,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4 ,on ,chapter #eb page #cac 8sees no reason why divination in darkness1 in a wall1 or in sunlight1 or by potions and incantations10 while well seems more likely than wall the original text is unchanged4 ,footnote #adgg3 century1 fols4 #aef-gd has been replaced by #ef-gd4 ,the table of contents lists the contents of volume #b as well as volume #a4 ,the footnotes have been placed at the end of the book4 ,italics are represented thus italic1 and superscripts thus yen4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,magic ,,and ,,experimental ,,science ,,volume ,i ,a ,,history ,,of ,,magic ,,and ,,experimental ,,science ,,during ,,the ,,first ,,thirteen ,,centuries ,,of ,,our ,,era ,,by ,,lynn ,,thorndike ,,volume ,i ,,columbia ,,university ,,press ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london ,copyright #aibc ,columbia ,university ,press ,first published by ,the ,macmillan ,company #aibc ,,isbn #j-bca-jhgid-b ,manufactured in the ,united ,states of ,america #aj #i #h #g ,,contents ,,page ,,preface ix ,,abbreviations xiii ,,designation ,,of ,,manuscripts xv ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,frequently ,,cited ,,by ,,author ,,and ,,date ,,of ,,publication ,,or ,,brief ,,title xvii ,,chapter #a4 ,,introduction #a ,,book ,i4 ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,,foreword #ci #b4 ,,pliny',s ,,natural ,,history #da ,i4 ,its ,place in the ,history of ,science #db ,,ii4 ,its ,experimental ,tendency #ec ,,iii4 ,pliny's ,account of ,magic #eh ,,iv4 ,the ,science of the ,magi #fd ,v4 ,pliny's ,magical ,science #gb #c4 ,,seneca ,,and ,,ptolemy3 ,,natural ,,divination ,,and ,,astrology #ajj #d4 ,,galen #aag ,i4 ,the ,man and ,his ,times #aai ,,ii4 ,his ,medicine and ,experimental ,science #aci ,,iii4 ,his ,attitude ,toward ,magic #afe #e4 ,,ancient ,,applied ,,science ,,and ,,magic3 ,,vitruvius1 ,,hero1 ,,and ,,the ,,greek ,,alchemists #ahb #f4 ,,plutarch',s ,,essays #bjj #g4 ,,apuleius ,,of ,,madaura #bba #h4 ,,philostratus',s ,,life ,,of ,,apollonius ,,of ,,tyana #bdb #i4 ,,literary ,,and ,,philosophical ,,attacks ,,upon ,,superstition3 ,,cicero1 ,,favorinus1 ,,sextus ,,empiricus1 ,,lucian #bfh #aj4 ,,spurious ,,mystic ,,writings ,,of ,,hermes1 ,,orpheus1 ,,and ,,zoroaster #bhg #aa4 ,,neo-,,platonism ,,and ,,its ,,relations ,,to ,,astrology ,,and ,,theurgy #bih #ab4 ,,aelian1 ,,solinus1 ,,and ,,horapollo #cbb ,,book ,,ii4 ,,early ,,christian ,,thought ,,foreword #ccg #ac4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,enoch #cdj #ad4 ,,philo ,,judaeus #cdh #ae4 ,,the ,,gnostics #cfj #af4 ,,the ,,christian ,,apocrypha #che #ag4 ,,the ,,recognitions ,,of ,,clement ,,and ,,simon ,,magus #djj #ah4 ,,the ,,confession ,,of ,,cyprian ,,and ,,some ,,similar ,,stories #dbh #ai4 ,,origen ,,and ,,celsus #dcf #bj4 ,,other ,,christian ,,discussion ,,of ,,magic ,,before ,,augustine #dfb #ba4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,natural ,,science3 ,,basil1 ,,epiphanius1 ,,and ,,the ,,physiologus #dhj #bb4 ,,augustine ,,on ,,magic ,,and ,,astrology #ejd #bc4 ,,the ,,fusion ,,of ,,pagan ,,and ,,christian ,,thought ,,in ,,the ,,fourth ,,and ,,fifth ,,centuries #ebc ,,book ,,iii4 ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages #bd4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,nectanebus1 ,,or ,,the ,,alexander ,,legend ,,in ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages #eea #be4 ,,post-,,classical ,,medicine #eff #bf4 ,,pseudo-,,literature ,,in ,,natural ,,science #eid #bg4 ,,other ,,early ,,medieval ,,learning3 ,,boethius1 ,,isidore1 ,,bede1 ,,gregory #faf #bh4 ,,arabic ,,occult ,,science ,,of ,,the ,,ninth ,,century #fda #bi4 ,,latin ,,astrology ,,and ,,divination1 ,,especially ,,in ,,the ,,ninth1 ,,tenth1 ,,and ,,eleventh ,,centuries #fgb #cj4 ,,gerbert ,,and ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,arabic ,,astrology #fig #ca4 ,,anglo-,,saxon1 ,,salernitan ,,and ,,other ,,latin ,,medicine ,,in ,,manuscripts ,,from ,,the ,,ninth ,,to ,,the ,,twelfth ,,century #gai #cb4 ,,constantinus ,,africanus 7c4 #ajae-ajhg7 #gdb #cc4 ,,treatises ,,on ,,the ,,arts ,,before ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,arabic ,,alchemy #gfj #cd4 ,,marbod #gge ,,indices3 ,general #ghc ,bibliographical #haa ,manuscripts #hca ,,book ,,iv4 ,,the ,,twelfth ,,century #ce4 ,,the ,,early ,,scholastics3 ,,peter ,,abelard ,,and ,,hugh ,,of ,,st4 ,,victor #c #cf4 ,,adelard ,,of ,,bath #ad #cg4 ,,william ,,of ,,conches #ej #ch4 ,,some ,,twelfth ,,century ,,translators1 ,,chiefly ,,of ,,astrology ,,from ,,the ,,arabic #ff #ci4 ,,bernard ,,silvester2 ,,astrology ,,and ,,geomancy #ii #dj4 ,,saint ,,hildegard ,,of ,,bingen #abd #da4 ,,john ,,of ,,salisbury #aee #db4 ,,daniel ,,of ,,morley ,,and ,,roger ,,of ,,hereford #aga #dc4 ,,alexander ,,neckam ,,on ,,the ,,natures ,,of ,,things #ahh #dd4 ,,moses ,,maimonides #bje #de4 ,,hermetic ,,books ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages #bad #df4 ,,kiranides #bbi #dg4 ,,prester ,,john ,,and ,,the ,,marvels ,,of ,,india #bcf #dh4 ,,the ,,pseudo-,,aristotle #bdf #di4 ,,solomon ,,and ,,the ,,ars ,,notoria #bgi #ej4 ,,ancient ,,and ,,medieval ,,dream-,,books #bij ,,book ,v4 ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,century ,,foreword #cje #ea4 ,,michael ,,scot #cjg #eb4 ,,william ,,of ,,auvergne #cch #ec4 ,,thomas ,,of ,,cantimpr #cgb #ed4 ,,bartholomew ,,of ,,england #dja #ee4 ,,robert ,,grosseteste #dcf #ef4 ,,vincent ,,of ,,beauvais #deg #eg4 ,,early ,,thirteenth ,,century ,,medicine3 ,,gilbert ,,of ,,england ,,and ,,william ,,of ,,england #dgg #eh4 ,,petrus ,,hispanus #dhh #ei4 ,,albertus ,,magnus #eag ,i4 ,life #eba ,,ii4 ,as a ,scientist #ebh ,,iii4 ,his ,allusions to ,magic #edh ,,iv4 ,marvelous ,virtues in ,nature #efj ,v4 ,attitude ,toward ,astrology #egg #fj4 ,,thomas ,,aquinas #eic #fa4 ,,roger ,,bacon #faf ,i4 ,life #fai ,,ii4 ,criticism of and ,part in ,medieval ,learning #fcj ,,iii4 ,experimental ,science #fdi ,,iv4 ,attitude ,toward ,magic and ,astrology #fei #fb4 ,,the ,,speculum ,,astronomiae #fib #fc4 ,,three ,,treatises ,,ascribed ,,to ,,albert #gbj #fd4 ,,experiments ,,and ,,secrets3 ,,medical ,,and ,,biological #gea #fe4 ,,experiments ,,and ,,secrets3 ,,chemical ,,and ,,magical #ggg #ff4 ,,picatrix #hac #fg4 ,,guido ,,bonatti ,,and ,,bartholomew ,,of ,,parma #hbe #fh4 ,,arnald ,,of ,,villanova #hda #fi4 ,,raymond ,,lull #hfb #gj4 ,,peter ,,of ,,abano #hgd #ga4 ,,cecco ,d',,ascoli #idh #gb4 ,,conclusion #ifi ,,indices3 ,general #ihe ,bibliographical #ajjg ,manuscripts #ajbg ,,preface ,this work has been long in preparation--ever since in #aijb-aijc ,professor ,james ,harvey ,robinson1 when my mind was still in the making1 suggested the study of magic in medieval universities as the subject of my thesis for the master's degree at ,columbia ,university--and has been foreshadowed by other publications1 some of which are listed under my name in the preliminary bibliography4 ,since this was set up in type there have also appeared3 8,galen3 the ,man and ,his ,times10 in ,the ,scientific ,monthly1 ,january1 #aibb2 8,early ,christianity and ,natural ,science10 in ,the ,biblical ,review1 ,july1 #aibb2 8,the ,latin ,pseudo-,aristotle and ,medieval ,occult ,science10 in ,the ,journal of ,english and ,germanic ,philology1 ,april1 #aibb2 and notes on ,daniel of ,morley and ,gundissalinus in ,the ,english ,historical ,review4 ,for permission to make use of these previous publications in the present work ,i am indebted to the editors of the periodicals just mentioned1 and also to the editors of ,the ,columbia ,university ,studies in ,history1 ,economics1 and ,public ,law1 ,the ,american ,historical ,review1 ,classical ,philology1 ,the ,monist1 ,nature1 ,the ,philosophical ,review1 and ,science4 ,the form1 however1 of these previous publications has often been altered in embodying them in this book1 and1 taken together1 they constitute but a fraction of it4 ,book ,i greatly amplifies the account of magic in the ,roman ,empire contained in my doctoral dissertation4 ,over ten years ago ,i prepared an account of magic and science in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries based on material available in print in libraries of this country and arranged topically1 but ,i did not publish it1 as it seemed advisable to supplement it by study abroad and of the manuscript material1 and to adopt an arrangement by authors4 ,the result is ,books ,,iv and ,v of the present work4 ,my examination of manuscripts has been done especially at the ,british ,museum1 whose rich collections1 perhaps because somewhat inaccessibly catalogued1 have been less used by students of medieval learning than such libraries as the ,bodleian and ,bibliothque ,nationale4 ,i have worked also1 however1 at both ,oxford and ,paris1 at ,munich1 ,florence1 ,bologna1 and elsewhere2 but it has of course been impossible to examine all the thousands of manuscripts bearing upon the subject1 and the war prevented me from visiting some libraries1 such as the important medieval collection of ,amplonius at ,erfurt4 ,however1 a fairly wide survey of the catalogues of collections of manuscripts has convinced me that ,i have read a representative selection4 ,such classified lists of medieval manuscripts as ,mrs4 ,dorothea ,singer has undertaken for the ,british ,isles should greatly facilitate the future labors of investigators in this field4 ,although working in a rather new field1 ,i have been aided by editions of medieval writers produced by modern scholarship1 and by various series1 books1 and articles tending1 at least1 in the same direction as mine4 ,some such publications have appeared or come to my notice too late for use or even for mention in the text3 for instance1 another edition of the ,de medicamentis of ,marcellus ,empiricus by ,m4 ,niedermann2 the printing of the ,twelve ,experiments with ,snakeskin of ,john ,paulinus by ,j4 ,w4 ,s4 ,johnsson in ,bull4 d4 l4 socit fran4 d'hist4 d4 l4 md41 ,,xii1 #beg-fg2 the detailed studies of ,sante ,ferrari on ,peter of ,abano2 and ,a4 ,franz1 ,die kirchlichen ,benediktionen im ,mittelalter1 #aiji1 #b vols4 ,the breeding place of the eel 7to which ,i allude at ,i1 #dia7 is now1 as a result of recent investigation by ,dr4 ,j4 ,schmidt1 placed 8about #bejj miles from the mouth of the ,english ,channel and #ejj miles north-east of the ,leeward ,islands0 7,discovery1 ,oct41 #aibb1 p4 #bef7 instead of in the ,mediterranean4 ,a man who once wrote in ,dublin#a complained of the difficulty of composing a learned work so far from the ,bodleian and ,british ,museum1 and ,i have often felt the same way4 ,when able to visit foreign collections or the largest libraries in this country1 or when books have been sent for my use for a limited period1 ,i have spent all the available time in the collection of material1 which has been written up later as opportunity offered4 ,naturally one then finds many small and some important points which require verification or further investigation1 but which must be postponed until one's next vacation or trip abroad1 by which time some of the smaller points are apt to be forgotten4 ,of such loose threads ,i fear that more remain than could be desired4 ,and ,i have so often caught myself in the act of misinterpretation1 misplaced emphasis1 and other mistakes1 that ,i have no doubt there are other errors as well as omissions which other scholars will be able to point out and which ,i trust they will4 ,despite this prospect1 ,i have been bold in affirming my independent opinion on any point where ,i have one1 even if it conflicts with that of specialists or puts me in the position of criticizing my betters4 ,constant questioning1 criticism1 new points of view1 and conflict of opinion are essential in the pursuit of truth4 ,after some hesitation ,i decided1 because of the expense1 the length of the work1 and the increasing unfamiliarity of readers with ,greek and ,latin1 as a rule not to give in the footnotes the original language of passages used in the text4 ,i have1 however1 usually supplied the ,latin or ,greek when ,i have made a free translation or one with which ,i felt that others might not agree4 ,but in such cases ,i advise critics not to reject my rendering utterly without some further examination of the context and line of thought of the author or treatise in question1 since the wording of particular passages in texts and manuscripts is liable to be corrupt1 and since my purpose in quoting particular passages is to illustrate the general attitude of the author or treatise4 ,in describing manuscripts ,i have employed quotation marks when ,i knew from personal examination or otherwise that the ,latin was that of the manuscript itself1 and have omitted quotation marks where the ,latin seemed rather to be that of the description in the catalogue4 ,usually ,i have let the faulty spelling and syntax of medieval copyists stand without comment4 ,but as ,i am not an expert in palaeography and have examined a large number of manuscripts primarily for their substance1 the reader should not regard my ,latin quotations from them as exact transliterations or carefully considered texts4 ,he should also remember that there is little uniformity in the manuscripts themselves4 ,i have tried to reduce the bulk of the footnotes by the briefest forms of reference consistent with clearness--consult lists of abbreviations and of works frequently cited by author and date of publication--and by use of appendices at the close of certain chapters4 ,within the limits of a preface ,i may not enumerate all the libraries where ,i have been permitted to work or which have generously sent books--sometimes rare volumes--to ,cleveland for my use1 or all the librarians who have personally assisted my researches or courteously and carefully answered my written inquiries1 or the other scholars who have aided or encouraged the preparation of this work1 but ,i hope they may feel that their kindness has not been in vain4 ,in library matters ,i have perhaps most frequently imposed upon the good nature of ,mr4 ,frederic ,c4 ,erb of the ,columbia ,university ,library1 ,mr4 ,gordon ,w4 ,thayer1 in charge of the ,john ,g4 ,white collection in the ,cleveland ,public ,library1 and ,mr4 ,george ,f4 ,strong1 librarian of ,adelbert ,college1 ,western ,reserve ,university2 and ,i cannot forbear to mention the interest shown in my work by ,dr4 ,r4 ,l4 ,poole at the ,bodleian4 ,for letters facilitating my studies abroad before the war or application for a passport immediately after the war ,i am indebted to the ,hon4 ,philander ,c4 ,knox1 then ,secretary of ,state1 to ,frederick ,p4 ,keppel1 then ,assistant ,secretary of ,war1 to ,drs4 ,j4 ,franklin ,jameson and ,charles ,f4 ,thwing1 and to ,professors ,henry ,e4 ,bourne and ,henry ,crew4 ,professors ,c4 ,h4 ,haskins1#b ,l4 ,c4 ,karpinski1 ,w4 ,g4 ,leutner1 ,w4 ,a4 ,locy1 ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald1 ,l4 ,j4 ,paetow1 ,s4 ,b4 ,platner1 ,e4 ,c4 ,richardson1 ,james ,harvey ,robinson1 ,david ,eugene ,smith1 ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson1 ,a4 ,h4 ,thorndike1 ,e4 ,l4 ,thorndike1 ,t4 ,wingate ,todd1 and ,hutton ,webster1 and ,drs4 ,charles ,singer and ,se ,boyar have kindly read various chapters in manuscript or proof and offered helpful suggestions4 ,the burden of proof-reading has been generously shared with me by ,professors ,b4 ,p4 ,bourland1 ,c4 ,d4 ,lamberton1 and ,walter ,libby1 and especially by ,professor ,harold ,north ,fowler who has corrected proof for practically the entire work4 ,after receiving such expert aid and sound counsel ,i must assume all the deeper guilt for such faults and indiscretions as the book may display4 ,,abbreviations ,abhandl4 ,abhandlungen zur ,geschichte der ,mathematischen ,wissenschaften1 begrndet von ,m4 ,cantor1 ,teubner1 ,leipzig4 ,addit4 ,additional ,manuscripts in the ,british ,museum4 ,amplon4 ,manuscript collection of ,amplonius ,ratinck at ,erfurt4 ,,an ,ante-,nicene ,fathers1 ,american ,reprint of the ,edinburgh edition1 in #i vols41 #aiac4 ,,as ,acta sanctorum4 ,beitrge ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,philosophie des ,mittelalters1 ed4 by ,c4 ,baeumker1 ,g4 v4 ,hertling1 ,m4 ,baumgartner1 et al41 ,mnster1 #ahia-4 ,,bl ,bodleian ,library1 ,oxford4 ,,bm ,british ,museum1 ,london4 ,,bn ,bibliothque ,nationale1 ,paris4 ,borgnet ,augustus ,borgnet1 ed4 ,b4 ,alberti ,magni ,opera omnia1 ,paris1 #ahij-ahii1 in #ch vols4 ,brewer ,fr4 ,rogeri ,bacon ,opera quaedam hactenus inedita1 ed4 ,j4 ,s4 ,brewer1 ,london1 #ahei1 in ,,rs1 ,,xv4 ,bridges ,the ,opus ,maius of ,roger ,bacon1 ed4 ,j4 ,h4 ,bridges1 ,i-,,ii1 ,oxford1 #ahig2 ,,iii1 #aijj4 ,,ccag ,catalogus codicum astrologorum ,graecorum1 ed4 ,f4 ,cumont1 ,w4 ,kroll1 ,f4 ,boll1 et al41 #ahih4 ,,ce ,catholic ,encyclopedia4 ,,cfcb ,census of ,fifteenth ,century ,books ,owned in ,america1 compiled by a committee of the ,bibliographical ,society of ,america1 ,new ,york1 #aiai4 ,,clm ,codex ,latinus ,monacensis 7,latin ,,ms at ,munich74 ,,csel ,corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum1 ,vienna1 #ahff-4 ,,cu ,cambridge ,university 7used to distinguish ,,mss in colleges having the same names as those at ,oxford74 ,,cul ,cambridge ,university ,library4 ,,dnb ,dictionary of ,national ,biography4 ,,eb ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 #aath edition4 ,,eets ,early ,english ,text ,society ,publications4 ,,ehr ,english ,historical ,review4 ,,ere ,encyclopedia of ,religion and ,ethics1 ed4 ,j4 ,hastings et al41 #aijh-4 ,,hl ,histoire ,littraire de la ,france4 ,,hz ,historische ,zeitschrift1 ,munich1 #ahei-4 ,khn ,medici ,graeci1 ed4 ,c4 ,j4 ,khn1 ,leipzig1 #ahbi1 containing the works of ,galen1 ,dioscorides1 etc4 ,,mg ,monumenta ,germaniae4 ,,ms ,manuscript4 ,,mss ,manuscripts4 ,muratori ,rerum ,italicarum scriptores ab anno aerae christianae #ejj ad #aejj1 ed4 ,l4 ,a4 ,muratori1 #agbc-agea4 ,,nh ,c4 ,plinii ,secundi ,naturalis ,historia 7,pliny's ,natural ,history74 ,,pg ,migne1 ,patrologiae cursus completus1 series graeca4 ,,pl ,migne1 ,patrologiae cursus completus1 series latina4 ,,pn ,the ,nicene and ,post-,nicene ,fathers1 ,second ,series1 ed4 ,wace and ,schaff1 #ahij-aijj1 #ad vols4 ,,pw ,pauly and ,wissowa1 ,realencyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft4 ,,rs 8,rolls ,series10 or ,rerum ,britannicarum medii aevi scriptores1 #ii works in #bdd vols41 ,london1 #aheh-ahif4 ,,tu ,texte und ,untersuchungen zur ,geschichte der altchristlichen ,literatur1 ed4 ,gebhardt und ,harnack4 ,,designation ,,of ,,manuscripts ,individual manuscripts are usually briefly designated in the ensuing notes and appendices by a single word indicating the place or collection where the ,,ms is found and the number or shelf-mark of the individual ,,ms4 ,so many of the catalogues of ,,mss collections which ,i consulted were undated and without name of author that ,i have decided to attempt no catalogue of them4 ,the brief designations that ,i give will be sufficient for anyone who is interested in ,,mss4 ,in giving ,latin titles1 ,incipits1 and the like of ,,mss ,i employ quotation marks when ,i know from personal examination or otherwise that the wording is that of the ,,ms itself1 and omit the marks where the ,latin seems rather to be that of the description in the manuscript catalogue or other source of information4 ,in the following ,list of ,works ,frequently ,cited are included a few ,,mss catalogues whose authors ,i shall have occasion to refer to by name4 ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,frequently ,,cited ,,by ,,author ,,and ,,date ,,of ,,publication ,,or ,,brief ,,title ,for more detailed bibliography on specific topics and for editions or manuscripts of the texts used see the bibliographies1 references1 and appendices to individual chapters4 ,i also include here some works of general interest or of rather cursory character which ,i have not had occasion to mention elsewhere2 and ,i usually add1 for purposes of differentiation1 other works in our field by an author than those works by him which are frequently cited4 ,of the many histories of the sciences1 medicine1 and magic that have appeared since the invention of printing ,i have included but a small selection4 ,almost without exception they have to be used with the greatest caution4 ,abano1 ,peter of1 ,conciliator differentiarum philosophorum et praecipue medicorum1 #adgb1 #adgf1 #aeba1 #aebf1 etc4 ,de venenis1 #adgb1 #adgf1 #adhd1 #adij1 #aeae1 #aeba1 etc4 ,abel1 ed4 ,orphica1 #ahhe4 ,abelard1 ,peter4 ,opera hactenus seorsim edita1 ed4 ,v4 ,cousin1 ,paris1 #ahdi-ahei1 #b vols4 ,ouvrages indits1 ed4 ,v4 ,cousin1 #ahce4 ,abt1 ,die ,apologie des ,apuleius von ,madaura und die antike ,zauberei1 ,giessen1 #aijh4 ,achmetis ,oneirocriticon1 ed4 ,rigaltius1 ,paris1 #afjc4 ,adelard of ,bath1 ,quaestiones naturales1 #adhj1 #adhe1 etc4 ,de eodem et diverso1 ed4 ,h4 ,willner1 ,mnster1 #aijc4 ,ahrens1 ,k4 ,das ,buch der ,naturgegenstnde1 #ahib4 ,zur ,geschichte des sogenannten ,physiologus1 #ahhe4 ,ailly1 ,pierre d'1 ,tractatus de ymagine mundi 7and other works71 #adhj 7874 ,albertus ,magnus1 ,opera omnia1 ed4 ,a4 ,borgnet1 ,paris1 #ahij-ahii1 #ch vols4 ,allbutt1 ,sir ,t4 ,clifford4 ,the ,historical ,relations of ,medicine and ,surgery to the ,end of the ,sixteenth ,century1 ,london1 #aije1 #abb pp42 an address delivered at the ,st4 ,louis ,congress in #aijd4 ,the ,rise of the ,experimental ,method in ,oxford1 ,london1 #aijb1 #ec pp41 from ,journal of the ,oxford ,university ,junior ,scientific ,club1 ,may1 #aijb1 being the ninth ,robert ,boyle ,lecture4 ,science and ,medieval ,thought1 ,london1 #aija1 #aaf brief pages4 ,the ,harveian ,oration delivered before the ,royal ,college of ,physicians4 ,allendy1 ,r4 ,f4 ,l',alchimie et la ,mdecine2 tude sur les thories hermtiques dans l'histoire de la mdecine1 ,paris1 #aiab1 #aee pp4 ,anz1 ,w4 ,zur ,frage nach dem ,ursprung des ,gnostizismus1 ,leipzig1 #ahig4 ,aquinas1 ,thomas4 ,opera omnia1 ed4 ,e4 ,frett et ,p4 ,mar1 ,paris1 #ahga-ahhj1 #cd vols4 ,aristotle1 ,de animalibus historia1 ed4 ,dittmeyer1 #aijg2 ,english translations by ,r4 ,creswell1 #ahdh1 and ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson1 ,oxford1 #aiaj4 ,pseudo-,aristotle4 ,lapidarius1 ,merszborg1 #adgc4 ,secretum secretorum1 ,latin translation from the ,arabic by ,philip of ,tripoli in many editions2 and see ,gaster4 ,arnald of ,villanova1 ,opera1 ,lyons1 #aecb4 ,artemidori ,daldiani et ,achmetis ,sereimi ,f4 ,oneirocritica2 ,astrampsychi et ,nicephori versus etiam ,oneirocritici2 ,nicolai ,rigaltii ad ,artemidorum ,notae1 ,paris1 #afjc4 ,ashmole1 ,elias1 ,theatrum chemicum ,britannicum1 #afeb4 ,astruc1 ,jean4 ,mmoires pour servir l'histoire de la ,facult de ,mdecine de ,montpellier1 ,paris1 #agfg4 ,auriferae artis quam chemiam vocant antiquissimi auctores1 ,basel1 #aegb4 ,barach et ,wrobel1 ,bibliotheca ,philosophorum ,mediae ,aetatis1 #ahgf-ahgh1 #b vols4 ,bartholomew of ,england1 ,de proprietatibus rerum1 ,lingelbach1 ,heidelberg1 #adhh1 and other editions4 ,bauhin1 ,de plantis a divis sanctisve nomen habentibus1 ,basel1 #aeia4 ,baur1 ,ludwig1 ed4 ,gundissalinus ,de divisione philosophiae1 ,mnster1 #aijc4 ,die ,philosophischen ,werke des ,robert ,grosseteste1 ,mnster1 #aiab4 ,beazley1 ,c4 ,r4 ,the ,dawn of ,modern ,geography1 ,london1 #ahig-aijf1 #c vols4 ,bernard1 ,e4 ,catalogi librorum manuscriptorum ,angliae et ,hiberniae in unum collecti 7,the old catalogue of the ,bodleian ,,mss71 ,tom4 ,i1 ,pars #a1 ,oxford1 #afig4 ,berthelot1 ,p4 ,e4 ,m4 ,archologie et histoire des sciences avec publication nouvelle du papyrus grec chimique de ,leyde et impression originale du ,liber de septuaginta de ,geber1 ,paris1 #aijf4 ,collection des anciens alchimistes grecs1 #ahhg-ahhh1 #c vols4 ,introduction l'tude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen ge1 #ahhi4 ,la chimie au moyen ge1 #ahic1 #c vols4 ,les origines de l'alchimie1 #ahhe4 ,sur les voyages de ,galien et de ,zosime dans l',archipel et en ,asie1 et sur la matire mdicale dans l'antiquit1 in ,journal des ,savants1 #ahie1 pp4 #chb-g4 ,bezold1 ,f4 von1 ,astrologische ,geschichtsconstruction im ,mittelalter1 in ,deutsche ,zeitschrift fr ,geschichtswissenschaft1 ,,viii 7#ahib7 #bi;ff4 ,bibliotheca ,chemica4 ,see ,borel and ,manget4 ,bjrnbo1 ,a4 ,a4 und ,vogl1 ,s4 ,alkindi1 ,tideus1 und ,pseudo-,euklid2 drei optische ,werke1 ,leipzig1 #aiaa4 ,black1 ,w4 ,h4 ,catalogue of the ,ashmolean ,manuscripts1 ,oxford1 #ahde4 ,boffito1 ,p4 ,g4 ,il ,commento di ,cecco d',ascoli all',alcabizzo1 ,florence1 #aije4 ,il ,de principiis astrologiae di ,cecco d',ascoli1 in ,giornale ,storico della ,letteratura ,italiana1 ,suppl4 #f1 ,turin1 #aijc4 ,perch fu condannato al fuoco l'astrologo ,cecco d',ascoli1 in ,studi e ,documenti di ,storia e ,diritto1 ,publicazione periodica dell'accademia de conferenza ,storico-,giuridiche1 ,rome1 ,,xx 7#ahii74 ,boll1 ,franz4 ,die ,erforschung der antiken ,astrologie1 in ,neue ,jahrb4 f4 d4 klass4 ,altert41 ,,xi 7#aijh7 #ajc-bf4 ,eine arabisch-byzantische ,quelle des ,dialogs ,hermippus1 in ,sitzb4 ,heidelberg ,akad41 ,philos4 ,hist4 ,classe 7#aiab7 ,no4 #ah1 #bh pp4 ,sphaera1 ,leipzig1 #aijc4 ,studien ber ,claudius ,ptolemaeus1 in ,jahrb4 f4 klass4 ,philol41 ,suppl4 ,bd4 ,,xxi4 ,zur ,ueberlieferungsgeschichte d4 griech4 ,astrologie u4 ,astronomie1 in ,mnch4 ,akad4 ,sitzb41 #ahii4 ,boll und ,bezold1 ,sternglauben1 ,leipzig1 #aiah2 ,i have not seen4 ,bonatti1 ,guido4 ,liber astronomicus1 ,ratdolt1 ,augsburg1 #adia4 ,boncompagni1 ,b4 ,della vita e delle ,opere di ,gherardo ,cremonese traduttore del secolo duodecimo e di ,gherardo da ,sabbionetta astronomo del secolo decimoterzo1 ,rome1 #ahea4 ,della vita e delle opere di ,guido ,bonatti astrologo ed astronomo del secolo decimoterzo1 ,rome1 #ahea4 ,estratte dal ,giornale ,arcadico1 ,tomo ,,cxxiii-,,cxxiv4 ,della vita e delle opere di ,leonardo ,pisano1 ,rome1 #aheb4 ,intorno ad alcune opere di ,leonardo ,pisano1 ,rome1 #ahed4 ,borel1 ,p4 ,bibliotheca ,chimica seu catalogus librorum philosophicorum hermeticorum usque ad annum #afec1 ,paris1 #afed4 ,bostock1 ,j4 and ,riley1 ,h4 ,t4 ,the ,natural ,history of ,pliny1 translated with copious notes1 ,london1 #ahee2 reprinted #ahhg4 ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,a4 ,l'astrologie dans le monde romain1 in ,revue ,historique1 vol4 #fe 7#ahig7 #bda-ii4 ,l'astrologie grecque1 ,paris1 #ahii1 #feh pp4 ,histoire de la divination dans l'antiquit1 #ahgi-ahhb1 #d vols4 ,breasted1 ,j4 ,h4 ,development of ,religion and ,thought in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 ,a ,history of ,egypt1 #aije2 second ed41 #aiji4 ,brehaut1 ,e4 ,an ,encyclopedist of the ,dark ,ages2 ,isidore of ,seville1 in ,columbia ,university ,studies in ,history1 etc41 vol4 #dh 7#aiab7 #a-bgd4 ,brewer1 ,j4 ,s4 ,monumenta ,franciscana 7,,rs ,,iv1 #a71 ,london1 #aheh4 ,brown1 ,j4 ,wood4 ,an inquiry into the life and legend of ,michael ,scot1 ,edinburgh1 #ahig4 ,browne1 ,edward ,g4 ,arabian ,medicine 7the ,fitzpatrick ,lectures of #aiai and #aibj71 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aiba4 ,browne1 ,sir ,thomas4 ,pseudodoxia ,epidemica1 #afej4 ,bubnov1 ,n4 ed4 ,gerberti opera mathematica1 ,berlin1 #ahii4 ,budge1 ,e4 ,a4 ,w4 ,egyptian ,magic1 ,london1 #ahii4 ,ethiopic ,histories of ,alexander by the ,pseudo-,callisthenes and other writers1 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #ahif4 ,syriac ,version of ,pseudo-,callisthenes1 ,cambridge1 #ahhi4 ,syrian ,anatomy1 ,pathology1 and ,therapeutics1 ,london1 #aiac1 #b vols4 ,bunbury1 ,e4 ,h4 ,a ,history of ,ancient ,geography1 ,london1 #ahgi1 #b vols4 ,cahier et ,martin1 ,mlanges d'archologie1 d'histoire et de littrature1 ,paris1 #ahdg-ahef1 #d folio vols4 ,cajori1 ,f4 ,history of ,mathematics2 second edition1 revised and enlarged1 #aiai4 ,cantor1 ,m4 ,vorlesungen ber ,geschichte der ,mathematik1 #crd edition1 ,leipzig1 #ahii-aijh1 #d vols4 ,reprint of vol4 ,,ii in #aiac4 ,carini1 ,s4 ,i4 ,sulle ,scienze ,occulte nel ,medio ,evo1 ,palermo1 #ahgb2 ,i have not seen4 ,cauzons1 ,th4 de4 ,la magie et la sorcellerie en ,france1 #aiaj1 #d vols42 largely compiled from secondary sources4 ,charles1 ,e4 ,roger ,bacon3 sa vie1 ses ouvrages1 ses doctrines1 ,bordeaux1 #ahfa4 ,charles1 ,r4 ,h4 ,the ,apocrypha and ,pseudepigrapha of the ,old ,testament1 ,english translation with introductions and critical and explanatory notes in conjunction with many scholars1 ,oxford1 #aiac1 #b large vols4 ,ascension of ,isaiah1 #aijj1 and reprinted in #aiag4 ,the ,book of ,enoch1 ,oxford1 #ahic2 translated anew1 #aiab4 ,charles1 ,r4 ,h4 and ,morfill1 ,w4 ,r4 ,the ,book of the ,secrets of ,enoch1 ,oxford1 #ahif4 ,charterius1 ,renatus ed4 ,galeni opera1 ,paris1 #afgi1 #ac vols4 ,chartularium ,universitatis ,parisiensis1 see ,denifle et ,chatelain4 ,chassang1 ,a4 ,le merveilleux dans l'antiquit1 #ahhb2 ,i have not seen4 ,choulant1 ,ludwig4 ,albertus ,magnus in seiner ,bedeutung fr die ,naturwissenschaften historisch und bibliographisch dargestellt1 in ,janus1 ,i 7#ahdf7 #aeb;ff4 ,die ,anfnge wissenschaftlicher ,naturgeschichte und naturhistorischer ,abbildung1 ,dresden1 #ahef4 ,handbuch der ,bcherkunde fr die ltere ,medicin1 #bnd edition1 ,leipzig1 #ahda2 like the foregoing1 slighter than the title leads one to hope4 ed4 ,macer ,floridus de viribus herbarum una cum ,walafridi ,strabonis1 ,othonis ,cremonensis et ,ioannis ,folcz carminibus similis argumenti1 #ahcb4 ,christ1 ,w4 ,geschichte der ,griechischen ,litteratur2 see ,w4 ,schmid4 ,chwolson1 ,d4 ,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus1 ,petrograd1 #ahef1 #b vols4 ,clment-,mullet1 ,j4 ,j4 ,essai sur la minralogie arabe1 ,paris1 #ahfh1 in ,journal asiatique1 ,tome ,,xi1 ,srie ,,vi4 ,trait des poisons de ,maimonide1 #ahfe4 ,clerval1 ,hermann le ,dalmate1 ,paris1 #ahia1 eleven pp4 ,les coles de ,chartres au moyen ge1 ,chartres1 #ahie4 ,cockayne1 ,o4 ,leechdoms1 ,wortcunning1 and ,starcraft of ,early ,england1 in ,,rs ,,xxxv1 ,london1 #ahfd-ahff1 #c vols4 ,narratiunculae anglice conscriptae1 #ahfa4 ,congrs ,priodique ,international des ,sciences ,mdicales1 #agth ,session1 ,london1 ,section ,,xxiii1 ,history of ,medicine1 #aiac4 ,cousin1 ,v4 ,see ,abelard4 ,coxe1 ,h4 ,o4 ,catalogi ,codicum ,manuscriptorum ,bibliothecae ,bodleianae ,pars ,secunda ,codices ,latinos et ,miscellaneos ,laudianos complectens1 ,oxford1 #aheh-ahhe4 ,catalogi ,codicum ,manuscriptorum ,bibliothecae ,bodleianae ,pars ,tertia ,codices ,graecos et ,latinos ,canonicianos complectens1 ,oxford1 #ahed4 ,catalogus ,codicum ,manuscriptorum qui in collegiis aulisque ,oxoniensibus hodie adservantur1 #aheb1 #b vols4 ,cumont1 ,f4 ,astrology and ,religion among the ,greeks and ,romans1 #aiab1 #b vols4 ,and see ,,ccag under ,abbreviations4 ,daremberg1 ,ch4 ,v4 ,exposition des connaissances de ,galien sur l'anatomie1 la physiologie1 et la pathologie du systme nerveux1 ,paris1 #ahda4 ,histoire des sciences mdicales1 ,paris1 #ahgj1 #b vols4 ,la mdecine2 histoire et doctrines1 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,notices et extraits des manuscrits mdicaux1 #ahec4 ,delambre1 ,j4 ,b4 ,j4 ,histoire de l'astronomie du moyen ge1 ,paris1 #ahai4 ,delisle1 ,l4 ,inventaire des manuscrits latins conservs la bibliothque nationale sous les numros #hhbc-ahfac et faisant suite la srie dont la catalogue a t publi en #agdd1 ,paris1 #ahfc-ahga4 ,denifle1 ,h4 ,quellen zur ,gelehrtengeschichte des ,predigerordens im #ac und #ad ,jahrhundert1 in ,archiv f4 ,lit4 u4 ,kirchengesch4 d4 ,mittelalters1 ,berlin1 ,,ii 7#ahhf7 #afe-bdh4 ,denifle et ,chatelain1 ,chartularium ,universitatis ,parisiensis1 ,paris1 #ahhi-ahia1 #b vols4 ,denis1 ,f4 ,le monde enchant1 cosmographie et histoire naturelles fantastiques du moyen ge1 ,paris1 #ahdc4 ,a curious little volume with a bibliography of works now forgotten4 ,doutt1 ,e4 ,magie et religion dans l',afrique du ,nord1 ,alger1 #aiji4 ,duhem1 ,pierre4 ,le ,systme du ,monde3 ,histoire des ,doctrines ,cosmologiques de ,platon ,copernic1 #e vols41 ,paris1 #aiac-aiag4 ,du ,prel1 ,c4 ,die ,magie als ,naturwissenschaft1 #ahii1 #b vols4 ,occult speculation1 not historical treatment2 the author seems to have no direct acquaintance with sources earlier than ,agrippa in the sixteenth century4 ,easter1 ,d4 ,b4 ,a ,study of the ,magic ,elements in the romans d'aventure and the romans bretons1 ,johns ,hopkins1 #aijf4 ,ennemoser1 ,j4 ,history of ,magic1 ,london1 #ahed4 ,enoch1 ,book of4 ,see ,charles4 ,epiphanius4 ,opera ed4 ,g4 ,dindorf1 ,leipzig1 #ahei-ahfb1 #e vols4 ,evans1 ,h4 ,r4 ,the ,old and ,new ,magic1 ,chicago1 #aijf4 ,fabricius1 ,bibliotheca ,graeca1 #agaa4 ,bibliotheca ,latina ,mediae et ,infimae ,aetatis1 #agcd-agdf1 #f vols4 ,codex ,pseudepigraphus ,veteris ,testamenti1 #agac-agcc4 ,farnell1 ,l4 ,r4 ,greece and ,babylon2 a comparative sketch of ,mesopotamian1 ,anatolian1 and ,hellenic ,religions1 ,edinburgh1 #aiaa4 ,the ,higher ,aspects of ,greek ,religion1 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 ,ferckel1 ,c4 ,die ,gynkologie des ,thomas von ,brabants1 ausgewhlte ,kapitel aus ,buch ,i de naturis rerum beendet um #abdj1 ,munich1 #aiab1 in ,g4 ,klein1 ,alte ,meister d4 ,medizin u4 ,naturkunde4 ,ferguson1 ,john4 ,bibliotheca ,chemica1 a catalogue of alchemical1 chemical and pharmaceutical books in the collection of the late ,james ,young1 ,glasgow1 #aijf4 ,fort1 ,g4 ,f4 ,medical ,economy2 a contribution to the history of ,european morals from the ,roman ,empire to #adjj1 ,new ,york1 #ahhc4 ,fossi1 ,f4 ,catalogus codicum saeculo ,,xv impressorum qui in publica ,bibliotheca ,magliabechiana ,florentiae adservantur1 #agic-agie4 ,frazer1 ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,folk-,lore in the ,old ,testament1 #c vols41 #aiah4 ,golden ,bough1 edition of #ahid1 #b vols4 ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 #b vols41 #aiaa4 ,some ,popular ,superstitions of the ,ancients1 in ,folk-,lore1 #ahij4 ,spirits of the ,corn and of the ,wild1 #b vols41 #aiab4 ,garinet4 ,histoire de la ,magie en ,france4 ,garrison1 ,f4 ,h4 ,an ,introduction to the ,history of ,medicine1 #bnd edition1 ,philadelphia1 #aiag4 ,gaster1 ,m4 ,a ,hebrew ,version of the ,secretum secretorum1 published for the first time1 in ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,london1 #aijg1 pp4 #hgi-iac2 #aijh1 pp4 #aaa-fb1 #ajfe-hd4 ,gerland1 ,e4 ,geschichte der ,physik von den ltesten ,zeiten bis zum ,ausgange des achtzehnten ,jahrhunderts1 in ,knigl4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss41 ,,xxiv 7#aiac7 ,munich and ,berlin4 ,gerland und ,traumller1 ,geschichte der ,physikalischen ,experimentierkunst1 ,leipzig1 #ahii4 ,giacosa1 ,p4 ,magistri ,salernitani nondum editi1 ,turin1 #aija4 ,gilbert of ,england1 ,compendium medicinae1 ,lyons1 #aeaj4 ,gloria1 ,andrea4 ,monumenti della ,universit di ,padova1 #abbb-acah1 in ,memorie del ,reale ,istituto ,veneto di ,scienze1 ,lettere ed ,arti1 ,,xxii 7#ahhd74 ,monumenti della ,universit di ,padova1 #acah-adje1 #ahhh4 ,gordon1 ,bernard4 ,lilium medicinae1 ,venice1 #adif1 etc4 ,practica 7and other treatises71 #aeba4 ,grabmann1 ,martin4 ,forschungen ber die lateinischen ,aristoteles-,uebersetzungen des ,,xiii ,jahrhunderts1 ,mnster1 #aiaf4 ,die ,geschichte der ,scholastischen ,methode1 ,freiburg1 #aiji-aiaa1 #b vols4 ,graesse1 ,j4 ,g4 ,t4 ,bibliotheca magica1 #ahdc2 of little service to me4 ,grenfell1 ,b4 ,p4 ,the ,present ,position of ,papyrology1 in ,bulletin of ,john ,rylands ,library1 ,manchester1 ,,vi 7#aiba7 #adb-fb4 ,haeser1 ,h4 ,lehrbuch der ,geschichte der ,medicin und der ,volkskrankheiten1 ,dritte ,bearbeitung1 #ahge-ahhb4 ,halle1 ,j4 ,zur ,geschichte der ,medizin von ,hippokrates bis zum ,,xviii ,jahrhundert1 ,munich1 #aiji1 #aii pp42 too brief1 but suggests interesting topics4 ,halliwell1 ,j4 ,o4 ,rara ,mathematica1 #ahci4 ,hammer-,jensen4 ,das sogennannte ,,iv ,buch der ,meteorologie des ,aristoteles1 in ,hermes1 ,l 7#aiae7 #aac-cf4 ,ptolemaios und ,heron1 ,ibid41 ,,xlviii 7#aiac71 #bbd;ff4 ,hansen1 ,j4 ,zauberwahn1 ,inquisition1 und ,hexenprozess im ,mittelalter1 ,munich and ,leipzig1 #aijj4 ,haskins1 ,c4 ,h4 ,adelard of ,bath1 in ,,ehr ,,xxvi 7#aiaa7 #dia-h2 ,,xxviii 7#aiac71 #eae-f4 ,leo ,tuscus1 in ,,ehr ,,xxxiii 7#aiah71 #dib-f4 ,the 8,de ,arte ,venandi cum ,avibus0 of the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii1 ,,ehr ,,xxxvi 7#aiba7 #ccd-ee4 ,the ,reception of ,arabic ,science in ,england1 ,,ehr ,,xxx 7#aiae71 #ef-fi4 ,the ,greek ,element in the ,renaissance of the ,twelfth ,century1 in ,american ,historical ,review1 ,,xxv 7#aibj7 #fjc-ae4 ,the ,translations of ,hugo ,sanctelliensis1 in ,romanic ,review1 ,,ii 7#aiaa7 #a-ae4 ,nimrod the ,astronomer1 ,ibid41 ,v 7#aiad7 #bjc-ab4 ,a ,list of ,text-books from the ,close of the ,twelfth ,century1 in ,harvard ,studies in ,classical ,philology1 ,,xx 7#aiji7 #ge-id4 ,haskins and ,lockwood4 ,the ,sicilian ,translators of the ,twelfth ,century and the ,first ,latin ,versions of ,ptolemy's ,almagest1 ,ibid41 ,,xxi 7#aiaj71 #ge-ajb4 ,haurau1 ,b4 ,bernard ,dlicieux et l'inquisition albigeoise1 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,histoire de la philosophie scolastique1 #ahgb-ahhj4 ,le ,mathematicus de ,bernard ,silvestris1 ,paris1 #ahie4 ,les uvres de ,hugues de ,saint ,victor1 essai critique1 nouvelle dition1 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,mlanges potiques d',hildebert de ,lavardin4 ,notices et extraits de quelques mss latins de la bibliothque nationale1 #ahij-ahic1 #f vols4 ,singularits historiques et littraires1 ,paris1 #ahfa4 ,hearnshaw1 ,f4 ,j4 ,c4 ,medieval ,contributions to ,modern ,civilization1 #aiba4 ,heilbronner1 ,j4 ,c4 ,historia ,matheseos universae praecipuorum mathematicorum vitas dogmata scripta et manuscripta complexa1 ,leipzig1 #agdb4 ,heim1 ,r4 ,de rebus magicis ,marcelli medici1 in ,schedae philol4 ,hermanno ,usener oblatae1 #ahia1 pp4 #aai-cg4 ,incantamenta magica graeca latina1 in ,jahrb4 f4 cl4 ,philol41 #ai suppl4 bd41 ,leipzig1 #ahic1 pp4 #dfc-egf4 ,heller1 ,a4 ,geschichte der ,physik von ,aristoteles bis auf die neueste ,zeit1 ,stuttgart1 #ahhb-ahhd1 #b vols4 ,hendrie1 ,r4 ,theophili ,libri ,,iii de diversis artibus1 translated by1 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,hengstenberg1 ,e4 ,w4 ,die ,geschichte ,bileams und seine ,weissagungen1 ,berlin1 #ahdb4 ,henry1 ,v4 ,la magie dans l',inde antique1 #aijd4 ,henslow1 ,g4 ,medical ,works of the ,fourteenth ,century1 ,london1 #ahii4 ,hercher1 ed4 ,aeliani opera1 #ahfd4 ed4 ,artemidori ,oneirocritica1 ,leipzig1 #ahfd4 ed4 ,astrampsychi oculorum decades1 ,berlin1 #ahfc4 ,hertling1 ,g4 von1 ,albertus ,magnus2 ,beitrge zu seiner ,wrdigung1 revised edition with help of ,baeumker and ,endres1 ,mnster1 #aiad4 ,hubert1 ,h4 ,magia1 in ,daremberg-,saglio4 ,hubert et ,mauss1 ,esquisse d'une ,thorie ,gnrale de la ,magie1 in ,anne ,sociologique1 #aijb-aijc1 pp4 #a-adf4 ,husik1 ,i4 ,a ,history of ,medieval ,jewish ,philosophy1 #aiaf4 ,ishak ibn ,sulaiman1 ,opera1 #aeae4 ,james1 ,m4 ,r4 ,a ,descriptive ,catalogue of the ,mc,clean ,collection of ,,mss in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 #aiab4 ,a ,descriptive ,catalogue of the ,,mss in the ,fitzwilliam ,museum1 #ahie4 ,a ,descriptive ,catalogue of the ,,mss in the ,library of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge1 #aiab1 #b vols4 ,a ,descriptive ,catalogue of the ,,mss in the ,library of ,gonville and ,caius ,college1 #aijg-aijh1 #b vols4 ,a ,descriptive ,catalogue of the ,,mss in the ,library of ,pembroke ,college1 #aije4 ,a ,descriptive ,catalogue of the ,,mss in the ,library of ,peterhouse1 #ahii4 ,a ,descriptive ,catalogue of the ,,mss in the ,library of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 #aiac4 ,a ,descriptive ,catalogue of the ,,mss in the ,library of ,sidney ,sussex ,college1 ,cambridge1 #ahie4 ,the ,ancient ,libraries of ,canterbury and ,dover1 #aijc4 ,the ,western ,,mss in the ,library of ,emmanuel ,college1 #aijd4 ,the ,western ,,mss in the ,library of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 #aijj-aijd1 #d vols4 ,janus1 ,zeitschrift fr ,geschichte und ,literatur der ,medizin1 #ahdf-4 ,jenaer medizin-historische ,beitrge1 herausg4 von ,t4 ,m4 ,steineg1 #aiab-4 ,jol1 ,d4 ,der ,aberglaube und die ,stellung des ,judenthums zu demselben1 #ahha4 ,john of ,salisbury1 ,metalogicus1 in ,migne ,,pl vol4 #aii4 ,polycraticus sive de nugis curialium et vestigiis philosophorum1 ,ibid4 and also ed4 ,c4 ,c4 ,i4 ,webb1 ,oxford1 #aiji4 ,joret1 ,les plantes dans l'antiquit et au moyen ge1 #b vols41 ,paris1 #ahig and #aijd4 ,jourdain1 ,a4 ,recherches critiques sur l'ge et l'origine des traductions latines d',aristote1 ,paris1 #ahai2 #bnd edition1 #ahdc4 ,jourdain1 ,c4 ,dissertation sur l'tat de la philosophie naturelle en occident et principalement en ,france pendant la premire moiti du ,x,i,ie sicle1 ,paris1 #ahch4 ,excursions historiques et philosophiques travers le moyen ge1 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,karpinski1 ,l4 ,c4 ,hindu ,science1 in ,american ,mathematical ,monthly1 ,,xxvi 7#aiai7 pp4 #bih-cjj4 ,robert of ,chester's ,latin translation of the ,algebra of al-,khowarizmi1 with introduction1 critical notes1 and an ,english version1 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 ,the 8,quadripartitum numerorum0 of ,john of ,meurs1 in ,bibliotheca ,mathematica1 ,,iii ,folge1 ,,xiii ,bd4 7#aiac7 #ii-aad4 ,kaufmann1 ,a4 ,thomas von ,chantimpr1 ,cologne1 #ahii4 ,king1 ,c4 ,w4 ,the ,gnostics and their ,remains1 ancient and medieval1 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,the ,natural ,history1 ancient and modern1 of ,precious ,stones and ,gems1 ,london1 #ahee4 ,kopp1 ,h4 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,chemie1 ,brunswick1 #ahfi-ahge4 ,ueber den ,zustand der ,naturwissenschaften im ,mittelalter1 #ahfi4 ,kretschmer1 ,c4 ,die physische ,erdkunde im christlichen ,mittelalter1 #ahhi4 ,krumbacher1 ,k4 ,geschichte der byzantinischen ,literatur1 #ebg-adec ,a4 ,d41 #bnd edition1 ,munich1 #ahig4 ,kunz1 ,g4 ,f4 ,the ,curious ,lore of ,precious ,stones1 ,philadelphia1 #aiac4 ,magic of ,jewels and ,charms1 ,philadelphia1 #aiae4 ,langlois1 ,ch4 ,v4 ,la connaissance de la nature et du monde au moyen ge d'aprs quelques crits franais l'usage des lacs1 ,paris1 #aiaa4 ,matre ,bernard1 in ,bibl4 de l'cole des ,chartes1 ,,liv 7#ahic7 #bbe-ej1 #gie4 ,lauchert1 ,f4 ,geschichte des ,physiologus1 ,strassburg1 #ahhi4 ,lea1 ,h4 ,c4 ,a ,history of the ,inquisition of the ,middle ,ages1 ,new ,york1 #ahhc1 #c vols4 ,le ,brun4 ,histoire critique des pratiques superstitieuses1 ,amsterdam1 #agcc4 ,lecky1 ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,history of ,european ,morals from ,augustus to ,charlemagne1 #ahgj1 #b vols4 ,history of the ,rise and ,influence of the ,spirit of ,rationalism in ,europe1 revised edition1 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,lehmann1 ,a4 ,aberglaube und ,zauberei von den ltesten ,zeiten an bis in die ,gegenwart2 deutsche autorisierte ,uebersetzung von ,i4 ,petersen1 ,stuttgart1 #aijh4 ,the historical treatment is scanty4 ,leminne1 ,j4 ,les quatre lments1 in ,mmoires couronns par l',acadmie ,royale de ,belgique1 vol4 #fe1 ,brussels1 #aijc4 ,lvy1 ,l4 ,g4 ,maimonide1 #aiaa4 ,liechty1 ,r4 de4 ,albert le ,grand et saint ,thomas d',aquin1 ou la science au moyen ge1 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,lippmann1 ,e4 ,o4 von4 ,entstehung und ,ausbreitung der ,alchemie1 #aiai4 ,little1 ,a4 ,g4 ,initia operum ,latinorum quae saeculis ,,xiii1 ,,xiv1 ,,xv1 attribuuntur1 ,manchester1 #aijd4 ed4 ,roger ,bacon ,essays1 contributed by various writers on the occasion of the commemoration of the seventh centenary of his birth1 ,oxford1 #aiad4 ed4 ,part of the ,opus ,tertium of ,roger ,bacon1 including a ,fragment now printed for the first time1 ,aberdeen1 #aiab1 in ,british ,society of ,franciscan ,studies1 ,,iv4 ,loisy4 ,magie1 science et religion1 in propos d'histoire des religions1 #aiaa1 p4 #aff;ff4 ,macdonald1 ,d4 ,b4 ,the ,religious ,attitude and ,life in ,islam1 ,chicago1 #aiji4 ,macray1 ,catalogus codicum ,,mss ,bibliothecae ,bodleianae1 ,v1 ,codices ,rawlinsonianae1 #ahfb-aijj1 #e fascs42 ,,ix1 ,codices ,digbeianae1 #ahhc4 ,mai1 ,a4 ,classici ,auctores1 #ahce4 ,mle1 ,e4 ,religious ,art in ,france in the ,thirteenth ,century1 translated from the third edition by ,dora ,nussey1 #aiac4 ,mandonnet1 ,p4 ,des crits authentiques de ,s4 ,thomas d',aquin1 ,fribourg1 #aiaj4 ,roger ,bacon et la composition des trois ,opus1 in ,revue ,no-,scolastique1 ,louvain1 #aiac1 pp4 #eb-fh1 #afd-hj4 ,roger ,bacon et la ,speculum astronomiae1 ,ibid41 ,,xvii 7#aiaj7 #cac-ce4 ,siger de ,brabant et l'averrosme latin au ,x,i,i,ime sicle1 ,fribourg1 #ahii2 #bnd edition1 ,louvain1 #aijh-aiaj1 #b vols4 ,manget1 ,j4 ,j4 ,bibliotheca ,chemica ,curiosa1 ,geneva1 #agjb1 #b vols4 ,manitius1 ,max4 ,geschichte der lateinischen ,literatur des ,mittelalters1 ,erster ,teil1 ,von ,justinian bis zur ,mitte des zehnten ,jahrhunderts1 ,munich1 #aiaa1 in ,mller's ,handbuch d4 kl4 ,alt4 ,wiss4 ,,ix1 #b1 i4 ,mann1 ,m4 ,f4 ,der ,bestiaire ,divin des ,guillaume le ,clerc1 #ahhh4 ,der ,physiologus des ,philipp von ,thaon und seine ,quellen1 #ahhd4 ,mappae clavicula1 ed4 ,m4 ,a4 ,way in ,archaeologia1 ,london1 ,,xxxii 7#ahdg7 #ahc-bdd4 ,maury1 ,alfred4 ,la magie et l'astrologie dans l'antiquit et au moyen ge1 #ahgg4 ,brief as it is1 perhaps the best general history of magic4 ,mead1 ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,apollonius of ,tyana2 a critical study of the only existing record of his life1 #aija4 ,echoes from the ,gnosis1 #aijf1 eleven vols4 ,fragments of a ,faith ,forgotten1 #aijj4 ,pistis-,sophia1 now for the first time ,englished1 #ahif4 ,plotinus1 ,select ,works of1 with preface and bibliography1 #aiji4 ,simon ,magus1 #ahib4 ,thrice ,great ,hermes1 ,london1 #aijf1 #c vols4 ,medicae artis principes post ,hippocratem et ,galenum ,graeci ,latinitate donati1 ed4 ,stephanus1 #aefg4 ,medici antiqui omnes qui latinis litteris 444 ,aldus1 ,venice1 #aedg4 ,mly1 ,f4 de et ,ruelle1 ,c4 ,e4 ,les lapidaires de l'antiquit et du moyen ge1 ,paris1 #ahif4 ,mly has published many other works on gems and lapidaries of the past4 ,merrifield1 ,mrs4 ,m4 ,p4 ,ancient ,practice of ,painting1 or ,original ,treatises dating from the ,x,i,ith to ,x,v,i,i,ith centuries on the arts of painting1 ,london1 #ahdi4 ,meyer1 ,e4 ,albertus ,magnus1 ein ,beitrag zur ,geschichte der ,botanik im ,,xiii ,jahrhundert1 in ,linnaea1 ,x 7#ahcf7 #fda-gda1 ,,xi 7#ahcg7 #ede4 ,meyer1 ,karl4 ,der ,aberglaube des ,mittelalters und der nchstfolgenden ,jahrhunderte1 ,basel1 #ahef4 ,migne1 ,dictionnaire des ,apocryphes1 ,paris1 #ahef4 ,see also under ,abbreviations4 ,millot-,carpentier1 ,la ,mdecine au ,x,i,i,ie sicle1 in ,annales ,internationales d',histoire1 ,congrs de ,paris1 #aijj1 #e;e ,section1 ,histoire des ,sciences1 pp4 #aga-if2 a chapter from a history of medicine which the author's death unfortunately kept him from completing4 ,milward1 ,e4 ,a ,letter to the ,honourable ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 ,bart41 in vindication of the character of those ,greek writers in physick that flourished after ,galen 444 particularly that of ,alexander ,trallian1 #agcc2 reprinted as ,trallianus ,reviviscens1 #agcd4 ,mommsen1 ,th4 ed4 ,c4 ,iulii ,solini ,collectanea rerum memorabilium1 #ahie4 ,moore1 ,sir ,norman1 ,history of the ,study of ,medicine in the ,british ,isles1 #aijh4 ,the ,history of ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,hospital1 ,london1 #aiah1 #b vols4 ,the ,physician in ,english ,history1 #aiac4 ,a popular lecture4 ,muratori1 ,l4 ,a4 ,antiquitates ,italicae medii aevi1 ,milan1 #agch-agdb1 #f vols4 ,edition of #aggh in more vols4 ,index1 ,turin1 #ahhe4 ,see also under ,abbreviations4 ,naud1 ,gabriel4 ,apologie pour tous les grands personnages qui ont est faussement souponnez de ,magie1 ,paris1 #afbe4 ,neckam1 ,alexander4 ,de naturis rerum1 ed4 ,t4 ,wright1 in ,,rs vol4 #cd1 #ahfc4 ,omont1 ,h4 ,nouvelles acquisitions du dpartment des manuscrits pendant les annes #ahia-aiaj1 ,bibliothque ,nationale1 ,paris4 ,orr1 ,m4 ,a4 7,mrs4 ,john ,evershed7 ,dante and the ,early ,astronomers1 ,london1 #aiac4 ,paetow1 ,l4 ,j4 ,guide to the ,study of ,medieval ,history1 ,university of ,california ,press1 #aiag4 ,pagel1 ,j4 ,l4 ,die ,concordanciae des ,joannes de ,sancto ,amando1 #ahid4 ,geschichte der ,medizin im ,mittelalter1 in ,puschmann's ,handbuch der ,geschichte der ,medizin1 ed4 ,neuburger u4 ,pagel1 ,i 7#aijb7 #fbb-geb4 ,neue litterarische ,beitrge zur mittelalterlichen ,medicin1 ,berlin1 #ahif4 ,pangerl1 ,a4 ,studien ber ,albert den ,grossen1 in ,zeitschrift fr katholische ,theologie1 ,,xxii 7#aiab7 #cjd-df1 #eab-di1 #ghd-hjj4 ,pannier1 ,l4 ,les lapidaires franais du moyen ge1 ,paris1 #ahhb4 ,payne1 ,j4 ,f4 ,english ,medicine in ,anglo-,saxon ,times1 #aijd4 ,the ,relation of ,harvey to his ,predecessors and especially to ,galen3 ,harveian oration of #ahif1 in ,the ,lancet1 ,oct4 #bd1 #ahif1 #aacf;ff4 ,perna4 ,artis quam chemiam vocant antiquissimi auctores1 ,basel1 #aegb4 ,perrier1 ,t4 ,la mdecine astrologique1 ,lyons1 #aije1 #hh pp4 ,slight4 ,petrus de ,prussia4 ,vita ,b4 ,alberti ,magni1 #afba4 ,petrus ,hispanus4 ,summa experimentorum sive thesaurus pauperum1 ,antwerp1 #adig4 ,philips1 ,h4 ,medicine and ,astrology1 #ahfg4 ,picavet1 ,f4 ,esquisse d'une histoire compare des philosophies mdivales1 #bnd edition1 ,paris1 #aijg4 ,pico della ,mirandola4 ,opera omnia1 #aeai4 ,pistis-,sophia1 ed4 ,schwartze und ,petermann1 ,coptic and ,latin1 #ahea4 ,now for the first time ,englished1 by ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead1 #ahif4 ,pitra1 ,j4 ,b4 ,analecta novissima1 #ahhe-ahhh4 ,analecta sacra1 #ahgf-ahhb4 ,spicilegium solesmense1 #aheb-aheh4 ,poisson1 ,thories et symboles des ,alchimistes1 ,paris1 #ahia4 ,poole1 ,r4 ,l4 ,illustrations of the ,history of ,medieval ,thought in the ,departments of ,theology and ,ecclesiastical ,politics1 #ahhd2 revised edition1 #aibj4 ,the ,masters of the ,schools at ,paris and ,chartres in ,john of ,salisbury's ,time1 in ,,ehr ,,xxxv 7#aibj7 #cba-db4 ,pouchet1 ,f4 ,a4 ,histoire des sciences naturelles au moyen ge1 ou ,albert le ,grand et son poque considr comme point de dpart de l'cole exprimentale1 ,paris1 #ahec4 ,ptolemy4 ,quadripartitum1 #adhd1 and other editions4 ,optica1 ed4 ,g4 ,govi1 ,turin1 #ahhe4 ,puccinotti1 ,f4 ,storia della ,medicina1 #ahej-ahgj1 #c vols4 ,puschmann1 ,th4 ,alexander von ,tralles1 ,originaltext und ,uebersetzung nebst einer einleitenden ,abhandlung1 ,vienna1 #ahgh-ahgi4 ,handbuch der ,geschichte der ,medizin1 ,jena1 #aijb-aije1 #c vols4 ,really a cooperative work under the editorship of ,max ,neuburger and ,julius ,pagel after ,puschmann's death4 ,a ,history of ,medical ,education from the most remote to the most recent times1 ,london1 #ahia1 ,english translation4 ,quetif1 ,j4 et ,echard ,j4 ,scriptores ,ordinis ,praedicatorum1 ,paris1 #agai4 ,rambosson1 ,a4 ,histoire et lgendes des plantes1 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,rashdall1 ,h4 ed4 ,fratris ,rogeri ,bacon ,compendium ,studii ,theologiae1 #aiaa4 ,the ,universities of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 ,oxford1 #ahie1 #c vols4 in #b4 ,rasis 7,muhammad ibn ,zakariya7 ,opera1 ,milan1 #adha1 and ,bergamo1 #adig4 ,regnault1 ,j4 ,la sorcellerie3 ses rapports avec les sciences biologiques1 #ahig1 #cde pp4 ,reitzenstein1 ,r4 ,poimandres1 ,leipzig1 #aijd4 ,renzi1 ,s4 de4 ,collectio ,salernitana1 #aheb-ahei1 #e vols4 ,rose1 ,valentin4 ,anecdota graeca et graeco-latina1 ,berlin1 #ahfd4 ,aristoteles ,de lapidibus und ,arnoldus ,saxo1 in ,zeitschrift fr deutsches ,alterthum1 ,,xviii 7#ahge7 #cba-ddg4 ,ptolemaeus und die ,schule von ,toledo1 in ,hermes1 ,,viii 7#ahgd7 #cbg-di4 ed4 ,plinii ,secundi ,iunioris de medicina libri tres1 ,leipzig1 #ahge4 ,ueber die ,medicina ,plinii1 in ,hermes1 ,,viii 7#ahgd7 #ai-ff4 ,verzeichnis der lateinischen ,handschriften der ,k4 ,bibliothek zu ,berlin1 ,band ,,xii 7#ahic71 ,,xiii 7#aijb-aijc-aije74 ,ruska1 ,j4 ,das ,steinbuch des ,aristoteles 444 nach der arabischen ,handschrift1 ,heidelberg1 #aiab4 ,der diamant in der ,medizin1 in ,deutsche ,gesell4 f4 ,gesch4 d4 ,mediz4 u4 d4 ,naturwiss41 ,zwanzig ,abhandl4 z4 ,gesch4 d4 ,mediz41 #aijh4 ,zur lteren arabischen ,algebra und ,rechenkunst1 ,heidelberg1 #aiag4 ,rydberg1 ,v4 ,the ,magic of the ,middle ,ages1 #ahgi1 translated from the ,swedish4 ,popular4 ,salverte1 ,e4 ,des sciences occultes1 ou essai sur la magie1 ,paris1 #ahdc4 ,snchez ,prez1 ,j4 ,a4 ,biografas de ,matemticos rabes que florecieron en ,espaa1 ,madrid1 #aiba4 ,schanz1 ,m4 ,geschichte der ,rmischen ,litteratur1 ,dritter ,teil1 ,munich1 #aije2 ,vierter ,teil1 ,erste ,hlfte1 ,munich1 #aiad1 in ,mller's ,handbuch d4 klass4 ,alt4 ,wiss41 ,,viii1 #c4 ,schepss1 ,g4 ed4 ,priscilliani quae supersunt1 #ahhi4 ,schindler4 ,der ,aberglaube des ,mittelalters1 ,breslau1 #aheh4 ,schmid1 ,w4 ,die ,nachklassiche ,periode der ,griechischen ,litteratur1 #aiac1 in ,mller's ,handb4 d4 kl4 ,alt4 ,wiss41 ,,vii1 ii1 #b4 ,schum1 ,w4 ,beschriebendes ,verzeichnis der ,amplonianischen ,handschriften-,sammlung zu ,erfurt1 ,berlin1 #ahhg4 ,sighart1 ,j4 ,albertus ,magnus3 sein ,leben und seine ,wissenschaft1 ,ratisbon1 #aheg2 ,french translation1 ,paris1 #ahfb2 partial ,english translation by ,t4 ,a4 ,dixon1 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,singer1 ,charles4 ,early ,english ,magic and ,medicine1 #aibj1 #cd pp4 8,science10 pp4 #ajf-dh in 8,medieval ,contributions to ,modern ,civilization10 ed4 ,f4 ,j4 ,c4 ,hearnshaw1 #aiba4 ,studies in the ,history and ,method of ,science1 ,oxford1 #aiag2 a second volume appeared in ,may1 #aiba4 ,stapper1 ,richard4 ,papst ,johannes ,,xxi1 ,mnster1 #ahih1 in ,kirchengesch4 ,studien herausg4 v4 ,dr4 ,knpfler1 ,,iv1 #d4 ,steele1 ,r4 ,opera hactenus inedita ,rogeri ,baconi1 #aije-aibj4 ,steinschneider1 ,moritz4 ,abraham ibn ,ezra1 in ,abhandl41 7#ahhj7 #eg-abh4 ,apollonius von ,thyana 7oder ,balinas7 bei den ,arabern1 in ,zeitschrift d4 deutschen morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1 ,,xlv 7#ahia7 #dci-df4 ,arabische ,lapidarien1 ,ibid41 ,,xlix 7#ahie74 ,constantinus ,africanus und seine arabischen ,quellen1 in ,virchow's ,archiv fr pathologische ,anatomie1 etc41 ,berlin1 ,,xxxvii 7#ahff7 #cea-daj4 ,der ,aberglaube1 ,hamburg1 #aijj1 #cd pp4 ,die europischen ,uebersetzungen aus dem ,arabischen bis ,mitte des #ag ,jahrhunderts1 in ,sitzungsberichte d4 kaiserl4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss41 ,philos4 ,hist4 ,klasse1 ,vienna1 ,,cxlix1 #d 7#aije72 ,,cli1 #a 7#aijf74 ,lapidarien1 ein culturgeschichtlicher ,versuch1 in ,semitic ,studies in memory of ,rev4 ,dr4 ,alexander ,kohut1 ,berlin1 #ahig1 pp4 #db-gb4 ,maschallah1 in ,zeitsch4 d4 deut4 morgenl4 ,gesell41 ,,liii 7#ahii71 #dcd-dj4 ,zum ,speculum astronomicum des ,albertus ,magnus ber die darin angefhrten ,schriftsteller und ,schriften1 in ,zeitschrift fr ,mathematik und ,physik1 ,leipzig1 ,,xvi 7#ahga7 #ceg-if4 ,zur alchimistischen ,literatur der ,araber1 in ,zeitsch4 d4 deut4 morgenl4 ,gesell41 ,,lviii 7#aijd7 #bii-cae4 ,zur pseudepigraphischen ,literatur insbesondere der geheimen ,wissenschaften des ,mittelalters2 aus hebrischen und arabischen ,quellen1 ,berlin1 #ahfb4 ,stephanus1 ,h4 ,medicae artis principes post ,hippocratem et ,galenum ,graeci ,latinitate donati1 et ,latini1 #aefg4 ,strunz1 ,franz4 ,geschichte der ,naturwissenschaften im ,mittelalter1 ,stuttgart1 #aiaj1 #abj pp4 ,without index or references4 ,studien zur ,geschichte der ,medizin herausgegeben von der ,puschmann-,stiftung an der ,universitt ,leipzig1 #aijg-4 ,sudhoff1 ,karl4 ,his various articles in the foregoing publication and other periodicals of which he is an editor lie in large measure just outside our period and field1 but some will be noted later in particular chapters4 ,suter1 ,h4 ,die ,mathematiker und ,astronomen der ,araber1 in ,abhandl41 ,x 7#aijj7 #a-bgg2 ,,xiv 7#aijb7 #beg-he4 ,die astronomischen ,tafeln des ,muhammed ibn ,musa-al-,khwarizmi1 ,copenhagen1 #aiad4 ,tanner1 ,t4 ,bibliotheca ,britannico-,hibernica1 ,london1 #agdh4 ,still much cited but largely antiquated and unreliable4 ,tavenner1 ,e4 ,studies in ,magic from ,latin ,literature1 ,new ,york1 #aiaf4 ,taylor1 ,h4 ,o4 ,the ,classical ,heritage1 #aija4 ,the ,medieval ,mind1 #bnd edition1 #aiad1 #b vols2 #crd edition1 #aiai4 ,theatrum chemicum4 ,see ,zetzner4 ,theatrum chemicum ,britannicum4 ,see ,ashmole4 ,theophilus ,presbyter1 ,schedula diversarum artium1 ed4 ,a4 ,ilg1 ,vienna1 #ahgd2 ,english translation by ,r4 ,hendrie1 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,thomas of ,cantimpr1 ,bonum universale de apibus1 #aeaf4 ,thompson1 ,d',arcy ,w4 ,aristotle as a ,biologist1 #aiac4 ,glossary of ,greek ,birds1 ,oxford1 #ahie4 ,historia animalium1 ,oxford1 #aiaj2 vol4 ,,iv in the ,english translation of ,the ,works of ,aristotle edited by ,j4 ,a4 ,smith and ,w4 ,d4 ,ross4 ,thorndike1 ,lynn4 ,adelard of ,bath and the ,continuity of ,universal ,nature1 in ,nature1 ,,xciv 7#aiae7 #faf-g4 ,a ,roman ,astrologer as a ,historical ,source3 ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus1 in ,classical ,philology1 ,,viii 7#aiac7 #dae-ce4 ,natural ,science in the ,middle ,ages1 in ,popular ,science ,monthly 7now ,the ,scientific ,monthly71 ,,lxxxvii 7#aiae7 #bga-ia4 ,roger ,bacon and ,gunpowder1 in ,science1 ,,xlii 7#aiae71 #gii-hjj4 ,roger ,bacon and ,experimental ,method in the ,middle ,ages1 in ,the ,philosophical ,review1 ,,xxiii 7#aiad71 #bga-ih4 ,some ,medieval ,conceptions of ,magic1 in ,the ,monist1 ,,xxv 7#aiae71 #ajg-ci4 ,the ,attitude of ,origen and ,augustine toward ,magic1 in ,the ,monist1 ,,xix 7#aijh71 #df-ff4 ,the ,place of ,magic in the ,intellectual ,history of ,europe1 ,columbia ,university ,press1 #aije4 ,the ,true ,roger ,bacon1 in ,american ,historical ,review1 ,,xxi 7#aiaf71 #bcg-eg1 #dfh-hj4 ,tiraboschi4 ,storia della ,letteratura ,italiana1 ,modena1 #aggb-agie4 ,tischendorf1 ,c4 ,acta ,apostolorum ,apocrypha1 ,leipzig1 #ahea4 ,evangelia ,apocrypha1 ,leipzig1 #ahgf4 ,tply1 ,r4 von4 ,studien zur ,geschichte der ,anatomie im ,mittelalter1 #ahih4 ,unger1 ,f4 ,die ,pflanze als ,zaubermittel1 ,vienna1 #ahei4 ,vacant1 ,a4 et ,mangenot1 ,e4 ,dictionnaire de thologie catholique1 ,paris1 #aiji-4 ,valentinelli1 ,j4 ,bibliotheca manuscripta ad ,s4 ,marci ,venetiarum1 ,venice1 #ahfh-ahgf1 #f vols4 ,valois1 ,nol4 ,guillaume d',auvergne1 vque de ,paris1 #abbh-abdi4 ,sa vie et ses ouvrages1 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,vincent of ,beauvais4 ,speculum doctrinale1 #adgb 7874 ,speculum historiale1 #adgc4 ,speculum naturale1 ,anth4 ,koburger1 ,nrnberg1 #adhe4 ,vossius1 ,g4 ,j4 ,de ,universae ,matheseos natura et constitutione liber1 ,amsterdam1 #afej4 ,walsh1 ,j4 ,j4 ,medieval ,medicine1 #aibj1 #bba pp4 ,old ,time ,makers of ,medicine2 the story of the students and teachers of the sciences related to medicine during the middle ages1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,popular4 ,the ,popes and ,science1 #aijh4 ,webb1 ,c4 ,c4 ,i4 ,see ,john of ,salisbury4 ,webster1 ,hutton4 ,rest ,days1 #aiaf4 ,wedel1 ,t4 ,c4 ,the ,medieval ,attitude toward ,astrology particularly in ,england1 ,yale ,university ,press1 #aibj4 ,wellmann1 ,max4 ed4 ,dioscorides de materia medica1 #aijg1 #aijf4 ,die ,schrift des ,dioskurides 1 #aiad4 ,white1 ,a4 ,d4 ,a ,history of the ,warfare of ,science with ,theology in ,christendom1 ,new ,york1 #ahif1 #b vols4 ,wickersheimer1 ,ernest4 ,figures mdico-astrologiques des neuvime1 dixime et onzime sicles1 in ,transactions of the ,seventeenth ,international ,congress of ,medicine1 ,section ,,xxiii1 ,history of ,medicine1 ,london1 #aiac1 p4 #cac ff4 ,william of ,auvergne4 ,opera omnia1 ,venice1 #aeia4 ,withington1 ,e4 ,t4 ,medical ,history from the ,earliest ,times1 ,london1 #ahid4 ,wright1 ,thomas4 ,popular ,treatises on ,science written during the middle ages in ,anglo-,saxon1 ,anglo-,norman1 and ,english1 ,london1 #ahda4 ed4 ,alexander ,neckam ,de naturis rerum1 in ,,rs vol4 #cd1 #ahfc4 ,wulf1 ,m4 de4 ,history of ,medieval ,philosophy1 #aiji1 ,english translation4 ,wstenfeld1 ,f4 ,geschichte der ,arabischen ,aerzte und ,naturforscher1 ,gttingen1 #ahdj4 ,yule1 ,sir ,henry4 ,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo1 third edition revised by ,henri ,cordier1 #b vols41 ,london1 #aijc4 ,zarncke1 ,f4 ,der ,priester ,johannes1 in ,abhandl4 d4 philol4-hist4 ,classe1 ,kgl4 ,schs4 ,gesell4 d4 ,wiss41 ,,vii 7#ahgi71 #fbg-ajcj2 ,,viii 7#ahhc71 #a-ahf4 ,zetzner1 ,l4 ,theatrum chemicum1 #afac-afbb1 #f vols4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,magic ,,and ,,experimental ,,science ,,volume ,i ,a ,,history ,,of ,,magic ,,and ,,experimental ,,science ,,and ,,their ,,relation ,,to ,,christian ,,thought ,,during ,,the ,,first ,,thirteen ,,centuries ,,of ,,our ,,era ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,aim of this book--,period covered--,how to study the history of thought--,definition of magic--,magic of primitive man2 does civilization originate in magic8--,divination in early ,china--,magic in ancient ,egypt--,magic and ,egyptian religion--,mortuary magic--,magic in daily life--,power of words1 images1 amulets--,magic in ,egyptian medicine--,demons and disease--,magic and science--,magic and industry--,alchemy--,divination and astrology--,the sources for ,assyrian and ,babylonian magic--,was astrology ,sumerian or ,chaldean8--,the number seven in early ,babylonia--,incantation texts older than astrological--,other divination than astrology--,incantations against sorcery and demons--,a specimen incantation--,materials and devices of magic--,greek culture not free from magic--,magic in myth1 literature1 and history--,simultaneous increase of learning and occult science--,magic origin urged for ,greek religion and drama--,magic in ,greek philosophy--,plato's attitude toward magic and astrology--,aristotle on stars and spirits--,folk-lore in the ,history of ,animals--,differing modes of transmission of ancient oriental and ,greek literature--,more magical character of directly transmitted ,greek remains--,progress of science among the ,greeks--,archimedes and ,aristotle--,exaggerated view of the scientific achievement of the ,hellenistic age--,appendix ,i4 ,some works on ,magic1 ,religion1 and ,astronomy in ,babylonia and ,assyria4 8,magic has existed among all peoples and at every period40--,hegel4#c ,sidenote3 ,aim of this book4 ,this book aims to treat the history of magic and experimental science and their relations to ,christian thought during the first thirteen centuries of our era1 with especial emphasis upon the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,no adequate survey of the history of either magic or experimental science exists for this period1 and considerable use of manuscript material has been necessary for the medieval period4 ,magic is here understood in the broadest sense of the word1 as including all occult arts and sciences1 superstitions1 and folk-lore4 ,i shall endeavor to justify this use of the word from the sources as ,i proceed4 ,my idea is that magic and experimental science have been connected in their development2 that magicians were perhaps the first to experiment2 and that the history of both magic and experimental science can be better understood by studying them together4 ,i also desire to make clearer than it has been to most scholars the ,latin learning of the medieval period1 whose leading personalities even are generally inaccurately known1 and on perhaps no one point is illumination more needed than on that covered by our investigation4 ,the subject of laws against magic1 popular practice of magic1 the witchcraft delusion and persecution lie outside of the scope of this book4#d ,sidenote3 ,period covered4 ,at first my plan was to limit this investigation to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 the time of greatest medieval productivity1 but ,i became convinced that this period could be best understood by viewing it in the setting of the ,greek1 ,latin1 and early ,christian writers to whom it owed so much4 ,if the student of the ,byzantine ,empire needs to know old ,rome1 the student of the medieval church to comprehend early ,christianity1 the student of ,romance languages to understand ,latin1 still more must the reader of ,constantinus ,africanus1 ,vincent of ,beauvais1 ,guido ,bonatti1 and ,thomas ,aquinas be familiar with the ,pliny1 ,galen1 and ,ptolemy1 the ,origen and ,augustine1 the ,alkindi and ,albumasar from whom they drew4 ,it would indeed be difficult to draw a line anywhere between them4 ,the ancient authors are generally extant only in their medieval form2 in some cases there is reason to suspect that they have undergone alteration or addition2 sometimes new works were fathered upon them4 ,in any case they have been preserved to us because the middle ages studied and cherished them1 and to a great extent made them their own4 ,i begin with the first century of our era1 because ,christian thought begins then1 and then appeared ,pliny's ,natural ,history which seems to me the best starting point of a survey of ancient science and magic4#e ,i close with the thirteenth century1 or1 more strictly speaking1 in the course of the fourteenth1 because by then the medieval revival of learning had spent its force4 ,attention is centred on magic and experimental science in western ,latin literature and learning1 ,greek and ,arabic works being considered as they contributed thereto1 and vernacular literature being omitted as either derived from ,latin works or unlearned and unscientific4 ,sidenote3 ,how to study the history of thought4 ,very probably ,i have tried to cover too much ground and have made serious omissions4 ,it is probably true that for the history of thought as for the history of art the evidence and source material is more abundant than for political or economic history4 ,but fortunately it is more reliable1 since the pursuit of truth or beauty does not encourage deception and prejudice as does the pursuit of wealth or power4 ,also the history of thought is more unified and consistent1 steadier and more regular1 than the fluctuations and diversities of political history2 and for this reason its general outlines can be discerned with reasonable sureness by the examination of even a limited number of examples1 provided they are properly selected from a period of sufficient duration4 ,moreover1 it seems to me that in the present stage of research into and knowledge of our subject sounder conclusions and even more novel ones can be drawn by a wide comparative survey than by a minutely intensive and exhaustive study of one man or of a few years4 ,the danger is of writing from too narrow a viewpoint1 magnifying unduly the importance of some one man or theory1 and failing to evaluate the facts in their full historical setting4 ,no medieval writer whether on science or magic can be understood by himself1 but must be measured in respect to his surroundings and antecedents4 ,sidenote3 ,definition of magic4 ,some may think it strange that ,i associate magic so closely with the history of thought1 but the word comes from the ,magi or wise men of ,persia or ,babylon1 to whose lore and practices the name was applied by the ,greeks and ,romans1 or possibly we may trace its etymology a little farther back to the ,sumerian or ,turanian word imga or unga1 meaning deep or profound4 ,the exact meaning of the word1 8magic10 was a matter of much uncertainty even in classical and medieval times1 as we shall see4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that it was then applied not merely to an operative art1 but also to a mass of ideas or doctrine1 and that it represented a way of looking at the world4 ,this side of magic has sometimes been lost sight of in hasty or assumed modern definitions which seem to regard magic as merely a collection of rites and feats4 ,in the case of primitive men and savages it is possible that little thought accompanies their actions4 ,but until these acts are based upon or related to some imaginative1 purposive1 and rational thinking1 the doings of early man cannot be distinguished as either religious or scientific or magical4 ,beavers build dams1 birds build nests1 ants excavate1 but they have no magic just as they have no science or religion4 ,magic implies a mental state and so may be viewed from the standpoint of the history of thought4 ,in process of time1 as the learned and educated lost faith in magic1 it was degraded to the low practices and beliefs of the ignorant and vulgar4 ,it was this use of the term that was taken up by anthropologists and by them applied to analogous doings and notions of primitive men and savages4 ,but we may go too far in regarding magic as a purely social product of tribal society3 magicians may be1 in ,sir ,james ,frazer's words1#f 8the only professional class0 among the lowest savages1 but note that they rank as a learned profession from the start4 ,it will be chiefly through the writings of learned men that something of their later history and of the growth of interest in experimental science will be traced in this work4 ,let me add that in this investigation all arts of divination1 including astrology1 will be reckoned as magic2 ,i have been quite unable to separate the two either in fact or logic1 as ,i shall illustrate repeatedly by particular cases4#g ,sidenote3 ,magic of primitive man3 does civilization originate in magic8 ,magic is very old1 and it will perhaps be well in this introductory chapter to present it to the reader1 if not in its infancy--for its origins are much disputed and perhaps antecede all record and escape all observation--at least some centuries before its ,roman and medieval days4 ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 in a passage of ,the ,golden ,bough to which we have already referred1 remarks that 8sorcerers are found in every savage tribe known to us2 and among the lowest savages 444 they are the only professional class that exists40#h ,lenormant affirmed in his ,chaldean ,magic and ,sorcery#i that 8all magic rests upon a system of religious belief10 but recent sociologists and anthropologists have inclined to regard magic as older than a belief in gods4 ,at any rate some of the most primitive features of historical religions seem to have originated from magic4 ,moreover1 religious cults1 rites1 and priesthoods are not the only things that have been declared inferior in antiquity to magic and largely indebted to it for their origins4 ,combarieu in his ,music and ,magic#aj asserts that the incantation is universally employed in all the circumstances of primitive life and that from it1 by the medium it is true of religious poetry1 all modern music has developed4 ,the magic incantation is1 in short1 8the oldest fact in the history of civilization40 ,although the magician chants without thought of sthetic form or an artistically appreciative audience1 yet his spell contains in embryo all that later constitutes the art of music4#aa ,m4 ,paul ,huvelin1 after asserting with similar confidence that poetry1#ab the plastic arts1#ac medicine1 mathematics1 astronomy1 and chemistry 8have easily discernable magic sources10 states that he will demonstrate that the same is true of law4#ad ,very recently1 however1 there has been something of a reaction against this tendency to regard the life of primitive man as made up entirely of magic and to trace back every phase of civilization to a magical origin4 ,but ,r4 ,r4 ,marett still sees a higher standard of value in primitive man's magic than in his warfare and brutal exploitation of his fellows and believes that the 8higher plane of experience for which mana stands is one in which spiritual enlargement is appreciated for its own sake40#ae ,sidenote3 ,divination in early ,china4 ,of the five classics included in the ,confucian ,canon1 ,the ,book of ,changes 7,i ,ching or ,yi-,king71 regarded by some as the oldest work in ,chinese literature and dated back as early as #cjjj ,b4,c41 in its rudimentary form appears to have been a method of divination by means of eight possible combinations in triplets of a line and a broken line4 ,thus1 if a be a line and b a broken line1 we may have aaa1 bbb1 aab1 bba1 abb1 baa1 aba1 and bab4 ,possibly there is a connection with the use of knotted cords which1 ,chinese writers state1 preceded written characters1 like the method used in ancient ,peru4 ,more certain would seem the resemblance to the medieval method of divination known as geomancy1 which we shall encounter later in our ,latin authors4 ,magic and astrology might1 of course1 be traced all through ,chinese history and literature4 ,but1 contenting ourselves with this single example of the antiquity of such arts in the civilization of the far east1 let us turn to other ancient cultures which had a closer and more unmistakable influence upon the western world4 ,sidenote3 ,magic in ancient ,egypt4 ,of the ancient ,egyptians ,budge writes1 8,the belief in magic influenced their minds 444 from the earliest to the latest period of their history 444 in a manner which1 at this stage in the history of the world1 is very difficult to understand40#af ,to the ordinary historical student the evidence for this assertion does not seem quite so overwhelming as the ,egyptologists would have us think4 ,it looks thinner when we begin to spread it out over a stretch of four thousand years1 and it scarcely seems scientific to adduce details from medieval ,arabic tales or from the late ,greek fiction of the ,pseudo-,callisthenes or from papyri of the ,christian era concerning the magic of early ,egypt4 ,and it may be questioned whether two stories preserved in the ,westcar papyrus1 written many centuries afterwards1 are alone 8sufficient to prove that already in the ,fourth ,dynasty the working of magic was a recognized art among the ,egyptians40#ag ,sidenote3 ,magic and ,egyptian religion4 ,at any rate we are told that the belief in magic not only was predynastic and prehistoric1 but was 8older in ,egypt than the belief in ,god40#ah ,in the later religion of the ,egyptians1 along with more lofty and intellectual conceptions1 magic was still a principal ingredient4#ai ,their mythology was affected by it#bj and they not only combated demons with magical formulae but believed that they could terrify and coerce the very gods by the same method1 compelling them to appear1 to violate the course of nature by miracles1 or to admit the human soul to an equality with themselves4#ba ,sidenote3 ,mortuary magic4 ,magic was as essential in the future life as here on earth among the living4 ,many1 if not most1 of the observances and objects connected with embalming and burial had a magic purpose or mode of operation2 for instance1 the 8magic eyes placed over the opening in the side of the body through which the embalmer removed the intestines10#bb or the mannikins and models of houses buried with the dead4 ,in the process of embalming the wrapping of each bandage was accompanied by the utterance of magic words4#bc ,in 8the oldest chapter of human thought extant0--the ,pyramid ,texts written in hieroglyphic at the tombs at ,sakkara of ,pharaohs of the fifth and sixth dynasties 7c4 #bfbe-bdge ,b4,c471 magic is so manifest that some have averred 8that the whole body of ,pyramid ,texts is simply a collection of magical charms40#bd ,the scenes and objects painted on the walls of the tombs1 such as those of nobles in the fifth and sixth dynasties1 were employed with magic intent and were meant to be realized in the future life2 and with the twelfth dynasty the ,egyptians began to paint on the insides of the coffins the objects that were formerly actually placed within4#be ,under the ,empire the famous ,book of the ,dead is a collection of magic pictures1 charms1 and incantations for the use of the deceased in the hereafter1#bf and while it is not of the early period1 we hear that 8a book with words of magic power0 was buried with a pharaoh of the ,old ,kingdom4 ,budge has 8no doubt that the object of every religious text ever written on tomb1 stele1 amulet1 coffin1 papyrus1 etc41 was to bring the gods under the power of the deceased1 so that he might be able to compel them to do his will40#bg ,breasted1 on the other hand1 thinks that the amount and complexity of this mortuary magic increased greatly in the later period under popular and priestly influence4#bh ,sidenote3 ,magic in daily life4 ,breasted nevertheless believes that magic had played a great part in daily life throughout the whole course of ,egyptian history4 ,he writes1 8,it is difficult for the modern mind to understand how completely the belief in magic penetrated the whole substance of life1 dominating popular custom and constantly appearing in the simplest acts of the daily household routine1 as much a matter of course as sleep or the preparation of food4 ,it constituted the very atmosphere in which the men of the early oriental world lived4 ,without the saving and salutary influence of such magical agencies constantly invoked1 the life of an ancient household in the ,east was unthinkable40#bi ,sidenote3 ,power of words1 images1 amulets4 ,most of the main features and varieties of magic known to us at other times and places appear somewhere in the course of ,egypt's long history4 ,for one thing we find the ascription of magic power to words and names4 ,the power of words1 says ,budge1 was thought to be practically unlimited1 and 8the ,egyptians invoked their aid in the smallest as well as in the greatest events of their life40#cj ,words might be spoken1 in which case they 8must be uttered in a proper tone of voice by a duly qualified man10 or they might be written1 in which case the material upon which they were written might be of importance4#ca ,in speaking of mortuary magic we have already noted the employment of pictures1 models1 mannikins1 and other images1 figures1 and objects4 ,wax figures were also used in sorcery1#cb and amulets are found from the first1 although their particular forms seem to have altered with different periods4#cc ,scarabs are of course the most familiar example4 ,sidenote3 ,magic in ,egyptian medicine4 ,egyptian medicine was full of magic and ritual and its therapeusis consisted mainly of 8collections of incantations and weird random mixtures of roots and refuse40#cd ,already we find the recipe and the occult virtue conceptions1 the elaborate polypharmacy and the accompanying hocus-pocus which we shall meet in ,pliny and the middle ages4 ,the ,egyptian doctors used herbs from other countries and preferred compound medicines containing a dozen ingredients to simple medicines4#ce ,already we find such magic logic as that the hair of a black calf will keep one from growing gray4#cf ,already the parts of animals are a favorite ingredient in medical compounds1 especially those connected with the organs of generation1 on which account they were presumably looked upon as life-giving1 or those which were recommended mainly by their nastiness and were probably thought to expel the demons of disease by their disagreeable properties4 ,sidenote3 ,demons and disease4 ,in ancient ,egypt1 however1 disease seems not to have been identified with possession by demons to the extent that it was in ancient ,assyria and ,babylonia4 ,while ,breasted asserts that 8disease was due to hostile spirits and against these only magic could avail10#cg ,budge contents himself with the more cautious statement that there is 8good reason for thinking that some diseases were attributed to 444 evil spirits 444 entering 444 human bodies 444 but the texts do not afford much information0#ch on this point4 ,certainly the beliefs in evil spirits and in magic do not always have to go together1 and magic might be employed against disease whether or not it was ascribed to a demon4 ,sidenote3 ,magic and science4 ,in the case of medicine as in that of religion ,breasted takes the view that the amount of magic became greater in the ,middle and ,new ,kingdoms than in the ,old ,kingdom4 ,this is true so far as the amount of space occupied by it in extant records is concerned4 ,but it would be rash to assume that this marks a decline from a more rational and scientific attitude in the ,old ,kingdom4 ,yet ,breasted rather gives this impression when he writes concerning the ,old ,kingdom that many of its recipes were useful and rational1 that 8medicine was already in the possession of much empirical wisdom1 displaying close and accurate observation10 and that what 8precluded any progress toward real science was the belief in magic1 which later began to dominate all the practice of the physician40#ci ,berthelot probably places the emphasis more correctly when he states that the later medical papyri 8include traditional recipes1 founded on an empiricism which is not always correct1 mystic remedies1 based upon the most bizarre analogies1 and magic practices that date back to the remotest antiquity40#dj ,the recent efforts of ,sethe and ,wilcken1 of ,elliot ,smith1 ,mller1 and ,hooten to show that the ancient ,egyptians possessed a considerable amount of medical knowledge and of surgical and dental skill1 have been held by ,todd to rest on slight and dubious evidence4 ,indeed1 some of this evidence seems rather to suggest the ritualistic practices still employed by uncivilized ,african tribes4 ,certainly the evidence for any real scientific development in ancient ,egypt has been very meager compared with the abundant indications of the prevalence of magic4#da ,sidenote3 ,magic and industry4 ,early ,egypt was the home of many arts and industries1 but not in so advanced a stage as has sometimes been suggested4 ,blown glass1 for example1 was unknown until late ,greek and ,roman times1 and the supposed glass-blowers depicted on the early monuments are really smiths engaged in stirring their fires by blowing through reeds tipped with clay4#db ,on the other hand1 ,professor ,breasted informs me that there is no basis for ,berthelot's statement that 8every sort of chemical process as well as medical treatment was executed with an accompaniment of religious formulae1 of prayers and incantations1 regarded as essential to the success of operations as well as the cure of maladies40#dc ,sidenote3 ,alchemy4 ,alchemy perhaps originated on the one hand from the practices of ,egyptian goldsmiths and workers in metals1 who experimented with alloys1#dd and on the other hand from the theories of the ,greek philosophers concerning world-grounds1 first matter1 and the elements4#de ,the words1 alchemy and chemistry1 are derived ultimately from the name of ,egypt itself1 ,kamt or ,qemt1 meaning literally black1 and applied to the ,nile mud4 ,the word was also applied to the black powder produced by quicksilver in ,egyptian metallurgical processes4 ,this powder1 ,budge says1 was supposed to be the ground of all metals and to possess marvelous virtue1 8and was mystically identified with the body which ,osiris possessed in the underworld1 and both were thought to be sources of life and power40#df ,the analogy to the sacrament of the mass and the marvelous powers ascribed to the host by medieval preachers like ,stephen of ,bourbon scarcely needs remark4 ,the later writers on alchemy in ,greek appear to have borrowed signs and phraseology from the ,egyptian priests1 and are fond of speaking of their art as the monopoly of ,egyptian kings and priests who carved its secrets on ancient steles and obelisks4 ,in a treatise dating from the twelfth dynasty a scribe recommends to his son a work entitled ,chemi1 but there is no proof that it was concerned with chemistry or alchemy4#dg ,the papyri containing treatises of alchemy are of the third century of the ,christian era4 ,sidenote3 ,divination and astrology4 ,evidences of divination in general and of astrology in particular do not appear as early in ,egyptian records as examples of other varieties of magic4 ,yet the early date at which ,egypt had a calendar suggests astronomical interest1 and even those who deny that seven planets were distinguished in the ,tigris-,euphrates ,valley until the last millennium before ,christ1 admit that they were known in ,egypt as far back as the ,old ,kingdom1 although they deny the existence of a science of astronomy or an art of astrology then4#dh ,a dream of ,thotmes ,,iv is preserved from #adej ,b4,c4 or thereabouts1 and the incantations employed by magicians in order to procure divining dreams for their customers attest the close connection of divination and magic4#di ,belief in lucky and unlucky days is shown in a papyrus calendar of about #acjj ,b4,c41#ej and we shall see later that 8,egyptian ,days0 continued to be a favorite superstition of the middle ages4 ,tables of the risings of stars which may have an astrological significance have been found in graves1 and there were gods for every month1 every day of the month1 and every hour of the day4#ea ,such numbers as seven and twelve are frequently emphasized in the tombs and elsewhere1 and if the vaulted ceiling in the tenth chamber of the tomb of ,sethos is really of his time1 we seem to find the signs of the zodiac under the nineteenth dynasty4 ,if ,boll is correct in suggesting that the zodiac originated in the transfer of animal gods to the sky1#eb no fitter place than ,egypt could be found for the transfer4 ,but there have not yet been discovered in ,egypt lists of omens and appearances of constellations on days of disaster such as are found in the literature of the ,tigris-,euphrates valley and in the ,roman historians4 ,budge speaks of the seven ,hathor goddesses who predict the death that the infant must some time die1 and affirms that 8the ,egyptians believed that a man's fate 444 was decided before he was born1 and that he had no power to alter it40#ec ,but ,i cannot agree that 8we have good reason for assigning the birthplace of the horoscope to ,egypt10#ed since the evidence seems to be limited to the almost medieval ,pseudo-,callisthenes and a ,greek horoscope in the ,british ,museum to which is attached the letter of an astrologer urging his pupil to study the ancient ,egyptians carefully4 ,the later ,greek and ,latin tradition that astrology was the invention of the divine men of ,egypt and ,babylon probably has a basis of fact1 but more contemporary evidence is needed if ,egypt is to contest the claim of ,babylon to precedence in that art4 ,sidenote3 ,the sources for ,assyrian and ,babylonian magic4 ,in the written remains of ,babylonian and ,assyrian civilization#ee the magic cuneiform tablets play a large part and give us the impression that fear of demons was a leading feature of ,assyrian and ,babylonian religion and that daily thought and life were constantly affected by magic4 ,the bulk of the religious and magical texts are preserved in the library of ,assurbanipal1 king of ,assyria from #ffh to #fbf ,b4,c4 ,but he collected his library from the ancient temple cities1 the scribes tell us that they are copying very ancient texts1 and the ,sumerian language is still largely employed4#ef ,eridu1 one of the main centers of early ,sumerian culture1 8was an immemorial home of ancient wisdom1 that is to say1 magic40#eg ,it is1 however1 difficult in the library of ,assurbanipal to distinguish what is ,babylonian from what is ,assyrian or what is ,sumerian from what is ,semitic4 ,thus we are told that 8with the exception of some very ancient texts1 the ,sumerian literature1 consisting largely of religious material such as hymns and incantations1 shows a number of ,semitic loanwords and grammatical ,semitisms1 and in many cases1 although not always1 is quite patently a translation of ,semitic ideas by ,semitic priests into the formal religious ,sumerian language40#eh ,sidenote3 ,was astrology ,sumerian or ,chaldean8 ,the chief point in dispute1 over which great controversy has taken place recently among ,german scholars1 is as to the antiquity of both astronomical knowledge and astrological doctrine1 including astral theology1 among the dwellers in the ,tigris-,euphrates region4 ,briefly1 such writers as ,winckler1 ,stcken1 and ,jeremias held that the religion of the early ,babylonians was largely based on astrology and that all their thought was permeated by it1 and that they had probably by an early date made astronomical observations and acquired astronomical knowledge which was lost in the decline of their culture4 ,opposing this view1 such scholars as ,kugler1 ,bezold1 ,boll1 and ,schiaparelli have shown the lack of certain evidence for either any considerable astronomical knowledge or astrological theory in the ,tigris-,euphrates ,valley until the late appearance of the ,chaldeans4 ,it is even denied that the seven planets were distinguished in the early period1 much less the signs of the zodiac or the planetary week1#ei which last1 together with any real advance in astronomy1 is reserved for the ,hellenistic period4 ,sidenote3 ,the number seven in early ,babylonia4 ,yet the prominence of the number seven in myth1 religion1 and magic is indisputable in the third millennium before our era4 ,for instance1 in the old ,babylonian epic of creation there are seven winds1 seven spirits of storms1 seven evil diseases1 seven divisions of the underworld closed by seven doors1 seven zones of the upper world and sky1 and so on4 ,we are told1 however1 that the staged towers of ,babylonia1 which are said to have symbolized for millenniums the sacred ,hebdomad1 did not always have seven stages4#fj ,but the number seven was undoubtedly of frequent occurrence1 of a sacred and mystic character1 and virtue and perfection were ascribed to it4 ,and no one has succeeded in giving any satisfactory explanation for this other than the rule of the seven planets over our world4 ,this also applies to the sanctity of the number seven in the ,old ,testament#fa and the emphasis upon it in ,hesiod1 the ,odyssey1 and other early ,greek sources4#fb ,sidenote3 ,incantation texts older than the astrological4 ,however that may be1 the tendency prevailing at present is to regard astrology as a relatively late development introduced by the ,semitic ,chaldeans4 ,lenormant held that writing and magic were a ,turanian or ,sumerian 7,accadian7 contribution to ,babylonian civilization1 but that astronomy and astrology were ,semitic innovations4 ,jastrow thinks that there was slight difference between the religion of ,assyria and that of ,babylonia1 and that astral theology played a great part in both2 but he grants that the older incantation texts are less influenced by this astral theology4 ,l4 ,w4 ,king says1 8,magic and divination bulk largely in the texts recovered1 and in their case there is nothing to suggest an underlying astrological element40#fc ,sidenote3 ,other divination than astrology4 ,whatever its date and origin1 the magic literature may be classified in three main groups4 ,there are the astrological texts in which the stars are looked upon as gods and predictions are made especially for the king4#fd ,then there are the tablets connected with other methods of foretelling the future1 especially liver divination1 although interpretation of dreams1 augury1 and divination by mixing oil and water were also practiced4#fe ,fossey has further noted the close connection of operative magic with divination among the ,assyrians1 and calls divination 8the indispensable auxiliary of magic40 ,many feats of magic imply a precedent knowledge of the future or begin by consultation of a diviner1 or a favorable day and hour should be chosen for the magic rite4#ff ,sidenote3 ,incantations against sorcery and demons4 ,third1 there are the collections of incantations1 not however those employed by the sorcerers1 which were presumably illicit and hence not publicly preserved--in an incantation which we shall soon quote sorcery is called evil and is said to employ 8impure things0--but rather defensive measures against them and exorcisms of evil demons4#fg ,but doubtless this counter magic reflects the original procedure to a great extent4 ,inasmuch as diseases generally were regarded as due to demons1 who had to be exorcized by incantations1 medicine was simply a branch of magic4 ,evil spirits were also held responsible for disturbances in nature1 and frequent incantations were thought necessary to keep them from upsetting the natural order entirely4#fh ,the various incantations are arranged in series of tablets3 the ,maklu or burning1 ,ti'i or headaches1 ,asakki marsti or fever1 ,labartu or hag-demon1 and ,nis kati or raising of the hand4 ,besides these tablets there are numerous ceremonial and medical texts which contain magical practice4#fi ,also hymns of praise and religious epics which at first sight one would not classify as incantations seem to have had their magical uses1 and ,farnell suggests that 8a magic origin for the practice of theological exegesis may be obscurely traced40#gj ,good spirits are represented as employing magic and exorcisms against the demons4#ga ,as a last resort when good spirits as well as human magic had failed to check the demons1 the aid might be requisitioned of the god ,ea1 regarded as the repository of all science and who 8alone was possessed of the magic secrets by means of which they could be conquered and repulsed40#gb ,sidenote3 ,a specimen incantation4 ,the incantations themselves show that other factors than the power of words entered into the magic1 as may be illustrated by quoting one of them4 8,arise ye great gods1 hear my complaint1 ,grant me justice1 take cognizance of my condition4 ,i have made an image of my sorcerer and sorceress2 ,i have humbled myself before you and bring to you my cause1 ,because of the evil they have done1 ,of the impure things which they have handled4 ,may she die6 ,let me live6 ,may her charm1 her witchcraft1 her sorcery be broken4 ,may the plucked sprig of the binu tree purify me2 ,may it release me2 may the evil odor of my mouth be scattered to the winds4 ,may the mashtakal herb which fills the earth cleanse me4 ,before you let me shine like the kankal herb1 ,let me be brilliant and pure as the lardu herb4 ,the charm of the sorceress is evil2 ,may her words return to her mouth1 her tongue be cut off4 ,because of her witchcraft may the gods of night smite her1 ,the three watches of the night break her evil charm4 ,may her mouth be wax2 her tongue1 honey4 ,may the word causing my misfortune that she has spoken dissolve like wax4 ,may the charm she had wound up melt like honey1 ,so that her magic knot be cut in twain1 her work destroyed40#gc ,sidenote3 ,materials and devices employed in the magic4 ,it is evident from this incantation that use was made of magic images and knots1 and of the properties of trees and herbs4 ,magic images were made of clay1 wax1 tallow1 and other substances and were employed in various ways4 ,thus directions are given for making a tallow image of an enemy of the king and binding its face with a cord in order to deprive the person whom it represents of speech and willpower4#gd ,images were also constructed in order that disease demons might be magically transferred into them1#ge and sometimes the images are slain and buried4#gf ,in the above incantation the magic knot was employed only by the sorceress1 but ,fossey states that knots were also used as counter-charms against the demons4#gg ,in the above incantation the names of herbs were left untranslated and it is not possible to say much concerning the pharmacy of the ,assyrians and ,babylonians because of our lack of a lexicon for their botanical and mineralogical terminology4#gh ,however1 from what scholars have been able to translate it appears that common rather than rare and outlandish substances were the ones most employed4 ,wine and oil1 salt and dates1 and onions and saliva are the sort of things used4 ,there is also evidence of the employment of a magic wand4#gi ,gems and animal substances were used as well as herbs2 all sorts of philters were concocted2 and varied rites and ceremonies were employed such as ablutions and fumigations4 ,in the account of the ark of the ,babylonian ,noah we are told of the magic significance of its various parts2 thus the mast and cabin ceiling were made of cedar1 a wood that counteracts sorceries4#hj ,sidenote3 ,greek culture not free from magic4 ,one remarkable corollary of the so-called ,italian ,renaissance or ,humanistic movement at the close of the middle ages with its too exclusive glorification of ancient ,greece and ,rome has been the strange notion that the ancient ,hellenes were unusually free from magic compared with other periods and peoples4 ,it would have been too much to claim any such immunity for the primitive ,romans1 whose entire religion was originally little else than magic and whose daily life1 public and private1 was hedged in by superstitious observances and fears4 ,but they1 too1 were supposed to have risen later under the influence of ,hellenic culture to a more enlightened stage1#ha only to relapse again into magic in the declining empire and middle ages under oriental influence4 ,incidentally let me add that this notion that in the past orientals were more superstitious and fond of marvels than westerners in the same stage of civilization and that the orient must needs be the source of every superstitious cult and romantic tale is a glib assumption which ,i do not intend to make and which our subsequent investigation will scarcely substantiate4 ,but to return to the supposed immunity of the ,hellenes from magic2 so far has this hypothesis been carried that textual critics have repeatedly rejected passages as later interpolations or even called entire treatises spurious for no other reason than that they seemed to them too superstitious for a reputable classical author4 ,even so specialized and recent a student of ancient astrology1 superstition1 and religion as ,cumont still clings to this dubious generalization and affirms that 8the limpid ,hellenic genius always turned away from the misty speculations of magic40#hb ,but1 as ,i suggested some sixteen years since1 8the fantasticalness of medieval science was due to #8the clear light of ,hellas' as well as to the gloom of the #8dark ages4'0#hc ,sidenote3 ,magic in myth1 literature1 and history4 ,it is not difficult to call to mind evidence of the presence of magic in ,hellenic religion1 literature1 and history4 ,one has only to think of the many marvelous metamorphoses in ,greek mythology and of its countless other absurdities2 of the witches1 ,circe and ,medea1 and the necromancy of ,odysseus2 or the priest-magician of ,apollo in the ,iliad who could stop the plague1 if he wished2 of the lucky and unlucky days and other agricultural magic in ,hesiod4#hd ,then there were the ,spartans1 whose so-called constitution and method of education1 much admired by the ,greek philosophers1 were largely a retention of the life of the primitive tribe with its ritual and taboos4 ,or we remember ,herodotus and his childish delight in ambiguous oracles or his tale of seceders from ,gela brought back by ,telines single-handed because he 8was possessed of certain mysterious visible symbols of the powers beneath the earth which were deemed to be of wonder-working power40#he ,we recall ,xenophon's punctilious records of sacrifices1 divinations1 sneezes1 and dreams2 ,nicias1 as afraid of eclipses as if he had been a ,spartan2 and the matter-of-fact mentions of charms1 philters1 and incantations in even such enlightened writers as ,euripides and ,plato4 ,among the titles of ancient ,greek comedies magic is represented by the ,goetes of ,aristophanes1 the ,mandragorizomene of ,alexis1 the ,pharmacomantis of ,anaxandrides1 the ,circe of ,anaxilas1 and the ,thettale of ,menander4#hf ,when we candidly estimate the significance of such evidence as this1 we realize that the ,hellenes were not much less inclined to magic than other peoples and periods1 and that we need not wait for ,theocritus and the ,greek romances or for the magical papyri for proof of the existence of magic in ancient ,greek civilization4#hg ,sidenote3 ,simultaneous increase of learning and occult science4 ,if astrology and some other occult sciences do not appear in a developed form until the ,hellenistic period1 it is not because the earlier period was more enlightened1 but because it was less learned4 ,and the magic which ,osthanes is said to have introduced to the ,greek world about the time of the ,persian wars was not so much an innovation as an improvement upon their coarse and ancient rites of ,goetia4#hh ,sidenote3 ,magic origin urged for ,greek religion and drama4 ,this magic element which existed from the start in ,greek culture is now being traced out by students of anthropology and early religion as well as of the classics4 ,miss ,jane ,e4 ,harrison1 in ,themis1 a study of the social origins of ,greek religion1 suggests a magical explanation for many a myth and festival1 and even for the ,olympic games and ,greek drama4#hi ,the last point has been developed in more detail by ,f4 ,m4 ,cornford's ,origin of ,attic ,comedy1 where much magic is detected masquerading in the comedies of ,aristophanes4#ij ,and ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook sees the magician in ,zeus1 who transforms himself to pursue his amours1 and contends that 8the real prototype of the heavenly weather-king was the earthly0 magician or rain-maker1 that the pre-,homeric 8fixed epithets0 of ,zeus retained in the ,homeric poems 8are simply redolent of the magician10 and that the cult of ,zeus ,lykaios was connected with the belief in werwolves4#ia ,in still more recent publications ,dr4 ,rendel ,harris#ib has connected ,greek gods in their origins with the woodpecker and mistletoe1 associated the cult of ,apollo with the medicinal virtues of mice and snakes1 and in other ways emphasized the importance in early ,greek religion and culture of the magic properties of animals and herbs4 ,these writers have probably pressed their point too far1 but at least their work serves as a reaction against the old attitude of intellectual idolatry of the classics4 ,their views may be offset by those of ,mr4 ,farnell1 who states that 8while the knowledge of early ,babylonian magic is beginning to be considerable1 we cannot say that we know anything definite concerning the practices in this department of the ,hellenic and adjacent peoples in the early period with which we are dealing40 ,and again1 8,but while ,babylonian magic proclaims itself loudly in the great religious literature and highest temple ritual1 ,greek magic is barely mentioned in the older literature of ,greece1 plays no part at all in the hymns1 and can only with difficulty be discovered as latent in the higher ritual4 ,again1 ,babylonian magic is essentially demoniac2 but we have no evidence that the pre-,homeric ,greek was demon-ridden1 or that demonology and exorcism were leading factors in his consciousness and practice40 ,even ,mr4 ,farnell admits1 however1 that 8the earliest ,hellene1 as the later1 was fully sensitive to the magico-divine efficacy of names40#ic ,now to believe in the power of names before one believes in the existence of demons is the best possible evidence of the antiquity of magic in a society1 since it indicates that the speaker has confidence in the operative power of his own words without any spiritual or divine assistance4 ,sidenote3 ,magic in ,greek philosophy4 ,moreover1 in one sense the advocates of ,greek magic have not gone far enough4 ,they hold that magic lies back of the comedies of ,aristophanes2 what they might contend is that it was also contemporary with them4#id ,they hold that classical ,greek religion had its origins in magic2 what they might argue is that ,greek philosophy never freed itself from magic4 8,that ,empedocles believed himself capable of magical powers is10 says ,zeller1 8proved by his own writings40 ,he himself 8declares that he possesses the power to heal old age and sickness1 to raise and calm the winds1 to summon rain and drought1 and to recall the dead to life40#ie ,if the pre-,homeric fixed epithets of ,zeus are redolent of magic1 ,plato's ,timaeus is equally redolent of occult science and astrology2 and if we see the weather-making magician in the ,olympian ,zeus of ,phidias1 we cannot explain away the vagaries of the ,timaeus as flights of poetic imagination or try to make out ,aristotle a modern scientist by mutilating the text of the ,history of ,animals4 ,sidenote3 ,plato's attitude toward magic and astrology4 ,toward magic so-called ,plato's attitude in his ,laws is cautious4 ,he maintains that medical men and prophets and diviners can alone understand the nature of poisons 7or spells7 which work naturally1 and of such things as incantations1 magic knots1 and wax images2 and that since other men have no certain knowledge of such matters1 they ought not to fear but to despise them4 ,he admits nevertheless that there is no use in trying to convince most men of this and that it is necessary to legislate against sorcery4#if ,yet his own view of nature seems impregnated1 if not actually with doctrines borrowed from the ,magi of the east1 at least with notions cognate to those of magic rather than of modern science and with doctrines favorable to astrology4 ,he humanized material objects and confused material and spiritual characteristics4 ,he also1 like authors of whom we shall treat later1 attempted to give a natural or rational explanation for magic1 accounting1 for example1 for liver divination on the ground that the liver was a sort of mirror on which the thoughts of the mind fell and in which the images of the soul were reflected2 but that they ceased after death4#ig ,he spoke of harmonious love between the elements as the source of health and plenty for vegetation1 beasts1 and men1 and their 8wanton love0 as the cause of pestilence and disease4 ,to understand both varieties of love 8in relation to the revolutions of the heavenly bodies and the seasons of the year is termed astronomy10#ih or1 as we should say1 astrology1 whose fundamental law is the control of inferior creation by the motion of the stars4 ,plato spoke of the stars as 8divine and eternal animals1 ever abiding10#ii an expression which we shall hear reiterated in the middle ages4 8,the lower gods10 whom he largely identified with the heavenly bodies1 form men1 who1 if they live good lives1 return after death each to a happy existence in his proper star4#ajj ,such a doctrine is not identical with that of nativities and the horoscope1 but like it exalts the importance of the stars and suggests their control of human life4 ,and when at the close of his ,republic ,plato speaks of the harmony or music of the spheres of the seven planets and the eighth sphere of the fixed stars1 and of 8the spindle of ,necessity on which all the revolutions turn10 he suggests that when once the human soul has entered upon this life1 its destiny is henceforth subject to the courses of the stars4 ,when in the ,timaeus he says1 8,there is no difficulty in seeing that the perfect number of time fulfills the perfect year when all the eight revolutions 444 are accomplished together and attain their completion at the same time10#aja he seems to suggest the astrological doctrine of the magnus annus1 that history begins to repeat itself in every detail when the heavenly bodies have all regained their original positions4 ,sidenote3 ,aristotle on stars and spirits4 ,for ,aristotle1 too1 the stars were 8beings of superhuman intelligence1 incorporate deities4 ,they appeared to him as the purer forms1 those more like the deity1 and from them a purposive rational influence upon the lower life of the earth seemed to proceed1--a thought which became the root of medieval astrology40#ajb ,moreover1 8his theory of the subordinate gods of the spheres of the planets 444 provided for a later demonology40#ajc ,sidenote3 ,folk-lore in the ,history of ,animals4 ,aside from bits of physiognomy and of ,pythagorean superstition1 or mysticism1 ,aristotle's ,history of ,animals contains much on the influence of the stars on animal life1 the medicines employed by animals1 and their friendships and enmities1 and other folk-lore and pseudo-science4#ajd ,but the oldest extant manuscript of that work dates only from the twelfth or thirteenth century and lacks the tenth book4 ,editors of the text have also rejected books seven and nine1 the latter part of book eight1 and have questioned various other passages4 ,however1 these expurgations save the face of ,aristotle rather than of ,hellenic science or philosophy generally1 as the spurious seventh book is held to be drawn largely from ,hippocratic writings and the ninth from ,theophrastus4#aje ,sidenote3 ,differing modes of transmission of ancient oriental and ,greek literature4 ,there is another point to be kept in mind in any comparison of ,egypt and ,babylon or ,assyria with ,greece in the matter of magic4 ,our evidence proving the great part played by magic in the ancient oriental civilizations comes directly from them to us without intervening tampering or alteration except in the case of the early periods4 ,but classical literature and philosophy come to us as edited by ,alexandrian librarians#ajf and philologers1 as censored and selected by ,christian and ,byzantine readers1 as copied or translated by medieval monks and ,italian humanists4 ,and the question is not merely1 what have they added8 but also1 what have they altered8 what have they rejected8 ,instead of questioning superstitious passages in extant works on the ground that they are later interpolations1 it would very likely be more to the point to insert a goodly number on the ground that they have been omitted as pagan or idolatrous superstitions4 ,sidenote3 ,more magical character of directly transmitted ,greek remains4 ,suppose we turn to those writings which have been unearthed just as they were in ancient ,greek2 to the papyri1 the lead tablets1 the so-called ,gnostic gems4 ,how does the proportion of magic in these compare with that in the indirectly transmitted literary remains8 ,if it is objected that the magic papyri#ajg are mainly of late date and that they are found in ,egypt1 it may be replied that they are as old as or older than any other manuscripts we have of classical literature and that its chief storehouse1 too1 was in ,egypt at ,alexandria4 ,as for the magical curses written on lead tablets1#ajh they date from the fourth century before our era to the sixth after1 and fourteen come from ,athens and sixteen from ,cnidus as against one from ,alexandria and eleven from ,carthage4 ,and although some display extreme illiteracy1 others are written by persons of rank and education4 ,and what a wealth of astrological manuscripts in the ,greek language has been unearthed in ,european libraries by the editors of the ,catalogus ,codicum ,graecorum ,astrologorum6#aji ,and occasionally archaeologists report the discovery of magical apparatus#aaj or of representations of magic in works of art4 ,sidenote3 ,progress of science among the ,greeks4 ,in thus contending that ,hellenic culture was not free from magic and that even the philosophy and science of the ancient ,greeks show traces of superstition1 ,i would not1 however1 obscure the fact that of extant literary remains the ,greek are the first to present us with any very considerable body either of systematic rational speculation or of classified collection of observed facts concerning nature4 ,despite the rapid progress in recent years in knowledge of prehistoric man and ,egyptian and ,babylonian civilization1 the ,hellenic title to the primacy in philosophy and science has hardly been called in question1 and no earlier works have been discovered that can compare in medicine with those ascribed to ,hippocrates1 in biology with those of ,aristotle and ,theophrastus1 or in mathematics and physics with those of ,euclid and ,archimedes4 ,undoubtedly such men and writings had their predecessors1 probably they owed something to ancient oriental civilization1 but1 taking them as we have them1 they seem to be marked by great original power4 ,whatever may lie concealed beneath the surface of the past1 or whatever signs or hints of scientific investigation and knowledge we may think we can detect and read between the lines1 as it were1 in other phases of older civilizations1 in these works solid beginnings of experimental and mathematical science stand unmistakably forth4 ,sidenote3 ,archimedes and ,aristotle4 8,an extraordinarily large proportion of the subject matter of the writings of ,archimedes10 says ,heath1 8represents entirely new discoveries of his own4 ,though his range of subjects was almost encyclopdic1 embracing geometry 7plane and solid71 arithmetic1 mechanics1 hydrostatics and astronomy1 he was no compiler1 no writer of text-books4444 ,his objective is always some new thing1 some definite addition to the sum of knowledge1 and his complete originality cannot fail to strike anyone who reads his works intelligently1 without any corroborative evidence such as is found in the introductory letters prefixed to most of them4444 ,in some of his subjects ,archimedes had no forerunners1 e4 g41 in hydrostatics1 where he invented the whole science1 and 7so far as mathematical demonstration was concerned7 in his mechanical investigations40#aaa ,aristotle's ,history of ,animals is still highly esteemed by historians of biology#aab and often evidences 8a large amount of personal observations10#aac 8great accuracy10 and 8minute inquiry10 as in his account of the vascular system#aad or observations on the embryology of the chick4#aae 8,most wonderful of all1 perhaps1 are those portions of his book in which he speaks of fishes1 their diversities1 their structure1 their wanderings1 and their food4 ,here we may read of fishes that have only recently been rediscovered1 of structures only lately reinvestigated1 of habits only of late made known40#aaf ,but of the achievements of ,hellenic philosophy and ,hellenistic science the reader may be safely assumed already to have some notion4 ,sidenote3 ,exaggerated view of the scientific achievement of the ,hellenistic age4 ,but in closing this brief preliminary sketch of the period before our investigation proper begins1 ,i would take exception to the tendency1 prevalent especially among ,german scholars1 to center in and confine to ,aristotle and the ,hellenistic age almost all progress in natural science made before modern times4 ,the contributions of the ,egyptians and ,babylonians are reduced to a minimum on the one hand1 while on the other the scientific writings of the ,roman ,empire1 which are extant in far greater abundance than those of the ,hellenistic period1 are regarded as inferior imitations of great authors whose works are not extant2 ,posidonius1 for example1 to whom it has been the fashion of the writers of ,german dissertations to attribute this1 that1 and every theory in later writers4 ,but it is contrary to the law of gradual and painful acquisition of scientific knowledge and improvement of scientific method that one period of a few centuries should thus have discovered everything4 ,we have disputed the similar notion of a golden age of early ,egyptian science from which the ,middle and ,new ,kingdoms declined1 and have not held that either the ,egyptians or ,babylonians had made great advances in science before the ,greeks4 ,but that is not saying that they had not made some advance4 ,as ,professor ,karpinski has recently written3 8,to deny to ,babylon1 to ,egypt1 and to ,india1 their part in the development of science and scientific thinking is to defy the testimony of the ancients1 supported by the discoveries of the modern authorities4 ,the efforts which have been made to ascribe to ,greek influence the science of ,egypt1 of later ,babylon1 of ,india1 and that of the ,arabs do not add to the glory that was ,greece4 ,how could the ,babylonians of the golden age of ,greece or the ,hindus1 a little later1 have taken over the developments of ,greek astronomy8 ,this would only have been possible if they had arrived at a state of development in astronomy which would have enabled them properly to estimate and appreciate the work which was to be absorbed4444 ,the admission that the ,greek astronomy immediately affected the astronomical theories of ,india carries with it the implication that this science had attained somewhat the same level in ,india as in ,greece4 ,without serious questioning we may assume that a fundamental part of the science of ,babylon and ,egypt and ,india1 developed during the times which we think of as ,greek1 was indigenous science40#aag ,nor am ,i ready to admit that the great scientists of the early ,roman ,empire merely copied from1 or were distinctly inferior to1 their ,hellenistic predecessors4 ,aristarchus may have held the heliocentric theory#aah but ,ptolemy must have been an abler scientist and have supported his incorrect hypothesis with more accurate measurements and calculations or the ancients would have adopted the sounder view4 ,and if ,herophilus had really demonstrated the circulation of the blood1 so keen an intelligence as ,galen's would not have cast his discovery aside4 ,and if ,ptolemy copied ,hipparchus1 are we to imagine that ,hipparchus copied from no one8 ,but of the incessant tradition from authority to authority and yet of the gradual accumulation of new matter from personal observation and experience our ensuing survey of thirteen centuries of thought and writing will afford more detailed illustration4 ,,appendix ,i ,,some ,,works ,,on ,,magic1 ,,religion1 ,,and ,,astronomy ,,in ,,babylonia ,,and ,,assyria ,the following books deal expressly with the magic of ,assyria and ,babylonia3 ,fossey1 ,c4 ,la magie assyrienne2 tude suivie de textes magiques1 ,paris1 #aijb4 ,king1 ,l4 ,w4 ,babylonian ,magic and ,sorcery1 being 8,the ,prayers of the ,lifting of the ,hand10 ,london1 #ahif4 ,laurent1 ,a4 ,la magie et la divination chez les ,chaldo-,assyriens1 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,lenormant1 ,f4 ,chaldean ,magic and ,sorcery1 ,english translation1 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,schwab1 ,m41 in ,proc4 ,bibl4 ,archology 7#ahij71 pp4 #bib-cdb1 on magic bowls from ,assyria and ,babylonia4 ,tallquist1 ,k4 ,l4 ,die ,assyrische ,beschwrungsserie ,maql1 ,leipzig1 #ahie4 ,thompson1 ,r4 ,c4 ,the ,reports of the ,magicians and ,astrologers of ,nineveh and ,babylon in the ,british ,museum1 ,london1 #aijj4 ,texts and translations--all but three are astrological4 ,the ,devils and ,evil ,spirits of ,babylonia1 ,london1 #aijd4 ,semitic ,magic1 ,london1 #aijh4 ,weber1 ,o4 ,dmonenbeschwrung bei den ,babyloniern und ,assyrern1 #aijf4 ,eine ,skizze 7#cg pp471 in ,der ,alte ,orient4 ,zimmern4 ,die ,beschwrungstafeln ,surpu4 ,much concerning magic will also be found in works on ,babylonian and ,assyrian religion4 ,craig1 ,j4 ,a4 ,assyrian and ,babylonian ,religious ,texts1 ,leipzig1 #ahie-g4 ,curtiss1 ,s4 ,i4 ,primitive ,semitic ,religion ,today1 #aijb4 ,dhorme1 ,p4 ,choix des textes religieux ,assyriens ,babyloniens1 #aijg4 ,la religion ,assyro-,babylonienne1 ,paris1 #aiaj4 ,gray1 ,c4 ,d4 ,the ,samas ,religious ,texts4 ,jastrow1 ,morris4 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 ,boston1 #ahih4 ,revised and enlarged as ,religion ,babyloniens und ,assyriens1 ,giessen1 #aijd4 ,jeremias4 ,babylon4 ,assyr4 ,vorstellungen von dem ,leben nach ,tode1 ,leipzig1 #ahhg4 ,hlle und ,paradies1 and other works4 ,knudtzon1 ,j4 ,a4 ,assyrische ,gebete an den ,sonnengott1 ,leipzig1 #ahic4 ,lagrange1 ,m4 ,j4 tudes sur les religions smitiques1 ,paris1 #aije4 ,langdon1 ,s4 ,sumerian and ,babylonian ,psalms1 ,paris1 #aiji4 ,reisner1 ,g4 ,a4 ,sumerisch-,babylonische ,hymnen1 ,berlin1 #ahif4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,w4 ,lectures on the ,religion of the ,semites1 ,london1 #aijg4 ,roscher1 ,lexicon1 for various articles4 ,zimmern4 ,babylonische ,hymnen und ,gebete in ,auswahl1 #cb pp41 #aije 7,der ,alte ,orient74 ,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,babyl4 ,religion1 ,leipzig1 #aija4 ,on the astronomy and astrology of the ,babylonians one may consult3 ,bezold1 ,c4 ,astronomie1 ,himmelschau und ,astrallehre bei den ,babyloniern4 7,sitzb4 ,akad4 ,heidelberg1 #aiaa1 ,abh4 #b74 ,boissier1 ,a4 ,documents assyriens relatifs aux prsages1 ,paris1 #ahid-ahig4 ,choix de textes relatifs la divination assyro-babylonienne1 ,geneva1 #aije-aijf4 ,craig1 ,j4 ,a4 ,astrological-,astronomical ,texts1 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 ,cumont1 ,f4 ,babylon und die griechische ,astrologie4 7,neue ,jahrb4 fr das klass4 ,altertum1 ,,xxvii1 #aiaa74 ,epping1 ,j41 and ,strassmeier1 ,j4 ,n4 ,astronomisches aus ,babylon1 #ahhi4 ,ginzel1 ,f4 ,k4 ,die astronomischen ,kentnisse der ,babylonier1 #aija4 ,hehn1 ,j4 ,siebenzahl und ,sabbat bei den ,babyloniern und im ,alten ,testament1 #aijg4 ,jensen1 ,p4 ,kosmologie der ,babylonier1 #ahij4 ,jeremias4 ,das ,alter der babylonischen ,astronomie1 #aijh4 ,handbuch der altorientalischen ,geisteskultur1 #aiac4 ,kugler1 ,f4 ,x4 ,die ,babylonische ,mondrechnung1 #aijj4 ,sternkunde und ,sterndienst in ,babel1 ,freiburg1 #aijg-aiac4 ,to be completed in four vols4 ,im ,bannkreis ,babels1 #aiaj4 ,oppert1 ,j4 ,die astronomischen ,angaben der assyrischen ,keilinschriften1 in ,sitzb4 d4 ,wien4 ,akad4 ,math4-,nat4 ,classe1 #ahhe1 pp4 #hid-ijf4 ,un texte ,babylonien astronomique et sa traduction grecque par ,cl4 ,ptolme1 in ,zeitsch4 f4 ,assyriol4 ,,vi 7#ahia71 pp4 #ajc-bc4 ,sayce1 ,a4 ,h4 ,the astronomy and astrology of the ,babylonians1 with translations of the tablets relating to the subject1 in ,transactions of the ,society of ,biblical ,archaeology1 ,,iii 7#ahgd71 #ade-cci2 the first and until recently the best guide to the subject4 ,schiaparelli1 ,g4 ,v4 ,i ,primordi ed i ,progressi dell' ,astronomia presso i ,babilonesi1 ,bologna1 #aijh4 ,astronomy in the ,old ,testament1 #aije4 ,stcken1 ,astralmythen1 #ahif-aijg4 ,virolleaud1 ,ch4 ,l',astrologie chaldenne1 ,paris1 #aije-2 to be completed in eight parts1 texts and translations4 ,winckler1 ,himmels- und ,weltenbild der ,babylonier als ,grundlage der ,weltanschauung und ,mythologie aller ,vlker1 in ,der alte ,orient1 ,,iii1 #b-c4 ,,book ,i4 ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,foreword4 ,chapter #b4 ,pliny's ,natural ,history4 ,i4 ,its place in the history of science4 ,,ii4 ,its experimental tendency4 ,,iii4 ,pliny's account of magic4 ,,iv4 ,the science of the ,magi4 ,v4 ,pliny's magical science4 0 #c4 ,seneca and ,ptolemy3 ,natural ,divination and ,astrology4 0 #d4 ,galen4 ,i4 ,the man and his times4 ,,ii4 ,his medicine and experimental science4 ,,iii4 ,his attitude toward magic4 0 #e4 ,ancient ,applied ,science and ,magic4 0 #f4 ,plutarch's ,essays4 0 #g4 ,apuleius of ,madaura4 0 #h4 ,philostratus's ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana4 0 #i4 ,literary and ,philosophical ,attacks upon ,superstition4 0 #aj4 ,the ,spurious ,mystic ,writings of ,hermes1 ,orpheus1 and ,zoroaster4 0 #aa4 ,neo-,platonism and its ,relations to ,astrology and ,theurgy4 0 #ab4 ,aelian1 ,solinus1 and ,horapollo4 ,,book ,i4 ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,,foreword ,sidenote3 ,a trio of great names4 ,a trio of great names1 ,pliny1 ,galen1 and ,ptolemy1 stand out above all others in the history of science under the ,roman ,empire4 ,in the use or criticism which they make of earlier writers and investigators they are also our chief sources for the science of the preceding ,hellenistic period4 ,by their voluminousness1 their generous scope in ground covered1 and their broad1 liberal1 personal outlooks1 they have painted1 in colors for the most part imperishable1 extensive canvasses of the scientific spirit and acquisitions of their own time4 ,pliny pursued politics and literature as well as natural science2 ,ptolemy was at once mathematician1 astronomer1 physicist1 and geographer2 ,galen knew philosophy as well as medicine4 ,the two latter men1 moreover1 made original contributions of their own of the very first order to scientific knowledge and method4 ,it is characteristic of the homogeneous and widespread culture of the ,roman ,empire that these three representatives of different1 although overlapping1 fields of science were natives of the three continents that enclose the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,pliny was born at ,como where ,italy verges on transalpine lands2 ,ptolemy1 born somewhere in ,egypt1 did his work at ,alexandria2 ,galen came from ,pergamum in ,asia ,minor4 ,finally1 these men were1 after ,aristotle1 the three ancient scientists who directly or indirectly most powerfully influenced the middle ages4 ,thus they illuminate past1 present1 and future4 ,sidenote3 ,plan of this section4 ,we shall therefore open the present section of our investigation by considering in turn chronologically1 ,pliny1 ,ptolemy1 and ,galen1 coupling1 however1 with our consideration of ,ptolemy the work of ,seneca on ,natural ,questions which shows the same combination of natural science and natural divination4 ,next we shall consider some representatives of ancient applied science and its relations to magic1 and the more miscellaneous writings of ,plutarch1 ,apuleius1 and ,philostratus's ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana4 ,from the hospitable attitude toward magic and occult science displayed by these last writers we shall then turn back again to consider some examples of literary and philosophical attacks upon superstition1 before proceeding lastly to spurious mystic writings of the ,roman ,empire1 ,neo-,platonism and its relations to astrology and theurgy1 and the works of ,aelian1 ,solinus1 and ,horapollo4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,pliny',s ,,natural ,,history ,i4 ,its ,place in the ,history of ,science ,its importance in our investigation--,as a collection of miscellaneous information--,as a repository of ancient natural science--,as a source for magic--,pliny's career--,his writings--,his own description of the ,natural ,history--,his devotion to science--,conflict of science and religion--,pliny not a trained naturalist--,his use of authorities--,his lack of arrangement and classification--,his scepticism and credulity--,a guide to ancient science--,his medieval influence--,early printed editions4 ,,ii4 ,its ,experimental ,tendency ,importance of observation and experience--,use of the word experimentum--,experiments due to scientific curiosity--,medical experimentation--,chance experience and divine revelation--,marvels proved by experience4 ,,iii4 ,pliny's ,account of ,magic ,oriental origin of magic--,its spread to the ,greeks--,its spread outside the ,graeco-,roman world--,failure to understand its true origin--,magic and divination--,magic and religion--,magic and medicine--,magic and philosophy--,falseness of magic--,crimes of magic--,pliny's censure of magic is mainly intellectual--,vagueness of ,pliny's scepticism--,magic and science indistinguishable4 ,,iv4 ,the ,science of the ,magi ,magicians as investigators of nature--,the ,magi on herbs--,marvelous virtues of herbs--,animals and parts of animals--,further instances--,magic rites with animals and parts of animals--,marvels wrought with parts of animals--,the ,magi on stones--,other magical recipes--,summary of the statements of the ,magi4 ,v4 ,pliny's ,magical ,science ,from the ,magi to ,pliny's magic--,habits of animals--,remedies discovered by animals--,jealousy of animals--,occult virtues of animals--,the virtues of herbs--,plucking herbs--,agricultural magic--,virtue of stones--,other minerals and metals--,virtues of human parts--,virtues of human saliva--,the human operator--,absence of medical compounds--,sympathetic magic--,antipathies between animals--,love and hatred between inanimate objects--,sympathy between animate and inanimate objects--,like cures like--,the principle of association--,magic transfer of disease--,amulets--,position or direction--,the time element--,observance of number--,relation between operator and patient--,incantations--,attitude towards love-charms and birth control--,pliny and astrology--,celestial portents--,the stars and the world of nature--,astrological medicine--,conclusion3 magic unity of ,pliny's superstitions4 8,salve1 parens rerum omnium ,natura1 teque nobis ,quiritium solis celebratam esse numeris omnibus tuis fave60 --,closing words of the ,natural ,history4#aai ,i4 ,its ,place in the ,history of ,science ,sidenote3 ,important in our investigation4 ,we should have to search long before finding a better starting-point for the consideration of the union of magic with the science of the ,roman ,empire1 and of the way in which that union influenced the middle ages1 than ,pliny's ,natural ,history4#abj ,the foregoing sentence1 with which years ago ,i opened a chapter on the ,natural ,history of ,pliny the ,elder in my briefer preliminary study of magic in the intellectual history of the ,roman ,empire1 seems as true as ever2 and although ,i there considered his confusion of magic and science at some length1 ,i do not see how ,i can make the present work well-rounded and complete without including in it a yet more detailed analysis of the contents of ,pliny's book4 ,sidenote3 ,as a collection of miscellaneous information4 ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 which appeared about #gg ,a4 ,d4 and is dedicated to the ,emperor ,titus1 is perhaps the most important single source extant for the history of ancient civilization4 ,its thirty-seven books1 written in a very compact style1 constitute a vast collection of the most miscellaneous information4 ,whether one is investigating ancient painting1 sculpture1 and other fine arts2 or the geography of the ,roman ,empire2 or ,roman triumphs1 gladiatorial contests1 and theatrical exhibitions2 or the industrial processes of antiquity2 or ,mediterranean trade2 or ,italian agriculture2 or mining in ancient ,spain2 or the history of ,roman coinage2 or the fluctuation of prices in antiquity2 or the ,roman attitude towards usury2 or the pagan attitude towards immortality2 or the nature of ancient beverages2 or the religious usages of the ancient ,romans2 or any of a number of other topics2 one will find something concerning all of them in ,pliny4 ,he is apt both to depict such conditions in his own time and to trace them back to their origins4 ,furthermore he repeats many detailed incidents of interest to the political or narrative historian of ,rome as well as to the student of the economic1 social1 artistic1 and religious life of antiquity4 ,probably there is no place where an isolated point is more likely to be run down by the investigator1 and it is regrettable that exhaustive analytical indices of the work are not available4 ,we may add that1 although the work is supposedly a collection of facts1 ,pliny contrives to introduce many moral reflections and sharp comments on the luxury1 vice1 and unintellectual character of his times1 suggesting ,juvenal's picture of degenerate ,roman society and his own lofty moral standards4 ,sidenote3 ,as a repository of ancient natural science4 ,indeed1 ,pliny's title1 ,naturalis ,historia1 or at least the common ,english translation of it1 8,natural ,history10 has been criticized as too limited in scope1 and the work has been described as 8rather a vast encyclopedia of ancient knowledge and belief upon almost every known subject40#aba ,pliny himself mentions in his preface the ,greek word 8encyclopedia0 as indicative of his scope4 ,nevertheless1 his work is primarily an account of nature rather than of civilization1 and much of its information concerning such matters as the arts and business is incidental4 ,most of its books bear such titles as ,aquatic ,animals1 ,exotic ,trees1 ,medicines from ,forest ,trees1 ,the ,natures of ,metals4 ,after an introductory book containing the preface and a table of contents and lists of authorities for each of the subsequent books1 the second book treats of the universe1 heavenly bodies1 meteorology1 and the chief changes1 such as earthquakes and tides1 in the land and water forming the earth's surface4 ,after four books devoted to geography1 the seventh deals with man and human inventions4 ,four more follow on terrestrial and aquatic animals1 birds1 and insects4 ,sixteen more are concerned with plants1 trees1 vines1 and other vegetation1 and the medicinal simples derived from them4 ,five books discuss the medicinal simples derived from animals1 including the human body2 and the last five books treat of metals and minerals and the arts in which they are employed4 ,it is thus evident that in the main ,pliny is concerned with natural science1 and that1 if his work is a mine of miscellaneous historical information1 it should even more prove a rich treasure-house--8quoniam1 ut ait ,domitius ,piso1 thesauros oportet esse non libros0#abb--;for an investigation concerned as intimately as is ours with the history of science4 ,sidenote3 ,as a source for magic4 ,the ,natural ,history is a great storehouse of misinformation as well as of information1 for ,pliny's credulity and lack of discrimination harvested the tares of legend and magic along with the wheat of historical fact and ancient science in his voluminous granary4 ,this may put other historical investigators upon their guard in accepting its statements1 but only increases its value for our purpose4 ,perhaps it is even more valuable as a collection of ancient errors than it is as a repository of ancient science4 ,it touches upon many of the varieties1 and illustrates most of the characteristics1 of magic4 ,moreover1 ,pliny often mentions the ,magi or magicians and discusses 8magic0 expressly at some length in the opening chapters of his thirtieth book--one of the most important passages on the theme in any ancient writer4 ,sidenote3 ,pliny's career4 ,pliny the ,elder1 as we learn from his own statements in the ,natural ,history and from one or two letters concerning him written by his nephew1 ,pliny the ,younger1 whom he adopted1 went through the usual military1 forensic1 and official career of the ,roman of good family1 and spent his life largely in the service of the emperors4 ,he visited various ,mediterranean lands1 such as ,spain1 ,africa1 ,greece1 and ,egypt1 and fought in ,germany4 ,he was in charge of the ,roman fleet on the west coast of ,italy when he met his death at the age of fifty-six by suffocation as he was trying to rescue others from the fumes and vapors from the eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius4 ,sidenote3 ,his writings4 ,of ,pliny's writings the ,natural ,history is alone extant1 but other titles have been preserved which serve to show his great literary industry and the extent of his interests4 ,he wrote on the use of the javelin by cavalry1 a life of his friend ,pomponius1 an account in twenty books of all the wars waged by the ,romans in ,germany1 a rather long work on oratory called ,the ,student1 a grammatical or philological work in eight books entitled ,de dubio sermone1 and a continuation of the ,history of ,aufidius ,bassus in thirty-one books4 ,yet in the dedication of the ,natural ,history to the emperor ,titus he states that his days were taken up with official business and only his nights were free for literary labor4 ,this statement is supported by a letter of his nephew telling how he used to study by candle-light both late at night and before daybreak4 ,pliny the ,younger narrates several incidents to illustrate how jealous and economical of every spare moment his uncle was4 ,he would dictate or have books read to him while lying down or in the bath1 and on journeys a secretary was always by his side with books and tablets4 ,if the weather was very cold1 the amanuensis wore gloves so that his hands might not become too numb to write4 ,pliny always took notes on what he read1 and at his death left his nephew one hundred and sixty notebooks written in a small hand on both sides4 ,sidenote3 ,his own description of the ,natural ,history4 ,such were the conditions under which1 and the methods by which1 ,pliny compiled his encyclopedia on nature4 ,no single writer either ,greek or ,latin1 he tells us1 had ever before attempted so extensive a task4 ,he adds that he treats of some twenty thousand topics gleaned from the perusal of about two thousand volumes by one hundred authors4#abc ,judging from his bibliographies and citations1 however1 he would seem to have utilized more than one hundred authors4 ,but possibly he had not read all the writers mentioned in his bibliographies4 ,he affirms that previous students have had access to but few of the volumes which he has used1 and that he adds many things unknown to his ancient authorities and recently discovered4 ,occasionally he shows an acquaintance with beliefs and practices of the ,gauls and ,druids4 ,thus his work assumes to be something more than a compilation from other books4 ,he says1 however1 that no doubt he has omitted much1 since he is only human and has had many other demands upon his time4 ,he admits that his subject is dry 7sterilis materia7 and does not lend itself to literary exhibitions1 nor include matters stimulating to write about and pleasant to read about1 like speeches and marvelous occurrences and varied incidents4 ,nor does it permit purity and elegance of diction1 since one must at times employ the terminology of rustics1 foreigners1 and even barbarians4 ,furthermore1 8it is an arduous task to give novelty to what is ancient1 authority to what is new1 interest to what is obsolete1 light to what is obscure1 charm to what is loathsome0--as many of his medicinal simples undoubtedly are--8credit to what is dubious40 ,sidenote3 ,his devotion to science4 ,it is a great comfort to ,pliny1 however1 in his immense task1 when many laugh at him as wasting his time over worthless trifles1 to reflect that he is being spurned along with ,nature4#abd ,in another passage#abe he contrasts the blood and slaughter of military history with the benefits bestowed upon mankind by astronomers4 ,in a third passage#abf he looks back regretfully at the widespread interest in science among the ,greeks1 although those were times of political disunion and strife and although communication between different lands was interrupted by piracy as well as war1 whereas now1 with the whole empire at peace1 not only is no new scientific inquiry undertaken1 but men do not even thoroughly study the works of the ancients1 and are intent on the acquisition of lucre rather than learning4 ,these and other passages which might be cited attest ,pliny's devotion to science4 ,sidenote3 ,conflict of science and religion4 ,in ,pliny we also detect signs of the conflict between science and religion4 ,in a single chapter on ,god he says pretty much all that the church fathers later repeated at much greater length against paganism and polytheism4 ,but his discussion would hardly satisfy a ,christian4 ,he asserts that 8it is ,god for man to aid his fellow man1#abg and this is the path to eternal glory10 but he turns this noble sentiment to justify deification of the emperors who have done so much for mankind4 ,he questions whether ,god is concerned with human affairs2 slyly suggests that if so1 ,god must be too busy to punish all crimes promptly2 and points out that there are some things which ,god cannot do4 ,he cannot commit suicide as men can1 nor alter past events1 nor make twice ten anything else than twenty4 ,pliny then concludes3 8,by which is revealed in no uncertain wise the power of ,nature1 and that is what we call ,god40 ,in many other passages he exclaims at ,nature's benignity or providence4 ,he believed that the soul had no separate existence from the body1#abh and that after death there was no more sense left in body or soul than was there before birth4 ,the hope of personal immortality he scorned as 8puerile ravings0 produced by the fear of death1 and he believed still less in the possibility of any resurrection of the body4 ,in short1 natural law1 mechanical force1 and facts capable of scientific investigation would seem to be all that he will admit and to suffice to satisfy his strong intellect4 ,yet we shall later find him having the greatest difficulty in distinguishing between science and magic1 and giving credence to many details in science which seem to us quite as superstitious as the pagan beliefs concerning the gods which he rejected4 ,but if any reader is inclined to belittle ,pliny for this1 let him first stop and think how ,pliny would ridicule some modern scientists for their religious beliefs1 or for their spiritualism or psychic research4 ,sidenote3 ,pliny not a trained naturalist4 ,it is desirable1 however1 to form some estimate of ,pliny's fitness for his task in order to judge how accurate a picture of ancient science his work is4 ,he does not seem to have had much detailed training or experience in the natural sciences himself4 ,he writes not as a naturalist who has observed widely and profoundly the phenomena and operations of nature1 but as an omnivorous reader and voluminous note-taker who owes his knowledge largely to books or hearsay1 although occasionally he says 8,i know0 instead of 8they say10 or gives the results of his own observation and experience4 ,in the main he is not a scientist himself but only a historian of science or nature2 after all1 his title1 ,natural ,history1 is a very fitting one4 ,the question1 of course1 arises whether he has sufficient scientific training to evaluate properly the work of the past4 ,has he read the best authors1 has he noted their best passages1 has he understood their meaning8 ,does he repeat inferior theories and omit the correcter views of certain ,alexandrian scientists8 ,these questions are hard to answer4 ,on his behalf it may be said that he deals little with abstruse scientific theory and mainly with simple substances and geographical places1 matters in which it seems difficult for him to go far astray4 ,scientific specialists were not numerous in those days1 anyway1 and science had not yet so far advanced and ramified that one man might not hope to cover the entire field and do it substantial justice4 ,pliny the ,younger was perhaps a partial judge1 but he described the ,natural ,history as 8a work remarkable for its comprehensiveness and erudition1 and not less varied than ,nature herself40#abi ,sidenote3 ,his use of authorities4 ,one thing in ,pliny's favor as a compiler1 besides his personal industry1 unflagging interest1 and apparently abundant supply of clerical assistance1 is his full and honest statement of his authorities1 although he adds that he has caught many authors transcribing others verbatim without acknowledgment4 ,he has1 however1 great admiration for many of his authorities1 exclaiming more than once at the care and diligence of the men of the past who have left nothing untried or unexperienced1 from trackless mountain tops to the roots of herbs4#acj ,sometimes1 nevertheless1 he disputes their assertions4 ,for instance1 ,hippocrates said that the appearance of jaundice on the seventh day in fever is a fatal sign1 8but we know some who have lived even after this40#aca ,pliny also scolds ,sophocles for his falsehoods concerning amber4#acb ,it may seem surprising that he should expect strict scientific truth from a dramatic poet1 but ,pliny1 like many medieval writers1 seems to regard poets as good scientific authorities4 ,in another passage he accepts ,sophocles' statement that a certain plant is poisonous1 rather than the contrary view of other writers1 saying 8the authority of so prominent a man moves me against their opinions40#acc ,he also cites ,menander concerning fish and1 like almost all the ancients1 regards ,homer as an authority on all matters4#acd ,pliny sometimes cites the works of ,king ,juba of ,numidia1 than whom there hardly seems to have been a greater liar in antiquity4#ace ,he stated among other things in a work which he wrote for ,gaius ,caesar1 the son of ,augustus1 that a whale six hundred feet long and three hundred and sixty feet broad had entered a river in ,arabia4#acf ,but where should ,pliny turn for sober truth8 ,the ,stoic ,chrysippus prated of amulets2#acg treatises ascribed to the great philosophers ,democritus and ,pythagoras#ach were full of magic2 and in the works of ,cicero he read of a man who could see for a distance of one hundred and thirty-five miles1 and in ,varro that this man1 standing on a ,sicilian promontory1 could count the number of ships sailing out of the harbor of ,carthage4#aci ,sidenote3 ,his lack of arrangement and classification4 ,the ,natural ,history has been criticized as poorly arranged and lacking in scientific classification1 but this is a criticism which can be made of many works of the classical period4 ,their presentation is apt to be rambling and discursive rather than logical and systematic4 ,even ,aristotle's ,history of ,animals is described by ,lewes#adj as unclassified in its arrangement and careless in its selection of material4 ,i have often thought that the scholastic centuries did mankind at least one service1 that of teaching lecturers and writers how to arrange their material4 ,pliny seems rather in advance of his times in supplying full tables of contents for the busy emperor's convenience4 ,valerius ,soranus seems to have been the only previous ,roman writer to do this4 ,one indication of haste in composition and failure to sift and compare his material is the fact that ,pliny sometimes makes or includes contradictory statements1 probably taken from different authorities4 ,on the other hand1 he not infrequently alludes to previous passages in his own work1 thus showing that he has his material fairly well in hand4 ,sidenote3 ,his scepticism and credulity4 ,pliny once said that there was no book so bad but what some good might be got from it1#ada and to the modern reader he seems almost incredibly credulous and indiscriminate in his selection of material1 and to lack any standard of judgment between the true and the false4 ,yet he often assumes an air of scepticism and censures others sharply for their credulity or exaggeration4 8',tis strange10 he remarks propos of some tales of men transformed into wolves for nine or ten years1 8how far ,greek credulity has gone4 ,no lie is so impudent that it lacks a voucher40#adb ,once he expresses his determination to include only those points on which his authorities are in agreement4#adc ,sidenote3 ,a guide to ancient science4 ,on the whole1 while to us to-day the ,natural ,history seems a disorderly and indiscriminate conglomeration of fact and fiction1 its defects are probably to a great extent those of its age and of the writers from whom it has borrowed4 ,if it does not reflect the highest achievements and clearest thinking of the best scientists of antiquity--and be it said that there are a number of the ,hellenistic age of whom we should know less than we do but for ,pliny--it probably is a fairly faithful epitome of science and error concerning nature in his own time and the centuries preceding4 ,at any rate it is the best portrayal that has reached us4 ,from it we can get our background of the confusion of magic and science in the ,hellenistic age1 and then reveal against this setting the development of them both in the course of the ,roman ,empire and middle ages4 ,pliny gives so many items upon each point1 and is so much fuller than the average ancient or medieval book of science1 that he serves as a reference book1 being the likeliest place to look to find duplicated some statement concerning nature by a later writer4 ,this of course shows that such a statement did not originate with the later writer1 but is not a sure sign that he copied from ,pliny2 they may both have used the same authorities1 as seems the case with ,greek authors later in the empire who probably did not know of ,pliny's work4 ,sidenote3 ,his medieval influence4 ,in the middle ages1 however1 ,pliny had an undoubted direct influence4#add ,manuscripts of the ,natural ,history are numerous1 although in a scarcely legible condition owing to corrections and emendations which enhance the obscurity of the text and perhaps do ,pliny grave injustice in other respects4#ade ,also many manuscripts contain only a few books or fragments of the text1 so that it is possible that many medieval scholars knew their ,pliny only in part4#adf ,this1 however1 can scarcely be argued from their failure to include more from him in their own works2 for that might be due to their knowing the ,natural ,history so well that they took its contents for granted and tried to include other material in their own works4 ,in a later chapter we shall treat of ,the ,medicine of ,pliny1 a treatise derived from the ,natural ,history4 ,pliny's phrase rerum natura figures as the title of several medieval encyclopedias of somewhat similar scope4 ,and his own name was too well known in the middle ages to escape having a work on the philosopher's stone ascribed to him4#adg ,sidenote3 ,early printed edition4 ,that the ,natural ,history was well known as a whole at least by the close of the middle ages is shown by the numerous editions1 some of them magnificently printed1 which were turned off from the ,italian presses immediately after the invention of printing4 ,in the ,magliabechian ,library of ,florence alone are editions printed at ,venice in #adfi and #adgb1 at ,rome in #adgc and ,parma in #adha1 again at ,venice in #adhg1 #adia1 and #adii1 not to mention ,italian translations which appeared at ,venice in #adgf and #adhi4adh ,these editions were accompanied by some published criticism of ,pliny's statements1 since in #adib appeared at ,ferrara a treatise ,on the ,errors of ,pliny and ,others in ,medicine by ,nicholas ,leonicenus of ,vicenza with a dedication to ,politian4#adi ,but two years later ,pliny found a defender in ,pandulph ,collenucius4#aej ,but ,pliny's future influence will come out repeatedly in later chapters4 ,we shall now inquire1 first1 what signs of experimental science he shows1 either derived from the past or added by himself4 ,second1 what he defines as magic and what he has to say about it4 ,third1 how much of what he supposes to be natural science must we regard as essentially magic8 ,,ii4 ,its ,experimental ,tendency ,sidenote3 ,importance of observation and experience4 ,it is probably only a coincidence that two medieval manuscripts close the ,natural ,history in the midst of the seventy-sixth chapter of the last book with the words1 8,experimenta pluribus modis constant4444 ,primum pondere40#aea ,but although from the very nature of his work ,pliny makes extensive use of authorities1 he not infrequently manifests a realization1 as one dealing with the facts of nature should1 of the importance of observation and experience as means of reaching the truth4 ,the claims of many ,romans of high rank to have carried their arms as far as ,mount ,atlas1 which ,pliny declares has been repeatedly shown by experience to be most fallacious1 leads him to the further reflection that nowhere is a lapse of one's credulity easier than where a dignified author supports a false statement4#aeb ,in other passages he calls experience the best teacher in all things1#aec and contrasts unfavorably garrulity of words and sitting in schools with going to solitudes and seeking herbs at their appropriate seasons4 ,that upon our globe the land is entirely surrounded by water does not require1 he says1 investigation by arguments1 but is now known by experience4#aed ,and if the salamander really extinguished fire1 it would have been tried at ,rome long ago4#aee ,on the other hand1 we find some assertions in the ,natural ,history which ,pliny might easily have tested himself and found false1 such as his statement that an egg-shell cannot be broken by force or any weight unless it is tipped a little to one side4#aef ,sometimes he gives his personal experience1#aeg but also mentions experience in many other connections4 ,sidenote3 ,use of the word experimentum4 ,the word employed most of the time by ,pliny to denote experience is experimentum4#aeh ,in many passages the word does not indicate anything like a purposive1 prearranged1 scientific experiment in our sense of that word1 but simply the ordinary experience of daily life4#aei ,we are also told what experti1#afj or men of experience1 advise4 ,in a number of passages1 however1 experimentum is used in a sense somewhat more closely approaching our 8experiment40 ,these are cases where something is being tested4 ,for instance1 a method of determining whether an egg is fresh or rotten by putting it in water and watching if it floats or sinks is called an experimentum4#afa ,that horses would whinny at no other painting of a horse than that by ,apelles is spoken of as illius experimentum artis1 a test of1 or testimony to1 his art4#afb ,the expression religionis experimento is applied to a religious test or ordeal by which the virginity of ,claudia was vindicated4#afc ,the word is also used of ways of telling if unguents are good#afd and if wine is beginning to turn2#afe and of various tests of the genuineness of drugs1 gems1 earths1 and metals4#aff ,it is also twice used of letting down a lighted lamp into a huge wine cask or into wells to discover if there is danger at the bottom from noxious vapors4#afg ,if the lamp was extinguished1 it was a sign of peril to human life4 ,pliny further suggests purposive experimentation in speaking of experimenta to discover water under ground#afh and in grafting trees4#afi ,sidenote3 ,experiments due to scientific curiosity4 ,most of the tests and experiences thus far mentioned have been practical operations connected with husbandry and industry4 ,but ,pliny recounts one or two others which seem to have been dictated solely by scientific curiosity4 ,he classifies the following as experimenta3#agj the sinking of a well to prove by its complete illumination that the sun casts no shadow at noon of the summer solstice2 the marking of a dolphin's tail in order to throw some light upon its length of life1 should it ever be captured again1 as it was three hundred years later--perhaps the experiment of longest duration on record2#aga and the casting of a man into a pit of serpents at ,rome to determine if he was really immune from their stings4#agb ,sidenote3 ,medical experimentation4 ,experimentum is employed by ,pliny in a medical sense which becomes very common in the middle ages4 ,he calls some remedies for toothache and inflamed eyes certa experimenta--sure experiences4#agc ,later experimentum came to be applied to almost any recipe or remedy4 ,pliny1 indeed1 speaks of the doctors as learning at our risk and getting experience through our deaths4#agd ,in another passage he states more favorably that 8there is no end to experimenting with everything so that even poisons are forced to cure us40#age ,he also briefly mentions the medical sect of ,empirics1 of whom we shall hear more from ,galen4 ,he says that they so name themselves from experiences#agf and originated at ,agrigentum in ,sicily under ,acron and ,empedocles4 ,sidenote3 ,chance experience and divine revelation4 ,pliny is puzzled how some things which he finds stated in 8authors famous for wisdom0 were ever learned by experience1 for example1 that the star-fish has such fiery fervor that it burns everything in the sea which it touches1 and digests its food instantly4#agg ,that adamant can be broken only by goat's blood he thinks must have been divinely revealed1 for it would hardly have been discovered by chance1 and he cannot imagine that anyone would ever have thought of testing a substance of immense value in a fluid of one of the foulest of animals4#agh ,in several other passages he suggests chance1 accident1 dreams1#agi or divine revelation as the ways in which the medicinal virtues of certain simples were discovered4 ,recently1 for example1 it was discovered that the root of the wild rose is a remedy for hydrophobia by the mother of a soldier in the praetorian guard1 who was warned in a dream to send her son this root1 which cured him and many others who have tried it since4#ahj ,and a soldier in ,pompey's time accidentally discovered a cure for elephantiasis when he hid his face for shame in some wild mint leaves4#aha ,another herb was accidentally found to be a cure for disorders of the spleen when the entrails of a sacrificial victim happened to be thrown on it and it entirely consumed the milt4#ahb ,the healing properties of vinegar for the sting of the asp were discovered by chance in this wise4 ,a man who was stung by an asp while carrying a leather bottle of vinegar noticed that he felt the sting only when he set the bottle down4#ahc ,he therefore decided to try the effects of a drink of the liquid and was thereby fully cured4#ahd ,other remedies are learned through the experience of rustics and illiterate persons1 and yet others may be discovered by observing animals who cure their ills by them4#ahe ,pliny's opinion is that the animals have hit upon them by chance4 ,sidenote3 ,marvels proved by experience4 ,pliny represents a number of marvelous and to us incredible things as proved by experience4 ,divination from thunder1 for instance1 is supported by innumerable experiences1 public and private4 ,in two passages out of the three mentioning experti which ,i cited above1 those experienced persons recommended a decidedly magical sort of procedure4#ahf ,in another passage 8the experience of many0 supports 8a strange observance0 in plucking a bud4#ahg ,a fourth bit of magical procedure is called 8marvelous but easily tested40#ahh ,thus the transition is an easy one from signs of experimental science in the ,natural ,history to our next topic1 ,pliny's account of magic4 ,,iii4 ,pliny's ,account of ,magic4 ,sidenote3 ,oriental origin of magic4 ,pliny supplies some account of the origin and spread of magic#ahi but a rather confused and possibly unreliable one1 as he mentions two ,zoroasters separated by an interval of five or six thousand years1 and two ,osthaneses1 one of whom accompanied ,xerxes1 and the other ,alexander1 in their respective expeditions4 ,he says1 indeed1 that it is not clear whether one or two ,zoroasters existed4 ,in any case magic has flourished greatly the world over for many centuries1 and was founded in ,persia by ,zoroaster4 ,some other magicians of ,media1 ,babylonia1 and ,assyria are mere names to ,pliny2 later he mentions others like ,apollobeches and ,dardanus4 ,although he thus derives magic from the orient1 he appears to make no distinction1 as we shall find other writers doing1 between the ,magi of ,persia and ordinary magicians1 nor does he employ the word magic in two senses4 ,he makes it evident1 however1 that there have been other men who have regarded magic more favorably than he does4 ,sidenote3 ,its spread to the ,greeks4 ,pliny next traces the spread of magic among the ,greeks4 ,he marvels at the lack of it in the ,iliad and the abundance of it in the ,odyssey4 ,he is uncertain whether to class ,orpheus as a magician1 and mentions ,thessaly as famous for its witches at least as early as the time of ,menander who named one of his comedies after them4 ,but he regards the ,osthanes who accompanied ,xerxes as the prime introducer of magic to the ,greek-speaking world1 which straightway went mad over it4 ,in order to learn more of it1 the philosophers ,pythagoras1 ,empedocles1 ,democritus1 and ,plato went into distant exile and on their return disseminated their lore4 ,pliny regards the works of ,democritus as the greatest single factor in that dissemination of the doctrines of magic which occurred at about the same time that medicine was being developed by the works of ,hippocrates4 ,some regarded the books on magic ascribed to ,democritus as spurious1 but ,pliny insists that they are genuine4#aij ,sidenote3 ,its spread outside the ,graeco-,roman world4 ,outside of the ,greek-speaking world1 whence of course magic spread to ,rome1 ,pliny mentions ,jewish magic1 represented by such names as ,moses1 ,jannes1 and ,lotapes4 ,but he holds that magic did not originate among the ,hebrews until long after ,zoroaster4 ,he also speaks of the magic of ,cyprus2 of the ,druids1 who were the magicians1 diviners1 and medicine men of ,gaul until the emperor ,tiberius suppressed them2 and of distant ,britain4#aia ,thus discordant nations and even those ignorant of one another's existence agree the world over in their devotion to magic4 ,from what ,pliny tells us elsewhere of the ,scythians we can see that the nomads of the ,russian steppes and ,turkestan were devoted to magic too4 ,sidenote3 ,failure to understand its true origin4 ,it has been shown that ,pliny regarded magic as a mass of doctrines formulated by a single founder and not as a gradual social evolution1 just as the ,greeks and ,romans ascribed their laws and customs to some single legislator4 ,he admits in a way1 however1 the great antiquity claimed by magic for itself1 although he questions how the bulky dicta of ,zoroaster and ,dardanus could have been handed down by memory during so long a period4 ,this remark again shows how little he thinks of magic as a set of social customs and attitudes perpetuated through constant and universal practice from generation to generation4 ,yet what he says of its widespread prevalence among unconnected peoples goes to prove this4 ,sidenote3 ,magic and divination4 ,pliny has a clearer comprehension of the extensive scope of magic and of its essential characteristics1 at least as it was in his day4 8,no one should wonder10 he says1 8that its authority has been very great1 since alone of the arts it has embraced and united with itself the three other subjects which make the greatest appeal to the human mind10 namely1 medicine1 religion1 and the arts of divination1 especially astrology4 ,that his phrase artes mathematicas has reference to astrology is shown by his immediately continuing1 8since there is no one who is not eager to learn the future about himself and who does not think that this is most truly revealed by the sky40 ,but magic further 8promises to reveal the future by water and spheres and air and stars and lamps and basins and the blades of axes and by many other methods1 besides conferences with shades from the infernal regions40 ,there can therefore be no doubt that ,pliny regards the various arts of divination as parts of magic4 ,sidenote3 ,magic and religion4 ,while we have heard ,pliny assert in general the close connection between magic and religion1 the character of the ,natural ,history1 which deals with natural rather than religious matters1 does not lead him to enter into much further detail upon this point4 ,his occasional mention of religious usages in his own day1 however1 supports our information from other sources that the original ,roman religion was very largely composed of magic forces1 rules1 and ceremonial4 ,sidenote3 ,magic and medicine4 ,nearly half the books of the ,natural ,history deal in whole or in part with remedies for diseases1 and it is therefore of the relations between magic and natural science1 and more particularly between magic and medicine1 that ,pliny gives us the most detailed information4 ,indeed1 he asserts that 8no one doubts0 that magic 8originally sprang from medicine and crept in under the show of promoting health as a loftier and more sacred medicine40 ,magic and medicine have developed together1 and the latter is now in imminent danger of being overwhelmed by the follies of magic1 which have made men doubt whether plants possess any medicinal properties4 ,sidenote3 ,magic and philosophy4 ,in the opinion of many1 however1 magic is sound and beneficial learning4 ,in antiquity1 and for that matter at almost all times1 the height of literary fame and glory has been sought from that science4#aib ,eudoxus would have it the most noted and useful of all schools of philosophy4 ,empedocles and ,plato studied it2 ,pythagoras and ,democritus perpetuated it in their writings4 ,sidenote3 ,falseness of magic4 ,but ,pliny himself feels that the assertions of the books of magic are fantastic1 exaggerated1 and untrue4 ,he repeatedly brands the magi or magicians as fools or impostors1 and their statements as absurd and impudent tissues of lies4#aic ,vanitas1 or 8nonsense10 is his stock-word for their beliefs4#aid ,some of their writings must1 in his opinion1 have been dictated by a feeling of contempt and derision for humanity4#aie ,nero proved the falseness of the art1 for although he studied magic eagerly and with his unlimited wealth and power had every opportunity to become a skilful practitioner1 he was unable to work any marvels and abandoned the attempt4#aif ,pliny therefore comes to the conclusion that magic is 8invalid and empty1 yet has some shadows of truth1 which however are due more to poisons than to magic40#aig ,sidenote3 ,crimes of magic4 ,the last remark brings us to charges of evil practices made against the magicians4 ,besides poisons1 they specialize in love-potions and drugs to produce abortions2#aih and some of their operations are inhuman or obscene and abominable4 ,they attempt baleful sorcery or the transfer of disease from one person to another4#aii ,osthanes and even ,democritus propound such remedies as drinking human blood or utilizing in magic compounds and ceremonies parts of the corpses of men who have been violently slain4#bjj ,pliny thinks that humanity owes a great debt to the ,roman government for abolishing those monstrous rites of human sacrifice1 8in which to slay a man was thought most pious2 nay more1 to eat men was thought most wholesome40#bja ,sidenote3 ,pliny's censure of magic is mainly intellectual4 ,pliny nevertheless lays less stress upon the moral argument against magic as criminal or indecent than he does upon the intellectual objection to it as untrue and unscientific4 ,indeed1 so far as decency is concerned1 his own medicine will be seen to be far from prudish1 while he elsewhere gives instances of magicians guarding against defilement4#bjb ,moreover1 among the methods employed and the results sought by magic which he frequently mentions there are comparatively few that are morally objectionable1 although they seem without exception false4 ,but many of their recipes aim at the cure of disease and other worthy1 or at least admissible1 objects4 ,possibly ,pliny has somewhat censored their lore and tried to exclude all criminal secrets1 but his censure seems more intellectual than moral4 ,for instance1 he fills a long chapter with extracts from a treatise on the virtues of the chameleon and its parts by ,democritus1 whom he regards as a leading purveyor of magic lore4#bjc ,in opening the chapter ,pliny hails 8with great pleasure0 the opportunity to expose 8the lies of ,greek vanity10 but at its close he expresses a wish that ,democritus himself had been touched with the branch of a palm which he said prevents immoderate loquacity4 ,pliny then adds more charitably1 8,it is evident that this man1 who in other respects was a wise and most useful member of society1 has erred from too great zeal in serving humanity40 ,sidenote3 ,vagueness of ,pliny's scepticism4 ,pliny himself fails to maintain a consistently sceptical attitude towards magic4 ,his exact attitude is often hard to determine4 ,often it is difficult to say whether he is speaking in sober earnest or in a tone of light and easy pleasantry and sarcasm1 as in the passage just cited concerning ,democritus4 ,another puzzling point is his frequent excuse that he will list certain assertions of the magicians in order to expose or confute them4 ,but really he usually simply sets them forth1 apparently expecting that their inherent and patent absurdity will prove a sufficient refutation of them4 ,on the rare occasions when he undertakes to indicate in what the absurdity consists his reasoning is scarcely scientific or convincing4 ,thus he affirms that 8it is a peculiar proof of the vanity of the magicians that of all animals they most admire moles who are condemned by nature in so many ways1 to perpetual blindness and to dig in the darkness as if they were buried40#bjd ,and he assails the belief of the magi#bje that an owl's egg is good for diseases of the scalp by asking1 8,who1 ,i beg1 could ever have seen an owl's egg1 since it is a prodigy to see the bird itself80 ,moreover1 he sometimes cites assertions of the magicians without any censure1 apology1 or expression of disbelief2 and there are many other passages where it is practically impossible to tell whether he is citing the magicians or not4 ,sometimes he will apparently continue to refer to them by a pronoun in chapters where they have not been mentioned by name at all4#bjf ,in other places he will imperceptibly cease to quote the magi and after an interval perhaps as imperceptibly resume citation of their doctrines4#bjg ,it is also difficult to determine just when writers like ,democritus and ,pythagoras are to be regarded as representatives of magic and when their statements are accepted by ,pliny as those of sound philosophers4 ,sidenote3 ,magic and science indistinguishable4 ,perhaps1 despite ,pliny's occasional brave efforts to withstand and even ridicule the assertions of the magicians1 he could not free himself from a secret liking for them and more than half believed them4 ,at any rate he believed very similar things4 ,even more likely is it that previous works on nature were so full of such material and the readers of his own day so interested in it1 that he could not but include much of it4 ,once he explains#bjh that certain statements are scarcely to be taken seriously1 yet should not be omitted1 because they have been transmitted from the past4 ,again he begs the reader's indulgence for similar 8vanities of the ,greeks10 8because this too has its value that we should know whatever marvels they have transmitted40#bji ,the truth of the matter probably is that ,pliny rejected some assertions of the magicians but found others acceptable2 that he gets his occasional attitude of scepticism and ridicule of their doctrines from one set of authorities1 and his moments of unquestioning acceptance of their statements from other authors on whom he relies4 ,very likely in the books which he used it often was no clearer than it is in the ,natural ,history whether a statement was to be ascribed to the magi or not4 ,very possibly ,pliny was as confused in his own mind concerning the entire business as he seems to be to us4 ,he could no more keep magic out of his ,natural ,history than poor ,mr4 ,dick could keep ,charles the ,first's head out of his book4 ,one fact at any rate stands out clearly1 the prominence of magic in his encyclopedia and in the learning of his age4 ,,iv4 ,the ,science of the ,magi ,sidenote3 ,magicians as investigators of nature4 ,let us now further examine ,pliny's picture of magic1 not as he expressly defines or censures it1 but as he reflects its own assertions and purposes in his fairly numerous citations from its literature and perhaps its practice4 ,here ,i shall rather strictly limit my survey to those statements which ,pliny definitely ascribes by name to the magi or magic art4 ,the most striking fact is that the magicians are cited again and again concerning the supposed properties1 virtues1 and effects of things in nature--herbs1 animals1 and stones4 ,these virtues are1 it is true1 often employed in an effort to produce wonderful results1 and often too they are combined with some fantastic rite or superstitious ceremonial performed by a human agent4 ,but in many cases either no rite at all is suggested or merely some simple medicinal application2 and in a few cases there is no mention of any particular operation or result1 the magicians are cited simply as authorities concerning the great but unspecified virtues of natural objects4 ,indeed1 they stand out in ,pliny's pages not as mere sorcerers or enchanters or wonder-workers1 but as those who have gone the farthest and in most detail--too far and too curiously in ,pliny's opinion--into the study of medicine and of nature4 ,sometimes their statements1 cited without censure1 supplement others concerning the species under discussion2#baj sometimes they are his sole source of information on the subject in hand4#baa ,sidenote3 ,the magi on herbs4 ,pliny connects the origin of botany rather closely with magic1 mentioning ,medea and ,circe as early investigators of plants and ,orpheus among the first writers on the subject4#bab ,moreover1 ,pythagoras and ,democritus borrowed from the magi of the orient in their works on the properties of plants4#bac ,there would be little profit in repeating the names of the herbs concerning which ,pliny gives opinions of the magicians1 inasmuch as few of them can be associated with any plants known to-day4#bad ,suffice it to say that ,pliny makes no objection to the herbs which they employed4 ,nor does he criticize their methods of employing them1 although some seem superstitious enough to the modern reader4 ,a chaplet is worn of one herb1#bae others are plucked with the left hand and with a statement of what they are to be used for1 and in one case without looking backward4#baf ,the anemone is to be plucked when it first appears that year with a statement of its intended use1 and then is to be wrapped in a red cloth and kept in the shade1 and1 whenever anyone falls sick of tertian or quartan fever1 is to be bound on the patient's body4#bag ,the heliotrope is not to be plucked at all but tied in three or four knots with a prayer that the patient may recover to untie the knots4#bah ,sidenote3 ,marvelous virtues of herbs4 ,pliny does not even object to the marvelous results which the magi think can be gained by use of herbs until towards the close of his twenty-fourth book1 although already in his twentieth and twenty-first books such powers have been claimed for herbs as to make one well-favored and enable one to attain one's desires1#bai or to give one grace and glory4#bbj ,at the end of his twenty-fourth book#bba he states that ,pythagoras and ,democritus1 following the magi1 ascribe to herbs unusually marvelous virtues such as to freeze water1 invoke spirits1 force the guilty to confess by frightening them with apparitions1 and impart the gift of divination4 ,early in his twenty-fifth book#bbb ,pliny suggests that some incredible effects have been attributed to herbs by the magi and their disciples1 and in a later chapter#bbc he describes the magi as so mad about vervain that they think that if they are anointed with it1 they can gain their wishes1 drive away fevers and other diseases1 and make friendships4 ,the herb should be plucked about the rising of the dog-star when there is neither sun nor moon4 ,honey and honeycomb should be offered to appease the earth2 then the plant should be dug around with iron with the left hand and raised aloft4 ,by the time he reaches his twenty-sixth book ,pliny's courage has risen1 so to speak1 enough to cause him at last to enter upon quite a tirade against 8magical vanities which have been carried so far that they might destroy faith in herbs entirely40#bbd ,as examples he mentions herbs supposed to dry up rivers and swamps1 open barred doors at their touch1 turn hostile armies to flight1 and supply all the needs of the ambassadors of the ,persian kings4 ,he wonders why such herbs have never been employed in ,roman warfare or ,italian drainage4 ,pliny's only objection to magic herbs therefore seems to be the excessive powers which are claimed for some of them4 ,he adds that it would be strange that the credulity which arose from such wholesome beginnings had reached such a pitch1 if human ingenuity observed moderation in anything and if the much more recent system of medicine which ,asclepiades founded could not be shown to have been carried even beyond the magicians4 ,here again we see ,pliny failing to recognize magic as a primitive social product and regarding it as a degeneration from ancient science rather than science as a comparatively modern development from it4 ,but he may well be right in thinking that many particular far-fetched recipes and rites were the late1 artificial product of over-scholarly magicians4 ,thus he brands as false and magical the assertion of a recent grammarian1 ,apion1 that the herb cynocephalia is divine and a safeguard against poison1 but kills the man who uproots it entirely4#bbe ,sidenote3 ,animals and parts of animals4 ,in a few cases ,pliny objects to the animals or parts of animals employed by the magi1 as in the passage already cited where he complains that they admire moles more than any other animals4#bbf ,but his assertion is inconsistent1 since he has already affirmed that they hold the hyena in most admiration of all animals on the ground that it works magic upon men4#bbg ,their promise of readier favor with peoples and kings to those who anoint themselves with lion's fat1 especially that between the eyebrows1 he criticizes by declaring that no fat can be found there4#bbh ,he also twits the magi for magnifying the importance of so nasty a creature as the tick4#bbi ,they are attracted to it by the fact that it has no outlet to its body and can live only seven days even if it fasts4 ,whether there is any astrological significance in the number seven here ,pliny does not say4 ,he does inform us1 however1 that the cricket is employed in magic because it moves backward4#bcj ,a very bizarre object employed by the ,druids and other magicians is a sort of egg produced by the hissing or foam of snakes4#bca ,the blood of the basilisk may also be classed as a rarity4 ,apparently animals in some way unusual are preferred in magic1 like a black sheep1#bcb but the logic in the reasons given by ,pliny for their selection is not clear in every instance4 ,in some other cases not criticized by ,pliny#bcc we have plainly enough sympathetic magic or the principle of like cures like1 as when the milt of a calf or sheep is used to cure diseases of the human spleen4 ,sidenote3 ,further instances4 ,the magicians1 however1 do not scorn to use familiar and easily obtainable animals like the goat and dog and cat4 ,the liver and dung of a cat1 a puppy's brains1 the blood and genitals of a dog1 and the gall of a black male dog are among the animal substances employed4#bcd ,such substances as those just named are equally in demand from other animals4#bce ,minute parts of animals are frequently employed by the magicians1 such as the toe of an owl1 the liver of a mouse given in a fig1 the tooth of a live mole1 the stones from young swallows' gizzards1 the eyes of river crabs4#bcf ,sometimes the part employed is reduced to ashes1 perhaps a relic of sacrificial custom4 ,thus for toothache the magi inject into the ear nearer the tooth the ashes of the head of a mad dog and oil of ,cyprus1 while they prescribe for affections of the sinews the ashes of an owl's head in honied wine with lily root4#bcg ,other living creatures which ,pliny mentions as used by the magi are the salamander1 earthworm1 bat1 scarab with reflex horns1 lizard1 tortoise1 bed-bug1 frog1 and sea-urchin4#bch ,the dragon's tail wrapped in a gazelle's skin and bound on with deer-sinews cures epilepsy1#bci and a mixture of the dragon's tongue1 eyes1 gall1 and intestines1 boiled in oil1 cooled in the night air1 and rubbed on morning and evening1 frees one from nocturnal apparitions4#bdj ,sidenote3 ,magic rites with animals and parts of animals4 ,sometimes the parts of animals are bound on outside the patient's body1 sometimes the injured portion of his body is merely touched with them4 ,once the whole house is to be fumigated with the substance in question2#bda once the walls are to be sprinkled with it2 once it is to be buried under the threshold4 ,some instances follow of more elaborate magic ritual connected with the use of animals or parts of animals4 ,the hyena is more easily captured by a hunter who ties seven knots in his girdle and horsewhip1 and it should be captured when the moon is in the sign of ,gemini and without the loss of a single hair4#bdb ,another bit of astrology dispensed by the magi is that the cat1 whose salted liver is taken with wine for quartan fever1 should have been killed under a waning moon4#bdc ,to cure incontinence of urine one not only drinks ashes of a boar's genitals in sweet wine1 but afterwards urinates in a dog kennel and repeats the formula1 8,that ,i may not urinate like a dog in its kennel40#bdd ,the magicians insist that the sex of the patient be observed in administering burnt cow-dung or bull-dung in honied wine for cases of dropsy4#bde ,for infantile ailments the brains of a she-goat should be passed through a gold ring and dropped in the baby's mouth before it is given its milk4#bdf ,after the fresh milt of a sheep has been applied to the patient with the words1 8,this ,i do for the cure of the spleen10 it should be plastered into the bedroom wall and sealed with a ring1 while the charm should be repeated twenty-seven times4#bdg ,in treating sciatica#bdh an earthworm should be placed in a broken wooden dish mended with an iron band1 the dish should be filled with water1 the worm should be buried again where it was dug up1 and the water should be drunk by the patient4 ,the eyes of river crabs are to be attached to the patient's person before sunrise and the blinded crabs put back into the water4#bdi ,after it has been carried around the house thrice a bat may be nailed head down outside a window as an amulet4#bej ,for epilepsy goat's flesh should be given which has been roasted on a funeral pyre1 and the animal's gall should not be allowed to touch the ground4#bea ,sidenote3 ,marvels wrought with parts of animals4 ,pliny occasionally speaks in a vague general way of his citations from the magi concerning the virtues of parts of animals as lies or nonsense or 8portentous10 but he does not specifically criticize their procedure any more than he did their methods of employing herbs1 and he does not criticize their promised results as much as he did before4 ,indeed1 as we have already indicated1 the object in a majority of cases is purely medicinal4 ,the purpose of others is pastoral or agricultural1 such as preventing goats from straying or causing swine to follow you4#beb ,the blood of the basilisk1 however1 is said to procure answers to petitions made to the powerful and prayers addressed to the gods1 and to act as a safeguard against poison or sorcery 7veneficiorum amuleta74#bec ,invincibility is promised the wearer of the head and tail of a dragon1 hairs from a lion's forehead1 a lion's marrow1 the foam of a winning horse1 a dog's claw bound in deer-skin1 and the muscles alternately of a deer and a gazelle4#bed ,a woman will tell secrets in her sleep if the heart of an owl is applied to her right breast1 and power of divination is gained by eating the still palpitating heart of a mole4#bee ,sidenote3 ,the magi on stones4 ,in the case of stones the names are again1 as in the case of herbs1 of little significance for us4#bef ,the accompanying ritual is slight4 ,there are one or two suspensions from the neck or elsewhere by such means as a lion's mane--the hair of the hyena will not do at all--nor the hair of the cynocephalus and swallows' feathers4#beg ,there is some use of incantations with the stones1 a setting of iron for one stone1 burial of another beneath a tree that it may not dull the axe1 and placing another on the tongue after rinsing the mouth with honey at certain days and hours of the moon in order to acquire the gift of divination4#beh ,indeed1 the results promised are all marvelous4 ,the stones benefit public speakers1 admit to the presence of royalty1 counteract fascination and sorcery1 avert hail1 thunderbolts1 storms1 locusts1 and scorpions2 chill boiling water1 produce family discord1 render athletes invincible1 quench anger and violence1 make one invisible1 evoke images of the gods and shades from the infernal regions4 ,sidenote3 ,other magical recipes4 ,we have yet to mention a group of magical recipes and remedies which ,pliny for some reason collects in one chapter#bei but which hardly fall under any one head4 ,a whetstone on which iron tools are sharpened1 if placed without his knowledge under the pillow of a man who has been poisoned1 will cause him to reveal all the circumstances of the crime4 ,if you turn a man who has been struck by lightning over on his injured side1 he will speak at once4 ,to cure tumors in the groin1 tie seven or nine knots in the remnant of a weaver's web1 naming some widow as each knot is tied4 ,the pain is assuaged by binding to the body the nail that has been trod on4 ,to get rid of warts1 on the twentieth day of the moon lie flat in a path gazing at the moon1 stretch the hands above the head and rub the warts with anything that comes to hand4 ,a corn may be extracted successfully at the moment a star shoots4 ,headache may be relieved by a liniment made by pouring vinegar on door hinges or by binding a hangman's noose about the patient's temples4 ,to dislodge a fish-bone stuck in the throat1 plunge the feet into cold water2 to dislodge some other sort of bone1 place bones on the head2 to dislodge a morsel of bread1 stuff bits of bread into both ears4 ,we may add from a neighboring chapter a very magical remedy for fevers1 although ,pliny calls it 8the most modest of their promises40#bfj ,toe and finger nail parings mixed with wax are to be attached ere sunrise to another person's door in order to transfer the disease from the patient to him4 ,or they may be placed near an ant-hill1 in which case the first ant who tries to drag one inside the hill should be captured and suspended from the patient's neck4 ,sidenote3 ,summary of the statements of the magi4 ,such is the picture we derive from numerous passages in the ,natural ,history of the magic art1 its materials and rites1 the effects it seeks to produce1 and its general attitude towards nature4 ,besides the natural materials employed and the marvelous results sought1 we have noted the frequent use of ligatures1 suspensions1 and amulets1 the observance of astrological conditions1 of certain times and numbers1 rules for plucking herbs and tying knots1 stress on the use of the right or left hand--in other words1 on position or direction1 some employment of incantations1 some sacrifice and fumigation1 some specimens of sympathetic magic1 of the theory that 8like cures like10 and of other types of magic logic4 ,v4 ,pliny's ,magical ,science ,sidenote3 ,from the magi to ,pliny's magic4 ,we may now turn to the still more numerous passages of the ,natural ,history where the magi are not cited and compare the virtues there ascribed to the things of nature and the methods employed in medicine and agriculture with those of the magicians4 ,we shall find many striking resemblances and shall soon come to a realization that there is more magic in the ,natural ,history which is not attributed to the magi than there is that is4 ,pliny did not need to warn us that medicine had been corrupted by magic2 his own medicine proves it4 ,it is this fact1 that virtually his entire work is crammed with marvelous properties and fantastic ceremonial1 which makes it so difficult in some places to tell when he begins to draw material from the magi and when he leaves off4 ,by a detailed analysis of this remaining material we shall now attempt to classify the substances of which ,pliny makes use and the virtues which he ascribes to them1 the rites and methods of procedure by which they are employed1 and certain superstitious doctrines and notions which are involved4 ,we shall thus find that almost precisely the same factors are present in his science as in the lore of the magicians4 ,sidenote3 ,habits of animals4 ,of substances we may begin with animals1#bfa and1 before we note the human use of their virtues with its strong suggestion of magic1 may remark another unscientific and superstitious feature which was very common both in ancient and medieval times4 ,this is the tendency to humanize animals1 ascribing to them conscious motives1 habits1 and ruses1 or even moral standards and religious veneration4 ,we shall have occasion to note the same thing in other authors and so will give but a few specimens from the many in the ,natural ,history4 ,such qualities are attributed by ,pliny especially to elephants1 whom he ranks next to man in intelligence1 and whom he represents as worshiping the stars1 learning difficult tricks1 and as having a sense of justice1 feeling of mercy1 and so on4#bfb ,similarly the lion has noble courage and a sense of gratitude1 while the lioness is wily in the devices by which she conceals her amours with the pard4#bfc ,a number of the devices of fishes to escape hooks and nets are repeated by ,pliny from ,ovid's ,halieuticon1 extant only in fragments4#bfd ,the crocodile opens its jaws to have its teeth picked by a friendly bird2 but sometimes while this operation is being performed the ichneumon 8darts down its throat like a javelin and eats away its intestines40#bfe ,pliny also marvels at the cleverness displayed by the dragon and the elephant in their combats with one another1#bff which1 however1 almost invariably terminate fatally to both combatants1 the elephant falling exhausted in the dragon's coils and crushing the serpent by its weight4 ,others say that in the hot summer the dragons thirst for the blood of the elephant which is very cold2 in their combat the elephant falls drained of its blood and crushes the dragon who is intoxicated by the same4 ,sidenote3 ,remedies discovered by animals4 ,the dragon's apparent knowledge that the elephant is cold-blooded leads us to a kindred topic1 the remedies used by animals and often discovered by men only by seeing animals use them4 ,this notion continued in the middle ages1 as we shall see1 and of course it did not originate with ,pliny4 ,as he says himself1 8,the ancients have recorded the remedies of wild beasts and shown how they are healed even when poisoned40#bfg ,against aconite the scorpion eats white hellebore as an antidote1 while the panther employs human excrement4#bfh ,animals prepare themselves for combats with poisonous snakes by eating certain herbs2 the weasel eats rue1 the tortoise and deer use two other plants1 while field mice who have been stung by snakes eat condrion4#bfi ,the hawk tears open the hawkweed and sprinkles its eyes with the juice4#bgj ,the serpent tastes fennel when it sheds its old skin4#bga ,sick bears cure themselves by a diet of ants4#bgb ,swallows restore the sight of their young with chelidonia or swallow-wort1#bgc and the historian ,xanthus says that the dragon restores its dead offspring to life with an herb called balis4#bgd ,the hippopotamus was the original discoverer of bleeding1#bge opening a vein in his leg by wounding himself on sharp reeds along the shore1 and afterwards checking the flow of blood by plastering the place with mud4#bgf ,pliny1 however1 states in one passage that animals hit upon all these remedies by chance and even have to rediscover them by accident in each new case1 8since10 he continues in conformity with recent animal psychologists1 8reason and practice cannot be transmitted between wild beasts40#bgg ,sidenote3 ,jealousy of animals4 ,yet in another passage ,pliny deplores the spitefulness of the dog which1 while men are looking1 will not pluck the herb by which it cures itself of snake-bite4#bgh ,probably ,pliny is using different authorities in the two passages4 ,theophrastus1 the pupil of ,aristotle1 had written a work on ,jealous ,animals4 ,more excusable than the spitefulness of the dog is the attitude of the dragon1 from whose brain the gem draconitis must be taken while the dragon is alive and preferably asleep4 ,for if the dragon feels that it is mortally wounded1 it takes revenge by spoiling the gem4#bgi ,elephants know that men hunt them only for their tusks1 and so bury these when they fall off4#bhj ,sidenote3 ,occult virtues of animals4 ,animals have marvelous virtues of their own other than the medicinal uses to which men have put them4 ,for instance1 the mere glance of the basilisk is fatal1 and its breath burns up vegetation and breaks rocks4#bha ,but the medicinal effects which ,pliny ascribes to animals and parts of animals are well nigh infinite4 ,many animal substances will have to be introduced in other connections so that we need mention now but a very few3 the heads and blood of flies1 honey in which bees have died1 cinere genitalis asini1 chicks in the egg1 and thrice seven centipedes diluted with ,attic honey1#bhb--this last a prescription for asthma and to be taken through a reed because it blackens every dish by its contact4 ,another passage advises eating a rat or shrew-mouse in order to bear a baby with black eyes4#bhc ,these items are enough to convince us that the animals and parts of animals employed by the magicians were not one whit more bizarre and nauseating than the others found in the ,natural ,history1 nor were the cures which they were expected to work any more improbable4 ,in order to illustrate1 however1 the delicate distinctions which were imagined to exist not only between the virtues of different parts of the same animal1 but also between slightly varied uses of the same part1 we may note that scales scraped from the topmost part of a tortoise's shell and administered in drink check sexual desire1 considering which1 it is1 as ,pliny remarks1 the more marvelous that a powder made of the entire shell is reported to arouse lust4#bhd ,but love turns readily to hatred in magic as well as in romance1 and it is nothing very unusual1 as we shall find in other authors1 for the same thing on slight provocation to work in exactly opposite ways4 ,sidenote3 ,the virtues of herbs4 ,pig grease1 ,pliny somewhere informs us1 possesses especially strong virtue1 8because that animal feeds on the roots of herbs40#bhe ,from the virtues of animals1 therefore1 let us turn to those of herbs4#bhf ,pliny met on every hand assertion of their wonderful powers4 ,the empire-builders of ,rome employed the sacred herbs sagmina and verbenae in their embassies and legations4 ,the ,gauls1 too1 use the verbena in lot-casting and prophetic responses4#bhg ,pliny also states more sceptically that there is another root which diviners take in drink in order to feign inspiration4#bhh ,the ,scythians know of a plant which prevents hunger and thirst if held in the mouth1 and of another which has the same effect upon their horses1 so that they can go for twelve days without meat or drink1#bhi--;an exaggerated estimate of the hardihood of the mounted ,asiatic nomads and their steeds4 ,musaeus and ,hesiod say that one anointed with polion will attain fame and dignities4#bij ,pliny perhaps did not intend to subscribe fully to such statements1 although he cannot be said to call many of them into question4 ,he did complain that some writers had asserted incredible powers of herbs1 such as to restore dragons or men to life or withdraw wedges from trees1#bia yet he seems on the whole in sympathy with the opinion of the majority that there is practically nothing which the force of herbs cannot accomplish4 ,herophilus1 illustrious in medicine1 had said that certain herbs were beneficial if merely trod upon1 and ,pliny himself says the same of more than one plant4 ,he tells us further that binding the wild fig tree about their necks makes the fiercest bulls stand immobile2#bib that another plant subjects fractious beasts of burden to the yoke2#bic while cows who eat buprestis burst asunder4#bid ,another herb contacto genitali kills any female animal4#bie ,betony is considered an amulet for houses1#bif and fishermen in ,pliny's neighborhood mix a plant with chalk and scatter it on the waves4#big 8,the fish dart towards it with marvelous desire and straightway float lifeless on the surface40 ,dogs will not bark at persons carrying peristereos4#bih ,the 8impious plant0 prevents any human being who tastes it from having quinsy1 while swine are sure to have that disease if they do not eat it4 ,some place it in birds' nests to prevent the voracious nestlings from strangling4 ,bitter almonds provide another amusing combination of effects4 ,eating five of them permits one to drink without experiencing intoxication1 but if foxes eat them they will die unless they find water near by to drink4#bii ,there are some herbs which have a medicinal effect1 if one merely looks at them4#cjj ,in two cases the masculine or feminine variety of a herb is used to secure the birth of a child of the desired sex4#cja ,sidenote3 ,plucking herbs4 ,that the plucking of herbs and digging up of roots was a process very apt to be attended by magical procedure we find abundant evidence in the ,natural ,history4 ,often plants should be plucked before sunrise4#cjb ,twice ,pliny tells us that the peony should be uprooted by night lest the woodpecker of ,mars try to pick the digger's eyes out4#cjc ,the state of the moon is another point to be observed1#cjd and once an herb is to be gathered before thunder is heard4#cje ,a common instruction is to pick the plant with the left hand1#cjf and once with the thumb and fourth finger of the left hand4#cjg ,once the right hand should be stretched covertly after the fashion of a pickpocket through the left sleeve in order to pluck the plant4#cjh ,sometimes one faces east in plucking herbs2 sometimes1 west2 again one is careful not to face the wind4#cji ,sometimes the gatherer must not glance behind him4 ,sometimes he must fast before he takes the plant from the ground2#caj again he must observe a state of chastity4#caa ,sometimes he should be barefoot and clothed in white2 again he should remove every stitch of clothing and even his rings4#cab ,sometimes the use of iron implements is forbidden2 again gold or some other material is prescribed2#cac once the herb is to be dug with a nail4#cad ,sometimes circles are traced about the plant with the point of a sword4#cae ,often the plant must not touch the ground again after it is picked1#caf presumably from a fear that its virtue would run off like an electric current4 ,pliny alludes at least three times#cag to the practice of herbalists of retaining portions of the herbs they sell1 and then1 if they are not paid in full1 replanting the herb in the same spot with the idea that thereby the disease will return to plague the delinquent patient4 ,frequently one is directed to state why one plucks the herb or for whom it is intended4#cah ,in one case the digger says1 8,this is the herb ,argemon which ,minerva discovered was a remedy for swine who taste it40#cai ,in another case one should salute the plant and extract its juice before saying a word2 thus its virtue will be much greater4#cbj ,in other cases1 as an offering to appease the earth1 the soil about the plant is soaked with hydromel three months before plucking it1 or the hole left by pulling it up is filled with different kinds of grain4#cba ,sometimes one sacrifices beforehand with bread and wine or prays to the gods for permission to gather the herb4#cbb ,the customs of the ,druids in gathering herbs are mentioned more than once4#cbc ,in gathering the sacred mistletoe on the sixth day of the moon they hold sacrifices and a banquet beneath the tree4#cbd ,two white bulls are the victims2 a priest clad in white cuts the mistletoe with a golden sickle and receives it in a white cloak4#cbe ,sidenote3 ,agricultural magic4 ,to ,pliny's discussion of herbs we may append some specimens of the employment of magic procedure in agriculture and of the superstitions of the peasantry in which his pages abound4 ,to guard against diseases of grain the seeds before planting should be steeped in wine1 the juice of a certain herb1 the gall of a cow1 or human urine1 or should be touched with the shoulders of a mole#cbf--the animal whose use by the magi we heard ,pliny ridicule4 ,one should sow at the moon's conjunction4 ,before the field is hoed1 a frog should be carried around it and then buried in the center in an earthen vessel4 ,but it should be disinterred before harvest lest the millet be bitter4 ,birds may be kept away from the grain by planting in the four corners of the field an herb whose name is unfortunately unknown to ,pliny4#cbg ,mice are kept out by the ashes of a weasel1 mildew by laurel branches1 caterpillars by placing the skull of a female beast of burden upon a stick in the garden4#cbh ,to ward off fogs and storms from orchards and vineyards a frog may be buried as directed above1 or live crabs may be burnt in the trees1 or a painted grape may be consecrated4#cbi ,suspending a frog in the granary preserves the corn stored there4#ccj ,to keep wolves away catch one1 break its legs1 attach it to the ploughshare1 and thus scatter its blood about the boundaries of the field2 then bury the carcass at the starting-point4#cca ,or consecrate at the altar of the ,lar the ploughshare with which the first furrow was traced4 ,foxes will not touch poultry who have eaten the dried liver of a fox