---------------------------------------- -------- ,note3 ,chinese characters are labeled ,chinese4 ,bold surrounding text4 ,italics surrounding text4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,chinese ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain ,this ,edition is limited to #a1ejj copies1 of which this is ,no #ffi ,illustration ,illustration3 ,statue of a ,lohan or ,buddhist ,apostle1 ,t'ang dynasty 7#fah-ijf ,a4,d47 ,height with stand #ej inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,,chinese ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,potter',s ,,art ,,in ,,china ,,from ,,primitive ,,times ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,day ,,by ,r4,l4 ,,hobson1 ,b4,a4 ,assistant in the ,department of ,british and ,medival ,antiquities and ,ethnography1 ,british ,museum4 ,author of the ,catalogue of the ,collection of ,english ,pottery in the ,department of ,british and ,medival ,antiquities of the ,british ,museum2 ,porcelain3 ,oriental1 ,continental1 and ,british2 ,worcester ,porcelain2 etc42 and ,joint ,author of ,marks on ,pottery ,forty ,plates in ,colour and ,ninety-six in ,black and ,white ,,vol4 ,i ,pottery and ,early ,wares ,,cassell ,,and ,,company1 ,,ltd ,london1 ,new ,york1 ,toronto and ,melbourne #aiae ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,,introduction xv ,,bibliography xxvii #a4 ,,the ,,primitive ,,periods #a #b4 ,,the ,,han ,,chinese ,,dynasty1 #bjf ,b4,c4 ,,to #bbj ,a4,d4 #e #c4 ,,the ,,tang ,,chinese ,,dynasty1 #fah-ijf ,a4,d4 #bc #d4 ,,the ,,sung ,,chinese ,,dynasty1 #ifj-abgi ,a4,d4 #dc #e4 ,,ju1 ,,kuan1 ,,and ,,ko ,,wares #eb #f4 ,,lung-,,ch,,an ,,yao ,chinese #gf #g4 ,,ting ,,yao ,chinese #hi #h4 ,,tz ,,chou ,,chinese ,,ware #aja #i4 ,,ch,n ,,wares ,,and ,,some ,,others #aji #aj4 ,,mirabilia #acf #aa4 ,,porcelain ,,and ,,its ,,beginnings #adj #ab4 ,,ching-,t ,,ch,n #aeb #ac4 ,,the ,y,,an ,,chinese ,,dynasty1 #abhj-acfg ,a4,d4 #aei #ad4 ,,kuangtung ,,chinese ,,wares #aff #ae4 ,,yi-,,hsing ,,chinese ,,ware #agd #af4 ,,miscellaneous ,,potteries #ahd #ag4 ,,marks ,,on ,,chinese ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain #bjg ,,list ,,of ,,plates ,,statue ,,of ,,lohan ,,or ,,buddhist ,,apostle1 ,t,,ang ,,dynasty 7#fah-ijf ,a4,d474 ,british ,museum 7,colour7 ,frontispiece ,,plate ,,facing ,,page #a4 ,,chou ,,pottery #d ,fig4 #a4--,tripod ,food ,vessel4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,jar with deeply cut lozenge pattern4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #b4 ,,han ,,pottery #h ,fig4 #a4--,vase1 green glazed4 ,boston ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with black surface and incised designs4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with designs in red1 white and black pigments4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #d4--;,granary ,urn1 green glazed4 ,peters ,collection4 #c4 ,,han ,,pottery #ab ,fig4 #a4--;,hill ,jar with brown glaze4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,box1 green glazed4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,lotus ,censer1 green glazed4 ,rothenstein ,collection4 #d4 ,,model ,,of ,a ,,fowling ,,tower #ab ,han pottery with iridescent green glaze4 ,freer ,collection4 #e4 ,t,,ang ,,sepulchral ,,figures #bf ,fig4 #a4--;,a ,lokapala or ,guardian of one of the ,quarters1 unglazed4 ,benson ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,a ,horse1 with coloured glazes4 ,benson ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,an ,actor1 unglazed4 ,benson ,collection4 #f4 ,t,,ang ,,sepulchral ,,figures1 ,,unglazed #bf ,figs4 #a1 #b and #d4--;,female ,musicians4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,attendant with dish of food4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #g4 ,t,,ang ,,sepulchral ,,pottery #bf ,fig4 #a4--;,figure of a ,lady in elaborate costume1 unglazed4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase1 white pottery with traces of blue mottling4 ,breuer ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,sphinx-like ,monster1 green and yellow glazes4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #h4 ,,three ,,examples ,,of ,t,,ang ,,ware ,,with ,,coloured ,,glazes3 ,,in ,,the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection 7,colour7 #cj ,fig4 #a4--,tripod ,incense ,vase with ribbed sides2 white pottery with deep blue glaze1 outside encrusted with iridescence4 ,fig4 #b4--;,amphora of light coloured pottery with splashed glaze4 ,fig4 #c4--;,ewer of hard white porcellanous ware with deep purple glaze4 #i4 ,t,,ang ,,pottery #cb ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer of ,sassanian form with splashed glazes2 panels of relief ornament4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with mottled glaze1 green and orange4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,ewer with dragon spout and handle2 wave and cloud reliefs2 brownish yellow glaze streaked with green4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #aj4 ,t,,ang ,,pottery #cb ,fig4 #a4--;,dish with mirror pattern incised and coloured blue1 green1 etc42 inner border of ju-i cloud scrolls on a mottled yellow ground1 outer border of mottled green2 pale green glaze underneath and three tusk-shaped feet4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,ewer with serpent handle and trilobed mouth2 applied rosette ornaments and mottled glaze1 green1 yellow and white4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #aa4 ,t,,ang ,,wares #cb ,fig4 #a4--;,cup with bands of impressed circles1 brownish yellow glaze outside1 green within4 ,seligmann ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,cup of hard white ware with greenish white glaze4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,melon-shaped ,vase1 greyish stoneware with white slip and smooth ivory glaze4 ,breuer ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--;,cup of porcellanous stoneware1 white slip and crackled creamy white glaze1 spur marks inside4 ,breuer ,collection4 #ab4 ,t,,ang ,,pottery ,,with ,,green ,,glaze #dj ,fig4 #a4--;,bottle with impressed key-fret4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,ewer with incised foliage scrolls4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with foliage scrolls1 painted in black under the glaze1 incised border on the shoulder4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #ac4 ,t,,ang ,,pottery #dj ,fig4 #a4--,pilgrim ,bottle with lily palmette and raised rosettes1 green glaze4 ,,koechlin ,,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,pilgrim ,bottle 7neck wanting71 ,hellenistic figures of piping boy and dancing girl in relief among floral scrolls1 brownish green glaze4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #ad4 ,t,,ang ,,wares #dj ,fig4 #a4--;,incense ,vase1 lotus-shaped1 with lion on the cover1 hexagonal stand with moulded ornament2 green1 yellow and brown glazes4 ,rothenstein ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,sepulchral ,amphora1 hard white ware with greenish white glaze1 serpent handles4 ,schneider ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,ewer with large foliage and lotus border in carved relief1 green glaze4 ,koechlin ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--,sepulchral ,vase1 grey stoneware with opaque greenish grey glaze4 ,incised scrolls on the body1 applied reliefs of dragons1 figures1 etc41 on neck and shoulder4 787 ,tang4 ,benson ,collection4 #ae4 ,,sung ,,wares #dh ,fig4 #a4--,peach-shaped ,water ,vessel1 dark-coloured biscuit1 smooth greenish grey glaze4 787 ,ju or ,kuan ware4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,figs4 #b and #c4--,shallow ,cup with flanged handle1 and covered box1 opalescent grey glaze4 ,kuan or ,chn wares4 ,rothenstein ,collection4 #af4 ,,sung ,,wares 7,colour7 #eh ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with six-lobed sides2 thin porcellanous ware1 burnt brown at the foot-rim1 with bluish green celadon glaze irregularly crackled4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,tripod ,incense ,burner4 ,white porcelain burnt pale red under the feet4 787 ,lung-chan celadon ware4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #ag4 ,,two ,,examples ,,of ,,sung ,,wares ,,of ,,the ,,ch,n ,,or ,,kuan ,,factories 7,colour7 #fd ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with lavender glaze1 lightly crackled4 ,o4 ,raphael ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with smooth lavender grey glaze suffused with purple4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #ah4 ,,sung ,,dynasty #ff ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with engraved peony design under a brownish green celadon glaze4 ,northern ,chinese4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase moulded in form of a lotus flower1 dark grey stoneware1 burnt reddish brown1 milky grey glaze1 closely crackled4 ,freer ,collection4 #ai4 ,,vase ,,of ,,close-,,grained1 ,,dark1 ,,reddish ,,brown ,,stoneware1 ,,with ,,thick1 ,,smooth ,,glaze1 ,,boldly ,,crackled4 ,ko ware of the ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection 7,colour7 #gj #bj4 ,,deep ,,bowl ,,of ,,reddish ,,brown ,,stoneware1 ,,with ,,thick1 ,,boldly ,,crackled ,,glaze4 ,ko ware of the ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection 7,colour7 #gd #ba4 ,,three ,,examples ,,of ,,lung-,,ch,,an ,,celadon ,,porcelain #hj ,fig4 #a4--,plate of spotted celadon4 787 ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,octagonal ,vase with crackled glaze and biscuit panels moulded with figures of the ,eight ,immortals in clouds4 787 ,fourteenth century4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,dish with engraved lotus scrolls and two fishes in biscuit4 ,sung dynasty4 ,gotha ,museum4 #bb4 ,,vase ,,of ,,lung-,,ch,,an ,,porcelain #hh ,with grey green celadon glaze of faint bluish tone1 peony scroll in low relief4 ,probably ,sung dynasty4 ,peters ,collection4 #bc4 ,,ivory-,,white ,,ting ,,ware1 ,,with ,,carved ,,ornament4 ,sung dynasty #if ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with lotus design4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,dish with ducks and water plants4 ,alexander ,collection4 #bd4 ,,sung ,,and ,y,,an ,,porcelain #if ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer1 translucent porcelain1 with smooth ivory white glaze4 ,sung or ,yan dynasty4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase of ivory white ,ting ware with carved lotus design4 ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #be4 ,,ting ,,ware ,,with ,,moulded ,,designs4 ,sung dynasty #if ,fig4 #a4--,plate with boys in peony scrolls1 ivory white glaze4 ,peters ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bowl with flying phnixes in lily scrolls1 crackled creamy glaze2 tu ting ware4 ,koechlin ,collection4 #bf4 ,t,u-,,ting ,,ware1 ,,sung ,,dynasty1 ,,with ,,creamy ,,crackled ,,glaze #if ,fig4 #a4--;,brush washer in form of a boy in a boat4 ,rothenstein ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,figure of an elephant4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #bg4 ,,vase ,,of ,,bronze ,,form1 ,,with ,,row ,,of ,,studs ,,and ,,moulded ,,belt ,,of kuei ,,dragon ,,and ,,key-,,fret ,,patterns #if ,ostrich egg glaze4 787 ,kiangnan ware1 of ,ting type2 ,sung dynasty4 ,peters ,collection4 #bh4 ,,vase ,,of ,,bronze ,,form1 ,,with ,,bands ,,of ,,raised ,,key ,,pattern #if ,thick creamy glaze1 closely crackled and shading off into brown with faint tinges of purple4 787 ,kiangnan ,ting ware4 ,fourteenth century4 ,koechlin ,collection4 #bi4 ,,vase ,,of ,,porcellanous ,,stoneware #ajd ,with creamy white glaze and designs painted in black4 ,tz ,chou ware1 ,sung dynasty 7#ifj-abgi ,a4,d474 ,in the ,louvre4 #cj4 ,,four ,,jars ,,of ,,painted ,,tz ,,chou ,,ware #ajd ,fig4 #a4--;,dated #aath year of ,chng ,ting 7#addf ,a4,d47 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,painted in red and green enamels4 787 ,sung dynasty4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,lower half black1 the upper painted on white ground4 ,sung dynasty4 ,benson ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--,with phnix design1 etched details4 ,sung dynasty4 ,rothenstein ,collection4 #ca4 ,,tz ,,chou ,,ware #ajd ,fig4 #a4--,tripod ,incense ,vase in ,persian style with lotus design in pale aubergine1 in a turquoise ground4 ,sixteenth century4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,pillow with creamy white glaze and design of a tethered bear in black4 ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #cb4 ,,tz ,,chou ,,ware #ajd ,fig4 #a4--;,figure of a ,lohan with a deer1 creamy white glaze coloured with black slip and painted with green and red enamels4 ,said to be ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with graffiato peony scrolls under a green glaze4 ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #cc4 ,,tz ,,chou ,,ware #ajd ,fig4 #a4--,vase with panel of figures representing music1 painted in black under a blue glaze4 ,yan dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with incised designs in a dark brown glaze1 a sage looking at a skeleton4 ,yan dynasty4 ,peters ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with painting in black and band of marbled slips4 ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #cd4 ,,tz ,,chou ,,ware #ajd ,fig4 #a4--;,bottle of white porcellanous ware with black glaze and floral design in lustrous brown4 ,sung dynasty or earlier4 787 ,tz ,chou ware4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with bands of key pattern and lily scrolls cut away from a black glaze4 ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bottle with graffiato design in white slip on a mouse-coloured ground1 yellowish glaze4 ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #ce4 ,,flower ,,pot ,,of ,,ch,n ,,chou ,,ware ,,of ,,the ,,sung ,,dynasty 7,colour7 #aab ,grey porcellanous body3 olive brown glaze under the base and the numeral shih 7ten7 incised4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #cf4 ,,ch,n ,,ware 7,colour7 #aaf ,fig4 #a4--;,flower pot of six-foil form4 ,chn ,chou ware of the ,sung dynasty4 ,the base is glazed with olive brown and incised with the numeral san 7three74 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bowl of ,chn type1 with close-grained porcellanous body of yellowish colour4 ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #cg4 ,,ch,n ,,chou ,,ware ,,with ,,porcellanous ,,body 7tz tai74 ,sung dynasty #aah ,fig4 #a4--;,flower ,pot1 with lavender grey glaze4 ,numeral mark ss 7four74 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bulb ,bowl1 of quatrefoil form1 pale olive glaze clouded with opaque grey4 ,numeral mark i 7one74 ,freer ,collection4 #ch4 ,,ch,n ,,ware 7,colour7 #abb ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl of eight-foil shape1 with lobed sides1 of ,chn type4 ,sung dynasty4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,pomegranate shaped ,water ,pot of ,soft ,chn ware4 ,probably ,sung dynasty4 ,alexander ,collection4 #ci4 ,,two ,,examples ,,of ,,soft ,,ch,n ,,ware 7,colour7 #abf ,fig4 #a4--,vase of buff ware1 burnt red at the foot rim1 with thick1 almost crystalline glaze4 ,found in a tomb near ,nanking and given in #ahif to the ,fitz,william ,museum1 ,cambridge4 ,probably ,sung dynasty4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase of yellowish ware with thick opalescent glaze4 ,yan dynasty4 ,alexander ,collection4 #dj4 ,,ch,n ,,chou ,,ware #abh ,fig4 #a4--;,bulb ,bowl1 porcellanous ware with lavender grey glaze passing into mottled red outside4 ,numeral mark i 7one74 ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase of dense reddish ware1 opalescent glaze of pale misty lavender with passages of olive and three symmetrical splashes of purple with green centres4 ,sung or ,yan dynasty4 ,peters ,collection4 #da4 ,,ch,n ,,chou ,,ware #abh ,fig4 #a4--;,dish with peach spray in relief4 ,variegated lavender grey glaze with purplish brown spots and amethyst patches1 frosted in places with dull green4 ,sung dynasty4 ,freer ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase and ,stand1 smooth lavender grey glaze4 ,sung or ,yan dynasty4 ,alexander ,collection4 #db4 ,two ,temmoku ,,bowls1 ,,dark-,,bodied ,,chien ,,yao ,,of ,,the ,,sung ,,dynasty #acj ,fig4 #a4--,tea ,bowl 7pieh71 purplish black glaze flecked with silvery drops4 ,freer ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,tea ,bowl with purplish black glaze shot with golden brown4 ,british ,museum4 #dc4 ,,three ,,examples ,,of ,,honan temmoku1 ,,probably ,t,,ang ,,dynasty #acb ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with purplish black glaze1 stencilled leaf in golden brown4 ,havemeyer ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,ewer with black glaze4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,covered ,bowl1 black mottled with lustrous brown4 ,cologne ,museum4 #dd4 ,,early ,,translucent ,,porcelain1 ,,probably ,t,,ang ,,dynasty #aej ,fig4 #a4--;,cinquefoil ,cup with ivory glaze clouded with pinkish buff stains4 ,breuer ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase of white1 soft-looking ware1 very thin and translucent1 with pearly white1 crackled glaze powdered with brown specks4 ,peters ,collection4 #de4 ,t,,ang ,,and ,,sung ,,wares #aej ,fig4 #a4--,square ,vase with engraved lotus scrolls and formal borders4 ,tu-ting ware1 ,sung dynasty4 ,peters ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,ewer with phnix head1 slightly translucent porcelain with light greenish grey glaze with tinges of blue in the thicker parts2 carved designs4 ,probably ,tang dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #df4 ,,ting ,,ware ,,and ,y,,an ,,porcelain #afb ,fig4 #a4--;,bottle with carved reliefs of archaic dragons and ling chin funguses4 ,fn ting ware1 said to be ,sung dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bowl with moulded floral designs in low relief1 unglazed rim4 ,translucent porcelain1 probably ,yan dynasty4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #dg4 ,,vase ,,of ,,buff ,,stoneware 7,colour7 #agj ,with scroll of rosette-like flowers in relief3 thick flocculent glaze of mottled blue with passages of dull green and a substratum of brown4 ,kuantung ware1 seventeenth century4 ,benson ,collection4 #dh4 ,,kuangtung ,,ware #agb ,fig4 #a4--;,dish in form of a lotus leaf1 mottled blue and brown glaze4 ,about #afjj4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with lotus scroll in relief1 opaque1 closely crackled glaze of pale lavender grey warming into purple4 787 ,fourteenth century4 ,peters ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,figure of ,pu-tai ,ho-shang1 red biscuit1 the draperies glazed celadon green4 ,eighteenth century4 ,british ,museum4 #di4 ,,covered ,,jar ,,of ,,buff ,,stoneware #agb ,with cloudy green glaze and touches of dark blue1 yellow1 brown and white2 archaic dragons1 bats and storks in low relief2 border of sea waves4 ,probably ,kuangtung ware1 seventeenth century4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #ej4 ,,yi-,,hsing ,,stoneware1 ,,sometimes ,,called ,buccaro #agf ,figs4 #a to #d4--,teapots in the ,dresden ,collection1 late seventeenth century4 7#a7 ,buff with dark patches4 7#b7 ,red ware with pierced outer casing4 7#c7 ,black with gilt vine sprays4 7#d7 ,red ware moulded with lion design4 ,fig4 #e4--,peach-shaped ,water ,vessel1 red ware4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig4 #f4--,red ,teapot1 moulded design of trees1 etc4 ,inscription containing the name of ,chien ,lung4 ,hippisley ,collection4 #ea4 ,,two ,,vases ,,with ,,glaze ,,imitating ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,ch,n ,,chou ,,ware 7,colour7 #ahj ,fig4 #a4--,vase of ,fat-shan 7,kuangtung7 ,chn ware4 ,late ,ming4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase1 the base suggesting a lotus flower and the mouth a lotus seed-pod1 with a ring of movable seeds on the rim4 ,thick and almost crystalline glaze of lavender blue colour with a patch of crimson4 ,yi-hsing ,chn ware of the seventeenth century4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #eb4 ,,wine ,,jar ,,with ,,cover ,,and ,,stand 7,colour7 #ahf ,fine stoneware with ornament in relief glazed green and yellow in a deep violet blue ground4 ,four-clawed dragons ascending and descending among cloud scrolls in pursuit of flaming pearls2 band of sea waves below and formal borders including a ju-i pattern on the shoulder4 ,cover with foliate edges and jewel pattern1 surmounted by a seated figure of ,shou ,lao1 ,god of ,longevity4 ,about #aejj ,a4,d4 ,grandidier ,collection1 ,louvre4 #ec4 ,,vase ,,with ,,chrysanthemum ,,handles 7,colour7 #aib ,buff stoneware with chrysanthemum design outlined in low relief and coloured with turquoise1 green and pale yellow glazes in dark purple ground4 ,about #aejj ,a4,d4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #ed4 ,,vase ,,with ,,lotus ,,handles 7,colour7 #aif ,buff stoneware with lotus design modelled in low relief and coloured with aubergine1 green and pale yellow glazes in a deep turquoise ground4 ,about #aejj ,a4,d4 ,grandidier ,collection1 ,louvre4 #ee4 ,,ming ,,pottery ,,with ,,dull san tsai ,,glazes #bjj ,fig4 #a4--,wine ,jar with pierced outer casing1 horsemen and attendants1 rocky background4 ,fifteenth century4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,tripod ,incense ,vase1 dragons and peony designs and a panel of horsemen4 ,dated #aebi ,a4,d4 ,messel ,collection4 #ef4 ,,miscellaneous ,,pottery #bjj ,fig4 #a4--;,jar with dull green glaze and formal lotus scroll in relief touched with yellow and brown glazes4 ,about #afjj4 ,goff ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,beaker of bronze form1 soft whitish body and dull green glaze4 787 ,seventeenth century4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase of light buff ware with dull black dressing1 vine reliefs4 ,mark1 ,nan hsiang tang4 ,eighteenth century4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #eg4 ,,seated ,,figure ,,of ,,kuan ,y1 ,,the ,,war-,,god ,,of ,,china1 ,a ,,deified ,,warrior 7,colour7 #bjd ,reddish buff pottery with blue1 yellow and turquoise glazes1 and a colourless glaze on the white parts4 ,sixteenth century4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 #eh4 ,,miscellaneous ,,pottery #bjf ,fig4 #a4--;,jar with lotus design in green1 yellow and turquoise glazes in an aubergine ground4 ,about #afjj4 ,hippisley ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase of double fish form1 buff ware with turquoise1 yellow and aubergine glazes4 787 ,seventeenth century4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #c4--,roof-tile with figure of ,bodhidharma1 deep green and creamy white glazes4 ,sixteenth century4 ,benson ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--;,bottle with archaic dragon 7chih lung7 on neck1 variegated glaze of lavender1 blue and green clouded with purple and brown4 787 ,eighteenth century4 ,yi-hsing ware4 ,peters ,collection4 ,,introduction ,when we consider the great extent of the ,chinese ,empire and its teeming population--both of them larger than those of ,europe--and the fact that a race with a natural gift for the potter's craft and a deep appreciation of its productions has lived and laboured there for twenty centuries 7to look no farther back than the ,han dynasty71 it seems almost presumptuous to attempt a history of so vast and varied an industry within the compass of two volumes4 ,anything approaching finality in such a subject is out of the question1 and1 indeed1 imagination staggers at the thought of a complete record of every pottery started in ,china in the past and present4 ,as far as pottery is concerned1 we must be content with the identification of a few prominent types and with very broad classifications1 whether they be chronological or topographical4 ,indeed1 the potteries named in the ,chinese records are only a few of those which must have existed2 and though we may occasionally rejoice to find in our collections a series like the red stonewares of ,yi-hsing1 which can be definitely located1 a very large proportion of our pottery must be labelled uncertain or unknown4 ,how many experts here or on the ,continent could identify the pottery made in ,south ,germany or ,hungary a hundred years ago8 ,what chance1 then1 is there of recognising any but the most celebrated wares of ,china8 ,in dealing with porcelain as distinct from pottery1 we have a simpler proposition4 ,the bulk of what we see in ,europe is not older than the ,ming dynasty and was made at one of two large centres1 viz4 ,ching-t ,chn in ,kiangsi1 and ,t-hua in ,fukien4 ,topographical arrangement1 then1 is an easy matter1 and there is a considerable amount of information available to guide us in chronological considerations4 ,the antiquity of ,chinese porcelain1 its variety and beauty1 and the wonderful skill of the ,chinese craftsmen1 accumulated from the traditions of centuries1 have made the study of the potter's art in ,china peculiarly absorbing and attractive4 ,there is scope for every taste in its inexhaustible variety4 ,compared with it in age1 ,european porcelain is but a thing of yesterday1 a mere two centuries old1 and based from the first on ,chinese models4 ,even the so-called ,european style of decoration which developed at ,meissen and ,svres1 though quite ,western in general effect1 will be found on analysis to be composed of ,chinese elements4 ,it would be useless to compare the artistic merits of the ,eastern and ,western wares4 ,it is so much a matter of personal taste4 ,for my own part1 ,i consider that the decorative genius of the ,chinese and their natural colour sense1 added to their long training1 have placed them so far above their ,european followers that comparison is irrelevant4 ,even the commoner sorts of old ,chinese porcelain1 made for the export trade1 have undeniable decorative qualities1 while the specimens in pure ,chinese taste1 and particularly the ,court wares1 are unsurpassed in quality and finish4 ,the merits and beauty of porcelain have always been recognised by the ,chinese1 who ranked it from the earliest days among their precious materials4 ,chinese poets make frequent reference to its dainty qualities1 its jade-like appearance1 its musical ring1 its lightness and refinement4 ,the green cups of ,yeh ,chou ware in the ,tang dynasty were likened to moulded lotus leaves2 and the white ,ta-yi bowls surpassed hoar-frost and snow4 ,many stanzas were inspired by the porcelain bowls used at the tea and wine symposia1 where cultivated guests capped each other's verses4 ,in a pavilion at ,yn-mn1 in the vicinity of ,ching-t ,chn1 is a tablet inscribed1 ,the white porcelain is quietly passed all through the night1 the fragrant vapour 7of the tea7 fills the peaceful pavilion1 an echo of a symposium held there by some distinguished persons in the year #aaja ,a4,d41 and no doubt alluding to wares of local make4 ,elsewhere#a we read of a drinking-bout in which the wine bowls of white ,ting ,chou porcelain inspired a verse-capping competition4 ,ting ,chou porcelain bowls in colour white throughout the ,empire1 wrote one4 ,another followed1 ,compared with them1 glass is a light and fickle mistress1 amber a dull and stupid female slave4 ,the third proceeded3 ,the vessel's body is firm and crisp2 the texture of its skin is yet more sleek and pleasing4 ,the author of the ,ping hua pu1 a late ,ming work on flower vases1 exhorts us3 ,prize the porcelain and disdain gold and silver4 ,esteem pure elegance4 ,in their admiration of antiques the ,chinese yield to none1 and nowhere have private collections been more jealously guarded and more difficult of access4 ,even in the sixteenth century relatively large sums were paid for ,sung porcelains1 and #cj was not too much for a chicken wine cup barely a hundred years old4 ,the ownership of a choice antique--say1 of the ,sung dynasty--made the possessor a man of mark2 perhaps even a marked man if the local ruler chanced to be of a grasping nature4 ,a story is told on p4 #ge of this volume of a ,ko ware incense burner 7afterwards sold for #bjj ounces of gold71 which brought a man to imprisonment and torture in the early ,ming period2 and1 if the newspaper account was correct1 there was an incident in the recent revolution which should touch the collector's heart4 ,a prominent general1 who1 like so many ,chinese grandees1 was an ardent collector1 was expecting a choice piece of porcelain from ,shanghai4 ,in due course the box arrived and was taken to the general's sanctum4 ,he proceeded to open it1 no doubt with all the eagerness and suppressed excitement which collectors feel in such tense moments1 only to be blown to pieces by a bomb6 ,his enemies had known too well the weak point in his defence4 ,collecting is a less dangerous sport in ,england2 but if it were not so1 the ardent collector would be in no way deterred4 ,warnings are wasted on him1 and he would follow his quarry1 even though the path were strewn with fragments of his indiscreet fellows4 ,still less is he discouraged by difficulties of another kind1 as illustrated 'by the story#b of ,tang's white ,sung tripod1 which was so closely imitated that its owner1 one of the most celebrated collectors of the sixteenth century1 could not distinguish the copy from the original4 ,an eighteenth century ,chinese writer points the moral of the story3 ,when connoisseurs point with admiration to a vessel1 calling it ,ting ware1 or1 again1 ,kuan ware1 how can we know that it is not a 'false tripod' which deceives them8 ,the force of this question will be appreciated by collectors of ,sung wares1 especially of the white ,ting porcelains and the green celadons2 for there is nothing more difficult to classify correctly than these long-lived types4 ,there are1 however1 authentic ,sung examples within reach1 and we can train our eyes with these1 so that nothing but the very best imitations will deceive us2 and1 after all1 if we succeed in obtaining a really first-rate ,ming copy of a ,sung type we shall be fortunate1 for if we ever discover the truth--which is an unlikely contingency--we may console ourselves with thoughts of the enthusiast who eventually bought ,tang's false tripod for #cjj and went home perfectly happy4 ,in spite of all that has been written in the past on ,oriental ceramics1 the study is still young1 and it will be long before the last word is said on the subject4 ,still our knowledge is constantly increasing1 and remarkable strides have been made in recent years4 ,the first serious work on ,chinese porcelain was ,julien's translation of the ,ching-t ,chn tao lu1 published in #ahef4 ,the work of a scholar who was not an expert1 it was inevitably marred by misunderstanding of the material1 and subsequent writers who followed blindly were led into innumerable confusions4 ,the ,franks ,catalogue1 issued in #ahgf1 was one of the first attempts to classify ,oriental wares on some intelligible system2 but it was felt that not enough was known at that time to justify a chronological classification of the collection1 and the somewhat unscientific method of grouping by colours and processes of decoration was adopted as a convenient expedient4 ,at the end of last century ,dr4 ,s4,w4 ,bushell revolutionised the study of ,chinese porcelain by his ,oriental ,ceramic ,art1 a book1 unfortunately1 difficult to obtain1 and by editing ,cosmo ,monkhouse's excellent ,history and ,description of ,chinese ,porcelain4 ,these were followed by the ,south ,kensington ,museum ,handbook and by the translation and reproduction of the sixteenth century ,album of ,hsiang ,yan-pien1 and later by the more important translation of the ,tao shuo4 ,it would be impossible to over-estimate the importance of ,bushell's pioneer work2 and ,i hasten to make the fullest acknowledgment of the free use ,i have made of his writings1 the more so because ,i have not hesitated to criticise freely his translations where necessary4 ,the ,chinese language is notoriously obscure and ambiguous1 and differences of opinion on difficult passages are inevitable4 ,in fact1 ,i would say that it is unwise to build up theories on any translation whatsoever without verifying the critical passages in the original4 ,for this reason ,i found it necessary to work laboriously through the available ,chinese ceramic literature1 a task which would have been quite impossible with my brief acquaintance with the language had it not been for the invaluable aid of ,dr4 ,lionel ,giles1 who helped me over the difficult ground4 ,i have1 moreover1 taken the precaution of giving the ,chinese text in all critical passages1 so that the reader may satisfy himself as to their true meaning4 ,while ,dr4 ,bushell's contributions have greatly simplified the study of the later ,chinese porcelains1 little or no account was taken in the older books of the pottery and early wares4 ,the materials necessary for the study of these were wanting in ,europe4 ,stray examples of the coarser types and export wares had found their way into our collections1 but not in sufficient numbers or importance to arouse any general interest1 and the condition of the ,western market for the early types was not such as to tempt the native collector to part with his rare and valued specimens4 ,in the last few years the position has completely changed4 ,the opening up of ,china and the increased opportunities which ,europeans enjoy1 not only for studying the monuments of ancient ,chinese art1 but for acquiring examples of the early masterpieces in painting1 sculpture1 bronze1 jade1 and ceramic wares1 have given the ,western student a truer insight into the greatness of the earlier phases of ,chinese art1 and have awakened a new and widespread enthusiasm for them4 ,an immense quantity of objects1 interesting both artistically and archologically1 has been discovered in the tombs which railway construction has incidentally opened2 and although this rich material has been gathered haphazard and under the least favourable conditions for accurate classification1 a great deal has been learnt1 and it is not too much to say that the study of early ,chinese art has been completely revolutionised4 ,numerous collections have been formed1 and the resulting competition has created a market into which even the treasured specimens of the ,chinese collectors are being lured4 ,political circumstances have been another factor of the situation1 and the ,western collector has profited by the unhappy conditions which have prevailed in ,china since the revolution in #aiab4 ,the result of all this1 ceramically speaking1 is that we are now familiar with the pottery of the ,han dynasty2 the ceramic art of the ,tang period has been unfolded in wholly unexpected splendour2 the ,sung problems no longer consist in reconciling ambiguous ,chinese phrases1 but in the classification of actual specimens2 the ,ming porcelain is seen in clearer perspective1 and our already considerable information on the wares of the last dynasty has been revised and supplemented by further studies4 ,so much progress1 in fact1 has been made1 that it was high time to take stock of the present position1 and to set out the material which has been collected1 not1 of course1 with any thoughts of finality1 but to serve as a basis for a further forward move4 ,that is the purpose of the present volumes1 in which ,i have attempted merely to lay before the reader the existing material for studying ,chinese ceramics as ,i have found it1 adding my own conclusions and comments1 which he may or may not accept4 ,the most striking additions to our knowledge in recent years1 have without doubt been those which concern the ,tang pottery4 ,what was previously a blank is now filled with a rich series covering the whole gamut of ceramic wares1 from a soft plaster-like material through faence and stoneware up to true porcelain4 ,the ,tang potters had little to learn in technical matters4 ,they used the soft lead glazes1 coloured green1 blue1 amber1 and purplish brown by the same metallic oxides as formed the basis of the cognate glazes on ,ming pottery4 ,they used high-fired feldspathic glazes1 white1 brownish green1 chocolate brown1 purplish black1 and tea-dust green1 sometimes with frothy splashes of grey or bluish grey1 as on the ,sung wares4 ,sometimes these glazes were superposed as on the ,japanese tea jars1 which avowedly owed their technique to ,chinese models4 ,it is evident that streaked and mottled effects appealed specially to the taste of the time1 and marbling both of the glaze and of the body was practised4 ,carving designs in low relief1 or incising them with a pointed instrument and filling in the spaces with coloured glazes1 stamping small patterns on the body1 and applying reliefs which had been previously pressed out in moulds1 were methods employed for surface decoration4 ,painted designs in unfired pigments appear on some of the tomb wares1 and it is now practically certain that painting in black under a green glaze was used by the ,tang potters4 ,moreover1 the existence of porcelain proper in the ,tang period is definitely established4 ,one of the most remarkable features of ,tang pottery is the strong ,hellenistic flavour apparent in the shapes of the vessels and in certain details of the ornament1 particularly in the former4 ,other foreign influences observable in ,tang art are ,persian1 ,sassanian1 ,scytho-,siberian1 and ,indian1 and one would say that ,chinese art at this period was in a peculiarly receptive state4 ,as compared with the conventional style of later ages which we have come to regard as characteristically ,chinese1 the ,tang art is quite distinctive1 and almost foreign in many of its aspects4 ,the revelation of ,tang ceramics has provided many surprises1 and doubtless there are more in store for us4 ,there are certainly many gaps to fill and many apparent anomalies to explain4 ,we are still in the dark with regard to the potter's art of the four hundred years which separate the ,han and ,tang dynasties4 ,the ,buddhist sculptures of this time reveal a high level of artistic development1 and we may assume that the minor arts1 and pottery among them1 were not neglected4 ,when some light is shed from excavation or otherwise upon this obscure interval1 no doubt we shall see that we have fixed our boundaries too rigidly1 and that the ,han types must be carried forward and the ,tang types carried back to bridge the gap4 ,meanwhile1 we can only make the best of the facts which have been revealed at present1 keeping our classification as elastic as possible4 ,probably the soft lead glazes belong to the earlier part of the ,tang period and extend back to the ,sui and ,wei1 linking up with the green glaze of the ,han pottery1 while the high-fired glazes tended to supersede these in the latter part of the dynasty4 ,the high-fired feldspathic glazes seem to have held the field entirely in the ,sung dynasty1 and the lead glazes1 as far as our observation goes1 do not reappear until the ,ming dynasty4 ,the ,sung is the age of high-fired glazes1 splendid in their lavish richness and in the subtle and often unforeseen tints which emerge from their opalescent depths4 ,it is also an age of bold1 free potting1 robust and virile forms1 an age of pottery in its purest manifestation4 ,painted ornament was used at certain factories in black and coloured clays1 and1 it would seem1 even in red and green enamels2 but painted ornament was less esteemed than the true ceramic decoration obtained by carving1 incising1 and moulding--processes which the potters worked with the clay alone4 ,if we could rest content with a comprehensive classification of the ,sung wares1 as we have had perforce to do in the case of the ,tang1 one of the chief difficulties in this part of our task would be avoided4 ,but the ,chinese have given us a number of important headings1 under which it has become obligatory to try and group our specimens4 ,some of these types have been clearly identified1 but there are others which still remain vague and ill-defined2 and there are many specimens1 especially among the coarser kinds of ware1 which cannot be referred to any of the main groups4 ,but the true collector will not find the difficulties connected with the ,sung wares in any way discouraging4 ,he will revel in them1 taking pleasure in the fact that he has new ground to break1 many riddles to solve1 and a subject to master which is worthy of his steel4 ,apparently a coarse form of painting in blue was employed at one factory at least in the ,sung period1#c and we may now consider it practically certain that the first essays in painting both under and over the glaze go back several centuries earlier than was previously supposed4 ,blue and white and polychrome porcelain chiefly occupied the energies of the ,imperial potters at ,ching-t ,chn in the ,ming dynasty1 and the classic periods for these types fall in the fifteenth century4 ,the vogue of the ,sung glazes scarcely survived the brief intermediate dynasty of the ,yan1 and we are told by a ,chinese writer#d that on the advent of the ,ming dynasty the pi s#e began to disappear4 ,pictorial ornament and painted brocade patterns were in favour on the ,ming wares2 and it will be observed that as compared with those of the later porcelains the ,ming designs are painted with more freedom and individuality4 ,in the ,ching dynasty the appetite of the ,ching-t ,chn potters was omnivorous and their skill was supreme4 ,they are not only noted for certain specialities1 such as the ,kang ,hsi blue and white and famille verte1 the sang de buf and peach-bloom reds1 and for the development of the famille rose palette1 but for the revival of all the celebrated types of the classic periods of the ,sung and ,ming2 and when they had exhausted the possibilities of these they turned to other materials and copied with magical exactitude the ornaments in metal1 carved stone1 lacquer1 wood1 shell1 glass--in a word1 every artistic substance1 whether natural or artificial4 ,the mastery of such a large and complex subject as ,oriental ceramics requires not a little study of history and technique1 in books and in collections4 ,the theory and practice should be taken simultaneously1 for neither can be of much use without the other4 ,the possession of a few specimens which can be freely handled and closely studied is an immense advantage4 ,they need not be costly pieces4 ,in fact1 broken fragments will give as much of the all-important information on paste and glaze as complete specimens4 ,those who have not the good fortune to possess the latter1 will find ample opportunity for study in the public museums with which most of the large cities of the world are provided4 ,the traveller will be directed to these by his ,baedeker1 and ,i shall only mention a few of the most important museums with which ,i have personal acquaintance1 and to which ,i gratefully express my thanks for invaluable assistance4 ,london4--,the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum possesses the famous ,salting ,collection1 in which the ,ching dynasty porcelains are seen at their best3 besides the collection formed by the ,museum itself and many smaller bequests1 gifts1 and loans1 in which all periods are represented4 ,the ,franks ,collection in the ,british ,museum is one of the best collections for the student because of its catholic and representative nature4 ,birmingham and ,edinburgh have important collections in their art galleries1 and most of the large towns have some ,chinese wares in their museums4 ,paris4--,the ,grandidier ,collection in the ,louvre is one of the largest in the world4 ,the ,cernuschi ,museum contains many interesting examples1 especially of the early celadons1 and the ,muse ,guimet and the ,svres ,museum have important collections4 ,berlin4--,the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum has a small collection containing some important specimens4 ,the ,hohenzollern ,museum and the ,palace of ,charlottenburg have historic collections formed chiefly at the end of the seventeenth century4 ,dresden4--,the famous and historic collection1 formed principally by ,augustus the ,strong1 is exhibited in the ,johanneum1 and is especially important for the study of the ,kang ,hsi porcelains4 ,the ,stbel ,collection in the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum1 too1 is of interest4 ,gotha4--,the ,herzgliches ,museum contains an important series of the ,sung and ,yan wares formed by ,professor ,hirth4 ,cologne4--,an important and peculiarly well-arranged museum of ,far-,eastern art1 formed by the late ,dr4 ,adolf ,fischer and his wife1 is attached to the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum4 ,new ,york4--,the ,metropolitan ,museum is particularly rich in ,ming and ,ching porcelains4 ,it is fortunate in having the splendid ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection and the ,avery ,collection1 and when the ,altmann ,collection is duly installed in its galleries it will be unrivalled in the wares of the last dynasty4 ,the ,natural ,history ,museum has a good series of ,han pottery4 ,chicago4--,the ,field ,museum of ,natural ,history has probably the largest collection of ,han pottery and ,tang figurines in the world4 ,it has also an interesting series of later ,chinese pottery1 including specimens from certain modern factories which are important for comparative study4 ,these collections were formed by ,dr4 ,laufer in ,china4 ,there is also a small collection of the later porcelains in the ,art ,institute4 ,boston4--,the ,museum of ,fine ,arts has a considerable collection of ,chinese porcelain1 in which the earlier periods are specially well represented4 ,the ,american collections1 both public and private1 are especially strong in monochrome porcelains1 and in this department they are much in advance of the ,european4 ,to acknowledge individually all the kind attentions ,i have received from those in charge of the various museums would make a long story4 ,they will perhaps forgive me if ,i thank them collectively4 ,the private collectors to whom ,i must express my gratitude are scarcely less numerous4 ,they have given me every facility for the study of their collections1 and in many cases1 as will be seen in tile list of plates1 they have freely assisted with the illustrations4 ,i am specially indebted to ,mr4 ,eumorfopoulos1 ,mr4 ,alexander1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,benson1 ,mr4 ,s4 ,t4 ,peters1 and ,mr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,freer1 who have done so much for the study of the early wares in ,england and ,america4 ,without the unstinted help of these enthusiastic collectors it would have been impossible to produce the first volume of this book4 ,what ,i owe to ,mr4 ,eumorfopoulos can be partly guessed from the list of plates4 ,his collection is an education in itself1 and he has allowed me to draw freely on it and on his own wide experience4 ,of the many other collectors who have similarly assisted in various parts of the work1 ,i have to thank ,sir ,hercules ,read1 ,mr4 ,s4 ,e4 ,kennedy1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,cumberbatch1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,rothenstein1 ,dr4 ,breuer1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,seligmann1 ,m4 ,r4 ,koechlin1 ,mr4 ,o4 ,raphael1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,hippisley1 ,hon4 ,evan ,charteris1 ,lady ,wantage1 ,mr4 ,burdett-,coutts1 the late ,dr4 ,a4 ,fischer1 ,mr4 ,l4 ,c4 ,messel1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,burton1 ,col4 ,goff1 ,mrs4 ,halsey1 ,mrs4 ,havemeyer1 ,rev4 ,g4 ,a4 ,schneider1 and ,mrs4 ,coltart4 ,a portion of the proofs has been read by ,mr4 ,w4 ,burton4 ,mr4 ,l4 ,c4 ,hopkins has given me frequent help with ,chinese texts1 and especially in the reading of seal characters2 and my colleague1 ,dr4 ,lionel ,giles1 in addition to invaluable assistance with the translations1 has consented to look through the proofs of these volumes with a special view to errors in the ,chinese characters4 ,finally1 ,i have to thank my chief1 ,sir ,hercules ,read1 not only for all possible facilities in the ,british ,museum1 but for his sympathetic guidance in the study of a subject of which he has long been a master4 ,r4 ,l4 ,,hobson4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,in the ,kuei chien chih quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #aj4 ,footnote #b3 ,see p4 #ie4 ,footnote #c3 ,see p4 #ii4 ,footnote #d3 ,in the ,ai jih tang chao1 quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #ah verso4 ,footnote #e3 ,the pi s1 or secret colour1 is used as a general term for glazes of the celadon type1 among which the writer in question includes all the celebrated wares of antiquity from the ,tang green 7tsui7 of a thousand hills1 the ,yeh ware1 the ,chai blue 7ching7 of the sky after rain1 to the ,sung ,ju1 ,kuan1 ,ko1 ,tung-ching1 and ,lung-chan wares4 ,,bibliography ,,anderson1 ,w41 ,catalogue of the ,japanese and ,chinese ,paintings in the ,british ,museum4 #ahhf4 ,,binyon1 ,l41 ,painting in the ,far ,east4 ,,bretschneider1 ,e41 ,medival ,researches from ,eastern ,asiatic ,sources1 ,truebner's ,oriental ,series4 #ahgh4 ,,brinkley1 ,,capt4 ,f41 ,china1 its ,history1 ,arts and ,literature1 vol4 ix4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,,burton1 ,w41 ,porcelain3 ,a ,sketch of its ,nature1 ,art and ,manufacture4 ,london1 #aijf4 ,,burton1 ,w41 ,,and ,,hobson1 ,marks on ,pottery and ,porcelain4 ,london1 #aiab4 ,,bushell1 ,s4,w41 ,chinese ,porcelain1 ,sixteenth-,century coloured illustrations with ,chinese ,,ms4 text1 by ,hsiang ,yan-pien1 translated by ,s4,w4 ,bushell4 ,oxford1 #aijh4 ,sub-title ,porcelain of ,different ,dynasties4 ,,bushell1 ,s4 ,w41 ,chinese ,porcelain before the ,present ,dynasty1 being a translation of the last1 with notes4 ,peking1 #ahhf4 ,,bushell1 ,s4 ,w41 ,description of ,chinese ,pottery and ,porcelain1 being a translation of the ,tao shuo4 ,oxford1 #aiaj4 ,,bushell1 ,s4 ,w41 ,oriental ,ceramic ,art1 ,collection of ,w4,t4 ,walters4 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 ,,bushell1 ,s4 ,w41 ,catalogue of the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection4 ,new ,york4 ,,bushell1 ,s4 ,w41 ,chinese ,art1 #b vols41 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum ,handbook4 #aijf4 ,,chavannes1 ,,edouard1 ,la ,sculpture sur pierre en ,chine au temps des deux dynasties ,han4 ,paris1 #ahic4 ,,chavannes1 ,,edouard1 ,mission ,archologique dans la ,chine ,septentrionale4 ,paris1 #aiji4 ,the ,chiang hsi tung chih ,chinese4 ,the topographical history of the province of ,kiangsi1 revised edition in #ahj books1 published in #ahhb4 ,the ,chin ting ku chin tu shu chi chng ,chinese4 ,the encyclopdia of the ,kang ,hsi period1 ,section ,,xxxii4 ,handicrafts 7kao kung74 ,part #h entitled ,tao kung pu hui kao1 and ,part #bdh entitled ,tz chi pu hui kao4 ,chin shih so ,chinese ,researches in ,metal and ,stone1 by the ,brothers ,fng4 #ahba4 ,the ,ching pi tsang ,chinese ,a ,storehouse of ,artistic ,rarities1 by ,chang ,ying-wn1 published by his son in #aeie4 ,the ,ching-t ,chn tao lu ,chinese1 ,the ,ceramic ,records of ,ching-t ,chn1 in ten parts1 by ,lan ,pu1 published in #ahae4 ,books ,,viii4 and ,,ix4 are a corpus of references to pottery and porcelain from ,chinese literature4 ,the ,ching t yao ,chinese1 ,porcelain of ,ching-t ,chn1 a volume of ,,ms4 written about #ahej4 ,the ,cho kng lu ,chinese1 ,notes jotted down in the intervals of ploughing1 a miscellany on works of art in thirty books1 by ,tao ,tsung-i1 published in #acfh4 ,the section on pottery is practically a transcript of a note in the ,yan chai pi hng1 by ,yeh ,chih1 a thirteenth-century writer4 ,d',,entrecolles1 ,p,,re1 ,two ,letters written from ,ching-t ,chn in #agab and #agbb1 published in ,lettres difiantes et curieuses1 and subsequently reprinted in ,bushell's ,translation of the ,tao shuo 7q4v471 and translated in ,burton's ,porcelain 7q4v474 ,,de ,,groot1 ,j4 ,j4 ,m41 ,les ,ftes ,annuellement ,clbres moi1 ,annales du ,muse ,guimet1 ,vols4 ,,xi4 and ,,xii4 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,,de ,,groot1 ,j4 ,j4 ,m41 ,the ,religious ,system of ,china4 ,leyden1 #ahid4 ,,dillon1 ,e41 ,porcelain 7,the ,connoisseur's ,library74 ,,dukes1 ,e4 ,j41 ,everyday ,life in ,china1 or ,scenes in ,fuhkien4 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,,foucher1 ,a41 tude sur l'iconographie bouddhique de l',inde4 ,paris1 #aijj4 ,,franks1 ,a4 ,w41 ,catalogue of a ,collection of ,oriental ,porcelain and ,pottery4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,,giles1 ,h4 ,a41 ,a ,glossary of ,reference on ,subjects connected with the ,far ,east4 ,shanghai1 #aijj4 ,,grandidier1 ,e41 ,la ,cramique ,chinoise4 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,,gr,,nwedel1 ,a41 ,mythologie des ,buddhismus in ,tibet und der ,mongolei4 ,leipzig1 #aijj4 ,,gulland1 ,w4 ,g41 ,chinese ,porcelain4 ,london1 #aijb4 ,,hirth1 ,f41 ,china and the ,roman ,orient4 ,leipzig1 #ahhe4 ,,hirth1 ,f41 ,ancient ,porcelain1 a ,study in ,chinese ,medival ,industry and ,trade4 ,leipzig1 #ahhh4 ,,hirth1 ,f41 ,,and ,w4,w4 ,,rockhill1 ,chau ,ju-kua1 his ,work on the ,chinese and ,arab ,trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 entitled ,chu-fan-chi4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #aiab4 ,,hobson1 ,r4 ,l41 ,porcelain1 ,oriental1 ,continental and ,british1 second edition4 ,london1 #aiab4 ,,hobson1 ,r4 ,l41 ,the ,new ,chaffers4 ,london1 #aiac4 ,,hobson1 ,r4 ,l41 ,,and ,,burton1 ,marks on ,pottery and ,porcelain1 second edition4 ,london1 #aiab4 ,,hsiang ,y,,an-,p,,ien4 ,see ,,bushell4 ,,jacquemart1 ,a41 ,,and ,e4 ,,le ,,blant1 ,histoire de la ,porcelaine4 ,paris1 #ahfb4 ,,julien1 ,,stanislas1 ,histoire et ,fabrication de la ,porcelaine ,chinoise4 ,paris1 #ahef4 ,being a translation of the greater part of the ,ching-t ,chn tao lu1 with various notes and additions4 ,the ,ko ku yao lun ,chinese1 ,essential ,discussion of the ,criteria of ,antiquities1 by ,tsao ,chao1 published in #achg in thirteen books2 revised and enlarged edition in #adei4 ,,laufer1 ,,berthold1 ,chinese ,pottery of the ,han ,dynasty1 ,leyden1 #aiji4 ,,laufer1 ,,berthold1 ,jade1 a ,study in ,chinese ,archology and ,religion1 ,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,anthropological ,series1 ,vol4 ,x4 ,chicago1 #aiab4 ,the ,li ta kan kao ku ou pien ,chinese1 by ,chang ,chin-chien4 #ahgg4 ,,mayers1 ,w4 ,f41 ,the ,chinese ,reader's ,manual4 ,shanghai1 #ahgd4 ,,meyer1 ,a4 ,b41 ,alterthmer aus dem ,ostindischen ,archipel4 ,,monkhouse1 ,,cosmo1 ,a ,history and ,description of ,chinese ,porcelain1 with notes by ,s4,w4 ,bushell4 ,london1 #aija4 ,,playfair1 ,g4 ,m4 ,h41 ,the ,cities and ,towns of ,china4 ,hong-,kong1 #aiaj4 ,the ,po wu yao lan ,chinese1 ,a ,general ,survey of ,art ,objects1 by ,ku ,ying-tai1 published in the ,tien ,chi period 7#afba-bg74 ,,richard1 ,l41 ,comprehensive ,geography of the ,chinese ,empire4 ,shanghai1 #aijh4 ,,sarre1 ,f41 ,,and ,b4 ,,shulz1 ,denkmler ,persischer ,baukunst4 ,berlin1 #aija-aj4 ,,stein1 ,m4 ,a41 ,ruins of ,desert ,cathay4 ,london1 #aiab4 ,,stein1 ,m4 ,a41 ,sand-buried ,ruins of ,khotan4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,shin sho sei1 etc41 ,japan1 ,antiquarian ,gallery4 #ahia4 ,tao lu4 ,see ,ching-t ,chn tao lu4 ,tao shuo chch #b1 ,a ,discussion of ,pottery1 by ,chu ,yen1 in six parts1 published in #aggd4 ,see ,,bushell4 ,toyei ,shuko1 ,an ,illustrated ,catalogue of the ,ancient ,imperial ,treasury called ,shoso-in1 compiled by the ,imperial ,household4 ,tokyo1 #aiji4 ,tu ,shu4 ,see ,chin ting ku chin tu shu chi chng4 ,,warner1 ,,langdon1 ,,and ,,shiba-,,junrokuro1 ,japanese ,temples and their ,treasures4 ,tokyo1 #aiaj4 ,,williams1 ,s4 ,,wells1 ,the ,chinese ,commercial ,guide4 ,hongkong1 #ahfc4 ,,yule1 ,,sir ,h41 ,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,,zimmermann1 ,e41 ,chinesisches ,porzellan4 ,leipzig1 #aiac4 ,,catalogues ,,and ,,articles ,,in ,,periodical ,,publications ,,bahr1 ,a4 ,w41 ,old ,chinese ,porcelain and ,works of ,art in ,china4 ,london1 #aiaa4 ,,bell1 ,,hamilton1 ',imperial' ,sung ,pottery1 ,art in ,america1 ,july1 #aiac4 ,b,,rschmann1 ,e41 ,on a ,vase found at ,chi-ning ,chou1 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ,jahrg4 #dc1 #aiaa4 ,,bretschneider1 ,e41 ,botanicon ,sinicum1 ,journal of the ,north-,china ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society4 ,new ,series1 ,vol4 ,,xvi41 ,part #a1 #ahha4 ,,brinkley1 ,f41 ,catalogue of the ,exhibitions at the ,boston ,museum of ,arts1 #ahhd4 ,burlington ,magazine1 ,the1 passim4 ,,bushell1 ,s4 ,w41 ,chinese ,porcelain before the ,present ,dynasty1 ,journal of the ,peking ,oriental ,society1 #ahhf4 ,catalogue of a ,collection of ,early ,chinese ,pottery and ,porcelain1 ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club1 #aiaj4 ,,clennell1 ,w4 ,j41 ,journey in the ,interior of ,kiangsi1 ,consular ,report4 ,h4 ,m4 ,stationery ,office4 ,,cole1 ,,fay-,,cooper1 ,chinese ,pottery in the ,philippines1 with postscript by ,berthold ,laufer1 ,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,publication #afb4 ,chicago1 #aiab4 ,,eitel1 ,e4 ,j41 ,china ,review1 ,vol4 ,x41 p4 #cjh1 ,notes on ,chinese ,porcelain4 ,,groeneveldt1 ,w4 ,p41 ,notes on the ,malay ,archipelago1 ,verhandelingen van het ,bataviaasch ,genootschap van ,kunsten en ,wetenschappen1 ,deel4 xxxix4 ,,hippisley1 ,a4 ,e41 ,catalogue of the ,hippisley ,collection of ,chinese ,porcelains1 ,smithsonian ,institute4 ,second ,edition4 ,washington1 #aijj4 ,,hobson1 ,r4 ,l41 ,catalogue of a ,collection of ,early ,chinese ,pottery and ,porcelain1 ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club4 #aiaj4 ,,hobson1 ,r4 ,l41 ,catalogue of ,chinese1 ,corean and ,japanese ,potteries4 ,new ,york ,japan ,society1 #aiad4 ,,hobson1 ,r4 ,l41 ,burlington ,magazine1 ,wares of the ,sung and ,yan ,dynasties1 in six articles1 ,april1 ,may1 ,june1 ,august1 and ,november1 #aiji1 and ,january1 #aiaj4 ,,hobson1 ,r4 ,l41 ,on ,some ,old ,chinese ,pottery1 ,burlington ,magazine4 ,august1 #aiaa4 ,,hobson1 ,r4 ,l41 ,,and ,o4 ,,brackett1 ,catalogue of the ,porcelain and ,works of ,art in the ,collection of the ,lady ,wantage4 ,,kershaw1 ,f4 ,s41 ,note in ,inscribed ,han ,pottery1 ,burlington ,magazine1 ,december1 #aiac4 ,,laffan1 ,w41 ,catalogue of the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection in the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,new ,york4 ,,martin1 ,,dr41 ,note on a ,sassanian ,ewer1 ,burlington ,magazine1 ,september1 #aiab4 ,,meyer1 ,a4 ,b41 ,on the ,celadon ,question1 ,oesterreichische ,monatsschrift1 ,january1 #ahhe1 etc4 ,,morgan1 ,j4 ,p41 ,catalogue of the ,morgan ,collection of ,chinese ,porcelains1 by ,s4,w4 ,bushell and ,w4,m4 ,laffan4 ,new ,york1 #aijg4 ,,paris1 ,exposition universelle de #ahgh1 ,catalogue spcial de la ,collection ,chinoise4 ,,perzynski1 ,f41 ,towards a ,grouping of ,chinese ,porcelain1 ,burlington ,magazine1 ,october and ,december1 #aiaj1 etc4 ,,perzynski1 ,f41 ,jagd auf ,gtter1 in the ,neue ,rundschau1 ,october1 #aiac4 ,,perzynski1 ,f41 on ,tang ,forgeries1 ,ostasiatischer ,zeitschrift1 ,january1 #aiad4 ,,read1 ,c4 ,h41 in ,man1 #aija1 ,no4 #ae1 ,on a ,tang ,vase and ,two ,mirrors from a ,tomb in ,shensi4 ,,reinaud1 ,m41 ,relation des ,voyages faits par les ,arabes et les ,persans dans l',inde et la ,chine dans la ,,ix sicle de l're chrtienne4 ,paris1 #ahde4 ,,solon1 ,l41 ,the ,noble ,buccaros1 ,north ,staffordshire ,literary and ,philosophic ,society1 ,october #bcrd1 #ahif4 ,,torrance1 ,,rev4 ,,th41 ,burial ,customs in ,szechuan1 ,journal of the ,n4 ,china ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,vol4 ,,xli41 #aiaj1 p4 #eh4 ,,voretzsch1 ,e4 ,a41 ,hamburgisches ,museum fr ,kunst und ,gewerbe1 ,fhrer durch eine ,ausstellung ,chinesischer ,kunst1 #aiac4 ,,williams1 ,,mrs4 ,r4 ,s41 ,introductory ,note to the ,catalogue of a ,loan ,exhibition of ,chinese1 ,corean1 and ,japanese ,potteries held by the ,japan ,society of ,new ,york1 #aiad4 ,,zimmermann1 ,e41 ,wann ist das ,chinesische ,porzellan erfunden und wer war sein ,erfinder8 ,orientalisches ,archiv4 ,sonderabdruck4 ,,chinese ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,primitive ,,periods ,,pottery1 as one of the first necessities of mankind1 is among the earliest of human inventions4 ,in a rude form it is found with the implements of the late ,stone ,age1 before there is any evidence of the use of metals1 and all attempts to reconstruct the first stages of its discovery are based on conjecture alone4 ,we have no knowledge of a ,stone ,age in ,china1 but it may be safely assumed that pottery there1 as elsewhere1 goes back far into prehistoric times4 ,its invention is ascribed to the mythical ,shn-nung1 the ,triptolemus of ,china1 who is supposed to have initiated the people in the cultivation of the soil and other necessary arts of life4 ,huang ,ti1 the semi-legendary yellow emperor1 in whose reign the cyclical system of chronology began 7#bfig ,b4,c471 is said to have appointed a superintendent of pottery1 ,kun-wu1 who made pottery1 and it was a commonplace in the oldest ,chinese literature#f that the great and good emperor ,y ,ti ,shun 7#bcag-bbjh ,b4,c47 highly esteemed pottery4 ,indeed1 the ,han historian ,ss-ma ,chien 7#afc-he ,b4,c47 assures us that ,shun himself1 before ascending the throne1 fashioned pottery at ,ho-pin1 and1 needless to say1 the vessels made at ,ho-pin were without flaw4 ,according to the description given in the ,tao shuo1 the evolution of the potter's art in ,china took the usual course4 ,the first articles made were cooking vessels2 then1 coming to the time of ,y 7i4e4 ,y ,ti ,shun71 the different kinds of wine vessels are distinguished by name1 and the sacrificial vessels are gradually becoming complete4#g ,i should add that the author of the ,tao shuo1 after accepting the earlier references to the art1 inconsistently concludes3 ,i humbly suggest that the origin of pottery should strictly be placed in the reign of ,y ,ti ,shun1 and its completion in the ,chou dynasty 7#aabb-bef ,b4,c474 ,unfortunately1 none of the writers can throw any light on the first use of the potter's wheel in ,china4 ,it is true that1 like several other nations1 the ,chinese claim for themselves the invention of that essential implement1 but there is no real evidence to illuminate the question1 and even if the wheel was independently discovered in ,china1 the priority of invention undoubtedly rests with the ,near ,eastern nations4 ,palpable evidence of its use can be seen on ,minoan pottery found in ,crete and dating about #cjjj ,b4,c41 and on ,egyptian pottery of the twelfth dynasty 7about #bbjj ,b4,c472 while it is practically certain that it was used in the making of the ,egyptian pottery of the fourth dynasty 7about #cbjj ,b4,c474 ,so far1 the ,chinese have nothing tangible to oppose to these facts earlier than the ,chou writings1 in which workers with the wheel 7tao jn7 are distinguished from workers with moulds 7fang jn71 the former making cauldrons1 basins1 colanders1 boilers1 and vessels 7y71 and the latter moulding the sacrificial vessels named kuei and tou4 ,we learn that at this time the ,chinese potters also used the compasses and the polishing wheel or lathe4 ,with this outfit they were able1 according to the ,tao shuo1 to effect the completion of pottery4 ,whatever the truth of this pious statement may be1 reflecting as it does the true ,chinese veneration of antiquity1 it is certain1 at any rate1 that the potter was not without honour at this time3 for we read in the ,tso ,chuan#h that ,o-fu of ,y was the best potter at the beginning of the ,chou dynasty4 ,wu ,wang relied on his skill for the vessels which he used4 ,he wedded him to a descendant of his imperial ancestors1 and appointed him feudal prince of ,chn4 ,examples of these early potteries have been unearthed from ancient burials from time to time1 and the ,tao shuo describes numerous types from literary sources4 ,but neither the originals1 as far as we know them1 nor the verbal descriptions of them1 have anything but an antiquarian interest4 ,the art of the ,chou dynasty1 as expressed in bronze and jade1 is fairly well known from illustrated ,chinese and ,western works4 ,it reflects a priestly culture in its hieratic forms and symbolical ornament4 ,it is majestic and stern1 severely disdainful of sentiment and sensuous appeal4 ,of the pottery we know little1 but that little shows us a purely utilitarian ware of simple form1 unglazed and almost devoid of ornament4 ,on ,plate #a are two types which may perhaps be regarded as favourable examples of ,chou pottery4 ,a tripod vessel1 almost exactly similar to ,fig4 #a1 was published by ,berthold ,laufer1#i who shows by analogy with bronzes of the period good reasons for its ,chou attribution1 which he states is confirmed by ,chinese antiquarians4 ,his example was of hard gray clay1 which on the surface has assumed a black colour1 and it had the surface ornamented with a hatched pattern similar to that of our illustration4 ,it has been assumed that this hatched pattern is a sure sign of ,chou origin1 and ,i have no doubt that it was a common decoration at the time4 ,but its use continued after the ,chou period1 and it is found on pottery from a ,han tomb in ,szechuan1 which is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,it is1 in fact1 practically the same as the mat marking on the ,japanese and ,corean pottery taken from the dolmens which were built over a long period extending from the second century ,b4,c4 to the eighth century ,a4,d4 ,the taste of the time is reflected in a sentence which occurs in the ,kuan-tz1 a work of the fifth century ,b4,c43 ,ornamentation detracts from the merit of pottery4#aj ,the words used for ornamentation are wn tsai ,chinese 7lit4 pattern1 bright colours71 and they seem to imply a knowledge of some means of colouring the ware4 ,as there is no evidence of the use of glaze before the ,han period1 and enamelling in the ordinary ceramic sense is out of the question1 we may perhaps assume that some of the pottery of the ,chou period was painted with unfired pigments1 a method certainly in use in the ,han dynasty4 ,there is a vase in the ,british ,museum of unglazed ware with painted designs in black1 red and white pigments1 which has been regarded as of ,han period1 but may possibly be earlier 7,plate #b1 ,fig4 #c74 ,in addition to the ,chou tripod1 ,laufer#aa illustrates five specimens of pre-,han pottery1 excavated by ,mr4 ,frank ,h4 ,chalfant on the soil of the ancient city of ,lin-tz in ,ching-chou ,fu1 ,shantung1 a district which was noted for its pottery as late as the ,ming period4#ab ,this find included two pitchers1 a deep1 round bowl1 a tazza or round dish on a high stem1 and a brick stamped with the character ,chi1 all unglazed and of grey earthenware4 ,from this last piece1 and from the fact that ,lin-tz1 until it was destroyed in #bba ,b4,c41 was the capital of the feudal kingdom of ,chi1 ,laufer concluded that these wares belonged to a period before the ,han dynasty 7#bjf ,b4,c4 to #bbj ,a4,d474 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #a4--;,chou ,pottery4 ,fig4 #a4--,tripod ,food ,vessel4 ,height #f inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,jar with deeply cut lozenge pattern4 ,height #f inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #f3 e4g4 the ,kao ,kung chi1 a relic of the ,chou dynasty 7#aabb-bef ,b4,c474 ,footnote #g3 ,tao shuo1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #a4 ,see ,s4,w4 ,bushell1 ,chinese ,pottery and ,porcelain1 being a translation of the ,tao shuo1 ,oxford1 #aiaj1 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #h3 ,a work of the fifth century ,b4,c41 quoted in the ,ching-t ,chn ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #a4 ,footnote #i3 ,chinese ,pottery of the ,han ,dynasty1 ,leyden1 #aiji1 pp4 #aj-ad4 ,footnote #aj3 ,quoted in the ,ching-t ,chn ,tao lu1 bk4 ix4 fol4 #a4 ,footnote #aa3 ,loc4 cit4 ,footnote #ab3 ,see p4 #bjj4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,han ,chinese ,,dynasty1 #bjf ,b4,c4 ,,to #bbj ,a4,d4 ,,two centuries of internecine strife between the great feudal princes culminated in the destruction of the ,chou dynasty and the consolidation of the ,chinese states under the powerful ,chin emperor ,chng4 ,if this ambitious tyrant is famous in history for beating back the ,hiung-nu ,turks1 the wild nomads of the north who had threatened to overrun the ,chou states1 and for building the ,great ,wall of ,china as a rampart against these dreaded invaders1 he is far more infamous for the disastrous attempt to burn all existing books and records1 by which1 in his overweening pride1 he hoped to wipe out past history and make good to posterity his arrogant title of ,shih ,huang ,ti or ,first ,emperor4 ,his reign1 however1 was short1 and his dynasty ended in #bjf ,b4,c4 when his grandson gave himself up to ,liu ,pang1 of the house of ,han1 and was assassinated within a few days of his surrender4 ,the ,han dynasty1 which began in #bjf ,b4,c4 and continued till #bbj ,a4,d41 united the states of ,china in a great and prosperous empire with widely extended boundaries4 ,during this period the ,chinese1 who had already come into commercial contact with the kingdoms of ,western ,asia1 sent expeditions1 some peaceful and others warlike1 to ,turkestan1 ,fergana1 ,bactria1 ,sogdiana1 and ,parthia4 ,they even contemplated an embassy to ,rome1 but the envoys who reached the ,persian ,gulf turned back in fear of the long sea journey round ,arabia1 the length and danger of which seem to have been vividly impressed upon them by persons interested1 it is thought1 in preventing their farther progress4#ac ,a considerable trade1 chiefly in silks1 had been opened up between ,china and the ,roman provinces1 and the ,parthians who acted as middlemen had no desire to bring the two principals into direct communication4 ,needless to say1 ,china was not uninfluenced by this contact with the ,west4 ,the merchants