,,field1 ,,forest ,,and ,,farm ,,things ,,interesting ,,to ,,young ,,nature-,,lovers1 ,,including ,,some ,,matters ,,of ,,moment ,,to ,,gardeners ,,and ,,fruit-,,growers ,,by ,,jean-,,henri ,,fabre ,author of 8,the ,story-,book of ,science10 8,our ,humble ,helpers10 8,social ,life in the ,insect ,world10 etc4 ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,french ,,by ,,florence ,,constable ,,bicknell ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,century ,,co4 #aiai ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i ,the ,staff of ,life #c ,,ii ,the ,history of ,tobacco #aa ,,iii ,the ,origin of ,fertile ,soil #af ,,iv ,different ,kinds of ,soil #ba ,v ,different ,kinds of ,soil 7,continued7 #be ,,vi ,potash and ,phosphorus #cj ,,vii ,phosphates and ,nitrogen #ce ,,viii ,vegetation and the ,atmosphere #db ,,ix ,lime #dg ,x ,lime in ,agriculture #eb ,,xi ,plaster of ,paris #ef ,,xii ,plaster of ,paris in ,agriculture #fj ,,xiii ,natural ,fertilizers--,guano #fe ,,xiv ,the ,stalk of the ,plant #gj ,,xv ,the ,root #gd ,,xvi ,buds #hj ,,xvii ,adventitious ,buds #hd ,,xviii ,bulbs and ,bulblets #hi ,,xix ,tubers--,starch #ic ,,xx ,uses of ,starch #ih ,,xxi ,history of the ,potato #ajb ,,xxii ,ascending ,sap #ajg ,,xxiii ,descending ,sap #aab ,,xxiv ,tree-,pruning #aaf ,,xxv ,pinching--,bud-,nipping #abj ,,xxvi ,making ,fruit ,trees ,bear #abd ,,xxvii ,the ,seed #abi ,,xxviii ,the ,seed's ,food-,supply #acd ,,xxix ,germination #ach ,,xxx ,the ,blossom #add ,,xxxi ,pollen #aej ,,xxxii ,the ,grain of ,wheat #aee ,,xxxiii ,cultivated ,plants #aei ,,xxxiv ,different ,ways of ,propagating #afe ,,xxxv ,layering #agj ,,xxxvi ,slipping #agh ,,xxxvii ,grafting #ahd ,,xxxviii ,grafting 7,continued7 #aij ,,xxxix ,grafting 7,concluded7 #aig ,,xl ,rotation of ,crops #bjb ,,xli ,rotation of ,crops 7,continued7 #bjh ,,xlii ,land-,drainage #bad ,,xliii ,paring and ,burning #bai ,,xliv ,wine-,making #bbc ,,xlv ,the ,stag-,beetle #bbh ,,xlvi ,sheath-,winged ,insects #bce ,,xlvii ,the ,june-,bug #bdb ,,xlviii ,caterpillars and ,butterflies #bdi ,,xlix ,ants #bef ,l ,the ,ant-,lion #bfd ,,li ,venomous ,animals #bga ,,lii ,the ,phylloxera #bgi ,,liii ,the ,phylloxera 7,continued7 #bhh ,,liv ,nocturnal ,birds of ,prey #bie ,,lv ,the ,smaller ,birds #cjj ,,lvi ,birds' ,nests #cje ,,lvii ,migration of ,birds #cag ,,lviii ,carrier-,pigeons #cbb ,,lix ,some ,prehistoric ,animals #cbh ,,lx ,the ,origin of ,coal #ccf ,,lxi ,the ,farmer's ,helpers #cdb ,,lxii ,the ,farmer's ,helpers 7,continued7 #cdh ,,field1 ,,forest ,,and ,,farm ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,staff ,,of ,,life ,with his nephews as willing companions and eager listeners1 ,uncle ,paul continued his walks and talks in the pleasant summer afternoons4 8,bread is made of flour10 he began1 8and flour is wheat reduced to powder under the millstone4 ,what an interesting mechanism that is1 the flour-mill1 driven by water1 by the wind1 sometimes by steam6 ,what wearisome effort1 what waste of time1 if we had not this invention and were forced to do its work of grinding by sheer strength of arm6 8,i must tell you that in ancient times1 for want of knowing how to grind wheat1 people had to content themselves with crushing it between two stones after parching it a little over the fire4 ,the coarse meal thus obtained was cooked in water to a sort of porridge and eaten with no further preparation4 ,bread was unknown4 8,later the plan was hit upon of kneading the meal with water and of cooking the dough between two hot stones4 ,thus was obtained a crude sort of biscuit1 about as thick as your finger1 stodgy and hard1 and mixed with charcoal and ashes4 ,it was preferable to the porridge1 the insipid paste1 of the earlier time1 but far inferior to the poorest bread of to-day4 ,to make a long story short1 by trial after trial success was at last attained in the making of bread like ours4 ,it became necessary then1 without possessing anything to compare with our mills1 to grind wheat in large quantities4 8,flour was obtained by triturating the wheat in a hollowed stone with a pestle4 ,this latter was sometimes light enough to be operated directly by hand2 sometimes1 to produce quicker results1 it was so large and heavy that it had to be turned in its stone mortar with the help of a long bar4 ,such was the first mill4 ,with appliances of this sort ,i leave you to imagine how long a time was required for the production of a single handful of flour4 ,for bread enough to feed one person at one meal1 wretched slaves were kept toiling from morning till night and from night till morning in turning the pestle40 8,what cruel masters they must have had60 exclaimed ,emile4 8,yes1 the slaves were harnessed to the bar like beasts of burden2 and when1 weakened with fatigue1 they did not go fast enough1 a rawhide was applied to their bare shoulders4 ,these unfortunate millers were poor wretches taken in war and afterward sold in the market with the same indifference with which a drover sells his cattle4 ,such1 then1 were the hardships that led the way to the modern mill which to-day1 with a few turns of its water-wheel1 and to the cheerful accompaniment of its tick-tack1 can make flour enough for a whole family4 8,but let us leave the mill and turn our attention to the following interesting experiment4 ,take a handful of flour and with a little water make it into dough4 ,this done1 knead the dough with your fingers over a large plate while an assistant moistens it continually with water from a pitcher4 ,keep the dough well in hand and continue kneading it1 flattening it out and gathering it together again1 turning it over and over under the fine stream of water poured from above4 8,examine carefully the water that passes over the dough and washes it4 ,it falls into the plate as white as milk1 showing that it carries with it something from the flour4 ,this something will finally settle at the bottom of the liquid1 and we shall find it to be a substance not unlike the starch used for starching linen4 ,in fact1 it is starch1 or fecula1 as the chemists call it--neither more nor less4 ,the starch used in the laundry is obtained in considerable quantities by similar means3 dough is washed and the whitened water1 left undisturbed1 deposits a layer of starch which has only to be gathered together and dried4 #a 8,so much1 then1 is made clear3 flour contains starch1 but it contains something else also4 ,there is a limit beyond which the washed dough yields no more starch2 it is useless to knead it1 the water falls colorless into the plate4 ,what remains in one's hands after this prolonged washing is a soft1 gluey substance1 having something of the elastic quality of rubber4 ,grayish in color1 it has a rather pronounced odor4 ,when dried in the sun1 it becomes hard and translucent like horn4 ,it is called gluten from its gluelike character1 its viscosity4 8,now this substance1 so unattractive in appearance1 all soft and sticky and getting clogged between the fingers--this gluten1 in short--do you know what it is8 ,don't try to dispute me1 for what ,i am going to tell you is the exact truth4 ,in its composition gluten does not differ from flesh4 ,it is vegetable flesh1 capable of becoming animal flesh by the simple process of digestion1 without any material loss or gain4 ,therefore it is gluten1 first and foremost1 that gives to bread its great nutritive value4 8,of all the cereals wheat contains the most gluten1 with rye holding second place4 ,maize and rice1 as well as chestnuts and potatoes1 are wholly lacking in this ingredient2 and for that reason flour made from them1 rich though it be in starch1 is not at all the kind of flour for bread4 ,this will explain to you the superiority of wheat over all other farinaceous grains4 8,wheat1 the only cereal that can give us white bread1 that superior bread which nevertheless is not always to your taste unless spread with a little butter1 does not grow in all countries4 ,open your atlas and run over with your finger the countries bordering on the ,mediterranean2 your travels will embrace the principal regions where wheat flourishes4 ,farther north it is too cold for the successful culture of the precious cereal2 farther south it is too warm4 8,but that is not all4 ,in the privileged regions not every district is adapted to this incomparable crop3 wheat needs the mild temperature and fertile soil of the plains1 not the harsh climate and dry slopes of the mountains4 ,let us consider ,france in particular4 ,its plains produce excellent wheat1 but not enough to feed the entire population2 therefore in the hilly and cooler regions1 where this cereal cannot be raised1 recourse is had in the first place to rye1 which yields a bread that is compact1 brown1 and heavy1 but on the whole preferable to any other except1 of course1 wheat4 ,this rye bread is the customary food of the country in the greater number of our departments4 8,the raising of rye becomes in its turn impossible in regions too cold and too sterile4 ,there then remains1 as a last resort1 barley1 the hardiest of cereals1 which is found in the mountains until we reach the neighborhood of perpetual snow1 and can be raised even in the frigid climate of the extreme ,north4 8,you ought to taste the miserable bread made from barley in order to find our bread good--or1 ,i might better say1 in order to find it an exquisite dainty even without butter or jam4 ,barley bread is full of long bristles that stick in the throat2 it contains more bran than flour2 it is bitter1 stodgy1 and of a disagreeable odor4 ,oh1 what sorry stuff6 ,and yet many have to be content with it1 and are only glad if they can get enough of it4 8,in the greater part of the world wheat1 widely distributed by commerce1 furnishes bread only for the tables of the rich4 ,the rest of the population knows nothing1 as a rule1 of this article of food1 has never so much as seen it1 and at most has only heard of it as a rare curiosity4 ,in place of bread the people eat here one thing1 there another1 according to the country4 ,asia has rice1 ,africa millet1 ,america maize4 ,in ,india and ,china the people have hardly anything to eat but rice boiled in water with a little salt4 ,half the entire world has practically the same diet4 8,the plant that produces rice has a stalk resembling that of wheat1 but instead of ending in an upright ear it bears a cluster of feeble and pendent branches1 all loaded with seeds4 ,the leaves are narrow and ribbon-shaped1 rough to the touch4 ,this plant is aquatic4 ,in order to flourish1 it must send down its roots into the submerged mud and spread its foliage1 excepting the tip1 in the flood4 ,marshy shallows1 inundated a part of the year1 are adapted to its cultivation40 8,but what do they do where there are no such marshes80 asked ,louis4 8,when such marshes are lacking1 the ingenious ,chinaman floods the lowlands with water from some near-by stream until the ground is all soft and muddy4 ,he then draws off the water through a series of little canals1 and works the mud with a light plow drawn by a buffalo1 a kind of ox with a long beard hanging from its chin and a mane waving on its back4 8,the seed once sown in the furrows and the young plants started1 the water from the stream is again made to flood the fields1 where it remains until harvest time4 ,then for the second time it is drawn off1 and the reaper1 sickle in hand and with the black mud up to his knees1 cuts down the rice-laden tops of the stalks4 8,maize1 or ,indian corn1 is the staple food of ,south ,america1 as rice is that of ,asia4 ,many call it ,turkish wheat1 a name doubly inappropriate1 for in the first place this grain is not indigenous to ,turkey1 but to ,america1 and in the second place it has nothing in common with the wheat from which bread is made4 ,from ,america its cultivation has spread to our part of the globe4 8,the ear of maize is very large and is composed of full1 rounded kernels1 yellow and shiny1 closely packed in regular rows4 ,like rice1 maize furnishes a fine flour of pleasing appearance but lacking in one essential3 it contains no gluten4 ,hence the utter impossibility of using either rice or maize for making bread1 despite the good appearance of the flour made from them4 8,nevertheless maize is a very wholesome article of food1 and one of great value in the country1 where the appetite is sharpened by open air and hard work4 ,only it is not in the form of bread that it best yields its nourishment1 but rather in that of porridge1 or boiled meal and water40 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,tobacco 8,before taking the form of the powder which the user of snuff pushes up into his nose to tickle his nostrils and promote sneezing1 before being rolled into the cigar or reduced to that crisp1 moss-like substance which the smoker stuffs into his pipe1 tobacco has had a previous existence as a plant bearing this same name4 ,a stalk about one meter in height1 large1 clammy leaves of a strong odor1 bright red flowers each shaped like a narrow funnel and expanding into the five points of a star at the orifice1 dry capsules filled with innumerable little seeds--there you have the tobacco plant4 8,only the leaves are used1 and these only after undergoing certain processes that intensify their natural properties and cause them to lose their green color4 ,rolled into compact little cylinders1 they become cigars2 cut very fine1 they take the form of smoking tobacco4 ,reduced to powder1 they furnish what is known as snuff4 8,america1 the same land to which we owe the potato1 also gave us tobacco4 ,when1 almost four centuries ago1 ,christopher ,columbus discovered the new world1 one of the first landings he made was on the large island of ,cuba4 ,apprehensive of danger in the forests from the savage tribes on every side1 ,columbus sent scouts ahead to reconnoitre the country4 8,the sailors forming this party encountered on the way1 to their extreme surprise1 numerous ,indians1 both men and women1 holding each a sort of lighted fire-brand between the teeth and inhaling the smoke4 ,these fire-brands1 called #8tabagos1' were made of a plant rolled up in a dry leaf4 ,there1 then1 were the first smokers and the first cigars recorded in history4 8,the natives of ,cuba and the neighboring islands had1 we infer1 been addicted to smoking for a long time1 probably for centuries1 when the ,europeans first appeared among them4 ,they had their rolls of dry leaves1 or tabagos1 and their smoking appliances of soft stone or baked clay1 appliances called by us #8pipes' and by them #8calumets4' ,tobacco1 in fact1 played a prominent part in their medicine1 their superstitious observances1 and their political assemblies4 8,consulted as to future events1 the soothsayer first of all inhaled the smoke of several tabagos1 while the other persons present1 seated in a circle1 vied with one another in the energy of their smoking1 their ultimate object being to enwrap themselves in a dense cloud4 ,then from the midst of this cloud the soothsayer1 his imagination wrought to a high pitch by the fumes of the tobacco1 delivered his oracles in unwonted terms that made the hearers believe they were listening to the voice of ,god4 8,a like ceremony was observed in the assemblies held for discussing public affairs4 ,seated on a stone and inhaling the smoke from his calumet1 the orator who was about to take the floor waited in passive silence while the chiefs of the nation approached him1 one at a time1 to blow into his face plenteous puffs from their pipes and to commend to him the interests of the tribe4 ,these fumigations concluded1 the orator abandoned himself to his eloquence amid the enthusiastic acclaim of the assembly4 8,seeing the islanders smoking1 ,columbus's companions wished to try this singular custom for themselves4 ,to the gratification of this desire the ,indian lent his ready assistance3 he showed them how the tabago is rolled1 and how the calumet is filled and lighted4 ,though history is silent on the subject1 it is clear that the first sailor to undertake the inhalation must have been seized with that fearful nausea which no novice in smoking can escape4 ,a stomach of any delicacy would have been forever repelled2 the harsh gullet of the mariner found a certain charm in the thing when once the trying experiences of initiation were over4 8,the taste for smoking was so soon acquired that1 on their return to ,spain1 the companions of ,columbus very quickly extended this ,indian custom in their own country4 ,before long1 too1 there was discovered a new way to use tobacco3 some one conceived the idea of reducing the leaf to a dry powder and stuffing it into the nostrils1 sniffing with each pinch of the powdered substance4 ,the ,indian had discovered smoking tobacco2 the ,european in his turn invented snuff4 8,spain and ,portugal numbered their smokers and snuff-takers by the thousand when1 in #aefj1 tobacco made its first appearance in ,france4 ,nicot1 ,french ambassador at ,lisbon1 sent as an object of curiosity to his sovereign queen1 ,catherine de ,mdicis1 some seeds of the fashionable plant and a box of tobacco in powdered form4 ,charmed with this gift1 the queen quickly contracted the habit of taking snuff4 ,to please her1 tobacco was cultivated1 and snuff-takers soon became numerous in all the provinces4 ,it was said that a certain great personage of the period took as much as three ounces daily4 ,he certainly must have had his nose well tanned4 8,from one nation to another the use of tobacco gradually spread1 but not without serious opposition4 ,the ,turks are to-day passionately addicted to smoking1 extremely fond of their long pipes2 yet hear what sort of a reception they at first gave to tobacco4 ,against smokers and snuff-takers their emperor1 ,amurat1 issued an edict severe to the point of cruelty4 ,every delinquent was condemned to receive fifty strokes with the rod on the soles of his feet40 8,that ought to have driven tobacco out of the country in short order10 remarked ,jules4 8,that was merely a warning to first offenders10 returned his uncle4 8,for a second offense the luckless person caught in the act had his nose cut off4 ,it was a radical measure to discourage the snuff-taker3 no more nose1 no more snuff4 ,but the smokers1 after this horrible mutilation1 persisted in their smoking4 8,a king of ,persia devised what he thought would cure even this habit3 every one caught with a pipe in his mouth had his upper lip cut off4 ,at the same time1 of course1 every nose proved guilty of snuff-taking fell under the executioner's knife4 ,but the atrocious edict of the ,persian king proved as futile as that of the ,turkish emperor4 ,despite all the noses struck off1 all the lips cut away1 all the feet made to tingle under the rod1 the use of tobacco still continued to spread4 ,these fruitless severities had to be abandoned4 8,other regulations sprang up here and there1 less cruel1 but sufficiently fruitful in fines1 imprisonments1 vexations of all sorts4 ,still nothing was of any avail2 smokers and snuff-takers remained incorrigible4 ,finally1 taking wiser counsel1 the government authorities conceived a plan for making this passion1 which no severity had been able to subdue1 yield them large revenues4 ,the government itself became exclusive vender of the very article it had at first proscribed with such rigor4 ,france alone derives a yearly revenue of almost three hundred million francs from the sale of tobacco40 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,fertile ,,soil 8,fertile or arable soil10 resumed ,uncle ,paul1 8constitutes only the surface layer of earth1 that which is worked by the farmer's implements and yields nutriment to the roots of plants and promotes their development4 ,in one place you will see bare rocks and utter barrenness2 in another you find fertile soil to a depth of an inch or two1 scantily carpeted with grass2 and again1 in a third1 you come upon rich earth so deep as to maintain abundant vegetation4 ,but nowhere does this fertile layer have an indefinite thickness3 at a depth never very considerable a subsoil having the qualities of the neighboring mountains is sure to be found4 ,how then has there come to be formed this layer of earth whence is derived all the nutriment required by plants1 animals1 and men8 8,undermined all winter1 and even the whole year round on high mountains1 by the ice that forms in their slightest fissures1 rocks of all kinds break into small fragments1 divide into grains of sand1 fall into dust1 and furnish the powdery mineral matter which the rain washes away and deposits in the valleys4 ,this as a rule is the origin of broken stones1 sand1 clay1 and fertile soil4 ,ice by its expansive force has detached them from the tops of mountains and the waters have swept them away and carried them further4 ,one can form an idea of the action of ice in crumbling rocks to make soil of them and enrich the valleys1 by examining the surface of a hard road at the moment of thawing4 ,firm underfoot before freezing1 this surface loses its firmness after a thaw and is pushed up here and there in little finely-powdered clods4 ,at the moment of freezing1 the humidity with which the soil was impregnated turned into ice which1 increasing in volume1 reduced to fine particles the surface layer of the road4 ,when the thaw comes1 these particles which the ice no longer holds together form first mud1 then dust4 ,in exactly this manner arable land was formed by the disintegration of rocks of all kinds1 which were reduced to particles by the action of frost4 ,but soil suitable for agriculture contains not only powdery mineral matter1 but also a little mold from the decomposition of vegetable matter4 ,to give you an idea of the causes which from the very earliest times have little by little fertilized this rock-dust with vegetable mold1 let us take the following example4 ,geography has taught you what a volcano is4 ,it is a mountain whose summit is hollowed out in an immense funnel-shaped excavation called a crater4 ,from time to time the ground trembles near a volcano and formidable noises similar to the rolling of thunder and the booming of cannon are heard from the depths of the mountain4 ,the crater throws up into the air a lofty column of smoke1 dark by day1 fiery red at night4 ,all at once the mountain is rent and vomits up through the crevices a stream of fire1 a current of melted rock1 or lava4 ,finally the volcano quiets down2 the source of the terrible flood dries up4 ,the streams of lava harden and cease running2 and after a lapse of time which may be years they become quite cold4 ,now what is to become of this enormous bed of black stone similar in character to the slag from a forge8 ,what will this sheet of lava covering an area of several square miles produce8 8,this desolate1 blasted expanse seems destined never to be clothed with verdure4 ,but in any such assumption one would be mistaken4 ,after centuries and centuries a vigorous growth of oaks1 beeches1 and other large trees will have taken root there4 ,in fact1 you will see that air1 rain1 snow1 and1 above all1 frost attack in turn the hard surface of the lava1 detach fine particles from it1 and slowly produce a little dust at its expense4 ,on this dust there will spring into being certain strange and hardy plants1 those white or yellow patches1 those vegetable incrustations1 calculated to live on the surface of stone and known as lichens4 ,these lichens fasten themselves to the lava1 gnaw it still more1 and in dying leave a little mold formed from their decaying remains4 ,on this precious mold1 lodged in some cavity of the lava1 there is now a growth of mosses which perish in their turn and increase the quantity of fertilizing material4 ,next come ferns1 which require a richer soil1 and after that a few tufts of grass2 then some brambles1 some meager shrubs2 and thus with each succeeding year the fertile soil is added to from the new remnants of lava and mold left by the preceding generation of plants that have gone to decay4 ,it is in this way that gradually a lava-bed finally becomes covered with a forest4 8,our own arable land had a similar origin4 ,sterile rocks1 hard as they are1 contributed the mineral part by being reduced to dust through the combined action of water1 air1 and frost2 and the successive generations of plant-life1 beginning with the simplest1 furnished the mold4 8,notice how admirably1 in the processes of nature1 the smallest of created beings perform their part and contribute as best they can to the general harmony4 ,to produce fertile soil there is needed something more than the frosts and thaws that crumble the hardest rock3 there is need of plants hardy enough to live on this sterile soil1 such as tough grasses1 mosses1 lichens1 which gnaw the stone4 ,it is through the medium of these rudimentary plants1 so pitiful in appearance and yet so hardy1 that the dust of the rocks is enriched with mold and converted into a soil capable of bearing other and more delicate plants4 8,it is not in cultivated fields that you will find those thick carpets of mosses and lichens1 valiant disintegrators of stone2 it is on the mountain-tops that they can be seen at their work of crusting over the smooth rock in order to convert it into fertile soil4 ,it is from these heights that this fertile soil has descended1 little by little1 washed down by the rain1 until it has fertilized the valleys4 ,this work is going on all the time2 in hilly regions plants of the lowest order are constantly adding to the extent of arable land4 ,the little threads of rain-water that furrow these regions carry away with them some of this humus and bear it to the plains below4 8,what a worthy subject for our thoughtful study is this formation of arable soil by these legions of inferior plants1 obscure workers indefatigably crumbling the rock6 ,what immense results obtained by the simplest means60 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,soil 8,four substances1 mingled in very variable proportions1 enter into the composition of fertile soil1 or arable land1 namely3 sand or silica1 clay1 limestone1 and humus1 or vegetable mold4 ,each one of these ingredients separately would make but very poor soil1 quite unsuited for agriculture2 but united1 mixed together1 they fulfill the conditions necessary to fertility4 ,arable land generally contains all four1 with the predominance sometimes of one1 sometimes of another4 ,the soil takes the name of its most abundant constituent4 ,thus have arisen the names1 silicious soil1 argillaceous soil1 calcareous soil1 and humous soil1 to designate the fertile lands dominated respectively by sand1 clay1 limestone1 and humus4 ,compound terms are also used4 ,for example1 when it is said of a certain soil that it is argillo-calcareous1 it is meant that clay and limestone are its chief constituents4 8,sand consists of particles1 more or less minute1 of very hard rock1 sometimes opaque1 sometimes as transparent as glass1 and always easily recognizable by its property of emitting sparks when struck with steel4 ,flint and white pebbles belong to this kind of rock1 which is called silex1 silica1 or quartz4 ,these three expressions mean about the same4 ,sandy soils have little consistency1 are easily permeated by water1 and freely absorb the sun's heat1 which makes them very subject to drought4 8,the name of granite is given to a rock composed chiefly of silica and which forms whole mountains1 as in central ,france and in ,brittany4 ,the soil formed by the gradual disintegration of this rock is sometimes called granite soil4 ,it is not very good for agriculture4 ,chestnut trees prosper in it1 as well as certain wild plants characteristic of this kind of land4 ,the principal ones are the various species of heather and the purple digitalis4 ,heather1 with its dainty little pink blossoms1 carpets in richest abundance the poorest of sandy soils4 ,the purple digitalis is a large-leaved plant whose flowers1 red on the outside1 striped with purple and white inside1 are arranged in a long and magnificent distaff reaching almost to the height of a man4 ,the flowers are in the shape of long tun-bellied bells or1 rather1 glove-fingers2 hence the plant is sometimes called foxglove1 sometimes lady's fingers4 8,the soil composed of substances thrown up by volcanoes is also sandy1 and is called volcanic soil4 ,it is generally black and sometimes very fertile4 8,sandy-clay soil is found in the valleys of great rivers4 ,it is the most fruitful and the easiest to cultivate4 ,such are the soils of the ,rhone valley1 the valley of the ,loire1 and that of the ,seine4 ,it is still more fertile if it is flooded by the stream at high water4 ,then the river deposits a rich slime composed of clay and organic matter washed down by the current4 8,the soil of heathy or shrubby land is composed of fine sand and of humus from the decayed leaves of heather and other plants4 ,it is only used for flower gardens1 and furnishes an example of what might be called sand-and-humus soil4 8,clay is a soil which1 when moistened with water and thoroughly kneaded1 becomes a soft and tenacious dough1 suitable for molding into any desired shape4 ,when perfectly pure it is white1 and is known as kaolin1 a rare substance of which porcelain is made4 ,plastic clays are those that are unctuous to the touch1 forming with water a yielding mass that hardens with firing4 ,they are used in making pottery4 ,smectite1 or fuller's earth1 is a clay of very different character1 not pliable when moistened1 but very absorbent of grease and hence used by fullers for cleansing cloth of the oil left on it in weaving4 ,ochres are clays colored either red or yellow by iron-rust4 ,they are used in coarse painting4 ,red chalk belongs to this class of clays4 ,marl is a mixture in variable proportions of clay and limestone4 ,according to which constituent predominates1 it is called argillaceous or calcareous4 ,subjected to the action of air and moisture1 marl becomes flaky and crumbles to dust4 ,marl is used in agriculture to improve the soil4 8,a clay soil is quite the opposite of a sandy soil3 water makes it swell and converts it into a sticky paste which clings tenaciously to farming implements4 ,once wet1 it is cold1 that is to say it dries very slowly4 ,a spade can only divide it into dense clods slow to crumble in the air and not fit for receiving seed4 ,the farmer must be careful to drain off the water and break up the ground by working it before and during frosts4 ,it is improved by mixing with it sand1 coal-ashes1 and lime4 ,wheat flourishes better in a clayey soil than in any other kind4 8,clayey soils are recognized by their vegetation4 ,the wild plants peculiar to this kind of soil are colt's-foot and danewort4 ,colt's-foot is also called horse-foot from the shape of its leaves1 the outline of which reminds one of a horse's hoof4 ,the leaves are white underneath4 ,the flowers are yellow like little marigolds1 and they appear at the beginning of spring before the leaves4 ,danewort is a kind of herbaceous elder of about half the height of a man4 ,its small white flowers are succeeded by berries full of a violet-red juice40 ,,chapter ,v ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,soil 7,continued7 8,limestone is the rock from which lime is obtained4 ,it is composed of carbonic acid and lime4 ,to obtain the latter1 the limestone is subjected to intense heat in a furnace or lime-kiln4 ,the carbonic acid escapes1 is dissipated in the air1 and only the lime remains4 ,in arable land limestone is found rather often in smaller or larger pieces1 but more frequently as a fine powder which the eye can scarcely distinguish from the other constituents1 especially clay4 ,the water of rivers and other streams almost always contains a small proportion of dissolved limestone4 ,thence comes the thin layer of stone that accumulates little by little on the inner surface of bottles1 coating the glass4 ,some waters contain enough of this dissolved limestone to deposit a mineral crust on objects immersed in them1 as mosses and aquatic plants1 and to obstruct their aqueducts4 ,the clearest water1 in which no foreign substance can be seen1 absolutely none1 nevertheless contains dissolved limestone1 just as sweetened water contains invisible sugar4 ,in drinking a glass of water we drink a little stone at the same time4 ,our body1 in order to grow strong and increase in size1 needs considerable calcareous matter for the formation of bones1 which are to us what its solid framework is to a building4 ,this material1 so necessary to us1 is not created by us2 we obtain it from our food and drink4 ,water plays its part in furnishing this limestone1 which it furnishes also to plants2 they all contain a greater or less proportion of this mineral matter4 8,calcareous soils are whitish from their chief constituent1 chalk4 ,entirely sterile when the proportion of limestone is excessive1 they are tolerably productive when clay is added4 ,they are especially suitable for vineyards and for raising lucerne1 sainfoin1 and clover4 ,champagne and the south of ,france offer examples of this kind of soil4 ,its principal varieties are chalky soil1 which is nearly sterile1 containing as much as ninety-five per cent of chalk1 and marly soil which is composed of clay and chalk4 8,the plant-life characteristic of calcareous soils comprises the box-tree1 whose compact and fine-grained wood is so esteemed by turners2 the wild cornel1 whose red1 olive-shaped fruit is one of the best-liked autumn products that nature offers us2 and the alkekengi1 or winter cherry1 whose yellow berries are used for coloring butter4 ,these berries are encased in a large1 gorgeously red membranous bag4 8,wood1 leaves1 herbage1 left a long time in contact with air and moisture1 undergo a slow combustion2 in other words1 they rot4 ,the result of this decomposition is a brown substance called humus or vegetable mold4 ,the heart of old hollow willows is converted into humus2 it is the same with leaves that fall from the trees and rot on the ground4 ,humus from the remains of earlier generations of plant-life nourishes the plant-life of to-day1 and this in turn will become mold from which future plants will spring4 ,it is in this way that vegetation is maintained in places not cultivated by man4 ,humus1 then1 is nature's manure4 ,where it is allowed to form freely1 vegetation never loses its vigor1 using over and over again the same material1 which takes alternately the two forms of plant and humus4 ,but hay from the field is stored in the hay-loft1 and the annual harvest of wheat is taken to the granary4 ,thus the land is robbed of the mold that would be formed naturally by the rotting of this hay and wheat2 therefore we must give back to it1 under some form or other1 this mold that has been taken away1 since otherwise the soil will become less and less productive until finally it is quite sterile4 ,this restitution is made in the form of animal manure1 which is a sort of humus produced by digestive processes instead of by natural decay4 8,humus plays a twofold part in the soil4 ,first1 it mellows the land1 or in other words makes it more easily permeable by air and water4 ,secondly1 by the slow combustion taking place in the humus there is constantly being liberated a small quantity of carbonic acid gas1 which is taken up by the adjacent roots4 ,agriculture can succeed only in so far as the soil contains humus4 ,wheat requires nearly eight per cent1 oats and rye only two per cent4 ,in poor1 sandy soils1 to increase the amount of vegetable mold1 it is customary to plow certain green crops under1 as the farmers express it2 that is1 the surface soil is turned over and the growing crop intended for manuring purposes is buried and left to decay in the ground4 ,that is what is done when the plowman turns under a field of growing grass or a stretch of clover4 ,when it is proposed to improve a piece of land by this process1 it is the practice to begin by raising a crop 7which will later be turned under7 that derives the greater part of its nourishment from the air1 since the soil in this instance cannot of itself furnish this nourishment4 ,among the plants satisfying these conditions are buckwheat1 clover1 lupine1 beans1 vetches1 lucerne1 and sainfoin4 8,soils rich in humus have for their chief constituent the brown substance that results from the decaying of leaves and other vegetable matter4 ,turf land stands first as rich in humus4 ,turf is a dark1 spongy substance that forms in moist lowlands from the accumulation of vegetable refuse1 especially mosses4 ,turf1 or peat1 as it is also called1 is used for fuel4 ,to turn such a soil to account1 it must first be made wholesome by drainage1 it must be mellowed by paring and burning and by the addition of sand and marl1 and a proportion of lime must be mixed in to hasten the decomposition of all vegetable matter4 ,turf lands are recognized by their sphagnei1 great mosses that grow with their roots in the water2 and by their flax-like sedges1 from the tops of which hang beautiful tufts of down having the softness and whiteness of the finest silk40 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,potash ,,and ,,phosphorus 8,let us burn a plant1 no matter what kind4 ,the first effect of the heat is to produce carbon1 which1 mixed with other substances1 constituted the plant4 ,if combustion continues1 this carbon is dissipated in the air in the form of carbonic acid gas1 and there remains an earthy residue which we call ashes4 ,here then are two kinds of material1 carbon and ashes1 which without exception enter into all plant-life4 ,the plant did not create them1 did not make them out of nothing1 since it is impossible to obtain something from nothing4 ,it must1 then1 have derived them from some source4 ,we shall take up before long the subject of coal and its origin1 and shall find that it comes chiefly from the atmosphere1 whence the leaves obtain carbonic acid gas1 which they decompose under the action of the sun's rays1 retaining the carbon and throwing off the air in a condition fit for breathing4 ,the vegetation of the entire earth thus finds its principal nutriment in the atmosphere1 an inexhaustible and increasingly abundant reservoir1 because the respiration of animals1 putrefaction1 and combustion are continually giving forth as much carbonic acid gas as the combined plant-life of the earth can consume4 ,to maintain the fertility of his fields1 therefore1 the farmer need not give a thought to the subject of carbon2 with no assistance from him his growing crops find in the air all the carbonic acid gas they require4 ,there remains for our consideration1 then1 the residue left after combustion1 the ashes in fact1 a mixture of various substances of which we will now examine the most important4 8,let us put a few handfuls of ashes to boil in a pot of water4 ,after boiling a little while we will let the contents cool4 ,the ashes settle to the bottom and the liquid at the top becomes clear4 ,well1 we shall find this liquid emitting a peculiar odor1 exactly like that which comes from the lye obtained by passing water through a barrel of ashes4 ,we shall also find that it has an acrid1 almost burning taste4 ,this smell of lye1 this acrid taste were not in the water at first2 they come from the ashes1 which have yielded a certain constituent to the water4 8,hence we see that ashes must contain at least two substances of different kinds1 of which the principal one cannot dissolve in water1 but settles at the bottom as an earthy deposit1 while the other1 forming but a very small part of the whole1 dissolves easily in water and gives it its properties1 especially its odor and its acrid taste4 8,if we wish to obtain this latter element by itself1 we can very easily do so4 ,all that is necessary is to put the clear liquid into a pot over the fire and boil it until all the water has evaporated4 ,there will be left a very small quantity of whitish matter resembling table salt4 ,but despite its appearance it is not table salt by any means2 far from it1 as we shall quickly discover from its unbearable taste4 ,it is known as potash1 and it is what makes lye so good for cleaning linen4 ,furthermore1 of the various components of ashes it is the one most essential to vegetation4 ,every tree1 every shrub1 every plant1 even to the smallest blade of grass1 contains a certain proportion of it1 sometimes larger1 sometimes smaller1 according to the kind of plant-life1 and therefore must find it in the soil in order to thrive4 ,let us add that in growing plants potash is not as the action of fire leaves it after the plants have been reduced to ashes4 ,in nature it is combined with other substances which free it from that burning acridity4 ,in the same way carbon1 when combined with other elements1 loses its blackness and hardness2 in fact1 it is no longer common coal4 8,what else is there in ashes8 ,a short account of the matter will tell us4 ,in #affi there lived in ,hamburg1 ,germany1 a learned old man named ,brandt1 whose head was a little turned and who sought to turn common metals into gold4 ,from old iron1 rusty nails1 and worn-out kettles1 he hoped to produce the precious metal4 ,but he did not succeed in his endeavors1 nor was it destined that he should succeed1 for the simple reason that the thing is impossible4 ,never is one metal changed into another4 ,when he was about at the end of his resources he took it into his head to conceive a crowning absurdity4 ,he imagined that in urine would be found the ingredient capable of turning all metals into gold4 ,behold him1 then1 boiling urine1 evaporating it1 and cooking the disgusting sediment1 first with this1 then with that1 until at last one evening he saw something shining in his phials4 ,it was not gold1 but something more useful3 it was phosphorus1 which to-day gives us fire4 ,don't make fun of old ,brandt and his foolish cooking3 in seeking the impossible he made one of the most important discoveries4 ,to him we owe the sulphur match1 that precious source of light and fire so easily and quickly used4 8,if you examine a sulphur match you will see that the inflammable tip contains two substances3 sulphur1 laid on to the wood1 and another substance added to the sulphur4 ,this last is phosphorus1 colored with a blue1 red1 or brown powder1 according to the caprice of the manufacturer4 ,phosphorus by itself is slightly yellow in color and translucent like wax4 ,its name means #8light-bearer4' ,when rubbed gently between the fingers in the dark1 it does indeed give out a pale gleam4 ,at the same time there is a smell of garlic2 it is the odor of phosphorus4 ,this substance is excessively inflammable3 with very little heat or with slight friction against a hard surface1 it catches fire4 ,hence its use in the manufacture of matches4 8,phosphorus is a horribly poisonous substance4 ,by melting a little of it in grease a poison can be obtained that will destroy rats and mice4 ,crusts of bread are smeared with this composition and exposed in places frequented by these animals4 ,a nibble is enough to ensure speedy death4 ,hence you perceive that because of their poisonous nature matches are to be handled with extreme care4 ,contact with food might produce the gravest consequences40 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,phosphates ,,and ,,nitrogen 8,phosphorus1 which is a dangerous poison1 as we have seen1 is nevertheless found in abundance in the bodies of all animals4 ,it occurs in the urine1 whence ,brandt was the first to extract it2 it is found still more plentifully in the bones1 and from thence it is now obtained4 ,there is some in meat1 in milk1 and in cheese2 also in plants1 notably cereals2 hence flour and bread contain it4 ,but do not be alarmed3 we shall not die of poison like the rats that have nibbled crusts smeared with grease and phosphorus40 8,but why not10 asked ,emile1 8if we eat it as the rats do80 8,i will try to explain10 replied his uncle4 8,when two or more substances are mixed together1 they lose their original properties1 while the new substance obtained by their combination is found to possess new properties having nothing in common with the old ones4 ,thus carbon1 when combined with the air that we breathe1 becomes an invisible gas1 subtle1 and unfit for breathing4 ,in like manner lime1 burning to the taste1 is converted by union with carbonic acid gas into chalk1 a calcareous stone void of taste4 ,furthermore1 poisonous substances1 deadly in a very small dose1 may become harmless and even enter into the composition of our food when they are combined with other substances4 ,thus it is with phosphorus4 ,what1 then1 is united with phosphorus in the form in which it ceases to be poisonous and enters into the composition of meat and flour8 ,that is what we will now consider4 8,when phosphorus is burned it produces a thick white smoke1 of which you can get some idea by striking a number of matches all at once4 ,this white smoke with the slightest trace of humidity is reducible to an extraordinarily acid liquid called phosphoric acid4 ,since this compound results from the combustion of phosphorus1 just as carbonic acid is the result of the combustion of carbon1 it must and in fact does contain the air without which no combustion can take place4 ,phosphoric acid is no longer inflammable1 however much it may be heated2 being itself the product of combustion1 it cannot burn again4 ,but if there is no danger of its catching fire1 phosphoric acid is nevertheless dangerous on account of its intense acidity1 which makes it violently corrosive in its action on flesh4 ,if mixed with lime1 however1 this formidable compound loses its injurious properties and is changed into a white substance without the least taste or the slightest poisonous effect4 ,this substance is called phosphate of lime4 ,burnt phosphorus and lime1 thus united1 furnish the greater part of the mineral matter found in bones4 ,put a bone into the fire3 the grease and juices that permeate its substance will be burnt up and the bone will lose a part of its weight and become friable and perfectly white4 ,well1 this bone1 calcined in the fire for a long time1 is composed chiefly of phosphate of lime4 ,it contains phosphorus1 the most combustible of substances1 and yet is itself absolutely incombustible2 it contains one of the most poisonous substances1 and yet is itself quite harmless2 into its composition there has entered an ingredient possessing atrocious acidity1 and yet the compound itself has no taste4 ,similarly combined and equally harmless1 phosphorus is found in meat1 milk1 cereals1 in flour and bread4 8,a cow can furnish each week about #gj liters of milk containing #dfj grams of phosphate4 ,this phosphate comes from hay1 which obtains it from the soil4 ,but as the soil contains only a moderate quantity of it1 and the hay continually takes it away1 the supply will at last become exhausted and the milk will become poorer and less abundant4 ,if a kilogram of powdered bones1 containing about the same quantity of phosphate as the #gj liters of milk1 is spread over the pasture1 it will make good the weekly loss in phosphate that the soil undergoes in the production of the cow's milk4 ,hence the efficacy of powdered bones on exhausted pasture land4 8,phosphoric acid combined with other substances is found in all our agricultural products1 and hence the phosphate from bones has a very marked effect on our crops4 ,harvests have been doubled as if by magic through the use of powdered bones4 ,a kilogram of this powder contains enough phosphoric acid for the growth of a hundred kilograms of wheat4 ,despite their great value as a fertilizer bones will never be thus used except to a limited extent1 because they are not abundant enough and also because they are much in demand in various arts and manufactures4 ,fortunately in some localities phosphate of lime is found in certain coarse pebbles called nodules or coprolites4 ,these precious stones are carefully collected and ground to powder in a mill4 ,then1 in order to make the substance more soluble in damp soil1 and thus better fitted for the nutrition of plants1 it is sprayed with an extremely corrosive liquid called sulphuric acid or1 more commonly1 oil of vitriol4 ,in this way is obtained the superphosphate of lime which manufacture gives to agriculture as one of the most powerful of fertilizers1 especially for the raising of grain4 8,we were wondering a little while ago what substances could be contained in the ashes of a burnt plant1 and we have now found potash to be one of them4 ,moreover1 since all vegetation must have phosphate in order to thrive1 this also ought to be found in the ashes1 phosphate being indestructible by heat4 ,and1 in fact1 after the incineration of any vegetable matter whatever1 as a bundle of hay or a handful of grain1 the delicate processes of science can always recover this compound of phosphorus2 and they further find lime1 iron in the form of rust1 the silicious component of pebbles1 and divers other substances of less interest4 8,to finish this difficult but very important subject of the nutrition of plants1 ,i must say a few words about ammonia4 ,this word does not tell you anything since it is a new word to you4 ,but ,i will make its meaning clear to you by a familiar illustration4 8,you must have noticed the strong1 penetrating odor prevalent in ill-kept water-closets2 and you have also perceived the same odor when soiled garments are cleaned with a certain liquid that looks like clear water4 ,well1 this odor1 so pungent that it almost produces the effect of fine needles thrust up into the nostrils and brings tears to the eyes1 is the odor of ammonia4 8,ammonia is an invisible gas capable of being taken up in large quantities by water1 the mixture being known as aqua ammoni1 or water of ammonia4 ,combined with other substances ammonia loses its pungent odor and forms compounds which are among the most effective fertilizers4 ,these compounds furnish vegetation with one of its essential ingredients called nitrogen4 ,by itself nitrogen is an odorless and colorless gas4 ,in this state it forms four-fifths of the volume of ordinary air1 the air we breathe4 ,the other fifth is composed of a second gas called oxygen1 also colorless and odorless4 ,it is oxygen that our lungs demand when we breathe1 and it is oxygen that is necessary when we wish to burn anything4 ,it is this alone that plays its invaluable part in the combustion of certain substances in our blood and in the generation of natural heat2 it is this that in the process of combustion releases carbon1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 and other combustibles1 to combine with them and produce a compound known as carbonic acid gas in the case of burnt carbon1 phosphoric acid in the case of phosphorus4 ,in fact1 to it belong the properties that we have until now attributed to the atmosphere as a whole4 ,as for nitrogen1 it has no other purpose in the atmosphere than to moderate by its presence the too violent energies of oxygen2 it plays there the part of the water that we put into too strong wine4 8,all vegetation requires nitrogen4 ,wheat1 for example1 must have it to develop the grain in the ear2 peas1 beans1 lentils demand it in order to fill out their pods2 the pasture and the hay-field need it if they are to furnish the nutriment that the sheep and the cow will transform into milk4 ,but plants cannot take this nitrogen from the air1 where it is so abundant2 it must be served up to them after a certain necessary preparation4 ,we ourselves need phosphorus1 since it enters into the composition of our bones2 we need carbon still more1 the principal fuel used in maintaining the heat of the body4 ,but are we to eat the charcoal that the charcoal-burner manufactures in his furnace1 and the phosphorus used in the making of matches8 ,certainly not4 ,the first would be a frightful mouthful1 the second an atrocious poison4 ,we must have them prepared in a suitable way1 such as they are found in bread1 milk1 meat1 fruits1 vegetables4 ,in the same manner plant-life requires nitrogen1 not as it occurs in the atmosphere1 but as it exists in certain combinations1 of which the most notable are the compounds of ammonia4 ,this explains to us the highly beneficial effect of manure on our crops4 ,manure is composed of the bedding used in stables and the animal excrement with which it has become mixed and impregnated4 ,now this excrementitious matter1 especially urine1 yields ammonia in decomposing1 as is proved by the odor arising from latrines in hot weather and so powerfully affecting the eyes and nose4 ,thus manure may be said to hold ammonia compounds in storage1 and from them plants derive their nitrogen1 as also many other ingredients4 8,let us summarize these details4 ,in the nutrition of plants four substances are of prime importance4 ,first1 carbonic acid gas1 which yields carbon1 the most widely diffused of all the elements 7but which we need not dwell upon here71 since plants take it chiefly from the atmosphere1 to which it is supplied unceasingly4 ,after carbonic acid come potash1 phosphoric acid1 and nitrogen1 all of which the roots extract from the soil1 where it occurs in some compound or other4 ,these are the ingredients that the soil1 if it is to remain fertile1 must have given back to it as fast as they are exhausted by the crops4 ,such is the part played by fertilizers1 without which the soil becomes exhausted and ceases to produce40 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,vegetation ,,and ,,the ,,atmosphere 8,the carbonic acid gas produced simply by the breathing of the great human family amounts every year to about #afj1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic meters1 which represents #hf1bgj1jjj1jjj kilograms of burnt carbon4 ,piled up1 this carbon would form a mountain one league round at its base and between four hundred and five hundred meters high4 ,so much carbon is required by man to maintain his natural heat4 ,all of us together eat this mountain of carbon in our food and in the course of the year dissipate it all in the air1 a breathful at a time2 after which we immediately begin the dissipation of another mountain of carbon4 ,how many mountains of carbon1 then1 since the world was created1 must mankind have exhaled into the atmosphere6 8,we must take account1 too1 of the animals1 which1 collectively1 those of the land and those of the sea1 use up a big mountain of combustible matter4 ,they are much more numerous than we2 they inhabit the entire globe1 both continents and seas4 ,what a quantity of carbon it must take to sustain the life of our planet6 ,and to think that it all goes forth into the air1 as a deadly gas1 of which a few breaths would cause death6 8,nor is that all4 ,fermentation1 as in grape-juice and rising dough1 and putrefaction1 as in decaying manure1 produce carbonic acid gas4 ,and it needs only a light layer of manure to cause a cultivated field to give forth between one hundred and two hundred cubic meters of carbonic acid gas per day for each hectare4 8,the wood1 coal1 and charcoal burnt in our houses1 and especially the quantities consumed in the great furnaces of factories--are not they also returned to the atmosphere in the form of harmful gas8 ,just think of the amount of carbonic acid gas vomited into the atmosphere by a factory furnace into which coal is poured by the carload6 ,think also of the volcanoes1 gigantic natural chimneys which in a single eruption throw up such quantities of gas that furnaces offer no comparison4 ,it is very clear3 the atmosphere is constantly receiving carbonic acid gas in torrents that defy computation4 ,and yet animal life has nothing to fear for the present or for the future1 since the atmosphere1 though continually being poisoned with carbonic acid gas1 is at the same time always being purged of it4 8,and what is the purgative agent commissioned by ,providence to maintain the salubrity of the atmosphere8 ,it is vegetation1 my friends1 vegetation1 which feeds on carbonic acid gas to prevent our perishing and turns it into the bread of life for our sustenance4 ,this deadly gas1 which absorbs into itself all sorts of putrefaction1 is the choicest of nourishment for plant-life2 and thus out of the bosom of death the blade of grass builds up new life4 8,a leaf is riddled with an infinite number of excessively minute orifices1 each encircled by two lips which give it the appearance of a half-open mouth4 ,they are called stomata4 ,on a single leaf of the linden more than a million can be counted1 but so small are they as to be quite invisible without a magnifying-glass4 ,this picture shows you how they look under a microscope4 ,well1 through these orifices the plant breathes1 not pure air such as we breathe1 but poisoned air1 fatal to an animal but wholesome for a plant4 ,it inhales through its myriads of millions of stomata the carbonic acid gas diffused through the atmosphere2 it admits this gas into the inner substance of its leaves1 and there1 under the sun's rays1 a marvelous process follows4 ,stimulated by the light1 the leaves operate upon the deadly gas and take from it all its carbon4 ,they unburn 7the word is not in the dictionary1 more's the pity1 for it gives the right idea7--they unburn the burnt carbon1 undo what combustion had done1 separate the carbon from the air with which it is bound up2 in a word1 they decompose the carbonic