or who wear a bit of its skin about their necks4 ,fern will not spring up again if it is mowed with the edge of a reed or uprooted by a ploughshare upon which a reed has been placed4#ccb ,of the use of incantations in agriculture we shall treat later4 ,sidenote3 ,virtues of stones4 ,pliny appears to have much less faith in the possession of marvelous virtues by gems than by herbs and parts of animals4 ,he not only characterizes the powers attributed to gems by the magi and ,democritus and ,pythagoras as 8terrible lies0 and 8unspeakable nonsense02#ccc but refrains from mentioning many such himself or inserts a cautious 8if we believe it0 or 8if they tell the truth40#ccd ,of the gem supposed to be produced from the urine of the lynx he says1 8,i think that this is quite false and no gem of that name has been seen in our time4 ,what is stated concerning its medicinal virtue is also false40#cce ,to other stones1 however1 he ascribes various medicinal virtues1 either when taken pulverized in drink or when worn as amulets4#ccf ,a few other occult properties are stated without reservation1 as that amiantus resists all sorceries1#ccg that adamant expels idle fears from the mind1 that sideritis produces discord and litigation1 and that eumeces1 placed beneath one's pillow at night1 causes oracular visions4#cch ,magnets are said to differ in sex1 and the belief of ,theophrastus and ,mucianus is repeated that certain stones bear offspring4#cci ,sidenote3 ,other minerals and metals4 ,of the metals iron sometimes figures in ,pliny's magical procedure1 as when he either prescribes or taboos the use of it in cutting herbs or killing animals4 ,in ,arcadia the yew-tree is a fatal poison to persons sleeping beneath it1 but driving a copper nail into the tree makes it harmless4#cdj ,pliny says that gold is medicinal in many ways and in particular is applied to wounded persons and to infants as a safeguard against witchcraft4#cda ,earth itself is often used to work marvels1 but usually some particular portion1 such as that between cart ruts or that thrown up by ants1 beetles1 and moles1 or in the right footprint where one first heard a cuckoo sing4#cdb ,however1 the rule that an object should not touch the ground is enforced in many other connections#cdc than the plucking of herbs1 and ,pliny twice states that the earth will not permit a serpent who has stung a human being to re-enter its hole4#cdd ,in his discussion of metals ,pliny does not allude to transmutation or alchemy1 unless it be in his accounts of various fraudulent practices of workers in metal and how ,caligula extracted gold from orpiment4 ,but the following directions for preparing antimony show how closely akin to magic the procedure in ancient metallurgy might be4 ,the antimony should be coated with cow-flap and burnt in furnaces1 then quenched in woman's milk and pounded in mortars with an admixture of rain-water4#cde ,sidenote3 ,virtues of human parts4 ,various parts and products of the human body are credited with remarkable virtues as the mention just made of woman's milk suggests4 ,other passages recommend more especially the milk of a woman just delivered of a male child1 but most of all that of the mother of twins4#cdf ,sed nihil facile reperiatur mulierum profluvio magis monstrificum1 as ,pliny proceeds to illustrate by numerous examples4#cdg ,great virtues are also attributed to the urine1 particularly of a chaste boy4#cdh ,a few other instances of remedies drawn from the human body are ear-wax or a powdered tooth against stings of scorpions and bites of snakes1#cdi a man's hair for the bite of a dog1 the first hairs from a boy's head for gout4#cej ,diseases of women are prevented by wearing constantly in a bracelet the first tooth a boy loses1 provided it has not touched the ground4 ,simply tying two fingers or toes together is recommended for tumors in the groin1 catarrh1 and sore eyes4#cea ,or the eyes may be touched thrice with water in which the feet have been washed4 ,scrofula and throat diseases may be cured by the touch of the hand of one who has died an early death1 although some authorities do not insist upon the circumstance of early death but direct that the corpse be of the same sex as the patient and that the diseased spot be touched with the back of the left dead hand4 ,sidenote3 ,virtues of human saliva4 ,of all fluids and excretions of the human body the saliva is perhaps used most often in ancient and medieval medicine1 as the custom of spitting once or thrice in administering other remedies or performing ceremonies goes to prove4 ,the spittle of a fasting person is the more efficacious4 ,in a chapter devoted particularly to the properties of human saliva ,pliny lists many diseases and woes which it alleviates4#ceb ,in this connection he makes the following absurd assertion which he nevertheless declares is easily tested by experiment4 8,if a person repents of a blow given from a distance or hand-to-hand1 let him spit into the palm of the hand with which he struck1 and the person who has been struck will feel no resentment4 ,this is often proved by beasts of burden who are induced to mend their pace by this method after the use of the whip has failed40 ,pliny adds1 however1 that some persons try to increase the force of their blows by thus spitting on the hands beforehand4 ,he also mentions as counter-charms against sorcery the practices of spitting into one's urine or right shoe1 or when crossing a dangerous spot4 ,sidenote3 ,the human operator4 ,the importance of the human operator as a factor in the performance of marvels1 be they medical or magical1 is attested by the frequent injunctions of chastity1 virginity1 nudity1 or a state of fasting upon persons concerned in ,pliny's procedure4 ,sometimes they are not to glance behind them1 sometimes they are to speak to no one during the operation4 ,pliny also mentions men who have a special capacity for wonder-working1 such as ,pyrrhus1 the touch of whose toe had healing power1#cec those whose eyes exert strong fascination1 whole tribes of serpent-charmers and venom-curers1 and others whose mere presence addles the eggs beneath a setting hen4#ced ,the power of words spoken by men will be considered separately under the head of incantations4 ,sidenote3 ,absence of medical compounds4 ,while ,pliny attributes the most extreme medicinal virtues to simples1 he excludes from his ,natural ,history the strange and elaborate compounds which were nevertheless so popular in the pharmacy of his age4 ,of one simple1 laser1 he says that it would be an immense task to attempt to list all the uses that it is supposed to have in compounds4#cee ,his position is that the simple remedies alone are the direct work of nature1 while the mixtures1 tablets1 pills1 plasters1 washes are artificial inventions of the apothecaries4 ,once when he describes a compound called 8,hermesias0 which aids in the generation of good and beautiful children1 it seems to be borrowed by ,democritus from the magi4#cef ,furthermore1 ,pliny thinks that health can be sufficiently preserved or restored by nature's simple remedies4 ,compounds are the invention of human conjecture1 avarice1 and impudence4 ,such conjecture is often false1 not sufficiently taking into account the natural sympathies and antipathies of the numerous ingredients4 ,often compounds are inexplicable4 ,pliny also deplores resort to imported drugs from ,india1 ,arabia1 and the ,red ,sea1 when there are homely remedies at hand for the poorest man4#ceg ,sidenote3 ,sympathetic magic4 ,we have just heard ,pliny refer to the sympathies and antipathies of natural simples1 and he often explains the marvelous effects of natural objects upon one another by this relation of love and hatred1 friendship or repugnance1 discord or concord which exists between them1 which the ,greeks call sympathy or antipathy1 and which ,heracleitus was perhaps the first philosopher to insist upon4#ceh ,some modern students of magic have tried to account for all magic on this theory1 and ,pliny states that medicine and medicines originated from it4#cei ,sidenote3 ,antipathies between animals4 ,this relationship exists between animals1--deer and snakes1 for example4 ,so great a force is it that stags track snakes to their holes and extract them thence despite all resistance by the power of their breath4 ,this antipathy continues after death1 for the sovereign remedy for snake-bite is the rennet of a fawn killed in its mother's womb1 while serpents flee from a man who wears the tooth of a deer4 ,but antipathy may change to sympathy1 for ,pliny adds that in some cases certain parts of deer treated in certain ways attract serpents4#cfj ,this force of antipathy is indeed capable of taking the strangest turn4 ,bed-bugs1 foul and disgusting as they are1 heal the bite of snakes1 especially asps1 and sows can eat the poisonous salamander4#cfa ,the antipathy between goats and snakes would seem almost as potent as that between deer and snakes1#cfb since we are told that snake-bitten persons recover more quickly1 if they frequent the stalls where goats are kept or wear as an amulet the paunch of a she-goat4 ,sidenote3 ,love and hatred between inanimate objects4 ,there is also 8the hatred and friendship of deaf and insensible things40#cfc ,instances are the magnet's attraction for iron and the fact that adamant can be broken only by the blood of a he-goat1 two stock examples of occult influence and natural marvels which continued classic in the medieval period4#cfd ,pliny indeed regards this last as the clearest illustration possible of the potency of sympathy and antipathy1 since a substance which defies iron and fire1 nature's two most violent agents1 yields to the blood of a foul animal4#cfe ,sidenote3 ,sympathy between animate and inanimate objects4 ,there is furthermore sympathy and antipathy between animate and inanimate objects4 ,so marvelous is the antipathy of the tamarisk tree for the spleen alone of internal organs1 that pigs who drink from troughs of this wood are found when slaughtered to be without spleen1 and hence splenetic patients are fed from vessels of tamarisk4#cff ,the spleenless pig1 it may be interpolated1 is another commonplace of ancient and medieval science4 ,smearing the hives with cow dung kills other insects but stimulates the bees who have an affinity for it 7cognatum hoc iis71#cfg probably1 although ,pliny does not say so1 on the theory that they are spontaneously generated from it4 ,that the wild cabbage is hostile to dogs is evidenced by the statement of ,epicharmus that it cures the bite of a mad dog but kills a dog if he eats it when given to him with meat4#cfh ,snakes hate the ash-tree so1 that if they are hemmed in by its foliage on one side and fire on the other1 they flee by preference into the flames4#cfi ,betony1 too1 is so antipathetic to snakes that they lash themselves to death when a circle of it is drawn about them4#cgj ,scorpions cannot survive in the air of ,sicily4#cga ,perhaps antipathy is also the explanation of ,pliny's absurd statement that loads of apples and pears1 even if there are only a few of them1 are very heavy for beasts of burden4#cgb ,here1 however1 the condition may be remedied and perhaps a relationship of sympathy established by showing the beasts how few fruit there really are or by giving them some to eat4 ,that sympathy may even attach to places or religious circumstances ,pliny infers from the belief that the priestess of the earth at ,aegira1 when about to descend into the cave and predict1 drinks without injury bull's blood which is supposed to be a fatal poison4#cgc ,sidenote3 ,like cures like4 ,that like cures like1 or more precisely and paradoxically that the cause of the disease will cure its own result1 is another notion which ,pliny's medicine shares with magic4 ,this is seen in the use of parts of the mad dog to cure its bite1#cgd or in rubbing thighs chafed by horse-back riding with the foam from a horse's mouth4#cge ,the bite of the shrew-mouse1 too1 is best healed by imposition of the very animal which bit you1 but another shrew-mouse will do and they are kept ready in oil and mud for this purpose4#cgf ,the sting of the phalangium may be cured by merely looking at another insect of that species1 whether it be dead or alive4 ,from cases in which the cure for the disease is identical with its cause it is but a short step to remedies similar to or in some way associated with the ailment4 ,it seems obvious to ,pliny that stone in the bladder can be broken by the herb on which grow what look exactly like pearls4 8,in the case of no other herb is it so evident for what medicine it is intended2 its species is such that it can be recognized at once by sight without book knowledge40#cgg ,similarly ophites1 a marble with serpentine streaks1 is used as an amulet against snake-bite4#cgh ,mithridates discovered that the blood of ,pontic ducks should be mixed in antidotes because they live on poison4#cgi ,heliotrope seed looks like a scorpion's tail2 if scorpions are touched with a sprig of heliotrope they die1 and they will not enter ground which has been circumscribed by it4#chj ,to accelerate a woman's delivery her lover should take off his belt and gird her with it1 then untie it1 saying that he has bound her and will unloose her1 and then he should go away4#cha ,an epileptic may be cured by driving an iron nail into the spot where his head rested when he fell in the fit4#chb ,sidenote3 ,the principle of association4 ,other instances of association are when the remedy employed is some part of an animal who is free from the disease in question or marked by an opposite state of health4 ,goats and gazelles never have ophthalmia1 hence various portions of their bodies are prescribed for eye diseases4#chc ,eagles can gaze at the sun1 therefore their gall is efficacious in eye-salves4#chd ,the bird called ossifrage has a single intestine which digests anything2 the end of this intestine serves as an amulet against colic1 and indigestion may be cured by merely holding the crop of the bird in one hand4#che ,but do not hold it too long or your flesh will waste away4 ,the virus of mares is an ingredient in a candle which makes heads of horses seem to appear when it burns2#chf while ink of the sepia is used in a candle which causes ,ethiopians to be seen when it is lighted4#chg ,these magic candles are borrowed by ,pliny from the works of ,anaxilaus1 and we shall find them a feature of medieval collections of experiments4 ,earth from a cart-wheel rut is thought a remedy against the bite of the shrew-mouse because that creature is too torpid to cross such a rut2#chh and ,pliny believes that none of the virtues attributed to moles by the magicians is more probable than that they are an antidote to the bite of the shrew-mouse1 which shuns even ruts1 whereas moles burrow freely through the soil4#chi ,pliny finds incredible the assertion made by some that a ship will move more slowly if it has the right foot of a tortoise aboard1#cij but the logic of the magic seems evident enough4 ,sidenote3 ,magic transfer of disease4 ,in ,pliny's medicine there are a number of examples of what may be called magic transfer1 in which the aim of the procedure is not to cure the disease outright but to rid the patient of it by transferring it from him to some other animal or object4 ,intestinal disease may be transferred to puppies who have not yet opened their eyes by pressing them to the body and giving them milk from the patient's mouth4 ,they will die of the disease1 when its cause and exact nature may be determined by dissecting them4 ,but finally they must be buried4#cia ,griping pains in the bowels will also pass to a duck that is held against the abdomen4 ,one may be rid of a cough by spitting in a frog's mouth or cure catarrh by kissing a mule1#cib although in these cases we are left uninformed whether the disease passes to the animal4 ,but if a person who has been stung by a scorpion whispers the news in the ear of an ass1 the ill will be transferred to the ass4#cic ,a boil may be removed by rubbing nine grains of barley around it1 each grain thrice with the left hand1 and then throwing them all into the fire4#cid ,warts are banished by touching each with a grain of the chickpea and then tying the grains up in a linen cloth and throwing them behind one4#cie ,if a root of asphodel is applied to sores and then hung up in smoke1 the sores will dry up along with the root4#cif ,to cure scrofulous sores some bind on as many earthworms as there are sores and let them dry up together4#cig ,a tooth will cease aching if the herb erigeron is dug up with iron and the patient thrice alternately touches the tooth with the root and spits1 and if he then replaces the herb in the same spot and it lives4#cih ,if this last is a case of magic transfer1 perhaps we may trace the same notion in some of the numerous instances in which ,pliny directs that an animal shall be released alive after some part of it has been removed or some other medicinal use made of it4 ,sidenote3 ,amulets4 ,a common characteristic of magic force and occult virtue is that it will often act at a distance or without any physical contact or direct application4 ,this is manifested in the practice of carrying or wearing amulets1 or1 what is the same thing1 of ligatures and suspensions1 in which objects are hung from the neck or bound to some part of the body in order to ward off danger from without or cure internal disease4 ,instances of such practices in the ,natural ,history are well nigh innumerable4 ,roots are suspended from the neck by a thread2#cii the tongue of a fox is worn in a bracelet2#djj for quinsy the throat is wound thrice with a thong of dog-skin and catarrh is relieved by winding the same about the fingers4#dja ,a tooth stops aching when worms are taken from a certain prickly plant1 put with some bread in a pill-box1 and bound to the arm on the same side of the body as the aching tooth4#djb ,two bed-bugs bound to the left arm in wool stolen from shepherds are a charm against nocturnal fevers2 against diurnal fevers1 if wrapped in russet cloth instead4#djc ,the heart of a vulture is an amulet against snakes1 wild beasts1 robbers1 and royal wrath4#djd ,the traveler who carries the herb artemisia feels no fatigue4#dje ,injurious drugs cannot cross one's threshold and do injury in one's household1 if a sea-star is smeared with the blood of a fox and attached to the lintel or door-post with a copper nail4#djf ,not only is a wreath of herbs worn for headache1#djg but a sprig of poplar held in the hand prevents chafing between the thighs4#djh ,often objects are placed under one's pillow1 especially for insomnia1#dji but any psychological effect is precluded in the case where this is to be done without the patient's knowledge4#daj ,all sorts of specifications are given as to the color and kind of string1 cloth1 skin1 box1 nail1 ring1 bracelet1 and the like in which should be placed1 or with which should be bound on1 the various gems1 herbs1 and parts of animals which serve as amulets4 ,but when we are told that a remedy for headache which always helps many consists of a little bone from a snail found between two cart ruts1 passed through gold1 silver1 and ivory1 and attached to the body with dog-skin2 or that one may bind on the head with a linen cloth the head of a snail decapitated with a reed when feeding in the morning especially at full moon2#daa we feel that we have passed beyond mere amulets1 ligatures1 and suspensions to more elaborate minutiae of magic procedure4 ,sidenote3 ,position or direction4 ,position or direction is often an important matter in ,pliny's1 as in magic1 ceremonial4 ,it perhaps comes out most frequently in his specification of right or left4 ,an aching tooth should be scarified with the left eye-tooth of a dog2 a spider which is placed with oil in the ear should be caught with the left hand2#dab epilepsy may be cured if a virgin touches the sufferer with her right thumb2#dac for ophthalmia of the right eye suspend the right eye of a frog from the patient's neck1 and the left eye for the left eye2#dad for lumbago tear off an eagle's feet away from the joint1 and use the right foot for the right side and the left for pain in the left side4#dae ,but we have met other examples already1 and also cases of the use of the upper or lower part of this or that according to the corresponding location of an aching tooth in the upper or lower jaw4#daf ,tracing circles with and about objects1 facing towards this or that point of the compass1 the prohibition against glancing behind one1 and the stress laid upon finding things or killing animals between the ruts of cart wheels1 are other examples of taking into consideration position and direction which we have already met with incidentally to the treatment of other topics4 ,the prescription of a plant which has grown on the head of a statue and of another which has taken root in a sieve thrown into a hedge#dag also seem to take mere position largely into account1 more so than the accompanying recommendation of an herb growing on the banks of a stream and of another growing upon a dunghill4#dah ,sidenote3 ,the time element4 ,the element of time is also important4 ,operations should be performed before sunrise1 early in the morning1 at night1 and so on4 ,the moon is especially regarded in such directions4#dai ,when we are informed that sufferers from quartan fever should be rubbed all over with the fat of a tortoise1 we are also told that the tortoise will be fattest on the fifteenth day of the moon and that the patient should be anointed on the sixteenth4#dbj ,but this waxing and waning of the tortoise with the moon is primarily a matter of astrology and planetary influence1 under which heading we shall also later speak of ,pliny's observance of the rising of the dog-star4 ,sidenote3 ,observance of number4 ,observance of number is another feature in ,pliny's ceremonial1 of which we have already met instances4 ,he also alludes to the writings of ,pythagoras on the subject and ascribes to ,democritus a work on the number four4 ,pliny's recipes frequently recommend that the operation be thrice repeated4 ,in the case of curing scrofula by the ashes of vipers he prescribes three fingers thereof taken in drink for thrice seven days4#dba ,in another application of a ,gallic herb with old axle-grease which has not touched iron1 not only must the patient spit thrice to the right1 but the remedy is more efficacious if three men representing three different nations anoint the right side with it4#dbb ,the virtue of the number one is not1 however1 entirely slighted4 ,importance is attached to the death of a stag from a single wound4#dbc ,sometimes three and one are joined in the same operation1 as when child-birth is aided by hurling through the house a stone or weapon by which three animals1 a man1 a boar1 and a bear1 have been killed with single blows4 ,one of the discoveries of ,pythagoras which seldom fails is that an odd number of vowels in a child's given name portends lameness1 blindness1 and like incapacitation on the right side of its body1 and an even number1 injuries on the left side4#dbd ,in a crown of smilax for headache there should be an odd number of leaves1#dbe and in a diet of snails prescribed for stomach trouble an odd number are to be eaten4#dbf ,for a head-wash ten green lizards are boiled in ten sextarii of oil1#dbg and for an application to prevent eyelashes from growing again when they have been pulled out fifteen frogs are impaled on fifteen bulrushes4#dbh ,the person who has tied on a certain amulet is thereafter excluded from the patient's sight for five days4#dbi ,and so on4 ,sidenote3 ,relation between operator and patient4 ,this last item suggests a further intangible factor in ,pliny's procedure1 the doing of things to or for the patient without his knowledge4 ,but this and any other incorporeal relationships existing between operator and patient should perhaps be classed under the head of sympathy and antipathy4 ,sidenote3 ,incantations4 ,closely akin to the power of numbers is that of words4 ,pliny once says of an incantation employed to avert hail-storms that he would not dare in seriousness to insert its words1 although ,cato in his work on agriculture prescribed a similar formula of meaningless words for the cure of fractured limbs4#dcj ,but ,pliny does not object to the repetition of incantations or prayers if the words spoken have some meaning4 ,he informs us that ocimum is sown with curses and maledictions and that when cummin seed is rammed down into the soil1 the sowers pray it not to come up4#dca ,in another case the sower is to be naked and to pray for himself and his neighbors4#dcb ,in a third case in which a poultice is to be applied to an inflammatory tumor1 ,pliny says that persons of experience regard it as very important that the poultice be put on by a naked virgin and that both she and the patient be fasting4 ,touching the sufferer with the back of her hand she is to say1 8,apollo forbids a disease to increase which a naked virgin restrains40 ,then1 withdrawing her hand1 she is to repeat the same words thrice and to join with the patient in spitting on the ground each time4#dcc ,indeed1 in another passage ,pliny states that it is the universal custom in medicine to spit three times with incantations4#dcd ,perhaps the power of the words is thought to be increased or renewed by clearing the throat4 ,words were also occasionally spoken in plucking herbs4 ,ring-worm or tetter is treated by spitting upon and rubbing together two stones covered with a dry white moss1 and by repeating a ,greek incantation which may be translated1 8,flee1 ,cantharides1 a wild wolf seeks your blood40#dce ,abscesses and inflammations are treated with the herb reseda and a ,latin translation which seems irrelevant1 if not quite senseless1 and which may be translated1 8,reseda1 make disease recede4 ,don't you know1 don't you know what chick has dug up these roots8 ,may they have neither head nor feet40#dcf ,in the book following this passage ,pliny raises the general question of the power of words to heal diseases4#dcg ,he gives many instances of belief in incantations from contemporary popular superstition1 from ,roman religion1 and from the annals of history4 ,he does not doubt that ,romans in the past have believed in the power of words1 and thinks that if we accept set forms of prayer and religious formulae1 we must also admit the force of incantations4 ,but he adds that the wisest individuals believe in neither4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude to love-charms and birth-control4 ,pliny's recipes and operations are mainly connected with either medicine or agriculture1 but he also introduces as we have seen magical procedure employed in child-birth1 safeguards against poisons and reptiles1 and counter-charms against sorcery4 ,he more than once avers that love-charms 7amatoria7 lie outside his province1#dch in one passage alleging as a reason that the illustrious general ,lucullus was killed by one1#dci but he includes a great many of them nevertheless4#ddj ,some herbs are so employed because of a resemblance in shape to the sexual organs1#dda another instance of association by similarity4 ,pliny declared against abortive drugs as well as love-charms1#ddb but cited from the ,commentaries of ,caecilius one recipe for birth-control for the benefit of over-fecund women1 consisting of a ligature of two little worms found in the body of a certain species of spider and bound on in deer-skin before sunrise4 ,after a year the virtue of this charm expires4#ddc ,sidenote3 ,pliny and astrology4 ,pliny devotes but a small fraction of his work to the stars and heavens as against terrestrial phenomena1 and therefore has less occasion to speak of astrology than of magic4 ,however1 had he been a great believer in astrology he doubtless would have devoted more space to the stars and their influence on terrestrial phenomena4 ,he recognizes none the less1 as we have seen1 that magic and astrology are intimately related and that 8there is no one who is not eager to learn his own future and who does not think that this is shown most truly by the heavens40#ddd ,parenthetically it may be remarked that the general literature of the time only confirms this assertion of the widespread prevalence of astrology2 allusions of poets imply a technical knowledge of the art on their readers' part2 the very emperors who occasionally banished astrologers from ,rome themselves consulted other adepts4 ,in another passage ,pliny speaks of men who 8assign events each to its star according to the rules of nativities and believe that ,god decreed the future once for all and has never interfered with the course of events since40#dde ,this way of thinking has caught learned and vulgar alike in its current and has led to such further methods of divination as those by lightning1 oracles1 haruspices1 and even such petty auguries as from sneezes and shifting of the feet4 ,furthermore in ,pliny's list of men prominent in the various arts and sciences we find ,berosus of whom a statue was erected by the ,athenians in honor of his skill in astrological prognostication4#ddf ,in another place where he speaks for a moment of 8the science of the stars0 ,pliny disputes the theories of ,berosus1 ,nechepso1 and ,petosiris that length of human life is ordered by the stars1 and also makes the trite objection to the doctrine of nativities that masters and slaves1 kings and beggars are born at the same moment4#ddg ,he also is rather inclined to ridicule the enormous figures of #gbj1jjj or #dij1jjj years set by ,epigenes and ,berosus and ,critodemus for the duration of astronomical observations recorded by the ,babylonians4#ddh ,from such passages we get the impression that astrology is widely accepted as a science but that the art of nativities at least is not regarded by ,pliny with favor4 ,but it would not be safe to say that he denies the control of the stars over human destiny4 ,indeed1 in one chapter he declares that the astronomer ,hipparchus can never be praised enough because more than any other man he proved the relationship of man with the stars and that our souls are part of the sky4#ddi ,when ,pliny disputes the vulgar notion that each man has a star varying in brightness according to his fortune1 rising when he is born1 and fading or falling when he dies1 he is not attacking even the doctrine of nativities2 he is denying that the stars are controlled by man's fate rather than that man's life is ordered by the stars4#dej ,sidenote3 ,celestial portents4 ,if ,pliny thus leaves us uncertain as to the relation of man to the stars1 we also receive conflicting impressions from his discussion of various celestial phenomena regarded as portentous4 ,in one passage he speaks of the debt of gratitude owed by mankind to those great astronomical geniuses who have freed men from their former superstitious fear of eclipses4#dea ,but he explains thunderbolts as celestial fire vomited forth from the planet ,venus and 8bearing omens of the future40#deb ,he also gives instances from ,roman history of comets which signaled disaster1 and he expounds the theory of their signifying the future4#dec ,what they portend may be determined from the direction in which they move and the heavenly body whose power they receive1 and more particularly from the shapes they assume and their position in relation to the signs of the zodiac4 ,indeed1 ,pliny even gives examples of ominous eclipses of the sun1 although it is true that they were also of unusual length4#ded ,he also tells us that many of the common people still believed that women could produce eclipses 8by sorceries and herbs40#dee ,sidenote3 ,the stars and the world of nature4 ,aside from the question of the control of human destiny by the constellations at birth1 ,pliny's general theories of the universe and of the influence of the stars upon terrestrial nature are roughly similar to those of astrology4 ,for him the universe itself is ,god1 8holy1 eternal1 vast1 all in all1 nay1 in truth itself all20#def and the sun is the mind and soul of the whole world and the chief governor of nature4#deg ,the planets affect one another4 ,a cold star renders another approaching it pale2 a hot star causes its neighbor to redden2 a windy planet gives those near it a lowering appearance4#deh ,at certain points in their orbits the planets are deflected from their regular course by the rays of the sun1--an unwitting concession to heliocentric theory4#dei ,pliny ascribes the usual astrological qualities to the planets4#dfj ,saturn is cold and rigid2 ,mars1 a flaming fire2 ,jupiter1 located between them1 is temperate and salubrious4 ,besides their effects upon one another1 the planets especially influence the earth4#dfa ,venus1 for instance1 rules the process of generation in all terrestrial beings4#dfb ,following the ,georgics of ,vergil somewhat1 ,pliny asserts that the stars give indubitable signs of the weather and expounds the utility of the constellations to farmers4#dfc ,he tells how ,democritus by his knowledge of astronomy was able to corner the olive crop and put to shame business men who had been decrying philosophy2#dfd and how on another occasion he gave his brother timely warning of an impending storm4#dfe ,but ,pliny does not accept all the theories of the astrologers as to control of the stars over terrestrial nature4 ,he repeats1 but without definitely accepting it1 the ascription by the ,babylonians of earthquakes to three of the planets in particular1#dff and the notion that the gem sandastros or garamantica1 employed by ,chaldeans in their ceremonies1 is intimately connected with the stars4#dfg ,he is openly incredulous about the gem glossopetra1 shaped like a human tongue and supposed to fall from the sky during an eclipse of the moon and to be invaluable in selenomancy4#dfh ,sidenote3 ,astrological medicine4 ,pliny tells how the physician ,crinas of ,marseilles made a fortune by regulating diet and observing hours according to the motion of the stars4#dfi ,but he does not show much faith in astrological medicine himself1 rejecting entirely the elaborate classification of diseases and remedies which the astrologers had by his time already worked out for the revolutions of the sun and moon in the twelve signs of the zodiac4#dgj ,in his own recipes1 however1 astrological considerations are sometimes observed1 as we have already seen1 especially the rising of the dog-star and the phases of the moon4 ,pliny1 indeed1 states that the dog-star exerts an extensive influence upon the earth4#dga ,as for the moon1 the blood in the human body augments and decreases with its waxing and waning as shell-fish and other things in nature do4#dgb ,indeed1 painstaking men of research had discovered that even the entrails of the field-mouse corresponded in number to the days of the moon1 that the ant stopped working during the interlunar days1 and that diseases of the eyes of certain beasts of burden also increased and decreased with the moon4#dgc ,but on the whole ,pliny's medicine and science do not seem nearly so immersed in and saturated with astrology as with other forms of magic4 ,this gap was for the middle ages amply filled by the authority of ,ptolemy1 of whose belief in astrology we shall treat in the next chapter4 ,sidenote3 ,conclusion3 magic unity of ,pliny's superstitions4 ,we have tried to analyze the contents of the ,natural ,history1 bringing out certain main divisions and underlying principles of magic in ,pliny's agriculture1 medicine1 and natural science4 ,this is1 however1 an artificial and difficult task1 since it is not easy to sever materials from ceremonial or the virtues of objects from the relations of sympathy or antipathy between them4 ,often the same passage might serve to illustrate several points4 ,take for example the following sentence3 8,thrasyllus is authority that nothing is so hostile to serpents as crabs2 swine who are stung cure themselves by this food1 and when the sun is in ,cancer1 serpents are in pain40#dgd ,here we have at once antipathy1 the remedies used by animals1 the reasoning1 characteristic of magic1 from association and similarity1 and the belief in astrology4 ,and this confusion1 to illustrate which a hundred other examples might be collected from the ,natural ,history1 demonstrates how indissolubly interwoven are all the varied threads that we have been tracing4 ,they all go naturally together1 they belong to the same long period of thought1 they represent the same stage in mental development1 they all are parts of magic4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,seneca ,,and ,,ptolemy3 ,,natural ,,divination ,,and ,,astrology ,seneca's ,natural ,questions--,nature study as an ethical substitute for existing religion--,limited field of ,seneca's work--,marvels accepted1 questioned1 or denied--,belief in natural divination and astrology--,divination from thunder--,ptolemy--,his two chief works--,his mathematical method--,attitude towards authority and observation--,the ,optics--,medieval translations of ,almagest--,tetrabiblos or ,quadripartitum--,a genuine reflection of ,ptolemy's approval of astrology--,validity of ,astrology--,influence of the stars not inevitable--,astrology as natural science--,properties of the planets--,remaining contents of ,book ,one--,book ,two3 regions--,nativities--,future influence of the ,tetrabiblos4 8,when the stars twinkle through the loops of time40 --,byron4 ,sidenote3 ,seneca's ,natural ,questions4 ,in this chapter we shall preface the main theme of ,ptolemy and his sanction of astrology by a consideration of another and earlier ancient writer on natural science who was very favorable to divination of the future1 namely1 the famous philosopher1 statesman1 man of letters1 and tutor of ,nero1 ,lucius ,annaeus ,seneca4 ,in point of time his ,natural ,questions1 or ,problems of ,nature1 is a work slightly antedating even the ,natural ,history of ,pliny1 but it is hardly of such importance in the history of science as the more voluminous works of the three great representatives of ancient science1 ,pliny1 ,galen1 and ,ptolemy4 ,nevertheless ,seneca was well known and much cited in the middle ages as an ethical or moral philosopher1 and the title1 ,natural ,questions1 was to be employed by one of the first medieval pioneers of natural science1 ,adelard of ,bath4 ,seneca in any case is a name of which ancient science need not be ashamed4 ,he tells us that in his youth he had already written a treatise on earthquakes2#dge and in the present treatise his aim is to inquire into the natural causes of phenomena2 he wants to know why things are so4 ,he is aware that his own age has only entered the vestibule of the knowledge of natural phenomena and forces1 that it has but just begun to know five of the many stars1 that 8there will come a time when our descendants will wonder that we were ignorant of matters so evident40#dgf ,sidenote3 ,study of nature as an ethical substitute for existing religion4 ,in one passage ,seneca perhaps expresses his consciousness of the very imperfect scientific knowledge of his own age a little too mystically4 8,there are sacred things which are not revealed all at once4 ,eleusis reserves sights for those who revisit her4 ,nature does not disclose her mysteries in a moment4 ,we think ourselves initiated2 we stand but at her portal4 ,those secrets open not promiscuously nor to every comer4 ,they are remote of access1 enshrined in the inner sanctuary40#dgg ,indeed1 he shows a tendency to regard scientific research as a sort of religious exercise or perhaps as a substitute for existing religion and a basis for moral philosophy4 ,he relates physics to ethics4 ,his enthusiasm in the study of natural forces appears largely due to the fact that he believes them to be of a sublime and divine character and above the petty affairs of men4 ,he also as constantly and more fulsomely than ,pliny inveighs against the luxury1 vice1 and immorality of his own day1 and moralizes as to the beneficent influence which natural law and phenomena should exert upon human conduct4 ,it is interesting to note that this habit of drawing moral lessons from the facts of nature was not peculiar to medieval or ,christian writers4 ,sidenote3 ,limited field of ,seneca's work4 ,with such subjects as zoology1 botany1 and mineralogy ,seneca's work has little to do2 it does not1 like ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 include medicine and the industrial arts2 neither does he1 like ,pliny1 cite the lore of the magi4 ,the phenomena of which he treats are mainly meteorological manifestations1 such as winds1 rain1 hail1 snow1 comets1 rainbows1 and what he regards as allied subjects1 earthquakes1 springs1 and rivers4 ,perhaps he would not have regarded the study of vegetables1 animals1 and minerals as so lofty and sublime a pursuit4 ,at any rate1 in consequence of the restricted field which ,seneca covers we find very little of the marvelous medicinal and magical properties of plants1 animals1 and other objects1 or the superstitious procedure which fill the pages of ,pliny4 ,sidenote3 ,marvels accepted1 questioned1 or denied4 ,seneca nevertheless has occasion to repeat some tall stories1 such as that the river ,alpheus of ,greece reappears as the ,arethusa in ,sicily and there every four years casts up filth from its depths on the very days when victims are slaughtered at the ,olympic games4#dgh ,he also affirms that living beings are generated in fire2 he believes in such effects of lightning as removing the venom from snakes which it strikes2 and he recounts the old stories of floating islands and of waters with the virtue of turning white sheep black4#dgi ,on the other hand1 he qualifies by the phrases1 8it is believed0 and 8they say10 the assertions that certain waters produce foul skin-diseases and that dew in particular1 if collected in any quantity1 has this evil property2 and he doubts whether bathing in the ,nile would enable a woman to bear more children4#dhj ,he ridicules the custom of the city which had public watchmen appointed to warn the inhabitants of the approach of hail-storms1 so that they might avert the danger by timely sacrifice or simply by pricking their own fingers so that they bled a trifle4 ,he adds that some suggest that blood may possess some occult property of repelling storm-clouds1 but he does not see how there can be such force in a drop or two and thinks it simpler to regard the whole thing as false4 ,in the same chapter he states that uncivilized antiquity used to believe that rain could be brought on or driven off by incantations1 but that now-a-days no one needs a philosopher to teach him that this is impossible4#dha ,sidenote3 ,belief in natural divination and astrology4 ,but while he thus rejects incantations and is practically silent on the subject of natural magic1 ,seneca accepts natural divination in well-nigh all its branches3 sacrificial1 augury1 astrology1 and divination from thunder4 ,he believes that whatever is caused is a sign of some future event4#dhb ,only ,seneca holds that every flight of a bird is not caused by a direct act of ,god1 nor the vitals of the victim altered under the axe by divine interference1 but that all has been prearranged in a fatal and causal series4#dhc ,he believes that all unusual celestial phenomena are to be looked upon as prodigies and portents4 ,a meteor 8as big as the moon appeared when ,paulus was engaged in the war against ,perseus02 similar portents marked the death of ,augustus and execution of ,sejanus1 and gave warning of the death of ,germanicus4#dhd ,but no less truly do the planets in their unvarying courses signify the future4 ,the stars are of divine nature1 and we ought to approach the discussion of them with as reverent an air as when with lowered countenance we enter the temples for worship4#dhe ,not only do the stars influence the upper atmosphere as earth's exhalations affect the lower1 but they announce what is to occur4#dhf ,seneca employs the statement of ,aristotle that comets signify the coming of storms and winds and foul weather to prove that they are stars2 and declares that a comet is a portent of bad weather during the ensuing year in the same way that the ,chaldeans or astrologers say that a man's natal star determines the whole course of his life4#dhg ,in fact1 ,seneca's chief1 if not sole1 objection to the ,chaldeans or astrologers would seem to be that in their predictions they take only five stars#dhh into account4 8,what8 ,think you so many thousand stars shine on in vain8 ,what else1 indeed1 is it which causes those skilled in nativities to err than that they assign us to a few stars1 although all those that are above us have a share in the control of our fate8 ,perhaps those which are nearer direct their influence upon us more closely2 perhaps those of more rapid motion look down on us and other animals from more varied aspects4 ,but even those stars that are motionless1 or because of their speed keep equal pace with the rest of the universe and seem not to move1 are not without rule and dominion over us40#dhi ,seneca accepts the theory of ,berosus that whenever all the stars are in conjunction in the sign of ,cancer there will be a universal conflagration1 and a second deluge when they all unite in ,capricorn4#dij ,sidenote3 ,divination from thunder4 ,it is on thunderbolts as portents of the future that ,seneca dwells longest1 however4#dia 8,they give10 he declares1 8not signs of this or that event merely1 but often announce a whole series of events destined to occur1 and that by manifest decrees and ones far clearer than if they were set down in writing40#dib ,he will not accept1 however1 the theory that lightning has such great power that its intervention nullifies any previous and contradictory portents4 ,he insists that divination by other methods is of equal truth1 though possibly of minor importance and significance4 ,next he attempts to explain how the dangers of which we are warned by divination may be averted by prayer1 expiation1 or sacrifice1 and yet the chain of events wrought by destiny not be broken4 ,he maintains that just as we employ the services of doctors to preserve our health1 despite any belief we may have in fate1 so it is useful to consult a haruspex4 ,then he goes on to speak of various classifications of thunderbolts according to the nature of the warnings or encouragements which they bring4 ,sidenote3 ,ptolemy4 ,we pass on from ,seneca to a later and greater exponent of natural science and divination1 ,ptolemy1 in the following century4 ,he was perhaps born at ,ptolemas in ,egypt but lived at ,alexandria4 ,the exact years of his birth and death are unknown1 and very little is recorded of his life or personality4 ,the time when he flourished is sufficiently indicated1 however1 by the fact that his first recorded astronomical observation was in #abg and his last in #aea ,a4 ,d4 ,thus most of his work was probably done during the reigns of ,hadrian and ,antoninus ,pius1 but he appears to have lived on into the reign of ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,his strictly scientific style scorns rhetorical devices and literary felicities1 and while it is clear and correct1 is dry and impersonal4#dic ,sidenote3 ,his two chief works4 ,ptolemy's two chief works1 the ,geography in eight books1 and 1 or ,almagest 7al-7 as the ,arabs called it1 in thirteen books1 have been so often described in histories of mathematics1 astronomy1 geography1 and discovery that such outline of their contents need not be repeated here4 ,the erroneous ,ptolemaic theories of a geocentric universe and of an earth's surface on which dry land preponderated are equally well known4 ,what is more to the point at present is to note that one of these theories was so well fitted to actual scientific observations and the other was thought to be so similarly based1 that they stood the test of theory1 criticism1 and practice for over a thousand years4#did ,it should1 however1 be said that the ,geography does not seem to have been translated into ,latin until the opening of the fifteenth century1#die when ,jacobus ,angelus made a translation for ,pope ,alexander ,v1 7#adji-adaj71 which is extant in many manuscripts#dif as well as in print4#dig ,it therefore did not have the influence and fame in the ,latin middle ages that the ,almagest did or the briefer astrological writings1 genuine and spurious1 current under ,ptolemy's name4 ,sidenote3 ,his mathematical method4 ,we may briefly state one or two of ,ptolemy's greatest contributions to mathematical and natural science and his probable position in the history of experimental method4 ,perhaps of greater consequence in the history of science than any one specific thing he did was his continual reliance upon mathematical method both in his astronomy and his geography4 ,in particular may be noted his important contribution to trigonometry in his table of chords1 which modern scholars have found correct to five decimal places1 and his contribution to the science of cartography by his successful projection of spherical surfaces upon flat maps4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude towards authority and observation4 ,ptolemy based his two great works partly upon the results already attained by earlier scientists1 following ,hipparchus especially in astronomy and ,marinus in geography4 ,he duly acknowledged his debts to these and other writers2 praised ,hipparchus and recounted his discoveries2 and where he corrected ,marinus1 did so with reason4 ,but while ,ptolemy used previous authorities1 he was far from relying upon them solely4 ,in the ,geography he adds a good deal concerning the orient and northern lands from the reports of ,roman merchants and soldiers4 ,his intention was to repeat briefly what the ancients had already made clear1 and to devote his works chiefly to points which had remained obscure4 ,his ideal was to rest his conclusions upon the surest possible observation2 and where such materials were meager1 as in the case of the ,geography1 he says so at the start4 ,he also recognized that delicate observations should be repeated at long intervals in order to minimize the possibility of error4 ,he devised and described some scientific instruments and conducted a long series of astronomical observations4 ,he anteceded ,comte in holding that one should adopt the simplest possible hypothesis consistent with the facts to be explained4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,optics4 ,besides some minor astronomical works and a treatise on music which seems to be largely a compilation an important work on optics is ascribed to ,ptolemy4#dih ,it is the most experimental in method of his writings1 although ,alexander von ,humboldt's characterization of it as the only work in ancient literature which reveals an investigator of nature in the act of physical experimentation#dii must be regarded as an exaggeration in view of our knowledge of the writings of other ,alexandrines such as ,hero and ,ctesibius4 ,as in the case of some of ,ptolemy's other minor works1 the ,greek original is lost and also the ,arabic text from which was presumably made the medieval ,latin version which alone has come down to us4 ,yet there are at least sixteen manuscripts of this ,latin version still in existence4#ejj ,the translation was made in the twelfth century by ,eugene of ,palermo1 admiral of ,sicily1 whose name is attached to other translations and who was also the author of a number of ,greek poems4#eja ,heller states that the ,optics was lost at the beginning of the seventeenth century but that manuscripts of it were rediscovered by ,laplace and ,delambre4#ejb ,at any rate the first of the five books is no longer extant1 although ,bridges thinks that ,roger ,bacon was acquainted with it in the thirteenth century4#ejc ,it dealt with the relations between the eye and light4 ,in the second book conditions of visibility are discussed and the dependence of the apparent size of bodies upon the angle of vision4 ,the third and fourth books deal with different kinds of mirrors1 plane1 convex1 concave1 conical1 and pyramidical4 ,most important of all is the fifth and last book1 in which dioptrics and refraction are discussed for the first and only time in any extant work of antiquity1#ejd provided the ,optics has really come down in its present form from the time of ,ptolemy4 ,his authorship has been questioned because the subject of refraction is not mentioned in the ,almagest1 although even astronomical refraction is discussed in the ,optics4#eje ,de ,morgan also objects that the author of the ,optics is inferior to ,ptolemy in knowledge of geometry4#ejf ,possibly a work by ,ptolemy has received medieval additions1 either ,arabic or ,latin1 in the version now extant2 maybe the entire fifth book is such a supplement4 ,that works which were not ,ptolemy's might be attributed to him in the middle ages is seen from the case of ,hero's ,catoptrica1 the ,latin translation of which from the ,greek is entitled in the manuscripts ,ptolemaei de speculis4#ejg ,sidenote3 ,medieval translations of ,almagest4 ,if there is1 as in other parallel cases1 the possibility that the medieval period passed off recent discoveries of its own under the authoritative name of ,ptolemy1 there also is the certainty that it made ,ptolemy's genuine works very much its own4 ,this may be illustrated by the case of the ,almagest4 ,on the verge of the medieval period the work was commented upon by ,pappus and ,theon at ,alexandria in the fourth1 and by ,proclus in the fifth century4 ,the ,latin translation by ,boethius is not extant1 but the book was in great repute among the ,arabs1 was translated at ,bagdad early in the ninth century and revised later in the same century by ,tabit ben ,corra4 ,during the twelfth century it was translated into ,latin both from the ,greek and the ,arabic4 ,the translation most familiar in the middle ages was that completed at ,toledo in #aage by the famous translator1 ,gerard of ,cremona4 ,there has recently been discovered1 however1 by ,professors ,haskins and ,lockwood#ejh a ,sicilian translation made direct from the ,greek text some ten or twelve years before ,gerard's translation4 ,there are two manuscripts of this ,sicilian translation in the ,vatican and one at ,florence1 showing that it had at least some ,italian currency4 ,gerard's reputation and his many other astronomical and astrological translations probably account for the greater prevalence of his version1 or possibly the theological opposition to natural science of which the anonymous ,sicilian translator speaks in his preface had some effect in preventing the spread of his version4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,tetrabiblos or ,quadripartitum4 ,of ,ptolemy's genuine works the most germane to and significant for our investigation is his ,tetrabiblos1 ,quadripartitum1 or four books on the control of human life by the stars4 ,it seems to have been translated into ,latin by ,plato of ,tivoli in the first half of the twelfth century#eji before ,almagest or ,geography appeared in ,latin4 ,in the middle of the thirteenth century ,egidius de ,tebaldis1 a ,lombard of the city of ,parma1 further translated the commentary of ,haly ,heben ,rodan upon the ,quadripartitum4#eaj ,in the early ,latin editions#eaa the text is that of the medieval translation2 in the few editions giving a ,greek text there is a different ,latin version translated directly from this ,greek text4#eab ,sidenote3 ,a genuine reflection of ,ptolemy's approval of astrology4 ,in the ,tetrabiblos the art of astrology receives sanction and exposition from perhaps the ablest mathematician and closest scientific observer of the day or at least from one who seemed so to succeeding generations4 ,hence from that time on astrology was able to take shelter from any criticism under the aegis of his authority4 ,not that it lacked other exponents and defenders of great name and ability4 ,naturally the authenticity of the ,tetrabiblos has been questioned by modern admirers of ,hellenic philosophy and science who would keep the reputations of the great men of the past free from all smudge of superstition4 ,but ,franz ,boll has shown that it is by ,ptolemy by a close comparison of it with his other works4#eac ,the astrological ,centiloquium or ,karpos1 and other treatises on divination and astrological images ascribed to ,ptolemy in medieval ,latin manuscripts are probably spurious1 but there is no doubt of his belief in astrology4 ,german research as usual regards its favorite ,posidonius as the ultimate source of much of the ,tetrabiblos1 but this is not a matter of much consequence for our present investigation4 ,sidenote3 ,validity of astrology4 ,in the ,tetrabiblos ,ptolemy first engages in argument as to the validity of the art of judicial astrology4 ,if his remarks in this connection were not already trite contentions1 they soon came to be regarded as truisms4 ,the laws of astronomy are beyond dispute1 says ,ptolemy1 but the art of prediction of human affairs from the courses of the stars may be assailed with more show of reason4 ,opponents of astrology object that the art is uncertain1 and that it is useless since the events decreed by the force of the stars are inevitable4 ,ptolemy opens his argument in favor of the art by assuming as evident that a certain force is diffused from the heavens over all things on earth4 ,if ignorant sailors are able to judge the future weather from the sky1 a highly trained astronomer should be able to predict concerning its influence on man4 ,the art itself should not be rejected because impostors frequently abuse it1 and ,ptolemy admits that it has not yet been brought to the point of perfection and that even the skilful investigator often makes mistakes owing to the incomplete state of human science4 ,for one thing1 ,ptolemy regards the doctrine of the nature of matter held in his time as hypothetical rather than certain4 ,another difficulty is that old configurations of the stars cannot safely be used as the basis of present day predictions4 ,indeed1 so manifold are the different possible positions of the stars and the different possible arrangements of terrestrial matter in relation to the stars that it is difficult to collect enough observations on which to base rules of general judgment4 ,moreover1 such considerations as diversity of place1 of custom1 and of education must be taken into account in foretelling the future of different persons born under the same stars4 ,but although for these reasons predictions frequently fail1 yet the art is not to be condemned any more than one rejects the art of navigation because of frequent shipwrecks4 ,sidenote3 ,influence of the stars not inevitable4 ,nor is it true that the art is useless because the decrees of the stars are inevitable4 ,it is often an advantage to have previous knowledge even of what cannot be avoided4 ,even the prediction of disaster serves to break the news gently4 ,but not all predictions are inevitable and immutable2 this is true only of the motion of the sky itself and events in which it is exclusively concerned4 8,but other events which do not arise solely from the sky's motion1 are easily altered by application of opposite remedies10 just as we can in part remedy the hurt of wounds and diseases or counteract the heat of summer by use of cooling things4 ,the ,egyptians have always found astrology useful in the practice of medicine4 ,sidenote3 ,astrology as natural science4 ,ptolemy next proceeds to set forth the natures and powers of the stars 8according to the observations of the ancients and conformably to natural science40 ,later1 when he comes to the prediction of particulars1 he still professes 8to follow everywhere the law of natural causation10 and in a third passage he states that he 8will omit all those things which do not have a probable natural cause1 which many nevertheless scrutinize curiously and to excess3 nor will ,i pile up divinations by lot-castings or from numbers1 which are unscientific1 but ,i will treat of those which have an investigated certainty based on the positions of the stars and the properties of places40 ,connecting the positions of the stars with earthly regions1--it is an art that fits in well with ,ptolemy's other occupations of astronomer and geographer6 ,the ,tetrabiblos has been called 8,science's surrender10#ead but was it not more truly divination purified and made scientific8 ,sidenote3 ,properties of the planets4 ,taking up first the properties of the seven planets1 ,ptolemy associates with each one or more of the four elemental qualities1 hot1 cold1 dry1 and moist4 ,thus the sun warms and to some extent dries1 for the nearer it comes to our pole the more heat and drought it produces4 ,the moon is moist1 since it is close to the earth and is affected by the vapors from the latter1 while its influence renders other bodies soft and causes putrefaction4 ,but it also warms a little owing to the rays it receives from the sun4 ,saturn chills and to some extent dries1 for it is remote from the sun's heat and earth's damp vapors4 ,mars emits a parching heat1 as its color and proximity to the sun indicate4 ,jupiter1 situated between cold ,saturn and burning ,mars1 is of a rather lukewarm nature but tends more to warmth and moisture than to their opposites4 ,so does ,venus1 but conversely1 for it warms less than ,jupiter does but moistens more1 its large surface catching many vapors from the neighboring earth4 ,in ,mercury1 situated near sun1 moon1 and earth alike1 neither drought nor dampness predominates1 but the velocity of that planet makes it a potent cause of sudden changes4 ,in general1 the planets exert a good or evil influence as they abound in the two rich and vivifying qualities1 heat and moisture1 or in the detrimental ones1 cold and drought4 ,wet stars like the moon and ,venus1 are feminine2 ,mercury is neuter2 the other planets are masculine4 ,the sex of a planet may also1 however1 be reckoned according to its position in relation to the sun and the horizon2 and changes in the influences exerted by the planets are noted according to their position or relation to the sun4 ,this discussion of the properties of the planets is neither convincing nor scientific4 ,it seems arguing in a circle to make their effects upon the earth depend to such an extent upon themselves being affected by vapors from the earth4 ,indeed we are rather surprised that an astronomer like ,ptolemy should represent vapors from the earth as affecting the planets at all4 ,but his discussion is at least an effort1 albeit a feeble one1 to express the potencies of the planets in physical terms4 ,sidenote3 ,remaining contents of ,book ,one4 ,ptolemy goes on to discuss the powers of the fixed stars which seem to depend upon their positions in constellations and their relations to the planets4 ,then he treats of the influence of the four seasons of the year and four cardinal points1 each of which he relates to one of the four qualities1 hot1 cold1 dry1 and moist4 ,with a discussion of the signs of the zodiac and their division into ,houses and relation in ,trigones or ,triplicitates or groups of three connected with the four qualities1 of the exaltation of the planets in the signs and of other divisions of the signs and relations of the planets to them1 the first book ends4 ,sidenote3 ,book ,two3 ,regions4 ,the second book begins by distinguishing prediction of events for whole regions or countries1 such as wars1 pestilences1 famines1 earthquakes1 winds1 drought1 and weather1 from the prediction of events in the lives of individuals4 ,ptolemy holds that events which affect large areas or whole peoples and cities are produced by greater and more valid causes than are the acts of individual men1 and also that in order to predict aright concerning the individual it is necessary to know his region and nationality4 ,he characterizes the inhabitants of the three great climatic zones1#eae quarters the inhabited world into ,europe1 ,libya1 and two parts for ,asia in the style of the ,t maps1 and subdivides these into different countries whose peoples are described1 including such races as the ,amazons4 ,the effects of the stars vary according to time as well as place1 so that the period in which any individual lives is as important to take into account as his nationality4 ,ptolemy also discusses how the heavenly bodies influence the genus of events1 a matter which depends largely upon the signs of the zodiac1 and also how they determine their quality1 good or bad1 and species1 which depends on the dominant stars and their conjunctions4 ,consequently he gives a list of the things which belong under the rule of each planet4 ,the remainder of the second book is concerned chiefly with prediction of wind and weather through the year and with other meteorological phenomena such as comets4 ,sidenote3 ,nativities4 ,the last two books take up the prediction of events in the lives of individuals from the stars1 in other words the science of nativities or genethlialogy4 ,the third book discusses conception and birth1 how to take the horoscope--,ptolemy insists that the astrolabe is the only reliable instrument for determining the exact time2 sun-dials or water-clocks will not do--and how to predict concerning parents1 brothers and sisters1 sex1 twins1 monstrous births1 length of life1 the physical constitution of the child born and what accidents and diseases may befall it1 and finally concerning mental traits and defects4 ,the fourth book deals less with the nature of the individual and more with the prediction of external events which befall the individual3 honors1 office1 marriage1 offspring1 slaves1 travel1 and the sort of death that he will die4 ,ptolemy in opening the fourth book makes the distinction that1 while in the third book he treated of matters antecedent to birth or immediately related to birth or which concern the temperament of the individual1 now he will deal with those external to the body and which happen to the individual from without4 ,but of course it is difficult to maintain such a distinction with entire consistency4 ,sidenote3 ,future influence of the ,tetrabiblos4 ,the great influence of the ,tetrabiblos is shown not only in medieval ,arabic commentaries and ,latin translations1 but more immediately in the astrological writings of the declining ,roman ,empire1 when such astrologers as ,hephaestion of ,thebes1#eaf ,paul of ,alexandria1 and ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus cite it as a leading authoritative work4 ,only the opponents of astrology appear to have remained ignorant of the ,tetrabiblos1 continuing to make criticisms of the art which do not apply to ,ptolemy's presentation of it or which had been specifically answered by him4 ,thus ,sextus ,empiricus1 attacking astrology about #bjj ,a4 ,d41 does not mention the ,tetrabiblos and some of the ,christian critics of astrology apparently had not read it4 ,whether the ,neo-,platonists1 ,porphyry and ,proclus1 wrote an introduction to and commentary upon it is disputed4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,galen ,i4 ,the ,man and ,his ,times ,recent ignorance of ,galen--,his voluminous works--,the manuscript tradition of his works--,his vivid personality--,birth and parentage--,education in philosophy and medicine--,first visit to ,rome--,relations with the emperors2 later life--,his unfavorable picture of the learned world--,corruption of the medical profession--,lack of real search for truth--,poor doctors and medical students--,medical discovery in his time--,the drug trade--,the imperial stores--,galen's private supply of drugs--,mediterranean commerce--,frauds of dealers in wild beasts--,galen's ideal of anonymity--,the ancient book trade--,falsification and mistakes in manuscripts--,galen as a historical source--,ancient slavery--,social life2 food and wine--,allusions to ,judaism and ,christianity--,galen's monotheism--,christian readers of ,galen4 ,,ii4 ,his ,medicine and ,experimental ,science ,four elements and four qualities--,his criticism of atomism--,application of the theory of four qualities in medicine--,his therapeutics obsolete--,some of his medical notions--,two of his cases--,his power of rapid observation and inference--,his happy guesses--,tendency toward scientific measurement--,psychological tests with the pulse--,galen's anatomy and physiology--,experiments in dissection--,did he ever dissect human bodies8--,dissection of animals--,surgical operations--,galen's argument from design--,queries concerning the soul--,no supernatural force in medicine--,galen's experimental instinct--,his attitude toward authorities--,adverse criticism of past writers--,his estimate of ,dioscorides--,galen's dogmatism2 logic and experience--,his account of the ,empirics--,how the ,empirics might have criticized ,galen--,galen's standard of reason and experience--,simples knowable only through experience--,experience and food science--,experience and compounds--,suggestions of experimental method--,difficulty of medical experiment--,empirical remedies--,galen's influence upon medieval experiment--,his more general medieval influence4 ,,iii4 ,his ,attitude ,toward ,magic ,accusations of magic against ,galen--,his charges of magic against others--,charms and wonder-workers--,animal substances inadmissible in medicine--,nastiness of ancient medicine--,parts of animals--,some scepticism--,doctrine of occult virtue--,virtue of the flesh of vipers--,theriac--,magical compounds--,amulets--,incantations and characters--,belief in magic dies hard--,on ,easily ,procurable ,remedies--,specimens of its superstitious contents--,external signs of the temperaments of internal organs--,marvelous statements repeated by ,maimonides--,dreams--,absence of astrology in most of ,galen's medicine--,the ,prognostication of ,disease by ,astrology--,critical days--,on the ,history of ,philosophy--,divination and demons--,celestial bodies4 ' 1 ' 1 1 4 ,khn1 ,,iv1 #eac4 ' 1 4 444 ,khn1 ,,xiii1 #if-a4 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 4 ,khn1 ,,ii1 #agi4 8,but if anyone charges me therewith1 ,i confess my disease from which ,i have suffered all my life long1 to trust none of those who make such statements until ,i have tested them for myself in so far as it has been possible for me to put them to the test40 8,so if anyone after me becomes like me fond of work and zealous for truth1 let him not conclude hastily from two or three cases4 ,for often he will be enlightened through long experience1 just as ,i have been40 7,it is remarkable that ,ptolemy spoke similarly of his predecessor1 ,hipparchus1 as a 8lover of toil and truth0-- 1 quoted by ,orr 7#aiac71 #abb47 8,for one who is to understand any matter better than most men do must straightway differ much from other persons in his nature and earliest education4 ,and when he becomes a lad he must be madly in love with the truth and carried away by enthusiasm for it1 and not let up by day or by night but press on and stretch every nerve to learn whatever the ancients of most repute have said4 ,but having learned it1 he must judge the same and put it to the test for a long1 long time and observe what agrees with visible phenomena and what disagrees1 and so accept the one and reject the other40 ,i4 ,the ,man and ,his ,times ,sidenote3 ,recent ignorance of ,galen4 ,at the close of the nineteenth century one ,english student of the history of medicine said1 8,galen is so inaccessible to ,english readers that it is difficult to learn about him at first hand40#eag ,another wrote1 8,there is1 perhaps1 no other instance of a man of equal intellectual rank who has been so persistently misunderstood and even misinterpreted40#eah ,a third obstacle to the ready comprehension of ,galen has been that while more critical editions of some single works have been published by ,helmreich and others in recent times1#eai no complete edition of his works has appeared since that of ,khn a century ago1#ebj which is now regarded as very faulty4#eba ,a fourth reason for neglect or misunderstanding of ,galen is probably that there is so much by him to be read4 ,sidenote3 ,his voluminous works4 ,athenaeus stated that ,galen wrote more treatises than any other ,greek1 and although many are now lost1 more particularly of his logical and philosophical writings1 his collected extant works in ,greek text and ,latin translation fill some twenty volumes averaging a thousand pages each4 ,when we add that often there are no chapter headings or other brief clues to the contents1#ebb which must be ploughed through slowly and thoroughly1 since some of the most valuable bits of information come in quite incidentally or by way of unlooked-for digression2 that errors in the printed text1 and the technical vocabulary with numerous words not found in most classical dictionaries increase the reader's difficulties2#ebc and that little if any of the text possesses any present medical value1 while much of it is dreary enough reading even for one animated by historical interest1 especially if one has no technical knowledge of medicine and surgery3--when we consider all these deterrents1 we are not surprised that ,galen is little known4 8,few physicians or even scholars in the present day10 continues the ,english historian of medicine quoted above1 8can claim to have read through this vast collection2 ,i certainly least of all4 ,i can only pretend to have touched the fringe1 especially of the anatomical and physiological works40#ebd ,sidenote3 ,the manuscript tradition of ,galen's works4 ,although the works of ,galen are so voluminous1 they have reached us for the most part in comparatively late manuscripts1#ebe and to some extent perhaps only in their medieval form4 ,the extant manuscripts of the ,greek text are mostly of the fifteenth century and represent the enthusiasm of humanists who hoped by reviving the study of ,galen in the original to get something new and better out of him than the schoolmen had4 ,in this expectation they seem to have been for the most part disappointed2 the middle ages had already absorbed ,galen too thoroughly4 ,if it be true1 as ,dr4 ,payne contends1#ebf that the chief original contributions to medical science of the ,renaissance period were the work of men trained in ,greek scholarship1 this was because1 when they failed to get any new ideas from the ,greek texts1 they turned to the more promising path of experimental research which both ,galen and the middle ages had already advocated4 ,the bulky medieval ,latin translations#ebg of ,galen are older than most of the extant ,greek texts2 there are also versions in ,arabic and ,syriac4#ebh ,for the last five books of the ,anatomical ,exercises the only extant text is an ,arabic manuscript not yet published4#ebi ,sidenote3 ,galen's vivid personality4 ,if so comparatively little is generally known about ,galen1 it is not because he had an unattractive personality4 ,nor is it difficult to make out the main events of his life4 ,his works supply an unusual amount of personal information1 and throughout his writings1 unless he is merely transcribing past prescriptions1 he talks like a living man1 detailing incidents of daily life and making upon the reader a vivid and unaffected impression of reality4 ,daremberg asserts#ecj that the exuberance of his imagination and his vanity frequently make us smile4 ,it is true that his pharmacology and therapeutics often strike us as ridiculous1 but he did not imagine them1 they were the medicine of his age4 ,it is true that he mentions cases which he has cured and those in which other physicians have been at fault1 but official war despatches do the same with their own victories and the enemy's defeats4 ,vae victis6 ,in ,galen's case1 at least1 posterity long confirmed his own verdict4 ,and dull or obsolete as his medicine now is1 his scholarly and intellectual ideals and love of hard work at his art are still a living force1 while the reader of his pages often feels himself carried back to the ,roman world of the second century4 ,thus 8the magic of literature10 to quote a fine sentence by ,payne1 8brings together thinkers widely separated in space and time40#eca ,sidenote3 ,birth and parentage4 ,galen--he does not seem to have been called ,claudius until the time of the ,renaissance--was born about #abi ,a4 ,d4#ecb at ,pergamum in ,asia ,minor4 ,his father1 ,nikon1 was an architect and mathematician1 trained in arithmetic1 geometry1 and astronomy4 ,much of this education he transmitted to his son1 but even more valuable1 in ,galen's opinion1 were his precepts to follow no one sect or party but to hear and judge them all1 to despise honor and glory1 and to magnify truth alone4 ,to this teaching ,galen attributes his own peaceful and painless passage through life4 ,he has never grieved over losses of property but managed to get along somehow4 ,he has not minded much when some have vituperated him1 thinking instead of those who praise him4 ,in later life ,galen looked back with great affection upon his father and spoke of his own great good fortune in having as a parent that gentlest1 justest1 most honest and humane of men4 ,on the other hand1 the chief thing that he learned from his mother was to avoid her failings of a sharp temper and tongue1 with which she made life miserable for their household slaves and scolded his father worse than ,xanthippe ever did ,socrates4#ecc ,sidenote3 ,education in philosophy and medicine4 ,in one of his works ,galen speaks of the passionate love and enthusiasm for truth which has possessed him since boyhood1 so that he has not stopped either by day or by night from quest of it4#ecd ,he realized that to become a true scholar required both high natural qualifications and a superior type of education from the start4 ,after his fourteenth year he heard the lectures of various philosophers1 ,platonist and ,peripatetic1 ,stoic and ,epicurean2 but when about seventeen1 warned by a dream of his father1#ece he turned to the study of medicine4 ,this incident of the dream shows that neither ,galen nor his father1 despite their education and intellectual standards1 were free from the current belief in occult influences1 of which we shall find many more instances in ,galen's works4 ,galen first studied medicine for four years under ,satyrus in his native city of ,pergamum1 then under ,pelops at ,smyrna1 later under ,numisianus at ,corinth and ,alexandria4#ecf ,this was about the time that the great mathematician and astronomer1 ,ptolemy1 was completing his observations#ecg in the neighborhood of ,alexandria1 but ,galen does not mention him1 despite his own belief that a first-rate physician should also know such subjects as geometry and astronomy1 music and rhetoric4#ech ,galen's interest in philosophy continued1 however1 and he wrote many logical and philosophical treatises1 most of which are lost4#eci ,his father died when he was twenty1 and it was after this that he went to other cities to study4 ,sidenote3 ,first visit to ,rome4 ,galen returned to ,pergamum to practice and was1 when but twenty-nine1 made the doctor for the gladiators by five successive pontiffs4#edj ,during his thirties came his first residence at ,rome4#eda ,the article on ,galen in ,pauly-,wissowa states that he was driven away from ,rome by the plague1 and in ,de libris propriis he does say that1 8when the great plague broke out there1 ,i hurriedly departed from the city for my native land40#edb ,but in ,de prognosticatione ad ,epigenem his explanation is that he became disgusted with the malice of the envious physicians of the capital1 and determined to return home as soon as the sedition there was over4#edc ,meanwhile he stayed on and gained great fame by his cures but their jealousy and opposition multiplied1 so that presently1 when he learned that the sedition was over1 he went back to ,pergamum4 ,sidenote3 ,relations with the emperors3 later life4 ,his fame1 however1 had come to the imperial ears and he was soon summoned to ,aquileia to meet the emperors on their way north against the invading ,germans4 ,an outbreak of the plague there prevented their proceeding with the campaign immediately1#edd and ,galen states that the emperors fled for ,rome with a few troops1 leaving the rest to suffer from the plague and cold winter4 ,on the way ,lucius ,verus died1 and when ,marcus ,aurelius finally returned to the front1 he allowed ,galen to go back to ,rome as court physician to ,commodus4#ede ,the prevalence of the plague at this time is illustrated by a third encounter which ,galen had with it in ,asia1 when he claims to have saved himself and others by thorough venesection4#edf ,the war lasted much longer than had been anticipated and meanwhile ,galen was occupied chiefly in literary labors1 completing a number of works4 ,in #aib some of his writings and other treasures were lost in a fire which destroyed the ,temple of ,peace on the ,sacred ,way4 ,of some of the works which thus perished he had no other copy himself4 ,in one of his works on compound medicines he explains that some persons may possess the first two books which had already been published1 but that these had perished with others in a shop on the ,sacra ,via when the whole shrine of peace and the great libraries on the ,palatine hill were consumed1 and that his friends1 none of whom possessed copies1 had besought him to begin the work all over again4#edg ,galen was still alive and writing during the early years of the dynasty of the ,severi1 and probably died about #bjj4 ,sidenote3 ,his unfavorable picture of the learned world4 ,although the envy of other physicians at ,rome and their accusing him of resort to magic arts and divination in his marvelous prognostications and cures were perhaps neither the sole nor the true reason for ,galen's temporary withdrawal from the capital1 there probably is a great deal of truth in the picture he paints of the medical profession and learned world of his day4 ,there are too many other ancient witnesses1 from the encyclopedist ,pliny and the satirist ,juvenal to the fourth century lawyer and astrologer1 ,firmicus1 who substantiate his charges to permit us to explain them away as the product of personal bitterness or pessimism4 ,we feel that these men lived in an intellectual society where faction and villainy1 superstition and petty-mindedness and personal enmity1 were more manifest than in the quieter and1 let us hope1 more tolerant learned world of our time4 ,selfishness and pretense1 personal likes and dislikes1 undoubtedly still play their part1 but there is not passionate animosity and open war to the knife on every hand4 ,the status belli may still be characteristic of politics and the business world1 but scholars seem able to live in substantial peace4 ,perhaps it is because there is less prospect of worldly gain for members of the learned professions than in ,galen's day4 ,perhaps it is due to the growth of the impartial scientific spirit1 of unwritten codes of courtesy and ethics within the leading learned professions1 and of state laws concerning such matters as patents1 copyright1 professional degrees1 pure food1 and pure drugs4 ,perhaps1 in the unsatisfactory relations between those who should have been the best educated and most enlightened men of that time we may see an important symptom of the intellectual and ethical decline of the ancient world4 ,sidenote3 ,corruption of the medical profession4 ,galen states that many tire of the long struggle with crafty and wicked men which they have tried to carry on1 relying upon their erudition and honest toil alone1 and withdraw disgusted from the madding crowd to save themselves in dignified retirement4 ,he especially marvels at the evil-mindedness of physicians of reputation at ,rome4 ,though they live in the city1 they are a band of robbers as truly as the brigands of the mountains4 ,he is inclined to account for the roguery of ,roman physicians compared to those of a smaller city by the facts that elsewhere men are not so tempted by the magnitude of possible gain and that in a smaller town everyone is known by everyone else and questionable practices cannot escape general notice4 ,the rich men of ,rome fall easy prey to these unscrupulous practitioners who are ready to flatter them and play up to their weaknesses4 ,these rich men can see the use of arithmetic and geometry1 which enable them to keep their books straight and to build houses for their domestic comfort1 and of divination and astrology1 from which they seek to learn whose heirs they will be1 but they have no appreciation of pure philosophy apart from rhetorical sophistry4#edh ,sidenote3 ,lack of real search for truth4 ,galen more than once complains that there are no real seekers after truth in his time1 but that all are intent upon money1 political power1 or pleasure4 ,you know very well1 he says to one of his friends in the ,de methodo medendi1 that not five men of all those whom we have met prefer to be rather than to seem wise4#edi ,many make a great outward display and pretense in medicine and other arts who have no real knowledge4#eej ,galen several times expresses his scorn for those who spend their mornings in going about saluting their friends1 and their evenings in drinking bouts or in dining with the rich and powerful4 ,yet even his friends have reproached him for studying too much and not going out more4 ,but while they have wasted their hours thus1 he has spent his1 first in learning all that the ancients have discovered that is of value1 then in testing and practicing the same4#eea ,moreover1 now-a-days many are trying to teach others what they have never accomplished themselves4#eeb ,thessalus not only toadied to the rich but secured many pupils by offering to teach them medicine in six months4#eec ,hence it is that tailors and dyers and smiths are abandoning their arts to become physicians4 ,thessalus himself1 ,galen ungenerously taunts1 was educated by a father who plucked wool badly in the women's apartments4#eed ,indeed1 ,galen himself1 by the violence of his invective and the occasional passionateness of his animosity in his controversies with other individuals or schools of medicine1 illustrates that state of war in the intellectual world of his age to which we have adverted4 ,sidenote3 ,poor doctors and medical students4 ,we suggested the possibility that learning compared to other occupations was more remunerative in ,galen's day than in our own1 but there were poor physicians and medical students then1 as well as those greedy for gain or who associated with the rich4 ,many doctors could not afford to use the rarer or stronger simples and limited themselves to easily procured1 inexpensive1 and homely medicaments4#eee ,many of his fellow-students regarded as a counsel of perfection unattainable by them ,galen's plan of hearing all the different medical sects and comparing their merits and testing their validity4#eef ,they said tearfully that this course was all very well for him with his acute genius and his wealthy father behind him1 but that they lacked the money to pursue an advanced education1 perhaps had already lost valuable time under unsatisfactory teachers1 or felt that they did not possess the discrimination to select for themselves what was profitable from several conflicting schools4 ,sidenote3 ,medical discovery in ,galen's time4 ,galen was1 it has already been made apparent1 an intellectual aristocrat1 and possessed little patience with those stupid men who never learn anything for themselves1 though they see a myriad cures worked before their eyes4 ,but that1 apart from his own work1 the medical profession was not entirely stagnant in his time1 he admits when he asserts that many things are known to-day which had not been discovered before1 and when he mentions some curative methods recently invented at ,rome4#eeg ,sidenote3 ,the drug trade4 ,galen supplies considerable information concerning the drug trade in ,rome itself and throughout the empire4 ,he often complains of adulteration and fraud4 ,the physician must know the medicinal simples and their properties himself and be able to detect adulterated medicines1 or the merchants1 perfumers1 and herbarii will deceive him4#eeh ,galen refuses to reveal the methods employed in adulterating opobalsam1 which he had investigated personally1 lest the evil practice spread further4#eei ,at ,rome at least there were dealers in unguents who corresponded roughly to our druggists4 ,galen says there is not an unguent-dealer in ,rome who is unacquainted with herbs from ,crete1 but he asserts that there are equally good medicinal plants growing in the very suburbs of ,rome of which they are totally ignorant1 and he taxes even those who prepare drugs for the emperors with the same oversight4 ,he tells how the herbs from ,crete come wrapped in cartons with the name of the herb written on the outside and sometimes the further statement that it is campestris4#efj ,these ,roman drug stores seem not to have kept open at night1 for ,galen in describing a case speaks of the impossibility of procuring the medicines needed at once because 8the lamps were already lighted40#efa ,sidenote3 ,the imperial stores4 ,the emperors kept a special store of drugs of their own and had botanists in ,sicily1 ,crete1 and ,africa who supplied not only them with medicinal herbs1 but also the city of ,rome as well1 ,galen says4 ,however1 the emperors appear to have reserved a large supply of the finest and rarest simples for their own use4 ,galen mentions a large amount of ,hymettus honey in the imperial stores-- 1#efb whence our word 8apothecary40#efc ,he proves that cinnamon#efd loses its potency with time by his own experience as imperial physician4 ,an assignment of the spice sent to ,marcus ,aurelius from the land of the barbarians 7 7 was superior to what had stood stored in wooden jars from the reigns of ,trajan1 ,hadrian1 and ,antoninus ,pius4 ,commodus exhausted all the recent supply1 and when ,galen was forced to turn to what had been on hand in preparing an antidote for ,severus1 he found it much weaker than before1 although not thirty years had elapsed4 ,that cinnamon was a commodity little known to the populace is indicated by ,galen's mentioning his loss in the fire of #aib of a few precious bits of bark he had stored away in a chest with other treasures4#efe ,he praises the ,severi1 however1 for permitting others to use theriac1 a noted medicine and antidote of which we shall have more to say presently4 ,thus1 he says1 not only have they as emperors received power from the gods1 but in sharing their goods freely they are like the gods1 who rejoice the more1 the more people they save4#eff ,sidenote3 ,galen's private supply of drugs3 terra sigillata4 ,galen himself1 and apparently other physicians1 were not content to rely for medicines either upon the unguent-sellers or the bounty of the imperial stores4 ,galen stored away oil and fat and left them to age until he had enough to last for a hundred years1 including some from his father's lifetime4 ,he used some forty years old in one prescription4#efg ,he also traveled to many parts of the ,roman ,empire and procured rare drugs in the places where they were produced4 ,very interesting is his account of going out of his way in journeying back and forth between ,rome and ,pergamum in order to stop at ,lemnos and procure a supply of the famous terra sigillata1 a reddish clay stamped into pellets with the sacred seal of ,diana4#efh ,on the way to ,rome1 instead of journeying on foot through ,thrace and ,macedonia1 he took ship from the ,troad to ,thessalonica2 but the vessel stopped in ,lemnos at ,myrine on the wrong side of the island1 which ,galen had not realized possessed more than one port1 and the captain would not delay the voyage long enough to enable him to cross the island to the spot where the terra sigillata was to be found4 ,upon his return from ,rome through ,macedonia1 however1 he took pains to visit the right port1 and for the benefit of future travelers gives careful instructions concerning the route to follow and the distances between stated points4 ,he describes the solemn procedure by which the priestess from the neighboring city gathered the red earth from the hill where it was found1 sacrificing no animals1 but wheat and barley to the earth4 ,he brought away with him some twenty thousand of the little discs or seals which were supposed to cure even lethal poisons and the bite of mad dogs4 ,the inhabitants laughed1 however1 at the assertion which ,galen had read in ,dioscorides that the seals were made by mixing the blood of a goat with the earth4 ,berthelot1 the historian of chemistry1 believed that this earth was 8an oxide of iron more or less hydrated and impure40#efi ,in another passage ,galen advises his readers1 if they are ever in ,pamphylia1 to lay in a good supply of the drug carpesium4#egj ,in the ninth book of his work on medicinal simples he tells of three strata of sory1 chalcite1 and misy1 which he had seen in a mine in ,cyprus thirty years before and from which he had brought away a supply1 and of the surprising chemical change which the misy underwent in the course of these years4#ega ,sidenote3 ,mediterranean commerce4 ,galen speaks of receiving other drugs from ,great ,syria1 ,palestine1 ,egypt1 ,cappadocia1 ,pontus1 ,macedonia1 ,gaul1 ,spain1 and ,mauretania1 from the ,celts1 and even from ,india4#egb ,he names other places in ,greece and ,asia ,minor than ,mount ,hymettus where good honey may be had1 and states that much so-called ,attic honey is really from the ,cyclades1 although it is brought to ,athens and there sold or reshipped4 ,similarly1 genuine ,falernian wine is produced only in a small part of ,italy1 but other wines like it are prepared by those who are skilled in such knavery4 ,as the best iris is that of ,illyricum and the best asphalt is from ,judea1 so the best petroselinon is that of ,macedonia1 and merchants export it to almost the entire world just as they do ,attic honey and ,falernian wine4 ,but the petroselinon crop of ,epirus is sent to ,thessalonica and there passed off for ,macedonian4 ,the best turpentine is that of ,chios but a good variety may be obtained from ,libya or ,pontus4 ,the manufacture of drugs has spread recently as well as the commerce in them4 ,the best form of unguent was formerly made only in ,laodicea1 but now it is similarly compounded in many other cities of ,asia ,minor4#egc ,sidenote3 ,frauds of dealers in wild beasts4 ,we are reminded that parts of animals as well as herbs and minerals were important constituents in ancient pharmacy by ,galen's invective against the frauds of hunters and dealers in wild beasts as well as of unguent-sellers4 ,they do not hunt them at the proper season for securing their medicinal virtues1 but when they are no longer in their prime or just after their long period of hibernation1 when they are emaciated4 ,then they fatten them upon improper food1 feed them barley cakes to stuff up and dull their teeth1 or force them to bite frequently so that virus will run out of their mouths4#egd ,sidenote3 ,galen's ideal of anonymity4 ,besides the ancient drug trade1 ,galen gives us some interesting glimpses of the publishing trade1 if we may so term it1 of his time4 ,writing in old age in the ,de methodo medendi1#ege he says that he has never attached his name to one of his works1 never written for the popular ear or for fame1 but fired by zeal for science and truth1 or at the urgent request of friends1 or as a useful exercise for himself1 or1 as now1 in order to forget his old age4 ,popular fame is only an impediment to those who desire to live tranquilly and enjoy the fruits of philosophy4 ,he asks ,eugenianus1 whom he addresses in this passage1 not to praise him immoderately before men1 as he has been wont to do1 and not to inscribe his name in his works4 ,his friends nevertheless prevailed upon him to write two treatises listing his works1#egf and he also is free enough in many of his books in mentioning others which are essential to read before perusing the present volume4#egg ,perhaps he felt differently at different times on the question of fame and anonymity4 ,he also objected to those who read his works1 not to learn anything from them1 but only in order to calumniate them4#egh ,sidenote3 ,the ancient book trade4 ,it was in a shop on the ,sacra ,via that most of the copies of some of ,galen's works were stored when they1 together with the great libraries upon the ,palatine1 were consumed in the fire of #aib4 ,but in another passage ,galen states that the street of the ,sandal-makers is where most of the bookstores in ,rome are located4#egi ,there he saw some men disputing whether a certain treatise was his4 ,it was duly inscribed ,galenus medicus and one man1 because the title was unfamiliar to him1 bought it as a new work by ,galen4 ,but another man who was something of a philologer asked to see the introduction1 and1 after reading a few lines1 declared that the book was not one of ,galen's works4 ,when ,galen was still young1 he wrote three commentaries on the throat and lungs for a fellow student who wished to have something to pass off as his own work upon his return home4 ,this friend died1 however1 and the books got into circulation4#ehj ,galen also complains that notes of his lectures which he has not intended for publication have got abroad1#eha that his servants have stolen and published some of his manuscripts1 and that others have been altered1 corrupted1 and mutilated by those into whose possession they have come1 or have been passed off by them in other lands as their own productions4#ehb ,on the other hand1 some of his pupils keep his teachings to themselves and are unwilling to give others the benefit of them1 so that if they should die suddenly1 his doctrines would be lost4#ehc ,but his own ideal has always been to share his knowledge freely with those who sought it1 and if possible with all mankind4 ,at least one of ,galen's works was taken down from his dictation by short-hand writers1 when1 after his convincing demonstration by dissection concerning respiration and the voice1 ,bothus asked him for commentaries on the subject and sent for stenographers4#ehd ,although ,galen in his travels often purchased and carried home with him large quantities of drugs1 when he made his first trip to ,rome he left all his books in ,asia4#ehe ,sidenote3 ,falsification and mistakes in manuscripts4 ,galen dates the falsification of title pages and contents of books back to the time when kings ,ptolemy of ,egypt and ,attalus of ,pergamum were bidding against each other for volumes for their respective libraries4#ehf ,works were often interpolated then in order to make them larger and so bring a better price4 ,galen speaks more than once of the deplorable ease with which numbers1 signs1 and other abbreviations are altered in manuscripts4#ehg ,a single stroke of the pen or slight erasure will completely change the meaning of a medical prescription4 ,he thinks that such alterations are sometimes malicious and not mere mistakes4 ,so common were they that ,menecrates composed a medical work written out entirely in complete words and entitled ,autocrator ,hologrammatos because it was also dedicated to the emperor4 ,another writer1 ,damocrates1 from whom ,galen often quotes long passages1 composed his book of medicaments in metrical form so that there might be no mistake made even in complete words4 ,sidenote3 ,galen as a historical source4 ,galen's works contain occasional historical information concerning many other matters than books and drugs4 ,clinton in his ,fasti ,romani made much use of ,galen for the chronology of the period in which he lived4 ,his allusions to several of the emperors with whom he had personal relations are valuable bits of source-material4 ,trajan was1 of course1 before his time1 but he testifies to the great improvement of the roads in ,italy which that emperor had effected4#ehh ,galen sheds a little light on the vexed question of the population of the empire1 if ,pergamum is the place he refers to in his estimate of forty thousand citizens or one hundred and twenty thousand inhabitants1 including women and slaves but perhaps not children4#ehi ,sidenote3 ,ancient slavery4 ,galen illustrates for us the evils of ancient slavery in an incident which he relates to show the inadvisability of