brought back ,syrian glass1 the celebrated envoy ,chang ,chien in the second century ,b4,c4 introduced the culture of the vine from ,fergana and the pomegranate from ,parthia1 and some years later an armed expedition to ,fergana returned with horses of the famous ,nisan breed4 ,but from the artistic standpoint the most important event was the official introduction of ,buddhism in #fg ,a4,d4 at the desire of the ,emperor ,ming ,ti and the arrival of two ,indian monks with the sacred books and images of ,buddha at ,lo-yang4 ,the ,buddhist art of ,india1 which had met and mingled with the ,greek on the north-west frontiers since ,alexander's conquests1 now obtained a foothold in ,china and began to exert an influence which spread like a wave over the empire and rolled on to ,japan4 ,but this influence had hardly time to develop before the end of the ,han period1 and in the meanwhile we must return to the conditions which existed in ,china at the beginning of the dynasty4 ,the hieratic culture of the ,chou1 and the traditions of ,chou art with its rigid symbolism and formalised designs1 had been broken in the long struggles which terminated the dynasty and banned by the iconoclastic aspirations of the tyrant ,chng1 and though partially revived by ,han enthusiasts1 they were essentially modified by the new spirit of the age4 ,berthold ,laufer1#ad in discussing the jade ornaments of the ,chou and ,han periods1 speaks of the impersonal and ethnical character of the art of that age--viz4 the ,chou4 ,it was1 he continues1 general and communistic2 it applied to everybody in the community in the same form2 it did not spring up from an individual thought1 but presented an ethnical element1 a national type4 ,sentiments move on manifold lines1 and pendulate between numerous degrees of variations4 ,when sentiment demanded its right and conquered its place in the art of the ,han1 the natural consequence was that at the same time when the individual keynote was sounded in the art motives1 also variations of motives sprang into existence in proportion to the variations of sentiments4 ,this implies the two new great factors which characterise the spirit of the ,han time--individualism and variability--in poetry1 in art1 in culture1 and life in general4 ,the personal spirit in taste gradually awakens2 it was now possible for everyone to choose a girdle ornament according to his liking4 ,for the first time we hear of names of artists under the ,han--six painters under the ,western ,han1 and nine under the ,eastern ,han2 also of workers in bronze and other craftsmen4#ae ,the typical1 traditional objects of antiquity now received a tinge of personality1 or even gave way to new forms2 these dissolved into numerous variations1 to express correspondingly numerous shades of sentiment and to answer the demands of customers of various minds4 ,religion has always exerted a powerful influence on art1 especially among primitive peoples1 and the religions of ,china at the beginning of the ,han dynasty were headed by two great schools of thought--,confucianism and ,taoism4 ,these had absorbed and1 to a great extent1 already superseded the elements of primitive nature worship1 which never entirely disappear4 ,confucianism1 however1 being rather a philosophy than a religion1 and discouraging belief in the mystic and supernatural1 had comparatively little influence on art4 ,taoism1 on the other hand1 with its worship of ,longevity and its constant questing for the secrets of ,immortality1 supplied a host of legends and myths1 spirits and demons1 sages and fairies which provided endless motives for poetry1 painting and the decorative arts4 ,the ,han emperor ,wu ,ti was a ,taoist adept1 and the story of the visit which he received from ,hsi ,wang ,mu1 the ,queen ,mother of the ,west1 and of the expeditions which he sent to find ,mount ,png ,lai1 one of the sea-girt hills of the ,immortals1 have furnished numerous themes for artists and craftsmen4 ,it is not yet easy for people in this country to study the monuments of ,han art1 but facilities are increasing1 and a good impression of one phase at least may be obtained from reproductions of the stone carvings in ,shantung1 executed about the middle of the ,han dynasty1 which have been published from rubbings by ,professor ,e4 ,chavannes4#af ,on these monuments historical and mythological subjects are portrayed in a curious mixture of imagination and realism4 ,but these general considerations are leading us rather far afield1 and it remains to see how much or how little of them is reflected in the pottery of the time4 ,as far as our present knowledge of the subject permits us to see1 there is nothing in the pre-,han pottery to attract the collector4 ,it will only interest him remotely and for antiquarian reasons1 and he will prefer to look at it in museum cases rather than allow it to cumber his own cabinets4 ,with the ,han pottery it is otherwise4 ,the antiquarian interest1 which is by no means to be underestimated1 is now supplemented by sthetic attractions caught from the general artistic impetus which stirred the arts of this period of national greatness4 ,not that we must expect to find all the refinements of ,han art mirrored in the pottery of the time4 ,chinese ceramic art was not yet capable of adequately expressing the refinements of the painter1 jade carver1 and bronze worker4 ,but even with the somewhat coarse material at his disposal the ,han potter was able to show his appreciation of majestic forms and appropriate ornament1 and to translate1 when called upon1 even the commonplace objects of daily use into shapes pleasant to the eye4 ,in a word1 the ornamental possibilities of pottery were now realised1 and the elements of an exquisite art may be said to have made their appearance4 ,from a technical point of view1 the most significant advance was made in the use of glaze4 ,though supported by negative evidence only1 the theory that the ,chinese first made use of glaze in the ,han period is exceedingly plausible4#ag ,in the scanty references to earlier wares in ancient texts no mention of glaze appears1 and1 indeed1 the severe simplicity of the older pottery is so emphatically urged that such an embellishment as glaze would seem to have been almost undesirable4 ,the idea of glazing earthenware1 if not evolved before1 would now be naturally suggested to the ,chinese by the pottery of the ,western peoples with whom they first made contact about the beginning of the ,han dynasty4 ,glazes had been used from high antiquity in ,egypt1 they are found in the ,persian bricks at ,susa and on the ,parthian coffins1 and they must have been commonplace on the pottery of ,western ,asia two hundred years before our era4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #b4--;,han ,pottery4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase1 green glazed4 ,height #ad inches4 ,boston ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with black surface and incised designs4 ,height #af inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with designs in red1 white and black pigments4 ,height #aa inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #d4--;,granary urn1 green glazed4 ,height #ab inches4 ,peters ,collection4 ,it is possible1 of course1 that evidence may yet be forthcoming to carry back the use of glaze in ,china beyond the limits at present prescribed1 but all we can state with certainty to-day is that the oldest known objects on which it appears are those which for full and sufficient reasons can be assigned to the ,han period4 ,to explain all these reasons would necessitate a long excursion into archology which would be out of place here4 ,many of them can be found in ,berthold ,laufer's#ah excellent work on the subject1 and others will in due course be set out in the catalogue of the ,british ,museum collections4 ,but it would be unfair to ask the reader to take these conclusions entirely on trust1 and some idea of the evidence is certainly his due4 ,there are a few specimens of ,han pottery inscribed with dates1 such as the vase 7,plate #b1 ,fig4 #a7 from the ,dana ,collection1 which is now in the ,boston ,museum2 but in almost every case the inscriptions have proved to be posthumous and must be regarded at best as recording the pious opinion of a subsequent owner4 ,it will be safer1 then1 to leave inscriptions out of consideration and to rely on the close analogies which exist between the pottery and the bronze vessels of the ,han period and between the decorative designs on the pottery and the ,han stone sculptures1 and1 where possible1 on the circumstances in which the vessels have been found4 ,unfortunately1 the bulk of the ,han pottery which has reached ,europe in recent years has passed through traders' hands1 and no records have been kept of its discovery4 ,but there are exceptional cases in which we have first-hand evidence of ,han tombs explored by ,europeans1 and in two instances their contents have been brought direct to the ,british ,museum4 ,both these hauls are from the rock-tombs in ,szechuan1 the one made by the ill-fated ,lieutenant ,brooke1 who was murdered by the ,lolos1 the other by the ,rev4 ,thomas ,torrance1 to whom ,i shall refer again4 ,the evidence of both finds is mutually corroborative2 it is supported by ,han coins found in the tombs1 by inscriptions carved on their doorways1 and by the rare passages of decoration on the objects themselves1 which correspond closely to designs on stone carvings published by ,chavannes4 ,in this way a whole chain of unassailable evidence has been welded together until1 in spite of the remoteness of the period1 we are able to speak with greater confidence about the ,han pottery than about the productions of far more recent times4 ,the ,han pottery is usually of red or slaty grey colour1 varying in hardness from a soft earthenware to something approaching stoneware1 and in texture from that of a brick to the fineness of delft4 ,these variations are due to the nature of the clay in different localities and to the degree of heat in which the ware was fired4 ,no chronological significance can be attached to the variations of colour1 and to place the grey ware earlier than the red is both1 unscientific and patently incorrect4 ,most of the ,szechuan ware is grey and comparatively soft1 while of the specimens sent from ,northern ,china the majority seem to be of the red clay4 ,some of the ware from both parts is unglazed1 and in certain cases it has been washed over with a white clay and even painted with unfired pigment1 chiefly red and black4 ,the bulk of it1 however1 is glazed1 the typical ,han glaze being a translucent greenish yellow1 which1 over the red body1 produces a colour varying from leaf green to olive brown1 according to the thickness of the glaze and the extent to which the colour of the underlying body appears through it4 ,age and burial have wonderfully affected this green glaze1 and in many cases the surface is encrusted in the process of decay with iridescent layers of beautiful gold and silver lustre4 ,in other cases the decay has gone too far1 and the glaze has scaled and flaked off4 ,another feature which it shares with many of the later glazes is a minute and almost imperceptible crackle4 ,this feature is almost universal on the softer ,chinese pottery glazes1 and has nothing to do#ai with the deliberate and pronounced crackle of later ,chinese porcelain1 being purely accidental in its formation4 ,the colour of the glaze shows considerable variations1 being sometimes brownish yellow1 sometimes deep brown1 and occasionally mottled like that of our medival pottery4 ,a passage in the ,tao shuo#bj seems to imply the existence of a black glaze as well1 but it is a solitary literary reference1 and it is not perfectly clear whether a black earthenware or a black glaze is meant4 ,it was thought at one time that the fine white ware with pale straw-coloured or greenish glaze1 of which much of the ,tang mortuary pottery is made1 was in use as early as the ,han period1 but ,i am now convinced that this is a later development1 and cannot be included in the ware of the ,han dynasty4 ,among the technical peculiarities of ,han pottery1 the marks--usually three in number--of small1 oblong rectangular kiln supports will often be noticed under the base or on the mouth of the wares4 ,these so-called spur-marks were made by the supports or rests on which the ware was placed when in the kiln4 ,in many cases1 too1 large drops of glaze have formed on the mouth of the piece1 proving that the vessel was fired in an inverted position1 which directed the down flow of the glaze as it melted towards the mouth4 ,this is by no means universal4 ,indeed1 the glaze drops on other pieces are found on the base even when the spur-marks appear on the mouth4 ,the explanation of these apparently contradictory phenomena is that to economise space one piece was sometimes placed on top of another in the kiln4 ,the ornamentation of ,han pottery was accomplished in several ways3 by pressing the ware in moulds with incuse designs1 which produced a low relief on the surface of the pottery2 by the use of stamps or dies#ba2 and more especially by applying strips of ornament which had been separately formed in moulds4 ,all these ornaments were covered by the glaze when glaze was used4 ,laufer has made an exhaustive study of ,han decoration in his book1 and it will be sufficient here to give a few typical examples4 ,on ,plate #b1 ,fig4 #a is a green-glazed vase of typical ,han form with two handles representing rings attached to tiger masks which are borrowed1 like the general form of the piece1 from a contemporary bronze4 ,this vase1 formerly in the ,dana ,collection and now in the ,fine ,arts ,museum at ,boston1 has a posthumous date#bb incised on the neck corresponding to the year #acc ,b4,c4 ,fig4 #b is a rare specimen with reddish body and polished black surface in which are incised designs of birds1 dragons and fish1 and bands of vandykes1 lozenges and pointed quatrefoil ornaments4 ,it has the usual mask handles1 and stands #af inches high4 ,on ,plate #c1 ,fig4 #a1 is a hill jar with brown glaze1 standing on three feet which are moulded with bear forms4 ,on the side is a frieze in strong relief with hunting scenes of animals1 such as the tiger1 boar1 monkey1 deer1 hydra and demon figures1 spaced out by conventional waves4 ,this kind of frieze is frequently found ornamenting the shoulders of vases such as ,fig4 #a of ,plate #b1 and the animals are usually represented in vigorous movement1 often with fore and hind legs outstretched in a flying gallop4 ,the cover is moulded to suggest mountains rising from sea waves 7the sea-girt isles of the ,taoist ,immortals71 peopled with animals4 ,fig4 #b is a green-glazed box or covered bowl of elegant form1 the cover moulded in low relief with a quatrefoil design surrounded by a frieze of animals4 ,fig4 #c is an incense burner of rare form derived from a bronze4 ,it is a variation of the more usual hill censer 7po shan lu7 which has the same body with a cover in the form of hills as on ,fig4 #a4 ,in this case the cover suggests a lotus flower in bud1 and is surmounted by a duck4 ,the whole is coated with an iridescent green glaze4 ,a few choice specimens of green-glazed ,han pottery in the ,s4,t4 ,peters ,collection includes a well-modelled duck1 a handsome vase with mask handles and hexagonal base1 and a good example of the granary urn4 ,the last is a grain jar which derives its form from a granary tower4 ,in some instances the tiled roof of the tower is represented by tile-mouldings on the shoulder2 but in this instance the form is entirely conventionalised into a cylindrical vase supported by three bear-shaped feet4 ,the bear1 an emblem of strength1 is commonly employed in this capacity in ,han art4 ,another ornamental form borrowed from a homely object is the model of a well-head1 of cylindrical shape1 with arched superstructure1 in the centre of which a pulley-wheel is represented4 ,the well bucket is usually added1 resting on the edge of the well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #c ,plate #c4--;,han ,pottery4 ,fig4 #a4--;,hill ,jar with brown glaze4 ,height #i inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,box1 green glazed4 ,height #e inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,lotus ,censer green glazed4 ,height #aj inches4 ,rothenstein ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #d4--,model of a ,fowling ,tower4 ,han pottery with iridescent green glaze4 ,height #cj inches4 ,freer ,collection4 ,plate #d illustrates a remarkable structure which seems to represent a fowling tower4 ,models of houses and shrines have been found frequently in ,han tombs1 showing most of the elements which are combined in this complex ornament4 ,the structure of wooden beams and galleries and the roofs with their tubular tile-ridges1 the formal ox-heads supporting the angles of the lower gallery1 the ornamentation of combed lines1 are all features which occur in architectural tomb ornaments of the ,han period4 ,here we have apparently a sporting tower1 with persons engaged in shooting with crossbows at the pigeons which tamely perch on the roof4 ,the dead birds have fallen into the saucer-like stand below4 ,this rare and curious specimen is made of green-glazed pottery1 and measures about #cj inches in height4 ,as already indicated1 our knowledge of ,han pottery is mainly derived from the articles disinterred from the tombs of the period1 and this will explain the curious fact that ,han pottery was almost unknown until quite recent times1 and that information on the subject in ,chinese ceramic literature is of the most meagre and least satisfying description4 ,the ancestor-worshipping ,chinese have always been averse to the systematic exploration of graves4 ,whatever their practice may have been when the opportunity occurred of rifling a grave unobserved1 this at any rate has been the avowed principle4 ,the result is that though ,china must be honeycombed with graves and tombs1 they have not been overtly disturbed in any numbers until recent years1 when extensive railway cuttings have opened up the ground4 ,to the progress of railway engineering the sudden appearance of considerable quantities of mortuary pottery is chiefly due4 ,on the other hand1 one of our most interesting finds was made away from the railway in ,szechuan4 ,here1 in the neighbourhood of ,chng-tu and along the banks of the ,min1 the soft sandstone hills which line the river had in ancient times been extensively tunnelled with elaborate chambers protected by small entrance doors4 ,whether these were ever used as dwellings is uncertain1 but they certainly became eventually the tenements of the dead4 ,the deposits of ages have covered over the entrances to these tombs1 but from time to time torrential rain or some other cause exposed their approaches to the country folk1 who invariably pillaged them for coins and smashed and scattered their less marketable contents4 ,the ,rev4 ,thomas ,torrance1 when stationed at ,chng-tu1 had the opportunity of exploring some of these caverns1 and even succeeded in discovering some unrifled tombs1 part of the contents of which he brought over and presented to the ,british ,museum4 ,the funeral furniture of these tombs varied according to the wealth and status of the owner4 ,in the poor man's tomb were unprotected skeletons1 small images in a niche1 an iron cooking pot1 and a few coins4 ,in the rich man's were terra cotta coffins1 encased in ornamented slabs1 images apparently of the members of his household1 a quantity of crockery1 and a perfect menagerie of domestic animals and birds4 ,to quote ,mr4 ,torrance's own words3#bc ,standing with your reflector in the midst of a large cave1 it seems verily an imitation ,noah's ,ark4 ,the practice of burying with the dead the objects which surrounded him in life has never entirely ceased in any country4 ,among primitive peoples it has taken the revolting form of immolating1 or even burying alive1 the household of a dead chieftain4 ,instances of this practice in ,china occur as late as the third century b4c41 and voluntary acts of sacrifice at the tomb are recorded much later in ,china as in ,india4 ,when humaner counsels prevailed figures of wood1 straw and clay were substituted1 straw images being suggested for the purpose by ,confucius himself4 ,in the ,han dynasty the tomb of the well-to-do was furnished with models of his house1 his shrine1 his farmyard1 threshing floor1 rice-pounder1 his cattle1 sheep1 dogs1 and poultry1 besides his retainers and certain half-human creatures which may have been his guardian spirits2 it was provided with vases for wine and grain1 models of the stove and kitchen range with cooking pots and implements--the last merely indicated in low relief on the kitchen range--besides the more stately sacrificial vessels for wine and incense4#bd ,all these were modelled in pottery1 and must have fostered a flourishing potter's trade1 and given a tremendous impetus to the growth of modelling and design4 ,the underlying idea of all this was1 no doubt1 to provide the spirit of the dead with the means of pursuing the habits of his lifetime1 and the modern practice of supplying his needs by means of paper models which are transmitted to the spirit world through the medium of fire serves the same purpose in a more economical fashion4 ,but a fuller note on the grave furniture of the ,han and ,tang periods will be given in the next chapter4 ,little or nothing is at present known of the potteries in which the ,han wares were made1 but we may fairly assume that the manufacture was very general and that local potteries supplied local demands4 ,an incidental reference in the ,tao lu gives us one solitary name1 ,nan ,shan1 where the potteries of the ,emperor ,wu ,ti 7#adj-he ,b4,c47 were situated2#be and there is a mention of potteries in ,kiangsi in the place which was afterwards the site of the celebrated porcelain centre1 ,ching-t ,chn4 ,the interval between the ,han and ,tang periods1 from #bba to #fah ,a4,d41 is marked by a rapid succession of short-lived dynasties1 an age of conflict and division1 in which ,china was again split up into warring states4 ,the conditions were not favourable to the steady development of the ceramic industry1 and little is known of the pottery of this period4 ,from the few references in ,chinese literature1 however1 we infer that new kinds of pottery appeared from time to time1 and it is certain that the evolution which culminated in porcelain made sensible advances4 ,this latter fact is proved by the scientific analysis of some vases obtained by ,dr4 ,laufer near ,hsi-an ,fu in ,shensi4 ,there is a similar vase in the ,british ,museum with ovoid body strongly marked with wheel-ridges1 short neck and wide cup-shaped mouth1 and loop handles on the shoulders4 ,the ware is in appearance a reddish stoneware1 and the glaze which covers the upper part is translucent greenish brown with signs of crackle4 ,dr4 ,laufer's vases are in the ,field ,museum at ,chicago1 where the body and glaze have been analysed by ,mr4 ,nicholls1 the results showing that the body is composed of a kaolin-like material 7probably a kind of decomposed pegmatite7 and is1 in fact1 an incipient porcelain1 lacking a sufficient grinding of the material4 ,the glaze is composed of the same material softened with powdered limestone and coloured with iron oxide4 ,an iron cooking stove found with these vases has an inscription indicating by its style a date in the ,han dynasty or shortly after it2 and the nature of the pottery1 in spite of its coarse grain and dark colour1 which is probably due in part to the presence of iron in the clay1 seems to show that the manufacture of porcelain was not far distant4 ,meanwhile1 there is little doubt that the ,han traditions were kept alive1 and the discovery of green glazed ware of ,han type in the ruins of ,bazaklik1 in ,turfan1#bf a site which from other indications appears to belong to the ,tang civilisation1 shows that this type1 at any rate1 was long-lived4 ,two vases from a grave on the ,black ,rock ,hill in ,fu ,chou1 and now in the ,british ,museum1 which are proved to belong to a period anterior to the seventh century1 seem to combine ,han and ,tang characteristics4 ,they are of dark grey stoneware with a mottled greenish brown glaze1 ending considerably above the base in a wavy line1 which is a common feature of ,tang wares4 ,it is highly probable that some of the tomb pottery discussed in the next chapter belongs to the later part of this intermediate period4 ,indeed among the pottery figures of this class there are specimens with slender1 graceful bodies and elaborate details of costume 7see ,plate #g7 which closely resemble the stone statues of the ,northern ,wei and the ,sui dynasties2 but with our present imperfect information on the tomb finds1 it will be more convenient to treat these nearly related figures as one group4 ,turning to ,chinese literature1 in default of other and more tangible evidence1 we read in the ,tao shuo#bg of pottery dishes and wine vessels in the ,wei dynasty 7#bbj-bfd ,a4,d471 and in the ,tao lu of pottery made at ,kuan ,chung1 in the district of ,hsi-an ,fu1 and at ,lo-yang for ,imperial use4 ,the poet ,pan ,yo1 of the ,chin dynasty 7#bfe-dai ,a4,d471 speaks of cups of green ware4 ,the actual words used are piao tz1#bh of which the former is elsewhere used to describe the bright tint of distant1 well-wooded mountains1 and as a synonym for l 7green71 though1 like the common colour word ching1 it is capable of meaning both blue and green4 ,the ceramic glaze which most closely corresponds to the description piao is the bluish green celadon best known from ,corean wares1 but we have not yet sufficient grounds for assuming the existence of this particular type at such an early date4 ,another poet#bi of the same period bids his countrymen1 when selecting cups for tea-drinking1 to choose the ware of ,eastern ,ou1 a place in the ,yeh territory1 and apparently in the neighbourhood of1 if not identical with1 the ,yeh ,chou1 which was celebrated for its wares in the ,tang dynasty4 ,the period of the ,northern and ,southern ,dynasties provides but two references1 to a kind of wine vessel known as crane cups but otherwise unexplained1 and to chn-chih of fine and coarse ware1#cj which appear to have been ,buddhist water vases for ceremonial washing1 or ,kundik1 which the ,chinese have transcribed in the form ,chn-chih-ka4 ,buddhism was making great strides in ,china at this time4 ,it was proclaimed the state religion of the ,toba ,tartars or ,northern ,wei1 who ruled the north from #chf to #edi ,a4,d41 and ,buddhist thought and the canons of ,buddhist art were now firmly imposed upon the ,chinese4 ,the rock sculptures of this period visited and photographed by ,chavannes show unmistakable traces of the ,grco-,buddhist art of ,gandhara2 and in one remarkable instance among the figures which were sculptured round the entrance of a ,buddhist grotto were deities with a thyrsus like that of ,dionysus and a trident like ,poseidon's4 ,in the annals of the brief ,sui dynasty 7#eha-fag ,a4,d471 we find that a man named ,ho ,chou succeeded in exactly imitating a glassy material called liu li by means of green ware4 ,the exact meaning of this interesting passage is discussed elsewhere 7p4 #add71 but it is difficult to imagine any but a porcellanous ware which could satisfy the conditions implied4 ,under the circumstance it is not surprising if theorists see in this green ware 7l tz7 something in the nature of the later celadon porcelain4 ,,note ,,on ,,the ,,early ,,chinese ,,tomb ,,wares ,with reference to the figures of men and animals and the other objects which were placed in the ancient tombs of ,china1 much information will be found in ,dr4 ,j4,j4,m4 de ,groot's ,religious ,system of ,china4 ,the fundamental idea underlying these burial practices seems to have been that the soul of the dead was the actual tenant of the grave2 but it is not clear in every case whether the sepulchral furniture was provided in expectation of a bodily resurrection1 or in the belief that it would minister to the wants of the dead in his spiritual existence4 ,both ideas appear to have obtained in early times1 though it is certain that the second alone explains the more modern custom of burning either the objects themselves or paper counterfeits of them at the tomb1 and thus transmitting them through the medium of fire direct to the spirit world4 ,the older custom of burying with the dead all that was necessary for the continuation of the pursuits of his lifetime1 dates back to the farthest limits of history1 so that we read without surprise that in the ,chou dynasty 7#aabb-bee ,b4,c47 there were placed in the tomb three earthen pots with pickled meat1 preserved meat1 and sliced food2 two earthen jars with must and spirits1#ca besides clothes1 mirrors1 weapons1 jade and food pots4 ,it became customary to hold a preliminary exhibition of the funeral articles at the dead man's house before removing them to the tomb1 and this1 as we may well imagine in a country of ancestor-worshippers1 led to ostentation and extravagance which legislators of various periods vainly endeavoured to curtail4 ,the magnificent burials of the ,chin and early ,han emperors1 the vast mausolea built by forced labour and stocked with costly furniture and treasure1 chariots and live animals1 and even human victims1 must have been an intolerable burden to the community4 ,there is no lack of instances of the immolation1 voluntary or otherwise1 of relatives and retainers at the tombs of great personages in ancient ,china1 though the practice never seems to have been general1 and was strongly reprobated by ,confucius 7#eea-dgi ,b4,c474 ,the sage even went so far as to condemn the substitution of wooden puppets1 for was there not a danger of their leading to the use of living victims8#cb ,images of straw were all that he would permit4 ,when humaner influences prevailed1 the ladies of the harem1 and the military guards1 instead of following their ,imperial master to the spirit world1 were condemned to reside within the precincts of the mausoleum2 and doubtless the clay figures of women and warriors placed in the graves of more enlightened times were intended to relieve their human prototypes of this irksome duty4 ,the earliest recorded allusion#cc to clay substitutes appears to be the words of ,kuang ,wu 7in the first century ,a4,d471 that anciently1 at every burial of an emperor or king1 human images of stoneware 7tao jn71 implements of earthenware 7wa chi71 wooden cars1 and straw horses were used4 ,de ,groot#cd quotes a long list of objects supplied for an ,imperial burial of the ,later ,han 7#be-bbj ,a4,d471 including eight hampers of various grains and pease2 three earthen pots of three pints1 holding respectively pickled meat1 preserved meat1 and sliced food2 two earthen liquor jars of three pints1 filled with must and spirits2 444 one candlestick of earthenware2 444 eight goblets1 tureens1 pots1 square baskets1 wine jars2 one wash-basin with a ewer2 bells1 444 musical instruments1 444 arms2 nine carriages1 and thirty-six straw images of men and horses2 two cooking stoves1 two kettles1 one rice strainer1 and twelve caldrons of five pints1 all of earthenware2 444 ten rice dishes of earthenware1 two wine pots of earthenware holding five pints4 ,the use of earthenware substitutes for the actual belongings of the dead was due in part to the spirit of economy preached by certain rulers at this time1 and in part to the feeling that graves containing valueless objects would be safe from the desecration of the robber4 ,in addition to the general precepts of economy1 we learn that definite regulations were issued prescribing the number and even the nature of the articles to be used by the various ranks of the nobility and by the proletariat4 ,thus in #fhb ,a4,d4 ,kao ,tsung rebuked the competitive extravagance of the people in burial equipments1 which even the ravages of famine had failed to diminish2 and in the ,kai ,yan period an ,imperial decree#ce of the year #gda ,a4,d4 reduced the number of implements allowed to the various ranks in burial1 officers of the first1 second1 and third classes of nobility being allowed seventy1 forty1 and twenty implements in place of ninety1 seventy1 and forty respectively2 while for the common people fifteen only were permitted4 ,moreover1 all such implements were to be of plain earthenware 7ss wa71 wood1 gold1 silver1 copper1 and tin being forbidden4 ,it is clear that at an early date wood was regarded as preferable to pottery as a material for sepulchral furniture1 for the ,yin-yang tsa tsu1#cf written in the eighth century1 states that houses and sheds1 cars and horses1 male and female slaves1 horned cattle1 and so forth1 are made of wood4 ,indeed1 the decree of #gda notwithstanding1 wood seems to have become the standard material for grave implements from this time onward4 ,thus1 ,chu ,hsi of the ,sung dynasty taught in his ,ritual of ,family ,life the custom of burying the dead with a good many wooden servants1 followers1 and female attendants1 all holding in their hands articles for use and food2 and the contents of the ,ming graves included a furnace-kettle and a furnace1 both of wood1 saucer with stand1 pot1 or vase1 an earthen wine-pot1 a spittoon1 a water basin1 an incense burner1 two candlesticks1 an incense box1 a tea-cup1 a tea-saucer1 two chopsticks1 two spoons1 etc41 two wooden bowls1 twelve wooden platters1 various articles of furniture1 including bed1 screen1 chest1 and couch1 all of wood2 sixteen musicians1 twenty-four armed lifeguards1 six bearers1 ten female attendants2 the spirits known as the ,azure ,dragon1 the ,white ,tiger1 the ,red ,bird1 and the ,black ,warrior2 the two ,spirits of the ,doorway and ten warriors--all made of wood and one foot high4 ,these were among the implements permitted in the tombs of grandees2 the regulations of #acgb allowed only one kind of implement in the tombs of the common folk4 ,from the foregoing passages it may be inferred that wood superseded pottery to a very great extent in the funeral furniture of the ,sung and ,ming periods1 and consequently that the tombs in which a full pottery equipment has been found are most probably not later than the first half of the ,tang dynasty4 ,needless to say1 the wooden paraphernalia rapidly perished under the ground1 and while the pottery implements have preserved their original form and appearance1 the wooden objects have mostly disintegrated4 ,an amusing fragment of folklore1 translated by de ,groot#cg from the ,kuang i chi1 a work probably written in the tenth century1 will form a fitting conclusion to this note1 revealing as it does the thought of the ,chinese of this period with regard to the burial customs which we have discussed3-- ,during one of the last generations there lived a man1 who used to travel the country as an itinerant trader in the environs of the place where his family was settled4 ,having been accompanied on one of his excursions for several days by a certain man1 the latter unexpectedly said1 ',i am a ghost4 ,every day and every night ,i am obliged to fight and quarrel with the objects buried in my tomb for the use of my manes1 because they oppose my will4 ,i hope you will not refuse to speak a few words for me1 to help me out of this calamitous state of disorder4 ,what will you do in this case8' ',if a good result be attainable1' replied the trader1 ',i dare undertake anything4' ,about twilight they came to a large tomb1 located on the left side of the road4 ,pointing to it1 the ghost said3 ',this is my grave4 ,stand in front of it and exclaim1 ,by ,imperial ,order1 behead thy gold and silver subjects1 and all will be over4 ,hereupon the ghost entered the grave4 ,the pedlar shouted out the order1 and during some moments he heard a noise like that produced by an executioner's sword4 ,after a while the ghost came forth from the tomb1 his hands filled with several decapitated men and horses of gold and silver4 ',accept these things1' he said2 'they will sufficiently ensure your felicity for the whole of your life2 take them as a reward for what you have done for me4' ,when our pedlar reached the ,western metropolis he was denounced to the prefect of the district by a detective from ,chang-ngan city1 who held that such antique objects could only have been obtained from a grave broken open4 ,the man gave the prefect a veracious account of what had happened1 and this magistrate reported the matter to the higher authorities1 who sent it on to the ,throne4 ,some persons were dispatched to the grave with the pedlar4 ,they opened the grave1 and found therein hundreds of gold and silver images of men and horses with their heads severed from their bodies4 ,in the present day#ch at important sacrifices to ancestors 7and presumably at the funeral itself71 it is customary to burn counterfeits of all kinds of furniture and objects which might be useful in the spirit-world4 ,in general these counterfeits take the form of small square sheets of cheap paper adorned with pictures1 stamped with a rudely carved wooden die1 and representing houses1 chairs1 implements for cooking1 writing and the toilette1 carts and horses1 sedan chairs1 attendants and servants1 slaves 7male and female71 cattle1 etc4 ,it is not clear when this custom first came into being1 but it evidently replaced an earlier practice of burning real furniture1 clothing1 etc41 at the tomb2 and de ,groot implies1 at any rate1 that the two practices existed side by side in the eleventh century4 ,bonfires of genuine articles1 he says1#ci and valuables continued for a long time to hold a place side by side with bonfires of counterfeits4 ,we read e4g4 that at the demise of the ,emperor ,shng ,tsung of the ,liao dynasty 7#ajcj ,a4,d47 the departure of the cortge of death from the palace was marked by a sacrifice1 at which they took clothes1 bows and arrows1 saddles1 bridles1 pictures of horses1 of camels1 lifeguards1 and similar things1 which were all committed to the flames4 ,marco ,polo1#dj in describing the city of ,kinsai1 relates that the inhabitants burnt their dead1 and threw into the flames many pieces of cotton paper upon which were painted representations of male and female servants1 horses1 camels1 silk wrought with gold1 as well as gold and silver money4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ac3 ,see ,hirth1 ,china and the ,roman ,orient4 ,footnote #ad3 ,berthold ,laufer1 ,jade1 ,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,publication #aed1 ,anthropological ,series1 vol4 x41 ,chicago1 #aiab1 pp4 #bcb and #bcc4 ,footnote #ae3 ,occasionally of potters4 ,footnote #af3 ,la ,sculpture sur pierre en ,chine au temps des deux dynasties ,han1 ,paris1 #ahic4 ,a few of these are figured by ,bushell in ,chinese ,art1 vol4 i4 ,see also ,chavannes1 ,mission archologique dans la ,chine septentrionale1 ,paris1 #aiji4 ,footnote #ag3 ,if geological arguments could be accepted at their face value1 a vase found at ,chi-ning ,chou1 in ,shantung1 would go far to prove the existence of a highly sophisticated glazed pottery at a date not less than #ejj years ,b4,c4 ,the find is described and illustrated in the ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 ,jahrg4 #dc1 #aiaa1 p4 #aec1 by ,herr ,ernst ,brschmann4 ,the vase1 which is #aj cm4 high1 is of globular form1 with a short straight neck and two loop handles4 ,it is of hard buff ware1 with a chocolate brown glaze with purplish reflexions of a metallic appearance1 and the glaze covers only the upper part of the exterior and ends in an uneven line with drops4 ,one would say ,sung or possibly ,t'ang1 and of the type associated with the name ,chien yao4 ,this pot was found not in a tomb1 but in the undisturbed earth at a depth of seven metres1 by a ,german architect1 while sinking a well2 and a reasoned case from the stratification of the soil is made out to prove that it must have at least an antiquity of twenty-four hundred years4 ,it is1 however1 proverbial that geological arguments applied to relatively modern archology lead to results more startling than correct2 and ,i refuse to accept this solitary specimen as evidence to upset the whole theory of the evolution of ,chinese pottery4 ,for it must do nothing less4 ,this piece is of a style which is at present unknown before the ,t'ang dynasty4 ,it has nothing in common with ,han pottery as we know it1 still less with ,chou1 and to accept its ,chou date would be to believe that an advanced style of manufacture was in use #ejj years ,b4,c41 that it was forgotten again for some twelve centuries1 and then reappeared in precisely the same form4 ,fukien white porcelain seals have been found in an ,irish bog in positions from which geologists might infer a colossal antiquity1 but the history of porcelain has not been disturbed on that account2 and ,i cannot help thinking that this strange phenomenon at ,chi-ning ,chou must be regarded in much the same light4 ,footnote #ah3 ,berthold ,laufer1 ,pottery of the ,han ,dynasty1 ,leyden1 #aijh4 ,footnote #ai3 ,laufer seems to have mistaken it for the beginning of the regular ,chinese crackle 7see op4 cit41 p4 #h74 ,the ,han green glaze contains a large proportion of lead oxide and is coloured with oxide of copper4 ,footnote #bj3 ,see ,bushell1 ,chinese ,pottery and ,porcelain1 p4 #if4 ,in the tomb of the ,empress ,tao1 consort of ,wu ,ti 7#adj-he ,b4,c47 there was found one lac-black earthenware dish4 ,footnote #ba3 ,one of these1 in the form of a small roller1 by which a continuous pattern could be impressed1 is figured by ,laufer1 op4 cit4 ,plate xxxvi4 ,footnote #bb3 ,see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,december1 #aiac1 where it is published with a note on the inscription by ,f4,s4 ,kershaw4 ,footnote #bc3 ,burial ,customs in ,szechuan1 ,journal of the ,north-,china ,branch of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 vol4 xli41 #aiaj1 p4 #eh1 etc4 ,footnote #bd3 ,a very large series of ,han sepulchral pottery1 including most of the known types1 is in the ,field ,museum1 ,chicago2 but most of our large museums possess specimens enough to give a good idea of the ware4 ,footnote #be3 ,bk4 ix41 p4 #c1 quoting the ,chng tz tung1 which in turn quotes the ,han ,shu1 or ,han ,histories4 ,presumably this is the ,nan ,shan near ,lung ,chou1 in ,shensi4 ,footnote #bf3 ,fragments of this ware which were brought back by the ,grnwedel expedition in #aijc are in the ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1 in ,berlin4 ,footnote #bg3 ,see ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #ig4 ,footnote #bh3 ,chinese4 ,see also ,bushell's translation of the ,tao shuo1 pp4 #ig and #ih4 ,footnote #bi3 ,tu ,y1 in his ,verses upon ,tea4 ,see ,tao shuo1 ,bushell's translation1 p4 #ih4 ,the words used are ,chi ts tao chien ,chinese for which ,bushell has given the free and rather misleading version1 ,select cups of fine porcelain4 ,footnote #cj3 tz wa1 a phrase which ,bushell has translated porcelain and earthenware1 though it is improbable that porcelain was meant at this early period 7see ,chap4 ,,xi47 ,footnote #ca3 ,j4 ,j4 ,m4 de ,groot1 ,the ,religious ,system of ,china4 ,leyden1 #ahid1 vol4 ii41 p4 #chc4 ,footnote #cb3 ,loc4 cit41 p4 #hjg4 ,footnote #cc3 ,loc4 cit41 p4 #hjh4 ,footnote #cd3 ,de ,groot1 loc4 cit41 p4 #dja4 ,footnote #ce3 ,loc4 cit41 p4 #fif4 ,footnote #cf3 ,loc4 cit41 p4 #hjh4 ,footnote #cg3 ,de ,groot1 loc4 cit41 p4 #hji4 ,footnote #ch3 ,de ,groot1 loc4 cit41 p4 #gag4 ,footnote #ci3 ,loc4 cit41 p4 #gah4 ,footnote #dj3 ,who visited ,china about #abhj4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,t,,ang ,chinese ,,dynasty1 #fah-ijf ,a4,d4 ,,the ,chinese ,empire1 reunited by the ,sui emperors1 reached the zenith of its power under the world-famed dynasty of the ,tang 7#fah-ijf ,a4,d474 ,a ,chinese general penetrated into ,central ,india and took the capital1 ,magadha1 in #fdh4 ,chinese junks sailed into the ,persian ,gulf1 and the northern boundaries of the empire extended into ,turkestan1 where traces of a flourishing civilisation have been discovered in the sand-buried cities in the regions of ,turfan and ,khotan1 recently explored by ,sir ,aurel ,stein and by a ,german expedition under ,professor ,grnwedel4 ,in return1 we read of ,arab settlers in ,yunnan and in ,canton and the coast towns1 and the last of the ,sassanids appealed to ,china for help4 ,a host of foreign influences must have penetrated the ,middle ,kingdom at this time1 including those of the ,indian1 ,persian1 and ,byzantine arts4 ,proof of this1 if proof were needed1 is seen in the wonderful treasures preserved in the ,shoso-in at ,nara in ,japan1 a temple museum stocked in the eighth century chiefly with the personal belongings of the ,emperor ,shomu1 most of which had been sent over from ,china4 ,indeed1 the ,nara treasure is1 in many respects1 the most comprehensive exhibition of ,tang craftsmanship which exists to-day4 ,the long period of prosperity enjoyed by ,china under the ,tang is famed in history as the golden age of literature and art4 ,the age which produced the poet ,li ,po1 the painter ,wu ,tao-tz1 and the poet-painter ,wang ,wei1 whose poems were pictures and his pictures poems1 was indeed an age of giants4 ,it is certain that the potter's art shared in no small measure the progress of the period1 though at this distance of time we can hardly expect that many monuments of this fragile art should have survived4 ,indeed1 it has been the custom of writers in the past to dismiss the ,tang pottery in a few words1 or to disregard it entirely as an unknown quantity ,here1 however1 we have again been well served by the ancient burial customs of the ,chinese1 which still held good for part1 at least1 of the ,tang period4 ,the ,tang mortuary wares are similar in intention to those of the ,han1 but bespeak a much maturer art4 ,the modelling of the tomb figures1 which have been aptly compared with the ,tanagra statuettes of ancient ,greece1 displays greater skill1 spirit1 and delicacy1 and the materials used are more refined and varied4 ,the body of the ware1 which is usually fine as pipeclay1 varies in hardness from soft earthenware1 easily scratchable with a knife1 to a hard porcellanous stoneware1 and in colour from light grey and pale rosy buff to white1 like plaster-of-,paris4 ,the usual covering is a thin1 finely crackled glaze of pale straw colour or light transparent green1 and sometimes the surface has a wash of white clay between the body and the glaze4 ,some of the figures1 however1 are more richly coated in amber brown and leaf green glazes with occasional splashes of blue1 while on others are found traces of unfired red and black pigments4 ,but as the mortuary pottery#da comprises the largest and most important group of ,tang wares at present identified1 we cannot do better than consider it first and as a separate class1 setting forth at once the reasons for assigning it to this particular period4 ,as will be seen in the note to the previous chapter 7p4 #ag71 earthenware appears to have been to a great extent superseded by wood as the fashionable material for sepulchral furniture towards the end of the ,tang period4 ,this in itself is strong prim facie evidence that the tombs furnished throughout with pottery are not later than the ,tang dynasty4 ,another argument of an ethnographical nature is supplied by the figures of ladies with feet of normal size4 ,the fashion of cramping the feet1 though it may have begun before the ,tang period1 was certainly not universal until the end of this long dynasty4#db ,but there are other cogent reasons which will appeal more directly to the student of ceramics4 ,among the few specimens of pottery in the ,nara ,collection1#dc there are several bowls and a dish1 accorded in the official catalogue the meagre description ,china ware1 which have a peculiar glaze of creamy yellow with large1 green mottling1 and there is besides a drum-shaped vase1 green with yellowish patches4 ,this type of glaze is found on many of the tomb wares1 some of which have amber brown and violet blue splashes in addition4 ,from these data it is possible to identify a series of ,tang glazes1 including creamy white1 straw yellow1 faint green1 leaf green1 amber and violet blue1 all soft and more or less transparent with minutely crackled texture and closely analogous to the coloured lead glazes used on our own ,whieldon pottery of ,staffordshire in the eighteenth century4 ,three years ago a ,parisian dealer was offering for sale the contents of an important tomb4 ,for once in a way1 the chief articles of the find had been kept together2 at least so it was positively asserted1 and there was nothing improbable in the circumstance4 ,they included two splendidly modelled figures and a saddled horse in the typical ,tang ware1 with bold washes of green and brown glazes1 and with them was a stone slab engraved with an inscription4 ,i was able to examine a photograph and a rubbing of this stone1 in which excellent judges could find no sign of spurious work4 ,the inscription was long and difficult to translate1 but the main facts were clear4 ,it commemorated a princely personage of the name of ,wn1 whose style was ,shou-chng1 a man of ,lo-yang in ,honan1 who died at ,ho-yang ,hsien on the #afth day of the first month of the second year of ,yung ,shun1 viz4 #fhc ,a4,d4 ,among the ,tang figurines the horse is conspicuous not only in its comparative frequency1 but for the spirit and character with which it is portrayed4 ,the men of ,tang were clearly great horse lovers4 ,their pictorial artists excelled in painting the noble beast1 and the ,hundred ,colts by the celebrated painter ,han ,kan is a classic of horse painting4 ,among the precious fragments of ,tang pictures on silk which ,sir ,aurel ,stein brought back from his first expedition in the ,taklamakan ,desert there were several with scenes in which horsemen figured4 ,i have compared these with the tomb figures and found them to tally with wonderful exactitude1 not only in pose and style and in the characteristic rendering of the head and neck1 but also in the details of the harness1 the saddle with high arched front and shelving back support1 the square stirrups1 bridle and bit and tassel-like pendant under the mouth4 ,a complete set of grave goods from a tomb opened by the ,lao-tung railway near ,lao ,yang in the ,honan ,fu have been acquired by the ,british ,museum through a railway engineer on the spot4 ,they may be taken as a typical and1 ,i believe1 quite reliable1 example of the grave furniture of a ,t'ang personage of importance4 ,they include six covered jars of graceful oval form1 made of hard white ware and coated with thin glaze of pale yellowish or faint green tint1 which ends in the characteristic ,t'ang fashion in a wavy line several inches above the base4 ,they measure about thirteen inches in height4 ,these are presumed to have held the six kinds of grain4 ,next comes a graceful vase1 probably for wine1 with ovoid body1 tall1 slender neck1 with two horizontal bands1 a cup-shaped mouth1 and two high1 elegantly carved handles with serpent heads which bite on to the rim 7,plate #ad1 ,fig4 #b74 ,the only other vessels were a circular tray1 on which stood a small1 squat vase1 with trilobe sides1 small mouth1 and three rudimentary feet1 surrounded by seven shallow cups4 ,like the wine vase and covered jars1 these have flat bases1 in most cases carefully smoothed and lightly bevelled at the edge4#dd ,the retinue consisted of a charming figure of a lady on a horse1 eight other ladies 7probably of the harem7 with high1 peaked head-dress1 low-necked dresses with high waists1 and a shawl over the shoulders and falling down from the arms like two long sleeves2 natural feet are indicated in every case4 ,with these were two figures of priestly appearance1 with long cloaks and hoods1 three other men in distinctive costumes1 eleven retainers in civil costume with peaked head-gear1 long coats with lappets open at the neck1 waist belts1 and high boots1 their right hands held across the breast and their left at the side4 ,one of these figures is remarkable for his foreign features1 with exaggerated and pointed nose1 suggesting a ,western ,asiatic origin4 ,there are1 besides1 four men1 apparently in armour1 and two tall figures who seem to wear cap helmets with camail falling down the neck and breast armour1 recalling in many ways our own medival men-at-arms4 ,the supernatural element is represented by two strange1 squatting quadrupeds with legs like a bull1 human heads with large ears and a single horn which are called by the ,chinese t'u kuai or earth-spirits4 ,finally1 in addition to man and super-man1 the animal world was represented by two saddled horses1 two dromedaries1 two pigs1 two sheep1 a beautifully modelled dog1 and a goose4 ,what more could a man desire in the underworld8 ,all these figures are of the usual white plaster-like body1 with the pale1 straw-coloured or greenish glazes which long burial has dissolved into iridescence where it has not actually caused it to flake away4 ,some of them stand on flat1 plain bases2 others on their own feet and robes4 ,the latter kind are all hollow beneath1 and the quadrupeds have a large cavity under the belly1 a feature common to the ,t'ang and ,han animals1 and one which ,i have noticed on bronzes of the same periods4 ,needless to add1 these figures were made in moulds1 the seams of which are still visible4#de ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,plate #e4--,t'ang ,sepulchral ,figures4 ,in the ,benson ,collection4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a ,lokapala or ,guardian of one of the ,quarters1 unglazed4 ,fig4 #b4--;,a ,horse1 with coloured glazes4 ,height #bg inches4 ,fig4 #c4--;,an ,actor1 unglazed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,plate #f4--,t'ang ,sepulchral ,figures1 unglazed4 ,figs4 #a1 #b and #d4--;,female ,musicians4 ,fig4 #c4--;,attendant with dish of food4 ,height #i inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,plate #g4--,t'ang ,sepulchral ,pottery4 ,fig4 #a4--;,figure of a ,lady in elaborate costume1 unglazed4 ,height #ad inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase1 white pottery with traces of blue mottling3 the glaze has perished4 ,height #h inches4 ,breuer ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,sphinx-like ,monster1 green and yellow glazes4 ,height #be inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,a few examples of the tomb figures are illustrated in the adjoining plates4 ,the tall1 slender figure on ,plate #g1 ,fig4 #a1 seems to represent a lady of distinction4 ,the elaborate head-dress and costume1 the necklace and pendant and the belt are all carefully modelled2 and the ,elizabethan appearance of the collar is curious and interesting4 ,the ware is soft and white like pipeclay1 though still caked with the reddish loess clay from which it was exhumed4 ,the style of this figure with its slender proportions is analogous to that of the graceful stone sculptures of the ,northern ,wei period4 ,the genial monster in white clay and splashed green and yellow glazes illustrated on ,plate #g is one of the many sphinx-like creatures found in the tombs over which they were supposed to exercise a beneficial influence4 ,sometimes they have human heads on the bull body1 and they are then described as t'u kuai or earth-spirits4 ,in the present example we have a form which strongly resembles certain ,persian or ,sassanian monsters in bronze2 and it is highly probable that the idea of this creature came from a western ,asiatic source4 ,plate #e shows a fine example of a horse in coloured glazes1 a fierce figure in warrior's guise1 who is1 no doubt1 one of the ,lokapalas or ,guardians of the ,four ,quarters in the ,buddhist theogony1 and a figure of an actor4 ,the amusements1 as well as the serious occupations of the dead1 were provided for in the furniture of the tombs4 ,a whole troop of mimes in quaint costumes and dramatic poses is shown in the ,field ,museum at ,chicago1 and ,plate #f illustrates three seated figures of musicians as well as a standing figure holding a dish of fruit4 ,a study of the salient features of these and other authenticated specimens leads naturally to the identification of fresh types1 and so the series grows4 ,for instance1 the type of wine vase with serpent handles is found in glazes of various colours1 till of the mottled ,t'ang kind1 and with slight additions1 such as the palmette-like ornaments in applied relief on a large example in the ,british ,museum4 ,these ornaments in their turn appear on bowls and incense vases often of globular form1 like the well-known ,buddhist begging bowl1 but fitted with three legs4 ,splashed1 streaked and mottled glazes further declare these to be ,t'ang1 and the varying colour and hardness of their body material give us a deeper insight into the ,t'ang ware4 ,all of these show the marks of the wheel1 and many are neatly finished with simple wheel-made lines and ridges2 stamped ornaments in applied relief are their commonest form of decoration4 ,a fine specimen in the ,british ,museum will serve to illustrate this type of bowl4 ,it has a hard1 white body1 of typical globular form1 with slightly constricted mouth1 three legs with strongly modelled lion masks on the upper part1 and between them pads of applied relief with lion mask ornaments4 ,the glaze is not of the mottled kind1 but is rather streaked2 it is deep1 cucumber green and minutely crackled1 and has run down into drops under the bowl4 ,this fluidity is also the cause of the streakiness of the colour1 which was evidently a characteristic feature of the ,t'ang pottery1 for it appears unmistakably indicated in a ,t'ang painting figured by ,sir ,aurel ,stein4#df ,this painting1 a silk banner of the ,t'ang period1 was found in a walled-up library at ,tun-huang1 and depicts a standing ,buddhist figure carrying a begging bowl with boldly streaked exterior4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #h4 ,three examples of ,t'ang ware with coloured glazes3 in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #a4--,tripod ,incense ,vase with ribbed sides2 white pottery with deep blue glaze outside encrusted with iridescence4 ,height #d inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,amphora of light coloured pottery with splashed glaze4 ,mark incised ,ma ,chn-shih tsao 7made by ,ma ,chn-shih74 ,height #h inches4 ,fig4 #c4--;,ewer of hard white porcellanous ware with deep purple glaze4 ,height #d inches4 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,in addition to the mottled glazes--which1 by the way1 are the forerunners of the so-called tiger-skin porcelains of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries--and the single colours already mentioned1 instances have been identified on the principles already indicated of wares with a full yellow glaze and a streaky1 brownish yellow4 ,an interesting piece 7,plate #h7 in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection is covered with a deep violet blue glaze on a fine white body4 ,others1 again1 have a dark chocolate brown glaze on a reddish buff body1 and a rare ewer in the ,british ,museum is distinguished by a deep olive brown glaze flecked with tea green1 which seems to anticipate by a thousand years the tea dust glazes of the ,ch'ien ,lung period4#dg ,another variety of ,t'ang glaze1 of which ,i have seen one example1 was an olive brown with large splashes of a light colour1 a greyish white1 but with surface so frosted over by decay that its original intention remained in doubt4 ,one might say that this was the father of the ,japanese ,takatori glazes with deep brown under-colour and large patches of frothy white4 ,we may mention here three remarkable specimens found in a grave with a ,t'ang mirror and described in ,man in #aija1dh which are in the ,british ,museum4 ,one is an oblate ovoid vase1 with small neck and mouth1 of hard1 light buff body1 coated with a dull greenish black glaze with minute specks of lighter colour4 ,the others are tea bowls of hard buff ware with dull brick-red glaze1 not far removed in colour from the ,samian ware of ,roman times4 ,no exact ,chinese parallel has yet been found to these three pieces1 though something approaching them is seen in certain bowls in the ,eumorfopoulos collection which have a reddish brown glaze breaking into black1 being apparently of the type associated with the name of ,chien yao1#di and which are known in ,japan as kaki temmoku4 ,this early kind of temmoku1 which was probably made in ,honan1 has a hard whitish body1 and the glaze is sometimes flecked with tea green as well as with golden brown4 ,in some cases1 too1 a floral design or a leaf has been impressed or stencilled on the black glaze and appears in the brown or green colour 7,plate #dc1 ,fig4 #a74 ,it is said that a somewhat similar brown temmoku ware was made in ,corea as well4 ,the survival of the leaf green glaze of ,han type has already been noted4 ,it occurs in ,plates #ab and #ac4 ,a pale bluish green glaze1 somewhat akin to a later variety of celadon1 appears on a few small bowls and jars which have the characteristic ,t'ang finish3 ,i have seen several figures of lions with a crackled light greenish brown glaze2 and a considerable class of bowls and melon-shaped vases have been found in ,shansi with a hard buff stoneware body1 coated with white slip under a transparent and almost colourless glaze1 the combination producing a solid white or ivory colour 7,plate #aa1 ,fig4 #c74 ,these bowls have been considered by some ,chinese authorities to be a production of the ,ta ,yi#ej kilns in ,szechuan1 but as there were factories in ,shansi1#ea where wares of this type are reputed to have been made in ,t'ang times1 it seems more probable that they are of local make4 ,it should be added that the brown1 tea dust1 black1 celadon and white glazes are high-fired and essentially different from the soft1 crackled lead glazes previously described4 ,apart from modelling in the round1 an art in which we have seen that the ,t'ang potters excelled1 the decorative ornament of the pottery hitherto discussed has been confined to applied reliefs4 ,the processes of carving and engraving come early in the evolution of the potter's art in ,china1 and we should expect to find in the ,t'ang wares some indications of the skill in these methods for which the ,sung potters were so celebrated4 ,plate #ab1 ,fig4 #b1 illustrates the use of engraved ornament under a green glaze1 and the piece is remarkable not only for its elegant design1 but for the beautiful lines of its simple form4 ,a few years ago ,i saw for the first time one or two stands and boxes with patterns intricate as brocade work1 floral scrolls1 and geometrical designs1 engraved with a point1 and the spaces filled in with coloured glazes4 ,they were reputed to be of ,t'ang date1 and though no further evidence existed to prove that objects of such advanced technique and mature design really belonged to this remote period the proposition did not seem an impossible one4 ,the textiles1 inlaid woodwork1 and painted lacquer in the ,nara collections have just such designs which at first sight fill one with amazement at their modern feeling4 ,a piece of brocade of undoubted ,t'ang origin1 figured by ,sir ,aurel ,stein1#eb with floral scrolls worked in silk1 looks like a piece of late ,persian embroidery4 ,and is not the art of the ,tang painters essentially modern in the directness of its appeal8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #a ,plate #i4--,t'ang ,pottery4 ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer of ,sassanian form with splashed glazes2 panels of relief ornament1 in one a mounted archer4 ,height #ac inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with mottled glaze1 green and orange4 ,height #c inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,ewer with dragon spout and handle2 wave and cloud reliefs2 brownish yellow glaze streaked with green4 ,height #aa inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #aj4--,t'ang ,pottery4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #a4--;,dish with mirror pattern incised and coloured blue1 green1 etc42 inner border of ju-i cloud scrolls on a mottled yellow ground1 outer border of mottled green2 pale green glaze underneath and three tusk-shaped feet4 ,diameter #ae inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,ewer with serpent handle and trilobed mouth2 applied rosette ornaments and mottled glaze1 green1 yellow and white4 ,height #aj inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,plate #aa4--,tang ,wares4 ,fig4 #a4--;,cup with bands of impressed circles1 brownish yellow glaze outside1 green within4 ,height #b inches4 ,seligmann ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,cup of hard white ware with greenish white glaze4 ,height #b inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,melon-shaped ,vase1 greyish stoneware with white slip and smooth ivory glaze4 ,height #d inches4 ,breuer ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--;,cup of porcellanous stoneware1 white slip and crackled creamy white glaze1 spur marks inside4 ,height #c inches4 ,breuer ,collection4 ,the truth is1 our knowledge of ,tang pottery has only just begun1 and now that the ware is esteemed in ,europe at its proper worth1 the choicer specimens which have been treasured in ,china are finding their way westward4 ,every fresh arrival tells us something new and surprising1 and it only wanted such a piece as ,fig4 #a1 ,plate #aj1 to establish the identity of the specimens whose ,tang origin we had before only ventured to conjecture4 ,here we have a form of dish which is found among the tomb wares of the ,tang period1 made of the typical ,tang white-body and finished in characteristic fashion and decorated with engraved designs of the most advanced type1 filled in with coloured glazes1 in addition to bands of mottling in green and white1 and yellow and white4 ,there are1 besides1 other specimens of similar make but with simpler1 though scarcely less interesting1 design of a mirror-shaped panel formed of radiating lotus leaves engraved in the centre with a stork in white and green1 all in a deep violet blue ground4 ,the coloured glazes used in the ,tang polychrome pottery are light and translucent lead glazes of the kind which reappears on the ,ming and ,ching pottery and porcelain1 and1 as on the later wares1 they are covered with minute accidental crackle4 ,in their splashed and mottled varieties they have1 as already noted1 a resemblance to the glazes of the eighteenth-century ,whieldon ware of ,staffordshire1 and it is interesting to note that the ,tang potters also used another form of decoration which was much fancied in ,staffordshire about a thousand years later4 ,this is the marbling of the ware1 not merely by mottling the glaze as in ,fig4 #b of ,plate #i1 or by marbling the surface1 but by blending dark and light clays in the body as in the solid agate ware of ,staffordshire4 ,it only remains to prove that painting with a brush was practised by the ,tang potters1 and though one is loath to accept such a revolutionary idea without positive proof1 there is very good reason to think that such pieces#ec as ,fig4 #c1 ,plate #ab1 belong to the ,tang period4 ,they have a white pottery body1 painted in bold floral scroll designs in black under a beautiful green glaze4 ,we are getting used to surprises in connection with ,tang pottery1 and probably in a year's time painted ,tang wares1 which are now only accepted with reserve1 will be an established fact which passes without comment4 ,stamped patterns are not uncommon1 and we often find small rings or concentric circles1 singly1 as in ,fig4 #a of ,plate #aa1 or stamped in clusters of five or seven1 forming rosettes#ed2 or1 again1 impressed key fret1 as in ,fig4 #a of ,plate #ab1 which has a deep leaf green glaze4 ,the influence of the ,western ,asiatic civilisations has been already mentioned in casual hints1 but it appears in concrete form in the peculiar shape of the ewer on ,plate #i4 ,the bird-headed vessel is found in ,persian pottery of an early date1 one example of which may be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,another remarkable instance of this form was illustrated and discussed by ,dr4 ,martin in the ,burlington ,magazine1 ,september1 #aiab4ee ,it had1 in addition1 applied relief ornaments of a kind which we have already noticed1 and ,dr4 ,martin expressed his opinion that both the form and the ornaments are nearly related to ,sassanian metal work4 ,the fact that the last ,sassanid king sought help from ,china#ef points to intercourse between the two realms1 and in any case the northern trade route through ,turkestan into ,western ,asia gave ample opportunity for the traffic in ,persian and ,sassanian wares4 ,but more remarkable still is the classical spirit displayed in the piping boy and dancing girl#eg on a wonderful flask in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection 7,plate #ah1 ,fig4 #b74 ,the ,greco-,buddhist influence on early ,chinese sculpture has already been remarked1 and several classical designs are commonly pointed out on the ,tang metal mirrors2 but here we have in pottery a figure which might have been taken from a ,herculaneum fresco1 surrounded by scroll-work worthy of the finest ,tang mirror4 ,the body of the ware is whitish pottery1 and the beautifully moulded surface is covered with a brownish green glaze1 which1 like that of ,fig4 #a1 ,plate #ab1 is clearly a survival of the ,han glaze4 ,other instances might be quoted of ,grco-,roman influences reflected in ,tang wares4 ,there are obvious traces of the egg and tongue and honeysuckle patterns in border designs1 and the shapes of vases and ewers often betray a feeling which is more ,greek than ,chinese4 ,reverting to the engraved ,tang ornament1 there is a little oblong box in the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum