute0 is unique1 in that it is the only establishment of its class devoted to what might be termed the higher branches of the art in the world4 ,it is fitted with special and complete apparatuses for the prosecution of any especial research in which an experimenter may be interested1 so that he can carry out his work under the most favourable conditions4 ,the foremost scientists of the world1 who realise in moving pictures more than a means of amusing the public1 are members of the ,institute1 and the results it has achieved are of far-reaching value4 ,a typical illustration of the work carried out at this institution is described in ,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,m4 ,lucien ,bull1 the assistant director1 is one of many indefatigable workers in the particular field of operations with which the establishment is identified4 ,pioneer investigation is fostered1 and accordingly often follows highly interesting lines1 not only in regard to cinematography in its most popular form1 but also in its collaboration with science in one or other of its varied branches4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,cradle ,,of ,,cinematography03 ,,the ,,marey ,,institute ,,in ,,paris4 ,illustration3 ,by permission of the ,director of the ,marey ,institute4 ,,the ,,latest ,,marvel ,,in ,,moving ,,pictures4 ,combining the ,x-rays with the cinematograph4 ,one of ,monsieur ,carvallo's remarkable films4 ,for instance1 ,m4 ,j4 ,carvallo embarked upon a series of investigations to combine the ,rntgen rays with the cinematograph so as to obtain an absolutely reliable moving-picture record of what takes place in the organs of the human body4 ,it was a difficult undertaking1 owing to the peculiar problems associated with the task4 ,many experimenters had endeavoured to work with the ,x-rays1 but had failed4 ,in the first place1 ,m4 ,carvallo had to evolve and construct a special type of apparatus for his purpose4 ,it is of a complicated character1 more especially as the exposures had to be made at a high speed per second4 ,unlike ,m4 ,lucien ,bull1 whose apparatus ,i have described already1 ,m4 ,carvallo resorted to the familiar intermittent motion1 and in such a way that the number of exposures may be varied from every twenty seconds to one per hour1 according to the character of the subject under investigation4 ,the camera is driven by an electric motor1 and the arrangement is of such a nature that once set in operation it demands no further attention1 even if the experiment is prolonged over several days4 ,illustration3 ,a sensational incident4 ,the heroine gashing her hand to explain the presence of blood on her sleeve to the ,austrian soldier4 ,illustration3 ,a mimic fight in the public street to produce a realistic battle scene between the ,italian and ,austrian forces4 ,,after ,,fifty ,,years4 ,this film won the first prize of #be1jjj francs for the ,ambrosio ,company at the recent ,turin ,exhibition4 ,he found also that the standard cinematograph film1 giving a picture one inch wide by three-quarters of an inch deep1 was not suited to his purpose1 so a special film was prepared to yield pictures of larger dimensions1 while the sensitiveness of the emulsion was also augmented very appreciably4 ,this was essential1 inasmuch as the discharges in the ,x-ray bulbs are of variable duration1 ranging1 in fact1 from #a_/abjjth to #a_/aejjth of a second4 ,by means of his apparatus he obtained some very interesting and instructive pictures1 such as showing the process of digestion in the frog1 mouse1 chicken1 etc4 ,the subjects were fed with a peculiar paste1 or the usual food combined with basic bismuth nitrate4 ,as a result of these successful experiments a further application of moving pictures has been revealed4 ,in combination with the ,x-rays the apparatus should prove highly useful for ascertaining what actually takes place under certain conditions in the various organs of the human body4 ,the ,marey ,institute undoubtedly is the cradle of cinematography1 and similar institutions should be founded in every country for the prosecution of scientific research4 ,moving pictures have long since issued from the purely amusing stage1 and although they will never lose their popular appreciation1 the sterner phases of work open to this craft should not be neglected1 for there is no science in which cinematographic records of certain phenomena would not serve to widen our knowledge1 and at the same time offer conclusive evidence for the refutation of many popular fallacies1 or enlighten us regarding the mysteries of others4 ,so far as the popular picture is concerned1 every effort is being made to elevate what may be termed the cinematograph drama4 ,sensationalism is in keen demand1 and is likely to maintain its measure of appreciation so long as it is free from demoralisation4 ,an interesting illustration of the manner in which this movement may be fostered has been offered this year in connection with the ,international ,exhibition at ,turin4 ,prizes exceeding #dj1jjj francs were offered for the best films in a cinematograph competition1 the subjects to include popular drama1 science1 and education4 ,the ,grand ,prix of #be1jjj francs was awarded to the ,ambrosio ,film ,company for the subject entitled 8,after ,fifty ,years40 ,this concern has been responsible for many striking and magnificent productions1 which have compelled attention as much for photographic quality1 stage setting1 and technical excellence as for dramatic force4 ,indeed1 ,signor ,ambrosio1 who was formerly a well-known ,italian portrait photographic artist1 and consequently was able to bring valuable knowledge and technique into the ,italian cinematographic industry1 forced his way into the closed ,american market by sheer merit1 and forcibly impressed upon the ,american picture palace public the high standard of the films produced in his native land4 8,after ,fifty ,years0 is a film of powerful dramatic intensity1 full of that exciting incident1 carefully blended with sentiment1 which appeals so strongly to the picture palace clientle1 especially the vivid scenes of fighting in the streets between ,austrian and ,italian forces in the troublous times of #ahei4 ,the ,ambrosio ,company also carried off the first prize of #e1jjj francs for a popular science film dealing with 8,the ,life of the ,butterfly0 and 8,the ,bee40 ,this is one of the best natural history films that has been seen yet1 for it illustrates the marvellous metamorphosis of the caterpillar into the butterfly in an attractive manner4 ,the first prize of #e1jjj francs for educational films was given to the ,cines ,company of ,rome for a film entitled 8,the ,little ,sardinian ,drummer10 which company also secured a prize of #d1jjj francs for a dramatic subject1 8,st4 ,francis of ,assisi40 ,there is no doubt that the example of the ,turin ,exhibition authorities will be followed in subsequent expositions of such an international character1 and this tendency should promote a healthy competition and friendly rivalry between the various producers of all countries to excel4 ,although the picture palace1 with its attractive faade and brilliantly illuminated entrance1 is a familiar building in our towns and cities1 few people can form any idea of the grip this form of amusement has secured upon the public1 of its commercial proportions1 or of its rapid expansion4 ,fifteen years ago there was not a single theatre providing a complete entertainment with a programme of moving pictures purely and simply4 ,the picture palace had its birth in ,france1 and the ,parisian public extended such a warm greeting to the new diversion1 which offered a welcome and novel relief to the prevailing forms of amusement1 that it developed into a rage4 ,in a short time the craze spread throughout the world1 and moving-picture theatres sprang up like mushrooms in every civilised country between the two ,poles4 ,at the present day there are some #d1jjj picture palaces of all descriptions scattered throughout the ,british ,isles1 and these are patronised by the public in their tens of thousands daily4 ,the money expended upon this form of entertainment is incalculable1 but it rolls continually into the coffers of the theatres throughout twelve or fourteen hours every day1 the larger proportion of these establishments offering a continuous show1 with a programme lasting #a hours4 ,the remaining theatres give two performances1 afternoon and evening respectively1 providing about three solid hours of recreation and education in each instance4 ,the prices of admission for the most part are very low1 though in the better class theatres they approach somewhat closely to those prevailing with the modern music-hall4 ,on the ,continent the picture palaces aggregate several thousands1 and are supported by the public with equal enthusiasm4 ,curiously enough1 ,germany has been the most lethargic nation4 ,for many years an attitude of complete indifference was maintained towards the cinematograph4 ,that country is now waking up1 but so far as the manufacturing aspect of the industry is concerned1 it is far behind the more progressive countries4 ,the ,german picture palaces depend for their programme almost exclusively upon foreign films4 ,strange to say1 the ,english productions appear to make the strongest appeal to ,teutonic fancies1 although the ,french1 ,american1 and ,italian producers are striving hard to capture this highly promising and expanding market4 ,in the ,united ,states the development of the movement has been phenomenal4 ,i have described already the wondrous boom in 8store shows40 ,the greater majority of these 8palaces0 enjoyed a brief