acid gas4 8,and do not think it any easy thing to unburn a burnt substance1 to restore to their original condition two substances united by fire4 ,scientists would need all the ingenious means and powerful drugs they possess to extract carbon from carbonic acid gas4 ,this task1 which would tax the utmost resources of the man of science1 leaves accomplish noiselessly1 without effort1 even instantaneously1 and with the sole requirement that they shall have the aid of the sun4 8,but if sunlight fails1 the plant can do nothing with the carbonic acid gas1 the chief item in its diet4 ,it then pines away with hunger1 shoots up as if in quest of the missing sunshine1 while its bark and leaves turn pale and lose their green color4 ,finally it dies4 ,this sickly state induced by the absence of light is called etiolation4 ,it is artificially produced in gardening for the purpose of obtaining tenderer vegetables and of lessening or even entirely removing the too strong and unpleasant taste of some plants4 ,in this way some salad greens are bound with a rush so that the heart1 deprived of the sun's rays1 may become tender and white2 and thus1 too1 celery is banked up and left to whiten1 since otherwise its taste would be unbearable4 ,if we cover grass with a tile or hide a plant under a pot turned upside down1 we shall after a few days of this enforced darkness find the foliage all sickly and yellow4 8,when1 on the other hand1 the plant receives the sun's rays without hindrance1 the carbonic acid gas is decomposed in no time1 the carbon and the air separate1 and each resumes its original properties4 ,freed of its carbon1 the air becomes what it was before this admixture3 it becomes pure air1 fit to maintain both fire and life4 ,in this state it is restored to the atmosphere by the stomata to be used again in combustion and respiration4 ,it entered the plant as a fatal gas1 it leaves it as a vivifying gas4 ,it will return some day with a new charge of carbon1 which it will deposit in the plant1 and then1 restored to purity once more1 it will recommence its atmospheric round4 ,a swarm of bees goes and comes1 from the hive to the fields and from the fields to the hives1 on one trip lightened and eager for booty and on the other heavily laden with honey and returning to the comb on wearied wing4 ,in the same way air on coming to the leaves is charged with carbon from an animal's body1 a burning fire-brand1 or decaying matter2 it gives it to the plant and departs for a fresh supply4 8,it is thus that the atmosphere preserves its salubrity despite the immense torrents of carbonic acid that are cast into it4 ,the plant lives on deadly gas4 ,under the action of the sun's light it decomposes the gas into carbon1 which it keeps for building up its own substance1 and breathable air1 which it returns to the atmosphere4 ,from this carbon combined with other substances come wood1 sugar1 starch1 flour1 gum1 resin1 oil1 in fact every kind of vegetable product4 ,animal and plant are of mutual assistance1 the animal producing carbonic acid gas1 which nourishes the plant1 and the plant changing this deadly gas into air fit to breathe and into food4 ,thus our dependence on plants is twofold3 they purify the atmosphere and they give us food40 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,lime ,to make mortar with which masonry is held in place it is customary to use lime4 ,in a sort of trough lined with sand are placed lumps of stone having a calcined appearance1 and on these stones water is poured4 ,in a few moments the pile becomes heated to high temperature1 cracks and splits and finally crumbles into dust1 at the same time absorbing the water1 which disappears little by little as it is taken up by the solid matter or vaporized by the heat4 ,more water is added to reduce it all to paste1 which is finally mixed with sand4 ,the product of the mixture is mortar4 ,such is the process often witnessed by ,emile and ,jules1 who are always surprised1 that stone1 by having water poured on to it1 should become hot and turn the water into jets of steam4 8,lime10 ,uncle ,paul explained to them1 8is obtained from a widely diffused stone called limestone or1 in more learned language1 carbonate of lime4 ,the process is of the simplest sort4 ,it consists of heating the stone in kilns built in the open air in the vicinity of both limestone and fuel1 so as to avoid the expense of transportation in the manufacture of a product that it is desirable to furnish at a low price4 8,a lime-kiln is about three meters high1 and is lined with fire-proof brick4 ,an opening at the bottom serves for taking out the lime when the firing has continued long enough4 ,in filling the kiln it is the usual practice to begin by laying large pieces of limestone so as to form a sort of rude vault over the fireplace1 and on this vault are piled smaller fragments until the entire cavity is filled4 ,the fuel used may be fagots1 brushwood1 turf1 or coal4 ,after the firing has gone on long enough1 operations are suspended and the lime is withdrawn by breaking down the vault supporting the entire mass1 which crumbles and comes crowding out at the lower opening1 whence it is usually removed4 8,another method still followed in some localities and of more ancient origin consists of filling the kiln with alternate layers of fuel and limestone4 ,the whole rests on a bed of fagots that serves for starting the fire4 ,as soon as the fire has spread throughout the mass1 the opening at the top is closed with pieces of sod in order to make the combustion slower and more even40 8,nothing could be simpler10 said ,jules1 8than lime-making4 ,now ,i should like to know what effect the heat of the kiln has on the limestone4 ,how does it happen that stone turns into lime by passing through fire80 8,limestone10 answered his uncle1 8contains two different substances3 first1 lime1 and then an invisible substance1 impalpable as air itself1 in fact1 a gas1 carbonic acid gas4 ,the name of carbonate of lime given to the limestone denotes precisely this combination4 ,as it is when taken from the ground1 the stone contains the two substances closely united1 so incorporated indeed as no longer to have the qualities characterizing them when apart4 ,heat destroys this union3 the lime stays in the kiln1 and the carbonic acid gas is dissipated in the atmosphere with the smoke from the burnt fuel4 ,after this liberation of the gas the lime is left in its pure state1 no longer masked by the presence of another substance1 but just as it is needed by the mason for making mortar40 8,then all that the fire does10 queried ,jules1 8is just to break apart the limestone and drive out the carbonic acid gas that it contained80 8,what takes place in the lime-kiln10 replied his uncle1 8is nothing but the separation of the lime and the gas4 ,now let us turn our attention to the mortar4 ,when lime is watered1 it gets very hot1 swells1 cracks open1 and crumbles into a fine powder like flour4 ,the heat that is generated comes from the violence with which the two substances rush together4 ,before absorbing water lime is called quicklime2 after this absorption1 which has reduced it to powder1 it is called slaked lime4 ,this slaked lime is reduced to a paste with water1 and then well mixed and kneaded with sand4 ,the result is the mortar used in laying stone and brick in order to hold the courses firmly together and give solidity to the building4 8,there is one thing ,i advise you to note1 if you have not already done so1 since it will explain to you the part played by mortar in masonry4 ,look at the water that for several days has covered a bed of lime slaked by the masons4 ,you will see floating on the surface small transparent particles resembling ice4 ,well1 these tiny fragments of crust are nothing but stone like that from which the lime was obtained2 in a word1 they are limestone or carbonate of lime4 ,to make stone of that kind two substances are necessary1 as ,i have just told you3 lime and carbonic acid gas4 ,the lime is furnished by the water1 in which it must be present in solution1 since the water covers a thick bed of this material2 and as to the carbonic acid gas1 it is furnished by the air1 where it is always to be found1 though in small quantities4 ,lime1 then1 has this peculiarity1 that it slowly incorporates the small amount of carbonic acid gas present in the atmosphere1 and so once more becomes the limestone that it was before4 8,a similar process goes on in mortar3 the lime takes back from the atmosphere the gas that it had lost in the heat of the lime-kiln1 and little by little becomes stone again4 ,the sand mixed with it serves to disintegrate the lime1 which thus more easily absorbs the air necessary for its conversion into limestone4 ,when the mortar has fully resumed the form of limestone the courses of masonry are so strongly bound one to another that the stones themselves sometimes break rather than give way4 8,what is known as fat lime is lime that develops great heat when brought into contact with water1 and also increases considerably in volume1 forming with the water a thick1 cohesive paste4 ,on the other hand1 poor lime develops but little heat1 disintegrates slowly1 and increases scarcely any in volume4 ,the first kind comes from nearly pure limestone and can be mixed with a large proportion of sand1 thus making a great quantity of mortar4 ,the second kind is obtained from limestone having various foreign substances and will admit of but a small admixture of sand1 thus yielding less mortar than the other4 ,both have the property of hardening in the air by the absorption of carbonic acid gas which converts them into limestone4 8,there is a third variety of lime called hydraulic lime1 which has the peculiar merit of being able to harden under water4 ,it is made from a limestone containing a certain proportion of clay4 ,hydraulic mortar is used for the masonry of bridges1 canals1 cisterns1 foundations1 vaults1 in fact for all stone and brick work under water or in damp soil40 ,,chapter ,x ,,lime ,,in ,,agriculture 8,to be fertile a soil must contain limestone1 sand1 and clay1 besides the organic substances coming from humus and fertilizers4 ,now it may be that nature has not endowed the soil with a sufficient quantity or with any of these three constituents4 ,then the character of the soil must be corrected by giving it what it lacks4 ,that is what is called improving the land4 ,thus a soil that is too sandy is improved by the addition of limestone and clay2 one that is too compact1 too clayey1 is improved by adding sand and1 still more1 by adding limestone4 ,mineral substances thus added to the soil to correct it are called correctives4 ,these substances coperate also in the nutrition of plants1 and from this point of view may be regarded as mineral fertilizers4 8,one of the most valuable of correctives is lime1 which is indispensable to soils lacking limestone1 indispensable also to the nutrition of nearly all our cultivated vegetables4 ,it acts in various ways4 ,first1 it energetically attacks vegetable substances1 decomposing them and converting them into humus4 ,a pile of leaves that would take long months to rot becomes in a short time a mass of humus when mixed with lime4 ,hence its great utility in fields overgrown with weeds1 and in newly cleared land--in short1 wherever there are old stumps1 piles of leaves1 remnants of wood1 and patches of heather1 which need to be decomposed4 ,with the help of lime all these herbaceous or woody substances are quickly converted into humus1 with which the soil becomes enriched to the great advantage of future crops4 8,in the second place1 lime corrects or neutralizes the acidity peculiar to certain soils1 as is proved by the following experiment4 ,let us mix some vinegar1 no matter how strong1 with a little lime4 ,in a short time the smell and acid taste of the vinegar will have disappeared4 ,now wherever masses of vegetable refuse1 such as leaves1 mosses1 rushes1 old stumps1 are undergoing decay1 there are produced certain sour-tasting substances or1 in other words1 acids1 which are invariably harmful to agriculture4 ,this generation of acid occurs notably in turfy soils1 which have an excessive acidity favorable to the growth of coarse rushes and sedges that are valueless to us1 and at the same time this acid is highly injurious to all our cultivated plants4 ,lime1 therefore1 which is sure to correct this acidity1 works wonders in marshy lands1 damp meadows1 and turfy soils4 ,we are warned of the need of lime by the appearance of ferns1 heather1 sedge or reed-grass1 rushes1 mosses and sphagnei4 8,thirdly1 when once mixed with the soil1 lime speedily resumes the form it wore before passing through the lime-kiln2 that is to say1 it becomes limestone1 but in the shape of fine powder4 ,this return to the limestone condition is brought about by union with the carbonic acid gas coming from the atmosphere or thrown off by the substances decaying in the ground4 ,under this new form lime continues to play a useful part by supplying the calcareous ingredient to soil that lacked it1 and also by preventing the clay from becoming too cohesive1 too impervious to air and water4 8,the addition of lime to the soil should take place at the end of summer1 when the ground is dry4 ,little heaps of quicklime1 each containing about twenty kilograms1 are placed at intervals of five meters and covered with a few spadefuls of earth4 ,in a short time the moisture in the atmosphere reduces the lime to a fine powder1 which is then spread evenly with a shovel and covered with earth--an operation involving no severe labor4 8,lime should never be applied with seed4 ,mere contact with it would burn the young shoots4 ,neither should it be mixed with manure before it is used1 since the immediate result would be a total loss of great quantities of ammonia1 thrown off in gaseous form2 and ammonia1 as ,i have explained1 is one of the richest of fertilizers4 ,lime and manure1 therefore1 should be used separately4 8,soils rich in turf1 clay1 or granite are the ones on which lime acts most beneficially4 ,because of the important results attained by the use of lime1 its manufacture for purely agricultural purposes by certain expeditious and effective methods is customary in many places4 ,thus in ,mayenne1 where this application of lime has converted tracts of uncultivated clayey land into rich pastures or into wheat fields of exceptional fertility1 lime is made in enormous kilns a dozen meters high and supported by the cliff that furnishes the limestone and sometimes the fuel also4 8,all animal matter makes excellent fertilizer4 ,of this class are old woolen rags1 stray bits of leather1 fragments of horn1 dried blood from slaughter-houses1 and flesh not fit for human consumption4 ,all these substances are rich in nitrogen and phosphates1 and if mixed with farm manure they add greatly to its value4 ,lime furnishes us the means of utilizing one of these substances1 flesh1 in the best way possible4 8,dead bodies of animals1 heedlessly left for dogs and crows and magpies to devour1 should be cut up in pieces and then buried with a mixture of earth and quicklime4 ,this attacks the flesh and quickly decomposes it1 so that in a few months' time there would be available a deposit of the most powerful fertilizer instead of a useless1 disease-breeding carcass4 ,as to the bones1 resistant to the action of lime1 they are burned to render them more friable1 and then reduced to powder4 ,this bone-dust1 mixed with the fertilizer furnished by the decayed flesh1 will contribute to grain-field or pasture a rich supply of phosphorus4 ,to uses of this sort the farmer should put all horses and mules that have had to be killed1 as well as all large farm animals that have died of disease40 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,plaster ,,of ,,paris 8,though less important than lime1 plaster of ,paris is nevertheless much used in building1 especially for ceilings1 molded chimney-pieces1 and in the filling of cracks and cavities4 ,it is a white powder which is made into a paste by adding water1 prepared a little at a time and only as fast as needed40 8,i've seen them do it10 ,emile interposed2 8the workman takes a few handfuls of that powder out of a bag1 and then he mixes it with a little water in his trough with a trowel4 ,he scrapes the paste all together in his hand and uses it immediately1 before making any more4 ,why don't they mix all the plaster at once1 as they do with lime when they make mortar80 8,plaster is not all prepared beforehand for the reason that it hardens very quickly1 turns to stone1 and is then unfit for use4 ,accordingly1 to have it in a suitable state of softness1 it must be prepared at the moment of using40 8,and what do they make that powder of that turns to stone when it is mixed with water80 8,plaster is made from a stone called gypsum1 which1 always the same as to its nature1 varies much in appearance according to its state of purity4 ,sometimes it is a shapeless rock1 whitish and more or less grained2 sometimes a fine fibrous mass with a silky luster2 or1 again1 a substance as transparent as glass and splitting into very thin scales which show1 here and there1 the superb colors of the rainbow4 ,struck by their beauty1 workmen engaged in quarrying gypsum have given the name of #8,jesus-stone' to these brilliant lamin4 ,also1 from their brilliance and their cheapness1 they are called #8donkey's mirrors4' ,in ancient times these beautiful sheets of transparent gypsum were used as window-panes4 8,impure gypsum1 in the form of shapeless rock1 is used for ordinary plaster1 while pure gypsum1 which comes in glass-like sheets or in blocks of a silky appearance1 is used for fine plaster1 as in all sorts of molding4 ,the stone from which plaster is obtained occurs in abundance in several departments of ,france1 where it forms hills and even whole mountains1 as for example in the departments of the ,seine1 the ,mouths of the ,rhone1 and ,vaucluse4 ,for conversion into the usual plaster of ,paris this stone must be subjected to a moderate heat4 ,to this end it is the practice to build with gypsum blocks a row of small vaults1 and on these vaults to pile fragments of smaller size4 ,then the firing is done by burning fagots and brushwood under these vaults40 8,and is it carbonic acid gas this time1 too1 that is driven out by the heat1 as in the manufacture of lime80 asked ,jules4 8,no1 my friend3 gypsum does not contain any carbonic acid gas4 ,it is made of lime1 as in limestone1 but united with sulphuric acid1 which heat is powerless to drive out4 ,besides this it contains water1 which forms a fifth of the total weight of the stone4 ,this water1 and nothing further1 escapes under the action of heat4 ,with this expelled the gypsum is turned to plaster4 8,but this latter has a strong tendency to take on again the moisture parted with in the kiln1 and thus to become once more what it was in the beginning--primitive stone4 ,it is this peculiarity that renders gypsum suitable for plaster4 ,moistened in the trough1 the powdery matter quickly incorporates the water that is thus restored to it1 and the whole hardens into a block having the solidity of gypsum that has not yet passed through the kiln4 ,lime turns to stone by being permeated with carbonic acid gas1 which restores it to its limestone state4 ,plaster becomes stone by absorbing water1 which brings it back to the state of gypsum4 ,the transformation of lime is slow1 of plaster very rapid4 8,as soon as it comes from the kiln plaster is ground under vertical millstones and then sifted4 ,the powder must be kept in a very dry place1 since it contracts moisture easily and then will not harden or set1 as they say1 when mixed with water4 ,you will perceive clearly enough that after being more or loss impregnated with moisture plaster cannot have the same tendency to absorb the water necessary to change it into a solid mass2 the substance being already somewhat soaked will not show the same thirst when the time comes for using it4 ,all damp and1 still more1 all wet plaster is of no further use4 8,statues1 busts1 medallions1 and various other ornamental objects are made by casting with fine plaster of ,paris4 ,this is prepared from the purest gypsum1 those beautiful transparent scales ,i told you about a little while ago4 ,it is heated in ovens similar to those used by bakers1 and cut off from contact with the burning fuel1 so as to preserve its whiteness4 ,the powder1 which looks like fine flour1 is mixed with water and reduced to a smooth paste1 which is then poured into molds4 ,when the plaster has set1 the mold1 which is in several pieces1 all joined together1 is taken apart and the finished cast withdrawn40 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,plaster ,,of ,,paris ,,in ,,agriculture 8,in agriculture plaster of ,paris has by no means the importance of lime2 nevertheless it produces excellent results on clover1 sainfoin1 and lucerne4 ,it is used in the spring for sprinkling the young leaves when they are still damp with the morning dew4 ,still1 foggy weather is the most favorable for this work4 ,plaster also acts well on rape1 flax1 buckwheat1 and tobacco1 but has no effect on cereals4 8,the intelligent farmer puts plaster of ,paris to still another use4 ,in every dunghill there is always going on a slow combustion1 or fermentation1 giving forth ammonia in vaporous form2 and this ammonia escapes into the air as a total loss1 whereas it ought to be retained as far as possible in the manure1 since the compounds of ammonia constitute the source whence plants obtain nitrogen4 ,therefore to prevent this waste1 plaster is sprinkled over the dunghill4 ,sometimes1 too1 it is sprinkled over each layer of manure as the pile rises4 ,the plaster absorbs the ammoniac vapors1 gives them a little of its sulphuric acid1 and converts them into a compound1 sulphate of ammonia1 which is proof against vaporization4 ,hence we say that plaster of ,paris fixes ammonia1 that is to say prevents its being dissipated4 8,to illustrate the fertilizing effect of plaster of ,paris on lucerne1 the following incident is related4 ,franklin1 one of the chief glories of the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 aware of the great fertilizing power of plaster1 wished to extend the agricultural use of this substance among his fellow-citizens2 but they1 clinging to old customs1 would not listen to him4 ,to convince them1 ,franklin spread plaster over a field of lucerne by the side of the most frequented road leading out of ,philadelphia1 but spread it in such a way as to form letters and words4 ,the lucerne grew all over the field1 but much taller1 greener1 and thicker where the plaster had been applied1 so that the passers-by read in the field of lucerne these words traced in gigantic letters3 #8,plaster of ,paris was applied here4' ,the ingenious expedient was a great success and plaster was very soon adopted in agriculture40 8,the doubters must have been convinced10 said ,jules1 8on seeing those big green letters rising above the rest of the lucerne4 ,did not ,franklin do some other remarkable things8 ,i remember the name2 ,i have seen it several times in books40 8,yes10 replied his uncle1 8,franklin became by his learning1 one of the most remarkable men of his time4 ,among other things1 we owe to him the invention of the lightning-conductor1 that tall pointed iron rod erected on the roofs of buildings to protect them from the thunderbolt4 ,it was he who first had the superb audacity to evoke the lightning from the midst of the thunder-clouds1 to direct it according to his wishes1 and to bring it to his feet that he might study its nature4 ,one stormy day in #ageb he went out into the country near ,philadelphia in company with his young son who carried a kite made out of a silk handkerchief tied at the four corners to glass rods4 ,a pointed piece of metal terminated the apparatus4 ,a long hemp cord1 with a shorter cord of silk tied to the lower end1 was fastened to the kite1 which was then sent up toward a black thundercloud4 ,at first nothing happened to confirm the previsions of the ,american sage1 and he was beginning to despair of success when there came a shower of rain and with it a flash of lightning4 ,the wet cord proved a better conductor than when dry4 ,without thinking of the danger he ran1 and transported with joy at having brought within his reach that which causes thunder1 ,franklin put his finger near the cord and made little spurts of fire dart out1 lighted brandy from these sparks out of the sky1 and only brought his perilous experiment to an end when he had fully determined the origin and nature of thunder and lightning4 ,this was the way he studied the mystery at close quarters1 discovered its nature1 and finally succeeded in protecting buildings by means of a pointed iron rod4 8,benjamin ,franklin was born in ,boston1 ,north ,america1 in #agjf4 ,he was the youngest #b of seventeen children4 ,hence1 as his father was a poor tallow-chandler and soap-boiler1 he could not acquire at home anything beyond a knowledge of reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,at ten years of age he was taken from school and set to performing small tasks about the house4 ,he cut candle-wicks and poured the tallow into the molds1 waited on customers in his father's shop1 and ran errands4 ,his work brought him in a few pence which he did not yet know how to spend judiciously4 ,he tells us the following little story on this subject1 which we may all profit by4 8#8,one day1' says he1 #8finding myself the possessor of a handful of coppers1 ,i ran out to buy some toys1 when a little boy of about my own age happened to pass that way with a whistle in his hand4 ,delighted with the sound of the whistle1 ,i proposed to my comrade to exchange all my money for his musical instrument4 ,to this he very willingly agreed4 ,elated with my purchase1 which ,i thought very fine1 ,i returned home1 where ,i continued whistling to my great joy1 but to the great displeasure of the ears of my family4 ,i told them of the magnificent exchange ,i had just made4 ,my brothers and sisters made fun of me1 saying that for the price ,i had paid ,i might have bought dozens of such whistles at the toy-shop4 ,only then did it occur to me what fine things ,i might have bought with my money1 and ,i began to cry with vexation4 ,chagrin at the exchange ,i had made now caused me more pain than the whistle had before given me pleasure4 ,this little incident made an impression on me that has never been effaced and has been of service to me on more than one occasion4 ,ever since1 whenever ,i am tempted to buy some useless thing1 ,i say to myself1 8,do not pay too much for your whistle02 and so ,i save my money4'0 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,natural ,,fertilizers--,,guano 8,plant-life finds a part of its sustenance provided by nature in the atmosphere2 it finds carbonic acid gas1 whence it derives the carbon it requires2 but the care and ingenuity of man have to supplement these natural resources by providing fertilizers4 8,one of the chief of these fertilizers1 farm manure1 is furnished by the bedding and excrement of animals4 ,to obtain an excellent dressing of this sort it is customary to use for bedding1 as far as possible1 the straw from grain1 since this1 being composed of hollow stalks1 is capable of holding considerable moisture4 ,but1 as in certain cases straw would hardly be able to absorb all the fluid matter1 it is well to make a trench in the stable and thus carry off the excess of liquid to a reservoir outside1 where another heap of straw or similar material is in readiness to receive it4 ,then1 at a distance from all rain-spouts and gutters1 and in the shade of trees1 a substantial layer of clay is spread on the ground1 and on this is erected the pile of manure4 ,all around it is dug a little trench which conducts the brown liquid that oozes from the manure1 and that is known as liquid manure1 into a hole large enough to admit of the use of a bucket in drawing out the liquid4 8,liquid manure is composed of the fluid matter with which the bedding is steeped1 and it holds in solution a great part of the nutritive constituents of the manure4 ,agriculture knows no richer fertilizer4 ,hence care should be taken not to let it go to waste in neighboring ditches or soak into the ground4 ,that is why the pile is placed on a layer of clay1 which keeps the liquid manure from soaking into the ground where it would be wasted2 and it is also the reason for digging a trench to receive this fluid matter and conduct it to the hole4 ,when this hole is full the liquid manure is drawn out with a bucket and thrown back on to the dung-hill4 8,nor is that the whole of the story4 ,a slow combustion will soon begin throughout the pile of manure2 its mass will ferment and become heated1 and as a consequence the nitrogenous constituents will decompose and will liberate ammonia1 which will escape into the air and be lost if the fermentation is excessive4 ,it is to avoid too rapid a heating that the manure-pile is placed in the shade and not under the direct rays of the sun4 ,moreover1 the liquid manure thrown on to the heap from time to time also moderates the fermenting process4 8,compare this careful method with the practice on most farms1 where the manure is heaped up without any precaution1 without shelter from the sun1 unprotected from the drenching rains1 which wash away the soluble constituents4 ,think of those rivulets of liquid manure trickling away in this direction and that1 and collecting here and there in puddles of infection4 ,see how all the inmates of the poultry-yard scratch at the heap1 turning over and scattering its contents1 and thus causing the ammonia to escape into the atmosphere4 ,can such a dung-hill be as valuable as one that is attended to properly8 8,liquid manure being the richest part of the whole pile1 care should be taken not to let escape what the bedding does not absorb4 ,it should be first diluted with water and then applied to the growing crops4 ,when it is desired for use in non-liquid form1 it should be mixed with enough earth to absorb it1 and the result is an excellent fertilizer4 8,in summer it is not unusual to enclose with hurdles a piece of land soon to be cultivated1 and into this enclosure a flock of sheep is driven to pass the night under the care of the shepherd in his movable hut1 and with the protection of trusty dogs well able to cope with any marauding wolves4 ,the next night the flock is quartered in another spot1 and so on until the entire field has thus served1 a little at a time1 as stable for the flock4 ,the purpose of this procedure is to utilize the excrement1 both solid and liquid1 left behind by the flock4 ,in one night a sheep can fertilize a square meter of surface4 ,this method of fertilizing is very effective because of the complete absorption of the fluid matter by the soil4 8,off the coast of ,peru in ,south ,america are several small islands which form a common rendezvous for great numbers of sea-birds4 ,birds that frequent the sea are all notorious for their insatiable appetite4 ,constantly in search of fish1 which they live on1 they spend the day exploring the surface of the waters at immense distance from land4 ,nature has endowed them with prodigious flying power4 ,to these indefatigable rovers an arial promenade of some hundreds of leagues before dinner is a mere nothing4 ,scattered during the day in all directions in quest of prey1 they reach the islets in the evening to spend the night1 arriving in flocks so dense as to darken the sky4 ,being well fed1 thanks to their foraging excursions1 they cover the ground at night with a thick layer of excrement4 ,and as this has been going on century after century ever since the world was made1 these deposits1 piled one on another1 have at last become massive beds twenty or thirty meters thick1 and so hard1 so compact1 that to break them it is necessary to use a pick or a petard1 just as one would in quarrying stone4 ,workmen operate this dung mine1 and vessels from all parts of the world fetch cargoes of this valuable material1 which is called guano4 ,this enormous mass of dung1 which has by the lapse of ages been turned into a sort of whitish loam1 gives ,peru an annual revenue amounting to sixty millions of francs4 8,guano is the strongest fertilizer known to agriculture4 ,it is scattered broadcast over the field when vegetation is starting1 and for the best results a rather damp time is chosen for this work in order that the moisture may convey to the roots of the plants1 by gradual infiltration1 the soluble constituents of the fertilizer4 ,the action of guano on vegetation is of the promptest1 most powerful sort40 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,stalk ,,of ,,the ,,plant 8,the stalk is the common support of the plant's various parts4 ,it is called annual or herbaceous when it lives only one year1 as in the potato1 spinach1 parsley1 and all forms of vegetation that from their soft structure belong to the class of herbs4 ,ligneous is the name given to the stalk when1 designed to live for a greater or less number of years1 it is made of strong woody fibers1 such as we find in the trunks of trees4 8,let us make a clean cut through any tree-trunk1 that of an oak for example4 ,we shall find it divided into three parts3 in the center the pith or marrow1 very slightly developed2 around the marrow the wood proper2 and1 finally1 on the outside1 the bark4 ,a closer examination shows that the wood is formed of concentric layers which are indicated in the cross-section by a series of circles having the marrow for a common center4 ,these layers are called ligneous zones or1 since one is formed every year1 annual layers4 ,during the summer there is a downward flow1 throughout the tree1 of a peculiar liquid1 the descending sap1 which constitutes the fluid nourishment of the tree4 ,this liquid runs between the wood and the bark and becomes1 little by little in its course1 on one side a layer of wood which attaches itself to the outer surface of the preceding year's layer1 and on the other side a thin sheet of bark which is added to the inner surface of the bark already formed4 8,thus each year both bark and wood form a new layer2 but this added layer is applied in opposite ways in the two instances1--outside on the wood1 inside on the bark4 ,the wood thus encircled from year to year by new layers increases in age toward the center and becomes younger and younger toward the circumference1 whereas the bark1 lined every year with a fresh sheet1 shows its youth on the inside and its age on the outside4 ,the first buries inside the trunk its decrepit and dead layers2 the second thrusts its old layers outside1 where they crack and fall off in large scales4 ,this aging process is simultaneous on the outside and in the center of the tree-trunk2 but between the wood and the bark life is always at work1 creating fresh accretions4 8,here are some experimental proofs of this annual formation of a ligneous layer4 ,a strip of bark is removed from the trunk of a tree1 and on the wood thus laid bare is fastened a thin sheet of metal4 ,the bark is then replaced and bound with ligatures so that the wound may heal4 ,we will suppose ten years have passed4 ,the bark is raised again at the same place4 ,the metal sheet is no longer visible2 to find it you must bore deep into the wood4 ,now1 if you count the ligneous layers removed before reaching the metal sheet1 you will find precisely ten1 just the number of years that have passed4 8,a number of observations like the following are familiar3 ,some foresters cut down a beech bearing on its trunk the date #agej4 ,the same inscription was found again in the inner substance of the wood1 but to reach it they had to cut through fifty-five layers on which no mark whatever appeared4 ,if now1 we add #ee to #agej we obtain precisely the year when the tree was felled1 or #ahje4 ,the inscription carved on the trunk in the year #agej had passed through the bark and reached the layer of wood that was then outermost4 ,since that event fifty-five years had passed and new layers1 exactly the same in number1 had grown over the first4 8,thus a tree is composed of a succession of woody sheaths1 the outer ones enveloping the inner4 ,the stem or trunk contains them all2 the branches1 according to their age1 contain more or fewer4 ,each one represents a single year's growth4 ,the woody sheath of the present year occupies the exterior of the trunk1 immediately under the bark2 those of former years occupy the interior1 and the nearer they are to the center the older they are4 ,the layers of future years will come one at a time and take their places over preceding layers1 so that what is now the outermost layer will in its turn be found embedded in the body of the trunk4 8,of all these ligneous zones of unequal age the most important to-day is the outside one2 its destruction would cause the death of the tree1 since through it the nutritive juices of the earth reach the buds1 leaves1 and young branches4 ,in their time the interior layers1 one by one1 when they formed the surface1 rendered the same service to the buds of their day2 but now that these buds have become branches the inner layers have only a secondary office1 or even none at all4 ,those nearest the outside still have some aptness for work and help the layer of the year to carry the juices from the earth to the branches4 ,as to the innermost ones1 they have lost all activity2 their wood is hard1 dried up1 encrusted with inert matter4 ,in their decrepitude these interior layers are incapable of service in the work of vegetation2 the most they can do is by the support of their firm woody structure to give solidity to the whole4 ,thus the tree's activity decreases from the outside toward the center4 ,on the surface are youth1 vigor1 labor2 in the center old age1 ruin1 repose40 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,root 8,the stalk or trunk is the upward-growing part of the plant1 and needs air and light4 ,the root1 on the contrary1 is the downward-growing part1 and it needs soil and darkness4 ,the extreme ends of the root's various subdivisions are always growing1 always young1 of delicate structure1 and for that reason admirably fitted for imbibing1 very much as a fine sponge would do1 the liquids with which the soil is impregnated4 ,because of their facility in absorbing moisture these ever-growing tip-ends are called spongioles4 ,the spongioles terminate the rootlets1 that is to say the final subdivisions of the root1 subdivisions known as root-hairs on account of their resemblance to real hair4 8,the root takes various forms1 which are all reducible to two fundamental types4 ,sometimes it consists of a main body or tap-root1 which sends out branches as it bores deeper into the soil4 ,this designation1 tap-root1 is a common and familiar term4 ,sometimes the root assumes the form of a tuft1 a bunch of rootlets1 simple or branching1 which1 springing from the same point1 continue to grow at a nearly equal rate and on an equal footing as to importance4 ,roots of this sort are commonly known as fibrous roots4 8,as a general rule1 the growth of the root keeps pace with that of the stem or trunk4 ,thus the oak1 elm1 maple1 beech1 and all our large trees have a vigorous1 deep-growing root as anchorage for the enormous superstructure1 to brace it firmly against the wind4 ,but there is no lack of lowly herbage that has roots quite out of proportion to the other parts1--veritable tap-roots of greater size and vigor than many a plant of far greater arial development can boast4 ,to this class belong the mallow1 carrot1 and radish4 ,lucerne has for support to its meager foliage a root that bores two or three meters into the ground4 8,an agricultural practice of supreme interest is based1 at least partly1 on the excessive development of certain roots4 ,the plant is a laboratory where life converts into nutritive matter the manure from our stables and poultry-yards4 ,a cart-load of dung becomes at the farmer's pleasure1 after passing through one sort of plant or another1 a crop of peas or beans1 a basket of fruit1 or a loaf of bread4 ,hence this fertilizer is a very precious thing which nothing can replace and which must be utilized to the very utmost4 ,the nourishment of us all depends on it4 ,enriched with this fertilizer1 the soil produces1 we will say1 a first harvest of wheat4 ,but wheat with its bunch of short and fine roots1 has drawn only upon the upper layer of fertilizing material1 leaving intact all that the rain has dissolved and carried down into the lower layers4 ,it has performed its mission admirably1 it is true2 it has made a clean sweep and converted into wheat all the fertilizer contained in the layer of soil accessible to its roots1 so that if wheat were sown a second time no harvest would be obtained4 ,the soil1 then1 is exhausted on the surface1 but in its underlying strata it is still rich4 ,well1 what crop shall we choose for the utilization of these lower strata and the production of still further supplies of food8 ,it cannot be barley1 oats1 or rye1 since their little fibrous roots would find nothing to glean in the surface soil after the first crop of wheat4 ,but it will be lucerne1 since this plant will send down its roots1 each as thick as your finger1 to the depth of one1 two1 or even three meters1 if need be1 and give back the fertilizer in the form of forage1 which1 with the help of the animal that feeds on it1 will be converted into nutritious meat1 valuable dairy products1 excellent wool1 or1 at the very least1 animal power for draft service or other work4 ,this succession of two or more different kinds of crops for the utmost utilization of a given area of prepared soil is called rotation of crops1 of which there will be more to say later4 8,deep roots1 so admirably adapted to the utilization of the lower strata of the soil1 become in other circumstances a source of serious difficulty4 ,suppose a tree is to be transplanted4 ,its long tap-root will make the operation difficult and hazardous4 ,you must dig deep1 both in pulling it out and in replanting it2 and then you must be careful not to injure the root1 for it is all in one piece and if it does not take hold and grow the sapling will die4 ,in this case it would be much to the tree's advantage to have fibrous roots running down only to a slight depth2 it could then be pulled up easily1 and if some roots perished in the operation enough would be left intact to insure the success of the transplanting4 8,this result can be obtained3 it is no difficult matter to make the tree lose its tap-root and acquire1 not a regular bundle of roots of even length2 but a short and much ramified root that possesses the advantages of the bunch of small roots without having its shape4 ,thus in nurseries where young trees remain for some years before being transplanted1 after two years' growth a spade is passed under the surface of the soil to cut off the main root1 which would in time become a deep tap-root4 ,the stump that remains then branches out horizontally without going deeper4 ,another way is to pave the nursery bed with tiles4 ,the tap-root of the young tree pushes downward until it reaches this barrier1 where it is straightway forced to stop growing in depth and compelled to send out lateral branches4 8,the kind of root we have thus far been talking about is primordial1 original2 every plant has it on emerging from the seed2 it appears as soon as the seed germinates4 ,but many plants have other roots that develop at different points of the stem1 replacing the original root when that dies1 or at least coming to its aid if it continues to live4 ,they are called adventitious roots1 and they play a highly important part1 notably in certain horticultural operations such as propagating by slips and layers1 which we will talk about later4 8,besides these two operations1 the object of which is to multiply the plant1 it is customary to prompt the growth of adventitious roots either for the purpose of fixing the plant more firmly in the ground or in order to increase its yield4 ,the best way to attain this result is to bank up the earth at the base of the stalk4 ,this process is sometimes called earthing up4 ,the buried portion soon sends out a great number of roots4 ,indian corn1 for example1 if left to itself is too poorly rooted to resist wind and rain1 which beat it down4 ,in order to give it greater stability the farmer earths up the corn4 ,in the earth banked up at the base of the stalk bundles of adventitious roots form and furnish the plant a firmer support4 8,wheat stalks bear on their lower ends buds which1 according to circumstances1 perish to the detriment of the harvest or develop into roots and promote the growth of more ears of grain4 ,let us suppose wheat has been sown in the autumn4 ,in that cold and rainy season vegetation is slow1 the stalk grows but little1 and the various buds remain very close together almost on a level with the ground4 ,but if they are favored by having damp soil near them1 these buds send forth adventitious roots which nourish them directly and promote a fullness of growth that the ordinary root by itself could not have secured4 ,thus stimulated by nourishment1 these buds develop into so many wheat-stalks1 each one ending at a later period in an ear of grain4 ,but if wheat is sown in the spring1 its rapid growth under the influence of mild weather brings the buds too high for them to send out roots4 ,the stalk then remains single4 ,in the first case from one grain of wheat sown there springs a cluster of stalks producing as many ears2 in the second case the harvest is reduced to its lowest terms3 from one grain of wheat one stalk1 one ear4 ,hence this development of the lower buds of cereals is of the greatest importance4 ,to obtain it1 or1 in agricultural terms1 to make the wheat send up suckers1 the lower buds must send down adventitious roots1 as they will do if they are brought into contact with the soil4 ,to this end1 shortly after germination a wooden roller is passed over the field1 and this roller1 without bruising the young stalks1 pushes them deeper into the ground40 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,buds 8,let us take a branch of lilac or any shrub4 ,in the angle formed by each leaf and the branch that bears it1 an angle called the axil of the leaf1 we shall see a little round body enveloped in brown scales4 ,that is a bud or1 as it is also named1 an eye4 8,buds make their appearance at fixed points1 and it is the rule for one to form in the axil of each leaf2 it is also the rule for the tip-end of the branch to bear one4 ,those situated in the axils of the leaves are called axillary buds1 and those that are found on the ends of branches1 terminal buds4 ,they are not all equally vigorous1 the strongest being at the top of the branch1 the weakest at the bottom4 ,the lower leaves even shelter such small ones in their axils that only the closest scrutiny will reveal them4 ,these diminutive buds often perish without developing unless artificially encouraged to do so4 ,on a lilac branch it is easy to note these differences of size from bud to bud4 8,both terminal and axillary buds are divided into two classes4 ,in developing some sprout up and produce only leaves2 these are called leaf buds4 ,when fully developed they become shoots or scions1 and finally branches4 ,others push upward but little and bear only flowers or leaves and flowers simultaneously4 ,they are called flower buds1 or simply buds4 ,it is very easy to distinguish one kind from the other on our fruit-trees1 the leaf buds being long and pointed1 the flower buds round and thicker4 8,all summer long the leaf buds grow in the axils of the leaves2 they are gaining strength to go through the winter4 ,cold weather comes and the leaves fall1 but the buds remain in their place1 firmly implanted on a ledge of the bark1 or a sort of little cushion1 situated just above the scar left by the falling of the adjacent leaf4 ,to withstand the rigors of cold and dampness1 which would be fatal to them1 winter clothing is indispensable4 ,it consists of a warm inner envelope of flock and down1 and a strong outer casing of well varnished scales4 ,let us examine for instance the bud of a chestnut-tree4 ,within we shall find a sort of wadding enswathing its delicate little leaves1 while on the outside a solid cuirass of scales1 arranged with the regularity of tiles on a roof1 wraps it closely4 ,furthermore1 to keep out all dampness1 the separate pieces of this scale armor are coated with a resinous cement which now resembles dried varnish1 but softens in the spring to let the bud open4 ,then the scales1 no longer stuck together1 separate1 all sticky1 and the first leaves unfold covered with a velvety red down4 ,nearly all buds1 at the time of their spring travail1 present in different degrees this stickiness resulting from the softening of their resinous coating4 ,i will mention especially the buds of the ash1 alder1 and1 above all1 the poplar1 which when pressed between the fingers emit an abundant yellow glue1 of bitter taste4 ,this substance is diligently gathered by the bees1 which use it to make their bee-glue1 that is to say the cement with which they stop the fissures and rough-coat the walls of their hive before constructing the combs4 ,under its modest appearance the bud is a veritable masterpiece3 its varnish excludes dampness2 its scales protect it from harmful atmospheric influences2 its lining of flock1 wadding1 downy red hair1 keeps out the cold4 8,the scales form the most important part of the bud's winter clothing4 ,they are nothing more nor less than tiny leaves hardened and toughened1 in short so modified as to serve the purpose of protection4 ,the leaves immediately under them and constituting the heart of the bud have the usual form4 ,they are all small1 pale1 delicate1 and arranged in a marvelously methodical manner so as to take up the least possible room and at the same time to be contained1 all of them1 despite their considerable number1 within the narrow limits of their cradle4 ,it is surprising what a quantity of material a bud can make room for under its sheath of scales in a space so small that we should find it difficult to pack away there a single hemp-seed2 and yet it holds leaves by the dozen or a whole bunch of flowers4 ,the bunch enclosed in a lilac bud numbers a hundred and more blossoms4 ,and all this is contained in that narrow cell1 with no tearing or bruising of any portion of it4 ,if the various parts of a bud were disconnected1 one by one1 if the delicate arrangement were once undone1 what fingers would be clever enough to put it together again8 ,the principal leaves lend themselves to a thousand different modes of arrangement in order to occupy the least space possible4 ,they take in the bud the form of a cornet2 or they roll themselves up in a scroll1 sometimes from one edge only1 sometimes from both2 or they fold up lengthwise or crosswise2 or they may roll up into little balls1 or crumple up1 or fold like a fan40 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,adventitious ,,buds 8,buds such as we have been considering appear in the spring and then spend the summer in gaining strength1 after which they remain stationary and as if wrapped in deep sleep all through the winter4 ,the following spring they wake up and grow into branches or blossom into flowers4 ,it is plainly to be seen that these dormant buds1 as arboriculture calls them in its picturesque language1 must1 in order to withstand the summer heat and the winter's cold1 be clothed so as not to be parched by the sun or killed by the frost4 ,they are all in fact covered with a wrapping of scales1 and for that reason are called scaly buds4 ,buds of this class are found in the lilac1 chestnut1 pear1 apple1 cherry1 poplar1 and in fact nearly all the trees of our country4 ,but if a tree can wait and devote a whole year to the development of its buds1 which are clothed in a sheath of scales because of this waiting1 there are a multitude of plants that have only a limited time at their disposal3 they live only a year1 and hence are called annuals4 ,such are the potato1 carrot1 pumpkin1 and a great many more4 ,in a few months or days they must hastily develop their buds4 ,these1 not having to pass through the winter1 are never enveloped in protecting scales3 they are naked buds4 ,as soon as they appear they elongate1 unfold their leaves1 and become branches taking part in the work of the whole4 ,very soon1 in the axils of their leaves1 other buds make their appearance and behave like their predecessors2 that is to say1 they develop quickly into branches which in their turn produce other buds4 ,and so on indefinitely until winter puts a stop to this scaffold of branches and kills the whole plant4 ,thus annuals ramify rapidly4 ,in one year they produce several generations of branches implanted one on another1 sometimes more1 sometimes fewer1 according to their species and their degree of vigor4 ,their buds1 designed for immediate development1 are always naked4 ,on the contrary1 those forms of vegetation that have a long life1 such as trees1 ramify slowly2 they have only one generation of branches a year1 and their buds1 destined to live through the winter1 are scaly4 ,certain examples of plant-life have both kinds of buds4 ,such1 for instance1 are the peach-tree and the grape-vine4 ,at the end of winter the vine-shoot bears scaly buds lined with flock1 and the peach branches scaly buds coated with varnish4 ,both belong to the class of dormant buds3 they have slept all winter in their sheaths of fur and scales4 ,in the spring they develop into branches according to the general rule2 but at the same time there appear in the axils of the leaves other buds without any protecting covering1 and these develop immediately into branches4 ,thus the grape-vine and the peach-tree beget two generations in one year3 the first1 the issue of the scaly buds that have endured the winter2 the second1 naked buds formed in the spring and developing very soon after their formation4 ,the branches arising from these latter finally give birth to scaly buds1 which sleep through the winter and reproduce the same order of things the following year4 8,both axillary and terminal buds are in the normal order of plant-life3 they appear in all forms of vegetation that live several years4 ,but when the plant is in danger1 when by some accident the regular buds are lacking or insufficient1 others spring into being here and there at haphazard1 even on the root if necessary1 to restore a languishing vitality and put the plant once more in a flourishing condition4 ,these accidental buds are to the part of the plant above the ground what adventitious roots are to the part below the ground3 the menace of the moment calls them into existence at any endangered point4 ,the edges of the wound caused by the lopping off of a branch1 the part of a tree-trunk constricted by a band1 portions of the bark injured by contusion1 these are the points where they appear by preference4 ,they are called adventitious buds1 but their structure does not differ from that of normal buds4 8,adventitious buds lend themselves to valuable uses4 ,suppose a number of young saplings to be planted at proper intervals in the ground4 ,if they are then left to themselves these saplings grow each into a single trunk and form collectively a wood or forest4 ,but it may be of advantage to replace each of these single trunks by a group of several trunks4 ,in that case the young plantation is cut down to the level of the ground1 and around the edge of each cross-section there presently spring a number of adventitious buds which shoot up into an equal number of stems1 so that each sapling that would have developed only one trunk is transformed into a stump from which start numerous sprouts or suckers1 all of the same age and strength4 ,then instead of a wood or forest we have a growth of underbrush1 or a copse4 ,when the suckers have acquired the desired size1 a fresh cutting back lays them low and induces a still denser growth of shoots by multiplying the number of wounds4 ,it is thus that from a single stock1 repeatedly cut back and as often reinvigorated by the growth of adventitious buds1 a quantity of wood is obtained exceeding that produced by the free and solitary development of one tree4 8,spared by the axe1 the poplar rises in a majestic obelisk of verdure4 ,the willow1 so ungraceful in appearance along the banks of our ditches1 with its shapeless top bristling with shoots sticking out in all directions1 is1 in its natural state1 a tree of rare elegance on account of the suppleness of its branches and the fineness of its foliage4 ,considered as a thing of beauty1 it certainly has nothing to gain by man's interference with its mode of growth4 ,but1 alas1 productivity does not always go hand in hand with beauty2 and if it is desired to make these two trees1 the poplar and the willow1 produce a great mass of branches and fire-wood1 decapitation1 repeated periodically1 transforms them into pollards1 seamed with scars1 gaping with bleeding wounds1 disfigured with bruises1 but at the same time contending against all this hard usage by a never-failing growth of adventitious buds which constantly replace