at ,berlin with incised rosettes of prunus blossom form1 glazed white and yellow in a green ground and finished almost with the neatness of ,chien ,lung porcelain1 but of undoubtedly ,tang origin4 ,the same prunus design occurs on a typical ,tang bowl1 in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection1 stencilled white in a green ground4 ,i have postponed reference to these pieces because of the bearing of the latter on the decoration of the wonderful figure illustrated in the frontispiece1 which will make a fitting climax to our series of ,tang specimens4 ,this figure1 with its stand1 measures #ej inches in height1 and represents one of sixteen ,lohan or ,arhats1 the ,buddhist apostles4 ,its provenance has been kept discreetly concealed1#eh but we may infer that it was taken from a temple or mausoleum1 and we know that there were others with it1 two of which were exhibited at the ,muse ,cernuschi1 in ,paris1 in ,june1 #aiac4 ,this one1 however1 has the advantage over the others of being complete with its pottery stand4 ,the ware is white and comparatively hard2 the colourless glaze on the fleshy parts has acquired a brown stain from the dripping of the cave moisture1 and developed a minute crackle1 both of which features are observable on some of the glazed vases from ,t'ang tombs2 the pupils of the eyes are black4 ,the draperies1 of which the flowing folds are worthy of the finest classic sculpture1 are glazed with mottled green1 the upper robe with brownish yellow1 both of ,t'ang type1 and the latter is patched 7in true ,buddhist fashion7 with green-edged bands with white designs resembling divided prunus blossoms in a yellow ground1 in style recalling the decoration of the bowl previously mentioned4 ,the technique1 then1 is that of the ,t'ang wares1 but instead of being made in a mould like the grave statuettes1 this monumental figure is modelled in the round by an artist worthy to rank with the masters of sculpture and painting who made the ,t'ang period famous4 ,when one looks at the powerful modelling of the head1 the strong features composed in deep contemplation1 and the restful pose of the seated form1 one realises that here1 at last1 we have the great art which inspired the early ,buddhist sculptors of ,japan4 ,it is no conventional deity which sits before us4 ,the features are so human as to suggest an actual portrait1 but for the supernatural enlargement of the ears in ,buddhist fashion4 ,the contracted brows bespeak deep concentration2 the eyes1 dreamy yet awake1 look through and past us into the infinite2 the nostrils are dilated in deep breathing2 the lips compressed in firm yet compassionate lines4 ,it is the embodiment of the ,buddhist idea of abstraction and aloofness2 yet it lives in every line1 the personification of mental energy in repose4 ,but so rare are examples of this style1 that1 unless we turn to painted pictures or frescoes such as have been brought back by the recent expeditions in ,turfan1 we must look in the temples of ,japan1 not1 indeed1 for similar ,chinese work1 but for the ,japanese masterpieces in bronze1 wood and lacquer1 of the same period1 which avowedly followed the ,chinese art4 ,the ,yuima in the ,hokkeji nunnery1 ascribed to the middle of the eighth century2 the portrait figure of the priest ,ryoben 7 #ggc7 in the ,todaiji monastery1 and the portrait figure of ,chisho ,daishi 7 #hia7 in the ,onjoji monastery1#ei are all conceived in the same grand style1 and bespeak a kindred art4 ,but high as this figure ranks as sculpture1 it is far more remarkable as pottery4 ,to fire such a mass of material without subsidence or cracking would tax the capabilities of the best equipped modern pottery1 while the skill displayed in the modelling is probably unequalled in any known example of ceramic sculpture4 ,the contemporary grave figures hold a high place in ceramic modelling1 but this statue is as far above the best of them as ,dwight's stoneware bust of ,prince ,rupert towers above the ,staffordshire figurines4 ,dwight's masterpiece has long been an object of wonder and admiration in the ceramic ante-room in the ,british ,museum1 and1 with the help of the ,national ,art ,collections ,fund and of several munificent individuals1 the ,british ,museum has been able to acquire this wonderful ,chinese figure1 which is now exhibited in the ,king ,edward ,,vii4 galleries4 ,it is too early yet to attempt seriously the classification of the ,tang wares under their respective factories4 ,before this is possible the meagre allusions in ,chinese literature must be supplemented by far fuller information4 ,at present our knowledge of the ,tang factories is chiefly drawn from casual references in ,chinese poetry and in the ,chinese ,classic on ,tea1 the ,cha ,ching1 written by ,lu ,y in the middle of the eighth century4 ,from this we gather that the ,yeh ,chou#fj kilns enjoyed a high reputation4 ,an early allusion to this factory in reference to the bowls of ,eastern ,ou in the ,chin dynasty has already been recorded4#fa ,the author of the ,tea ,classic tells us that among tea-drinkers the ,yeh bowls were considered the best1 though there were some who ranked those of ,hsing ,chou#fb above them4 ,lu ,y1 however1 thought the judgment of the latter connoisseurs was wrong1 because the ,hsing ,chou bowls resembled silver while the ,yeh bowls were like jade1 because the ,hsing bowls were like snow1 the ,yeh like ice1 and because the ,hsing ware1 being white1 made the tea appear red1 while the ,yeh ware1 being green 7ching71 imparted a green 7l7 tint to the tea4 ,the ,tang poet1 ,lu ,kuei-mng1 further tells us that the ,yeh bowls despoiled the thousand peaks of their blue green#fc colour4 ,yeh ,chou is the modern ,shao-hsing ,fu in the province of ,chkiang4 ,it was celebrated in the tenth century for a special ware made exclusively for the princes of ,wu and ,yeh1 of the ,chien family1 who reigned at ,hung ,chou from #ijg to #igf4 ,this was the pi s or secret colour ware which was made at ,yeh ,chou until the ,southern ,sung period 7#aabg-abgi71 when the manufacture was removed to ,y-yao4#fd ,the pi s#fe ware has caused endless mystification among writers on ,chinese porcelain4 ,the name--which means literally secret colour--has been taken by some to imply that the colour was produced by a secret process 7the most natural but not the generally accepted meaning71 and by others that it was a forbidden colour1 i4e4 only permitted to be used by the princely patrons of the house of ,chien4#ff ,the author of the ,ching-t ,chen tao lu#fg states that it resembled the ,yeh ware in form1 but surpassed it in purity and brilliance4 ,this is1 however1 only the opinion of a nineteenth-century writer who does not claim to have seen a specimen of either4 ,a tenth-century writer#fh makes use of the vague expression1 the secret colour preserves the note of the green 7ching7 ware 7tz71 which apparently means that the secret-colour glaze did not rob the ware of the musical quality of usual ching ware1 implying a difference of some kind between the pi s and the ching glaze4 ,literary references of this kind are open to so many inferences that their value is slight without some tangible specimen to help us to realise their import4 ,this difficulty is greatly increased in dealing with ,chinese descriptions because of the ambiguity of ,chinese colour words1 which is discussed elsewhere4 ,but in the case of ,yeh ,chou ware1 or at any rate of one kind of it1 we have an important clue in another ,chinese work4 ,hs ,ching1 who accompanied the ,chinese ,ambassador to ,corea in #aabe1 in a description of the ,corean wares1 makes the remark that the rest of them have a general likeness to the old pi s ware of ,yeh ,chou and the new ,ju ,chou ware4#fi ,fortunately1 we can speak with considerable confidence of the ,corean wares of this time1 many examples of which have been taken from the tombs of the period4 ,the ,british ,museum has a fair number of examples1 quite enough to show the typical ,corean glaze1 a soft grey green celadon of decidedly bluish tint1 a thick smooth glaze often of great delicacy and beauty of tone4 ,in view of this the colour of the ,yeh bowls1 the blue-green of the hills1 is easily visualised4 ,but ,china boasts so many makes of celadon#gj that he would be a bold man who would single out any one piece and say this is ,yeh ware4 ,among the numerous specimens of celadon which have reached ,europe from various sources it is far from improbable that some were baked in the ,yeh kilns1 but at present1 alas1 we are impotent to identify them4 ,the author of the ,ching-t ,chn tao lu#ga places the ,hsing ,chou factory at the modern ,hsing-tai ,hsien1 a dependency of ,shun-t ,fu1 in ,chihli4 ,little else is recorded about the white ,hsing ware beyond a general statement in the annals of the ,tang dynasty#gb that the white ware 7tz7 cups of ,nei ,chiu were used by rich and poor throughout the empire4 ,nei ,chiu1 it should be explained1 is identified as a township in the ,hsing ,chou4 ,we may add that the ware of both ,yeh ,chou and ,hsing ,chou was used for musical cups by ,kuo ,tao-yan4#gc ,one of the criteria which the ,chinese recognise in distinguishing ordinary pottery from the finer wares of a porcellanous nature is the note emitted by the ware when smartly tapped with the finger1 and we may fairly infer that any bowls which were suitable for use as musical chimes would be of a sonorous1 hard fired material if not actually porcelain4 ,the ,cha ,ching enumerates five other ,tang factories which supplied tea bowls1 all of them inferior in reputation to the ,yeh ,chou kilns4 ,ting ,chou ,chinese in the ,hsi-an ,fu1#gd in ,shensi2 ,wu ,chou ,chinese in the ,chin-hua ,fu1 in ,chkiang2 ,yo ,chou ,chinese in ,hunan2 ,shou ,chou ,chinese in ,kiangnan2 and ,hung ,chou ,chinese1 the modern ,nan-chang ,fu1 in ,kiangsi1 the district in which is ,ching-t ,chn1 afterwards the ceramic metropolis of ,china4 ,of these wares we have only the meagre information that the ,yo ,chou ware was of green 7ching7 colour2 the ,shou ,chou ware1 yellow2 and that the ,hung ,chou ware was a brownish colour1#ge and made the tea appear black4 ,the ,hung ,chou factory is also named in the ,ko ku yao lun1#gf which tells us that vessels made at ,hung ,chou in ,kiangsi are yellowish black in colour4 ,a sixth factory1 apparently of some reputation though not mentioned in the ,cha ,ching1 is named in a poem by ,tu ,fu1 president of the ,board of ,works1#gg in the ,tang dynasty1 who says3 ,the ware 7tz7 baked at ,ta-yi is light but strong4 ,it gives out1 when struck1 a sound like the plaintive note of the ,chin-chng jade4 ,the white bowls of your ,excellency surpass the frost and snow4 ,in pity hasten to send one to the pavilion of my studies4 ,ta-yi was in the department of ,chiung ,chou1 in ,szechuan4 ,the five brief dynasties which fill the interval between the ,tang and ,sung periods are only known to ceramic history for two wares1 the identity of which remains a matter of conjecture4 ,the first is the pi s ware of ,yeh ,chou1 which has already been discussed2 and the second is the celebrated but intangible ,chai ware4 ,chinese writers wax poetical over the ,chai ware4 ,men of old1 says a late ,ming writer1#gh described ,chai ware as blue like the sky1 brilliant like a mirror1 thin like paper1 and resonant like a musical stone4 ,an earlier and less hyperbolical description of it given in the ,ko ku yao lun#gi states that it was made at ,chng ,chou1 in ,honan1 and named chai by ,shin ,tsung 7of the ,posterior ,chou dynasty1 who reigned for five years from #ied to #iei72 that its colour was sky blue2 that it was rich1 refined1 and unctuous1 and had fine crackle-lines2 that in many cases there was coarse yellow clay on the foot of the wares2 and that it was rarely seen in the writer's time4 ,elsewhere#hj we read that1 according to tradition1 ,shih ,tsung1 on being asked what kind of ware he would require for palace use1 commanded that its colour for the future should be the blue of the sky after rain as seen in the rifts of the clouds4#ha ,as early as the sixteenth century the ,chai ware had virtually ceased to exist1 and a writer#hb of that time tells us ,chai ware is no longer to be found4 ,i once saw a fragment of a broken piece mounted in a girdle-buckle4 ,its colour was brilliant1 and answered to the usual description of the ware1 but the ware itself was thick4 ,a century afterwards the ware was nothing more than a tradition1 and later it developed a legendary character4 ,fragments of it were said to dazzle the eyes1 and when worn on armour to turn aside missiles in battle4#hc ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #c ,plate #ab4--,tang ,pottery with green glaze4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bottle with impressed key-fret4 ,height #g inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,ewer with incised foliage scrolls4 ,height #d inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with foliage scrolls1 painted in black under the glaze1 incised border on the shoulder4 ,height #d inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #ac4--,tang ,pottery4 ,fig4 #a4--,pilgrim ,bottle with lily palmette and raised rosettes1 green glaze4 ,height #g inches4 ,koechlin ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,pilgrim ,bottle 7neck wanting71 ,hellenistic figures of piping boy and dancing girl in relief among floral scrolls1 brownish green glaze4 ,height #h inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #b ,plate #ad4--,tang ,wares4 ,fig4 #a4--;,incense ,vase1 lotus-shaped1 with lion on the cover1 hexagonal stand with moulded ornament2 green1 yellow and brown glazes4 ,height #ai inches4 ,rothenstein ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,sepulchral ,amphora1 hard white ware with greenish white glaze1 serpent handles4 ,height #ai inches4 ,schneider ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,ewer with large foliage and lotus border in carved relief1 green glaze4 ,height #f inches4 ,koechlin ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--,sepulchral ,vase1 grey stoneware with opaque greenish grey glaze4 ,incised scrolls on the body1 applied reliefs of dragons1 figures1 etc41 on neck and shoulder4 787 ,tang4 ,height #bj inches4 ,benson ,collection4 ,chinese writers have been troubled by the apparent inconsistency of the descriptions1 thin as paper and having coarse yellow clay on the foot4 ,the latter may1 however1 merely refer to patches of coarse clay or sand which had served to support the ware in the kiln1 and which had partially adhered to the base1 a thing not uncommon in the earlier manufactures4 ,the expression has1 however1 led some later writers#hd to identify the ,chai ware with a fairly well-known type of comparatively soft buff pottery1 coated with a luscious turquoise or pale lavender blue glaze1 which we shall have occasion to discuss later4#he ,needless to say1 there is no probability of this type being the real ,chai4 ,its comparative commonness alone puts the supposition out of court1 but the suggestion serves to show that some ,chinese thinkers1 at any rate1 see the ,chai colour in just such glazes as the pale lavender blue of ,plate #hh1 ,fig4 #b1 which undoubtedly satisfies in many respects the description blue of the sky after rain4 ,on the other hand1 the celebrated ,ju ,chou ware of the ,sung dynasty1 which aspired to equal the ,chai in colour1 was evidently of the grey green celadon type1 with perhaps a tinge of blue like the early ,corean wares4#hf ,we have1 then1 two theories on the nature of the ,chai glaze3 7#a7 that it was an opalescent1 turquoise glaze1 such as is seen on the ,chn type of wares2 and 7#b7 that it belonged to the smooth grey green celadon class1 with the bluish tint strongly developed4 ,there may be other theories#hg besides1 but it matters little1 as no authentic specimen is known to exist4 ,in fact1 the discussion under the circumstances would have but little interest were it not for its bearing on some of the ,sung wares1 which will be discussed in the next chapter4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #da3 ,no doubt this mortuary pottery was made locally to supply local needs1 and there is no occasion to refer it to any of the better known pottery centres1 though we do find mention of an imperial order for sepulchral ware sent to the potters at ,hsin-ping 7the old name for the district town of ,ching-t ,chn7 in the ,tang dynasty4 ,see ,tao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #b1 quoting from the ,hsiang ling ming huan chih4 ,footnote #db3 ,see ,a ,glossary of ,reference on ,subjects ,connected with the ,far ,east1 by ,h4,a4 ,giles1 ,shanghai1 #aijj4 ,the practice among ,chinese women of cramping the feet is said by some to have originated about #igj ,a4,d4 with ,yao ,niang1 concubine of the pretender ,li ,y4 ,the lady wished to make her feet like the new moon4 ,others say that it was introduced by ,pan ,fei1 the favourite of the last monarch of the ,chi dynasty1 #eja ,a4,d4 ,footnote #dc3 ,see the ,toyei ,shuko 7,illustrated ,catalogue of the ancient ,imperial ,treasure called ,shoso-in1 by ,omura ,seigai1 ,tokyo1 #aiaj71 ,nos4 #aed1 #aee and #aef4 ,footnote #dd3 ,another common characteristic of the ,t'ang base is a central ring1 or one or two concentric circles incised on the wheel4 ,footnote #de3 ,laufer 7,jade1 p4 #bdg7 sounds a note of warning about the reconstruction of many of the ,t'ang figures4 ,they were very frequently broken in the course of excavation1 and when a head was missing its place was commonly supplied from another find4 ,another and more serious warning is given by ,f4 ,perzynski in the ,ostasiatischer ,zeitschrift1 ,january to ,april1 #aiad1 p4 #dfd1 in an article describing forgeries of coloured ,t'ang figures1 and vases and ewers with mottled green and yellow glazes1 in ,honan ,fu4 ,footnote #df3 ,ruins of ,desert ,cathay1 vol4 ii41 p1 #aie4 ,similarly bowls with spotted glaze are indicated in several of the silk pictures found by ,sir ,aurel ,stein at ,tun-huang1 which are temporarily exhibited in the ,king ,edward ,,vii4 galleries in the ,british ,museum4 ,footnote #dg3 ,fragments of similarly glazed ware were discovered by ,sir ,aurel ,stein on sites in ,turfan1 which were supposed to be of ,t'ang date 7see p4 #acd74 ,footnote #dh3 ,in a paper by ,sir ,c4 ,hercules ,read in the fifteenth number of ,man1 a publication of the ,anthropological ,institute4 ,footnote #di3 ,see p4 #acj4 ,footnote #ej3 ,see ,a4,w4 ,bahr1 ,old ,chinese ,porcelain and ,works of ,art in ,china1 ,plate ,,iv4 ,footnote #ea3 ,at ,p'ing-yang ,fu1 at ,ho ,chou1 and elsewhere 7see p4 #ig74 ,footnote #eb3 ,ruins of ,desert ,cathay1 vol4 #aa41 fig4 #aig4 ,footnote #ec3 ,mr4 ,c4,l4 ,freer has in his collection in ,detroit a vase of hard reddish ware with a freely drawn lotus design in brown under a pale green glaze1 with parts of the flower in dry reddish brown slip or pigment over the glaze4 ,it has the characteristic ,tang base and appears to belong to that period4 ,footnote #ed3 ,the small rosettes which commonly occur ,in the inlaid ,corean designs recall these stamped ,tang patterns4 ,indeed the analogy between the ,corean patterns in general and those found on ,tang pottery is most significant4 ,footnote #ee3 ,it is now in the collection of ,mrs4 ,potter ,palmer4 ,footnote #ef3 ,yesdijird ,,iii41 after his overthrow by the ,arabs ,in #fda1 fled to ,merv1 and there appealed for aid to the ,chinese ,emperor4 ,he does not appear to have fled for refuge to ,china1 as has been sometimes asserted4 ,footnote #eg3 ,the classical prototype is seen in a vase ,in the ,fourth ,vase ,room 7,case ,c7 in the ,british ,museum1 on which we find two similar figures in relief surrounded by a grape vine scroll4 ,footnote #eh3 ,since writing the above note my attention has been drawn to a delightful article in the ,neue ,rundschau 7,oct41 #aiac1 p4 #adbg7 by ,f4 ,perzynski1 entitled ,jagd auf ,gtter4 ,mr4 ,perzynski describes his hazardous journey to an almost inaccessible cave temple on a mountain top near ,ichou in ,chihli1 and there is little doubt that this is the place from which our wonderful figure came4 ,he speaks of the hill as the ,acthlohanberg1 implying a tradition of eight of these figures of ,lohan1 which had apparently been concealed in this and other caverns for safety during a period of iconoclasm1 such as occurred in the ninth and the thirteenth centuries1 when thousands of ,buddhist shrines were wrecked4 ,he found the shrine bare of the ,lohan1 except for a few fragments4 ,the rest had been pillaged1 and several of the figures had evidently been broken in the attempt to remove them through the narrow aperture of the caves1 or to conceal them afterwards4 ,parts of them1 and a sadly damaged ,lohan1 were actually shown to him in the neighbourhood2 and he afterwards succeeded in obtaining a complete figure and a torso1 which were exhibited by him in ,berlin4 ,on the altar of the shrine he found an incense burner of glazed ware1 which he attributed to the ,yan dynasty1 and there was a tablet recording the restoration of the altar in the reign of ,chng ,t 7early sixteenth century74 ,it is interesting to note that ,mr4 ,perzynski assumed at once that these figures are of ,tang date4 ,incidentally1 he mentions a visit to a hill which he calls the ,kuanyinberg1 where a cavern temple exists containing the remains of a colossal statue of ,kuanyin4 ,it is now broken1 but ,mr4 ,perzynski saw it standing in its enormous stature of three metres high1 to which must be added a stand a metre high and two in width4 ,this figure was originally in glazed pottery1 possibly also of the ,tang period1 but a great part of it had been restored in wood and plaster in the seventeenth century4 ,footnote #ei3 ,see ,japanese ,temples and their ,treasures1 by ,shiba-junrokuro1 with translations by ,mr4 ,langdon ,warner1 ,tokyo1 ,shimbi ,shoin1 #aiaj1 vol4 ii41 nos4 #bch1 #bfh1 and #cjj4 ,footnote #fj3 ,chinese4 ,footnote #fa3 ,see p4 #ag4 ,footnote #fb3 ,chinese1 sometimes written ,chinese4 ,footnote #fc3 ,chinese tsui s4 ,tsui is the colour of a bird with blue-green feathers3 a kingfisher 7,giles71 and it seems to have been used indifferently to express a bluish green colour and greenish blue like turquoise4 ,in ,lu ,kuei-mng's poem it suggests the colour of distant hills4 ,a passage in a seventeenth-century work1 the ,chi sung tang shih hsiao lu 7quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #h71 seems to imply that there were lustrous reflections in the glaze of some of the ,yeh wares4 ,it runs1 ,yeh yao cups with small feet are of the light green 7ching7 of the chestnut husk2 when turned sideways they are the colour of emerald green jade 7fei tsui74 ,footnote #fd3 ,see ,julien1 op4 cit41 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #fe3 ,chinese ,footnote #ff3 ,see ,tao shuo1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #e recto1 quoting the ,sung work1 ,kao chai man lu1 and ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #i1 quoting a twelfth-century work1 the ,ching pi tsa chih1 ,the pi s vessels were originally the wares offered daily to the house of ,chien when it ruled over the country4 ,no subject was allowed to have them4 ,that is why they were called pi s4 ,footnote #fg3 ,bk4 v41 fol4 #d recto4 ,footnote #fh3 ,see ,tao shuo1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #e verso4 ,footnote #fi3 ,for further reference to this important passage1 see p4 #ed4 ,footnote #gj3 ,see ch4 vi4 ,footnote #ga3 ,bk4 vii41 fol4 #ac recto4 ,footnote #gb3 ,tang kuo shih pu1 quoted in the ,tao shuo2 see ,bushell's translation 7,chinese ,pottery and ,porcelain71 p4 #cf4 ,it is worthy of note that ,hsing ,chou was in the same district as ,tz ,chou1 which has long been celebrated for its pottery4 ,see p4 #aja4 ,footnote #gc3 ,as stated in ,yo fu tsa lu1 a tenth-century work on music1 quoted in the ,tao shuo1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #d recto4 ,twelve cups were used1 and they were sometimes marked with numerals4 ,footnote #gd3 ,not to be confused with the more celebrated ,ting ,chou ,chinese in ,chihli4 ,footnote #ge3 ho ,chinese1 a coarse cloth or serge1 used to suggest a brownish tint2 cf4 s ho ju tung colour ho like copper4 ,footnote #gf3 ,as quoted in the ,tao lu 7see ,julien1 p4 #e74 ,the reference does not appear in the ,british ,museum copy of the ,ko ku yao lun4 ,footnote #gg3 ,quoted in the ,tao shuo1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #e recto1 and bk4 v41 fol4 #c recto4 ,footnote #gh3 ,ku ,ying-tai in the ,po wu yao lan1 published in the ,tien ,chi period 7#afba-afbg74 ,footnote #gi3 ,by ,tsao-chao in #achg2 republished in a revised and enlarged edition by ,wang-tso in #adei4 ,footnote #hj3 ,in the ,tao shuo1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #e verso4 ,footnote #ha3 ,chinese y kuo tien ching yn po chu ch4 ,it will be observed that the colour word used is ching1 which has the meaning of blue or green1 indifferently4 ,footnote #hb3 ,chang ,ying-wn1 in the ,ching pi tsang1 written at the end of the sixteenth century4 ,footnote #hc3 ,in the ,ju shih we wn1 quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #ai1 where we are told that merchants bring fragments of ,chai ware to sell for #ajj ounces of silver4 ,they say that if inlaid in the helmet at the approach of battle1 they are able to turn aside the fire implements 7huo chi74 ,footnote #hd3 ,for example1 in the ,li ta kan kao ku ou pien1 a modern work1 we find3 ,as to what they call at present ,yan and ,chn wares1 these in material1 colour1 sound1 and brilliancy are similar to ,chai yao1 but they differ in thickness1 and are perhaps the common folk's imitation wares1 and not the ,imperial ,shih ,tsung ware4 ,but we are not yet able to say4 ,if the ware has sky blue colour1 clear and brilliant on a coarse yellow brick-earth body1 and rings like bronze1 it must be ,chai ware4 ,as to ,chn ware 444 the specimens have in every case red colour and variegated surface4444 ,footnote #he3 ,see p4 #dh4 ,footnote #hf3 ,see pp4 #ci and #ed4 ,footnote #hg3 ,i have seen1 for instance1 a remarkable ware of white porcellanous type1 with a transparent glaze of a faint bluish tinge1 to which the name ,chai was boldly given4 ,it was certainly an early type1 perhaps as early as the ,sung dynasty1 but it belonged to a class of porcelain which is almost certainly ,corean4 ,the only specimen ,i have seen with a mark of the ,posterior ,chou period is not a blue-glazed piece but a large vase with wonderful purplish black glaze of the ,chien-yao type in the ,eumorfopoulos collection4 ,the mark1 however1 has been cut at some time subsequent to the manufacture1 and can only be regarded as reflecting some unknown person's opinion as to the date of the piece4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,sung ,chinese ,,dynasty1 #ifj-abgi ,a4,d4 ,,with the ,sung dynasty firmly established in #ifj ,a4,d41 the ,chinese ,empire entered upon a long period of prosperity rendered glorious by the cultivation of the arts of peace4 ,it is true that the boundaries of the ,empire were contracted and the ,tartar tribes on the north-west had made good their independence and remained a constant menace to the frontiers of ,china4 ,in #aabg the dam was broken and the desert warriors1 no longer to be kept in check by diplomacy or force1 burst upon ,northern ,china and drove the peace-loving ,sung from their capital1 the modern ,kai-fng ,fu in ,honan4 ,the ,emperor ,kao ,tsung and his ,court fled across the ,yangtze to their new capital at ,hang ,chou1 where the dynasty continued under the name of the ,southern ,sung until #abgi4 ,the description given by ,marco ,polo of ,hang ,chou1 which he considered1 even in #abhj1 to be beyond dispute the finest and the noblest city in the world1 presents a wonderful picture of the refinement and luxury of the ,sung civilisation4 ,the great city had its network of canals and its twelve thousand stone bridges1 its flourishing guilds of craftsmen1 its merchant princes who lived nicely and delicately as kings1 its three hundred public baths of hot water1 its ten principal markets1 its great lake lined with houseboats and barges1 and its streets thronged with carriages4 ,the citizens themselves were peaceful and orderly1 neither wearing arms nor keeping them in their homes1 and their cordiality to foreigners was hardly less than the good will and friendliness which marked their relations to one another4 ,the conditions which produced such a community as this were ideal for the development of literature and art1 and the ,sung dynasty has been described as a prolonged ,augustan age for poets1 painters1 and art workers of every persuasion4 ,it was1 moreover1 an age of connoisseurs and collectors4 ,treatises were written on artistic subjects1 encyclopdias were published1 and illustrated catalogues issued by the order of the ,emperor and his followers4 ,among the best known of these last publications are the ,hsan ,ho po ku tu lu1 ,illustrated discussion of the antiquities in the palace of ,hsan ,ho1 and the ,ku y tu pu1 ,illustrated description of ancient jade4 ,it is true that modern criticism has seriously impugned the archological value of both these classic works4 ,it is said that ingenious conjectures and reconstructions1 based on the reading of earlier literature1 too often take the place of practical archology and first-hand knowledge of the art of the ,shang and ,chou dynasties4 ,sung archology1 in fact1 appears to have been in much the same theoretical condition as the ,homeric criticism in ,europe before the days of ,schliemann4 ,but for us these works must always have great interest1 if only for the records they preserve of ,tang and ,sung ideas4 ,an excellent1 if extreme1 instance of the inherent weakness of ,sung archology is given by ,laufer4#hh ,in describing certain objects of the ,chou dynasty early writers had been in the habit of speaking of grain pattern and rush pattern1 assuming a knowledge in their readers which subsequent ages did not possess4 ,in the ,sung period the current ideas with regard to these patterns were expressed by the illustrator of the ,sung edition of the ,li ,chi by ornamenting jade discs1 in the one case with ears of wheat and in the other with a clump of rushes4 ,modern archologists have identified the patterns in question on objects found in ,chou burials1 the grain pattern being symbolically rendered by a number of small raised discs1 representing either grains of corn or heaps of grain1 and the rush pattern by a kind of matting diaper1 geometrically drawn4 ,this instance serves to illustrate the salient differences between the ,chou and ,sung art1 the two extremes2 the ,chou art is symbolical and geometrical1 the ,sung impressionist and naturalistic4 ,the ,sung poets and painters#hi communed with ,nature in the wilds and threw into their verse or on to their silks vivid impressions and ideal conceptions of the natural phenomena4 ,the ,chinese art of after years owes many of its noblest inspirations to ,sung masters1 but nowhere are these ideas developed with the same freshness and power as in the ,sung originals4 ,the ,sung dynasty was an age of achievement for the potter4 ,the ceramic art now took rank beside that of the bronze worker and jade carver1 and it received a great impetus from regular ,imperial patronage4 ,the ,ting ,chou and ,ju ,chou factories in the north worked under ,imperial mandate4 ,in the south the pottery centre in the ,chang-nan district received a new name from the nien hao of the ,emperor ,ching ,t 7#ajjd-ajjg71 and developed into the world-famed ,ching-t ,chn4 ,in the succeeding century the ,imperial factories at ,hang ,chou were celebrated for the ,kuan yao or royal ware2 and numerous kilns were opened in the eighteen provinces1 successfully following the lead of the ,imperial potteries4 ,subsequent ages have never ceased to venerate the ,sung as the classic period of ,chinese ceramic art1 and in the eighteenth century the ,emperor ,yung ,cheng sent down selected ,sung specimens from the palace collection to be imitated by the ,imperial potters at ,ching-t ,chn4 ,the same sentiment pervades ,chinese ceramic literature4 ,it harks back perpetually to the ,sung wares as the ideal1 collectors rave about them1 and eulogy of the ,ju1 ,kuan1 ,ko1 ,ting1 and ,lung-chan wares has been almost an obsession with later ,chinese writers4 ,until recent years the ,european student has been almost entirely dependent for his knowledge of the subject on these literary appreciations or on relatively modern reproductions of the wares4 ,latterly1 however1 the interest aroused among ,western collectors in the earlier wares and their consequently enhanced value have lured many authentic specimens from ,china1 and our information on the ,sung potteries has considerably expanded4 ,but the difficulties of classification are still only in part surmounted4 ,many important problems remain unsolved1 and for the understanding of several celebrated groups we are still at the mercy of ,chinese textbooks and encyclopdias4 ,obscurity of phrase1 ambiguity of colour words1 quotations from early authorities passed on from writer to writer with diminishing accuracy1 are among the many stumbling-blocks which the student of these books must surmount at every turn4 ,many of the treatises occur in small encyclopdias and miscellanies on works of art1 which are each merely a corpus of quotations from similar works of the past4 ,moreover1 an accurate first-hand knowledge of the wares themselves does not seem to have been held essential for the ,chinese compiler4 ,it is true that the same might be said of many of our own art-manuals1 and with less excuse1 for the ,chinese can at any rate plead the veneration for the writers of the past in an ancestor-worshipping people1 whereas our own shortcomings in this matter are due mainly to commercial reasons4 ,but if the ,chinese manuals are often misleading and obscure1 they are at least brief--too brief1 in many cases1 and assuming a power to read between the lines which no ,european student can be expected to possess4 ,the result is that where we have no actual specimens to help us1 there is unlimited scope for conflicting theories on the meaning of the original text4 ,however1 as our collections grow and guiding specimens arrive1 more of the ,chinese descriptions are explained1 and working back from the known to the unknown we are able to penetrate farther into the obscurities of the subject4 ,to take a single instance4 ,the well-known celadon ware1 with strongly built greyish white body1 and beautiful smooth1 translucent sea-green glaze1 has been identified beyond all doubt with the ,lung-chan ware of ,chinese books4 ,when we read of the green porcelain 7ching tz7 bowls with fishes in relief inside or on the bottom1 our thoughts at once turn with confidence to such specimens as ,fig4 #c1 ,plate #ba1 and we realise that for once we are certain of the meaning of the elusive colour word ching4 ,in the same way other phrases here and there can be run to earth2 and when we meet the same descriptive words in other contexts1 the key to their meaning is already in our hands4 ,in this way no little profit can even now be got from the study of ,chinese works1 and it tends to increase steadily1 though1 of course1 one living example is more instructive than a host of descriptions4 ,the ,sung wares are true children of the potter's craft1 made as they are by the simplest processes1 and in the main decorated only by genuine potter methods4 ,the adventitious aid of the painter's brush was1 it is true1 invoked in a few cases1 but even then the pigments used were almost entirely of an earthy nature1 and it is very doubtful if painting in enamels had yet been thought of4 ,two years ago enamel-painting on ,sung porcelain would have been denied in the most uncompromising terms4 ,but the claims of certain specimens of the ,tz ,chou type1 with brick-red and leaf-green enamel on the glaze1 to belong to the ,sung period have been so persistently urged that they cannot be entirely ignored4 ,at present ,i am unconvinced of their ,sung origin2 but our knowledge of ,tang wares has developed with such surprising rapidity that we must be prepared for similar surprises in connection with the ,sung4 ,meanwhile it would be well to suspend judgment on this interesting point4 ,the bulk of the ,sung wares1 at any rate1 and among these the best of them1 were either wholly undecorated--that is1 wholly dependent on form and glaze1 or else ornamented by such methods as moulding1 stamping1 application of clay reliefs1 carving1 or etching with a fine point4 ,all these processes were applied while the clay was still unfixed1 and the glaze was afterwards added and the ware finished once and for all in a single firing4 ,it follows1 then1 that the glaze must be capable of standing the fierce heat required to bake the body1 and as the ,sung bodies are mostly of a high-fired porcellanous nature1 the glazes used on them were limited to the refractory kinds composed largely of petuntse or porcelain stone4 ,it follows also that any impurity1 any particle of iron1 for instance1 in the clay would make its presence felt in the glaze and influence the colour of the latter1 locally at any rate4 ,there is a striking contrast between the characteristic coloured glazes of the ,sung and the ,t'ang periods4 ,the latter are1 as a rule1 comparatively soft lead glazes1 resembling in their colour1 texture1 and their minute crazing the latter glazes on ,ming pottery4 ,the former are thick and hard1 and the crackle where it exists is positive and well defined4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,burton#ij makes some interesting comments on these high-fired glazes3 ,there are certain technical points of great interest to be drawn from a study of the ,sung productions4 ,in the first place1 they prove that the ,chinese1 from a very early period1 had learnt to fire their pottery at a much higher temperature than the contemporary potters of the ,west were using4444 ,a third point of even greater interest1 which seems to have escaped the notice of every previous writer1 is that the method of firing used by the ,chinese naturally produced glazes in which the oxide of iron and oxide of copper were present in the lowest state of oxidisation2 and this is the explanation of the seeming paradox that the green glazes1 known to us as celadon1 and the copper-red glazes1 were amongst the earliest productions of the ,chinese porcelain-makers1 while in ,europe they have been among the latest secrets to be acquired4 ,the most important feature of the ,sung wares lies in their glaze1 which holds la qualit matresse de la cramique1 as an enthusiastic ,french writer has expressed it4 ,its richness1 thickness1 lustre1 translucency1 and its colour and crackle are the main criteria of the wares in the eyes of ,chinese connoisseurs4 ,tz jun 7rich and unctuous71 hsi ni 7fine and glossy71 jung 7lustrous71 tung jung 7lustrous throughout or transparent7 are among the phrases most constantly met in their appreciations4 ,a word1 too1 is usually added on colour of the body material1 which in many cases would appear to have been of a red or brown tint1 iron-coloured or copper-coloured4 ,not that it is necessary to infer that in every instance the ware was red or brown throughout4 ,it is a matter of observation that in many of the early wares the exposed places 7usually confined to the edge of the foot rim or the unglazed base7 have assumed a rusty red colour in the firing1 while a flake broken from the glaze elsewhere reveals a white or greyish white porcelain body within4 ,this will often explain the seeming inconsistency of the ,chinese descriptions in which the word porcelain is applied to an apparently dark-coloured material4 ,at the same time1 it is well to remember that the ,chinese words which we translate as porcelain were far more comprehensive than our own term4 ,our speculations on the nature of the ,chai ware in a previous chapter brought us face to face with two main types of glaze1 the thick opalescent glaze of pale lavender or turquoise tint1 and the smooth translucent celadon glaze in which green is the dominant colour4 ,these types are prominent on the ,sung wares1 and almost all the varieties of coloured ,sung glazes--with such obvious exceptions as black and chocolate brown--have more or less affinity to these two4 ,so that if we place the old turquoise#ia glaze at one end of the series and the green celadon at the other1 the rest will find an intermediate place1 with leanings1 of course1 towards one or other of the extremes4 ,one of the puzzling features in the study of the ,sung wares is the interrelation of the various makes1 such as the ,ju1 ,kuan1 ,ko1 ,lung-chan1 ,tung ching and ,chn1 which all appear to have had points of mutual resemblance1 although the descriptions of individual specimens differ over a wide range4 ,if1 however1 it can be assumed that the same fundamental principles of manufacture were observed in all these factories1 and that the divergences in the wares arose from local conditions1 such as variety of clays1 different conditions of firing and slight variations in the composition of the glaze1 a formula is established which will cover most of our difficulties4 ,i am assured by no less an authority on glazes than ,mr4 ,w4 ,burton#ib that this assumption is perfectly justifiable1 and that one and the same glaze might emerge from the kiln as a celadon green1 a grey green1 dove grey1 lavender grey1 or lavender turquoise under slightly varying conditions of firing1 and according to the presence or absence of an infinitesimal proportion of iron or copper oxide in the body or glaze4 ,even with their empirical methods the old ,chinese potters must have soon discovered the conditions which favoured certain results1 but in the meantime quite a number of apparently different wares would have emerged from the same factory1 and yet1 in spite of local peculiarities1 a general relationship might be observed in productions of different districts4 ,so that when one ,chinese writer compares the ,ju ware to the ,chai1 another the ,kuan to the ,ju1 another the ,ko to the ,kuan1 and another the ,lung-chan to the ,ko1 it is not necessary to assume that these porcelains were all grass-green celadons because we happen to know that that colour was the prevailing tint of the ,lung-chan ware4 ,the ,chai and the ,lung-chan may have been as far apart as lavender and celadon green1 and the chain of relationship linked up by the ,chinese writers still hold firm4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,plate #ae4--,sung ,wares4 ,fig4 #a4--,peach-shaped ,water ,vessel1 dark-coloured biscuit1 smooth greenish grey glaze4 787 ,ju or ,kuan ware4 ,length #e inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,figs4 #b and #c4--,shallow ,cup with flanged handle1 and covered box1 opalescent grey glaze4 ,kuan or ,chn wares4 ,length of cup #g inches4 ,diameter of box #f #a_/af inches4 ,rothenstein ,collection4 ,no one but an experienced potter can speak with confidence of the methods by which the varying colour effects in the ,sung glazes were obtained1 but it is quite certain that the ,sung potters were not ignorant of the value of such colouring agents as the oxides of iron1 copper1 cobalt1 and perhaps even of antimony4 ,green1 blue1 yellow1 and brown glazes1 which owed their tint to these minerals1 had appeared some centuries before on the ,tang wares4 ,but to what extent the men of ,sung made deliberate use of these oxides is another question4 ,it is certain1 for instance1 that the green celadon owed its colour to the presence of iron oxide1 but whether that was a natural element in the clay of certain districts1 or whether it was introduced in the glaze by the admixture of ferruginous clay1 is not always clear4 ,again1 those bursts of contrasting colour1 usually red1 which enrich the opalescent grey and lavender glazes1 are most readily explained by the local presence of copper or iron oxide in an appreciable quantity4 ,no doubt these effects were at first accidental1 but it is certain that observation and experiment eventually taught the potters to produce them systematically4 ,otherwise1 how explain the appearance of these colours in symmetrical splashes8 ,the flamb glazes of the eighteenth century are known to have been produced by means of copper oxide1 and it is not unreasonable to infer its presence in similar effects at an early date4 ,but it is equally certain that many of the changing tints in the thick1 uneven1 bubbly glazes of the ,sung and ,yan wares are due to opalescence alone4 ,this has been proved to demonstration by ,mr4 ,burton1 who has produced from his kilns a porcelain glaze with passages of pale lavender1 and even flushes of warm red1 by using nothing but a thick1 opalescent glaze entirely innocent of any colouring oxide4 ,finally1 a word of explanation is needed with regard to the frequent references to thinly potted specimens among the principal ,sung wares4 ,almost all of the existing examples are of a thick and rather heavy type4 ,not that we would have them thinner1 for much of their charm is due to the massive opulence of the thick opalescent glaze with its prismatic depths and changing hues4 ,but the ,chinese writers constantly refer to a thinner ware as well as the thick4 ,where are these thin and elegant pieces8 ,the suggestion that1 being more fragile1 they have by now all perished has been coldly received as an obvious and easy answer to a difficult question4 ,but it is reasonable enough1 after all1 when one remembers that upwards of a thousand years have passed since their manufacture4 ,the alternative that they existed only in the poetical imagination of later ,chinese writers is far less probable1 though doubtless account must be taken of the exaggerations indulged in by men who were describing the ideal wares of a classic period4 ,thin as paper1 for instance1 must have been a poetic licence as applied to the ,chai ware4 ,i shall not cite the illustrations in the ,album of ,hsiang ,yan-pien#ic as proof of the fineness and trim regularity of the best ,sung specimens4 ,whatever the value of this manuscript may originally have been1 no reliance can be placed on the illustrations as reproduced in ,porcelain of ,different ,dynasties4#id ,the original was unfortunately destroyed by fire in #ahhh1 and what we have now is1 at best1 the reproduction of a copy1 and probably that of a copy of a copy4 ,it is quite possible that the thinner ,sung wares are still represented in ,chinese collections1 rare though they must of necessity be4 ,but ,i believe that even our own collections are capable of supplying proof that1 making reasonable allowance for verbal exaggeration1 the ,sung potters did make wares which could fairly be described as thin4 ,many of the white ,ting wares are thin enough to be translucent2 no one questions the correctness of the description as applied to them4 ,it only wants one specimen to prove the case for the celadon glazes1 and that may be seen in the beautiful bowl in ,mr4 ,alexander's loan collection at the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7,plate #af74 ,as for the ,ju and ,kuan ware1 it is useless to consider their case until we are quite satisfied that we have established their identity2 and in the nature of things the opalescent glazes and those described as thick as massed lard by the ,chinese can only have accompanied a relatively thin body4 ,on the other hand1 many of the ,corean celadons are of unimpeachable thinness1 and as they were contemporary with the ,sung porcelains and were almost certainly copied from them1 there seems no real ground to withhold belief entirely from the ,chinese statements with regard to the thinness of certain coloured ,sung wares4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #hh3 ,jade1 op4 cit41 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #hi3 ,see ,l4 ,binyon1 ,painting in the ,far ,east1 chap4 ix4 ,footnote #ij3 ,porcelain1 ,a ,sketch of its ,nature1 ,art and ,manufacture1 p4 #ef4 ,footnote #ia3 ,this colour is quite distinct from the turquoise of the demi-grand feu1 a more lightly fired colour familiar on the later porcelains4 ,footnote #ib3 ,mr4 ,burton's practical experiments and the beautiful results obtained by following out his conceptions of ,chinese methods are well known to all admirers of the ,lancastrian pottery4 ,footnote #ic3 ,a late sixteenth-century work1 published with translations by ,dr4 ,s4,w4 ,bushell1 #aijh1 under the title of ,porcelain of ,different ,dynasties4 ,footnote #id3 ,i have already had occasion to criticise the inconsistencies in the colouring1 etc4 of this work4 ,see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,april1 #aiji1 p4 #bc4 ,,chapter ,v ,,ju1 ,,kuan1 ,,and ,,ko ,,wares ,ju yao ,chinese ,,though no authenticated example of ,ju ware is known in ,europe1 it is impossible to ignore a factory whose productions were unanimously acclaimed by ,chinese writers as the cream of the ,sung wares4 ,its place of origin1 ,ju ,chou1 in the province of ,honan1 lies in the very district which was celebrated in a previous reign for the ,chai pottery1 and it is probable that the ,ju factories continued the traditions of this mysterious ware4 ,nothing1 however1 is known of them until they received the ,imperial command to supply a ching 7blue or green7 porcelain to take the place of the white ,ting ,chou porcelain which had fallen into temporary disfavour on account of certain blemishes4 ,this event1 which took place towards the end of the ,northern ,sung period 7#ifj-aabg ,a4,d471 implies that whatever had been their past history1 the ,ju ,chou factories were at this period pre-eminent for the beauty of their ching porcelain4 ,it would appear from the ,ching po tsa chih1#ie which was written in #aaic1 that the ,ju ,chou potters were set to work in the forbidden precincts of the ,palace1 and that selected pieces only were offered for ,imperial use1 the rejected specimens being offered for sale4 ,even at the end of the twelfth century we are assured that it was very difficult to obtain examples of the ware4 ,from the various accounts on which we have to depend for our conception of the ware1 it is clear that the body was of a dark colour4#if ,the glaze was thick and of a colour variously described as approaching the blue of the sky after rain 7i4e4 like the ,chai ware71 pale blue or green1#ig and egg white#ih which seems to imply a white ware with a faint greenish tinge4 ,the author of the ,ch'ing pi tsang1#ii a work of considerable repute published in #aeie1 gives a first-hand description of the ware3 ,ju yao ,i have seen4 ,its colour is 'egg white' and its glaze is lustrous and thick like massed lard4 ,in the glaze appear faint 'palm eye' markings like crabs' claws4#ajj ,specimens with sesamum designs 7lit4 flowers71 finely and minutely engraved on the bottom1 are genuine4 ,as compared with ,kuan yao in material and make1 it is more rich and unctuous 7tz jun74 ,two mysterious peculiarities have been attributed to the ,ju ware1 viz4 that powdered cornaline was mixed with the glaze1 and that a row of nail heads was sometimes found under the base4 ,the first has been taken as merely an imaginative explanation of the lustre of the glaze1 but it is certain that some kind of pulverised quartz-like stone was used in the composition of later glazes1 such as the ruby red 7see vol4 ii41 p4 #abc74 ,the second1 which has been seriously interpreted to mean that actual metal nails were found protruding from the glaze 7a physical impossibility1 as the metal would inevitably have melted in the kiln71 is probably due to a misunderstanding of a difficult ,chinese phrase1 chng ting1#aja which may mean engraved with a point or cut nails4 ,the former seems to satisfy the requirements of the case1 though it would be possible to render the sentence1 having sesamum flowers on the bottom and fine small nails1 referring to the little projections often found on the bottom of dishes which have been supported in the kiln on pointed rests or spurs4 ,in the list of porcelains made at the ,imperial potteries about the year #agcjajb we read of imitations of ,ju ware from specimens sent down from the ,imperial collections4 ,these imitations had in one case an uncrackled glaze on a copper-coloured body1 and in the other a glaze with crackle like fish roe2 and we may fairly infer that the originals had the same peculiarities4 ,a reputed specimen#ajc of modern ,ju glaze#ajd has a pale greyish green tint1 with just a suspicion of blue1 and would answer fairly well to the description tan ching or fn ching4 ,but probably our safest clue to the appearance of ,ju ware is to be found in the important passage already mentioned1#aje in which a ,sung writer describes the ,corean wares as in general appearance like the old pi-s ware of ,yeh ,chou and the new ,ju ,chou ware4 ,the typical ,corean wares of this time are not uncommon1 and their glaze--a soft grey green or greenish grey1 with a more or less obvious tinge of blue--would satisfy the ,chinese phrases1 tan ching and fn ching1 and in the bluer specimens might1 by a stretch of poetic phrase1 even be likened to the sky after rain4 ,the egg white1 however1 must have been a somewhat paler tint if the expression can be taken in any literal sense4 ,from the foregoing considerations we may conclude that the ,ju porcelain was a beautiful ware of celadon type1 varying in tint from a very pale green to a bluish green4 ,though it is nowhere definitely stated how long the ,ju ,chou factories retained their supremacy1 it is tolerably clear from ,hs ,ching's reference in #aabe1 or very soon after1 to the modern porcelain of ,ju ,chou1 that they came into prominence towards the end of the ,northern ,sung period1 perhaps in the last half of the eleventh century2 and as we have no further information about them1 we may perhaps infer that they sank into obscurity when the ,sung emperors were driven from the ,north of ,china by the invading ,tartars in #aabg4 ,in any case1 the ,ju ware seems to have become as extinct as the ,chai by the end of the ,ming dynasty4 ,hsiang ,yan-pien1 late in the sixteenth century1 states that ,ju yao vessels are disappearing4 ,the very few which exist are almost all dishes1 cups1 and the like1 and many of these are damaged and imperfect4#ajf ,a few years later another writer#ajg declares that the ,chai and ,ju porcelains had ceased to exist4 ,it is not to be supposed that ,ju ,chou had the monopoly of the particular kind of ching ware in which its factories excelled4 ,a number of other and not distant potteries were engaged in a similar manufacture1 though with less conspicuous success4 ,we read1#ajh for instance1 that it was made in the districts of ,tang1 ,tng1 and ,yao on the north of the 7,yellow7 ,river1 though the productions of ,ju ,chou were the best4 ,it has been already remarked that we possess no authenticated example of ,ju porcelain4 ,doubtless there are many pieces which are tentatively assigned to ,ju ,chou by hopeful owners4 ,but it must be confessed that the few which have hitherto been published as such are singularly unfortunate choices4 ,dr4 ,b4 ,laufer1 for instance1 in his excellent work on jade1#aji incidentally figures two vases for divining rods of a well-known form1 of which he hazards the remark that both have presumably been made in the kilns of ,ju-chou4 ,dr4 ,laufer does not claim to have made a particular study of ,chinese ceramics apart from the ,han pottery1 but if these pieces are ,ju yao1 then ,ju yao1 so far from having been extinct for some centuries1 is a comparatively common ware4 ,another instance is the funeral vase1 now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 published#aaj by its former owner1 ,dr4 ,bushell1 as a specimen of ,ju ware1 mainly1 ,i suppose1 on the strength of the description1 ,kuan ,yin vase of ,ju ,yao1 engraved on the stand by the ,chinese collector#aaa through whose hands it had previously passed4 ,this form of certificate is always open to doubt1 and had it really been a specimen of undoubted ,ju yao1 it is most improbable that the ,chinese would have allowed it at that time to pass into foreign hands4 ,but a glance at the piece itself is sufficient to dispel all illusions on that point4 ,so far from excelling other ,sung wares1 this piece is decidedly inferior in every detail to the most ordinary ,sung specimens4 ,it has a coarse1 sandy1 greyish buff body and impure greyish green tinge1 such as appears on some of the early funeral wares which make no pretence to finished workmanship4 ,the ornament consists of applied reliefs perfunctorily moulded1 and though its archological interest is considerable1 and1 like almost all ,chinese wares1 it possesses a certain charm1 any attempt to place it on a high artistic plane can only end in a reductio ad absurdum4 ,many other examples of this ware have since arrived in ,europe1 and they all belong to the same type4 ,some1 however1 appear to be later than the others1 having reliefs of white porcelain instead of the usual pottery4 ,they are always described as funeral vases by the ,chinese1 and it is exceedingly probable that the description is correct4 ,the subjects of the reliefs are always of a hieratic kind1 including such figures as the dragon of the ,east1 the tiger of the ,west1 the tortoise of the ,north1 and the red bird of the ,south1 the sun disc1 and a ring of indistinguishable figures1 perhaps ,buddhist deities4 ,there is no reason why such a type of sepulchral vase may not have been in use for many centuries1 and if the porcelain reliefs in one specimen suggest a date no earlier than the ,ming dynasty1 the glaze in another has strong analogies to some of the rougher ,tang wares4 ,the majority of these vases are of coarse1 rough make2 others are superior in finish and of comparatively attractive form4 ,a good example1 belonging to ,mr4 ,r4,h4 ,benson1 is shown on ,plate #ad4 ,it is of dense grey stoneware1 with opaque greenish grey glaze1 with a balustrade supported by four figures on the shoulder1 and a dragon and a figure on a tiger 7perhaps representing the mythical ,fng ,kan71 besides some small figures with indistinct attributes on the neck4 ,the height is #bj inches4 ,it is1 of course1 possible that some of these represent the coarser makes of the ,tang1 ,tng1 and ,yao districts 7see p4 #ee71 and that the attribution of the ,bushell vase by ,liu ,yen-ting may refer to a lower quality of ,ju yao which included these wares1 or may be even the wares made at ,ju ,chou before or after its period of ,imperial patronage4#aab ,my own conception of the ,ju yao is most nearly realised by the lovely but sadly damaged bowl in the ,alexander ,collection lately in the ,loan ,court at the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,its peculiar form is difficult to reproduce by photographic means1 but ,fig4 #a of ,plate #af gives a fair idea of it4 ,the colour is precisely that of the most beautiful bluish green ,corean bowls1 but the usual ,corean finish and the sand marks on the base are absent1 and the glaze is broken by a large1 irregular crackle4 ,surely this cannot be far removed from the secret colour of the ,yeh ware and the fn ching of the ,ju8 ,illustration3 ,,plate #af4 ,sung ,wares ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with six-lobed sides2 thin porcellanous ware1 burnt brown at the foot-rim1 with bluish green celadon glaze irregularly crackled4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,diameter #i inches4 ,fig4 #b4--,tripod ,incense ,burner4 ,white porcelain1 burnt pale red under the feet4 ,p ,lung-chan celadon ware4 ,this kind of celadon is known as kinuta4 seiji in ,japan1 where it is highly prized4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,height #d inches4 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,another specimen of reputed ,ju ware is an exquisite peach-shaped brush-washer or cup in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection 7,plate #ae1 ,fig4 #a74 ,it has a dark-coloured body and a beautiful smooth glaze of pale greenish grey tint1 and whatever its origin1 it is certainly a refined and beautiful example of the potter's art4 ,kuan yao ,chinese ,this ware is only second in importance to the ,ju yao1 and its exact nature is scarcely less speculative4 ,the name1 which means official or ,imperial ware1 seems to have been first applied to the porcelains made for ,imperial use at the ,northern ,sung capital1 the modern ,kai-fng ,fu1 in ,honan4 ,the factory was established at the command of the ,emperor ,hui ,tsung in the ,chng ,ho period 7#aaaa-aaag71 according to the earliest#aac or in the preceding ,ta ,kuan period 7#aajg-aaaj71 according to a later#aad account4 ,its career1 however1 was interrupted by the flight of the ,sung ,court south of the ,yangtze in #aabg1 though it is probable that a number of the potters followed the ,court4 ,at any rate1 the traditions of the original factory were continued at the new capital1 ,hang ,chou1 by an official named ,shao ,chng-shang1 who set up kilns in the ,imperial precincts1 in the department called ,hsiu net ss4 ,another writer locates this factory under the ,phnix ,hill4 ,shortly afterwards a new pottery was started below the suburban altar at ,hang ,chou1 which copied the forms of the older ,kuan ware1 but without equalling its quality4 ,we have then no fewer than three different makes all included in the name of ,kuan yao1 all following one tradition but differing1 as we shall see1 in material and quality4 ,the first is the ,kai-fng ,fu variety4 ,the earlier writers in the ,cho kng lu and ,ko ku yao lun make no attempt to differentiate#aae this porcelain from the later ,kuan yao1 but we find in a sixteenth-century collection of miscellanies1 the ,liu ching jih cha1 the following scrap of information3 that specimens 7of the ,kai-fng ware7 with streaky colour1 white on the upper part and thin as paper1 were inferior to ,ju ware2 and the more modern ,tao lu informs us that the ,kai-fng ,kuan ware was made of fine unctuous material with thin body1 the colour of the glaze being ching 7blue or green7 with a tinge of pale red 7fn hung7 and of varying depth of tone4 ,it is further stated that in the ,ta ,kuan period moon white or clair de lune 7yeh pai71 pale green or blue 7fn ching7 and deep green 7ta l7 glazes were esteemed1 whereas in the ,chng ,ho period only the ching colour in varying depth of tone was used4 ,moreover1 the glaze had crab's claw crackle1 and the vessels had a red-brown mouth and iron foot4 ,the latter phrase 7explained below7 is not consistent with the account in the ,liu ching jih cha1 white on the upper part1 which certainly implies a light-coloured clay1 but ,i confess that ,i have little confidence in the subtle distinctions of the ,tao lu in this passage4 ,they are mere assertions1 without any reasons given1 and it is not difficult to find a source from which they may in part1 at least1 have been derived1 and which in itself guarantees no such differentiation4#aaf ,it is likely enough that the ,kai-fng ware differed in body from the red ware of ,hang ,chou1 but it is not likely to have differed very greatly in other respects1 seeing that the southern variety continued the traditions of the northern1 and that the earliest authorities do not trouble to distinguish the two wares at all4 ,another critic1#aag discussing ,kuan ware as a whole1 makes its characteristics practically the same as those of the ,ko ware1 to which we shall come next1 and states that in regard to colour1 in both cases the pale ching 7fn ching7 specimens are the best1 the 'pale white' 7tan pai#aah7 are second1 while those with ash-coloured 7hui s7 glaze are very inferior4 ,from the same writer we gather that artificial staining of the crackle was employed on both ,kuan and ,ko wares1 for he speaks of ice-crackle with lines red as eel's blood and plum-blossom#aai crackle with ink-coloured lines1 besides an inferior type of crackle with fine lines which did not suggest any particular pattern4 ,the ,hang ,chou ,kuan ware1 variously described as ,kuan yao1 ,hsiu nei ss yao1 ,nei yao1 and ,shao yao from the locality of the factory and the name of its manager1 is described in both the ,cho kng lu and the ,ko ku yao lun4 ,in the former it was said to be a ching ware1 finely levigated clay#abj is the rule1 and it is of very exquisite make2 the coloured glaze is translucent#aba2 it is the delight of the age4#abb ,the latter1#abc which makes no mention of an earlier ,kuan ware1 gives the following description of the ,nei yao3 ,the material is fine and unctuous1 the colour ching with a flush of pale red 7tai fn hung7 and of varying intensity4 ,specimens with crab's-claw crackle1 brown mouth1 and iron foot1 and of good colour rank with ,ju yao4 ,there are1 besides1 specimens with a black body which are called wu ni yao4 ,all the imitations which are made at ,lung-chan are without crackle4 ,further information is given in the ,po wu yao lan1 viz4 that the clay used at the factory below the ,phnix ,hill at ,hang ,chou for making ,kuan yao was of reddish brown 7tz7 colour1 and that this explains the phenomenon of the brown mouth and iron foot#abd2 for the brown mouth is due to the fact that the vessel's mouth points upwards and the glaze flows downwards and is thinner at the mouth than on the rest of the body1 so that the brown colour 7of the clay7 is disclosed at the mouth4 ,the iron foot is1 of course1 the raw edge of the clay which appears at the foot rim4 ,as this peculiarity is not noted in the ,cho kng lu1 we are at liberty to infer that it was not a constant feature of the ,kuan wares1 and that some of them1 as already hinted in the quotation from the ,liu ching jih cha1 had a whitish body4 ,of the third ,kuan yao made below the suburban altar at a slightly later date1 we know nothing except that it followed the style of the older wares1 but with inferior results4 ,though we do not pretend to attach much weight to the illustrations in ,hsiang's ,album1 the descriptions in the accompanying text cannot be ignored4 ,they include ten specimens of ,kuan yao1#abe five of which are explained as fn ching 7pale blue or green74 ,of the rest one is pale ching clear and lustrous like a sapphire blue jewel1#abf evidently with a decidedly blue tinge2 another is kingfisher1 blue as the clear blue sky1#abg recalling the ,chai blue of the sky after rain 2 another is sky blue 7tien ching72 another onion green 7ching tsung71 the colour of onion sprouts2 and another is egg green 7luan ching71 which recalls and perhaps explains the luan pai 7egg white7 of the ,ju yao4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ag ,two examples of ,sung wares of the ,chn or ,kuan factories4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with lavender glaze1 lightly crackled4 ,o4 ,raphael ,collection4 ,height #d inches4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with smooth lavender grey glaze suffused with purple4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,height #c inches4 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,among the various ,sung and ,yan wares with more or less opalescent glazes which have reached ,europe in recent years1 it is possible to differentiate a considerable group whose characteristics seem to point to the ,kuan yao4 ,their body is usually of fine grain1 whitish colour and porcellanous texture1 but assuming a rusty brownish tint in the exposed parts4 ,it is1 in fact1 very much finer than the ,yan wares1 usually so called1 and all but the choicest wares of ,chn type 7see ch4 ix474 ,the glaze1 too1 though generally opalescent1 shows marked differences from that of the ,chn and ,yan pieces4 ,it is smooth and even instead of being lumpy and irregular1 and it ends close up to the foot rim in a comparatively regular line instead of ending short of the base in a thick roll or in heavy drops4 ,and the base instead of being quite bare or covered with a brown glaze1 has a patch of the surface glaze underneath4 ,the colours of this glaze show wide variations from a deep brownish green1 which suggest the ta l1 to pale dove grey 7fn ching7 and pale lavender blue tints1 which approximate to the ,chinese tien ching or sky blue1 though perhaps not so closely as does the so-called old turquoise4 ,some of these glazes1 especially the pale lavender and dove greys1 are broken by passages of red or crimson1 which in turn shade off into green and brown tints4 ,although the expression tai fn hung in the ,ko ku yao lun#abh has already been rendered in its most natural sense1 with a tinge of red1 we should perhaps mention a possible alternative which might make it refer to these very passages of red colour2 and the fact that they sometimes assume fantastic shapes will explain why the ,chinese saw in them butterflies1 birds1 fish1 unicorns1 and leopards4#abi ,on the other hand1 it is clear that these passages of red are not always accidental1 for they sometimes take symmetrical forms1 and it is quite possible that even the bird and fish forms may have been roughly designed in the colouring medium4 ,plate #ag will serve to illustrate this group of possible ,kuan wares4 ,another example is a dish in the ,british ,museum which has a whitish porcellanous body and a slightly crackled pale lavender grey glaze of singular beauty4 ,other specimens in the same collection include a small tea bowl with misty grey glaze of the fn ching type1 smooth and uncrackled1 and a body which appears deep reddish brown at the foot2 and a small bottle-shaped vase1 with lobed body of melon shape1 which1 though of doubtful antiquity1 answers closely to the ,chinese descriptions4 ,it has a dark-coloured but well levigated body1 deep brown at the foot1 and showing a brown tinge where the glaze has run thin at the lip1 and the colour is a pale bluish grey with rosy tinges where the body colour is able to penetrate the semi-translucent glaze4 ,another