meteoric career1 as they became superseded by more pretentious buildings with perfection in comfort and luxury4 ,to-day there are about #ad1jjj moving-picture theatres appealing for support between the ,atlantic and ,pacific seaboards4 ,it is computed that these establishments are visited by nearly #e1jjj1jjj men1 women1 and children every day4 ,although low prices for admission rule1 it is estimated that about #acj1jjj1jjj1 or #bf1jjj1jjj1 are spent by the ,american public upon this form of amusement in the course of twelve months4 ,the coming of the picture palace has created a new race of playgoers who find infinite delight in the varied programme offered upon the screen4 ,at the same time1 however1 the legitimate and vaudeville theatres have been deprived of much of their support4 ,this effect is reflected by the number of buildings originally built for dramatic presentations which have had to close their doors for lack of patronage4 ,when converted and re-opened under the magic sway of the projector1 film1 and sheet1 however1 they have embarked upon a remarkably prosperous new lease of life4 ,the stage in ,great ,britain is threatened in a similar manner4 ,a few years ago1 when the music-hall entertainment was overhauled and an entirely new era was created1 the legitimate theatre suffered severely4 ,bitter antagonism developed and has prevailed between the two caterers for public amusement4 ,now both are being threatened by a common enemy4 ,the picture palace1 which has been despised for so long1 is making its influence felt4 ,in ,london the competition is not experienced so keenly1 perhaps1 as in the provinces1 where many theatres have succumbed to the attack of moving pictures4 ,there is no indication that the movement has gained the height of its success4 ,moving picture palaces are being built and opened on all sides every day4 ,the irresistible force with which the cinematograph is sweeping forward is proved by the enormous quantity of film which is produced4 ,great ,britain is an open market for producers throughout the world1 and at the present day something like #aej1jjj feet of new subjects are offered to the picture palaces every week4 ,if the present demand is maintained together with the rate of production1 this volume will be doubled within the next five years4 ,the output in ,america likewise is enormous1 although in that country it is confined for the most part to the productions of home firms1 the foreign film being allowed to enter only in small quantities4 ,the ,motion ,picture ,patents ,company1 composed of the largest members in the ,united ,states' manufacturing industry1 and swearing allegiance to the ,edison patents1 has an aggregate output of about #a1ejj1jjj feet per week1 each producer contributing from three to five new subjects to this total4 ,this community of interests1 which was formed primarily to eliminate the objectionable pictures which were being shown extensively throughout the country1 and which were responsible for considerable obloquy being hurled against the cinematograph1 arranged on its formation to pay ,mr4 ,edison a royalty of half-a-cent1 or one farthing1 upon every foot of film which they printed in the ,united ,states4 ,on the above total output1 therefore1 it will be seen that the famous ,american derives a revenue of #g1ejj1 or #a1ejj1 per week from the ,american moving-picture loving public4 ,the financial investments in the industry in all its complex branches--film manufacture1 play producing1 machine making1 picture palaces1 etc4--represent several millions sterling1 while tens of thousands of men1 women1 and children find employment in different capacities4 ,although it might appear that there are sufficient producers in operation at present for the world's needs1 this is far from being the case4 ,new markets are being opened up constantly1 while others are in the early stages of development4 ,when the industry in these new centres commences to move forward in a manner characteristic of the expansion in the older countries1 the demand for film will become twice or thrice what it is to-day4 ,consequently there is ample room for doubling the existing manufacturing facilities4 ,the promise of the future is shown conclusively from the fact that the foremost film-play manufacturers in ,france1 ,italy1 and the ,united ,states are extending and enlarging their plants to meet the increasing demands for their particular products4 ,one might naturally ask3 ,how is ,great ,britain benefiting from this wonderful expansion8 ,so far as film-play production is concerned1 there is every indication that this country will profit now that conservatism is being abandoned4 ,the fiscal position places the ,english manufacturer somewhat at a disadvantage1 but this handicap can be removed entirely by the display of more financial confidence