giving way to one's passions1 especially anger4#eij ,returning from ,rome1 ,galen fell in with a traveler from ,gortyna in ,crete4 ,when they reached ,corinth1 the ,cretan sent his baggage and slaves from ,cenchrea#eia to ,athens by boat1 but himself with a hired vehicle and two slaves went by land with ,galen through ,megara1 ,eleusis1 and ,thriasa4 ,on the way the ,cretan became so angry at the two slaves that he hit them with his sheathed sword so hard that the sheath broke and they were badly wounded4 ,fearing that they would die1 he then made off to escape the consequences of his act1 leaving ,galen to look after the wounded4 ,but later he rejoined ,galen in penitent mood and insisted that ,galen administer a beating to him for his cruelty4 ,galen adds that he himself1 like his father1 had never struck a slave with his own hand and had reproved friends who had broken their slaves' teeth with blows of their fists4 ,others go farther and kick their slaves or gouge their eyes out4 ,the emperor ,hadrian in a moment of anger is said to have blinded a slave with a stylus which he had in his hand4 ,he1 too1 was sorry afterwards and offered the slave money1 but the latter refused it1 telling the emperor that nothing could compensate him for the loss of an eye4 ,in another passage ,galen discusses how many slaves and 8clothes0 one really needs4#eib ,sidenote3 ,social life3 food and wine4 ,galen also depicts the easy-going1 sociable1 and pleasure-loving society of his time4 ,not only physicians but men generally begin the day with salutations and calls1 then separate again1 some to the market-place and law courts1 others to watch the dancers or charioteers4#eic ,others play at dice or pursue love affairs1 or pass the hours at the baths or in eating and drinking or some other bodily pleasure4 ,in the evening they all come together again at symposia which bear no resemblance to the intellectual feasts of ,socrates and ,plato but are mere drinking bouts4 ,galen had no objection1 however1 to the use of wine in moderation and mentions the varieties from different parts of the ,mediterranean world which were especially noted for their medicinal properties4#eid ,he believed that drinking wine discreetly relieved the mind from all worry and melancholy and refreshed it4 8,for we use it every day40#eie ,he affirmed that taken in moderation wine aided digestion and the blood4#eif ,he classed wine with such boons to humanity as medicines1 8a sober and decent mode of life10 and 8the study of literature and liberal disciplines40#eig ,galen's treatise in three books on food values 7,de alimentorum facultatibus7 supplies information concerning the ancient table and dietary science4 ,sidenote3 ,allusions to ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,galen's allusions to ,judaism and ,christianity are of considerable interest4 ,he scarcely seems to have distinguished between them4 ,in two passages in his treatise on differences in the pulse he makes incidental allusion to the followers of ,moses and ,christ1 in both cases speaking of them rather lightly1 not to say contemptuously4 ,in criticizing ,archigenes for using vague and unintelligible language and not giving a sufficient explanation of the point in question1 ,galen says that it is 8as if one had come to a school of ,moses and ,christ and had heard undemonstrated laws40#eih ,and in criticizing opposing sects for their obstinacy he remarks that it would be easier to win over the followers of ,moses and ,christ4#eii ,later we shall speak more fully of a third passage in ,de usu partium#fjj where ,galen criticizes the ,mosaic view of the relation of ,god to nature1 representing it as the opposite extreme to the ,epicurean doctrine of a purely mechanistic and materialistic universe4 ,this suggests that ,galen had read some of the ,old ,testament1 but he might have learned from other sources of the ,dead ,sea and of salts of ,sodom1 of which he speaks in yet another context4#fja ,according to a thirteenth century ,arabian biographer of ,galen1 he spoke more favorably of ,christians in a lost commentary upon ,plato's ,republic1 admiring their morals and admitting their miracles4#fjb ,this last1 as we shall see1 is unlikely1 since ,galen believed in a supreme ,being who worked only through natural law4 8,a confection of ,ioachos1 the martyr or metropolitan10 and 8,a remedy for headache of the monk ,barlama0 occur in the third book of the ,de remediis parabilibus ascribed to ,galen1 but this third book is greatly interpolated or entirely spurious1 citing ,galen himself as well as ,alexander of ,tralles1 the sixth century writer1 and mentioning the ,saracens4 ,wellmann regards it as composed between the seventh and eleventh centuries of our era4#fjc ,sidenote3 ,galen's monotheism4 ,like most thoughtful men of his time1 ,galen tended to believe in one supreme deity1 but he appears to have derived this conception from ,greek rather than ,hebraic sources4 ,it was to philosophy and the ,greek mysteries that he turned for revelation of the deity1 as we shall see4 ,hopeless criminals were for him those whom neither the ,muses nor ,socrates could reform4#fjd ,it is ,plato1 not ,christ1 whom in another treatise he cites as describing the first and greatest ,god as ungenerated and good4 8,and we all naturally love ,him1 being such as ,he is from eternity40#fje ,sidenote3 ,galen's ,christian readers4 ,but while ,galen's monotheism cannot be regarded as of ,christian or ,jewish origin1 it is possible that his argument from design and supporting theology by anatomy made him more acceptable to both ,mohammedan and ,christian readers4 ,at any rate he had ,christian readers at ,rome at the opening of the third century1 when a hostile controversialist complains that some of them even worship ,galen4#fjf ,these early ,christian enthusiasts for natural science1 who also devoted much time to ,aristotle and ,euclid1 were finally excommunicated2 but ,aristotle1 ,euclid1 and ,galen were to return in triumph in medieval learning4 ,,ii4 ,his ,medicine and ,experimental ,science ,sidenote3 ,four elements and four qualities4 ,galen held as his fundamental theory of nature the view which was to prevail through the middle ages1 that all natural objects upon this globe are composed of four elements1 earth1 air1 fire1 and water1#fjg and the cognate view1 which he says ,hippocrates first introduced and ,aristotle later demonstrated1 that all natural objects are characterized by four qualities1 hot1 cold1 dry1 and moist4 ,from the combinations of these four are produced various secondary qualities4#fjh ,neither hypothesis was as yet universally accepted1 however1 and ,galen felt it incumbent upon him to argue against those who contended that the human body and world of nature were made from but one element4#fji ,there were others who ridiculed the four quality hypothesis1 saying that hot and cold were words for bath-keepers1 not for physicians to deal with4#faj ,galen explains that philosophers do not regard any particular variety of earth or any other mineral substance as representing the pure element earth1 which in the philosophical sense is an extremely cold and dry substance to which adamant and rocks make perhaps the closest approach4 ,but the earths that we see are all compound bodies4#faa ,sidenote3 ,criticism of atomism4 ,galen rejected the atomism of ,democritus and ,epicurus1 in which the atoms were indivisible particles differing in shape and size1 but not differing in quality as chemical atoms are supposed to do4 ,he credits ,democritus with the view that such qualities as color and taste are sensed by us from the concourse of atoms1 but do not reside in the atoms themselves4#fab ,galen also makes the criticism that the mere regrouping of 8impassive and immutable0 atoms is not enough to account for the new properties of the compound1 which are often very different from those of the constituents1 as when 8we alter the qualities of medicines in artificial mixtures40#fac ,thus he virtually says that the purely physical atomism of ,democritus will not account for what to-day we call chemical change4 ,he also1 as we shall see1 rejected ,epicurus' theory of a world of nature ruled by blind chance4 ,sidenote3 ,application of the theory of four qualities in medicine4 ,galen of course thought that a dry medicine was good for a moist disease1 and that in a compound medicine1 by mixing a very cold with a slightly cold drug in varying proportions a medicine of any desired degree of coldness might be obtained4#fad ,in general he regarded solids like stones and metals as dry and cold1 while he thought that hot and moist objects tended to evaporate rapidly into air4#fae ,so he declared that dryness of solid bodies was incurable1 while he believed that children's bodies were more easily dissolved than adults' because moister and warmer4#faf ,the ,stoics and many physicians believed that heat prolonged life1 but ,asclepiades pointed out that the ,ethiopians are old at thirty because the hot sun dries up their bodies so1 while the inhabitants of ,britain sometimes live to be one hundred and twenty years old4 ,this last1 however1 was regarded as probably due to the fact that their thicker skins conserved their innate heat longer4#fag ,sidenote3 ,galen's therapeutics obsolete4 ,as an offset to the evidence which will be presented later of the traces of occult virtues1 magic1 and astrology in ,galen's therapeutics ,i should like to be able to indicate the good points in it4 ,but his entire system1 like the four quality theory upon which it is largely based1 seems now obsolete1 and what evidenced his superiority to other physicians in his own day would probably strike the modern reader only as a token of his distinct inferiority to present practice4 ,eighty odd years of modern medical progress since have added further emphasis to ,daremberg's declaration that we have had to throw overboard 8much of his physiology1 nearly all of his pathology and general therapeutics40#fah ,sidenote3 ,some of his medical notions4 ,nevertheless1 we may note a few specimens which perhaps represent his ordinary theory and practice as distinguished from passages in which the influence of magic enters4 ,he holds that bleeding and cold drink are the two chief remedies for fever4#fai ,he notes that children occasionally resemble their grandparents rather than their parents4#fbj ,he disputes the assertion of ,epicurus--one by which some of his followers failed to be guided--that there is no benefit to health in ,aphrodite1 and contends that at certain intervals and in certain individuals and circumstances sexual intercourse is beneficial4#fba ,his discussion of anodynes and stupor or sleep-producing medicines shows that the ancients had anaesthetics of a sort4#fbb ,he recognized the importance of breathing plenty of fresh1 invigorating1 and unpolluted air1 free from any intermixture of impurity from mines1 pits1 or ovens1 or of putridity from decaying vegetable or animal matter1 or of noxious vapors from stagnant water1 swamps1 and rivers4#fbc ,as was usual in ancient and medieval times1 he attributes plagues to the corruption of the air1 which poisons men breathing it1 and tells how ,hippocrates tried to allay a plague at ,athens by purifying the air by fumigation with fires1 odors1 and unguents4#fbd ,sidenote3 ,two of ,galen's cases4 ,two specimens may be given of ,galen's accounts of his own cases4 ,in the first1 some cheese1 which he had told his servants to take away as too sharp1 when mixed with boiled salt pork and applied to the joints1 proved very helpful to a gouty patient and to several others whom he induced to try it4#fbe ,in the second case ,galen administered the following heroic treatment to a woman at ,rome who was afflicted with catarrh to the point of throwing up blood4#fbf ,he did not deem it wise to bleed her1 since for four days past she had gone almost without food4 ,instead he ordered a sharp clyster1 rubbed and bound her hands and feet with a hot drug1 shaved her head and put on it a medicament made of doves' dung4 ,after three hours she was bathed1 care being taken that nothing oily touched her head1 which was then covered up4 ,at first he fed her only gruel1 afterwards some bitter autumn fruit1 and as she was about to go to sleep he administered a medicament made from vipers four months before4 ,on the second day came more rubbing and binding except the head1 and at evening a somewhat smaller dose of the viper remedy4 ,again she slept well and in the morning he gave her a large dose of cooked honey4 ,again her body was well rubbed and she was given barley water and a little bread to eat4 ,on the fourth day an older and therefore stronger variety of viper-remedy was administered and her head was covered with the same medicament as before4 ,its properties1 ,galen explains1 are vehemently drying and heating4 ,again she was given a bath and a little food4 ,on the fifth day ,galen ventured to purge her lungs1 but he returned at intervals to the imposition upon her head4 ,meanwhile he continued the process of rubbing1 bathing1 and dieting1 until finally the patient was well again1--a truly remarkable cure6 ,sidenote3 ,his power of rapid observation and inference4 ,these two cases1 however1 do not give us a just comprehension of ,galen's abilities at their best4 ,in his medical practice he could be as quick and comprehensive an observer and as shrewd in drawing inferences from what he observed as the famous ,sherlock ,holmes1 so that some of his slower-witted contemporaries accused him of possessing the gift of divination4 ,his immediate diagnosis of the case of the ,sicilian physician by noting as he entered the house the excrements in a vessel which a servant was carrying out to the dungheap1 and as he entered the sick-room a medicine set on the window-sill which the patient-physician had been preparing for himself1 amazed the patient and the philosopher ,glaucon#fbg more than1 let us hope in this case in view of his profession1 they would have amazed the estimable ,dr4 ,watson4 ,sidenote3 ,his happy guesses4 ,puschmann has pointed out that ,galen employs certain expressions which seem happy guesses at later discoveries4 ,he writes3 8,galen was supported in his researches by an extremely happy imaginative faculty which put the proper word in his mouth even in cases where he could not possibly arrive at a full understanding of the matter1--where he could only conjecture the truth4 ,when1 for instance1 he declares that sound is carried #8like a wave' 7,khn1 ,,iii1 #fdd71 or expresses the conjecture that the constituent of the atmosphere which is important for breathing also acts by burning 7,,iv1 #fhg71 he expresses thoughts which startle us1 for it was only possible nearly two thousand years later to understand their full significance40#fbh ,sidenote3 ,tendency towards scientific measurement4 ,galen was keenly alive to the need of exactness in weights and measurements4 ,he often criticizes past writers for not stating precisely what ailment the medicament recommended is good for1 and in what proportions the ingredients are to be mixed4 ,he also frequently complains because they do not specify whether they are using the ,greek or ,roman system of weights1 or the ,attic1 ,alexandrine1 or ,ephesian variety of a certain measure4#fbi ,moreover1 he saw the desirability of more accurate means of measuring the passage of time4#fcj ,when he states that even some illustrious physicians of his acquaintance mistake the speed of the pulse and are unable to tell whether it is slow1 fast1 or normal1 we begin to realize something of the difficulties under which medical practice and any sort of experimentation labored before watches were invented1 and how much depended upon the accuracy of human machinery and judgment4 ,yet ,galen estimates that the chief progress made in medical prognostication since ,hippocrates is the gradual development of the art of inferring from the pulse4#fca ,galen tried to improve the time-pieces in use in his age4 ,he states that in any city the inhabitants want to know the time of day accurately1 not merely conjecturally2 and he gives directions how to divide the day into twelve hours by a combination of a sun-dial and a clepsydra1 and how on the water clock to mark the duration of the longest1 shortest1 and equinoctial days of the year4#fcb ,sidenote3 ,psychological tests with the pulse4 ,delicate and difficult as was the task of measuring the pulse in ,galen's time1 he was clever enough to anticipate by seventeen centuries some of the tests which modern psychologists have urged should be applied in criminal trials4 ,he detected the fact that a female patient was not ill but in love by the quickening of her pulse when someone came in from the theater and announced that he had just seen ,pylades dance4 ,when she came again the next day1 ,galen had purposely arranged that someone should enter and say that he had seen ,morphus dancing4 ,this and a similar test on the third day produced no perceptible quickening in the woman's pulse4 ,but it bounded again when on the fourth day ,pylades' name was again spoken4 ,after recounting another analogous incident where he had been able to read the patient's mind1 ,galen asks why former physicians have never availed themselves of these methods4 ,he thinks that they must have had no conception of how the bodily health in general and the pulse in particular can be affected by the 8psyche's0 suffering4#fcc ,we might then call ,galen the first experimental psychologist as well as the first to elaborate the physiology of the nervous system4 ,sidenote3 ,galen's anatomy and physiology4 ,it would scarcely be fair to discuss ,galen's science at all without saying something of his remarkable work in anatomy and physiology4 ,daremberg went so far as to hold that all there is good or bad in his writings comes from good or bad physiology1 and regarded his discussion of the bones and muscles as especially good4#fcd ,he is generally considered the greatest anatomist of antiquity1 but it is barely possible that he may have owed more to predecessors and contemporaries and less to personal research than is apparent from his own writings1 which are the most complete anatomical treatises that have reached us from antiquity4 ,herophilus1 for example1 who was born at ,chalcedon in the closing fourth century ,b4 ,c4 and flourished at ,alexandria under the first ,ptolemy1 discovered the nerves and distinguished them from the sinews1 and thought the brain the center of the nervous system1 so that it is perhaps questionable whether ,payne is justified in calling ,galen 8the founder of the physiology of the nervous system10 and in declaring that 8in physiological diagnosis he stands alone among the ancients40#fce ,however1 if ,galen owed something to ,herophilus1 we owe much of our knowledge of the earlier physiologist to ,galen4#fcf ,sidenote3 ,experiments in dissection4 ,aristotle had held that the heart was the seat of the sensitive soul#fcg and the source of nervous action1 8while the brain was of secondary importance1 being the coldest part of the body1 devoid of blood1 and having for its chief or only function to cool the heart40 ,galen attacked this theory by showing experimentally that 8all the nerves originated in the brain1 either directly or by means of the spinal cord1 which he thought to be a conducting organ merely1 not a center40 8,a thousand times10 he says1 8,i have demonstrated by dissection that the cords in the heart called nerves by ,aristotle are not nerves and have no connection with nerves40 ,he found that sensation and movement were stopped and even the voice and breathing were affected by injuries to the brain1 and that an injury to one side of the brain affected the opposite side of the body4 ,his public demonstration by dissection1 performed in the presence of various philosophers and medical men1 of the connection between the brain and voice and respiration and the commentaries which he immediately afterwards dictated on this point were so convincing1 he tells us fifteen years later1 that no one has ventured openly to dispute them4#fch ,his 8experimental investigation of the spinal cord by sections at different levels and by half sections was still more remarkable40#fci ,galen opposed these experimental proofs to such unscientific arguments on the part of the ,stoic philosopher1 ,chrysippus1 and others1 as that the heart must be the chief organ because it is in the center of the body1 or because one lays one's hand on one's heart to indicate oneself1 or because the lips are moved in a certain way in saying 8,i0 774#fdj ,another noteworthy experiment by ,galen was that in which1 by binding up a section of the femoral artery he proved that the arteries contain blood and not air or spiritus as had been generally supposed4#fda ,he failed1 however1 to perform any experiments with the pulmonary veins1 and so the notion persisted that these conveyed 8spirit0 and not blood from the lungs to the heart4#fdb ,sidenote3 ,did ,galen ever dissect human bodies8 ,it has usually been stated that ,galen never dissected the human body and that his inferences by analogy from his dissection of animals involved him in serious error concerning human anatomy and physiology4 ,certainly he speaks as if opportunities to secure human cadavers or even skeletons were rare4#fdc ,he mentions1 however1 the possibility of obtaining the bodies of criminals condemned to death or cast to beasts in the arena1 or the corpses of robbers which lie unburied in the mountains1 or the bodies of infants exposed by their parents4#fdd ,it is not sufficient1 he states in another passage1#fde to read books about human bones2 one should have them before one's eyes4 ,alexandria is the best place for the student to go to see actual exhibitions of this sort made by the teachers4#fdf ,but even if one cannot go there1 one may be able to procure human bones for oneself1 as ,galen did from a skeleton which had been washed out of a grave by a flooded stream and from the corpse of a robber slain in the mountains4 ,if one cannot get to see a human skeleton by these means or some other1 he should dissect monkeys and apes4 ,sidenote3 ,dissection of animals4 ,indeed ,galen advises the student to dissect apes in any case1 in order to prepare himself for intelligent dissection of the human body1 should he ever have the opportunity4 ,from lack of such previous experience the doctors with the army of ,marcus ,aurelius1 who dissected the body of a dead ,german1 learned nothing except the position of the entrails4 ,galen at any rate dissected a great many animals4 ,tiny animals and insects he let alone1 for the microscope was not yet discovered1 but besides apes and quadrupeds he cut up many reptiles1 mice1 weasels1 birds1 and fish4#fdg ,he also gives an amusing account of the medical men at ,rome gathering to observe the dissection of an elephant in order to discover whether the heart had one or two vertices and two or three ventricles4 ,galen assured them beforehand that it would be found similar to the heart of any other breathing animal4 ,this particular dissection was not1 however1 performed exclusively in the interests of science1 since it was scarcely accomplished when the heart was carried off1 not to a scientific museum1 but by the imperial cooks to their master's table4#fdh ,galen sometimes dissected animals the moment he killed them4 ,thus he observed that the lungs always sensibly shrank from the diaphragm in a dying animal1 whether he killed it by suffocation in water1 or strangling with a noose1 or severing the spinal medulla near the first vertebrae1 or cutting the large arteries or veins4#fdi ,sidenote3 ,surgical operations4 ,surgical operations and medical practice were a third way of learning the human anatomy1 and ,galen complains of the carelessness of those physicians and surgeons who do not take pains to observe it before performing an operation or cure4 ,he himself had had one case where the human heart was laid bare and yet the patient recovered4#fej ,as a young practitioner before he came to ,rome ,galen worked out so successful a method of treating wounds of the sinews that the care of the health of the gladiators in his native city of ,pergamum was entrusted to him by several successive pontifices#fea and he hardly lost a life4 ,in the same passage he again speaks contemptuously of the doctors in the war with the ,germans who were allowed to cut open the bodies of the barbarians but learned no more thereby than a cook would4 ,when ,galen came from ,pergamum to ,rome he found the professions of physicians and surgeons distinct and left cases to the latter which he before had attended to himself4#feb ,we may note finally that he invented a new form of surgical knife4#fec ,sidenote3 ,galen's argument from design4 ,in ,galen's opinion the study of anatomy was important for the philosopher as well as for the physician4 ,an understanding of the use of the parts of the body is helpful to the doctor1 he says1 but much more so to 8the philosopher of medicine who strives to obtain knowledge of all nature40#fed ,in the ,de usu partium#fee he came to the conclusion that in the structure of any animal we have the mark of a wise workman or demiurge1 and of a celestial mind2 and that 8the investigation of the use of the parts of the body lays the foundation of a truly scientific theology which is much greater and more precious than all medicine10 and which reveals the divinity more clearly than even the ,eleusinian mysteries or ,samothracian orgies4 ,thus ,galen adopts the argument from design for the existence of ,god4 ,the modern doctrine of evolution is of course subversive of his premise that the parts of the body are so well constructed for and marvelously adapted to their functions that nothing better is possible1 and consequently of his conclusion that this necessitates a divine maker and planner4 ,in the treatise ,de foetuum formatione ,galen displays a similar inclination but more tentatively and timidly4 ,he thinks that the human body attests the wisdom and power of its maker1#fef whom he wishes the philosophers would reveal to him more clearly and tell him 8whether he is some wise and powerful god40#feg ,the process of the formation of the child in the womb1 the complex human muscular system1 the human tongue alone1 seem to him so wonderful that he will not subscribe to the ,epicurean denial of any all-ruling providence4#feh ,he thinks that nature alone cannot show such wisdom4 ,he has1 however1 sought vainly from philosopher after philosopher for a satisfactory demonstration of the existence of ,god1 and is by no means certain himself4#fei ,sidenote3 ,queries concerning the soul4 ,galen is also at a loss concerning the existence and substance of the soul4 ,he points out that puppies try to bite before their teeth come and that calves try to hook before their horns grow1 as if the soul knew the use of these parts beforehand4 ,it might be argued that the soul itself causes the parts to grow1#ffj but ,galen questions this1 nor is he ready to accept the ,platonic world-soul theory of a divine force permeating all nature4#ffa ,it offends his instinctive piety and sense of fitness to think of the world-soul in such things as reptiles1 vermin1 and putrefying corpses4 ,on the other hand1 he disagrees with those who deny any innate knowledge or standards to the soul and attribute everything to sense perception and certain imaginations and memories based thereon4 ,some even deny the existence of the reasoning faculty1 he says1 and affirm that we are led by the affections of the senses like cattle4 ,for these men courage1 prudence1 temperance1 continence are mere names4#ffb ,sidenote3 ,no supernatural force in medicine4 ,in commenting upon the works of ,hippocrates1 ,galen insists that in speaking of 8something divine0 in diseases ,hippocrates could not have meant supernatural influence1 which he never admits into medicine in other passages4 ,galen tries to explain away the expression as having reference to the effect of the surrounding air4#ffc ,thus while ,galen might look upon nature or certain things in nature as a divine work1 he would not admit any supernatural force in science or medicine1 or anything bordering upon special providence4 ,in the ,de usu partium ,galen states that he agrees with ,moses that 8the beginning of genesis in all things generated0 was 8from the demiurge10 but that he does not agree with him that anything is possible with ,god and that ,god can suddenly turn a stone into a man or make a horse or cow from ashes4 8,in this matter our opinion and that of ,plato and of others among the ,greeks who have written correctly concerning natural science differs from the view of ,moses40 ,in ,galen's view ,god attempts nothing contrary to nature but of all possible natural courses invariably chooses the best4 ,thus ,galen expresses his admiration at nature's providence in keeping the eyebrows and eyelashes of the same length and not letting them grow long like the beard or hair1 but this is because a harder cartilaginous flesh is provided for them to grow in1 and the mere will of ,god would not keep hairs from growing in soft flesh4 ,if ,god had not provided the cartilaginous substance for the eyelashes1 8he would have been more careless1 not merely than ,moses but than a worthless general who builds a wall in a swamp40#ffd ,as between the views on ,god of ,moses and ,epicurus1 ,galen prefers to steer a middle course4 ,sidenote3 ,galen's experimental instinct4 ,already in describing ,galen's dissections and tests with the pulse we have seen evidence of the accurate observation and experimental instincts which accompanied his zest for hard work and zeal for truth4 ,in one of his treatises he confesses that it was a passion of his always to test everything for himself4 8,and if anyone accuses me of this1 ,i will confess my disease1 from which ,i have suffered all my life long1 that ,i have trusted no one of those who narrate such things until ,i have tested it myself1 if it was possible for me to have experience of it40#ffe ,galen also recognized that general theories were not sufficient for exact knowledge and that specific examples seen with one's own eyes were indispensable4#fff ,he maintains that1 if all teachers and writers would realize and observe this1 they would make comparatively few false statements4 ,he saw the danger of making absolute assertions and the need of noting the particular circumstances of each individual case4#ffg ,galen more than once declared that things1 not names1 were important and refused to waste time in disputing about terminology and definitions which might be spent in 8pursuing the knowledge of things themselves40#ffh ,thus we see in ,galen a pragmatic scientist intent upon concrete facts and exact knowledge2 but at the same time it must be recognized that he accepted some universal theorems and general views4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude towards authorities4 ,galen did not believe in merely repeating in new books the statements of previous authorities4 ,ever since boyhood1 he writes in his ,anatomical ,administrations1 it has seemed to him that one should record in writing only one's new discoveries and not repeat what has been said already4#ffi ,nevertheless in some of his writings he collects the prescriptions of past physicians at great length1 and a previous treatise by ,archigenes is practically embodied in one of ,galen's works on compound medicines4 ,on another occasion1 however1 after stating that ,crito had combined previous treatises upon cosmetics1 including the work of ,cleopatra1 into four books of his own which constitute a well-nigh exhaustive treatment of the subject1 ,galen says that he sees no profit in copying ,crito's work again and merely reproduces its table of contents4#fgj ,on the other hand1 as this passage shows1 ,galen thought that the ancients had stated many things admirably and he had little patience with contemporaries who would learn nothing from them but were always ambitiously weaving new and complicated dogmas1 or misinterpreting and perverting the teachings of the ancients4#fga ,his method was rather first to 8make haste and stretch every nerve to learn what the most celebrated of the ancients have said20#fgb then1 having mastered this teaching1 to judge it and put it to the test for a long time and determine by observation how much of it agrees and how much disagrees with actual phenomena1 and then embrace the former portion and reject the latter4 ,sidenote3 ,adverse criticism of past writers4 ,this critical employment of past authorities is frequently illustrated in ,galen's works4 ,he mentions a great many names of past physicians and writers1 thereby shedding some light upon the history of ,greek medicine2 but at times he criticizes his predecessors1 not sparing even ,empedocles and ,aristotle4 ,although he cites ,aristotle a great deal1 he declares that it is not surprising that ,aristotle made many errors in the anatomy of animals1 since he thought that the heart in large animals had a third ventricle4#fgc ,as we have already seen in discussing the topic of weights and measurements1 ,galen especially objects to the vagueness and inaccuracy of many past medical writers1#fgd or praises individuals like ,heras who give specific information4#fge ,he also shows a preference for writers who give first-hand information1 commending ,heraclides of ,tarentum as a trustworthy man1 if there ever was one1 who set down only those things proved by his own experience4#fgf ,galen declares that one could spend a lifetime in reading the books that have already been written upon medicinal simples4 ,he urges his readers1 however1 to abstain from ,andreas and other liars of that stamp1 and above all to eschew ,pamphilus who never saw even in a dream the herbs which he describes4 ,sidenote3 ,galen's estimate of ,dioscorides4 ,of all previous writers upon materia medica ,galen preferred ,dioscorides4 ,he writes1 8,but ,anazarbensis ,dioscorides in five books discussed all useful material not only of herbs but of trees and fruits and juices and liquors1 treating besides both all metals and the parts of animals40#fgg ,yet he does not hesitate to criticize certain statements of ,dioscorides1 such as the story of mixing goat's blood with the terra sigillata of ,lemnos4 ,dioscorides had also attributed marvelous virtues to the stone ,gagates which he said came from a river of that name in ,lycia2 ,galen's comment is that he has skirted the entire coast of ,lycia in a small boat and found no such stream4#fgh ,he also wonders that ,dioscorides described butter as made of the milk of sheep and goats1 and correctly states that 8this drug0 is made from cows' milk4#fgi ,galen does not mention its use as a food in his work on medicinal simples1 and in his treatise upon food values he alludes to butter rather incidentally in the chapter on milk1 stating that it is a fatty substance and easily recognized by tasting it1 that it has many of the properties of oil1 and in cold countries is sometimes used in baths in place of oil4#fhj ,galen further criticizes ,dioscorides for his unfamiliarity with the ,greek language and consequent failure to grasp the significance of many ,greek names4 ,sidenote3 ,galen's dogmatism3 logic and experience4 ,daremberg said of ,galen that he represented at the same time the most exaggerated dogmatism and the most advanced experimental school4 ,there is some justification for the paradox1 though the latter part seems to me the truer4 ,but ,galen was proud of his training in philosophy and logic and mathematics2 he stood fast by many ,hippocratic dogmas such as the four qualities theory1 he thought#fha that in medicine as in geometry there were a certain number of self-evident maxims upon which reason1 conforming to the rules of logic1 might build up a scientific structure4 ,in the ,de methodo medendi#fhb he makes a distinction between the discovery of drugs and medicines1 simple or compound1 by experience and the methodical treatment of disease which he now sets forth and which should proceed logically and independently of mere empiricism1 and he wishes that other medical writers would make it clear when they are relying merely on experience and when exclusively upon reason4#fhc ,at the same time he expresses his dislike for mere dogmatizers who shout their ipse dixits like tyrants without the support either of reason or experience4#fhd ,he also grants that the ordinary man1 taught by nature alone1 often instinctively pursues a better course of action for his health than 8the sophists0 are able to advise4#fhe ,indeed1 he is of the opinion that some doctors would do well to stick to experience alone and not try to mix in reasoning1 since they are not trained in logic1 and when they endeavor to divide or analyze a theme1 perform like unskilled carvers who fail to find the joints and mutilate the roast4#fhf ,later on in the same work#fhg he again affirms that persons who will not read and profit by the books of medical authorities and whose own reasoning is defective1 should limit themselves to experience4 ,sidenote3 ,galen's account of the ,empirics4 ,normally1 however1 ,galen upholds both reason and experience as criteria of truth against the opposing schools of ,dogmatics and ,empirics4 ,the former attacked experience as uncertain and impossible to regulate1 slow and unmethodical4 ,the latter replied that experience was consistent1 adaptable to art1 and proof enough4#fhh ,galen's chief objection to the ,empirics is that they reject reason as a criterion of truth and wish the medical art to be irrational4#fhi 8,the ,empirics say that all things are discovered by experience1 but we say that some are found by experience and some by reason40#fij ,galen also objects to ,herodotus's explanation of the medical art as originating in the conversation of patients exposed at crossroads who told one another of their complaints and recoveries and thus evolved a fund of common experience4#fia ,galen criticizes such experience as irrational and not yet put into scientific form 7 74 ,of the ,empirics he tells us further that they regard phenomena only and ignore causes and put no trust in reasoning4 ,they hold that there is no system or necessary order in medical discovery or doctrine1 and that some remedies have been discovered by dreams1 others by chance4 ,they also accepted written accounts of past experiences and thus to a certain extent trusted in tradition4 ,galen argues that they should test these statements of past authorities by reason4#fib ,his further contention that1 if they test them by experience1 they might as well reject all writings and trust only to present experience from the start1 is a sophistical quibble unworthy of him4 ,he adds1 however1 that the ,empirics themselves say that past tradition or 8history0 77 should not be judged by experience1 but it is unlikely that he represents their view correctly in this particular4 ,in another passage#fic he says that they distinguish three kinds of experience1 chance or accidental1 offhand or impromptu1 and imitative or the repetition of the same thing4 ,in a third passage#fid he repeats that they held that observation of one or two instances was not enough1 but that oft-repeated observation was needed with all conditions the same each time4 ,in yet another place#fie he says that the ,empirics observe coincidences in things joined by experience4 ,he himself defines experience as the comprehending and remembering of something seen often and in the same condition1#fif and makes the good point that one cannot observe satisfactorily without use of reason4#fig ,he also admits in one place that some ,empirics are ready to employ reason as well as experience4#fih ,sidenote3 ,how the ,empirics might have criticized ,galen4 ,having noted ,galen's criticism of the ,empirics1 we may imagine what their attitude would be towards his medicine4 ,they would probably reject all his theories--which we1 too1 have finally discarded--of four elements and four qualities and the like1 and would accept only his specific recommendations for the cure of disease based upon his medical experience2 except that they would also be credulous concerning anything which he assured them was based upon his own or another's experience1 whether it truly was or not4 ,they would1 however1 have probably questioned much of his anatomical inference from the dissection of the lower animals1 since he tells us that they 8have written whole books against anatomy40#fii ,considering the state of knowledge in their time1 their refusal to attempt any large generalizations or to hazard any scientific hypotheses or to build any risky medical system was in a way commendable1 but their credulity as to particulars was a weakness4 ,sidenote3 ,galen's standard of reason and experience4 ,on the whole ,galen's attitude towards experience seems an improvement upon theirs4 ,he was apparently more critical towards the 8experiences0 of past writers than the average ,empiric1 and in his combination of reason and experience he came a little nearer to modern experimental method4 ,reason alone1 he says1 discovers some things1 experience alone discovers some1 but to find others requires use of both experience and reason4#gjj ,in his treatise upon critical days he keeps reiterating that their existence is proved both by reason and experience4 ,these two instruments in judging things given us by nature supplement each other4#gja 8,logical methods have force in finding what is sought1 but in believing what has been well found there are two criteria for all men1 reason and experience40#gjb 8,what can you do with men who cannot be persuaded either by reason or by practice80#gjc ,galen also speaks of discovering a truth by logic and being thereby encouraged to try it in practice and of then verifying it by experience4#gjd ,this1 however1 is not quite the same thing as saying that the scientist should aim to discover new truth by purposive experiments1 or that from a number of experiences reason may infer some general law of nature4 ,sidenote3 ,simples knowable only from experience4 ,it is perhaps in his work on medicinal simples that ,galen lays most stress upon the importance of experience4 ,indeed he sees no other way to learn the properties of natural objects than through the experience of the senses4#gje 8,for by the gods10 he exclaims1 8how is it that we know that fire is hot8 ,are we taught it by some syllogism or persuaded of it by some demonstration8 ,and how do we learn that ice is cold except from the senses80#gjf ,and ,galen sees no advantage in spending further time in arguments and hair-splitting where one can learn the truth at once from the senses4 ,this thought he keeps repeating through the treatise1 saying1 for example1 8,the surest judge of all will be experience alone1 and those who abandon it and reason on any other basis not only are deceived but destroy the value of the treatise40#gjg ,moreover1 he restricts his account of medicinal simples to those with which he is personally acquainted4 ,in the three books treating of plants he does not mention all those found in all parts of the world1 but only as many as it has been his privilege to know by experience4#gjh ,he proposes to follow the same rule in the ensuing discussion of animals and to say nothing of virtues which he has not tested or of substances mentioned in the writings of past physicians but unknown to him4 ,he dares not trust their statements when he reflects how some have lied in such matters4 ,in the middle ages ,albertus ,magnus talks in much the same strain in his works on animals1 plants1 and minerals1 and perhaps he was stimulated to such ideals1 consciously or unconsciously1 directly by reading ,galen or indirectly through ,arabic works1 by ,galen's earlier expression of them4 ,galen mentions some virtues ascribed to substances which he has tested by experience and found false1 such as the medicinal properties attributed to the belly of a seagull#gji and some of those claimed for the marine animal called torpedo4#gaj ,anointing the place with frog's blood or dog's milk will not prevent eyebrows that have been plucked out from growing again1 nor will bat's blood and viper's fat remove hair from the arm-pits4#gaa ,also the brain of a hare is only fairly good for boys' teeth4#gab ,sidenote3 ,experience and food science4 ,in beginning his work on food values#gac ,galen states that many have discussed the properties of aliments1 some on the basis of reason alone1 some on the basis of experience alone1 but that their statements do not agree4 ,on the whole1 since reasoning is not easy for everyone1 requiring natural sagacity and training from childhood1 he thinks it better to start from experience1 especially since not a few physicians are of the opinion that only thus can the properties of foods be learned4 ,sidenote3 ,experience and compounds4 ,the ,empirics contended that most compound medicines had been hit upon by chance1 and ,galen grants that the ,dogmatics usually are unable to give reasons for the ingredients of their doses and find difficulty in reproducing a lost prescription4#gad ,but he holds that reasons can be given for the constituents of the compound and that the logical discovery of such remedies differs from the empirical4#gae ,his own method was to learn the nature of each disease and the varied properties of simples1 and then prepare a compound suited to the disease and to the patient4#gaf ,on the other hand1 we see how much depends upon experience from his confession that sometimes he has hastily prepared a compound from a few simples1 sometimes from more1 sometimes from a great variety4 ,if the compound worked well1 he would continue to use it1 sometimes making it stronger and sometimes weaker4#gag ,for as you cannot put together compounds without rational method1 so you cannot tell their strength certainly and accurately without experience4#gah ,he admits that no one can tell the exact quantity of each ingredient to employ without the aid of experience1#gai and says1 8,the proper proportions in the mixture we shall find conjecturally before experience1 scientifically after experience40#gbj ,in these treatises upon compound medicines1 unlike that on medicinal simples1 ,galen gives the prescriptions of former physicians as well as some tested by his own experience4#gba ,sometimes1 however1 he expresses a preference for the medicines of those writers who were 8most experienced02 and once says that he will give some compounds of the more recent writers1 who in their turn had selected the best from older writers of long experience and added later discoveries4#gbb ,we suspect1 however1 that some of these prescriptions had not been tested for centuries4 ,sidenote3 ,suggestions of experimental method4 ,galen gives a few directions how to regulate medical observation and experience1 although they cannot be said to carry us very far on the road to modern laboratory research4 ,he saw the value of 8long experience10 a phrase which he often employs4#gbc ,he states that one experience is enough to learn how to prepare a drug1 but to learn to know the best medicines in each kind and in different places many experiences are required4#gbd ,medicinal simples should be frequently inspected1 8since the knowledge of things perceived by the senses is strengthened by careful examination40#gbe ,galen advises the student of medicine to study herbs1 trees1 and fruit as they grow1 to find out when it is best to pluck them1 how to preserve them1 and so on4 ,but elsewhere he states that it is possible to estimate the general virtue of the simple from one or two experiences4#gbf ,however1 he suggests that their effect be noted in the three cases of a perfectly healthy person1 a slightly ailing patient1 and a really sick man4#gbg ,in the last case one should further note their varying effects as the disease is marked by any excess of heat1 cold1 dryness1 or moisture4 ,care should be taken that the simples themselves are pure and free from any admixture of a foreign substance4#gbh 8,it is also essential to test the relation to the nature of the patient of all those things of which great use is made in the medical art40#gbi ,one condition to be observed in experimental investigation of critical days is to count no cases where any slip has been made by physician or patient or bystanders or where any other foreign factor has done harm4#gcj ,galen was acquainted with physical experiments in siphoning1 for he says that1 if one withdraws the air from a vessel containing sand and water1 the sand will follow before the water1 which is the heavier 7sic874#gca ,sidenote3 ,difficulty of medical experiment4 ,galen also points out some of the difficulties of medical experimentation4 ,one is the extreme unlikelihood of ever being able to observe in even two cases the same combination of symptoms and circumstances4#gcb ,the other is the danger to the life of the patient from rash experimenting4#gcc ,thus ,galen more than once tells us of abstaining from testing some remedy because he had others of whose effects he was surer4 ,sidenote3 ,empirical remedies4 ,in the treatise on easily procurable remedies ascribed to ,galen1#gcd in which we have already seen evidence of later interpolation or authorship1 some recipes are concluded by such expressions as1 8,this has been experienced2 it works unceasingly10#gce or 8,another remedy tested by us in many cases40#gcf ,this became a custom in many subsequent medical works1 including those of the middle ages4 ,one recipe is introduced by the caution1 8,but don't cure anybody unless you have been paid first1 for this has been tested in many cases40#gcg ,but we are left in some doubt whether we should infer that remedies tested by experience are so superior that they call for cash payment rather than credit1 or so uncertain that it is advisable that the physician secure his fee before the outcome is known4 ,in the middle ages the word experimentum was used a great deal as a synonym for any medical treatment1 recipe1 or prescription4 ,galen approaches this usage1 which we have already noticed in ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 when he describes 8a very important experiment0 in bleeding performed by certain doctors at ,rome4#gch ,sidenote3 ,galen's influence upon medieval experiment4 ,indeed ,galen appears to have exerted a great influence in the middle ages by his passages concerning experience in particular as well as by his medicine in general4 ,medieval writers cite him as an authority for the recognition of experience and reason as criteria of truth4#gci ,gilbert of ,england cites 8experiences from the book of experiments experienced by ,galen10#gdj and we shall find more than one such apocryphal work ascribed to ,galen in the middle ages4 ,john of ,st4 ,amand seems to have developed seven rules#gda which he gives for discovering experimentally the properties of medicinal simples from what we have heard ,galen say on the subject1 and in another work1 the ,concordances1 ,john collects a number of passages about experience from the works of ,galen4#gdb ,peter of ,spain1 who died as ,pope ,john ,,xxi in #abgg1 cites ,galen in his discussion of 8the way of experience0 and 8the way of reason0 in his ,commentaries on ,isaac on ,diets4#gdc ,we have already suggested ,galen's possible influence upon ,albertus ,magnus1 and we might add ,roger ,bacon who wrote some treatises on medicine4 ,but it is hardly possible to tell whether such ideas were in the air1 or were due to ,galen individually either in their origin or their transmission4 ,but he made a rather close approach to the medieval attitude in his equal regard for logic and for experimentation4 ,sidenote3 ,his more general medieval influence4 ,the more general influence of ,galen upon all sides of the medicine of the following fifteen centuries has often been stated in sweeping terms1 but is difficult to exaggerate4 ,his general theories1 his particular cures1 his occasional marvelous stories1 were often repeated or paraphrased4 ,oribasius has been called 8the ape of ,galen10 and we shall see that the epithet might with equal reason be applied to ,atius of ,amida4 ,indeed1 as in the case of ,pliny1 we shall find plenty of instances of ,galen's influence in our later chapters4 ,perhaps as good a single instance of medieval study of ,galen as could be given is from the ,concordances of ,john of ,st4 ,amand already mentioned1 which bear the alternative title1 8,recalled to ,mind0 7,revocativum memoriae71 since they were written to 8relieve from toil and worry scholars who often spend sleepless nights in searching for points in the books of ,galen40#gdd ,or we may note how the associates of the twelfth century translator from the ,arabic1 ,gerard of ,cremona1 added a list of his works at the close of his translation of ,galen's ,tegni1 8imitating ,galen in the commemoration of his books at the end of the same treatise10 as they themselves state4#gde ,not that medieval men did not make additions of their own to ,galen4 ,for instance1 the noted ,jewish philosopher1 ,moses ,maimonides1 in adding his collection of medical ,aphorisms to the many previous compilations of this sort by ,hippocrates1 ,rasis 7,muhammad ibn ,zakariya71 ,mesu 7,yuhanna ibn ,masawaih71 and others1 states that he has drawn them mainly from the works of ,galen1 but that he supplements these with some in his own name and some by other 8moderns40#gdf ,not that ,galen was not sometimes criticized or questioned4 ,a later ,greek writer1 ,symeon ,seth1 ventured to devote a special treatise to a refutation of some of ,galen's physiological views4 ,in it1 addressing himself to those 8persons who regard you1 ,o ,galen1 as a god10 he endeavored to make them realize that no human being is infallible4#gdg ,among the medical treatises of ,gentile da ,foligno1 who was papal physician and performed a public dissection at ,padua in #acda1gdh is found a brief argument against ,galen's fifth aphorism4#gdi ,but such criticism or opposition only shows how generally ,galen was accepted as an authority4 ,,iii4 ,his ,attitude ,towards ,magic ,from ,galen's habits of critical estimation rather than blind acceptation of authority1 of scientific observation1 careful measurement1 and personal experiment1 from his brilliant demonstrations by dissection1 and his medical prognostication and therapeutics1 sane and shrewd for his time1--from these we have now to turn to the other side of the picture1 and examine what information his works afford us concerning the magic and astrology in ancient medicine1 concerning the belief in occult virtues1 suspensions1 characters1 incantations1 and the like4 ,we may first consider what he has to say concerning magic and divination as he understands those words1 and then take up his attitude to those other matters which we look upon as almost equally deserving classification under those heads4 ,sidenote3 ,accusations of magic against ,galen4 ,apollonius of ,tyana and ,apuleius of ,madaura were not the only celebrated men of learning in the early ,roman ,empire to be accused of magic2 we have already alluded to the charges of magic made against ,galen by the envious physicians of ,rome during his first residence in that city4 ,it is hard to escape the conviction that at that time learned men were very liable to be suspected or accused of magic4 ,indeed1 ,galen makes the general assertion that when a physician prognosticates aright concerning the future course of a malady1 this seems so marvelous to most men that they would receive him with great affection1 if they did not often regard him as a wizard4#gej ,soon after saying this1 ,galen begins the story of the prognostications he made and the cure he wrought1 when all the other doctors took an opposite view of the case4#gea ,one of them then jealously suggested that ,galen's diagnosis was due to divination4#geb ,when asked by what kind of divination1 he gave different answers at different times and to different persons1 sometimes saying by dreams1 sometimes by sacrificing1 again by symbols1 or by astrology4 ,afterwards such charges against ,galen kept multiplying4#gec ,as a result1 ,galen says that since then he has not gone about advertising his prognostications like a herald1 lest the physicians and philosophers hate him the more and slander him as a wizard and diviner1 but that he now reveals his discoveries only to his friends4#ged ,in another treatise he represents ,hippocrates as saying that a proficient doctor should be able to prognosticate the course of diseases1 but adds that contemporary physicians call such a doctor a sorcerer and wonder-worker 7 74#gee ,again in his work on medicinal simples#gef he states that he abstained from testing the supposed virtue of crocodile's blood in sharpening the vision1 and the blood of house mice in removing warts1 partly because he had other reliable eye-medicines and cures for warts--such as myrmecia1 a gem with wart-like lumps1 partly because by employing such substances he feared to incur the reputation of a sorcerer1 since jealous physicians were already slandering his medical prognostications as divination4 ,this last passage affords a good illustration of the close connection with magic of certain natural substances supposed to possess marvelous virtues1 while ,galen's wart stone also seems magical to the modern reader4 ,sidenote3 ,his charges of magic against others4 ,galen himself sometimes calls other physicians magicians4 ,certain men with whom he does not agree are called by him 8liars or wizards or ,i don't know what to say10#geg and another man who used mouse dung to excess he calls superstitious and a sorcerer4#geh ,in the same work on simples#gei he says that he will list herbs in alphabetical order as ,pamphilus did1 but that he will not like him descend to old wives' tales1 ,egyptian sorceries and incantations1 amulets and other magical devices1 which not only do not belong in the medical art but are utterly false4 ,pamphilus never saw most of the herbs he mentioned1 much less tested their virtues1 but copied anything he found1 piling up names1 incantations1 and wizardry4 ,galen accuses ,xenocrates ,aphrodisiensis also of not having eschewed sorcery1 and he notes that medical writers have either said nothing about sweat or what is superstitious and bordering upon magic4#gfj ,sidenote3 ,charms and wonder-workers4 ,philters1 love-charms1 dream-draughts1 and imprecations ,galen regards as impossible or injurious1 and intends to have nothing to do with them4 ,he thinks it ridiculous to believe that by such spells one can bewitch one's adversaries so that they cannot plead in court1 or conceive or bear children4 ,he considers it worse to advertise and perpetuate such false or criminal notions in writings than to practice such a crime but once4#gfa ,in one passage1#gfb however1 to illustrate his theory that the gods prepare the sperms of plants and animals1 and set them going as it were1 and afterwards leave them to themselves1 ,galen compares them to the wonder-workers--who were perhaps not magicians but men similar to our sidewalk fakirs who exhibit mechanical toys--who start things moving and then go away themselves while what they have prepared moves on artificially for a time4 ,sidenote3 ,animal substance inadmissible in medicine4 ,galen's own works are not entirely free from the magical devices of which he accuses others4 ,we may begin with animal substances1 since he himself has testified that the use of sweat1 crocodile's blood1 and mouse's dung is suggestive of magic4 ,moreover1 he attributes more bizarre virtues to the parts of animals than to herbs or stones4 ,in a passage somewhat similar to that in which ,pliny#gfc expressed his horror at the use of human blood1 entrails1 and skulls as medicines1 ,galen declares that he will not mention the abominable and detestable1 as ,xenocrates and some others have done4 ,the ,roman law has long forbidden eating human flesh1 while ,galen regards even the mention of certain secretions and excrements of the human body as offensive to modest ears4#gfd ,nevertheless1 before long he offends against his own standard and describes how he administered to patients the very substance which he had before characterized as most unmentionable4#gfe ,it may also be noted that he repeats unquestioningly such a tale as that the cubs of the bear are born unformed and licked into shape by their mother4#gff ,sidenote3 ,nastiness of ancient medicine4 ,further milder illustrations of the fact that such nasty substances were then not merely recommended in books but freely employed in actual medical practice1 are seen in the frequent use by one of ,galen's teachers of the dung of dogs who for two days before had eaten nothing but bones1#gfg in ,galen's own wonderfully successful treatment of a tumor on a rustic's knee with goat dung--which is1 however1 too sharp for the skins of children or city ladies1#gfh and in his discovery by repeated experience that the dung of doves who take little exercise is less potent than that of those who take much1#gfi ,galen also says that he has known of doctors who have cured many persons by giving them burnt human bones in drink without their knowledge4#ggj ,sidenote3 ,parts of animals4 ,galen's medicinal simples include the bile of bulls1 hyenas1 cocks1 partridges1 and other animals4#gga ,a digestive oil can be manufactured by cooking foxes and hyenas1 some alive and some dead1 whole in oil4#ggb ,galen discusses with perfect seriousness the relative strength of various animal fats1 those of the goose1 hen1 hyena1 goat1 pig1 and so forth4#ggc ,he decides that lion's fat is by far the most potent1 with that of the pard next4 ,among his simples are also found the slough of a snake1 a sheepskin1 the lichens of horses1 a spider's web1#ggd and burnt young swallows1 for whose introduction into medicine he gives ,asclepiades credit4#gge ,of ,archigenes' prescriptions for toothache he repeats that which recommended holding for some time in the mouth a frog boiled in water and vinegar1 or a dog's tooth1 burnt1 pulverized1 and boiled in vinegar4#ggf ,cavities may be filled with toasted earthworms or spiders' eggs diluted with unguent of nard4 ,teething infants are benefited1 if their gums are moistened with dog's milk or anointed with hare's brains4#ggg ,for colic he recommends dried cicadas with three1 five1 or seven grains of pepper4#ggh ,sidenote3 ,some scepticism4 ,galen is less confident as to the efficacy for earache of the multipedes which roll themselves up into a ball1 and which1 cooked in oil1 are employed especially by rural doctors4#ggi ,he is still more sceptical whether the liver of a mad dog will cure its bite4#ghj ,many say so1 and he knows of some who have tried it and survived1 but they took other remedies too4#gha ,galen has heard that some who trusted to it alone died4 ,in one treatise#ghb ,galen discusses the strange virtues of the basilisk in much the usual way1 but in his work on simples#ghc he remarks drily that it is obviously impossible to employ it in pharmacy1 since1 if the tales about it be true1 men cannot see it and live or even approach it without danger4 ,he therefore will not include it or elephants or ,nile horses 7hippopotamuses87 or any other animals of which he has had no personal experience4 ,sidenote3 ,doctrine of occult virtue4 ,galen tries to find some satisfactory explanation of the strange properties which he believes exist in so many things4 ,the attractive power of the magnet and of drugs suggests to him that nature in us is divine1 as ,homer says1 and leads like to like and thus shows its divine virtues4#ghd ,galen rejects ,epicurus's explanation of the magnet's attractive power4#ghe ,it was that the atoms flowing off from both the magnet and iron fit one another so closely that the two substances are drawn together4 ,galen objects that this does not explain how a whole series of rings can be suspended in a row from a magnet4 ,galen's teacher ,pelops1 who claimed to be able to tell the cause of everything1 explained why ashes of river crabs are used for the bite of a mad dog as follows4#ghf ,the crab is efficacious against hydrophobia because it is an aquatic animal4 ,river crabs are better for this purpose than salt water crabs because salt dries up moisture4 ,he also thought the ashes of crabs very potent in absorbing the venom4 ,but this type of reasoning is unsatisfactory to ,galen1 who finds the best explanation of all such action in the peculiar property1 or occult virtue1 of the substance as a whole4 ,upon this subject#ghg he proposes to write a separate treatise1 and in the fragment ,de substantia facultatum naturalium 7 7 he again discusses the matter4#ghh ,sidenote3 ,virtue of the flesh of vipers4 ,among parts of animals ,galen regarded the flesh of vipers as especially medicinal1 particularly as an antidote to poisons4 ,of the following cures wrought by vipers' flesh which ,galen narrates#ghi two were repeated without giving him credit by ,atius of ,amida in the sixth1 and ,bartholomew of ,england in the thirteenth century1 and doubtless by other writers4 ,when ,galen was a youth in ,asia1 some reapers found a dead viper in their jug of wine and so were afraid to drink any of it4 ,instead they gave it to a man near by who suffered from the terrible skin disease elephantiasis and whom they thought it would be a mercy to put quietly out of his misery4 ,he drank the wine but instead of dying recovered from his disease4 ,a similarly unexpected cure was effected when a slave wife in ,mysia tried to kill her husband by offering him a like drink4 ,a third case was that of a patient whom ,galen told of these two previous cures4 ,after resorting to augury to learn if he too should try it and receiving a favorable response1 the patient drank wine infected by venom with the result that his elephantiasis changed into leprosy1 which ,galen cured a little later with the usual drugs4 ,a fourth man1 while hunting vipers1 was stung by one4 ,galen bled him1 extracted black bile with a drug1 and then made him eat the vipers which he had caught and which were prepared in oil like eels4 ,a fifth man1 warned by a dream1 came from ,thrace to ,pergamum4 ,another dream instructed him both to drink1 and to anoint himself with1 a concoction of vipers4 ,this changed his disease into leprosy which in its turn was cured by drugs which the god prescribed4 ,sidenote3 ,theriac4 ,the flesh of vipers was an important ingredient in the famous antidote and remedy called theriac1 concerning which ,galen wrote two special treatises#gij besides discussing it in his works on simples and antidotes4 ,mithridates1 like ,king ,attalus in ,galen's native land1 had tested the effects of various drugs upon condemned criminals1 and had thus discovered antidotes against spiders1 scorpions1 sea-hares1 aconite1 and other poisons4 ,he then combined the results of his research into one grand compound which should be an antidote against any and every poison4 ,but he did not include the flesh of the viper1 which was added with some other changes by ,andromachus1 chief physician to ,nero4#gia ,the divine ,marcus ,aurelius used to take a dose of theriac daily and it had since come into general use4#gib ,galen gives a long list of ills which it will cure1 including the plague and hydrophobia1#gic and adds that it is beneficial in keeping a man in good health4#gid ,he advises its use when traveling or in wintry weather1 and tells ,piso that it will prolong his life4#gie ,he explains more than once#gif how to prepare the viper's flesh1 why the head and tail must be cut off1 how it is cleaned and boiled until the flesh falls from the backbone1 how it is mixed with pounded bread into pills1 how the flesh of the viper is best in early summer4 ,galen also accepts the legend1#gig quoting six lines of verse from ,nicander to that effect1 that the viper conceives in the mouth and then bites off the male's head1 and that the young viper avenges its father's death by gnawing its way out of its mother's vitals4 ,the ,marsi at ,rome denied the existence of the dipsas or snake whose bite causes one to die of thirst1 but ,galen is not quite sure whether to agree with them4 ,sidenote3 ,magical compounds4 ,already we have had occasion to refer to ,galen's two works on compound medicines which occupy the better part of two bulky volumes in ,khn's edition and contain a vast number of prescriptions4 ,it is not uncommon for one of these to contain as many as twenty-five ingredients4 ,it seems unlikely that such elaborate concoctions would have been discovered by chance1 as the ,empirics held1 but the modern reader is ready to agree that it was chance1 if anyone was ever cured of anything by one of them4 ,yet ,galen1 as we have seen1 believes that reasons can be given for the ingredients and would not for a moment admit that they are no better than the messes of witches' cauldrons4 ,he argues that1 if all diseases could be cured by simples1 no one would use compounds1 but that they are essential for some diseases1 especially such as require the simultaneous application of contrary virtues4#gih ,also where a simple is too strong or weak1 it can be toned up or down to just the right strength in a compound4 ,plasters and poultices seem always to be compounds4 ,of panaceas ,galen is somewhat more chary1 except in the case of theriac2 he opines that a medicine which is good for a number of ills cannot be very good for any one of them4#gii ,sidenote3 ,amulets4 ,procedure as well as substances suggestive of magic is found to some extent in ,galen's works4 ,he instructs1 for example1 to pluck an herb with the left hand before sunrise4#hjj ,he also recommends the suspension of a peony to cure epilepsy4#hja ,he saw a boy who wore this root remain free from that disease for eight months1 when the root happened to drop off and the boy soon fell in a fit4 ,when another peony root was hung about his neck1 he remained in good health until ,galen for the sake of experiment removed it a second time1 whereupon another epileptic fit ensued as before4 ,in this case ,galen suggests that perhaps some particles from the root were drawn in by the patient's breathing or altered the surrounding air4 ,in another passage he holds that there is no medical reason to account for the virtues of amulets1 but that those who have tested them by experience say that they act by some marvelous antipathy unknown to man4#hjb ,a ligature recommended by ,galen is to bind about the neck of the patient a viper which has been suffocated by tying several strings1 preferably of marine purple1 about its neck4#hjc ,galen marvels that stercus lupinum1 even when simply suspended from the neck1 8sometimes evidently is beneficial40#hjd ,it should not have touched the ground but should have been taken from trees or bushes4 ,it also works better1 as ,galen has found in his own practice1 if suspended by the wool of a sheep who has been torn by a wolf4 ,sidenote3 ,incantations and characters4 ,while ,galen thus employs ligatures and suspensions and sanctions magic logic1 he draws the line at use of images1 characters1 and incantations4 ,in the passage just cited he goes on to say that he has found other suspended substances efficacious1 but not the barbarous names such as wizards use4 ,some say that the gem jasper comforts the stomach if bound about the abdomen1#hje and some wear it in a ring engraved with a dragon and rays1#hjf as ,king ,nechepso directs in his fourteenth book4 ,galen has employed it suspended about the neck without any engraving upon it and found it equally beneficial4 ,in illustrating the virtue of human saliva1 especially that of a fasting man1 ,galen tells of a man who promised him to kill a scorpion by means of an incantation which he repeated thrice4 ,but at each repetition he spat on the scorpion and ,galen afterwards killed one by the same procedure without any incantation1 and more quickly with the spittle of a fasting than of a full man4#hjg ,sidenote3 ,belief in magic dies hard4 ,the preceding paragraph gives a good illustration of the slow progress of human thought away from magic and towards science4 ,men are discovering that marvels can be worked as well without characters and incantations4 ,similar passages may be found in ,arabic and ,latin medieval writers4 ,but while ,galen questions images and incantations1 he still clings to the notions of marvelous virtue in a fasting man's spittle or in a gem suspended about the neck4 ,and these and other passages in which he clung to old superstitions were unfortunately equally influential upon succeeding writers1 who sometimes1 we fear1 took them as an excuse for further indulgence in magic4 ,indeed1 we shall find ,alexander of ,tralles in the sixth century arguing that ,galen finally became a believer in the efficacy of incantations4 ,thus the old notions and practices die hard4 ,sidenote3 ,on easily procurable remedies4 ,in the treatise on easily procurable remedies1 where popular and rustic remedies enter rather more largely than in ,galen's other writings1 superstitious recipes are also met with more frequently1 and1 if that be possible1 the doses become even more calculated to make one's gorge rise1 it being felt that the unfastidious tastes and crude constitutions of peasants and the poorer classes can stand more than daintier city patients4 ,another reason for separate consideration of the contents of this treatise is the possibility1 already mentioned1 that it is interpolated and misarranged1 and the fact that it is in part of much later date than ,galen4 ,sidenote3 ,specimens of its superstitious contents4 ,we must limit ourselves to a hasty survey of a few specimens of its prescriptions4 ,following ,archigenes1 ligatures and crowns are employed for headaches4#hjh ,in contrast to ,galen's previous scepticism concerning depilatories for eyebrows we now find a number mentioned1 including the blood of a bed-bug4#hji ,to cure lumbago1#haj if the pain is in the right foot1 reduce to powder with your right hand the wings of a swallow4 ,then make an incision in the swallow's leg and draw off all its blood4 ,skin it and roast it and eat it entire4 ,then anoint yourself all over with the oil for three days and you will marvel at the result4 8,this has been often proved by experience40 ,to prevent hair from falling out take many bees and burn them and mix with oil and use as an ointment4#haa ,for a sty in the eye catch flies1 cut off their heads1 and rub the sty with the rest of their bodies4#hab ,a cooked black chameleon performs the double duty of curing toothache and killing mice4#hac ,to extract a tooth in the upper jaw surround it with the worms found in the tops of cabbages2 for a lower tooth use the worms on the lower parts of the leaves4#had ,pain in the intestines will vanish1 if the patient drinks water in which his feet have been washed4#hae ,a net transferred from a woman's hair to the patient's head acts as a laxative1 especially if the net is first heated4#haf ,various superstitious devices are suggested to insure the birth of a child of the sex desired4#hag ,bituminous trefoil1#hah boiled and applied hot1 cures snake or spider bite1 but let no one use it who is not so afflicted or it will make him feel as if he was4#hai ,for cataract is recommended a mixture of equal parts of mouse's blood1 cock's gall1 and woman's milk1 dried4#hbj ,for pain on one side of the head or face smear with fifteen earthworms and fifteen grains of pepper powdered in vinegar4#hba ,to stop a cough wear the tongue of an eagle as an amulet4#hbb ,wearing a root of rhododendron makes one fearless of dogs and would cure a mad dog itself1 if it could be tied on the animal4#hbc ,a 8confection0 covering three pages is said to prolong life1 to have been used by the emperors1 and to have enabled ,pythagoras1 its inventor1 who began to make use of it at the age of fifty1 to live to be one hundred and seventeen without disease4 8,and he was a philosopher and unable to lie about it40#hbd ,sidenote3 ,external signs of the temperaments of internal organs4 ,it remains to note what there is in ,galen's works in the way of divination and astrology4 ,we are not entirely surprised that contemporary doctors confused his medical prognostic with divination1 when we read what he has to say concerning the outward signs of hot or cold internal organs4 ,in the treatise1 entitled ,the ,healing ,art 7 71#hbe which ,mewaldt says was the most studied of ,galen's works and spread in a vast number of medieval ,latin manuscript translations1#hbf he devotes a number of chapters to such subjects as signs of a hot and dry heart1 signs of a hot liver1 and signs of a cold lung4 ,among the signs of a cold brain are excessive excrements from the head1 stiff straight red hair1 a late birth1 mal-nutrition1 susceptibility to injury from cold causes and to catarrh1 and somnolence4#hbg ,sidenote3 ,marvelous statements repeated by ,maimonides4 ,in his commentary on the ,aphorisms of ,hippocrates ,galen adds other signs by which it may be foretold whether the child will be a boy or girl to those signs already mentioned by ,hippocrates4#hbh ,some of these seem superstitious enough to us4 ,and it was a case of the evil that men do living after them1 for ,moses ,maimonides1 the noted ,jewish physician of ,cordova in the twelfth century1 in his collection of ,aphorisms1 drawn chiefly from the works of ,galen1 repeats the following method of prognostication3 ,puerum cum primo spermatizat perscrutare1 quem si invenis habere testiculum dextrum maiorem sinistro1 you will know that his first child will be a male1 otherwise female4 ,the same may be determined in the case of a girl by a comparison of the size of her breasts4 ,maimonides also repeats1 from ,galen's work to ,caesar on theriac1#hbi the story of the ugly man who secured a beautiful son by having a beautiful boy painted on the wall and making his wife keep her eyes fixed upon it4 ,maimonides also repeats from ,galen#hcj the story of the bear's licking its unformed cubs into shape4#hca ,sidenote3 ,dreams4 ,in another treatise on ,diagnosis from ,dreams ,galen makes a closer approach to the arts of divination4#hcb ,he states that dreams are affected by our daily life and thought1 and describes a few corresponding to bodily states or caused by them4 ,he thinks that if you dream you see fire1 you are troubled by yellow bile1 and if you dream of vapor or darkness1 by black bile4 ,in diagnosing dreams one should note when they occurred and what had been eaten4 ,but ,galen also believes that to some extent the future can be predicted from dreams1 as has been testified1 he says1 by experience4#hcc ,we have already mentioned the effect of his father's dream upon ,galen's career4 ,in the ,hippocratic commentaries#hcd he says that some scorn dreams and omens and signs1 but that he has often learned from dreams how to prognosticate or cure diseases4 ,once a dream instructed him to let blood between the index and great fingers of the right hand until the flow of blood stopped of its own accord4 8,it is necessary10 he concludes1 8to observe dreams accurately both as to what is seen and what is done in sleep in order that you may prognosticate and heal satisfactorily40 ,perhaps he had a dim idea along ,freudian lines4 ,sidenote3 ,lack of astrology in most of ,galen's medicine4 ,in the ordinary run of ,galen's pharmacy and therapeutics there is very little mention or observance of astrological conditions1 although ,hippocrates is cited as having said that a study of geometry and astronomy--which may well mean astrology--is essential in medicine4#hce ,in the ,de methodo medendi he often urges the importance of the time of year1 the region1 and the state of the sky4#hcf ,but this expression seems to refer to the weather rather than to the position of the constellations4 ,the dog-star is also occasionally mentioned1#hcg and one passage#hch tells how 8,aeschrion the ,empiric1 444 an old man most experienced in drugs and our fellow citizen and teacher10 burned live river crabs on a plate of red bronze after the rise of the dog-star when the sun entered ,leo and on the eighteenth day of the moon4 ,we are also informed that many ,romans are in the habit of taking theriac on the first or fourth day of the moon4#hci ,but ,galen ridicules ,pamphilus for his thirty-six sacred herbs of the horoscope--or decans1 taken from an ,egyptian ,hermes book4#hdj ,on the other hand1 one of his objections to the atomists is that 8they despise augury1 dreams1 portents1 and all astrology10 as well as that they deny a divine artificer of the world and an innate moral law to the soul4#hda ,thus atheism and disbelief in astrology are put on much the same plane4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,prognostication of ,disease by ,astrology4 ,whereas there is so little to suggest a belief in astrology in most of ,galen's works1 we find among them two devoted especially to astrological medicine1 namely1 a treatise on critical days in which the influence of the moon upon disease is assumed1 and the ,prognostication of ,disease by ,astrology4 ,in the latter he states that the ,stoics favored astrology1 that ,diodes ,carystius represented the ancients as employing the course of the moon in prognostications1 and that1 if ,hippocrates said that physicians should know physiognomy1 they ought much more to learn astrology1 of which physiognomy is but a part4#hdb ,there follows a statement of the influence of the moon in each sign of the zodiac and in its relations to the other planets4#hdc ,on this basis is foretold what diseases a man will have1 what medical treatment to apply1 whether the patient will die or not1 and if so in how many days4 ,this treatise is the same as that ascribed in many medieval manuscripts to ,hippocrates and translated into ,latin by both ,william of ,moerbeke and ,peter of ,abano4 ,sidenote3 ,critical days4 ,the treatise on critical days discusses them not by reason or dogma1 lest sophists befog the plain facts1 but solely1 we are told1 upon the basis of clear experience4#hdd ,having premised that 8we receive the force of all the stars above10#hde the author presents indications of the especially great influence of sun and moon4 ,the latter he regards not as superior to the other planets in power1 but as especially governing the earth because of its nearness4#hdf ,he then discusses the moon's phases1 holding that it causes great changes in the air1 rules conceptions and birth1 and 8all beginnings of actions40#hdg ,its relations to the other planets and to the signs of the zodiac are also considered and much astrological technical detail is introduced4#hdh ,but the ,pythagorean theory that the numbers of the critical days are themselves the cause of their significance in medicine is ridiculed1 as is the doctrine that odd numbers are masculine and even numbers feminine4#hdi ,later the author also ridicules those who talk of seven ,pleiades and seven stars in either ,bear and the seven gates of ,thebes or seven mouths of the ,nile4#hej ,thus he will not accept the doctrine of perfect or magic numbers along with his astrological theory4 ,much of this rather long treatise is devoted to a discussion of the duration of a moon1 and it is shown that one of the moon's quarters is not exactly seven days in length and that the fractions affect the incidence of the critical days4 ,sidenote3 ,on the history of philosophy4 ,a treatise on the history of philosophy1 which is marked 8spurious0 in ,khn's edition1 ,i have also discovered among the essays of ,plutarch where1 too1 it is classed as spurious4#hea ,in some ways it is suggestive of the middle ages4 ,after an account of the history of ,greek philosophy somewhat in the style of the brief reviews of the same to be found in the church fathers1 it adds a sketch of the universe and natural phenomena not dissimilar to some medieval treatises of like scope4 ,there are chapters on the universe1 ,god1 the sky1 the stars1 the sun1 the moon1 the magnus annus1 the earth1 the sea1 the ,nile1 the senses1 vision and mirrors1 hearing1 smell and taste1 the voice1 the soul1 breathing1 the processes of generation1 and so on4 ,sidenote3 ,divination and demons4 ,in discussing divination#heb the treatise states that ,plato and the ,stoics attributed it to ,god and to divinity of the spirit in ecstasy1 or to interpretation of dreams or astrology or augury4 ,xenophanes and ,epicurus denied it entirely4 ,pythagoras admitted only divination by haruspices or by sacrifice4 ,aristotle and ,dicaearchus admit only divination by enthusiasm and by dreams4 ,for although they deny that the human soul is immortal1 they think that there is something divine about it4 ,herophilus said that dreams sent by ,god must come true4 ,other dreams are natural1 when the mind forms images of things useful to it or about to happen to it4 ,still others are fortuitous or mere reflections of our desires4 ,the treatise also takes up the subject of heroes and demons4#hec ,epicurus denied the existence of either1 but ,thales1 ,plato1 ,pythagoras1 and the ,stoics agree that demons are natural substances1 while heroes are souls separate from bodies1 and are good or bad according to the lives of the men who lived in those bodies4 ,sidenote3 ,celestial bodies4 ,the treatise also gives the opinions of various ,greek philosophers on the question whether the universe or its component spheres are either animals or animated4 ,fate is defined on the authority of ,heracleitus as 8the heavenly body1 the seed of the genesis of all things40#hed ,the question is asked why babies born after seven months live1 while those born after eight months die4#hee ,on the other hand1 a very brief discussion of how the stars prognosticate does not go into particulars beyond their indication of seasons and weather1 and even this ,anaximenes ascribed to the effect of the sun alone4#hef ,philolaus the ,pythagorean is quoted concerning some lunar water about the stars#heg which reminds one of the waters above the firmament in the first chapter of ,genesis4 ,,chapter ,v ,,ancient ,,applied ,,science ,,and ,,magic3 ,,vitruvius1 ,,hero1 ,,and ,,the ,,greek ,,alchemists ,the sources--,vitruvius depicts architecture as free from magic--,but himself believes in occult virtues and perfect numbers--,also in astrology--,divergence between theory and practice1 learning and art--,evils in contemporary learning--,authorities and inventions--,machines and ,ctesibius--,hero of ,alexandria--,medieval working over of the texts--,hero's thaumaturgy--,instances of experimental proof--,magic jugs and drinking animals--,various automatons and devices--,magic mirrors--,astrology and occult virtue--,date of extant ,greek alchemy--,legend that ,diocletian burned the books of the alchemists--,alchemists' own accounts of the history of their art--,close association of ,greek alchemy with magic--,mystery and allegory--,experiment3 relation to science and philosophy4 8doctum ex omnibus solum neque in alienis locis peregrinum 444 sed in omni civitate esse civem40 --,vitruvius1 ,,vi1 ,introd4 #b4 ,sidenote3 ,the sources4 ,this chapter will examine what may be called ancient applied science and its relations to magic1 taking observations at three different points1 the ten books of ,vitruvius on architecture1 the collection of writings which pass under the name of ,hero of ,alexandria1 and the compositions of the ,greek alchemists4 ,the remains of ,greek and ,roman literature in the field of applied science are scanty1 not because they were not treasured1 and even added to1 by the periods following1 but apparently because there had thus far been so little development in the way of machinery or of power other than manual and animal4 ,so we must make the best of what we have4 ,the writings to be considered are none of them earlier than the period of the ,roman ,empire but like other writings of that time they more or less reflect the scientific achievements or the occult lore of the preceding ,hellenistic period4 ,sidenote3 ,vitruvius depicts architecture as free from magic4 ,vitruvius lived just at the beginning of the ,empire under ,julius and ,augustus ,caesar4 ,he is not much of a writer1 but architecture as set forth in his book appears sane1 straightforward1 and solid4 ,the architect is represented as going about his business with scarcely any admixture of magical procedure or striving after marvelous results4 ,the combined guidance of practical utility and of high standards of art--,vitruvius stresses reality and propriety now and again1 and has little patience with mere show--perhaps accounts for this high degree of freedom from superstition4 ,perhaps permanent building is an honest1 downright1 open1 constructive art where error is at once apparent and superstition finds little hold4 ,if so1 one wonders how there came to be so much mystery enveloping ,free-,masonry4 ,at any rate1 not only in his building directions1 but even in his instructions for the preparation of lime1 stucco1 and bricks1 or his discussion of colors1 natural and artificial1 ,vitruvius seldom or never embodies anything that can be called magical4#heh ,sidenote3 ,occult virtue and number4 ,this is the more noteworthy because passages in the very same work show him to have accepted some of the theories which we have associated with magic4 ,thus he appears to believe in occult virtues and marvelous properties of things in nature1 since he affirms that1 while ,africa in general abounds in serpents1 no snake can live within the boundaries of the ,african city of ,ismuc1 and that this is a property of the soil of that locality which it retains when exported4#hei ,vitruvius also mentions some marvelous waters4 ,one breaks every metallic receptacle and can be retained only in a mule's hoof4 ,some springs intoxicate2 others take away the taste for wine4 ,others produce fine singing voices4#hfj ,vitruvius furthermore speaks of six and ten as perfect numbers and contends that the human body is symmetrical in the sense that the distances between the different parts are exact fractions of the whole4#hfa ,he also tells how the ,pythagoreans composed books on the analogy of the cube1 allowing in any one treatise no more than three books of #baf lines each4#hfb ,sidenote3 ,astrology4 ,vitruvius also more than once implies his confidence in the art of astrology4 ,in mapping out the ground-plan of his theater he advises inscribing four equilateral triangles within the circumference of a circle1 8as the astrologers do in a figure of the twelve signs of the zodiac1 when they are making computations from the musical harmony of the stars40#hfc ,i cannot make out that there is any astrological significance or magical virtue in this so far as the arrangement of the theater is concerned1 but it shows that ,vitruvius and his readers are familiar with the technique of astrology and the trigona of the signs4 ,in another passage1 comparing the physical characteristics and temperaments of northern and southern races1 which astrologers generally interpreted as evidence of the influence of the constellations upon mankind1 ,vitruvius patriotically contends that the inhabitants of ,italy1 and especially the ,romans1 represent a happy medium between north and south1 combining the greater courage of the northerners with the keener intellects of the southerners1 just as the planet ,jupiter is a golden mean between the extreme influences of ,mars and ,saturn4 ,so the ,romans are fitted for world rule1 overcoming barbarian valor by their superior intelligence and the devices of the southerners by their valor4#hfd ,in a third passage ,vitruvius says more expressly of the art of astrology3 8,as for the branch of astronomy which concerns the influences of the twelve signs1 the five stars1 the sun1 and the moon upon human life1 we must leave all this to the calculations of the ,chaldeans1 to whom belongs the art of casting nativities1 which enables them to declare the past and the future by means of calculations based on the stars4 ,these discoveries have been transmitted by men of genius and great acuteness who sprang directly from the nations of the ,chaldeans2 first of all1 by ,berosus1 who settled in the island state of ,cos1 and there opened a school4 ,afterwards ,antipater pursued the subject2 then there was ,archinapolus1 who also left rules for casting nativities1 based not on the moment of birth but on that of conception40 ,after listing a number of natural philosophers and other astronomers and astrologers1 ,vitruvius concludes3 8,their learning deserves the admiration of mankind2 for they were so solicitous as even to be able to predict1 long beforehand1 with divining mind1 the signs of the weather which was to follow in the future40#hfe ,sidenote3 ,divergence between theory and practice1 learning and art4 ,such a passage demonstrates plainly enough ,vitruvius' full confidence in the art of casting nativities and of weather prediction1 but it has no integral connection with his practical architecture or even any necessary connection with the construction of a sun-dial1 which is what he is actually driving at4 ,but ,vitruvius believed that an architect should not be a mere craftsman but broadly educated in history1 medicine1 and philosophy1 geometry1 music1 and astronomy1 in order to understand the origin and significance of details inherited from the art of the past1 to assure a healthy building1 proper acoustics1 and the like4 ,it is in an attempt to air his learning and in the theoretical portions of his work that he is prone to occult science4 ,but the practical processes of architecture and military engineering are free from it4 ,sidenote3 ,evils in contemporary learning4 ,the attitude of ,vitruvius towards other architects of his own age1 to past authorities1 and to personal experimentation is of interest to note1 and roughly parallels the attitude of ,galen in the field of medicine4 ,like ,galen he complains that the artist must plunge into the social life of the day in order to gain professional success and recognition4#hff 8,and since ,i observe that the unlearned rather than the learned are held in high favor1 deeming it beneath me to struggle for honors with the unlearned1 ,i will rather demonstrate the virtue of our science by this publication40#hfg ,he also objects to the self-assertion and advertising of themselves in which many architects of his time indulge4#hfh ,he recognizes1 however1 that the state of affairs was much the same in time past1 since he tells a story how the ,macedonian architect1 ,dinocrates1 forced himself upon the attention of ,alexander the ,great solely by his handsome and stately appearance1#hfi and since he asserts that the most famous artists of the past owe their celebrity to their good fortune in working for great states or men1 while other artists of equal merit are seldom heard of4#hgj ,he also speaks of those who plagiarize the writings of others1 especially of the men of the past4#hga ,but all this does not lead him to despair of art and learning2 rather it confirms him in the conviction that they alone are really worth while1 and he quotes several philosophers to that effect1 including the saying of ,theophrastus that 8the learned man alone of all others is no stranger even in foreign lands 444 but is a citizen in every city40#hgb ,sidenote3 ,authorities and inventions4 ,in contradistinction to the plagiarists ,vitruvius expresses his deep gratitude to the men of the past who have written books1 and gives lists of his authorities1#hgc and declares that 8the opinions of learned authors 444 gain strength as time goes on40#hgd 8,relying upon such authorities1 we venture to produce new systems of instruction40#hge ,or1 as he says in discussing the properties of waters1 8,some of these things ,i have seen for myself1 others ,i have found written in ,greek books40#hgf ,but in describing sun-dials he frankly remarks1 8,i will state by whom the different classes and designs of dials have been invented4 ,for ,i cannot invent new kinds myself at this late day1 nor do ,i think that ,i ought to display the inventions of others as my own40#hgg ,he also gives an account of a number of notable miscellaneous discoveries and experiments by past mathematicians and physicists4#hgh ,also he sometimes repeats the instruction which he had received from his teachers4 ,like ,pliny a little later he thinks that in some respects artistic standards have been lowered in his own time1 notably in fresco-painting4#hgi ,but also1 like ,galen1 he once admits that there are still good men in his own profession besides himself1 affirming that 8our architects in the old days1 and a good many even in our own times1 have been as great as those of the ,greeks40#hhj ,he describes a basilica which he himself had built at ,fano4#hha ,sidenote3 ,machines and ,ctesibius4 ,vitruvius's last book is devoted to machines and military engines4 ,here he makes a feeble effort to introduce the factor of astrological influence1 asserting that 8all machinery is derived from nature1 and is founded on the teaching and instruction of the revolution of the firmament40#hhb ,among the devices described is the pump of ,ctesibius of ,alexandria1 the son of a barber4#hhc ,he had already been mentioned in the preceding book#hhd for the improvements which he introduced in water-clocks1 especially regulating their flow according to the changing length of the hours of the day in summer and winter4 ,vitruvius also asserts that he constructed the first water organs1 that he 8discovered the natural pressure of the air and pneumatic principles1 444 devised methods of raising water1 automatic contrivances1 and amusing things of many kinds1 444 blackbirds singing by means of waterworks1 and angobatae1 and figures that drink and move1 and other things that have been found to be pleasing to the eye and the ear40#hhe ,vitruvius states that of these he has selected those that seemed most useful and necessary and that the reader may turn to ,ctesibius's own works for those which are merely amusing4 ,pliny more briefly mentions the invention of pneumatics and water organs by ,ctesibius4#hhf ,sidenote3 ,hero of ,alexandria4 ,this characterization by ,vitruvius of the writings of ,ctesibius also applies with astonishing fitness to some of the works current under the name of ,hero of ,alexandria1#hhg who is indeed in a ,vienna manuscript of the ,belopoiika spoken of as the disciple or follower of ,ctesibius4#hhh ,hero1 however1 is not mentioned either by ,vitruvius or ,pliny1 and it is now generally agreed as a result of recent studies that he belongs to the second century of our era4#hhi ,his writings are objective and impersonal and tell us much less about himself than ,vitruvius's introductions to the ten books of ,de architectura4 ,the similarity in content of his writings to those of the much earlier ,ctesibius as well as the character of his terminology suggest that he stands at the end of a long development4 ,he speaks of his own discoveries1 but perhaps in the main simply continues and works over the previous principles and mechanisms of men like ,ctesibius4 ,as things stand1 however1 his works constitute our most important1 and often our only1 source for the history of exact science and of technology in antiquity4#hij ,sidenote3 ,medieval working over of the texts4 ,not only does ,hero seem to have been in large measure a compiler and continuer of previous science1 his works also have evidently been worked over and added to in subsequent periods and bear marks of the ,byzantine1 ,arabian1 and medieval ,latin periods as well as of the ,hellenistic and ,roman4 ,indeed ,heiberg regards the ,geometry and ,de stereometricis and ,de mensuris as later ,byzantine collections which have perhaps made some use of the works of ,hero1 while the ,de geodaesia is an epitome of1 or extract from1 a pseudo-,heronic collection4 ,the ,catoptrica is known only from the ,latin translation of #abfi1 probably by ,william of ,moerbeke1 and long known as ,ptolemy on ,mirrors4 ,it appears1 however1 to be directly translated from the ,greek and not from the ,arabic4 ,the ,mechanics1 on the other hand1 is known only from the ,arabic translation by ,costa ben ,luca4 ,of the ,pneumatics we have ,greek1 ,arabic1 and ,latin versions4 ,it was apparently known to the author of the thirteenth century ,summa philosophiae ascribed to ,robert ,grosseteste1 since he speaks