doubtful specimen1 with very similar characteristics1 was figured by me in the ,burlington ,magazine some years ago4#acj ,since the genuine ,sung specimens were sent to the ,imperial factories to be closely copied 7about #agcj71 it might be supposed that the relatively modern imitations would supply some clue to the original types4 ,there are one or two examples of eighteenth-century copies of ,kuan ware in the ,british ,museum on which the glaze is definitely lavender blue in tint1 with a crackle which in one case is wide and emphasised by blackened lines1 and in the other of a finer mesh4#aca ,the natural tendency1 however1 of modern imitative wares is to exaggerate some characteristic which this or that potter might imagine to be specially important1 and as it is impossible to say in many cases exactly when the piece in question was made1 we cannot be sure how far the potters in each case may have strayed from the original type4#acb ,no doubt in time these imitations would become a mere convention4 ,it should be said in passing that the modern copies have a white porcelain body1 and to obtain the appearance of brown mouth and iron foot the potters had recourse to the expedient of colouring the parts concerned with brown ferruginous clay4 ,the ,cho kng lu#acc refers to three minor wares which were regarded as inferior to ,kuan ware1 and later writers have assumed that they belonged to the same category4 ,these are the ,hs wares1 ,y-hang wares1 and wu-ni wares4 ,the first#acd is so little known that its identity has been lost in variant readings1 such as ,hsn ,chinese in later writers1 which is very near in appearance to tung ,chinese1 a common form used for the ,tung ware 7see p4 #hb72 and we can safely leave it until some clearer information is forthcoming4 ,the second1 according to the ,tao lu1#ace was a ,sung ware made at ,y-hang ,hsien1 in the prefecture of ,hang ,chou4 ,its colour was like ,kuan porcelain without its crackle1 its lustre 7jung71 and its unctuous richness 7jun74 ,the wu-ni ware is dark-bodied earthenware1 which is discussed on p4 #acc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #ah4--,sung dynasty4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with engraved peony design under a brownish green celadon glaze4 ,northern ,chinese4 ,diameter #g inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase moulded in form of a lotus flower1 dark grey stoneware1 burnt reddish brown1 milky grey glaze1 closely crackled4 ,height #g inches4 ,freer ,collection4 ,ko yao ,chinese ,ko yao 7the elder brother's ware71 or ,ko ko yao1 as it is sometimes called with the first character repeated1 is unanimously ranked by ,chinese writers with the ,ju and ,kuan wares4 ,according to the traditional accounts1 it was first made by the elder of the two brothers ,chang ,chinese1 who were potters of ,lung-chan ,hsien in the ,chu-chou ,fu1 province of ,chekiang1 each having a separate factory in the ,liu-tien district4 ,most of the ,chinese authorities are content to give the date of these brothers as some time in the ,sung dynasty1 but one account#acf narrows the period down to the ,southern ,sung 7#aabg-abgi ,a4,d474 ,professor ,hirth takes the rationalistic view that the story of the brothers is a myth embodying the fact that there were two distinct types of ware made in the ,lung-chan district4 ,be this as it may1 the ,ko yao is of considerable interest to us as forming a link between the obscure ,ju and ,kuan wares and the well-known ,lung-chan celadon1 approaching the latter in its grass green and sea green varieties and the former in its most highly prized specimens of bluish green or grey tones4 ,of its close resemblance to the ,kuan ware there can be no doubt1 for two highly reputable ,chinese writers#acg describe the two wares simultaneously and under one heading1 enumerating their various colours in order of merit as fn ching1 tan pai1 and hui s 7see p4 #fj71 besides mentioning the several kinds of crackle which appeared in the glaze4 ,the only distinctions which the author of the ,ching pi tsang draws between the two wares are that 7#a7 the ,kuan yao crackle is of the crab's claw#ach type1 while that of the ,ko is like fish-roe1#aci and 7#b7 the ,ko glaze is somewhat less beautiful than the ,kuan4 ,with regard to the crackle1 other writers assert that short cracks are characteristic of the ,ko yao1 and one author uses the picturesque phrase1 crackle of a hundred dangers4#adj ,accidental splashes of contrasting colour1 which sometimes assumed fantastic forms1 were common to the ,ko and ,kuan wares1 as mentioned on p4 #fe1 and the author of the ,po wu yao lan explains these as originating in the colour of the glaze and forming on its outer surface1 and as due to the fire's magic transmutation4 ,another account of the ware given in the ,ko ku yao lun depicts it as of deep or pale ching colour1 with brown mouth and iron foot1 and adds that when the colour was good it was classed with ,tung#ada ware4 ,the same passage further informs us that a great quantity of the ware recently made at the end of the ,yan dynasty was coarse and dry in body and inferior in colour1 a statement to which we shall return presently4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ai4 ,vase of close-grained1 dark reddish brown stoneware with thick1 smooth glaze1 boldly crackled4 ,ko ware of the ,sung dynasty4 ,height #aj inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,other descriptive references to ,ko yao include a verse on a ,ko ink palette belonging to ,ku ,liu1#adb which was green 7l7 as the waves in spring2 the eighteenth-century list of ,imperial wares#adc which mention ,ko glazes on an iron body1 of two kinds1 viz4 millet-coloured and pale green#add 7or blue71 both stated to have been copied from ancient specimens sent down from the palace2 and a single specimen in ,hsiang's ,album1 which is given as fn ching4 ,in these various descriptions it is possible to recognise a celadon green ware1 green as the waves of spring1 while the familiar stone grey and buff crackled wares1 which range from greyish white to pale grey green and greenish yellow1 seem to be indicated in the expressions mi s1 fn ching1 tan pai1 and hui s4 ,the modern versions of the latter class1 which are fairly common1 are usually known even to-day as ,ko yao1 the expression in potter's language being practically synonymous with crackled wares4#ade ,other ancient factories where similar wares were made are ,hsiang-hu and ,chi ,chou4#adf ,as for the finer ,ko wares1 which appear to have been indistinguishable from the ,kuan1 we may look for them in the group described on p4 #fe1 and in such beautiful pieces as that illustrated on ,plate #ai1 a vase of fine oval form with delicate grey glaze of faint bluish tone boldly crackled4 ,the solid quality of the glaze of this last specimen and the texture of the surface1 which is smooth but lustrous1 suggest some natural substance such as the shell of an egg or a smooth polished stone rather than an artificial material4 ,the colour perhaps more truly answers the description egg white 7luan pai7 than any other ,sung glaze which ,i have seen4 ,plate #bj illustrates another choice example but with a yellower tone of glaze2 and a large square vase in the ,freer ,collection#adg with thick1 misty grey glaze showing a faint tinge of red1 which recall the s ching tai fn hung of the ,kuan ware1 was shown in the ,new ,york exhibition of #aiad4 ,all these three specimens have a dark reddish brown body of fine close grain1 and their glaze is very thick and unctuous with a tendency to contract into thick wax-like drops under the base4 ,from certain passages in the ,chinese works it appears that a revival of the ,ko yao took place in the ,yan dynasty1 if indeed the manufacture had not been continuous4 ,the ,ko ku yao lun1 for instance1 under the heading of ,ko yao1 states that the ware recently made at the end of the ,yan dynasty was coarse and dry in body and inferior in colour4 ,in the ,po wu yao lan#adh we read that certain ,ko wares made in private factories took their clay from the ,phnix ,hill 7at ,hang ,chou1 where the ,kuan potteries were located71 and the ,tao lu#adi definitely states that clay was brought from ,hang ,chou for this later ,ko ware4 ,add to these the remark in the ,ko ku yao lun on the subject of ,kuan ware#aej--;all the imitations which are made at ,lung-chan are without crackle--and it is clear that the ,lung-chan potters in the fourteenth century were busy copying both the ,kuan and ,ko wares1 and that to obtain a closer resemblance to the former they actually sent to ,hang ,chou for the red clay which would produce the brown mouth and iron foot4 ,the alleged absence of crackle would indicate a departure from the original ,ko methods1 but we are at liberty to doubt the universal application of such sweeping statements1 and ,i ventured to suggest#aea that a remarkable bowl in the ,british ,museum was a ,yan example of ,ko ware1 because1 in spite of its ,ko crackle1 it corresponds so closely to the other points in the descriptions of this make4 ,in any case1 there is little doubt that it belongs to an early period of manufacture4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bj4 ,deep ,bowl of reddish brown stoneware with thick1 boldly crackled glaze4 ,ko ware of the ,sung dynasty4 ,height 7without stand7 #d inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,the following extract from a work entitled ,pi chuang so y1#aeb which would be still more interesting if we knew its date1 serves to illustrate some of the difficulties the ,chinese collector had to face in the past3 ,ancient examples of ,ko yao of the ,sung period have survived1 though for a long time past genuine and counterfeit have been confused together4 ,among men there are very many who seek for the genuine ,sung1 but refined and beautiful specimens are exceedingly few4444 ,tsao ,chiung1 a man of high birth1 secured an incense burner1 in height about two inches and in width proportionate4 ,the cover was beautiful jade carved with a pattern of sea waves of ,tung ching#aec colour1 with a handle in form of a crane1 a genuine piece1 and exceedingly beautiful4 ,it came to the ears of the eunuch ,mai1 governor of the district1 and he put ,chiung in prison and subjected him to the inquisition4 ,his son had no choice but to offer the vessel as a gift4 ,later the powerful hand of the superintendent of the ,board of ,rites seized it4 ,in the ,chng ,t period 7#aebb-ff7 it was stolen1 and1 coming to the district below ,wu1 it became the property of ,chang ,hsin-fu of ,tien-shan1 ,shanghai1 who sold it for #bjj ounces of gold4 ,after that it came again into the hands of a connoisseur1 and the ,imperial authorities in the end did not succeed in recovering it4 ,this was a genuine antique ,ko vessel4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ie3 ,quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #i verso4 ,we gather from this passage that ,ju ,chou potters were summoned to the ,imperial precincts at ,kai-fng ,fu2 for ,ju ,chou itself is some distance from the capital4 ,footnote #if3 ,the ,liu ching jih cha--a ,ming work quoted in the ,tao shuo--describes it as in colour like ,ko ware1 but with a faint yellowish tinge2 and the more modern ,tao lu 7bk4 vi41 fol4 #b7 speaks of it as having clay fine and lustrous like copper4 ,footnote #ig3 ,chinese tan ch'ing1 according to the ,ko ku yao lun4 ,footnote #ih3 ,chinese luan pai2 according to the ,po wu yao lan4 ,of three specimens figured in ,hsiang's ,album 7op4 cit41 pp4 #ai1 #bb and #cd71 two are described as y lan 7i4e4 sky blue71 and fn ch'ing 7pale blue or green71 and the third is undescribed4 ,footnote #ii3 ,pt4 i41 fols4 #h and #i4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,it is not clear what these markings were1 whether spots in the glaze or a kind of crackle4 ,the simile of crabs' claws is applied to crackle in other passages4 ,footnote #aja3 ,chinese ,footnote #ajb3 ,this interesting list1 given in the ,chiang hsi t'ung chih1 bk4 xciii41 fol4 ii41 is summarised in vol4 ii41 ch4 xii4 ,it is also quoted in the ,t'ao lu1 and translated by ,bushell1 ,o4,c4,a41 p4 #cfi4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,see ,bushell1 ,o4,c4,a41 plate #gg4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,in a passage referring to modern imitations1 the ,tao lu 7bk4 vii41 fol4 #aj7 states that at ,ching-t ,chn1 the makers of the large vases known as kuan ku 7imperial antiques7 for the most part imitate the colour of ,ju yao glaze4 ,beautiful specimens of these 7imitations7 are commonly called 'blue of the sky after rain4' ,footnote #aje3 ,p4 #ci4 ,account of a mission to ,corea in #aabe by ,hs ,ching4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,hsiang's ,album1 op4 cit41 ,fig4 #ai4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,son of the author of the ,ching pi tsang4 ,his father 7see p4 #ec7 declared that he had seen ,ju porcelain4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,in the ,cho kng lu1 published in #acfh1 but of special interest because it repeats the statements of a ,sung writer1 ,yeh-chih1 author of the ,yan chai pi hng4 ,footnote #aji3 ,op4 cit41 plate #bj4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,cosmo ,monkhouse1 ,chinese ,porcelain1 plate #a1 and ,bushell1 ,chinese ,art1 vol4 ii41 pg4 #g4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,liu ,yen-ting4 ,footnote #aab3 ,it would seem as if the manufacture had never entirely ceased at ,ju ,chou1 for we read in ,richard's ,geography1 p4 #fa1 ,the environs 7of ,ju ,chou7 were formerly very industrial1 but have lost their activity4 ,the manufacture of common pottery is still carried on and gives it some importance4 ,footnote #aac3 ,the ,cho kng lu1 published in #acfh1 but based on a thirteenth-century ,sung work 7see p4 #ee74 ,footnote #aad3 ,the ,tao lu 7bk4 vi41 fol4 #b verso74 ,it is obvious that the term ,kuan yao 7,imperial ware7 is liable to cause confusion1 as it might be--and indeed was--equally applied to any ware made at any time at the ,imperial factory4 ,in recognition of this fact the ,sung ,kuan yao was sometimes named in later writers ,ta ,kuan ,chinese ware1 after the ,ta ,kuan period4 ,footnote #aae3 ,a passage quoted in ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #ac1 from an eighteenth-century work1 the ,wn fang ss kao1 forms a commentary on this attitude4 ,the old capital ,kuan factory1 ,it says1 had only a brief existence1 so that we must consider the ,hsiu nei ss make to be first and the 'recent wares' to be second4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,the list of wares made at the ,imperial factories at ,ching-t ,chn about #agcj1 and published in the ,chiang hsi tung chih 7vol4 xciii41 fol4 #aa71 refers to the imitation of ,kuan wares as follows3 ,ta ,kuan glazes on an iron-coloured body4 ,these are three kinds--yeh pai1 fn ching1 ta l--all imitating the colour and lustre of ,sung ware sent to 7or from7 the palace 7nei fa sung chi74 ,there is no reason to suppose that ,ta ,kuan here is more than a mere synonym for ,kuan 7ware74 ,footnote #aag3 ,chang ,ying-wn in the ,ching pi tsang1 published in #aeie4 ,footnote #aah3 ,chinese a phrase which is not very lucid4 ,in fact1 ,i suspect a confusion with another tan ,chinese1 which means egg1 and would give the sense egg white1 like the luan pai of the ,ju yao4 ,footnote #aai3 ,on the subject of crackle1 see vol4 ii41 p4 #aig4 ,the idea of a crackle assuming the form of round four- or five-petalled flowers like plum blossoms was carried out by the ,chien ,lung potters on some of the medallion bowls 7see vol4 ii41 p4 #bdd71 with a ground of bluish green enamel on which a network of lines and plum blossoms was traced in black4 ,footnote #abj3 ,chinese ,chng ni1 lit4 pure1 limpid1 or clear clay1 an expression which is explained in the ,tao shuo 7bk4 i41 fol4 #d verso7 as refined earth1 the word chng 7or ling7 being equivalent to ,chinese tao1 which means to wash4 ,footnote #aba3 ,chinese jung ch1 lit4 brilliant penetrate1 or brilliant right through4 ,footnote #abb3 ,the age is here probably the ,sung period1 for we must bear in mind that the author of the ,cho kng lu is practically quoting verbatim from the ,sung writer ,yeh-chih4 ,footnote #abc3 ,ko ku yao lun1 bk4 vii41 fol4 #bb4 ,footnote #abd3 ,it may also explain the ruddy tinge of the green glaze1 which1 being transparent1 would allow the reddish brown body colour to show through in the thinner parts4 ,footnote #abe3 ,an early sixteenth-century work1 the ,tu kung tan tsuan 7quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #h verso7 tells of a ,chinese sybarite ,li ,fng-ming1 who held a lotus flower banquet4 ,there were crystal tables twelve in number1 and on them a series of vessels1 all of ,kuan porcelain1 a display of elegance rarely seen at any time4 ,footnote #abf3 ,ya ku ching pao shih4 ,ya ku is explained by ,bretschneider 7,medieval ,researches1 vol4 i41 p4 #agd7 as equivalent to the ,arabic yakut1 and meaning a corundum1 of which the ,chinese recognise various tints1 including deep blue1 pale blue1 muddy blue1 besides yellow and white4 ,footnote #abg3 ,ching tsui jo y lan tien4 ,footnote #abh3 ,s ching tai fn hung4 ,a more literal rendering of this phrase is the colour of the glaze is ching1 with a tinge of red1 which would refer to the reddish tone of a pale lavender glaze4 ,on the other hand1 the word tai is apparently used to describe the contrasting colours in parti-coloured jade and agate1 e4g4 huang s tai tu pan in ,laufer 7,jade1 p4 #adj7 to describe yellow jade with earthy spots1 and again 7op4 cit41 p4 #adb71 ching y tai hei s1 green jade with passages of black colour4 ,footnote #abi3 ,po wu yao lan 7quoted in the ,tao shuo1 vol4 iii41 fol4 #ac verso74 ,these accidental effects are mentioned on both the ,kuan and ,ko wares1 and are said to be either of a yellowish or a brownish red tint4 ,footnote #acj3 ,wares of the ,sung and ,yan ,dynasties1 ,burlington ,magazine1 ,may1 #aiji1 ,plate i41 fig4 #d4 ,footnote #aca3 ,see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,may1 #aiji1 ,plate i41 fig4 #bh2 ,plate ii41 fig4 #f4 ,footnote #acb3 ,speaking of the imitations of ,kuan yao early in the nineteenth century1 the ,tao lu 7bk4 ii41 fol4 #aj7 remarks3 ,originally there were special departments for imitating ,kuan yao4 ,now1 only the imitators of the crackled wares make it4 ,as for the imitations made at the 7,imperial7 factory1 they are more beautiful1 sc4 than those made in the private factories4 ,footnote #acc3 ,bk4 xxix41 fol4 #aa4 ,footnote #acd3 ,the word ,hs ,chinese has the meaning continuation1 and if it be not a place-name at present unidentified1 it might conceivably be the continuation or later ,kuan ware4 ,footnote #ace3 ,bk4 vii41 fol4 #f verso4 ,footnote #acf3 ,the ,chi hsiu lei kao1 quoted by ,hirth1 ,ancient ,chinese ,porcelain1 p4 #cg4 ,footnote #acg3 ,the authors of the ,po wu yao lan and the ,ching pi tsang4 ,footnote #ach3 ,chinese hsieh chao wn1 a debatable phrase1 which seems best explained as a large irregular crackle resembling the tangle of claws seen on the top of a basket of crabs4 ,footnote #aci3 ,chinese ,y tz4 ,a crackle of finer mesh1 which ,french writers describe as truit1 or resembling the scales of a trout4 ,footnote #adj3 ,chinese pai chi sui1 used by the author of the ,pai shih lei pien2 see other references in the ,tao shuo and the ,tao lu4 ,footnote #ada3 ,see p4 #hb4 ,footnote #adb3 ,quoted in the ,tao shuo 7bk4 v41 fol4 #i verso74 ,footnote #adc3 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #bbc4 ,footnote #add3 ,chinese ,chinese mi s fn ching4 ,mi s is rendered in ,giles's ,dictionary1 ,straw colour1 the colour of yellow millet1 and all ,chinese authorities whom ,i have questioned agree that it is a yellow colour4 ,bushell in much of his published work rendered it rice coloured1 following ,julien's couleur du riz1 and others1 including myself1 have been misled by this rendering4 ,bushell1 however1 in a note in ,monkhouse's ,chinese ,porcelain1 p4 #fg1 which is quoted at length in vol4 ii41 p4 #bbj1 pronounces in favour of the rendering yellow4 ,the difficulty of finding a true yellow among the ,sung wares to support the comparison with yellow millet has further complicated the question4 ,the vase in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 which is figured in ,monkhouse 7fig4 #bb7 as a specimen of old mi s1 is probably a ,yung ,chng reproduction of the ,sung type4 ,it has a stone-coloured crackle glaze1 overlaid with a brownish yellow enamel1 a technique which is foreign to the ,sung wares4 ,possibly one type of ,sung mi s was illustrated by the shallow bowl with spout1 of grey stoneware with opaque glaze of pale sulphur yellow1 which ,mr4 ,alexander exhibited at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj 7,cat4 ,k4 #ah74 ,another kind is described by ,bushell in the catalogue of the ,morgan collection 7p4 #ch7 as follows3 ,shallow bowl 7wan74 ,greenish yellow crackled glaze of the ,sung dynasty1 leaving a bare ring at the bottom within4 ,a specimen of ancient mi s or millet-coloured crackle from the ,kiang-hsi potteries4 ,formerly the possession of ,his ,excellency ,chang ,yinhuan4 ,d4 #f inches4 ,specimens of this type1 with greenish and brownish yellow crackle glaze1 have been found in ,borneo1 where they have been reputed to be of enormous age2 there are several examples in the ,british ,museum4 ,the ,hirth collection in the ,gotha ,museum includes four high-footed bowls of brownish yellow colour which seem to belong to this class4 ,footnote #ade3 ,as explained in the ,tao lu 7bk4 ii41 fol4 #aj verso73 ,at ,ching-t ,chn there is no special factory devoted to the imitation of ,ko yao1 but the manufacturers of crackled wares make it in addition to their own special line1 and that is why they have the general name of ,ko yao houses 7,ko yao hu74 ,formerly1 the manufacturers were acquainted with the origin of the word1 but nowadays those who imitate ,ko yao only copy a fixed model without knowing why it is called ,ko yao4 ,footnote #adf3 ,the ,hsiang-hu wares were imitated at ,ching-t ,chn in the ,imperial factory about #agcj4 ,tang ,ying himself gives the following note on them in the ,tao ,chng shih y kao1 written about this time3 ,twenty li south-west of ,ching-t ,chn is a waste place called ,hsiang-hu ,chinese1 where there were formerly the foundations of ,sung kilns4 ,it used to be easy to find porcelain 7tz7 fragments of old vessels and waste pieces4 ,the material was very thin1 and the ware was evidently millet-coloured 7mi s7 and pale green 7fn ching74 ,the memoir of ,chiang 7#acbb7 states that the ware was beautiful and lustrous1 but not greatly prized at that time4 ,see ,tao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #ab1 and bk4 v41 fol4 #b4 ,for ,chi ,chou ware1 see p4 #ih4 ,footnote #adg3 ,see ,chinese1 ,corean1 and ,japanese ,potteries1 ,new ,york1 ,japan ,society1 #aiad ,no4 #cjg4 ,footnote #adh3 ,bk4 ii41 fol4 #d4 ,footnote #adi3 ,bk4 vi41 fol4 #e verso4 ,footnote #aej3 ,see above1 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #aea3 ,see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,may1 #aiji1 ,wares of the ,sung and ,yan ,dynasties1 ,plate iii41 fig4 #aa4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #i4 ,footnote #aec3 ,celadon green2 see p4 #hb4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,lung-,,ch,,an ,,yao ,chinese ,,in discussing the celebrated ,lung-chan celadons1 we are able to build our structure on a more solid basis4 ,for one group of them1 at any rate1 is so familiar that we should be tempted to abandon the difficult ,chinese descriptions and construct an essay on the ware from actually existing specimens1 were it not that in so doing we should miss our chief opportunity of applying a living test to the ,chinese phrases4 ,the district of ,lung-chan in the prefecture of ,chu-chou1 province of ,chekiang1 was noted for its potteries as early#aed as the beginning of the ,sung dynasty1 but its greatest celebrity was attained by the market town of ,liu-tien1 where the ,chang brothers are reputed to have worked4#aee ,the story that the elder ,chang moved to ,liu-tien while the younger brother remained at ,lung-chan is1 ,i believe1 based on a misreading of a ,chinese passage1#aef the true meaning of which seems to be that while the elder brother made new departures which earned for his ware the distinctive name of ,ko yao1 the younger continued the ,lung-chan traditions1 and consequently his ware was known as ,lung-chan yao4 ,it appears that one vital difference between the two wares was crackle1 which was used by the elder and not by the younger brother4 ,the productions of the ,lung-chan district are variously named in the ,ko ku yao lun1 ,chu ware 7from ,chu-chou ,fu1 the name of the prefecture71 ching ware1 and old ching ware1 and the various ,chinese accounts agree in distinguishing two broad classes1 the one having a thin body of fine material1 and the other a thick body of coarser and heavier make4 ,the first of these two classes includes the ,chang yao1 or ware of the younger ,chang1 of which the ,ching pi tsang gives the following description3 ,there is one kind in the manufacture of which white clay is used1 and the surface of the ware is covered with tsui#aeg glaze through which the white shows in faint patches4 ,this is what was made by the ,chang family in the ,sung dynasty1 and is called ,chang yao4 ,compared with the ,lung-chan ware in style and make1 it gives the impression of greater delicacy and refinement4 ,another writer#aeh describes it as single-coloured and pure1 like beautiful jade1 and ranking with the ,kuan yao2 whereas the ,ko yao was pale in colour4 ,the eleven examples figured and described in ,hsiang's ,album are all apparently of this class1 and their colour is variously described as green1 of jade-green tint 7tsui pi71 like a wet1 mossy bank or slender willow twigs1 green like the green of onion 7sprouts7 7tsui jo ching tsung71 green like parrot's feathers1 green like the dull green 7l7 of a melon1 and soft jade-green like onion sprouts in autumn4 ,hsiang's similes leave no doubt as to the prevailing tint of the ware1 which clearly aimed at rivalling the tint of the prized green jade4 ,as might be expected1 few if any of ,chang's celadons are to be found in our collections4 ,relatively few in numbers1 assuming them to have been the work of one lifetime1 and slender in structure1 it is improbable that many of them can have survived the chances of eight or nine hundred years1 and even supposing that any of them have reached ,europe1 their identity now could only be a matter of conjecture4 ,the second class is best known to us in those thick1 massive porcelains with greyish white body and smooth grey green glaze which have been named in ,persian countries martabani and in ,europe celadon4 ,the former name is no doubt derived from the port of ,martaban1 on the coast of ,pegu1 a meeting place of ,eastern and ,western traders1 from which the ,chinese goods were shipped or transhipped for ,europe and the nearer ,east4 ,the latter name has a more capricious origin1 deriving from the shepherd ,cladon1 a stage personality whose familiar grey green clothing suggested a name for the grey green porcelain4 ,he appeared in one of the plays founded on the early seventeenth-century romance1 ,l',astre1 written by ,honor d',urf4 ,large dishes and plates1 bowls1 vases1 bulb bowls and jars of this green ware have found their way to all parts of ,europe in considerable numbers1 and they evidently formed a staple of far ,eastern trade in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the subject of their distribution will be treated presently4 ,first1 we must complete their description4 ,the ware1 as a general rule1 has a greyish white mass varying from porcelain to stoneware1 and with the peculiar quality of assuming a reddish brown tint wherever the glaze is absent and the biscuit was exposed to the fire of the kiln4 ,it has1 in fact1 the iron foot though not the brown mouth1 for the body is of a whitish colour under the glaze1 and consequently the mouth of the vessel varies from green to greenish white1 according to the thickness of the glaze4 ,the decoration is either carved1 etched with fine point1 or raised in relief by pressing in an intaglio mould or by the application of small ornaments separately formed in moulds4 ,all these processes are applied to the body before the glaze is added1 and the glaze1 though covering them over1 is transparent enough to allow the details to appear fairly distinctly4 ,in the case of the applied reliefs1 however1 the glaze is often locally omitted1 and the ornaments stand out in biscuit1 which has assumed the usual reddish brown tint4 ,this is well illustrated on ,plate #ba1 in which two brown fishes are represented swimming round a sea green dish4 ,a dish in the ,british ,museum shows three fishes swimming beneath the green surface of the glaze4 ,this fish design was frequent enough to have earned special notice in ,chinese books1 which are excessively niggard in their enumeration of designs4 ,the ,ko ku yao lun1#aei for instance1 says there is one kind of dish on the bottom of which is a pair of fishes1 and on the outside are copper rings attached to lift it4 ,elaborate designs of flowers1 flying phnixes in peony scrolls1 dragons in clouds or waves1 formed in relief by pressure in moulds1 were certainly used on ,sung celadons just as they were in the white ,ting wares1 but they seem to have been still more common on the ,ming wares4 ,but the best and most characteristic ,sung decoration was a beautiful freehand carving executed with admirable spirit and taste1 in those bold1 half naturalistic1 half idealised sketches which distinguish the art of the time4 ,complex ornament1 such as landscape and figure subjects1 is occasionally found on old celadons2 and there is one kind of bowl of rounded form with rather high narrow foot which is decorated inside with groups of figures carved or impressed in intaglio1 the subjects being the eight ,taoist ,immortals1 or historical personages such as ,confucius1 the chess-playing ,general1 etc41 usually labelled with their names in ,chinese characters4 ,the glaze on these bowls varies widely in colour and texture1 being sometimes smooth celadon green1 sometimes yellowish or brownish green or again a pale apple green with crackled surface2 and it is possible that they come from some district other than ,lung-chan4#afj ,the ,lung-chan celadon glaze is singularly beautiful with its soft1 smooth translucent texture and restful tints1 which vary from olive green through grass green and sea green to pale greenish grey1 occasionally showing a decidedly bluish tone4 ,the ware has enjoyed immense popularity in almost every part of the world for untold years1 and nowhere more than in ,japan1 where choice specimens have always been highly valued1 and it is not a little surprising to find that in this country alone its merits are underestimated4 ,the ,chinese themselves have been always loud in their praises of the finer varieties1 though they have not always spoken in complimentary terms of the thick and massive types which were so suitable for the export trade4 ,of these the ,ching pi tsang observes that they readily withstand usage and handling1 and do not easily break2 but the workmanship is somewhat clumsy1 and the designs are lacking in antique elegance4 ,with the finer examples within reach1 these strictures were perhaps only natural2 but there has never been any doubt of the ,chinese appreciation of the celadon glaze1 for while they have never ceased to reproduce it in other factories1 it is always the old ,lung-chan ware which serves as their standard and model4 ,the modern celadon glaze is made by mixing ferruginous clay with the ordinary feldspathic glaze and adding a pinch of cobalt 7the mineral from which the blue colour is obtained7 to give it the requisite tone#afa2 and it is certain that the colour of the old celadons is due to the presence of oxide of iron1 whether assisted or not by oxide of cobalt4 ,possibly the earliest celadons were the accidental result of the iron in a strongly ferruginous clay escaping in the heat of the kiln and imparting a green tinge to an otherwise colourless glaze4 ,the conditions in the ,lung-chan district would have specially favoured such an accident1 for the local clays were of the ferruginous kind1 as is shown by their peculiarity1 which we have already noted1 of turning red or reddish brown when exposed without protection to the heat of the kiln4 ,the presence of iron in greater or less quantity is a common feature of potter's clays all the world over1 and it is usual in modern potteries to pass the clay over strong magnets in order to remove this disturbing element when a pure white ware is in view4 ,this fact alone will explain the prevalence of green tints of the celadon type among the earlier ,chinese wares1 and observation of these results would naturally lead to the discovery that a certain quantity of particular clay mixed with the ordinary glaze would produce a beautiful green colour1 resembling jade4 ,the reddish brown spots occasionally observed in old celadon glazes are no doubt due to flaws in the glaze-covering1 which allowed a partial exposure of the body1 or to a local excess of iron oxide in the material4 ,like a great many other accidental effects1 these were turned to account by the ,chinese1 and in some examples we find patches of brown which evince a deliberate intention 7,plate #ba74 ,these effects are highly prized by the ,japanese1 who call the ware ,tobi seiji or spotted celadon4 ,the manufacture of celadon must have been very extensive in the ,lung-chan district4 ,besides the principal factories at ,liu-tien ,shih1 there were minor works at ,chin-tsun already mentioned1 and according to the ,tao lu#afb at ,li-shui ,hsien#afc in the ,chu-chou ,fu1 the latter already operative in the ,sung dynasty4 ,its wares were included in the comprehensive term ,chu yao1 and the material was coarse and thick1 the colour similar to that of ,lung-chan ware1 both dark and light1 but the workmanship was coarser4 ,at the beginning of the ,ming dynasty1 we are told#afd that the ,lung-chan factories were removed to ,chu-chou1 and that the ware made on the new site was green 7ching71 with a white body which1 like the older ware1 assumed a red colour in the exposed parts1 but that the ware was not so good as the old4 ,local tradition asserts that the celadon industry in the district came to an end with the ,ming dynasty4#afe ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,plate #ba4--,three examples of ,lung-chan ,celadon ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--,plate of spotted celadon4 787 ,sung dynasty4 ,diameter #f inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,octagonal ,vase with crackled glaze and biscuit panels moulded with figures of the ,eight ,immortals in clouds4 787 ,fourteenth century4 ,height #i inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,dish with engraved lotus scrolls and two fishes in biscuit4 ,sung dynasty4 ,diameter #aa inches4 ,gotha ,museum4 ,connoisseurs are much exercised over the differences between ,sung and ,ming celadons4 ,the ,tao lu tells us nothing beyond the bare statement that the ,ming ware was not so good1 and the two general rules which have been laid down#aff for our guidance--viz4 7#a7 that the colour of the ,sung wares is deeper and more grass green1 that of the ,ming more grey green1 and 7#b7 that the bottoms of the ,ming vessels are distinguished by an unglazed ring of reddish brown colour--can only be accepted with reserve4 ,of the two the colour test is probably the more reliable1 but ,i have found too many exceptions in which the grey green occurs on pieces of obviously ,sung origin to feel any great confidence in its guidance4 ,the ring test breaks down in practice1 and is illogical in its conception1 implying1 as it does1 that the use of a circular support in the kiln was limited to one particular place and period4 ,on the contrary1 we know that this method of support was usual in the ,siamese factories at ,sawankalok1#afg and apparently before the ,ming period1 and as the ,siamese potteries were started by ,chinese1 probably sent from ,western ,china1 it is only fair to suppose that this method of manufacture was in general use at an early date4 ,the safest criterion of ,sung workmanship is the style of the ware1 and especially the boldness and freedom of the carved designs4 ,in the ,ming period the ,sung patterns already exhibit an inevitable staleness and conventionality with a tendency to overcrowding of detail4 ,in some cases1 too1 the designs are of a later order1 and closely analogous to those of the blue and white ,ming porcelains4 ,in addition to the ,lung-chan and ,chu-chou celadons1 which are readily recognised by their peculiar glaze and their reddish brown foot rims1 there are many other kinds which are not easy to classify4 ,some of these have a dry1 buff stoneware body and brownish green glaze1 while others have a glaze of decided grey or blue grey tone4 ,in conjecturing the origin of these we must take into consideration the private factories which existed under the ,northern ,sung at ,chn-liu#afh and other localities in the neighbourhood of the eastern capital 7tung ching71 now named ,kai-fng ,fu1 in ,honan4 ,the ,ko ku yao lun#afi describes the ware of these parts under the heading ,tung yao#agj3 ,it is pale green 7ching7 in colour1 with fine crackle1 and in many cases has a brown mouth and iron foot4 ,compared with ,kuan ware it lacks the red tinge1 and its material is coarse1 wanting in fineness and lustre1 and far from equalling that of the ,kuan ware4 ,at the present day 7i4e4 #ahhg7 it is rarely seen4 ,other writers repeat this passage with little alteration1 though the author of the ,tao lu adds that the clay was of black colour and the glaze of varying depth4 ,hsiang's ,album includes one specimen of the tung ching tz1 describing the colour as tieh tsui1 which probably means the blue green shade of distant hills4#aga ,tung ching glaze is included in the list of those imitated in the ,imperial factories about #aghj1 two kinds1 pale and deep1 being specified2 and the ,tao lu#agb informs us that the ,tung ching was copied to a considerable extent at ,ching-t ,chn in the early nineteenth century1 and that the modern glaze was exactly like the old4 ,that this modern glaze was only a variety of celadon is shown by the recipe given in the same work1#agc viz4 to add to the ordinary glaze some of the mixture containing ferruginous earth1 which differs from that given for the modern ,lung-chan glaze only in the absence of the pinch of cobalt 7see vol ii41 p4 #ahi74 ,a verse from a poem by ,chang-lei 7#ajdf-aajf7 indicates the green colour of the ware3 ,green jade 7pi y7 when carved makes a vessel2 know it to be the porcelain 7tz7 of the ,tung kilns ,chinese4#agd ,in the classification of old celadons due account must be taken of the imitations made from the earliest times at ,ching-t ,chn4 ,many of these would be distinguishable by their white porcelain body1 the ordinary porcelain clay of the district not having the peculiar qualities of the ,lung-chan and ,chu-chou ,fu material4 ,in fact1 we know that it has been a common practice in recent times among the ,ching-t ,chn potters to dress the exposed parts of their ware with brown ferruginous earth when they wished to reproduce the brown mouth or iron foot of the archaic wares4 ,another method which was found effective by imitators of the antique was to use a coarse yellowish clay for the body of the ware4 ,this1 however1 should be generally recognisable4 ,but the skill of the ,chinese copyist is proverbial1 and a good instance of his cunning is given in the now celebrated letters of ,pre d',entrecolles1 a ,jesuit missionary stationed at ,ching-t ,chn in the ,kang ,hsi period4 ,the passage#age is interesting enough to be quoted in full3 ,the mandarin of ,kim t ,chim1 who honours me with his friendship1 makes for his patrons at the ,court presents of old porcelain which he has himself a genius for fabricating4 ,i mean that he has discovered the art of imitating antique porcelain1 or at least that of comparative antiquity2 and he employs a number of workmen for this purpose4 ,the material of these false ,kou tom1 viz4 counterfeit antiques1 is a yellowish clay1 obtained in a place quite near ,kim t ,chim1 called ,ma ngan chan4 ,they are constructed very thick4 ,the mandarin has given me a plate of this make1 which weighs as much as ten ordinary plates4 ,there is nothing peculiar in the manufacture of these kinds of porcelain beyond that they are covered with a glaze made of yellow stone1 mingled with the ordinary glaze1 the latter predominating in the mixture1 which gives the porcelain a sea green colour4 ,when it is fired it is placed in a very rich broth made of chicken and other meats2 in this it is baked a second time1 and after that it is put in the foulest drain that can be found and left for a month or more4 ,on issuing from this drain it passes for three or four hundred years old1 or at any rate for a representative of the preceding ,ming dynasty1 when porcelain of this colour and thickness was appreciated at ,court4 ,these counterfeit antiques resemble the genuine pieces also in their want of timbre when struck1 and if one holds them to the ear they produce no reverberation4 ,the worthy father's acquaintance with the antiques was probably limited1 or he would not have instanced the last quality as evidence of good imitation4 ,on the contrary1 the lack of timbre would be regarded by ,chinese connoisseurs as indication of a spurious ware1 the note of the old porcelains being one of the criteria of their excellence4 ,but the passage is otherwise most instructive4 ,it should be remembered1 too1 that at the time of which d',entrecolles speaks1 an extensive use was being made at ,ching-t ,chn of a beautiful celadon glaze on a fine white porcelain body4 ,these celadons of the period will be discussed in their proper place1 as they make no pretence of antiquity and are easily distinguished by their pure white body and pale soft green glaze4 ,indeed1 they often have the ordinary white glaze under the base and a period mark in blue4 ,another factory which made free use of the celadon glaze was that of ,yang ,chiang1 province of ,kuangtung4 ,as a rule1 the ware is recognisable by its reddish brown stoneware body1 but in cases where the biscuit is lighter in colour and more porcellanous in texture1 confusion may easily arise4 ,nor must we forget the extensive manufacture of celadons outside ,china itself4 ,the ,corean wares have already been mentioned4 ,as a rule1 their soft velvety glaze is recognised by its peculiar bluish grey tone1 difficult to describe but easy to remember when once seen4 ,the colour1 however1 varies to distinctly greener and browner shades1 which are liable to be confused with ,chinese celadons of the ,lung-chan and northern types4 ,fortunately1 most1 though not all1 of the ,corean decorations are very characteristic1 particularly the delicate inlaid designs#agf in white and black clays2 and the finish of the ware underneath is usually distinctive1 a very low foot rim1 the base slightly convex1 and the disfiguring presence of the sand1 which in three little piles supported the ware in the kiln4 ,there are1 however1 quite a number of ambiguous celadons with a brownish green glaze1 usually bowls1 of which some are decorated inside with beautiful carved and moulded designs of bold foliage 7,plate #ah1 ,fig4 #a7 and even with the design of boys among flowering branches and the slight combed patterns which are found on the ,corean white wares4 ,were it not for the apparently ,chinese provenance of so many of these bowls1 and the absence of the ,corean characteristics in their bases1 one would be tempted to class them as ,corean on the strength of their general appearance4 ,probably we have in this group both the ,chinese prototypes and the close imitations made by the ,corean potters who followed these models just as they followed the white ware of ,ting ,chou4 ,one of the combed bowls formerly treasured as a tea bowl in ,japan is now in the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum1 ,berlin1 but unfortunately the ,japanese name shuko-yaki1 by which ,dr4 ,kmmel informs me it was known in ,japan1 sheds no light on the question of its origin4 ,the ,sawankalok wares of ,siam1 too1 have already had a passing mention4 ,these are easily distinguished by their coarse grey body1 reddish at the base1 and thin1 watery green glaze1 very transparent and showing a bluish efflorescence where it has run thick4 ,once seen1 they are hardly likely to be confused with any ,chinese celadon1 except a few of the coarser ,ming and later types1 in which the glaze happens to be very pale and thin4 ,the ,siamese wares1 moreover1 usually have a small raw irregular ring under the base1 made by the end of a tubular kiln support1 and differing from the broad regular ring on the ,lung-chan dishes described above4 ,but the most puzzling of the external celadons are those made at various times and places in ,japan4 ,they are1 as a rule1 close and careful copies of ,chinese types1 with which they are readily confounded by persons not familiar with ,japanese peculiarities4 ,in many cases1 too1 they will puzzle the most expert4 ,it is well-nigh impossible to put into words any distinctive criteria of these wares4 ,the biscuit is usually white and porcellanous1 and though it sometimes assumes a natural tinge of red at the base1 the colour is not so deep and decided as on the ,lung-chan wares4 ,the chief distinction is an inevitable ,japanese flavour in the form and decoration of the ware1 but this1 again1 is an intangible feature which can only be realised by the practised eye4 ,finally1 it should be said that remarkably close copies of the celadon green glaze 7and of the typical ornament as well7 were made in ,egypt and ,persia in the late ,middle ,ages4 ,at a short distance they might often be taken for ,chinese1 but on inspection the body will be found to have that soft1 sandy texture which is an unmistakable characteristic of the near-,eastern pottery4 ,it is impossible to leave the subject of celadon without a few words on the distribution of the ware in the ,middle ,ages1 though ,i have no intention of embarking on the lengthy discussion which the interesting nature of the subject invites1 nor of reopening the much-debated ,celadonfrage which elicited many interesting contributions#agg from ,professors ,karabacek1 ,a4,b4 ,meyer1 and ,hirth1 and ,dr4 ,bushell4 ,probably no single article of commerce can tell so much of the medival trade between ,china and the ,west as the old celadon porcelains whose fragments are constantly unearthed on the sites of the old-world trading stations4 ,the caravan routes through ,turkestan and the seaborne trade through the ,eastern ,archipelago and the ,indian ,ocean to the ,persian ,gulf1 ,red ,sea1 and east coast of ,africa can be followed by porcelains deposited at the various trading centres and ports of call4 ,much1 too1 has been learnt from the writings of ,chinese1 ,arab1 and ,european travellers and geographers4 ,professor ,hirth1 as early as #ahhh1 worked out the principal routes of ,chinese seaborne trade from the ,records of ,chinese ,foreign ,trade and ,shipping1#agh compiled by ,chao ,ju-kua about #abbj ,a4,d41 starting from the ,tingui#agi of ,marco ,polo1 which he identifies with ,lung-chan itself1 and finishing in ,egypt and ,zanzibar4 ,the porcelain was carried by land and river to the great port of ,chan-chou ,fu1 and thence in junks to ,bruni in ,borneo1 ,cochin ,china1 and ,cambodia1 ,java1 ,lambri1 and ,palembang1 in ,sumatra1 where the traders of the ,east and ,west met and exchanged goods4 ,thence the trade proceeded to ,quilom in ,malabar1 ,guzerate1 ,cambray1 and ,malwa1 and as far as ,zanzibar4 ,numerous other localities might be mentioned1 and much has been written#ahj of the veneration in which old ,chinese wares have always been held in the ,philippines and ,borneo1 and of the magic powers attributed to the old dragon jars by the natives of these countries4 ,the green celadon was highly valued in ,india and ,persia1 where it was reputed to have the power of disclosing the presence of poison4 ,an early reference to the ,chinese porcelain occurs in the writings of the ,persian geographer ,yacut1#aha who mentions four boxes full of ,chinese porcelain and rock crystal among the effects of a native of ,dour-er-,raibi in ,khouzistan1 who died in #iac a4d4 ,the trade with ,egypt is indicated in the much-quoted incident of the gift of forty pieces of ,chinese porcelain sent from ,egypt by ,saladin to ,nur-ed-din in ,damascus in #aaga1 and by the later gift of porcelain vases sent in #adhg by the ,sultan of ,egypt to ,lorenzo de' ,medici4 ,a large proportion of the celadons in our collections has been brought and still comes from ,india1 ,persia1 and ,egypt4#ahb ,the ,sultan's treasure at ,constantinople#ahc teems with celadons collected in medival times4 ,fragments of celadon are unearthed on almost every important medival site which is excavated in the ,east4 ,the ,british ,museum has small collections of such fragments from ,bijapur in ,india1 the island of ,kais in the ,persian ,gulf1 ,rhages in ,persia1 ,ephesus1 ,rhodes1 ,cairo1 and ,mombasa1 to mention a few sites only4 ,fragments of celadon were found1 in company with ,chinese coins ranging in date from #iij-aaaa ,a4,d41 by ,sir ,john ,kirk and ,lieut4 ,c4 ,smith1 near ,kilwa in ,zanzibar1 and the former1 while ,british representative in ,zanzibar1 was able to form a considerable collection of complete specimens which were treasured by the natives with almost religious care4 ,a story told by ,sir ,john ,kirk illustrates the attitude of the native mind towards these treasured wares4 ,a celadon dish with particularly fine carving was the subject of a family dispute1 and to satisfy the rival claims a local ,solomon decided that it should be divided between the disputants4 ,one large fragment of it is now in ,sir ,john ,kirk's collection1 which includes many interesting dishes1 crackled and plain1 and ranging in colour from dark olive green to the pale watery tint of the ,sawankalok#ahd wares4 ,other specimens of interest are the large1 wide-mouthed1 bowl-shaped vases with sides deeply ribbed or carved in high relief with bold floral designs4 ,they have the peculiar feature of being constructed at first without a bottom1 which was separately made in the form of a saucer and dropped in1 the glaze holding it firmly in position4 ,similar vases#ahe have been found in ,india and elsewhere4 ,one of the first pieces of celadon to arrive in this country was the celebrated ,warham bowl1 which was bequeathed to ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 in #aecj by ,archbishop ,warham4 ,it is of dull grey green celadon1 the outside faintly engraved with four lotus petals1 each containing a trefoil1 and in the bottom inside is the character ching ,chinese 7pure7 surrounded by rays4 ,it has a fine silver-gilt mount of ,english make4#ahf ,it would be possible to multiply references to the traffic in celadon wares which was carried on briskly between ,china and the ,west in the ,middle ,ages1 but enough has been said to give some idea of the extent and nature of the trade1 which was mainly in the coarsest types of ware4 ,apart from the unlikelihood that very fine or precious porcelains would be embarked on such long and hazardous journeys1 there was actually a law in force in ,china as early as the eighth century#ahg which forbade1 under penalty of imprisonment1 the exportation of precious and rare articles1 anticipating by a thousand years the restrictive legislation of the ,italian ,government4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bb4--,vase of ,lung-chan ,porcelain4 ,with grey green celadon glaze of faint bluish tone1 peony scroll in low relief4 ,probably ,sung dynasty4 ,height #ai inches4 ,peters ,collection4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aed3 ,see ,tao lu1 bk4 vi41 fol4 #d4 ,a factory of inferior reputation is supposed to have existed at the neighbouring village of ,chin-tsun 7see ,hirth1 ,ancient ,chinese ,porcelain1 p4 #ch74 ,and the ,tao lu 7bk4 vii41 fol4 #f7 describes a factory at ,li-shui ,hsien in the ,chu-chou district1 whose productions were also known as ,chu ware4 ,footnote #aee3 ,in the ,tu shu1 bk4 ccxlviii41 section ,tz chi pu hui kao1 fol4 #ac1 we are told that the brothers ,chang worked beneath the ,han liu hill at ,lung-chan in the ,sung and ,yan dynasties4 ,footnote #aef3 ,tao shuo1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #ab recto4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,tsui has already been explained as meaning kingfisher3 a bird with bluish green plumage4 ,that it also connotes the idea of a green colour is shown by the expression tsui y1 which is rendered in ,giles's ,dictionary1 emerald green jade4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,author of the ,chun fng tang sui pi1 quoted in the ,tao shuo1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #ab4 ,footnote #aei3 ,bk4 vii41 fol4 #bd verso4 ,footnote #afj3 ,two examples in the ,gotha ,museum were figured in the ,burlington ,magazine1 ,june1 #aiji1 ,plate iv4 ,footnote #afa3 ,see ,tao lu1 bk4 iii41 fol4 #ab verso4 ,footnote #afb3 ,bk4 vii41 fol4 #g recto4 ,footnote #afc3 ,chinese ,footnote #afd3 ,tao lu1 bk4 vi41 fol4 #f4 ,footnote #afe3 ,see ,hirth1 ,ancient ,chinese ,porcelain1 p4 #ca4 ,footnote #aff3 ,see ,bushell1 ,oriental ,ceramic ,art1 p4 #aej4 ,footnote #afg3 ,a large number of fragments and wasters1 besides a few complete specimens1 found on the site of these potteries1 about #bjj miles north of ,bangkok1 are now in the ,british ,museum4 ,the prevailing type of ware has grey porcellanous body and a thin transparent glaze of watery green celadon colour1 often distinctly tinged with blue4 ,footnote #afh3 ,chinese ,see ,tao lu1 vol4 vi41 fol4 #c4 ,footnote #afi3 ,bk4 vii41 fol4 #bb4 ,footnote #agj3 ,chinese ,a phrase which the author of the ,tao lu considers to be a mistake for the homophone ,chinese 7tung yao or ,eastern ware74 ,he also quotes another misnomer for the ware1 viz4 ,chinese tung ching chi 7winter green ware74 ,this ,tung ware is constantly alluded to in other works as tung ching ,chinese4 ,footnote #aga3 ,chinese lit4 duplicated kingfisher green4 ,bushell1 in his translation1 renders it literally kingfisher feathers in layers1 a metaphor from the well-known jewellery with inlay of kingfisher feathers1 which would suggest a turquoise tint4 ,on the other hand1 we find in ,giles's ,dictionary the phrase ,chinese ,yan shan tieh tsui1 the distant hills rise in many green ranges 7the two forms of tieh being alternatives71 a phrase recalling the green of a thousand hills1 which is used in reference to early green wares4 ,see p4 #af4 ,footnote #agb3 ,bk4 ii41 fol4 #i4 ,footnote #agc3 ,bk4 iii41 fol4 #ab4 ,footnote #agd3 ,quoted from the ,yn tsao 7a selection of verses7 in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #c4 ,footnote #age3 ,see ,recueil des lettres difiantes et curieuses4 ,the above passage occurs in a long letter dated from ,jao ,chou1 ,september #ast1 #agab4 ,see ,bushell1 ,chinese ,pottery and ,porcelain1 ,appendix1 p4 #bjf4 ,footnote #agf3 ,the only example which ,i have seen of an inlaid celadon which might be taken for ,chinese is a dish in the ,stbel ,collection in the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum1 ,dresden4 ,it has a faint design1 apparently inlaid1 in a brownish colour4 ,footnote #agg3 ,in the ,oesterreichische ,monatschrift1 ,january1 #ahhe1 and succeeding numbers1 ,a4,b4 ,meyer's ,alterthmer aus dem ,ostindischen ,archipel1 etc4 etc4 ,footnote #agh3 ,the ,chu fan chih1 the author of which was ,imperial inspector of foreign shipping1 etc41 in the province of ,fukien4 ,see ,hirth1 ,ancient ,chinese ,porcelain3 ,a ,study in ,chinese ,medival ,industry and ,trade1 ,leipsig1 #ahhh2 and the translation of the ,chu fan chih1 published by ,hirth and ,rockhill1 #aiab4 ,footnote #agi3 ,where ,marco ,polo 7see ,yule1 bk4 ii41 p4 #bah7 states that they make vessels of porcelain of all sizes1 the finest that can be imagined 444 and thence it is exported all over the world4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,see ,a4,b4 ,meyer1 op4 cit42 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,borneo2 ,carl ,bock1 ,head ,hunters of ,borneo2 ,fay-,cooper ,cole1 ,chinese ,pottery in the ,philippines1 ,chicago #aiab4 ,footnote #aha3 ,a thirteenth-century writer1 one of whose works is translated by ,barbier and ,maynard1 ,dictionnaire ,gographique de la ,perse4 ,see p4 #bdj of this book4 ,fragments of celadon porcelain were found on the ninth-century site of ,samarra on the ,euphrates4 7,see p4 #adh47 ,footnote #ahb3 ,much of the celadon found in ,egypt would seem to be as late as the early part of the sixteenth century1 to judge from the general name given to it by ,egyptian merchants1 baba ghouri1 after the sultan who reigned at that time4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,see ,e4 ,zimmermann in the ,cicerone1 ,,iii4 ,jahrgang1 s4 #dif ff4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,june1 #aiji1 p4 #afd4 ,other pieces1 apparently of ,siamese make1 have been found in ,egypt1 and it is most probable that ,siamese celadons were shipped by the traders at ,martaban in ,pegu and sold by them along with the ,chinese goods4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,see ,catalogue of the ,early ,chinese ,pottery and ,porcelain1 ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club1 #aiaj1 ,b4 #bg4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,see ,cat4 ,b4,f4,a41 #aiaj1 ,e #bj1 and ,plate4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,see ,chau ,ju-kua 7translated by ,hirth and ,rockhill71 p4 #i4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,ting ,,yao ,chinese ,,ting ware is by general consent ranked among the finer ,sung porcelains1 and it is happily1 like the ,lung-chan celadons1 fairly well known to ,western collectors4 ,its name derives from its place of origin1 ,ting ,chou1 the modern ,chn-ting ,fu1 in the province of ,chihli1 where the manufacture of a white ware1 if not actually a white porcelain1 appears to have existed from remote times4 ,indeed1 the white ware 7pai tz7 of ,ting ,chou is mentioned in the middle of the seventh century1#ahh though nothing further is heard of it until it came to enjoy the patronage of the ,sung emperors4 ,as already hinted in connection with the ,ju ,chou porcelain1 the ,ting ware suffered a temporary eclipse at ,court owing to some defects in the glaze2 but it was not long in recovering its reputation1 for the ,ko ku yao lun states that it was at its best in the ,chng ,ho and ,hsan ,ho periods1 which extended from #aaaa to #aabe ,a4,d41 and we learn that the ,ting ,chou potters accompanied the ,court in its flight across the ,yangtse in #aabg4 ,the manufacture seems to have been re-established after this event in the neighbourhood of ,ching-t ,chn1 and the nan ting or ,southern ,ting ware is said to have so closely resembled the original that to distinguish the two in after years was regarded as a supreme test of connoisseurship4#ahi ,ting ware has a white body of fine grain and compact texture1 varying from a slightly translucent porcelain to opaque porcellanous stoneware4 ,though not so completely vitrified as the more modern porcelains1 and lacking their flint-like fracture1 it was nevertheless capable of transmitting light in the thinner and finer specimens1 and consequently it can be regarded as one of the earliest ,chinese wares which fulfils the ,european definition of porcelain4 ,the glaze is of ivory tint1 sometimes forming on the outsides of bowls or dishes in brownish gummy tears1 which were regarded by ,chinese collectors as a sign of genuineness4#aij ,the finer and whiter varieties are known as pai ting 7white ,ting7 and fn ting 7flour ,ting71 as distinct from the coarser kind1 whose opaque1 earthy body and glaze of yellowish tone1 usually crackled and stained1 earned it the name of t'u ting or earthen ,ting4 ,in the best period the pure white undecorated ,ting ware1 with rich unctuous glaze1 compared to congealed fat or mutton fat1 was most esteemed1 though ornament was freely used1 especially on the ,southern ,ting4 ,designs carved in low relief or etched with a point were considered best1 the moulded and stamped ornament being rightly regarded as inferior4 ,there is a remarkable1 though sadly damaged1 example of ,northern ,ting ware in the ,british ,museum4 ,it was found in a ,manchurian tomb of the twelfth century1 and bears out the current descriptions of the ware with its fine white body1 rich ivory glaze1 and tear drops on the reverse4 ,the ornament1 a lotus design in bold freehand carving1 displays all the freshness and power of ,sung craftsmanship4 ,this dish has1 moreover1 a characteristic common to the ,sung ,ting bowls and dishes1 viz4 the mouth rim is bare of glaze4 ,many of the early wares were fired upside down1 whence the bare mouth rim1 which was usually hidden by a metal band4#aia ,favourite carved designs with the ,ting potters seem to have been the mu-tan peony1 the lily1 and flying phnixes4 ,they are1 at any rate1 usually singled out for mention by ,chinese writers4#aib ,garlic and rushes are also incidentally mentioned as motives1 and a few examples of a beautiful design of ducks on water are known in ,western collections4 ,the moulded ornament is generally more elaborate1 dense peony scrolls with phnixes flying through them1 radiating panels of flowers1 dragons in clouds1 fishes among water plants and wave patterns1 etc4 ,to judge from ,hsiang's ,album1 carved designs borrowed from ancient bronzes must have been highly prized4 ,of the three kinds of ornament usually associated by ,chinese writers with the ,ting ware2 the hua hua 7carved decoration7 and the yin hua 7stamped or moulded decoration7 have already been mentioned4 ,the meaning of the third1 hsiu hua1#aic is not so clear1 as the phrase can bear two interpretations1 viz4 painted ornament or embroidered ornament4 ,in the latter sense it would suggest a rich decoration like that of brocade without indicating the method by which it was applied4 ,but in the former it was the usual ,chinese expression for painted ornament1 and it is difficult to imagine that it was intended to indicate anything else in the present context4 ,on the other hand1 no examples of painted ,ting ware are known to exist either in actual fact or in ,chinese descriptions4 ,this anomaly1 however1 may perhaps be explained in one of two ways4 ,a creamy white ware of tu ting type1 boldly painted with brown or black designs1 is known to have been made at the not far distant factories of ,tz ,chou#aid in the ,sung dynasty1 and it is possible that either the painted ,ting ware has been grouped with the ,tz ,chou ware in modern collections1 or that ,chinese writers mistook the ,tz ,chou ware for painted ,ting ware and added this third category to the ,ting wares by mistake4 ,in any case they regarded the painted ware as an inferior article4 ,the high estimation in which fine specimens of white ,ting ware have always been held by ,chinese connoisseurs is well illustrated by a passage in the ,yn shih chai pi tan4#aie ,it tells how ,mr4 ,sun of the ,wu-i river estate treasured in his mountain retreat ,ting yao incense-burners1 and among them one exquisite specimen of the ,sung period4 ,it was a round vessel with ear handles and three feet1 and the inscription li hsi yai 7,chinese7 was engraved in seal characters on the stand4 ,during the ,japanese raids in the ,chia ,ching period this vessel passed into the hands of one ,chin ,shang-pao1 who sold it to ,tang1 the ,president of ,sacrifices 7tai chang71 of ,pi-ling4 ,tang1 whose residence bore the romantic but chilly name of ,ning-an 7,frozen ,hut71 is the celebrated collector mentioned in connection with another ,ting vessel on p4 #ie4 ,although ,tang had many wonderful porcelains1 the story runs1 when this vessel arrived1 they all1 without exception1 made way for it4 ,and so throughout the land when men discuss porcelains1 they give the first place to ,tang's white incense vase4 ,tang1 they say1 did not readily allow it to be seen4 ,and in this respect1 if all accounts are true1 ,tang was not unlike a good many ,chinese collectors of the present day4 ,on the other hand1 the ,ting ware was often marred by certain blemishes which are not always easy to understand4 ,the awns 7mang71 for instance1 which degraded it at ,court in favour of the ,ju ,chou ware in the early ,sung period were probably flaws in the glaze4 ,the bamboo thread brush marks mentioned in the ,liu ching jih cha#aif may perhaps be lines left in the glaze which was applied by means of a bamboo brush4 ,three other defects which rendered the ware comparatively worthless are named in the ,ko ku yao lun1#aig viz4 mao 7thatch71 mieh 7bamboo splints71 and ku chu 7bare bones74 ,the author fortunately explains that 7#a7 to thatch 7mao7 means to cover over defects1 7#b7 bamboo splints 7mieh7 is used of lines and recalls the brush marks mentioned above1 and 7#c7 bare bones 7ku chu7 are patches where the glaze is defective and the body shows through4 ,ku1 in the sense of body or biscuit1 we are further informed1 is a curio-market expression4 ,modern collectors will probably not be so fastidious as the ,chinese of the fourteenth century1 and will welcome a ,sung specimen of ,ting porcelain1 even though it suffer from mang and ku chu4 ,the pai ting and the tu ting1 the fine and coarse white varieties1 alone have been identified in ,western collections2 but there are coloured ,ting porcelains which are known to us by literary references4 ,an apocryphal red ,ting ware#aih 7hung ting7 is mentioned in two passages of ambiguous meaning which need not necessarily have implied a true red glaze4 ,in any case it finds no place in the older works1 such as the ,ko ku yao lun and ,ching pi tsang1 which only speak of purple or brown 7tz7 ,ting1 and black ,ting4 ,there is purple#aii ,ting1 says the ,ko ku yao lun1 the colour of which is purple2 there is ink ,ting1 the colour of which is black1 like lacquer4 ,the body in every case is white1 and the value of these is higher than that of white ,ting4 ,hsiang1 who figured five specimens in his ,album1 compared them to the colour of ripe grapes and the skin of the aubergine fruit or brinjal1 one specimen being tz tsui 7purple blue72 and he further states that out of a hundred and more specimens of ,ting ware he had only seen ten of purple and one of black colour4 ,the solitary specimen of black ,ting1 which appears in a very unconvincing illustration in ,hsiang's ,album1#bjj is divided into two zones1 one black1 the other white1 and ,hsiang regards it as inestimably rare and precious4 ,in this appreciation he follows the ,ko ku yao lun1 but other writers1 such as the author of the ,ching pi tsang1 take an entirely different view1 holding neither the purple nor the black ,ting ware of much account4 ,with us at present the question is of academic interest only1 as no examples of either kind worthy of notice have been identified in ,western collections4 ,the nearest approach to the description of the purple variety which ,i have seen is a small box from a tomb in ,shansi1 made of white porcellanous ware with a purplish black glaze on the cover4 ,it is1 however1 a crude object1 and of no particular merit4 ,as for the black ,ting1 the nearest analogue to that which ,i can quote is the vases with black or brown black glaze belonging to the ,tz ,chou class4 ,some of these 7see ,plate #cj7 have zones of black and white recalling ,hsiang's description4 ,it is1 perhaps1 worth noting in this connection that the black glaze on these wares was liable to shade off into lustrous brown1 indicating the presence of iron oxide1 and to resemble in this respect the so-called hare's fur or partridge glazes of the celebrated ,chien yao tea bowls4#bja ,this fact may account for a passage in an early writer1#bjb who says the ancients favoured as tea bowls ,ting ware with hare's fur marking1 and these were used in the powdered-tea competitions1 but the work deals with tea rather than ceramics1 and it is probable that a confusion had arisen in the author's mind between the ,chien yao tea bowls and ,ting ware4 ,on the other hand1 it would appear that bowls with glaze which has some analogies with the hare's fur were made at an early date in ,northern ,china4 7,see ,fig4 #a of ,plate #dc and p4 #acb47 ,though little is heard of the coloured ,ting wares after the ,sung period1#bjc the manufacture of white ,ting and the commoner tu ting continued at ,ching-t ,chn and elsewhere4 ,in fact1 it cannot be said to have suffered intermission up to the present day4 ,a few of these imitative wares of later date were of such excellence as to merit historical notice4 ,in the ,yan dynasty1 for instance1 ,png ,chn-pao1 a goldsmith of ,ho ,chou1 in ,shansi1#bjd was celebrated for his imitations of old ,ting wares1 and the ,ko ku yao lun1 an almost contemporary work1 describes his productions as exactly like ,ting ware when of fine body1#bje but as being short and brittle1 and consequently not really worth much4 ,but dealers in curiosities give them the name of hsin ting or ,new ,ting1 and amateurs collect it at great cost1 which is most ridiculous4 ,again1 the ,po wu yao lan describes another wonderful imitation of ,ting ware made in the sixteenth century#bjf by ,chou ,tan-chan1 a native of ,wu-mn1 who settled at ,ching-t ,chn1 and was reputed the best potter of his time4 ,though1 generally speaking1 his material was not as fine as the original1 still his copies of ,wn wang censers#bjg and sacrificial vessels with