with increasing prodigality the brushwood that has fallen victim to the axe4 8,to finish the subject of adventitious buds--buds that persist in multiplying even when the parent stock languishes1 and that withstand destruction until utter exhaustion has set in--let us recall for a moment certain weeds such as dog's-tooth grass1 cock-spur grass1 and other grasses that are so hard to keep out of our garden paths unless we do something more than merely rake the surface of the ground4 ,you may have taken infinite pains1 we will say1 to clean the paths1 and have left them immaculate1 or at least you think so4 ,but you are mistaken4 ,in a few days the grass has all come back in richer tufts than ever4 ,the reason is plain enough now3 your raking simply cut back the stems1 leaving wounds that immediately covered themselves with adventitious buds1 which quickly sent up new stalks4 ,thus1 instead of destroying1 you have multiplied4 ,the only way to clear the ground of weeds is to pull them up by the roots2 that done1 you may consider the job well done40 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,bulbs ,,and ,,bulblets 8,after attaining the requisite degree of strength the buds of certain plants leave the parent stalk and1 if we may so express it1 emigrate2 that is to say1 they detach themselves and take root in the earth1 to draw nourishment directly therefrom4 ,now it is evident that a bud designed for independent development cannot have precisely the structure of one destined never to leave the parent stem4 ,to satisfy its first needs before roots capable of nourishing it have been sent down into the soil1 it must of necessity have a certain prepared store of nutriment4 ,therefore every bud that emigrates carries a supply of food with it4 8,there is cultivated in gardens a pretty little lily native to high mountains1 bearing orange-colored blossoms1 and known as the bulbiferous lily4 ,here is a piece of the stalk with its buds situated in the axils of the leaves4 ,these buds must pass through the winter and develop the following spring4 ,they are covered with succulent scales1 very thick1 tender1 and fleshy1 good for nourishment as well as for protection4 ,this store of provisions makes the bud quite plump4 ,toward the end of summer some of these buds leave the mother plant2 they fall at the slightest wind1 scatter on the ground1 and are henceforth given over to their own resources4 ,if the season is a wet one1 many of them1 still in place at the axils of the leaves1 send out one or two little roots that hang in the air as if trying to reach the ground4 ,before ,october arrives all the buds have fallen4 ,then the mother stalk dies4 ,soon the autumn winds and rains cover the scattered buds with dead leaves and mold4 ,under this shelter they swell all winter from the juices of their scales1 plunge their roots into the ground little by little1 and1 behold1 in the spring each one displays its first green leaf1 continues henceforth its independent growth1 and finally becomes a plant like the original lily4 8,the fleshy1 scaly buds destined to develop independently of the mother stalk are called bulblets4 ,no plant known to agriculture could furnish us so striking an example of bud-emigration as the bulbiferous lily2 but in our kitchen gardens we have garlic1 which acts in almost the same way4 ,take a whole head of garlic4 ,on the outside are dry1 white wrappings4 ,strip these off and underneath you will find large buds which can easily be detached one by one4 ,then come more white wrappings followed by new buds1 so that the entire head is a package of alternate wrappings and buds4 8,these wrappings are the dried-up lower portions of the old leaves of the plant1 leaves blanched where the soil covered them1 and where they still remain1 and formerly green where exposed to the air1 though that part is now lacking4 ,in the axils of these leaves buds have formed according to the general rule2 only1 as they are destined to develop by themselves1 they have stored up supplies in their thickened scales1 and that is what makes them unusually large4 ,split one of them lengthwise4 ,under a tough sheath you will find an enormous fleshy mass forming almost the whole of the bud4 ,that is the storehouse4 ,with such supplies of food the bud is well able to take care of itself4 ,and1 in fact1 when a market-gardener wishes to raise a crop of garlic1 he does not have recourse to the seed2 that would take too long4 ,he turns his attention to the buds2 that is to say1 he plants in the ground1 one by one1 the bulblets of which the heads of garlic are composed4 ,each of these bulblets1 sustained at first by its own reserves of food1 puts forth roots and leaves and becomes a complete garlic plant4 8,from the bulblet to the bulb1 from garlic to an onion1 there is but a single step4 ,let us split an onion in two from top to bottom4 ,we shall find it composed of a succession of fleshy scales compactly fitted together4 ,in the heart of this cluster of succulent scales1 which are nothing but leaves so modified as to form a food-storehouse1 are found other leaves of normal shape and green color4 ,an onion1 then1 is a bud provisioned for an independent life by the conversion of its outside leaves into fleshy scales2 and it is called a bulb1 not a bulblet1 because of its size1 the latter term being the diminutive form of #8bulb4' ,bulb and bulblet differ merely in size3 the bulb is larger1 the bulblet smaller1 and that is all4 8,every one has noticed that an onion hanging on the wall ready at hand for the cook1 is awakened to life in the course of the winter by the heat of the room1 and from within its envelope of red scales puts forth a beautiful green shoot that seems to protest against the rigors of the season and reminds us of the sweet pleasures of spring4 ,as it develops1 its fleshy scales wrinkle1 soften1 become flabby1 and finally fall off in decay to serve as fertilizer for the young plant4 ,sooner or later1 however1 its store of provision being exhausted1 the shoot perishes unless placed in earth4 ,there we have a striking example of a bud that develops independently by means of its own accumulated supplies4 ,the leek is also a bulb1 but very slender in shape4 ,like the onion1 it consists of a cluster of lower leaf-parts sheathed one inside another4 ,among ornamental plants having bulbs are the lily1 the tulip1 and the hyacinth40 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,tubers--,,starch 8,there are buds that1 though called to an independent existence1 do not1 before separating from the mother plant1 store up provisions nor thicken their scales2 but the plant itself is charged with feeding them4 ,when it is intended that the stem or branch shall itself maintain the buds it bears1 then1 instead of coming out into the open air where it would speedily cover itself with foliage and flowers1 it remains underground and has for leaves only rudimentary scales4 ,it grows so corpulent and deformed as to cease to bear the name of branch and to take instead that of tuber4 ,as soon as necessary supplies have been stored up1 the tuber detaches itself from the mother plant1 and thenceforth the buds it bears find in it abundant nourishment for their separate existence4 ,a tuber1 then1 is an underground branch swollen with nutritive material and having undeveloped scales in place of leaves1 and it is also dotted here and there with buds which it must feed4 8,let us now look at a potato4 ,what do we see on the surface8 ,certain small cavities or eyes2 that is to say1 so many buds1 for these eyes develop into branches if the potato is placed in favorable conditions4 ,on old potatoes1 late in the season1 the buds are seen to send forth sprouts which need only a little sunshine to turn green and become stalks4 ,agriculture makes good use of this peculiarity3 to propagate the plant it is customary to put into the ground1 not the seeds1 which would yield no harvest before the lapse of several years1 but the tubers1 which produce abundantly the same year4 ,or else the potato is cut into pieces and each piece1 planted in the ground1 sends up a new plant on condition that it has at least one eye2 if it has none it rots without producing anything4 8,furthermore1 you can see on the eyes tiny little scales1 which are leaves modified to adapt them to an underground life1 leaves with the same right to the name as the tough scales of an ordinary bud4 ,since it has leaves and buds the potato is therefore a branch4 ,should there remain any lingering doubts on this subject1 it might be added that by earthing up the plant1 that is to say by heaping soil around the stalk1 the young branches thus buried can be converted into potato-bearers2 and it might also be added that in rainy and cloudy seasons it is not rare to see some of the ordinary branches thicken and swell up in the open air1 and thus produce potatoes more or less perfect4 ,accordingly the potato is to be regarded as an underground branch swollen with nourishment--in short1 a tuber4 8,many other plants produce similar branches that grow under ground4 ,in this number is the ,jerusalem artichoke1 the tubers of which have buds arranged two by two on opposite swellings1 from front to back and from right to left in turn1 exactly as are leaves and buds on the stem4 8,the potato feeds it buds on a farinaceous substance called fecula or1 in less learned language1 starch4 ,it is the very material that makes the vegetable so rich in nutriment for us4 ,we turn to our own account what the plant has stored up for its young shoots4 ,starch is contained in the extremely small cavities with which the flesh of the tuber is all riddled4 ,these cavities are called cells4 ,they are microscopic sacs made of a fine membrane and having no opening4 ,crammed full of starch grains and crowded one against another1 they compose the fleshy substance of the potato4 ,but these cavities are so small that a person would strain his eyes in vain in any attempt to see them in the cross-section of a potato4 ,a magnifying glass is necessary4 ,so minute are the cells that in a piece of potato no larger than a pin's head there is room for dozens and dozens of them4 ,this picture shows you1 but much larger than in nature1 a potato cell with the grains of starch it encloses40 8,how beautifully10 exclaimed ,emile1 8those grains of starch are arranged in their little cubby-hole6 ,they might be taken for a nest of eggs4 ,and you say there are heaps and heaps of these little starch cells80 8,yes1 my boy2 in a medium-sized potato they could be counted by millions and millions40 8,it must be rather a curious sight to look at a little piece of potato through a powerful magnifying-glass40 8,it is indeed one of the most curious sights1 this countless multitude of starch grains1 all the same shape1 all white as snow1 gathered together by tens1 dozens1 scores1 and even more1 in their delicate little box-like cells4 8,let us perform an experiment not beyond our means2 let us remove the starch from a potato4 ,all we need to do is to tear open the cells in order to liberate the starch grains1 and then filter them out4 ,watch me do it4 ,with a kitchen grater ,i reduce the potato to pulp and thus tear the cells open4 ,now ,i put the pulp on a piece of linen over a large glass and pour a little water through it with one hand while with the other ,i keep stirring the pulp4 ,the grains of starch from the ruptured cells are washed away by the water and carried through the meshes of the fabric1 while the remnants of the cell-walls1 being too large to pass through1 stay behind in the filter4 8,thus ,i obtain a glassful of turbid water4 ,look at it under a bright sun4 ,in the water a multitude of white satiny specks are falling like so much snow and piling up on the bottom4 ,in a few moments the deposit has settled4 ,i then throw away the clear water above it and have left a powdery substance1 magnificently white1 which if pressed between the fingers creaks like fine sand4 ,it is the starch of the potato1 and is made up of such fine grains that it would take from one hundred and fifty to two hundred to equal the head of a pin in size4 ,nevertheless these grains1 minute though they are1 have a very complicated structure1 each one of them being composed of a large number of tiny leaflets folded one over another4 ,the picture ,i showed you just now will serve to give you an idea of these superposed leaflets that go to make1 all together1 a single grain4 ,now if some of this starch is boiled in a little water1 the successive leaflets of the grain open and separate1 and the whole becomes an unctuous jelly far exceeding in volume that of the starch used40 ,to prove this assertion1 ,uncle ,paul proceeded to heat in a little water the starch taken from the potato1 and soon the powdery matter was reduced to a beautiful pellucid jelly4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,uses ,,of ,,starch 8,that jelly10 remarked ,jules1 8looks just like the paste that ,i make with laundry starch4 ,your potato starch there in the bottom of the glass has exactly the same appearance as starch dissolved in cold water for ironing clothes40 8,that close resemblance10 replied his uncle1 8is explained by the fact that potato starch and laundry starch are at bottom the same thing4 ,both substances are chemically known as fecula2 but laundry starch is made from cereals1 particularly wheat1 while fecula1 properly speaking1 comes either from potatoes or from various grains and roots4 8,like the starch of the potato1 laundry starch is in the form of superposed leaflets1 but its grains are much smaller3 ten thousand would hardly be enough to make a pellet the size of a pin's head4 ,and there are some still smaller4 ,it would take sixty-four thousand grains of ,indian corn starch to make a pin's head or1 to be more exact1 to fill the inside of a cube measuring one millimeter on a side2 and in the case of the beet it would take ten millions4 ,you see that in spite of their excessive smallness1 a smallness that makes them invisible to the naked eye1 the starch grains of the potato are giants in comparison4 8,it is chiefly by the varying size of their microscopic grains that the starches of different kinds are distinguished from one another4 ,in substance and structure they are all alike4 ,placed in warm water1 their grains swell1 burst1 expand their leaflets1 and the starch1 from whatever source1 is changed into a glutinous jelly4 8,starch is the food supply of plant-life4 ,wherever we find buds that are intended to develop by themselves1 wherever we find germs1 there also we shall find a supply of starch serving as a sort of food reserve4 ,hence this peculiar provision is met with in tubers1 bulbs1 bulblets1 seeds1 and fleshy roots4 ,now when these buds and germs develop1 the starch becomes1 in the process of vegetation1 a kind of sugar which1 being soluble in water1 can be sent to all parts of the young plant and serve it for food4 8,by certain artificial devices this same change of starch into sugar can be brought about4 ,the simplest of these devices is the application of heat1 which always enters into the preparation of farinaceous food4 ,let us take a few examples4 ,a raw potato is uneatable4 ,boiled in water or roasted in the ashes1 it is excellent4 ,what has happened1 then8 ,heat has converted a part of the starch into sugar1 and the tuber has become a sugary farinaceous paste4 ,the same can be said of the chestnut4 ,raw1 it is no great delicacy1 although at a pinch it can be eaten2 cooked1 it is worthy of all the praise we can give it4 ,i appeal to you to back me up in this assertion4 ,here1 then1 we have another transformation of starch into sugar by the action of heat4 ,beans1 peas1 both as hard as bullets in the dry state and of no agreeable flavor1 are unmistakably sweetened by being boiled in water and having their starch acted on by heat4 ,our various farinaceous foods behave in the same way4 ,ingenuity brings into play a more powerful agent than heat alone to convert the starch into sugar4 ,it is boiled in water and during the boiling a little sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol is added4 ,under the influence of this energetic fluid the starch is changed into a sugary syrup4 ,it is of course to be understood that this syrup1 as soon as it has been thus produced1 is separated from the oil of vitriol which has served to make it4 8,the sugar thus obtained is a soft1 sticky substance1 and almost as sweet as honey1 but very different from ordinary sugar1 which is solid and comes in beautiful white loaves4 #c ,it is called starch-sugar or glucose4 ,confectioners use it a great deal4 ,when you crunch a sugar-plum--and ,i am persuaded that you do not underestimate the excellence of sugar-plums--do you know what you are eating8 ,a composition of starch and starch-sugar4 ,i pass over the almond in the center2 that is beside the question40 8,do you mean to say10 demanded ,jules1 8that a bag of sugar-plums comes from such stuff as potatoes and oil of vitriol80 8,such is undoubtedly the origin of the delicious sugar-plum10 was the reply2 8and indeed many of the delicacies of the pastry-cook1 of the confectioner1 and of the manufacturer of refreshing beverages1 which you believe to be sweetened with ordinary sugar1 really owe their sweet taste to syrup made from starch--a much cheaper product than sugar4 ,you see the potato furnishes something else besides the modest dishes with which it supplies our table4 8,nor is that the whole story4 ,starch-sugar1 or glucose1 is exactly the same as the sugar of ripe grapes4 ,with potato-flour1 water1 and a few drops of oil of vitriol there is artificially produced1 in enormous boilers1 the same sugary substance that the vine produces in its bunches of grapes with the help of the sun's rays4 ,now grape sugar turns to alcohol by fermenting4 ,glucose must undergo a similar change4 ,and1 as a matter of fact1 in northern countries too cold to admit of the cultivation of the vine1 alcoholic liquors are made from starch previously changed into sugar4 ,on account of their origin these liquors go under the general name of potato-brandy4 ,all seeds and roots rich in starch can be used in similar manufacture4 8,beer is a product of this sort4 ,first barley is made to germinate by being kept moist and warm4 ,in the process of germination the starch is changed into glucose for the nourishment of the young shoots4 ,when the little plants begin to develop1 the grain is dried and ground to flour4 ,this mixed with water furnishes a sugary liquid which ferments1 turning partly to alcohol and finally becoming beer40 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,potato 8,next to wheat no plant in our part of the world is of so much importance for food as the potato4 ,its use was not introduced into this country until toward the end of the eighteenth century4 ,the first appearance of the potato among our people is a curious piece of history4 ,why should ,i not relate it to you8 ,it will show you what noble efforts and perseverance are sometimes necessary to bring about the adoption1 on the part of those wedded to blind routine1 of the simplest1 most natural idea1 and one so rich in future possibilities4 8,the potato is native to ,south ,america2 it came to us from the high plains of ,colombia1 ,chile1 and ,peru4 ,its first appearance in ,europe dates from #aefe4 ,a century and a half later the potato flourished in ,england4 ,its introduction into general use in ,france was slower4 ,the first dish of potatoes1 then a high-priced rarity1 was served at the table of ,king ,louis ,,xiii in #afaf4 8,the royal dish is to-day at the command of the poorest2 but this was not effected without a good deal of trouble1 as you will see4 ,for a long time the ,american tuber remained in our country a simple object of curiosity to which were attributed injurious properties1 and which agriculture would have nothing to do with4 ,finally1 toward the end of the eighteenth century a worthy man succeeded in overcoming these prejudices and popularized the culture of this valuable food plant4 ,his name is ,parmentier4 ,remember this venerated name1 my friends2 he who bore it banished famine by making the potato supply the deficiency of wheat4 8,parmentier communicated his ideas to ,louis ,,xvi4 #8,the potato1' said he1 #8is bread already made and requiring neither miller nor baker4 ,take it just as it comes out of the ground and bake it in hot ashes or cook it in boiling water1 and you will have a farinaceous food rivaling wheat4 ,poor land unfit for other crops will raise it1 and it will henceforth relieve us of all fear of those terrible dearths that ,france has so often suffered in the past4' 8,louis ,,xvi listened to this proposal with eager attention1 but the difficulty was to make others listen also4 ,in order to interest the world of fashion in the culture of the disdained tuber the king appeared at a public festival one day with a large bouquet of potato blossoms in his hand4 ,curiosity was aroused at the sight of these white flowers tinged with violet and set off by the dark green of the leaves4 ,they were talked of at court and in town2 florists made imitations of them for their artificial bouquets2 in ornamental gardens they were used for the borders2 and as the surest way to royal favor the nobles sent potatoes to their tenant farmers with orders to plant and cultivate them40 8,behold the potato fairly started on the right road60 interposed ,jules4 8,it cannot fail to become popular now1 under the protection of king and court40 8,not so fast1 my little friend4 ,persuasion is a good deal better than command4 ,the tubers patronized by royalty were thrown on the dunghill4 ,at most1 here and there a farmer1 afraid of being reprimanded1 allowed them to grow as best they could in some neglected corner40 8,and then80 8,then the only thing to do was to convince1 not the nobleman who cared nothing for the potato except as a means for winning the king's favor1 but the peasant himself directly interested in this affair4 ,it was necessary to overcome his repugnance1 a repugnance that made him reject the potato even as fodder for cattle2 he must be taught by his own experience that the tuber of ill repute1 far from being a poison1 is excellent food4 ,all this ,parmentier thoroughly understood and he set to work without delay40 8,this time he is sure to succeed40 8,not at first and not without great pains4 ,in the suburbs of ,paris he bought or rented for farming large tracts of land which he caused to be planted with potatoes4 ,the first year the harvest was sold at a very low price4 ,a few people bought some40 8,now we are nearing the goal40 8,not yet4 ,good is not accomplished so easily4 ,the second year the potatoes were given away for nothing4 ,nobody wanted them40 8,and ,parmentier was left with the whole crop on his hands80 8,the excellent man could not find a welcome for a single basket of potatoes4 ,in the country they laughed maliciously at his obstinacy in cultivating a vile root that no peasant would even feed to his pigs4 ,but ,parmentier did not despair4 ,a singular idea came to him3 to see whether the charm of forbidden fruit would not accomplish what he had failed to effect by his writings1 his advice1 his personal example1 and his generous offers4 8,a large field was planted with potatoes1 and when the crop was ripe a fence was built about the field as if to protect a most valuable harvest4 ,and more than this1 ,parmentier caused it to be trumpeted abroad throughout the neighboring villages that it was expressly forbidden to touch the potatoes under penalty of all the rigors of the law against marauders4 ,during the day the guards kept strict watch over the field1 and woe betide whoever should try to climb over the fence60 8,it seems to me10 said ,emile1 8that with all those prohibitions and guards and fences ,parmentier was more likely than ever to have all his potatoes to himself40 8,such was not his purpose2 far from it4 ,the guards kept good watch during the day1 but they had orders to stay at home at night and leave unmolested any who might attempt to get into the field4 #8,what1 then1 is this plant that is guarded with such jealous care8' the peasants asked one another1 attracted by the strictness of the prohibitory measures4 #8,it must be very precious4 ,let us try to get some when the night is dark4' 8,some bold marauders climbed the fence1 hastily pulled up a dozen tubers1 and scampered off again1 looking back to make sure they were not pursued4 ,not a guard was to be seen4 ,word soon spread that the field was not guarded at night4 ,then the pillage began in earnest3 the tubers hitherto so despised were carried off by sackfuls4 ,in a few days there was not a potato left in the ground4 8,people came and told ,parmentier of the devastation of his field4 ,the worthy man wept for joy2 the one robbed blessed his robbers4 ,by his ruse he had endowed his country with an inestimable food-supply2 for1 once placed in the hands of those who would consent to cultivate it1 the potato was valued at its true worth and spread rapidly40 8,oh1 what a curious story60 cried ,louis1 when ,uncle ,paul had finished2 8what a curious story6 ,who would have thought it took all that trouble to make people accept a food that to-day is of such value to us8 ,is it1 then1 so very hard to spread a good idea when it is new80 8,very hard indeed10 replied ,uncle ,paul1 8as those well know who make it their mission to fight against prejudice and ignorance40 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,ascending ,,sap 8,now let us see how the plant is nourished by the various substances of which we have just studied the most important4 ,every form of plant-life is made up1 not of a compact and uniform mass of matter with no occasional empty spaces1 but1 on the contrary1 with the aid of a microscope it is seen that an infinite number of very minute cavities called cells are interspersed throughout the body of the plant4 ,these cells may be regarded as extremely small closed sacs1 sometimes round1 sometimes oval1 but more often with irregular and angular outlines by reason of the mutual pressure exerted by the cells4 ,the cell-wall is composed of an excessively fine membrane4 ,in the pith of the elder1 all riddled like a sponge1 you have an example of cells large enough to be seen without a microscope4 ,other cavities are long1 pointed at both ends and swollen in the middle like a spindle4 ,they are called fibers4 ,still others form canals of uniform size throughout1 as fine as a hair and long enough to extend from the roots to the topmost leaves4 ,these canals are called ducts4 ,look closely at the cross-section of a very dry vine-branch1 and you will see a multitude of orifices into which it would be possible to thrust a hair4 ,those are the openings into so many broken ducts4 ,everything in the plant1 absolutely everything--root1 stalk1 wood1 bark1 leaves1 flowers1 fruit1 seeds1 no matter what--is composed of a mass of cells1 fibers1 and ducts4 8,that understood1 let us consider the root of the plant4 ,in its new parts1 at the tip-ends of its finest ramifications1 tip-ends that we have called spongioles1 it is composed of cells just formed and consequently tender and fitted for absorbing easily the moisture in the soil4 ,spongioles1 then1 fill themselves much as sponges would do4 ,that done1 conduits offer their services for conveying the liquid to the top of the plant3 they are the ducts just referred to1 and comparable here to the water-pipes in our own fountains4 ,but if in fountains water runs by its own weight1 going from the highest to the lowest point1 it is not so with the liquid absorbed by the roots1 a liquid running from below upward4 ,what then is the force that makes it ascend8 8,this force is in the buds or1 to speak more correctly1 in the leaves4 ,each leaf is the seat of an active evaporation whose object is to rid the plant of the great quantity of water required for dissolving in the soil and then conveying to the leaves the nutritive substances present in the soil4 ,this evaporation leaves a void in the cells that have given up the evaporated water4 ,but this void is immediately filled from the neighboring cells1 which give up their contents and receive in turn the contents of the next lower layers4 ,from cell to cell1 from fiber to fiber1 from duct to duct1 a similar transfer takes place at points farther and farther away from the evaporating surface1 until the tip-ends of the rootlets are reached1 where a continuous absorption makes good the loss of moisture by evaporation4 ,the process reminds one somewhat of the working of our pumps1 in which the piston leaves behind it a void that is immediately filled by the water in the pipe1 which in its turn gets water from the bottom of the well4 ,this liquid which ascends in every plant1 absorbed by the spongioles of the rootlets and put in motion by the evaporation from the leaves1 is called ascending sap1 or crude sap4 ,the sap is called ascending because it passes from below upward1 from the roots to the branches2 and it is called crude because it has not yet undergone the preparation that will turn it into the nutritive liquid of the plant4 ,thus we have learned our first lesson1 namely3 ascending sap is carried especially to those parts of the plant where buds are numerous1 where leaves abound2 it seeks by preference the ends of the branches1 where evaporation is most active4 8,we know that the surface wood is the newest2 it is formed of cells1 fibers1 and ducts whose cavities are free and whose walls are permeable4 ,the interior wood is older2 its cells1 fibers1 and ducts are encrusted1 stopped up1 decrepit1 out of use4 ,the liquid accordingly makes its way where circulation is possible1 and ceases to flow where the passage is obstructed4 ,that is to say1 the ascent of the sap takes place through the sap-wood and chiefly through the outermost layers1 or those of most recent formation4 ,repeated experiment leaves no doubt on this point4 ,when a tree is cut down at the time of the sap's greatest activity1 we find the sap-wood moist and the older wood perfectly dry4 ,finally1 in herbaceous plants the sap ascends through the whole body of the stem4 ,suspended during the winter on account of the absence of foliage1 this ascent of the sap becomes remarkably brisk at the awakening of vegetation4 ,then it is that fruit-trees shed tears1 so to speak1 where the pruning-hook has left its mark2 or1 in other words1 the ascending sap oozes from the openings of the severed ducts4 ,these tears are especially noticeable in the grape-vine1 where it has recently been trimmed4 8,now what would you expect to find in this liquid if you collected some of it as it trickles in the form of tears either from the vine or from a fruit-tree8 ,many things1 doubtless1 you will say1 since this precious liquid is the prime source of all that the plant contains in itself4 ,if such is your thought1 undeceive yourselves3 ascending sap is little more than clear water1 and often it is very difficult for science to prove beyond a doubt the presence in it of various substances in solution1 so minute a fraction of the whole do they compose4 ,among these substances the most frequent are compounds of potash1 of lime1 of carbonic acid gas1 traces of phosphates1 and compounds of nitrogen or ammonia4 ,in short1 the liquid from which the plant is to derive its nourishment is the weakest sort of broth1 composed of an enormous quantity of water and a very small proportion of dissolved substances4 ,these inconsiderable substances are the only or almost the only things utilized by the plant2 and the water that has collected them in filtering through the soil1 and has then carried them from the roots to the leaves through the sap-wood1 the water that forms almost the whole of the ascending sap1 is destined1 as soon as the journey is accomplished1 to leave the plant and return as vapor to the atmosphere whence it descended in the form of rain40 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,descending ,,sap 8,ascending sap1 a liquid composed of a large quantity of water and a very small proportion of dissolved nutritive substances1 is absorbed in the ground by the roots and carried to the leaves through the sap-wood4 ,it is not yet a nutritive fluid for the plant2 it becomes so in the foliage by a double process4 ,first1 on being distributed to the leaves1 which furnish a vast surface for evaporation1 it exhales its superabundant water in the form of vapor and thus concentrates its usable ingredients4 ,then1 under the influence of the sun's rays and through the medium of the green matter contained in the leaves1 it undergoes modifications that work a fundamental change in its character4 ,among the processes here taking place1 one of the best known is the decomposition of the carbonic acid gas taken from the air by the leaves and from the soil by the roots4 8,we have seen that this gas1 the plant's chief source of nourishment1 is composed of carbon combined with the breathable part of the air1 or oxygen4 ,under the action of the sun's light the leaves decompose this gas1 liberating the oxygen in a condition henceforth fit for the respiration of animals and for combustion1 while the carbon remains in the plant1 mixes with the substances brought by the ascending sap1 and with them becomes the nourishing liquid1 the descending or elaborated sap1 from which all future parts of the plant are to be formed4 ,this liquid cannot be called wood1 bark1 leaf1 flower1 or fruit2 it is not at all like any of these1 and yet it is essentially a little of them all4 ,an animal's blood is neither flesh1 bone1 nor fleece2 but bone1 flesh1 and fleece are of its substance4 ,likewise the elaborated sap is a liquid designed for the sustenance of all parts of the plant2 it contains matter for fruit and wood1 leaves and flowers1 bark and buds4 ,it is the plant's blood2 everything in the plant gets from it its nourishment1 its wherewithal to develop4 ,what a wonderful1 what an incomprehensible process its production appears to us6 ,in the crowded ranks of the leaf-cells1 where one would suppose everything to be at rest1 what activity1 what transformations beyond the reach of human science6 ,liquids swell the cells1 ooze from one to another1 transpire1 infiltrate1 circulate1 exchange their dissolved substances2 vapors are exhaled1 gases come1 others go2 the sun's light separates what was united1 unites what was separated1 and the raw materials of the ascending sap combine henceforth with the materials of life4 8,the elaborated sap descends from the leaves to the twigs1 from the twigs to the branches1 from the branches to the stalk or trunk1 and from the latter to the root1 distributing itself here and there on its way4 ,it circulates between the wood and the bark4 ,it is this sap that1 in the spring1 when it is in great abundance1 forms between the wood and the bark a thin layer of slightly viscous moisture and makes the bark easy to peel from its branch4 ,which of you in the month of ,may has not taken advantage of this peculiarity to peel off all in one piece a tube of bark from a very smooth twig of willow or lilac in order to make a whistle1 trumpet1 or other noisy plaything1 the delight of boys of your age8 8,nothing is easier than to prove the passage of sap from above downward4 ,if you remove from a tree-trunk an annular band of bark1 the nourishing liquid oozes and accumulates at the upper edge of the wound1 but nothing of the sort takes place at the lower edge4 ,arrested thus by a break in its path1 the sap accumulates above the uncovered ring and causes there an abundant growth of wood and bark1 which piles up in the form of a thick circular swelling1 while below the ring the trunk preserves its former size4 8,a tight ligature1 by compressing and obstructing the passages through which the nutritive fluid has to pass1 causes the formation of a similar swelling above the line of stoppage4 ,you may have seen a sapling1 bound too tightly to the stake intended for its support1 strangled by its own growth if the gardener has forgotten to loose the band in time4 ,little by little the trunk swells above this band1 which is finally overgrown by the bark and even hidden within its substance4 ,indeed1 it is not rare to find a tree with its trunk caught fast in a narrow passage1 as for example in the crevice of a rock1 and swollen above the obstacle into an unsightly excrescence4 ,the stoppage of the sap in its downward course explains this phenomenon4 8,if the tree-trunk is not completely encircled by the stricture1 if somewhere there is a strip of bark left free to serve as a passage1 the nourishing juice takes this way to get around the obstacle1 and so pursues its course to the roots4 ,then the tree continues to live4 ,but if the barrier is absolutely insuperable1 as in the case of an unyielding ligature or when the tree has been girdled1 the sap cannot descend to the roots to nourish them2 and with the death of these the end of the tree is not far distant4 8,an important lesson remains to be drawn from these details concerning the circulation of this nutritive liquid in plants4 ,henceforth1 when we fasten a plant to its prop or supporting stake1 we shall be careful not to tie the string too tight or else to loosen it at the proper time1 since otherwise we should run the risk of strangling the plant and so causing its death40 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,tree-,,pruning 8,self-preservation is the first law of a tree's life1 and next to that the preservation of its species1 which is to be perpetuated by means of seeds4 ,all this is perfectly natural1 for no posterity would be possible to the tree unless its own existence were maintained in the first place4 ,accordingly the tree lives first for itself1 accomplishing this object by covering itself with buds that develop into branches covered with leaves4 ,it is indeed on the leaves that the fundamental principles of the plant's life are based2 it is in their substance that1 with the sun's help1 the descending sap is elaborated1 this sap being the nutritive fluid1 the life-blood as it were1 of the vegetable organism4 ,the propagation of the species comes next in importance4 ,this duty devolves on the flower-buds or those that blossom and produce fruit1 in the center of which are the seeds4 8,thus1 left to its own impulses1 a tree1 if vigorous and enjoying favorable conditions1 at first uses all its sap in making buds for the increase of its own woody structure2 it covers itself with stout branches and abundant foliage before making up its mind to blossom4 ,later1 when its limbs are strong and the ardor of growth begins to abate1 the flower-buds appear1 but usually in small numbers because a prodigal production of fruit causes rapid decline4 ,copious blossoming comes only toward the latter part of life2 a tree never blossoms better than when it is about to die1 as if1 foreseeing its end1 it strove before succumbing to leave behind it a numerous progeny4 ,a thriving tree blossoms little or not at all2 a sickly tree makes haste to blossom4 ,but it is to man's interest that a tree should blossom and bear fruit as early and as abundantly as possible2 we demand from it not the branches it would give us without our intervention1 but baskets of fruit induced by our care4 ,from this struggle between the natural tendencies of the tree and our own needs has sprung the practice of pruning1 or the art of manipulating fruit-trees so as to obtain from them an abundant harvest4 8,here let us examine the general principles that are to guide us in the practice of this art4 ,the shape to be given the tree's superstructure of branches and foliage is the first question we must consider4 ,this shape is far from being unimportant2 it is1 on the contrary1 very important1 since the circulation of the sap and the distribution of the sun's rays1 essential conditions to plant-life1 are strictly dependent on it4 ,if the tree is left free to develop by itself and to take its natural form1 the sap from the roots will1 under the impetus of its ascent1 always seek by preference the highest points1 where growth will in consequence proceed with vigor1 while the lower parts will languish and die out for want of sufficient nourishment4 ,if the branches are not properly thinned the central ones1 deprived of the sun's vivifying rays1 will remain poor1 puny1 more or less blanched4 ,on the other hand1 the tree ought to fill1 as far as possible1 the place assigned it1 in order that there may be no unproductive space4 8,these conditions prescribe the tree's shape4 ,first of all1 it should be symmetrical1 in order that the distribution of nourishment may be even and no part of the tree be gorged with sap while another part is deprived of it4 ,secondly1 the sun's rays should be allowed to penetrate everywhere so as to ripen the fruit and facilitate in the foliage the important work of sap-elaboration4 ,to attain these different objects custom has fixed upon three principal shapes3 the trellis1 the pyramid1 and the goblet4 ,in trellis pruning the tree spreads its branches symmetrically1 right and left1 against a wall4 ,the wall serves it as support and as shelter from the wind2 it also gives the foliage and fruit additional heat and light by reflecting the sun's rays upon them4 ,when pruned to take the pyramid form1 the tree has its branches so trimmed as to decrease in length regularly from the base to the summit and to remain far enough apart to admit the light to the center4 ,the whole forms a sugar-loaf1 a cone1 into the midst of which sun and air enter freely4 ,it is the shape most in accord with nature4 ,finally1 the goblet-shaped tree has a certain number of branches of equal vigor disposed in a circle around a central space that remains empty and thus receives its share of sunlight without hindrance40 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,pinching--,,bud-,,nipping 8,when the desired shape has been obtained the next thing is to keep it1 despite all opposition on the part of the tree1 which revolts in its own peculiar fashion2 that is1 it strives to restore the natural conformation of its branches4 ,suppose1 for example1 that a pear-tree1 pruned after the manner of wall-fruit1 has grown all out of symmetry and developed one side more than the other4 ,how shall the two halves be restored to correct proportions8 ,how shall the too vigorous part be weakened and the too feeble part strengthened8 ,several methods offer themselves4 8,on the vigorous side let us cut back the branches with the pruning shears1 leaving only the base of each with a small number of buds2 in other words1 let us cut them very short4 ,on the weak side1 on the contrary1 let us leave the branches intact or cut them very long1 thus leaving them the greater part of their buds4 ,what will come of this treatment8 ,since abundant foliage1 the active laboratory of the descending sap and also a kind of pump that sucks up the sap and causes it to ascend from the roots1 is the prime cause of vigorous vegetation1 the weak part1 with its numerous buds developed into leafy shoots1 will grow stronger1 while the strong part1 with its small number of buds1 will become weaker4 ,both effects will tend to the same result3 the restoration of the desired symmetry4 8,with the ends of the fingers and the help of the thumb-nail1 it is customary to pinch off from the too vigorous side the tips of the young branches while they are still tender4 ,this operation we may call pinching4 ,the sap that would have been used for the development of these branches is diverted from its course and carried toward the weak shoots1 which it renews and stimulates4 ,if the weak side itself needs pinching to arrest shoots that impair the desired symmetry1 the operation is postponed as long as possible1 while on the strong side it is carried out very early4 ,the sap thus turned away from the vigorous side toward the ailing one has a whole season in which to restore the lost equilibrium4 8,instead of limiting ourselves to pinching off the tips of the young shoots with our thumb-nail1 we can suppress them altogether while they are still tender4 ,this is done as early as possible on the strong side1 only the indispensable shoots being left4 ,if it is necessary on the weak side1 it is not done until the latest possible moment4 ,this operation we may style bud-nipping1 since the word #8bud1' by which we designate the germ of the future branch when it is still enveloped in scales1 applies also for the sake of convenience to the branch already developed but still young and tender4 ,it is evident that nipping off the buds from the strong part tends1 even more than pinching1 to promote the desired growth of the weak part4 ,the more branches we suppress entirely1 the fewer will be left to share the sap needed by the branches we wish to strengthen4 8,what turns aside the sap from the part pruned1 pinched1 or nipped1 toward the part left intact1 is evidently the more or less complete suppression of foliage4 ,it is primarily the leaves that by the continual evaporation of which their surface is the seat determine the ascent of the liquid drawn from the soil by the roots4 ,the more numerous these leaves are at any one point1 the more abundant the flow of sap to that point2 the scarcer they are1 the less the flow of sap4 ,to diminish at any point the number of leaves by pinching1 bud-nipping1 or any other means1 is therefore to diminish at the same point the flow of sap1 which will go in some other direction1 to the parts that have more leaves and hence a more rapid rate of evaporation to summon the sap4 ,it is plain1 then1 that a middle course may be followed between the pinching that partly suppresses the foliage of a young branch and the bud-nipping that suppresses it entirely4 ,this middle course consists in cutting a certain number of leaves from the too vigorous shoots2 and they should be cut clean without tearing1 by severing the stem and leaving its base undisturbed4 8,the easiest way for the sap to run from the roots to the foliage is from bottom to top in a vertical line4 ,anything that interferes with this course hinders also the upward impetus4 ,thus in branches with sharp elbows and abrupt bends the rush of sap is slackened just as the rate of flow of a water-current is diminished by the windings occurring in its bed4 ,thus1 again1 in a branch having a decided incline downward the sap moves with difficulty1 because its movement toward the extremity of this branch is in a direction contrary to that which is natural to it4 ,the application of this principle is evident4 ,if we wish to moderate a too vigorous growth of branches1 we bend them toward the ground2 if we wish to stimulate a too feeble growth1 we straighten up the branches until they assume a vertical posture4 8,we can also turn to account the exhausting effect of fruit-bearing4 ,the more fruitful a branch is1 the weaker it becomes1 since the use of sap in fruit means so much the less for foliage1 and it is foliage that invigorates the branch4 ,accordingly we will leave the greatest possible quantity of fruit on the strong part of our tree1 and suppress it on the weak part40 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,making ,,fruit ,,trees ,,bear 8,if one side of a tree is pruned very short and the other very long1 the natural course of the sap is to some extent diverted from the first side toward the second1 which is richer in buds and consequently in foliage4 ,we have just seen how this principle is utilized to check the growth of too vigorous a part in order to stimulate that of one that is too feeble and thus redress the balance between the two4 ,but what would be the result if the whole tree were pruned at once8 8,let us first see what takes place in a single branch4 ,pruned long1 it preserves the greater part of its buds1 all of which call for nourishment from the sap flowing in that direction2 pruned short1 it keeps only a few buds1 which having the sap of the entire branch at their disposal1 will receive each a supply that is superabundant in proportion to the fewness of the buds4 ,for example1 what twelve would ordinarily have had for consumption1 two or three will now have to themselves2 and because of this superabundance of nourishment each bud will develop much more vigorously than it would otherwise have done4 ,hence if the whole tree is pruned with an unsparing hand1 all the sap drawn from the soil by the roots1 having no longer a tendency to go to one side rather than the other1 will be distributed evenly2 and the few buds left intact by the pruning-shears will show a luxuriance of growth in proportion to the supply of nourishment placed at their disposal4 ,thus thorough pruning applied to the whole tree has the effect of giving it new vigor1 of rejuvenating it in some measure1 or1 in other words1 of replacing its worn-out branches with vigorous ones4 ,accordingly when a tree has become exhausted by abundant fruit-bearing1 it is pruned without stint one year in order to restore its vigor of growth4 8,let us now see what we should do if we had quite the opposite end in view2 that is1 if we wished to make a tree blossom and bear fruit4 ,here two principles will serve us as guides4 ,first1 in the fulness of its vigor a tree puts forth long branches and thick foliage1 but does not cover itself with blossoms1 bearing in fact only a few4 ,it is not until it has become somewhat enfeebled that it begins to flower in profusion4 ,secondly1 what would in the tree's youthful strength have been a branch-producing bud becomes in its enfeeblement a flower-bud2 so that a flower may be regarded as a branch which1 instead of developing freely and covering itself with leaves1 has remained stunted1 thrown back upon itself1 for lack of vigor1 and has exchanged its leaves for floral organs1--sepals1 petals1 stamens1 pistils4 ,weaken a tree and you weaken the buds2 such1 in a word1 is the prevailing principle4 8,to weaken the buds individually1 the pruning-shears will be plied but sparingly1 leaving the buds almost intact2 then these1 being many in number1 will have so much the less for each one separately1 and some of them1 especially toward the lower part of the branch1 will find themselves too feeble to contend with the others and therefore will take the form of flower-buds1 whereas they would have produced branches and not flowers if a more thorough pruning had rid them of their rivals4 8,to weaken the tree as a whole1 all that we have to do is to pinch off or cut off with the thumb-nail the tender tips of the young branches2 then we bend these branches back so as to give them a number of crooks and turns that will impede the circulation of the sap4 ,finally1 the woody branches of the preceding year are broken by the hand1 sometimes wholly1 sometimes half1 so that the tip is left hanging down4 ,if the tree is not too vigorous these three methods1 pinching1 bending1 and breaking1 are generally sufficient to make it bear4 8,but when we have to do with very exuberant vegetation1 more energetic methods are necessary4 ,one of these we may call arching4 ,the branches are all bent down so that each forms an arch2 that is1 the tip-end of each is pulled down to the ground and fastened there in any way that may be easiest4 ,this abnormal position of the branch1 with its top downward1 is contrary to the ascending movement of the sap1 which consequently flows less freely to the buds4 ,the resulting dearth is conducive to fruit-bearing1 and as soon as this effect is assured the branches are allowed to return to their natural position2 otherwise the tree would become exhausted4 8,another method is as follows4 ,pruning is done very late1 when the young shoots are already some centimeters long4 ,the sap used up in the growth of the shoots cut off by the pruning shears is a great loss to the tree1 which1 being no longer able to supply ample nourishment to the lower buds of the branches1 turns them into flower-buds4 8,if these means do not suffice to make the tree bear fruit1 there are more violent ones which are employed only in the last extremity4 ,toward the end of winter1 before the sap has started1 an incision some millimeters wide and deep enough to penetrate the outer layers of wood is made all around the base of the trunk4 ,sap1 as we know1 ascends through these exterior layers1 the newest1 the most permeable by liquids2 so if we partially intercept its passage it will flow less abundantly to the buds and the weakened tree will soon begin to bear4 8,still another expedient is to strike at the very source of the sap1 the roots4 ,the foot of the tree is laid bare in the springtime1 its main roots being denuded of their covering and left thus exposed all summer to the open air and the hot sun4 ,no longer enjoying the coolness and darkness necessary to their office1 they furnish less nourishment to the tree1 and this scarcity causes the formation of flower-buds4 ,a still more drastic method1 but one that would kill the tree if employed imprudently1 is to strip the roots of the refractory subject without mercy1 cutting and mutilating a certain number of them and then putting back the earth that has been removed4 ,a diminution in the flow of sap must necessarily result from this surgical operation4 ,finally1 if the tree is small enough for the purpose1 it is dug up at the end of autumn1 with care to preserve the roots as far as possible1 and planted again somewhere else4 ,the disturbance caused by this change of place suffices to make the tree blossom the next year40 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,the ,,seed 8,the ovary of the flower1 after being fertilized by the pollen1 becomes the fruit1 the apple on the apple-tree1 the cherry on the cherry-tree1 the walnut on the walnut-tree1 the grain of wheat in the wheat-ear1 and so on for all plants4 ,the fruit contains seeds in greater or less number1 and sometimes only one1 as in the peach1 plum1 and almond2 often several1 as in the apple and pear2 while in other instances they can be counted by hundreds and thousands1 as in the melon1 the pumpkin1 and the poppy-head4 ,the natural function of the fruit is first to supply nourishment and then to protect its seeds by means of coverings1 these being sometimes fleshy1 sometimes thin and dry1 sometimes hard and in the form of strong shells4 ,in their turn the seeds have as their task the propagating of the species4 ,every form of plant-life1 from the giants of the forest1 the oak1 beech1 fir1 and others1 to the tiniest moss1 has its beginning in the seed4 ,every plant has its flowers1 its fruit1 and its seeds4 ,it is in the seed that vegetation is preserved in a thriving condition through the ages2 it is by the seed that every tree1 every shrub1 every blade of grass propagate their kind and leave a numerous progeny4 8,who would not like to know10 continued ,uncle ,paul1 8something about the formation of the seed that is sown in the ground to become either a little plant or an enormous tree8 ,what is inside it8 ,how can an oak come from an acorn and a pear-tree from the pip of a pear8 ,i will try1 my friends1 to satisfy the very natural curiosity such a mystery cannot fail to arouse in you4 8,let us look at the fruit of an almond-tree4 ,first it has an outside skin1 green and tender1 which at maturity opens of its own accord1 dries up1 folds back1 and lets its contents out4 ,examining the latter1 we find a shell1 sometimes fragile enough to be broken with the teeth1 but at other times very hard and yielding only to the hammer4 ,breaking the shell1 we come to the seed4 ,of what use are the two parts we have just removed8 ,we must be very stupid if we cannot recognize in them the coverings intended to protect the seed1 the wrappings that shelter the delicate germ from cold1 heat1 rain1 and the teeth of animals4 ,the outer envelope1 covered with a short1 velvety down1 serves as a protection against the weather2 the inner one is a veritable strong-box which we have to break between two stones before we can get at its contents4 ,similar means of defense are found in all fruit1 but with wide differences in the different kinds of plants4 ,the cherry1 plum1 peach1 and apricot have the hard shell1 the strong-box1 of the almond1 and also an outer envelope of juicy flesh4 ,the apple and pear have their seeds or pips1 as they are called1 snugly ensconced in five little cavities grouped in the shape of a five-pointed star1 as may be seen in a cross-section of the fruit4 ,these little cavities have walls of a tough1 scaly material somewhat resembling horn1 while all about them is a thick rampart of flesh4 ,beans and peas are arranged in a sort of long sheath that opens in two pieces4 ,chestnuts are packed in a bag covered with long prickles4 ,all these protecting coverings1 whatever their shape and character and degree of toughness1 form part of the fruit4 8,let us go back to the almond4 ,the shell being broken1 we come to the seed1 which is all in one piece4 ,this seed1 as we have just seen1 is protected by two coverings1 the inner one of which is a very firm1 hard casing called the stone4 ,as a protection is it enough8 ,not quite4 ,beneath the exterior defensive armor comes the fine inner covering that wraps the seed closely and shields it from contact with the hard shell4 ,this covering is double and is composed on the outside of a reddish skin and inside of an extremely