in the film-play producing business1 where the law of the 8survival of the fittest0 is waged to its logical conclusion4 ,a few years ago the ,british product was distinctly inferior to the foreign films1 whether considered from the acting1 dramatic1 photographic1 or any other point of view4 ,even to-day the ,british films are not quite up to the technical standard of the foreign manufacturers1 while the histrionic quality is deficient4 ,the plays likewise lack that grip incidental to the foreign picture dramas1 and there should be excellent scope in this country for competent and imaginative picture-playwrights4 ,the ,british producers have failed also to recognise the merit of the stock company1 on the plea that the public tires of seeing the same faces time after time in successive plays4 ,the fallacy of this contention has been recognised at last1 because the public now has its film idols on the screen1 in just the same way as it has its footlight favourites on the stage4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether the ,english producers will ever rise to the same plane in this respect as their contemporaries in the ,united ,states1 who gamble practically for the exclusive services of actors and actresses4 ,some of the ,american cinematograph stars receive fabulous salaries1 while even the smaller and more obscure members of the companies receive wages far in advance of what they would obtain for similar work on the legitimate stage4 ,the protected nature of the ,american industry1 however1 favours such tactics1 which probably will prevail only for a time4 ,there is every evidence that the ,british producers are making up leeway4 ,the ,hepworth ,manufacturing ,company1 for instance1 which is probably the foremost producing company in this country1 recently has produced several powerful and excellent film-plays4 ,they have extended the stock-company practice1 and the increasing popularity of the 8,hepwix0 films offers convincing testimony to the value of this procedure4 ,the ,colonies have become satiated with the ,american products1 and turn with relief to the ,english films1 but the supply is not equal to the demand4 ,even the ,american public is nauseated with its home productions1 and as it appreciates the work of ,british dramatists1 so it approves of the ,british film play4 ,if ,england is behind her foreign rivals in the production of picture plays1 it cannot be denied that ,london is destined to become the world's clearing-house for films4 ,every large foreign manufacturer has his representative in the ,british metropolis1 where the transactions in this article aggregate a large sum every week4 ,the ,colonial picture palace proprietor1 film renter1 or middleman retains a purchasing agent in ,london1 who scans the new productions as they appear1 to discover their suitability for the particular corner of the world for which he is acting4 ,these agents are autocrats1 and consequently the subjects have to be brought direct to them for approval4 ,the manufacturers realise the situation1 and as the ,colonial market is highly promising1 spare no effort to secure its capture4 ,the suggestion has been made that records of the most important events of to-day1 such as the ,coronation of ,king ,george ,v41 the ,unveiling of the ,victoria ,memorial1 the ,durbar1 and so forth1 should be preserved in a museum for the benefit of generations a century or more hence4 ,impressions of the voices of our greatest singers are being preserved for posterity1 and the question has been asked why historical cinematographic films should not be treated in the same manner4 ,this is by no means a new idea4 ,robert ,paul advanced the same plea in the early days of the art1 but there were many objections against the proposal which are just as acute to-day4 ,the greatest is the perishable character of the celluloid film1 and also of the photographic image upon the emulsion4 ,both would deteriorate1 even if preserved in hermetically sealed cases1 with the flight of time1 and the chances are if a film were held for one hundred years that it would be found useless when opened at the end of that period4 ,the question often arises3 ,what becomes of the films8 ,bearing in mind the thousands of feet of new subjects which are introduced to the market every week1 it is but natural to think that there must be an immense accumulation of old subjects4 ,when a new subject sees the light it passes through its first 8run0 among the foremost picture palaces of the country4 ,then it is returned to the renter1 who dispatches it upon a second journey among the smaller halls4 ,once more it comes home1 otherwise to the shelves of the renter1 as a rule bearing sad evidences of its service4 ,if of sufficient interest1 the film undergoes a third run among the cheapest halls1 and upon the completion of this