of the investigations of vacuums made by 8,hero1 that eminent philosopher1 with the aid of water-clocks1 siphons1 and other instruments40#hia ,scholars are of the opinion that the ,arabic adaptation1 which is of popular character and limited to the entertaining side1 comes closer to the original ,greek version of ,hero's time than does the ,latin version which devotes more attention to experimental physics4 ,the ,automatic ,theater1 for which there is the same chief manuscript as for the ,pneumatics1 also seems to have been worked over and added to a great deal4 ,sidenote3 ,hero's thaumaturgy4 ,from ,vitruvius's allusions to the works of ,ctesibius and from a survey of those works current under ,hero's name which are chiefly concerned with mechanical contrivances and devices1 the modern reader gets the impression that1 aside from military engines and lifting appliances1 the science of antiquity was applied largely to purposes of entertainment rather than practical usefulness4 ,however1 in ,hero's case at least there is something more than this4 ,his apparatus and experiments are not intended so much to divert as to deceive the spectator1 and not so much to amuse as to astound him4 ,the mechanism is usually concealed2 the cause acts indirectly1 intermediately1 or from a distance to produce an apparently marvelous result4 ,it is a case of thaumaturgy1 as ,hero himself says1#hib of apparent magic4 ,in fine1 the experimental and applied scientist is largely interested in vying with the feats of the magicians or supplying the temples and altars of religion with pseudo-miracles4 ,sidenote3 ,instances of experimental proof4 ,the introduction or proemium to the ,pneumatics is rather more truly scientific and has been called an unusual instance in antiquity of the use as proof of purposive observation of nature and experiment4 ,thus the existence of air is demonstrated by the experiment of pressing an inverted vessel1 kept carefully upright1 into water1 which will not enter the vessel because of the resistance offered by the air already within the vessel4 ,or the elasticity of air and the existence of empty spaces between its particles is shown by the experiment of blowing more air into a globe through a siphon1 and then holding one's finger over the orifice4 ,as soon as the finger is removed the surplus air rushes out with a loud report4 ,along with such admirable experimental proof1 however1 the introduction contains some astonishingly erroneous assertions1 such as that 8slime and mud are transformations of water into earth10 and that air released from a vessel under water 8is transformed so as to become water40 ,hero believes that heat and light rays are particles of matter which penetrate the interstices between the particles composing air and water4 ,sidenote3 ,magic jugs and drinking animals4 ,the ,pneumatics consist of some seventy-eight theorems or experiments or tricks1 call them what you will1 which in different manuscripts and editions are variously grouped in a single book or two books4 ,the same idea or method1 however1 is often repeated in the different chapters4 ,thus we encounter over half a dozen times the magic water-jar or drinking horn from which either wine or water or a mixture of both can be poured1 or a choice of other liquids4 ,and in all these cases the explanation of the trick is the same4 ,when the air-hole in the top of the vessel is closed so that no air can enter1 the liquid will not flow out through the narrow orifice in the bottom4 ,changes are rung on this principle by means of inner compartments and connecting tubes4 ,different kinds of siphons1 the bent1 the enclosed1 and the uniform discharge1 are described in the opening chapters and are utilized in working the ensuing wonders1 such as statues of animals which drink water offered to them1 inexhaustible goblets or those that will not overflow1 and harmonious jars4 ,by this last expression is meant pairs of vessels1 secretly connected by tubes and so arranged that nothing will flow from one until the other is filled1 when wine will pour from one jar and water from the other4 ,or when water is poured into one jar1 wine or mixed wine and water flows from the other4 ,or1 when water is drawn off from one jar1 wine flows from the other4 ,other vessels are made to commence or cease to pour out wine or water1 when a little water is poured in4 ,others will receive no more water once you have ceased pouring it in1 no matter how little may have been poured in1 or1 when you cease for a moment to pour water in and then begin again1 will not resume their outpour until half full4 ,in another case the water will not flow out of a hole in the bottom of the vessel at all until the vessel is entirely filled4 ,others are made to flow by dropping a coin in a slot or working a lever1 or turning a wheel4 ,in the last case the vessel of water is concealed behind the entrance column of a temple4 ,in one magic drinking horn the flow of water from the bottom is checked by putting a cover over the open top4 ,when another pitcher is tipped up1 the same amount of liquid will always flow out4 ,sidenote3 ,various automatons and devices4 ,in half a dozen chapters mechanical birds are made to sing by driving air through a pipe by the pressure of flowing water4 ,in other chapters a dragon is made to hiss and a thyrsus to whistle by similar methods4 ,by the force of compressed air water is made to spurt forth and automatons to sound trumpets4 ,the heat of the sun's rays is used to warm air which expands and causes water to trickle out4 ,in a number of cases as long as a fire burns on an altar the expansion of enclosed air caused thereby opens temple doors by the aid of pulleys1 or causes statues to pour libations1 dancing figures to revolve1 and a serpent to hiss4 ,the force of steam is used to support a ball in mid-air1 revolve a sphere1 and make a bird sing or a statue blow a horn4 ,inexhaustible lamps are described as well as inexhaustible goblets1 and a self-trimmed lamp in which a float resting on the oil turns a cog-wheel which pushes up the wick as it and the oil are consumed4 ,floats and cog-wheels are also used in some of the tricks already mentioned4 ,in another the flow of a liquid from a vessel is regulated by a float and a lever4 ,cog-wheels are also employed in constructing the neck of an automaton so that it can be cut completely through with a knife and yet the head not be severed from the body4 ,a cupping glass1 a syringe1 a fire engine pump with valves and pistons1 a hydraulic organ and one worked by wind pretty much exhaust the contents of the ,pneumatics4 ,in its introduction ,hero alludes to his treatise in four books on water-clocks1 but this is not extant4 ,hero's water-organ is regarded as more primitive than that described by ,vitruvius4#hic ,sidenote3 ,magic mirrors4 ,if magic jugs and marvelous automatons make up most of the contents of the ,pneumatics and ,automatic ,theater1 comic and magic mirrors play a prominent part in the ,catoptrics4 ,the spectator sees himself upside down1 with three eyes1 two noses1 or an otherwise distorted countenance4 ,by means of two rectangular mirrors which open and close on a common axis ,pallas is made to spring from the head of ,zeus4 ,instructions are given how to place mirrors so that the person approaching will see no reflection of himself but only whatever apparition you select for him to see4 ,thus a divinity can be made suddenly to appear in a temple4 ,clocks are also described where figures appear to announce the hours4 ,sidenote3 ,astrology and occult virtue4 ,hero displays a slight tendency in the direction of astrology1 discussing the music of the spheres in the first chapters of the ,catoptrics1 and in the ,pneumatics describing an absurdly simple representation of the cosmos by means of a small sphere placed in a circular hole in the partition between two halves of a transparent sphere of glass4 ,one hemisphere is to be filled with water1 probably in order to support the ball in the center4#hid ,the marvelous virtues of animals other than automatons are rather out of his line1 but he alludes to the virtue of the marine torpedo which can penetrate bronze1 iron1 and other bodies4 ,sidenote3 ,date of extant ,greek alchemy4 ,although we have seen some indications of its earlier existence in ,egypt1 alchemy seems to have made its appearance in the ancient ,greek-speaking and ,latin world only at a late date4 ,there seems to be no allusion to the subject in classical literature before the ,christian era1 the first mention being ,pliny's statement that ,caligula made gold from orpiment4#hie ,the papyri containing alchemistic texts are of the third century1 and the manuscripts containing ,greek works of alchemy1 of which the oldest is one of the eleventh century in the ,library of ,st4 ,mark's1 seem to consist of works or remnants of works written in the third century and later1 many being ,byzantine compilations1 excerpts1 or additions4 ,also ,syncellus1 the polygraph of the eighth century1 gives some extracts from the alchemists4 ,sidenote3 ,legend that ,diocletian burned the books of the alchemists4 ,syncellus and other late writers#hif are our only extant sources for the statement that ,diocletian burned the books of the alchemists in ,egypt1 so that they might not finance future revolts against him4 ,if the report be true1 one would fancy that the imperial edict would be more effective as a testimonial to the truth of transmutation in encouraging the art than it would be in discouraging it by destroying a certain amount of its literature4 ,thus the edict would resemble the occasional laws of earlier emperors banishing the astrologers--except their own--from ,rome or ,italy because they had been too free in predicting the death of the emperor1 which only serve to show what a hold astrology had both on emperors and people4 ,but the report concerning ,diocletian sounds improbable on the face of it and must be doubted for want of contemporary evidence4 ,certainly we are not justified in explaining the air of secrecy so often assumed by writers on alchemy as due to the fear of persecution which this action of ,diocletian#hig or the fear of being accused of magic aroused in them4 ,persons who wish to keep matters secret do not rush into publication1 and the air of secrecy of the alchemists is too often evidently assumed for purposes of show and to impress the reader with the idea that they really have something to hide4 ,sometimes the alchemists themselves realize that this adoption of an air of secrecy has been overdone4 ,thus ,olympiodorus wrote in the early fifth century1 8,the ancients were accustomed to hide the truth1 to veil or obscure by allegories what is clear and evident to everybody40#hih ,nor can we accept the story of ,diocletian's burning the books of alchemy as the reason why none have reached us which can be certainly dated as earlier than the third century4 ,sidenote3 ,alchemists' own accounts of the history of their art4 ,the alchemists themselves1 of course1 claimed for their art the highest antiquity4 ,zosimus of ,panopolis1 who seems to have written in the third century1 says that the fallen angels instructed men in alchemy as well as in the other arts1 and that it was the divine and sacred art of the priests and kings of ,egypt1 who kept it secret4 ,we also have an address of ,isis to her son ,horus repeating the revelation made by ,amnael1 the first of the angels and prophets4 ,to ,moses are ascribed treatises on domestic chemistry and doubling the weight of gold4#hii ,the manuscripts of the ,byzantine period discuss what 8the ancients0 meant by this or that1 or purport to repeat what someone else said of some other person4 ,zosimus seems fond of citing himself in the texts reproduced by ,berthelot1 so that it may be questioned how much of his original works has been preserved4 ,hermes is often cited by the alchemists1 although no work of alchemy ascribed to him has reached us from this early period4 ,to ,agathodaemon is ascribed a commentary on the oracle of ,orpheus addressed to ,osiris1 dealing with the whitening and yellowing of metals and other alchemical recipes4 ,other favorite authorities are ,ostanes1 whom we have elsewhere heard represented as the introducer of magic into the ,greek world1 and the philosopher ,democritus1 whom the alchemists represent as the pupil of ,ostanes and whom we have already heard ,pliny charge with devotion to magic4 ,seneca says in one of his letters that ,democritus discovered a process to soften ivory1 that he prepared artificial emerald1 and colored vitrified substances4 ,diogenes ,laertius ascribes to him a work on the juices of plants1 on stones1 minerals1 metals1 colors1 and coloring glass4 ,this was possibly the same as the four books on coloring gold1 silver1 stones1 and purple ascribed to ,democritus by ,synesius in the fifth1 and ,syncellus in the eighth1 century4 ,more recent presumably than ,ostanes and ,democritus are the female alchemists1 ,cleopatra and ,mary the ,jewess1 although one text represents ,ostanes and his companions as conversing with ,cleopatra4 ,a few of the spurious works ascribed to these authors may have come into existence as early as the ,hellenistic period1 but those which have reached us1 at least in their present form1 seem to bear the marks of the ,christian era and later centuries of the ,roman ,empire1 if not of the early medieval and ,byzantine periods4 ,and those authors whose names seem genuine3 ,zosimus1 ,synesius1 ,olympiodorus1 ,stephanus1 are of the third1 fourth and fifth centuries1 at the earliest4 ,sidenote3 ,close association of ,greek alchemy with magic4 ,the associations of the names above cited and the fact that pseudo-literature forms so large a part of the early literature of alchemy suggest its close connection at that time with magic4 ,whereas ,vitruvius1 although not personally inhospitable to occult theory1 showed us the art of architecture free from magic1 and ,hero told how to perform apparent magic by means of mechanical devices and deceits1 the ,greek alchemists display entire faith in magic procedure with which their art is indissolubly intermingled4 ,indeed the papyri in which works of alchemy occur are primarily magic papyri1 so that alchemy may be said to spring from the brow of magic4 ,the same is only somewhat less true of the manuscripts4 ,in the earliest one of the eleventh century the alchemy is in the company of a treatise on the interpretation of dreams1 a sphere of divination of life or death1 and magic alphabets4 ,the treatises of alchemy themselves are equally impregnated with magic detail4 ,cleopatra's art of making gold employs concentric circles1 a serpent1 an eight-rayed star1 and other magic figures4 ,physica et mystica1 ascribed to ,democritus1 after a purely technical fragment on purple dye1 invokes his master ,ostanes from ,hades1 and then plunges into alchemical recipes4 ,there are also frequent bits of astrology and suggestions of ,gnostic influence4 ,often the encircling serpent ,ouroboros1 who bites or swallows his tail1 is referred to4#ijj ,sometimes the alchemist puts a little gold into his mixture to act as a sort of nest egg1 or mother of gold1 and encourage the remaining substance to become gold too4#ija ,or we read in a work ascribed to ,ostanes of 8a divine water0 which 8revives the dead and kills the living1 enlightens obscurity and obscures what is clear1 calms the sea and quenches fire4 ,a few drops of it give lead the appearance of gold with the aid of ,god1 the invisible and all-powerful44440#ijb ,sidenote3 ,mystery and allegory4 ,these early alchemists are also greatly given to mystery and allegory4 8,touch not the philosopher's stone with your hands10 warns ,mary the ,jewess1 8you are not of our race1 you are not of the race of ,abraham40#ijc ,in a tract concerning the serpent ,ouroboros we read1 8,a serpent is stretched out guarding the temple4 ,let his conqueror begin by sacrifice1 then skin him1 and after having removed his flesh to the very bones1 make a stepping-stone of it to enter the temple4 ,mount upon it and you will find the object sought4 ,for the priest1 at first a man of copper1 has changed his color and nature and become a man of silver2 a few days later1 if you wish1 you will find him changed into a man of gold40#ijd ,or in the preparation of the aforesaid divine water ,ostanes tells us to take the eggs of the serpent of oak who dwells in the month of ,august in the mountains of ,olympus1 ,libya1 and the ,taurus4#ije ,synesius tells that ,democritus was initiated in ,egypt at the temple of ,memphis by ,ostanes1 and ,zosimus cites the instruction of ,ostanes1 8,go towards the stream of the ,nile2 you'll find there a stone2 cut it in two1 put in your hand1 and take out its heart1 for its soul is in its heart40#ijf ,zosimus himself often resorts to symbolic jargon to obscure his meaning1 as in the description of the vision of a priest who was torn to pieces and who mutilated himself4#ijg ,he1 too1 personifies the metals and talks of a man of gold1 a tin man1 and so on4#ijh ,a brief example of his style will have to suffice1 as these allegories of the alchemists are insufferably tedious reading4 8,finally ,i had the longing to mount the seven steps and see the seven chastisements1 and one day1 as it chanced1 ,i hit upon the path up4 ,after several attempts ,i traversed the path1 but on my return ,i lost my way and1 profoundly discouraged1 seeing no way out1 ,i fell asleep4 ,in my dream ,i saw a little man1 a barber1 clothed in purple robe and royal raiment1 standing outside the place of punishment1 and he said to me44440#iji ,when ,zosimus was not dreaming dreams and seeing visions1 he was usually citing ancient authorities4 ,sidenote3 ,experimentation in alchemy3 relation to science and philosophy4 ,at the same time even these early alchemists cannot be denied a certain scientific character1 or at least a connection with natural science4 ,behind alchemy existed a constant experimental progress4 8,alchemy10 said ,berthelot1 8rested upon a certain mass of practical facts that were known in antiquity and that had to do with the preparation of metals1 their alloys1 and that of artificial precious stones2 it had there an experimental side which did not cease to progress during the entire medieval period until positive modern chemistry emerged from it40#iaj ,the various treatises of the ,greek alchemists describe apparatus and experiments which are real but with which they associated results which were impossible and visionary4 ,their theories of matter seem indebted to the earlier ,greek philosophers1 while in the description of nature ,berthelot noted a 8direct and intimate0 relation between them and the works of ,dioscorides1 ,vitruvius1 and ,pliny4#iaa ,,chapter ,,vi ,,plutarch',s ,,essays ,themes of ensuing chapters--,life of ,plutarch--,superstition in ,plutarch's ,lives--,his ,morals or ,essays--,question of their authenticity--,magic in ,plutarch--,essay on ,superstition--,plutarch hospitable toward some superstitions--,the oracles of ,delphi and of ,trophonius--,divination justified--,demons as mediators between gods and men--,demons in the moon3 migration of the soul--,demons mortal3 some evil--,men and demons--,relation of ,plutarch's to other conceptions of demons--,the astrologer ,tarrutius--,de fato--,other bits of astrology--,cosmic mysticism--,number mysticism--,occult virtues in nature--,asbestos--,on ,rivers and ,mountains--,magic herbs--,stones found in plants and fish--,virtues of other stones--,fascination--,animal sagacity and remedies--,theories and queries about nature--,the ,antipodes4 ,sidenote3 ,themes of ensuing chapters4 ,having noted the presence of magic in works so especially devoted to natural science as those of ,pliny1 ,galen1 and ,ptolemy1 we have now to illustrate the prominence both of natural science and of magic in the life and thought of the ,roman ,empire by a consideration of some writers of a more miscellaneous character1 who should reflect for us something of the interests of the average cultured reader of that time4 ,of this type are ,plutarch1 ,apuleius and ,philostratus1 whom we shall consider in the coming chapters in the order named1 which also roughly corresponds to their chronological sequence4 ,sidenote3 ,life of ,plutarch4 ,plutarch flourished during the reigns of ,trajan and ,hadrian at the turn of the first and second centuries1 but ,the ,letter on the ,education of a ,prince to ,trajan#iab probably is not by him1 and the legend that ,hadrian was his pupil is a medieval invention4 ,he was born in ,boeotia about #df-dh ,a4 ,d4 and was educated in rhetoric and philosophy1 science and mathematics1 at ,athens1 where he was a student when ,nero visited ,greece in #ff ,a4 ,d4 ,he also made several visits to ,rome and resided there for some time4 ,he held various public positions in the province of ,achaea and in his small native town of ,chaeronea1 and had official connections with the ,delphic oracle and amphictyony4 ,artemidorus in the ,oneirocriticon states that ,plutarch's death was foreshadowed in a dream4#iac ,sidenote3 ,superstition in ,plutarch's ,lives4 ,with ,plutarch's celebrated ,lives of ,illustrious ,men1 as with narrative histories in general1 we shall not be much concerned1 although they of course abound in omens and portents1 in bits of pseudo-science which details in his narrative bring to the mind of the biographer1 and in cases of divination and magic4 ,thus theories are advanced to explain why birds dropped dead from mid-air at the shout set up by the ,greeks at the ,isthmian games when ,flamininus proclaimed their freedom4 ,or we are told how ,sulla received from the ,chaldeans predictions of his future greatness1 how in the dedication to his ,memoirs he admonished ,lucullus to trust in dreams1 and how ,lucullus's mind was deranged by a love philter administered by his freedman in the hope of increasing his master's affection towards him4#iad ,such allusions and incidents abound also of course in ,dio ,cassius1 ,tacitus1 and other ,roman historians4 ,sidenote3 ,his ,morals or ,essays4 ,but we shall be concerned rather with ,plutarch's other writings1 which are usually grouped together under the title of ,morals1 or1 more appropriately1 ,miscellanies and ,essays4 ,not only is there great variety in their titles1 but in any given essay the attention is usually not strictly held to one theme or problem but the discussion diverges to other points4 ,some are by their very titles and form rambling dialogues1 symposiacs1 and table-talk1 where the conversation lightly flits from one topic to other entirely different ones1 never dwelling for long upon any one point and never returning to its starting-point4 ,this dinner-table and drinking-bout type of cultured and semi-learned discourse has other extant ancient examples such as the ,attic ,nights of ,aulus ,gellius and the ,deipnosophists of ,athenaeus1 but ,plutarch will have to serve as our main illustration of it4 ,his ,essays reflect in motley guise and disordered array the fruits of extensive reading and a retentive memory in ancient philosophy1 science1 history1 and literature4 ,sidenote3 ,question of their authenticity4 ,the authenticity of some of the essays attributed to him has been questioned1 and very likely with propriety1 but for our purpose it is not important that they should all be by the same author so long as they represent approximately the same period and type of literature4 ,the spurious treatise1 ,de placitis philosophorum1 we have already considered in the chapter on ,galen1 to whom it has also been ascribed4 ,the essay ,on ,rivers and ,mountains we shall treat by itself in the present chapter4 ,the ,de fato has also been called spurious4#iae ,superstitious content is not a sufficient reason for denying that a treatise is by ,plutarch1#iaf since he is superstitious in writings of undoubted genuineness and since we have found the leading scientists of the time unable to exclude superstition from their works entirely4 ,moreover1 many of the essays are in the form of conversations expressing the divergent views of different speakers1 and it is not always possible to tell which shade of opinion ,plutarch himself favors4 ,suffice it that the views expressed are those of men of education4 ,sidenote3 ,magic in ,plutarch4 ,plutarch does not specifically discuss magic under that name at any length in any of his essays1 but does treat of such subjects as superstition in general1 dreams1 oracles1 demons1 number1 fate1 the craftiness of animals1 and other 8natural questions40 ,certain vulgar forms of magic1 at least1 were regarded by him with disapproval or incredulity4#iag ,he rejects as a fiction the statement that the women of ,thessaly can draw down the moon by their spells1 but thinks that the notion perhaps originated in the fact or story that ,aglaonice1 daughter of ,hegetor1 was so skilful in astrology or astronomy as to be able to foresee the occurrence of lunar eclipses1 and that she deluded the people into believing that at such times she brought down the moon from heaven by charms and enchantments4#iah ,thus we have one more instance of the union of magic and science1 this time of pseudo-magic with real science as at other times of magic with pseudo-science4 ,sidenote3 ,essay on superstition4 ,the essay entitled deals with superstition in the usual ,greek sense of dread or excessive fear of demons and gods4 ,we are accustomed to think of ,hellenic paganism as a cheerful faith1 full of naturalism1 in which the gods were humanized and made familiar4 ,plutarch apparently regards normal religion as of this sort1 and attacks the superstitious dread of the supernatural4 ,he contends that such fear is worse1 if anything1 than atheism1 for it makes men more unhappy and is an equal offense against the divinity1 since it is at least as bad to believe ill of the gods as not to believe in them at all4 ,nothing indeed encourages the growth of atheism so much as the absurd practices and beliefs of such superstitious persons1 8their words and motions1 their sorceries and magics1 their runnings to and fro and beatings of drums1 their impure rites and their purifications1 their filthiness and chastity1 their barbarian and illegal chastisements and abuse40#iai ,plutarch seems to be in part animated by the common prejudice against all other religions than one's own1 and speaks twice with distaste of ,jewish ,sabbaths4 ,he also1 however1 as the passage just quoted shows1 is opposed to the more extreme and debasing forms of magic1 and declares that the superstitious man becomes a mere peg or post upon which all the old-wives hang any amulets and ligatures upon which they may chance4#ibj ,he further condemns such historic instances of superstition as ,nicias's suspension of military operations during a lunar eclipse on the ,sicilian expedition4#iba ,there was nothing terrible1 says ,plutarch1 with his usual felicity of antithesis1 in the periodic recurrence of the earth's shadow upon the moon2 but it was a terrible calamity that the shadow of superstition should thus darken the mind of a general at the very moment when a great crisis required the fullest use of his reason4 ,in the essay upon the demon of ,socrates one of the speakers1 attacking faith in dreams and apparitions1 commends ,socrates as one who did not reject the worship of the gods but who did purify philosophy1 which he had received from ,pythagoras and ,empedocles full of phantasms and myths and the dread of demons1 and reeling like a ,bacchanal1 and reduced it to facts and reason and truth4#ibb ,another of the company1 however1 objects that the demon of ,socrates outdid the divination of ,pythagoras4#ibc ,these conflicting opinions may be applied in some measure to ,plutarch himself4 ,his censure of dread of demons and excessive superstition is not to be taken as a sign of scepticism on his part in oracles1 dreams1 or the demons themselves4 ,to these matters we next turn4 ,sidenote3 ,the oracles of ,delphi and of ,trophonius4 ,plutarch's faith and interest in oracles in general and in the ,delphian oracle of ,apollo in particular are attested by three of his essays1 the ,de defectu oraculorum1 ,de ,pythiae oraculis and ,de ,ei apud ,delphos4 ,at the same time these essays attest the decline of the oracles from their earlier popularity and greatness4 ,the oracular cave of ,trophonius1 of which we shall hear again in the ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 also comes into ,plutarch's works1 and the prophetic and apocalyptic vision is described of a youth who spent two nights and a day there in an endeavor to learn the nature of the demon of ,socrates4#ibd ,sidenote3 ,divination justified4 ,plutarch further had faith in divination in general1 whether by dreams1 sneezes or other omens3 but he attempted to give a dignified philosophical and theological explanation of it4 ,few men receive direct divine revelation1 in his opinion1 but to many signs are given on which divination may be based4#ibe ,he held that the human soul had a natural faculty of divination which might be exercised at favorable times and when the bodily state was not unfavorable4#ibf ,a speaker in one of his dialogues justifies divination even from sneezes and like trivial occurrences upon the ground that as the faint beat of the pulse has meaning for the physician and a small cloud in the sky is for a skilful pilot a sign of impending storm1 so the least thing may be a clue to the truly prophetic soul4#ibg ,the extent of ,plutarch's faith in dreams may be inferred from his discussion of the problem1 ,why are dreams in autumn the least reliable8#ibh ,first there is ,aristotle's suggestion that eating autumn fruit so disturbs the digestion that the soul is left little opportunity to exercise its prophetic faculty undistracted4 ,if we accept the doctrine of ,democritus that dreams are caused by images from other bodies and even minds or souls1 which enter the body of the sleeper through the open pores and affect the mind1 revealing to it the present passions and future designs of others1--if we accept this theory1 it may be that the falling leaves in autumn disturb the air and ruffle these extremely thin and film-like emanations4 ,a third explanation offered is that in the declining months of the year all our faculties1 including that of natural divination1 are in a state of decline4 ,in the case of oracles like that at ,delphi it is suggested that the ,pythia's natural faculty of divination is stimulated by 8the prophetical exhalations from the earth0 which induce a bodily state favorable to divination4#ibi ,the god or demon1 however1 is the underlying and directing cause of the oracle4#icj ,sidenote3 ,demons as mediators between gods and men4 ,to the demons and their relations to the gods and to men we therefore next come4 ,plutarch's view is that they are essential mediators between the gods and men4 ,just as one who should remove the air from between the earth and moon would destroy the continuity of the universe1 so those who deny that there is a race of demons break off all intercourse between gods and men4#ica ,on the other hand1 the theory of demons solves many doubts and difficulties4#icb ,when and where this doctrine originated is uncertain1 whether among the magi about ,zoroaster1 or in ,thrace with ,orpheus1 or in ,egypt or ,phrygia4 ,plutarch likens the gods to an equilateral1 the demons to an isosceles1 and human beings to a scalene triangle2 and again compares the gods to sun and stars1 the demons to the moon1 and men to comets and meteors4#icc ,in the youth's vision in the cave of ,trophonius the moon appeared to belong to earthly demons1 while those stars which have a regular motion were the demons of sages1 and the wandering and falling stars the demons of men who have yielded to irrational passions4#icd ,sidenote3 ,demons in the moon3 migration of the soul4 ,these suggestions that the moon and the air between earth and moon are the abode of the demons and this reminiscence of the ,platonic doctrine of the soul and its migrations receive further confirmation in a discussion whether the moon is inhabited in the essay1 ,on the ,face in the ,moon4 ,a story is there told#ice of a man who visited islands five days' sail west of ,britain1 where ,saturn is imprisoned and where there are demons serving him4 ,this man who acquired great skill in astrology during his stay there stated upon his return to ,europe that every soul after leaving the human body wanders for a time between earth and moon1 but finally reaches the latter planet1 where the ,elysian fields are located1 and there becomes a demon4#icf ,the demons do not always remain in the moon1 however1 but may come to earth to care for oracles or be imprisoned in a human body again for some crime4#icg ,the man who repeats the stranger's story leaves it to his hearers1 however1 to believe it or not4 ,but the struggle upward of human souls to the estate of demons is again described in the essay on the demon of ,socrates1#ich where it is explained that those souls which have succeeded in freeing themselves from all union with the flesh become guardian demons and help those of their fellows whom they can reach1 just as men on shore wade out as far as they can into the waves to rescue those sea-tossed1 ship-wrecked mariners who have succeeded in struggling almost to land4 ,the soul is plunged into the body1 the uncorrupted mind or demon remains without4#ici ,sidenote3 ,demons mortal3 some evil4 ,the demons differ from the gods in that they are mortal1 though much longer-lived than men4 ,hesiod said that crows live nine times as long as men1 stags four times as long as crows1 ravens three times as long as stags1 a phoenix nine times as long as a raven1 and the nymphs ten times as long as the phoenix4#idj ,there are storms in the isles off ,britain whenever one of the demons residing there dies4#ida ,some demons are good spirits and others are evil2 some are more passive and irrational than others2 some delight in gloomy festivals1 foul words1 and even human sacrifice4#idb ,sidenote3 ,men and demons4 ,once a year in the neighborhood of the ,red ,sea a man is seen who spends the remainder of his time among 8nymphs1 nomads and demons40#idc ,at his annual appearance many princes and great men come to consult him concerning the future4 ,he also has the gift of tongues to the extent of understanding several languages perfectly4 ,his speech is like sweetest music1 his breath sweet and fragrant1 his person the most graceful that his interlocutor had ever seen4 ,he also was never afflicted with any disease1 for once a month he ate the bitter fruit of a medicinal herb4 ,as to the exact nature of ,socrates' demon there is some diversity of opinion4 ,one man suggests that it was merely the sneezing of himself or others1 sneezes on the left hand warning him to desist from his intended course of action1 while a sneeze in any other quarter was interpreted by him as a favorable sign4#idd ,the weight of opinion1 however1 inclines towards the view that his demon did not appear to him as an apparition or phantasm1 or even communicate with him as an audible voice1 but by immediate impression upon his mind4#ide ,sidenote3 ,relation of ,plutarch's to other conceptions of demons4 ,plutarch's account of demons is the first of a number which we shall have occasion to note4 ,as the discussion of them by ,apuleius in the next chapter and the rather crude representation of them given in ,philostratus's ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana will show1 there was as yet among non-,christian writers no unanimity of opinion concerning demons4 ,on the other hand there are several conceptions in ,plutarch's essays which were to be continued later by ,christians and ,neo-,platonists3 namely1 the conception of a mediate class of beings between ,god and men1 the hypothesis of a world of spirits in close touch with human life1 the association of divination and oracles with demons1 and the location of spirits in the sphere of the moon or the air between earth and moon1--although ,plutarch sometimes connected demons with the stars above the moon4 ,this occasional association of stars with spirits and of sinning souls with falling stars bears some resemblance to the depiction of certain stars as sinners in the ,hebraic ,book of ,enoch1 which was written before ,plutarch's time and which we shall consider in our next book as an influence upon the development of early ,christian thought4 ,sidenote3 ,the astrologer ,tarrutius4 ,as for the stars apart from demons1 ,plutarch discusses the art of astrology as little as he does 8magic0 by that name4 ,mentions of individuals as skilled in 8astrology0 may simply mean that they were trained astronomers4 ,when a veritable astrologer in our sense of the word is mentioned in one of ,plutarch's ,lives1#idf he is described as a --a word often used for a caster of horoscopes and predicter of the future4 ,here1 however1 it carries no reproach of charlatanism1 since in the same phrase he is called a philosopher4 ,this ,tarrutius was a friend of ,varro1 who asked him to work out the horoscope of ,romulus backward from what was known of the later life and character of the founder of ,rome4 8,for it was possible for the same science which predicted man's life from the time of his birth to infer the time of his birth from the events of his life40 ,tarrutius set to work and from the data at his disposal figured out that ,romulus was conceived in the first year of the second ,olympiad1 on the twenty-third day of the ,egyptian month ,khoeak at the third hour when there was a total eclipse of the sun2 and that he was born on the twenty-first day of the month ,thoth about sunrise4 ,he further estimated that ,rome was founded by him on the ninth day of the month ,pharmuthi between the second and third hour4 ,for1 adds ,plutarch1 they think that the fortunes of cities are also controlled by the hour of their genesis4 ,plutarch1 however1 seems to look upon such doctrines as rather strange and fabulous4#idg ,varro1 on the other hand1 may have regarded it as the most scientific method possible of settling disputed questions of historical chronology ,sidenote3 ,the ,de fato4 ,a favorable attitude towards astrology is found mainly in those essays by ,plutarch which are suspected of being spurious1 the ,de fato and ,de placitis philosophorum4 ,of the latter we have already treated under ,galen4 ,in the former fate is described as 8the soul of the universe10 and the three main divisions of the universe1 namely1 the immovable heaven1 the moving spheres and heavenly bodies1 and the region about the earth1 are associated with the three ,fates1 ,clotho1 ,atropos1 and ,lachesis4#idh ,it is similarly stated in the essay on the demon of ,socrates#idi that of the four principles of all things1 life1 motion1 genesis or generation1 and corruption1 the first two are joined by the ,one indivisibly1 the second and third ,mind unites through the sun2 the third and fourth ,nature joins through the moon4 ,and over each of these three bonds presides one of the three ,fates1 ,atropos1 ,clotho1 and ,lachesis4 ,in other words1 the one ,god or first cause1 invisible and unmoved1 in whom is life1 sets in motion the heavenly spheres and bodies1 through whose instrumentality generation and corruption upon earth are produced and regulated1--which is substantially the ,aristotelian view of the universe4 ,returning to the ,de fato we may note that it repeats the ,stoic theory of the magnus annus when the heavenly bodies resume their rounds and all history repeats itself4#iej ,despite this apparent admission that human life is subject to the movements of the stars1 the author of the ,de fato seems to think that accident1 fortune or chance1 the contingent1 and 8what is in us0 or free-will1 can all co-exist with fate1 which he practically identifies with the motion of the heavenly bodies4#iea ,fate is also comprehended by divine ,providence but this fact does not militate against astrology1 since ,providence itself divides into that of the first ,god1 that of the secondary gods or stars 8who move through the heavens regulating mortal affairs1 and that of the demons who act as guardians of men40#ieb ,sidenote3 ,other bits of astrology4 ,one or two bits of astrology may be noted in ,plutarch's other essays4 ,the man who learned 8astrology0 among demons in the isle beyond ,britain affirmed that in human generation earth supplies the body1 the moon furnishes the soul1 and the sun provides the intellect4#iec ,in the ,symposiacs#ied the opinion of the mythographers is repeated that monstrous animals were produced during the war with the giants because the moon turned from its course then and rose in unaccustomed quarters4 ,plutarch was1 by the way1 inclined to distinguish the moon from other heavenly bodies as passive and imperfect1 a sort of celestial earth or terrestrial star4 ,such a separation of the moon from the other stars and planets would have1 however1 no necessary contrariety with astrological theory1 which usually ascribed a peculiar place to the moon and represented it as the medium through which the more distant planets exerted their effects upon the earth4 ,sidenote3 ,cosmic mysticism4 ,sometimes ,plutarch's cosmology carries ,platonism to the verge of ,gnosticism1 a subject of which we shall treat in a later chapter4 ,the diviner who had communed with demons1 nomads1 and nymphs in the desert asserted that there was not one world1 but one hundred and eighty-three worlds arranged in the form of a triangle with sixty to each side and one at each angle4 ,within this triangle of worlds lay the plain of truth where were the ideas and models of all things that had been or were to be1 and about these was eternity from which time flowed off like a river to the one hundred and eighty-three worlds4 ,the vision delectable of those ideas is granted to men only once in a myriad of years1 if they live well1 and is the goal toward which all philosophy strives4 ,the stranger1 we are informed1 told this tale artlessly1 like one in the mysteries1 and produced no demonstration or proof of what he said4 ,we have already heard ,plutarch liken gods1 demons1 and men to different kinds of triangles2 he also repeats ,plato's association of the five regular solids with the elements1 earth1 air1 fire1 water1 and ether4#iee ,he states that the nature of fire is quite apparent in the pyramid from 8the slenderness of its decreasing sides and the sharpness of its angles10#ief and that fire is engendered from air when the octahedron is dissolved into pyramids1 and air produced from fire when the pyramids are compressed into an octahedron4#ieg ,sidenote3 ,number mysticism4 ,these geometrical fancies are naturally accompanied by considerable number mysticism4 ,in this particular passage the merits of the number five are enlarged upon and a long list is given of things that are five in number4#ieh ,five is again extolled in the essay on ,the ,ei at ,delphi1#iei but there one of the company remarks with much reason that it is possible to praise any number in many ways1 but that he prefers to five 8the sacred seven of ,apollo40#ifj ,platonic geometrical reveries and ,pythagorean number mysticism are indulged in even more extensively in the essay ,on the ,procreation of the ,soul in ,timaeus4 ,the number and proportion existing in planets1 stars and spheres are touched on1#ifa and it is stated that the divine demiurge produced the marvelous virtues of drugs and organs by employing harmonies and numbers4#ifb ,thus in the potency of number and numerical relations is suggested a possible explanation of astrology and magic force in nature4 ,sidenote3 ,occult virtues in nature4 ,plutarch1 indeed1 shows the same faith in the existence of occult virtues in natural objects and in what may be called natural magic as most of his contemporaries4 ,at his symposium when one man avers that he saw the tiny fish echenes stop the ship upon which he was sailing until the lookout man picked it off1#ifc some laugh at his credulity but others narrate other cases of strange antipathies in nature4 ,mad elephants are quieted by the sight of a ram2 vipers will not move if touched with a leaf from a beech tree2 wild bulls become tame when tied to a fig tree2#ifd if light objects are oiled1 amber fails to attract them as usual2 and iron rubbed with garlic does not respond to the magnet4 8,these things are proved by experience but it is difficult if not quite impossible to learn their cause40 ,at the ,symposium#ife the question also is raised why salt is called divine1 and it is suggested that it may be because it preserves bodies from decay after the soul has left them1 or because mice conceive without sexual intercourse by merely licking salt4 ,in ,the ,delay of the ,deity ,plutarch again treats of occult virtues4#iff ,they pass from body to body with incredible swiftness or to an incredible distance4 ,he wonders why it is that if a goat takes a piece of sea-holly in her mouth1 the entire herd will stand still until the goatherd removes it4 ,we see once more how closely such notions are associated with magical practices1 when in the same paragraph he mentions the custom of making the children of those who have died of consumption or dropsy sit soaking their feet in water until the corpse has been buried so that they may not catch their parent's disease4 ,sidenote3 ,asbestos4 ,on the other hand1 how difficult it must have been with the limited scientific knowledge of that time to distinguish true from false marvelous properties may be inferred from ,plutarch's description#ifg of a certain soft and pliable stone that used to be produced at ,carystus and from which handkerchiefs and hair-nets were made which could not be burnt and were cleaned by exposure to fire1--a description1 it would seem1 of our asbestos1 although ,plutarch does not give the stone any name4 ,strabo also ascribes similar properties to a stone from ,carystus without naming it4#ifh ,dioscorides and other ,greek authors1 we are told1#ifi apply the word 8asbestos0 to quick-lime1 but ,pliny in the ,natural ,history#igj describes what he says the ,greeks call much as ,plutarch does4 ,he adds that it is employed in making shrouds for royal funerals to separate the ashes of the corpse from those of the pyre4#iga ,but he seems to regard it as a plant1 not a stone1 listing it as a variety of linen in one of his books on vegetation4 ,he also states incorrectly that it is found but rarely and in desert and arid regions of ,india where there is no rain and a hot sun and amid terrible serpents#igb4 ,probably ,pliny or his source argued that anything which resisted the action of fire must have been inured by growth under fiery suns and among serpents4 ,furthermore it obviously should possess other marvelous properties1 so we are not surprised to find ,anaxilaus cited to the effect that if this 8linen0 is tied around a tree trunk1 the blows with which the tree is felled cannot be heard4 ,it was thus that imaginations inured to magic enlarged upon unusual natural properties4 ,sidenote3 ,on rivers and mountains4 ,a treatise upon rivers and mountains in which the marvelous virtues of herbs and stones figure very prominently has sometimes been included among the works of ,plutarch1 but also has been omitted entirely from some editions4#igc ,some have ascribed it to ,parthenius of the time of ,nero4 ,it is made up of some thirty-five chapters in each of which a river and a mountain are mentioned4 ,usually some myth or tragic history is recounted1 from which the river took its name or with which it was otherwise intimately connected4 ,a similar procedure is followed in the case of the mountain4 ,the writer1 whoever he may be1 makes a show of extensive reading1 citing over forty authorities1 most of whom are ,greek and not mentioned in the full bibliographies of ,pliny's ,natural ,history4 ,the titles cited have to do largely with stones1 rivers1 and different countries4 ,it has been questioned1 however1 whether these citations are not bogus4#igd ,sidenote3 ,magic herbs4 ,the properties attributed to herbs and stones in this treatise are to a large extent magical4 ,a white reed found in the river ,phasis while one is sacrificing at dawn to ,hecate1 if strewn in a wife's bedroom1 drives mad any adulterer who enters and makes him confess his sin4#ige ,another herb mentioned in the same chapter was used by ,medea to protect ,jason from her father4 ,in a later chapter#igf we are told how ,hera called upon ,selene to aid her in securing her revenge upon ,heracles1 and how the moon goddess filled a large chest with froth and foam by her magic spells until presently a huge lion leaped out of the chest4 ,returning from such sorceresses as ,hecate1 ,medea1 and ,selene to herbs alone1 in other rivers are plants which test the purity of gold1 aid dim sight or blind one1 wither at the mention of the word 8step-mother0 or burst into flames whenever a step-mother has evil designs against her step-son1 free their bearers from fear of apparitions1 operate as charms in love-making and childbirth1 cure madmen of their frenzy1 check quartan agues if applied to the breasts1 protect virginity or wither at a virgin's touch1 turn wine into water except that it retains its bouquet1 or preserve persons anointed with their juice from sickness to their dying day4 ,sidenote3 ,stones found in plants and fish4 ,an easy transition from the theme of magic herbs to that of stones is afforded by a sort of poppy which grows in a river of ,mysia and bears black1 harp-shaped stones which the natives gather and scatter over their ploughed fields4#igg ,if these stones then lie still where they have fallen1 it is taken as a sign of a barren year2 but if they fly away like locusts1 this prognosticates a plentiful harvest4 ,other marvelous stones are found in the head of a fish in the river ,arar1 a tributary of the ,rhone4 ,the fish is itself quite wonderful since it is white while the moon waxes and black when it wanes4#igh ,presumably for this reason the stone cures quartan agues1 if applied to the left side of the body while the moon is waning4 ,there is another stone which must be sought after under a waxing moon with pipers playing continually4#igi ,sidenote3 ,virtues of other stones4 ,other stones guard treasuries by sounding a trumpet-like alarm at the approach of thieves2 or change color four times a day and are ordinarily visible only to young girls4 ,but if a virgin of marriageable age chances to see this stone1 she is safe from attempts upon her chastity henceforth4#ihj ,some stones drive men mad and are connected with the ,mother of the ,gods or are found only during the celebration of the mysteries4#iha ,others stop dogs from barking1 expel demons1 grow black in the hands of false witnesses1 protect from wild beasts1 and have varied medicinal powers or other effects similar to those already mentioned in the case of herbs4#ihb ,in a river where the ,spartans were defeated is a stone which leaps towards the bank1 if it hears a trumpet1 but sinks at the mention of the ,athenians4#ihc ,certainly a marvelous stone1 capable of both hearing and motion6 ,sidenote3 ,fascination4 ,leaving the treatise on rivers and mountains1 for the occult virtue of human beings we may turn to a discussion of fascination in the ,symposiacs4#ihd ,some of the company ridiculed the idea1 but their host asserted that a myriad of events went to prove it and that if you reject a thing simply because you cannot give a reason for it1 you 8take away the marvelous from all things40 ,he pointed out that some men hurt little and tender children by looking at them1 and argued that1 as the plumes of other birds are ruined when mixed with those of the eagle1 so men may injure by their touch or mere glance4 ,plutarch1 who was of the company1 suggested effluvia or emanations from the body as a possible explanation1 pointing out that love begins with glances1 that no disease is more contagious than sore eyes1 and that gazing upon the curlew cures jaundice4 ,the bird appears to attract the disease to itself1 and averts its head and closes its eyes1 not1 as some think1 because it is jealous of the remedy sought from it1 but because it feels wounded as if from a blow4 ,others of the company contended that the passions and affections of the soul may have a powerful effect through the eyes and glance upon other persons1 and argued that the sufferings of the soul strengthen the powers of the body1 and that the same counter-charms are efficacious against envy as against fascination4 ,the emanations which ,democritus believed that envious and malicious persons sent forth are also mentioned2 fathers have fascinated their own children1 and it is even possible that one might injure oneself by reflection of one's gaze4 ,it is suggested that young children may sometimes be fascinated in this manner rather than by the glance of others4 ,sidenote3 ,animal sagacity and remedies4 ,plutarch devotes two essays to the familiar theme of the craftiness and sagacity of animals and the remedies used by them4 ,in one essay#ihe a companion of ,odysseus refuses to allow ,circe to turn him back from a pig to human form4 ,he boasts among other things that beasts know how to cure themselves4 ,without ever having been taught swine when sick run to rivers to search for craw-fish2 tortoises physic themselves with origanum after eating vipers2 and ,cretan goats devour dittany to extract arrows and darts which have been shot into their bodies4 ,in the other essay#ihf on the cleverness of animals we find many familiar stories repeated1 including some of the inevitable excerpts from ,juba on elephants4 ,we meet again the dolphins with their love for mankind1#ihg the bird who picks the crocodile's teeth and warns him of the ichneumon1#ihh the fish who rescue one another by biting the line or dragging one another by the tail out of nets1#ihi the trained elephant who was slow to learn and was beaten for it and was afterwards seen practicing his exercises by himself in the moonlight1#iij the sentinel cranes who stand on one foot and hold a stone in the other to awaken them if they let it drop4#iia ,more novel perhaps is the story how herons open oysters by first swallowing them1 shells and all1 until they are relaxed by the internal heat of the bird1 which then vomits them up and eats them out of the shells4 ,or the account of the tunny fish who needs no astrological canons and is familiar with arithmetic1 8,yes1 by ,zeus1 and with optics1 too40#iib ,sidenote3 ,theories and queries about nature4 ,plutarch's essays bring out yet other interests and defects of the science of the time4 ,one on ,the ,principle of ,cold is a good illustration of the failings of the ancient hypothesis of four elements and four qualities and of the silly1 limited arguing which usually and almost of necessity accompanied it4 ,he denies that cold is mere privation of heat1 since it seems to act positively upon fluids and solids and exists in different degrees4 ,after considering various assertions such as that air becomes cold when it becomes dark2 that air whitens things and water blackens them2 that cold objects are always heavy2 he finally associates the element earth especially with the quality cold4 ,in another essay#iic he states that there are no females of a certain type of beetle which was engraved as a charm upon the rings warriors wore to battle1 but that the males begat offspring by rolling up balls of earth4 ,he declares that 8diseases do not have distinct germs0 in a discussion in the ,symposiacs whether there can be new diseases4#iid ,other natural questions discussed in the treatise of that name and the ,symposiacs are3 ,why a man who often passes near dewy trees contracts leprosy in those limbs which touch the wood8 ,why the ,dorians pray for bad hay-making8 ,why bears' paws are the sweetest and most palatable food8 ,why the tracks of wild beasts smell worse at the full of the moon8 ,why bees are more apt to sting fornicators than other persons8#iie ,why the flesh of sheep bitten by wolves is sweeter than that of other sheep8 ,why mushrooms are thought to be produced by thunder8 ,why flesh decays sooner in moonlight than sunlight8 ,whether ,jews abstain from pork because they worship the pig or because they have an antipathy towards it8#iif ,sidenote3 ,the ,antipodes4 ,plutarch sometimes shows evidence of considerable astronomical knowledge4 ,for instance1 he knows that the mathematicians figure that the distance from sun to earth is immense1 and that ,aristarchus demonstrated the sun to be eighteen or twenty times as far off as the moon1 which is distant fifty-six times the earth's radius at the lowest estimate4#iig ,yet in the same essay#iih ,plutarch has scoffed at the idea of a spherical earth and of antipodes1 and at the assertion that bars weighing a thousand talents would stop falling at the earth's center1 if a hole were opened up through the earth1 or that two men with their feet in opposite directions at the center of the earth might nevertheless both be right side up1 or that one man whose middle was at the center might be half right side up and half upside down4 ,he admits1 however1 that the philosophers think so4 ,thus we see that ,christian fathers like ,lactantius were not the first to ridicule the notion of the ,antipodes2 apparently as well educated and omnivorous a pagan reader as ,plutarch could do the same4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,apuleius ,,of ,,madaura ,i4 ,life and ,works ,magic and the man--,stylistic reasons for regarding the ,metamorphoses as his first work--,biographical reasons--,no mention of the ,metamorphoses in the ,apology4 ,,ii4 ,magic in the ,metamorphoses ,powers claimed for magic--,its actual performances--,its limitations--,the crimes of witches--,male magicians--,magic as an art and discipline--,materials employed--,incantations and rites--,quacks and charlatans--,various superstitions--,bits of science and religion--,magic in other ,greek romances4 ,,iii4 ,magic in the ,apology ,form of the ,apologia--,philosophy and magic--,magic defined--,good and bad magic--,magic and religion--,magic and science--,medical and scientific knowledge of ,apuleius--,he repeats familiar errors--,apparent ignorance of magic and occult virtue--,despite an assumption of knowledge--,attitude toward astronomy--,his theory of demons--,apuleius in the middle ages4 ,i4 ,his ,life and ,works ,sidenote3 ,magic and the man as reflected in his works4 ,one of the fullest and most vivid pictures of magic in the ancient ,mediterranean world which has reached us is provided by the writings of ,apuleius4 ,he lived in the second century of our era and was not merely a rhetorician of great note in his day and the writer of a romance which has ever since fascinated men1 but also a ,platonic philosopher1 an initiate into many religious cults and mysteries1 and a student of natural science and medicine4 ,to him has been ascribed the ,latin version of ,asclepius1 a supposititious dialogue of ,hermes ,trismegistus4 ,no author perhaps ever more readily and complacently talked of himself than ,apuleius1 yet it is no easy task to make out the precise facts of his life1 partly because in his romance1 ,the ,metamorphoses1 or ,the ,golden ,ass1 he has hopelessly confused himself with the hero ,lucius and introduced an autobiographical element of uncertain extent into what is in the main a work of fiction2 partly because his ,apology1 or defense when tried on the charge of magic at ,oea in ,africa1 is more in the nature of special pleading intended to refute and confound his accusers than of a frank confession or accurate history of his career4 ,however1 he appears to have been born at ,madaura in ,north ,africa1 to have studied first at ,carthage and then at ,athens1 to have visited ,rome and wandered rather widely about the ,mediterranean world1 but to have spent more time altogether at ,carthage than at any other one place4 ,sidenote3 ,stylistic reasons for regarding the ,metamorphoses as his first work4 ,besides the ,metamorphoses and ,apologia1 with which we shall be chiefly concerned1 four other works are extant which are regarded as genuine1 ,the ,god of ,socrates1 ,the ,dogma of ,plato1 ,florida1 and ,on the ,universe4 ,the order in which these works were written is uncertain1 but it seems almost sure that the ,metamorphoses was the first4 ,in it ,apuleius not only more or less identifies himself with the hero ,lucius1 who is represented as quite a young man1 he also apologizes for his ,latin and speaks of the difficulty with which he had acquired that language at ,rome4 ,but in the ,florida#iii we find him repeating a hymn and a dialogue in both ,latin and ,greek1 or1 after delivering half an address in ,greek1 finishing it in ,latin1 or boasting that he writes poems1 satires1 riddles1 histories1 scientific treatises1 orations1 and philosophical dialogues with equal facility in either language4#ajjj ,instead now of craving pardon if he offends by his rude1 exotic1 and forensic speech1 he feels that his reputation for literary refinement and elegance has become such that his audience will not pardon him a solitary solecism or a single syllable pronounced with a barbarous accent4#ajja ,it therefore looks as if the ,metamorphoses was his first published effort in ,latin and as if his peculiar style had proved so popular that he did not find it necessary to apologize for it again4 ,in the ,apology he seems supremely confident of his rhetorical powers in the ,latin language1 and even the accusers describe him as a philosopher of great eloquence both in ,greek and ,latin4#ajjb ,three years before in the same town his first public discourse had been greeted with shouts of 8,insigniter10 and many in the audience at the time of his trial can still repeat a passage from it on the greatness of ,aesculapius4#ajjc ,in the ,apology1 too1 he displays a more extensive learning than in the ,metamorphoses and has written already poems and scientific treatises as well as orations4 ,indeed1 practically all the doctrines set forth in his other philosophical works may be found in brief in the ,apology4 ,sidenote3 ,biographical reasons4 ,moreover1 while in the ,metamorphoses ,apuleius ends the narrative with what seems to be his own comparatively recent initiation into the mysteries of ,isis in ,greece and of ,osiris at ,rome1 in the ,apology#ajjd he speaks of having been initiated in the past into all sorts of sacred rites1 although he does not mention ,rome or ,isis and ,osiris specifically4 ,it is implied1 however1 that he has been at ,rome in more than one passage of the ,apology4 ,pontianus1 his future step-son1 with whom ,apuleius had become acquainted at ,athens 8not so many years ago10 was 8an adult at ,rome0 before ,apuleius came to ,oea4 ,after they had met again at ,oea and had both married there1 ,apuleius gave ,pontianus a letter of introduction to the proconsul ,lollianus ,avitus at ,carthage1 of whom he says1 8,i have known intimately many cultured men of ,roman name in the course of my life1 but have never admired anyone as much as him40 ,perhaps ,apuleius may have met ,lollianus at ,carthage1 but in the ,florida1#ajje in a panegyric on ,scipio ,orfitus1 proconsul of ,africa in #afc-afd ,a4 ,d41 he alludes to the time 8when ,i moved among your friends in ,rome40 ,all this fits in nicely with the statements in the closing chapters of the ,metamorphoses concerning his rising fame as an orator in the courts of law and 8the laborious doctrine of my studies0 at ,rome4 ,we may therefore reconstruct the course of events as follows4 ,after meeting ,pontianus at ,athens and concluding his studies in ,greece1 ,apuleius came to ,rome1 where he remained for some time1 perfecting his ,latin style1 engaging in forensic oratory1 and publishing the ,metamorphoses4 ,pontianus1 who was younger than ,apuleius1 either accompanied or followed his friend to ,rome1 in which city he was still residing after ,apuleius had returned to ,africa4 ,but ,pontianus1 too1 had left ,rome and come back to his ,african city of ,oea to settle the question of his mother's proposed second marriage1 before ,apuleius1 who had probably revisited ,carthage in the meantime and was now traveling east again with the intention of visiting ,alexandria1 arrived at ,oea and was induced to wed the widow1 who was considerably older than he4 ,on the delicate question of this lady's exact age depends our dating of the birth of ,apuleius and the chronology of his entire career4 ,at the trial of ,apuleius for magic ,aemilianus1 the accuser1 declared that she was sixty when she married ,apuleius1 and he had previously proposed to marry her to his brother1 ,clarus1 whom ,apuleius calls 8a decrepit old man40#ajjf ,on the other hand1 ,apuleius asserts that the records1 which he produces in court1 of her being accepted in infancy by her father as his child show that she is 8not much over forty10#ajjg--;a tactful ambiguity which1 inasmuch as we no longer have the records1 it would probably be idle to attempt to fathom4 ,sidenote3 ,no mention of the ,metamorphoses in the ,apology4 ,the chief1 if not the only1 objection to dating the ,metamorphoses before the ,apology is that nothing is said of it in the latter4#ajjh ,but obviously ,apuleius1 when on trial for magic1 would not mention the ,metamorphoses unless his accusers forced him to do so4 ,they may not have yet heard of it or it may at first have been published anonymously1 although the probability is that ,apuleius would not have spent three years at ,oea without bringing it to his admirers' attention4 ,or they may know of it1 but the judge may not have admitted it as evidence on the ground that they must prove that ,apuleius has practiced magic4 ,the ,metamorphoses does not recount any personal participation of ,apuleius himself in magic arts1 unless one identifies him throughout with the hero ,lucius2 it purports to be a ,latin rendition of ,milesian tales#ajji and does not seem to have been taken very seriously until the church fathers began to cite it4 ,or the accusers may have dwelt upon it and ,apuleius simply have failed to take notice of their charge4 ,all these suppositions may not seem very plausible1 but on the other hand we may ask1 how would ,apuleius dare to write a work like the ,metamorphoses after he had been accused and tried of magic8 ,one would expect him then to drop the subject rather than to display an increasing interest in it4 ,but let us turn to his treatment of that theme in both those works1 and first consider the ,metamorphoses4 ,,ii4 ,magic in the ,metamorphoses ,sidenote3 ,powers claimed for magic4 ,vast power over nature and spirits is attributed to magic and its practitioners in the opening chapters of the ,metamorphoses4 8,by magic's mutterings swift streams are reversed1 the sea is calmed1 the sun stopped1 foam drawn from the moon1 the stars torn from the sky1 and day turned into night40#ajaj ,while such assertions are received with some scepticism by one listener1 they are largely borne out by the subsequent experiences of the characters in the story and by the feats which witches are made to perform4 ,these are sometimes humorously and extravagantly presented1 but as crime and ferocious cruelty are treated in the same spirit1 this light vein cannot be regarded as an admission of magic's unreality4 ,on the contrary1 the magic of ,thessaly is celebrated with one accord the world over4#ajaa ,mero the witch can 8displace the sky1 elevate the earth1 freeze fountains1 melt mountains1 raise ghosts1 bring down the gods1 extinguish the stars1 and illuminate the bottomless pit40#ajab ,submerging the light of starry heaven to the lowest depths of hell is a power also attributed to the witch ,pamphile4#ajac 8,by her marvelous secrets she makes ghosts and elements obey and serve her1 disturbs the stars and coerces the divinities40#ajad ,sidenote3 ,its actual performances4 ,in none of the episodes recorded in ,the ,golden ,ass1 however1 do the witches find it necessary or advisable to go to quite so great lengths as these1 although ,pamphile once threatens the sun with eternal darkness because he is so slow in yielding to night when she may ply her sorcery and amours4#ajae ,the witches content themselves with such accomplishments as carrying on love affairs with inhabitants of distant ,india1 ,ethopia1 and even the ,antipodes1--8trifles of the art these and mere bagatelles02#ajaf with transforming their enemies into animal forms or imprisoning them helpless in their homes1 or transporting them house and all to a spot a hundred miles off2#ajag and1 on the other hand1 with breaking down bolted doors to murder their victims1#ajah or assuming themselves the shape of weasels1 birds1 dogs1 mice1 and even insects in order to work their mischief unobserved2#ajai they then cast their victims into a deep sleep and cut their throats or hang them or mutilate them4#ajbj ,they often know what is being said about them when apparently absent1 and they sometimes indulge in divination of the future4#ajba ,but to whatever fields of activity they may extend or confine themselves1 their violent power is irresistible1 and we are given to understand that it is useless to try to fight against it or to escape it4 ,its secret and occult character is also emphasized1 and the adjective caeca or noun latebrae are more than once employed to describe it4#ajbb ,sidenote3 ,its limitations4 ,yet there are also suggested certain limitations to the power of magic4 ,the witches seem to break down the bolted doors1 but these resume their former place when the hags have departed1 and are to all appearances as intact as before4 ,the man1 too1 whose throat they have cut1 whose blood they have drained off1 and whose heart they have removed1 awakes apparently alive the next morning and resumes his journey4 ,all the events of the preceding night seem to have been merely an unpleasant dream4 ,the witches had stuffed a sponge into the wound of his throat#ajbc with the adjuration1 8,oh you sponge1 born in the sea1 beware of crossing running water40 ,in the morning his traveling companion can see no sign of wound or sponge on his friend's throat4 ,but when he stoops to drink from a brook1 out falls the sponge and he drops dead4 ,the inference1 although ,apuleius draws none1 is obvious2 witches can make a corpse seem alive for a while but not for long1 and magic ceases to work when you cross running water4 ,we also get the impression that there is something deceptive and illusive about the magic of the witches1 and that only the lusts and crimes are real which their magic enables them or their employers to commit and gratify4 ,they may seem to draw down the sun1 but it is found shining next day as usual4 ,when ,lucius is transformed into an ass1 he retains his human appetite and tenderness of skin1#ajbd--;a deplorable state of mind and body which must be attributed to the imperfections of the magic art as well as to the humorous cruelty of the author4 ,sidenote3 ,the crimes of witches4 ,in ,the ,golden ,ass the practitioners of magic are usually witches and old and repulsive4 ,we have to deal with wonders worked by old-wives and not by ,magi of ,persia or ,babylon4 ,as we have seen and shall see yet further1 their deeds are regarded as illicit and criminal4 ,they are 8most wicked women0 7nequissimae mulieres71#ajbe intent upon lust and crime4 ,they practice devotiones1 injurious imprecations and ceremonies4#ajbf ,sidenote3 ,male magicians4 ,male practitioners of magic are represented in a less unfavorable light4 ,an ,egyptian1 who in return for a large sum of money engages to invoke the spirit of a dead man and restore the corpse momentarily to life1 is called a prophet and a priest1 though he seems a manifest necromancer and is himself adjured to lend his aid and to 8have pity by the stars of heaven1 by the infernal deities1 by the elements of nature1 and by the silence of night10#ajbg--;expressions which are certainly suggestive of the magic powers elsewhere ascribed to witches4 ,the hero of the story1 ,lucius1 is animated in his dabblings in the magic art by idle curiosity combined with thirst for learning1 but not by any criminal motive4#ajbh ,yet after he has been transformed into an ass by magic1 he fears to resume his human form suddenly in public1 lest he be put to death on suspicion of practicing the magic art4#ajbi ,sidenote3 ,magic as an art and discipline4 ,magic is depicted not merely as irresistible or occult or criminal or fallacious2 it is also regularly called an art and a discipline4 ,even the practices of the witches are so dignified4 ,pamphile has nothing less than a laboratory on the roof of her house1--a wooden shelter1 concealed from view but open to the winds of heaven and to the four points of the compass1--where she may ply her secret arts and where she spreads out her 8customary apparatus40#ajcj ,this consists of all sorts of aromatic herbs1 of metal plates inscribed with cryptic characters1 a chest filled with little boxes containing various ointments1#ajca and portions of human corpses obtained from sepulchers1 shipwrecks 7or birds of prey1 according as the reading is navium or avium71 public executions1 and the victims of wild beasts4#ajcb ,it will be recalled that ,galen represented medical students as most likely to secure human skeletons or bodies to dissect from somewhat similar sources2 and possibly they might incur suspicion of magic thereby4 ,sidenote3 ,materials employed4 ,all this makes it clear that to work magic one must have materials4 ,the witches seem especially avid for parts of the human body4 ,pamphile sends her maid1 ,fotis1 to the barber's shop to try to steal some cuttings of the hair of a youth of whom she is enamoured2#ajcc and another story is told of witches who by mistake cut off and replaced with wax the nose and ears of a man guarding the corpse instead of those of the dead body4#ajcd ,other witches who murdered a man carefully collected his blood in a bladder and took it away with them4#ajce ,but parts of other animals are also employed in their magic1 and stones as well as varied herbs and twigs4#ajcf ,in trying to entice the beloved ,boeotian youth ,pamphile used still quivering entrails and poured libations of spring water1 milk1 and honey1 as well as placing the hairs--which she supposed were his--with many kinds of incense upon live coals4#ajcg ,to turn herself into an owl she anointed herself from top to toe with ointment from one of her little boxes1 and also made much use of a lamp4#ajch ,to regain her human form she has only to drink1 and bathe in1 spring water mixed with anise and laurel leaf1--8,see how great a result is attained by such small and insignificant herbs60#ajci--while ,lucius is told that eating roses will restore him from asinine to human form4#ajdj ,the ,egyptian prophet makes use of herbs in his necromancy1 placing one on the face and another on the breast of the corpse2 and he himself wears linen robes and sandals of palm leaves4#ajda ,sidenote3 ,incantations and rites4 ,besides materials1 incantations are much employed1#ajdb while the ,egyptian prophet turns towards the east and 8silently imprecates0 the rising sun4 ,as this last suggests1 careful observance of rite and ceremony also play their part1 and ,pamphile's painstaking procedure is described in precise detail4 ,divine aid is once mentioned#ajdc and is perhaps another essential for success4 ,more than one witch is called divina1#ajdd and magic is termed a divine discipline4#ajde ,but we have also heard the witches spoken of as coercing the gods rather than depending upon them for assistance4 ,their magic seems to be performed mainly by using things and words in the right ways4 ,sidenote3 ,quacks and charlatans4 ,besides the witches 7magae or sagae7 and what ,apuleius calls magic by name1 a number of other charlatans and superstitions of a kindred nature are mentioned in ,the ,golden ,ass4 ,such a one is the ,egyptian 8prophet0 already described4 ,such was the ,chaldean who for a time astounded ,corinth by his wonderful predictions1 but had been unable to foresee his own shipwreck4#ajdf ,on learning this last fact1 a business man who was about to pay him one hundred denarii for a prognostication snatched up his money again and made off4 ,such were the painted disreputable crew of the ,syrian goddess who went about answering all inquiries concerning the future with the same ambiguous couplet4#ajdg ,such were the jugglers whom ,lucius saw at ,athens swallowing swords or balancing a spear in the throat while a boy climbed to the top of it4#ajdh ,such were the physicians who turned poisoners4#ajdi ,sidenote3 ,various superstitions4 ,other passages allude to astrology#ajej besides that already cited concerning the ,chaldean4 ,divination from dreams is also discussed4 ,in the fourth book the old female servant tells the captive maiden not to be terrified 8by the idle figments of dreams0 and explains that they often go by contraries2 but in the last book the hero is several times guided or forewarned by dreams4 ,omens are believed in4 ,starting left foot first loses a man a business opportunity1#ajea and another is kicked out of a house for his ill-omened words4#ajeb ,the violent deaths of all three sons of the owner of another house are presaged by the following remarkable conglomeration of untoward portents3 a hen lays a chick instead of an egg2 blood spurts up from under the table2 a servant rushes in to announce that the wine is boiling in all the jars in the cellar2 a weasel is seen dragging a dead snake out-of-doors2 a green frog leaps from the sheep-dog's mouth and then a ram tears open the dog's throat at one bite4#ajec ,sidenote3 ,some bits of science and religion4 ,of scientific discussion or information there is little in the ,metamorphoses4 ,when ,pamphile foretells the weather for the next day by inspection of her lamp1 ,lucius suggests that this artificial flame may retain some properties from its heavenly original4#ajed ,the herb mandragora is described as inducing a sleep similar to death1 but as not fatal2 and the beaver is said to emasculate itself in order to escape its hunters4#ajee ,we should feel lost without mention of a dragon in a book of this sort1 and one is introduced who is large enough to devour a man4#ajef ,it is interesting to note for purposes of comparison1--inasmuch as we shall presently take up the ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 a ,neo-,pythagorean1 and later shall learn from the ,recognitions of ,clement that the apostle ,peter was accustomed to bathe at dawn in the sea1--that ,lucius1 while still in the form of an ass1 in his zeal for purification plunged into the sea and submerged his head beneath the wave seven times1 because the divine ,pythagoras had proclaimed that number as especially appropriate to religious rites4#ajeg 8,it has been said that ,the ,golden ,ass is the first book in ,european literature showing piety in the modern sense1 and the most disreputable adventures of ,lucius lead1 it is true1 in the end to a religious climax40 ,but1 adds ,professor ,duncan ,b4 ,macdonald1 8,few books1 in spite of fantastic gleams of color and light1 move under such leaden-weighted skies as ,the ,golden ,ass4 ,there is no real ,god in that world2 all things are in the hands of enchanters2 man is without hope for here and hereafter2 full of yearnings he struggles and takes refuge in strange cults40#ajeh ,sidenote3 ,magic in other ,greek romances4 ,while magic plays a larger part in ,the ,golden ,ass than in any other extant ,greek romance1 it is not unusual in the others to find the hero and heroine exposed to perils from magicians1 or themselves falsely charged with magic1 as in the ,aethiopica of ,heliodorus1 where ,charicles is 8condemned to be burned on a charge of poisoning40#ajei ,in the ,christian romances1 too1 as the ,recognitions will show us later1 there are plenty of allusions to magic and demons4 ,meanwhile we are reminded that in the ,roman ,empire accusations of magic were made not merely in story books but in real life by the trial for magic of the author of the ,metamorphoses himself1 and we next turn to the ,apology which he delivered upon that occasion4 ,,iii4 ,magic in the ,apology ,sidenote3 ,form of the ,apologia4 ,the ,apologia has every appearance of being preserved just as it was delivered and perhaps as it was taken down by short-hand writers2 it does not seem to have undergone the subsequent revision to which ,cicero subjected some of his orations4 ,it must have been hastily composed1 since ,apuleius states that it has been only five or six days since the charges were suddenly brought against him1 while he was occupied in defending another lawsuit brought against his wife4#ajfj ,there also are numerous apparently extempore passages in the oration1 notably those where ,apuleius alludes to the effect which his statements produce1 now upon his accusers1 now upon the proconsul sitting in judgment4 ,from the ,florida we know that ,apuleius was accustomed to improvise4#ajfa ,moreover1 in the ,apology certain statements are made by ,apuleius which might be turned against him with damaging effect and which he probably would have omitted1 had he had the leisure to go over his speech carefully before the trial4 ,for instance1 in denying the charge that he had caused to be made for himself secretly out of the finest wood a horrible magic figure in the form of a ghost or skeleton1 he declares that it is only a little image of ,mercury made openly by a well-known artisan of the town4#ajfb ,but he has earlier stated that 8,mercury1 carrier of incantations10 is one of the deities invoked in magic rites2#ajfc and in another passage#ajfd has recounted how the outcome of the ,mithridatic war was investigated at ,tralles by magic1 and how a boy1 gazing at an image of ,mercury in water1 had predicted the future in one hundred and sixty verses4 ,but this is not all4 ,in a third passage#ajfe he actually quotes ,pythagoras to the effect that ,mercury ought not to be carved out of every kind of wood4 ,sidenote3 ,philosophy and magic4 ,if in the ,metamorphoses the practice of magic is imputed chiefly to old-wives1 in the ,apology a main concern of ,apuleius is to defend philosophers in general#ajff and himself in particular from 8the calumny of magic40#ajfg ,epimenides1 ,orpheus1 ,pythagoras1 ,ostanes1 ,empedocles1 ,socrates1 and ,plato have been so suspected1 and it consoles ,apuleius in his own trial to reflect that he is but sharing the undeserved fate of 8so many and such great men40#ajfh ,in this connection he states that those philosophers who have taken an especial interest in theology1 8who investigate the providence of the universe too curiously and celebrate the gods too enthusiastically10 are the ones to be suspected of magic2 while those who devote themselves to natural science pure and simple are more liable to be called irreligious atheists4 ,sidenote3 ,magic defined4 ,but what is it to be a magician1 ,apuleius asks the accusers1#ajfi and therewith we face again the question of the definition of magic1 and ,apuleius gradually answers his own query in the course of the oration4 ,magic1 in the ordinary use of the word1 is described in much the same way as in the ,metamorphoses4 ,it has been proscribed by ,roman law since the ,twelve ,tables2 it is hideous and horrible2 it is secret and solitary2 it murmurs its incantations in the darkness of the night4#ajgj ,it is an art of ill repute1 of illicit evil deeds1 of crimes and enormities4#ajga ,instead of simply calling it magia1 ,apuleius often applies to it the double expression1 magica maleficia4#ajgb ,perhaps he does this intentionally4 ,in one passage he states that he will refute certain charges which the accusers have brought against him1 first1 by showing that the things he has been charged with have nothing to do with magic2 and second1 by proving that1 even if he were a magician1 there was no cause or occasion for his having committed any maleficium in this connection4#ajgc ,that is to say1 maleficium1 literally 8an evil deed10 means an injury done another by means of magic art4 ,the proconsul sitting in judgment takes a similar view and has asked the accusers1 ,apuleius tells us1#ajgd when they asserted that a woman had fallen into an epileptic fit in his presence and that this was due to his having bewitched her1 whether the woman died or what good her having a fit did ,apuleius4 ,this is significant as hinting that ,roman law did not condemn a man for magic unless he were proved to have committed some crime or made some unjust gain thereby4 ,sidenote3 ,good and bad magic4 ,does ,apuleius for his part mean to suggest a distinction between magia and magica maleficia1 and to hint1 as he did not do in the ,metamorphoses1 that there is a good as well as a bad magic8 ,he cannot be said to maintain any such distinction consistently2 often in the ,apology magia alone as well as maleficium is used in a bad sense4 ,but he does suggest such a thought and once voices it quite explicitly4#ajge 8,if10 he says1 8as ,i have read in many authors1 magus in the ,persian language corresponds to the word sacerdos in ours1 what crime1 pray1 is it to be a priest and duly know and understand and cherish the rules of ceremonial1 the sacred customs1 the laws of religion80 ,plato describes magic as part of the education of the young ,persian prince by the four wisest and best men of the realm1 one of whom instructs him in the magic of ,zoroaster which is the worship of the gods4 8,do you hear1 you who rashly charge me with magic1 that this art is acceptable to the immortal gods1 consists in celebrating and reverencing them1 is pious and prophetic1 and long since was held by ,zoroaster and ,oromazes1 its authors1 to be noble and divine80#ajgf ,in common speech1 however1 ,apuleius recognizes that a magician is one 8who by his power of addressing the immortal gods is able to accomplish whatever he will by an almost incredible force of incantations40 ,but anyone who believes that another man possesses such a power as this should be afraid to accuse him1 says ,apuleius1 who thinks by this ingenious dilemma to prove the insincerity of his accusers4 ,nevertheless he presently mentions that ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,luna1 and ,trivia are the deities usually summoned in the ceremonies of the magicians4#ajgg ,sidenote3 ,magic and religion4 ,it will be noted that ,apuleius connects magic with the gods and religion more in the ,apology than in the ,metamorphoses4 ,there his emphasis was on the natural materials employed by the witches and their almost scientific laboratories4 ,but in the ,apology both ,persian ,magi and common magicians are associated with the worship or invocation of the gods1 and it is theologians rather than natural philosophers who incur suspicion of magic4 ,sidenote3 ,magic and science4 ,but it may be that the reason why ,apuleius abstains in the ,apology from suggesting any connection or confusion between magic and natural science is that the accusers have already laid far too much stress upon this point for his liking4 ,he has been charged with the composition of a tooth-powder1#ajgh with use of a mirror1#ajgi with the purchase of a sea-hare1 a poisonous mollusc1 and two other fish appropriate from their obscene shapes and names for use as love-charms4#ajhj ,he is said to have had a horrible wooden image or seal constructed secretly for use in his magic1#ajha to keep other instruments of his art mysteriously wrapped in a handkerchief in the house1#ajhb and to have left in the vestibule of another house where he lodged 8many feathers of birds0 and much soot on the walls4#ajhc ,all these charges make it evident that natural and artificial objects are1 as in the ,metamorphoses1 considered essential or at least usual in performing magic4 ,moreover1 so ready have the accusers shown themselves to interpret the interest of ,apuleius in natural science as an evidence of the practice of magic by him1 that he sarcastically remarks#ajhd that he is glad that they were unaware that he had read ,theophrastus ,on beasts that bite and sting and ,nicander ,on the bites of wild beasts 7usually called ,theriaca71#ajhe or they would have accused him of being a poisoner as well as a magician4 ,sidenote3 ,medical and scientific knowledge of ,apuleius4 ,apuleius shows that he really is a student1 if not an authority1 in medicine and natural science4 ,the gift of the tooth-powder and the falling of the woman in a fit were incidents of his occasional practice of medicine1 and he also sees no harm in his seeking certain remedies from fish4#ajhf ,he repeats ,plato's theory of disease from the ,timaeus and cites ,theophrastus's admirable work ,on ,epileptics4#ajhg ,mention of the mirror starts him off upon an optical disquisition in which he remarks upon theories of vision and reflection1 upon liquid and solid1 flat and convex and concave mirrors1 and cites the ,catoptrica of ,archimedes4#ajhh ,he also regards himself as an experimental zoologist and has conducted all his researches publicly4#ajhi ,he procures fish in order to study them scientifically as ,aristotle1 ,theophrastus1 ,eudemus1 ,lycon1 and other pupils of ,plato did4#ajij ,he has read innumerable books of this sort and sees no harm in testing by experience what has been written4 ,indeed he is himself writing in both ,greek and ,latin a work on ,natural ,questions in which he hopes to add what has been omitted in earlier books and to remedy some of their defects and to arrange all in a handier and more systematic fashion4 ,he has passages from the section on fishes in this work read aloud in court4 ,sidenote3 ,he repeats familiar errors4 ,throughout the ,apology ,apuleius occasionally airs his scientific attainments by specific statements and illustrations from the zoological and other scientific fields4 ,indeed the presence of such allusions is as noticeable in the ,apology as was their absence from the ,metamorphoses4 ,but they go to show that his knowledge was greater than his discretion1 since for the most part they repeat familiar errors of contemporary science4 ,we are told--the story is also in ,aristotle1 ,pliny1 and ,aelian--how the crocodile opens its jaws to have its teeth picked by a friendly bird1#ajia that the viper gnaws its way out of its mother's womb1#ajib that fish are spontaneously generated from slime1#ajic and that burning the stone gagates will cause an epileptic to have a fit4#ajid ,on the other hand1 the skin shed by a spotted lizard is a remedy for epilepsy1 but you must snatch it up speedily or the lizard will turn and devour it1 either from natural appetite or just because he knows that you want it4#ajie ,this tale1 so characteristic of the virtues attributed to parts of animals and the human motives ascribed to the animals themselves1 is taken by ,apuleius from a treatise by ,theophrastus entitled ,jealous ,animals4 ,sidenote3 ,apparent ignorance of magic and occult virtue4 ,in defending what he terms his scientific investigations from the aspersion of magic ,apuleius is at times either a trifle disingenuous and inclined to trade upon the ignorance of his judge and accusers1 or else not as well informed himself as he might be in matters of natural science and of occult science4 ,he contends that fish are not employed in magic arts1 asks mockingly if fish alone possess some property hidden from other men and known to magicians1 and affirms that if the accuser knows of any such he must be a magician rather than ,apuleius4#ajif ,he insists that he did not make use of a sea-hare and describes the 8fish0 in question in detail1#ajig but this description1 as is pointed out in ,butler and ,owen's edition of the ,apology1#ajih tends to convince us that it really was a sea-hare4 ,in the case of the two fish with obscene names1 he ridicules the arguing from similarity of names to similarity of powers in the things so designated1 as if that were not what magicians and astrologers and believers in sympathy and antipathy were always doing4 ,you might as well say1 he declares1 that a pebble is good for the stone and a crab for an ulcer1#ajii as if precisely these remedies for those diseases were not found in the ,pseudo-,dioscorides and in ,pliny's ,natural ,history4#aajj ,sidenote3 ,despite an assumption of knowledge4 ,it is hardly probable that in the passages just cited ,apuleius was pretending to be ignorant of matters with which he was really acquainted1 since as a rule he is eager to show off his knowledge even of magic itself4 ,thus the accusers affirmed that he had bewitched a boy by incantations in a secret place with an altar and a lamp2 ,apuleius criticizes their story by saying that they should have added that he employed the boy for purposes of divination1 citing tales which he has read to this effect in ,varro and many other authors4#aaja ,and he himself is ready to believe that the human soul1 especially in one who is still young and innocent1 may1 if soothed and distracted by incantations and odors1 forget the present1 return to its divine and immortal nature1 and predict the future4 ,when he reads some technical ,greek names from his treatise on fishes1 he suspects that the accuser will protest that he is uttering magic names in some ,egyptian or ,babylonian rite4#aajb ,and as a matter of fact1 when later he mentioned the names of a number of celebrated magicians1#aajc the accusers appear to have raised such a tumult that ,apuleius deemed it prudent to assure the judge that he had simply read them in reputable books in public libraries1 and that to know such names was one thing1 to practice the magic art quite another matter4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude toward astrology4 ,apuleius affirms that one of his accusers had consulted he knows not what ,chaldeans how he might profitably marry off his daughter1 and that they had prophesied truthfully that her first husband would die within a few months4 8,as for what she would inherit from him1 they fixed that up1 as they usually do1 to suit the person consulting them40#aajd ,but in this respect their prediction turned out to be quite incorrect4 ,we are left in some doubt1 however1 whether their failure in the second case is not regarded as due merely to their knavery1 and their first successful prediction to the rule of the stars4 ,elsewhere1 however1 ,apuleius does state that belief in fate and in magic are incompatible1 since there is no place left for the force of spells and incantations1 if everything is ruled by fate4#aaje ,but in other extant works#aajf he speaks of the heavenly bodies as visible gods1 and ,laurentius ,lydus attributes astrological treatises to him4#aajg ,sidenote3 ,his theory of demons4 ,in one passage of the ,apology ,apuleius affirms his belief with ,plato in the existence of certain intermediate beings or powers between gods and men1 who govern all divinations and the miracles of the magicians4#aajh ,in the treatise on the god or demon of ,socrates#aaji he repeats this thought and tells us more of these mediators or demons4 ,their native element is the air1 which ,apuleius thought extended as far as the moon1#aaaj just as ,aristotle#aaaa tells of animals who live in fire and are extinguished with it1 and just as the fifth element1 that 8divine and inviolable0 ether1 contains the divine bodies of the stars4 ,with the superior gods the demons have immortality in common1 but like mortals they are subject to passions and to feeling and capable of reason4#aaab ,but their bodies are very light and like clouds1 a point peculiar to themselves4#aaac ,since both ,plutarch and ,apuleius wrote essays on the demon of ,socrates and both derived1 or thought that they derived1 their theories concerning demons from ,plato1 it is interesting to note some divergences between their accounts4 ,apuleius confines them to the atmosphere beneath the moon more exclusively than ,plutarch does2 unlike ,plutarch he represents them as immortal1 not merely long-lived2 and he has more to say about the substance of their bodies and less concerning their relations with disembodied souls4 ,sidenote3 ,apuleius in the middle ages4 ,apuleius would have been a well-known name in the middle ages1 if only indirectly through the use made by ,augustine in ,the ,city of ,god#aaad of the ,metamorphoses in describing magic and of the ,de deo ,socratis in discussing demons4#aaae ,he also speaks of ,apuleius in three of his letters1#aaaf declaring that for all his magic arts he could win neither a throne nor judicial power4 ,augustine was not quite sure whether ,apuleius had actually been transformed into an ass or not4 ,a century earlier ,lactantius#aaag spoke of the many marvels remembered of ,apuleius4 ,that manuscripts of the ,metamorphoses1 ,apology and ,florida were not numerous until after the twelfth and thirteenth centuries may be inferred from the fact that all the extant manuscripts seem to be derived from a single one of the later eleventh century1 written in a ,lombard hand and perhaps from ,monte ,cassino4#aaah ,the article on ,apuleius in ,pauly and ,wissowa states that the best manuscripts of his other works are an eleventh century codex at ,brussels and a twelfth century manuscript at ,munich1#aaai but does not mention a twelfth century manuscript of the ,de deo ,socratis in the ,british ,museum4#aabj ,another indication that in the twelfth century there were manuscripts of ,apuleius in ,england or at ,chartres and ,paris is that ,john of ,salisbury borrows from the ,de dogmate ,platonis in his ,de nugis curialium4#aaba ,in the earlier middle ages there was ascribed to ,apuleius a work on herbs of which we shall treat later4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,philostratus',s ,,life ,,of ,,apollonius ,,of ,,tyana ,compared with ,apuleius--,philostratus's sources--,time and space covered--,philostratus's audience--,object of the ,life--,apollonius charged with magic--,a confusion of terms--,the ,magi and magic--,apollonius and the ,magi--,philostratus on wizards--,apollonius and wizards--,quacks and old-wives--,the ,brahmans--,marvels of the ,brahmans--,magical methods of the ,brahmans--,medicine of the ,brahmans--,some signs of astrology--,interest in natural science--,natural law or special providence8--,cases of scepticism--,anecdotes of animals--,dragons of ,india--,occult virtues of gems--,absence of number mysticism--,mantike or the art of divination--,divining power of ,apollonius--,dreams--,interpretation of omens--,animals and divination--,divination by fire--,other so-called predictions--,apollonius and the demons--,not all demons are evil--,philostratus's faith in demons--,the ghost of ,achilles--,healing the sick and raising the dead--,other marvels--,golden wrynecks and the iunx--,why named iunx8--,apollonius in the middle ages4 ,sidenote3 ,compared with ,apuleius4 ,some fifty years after the birth of ,apuleius occurred that of ,philostratus1 whose career and interests were somewhat similar1 although he came from the ,aegean island of ,lemnos instead of the neighborhood of ,carthage and wrote in ,greek rather than ,latin4 ,but like ,apuleius he was a student of rhetoric and went first to ,athens and then to ,rome4 ,the resemblance is perhaps closer between ,apuleius and ,apollonius of ,tyana1 whose life ,philostratus wrote and of whom we know more than of his biographer4 ,like ,apuleius ,apollonius had to defend himself in court against the accusation of magic1 and ,philostratus gives us what purports to be his apology on that occasion4 ,two centuries afterwards ,augustine in one of his letters#aabb names ,apollonius and ,apuleius as examples of men who were addicted to the magic art and who1 the pagans said1 performed greater miracles than ,christ did4 ,a century before ,augustine ,lactantius states#aabc that a certain philosopher who had 8vomited forth0 three books 8against the ,christian religion and name0 had compared the miracles of ,apollonius favorably with those of ,christ2 ,lactantius marvels that he did not mention ,apuleius as well4 ,like ,apuleius1 ,apollonius was a man of broad learning who traveled widely and sought initiation into mysteries and cults4 ,apuleius was a ,platonist2 ,apollonius1 a ,pythagorean4 ,we may also note a resemblance between the ,metamorphoses and the ,life of ,apollonius4 ,both seem to elaborate earlier writings