thin and flexible white cuticle4 ,similar double clothing is found on all seeds4 ,the inner one is always very fine1 as indeed it should be1 since it comes next to the most essential and delicate part of the seed4 ,do we put coarse cloth1 rough woolen stuff next to the tender flesh of a new-born babe8 ,certainly not2 but rather the finest of linen1 and over that the woolen fabric4 ,the plant does the same with its tender young seeds4 ,the outer envelope1 much firmer and tougher than the inner1 looks very differently in different plants4 ,in the almond and walnut it is a reddish skin1 and so it is also in the stones of the peach1 apricot1 and plum4 ,in the pips of the pear and apple it is a tough brown casing4 ,in beans it is smooth and shiny1 sometimes quite white1 sometimes black and white1 sometimes speckled with red spots4 ,in addition1 peas and beans of all kinds have at one point on their surface a sort of little oval eye4 ,to this eye was once attached a small short cord that fastened the seed to the wall of the pod and served as a pipe for supplying it with nourishment4 ,all seeds have this attachment1 or nursing-cord1 as we may call it1 but not all have so clearly marked as in the bean the eye where the cord is fastened4 8,after the two coverings of the seed have been removed1 which is very easily done when the almond is new1 there remains a white object1 firm and savory1 the eatable part of the fruit of the almond-tree4 ,that object is the seed proper2 that is to say1 the part that would have become a tree if planted in the ground4 ,it is round at one end and rather pointed at the other4 ,from the pointed end projects a little nipple1 and all around the edge runs a slight furrow indicating that here the seed may be split in two4 ,let us insert the point of a knife into this furrow and exert a little pressure4 ,one half will come away and the other half will show us what you see in this picture4 8,the little pointed nipple 7r7 is called a radicle4 ,it is the part that1 if allowed to grow1 would push down into the earth1 send out branches there1 and become the root4 ,at the point marked g is a compact bunch of tiny leaves1 all white1 forming a kind of bud1 but one that is much feebler and more delicate than buds that grow on branches4 ,it is called a gemmule4 ,this bud will unfold and send forth the first leaves4 ,finally1 the narrow line of demarcation between the radicle and the gemmule is called the tigella1 and from it the trunk of the tree will take its start4 ,such is the almond-tree in its seed4 ,the large tree that will send out a mass of branches and foliage into the air and thrust powerful roots into the ground is now contained in an insignificant corpuscle just large enough to be seen40 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,the ,,seed',s ,,food-,,supply 8,when it has leaves and roots that are sufficiently developed1 the little almond-tree will nourish itself by drawing what it needs from the earth and air4 ,but until then it must live1 it must grow stronger1 and it must increase a little in size4 ,as nothing can come from nothing1 the germinating seed must find somewhere the material for its first growth4 ,this cannot be in the soil so long as the radicle is nothing but a point1 incapable of any work2 neither can it be in the air so long as the little leaf-bud has not unfolded and developed into foliage4 ,the seed1 then1 must have a certain supply of nutriment stored up within itself4 ,let us turn our attention to this prepared stock of food4 8,in the almond we have studied the gemmule or leaf-bud1 the radicle1 and the tigella2 but there still remain two large pieces1 easily separable from each other1 and constituting by themselves alone almost the entire bulk of the seed4 ,these two pieces are the plant's first pair of leaves1 but leaves of a peculiar structure1 being very thick1 fleshy1 and relatively enormous in size4 ,they are the alimentary reservoirs1 the storehouses of food from which in its beginning the young plant must draw its sustenance4 ,when germination begins1 these two large leaves1 swollen with nutritive matter1 yield little by little a part of their substance to the tiny plant and suckle it1 as it were4 ,they might therefore be called vegetable udders1 nursing-leaves1 but science calls them cotyledons4 ,the unhatched chick in its shell has the yolk of the egg to furnish substance for its growth1 the young lamb has its mother's milk1 the germ of the plant has the juice of the cotyledons4 8,the same structure1 with two cotyledons of great size and easy to observe1 may be found in the broad bean1 pea1 kidney bean1 and acorn1 and in the stones of the peach1 apricot1 and plum4 ,it would also be found in the pips of pears and apples as well as in the seeds of most of our cultivated plants1 but more difficult to distinguish in proportion to the smallness of the seed4 ,in every instance the seed would be found to have two cotyledons as food-storehouses1 and also a gemmule and a radicle united by the tigella4 ,other plants1 on the contrary1 like maize1 wheat1 and the other cereals1 as also the lily1 tulip1 and iris1 have but one cotyledon1 one nursing-leaf for the new vegetable organism4 8,it is not always easy1 especially when the seed is very small1 to ascertain whether it has two cotyledons or only one2 but as soon as germination has begun1 this difficulty disappears4 ,then the seed with two cotyledons is seen to push up two leaves1 the very first to appear1 situated opposite each other1 and very often differing in shape from those that come later4 ,in the radish1 for example1 they are heart-shaped2 in the carrot1 long and narrow like little tongues4 ,these two leaves that precede the others are known as seminal leaves4 ,they come from the two cotyledons1 which generally open in the air and grow green while nourishing the young plant with a part of their substance2 but sometimes1 as in the acorn1 they remain hidden underground4 ,on the other hand1 seeds having but one cotyledon come up with only one seminal leaf1 generally narrow and long4 ,this is what we observe if we watch the germination of a grain of wheat4 8,a simpler and quicker method may be used for ascertaining how many cotyledons a seed has4 ,hold a leaf up to the light and you will see its texture traversed by a multitude of little cords which serve it as a kind of framework4 ,these cords are called veins or nerves4 ,now then1 if you compare the leaf of a pear-tree with a blade of wheat1 or reed1 you will see that in the former the veins are more and more subdivided and ramified1 joining one another and thus forming a network with irregular meshes1 while in the latter the veins do not branch1 but run in parallel lines without forming meshes4 ,we should find the same difference of framework between the leaves of the elm1 poplar1 and plane-tree1 on the one hand1 and those of the iris1 narcissus1 and tulip1 on the other4 ,this difference being established1 ,i will add that with few exceptions1 of no interest to us here1 every plant with netted-veined leaves has two cotyledons in its seed1 and that every plant with parallel-veined leaves has but one4 ,consequently it is only necessary to glance at the foliage in order to know whether the seed has two cotyledons or only one4 ,i will say further that pines1 firs1 and the other resinous trees have as many as ten cotyledons1 which show themselves as a delicate tuft of leaves when the little plant comes out of the ground40 ,uncle ,paul then led the children into the garden to fix in their minds by observation the lesson they had just learned4 8,gather haphazard10 said he1 8the first leaves you come to2 then examine them and tell me how many cotyledons the seed must contain4 ,first1 here is the iris1 with large blue flowers and sword-shaped leaves40 8,i see10 said ,jules1 8veins running in regular lines side by side1 without ever joining one another4 ,since these veins are parallel the iris seed has only one cotyledon40 8,and this blade of grass1 this also that ,i pick from a corn-stalk80 asked his uncle4 8,they1 too1 have parallel veins1 both of them2 and so their seeds must have only one cotyledon40 8,and this grape-leaf1 this leaf of the cherry tree80 8,it's my turn now10 ,emile hastened to interpose4 8,the veins form a sort of lace with very fine meshes4 ,the grape and the cherry have two cotyledons40 8,it is as easy as that1 my friends4 ,the leaf with its arrangement of veins shows us the fundamental characteristics of the plant4 ,it tells us whether the germ is fed by one nursing-leaf or two1 whether the young plant comes up with one seminal leaf or two40 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,germination 8,the germ in the heart of the seed is in a state that may be likened to deep sleep3 its life is1 as it were1 arrested1 suspended4 ,but under the stimulus of certain conditions it awakens1 throws off its coverings1 gathers strength from its stored-up food1 unfolds its first leaves1 and appears above ground4 ,this opening of the seed is called germination4 ,moisture1 warmth1 and air are the determining causes2 without their coperation the seed would remain a certain length of time in good condition for sowing1 after which it would wither and lose its germinating power4 8,no seed germinates without the help of moisture4 ,water plays a multiple part4 ,first it soaks into the germ and the parts surrounding it1 causing these to swell more than the envelope1 so that the latter1 however hard a shell it may be1 is burst open4 ,through the cracks of this broken envelope the gemmule pushes out on one side and the radicle on the other1 and henceforth the little plant enjoys the benefit of sun and air4 ,germination is more or less slow according to the degree of resistance offered by the walls of the seed4 ,if these are hard and stony it is only with extreme slowness that the germ absorbs moisture and manages to burst its cell4 ,therefore1 to shorten the period of germination care is taken to thin the shells of excessively hard seeds by rubbing them with a stone4 8,besides the mechanical part played by water in opening the seed1 it has still another relating to nutrition4 ,the various changes undergone by the alimentary contents of the perisperm and the cotyledons in becoming liquefied and capable of absorption cannot take place without the aid of water4 ,furthermore1 this liquid is indispensable for dissolving the nutritive ingredients1 introducing them into the young plant1 and distributing them evenly throughout4 ,it is plain1 then1 that if the seed remains dry it is absolutely impossible for it to germinate1 and that in order to preserve seeds the first condition is to protect them from moisture4 8,with moisture there must also be warmth4 ,as a general rule1 germination proceeds most satisfactorily when the thermometer registers between ten and twenty degrees centigrade1 our spring and autumn temperature4 ,outside these limits1 be it above or below1 germination is retarded1 ceasing altogether in extreme temperatures4 8,the coperation of air is not less necessary4 ,seeds might have the proper temperature and sufficient moisture1 but if air were lacking germination would not follow4 ,this capital condition explains to us why seeds planted too deep fail to come up2 why germination is much easier in soil that is mellow and can be permeated by the air than in soil that is compact2 why delicate seeds should be covered with very little earth or even simply sown on the surface of the moist ground2 and1 finally1 why ground on being broken often becomes covered with fresh vegetation from the sprouting of seeds that have for years lain dormant in the soil1 needing only to be stirred up and brought into contact with the air in order to germinate4 8,under like conditions of temperature1 moisture1 and air1 by no means all seeds require the same length of time for germinating4 ,common garden cress germinates in about two days4 ,spinach1 turnips1 and beans take three days to come up2 lettuce1 four2 melons and pumpkins1 five2 cereals1 about a week4 ,two years and sometimes more are needed by the rose-bush1 the hawthorn1 and various stone-fruit trees4 ,generally seeds with thick and hard shells are slow in germinating on account of the obstacle they oppose to the penetration of moisture4 ,finally1 when sown fresh1 immediately after coming to maturity1 seeds germinate quicker than when old1 because old seeds have to recover by a prolonged sojourn in the ground the moisture lost through prolonged drying4 8,according to their kind1 seeds retain for a longer or shorter period their power of germinating2 but why this vitality is more enduring in one instance and less so in another1 we cannot tell4 ,neither the bulk of the seed nor the character of its outside coverings1 nor the presence or absence of a perisperm1 appears to decide its longevity4 ,such and such a seed lives for whole years1 even centuries1 while another loses its germinating power in a few months1 from no cause that we can discover4 ,thus the seeds of the angelica will not come up unless they are sown immediately after maturing2 but beans have been known to germinate after being kept more than a hundred years1 and rye after a hundred and forty4 ,excluded from the air1 certain seeds may be kept for centuries1 always ready to germinate whenever favorable conditions shall present themselves4 ,this explains why strawberry1 bluet1 and camomile seeds from ancient tombs have germinated just as new seeds would have done4 ,finally1 rush seeds have been made to germinate that were dug up from great depths in the ,island of the ,seine1 the original site of ,paris4 ,doubtless those seeds dated from the time when ,paris1 under the name of ,lutetia1 consisted of a few mud and reed huts on the marshy borders of the stream4 ,but despite these remarkable exceptions let us never forget that recent seed is preferable to old for sowing2 it comes up better and in greater abundance4 8,we have just seen that certain seeds are very slow in coming up1 as for example the peach1 apricot1 and plum1 whose thick shells resist the moisture required for germination4 ,put directly into the ground in the very places that the young plants are to occupy later1 these seeds would be exposed to not a few dangers during their leisurely germination4 ,prolonged rains might make them rot2 various marauders that are partial to them1 such as rats1 field-mice1 jays1 magpies1 and crows1 might dig them up and devour them4 ,besides1 they would occupy for a long time1 with no profit to any one1 the ground in which they had been planted4 ,all these objections are avoided by making a preliminary planting after a method known as stratification1 from the ,latin word stratum1 meaning bed or layer4 ,in a large1 deep earthen pan1 with holes in its bottom1 or in any other suitable receptacle1 such as a box1 a pot1 or a tub1 likewise pierced with holes1 it is the practice to place first a layer of small pebbles4 ,the holes at the bottom and this layer of pebbles are to give easy access to the air and drain off the excess of water after each irrigation4 ,next comes a bed of fine sandy soil1 then a layer or stratum of seeds arranged side by side1 and on top of that a second bed of earth4 ,on this is placed another stratum of seeds1 which in its turn is covered with earth2 and so the process goes on with alternating layers of seeds and earth until the receptacle is full4 ,then it is watered and placed in a cellar or a dark shed4 ,all that is necessary after this is to keep the contents of pan or tub sufficiently moist by an occasional sprinkling4 ,enclosed thus in a small space easy to watch over1 with no danger from marauding animals1 and without needlessly occupying ground that might be used for other purposes1 the seeds can now take their own time to break their hard shells and can germinate with all the slowness natural to them4 8,when the shells at last crack open and the radicle appears1 it is time to proceed to the final planting4 ,the half-germinated seeds are then put into the ground one by one in an open field1 each at the exact spot the young plant is to occupy4 8,stratification offers still another advantage4 ,fruit trees as well as other trees have a stout tap-root which bores vertically into the ground to a considerable depth and gives a good deal of trouble if transplanting is undertaken4 ,to alter this tap-root into a root not growing so deep1 but branching horizontally1 would be decidedly advantageous4 ,in speaking of the root we saw what the nursery-man does to obtain this result4 ,he passes the sharp edge of his spade under the base of each tree-trunk so as to sever the tap-roots of his young plantations4 ,in stratification the method is much simpler and success surer4 ,with his thumb-nail the gardener nips off the tip of the tender radicle before the final planting is done4 ,that is all4 ,deprived of its growing end the young root henceforth branches out horizontally instead of descending vertically40 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,the ,,blossom 8,here is the fennel-flower1 which1 with the corn-flower and the poppy1 is so common in our fields of grain4 ,it is purplish red1 while the poppy is scarlet and the corn-flower1 or bluet1 is of an azure like that of the sky1 as its alternative name indicates4 ,on the outside of the fennel-flower are five green1 firm pieces joined together at the bottom but terminating in long points at the top4 ,each of these pieces is called a sepal1 and the five together form the calyx4 ,inside are five other pieces1 thin1 fine1 broad1 purplish red in color4 ,each one bears the name of petal1 and collectively they form the corolla4 8,most flowers have two envelopes like these1 one within the other4 ,the outer one1 or calyx1 is nearly always green in color and firm in structure2 the inner one1 or corolla1 much more delicate in texture1 is tinged with those magnificent hues that please the eye so much in flowers4 8,the sepals of the calyx and the petals of the corolla are sometimes separated from one another and sometimes joined together4 ,in the fennel-flower the sepals are united below in a common sheath bristling with coarse hairs2 but in their upper part they are separated into five narrow and pointed strips4 ,the corolla we find to be composed of five pieces1 five petals distinct from one another4 ,on the contrary1 in the blossom of the campanula the five petals of the corolla are joined at the edges and form a beautiful blue bell which looks as if made of one piece4 ,the five large teeth that border the opening of the bell nevertheless show that the corolla is really composed of five petals1 of which these teeth are the termination4 8,the calyx and the corolla are the flower's clothing1 a double clothing having both the substantial material that protects from cold and storm1 and the fine fabric that charms the eye4 ,the calyx1 the outer garment1 is of simple form1 green in color1 and of firm texture suitable for withstanding bad weather4 ,it has to protect the still unopened flower1 to shield it from the sun1 from cold and wet4 ,examine a rose-bud and note with what delicate precision the five sepals of the calyx are united so as to cover the rest4 ,not the slightest drop of water could penetrate the interior1 so carefully are their edges joined together4 ,there are flowers that close their calyx every evening and snuggle down inside to keep from getting chilled4 8,the corolla or inner garment unites elegance of form and richness of tint with fineness of texture4 ,it is the flower's finery and is what especially captivates our eye1 so that we commonly consider it the most important part of the blossom1 whereas it is really nothing but an ornament4 8,of the two garments1 the calyx is the more necessary4 ,many flowers have no corolla1 but they always have at least a calyx1 which in its simplest form is reduced to a tiny leaflet shaped like a scale4 ,flowers with no corolla remain unnoticed1 and the plants that bear them seem to us to have no blossoms4 ,it is a mistake3 all trees and plants bloom1 even the oak1 willow1 poplar1 pine1 beech1 wheat1 and multitudes of others whose blossoming is unheeded by the inattentive eye4 ,their flowers are extremely numerous1 but as they are very small and have no bright-colored corolla they escape any but the closest scrutiny4 8,it would be knowing a person very little only to be able to say that he wears such and such a coat2 nor does one know a flower any better when one can merely say that it is clothed with a calyx and a corolla4 ,what is there under this clothing8 8,let us examine together a lily1 which by its size lends itself readily to study4 ,it has no calyx1 #d but it does have a superb corolla formed of six petals gracefully curved inward at the edges1 and whiter than ivory4 ,i take away these six petals4 ,what is left now is the essential part2 that is to say1 the thing without which the flower could not perform its function1 could not1 in short1 bear fruit or seed4 ,let us carefully consider this remaining part4 ,you will find it well worth the trouble4 8,first there are six filaments or little white rods1 each one surmounted by a tiny bag full of yellow powder4 ,these six pieces are called stamens4 ,they are found in all flowers in greater or less number1 and in the lily there are six of them4 ,the little bag that tops the stamen is called an anther4 ,the yellow dust contained in the anther is called pollen2 that is what daubs our nose when we smell the lily too closely4 8,i take away the six stamens4 ,there remains a central body swollen at the bottom1 narrowed at the top to a long filament1 and surmounted by a kind of head wet with a sticky moisture4 ,in its entirety this central body bears the name of pistil2 the swelling at the bottom is called the ovary1 the filament growing out of it is the style1 and the sticky head terminating this filament is known as the stigma4 8,what big names for such little things6 you will say4 ,little1 yes2 but of unrivaled importance4 ,these little things1 my friends1 give us our daily bread2 without the miraculous work of these little things the world would come to an end4 8,with a penknife ,i cut the ovary in two horizontally4 ,in three compartments grouped in a circle we see some tiny grains arranged so that each compartment has two rows of them4 ,they are the future seeds of the plant4 ,the ovary1 then1 is the part of the plant where the seeds are formed4 ,after a certain time the flower withers1 the petals wilt and fall1 the calyx does the same1 or sometimes it remains to play the part of protector a while longer1 the dried stamens break off1 and only the ovary remains1 growing larger1 ripening1 and finally becoming the fruit that contains the seeds4 8,every sort of fruit--the pear1 apple1 apricot1 peach1 walnut1 cherry1 melon1 grape1 almond1 chestnut--began by being a little swelling of the pistil2 all those excellent things that the tree and plant give us for food were first ovaries40 8,then a big juicy pear began by being the ovary of a pear blossom80 queried ,emile4 8,yes1 my friend10 was the reply2 8pears1 apples1 cherries1 apricots1 even big melons and enormous pumpkins begin by being the little ovaries of their respective flowers4 ,i will show you an apricot in its blossom40 ,uncle ,paul took an apricot blossom1 opened it with his penknife1 and showed his listeners what is here reproduced in the picture4 8,in the heart of the flower10 he explained1 8you see the pistil surrounded by numerous stamens4 ,the head at the top of it is the stigma2 the swelling at the bottom is the ovary or future apricot40 8,that little green thing10 ,emile exclaimed incredulously1 8would have turned into a plump1 juicy apricot such as ,i am so fond of80 8,yes10 affirmed his uncle1 8that little green thing would have turned into an apricot such as ,emile is so fond of4 ,a similar little green thing would have turned into a big juicy pear1 into a fragrant apple1 or into a huge pumpkin1 so heavy that it rests lazily on its stomach4 ,to conclude1 ,i will show you the ovary from which come wheat and consequently bread40 ,uncle ,paul took a needle2 then with the skill and patience necessary for this operation he isolated one of the numerous flowers that collectively make up the ear of wheat4 ,the delicate little flower displayed clearly1 on the point of the needle1 the different parts composing it4 8,the blessed plant that gives us bread10 continued ,uncle ,paul1 8has very modest flowers4 ,two poor scales serve it for calyx and corolla4 ,you can easily recognize three hanging stamens with their double-sacheted anthers full of pollen4 ,the main body of the flower is the plump ovary which1 when ripe1 will be a grain of wheat4 ,it is surmounted by the stigma1 which has the shape of an elegant double plume4 ,such is the modest little flower that furnishes us all with the staff of life40 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,pollen 8,in a few days1 even in a few hours1 a flower withers4 ,petals1 calyx1 stamens fade and die4 ,only one part survives3 the ovary1 which is to become fruit4 ,now1 in order to outlive the rest of the flower and remain on its stem when all else dries up and falls1 the ovary at the moment of blossoming1 receives an access of vigor1 ,i might almost say a new life4 ,the magnificence of the corolla1 its sumptuous coloring1 its perfume1 all serve to celebrate the solemn moment when this new vitality is awakened in the ovary4 ,this great act accomplished1 the flower has had its day4 8,well1 it is the dust of the stamens1 the pollen1 that gives this increase of energy without which the nascent seeds would perish in the ovary1 itself withered4 ,it falls from the stamens on to the stigma1 which constantly wears a sticky coating designed to hold it2 and from the stigma it makes its mysterious influence felt in the very depths of the ovary4 ,animated then with new life1 the nascent seeds develop rapidly1 while the ovary swells so as to give them the nourishment and the space they require4 ,the final result of this incomprehensible travail is the fruit1 with its contained seeds all ready to germinate4 8,let us cite a few of the numerous experiments that prove the absolute indispensability of pollen4 8,most flowers have both stamens and pistils2 but there are plants that have their stamens and pistils in separate flowers4 ,sometimes the flowers with stamens only and those with pistils only are found on the same plant2 sometimes they are found on separate plants4 ,plants having flowers with stamens only and flowers with pistils only on the same stock are called moncious plants4 ,this expression means #8living in one house4' ,the flowers with stamens and those with pistils do indeed live together in the same house1 since they are found on the same plant4 ,the pumpkin1 cucumber1 melon1 hazel-nut-tree are moncious plants4 8,where flowers with stamens and those with pistils are found on different stocks1 the plants are termed dicious2 that is to say1 they are double-house plants4 ,hemp1 the locust-tree1 and the date-tree are dicious4 8,it is especially in moncious and dicious plants that the pollen's indispensability is plainly manifest on account of the natural separation of the stamens and pistils4 ,let us take for example the locust1 a tree of extreme southern ,france1 bearing seeds in pods similar to those of the pea1 but brown1 very long1 and very wide1 and containing in addition to the seeds a sugary pulp4 ,supposing we took a notion1 if the climate permitted1 to grow locust seeds in our garden1 what locust tree must we plant8 ,evidently the one with pistils1 because it alone produces the ovaries that become fruit4 ,but that is not enough4 ,planted by itself1 the locust tree with pistils will indeed blossom profusely every year1 but will never in all eternity bear any seeds1 for its flowers will fall without leaving a single ovary on the branches4 ,what is wanting8 ,the action of the pollen4 ,near the locust with pistils let us plant one with stamens4 ,now fructification proceeds as we wish4 ,puffs of wind1 insects that pilfer from one flower and carry to another--these convey the pollen from the stamens to the stigmas1 the torpid ovaries spring to life1 and the locust pods grow and ripen perfectly4 ,with pollen1 seeds2 without pollen1 no seeds4 8,another example4 ,in spots of fertile land in ,northern ,africa1 spots of land called oases1 the ,arabs cultivate numerous date-trees which provide them with dates1 their principal food4 ,date-trees1 too1 like the locust1 are dicious4 ,now1 in the country of the date-tree1 a sandy plain parched by the sun1 spots of watered and fertile land are rare and have to be turned to the utmost possible account4 ,accordingly the ,arabs plant only date-trees with pistils1 the only ones that will produce dates4 ,but when they are in flower1 the ,arabs go long distances to fetch bunches of blossoms with stamens from wild date trees in order to shake the pollen on the trees they have planted4 ,without this precaution there is no harvest4 8,but ,i am coming to an example that will be more familiar to us4 ,the pumpkin is moncious3 flowers with stamens and flowers with pistils inhabit the same house1 the same vine4 ,before they are full-blown they can easily be distinguished from each other4 ,the flowers with pistils have under the corolla a large swelling which is the ovary1 the future pumpkin4 ,the blossoms with stamens have not this swelling4 ,well1 from one pumpkin vine standing apart in the garden let us cut off all the buds with stamens before they open1 and leave those with pistils4 ,for greater surety we will wrap each one of these latter in a piece of gauze large enough to let the flower develop without hindrance4 ,this operation must be carried out before the buds open1 in order to make sure that the stigmas have not already received any pollen4 ,under these conditions1 not being able to receive the vivifying dust1 since the flowers with stamens are cut off1 and since also the gauze wrappings keep out the insects that might bring the pollen they had pilfered from some neighboring pumpkin vine1 the pistillate flowers will wither after languishing awhile1 and their ovaries will dry up without growing into pumpkins4 ,if1 however1 we wish any selected blossoms to fructify in spite of their gauze prison and the suppression of the staminate blossoms1 we take a small camel's hair brush and gather a little pollen which we put on the stigma4 ,that is enough1 the pumpkin will come4 8,the absolute necessity of pollen for the formation of fruit explains to us the harmful effect of violent winds and prolonged rains in blossoming time4 ,swept away by blasts of wind1 or washed away by rains1 or simply spoiled by long-continued moisture1 the dust of the stamens no longer acts on the ovaries1 and the flowers fall without fructifying4 ,this ruin of the harvest from lack of pollen is known as blight40 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,the ,,grain ,,of ,,wheat 8,now turn your attention to this picture of an ivy seed cut through lengthwise4 ,where is the germ or little plant in its egg8 ,it is that little white thing1 rather long and narrow1 embedded in the substance of the seed at one end4 ,a fine line marks the division of the two cotyledons1 which are now pressed close together4 ,next to them comes the tigella1 or little stalk1 ending in the radicle1 or rootlet4 ,notice1 my friends1 how small these cotyledons are1 how different from the enormous nursing-leaves of the almond1 acorn1 broad bean1 kidney bean1 and pea4 ,these poor little plant-udders must soon get dried up1 and if there were no other resources available at the time of germination the ivy would speedily starve to death4 8,but look3 under the skin of the seed we find a goodly store of farinaceous matter1 in which the germ is embedded4 ,almost the whole of the seed consists of this accumulation of flour4 ,so here we have the food-supply that will supplement that contained in the cotyledons1 a very insufficient provision in itself4 ,this granary of plenty within which the germ is lodged1 this storehouse of food is called the perisperm4 ,the almond1 acorn1 pea1 bean1 with a host of others1 are quite lacking in anything of the sort1 having under the skin only the germ and nothing more1 absolutely nothing4 ,the reason for this difference is plain enough4 ,the almond1 bean1 pea1 acorn1 with their big cotyledons bursting with nutritive matter1 do not need a supplementary ration2 the germ will be sufficiently suckled by the udders nature has provided in the form of these cotyledons4 ,but the ivy1 with its poor little cotyledons1 calls for help1 and finds it in the farinaceous storehouse of the perisperm4 8,thus a seed may have a double supply of nourishment to meet the needs of the young plant3 that contained in the cotyledons and that stored up in the perisperm4 ,cotyledons are never lacking1 but the perisperm is not found in all seeds4 ,there is none in the almond1 acorn1 chestnut1 apricot1 bean1 or pea2 but to make up for this lack their cotyledons are of considerable size4 ,on the other hand1 buckwheat1 chickweed1 and ivy1 whose cotyledons are small1 are provided with a perisperm4 ,all this may be reduced to one general rule4 ,cotyledons and perisperm play similar parts3 they both help to nourish the little plant in its infancy4 ,so1 generally speaking1 the seed with large cotyledons has no perisperm1 while the seed with small cotyledons has one4 8,i have just told you that many plants have only one cotyledon4 ,i will add that this cotyledon is usually very small4 ,it is especially in these plants that the perisperm is present4 ,the grain of wheat offers a notable illustration of this truth4 ,cut lengthwise and looked at through a magnifying-glass1 this seed would reveal to us what is represented in the picture ,i now show you4 ,at the bottom and toward one side is the germ1 forming but a very small part of the seed4 ,at c is the single cotyledon1 whence will come the first leaf1 the seminal leaf4 ,at e is the gemmule1 which will furnish the next leaves4 ,at the opposite end is a short nipple1 the radicle1 whence the root will spring4 ,now compare the tiny cotyledon of the wheat with the two voluminous ones of the almond4 ,the latter1 with their rich store of nourishment1 will easily be able to feed the young plant until it has vigorous roots2 but the cotyledon of the wheat1 so poor and slender--can it nourish the young plant8 ,certainly not4 ,then the wheat germ must without fail have a storehouse of provisions4 ,this storehouse is the perisperm 7pr71 a farinaceous mass constituting nearly the whole of the seed4 ,this same perisperm1 the first food of the wheat's first shoot1 is also the chief food of man2 it is what1 under the millstone1 becomes flour1 of which bread is made4 ,but how can the farinaceous substance of the perisperm nourish the plant8 ,a very simple experiment will show us4 ,put some wheat in a saucer and keep it slightly moist4 ,in a short time the seed will germinate4 ,as soon as the young sprouts show their green points take one of the grains3 you will find it softened all through4 ,you can crush it between your fingers and squeeze out a white fluid1 very sweet to the taste and much resembling some sort of milk4 ,what has taken place ought not to be beyond your power to surmise from the account ,i gave you of the wonderful change starch may undergo4 ,the perisperm of the wheat-grain consists chiefly of starch4 ,during germination this accumulation of starch is converted into a sugary substance1 into glucose in fact4 ,thence comes the sort of plant-milk with which the seed is now swollen4 ,the germ is immersed in this sweet liquid2 it imbibes it1 soaks it up almost as a fine sponge would2 and with the matter thus absorbed it augments its own substance1 which lengthens into root1 stem1 and leaves4 ,with what furnishes us bread the grain of wheat suckles the starting wheat-stalk40 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,cultivated ,,plants 8,three modes of plant-propagation are in use among horticulturists1 namely3 layering1 slipping1 and grafting4 ,to get an adequate notion of the great usefulness of these operations let us dwell for a moment on the origin of our cultivated plants4 8,you perhaps imagine that from the beginning of time1 in view of our need of food1 the pear-tree was eager to bear large fruit1 plump and juicy2 that the potato1 just to accommodate us1 stuffed its big tubers with farinaceous matter2 that the cabbage1 in its desire to gratify us1 conceived the idea of gathering those beautiful white leaves into a compact head4 ,you imagine that wheat1 pumpkins1 carrots1 grapes1 beets1 and no one knows what besides1 possessed with a great interest in man1 have always worked for him of their own accord4 ,you think that our grapes of to-day are like those from which ,noah extracted the juice that made him drunk2 that wheat1 ever since it appeared on the earth1 has never failed to yield its annual harvest of grain2 that the beet and the pumpkin had at the beginning of the world the plumpness that makes them prized by us now4 ,you imagine1 in short1 that our food-plants came to us originally just as we have them now4 ,undeceive yourselves3 the wild plant is usually of very little nutritive value to man4 ,his is still the task of so cultivating it as to derive advantage from its natural aptitudes by improving them4 8,in its native country1 on the mountains of ,chile and ,peru1 the potato in its wild state is a poor diminutive tuber about as large as a hazel-nut4 ,man takes the worthless wild stock into his garden1 plants it in rich soil1 tends it1 waters it2 and behold1 from year to year the potato thrives more and more1 gaining in size and in nutritive properties1 and finally becoming a farinaceous tuber as large as your two fists4 8,on the sea-coasts1 exposed to all the winds that blow1 there grows a wild cabbage with a tall stalk and a few green leaves of bitter taste and rank odor4 ,but beneath its rude exterior it may perhaps hide invaluable aptitudes4 ,apparently this suspicion occurred to him who first1 so long ago that the record of it is lost1 took the sea-coast cabbage under cultivation4 ,the suspicion was well-founded4 ,the wild cabbage has been improved by man's incessant care3 its stalk has become firmer and its leaves have multiplied1 whitened1 acquired tenderness1 and massed themselves in a compact head1 so that we have the crisp and succulent cabbage of to-day as the admirable result of this notable metamorphosis4 ,there on the sea-coast rock was the first beginning of the excellent plant2 here in our gardens is its present attainment4 ,but what about its intermediate forms which1 through the centuries1 marked the gradual development of the species to its present high state of perfection8 ,each of these forms was a step forward1 and each had to be preserved1 kept from degenerating1 and made the subject of still further improvement4 ,who could tell the story of all the labor and pains it has taken to produce the cabbage-head as we now have it8 8,and the wild pear-tree--are you acquainted with it8 ,it is a frightful bramble-bush1 all bristling with sharp thorns2 and the pears themselves--a most repellent fruit1 sure to choke you and set your teeth on edge--are very small1 sour1 hard1 and full of grit that reminds one of gravel-stones4 ,surely he must have had an extraordinary inspiration who first pinned his faith on this crabbed specimen of underbrush and foresaw in the remote future the butter-pear on which we regale ourselves to-day4 8,in the same way1 by the painstaking culture of the primitive vine1 whose grapes were no larger than our elderberries1 man has1 in the sweat of his brow1 developed the luscious fruit of the modern vineyard4 ,from some poor species of grass now forgotten he has also produced the wheat that to-day supplies us with bread4 ,a few wretched herbs and shrubs1 far from promising in appearance1 he has cultivated and improved until they became the vegetables and fruit trees so prized by us at present4 ,this old earth of ours1 in order to make us work and thus fulfill the law of our existence1 has behaved to us like a harsh stepmother4 ,to the birds of the air she gives food in abundance1 but to us she offers of her own free will nothing but wild blackberries and sour sloes4 ,but let us not complain1 for the stern struggle with necessity is precisely what constitutes our grandeur4 8,it is for us1 by our intelligence and labor1 to work our way out of the difficulty2 upon us it is enjoined to put into practice the noble creed1 ,god helps those who help themselves4 8,thus from the earliest times it has been man's study to select from the countless forms of vegetation at his disposal those that best lend themselves to improvement4 ,the greater number of species have remained useless to us1 but others1 predestined no doubt1 and created especially with a view to man's needs1 have responded to our efforts and acquired through cultivation qualities of prime importance1 since our sustenance depends on them4 ,nevertheless the improvement attained is not so radical that we can count on its permanence if our vigilance relaxes4 ,the plant always tends to revert to its primitive state4 ,for example1 let the gardener leave the headed cabbage to itself without fertilizing1 watering1 or cultivating it2 let him leave the seeds to germinate by chance wherever the wind blows them1 and the cabbage will quickly part with its compact head of white leaves and resume the loose green leaves of its wild ancestors4 ,in like manner the vine1 set free from man's constant attention1 will degenerate into the little-esteemed wild species that haunts our hedge-rows and yields a scant harvest that will not1 all together1 be worth a single bunch of cultivated grapes4 ,the pear-tree1 if neglected1 will again be found on the outskirts of our woods1 once more bristling with long sharp thorns and bearing under-sized and extremely unpalatable fruit4 ,under like conditions the plum-tree and the cherry-tree will bear nothing but stones covered with a sour skin4 ,in short1 all the riches of our orchards will in similar circumstances undergo such deterioration as to be worthless to us4 8,this reversion to the wild state occurs even under cultivation and in spite of efforts to prevent it when seed is used for propagating the plant4 ,suppose the seeds from an excellent pear are put into the ground4 ,well1 the trees that spring from those seeds will bear for the most part only mediocre or poor1 even very poor1 pears4 ,another planting is made with the pits of the second generation1 and the result shows still further decline4 ,thus if the experiment is continued with seeds taken each time from the immediately preceding generation1 the fruit1 becoming smaller and smaller1 bitterer and harder1 will at last return to the sorry wild pear of the thicket4 8,one more example4 ,what flower equals the rose in nobleness of carriage1 in perfume and brilliant coloring8 ,suppose we plant the seeds of this superb flower2 its descendants will turn out to be miserable bushes1 nothing but wild roses like those of our hedges4 ,but we need not be surprised at this4 ,the noble plant had the wild rose for ancestor1 and in trying to propagate it by its seed we have simply caused it to resume its native characteristics4 8,with some plants1 let us note in conclusion1 the improvement attained by cultivation is more stable and persists even when the seed is used for purposes of propagation2 but this persistence is only on the express condition that our vigilance shall not relax4 ,all plants1 if left to themselves and propagated by seed1 revert to the primitive state after a certain number of generations in which the characteristics imposed by human skill and care gradually disappear40 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,different ,,ways ,,of ,,propagating 8,since our fruit-trees and ornamental plants1 if propagated by seed1 revert sooner or later to the wild type1 how can they be propagated without risk of degeneration8 ,this must be done by means of the buds instead of the seeds4 ,buds or branches of a plant or tree must be transplanted from one stock to another2 this is called grafting2 or they may be planted directly in the soil by processes known as layering and slipping4 ,these are invaluable methods1 since they enable us to stabilize in the plant the improvements attained after long years of labor1 and thus to profit by these improvements1 which we owe to our predecessors1 instead of beginning all over again a course of training that would demand far more than a single life-time4 8,layering1 slipping1 and grafting insure the faithful reproduction of all the qualities of the parent stock4 ,as are the fruit1 flowers1 foliage of this parent stock which has furnished the buds or slips for transplanting1 so will be the fruit1 flowers1 foliage of the resulting plant or tree4 ,nothing will be added to the qualities we wish to perpetuate1 but on the other hand nothing will be subtracted4 ,to the double flowers of the original from which came the layer1 the slip1 or the graft1 will correspond the double flowers of the plant developing from this layer1 slip1 or graft3 the same shade of coloring will be reproduced1 and the fruit will have the same size1 savor1 and sweetness4 ,the slightest peculiarity which1 for unknown reasons1 appears in a plant grown from the seed1 and which sometimes is found only on a single branch1 as the indented outline of the leaves or the variegation of the blossoms1 is reproduced with minute accuracy if the graft1 slip1 or layer is taken from the branch having this modification4 ,by this means horticulture is daily enriching itself with double flowers or a new shade1 or with fruit remarkable for its size1 its early or late ripening1 its juicy flesh1 its more pronounced aroma4 ,without the help of graft and slip these fortunate accidents1 occurring but once and no one knows how1 would lead to no further profit after the death of the plant thus favored by chance2 and horticulture would find itself compelled to repeat over and over again its attempts to bring about improvements which1 almost as soon as effected1 would invariably be lost for want of means to fix them and render them permanent4 8,if history had preserved the record1 what long and painful efforts to develop our various cultivated plants from worthless seedlings should we not read there6 ,just think of what a happy inspiration it must have taken to select exactly the kind of vegetable or other plant susceptible of improvement1 what patient experimental attempts to subject it to cultivation1 what wearisome labor to improve its quality from one year to another1 what care to prevent its degenerating and to hand it down to posterity in perfect condition4 ,think of all this and you will see how the smallest fruit1 the smallest vegetable1 represents more than the toil of him who has raised it in his garden4 ,it represents1 perhaps1 the accumulated effort of a hundred generations1 an effort indispensable if we are to have a succulent pot-herb as the descendant of a worthless weed4 ,we live on the fruit and vegetables created by our predecessors2 we live on the labor1 strength1 ideas of the past4 ,may the future in its turn live on our strength both of arm and thought6 ,so shall we worthily fulfill our mission4 8,it was not chance that gave man the idea of layering1 slipping1 and grafting1 but rather the thoughtful observation of nature's methods all about him4 ,he who was first1 for example1 to note how the strawberry grows and multiplies1 received the first lesson in layering4 ,let us in our turn examine this curious process4 8,from the parent stock of the strawberry vine a number of runners start out1 long1 slender1 and creeping on the ground4 ,these runners are also known as stolons or creeping suckers4 ,after reaching a certain distance they expand at the end into a little tuft which takes root in the ground and is soon self-supporting4 ,the new tuft of the strawberry vine1 as soon as strong enough1 in its turn sends out long runners which follow the example of the first ones2 that is to say1 they creep along the ground1 end each in a rosette of leaves1 and take root4 ,the picture shows us a first tuft1 more vigorous than the others4 ,from the axil of one of its leaves starts a runner whose terminal bud has developed into a small plant already provided with roots of some vigor4 ,a second runner sprung from this plant bears a third rosette whose leaves are beginning to unfold4 ,after sending out an indefinite number of similar runners the mother plant finds herself surrounded with young suckers1 established here and there1 as many as the season and the nature of the soil permit4 ,at first these suckers are attached to the mother plant by the runners1 and sap flows from the old plant to the young ones2 but sooner or later there is a severance of ties1 the runners dry up and are henceforward useless1 and each offshoot1 properly rooted1 becomes a separate strawberry vine4 ,here we find1 without any of man's ingenuity or skill1 all the details of layering2 and it was undoubtedly the natural process that suggested the artificial method4 ,a long branch bends down to the ground1 takes root there1 and then becomes detached from the parent stock by the death or destruction of the connecting part4 ,the horticulturist lays a long shoot in the ground1 waits until it sends down adventitious roots1 and finally severs the connection with his pruning-shears4 ,that is layering40 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,,layering 8,some plants1 and among them the pink1 send out from the base of the mother stalk straight1 pliant shoots which can be used for obtaining so many new plants4 ,these shoots are bedded by being bent elbow-wise and having the angle stuck into the ground and fastened there with a crotch2 then the end is raised upright and held so by means of a stake4 ,sooner or later the buried elbow sends down adventitious roots1 but until then nourishment is drawn from the parent stock4 ,when the buried parts have sent down enough roots1 the connections are cut between the old plant and the new ones1 and each of these latter1 set out by itself1 is thenceforth a distinct plant4 ,this operation is called layering1 and the several shoots used in obtaining new plants are called layers4 8,let us now put into practice the method we have just been studying in theory4 ,in a vineyard1 we will suppose1 a number of the vines have died from some cause or other1 and it is necessary to replace them4 ,layering offers us the readiest means and will occasion least delay to the harvest4 ,near the place occupied by the dead vine we select a stock provided with a vigorous shoot of sufficient length and conveniently situated4 ,then we dig down where the old vine stands and pull up all of the lifeless stalk as well as the roots1 since these are seats of decay that might infect the whole neighborhood4 ,finally1 in the soil thus stirred we dig a ditch two or three decimeters deep1 and in this we lay the shoot we have selected1 taking care in bending it down not to break or splinter it4 ,the part thus put into the ground is then covered with a tolerably thick layer of earth1 and on this1 to complete the filling of the ditch1 is thrown a basketful of manure4 ,the tip of the shoot is raised upright1 tied to a stake1 and trimmed in such a manner as to retain only two eyes or buds above ground4 ,as to the eyes on the part extending from the mother stem to the point where the shoot plunges into the ground1 they are nipped off because they would needlessly appropriate a part of the sap4 ,this operation is called vine-layering1 and the shoot bent down and placed in the ground we speak of as a vine-layer4 ,the best time for this work is the beginning of winter1 because the long rest enjoyed by the shoot in the ground throughout the season when vegetation slumbers disposes it to sprout with more vigor upon the renewal of sap-circulation in the spring4 8,let us now watch the behavior of the partly buried vine-shoot4 ,if it had remained all in the open air1 it would have borne fruit2 it would have had its three or four bunches of grapes4 ,why should it not do so under the conditions imposed by the vine-dresser1 conditions that have altered nothing in its relations to the mother stem8 ,it still remains in uninterrupted communication with the vine that sustains it2 it receives its share of ascending sap drawn from the soil by the roots of this vine2 the buds remaining to it will develop leaves which1 with the help of sunlight1 will convert this crude sap into elaborated sap2 in short1 it lacks nothing to enable it to function almost as it would have done had it not been partly buried4 ,and in fact the vine-layer does bear that same year2 if well cared for1 it bears several bunches of grapes4 ,so the proverb says3 ,the vine-layer pays its owner from the very first year4 ,meanwhile1 acted on by the coolness and moisture of the soil and the stimulus of fertilization1 it puts forth adventitious roots where it has been placed underground1 and these roots grow in number and vigor until the time comes when they suffice to nourish the young vine without the help of the mother stem4 ,it is in the third year that the rooting is far enough advanced for the young offshoot's independent existence4 ,weaning is then undertaken1 and the nursling is deprived of its nurse2 that is to say1 a stroke of the pruning-knife close to the ground and on the side toward the parent stock separates the latter from the vine-layer1 which becomes henceforth self-supporting4 8,with its long shoots so near the ground the vine offers every convenience for carrying out the operation just described2 but as a general rule shrubs and trees are far less favorably situated3 their branches are not long enough or flexible enough or 7a prime essential7 near enough to the ground to be bent down and laid in the trench dug for receiving the layer4 ,how is this difficulty to be overcome8 ,the way is very simple4 ,we have already observed the effect of cutting back2 we know that a stem cut back1 that is to say cut off close to the ground1 develops around the border of its wound numerous adventitious buds which grow into so many shoots4 ,they are precisely the sort of shoots we need1 long1 flexible1 and starting from the level of the ground4 ,each of them1 if treated as a layer1 partly buried in a trench where it is fixed with a crotch1 and held1 above ground1 in a vertical position by means of a prop1 takes root sooner or later according to its species1 and can then be transferred as an independent plant to any desired spot4 ,such is the simple method known both as layering and as arching1 because it is essentially the same as ordinary layering and at the same time necessitates the bending of the young shoot so as to describe an arch4 8,the following method dispenses with this bending1 which is impracticable when the wood is too brittle4 ,in the spring the stalk or trunk that is to furnish the layers is cut back4 ,all around this cross-section young shoots soon make their appearance1 after which it is only necessary to wait until they are long enough but have not yet lost their tenderness1 a state most conducive to the growth of adventitious buds2 then the parent trunk is earthed up1 or in other words light soil is heaped all about the stump so as to cover the lower part of each shoot4 ,the earth is piled up in the shape of a truncated cone with a cup-shaped hollow at the top to receive water from time to time and thus maintain the necessary degree of moisture and coolness4 ,kept damp and cool in this manner1 the young shoots will before long send down adventitious roots1 and the following year there will be a cluster of rooted plants that can easily be detached with a knife4 ,that is what is called layering by earthing up or by sprouting4 8,if it is found undesirable to cut back the parent stem in order to obtain shoots for layering1 and if at the same time the shoot that we wish to root is too high to be bent down and inserted in the ground1 the following expedient may be employed4 ,a flower-pot broken in two lengthwise or a leaden cornucopia is hung on the tree1 and the branch to be rooted is placed lengthwise in the pot or cornucopia4 ,the pot is then filled with mold or moss kept damp by frequent watering1 and the result1 sooner or later1 is the growth of adventitious roots4 ,when these are suitably developed1 gradual weaning is next in order2 that is to say1 underneath the pot a slight cut is made1 and this is deepened day by day4 ,the end here in view is to accustom the layer little by little to do without the mother stem and support itself4 ,at last the separation is complete4 ,this gradual weaning is no less advantageous when the layers are placed in the ground3 it assures the success of the operation4 8,if the wood is tender1 adventitious roots spring without difficulty from the interred part1 and the methods already described suffice for the success of the layering2 but woods of dense structure are more or less obstinate about taking root1 and might remain in the ground indefinitely without yielding4 ,in such cases our art must intervene1 based on the plant's manner of living4 ,let us recall the effect of a band drawn tightly about a stalk or trunk4 ,above this line of strangulation the descending