round it is either shipped abroad to the smaller colonies1 or1 scratched and torn1 it is offered for sale at a bargain price4 ,the end is tragic3 the film slips from sight in flame and smoke4 ,,index ,abruzzi1 ,duke of1 cinematography1 #abh ,acetylene1 as illuminant1 #ih ,acres1 experimenter1 #af ,actors and ,actresses1 #adi-aea2 accidents1 #aef1 #aeg1 #agc2 special companies1 #aea2 kinemacolor1 #aea ,advertisements1 moving1 #bfa1 #bfb 8,after ,fifty ,years0 7film71 #cbd 8,agrippina10 film1 #age ,alhambra ,theatre1 ,london1 #d2 ,derby film1 #aaf ,allefex1 sound producer1 #adj2 special sounds1 #ada1 #adb ,amateur operators1 #hg2 ,bettini glass plates1 #cjf foll42 ,blriot's flight film1 #cja2 8,kinora0 system1 #cjb foll4 ,ambrosio ,film ,company1 #cbd ,american ,biograph ,company1 #aee ---- ,kinetoscope ,company1 #ce ---- ,mutoscope ,company1 studio described1 #aje ,aniline dyes1 #bhi ,animated advertisements1 #bfa 8,animated0 newspapers1 #bgg foll42 circulation1 #bhd2 compared with printed newspaper1 #bhe2 effect on picture theatre1 #bhd2 length of film1 #bhb ,animated photography 7see ,cinematography7 8,animated ,putty0 7film71 #bce ,animatograph1 #cc foll42 at ,alhambra ,theatre1 #aaf ,announcement films1 #bfb ,anschtz1 ,ottomar1 #bj ,anti-firing devices 7see under ,fire7 8,antony and ,cleopatra10 film1 #agh ,apparitions1 #bbb-bbe ,armstrong1 ,c41 #bei-bfj ,asquith1 ,right ,hon4 ,h4 ,h4 7film71 #bfa ,austin-,edwards ,co41 #ej ,automatic safety cut-off shutter1 #ie 8,automobile ,accident0 7film71 #baa ,auxetophone1 #ahf ,back ,cloth1 in trick pictures1 #bda1 #bbh ,ballistics1 #bgf ,barker1 ,william1 #agd ,base1 definition1 #be ,baucus 7,american agent71 #ce1 #di 8,bee1 ,the0 7film71 #cbd 8,best ,cigarette1 ,the0 7film71 #bfa ,bettini glass plate cinematograph1 #cjf foll4 8,big ,picture ,play10 #afi1 #age1 #agg-agh 8,big ,swallow ,a10 7film71 #bed ,biocolor1 #bih 8,black ,maria0 7studio71 #aje ,blackton1 ,j4 ,stuart1 #aga2 trick pictures1 #bdb ,blair1 roller photography1 #bh ,blair ,company1 #bi ,blriot's ,channel flight 7film71 #cja ,blinking1 compared with action of shutter1 #cbj ,blockless ,motiograph1 #ii ,blue-black light 7in panchromatising71 #bid ,blue screen1 #bie2 compensation for absence1 #bif ,boys1 ,prof4 ,vernon1 flight of projectiles1 #bgd ,bull1 ,lucien1 #bfd2 experiments1 #bfe foll42 ,marey ,institute1 #cbb ,bull ,camera 7illus471 #bfi-bgj ,butcher and ,sons1 #caf 8,cain and ,abel10 film1 #agg ,call-board1 in theatre1 #aeb ,camera1 #fe foll41 #ajg2 ,bettini camera1 #cjf foll42 double camera1 #cai2 electric spark apparatus1 #bfe foll42 for explorers1 #gc2 preparation for exposure1 #fi1 #gj ---- obscura1 #g1 #cba ,cannock1 ,frank1 #di ,capus 7picture playwriter71 #afj ,carvallo1 ,m4 ,j41 #cbc ,celluloid film1 #bd foll42 accidental discovery1 #bh2 ,blair's experiments1 #bh2 development of industry1 #ea2 ,eastman and ,walker1 #bf foll42 effect of climate1 #ec2 inflammability1 #ed2 length1 #ee2 manufacture1 #eb2 manufacturers1 #ej2 non-inflammable1 #ee2 waste product1 #ef1 #ccj ,cellulose-acetate1 #ee 8,cheese ,mites1 ,the0 7film71 #bja ,chemist3 instantaneous photography1 #b2 colour cinematography1 #bib ,chevreul's black1 #bj 8,chronicle0 7animated71 #bgh ,chronophone1 #ahe2 differential gear1 #ahh2 ,green's apparatus1 #ajg2 projector1 #ahf ,chronophotography1 #af2 development1 #cbb foll4 ,cinema--plaque1 ,bettini1 #cjf foll4 ,cinematograph 7,cinematographe71 #dc-di 8,cinematograph fiend10 #aa ,cinematograph plays1 #adf foll42 dress-rehearsal1 #aec2 production1 #aeb2 realism1 #aee ---- ,theatre1 #acj foll42 in remote districts1 #acb2 development1 #acc2 electrical equipment1 #acf 7see also ,picture ,palace7 ---- ,trust 7,american71 #aaj2 effect on ,british trade1 #aaa ,cinematography 7or ,animated ,photography73-- 7#a7 ,general3 ,amateurs1 #cja2 army recruiting1 effect on1 #cag2 action of brain in connection with1 #e2 educational value1 #cab foll42 effect on theatre1 #agd2 expansion of industry1 #cbg2 litigation1 #aaj2 optical principle explained1 #ij2 scientific value 7see ,scientific ,research72 various uses1 #caf-cah2 waste in the industry1 #hf 7#b7 ,history and ,development3 ,instantaneous photography1 #a-c2 early attempts1 #aj-bb2 kinetoscope1 #cj-cc2 animatography1 #cc foll42 cinematograph1 #dc-di2 micro-cinematography1 #afa foll42 in ,italy1 #agd2 phono-cinematography1 #ahj2 electric spark cinematography1 #bfe foll42 natural colour cinematography1 #bhg foll42 recent developments1 #cai foll42 growth and popularity1 #cbc foll4 ,cinephone1 #ahj ,cines ,company 7see below7 ---- ,societa ,italiana1 #age-agg2 8,life of ,christ0 7film71 #agg2 toning1 #cjj2 ,turin ,exhibition films1 #cbe 8,clown and his ,donkey0 7film71 #bfj ,collins1 ,esm1 #ajg ,collodion process1 defects1 #bd ,colour pictures1 #bhg2 8,a ,fire0 film1 #bhh2 aniline dyes1 #bhi2 colour sensitiser1 #bic2 