and both have much to say of transformations1 wizards1 demons1 and the occult4 ,the ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 however1 must be taken more seriously than the ,metamorphoses4 ,if the ,african's work is a rhetorical romance embodying a certain autobiographical element1 a ,milesian tale to which personal religious experiences are annexed1 then the work by ,philostratus is a rhetorical biography with a tinge of romance and a good deal of sermonizing4 ,sidenote3 ,philostratus's sources4 ,philostratus#aabd composed the ,life of ,apollonius about #bag ,a4 ,d4 at the request of the learned wife of the emperor ,septimius ,severus1 to whose literary circle he belonged4 ,the empress had come into possession of some hitherto unknown memoirs of ,apollonius by a certain ,damis of ,nineveh1 who had been his disciple and had accompanied him upon many of his travels4 ,some member of ,damis's family had brought these documents to the empress's attention4 ,some scholars incline to the view that she was deceived by an impostor1 but it hardly seems that there would be sufficient profit in the venture to induce anyone to take the pains to forge such memoirs4 ,also ,i can see no reason why a contemporary of ,apollonius should not have said and believed everything which ,philostratus represents ,damis as saying2 on the contrary it seems to me just what would be said by a naf1 gullible1 and devoted disciple1 who was inclined to exaggerate the abilities and achievements of his master and to take literally everything that ,apollonius uttered ironically or figuratively4 ,other accounts of ,apollonius were already in existence by a ,maximus of ,aegae1 where ,apollonius had spent part of his life1 and by ,moeragenes1 but the memoirs of ,damis seem to have offered much new material4 ,philostratus accordingly wrote a new life based largely upon ,damis1 but also making use of the will and epistles of ,apollonius1 many of which the emperor ,hadrian had earlier collected1 and of the traditions still current in the cities and temples which ,apollonius had frequented and which ,philostratus now took the trouble to visit4 ,it has sometimes been suggested1 chiefly by ,christian writers intent upon discrediting the career of ,apollonius1 that ,philostratus invented ,damis and his memoirs4 ,but ,philostratus seems straightforward in describing the pains he has been to in preparing the ,life1 and certainly is more explicit and systematic in stating his sources than other ancient biographers like ,plutarch and ,suetonius are4 ,he appears to follow his sources rather closely and not to invent new incidents1 although he may1 like ,thucydides and other ancient historians1 have taken liberties with the speeches and arguments put into his characters' mouths4 ,and through the work1 despite his belief in demons and marvels1 he now and then gives evidence of a moderate and sceptical mind1 at least for his times4 ,sidenote3 ,time and space covered4 ,apollonius lived in the first century of our era and died during the reign of ,nerva well advanced in years4 ,it is therefore of a period over a century before his own that ,philostratus writes4 ,he is said to commit a number of errors in history and geography1#aabe but we must remember that mistakes in geography were a failing of the best ancient historians such as ,polybius1 and the general picture drawn of the emperors and politics of ,apollonius's time is not far wrong4 ,it is true that ,philostratus also makes use of tradition which has gradually formed since the death of ,apollonius1 and introduces explanations or comments of his own on various matters4 ,it is1 however1 not the facts either of ,apollonius's career or of his times that concern us but the beliefs and superstitions which we find in ,philostratus's ,life of him4 ,whether these are of the first1 second1 or early third century is scarcely necessary or possible for us to distinguish4 ,if ,damis records them1 ,philostratus accepts them1 and the probability is that they apply not only to all three centuries but to a long period before and after4 ,the territory covered in the ,life is almost as extensive2 it ranges all over the ,roman ,empire1 alludes occasionally to the ,celts and ,scythians1 and opens up ,ethiopia and ,india#aabf to our gaze4 ,apollonius was a great traveler and there are many interesting and informing passages concerning ships1 sailing1 pilots1 merchants and sea-trade4#aabg ,sidenote3 ,philostratus's audience4 ,if we ask further1 for what class of readers was the ,life intended1 the answer is1 for the intellectual and learned4 ,apollonius himself was distinctly a ,hellene4 ,philostratus represents him as often quoting ,homer and other bygone ,greek authors1 or mentioning names from early ,greek history such as ,lycurgus and ,aristides4 ,one of his aims was to restore the degenerate ,greek cities of his own day to their ancient morality4 ,furthermore1 ,apollonius never cared for many disciples1 and neither required them to observe all the rules of life which he himself followed1 nor admitted them to all his interviews with other sages and his initiations into sacred mysteries4 ,this aloofness of the sage is somewhat reflected in his biographer4 ,the ,life is an attempt not to popularize the teachings of ,apollonius but to justify him before the learned world4 ,sidenote3 ,object of the ,life4 ,the charge had been frequently made that ,apollonius came illegitimately by his wisdom and acquired it violently by magic4 ,philostratus would restore him to the ranks of true philosophers who gained wisdom by worthy and licit methods4 ,he declares that he was not a wizard1 as many suppose1 but a notable ,pythagorean1 a man of broad culture1 an intellectual and moral teacher1 a religious ascetic and reformer1 probably even a prophet of divine and superhuman nature4 ,it is not now so generally held by ,christian writers as it used to be that ,philostratus wrote the ,life with the ,gospel story of ,christ in mind1 and that his purpose was to imitate or to parody or to oppose a rival narrative to the ,christian story and teaching4 ,at no point in the ,life does ,philostratus betray unmistakably even a passing acquaintance with the ,gospels1 much less display any sign of animus against them4 ,moreover1 the ,christian historian and apologist1 ,eusebius1 who lived in the century following ,philostratus and was familiar with his ,life of ,apollonius1 in writing a reply to a treatise in which ,hierocles1 a provincial governor under ,diocletian1 had compared ,apollonius with ,jesus1 distinctly states that ,hierocles was the first to suggest such an idea4#aabh ,such similarities then as may exist between the ,life and the ,gospels must be taken as examples of beliefs common to that age4 ,sidenote3 ,apollonius charged with magic4 ,apollonius was accused of sorcery or magic during his lifetime by the rival philosopher ,euphrates4 ,the four books on ,apollonius written by ,moeragenes also portrayed him as a wizard2#aabi and ,eusebius in his reply to ,hierocles ascribed the miracles wrought by ,apollonius to sorcery and the aid of evil demons4#aacj ,earlier the satirist ,lucian described ,alexander the pseudo-prophet as having been in his youth an apprentice to 8one of the charlatans who deal in magic and mystic incantations1 444 a native of ,tyana1 an associate of the great ,apollonius1 and acquainted with all his heroics40#aaca ,sidenote3 ,a confusion of terms ,in defending his hero against these charges ,philostratus is guilty himself both of some ambiguous use of terms and of some loose thinking4 ,the same ambiguous terminology1 however1 will be found in other discussions of magic4 ,in a few passages ,philostratus denies that ,apollonius was a but much oftener exculpates him from the charge of being a or 4 ,with the latter word or words there is no difficulty4 ,it means a wizard1 sorcerer1 or enchanter1 and is always employed in a sinister or disreputable sense4 ,with the term the case is different1 as with the ,latin magus4 ,it may signify an evil magician1 or it may refer to one of the ,magi of the ,east1 who are generally regarded as wise and good men4 ,this delicate distinction1 however1 is not easy to maintain and ,philostratus fails to do so1 while ,mr4 ,conybeare in his ,english translation#aacb makes confusion worse confounded not only by translating as 8wizard0 instead of 8magician10 but by sometimes doing this when it really should be rendered as 8one of the ,magi40 ,it may also be noted that ,philostratus locates the ,magi in ,babylonia as well as in ,persia4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,magi and magic ,to begin with1 in his second chapter ,philostratus says that some consider ,apollonius a magician 8because he consorted with the ,magi of the ,babylonians1 and the ,brahmans of the ,indians1 and the ,gymnosophists in ,egypt40 ,but they are wrong in this4 8,for ,empedocles and ,pythagoras himself and ,democritus1 although they associated with the ,magi and spake many divine utterances1 yet did not stoop to the art0 7of magic74 ,plato1 too1 he goes on to say1 although he visited ,egypt and its priests and prophets1 was never regarded as a magician4 ,in this passage1 then1 ,philostratus closely associates the ,magi with the magic art1 and ,i am not sure whether the last 8,magi0 should not be 8magicians40 ,on the other hand his acquittal of ,democritus and ,pythagoras from the charge of magic does not agree with ,pliny1 who ascribed a large amount of magic to them both4 ,sidenote3 ,apollonius and the ,magi4 ,apollonius himself evidently did not regard the ,magi whom he met in ,babylon and ,susa as evil magicians4 ,one of the chief aims of his scheme of oriental travel 8was to acquaint himself thoroughly with their lore40 ,he wished to discover whether they were wise in divine things1 as they were said to be#aacc4 ,sacrifices and religious rites were performed under their supervision#aacd4 ,apollonius did not permit ,damis to accompany him when he visited the ,magi at noon and again about midnight and conversed with them#aace4 ,but ,apollonius himself said that he learned some things from them and taught them some things2 he told ,damis that they were 8wise men1 but not in all respects02 on leaving their country he asked the king to give the presents which the monarch had intended for ,apollonius himself to the ,magi1 whom he described then as 8men who both are wise and wholly devoted to you40#aacf ,sidenote3 ,philostratus on wizards4 ,quite different is the attitude towards witchcraft and wizards of both ,apollonius and his biographer4 ,in the opinion of ,philostratus wizards are of all men most wretched#aacg4 ,they try to violate nature and to overcome fate by such methods as inquisition of spirits1 barbaric sacrifices1 incantations and besmearings4 ,simple-minded folk attribute great powers to them2 and athletes desirous of winning victories1 shopkeepers intent upon success in business ventures1 and lovers in especial are continually resorting to them and apparently never lose faith in them despite repeated failures1 despite occasional exposure or ridicule of their methods in books and writing1 and despite the condemnation of witchcraft both by law and nature4#aach ,apollonius was certainly no wizard1 argues ,philostratus1 for he never opposed the ,fates but only predicted what they would bring to pass1 and he acquired this foreknowledge not by sorcery but by divine revelation4#aaci ,sidenote3 ,apollonius and wizards4 ,nevertheless ,apollonius is frequently accused of being a wizard by others in the pages of ,philostratus4 ,at ,athens he was refused initiation into the mysteries on this ground1#aadj and at ,lebadea the priests wished to exclude him from the oracular cave of ,trophonius for the same reason4#aada ,when the dogs guarding the temple of ,dictynna in ,crete fawned upon him instead of barking at his approach1 the guardians of the shrine arrested him as a wizard and would-be temple robber who had bewitched the dogs by something that he had given them to eat4#aadb ,apollonius also had to defend himself against the accusation of witchcraft in his hearing or trial before ,domitian4#aadc ,he then denied that one is a wizard merely because one has prescience1 or that wearing linen garments proves one a sorcerer4 ,wizards shun the shrines and temples of the gods2 they make use of trenches dug in the earth and invoke the gods of the lower world4 ,they are greedy for gain and pseudo-philosophers4 ,they possess no true science1 depending for success in their art upon the stupidity of their dupes and devotees4 ,they imagine what does not exist and disbelieve the truth4 ,they work their sorcery by night and in darkness when those employing them cannot see or hear well4 ,apollonius himself was accused to ,domitian of having sacrificed an ,arcadian boy at night and consulted his entrails with ,nerva in order to determine the latter's prospects of becoming emperor4#aadd ,when before his trial ,domitian was about to put ,apollonius in fetters1 the sage proposed the dilemma that if he were a wizard he could not be kept in bonds1 or that if ,domitian were able to fetter him1 he was obviously no wizard4#aade ,this need not imply1 however1 that ,apollonius believed that wizards really could free themselves1 for he was at times ironical4 ,if so1 ,domitian replied in kind by assuring him that he would at least keep him in fetters until he transformed himself into water or a wild beast or a tree4 ,sidenote3 ,quacks and old-wives4 ,closely akin to the gotes or wizards are the old hags and quack-doctors who offer one ,indian spices or boxes supposed to contain bits of stone taken from the moon1 stars1 or depths of earth4#aadf ,likewise the divining old-wives who go about with sieves in their hands and pretend by means of their divination to heal sick animals for shepherds and cowherds4#aadg ,we also read that ,apollonius expelled from the cities along the ,hellespont various ,egyptians and ,chaldeans who were collecting money on the pretense of offering sacrifices to avert the earthquakes which were then occurring4#aadh ,sidenote3 ,the ,brahmans4 ,we have heard ,philostratus mention the ,brahmans of ,india in the same breath with the ,magi of ,persia and imply that ,apollonius's association with them contributed to his reputation as a magician4#aadi ,in another passage#aaej ,philostratus places gotes and ,brahmans in unfortunate juxtaposition1 and1 immediately after condemning the wizards and defending ,apollonius from the charge of sorcery1 goes on to say that when he saw the automatic tripods and cup-bearers of the ,indians1 he did not ask how they were operated4 8,he applauded them1 it is true1 but did not think fit to imitate them40 ,but of course ,apollonius should not even have applauded these automatons1 which set food and poured wine before the guests of the ,brahmans1 if they were the contrivances of wizards4 ,and in another passage1#aaea where he defends the signs and wonders wrought by the ,brahmans against the aspersions cast upon them by the ,gymnosophists of ,ethiopia1 ,apollonius explains their practice of levitation as an act of worship and communion with the sun god1 and hence far removed from the rites performed in deep trenches and hollows of the earth to the gods of the lower world which we have heard him mention before as a practice characteristic of wizards4 ,sidenote3 ,marvels of the ,brahmans4 ,nevertheless the feats ascribed to the ,brahmans are certainly sufficiently akin to magic to excuse ,philostratus for mentioning them along with the ,magi and wizards and to justify us in considering them4 ,indeed1 modern scholarship informs us that in the ,vedic texts the word 8brhman0 in the neuter means a 8charm1 rite1 formulary1 prayer10 and 8that the caste of the ,brahmans is nothing but the men who have brhman or magic power40#aaeb ,in marked contrast to the taciturnity of ,apollonius as to his interviews with the ,magi of ,babylon and ,susa is the long account repeated by ,philostratus from ,damis of the sayings and doings of the sages of ,india4 ,as for ,apollonius himself1 8he was always recounting to everyone what the ,indians said and did40#aaec ,they knew that he was approaching when he was yet afar off and sent a messenger who greeted him by name4#aaed ,iarchas1 their chief1 also knew that ,apollonius had a letter for him and that a delta was missing in it1 and he told ,apollonius many events of his past life4 8,we see1 ,o ,apollonius10 he said1 8the signs of the soul1 tracing them by a myriad symbols40#aaee ,the ,brahmans lived in a castle concealed by clouds1 where they rendered themselves invisible at will4 ,the rocks along the path up to their abode were still marked by the cloven feet1 beards1 faces1 and backs of the ,pans who had tried to scale the height under the leadership of ,dionysus and ,heracles1 but had been hurled down headlong4#aaef ,here too was a well for testing oaths1 a purifying fire1 and the jars in which the winds and rain were bottled up4 ,sidenote3 ,magical methods of the ,brahmans4 ,when the messenger of the ,brahmans greeted ,apollonius by name1 the latter remarked to the astounded ,damis1 8,we have come to men who are wise without art 771 for they seem to have the gift of foreknowledge40#aaeg ,as a matter of fact1 however1 most of the subsequent wonders wrought by the ,brahmans were not performed without the use of paraphernalia and rites very similar to those of magic4 ,each ,brahman carries a staff--or magic wand--and wears a ring1 which are both prized for their occult virtue by which the ,brahmans can accomplish anything they wish4#aaeh ,they clothe themselves in sacred garments made of 8a wool that springs wild from the ground0 7cotton87 and which the earth will not permit anyone else to pluck4 ,iarchas also showed ,apollonius and ,damis a marvelous stone called ,pantarbe1 which attracted and bound other stones to itself and which1 although only the size of his finger-nail and formed in earth four fathoms deep1 had such virtue that it broke the earth open4#aaei ,but it required great skill to secure this gem4 8,we only10 said the ,brahman1 8can obtain this pantarbe1 partly by doing things and partly by saying things10 in other words by incantations and magical operations4 ,before performing their rite of levitation they bathed and anointed themselves with a certain drug4 8,then they stood like a chorus with ,iarchas as leader and with their rods uplifted struck the earth1 which heaving like the sea-wave raised them up in the air two cubits high40#aafj ,the metallic tripods and cup-bearers which served the king of the country when he came to visit the ,brahmans appeared from nowhere laden with food and wine exactly as if by magic4#aafa ,sidenote3 ,medicine of the ,brahmans4 ,the medical practice1 if we may so call it1 of the ,brahmans was tinged1 to say the least1 with magic4 ,a dislocated hip1 indeed1 they appear to have cured by massage1 and a blind man and a paralytic are healed by unspecified methods4#aafb ,but a boy is cured of inherited alcoholism by chewing owl's eggs that have been boiled2 a woman who complains that her sixteen-year-old son has for two years been vexed by a demon is sent away with a letter full of threats or incantations to employ against the spirit2 and another woman's sufferings in childbirth are prevented by directing her husband to enter her chamber with a live hare concealed in his bosom and to release the hare after he has walked around his wife once4 ,iarchas1 indeed1 attributed the origin of medicine to divination or divine revelation4#aafc ,his theory was that ,asclepius1 as the son of ,apollo1 learned by oracles what drugs to employ for the different diseases1 in what amounts to mix the drugs1 what the antidotes for poisons were1 and how to use even poisons as remedies4 ,this last especially he affirmed that no one would dare attempt without foreknowledge4 ,sidenote3 ,some signs of astrology4 ,the ,brahmans seem to have made some use of astrology in working their feats of magic4 ,damis at any rate said that when ,apollonius bade farewell to the sages1 ,iarchas made him a present of seven rings named after the planets1 which he wore in turn upon the appropriate days of the week4#aafd ,perhaps1 too1 the seven swords of adamant which ,iarchas had rediscovered as a child had some connection with the planets4#aafe ,moeragenes ascribed four books on foretelling the future by the stars to ,apollonius himself1 but ,philostratus was unable to find any such work by ,apollonius extant in his day4#aaff ,and unless it be an allusion to ,chaldeans which we have already noted1 there is no further mention of astrology in ,philostratus's ,life--a rather remarkable fact considering that he wrote for the court of ,septimius ,severus1 the builder of the ,septizonium4 ,sidenote3 ,interest in natural science4 ,the philosopher ,euphrates1 who is represented by ,philostratus as jealous of ,apollonius1 once advised the emperor ,vespasian1 when ,apollonius was present1 to embrace natural philosophy--or a philosophy in accordance with natural law--but to beware of philosophers who pretended to have secret intercourse with the gods4#aafg ,there was justification in the latter charge against ,apollonius1 but it should not be assumed that his mysticism rendered him unfavorable to natural science4 ,on the contrary he is frequently represented by ,philostratus as whiling away the time along the road by discussing with ,damis such natural problems as the delta of the ,nile or the tides at the mouth of the ,guadalquivir4 ,he was especially interested in the habits of animals and the properties of gems4 ,vespasian was fond of listening to 8his graphic stories of the rivers of ,india and the animals0 of that country1 as well as to 8his statements of what the gods revealed concerning the empire40#aafh ,some of the questions which ,apollonius put to the ,brahmans concerned nature4#aafi ,he asked of what the world was composed1 and when they said1 8,of elements10 he asked if there were four4 ,they believed1 however1 in a fifth element1 ether1 from which the gods had been generated and which they breathe as men breathe air4 ,they also regarded the universe as a living animal4 ,he further inquired of them whether land or sea predominated on the earth's surface1#aagj and this same attitude of scientific inquiry and of curiosity about natural forces and objects is frequently met in the ,life4 ,sidenote3 ,natural law or special providence8 ,apollonius believed1 as we shall see1 in omens and portents1 and interpreted an earthquake at ,antioch as a divine warning to the inhabitants4#aaga ,the ,brahman sages1 moreover1 regarded prolonged drought as a punishment visited by the world soul upon human sinfulness4#aagb ,on the other hand1 ,apollonius gave a natural explanation of volcanoes and denied the myths concerning ,enceladus being imprisoned under ,mount ,aetna and the battle of the gods and giants4#aagc ,and in the case of the earthquake the people had already accepted it as a portent and were praying in terror1 when ,apollonius took the opportunity to warn them to cease from their civil factions4 ,as a matter of fact1 both ,apollonius and ,philostratus appear to regard portents as an extraordinary sort of natural phenomena4 ,a knowledge of natural science helps in recognizing them and in interpreting them4 ,when a lioness of enormous size with eight whelps in her is slain by hunters1 ,apollonius at once recognizes the event as portentous because as a rule lionesses have whelps only thrice and only three of them on the first occasion1 two in the second litter1 and finally but a single whelp1 8but ,i believe a very big one and preternaturally fierce40#aagd ,here ,apollonius is not in strict agreement with ,pliny and ,aristotle#aage who say that the lioness produces five whelps at the first birth and one less every succeeding year4 ,sidenote3 ,cases of scepticism ,the scepticism of ,apollonius concerning the ,aetna myth is not an isolated instance4 ,at ,sardis he ridiculed the notion that trees could be older than earth1#aagf and he was one of the few ancients to question the swan's song4#aagg ,he denied 8the silly story that the young of vipers are brought into the world without mothers0 as 8consistent neither with nature nor experience10#aagh and also the tale that the whelps of the lioness claw their way out into the world4#aagi ,in ,india ,apollonius saw a wild ass or unicorn from whose single horn a magic drinking horn was made4#aahj ,a draught from this horn was supposed to protect one for that day from disease1 wounds1 fire1 or poison1 and on that account the king alone was permitted to hunt the animal and to drink from the horn4 ,when ,damis asked ,apollonius if he credited this story1 the sage ironically replied that he would believe it if he found the king of the country to be immortal4 ,either1 however1 the scepticism of ,apollonius1 as was the case with so many other ancients and medieval men1 was sporadic and inconsistent1 or it came to be overlaid with the credulity of ,damis and ,philostratus1 as the following example suggests4 ,iarchas told ,damis and ,apollonius flatly that the races described by ,scylax of men with long heads or huge feet with which they were said to shade themselves did not exist in ,india or anywhere else2 yet in a later book ,philostratus states that the shadow-footed people are a tribe in ,ethiopia4#aaha ,sidenote3 ,anecdotes of animals4 ,at any rate the marvels of ,india are more frequently credited than criticized in the ,life by ,philostratus1 and the same holds true of the extraordinary conduct and well-nigh human intelligence attributed to animals4 ,especially delightful reading are six chapters on the remarkable sagacity of elephants and their love for mankind4#aahb ,on this point1 as by ,pliny1 use is made of the work of ,juba4 ,we read again of sick lions eating apes1 of the lioness's love affair with the panther1 of the fondness of leopards for the fragrant gum of a certain tree and of goats for the cinnamon tree2 of apes who are made to collect pepper for men by appealing to their instinct towards mimicry2#aahc and of the tiger1 whose loins alone are eaten by the ,indians4 8,for they decline to eat the other parts of this animal1 because they say that as soon as it is born it lifts up its front paws to the rising sun40#aahd ,in the river ,hyphasis is a creature like a white worm which yields when melted down a fat or oil that once set afire cannot be extinguished and which the king uses to burn walls and capture cities4#aahe ,in ,india are griffins who quarry gold with their powerful beaks1 and the luminous phoenix with its nest of spices and swan-like funeral song4#aahf ,sidenote3 ,dragons of ,india4 ,especially remarkable are the snakes or dragons with which all ,india is filled and which often are of enormous size1 thirty or even seventy cubits long4#aahg ,those found in the marshes are sluggish and have no crests2 but those on the hills and ridges move faster than the swiftest rivers and have both beards and crests4#aahh ,those in the plain engage in combats with elephants which terminate fatally for both parties as we have already learned from ,pliny4#aahi ,the mountain dragons have bushy beards1 fiery crests1 golden scales1 and a ferocious glance4#aaij ,they burrow into the earth1 making a noise like clashing brass1 or go hissing down to the shore and swim far out to sea4 ,terrifying as they are1 the ,indians charm them by showing them golden characters embroidered on a cloak of scarlet and by incantations of a secret wisdom4 ,they eat the dragon's heart and liver in order to be able to understand the language and thoughts of animals4#aaia ,sidenote3 ,occult virtues of gems4 ,the dragons1 however1 are prized more for the precious stones in their heads1 which the ,indians quickly cut off as soon as they have bewitched them4 ,the pupils of the eyes of the hill dragons are a fiery stone possessing irresistible virtue for many occult purposes1#aaib while in the heads of the mountain dragons are many brilliant stones of flashing colors which exert occult virtue if set in a ring1 8and they say that ,gyges had such a ring40#aaic ,but there are many marvelous stones outside the heads of dragons4 8,who does not know the habits of birds10 says ,apollonius to ,damis in one of his disquisitions upon natural phenomena1#aaid 8and that eagles and storks will not build their nests without placing in them1 the one the stone aetites1 and the other the lychnites1 as aids in hatching and to drive snakes away80 ,on parting from the ,indian king ,phraotes1 ,apollonius as usual refused to accept money presents but picked up one of the gems that were offered him with the exclamation1 8,o rare stone1 how opportunely and providentially have ,i found you60#aaie ,philostratus supposes that he detected some occult and divine power in this particular stone4 ,the ,brahmans had gems so huge that from one of them a goblet could be carved large enough to slake the thirst of four men in midsummer1 but in this case nothing is said of occult virtue4#aaif ,the ,brahman ,iarchas felt sure that he was the reincarnation of the hero ,ganges1 son of the river ,ganges1 because as a mere child he knew where to dig for the seven swords of adamant which ,ganges had fixed in the earth4#aaig ,presumably these were magic swords and their virtue in part due to the stone adamant of which they were made4 ,less is said in the ,life of the virtues of herbs than of gems1 but the ,indians made a nuptial ointment or love-charm from balm distilled from trees1#aaih and drugs and poisons are mentioned more than once1 mandragora being described as a soporific drug rather than a deadly poison4#aaii ,sidenote3 ,absence of number mysticism4 ,considering that ,apollonius was a ,pythagorean1 there is surprisingly little said concerning perfect numbers and their mystic significance4 ,aside from the seven rings and seven swords already mentioned1 about the only instance is the question asked by ,apollonius whether eighteen1 the number of the ,brahman sages at the time of his visit1 had any especial importance4#abjj ,he remarked that eighteen was not a square1 nor a number usually held in esteem and honor like ten1 twelve1 and sixteen4 ,the ,brahmans agreed that there was no particular significance in eighteen1 and further informed him that they maintained no fixed number of members but had varied from only one to as many as seventy according to the available supply of worthy men4 ,sidenote3 ,mantike or the art of divination4 ,if ,philostratus denies that ,apollonius was a magician1 he does depict him as endowed with prophetic gifts1 with power over demons1 and with 8secret wisdom40 ,he rather likes to give the impression that the sage foretold things by innate prophetic gift or divine inspiration1 but even or the art of divination is not condemned as or witchcraft was4 ,iarchas the ,brahman says that those who delight in mantike become divine thereby and contribute to the safety of mankind4#abja ,apollonius himself1 when condemning wizards as pseudo-wise1 made the reservation that mantike1 if true in its predictions1 was not a pseudo-science1 although he professed ignorance whether it could be called an art or not4#abjb ,he denied that he practiced it1 when he was examined by ,tigellinus1 the favorite of ,nero1 who was persecuting philosophers on the ground that they were addicted to mantike4#abjc ,his accusers before ,domitian again adduced his alleged practice of divination as evidence that he was a wizard4#abjd ,sidenote3 ,divining power of ,apollonius4 ,if ,apollonius practiced neither wizardry nor mantike1 the question arises how he was able to foretell the future4 ,in his trial before ,domitian he did not attempt to deny that he had predicted the plague at ,ephesus1 but attributed his 8sense of the coming disaster0 to his abstemious diet1 which kept his senses clear and enabled him to see as in an unclouded mirror 8all that is happening or about to occur40#abje ,for he was credited with knowledge of distant events the moment they occurred as well as with foreknowledge of the future4 ,thus at ,ephesus he was aware of the assassination of ,domitian at ,rome2 and at ,tarsus1 although he arrived after the incident had occurred1 he was able to describe and to find the mad dog by whom a boy had been bitten4#abjf ,iarchas told ,apollonius that health and purity were requisite for divination2#abjg and ,apollonius in turn1 in recounting his life story to the naked sages of ,egypt1 represented the ,pythagorean philosophy as appearing before him and promising1 8,and when you are pure1 ,i will grant you the faculty of foreknowledge40#abjh ,sidenote3 ,dreams4 ,apollonius often was warned by dreams4 ,when he dreamt of fish who were cast gasping upon dry land and who appealed for succour to a dolphin swimming by1 he knew that he ought to visit and restore the graves and assist the descendants of the ,eretrians whom ,darius had taken captive to the ,persian kingdom over five centuries before4#abji ,another dream he interpreted as a command to visit ,crete4#abaj ,in defending his linen apparel before ,domitian he declared1 8,it is a pure substance under which to sleep at night1 for to those who live as ,i do dreams bring the truest of their revelations40#abaa ,he was not the only dreamer of the time1 however1 and when some of his followers were afraid to accompany him to ,rome in ,nero's reign1 they made warning dreams their excuse for deserting him4#abab ,sidenote3 ,interpretation of omens4 ,it has been seen that ,apollonius not only had prophetic dreams but was skilful in interpreting them4 ,he was equally adept in explaining the meaning of omens4 ,the dead lion with her eight unborn whelps he took as a sign that ,damis and he would remain a year and eight months in that land4#abac ,when ,damis objected that ,homer interpreted the sparrow and her eight nestlings whom the snake devoured as nine years' duration of the ,trojan war1 ,apollonius retorted that the birds had been hatched but that the whelps1 being yet unborn1 could not signify complete years4 ,on another occasion he interpreted the birth of a three-headed child as a sign of the year of the three emperors4#abad ,sidenote3 ,animals and divination4 ,such interpretation of dreams and omens suggests an art or arts of divination rather than foreknowledge by direct divine inspiration4 ,so does the passage in which ,apollonius informs ,domitian1 when accused before him of having divined the future by sacrificing a boy1 that human entrails are inferior to those of animals for purposes of divination1 since the beasts are less perturbed by knowledge of their approaching death4#abae ,apollonius himself would not sacrifice even animal victims1 but he enlarged his powers of divination during his sojourn among the ,arab tribes by learning to understand the language of animals and to listen to the birds as these predict the future4#abaf ,the ,arabs acquire this power by eating1 some say the heart1 others the liver1 of dragons1--a fact which gave the church historian ,eusebius an opportunity to charge ,apollonius with having broken his taboo of animal flesh4 ,sidenote3 ,divination by fire4 ,although he did not sacrifice animals and divine from their entrails1 ,apollonius appears to have employed practices akin to those of the art of pyromancy when he threw a handful of frankincense into the sacrificial fire with a prayer to the sun1 8and watched to see how the smoke of it curled upwards1 and how it grew turbid1 and in how many points it shot up2 and in a manner he caught the meaning of the fire1 and observed how it appeared of good omen and pure40#abag ,again he visited an ,egyptian temple and sacrificed an image of a bull made of frankincense and told the priest that if he really understood the science of divination by fire 7 71 he would see many things revealed in the circle of the rising sun4#abah ,sidenote3 ,other so-called predictions4 ,it should be added that only a very ardent admirer of ,apollonius or an equally ardent seeker after prophecies would see anything prophetic in some of the apparently chance remarks of the sage which have been perverted into predictions4 ,at ,ephesus he did not actually predict the plague1 which had already begun to spread judging from the account of ,philostratus1 but rather warned the heedless population to take measures to prevent its becoming general4#abai ,when visiting the isthmus of ,corinth he began to say that it would be cut through1 an idea which had doubtless occurred again and again to many2 but then said that it would not be cut through4#abbj ,this sane1 if somewhat vacillating1 state of mind received confirmation soon afterwards when ,nero attempted an ,isthmian canal but left it uncompleted4 ,another similarly ambiguous utterance was elicited from ,apollonius by an eclipse of the sun accompanied by thunder3 8,there shall be some great event and there shall not be40#abba ,this was believed to receive miraculous fulfillment three days later when a thunderbolt dashed the cup out of which ,nero was drinking from his hands but left him unharmed4 ,once ,apollonius saved his life by changing from a ship which sank soon afterwards to another vessel4#abbb ,an instance of more specific prophecy is the case of the consul ,aelian1 who testified that when he was but a tribune under ,vespasian1 ,apollonius took him aside and told him his name and country and parentage1 8and you foretold to me that ,i should hold this high office which is accounted by the multitude the highest of all40#abbc ,but ,aelian may have exaggerated the accuracy of ,apollonius's prediction1 or the latter may have made a shrewd guess that ,aelian was likely to rise to high office4 ,sidenote3 ,apollonius and the demons4 ,the divining faculty of ,apollonius enabled him to detect the presence and influence of demons1 phantoms1 and goblins1 whose ways he understood as well as the language of the birds4 ,at ,ephesus he detected the true cause of the plague in a ragged old beggar whom he ordered the people to stone to death4#abbd ,at this command the blinking eyes of the aged mendicant suddenly shot forth malevolent and fiery gleams and revealed his demon character4 ,afterwards1 when the people removed the stones1 they found underneath1 pounded to a pulp1 an enormous hound still vomiting foam as mad dogs do4 ,later1 when accused of magic before ,domitian1 ,apollonius requested that the emperor question him in private about the causes of this pestilence at ,ephesus1 which he said were too deep to be discussed publicly4#abbe ,and earlier in the reign of ,nero1 when asked by ,tigellinus how he got the better of demons and phantasms1 he evaded the question by a saucy retort4#abbf ,on one occasion1 however1 we are told that he got rid of a ghostly apparition by heaping abuse upon it2#abbg and a satyr1 who remained invisible but created annoyance by running amuck through the camp1 he disposed of by the expedient of filling a trough with wine and letting the spirit get drunk on it4 ,when the wine had all disappeared1 ,apollonius led his companions to the cave of the nymphs where the satyr was now visible in a drunken sleep4#abbh ,he also reformed the character of a licentious youth by expelling a demon from him1#abbi and at ,corinth exposed a lamia who1 under the disguise of a dainty and wealthy lady1 was fattening up a beautiful youth named ,menippus with the intention of eventually devouring his blood4#abcj ,on his return by sea from ,india ,apollonius passed a sacred island where lived a sea nymph or female demon who was as destructive to mariners as ,scylla or the ,sirens were of old4 ,sidenote3 ,not all demons are evil ,but the word 8demon0 is not always employed by ,philostratus in the sense of an evil spirit4 ,the annunciation of the birth of ,apollonius was made to his mother by ,proteus in the form of an ,egyptian demon4#abca ,damis looked upon ,apollonius himself as a demon and worshiped him as such1 when he heard him say that he comprehended not only all human languages but also those things concerning which men maintain silence4#abcb ,in a letter to ,euphrates#abcc ,apollonius affirms that the all-wise ,pythagoras should be classed among demons4 ,but when ,domitian1 on first meeting ,apollonius said that he looked like a demon1 the sage replied that the emperor was confusing demons and human beings4#abcd ,sidenote3 ,philostratus's faith in demons4 ,philostratus adds his own bit of personal testimony to the existence of demons1 although it cannot be said to be very convincing4 ,after telling the satyr story he warns his readers not to be incredulous as to the existence of satyrs or to doubt that they make love4 ,for they should not mistrust what is supported by experience and by ,philostratus's own word4 ,for he knew in ,lemnos a youth of his own age whose mother was said to be visited by a satyr1 and such he probably was1 since he wore a fawn skin tied around his neck by the two front paws4#abce ,sidenote3 ,the ghost of ,achilles4 ,apollonius had an interview with the ghost of ,achilles which strongly suggests necromancy4 ,he sent his companions on board ship and passed the night alone at the hero's tomb4 ,nor did he allude to what had happened until questioned by the curious ,damis4 ,he then averred that his method of invoking the dead had not been that of ,odysseus1 but that he had prayed to ,achilles much as the ,indians do to their heroes4 ,a slight earthquake then occurred and ,achilles appeared4 ,at first he was five cubits tall but gradually increased to some twelve cubits in height4 ,at cock-crow he vanished in a flash of summer lightning4#abcf ,sidenote3 ,healing the sick and raising the dead4 ,apollonius1 as well as the ,brahmans1 wrought some cures4 ,one was of a boy who had been bitten by a mad dog and consequently 8behaved exactly like a dog1 for he barked and howled and went on all fours40#abcg ,apollonius first found and quieted the dog1 and then made it lick the wound1 a homeopathic treatment which cured the boy4 ,it now only remained to cure the dog1 too1 and this the philosopher effected by praying to the river which was near by and then making the dog swim across it4 8,for10 concludes ,philostratus1 8a drink of water will cure a mad dog if he only can be induced to take it40 ,the modern reader will suspect that the dog was not mad to begin with and that ,apollonius cleverly cured the boy's complaint by the same force that had induced it--suggestion4 ,apollonius once revived a maiden who was being borne to the grave by touching her and saying something to her1 but ,philostratus honestly admits that he is not sure whether he restored her to life or detected signs of life in the body which had escaped the notice of everyone else4#abch ,sidenote3 ,other marvels4 ,when ,apollonius was brought before ,tigellinus1 the scroll on which the charges against him had been written was found to have become quite blank when ,tigellinus unrolled it4#abci ,upon that occasion and again before ,domitian he intimated that his body could not be bound or slain against his will4#abdj ,the former contention he proved to the satisfaction of ,damis1 who visited him in prison1 by suddenly removing his leg from the fetters and then inserting it again4#abda ,damis regarded this exhibition as a divine miracle1 since ,apollonius performed it without magical ceremony or incantations4 ,he is also represented as escaping from his bonds at about midnight when imprisoned later in life in ,crete4#abdb ,philostratus1 too1 implies that he vanished miraculously from the courtroom of ,domitian and that he sometimes passed from one place to another in an incredibly short time1 and is somewhat doubtful whether he ever died4 ,but we have seen that even on the testimony of ,damis and ,philostratus themselves many of the marvels and predictions of ,apollonius were not 8artless0 but involved a knowledge of contemporary natural science and medicine1 or of arts of divination1 or the employment1 in a way not unlike the procedure of magic1 of forces and materials outside himself1 namely1 the occult virtues of things in nature or incantations1 rites1 and ceremonies4 ,sidenote3 ,golden wrynecks and the iunx4 ,so much for ,apollonius and his magic1 but the ,life contains some interesting allusions to the or wryneck1 which throw light upon the use of that bird in ,greek magic1 but which have seldom been noted and then not correctly interpreted4#abdc ,the wryneck was so much employed in ,greek magic1 as references to it from ,pindar to ,theocritus show1 that the word iunx was sometimes used as a synonym or figurative expression for spells or charms in general4 ,philostratus1 too1 employs it in this sense1 representing the ,gymnosophists as accusing the ,brahmans of 8appealing to the crowd with varied enchantments 7or iunges740#abdd ,but in other passages he makes it clear that the wryneck is still employed as a magic bird4 ,describing the royal palace at ,babylon#abde he states that the ,magi have hung four golden wrynecks1 which they themselves attune and which they call the tongues of the gods1 from the ceiling of the judgment hall to remind the king of divine judgment and not to set himself above mankind4 ,golden wrynecks were also suspended in the ,pythian temple at ,delphi1 and in this connection they are said to possess some of the virtue of the ,sirens1#abdf or1 as ,mr4 ,cook translates it1 8to echo the persuasive note of siren voices40 ,these two passages seem to point clearly to the employment of mechanical metal birds which sang and moved as if by magic4 ,the ,greek mathematician ,hero in his explanation of mechanical devices employed in temples tells how to make a bird turn itself about and whistle by turning a wheel4#abdg ,sidenote3 ,why named iunx8 ,now this is precisely what the wryneck does in its 8wonderful way of writhing its head and neck0 and emitting hissing sounds4 ,the bird's 8unmistakable note0 is 8que1 que1 que1 repeated many times in succession1 at first rapidly1 but gradually slowing and in a continually falling key40#abdh ,i would therefore suggest that as the ,english name for the bird is derived from its writhing its neck1 so the ,greek name comes from its cry1 for 8que0 and the root 1 if repeated rapidly many times in succession1 sound much alike4#abdi ,sidenote3 ,apollonius in the middle ages4 ,the name1 ,apollonius1 continued to be associated with magic in the middle ages1 when the ,golden ,flowers of ,apollonius1 a work on the notory art or theurgy1#abej is found in the manuscripts4 ,and we shall find ,cecco d',ascoli#abea in the early fourteenth century citing a 8book of magic art0 by ,apollonius and also a treatise on spirits1 ,de angelica factione4 ,in #adab ,amplonius listed in the catalogue of his manuscripts a 8book of ,apollonius the magician or philosopher which is called ,elizinus40#abeb ,works on the causes and properties of things are also ascribed to ,apollonius in medieval manuscripts1#abec and a ,balenus or ,belenus to whom works on astrological images and seals are ascribed in the manuscripts#abed is perhaps a corruption for ,apollonius4#abee ,,chapter ,,ix ,,literary ,,and ,,philosophical ,,attacks ,,upon ,,superstition3 ,,cicero1 ,,favorinus1 ,,sextus ,,empiricus1 ,,and ,,lucian ,authors to be considered--,their standpoint--,de divinatione2 argument of ,quintus--,cicero attacks past authority--,divination distinct from natural science--,unreasonable in method--,requires violation of natural law--,cicero and astrology--,his crude historical criticism--,favorinus against astrologers--,sextus ,empiricus--,lucius1 or ,the ,ass3 is it by ,lucian8--,career of ,lucian--,alexander the pseudo-prophet--,magical procedure in medicine satirized--,snake-charming--,a ,hyperborean magician--,some ghost stories--,pancrates1 the magician--,credulity and scepticism--,menippus1 or ,necromancy--,astrological interpretation of ,greek myth--,history and defense of astrology--,lucian not always sceptical--,lucian and medicine--,inevitable intermingling of scepticism and superstition--,lucian on writing history4 ,sidenote3 ,authors to be considered4 ,having noted the large amount of magic that still existed both in the leading works of natural science of the early ,roman empire and in the more general literature of that period1 it is only fair that we should note such extremes of scepticism towards the superstitions then current as can be found during the same period4 ,they are1 however1 few and far between1 and we shall have to go back to the close of the ,republican period for the best instance in the ,de divinatione of ,cicero4 ,as ,pliny's ,natural ,history was mainly a compilation of earlier ,greek science1 so ,cicero's arguments against divination were not entirely original with him4 ,as his other philosophical writings are largely indebted to the ,greeks1 so his attack upon divination is supposed to be under considerable obligations to ,clitomachus and ,panaetius1#abef philosophers of the ,new ,academy and the ,stoic school who flourished respectively at ,carthage and ,athens and at ,rhodes and ,rome in the second century before our era4 ,we shall next briefly note the criticisms of astrologers and astrology made by ,favorinus1 a rhetorician from ,gaul who resided at ,rome under ,hadrian and was a friend of ,plutarch but whose argument against the astrologers has been preserved only in the ,attic ,nights of ,aulus ,gellius1#abeg and by ,sextus ,empiricus1#abeh a sceptical philosopher who wrote about #bjj4 ,finally we shall consider ,lucian's satirical depiction of various superstitions of his time4 ,sidenote3 ,their standpoint4 ,it will be noticed that no one of these critics of magic1 if we may so designate them1 is primarily a natural scientist4 ,cicero and ,lucian and ,favorinus are primarily men of letters and rhetoricians4 ,and all four of our critics write to a greater or less extent from the professed standpoint of a general sceptical attitude in all matters of philosophy and not merely in the matter of superstition4 ,thus the attack of ,sextus ,empiricus upon astrology occurs in a work which is directed against learning in general1 and in which he assails grammarians1 rhetoricians1 geometricians1 arithmeticians1 students of music1 logicians1 physicists1 and students of ethics1 as well as the casters of horoscopes4 ,aulus ,gellius did not know whether to take the arguments of ,favorinus against the astrologers seriously or not4 ,he says that he heard ,favorinus make the speech the substance of which he repeats1 but that he is unable to state whether the philosopher really meant what he said or argued merely in order to exercise and to display his genius4 ,there was reason for this perplexity of ,aulus ,gellius1 since ,favorinus was inclined to such tours de force as eulogies of ,thersites or of ,quartan ,fever4 ,sidenote3 ,de divinatione3 argument of ,quintus4 ,de divinatione takes the form of a supposititious conversation1 or better1 informal debate1 between the author and his brother ,quintus4 ,in the first book ,quintus1 in a rather rambling and leisurely fashion and with occasional repetition of ideas1 upholds divination to the best of his ability1 citing many reported instances of successful recourse to it in antiquity4 ,in the second book ,tully proceeds with a somewhat patronizing air to pull entirely to pieces the arguments of his brother who assents with cheerful readiness to their demolition4 ,on the whole the appeal to the past is the main point in the argument of ,quintus4 ,what race or state1 he asks1 has not believed in some form of divination8 8,for before the revelation of philosophy1 which was discovered but recently1 public opinion had no doubt of the truth of this art2 and after philosophy emerged no philosopher of authority thought otherwise4 ,i have mentioned ,pythagoras1 ,democritus1 ,socrates4 ,i have left out no one of the ancients save ,xenophanes4 ,i have added the ,old ,academy1 the ,peripatetics1 the ,stoics4 ,epicurus alone dissented40#abei ,quintus closes his long argument in favor of the truth of divination by solemnly asserting that he does not approve of sorcerers1 nor of those who prophesy for the sake of gain1 nor of the practice of questioning the spirits of the dead--which nevertheless1 he says1 was a custom of his brother's friend ,appius4#abfj ,sidenote3 ,cicero attacks past authority4 ,when ,tully's turn to speak comes1 he rudely disturbs his brother's reliance upon tradition4 8,i think it not the part of a philosopher to employ witnesses1 who are only haply true and often purposely false and deceiving4 ,he ought to show why a thing is so by arguments and reasons1 not by events1 especially those ,i cannot credit40#abfa 8,antiquity10 ,cicero declares later1 8has erred in many respects40#abfb ,the existence of the art of divination in every age and nation has little effect upon him4 ,there is nothing1 he asserts1 so widespread as ignorance4#abfc ,sidenote3 ,divination distinct from natural science4 ,both brothers distinguish divination as a separate subject from the natural or even the applied sciences4 ,quintus says that medical men1 pilots1 and farmers foresee many things1 yet their arts are not divination4 8,not even ,pherecydes1 that famous ,pythagorean master1 who predicted an earthquake when he saw that the water had disappeared from a well which usually was well filled1 should be regarded as a diviner rather than a physicist40#abfd ,tully carries the distinction a step further and asserts that the sick seek a doctor1 not a soothsayer2 that diviners cannot instruct us in astronomy2 that no one consults them concerning philosophic problems or ethical questions2 that they can give us no light on the problems of the natural universe2 and that they are of no service in logic1 dialectic1 or political science4#abfe ,an admirable declaration of independence of natural science and medicine and other arts and constructive forms of thought from the methods of divination6 ,but also one more easy to state in general terms of theory than to enforce in details of practice1 as ,pliny1 ,galen1 and ,ptolemy have already shown us4 ,none the less it is indeed a noteworthy restriction of the field of divination when ,cicero remarks to his brother1 8,for those things which can be perceived beforehand either by art or reason or experience or conjecture you regard as not the affair of diviners but of scientists40#abff ,but the question remains whether too large powers of prediction may not be claimed by 8science40 ,sidenote3 ,unreasonable in method4 ,cicero proceeds to attack the methods and assumptions of divination as neither reasonable nor scientific4 ,why1 he asks1 did ,calchas deduce from the devoured sparrows that the ,trojan war would last ten years rather than ten weeks or ten months8#abfg ,he points out that the art is conducted in different places according to quite different rules of procedure1 even to the extent that a favorable omen in one locality is a sinister warning elsewhere4#abfh ,he refuses to believe in any extraordinary bonds of sympathy between things which1 in so far as our daily experience and our knowledge of the workings of nature can inform us1 have no causal connection4 ,what intimate connection1 he asks1 what bond of natural causality can there be between the liver or heart or lung of a fat bull and the divine eternal cause of all which rules the universe8#abfi 8,that anything certain is signified by uncertain things1 is not this the last thing a scientist should admit80#abgj ,he refuses to accept dreams as fit channels either of natural divination or divine revelation4#abga ,the ,sibylline ,books1 like most oracles1 are vague and the evident product of labored ingenuity4#abgb ,sidenote3 ,requires violation of natural law4 ,moreover1 divination asserts the existence of phenomena which science denies4 ,such a figment1 ,cicero scornfully affirms1 as that the heart will vanish from the carcass of a victim is not believed even by old-wives now-a-days4 ,how can the heart vanish from the body8 ,surely it must be there as long as life lasts1 and how can it disappear in an instant8 8,believe me1 you are abandoning the citadel of philosophy while you defend its outposts4 ,for in your effort to prove soothsaying true you utterly pervert physiology4444 ,for there will be something which either springs from nothing or suddenly vanishes into nothingness4 ,what scientist ever said that8 ,the soothsayers say so8 ,are they then1 do you think1 to be trusted rather than scientists80#abgc ,cicero makes other arguments against divination such as the stock contentions that it is useless to know predetermined events beforehand since they cannot be avoided1 and that even if we can learn the future1 we shall be happier not to do it1 but his outstanding argument is that it is unscientific4 ,sidenote3 ,cicero and astrology4 ,cicero's attack upon divination is mainly directed against liver divination and analogous methods of predicting the future1 but he devotes a few chapters#abgd to the doctrines of the ,chaldeans4 ,they postulate a certain force in the constellations called the zodiac and hold that between man and the position of the stars and planets at the moment of his birth there exists a relation of sympathy so that his personality and all the events of his life are thereby determined4 ,diogenes the ,stoic limited this influence to the determination of one's aptitude and vocation1 but ,cicero regards even this much as going too far4 ,the immense spaces intervening between the different planets seem to him a reason for rejecting the contentions of the ,chaldeans4 ,his further criticism that they insist that all men born at the same moment are alike in character regardless of horizons and different aspects of the sky in different places is one that at least did not hold good permanently against astrology and is not true of ,ptolemy4 ,he asks if all the men who perished at ,cannae were born beneath the same star and how it came about that there was only one ,homer if several men are born every instant4 ,he also adduces the stock argument from twins4 ,he attacks the practice1 which we shall find continued in the middle ages1 of astrological prediction of the fate of cities4 ,he says that if all animals are to be subjected to the stars1 then inanimate things must be1 too1 than which nothing can be more absurd4 ,this suggests that he hardly conceives of the fundamental hypothesis of medieval science that all inferior nature is under the influence of the celestial bodies and their motion and light4 ,at any rate his arguments are directed against the casting of horoscopes or genethlialogy4 ,and in the matter of the influence of the planets upon man he was not entirely antagonistic1 at least in other writings than the ,de divinatione1 for in the ,dream of ,scipio he speaks of ,jupiter as a star wholesome and favorable to the human race1 of ,mars as most unfavorable4 ,he further calls seven and eight perfect numbers and speaks of their product1 fifty-six1 as signifying the fatal year in ,scipio's life4 ,incidentally1 as another instance that ,cicero was not always sceptical1 it may be recalled that it was in ,cicero that ,pliny read of a man who could see one hundred and thirty-five miles4#abge ,sidenote3 ,his crude historical criticism4 ,such apparent inconsistency is perhaps a sign of somewhat indiscriminating eclecticism on ,cicero's part4 ,we experience something of a shock1 although perhaps we should not be surprised1 to find him in his ,republic#abgf arguing as seriously in favor of the ascension or apotheosis of ,romulus as a historic fact as a professor of natural science in a denominational college might argue in favor of the historicity of the resurrection of ,christ4 ,although in the ,de divinatione he impatiently brushed aside the testimony of so great a cloud of witnesses and of most philosophers in favor of divination1 he now argues that the opinion that ,romulus had become a god 8could not have prevailed so universally unless there had been some extraordinary manifestation of power10 and that 8this is the more remarkable because other men1 said to have become gods1 lived in less learned times when the mind was prone to invent and the inexperienced were easily led to believe10 whereas ,romulus lived only six centuries ago when literature and learning had already made great progress in removing error1 when 8,greece was already full of poets and musicians1 and little faith was placed in legends unless they concerned remote antiquity40 ,yet a few chapters later ,cicero notes that ,numa could not have been a pupil of ,pythagoras1 since the latter did not come to ,italy until #adj years after his death2#abgg and in a third chapter#abgh when ,laelius remarks1 8,that king is indeed praised but ,roman ,history is obscure1 for although we know the mother of this king1 we are ignorant of his father10 ,scipio replies1 8,that is so2 but in those times it was almost enough if only the names of the kings were recorded40 ,we can only add1 8,consistency1 thou art a jewel60 ,sidenote3 ,favorinus against astrologers4 ,favorinus denied that the doctrine of nativities was the work of the ,chaldeans and regarded it as the more recent invention of marvel-mongers1 tricksters1 and mountebanks4 ,he regards the inference from the effect of the moon on tides to that of the stars on every incident of our daily life as unwarranted4 ,he further objects that if the ,chaldeans did record astronomical observations these would apply only to their own region and that observations extended over a vast lapse of time would be necessary to establish any system of astrology1 since it requires ages before the stars return to their previous positions4 ,like ,cicero1 ,favorinus probably manifests his ignorance of the technique of astrology in complaining that astrologers do not allow for the different influence of different constellations in different parts of the earth4 ,more cogent is his suggestion that there may be other stars equal in power to the planets which men cannot see either for their excess of splendor or because of their position4 ,he also objects that the position of the stars is not the same at the time of conception and the time of birth1 and that1 if the different fate of twins may be explained by the fact that after all they are not born at precisely the same moment1 the time of birth and the position of the stars must be measured with an exactness practically impossible4 ,he also contends that it is not for human beings to predict the future and that the subjection of man not merely in matters of external fortune but in his own acts of will to the stars is not to be borne4 ,these two arguments of the divine prerogative and of human free will became ,christian favorites4 ,he complains that the astrologers predict great events like battles but cannot predict small ones1 and declares that they may congratulate themselves that he does not propose such a question to them as that of astral influence on minute animals4 ,this and his further question why1 out of all the grand works of nature1 the astrologers limit their attention to petty human fortune1 suggest that like ,cicero he did not realize that astrology was or would become a theory of all nature and not mere genethlialogy4 ,sidenote3 ,sextus ,empiricus4 ,to the arguments against nativities that men die the same death who were not born at the same time and that men who are born at the same time are not identical in character or fortune ,sextus ,empiricus adds the derisive question whether a man and an ass born in the same instant would suffer exactly the same destiny4 ,ptolemy would of course reply that while the influence of the stars is constant in both cases it is variably received by men and donkeys2 and ,sextus's query does not show him very well versed in astrology4 ,he mentions the obstacle of free will to astrological theory but does not make very much of it4 ,the chief point which he makes is that even if the stars do rule human destiny1 their effect cannot be accurately measured4 ,he lays stress on the difficulty of exactly determining the date of birth or of conception1 or the precise moment when a star passes into a new sign of the zodiac4 ,he notes the variability and unreliability of water-clocks4 ,he calls attention to the fact that observers at varying altitudes as well as in different localities would arrive at different conclusions4 ,differences in eyesight would also affect results1 and it is difficult to tell just when the sun sets or any sign of the zodiac drops below the horizon owing to reflection and refraction of rays4 ,sextus thus leaves us somewhat in doubt whether his objections are to be taken as indicative of a spirit of captious criticism towards an art1 the fundamental principles of which he tacitly recognizes as well-nigh incontestable1 or whether he is simply trying to make his case doubly sure by showing astrology to be impracticable as well as unreasonable4 ,in any case we shall find his argument that the influence of the stars cannot be measured accurately repeated by ,christian writers4 ,sidenote3 ,lucius or ,the ,ass3 is it by ,lucian8 ,the main plot of the ,metamorphoses of ,apuleius appears1 shorn of the many additional stories1 the religious mysticism1 and the autobiographical element which characterize his narrative1 in a brief and perhaps epitomized ,greek version1 entitled ,lucius or ,the ,ass1 among the works of ,lucian of ,samosata1 the contemporary of ,apuleius and noted satirist4 ,the work is now commonly regarded as spurious1 since the style seems different from that of ,lucian and the ,attic ,greek less pure4 ,the narrative1 too1 is bare1 at least compared with the exuberant fancy of ,apuleius1 and seems to avoid the marvelous and romantic details in which he abounds4 ,photius1 patriarch of ,constantinople in the ninth century1 who regarded the work as ,lucian's1 said that he wrote in it as one deriding the extravagance of superstition4 ,whether this be true of ,the ,ass or not1 it is true of other satires by ,lucian of undisputed genuineness1 in which he ridicules the impostures of the magic and pseudo-science of his day4 ,in place of the genial humor and fantastic imagination with which his ,african contemporary credulously welcomed the magic and occult science of his time1 the ,syrian satirist probes the same with the cool mockery of his keen and sceptical wit4 ,sidenote3 ,career of ,lucian4 ,lucian was born at ,samosata near ,antioch about #abj or #abe ,a4 ,d4 and after an unsuccessful beginning as a sculptor's apprentice turned to literature and philosophy4 ,he practiced in the law courts at ,antioch for some time and also wrote speeches for others4 ,for a considerable period of his life he roamed about the ,mediterranean world from ,paphlagonia to ,gaul as a rhetorician1 and like ,apuleius resided both at ,athens and ,rome4 ,after forty he ceased teaching rhetoric and devoted himself to literary production1 living at ,athens4 ,towards the close of his life1 8when he already had one foot in ,charon's boat10#abgi he was holding a well paid and important legal position in ,egypt4 ,his death occurred perhaps about #bjj ,a4 ,d4 ,some ascribe it to gout1 probably because he wrote two satires on that disease4 ,suidas states that ,lucian was torn to pieces by dogs as a punishment for his attacks upon ,christianity1 which again is probably a perversion of ,lucian's own statement in ,peregrinus that he narrowly escaped being torn to pieces by the ,cynics4 ,sidenote3 ,alexander the pseudo-prophet4 ,it was at the request of that same adversary of ,christianity against whom ,origen composed the ,reply to ,celsus that ,lucian wrote his account of the impostor1 ,alexander of ,abonutichus1 a pseudo-prophet of ,paphlagonia4 ,this ,alexander pretended to discover the god ,asclepius in the form of a small viper which he had sealed up in a goose egg4 ,he then replaced the tiny viper by a huge tame serpent which he had purchased at ,pella in ,macedon and which was trained to hide its head in ,alexander's armpit1 while to the crowd1 who were also permitted to touch the tail and body of the real snake1 was shown a false serpent's head made of linen with human features and a mouth that opened and shut and a tongue that could be made to dart in and out4 ,having thus convinced the people that the viper had really been a god and had miraculously increased in size1 ,alexander proceeded to sell oracular responses as from the god4 ,inquirers submitted their questions in sealed packages which were later returned to them with appropriate answers and with the seals unbroken and apparently untouched4 ,similarly ,plutarch tells of a sceptical opponent of oracles who became converted into their ardent supporter by receiving such an answer to a sealed letter4#abhj ,lucian1 however1 explains that ,alexander sometimes used a hot needle to melt the seal and then restore it to practically its original shape1 or employed other methods by which he took exact impressions of the seal1 then boldly broke it1 read the question1 and afterwards replaced the seal by an exact replica of the original made in the mould4 ,lucian adds that there are plenty of other devices of this sort which he does not need to repeat to ,celsus who has already made a sufficient collection of them in his 8excellent treatises against the magicians40 ,lucian tells later1 however1 how ,alexander made his god seem to speak by attaching a tube made of the windpipes of cranes to the artificial head and having an assistant outside speak through this concealed tube4 ,in our later discussion of the church father ,hippolytus we shall find that he apparently made use of this expos of magic by ,lucian as well as of the arguments of ,sextus ,empiricus against astrology4 ,lucian's personal experiences with this ,alexander were quite interesting but are less germane to our investigation4 ,sidenote3 ,magical procedure in medicine satirized4 ,we must not fail1 however1 to note another essay1 ,philopseudes or ,apiston1 in which the superstition and pseudo-science of antiquity are sharply satirized in what purports to be a conversation of several philosophers1 including a ,stoic1 a ,peripatetic1 and a ,platonist1 and a representative of ancient medicine in the person of ,antigonus1 a doctor4 ,some of the magical procedure then employed in curing diseases is first satirized4 ,cleodemus the ,peripatetic advises as a remedy for gout to take in the left hand the tooth of a field mouse which has been killed in a prescribed manner1 to wrap it in the skin of a lion freshly-flayed1 and thus to bind it about the ailing foot4 ,he affirms that it will give instant relief4 ,dinomachus the ,stoic admits that the occult virtue of the lion is very great and that its fat or right fore-paw or the bristles of its beard1 if combined with the proper incantations1 have wonderful efficacy4 ,but he holds that for the cure of gout the skin of a virgin hind would be superior on the ground that the hind is speedier than the lion and so more beneficial to the feet4 ,cleodemus retorts that he used to think the same1 but that a ,libyan has convinced him that the lion can run faster than the hind or it would never catch one4 ,the sceptical reporter of this conversation states that he vainly attempted to convince them that an internal disease could not be cured by external attachments or by incantations1 methods which he regards as the veriest sorcery 7goetia74 ,sidenote3 ,snake-charming4 ,his protests1 however1 merely lead ,ion the ,platonist to recount how a ,magus1 a ,chaldean of ,babylonia1 cured his father's gardener who had been stung by an adder on the great toe and was already all swollen up and nearly dead4 ,the magician's method was to apply a splinter of stone from the statue of a virgin to the toe1 uttering at the same time an incantation4 ,he then led the way to the field where the gardener had been stung2 pronounced seven sacred names from an ancient volume1 and fumigated the place thrice with torches and sulphur4 ,all the snakes in the field then came forth from their holes with the exception of one very aged and decrepit serpent1 whom the magician sent a young snake back to fetch4 ,having thus assembled every last serpent1 he blew upon them1 and they all vanished into thin air4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,hyperborean magician4 ,this tale reminds the ,stoic of another magician1 a barbarian and ,hyperborean1 who could walk through fire or upon water and even fly through the air4 ,he could also 8make people fall in love1 call up spirits1 resuscitate corpses1 bring down the moon1 and show you ,hecate herself as large as life40#abha ,more specific illustration of the exercise of these powers is given in an account of a love spell which he performed for a young man for a big fee4 ,digging a trench1 he raised the ghost of the youth's father and also summoned ,hecate1 ,cerberus1 and the ,moon4 ,the last named appeared in three successive forms of a woman1 an ox1 and a puppy4 ,the sorcerer then constructed a clay image of the god of love and sent it to fetch the girl1 who came and stayed until cock-crow1 when all the apparitions vanished with her4 ,in vain the sceptic argues that the girl in question would have come willingly enough without any magic4 ,the ,platonist matches the previous story with one of a ,syrian from ,palestine who cast out demons4 ,sidenote3 ,some ghost stories4 ,the discussion then further degenerates into ghost stories and tales of statuettes that leave their pedestals after the household has retired for the night4 ,one speaker says that he no longer has any fear of ghosts since an ,arab gave him a magic ring made of nails from crosses and taught him an incantation to use against spooks4 ,at this juncture a ,pythagorean philosopher of great repute enters and adds his testimony in the form of an account of how he laid a ghost at ,corinth by employing an ,egyptian incantation4 ,sidenote3 ,pancrates1 the magician4 ,eucrates1 the host1 then tells of ,pancrates1 whom he had met in ,egypt and who 8had spent twenty-three years underground learning magic from ,isis10 and whom crocodiles would allow to ride on their backs4 ,they traveled a time together without a servant1 since ,pancrates was able to dress up the door-bar or a broom or pestle1 turn it into human form1 and make it wait upon them4 ,there follows the familiar story of ,eucrates' overhearing the incantation of three syllables which ,pancrates employed and of trying it out himself when the magician was absent4 ,the pestle turned into human form all right enough and obeyed his order to bring in water1 but then he discovered that he could not make it stop1 and when he seized an axe and chopped it in two1 the only effect was to produce two water-carriers in place of one4 ,sidenote3 ,credulity and scepticism4 ,the conversation is turning to the subject of oracles when the sceptic can stand it no longer and retires in disgust4 ,as he tells what he has heard to a friend1 he remarks upon the childish credulity of 8these admired teachers from whom our youth are to learn wisdom40 ,at the same time1 the stories seem to have made a considerable impression even upon him1 and he wishes that he had some lethal drug to make him forget all these monsters1 demons1 and ,hecates that he seems still to see before him4 ,his friend1 too1 declares that he has filled him with demons4 ,their dialogue then concludes with the consoling reflection that truth and sound reason are the best drugs for the cure of such empty lies4 ,sidenote3 ,menippus1 or ,necromancy4 ,the ,menippus or ,necromancy1 while an obvious imitation and parody of ,odysseus' mode of descent to the underworld to consult ,teiresias1 also throws some light on the magic of ,lucian's time4 ,in order to reach the other world ,menippus went to ,babylon and consulted ,mithrobarzanes1 one of the ,magi and followers of ,zoroaster4 ,he is also called one of the ,chaldeans4 ,besides a final sacrifice similar to that of ,odysseus1 the procedure by which the magician procured their passage to the other world included on his part muttered incantations and invocations1 for the most part unintelligible to ,menippus1 spitting thrice in the latter's face1 waving torches about1 drawing a magic circle1 and wearing a magic robe4 ,as for ,menippus1 he had to bathe in the ,euphrates at sunrise every morning for the full twenty-nine days of a moon1 after which he was purified at midnight in the ,tigris and by fumigation4 ,he had to sleep out-of-doors and observe a special diet1 not look anyone in the eye on his way home1 walk backwards1 and so on4 ,the ultimate result of all these preparations was that the earth was burst asunder by the final incantation and the way to the underworld laid open4 ,when it came time to return ,menippus crawled up with difficulty1 like ,dante going from the ,inferno to ,purgatory1 through a narrow tunnel which opened on the shrine of ,trophonius4 ,sidenote3 ,astrological interpretation of ,greek myth4 ,an essay on astrology ascribed to ,lucian is usually regarded as spurious4#abhb ,denial of its authenticity1 however1 should rest on such grounds as its literary style and the manuscript history of the work rather than upon its--to modern eyes--superstitious character4 ,in antiquity a man might be sceptical about most superstitions and yet believe in astrology as a science4 ,lucian's sceptical friend ,celsus1 for example1 as we shall see in our chapter on ,origen's ,reply to ,celsus1 believed that the future could be foretold from the stars4 ,and whether the present essay is genuine or spurious1 it is certainly noteworthy that for all his mockery of other superstition ,lucian does not attack astrology in any of his essays4 ,moreover1 this essay on astrology is very sceptical in one way1 since it denies the literal truth of various ,greek myths and gives an astrological interpretation of them1 as in the case of ,zeus and ,kronos and the so-called adultery of ,mars4 ,this is not inconsistent with ,lucian's ridicule elsewhere of the anthropomorphic ,olympian divinities4 ,what ,orpheus taught the ,greeks was astrology1 and the planets were signified by the seven strings of his lyre4 ,teiresias taught them further to distinguish which stars were masculine and which feminine in character and influence4 ,a proper interpretation of the myth of ,atreus and ,thyestes also shows the ,greeks at an early date acquainted with astrological doctrine4 ,bellerophon soared to the sky1 not on a horse but by the scientific power of his mind4 ,daedalus taught ,icarus astrology and the fable of ,phathon is to be similarly interpreted4 ,aeneas was not really the son of the goddess ,venus1 nor ,minos of ,jupiter1 nor ,aesculapius of ,mars1 nor ,autolycus of ,mercury4 ,these are to be taken simply as the planets under whose rule they were born4 ,the author also connects ,egyptian animal worship with the signs of the zodiac4 ,sidenote3 ,history and defense of astrology4 ,the author of the essay also delves into the history of astrology1 to which he assigns a high antiquity4 ,the ,ethiopians were the first to cultivate it and handed it on in a still imperfect stage to the ,egyptians who developed it4 ,the ,babylonians claim to have studied it before other peoples1 but our author thinks that they did so long after the ,ethiopians and ,egyptians4 ,the ,greeks were instructed in the art neither by the ,ethiopians nor the ,egyptians1 but1 as we have seen1 by ,orpheus4 ,our author not only states that the ancient ,greeks never built towns or walls or got married without first resorting to divination1 but even asserts that astrology was their sole method of divination1 that the ,pythia at ,delphi was the type of celestial purity and that the snake under the tripod represented the dragon among the constellations4 ,lycurgus taught his ,lacedaemonians to observe the moon1 and only the uncultured ,arcadians held themselves aloof from astrology4 ,yet at the present day some oppose the art1 declaring either that the stars have naught to do with human affairs or that astrology is useless since what is fated cannot be avoided4 ,to the latter objection our author makes the usual retort that forewarned is forearmed2 as for the former denial1 if a horse stirs the stones in the road as it runs1 if a passing breath of wind moves straws to and fro1 if a tiny flame burns the finger1 will not the courses and deflexions of the brilliant celestial bodies have their influence upon earth and mankind8 ,sidenote3 ,lucian not always sceptical4 ,the manner of the essay does not seem like ,lucian's usual style1 and the astrological interpretation of religious myth was characteristic of the ,stoic philosophy1 whereas ,lucian's philosophical affinities1 if he can be said to have any1 are perhaps rather with the ,epicureans4 ,but ,celsus was an ,epicurean and yet believed in astrology4 ,it must not be thought1 however1 that ,lucian in his other essays is always sceptical in regard to what we should classify as superstition4 ,he tells us how his career was determined by a dream in the autobiographical essay of that title4 ,in the ,dialogues of the ,gods magic is mentioned as a matter-of-course1 ,zeus complaining that he has to resort to magic in order to win women and ,athene warning ,paris to have ,aphrodite remove her girdle1 since it is drugged or enchanted and may bewitch him4 ,sidenote3 ,lucian and medicine4 ,the writings of ,lucian contain many allusions to the doctors1 diseases1 and medicines of his time4#abhc ,on the whole he confirms ,galen's picture4 ,numerous passages show that the medical profession was held in high esteem1 and ,lucian himself first went to ,rome in order to consult an oculist4 ,at the same time ,lucian satirizes the quacks and medical superstition of the time1 as we have already seen1 and describes several statues which were believed to possess healing powers4 ,in the burlesque tragedy on gout1 ,tragodopodagra1 whose authenticity1 however1 is questioned1 the disease personified is triumphant1 and the moral seems to be that all the remedies which men have tried are of no avail4 ,on the other hand1 ,lucian wrote seriously of the ,african snake whose bite causes one to die of thirst 7,de dipsadibus74 ,he admits that he has never seen anyone in this condition and has not even been in ,libya where these snakes are found1 but a friend has assured him that he has seen the tombstone epitaph of a man who had died thus1 a rather indirect mode of proof which we are surprised should satisfy the author of ,how to ,write ,history4 ,lucian also repeats the common notion that persons bitten by a mad dog can be cured only by a hair or other portion of the same animal4#abhd ,sidenote3 ,inevitable intermingling of scepticism and superstition4 ,our chapter which set out to note cases of scepticism in regard to superstition has ended by including a great deal of such superstition4 ,the sceptics themselves seem credulous on some points1 and ,lucian's satire perhaps more reveals than refutes the prevalence of superstition among even the highly educated4 ,the same is true of other literary satirists of the ,roman ,empire whose jibes against the astrologers and their devotees only attest the popularity of the art and who themselves very probably meant only to ridicule its more extreme pretensions and were perhaps at bottom themselves believers in the fundamentals of the art4 ,our authors to some extent1 as we have pointed out1 provided an arsenal of arguments from which later ,christian writers took weapons for their assaults upon pagan magic and astrology4 ,but sometimes subsequent writers confused scepticism with credulity1 and the influence of our authors upon them became just the opposite of what they intended4 ,thus ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 the soldier-historian of the falling ,roman ,empire upon whom ,gibbon placed so much reliance1 was so attached to divination that he even quoted its arch-opponent1 ,cicero1 in support of it4 ,for he actually concludes his discussion of the subject in these words3 8,wherefore in this as in other matters ,tully says most admirably1#8,signs of future events are shown by the gods4'0#abhe ,sidenote3 ,lucian on writing history4 ,but in order to conclude our chapter on scepticism with a less obscurantist passage1 let us return to ,lucian4 ,his essay1 ,how to ,write ,history1 gives serious expression to those ideals of truth and impartiality which also lie behind his mockery of impostors and the over-credulous4 8,the historian's one task10 in his estimation1 8is to tell the thing as it happened40 ,he should be 8fearless1 incorruptible1 independent1 a believer in frankness1 444 an impartial judge1 kind to all but too kind to none40 8,he has to make of his brain a mirror1 unclouded1 bright1 and true of surface40 8,facts are not to be collected at haphazard but with careful1 laborious1 repeated investigation40 8,prefer the disinterested account40#abhf ,such sentences and phrases as these reveal a scientific and critical spirit of high order and seem a vast improvement upon the frailty of ,cicero's historical criticism4 ,but how far ,lucian would have been able to follow his own advice is perhaps another matter4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,spurious ,,mystic ,,writings ,,of ,,hermes1 ,,orpheus1 ,,and ,,zoroaster ,mystic works of revelation--,the ,hermetic books--,poimandres and the ,hermetic ,corpus--,astrological treatises ascribed to ,hermes--,hermetic works of alchemy--,nechepso and ,petosiris--,manetho--,the ,lithica of ,orpheus--,argument of the poem--,magic powers of stones--,magic rites to gain powers of divination--,power of gems compared with herbs--,magic herbs and demons in ,orphic rites--,books ascribed to ,zoroaster--,the ,chaldean ,oracles4 ,sidenote3 ,mystic works of revelation4 ,there were in circulation in the ,roman ,empire many writings which purported to be of divine origin and authorship1 or at least the work of ancient culture-heroes and founders of religions who were of divine descent and divinely inspired4 ,these oracular and mystic compositions usually pretend to great antiquity and often claim as their home such hoary lands as ,egypt and ,chaldea1 although in the ,hellenic past ,apollo and in the ,roman past the ,sibylline books#abhg also afford convenient centers about which forgeries cluster4 ,assuming as these writings do to disclose the secrets of ancient priesthoods and to publish what should not be revealed to the vulgar crowd1 they may be confidently expected to embody a great deal of superstition and magic along with their expositions of mystic theologies4 ,also the authors1 editors1 or publishers of astrological1 alchemistic1 and other pseudo-scientific treatises could not be expected to resist the temptation of claiming a venerable and cryptic origin for some of their books4 ,moreover1 such pseudo-literature was not entirely unjustified in its affirmation of high antiquity4 ,few things in intellectual history antedate magic1 and these spurious compositions are not especially distinguished by new ideas1 although they to some extent reflect the progress made in learning1 occult as well as scientific1 in the ,hellenistic age4 ,it must be added that much of their contents depends for its effect entirely upon its claim to eminent authorship and great antiquity and upon the impressionability of its public4 ,to-day most of it seems trivial commonplace or marked by the empty vagueness characteristic of oracular utterances4 ,i shall attempt no complete exposition or exhaustive treatment of such writings#abhh but touch upon a few examples which bear upon the relations of science and magic4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,hermetic books4 ,chief among these are the ,hermetic books or writings attributed to ,hermes the ,egyptian or ,trismegistus4 8,under this name10 wrote ,steinschneider in #aijf1 8there exists in many languages a literature1 for the most part superstitious1 which seems to have not yet been treated in its totality40#abhi ,the ,egyptian god ,thoth or ,tehuti1 known in ,greek as 1 1 and 1 was identified with ,hermes1 and the epithet 8thrice-great0 is also derived from the ,egyptian a a1 8the great ,great40 ,citations of works ascribed to this ,hermes ,trismegistus can be traced back as early as the first century of our era4#abij ,he is also mentioned or quoted by various church fathers from ,athenagoras to ,augustine and often figures in the magical papyri4 ,the historian ,ammianus ,marcellinus#abia in the fourth century ranks him with the great sages of the past such as ,pythagoras1 ,socrates1 and ,apollonius of ,tyana4 ,our two chief descriptions of the ,hermetic books from the period of the ,roman ,empire are found in the ,stromata#abib of the ,christian ,clement of ,alexandria 7c4 #aej-;c4 #bbj ,a4 ,d47 and in the ,de mysteriis#abic ascribed to the ,neo-,platonist ,iamblichus 7died about #ccj ,a4 ,d474 ,clement speaks of forty-two books by ,hermes which are regarded as 8indispensable40 ,of these ten are called 8,hieratic0 and deal with the laws1 the gods1 and the training of the priests4 ,ten others detail the sacrifices1 prayers1 processions1 festivals1 and other rites of ,egyptian worship4 ,two contain hymns to the gods and rules for the king4 ,six are medical1 8treating of the structure of the body and of diseases and instruments and medicines and about the eyes and the last about women40 ,four are astronomical or astrological1 and the remaining ten deal with cosmography and geography or with the equipment of the priests and the paraphernalia of the sacred rites4 ,clement does not say so1 but from his brief summary one can imagine how full these volumes probably were of occult virtues of natural substances1 of magical procedure1 and of intimate relations and interactions between nature1 stars1 and spirits4 ,iamblichus repeats the statement of ,seleucus that ,hermes wrote twenty thousand volumes and the assertion of ,manetho that there were #cf1ebe books1 a number doubtless connected with the supposed length of the year1 three hundred and sixty-five and one-quarter days4#abid ,iamblichus adds that ,hermes wrote one hundred treatises on the ethereal gods and one thousand concerning the celestial gods4#abie ,he is aware1 however1 that most books attributed to ,hermes were not really composed by him1 since in other passages he speaks of 8the books which are circulated under the name of ,hermes10#abif and explains that 8our ancestors 444 inscribed all their own writings with the name of ,hermes10#abig thus dedicating them to him as the patron deity of language and theology4 ,by the time of ,iamblichus these books had been translated from the ,egyptian tongue into ,greek4 ,sidenote3 ,poimandres and the ,hermetic ,corpus4 ,there has come down to us under the name of ,hermes a collection of seventeen or eighteen fragments which is generally known as the ,hermetic ,corpus4 ,of the fragments the first and chief is entitled ,poimandres 771 a name which is sometimes applied to the entire ,corpus4 ,another fragment entitled ,asclepius1 since it is in the form of a dialogue between him and 8,mercurius ,trismegistus10 exists in a ,latin form which has been ascribed probably incorrectly to ,apuleius of ,madaura as translator 7,asclepius 444 ,mercurii trismegisti dialogus ,lucio ,apuleio ,madaurensi philosopho ,platonico interprete74 ,none of the ,greek manuscripts of the ,corpus seems older than the fourteenth century1 although ,reitzenstein thinks that they may all be derived from the version which ,michael ,psellus had before him in the eleventh century4#abih ,but the concluding prayer of the ,poimandres exists in a third century papyrus1 and the alchemist ,zosimus in the fourth century seems acquainted with the entire collection4 ,the treatises in this ,corpus are concerned primarily with religious philosophy or theosophy1 with doctrines similar to those of ,plato concerning the soul and to the teachings of the ,gnostics4 ,the moral and religious instruction is associated1 however1 with a physics and cosmology very favorable to astrology and magic4 ,of magic in the narrow sense there is little in the ,corpus1 but a ,hermetic fragment preserved by ,stobaeus affirms that 8philosophy and magic nourish the soul40 ,astrology plays a much more prominent part1 and the stars are ranked as visible gods1 of whom the sun is by far the greatest4 ,all seven planets nevertheless control the changes in the world of nature2 there are seven human types corresponding to them2 and the twelve signs of the zodiac also govern the human body4 ,only the chosen few who possess gnosis or are capable of receiving nous can escape the decrees of fate as administered by the stars and ultimately return to the spiritual world1 passing through 8choruses of demons0 and 8courses of stars0 and reaching the ,ogdoad or eighth heaven above and beyond the spheres of the seven planets4#abii ,such ,gnostic cosmology and demonology1 especially the location of demons amid the planetary spheres1 provides favorable ground for the development of astrological necromancy4 ,sidenote3 ,astrological treatises ascribed to ,hermes4 ,not only is a belief in astrology implied throughout the ,poimandres1 but a number of separate astrological treatises are extant in whole or part under the name of ,hermes ,trismegistus1#acjj and he is frequently cited as an authority in other ,greek astrological manuscripts4#acja ,the treatises attributed to him comprise one upon general method1#acjb one on the names and powers of the twelve signs1 one on astrological medicine addressed to ,ammon the ,egyptian1#acjc one on thunder and lightning1 and some hexameters on the relation of earthquakes to the signs of the zodiac4 ,this last is also ascribed to ,orpheus4#acjd ,there are various allusions to and versions of tracts concerning the relation of herbs to the planets or signs of the zodiac or thirty-six decans4#acje ,these treatises attribute magic virtues to plants1 include a prayer to be repeated when plucking each herb1 and tell how to use the astrological figures of the decans1 engraved on stones1 as healing amulets4 ,sidenote3 ,hermetic works of alchemy4 ,works under the name of ,hermes ,trismegistus are cited by ,greek alchemists of the closing ,roman ,empire1 such as ,zosimus1 ,stephanus1 and ,olympiodorus1 but those ,hermetic treatises of alchemy which are extant are of late date and much altered4#acjf ,some treatises are preserved only in ,arabic2 others are medieval ,latin fabrications4 ,the ,greek alchemists1 however1 seem to have recited the mystic hymn of ,hermes from the ,poimandres4#acjg ,sidenote3 ,nechepso and ,petosiris4 ,hellenistic and ,roman astrology sought to extend its roots far back into ,egyptian antiquity by putting forth spurious treatises under the names1 not only of ,hermes ,trismegistus1 but also of ,nechepso and ,petosiris1#acjh who were regarded respectively as an ,egyptian king and an ,egyptian priest who had lived at least seven centuries before ,christ4 ,indeed1 they were held to be the recipients of divine revelation from ,hermes and ,asclepius4 ,a lengthy astrological treatise1 which ,pliny#acji is the first to cite and from a fourteenth book of which ,galen#acaj mentions a magic ring of jasper engraved with a dragon and rays1 seems to have appeared in their names probably at ,alexandria in the ,hellenistic period4 ,only fragments and citations ascribed to ,nechepso and ,petosiris are now extant4#acaa ,sidenote3 ,manetho4 ,yet another astrological work which claims to be drawn from the secret sacred books and cryptic monuments of ancient ,egypt is ascribed to ,manetho4 ,it is a compilation in verse of prognostications from the various constellations and is regarded as the work of several writers1 of whom the oldest is placed in the reign of ,alexander ,severus in the third century4#acab ,sidenote3 ,the ,lithica of ,orpheus4 ,orpheus is another author more cited than preserved by classical antiquity4 ,pliny called him the first writer on herbs and suspected him of magic4 ,ernest ,riess affirms that ,rohde 7,psyche1 p4 #cih7 8has abundantly proved that ,orpheus' followers were among the chief promulgators of purifications and charms against evil spirits40#acac ,among poems of some length extant under ,orpheus' name the one of most interest to us is the ,lithica1 where in #ggj lines the virtues of some thirty gems are set forth with considerable allusion to magic4#acad ,the authorship is uncertain1 but the verse is supposed to follow the prose treatise by ,damigeron who lived in the second century ,b4 ,c4 ,the date of the poem is now generally fixed in the fourth century of our era1 although ,king#acae argued for an earlier date4 ,i agree with him that the allusion in lines #ga-gd to decapitation on the charge of magic is1 taken alone1 too vague and blind to be associated with any particular event or time2 editors since ,tyrwhitt have connected it with the law of ,constantius against magic and the persecution of magicians in #cga ,a4 ,d4 ,but ,king's contention that the ,lithica is by the same author as the ,argonautica1 also ascribed to ,orpheus1 and is therefore of early date1 falls to the ground since the ,argonautica1 too1 is now dated in the fourth century4 ,sidenote3 ,argument of the poem4 ,the ,lithica opens by representing ,hermes as bestowing upon mankind the precious lore of the marvelous virtues of gems4 ,in his cave are stored stones which banish ghosts1 robbers1 and snakes1 which bring health1 happiness1 victory in war and games1 honor at courts and success in love1 and which insure safety on journeys1 the favor of the gods1 and enable one to read the hidden thoughts of others and to understand the language of the birds as they predict the future4 ,few persons1 however1 avail themselves of this mystic lore1 and those who do so are liable to be executed on the charge of magic4 ,after this introduction1 which may be regarded as a piquant appetizer to whet the reader's taste for further details1 the virtues of individual stones are described1 first in the words of ,theodamas1 a wise and divine man#acaf whom the author meets on his way to perform annual sacrifice at an altar of the ,sun1 where as a child he narrowly escaped from a deadly snake1 and then in a speech of the seer ,helenus to ,philoctetes which ,theodamas quotes4 ,greek gods are often mentioned2 as the poem proceeds the virtues of a number of gems are attributed to ,apollo rather than ,hermes2 and there are allusions to ,greek mythology and the ,trojan war4 ,some gems are found in animals1 for instance1 in the viper or the brain of the stag4 ,sidenote3 ,magic powers of stones4 ,let us turn to some examples of the marvelous virtues of particular stones4 ,the crystal wins favorable answers from the gods to prayers2 kindles fire1 if held over sticks1 yet itself remains cold2 as a ligature benefits kidney trouble4 ,sacrifices in which the adamant is employed win the favor of the gods2 it is also called ,lethaean because it makes one forget worries1 or the milk-stone 7galactis7 because it renews the milk of sheep or goats when powdered in brine and sprinkled over them4 ,worn as an amulet it counteracts the evil eye and gains royal favor for its bearer4 ,the agate is an agricultural amulet and should be attached to the plowman's arm and the horns of the oxen4 ,other stones help vineyards1 bring rain or avert hail and pests from the crops4 ,lychnis prevents a pot from boiling on a fire and makes it boil when the fire is dead4 ,the magnet was used by the witches ,circe and ,medea in their spells2 an unchaste wife is unable to remain in the bed where this stone has been placed with an incantation4 ,other stones cure snake-bite and various diseases1 serve as love-charms or aids in child-birth1 or counteract incantations and enchantments4 ,sidenote3 ,magic rites to gain powers of divination4 ,to make the gem sideritis or oreites utter vocal oracles the operator must abstain for three weeks from animal food1 the public baths1 and the marriage bed2 he is then to wash and clothe the gem like an infant and employ various sacrifices1 incantations1 and illuminations4 ,the gem ,liparaios1 known to the learned ,magi of ,assyria1 when burnt on a bloodless altar with hymns to the ,sun and ,earth attracts snakes from their holes to the flame4 ,three youths robed in white and carrying two-edged swords should cut up the snake who comes nearest the fire into nine pieces1 three for the ,sun1 