sap accumulates more and more1 since it can no longer continue on its course between the wood and the bark1 this latter being compressed by the ligature4 ,it accumulates and produces a ring-shaped swelling where the plant tries to discharge on the outside the superabundance of matter arrested in its passage4 ,let this protuberance be heaped about with fresh earth1 and adventitious roots will speedily be developed to allow the sap to continue its descent4 ,a tiny streamlet1 running free1 follows its channel without effort and without any undermining of obstacles4 ,but if we obstruct its passage the accumulating body of water will gain power to open new vents for itself through the dam4 ,sap does likewise4 ,circulating freely in its natural channel1 it is not diverted from its course by any allurements on its way2 and unless the conditions present in wood and bark favor the growth of new roots1 no sap will be expended for this purpose4 ,but if its usual passage is barred1 the sap devotes its energies to the formation of adventitious roots in order that it may1 through them1 resume its interrupted course4 ,a like result follows if a ring of bark is removed from the buried part of the branch or shoot that we wish to take root4 ,the arrested sap produces a ring-shaped swelling on the upper edge of the wound1 and from this swelling spring roots4 8,now let us apply these theoretical principles4 ,if the wood is compact and for that reason rebels against the laws of simple layering1 we will take a piece of wire and strangle 7that is the word7 the branch we are operating upon2 that is to say1 we will bind it tight1 but without breaking the bark4 ,the compression should be made just below a bud or eye1 and about midway of the part that is to be underground4 ,this process is called layering by strangulation4 8,or again1 still midway of the part to be bedded in the earth1 and immediately under a bud1 we cut the bark all around the branch without injuring the wood2 a second incision is made a centimeter and a half lower down2 then tearing off the strip of bark between the two circumcisions1 we remove it all in one piece4 ,this method is known as annular incision from the ring of bark thus taken away4 8,or as a third expedient1 still midway of the part to be bedded in the trench1 we make with a sharp instrument an oblique incision from below upward1 cutting into the wood as far as the marrow4 ,in this way we are enabled to raise a tongue comprising half the thickness of the shoot1 and this tongue is held in its lifted position by a small pebble inserted in the slit4 ,this is what we call a ,y-shaped incision1 because the raised tongue forms with the rest of the stem an opening like that between the two branches of the letter ,y4 ,through the half that remains intact communication with the mother stem is maintained and the needed share of crude sap is received1 while from the cut and upraised half adventitious roots are put forth because the course of the descending sap is arrested there4 8,in order to bring into contact with the damp soil a greater extent of wounded fiber fit for putting forth adventitious roots1 it is customary to split the upraised tongue in two and keep the two parts gaping by interposing a small pebble4 ,this method of double incision is used for trees that offer the greatest resistance to successful layering4 8,to sum up1 all these methods and others derived from them have for their object the fostering of adventitious roots by arresting the course of the descending sap at a certain point beneath the soil40 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi ,,slipping 8,propagation by means of a slip or scion cut from the parent tree and so placed that it will develop adventitious roots we may for convenience speak of as slipping4 ,the cut end of the slip is set in the ground in some cool1 moist1 shady spot where evaporation is slow and the temperature mild4 ,for delicate slips the shelter of a bell-glass is often necessary in order to insure the requisite moisture in the atmosphere and thus prevent the slip from drying up before it has sent down roots to make good its losses4 ,for greater surety1 if the slip has many leaves1 most of the lower ones are removed in order to reduce the evaporating surface as much as possible without compromising the plant's vitality1 which resides especially in the upper part4 ,but in many cases these precautions are needless2 thus1 to propagate the grape-vine1 willow1 and poplar1 it suffices merely to thrust the detached scion into the ground4 8,trees whose wood is soft and well filled with sap are the ones best fitted for slipping2 to this class belongs the willow1 with its notably tender fiber4 ,on the other hand1 wood that is dense and hard gives us sure warning that this mode of propagation will be found very difficult or even impossible4 ,thus it would invariably fail with the oak1 the olive1 the box-tree1 and a great many more hard-wood trees4 ,furthermore1 slipping offers far less certainty of success than layering1 since the layer remains in communication with the parent stock and is thus supplied with nourishment until it has acquired roots of its own1 whereas the slip1 all such communication being abruptly cut off1 is obliged from the outset to rely on its own resources and pass without help through the difficult period of rootlessness4 ,among fruit-bearers there are scarcely any except the grape-vine1 the currant-bush1 the quince-tree1 and a few varieties of plum and apple trees1 that lend themselves to this method of propagation4 ,among the larger trees the willow and the poplar take root with no difficulty whatever when started from the slip4 ,finally1 a great many ornamental species1 herbaceous plants or bushes like the rose1 jasmine1 and honeysuckle1 multiply easily by this method1 the usual one adopted with them by the flower-gardener4 8,let us go back now to the very simplest case1 the one calling for the fewest precautions4 ,a damp piece of ground on the water's edge is to be planted with poplars or willows4 ,toward the end of winter the forester in charge cuts a sufficient number of vigorous young branches as large around as a stout cane or even a man's fist1 or perhaps larger1 and from one to four meters long4 ,he removes all the lower twigs1 clips the intermediate ones to half their length1 and leaves the upper ones intact if the tree is to be pyramid-shaped2 otherwise he gives the top a truncate form4 ,finally the lower end is cut to a point with the hatchet1 to make it easier to thrust into the ground4 ,now the slip is ready for planting1 and all that is necessary is to push it well down into the earth by its pointed end and leave it to itself4 ,without any further attention1 if the ground is sufficiently damp1 adventitious roots will start1 and each of the stakes thus rudely hacked will become a poplar or a willow4 8,but other forms of vegetation are far from manifesting this facility in rooting which makes possible the growth of a tree from a stake driven into the ground1 it may be with the blow of a club2 therefore delicate precautions are necessary for success if these obdurate subjects are to be propagated by slips4 ,let us take the grape-vine as an example4 ,its slips for planting are shoots of the same year's growth4 ,these are tied in a bundle and their cut ends placed in water to soak for a week or more4 ,why this long immersion of the part that later is to be planted in the ground8 ,because the outside bark is dry and tough1 difficult for tender roots to pierce1 especially if the soil is dry4 ,accordingly the bark is softened by soaking for some time in water2 and also1 when the slips are taken out of the water1 they are lightly scraped where they are to be in the earth1 but left untouched where they are to be in the air4 ,in this way the outer layer of bark is removed after being softened in water1 and there is so much the less resistance offered to the growing roots2 but the inner layers1 where the vine's vital activities go on1 are scrupulously spared4 ,the slight wounds inflicted by this scraping1 let it be further noted1 favor the starting of roots by arresting the sap4 ,after being prepared in this manner the slips are set out4 ,in soil that has been well worked so that the young roots may push downward without hindrance1 vertical holes are made with a long iron or wooden dibble1 and in each of these holes a slip is inserted to the depth of about half a meter4 ,fine earth is then sifted into the hole and well rammed down to insure perfect contact with the slip1 and the operation is finished4 8,just as the process of layering is facilitated by the formation of a ring-shaped swelling where the descending sap is arrested in its course either by a ligature or by the removal of a ring of bark1 so the same artifice can be advantageously employed in propagating by means of slips4 ,around the shoot selected as slip for the next year's planting an iron wire is tightly bound2 or1 instead of this1 a ring of bark is cut away4 ,by autumn a swelling will have formed all about the stem1 whereupon the shoot is detached and placed in the ground for the winter in order that the swelling may become a little further enlarged and somewhat softened4 ,in the spring the shoot is taken up again1 trimmed so that it shall have only four or five buds left1 and planted like an ordinary slip4 ,from the ring-shaped swelling caused by the accumulation of sap roots will start4 8,all the advantages offered by the ring-shaped swelling may be secured with no expenditure of ingenuity on our part4 ,take hold of a small branch and pull it down so as to split it off from the main stem4 ,thus torn away it will bring with it a sort of spur or splinter from the trunk directly under the severed branch4 ,this spur1 trimmed with a knife to give it a less ragged outline1 will render the same service as the ring-shaped swelling3 the descending sap will be stopped in its course at this point1 will accumulate1 and will foster the growth of adventitious roots4 8,instead of breaking off the branch by tearing it away at its base1 one can1 with a stroke of the pruning-knife above this base and another below it1 cut the older limb bearing this branch so that the latter carries with it a piece of the former4 ,with this piece as a sort of natural bourrelet or swelling1 success is rendered more assured than in any other way4 8,to conclude1 let us say a few words about slipping by means of buds1 a kind of planting that uses buds instead of seeds4 ,this method1 which requires the nicest care of any1 is adopted only in exceptional cases4 ,let us suppose we have a very few shoots1 or only one1 from some extremely rare variety of grape-vine1 and we wish to obtain from this single shoot the greatest possible number of slips4 ,to this end the shoot is cut into small pieces about five centimeters long1 each bearing a bud midway of its length4 ,these pieces are then each split in two lengthwise1 and the part with the bud is retained1 the other thrown away4 ,thus prepared1 the pieces are planted in fertile soil with the split surface underneath and the bud just peeping out of the earth4 ,but to insure any likelihood of success with this method1 certain special conditions not called for in ordinary planting must be observed1 as will be readily understood4 ,the delicate slips are arranged with care in an earthen pan or pot1 and covered with a bell-glass to assure them a moist and warm atmosphere4 ,after roots have started the slips are transplanted1 each being placed in a separate pot where it gains strength and awaits the proper time for planting in the ground40 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii ,,grafting 8,grafting is the process by which a twig or a bud #e is transplanted from one branch to another1 or from one tree to another4 ,that which is to serve as support and sustenance to the transferred part is known as the stock1 while the twig or bud received by it is called the graft4 8,one absolutely necessary condition must be fulfilled if this operation is to be successful3 the transferred part must find on its new nursing-branch nutriment to its taste1 that is to say1 a sap like its own4 ,this requires that the two plants1 the stock and the one that furnishes the graft1 should be of the same species or at least belong to closely related species1 since likeness of sap and its products can result only from likeness of organization4 ,it would be a mere waste of time to try to engraft the lilac upon the rose1 or the rose upon the willow1 for there is nothing in common between these three species either in leaves1 flowers1 or fruit4 ,this difference in structure is invariably accompanied by a marked difference in respect to nutrition4 ,hence the rose-bud would starve to death on a lilac-branch1 and the lilac-bud would meet with the same sad fate on a rose-bush4 ,but lilac can very well be grafted on lilac1 rose-bush on rose-bush1 vine on vine4 ,and one can even go further than this3 a peach-bud will flourish on an apricot-tree1 a cherry-bud on a plum-tree1 and vice versa2 for between the members of each of these pairs there is a close and easily discernible analogy4 ,in short1 there must be the closest possible resemblance between the two plants if grafting is to succeed4 8,the ancients were far from having any clear idea on this absolute need of likeness in organization4 ,they tell us of grafting the holly with the rose to obtain green roses1 the walnut tree with the grape to produce enormous grapes as large as walnuts4 ,in our own time has not the project been seriously considered of grafting a vine shoot on to a mulberry tree in order to restore vigor to the grape whose roots an underground grub has attacked8 ,such graftings and others between plants completely unlike have never been successfully undertaken except in the imagination of those who dreamt them4 8,we have already seen that1 grown from seed1 our various fruit trees do not1 as a rule1 reproduce the quality of fruit of the parent stock2 an invincible tendency to revert to the wild state causes the fruit to lose1 little by little1 from one generation to another1 the improvement it had acquired through cultivation4 ,thus the pear1 through repeated plantings of the seed1 would become increasingly sour1 small1 and hard1 until it had at last returned to the sorry state of the wild pear growing on the edge of the woods4 ,but this defect attending growth from the seed is redeemed by one very desirable quality3 the tree thus grown regains more or less the robustness of its wild type2 it is incomparably more vigorous1 healthier1 longer-lived1 than the artificially perfected tree whose strength is compromised by the very excess of its fructification4 ,one has vigor1 the other fine fruit4 ,the two attributes cannot go together2 if one increases1 the other decreases4 ,well then1 these robust specimens reared from the seed are just what we require for grafting4 ,used as stocks1 they supply the quality inherent in them1 namely1 vigor2 and the cutting engrafted upon them furnishes the other quality1 excellence of fruit4 8,accordingly it is the practice to plant the pips of pears and apples1 and the stones of apricots and peaches2 and on the trees thus obtained to graft cuttings from pear1 apple1 apricot1 and peach trees that bear fruit of recognized superiority4 ,in this way there are united in the same tree the root and trunk of the robust and almost wild kind with the leaves and blossoms of the weak but artificially improved kind4 ,every variety of pear tree is by nature fitted to receive a pear graft1 every variety of peach tree to receive a peach graft1 and so on with all fruit-trees4 ,there is no objection to selecting as stock any wild pear1 cherry1 or plum tree that may have sprung up of itself in hedge or thicket4 ,it is thus for example that the cherry is grafted on two others of like sort1 the wild cherry and the cherry of ,saint ,lucia1 both frequenters of uncultivated hillsides4 ,the first bears fruit hardly as large as a pea1 black1 round1 and full of a very dark and rather bitter juice2 the second has still smaller fruit with scarcely any pulp and uneatable4 ,no matter3 with grafts from a suitably chosen source they will cover themselves with the finest cherries4 ,in like manner our superb garden roses can be grown on the wild rose stock1 the common dog rose of the hedges1 whose modest blossoms have only five petals of a pale carnation color and are well-nigh odorless4 ,sometimes1 again1 two species of similar characteristics are chosen for grafting purposes4 ,thus the pear grafts well on the quince-tree1 the fruit of the latter being1 after all1 a sort of big pear2 the apricot can be grafted on the plum2 the peach on the plum and1 still better1 on the almond1 so like the peach in its foliage1 its early blossoming1 and the structure of its fruit4 8,as a curiosity let us mention the mixing of several kinds of fruit on the same stock4 ,by means of grafting the same tree can bear1 all at one time1 almonds1 apricots1 peaches1 plums1 and cherries1 because these five kinds admit of reciprocal grafting2 another tree may be covered simultaneously with pears1 quinces1 berries of the mountain ash1 medlars1 and service-berries4 ,these are very odd instances1 certainly1 but of no practical interest4 ,it would be a waste of time to dwell longer on them did they not teach a useful lesson4 ,they demonstrate that however many fresh grafts are added to a tree1 the new-comers exert no influence outside their own sphere4 ,whether offshoots of the tree itself or aliens1 the grafts develop1 blossom1 and fructify1 each after its own kind1 without contracting any of its neighbor's habits4 ,among the curious phenomena observed in this artificial juxtaposition of mutually independent grafts1 we will mention a pear-tree on which were represented1 by means of grafting1 all the different varieties of cultivated pears4 ,sour or sweet1 dry or juicy1 large or small1 green or bright-colored1 round or long1 hard or mellow1 each and all ripened on the same tree and grew again year after year without change1 faithful to the specific character1 not of the supporting tree1 but of the various grafts planted on this common stock4 8,the mere bringing together of analogous plants does not suffice for the success of the operation of grafting2 there must be a considerable extent of contact between those parts of the graft and the stock that have the most vitality and are consequently best fitted to coalesce4 ,this contact should be in the inner layers of the bark and in the seat of plant-growth situated between the wood and the bark4 ,the vital activity of the plant1 in fact1 resides especially in this region4 ,it is between the wood and the bark that the elaborated sap descends2 there is where new cells and new fibers are organized1 to form on one side a sheet of bark and on the other a layer of wood4 ,hence it is there and only there that coalescence is possible between the graft and the stock40 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii ,,grafting 7,continued7 8,there are three principal kinds of grafting1 namely3 grafting by approach 7also called simply #8approaching' or #8inarching'71 grafting by shoots or scions1 and grafting by buds 7commonly known as #8budding'74 ,the form given to the two cut ends that are brought together and the disposition of the parts thus placed in contact give rise1 in practice1 to numerous subdivisions that need not be mentioned here4 ,we will confine ourselves to the essentials4 8,grafting by approach is analogous to layering1 with this difference1 that the tree to be grafted takes the place of the soil that receives the layer4 ,in layering we induce the growth of adventitious roots by partly burying in the ground a branch or shoot still adhering to the stock that nourishes it4 ,when1 acted upon by the soil1 roots have started in sufficient number1 the shoot is gradually cut loose until at last it is quite severed from the parent stock4 ,in grafting by approach it is also proposed to make a branch1 a shoot1 a tree-top1 while still united to its own stem or stock1 take root1 so to speak1 not in the ground1 but in the substance of a neighboring tree4 8,let us suppose that two shrubs are growing close together and that we wish to engraft on one of them a twig or shoot of the other4 ,the parts to be placed in contact receive each a longitudinal gash that penetrates to the marrow1 or even deeper1 and the two gashes are made of equal length4 ,these parts are then brought together1 care being taken to make the young and growing portions in the one exactly meet those in the other2 that is to say1 the inner layer of bark in each1 with the channel traversed by the elaborated sap1 is carefully fitted to the corresponding part in its neighbor4 ,the whole is thereupon made fast with a ligature1 and the two wounds are left to the slow operation of vital forces4 ,fed by its own stem or trunk1 from which it is not yet separated1 the shoot to be transplanted mingles its sap with the sap of its neighbor2 on both sides there are new growths to cicatrize the wounds1 while the two parts gradually coalesce until1 sooner or later1 the graft becomes incorporated with its future support4 ,and now the graft must be weaned2 that is1 it must1 little by little1 be deprived of the sustenance furnished by its own stock4 ,this is accomplished as in simple layering1 by gradually cutting through the shoot below the point of union4 ,as soon as the graft is thought to be getting all its nourishment from the new stem1 it is completely severed from the mother tree4 ,this mode of grafting1 the most elementary of all1 sometimes takes place accidentally and unassisted4 ,in a hedge or any dense growth of bushes1 if two branches chance to come into close and prolonged contact1 there will be at this point1 first1 a slight abrasion and then a complete wearing away of the bark until the two raw surfaces end1 it may be1 in growing together4 ,it is not improbable that natural occurrences of this kind furnished man with his first notions of grafting4 8,grafting by approach is an excellent method to apply whenever in the arrangement of a fruit-tree's branches there is a vacant space that needs filling4 ,regular distribution1 symmetry of arrangement1 is a condition demanded if only to satisfy the eye1 which is always offended by disorder2 but there is another and still more convincing reason for this regularity4 ,the more evenly a tree's branches are distributed1 so that each shall receive an equal share of sap1 sunlight1 and heat1 so much the more fruit will it bear4 ,suppose1 then1 there is a lack of branches in some part4 ,to fill this gap and thus restore the tree's symmetry1 grafting by approach offers a ready means4 ,from a branch near the vacant space and itself sufficiently supplied with twigs or shoots1 one of these latter1 of good length1 is selected2 then it is properly cut or gashed and the gash is brought into contact with a similar gash at the point where it is desired to start a new growth2 and1 finally1 a ligature is applied to hold the two parts together4 ,as soon as coalescence is complete the graft is severed below the point of union1 and the lower section1 after being straightened up again1 is ready to serve once more as branch to the limb that bears it4 ,in this way1 with no loss to themselves1 the more abundant branches furnish offshoots to the poorer ones4 8,grafting by means of shoots or scions cut from the parent stock at the outset is analogous to slipping4 ,it consists in transplanting on to a new stock a shoot detached from its mother branch4 ,the most common method is cleft-grafting4 ,it is done in the spring when the buds begin to open4 ,shoots of the preceding year are chosen for grafts1 care being taken to select those that are vigorous and that have attained no later than ,august the hard and woody condition necessary for resistance to the severities of winter4 ,one precaution at the very outset must be taken4 ,when the graft is put in place it will be of the utmost importance that it shall find in its new position nourishment proportionate to its needs4 ,it would infallibly perish if it should prove to be in a more advanced state of vegetation than the stock selected to nourish it4 ,the latter1 therefore1 ought to be rather ahead of than behind the former in this respect4 ,to secure this result1 between one and two months before the operation is to be carried out it is well to cut the grafts and place them in the ground on the north side of a wall1 where they will remain quiescent while the branches to which they are to be transferred will make progress and their sap will start4 8,we will suppose there is a worthless pear-tree in our garden1 grown from a pip or transplanted from its native wood1 and we propose to make it bear good pears4 ,the course to pursue is as follows4 ,we cut off entirely the upper part of the wild pear tree1 trimming the cut with our pruning-knife so that there are no ragged edges1 since these would not scar over readily and might become the seat of a far-reaching decay4 ,if the trunk is of moderate size and is to receive but one graft1 it is cut a little obliquely with a small level surface on the upper edge1 as shown in the picture4 ,in the middle of this horizontal facet a split is made to the depth of about six centimeters4 ,that done1 we take one of the grafts set aside as already indicated1 and we cut it so as to leave only two or three buds1 of which the topmost one should be at the tip of the branch4 ,then1 just under the lowest bud we whittle the end of the graft into the shape of a knife-blade1 letting the bud stand just above the back or dull edge of the blade4 ,for greater stability when the graft is put in place1 a narrow inverted ledge is cut at the top of the blade on both sides4 ,a glance at the picture will show you all these little details4 ,finally1 the graft is slipped into the cleft of the stock1 bark exactly meeting bark1 wood meeting wood4 ,the whole is brought tightly together by binding1 and the wounds are covered with grafting mastic1 which may be bought already prepared4 ,if this mastic is lacking we can use what is known in the country as ,saint ,fiacre's ointment1 a sort of paste made of clay1 or rather a mixture of clay and cows' dung1 the fibrous nature of the latter preventing the former from cracking4 ,a winding of rags holds the ointment in place4 ,thus wound1 the stump does not suffer from exposure to the air1 which would dry it up4 ,in course of time the wounds cicatrize1 and the bark and wood of the graft coalesce with the bark and wood of the severed trunk4 ,finally the buds of the graft1 nourished by the stock1 develop into branches and at the end of a few years the top of the wild pear tree is replaced by that of a cultivated pear tree bearing pears equal to those of the tree that furnished the graft4 8,the operation of cutting back a branch or trunk to receive the graft always promotes the growth of numerous buds4 ,what is to be done with the shoots that spring from these8 ,evidently they must be suppressed1 for they would appropriate1 to no good end1 the sap intended for the graft4 ,nevertheless the suppression must be done cautiously4 ,let us not forget that what primarily causes the sap to ascend is the evaporation of moisture from the leaves4 ,as long as the graft has not opened its buds and spread its leaves1 it is well to let the young shoots of the stock remain untouched4 ,they act as helpers1 in that their foliage draws upward the juices extracted from the soil by the roots2 so that1 far from having an injurious effect at this time1 their presence is most useful4 ,but the day will come when the graft alone will suffice for this work of pumping up the sap1 and then it is best to get rid of these messmates which1 of heartier appetite than the graft1 would soon starve it out4 ,first the lower shoots of the stock are suppressed1 then gradually those higher up1 care being taken not to destroy the top ones until the graft has developed shoots two or three decimeters long40 ,,chapter ,,xxxix ,,grafting 7,concluded7 8,the part of a plant or tree above ground and the part under ground are mutually dependent1 the development of one implying a corresponding development in the other4 ,if there is a superabundance of foliage1 the roots will be unable to furnish it sufficient nourishment2 on the other hand1 if the roots are unduly vigorous1 there will be too much sap for the foliage--an excess of nourishment which1 there being no use for it1 will encumber the plant and be injurious to it4 ,hence if the trunk to be grafted is strong it must have several grafts1 in order that the number of buds to be nourished may be in right proportion to the number of nourishing roots4 8,to this end the trunk is cut1 not obliquely as for a single graft1 but horizontally4 ,then it is split all the way across1 following a line that passes through the central pith1 and two grafts are implanted in the cleft1 one at each end4 ,it is evident that not more than two can be placed in the same cleft1 because the bark of the graft must of necessity come in contact with the bark of the stock to insure inter-communication and coalescence between the sap-canals of the two4 ,if the size of the stock requires more than two grafts1 instead of splitting the trunk diametrically several times1 it is preferable to make lateral clefts which1 leaving the center untouched1 cause less danger to the solidity of the stock4 8,recourse can also be had to the following method1 in which no clefts whatever are called for1 clefts being difficult to cicatrize when the wood is old4 ,the grafts are cut like the mouthpiece of a flute2 that is to say1 at the base half is taken off lengthwise while the other half is left1 but is whittled down1 thinner and thinner toward the end1 much like a flute's mouthpiece4 ,thus shaped1 the grafts are inserted between the wood and the bark of the stock1 an operation facilitated by the flow of sap in the spring1 when the bark separates easily from the wood4 ,if there is danger of tearing the bark under the strain of the graft acting as a wedge1 a slight incision is made in the bark to give it the play it needs4 ,in this way the circumference of the stock receives the number of grafts deemed necessary4 ,it only remains now to bind the whole securely and cover the wounds with mastic4 ,this method is called crown-grafting1 because the grafts are arranged in a crown on the circumference of the cross-section4 8,grafting by buds corresponds to that variety of slipping in which buds1 each one by itself on a small fragment of the branch1 are set into the ground4 ,it consists in transplanting on the stock a simple bud with the bit of bark that bears it4 ,it is the method most commonly employed4 ,according to the time of year when the operation is undertaken1 the graft is called an active bud or a dormant bud4 ,in the first case the grafting is done in the spring1 when nature is awaking from her winter's sleep1 so that the eye or bud implanted in the stock coalesces with it and very soon develops into a young shoot4 ,in the second instance the bud is set in place some time in ,july or ,august1 at the period of the autumnal sap1 so that it lies dormant or1 in other words1 remains stationary during the following autumn and winter1 after uniting with the stock4 8,the implement here required is the grafting-knife1 furnished at one end with a very sharp blade1 and at the other with a short spatula of bone or very hard wood4 ,the first thing to do is to remove the bud to be transplanted4 ,on a branch in which the sap is working we make with the grafting-knife a transverse cut above the bud and another below2 then1 holding the branch in one hand and the grafting-knife in the other1 as the picture shows1 we remove the strip of bark lying between these two cuts and delimited laterally by the line ggg and its opposite1 in figure ,f4 ,this strip1 which we call the shield1 is shown by itself in ,h4 ,the leaf that sheltered the bud in its axil has been removed1 but the base of the stem of this leaf has been left and will be useful later for taking hold of the shield and handling it more conveniently4 ,the shield must be cut away without any tearing and in such a manner that no sap-wood is left clinging to the bark4 ,the latter must be perfectly intact1 especially in its inner layers1 the seat of vital activities4 ,finally1 the bud should have its proper complement of young1 greenish wood1 which constitutes the germ1 the very heart of the bud4 ,should this germ be removed by unskilful manipulation1 the bud would have to be thrown away1 for the graft would surely fail4 8,the next step is to make a double incision in the bark in the shape of a ,t1 penetrating as far as the wood but without injuring it4 ,with the spatula of the grafting-knife the two lips of the wound are raised a little while the bud with its shield is taken up by the piece of leaf-stem attached to it and inserted between the bark and the wood4 ,all that now remains to be done is to draw the lips of the little wound together and bind the whole with some sort of material sufficiently pliant and elastic not to compress and finally strangle the bud as it develops4 ,a rush1 a slender thong made of a long and flexible grass-blade1 or1 better still1 a piece of woolen yarn is well suited to the purpose4 ,but if despite all precautions the ligature should after a while prove too tight on account of the swelling of the graft1 it would be necessary to loosen it without delay4 ,as soon as the graft has #8taken1' as we say1 the young shoots starting out on the stock are gradually suppressed in the cautious manner prescribed for cleft-grafting4 8,when the stock is too small to receive a bud in the usual manner1 the following expedient is resorted to4 ,from a shoot of about the same size as the stock a rectangular strip of bark with bud attached is cut with four incisions of the grafting-knife4 ,this strip is immediately laid upon the stock to serve as a pattern while the point of the knife is passed all around it4 ,in this way there is cut from the stock a strip of bark having exactly the same shape and size as the pattern1 which latter is thereupon inserted in the vacant place and made fast there by a ligature4 ,this process may not inappropriately be called veneering4 8,in flute-grafting the bark both above and below the bud is cut transversely all around the stem1 and then another cut is made lengthwise between these two slashes4 ,a cylinder of bark may thus be peeled off in one piece4 ,from the stock1 which should match this cylinder in size1 a similar cylinder is removed and its place taken by the other one bearing the bud we wish to transplant40 ,,chapter ,,xl ,,rotation ,,of ,,crops ,they are eating dinner at the farm4 ,a large platter of pork cutlets and beans is smoking in the center of the table4 ,every one has been served4 ,it is a pleasure to see these good people eat1 they have such hearty appetites4 ,jacques1 the big ox-driver1 is the first to finish4 ,he throws his bone away4 ,azor is there to seize it4 ,he lies flat on his stomach and takes the bone in his fore paws4 ,hear him bite on his hard pittance4 ,how it cracks6 ,let any one beware of teasing ,azor now4 ,an angry growl and a baring of his four formidable canine teeth would warn the rash intruder to have done with his joking at once1 for if not--well1 ,i will not be responsible for the consequences4 ,azor is not a surly dog2 far from it2 but he is well within his rights when he brooks no nonsense at his meals4 ,he has done his duty most valiantly as a dog4 ,night before last some wolves were prowling about the sheep-fold1 and he drove them off4 ,let ,azor gnaw his bone in peace4 ,ha1 there6 ,the big tortoise-shell cat1 ,master ,minet1 is otherwise minded4 ,he draws near1 hair erect1 tail as large around as your arm1 to try to frighten ,azor and rob him of his allowance4 ,azor1 without dropping the bone1 gives a low growl and lifts one paw4 ,that is enough1 the cat flees4 ,so1 my bold ,minet1 what were you after here8 ,the bone is not for you2 your teeth are not strong enough to bite it4 ,go away6 ,martha is calling you to give you some bread soaked in gravy4 ,that will suit you better than a bone as hard as a stone4 ,ah1 here come some more guests4 ,the door stands open and in come the hens from the poultry-yard4 ,tap1 tap1 tap1 tap2 they peck the crumbs fallen from the table4 ,azor has no use for such diet--tiny morsels much too small for him2 nor does the cat want them either1 they are too floury4 ,but the hens feast on them4 ,and all1 human beings1 dog1 cat1 hens1 dine at the same time2 only each must make the best of what the others cannot use4 ,azor is content with the bone that big ,jacques threw away2 the cat is satisfied with a little bread soaked in gravy1 a dish quite inadequate to ,azor's needs2 the hens pick up the crumbs disdained by ,jacques1 ,azor1 and the cat4 ,martha1 it seems1 had prepared dinner only for the farm people1 and behold1 by utilizing the scraps that are worthless to some1 many others join in the midday meal4 ,from the scraps disdained by man the dog will gain strength to defend the flock2 from those rejected by the dog the cat will acquire keen eyesight and sharp claws to see and to seize the mouse2 from what is of no value to the cat the hens will make eggs2 and everything1 absolutely everything1 will go to the profit of the farm4 8,agriculture in its turn10 remarked ,uncle ,paul1 turning to account this homely illustration in domestic economy1 8prepares dinner for the crops in its own peculiar manner4 ,it spreads the ground with manure1 that fertile dressing so relished by growing plants4 ,the table is set1 or in other words the field is ready1 well plowed and harrowed1 and well manured4 ,whom shall we call first to the table1 for it is plain we cannot invite all at once4 ,whom shall we call first8 ,it shall be wheat1 let us say1 a plant with tastes hard to please1 but one that in return gives us bread4 ,so wheat is sown4 ,in this soil1 full of all sorts of good things1 it cannot fail to thrive1 however unfavorable the season may be4 ,it will select what suits it best and leave the rest4 8,now that is done4 ,the harvest is in1 and it handsomely comes up to our hopes4 ,the wheat has converted into magnificent grain the fertilizer put into the ground4 ,out of decay it has created nourishment4 ,surely it has well acquitted itself of its charge4 ,it has made a clean sweep3 all that could be turned into wheat it has appropriated1 and there remains nothing further to be done4 ,what would happen1 then1 if wheat were sown again in the same field8 ,exactly the same thing that would happen to ,simon if he had nothing to eat but the bone that ,jacques threw away4 ,he would die of hunger4 ,simon must have man's food1 wheat must have wheat's food4 ,so if the first crop has exhausted the supply of material for making wheat1 how can you expect to raise a second crop8 ,evidently that is asking the impossible2 it is running the risk of reaping only a very mediocre harvest or even none at all4 ,therefore it is the rule not to sow wheat twice in succession in the same field4 ,and what is true of wheat is true also of all other crops4 ,where a plant has prospered one year1 the same plant will not do well the second year1 because the ingredients required by this plant are more or less exhausted4 ,it is foolish to invite guests to a table that is stripped bare4 8,if the table were spread again1 if more fertilizer were added to the soil1 that would be quite a different matter1 and wheat would grow as well as it did the first time4 ,but such a procedure would be bad management1 for the very utmost should be made of one meal4 ,before further expenditure in the way of fertilizer let us exhaust the virtue of the fertilizer already applied4 ,azor dined well on what ,jacques discarded2 the hens were well fed with what ,azor and the cat left4 ,let us take an example from this succession of eaters who utilize each in his own way the remnants worthless to the others4 ,the wheat has exhausted1 or nearly exhausted1 all that is suitable for wheat2 but just as ,jacques the ox-driver left the bone1 it has left in the soil a good many ingredients that make excellent food for other crops4 ,in order1 therefore1 to utilize to the last ounce the first spreading of fertilizer1 we must invite to the repast a guest of different tastes4 ,this guest may be1 for example1 the potato4 ,in soil that would have furnished but starvation diet for wheat the potato will find quite enough to live on1 its tastes not being the same as the cereal's4 8,thus we have two successive crops for one coating of manure3 we have sacks of potatoes with no additional outlay in fertilizer4 ,is that all8 ,not yet4 ,after the wheat and the potatoes there is1 to be sure1 but meager nourishment left in the upper layer of the soil2 but in the lower layers there remains the part of the fertilizer that the rain has washed down and dissolved and that the short roots of the preceding crops could not reach4 ,to utilize this underlying matter and bring it up again to the surface in the form of forage let us now sow a plant with vigorous roots1 such as clover1 sainfoin1 or1 still better1 lucerne1 which will penetrate deeper4 ,and so we get our third crop4 8,after clover we can try a fourth crop1 of a different kind2 but it is evident that as the guests succeed one another at the same table the remnants become more and more scanty and difficult to utilize4 ,accordingly we must choose a hardy plant and one that is content with little4 ,finally a time will come1 and at no very distant date1 when the board will be bare3 the coating of manure will have given up its last particle of nutritious matter4 ,then the table must be garnished afresh1 the field fertilized anew before beginning again with the same crops or attempting others4 ,let us demand no more4 ,you understand1 my young friends1 that in order to utilize to the utmost this precious substance that gives us every kind of food1 such as bread1 vegetables1 forage1 meat1 fruit1 dairy products--to make the very best use of this we must1 instead of raising the same crop in the same field year after year1 adopt the plan of varying our crops1 changing from one of one kind to another of a different character1 so that what earlier plantings have left in the soil may be turned to account by later ones4 ,this succession of different sorts of farm produce is called rotation of crops40 ,,chapter ,,xli ,,rotation ,,of ,,crops 7,continued7 8,when soil is spoken of as worn out and needing rest1 the speaker uses a figure of speech meaning that the soil has been exhausted by the crops it has borne4 ,the crops do indeed take from the land a great quantity of substances necessary for plant-life2 and when these substances are no longer present in sufficient amount1 the soil refuses to produce2 it is exhausted4 ,to restore its original fertility would require a large outlay in fertilizer and hence it is often more advantageous to accomplish this object by one of the following methods4 8,sometimes the land is allowed to lie fallow2 that is to say1 it is left to itself without any care whatever for whole years4 ,weeds spring up freely1 and at the same time water1 air1 and frost act on the soil1 disintegrating and mellowing it and inducing the formation of certain substances necessary to vegetation4 ,the weeds are converted into mold1 and finally the land1 rested and recuperated1 is ready to bear a new crop4 ,restoration by this process is very slow1 taking several years1 and hence it is customary to shorten the period of waiting by working the soil and even manuring it1 although it may not yet be the intention to sow any seed4 ,in these circumstances the land is called fallow land4 8,there is1 however1 one way to obtain an uninterrupted succession of crops from the same land unless the soil is very poor4 ,all plants derive their nourishment from the soil and the atmosphere2 but some take more from the atmosphere1 others from the soil4 ,the plants that get their sustenance chiefly from the air are those that have luxuriant foliage4 ,the potato is one of these4 ,you know that it is through their leaves that plants obtain the carbonic acid gas diffused in the air4 ,the greater the spread of foliage1 the more abundant will this absorption be4 ,the plants that depend almost wholly on the soil are those with only a few small1 slender leaves1 thus taking but little carbonic acid gas from the air4 ,such is wheat4 8,moreover1 from the potato plant we take only the tubers1 which form but a small part of the whole1 and we turn under the stalks and leaves1 which are thereupon converted into humus4 ,thus the potato has the property of enriching the soil at the expense of the atmosphere1 and it gives back more than it takes4 ,it is1 then1 one of the enriching rather than impoverishing plants in respect to its action on the soil4 ,cereals1 on the contrary1 are utilized by the harvester both as to seed and haulm1 nothing but the meager roots being left in the ground2 and as1 on account of their very scanty foliage1 cereals derive almost their entire sustenance from the soil1 they take from it much more than they give back to it4 ,they accordingly belong to the class of plants that impoverish rather than enrich the soil in which they grow4 8,it is impossible1 thus1 except by a ruinous expenditure of fertilizer1 to raise a crop of grain every year on the same land4 ,but if we should let potatoes succeed wheat1 and wheat succeed potatoes1 what would be the result8 ,the latter crop1 deriving a large part of its nourishment from the air1 would flourish in soil comparatively exhausted by wheat2 and on having its leaves and stalks turned under it would give back to the soil a part of its former fertility4 ,wheat could then be successfully raised again on the same land4 8,this practice of raising successively on the same land different crops as little harmful to one another as possible and capable of utilizing to the utmost the dressing put on to the land1 is nothing but that very rotation of crops that ,i have already told you something about4 ,its purpose is to economize fertilizer and at the same time to secure an uninterrupted succession of crops4 ,the underlying principle consists in making an enriching plant succeed an impoverishing one2 that is to say1 a plant with luxuriant foliage is made to succeed one with scanty foliage4 ,the chief enriching plants are clover1 lucerne1 sainfoin1 potatoes1 turnips1 and beets4 ,cereals1 on the contrary1 are all impoverishing plants4 ,it is a general custom to raise on the same land a more or less extended series of different crops1 the series running four1 five1 or six years1 or even longer1 after which it begins over again in the same order4 ,this rotation of crops is designated according to the number of years the series covers1 as for instance a five-year or a six-year rotation4 ,a six-year rotation might run1 we will say1 somewhat as follows3 #ast year--potatoes--enriching crop4 #bnd year--wheat--impoverishing crop4 #crd year--clover--enriching crop4 #dth year--wheat--impoverishing crop4 #eth year--sainfoin--enriching crop4 #fth year--oats--impoverishing crop4 8,let us examine in detail this series that we have taken as an example4 ,the first year the soil is thoroughly manured4 ,one of the effects of manuring is to start a great crop of weeds that would infest the land and impoverish the crop were they not carefully removed4 ,hence the necessity of weeding4 ,to weed a piece of ground is to destroy the weeds either by hand or with some implement4 ,but it is not every crop that admits of weeding3 the plants must be a certain distance apart1 as otherwise they will be trampled under foot1 cut off1 or uprooted in the weeding process4 ,wheat cannot be weeded1 its stalks are too close together2 but potatoes are far enough apart for weeding without difficulty4 ,now1 weeding destroys all useless1 injurious grasses and other unwelcome intruders2 their future reappearance is prevented by pulling them up before their seeds ripen1 and thus at last the ground is cleaned and made ready for a choice crop4 ,this will explain to you the great advantage of letting the potato or some other crop that can be weeded take precedence of the cereals4 8,the second year comes wheat4 ,cleaned by the tillage that has gone before1 the ground is no longer covered with grass and weeds4 ,nor does it need fresh manure1 for if the potatoes have consumed certain elements in the soil1 these are not exactly the same that wheat requires2 and1 furthermore1 the dead plants1 turned under and reduced to vegetable mold1 compensate by what they have derived from the atmosphere for what the tubers may have taken from the soil4 ,wheat is therefore just the crop to raise now4 8,but it would be much against one's interest to exact from the soil another crop of wheat the third year4 ,exhausted by the grain it has just produced1 the soil would yield but a scanty harvest unless it were freshly manured1 a process that would make of the whole operation1 not a piece of farming1 but an example of gardening1 and would also entail too great expense4 ,for that reason the third year is devoted to the raising of an enriching crop1 such as clover4 ,after furnishing a supply of fodder1 what is left of the clover is turned under1 and all its remnants of roots1 stems1 and leaves are reduced to mold1 which renders the soil fit for another wheat harvest the fourth year4 ,a third enriching crop to be turned under after the final mowing1 is likewise needed for the fifth year2 and this crop may be sainfoin4 ,at the end of the series comes another cereal1 oats1 for example4 ,the rotation is now complete1 and the program begins all over again4 8,crop-rotation is capable of innumerable variations1 and the series may be longer or shorter1 but there should be the slightest possible departure from the rule that a cereal crop ought always to be preceded by some crop that enriches the soil40 ,,chapter ,,xlii ,,land-,,drainage 8,in the bottom of a flower-pot you will find a small round hole4 ,over this hole it is customary to lay a bit of broken tile1 and on this1 if the plant to occupy the pot is delicate1 a few small pebbles4 ,this done1 the pot is filled with vegetable mold4 ,why this hole1 this bit of tile1 these pebbles8 ,that is what we are now about to consider4 8,water is absolutely indispensable to plants1 since it is the medium that dissolves the various nutritive ingredients of the soil and thus renders them capable of assimilation by the roots4 ,accordingly the soil penetrated by these roots must be constantly supplied with sufficient moisture either by rainfall or by artificial irrigation4 ,but air is not less indispensable4 ,it disinfects the soil and by causing slow combustion of the humus gives rise to a slight but uninterrupted liberation of carbonic acid gas1 one of the nutritive substances required by vegetation4 ,should the roots be cut off from this life-giving agency1 they would languish and finally decay4 ,thus it is that if vegetation is to thrive the soil in which it grows must have at the same time both air and water4 ,but if the bottom of the flower-pot has no opening1 or if its opening is stopped up1 the water from the watering-can will not flow through1 nor will there be any air admitted from below1 and for lack of this the roots will decay4 ,on the other hand1 if the water1 after saturating the earth1 runs out freely by the hole in the bottom of the pot1 the damp soil will become a sort of sponge to which the air will have access from all sides1 and the plant will thrive4 8,this reasoning applies to the most extensive agricultural operations as well as to the care of a potted plant4 ,after water has soaked into the ground it should find some channel to carry it off2 otherwise the roots will decay for want of air4 ,that is why clayey soils1 which retain water when they are once saturated1 are unsuited to agriculture1 while light soils1 having sand mixed with the clay and thus readily allowing the water to drain off1 are well adapted to it4 ,for the same reason1 again1 a sandy subsoil accelerates vegetation1 and a clayey subsoil retards it4 ,a sandy subsoil offers the same advantage as a flower-pot open at the bottom1 whereas a clayey subsoil is like a flower-pot closed at the bottom4 ,in the first case the surplus of water drains off and the air has free access2 in the second the superabundant moisture finds no outlet and the air cannot reach the roots4 8,now let us suppose we have a marshy soil to deal with4 ,because of the stagnant water either on the surface or a little below it nothing can grow on this piece of ground except rushes or other hardy plants designed by nature for this kind of soil4 ,accordingly we proceed to dig a number of small ditches1 of a depth somewhat greater than that attained by plant-roots1 and we fill the bottom of these ditches with small stones1 on which we finally throw back the earth we have removed4 ,these underground ditches are suitably inclined1 and all empty at the lower end into a main canal4 ,the water saturating the soil collects in these ditches1 filters through the layer of pebbles1 and empties into the main canal1 which carries it off to some river or other stream4 ,our marshy soil is now like the potful of earth with a hole at the bottom1 the bit of broken tile1 and layer of little pebbles3 the air has free access and brings fertility with it4 ,this operation of ours is called drainage1 a word formed from #8drain1' which is both a verb and a noun4 ,in the latter sense we apply it to the narrow ditch dug for carrying off superfluous water4 8,a drainage system like that just described is the simplest possible1 but there is one serious objection to it3 the layer of small stones soon becomes clogged with soil washed down by the water1 and the latter can no longer run off4 ,hence it is customary to use fagots instead of stones1 since they offer less obstruction4 ,but still better results are obtained with earthenware conduits laid in the ditches4 ,sometimes these conduits take the form of drain-tiles such as are used on roofs1 and they rest on sills or ground-pieces of the same material2 or1 again1 they may be tubular in form1 the successive sections loosely fitted together so that the water to be carried off may enter where the sections join4 8,the effect of drainage is not merely to carry off the superfluous water and thus promote the aration of the soil to the depth reached by the roots2 it also keeps the soil cool and moist by the constant presence of water in the drainage ditches or pipes4 ,when a heap of sand is watered at its base1 the moisture is seen to mount higher and higher until it reaches the top4 ,in like manner the water collected in our drainage ditches soaks into the upper soil in a dry time and thus reaches the roots of plants growing there1 so that water which is superfluous or even harmful at certain periods is held in reserve and gradually distributed at the right moment4 8,another advantage of a drainage system is that it prevents that cooling of the soil which would result from prolonged evaporation4 ,in taking the form of vapor water chills the objects that help to promote the evaporation4 ,for this reason we feel a decided chill on emerging from a bath2 the film of moisture that covered us is passing off in vaporous form4 ,similarly a constant evaporation at the surface of a water-soaked tract of land chills the ground and we have a cold soil4 ,but if the water is carried off by proper drainage1 evaporation ceases and there is no further chilling of the surface soil4 ,now1 a high temperature is always favorable to vegetation4 8,draining is so beneficial that it is not confined to marshy ground1 which without it would be quite unproductive1 but is applied also to ordinary arable land4 ,wherever the soil is too clayey1 or even where the surface soil is good but the subsoil clayey1 rain-water cannot drain off readily and the ground remains soggy and cold4 ,eventually1 however1 it dries up1 but there being no way for the air to permeate the soil1 the latter is left hard and unyielding1 so that the roots are by turns drowned in liquid mud and held fast in a tenacious paste that has been baked by the sun4 ,drainage overcomes these difficulties1 and consequently all rich soils that hold rain-water for some time before infiltration are much improved by being properly drained40 ,,chapter ,,xliii ,,paring ,,and ,,burning 8,you see that man over there on the hillside10 said ,uncle ,paul1 pointing to a laborer who1 with a large hoe1 was paring the ground1 so to speak1 by shaving off great squares of earth covered with grass and weeds and shrubs4 8,you see how he stands those pieces up1 either in pairs1 back to back1 or one at a time1 so bent or vaulted that they will stay upright by themselves4 ,thus the air is allowed to circulate and dry them rapidly4 ,if we come back in a few days1 after sun and air have done their work and the drying process is complete1 we shall find our man there again at his work2 and we shall see how he piles up the turf with the earthy side upward and outward4 ,in the middle of the pile he leaves a cavity which he fills with brushwood and dry leaves4 ,then he sets fire to the whole4 ,a second pile is constructed in the same manner and likewise set on fire4 ,soon the