compared with monochrome1 #bii2 ,coronation records1 #big2 stencil process1 #bhh ,colour-sensitising solution1 #bic ,comandon1 ,dr4 ,j41 #afb2 investigations1 #aff ,commutator1 #ahb ,composition of news film1 #bhb ,continuous motion1 #cb2 for excessive speed1 #bfe ,control board of chronophone1 #ahg 8,coronation0 film1 kinemacolor1 #big ,coronation films1 competition for1 #aai ,cranz1 ,dr4 ,c41 #bgd ,daguerre1 exposure experiment1 #a ,daily cinematograph newspaper1 prospects of1 #bhf ,dancing furniture1 #bji ,daylight projection1 #adb ,demeny1 ,georges1 #ba ,derby film1 #aaf1 #aag ,desvignes1 #af ,detaill1 #ae ,developing apparatus1 #he1 #hf ---- solution1 #gi ,development of pictures1 #gf foll42 long films1 #gi1 #hj ,diaphragm1 manipulation in trick pictures1 #bbf ---- stop1 in trick camera1 #bbb 8,dime ,show10 #aca ,di-optic projector 7see ,double ,projector7 8,dissolution of the ,government1 ,the0 7film71 #beg ,dog-movement1 #ic2 in ,gaumont chrono1 #ajj ,donisthorpe 7experimenter71 #af ,double camera1 #bai foll42 disadvantage of1 #cba ---- exposure process1 #bbe ---- printing1 #bjj ---- projector1 #cbj foll4 ,drying operation1 #gi ,dumas1 ,alexandre1 interest in ,muybridge's experiments1 #ae ,du ,mont 7experimenter71 #af 8,duped10 #bjf ,eastman and ,walker1 #bf ,eastman ,dry ,plate ,company1 #bf ---- ,kodak ,company1 #bf1 #ej ,ebonite disc in electric spark apparatus1 #bfg ,eden ,muse--8,passion ,play10 #ajf ,edison1 ,thomas ,alva1 #bi2 educational films1 #cad2 film production1 #aac2 the kinetoscope1 #cj2 litigation1 #aaj2 projector1 #ajj2 royalty on films1 #cbh2 studios1 #aje1 #aab ,edison ,company1 #aea2 riot scene1 #aeg ,edison's ,first ,kinetoscope1 #ca ,edison standard gauge1 #eg2 drawbacks1 #ei ,educational film1 #cab foll4 ,election films1 #beg1 #beh ,electrical tachyscope1 #bj1 #ba ,electricity as illuminant1 #ih ,electric spark1 #bfh ---- spark apparatus1 #bfe2 copper strips1 #bfh ---- spark cinematography1 #bfe foll4 ,electrodes1 magnesium1 #bfh ,empire ,film ,mender1 #ach ,empire ,film ,winder1 #acg 8,empire0 series of pictures1 #caf ,empire ,trick ,camera1 #baf ,essanay plant1 #aab ,ethyl-violet1 #bic ,exposure of film1 #bgd ,eye1 as camera1 #d ,fairy1 production of1 #bdd 8,fall of ,babylon0 7film71 #agg ,faust1 film of1 #age2 on the ,vivaphone1 #ahd ,film1 #bc foll42 ,american1 #aga2 ,british1 #cbh2 ,european1 #aga2 exposure1 #bgd2 firing of1 #ie2 8,hepwix10 #cbi2 for kineto1 #cje2 length1 #adi2 manipulation in trick pictures1 #bbj2 non-inflammable1 #caf2 repair1 #acg2 waste product1 #ef1 #ccj2 weekly output1 #cbg ---- gauge1 #cc1 #eg ---- punch1 #gb ---- tinting1 #bhh1 #bhi ,film-trap1 #ajj ,film-winder1 #acg2 illus41 #gg ,financial investments1 #cbh ,finsbury ,technical ,college3 ,theatrograph1 #ci ,fire1 protection against1 #acf2 anti-firing devices1 #ie1 #if2 in ,empire projector1 #aja ,first ,moving ,pictures1 #ad ,fixing solution1 #gi ,flashing3 in trick pictures1 #bdi ,flicker1 cause of1 #g ,flight of projectiles1 #bgd foll4 8,fountain of ,youth0 7film71 #bad ,fox1 ,william1 #ade ,free-lance producer1 #afj ,fringing1 #bih2 elimination1 #bii ,gaevert firm1 #ej ,gate1 #ch ,gaumont1 ,lon1 #ahd foll4 ,gaumont ,chronophone1 #ahf ,gaumont chrono projector1 #ajj ---- ,company1 #aaj2 8,automobile ,accident10 #baa2 chronophone1 #ahe2 ,coronation films1 #aai1 #abj2 ,rob ,roy1 #aeh2 ,the ,little ,milliner's ,dream1 #bca2 ,the ,magnetic ,gentleman1 #baj2 ,the ,siren1 #bbg2 ,the ,travelling ,bed1 #bji ,gaumont ,graphic1 #bgi2 bi-weekly issue1 #bhd2 branch offices1 #bhj2 circulation1 #bhb2 ,coronation number1 #bhc 8,gazette0 7animated71 #bgh ,geissler tube1 in ,anschtz tachyscope1 #ba ,gelatine1 proposed use1 #bc ,gelatino-bromide process1 #bd ,gerome1 interest in ,muybridge's experiments1 #ae ,glass plates1 ,bettini system1 #cjf foll4 ,goupil1 interest in ,muybridge's experiments1 #ae ,grand ,central ,palace1 ,new ,york1 roof stage1 #ajf ,grand ,prix film1 #cbd 8,graphic0 7animated71 #bgh ,green screen1 #bia2 ,smith's experiments1 #bie ,greene1 ,w4 ,f41 #ag1 #ajg2 biocolor1 #bih2 colour sensitiser1 #bic2 double camera1 #cai2 natural colour cinematography1 #bhi2 three- and two-screen systems1 #bie ,greene and ,evans1 #bb ,harris1 ,sir ,augustus1 and the ,theatrograph1 #dj ,harris ,safety ,shutter1 #if 8,haunted ,curiosity ,shop1 ,the0 7film71 #bjc 8,haunted ,hotel1 ,the0 7film71 #bdb ,hazelton ,picture ,palace1 #acb1 #acc 8,hepwix0 film1 #cbi ,hepworth1 ,t4 ,c41 #ih ,hepworth ,company1 #aea ---- ,manufacturing ,co41 ,ltd41 #cbi2 ,vivaphone1 #ahb ,himalayas1 scenic films1 #abh ,hollaman1 ,richard ,g41 #dg2 production of ,passion ,play1 #ajf ,hove ,camera ,club1 #ajg ,iceland spar1 for condenser1 #bfh ,illuminant1 #ih2 electric spark1 #bfe ,imperator projector1 #ajj ,independent or 8free-lance0 producers1 #afj ,insects1 flight of1 #bgj2 apparatus for photographing 