three for the earth1 three for the wise and prophetic maiden4 ,these pieces are then to be cooked with wine1 salt1 and spices and eaten by those who wish to learn the language of birds and beasts4 ,but further the gods must be invoked by their secret names and libations poured of milk1 wine1 oil1 and honey4 ,what is not eaten must be buried1 and the participants in the feast are then to return home wearing chaplets but otherwise naked and speaking to no one whom they may meet4 ,on their arrival home they are to sacrifice mixed spices4 ,it will be recalled that ,apollonius of ,tyana and the ,arabs also learned the language of the birds by eating snake-flesh4 ,sidenote3 ,powers of gems compared with herbs4 ,thus gems are potent in religion and divination1 love-charms and child-birth1 medicine and agriculture4 ,the poem fails1 however1 to touch upon their uses in alchemy or relations to the stars1 nor does it contain much of anything that can be called necromancy4 ,but the author ranks the virtues of stones above those of herbs1 whose powers disappear with age4 ,moreover1 some plants are injurious1 whereas the marvelous virtues of stones are almost all beneficial as well as permanent4 8,there is great force in herbs10 he says1 8but far greater in stones10#acag an observation often repeated in the middle ages4 ,sidenote3 ,magic herbs and demons in ,orphic rites4 ,more stress is laid upon the power of demons and herbs in a description which has been left us by ,saint ,cyprian1#acah bishop of ,antioch in the third century1 of some pagan mysteries upon ,mount ,olympus into which he was initiated when a boy of fifteen and which have been explained as ,orphic rites4 ,his initiation was under the charge of seven hierophants1 lasted for forty days1 and included instruction in the virtues of magic herbs and visions of the operations of demons4 ,he was also taught the meaning of musical notes and harmonies1 and saw how times and seasons were governed by good and evil spirits4 ,in short1 magic1 pseudo-science1 occult virtue1 and perhaps astrology formed an important part of ,orphic lore4 ,sidenote3 ,books ascribed to ,zoroaster4 ,cumont states in his ,oriental ,religions in ,roman ,paganism that 8towards the end of the ,alexandrine period the books ascribed to the half-mythical masters of the ,persian science1 ,zoroaster1 ,hosthanes and ,hystaspes1 were translated into ,greek1 and until the end of paganism those names enjoyed a prodigious authority40#acai ,pliny regarded ,zoroaster as the founder of magic and we have met other examples of his reputation as a magician4 ,later we shall find him cited several times in the ,byzantine ,geoponica which seems to use a book ascribed to him on the sympathy and antipathy existing between natural objects4#acbj ,naturally a number of pseudo-,zoroastrian books were in circulation1 some of which ,porphyry1 the ,neo-,platonist1 is said to have suppressed4 ,at least he tells us in his ,life of ,plotinus#acba that certain ,christians and other men claimed to possess certain revelations of ,zoroaster1 but that he advanced many arguments to show that their book was not written by ,zoroaster but was a recent composition4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,chaldean ,oracles4 ,there has been preserved1 however1 in the writings of the ,neo-,platonists a collection of passages known as the ,zoroastrian ,logia or ,chaldean ,oracles#acbb and which 8present 444 a heterogeneous mass1 now obscure and again bombastic1 of commingled ,platonic1 ,pythagorean1 ,stoic1 ,gnostic1 and ,persian tenets40#acbc ,not only are these often cited by the ,neo-,platonists1 but ,porphyry1 ,iamblichus1 and ,proclus composed commentaries upon them4#acbd ,some think that these citations and commentaries have reference to a single work put together by ,julian the ,chaldean in the period of the ,antonines4 ,this 8mass of oriental superstitions1 a medley of magic1 theurgy1 and delirious metaphysics10#acbe was reverenced by the ,neo-,platonists of the following centuries as a sacred authority equal to the ,timaeus of ,plato4 ,our next chapter will therefore deal with the writings of the ,neo-,platonists upon whom this spurious mystic literature had so much influence4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,neo-,,platonism ,,and ,,its ,,relations ,,to ,,astrology ,,and ,,theurgy ,neo-,platonism and the occult--,plotinus on magic--,the life of reason is alone free from magic--,plotinus unharmed by magic--,invoking the demon of ,plotinus--,rite of strangling birds--,plotinus and astrology--,the stars as signs--,the divine star-souls--,how do the stars cause and signify8--,other causes and signs than the stars--,stars not the cause of evil--,against the astrology of the ,gnostics--,fate and free-will--,summary of the attitude of ,plotinus to astrology--,porphyry's ,letter to ,anebo--,its main argument--,questions concerning divine natures--,orders of spiritual beings--,nature of demons--,the art of theurgy--,invocations and the power of words--,magic a human art3 theurgy divine--,magic's abuse of nature's forces--,its evil character--,its deceit and unreality--,porphyry on modes of divination--,iamblichus on divination--,are the stars gods8--,is there an art of astrology8--,porphyry and astrology--,astrological images--,number mysticism--,porphyry as reported by ,eusebius--,the emperor ,julian on theurgy and astrology--,julian and divination--,scientific divination according to ,ammianus ,marcellinus--,proclus on theurgy--,neo-,platonic account of magic borrowed by ,christians--,neo-,platonists and alchemy4 ,sidenote3 ,neo-,platonism and the occult4 ,that the ,neo-,platonists were much given to the occult has been a common impression among those who have written upon the period of the decline of the ,roman ,empire1 of the end of paganism1 and the passing of classical philosophy4 ,this is perhaps in some measure the result of ,christian viewpoint and hostility2 probably the ,christians of the period would seem equally superstitious to a modern ,neo-,platonist4 ,if the lives of the philosophers by ,eunapius sound like fairy tales1#acbf what do the lives of the saints of the same period sound like8 ,if the ,neo-,platonists were like our mediums1 what were the ,christian exorcists like8 ,but let us turn to the writings of the leading ,neo-,platonists themselves1 the only accurate mirror of their views4 ,sidenote3 ,plotinus on magic4 ,plotinus1#acbg who lived from about #bjd to #bgj ,a4 ,d4 and is generally regarded as the founder of ,neo-,platonism1 was apparently less given to occult sciences than some of his successors4#acbh ,one of his charges against the ,gnostics#acbi is that they believe that they can move the higher and incorporeal powers by writing incantations and by spoken words and various other vocal utterances1 all which he censures as mere magic and sorcery4 ,he also attacks their belief that diseases are demons and can be expelled by words4 ,this wins them a following among the crowd who are wont to marvel at the powers of magicians1 but ,plotinus insists that diseases are due to natural causes4#accj ,even he1 however1 accepted incantations and the charms of sorcerers and magicians as valid1 and accounted for their potency by the sympathy or love and hatred which he said existed between different objects in nature1 which operates even at a distance1 and which is an expression of one world-soul animating the universe4#acca ,sidenote3 ,the life of reason is alone free from magic4 ,plotinus held further1 however1 that only the physical and irrational side of man's nature was affected by drugs and sorcery1 just as 8even demons are not impassive in their irrational part10#accb and so are to some extent subject to magic4 ,but the rational soul may free itself from all influence of magic4#accc ,moreover1 remorselessly adds the clear-headed ,plotinus with a burst of insight that may well be attributed to ,hellenic genius1 he who yields to the charms of love and family affection or seeks political power or aught else than ,truth and true beauty1 or even he who searches for beauty in inferior things2 he who is deceived by appearances1 he who follows irrational inclinations1 is as truly bewitched as if he were the victim of magic and goetia so-called4 ,the life of reason is alone free from magic4#accd ,whereat one is tempted to paraphrase a remark of ,aelian#acce and exclaim1 8,what do you think of that definition of magic1 my dear anthropologists and sociologists and modern students of folk-lore80 ,sidenote3 ,plotinus unharmed by magic4 ,this immunity of the true philosopher and sincere follower of truth from magic received illustration1 according to ,porphyry1#accf in the case of ,plotinus himself1 who suffered no harm from the magic arts which his enemy1 ,alexandrinus ,olympius1 directed against him4 ,instead the baleful defluxions from the stars which ,olympius had tried to draw down upon ,plotinus were turned upon himself4 ,porphyry also states#accg that ,plotinus was aware at the time of the 8sidereal enchantments0 of ,olympius against him4 ,incidentally the episode provides one more proof of the essential unity of astrology and magic4 ,sidenote3 ,invoking the demon of ,plotinus4 ,plotinus1 indeed1 was regarded by his admirers as divinely inspired1 as another incident from the ,life by ,porphyry will illustrate4#acch ,an ,egyptian priest had little difficulty in persuading ,plotinus1 who although of ,roman parentage had been born in ,egypt1 to allow him to try to invoke his familiar demon4 ,plotinus was then teaching in ,rome where he resided for twenty-six years1 and the temple of ,isis was the only pure place in the city which the priest could find for the ceremony4 ,when the invocation had been duly performed1 there appeared not a mere demon but a god4 ,the apparition was not long enduring1 however1 nor would the priest permit them to question it1 on the ground that one of the friends of ,plotinus present had marred the success of the operation4 ,this man had feared he might suffer some injury when the demon appeared and as a counter-charm had brought some birds which he held in his hands1 apparently by the necks1 for at the critical moment when the apparition appeared he suffocated them1 whether from fright or from envy of ,plotinus ,porphyry declares himself unable to state4 ,sidenote3 ,the rite of strangling birds4 ,this practice of grasping birds by the necks in both hands is shown by a number of works of art to have been a custom of great antiquity4 ,we may see a winged ,gorgon strangling a goose in either hand upon a plate of the seventh century ,b4,c4 from ,rhodes now in the ,british ,museum4#acci ,a gold pendant of the ninth century ,b4,c4 from ,aegina1 now also in the ,british ,museum1 consists of a figure holding a water-bird by the neck in either hand1 while from its thighs pairs of serpents issue on whose folds the birds stand with their bills touching the fangs of the snakes4#acdj ,there also is a figure of a winged goddess grasping two water-birds by the necks upon an ivory fibula excavated at ,sparta4#acda ,sidenote3 ,plotinus and astrology4 ,porphyry also tells us in the ,life that ,plotinus devoted considerable attention to the stars and refuted in his writings the unwarrantable claims of the casters of horoscopes4#acdb ,such passages are found in the treatises on fate and on the soul1 while one of his treatises is devoted entirely to the question1 8,whether the stars effect anything80#acdc ,this was one of four treatises which ,plotinus a little before his death sent to ,porphyry1 and which are regarded as rather inferior to those composed by him when in the prime of life4 ,in the next century the astrologer1 ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus1 regards ,plotinus as an enemy of astrology and represents him as dying a horrible and loathsome death from gangrene4#acdd ,sidenote3 ,the stars as signs4 ,as a matter of fact the criticisms made by ,plotinus were not necessarily destructive to the art of astrology1 but rather suggested a series of amendments by which it might be made more compatible with a ,platonic view of the universe1 deity1 and human soul4 ,these amendments also tended to meet ,christian objections to the art4 ,his criticisms were not new2 ,philo ,judaeus had made similar ones over two centuries before4#acde ,but the great influence of ,plotinus gave added emphasis to these criticisms4 ,for instance1 the point made by him several times that the motion of the stars 8does not cause everything but signifies the future concerning each0#acdf man and thing1 is noted by ,macrobius both in the ,saturnalia#acdg and the ,dream of ,scipio2#acdh while in the twelfth century ,john of ,salisbury1 arguing against astrology1 fears that its devotees will take refuge in the authority of ,plotinus and say that they detract nothing from the ,creator's power1 since ,he established once for all an unalterable natural law and disposed all future events as ,he foresaw them4 ,thus the stars are merely ,his instruments4#acdi ,sidenote3 ,the divine star-souls4 ,but let us see what ,plotinus says himself rather than what others took to be his meaning4 ,like ,plato1 who regarded the stars as happy1 divine1 and eternal animals1 ,plotinus not only believes that the stars have souls but that their intellectual processes are far above the frailties of the human mind and nearer the omniscience of the world-soul4 ,memory1 for example1 is of no use to them1#acej nor do they hear the prayers which men address to them4#acea ,plotinus often calls them gods4 ,they are1 however1 parts of the universe1 subordinate to the world-soul1 and they cannot alter the fundamental principles of the universe1 nor deprive other beings of their individuality1 although they are able to make other beings better or worse4#aceb ,sidenote3 ,how do the stars cause and signify8 ,in his discussion of problems concerning the soul ,plotinus says that 8it is abundantly evident 444 that the motion of the heavens affects things on earth and not only in bodies but also the dispositions of the soul10#acec and that each part of the heavens affects terrestrial and inferior objects4 ,he does not1 however1 think that all this influence can be accounted for 8exclusively by heat or cold10--perhaps a dig at ,ptolemy's ,tetrabiblos4#aced ,he also objects to ascribing the crimes of men to the will of the stars or every human act to a sidereal decision1#acee and to speaking of friendships and enmities as existing between the planets according as they are in this or that aspect towards one another4#acef ,if then the admittedly vast influence of the stars cannot be satisfactorily accounted for either as material effects caused by them as bodies or as voluntary action taken by them1 how is it to be explained8 ,plotinus accounts for it by the relation of sympathy which exists between all parts of the universe1 that single living animal1 and by the fact that the universe expresses itself in the figures formed by the movements of the celestial bodies1 which 8exert what influence they do exert on things here below through contemplation of the intelligible world40#aceg ,these figures1 or constellations in the astrological sense1 have other powers than those of the bodies which participate in them1 just as many plants and stones 8among us0 have marvelous occult powers for which heat and cold will not account4#aceh ,they both exert influence effectively and are signs of the future through their relation to the universal whole4 ,in many things they are both causes and signs1 in others they are signs only4#acei ,sidenote3 ,other causes and signs than the stars4 ,for ,plotinus1 however1 the universe is not a mechanical one where but one force prevails1 namely1 that produced by or represented by the constellations4 ,the universe is full of variety with countless different powers1 and the whole would not be a living animal unless each living thing in it lived its own life1 and unless life were latent even in inanimate objects4 ,it is true that some powers are more effective than others1 and that those of the sky are more so than those of earth1 and that many things lie under their power4 ,nevertheless ,plotinus sees in the reproduction of life and species in the universe a force independent of the stars4 ,in the generation of any animal1 for example1 the stars contribute something1 but the species must follow that of its forebears4#acfj ,and after they have been produced or begotten1 terrestrial beings add something of their own4 ,nor are the stars the sole signs of the future4 ,plotinus holds that 8all things are full of signs10 and that the sage can not merely predict from stars or birds1 but infer one thing from another by virtue of the harmony and sympathy existing between all parts of the universe4#acfa ,sidenote3 ,stars not the cause of evil4 ,nor can the gods or stars be said to cause evil on earth1 since their influence is affected by other forces which mingle with it4 ,like the earlier ,jewish ,platonist1 ,philo1 ,plotinus denies that the planets are the cause of evil or change their own natures from good to evil as they enter new signs of the zodiac or take up different positions in relation to one another4 ,he argues that they are not changeable beings1 that they would not willingly injure men1 or1 if it is contended that they are mere bodies and have no wills1 he replies that then they can produce only corporeal effects4 ,he then solves the problem of evil in the usual manner by ascribing it to matter1 in which reason and the celestial force are received unevenly1 as light is broken and refracted in passing through water4#acfb ,sidenote3 ,against the astrology of the ,gnostics4 ,plotinus repeats much the same line of argument in his book against the ,gnostics1 where he protests against 8the tragedy of terrors which they think exists in the spheres of the universe10#acfc and the tyranny they ascribe to the heavenly bodies4 ,his belief is that the celestial spheres are in perfect harmony both with the universe as a whole and with our globe1 completing the whole and constituting a great part of it1 supplying beauty and order4 ,and often they are to be regarded as signs rather than causes of the future4 ,their natures are constant1 but the sequence of events may be varied by chance circumstances1 such as different hours of nativities1 place of residence1 and the dispositions of individual souls4 ,amid all this diversity one must also expect both good and evil1 but not on that account call nature or the stars either evil themselves or the cause of evil4 ,sidenote3 ,fate and free-will4 ,as the allusion just made in the preceding paragraph to 8the dispositions of individual souls0 shows1 ,plotinus made a distinction between the extent of the control exercised by the stars over inanimate1 animate1 and rational beings4 ,the stars signify all things in the sensible world but the soul is free unless it slips and is stained by the body and so comes under their control4 ,fate or the force of the stars is like a wind which shakes and tosses the ship of the body in which the soul makes its passage4 ,man as a part of the world does some things and suffers many things in accordance with destiny4 ,some men become slaves to this world and to external influences1 as if they were bewitched4 ,others look to their inner souls and strive to free themselves from the sensible world and to rise above demonic nature and all fate of nativities and all necessity of this world1 and to live in the intelligible world above#acfd4 ,sidenote3 ,summary of the attitude of ,plotinus to astrology4 ,thus ,plotinus arrives at practically what was to be the usual ,christian position in the middle ages regarding the influence of the stars1 maintaining the freedom of the human will and yet allowing a large field to astrological prediction4 ,he is evidently more concerned to combat the notion that the stars cause evil or are to be feared as evil powers than he is to combat the belief in their influence and significations4 ,his speaking of the stars both as signs and causes in a way doubles the possibility of prediction from them4 ,if he attacked the language used by astrologers of the planets1 and perhaps to a certain extent the technique of their art1 he supported astrology by reconciling the existence of evil and of human freedom with a great influence of the stars and by his emphasis upon the importance of the figures made by the movements of the heavenly bodies above any purely physical effects of their bodies as such4 ,thus he reinforced the conception of occult virtue1 always one of the chief pillars1 if not the chief support1 of occult science and magic4 ,on the other hand1 men were not likely to reform a language and technique sanctioned by as great an astronomer as ,ptolemy merely because a ,neo-,platonist questioned its propriety4 ,sidenote3 ,porphyry's ,letter to ,anebo4 ,although ,plotinus denied that diseases were due to demons1 we once heard him speak of 8demonic nature10 and one of the ,enneads discusses ,each man's own demon4 ,here1 however1 the discussion is limited to the power presiding in each human soul1 and nothing is said of magic4 ,for the connection of demons with magic and for the art of theurgy we must turn to the writings of ,porphyry and ,iamblichus1 and especially to ,the ,letter to ,anebo of ,porphyry1 who lived from about #bcc to #cje1 and the reply thereto of the master ,abammon1 a work which is otherwise known as ,liber de mysteriis#acfe4 ,the attribution of the latter work to ,iamblichus1 who died about #ccj1 is based upon an anonymous assertion prefixed to an ancient manuscript of ,proclus and upon the fact that ,proclus himself quotes a passage from the ,de mysteriis as the words of ,iamblichus4 ,this attribution has been questioned1 but if not by ,iamblichus1 the work seems to be at least by some disciple of his with similar views#acff4 ,other works of ,iamblichus are largely philosophical and mathematical2 among the chief works of ,porphyry1 apart from his literary work in connection with ,plotinus1 were his commentaries on ,aristotle and fifteen books against the ,christians4 ,sidenote3 ,its main argument4 ,the ,letter to ,anebo inquires concerning the nature of the gods1 the demons1 and the stars2 asks for an explanation of divination and astrology1 of the power of names and incantations2 and questions the employment of invocations and sacrifice4 ,other topics brought up are the rule of spirits over the world of nature1 partitioned out among them for this purpose2 the divine inspiration or demoniacal possession of human beings2 and the occult sympathy between different things in the material universe4 ,in especial the art of theurgy1 a word said to be used now for the first time by ,porphyry1#acfg is discussed4 ,it may be roughly defined for the moment as a sort of pious necromancy or magical cult of the gods4 ,porphyry raises various objections to the procedure and logic of the theurgists1 diviners1 enchanters1 and astrologers1 which ,iamblichus1 as we shall henceforth call the author of the ,de mysteriis as a matter of convenience if not of certainty1 endeavors to answer1 and to justify the art of theurgy4 ,sidenote3 ,questions concerning divine natures4 ,we may first note the theory of demons which is elicited from ,iamblichus in response to ,porphyry's trenchant and searching questions4 ,the latter1 declaring that ignorance and disingenuousness concerning divine natures are no less reprehensible than impiety and impurity1 demands a scientific discussion of the gods as a holy and beneficial act4 ,he asks why1 if the divine power is infinite1 indivisible1 and incomprehensible1 different places and different parts of the body are allotted to different gods4 ,why1 if the gods are pure intellects1 they are represented as having passions1 are worshiped with phallic ritual1 and are tempted with invocations and sacred offerings8 ,why boastful speech and fantastic action are taken as indications of the divine presence2 and why1 if the gods dwell in the heavens1 theurgists invoke only terrestrial and subterranean deities8 ,how superior beings can be invoked with commands by their inferiors1 why the ,sun and ,moon are threatened1 why the man must be just and chaste who invokes spirits in order to secure unjust ends or gratify lust1 and why the worshiper must abstain from animal food and not touch a corpse when sacrifices to the gods consist of the bodies of dead victims8 ,porphyry wishes further an explanation of the various genera of gods1 visible and invisible1 corporeal and incorporeal1 beneficent and malicious1 aquatic and aerial4 ,he wants to know whether the stars are not gods1 how gods differ from demons1 and what the distinction is between souls and heroes4 ,sidenote3 ,orders of spiritual beings4 ,iamblichus in reply states that as heroes are elevated above souls1 so demons are inferior and subservient to the gods and translate the infinite1 ineffable1 and invisible divine transcendent goodness into terms of visible forms1 energy1 and reason4#acfh ,he further distinguishes 8the etherial1 empyrean1 and celestial gods10 and angels1 archangels1 and archons4#acfi ,as for corporeal1 visible1 aerial1 and aquatic gods1 he affirms that the gods have no bodies and no particular allotments of space1 but that natural objects participate in or are related to the gods etherially or aerially or aquatically1 each according to its nature4#acgj 8,the celestial divinities10 for example1 8are not comprehended by bodies but contain bodies in their divine lives and energies4 ,they are not themselves converted to body1 but they have a body which is converted to its divine cause1 and that body does not impede their intellectual and incorporeal perfection40#acga ,iamblichus denies that there are any maleficent gods1 saying that 8it is much better to acknowledge our inability to explain the occurrence of evil than to admit anything impossible and false concerning the gods40#acgb ,but he admits the existence of both good and evil demons and makes of the latter a convenient scapegoat upon whom to saddle any inconsistencies or impurities in religious rites and magical ceremony4 ,sidenote3 ,nature of demons4 ,iamblichus does not1 however1 hold the view of ,apuleius that demons are subject to passions4 ,they are impassive and incapable of suffering4#acgc ,he scorns the notion that even the worst demons can be allured by the vapors of animal sacrifice or that petty mortals can supply such beings with anything2#acgd it is rather in the consumption of foul matter by pure fire in the act of sacrifice that they take delight4 ,demons are not1 however1 like the gods entirely separated from bodies4 ,the world is divided up into prefectures among them and they are more or less inseparable from and identified with the natural objects which they govern4#acge ,thus they may serve to enmesh the soul in the bonds of matter and of fate1 and to afflict the body with disease4#acgf ,also the evil demons 8are surrounded by certain noxious1 blood-devouring1 and fierce wild beasts10 probably of the type of vampires and empousas4#acgg ,iamblichus further holds that there is a class of demons who are without judgment and reason1 each of whom has some one function to perform and is not adapted to do anything else4#acgh ,such demons or forces in nature men may well address as superiors in invoking them1 since they are superior to men in their one special function2 but when they have once been invoked1 man as a rational being may also well issue commands to them as his irrational inferiors4#acgi ,sidenote3 ,the art of theurgy4 ,iamblichus also undertakes the defense of theurgy and carefully distinguishes it from magic1 as we shall soon see4 ,it is also different from science1 since it does not merely employ the physical forces of the natural universe1#achj and from philosophy1 since its ineffable works are beyond the reach of mere intelligence1 and those who merely philosophize theoretically cannot hope for a theurgic union or communion with the gods4#acha ,even theurgists cannot as a rule endure the light of spiritual beings higher than heroes1 demons1 and angels1#achb and it is an exceedingly rare occurrence for one of them to be united with the supramundane gods4#achc ,this theurgy1 or 8the art of divine works10 operates by means of 8arcane signatures0 and 8the power of inexplicable symbols40#achd ,it is thus that ,iamblichus explains away most of the details in sacred rites and sacrifices to which ,porphyry had objected as obscene or material and as implying that the gods themselves were passive and passionate4 ,they are mystic symbols1 8consecrated from eternity0 for some hidden reason 8which is more excellent than reason40#ache ,occult virtues indeed6 ,we have already heard ,iamblichus state that natural objects participate in or are related to the gods etherially or aerially or aquatically2 theurgists therefore quite properly employ in their art certain stones1 herbs1 aromatics1 and sacred animals4#achf ,by employing such potent symbols mere man takes on such a sacred character himself that he is able to command many spiritual powers4#achg ,sidenote3 ,invocations and the power of words4 ,invocations and prayers are also much used in theurgical operations4 ,but such invocations do not draw down the impassive and pure gods to this world2 rather they purify those who employ them from their passions and impurity and exalt them to union with the pure and the divine4#achh ,these prayers are symbolic1 too4 ,they do not appeal to human passions or reason1 8for they are perfectly unknown and arcane and are alone known to the ,god whom they invoke40#achi ,in another passage#acij ,iamblichus replies to ,porphyry's objection that such prayers are often composed of meaningless words and names without signification by declaring--somewhat inconsistently with his previous assertion that these invocations are 8perfectly unknown0--that some of the names 8which we can scientifically analyze0 comprehend 8the whole divine essence1 power and order40 ,moreover1 if translated into another language1 they do not have exactly the same meaning1 and even if they do1 they no longer retain the same power as in the original tongue4 ,we shall meet a similar passage concerning the power of words and divine names in the church father ,origen who lived earlier in the third century than ,porphyry and ,iamblichus4 ,iamblichus concludes that 8it is necessary that ancient prayers 444 should be preserved invariably the same40#acia ,sidenote3 ,magic a human art3 theurgy divine4 ,neither ,porphyry nor ,iamblichus1 ,i believe1 employs the word1 8magic10 but they both often allude to its practitioners and methods by such expressions as 8jugglers0 and 8enchanters0 or by contrasting what is done 8artificially0 or by means of art with theurgical operations4 ,in the last case the distinction is between what on the one hand is regarded as a divine mystery or revelation and what on the other hand is looked upon as a mere human art and contrivance4 ,and 8nothing 444 which is fashioned by human art is genuine and pure40#acib ,christian writers drew a like distinction between prophecy or miracle and divination or magic4 ,sometimes1 however1 ,iamblichus speaks of theurgy itself as an art1 an involuntary admission of the close resemblance between its methods and those of magic4 ,we are also told that if the theurgist makes a slip in his procedure1 he thereby reduces it to the level of magic4#acic ,sidenote3 ,magic's abuse of nature's forces4 ,another distinction is that theurgy aims at communion with the gods while magic has to do rather with 8the physical or corporeal powers of the universe40#acid ,both ,porphyry and ,iamblichus believed that harmony1 sympathy1 and mutual attraction existed between the various objects in the universe1 which ,iamblichus asserted was one animal4#acie ,thus it is possible for man to draw distant things to himself or to unite them to1 or separate them from1 one another4#acif ,but art may also use this force of sympathy between objects in an extreme and unseemly manner1 and this disorderly forcing of nature1 we are left to infer1 constitutes an essential feature of magic1 whose procedure is not truly natural or scientific4 ,sidenote3 ,its evil character4 ,magic not only disorders the law and harmony1 and makes a perverse and contrary use of natural forces4 ,its practitioners are also represented as aiming at evil ends and as themselves of evil character4#acig ,they may try by their illicit and impure procedure to have intercourse with the gods or with pure spirits1 but they are unable to accomplish this4 ,all that they succeed in doing is to secure the alliance of evil demons by associating with whom they become more depraved than ever4 ,such wicked demons may pose as angels of light by requiring that those who invoke them should be just or chaste1 but afterwards they show their true colors by assisting in crimes and the gratification of lusts4#acih ,it is they1 too1 who assuming the guise of superior spirits are responsible for the boastful and arrogant utterances of which ,porphyry complained in persons supposed to be divinely inspired4#acii ,sidenote3 ,its deceit and unreality4 ,finally magic is unstable and fantastic4 8,the imaginations artificially produced by enchantment0 are not real objects4 ,those who foretell the future by 8standing on characters0 are no theurgists1 but employ a superficial1 false1 and deceptive procedure which can attract only evil demons4#adjj ,these demons are themselves deceitful and produce 8fictitious images40#adja ,porphyry in the ,letter to ,anebo also alluded to the frauds of 8jugglers40 ,although the attitude both of ,porphyry and ,iamblichus is thus professedly unfavorable to the magic arts1 we find that one of ,iamblichus's disciples1 named ,sopater1 was executed under ,constantine on a charge of having charmed the winds4#adjb ,sidenote3 ,porphyry on modes of divination4 ,how is divination to be placed in reference to magic and theurgy8 ,porphyry had inquired concerning various methods of divination3 in sleep1 in trances1 and when fully conscious2 in ecstasy1 in disease1 and in states of mental aberration or enchantment4 ,he mentioned divination on hearing drums and cymbals1 by drinking water and other potions1 by inhaling vapor2 divination in darkness1 in a wall1 in the open air or in the sunlight2 by observing entrails or the flight of birds or the motion of the stars1 or even by means of meal4 ,yet other modes of determining the future which he lists are by characters1 images1 incantations1 and invocations1 with which the use of stones and herbs is often combined4 ,these details make it evident how impossible it is to draw any dividing line between the methods of magic and divination1 and ,porphyry himself states that those who invoke the gods concerning the future not only 8have about them stones and herbs10 but are able to bind and to free from bonds1 to open closed doors1 and to change men's intentions4 ,among the virtues of parts of animals mentioned in his treatise upon abstinence from animal food are the powers of divination which may be obtained by eating the heart of a hawk or crow4#adjc ,sidenote3 ,iamblichus on divination4 ,porphyry states that all diviners attribute their predictions to gods or demons1 but that he wonders if foreknowledge may not be a power of the human soul or perhaps accountable for by the sympathy which exists between different parts of the universe4 ,iamblichus holds1 however1 that divination is neither a human art nor the work of nature but of divine origin4#adjd ,he perhaps regards it as little more than a branch of theurgy4 ,he distinguishes between human dreams which are sometimes true1 sometimes false1 and dreams and visions divinely sent4#adje ,if one is able to predict the future by drinking water1 it is because the water has been divinely illuminated4#adjf ,that we can predict when the mind is diseased and disordered1 and that stupid or simple-minded men are often better able to prophesy than the wise and learned1 are for him but further proofs that foreknowledge is a divine gift and not a human science1 while divination by such means as rods1 pebbles1 grains of corn and wheat simply excites the more his pious admiration at the greatness of divine power4#adjg ,he disapproves of divination by standing on characters1#adjh but sees no reason why divination in darkness1 in a wall1 or in sunlight1 or by potions and incantations1 may not be divinely directed4 ,he will not1 however1 connect the disordered imaginations excited by disease with divine presentiments4#adji ,from true divination he also separates the 8natural prescience0 of certain animals whose acuteness of sense or occult sympathy with other parts and forces of nature enables them to perceive some coming events before men do4 ,their power resembles prophecy1 8yet falls short of it in stability and truth40#adaj ,augury is an art whose conjectures have great probability1 but they are based upon divine signs or portents effected in nature by the agency of demons4#adaa ,sidenote3 ,are the stars gods8 ,the stars are on a totally different plane from the other substances employed in divination4 ,to ,porphyry's question whether they are not gods ,iamblichus is not content to reply that the celestial divinities comprehend these heavenly bodies and that the bodies in no way impede 8their intellectual and incorporeal perfection40#adab ,he must needs go on to argue that the stars themselves1 as simple indivisible bodies1 unchanging in quality and uniform in movement1 closely approach to 8the incorporeal essence of the gods40 ,he then triumphantly if illogically concludes1 8,thus therefore the visible celestials are all of them gods and after a certain manner incorporeal40 ,we may add the opinion of ,chaeremon and others1 noted by ,porphyry1 that the only gods were the physical ones of the ,egyptians and the planets1 signs of the zodiac1 decans1 and horoscope2 all religious myths were explained by ,chaeremon as astrological allegories4 ,sidenote3 ,is there an art of astrology8 ,porphyry objected that those who thus reduce religion to astrology submit everything to fate and leave the human soul no freedom1 and furthermore that in any case astrology is an unattainable science4 ,iamblichus defends it against these objections1 insisting that the universe is divided under the rule of planets1 signs1 and decans2#adac that the ,egyptians do not make everything physical but ascribe two souls to man1 one of which obeys the revolutions of the stars1 while the other is intellectual and free2#adad and that there is a systematic art of astrology based on divine revelation and the long observations of the ,chaldeans1 although like any other science it may at times degenerate and become contaminated by error4#adae ,iamblichus further regards as ridiculous the contention of those 8who ascribe depravity to the celestial bodies because their participants sometimes produce evil40#adaf ,in the brief separate treatise1 ,de fato1#adag he again holds that all things are bound by the indissoluble chain of necessity which men call fate1 but that the gods can loose the bonds of fate1 and that the human mind1 too1 has power to rise above nature1 unite with the gods1 and enjoy eternal life4 ,sidenote3 ,porphyry and astrology4 ,whether ,porphyry in his other extant works evidences a belief in astrology or not1 and whether he wrote an ,introduction to the ,tetrabiblos or astrological handbook of ,ptolemy1 has been disputed4#adah ,this ,introduction ascribed to ,porphyry was much cited by subsequent astrologers#adai and was printed in #aeei together with a much longer anonymous commentary on the ,tetrabiblos which some ascribe to ,proclus4#adbj ,sidenote3 ,astrological images4 ,towards astrological images at least1 ,porphyry shows himself in the ,letter to ,anebo more favorable than ,iamblichus1 saying1 8,nor are the artificers of efficacious images to be despised1 for they observe the motion of celestial bodies40 ,iamblichus1 on the other hand1 rather grudgingly admits that 8the image-making art attracts a certain very obscure genesiurgic portion from the celestial effluxions40#adba ,he seems to have the same feeling against images as against characters1 perhaps regarding both as bordering upon idolatry4#adbb ,sidenote3 ,number mysticism4 ,plotinus1 ,porphyry1 and ,iamblichus were all given to number mysticism4 ,the sixth book of the sixth ,ennead is entirely devoted to this subject1 while ,porphyry and ,iamblichus both wrote ,lives of ,pythagoras and treatises upon his doctrine of number4 ,sidenote3 ,porphyry as reported by ,eusebius4 ,other works by ,porphyry than the ,letter to ,anebo are cited or quoted a good deal by ,eusebius in ,praeparatio evangelica1 especially his 1 but the extracts are made for ,eusebius's own purposes1 which are to discredit pagan religion1 and neither express ,porphyry's complete thought nor probably even tend to prove his original point4 ,besides showing that ,porphyry was inconsistent in distinguishing the different victims to be sacrificed to terrestrial and subterranean1 aerial1 celestial1 and sea gods in the above-mentioned work1 when in his ,de abstinentia a rebus animatis he held that beings who delighted in animal sacrifice were no gods but mere demons1 ,eusebius quotes him a good deal to show that the pagan gods were nothing but demons1 that they themselves might be called magicians and astrologers1 that they loved characters1 and that they made their predictions of the future not from their own foreknowledge but from the stars by the art of astrology1 and that like men they could not even always read the decrees of the stars aright4 ,the belief is also mentioned that the fate foretold from the stars may be avoided by resort to magic4#adbc ,sidenote3 ,the ,emperor ,julian on theurgy and astrology4 ,the ,emperor ,julian was an enthusiastic follower of ,iamblichus whom he praises#adbd in his ,hymn to the ,sovereign ,sun delivered at the ,saturnalia of #cfa ,a4 ,d4 ,he also describes 8the blessed theurgists0 as able to comprehend unspeakable mysteries which are hidden from the crowd1 such as ,julian the ,chaldean prophesied concerning the god of the seven rays4#adbe ,the emperor tells us that from his youth he was regarded as over-curious 71 a word which almost implies the practice of magic7 and as a diviner by the stars 774 ,his ,hymn to the ,sun contains a good deal of astrological detail1 speaks of the universe as eternal and divine1 and regards planets1 signs1 and decans as 8the visible gods40 ,in short1 8there is in the heavens a great multitude of gods40#adbf ,the ,sun1 however1 is superior to the other planets1 and as ,aristotle has pointed out 8makes the simplest movement of all the heavenly bodies that travel in a direction opposite to the whole40#adbg ,the ,sun is also the link between the visible universe and the intelligible world1 and ,julian infers from his middle station among the planets that he is also king among the intellectual gods4#adbh ,for behind his visible self is the great ,invisible4 ,he frees our souls entirely from the power of 8,genesis10 or the force of the stars exercised at nativity1 and lifts them to the world of the pure intellect4#adbi ,sidenote3 ,julian and divination4 ,julian believed in almost every form of pagan divination as well as in astrology4 ,to the oracles of ,apollo he ascribed the civilizing of the greater part of the world through the foundation of ,greek colonies and the revelation of religious and political law4#adcj ,the historian ,ammianus ,marcellinus#adca tells us that ,julian was continually inspecting entrails of victims and interpreting dreams and omens1 and that he even proposed to re-open a prophetic fountain whose predictions were supposed to have enabled ,hadrian to become emperor1 after which that emperor blocked it up from fear that someone else might supplant him through its instrumentality4 ,in another passage#adcb he defends ,julian from the charge of magic1 saying1 8,inasmuch as malicious persons have attributed the use of evil arts to learn the future to this ruler who was a learned inquirer into all branches of knowledge1 we shall briefly indicate how a wise man is able to acquire this by no means trivial variety of learning4 ,the spirit behind all the elements1 seeing that it is incessantly and everywhere active in the prophetic movement of perennial bodies1 bestows upon us the gift of divination by the different arts which we employ2 and the forces of nature1 propitiated by varied rites1 as from exhaustless springs provide mankind with prophetic utterances40 ,sidenote3 ,scientific divination4 ,ammianus thus regards the arts of divination as serious sciences based upon natural forces1 although of course in the characteristic ,neo-,platonic way of thinking he confuses the spiritual and physical and substitutes propitiatory rites for scientific experiments4 ,his phrase1 8the prophetic movement of perennial bodies0 almost certainly means the stars and shows his belief in astrology4 ,in another passage#adcc he indicates the widespread trust in astrology among the ,roman nobles of his time1 the later fourth century1 by saying that even those 8who deny that there are superior powers in the sky10 nevertheless think it imprudent to appear in public or dine or bathe without having first consulted an almanac as to the whereabouts of ,mercury or the exact position of the moon in ,cancer4 ,the passage is satirical1 no doubt1 but ,ammianus probably objects quite as much to their disbelief in superior powers in the sky as he does to the excess of their superstition4 ,that astrology and divination may be studied scientifically he again indicates in a description of learning at ,alexandria4 ,besides praising the medical training to be had there1 and mentioning the study of geometry1 music1 astronomy1 and arithmetic1 he says1 8,in addition to these subjects they cultivate the science which reveals the ways of the fates40#adcd ,sidenote3 ,proclus on theurgy4 ,iamblichus's account of theurgy is repeated in more condensed form by ,proclus 7#dab-dhe7 in a brief treatise or fragment which is extant only in its ,latin translation by the ,florentine humanist ,ficinus1 entitled ,de sacrificio et magia4#adce ,neither magic nor theurgy1 however1 is mentioned by name in the ,latin text4 ,proclus states that the priests of old built up their sacred science by observing the sympathy existing between natural objects and by arguing from manifest to occult powers4 ,they saw how things on earth were associated with things in the heavens and further discovered how to bring down divine virtue to this lower world by the force of likeness which binds things together4 ,proclus gives several examples of plants1 stones1 and animals which evidence such association4 ,the cock1 for instance1 is reverenced by the lion because both are under the same planet1 the sun1 but the cock even more so than the lion4 ,therefore demons who appear with the heads of lions 7leonina fronte7 vanish suddenly at the sight of a cock unless they chance to be demons of the solar order4 ,after thus indicating the importance of astrology as well as occult virtue in theurgy or magic1 ,proclus tells how demons are invoked4 ,sometimes a single herb or stone 8suffices for the divine work02 sometimes several substances and rites must be combined 8to summon that divinity40 ,when they had secured the presence of the demons1 the priests proceeded1 partly under the instruction of the demons and partly by their own industrious interpretation of symbols1 to a study of the gods4 8,finally1 leaving behind natural objects and forces and even to a great extent the demons1 they won communion with the gods40 ,sidenote3 ,neo-,platonic account of magic borrowed by ,christians4 ,despite the writings of ,porphyry and other ,neo-,platonists against ,christianity1 much use was made by ,christian theologians of the fourth and fifth centuries of the ,neo-,platonic accounts of magic1 astrology1 and divination1 especially of ,porphyry's ,letter to ,anebo4 ,eusebius in his ,praeparatio ,evangelica#adcf made large extracts from it on these themes and also from ,porphyry's work on the ,chaldean oracles4 ,augustine in ,the ,city of ,god#adcg accepted ,porphyry as an authority on the subjects of theurgy and magic4 ,on the other hand1 we do not find the ,christian writers repeating the attitude of ,plotinus that the life of reason is alone free from magic1 except as they substitute the word 8,christianity0 for 8the life of reason40 ,sidenote3 ,neo-,platonists and alchemy4 ,the ,neo-,platonists showed some interest in alchemy as well as in theurgy and astrology4 ,berthelot published in his ,collection des ,alchimistes ,grecs 8a little tract of positive chemistry0 which is extant under the name of ,iamblichus2 and ,proclus treated of the relations between the metals and planets and the generation of the metals under the influence of the stars4#adch ,of ,synesius1 who was both a ,neo-,platonist and a ,christian bishop1 and who seems to have written works of alchemy1 we shall treat in a later chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,aelian1 ,,solinus ,,and ,,horapollo ,aelian ,on the ,nature of ,animals--,general character of the work--,its hodge-podge of unclassified detail--,solinus in the middle ages--,his date--,general character of his work2 its relation to ,pliny--,animals and gems--,occult medicine--,democritus and ,zoroaster not regarded as magicians--,some bits of astrology--,alexander the ,great--,the ,hieroglyphics of ,horapollo--,marvels of animals--,animals and astrology--,the cynocephalus--,horapollo the cosmopolitan4 ,sidenote3 ,aelian ,on the ,nature of ,animals4 ,from mystic and theurgic compositions we return to works of the declining ,roman ,empire which deal more directly with nature but1 it must be confessed1 in a manner somewhat fantastic4 ,about the beginning of the third century1 ,aelian of ,praeneste1 who is included by ,philostratus in his ,lives of the ,sophists1 wrote ,on the ,nature of ,animals4#adci ,its seventeen books1 written in ,greek1 which ,aelian used fluently despite his ,latin birth1 are believed to have reached us partly in interpolated form through two families of manuscripts1 of which the older and less interpolated text is found in a thirteenth century manuscript at ,paris and a somewhat earlier ,vatican codex4#addj ,a number of its chapters are similar to and perhaps borrowed from ,pliny's ,natural ,history2 at any rate they are commonplaces of ancient science2 but the work also has a marked individuality4 ,parallels have also been noted between this work and the later ,hexaemeron of the church father ,basil4 ,aelian was much cited in ,byzantine literature and learning1 and if he was not directly used in the ,latin west1 at least the attitude toward animals which he displays and his selection of material concerning them are as apt precursors of medieval ,latin as of medieval ,greek scientific literature4 ,sidenote3 ,general character of the work4 ,in preface and epilogue ,aelian himself adequately indicates the character of his work4 ,he is impressed by the customs and characteristics of animals1 and marvels at their wisdom and native shrewdness1 their justice and modesty1 their affection and piety1 which should put human beings to blush4 ,thus ,aelian's work is marked by that tendency which runs through ancient and medieval literature to admire actions in the irrational brutes which seem to indicate almost human intelligence and virtue on their part1 and to moralize therefrom at the expense of human beings4 ,another striking feature of his work is its utterly whimsical and haphazard order4 ,he mentions things simply as they happen to occur to him4 ,this fact1 too1 he recognizes1 but refuses to apologize for1 stating that it suits him1 if it does not suit anyone else1 and that he regards a mixed-up order as more motley1 variegated1 and pleasing4 ,not only does he attempt no classification whatever of his animals and mention snakes and quadrupeds and birds in the same breath2 he also does not complete the treatment of a given animal in one passage but may scatter detached items about it throughout his work4 ,there is1 for instance1 probably at least one chapter concerning elephants in each of his seventeen books4 ,sidenote3 ,its hodge-podge of unclassified detail4 ,it would therefore be absurd for us to attempt any logical arrangement in discussing his contents2 we may do justice to him most adequately by adopting his own lack of method and noting a few items and topics taken more or less at random from his work4 ,ants never go out in the new moon4 ,yet they neither gaze at the sky1 nor count the number of days on their fingers1 like the learned ,babylonians and ,chaldeans1 but have this marvelous gift from nature4#adda ,in sexual intercourse the female viper conceives through the mouth and bites off the head of the male2 afterwards her young gnaw their way out of her vitals4 8,what have your ,oresteses and ,alcmaeons to say to that1 my dear tragedians80#addb ,doves put laurel boughs in their nests to guard against fascination and the evil eye1 and the hoopoe similarly employs v or as an amulet2#addc and other unreasoning animals guard against sorcery by some mystic and marvelous natural power4 ,another chapter treats of divinations from the crow and how hairs are dyed black with its eggs4#addd ,others tell us of the generation of serpents from the marrow of a dead man's spine1#adde and of venomous women like ,medea and ,circe who are worse than the asp with its incurable sting1 since they kill by mere touch4#addf ,we go on to read of swift little beasts called ,pyrigoni who are generated from fire and live in it1 of salamanders who extinguish flames1 of the remedies used by the tortoise against snakes1 of the chastity of doves whose marriages never result in divorce1 and of the incontinence of the partridge4#addg ,also of the jealousies of certain animals like the stag which hides its right horn1 the lizard who devours its cast-off skin1 and the mare who eats the hippomanes from its colt1 lest men obtain these precious substances4#addh ,of the care taken by storks1 herons1 and pelicans of their aged parents4#addi ,how the swallow by the virtue of an herb gives sight to its young who are born blind1 and how a hoopoe found an herb whose virtue dissolved the mud with which the caretaker of a building had plugged up the hole in the wall which it used for its nest4#adej ,how the lion and basilisk fear the cock1 and of a lake without fish in a place where the cocks do not crow4#adea ,how elephants venerate the waxing moon2 how the weasel eats rue when about to fight the snake2 and of the jealousy of the hedgehog and lynx1 the latter concealing his precious urine1 the other watering his own hide when he is captured in order to spoil it4#adeb ,how the ,indians fight griffins when collecting gold4#adec ,how the presence of a cock aids a woman's delivery4#aded ,of unnamed beasts in ,libya who know how to count and leave an eleventh part of their prey untouched4#adee ,that the sea dragon is easily captured with the left hand but not with the right4#adef ,dragons know the force of herbs and cure themselves with some and increase their venom with others4#adeg ,how dogs1 cows1 and other animals sense a famine or plague beforehand4#adeh ,how the ,egyptians by their magic charm birds from the sky and snakes from their holes4#adei ,when it rains in ,egypt1 mice are born from the small drops and plague the country4 ,traps and fences and ditches are of no avail against them1 as they can leap over trenches and walls4 ,consequently the ,egyptians are forced to pray ,god to end the calamity1#adfj--;an interesting variant on the ,old ,testament account of the plagues of ,egypt4 ,in dogs there exists a certain dialectical faculty of ratiocination4#adfa ,the weather may be predicted from birds1 quadrupeds1 and flies4#adfb ,the she-goat can cure suffusion of its eyes4#adfc ,eagles drop tortoises on rocks to break their shells and the bald-headed poet ,aeschylus met his death by having his pate mistaken thus for a smooth round stone4#adfd ,some predict the future by birds1 others by entrails1 or by grains1 sieves1 and cheeses2 the ,lycians practice divination by fish4#adfe ,a stork whom a widow of ,tarentum helped when it was too young to fly brought her a luminous precious stone the following year4#adff ,solon did not have to enact a law ordering children to support their aged parents in the case of lions1 whose cubs are taught by nature filial piety toward their elders4#adfg ,only the horn of the ,scythian ass can hold the water of the ,arcadian river ,styx2 ,alexander the ,great sent a sample of it to ,delphi with some accompanying verses which ,aelian quotes4#adfh ,in ,epirus dragons sacred to ,apollo are employed in divination1 and in the ,lavinian ,grove dragons spit out again the frumenty offered them by unchaste virgins4#adfi ,by flying beneath it an eagle saved the life of its young one who had been thrown down from a tower4#adgj ,different fish eat different sea herbs4#adga ,there are fish who live in boiling water4#adgb ,there are scattered mentions of the marvels of ,india throughout ,aelian's work1 and in his sixteenth book the first fourteen chapters are almost exclusively concerned with the animals of that land4 ,sidenote3 ,solinus in the middle ages4 ,a well-known work in the middle ages dating from the period of the ,roman ,empire was the ,collectanea rerum memorabilium or ,polyhistor of ,solinus4 ,mommsen's edition lists #aec manuscripts from #cb places1#adgc and we shall find many citations of ,solinus in our later medieval authors4 ,martianus ,capella and ,isidore were the first to make extensive use of his work4 ,in the thirteenth century ,albertus ,magnus had little respect for ,solinus as an authority and expressed more than once the quite accurate opinion that his work was full of lies4 ,nevertheless copies of it continued to abound in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 and by #aeed five printed editions had appeared4 8,from it directly come most of the fables in works of object so different as those of ,dicuil1 ,isidore1 ,capella1 and ,priscian40#adgd ,sidenote3 ,his date4 ,the first extant author to make use of ,solinus is ,augustine in ,the ,city of ,god1 while he is first named in the ,genealogus of #dee ,a4 ,d4 ,none of the manuscripts of the work antedate the ninth century1 but many of them have copied an earlier subscription from a manuscript written 8by the zeal and diligence of our lord ,theodosius1 the unconquered prince40 ,this is taken to refer to the emperor ,theodosius ,,ii1 #dja-dej4 ,the work itself1 however1 has no ,christian characteristics2 on the contrary it is very fond of mentioning places famed in pagan religion and ,greek mythology and of recounting miracles and marvels connected with heathen shrines and rites4 ,indeed1 ,solinus seldom1 if ever1 mentions anything later than the first century of our era4 ,he speaks of ,byzantium1 not of ,constantinople1 and makes no mention of the ,roman provinces as divided in the system of ,diocletian4 ,his book1 however1 is a compilation from earlier writings so that we need not expect allusions to his own age4 ,the ,latin style and general literary make-up of the work are characteristic of the declining empire and early medieval period4 ,mommsen was inclined to date ,solinus in the third rather than the fourth century1 but the work seems to have been revised about the sixth century1 after which date it became customary to call it the ,polyhistor rather than the ,collectanea rerum memorabilium4 ,it is also referred to1 however1 as ,de mirabilibus mundi1 or ,wonders of the ,world4 ,sidenote3 ,general character of his work3 its relation to ,pliny4 ,the work is primarily a geography and is arranged by countries and places1 beginning with ,rome and ,italy4 ,as each locality is considered1 ,solinus sometimes tells a little of its history1 but is especially inclined to recount miraculous religious events or natural marvels associated with that particular region4 ,thus in describing two lakes he rather apologizes for mentioning the first at all because it can scarcely be called miraculous1 but assures us that the second 8is regarded as very extraordinary40#adge ,sometimes he digresses to other topics such as calendar reform4#adgf ,solinus draws both his geographical data and further details very largely from ,pliny's ,natural ,history2 but inasmuch as ,pliny treated of these matters in separate books1 ,solinus has to re-organize the material4 ,he also selects simply a few particulars from ,pliny's wealth of detail on any given subject1 and furthermore considerably alters ,pliny's wording1 sometimes condensing the thought1 sometimes amplifying the phraseology--apparently in an effort to make the point clearer and easier reading4 ,of ,pliny's thirty-seven books only those from the third to the thirteenth inclusive and the last book are used to any extent by ,solinus4 ,that is to say1 he either was acquainted with only1 or confined himself to1 those books dealing with geography1 man and other animals1 and gems1 omitting almost entirely1 except for the twelfth and thirteenth books1 ,pliny's elaborate treatment of vegetation and of medicinal simples#adgg and discussion of metals and the fine arts4 ,solinus does not acknowledge his great debt to ,pliny in particular1 although he keeps alluding to the fulness with which everything has already been discussed by past authors1 and although he cites other writers who are almost unknown to us4 ,of his known sources ,pomponius ,mela is the chief after ,pliny but is used much less4 ,on the other hand1 the number of passages for which ,mommsen was unable to give any source is not inconsiderable4 ,as may have been already inferred1 the work of ,solinus is brief2 the text alone would scarcely fill one hundred pages4#adgh ,sidenote3 ,animals and gems4 ,it would perhaps be rash to conjecture which quality commended the book most to the following period3 its handy size1 or its easy style and fairly systematic arrangement1 or its emphasis upon marvels4 ,the last characteristic is at least the most germane to our investigation4 ,solinus rendered the service1 if we may so term it1 of reducing ,pliny's treatment of animals and precious stones in particular to a few common examples1 which either were already the best known or became so as a result of his selection4 ,indeed1 ,king was of the opinion that the descriptions of gems in ,solinus were more precise1 technical1 and systematic than those in ,pliny1 and found his notices 8often extremely useful40#adgi ,solinus describes such animals as the wolf1 lynx1 bear1 lion1 hyena1 onager or wild ass1 basilisk1 crocodile1 hippopotamus1 phoenix1 dolphin1 and chameleon2 and recounts the marvelous properties of such gems as achates or agate1 galactites1 catochites1 crystal1 gagates1 adamant1 heliotrope1 hyacinth1 and paeanites4 ,the dragons of ,india and ,ethiopia also occupy his attention1 as they did that of ,philostratus in the ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana2 indeed1 he repeats in different words the statement found in ,philostratus that they swim far out to sea4#adhj ,in ,sardinia1 on the contrary1 there are no snakes1 but a poisonous ant exists there4 ,fortunately there are also healing waters there with which to counteract its venom1 but there is also native to ,sardinia an herb called ,sardonia which causes those who eat it to die of laughter4#adha ,sidenote3 ,occult medicine4 ,although ,solinus makes no use of ,pliny's medical books1 he shows considerable interest in the healing properties of simples and in medicine4 ,he tells us that those who slept in the shrine of ,aesculapius at ,epidaurus were warned in dreams how to heal their diseases1#adhb and that the third daughter of ,aeetes1 named ,angitia1 devoted herself 8to resisting disease by the salubrious science0 of medicine4#adhc ,according to ,solinus ,circe as well as ,medea was a daughter of ,aeetes1 but usually in ,greek mythology she is represented as his sister4 ,sidenote3 ,democritus and ,zoroaster not regarded as magicians4 ,this allusion to ,circe and ,medea shows that magic1 to which medicine and pharmacy are apparently akin1 does not pass unnoticed in ,solinus's page4 ,he copies from ,mela the account of the periodical transformation of the ,neuri into wolves4#adhd ,but instead of accusing ,democritus of having employed magic1 as ,pliny does1 ,solinus represents him as engaging in contests with the ,magi1 in which he made frequent use of the stone catochites in order to demonstrate the occult power of nature4#adhe ,that is to say1 ,democritus was apparently opposing science to magic and showing that all the latter's feats could be duplicated or improved upon by employing natural forces4 ,in two other passages#adhf ,solinus calls ,democritus physicus1 or scientist1 and affirms that his birth in ,abdera did more to make that town famous than any other thing connected with it1 despite the fact that it was founded by and named after the sister of ,diomedes4 ,zoroaster1 too1 whom ,pliny called the founder of the magic art1 is not spoken of as a magician by ,solinus1 although he is mentioned three times and is described as 8most skilled in the best arts10 and is cited concerning the power of coral and of the gem aetites4#adhg ,sidenote3 ,some bits of astrology4 ,it is not part of ,solinus's plan to describe the heavens1 but he occasionally alludes to 8the discipline of the stars10#adhh as he calls astronomy or astrology4 ,on the authority of ,l4 ,tarrutius1 8most renowned of astrologers10#adhi he tells us that the foundations of the walls of ,rome were laid by ,romulus in his twenty-second year on the eleventh day of the kalends of ,may between the second and third hours1 when ,jupiter was in ,pisces1 the sun in ,taurus1 the moon in ,libra1 and the other four planets in the sign of the scorpion4 ,he also speaks of the star ,arcturus destroying the ,argive fleet off ,euboea on its return from ,ilium4#adij ,sidenote3 ,alexander the ,great4 ,alexander the ,great figures prominently in the pages of ,alexander ,solinus1 being mentioned a score of times1 and this too corresponds to the medieval interest in the ,macedonian conqueror4 ,stories concerning him are repeated from ,pliny1 but ,solinus also displays further information4 ,he insists that ,philip was truly his father1 although he adds that ,olympias strove to acquire a nobler father for him1 when she affirmed that she had had intercourse with a dragon1 and that ,alexander tried to have himself considered of divine descent4#adia ,the statement concerning ,olympias suggests the story of ,nectanebus1 of which a later chapter will treat1 but that individual is not mentioned1 although ,aristotle and ,callisthenes are spoken of as ,alexander's tutors1 so that it is doubtful if ,solinus was acquainted with the ,pseudo-,callisthenes4 ,he describes ,alexander's line of march with fair accuracy and not in the totally incorrect manner of the ,pseudo-,callisthenes4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,hieroglyphics of ,horapollo4 ,in seeking a third text and author of the same type as ,aelian and ,solinus to round out the present chapter1 our choice unhesitatingly falls upon the ,hieroglyphics of ,horapollo1 a work which pretends to explain the meaning of the written symbols employed by the ancient ,egyptian priests1 but which is really principally concerned with the same marvelous habits and properties of animals of which ,aelian treated4 ,in brief the idea is that these characteristics of animals must be known in order to comprehend the significance of the animal figures in the ancient hieroglyphic writing4 ,horapollo is supposed to have written in the ,egyptian language in perhaps the fourth or fifth century of our era1#adib but his work is extant only in the ,greek translation of it made by a ,philip who lived a century or two later and who seems to have made some additions of his own4#adic ,sidenote3 ,marvels of animals4 ,the zoology of ,horapollo is for the most part not novel1 but repeats the same erroneous notions that may be found in ,aristotle's ,history of ,animals1 ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 ,aelian1 and other ancient authors4 ,again we hear of the basilisk's fatal breath1 of the beaver's discarded testicles1 of the unnatural methods of conception of the weasel and viper1 of the bear's licking its cubs into shape1 of the kindness of storks to their parents1 of wasps generated from a dead horse1 of the phoenix1 of the swan's song1 of the sick lion's eating an ape to cure himself1 of the bull tamed by tying it to the branch of a wild fig tree1 of the elephant's fear of a ram or a dog and how it buries its tusks4#adid ,less familiar perhaps are the assertions that the mare miscarries1 if she merely treads on a wolf's tracks2#adie that the pigeon cures itself by placing laurel in its nest2#adif that putting the wings of a bat on an ant-hill will prevent the ants from coming out4#adig ,the statement that if the hyena1 when hunted1 turns to the right1 it will slay its pursuer1 while if it turns to the left1 it will be slain by him1 is also found in ,pliny4#adih ,but his long enumeration of virtues ascribed to parts of the hyena by the ,magi does not include the assertion in ,horapollo's next chapter#adii that a man girded with a hyena skin can pass through the ranks of his enemies without injury1 although it ascribes somewhat similar virtues to the animal's skin4 ,in ,horapollo it is the hawk rather than the eagle which surpasses other winged creatures in its ability to gaze at the sun2 hence physicians use the hawkweed in eye-cures4#aejj ,sidenote3 ,animals and astrology4 ,animals also serve as astronomical or astrological symbols in the system of hieroglyphic writing as interpreted by ,horapollo4 ,not only does a palm tree represent the year because it puts forth a new branch every new moon1#aeja but the phoenix denotes the magnus annus in the course of which the heavenly bodies complete their revolutions4#aejb ,the scarab rolls his ball of dung from east to west and gives it the shape of the universe4#aejc ,he buries it for twenty-eight days conformably to the course of the moon through the zodiac1 but he has thirty toes to correspond to the days of the month4 ,as there is no female scarab1 so there is no male vulture4 ,the female vulture symbolizes the ,egyptian year by spending five days in conceiving by the wind1 one hundred and twenty in pregnancy1 the same period in rearing its young1 and the remaining one hundred and twenty days in preparing itself to repeat the process4#aejd ,the vulture also visits battlefields seven days in advance and by the direction of its glance indicates which army will be defeated4 ,sidenote3 ,the cynocephalus4 ,the cynocephalus1 dog-headed ape1 or baboon1 was mentioned several times by ,pliny1 but ,horapollo gives more specific information concerning it1 chiefly of an astrological character4 ,it is born circumcised and is reared in temples in order to learn from it the exact hour of lunar eclipses1 at which times it neither sees nor eats1 while the female ex genitalibus sanguinem emittit4 ,the cynocephalus represents the inhabitable world which has seventy-two primitive parts1 because the animal dies and is buried piecemeal by the priests during a period of as many days1 until at the end of the seventy-second day life has entirely departed from the last remnant of its carcass4#aeje ,the cynocephalus not only marks the time of eclipses but at the equinoxes makes water twelve times by day and by night1 marking off the hours2 hence a figure of it is carved by the ,egyptians on their water-clocks4#aejf ,horapollo associates together the god of the universe and fate and the stars which are five in number1 for he believes that five planets carry out the economy of the universe and that they are subject to ,god's government4#aejg ,sidenote3 ,horapollo the cosmopolitan4 ,horapollo cannot be given high rank either as a zoologist and astronomer1 or a philologer and archaeologist2 but at least he was no narrow nationalist and had some respect for history4 ,the ,egyptians1 he says1 8denote a man who has never left his own country by a human figure with the head of an ass1 because he neither hears any history nor knows of what is going on abroad40#aejh ,,book ,,ii4 ,,early ,,christian ,,thought ,foreword4 ,chapter #ac4 ,the ,book of ,enoch4 0 #ad4 ,philo ,judaeus4 0 #ae4 ,the ,gnostics4 0 #af4 ,the ,christian ,apocrypha4 0 #ag4 ,the ,recognitions of ,clement and ,simon ,magus4 0 #ah4 ,the ,confession of ,cyprian and some similar stories4 0 #ai4 ,origen and ,celsus4 0 #bj4 ,other ,christian ,discussion of ,magic before ,augustine4 0 #ba4 ,christianity and ,natural ,science2 ,basil1 ,epiphanius1 and the ,physiologus4 0 #bb4 ,augustine on ,magic and ,astrology4 0 #bc4 ,the ,fusion of ,pagan and ,christian ,thought in the ,fourth and ,fifth ,centuries4 ,,book ,,ii4 ,,early ,,christian ,,thought ,,foreword ,we now turn back chronologically to the point from which we started in our survey of classical science and magic in order to trace the development of ,christian thought in regard to the same subjects4 ,how far did ,christianity break with ancient science and superstition8 ,to what extent did it borrow from them8 ,sidenote3 ,magic and religion4 ,it has often been remarked that1 as a new religion comes to prevail in a society1 the old rites are discredited and prohibited as magic4 ,the faith and ceremonies of the majority1 performed publicly1 are called religion3 the discarded cult1 now practiced only privately and covertly by a minority1 is stigmatized as magic and contrary to the general good4 ,thus we shall hear ,christian writers condemn the pagan oracles and auguries as arts of divination1 and classify the ancient gods as demons of the same sort as those invoked in the magic arts4 ,conversely1 when a new religion is being introduced1 is as yet regarded as a foreign faith1 and is still only the private worship of a minority1 the majority regard it as outlandish magic4 ,and this we shall find illustrated by the accusations of sorcery and magic heaped upon ,jesus by the ,jews1 and upon the ,jews and the early ,christians by a world long accustomed to pagan rites4 ,the same bandying back and forth of the charge of magic occurred between ,mohammed and the ,meccans4#aeji ,sidenote3 ,relation between early ,christian and medieval literature4 ,it is perhaps generally assumed that the men of the middle ages were widely read in and deeply influenced by the fathers of the early church1 but at least for our subject this influence has hardly been treated either broadly or in detail4 ,indeed1 the predilection of the humanists of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries for anything written in ,greek and their aversion to medieval ,latin has too long operated as a bar to the study of medieval literature in general4 ,and scholars who have edited or studied the ,greek1 ,syriac1 and other ancient texts connected with early ,christianity have perhaps too often neglected the ,latin versions preserved in medieval manuscripts1 or1 while treasuring up every hint that ,photius lets fall1 have failed to note the citations and allusions in medieval ,latin encyclopedists4 ,yet it is often the case that the manuscripts containing the ,latin versions are of earlier date than those which seem to preserve the ,greek original text4 ,sidenote3 ,method of presenting early ,christian thought4 ,there is so much repetition and resemblance between the numerous ,christian writers in ,greek and ,latin of the ,roman ,empire that ,i have even less than in the case of their classical contemporaries attempted a complete presentation of them1 but1 while not intending to omit any account of the first importance in the history of magic or experimental science1 have aimed to make a selection of representative persons and typical passages4 ,at the same time1 in the case of those authors and works which are discussed1 the aim is to present their thought in sufficiently specific detail to enable the reader to estimate for himself their scientific or superstitious character and their relations to classical thought on the one hand and medieval thought on the other4 ,before we treat of ,christian writings themselves it is essential to notice some related lines of thought and groups of writings which either preceded or accompanied the development of ,christian thought and literature1 and which either influenced even orthodox thought powerfully1 or illustrate foreign elements1 aberrations1 side-currents1 and undertows which none the less cannot be disregarded in tracing the main current of ,christian belief4 ,we therefore shall successively treat of the literature extant under the name of ,enoch1 of the works of ,philo ,judaeus1 of the doctrines of the ,gnostics1 of the ,christian ,apocrypha1 of the ,pseudo-,clementines and ,simon ,magus1 and of the ,confession of ,cyprian and some similar stories4 ,we shall then make ,origen's ,reply to ,celsus1 in which the conflict of classical and ,christian conceptions is well illustrated1 our point of departure in an examination of the attitude of the early fathers towards magic and science4 ,succeeding chapters will treat of the attitude toward magic of other fathers before ,augustine1 of ,christianity and natural science as shown in ,basil's ,hexaemeron1 ,epiphanius' ,panarion1 and the ,physiologus1 and of ,augustine himself4 ,a final chapter on the fusion of paganism and ,christianity in the fourth and fifth centuries will terminate this second division of our investigation and also serve as a supplement to the preceding division and an introduction to the third book on the early middle ages4 ,our arrangement is thus in part topical rather than strictly chronological4 ,the dates of many authors and works are too dubious1 there is too much of the apocryphal and interpolated1 and we have to rely too much upon later writers for the views of earlier ones1 to make a strictly or even primarily chronological arrangement either advisable or feasible4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,enoch ,enoch's reputation as an astrologer in the middle ages--,date and influence of the literature ascribed to ,enoch--,angels governing the universe2 stars and angels--,the fallen angels teach men magic and other arts--,the stars as sinners--,effect of sin upon nature--,celestial phenomena--,mountains and metals--,strange animals4 ,sidenote3 ,enoch's reputation as an astrologer in the middle ages4 ,in collections of medieval manuscripts there often is found a treatise on fifteen stars1 fifteen herbs1 fifteen stones1 and fifteen figures engraved upon them1 which is attributed sometimes to ,hermes1 presumably ,trismegistus1 and sometimes to ,enoch1 the patriarch1 who 8walked with ,god and was not40#aeaj ,indeed in the prologue to a ,hermetic work on astrology in a medieval manuscript we are told that ,enoch and the first of the three ,hermeses or ,mercuries are identical4#aeaa ,this treatise probably has no direct relation to the ,book of ,enoch1 which we shall discuss in this chapter and which was composed in the pre-,christian period4 ,but it is interesting to observe that the same reputation for astrology1 which led the middle ages sometimes to ascribe this treatise to ,enoch1 is likewise found in 8the first notice of a book of ,enoch10 which 8appears to be due to a ,jewish or ,samaritan ,hellenist10 which 8has come down to us successively through ,alexander ,polyhistor and ,eusebius10 and which states that ,enoch was the founder of astrology4#aeab ,the statement in ,genesis that ,enoch lived three hundred and sixty-five years would also lead men to associate him with the solar year and stars4 ,sidenote3 ,date and influence of the literature ascribed to ,enoch4 ,the ,book of ,enoch is 8the precipitate of a literature1 once very active1 which revolved 444 round ,enoch10 and in the form which has come down to us is a patchwork from 8several originally independent books40#aeac ,it is extant in the form of ,greek fragments preserved in the ,chronography of ,g4 ,syncellus1#aead or but lately discovered in 7,upper7 ,egypt1 and in more complete but also more recent manuscripts giving an ,ethiopic and a ,slavonic version4#aeae ,these last two versions are quite different both in language and content1 while some of the citations of ,enoch in ancient writers apply to neither of these versions4 ,while 8,ethiopic did not exist as a literary language before #cej ,a4 ,d410#aeaf and none of the extant manuscripts of the ,ethiopic version is earlier than the fifteenth century1#aeag ,charles believes that they are based upon a ,greek translation of the ,hebrew and ,aramaic original1 and that even the interpolations in this were made by an editor living before the ,christian era4 ,he asserts that 8nearly all the writers of the ,new ,testament were familiar with it10 and influenced by it1--in fact that its influence on the ,new ,testament was greater than that of all the other apocrypha together1 and that it 8had all the weight of a canonical book0 with the early church fathers4#aeah ,after #cjj ,a4 ,d41 however1 it became discredited1 except as we have seen among ,ethiopic and ,slavonic ,christians4 ,before #cjj ,origen in his ,reply to ,celsus#aeai accuses his opponent of quoting the ,book of ,enoch as a ,christian authority concerning the fallen angels4 ,origen objects that 8the books which bear the name ,enoch do not at all circulate in the ,churches as divine40 ,augustine1 in the ,city of ,god1#aebj written between #dac and #dbf1 admits that ,enoch 8left some divine writings1 for this is asserted by the ,apostle ,jude in his canonical epistle40 ,but he doubts if any of the writings current in his own day are genuine and thinks that they have been wisely excluded from the course of ,scripture4 ,lods writes that after the ninth century in the east and from a much earlier date in the west1 the ,book of ,enoch is not mentioned1 8,at the most some medieval rabbis seem still to know of it40#aeba ,yet ,alexander ,neckam1 in the twelfth century1 speaks as if ,latin ,christendom of that date had some acquaintance with the ,enoch literature4 ,we shall note some passages in ,saint ,hildegard which seem parallel to others in the ,book of ,enoch1 while ,vincent of ,beauvais in his ,speculum naturale in the thirteenth century1 in justifying a certain discriminating use of the apocryphal books1 points out that ,jude quotes ,enoch whose book is now called apocryphal4#aebb ,sidenote3 ,angels governing the universe3 stars and angels4 ,the ,enoch literature has much to say concerning angels1 and implies their control of nature1 man1 and the future4 ,we hear of ,raphael1 8who is set over all the diseases and wounds of the children of men02 ,gabriel1 8who is set over all the powers02 ,phanuel1 8who is set over the repentance and hope of those who inherit eternal life40#aebc ,the revolution of the stars is described as 8according to the number of the angels10 and in the ,slavonic version the number of those angels is stated as two hundred4#aebd ,indeed the stars themselves are often personified and we read 8how they keep faith with each other0 and even of 8all the stars whose privy members are like those of horses40#aebe ,the ,ethiopic version also speaks of the angels or spirits of hoar-frost1 dew1 hail1 snow and so forth4#aebf ,in the ,slavonic version ,enoch finds in the sixth heaven the angels who attend to the phases of the moon and the revolutions of stars and sun and who superintend the good or evil condition of the world4 ,he finds angels set over the years and seasons1 the rivers and sea1 the fruits of the earth1 and even an angel over every herb4#aebg ,sidenote3 ,the fallen angels teach men magic and other arts4 ,the fallen angels in particular are mentioned in the ,book of ,enoch4 ,two hundred angels lusted after the comely daughters of men and bound themselves by oaths to marry them4#aebh ,after having thus taken unto themselves wives1 they instructed the human race in the art of magic and the science of botany--or to be more exact1 8charms and enchantments0 and 8the cutting of roots and of woods40 ,in another chapter various individual angels are named who taught respectively the enchanters and botanists1 the breaking of charms1 astrology1 and various branches thereof4#aebi ,in the ,greek fragment preserved by ,syncellus there are further mentioned pharmacy1 and what probably denote geomancy 78sign of the earth07 and aeromancy 7aeroskopia74 ,through this revelation of mysteries which should have been kept hid we are told that men 8know all the secrets of the angels1 and all the violence of the ,satans1 and all their occult power1 and all the power of those who practice sorcery1 and the power of witchcraft1 and the power of those who make molten images for the whole earth40#aecj ,the revelation included1 moreover1 not only magic arts1 witchcraft1 divination1 and astrology1 but also natural sciences1 such as botany and pharmacy--which1 however1 are apparently regarded as closely akin to magic--and useful arts such as mining metals1 manufacturing armor and weapons1 and 8writing with ink and paper0--8and thereby many sinned from eternity to eternity and until this day40#aeca ,as the preceding remark indicates1 the author is decidedly of the opinion that men were not created to the end that they should write with pen and ink4 8,for man was created exactly like the angels to the intent that he should continue righteous and pure1 444 but through this their knowledge men are perishing40#aecb ,perhaps the writer means to censure writing as magical and thinks of it only as mystic signs and characters4 ,magic is always regarded as evil in the ,enoch literature1 and witchcraft1 enchantments1 and 8devilish magic0 are given a prominent place in a list in the ,slavonic version#aecc of evil deeds done upon earth4 ,sidenote3 ,the stars as sinners4 ,in connection with the fallen angels we find the stars regarded as capable of sin as well as personified4 ,in the ,ethiopic version there is more than one mention of seven stars that transgressed the command of ,god and are bound against the day of judgment or for the space of ten thousand years4#aecd ,one passage tells how 8judgment was held first over the stars1 and they were judged and found guilty1 and went to the place of condemnation1 and they were cast into an abyss40#aece ,a similar identification of the stars with the fallen angels is found in one of the visions of ,saint ,hildegard in the twelfth century4 ,she writes1 8,i saw a great star most splendid and beautiful1 and with it an exceeding multitude of falling sparks which with the star followed southward4 ,and they examined ,him upon ,his throne almost as something hostile1 and turning from ,him1 they sought rather the north4 ,and suddenly they were all annihilated1 being turned into black coals 444 and cast into the abyss that ,i could see them no more40#aecf ,she then interprets the vision as signifying the fall of the angels4 ,sidenote3 ,effect of sin upon nature4 ,an idea which we shall find a number of times in other ancient and medieval writers appears also in the ,book of ,enoch4 ,it is that human sin upsets the world of nature1 and in this particular case1 even the period of the moon and the orbits of the stars4#aecg ,hildegard again roughly parallels the ,enoch literature by holding that the original harmony of the four elements upon this earth was changed into a confused and disorderly mixture after the fall of man4#aech ,sidenote3 ,celestial phenomena ,the natural world1 although intimately associated with the spiritual world and hardly distinguished from it in the ,enoch literature1 receives considerable attention1 and much of the discussion in both the ,ethiopic and ,slavonic versions is of a scientific rather than ethical or apocalyptic character4 ,one section of the ,ethiopic version is described by ,charles#aeci as the ,book of ,celestial ,physics and upholds a calendar based upon the lunar year4 ,the ,slavonic version1 on the other hand1 while mentioning the lunar year of #ced days and the solar year of #cfe and days1 seems to prefer the latter1 since the years of ,enoch's life are given as #cfe1 and he writes #cff books concerning what he has seen in his visions and voyages4#aedj ,the ,book of ,enoch supposes a plurality of heavens4#aeda ,in the ,slavonic version ,enoch is taken through the seven heavens1 or ten heavens in one manuscript1 with the signs of the zodiac in the eighth and ninth4 ,an account is also given of the creation1 and the waters above the firmament1 which were to give the early ,christian apologists and medieval clerical scientists so much difficulty1 are described as follows3 8,and thus ,i made firm the waters1 that is1 the depths1 and ,i surrounded the waters with light1 and ,i created seven circles1 and ,i fashioned them like crystal1 moist and dry1 that is to say1 like glass and ice1 and as for the waters and also the other elements ,i showed each of them their paths1 7viz47 to the seven stars1 each of them in their heaven1 how they should go40#aedb ,the order of the seven planets in their circles is given as follows3 in the first and highest circle the star ,kruno1 then ,aphrodite or ,venus1 ,ares 7,mars71 the sun1 ,zeus 7,jupiter71 ,hermes 7,mercury71 and the moon4#aedc ,god also tells ,enoch that the duration of the world will be for a week of years1 that is1 seven thousand1 after which 8let there be at the beginning of the eighth thousand a time when there is no computation and no end2 neither years nor months nor weeks nor days nor hours40#aedd ,sidenote3 ,mountains and metals4 ,turning from celestial physics to terrestrial phenomena1 we may note a few allusions to minerals1 vegetation1 and animals4 8,seven mountains of magnificent stones0 are more than once mentioned in the ,ethiopic version and are described as each different from the other4#aede ,another passage speaks of 8seven mountains full of choice nard and aromatic trees and cinnamon and pepper40#aedf ,but whether these groups of seven mountains are to be astrologically related to the seven planets is not definitely stated4 ,we are also left in doubt whether the following passage may have some astrological or even alchemical significance1 or whether it is merely a figurative prophecy like that in the ,book of ,daniel concerning the image seen by ,nebuchadnezzar in his dream4 8,there mine eyes saw all the hidden things of heaven that shall be1 an iron mountain1 and one of copper1 and one of silver1 and one of gold1 and one of soft metal1 and one of lead40#aedg ,at any rate ,enoch has come very near to listing the seven metals usually associated with the seven planets4 ,in another passage we are informed that while silver and 8soft metal0 come from the earth1 lead and tin are produced by a fountain in which an eminent angel stands4#aedh ,sidenote3 ,strange animals4 ,as for animals we are informed that ,behemoth is male and ,leviathan female4#aedi ,when ,enoch went to the ends of the earth he saw there great beasts and birds who differed in appearance1 beauty1 and voice4#aeej ,in the ,slavonic version we hear a good deal of phoenixes and chalkydri1 who seem to be flying dragons4 ,these creatures are described as 8strange in appearance with the feet and tails of lions and the heads of crocodiles4 ,their appearance was of a purple color like the rainbow2 their size1 nine hundred measures4 ,their wings were like those of angels1 each with twelve1 and they attend the chariot of the sun1 and go with him1 bringing heat and dew as they are ordered by ,god40#aeea ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,philo ,,judaeus ,bibliographical note--,philo the mediator between ,hellenistic and ,jewish-,christian thought--,his influence upon the middle ages was indirect--,good and bad magic--,stars not gods nor first causes--,but rational and virtuous animals1 and ,god's viceroys over inferiors--,they do not cause evil2 but it is possible to predict the future from their motions--,jewish astrology--,perfection of the number seven--,and of fifty--,also of four and six--,spirits of the air--,interpretation of dreams--,politics are akin to magic--,a thought repeated by ,moses ,maimonides and ,albertus ,magnus4 8,but since every city in which laws are properly established has a regular constitution1 it became necessary for this citizen of the world to adopt the same constitution as that which prevailed in the universal world4 ,and this constitution is the right reason of nature40 --,on ,creation1 cap4 #ej4 ,sidenote3 ,philo the mediator between ,hellenistic and ,jewish-,christian thought4 ,there probably is no other man who marks so well the fusion of ,hellenic and ,hebrew ideas and the transition from them to ,christian thought as ,philo ,judaeus4#aeeb ,he flourished at ,alexandria in the first years of our era--the exact dates both of his birth and of his death are uncertain--and speaks of himself as an old man at the time of his participation in the embassy of ,jews to the ,emperor ,gaius or ,caligula in #dj ,a4 ,d4 ,he repeats the doctrines of the ,greek philosophers and anticipates much that the church fathers discuss4 ,before the ,neo-,platonists he regards matter as the source of all evil and feels the necessity of mediators1 angels or demons1 between ,god and man4 ,before the medieval revival of ,aristotle and natural philosophy he tries to reconcile the ,mosaic account of creation with belief in a world soul1 and monotheism with astrology4 ,before the rise of ,christian monasticism he describes in his treatise ,on the ,contemplative ,life an ascetic community of ,therapeutae at ,lake ,maerotis4#aeec ,after ,pythagoras he enlarges upon the mystic significance of numbers4 ,after ,plato he repeats the conception of an ideal city of ,god which was to gain such a hold upon ,christian imagination4#aeed ,after the ,stoics he proclaims the doctrine of the law of nature1 holds that the institution of human slavery is absolutely contrary to it1 and writes 8a treatise to prove that every virtuous man is free0 and that to be virtuous is to live in conformity to nature4#aeee ,he had previously written another treatise designed to show that 8every wicked man was a slave10#aeef and he held a theory which we met in the ,enoch literature and shall meet again in a number of subsequent writers that sin was punished naturally by forces of nature such as floods and thunderbolts4 ,he did not originate the practice of allegorical interpretation of the ,bible but he is our first great extant example thereof4 ,he even went so far as to regard the tree of life and the story of the serpent tempting ,eve as purely symbolical1 an attitude which found little favor with ,christian writers4#aeeg ,his effort by means of the allegorical method to find in the books of the ,pentateuch all the attractive concepts and theories which he had learned from the ,greeks became later in the ,christian apologists an assertion that ,plato and ,pythagoras had borrowed their doctrines from ,abraham and ,moses4 ,his doctrine of the logos had a powerful influence upon the writers of the ,new ,testament and the theology of the early church4#aeeh ,yet ,philo affirms that no more perfect good than philosophy exists in human life and in both literary style and erudition he is a ,hellene to his very finger tips4 ,the recent tendency1 seen especially in ,german scholarship1 to deny the writers of the ,roman ,empire any capacity for original thought and to trace back their ideas to unextant authors of a supposedly much more productive ,hellenistic age has perhaps been carried too far4 ,but if we may not regard ,philo as a great originator1 and it is evident that he borrowed many of his ideas1 he was at any rate a great transmitter of thought1 a mediator after his own heart between ,jews and ,greeks1 and between them both and the ,christian writers to come4 ,standing at the close of the ,hellenistic age and at the opening of the ,roman period1 he occupies in the history of speculative and theological thought an analogous position to that of ,pliny the ,elder in the history of natural science1 gathering up the lore of the past1 perhaps improving it with some additions of his own1 and exercising a profound influence upon the age to come4 ,sidenote3 ,his influence upon the middle ages was indirect4 ,philo's medieval influence1 however1 was probably more indirect than ,pliny's and passed itself on through yet other mediators to the more remote times4 ,comparatively speaking1 the ,natural ,history of ,pliny probably was more important in the middle ages than in the early ,roman ,empire when other authorities prevailed in the ,greek-speaking world4 ,philo's influence on the other hand must soon be transmitted through ,christian1 and then again through ,latin1 mediums4 ,this is indicated by the fact that to-day many of his works are wholly lost or extant only in fragments#aeei or in ,armenian versions1#aefj and that we have no sure information as to the order in which they were composed4#aefa ,but his initial force is none the less of the greatest moment1 and seems amply sufficient to justify us in selecting his writings as one of our starting points4 ,the extent to which one is apt to find in the writings of ,philo passages which are forerunners of the statements of subsequent writers1 may be illustrated by the familiar story of ,king ,canute and the tide4 ,philo in his work ,on ,dreams#aefb speaks of the custom of the ,germans of charging the incoming tide with their drawn swords4 ,but what especially concern us are ,philo's statements concerning magic1 astrology1 the stars1 the perfection and power of numbers1 demons1 and the interpretation of dreams4 ,sidenote3 ,good and bad magic4 ,philo draws a distinction between magic in the good and bad sense4 ,the former and true magical art is the lore of learned ,persians called ,magi who investigate nature more minutely and deeply than is usual and explain divine virtues clearly4#aefc ,the latter magic is a spurious imitation of the other1 practised by quacks and impostors1 old-wives and slaves1 who by means of incantations and the like procedure profess to change men from love to hatred or vice versa and who 8deceive unsuspecting persons and waste whole families away by degrees and without making any noise40 ,it is to this adulterated and evil magic that ,philo again refers when he likens political life to ,joseph's coat of many colors1 stained with the blood of wars1 and in which a very little truth is mixed up with a great deal of sophistry akin to that of the augurs1 ventriloquists1 sorcerers1 jugglers and enchanters1 8from whose treacherous arts it is very difficult to escape40#aefd ,this distinction between a magic of the wise and of nature and that of vulgar impostors is one which we shall find in many subsequent writers1 although it was not recognized by ,pliny4 ,philo also antecedes numerous ,christian commentators upon the ,book of ,numbers#aefe in considering the vexed question whether ,balaam was an evil enchanter and diviner1 or a divine prophet1 or whether he combined magic and prophecy1 and thus indicated that the former art is not evil but has divine approval4 ,philo's conclusion is the more usual one that ,balaam was a celebrated diviner and magician1 and that it is impossible that 8holy inspiration should be combined with magic10 but that in the particular case of his blessing ,israel the spirit of divine prophecy took possession of him and 8drove all his artificial system of cunning divination out of his soul40#aeff ,sidenote3 ,stars not gods nor first causes4 ,philo has considerably more to say upon the subject of astrology than upon that of magic4 ,he was especially concerned to deny that the stars were first causes or independent gods4 ,he chided the ,chaldean adepts in genethlialogy for recognizing no other god than the universe and no other causes than those apparent to the senses1 and for regarding fate and necessity as gods and the periodical revolutions of the heavenly bodies as the cause of all good and evil4#aefg ,philo more than once exhorts the reader to follow ,abraham's example in leaving ,chaldea and the science of genethlialogy and coming to ,charran to a comprehension of the true nature of ,god4#aefh ,he agreed with ,moses