monster heads and halberd ears so closely resembled the originals that it was only necessary to rub away the kiln-gloss all over the surface to make the illusion complete4 ,among the literary references to pottery and porcelain collected in books viii4 and ix4 of the ,tao lu is a story narrated in the ,yn shih chai pi tan1 illustrating the cleverness of ,chou ,tan-chan4 ,julien#bjh has translated it as follows3 ,one day he 7,chou7 embarked on a merchant boat from ,kin-tchong and landed on the right bank of the ,kiang4 ,passing ,pi-ling1 he called on ,tang1 the ,president of the ,sacrifices 7,tai chang71 and asked permission to examine at leisure an ancient tripod of ,ting porcelain#bji which was one of the gems of his collection4 ,with his hand he took the exact measurements of the vessel2 then he made an impression of the patterns on the tripod with some paper which he had hidden in his sleeve1 and returned at once to ,ching-t ,chn4 ,six months after he returned and paid a second visit to ,mr4 ,tang4 ,taking from his sleeve a tripod1 he said to him1 ',your ,excellency owns a tripod censer of white ,ting porcelain4 ,here is its fellow1 which belongs to me4' ,tang was astounded4 ,he compared it with the old tripod1 which he kept most carefully preserved1 and could find no difference4 ,he tried its feet against those of his own vessel and exchanged the covers1 and found that it matched with perfect precision4 ,tang thereupon asked whence came this wonderful specimen4 ',some time ago1' answered ,chou1 ',i asked your leave to examine your tripod at leisure4 ,i then took all its measurements with my hand4 ,i assure you that this is a copy of yours1 and that ,i would not deceive you in the matter4' ,the ,tai chang1 realising the truth of this statement1 bought for forty ounces of silver the tripod1 which filled him with admiration1 and placed it in his collection beside the original as though it were its double4 ,in the ,wan ,li period 7#aegc-afai71 ,tu-chiu1 of ,huai-an1 came to ,fou-liang4 ,smitten with a deep longing for ,tang's old censer1 he could think of nothing else1 and even saw it in his dreams4 ,one day he went with ,kien-yu1 the ,tai chang's nephew1 and after much importunity he succeeded in getting from him for a thousand ounces of silver the imitation made by ,chou1 and returned home completely happy4 ,other examples of ,ting imitations in the late ,ming period1 described in the ,po wu yao lan1 include magnolia blossom cups2 covered censers and barrel-shaped censers with chain-armour pattern1 ball and gate embroidery and tortoise pattern mingled together in an ornamental ground4 ,but we gather that though these have been confounded with ,chou's work they were inferior both in material and workmanship to his early masterpieces4 ,at any rate1 it is certain that besides these conspicuous craftsmen whose names have become historical1 there were many nameless potters at ,ching-t ,chn who devoted their skill to the imitation of pai ting porcelain in the ,ming and ,ching dynasties4 ,very beautiful wares of this class are occasionally seen which have a slickness of decoration and a mechanical refinement of finish characteristic of an art which is already crystallised and has lost its freshness and spontaneity4 ,these are1 no doubt1 the work of later copyists4 ,indeed1 we are expressly told in the ,tao lu#baj that at the end of the eighteenth century there were still potters at ,ching-t ,chn who made a specialty of pai ting chi or white ,ting wares4 ,these1 moreover1 were makers of curiosities and ornamental wares 7wan71 and they sometimes painted their wares with underglaze blue4 ,among the provincial wares of the ,ting type the ,ko ku yao lun mentions ,hsiang yao1 which has crab's claw crackle4 ,when rich and lustrous it is highly esteemed1 but when yellow and of coarser material1 it is of little merit or value4 ,another work#baa gives this ware a flattering mention in stating that the ,ting ware resembled ,hsiang yao in colour4 ,the locality of its manufacture is left in doubt1 but it was probably ,hsiang-shan1 in the ,ning-po prefecture of ,chekiang4 ,the ,tao lu names a good number of producers of white ware1 some definitely described as of ,ting type1 among the lesser factories4 ,su ,chou1#bab for instance1 in ,anhui1 in the modern prefecture of ,fng-yang1 had a pottery dating from the ,sung period4 ,its productions resembled ,ting ware in colour1 and had a considerable reputation4 ,in fact1 when the ,ting porcelain became scarce the ,su ,chou ware was largely bought in ,northern ,china as a substitute1 though in reality it was far from equal to the genuine ,ting4 ,ss ,chou1#bac too1 another place in ,anhui1 had a pottery dating from ,sung times1 which made wares of ,ting type1 and persons who liked a bargain often bought them in place of ,ting porcelain4 ,in the same district1 during the ,yan and ,ming periods1 a thin white ware with earthen body was made at ,hsan ,chou1#bad which was evidently of tu ting type4 ,brinkley#bae speaks of a pottery of this kind which is greatly esteemed by the ,japanese under the name of ,nyo-fu ware#baf2 and a little wine cup with a slight engraved floral decoration in the ,british ,museum is possibly an example of this class4 ,it has an earthy looking body1 and creamy white glaze1 and is thin and very light to handle4 ,under the base are engraved the words ,chinese han hsing 7to contain fragrance74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #bc4--;,ivory white ,ting ,ware1 with carved ornament4 ,sung dynasty4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with lotus design4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,dish with ducks and water plants4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #bd4--,sung and ,yan ,porcelain4 ,fig4 #a4--;,ewer1 translucent ,porcelain1 with smooth ivory white glaze4 ,sung or ,yan dynasty4 ,height #f inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase of ivory white ,ting ware with carved lotus design4 ,sung dynasty4 ,height #aa inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #be4--,ting ,ware with moulded designs1 ,sung dynasty4 ,fig #a4 ,plate with boys in peony scrolls1 ivory white glaze4 ,diameter #g inches4 ,peters ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4 ,bowl with flying phnixes in lily scrolls1 crackled creamy glaze2 tu ting ware4 ,diameter #f inches4 ,koechlin ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #bf4--,tu ting ,ware1 ,sung dynasty1 with creamy crackled glaze4 ,fig4 #a4--;,brush washer in form of a boy in a boat4 ,length #g inches4 ,rothenstein ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,figure of an elephant4 ,length #aj inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bg4--,vase of bronze form with row of studs and moulded belt of kuei dragon and key-fret patterns4 ,ostrich egg glaze4 787 ,kiangnan ware1 of ,ting type2 ,sung dynasty4 ,height #ag inches4 ,peters ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bh4--,vase of bronze form with two bands of raised key pattern4 ,thick creamy glaze1 closely crackled and shading off into brown with faint tinges of purple4 787 ,kiangnan ,ting ware4 ,fourteenth century4 ,height #ae inches4 ,koechlin ,collection4 ,in ,kiangsu1 the western portion of ,kiang-nan1 is the white earth village ,pai-tu ,chn1#bag where potteries existed from ,sung times1 making a ware of the local clay1 very thin1 white and lustrous1 beautiful in form and workmanship4 ,thirty kilns were worked1 chiefly by families of the name ,tsou1 under the direction of a headman1 the potters numbering several hundreds4 ,under the heading of ,hsi yao1#bah the ,tao shuo alludes to four factories in the province of ,shansi1 which are interesting to-day in view of the various wares excavated in the railway cuttings now under construction in that province4 ,a fuller description of these potteries is given in the ,tao lu1 which mentions ,ping-yang ,fu in the southern half of ,shansi as a pottery centre in the ,tang and ,sung dynasties1 where the ware was white but disqualified by a glaze lacking in purity4 ,at ,ho ,chou1 in the same district1 a superior ware was made as early as the ,tang dynasty1 which was even considered worthy of mention in the ,ko ku yao lun1 probably because of the connection of ,png ,chn-pao 7see p4 #id7 with this place in the ,yan dynasty4 ,the ,tao lu tells that the ,ho ware was made of fine rich material1 the body unctuous and thin1 and the colour usually white1 and that it was more beautiful than ,ping-yang ware--a qualified compliment6 ,a coarse pottery made at ,yu-tz ,hsien1 in the ,tai-yan prefecture in the north1 and at ,ping-ting ,chou in the west1 complete the quartet4 ,the former dated from ,tang times1 and the latter1 dating from the ,sung1 was made of a dark-coloured clay which gave a dusky tinge to the white glaze4 ,a small melon-shaped vase1 reputed to have come from a tomb in ,shansi1 is shown in ,plate #aa4 ,it has a hard1 buff grey body1 with a dressing of white slip and white glaze1 the effect of the combination being a pleasing surface of solid-looking ivory white4 ,a factory which made white wares in the neighbouring province of ,shansi is named in the twelfth century ,ching po tsa chih4#bai ,it was situated at ,huang-pu ,chn1 in ,yao ,chou1 where1 as we are told in the ,tao shuo1 they had at an early date made flat-bottom bowls which were called little seagulls4 ,the place is near ,hsi-an ,fu4 ,wares of the tu ting1 the earthy ,ting1 type1 with creamy glaze1 were made at ,nan-fng ,hsien1#bbj in the province of ,kiangsi1 during the ,yan dynasty2 and at ,chi ,chou#bba in the same province there were factories in the ,sung dynasty which deserve some attention4 ,the latter were situated at ,yung-ho ,chn1 in the ,chi ,chou district1 in the prefecture of ,chia-an ,fu1 and one of the productions appears to have resembled the purple 7tz7 ,ting ware1 though it was coarser and thicker1 and of no great merit4 ,the ,ko ku yao lun#bbb speaks of five factories in this place producing white and purple 7tz7 wares1 flower vases of large size and considerable value1 and small vases which were ornamented1 and crackled wares of great beauty4 ,the best of these potteries belonged to a man named ,shu ,chinese4 ,we are further informed by the ,ch chai tsa chi#bbc that ,shu1 the old man 7,shu wng71 was skilled in making ornamental objects1 and that his daughter1 ,shu chiao 7the fair ,shu71 excelled him4 ,her incense burners and jars of various kinds commanded a price almost equal to that of ,ko yao4 ,the author proceeds to describe a dish and a bowl in his own collection as of grey ware with invisible blue#bbd glaze1 which was capable of keeping water sweet for a month4 ,it has been assumed that the decoration of the small vases was painted1#bbe but the expression in the text 7yu hua7#bbf gives no clue to the kind of decoration1 and we are left quite in the dark as to its real nature4 ,the industry seems to have ended abruptly at the beginning of the ,yan dynasty1 the story being that when the ,sung minister ,wn was passing by all the ware in the kilns turned to jade1 and the potters1 fearing that the event might reach the ,emperor's ears1 closed down the kilns and fled to ,ching-t ,chn4 ,the meaning of this myth has never been satisfactorily explained1 but it was pointed out that a large number of ,yung-ho names appear in the early lists of ,ching-t ,chn potters1 and the ,ko ku yao lun asserts that excavations on the site of the kilns were made in the ,yung ,lo period 7#adjc-adbd71 and that several kinds of jade cups and bowls were found--cautiously adding1 however1 that this might or might not have been the case4 ,the ruins of the ,yung-ho potteries seem to have been still visible in the fifteenth century4#bbg ,from a passage in the ,tao lu we learn that crackle was a speciality of some of the ,yung-ho potters4 ,under the heading of ,sui chi yao#bbh 7crackle wares71 we are told that these are the wares made in the ,southern ,sung period4 ,originally1 they were a special class of the ware made at ,yung-ho ,chn4444 ,the clay was coarse but strong1 the body thick1 the material heavy4 ,moreover1 there were 'millet coloured' 7mi s7 and pale green 7fn ching7 kinds4#bbi ,the potters used hua shih 7steatite7 in the glaze1 and the crackle was in running lines1 like a broken thing4 ,they smeared and blackened the ware with coarse ink or ochreous earth2 then they finished it4 ,afterwards they rubbed it clean1 and it was found to have hidden lines and stains of red or black1 like cracked ice1 beautiful to look at4 ,there were besides pieces with plain crackled ground1 to which they added blue decoration4 ,this appears to be the first mention of painted blue decoration1 and if it is true that it was made in the ,sung period1 it carries this important method back farther than has been usually supposed4 ,possibly the ware was of the same type as the coarse crackled porcelain1 with roughly painted blue designs1 found in ,borneo and ,malaysia1 where it is credited with great antiquity4 ,there is a very interesting specimen in the ,kunstgewerbe ,museum1 ,berlin1 which bears on this question4 ,it came from ,japan1 where it had been treasured as a ,chinese tea bowl of the ,sung period1 and it has a brownish green crackled glaze painted in dark blue with the characters ,o mi to fo 7,amitabha ,buddha71 which was sometimes written in this way as a charm against evil4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ahh3 ,see ,hirth1 ,ancient ,chinese ,porcelain1 op4 cit41 p4 #d4 ,the passage discovered by ,hirth occurs in the ,tang pn tsao1 the pharmacopia of the ,tang dynasty1 compiled about #fej ,a4,d4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,see ,tao shuo1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #g verso4 ,footnote #aij3 ,see ,ko ku yao lun1 bk4 vii41 fol4 #bc4 ,specimens with tear stains 7lei hn7 outside are genuine4 ,footnote #aia3 ,the ,t'ao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #ac1 quotes from ,t'ang shih ss k'ao the following passage which bears on this point3 ,the ,ting and ,ju ware used by the ,court generally have a copper band on the mouth4 ,this was regarded as destroying their value4 ,but modern collectors of ,ting and ,ju wares have come to regard the copper band on the mouth as a sign of genuineness4 ,dealers in curios declare it to be a sign of age4 ,footnote #aib3 e4g4 ,po wu yao lan1 ,t'ao lu1 etc4 ,footnote #aic3 ,chinese or ,chinese4 ,the word hua 7lit4 flowers7 is used in the general sense of ornament4 ,the attempts of certain translators to confine it to the literal sense flowers has led to ridiculous results4 ,footnote #aid3 ,see p4 #aja4 ,footnote #aie3 ,an early eighteenth-century work1 quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #aa4 ,footnote #aif3 ,see ,tao shuo1 bk41 ii41 fol4 #g4 ,footnote #aig3 ,bk4 vii41 fol4 #bc4 ,footnote #aih3 ,the ,memoir of ,chiang 7see p4 #aei71 written in the ,yan dynasty1 says that the pure white ware of ,ching-t ,chn in the ,sung dynasty1 when compared with the red porcelain 7hung tz7 of ,chn-ting and the ,lung-chan green ware1 emulated these in beauty4 ,chn-ting is the ,chn-ting ,fu1 the prefectural town of ,ting ,chou1 and the ware indicated is no doubt ,ting ware2 but here the comparison clearly seems to be between white wares1 and unless the word hung 7red7 applies to some variety of the ,ting biscuit as distinct from the glaze1 it is difficult to understand4 ,footnote #aii3 ,chinese tz1 purple or dark red brown1 is1 like most ,chinese colour-words1 a somewhat elastic term4 ,the dictionary gives instances in which it is applied to red sandal wood1 brown sugar1 the ruby1 the violet1 and the peony4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,op4 cit41 fig4 #ce4 ,footnote #bja3 ,see p4 #aca4 ,i have seen a single specimen of a bowl with carved design and creamy white glaze inside and all the appearances of a ,ting ware1 but coated on the exterior with a lustrous coffee brown monochrome4 ,but without any other example to guide one's judgment1 ,i should hesitate to say that this piece was older than the ,ming dynasty4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,hs ,tz-shu1 author of the ,cha ,su1 a book on tea1 quoted in the ,tao shuo1 bk4 v41 fol4 #ae verso4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,the potteries in the ,chn-ting ,fu district were active up to the end of the ,ming dynasty1 at any rate 7see p4 #aii72 and no doubt many of the coarse tu ting specimens belong to the ,ming period1 but as their forms are archaic it is almost impossible nowadays to differentiate them4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,julien1 op4 cit41 p4 #ba1 places this town in ,kiang-nan1 but this is clearly an error4 ,footnote #bje3 ,in contrast with these there were specimens with green mouth1 ching kou which were wanting in richness and lustre4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,the date of ,chou ,tan-chan is not given1 but he is mentioned in the ,ni ku lu1 a mid-sixteenth-century work4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,a well-known type of bronze incense burner of the ,shang dynasty4 ,see the ,shin sho sei1 bk4 i41 fol4 #b2 and ,hsiang's ,album1 fig4 #a1 where a ,ting ware copy is illustrated4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,julien1 op4 cit41 pp4 xxxiii4-xxxv42 the reference in the ,tao lu is bk4 viii41 fol4 #e4 ,footnote #bji3 ,perhaps the celebrated white ,ting censer described on p4 #ib4 ,footnote #baj3 ,bk4 ii41 fol4 #i verso4 ,footnote #baa3 ,the ,liu ching jih cha1 written by ,tien ,yi-hng in the ,ming dynasty4 ,footnote #bab3 ,chinese ,tao lu1 vol4 vii41 fol4 #i verso4 ,see also bk4 ix41 fol4 #i1 where the ,ching po tsa chih 7#aaic ,a4,d47 is quoted as follows3 ,the wares used at the present day1 which are made at ,so ,chou and ,ss ,chou1 are not genuine ,ting ware4 ,footnote #bac3 ,chinese ,tao lu1 vol4 vii41 fol4 #i verso4 ,footnote #bad3 ,chinese ,tao lu1 vol4 vii41 fol4 #aj verso4 ,footnote #bae3 ,f4 ,brinkley1 ,japan and ,china1 vol4 ix41 p4 #bei4 ,footnote #baf3 ,nyo-fu is the ,japanese name for ,kiang-nan1 the province of which ,anhui forms a part4 ,footnote #bag3 ,in the district of ,hsiao ,hsien1 department of ,hs ,chou4 ,the ware is described in the ,tao lu 7bk4 vii41 fol4 #g7 under the name ,hsiao ,chinese yao4 ,footnote #bah3 ,chinese4 ,footnote #bai3 ,quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #i4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,chinese ,footnote #bba3 ,chinese ,footnote #bbb3 ,bk4 vi41 fol4 #bc verso4 ,this account does not appear in the original edition1 and was added in the later edition of #adei4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,quoted in the ,tao shuo4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,chinese yu1 which means black1 or invisible blue or green4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,see ,bushell1 ,tao shuo1 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,have ornament4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,see ,ko ku yao lun1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,chinese ,tao lu1 bk4 vi41 fol4 #g recto and verso4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,these must have resembled ,ko yao4 ,hence1 perhaps1 the comparison in value between the fair ,shu's ware and the ,ko yao1 p4 #ih4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,tz ,,chou ,chinese ,,ware ,a ,,large and important class of wares1 closely related to the ,ting group1 was made at ,tz ,chou1 formerly in the ,chang-t ,fu in ,honan1 and now included in the ,kuang-ping ,fu in ,chihli4 ,the name of the place1 previously ,fu-yang1 was changed to ,tz ,chou in the ,sui dynasty 7#ehi-fag ,a4,d471 and as it was derived1 as ,chinese writers are careful to explain1 from the tz stone from which the ware was made1 we may infer that this material1 and no doubt the local potteries1 assumed importance at this early date4 ,there were1 in fact1 a few fragments of pottery of the ,tz ,chou type1 decorated with brown spots1 among the ,chinese wares found on the ninth-century site of ,samarra1 in ,persia1 by ,professor ,sarre 7see p4 #adh72 and a finely painted fragment of a ,tz ,chou vase in the ,anthropological ,museum at ,petrograd was brought from a site in ,turfan1 which was in all probability as early as the tenth century4 ,moreover1 it is constantly asserted by traders in ,china that this or that piece of painted ,tz ,chou ware was found in a ,tang tomb1 and in many cases1 such as that of the brown-painted vase with lotus design mentioned on p4 #cc1 the form of the specimen and the style of the decoration are quite consistent with a ,tang attribution4 ,there is1 however1 no information on the subject earlier than the ,sung dynasty1 when the ,tz ,chou factories enjoyed a high reputation4#bcj ,the ,ko ku yao lun gives the following brief notice of them under the heading ,old ,tz wares3-- ,old ,tz wares 7tz chi7 were made at ,tz ,chou1 in the ,chang-t ,fu in ,honan4 ,good specimens closely resemble ,ting ware1 but have not the tear-stains4 ,there are1 besides1 specimens with engraved and painted#bca ornament4 ,the plain white pieces command a higher price than ,ting ware4 ,the recent 7i4e4 late fourteenth century7 productions of the factory are not worthy of consideration4 ,if1 as this account seems to imply1 the ,tz ,chou factories were in low water at the end of the ,yan dynasty1 like many other potteries at this time1 they managed to retrieve their fortunes1 for they still carry on an unbroken tradition to this day4#bcb ,the ware is in general use among the common folk of ,peking and ,northern ,china1#bcc and is still decorated 7though coarsely7 in the antique style with free and sketchy painted designs in dark brown and maroon slip1 the body being greyish white1 with creamy crackled glaze4 ,this is1 of course1 only one kind out of many1 but the traditions have been so closely preserved that from this type alone it is easy to identify many ,tz ,chou specimens among the early wares which have lately come from excavations in ,china4 ,the quantity of pottery produced at ,tz ,chou in the last nine or ten hundred years must have been enormous1 but as the post-,sung wares do not seem to have appealed to ,chinese connoisseurs1 little has been heard of it until recent times1 and the stray specimens which did find their way to ,europe were either unclassified or grouped with ,corean specimens in deference to a mistaken ,japanese opinion4#bcd ,now1 however1 considerable interest has been taken in the ware by ,western collectors1 and a plentiful supply is forthcoming1 so that it is possible to make a comparative study of the different types1 and to appreciate the varied and clever decorative methods of the ,tz ,chou potters4 ,but the conservative nature of the wares will always make it extremely difficult for us to fix the exact period during the many centuries when any individual piece was made1 and the early dates assigned indiscriminately1 though perhaps excusable on account of the archaic character of the painted decoration1 should be accepted with caution4 ,the plain white ,tz ,chou wares of the ,sung period1 which favourably compared with the ,ting porcelain1 have been identified in a few instances only by peculiarities of shape4 ,indeed1 it is unlikely that we shall have any other means of discriminating them from the latter ware4 ,but by far the largest group of the ,tz ,chou family consists of the painted wares4 ,like the rest of the ,tz ,chou pottery which has so far been identified1 these have a greyish buff body of porcellanous stoneware usually coated with a white clay slip and covered with a transparent glaze almost colourless1 but with a creamy tinge4 ,on this glaze1 and sometimes under it1 the painters executed rapid1 bold1 and rather impressionist designs in shades of brown1 varying from black to a soft sepia colour4 ,the earliest specimens seem to have been of this kind1 and it is certain that this method of decoration was practised in the ,sung period1 if not earlier4#bce ,in a few cases the glaze seems to have been omitted1 the brown painting appearing on a lustreless white slip2 and where the brown or black colour was laid on in broad washes1 details were often etched out with a pointed instrument4 ,the black1 moreover1 when in considerable areas1 sometimes developed passages of lustrous coffee brown#bcf 7due to the presence of iron71 such as is seen in the partridge cups of ,chien yao4 ,it is probable that the ,sung ,tz ,chou ware1 with its solid ivory white surface1 often crackled1 and its sketchy floral designs1 may have served as a model to the ,japanese for the ,kenzan style of decoration and the ivory white ,satsuma faience4 ,another style of ornament1 which may date from ,sung times1 and is certainly common on later wares1 consists of a broad band of floral scrolls1 with large lily or aster flowers1 enclosed by smaller zones of floral pattern or formal designs4 ,next come the large panels of figure subjects1 usually of ,taoist sages1 or birds and animals in foliage1 enclosed by bands of formal ornament or floral scrolls4 ,in some cases a beautiful pale blue glaze of turquoise tint covers this class of ornament 7,plate #cb1 ,fig4 #a71 strangely recalling the ,persian and ,syrian pottery with still black paintings under a turquoise glaze4 ,indeed1 it was a common error a few years back to class the stray specimens of this type as ,persian2 but a comparison with the brown-painted ,tz ,chou specimens shows their true origin1 and the discovery of a small dish of this kind in a ,sung tomb#bcg proves the antiquity of this method of decoration in ,china4 ,the brown and black was supplemented1 in the ,ming period if not earlier1 first by a maroon slip and later by iron red and green enamel4#bch ,a specimen with panelled decoration in these colours was described by ,brinkley#bci as having been preserved in ,japan since #aeih1 showing that this class of decoration was at any rate contemporary with the red and green family of porcelain4 ,a specimen in the ,benson ,collection shows1 further1 that aubergine and green were sometimes used in combination with turquoise glaze1 as in the ,ming three-colour porcelain4 ,under-glaze blue is also found on ,tz ,chou wares1 but we have no clue to the date when it was introduced4 ,the ordinary ware1 made in quite modern times at ,tz ,chou1 is illustrated by a small flask and a figure obtained by ,dr4 ,bushell1 and now in the ,british ,museum4 ,though decorated in the characteristic style with slight sketchy design in brown and maroon1 they show a decided falling off when compared with the older specimens4 ,the body is a hard1 greyish white stoneware2 there is no slip covering1 and the glaze is yellowish1 soft-looking1 and freely crackled1 without the solid qualities of the older ivory glaze on a white slip coating4 ,i am inclined to think that this degenerate type of ware dates back no farther than the nineteenth century1 and that the ,tz ,chou pottery preserved its character up to and perhaps throughout the eighteenth century4 ,there are several examples of pottery pillows1 with body and glaze of good quality and finely painted in black and brown1 with panelled designs sometimes containing floral motives1 sometimes figure subjects4 ,one of these1 exhibited at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj1bdj was tentatively ascribed to the late ,ming period4 ,since then the ,british ,museum has acquired another1 and ,i have heard of two more in private hands4 ,the three last bear the mark of a potter named ,chang1#bda and on some of them we find additional inscriptions containing the words ku hsiang 7of old ,hsiang7 and hsiang ti 7of the region of ,hsiang74 ,hsiang1 ,i find1 is the old name of ,chang-t ,fu1 the prefecture in which ,tz ,chou is situated1 and this fact definitely connects the ware with the factories under discussion4 ,at the same time the relatively large number of these pieces in our collections and the style of ,chang's mark seem to indicate that they are of fairly recent date1 probably not older than the seventeenth century4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bi4--,vase of ,porcellanous ,stoneware4 ,with creamy white glaze and designs painted in black4 ,tz ,chou ware1 ,sung dynasty 7#ifj-abgi ,a4,d474 ,height #ag inches4 ,in the ,louvre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,plate #cj4--;,four ,jars of painted ,tz ,chou ,ware4 ,fig4 #a4--;,dated #aath year of ,chng ,ting 7#addf ,a4,d474 ,height #i inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,painted in red and green enamels4 787 ,sung dynasty4 ,height #d inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,lower half black1 the upper painted on white ground4 ,sung dynasty4 ,height #ae inches4 ,benson ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--,with phnix design1 etched details4 ,sung dynasty4 ,height #i inches4 ,rothenstein ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #ca4--,tz ,chou ,ware4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #a4--,tripod ,incense ,vase in ,persian style with lotus design in pale aubergine1 in a turquoise ground4 ,sixteenth century4 ,height #f inches4 ,fig4 #b4--,pillow with creamy white glaze and design of a tethered bear in black4 ,sung dynasty4 ,length #ab inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #cb4--,tz ,chou ,ware4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #a4--;,figure of a ,lohan with a ,deer1 creamy white glaze coloured with black slip and painted with green and red enamels4 ,said to be ,sung dynasty4 ,height #ab inches4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with graffiato peony scrolls under a green glaze4 ,sung dynasty4 ,height #af inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,plate #cc4--,tz ,chou ,ware4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase with panel of figures representing music1 painted in black under a blue glaze4 ,yan dynasty4 ,height #aa inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with incised designs in a dark brown glaze1 a sage looking at a skeleton4 ,yan dynasty4 ,height #ab inches4 ,peters ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--,vase with painting in black and band of marbled slips4 ,sung dynasty4 ,height #af inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,plate #cd4--,tz ,chou ,ware4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bottle of white porcellanous ware with black glaze and floral design in lustrous brown4 ,sung dynasty or earlier4 787 ,tz ,chou ware4 ,height #ac inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle with bands of key pattern and lily scrolls cut away from a black glaze4 ,sung dynasty4 ,height #i inches4 ,fig4 #c4--;,bottle with graffiato design in white slip on a mouse-coloured ground1 yellowish glaze4 ,sung dynasty4 ,height #ac inches4 ,on the other hand1 a greater age has been credited to these pillows in the belief that they are corpse pillows recovered from ancient tombs1 a theory for which a quotation from a ,ming writer in the ,tao shuo is responsible4#bdb ,it is stated that the pillows of ancient porcelain that are two feet and a half long and six inches broad may be used4 ,those only one foot long are known as 'corpse pillows1' and are among the things found in ancient tombs2 and even when these are of white ,ting ,chou porcelain of the ,sung dynasty1 they ought not to be used4 ,now the pillows made by ,chang and others are rarely more than a foot long1 and according to this passage should be regarded as corpse pillows4 ,but ,i cannot help thinking that either the measurements given are incorrect1 or that the figures are inaccurately quoted2 for apart from the difficulty of making porcelain pillows thirty inches long1 such a size would be wholly unnecessary1 and is1 in fact1 more than twice the length of the ordinary ,chinese pillow1 as we know from existing examples in various materials4 ,at the present day there is no such distinction in size between the two sorts of pillow1 and de ,groot#bdc assures us that the head of the corpse is rested on a small pillow not differing from those in use among the living4 ,from the same passage in the ,tao shuo we learn that a curious belief existed in ,china that porcelain pillows were efficacious in keeping the eyes clear and preserving the sight1 so that even in old age fine writing can be read1 and that this belief obtained as early as the ,sung dynasty1 much use of such pillows having been made in the court of ,ning ,tsung4 ,among the many types of ,tz ,chou ware1 old and new1 figures and statuettes1 usually of deities1 played an important part4 ,there are examples of coarse modern figures in the ,british ,museum1 but there are others1#bdd strong and forcefully modelled1 which rank with the best ceramic statuary4 ,these1 no doubt1 belong to the older and better periods4 ,a good example is shown in ,plate #cb4 ,the other large group of ,tz ,chou wares1 that with engraved designs 7hua1 hua71 is perhaps the most interesting of the three4 ,one class1 the white ware with carved ornament1 if it existed1 has been merged1 like the plain white1 in the ,ting wares4 ,the vase 7,plate #cc1 ,fig4 #b7 with brown glaze and panelled design exactly corresponding to those of the typical painted wares1 but engraved with a pointed instrument through the brown glaze1 forms a link between the two main groups4#bde ,but the more characteristic ,tz ,chou engraved ornament is executed by what is usually known as the graffiato process1 the lines of the design being cut through a layer of slip which contrasts in colour with the underlying material4 ,this is illustrated by those vases on which the ornament is etched through a covering of white slip disclosing the greyish body beneath1 or1 better still1 by specimens like ,plate #cd1 ,fig4 #c1 in which the ground of the pattern is freely cut away1 exposing considerable areas of the body4#bdf ,the greyish body colour combines with the transparent but creamy glaze to produce a delicate mouse-coloured surface1 from which the pattern stands out in ivory white4 ,in other cases a thick lustrous brown black glaze has been boldly carved1 leaving the design to contrast with an unglazed grey biscuit 7,plate #cd1 ,fig4 #c74 ,by varying and combining these different methods1 and by changing and counter-changing the slips1 a great diversity of effects was readily obtained4 ,it has been frequently remarked that some of the engraved specimens with bands of large foliage scrolls have an astonishing resemblance to ,italian graffiato ware of the sixteenth century2 and this resemblance is particularly striking when1 as sometimes happens1 a green glaze is used instead of the ordinary creamy covering4 ,no doubt these carved wares1 like their fellows with painted ornament1 were made for many centuries1 but there is good reason to think that they date back to early times1 for fragments both of the graffiato with white slip and mouse-coloured ground1 and of the dark brown glaze cut away1 were found in ,sir ,aurel ,stein's excavations in ,turfan on sites which can hardly have been open after the twelfth century4#bdg ,an important example recently acquired by the ,british ,museum actually bears a ,sung date4 ,it is a pillow with carved panels on the sides containing each a large flower and formal foliage2 and on the top is a panel with the four characters ,chia kuo yung an 7everlasting peace in the family and state7 etched in a ground powdered with small circles4 ,this panel is flanked by two incised inscriptions stating that the pillow was made by the ,chao family in the fourth year of ,hsi ,ning 7i4e4 #ajga ,a4,d474 ,i have seen one other dated specimen of graffiato ,tz ,chou ware with beautifully carved floral designs and an inscription of the year #ajfc4 ,another ,tz ,chou type is seen in a pillow in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection which has passages of marbling in black and brown1 and small black rosette ornaments inlaid in ,corean fashion4 ,the variety of decorations used on this group of wares seems to be inexhaustible4 ,it has already been hinted that other factories were at work on the same lines as ,tz ,chou1 and as we have no means of identifying their peculiarities1 it would perhaps be safer to use some such formula as ,tz ,chou type in the ascription of doubtful pieces4 ,po-,shan ,hsien1 in ,shantung1 was mentioned in a note on p4 #ajc1 and the ,tao lu#bdh gives a short account of another factory at ,hs ,chou1#bdi in ,honan1 where the tz stone 7see p4 #aja7 was also used in wares which were both plain white and decorated4 ,this factory was active in the ,ming dynasty1 and it is stated that its wares were superior to the recent productions#bej of ,tz ,chou4 ,a reference to porcelain figures in ,honan in the ,sung dynasty may be quoted in this connection4 ,it occurs in the ,liang chi man chih1 an early thirteenth-century work by ,fei ,kuan1 and runs as follows3 ,in ,kung ,hsien 7in the ,honan ,fu7 there are porcelain 7tz7 images called by the name of ,lu ,hung-chien4 ,if you buy ten tea vessels you can take one image4 ,hung-chien was a trader who dealt in tea--unprofitably1 for he could not refrain from brewing his stock4 ,hung-chien formerly was very fond of tea1 and it brought him to ruin4 ,possibly the images of ,hung-chien1 which were given away with ten tea vessels1 were made at ,tz ,chou or ,hs ,chou4 ,figures are still part of the stock-in-trade of the former factory4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #bcj3 ,see ,tao lu1 bk4 vii41 fol4 #ac verso4 ,footnote #bca3 ,hsiu hua1 lit4 embroidered ornament1 but see p4 #ia4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,for incidental reference to ,tz ,chou vases and wine jars in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 see p4 #abh4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,see ,bushell1 ,o4,c4,a41 p4 #afd4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,see ,brinkley1 ,catalogue of the ,exhibition at the ,boston ,museum of ,arts1 #ahhd2 also ,burlington ,magazine1 ,august1 #aiaa1 p4 #bfd4 ,footnote #bce3 ,the pottery found in ,sung tombs near ,wei ,hsien1 in ,shantung1 in #aijc1 includes a few examples of this type of ware with sketchy brown designs4 ,laufer 7,chinese ,pottery of the ,han ,dynasty1 ,appendix ii47 has illustrated this important find1 though he is inclined to think that it may have been made at the neighbouring potteries of ,po ,shan ,hsien4 ,if this is so1 we must reckon with the fact1 in itself not at all surprising1 that other factories besides ,tz ,chou were working on the same lines4 ,see p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,it would appear that the ,tz ,chou potters were capable of producing these lustrous brown passages in the black glaze intentionally1 for the floral design on ,fig4 #a of ,plate #cd is expressed in this manner4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,at ,wei ,hsien4 ,see note on p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #bch3 ,there are specimens--mostly small bowls--of a very archaic appearance1 with the red and green painting which are persistently claimed as of ,sung period4 ,but see p4 #df and ,plate #cj4 ,footnote #bci3 ,catalogue of the ,boston ,exhibition1 op4 cit41 #ahhd4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,cat4 ,b4,f4,a41 #aiaj1 ,e #fc4 ,this example has the mark of ,wang ,chih-ming4 ,see p4 #bba4 ,footnote #bda3 ,see p4 #bba4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,see ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #abb4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,august1 #aiaa1 and ,cat4 ,b4,f4,a41 ,d #ai and #da4 ,footnote #bde3 ,the link is strengthened by the presence of the black painted bands which border the main designs4 ,see also ,burlington ,magazine1 loc4 cit41 ,august1 #aiaa1 ,on ,some ,old ,chinese ,pottery4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,on a few specimens1 the date of which is by no means certain1 a design of leaves is executed by a peculiar process1 in which an actual leaf seems to have been used as a stencil1 being stuck on to the ware while the slip was applied1 and afterwards removed1 leaving a leaf-shaped pattern in reserve4 ,a somewhat similar use of leaf stencilling is described on p4 #acc4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,see p4 #acd4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,bk4 vii41 fol4 #ad4 ,some authorities seem to have considered that the ,hs ,chou factories go back to ,sung times4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,chinese4 ,footnote #bej3 ,the ,tao lu was written at the end of the eighteenth century4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,ch,n ,,wares ,,and ,,some ,,others ,chn ,chou ,chinese ware#bea ,,the ,chn ware is said to have been first made in the early part of the ,sung dynasty at ,chn ,chou or ,chn-tai1 the modern ,y ,chou in the ,kai-fng ,fu in ,honan4 ,like the ,lung-chan celadon1 thanks to its strength and solidity1 it has survived in sufficient numbers to give us some idea of the qualities which ,chinese writers have described in picturesque terms4 ,that it finds no mention in the ,cho kng lu and the ,ko ku yao lun seems to imply that it was not appreciated by the virtuosi of the fourteenth century1 owing1 no doubt1 to the fact that1 as hinted in later works1 it was chiefly destined for everyday uses and aimed at serviceable qualities rather than antique elegance4 ,by the end of the ,ming dynasty1 however1 its beautiful glazes had won it a place among the celebrated ,sung wares1 although even at this time certain varieties only were considered estimable4 ,the ,ching pi tsang1 for instance1 which appears to rank the ,chn ware above that of ,lung-chan1 gives the following criticism3 ,the ,chn ,chou ware1 which is red like rouge1 is highly prized2 that which is ching like onion blue 7tsung tsui71 and that which is purplish brown 7tz7 like ink1 are esteemed second2 single-coloured pieces1 which have the numerals one1 two1 etc41 as marks on the bottom1 are choice2 the specimens of this ware with mixed colours 7tsa s7 are not worth collecting4 ,it was not long1 however1 before even the despised mixed colours were not only appreciated by collectors1 but studiously imitated by the ,ching-t ,chn potters4 ,the body of the wares1 which are now classed as ,chn type1 varies considerably in quality and texture4 ,the choicest examples in ,western collections1 usually deep flower pots or shallow bulb bowls with lovely glazes of dove grey1 lavender1 crushed strawberry1 dappled purple and crimson1 and other tints1 are made of a clay which1 though dark-coloured on the exterior1 shows considerable refinement and closeness of texture within4 ,it is1 in fact1 a porcellanous ware of whitish grey tone4 ,it is noticed that these pieces are almost always marked with incised ,chinese numerals1 and there are critics who would confine the ,chn wares to this group alone4 ,but it is clear from a passage in the ,po wu yao lan#beb that there were other types in which the body was of yellow sandy earthenware1 coarse and thick1 and without refinement1 with all the characteristics1 in fact1 of the ware which these same critics habitually relegate to the category of ,yan tz1 or ware of the ,yan dynasty4 ,but we shall return to this question later4 ,modern ,chinese collectors1 we are told1#bec in recognition of these distinctions1 classify ,chn wares in two groups1 tz tai 7porcelain body7 and sha tai 7sandy1 or coarse-grained1 body74 ,the ,chn glazes are of the thick1 opalescent kind which flows sluggishly and often stops short of the base in a thick1 wavy roll or in large drops4 ,on the upper edges of the ware they are thin and more or less transparent and colourless1 but in the lower parts and the hollows in which the glaze collects in thick masses the depth and play of the colour are wonderful4 ,these irregularities are specially noticeable on the coarse bodies1 but even on the more refined specimens where the glaze has a smoother flow and more even distribution1 the colour is never quite continuous or unbroken4 ,in the opalescent depths of the glaze1 bubbles1 streaks1 hair-lines1 and often decided dappling are observed1 and a scarcely perceptible crackle is usually present4#bed ,some of these markings which variegate the surface of the ,chn wares have been noticed by ,chinese writers as hare's fur marking and flames of blue4#bee ,others1 which appear to be irregular partings in the colour of the glaze1 have been named chiu ying wn or earthworm marks4 ,these last rarely appear except on the finer type of ,chn wares1 and1 like the tear stains on the ,ting porcelains1 they are regarded as signs of authenticity4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ce ,flower pot of ,chn ,chou ware of the ,sung ,dynasty4 ,grey porcellanous body2 olive brown glaze under the base and the numeral shih 7ten7 incised4 ,height 7without the wooden stand7 #e inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,though the beautiful ,chn wares of the tz tai group will always be rare and costly1 ,western collectors have been fortunate in securing a fair number of specimens1 and a wonderful series of them was brought together in ,march1 #aiad1 in the exhibition held by the ,japan ,society of ,new ,york4 ,the forms of the flower pots vary considerably4 ,some have globular body with high spreading neck and wide mouth2 others are bell-shaped like a deep cup2 others are deep bowls with sides shaped in six or eight lobes like the petals of a flower2 others are of quatrefoil form2 and others of oblong rectangular shape with straight sides expanding towards the mouth4 ,the saucers in which they stood are shallow bowls corresponding in form to the pots1 but supported by three or four feet which are usually shaped like the conventional cloud scroll or ju-i head4 ,they are otherwise without ornament1 except in the case of the plain rounded saucers1 which have two bands of raised studs or bosses1 borrowed1 no doubt1 from a bronze vessel4 ,these flower pots and saucers are almost invariably incised with a numeral under the base1 and the fact that when the pots and saucers fit properly the numerals on each are found to tally seems to indicate they are1 as suggested below1 size numbers4 ,but there is no doubt that the saucers or stands were often used separately as bulb bowls1 like the vessels of similar shape which are found in celadon and other wares4 ,vases of the fine ,chn ware are occasionally seen4 ,there is a choice example in the ,pierpont ,morgan ,collection1 a small ovoid vase with flat base2 and in the same collection is a low beaker-shaped vase with flaring neck and globular body strengthened with four square ribs in imitation of a bronze4#bef ,no numbers have appeared so far on any of these vases1 nor1 as far as ,i am aware1 on any ,sung ,chn wares except the flower pots and saucers4 ,i have1 however1 seen dishes on which a number has been subsequently cut1 and numbers occur on later copies of the ,chn types described below4 ,the numerals engraved under the base of the flower pots1 saucers1 and bulb bowls in the finer ,chn wares range from #a-aj4 ,their significance has given rise to some debate1 but the most reasonable theory seems to be that they indicate the sizes of the different forms1 ,no4 #a being the largest1 though an extra large bulb bowl#beg in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection has the additional mark ,chinese ta 7great74 ,this is the view which1 ,i believe1 is usually accepted in ,china1 and ,mr4 ,eumorfopoulos1 who has an exceptional series of these wares1 has applied the test to all he has seen1 and has found the size theory to hold good in all but a few cases1 for which an explanation may yet be found4#beh ,another suggestion1 supported by some ,american collectors of note1 such as ,mr4 ,freer and ,mr4 ,peters1 is that the numbers refer to the ,imperial kilns1 and that the pieces so marked are ,imperial wares4 ,whether the former theory will continue to stand the test of application to every fresh specimen remains to be seen4 ,with regard to the latter1 ,i shall give reasons presently for doubting that any special ,imperial patronage was extended to this kind of ware2 and whatever truth there may be in this explanation of the numbers1 it is highly improbable that any serious evidence can ever be produced to sustain it4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cf ,chn ,wares ,fig4 #a4--;,flower pot of six-foil form4 ,chn ,chou ware of the ,sung dynasty4 ,the base is glazed with olive brown and incised with the numeral san 7three74 ,height #g inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bowl of ,chn type1 with close-grained porcellanous body of yellowish colour4 ,sung dynasty4 ,diameter #e inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,it would be possible to construct a formidable list of the colours which appear in the ,chn glazes1 though many of the accidental effects would be very difficult to describe4 ,on the edge and salient parts where the glaze is thin the colour is usually a transparent olive green which passes with the thickening of the glaze into a frothy grey shot with fine purple streaks4 ,the grey sometimes remains thick and opaque1 covering large areas1 and it is liable to become frosted over with a dull film of crab-shell green4 ,it is in this frosting and in the opaque curded grey that the ,v-shaped and serpentine partings known as earthworm marks most frequently occur2 and sometimes a steel blue colour emerges in these partings and in small spots in the grey4 ,for under the grey there seems to be always blue and red struggling upwards towards the surface4 ,hence the blue and lavender tinge which is so constant1 the tien lan of the ,chinese4 ,but it is the red which almost always triumphs1 emerging in fine streaks of purple1 crimson or coral1 like the colour lines in shot silk1 or in strong flecks and dappling1 completely overpowering the grey1 which only remains on sufferance in a few fleecy clouds4 ,the fine lines of colour are usually associated with a smooth silken surface to which a faint iridescence gives additional lustre2 whereas the strongly dappled and mottled glaze is full of bubbles and pinholes 7sometimes called ant tracks by the ,chinese7 which give the surface the seeded appearance of a strawberry4 ,the red dappling is usually opaque and tending towards crimson or rouge red4 ,it will be seen that the red varies in quantity from a mere tinge or flush to the intensity almost of a monochrome1 and in tone from a pale or deep lavender to aubergine1 plum purple1 rose crimson1 and rouge red4 ,making allowance for the capricious nature of ,chinese colour words1 these tints will be found to correspond with several of those indicated in the ,yung ,chng list quoted on p4 #aai4 ,on rare examples the grey and red colours are in abeyance1 and the dominant tint is the transparent olive green1 which is usually confined to the edges4 ,this and the crab-shell green mentioned above supply the green shades which the ,chinese writers include among the ,chn colours4 ,but none of these glazes can with strict accuracy be described as monochromes of uniformly pure colour which the ,po wu yao lan seems to have regarded as indispensable in the first-class ,chn ware4 ,in fact1 it is difficult to conceive the possibility of a ,chn glaze of perfectly uniform tint1 without any trace of the perpetual war waged in the kiln between the red1 grey1 and blue elements4 ,the nearest approach to a single colour is seen in some of the grey glazes1 but here1 too1 the colour is only relatively pure2 and ,i am convinced that the expression used by the ,po wu yao lan is exaggerated1 and the meaning is that the nearer the ,chn colours approach to uniformity the more they were prized4 ,it is true that several examples depicted in ,hsiang's ,album are monochrome purple1 but ,i have no more confidence in the colouring of these illustrations than in the carved decoration which is indicated under their glaze1 a phenomenon unrecorded in any other ,chinese work1 unexampled in any known specimen of the ware1 and unlikely in view of the nature and the thickness of the ,chn glaze itself4 ,it is clear1 however1 that an exaggerated mottling of the glaze and a confusion of many colours was viewed with disfavour by the old ,chinese connoisseurs4 ,these effects were explained in the ,po wu yao lan as due to insufficient firing4 ,regarded in this light they were viewed with contempt by the earlier ,chinese writers and labelled with mocking names1 such as lo kan ma fei 7mule's liver and horse's lung71 pig's liver1 and the like4 ,in reality1 they were the forerunners of the many delightful flamb glazes which the eighteenth-century potters were able to produce at will when they had learnt that1 like all the ,chn colours except the brown glaze on the base1 they could be obtained from oxide of copper under definite firing conditions4 ,how far the old ,chn effects were due to opalescence#bei it is impossible to say1 but we know that all of them can be obtained1 whether turquoise1 green1 crimson1 or lavender grey1 by that ,protean medium1 oxide of copper1 according as it is exposed in the firing to an oxidising or reducing atmosphere1 conditions which could be regulated by the introduction of air on the one hand1 or wood smoke on the other1 at the right moment into the kiln4 ,it should be added that the finer ,chn wares as seen in the flower pots and stands have an olive or yellowish brown glaze over the base1 which in rare instances is overrun by frothy grey or lavender4 ,another constant feature of these pieces is a ring of small scars or spur marks on the base4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #cg4--;,chn ,chou ,ware with porcellanous body 7tz tai74 ,sung dynasty4 ,fig4 #a4--;,flower ,pot1 with lavender grey glaze4 ,numeral mark1 ss 7four74 ,diameter #h inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bulb ,bowl1 of quatrefoil form1 pale olive glaze clouded with opaque grey4 ,numeral mark1 i 7one74 ,length #aj inches4 ,freer ,collection4 ,the list of porcelains made at the ,imperial factories about #agcjbfj includes a series of imitations of ,chn glazes from specimens sent from the palace collections1 which serve at once to show the variety of ,chn colours and the extent to which they were copied4 ,the actual colours described are3 7#a7 ,rose purple 7mei kuei tz ,chinese74 7#b7 ,cherry apple red 7hai tang hung ,chinese74 7#c7 ,purple of the aubergine flower 7chieh hua tz ,chinese74 7#d7 ,plum bloom 7mei tz ching ,chinese74 7#e7 ,donkey's liver and horse's lung 7l kan ma fei ,chinese71 with the addition of four kinds obtained from other sources4#bfa 7#f7 ,deep purple 7shn tz ,chinese74 7#g7 ,millet colour 7mi s ,chinese74 7#h7 ,sky blue 7tien lan ,chinese74 7#i7 ,furnace transmutation or flamb 7yao pien ,chinese74 ,the potters of the ,yung ,chng period 7#agbc-ce7 succeeded wonderfully in their work of imitation1 and existing examples bear witness to the beautiful colour effects which they obtained4 ,the body of the ware1 however1 was1 as a rule1 a fine white porcelain1#bfb which had to be carefully concealed by the brown glaze on the base4 ,many of the ,yung ,chng specimens are marked with the seal mark of the period1 and occasional instances occur in which this mark has been ground off in order to pass the piece as old4 ,i have such a specimen1 which was actually bought in the trade for ,sung4 ,it is a small dish1 with beautiful turquoise green glaze in the centre and a flamb red on the sides4 ,the place where the mark has been ground away when washed clean showed a fine white porcelain body4 ,it is stated in the ,tao lu that the potters at ,ching-t ,chn began to imitate the ,chn wares towards the end of the ,sung dynasty4 ,no evidence is given to support the assertion1 which may be merely a local tradition2 but one certainly sees occasional specimens with a porcelain body masked by a dark brown clay dressing under the base1 the glazes of which obviously imitate the ,chn4 ,there are1 for instance1 saucers and bowls of this kind with purple glaze finely shot with grey on the exterior and a lavender grey inside which appear to be older than the ,yung ,chng period1 though their shape precludes a greater age than the ,ming dynasty4 ,there are1 however1 many other imitations of ,chn ware in which the body is not of tell-tale white porcelain4 ,the ,po wu yao lan1 for instance1 written at the end of the ,ming dynasty1 states that in the present day among the recent wares all this type of ware 7viz4 the ,chn type7 has the sandy clay of ,yi-hsing#bfc for its body2 the glaze is very similar to the old1 and there are beautiful specimens1 but they do not wear well4 ,yi-hsing is the place where the red stoneware tea pots1 often called ,chinese buccaro1 were made1 and we know that a ,yi-hsing potter1 named ,ou1 was famous at the end of the ,ming dynasty for his imitations of ,ko1 ,kuan1 and ,chn glazes4#bfd ,a bowl in the ,british ,museum seems to answer the description of ,ou's ware4 ,it has a hard red stoneware body1 and a thick undulating glaze of pale lavender blue colour1 the comparative softness of which is attested by the well-worn surface of the interior4 ,the ,yung ,chng list includes yet another type based upon ,chn ware4 ,it is called ,chn glaze of the muffle kiln1 clearly a low-fired enamel rather than a glaze1 whose colour is between the ,kuangtung ware and the added#bfe glaze of ,yi-hsing1 though in surface-markings1 undulations and transmutation tints it surpasses them4 ,this appears to be the robin's egg type of glaze1#bff to use the ,american collector's phrase1 a thick1 opaque enamel of pale greenish blue tint flecked with ruby red 7see ,plate #abh74 ,the manufacture of glazes of the ,chn type has continued at ,yi-hsing since the days of ,ou1 and what is called ,yi-hsing ,chn is still manufactured in considerable quantity1 the streaky lavender glazes being of no little merit4 ,when applied to incense burners and vessels of archaic form1 they are capable of being passed off as old1 though the initiated will recognise them by their want of depth and transparency and by the peculiar satiny lustre of their surface4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ch ,chn ,wares ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl of eight-foil shape1 with lobed sides1 of ,chn type4 ,sung dynasty4 ,close-grained porcellanous ware of yellowish colour4 ,height #a inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,pomegranate-shaped water pot of ,soft ,chn ware4 ,probably ,sung dynasty4 ,height #c inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,another ware which has a superficial resemblance to ,chn yao has been made for a long period at the ,kuangtung factories1#bfg if it does not actually go back to ,sung times4 ,a typical specimen1 shown in ,plate #ea1 is a vase of baluster form with wide shoulders strengthened by a collar with foliate edge1 and small neck and mouth1 ornamented with a handsome lotus scroll in relief4 ,the body is a buff stoneware1 and the glaze is thick1 opaque1 and closely crackled1 and of pale lavender grey warming into purple4 ,glazes of this kind have been made at several potteries in ,japan e4g4 ,hagi1 ,akahada1 and ,seto4#bfh ,besides such specimens as this1 there are many of the streaky1 mottled ,canton stonewares which are remotely analogous to the variegated ,chn wares4 ,the glazes of this type are more fluescent than those described in the preceding paragraph and have greater transparency1 and the intention of their makers to imitate ,chn types is shown by incised numerals which are occasionally added under the base4 ,they are known in ,china as ,fat-shan ,chn1 from the locality in which they are made1 and though some examples may go back to ,ming times1 the best may1 as a rule1 be ascribed to the eighteenth century and the indifferent specimens to the present day4 ,from this digression on ,chn imitations to which the mention of ,yi-hsing led us1 we must return to the original wares4 ,it has been said that ,chinese connoisseurs recognise two groups of ,chn ware1 the tz tai and the sha tai1 and there is no doubt that the contrast between the body material of the two is very marked4 ,in explanation of this the ,chinese to-day allege#bfi that the flower pots and stands were made of a tribute clay sent annually from the ,ching-t ,chn district to the ,imperial kilns at ,chn ,chou1 and that the coarser articles were made of native clays4 ,the story has the air of an ex post facto explanation1 and it is open to many grave objections4 ,in the first place it is nowhere mentioned in ,chinese literature1 and in the second place the ,chn ,chou kilns1 so far from having been described as ,imperial in the ,sung dynasty1 are entirely ignored by the earlier writers1 and even in the late ,ming works1 where they are first mentioned1 the ,chn wares are reckoned as of secondary importance4 ,thirdly1 there does not seem to have been any need to import kaolin1 for ,chn ,chou was in one of the kaolin producing districts of ,china4#bgj ,there are1 moreover1 many specimens of the ,chn type which hold an intermediate position between the finer flower pots and the coarse ,yan tz wares1 and these have a decidedly porcellanous body1 though inclined to be yellowish at the base rim4 ,some of these have glazes almost as smooth and even as the flower pots1 and of a beautiful lavender grey colour with patches or large areas of aubergine or amethystine purple1 which in rare cases covers the entire exterior of a bowl4 ,in their finer types they are scarcely distinguishable from the specimens which we have tentatively classed as ,kuan on p4 #fe1 and in their coarser kinds they seem to belong to the so-called ,yan tz which are discussed at the end of this chapter4 ,meanwhile1 we must consider a very distinctive group to which the term sha tai1 in its sense of sandy body1 applies with particular exactitude4 ,in the catalogue of the ,new ,york exhibition of ,march1 #aiad1 ,i ventured to differentiate this type by the name of soft ,chn1 which its general appearance seems to justify4 ,it is well illustrated in ,plates #ch and #ci4 ,the body is buff and varies in texture from stoneware to a comparatively soft earthenware not far removed in colour from that of delft or maiolica1 though1 like so many ,chinese bodies1 it has a tendency to assume a darker red brown tint where exposed at the foot rim4 ,the glaze is unctuous and thick1 but not opaque1 often1 indeed1 showing considerable flow and transparency3 it is opalescent1 and at times almost crystalline1 and endued with much play of colour4 ,it varies from a light turquoise blue of great beauty to lavender and occasionally to a strong blue tint1 and1 as a rule1 it is broken by one or more passages of crimson red or dull aubergine purple1 sometimes in a single well-defined patch1 sometimes in a few flecks or streaks1 and sometimes in large irregular areas4 ,this glaze usually covers the entire exterior and appears again under the base1 leaving practically no body exposed except at the actual foot rim4 ,it has been attributed to various factories4 ,the pure turquoise specimens have even been called ,chai1 and a little piece of this kind was figured by ,cosmo ,monkhouse#bga as ,kuan ware4 ,on the other hand1 ,i am told#bgb that it is widely known in ,china as ,ma chn1#bgc and is usually thought to be of the ,ming dynasty1 but no reason is assigned for either the name or the date1 and both seem to be based on traders' gossip to which no special importance need be attached4 ,a fine vase of this kind in the ,british ,museum has been much admired by ,chinese connoisseurs1 and they have1 as a rule1 pronounced it to be ,sung4 ,the important specimen 7,plate #ci7 in the ,fitz,william ,museum1 ,cambridge1 was obtained from a tomb near ,nanking1#bgd a circumstance which is in favour of an early origin4 ,in other respects this class of ware seems to answer to the aubergine and sky blue ,chn types described by ,chinese writers1 and ,i regard it as one of the ,sung varieties of ,chn ,chou ware1 with yellow1 sandy earthenware body of which the ,po wu yao lan makes mention4#bge ,illustration3 ,,plate #ci ,two examples of ,soft ,chn ware4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase of buff ware1 burnt red at the foot rim1 with thick1 almost crystalline glaze4 ,found in a tomb near ,nanking and given in #ahif to the ,fitz,william ,museum1 ,cambridge4 ,probably ,sung dynasty4 ,height #h inches4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase of yellowish ware with thick opalescent glaze4 ,yan dynasty4 ,height #ac inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,that it continued to be made after the ,sung period is practically certain1 and there are specimens which one would unhesitatingly regard as ,ming or ,yan from their form4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the prevailing shapes are of the ,sung kind1 and we have very little to guide us in dealing with the various ,chn types except the form and the quality of the ware4 ,the soft ,chn was very closely imitated at ,yi-hsing on a yellowish body which resembles the original in colour1 but is generally harder1 with a thick unctuous glaze of somewhat crystalline texture and a turquoise lavender colour1 with rather thin and feeble patches of dull crimson1 which lack the spontaneous appearance of the originals4 ,these ,yi-hsing copies are often marked with an incised numeral like the ,canton ,chn4 ,with regard to the duration of the ,chn ,chou factories1 the standard ,chinese works on ceramics are curiously silent4 ,they take no account of the ware after the ,sung period1 and leave us to infer that it either ceased to be made or ceased to be worthy of mention after that time4 ,in two places only have ,i found any hint of its survival in later times4 ,one is an incidental mention of ,sung1 ,yuan1 and ,ming ,chn wares in a modern work1#bgf and the other is in the pottery 7not the porcelain7 section in the great ,kang ,hsi ,encyclopdia4#bgg ,the latter passage is taken from the administrative records of the ,ming dynasty1 and contains two references to large supplies of vases 7ping and tan7 and wine jars obtained from ,chn ,chou and ,tz ,chou in the ,hsan ,t period 7#adbf-adcf7 and in the year #aeec of the ,chia ,ching period4 ,we further learn that in #aefc an ,imperial edict abolished both the tax which had previously been levied on the ,chn ,chou wares and the subsidy which had to a great extent counterbalanced the tax4 ,these documents prove beyond doubt that potteries of considerable size existed at ,chn ,chou in the ,ming dynasty1 though their mention in this particular context seems to imply that the ware was no longer ranked among the porcelains1 and had apparently ceased to be regarded as an artistic production4 ,from this time onwards to the present day the ceramic history of this district is a blank1 and we are unable to say whether the modern ,y ,chou pottery is a continuation or only a revival of the ancient art of the place4 ,a specimen of this modern ware in the ,field ,museum1 ,chicago1 has close affinities with the soft ,chn4 ,its base shows a buff stoneware body washed over with dark brown clay1 and the glaze is somewhat opalescent though thinner than the old glaze1 and its colour is a light blue of a tint more grey than turquoise4 ,quantities of this modern ,y ,chou ware are to be found in ,peking1 and occasionally it is passed off as old ,chn1 but no one with experience of the originals would be deceived by it4 ,finally1 there is the important group of wares obviously belonging to the ,chn family but commonly described as ,yan tz or ware of the ,yan dynasty 7#abhj-acfg71 although no sanction for this name is found in the older ,chinese books4 ,the ware1 however1 is fairly common in the form of bowls1 shallow dishes1 and1 more rarely1 vases and incense burners4 ,the bowls which are the most familiar examples are usually of conical form1 with slightly contracted mouth and small foot1 coated with thick fluescent glazes1 which form in deep pools at the bottom within1 and end outside in thick drops or a billowy line some distance above the base1 leaving a liberal amount of the body material exposed to view4 ,the body is of the sha tai class and usually of coarse grain1 varying from a dark iron grey to buff stoneware and soft brick red earthenware1 though1 as already noted1 there are finer specimens which link it with the tz tai group4 ,it is this roughness of substance which has caused the ware to be relatively little esteemed in ,china1 for the glaze is often of singular beauty4 ,the varieties in colour are innumerable and clearly due to the opalescence of the thick1 bubbly glaze1 combined with the ever-changing effects of copper oxide on a highly fired ware4 ,lavender grey1 dove grey1 brown1 and grey green are conspicuous1 but as the thickness of the glaze varies with its downward flow1 so the colour changes in tone and intensity from a thin1 almost colourless skin on the upper edges to deep pools of mingled tints where the glaze has collected in thick masses4 ,it is usually streaky and shot with fine lines of colour1 but sometimes there are large areas of misty grey or greenish brown tones too subtle for description4 ,a section of these glazes will generally disclose the presence of red1 and this red often bursts out on the surface in patches which contrast vividly with the surrounding tones4 ,if the patches are large they will be found to shade off into green in the centre or at the edges4 ,it should be added that crackle is almost always present1 though it varies much in intensity and does not seem to have been intentional4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #dj4--;,chn ,chou ,ware4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bulb ,bowl1 porcellanous ware with lavender grey glaze passing into mottled red outside4 ,numeral mark1 i 7one74 ,sung dynasty4 ,diameter #i inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase of dense reddish ware1 