entire hillside is covered with a great number of these small furnaces1 burning slowly and sending out long trails of smoke4 ,in a few days1 three or four at most1 the fires burn themselves out1 and then1 as soon as all the piles are cold1 the mixture of ashes and calcined earth is spread over the ground with a shovel4 ,this agricultural operation is known as paring and burning1 and is carried out for the purpose of rendering arable a tract of land not yet under cultivation and still covered with wild vegetation4 8,the operation of paring and burning produces two effects1 one with reference to the clay in the soil1 the other having to do with the ashes left from the burning of the weeds4 ,clay1 as you know1 is a tenacious1 binding substance1 impervious to both air and water4 ,consequently a soil that is too clayey is unfavorable for vegetation1 furnishing the roots with insufficient air and moisture4 ,now1 when clay is heated to a high temperature1 it acquires very different properties3 it no longer makes paste by the addition of water1 but is porous1 permeable1 and readily admits air and water4 ,the paring-and-burning process1 therefore1 improves an argillaceous soil by calcining the clay and rendering it permeable4 ,that is as much as to say that if paring and burning are beneficial to heavy or clayey soils1 they are1 on the other hand1 harmful to those that are light or sandy4 8,finally1 the operation just described affects the soil through the ashes of the burnt weeds4 ,after the combustion of all vegetable matter there remains an earthy powder or ash comprising the mineral substances contained in that vegetable matter1 substances unchanged by combustion because of their great resistance to heat4 ,the most important of these is potash4 ,all the ingredients that once belonged to the burnt plants are evidently adapted to the formation of new plants4 ,the ashes1 then1 of the weeds consumed in the process of paring and burning will be very useful to the plants about to be raised on the land that has been burnt over4 ,by the burning1 however1 it is impossible to turn to account all that the weeds contained3 what escapes in the form of smoke is so much lost4 ,hence care should be taken not to carry combustion too far4 ,in this connection the calcined clay renders still another service4 ,by becoming porous through calcination its nature is altered so that it can absorb and retain the gaseous products of combustion and thus save just so much waste4 ,but if a soil lacks clay1 paring and burning are harmful1 and it is better simply to turn the weeds under1 whereupon they will be converted into mold instead of being dissipated in the atmosphere as smoke4 8,ashes other than those resulting from paring and burning are also used as an agricultural fertilizer1 though they are rarely put to this use just as they are1 because the contained potash1 a highly valuable substance1 is first extracted by leaching4 ,after this process the ashes are called buck-ashes4 ,they contain silica and also carbonate and phosphate of lime1 all in a condition most favorable for assimilation by plants4 ,of less strength than ordinary ashes1 leached ashes nevertheless produce good results1 especially on clayey soil4 ,coal ashes1 too1 it should be added1 serve to lighten a heavy soil since they contain a large proportion of calcined clay4 8,the subject of ashes leads us naturally to that of soot1 a substance composed of vegetable matter incompletely decomposed by heat and containing ammonia1 which renders it highly efficacious as a fertilizer4 ,it is applied to young plants1 giving them an increased vigor of growth4 ,by its acrid quality1 moreover1 it is excellent as a protection against insects that attack vegetation40 ,,chapter ,,xliv ,,wine-,,making 8,when wine is heated1 there is first an escape of an inflammable vapor that burns with a bluish flame4 ,a person needs only to have seen once this preparation of hot wine to recall that curious flame flickering over the boiling liquid and darting up little blue tongues4 ,now1 this inflammable vapor comes from alcohol1 a fluid substance that gives to wine its peculiar properties and is hence sometimes called spirits of wine4 ,there are1 then1 in wine two distinct liquids1 one easily reducible to vapor and called alcohol1 the other slower to vaporize and recognizable as water4 ,this does not mean that the wine has been watered3 the water in question is not there as the result of fraud2 it belongs naturally to the wine and comes from grapes just as alcohol does4 ,wine is therefore a natural mixture of a small proportion of alcohol with a great quantity of water4 ,in our ordinary wines the proportion of alcohol for each hundred quarts of liquid varies from nine to fourteen quarts4 8,wine is made from the juice of grapes4 ,this juice1 as it is pressed out of the sweet grapes1 has none of the taste or smell peculiar to wine1 for it does not yet contain any alcohol2 but it does have an agreeably sweet taste1 the same taste that makes grapes so desirable a fruit for the table4 ,this pleasant flavor is due to a sort of sugar present in the grapes4 ,examine carefully a handful of raisins such as you buy at the grocer's3 you will detect on their surface1 certain tiny white grains that crunch under the teeth and have a sweet savor4 ,those grains are little particles of sugar that have collected on the outside of the grapes during the process of drying4 ,grapes1 then1 must contain sugar4 8,well now1 this sugar is exactly what causes the formation of alcohol4 ,what is sugar in the fresh juice of grapes is alcohol in the same juice after it has fermented and turned to wine4 ,let us consider briefly how this change comes about4 8,the vintage is first of all subjected to a process of treading by men who trample on the grapes in large vats1 after which the resulting mixture of juice and skins is left to #8work1' as we say4 ,before long this liquid mush begins to heat of its own accord1 and presently there sets in a sort of boiling which liberates big bubbles of gas as if there were a fire underneath4 ,this working process is called fermentation1 and its seat is in the sugar of the grape-juice4 ,little by little the sugar decomposes1 splits apart as we might say1 into two substances very different from each other and also very different from the sugar whence they came4 ,of these two substances one is alcohol2 the other is a gas already known to us--carbonic acid1 the same gas that plants feed on and that animals give forth in breathing2 the same1 finally1 as that produced by burning coal4 ,the alcohol remains in the liquid1 which thus gradually loses its original sweet taste and acquires instead a vinous flavor4 ,the gas1 on the contrary1 works its way to the surface1 agitating the mass with a sort of tumultuous movement like that of boiling water1 and is dissipated in the atmosphere4 8,let us bear in mind that carbonic acid gas is as invisible as the air itself1 that it has no odor1 no color1 and finally that it kills quickly if inhaled in any considerable quantity4 ,that explains the danger lurking in a wine-vat during fermentation1 or even in a wine-cellar that lacks sufficient ventilation to carry off the perilous gas4 ,no one should enter such places without holding before one a lighted taper at the end of a long stick4 ,while the taper continues to burn in the usual manner1 one can proceed without fear3 there is no carbonic acid gas present4 ,but if the flame becomes dim1 gets smaller and smaller1 and finally goes out altogether1 one must beat a hasty retreat1 for the extinction of the taper is a sure sign of the presence of carbonic acid gas1 and further advance would mean exposing oneself to imminent death4 8,but to return to the subject of wine-making1 we were saying that the sugar which imparts its sweet taste to the must 7that is1 the unfermented grape-juice7 changes its nature and divides into two parts3 alcohol1 which remains in the liquid and turns it to wine1 and carbonic acid gas1 which is dissipated in the atmosphere4 ,when this process is finished the wine is drawn off1 leaving behind the residuum of skins and pips4 ,the final product is thus composed of a large quantity of water from the grapes themselves1 a small quantity of alcohol from the sugar which has undergone the chemical change just described1 and1 finally1 a coloring substance furnished by the dark grape-skins4 8,white wine is made from white grapes1 which have skins with no coloring matter2 but it can very well be made from dark grapes1 colored though they are4 ,the secret consists simply in this3 the crushed grapes are pressed before fermentation begins4 ,in this way the juice is separated from the skins1 and1 these latter being removed1 the wine will be white even with dark grapes4 ,in short1 the coloring matter in grapes which gives its hue to red wine is contained solely in the skins2 and furthermore it is insoluble in water1 but easily soluble in alcohol4 ,hence it is only after fermentation has made some progress that the liquid becomes colored by the dissolving of the coloring matter through the agency of the alcohol that has been generated4 ,accordingly1 if the skins are removed before the juice ferments and generates alcohol1 the wine remains white1 since it no longer contains any coloring matter to dissolve4 8,some wines force out the corks from their bottles and are covered with foam on being poured into glasses4 ,these are foamy wines1 and to produce them the bottling must be done before fermentation is finished4 ,the carbonic acid gas then continues to form1 but as it finds no way of escape since the bottle is tightly corked1 it dissolves in the liquid and accumulates there1 though all the while endeavoring to free itself2 and that is what makes the cork pop with a sharp report when the string that holds it down is cut2 that is what causes the wine to rush foaming out of the bottle2 and1 finally1 that is what gives the bead to a glass of wine and makes a slight crackling sound as the bubbles burst on the surface4 8,foamy wine has a pungent but agreeable taste owing to the carbonic acid it contains4 ,we drink1 dispersed through the liquid1 the same gas as would kill us if freely inhaled2 but it has no terrors except when thus inhaled4 ,mixed with our drinks1 it imparts to them a slightly tart flavor1 harmless and even salubrious1 since it aids digestion4 ,there is carbonic acid gas in nearly all water that we drink1 and it is in fact by reason of this gas that water is able to hold in solution the small proportion of stony matter that contributes toward the formation of our bones4 ,it is to this gas1 finally1 that effervescent lemonade1 cider1 beer1 and ,seltzer water owe their pungency and their foam40 ,,chapter ,,xlv ,,the ,,stag-,,beetle 8,one of the joys of your time of life1 ,i am sure10 resumed ,uncle ,paul1 as he and his hearers seated themselves in the shade of an old oak tree amid the humming and whirring of insect life all about them1 8is the study of the little creatures of field and farm and forest1 so interesting in their mode of life1 so varied in their forms and colors4 ,you chase the splendid butterfly from flower to flower1 you take up the cockchafer and put it on a bed of fresh leaves1 with a straw you drive the cricket from its hole4 ,the insect that amuses you can also instruct you4 ,in our modest studies let us now have a little talk on this subject4 8,what is this tiny creature with the stout coat-of-mail of chestnut color8 ,its large head1 showing parallel folds that might have been carved by a sculptor's hand1 is armed with two branching nippers which open like a pair of tongs and then close1 mangling between their teeth the finger they have seized4 ,woe to the giddy-pate that lets himself be caught by them6 ,the trap closes tighter and tighter and never lets go4 8,but1 vigorous as are its mandibles1 the insect is not one to be afraid of1 provided only you look out for those nippers4 ,for all its threatening aspect1 it is at bottom a peaceful creature4 ,catch it by one leg and it will fly round and round like the ,june-bug4 ,it is called the stag-beetle1 a name that explains itself1 for it has branching mandibles resembling a stag's horns1 and it belongs to the family of beetles4 ,put the two words together and you have #8stag-beetle4' 8,the singular creature has not always been as we see it to-day4 ,in its youth1 not later than last year1 it had neither its present mandibles nor its six legs nor its chestnut-colored coat-of-mail4 ,in fact1 its form had nothing in common with what we now behold4 ,then it was a big1 fat worm1 with fine white skin1 crawling on legs so small and feeble as hardly to deserve mention4 8,the whole animal consisted of little more than a crawling stomach unprovided with any protection4 ,the head alone was fortified with a substantial skull of horn1 and it also bore1 one on the right side of the mouth1 the other on the left1 two short but strong teeth adapted to cutting in pieces the wood of the oak1 its sole nourishment4 8,such a worm1 entirely naked1 evidently cannot live in the open air1 where the thousand little roughnesses of the ground would be continually wounding its delicate skin4 ,it must have a safe shelter that it need not leave until it has become the well-armored insect we now see4 ,the grub of the stag-beetle does in fact live inside the oak1 which affords it at once food and lodging4 ,there1 in the depths of the tree-trunk1 is its inviolable retreat4 8,with its two teeth1 as hard and sharp as a carpenter's tool1 it cuts away1 patiently1 bit by bit1 the fresh wood imbued with sap4 ,each fragment thus detached is a mouthful for the worm's nourishment2 but as it is by no means a rich diet there must be a good deal of it to furnish enough nutriment4 ,therefore the gnawing goes on without cessation1 in all directions1 with a corresponding enlargement of the domicile1 which soon becomes a labyrinth of galleries that go up and down and cross one another1 penetrate farther into the trunk or approach the surface1 at the pleasure of the occupant1 whose choice is determined by its taste for morsels lying in this or that direction4 8,for three or four years this is the worm's mode of life4 ,to make itself big and fat is its sole business1 and to this it devotes itself with vigor4 ,i leave you to imagine what must become of an oak tree worked by a dozen of these gnawing creatures4 ,under the bark1 which is almost intact1 the trunk is one vast wound1 perforated with galleries that are themselves littered with wormhole dust1 and oozing with a brown juice that smells like a tannery4 ,unless the forester applies a remedy1 and that speedily1 the enormous oak will be ruined4 ,leaving this care to his charge1 let us go on with our story4 8,when it has become big enough and fat enough1 after at least three years of continual feasting1 the worm prepares to change its form4 ,near the surface1 that its future exit may be the easier1 the little creature hollows out a sufficiently large oval chamber and lines it with a sort of wadding made of the finest fibers of the wood4 ,thus the tender flesh of the rejuvenated insect will be protected from all rude outer contact4 8,these precautions taken1 the worm undergoes its transfiguration3 it splits open all down the back1 strips off its skin1 throws it away like a discarded garment1 and is born a second time1 as one might say1 but under a totally different form4 ,it is no longer a worm--far from it--but it is not yet a stag-beetle1 although the outlines of the latter are already discernible4 8,the creature is quite motionless1 as if dead4 ,the legs1 neatly folded over the stomach1 are as transparent as crystals2 the nippers are pressed close to the breast2 the wings1 not yet expanded1 have the appearance of a short scarf encircling the flanks2 and the whole is swathed in swaddling-clothes finer in texture than an onion skin4 ,the entire organism is wrapped in a repose so profound that one might think all life extinct4 ,it is white or crystalline in appearance1 and so tender that a mere nothing will wound it4 ,the coarse worm of the beginning has been succeeded by this most delicate of creatures4 8,out of the material amassed by the wood-gnawer's voracious appetite there is created an entirely new being4 ,the flesh1 at first nearly fluid1 slowly acquires consistency2 the skin hardens1 assumes a chestnut hue1 takes on the firmness of horn2 in fact1 when the warm season returns again the insect wakes up from that deep sleep1 not of death1 but nevertheless very much like it4 ,the creature moves1 tears apart the swathing bands under which its rebirth has taken place1 strips off these wrappings1 and here at last we have the insect in its full perfection4 ,behold the stag-beetle6 8,it comes out from its native oak1 spreads its wings in flight under cover of the foliage1 and settles down1 now on this tree1 now on that1 in the rays of the sun4 ,the freedom of the open air and the enjoyment of the light of day constitute its supreme felicity for which it has been preparing during the three or four years of constant toil in the dark galleries of an old oak4 8,thenceforth it grows no larger4 ,just as it was on emerging from its cell1 so it will remain to the end1 without the least increase either in weight or in bulk4 ,thus it leads a very staid existence4 ,in its grub state the famished creature gnawed wood night and day2 its life was a perpetual digestion4 ,now1 on the contrary1 all that it needs in the way of sustenance is an occasional sip of the sweetened sap oozing from the bark of the tree4 8,but its days of idle delight are numbered2 it has scarcely a couple of months to spend joyously among the oak trees4 ,then it lays its eggs1 one by one1 in the crevices of tree-trunks1 to propagate its kind2 and1 that done1 it very soon dies4 ,it has played its part4 ,from those eggs will come forth worms which will patiently work their way into the wood1 hollow out galleries there in their turn1 and begin all over again the very sort of existence led by their fore-fathers4 8,the greater number of insects have the same life-history as the stag-beetle3 they pass through different stages before taking on their final form4 ,all without exception1 the smallest as well as the largest1 come from eggs deposited by the mother in chosen places where the needed nourishment1 so variable in different species1 is easy to find4 8,from the egg emerges1 not the finished insect with all its distinctive traits1 but a provisional creature bearing1 very often1 no resemblance to the parent or to the matured offspring of that parent4 ,this initial form we called a worm in speaking of the stag-beetle1 and the name is in that instance appropriate2 but in a multitude of cases it would be incorrect1 having no agreement with the creature's appearance4 ,we then call it a larva4 8,the larva is therefore the insect under the form it presents on emerging from the egg4 ,its continuance in this form is longer than in that of the finally perfected creature4 ,the larva of the stag-beetle remains a larva for three or four years1 whereas the beetle itself lives but a couple of months4 ,the sole occupation of this grub is eating1 continual eating1 that it may grow fat and store up supplies enough to carry it through its subsequent transformations4 8,having attained sufficient size1 the larva constructs a retreat for itself1 hollows out a little cell1 and spins a cocoon where in perfect quiet the delicate task of transformation will be undertaken4 ,it strips off its skin and becomes an inert1 formative body known as a nymph4 8,finally1 the nymph1 having arrived at the right degree of maturity1 casts off its wrappings and reveals itself as transformed into a perfect insect4 ,it lays its eggs1 and the same succession of changes is again repeated4 ,the egg1 the larva1 the nymph1 the perfect insect--there you have the four stages of the insect's life4 ,these changes of form are called metamorphoses40 ,,chapter ,,xlvi ,,sheath-,,winged ,,insects 8,i show you here the scarab1 clothed all in black4 ,passionate lover of the sun1 it rarely strays beyond the regions bordering on the ,mediterranean4 ,it belongs to the band of scavengers1 a group of handsome insects which1 feeding on ordure1 are charged with the sanitation of the greensward defiled by grazing herds4 8,its favorite dish is the dung of horses and mules4 ,with the toothed edges of its head it rummages in the dung2 with its wide1 serrate fore legs it cuts up this material1 kneads it1 and molds it into a ball about as large as an apricot4 ,this done1 the next thing is to seek out some quiet retreat far from the hubbub of its fellows who have been drawn to the spot for as much as a kilometer round about by the odor2 and of course the booty must be trundled away to this secure retreat1 there to be eaten at ease1 without fear of predatory assaults from the envious4 8,this task is performed in couples4 ,one hooks on to the globule in front and pulls with head up2 the other pushes from behind with head down4 ,heave ho6 ,it starts1 it rolls1 under the combined efforts of the two partners4 ,on the down grade the load again and again runs away with the team1 which falls headlong1 gets up again1 and catches hold of the cargo once more with an ardor that nothing can discourage4 ,under the rays of a scorching sun this store of provision is thus dragged a long distance over the sand1 across the greensward1 and over ruts4 ,perhaps the scarabs find their bread at first not sufficiently compact1 and seek to give it consistency by rolling it on the ground4 ,every one according to his fancy4 8,at last a favorable spot is selected in a sandy tract4 ,one of the two proprietors hollows out in all haste a dining-room1 while the other stands guard without over the globular treasure1 ready to defend it stoutly against any chance marauder4 ,as soon as the dining-room is ready the provisions are stored away there1 after which the two colleagues shut themselves up in their domicile1 safe from unwelcome visitors1 closing their door with sand4 ,so there they are at table1 with their heap of victuals in front of them2 and now for a good feast6 ,when the board is bare again1 the two banqueters leave their dugout to gather together a new globule and resume their feasting4 8,the scarab is not found everywhere1 the more's the pity1 for its manner of life is very curious to watch4 ,wanting this manufacturer of globules1 we nevertheless do have everywhere other scavengers which work in somewhat similar fashion4 ,out of ordure they put together little balls of the size of a cherry1 and sometimes they roll away their plunder1 as does the scarab1 bury it in the ground1 and there regale themselves on it4 ,their trade of making these little balls or pills has given them the expressive name of pill-mixers4 8,let us pass on to other kinds4 ,this one1 for example1 is called the calosoma4 ,by reason of the elegance of its form and the richness of its coloring it is one of the most beautiful insects of our region4 ,its back has the brilliance of a gem such as no jeweler ever possessed4 ,one would really take it to be made of gold1 but gold of a peculiar sort and much richer than ours1 flashing as it does with red1 green1 and purple glints4 ,there is nothing to compare with this dazzling costume4 ,it should be added that if the insect is taken between the fingers it emits1 as a means of defense1 a strong odor reminding one of a chemist's disagreeable drugs4 8,the calosoma does not share the scarab's peaceful habits3 it is an ardent hunter and leads a life of carnage4 ,its prey is the caterpillar1 the bigger the better1 whether smooth-skinned or hairy4 ,if you happen to find a calosoma1 put it into a good-sized bottle and give it for dinner a lusty young caterpillar as large as your finger4 ,you will see with what ferocious satisfaction this drinker of blood will disembowel the poor worm1 despite all its writhing and squirming1 and will feast on its green entrails4 8,the carabid1 which is also a passionate lover of game1 has the calosoma's activity and brilliance1 but is of smaller size4 ,some are bronze in color1 others golden1 still others of a copper tint1 or black edged with a superb violet4 ,all explore with keen scrutiny the thick tufts of grass1 and give chase to small prey such as larv1 caterpillars1 and worms4 ,the most common example of this class wears a golden green coat and is a frequenter of gardens1 where it makes war on all kinds of vermin4 ,it is the little guardian of our beds of peas and beans1 and of our flower borders4 ,in honor of its services to the garden we call it the gardener4 8,the calosoma and the carabid do not fly2 they are made for running1 as is evident from their long legs1 their agile movements1 and their lithe form4 ,they chase the game in hot pursuit1 or else lie in wait for it behind a leaf1 but never pursue it on the wing4 ,on the other hand1 the scarab1 the common ,june-bug1 and a host of other insects fly very well40 8,but why don't they all fly80 asked ,emile4 8,i will tell you10 replied his uncle4 8,look carefully at the ,june-bug a moment4 ,it has two kinds of wings3 on the outside two large and substantial scales of horn1 and beneath these two fine membranous wings1 expanded during flight1 but carefully folded together and concealed when not in use4 ,the outside scales are called elytra1 or sheaths4 ,they serve as a case for enclosing and protecting the delicate membranous wings1 which alone are fitted for flying4 ,the carabid and the calosoma have sheaths of splendid brilliance1 it is true1 but beneath these sheaths there are no membranous wings to spread themselves in flight and fold up again in repose4 ,hence these two insects are unable to fly4 8,the dytiscus and the hydrophile1 whose names signify #8diver' and #8water-lover' respectively1 both frequent the waters of deep ponds1 of ditches1 and of pools4 ,with their legs flattened out like oars1 their very smooth bodies1 arched above and keel-shaped below1 they are first-rate swimmers and divers4 ,it is a feast for the eye to follow the graceful agility of their oars when they row calmly on the surface or plunge beneath it4 8,at the least alarm they dart quickly to the bed of the pond and take refuge amid the water plants4 ,on the instant of diving their belly is seen to flash like a plate of polished silver4 ,the reason of this borrowed sheen is found in a thin layer of air that they carry with them adherent to the belly4 ,with this supply they will have air to breathe until1 all danger past1 they ascend again to the surface4 8,in the matter of costume these two master-swimmers are of modest appearance4 ,both are of a very somber olive green1 but in addition the dytiscus wears faded gold lace on its sheaths4 ,if the pond dries up or ceases to please them1 they can quickly betake themselves to another--not on foot1 for their flattened legs1 excellent as oars1 are worthless in walking1 but by flight1 with the help of their membranous wings1 ordinarily hidden under the sheaths1 where the water cannot reach them4 8,in old oak trees the larva of the capricorn-beetle1 another ravager of forests1 leads much the same kind of life as does the grub of the stag-beetle4 ,large in size1 all black with gleams of chestnut1 this insect is remarkable for its jointed horns1 which are longer than its body4 ,what can it do with these cumbersome ornaments8 ,does it wear them on its forehead to intimidate the foe8 ,i would not venture to dispute the matter1 but what ,i do know very well is that with its extravagantly long horns it frightens the inexperienced young pupil so that he dares not touch it1 and he calls it the devil4 ,all the same1 the capricorn-beetle does not deserve the evil reputation it has got from the timid4 ,it is perfectly harmless4 8,insects' horns are called antenn4 ,all have them1 some longer and some shorter1 now of one shape1 now of another4 ,in some instances they are flexible filaments1 jointed chaplets2 in others1 short stems ending in either a cluster of little buds or a bunch of leaves pressed one against the other4 ,see for example the burly and magnificent insect that browses the foliage of our pine-trees on warm summer days4 ,it is called the pine-beetle4 ,on a chestnut background it wears a sprinkling of white spots4 ,the antenn carry at the end a set of little plates or scales which open and shut like the leaves of a book4 8,it is in place here to mention the common ,june-bug1 furnished like the pine-beetle with antenn bearing leaf-clusters at the end4 ,i propose to tell you its story in detail2 for1 if this little creature is the joy of young people of your age1 it is also the terror of the farmer4 8,but first one word more to conclude our short story of sheath-winged insects4 ,their number is immense4 ,nearly all have membranous wings under the protecting case formed by the sheaths2 and these can fly4 ,others1 relatively few1 are unprovided with membranous wings1 and hence are unfitted for flight4 ,this entire group bears the general name of coleoptera1 meaning sheath-winged4 ,a coleopter is any insect furnished with sheaths1 whether it flies or not40 ,,chapter ,,xlvii ,,the ,,june-,,bug 8,it is a discovery of no small importance in your eyes1 my young friends1 when you find the first ,june-bug of the season on the young foliage4 ,in the evening you get together in a corner and talk about it1 you make plans for the morrow1 and all your conversation is about the ,june-bug that has just arrived4 ,you arrange to get up early the next day and shake the trees in order to bring down the sleeping insects2 you get ready a box1 pierced with holes1 to receive the captives1 and put in a handful of fresh leaves for them to feed on4 8,at the first streak of dawn you are up2 you visit the willows1 the poplars1 the hawthorn hedges wet with dew4 ,it is a fruitful hunt3 the ,june-bugs1 benumbed by the chill of night1 fall like hail when you shake the branches4 ,soon you have a half a score of them1 then a dozen1 then twenty4 ,it is enough4 ,you go back to the house with your prisoners fluttering and struggling in the foot of an old stocking1 in your handkerchief1 or in your cap4 ,you bring a supply of green leaves4 8,and now for your experiments6 ,you tie a long string to the leg of one of the beetles and put the insect in the sun4 ,it inflates and deflates its belly1 raises its wing-sheaths1 and expands its wings4 ,there it goes1 into the air4 ,your experiment has succeeded4 ,these delights of the ,june-bug season1 my children--enjoy them as long as you can4 ,other pleasures pale beside them4 ,in view of the amusement it affords you ,i gladly welcome the ,june-bug4 ,but turn now to a less pleasing aspect of the matter4 8,like every other insect1 the ,june-bug is at first a grub4 ,in that form it lives three years in the ground1 whereas in its final state1 when it is found on trees and bushes1 it lives but two or three weeks4 ,this grub or larva is commonly called the white grub1 also the fish-worm1 and sometimes the ground-hog4 ,look at it carefully for a moment and tell me what you see40 8,i see10 answered ,louis1 8a fat1 big-bellied worm1 slow in its movements1 and fond of lying curled up on its side4 ,it is of a whitish color with a yellowish head40 8,yes1 and what else80 8,it has six legs1 not made for running on the surface of the ground1 but for crawling underneath2 and it has strong jaws for biting the roots of plants4 ,its head is capped with horn to help it in boring through the soil40 8,very good10 was ,uncle ,paul's approving comment2 8and you see how the stomach is distended with food1 which shows in a darker tint through the white skin of the paunch4 ,so gorged is the worm1 in fact1 that it cannot stand on its legs1 but lies lazily on its side4 8,for three years this fat grub lives under ground1 always under ground1 tunneling like a mole in all directions1 and living on roots4 ,then it makes for itself a little chamber out of earth1 very smooth inside1 and shuts itself up there2 after which it proceeds to transform itself into a nymph1 and then into a ,june-bug4 ,everything serves it for food3 the roots of grass and of trees1 of cereals and of fodder1 of vegetables and of flowers4 ,in winter it buries itself deep in the ground and becomes torpid2 at the approach of spring it returns to the upper layers of the soil1 installs itself among the roots1 and goes from plant to plant1 leaving devastation in its path4 ,you have1 let us suppose1 a fine bed of lettuce in your garden4 ,from no apparent cause1 some morning1 you find it all withered4 ,you pull up one of the plants1 and it proves to have no root2 the white grub has cut it away4 ,or you have a nursery of young fruit trees for your orchard4 ,the terrible worm passes that way1 and your nursery is good for nothing but fire-wood4 ,or you have sown several acres with wheat or rape1 you have made a considerable outlay for fertilizer and labor2 but there is promise of a handsome harvest with large profit to you4 ,the larva of the ,june-bug works its way up from the depths1 and then good-bye to your harvest2 the stalks dry up as they stand1 having no roots left to sustain them4 ,when this formidable worm invades a country1 famine would surely follow were it not that traffic facilities make possible the speedy importation of provisions from other lands4 ,we live in a progressive age and1 thanks to the means of transport and to the briskness of trade1 people do not die of hunger in a province whose fields have been devastated by the white grub4 ,they do not die of hunger1 but what woe follows in the wake of the devouring larva6 ,year in and year out1 it destroys millions of francs' worth of crops in ,france alone4 8,the multitude of these little insects is truly terrifying4 ,when they invade a field1 the earth1 undermined in all directions1 loses its firmness and yields under the pressure of the foot4 ,one year1 in the department of the ,sarthe1 the ravages became so serious that it was necessary to undertake a systematic destruction of the pest4 ,the ,june-bug was hunted on a large scale1 and sixty thousand decaliters were gathered in1 each decaliter containing about five thousand insects4 ,thus the total number taken amounted to three hundred millions4 ,to give you some idea of the immensity of this number ,i will add that if you should try to count those three hundred million insects1 one by one1 it would take you more than twenty years1 working ten hours a day4 8,in the department of the ,lower ,seine there was at one time found to be an average of twenty-three larv of the ,june-bug to the square meter1 or two hundred and thirty thousand devourers to each hectare4 ,a hectare will raise a crop of one hundred thousand beets4 ,thus each beet was gnawed by at least two worms4 ,allowing eighty thousand rape-stalks to the hectare1 we find each stalk feeding three worms1 or very nearly4 ,it is clear that under these desperate conditions no rape-seed oil or beet-root sugar can be produced4 ,every plant perishes4 ,in the single year #ahff the ,lower ,seine lost from this cause about twenty-five million francs4 8,in #ahfh1 in different parts of ,france1 notably in ,normandy1 the multiplication of ,june-bugs was so great as to spread alarm throughout the rural districts4 ,trees were completely stripped of their foliage1 and in the evening1 when the insects fly abroad1 such clouds of them encumbered the atmosphere as to make it difficult to walk about4 ,almost everywhere there were ,june-bug hunts organized1 and those who gathered the insects received from the public treasury from four to six francs per hundred liters4 ,in one place alone1 ,fontaine-,mallet1 near ,havre1 there were gathered four thousand and fifty-nine kilograms of the insects in four days4 ,the school-master sent his pupils out after ,june-bugs1 and four hundred and forty kilograms was the result of one day's collecting4 ,all these insects were carted to ,havre by the wagon-load and drowned in the sea4 ,in certain communes they were brought to the town hall in such quantities that there was no way of disposing of them4 ,the air reeked with the stench they made4 8,it is said that in #affh the ,june-bugs destroyed all the vegetation in one county of ,ireland1 so that the country presented the dead appearance of winter4 ,the sound made by the insects' mandibles in browsing the foliage of the trees was like that of a carpenter's saw1 and the hum of wings resembled the distant beating of drums4 ,enveloped in clouds of insects and blinded by the living hail1 the inhabitants could hardly see to go about4 ,the famine was horrible3 the poor ,irish people were even obliged to eat the ,june-bugs to keep from starving40 8,oh1 how awful that must have been60 exclaimed the group of listeners4 8,yes1 awful1 indeed10 assented ,uncle ,paul1 8and ,i have a few more instances to relate1 less lamentable than the ,irish famine1 it is true1 but still of a nature to show us how prodigious were the legions of ,june-bugs in certain years4 ,in #ahcb1 in the neighborhood of ,gisors1 a stage-coach became enveloped at nightfall in a cloud of these insects4 ,blinded and terrified1 the horses obstinately refused to go on4 ,finally there was nothing to do but turn about and go back1 so completely did the humming swarm bar the way4 ,forty years ago the ,june-bugs descended upon ,mcon after ravaging the vineyards in its vicinity4 ,they were scooped up in the streets by the shovelful1 and to make one's way through the cloud of beetles one had to clear a passage by the energetic brandishing of a stick4 8,since the ,june-bug is so redoubtable a scourge to agriculture1 since it is a foe with which one must reckon most seriously1 how1 you will ask1 is it to be got rid of8 ,there is one way1 and only one3 collecting and destroying both grubs and beetles4 ,we can count to a certain extent on the help of moles1 hedge-hogs1 ravens1 crows1 and magpies1 all of which hunt the larv1 especially in newly ploughed fields2 and we can also count on the aid of a host of birds such as shrikes1 sparrows1 and others1 which devour the beetles2 but the number of the enemy is so great that this destruction by natural means does not always suffice4 ,we must then lend an energetic hand ourselves4 ,which of the two is to enjoy the fruits of the earth1 man or ,june-bug8 ,man1 if he will but bestir himself and wage unceasing war on both the insect and its larva4 8,the white grub1 as ,i told you1 bores into the earth more or less deeply according to the season4 ,in winter it goes down half a meter1 a depth at which it is protected from the frost4 ,upon the return of milder weather it comes up again1 to be within reach of the roots2 and from the first of ,april it can be found by digging down twenty centimeters4 ,a favorable time1 therefore1 is chosen for turning up the earth and bringing the larv to the surface1 whereupon women and children1 following after the plough1 gather up the white grubs in the furrows4 ,a single hectare has been known to yield in this way from two hundred to three hundred kilograms of worms4 ,the vermin are pressed down into the earth with lime1 the whole making an excellent manure1 and the enemy of harvests thus serves to accelerate their growth40 ,,chapter ,,xlviii ,,caterpillars ,,and ,,butterflies 8,of all insects butterflies are the most graceful1 the most worthy of childhood's eager desire4 ,oh1 how beautiful they are6 ,poised on a flower1 they seem to form a part of it and to animate it with the gentle beating of their wings4 ,you cautiously draw near1 you crouch down and make a quick clutch with the hand1 but the beautiful creature is no longer there4 ,it is waiting for you on another flower1 quite unconcerned at your designs on its freedom4 ,let us leave it1 then1 to flit from one cluster of lilacs to another1 and occupy ourselves a while with an account of its structure and habits4 8,all butterflies have four wings suitable for flying1 two upper and larger ones1 and two lower ones half hidden under the others4 ,here we find no horny sheaths such as are worn by the scarab and the ,june-bug1 no protecting case under which the membranous wings are folded to guard against laceration4 ,the scarab is a clod-hopper1 well acquainted with the harsh irregularities of the ground4 ,he pursues his plodding course on foot1 and it is only rarely that he spreads his wings in flight4 ,the butterfly is a delicate creature of the air1 very seldom using its legs for walking1 but finding them of service when it alights upon a flower4 ,it has1 therefore1 four broad wings1 wide-spread and always ready for flight4 8,and what wings6 ,words are lacking to describe them fitly4 ,some are white as if coated with flour1 others sky-blue1 and still others sulphur-yellow4 ,again you find them of a flame-like red or dark crimson4 ,some have round spots like eyes1 which look at you with their large pupils encircled by azure1 mother-of-pearl1 or gold2 and you will see others speckled with black1 adorned with silver lace1 or fringed with carmine4 ,if you touch them they leave on your fingers a brilliant powder beside which the filings of the precious metals would look dull4 8,this dust might be called the butterfly's plumage4 ,it consists of scales of extreme delicacy1 placed regularly side by side like the tiles on a roof1 and attached by one end to the membrane of the wing just as a bird's feathers have their quills implanted in its skin4 ,grasped roughly between the fingers1 the wing parts with its delicate covering2 it loses its ornamental scales and shows naked to the view4 ,it is then a fine1 translucent membrane traversed by a network of tiny ribs1 or nervures1 as they are called1 which hold it expanded and give it firmness4 8,at rest1 butterflies do not all carry their wings in the same manner4 ,those that fly by day and go from flower to flower in full sunlight1 hold their wings erect on the back and folded against each other4 ,these butterflies are also recognized by their brilliant coloring1 their lightness on the wing1 their grace of form4 ,those1 #f on the other hand1 that fly either by night or at evening twilight bear their wings1 in repose1 either outspread or else lightly folded in a sort of roof-shape4 ,they are of bulkier form and heavier than the first-mentioned1 and sombre hues predominate in their costume4 8,whether friends of light or fond of darkness1 whether courting the sunshine or lovers of the night1 butterflies are invariably very abstemious1 finding all the nourishment they require in the tiny drop of honey exuding at the bottom of a flower4 ,many flowers have long and narrow mouths2 no insect muzzle is slender enough to reach into flasks like these and lap up the syrup1 and therefore butterflies must have a special instrument adapted to the purpose4 8,this instrument is the proboscis1 as fine as a hair and long enough to reach to the exquisite drop1 however deeply it may be hidden4 ,when not in use1 this proboscis is kept tightly coiled at the entrance to the insect's mouth4 ,when it finds a flower to its taste1 it uncoils this spiral and extends the proboscis in a long thread which plunges into the narrow-necked bottle and proceeds to suck up the coveted drop4 ,if we wished to drink from a flask of similar shape1 we should use a straw or reed4 ,its proboscis is the butterfly's straw with which it takes its refreshment from the flowers4 8,as with other insects1 the butterfly is at first a larva or worm1 very different1 you understand1 from what the creature will afterward become4 ,the larv of butterflies are nothing in the world but caterpillars40 8,oh1 how disgusting60 cried ,emile1 making a wry face4 8,but nevertheless so it is10 proceeded his uncle4 8,caterpillars1 repugnant creatures to us1 change into those magnificent butterflies that we are never tired of admiring4 ,what was ugly becomes beautiful1 what was frightful finds itself the proud possessor of grace and charm4 8,there are some caterpillars that have the skin quite naked and mottled with various colors in a manner not unpleasing to the eye4 ,to touch these worms1 even to handle them1 inspires little or no fear1 so harmless do they look4 ,but there are others1 of a larger size1 which carry on the back1 toward the rear1 a menacing horn1 a sort of hook1 of which it seems prudent to beware4 ,this apprehension1 however1 is groundless3 the horn is inoffensive1 being not a weapon but a mere ornament4 ,caterpillars thus equipped become large butterflies flying in the late evening twilight4 8,still others have an even more repulsive look1 bristling as they do with clusters of prickles and with tufts of long hair4 ,from these ugly creatures1 whose very touch would be so disagreeable to us and would make us utter cries of fear1 come some of the most beautiful butterflies of our part of the world4 ,such is the caterpillar that browses the leaves of the nettle and becomes the ,vanessa ,io or peacock-butterfly4 ,it is black with white spots1 and wears a rough armor of toothed prickles4 ,the butterfly1 the ,vanessa1 has wings of a bright brick-red adorned with a large eye of mingled black1 violet1 and blue4 ,who would ever imagine1 unless he had seen the transformation or heard about it1 that so ravishing a creature has such an origin8 8,but for all their hairs and prickles caterpillars need cause us no alarm4 ,nothing about them justifies the fear they too often inspire4 ,no caterpillar is poisonous1 no caterpillar seriously injures the hands that touch it4 ,yet it is well not to repose full confidence in hairy caterpillars3 sometimes the hairs become detached and cling to the fingers1 causing rather lively itching sensations4 ,but a little scratching ordinarily ends the trouble4 ,accordingly any one who should hereafter be afraid of caterpillars would not deserve the privilege of chasing butterflies4 8,every larva is a gluttonous eater1 because it must grow big and accumulate the wherewithal for its subsequent changes of form4 ,nor are caterpillars lacking in response to this serious duty4 ,the future butterfly's welfare is at stake4 ,made solely for eating1 the larv gnaw and browse unceasingly4 ,each one has its own particular kind of sustenance1 its chosen plant1 and nothing else meets the requirements4 ,the larva of the ,vanessa selects the nettle and turns with aversion from all substitutes2 that of the ,pieris1 a white butterfly with black spots1 will have only the cabbage2 that of the ,machaon1 a butterfly with large wings that end in a sort of tail1 feasts on fennel2 and so of others4 8,after attaining the full size assigned to them by nature1 caterpillars1 like other larv1 prepare for their transformation4 ,some shut themselves up in a cocoon made from a silken thread that they spin from their mouth1 while others content themselves with binding together1 by means of the small supply of thread at their disposal1 particles of earth1 bits of wood1 and hairs plucked from their own body4 ,thus is obtained1 at small expense1 a sufficiently substantial temporary abode4 ,finally1 still others1 especially among the butterflies that fly in the daytime1 merely seek a retreat on the side of some wall or against a tree-trunk1 and there suspend themselves in a girdle of silk4 8,these precautions taken1 the caterpillar strips off its skin and becomes a nymph1 but very different from that which the stag-beetle showed us4 ,the coleopter1 in its nymph stage1 was already recognizable1 with its branching mandibles1 its legs folded on its stomach1 and its wings enclosed in their sheaths4 ,the butterfly1 on the contrary1 is not at all discernible under the casing of the nymph4 ,this nymph1 with skin as tough as parchment1 is an object little indicative of its true nature and much more suggestive of the kernel of some strange fruit than of any animal form4 ,because of its shape1 so different from that shown to us by ordinary nymphs1 it has received a special name1 that of chrysalis4 8,this word means golden sheath4 ,sometimes1 notably in the case of the ,vanessa1 the chrysalis is adorned with gilding2 but in the great majority of instances the suggestive name is not deserved1 a uniform chestnut hue1 darker or lighter1 being the usual color of the chrysalis4 ,ripened by long repose1 this species of animal shell splits down the back and releases the perfect insect1 complete in all its attributes4 ,the butterfly passes a few festive days amid the flowers1 and before dying lays eggs whence will spring caterpillars to continue the race40 ,,chapter ,,xlix ,,ants 8,ants live in communities1 each containing many members1 in underground abodes1 where the young are reared4 ,these communities are composed of three kinds of insects3 males and females1 recognizable by their large transparent wings1 four to each ant2 and the neuters1 or workers1 which have no wings4 ,these last1 the workers1 build the house1 take care of the community1 rear the larv and bring them their food1 distributing it to each one4 ,the others do not work4 ,to add to the population by furnishing an abundant supply of eggs is all that they are expected to do4 8,as soon as the rays of the morning sun strike the ant-hill1 the workers standing watch at the entrance hasten within1 nudge their comrades with their antenn to wake them up1 run from one to another1 urge them on1 hustle them into activity1 and put all the subterranean galleries into lively commotion4 ,first of all1 attention must be given to the larv1 feeble transparent worms1 without feet and unable to feed themselves and to grow unless they receive assiduous care from their nurses4 8,accordingly1 aroused by the tumult caused by the workers rushing in from outside1 the ants proceed to busy themselves with the larv and also with the nymphs1 carrying them with all possible expedition into the open air and placing them where they will best be exposed for some time to the benign influence of the sun's heat4 ,after this sun-bath they are returned to the darkness and stowed away in chambers expressly prepared for them4 ,and now is the time for feeding the nurslings4 8,just as little birds receive the beakful of food1 so do the larv take their nourishment4 ,when they are hungry they raise themselves a little and seek the mouth of some one of the workers engaged in ministering to them4 ,the nursing ant opens its mandibles and lets a tiny drop of sweetened liquid be taken from its mouth4 ,thus1 one suck at a time1 the nutritive juice is distributed until the entire brood is fed4 8,but carrying the larv into the sun and feeding them will not suffice3 they must also be kept in a state of extreme cleanliness4 ,the workers bestow upon their charges the same tender care that the mother cat exercises toward her kittens4 ,over and over again they lick the nursling's body to give it perfect whiteness1 and they tug cautiously at the wrinkled skin when the transformation draws near4 8,before casting this skin the larva spins itself a cocoon of silk1 elongated and cylindrical in shape1 pale yellow in color1 very smooth1 and compact in texture4 ,under cover of this protecting sac1 the worm becomes a nymph4 ,in this form the ant assumes its final shape1 lacking only strength and a little firmness4 ,all its members are distinct1 but enveloped in a fine membrane which it must strip off to become a perfect insect4 8,if you disturb an ant-hill you will see the workers hastening to carry away and put in a safe place certain cylindrical bodies having somewhat the appearance of grains of wheat and very inappropriately called ant-eggs4 ,they are not the eggs of the insect1 which are in reality much smaller2 they are cocoons with their contents1 larv at first1 nymphs later4 8,when the time comes for leaving its cocoon1 the enclosed ant is unable of itself to gain its freedom by piercing with its mandibles the silken envelope2 it possesses nothing resembling the solvent liquid which the silk-worm holds in reserve in its stomach2 nor has it at the forward end of its prison-cell a door for exit analogous to the curious paling provided for the great peacock-butterfly4 ,it would perish in its silk sack if the working ants did not bestir themselves for its deliverance4 8,three or four of these mount the cocoon and strive to open it at the end corresponding to the prisoner's head4 ,they begin by weakening the texture of the sac by tearing away a few threads of silk at the point where the opening is to be made2 then1 nipping and twisting the tissue so difficult to break through1 they at last succeed in puncturing it with a number of holes near one another1 whereupon the mandibles are applied at one of these holes just as one would apply a pair of scissors1 and a narrow strip is cut away4 ,at this hard labor the ants work in relays1 toiling and resting by turn4 ,one holds the narrow strip that has been cut1 while a second enlarges the opening1 and a third gently extricates the young ant from its natal sac4 8,at last the insect comes forth1 but unable to walk or even to stand on its legs1 for it is still enswathed in a final membrane which it cannot strip off unaided4 ,the workers do not forsake it in this new predicament2 they free it from the satin envelope enwrapping all its members2 with delicate care they extricate the antenn from their sheaths2 they disengage the feet and set the body at liberty4 ,then the young ant is in a condition to walk about and1 above all1 to take nourishment1 which it greatly needs after all this fatiguing exertion4 ,its liberators vie with one another in offering the mouth and disgorging a little sweetened liquid4 ,for some days longer the workers keep a watchful eye on their new companions and follow them about1 acquainting them with the labyrinthine passages of their abode4 ,thus instructed1 the young ants mingle with the others and share their labors4 8,the nurses remaining at home to perform the household duties depend for their rations on the workers that go out to collect supplies4 ,these latter bring them little insects1 or pieces of those that they have dismembered on the spot when the entire prey is too large for conveyance4 ,whatever they may be1 these provisions are passed around and are speedily disposed of by the assembled company4 ,if the working ants chance to find ripe fruit or large pieces of game that cannot be divided into small parts1 they adopt another mode of procedure4 ,placed in possession of so great riches1 they content themselves with the juice alone1 of which they imbibe copiously1 then return home with stomachs full of liquid food which they disgorge1 drop by drop1 as fast as their hungry comrades present themselves4 8,the ant in need of nourishment strikes rapidly with its antenn those of the ant expected to render the desired assistance4 ,presently they are seen to approach each other with open mouths and tongues out in readiness for the transfer of the nutritive liquor from one to the other4 ,during this operation the ant receiving the mouthful of sustenance keeps up an uninterrupted caressing1 with fore legs and antenn1 of the ant ministering to its needs4 8,who is not familiar with the lice that infest plants1 assembled in dense groups that contain each more members than one could easily count8 ,there are black lice on the beanstalks1 green ones on the rosebushes1 their stomachs carrying1 behind1 two little tubes whence oozes from time to time a tiny drop of liquid4 ,this liquid is the ant's main dependence for food4 ,let us follow an ant on its rounds among the plant-lice4 8,it goes hither and thither among the motionless herd1 which is nowise disturbed by its presence4 ,having found what it is after1 the ant stations itself close to one of the lice1 which it proceeds to caress with gentle taps of its antenn on the little creature's stomach1 first on one side1 then on the other4 ,the milch-louse allows itself to be seduced by these friendly overtures1 and a drop of liquid oozes out at the end of the tubes1 the ant sucking it up at once4 ,a second louse is visited1 and it too is solicited in the same caressing fashion4 ,it yields its drop of liquid and lets itself be milked1 after which the ant passes without delay to a third louse1 which it coaxes in like manner4 ,a fourth1 probably already drained1 withstands the wheedling1 whereupon the ant1 perceiving that nothing is to be hoped for there1 proceeds to a fifth member of the herd and obtains what it desires4 ,a few of these mouthfuls are enough to satisfy an ant1 and then it returns to its home4 8,certain ants are great stay-at-homes3 for them it would be a painful infliction to have to go out into the world4 ,in order to spare themselves this necessity they raise plant-lice and pasture them in enclosures very near the ant-hill so that the milking may be done at leisure4 ,these herded plant-lice are their precious possession1 and the community is more or less rich as it owns more or less of this property4 ,it constitutes the ants' flocks and herds1 their cows and goats4 ,they build underground stables among the grass-roots1 and there keep the plant-lice which they obtain from a distance1 just as we gather our domestic animals under the roof of barn or fold4 8,others display an even more curious ingenuity3 they take possession of the lice living on some branch or twig of a growing bush1 and1 jealously watchful of their cattle1 suffer no stranger to come and lay claim to the food-supply they themselves are preparing to appropriate4 ,with their mandibles they drive off all intruders2 they patrol the