7illus471 #bff1 #bgb2 ,coleoptera records1 #bgc2 ,hymenoptera records1 #bgb2 scientific value1 #bgd ,instantaneous photography1 #b2 analysis of movement1 #ac ,intermittent motion1 #cb2 ,lumire's camera1 #dc2 ,paul's camera1 #ch1 #ib2 for excessive speed1 #bfe ,international ,exhibition1 ,turin1 film competition1 #cbd ,interrupter1 electric spark apparatus1 #bfg ,inventor's fiddle1 #ba 8,investiture of the ,prince of ,wales10 ,kinemacolor1 #big2 monochrome1 #abj-abb ,ives1 ,frederick ,e41 #bhg2 ,ives's system1 #bii ,jansen1 ,astronomer1 #ag ,kalem1 manufacturing firm1 #aga ,kelvin1 ,lord1 film perforation1 #eh ,kinemacolor1 #bie foll42 apparatus1 #ace2 ,coronation films1 #big2 8fringing10 #bih2 limitations1 #big2 picture plays1 #bih2 scenic films1 #abe2 stock company1 #aea2 studio-theatre1 #ajh 8,kinemacolor ,special10 #abf ,kineograph1 #cjb ,kineto1 ,ltd41 #aij ,kinetograph1 #agi ,kinetoscope1 ,the1 #cj2 heat absorbent1 #df2 ,edison's studio1 #aje ,kinora1 #cjb foll4 ,kramm projector1 #aja ,lantern ,room 7see ,operating room7 ,latham1 apparatus1 #dg ,laurrilard1 ,mr41 of ,marble ,arch ,electric ,theatre1 and 8,investiture of the ,prince of ,wales0 film1 #abj ,lee and ,turner1 natural colour process1 #bij 8,life in the ,jungle0 7film71 #agb-agd 8,life of ,christ0 7film71 #agg 8,life of the ,butterfly1 ,the0 7film71 #cbd ,lilliputian figures1 #bca foll42 explanation1 #bjb 8,little ,milliner's ,dream1 ,the0 7film71 #bca-bce 8,little ,sardinian ,drummer1 ,the0 7film71 #cbe ,loew1 ,marcus1 #add ,lubin1 of ,philadelphia1 #aeh2 studio1 #aab ,lumire and ,sons1 #dc foll42 manufacture of film1 #ej2 perforation of film1 #dd2 projector 7illus471 #de2 8,macbeth10 picture play1 #age 8,magic ,banquet0 7film71 #bci1 #bdj ,magic pictures1 #bjg foll42 explanation1 #bji foll4 8,magic ,sword1 ,the0 7film71 #aii-bja 8,magnet1 ,the0 7film71 #cab 8,magnetic ,gentleman0 7film71 #baj ,maguire1 ,american agent1 #ce1 #di ,make-up of news films1 #bhb ,mallez1 ,dr41 #ae ,maltese ,cross movement1 #ib1 #aja ,marey1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,j41 #ag foll41 #cbb2 camera1 #ah1 #ai2 experiments1 #ah1 #bfd ,marey ,institute1 #cbb1 #bfd ,marey's ,camera showing ,shutter with ,radial ,slots1 #ai ,mask1 of printing apparatus1 #ha ,medical science and cinematography1 #caf2 micro-cinematography1 #afa ,meissonier1 interest in ,muybridge's experiments1 #ac1 #ae ,mlies1 ,french conjurer1 #aig ,microbes1 moving pictures of1 #afa foll4 ,micro-cinematography1 #afa foll42 ,dr4 ,j4 ,comandon1 #afb2 difficulties1 #afc2 experiments with blood1 #aff2 magnification1 #afh2 8phenomenon of agglutination10 #afg2 popular science1 #aij2 shutter1 #afe2 sleeping sickness1 #aff 8,miracle 7,the710 film1 #agg ,mirror1 in trick pictures1 #bdd2 in electric spark apparatus1 #bfg ,monochrome cinematography1 #bii ,moorhouse1 ,a4 ,h41 #adj ,motion1 records of1 animal motion1 #ac2 flight of insects1 #bgc2 flight of projectiles1 #bgd foll4 ---- ,picture ,patents ,company1 #cbg 8,motorist1 ,the 7870 7film71 #bjc-bje ,moul1 ,mr4 7of ,alhambra ,theatre71 #da2 picture plays1 #ajd ,mount3 for projector1 #ii ---- for sensitised emulsion1 #bc1 #bd2 ,eastman's experiments1 #bg 8,mount ,etna in ,eruption0 7film71 #cae ,movement1 illusion explained1 #f2 illustrated1 #h 8,movement10 record of ,marey's experiments1 #bj ,movement and sound combined1 ,edison1 #agi2 ,gaumont1 #ahd2 ,hepworth ,company1 #ahb ,moving picture circuits1 #adc ---- ,pictures3 7see ,cinematography7 ,mutoscope ,company1 #aje ,muybridge1 #ab-af2 demonstration in ,paris1 #ae2 studio1 #ac ,natural colour cinematography1 #bhg foll42 8,biocolor10 #bih2 expense1 #bid2 ,greene's process1 #bhi2 8,kinemacolor10 #bif2 ,lee and ,turner1 #bij2 new process1 #bii2 three screens1 #bia2 two screens1 #bie ---- light1 #bij ,new ,guinea1 films1 #abh ,newman and ,sinclair ,camera 7illus471 #gc ,newman-,sinclair ,printing ,apparatus1 #ha ,newman-,sinclair ,reflex ,moving ,picture ,camera1 #gd ,nickel show1 #aca ,n4,s4 ,film ,perforator1 #fc ,olympia3 ,first picture palace1 #dj 8,one turn one picture0 movement1 #bce-bdj2 by ,americans1 #bch2 in silhouette trick films1 #bei ,operating room or lantern room1 #acf2 law relating to1 #ace ,optical principle of the ,cinematograph1 #ij ,optical principle of projection with the ,bettini cinema--plaque1 #caj 8,ora ,pro ,nobis0 7film71 #bjb ,oxy-hydrogen limelight as illuminant1 #ih 8,panchromatic0 film1 #bic2 deterioration1 #bid 8,panchromatism10 #bic2 process1 #bid ,paper1 as base1 #bd1 #cjc2 ,eastman1 #bg ---- negative1 #cjc ,parkes1 ,a41 #bf ,parkesine1 #bf ,parsons1 ,hon4 ,c4 ,a41 #ahf ,passion ,play1 #ajf ,path1 ,charles1 #ce ,path ,frres1 #aji2 colour pictures1 #bhh2 development of picture play1 #afi2 film1 #cab2 8,the ,magnet10 #cab2 micro-cinematography1 #afc2 projector1 #aja2 village scene1 #aeh ,paul1 ,robert ,w41 #cd2 camera1 #cg1 #ff-fi2 colour pictures1 #bhh2 intermittent gear1 #ib2 mount for lantern1 #ii2 8,ora ,pro ,nobis10 #bjb2 8,railway ,collision10 #bje2 8,scenes in ,soldier's ,life10 #cag2 8,the ,magic ,sword10 #aii2 8,the ,cheese ,mites10 #bja2 8,the 787 ,motorist10 #bjc2 topical films1 #aaf foll42 trick pictures1 #aih ,paul's ,improved 8,cross0 ,driving ,mechanism1 #id ,peep-hole machine1 #cc 8,penny gaff10 #aca ,perforating machines3 8,n-,s0 perforator1 #fc2 ,rotary perforator1 #fa2 ,urban-,joy1 #fd2 ,williamson perforator1 #fb ,perforation gauge1 #eg2 ,edison standard1 #eg2 ,lumire's1 #ei ---- of film1 #cc2 necessity for mathematical precision1 #fj2 ,lord ,kelvin's suggestion1 #eh2 ,lumire's method1 #dd ,phenakistoscope1 #aa ,phono-cinematograph 7see below7 ,phonograph1 with cinematograph1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahi ,photographic gun1 #ag ---- revolver1 #ag ,picture ,house at ,briggate1 #acd ---- ,palace1 #add2 effect on legitimate theatre1 #cbf2 ,british ,isles1 #cbe2 ,france1 #cbe2 ,germany1 #cbf2 ,u4,s4,a41 #add1 #cbf2 facts and figures1 #cbe foll4 ---- plays1 #ajc foll42 development1 #aji foll42 the 8,big ,picture ,play10 #afi foll42 educational service1 #agd2 financial risk1 #agg2 historical subjects1 #agj2 ,kinemacolor1 #bih2 ,path firm1 #aaj2 playwright1 #adg2 plots1 #aei2 popular subjects1 #agf-agg2 religious subjects1 #agg2 staging1 #ajc foll42 studio 7see under ,studio72 8,after ,fifty ,years10 #cbd2 ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi1 #cbe2 ,the ,passion ,play1 #ajf1 #afi2 8,the ,soldier's ,courtship10 #ajc ,pinachrome1 #bic ,pinacyanol1 #bic ,poch1 ,prosper1 #adb ,polar exploration films1 #abg ,political films1 #beg ,popular science1 #aij foll42 films1 #cbd ,portraiture1 cinematographic1 #bhc ,praxinoscope1 #aa2 records1 #ab ,primary colours1 #bij 8,prince's ,derby10 #aag 8,princess ,nicotine10 #bdb-bec2 illustration of staging1 #bde2 trick explained1 #bdd ,printing1 #hj2 ,newman-,sinclair apparatus1 #ha-hb2 ,williamson printer1 #hb-hd ,projection3 kinetoscope1 #h2 praxinoscope1 #aa2 rate of monochrome films1 #f2 colour films1 #bib ,projector1 #cg1 #hh foll42 for amateurs1 #cji1 #caj2 double1 #cbj1 #ace2 driving system1 #ii2 intermittent motion1 #ch2 rate of projection1 #f1 #bib2 second lens1 #ii2 shutter1 #id1 #ie2 8,b ,underwriter10 #ajj2 ,gaumont ,chrono1 #ajj2 8,imperator10 #ajj2 ,lumire1 #de ,provincial ,cinematograph ,theatres1 ,ltd41 #acd ,prozynski1 #cjf 8,pumpkin ,race0 7film71 #bag ,quentin1 daylight projection1 #adb ,quo ,vadis 7film71 #age-agf ,racking bellows1 #bee ,rainbow screen1 #adb ,realism1 in picture plays1 #aee foll41 #agb ,red screen1 #bia2 failure1 #bib2 panchromatic film1 #bic2 ,smith's experiments1 #bie ,religious institutions and cinematography1 #cag ,renter1 or middleman1 #agh ,reversal of action1 #bae ,reynaud's praxinoscope1 #aa ,rheostat handle1 #ahg ,rhumkoff coil1 in ,anschtz tachyscope1 #ba ,roller-photography1 #bf2 ,blair1 #bh ,roosevelt1 ,t41 and cinematography1 #abh ,rostand1 picture plays1 #afj 8,sacking of ,rome0 7film71 #age ,safety shutter1 #ie-ih 8,st4 ,francis of ,assisi0 7film71 #cbe ,sample prints1 #agf 8,samson and ,delilah10 7film71 #agg ,scenery 7see ,realism7 ,scenic films1 #abe-abi2 ,polar exploration1 #abg2 ,victoria ,falls1 #abf ,scientific research1 #afa foll42 electric spark cinematography1 #bfe foll42 explorations1 #gc1 #abg2 medical science1 #caf ,scott1 ,capt4 ,r41 #abg ,screen1 #ach2 daylight projection1 #adb2 in natural colour photography1 #bia ,selig1 ,william ,n41 #agb ,selig organisation1 #aab2 company1 #aea2 fire-rescue film1 #aee2 production of the jungle play1 #agb-agd2 at ,los ,angeles1 #aab2 studio1 #aab2 wardrobe1 #aad ,sensitised emulsion1 #b2 in colour photography1 #bib ,shackleton expedition1 #abg ,shadowgraph play1 #bei ,shutter1 #id2 automatic safety1 #ie2 electric spark apparatus 7illus471 #bfh1 #bfi ,siemens and ,halske1 #dg ,silent ,knight1 projector1 #aja ,silhouette trick films1 #bei2 advertisements1 #bfa2 in ,america1 #bei1 #bfc2 8,the ,clown and the ,donkey10 #bfj 8,siren1 ,the0 7film71 #bbg 8,ski-runner10 #bdj-bda ,smith1 ,albert1 #bdb2 ,kinemacolor1 #bie foll4 ,smith1 ,f4 ,percy1 #aij2 apparatus1 #aie2 experiments1 #aia-aie2 magic film1 #beg 8,soldier's ,courtship1 ,the0 7film71 #ajd ,soret1 ,m4 ,l41 #bj ,sound effects1 #aci2 production1 #ada ---- and movement combined1 #agi foll4 ,south ,america1 progress of cinematography1 #ade ,spool box1 #ia ,sprocket1 use of1 #cc ,stage1 #ajd 7see also ,studio7 ,stage properties1 #bjd1 #bjh2 for 8,princess ,nicotine10 #bdf 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remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,some have been moved closer to the text that references them4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,the index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4