opalescent glaze of pale misty lavender with passages of olive and three symmetrical splashes of purple with green centres4 ,sung or ,yuan dynasty4 ,height #aj inches4 ,peters ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #da4--;,chn ,chou ,ware4 ,fig4 #a4--;,dish with peach spray in relief4 ,variegated lavender grey glaze with purplish brown spots and amethyst patches1 frosted in places with dull green4 ,sung dynasty4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,freer ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase and ,stand1 smooth lavender grey glaze4 ,sung or ,yan dynasty4 ,height #g inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,decoration of any kind is unusual on these wares except on the large tripod incense burners1 which often have slight applied reliefs in the form of animals1 dragons1 or peony sprays4 ,mr4 ,freer's dish 7,plate #da1 ,fig4 #a7 with the raised floral spray is quite exceptional4 ,whatever the verdict may be on the technical qualities of these rugged pieces as compared with more finely finished porcelain1 there can be no doubt of the artistic merit of the subtle glaze colours1 and ,i have seen people whose undoubted taste in other forms of art had not previously been directed to things ceramic1 display a sudden and unexpected enthusiasm over the rough ,yan bowls4 ,the peculiar shape of these bowls--which1 without their foot take the form of a half coco-nut--has raised the question whether it can be in any way connected with the ,polynesian khava bowls4 ,the latter are actually made of coco-nut1 and1 curiously enough1 their interior after much use acquires a vivid patina1 whose colour recalls some of the ,yan tz glazes4 ,the resemblance1 however1 remarkable as it is1 can only be accidental1 for it is practically certain that the tints of these ceramic glazes were quite unforeseen4 ,long use has usually given the surface of the ,yan tz a smooth1 worn feeling1 but in its first freshness the glaze had a very high and brilliant lustre4 ,this is shown by a few pieces which have lately been sent from ,china1 where they were excavated evidently on the site of the old factory1 and still remain in their seggars or fireclay cases to which they became attached by some accident in the kiln4 ,these and other spoilt pieces or wasters would be of immense interest if only the circumstance of their finding had been faithfully recorded4 ,unfortunately1 however1 they passed through many hands before reaching ,europe1 and we have only hearsay to support the statement that they were found in the neighbourhood of ,honan ,fu4 ,the locality is a likely enough spot and not remote from ,chn ,chou1 but we must consider that the real origin of the ,yan tz has yet to be settled1 and we must still remain in doubt whether the ware is a coarse variety of ,sung ,chn ,chou ware1 a continuation of that manufacture in the ,yan dynasty1 or the production of a different factory4 ,judging from the character of the glazes1 ,i am inclined to accept the first two alternatives1 which are not mutually exclusive1 for while many of the specimens have the appearance of ,sung wares1 there is every reason to suppose that the manufacture continued through the ,yan period4 ,the formula1 ,sung or ,yan ware of ,chn type1 adopted in the catalogue of the exhibition at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj1 is a discreet compromise which may well be retained till further evidence from ,china is forthcoming4 ,the evidence of ,sir ,aurel ,stein's excavations in the regions of ,turfan1 imperfect as it is1 points to the existence of this kind of ware at least as early as the ,sung dynasty4 ,fragments with the typical glaze of the so-called ,yan-tz were found1 for instance1 on a site which was thought to have been closed in the ,sung dynasty1 and again at ,vash-shahri1 which was believed to have been occupied down to the eleventh or twelfth century4 ,making ample allowance for error in calculating the dates of these buried cities1 we may still fairly consider that some of these finds come within the limits of the ,sung dynasty4 ,chien ,chinese yao ,this ware1 which has already been mentioned in several passages1 originated at ,chien-an1 but the factory was subsequently removed to the neighbouring ,chien-yang4 ,both places are in the ,chien-ning ,fu1 in the province of ,fukien1 and the term ,chien yao derives from the character chien1 which occurs in all these place names4 ,the beginning of the manufacture is unknown1 but it certainly dates back to the early ,sung period1 being mentioned in a tenth-century work1#bgh and the potteries were still flourishing at the commencement of the ,yan dynasty4#bgi ,a characteristic specimen figured in ,plate #db is a tea bowl with soft1 dark brown earthenware body and thick1 lustrous1 purplish black glaze1 mottled and streaked with golden brown4 ,the brown forms a solid band at the mouth and tails off into streaks and drops on the sides1 finally disappearing in a thick mass of black4 ,the spots and streaks of brown suggested to ,chinese writers the markings on a partridge's breast or on hare's fur1 and the bowls are usually known as hare's fur cups#bhj or partridge cups4 ,the dark colour of the glaze made them specially suitable for the tea-testing competitions which were in fashion in the ,sung period1 the object of the contest being to see whose tea would stand the largest number of waterings1 and it was found that the least trace of the tea was visible against the black glaze of the ,chien bowls4 ,the testimony of an eleventh-century writer#bha on this point is of interest4 ,the tea1 he says1 is light in colour and suits the black cups4 ,those made at ,chien-an are purplish black 7kan hei7 with markings like hare's fur4 ,their material1 being somewhat thick1 takes long to heat1 and when hot does not quickly cool1 which makes them specially serviceable4 ,no cups from any other place can equal them4 ,green 7ching7 and white cups are not used in the tea-testing parties4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #db4--,two ,temmoku ,bowls1 dark-bodied ,chien yao of the ,sung dynasty4 ,fig4 #a4--,tea ,bowl 7pieh71 purplish black glaze flecked with silvery drops4 ,diameter #g inches4 ,freer ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,tea ,bowl with purplish black glaze shot with golden brown4 ,height #c inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,the ,chinese tea contests were adopted by the ,japanese1 who elaborated them into the curious ceremony known as ,cha no yu1 which later assumed a semi-political aspect4 ,the ,japanese ,cha jin 7initiates of the tea ceremony7 have always prized the ,chien yao bowls1 to which they gave the name temmoku1 and ,brinkley speaks of a great variety of ,chien yao glazes which he saw in ,japan4 ,of some he says that on a ground of mirror black are seen shifting tints of purple and blue2 reflections of deep green1 like the glossy colour of the raven's wing2 lines of soft silver1 regular as hair4 ,the tea-testing contests seem to have lost popularity in ,china at an early date1 and late ,ming writers took little interest in the partridge cups1 which one#bhb at least of them voted very inferior4 ,in ,japan1 on the other hand1 the vogue of the tea ceremonies has continued unabated to modern times1 and no doubt the ,chien bowls were eagerly acquired by the ,japanese sthetes4 ,hence their rarity in ,china to-day4 ,moreover1 the ,japanese potters of ,seto and elsewhere have copied them with astonishing cleverness1 so that the best ,seto imitations are exceedingly difficult to distinguish from the originals4 ,the ordinary run of the ,japanese copies1 however1 are recognised by a body of lighter tint and finer1 more porcellanous texture1 besides their general imitative character and the ,japanese touch which is learnt by observation but is not easy to define in words4 ,though we hear nothing further of this ,chien yao after the ,yan dynasty it is practically certain that the manufacture of pottery of some sort continued in the district4 ,a small pot of buff stoneware with a translucent brown glaze 7much thinner than that of the hare's fur bowls and without the purple tint or the golden brown markings7 was found in a tomb near1 ,chien-ning ,fu with an engraved slab dated #aefj4 ,the find was made by the ,rev4 ,h4,s4 ,phillips1 who presented the pot1 with a rubbing of the inscription1 to the ,british ,museum4 ,in addition to the characteristic temmoku we have now quite a large family of bowls1 dishes1 jars1 and vases with thick purplish black glazes more or less diversified by golden brown and tea-dust green1 which are at present grouped with the ,chien yao pending some more precise information as to their origin4 ,they are1 however1 distinguished by a coarse porcellanous body of greyish white or buff colour1 and ,i understand that many of the bowls have come from excavations in ,honan2 and there are features in the ornament and in the ware itself which suggest that they date back as far as the ,tang period4 ,fig4 #c of ,plate #dc1 for instance1 with its large brown mottling on a black glaze1 is analogous in form and material to the white-glazed ,tang wares and in the mottling of the glaze to the typical ,tang polychrome4 ,the bowls1 which are usually small and shallow with straight sides1 wide mouth1 and very narrow foot1 or with rounded sides slightly contracting at the mouth1 have neither the weight of material nor smooth solidity of glaze which characterise the true ,chien yao4 ,on the other hand1 they are more varied in the play of black and brown1 and in some cases they have designs and patterns which are clearly intentional4 ,the two extremes of colour are a monochrome black1 usually of purplish tint but sometimes brownish1 and a lustrous brown often decidedly reddish in tone4 ,between these come the black glazes which are more or less variegated with brown in the form of mottling1 streaks1 tears1 irregular patches1 and definite patterns4 ,the glaze in these bowls usually extends to the foot rim1 and sometimes reappears in a patch under the base4 ,the ornament in some cases takes the form of rosettes or plum blossom designs in ,tang style incised through the glaze covering2 in others1 as in ,fig4 #a of ,plate #dc1 we find a leaf design 7evidently stencilled from a real leaf7 expressed in brown or dull tea green2 and occasionally there are more ambitious designs1 such as a hare or bird or foliage1 incised4 ,on a red brown bowl in the ,museum fr ,ostasiatische ,kunst at ,cologne there are traces of a floral pattern in a lustrous medium which resembles faded gilding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,plate #dc4--,three ,examples of ,honan temmoku1 probably ,tang dynasty4 ,fig4 #a4--;,bowl with purplish black glaze1 stencilled leaf in golden brown4 ,diameter #f inches4 ,havemeyer ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,ewer with black glaze4 ,height #d inches4 ,alexander ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,covered ,bowl1 black mottled with lustrous brown4 ,height #g inches4 ,cologne ,museum4 ,we have already noted how the purplish black glaze of the ,tz ,chou ware breaks into lustrous brown2 the black ,ting ware and the debateable red ,ting have been discussed2 and if we add this family which may perhaps be provisionally described as ,honan temmoku1 it would appear that glazes analogous to those of the ,chien yao hare's fur bowls were widely used in ,northern ,china at an early date4 ,a word of explanation may appropriately be added here of the expression wu-ni yao1#bhc which occurs in several passages in ,chinese books on pottery4 ,it means black clay ware1 and as a general term would naturally include the hare's fur bowls4 ,indeed1 one passage#bhd actually speaks of the wu-ni yao of ,chien-an1 and the ,tao lu1 which gives the ware a paragraph to itself1 states that it was made at ,chien-an1 in ,chien-ning ,fu1 beginning in the ,sung dynasty1 and that its clay was black4 ,it further adds that the glaze is dry and parched and that it was sometimes green 7ching74 ,it is clear from the above quotations that wu-ni yao was a general expression for the dark-bodied ,chien ware2 and there the matter would have ended had not early works1 such as the ,cho kng lu and ,ko ku yao lun1 mentioned it in the category of ,kuan and ,ko wares1 the former naming it with the ,hsn and ,yu-hang wares1 which were inferior to the ,kuan1 and the latter adding to the passage dealing with ,kuan wares the following note3 ,there are black wares which are called wu-ni yao1 all of which were imitated at ,lung-chan4 ,they have no crackle4 ,the ,po wu yao lan1 however1 explains that these wares were admitted by confusion into the category of ,kuan and ,ko wares1 and that the error has been handed down to this day4 ,probably it was the green variety which caused the confusion1 as there seems no reason why the black glazes should have been associated with the ,kuan class1 though the dark red clay of the ,phnix ,hill from which the ,hang ,chou ,kuan ware was made may have had some resemblance to the dark red brown body of the ,chien yao4 ,as for the ,lung-chan imitations1 we can only imagine that the statement refers to the later ,ko wares1 which are said to have been made with material brought from ,hang ,chou1#bhe and that their glaze1 too1 was of the green variety1 as would be expected in the ,lung-chan district1 the home of the green celadons4 ,at the same time it will be remembered that wu-ni yao means simply black clay ware1 and might have been fairly applied to any dark-bodied ware wheresoever made4 ,as already mentioned1 many fragments of pottery were included in the important finds made by ,sir ,aurel ,stein in his excavations in ,turfan4 ,unfortunately1 many of the sites have little evidential value1 because they have clearly been revisited at comparatively late periods2 but there are a few localities which ceased to be inhabited as early as the ,sung dynasty1 and which furnished fragments of glazed pottery and porcellanous wares4 ,i only mention those sites which1 as far as these finds are concerned1 were not vitiated by the occurrence of obviously recent wares4 ,on one site named ,ushaktal1 supposed to have been abandoned in the ,sung dynasty1 if not before1 were fragments of greenish brown celadon with combed ornament on the body1 such as was certainly made in ,corea and probably in ,china as well4 ,the same site produced opalescent glazes of the ,chn and ,yan type4 ,the site of ,vash-shahri1 which was occupied probably down to the eleventh or twelfth century1 produced a number of interesting fragments 7#a7 with buff and grey stoneware bodies and glazes of the opalescent ,chn and ,yan kinds1 7#b7 the same body with emerald green crackled glaze1 7#c7 celadon glazes over carved ornament1 7#d7 speckled olive brown glaze resembling the later tea dust1 7#e7 opaque dark brown glaze1 7#f7 speckled dark purplish brown glazes1 7#g7 thick greenish glaze evenly dappled with pale bluish grey spots4 ,early wares found on the mixed sites1 such as ,kan ,chou and ,hsi ,yung chng1 which were occupied down to ,sung times but evidently visited later1 include carved white porcelain and creamy white ware of the tu ,ting class1 and several kinds of ,tz ,chou wares1 the graffiato1 as well as the black painted4 ,but evidence from excavations of this kind is always open to the objection that the ruins may have been visited later1 and the broken pottery dropped by subsequent explorers4 ,this objection1 however1 cannot reasonably be offered to more than a small proportion of the objects found1 and these finds1 though not in themselves conclusive1 may be regarded1 at any rate1 as valuable corroboration of existing theories4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #bea3 ,chinese is an alternative form of ,chinese4 ,footnote #beb3 ,bk4 ii41 fol4 #g verso4 ,in discussing the glazes with mixed colour1 the author says3 ,of these wares1 the sword-grass bowls and their saucers alone are refined4 ,the other kinds1 like the garden seats1 boxes1 square vases1 and flower jars1 are all of yellow sandy earthenware4 ,consequently1 they are coarse and thick1 and not refined4 ,the first sentence is difficult1 and has given rise to much discussion4 ,the word ti1 which ,bushell has 7rightly1 ,i think7 rendered saucers1 literally means bottom or base4 ,hirth reads it1 ,those which have bottoms like the flower pots in which sword-grass is grown are considered the most excellent2 and ,julien appears to have quite misunderstood the application of the passage4 ,the original is ,chinese4 ,the shallow saucers in which the deep flower pots stood are often included among the bulb bowls4 ,see ,plates #cg and #dj4 ,footnote #bec3 ,see the excellent account of the ,chn wares by ,mrs4 ,williams in the introduction to the ,catalogue of a ,loan ,exhibition of ,chinese1 ,corean1 and ,japanese ,potteries held by the ,japan ,society of ,new ,york1 #aiad4 ,footnote #bed3 ,shrivelled glaze is sometimes seen on the ,chn types of pottery4 ,probably this was at first1 at any rate1 an accidental effect2 but it is the prototype of the dragon skin glazes which the ,japanese made at a later date4 ,there is a good example in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection of a bowl with thick grey ,chn glaze1 with a patch of reddish colour1 and which is shrivelled in the most approved fashion1 the glaze contracting into isolated drops and exposing the body between them4 ,footnote #bee3 ,see ,tao shuo1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #ae verso1 quoting the ,liu ching jih cha4 ,in the case of the former 7tu ss wn7 some confusion has been caused by a variant reading ,chinese of the word ,chinese 7tu hare71 which refers the simile to the dodder2 but the commoner phrase1 hare's fur marking1 is far more descriptive of a dappled surface4 ,brinkley's explanation of the second phrase1 huo yen ching1 as referring to the blue centre of a tongue of flame1 applying the simile to the passages of blue which sometimes occur in the variegated ,chn glazes1 seems to meet the case4 ,the flame-like effects are mentioned in an interesting passage in the ,tang chien kung tao yeh tu shuo 7quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #ac73 ,men prize the ,chn cups1 tripods1 and incense burners with smoke and flame glaze 7yen huan s74 ,although only pottery1 still they combine the unexpected colours produced by the blowing tube 7to yo74 ,the to yo ,chinese seems to have been a pipe for blowing up the furnace4 ,footnote #bef3 ,see ,hamilton ,bell1 ',imperial' ,sung ,pottery1 ,art in ,america1 ,july1 #aiac1 p4 #ahb4 ,the ,chinese numerals are given on p4 #baa4 ,footnote #beg3 ,cat4 ,b4,f4,a41 #aiaj1 ,b #db4 ,footnote #beh3 ,there is an obvious analogy in the size #c and ,s #b1 etc41 incised under the ,derby porcelain figures4 ,footnote #bei3 ,see p4 #ej4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,see ,chiang hsi tung chih1 vol4 xciii1 fol4 #aa and seq4 ,quoted also in the ,tao lu1 and translated by ,bushell1 ,o4,c4,a41 p4 #cfi2 and vol4 ii41 p4 #bbc1 of this work4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,wai hsin t ,chinese1 lit4 recently obtained from outside4 ,wai evidently contrasts here with nei 7the palace71 which precedes the first five4 ,julien1 however1 gives it the sense maux nouvellement invents4 ,footnote #bfb3 ,see ,tao lu1 bk4 vi41 fol4 #g4 ,as to the ware made at ,ching-t ,chn at the present day in imitation of the ,chn wares1 the body material is all of beautiful quality4 ,this carries the imitation up to the end of the eighteenth century4 ,there are1 however1 imitations made on a soft pottery body which bear the ,yung ,chng mark4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,see p4 #agd4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,see p4 #aha4 ,the list quoted on p4 #bbc of vol4 ii4 of the wares made at the ,imperial potteries in #agcj includes glazes of ,ou3 imitated from old wares of a man named ,ou4 ,there are two kinds1 one with red markings1 the other with blue4 ,footnote #bfe3 kua yu ,chinese applied or added glaze4 ,the significance of the epithet kua lies in the fact that the bulk of the ,yi-hsing ware was unglazed4 ,footnote #bff3 ,see ,bushell1 ,o4,c4,a41 p4 #cgd4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,see p4 #afh4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,november1 #aiji1 ,plate iv41 opp4 p4 #hc4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,see ,mrs4 ,williams1 loc4 cit41 p4 #cc4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,the modern ,y ,chou4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #bga3 ,op4 cit41 ,plate #a4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,by ,mr4 ,a4,w4 ,bahr4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,the name ,ma is supposed to be that of a potter1 but the statement is based on oral tradition only4 ,the character used is ma 7horse74 ,footnote #bgd3 ,it was deposited in the ,fitz,william ,museum by ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,caulfield in #ahif4 ,footnote #bge3 ,see p4 #aaj4 ,footnote #bgf3 ,the ,li ta kan kao ku ou pien1 of which the ,british ,museum possesses a copy dated #ahgg4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,the ,chin ting ku chin tu shu chi chng1 fol4 #aj of the subsection dealing with tao kung 7the pottery industry71 entitled ,tao kung pu hui kao4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,the ,ching yi lu1 quoted in the ,tao shuo1 bk4 v41 fol4 #af verso3 ,in ,min 7i4e4 ,fukien7 are made tea bowls with ornamental markings like the mottling and spots on a partridge 7ch ku pan74 ,the tea-testing parties prize them4 ,oddly enough1 the only specimen of this type of ware which ,i have seen with a date-mark was dated in the reign of ,hsien ,t 7#ied-ifj7 of the ,posterior ,chou dynasty2 but the inscription had been cut subsequently to the firing of the ware1 and carries little weight4 ,the piece in question is a remarkably large bottle-shaped vase with a splendid purplish black glaze with hare's fur marking1 in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,see ,tao lu1 bk4 vii41 fol4 #h verso4 ,footnote #bhj3 ,chinese tu hao chan4 ,footnote #bha3 ,tsai-hsiang1 quoted in the ,tao shuo1 bk4 v41 fol4 #af verso4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,the ,liu ching jih cha4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,chinese ,footnote #bhd3 ,in the ,liu ching jih cha4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,see p4 #gb4 ,,chapter ,x ,,mirabilia ,,many strange things are recorded by the early ,chinese writers in connection with pottery and porcelain1 and the tales are solemnly repeated from book to book1 though occasionally a less credulous author adds some such comment as ,this may be true1 or1 on the other hand1 it may not4 ,it is difficult1 however1 entirely to discredit the serious and circumstantial account given by a provincial governor of a curious custom which prevailed in his district4 ,fan ,ching-ta1 who was appointed administrator in ,kuang-si in #aagb1 tells#bhf us that the men of ,nan 7-ning ,fu7 practise nose-drinking4 ,they have pottery vessels such as cups and bowls from the side of which stands up a small tube like the neck of a bottle4 ,they apply the nose to this tube and draw up wine or hot fluids1 and in the summer months they drink water4 ,the vessels are called nose-drinking cups4 ,they say that water taken through the nose and swallowed is indescribably delicious4 ,the people of ,yung ,chou have already recorded the facts as ,i have done4 ,they grow a special kind of gourd for the purpose4 ,another extract from the same writer's works alludes to drums with contracted waist made of pottery in the villages of ,lin-kuei and ,chih-tien4 ,the village people made a speciality of the manufacture of this pottery 7yao71 and baked it to the correct musical tone4 ,on the glaze1 we are told1 they painted red flower patterns by way of ornament4 ,the allusion to painting in red on the glaze at this early period is interesting1 but it is quite likely that the designs were only in some unfired pigment4 ,some of the stories may be regarded merely as figurative descriptions of the superhuman skill of the artist in rendering life-movement4 ,thus we are told#bhg of four old porcelain 7tz7 bowls painted with coloured butterflies4 ,when water was poured in1 the butterflies floated on the surface of the water1 fluttering about as if alive4 ,it was an unnatural proceeding for butterflies in any case1 and we can quite understand why those who saw this1 all maintained secrecy and did not divulge it4 ,a somewhat similar poetic licence is taken by the same author in another passage with reference to certain cups and bowls1 apparently of the ,sung dynasty1 which were found in the ,kang ,hsi period on the site of an old temple4 ,the bowls had a minute wave pattern which moved and undulated as in a picture by ,wu ,tao-tz4 ,as for the cups1 when a little water was poured into them four fishes arose out of the sides and swam and dived4 ,but most curious of all were the ,chinese views on the subject of furnace transmutations 7yao pien7 and the fables which sprang from them4 ,at the present day the strange behaviour of metallic oxides1 notably copper1 under certain firing conditions1 is well known and turned to good account4 ,but in early times1 when the unexpected happened1 and a glaze which contained an infinitesimal quantity of copper oxide was accidentally subjected to an oxidising or reducing atmosphere in the kiln 7by the admission of air or smoke at the critical moment71 instead of coming out a uniform colour1 was streaked and mottled all over with red1 green and blue1 or locally splashed with crimson or mixed colour1 the potters saw in the phenomenon something supernatural4 ,it was a terrifying portent1 and on one occasion1 we are told1 they broke the wares immediately1 and on another they even destroyed the kilns and fled to another place4 ,however1 the irregular formation of the ,chinese kilns greatly favoured these accidental effects1 and in time they became comparatively common1 so that these true furnace transmutations were taken for granted2 and though they were not clearly understood before the end of the ,kang ,hsi period1 fairly rational explanations of them were offered by some of the late ,ming writers4 ,thus the curious splashes of contrasting colour which appeared on the ,kuan1 ,ko and ,chn wares were attributed to the fire's magical transmutation4 ,in these cases only a partial transmutation had taken place1 affecting the glaze alone4 ,but the idea of transmutation in the fire was carried farther in the ,chinese imagination1 and stories grew of cases in which the vessel throughout was changed and became wonderful4 ,su ,tung-po has1 for instance1 left a poem on a vase organ1 in the preface of which it is related#bhh that in the year #aajj ,a4,d41 while they were drinking at a farewell banquet to ,liu ,chi-chung1 they heard the sounds of an organ and flute1 and that on investigation it was discovered that the sounds came out of a pair of vases1 and that they stopped when the meal was over4 ,another story of the ,sung dynasty tells of a wonderful basin in which the moisture remaining after it had been emptied displayed1 when frozen1 a fresh pattern every day4 ,at first it was a spray of peach blossom1 then a branch of peony with two flowers1 then a winter landscape1 with water and villages of bamboo houses1 wild geese flying1 and herons standing upon one leg4 ,the story of the self-warming cups told by an early ,sung writer#bhi evidently belongs to the realm of pure fiction3 ,in the treasury of ,tien ,pao 7#gdb ,a4,d47 there were green 7ching7 ware 7tz7 wine cups with markings like tangled silk4 ,they were thin as paper4 ,when wine was poured into them it gradually grew warm4 ,then it had the appearance of steaming1 and next of boiling4 ,hence the name 'self-warming cups4' ,scarcely less marvellous is the incident recorded in the ,y chang ta shih chi1 written about #aded4bij ,at the time when the temple of the god 7of pottery7 was in existence1 an ,imperial order was given to ,ching-t ,chn to make a wind-screen2 but it was not successful1 and was changed in the kiln into a bed six feet long and one foot high4 ,at the second attempt it was again changed and became a boat three feet long4 ,inside the boat were the various fittings all complete4 ,the officials of the prefecture and district all saw it4 ,but it was pounded to pieces with a pestle1 for they did not dare to let it go to court4 ,another story#bia tells how ,chia and ,i 7,john ,doe and ,richard ,roe7 when hunting were led in pursuit of a wounded hare into an ancient tomb in the mountains1 where they found a large jar containing two white porcelain vases and an ink slab4 ,chia broke one of the vases1 but ,i stopped any further vandalism and carried the other specimens home4 ,he used the vase for flowers1 but for several days he noticed an1 emanation from within issuing from the ,yin yn 7generative power of nature7 like a vapour of cloud4 ,being puzzled1 he tried plucking the stalks of the flowers1 and found that they contained no moisture1 and yet the plants did not wither4 ,moreover1 the buds kept strong1 as if they had rooted in the clay of the vase4 ,so he began to be astonished at the vase1 regarding it as a kind of yao pien4 ,one day1 during a great storm of wind and rain1 suddenly there was a flash and a peal of thunder1 and the vase was shaken to pieces4 ,i was very much alarmed and distressed4 ,the ,yang hsien ming hu hsi speaks of instances in which the ,yi-hsing teapots were affected in a peculiar way1 the ware changing from drab to rosy red when filled with tea2 and we have already seen that ,hsiang ,yan-p'ien illustrates in his ,album examples of this1 which he solemnly assures us he would not have believed had he not seen it happen before his eyes4 ,in all these cases the ware was supposed to have been completely changed in the kiln and to have acquired supernatural properties4 ,the magic of the god had entered into the ware in the firing and had not left it4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #bhf3 ,in the ,kuei hai y hng chih1 quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #b verso4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,in the ,ning chai tsung hua1 quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #d4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,see ,tao shuo1 ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #bhi3 ,in the ,yn99 hsien tsa chi1 quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #a verso4 ,footnote #bij3 ,quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 viii41 fols4 #ab and #ac4 ,footnote #bia3 ,from the ,erh shih lu1 quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #ae4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,porcelain ,,and ,,its ,,beginnings ,,the reader will have noticed that the word porcelain1 which was avoided in the discussion of the earlier periods1 has insensibly crept into the chapters which deal with the ,sung wares4 ,it was no longer right or proper that it should be excluded1 and it is high time that our attitude on the interesting question of its origin was defined4 ,unfortunately1 that attitude is still--and must necessarily remain--one of doubt and uncertainty1 but we can at least clear away some of the existing misapprehensions on the subject4 ,the myth which carried back the manufacture of porcelain some eighteen centuries before our era has been definitely discredited1 and the snuff bottles supposed to have been found in ancient ,egyptian tombs which gave rise to the idea are now known to be of quite modern make4 ,the more modest computation which placed the invention in the ,han dynasty 7#bjf ,b4,c4 to #bbj ,a4,d47 might have been almost as lightly dismissed had not ,dr4 ,bushell1 after disposing of the theory in his ,oriental ,ceramic ,art#bib in #ahii1 seen fit to reverse his decision in later publications4#bic ,the reasons given for this later attitude are on the surface so convincing that it is necessary to consider them in detail and to examine the authorities on which they are based4 ,bushell's statement runs as follows3 ,it is generally agreed that porcelain was first made in ,china1 but authorities differ widely in fixing a date for its invention4 ,the ,chinese attribute its invention to the ,han dynasty1 when a new character tz' was coined to designate1 presumably1 a new substance4 ,the official memoir on ',porcelain ,administration' in the topography of ,fou-liang1 the first edition of which was published in #abgj1 says that according to local tradition the ceramic works at ,hsin-p'ing 7an old name of ,fou-liang7 were founded in the time of the ,han dynasty1 and had been in constant operation ever since4 ,this is confirmed by ,t'ang ,ying1 the celebrated superintendent of the ,imperial potteries1 appointed in #agbh1 who states in his autobiography that the result of his researches shows that porcelain was first made during the ,han dynasty at ,ch'ang-nan 7,ching-t ,chn71 in the district of ,fou-liang4 ,from this and the passages immediately following it is clear that ,bushell at that time leant strongly to the ,han theory1 which he had previously discarded1 for three reasons1 which we shall now examine4 ,the first rests on the character tz'4 ,whether the character tz' was coined to designate a new substance in the ,han dynasty is by no means certain4 ,it undoubtedly appears in the ,han dictionary1 the ,shuo ,wn1 but with the meagre definition pottery ware1#bid and without any further indication of its nature4 ,the second is based on a passage in the ,annals of ,fou-liang1 which on examination proves to contain only the general word t'ao 7ware7 and not the character tz' at all4 ,the actual passage runs3 ,the manufacture of pottery 7t'ao7 at ,hsin-p'ing began in the ,han dynasty4 ,speaking generally1 this pottery was strong1 heavy1 and coarse1 being fashioned of rich clay with moisture added1 after methods handed down from the ancients4 ,the third invokes the authority of ,t'ang ,ying1 but on reference to the autobiography of this distinguished ceramist in the ,chiang hsi t'ung chih1 we again find reference only to t'ao and not to tz'1 viz4 ,it 7t'ao7 is not the growth of one day4 ,research shows that it began in the ,han dynasty and was transmitted through succeeding generations4 ,its place 7of manufacture7 changed 7from time to time71 but it flourished at ,ch'ang-nan4 ,one obvious place for ,t'ang's research would be the ,annals of ,fou-liang1 and ,i shrewdly suspect that his conclusions were based on the very passage quoted above1 of which his words give a clear echo4 ,but in any case1 neither passage has any bearing on the origin of porcelain unless we assume that t'ao is the same as tz'1 and that both words definitely mean porcelain1 an assumption which is not only quite unwarranted but in any case begs the whole question4 ,the ,chinese words used at the present day for porcelain are tz'1 t'ao1 and yao1 all of considerable antiquity1 though their forms have undergone various changes and their meaning has been modified from time to time to keep pace with the evolution of the ware4 ,the word tz' ,chinese1 as we have seen1 was defined in the ,han dictionary as merely pottery ware4 ,its modern definition is a hard1 fine-grained variety of t'ao1 and if we add to this the quality of resonance--i4e4 of emitting a musical note when struck--we have all the requirements of porcelain according to the ,chinese definition4 ,the synonym ,chinese1 containing the radical ,chinese shih 7a stone71 which is also pronounced tz'1 has come in the last two centuries to be used interchangeably with the older word ,chinese1 in spite of the protests of eighteenth-century purists4#bie ,the word t'ao ,chinese is a term even more comprehensive than our word china4 ,in the ,han dictionary it appeared in the form ,chinese t'ao or yao 7previously pronounced fou71 composed of ,chinese fou 7earthenware7 and the radical ,chinese pao 7to wrap71 and its meaning was kiln1 and by extension the products of the kiln4 ,at that time the word in its modern form was only used as a proper name4 ,the third character yao 7the ,japanese yaki7 is precisely synonymous with t'ao1 meaning first a kiln and then wares of any kind4 ,in its form ,chinese it occurs in the ,han dictionary2 another form is ,chinese1 which1 according to a ,sung writer1#bif dates from the ,t'ang period1 and a third form ,chinese is current in modern dictionaries4 ,in short1 the ,chinese terms are all of a general and comprehensive kind1 capable of embracing pottery1 stoneware1 and porcelain impartially1 and there is no single ,chinese word which corresponds to our precise term porcelain4 ,under these circumstances it is clear that no theory on the origin of porcelain can be based merely on the occurrence of any of these words in early ,chinese texts4 ,still less can any such theory be constructed from the very promiscuous use of the word porcelain in ,european translations1 and it is a thousand pities that both ,julien and ,bushell were not more discriminating in this matter1 or that they did not always 7as ,julien sometimes and ,professor ,hirth usually did7 give the ,chinese character in parentheses when any reasonable doubt could exist4 ,had this been done we should have been spared misleading references to two porcelain cups of the ,han dynasty1#big and such loose writing#bih as ,in the ,wei dynasty 7#bba-bfd ,a4,d47 which succeeded the ,han we read of a glazed celadon ware made at ,lo ,yang for the use of the palace1 and in the ,chin dynasty 7#bfe-dai7 we have the first mention of blue porcelain produced at ,wn-chou1 in the province of ,chehkiang1 the progenitor of the sky-blue glazes tinted with cobalt1 which afterwards became so famous4 ,the glazed celadon1 needless to say1 is purely conjectural1 pottery 7t'ao7 vessels being all that is specified in the passage on which the statement is obviously based2 and the blue porcelain is evidently no other than the p'iao tz' 7mentioned by the poet ,p'an ,yo and discussed on p4 #af71 which is better rendered green ware4#bii ,the same kind of criticism applies to all the other references in early writers until we reach the ,sui dynasty 7#eha-fag ,a4,d474 ,in the annals of this period there is a much discussed passage in which it is stated that the art of making a substance known as liu-li#cjj had been lost in ,china1 and that the workmen did not dare to experiment1 but that one ,ho ,ch'ou ,chinese1 a connoisseur in pictures and antiquities1 succeeded in making it with green ware 7l tz'71 and that his imitations were not distinguishable from the original substance4 ,to understand the full import of this passage it is necessary to explain the nature of liu-li1 and this is fortunately made quite clear by the author of the ,t'ao shuo in a commentary so interesting that ,i give it in full3 ,i find that liu-li comes from the countries of ,huang-chih1 ,ss-t'iao and ,jih-nan4#cja ,that produced in ,ta-ch'in 7the eastern provinces of the ,roman ,empire7 is in ten colours--pink1 white1 black1 yellow1 blue1 green1 deep purple1 deep blue 7or green71 red1 and brown4 ,liu-li was originally a natural substance4#cjb ,yen ,shih-ku1#cjc commenting in the ,annals of the ,han ,dynasty1 says1 ',at the present time they commonly use molten stones1 adding a number of chemicals and then pouring the substance 7into moulds7 and forming it2 but it is unsubstantial1 brittle1 and not a successful casting4' ,in the ,northern ,wei dynasty1 in the reign of ,t'ai ,wu 7#dbd-dea ,a4,d471 a man of the ,ta ,yeh-chih#cjd who came to trade at the capital1 said he could make liu-li by melting stones4 ,eventually he collected the ore and made it 7liu-li71 and the finished article surpassed the original in its brilliance and colour4 ,the method has been handed down to the present day1 and it was probably only an accidental intermission which occurred in the ,sui dynasty4 ,but the ,chinese castings are brittle in substance1 and when hot wine is poured into them they fly to pieces in the hand4 ,what a pity the ,yeh-chih method has been handed down instead of ,ch'ou's6 ,the allusions to melting stones1 casting1 etc41 in this passage leave no doubt that the liu-li1 as made in ,china1 was a kind of glass1 imitating a natural stone4#cje ,it is1 in fact1 usually translated in the dictionaries as opaque glass1 and in connection with pottery it has the sense of glaze--e4g4 liu li wa glazed pottery4 ,we can now return to ,ho ,ch'ou1 who took green ware and made liu-li4#cjf ,it has been thought that what he made must have been a kind of porcelain1 but there is no indication of any such achievement1 for though it is possible to make an artificial porcelain with glass as a constituent1 the converse is not true3 you cannot make glass out of either pottery or porcelain4 ,the most probable explanation of the passage seems to be that ,ho ,chou 7who was apparently not a potter7 experimented at some pottery with the materials used in glazing the green ware1 and found that he could make a very good glass 7liu-li7 with the potter's green glaze1 and perhaps other ingredients1 a result which is in no way surprising1 seeing that the softer ceramic glazes have a very close affinity to glass4 ,but no further inferences can be drawn from this passage1 and it is not even clear that ,ho ,chou made a ceramic ware at all4 ,all we are told is that he made liu-li4 ,i have rather laboured this negative point1 because ,professor ,zimmermann has published a declaration of belief that ,ho ,chou was the discoverer of porcelain4#cjg ,apart from the obvious criticism which the writer himself anticipates1 that such an epoch-making discovery would hardly have escaped the notice of ,ho ,chou's biographer1 ,professor ,zimmermann opens his case with a fundamental error1 for which he has to thank ,dr4 ,bushell4 ,it is true that he only names ,julien as the source of his information1 but his version of the story of ,ho ,chou is taken verbatim from ,bushell's ,oriental ,ceramic ,art1#cjh where the crucial passage is unfortunately rendered but he 7,ho ,chou7 succeeded in making vessels of green porcelain which could not be distinguished from true glass4 ,this mistranslation puts an entirely different complexion on the passage1 and goes a long way to justify ,professor ,zimmermann's inferences that ,chou made a glassy ware of the nature of porcelain4 ,it is an instructive instance of the pitfalls which beset the student of ,chinese subjects1 especially when he has to rely on other people's translations4 ,strange to say1 a similar mistranslation occurs in ,dr4 ,hirth's short but excellent treatise on ,ancient ,chinese ,porcelain1#cji in a passage which is nevertheless of great importance to our quest4 ,it has been the custom with ,chinese compilers of reference works to incorporate the material of previous editions1 adding their own commentaries and any further information which happened to have reached them1 and to this we are indebted for the preservation of many passages from ancient writers which would otherwise be extremely difficult of access4 ,thus ,hirth found embalmed in the ,sung ,pharmacopia two early references to the material pai o ,chinese which he shows to be without doubt the kaolinic earth used in the manufacture of porcelain1 and which1 like many other strange materials1 entered into ,chinese medicinal prescriptions4 ,the first mention of this substance is taken from the writings of ,tao ,yin-ch1 who died in #ecf ,a4,d41 to the effect that the pai o1 besides being used in medicines1 was employed at that time for painting pictures2 and ,hirth argues that so celebrated a writer on scientific subjects as ,tao ,yin-ch could not have failed to note it if the pai o had been in general use for ceramic purposes as well4 ,this is followed by a quotation from the ,tang ,pharmacopia 7compiled about #fej ,a4,d473 ,it 7pai o7 is now used for painter's work1 and rarely enters into medicinal prescriptions2 during recent generations it has been prepared from white ware#caj 7tz74 ,by rendering the last sentence during recent generations it has been used to make white porcelain1 ,hirth invested the passage with a greater interest than it actually possesses4 ,but even when stripped of this fictitious importance1 it constitutes the first literary evidence we have of the use of kaolin by ,chinese potters4 ,this is followed by another quotation from the ,tang ,pharmacopia recommending for medicinal purposes a powder prepared from the white ware of ,ting ,chou4#caa ,whether we are to understand that the ,chinese pharmacist ground up broken pieces of ,ting ware or merely made use of the refined and purified clay obtained at the potteries1 matters little4 ,neither proceeding would be without parallel in ,europe in far later times than the ,tang period4 ,but the specific reference to white ,ting ware at this early date is most interesting in view of the fact that ,ting ,chou was celebrated in the ,sung dynasty for a white ware which is undoubtedly a kind of porcelain4 ,the presence of a kaolin-like material in a dark-coloured ware1 probably of the third century1 which was disclosed by the analysis made by ,mr4 ,nicholls in ,chicago1 has already been recorded 7p4 #ae74 ,we have no means of ascertaining what length of time elapsed before a white material of this nature was evolved1 but it was clearly in existence in the beginning of the sixth century4 ,possibly it was not porcelain according to the strict ,european definition1 but there is every reason to suppose that it was a hard white ware1 such as the ,chinese would not hesitate to include in their porcelain category4 ,such a ware appears on some of the funeral vases which may safely be referred to the early ,tang period 7see p4 #bf71 and in default of other evidence ,i think we can say that porcelain in the ,chinese sense already existed at the end of the ,sui dynasty4#cab ,though this period happens to coincide with the lifetime of ,ho ,chou1 neither his name nor any other has been associated with the event by the ,chinese1 and it is highly probable that porcelain only came into being by a process of evolution from pottery and stoneware1 the critical moment arriving with the discovery of deposits of kaolinic earth4 ,as a mere speculation1 ,i would suggest that the deposits were those at ,han tan1 the modern ,tz ,chou1 which supplied material for the ,ting ,chou potters4#cac ,it is1 at any rate1 significant that the new name1 which we are led to suppose was derived from the tz stone1#cad was given to that place in the ,sui dynasty4 ,numerous literary references from this time onwards have already been quoted which are highly suggestive of porcelain4 ,the false jade vessels of ,tao ,y in the early years of the seventh century2 the eighth-century tea bowls of ,yu ,chou and ,hsing ,chou which were compared respectively to jade and ice1 to silver and snow1 the former being green and the latter white4 ,the twelve cups used for musical chimes by ,kuo ,tao-yan2 the white bowls immortalised by the poet ,tu of ware 7tz7 baked at ,ta-yi1 light but strong1 which gives out a note like jade when struck4 ,the quality of translucency which in ,europe#cae is regarded as distinctive of porcelain is never emphasised in ,chinese descriptions4 ,i can find no mention of it in any of the earlier writings1#caf and the first unmistakable literary evidence of its existence#cag comes from a foreign source4 ,the ,arab traveller1 ,soleyman1 who describes his experiences in ,china in the ninth century1 states that they had a fine clay 7ghdar7 from which bowls were made1 and in the transparency of the vessels the light of the water was visible2 and they were 7made of7 fine clay4#cah ,this statement practically proves the existence of translucent porcelain in the ,tang dynasty1 and we confidently await the arrival of specimens from ,chinese excavations4 ,some of the export porcelains of the time have been actually unearthed at ,samarra on the ,euphrates by ,professor ,sarre1#cai of the ,kaiser ,friederik ,museum1 ,berlin1 and they include 7#a7 bowls of gummy white porcelain with unglazed gritty base2 7#b7 greenish white ware2 7#c7 yellowish white with small crackle2 and 7#d7 a pure white porcelain with relief designs1 such as birds and fishes1 under the glaze4 ,other pottery found on that site included mottled ware of typical ,tang type1 and a creamy white of the ,tz ,chou type with brown spots4#cbj ,from considerations of form and the general character of the ware1 ,i am inclined to regard three specimens in ,plates #dd and #de as belonging to the ,tang period4 ,fig4 #a of ,plate #dd has a thin ivory white glaze running in gummy drops and clouded with pinkish buff staining outside and with a reddish discoloration within4 ,fig4 #b of the same ,plate is remarkable in many ways4 ,it is so thin as to seem to consist of little else but glaze1 and is consequently almost as translucent as glass4 ,the colour of the glaze is pearly white powdered with tiny specks1 and the crackle is clearly marked4 ,the base is flat and discloses a dry white body of fine grain4 ,but its most conspicuous feature is the arresting beauty of its outline1 which recalls some choice specimen of ,grco-,roman glass1 and displays a classic feeling frequently observed in ,tang pottery and in the ,corean wares which owe so much to ,tang models4 ,fig4 #b1 ,plate #de1 shows the celebrated phnix ewer belonging to ,mr4 ,eumorfopoulos which has proved so difficult to classify4#cba ,it is a white porcellanous ware translucent in the thinner parts1 and the glaze is of light greenish grey with a tendency to blue in places4 ,the form and ornament show strong analogies with specimens of ,tang pottery4 ,the neck1 for instance1 may be compared with ,fig4 #b of ,plate #ad2 the phnix head and the foliate mouth with ,fig4 #a of ,plate #i1 and the carved ornament on the body with ,fig4 #c of ,plate #ad4 ,among the ,sung wares many of the white ,ting specimens are found to be translucent in their thinner parts1 and these may be fairly regarded as porcelain proper4 ,a considerable number of other white porcelains have come over of late under the description of ,sung wares1 and many of them are certainly early enough in form and style to belong to that period4 ,they are true hard porcelain1 translucent1 and of a creamy white colour4 ,being for the most part without decoration1 they can only be judged by their forms1 and in view of the conservative habits of the ,chinese1 it would be rash to assert too emphatically their ,sung origin4 ,yan and even early ,ming dates are suggested by the more cautious critics2 but the possibility of a ,sung origin having been established1 ,i am inclined to give the evidence of form its full weight4 ,there are1 besides these1 other well-defined types of translucent porcelain which may confidently be attributed to a period as early as the ,sung1 but here the possibility--nay1 probability--of a ,corean origin has to be considered4 ,it is certain that many of them have been found in ,corean tombs2 the provenance of the rest is doubtful4 ,one type is a delicious smooth white porcelain with glaze of faintly bluish tinge1 highly translucent1 and worked very thin at the edges4 ,the base of the vessels 7usually small shallow bowls or saucers7 is unglazed1 and shows a soft-looking sugary body of close texture1 rather earthy than glassy1 and slightly browned by the fire4 ,they have1 in fact1 almost the appearance of a soft-paste porcelain like that of ,chelsea4 ,these are so different from any known ,chinese type that ,i strongly incline to a ,corean origin for them4 ,another type is of hard but translucent ware with glaze of distinctly bluish tinge4 ,a bowl in the ,british ,museum is a good example of this4 ,of the usual conical form1 it has a plain outside1 and the inside is decorated with an incised design of not very clear meaning1 but apparently a close foliage ground with highly formalised figures of boys4 ,if this interpretation is correct1 it is a conventional rendering of the well-known pattern of boys in foliage1 ,chinese in origin1 but frequently used by the ,corean potters4 ,the design ends in ,corean fashion1 about an inch below the rim1 leaving a plain band above it4 ,the glaze is a faint bluish colour all over1 and is powdered with specks1 a fault in the firing2 the base is almost entirely unglazed1 and the biscuit1 where exposed1 has turned reddish brown4 ,the style of this piece is strongly ,corean4 ,the same peculiarities in the base are shared by another type of small bowl1 usually decorated inside with a sketchy design in combed lines4 ,some of these are creamy white2 others are bluish white with a decided blue tinge in the well of the bowl where the glaze has formed thickly4#cbb ,another group1 which is also said to be represented among the ,corean tomb wares1 is practically indistinguishable from the creamy white ,ting ,chou porcelain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #dd4--;,early ,translucent ,porcelain1 probably ,tang dynasty4 ,fig4 #a4--;,cinquefoil ,cup with ivory glaze clouded with pinkish buff stains4 ,diameter #c inches4 ,breuer ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase of white1 soft-looking ware1 very thin and translucent with pearly white1 crackled glaze powdered with brown specks4 ,height #c inches4 ,peters ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #de4--,tang and ,sung ,wares4 ,fig4 #a4--,square ,vase with engraved lotus scrolls and formal borders4 ,tu-ting ware1 ,sung dynasty4 ,height #bj inches4 ,peters ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--;,ewer with phnix head1 slightly translucent porcelain with light greenish grey glaze with tinges of blue in the thicker parts2 carved designs4 ,probably ,tang dynasty4 ,height #ae inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,the whole question of these interesting porcelains is complicated by the fact that the ,coreans were admittedly indebted to the ,ting ,chou potters for many of their designs2#cbc and by the fact that while close intercourse between ,china and ,corea existed the ,coreans may well have imported ,chinese wares and deposited some of them in the tombs4 ,an authentic find of these porcelains in a ,chinese tomb would give important evidence on this point1 but so far there is no evidence of their being found in ,china beyond the statement of traders1 and it is quite certain that they have been found in ,corean tombs4 ,it may be added that the ,japanese class them as hakugorai or white ,corean ware1 and stoutly support their ,corean origin4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #bib3 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #ag-bj4 ,footnote #bic3 ,chinese ,art1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ag1 and the ,catalogue of the ,morgan ,collection 7#aijg71 p4 xlviii4 ,footnote #bid3 ,chinese wa ch'i yeh4 ,the ,shuo ,wn was compiled by ,hs ,shn and published first in #abj ,a4,d4 ,the word tz' ,chinese is compounded of the radical wa ,chinese 7a tile1 earthenware71 and the phonetic tz' ,chinese 7second1 inferior71 and carries no inherent suggestion of porcelain4 ,if connoting a new material1 it may be a name applied specially to glazed pottery which seems to date from the ,han period1 or even to stoneware as opposed to soft earthenware or brick4 ,footnote #bie3 ,thus the author of the ,t'ang shih ss k'ao 7quoted in the ,t'ao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #i verso73 ,the characters ,chinese and ,chinese are not interchangeable4 ,the latter is a hard and fine kind of t'ao4 ,the material from which it is made is clay4 ,the former ,chinese1 on the other hand1 is the name of a real stone which comes from the ancient ,han-tan1 which is the modern ,tz' ,chou4 ,this department has potteries in which they use the tz' stone for the body of the ware4 ,hence the name ,tz' ch'i 7,tz' wares71 not that the ware from the potteries of this place is all porcelain4 ,i hear that at ,ching-t ,chn the common usage is to employ the character ,chinese for porcelain in writing and speaking4 ,i have consulted friends whom ,i meet1 and many use the two terms interchangeably4 ,truly this is altogether ridiculous4 ,tz' ,chou is still making pottery at the present day4 ,for the ,tz' ,chou pottery1 see ch4 viii4 ,footnote #bif3 ,yeh chih1 quoted in the ,t'ao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #ac recto4 ,footnote #big3 ,t'ao shuo1 translated by ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #ie4 ,footnote #bih3 ,bushell1 ,chinese ,art1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #bii3 ,see ,t'ao shuo 7,bushell1 op4 cit41 pp4 #ig and #ii74 ,see also bk4 ix41 fol4 #a verso1 where the passage from the ,annals of the ,sui ,dynasty is quoted4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,chinese ,see ,t'ao shuo1 bk4 iv41 fol4 #ag recto and verso4 ,footnote #cja3 ,the first two are apparently unidentified1 but ,jih-nan is ,cochin ,china1 whither1 no doubt1 the substance came as an article of trade4 ,footnote #cjb3 ,early writers refer to it as pi liu li1 which is a transcription of the ,sanskrit ,vaidurya1 a stone supposed to be of the beryl type1 but the identification is a matter of dispute4 ,see ,laufer1 ,jade1 p4 #aaa1 footnote4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,a seventh-century writer4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,the ,ta ,yeh-chih have been identified with the ,massaget1 who in the fifth century were in possession of ,afghanistan4 ,see ,bushell1 ,t'ao shuo1 op4 cit41 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #cje3 ,the substance is discussed at length in connection with pi-liu-li by ,laufer 7,jade1 pp4 #aji-aab71 but this author seems very loath to admit the meaning glass for liu-li1 though he allows that it is a common term for ceramic glaze4 ,but the passage quoted above from the ,t'ao shuo can hardly be explained in any other way than in reference to a kind of glass4 ,footnote #cjf3 ,the exact words of the text are ,chinese 7,ch'ou i l tz' wei chih y chn wu i74 ,ch'ou took green ware and made it 7liu-li7 not different from the real4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,orientalisches ,archiv1 ,bd4 ii41 #aiaa1 and ,chinesisches ,porzellan1 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bj4 ,dr4 ,bushell1 in his translation of the ,tao shuo1 has given the more correct rendering1 ,chou made some 7i4e4 liu-li7 of green porcelain4 ,footnote #cji3 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #c and #d4 ,footnote #caj3 ,chinese ,chin tai i pai tz wei chih in recent generations with white ware they make it4 ,footnote #caa3 ,chinese ,ting chou pai tz4 ,for the ,ting ,chou ware1 see ch4 vii4 ,footnote #cab3 ,pre d',entrecolles 7in his letter dated from ,ching-t ,chn in #agab7 makes the statement that the district of ,ching-t ,chn sent regular supplies of its ware1 which he terms porcelain1 to the ,emperor from the second year of the reign of ,tam ou te 7sic74 ,though he gives the date as #dbb1 it is clear that he really refers to the first ,emperor1 ,wu ,t1 of the ,tang dynasty 7#fah-fbg ,a4,d474 ,it is not clear how he arrived at the conclusion that the ware in question was porcelain1 and as he refers to the ,annals of ,fou-liang as his authority1 we may assume that the ,chinese phrase contained the inconclusive term tz4 or tao4 ,he adds that nothing is said as to the inventor1 nor to what experiments or accident the invention was due4 ,footnote #cac3 ,see p4 #aja4 ,footnote #cad3 ,see p4 #adb4 ,footnote #cae3 ,the ,european definition of porcelain may be stated thus3 ,porcelain comprises all varieties of pottery which are made translucent by adding to the clay substances some natural or artificial fluxing material4 ,in ,china the usual constituents are kaolin1 which forms the clay substance1 and petuntse 7china stone71 which is the natural fluxing material4 ,i should add that it is doubtful whether we are strictly justified in using the word kaolin as a general name for porcelain earth 7o tu72 but the term has been consecrated by usage1 and has practically passed into our language in this sense4 ,a slight translucency is observable near the rim on a white ,tang cup in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,the body of this piece is a soft white material1 and the translucency is caused by a mingling of the glaze with the body where it is very thin1 and it may be compared with the translucency of the ,persian gombroon ware4 ,but neither of these wares can be ranked as porcelain proper4 ,footnote #caf3 ,it is1 however1 mentioned in connection with some of the ,sung wares 7the ,kuan1 for example71 but only in relation to the glaze4 ,footnote #cag3 ,it is true that ,bushell1 in his translation of the ,tao shuo 7op4 cit41 p4 #ajb7 implies this quality in a brown ware 7tz7 bowl sent as tribute by the ,po-hai in #hda ,a4,d4 which is described as translucent both inside and outside1 of a pure brown colour1 half an inch thick but as light as swan's down4 ,the words of the text ,chinese nei wai tung jung 7inside and out throughout lustrous7 are in themselves capable of suggesting translucence1 but the remaining features--the brown glaze and the great thickness--are sufficient to preclude the idea of a translucent ware2 and ,i imagine that the quality of lustre or translucency here applies only to the glaze4 ,the ,po-hai appear to have been a subject state of ,corea4 ,footnote #cah3 ,i am indebted for this literal translation of the much-quoted passage to ,mr4 ,edwards1 of the ,oriental ,,mss4 ,department of the ,british ,museum4 ,it has been more freely rendered by ,m4 ,reinaud1 ,relation des voyages faits par les ,arabes1 etc41 ,paris1 #ahde1 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #cai3 ,see ,f4 ,sarre1 ,kleinfunde von ,samarra und ihre ,ergebnisse1 in ,islam1 ,july1 #aiad4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,fragments of white porcelain with carved designs were found in some of the sites excavated by ,sir ,aurel ,stein in ,turfan1 and there are fragments similar to the ,samarra finds obtained from ancient sites in the ,persian ,gulf and now in the ,british ,museum4 ,but the evidence of these pieces is not conclusive1 for the sites were inhabited for many centuries4 ,that of ,samarra1 on the other hand1 is most important1 for the city was only of a mushroom growth1 which began and ended in the ninth century4 ,see also p4 #acd4 ,footnote #cba3 ,see ,cat4 ,b4,f4,a41 #aiaj1 ,a #dc4 ,footnote #cbb3 ,see ,cat4 ,b4,f4,a41 #aiaj1 ,f #i and #ad4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,see passage from ,hs ,ching's notes1 p4 #ci4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,ching-,t ,,ch,n ,,ching-,t ,,ch,n1 the metropolis of the ceramic world1 whose venerable and glorious traditions outshine ,meissen and ,svres and all the little lights of ,europe1 and leave them eclipsed and obscure1 is an unwalled town or mart 7chn7 on the left bank of the ,chang ,river1 which flows into the ,po-yang ,lake1 on the northern border of the province of ,kiangsi4 ,in ancient times it was known as ,chang-nan ,chn1 the mart on the south of the ,chang1 but when the ,sung ,emperor ,chn ,tsung commanded that officially manufactured porcelain 7kuan chih tz7 should be sent to the capital1 and that the workmen should inscribe the pieces with the nien hao or name of the period1 which in this case was ,ching ,t 7#ajjd-ajjg71 the name of the place was changed to ,ching-t ,chn4 ,the district town is ,fou-liang1 seven miles higher up the river1 a place of relatively small importance1 but the residence of the district magistrate2 and both ,fou-liang and ,ching-t ,chn are within the prefectural jurisdiction of ,jao ,chou ,fu1 which is situated near the mouth of the ,chang4 ,the wares of ,ching-t ,chn are distributed by various routes1 some overland to ,chi-mn or to ,wu-yuan and thence to ,hang ,chou1 ,su ,chou1 ,shanghai1 etc42 the rest by boat down the ,chang1 and thence either to ,kiu-kiang on the ,yangtze for further dispatch to ,chin-kiang and northwards via the ,grand ,canal1 or to the south-west corner of the lake and up the estuary of the ,kan ,river to ,nan-,chang ,fu4 ,from this latter town they could be carried by water 7with an interruption of thirty miles of road7 all the way to ,canton4 ,they are known under various names in ,chinese books--,chn yao1 ,ching-t yao1 ,fou-liang yao1 ,jao ,chou yao1 ,jao yao1 ,chang-nan yao1 and ,nan-chang yao--all of which are easily explicable from the foregoing paragraph4 ,the old name of ,fou-liang was ,hsin-ping1 and according to the ,annals of ,fou-liang the manufacture of pottery#cbd was traditionally held to have begun in the district of ,hsin-ping in the ,han dynasty4 ,in the same passage the development of the local industry is traced by means of a few significant incidents4 ,in the first year of ,chih ,t in the ,chn dynasty 7#ehc ,a4,d47 the potters of the district were called upon to provide plinths for the ,imperial buildings at ,chien-kang 7afterwards ,nanking71 but the plinths1 when finished1 though cleverly made1 were not strong enough to carry the weight of the columns4 ,in the fourth 7or1 according to another reading1 the second7 year of ,wu ,t of the ,tang dynasty 7#fba ,a4,d471 porcelain jade#cbe was offered as tribute to the ,emperor under the name of false jade vessels 7chia y chi71 and from this time forward the duty 7of supplying the ,emperor7 became an institution1#cbf and a potter named ,ho ,chung-chu gained a great reputation4 ,in the ,ching ,t period of the ,sung dynasty1 as already stated1 officially manufactured porcelain was sent to the capital1 where it supplied the needs of the palaces and great establishments4 ,in the ,tai ,ting period of the ,yan dynasty 7#acbd-acbg7 the porcelain factory came under the inspection of the ,intendant of the ,circuit1 who supplied the required wares when orders had been received1 and closed the factory if there were no orders 7from the ,court74 ,continuing into the ,ming dynasty1 the same authority gives details of the various administrative changes which may perhaps be taken as read1 one or two important facts only calling for mention4 ,thus in the thirty-fifth year#cbg of ,hung ,wu1 we are told that the factories were opened1 and that supplies of porcelain were sent to the ,court4 ,there seems to have been some difference of opinion about the building of the ,imperial ,ware ,factory 7,y chi chang74 ,some authorities place this event in the ,hung ,wu period1 but the ,chiang hsi tung chih1#cbh though quoting the other opinions in a note1 mentions only the building of the ,imperial ,factory in the reign of ,chng ,t 7#aejf-aeba7 in the main text1 viz43 ,in the beginning of the ,chng ,t period the ,imperial ,ware ,factory was established for dealing specially with the ,imperial wares4 ,the ,imperial establishment was burnt down in the ,wan ,li period1 and again destroyed in the revolt of ,wu ,san-kuei in #afge1 but the most serious blow dealt to the prosperity of ,ching-t ,chn fell in the ,tai ping rebellion in #ahec1 when the town was sacked and almost depopulated4 ,the ,imperial ,factory was rebuilt in #ahfd1 and the industry has in a great measure revived1 though it is still but the shadow of its former greatness4 ,though this great porcelain town has traded with the whole world for several centuries1 bringing great profit to the ,empire and to itself great fame 7to quote from the ,tao lu71 it seems to have been rarely visited by ,europeans1 and first-hand descriptions of it are few4 ,we are fortunate1 however1 in possessing in the letters#cbi of ,pre d',entrecolles an intimate account of the place and its manufactures1 written by a ,jesuit missionary who was stationed in the town in the early years of the eighteenth century4 ,these interesting letters are so well known that ,i shall not quote them extensively here4 ,the picture they give of the enormous pottery town1 with its population of a million souls and the three thousand furnaces which1 directly or indirectly1 provided a living for this host1 and of the arresting spectacle of the town by night like a burning city spouting flames at a thousand points1 a description which inspired the oft-quoted lines in ,longfellow's ,keramos1 shows us the place in the heyday of its prosperity4 ,a more modern but scarcely less interesting account of ,ching-t ,chn and the surrounding country appears in a ,consular report1 made in #aije1 of a ,journey in the ,interior of ,kiangsi1#ccj from which ,i have taken the following paragraphs3 ,during the last forty-five years ,ching-t ,chn has had time to recover1 in a very large measure1 from this last calamity1 but it is said to be not so busy or so populous as before the ,tai ping rebellion4 ,everything in ,ching-t ,chn either belongs to1 or is altogether subordinate to1 the porcelain and earthenware industry4 ,the very houses are for the most part built of fragments of fireclay 7called 'lo-ping-tu'7 that were once part either of old kilns or of the fireclay covers in which porcelain is stacked during firing4 ,the river bank is covered for miles#cca with a deep stratum of broken chinaware and chips of fireclay1 and1 as far as one could judge1 the greater part of the town and several square miles of the surrounding country are built over1 or composed of1 a similar deposit4 ,a great industry1 employing hundreds of thousands of hands1 does not remain localised in a single spot for #ijj years without giving to that spot a character of its own4 ,this is perhaps what struck me most forcibly in ,ching-t ,chn--that it is unlike anything else in ,china4 ,the forms1 the colour1 the materials used in the buildings1 the atmosphere1 are somewhat reminiscent of the poorer parts of ,manchester1 but resemble no other large town that ,i have ever visited4 ,at present there are #ajd pottery kilns in the town1 of which some thirty or so were actually in work at the time of my visit4 ,the greater part of the kilns only work for