twig in vigilant defense and stand careful guard over their herds4 ,if the danger becomes too menacing1 they hasten to carry away their livestock and pasture it elsewhere1 in a safe place4 8,or1 as still another device1 they take little pellets of earth and build around the twig a sort of pavilion1 a structure with a very narrow opening1 a sheep-fold1 in a word1 with a few leaves growing inside it and furnishing sustenance to the enclosed flock4 ,in this quiet retreat the proprietors milk their ewes1 safely sheltered from rain and sun and1 most important of all1 from alien ants4 8,we have in this region a rather large reddish ant known as the red ant or ,amazon ant1 which cannot without help build its house1 raise its larv1 procure food1 or even eat food2 but with its hooked mandibles it is admirably equipped for fighting and pillage4 ,slaves are the object of its predatory raids1 slaves to feed it1 to go out after provisions1 to build the ant-hill1 and to rear the young4 ,a small black or drab ant is the object of its slave-hunting excursions4 8,in battalions of some thousands each the reds go forth in quest of a nest of drabs4 ,they break into the ant-hill notwithstanding its occupants' resistance1 and sack the underground city4 ,presently they take their departure1 each with his plunder between his mandibles4 ,they carry away1 not the full-grown ants1 since these could not be trained to serve in the strange ant-hill and would speedily make their way back to their former home1 but the young ones1 and the nymphs shut up in their cocoons4 8,hatched in the domicile of the reds1 the ants issuing from the stolen cocoons look upon the natal ant-hill as their own and there fulfill their customary duties with diligence4 ,they go out after provender1 undertake all building operations1 care for the larv of the ,amazon ants1 and feed their big and stupid conquerors who1 once in possession of enough slaves1 never leave home again40 ,,chapter ,l ,,the ,,ant-,,lion 8,on the margin of ponds and streams we may see1 flying from one bulrush to another1 certain insects with large transparent wings and abdomen long and slender like a piece of string4 ,some are of a bronze green color1 others of a splendid indigo blue1 while still others1 somewhat larger1 are clothed in mingled black and yellow4 ,they are called libellulids or1 more commonly1 dragon-flies1 and also devil's darning-needles4 8,do you recognize the insect8 ,haven't you ever run after it8 ,perched on a reed that trembles in the current1 it seems to be dozing and waiting for you1 its wings extended to the utmost4 ,your hand darts out to seize it4 ,good-bye1 darning-needle6 ,it is ten paces away from you40 8,yes1 indeed10 replied ,louis1 8every one has chased darning-needles1 but ,i never knew of any one's catching them4 ,and we don't have to go so far as the brook or the mill-pond to find them1 either40 8,no2 not all of them are lovers of water4 ,some1 in fact1 avoid it and prefer sandy places parched by the burning sun4 ,a modest gray is their uniform1 but they make up for their lack of brilliancy by their curious mode of life while they are still in the larva form4 ,the picture that ,i show you here illustrates what these gray dragon-flies look like at an earlier stage4 8,a singular creature and not exactly ingratiating in appearance4 ,it would not be very pleasant to encounter one in a lonely nook in the woods1 little adapted though its size is for attacking us4 ,look at its ferocious pointed nippers1 opening and closing like a pair of tweezers4 ,do they not betoken a thirst for blood8 ,as a matter of fact1 the little creature lives by carnage exclusively2 it is a hunter whose game is the ant4 ,hence its name of ant-lion1 or1 as it might be put1 the lion of the ants4 8,prey of that sort is incapable of serious resistance when once it has been seized by those terrible hooks2 but it must first be seized1 and there is the difficulty4 ,the nimble ant scampers off at the first approach of danger1 and if it should chance to be hard pressed it has only to run up a blade of grass and there be out of reach4 ,the ant-lion1 on its part1 heavy of paunch and short of leg1 drags itself along very awkwardly2 and1 moreover1 if it ever undertakes to get over the ground--a rare occurrence--it always moves backward1 which is not what might be called a speedy gait and does not adapt itself to keeping the object of one's pursuit always in sight4 8,the chase being thus rendered impracticable1 there remain the snare and the ambuscade4 ,the creature must capture by cunning what its sluggishness of movement makes it impossible to get possession of otherwise4 ,let us see what form this cunning takes4 8,hunt at the base of sun-exposed walls and rocks1 and if you find there some little nook with very fine and dry sandy soil1 the ant-lion will seldom fail to be there too4 ,its abode is easily recognized by the regular funnel-shaped hollow scooped in the ground4 ,the insect itself is invisible1 being hidden under the sand at the bottom of the excavation4 8,with the blade of a knife thrust obliquely into the ground lift up the bottom of the funnel1 and you will have the little creature1 rather abashed at first by the sudden destruction of its retreat1 but soon recovered and striving to hide itself in the soil by a backward movement4 ,make haste to take it and put it into a glass under a layer of fine sand like that beneath which you found it4 ,there at your leisure you can watch it as it hollows out its funnel1 a pitfall for catching ants4 ,you will see it put into practice the cunning wiles of an ambushed hunter4 8,let us for a moment stand as onlookers1 mentally at least1 while this work goes forward4 ,placed on a bed of sand and restored from its former dismay1 the ant-lion proceeds to plunge its belly halfway into the soil2 then1 with this substitute for a plowshare1 and always moving backward1 it draws a circular furrow4 ,returning to its starting-point it draws a second furrow close to the first1 then a third next to the second1 and so on with a great many more1 each one of smaller circumference than the preceding1 so that they all together form a spiral which constantly approaches the center2 and as this living plow is driven deeper and deeper at each circuit1 and throws outward the soil that it turns up1 the final result is a funnel of about two inches in diameter and somewhat less in depth4 ,there you have the ant-lion's trap1 the treacherous pitfall in which the ants are caught4 8,of course the huntsman employing such a device as this must himself keep well out of sight4 ,the ant-lion is too well versed in its art to violate this elementary principle4 ,it crouches down under the sand at the lowest point of the upturned funnel1 with only its nippers showing1 and these are pressed close to the ground1 but wide open and ready to seize any luckless ant that may chance to tumble down the incline4 ,although the horrible pincers are exposed1 they are not likely to excite suspicion1 being easily mistakable from the edge of the excavation for some stray bits of dead leaves4 8,these preparations completed1 the insect lies in wait1 perfectly motionless4 ,its patience and its hunger are subjected to prolonged trial4 ,hours and even days pass with no sign of game4 ,alas1 how difficult it is in this world even for an ant-lion to win its mouthful of bread6 8,but at last there comes an ant1 on business bent that takes it into these parts4 ,preoccupied with its own concerns1 it takes no heed of the pitfall4 ,hardly has it approached the edge of the chasm when the sand1 which is extremely unstable1 gives way under the little creature's feet4 ,there is a land-slide1 and with it down tumbles the incautious ant4 ,in mid-course it succeeds by desperate efforts in arresting its descent4 ,it struggles to regain the upper level2 its tiny claws1 trembling with fear1 catch as best they may at the roughness of the slope2 but as soon as touched these supports yield1 and the down-rush begins anew with irresistible impetus4 8,one grain of sand1 more firmly planted than the rest1 offers some resistance4 ,perhaps safety will be found in this point of support if it continues to withstand the strain4 ,it holds firm1 surely enough4 ,the ant climbs up a little1 heedful of its steps for fear of precipitating another slide4 ,it has almost gained the edge of the excavation and seems about to find its feet once more on firm ground4 ,will it indeed escape scot-free8 8,oh1 no4 ,the hungry watcher at the bottom of the funnel will have something to say on that subject4 ,he intends to make a good dinner on the ant4 ,if things had followed their customary course and the imprudent victim1 caught in the trap1 had continued to slide down until within reach of the nippers1 these would have seized their prey without further formality2 but since the game seems about to escape1 it is the huntsman's part to employ the manuvres reserved for difficult cases4 8,the ant-lion's head is flat and somewhat shovel-shaped4 ,the insect plunges it into the sand and then1 with a sudden movement of the neck1 throws the shovelful up into the air so that it will come down again on the ant4 ,other shovelfuls follow in quick succession1 better and better directed1 and fall back in a hail-storm on the now nearly exhausted ant4 8,against this shower of sand resistance is impossible when one stands on a treacherous footing that gives way at each attempt to escape4 ,the poor victim is swept away and rolls to the bottom of the funnel4 ,instantly the nippers seize their prey1 and all is over4 ,the huntsman goes to his dinner1 not gnawing the fruit of his patient skill1 since it is too tough for that1 but sucking the juice like the refined epicure he is4 8,when there is nothing left of the ant but a dry husk1 the ant-lion loads it on to his head and with an upward toss throws it out of the funnel1 in order not to defile his place of ambush with a useless corpse which might arouse the distrust of passers-by4 ,then a little careful mending restores the pitfall to its former mobility1 and the huntsman waits patiently for another ant to take a false step and slide down into his lair40 ,,chapter ,,li ,,venomous ,,animals 8,among venomous animals there are some whose poisoned weapon has no other purpose than to serve as a means of defense4 ,such is the bee1 the worker in honey of our hives2 such also is the burly1 hairy bumblebee1 which also gathers a store of honey1 but keeps it underground in rude little pots of wax4 ,let us not molest them at their task1 either intentionally or otherwise1 and they will not molest us4 ,if we irritate them1 they straightway draw on the aggressor and stab him with their venomous dagger4 ,this weapon they carry for defense1 not for attack4 8,but there are other and more redoubtable creatures that use their venom for killing quickly1 and without any dangerous struggle on the victim's part1 the prey on which they feed4 ,of course the offensive weapon is capable of becoming also a defensive one in moments of peril3 that which serves to kill the prey serves likewise to repel the enemy4 ,among animals making this double use of their venomous weapon1 first for attack and then for defense1 let us note the scorpion and the viper4 8,the scorpion is a hideous creature and of interest to us solely on account of its sting4 ,it has a flattened stomach1 dragging on the ground1 and no distinct head4 ,in reality it has a head1 but so little differentiated from the rest of its body as to give a truncated appearance to the whole4 ,on each side are four feeble legs1 and in front a big pair of nippers like those of the crab4 ,behind is a sort of jointed tail1 the terminal joint of which1 more swollen than the others1 serves as reservoir for the venom4 ,it ends in a hook1 very sharp and with a microscopic perforation at the point1 from which the venomous fluid escapes at the instant of attack4 8,in this jointed tail with its terminal sting you behold the scorpion's implement of the chase1 a terrible weapon which kills immediately1 at one stroke1 any small game the animal may have seized4 ,it is carried bent over on the back1 ready to inflict its deadly wound in front or behind with the suddenness of a released spring4 ,the two-jawed nippers1 of which only one jaw moves1 are harmless despite their menacing appearance4 ,they are a sort of tongs used by the animal to hold within reach and prevent from escaping the prey it is about to sting4 8,the scorpion is carnivorous1 feeding on all game adapted to its size1 such as wood-lice1 insects1 spiders4 ,endowed with but little agility1 it leaves its lair by night and under cover of the darkness hunts its sleeping prey4 ,let us suppose it to chance upon a big spider4 ,that is indeed a succulent morsel1 but its capture involves danger1 for the spider on its side is armed with two venomous fangs in its mouth4 ,being both thus equipped with deadly weapons1 which of the two will succumb8 ,it will be the spider4 8,the scorpion seizes it with its two nippers and holds the victim far enough away to avoid the risk of a bite4 ,then the coiled tail quickly straightens out over the scorpion and proceeds to inflict a sting on the helpless captive4 ,it is all over4 ,the stricken prey gives a momentary shudder in its death agony and then collapses1 lifeless4 ,the huntsman can now feast on his victim at leisure and in perfect security4 8,we have in ,france1 in the southern departments1 two species of scorpions1 of which the smaller and more common is of a greenish black4 ,its customary haunt is under the stones at the base of old walls1 the favorite lurking-place of the wood-louse and the spider2 but it also very often finds its way into human habitations1 where it hides in dark corners4 ,in rainy weather it snuggles under the linen laid away in cupboards1 and even creeps under the bedclothes4 ,not a pleasant experience is it to find this baneful intruder1 some fine morning1 in the foot of one's stocking4 ,one shakes out the frightful creature and treads it under foot4 ,if it has stung you1 the pain is no joke1 though not seriously dangerous4 8,the other species1 much larger and far more to be dreaded1 is found almost exclusively in ,languedoc and ,provence4 ,it is straw-color in hue and inhabits sandy hillocks where the sun beats down with the fiercest heat4 ,there1 under some large stone1 it digs itself a den1 a spacious retreat1 whence it issues only by night in quest of something to eat4 ,it is never known to intrude into houses1 nor does it ever leave the warmth of its desert solitudes4 ,unless you disturb it by lifting up the flat stone that roofs its abode1 you run no risk of encountering the sting2 but woe to the reckless one who should rashly venture to rummage in that retreat4 ,the creature's sting is sometimes deadly1 they say4 8,the viper makes its home1 by preference1 on some warm and stony hillside1 where it lurks under the stones and in the tangled underbrush4 ,its color is brown or reddish1 with a darker zigzag stripe on the back and a row of spots on each side4 ,its belly is of a gray slate-color1 and its head1 larger than the neck1 is blunted as if cut off in front4 8,it is an extremely timid creature and never attacks man except in self-defense4 ,its movements are brusque1 irregular1 and heavy4 ,like all serpents it feeds on live prey1 especially insects and small field-rats4 ,to capture these quickly and to deprive them of the power to defend themselves1 the viper first inflicts a venomous wound1 as does the scorpion4 8,all serpents dart out and in between their lips1 with extreme velocity1 a black1 thread-like member1 forked at the end and of great flexibility4 ,many persons take this to be the reptile's sting1 though in reality it is nothing but its tongue1 a tongue void of offense and used by its possessor to snap up insects and also to express1 in the snake's peculiar manner1 by quickly passing out and in between the lips1 the passions that agitate the creature4 ,all serpents have this sort of tongue1 but in these regions it is only the viper that possesses the terrible weapon for inflicting venomous wounds4 8,this consists1 first1 of two fangs1 or long1 sharp teeth1 situated in the upper jaw4 ,these curved teeth are movable1 starting up for attack1 at the reptile's will1 or lying down in a groove of the gum and remaining there as inoffensive as a stiletto in its sheath4 ,thus the risk of a self-inflicted wound is avoided4 ,these fangs are each pierced from end to end with a narrow channel having at the tooth's point a minute opening through which the venom is discharged into the wound4 ,finally1 at the base of each fang is a tiny sac filled with venomous liquid4 ,as with the bee and the scorpion1 this liquid is harmless in appearance1 free from odor1 and without taste--little else than water1 one would say4 ,when the viper attacks with its fangs1 the venom-sac presses a drop of its contents into the dental canal and the terrible liquid passes into the wound4 ,in short1 the whole operation exactly corresponds to the similar procedure ,i have described in speaking of the bee's sting4 8,let us suppose you are so imprudent as to disturb the reptile as it lies asleep in the sun4 ,immediately the creature uncoils itself and1 with jaws wide open1 smites your hand4 ,it is all over in a twinkling4 ,then1 with the same rapidity1 the viper recoils itself and settles back again1 continuing to threaten you1 with its head once more the center of the spiral coil4 8,you do not wait for a second attack2 you beat a hasty retreat2 but1 alas1 the harm is done4 ,on your wounded hand you discover two tiny red spots1 apparently of little more significance than the sting of a bee4 ,no cause for alarm1 you say to yourself if you are unacquainted with the effects of such a wound4 ,but it is a false reassurance4 8,presently the red spots are encircled with a zone of livid hue4 ,with a dull sensation of pain the hand becomes swollen1 and gradually the swelling extends to the entire arm4 ,before long there follow cold sweats and a feeling of nausea1 breathing is rendered difficult1 vision is clouded1 the intellect is torpid1 and unless timely aid is rendered death may be the sequel4 8,what is to be done in the face of such danger8 ,one must press tightly or even bind fast the finger1 the hand1 the arm1 above the wound1 in order to prevent the passage of the venom into the blood4 ,the wound must be made to bleed by the exercise of pressure all around it2 it must be energetically sucked to draw out the venomous liquid4 ,i have explained to you in speaking of the bee1 and ,i now repeat it1 that venom is not a poison4 ,it will not act1 however powerful it be1 unless it mixes with the blood4 ,sucking it1 therefore1 is without danger if the lining of the mouth is intact4 8,it is plain that if1 by energetic suction and by pressing until the blood flows1 we succeed in extracting all the venom from the wound1 the latter will henceforth be of no serious importance4 ,for greater security1 as soon as possible the wound should be cauterized with a corrosive fluid1 such as ammonia or nitric acid1 or even with a red-hot iron4 ,cauterization acts in such a manner as to destroy the venomous matter4 ,it is painful1 ,i admit1 but one must submit to that in order to escape something worse4 8,cauterization falls within the physician's province2 but the preliminary precautions--ligature to stop the spread of the venom1 pressure to make the envenomed blood flow1 and suction to extract the venomous liquid--are matters for our personal attention2 and all this should be taken in hand immediately1 since the longer the delay the more serious the case becomes4 ,when these precautions are taken it is very seldom that the viper's bite has fatal consequences40 ,,chapter ,,lii ,,the ,,phylloxera 8,in our talks on ants a few words were said concerning their milch-cows1 plant-lice4 ,you haven't forgotten those curious herds with udders in the form of two little tubes that emit1 from time to time1 a sweetened liquid4 ,the ant comes and milks these cows1 caressing them as it does so with its two antenn4 ,it fills itself with their milk1 making its stomach serve the purpose of a milk-pail1 and then runs back1 all bursting with the delicious fluid1 to disgorge it into the nurslings' mouths4 8,these ant-cows are watched over with jealous vigilance2 in case of need they are pastured within enclosures1 for fear of marauders4 ,so far all is for the best3 the ants' cattle afford us some passing amusement1 and apparently they are open to no serious reproach4 ,but if we pursue our inquiries further the plant-lice will reveal themselves to us under a far more serious aspect4 8,let us speak first of rosebush lice4 ,you wish to pluck a rose4 ,its perfume fills the air1 its form and color rejoice the eye4 ,but just as you are about to break the stem what do you find under your fingers8 ,at the base of the flower and all over the branch that bears it1 the superb plant is contaminated with a legion of green lice2 a host of odious vermin has taken possession of it2 the magnificent has associated with it the disgusting4 ,the eye is offended2 the fingers recoil before this species of animated bark which the slightest pressure turns into a sticky mush4 ,let us pluck the rose nevertheless1 and before shaking the lice from it let us examine them a moment4 8,they are light green in color1 big-bellied1 and wingless4 ,with a little attention we distinguish the two minute posterior horns whence oozes the liquid on which the ants regale themselves4 ,they have1 underneath1 a sucker1 straight and very slender1 a sort of bore which they push into the tender bark to extract from it the juices on which they live4 ,the sucker once implanted at any convenient point1 the animalcule seldom stirs from that spot4 ,if it does decide to move a little1 it is because its well has run dry and it must bore another close beside it4 ,a promenade of merely the length of the branch is a liberty that only the most adventurous dare allow themselves4 ,as a rule1 the plant-louse sticks to the spot where it was born1 to the very end40 8,but how can the stem of a rose get so completely covered with those little green lice80 asked ,emile4 8,that is easily explained10 answered his uncle4 8,plant-lice multiply very rapidly1 since each one1 without exception1 from the first to the last1 whatever their number1 becomes capable in a few days of procreating a family4 ,the newly born settle down beside their mothers1 and are themselves soon surrounded by their own progeny4 ,these in turn1 in a little while1 have offspring of their own2 and so on1 indefinitely1 as long as the season lasts4 ,thus the stem1 the branch1 the entire plant1 become covered with lice so closely packed one against another that in places the real bark is hidden by this bark of vermin4 8,have you ever seen a garden-patch of broad beans overrun by black lice8 ,there1 better than anywhere else1 may be seen the rapidity of propagation4 ,on that green expanse appears at first a small black stain1 announcing the beginning of the invasion4 ,it is a family of lice installed at the top of a beanstalk1 the tenderest part of the plant1 where the insects' suckers can work to best advantage4 ,the gardener1 as soon as he is aware of what is going on1 hastens to cut off this part of the stalk and crush it under his heel4 ,he hopes to exorcise the evil by destroying this nest of vermin4 8,his hope is short-lived4 ,a few days later1 instead of one plant invaded there are dozens4 ,he lops off again2 he turns up the remaining leaves and examines them one by one2 he crushes what vermin he finds1 taking all pains to make the extermination complete4 ,will he make an end of it this time8 ,not at all3 the black hordes reappear in greater numbers than ever2 the invaded stalks can no longer be counted4 ,a few lice that escaped the slaughter were enough to infest the whole patch of beans4 ,the foliage hangs down1 foul and withered2 the young pods1 riddled with punctures and corrugated with scars1 shrivel up and can grow no larger4 ,for this ill there is no remedy2 the harvest is ruined4 8,the gardener pulls it all up and throws it on the dung-hill4 ,his care and vigilance have been unable to arrest the invasion4 ,in vain he crushed legions at a time under his angry heel3 in a few days the half-dozen survivors had propagated a larger colony than ever4 ,man is hardly in a position to contend successfully against this lowly vermin which braves extinction by virtue of its countless numbers4 8,as ,i told you1 the plant-louse does not like to change its place4 ,it plants its sucker on the very spot where it has just been born1 and thenceforth sticks to that spot1 filling its stomach with sap and surrounding itself with a family4 ,this love of repose explains to us very well how the twig of a rosebush or the top of a beanstalk undergoes a progressive colonization2 but it does not account for the distant propagation of the species4 8,with its home-keeping habits the insect ought to be confined within narrow limits1 on a single leaf and not on all leaves1 on one rosebush and not on the neighboring rosebushes4 ,but as a matter of fact it is disseminated everywhere4 ,when one patch of beans becomes infested1 those in the neighborhood are equally unfortunate2 when one rosebush shows a colony of plant-lice1 all those around it are similarly visited4 ,no vegetable growth can defend itself from the pest4 ,how1 then1 is it that this obese animalcule1 which totters with fatigue after one step forward1 succeeds in passing from rosebush to rosebush1 from garden to garden8 ,by what means is it able to spread in all directions without limit8 8,let us examine a number of rosebushes1 and we shall have a prompt answer to our question4 ,in addition to the wingless plant-lice1 big of belly and all grouped on the tender twigs1 we shall see others1 green like the first ones1 but more elegant in form1 of greater freedom of movement1 and provided with four wings1 very beautiful wings too1 diaphanous and gleaming with rainbow tints4 ,these creatures are no lazy sap-bibbers forever squatting over the well their sucker has bored4 ,they are seen to come and go1 circulating briskly among the stationary herd1 inspecting the foliage1 passing from branch to branch1 and even taking flight for some distant goal4 ,they are the travelers of the family4 ,their function is to propagate the race in the surrounding district1 with the aid of their wings1 and even at considerable distances when a puff of wind carries them thus far4 8,two classes1 then1 dissimilar though related1 are to be noted among the green lice of the rosebush and the black ones of the beanstalk1 as also among countless others4 ,the members of one class have no wings2 they pass their lives where they were born1 and multiply in serried legions4 ,those of the other class1 which is relatively small1 are equipped with wings4 ,confined to no one spot1 they fare forth as some passing breeze or their own strength of wing may determine1 and deposit in favorable localities the germs that are to serve each as the beginning of a community of wingless plant-lice4 ,the first kind procreate on the spot with a fecundity almost beyond belief2 the second take leave of the stationary family and go out to start new centers of population in various quarters4 ,the first propagate without limit2 the second colonize4 8,to soil the stem of a rose with a coating of lice is not exactly a capital offense2 but to lay waste a field of beans1 the hope of the farmer1 is a far more serious matter4 ,yet even that is as nothing when compared with other depredations committed by plant-lice4 ,there is a species of these insects that lives underground1 subsisting on the roots of the grape-vine4 ,oh1 the hateful creature6 ,never has agriculture known anything to equal the ravages it commits2 no floods or droughts or inclement seasons have ever wrought such woes4 ,its terrible sucker has1 up to the present time1 caused us losses estimated at the fabulous sum of ten milliard francs4 ,what a mouthful for a miserable little louse hardly visible to the naked eye6 ,and to think that the combined efforts of nations cannot succeed in exterminating this pest6 ,alas1 how feeble is mere force when confronted with the exceedingly minute infinitely multiplied6 8,this destroyer of the vine is known as the phylloxera1 a name strange to our tongue1 but losing nothing of its impressiveness in translation4 #8,phylloxera' means #8witherer of leaves4' ,the plant-louse thus denominated does indeed cause the foliage of the vine to wither up--not acting on the leaves directly1 it is true1 but attacking the roots4 ,these1 done to death by the insect's sucker1 cease to draw from the soil the nourishment needed by the vine4 ,the vine-stock wastes away1 and with it the leaves1 which become yellow and withered4 8,it is not merely the foliage1 then1 that the phylloxera dries up2 it withers and kills the whole vine4 ,moreover1 the name it bears was not invented expressly for it1 but was borne by another before the ravager of vineyards became known4 ,the louse that was first called phylloxera lived at the expense of the oak-tree and took up its station on the leaves1 sucking the sap from them4 ,there you have the true witherer of leaves4 ,the vineyard louse has therefore inherited an old appellation which fails to indicate fully the seriousness of the creature's depredations4 8,this last-named insect is a tiny yellowish louse1 plump of body1 but hardly discernible to untrained eyes1 its length being barely three quarters of a millimeter4 ,it lives in clusters on the minute ramifications of the roots wherever the bark is tender enough to enable it to push in its sucker4 ,its ranks are so dense that the infested rootlets wear a continuous coating of vermin which stains the fingers with yellow4 ,it lays its eggs in little heaps in the interstices that occur in the swarming colony2 and these eggs are oval in shape and sulphur-yellow at first1 but turn brownish as the moment for hatching approaches4 8,from these eggs there come1 in a few days1 new layers of eggs1 which settle down beside the earlier comers and add their own progeny to the already overgrown family4 ,thus1 as long as the season continues favorable1 these myriad numbers of successive generations are added to the existing myriads1 until the thread-like rootlets become completely hidden by the accumulated layers of eggs and the eggs themselves4 8,riddled with punctures1 the rootlets swell up at intervals and present the appearance of a string of elongated seeds4 ,thus deformed1 fatally injured in their delicate suckers1 the roots cease to imbibe the nutritive juices of the soil1 the famished vine languishes for a time1 putting forth only feeble shoots that are incapable of bearing fruit1 and at last the whole plant dries up and dies4 ,to secure its own prosperity the louse has killed its nurse40 ,,chapter ,,liii ,,the ,,phylloxera 7,continued7 8,the yellow plant-louse found on the roots of the grape-vine10 resumed ,uncle ,paul1 8has no bent for traveling3 wingless1 sluggish1 and big-bellied1 it is ill adapted to locomotion4 ,where once its sucker has implanted itself1 there the creature is glad to abide as long as the place is tenable4 ,but when the rootlet dies and begins to decay1 then a new refectory must be sought out1 with a better-furnished table4 ,accordingly the louse has to move4 ,a persistent explorer1 it knows how1 with patience and in course of time1 to make its way through cracks in the soil from one root to another1 and dares even to climb to the surface1 where1 proceeding in the open air1 it emigrates from the exhausted vine-stock to the neighboring one rich in sap2 and there it pushes down to the roots through some fissure in the ground4 8,to this slow-goer a single one of our steps would be a journey of excessive length4 ,therefore1 to propagate its kind far and wide1 it must have other and quicker means than the extremely deliberate method of locomotion just described4 ,this other method for planting colonies at a considerable distance has already been illustrated for us by the green louse of the rosebush4 ,like that species1 the phylloxera has a special division of winged travelers1 and it is these that propagate the race throughout the grape-growing district4 8,at the time of the greatest midsummer heat there make their appearance1 amid the throng of yellow lice covering the roots1 certain individuals with longer bodies1 which soon change their skin and then bear on their sides two pairs of black stumps1 the sheaths of four future wings4 ,these are the nymphs destined for emigration4 ,these nymphs leave their subterranean abode and climb up to the foot of the vine-stock1 or sometimes even out upon the surface of the ground4 ,there another change of skin takes place1 whereupon we behold the winged insect1 superior in form to its underground relatives4 8,it measures a little more than a millimeter in length1 not including the wings4 ,these latter1 transparent and iridescent1 extend far beyond the length of the body1 and the upper ones are wide1 rounded1 and slightly smoke-colored at the end1 the lower ones narrow and shorter4 ,they are supported by strong sinews that denote great power of flight4 ,with its large1 diaphanous wings1 its broad head and big eyes1 its belly ending in a blunt point1 and its yellowish color1 the traveling insect bears some resemblance to a very small cicada4 ,such1 in brief1 is the phylloxera commissioned to propagate the race at a distance4 8,we have here no longer to do with the sluggish pot-bellied creature that needs all its strength to move from one root to the next adjoining2 we behold an agile denizen of the air1 capable of covering with the swiftness of an arrow a distance of several leagues1 especially when aided by a favorable wind4 ,during the warm season of ,july and ,august these winged insects take flight and settle in swarms on the vineyards not yet ravaged4 ,they alight on the leaves1 where their suckers perform their function in sober moderation4 8,to stuff themselves like gluttons1 after the manner of their kindred that live on the roots1 is not their way4 ,hence their own depredations are of no importance4 ,unfortunately1 however1 it is their mission to do us a most disastrous disservice by infesting1 one after another1 the adjacent vineyards1 peopling the still unaffected districts with underground ravagers4 ,all take part in this2 all1 without exception1 set to work laying eggs4 8,these eggs are few in number1 it is true1 each insect laying at most but half a score amid the cotton-like down of the buds and young leaves4 ,but the aggregate is none the less enormous1 since in this strange family we have thus far encountered none but mothers4 ,we have just seen that all the wingless phylloxeras on the roots lay eggs1 and now we find that all their winged kindred on the leaves do likewise4 8,this excessive fecundity would in the end exhaust the insect and result in its extinction if there were no seasons of quietude for renewing the vitality of the race4 ,yellowish in color like the eggs of the underground phylloxera1 those of the winged insect are of two kinds3 one of a larger size1 the other only about half as large4 ,the first produce females1 the second males4 ,here1 at last1 we have the two sexes1 whose coperation will assure indefinite prosperity to the race4 ,that is the normal order governing all animal life4 8,but what queer little creatures6 ,yellow1 wingless1 stubby1 they look like the lice on the roots1 but even smaller4 ,these phylloxeras of the third kind are dwarfs in a family of dwarfs4 ,they have no stomachs for digesting1 no suckers for puncturing the leaves and extracting their sap4 ,self-nourishment1 however slight1 is not at all their affair4 ,the laying of eggs that shall renew the vigor of the race1 the placing of them where they will be safe1 and then a speedy death--that is the sole purpose of their brief span of life4 8,for some days these dwarfs1 male and female1 wander over the vines and mate1 one with another2 then1 in the fissures of the wrinkled bark1 the mothers lay each an egg1 a single egg1 of enormous size in comparison with the smallness of the layer1 greenish in color and sprinkled with fine black spots4 ,this egg takes the name of #8winter egg1' being destined to pass the cold season fastened by a little hook to the vine's bark4 ,after this the layer of the egg shrivels up into a reddish point and dies40 8,but how do these eggs manage to get through the winter without freezing80 asked ,louis4 8,hens' eggs or birds' eggs would be good for nothing after being left out-doors from autumn till spring40 8,that is true10 assented ,uncle ,paul2 8nevertheless these minute germs of future insect life seldom fail to hatch when warm weather returns4 ,from them come plant-lice like those on the roots of the vine4 ,each new-born louse crawls down the natal vine1 hunts around on the ground until it finds a crack in the soil1 and then makes its way through this fissure to settle at last on a rootlet1 into which it plunges its sucker4 ,at ease thenceforth beneath the surface of the ground and in the bosom of abundance1 it does not long remain alone4 ,close to its fixed position it deposits its little heap of yellow eggs1 whence there quickly issues a new generation4 ,in like manner each member of the family surrounds itself with a family of its own2 and so on by several successive repetitions of the process until1 from having but a single occupant at first1 a root speedily becomes covered with a legion of destroyers4 ,to this population of recent origin we must not forget to add the older inhabitants that have passed the winter under ground and have only waited for the return of the warm season to resume their own laying of eggs on the roots of the vine4 8,let us recapitulate these singular ways of the phylloxera4 ,the species comprises three forms of insects1 each having its own peculiar structure1 its manner of life1 its separate function4 ,the customary animal unity is here a trinity3 three different insects are grouped in a single species4 8,the sedentary members are wingless and live on the roots4 ,all lay eggs and are followed by several generations likewise capable of laying eggs4 ,under the pricking of their collective suckers1 numberless in the aggregate1 vineyards are ruined4 ,there we have the formidable foe1 the ravager whose sucker1 hardly visible to the naked eye1 has already cost us more than ten milliard francs4 8,the migrating members are furnished with large wings4 ,they live on the leaves and lay each a small number of eggs in the down of the buds4 ,like their sedentary kinsfolk1 they all lay eggs4 ,their peculiar office is to disseminate the race from one vineyard to another4 8,the members endowed with sex come under the operation of the general law3 they are divided into male and female4 ,unprovided with wings1 sucker1 or stomach1 they wander over the vine without taking any nourishment4 ,each mother lays a single egg1 the winter egg1 whence issues in the spring a sedentary phylloxera1 which makes its way down to the roots1 establishes itself there1 and becomes the head and center of a new colony4 8,how contend against this foe which1 by reason of its numbers and its underground abode1 defies our attempts to exterminate it8 ,three principal methods are employed4 ,in the lowlands the vineyards are flooded and kept under a good depth of water throughout the winter4 ,this submersion causes the death of the phylloxera at the roots of the plant4 ,as a second method1 through holes bored to the roots the soil is injected with an asphyxiating fluid called sulphur of carbon1 the fumes of which instantly kill all insects that they reach4 ,the difficulty is to do a thorough job and leave no survivors4 ,a third device is employed by those who import from ,america certain wild vines much hardier than our cultivated ones1 but producing inferior fruit4 ,these ,american plants resist the attacks of the phylloxera1 and continue to flourish where our vines would succumb4 ,on these wild stocks1 as soon as they are well rooted1 are grafted our native vines1 and thus is obtained a grape-vine of two-fold quality1 resisting by the hardy nature of its root the phylloxera's assaults1 and bearing1 on its engrafted shoots1 the incomparable fruit of our old vineyards40 ,,chapter ,,liv ,,nocturnal ,,birds ,,of ,,prey 8,the brown owl1 the horned owl1 the barn-owl and other species of this family1 are known under the name of nocturnal birds of prey4 ,they are called birds of prey because they live on the small animals that they catch1 such as rats and mice1 both those that infest our houses and those that live in the fields4 ,owls are1 among birds1 what cats are among quadrupeds1--the inveterate foes of all those small rodents of which the mouse is our most familiar example4 8,the ,french language has recognized this analogy in its term chat-huant #g 7hooting cat7 applied to a certain kind of owl4 ,this bird is1 in some sort1 a cat in its manner of living1 a cat that flies and that utters a long-drawn cry like a plaintive howl4 ,it is nocturnal2 in other words1 it keeps itself hidden by day in some obscure retreat1 whence it comes forth only at nightfall1 to hunt in the twilight and under the rays of the moon4 8,owls have eyes of remarkable size1 round1 and both in a frontal position instead of being placed one on each side of the head4 ,a broad rim of fine feathers encircles each eye4 ,the reason for their great size is found in the bird's nocturnal habits4 ,having to seek its food by a very feeble light1 it must1 in order to see with any distinctness1 have eyes that admit as much light as possible2 that is1 eyes that open very wide4 8,but this wide-openness of the eyes1 so advantageous by night1 is a serious inconvenience to the owl in the bright light of day4 ,dazzled1 blinded1 by the sun's rays1 the bird of darkness keeps itself in hiding and dares not venture forth2 but if forced to do so1 it observes the utmost circumspection1 flying with cautious hesitation and by short stages4 ,the other birds1 those accustomed to broad daylight1 come and insult it at will4 ,robin redbreast and the tomtit are the first to pay their compliments in this manner1 and are followed by the chaffinch1 the jay1 and many others40 8,and doesn't the owl do anything to get even with them80 asked ,jules4 8,very little10 replied his uncle4 8,perched on a branch of some tree1 the night bird answers its aggressors by a grotesque balancing of its body1 turning its large head this way and that in a ridiculous fashion1 and rolling its eyes in bewildered alarm4 ,its menaces are vain3 the smallest and weakest birds are its boldest tormentors1 pecking it and pulling its feathers without its daring to defend itself4 8,because of its wide-open eyes the nocturnal bird of prey needs a subdued light like that of early dawn and of evening dusk4 ,it is1 therefore1 at nightfall and at the first signs of daybreak that these birds leave their retreats and seek their prey4 ,at these hours their hunt is a fruitful one1 for they find the rats and mice1 whether those that lurk about our houses and barns or those that live in the field1 either fast asleep or on the point of going to sleep4 ,moonlight nights are the most favorable for the nocturnal bird's purposes4 ,such nights are nights of plenty1 affording opportunity for protracted hunting and many captures4 8,let us follow the owl on its nocturnal expedition4 ,the moment is propitious1 the air is calm1 the moon shines4 ,the bird leaves its sylvan retreat2 it skims over the open field1 the meadow1 the prairie2 it inspects the furrows where the field-mouse lurks1 the long grass where it burrows1 the ruins of deserted buildings where both rats and mice scamper about4 8,its flight is noiseless1 its silent wing cleaving the air without the faintest sound4 ,it is careful not to give the alarm to its destined victims4 ,this noiseless flight it owes to the structure of its feathers1 which are silky and finely divided4 ,nothing betrays its sudden coming1 and the prey is seized without even suspecting the enemy's presence4 ,an extraordinarily keen sense of hearing1 on the other hand1 advises the bird of all that is going on in the neighborhood4 ,its ears1 large and deep1 perceive the mere rustle of a field-mouse in the grass4 8,the prey is seized with two strong claws warmly clothed in feathers clear down to the very nails4 ,each foot has four toes1 of which three ordinarily point forward1 and one backward2 but1 by a privilege common to nocturnal birds of prey1 one of the anterior toes is movable and can point backward1 so that the claw becomes divided into two pairs of equally powerful grippers when the bird wishes to seize1 as in a vise1 the branch whereon it perches or the victim struggling to escape4 8,a blow of the beak breaks the head of the captured rat4 ,this beak is short and hooked1 and the two mandibles have great mobility1 which enables them1 in striking against each other1 to make a rapid clacking1 a demonstration by which the bird expresses anger or alarm4 8,the mandibles open wide in the act of swallowing1 revealing a mouth of ample proportions and a throat of excessive width4 ,the prey1 which has first been well kneaded by the claws1 disappears down this throat1 bones and all4 ,nothing is left of the rat or the mouse1 not even the fur4 8,digestion completed1 there remains in the stomach a confused mass of skins turned inside out and still wearing their fur1 and bones stripped as clean as if they had been scraped with a knife4 ,the bird then proceeds to rid itself of this encumbrance of innutritious matter4 ,grotesque retchings indicate the labor of this deliverance4 ,something makes its way upward through the extended throat1 the beak opens1 and the act is accomplished4 ,a rounded mass falls to the ground1 composed of skins1 bones1 hair1 scales--in fact1 everything that has defied digestion4 ,all nocturnal birds of prey have this ignoble manner of freeing the stomach3 they vomit in globular form the residue of their prey after the latter has been swallowed whole40 ,,chapter ,,lv ,,the ,,smaller ,,birds 8,almost all the smaller birds are helpful to us in protecting the fruits of the earth from the ravages of insects4 ,their services deserve to be recorded in a long and detailed history1 but time for that is lacking and we must confine ourselves to brief mention of a few of these valiant caterpillar-destroyers4 8,the titmouse1 or tomtit1 is a small bird full of life and showing a petulant humor4 ,always in action1 it flits from tree to tree1 examines the branches with minute particularity1 perches on the swaying end of the frailest twig1 where it clings persistently even though hanging head downward1 accommodating itself to the oscillations of its flexible support without once relaxing its clutch or ceasing its scrutiny of the worm-infested buds1 which it tears open in order to get at the enclosed vermin and insect-eggs4 8,it is calculated that a tomtit rids us of three hundred thousand of these eggs every year4 ,it has to supply the needs of a family seldom equalled in size2 but the support of twenty young ones1 or even more1 is not too heavy a burden for this active bird to bear4 ,with this infant brood on its hands1 it must give constant and careful inspection to buds and to fissures in the bark1 in order to catch larv1 spiders1 caterpillars1 little worms of all kinds1 and thus find food for twenty beaks incessantly agape with hunger at the bottom of the nest4 8,let us suppose the mother bird to arrive with a caterpillar4 ,the nest is immediately all in a tumult3 twenty beaks are stretched wide open1 but only a single one receives the morsel1 while nineteen are kept waiting4 ,the indefatigable mother flies off again1 and when the twentieth beak has at last been fed1 the first has long since begun again its importunate demands4 ,what a multitude of worms such a brood must consume6 8,whole families of birds devote themselves1 as does the titmouse1 to this patient quest for insect eggs in the crevices of tree-trunks or concealed in rolled-up leaves1 for larv between the scales of buds and in worm-holes in wood1 and for insects hidden in cracks and crannies4 ,in this kind of hunt the bird does not have to chase its game and catch it by superior swiftness of flight2 it must simply know how to find it in its lair4 ,to this end it needs a keen eye and a slender beak2 wings play but a secondary part4 8,but other species spend their energies in the free open-air chase3 they pursue their game on the wing1 hunting for gnats1 moths1 mosquitoes1 and flying beetles4 ,they must have a short beak1 but one that opens wide and snaps up unerringly insects on the wing1 despite the uncertainties of arial flight2 a beak in which the victim is caught and held without any retardation of the bird's swift course2 in short1 a beak with a sticky lining which a tiny butterfly cannot so much as graze with its wing and not become entangled4 ,above all1 an untiring and swift wing is necessary1 one that does not flag in the pursuit of game desperately putting forth its utmost efforts to escape1 and one that is not baffled by the tortuous course of a moth driven to bay4 ,a beak inordinately cleft and wings of extraordinary power--such1 in a word1 should be the equipment of the bird whose hunting ground is the vast expanse of the open air4 8,these conditions are fulfilled in the highest degree in the swallow and the martin1 both of which hunt flying insects1 pursuing them this way and that1 back and forth1 ceaselessly and with a thousand subtle tricks4 ,they catch them in their wide-open and viscous gullet1 and continue their course without a moment's pause4 8,the bird that lives on grain and seeds1 the granivorous bird1 as it is called1 has a beak that is very wide at the base and adapted by its strength to the opening of the hardest seeds4 ,in this class are the chaffinch1 the greenfinch1 the linnet1 the goldfinch1 and the swallow4 ,the bird that lives on insects1 or the insectivorous bird1 has a beak that is fine and slender1 in delicacy proportioned to the softness of its prey4 ,to this number belong the nightingale1 the warbler1 the fallow-finch1 and the wagtail4 ,agriculture has no better defenders against the ravages of worms than these little birds with slender beaks1 voracious devourers as they are of larv and insects4 8,but the granivorous birds have certain grave faults3 some of them are addicted to pilfering in the grain-fields and know how to get the wheat out of the ear1 and some even come boldly to the poultry-yard to share with its inmates the oats thrown to them by the farmer's wife4 ,others prefer the juicy flesh of fruit1 and know sooner than we when the cherries are ripe and the pears mellow4 ,such failings1 however1 are amply atoned for by services rendered4 ,the granivores pick up in the fields an infinite number of seeds of all sorts which1 if left to germinate1 would infest our crops with weeds4 8,to this rle of weeder they add a second not less meritorious4 ,grain and seeds are1 it is true1 their regular diet2 but insects are to few of them so despicable as to be refused when sufficiently plentiful and easy to catch4 ,indeed1 we can go still further in our commendation of these birds3 in their early days when1 feeble and featherless1 they receive their nourishment by the beakful from their parents1 many of them are fed on insects4 8,let us take for example the house-sparrow4 ,here we have1 it must be admitted1 an inveterate devourer of grain4 ,he robs our dove-cotes and poultry-yards1 steals their food from the pigeons and the hens1 and anticipates the farmer in reaping the grain-crops near his house4 ,many other misdeeds are to be reckoned against him4 ,he plunders the cherry-trees1 commits petty larceny in the garden1 plucks up sprouting seeds1 and regales himself on young lettuce and the first leaves of green peas4 ,but as soon as the season of insect-eggs opens1 this shameless pilferer becomes one of our most valuable helpers4 ,twenty times an hour1 at least1 the mother and the father take turns in bringing the beakful of food to their little ones2 and each time the bill of fare consists of a caterpillar1 or an insect large enough to be divided into quarters1 or perhaps a fat larva1 or it may be a grasshopper1 or some other kind of small game4 8,in one week the young brood consumes about three thousand insects1 larv1 caterpillars and worms of all species4 ,there have been counted in the immediate vicinity of a single nest of sparrows the remains of seven hundred ,june-bugs1 besides those of innumerable smaller insects4 ,that is the supply of food required for rearing only one brood4 ,let us then1 my children1 wish well to all the little birds that deliver us from that formidable ravager1 the insect40 ,,chapter ,,lvi ,,birds' ,,nests 8,it is in the building of nests destined for the rearing of a family of young ones that the bird shows in a remarkable way that wonderful faculty which enables the little creature to accomplish1 without previous training1 results that would seem to require the intervention of reasoned experience4 8,these adepts in bird-nest architecture have talents of the most varied sort4 ,there are diggers1 who scoop out a hollow in the sand2 miners1 who excavate a little cell to which a long and narrow passage gives access2 carpenters1 who bore into the trunk of a worm-eaten tree2 masons1 who work with mortar made of earth tempered with saliva2 basket-makers1 who weave together small twigs and fine roots2 tailors1 who with a filament of bark for thread and the beak for needle sew a few leaves together into a cornet for holding the mattress on which the young brood will rest2 workers in felt1 who make a fabric of down1 hair1 or cotton1 that rivals our own similar products2 and builders of fortresses1 who protect their nest with an impenetrable thicket as a rampart4 8,the goldfinch1 that pretty little red-headed bird which feeds on the seeds of thistles1 builds a wonderfully wrought nest in the fork of some flexible branch4 ,the outside is made of moss and the silky down of thistle-seeds and dandelions1 while the inside1 artistically rounded1 is lined with a thick cushion of horse-hair1 wool1 and feathers4 8,the chaffinch builds its nest in nearly the same way1 but1 more mistrustful than the goldfinch1 it covers the outside of its abode with a layer of gray lichen which1 merging with the lichen growing naturally on the branch1 serves to baffle the scrutiny of the bird-nest hunter4 8,the window-swallow makes its nest in the corners of windows1 under the eaves of roofs1 and in the shelter of cornices4 ,its building material is fine earth1 chiefly that left in little piles after its digestion by earth-worms in fields and gardens4 ,the swallow fetches it1 a beakful at a time1 moistens it with a little viscous saliva to make it stick together1 and deposits it in courses1 shaping the structure into a sort of hemispherical bowl fastened to the wall and having a narrow mouth at the top to allow the bird to squeeze through4 ,bits of straw embedded in this masonry of earth serve to give it greater solidity4 ,finally1 the inside is upholstered with a quantity of fine feathers4 8,the chimney-swallow chooses a similar situation for its nest and uses the same building-materials1 but the nest itself takes a different form4 ,instead of a hemispherical structure entered by a very small opening1 it builds a cup-shaped nest1 of no great depth and wide-open at the top4 8,swallows like to live together in large numbers1 so that their nests are sometimes found touching one another in colonies of several hundreds under the same cornice4 ,each pair recognizes unerringly its own belongings and respects scrupulously the property of others1 in return for like respect paid to its own4 ,there is among them a deep sense of solidarity1 and they render mutual aid with no less intelligence than zeal4 8,sometimes it chances that a nest has hardly been finished when it crumbles to pieces1 the mortar used having been of poor quality1 or else the masons1 with injudicious haste1 having had too little patience to let one course dry before laying another on top of it4 ,at the news of this mishap neighbors of both sexes hasten up to console the unfortunates and to lend their aid in rebuilding4 ,all apply themselves to the task1 fetching mortar of the first quality1 and straws and feathers1 with such ardor and enthusiasm that in two days the nest is completely rebuilt4 ,left to their own unaided efforts1 the afflicted pair would have needed a fortnight to repair the disaster4 8,the golden oriole is one of the most beautiful birds of our clime4 ,about as large as the blackbird1 it has plumage of a superb yellow1 except the wings1 which are black4 ,in building its nest it selects1 in some tall tree1 a long and flexible bough with a fork at the end4 ,between the two branches of this fork a hammock is woven for receiving the nest4 ,strands of fine bark that has become shredded by long exposure to wind and weather are used for this work of art4 ,these strands or cords pass from one side of the fork to the other1 enlacing them1 crossing and recrossing1 and thus forming a sort of pocket1 firmly fixed and securely hung4 8,broad blades of grass consolidate the structure4 ,then in this hammock a mattress of the finest straw and having the