a comparatively short season every-summer4 ,during this busy season1 when every kiln is perhaps employing an average of #ajj to #bjj men1 the population of ,ching-t ,chn rises to about #djj1jjj1 but of this nearly1 if not quite1 half are labourers drawn from a wide area of country1 chiefly from the ,tuchang district1 who only come for the season1 live in rows of barrack-like sheds1 and do not bring their families with them4 ,it is interesting to compare this modern account with the ,memoirs of ,chiang1#ccb written in the ,yan dynasty1 from which we see that the work was carried on in the same intermittent fashion1 the potters receiving land to cultivate instead of payment1 living round the master of the pottery1 and being liable to be summoned to the kilns when required4 ,the opening of the kilns in those days was in some measure dependent on the success of the harvest1 and in any case the work depended on the season1 as the paste would freeze in winter1 and could not be worked4 ,the hills which surround ,ching-t ,chn are rich in the materials required by the potters1 china clay and china stone of various qualities1 fireclay for the seggars 7cases to protect the porcelain in the kiln71 or for mixing in the coarser wares1 and numerous other minerals4 ,there was water-power which could be used in the mills for crushing and refining the minerals1 and abundant wood for firing4 ,although coal is worked nowadays not many miles away1 the potters still adhere to the wood1 which has served their kilns from time immemorial4 ,it should be added that at the present day--and no doubt for some time past--the local clays have been supplemented from various districts1 supplies coming overland from ,chi-mn and by water from greater distances4 ,a good ,chinese map of ,ching-t ,chn is given in the ,tao lu 7bk4 i41 fol4 #a71 and a large map of the district is attached to ,mr4 ,w4 ,clennell's report1 which is easily obtainable4 ,this description of ,ching-t ,chn has led us far from the period with which we are at present concerned4 ,in the ,sung dynasty the place had already arrived at considerable importance1 and the record of its #cjj kilns implies a very large population4 ,the excellence of its porcelain had already won for it the onerous privilege of supplying ,imperial needs1 and1 as we have seen1 it was consecrated under the new and ,imperial name of ,ching-t ,chn in the opening years of the eleventh century4 ,the earliest existing record of its productions1 the ,memoirs of ,chiang1 written at the beginning of the fourteenth century1 tells us that the ,sung porcelains made at ,ching-t ,chn were pure white#ccc and without a flaw1 and were carried for sale to all parts under the proud name of ,jao ,chou jade4 ,it rivalled the red porcelain of ,chn-ting ,fu and the green of ,lung-chan in beauty4 ,the ,ko ku yao lun describes the ,imperial ware of this time as thin in body and lustrous1 and mentions plain white pieces with contracted waist1 adding that the specimens with unglazed rim1#ccd though thin in body1 white in colour1 lustrous1 and surpassingly beautiful1 are lower in price than the ,ting wares4 ,it is not too much to assume that some of this ,jao ,chou jade has survived to the present day1 and we may look for it among the early translucent white porcelains1 of which a considerable number have reached ,europe during the last few years4 ,many of these have ,sung forms and the ,sung style1 though1 of course1 plain white wares are always difficult to date4 ,in the specimens to which ,i refer the glaze is usually of a warm ivory tone1 tending to cream colour2 it is hard and usually discontinued in the region of the base1 both underneath and on the side1 and the exposed body is rather rough to the touch4 7,see ,plate #bd1 ,fig4 #a47 ,it is not clear whether we are to infer from the comparison with ,lung-chan ware quoted above that the ,ching-t ,chn potters produced a celadon in the ,sung dynasty1 but it is probable enough that they did so1 and that the green or greenish white 7ching pai7#cce made in the ,yan period was a continuation of this4 ,if we can believe the statement in the ,tao lu1 they began early to copy the wares of other factories1 imitating the ,chn ,chou ware at the end of the ,sung period and the crackled ,chi ,chou ware in the ,yan4 ,it seems to me possible that the reference to the imitation of ,chn ware may be explained by an interesting passage from a late twelfth-century#ccf writer quoted in the ,tao lu1 who says that in the ,ta ,kuan period 7#aajg-aaaj7 there were among the ,ching-t ,chn wares furnace transmutations 7yao pien7 in colour red like cinnabar4#ccg ,he is inclined to attribute this phenomenon to the fact that when the planet ,mars in the ,zodiac approaches its greatest brightness1 then things happen magically and contrary to the usual order4 ,the potters were evidently disturbed by the appearance of the wares1 and broke them4 ,he tells us1 further1 that he stayed at ,jao ,chou and obtained a number of specimens 7of the local ware71 and after examining them he could say that1 compared with the red porcelain 7hung tz7 of ,ting ,chou1#cch they were more fresh and brilliant in appearance4 ,it will be remembered that an echo of this last sentence occurred in the ,memoirs of ,chiang4 ,a passage in the ,po wu yao lan#cci might be taken to mean that blue-painted porcelain1 blue and white1 was made at ,ching-t ,chn prior to the ,yan period1 but as the remainder of the sentence seems to be based on the ,ko ku yao lun1 and no evidence is given for the words in question1 too much importance need not be attached to a phrase which may be a confusion arising from the ching pai of earlier writers4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #cbd3 ,see p4 #ada4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,chinese tao y4 ,there are variant readings to this passage as given in the ,chiang hsi tung chih 7bk4 xciii41 fol4 #e verso71 which make tao y the name of a man1 the passage being read ,tao-y forwarded as tribute false jade vessels4 ,as pointed out elsewhere1 this expression false jade seems to imply a porcellanous ware4 ,the comparison of porcelain and even fine pottery to jade is a commonplace in ,china1 and it is not necessary to infer that any particular colour1 green or otherwise1 is indicated4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,the text is simply ,chinese chih wu established duty4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,in order to bring this date into ,hung ,wus lifetime1 it is necessary to reckon from the year #acfd1 when he was proclaimed ,prince of ,wu4 ,but other records 7see ,tao lu1 bk4 v41 fol4 #d recto7 give the date as second year of ,hung ,wu--i4e4 #acfi1 instead of #acih as above4 ,hung ,wu was proclaimed ,emperor in #acfh1 and died in #acih4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,bk4 cxiii41 fols4 #g and #h4 ,the ,tao shuo makes practically the same statement in connection with both periods1 and ,bushell 7,o4,c4,a41 p4 #bhg7 gives us to understand that the first structure was burnt down and that erected in the ,chng ,t period was a rebuilding4 ,the ,tao lu states that a special ,imperial factory was erected on the ,jewel ,hill in the ,hung ,wu period1 and that there were other kilns scattered over the town working for the palace1 and that the name ,y chi chang was given to all of them in the ,chng ,t period4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,dated #agab and #agbb from ,ching-t ,chn1 and preserved among the ,lettres difiantes et curieuses4 ,they have been frequently published in part or in full1 e4g4 translated in ,w4 ,burton's ,porcelain1 and printed in ,french as an appendix to ,bushell's ,translation of the ,tao shuo4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,by ,walter ,j4 ,clennell1 ,h4,m4 ,consul at ,kiu-kiang1 printed for ,h4,m4 ,stationery ,office4 ,footnote #cca3 ,the long river front1 crowded for three miles by junks1 was a feature of the place1 which was sometimes known as the thirteen li mart4 ,a li is about #fcj ,english yards4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,see p4 #aei4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,an incidental reference to white porcelain bowls at ,hsin-ping 7the old name for the district town of ,ching-t ,chn7 in #aaja ,a4,d4 occurs in the ,chang nan chih 7quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #ae74 ,it is a verse on the subject of tea drinking3 ,the white porcelain is quickly passed from hand to hand all night2 the fragrant vapour fills the peaceful pavilion4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,chinese mao kou ch1 lit4 hair mouth things4 ,bushell renders with unglazed mouth4 ,see ,ko ku yao lun1 bk4 vii41 fol4 #bd verso1 under the heading of ,old ,jao wares4 ,footnote #cce3 ,see p4 #afj4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,chou ,hui1 author of the ,ching po tsa chih1 a miscellany published in #aaic1 quoted in ,tao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #f r4 and v4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,cf4 descriptions of ,chn ,chou ware1 chap4 ix4 ,footnote #cch3 ,see p4 #ib4 ,footnote #cci3 ,bk4 ii41 fol4 #h verso4 ,the body was thin and glossy 7jun71 the colour white1 the ornament blue 7or green7 7,chinese hua ching71 and compared with ,ting ware it was little inferior4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,y,,an ,chinese ,,dynasty1 #abhj-acfg ,a4,d4 ,,the ,yan dynasty1 which lasted from #abhj to #acfg1 was established by ,kublai ,khan1 grandson of the great ,mongol conqueror1 ,genghis ,khan4 ,the ,mongols completely subjugated ,china1 and though their rule was comparatively brief1 it had a disastrous effect on the artistic development of the country4 ,the ,mongol governors whose services to the reigning house had been rewarded by all the lucrative posts1 made full use of their opportunities to enrich themselves by extortion and oppression4 ,trade and industry were convenient subjects for their exactions1 and these consequently languished4 ,the ceramic industry was among the sufferers1 and many of the old potteries were closed down in this troubled period4 ,the potteries at ,ching-t ,chn1 which had gradually risen to a position of great importance in the ,sung dynasty1 suffered for this eminence by being brought under the immediate care of a ,mongol commissioner1 and much of their trade passed into the hands of manufacturers in ,kiangsi and ,fukien4#cdj ,the earliest account#cda which we have of the industry in this important centre1 written at the beginning of the fourteenth century1 ends with a bitter cry against the depredations of the governors and the subordinate officials1 who were banded together to rob the people1 and against whom no redress could be obtained4 ,dr4 ,bushell published a translation of the chief part of it in ,oriental ,ceramic ,art1#cdb and apart from the sorrowful picture which it draws it gives a good idea of the productions of the district in the ,yan dynasty4 ,a short notice in the ,tao lu gives a slightly different impression1 and leads us to suppose that the heavy hand of the ,mongol officials was felt chiefly at the ,imperial potteries1 while the private factories were comparatively flourishing and even supplied some of the wares required by the ,court4 ,we learn from the ,memoirs of ,chiang that a variety of porcelains were made to meet the tastes of the different regions of ,southern ,china4 ,the market in ,northern ,china does not seem as yet to have been studied4 ,thus1 while the kilns at ,hu-tien1#cdc on the river bank opposite to ,ching-t ,chn1 supplied a brownish yellow#cdd ware which was popular in the province of ,chkiang1 the greenish white#cde porcelain of ,ching-t ,chn found a profitable market in ,hunan and ,hupeh1 ,szechuan1 and ,kuangtung4 ,the inhabitants of ,kiangsu and ,anhui seem to have been less critical1 for the inferior wares known as yellow stuff 7huang liao71 which did not sell in ,kiangsi1 ,kiangnan1 ,kuangtung1 ,fukien1 and ,chkiang1 was foisted on them4 ,the finest porcelain was made of the stone 7shih7 from ,chin-kng1 while stone and earth from other neighbouring sites were used for mixing in the inferior wares and for making seggars#cdf and moulds4 ,the glaze was made of glaze earth from ,ling-pei mixed with the ashes of brushwood from the ,yu-shan hills which had been burnt with lime and persimmon wood4 ,i mention these technical details because their similarity with the description of the manufacture in the eighteenth century show that the method of porcelain making at both periods was essentially the same4 ,the decoration was effected by stamping or pressing in moulds1 by painting or by carving#cdg2 and the ware was fired either upright or inverted4 ,some idea of the forms and ornament of these wares may be gathered from another passage which would be far more illuminating if the fanciful names used were less difficult to understand4 ,bushell has boldly translated them according to his ideas1 and ,i quote his renderings in inverted commas and in the pious hope that they may be correct1 giving at the same time the original characters4 ,there were bowls 7wan71 with high feet and with fish and water ornament2 platters 7tieh7 with glazes shaded in different tones1#cdh sea eyes1 and snow flowers#cdi2 dishes 7pan7 of the horse hoof and betel-nut kinds1 the latter suggesting a brownish red colour2 large bowls 7y7 with lotus ornament 7or shaped like a lotus flower71 or of square form with indented corners#cej2 bowls and platters 7wan tieh7 with painted decoration1#cea with silver designs1#ceb with fluted sides1#cec and with encircling strings4#ced ,such wares as these had a profitable market in ,chkiang1 ,kiangnan1 ,kiangsi and ,fukien4 ,there were besides incense burners of many forms1 most of which were modelled after bronzes1 e4g4 those shaped like the fabulous beast i1 which eats tigers and can go five hundred li at a bound#cee2 those like the bronze incense burners on three or four feet 7ting71 like the cups used in the ancestral temple 7i71 like the large iron cauldrons 7li74 ,others had elephant legs1 and others were shaped like incense caskets or barrels4 ,the vase forms include the goblet 7ku71#cef the gall-bladder 7tan71 the wine pot 7hu7 with spout and handle1 the ,buddhist washing vessel 7ching71 the gardenia 7chih tz71 the lotus leaf 7ho yeh71 the gourd 7hu lu71 musical pipes 7l kuan71 vessels with ring-and-mask handles shou huan1#ceg and glass 7liu li7 forms4 ,the ,ko ku yao lun1 which was written about sixty years later than the publication of the ,memoirs of ,chiang1 supplements this information in a short paragraph on ,old ,jao ,chou wares4 ,of the ,yan wares1 it says1#ceh those with small foot and moulded ornament 7yin hua71 and the specimens inscribed inside with the characters shu fu#cei are highly valued4 ,the recently made wares with large foot and plain white 7su7 glaze are wanting in brilliancy 7jun74 ,there are also green 7ching7 wares and those with enamelled 7wu s7#cfj ornament1 and they are very common4 ,of the modern 7i4e4 beginning of the ,ming dynasty7 wares good specimens with white colour and lustrous material are very highly valued4 ,there are besides dark green#cfa wares with gilt ornament4 ,they are chiefly wine pots and wine cups1 which are very lovely4 ,the ,tao lu has a paragraph on the shu fu wares which reflects 7not always very clearly7 these earlier accounts1 adding that this is the ware made in the private 7min7 factories and supplied to the palace2 the material had to be fine1 white and unctuous clay1 and thin specimens were preferred4444 ,inside them were written the characters shu fu as a mark4 ,at the time the private factories also issued imitations of these wares2 but of the porcelains destined for the ,emperor ten out of a thousand1 one out of a hundred1 only were selected4 ,the private factories were unable to achieve uniform success4 ,the author has inserted the gilt and enamelled1#cfb and a large number of the other wares mentioned in the ,memoirs of ,chiang and the ,ko ku yao lun in that irresponsible fashion which makes much of the ,chinese ceramic literature exceedingly difficult to handle4 ,indeed1 one is tempted to ask what was his authority for the statement that the private factories made the shu fu ware1 in spite of the very circumstantial tone of the passage4 ,it is clear that the best of the ,yan wares made at ,ching-t ,chn was plain white or white with engraved and moulded designs2 and in this connection it is interesting to find an example of shu fu porcelain described and illustrated in ,hsiang's ,album4#cfc ,it is a small1 bottle-shaped vase with bulbous mouth1 engraved with a dragon and cloud design1 and stated to be marked with the characters shu fu under the base4 ,we are told that in colour1 form1 and design it was copied from a specimen of the ,northern ,ting ware1 and that the shu fu ware1 itself copied from ,ting ,chou originals1 served as a model for the fine white engraved porcelains of the ,yung ,lo and ,hsan ,t periods of the ,ming dynasty4 ,it stood1 in short1 midway between the soft1 opaque-looking1 creamy white ,sung ware and the thin1 hard1 and highly translucent ,ming porcelain1 such as the white ,yung ,lo bowl in the ,franks ,collection 7see ,plate #ei74 ,just such an intermediate position as this is held by a bowl#cfd in the ,british ,museum with white1 translucent body1 soft-looking glaze of faint creamy tinge and engraved design of phnixes and peony plants in ,sung style4 ,it has1 moreover1 a raw mouth rim which shows that it was fired inverted1 and as there is no shu fu mark it may well have been one of the copies of the ,palace types which the ,tao lu informs us were made at the private factories4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #df4--,ting ,ware and ,yan ,porcelain4 ,fig4#a4--;,bottle with carved reliefs of archaic dragons and ling chih funguses4 ,fn ting ware1 said to be ,sung dynasty4 ,height #h inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bowl with moulded floral designs in low relief1 unglazed rim4 ,translucent porcelain1 probably ,yan dynasty4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,it is always difficult to determine the age of plain white wares1 but among the archaic specimens of translucent porcelain with creamy white glaze and rough finish at the base which have come from ,china in recent years under the varying descriptions of ,sung1 ,yan and early ,ming1 there are1 no doubt1 several examples of the ,yan wares of ,ching-t ,chn 7see ,plate #df1 ,fig4 #b74 ,the mention1 in the ,memoirs of ,chiang and the ,ko ku yao lun1 of painted decoration1 enamelled ornament1 silvering1 and gilding1 though apparently but crudely used and little appreciated1 is nevertheless of great interest from the historical standpoint4 ,the potteries at ,hu-tien which are mentioned in the ,memoirs of ,chiang 7see p4 #afj7 were only separated from ,ching-t ,chn by the width of the river4 ,they are described in the ,tao lu#cfe as active at the beginning of the ,yan dynasty and producing a ware which1 though of coarse grain1 had a considerable amount of antique elegance1 and appealed to the taste of the inhabitants of the ,chkiang4 ,the clay was hard and tough1 and the colour of the ware brownish yellow#cff as a rule1 but even when of a watery white tone it was tinged with the same brown colour4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century all trace of the factories had disappeared1 though the village still existed#cfg and the old wares were still to be found4 ,brinkley1 who seems to have met with examples of the ware in ,japan1 describes it as follows#cfh3 ,the pte is thick and dense1 without any of the delicacy of porcelain1 and the glaze is muddy yellow4444 ,the surface of the pieces is generally relieved by deeply incised designs of somewhat archaic character1 figure subjects being most common4 ,some examples are preserved in ,japanese collections1 where they are known as ,ningyo-de 7figure subject variety7 in allusion to the nature of the incised designs4 ,in spite of its apparent roughness it was thought worthy of imitation at ,ching-t ,chn in the ,ming dynasty4#cfi ,among the causes to which was attributed the lack of prosperity at ,ching-t ,chn in the ,yan period1 the ,memoirs of ,chiang includes 7#a7 the uncertainty of the season on which the opening of the factory partly depended1 7#b7 the intolerable taxation and the exactions of officials1 and 7#c7 the competition of the potteries at ,lin-chuan1 ,nan-fng ,hsien1 and ,chien-yang1 all of which1 as ,bushell indicates1 lay on the trade route between ,ching-t ,chn and south-eastern coast towns4 ,of these we learn in the ,tao lu that ,lin-chuan#cgj in the ,fu-chou ,fu in ,kiangsi 7not far south of ,ching-t ,chn7 made a ware of fine clay and thin substance1 the colour of which was mostly white with a slight yellowish tinge1 and that some of the pieces were coarsely ornamented1 though we are not informed how the ornament was applied4 ,the same authority informs us that ,nang-fng ,hsien#cga in the ,chien-yang ,fu 7also in ,kiangsi7 made a ware of refined clay but somewhat thick substance1 which was1 as a rule1 decorated with blue designs 7ching hua71 though some had the colour of the tu ting ware1 i4e4 the coarser and yellower variety of ,ting ,chou porcelain4 ,from this passage it appears that blue and white may be added to the types of ware made in the ,yan period4 ,the third factory1 at ,chien-yang in ,fukien1 has already been discussed at some length4 ,it was chiefly celebrated for the dark-coloured wares 7wu-ni yao7 and the hare's fur and partridge tea bowls4#cgb ,these names by no means exhaust the list of factories which were active in the ,yan period4 ,others have been incidentally mentioned elsewhere under the headings of ,yan-tz1 ,png ware1 ,hsin ,ting ware1 etc4#cgc ,the ,ko ku yao lun enumerates certain pottery forms which1 it asserts1 were not in use before the ,yan period4 ,as usual1 the ,chinese descriptions are exceedingly difficult to visualise1 and in many cases are open to several interpretations1 and are not easy to reconcile with established facts4 ,however1 ,i quote the passage as it stands3 ,men of old when they drank tea used p'ieh#cgd 78 bowls with curved sides71 which were easy to drain and did not retain the sediment4 ,for drinking wine they used cups 7chan72 they had not yet tried cups with handles 7pa chan#cge71 and in old times they had no ch'an p'an4#cgf ,the ,ting ware ch'an p'an which one sees nowadays are the brush washers 7hsi7 of olden times4 ,the men of old used 'decoction vases' for pouring wine1 and did not use ewers 7hu p'ing7 or bowls with contracted lip or tea cups 7ch'a chung7 or dishes with rims4#cgg ,these were all forms used by the ,mongols4 ,the men of ,china only began to use them in the ,yan dynasty4 ,they never appear in old ,ting or ,kuan wares4#cgh ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #cdj3 ,see p4 #afd4 ,footnote #cda3 ,the ,memoirs of ,chiang ,chi1 entitled ,tao chi lo1 which were incorporated in the ,annals of ,fou-liang in #acbb1 and again in the geographical annals of the province of ,kiangsi 7,chiang hsi tung chih1 bk4 xciii41 fol4 #e verso74 ,footnote #cdb3 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #agh-ahc4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,see p4 #afc4 ,footnote #cdd3 huang hei1 lit4 yellow black or1 perhaps1 yellow and black4 ,footnote #cde3 ,ching pai1 a term also applied to greenish white jade2 probably a pale celadon tint4 ,footnote #cdf3 i4e4 cases in which the porcelain was fired4 ,footnote #cdg3 ,chinese yin hua1 ,chinese hua hua1 and ,chinese tiao hua4 ,footnote #cdh3 ,the text is ,chinese fa yn1 lit4 emit mist1 perhaps in the sense of clouded4 ,footnote #cdi3 ,these are literal renderings of hai mu and hseh hua1 but ,i have no clue to their meaning4 ,footnote #cej3 ,the text is ,chinese ,shua chio1 lit4 sport corners4 ,footnote #cea3 ,chinese hsiu hua1 lit4 embroidered ornament4 ,see p4 #ia4 ,footnote #ceb3 yin hsiu1 lit4 silver embroidery or painting4 ,footnote #cec3 ,chinese pu chun1 which literally means rush 7or matting7 lips4 ,footnote #ced3 ,chinese lung hsien1 lit4 play lute4 ,footnote #cee3 ,see ,giles's ,dictionary4 ,footnote #cef3 ,chinese4 ,bushell renders it trumpet-shaped beakers4 ,footnote #ceg3 ,lit4 animal rings4 ,footnote #ceh3 ,bk4 vii41 fols4 #bd and #be4 ,footnote #cei3 ,chinese lit4 pivot palace2 i4e4 ,imperial palace4 ,footnote #cfj3 ,lit4 five-coloured4 ,footnote #cfa3 ching hei4 ,bushell renders the two words greenish black4 ,footnote #cfb3 ,chinese i yu chuang chin wu s hua ch4 ,the expression chuang chin1 which also occurs in the ,ko ku yao lun1 apparently carries the idea of gilding1 though its literal meaning 7originate gold7 is very vague4 ,bushell renders the phrase pencilled with designs in gold1 and ,julien rehausse d'or4 ,footnote #cfc3 ,op4 cit41 ,fig4 #ba4 ,footnote #cfd3 ,see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,august1 #aiji1 p4 #bih4 ,footnote #cfe3 ,bk4 v41 fol4 #c verso4 ,footnote #cff3 huang hei1 lit4 yellow black4 ,footnote #cfg3 ,the village ,chinese ,hu-tien ,shin and the pagoda are marked in the map of ,ching-t ,chn 7,tao lu1 bk4 i41 fol4 #a7 on the south of the river and opposite to the ,imperial factories4 ,footnote #cfh3 ,china and ,japan1 vol4 ix41 p4 #cjc4 ,footnote #cfi3 ,see ,tao lu1 bk4 ii41 fol4 #d verso2 and ,julien op4 cit41 p4 #db4 ,footnote #cgj3 ,chinese4 ,see ,tao lu1 bk4 vii41 fol4 #aj verso4 ,footnote #cga3 ,chinese4 ,footnote #cgb3 ,see p4 #aca4 ,footnote #cgc3 ,see pp4 #id1 #abh1 etc4 ,footnote #cgd3 ,chinese4 ,bushell 7,o4,c4,a41 p4 #ahf7 renders wide shallow bowls4 ,footnote #cge3 ,chinese4 ,the handles may be either long stems or handles in the modern sense1 but both these types are found on far more ancient wares1 e4g4 the tazza or high footed goblet in ,chou pottery1 and the small cups with round handles of the ,t'ang dynasty4 ,footnote #cgf3 ,chinese1 lit4 exhort dishes4 ,bushell renders rounded dishes4 ,they were probably flat-bottomed shallow bowls1 used as saucers4 ,footnote #cgg3 ,chinese t'ai p'an1 lit4 terraced dishes4 ,footnote #cgh3 ,ko ku yao lun1 bk4 vii41 fol4 #be verso4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,kuangtung ,chinese ,,wares ,,though the province of ,kuangtung has long been celebrated for its pottery1 only very meagre information is procurable on the history of its factories4 ,a single reference in the ,tu shu#cgi carries us back to the ,tang dynasty 7#fah-ijf71 when we learn that earthenware cooking vessels were made in the potteries 7tao chia7 of ,kuang ,chou 7i4e4 ,canton71 which when glazed were better than iron vessels and more suitable for the decoction of drugs4 ,a vessel of the capacity of a bushel sold for ten cash3 and they were things which were worth preserving4 ,the next mention occurs in the ,tao lu1 which gives a short account of the wares under the heading ,kuang yao1 but beyond the statement that the industry originated at ,yang-,chiang1 it gives no information as to the date or circumstances of its commencement4#chj ,for the rest this account is very confused and unsatisfactory1 and seems in part to refer to the porcelain decorated at ,canton 7see vol4 ii41 p4 #baa71 or more probably to the ,canton enamels4 ,it is only in the last passage that we come into touch with a ware which is readily recognised as the familiar ,canton stoneware4 ,this is a hard-fired ware1 usually dark brown at the base1 but varying at times to pale yellowish grey and buff1 with a thick smooth glaze distinguished from other ceramic glazes by its characteristic mottling and dappling4 ,the colour is often blue1 flecked and streaked with grey green or white over a substratum of olive brown1 or again green with grey and blue mottling4 ,at times the brown tints predominate1 but the most prized varieties are those in which the general tone is blue4 ,these were specially selected for imitation at the ,imperial factories under ,tang ,ying1 and they are highly valued in ,japan1 where the ware in general goes by the name of namako4#cha ,in other specimens the glaze has a curdled appearance1 and sometimes it seems to have boiled up like lava4 ,the mottled glazes at times have a superficial resemblance to the dappled ,chn wares1 and there is no doubt that in recent times these imitative effects have been studied4 ,the dating of the mottled ,kuangtung wares1 or ,canton stonewares as they are commonly named1 is always a difficult matter4 ,they are still made and exported in large quantities1 but it is certain that they go back at least to late ,ming times4 ,sir ,arthur ,church exhibited a tray of this ware at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiajchb which bore a date corresponding to #afbe1 and the name of the maker1 ,chin-shih4 ,the glaze of this interesting piece is remarkably deep1 rich and lustrous1 and it may be regarded as typical of the finest period of the ware4 ,the tray illustrated by ,fig4 #a of ,plate #dh closely resembles it in colour and quality4 ,stamped marks occasionally occur in these wares1 the most frequent being the seals used by two potters1 apparently brothers1 named ,ko ,ming-hsiang and ,ko ,yan-hsiang 7see p4 #bba74 ,it was formerly said that they lived at the end of the ,ming period1 but ,dr4 ,bushell in his ,chinese ,art#chc reduced their antiquity to the reign of ,chien ,lung 7#agcf-agie74 ,no reason is given for either of these dates1 but their work is familiar1 and as some of the examples have a decidedly modern aspect1 ,i am strongly in favour of the later attribution4 ,plate #dg is a fine example of a ,kuangtung glaze1 in which the blue is conspicuous4#chd ,it is probably of seventeenth-century date4 ,another ,kuangtung group consists chiefly of figures and objects modelled in the round and coated with rich crimson red flamb or pea green celadon glazes1 with a liberal display of dark brown or red biscuit4 ,figures of the god of ,war and other deities are often represented1 the draperies heavily glazed and the flesh parts in unglazed biscuit1 which sometimes has the appearance of being browned by a dressing of ferruginous clay4 7,see ,plate #dh47 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dg ,vase of buff stoneware with a scroll of rosette-like flowers in relief3 thick flocculent glaze of mottled blue with passages of dull green and a substratum of brown4 ,kuangtung ware1 seventeenth century4 ,height #aj inches4 ,benson ,collection4 ,brinkley#che describes several additional types of ,kuang yao1 including a buff stoneware with creamy crackled glaze of tu ,ting type4#chf ,the characteristic type is a large vase or ewer#chg decorated with a scroll of lotus or peony in high relief and having paint-like1 creamy glaze of varying lustre and uneven thickness1 its buff colour often showing tinges of blue4 ,vases of similar make seem also to aim at copying the red-splashed lavender glazes of the ,chn and ,yan wares1 and sometimes the colour is very beautiful1 but the glaze has distinctive characteristics 7see ,plate #dh1 ,fig4 #b74 ,it is opaque1 and lacks the translucent and flowing character of the originals1 and the surface has a peculiar sticky lustre1 and something of that silken sheen which distinguishes the ,canton and ,yi-hsing glazes of this class4 ,the crackle1 too1 is more open and obvious4 ,some of these pieces have the appearance of considerable antiquity1 and are reputed to date back to ,sung times4#chh ,midway between these and the familiar mottled ,canton stoneware come what are known in ,china as the ,fat-shan ,chn4#chi ,their obvious intention to imitate the old ,chn wares is declared by the appearance of numerals incised in ,chn ,chou fashion under the base4 ,a typical example 7see ,plate #ea7 is a high-shouldered flower vase with short neck and small mouth 7not a ,sung but a ,ming form1 be it noted71 with thick1 rolling1 crackled glaze of pinkish cream colour1 shading into lavender and flushing deep red on the shoulders4 ,in rare instances the crimson spreads over the greater part of the surface4 ,the biscuit at the base is brownish grey if its light tint is not concealed by a wash of dark clay4 ,the glaze1 unlike that of the type described by ,brinkley1 is fairly fluescent1 thin at the mouth1 and running thick in the lower levels4 ,other examples of this class have heavily mottled grey or blue glazes nearer in style to the ,canton stoneware4 ,indeed1 they are clearly made at the same factory as the latter1 for we have a connecting link between the two groups in a vase in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection1 a tall cylinder with streaky lavender blue glaze and the usual silken lustre1 the base of buff colour washed with brown slip and marked with the square seal of ,ko ,ming-hsiang4 ,many of these ,fat-shan ,chn wares are exceedingly attractive1 but by far the most beautiful are the rare dishes in which the glaze has been allowed to form in deep pools of glass in the centre4#cij ,in these pieces all the changing tints of the surrounding glaze are concentrated in the cavity in a crystalline mass of vivid colour4 ,such wares are1 ,i think1 not older than the ,ching dynasty1 though they have been erroneously described by some writers as ,sung4#cia ,with regard to the dates of the ,fat-shan ,chn types1 the remarks made on the ,canton stoneware apply equally to them4 ,many are frankly modern2 the finer pieces may be assigned to the eighteenth century1 and a few perhaps go back to the ,ming dynasty4 ,from the current name we infer that they are made at ,fat-shan1 but this is the only evidence existing on the question4 ,fat-shan is situated a few miles south-west of ,canton with which it is connected by railway4 ,it is a large town1 renowned for its vast silk manufactures1 cloth-making1 embroidery1 cutlery1 matting1 paper1 and porcelain4#cib ,no doubt the word porcelain in this context is a comprehensive term1 and includes stoneware and pottery1 if1 indeed1 it means anything else4 ,but the precise provenance of the various kinds of ,kuang yao is far from clear4 ,all that we learn from the ,tao lu is that the ,kuang yao originated at ,yang-chiang4 ,probably the type of mottled glaze which characterises the ,canton stoneware was first made there1 and was afterwards adopted in the factories which sprang up in the neighbourhood of ,canton4 ,other localities in the province of ,kuangtung in which the ceramic industry is represented include ,chao-,ching ,fu1#cic which may be only a trading centre for the wares2 ,shih-wan1 in ,po-lo ,hsien1 a few miles east of ,canton1 which is said#cid to supply the ,canton markets with pots1 dishes1 and jars of every needed shape and size1 some of the latter as large as hogsheads1 glazed and unglazed1 together with a large variety of imitation grotto work and figures for gardens1 gallipots1 little images1 etc42 and the prefecture of ,lien-chou1 in the extreme south of the province1 which exports its wares from ,pak-hoi4 ,a few specimens bought in the neighbourhood of the ,shih-wan potteries1 and no doubt of local make1 are in the ,british ,museum4 ,they consist of lion joss-stick holders1 crab-shaped pots for growing lily bulbs1 and small figures of a hard1 rough stoneware of buff or drab colour4 ,the bulb pots have an opaque green glaze with passages of transparent flamb colours1 not unlike the ,yi-hsing or ,canton ,chn glazes1 and the other pieces have washes of the thin1 translucent green1 turquoise1 yellow1 and purplish brown glazes which are usually applied on the biscuit of pottery or porcelain4 ,the exhibits at the ,paris ,exhibition#cie in #ahgh included tea jars1 tobacco pots1 medicine jars1 cassolettes1 various pots1 plates1 sauce vessels1 rice bowls1 wine and rice cups1 spoons1 bird-cage pots1 mortars1 candlesticks1 crucibles and lamps from the ,pak-hoi district4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,plate #dh4--,kuangtung ,ware4 ,fig4 #a4--;,dish in form of a lotus leaf1 mottled blue and brown glaze4 ,about #afjj4 ,diameter #h inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase with lotus scroll in relief1 opaque1 closely crackled glaze of pale lavender grey warming into purple4 787 ,fourteenth century4 ,height #g inches4 ,peters ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--;,figure of ,pu-tai ,ho-shang1 red biscuit1 the draperies glazed celadon green4 ,eighteenth century4 ,height #h inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,plate #di4--;,covered ,jar of ,buff ,stoneware4 ,with cloudy green glaze and touches of dark blue1 yellow1 brown and white2 archaic dragons1 bats and storks in low relief2 border of sea waves4 ,probably ,kuangtung ware1 seventeenth century4 ,height #cc inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #cgi3 ,the ,tu shu1 ,section xxxii41 ,part viii41 section entitled ,tao kung pu tsa lu1 fol4 #a verso2 quoting from the ,ling piao lu i ,chinese1 by ,liu ,hsn1 of the ,tang dynasty4 ,footnote #chj3 ,bk4 vii41 fol4 #af4 ,this is the ware which was first made at ,yang-chiang ,hsien ,chinese in the ,chao-ching ,fu in ,kuangtung4 ,it is1 in fact1 an imitation of the ,yang-tz ware4 ,consequently1 the ,records of the ,province state that the productions of ,yang-chiang in ,kuangtung include 'porcelain wares' 7tz chi74 ,i have seen incense burners 7lu71 vases 7ping71 cups 7chien71 plates 7tieh71 bowls 7wan71 dishes 7pan71 pots 7hu71 and boxes 7ho7 of this manufacture4 ,they are very ornamental and bright1 but in taste1 fineness1 elegance1 and lustre they are not equal to porcelain wares4 ,nor have they been able to avoid the occurrence of flaws exposing the body1 which are unsightly4 ,still they are imitated at ,tang's manufactory1 the imitations being admirable in their elegance and lustre1 and excelling the ,kuang yao4 ,these1 like the ,tz-,chou and ,hs-,chou types of ware1 are none of them made of porcelain clay4 ,the ,tao chng chi shih states3 ,he 7i4e4 ,tang ,ying7 imitates singularly well the ,kuang yao glaze1 being particularly successful with the spotted blue 7ching tien ,chinese7 kind of glaze4 ,following this author1 imitations were also made of the copies produced at ,tang's factory4 ,the greater part of this passage seems to contain a confusion of ideas4 ,yang-tz ,chinese or foreign porcelain was the name given to the painted ,canton enamels which are described on the next page of the ,tao lu under that heading4 ,the passage beginning ,i have seen and ending equal to porcelain wares is taken almost verbatim from the sections which deal with ,canton enamels and cloisonn enamels4 ,the remark on imitation of the ,yang-tz ware could by no stretch of imagination be applied to the mottled ,kuang yao2 but it does apply to the large group of porcelain obtained in the white from ,ching-t ,chn and painted at ,canton precisely in the style of the ,canton enamels 7see vol4 ii41 p4 #bdc74 ,this is no doubt what the author had in his mind4 ,the sentence about the unsightly flaws can apply to either the enamels or the ,kuang yao1 but more particularly to the latter4 ,for the rest1 ,tang's factory is the ,imperial factory at ,ching-t ,chn1 which was under the management of the celebrated ,tang ,ying between #agbh and #agdi4 ,footnote #cha3 ,from its supposed resemblance to the colour of the sea-snail 7namako74 ,footnote #chb3 ,cat4 ,b4,f4,a41 #aiaj1 ,k #dc4 ,like so many ,chinese dates1 this was cut in the ware after the firing1 but there is every reason to suppose that it indicates the true date of the manufacture4 ,sir ,arthur has since presented this tray to the ,british ,museum4 ,footnote #chc3 ,op4 cit41 vol4 ii41 p4 #ae4 ,footnote #chd3 ,modern ,english potters produce flocculent glazes of the ,canton type by means of zinc1 and ,mr4 ,mott1 of ,doulton's1 showed me a specimen illustrating the effect of zinc which was remarkably like the glaze of ,plate #dg both in the blue dappling and the greenish frosting4 ,possibly the use of zinc was known to the ,kuangtung potters and gave them their characteristic types of glaze4 ,other effects resembling the ,canton glazes were produced by ,mr4 ,mott by both zinc and tin in the presence of cobalt and iron4 ,footnote #che3 ,japan and ,china1 vol4 ix41 p4 #bfa4 ,footnote #chf3 ,see p4 #ij4 ,footnote #chg3 ,such a piece from the ,british ,museum collection is figured in the ,burlington ,magazine1 ,january1 #aiaj1 p4 #bah4 ,footnote #chh3 ,see ,burlington ,magazine1 ,january1 #aiaj1 p4 #bbj4 ,footnote #chi3 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,a4,w4 ,bahr for much information on these and the ,yi-hsing ,chn imitations4 ,footnote #cij3 ,three beautiful examples were exhibited at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj1 7,cat41 ,k #bj1 #bc and #da71 on the last of which the lavender tints on the sides passed into a glassy pool of brilliant peacock blue4 ,footnote #cia3 ,there is an interesting example of this crystalline glaze in ,mrs4 ,potter ,palmer's collection4 ,it is a bowl of coarse grey porcelain1 with blue glaze on the exterior4 ,inside is a crimson red glaze of ,canton type1 in the centre of which is a pool of amber glass4 ,the explanation seems to be that we have here a bowl of coarse export porcelain treated at a ,canton factory with their crystalline glaze4 ,footnote #cib3 ,richards1 ,comprehensive ,geography of the ,chinese ,empire1 #aijh1 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #cic3 ,richards1 op4 cit41 p4 #bji4 ,considerable trade is carried on in tea1 porcelain1 etc4 ,footnote #cid3 ,s4 ,wells ,williams1 ,commercial ,guide to ,china1 #ahfc1 p4 #ac4 ,speaking of pottery the author says3 ,the charges for freight forbid it to be carried far1 and manufactures of it are numerous2 that for ,canton is at ,shih-hwan4 ,no doubt this is ,shih-wan ,chinese4 ,another name for ,canton pottery is ,shakwan ware1 which is probably a variant of ,shih-wan4 ,footnote #cie3 ,catalogue spcial de la ,collection ,chinoise l',exposition ,universelle1 ,paris1 #ahgh1 pp4 #aj-ab4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,yi-,,hsing ,chinese ,,ware ,,the potteries at ,yi-hsing ,hsien1 in the prefecture of ,chang-chou1 in ,kiangsu1 at no great distance from ,shanghai1 have long been celebrated for elegantly shaped teapots of unglazed stoneware in red and other colours4 ,they have1 in fact1 been honoured with a special book1 the ,yang-hsien ming hu hsi1#cif or ,story of the teapots of ,yang-hsien 7an old name for ,yi-hsing71 written in the seventeenth century#cig2 but though extracts from this work occur in the ,tao lu and elsewhere1 ,i have been unable to get access to any copy of the original4 ,this deficiency1 however1 has been made good by an important translation given by ,brinkley#cih of a short ,japanese work which1 he says1 owes nothing to ,japanese research1 being merely transcribed from ,chinese annals4 ,the legendary story of the discovery of the all-important clay deposits in ,mount ,tao-jung ,shu-shan is followed by a description of the chief varieties of this material which include light yellow clay for mixing2 another1 yellow clay called shih huang 7stone yellow7 which turned to cinnabar red in the firing2 a blue clay which turned to dark brown2 a clay which produced a pear skin colour2 a light scarlet clay which produced a pottery of the colour of pine spikelets2 a light yellow clay making a green ware2 and another producing a light red pottery4 ,the pear skin clay mixed with white sand formed a material of a light ink brown colour4 ,with these materials1 and with their conspicuous skill in blending clays1 it may well be imagined that the ,yi-hsing potters were able to make innumerable varieties in their ware4 ,the commonest shades1 however1 are deep and light red1 chocolate brown1 buff1 drab and black brown2 occasionally the clays are speckled--e4g4 buff ware with blue specks--or powdered with minute particles of quartz1 and frequently two or more clays are used in contrasting tints on the same piece4 ,the body of the ware is sometimes soft enough to powder under the knife1 but as a rule it is a very hard stoneware1 capable of receiving a fine polish on the lapidary's wheel4 ,the choicest teapots are unglazed1 though often a sort of natural gloss has formed on the surface in the kiln4 ,but to continue the history of the factories as outlined in ,brinkley's translation1 we are told that the first maker of choice utensils of pottery for tea-drinking purposes was a priest of the ,chin-sha temple about thirteen miles south-east of ,yi-hsing1 and that the first really great ,yi-hsing potter was ,kung ,chun ,chinese who flourished in the ,chng ,t period 7#aejf-aeba74 ,though it would appear that ,kung ,chun1 while attending his master ,wu ,i-shan at the ,chin-sha temple1 surreptitiously learnt the secrets of the priest1 his fame completely eclipsed that of his teacher1 and he is usually venerated as the founder of the ,yi-hsing potteries4 ,his pots are described as being hand made1 and in most of them thumb-marks are faintly visible4 ,generally their colour is that of a chestnut1 and they have a subdued lustre like oxidised gold4 ,their simplicity and accuracy of shape are inimitable2 worthy to be ascribed to divine revelations4 ,supernatural qualities form the only point in common between this description and that of the two teapots figured in ,hsiang's ,album1#cii and confidently assigned to ,kung ,chun4 ,one of these is a drab ware and of hexagonal shape1 which appears to have been formed in a mould2 the other is in the form of a wine ewer and of vermilion red2 and both are stated to have the wonderful quality of changing colour when filled with tea4 ,in fact1 in the second illustration the artist has depicted this phenomenon1 the pot being vermilion red above and green below the tea-line4 ,the price of these two pots in the sixteenth century was no less than #ejj taels or ounces of silver4#djj ,brinkley's translation gives a considerable list of ,yi-hsing potters who made a reputation in the ,ming dynasty1 but as the characters are not added it does not always help us to identify the names1#dja among the potter's marks1 and in most cases the characteristics assigned to them are entirely vague4 ,we learn1 for instance1 that one man's forte was beauty of decoration1 and that three others were renowned for the excellence of their pottery4 ,on the other hand1 it is important to read that ,tung ,han in the ,wan ,li period 7#aegc-afai7 was the first potter who ornamented the surface of the ,yi-hsing ware with elaborate designs in relief1 and that many of the pieces designed by ,chn ,chung-mei1#djb who had formerly been a porcelain maker1 such as perfume boxes1 flower vases1 paper weights1 and so forth1 show singularly fine moulding and chiselling4 ,his vases were shaped in the form of flowers1 leaves1 and fruits1 and were decorated with insects4 ,his dragons sporting among storm-clouds1 with outstretched claws and straining eyes2 his statuettes of the goddess ,kuanyin1 her features at once majestic and benevolent--these are indeed wonderful productions1 instinct with life4 ,this passage shows1 at any rate1 that in the ,ming period the ,yi-hsing potters did not confine their attention to tea wares4 ,perhaps the most celebrated ,yi-hsing potter was ,shih ,ta-pin1 who followed in the footsteps of the great ,kung ,chun1 and eventually surpassed him4 ,brinkley's translation gives us very precise views of what the true form of the teapot should be4 ,it should be small1 so that the bouquet of the tea be not dispersed1 and every guest should have a pot to himself4 ,it should be shallow1 with a cover which is convex inside2 and it is very important that the spout should be straight4 ,crooked spouts were very liable to become obstructed by the tea leaves4 ,one drinks tea for pleasure1 and one may justly feel irritated if the beverage declines to come out of the pot4 ,the true form of teapot1 we are told1 began with ,kung ,chun1 from which one infers that the tea bowls of the ,tang and ,sung usage were in vogue up to his time4 ,but the correct shape once established1 the ,yi-hsing potters soon began to take liberties with it1 and to twist it into all manner of fanciful forms1 such as fruits 7persimmon1 pomegranate1 finger citron71 the leaf or the seed-pod of the lotus1 creature forms such as fish leaping from waves1 a phnix1 and innumerable other quaint shapes1 always skilfully modelled and often of high artistic merit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,plate #ej4--,yi-hsing ,stoneware1 sometimes called ,buccaro4 ,figs4 #a-d4--,teapots in the ,dresden ,collection1 late seventeenth century4 7#a7 ,buff with dark patches4 ,height #e inches4 7#b7 ,red ware with pierced outer casing4 ,diameter #e inches4 7#c7 ,black with gilt vine sprays4 ,height #d inches4 7#d7 ,red ware moulded with lion design4 ,height #d inches4 ,fig4 #e4--,peach-shaped water vessel1 red ware4 ,diameter #d inches4 ,dresden ,collection4 ,fig #f4--,red teapot1 moulded design of trees1 etc4 ,inscription containing the name of ,chien ,lung4 ,diameter #d inches4 ,hippisley ,collection4 ,the ware1 as already stated1 is chiefly red1 dark and light1 chocolate brown1 buff1 and drab1 and it is usually without glaze4 ,the decoration consists of3 7#a7 ,engraved designs1 cut in the ware while it was still soft4 ,these are usually inscriptions of a poetic nature1 great importance being attached to the calligraphy4 ,indeed1 we are told that some of the potters of ,yi-hsing owed their reputation chiefly to their skill in carving inscriptions4 ,such a man was ,chan-chien1 whose style of writing has been much imitated by modern artists4 ,another was ,ta-hsin1 who was employed by ,shih ,ta-pin to write inscriptions1 and who was such a master of penmanship that his inscriptions have been carefully transcribed and are used by connoisseurs as a standard of excellence4 7#b7 ,low reliefs1 either formed in the teapot mould or separately stamped out and stuck on4 ,occasionally gilding is found on these1 but it is probably a ,european addition4 7#c7 ,stamped diapers of key fret1 and other familiar patterns1 usually forming the background for relief ornament or borders4 7#d7 ,openwork designs applied in panels over an inner lining which was usually washed with a light-tinted clay4 ,the pierced work is commonly of floral design1 often the prunus1 bamboo and pine pattern1 and on dishes and saucers it has no backing but is left jour4 ,all these methods of ornament are found on the examples which reached ,europe at the end of the seventeenth century1 and they supplied designs for the ,european potters of that period4 7#e7 ,a later type of ornament consists of opaque coloured enamels in painted designs or as ground-colours completely hiding the surface of the ware4 ,the colours are always of the famille rose variety1 including opaque pink1#djc and ,i do not know of any example which suggests an earlier date than ,chien ,lung 7#agcf-agie74 ,most1 indeed1 appear to be nineteenth century4 ,in addition to these1 certain less familiar styles of ornament are found on the smaller objects1 such as the heads of opium pipes1 which are beautifully made and tastefully decorated4 ,the red ware is sometimes coated with a transparent glaze of yellowish tint1 giving a surface of warm reddish brown1 exactly similar to the eighteenth century ,astbury ware of ,staffordshire2 or1 again1 it is polished on the lapidary's wheel like the ,bttger ware of ,dresden4 ,inlaid designs in fine white clay and marbling are further varieties2 and occasionally coloured glazes of great beauty occur4 ,but these will be discussed presently4 ,there is no limit to the variety of articles made by the ,yi-hsing potters1 but they chiefly excelled in small and dainty articles for the writing-table1 the toilet1 and the tea-table1 and personal ornaments4 ,their tea wares have always been highly prized in ,japan1 where they have been cleverly copied in ,banko ware and by the ,kioto potters4 ,similarly1 when tea-drinking became an institution in ,europe in the last half of the seventeenth century1 and the ,east ,india companies set themselves to supply the necessary apparatus from ,china1 the ,yi-hsing red teapots became fashionable1 and were immediately imitated by enterprising potters4 ,the ,dutch and ,english seem to have been the first to succeed in this new departure1 and we read that ,ary de ,milde and ,w4 van ,eenhorn1 of ,delft1 applied for a monopoly of the manufacture in ,holland in #afgi1 while ,john ,dwight1 of ,fulham1 included the ,opacous1 redd and ,dark coloured ,porcellane or ,china in the patent taken out in ,london five years later4 ,the brothers ,elers1 of ,dutch extraction1 started the industry in ,staffordshire about #afic1 and made red stoneware teapots scarcely distinguishable from the ,chinese1 and which sold for a guinea a piece4 ,the ,yi-hsing wares in the celebrated ,chinese ceramic collection formed by ,augustus the ,strong at ,dresden supplied designs for the fine red stoneware made in the first years of the eighteenth century by ,bttger1 who also discovered the secret of true porcelain in ,europe and founded the famous ,meissen porcelain factory4 ,from the earliest days of their importation the ,yi-hsing wares have been known in ,europe1 especially in ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,portugal1 by the ,portuguese name of buccaro4 ,the true buccaro is a scented pottery1 first imported from ,central and ,south ,america1 where it was made by the ,indian population and afterwards manufactured in ,portugal and ,spain2 and ,count ,lorenzo ,magalotti1 who wrote in #afie1 protested against the application of the name to certain unglazed pieces of ,oriental origin1 asserting that true ,buccaro never came from ,china or ,japan1 and that they must not be looked for out of the pottery sent over from ,central ,america or the ,portuguese imitations4#djd ,but the protests of purists were unavailing1 and buccaro seems to have become a regular term for unglazed pottery1 even the archaic black ware from the ,etruscan tombs receiving the name of buchero nero4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ea ,two ,vases with glaze imitating that of the ,chn ,chou wares3 in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #a4--,vase of ,fat-shan 7,kuangtung7 ,chn ware4 ,late ,ming4 ,height #i inches4 ,fig4 #b4--;,bottle-shaped ,vase1 the base suggesting a lotus flower and the mouth a lotus seed-pod1 with a ring of movable seeds on the rim4 ,thick and almost crystalline glaze of lavender blue colour with a patch of crimson4 ,yi-hsing ,chn ware of the seventeenth century4 ,height #i inches4 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,another important group of ,yi-hsing wares presents an entirely different aspect1 and indeed it is little understood in ,europe1 though it is probably bought by unwary collectors for the ,sung types which it purports to imitate4 ,this is the ,yi-hsing ,chn1 to which allusion has already been made in discussing the imitation ,chn wares4 ,the traditions of this manufacture go back to the ,ming dynasty1 when a potter named ,ou ,chinese gained a great reputation for his glazes1 which copied the ,ko ware in crackle and the ,kuan and ,chn wares in colour4#dje ,this is1 no doubt1 the manufacture mentioned in the ,po wu yao lan in the passage dealing with ,chn yao3 ,at the present time 7i4e4 #afba-afbg71 among the recent manufactures this kind of ware is all made with the sandy clay 7sha tu7 of ,yi-hsing as body2 the glaze is rather like the original1 and in some cases beautiful1 but it does not wear well4 ,though the original glazed wares of ,ou are probably rarer to-day than their ,chn ,chou prototypes1 there is no reason to suppose that ,ous successors have not kept up the continuity of the manufacture4 ,it is certainly very much alive to-day1 and an early eighteenth century reference to the applied glaze of ,yi-hsing#djf seems to imply its existence at that time4 ,i have before me as ,i write a tripod incense burner of archaic form1 the body a light buff stoneware and the glaze a deep lavender1 breaking into blue4 ,it is a thick and rather opaque glaze1 sufficiently flowing to have left the upper edges almost bare and formed thickly on the flatter and lower levels2 the colour is broken by streaks and clouding1 which mark the downward flow of the glaze2 the surface has a barely perceptible crackle1 which will no doubt become more marked with age1 and a subdued lustre between the brilliancy of the old opalescent ,chn types and the viscous1 silken sheen of the ,canton glazes#djg which also imitate them4 ,the colour and glaze are distinctly attractive1 and have much in common with the old ,chn glazes1 and though this is a frankly modern piece1 it shows the potentialities of the ware4 ,similar specimens made1 say1 a hundred or two hundred years ago1 and proportionately aged by time and usage1 might well cause trouble to the collector4 ,there are1 besides1 quantities of common glazed pottery made at ,yi-hsing in the present day1 and probably for a considerable time back1 which has no mission to imitate the antique4 ,many of the modern ginger pots are said to come from this locality1 and their glazes--some with clear colours 7yellow1 green1 or purple71 others opaque and clouded1 often covering moulded ornament in low relief--may help us to identify kindred types of glaze on pieces which are more ornamental and perhaps much older4 ,but pottery1 as distinct from porcelain and the finer stonewares1 has never commanded much interest in ,china1 and it has never been systematically collected and studied4 ,the result is that it is extremely difficult to place the various types which appear from time to time except in large and ill-defined groups4 ,a series of typical pieces of modern ,yi-hsing pottery1 for instance1 would no doubt be of the greatest value in identifying the rather older wares made in the same place under similar traditions1 but no one in ,europe#djh has thought it worth their while to form one4 ,i have noticed that a certain type of glazed pottery is distinguished by a concave base which serves instead of the usual hollowed-out foot and foot rim1 and by a glaze which stops a little short of the base in an even1 regular line which is quite distinct from the wavy glaze line of the ,yuan and earlier wares4 ,a jar of this type in the ,british ,museum has a typical ,yi-hsing glaze1 and though this is not perhaps sufficient ground for generalising1 ,i would suggest that this peculiar finish is an indication of ,yi-hsing manufacture4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #cif3 ,chinese4 ,footnote #cig3 ,by ,chou ,kao-chi4 ,see ,bushell1 ,o4,c4,a41 p4 #fce4 ,footnote #cih3 ,f4 ,brinkley1 ,japan and ,china1 vol4 ix41 pp4 #cee-fc4 ,footnote #cii3 ,op4 cit41 figs4 #de and #df4 ,footnote #djj3 ,a tael is about one ,mexican dollar and a third1 i4e4 approximately thirty pence4 ,footnote #dja3 ,four of the most celebrated names1 however1 are incidentally mentioned in the ,tao lu 7bk4 vii41 fol4 #aa verso71 viz4 7#a7 ,shih ,ta-pin ,chinese2 7#b7 ,li ,chung-fang ,chinese2 7#c7 ,hs ,yu-chan ,chinese2 7#d7 ,chn ,chung-mei ,chinese2 and 7#e7 ,chn ,chn-ching ,chinese4 ,footnote #djb3 ,the ,yang-hsien ming hu hsi 7quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #h verso7 states that ,chn ,chung-mei began by making porcelain at ,ching-t ,chn4 ,it was exceedingly clever1 and of an ornamental kind1 made with supernatural ingenuity4 ,but the results of his trade were far from sufficient to establish a name1 so he gave it up and came to ,yang-hsien 7i4e4 ,yi-hsing74 ,he took a delight in blending the teapot clays1 putting his heart and soul into the work1 and his ware was considered superhuman4 ,footnote #djc3 ,i have seen specimens of ,yi-hsing red ware coated with a dappled bird's egg glaze of blue green ground flecked with crimson1 a type which was thought to represent the ,chn glaze of the muffle kiln4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #bag4 ,footnote #djd3 ,for this and other information on the subject1 see ,m4,l4 ,solon's paper on ,the ,noble ,buccaros in the ,north ,staffordshire ,literary and ,philosophic ,society's ,proceedings1 ,october #bcrd1 #ahif4 ,footnote #dje3 ,see ,tao lu1 bk4 vii41 fol4 #aa verso3 7,ou ware7 was made in the ,ming dynasty by a man of ,yi-hsing 444 who took the name of ,ou1 and everybody called it ,ou's ware4 ,it included wares which imitated ,ko ware in crackle1 ,kuan and ,chn wares in colour4 ,ou's bright coloured glazes were very numerous4 ,the wares consist of flower dishes1 stands for boxes1 etc4 ,the glazes with red and blue markings are particularly choice4 ,at ,chang-nan the factory of ,tang used to imitate them4 ,the last sentence refers to the celebrated ,tang ,ying1 who supervised the ,imperial factory at ,ching-t ,chn from #agbh-agdi4 ,the statement that ,tang's factory imitated them is no doubt based on the oft-quoted list given in the ,chiang hsi tung chih of wares made at the ,imperial factory about #agcj1 which include glazes of ,ou4 ,imitations of the old ware of the potter named ,ou1 including two kinds1 that with red and that with blue markings4 ,footnote #djf3 ,in the list quoted in the last note4 ,the words are ,chinese1 ,yi hsing kua yu4 ,the word kua1 which means suspended1 applied1 is probably inserted because the ,yi-hsing ware was usually unglazed4 ,footnote #djg3 ,a similar effect is produced by zinc and tin on modern ,english wares4 ,see note on p4 #afh4 ,it has been suggested that these minerals were used on the ,kuangtung stonewares1 and appearances1 at any rate1 point to their presence in the ,yi-hsing flamb glazes as well4 ,footnote #djh3 ,dr4 ,laufer collected a considerable series of wares made in certain modern factories which he visited in ,china1 and they may be seen in the ,field ,museum1 ,chicago1 and in the ,natural ,history ,museum in ,new ,york4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,miscellaneous ,,potteries ,,in addition to the factories which have received individual notice1 there are numerous others which are only names to us2 and1 on the other hand1 there is a host of nameless wares which have reached ,europe at various times and through divers channels1 and are now awaiting classification with very little chance of being definitely located4 ,a consideration1 however1 suggested by the ,chinese ,commercial ,guide#dji may help towards the grouping of these miscellaneous wares4 ,we are told that the charges for freight forbid the wares to be carried far in the ordinary way of internal trade1 and that manufactures of pottery are numerous1 supplying the local needs4 ,now the number of ports open to foreign trade in ,china is limited1 and in the past the sea trade was of far smaller volume1 and was concentrated in a few of the southern coast towns4 ,consequently1 in dealing with pottery which we may assume to have been brought by the export trade to ,europe1 it will be necessary for general purposes to take account only of the factories in the neighbourhood of the seaports in question4 ,these will be found to be almost entirely in the southern half of ,china4 ,thus1 starting from the south and following the coast line1 we come first to the potteries which supplied ,pak-hoi and ,canton1 and we may assume that ,hongkong and ,kowloon would be supplied from the neighbourhood of ,canton4 ,these have already been discussed1 and we can pass on to ,swatow1 which would draw supplies from the ,chao-chou ,fu potteries4 ,this neighbourhood furnished an exhibit to the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahgh1 consisting of tea jars1 tobacco jars1 braziers and pots1 lamps1 tiles1 flower pots1 fruit jars1 spoons1 vases of various sorts1 figures1 dishes1 cups and saucers1 and spittoons4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #eb ,wine ,jar with ,cover and ,stand4 ,fine stoneware with ornament in relief glazed green and yellow in a deep violet blue ground4 ,four-clawed dragons ascending and descending among cloud-scrolls in pursuit of flaming pearls2 band of sea-waves below and formal borders including a ju-i pattern on the shoulder4 ,cover with foliate edges and jewel pattern1 surmounted by a seated figure of ,shou ,lao1 ,god of ,longevity4 ,about #aejj ,a4,d4 ,height #bb inches4 ,grandidier ,collection1 ,louvre4 ,at the same exhibition1 ,amoy1 to which we come next1 was represented by dishes1 rice bowls1 wine cups1 saucers and spoons1 preserve jars1 wine bottles1 etc41 in common porcelain1 besides tiles of various kinds1 which implies the manufacture of pottery as well4 ,these wares1 we are informed in the catalogue1 are largely exported to ,saigon1 ,siam1 ,manilla1 etc42 a statement confirmed by the ,chinese ,commercial ,guide1#daj which adds ,india1 the ,archipelago1 and the southern provinces4 ,this is interesting in view of the quantities of coarse china1 blue and white#daa and coloured1 which is brought from these parts by collectors who take its crude appearance as evidence of age4 ,the factories are located at ,pa-kwoh1 a village near ,shih-ma1 which lies between ,amoy and ,chang-chou ,fu4 ,tung-an ,hsien in the same neighbourhood is also named as a pottery centre4 ,there are several important factories within easy reach of ,shanghai4 ,those at ,yi-hsing have been discussed at some length1 but there is another large centre of the industry on the east side of the ,lake ,tai-hu opposite to ,yi-hsing4 ,this is ,su ,chou ,chinese1 which1 according to the catalogue of the ,paris ,exhibition1 was still celebrated for its pottery in #ahgh4 ,but the reputation of ,su ,chou does not rest on its modern achievements4 ,its name occurs frequently in the pottery section of the great encyclopdia 7compiled by order of the ,emperor ,kang ,hsi7 as one of the prominent pottery centres in the ,ming dynasty4 ,tiles for the palaces and temples of ,nanking were made there1 and vases and wine vessels for the ,imperial ,court4 ,the nature of these last can be guessed from a hint given in one passage of the encyclopdia#dab3 ,at ,su ,chou iron rust 7hsiu7 and other materials are used for the yellow wares4 ,for the vessels with dragon and phnix destined for ,imperial use1 a resinous substance#dac and cobalt blue#dad are used4 ,in the ,hsan ,t period 7#adbf-adce71 ,su ,chou was noted for the manufacture of artistic pots for holding fighting crickets4 ,in reference to these we are informed in the ,tao shuo 7see ,bushell1 op4 cit41 p4 #adj7 that those fabricated at ,su ,chou by the two makers named ,lu ,chinese and ,tsou ,chinese were beautifully moulded1 and artistically carved and engraved1 and the pots made by the ,elder and the ,younger ,hsiu ,chinese1 two daughters of ,tsou1 were the finest of all4 ,at this time fighting crickets was a favourite pastime1 and hundreds and thousands of cash were staked upon the event1 so that they did not grudge spending large sums upon the pots1 which were decorated in this elaborate way1 and consequently far surpassed the ordinary porcelain of the period4 ,the large and important potteries at ,po-shan ,hsien ,chinese in the ,ching-chou ,fu1 in ,shantung1 were represented only by a small exhibit at the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahgh1 consisting of a bottle of glazed pottery1 three tea jars in red ware1 ten specimens of glazed pottery1 a brazier in terra cotta1 and seven crucibles4 ,laufer tells us that these potteries date back to ,sung times1 and have preserved the old traditions of manufacture4 ,the district is also noted for its glass1 enamels and glazing materials1 but it is situated inland1 and not conveniently near any of the treaty ports4 ,in the early days of the ,european trading companies1 pottery1 as distinct from porcelain1 does not seem to have received much attention from the merchants1 and we may fairly assume that most of the earthenwares which reached ,europe before the last century hailed from the neighbourhood of ,canton or from ,yi-hsing and the ,shanghai district4 ,but long before the first ,european vessels reached the coasts of ,china1 ,arab and ,chinese merchantmen had carried cargoes of pottery and coarse porcelain to the ,philippines1 the ,east ,indian ,archipelago1 the ,malay ,peninsula1 ,siam1 ,ceylon1 and ,india4 ,the ,arabs had a trading station in ,canton in the eighth century1 and ,chinese junks sailed from ,canton and the ,fukien ports in the ,sung1 ,yan1 and ,ming dynasties4 ,a ,chinese account of the sea trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries may be read in the work of ,chao ,ju-kua1#dae and it will be found from this book and from ,marco ,polo's accounts that ,chan-chou ,fu on the ,fukien coast was a busy centre of foreign trade in the ,sung and ,yan periods4 ,hirth#daf has traced the probable route by which the ,lung-chan celadons reached this port for shipment1 and doubtless the other wares1 including coarse white porcelain1 stonewares and pottery1 which are found in the ,philippines and ,borneo 7to name only two of many localities7 were largely supplied from the ,fukien potteries4 ,many of these wares are of undoubted antiquity1 and some of the types are unknown in ,china to-day4 ,they may have been made solely for export1 but in any case their disappearance in ,china is quite intelligible4 ,for even in the eighth century the merchants were forbidden#dag to export precious and rare articles1 and most of these trade goods are of coarse make and unlikely to be preserved by the ,chinese at home4 ,on the other hand1 the natives of the ,philippines and the ,dyaks of ,borneo have preserved these old potteries with scrupulous care4 ,the various types of jars have been christened with special names#dah alluding to their form or decoration2 they have been credited with supernatural powers2 and numerous legends have grown endowing them with life and movement1 power of speech1 and influences malevolent or benign4 ,a good collection of these pots would be of considerable interest1 but the value attached to them by their native owners is out of all proportion to their intrinsic worth1 and makes them difficult to procure4 ,an important series1 however1 of the ,philippine jars has been formed by the ,field ,museum at ,chicago1 and they are described with full illustration in one of the excellent publications of that institution4#dai ,among other things we are told that every wild tribe encountered by the writer in the interior of ,luzon1 ,palawan1 and ,mindanao possesses these jars1 which enter intimately into the life of the people4 ,among many the price paid by the bridegroom for his bride is wholly or in part in jars4 ,when a ,tinguian youth is to take his bride1 he goes to her house at night1 carrying with him a ,chinese jar which he presents to his father-in-law4 ,the liquor served at ceremonies and festivals is sometimes contained in these jars1 while small porcelain dishes contain the food offered to the spirits4#dbj ,a general similarity in form is noticeable in the ,philippine jars1 an ovoid body more or less elongated being common to all1 while the neck varies a little in its height and width4 ,a series of loop handles or pierced masks on the shoulder1 to hold a cord for suspension1 is a constant feature4 ,the older types1 which are said to date back to a period ranging from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century1 are frequently decorated with one or two large dragons coiling round the sides1 and either modelled in low relief or incised in the body4 ,others are quite plain1 and the glazes include black1 brown1 dark green1 and a brownish yellow of varying depth4 ,a later group1 not older than the end of the ,ming dynasty1 is without ornament1 but coated with single-colour or variegated glazes of the ,canton and ,yi-hsing types--e4g4 speckled blue with green flecks1 green with blue streaks and lines1 blue and green mottled and crackled1 light bluish green--the glaze often ending short of the base in an even line1 which is1 perhaps1 characteristic of ,yi-hsing4 ,the ,british ,museum has a small series from ,borneo1 which includes1 among the older types of pottery1 a jar with black-brown glaze and bands of cloud design and stiff leaves deeply incised1 and an ovoid jar with many loop handles on the shoulders1 two dragons in relief1 and a ground of incised wave pattern all covered with a yellowish brown glaze which ends in a regularly waved line some way short of the-base4 ,of later make is a jar with translucent purplish brown glaze1 and four circular panels with figure ornament in low relief glazed green1 a type described by the ,japanese as ,old ,kochi4#dba ,there are1 besides1 a jar with roughly painted blue dragon designs under a crackled white glaze1 the ware being a coarse porcellanous stoneware2 another with enamel colours in addition to the underglaze blue including the rose pink which is not older than the eighteenth century2 and another type with rough stoneware or earthen body covered with a crackled1 greyish white enamel of putty-like surface on which enamel colours are coarsely painted4 ,the typical jar which the island natives so highly prize is of the ovoid form with a number of loop handles on the shoulder and dragons in relief4#dbb ,an unusually ornate example is shown on ,plate #di4 ,it has a cloudy green crackled glaze with dragons of both the ordinary and the archaic kind1 besides storks and a bat in low relief1 and there are touches of dark blue and yellow1 white and brown in the glaze4 ,it is probably of ,canton make and not older than the seventeenth century4 ,in modern times jars are made in ,borneo itself by the ,chinese in the coast towns4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ec ,vase with chrysanthemum handles3 buff stoneware with chrysanthemum design outlined in low relief and coloured with turquoise1 green and pale yellow glazes in a dark purple ground4 ,about #aejj ,a4,d4 ,height #ai inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,a certain amount of ,chinese pottery found its way1 like the celadon porcelains in early times1 by the caravan routes into ,turkestan1 ,india1 ,persia1 and ,western ,asia4 ,such wares would be more naturally drawn from the potteries in ,honan1 ,chihli1 and the north-western provinces1 and it is not surprising that the fragment found by ,sir ,aurel ,stein in the buried cities of ,turkestan should have included the brown painted wares of ,tz ,chou4 ,but the greatest difficulties in classification are presented by the miscellaneous pottery which collectors have picked up from time to time in ,china1 or antique dealers have sent over to supply the demand created by the increasing interest taken in ,chinese pottery by ,western amateurs4 ,these come1 as a rule1 without any hint as to their place of origin1 and in most cases it is quite impossible to locate them4 ,there are1 however1 certain well-defined groups which come together naturally4 ,one of these is represented by the ,tradescant jar in the ,ashmolean ,museum1 ,oxford4 ,it was exhibited at the ,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club in #aiaj1 and described in the catalogue#dbc as ,jar with globular body1 short neck1 and wide mouth2 five loop handles2 stoneware covered with a bright green glaze2 the ornament consists of floral scrolls in yellow with touches of brown and is in low relief2 round the base a formal design4 ,height1 #ab inches4 ,a similar jar is shown on ,plate #ef1 and in the ,goff collection in the ,brighton ,museum is another of the same make1 but with the design incised with a point instead of applied in relief4 ,the ,tradescant ,collection was given to ,elias ,ashmole in #afei by ,john ,tradescant4 ,it was formed by the father of the donor1 who died in #afbg1 so that at the lowest computation the antiquity of these wares is fixed in the late ,ming period4 ,another group is represented by ,plate #eh1 ,fig4 #b4 ,its characteristics are a comparatively thin buff earthenware body1 soft enough to powder under the knife1 and a sparing use of brownish yellow1 bright turquoise1 green#dbd and aubergine glazes of the usual crackled type applied direct to the body4 ,the specimens are generally vases or incense burners of curious and archaic forms1 with ornament moulded in low relief1 the whole bearing the unmistakable signs of a ware which has been pressed in a mould4 ,the inside and bottom of the incense burners are usually unglazed4 ,the colours1 as a rule1 are pleasing and soft1 and it is the common practice to label them indiscriminately ,ming4 ,as nothing definite is known of their place of origin1 this chronology can only be based on their archaistic appearance1 or on the fact that they have the usual on biscuit glazes1 which seems to be the accepted signal for a ,ming attribution4 ,needless to say1 the use of this method of colouring survived the demise of the last ,ming emperor1 and it is improbable that wares which must be comparatively common in ,china 7judging from the handsome way in which the quite recently created demand for them has been answered7 should have a minimum antiquity of two hundred and seventy years4 ,the fact is that dating of these glazed potteries is as difficult as that of the cognate glazed tiles1 and it is as unreasonable to exclude a ,ching origin as it would be to exclude a ,ming4 ,the balance of probabilities1 at any rate1 is in favour of the bulk of them being no older than the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ed ,vase with lotus handles3 buff stoneware with lotus design modelled in low relief and coloured with aubergine1 green and pale yellow glazes in a deep turquoise ground4 ,about #aejj ,a4,d4 ,height #ah inches4 ,grandidier ,collection1 ,louvre4 ,a third group is also consistently labelled ,ming1 but with better reason1 though even here a little more elasticity in the dating is advisable4 ,it has an exact parallel in porcelains of undoubted ,ming origin1 viz4 those represented by ,plate #fa1 etc41 which usually take the form of jars and vases with designs outlined in fillets of clay1 or channelled or even pierced jour4 ,the spaces between the outlines are filled with coloured glazes which are fired1 in the case of porcelain1 in the cooler parts of the biscuit kiln4 ,these are the glazes de demi-grand feu1 according to the ,french definition1 and they consist of turquoise and aubergine purple or violet and green 7the three colours or san tsai1 all minutely crackled71 supplemented by a white formed by slip and a thin brownish yellow4 ,occasionally the purple is so deep as to appear almost black2 and the details of the designs are often etched in the paste with a fine point4 ,precisely similar wares are found with an earthenware body2 and they are1 no doubt1 contemporary with the analogous porcelains1 though how long the traditions of this type of ware continued has never been precisely determined4 ,the porcelain on which washes of turquoise and aubergine glaze are combined is a development of this type1 and this has certainly survived to comparatively modern times4 ,reticulated ornament was used on the three-colour pottery vases no less than on the porcelain 7,plate #ee72 and besides the covered wine jars and vases there are figures and grotto pieces of similar style both in pottery and porcelain1 many of which must date from ,ming times4 ,plate #ec illustrates a beautiful vase in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection which belongs to a cognate group4 ,it has a buff stoneware body1 the ornament is outlined in relief1 and the glazes which fill the outlines are very similar to those of our main group1 though some of the colours are more transparent and glassy and wanting in the solidity of the latter4 ,the chrysanthemum handles are a frequent feature of the vases of this class1 of which a notable instance is in the ,salting ,collection4 ,plate #ed illustrates another vase of similar kind1 but with lotus handles1 lotus designs1 and a fine turquoise ground4 ,of the same type1 but less rare1 are certain wide-mouthed jars1 bowls1 and flower pots with bold floral designs1 lotuses1 etc41 outlined in fillets of clay and filled with the same kinds of glaze1 the background now turquoise and now aubergine 7,plate #eh1 ,fig4 #a74 ,the base is usually washed over with a thin purplish brown4 ,these several types were copied in the ,japanese ,kishiu pottery in the nineteenth century1 and though the copies are rarely difficult to distinguish by the eye alone the ,japanese glazes 7particularly the aubergine7 will be found on handling to have a peculiar moist and rather sticky surface4 ,though no doubt of ,ming origin1 it is extremely probable that the manufacture of the ,chinese bowls and flower pots of this class continued into the last dynasty4 ,fig4 #b of ,plate #ef exemplifies another kind of pottery with fine white body like pipeclay1 and usually with sharply moulded designs in antique bronze style and in the bronze forms of beakers and four-legged incense burners4 ,the glaze is usually leaf green1 but it often breaks out into a frothy grey scum1 such as is seen on some of the ,canton and ,yi-hsing glazed pottery4 ,it is a common practice to label these wares as ,tang1 but ,i am inclined to place them in a much more recent period 7seventeenth or eighteenth century71 and to locate them among the miscellaneous ,kuangtung wares1 pending further information on the subject4 ,there are other specimens with a somewhat similar white and relatively soft body material1 not glazed but stained with a brownish black dressing of clay1 and somewhat recalling bronze4 ,these are usually vases of elegant1 well-moulded form1 such as ,plate #ef1 ,fig4 #c1 and they are often marked ,nan hsiang tang4#dbe ,they are1 no doubt1 of relatively modern make4 ,though it would be easy to suggest many possible places of origin for these wares1 such speculation can be of no real value without far more definite evidence than we possess at present4 ,still1 it may serve some useful purpose in the future1 if not at once1 if we add one or two more records1 however meagre1 to the existing lists of ,chinese potteries4 ,the section of the ,tu shu1 which is devoted to ,tao kung 7the pottery industry71 mentions the following factories as of some importance in the ,ming dynasty4 ,in the province of ,honan1 in addition to the well-known potteries of ,chn ,chou and ,ju ,chou1 we read that there was a factory in the ,ju-ning ,fu at the village of ,tsai ,chinese1 which was intermittently active in the first half of the fifteenth century4#dbf ,from another passage we learn that in the valleys of ,ching#dbg ,chinese and the hills of ,shu 7or ,szechuan7 there are black and yellow clays suitable for pottery2 that the potters had their kilns in holes in the mountains2 and that they used the yellow clay for the body of the ware and overlaid it with the black1 making jars1 drug pots1 cauldrons1 pots1 dishes1 bowls1 sacrificial vessels1 and the like4 ,they also made one kind of ware which resembled that of ,chn ,chou4 ,specimens of modern pottery in the ,field ,museum1 ,chicago1 include ornamental wares such as pomegranate-shaped water pots1 etc41 covered with an oily green glaze recalling some of the ,sung types4 ,the body is apparently dark coloured1 and shows brown at the edges where the glaze is thin4 ,this ware is made at ,chng-tu in ,szechuan4 ,the geographical annals of the province of ,shensi are quoted#dbh with reference to potteries in the ,tung-chou ,fu as follows3 ,the inhabitants of ,lei-hsiang and ,pai-shui#dbi are good potters1 and the porcelains 7tz chi7 which they make are of surpassingly clever workmanship4 ,these are what are commonly called lei kung chi 7vessels of the ,lord of ,thunder74 ,some say that the potteries of ,hsiang only began to be active when the original wares had ceased to be made4 ,the village of ,lei-hsiang is east of ,shn ,hsien1 and it is the place of the temple of the ,hsiang family4 ,the inhabitants of the place sometimes dig up castaway ,hsiang wares4 ,their shape and style are archaic2 the colour of the ware is green 7l71 deep and dark1 but brilliant4 ,one kind has slight ornament in raised clay1 but if the hand is passed over it1 the surface feels smooth and without perceptible relief or indentation4#dcj ,when compared with the ,hsan1#dca ,ko and other wares1 it may be said to surpass them4 ,the description in the last part seems to apply to the older wares which preceded those made in the district at the time of writing4 ,the modern potteries at ,yo ,chou in ,shensi are represented in the ,field ,museum1 ,chicago1 by a black-painted ware in ,tz ,chou style1 by a greyish white ware with sketchy blue designs1 and by a black slag-like earthenware which is extremely light to handle4 ,it is also suggested that a well known type of pottery1 painted with free floral designs in black and white on a creamy glaze which is stained a pinkish brown colour1 is an earlier product of the same potteries4 ,the potteries at ,ch-yang ,hsien ,chinese in the ,chn-ting ,fu1 in ,chihli1 are mentioned#dcb in the administrative records of the ,ming dynasty in the ,hsan ,t period1 and again under the dates #aeec and #aefc1 as supplying wine jars and vases for the ,court4 ,this place is only a few miles east of ,ting ,chou1 which was celebrated for its white wares in the ,sung period1 and these references carry the record of the industry in that district to the last part of the ,ming dynasty4 ,unfortunately1 nothing is said of the nature of the wares made at this time for the ,court4 ,reference is made elsewhere 7p4 #bjb7 to the potteries at ,wu-ching ,hsien1 in the ,peking district4 ,possibly these are the potteries described1 by ,bushell#dcc as still active in modern times4 ,the ordinary glaze1 he remarks1 is a reddish brown of marked iridescence1 shining with an infinity of metallic specks1 an effective background to the moulded decoration which covers the surface4 ,the designs are generally of hieratic character4 ,the sun-stone glazes made at the ,rookwood ,potteries 7,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 ,u4,s4,a47 and on the ,lancastrian wares#dcd are of this kind1 the infinity of metallic specks being due to super-saturation of the glaze with iron oxide4 ,a specimen of this modern ,peking ware may be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,the tile works at ,liu-li-ch1 near ,peking1 date back to the ,yan dynasty1 and their modern productions as represented in the ,field ,museum include a pottery with incised designs filled in with yellow1 green1 and dark aubergine glazes1 not unlike in style to the ,japanese ,sanuki ware4 ,another type has forms taken from bronzes and is distinguished by a shining green glaze4 ,in the province of ,shantung1 besides the tile works at ,lin-ching1#dce the important1 potteries at ,yen-shn ,chn ,chinese in the ,ching-chou ,fu are noticed#dcf as follows3 ,the inhabitants have inherited from their ancestors the art of making good pottery4 ,the usual wares are cisterns 7kang71 jars 7ying71 cauldrons 7fu71 and such-like pottery 7fou71 made without flaw4 ,the profit to the people is not less than that made at ,ching-t ,chn on the right bank of the ,yangtze4 ,yen-shn ,chn is quite close to ,po-shan ,hsien1 and no doubt the industry at the two places is intimately connected4 ,the latter1 which is noted to this day for its manufactures of pottery and glass1 has already been mentioned#dcg more than once4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,plate #ee4--,ming ,pottery with dull san tsai glazes4 ,fig4 #a4--,wine ,jar with pierced outer casing1 horsemen and attendants1 rocky background4 ,fifteenth century4 ,total height #ai inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,tripod ,incense ,vase1 dragons and peony designs and a panel of horsemen4 ,dated #aebi ,a4,d4 ,height #bb inches4 ,messel ,collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,plate #ef4--,miscellaneous ,pottery4 ,fig4 #a--;,jar with dull green glaze and formal lotus scroll in relief touched with yellow and brown glazes4 ,about #afjj4 ,height #ab inches4 ,guff ,collection4 ,fig4 #b--;,beaker of bronze form1 soft whitish body and dull green glaze4 787 ,seventeenth century4 ,height #af inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,fig4 #c4--vase of light buff ware with dull black dressing1 vine reliefs4 ,mark1 ,nan hsiang tang 7see p4 #bai74 ,eighteenth century4 ,height #aa inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,at ,yi-chn ,chinese in the ,yang-chou ,fu1 in ,kiangsu1 there were factories which supplied wine jars1 etc41 to the palace at ,nanking in the early years of the ,ming dynasty2 and in the seventh year of ,chia ,ching 7#aebh7 supplies of similar vessels were sent from ,ning-kuo ,fu ,chinese in the south-west of ,anhui4#dch ,the latter place is mentioned elsewhere#dci under its earlier name of ,hsan ,chou ,chinese as producing a thin white ware made of plastic clay in the ,yan and ,ming periods4 ,a verse of ,wang ,shih-chng 7#aebf-aeic7 speaks of the snow white porcelain of ,hsan ,chou4#ddj ,the ,tao lu enumerates factories which began in the ,ming dynasty and continued to the nineteenth century1 and apparently produced an inferior type of porcelain1 and probably pottery as well4 ,they were located at ,huai-ching ,fu ,chinese1 ,i-yang ,hsien ,chinese1 ,tng-fng ,hsien ,chinese1 and ,shan ,chou ,chinese in ,honan2 at ,yi ,hsien ,chinese and ,tsou ,hsien ,chinese in ,yen-chou ,fu in ,shantung2 in the ,lung ,shang ,chinese district in ,shensi1 and at ,hng-fng ,chinese in ,kiangsi4 ,the last-mentioned factory was established by a man named ,ch ,chih-kao from ,chu-chou ,fu in the early ,ming period4 ,in the ,chia ,ching period 7#aebb-aeff7 it was transferred to the ,i-yang ,chinese district to a place called ,ma-kng1 not many miles south of ,ching-t ,chn4 ,both the ,lung-shang and ,ma-kng wares are described as very coarse4 ,the value of pottery for architectural purposes was recognised in ,china from the earliest times4 ,unglazed bricks and tiles of ,han and pre-,han periods are preserved by ,chinese collectors1 particularly when they happen1 as is often the case1 to have inscriptions in old seal characters1 or other ornament4 ,the familiar ,chinese roof tile is a long convex object like a horizontal section of a tube1 and those intended for the border are ornamented at one end with a disc1 usually stamped with a dragon or other design in sunk relief4 ,here and there1 on the apex of the roof or at the corners1 are ornamental tiles carrying figures of deities1 heroes1 mythical creatures or birds1 modelled in the round and usually with great force and skill4 ,besides these1 architectural mouldings and antefixal ornaments in pottery are commonly used on temples and pavilions of an ornamental kind4 ,the use of tiles--and1 no doubt1 of other architectural embellishments in pottery--was encouraged by government enactments at various times4 ,in the ,tang dynasty 7#fah-ijf ,a4,d471#dda in the districts south and west of the ,yangtze1 under the inspectorship of a man named ,tan ,chinese1 the inhabitants were ordered to use tiles on their houses in place of wood in order to lessen the risk of fire2 kilns were erected to provide the tiles1 and those who were too poor to carry out the alterations by themselves received ,state help4 ,a somewhat similar but more important edict was issued in the twenty-seventh year of ,hung ,wu#ddb 7#acid71 that bricks and tiles should be used in all the buildings in the capital1 which was then ,nanking1 and that kilns should be set up every year on the ,ch-pao shan for their manufacture4 ,it was not long after this that the famous porcelain pagoda was erected at ,nanking1#ddc the lower part of which was faced with white porcelain bricks1 the remaining storeys with pottery with coloured glazes4 ,tile factories existed in all parts of ,china to supply local needs1 and the few singled out for mention in the ,tu ,shu#ddd were perhaps of more than usual importance in the ,ming dynasty4 ,they are ,lin-ching ,chinese in the extreme west of ,shantung2 ,su ,chou ,chinese in ,kiangsu1 on the east side of the lake ,tai-hu1 and facing the potteries of ,yi-hsing1 which supplied tiles for the palaces and temples of ,nanking2 the neighbouring ,chang-chou ,chn1 and ,yi-chn and ,kua ,chou in the ,yang-chou ,fu of the same province2 ,wu-,ching ,hsien ,chinese1 in the district of ,peking1 where the potters asked for permission to make tiles for public use in #aegd4 ,the tile works at ,liu-li-ch 7mentioned on p4 #bjj7 date from the ,yan dynasty4 ,they are also situated in the neighbourhood of ,peking1 but whether in the ,wu-ching ,hsien or not1 ,i have failed to discover4 ,when ,peking became the capital of the ,ching emperors1 no doubt the tile factories at ,wu-ching ,hsien assumed still greater importance2 and according to the catalogue of the exhibition in ,paris in #ahgh1dde the neighbourhood of ,amoy was then celebrated for its bricks and tiles4 ,this branch of the potter's industry is represented by a small collection of bricks1 tiles1 mouldings1 and antefixal ornaments in the ,british ,museum4 ,it includes unglazed bricks from the ,great ,wall of ,china1 which may date from #bbj ,b4,c41 a few ,han bricks and tile-ends with moulded ornament2 white porcelain bricks and coloured pottery tiles and mouldings from the ,nanking pagoda2 and tiles from the ,ming tombs near ,nanking1 which were built in #adjj ,a4,d41 and like the pagoda destroyed in the ,taiping rebellion in #ahec4 ,the ,nanking tiles and mouldings are of hard buff pottery with translucent glazes of green and yellow colour1 minutely crackled1 additional colours being formed with red and creamy white slips4 ,the tile-ends are ornamented with dragon medallions4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #eg ,seated figure of ,kuan ,y1 the war-god of ,china1 a deified warrior4 ,reddish buff pottery with blue1 yellow and turquoise glazes1 and a colourless glaze on the white parts4 ,sixteenth century4 ,height #bj inches4 ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,other architectural pottery in the same collection came from the ,imperial pleasure grounds at ,peking1 which were wrecked in #ahfj4 ,these include tiles and antefixal ornaments from the pavilions and temples in the ,yan ,ming ,yan and from the ,summer ,palace1 and a few blue-glazed tiles from the ,temple of ,heaven4 ,numerous tiles with relief figures and pottery figures from niches were picked up in the ruins of the temples and pavilions in the ,imperial grounds after their capture in #ahfj2 and many of the mouldings were found to display strong ,european influences1 due1 no doubt1 to the designs of the ,jesuits ,attiret and ,castiglione1 who assisted the ,emperor ,chien ,lung in erecting some of the buildings4 ,some of these are in the ,british ,museum besides antefixes in the form of yellow dragon heads from the ,winter ,palace at ,peking and from the celebrated ,temple of ,kin-shan1 or ,golden ,island1 in the ,yangtze2 and a tile from the ,huang-ss1 the ,great ,lama temple1 built by ,kang ,hsi in #afdg4 ,the tile in question is evidently part of a restoration1 for it bears the date corresponding to #aggj4 ,the ordinary tiles and mouldings are not likely to be extensively collected by private individuals1 but many of the ridge tiles1 with figures of deities1 horsemen1 lions1 chi-lin1 and phnixes1 have found their way into collections to which their spirited modelling has served as a passport4 ,the glazes on these are often richly coloured1 and include yellow1 green1 violet purple1 aubergine and purplish black1 and occasionally high-fired glazes with flamb or variegated colours4 ,by accident or design1 the figures are not infrequently detached from their tiles and mounted on wooden stands4 ,the pottery figures from niches in the walls of temples and public buildings are often finely modelled and richly glazed1 and1 needless to say1 they find a welcome in ,western collections 7,plate #eh74 ,it is a common but illogical practice to assign all these figures in architectural pottery to the ,ming dynasty2 illogical1 because so many of them have been brought from the ,imperial buildings at ,peking which are known to have been mostly erected in the ,kang ,hsi and ,chien ,lung period4 ,on the other hand1 nothing is more difficult to date than this type of glazed pottery1 in which the ware1 the colours1 and the decorative traditions seem to have continued almost unchanged from the early ,ming times to the present day4 ,the tiles from the ,nanking pagoda and from the eighteenth-century buildings at ,peking are practically interchangeable4 ,nor must we forget that the potters who made the architectural pottery often turned their hands and materials to the manufacture of vases and figures and other ceramic ornaments for domestic use1 and even imposing altar sets for the temples4 ,an important example of this work is seen in ,fig4 #b of ,plate #ee1 a large incense vase#ddf of traditional form 7from an altar set7 with bowl-shaped body1 wide mouth1 two upstanding handles1 and three feet with lion masks4 ,it is ornamented with a peony scroll and two dragons in high relief1 and is made of pottery with a dull turquoise green glaze4 ,an inscription on the handles proclaims the fact that it was dedicated by the chieftain ,kuo ,hsin-sh2 made in the eighth year of ,chia ,ching1 i4e4 #aebi4 ,in more recent times the tile works near ,peking have turned their attention to the manufacture of vases and bowls with rich soft monochrome glazes1 yellow1 green1 turquoise and aubergine in the manner of the similarly coloured porcelains which are highly prized1 and1 as ,bushell tells us1 the soft excipient 7i4e4 the pottery body7 seems to impart an added softness to the glazes4 ,the fact that yellow clay1 he continues1 used often to be mixed with the porcelain earth in the old fabrics to enhance the brilliancy of the glaze colours1 gives a certain vraisemblance to the fraudulent reproductions which ,i have seen sold for as many dollars as they would cost in cents to produce4 ,it is unlikely that the issue of these by-products of the tile factories is confined to the neighbourhood of ,peking4 ,among the miscellaneous potteries ,i should add that ,ka-shan1#ddg in ,chekiang1 is reputed to have been noted in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries for a fine porcellanous stoneware with opaque1 camellia-leaf green glaze minutely crackled4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,plate #eh4--,miscellaneous ,pottery4 ,fig4 #a4--;,jar with lotus design in green1 yellow and turquoise glazes in an aubergine ground4 ,about #afjj4 ,height #f inches4 ,hippisley ,collection4 ,fig4 #b4--,vase of double fish form1 buff ware with turquoise1 yellow and aubergine glazes4 787 ,seventeenth century4 ,height #e inches4 ,british ,museum4 ,fig4 #c4--,roof-tile with figure of ,bodhidharma1 deep green and creamy white glazes4 ,sixteenth century4 ,height #aj inches4 ,benson ,collection4 ,fig4 #d4--;,bottle with archaic dragon 7chih lung7 on neck1 variegated glaze of lavender1 blue and green clouded with purple and brown4 787 ,eighteenth century ,yi-hsing ware4 ,height #aj inches4 ,peters ,collection4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #dji3 ,s4 ,wells ,williams1 ,chinese ,commercial ,guide1 #ahfc1 p4 #acb4 ,footnote #daj3 ,op4 cit41 p4 #aad4 ,footnote #daa3 ,a coarse blue and white porcelain1 often decorated with dragons which overlap the rim and are continued on the reverse of the bowls and dishes1 seems to belong to one of these provincial factories4 ,the glaze is thick and bubbly1 and the blue of the decoration rather dull and dark2 but these pieces have a certain age1 and belong to the first half of the eighteenth century1 for they were copied at ,worcester and ,lowestoft4 ,they often have marks of commendation1 such as hsi y 7western jade71 etc4 ,footnote #dab3 ,the ,chin ting ku chin tu shu chi chng1 section viii41 subsection named ,tao kung pu hui kao1 fol4 #ae4 ,footnote #dac3 ,chinese sung hsiang1 rendered turpentine by ,bushell1 ,o4,c4,a41 p4 #bfd4 ,footnote #dad3 ,chinese wu ming i1 nameless rarity1 the designation under which cobalt was imported in the ,sung dynasty4 7,see ,bushell1 ,o4,c4,a41 p4 #dci47 ,footnote #dae3 ,chau ,ju-kua1 translated by ,f4 ,hirth and ,w4,w4 ,rockhill4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 #aiab4 ,footnote #daf3 ,ancient ,chinese ,porcelain1 op4 cit4 ,see also p4 #hf4 ,footnote #dag3 ,see ,chau ,ju-kua1 ,introduction1 p4 #i4 ,footnote #dah3 e4g4 gusi1 rusa1 naga1 tempajan1 blanga4 ,footnote #dai3 ,chinese ,pottery in the ,philippines1 by ,fay-,cooper ,cole1 with a postscript by ,berthold ,laufer1 ,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,publication ,no4 #afb1 ,chicago ,u4,s4,a41 #aiab4 ,footnote #dbj3 ,ibidem1 p4 #ad4 ,footnote #dba3 ,kochi1 the ,japanese name for ,kochin ,china1 seems to have been used in a vague and comprehensive sense for ,southern ,china1 and we understand by ,kochi yaki the old pottery shipped from the coast towns of ,fukien and ,kuangtung4 ,this category in ,japan seems to include not only a variety of earthenware with coloured glazes--green1 yellow1 aubergine1 turquoise1 and violet--but the coarser1 yellowish white wares of the tu ting 7see p4 #ij7 type4 ,see ,brinkley1 op4 cit41 vol4 ix4 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #dbb3 ,on the subject of pottery among the ,dyaks in ,borneo1 see ,h4 ,ling ,roth1 ,the ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bhd2 ,a4,w4 ,neuwenhais1 ,quer durch ,borneo1 vol4 ii41 plate #dj2 ,hose and ,mc,dougall1 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo1 #aiab1 vol4 i41 pp4 #fd and #hd1 and plates #df-dh4 ,see also ,a4,b4 ,meyer1 ,alterthmer aus dem ,ostindischen ,archipel4 ,footnote #dbc3 ,cat4 ,b4,f4,a41 #aiaj1 ,i41 #aa4 ,footnote #dbd3 ,a little flask in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum 7,case #bd1 ,no4 #hji1 #ahhc7 of this type of ware with a green glaze was obtained in #ahhc in the neighbourhood of ,canton4 ,possibly a portion of this group comes from one of the ,canton factories1 but it is the kind of ware which might have been made in any pottery district1 and there are quite modern examples of the same type of glaze and biscuit in the ,field ,museum of ,chicago which were manufactured at ,ma-chuang1 near ,tai-yan ,fu1 in ,shensi4 ,footnote #dbe3 ,see p4 #bai4 ,footnote #dbf3 ,tu ,shu1 op4 cit41 section ,tao kung pu hui kao1 fol4 #i4 ,footnote #dbg3 ,ching is the name of the old state of ,chu1 which included ,hunan and ,hupeh1 so that the expression here used covers an enormous tract of ,central ,china4 ,see ,tu shu1 section ,tao kung pu tsa lu1 fol4 #b4 ,footnote #dbh3 ,tu ,shu1 section ,tao kung pu chi shih1 fol4 #b recto4 ,footnote #dbi3 ,chinese and ,chinese4 ,footnote #dcj3 ,this appears to mean that the glaze covering up the reliefs filled all the surrounding hollows and made an even surface4 ,footnote #dca3 i4e4 ware of the ,hsan ,t period 7#adbf-adce ,a4,d474 ,footnote #dcb3 ,tu ,shu1 section ,tao kung pu hui kao1 fol4 #aj4 ,footnote #dcc3 ,o4,c4,a41 p4 #fcg4 ,footnote #dcd3 ,made at ,pilkington's ,tile ,works1 ,clifton ,junction1 by ,manchester4 ,footnote #dce3 ,see p4 #bjb4 ,footnote #dcf3 ,tu ,shu1 section entitled ,tao kung pu tsa lu1 fol4 #b verso4 ,footnote #dcg3 ,on pp4 #ajc and #ahh4 ,footnote #dch3 ,tu ,shu1 section xxxii1 ,tao kung pu hui kao1 fol4 #i4 ,footnote #dci3 ,tao lu1 bk4 vii41 fol4 #aj verso4 ,footnote #ddj3 ,quoted in the ,tao lu1 bk4 ix41 fol4 #b4 ,footnote #dda3 ,recorded in the ,tang ,shu1 the passage in question being quoted in the encyclopdia1 ,tu ,shu1 section xxxii1 ,tao kung pu chi shih1 fol4 #a verso4 ,footnote #ddb3 ,see the ,tu ,shu1 section ,tao kung pu hui kao1 fol4 #g verso4 ,footnote #ddc3 ,it was completed in #adcj1 and destroyed by the ,taiping rebels in #ahec4 ,footnote #ddd3 ,in the section ,tao kung pu hui kao1 fol4 #i4 ,footnote #dde3 ,catalogue spcial de la ,collection ,chinoise1 op4 cit41 pp4 #aj-ab4 ,the exhibits from ,amoy included carreaux de pavage1 tuiles pour toitures4 ,footnote #ddf3 ,see ,catalogue ,b4,f4,a41 #aiaj1 ,l4 #a4 ,footnote #ddg3 ,see ,dr4 ,voretzsch1 ,catalogue of ,chinese ,pottery4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,marks ,,on ,,chinese ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain ,,the custom of placing on works of art the name of the maker1 the date of manufacture1 or some sign or symbol indicating the intention with which they were made1 dates back in ,china at least as far as the ,han dynasty4 ,such marks occur on pottery and porcelain rarely at first1 but with a frequency which increases in proportion as we draw nearer to modern times4 ,they are incised or stamped in the soft body of the ware1 or painted under the glaze 7usually in blue7 or over it in enamel colours or gold2 and they are generally placed on the base of the ware1 though there are fairly numerous instances in which the mark is written along the mouth rim or in some other more or less conspicuous position4 ,the earliest marks1 as far as ,i am aware1 are incised1 and those on the ,han1 ,tang1 and ,sung potteries1 not to mention the intermediate dynasties1 should be scrutinised with the greatest care to make sure whether the incisions were made before the pottery was baked or afterwards4 ,there should be no difficulty in determining this point1 for the lines cut with a sharp instrument in the fired ware are necessarily harder and less free than those incised in the soft clay1 and the edges of the incisions will present obvious differences in the two cases4 ,unfortunately the early date-marks which ,i have seen up to the present have almost all been cut after the firing4 ,it does not necessarily follow that such inscriptions are modern additions4 ,indeed in many cases they are in a style which is clearly old4 ,but their value as evidence is very small1 for it is impossible to prove the exact time of their carving2 and at best we can only regard them as representing the opinion of some former owner as to the date of the vessel in question4 ,at their worst1 they are deliberate frauds added by modern vendors with intent to deceive4 ,incised or stamped marks have always been common on pottery1 but porcelain is usually marked by painting with a brush1 and for this purpose underglaze blue is the commonest medium1 red and other on-glaze colours being used chiefly on the relatively modern wares decorated in famille rose enamels4 ,similarly the ordinary script is usual in marks1 and seal characters are quite exceptional on porcelain earlier than the eighteenth century4 ,it is not safe to take the older date-marks on porcelain at their face value4 ,the ,chinese with their proverbial veneration for antiquity habitually placed the date-marks of the classical reigns on their porcelain whether decorated in the style of the period mentioned or not4 ,already in the sixteenth century the ,hsan ,t and ,ch'ng ,hua marks were used in this way1 and in the ,k'ang ,hsi period the names of these two classic reigns were used more frequently than that of the ,k'ang ,hsi period itself4 ,in fact the ,hsan ,t and ,ch'ng ,hua are on the whole the most familiar marks of all1 though the actual wares of these two periods are among the rarest4 ,the date-marks of the other ,ming ,emperors are less frequently plagiarised1 except upon the deliberate imitations of the wares of the time1 such as those made at the ,imperial factory in the ,yung ,chng period1 which we may be sure were carefully marked with the appropriate nien hao4 ,moreover1 the ,japanese1 who have expended much ingenuity on reproducing ,ming wares1 have made free with ,ming date-marks1 especially those of ,chia ,ching and ,wan ,li4 ,in the year #afgg the potters at ,ching-t ,chn were forbidden by an order of the district prefect#ddh to inscribe the period-name of the ,emperor or any sacred writing on their porcelain1 lest the names should be profaned in the breaking of the ware4 ,it is certain that this prohibition was not effective for long2 but probably the current date-mark was suppressed for a time at least1 and it is quite likely that we should trace to this interval the custom of putting symbols or conventional marks inside the double ring which was usually occupied by the nien hao1 a common practice in the ,k'ang ,hsi period4 ,in many cases1 too1 the rings were left empty2 but it is a mistake to regard this as an infallible sign of ,k'ang ,hsi manufacture1 for it is a thing which might happen at any time through negligence1 the rings being made by one person and the marks written by another4 ,there are1 besides1 well authenticated instances of the empty double ring on ,wan ,li porcelain1#ddi and on post ,k'ang ,hsi wares4 ,it was1 however1 such a frequent occurrence on the ,k'ang ,hsi wares that the modern imitators make a common practice of leaving the rings blank on their copies of the ,k'ang ,hsi blue and white4 ,it is not clear whether the prefect's prohibition applied to the names of ,ming emperors1 but probably it did not1 as it is unlikely that the adherents of the reigning dynasty would be sensitive about the titles of the house which they had exterminated4 ,in any case1 ,ming marks1 especially those of the fifteenth century1 are very common on the ,k'ang ,hsi porcelain1 and the ,k'ang ,hsi mark itself is comparatively rare except on the specimens which must belong to the later years of the reign4 ,en revanche1 the ,k'ang ,hsi mark is freely used on quite modern wares1 that period being now regarded as classical2 so that we are confronted with the paradox that if a specimen of fine quality#dej is marked ,ch'ng ,hua1 it may generally be assumed that it was made in the ,k'ang ,hsi period1 while the bulk of the pieces which bear the ,k'ang ,hsi mark are of modern date4 ,the ,yung ,chng and ,ch'ien ,lung porcelains are highly esteemed to-day1 and consequently the marks of these periods are considered worthy of a place on modern imitations2 but on the whole the bulk of the specimens bearing these marks will be found to belong to the period indicated1 and the imitations are generally so coarse as to be unmistakable4 ,the temptation to borrow the reign marks of the subsequent periods is so slight that we may safely accept the later marks as correct indications of date4 ,marks written in enamel colours and even in gold become increasingly common on the famille rose porcelains from the ,yung ,chng period onwards1 the red mark being more familiar on the modern wares than the blue2 and seal characters frequently replace the ordinary script in the reign marks of the ,yung ,chng and subsequent periods4 ,date marks in seal form before the eighteenth century are very unusual1 and should be regarded with suspicion4 ,it will be seen from the foregoing notes that ,chinese date marks must be treated with great caution4 ,in fact it is safer to regard them merely as secondary evidence1 first basing one's judgment on the paste and glaze1 the style of decoration and the quality of the colours4 ,the one exception to this declaration of unfaith is the marks on the ,imperial porcelain4 ,these would naturally be correct and reliable1 except where deliberate imitations of the older wares were undertaken2 and then1 no doubt1 the mark of the period imitated would be used to make the illusion complete4 ,the ,imperial marks were the work of calligraphers who were selected for the purpose1 and the writing is careful and in good style4 ,in fact a well-written mark is almost as certain a sign of ,imperial ware as the five-clawed dragon itself4#dea ,at the private factories the marks were often carelessly1 even illegibly1 written1 and probably little trouble was taken with this part of the decoration except on the choicer specimens4 ,on a large proportion of the private wares the mark was omitted altogether4 ,the marks on ,chinese pottery and porcelain may be conveniently grouped under the following headings3-- 7#a7 ,date marks4 7#b7 ,hall marks4 7#c7 ,potters' names and factory marks4 7#d7 ,marks of dedication1 felicitation1 commendation1 etc4 7#a7 ,date marks4 ,the date marks conform to the two ,chinese systems of chronology1 7a7 the cyclical and 7b7 the reign names of the ,emperors4 7a7 ,the system by which the years are divided into cycles of sixty1 each year of the cycle having a name1 carries back ,chinese chronology to the year #bfcg ,b4,c41 from which the first cycle is dated4 ,we are at present in the #gfth cycle4 ,the year names are composed of two characters1 the first being one of the ,ten ,stems1 and the second one of the ,twelve ,branches2 and as the stems and the branches are taken in strict rotation1 it is clear that the combinations will not be exhausted until sixty have been formed1 that number being the least common multiple of ten and twelve4 ,the ,ten ,stems ,chinese ,shih kan are as follows3-- #a ,chinese chia corresponding to the element ,chinese mu #b ,chinese i wood4 #c ,chinese ping corresponding to the element ,chinese huo #d ,chinese ting fire4 #e ,chinese wu or mou corresponding to the element ,chinese tu #f ,chinese chi earth4 #g ,chinese kng corresponding to the element ,chinese chin #h ,chinese hsin metal4 #i ,chinese jn corresponding to the element ,chinese shui #aj ,chinese kuei water4 ,the ,twelve ,branches ,chinese shih rh chih1 which correspond to the twelve animals of the zodiac1 and through them to the twelve divisions of the day are as follows3-- ,appertaining to the sign of the ,corresponding to #a ,chinese tz 44 rat 44 ,aries #aa-a a4m4 ,n4 #b ,chinese chou 44 ox 44 ,taurus #a-c a4m4 ,n4,n4,e4 #c_/d;,e4 #c ,chinese yin 44 tiger 44 ,gemini #c-e a4m4 ,e4,n4,e4 #c_/d,n4 #d ,chinese mao 44 hare 44 ,cancer #e-g a4m4 ,e4 #e ,chinese chn 44 dragon 44 ,leo #g-i a4m4 ,e4,s4,e4 #c_/d,s4 #f ,chinese ss 44 serpent 44 ,virgo #i-aa a4m4 ,s4,s4,e4 #c_/d;,e4 #g ,chinese wu 44 horse 44 ,libra #aa a4m4-#a p4m4 ,s4 #h ,chinese wei 44 sheep 44 ,scorpio #a-c a4m4 ,s4,s4,w4 #c_/d,w4 #i ,chinese shn 44 monkey 44 ,sagittarius #c-e a4m4 ,w4,s4,w4 #c_/d,w4 #aj ,chinese yu 44 cock 44 ,capricornus #e-g a4m4 ,w4 #aa ,chinese hs 44 dog 44 ,aquarius #g-i a4m4 ,w4,n4,w4 #c_/d,n4 #ab ,chinese hai boar 44 ,pisces #i-aa a4m4 ,n4,n4,w4 #c_/d,w4 ,the table of cycles subsequent to the ,christian era1#deb i4e4 cycles #de-gf1 dating from #d-aibh ,a4,d41 will be useful in calculating the year of the cyclical dates with the help of the accompanying table of numerals3-- 7a7 7b7 7c7 #a ,chinese 44 i 44 ,chinese 44 ,chinese or ,chinese #b ,chinese 44 rh 44 ,chinese 44 ,chinese ,chinese #c ,chinese 44 san 44 ,chinese 44 ,chinese ,chinese #d ,chinese 44 ss 44 ,chinese 44 ,chinese #e ,chinese 44 wu 44 ,chinese 44 ,chinese #f ,chinese 44 liu 44 ,chinese 44 ,chinese #g ,chinese 44 chi 44 ,chinese 44 ,chinese #h ,chinese 44 pa 44 ,chinese 44 ,chinese #i ,chinese 44 chiu 44 ,chinese 44 ,chinese #aj ,chinese 44 shih 44 ,chinese 44 ,chinese or ,chinese 7a7 is the normal form2 7b7 is commonly used for accounts2 7c7 is used on drafts1 pawntickets1 etc4 ,,table ,,of ,,cyclical ,,dates ,,from ,a4,d4 #d ,,cycle ,,beginning #d #fd #cjd #cfd #abd #ahd #bdd #fjd #ffd #dbd #dhd #edd ,cyclical ,signs4 #ijd #ifd #gbd #ghd #hdd #abjd #abfd #ajbd #ajhd #aadd #aejd #aefd #acbd #achd #addd #ahjd #ahfd #afbd #afhd #agdd ,chinese #jd #fd #bd #hd #dd ,chinese #je #fe #be #he #de ,chinese #jf #ff #bf #hf #df ,chinese #jg #fg #bg #hg #dg ,chinese #jh #fh #bh #hh #dh ,chinese #ji #fi #bi #hi #di ,chinese #aj #gj #cj #ij #ej ,chinese #aa #ga #ca #ia #ea ,chinese #ab #gb #cb #ib #eb ,chinese #ac #gc #cc #ic #ec ,chinese #ad #gd #cd #id #ed ,chinese #ae #ge #ce #ie #ee ,chinese #af #gf #cf #if #ef ,chinese #ag #gg #cg #ig #eg ,chinese #ah #gh #ch #ih #eh ,chinese #ai #gi #ci #ii #ei ,chinese #bj #hj #dj #ajj #fj ,chinese #ba #ha #da #aja #fa ,chinese #bb #hb #db #ajb #fb ,chinese #bc #hc #dc #ajc #fc ,chinese #bd #hd #dd #ajd #fd ,chinese #be #he #de #aje #fe ,chinese #bf #hf #df #ajf #ff ,chinese #bg #hg #dg #ajg #fg ,chinese #bh #hh #dh #ajh #fh ,chinese #bi #hi #di #aji #fi ,chinese #cj #ij #ej #aaj #gj ,chinese #ca #ia #ea #aaa #ga ,chinese #cb #ib #eb #aab #gb ,chinese #cc #ic #ec #aac #gc ,,cycle ,,beginning #d #fd #cjd #cfd #abd #ahd #bdd #fjd #ffd #dbd #dhd #edd ,cyclical ,signs4 #ijd #ifd #gbd #ghd #hdd #abjd #abfd #ajbd #ajhd #aadd #aejd #aefd #acbd #achd #addd #ahjd #ahfd #afbd #afhd #agdd ,chinese #cd #id #ed #ad #gd ,chinese #ce #ie #ee #ae #ge ,chinese #cf #if #ef #af #gf ,chinese #cg #ig #eg #ag #gg ,chinese #ch #ih #eh #ah #gh ,chinese #ci #ii #ei #ai #gi ,chinese #dj #ajj #fj #bj #hj ,chinese #da #aja #fa #ba #ha ,chinese #db #ajb #fb #bb #hb ,chinese #dc #ajc #fc #bc #hc ,chinese #dd #ajd #fd #bd #hd ,chinese #de #aje #fe #be #he ,chinese #df #ajf #ff #bf #hf ,chinese #dg #ajg #fg #bg #hg ,chinese #dh #ajh #fh #bh #hh ,chinese #di #aji #fi #bi #hi ,chinese #ej #aaj #gj #cj #ij ,chinese #ea #aaa #ga #ca #ia ,chinese #eb #aab #gb #cb #ib ,chinese #ec #aac #gc #cc #ic ,chinese #ed #aad #gd #cd #id ,chinese #ee #aae #ge #ce #ie ,chinese #ef #aaf #gf #cf #if ,chinese #eg #aag #gg #cg #ig ,chinese #eh #aah #gh #ch #ih ,chinese #ei #aai #gi #ci #ii ,chinese #fj #abj #hj #dj #ajj ,chinese #fa #aba #ha #da #aja ,chinese #fb #abb #hb #db #ajb ,chinese #fc #abc #hc #dc #ajc ,it will be seen that cyclical dates without any indication of the particular cycle intended are merely tantalising4 ,on the other hand when the reign is specified as well1 the combination gives the most precise form of date4 ,but unfortunately there are many cases in which the reign name is absent1 and we can only judge the cycle by the style of the ware1 a calculation which is always open to dispute4 ,it is not often that the cycle is so clearly indicated by an indirect method as in the oft-quoted mark yu hsin chou nien chih ,chinese made in the hsin chou year recurring 7yu74,this can only be #agba1 when the hsin chou year actually recurred in the 7sixty-first year of7 reign of ,kang ,hsi4#dec 7b7 ,the more usual form of date mark is that which gives the reign name of an ,emperor4 ,on ascending the throne the ,emperor discarded his family name and assumed a title by which his reign was thenceforth known4 ,this is the name which appears in the date marks1 and it is known as the nien 7period7 hao 7name74 ,after his death the ,emperor received another title1 the miao hao1 or name under which he was canonised2 but though reference might be made to him in history under his miao hao1 it is obvious that the posthumous name cannot occur on contemporary date marks4 ,in reckoning the date of an ,emperor's reign it was not usual to include officially the year in which his predecessor had died1 but to date the reign from the first day of the year following4 ,thus1 though ,kang ,hsi became ,emperor in #affa1 his reign is dated officially from #affb4 ,the ,imperial date mark is usually written in six characters beginning with the name of the dynasty and ending with the words nien chih 7made in the period73 the nien hao coming in the middle3-- #a #b #c #d #e #f e4g4 ,ta ming chng hua nien chih made 7chih7 #d ,chinese #a #e ,chinese #b #f ,chinese #c in the ,chng ,hua period 7nien7 of the great ,ming 7dynasty74 ,occasionally the word nien is replaced by y ,chinese 7,imperial71 y chih meaning made by ,imperial command2 and in place of chih we sometimes find the word tsao ,chinese or more rarely tso ,chinese both of which have the same meaning made4 ,the six characters may be written in two lines of three1 or in three lines of two1 or again in one long line read from right to left2 and for reasons of space1 and sometimes for no apparent reason1 the first two characters are omitted1 e4g4 ,chinese4 ,the omission of the nien hao is rare except on a few ,japanese copies of ,chinese porcelain1 e4g4 ,chinese ta ming nien chih made in the great ,ming dynasty4 ,as already mentioned1 the seal forms of the mark were frequently employed from the eighteenth century onwards 7see p4 #bji74 ,an archaic form of seal character occurs in the ,yung ,lo mark which is given below4 ,the use of the nien hao on the ,imperial wares made at ,ching-t ,chn was made obligatory by a command issued in the ,ching-t period 7#ajjd-ajjg71 when the name of the town was altered to ,ching-t ,chn4 ,ming ,dynasty ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,hung ,,wu1 #acfh-acih4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,yung ,,lo1 #adjc-adbd4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in archaic characters4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,hs,,an ,t1 #adbf-adce4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,ch,,ng ,,hua1 #adfe-adhg4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters 7the first two omitted74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,hung ,,chih1 #adhh-aeje4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,ch,,ng ,t1 #aejf-aeba4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,chia ,,ching1 #aebb-aeff4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,lung ,,ch,,ing1 #aefg-aegb4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,wan ,,li1 #aegc-afai4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,t,,ien ,,ch,i1 #afba-afbg4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,ch,,ung ,,ch,,ng1 #afbh-afdc4 ,ching ,dynasty4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,shun ,,chih1 #afdd-affa4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 ,ching ,dynasty ,illustration3 ,chinese ,k,,ang ,,hsi1 #affb-agbb4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,yung ,,ch,,ng1 #agbc-agce4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,ch,,ien ,,lung1 #agcf-agie4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,chia ,,ch,,ing1 #agif-ahbj4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,tao ,,kuang1 #ahba-ahej4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,hsien ,f,,ng1 #ahea-ahfa4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,t,,ung ,,chih1 #ahfb-ahgd4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,,kuang ,,hs1 #ahge-aiji4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,same in seal characters4 7#b7 ,hall marks4 ,the hall mark1 which is of frequent occurrence on both porcelain and pottery1 is so called because it includes the word tang ,chinese 7hall7 or some equivalent such as chai ,chinese 7a study71 ting ,chinese 7a pavilion71 hsien or hsan ,chinese 7a porch1 balcony or pavilion71 kuan ,chinese 7a residence or hostelry71 fang ,chinese 7a room or house71 ch ,chinese 7a dwelling74 ,the word tang as explained in ,giles's ,dictionary is a hall3 especially a hall of justice or court2 the ancestral hall2 an official title4 ,tang ming is the family hall name--a fancy name usually consisting of two characters followed by tang 7e4g4 wu t tang chin ,chin of the military valour hall71 and referring to some event in family history4 ,it is generally inscribed in one of the principal rooms of the house1 and is used in deeds1 on graves1 boundary stones1 etc4 ,the hall mark1 then1 may contain the studio name of the maker or of the recipient of the ware1 or it may have reference literally to the building for which the ware was intended4 ,the last interpretation can be generally applied to the marks referring to halls or pavilions in the precincts of the ,imperial palace4 ,again1 the hall may be the shop of a dealer who ordered the goods4 ,but in the absence of prepositions1 it is not always--not often1 ,i should perhaps say--possible to determine which of these alternatives is implied in any particular hallmark2 e4g4 ,chinese ,lin y tang chih may mean made in the ,abundant-,jade ,hall1 or for the same1 or by a man whose studio name was ,lin-y tang4 ,as to the antiquity of hall marks1 it was not considered anachronistic to cut one on a ,han granary urn which is now in the ,british ,museum2 but unfortunately as the cutting was done after the ware was baked it is now impossible to say at what period it was executed4 ,a ,sung example is quoted in the ,ni ku lu 7written in the middle of the sixteenth century7 as inscribed on a ,ting ,chou vase in the handwriting of the ,mi family1 viz41 jn ho kuan ,chinese 7,hotel of ,benevolence and ,harmony74 ,a similar mark similarly placed is ,chinese jn tsun tang 7,hall of ,benevolence71 on a ,tz ,chou jar in the ,eumorfopoulos ,collection4 ,hall marks on ,ming porcelain are rare4 ,there is1 however1 one which occurs fairly often on late ,ming porcelains of various kinds1 including pieces decorated in blue and blue and white1 underglaze red1 blue and enamel colours1 pierced designs and slip4 ,this is ,chinese y tang chia chi1 beautiful vessel for the ,jade ,hall4 ,it is improbable that the y tang was a factory name1 as the specimens so marked have little homogeneity4 ,giles's ,dictionary tells us that y tang is a name for the ,han ,lin ,college at ,peking1 which was so called in memory of ,chou ,chih-lin of the ,sung dynasty1 upon whom the ,emperor bestowed these two characters in admiration of his qualities4 ,from this we might infer that the wares so marked were made for the ,han ,lin2 but why1 one asks1 in that case should the examples in our collections be so many and so evidently of the same period8 ,on the whole ,i prefer to regard the mark as of general 7and complimentary7 significance1 i4e4 beautiful vessel for the home of pure worth1 like another mark much affected on late ,ming porcelain fu kuei chia chi 7fine vessel for the rich and honourable674 ,hall marks are very frequent on the porcelains of the ,ching dynasty1 and enough are given below to illustrate their various forms4 ,many of them are no doubt hall names of makers and decorators1 and as such belong to the category of artists' signatures4 ,special interest attaches to those hall marks which have been identified as referring to pavilions in the precincts of the ,imperial palace4 ,we are told by ,bushell#ded that the fashion of inscribing upon porcelain made for the ,imperial palace the name of the particular pavilion for which it was intended seems to have begun in the reign of ,yung ,chng1 and observation shows that these hall marks only become frequent on the later porcelains4 ,in fact most of the examples with which ,i am acquainted are nearer in style to the ,tao ,kuang than to the ,yung ,chng wares1 and the majority of the hall marks written in red on the glaze will be found to be of early nineteenth century date4 ,,hall ,,marks ,illustration3 ,chinese ,y tang chia chi fine vessel for the jade hall 7late ,ming74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,y hai tang chih made for the ,y-hai 7jade sea7 hall 7about #agjj74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,tsai hua tang chih made for the hall of bright painting 7nineteenth century74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,tsai jun tang chih made for the hall of bright colours 7nineteenth century74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,nan hsiang tang south aspect hall 7on eighteenth century pottery74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chih lan chai chih made for the epidendrum hall 7seventeenth century74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,ku yeh hsan chih made by ,ku-yeh-hsan4 7,see ,vol4 ii41 p4 #bae47 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,yu chai quiet pavilion--a studio name of a painter4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,wan shih ch myriad rocks retreat2 studio name of a painter4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chu shih ch red rocks retreat2 studio name of a painter4 ,,palace ,,hall ,,marks ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chng t tang chih ordered for the ,chng-t 7complete virtue7 hall4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,ching wei tang chih made for the ,ching-wei 7reverent awe7 hall4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,hs hua tang chih tsng made for the ,hs-hua hall1 for presentation4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,tan ning chai chih made for the ,tan-ning 7peace and tranquillity7 pavilion4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,ss pu chai chih made for the ,ss-pu pavilion 7i4e4 pavilion for meditation for the correction of faults74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,shn t tang chih made for the ,shn-t 7cultivation of virtue7 hall4 7,see ,vol4 ii41 p4 #bfd47 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,shn t tang po ku chih antique made for the ,shn-t hall4 7#c7 ,potters' names1 etc4 ,marks which include potters' names 7apart from the uncertain hall marks7 are rare on ,chinese porcelain though frequent enough on pottery4 ,but it will be remembered that at ,ching-t ,chn at any rate the porcelain passed through so many hands that the individuality of the work was lost1 and consequently a personal mark would be1 as a rule1 misleading4 ,the question of signatures in the field of the decoration has been discussed#dee with the conclusion that they belong rather to the artists who painted the original copied by the pot-painters than to the pot-painter himself4 ,perhaps we should include here a fairly common type of mark1 usually in the form of a small seal of a conventional and quite illegible character1 which goes by the name of shop marks4 ,but it is not clear whether they refer to the maker or the firm who ordered the porcelain4 ,,potters' ,,marks ,illustration3 ,chinese ,ma chn shih tsao made by ma chn-shih 7on a ,tang vase74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chang chia tsao made by the ,chang family 7on ,tz ,chou ware74 7,see ,vol4 i41 p4 #aje47 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,wang shih chih ming ,mr4 ,wang ,chih-ming 7on ,tz-,chou ware74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,i shng harmonious prosperity4 ,perhaps a potter's name 7on ,kuangtung ware74 ,,marks ,,on ,,kuangtung ,,ware ,illustration3 ,chinese ,ko ming-hsiang chih made by ,ko ,ming-hsiang 7eighteenth century74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,ko yan hsiang chih made by ,ko ,yan-hsiang 7eighteenth century74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,huang yn chi mark of ,huang-yn 7nineteenth century74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,li ,ta-lai potter's name4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,hou-chang potter's name4 ,,potters' ,,marks--continued4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,yi hsing tz sha brown earth 7lit4 sand7 of ,yi-hsing4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,ming-yan a late ,ming potter at ,yi-hsing4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,hui mng-chn name of a late ,ming potter at ,yi-hsing1 copied on modern wares4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chn ,ming ,yan chih made by ,chn ,ming-,yan1 ,yi-hsing4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,y lan pi chih secretly made by ,y-lan2 ,yi-hsing 7nineteenth century74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,wan li ting yu chn wn ching su ,chn ,wn-ching modelled it in the ting-yu year of ,wan ,li 7i4e4 #aeig74 ,,marks ,,on ,,fukien ,,white ,,porcelain ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chao-chin a potter's name4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chung tun shih ,chung-tun family4 ,illustration3 ,chinese 787 ,li-chih a potter's name4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,shan jn chn-wei the hermit ,chn-wei4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,lai-kuan potter's name4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chao tsung ho yin seal of ,ho ,chao-tsung4 ,,potters' ,,names1 ,,etc4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chiang ming kao tsao made by ,chiang ,ming-kao 7about #agjj74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chn kuo chih tsao made by ,chn ,kuo-chih 7about #agjj74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,tao kuang ting wei wn lang shan chih made by ,wn ,lang-shan in the ting-wei year of ,tao ,kuang 7i4e4 #ahdg74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,y fng yang lin ,yang ,lin of ,y-fng4 7,see ,vol4 ii41 p4 #bab47 ,illustration3 ,chinese 787 ,trader's mark on export porcelain4 7,see ,vol4 ii41 p4 #acf47 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,wang tso ting tso made by ,wang ,tso-ting 7early nineteenth century74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,wang ping jung tso made by ,wan ,ping-jung 7early nineteenth century74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chinese ,ling nan hui ch ,ling-nan 7,canton7 painting4 ,seal of ,pai-shih 7white rock74 7,see ,vol4 ii41 p4 #baa47 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,fu fan chih tsao made on the borders of ,fukien4 7,see ,vol4 ii41 p4 #ajh47 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,three examples of shop marks4 7#d7 ,marks of dedication1 felicitation1 etc4 ,in many cases the place of a date mark1 hall mark1 or potter's name is taken by a word or phrase commending or describing the ware or invoking a benediction on the possessor4 ,such marks may be conveniently subdivided into marks of 7a7 dedication1 7b7 felicitation1 7c7 commendation2 to which may be added 7d7 symbols used as marks4 7a7 ,marks of dedication indicating the destination or intention of the ware contain the name of a place or person or some word suggesting the use to which the vessel was dedicated4 ,this group naturally overlaps that of the hall marks1 there being no essential difference between a palace hall mark and such a mark as ,shu fu ,chinese 7,imperial palace7 which was inscribed on the ,imperial porcelain of the ,yan dynasty4 ,a few marks of dedication are mentioned in the ,po wu yao lan#def e4g4 ,chinese tan 7altar7 on the altar cups of the ,hsan ,t period2 ,chinese cha 7tea71 ,chinese chiu 7wine71 ,chinese tsao tang 7decoction of jujubes71 and ,chinese chiang tang 7decoction of ginger71 which were inscribed inside the altar cups of the ,chia ,ching period1 besides ,chinese chin lu 7golden seal71 ,chinese ta chiao 7great sacrifice71 and ,chinese tan yung 7altar use71 which were written beneath them2 all indicating the offerings and the altars for which the cups were destined4 ,dedications to temples1 institutions1 and even to individuals1 often of considerable length1 also occur not infrequently4 7b7 ,marks of felicitation include good wishes such as chang ming fu kuei 7long life1 riches and honour71 wan fu yu tung 7may infinite happiness embrace all your affairs71 both of which have been noted on ,ming porcelain2 words of good omen such as fu1 lu1 shou1 separately or together1 ,chinese chi 7good luck71 ,chinese ching 7prosperity71 etc4 7c7 ,marks of commendation are also frequent1 especially in the ,kang ,hsi period and on blue and white porcelain4 ,they allude to the beauty of the ware1 comparing it with jade or gold or gems1 or to the subject of the decoration2 and they vary in length from a single character such as ,chinese y 7jade7 to a sentence like chi shih pao ting chih chn 7a gem among precious vessels of rare stone74 7d7 ,a sacred symbol or emblematic ornament often replaces the mark on ,kang ,hsi porcelain2 but as these will be found among the symbols1 etc41 described in vol4 ii41 ch4 xvii41 there is no need to discuss them any further4 ,the most frequently used are the pa pao 7,eight ,precious ,things71 and the pa chi hsiang 7the ,eight ,buddhist ,emblems of ,happy ,augury74 ,,marks ,,of ,,felicitation1 ,,etc4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,shun harmony4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,lu prosperity4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,shou longevity 7seal form74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,the same1 with the ,swastika interwoven4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,the spider mark1 a fanciful form of shou4 ,illustration3 ,chinese hsi 7joy7 repeated double joy1 a wedding symbol4 ,illustration3 ,chinese t hua ch'ang ch'un virtue culture and enduring spring2 enclosed by ,wan li nien tsao made in the ,wan ,li period 7#aegc-afai74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,mark resembling a cash or coin inscribed ch'ang ming fu kuei long life1 riches1 and honours6 ,illustration3 ,chinese fu kuei ch'ang ch'un riches1 honours1 and enduring spring6 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,wan fu yu t'ung a myriad happinesses embrace all 7your affairs76 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,kung ming fu kuei ,hung fu ch'i t'ien a famous name1 riches and honours1 vast happiness equalling heaven6 ,illustration3 ,chinese t'ien t'i yi chia ch'un spring time for the whole family of heaven and earth4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ta ya chai pavilion of grand culture4 ,the ,empress dowager's mark4 ,,marks ,,of ,,commendation ,illustration3 ,chinese tien heaven4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chn a gem4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,ya wan elegant trinket4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chan complete4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,y jade4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chn wan precious trinket4 ,illustration3 ,chinese fu kuei chia chi fine vessel for the rich and honourable4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,nan chuan chin y embroidered jade of ,nan-chuan 7i4e4 ,ching-t ,chn74 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,chi shih pao ting chih chn a gem among precious vessels of rare stone4 ,illustration3 ,chinese ,ai lien chn shang precious reward of the lover of the lotus4 ,illustration3 ,chinese han hsing to contain fragrance4 ,for other marks on porcelain and pottery see ,marks on ,pottery and ,porcelain1 by ,w4 ,burton and ,r4,l4 ,hobson1 and ,the ,new ,chaffers4 ,,miscellaneous ,,marks ,,and ,,symbols ,illustration3 ,conch-shell4 ,illustration3 ,incense-burner 7ting74 ,illustration3 ju-i head4 ,illustration3 ,knot 7chang74 ,illustration3 ,swastika 7wan74 ,illustration3 ,swastika in a lozenge symbol4 ,illustration3 ,stork 7on a late ,ming blue and white dish74 ,illustration3 ,the moon hare4 ,illustration3 ,the moon hare4 ,illustration3 ,the moon hare4 ,illustration3 ,artemisia leaf4 ,illustration3 ,fungus 7ling-chih74 ,illustration3 ,fungus 7ling-chih74 ,illustration3 ,fu 7one of the twelve ornaments on ancient embroidery74 ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,printed ,,by ,,cassell ,,company1 ,,limited1 ,,la ,,belle ,,sauvage1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,f #ae4aae ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ddh3 ,see ,t'ao lu1 bk4 viii41 fol4 #ad verso 7quoting the ,i chih73 ,in the sixteenth year of ,k'ang ,hsi the district magistrate1 ,chang ,ch'i-chung1 a man of ,yang-ch'ng1 forbade the workmen of ,ching-t ,chn to inscribe on the porcelain vessels the nien hao of the ,emperor or the handwriting 7tz chi ,chinese7 of the holy men1 to prevent their being broken and injured4 ,footnote #ddi3 ,see ,catalogue ,b4,f4,a41 #aiaj1 ,e #d4 ,footnote #dej3 ,this qualification is very necessary1 because there are plenty of inferior pieces with the ,ch'ng ,hua mark which are quite modern4 ,footnote #dea3 ,the ,chien ,lung enamelled ,imperial ware is frequently marked in red within a square panel reserved in the opaque bluish green enamel which so often covers the base4 ,footnote #deb3 ,for the complete tables of cycles see ,mayers1 op4 cit41 p4 #cfb4 ,footnote #dec3 ,though the reign of ,kang ,hsi officially dates from #affb1 in reality it began with the death of the previous ,emperor in #affa2 see p4 #baf4 ,footnote #ded3 ,o4 ,c4 ,a41 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #dee3 ,vol4 ii41 p4 #afg4 ,footnote #def3 ,vol4 ii1 p4 #cd4 99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,p4 xxi4 'browish green'1 changed 'browish' to brownish'4 ,taken hyphen out of ',kuang-tung' to ,kuangtung4 ,taken hyphen out of ',shan-tung' to ,shantung4 ',kiang-nan'1 not taking out hyphen4 ',po-lo' not taking out hyphen4 ,taken hyphen out of ',kiang-su' to ,kiangsu4 ,taken hyphen out of ',chih-li' to ,chihli4 ,taken hyphen out of ',kuan-yin' to ,kuanyin4 ,added hyphen in ',pakhoi' to ',pak-hoi4 ,corrected various punctuation4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------