form of an oval cup is put together4 ,the completed work bears some resemblance to those elegant little wool-lined wicker baskets that are used as nests for caged canaries4 8,the long-tailed titmouse1 remarkable for its excessive caudal development1 which constitutes more than half the total length of its body1 lives in the woods during the summer season1 and comes into our gardens and orchards only in winter4 ,it is a small bird with a reddish back and white breast4 ,the stomach is tinged with red2 the neck and cheeks are white4 8,its nest is built sometimes in the fork of a high branch in a clump of bushes1 and sometimes in the dense underwood of a thicket1 a few feet from the ground2 but it is most often attached to the trunk of a willow or a poplar tree4 ,its shape is that of a very large cocoon1 and its entrance is at one side1 about an inch from the top4 ,on the outside it is made of lichens like those that cover the tree1 in order to blend with the bark and deceive the eye of the passer-by4 ,fibers of wool serve to hold all the parts securely together4 ,to make the dome of the nest rain-proof1 it is formed of a sort of thick felt composed of bits of moss and cobwebs4 ,the inside resembles an oven with cup-shaped bottom and very high top1 and is furnished with a remarkably thick bed of downy feathers1 whereon repose from sixteen to twenty little birds1 arranged with careful order in the restricted space no larger1 at the most1 than the hollow of one's hand4 ,by what miracle of parsimonious economy do these twenty little ones with their mother manage to find room for themselves in this tiny abode8 ,and how in the world can tails ever grow to such length there8 8,the nest of the swinging titmouse is still more remarkable4 ,in our country this bird is hardly ever found except on the banks of the lower ,rhone4 ,it hangs its nest very high1 on the tip-end of some swaying branch of a tree at the water-side1 so that its brood is gently rocked by the breeze sweeping over the river40 8,why1 ,i should think10 put in ,emile1 8there would be danger of the young birds' spilling out of such a swinging nest40 8,not at all10 replied his uncle4 8,the shape of the nest provides against that4 ,it is a sort of oval purse about as large as a wine-bottle1 with a small opening at one side1 near the top4 ,this opening is prolonged like the neck of a bottle and will at the utmost admit one's finger4 ,to pass through so narrow an entrance1 the titmouse1 small as it is1 must stretch the elastic wall1 which yields a little and then contracts again4 ,this purse1 as ,i have called it1 is made of the cotton-like flock that comes from the ripening seeds of poplars and willows in ,may4 ,the titmouse gathers these bits of down and weaves them together with a woof of wool and hemp4 ,the fabric thus obtained is not unlike the felt of a cheap hat4 8,it would be useless to seek an explanation of the bird's astonishing success in manufacturing1 with no implements but beak and claws1 a textile that man's skilful hand1 left to its own resources1 would be unable to produce2 and this success the bird achieves with no previous apprenticeship1 without hesitation and without ever having seen the thing done by others4 ,at the very first trial the titmouse surpasses in its art our weavers and fullers4 8,the top of the nest includes in its thickness the end of the branch from which it hangs1 with the terminal twigs of that branch1 which serve as framework for the nest's vaulted roof1 while the foliage projecting through the sides of the nest protects it with its shade4 ,finally1 to secure greater firmness of support1 a cordage of wool and hemp is passed around the branch and interlaced with the felt of the nest4 ,the inside of this hanging habitation is lined with down of the finest quality from the poplar tree4 8,are you acquainted with the troglodyte or1 as it is more commonly called1 the wren8 ,it is the smallest of our birds1 and it too is a master in the art of nest-building4 ,clothed in reddish brown1 with drooping wing and upturned beak and tail1 it is always frisking1 hopping1 and twittering1--teederee1 teeree1 teeree4 ,every winter it comes flying about our houses1 frequenting the wood-pile1 inspecting holes in the wall1 and prying into the densest thickets4 ,at a distance it might be mistaken for a small rat4 8,in summer it lives in the pathless woods4 ,there1 under the shelter of some big root that lies close to the ground and is covered with a thick fleece of moss1 it builds a nest patterned after that of the swinging titmouse4 ,its materials are bits of moss1 selected for the purpose of making the nest undistinguishable in appearance from that to which it is attached4 ,the bird gathers these materials and works them into the shape of a large1 hollow ball with a very small opening on one side4 ,the interior is upholstered with feathers4 8,the magpie fixes its dwelling in the top of some lofty tree whence1 as from an observatory1 it can spy from afar the approaching enemy4 ,at the juncture of a number of branching twigs that offer adequate support it plants its nest1 constructed of interlacing flexible sticks with a floor of tempered earth4 ,fine rootlets1 blades of grass1 and a few tufts of down form the bedding for the prospective brood4 8,so far there is nothing to differentiate the structure from ordinary nests2 but now we behold the exhibition of a special talent on the magpie's part4 ,the entire nest1 and more particularly its upper part1 is surrounded by a thick rampart1 a sort of fortified enclosure composed of thorny twigs securely intertwined4 ,one would take the whole thing for a shapeless mass of brushwood4 ,through this rampart1 on the side that is most strongly defended1 an opening is left of just sufficient size to admit of the mother's entrance and exit4 ,it is the only door to the arial fortress4 8,let us turn now to a bird that builds upon piling4 ,it is a warbler of large size1 called the great sedge-warbler or river-thrush4 ,it selects a cluster of four or five reeds that project above the surface of a pond1 with their stalks rooted in the mud under the water and growing near together4 ,these slender piles1 the tops of which the bird brings into such proximity as may be desired and fastens with connecting strands1 are made to bear an interlacing of flexible materials1 such as rushes1 bark-fibers1 and long blades of grass4 ,it is a basket-weaver's job1 with a framework of reeds as a basis for the structure4 ,finally1 in this basket1 which is made much longer than wide1 is placed the nest proper1 a warm little bed of cotton-like down1 spiders' webs1 and wool4 8,but this abode resting on piles above the water is exposed to two dangers1--the swaying of the reeds which1 bent over by the wind1 might incline the nest so that it would spill its contents either of eggs or of young birds2 and secondly1 the spring freshets1 which might rise so high as to submerge the nest4 ,these dangers1 however1 have been foreseen by the bird4 ,the nest is very deep1 and furthermore the edges of the opening bend inward and form a parapet4 ,in this way is avoided the risk of a fall when the reeds that bear the nest are swayed by the wind4 ,finally1 since the sedge-warbler is at liberty to build her nest at any desired height above the surface of the pond1 she places it always high enough to be beyond the reach of the rising water1 even in great floods4 ,one suspects the bird of being able to foresee1 months in advance1 the coming inundation2 for she builds her nest at a greater or less elevation according to the high-water mark destined later to be reached by the surface of the pond4 8,the cisticola is a small warbler very common in the marshes of ,camargue1 at the mouth of the ,rhone4 ,its nest is placed in the middle of a cluster of grass and rushes1 and takes the form of a purse with a small round opening4 ,fine dry leaves form the bed on which the eggs rest1 while other and larger leaves are fixed all around it to form an enclosure4 8,for this work the bird turns tailor1 cutting the leaves and lapping them over one another4 ,along the border of each leaf it punches holes with the point of its beak and through these holes it passes one or more threads made of cobwebs and the down from certain plants4 ,its distaff for holding the thread--namely1 the beak--does not admit of using very long strands2 hence the needleful1 so to speak1 goes only twice or1 at most1 three times from one leaf to the next one4 ,but no matter2 the sewing is strong enough to fasten the whole into a sort of purse which keeps out the rain4 8,the orthotomus1 or grass-warbler1 a small bird of ,india1 is an even more skilful tailor1 and in fact is commonly known as the tailor-bird4 ,it selects two large leaves1 still living and attached to the branch on which they grew4 ,these are brought together1 with their longer edges touching1 and are sewed border to border with strong cotton thread made by the bird's beak4 ,the seams run only half the length of the leaves1 in such a manner that the two together1 hanging down as they do1 form a conical sac with its mouth upward4 ,in this sac the nest is placed1 hidden by its protecting envelope1 which so blends with the rest of the foliage that even after a person has once found the nest he can with difficulty find it again4 8,in ,south ,africa there is a bird scarcely larger than our swallow and known as the social republican from its living in large societies with one nest in common4 ,this nest1 a sort of bird village1 is shaped like an enormous mushroom1 spreading out all around the trunk of a tree1 which serves as its stalk1 while the lower branches also furnish their support4 ,this colossal edifice is of such bulk and weight as to make a wagon-load1 and if one wishes to see the interior structure it must be chopped to pieces with an axe4 ,it is formed wholly of dry grass arranged much like the thatch on our rustic roofs4 8,indeed1 this structure1 built at public expense by all the associated birds1 is nothing but a roof1 a dome1 destined to shelter the real nests1 which are attached to the inside of the thatched covering4 ,here are to be found a multitude of round holes presenting all together somewhat the appearance of a honeycomb4 ,each hole gives access to a small cell1 a veritable nest and the separate work of a single pair4 ,the grass roof1 then1 is built in common by the whole society1 after which each family provides for its exclusive use a little apartment attached to the lower side of the roof4 ,the number of inhabitants may reach as high as a thousand40 ,,chapter ,,lvii ,,migration ,,of ,,birds 8,at the approach of the cold season10 ,uncle ,paul resumed1 in his account of bird habits and bird peculiarities1 8before winter clears the fields of insects1 covers the ponds with a coating of ice1 and whitens the landscape with snow1 thus cutting off the food-supply hitherto obtainable from the earth1 many birds1 especially those that live on insects or frequent bodies of water and marshy meadows1 take leave of their native land and direct their course southward1 where they will find a warmer sun and a more assured supply of food4 8,they take their departure1 some in large flocks1 others in small groups1 or even each one separately4 ,with no guide other than an irresistible impulse too mysterious for us to explain1 they traverse by successive stages immense tracts of land1 cross seas1 and bend their course toward the countries of the south4 ,africa is the rendezvous of our birds and of ,european birds in general4 8,after the cold season has passed1 with the first fine days of spring the same birds return to the regions where they were born1 making the journey this time in the opposite direction1 from south to north4 ,they take possession once more of their groves and forests1 their rocks and prairies1 which they know how to find with an inconceivable accuracy4 ,there they build their nests1 rear their young1 and gain strength for the coming journey2 and upon the return of cold weather they go back again to the lands of sunshine4 8,these periodical journeys are called migrations1 of which there are two each year1--that of autumn1 when the birds leave us and go southward1 and that of spring1 when they fly northward and come back to us4 ,these semi-annual flittings take place all over the earth4 8,the various species do not all fix upon the same time for their migration1 but each has its own calendar1 from which it departs only very slightly4 ,some start well in advance of the increasing chill and the lessening abundance of food1 while others do not leave their native land until driven by actual necessity1 when the cold has become severe4 ,thus our martin flies away for ,africa as early as the month of ,august1 whereas the chimney-swallow lingers until ,october or even ,november4 8,the martins forsake our turrets and old walls1 our steeples and belfries1 while the summer heat is still intense and the small flies on which they feed are still abundant4 ,it is not1 then1 any lowering of temperature that drives them away1 nor is it any lack of food that hastens their departure2 but they have a secret presentiment of the change of season that is coming in a few weeks2 a deep-seated unrest1 which they cannot overcome1 warns them that the hour for their departure is drawing near4 8,if one desires to witness this anxiety that torments the bird when the time for migrating arrives1 he may do so by rearing in captivity a migratory bird caught very young4 ,the captive1 though never having lived with its kind or had any knowledge of their migratory habits1 and furthermore having been kept in a cage with no experience of cold or hunger1 nevertheless1 when the season for flitting arrives1 shows agitation and mental distress1 and tries to escape from its prison--after remaining so quiet and contented up to that time4 ,some inner voice--instinct we call it--says it is time to go1 and the captive is eager to be off4 ,if the desire is thwarted1 death follows4 8,to tear oneself from beloved haunts to incur the fatigues and perils of a long journey is undoubtedly a painful decision2 yet the bird courageously submits to the inevitable1 but in the hope of coming back again some day4 ,the strong reassuring the weak1 the older ones guiding the young1 the departing flock forms itself into a caravan and takes wing for the south4 ,the sea is crossed1 the treacherous sea from which1 at long intervals1 rises an island as halting-place4 ,many perish in the crossing1 many reach the goal worn with hunger and spent with fatigue4 8,the day for starting on this momentous journey is decided upon in a great assembly1 toward the end of ,august for the window-swallow1 and considerably later1 even as late as ,november1 for the chimney-swallow4 ,when once the date has been fixed1 the window-swallows gather together daily for several days on the roofs of tall buildings4 ,every few minutes small parties detach themselves from the general conclave and circle about in the air with anxious cries1 taking a parting look at their native haunts1 and paying them a last farewell4 ,then they return to their places among their companions and join in noisy chatter on the subject of their hopes and fears1 all the while preparing themselves for the distant expedition by a careful inspection of their plumage and a final touch to one lustrous feather after another4 8,after several repetitions of these farewells a plaintive twittering announces the fateful hour4 ,the moment has come1 it is time to start4 ,the flock rises1 the emigrants are off for the south4 ,if one of them has been marked with a red string around the claw in order to be recognized1 you may be sure you will see it come back the next spring and take possession of its nest again with little cries of joy at finding it intact and ready for occupancy after a few repairs4 8,with their vigorous wings the duck and goose1 in their wild state1 are ardent travelers4 ,on a gray day in ,november1 when there are signs of snow1 it is not unusual to see passing from north to south1 at a great height1 birds arranged in single file1 or in a double file meeting in a point1 like the two branches of the letter ,v4 ,these birds are a flock of either ducks or geese in the act of migrating4 8,if the flock is of no great size1 the birds composing it arrange themselves in one continuous file1 the beak of each following bird touching the tail of the preceding1 in order that the passage opened through the air may not have time to close again4 ,but if the flock is a large one1 two files of equal length are formed1 which meet at an acute angle1 the front of the moving mass4 8,this angular arrangement1 of which we find examples in the ship's prow1 the plowshare1 the thin edge of a wedge1 and a multitude of utensils designed for cleavage1 is the most favorable for pushing through the mass of the air with the least fatigue4 ,if in marshaling their flying battalions the goose and the duck had taken counsel of the engineer's science1 they could not have managed better4 ,but they have no need of others' advice3 instructed by their own instinct1 they utilized long before we did the principle of the wedge4 8,moreover1 to divide among all the members of the flock the excess of fatigue incurred by the file-leader in opening a passage through the air by strength of wing1 each in turn takes the post of honor1 the forward end of the single file or the point of the angle formed by the double file4 ,its term of service ended1 the bird at the head retires to the rear to recuperate1 and another leader takes its place4 ,by this equitable division of labor the fatigue does not prove excessive for any one bird1 and the flock leaves no stragglers behind40 ,,chapter ,,lviii ,,carrier-,,pigeons ,resuming the subject of bird instinct as illustrated by the migratory flock's unerring precision in finding its way over thousands of miles to a desired nesting-place1 ,uncle ,paul continued as follows3 8,how is it that so many thousands1 even millions1 of migrating birds can direct their course through trackless space each to the particular rock or tree or nest left behind six months before1 when the yearly removal was decided upon to some southern region a thousand miles or more distant8 ,how1 for example1 does the frail swallow manage to find again1 at the return of spring1 its tiny abode in the north when it retraces the long journey of the previous autumn8 ,in order that we may be sure it is the same swallow returned to the same nest we tie a colored string1 as ,i have said1 around the bird's claw2 and1 lo and behold1 when ,april comes1 with it comes our swallow to its dwelling under the eaves4 ,it is indeed our identical bird and no other2 it is the very one that fashioned the nest of clay1 cherished bit of private property now so eagerly taken possession of once more4 ,the owner's demonstrations of satisfaction and delight are convincing proof1 even were the bit of red thread not there to dispel all doubt4 8,if the swallow is able to find its nest again upon returning in the spring from the land of the negroes1 still more will it be able to find it after being removed merely from its native canton to the neighboring one4 8,a mother sitting on her eggs or feeding her young is taken1 let us suppose1 put into a basket1 and carried quickly to a spot twenty or thirty leagues distant1 where she is set free again4 ,the surrounding country is unfamiliar to her3 she has never been there before4 ,of the road over which she has just come she has not the slightest knowledge1 having traveled it in the darkness of a closed basket4 ,no matter4 ,with only a moment's hesitation she gets her bearings amid these strange scenes and takes flight toward her nest as unerringly as if it were possible to see the very roof under which repose her little ones4 ,in a few hours we shall find her back again on her nest4 8,a like behavior under similar conditions might be witnessed in the case of divers other birds noted for strength of wing and power of sustained flight4 ,they would return to their domicile in spite of the distance to be traversed and the unfamiliarity of the intervening country4 ,maternal love can accomplish wonders4 ,in order to save her eggs from a chill or her little ones from starving in her absence1 the mother-bird exercises a geographical skill as marvelous as that displayed at the period of migration40 8,i have heard it said10 remarked ,louis1 8that the pigeon is very clever at finding its way over long distances1 and that it is used for carrying letters from one place to another40 8,yes10 replied ,uncle ,paul1 8this aptitude for retracing the homeward way over vast distances is shown to an extraordinary degree by some of our domestic pigeons4 ,economizing all their strength for purposes of sustained flight1 they have retained the wild pigeon's pointed wings1 sleek plumage1 and symmetrical form4 ,we call these birds carrier-pigeons1 a name well earned1 as you will see from what ,i have now to tell you4 8,a pigeon having a brood of young is taken from the pigeon-house1 put into a closed basket1 and transported a distance of a hundred1 two hundred leagues1 or even further if you choose--from one end of ,france to the other4 ,there it is set free4 ,it rises in the air1 circles about a few times as if to assure itself of the direction to be followed1 and then starts off in impetuous flight toward the quarter where pigeon-house and young await its coming4 8,does the bird catch sight of the pigeon-house as it circles about in the upper air8 ,by no means2 the distance is too great4 ,even should it rise to the height of the clouds1 or to still greater altitudes1 where moreover its wings could not sustain it1 it would be unable to see its home4 ,on the journey to the point where it was released it has had no passing glimpse of any object1 shut up as it has been in the dark basket4 ,the region it now traverses it sees for the first time4 ,nothing in the surrounding landscape is familiar1 and yet its flight evinces the assurance that comes from having a definite goal in view4 ,with a speed of about twenty leagues an hour it wings its way straight to the journey's end4 ,if the distance is too great to be covered without pause1 halts are made here and there for food and rest2 then the journey is resumed1 swift as an arrow's flight4 ,finally1 at the end of some hours or days1 according to the distance and the duration of the halts1 the bird renters the pigeon-house with its beakful of food for the waiting little ones4 8,in serious situations the carrier-pigeon is a valuable messenger4 ,during the winter of that terrible year1 #ahgj-ga1 when the ,german hordes besieged ,paris1 no communication was possible by ordinary means between the invested city and the rest of ,france1 in arms to repel the odious invader4 ,with ,paris rendered mute by its isolation1 one might have said that the heart of the country had ceased to beat4 ,for communication between those within and friends without1 recourse was had to balloons and pigeons4 8,certain persons of dauntless courage left ,paris by balloon1 choosing especially the night-time for their departure in order to avoid encounter by day4 ,they carried with them despatches from ,paris and a number of carrier-pigeons4 ,over the enemy camps they went1 to alight somewhere1 far or near1 at the pleasure of the winds4 ,thus the provinces received despatches1 newspapers1 and private letters from ,paris4 ,the car of the balloon was loaded with all these4 8,but how carry back to ,paris despatches from the provinces8 ,to leave a city by balloon in any chance direction is not so very difficult2 but to return by balloon to the same city is practically impossible4 ,the balloon goes as the wind wills1 not as its passengers would like to have it go4 ,to seek to return by the means employed in departing would be to compromise everything by incurring the risk of landing in the midst of the ,prussian lines4 8,the only remaining expedient was to use those incomparable aids1 the pigeons1 which the aronaut had taken with him on his departure4 ,released1 one at a time1 with despatches enclosed in a quill and fastened to the bird's tail1 they flew back over the ,german army to the pigeon-house2 they rentered ,paris and brought news of what was going on in the provinces4 8,do not imagine that the winged messenger was able to transmit only a few words or at most a few lines4 ,it was not with a pen or on ordinary paper that the despatches entrusted to the pigeons were written4 ,by ingenious methods and with unheard-of delicacy it was found possible to obtain characters so fine and sheets of paper so thin that a roll of these sheets weighing scarcely a gram and enclosed in a quill contained as much reading matter as ten printed volumes4 ,what a marvelous piece of work1 that package of letters fastened to the pigeon's tail1 that quill transformed into a library in which thousands of persons--friends1 kinsfolk1 statesmen--communicated their projects1 their fears1 their hopes6 ,in this manner the mail service was maintained during those woeful times40 ,,chapter ,,lix ,,some ,,prehistoric ,,animals 8,fossil remains of all sorts of animals1 from the largest to the smallest1 are found embedded in stone4 ,there are lizards which1 if alive1 would hardly find room enough to turn around in many of our public squares1 so monstrous is their size2 tortoises with shell as large as a small boat2 fishes of strange formation2 birds of a singular character such as we no longer behold2 and enormous quadrupeds that would dwarf to insignificance our sturdy ox4 ,all flying creatures of the air1 all walking and creeping animals of the earth1 every form of life swimming in the water1 are represented in these fossil remains found in the heart of our rocks1 but of a shape and often of a size very different from those of our living animals4 8,these ancient creatures have never been seen alive by man1 so far back in the past is their period4 ,after inhabiting the earth for a very long time1 they disappeared forever1 to give place to other species4 ,what remains of them consists chiefly of bones1 which from their hardness and their mineral character offer the most resistance to the various destructive agencies4 ,with the sole aid of these bones science succeeds in reconstructing the exact form of the animal4 ,it also tells us what the animal fed on and what were its habits4 ,by a miracle of sagacity it resuscitates1 so to speak1 the ancient1 dislocated carcass1 and makes it live again to the mind's eye4 8,fossil bones are commonly found embedded in stone quarried at considerable depths2 it needs the work of pick and chisel and hammer to free them from the rock4 ,how did they come to be there8 ,in the same way as shells4 ,if the creature lived in the waters of a lake or of the sea1 the mud at the bottom covered the body after death4 ,if it lived on land1 the floods swept away its carcass and bore it to the river1 which in turn carried it to lake or ocean4 ,later the lake dried up or the ocean receded1 and the hardened clay left behind became the stone whence to-day are obtained the relics of prehistoric forms of animal life4 8,what1 then1 were these prehistoric forms of animal life that preceded man8 ,regarding ourselves as related to the animals provided with bones1 a sort of inner framework sustaining the corporeal edifice1 we may say in a general way that there has been a gradual succession from lower to higher in structure4 ,first appeared the fishes1 then came the reptiles1 next the birds1 after them the quadrupeds1 suckling their young1 and last of all man1 placed above all the rest by his incomparable endowments4 8,let us glance rapidly at some examples of the ancient denizens of land and sea4 ,look at this picture4 ,the back of the creature here represented resembles a little1 in its form and in its regular rows of scales1 the tail of a fish2 but the front--to what can that be likened8 ,what is the meaning of those large bony plaques arranged side by side like the squares in a tessellated pavement8 ,the animal is armed with coat of mail1 perhaps to protect itself from the bite of an enemy4 8,what is the purpose of those wing-like appendages that strike the flanks8 ,of what use are those two short horns at the base of the forehead8 ,what sort of a creature can it be that thus singularly combines in its structure the tail of a fish1 the shell of a tortoise1 the featherless wings of a bird1 and the nascent horns of a ram8 ,you will never guess the answer1 so different is the creature from any that are known to you4 ,it is a fish1 but such a fish as no frying-pan of ours has ever had acquaintance with1 nor does the ocean now hold any more like it4 8,it goes back to the earliest ages of the world1 and is called the pterichthys4 ,do not exclaim at this name1 as strange to our ears as the creature itself to our eyes4 ,translated into our tongue1 it means a winged fish4 ,but did this fish of former ages really fly8 ,assuredly not4 ,it was too heavy1 too massive1 to admit of that4 ,its wings were simply admirable fins for swimming4 8,in the seas of our day there live certain fishes fitted for flying4 ,their lateral fins1 which are very long1 open like large fans and enable them to sustain themselves for some time in the air4 ,pressed too hard by a pursuing foe1 they escape by leaping out of the water and flying over the waves1 clearing a certain distance before plunging again into the water1 as they must when their fins begin to get dry and to lose their suppleness4 ,they are called flying fishes4 ,compare these two pictures and you will see how greatly the present flying fish differs from the ancient winged fish4 8,and this other creature--what wild dream could have conceived such a monstrosity8 ,it has the head and neck of a plucked bird2 and it also has a bird's beak1 but an enormous one armed with pointed teeth in each mandible4 ,its wings are those of a bat1 one talon of each claw being disproportionately elongated and serving as support to a wide membrane1 much as an umbrella-rib holds the stretched fabric of the cover4 ,its other talons are free and are furnished with hooked nails4 8,the hind legs and feet are those of the lizard4 ,the body is covered with fine scales1 is marbled with touches of a darker color1 and ends in an abbreviated tail4 ,take away from this strange animal its bat's wings1 its long neck and its bird's head1 and you will have something closely resembling the lizard1 the creature that basks in the sun on old walls1 or that other one1 larger and all green1 which gives us a start when it scuttles away among the dead leaves or in the dense growth of the hedge40 8,and was it a lizard1 then1 or a bird80 asked ,emile4 8,it was a reptile1 certainly10 was the reply1 8and it might be called a sort of lizard4 ,there were several species1 varying from the size of a lark to that of a crow4 ,like the bat1 the animal left its retreat in the hollow of rocks and came out at night to flutter awkwardly about in the air by the aid of its wings of stretched skin4 ,with its toothed beak it snapped up in their flight immense dragon-flies1 the chief insects of that time4 ,its hunger appeased1 it took its repose on the ground1 wings folded against its sides1 body supported by the hind legs2 or else it hung down from the rocks1 suspended by its claws4 ,its name is pterodactyl1 which means wing-fingered4 8,let us consider another of these prehistoric creatures4 ,this time it is a bird1 and what a marvelous bird1 too1 my friends6 ,its beak1 no less monstrous than that of the pterodactyl1 had likewise the two mandibles armed with a ferocious-looking set of teeth4 ,pointed teeth in the jaws of a reptile1 such as a lizard1 crocodile1 or serpent1 are nothing extraordinary2 but in a bird's mouth1 that is unheard-of4 ,to-day one would search in vain all over the earth for anything like it4 ,there are beaks of all shapes and sizes1 there are short ones and long ones1 straight ones and crooked ones1 strong ones and weak ones2 but all are toothless1 as are the hen's and the sparrow's4 ,what a singular custom in the primitive bird1 to adopt for beak the toothed jaws of the reptile6 8,and that is not all4 ,this bird adopted also the reptile's tail1 but covered it with feathers4 ,birds of the present day have a short1 wide rump1 from which grow a dozen coarse feathers4 ,the first bird in the order of time had its tail composed of a long succession of little bones1 each supporting two feathers4 ,here is a picture of that tail just as it was found in the rock where the strange creature left its remains4 ,the bird to which the tail belonged is called by the learned an archopteryx1 or ancient winged animal4 8,one more of these monsters1 and that will suffice4 ,the animal that you see here is the mammoth1 a sort of enormous shaggy elephant1 so tall that its back would have touched the ceiling in most of our great halls4 ,its height was as much as six meters4 ,by its side the ordinary elephant1 the largest of extant terrestrial animals1 would look no larger than a sheep beside an ox4 8,its tusks1 which had a pronounced backward curve1 measured four meters in length and weighed as much as four hundred and eighty pounds each4 ,what must have been the strength of a colossus carrying between its lips a weight of nine hundred pounds as easily as a cat carries the hairs of its mustaches6 8,man was already in existence at the time of the mammoth4 ,armed with sharp flint-stones and bone-pointed arrows1 he made bold to attack the enormous animal whose weight made the earth tremble4 ,he hunted it in the chase and feasted on its flesh4 ,what a piece of game when the giant fell into the deep ditch masked by a light covering of boughs and foliage6 ,the victim was then overwhelmed with masses of rock1 after which there was an interminable banquet for the whole tribe4 8,let us go no further1 but merely say in conclusion that the animals of to-day are not the same as those of former ages4 ,long before the present species on land and in the sea1 there gradually made their appearance other very different forms of animal life1 which have now become extinct4 ,nowhere on the earth are there now living any creatures like those that have left their fossil remains for our inspection40 ,,chapter ,,lx ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,coal 8,coal is a fuel of inestimable value4 ,by the heat which it develops in burning it gives movement to divers machines4 ,it makes the locomotive move over the iron rails and the steamship traverse the ocean4 ,with its aid metals are worked1 fabrics woven1 pottery is baked1 glassware manufactured1 newspapers and books are printed1 tools are shaped1 and all sorts of instruments necessary to our daily activities are produced4 ,the arts and crafts have no more powerful auxiliary4 ,if we had to substitute the heat of wood for that of coal1 our forests would prove insufficient4 8,what1 then1 is the origin of this combustible1 which feeds an immense industry and is the source of incalculable riches8 ,ordinarily a piece of coal has no great interest for the eye4 ,it is black1 lustrous1 formless1 friable1 without any definite character to afford us instruction4 ,one can learn more from the fragments of refuse rejected by the miner as too poor in carbon1 fragments in which the predominating element is a kind of dark stone that splits in sheets4 ,in these a surprise is lurking that will tell us the secret of coal4 8,these laminate blocks1 stone rather than coal1 show us1 on the slabs that have just been separated by the blow of the hammer1 various wonderful designs in which we recognize without hesitation the imprint or mold of some form of vegetation4 ,there is no mistake about it2 a plant has left its remains there2 we behold in very truth the leaf with its subdivisions and its veins4 ,it is all there1 even to the minutest detail4 ,it is really the leaf minus the green color1 for which is substituted the black of the coal4 ,we should not obtain a more exact representation if we ourselves took the imprint of some sufficiently firm leaf on a soft plaque of clay4 8,pending the time when some lucky chance shall bring you into the neighborhood of a coal mine where you can obtain a laminate block that you can split into sheets and thus discover for yourselves the vegetable imprints there concealed1 here is a picture that will show you what these curious markings look like4 8,what do you think of it8 ,have we not here what seems to be actual leaves1 and very elegant ones too8 ,they are spread out with a care that would appear to indicate the work of a painstaking human hand4 ,yes1 these are real leaves1 but turned to carbon and firmly incrusted in their bed of black rock4 8,similar imprints are found in great abundance in all coal mines4 ,certain coal-deposits1 several meters thick1 are composed entirely of them1 the smallest chip that one splits off bearing on each face the markings of foliage4 ,the whole is nothing but an accumulation of leaves and broken tree-trunks4 ,an entire forest1 heaped up in one pile1 would not present an equal mass4 ,thus it is demonstrated that in coal are preserved the remains of ancient vegetation4 8,during great floods the rivers of former ages swept away in enormous masses the trees they had uprooted along the banks1 together with the foliage washed into the current by the heavy rains2 then all this refuse was deposited in the mud at the river's mouth1 or in some lake or bay4 ,thus were amassed here and there1 under the water1 during a long series of centuries1 the remains of primitive forests4 8,fine clay became packed about these masses1 molding itself with delicate accuracy around even the smallest leaf2 the weight of the superimposed mud crushed the softened tree-trunks2 a gradual decay converted the whole into charcoal2 and finally the ligneous mass became a layer of coal4 ,later the waters changed their bed1 driven elsewhere by upheavals in the surface of the earth1 and the previously inundated bottom-lands became solid ground in which to-day we find coal under massive strata of rock4 8,is it possible to distinguish the forms of plant-life whence has come our coal8 ,yes1 it is possible1 so well preserved are the details of that life in the products of our mines4 ,now an examination of the imprints left to us in the lamin or leaves of our stone book shows us that the plant-life of those remote ages in which the coal was accumulated bore not the least resemblance to that of our present forests4 ,and this difference was to be expected4 ,the animal life has changed2 why1 then1 should the plant-life have remained unaltered80 8,didn't they have trees then like ours80 asked ,jules4 8,no10 replied his uncle2 8we do not find in our coal mines any signs of the existence of trees resembling those of our day4 ,nowhere in the world1 in fact1 are there now to be seen any such forms of plant-life as flourished so abundantly in those remote ages2 or if any still exist that are at all analogous1 they must be sought in the islands of the tropical seas4 ,no vegetable growth of that coal epoch1 whether tree or bush or simple cluster of leaves1 bore flowers4 ,the splendors of the corolla were not to appear until a later period4 8,for the most part there were only tall stems or stalks1 without branches1 of equal size from top to bottom1 and furrowed with channels or dotted with large points arranged in spiral lines4 ,at the top a tuft of enormous leaves balanced itself1 the under surface of each leaf bearing elongated or rounded swellings containing a fine brown dust1 each grain of which was a seed for the propagation of the plant4 8,plants that thus bear their seeds1 or spores1 in powdery masses on the under side of the leaves are called ferns4 ,a number of species flourish in our part of the world4 ,they are unpretentious plants1 fond of shade and coolness4 ,old damp walls1 rocks that drip water drop by drop1 the darkest corners of our woods--these are the customary haunts of the fern4 8,a short underground stock and a sparse cluster of leaves1 very elegantly shaped1 it is true1 constitute our native ferns4 ,those of the coal epoch were of a different pattern4 ,some of them displayed at the top of a stem as tall as our poplars a cluster of leaves five or six meters in length4 ,they are called tree-ferns1 and they contributed the greater part of the coal-forming material4 8,the accompanying illustration will give you an idea of what the vegetation of that period must have looked like4 ,what strange trees6 ,how different from our oaks and maples and hemlocks6 ,the soil is a liquid mud in which lie and rot the tree-trunks prostrated by the weight of years2 the air is sultry1 moist1 heavy1 strongly impregnated with a moldy smell2 and the density of the foliage barely admits a few sunbeams to flicker over the surface of the stagnant pools4 8,everywhere profound silence4 ,no song of bird bursts forth from the foliage of those tall fern-trees1 for the bird is not yet in existence4 ,no foot of quadruped treads the ground1 for the quadruped with its coat of fur will not come until much later4 ,some lizards lurking in the rock-fissures1 some large dragon-flies at the water's edge1 some odious scorpions under the heaps of dead leaves--that is all the animal-life to be found in the forests that gave us our coal40 ,,chapter ,,lxi ,,the ,,farmer',s ,,helpers 8,by #8helpers' ,i here mean those animals and birds that come to our aid1 though not subject to our care and protection1 and make war on the insects and divers other devourers that would soon get complete control of our crops if we were left to our own resources for preventing their excessive multiplication4 ,what could man do against those voracious hordes that annually propagate their kind at a rate defying calculation8 ,would he have the patience1 the skill1 the keenness of eyesight necessary for effective warfare upon the smallest of these marauders when the ,june-bug1 despite its size1 mocks at our utmost efforts to exterminate it8 ,would he undertake to examine all his fields1 a clod at a time1 to inspect his grain1 ear by ear1 to scrutinize his fruit trees1 one leaf after another8 ,for so prodigious a task the combined efforts of the whole human race would not suffice4 ,the devouring hosts would eat us up1 my friends1 if we had no helpers to come to our rescue1 helpers endowed with a patience that nothing can weary1 an adroitness that baffles all wiles1 a vigilance from which there is no escape4 ,to lie in wait for the enemy1 to seek him in his remotest retreats1 to pursue him without pause or rest1 and finally to exterminate him1 that is their sole concern1 their incessant preoccupation4 ,they are implacable1 pitiless2 hunger urges them on1 both for their own sake and in behalf of their families4 ,they live at the expense of those that live at our expense2 they are the enemies of our enemies4 8,as participants in this great work must be named the bat and the hedge-hog1 the owl1 the martin1 the swallow1 and all the smaller birds1 the lizard1 the adder1 the frog1 and the toad4 ,praise be to ,god who has given us as protectors from that glutton1 the insect1 such birds as the swallow and the warbler1 the robin and the nightingale1 the martin and the starling4 ,and yet these invaluable creatures1 guardians of earth's bounty1 a delight to the eye1 a solace to the ear1 have their homes pillaged by the barbarous and stupid robber of birds' nests4 ,praise be to ,god who for the protection of our daily bread has given us the owl and the toad1 the hedge-hog and the bat1 the adder1 the lizard and the mole4 ,nevertheless these useful creatures that come so valiantly to our aid are cursed and calumniated1 and we stupidly vent upon them our loathing and hate4 8,by what perversity are we1 in general1 impelled to destroy animals whose coperation is so much to our advantage8 ,nearly all our helpers are persecuted4 ,their good will must be indomitable to make them bear our ill treatment and not forsake our dwellings and fields1 never to return4 ,the bat rids us of a host of enemies1 and is nevertheless under the ban2 the mole clears the soil of vermin1 and is likewise proscribed2 the hedge-hog wages war on vipers and cut-worms1 and it too is an outlaw2 the owl and various other night birds are accomplished rat-hunters1 and they also are in disfavor2 the adder1 toad1 and lizard feed on the ravagers of our crops1 and all the while we hold them in abhorrence4 ,they are ugly1 we say1 and without further reason we kill them4 ,but1 blind slayers1 the day will come when you will perceive that you have been sacrificing your own defenders to an irrational repugnance4 ,you complain of rats1 but you nail the owl to your door and let its body dry in the sun as a hideous trophy2 you cry out against cut-worms1 but you crush the mole every time your spade turns one up2 you disembowel the hedge-hog and set your dogs on him just for fun2 you bewail the ravages of moth and worm in your granaries1 but if the bat falls into your clutches it is seldom that you show him any mercy4 ,your complaints go up to heaven1 but all these willing helpers of yours you treat as creatures accursed4 ,blind fools that you are1 filled with an insane desire to kill6 8,insect-eating birds are of immense importance to agriculture4 ,they divide among themselves the work to be done in field and hedge1 meadow and garden1 forest and orchard1 and wage unceasing warfare on every species of vermin1 a terrible tribe that would destroy our crops were not more vigilant guardians than we continually on the watch--guardians of far greater adroitness1 of sharper eyesight1 of more lasting patience in their endless quest1 and having nothing else to do4 ,i am not exaggerating1 my little friends2 without insect-eating birds famine would decimate us4 ,who then1 unless he be an idiot with a mania for destruction1 would dare touch the nests of birds that enliven the country with their plumage and deliver us from the devouring scourge of insects8 ,but there are1 nevertheless1 bloodthirsty gamins who1 if they can manage to elude the school-master and play truant1 find it a joyous pastime to climb trees and explore hedges in order to rob birds' nests and slaughter the young4 ,these good-for-nothings are under the surveillance of the rural guard and liable to the utmost rigors of the law1 to the end that our crops may still be protected by the birds and that our fields and orchards may continue to yield sheaves of grain and baskets of fruit4 8,let us add a few words on the mode of life of these indispensable collaborators4 ,the bat feeds exclusively on insects1 anything in that class serving its purpose1--beetles with hard wing-sheaths1 spindle-shanked mosquitoes1 graceful butterflies1 plump-bellied moths of all kinds1 such as make havoc of our cereals1 vineyards1 fruit trees and woolen stuffs1 and those that come in the evening1 attracted by the lamplight1 and singe their wings over the flame4 ,who shall say how many insects are snapped up by the bats in their nightly tour of our premises8 ,the game is so small1 the hunter's appetite so insatiable6 8,note what takes place on a calm summer evening4 ,lured abroad by the mild temperature of the twilight hours1 a swarm of insects leave their retreats and come out to play in the open air1 to hunt for food1 and to mate1 one with another4 ,it is then that great night-moths fly abruptly from flower to flower and plunge their long proboscis to the bottom of the corolla1 where they suck up the honey2 it is then that the mosquito1 eager for human blood1 sings its war-song in our ears and chooses our tenderest spot for the insertion of its envenomed lancet2 and it is then that the ,june-bug quits the sheltering leaf1 spreads its resounding wings1 and goes booming through the air in quest of its kin4 ,the gnats dance in joyous swarms which the least puff of wind disperses like a column of smoke2 the moths1 their wings powdered with silver dust and their antenn displayed plume-fashion1 indulge in frolicsome gambols or go in search of favorable places for laying their eggs2 the little wood-gnawing beetles explore the wrinkled bark of old tree-trunks2 the wheat-moths rise in clouds from the ravaged grain and take flight for fresh fields2 and other night-flying insects flutter about1 alighting on grape-vines and fruit-trees1 all busily searching for food and shelter for their calamitous offspring4 8,but suddenly this scene of jollity is intruded upon by a most unwelcome kill-joy4 ,the bat1 with zig-zag course1 flits hither and thither1 up and down1 back and forth1 untiring of wing1 appearing and disappearing1 darting its head out this way and that1 and each time catching an insect in flight1 which it immediately crushes and gobbles up1 sending it to its doom down a throat that opens wide from ear to ear4 ,it is famous hunting3 gnats1 beetles1 moths1 all are there in plenty1 and every once in a while a little cry of joy announces the capture of an especially plump victim4 ,as long as the fading twilight admits of it1 the ardent hunter continues in this way his work of extermination4 ,stuffed to repletion at last1 the bat regains its dark and quiet retreat2 but on the morrow1 and every day thereafter throughout the summer1 the hunt will be resumed1 always with the same ardor1 always at the cost of insects only4 ,my children1 respect the bat1 our helper in destroying the ravagers of our fields40 ,,chapter ,,lxii ,,the ,,farmer',s ,,helpers 7,continued7 8,the hedge-hog's diet consists especially of insects4 ,the lowest order of vermin is disdained by him as too small1 but a ,june-bug larva or a fat-bellied cricket is a capital prize1 and when these are not too deeply buried he burrows with claws and snout to unearth them4 ,all night long he goes prowling around1 routing out and crunching a goodly number of our enemies1 without doing any appreciable harm himself4 8,listen now to what ,i am going to relate to you from the book of a learned observer4 #8,i had in a box1' he says1 #8a female hedge-hog with her sucklings2 and ,i added to the occupants of the box a vigorous viper1 which coiled itself up in one corner4 ,the hedge-hog slowly approached and smelt of the reptile1 whereupon the latter raised its head and put itself on guard1 showing the while its venomous fangs4 ,for a moment the aggressor recoiled1 but only to resume the offensive immediately after and with no sign of fear4 ,the viper then bit the animal on the end of its snout4 ,the hedge-hog licked its bleeding wound1 and in doing so received a second bite on the tongue without suffering itself to be at all intimidated4 ,finally it seized the serpent by the middle of its body1 and the two adversaries rolled together on the floor in a furious struggle1 the quadruped grunting and snorting1 the reptile hissing and making repeated use of its fangs4 ,suddenly the hedge-hog seized its antagonist's head and crunched it between its teeth1 after which1 without the least sign of perturbation1 it proceeded to devour the forward half of the body4 ,that done1 it returned to the opposite corner of the box and1 lying on its side1 calmly began to suckle its young4 ,on the morrow it ate the rest of the viper4 ,the same experiment was several times repeated1 with an interval of some days between each repetition and the next1 but the issue was always the same3 in spite of wounds that set its snout to bleeding1 the hedge-hog invariably finished by devouring the reptile1 and neither the mother nor her young showed any ill effects from the experience4' 8,it is to be assumed that the hedge-hog has not received the gift of withstanding the venom of reptiles only to leave that gift unemployed4 ,the animal is evidently intended to find its chief pleasure in haunting the places frequented by the viper2 in its nightly rounds among the underbrush it must often catch the lurking serpent and make short work of the venomous creature4 ,what valuable service it must render in regions infested by this dangerous reptile6 ,and yet man is the hedge-hog's inveterate foe1 showering it with maledictions and treating it as an unclean beast good for nothing except perhaps to arouse the fury of dogs1 which have to beware of its bristling back4 ,do not1 my children1 imitate this evil example1 but respect the hedge-hog for ridding you of the cut-worm and the viper4 8,now as to the mole1 what does it eat8 ,the best way to decide the question of an animal's diet is to examine the contents of its stomach4 ,let us1 then1 open the mole's stomach and see for ourselves4 ,sometimes it is found to contain red fragments of the common earth-worm2 sometimes a hash of beetles1 recognizable from the tough remains that have resisted digestion1 such as bits of claws and wing-sheaths2 sometimes1 again1 and oftener than not1 a marmalade of larv1 especially those of the ,june-bug1 with their distinctive signs like the mandibles and the hard casing of the head4 ,one finds1 in short1 a little of every sort of game haunting the soil1--polypods and millepeds1 insects and caterpillars1 moths in the chrysalis1 underground worms and nymphs1 and so on2 but the minutest scrutiny fails to discover a single particle of vegetable matter4 8,the mole1 then1 is exclusively carnivorous1 and furthermore it has a monstrous appetite1 a perfectly insatiable stomach that in twelve hours demands a quantity of food equal to the animal's weight4 ,the mole's existence is one gluttonous frenzy1 ever renewing itself1 never appeased2 a few hours' abstinence suffices to kill the creature4 ,to still the anguish of that stomach1 which is no sooner stuffed with food than it is emptied again1 what can the animal count upon8 ,on the grubs living in the ground1 and especially on those of the ,june-bug1 tender and fat4 ,it is a small creature for supplying the wants of such an appetite1 but its numbers make up for its littleness4 ,what a massacre of worms1 then1 must not the mole be credited with in the season when worms abound6 ,scarcely is one meal finished before another begins1 and at each repast the worms must be gobbled up by the dozen4 ,to clear a field of these formidable ravagers the farmer has no helper equal to the mole4 ,the only regret is that to reach the vermin on which the animal lives1 it has to burrow among the roots where they have their haunts4 ,many roots that lie in the way are necessarily ruptured in this work2 plants are broken off and destroyed2 and1 finally1 the little piles of earth1 or mole-hills1 heaped up by the animal in the course of its excavations1 impede the reaper when harvest-time comes around4 ,never mind3 the worms would have caused much more serious damage1 and to get rid of them there is nothing like this ravenous insect-hunter4 ,therefore1 children1 never molest the mole1 the protector of our crops4 8,the toad is harmless1 but that is not enough to commend the creature to our attention4 ,it too is a helper of great worth1 a greedy devourer of slugs1 beetles1 larv1 and every sort of vermin4 ,discreetly withdrawn by day under the cool cover of a stone in some obscure hole1 it leaves its retreat at nightfall to make its regular rounds1 propelling itself1 hoppity-hop1 on its ample stomach4 ,here is a slug on its way to the lettuce-plants2 yonder is a cricket chirping at the entrance to its hole2 and over there a ,june-bug is laying its eggs in the ground4 ,master toad comes along in circumspect fashion1 opens his cavernous mouth1 and in three gulps swallows them all with a gurgle of satisfaction4 ,oh1 but that was good6 ,now for some more of the same sort4 8,he continues on his rounds1 and when dawn begins to glimmer in the east what kind of a hodge-podge of variegated vermin must there not be in the glutton's capacious maw8 ,yet they kill this useful creature--stone it to death because1 forsooth1 it is not so handsome as it might be4 ,my children1 may you never be guilty of such cruelty1 such foolish and mischievous cruelty6 ,never stone the toad1 for in doing so you would be robbing the fields of a vigilant guardian4 ,let the poor creature perform in peace its appointed task as destroyer of worms and insects4 8,finally1 and not least of all1 must be mentioned the various birds1 chiefly the little birds of our fields and farm-yards1 that help the farmer by devouring harmful insects and the seeds of wild grasses and intrusive weeds4 ,these indefatigable assistants1 however1 we have already discussed1 and we have gratefully acknowledged our indebtedness to them4 ,no more1 then1 need be said about them at present1 except in the way of renewed admonition never to molest them1 never to rob their nests2 for they are our friends and benefactors40 ,,finis ,,notes #a ,laundry starch is now obtained chiefly from rice and from pulse4--,translator4 #b ,the author is not quite accurate here4 ,franklin was1 as he tells us1 8the youngest son1 and the youngest child but two40--,translator4 #c ,the old fashioned loaf-sugar is here meant4--,translator4 #d ,this is inconsistent with what ,uncle ,paul stated two paragraphs above4 ,he should have said here that the lily has but one floral envelope4--,translator4 #e ,in ,english this transfer of a bud is commonly called 8budding40--,translator4 #f ,the author does not1 either here or later1 distinguish by name1 as might have been done1 between butterflies and moths4 ,the latter fly mostly in the evening or at night4--,translator4 #g ,the corresponding ,english term is 8screech-owl40--,translator4