that the stars should not be worshiped and that they had been created by ,god1 and more than that1 not created until the fourth day1 in order that it might be perfectly clear to men that they were not the primary causes of things4#aefi ,sidenote3 ,but rational and virtuous animals3 and ,god's viceroys over inferiors4 ,philo1 nevertheless1 despite his attack on the ,chaldeans1 believed in much which we should call astrological4 ,the stars1 although not independent gods1 are nevertheless divine images of surpassing beauty and possess divine natures1 although they are not incorporeal beings4 ,philo distinguishes between the stars1 men1 and other animals as follows4 ,the beasts are capable of neither virtue nor vice2 human beings are capable of both2 the stars are intelligent animals1 but incapable of any evil and wholly virtuous4#aegj ,they were native-born citizens of the world long before its first human citizen had been naturalized4#aega ,god1 moreover1 did not postpone their creation until the fourth day because superiors are subject to inferiors4 ,on the contrary they are the viceroys of the ,father of all and in the vast city of this universe the ruling class is made up of the planets and fixed stars1 and the subject class consists of all the natures beneath the moon4#aegb ,a relation of natural sympathy exists between the different parts of the universe1 and all things upon the earth are dependent upon the stars4#aegc ,sidenote3 ,they do not cause evil3 but it is possible to predict the future from their motions4 ,philo of course will not admit that evil is caused either by the virtuous stars or by ,god working through them4 ,as has been said1 he attributed evil to matter or to 8the natural changes of the elements10#aegd drawing a line between ,god and nature in much the fashion of the church fathers later4 ,but he granted that 8before now some men have conjecturally predicted disturbances and commotions of the earth from the revolutions of the heavenly bodies1 and innumerable other events which have turned out most exactly true40#aege ,philo's interest in astronomy and astrology is further suggested by his interpretation of the eleven stars of ,joseph's dream as referring to the signs of the zodiac1#aegf ,joseph himself making the twelfth2 and by his interpreting the ladder in ,jacob's dream which stretched between earth and heaven as referring to the air1#aegg into which earth's evaporations dissolve1 while the moon is not pure ether like the other stars but itself contains some air4 ,this accounts1 ,philo thinks1 for the spots upon the moon--an explanation which ,i do not remember having met in subsequent writers4 ,sidenote3 ,jewish astrology4 ,josephus#aegh and the ,jews in general of ,philo's time were equally devoted to astrology according to ,mnter1 who says3 8,only their astrology was subordinated to theism4 ,the one ,god always appeared as the master of the host of heaven4 ,but they regarded the stars as living divine beings and powers of heaven40#aegi ,in the ,talmud later we read that the hour of ,abraham's birth was announced by the stars and that he feared from his observations of the constellations that he would go childless4 ,mnter also gives examples of the belief of the rabbis in the influence of the stars upon the destiny of the ,jewish people and upon the fate of individual men1 and of their belief that a star would announce the coming of the ,messiah4#aehj ,sidenote3 ,perfection of the number seven4 ,from ,philo's astrology it is an easy step to his frequent reveries concerning the perfection and mystic significance of certain numbers1--a train of thought which was continued by many of the church fathers1 and is also found in various pagan writers of the ,roman ,empire4#aeha ,thomas ,browne in his enquiry into 8,vulgar ,errors0#aehb was inclined to hold ,philo even more responsible than ,pythagoras or ,plato for the dissemination of such doctrines4 ,philo himself recognizes the close connection between astrology and number mysticism1 when1 after affirming the dependence of all earthly things upon the heavenly bodies1 he adds3 8,it is in heaven1 too1 that the ratio of the number seven began40#aehc ,philo doubts if it is possible to express adequately the glories of the number seven1 but he feels that he ought at least to attempt it and devotes a dozen chapters of his treatise on the creation of the world to it1#aehd to say nothing of other passages4 ,he notes that there are seven planets1 seven circles of heaven1 four quarters of the moon of seven days each1 that such constellations as the ,pleiades and ,ursa ,major consist of seven stars1 and that children born at the end of seven months live1 while those who see the light in the eighth month die4 ,in diseases the seventh is a critical day4 ,also there are either seven ages of man's life1 as ,hippocrates says1 or1 in accordance with ,solon's lines1 man's three-score years and ten may be subdivided into ten periods of seven years each4 ,the lyre of seven strings corresponds to the seven planets1 and in speech there are seven vowels4 ,there are seven divisions of the head--eyes1 ears1 nostrils1 and mouth1 seven divisions of the body1 seven kinds of motion1 seven things seen1 and even the senses are seven rather than five if we add the vocal and generative organs4#aehe ,sidenote3 ,and of fifty4 ,philo's ideal sect1 the ,therapeutae1 are wont to assemble as a prelude to their greatest feast at the end of seven weeks1 8venerating not only the simple week of seven days but also its multiplied power10#aehf but the chief festival itself occurs on the fiftieth day1 8the most holy and natural of numbers1 being compounded of the power of the right-angled triangle1 which is the principle of the origination and condition of the whole40#aehg ,sidenote3 ,also of four and six4 ,the numbers four and six1 however1 yield little to seven and fifty in the matter of perfection4 ,it was the fourth day that ,god chose for the creation of the heavenly bodies1 and ,he did not need six days for the entire work of creation1 but it was fitting that that perfect work should be accomplished in a perfect number of days4 ,six is the product of the first female number1 two1 and the first male number1 three4 ,indeed1 the first three numbers1 one1 two1 and three1 whether added or multiplied1 give six4#aehh ,as for four1 there are that many elements and seasons2 it is the only number produced by the same number--two--whether added to itself or multiplied by itself2 it is the first square and as such the emblem of justice and equality2 it also represents the cube or solid1 as the number one stands for a point1 two for a line1 and three for a surface4#aehi ,furthermore four is the source of 8the all-perfect decade10 since one and two and three and four make ten4 ,at this we begin to suspect1 and with considerable justification1 as the writings of other devotees of the philosophy of numbers would show1 that the number of perfect numbers is legion4 ,we may not1 however1 follow ,philo much farther on this topic4 ,suffice it to add that he finds the fifth day fitting for the creation of animals possessed of five senses1#aeij while he divides the ten plagues of ,egypt into three dealing with the more solid elements1 earth and water1 and performed by ,aaron2 three dealing with air and fire which were entrusted to ,moses2 the seventh was committed to both ,aaron and ,moses2 while the other three ,god reserved for ,himself4#aeia ,sidenote3 ,spirits of the air4 ,philo believed in a world of spirits1 both the angels of the ,jews and the demons of the ,greeks4 ,when ,god said3 8,let us make man10 ,philo believed that ,he was addressing those assistant spirits who should be held responsible for the viciousness to which man alone of all creation is liable4#aeib ,of the divine rational natures ,philo regarded some as incorporeal1 others like the stars as possessed of bodies4#aeic ,he also believed that there were spirits in the air as well as afar off in heaven4 ,he could not see why the air should not be inhabited when there were stars in the ether and fish in the sea as well as other animals upon land4#aeid ,indeed he argued that it would be absurd that the element which was essential for the vitality even of land and aquatic animals should have no living beings of its own4 ,that these spirits of the air must be invisible did not trouble him1 since the human soul is also invisible4 ,sidenote3 ,interpretation of dreams4 ,of ,philo's five books on dreams only two are extant4 ,they suffice to show1 however1 that he accepted the art of divination from dreams4 ,of dreams he distinguished three varieties3 those direct from ,god which require no interpretation2 those in which the dreamer's mind moves in unison with the world soul1 and which are neither entirely clear nor yet very obscure--an instance is ,jacob's vision of the ladder2 and third1 those in which the mind is moved by a prophetic frenzy of its own1 and which require the science of interpretation--such dreams were ,joseph's concerning his brothers1 and those of the butler and the baker at ,pharaoh's court4#aeie ,sidenote3 ,politics akin to magic4 ,the recent war and its accompaniments and sequels have brought home to some the conviction that our modern civilization is after all not vastly superior to that of some preceding ages4 ,to those who still imagine that because modern science has freed us from much past superstition concerning nature1 we are therefore free from political fakirs1 from social absurdities1 and from fallacious procedure and reasoning in many departments of life1 the reading may be recommended of a passage in ,philo's treatise on dreams1#aeif in which he classifies the art of politics along with that of magic4 ,he compares ,joseph's coat of many colors to 8the much-variegated web of political affairs0 where along with 8the smallest possible portion of truth0 falsehoods of every shade of plausibility are interwoven2 and he compares politicians and statesmen to augurs1 ventriloquists1 and sorcerers1 8men skilful in juggling and in incantations and in tricks of all kinds1 from whose treacherous arts it is very difficult to escape40 ,he adds that ,moses very naturally represented ,joseph's coat as blood-stained1 since all statecraft is tainted with wars and bloodshed4 ,sidenote3 ,a thought repeated by ,moses ,maimonides and ,albertus ,magnus4 ,twelve centuries later we find ,philo's association of politicians with magicians repeated by his compatriot ,moses ,maimonides in the ,more ,nevochim or ,guide for the ,perplexed1#aeig a work which appeared almost immediately in ,latin translation and from which this very passage is cited by ,albertus ,magnus in his discussion of divination by dreams4#aeih ,there are some men1 says ,albert1 in whom the intellect is abundant and active and clear4 ,such men are akin to the superior substances1 that is1 to the angels and stars1 and therefore ,moses of ,egypt1 i4e41 ,maimonides1 calls them sages4 ,but there are others who1 according to ,albert1 confound true wisdom with sophistry and are content with mere probabilities and imaginations and are at home in 8rhetorical and civil matters40 ,maimonides1 however1 described this class a little differently1 saying that in them the imaginative faculty is preponderant and the rational faculty imperfect4 8,whence arises the sect of politicians1 of legislators1 of diviners1 of enchanters1 of dreamers1 444 and of prestidigiteurs who work marvels by strange cunning and occult arts40#aeii ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,gnostics ,difficulty in defining ,gnosticism--,magic and astrology in ,gnosticism--,simon ,magus as a ,gnostic--,simon's ,helen--,the number thirty and the moon--,ophites and ,sethians--,a magical diagram--,employment of names and formulae--,seven metals and planets--,magic of ,simon's followers--,magic of ,marcus in the ,eucharist--,other magic and occult lore of ,marcus--,name and number magic--,the magic vowels--,magic of ,carpocrates--,the ,abraxas and the number #cfe--;,astrology of ,basilides--,the ,book of ,helxai--,epiphanius on the ,elchasaites--,the ,book of the ,laws of ,countries--,personality of ,bardesanes--,sin possible for men1 angels1 and stars--,does fate in the astrological sense prevail8--,national laws and customs as a proof of free will--,pistis-,sophia2 attitude to astrology--8,magic0 condemned--,power of names and rites--,interest in natural science--8,gnostic gems0 and astrology--,the planets in early ,christian art--,gnostic amulets in ,spain--,syriac ,christian charms--,priscillian executed for magic--,manichean manuscripts--,the ,mandaeans4 ,sidenote3 ,difficulty in defining ,gnosticism4 ,gnosticism#afjj is not easy to define and the term ,gnostic appears to have been applied to a great variety of sects with a confusing diversity of beliefs4 ,many of the constituents and roots at least of ,gnosticism were older than ,christianity1 and it is now the custom to associate the ,gnosis or superior knowledge and revelation1 which gives the movement its name1 not with ,greek philosophy or mysteries but with oriental speculation and religions4 ,anz#afja has been impressed by its connection with ,babylonian star-worship2 ,amlineau#afjb has urged its debt to ,egyptian magic and religion2 ,bousset#afjc has argued for ,persian origins4 ,the main features of the great oriental religions which swept westward over the ,roman ,empire were shared by ,gnosticism3 the redeemer god1 even the great mother goddess conception to some extent1 the divinely revealed mysteries1 the secret symbols1 the dualism1 and the cosmic theory4 ,gnosticism as it is known to us1 however1 is more closely connected with ,christianity than with any other oriental religion or body of thought1 for the extant sources consist almost entirely either of ,gnostic treatises which pretend to be ,christian ,scriptures and were almost entirely written in ,coptic in the second or third century of our era1#afjd or of hostile descriptions of ,gnostic heresies by the early church fathers4 ,however1 the philosopher ,plotinus also criticized the ,gnostics1 as we have seen4 ,sidenote3 ,magic and astrology in ,gnosticism4 ,what especially concerns our investigation is the great use made1 or said to be made1 by the ,gnostics of sacred formulae1 symbols1 and names of demons1 and the prevalence among them of astrological theory as shown by their widespread notion of the seven planets as the powers who have created our inferior and material world and who rule over its affairs4 ,gnosticism was deeply influenced by1 albeit it to some extent represents a reaction against1 the ,babylonian star-worship and incantation of spirits4 ,the seven planets and the demons occupy an important place in ,gnostic myth because they intervene between our world and the world of supreme light1 and their spheres must be traversed--much as in the ,book of ,enoch and ,dante's ,paradiso--both by the redeeming god in his descent and return and by any human soul that would escape from this world of fate1 darkness1 and matter4 ,what encouragement there is for such views in the canonical ,scriptures themselves may be inferred from the following passage in which ,christ foretells ,his second coming3 8,immediately after the tribulation of those days shall the sun be darkened1 and the moon shall not give her light1 and the stars shall fall from heaven1 and the powers of the heavens shall be shaken4 ,and then shall appear the sign of the ,son of man in heaven2 and then shall all the tribes of the earth mourn1 and they shall see the ,son of man coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory4 ,and ,he shall send ,his angels with a great sound of a trumpet1 and they shall gather together ,his elect from the four winds1 from one end of heaven to the other40#afje ,but in order to pass the demons and the spheres of the planets1 who are usually represented as opposed to this1 one must1 as in the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead1 know the passwords1 the names of the spirits1 the sacred formulae1 the appropriate symbols1 and all the other apparatus suggestive of magic and necromancy which forms so large a part of the gnosis that gives its name to the system4 ,this will become the more apparent from the following particular accounts of ,gnostic sects and doctrines found in the works of the ,christian fathers and in the scanty remains of the ,gnostics themselves4 ,the philosopher ,plotinus we have already heard charge the ,gnostics with resort to magic and sorcery1 and with ascribing evil and fatal influence to the stars4 ,at the same time we shrewdly suspect that ,gnosticism has been made a scapegoat for the sins in these regards of both early ,christianity and pagan philosophy4 ,sidenote3 ,simon ,magus as a ,gnostic4 ,simon ,magus1 of whose magical exploits as recorded by many a ,christian writer we shall treat in another chapter1 is also represented by the fathers as holding ,gnostic doctrine1 although some writers have contended that ,simon the magician named in ,acts was an entirely different person from ,simon the heretic and author of ,the ,great ,declaration4#afjf ,simon declared himself the ,great ,power of ,god1 or the ,being who was over all1 who had appeared in ,samaria as the ,father1 in ,judea as the ,son1 and to other nations as the ,holy ,spirit4#afjg ,in the ,pseudo-,clementines ,simon is represented as arguing against ,peter in characteristically ,gnostic style that 8he who framed the world is not the highest ,god1 but that the highest ,god is another who alone is good and who has remained unknown up to this time40#afjh ,according to ,epiphanius ,simon claimed to have descended from heaven through the planetary spheres and spirits in the manner of the ,gnostic redeemer4 ,he is quoted as saying1 8,but in each heaven ,i changed my form in accordance with the form of those who were in each heaven1 that ,i might escape the notice of my angelic powers and come down to the ,thought1 who is none other than she who is likewise called ,prounikon and the ,holy ,spirit40 ,epiphanius further informs us that ,simon believed in a plurality of heavens1 assigned certain powers to each firmament and heaven1 and applied barbaric names to these spirits or cosmic forces4 8,nor10 adds ,epiphanius1 8can anyone be saved unless he learns this mystic lore and offers such sacrifices to the ,father of all through these archons and authorities40#afji ,sidenote3 ,simon's ,helen4 ,the fathers tell us that ,simon went about with a woman called ,helena or ,helen1 who ,justin ,martyr says had formerly been a prostitute4#afaj ,simon is said to have called her the mother of all1 through whom ,god had created the angels and aeons1 who in their turn had formed the world and men4 ,these cosmic powers had then1 however1 cast her down to earth1 where she had been confined in various successive human and animal bodies4 ,she seems to have obtained her name of ,helen from the fact that it was for her that the ,trojan war had been fought1 an event which ,simon seems to have subjected to much allegorical interpretation4 ,he also spoke of ,helen as 8the lost sheep10 whom he1 the ,great ,power1 had descended from heaven to release from the bonds of the flesh4 ,she was that ,thought or ,holy ,spirit which we have heard him say he came down to recover4 ,simon's ,helen also corresponds to ,pistis-,sophia1 who in the extant ,gnostic work named after her descends through the twelve aeons1 deceived by a lion-faced power whom they have formed to mislead her1 and then reascends by the aid of ,jesus or the true light4 ,it seems fairly evident that the fathers#afaa have taken literally and travestied by a scandalous application to an actual woman a beautiful ,gnostic myth or allegory concerning the human soul4 ,at the same time ,simon's ,helen reminds us of ,jesus's relations with the woman taken in adultery1 the woman of ,samaria1 and ,mary ,magdalene4 ,mary ,magdalene1 it may be noted1 in the ,gnostic writing1 ,pistis-,sophia1 takes a rle superior to the twelve disciples1 a fact of which ,peter complains to his ,lord more than once4 ,but ,simon's ,helen was that spirit of truth which lies latent in the human mind and which he endeavored to release by means of the philosophy1 astrology1 and magic of his time4 ,may modern scientific method prove more successful in setting the prisoner free6 ,sidenote3 ,the number thirty and the moon4 ,we find in the ,pseudo-,clementines other details concerning ,simon and ,helen which bring out the astrological side of ,gnosticism4 ,we are told that ,john the ,baptist had thirty disciples1 a number suggestive of the days of the moon and also of the thirty aeons of the ,gnostics of whom we elsewhere hear a great deal4#afab ,but the revolution of the moon does not occupy thirty full days1 so that we are not surprised to learn that one of these disciples was a woman and furthermore that she was the very ,helen of whom we have been speaking4 ,at least1 she is so called in the ,homilies of the ,pseudo-,clement2 in the ,recognitions she is actually called ,luna or the ,moon4#afac ,after the death of ,john the ,baptist ,simon by his magic power supplanted ,dositheus as leader of the thirty1 and then fell in love with ,luna and went about with her1 proclaiming that she was ,wisdom or ,truth1 8brought down 444 from the highest heavens to this world40#afad ,the number thirty is again associated with ,simon and ,dositheus in a curiously insistent1 although apparently unconscious1 manner by ,origen1 who in one passage of his ,reply to ,celsus1 written in the first half of the third century1 expresses doubt whether thirty followers of ,simon1 the ,samaritan magician1 can be found in all the world1 and in a second passage1 while asserting that 8,simonians are found nowhere throughout the world10 adds that of the followers of ,dositheus there are now not more than thirty in all4#afae ,sidenote3 ,ophites and ,sethians4 ,similar to ,simon's account of the heavens and of his descent through them were the teachings of the ,ophites and ,sethians who1 according to ,irenaeus1#afaf held that ,christ 8descended through the seven heavens1 having assumed the likeness of their sons1 and gradually emptied them of their power40 ,these heretics also represented the 8heavens1 potentates1 powers1 angels1 and creators as sitting in their proper order in heaven1 according to their generation1 and as invisibly ruling over things celestial and terrestrial40 ,all ruling spirits were not invisible1 however1 since the ,ophites and ,sethians identified with the seven planets their ,holy ,hebdomad1 consisting of ,ialdabaoth1 ,iao1 ,sabaoth1 ,adonaus 7or1 ,adonai71 ,eloeus1 ,oreus1 and ,astanphaeus1--names often employed in the ,greek magical papyri1#afag in medieval incantations1 and in the ,jewish ,cabbala4 ,the ,ophites and ,sethians further asserted that when the serpent was cast down into the lower world by the ,father1 he begat six sons who1 with himself1 constitute a group of seven corresponding and in contrast to the ,holy ,hebdomad which surround the ,father4 ,they are the seven mundane demons who are ever hostile to humanity4 ,the ,sethians of course took their name from ,seth1 son of ,adam1 who in the middle ages was regarded sometimes1 like ,enoch1 as the especial recipient of divine revelation and as the author of sacred books4 ,the historian ,josephus states in his ,jewish ,antiquities that ,seth and his descendants discovered the art of astronomy and that one of the two pillars on which they recorded their findings was still extant in his time1 the first century4#afah ,under the caption1 ,sethian ,tablets of ,curses1 ,wnsch has published some magical imprecations scratched on lead tablets between #cij and #dbj ,a4 ,d4 at ,rome4#afai ,eight revelations ascribed to ,adam and ,seth are also extant in ,armenian4#afbj ,sidenote3 ,a magical diagram4 ,in ,origen's ,reply to ,celsus is described a mystic diagram with details redolent of magic and astrological necromancy1#afba which ,celsus had laid to the charge of ,christians generally but which ,origen declares is probably the product of the 8very insignificant sect called ,ophites40 ,origen himself has seen this diagram or one something like it1 and assures his readers that 8we know the depth of these unhallowed mysteries10 but he declares that he has never met anybody anywhere who put any faith in this diagram4 ,obviously1 however1 such a diagram would not have been in existence if no one had ever had faith in it4 ,furthermore1 its survival into ,origen's time1 when he asserts that men had ceased to use it1 is evidence of the antiquity of the sect and the superstition4 ,in this diagram ten distinct circles were united by a single circle representing the soul of all things and called ,leviathan4 ,celsus spoke of the upper circles1 of which at least some were in colors1 as 8those that are above the heavens40 ,on these were inscribed such words and phrases as 8,father and ,son10 8,love10 8,life10 8,knowledge10 and 8,understanding40 ,then there were 8the seven circles of archontic demons10 who are probably to be connected with the spheres of the seven planets4 ,these seven ruling demons were represented by animal heads or figures1 somewhat resembling the symbols of the four evangelists to be seen in the mosaics at ,ravenna and elsewhere in ,christian art4 ,the angel ,michael was depicted by a sort of chimaera1 the words of ,celsus being1 8,the goat was shaped like a lion02 ,suriel1 by a bull2 ,raphael1 by a dragon2 ,gabriel1 by an eagle2 ,thautabaoth1 by a bear2 ,erataoth1 by a dog2 and ,thaphabaoth or ,onoel1 by an ass4 ,the diagram was divided by a thick black line called ,gehenna and beneath the lowest circle was placed 8the being named ,behemoth40 ,there was also 8a square pattern0 with inscriptions concerning the gates of paradise1 a flaming circle with a flaming sword as its diameter guarding the tree of knowledge and of life1 8a barrier inscribed in the shape of a hatchet10 and a rhomboid with the words1 8,the foresight of wisdom40 ,celsus further mentioned a seal with which the ,father impresses the ,son1 who says1 8,i have been anointed with white ointment from the tree of life10 and seven angels who contend with the seven ruling demons for the soul of the dying body4 ,sidenote3 ,employment of names and formulae4 ,origen further informs us of the forms of salutation to each ruling spirit employed by 8those sorcerers10 as they pass through 8the fence of wickedness0 or the gate to the realm of each spirit4 ,the names of the spirits are now given as ,ialdabaoth1 who is the lion-like archon and with whom the planet ,saturn is in sympathy1 ,iao or ,jah1 ,sabaoth1 ,adonaeus1 ,astaphaeus1 ,aloaeus or ,eloaeus1 and ,horaeus4 ,the following is an example of the salutations or invocations addressed to these spirits3 8,thou1 ,o second ,iao1 who shinest by night1 who art the ruler of the secret mysteries of ,son and ,father1 first prince of death1 and portion of the innocent1 bearing now thine own beard as symbol1 ,i am ready to pass through thy realm1 having strengthened him who is born of thee by the living word4 ,grace be with me2 ,father1 let it be with me60 ,origen also states that the makers of this diagram have borrowed from magic the names ,ialdabaoth1 ,astaphaeus1 and ,horaeus1 while the other four are names of ,god drawn from the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,sidenote3 ,seven metals and planets4 ,it is worth noting that immediately before this account of the diagram ,celsus had described similar ,persian mysteries of ,mithras1 in which seven heavens through which the soul has to pass were arranged in an ascending scale like a ladder4#afbb ,each successive heaven was entered by a gate of a metal corresponding to the planet in question1 lead for ,saturn1 tin for ,venus1 copper for ,jupiter1 iron for ,mercury1 a mixed metal for ,mars1 silver for the moon1 and gold for the sun4 ,this association of metals and planets became a common feature of medieval alchemy4 ,at the same time the passage is said to be our chief literary source for the mysteries of ,mithras4#afbc ,sidenote3 ,magic of ,simon's followers4 ,the ,simonians1 according to ,irenaeus1 were as addicted to magic as their founder had been1 employing exorcisms and incantations1 love-philters and enchantments1 familiar spirits and 8dream-senders40 8,and whatever other curious arts may be resorted to are eagerly employed by them40 ,menander1 the immediate successor of ,simon in ,samaria1 was 8a perfect adept in the practice of magic0 and taught that by means of it one could overcome the angels who had created this world4#afbd ,in a treatise on rebaptism1 falsely ascribed to ,cyprian but very likely contemporary with him1 it is stated that the ,simonians regard their baptism as superior to that of orthodox ,christians1 because when they descend into the water fire appears upon its surface4 ,the writer thinks that this is done by some trick1 or that there is some natural explanation of it1 or that they merely imagine that they see a flame on the water1 or that it is the work of some evil one and of magic power4#afbe ,epiphanius states that ,simon employed such obscene substances as semen and menstruum in his magic1#afbf but this seems to be a slander1 at least against ,gnosticism1 since in a passage of the ,gnostic ,book of the ,saviour1 adjoined to the ,pistis-,sophia1 ,thomas asks ,jesus what shall be the punishment of men who eat 8semen maris et menstruum feminae0 mixed with lentils1 saying as they do so1 8,we believe in ,esau and ,jacob10 and is told that this is the worst of sins and that the souls of those committing it will be absolutely blotted out4#afbg ,sidenote3 ,magic of ,marcus in the ,eucharist4 ,next to ,simon ,magus1 ,marcus was the ,gnostic and heretic most notorious as a practitioner of the magic arts1 as ,irenaeus states at the close of the second century1 and ,hippolytus and ,epiphanius repeat in the third and fourth centuries respectively4#afbh ,in performing the ,eucharist he would change white wine placed in three wine cups into three different colors1 one blood-red1 one purple1 and one dark blue1 according to ,epiphanius1 while ,irenaeus and ,hippolytus more vaguely state1 although they lived closer to ,marcus's time1 that he gave the wine a purple or reddish hue as if it had been changed into blood1 an alteration which ,marcus himself regarded as a manifestation of divine grace4 ,epiphanius attributes the change to an incantation muttered by ,marcus while pretending to perform the ,eucharist4 ,hippolytus1 who ascribes ,marcus's feats partly to sleight-of-hand and partly to demons1 in this case charges that he furtively dropped some drug into the wine4 ,marcus was also accustomed to fill a large cup from a smaller one so that it would overflow1 a marvel which ,hippolytus again tries to account for by stating that 8very many drugs1 when mingled in this way with liquid substances0 temporarily increase their volume1 8especially when diluted in wine40 ,sidenote3 ,other magic and occult lore of ,marcus4 ,irenaeus1 who is quoted verbatim by ,epiphanius1 further states that ,marcus had a familiar demon by whose aid he was able to prophesy1 and that he pretended to confer this gift upon others4 ,he also accuses ,marcus of seducing women by means of philters and love potions which he compounded4 ,hippolytus does not make these charges1 but unites with the others in describing at length ,marcus's theory of mystic names and his symbolical and mystical interpretation of the letters of the alphabet and of numbers4 ,marcus made various calculations based upon the number of letters in a name1 the number of letters in the name of each letter1 and so on4 ,when ,christ1 whose ineffable name has thirty letters1 said1 8,i am ,alpha and ,omega10 ,he was believed by ,marcus to have displayed the dove1 whose number is #hja4 ,these reveries 8are mere bits10 as ,hippolytus says1 of astrological theory and ,pythagorean philosophy4 ,we shall find them perpetuated in the middle ages in the method of divination known as the ,sphere of ,pythagoras4 ,sidenote3 ,name and number magic4 ,such symbolism and mysticism concerning numbers and letters seldom indeed remain a matter of mere theory but readily lend themselves to operative magic4 ,thus ,hippolytus can speak in the same breath of 8magical arts and ,pythagorean numbers0 or tell that ,pythagoras himself 8also touched on magic1 as they say1 and himself discovered an art of physiognomy1 laying down as a basis certain numbers and measures40 ,or note a third passage where ,hippolytus is discussing ,egyptian theology based on the theory of numbers4#afbi ,after treating of the monad1 duad1 and enneads1 of the four elements in pairs1 of the #cfj parts of the circle1 of 8ascending and beneficent and masculine names0 which end in odd numbers1 and of feminine and malicious and descending names which terminate in even numbers1 ,hippolytus continues1 8,moreover1 they assert that they have calculated the word1 #8,deity4' ,now this name is an even number1 and they write it down and attach it to the body and accomplish cures by it4 ,in the same way an herb which terminates in this number is bound around the body and operates by reason of a similar calculation of the number4 ,nay1 even a doctor cures the sick by such calculations48 ,similarly ,censorinus states that the number seven is ascribed to ,apollo and used in the cure of bodily ills1 while nine is associated with the ,muses and heals mental diseases4#afcj ,but to return to ,gnosticism4 ,sidenote3 ,the magic vowels4 ,the seven vowels were much employed by the ,gnostics1 undoubtedly as symbols for the seven planets and the spirits associated with them1 but as symbols possessed of magic power as well as of mystic significance4 8,the ,saviour and ,his disciples are supposed in the midst of their sentences to have broken out in an interminable gibberish of only vowels2 magic spells have come down to us consisting of vowels by the fourscore2 on amulets the seven vowels1 repeated according to all sorts of artifices1 form a very common inscription40#afca ,as the seven planets made the music of the spheres1 so the seven vowels seem to have represented the musical scale1 8and many a ,gnostic sheet of vowels is in fact a sheet of music40#afcb ,sidenote3 ,magic of ,carpocrates4 ,other heretics with ,gnostic views who were accused of magic by the fathers were the followers of ,carpocrates1 who employed incantations and spells1 philters and potions1 who attracted spirits to themselves and made light of the cosmic angels1 and who pretended to have great power over all things so that they were able by their magic to satisfy every desire4#afcc ,sidenote3 ,the ,abraxas and the number #cfe4 ,saturninus and ,basilides were charged with 8practicing magic1 and employing images1 incantations1 invocations1 and every other kind of curious art40 ,they also believed in a supreme power named ,abrasax or ,abraxas1 whose number was #cfe2 and they contended that there were #cfe heavens and as many bones in the human body2 8and they strive to set forth the names1 principles1 angels1 and powers of the #cfe imagined heavens40#afcd ,sidenote3 ,astrology of ,basilides4 ,hippolytus gives further indication of the astrological leanings of ,basilides1 who held that each thing had its own particular time1 and supported his view by citing the ,magi gazing wistfully at the star of ,bethlehem and the remark of ,christ ,himself1 8,mine hour is not yet come40#afce ,i suppose that by this ,hippolytus means to suggest that ,basilides held the astrological doctrine of elections2 ,basilides further affirmed1 according to ,hippolytus1 that ,jesus was 8mentally preconceived at the time of the generation of the stars2 and of the complete return to their starting point of all the seasons in the vast conglomeration10 that is1 at the end of the astronomical magnus annus1 variously reckoned as of #cf1jjj or #ae1jjj years in duration4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,book of ,helxai4 ,in his ,refutation of all ,heresies#afcf ,hippolytus tells of an ,alcibiades from ,apamea in ,syria who in his time brought to ,rome a book supposed to contain revelations made to a holy man1 ,elchasai or ,helxai1 by an angel ninety-six miles in height and from sixteen to twenty-four miles in breadth and leaving a footprint fourteen miles long4 ,this angel was the ,son of ,god1 and was accompanied by a female of corresponding size who was the ,holy ,spirit4 ,this apparition and revelation was accompanied by a preaching of a new remission of sins in the third year of ,trajan's reign1 at which time we are led to suppose that the ,book of ,helxai came into existence4 ,it imposed secrecy upon those initiated into its mysteries4 ,the sect1 according to ,hippolytus1 were much given to magic1 astrology1 and the number mysticism of ,pythagoras4 ,the ,elchasaites employed incantations and formulae to cure persons bitten by mad dogs or afflicted with disease4 ,in such cases and also in the case of rebaptism for the remission of sins it was customary with them to invoke or adjure 8seven witnesses10 not however in this case the planets1 but 8the heaven1 and the water1 and the holy spirits1 and the angels of prayer1 and the oil 7or1 the olive71 and the salt1 and the earth40 ,hippolytus declares that their formulae of this sort were 8very numerous and very ridiculous40 ,they dipped consumptives and persons possessed by demons in cold water forty times in seven days4 ,they believed in the astrological doctrine of elections1 since their sacred book warned them not to baptize or begin other important undertakings upon those days which were governed by the evil stars4 ,they also seem to have predicted political events from the stars1 foretelling that three years after ,trajan's subjugation of the ,parthians 8war rages between the impious angels of the northern 7constellations71 and on this account all kingdoms of impiety are in confusion40 ,sidenote3 ,epiphanius on the ,elchasaites4 ,in the next century ,epiphanius adds one or two further details to ,hippolytus' account of the ,elchasaites4 ,besides the list of seven witnesses already given he mentions another slightly different one3 salt1 water1 earth1 wheat1 heaven1 ether1 and wind4 ,he also tells of two sisters in the time of ,constantine who were supposed to be descendants of ,helxai4 ,one of them was still alive the last ,epiphanius knew1 and crowds followed 8this witch0 to collect the dust of her footprints or her spittle to use in curing diseases4#afcg ,sidenote3 ,the ,book of the ,laws of ,countries4 ,we possess an important document for the attitude of early ,christianity and ,gnosticism towards astrology in ,the ,dialogue concerning ,fate or ,the ,book of the ,laws of ,countries of ,bardesanes or ,bardaisan4#afch ,the complete ,syriac text is extant2#afci there is a long and somewhat modified extract adopted from it in the ,latin ,recognitions of ,clement1#afdj and briefer fragments in the ,greek fathers4 ,strictly speaking1 the text seems to be written by some follower of ,bardesanes named ,philip who represents his master as discussing the problem of human free will with ,avida1 himself1 and other disciples4 ,the bulk of the treatise is in any case put in ,bardesanes' mouth and it probably reflects his views with fair accuracy4 ,eusebius ascribed it to ,bardesanes himself4 ,sidenote3 ,personality of ,bardesanes ,bardesanes 7#aed-bbb ,a4 ,d47 was born in ,edessa4 ,he spent most of his life in ,mesopotamia but for a time went to ,armenia as a missionary4 ,his many works in ,syriac included apologies for ,christianity1 attacks upon heresies1 and numerous hymns1 but the only work extant is the treatise we are about to examine1 with the possible exception of ,the ,hymn of the ,soul#afda ascribed to him and contained in the ,syriac ,acts of ,st4 ,thomas4 ,his doctrines were regarded by ,ephraem ,syrus and others as tainted with ,gnostic heresy4 ,he is often represented as a follower of ,valentinus1 but the ancient authorities1 such as ,epiphanius and ,eusebius1 disagree as to whether he degenerated from orthodoxy to ,valentinianism or reformed in the opposite direction4 ,in the dialogue which we consider he is represented as a ,christian1 but his remarks have often been thought to have a ,gnostic flavor4 ,f4 ,nau1 however1 has argued that he was not a ,gnostic and that the statements in question in the dialogue can be explained as purely astrological4#afdb ,sidenote3 ,sin possible for men1 angels1 and stars4 ,the treatise opens with the query1 why did not ,god make men so that they could not sin8 ,the reply of course is that moral freedom for good or evil is a greater gift of ,god than compulsory morality4 ,by virtue of his individual freedom of action man is equal to the angels1 some of whom1 too1 have sinned with the daughters of men and fallen1 and is superior even to the sun1 moon1 and signs of the zodiac which are fixed in their courses4 ,the stars1 however1 as in ,the ,book of ,enoch1 8are not absolutely destitute of all freedom0 and will be held responsible at the day of judgment4 ,presently some of them are called evil4 ,sidenote3 ,does fate in the astrological sense prevail8 ,after some discussion whether man does wrong from his nature1 the treatise turns to the question1 how far are men controlled by fate1 that is1 by the power of the seven planets in accordance with the doctrine of the ,chaldeans1 which is the term here usually employed for astrologers4 ,some men attack astrology as 8a lying invention0 and hold that the human will is free and that such evils as man cannot avoid are due to chance or to divine punishment but not to the stars4 ,between these extremes ,bardesanes takes middle ground4 ,he believes that there is such a force in the stars1 whom he refers to as ,potentates and ,governors1 as the fate of which the astrologers speak1 but that this fate evidently does not rule everything1 since it is itself established by the one ,god who imposed upon the stars and elements that motion in conformity with which 8intelligences undergo change when they descend to the soul1 and souls undergo change when they descend to bodies10 a statement which appears to have a ,gnostic flavor4 ,this fate furthermore is limited by nature on the one hand and human free will on the other hand4 ,the vital processes and periods which are common to all men1 such as birth1 generation1 child-bearing1 eating1 drinking1 old age1 and death1 ,bardesanes regards as governed by nature4 8,the body10 he says1 8is neither hindered nor helped by fate in the several acts it performs10 a view which most astrologers would probably not accept4 ,on the contrary1 in ,bardesanes' opinion wealth and honors1 power and subjection1 sickness and health1 are controlled by fate which often disturbs the regular course of nature4 ,this is because in genesis or the nativity the stars1 some of which work with and some against nature1 are in conflict4 ,in short1 some stars are good and some are evil4 ,sidenote3 ,national laws and customs as a proof of free will4 ,if nature is thus often upset by the stars1 fate in its turn may be resisted and overpowered by man's exercise of will4 ,this assertion ,bardesanes proceeds to prove by the argument which has given to the dialogue the title1 ,the ,book of the ,laws of the ,countries1 and which we find much repeated in subsequent writers4 ,briefly it is that in various nations certain laws are enforced upon1 or customs observed by all the people alike regardless of their diverse individual horoscopes4 ,in illustration of this are listed various prohibitions and practices fondly supposed by ,bardesanes and his audience to characterize the ,seres1 ,brahmans1 ,persians1 ,geli1 ,bactrians1 ,arabs1 ,britons1 ,parthians1 ,amazons1 and other peoples4 ,savage tribes are mentioned among whom there are no artists1 bankers1 perfumers1 musicians1 and poets to fit the nativities decreed by the constellations for certain times4 ,bardesanes is aware of the astrological theory of seven zones or climes1 by which the science of individual horoscopes is corrected and modified1 but he contends that there are many different laws in each of these zones1 and would be1 even if the number were raised to twelve according to the number of the signs or to thirty-six after the decans4 ,he also contends that men retain their laws or customs when they migrate to other climes1 and adduces the fidelity of ,jews and ,christians to the commandments of their respective religions as a further illustration of the triumph of free will over the stars4 ,he concedes1 however1 as before that 8in every country and in every nation there are rich and poor1 and rulers and subjects1 and people in health and those who are sick1 each one according as fate and his nativity have affected him40 ,incidentally to the foregoing discussion it is affirmed that the astrology of ,egypt and that of the ,chaldeans in ,babylon are identical4 ,at the close of the treatise is appended a note stating that ,bardesanes estimated the duration of the world at six thousand years on the basis of sixty as the least number of years in which the seven planets complete an even number of revolutions4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,pistis-,sophia3 attitude to astrology4 ,if the work ascribed to ,bardesanes is not certainly ,gnostic1 the ,pistis-,sophia is1 and we turn next to it and first of all to its attitude towards astrology4 ,this treatise is extant in a ,coptic codex of the fifth or sixth century2#afdc the ,greek original text was probably written in the second half of the third century4 ,it gives the revelations made by ,jesus to his disciples after ,he had ascended to heaven and returned again to them4 ,when ,he ascended through the heavens1 ,he changed the fatal influence of the lords of the spheres and made the planets turn to the right for six months of the year1 whereas before they had faced the left continually4#afdd ,in a long passage near the close of the ,pistis-,sophia proper#afde ,jesus asserts the absolute control of human destiny hitherto by 8the rulers of the fate0 and describes how they fashion the new soul1 control the process of generation and of the formation of the child in the womb1 and decree every event of life down to the day and manner of death4 ,only by the ,gnostic key to the mysteries can one escape their control4#afdf ,in the following ,book of the ,saviour1 moreover1 even the finding of this key is subjected to astral control1 since a constellation is described under which all souls descending to this world will be just and good and will discover the mysteries of light4#afdg ,sidenote3 8,magic0 condemned4 ,the ,pistis-,sophia assumes the usual attitude of condemnation of magic so-called4 ,among the evils which ,jesus warns his followers to renounce are superstition and invocations and drugs or magic potions4#afdh ,one object of his reducing by one-third the power of the lords of the spheres when ,he ascended through the heavens was that men might not henceforth invoke them by magic rites for evil purposes4 ,marvels may still1 however1 be accomplished by 8those who know the mysteries of the magic of the thirteenth aeon0 or power above the spheres4#afdi ,sidenote3 ,power of names and rites4 ,but while magic is renounced1 great faith is shown in the power of names and rites4 ,thus after a description of the dragon of outer darkness and the twelve main dungeons into which it divides and the animal faces and names of the twelve rulers thereof1 who evidently represent in an inaccurate fashion the signs of the zodiac1 it is added that even unrepentant sinners1 if they know the mystery of any one of these twelve names1 can escape from these dungeons4#afej ,in the ,book of the ,saviour ,jesus not only utters several long lists of strange and presumably magic words by way of invocation to the ,power or powers above1 but these are accompanied by careful observance of ceremonial4 ,on both occasions ,jesus and the disciples are clad in linen4#afea ,in the first case the disciples are carefully grouped with reference to the points of the compass1 towards which ,jesus turns successively as ,he utters the magic words standing at a sacrificial altar4 ,the result of this ceremony and invocation was that the heavens were displaced and the earth left behind and that ,jesus and the disciples found themselves in the region of mid-air4 ,before uttering the other invocation ,jesus commanded that fire and vine branches be brought1 placed an offering on the flame1 and carefully arranged two vessels of wine1 two cups of water1 and as many pieces of bread as there were disciples4 ,in this case the object was to remit the sins of the disciples4 ,in the ,book of ,je in the ,bruce ,papyrus there is a perfect riot of such magic names and invocations1 seals and diagrams1 and accompanying ceremonial4#afeb ,sidenote3 ,interest in natural science4 ,the interest of the ,gnostics in natural science is seen in the list of things that will be known by one who has penetrated all the mysteries and fully entered upon the inheritance of the kingdom of light4 ,not only will he understand why there is light and darkness1 and why sin and vice exist and life and death1 but also why there are reptiles and wild beasts and why they shall be destroyed1 why there are birds and beasts of burden1 why there are gems and precious metals1 why there are brass1 iron and steel1 lead1 glass1 wax1 herbs1 waters1 8and why the wild denizens of the sea40 ,why there are four points of the compass1 why demons and men1 why heat and cold1 stars1 winds1 and clouds1 frost1 snow1 planets1 aeons1 decans1 and so on and so forth4#afec ,sidenote3 8,gnostic gems0 and astrology4 ,king has shown that many of the so-called 8,gnostic gems0 are purely astrological talismans and that 8only a very small minority amidst their multitude present any traces of the influence of ,christian doctrines40#afed ,many are for medicinal or magical purposes rather than of a religious character4 ,some nevertheless are engraved with the truly ,gnostic figure of ,pantheus ,abraxas which ,king regards as 8the actual invention of ,basilides40 ,another common symbol1 borrowed from ,egypt1 is the ,agathodaemon1 which by the third century had become the popular designation of the hooded snake of ,egypt1 or ,chnuphis or ,chneph1 a great serpent with a lion's head encircled by a crown of seven or twelve rays1 representing the planets or signs4 ,often the seven ,greek vowels are placed at the tips of the seven rays4 ,on the obverse of the gem the letter 8s0 is engraved thrice and traversed by a straight rod1 a design probably meant to depict a snake twisting about a wand4 ,we are reminded1 not only with ,king of the club of ,aesculapius1 but of ,aaron's rod1 the magicians of ,pharaoh1 and the serpent lifted up in the wilderness2 also of ,lucian's tale of the pretended discovery of the god ,asclepius by the pseudo-prophet1 ,alexander4 ,at least one 8,gnostic amulet0 has on the back the legend 8,iao ,sabao0 7th74#afee ,sidenote3 ,the planets in early ,christian art4 ,the influence of astrology may be seen in other and more certainly genuine works of early ,christian art than many of the so-called ,gnostic gems4 ,on a lamp in the catacombs ,christ is depicted as the good shepherd with a lamb on ,his shoulder4 ,above ,his head are the seven planets1 although the sun and moon are shown again at either side1 and about ,his feet press seven lambs1 perhaps an indication that ,he is freeing the peoples of the seven climes from the fatal influence of the stars4 ,in the ,poemander attributed to ,hermes it is stated that there are seven peoples from the seven planets4 ,on a gem of perhaps the third century a similar scene is engraved except that the sun and moon are not shown apart from the seven planets1 and that the lamb on ,christ's shoulders is counted as one of the seven1 so that there are but six at ,his feet4#afef ,sidenote3 ,gnostic amulets in ,spain4 8,gnostic amulets and other works of art0 are occasionally found in ,spain1 especially the ,asturian northwest which remained ,christian at the time of the ,mohammedan conquest of the rest of the peninsula4 ,one ring is inscribed with the sentence1 8,zeus1 ,serapis1 and ,iao are one40 ,on another octagonal ring are ,greek letters signifying the ,gnostic ,anthropos or father of wisdom4 ,a stone is carved with a candelabrum and the seven planets1 8the sacred hebdomad of the ,chaldeans40#afeg ,sidenote3 ,syriac ,christian charms4 ,gollancz in his ,selection of ,charms from ,syriac ,manuscripts presents a number of spells and incantations which1 whether any of them are ,gnostic or not1 certainly seem to be ,christian1 since they mention the divine persons of ,christianity1 ,mary1 and various ,biblical characters4#afeh ,sidenote3 ,priscillian executed for magic4 ,at the close of the fourth century the views of the ,gnostics were revived in ,gaul and ,spain by ,priscillian1 who seems to have been much influenced by astrology and who was put to death at ,treves in #che ,a4 ,d4 on a charge of magic4 ,he confessed under torture1 but was afterwards thought innocent4 ,we are not told1 however1 what the magical practices were of which he was accused4#afei ,both ,sulpicius ,severus and ,isidore of ,seville#affj state that he was accused of maleficium1 which should mean witchcraft1 sorcery1 or magical operations with the intent to injure someone4 ,but further details are wanting1 except that ,sulpicius calls ,priscillian a man 8more puffed up than was right with the knowledge of profane things1 and who was further believed to have practiced magic arts since adolescence10 while ,isidore states that ,bishop ,itacius 7,ithaicus71 who was largely responsible for pushing the charges against ,priscillian1 showed in a book which he wrote against ,priscillian's heresy that 8a certain ,marcus of ,memphis1 most learned in magic art1 was a disciple of ,mani and master of ,priscillian40 ,priscillian himself states in his extant works that ,itacius had accused him of magic in #chj4 ,as the final trial proceeded1 ,itacius gave way as accuser to a public prosecutor 7fisci patronus7 who continued the case on behalf of the emperor ,maximus who seems to have had his eye upon ,priscillian's large fortune4 ,st4 ,martin of ,tours in vain obtained from ,maximus a promise that ,priscillian should not be put to death4#affa ,but his execution brought his persecutor ,itacius into such bad odor that he was excommunicated and condemned to exile for the rest of his life4 ,sidenote3 ,manichean ,manuscripts ,we have just heard that ,priscillian was taught by a disciple of ,mani1 while ,ephraem ,syrus states that ,bardesanes was the teacher of ,mani4 ,augustine in his youth1 when a follower of the ,manicheans1 had been devoted to astrology4 ,this connection between ,gnosticism and astrology and ,manicheism has been further attested by the fragments of ,manichean manuscripts recently discovered in central ,asia4#affb ,in them the sun-god and moon-god and five other planets play a prominent part4 ,besides the five planets we have five elements--ether1 wind1 light1 fire1 and water--five plants1 five trees1 and five beings with souls--man1 quadrupeds1 reptiles1 aquatic1 and flying animals4 ,the five gods or luminous bodies are represented as good forces who imprisoned five kinds of demons2 but the devil had his revenge by imprisoning luminous forces in man1 whom he made a microcosm of the universe4 ,and whereas the good spirit had created sun and moon1 the devil formed male and female4 ,the great sage of beneficent light then appeared in the world and brought forth from his own five members five liberators--pity1 contentment1 patience1 wisdom1 and good faith--corresponding to the five elements just as among the ,christians we shall find four virtues and four elements4 ,then ensued the struggle of the old man with the new man4 ,although we are commonly told that idolatry and magic were strictly prohibited by the ,manicheans1 the envoy of light is in one text represented as 8employing great magic prayers0 in his effort to deliver living beings4 ,when men eat living beings1 they offend against the five gods1 the earth dry and moist1 the five orders of animate beings1 the five different herbs and five trees4 ,other numbers than five appear in these ,manichean fragments3 four seals of light and four praises1 four courts with iron barriers2 three vestments and three wheels and three calamities2 ten vows and ten layers of heavens above1 and eight layers of earth beneath2 twelve great kings and twelve evil natures2 thirteen great luminous forces and thirteen parts of the carnal body and thirteen vices1--elsewhere fourteen parts2 fifteen enumerations of sins for which forgiveness is sought2 fifty days in the year to be observed2 and so on4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,mandaeans4 ,a sect derived either from ,gnosticism or from common sources seems still to exist in the case of the ,mandaeans of southern ,babylonia4#affc ,they believe that the earth and man were formed by a ,demiurge1 who corresponds to the ,ialdabaoth of the ,ophites1 and who was aided by the spirits of the seven planets4 ,they divide the history of the world into seven ages and represent ,jesus ,christ as a false prophet and magician produced by the planet ,mercury4 ,the lower world consists of four vestibules and three hells proper and has seven iron and seven golden walls4 ,a dying ,mandaean is clothed in a holy dress of seven pieces4 ,the spirits of the planets1 however1 are represented as evil beings1 and the first two of three sets of progeny borne by the spirit of hell fire were the seven planets and the twelve signs of the zodiac4 ,the influence of these two numbers1 seven and twelve1 may be further seen in the regulation that a candidate for the priesthood should be at least nineteen years old and have had twelve years of previous training1 which we infer would normally begin when he reached his seventh year and not before4 ,other prominent numbers in ,mandaean lore are five1#affd perhaps indicative of the planets other than sun and moon1 and three hundred and sixty1 suggestive of the number of degrees in the circle of the zodiac4 ,thus the main manifestations of the primal light are five1 and the third generation produced by the spirit of hell fire was of like number4 ,the number of aeons is often stated as three hundred and sixty1 and the delivering deity or ,messiah of the ,mandaeans is said to have sent forth that number of disciples before his return to the realm of light4 ,we hear of yet other numbers1 such as #dhj1jjj years for the duration of the world1 #fj1jjj1 and #bdj1 but these too are commensurate1 if not identical1 with astrological periods such as those of conjunctions and the magnus annus4 ,a peculiarity of ,mandaean astronomy and astrology is that the other heavenly bodies are all believed to rotate about the polar star4 ,mandaeans always face it when praying2 their sanctuaries are built so that persons entering face it2 and even the dying man is placed so that his feet point and eyes gaze in its direction4 ,like the ,gnostics1 the ,mandaeans invoke by many strange names their spirits and aeons who are divided into numerous orders4 ,their names for the planets seem to be of ,babylonian origin4 ,passages from their sacred books are recited like incantations and are considered more effective in danger and distress than prayer in the ordinary sense of the word4 ,such recitations are also employed to aid the souls of the dead to ascend through various stages or prisons to the world of light4 ,earthenware vessels have recently been brought to light with ,mandaean inscriptions and incantations to avert evil4#affe ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,christian ,,apocrypha ,magic in the ,bible--,apocryphal ,gospels of the ,infancy--,question of their date--,their medieval influence--,resemblances to ,apuleius and ,apollonius in the ,arabic ,gospel of the ,infancy--,counteracting magic and demons--,other miracles and magic by the ,christ child--,sometimes with injurious results--,further marvels from the ,pseudo-,matthew--,learning of the ,christ child--,other charges of magic against ,christ and the apostles--,the ,magi and the star--,allegorical zoology of ,barnabas--,traces of ,gnosticism in the apocryphal ,acts--,legend of ,st4 ,john--,legend of ,st4 ,sousnyos--,old ,testament ,apocrypha of the ,christian era4 ,sidenote3 ,magic in the ,bible4 ,it is hardly necessary to rehearse here in detail the numerous allusions to1 prohibitions of1 and descriptions of the practice of magic1 witchcraft1 and astrology1 enchantments and exorcisms1 divination and interpretation of dreams1 which are to be found scattered through the pages of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,such passages had a profound influence upon ,christian thought on such themes in the early church and during the middle ages1 and we shall have occasion to mention many1 if not most1 of such scriptural passages1 in connection with this later discussion of them by the church fathers and others4 ,for instance1 ,pharaoh's magicians and their contests with ,moses and ,aaron2 ,balaam and his imprecations and enchantments and prediction that a star would come out of ,jacob and a scepter out of ,israel2 the witch of ,endor or ventriloquist and her invocation of what seemed to be the ghost of ,samuel2 the repeated use of the numbers seven and twelve1 suggestive of the planets and signs of the zodiac1 as in the twelve cakes of showbread and candlestick with seven branches2 the dreams and interpretation of dreams of ,joseph and ,daniel1 not to mention the former's silver divining cup2#afff the wise men who saw ,christ's star in the east2 ,christ's own allusion to the shaking of 8the powers of the heavens0 and the gathering of ,his elect from the four winds at ,his second coming2 the accusation against ,christ that ,he cast out demons by the aid of the prince of demons2 the eclipse of the sun at the time of the crucifixion2 the adventures of the apostles with ,simon ,magus1 with ,elymas the sorcerer1 and with the damsel possessed with a spirit of divination who brought her master much gain by soothsaying2 the burning of their books of magic by the vagabond ,jewish exorcists2 the prohibitions of heathen divination and witchcraft by the ,mosaic law and by the prophets2 the penalties prescribed for sorcerers in the ,book of ,revelation2 at the same time the legalized practice of similar superstitions1 such as the ordeal to test a wife's faithfulness by making her drink 8the bitter water that causeth the curse10#affg the engraved gold plate upon the high priest's forehead1#affh or the use of ,paul's handkerchief and underwear to cure the sick and dispel demons2 the promise to believers in the closing verses or appendix of ,the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,mark that they shall cast out devils1 speak with new tongues1 handle serpents and drink poison without injury1 and cure the sick by laying on of hands4 ,the foregoing scarcely exhaust the obvious allusions or analogies to astrology and other magic arts in the ,bible1 to say nothing of less explicit passages#affi which were later taken to justify certain occult arts1 as ,exodus ,,xiii1 #i1 to support chiromancy1 and the ,gospel of ,john ,,xi1 #i1 to support the astrological doctrine of elections4 ,suffice it for the present to say that the prevailing atmosphere of the ,bible is one of prophecy1 vision1 and miracle1 and that with these go1 like the obverse face of a coin or medal1 their inevitable accompaniments of divination1 demons1 and magic4 ,sidenote3 ,apocryphal gospels of the infancy4 ,this is also the case in apocryphal literature of the ,new ,testament which is now so much less familiar and accessible especially to ,english readers1#afgj but which had wide currency in the early ,christian and medieval periods4 ,we may begin with the apocryphal gospels and more particularly those dealing with the infancy and childhood of ,christ4 ,of these two are believed to date from the second century1 namely1 the ,gospel of ,james or 8,gospel of the ,infancy0 7,protoevangelium ,iacobi7#afga and the ,gospel of ,st4 ,thomas1 which is mentioned by ,hippolytus4 ,however1 he cites a sentence which is not in the present text--of which the manuscripts are scanty and for the most part of late date#afgb--;and the gospel as we have it is not ,gnostic1 as he says it is1 so that our version has probably been altered by some ,catholic4#afgc ,later in date is the ,latin gospel of the ,pseudo-,matthew--perhaps of the fourth or fifth century--and the ,arabic ,gospel of the ,infancy1 which is believed to be a translation from a lost ,syriac original4 ,we are the worst off of all for manuscripts of its text and apparently there is no ,latin manuscript of it now extant1 although a ,latin text has reached us through the printed editions4 ,tischendorf was1 however1 8unwilling to omit in this new collection of the apocryphal gospels that ancient and memorable monument of the superstition of oriental ,christians10 and for the same reason we shall survey its medley of miracle and magic in the present chapter4 ,speaking of the flight into ,egypt this gospel says1 8,and the ,lord ,jesus performed a great many miracles in ,egypt which are not found recorded either in the ,gospel of the ,infancy or in the ,perfect ,gospel40#afgd ,tischendorf noted the close resemblance of its first nine chapters to the ,gospel of ,james and of chapters #cf-ee to the ,gospel of ,thomas1 while the intervening chapters 8contain especially fables of the sort you may fittingly call oriental1 filled with allusions to ,satan and demons and sorceries and magic arts40#afge ,we find1 however1 the same sort of fables in the other three apocryphal gospels2 there are simply more of them in the ,arabic ,gospel of the ,infancy4 ,it appears to be a compilation and may embody other earlier sources no longer extant as well as passages from the pseudo-,james and pseudo-,thomas4 ,sidenote3 ,question of their date4 ,there is a tendency on the part of orthodox ,christian scholars to defer the writing of apocryphal works to as late a date as possible1 and they seem to have a notion that they can save the credibility or purity of the miracles of the ,new ,testament#afgf by representing such miracles as those recorded of the infancy of ,christ as the inventions of a later age4 ,and it is probably true that all these marvels were not the invention of a single century but of a succession of centuries4 ,on the other hand1 ,i know of no reason for thinking ,christians of the first century any less credulous than ,christians of the fifth century2 it was not until the latter century that ,pope ,gelasius' condemnation of apocryphal books was drawn up1 but apocryphal books had long been in existence before that time2 nor for thinking the ,christians of the thirteenth century any more credulous than those of the other two centuries4 ,it is only in our own age that ,christians have become really critical of such matters4 ,moreover1 these unacceptable miracles1 whenever they were invented1 were presumably invented by and accepted by ,christians1 who must bear the discredit for them4 ,whatever the century was1 the same men believed in them who believed in the miracles recorded in the ,new ,testament4 ,if the plant has flowered into such rank superstition1 can the original seed escape responsibility8 ,the ,arabic ,gospel of the ,infancy is no doubt an extreme instance of ,christian credence in magic1 but it is an instance that cannot be overlooked1 whatever its date1 place1 or language4 ,sidenote3 ,their medieval influence4 ,these apocryphal gospels of the ,infancy1 which are in part extant only in ,latin1 continued to be influential in the medieval period4 ,at the beginning of it we find included in ,pope ,gelasius' list of apocryphal works1 published at a synod at ,rome in #did1afgg besides apocryphal gospels of ,matthew and of ,thomas--which last we are told1 8the ,manicheans use0--a ,liber de infantia ,salvatoris and a ,liber de nativitate ,salvatoris et de ,maria et obstetrice4 ,there are numerous manuscripts of such gospels in the later medieval centuries but it would not be safe to attempt to identify or classify them without examining each in detail4 ,as ,tischendorf said1 the ,latins do not seem to have long remained content with mere translations of the ,greek pseudo-gospel of ,james but combined the stories told there with others from the ,pseudo-,thomas or other sources into new apocryphal treatises4 ,thus the extant ,latin apocrypha in no case reproduce the ,gospel of ,james accurately but rather are imitated after it1 and include some of it1 omit some of it1 embellish some of its tales1 and add to it4#afgh ,mle states in his work on religious art in ,france in the thirteenth century that ,the ,gospel of the ,pseudo-,matthew and ,the ,gospel of ,nicodemus or ,acts of ,pilate were the two apocryphal gospels especially used in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4#afgi ,sidenote3 ,resemblances to ,apuleius and ,apollonius in the ,arabic ,gospel of the ,infancy4 ,that the fables of the ,arabic ,gospel of the ,infancy were at least not fresh from the orient is indicated by the way in which some of the incidents in the stories of ,apuleius and ,apollonius of ,tyana are closely paralleled4#afhj ,in the parlor of a well furnished house where lived two sisters with their widowed mother stood a mule caparisoned in silk and with an ebony collar about his neck1 8whom they kissed and were feeding40#afha ,he was their brother1 transformed into a mule by the sorcery of a jealous woman one night a little before daybreak1 although all the doors of the house were locked at the time4 8,and we10 they tell a girl who had been instantly cured of leprosy by use of perfumed water in which the ,christ child had been washed and who had then become the maid-servant of the virgin ,mary1#afhb 8have applied to all the wise men1 magicians1 and diviners in the world1 but they have been of no service to us40#afhc ,the girl recommends them to consult ,mary1 who restores their brother to human form by placing the ,christ child upon his back4 ,this romantic episode is then brought to a fitting conclusion by the marriage of the brother to the girl who had assisted in his restoration to his right body4 ,as the demon1 who in the form of an artful beggar was causing the plague at ,ephesus and whom ,apollonius had stoned to death1 turned at the last moment into a mad dog1 so ,satan1 when forced by the presence of the ,christ child to leave the boy ,judas1 ran away like a mad dog4#afhd ,the reviving of a corpse by an ,egyptian prophet in the ,metamorphoses in order that the dead man may tell who murdered him is paralleled in both the ,arabic ,infancy and the gospels of ,thomas and the ,pseudo-,matthew by the conduct of ,jesus when accused of throwing another boy down from a house-top4 ,the text reads3 8,then the ,lord ,jesus going down stood over the dead boy and said with a loud voice1 #8,zeno1 ,zeno1 who threw you down from the house-top8' ,then the dead boy answered1 #8,lord1 thou didst not throw me down1 but so-and-so did4'0#afhe ,sidenote3 ,counteracting magic and demons4 ,many were the occasions upon which the ,christ child or his mother counteracted the operations of magic or relieved persons who were possessed by demons4 ,kissing him cured a bride whom sorcerers had made dumb at her wedding1#afhf and a bridegroom who was kept by sorcery from enjoying his wife was cured of his impotence by the mere presence of the holy family who lodged in his house for the night4#afhg ,mary's pitying glance was sufficient to expel ,satan from a woman possessed by demons4#afhh ,another upright woman who was often vexed by ,satan in the form of a serpent when she went to bathe in the river1#afhi which reminds one somewhat of ,olympias and ,nectanebus1#afij was permanently cured by kissing the ,christ child4 ,and a girl1 whose blood ,satan used to suck1 miraculously discomfited him when he appeared in the shape of a huge dragon by putting upon her head and about her eyes a swaddling cloth of ,jesus which ,mary had given to her4 ,fire then went forth and was scattered upon the dragon's head and eyes1 as from the blinking eyes of the artful beggar who caused the plague in the ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 and he fled in a panic4#afia ,a priest's three-year-old son who was possessed by a great multitude of devils1 who uttered many strange things1 and who threw stones at everybody1 was likewise cured by placing on his head one of ,christ's swaddling clothes which ,mary had hung out to dry4 ,in this case the devils made their escape through his mouth 8in the shape of crows and serpents40#afib ,such marvels may offend modern taste but have their probable prototype in the miracles wrought by use of ,paul's handkerchief and underwear in the ,new ,testament and illustrate1 like the placing of spittle on the eyes of the blind man1 the great healing virtue then ascribed to the perspiration and other secretions and excretions of the human body4 ,sidenote3 ,other miracles and magic by the ,christ child4 ,sick children as well as lepers were cured by the water in which ,jesus had bathed or by wearing coats made of his swaddling clothes1#afic while the child ,bartholomew was snatched from the very jaws of death by the mere smell of the ,christ child's garments the moment he was placed on ,jesus' bed4#afid ,on the road to ,egypt is a balsam which was produced 8from the sweat which ran down there from the ,lord ,jesus40#afie ,the ,christ child cured snake-bite1 in the case of his brother ,james by blowing on it1 in the case of his playfellow1 ,simon the ,canaanite1 by forcing the serpent who had stung him to come out of its hole and suck all the poison from the wound1 after which he cursed the snake 8so that it immediately burst asunder and died40#afif ,when the boy ,jesus took all the cloths waiting to be dyed with different colors in a dyer's shop and threw them into the furnace1 the dyer began to scold him for this mischief1 but the cloths all came out of the desired colors4#afig ,jesus also miraculously remedied the defective carpentry of ,joseph1 who had worked for two years on a throne for the king of ,jerusalem and made it too short4 ,jesus and ,joseph took hold of the opposite sides and pulled the throne out to the required dimensions4#afih ,sidenote3 ,sometimes with injurious results4 ,the usual result of the ,christ child's miracles was that all the bystanders united in praising ,god4 ,but when his little playmates went home and told their parents how he had made his clay animals walk and his clay birds fly1 eat1 and drink1 their elders said1 8,take heed1 children1 for the future of his company1 for he is a sorcerer2 shun and avoid him1 and from henceforth never play with him40#afii ,indeed1 if the theory of the fathers is correct that the surest hall-mark by which divine miracles may be distinguished from feats of magic is that the former are never wrought for any evil end while the latter are1 it must be admitted that his contemporaries were sometimes justified in suspecting the ,christ child of resort to magic4 ,after his playmates had been thus forbidden to associate with ,jesus1 they hid from him in a furnace1 and some women at a house near by told him that there were not boys but kids in the furnace4 ,jesus then actually transformed them into kids who came skipping forth at his command4#agjj ,it is true that he soon changed them back into human form1 and that the women worshiped ,christ and asserted their conviction that he was 8come to save and not to destroy40 ,but on several subsequent occasions ,jesus is represented in the apocryphal gospels of the infancy as causing the death of his playmates4 ,when another boy broke a little fish-pool which ,jesus had constructed on the ,sabbath day1 he said to him1 8,in like manner as this water has vanished1 so shall thy life vanish10 and the boy presently died4#agja ,when a third boy ran into ,jesus and knocked him down1 he said1 8,as thou hast thrown me down1 so shalt thou fall1 nor ever rise20 and that instant the boy fell down and died4#agjb ,when ,jesus' teacher started to whip him1 his hand withered and he died4 ,after which we are not surprised to hear ,joseph say to ,mary1 8,henceforth we will not allow him to go out of the house2 for everyone who displeases him is killed40#agjc ,sidenote3 ,further marvels from the ,pseudo-,matthew4 ,as has been indicated in the footnotes many of the foregoing marvels are recounted in the ,pseudo-,matthew and ,latin ,gospel of ,thomas as well as in the ,arabic ,gospel of the ,infancy4 ,the ,pseudo-,matthew also tells how lions adored the ,christ child and were bade by him to go in peace4#agjd ,and how he 8took a dead child by the ear and suspended him from the earth in the sight of all4 ,and they saw ,jesus speaking with him like a father with his son4 ,and his spirit returned unto him and he lived again4 ,and all marveled thereat40#agje ,when a rich man named ,joseph died and was lamented1 ,jesus asked his father ,joseph why he did not help his dead namesake4 ,when ,joseph asked what there was that he could do1 ,jesus replied1 8,take the handkerchief which is on your head and go and put it over the face of the corpse and say to him1 #8,may ,christ save you4'0 ,joseph followed these instructions except that he said1 8,salvet te ,iesus10 instead of 8,salvet te ,christus10 which was possibly the reason why the dead man upon reviving asked1 8,who is ,jesus80#agjf ,sidenote3 ,learning of the ,christ child4 ,while no very elaborate paraphernalia or ceremonial were involved in the miracles ascribed to the ,christ child in the ,arabic ,gospel of the ,infancy1 it is perhaps worth noting that he was already possessed of all learning and nonplussed his masters1 when they tried to teach him the alphabet1 by asking the most abstruse questions4 ,and when he appeared before the doctors in the temple1 he expounded to them not only the books of the law1#agjg but natural philosophy1 astronomy1 physics and metaphysics1 physiology1 anatomy1 and psychology4 ,he is represented as telling them 8the number of the spheres and heavenly bodies1 as also their triangular1 square1 and sextile aspect2 their progressive and retrograde motion2 their twenty-fourths and sixtieths of twenty-fourths0 7perhaps corresponding to our hours and minutes67 8and other things which the reason of man had never discovered40 ,furthermore1 8the powers also of the body1 its humors and their effects2 also the number of its members1 and bones1 veins1 arteries1 and nerves2 the several constitutions of the body1 hot and dry1 cold and moist1 and the tendencies of them2 how the soul operates upon the body2 what its various sensations and faculties are2 the faculty of speaking1 anger1 desire2 and lastly1 the manner of the body's composition and dissolution1 and other things which the understanding of no creature had ever reached40#agjh ,it may be added that in the apocryphal epistles supposed to have been interchanged between ,christ and ,abgarus1 king of ,edessa1 that monarch writes to ,christ1 8,i have been informed about you and your cures1 which are performed without the use of herbs and medicines40#agji ,sidenote3 ,other charges of magic against ,christ and the apostles4 ,jesus is again accused of magic in ,the ,gospel of ,nicodemus or ,acts of ,pontius ,pilate1 where the ,jews tell ,pilate that he is a conjurer4 ,after ,pilate has been warned by his wife1 the ,jews repeat1 8,did we not say unto thee1 ,he is a magician8 ,behold1 he hath caused thy wife to dream40#agaj ,in the ,acts of ,paul and ,thecla1 to which ,tertullian refers and which are now seen to be an excerpt from the apocryphal ,acts of ,paul1 discovered in #ahii in a ,coptic papyrus1#agaa the mob similarly cries out against ,paul1 8,he is a magician2 away with him40 ,in the ,acts of ,peter and ,andrew#agab they are both accused of being sorcerers by ,onesiphorus1 who also1 however1 denies that ,peter can make a camel go through the eye of a needle4 ,nor is he satisfied when the feat is successfully performed with a needle and camel of ,peter's selection1 but insists upon its being repeated with an animal and instrument of his own selection4 ,onesiphorus also has 8a polluted woman0 ride upon his camel's back1 apparently with the idea that this will break the magic spell4 ,but ,peter sends the camel through the eye of the needle1 8which opened up like a gate10 as successfully as before1 and also back again through it once more from the opposite direction4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,magi and the star4 ,some details are added by the apocrypha to the account of the star at ,christ's birth4 ,the ,arabic ,gospel states that ,zoroaster 7,zeraduscht7 had predicted the coming of the ,magi1 that ,mary gave the ,magi one of ,christ's swaddling clothes1 that they were guided on their homeward journey by an angel in the form of the star which had led them to ,bethlehem1 and that after their return they found that the swaddling cloth would not burn in fire4#agac ,the ,epistle of ,ignatius to the ,ephesians states that this star shone with a brightness far exceeding all others1 filling men with fear1 and that with its coming the power of magic was destroyed and the new kingdom of ,god ushered in4#agad ,sidenote3 ,allegorical zoology of ,barnabas4 ,in the apocryphal ,epistle of ,barnabas occurs some of that allegorical zoology which we are apt to associate especially with the ,physiologus4 ,in its ninth chapter the hyena and weasel are adduced as examples of its contention that the ,mosaic distinction between clean and unclean animals has a spiritual meaning4 ,thus the command not to eat the hyena means not to be an adulterer or corrupter of others1 for the hyena changes its sex annually4 ,the weasel which conceives with its mouth signifies persons with unclean mouths4 ,in the ,acts of ,barnabas he cures the sick of ,cyprus by laying a copy of the ,gospel of ,matthew upon their bodies4#agae ,sidenote3 ,traces of ,gnosticism in the apocryphal ,acts4 ,if we turn again to the various apocryphal ,acts1 where we have already noted charges of magic made against the apostles1 we may find traces of gnosticism which have already been noted by ,anz4#agaf ,in the ,acts of ,thomas the ,holy ,ghost is called the pitying mother of seven houses whose rest is the eighth house of heaven4 ,in the ,acts of ,philip that apostle prays1 8,come now1 ,jesus1 and give me the eternal crown of victory over every hostile power 444 ,lord ,jesus ,christ 444 lead me on 444 until ,i overcome all the cosmic powers and the evil dragon who opposes us4 ,now therefore ,lord ,jesus ,christ make me to come to ,thee in the air40 ,the ,acts of ,john1 too1 speak of overcoming fire and darkness and angels and demons and archons and powers of darkness who separate man from ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,legend of ,john4 ,we deal in another chapter with the struggle of the apostles with ,simon ,magus as recounted in the apocryphal ,acts of ,peter and ,paul1 and with similar legends of the contests of other apostles with magicians4 ,here1 however1 we may mention some of the marvels in the apocryphal legend of ,st4 ,john1 supposed to have been written by his disciple ,procharus and 8which deluded the ,greek ,church by its air of sincerity and its extreme precision of detail10#agag although it does not seem to have reached the west until the sixteenth century4 ,john is represented as drinking without injury a poison which had killed two criminals1 and as reviving two corpses without going near them by directing an incredulous pagan to lay his cloak over them4 ,a ,stoic philosopher had persuaded some young men to embrace the life of poverty by converting their property into gems and then pounding the gems to pieces4 ,john made the criticism that this wealth might have better been distributed among the poor1 and when challenged to do so by the ,stoic1 prayed to ,god and had the gems made whole again4 ,later when the young men longed for their departed wealth1 he turned the pebbles on the seashore into gold and precious stones1 a miracle which is said to have persuaded the medieval alchemists that he possessed the secret of the philosopher's stone4#agah ,at any rate ,adam of ,st4 ,victor in the twelfth century wrote the following lines concerning ,st4 ,john in a chant to be used in the church service3 ,cum gemmarum partes fractas ,solidasset1 has distractas ,tribuit pauperibus2 ,inexhaustum fert thesaurum ,qui de virgis fecit aurum1 ,gemmas de lapidibus4#agai ,sidenote3 ,legend of ,st4 ,sousnyos4 ,the brief legend of ,st4 ,sousnyos1 which ,basset has included in his edition of ,ethiopian ,apocrypha1#agbj is all magic1 beginning with an incantation or magic prayer against disease and demons4 ,there is also a ,slavonic version4 ,this ,sousnyos is presumably the same as the ,sisinnios who is said by the author of the apocryphal ,acts of ,archelaus1#agba forged about #ccj-cdj ,a4 ,d41 to have abandoned ,mani1 embraced ,christianity1 and revealed to ,archelaus secret teachings which enabled him to triumph over his adversary4 ,sidenote3 ,old ,testament apocrypha of the ,christian era4 ,while on the subject1 mention may be made of two works which properly belong to the apocrypha of the ,old ,testament1 but which first appear during the ,christian era and so fall within our period4 ,the ,ascension of ,isaiah1#agbb of which the old ,latin version was printed at ,venice in #aebb1 and which dates back to the second century1 is something like the ,book of ,enoch1 describing ,isaiah's ascent through the seven heavens and vision of the mission of ,christ4 ,in the ,book of ,baruch1 of which the original version was written in ,greek by a ,christian of the third or fourth century1#agbc the most interesting episode is the magic sleep into which1 like ,rip ,van ,winkle1 ,abimelech falls during the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,chaldeans4 ,in the legend of ,jeremiah the prophet's soul is absent from his body on one occasion for three days1 while on another occasion he dresses up a stone to impersonate himself before the populace who are trying to stone him to death1 in order that he may gain time to make certain revelations to ,abimelech and ,baruch4 ,when he has had his say1 the stone asks the people why they persist in stoning it instead of ,jeremiah1 against whom they then turn their missiles4#agbd ,such is no exhaustive listing but rather a few examples of the encouragement given to belief in magic by the ,christian ,apocrypha4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,recognitions ,,of ,,clement ,,and ,,simon ,,magus ,the ,pseudo-,clementines--,was ,rufinus the sole medieval version8--,previous ,greek versions--,date of the original version--,internal evidence--,resemblances to ,apuleius and ,philostratus--,science and religion--,interest in natural science--,god and nature--,sin and nature--,attitude to astrology--,arguments against genethlialogy--,the virtuous ,seres--,theory of demons--,origin of magic--,frequent accusations of magic--,marvels of magic--,how distinguish miracle from magic8--,deceit in magic--,murder of a boy--,magic is evil--,magic is an art--,other accounts of ,simon ,magus3 ,justin ,martyr to ,hippolytus--,peter's account in the ,didascalia et ,constitutiones ,apostolorum--,arnobius1 ,cyril1 and ,philastrius--,apocryphal ,acts of ,peter and ,paul--,an account ascribed to ,marcellus--,hegesippus--,a sermon on ,simon's fall--,simon ,magus in medieval art4 8,the ,truth herself shall receive thee a wanderer and a stranger1 and enroll thee a citizen of her own city40 --,recognitions ,i1 #ac4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,pseudo-,clementines4 ,the starting-point and chief source for this chapter will be the writings known as the ,pseudo-,clementines and more particularly the ,latin version commonly called ,the ,recognitions4 ,we shall then note other accounts of its villain-hero1 ,simon ,magus1 in patristic literature4#agbe ,the ,pseudo-,clementines1 as the name implies1 are works or different versions of one work ascribed to ,clement of ,rome1 who is represented as writing to ,james1 the brother of the ,lord1 an account of events and discussions in which he and the apostle ,peter had participated not long after the crucifixion4 ,this ,pseudo-,clementine literature has a double character1 combining romantic narrative concerning ,peter1 ,simon ,magus1 and the family of ,clement with long1 argumentative1 didactic1 and doctrinal discussions and dialogues in which the same persons participate but ,peter takes the leading and most authoritative part4 ,not only the authorship1 origin1 and date1 but even the title or titles and the make-up and arrangement of the various versions and their original are doubtful or disputed matters4 ,the versions now extant and published seem by no means to have been the only ones1 but we will describe them first4 ,in ,greek we have the version known as ,the ,homilies in twenty books1 in which the didactic element preponderates4 ,it is extant in only two manuscripts of the twelfth and fourteenth centuries at ,paris and ,rome1#agbf but is also preserved in part in epitomes4 ,different from it is the ,latin version in which the narrative element plays a greater part4 ,sidenote3 ,was ,rufinus the sole medieval version8 ,this ,latin version1 now usually referred to as ,the ,recognitions1 because the main point in its plot is the successive bringing together again of1 and recognition of one another by1 the members of a family long separated1 is the translation made by ,rufinus1 who is last heard from in #daj4 ,it is usually divided into ten books4 ,numerous manuscripts of this version attest its popularity and influence in the middle ages1 when we early find ,isidore of ,seville quoting ,clement several times as an authority on natural science4#agbg ,arevalus1 however1 thought that ,isidore used some other version of the ,pseudo-,clementines than that of ,rufinus1#agbh and in the medieval period another title was common1 namely1 ,the ,itinerary of ,clement1 or ,the ,itinerary of ,peter4#agbi ,william of ,auvergne1 for instance1 in the first half of the thirteenth century cites the ,itinerarium ,clementis or 8,book of the disputations of ,peter against ,simon ,magus40#agcj ,this ,itinerary of ,clement also heads the list of works condemned as apocryphal by ,pope ,gelasius at a synod at ,rome in #did1agca a list reproduced by ,vincent of ,beauvais in his ,speculum naturale in the thirteenth century#agcb and in the previous century rather more accurately by ,hugh of ,st4 ,victor in his ,didascalicon4#agcc ,in all three cases the full title is given in practically the same words1 8,the ,itinerary by the name of the ,apostle ,peter which is called ,saint ,clement's1 an apocryphal work in eight books40#agcd ,here we encounter a difficulty1 since as we have said ,the ,recognitions are in ten books4 ,we find1 however1 that in another passage#agce ,vincent correctly cites the ninth book of ,the ,recognitions as ,clement's ninth book1 and that the number of books into which ,the ,recognitions is divided varies in the manuscripts1 and that they1 too1 more often call it ,the ,itinerary of ,clement or even apply other designations4 ,rabanus ,maurus in the ninth century quotes an utterance of the apostle ,peter from ,the ,history of ,saint ,clement1 but the passage is found in ,the ,recognitions4#agcf ,vincent of ,beauvais also quotes 8the blessed apostle ,peter in a certain letter attached to ,the ,itinerary of ,clement40 ,no letter by ,peter is prefaced to the printed text of ,the ,recognitions1 nor does ,rufinus mention such a letter1 although he does speak in his preface of a letter by ,clement which he has already translated elsewhere4 ,prefixed to the printed ,homilies1 however1 and in the manuscripts found also with ,the ,recognitions1 are letters of ,peter and ,clement respectively to ,james4 ,but the passage quoted by ,vincent does not occur in either1 but comes from the tenth book of ,the ,recognitions4#agcg ,it would seem1 therefore1 despite variations in the number of books and in the arrangement of material1 that the ,latin version by ,rufinus was the only one current in the middle ages1 but we cannot be sure of this until all the extant manuscripts have been more carefully examined4#agch ,sidenote3 ,previous ,greek versions4 ,the version by ,rufinus differed from previous ones not only in being in ,latin but also in various omissions which he admits he made and perhaps other changes to suit it to his ,latin audience4 ,that there was already more than one version in ,greek he shows in his preface by describing another text than that upon which his translation or adaptation was based4 ,neither of these two ,greek texts appears to have been the same as the present ,homilies4#agci ,yet ,the ,homilies were apparently in existence at that time1 since a ,syriac manuscript of #daa ,a4 ,d4 contains four books of ,the ,homilies and three of ,the ,recognitions1#agdj thus in itself furnishing an illustration of the ease with which new versions might be compounded from old4 ,both ,the ,homilies and ,the ,recognitions as they have reached us would seem to be confusions and perversions of this sort1 as their incidents are obviously not arranged in correct order4 ,for instance1 when the story of ,the ,recognitions begins ,christ is still alive and reports of ,his miracles are reaching ,rome2 the same year ,barnabas pays a visit to ,rome and ,clement almost immediately follows him back to ,syria1 making the passage from ,rome to ,caesarea in fifteen days2#agda but on his arrival there he meets ,peter who tells him that 8a week of years0 have elapsed since the crucifixion and of other intervening events involving a considerable lapse of time4 ,or again1 in the third book of ,the ,recognitions ,simon is said to have sunk his magical paraphernalia in the sea and gone to ,rome1 but as late as the tenth and last book we find him still in ,antioch and with enough paraphernalia left to transform the countenance of ,faustus4 ,sidenote3 ,date of the original version4 ,yet this late and misarranged version on which ,rufinus bases his text must have been already in existence for some time1 since he confesses that he has been a long while about his translation4 ,the virgin ,sylvia who 8once enjoined it upon0 him to 8render ,clement into our language0 is now spoken of as 8of venerable memory10 and it is to ,bishop ,gaudentius that ,rufinus 8after many delays0 in his old age 8at length0 presents the work4 ,we might thus infer that the original and presumably more self-consistent ,pseudo-,clementine narrative1 which ,rufinus evidently does not use1 must date back to a much earlier period4 ,we hear from other sources of ,the ,circuits or ,periodoi of ,peter by ,clement1 but this may have been the version translated by ,rufinus4#agdb ,conservative ,christian scholars regard as the oldest unmistakable allusion to the ,pseudo-,clementines that by ,eusebius early in the fourth century1 who1 without giving any specific titles1 speaks of certain 8verbose and lengthy writings1 containing dialogues of ,peter forsooth and ,apion10 which are ascribed to ,clement but are really of recent origin4 ,as for the date of the original work from which ,homilies and ,recognitions are derived1#agdc from #bjj to #bhj ,a4 ,d4 is suggested by ,harnack and his school1 who take middle ground between the extreme contentions of ,hilgenfeld and ,chapman4 ,but the original ,pseudo-,clement is supposed to have utilized ,the ,teachings of ,peter and ,the ,acts of ,peter1 which ,waitz would date between #ace and #baj ,a4 ,d4#agdd ,sidenote3 ,internal evidence4 ,the work itself1 even in the perverted form preserved by ,rufinus1 makes pretensions to the highest ,christian antiquity4 ,not only is it addressed to ,james and put into the mouth of ,clement1 but ,paul is never mentioned1 and no book of the ,new ,testament is cited by name1 while sayings of ,jesus are cited which are not found in the ,bible4 ,christ is often alluded to in a veiled and mystic fashion as 8the true prophet10 who had appeared aforetime to ,abraham and ,moses1 and interesting and vivid incidental glimpses are given of what purports to be the life of an early ,christian community and perhaps is that of the ,ebionites1 ,essenes1 or some ,gnostic sect4 ,emphasis is laid upon the purifying power of baptism1 upon ,peter's practice of bathing early every morning1 preferably in the sea or running water1 upon secret prayers and meetings1 a separate table for the initiated1 esoteric discussions of religion at cock-crow and in the night1 and upon power over demons4 ,all this may be mere clever invention1 but there certainly is an atmosphere of verisimilitude about it2 and it is rather odd that a later writer should be 8very careful to avoid anachronisms10 in whose account as it now stands are such glaring chronological confusions as those already noted concerning ,clement's voyage to ,caesarea and ,simon's departure for ,rome4 ,but1 as in the case of the ,new ,testament ,apocrypha1 the exact date of composition makes little difference for our purpose1 for which it is enough that the ,pseudo-,clementines played an important part in the first thirteen centuries of ,christian thought viewed as a whole4 ,eusebius and ,epiphanius may find them unpalatable in certain respects and reject them as heretical1 but ,basil and ,gregory utilize their arguments against astrology4 ,gelasius may classify them as apocryphal1 but ,vincent of ,beauvais justifies a discriminating use of the apocryphal books in general and cites this one in particular more than once as an authority1 and the incidents of its story were embodied1 as we shall see1 in medieval art4 ,sidenote3 ,resemblances to ,apuleius and ,philostratus4 ,the same resemblance to the works of ,apuleius and ,philostratus that we noted in the case of an apocryphal gospel is observable in the ,pseudo-,clementines4 ,we see in ,the ,recognitions the same mixed interest in natural science and in magic combined with religion and romantic incident that characterized the variegated and motley page of the author of the ,metamorphoses and the biographer of ,apollonius of ,tyana4 ,it is probably only a coincidence that two of the works of ,apuleius are dedicated to a ,faustinus whom he calls 8my son10 while ,clement's father is named ,faustus or ,faustinianus1 and the legend of ,faust is believed to originate with him and the episodes in which he is concerned4#agde ,less accidental may be the connection between ,peter's religious sea-bathing and that purification in the sea by which the hero of the ,metamorphoses began the process by which he succeeded in regaining his lost human form4 ,more considerable are the detailed parallels to the work of ,philostratus4#agdf ,peter corresponds roughly to ,apollonius and ,clement to ,damis1 while the wizards and magi are ably personified by the famous ,simon ,magus4 ,if ,apollonius abstained from all meat and wine and wore linen garments1 ,peter lives upon 8bread alone1 with olives1 and seldom even with pot-herbs2 and my dress10 he says1 8is what you see1 a tunic with a pallium3 and having these1 ,i require nothing more40#agdg ,like ,philostratus the ,pseudo-,clement speaks of bones of enormous size which are still to be seen as proof of the existence of giants in former ages2#agdh and the accounts of the ,brahmans and allusions to the ,scythians in the ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana are paralleled in ,the ,recognitions by a series of brief chapters on these and other strange races4#agdi ,peter is1 of course1 a ,jew1 not a ,hellene like ,apollonius1 but in his train are men who are thoroughly trained in ,greek philosophy and capable of discussing its problems at length4 ,they also are not without appreciation of pagan art and turn aside1 with ,peter's consent1 to visit a temple upon an island and 8to gaze earnestly0 upon 8the wonderful columns0 and 8very magnificent works of ,phidias40#agej ,just as ,apollonius knew all languages without having ever studied them1 so ,peter is so filled with the ,spirit of ,god that he is 8full of all knowledge0 and 8not ignorant even of ,greek learning02 but to descend from his usual divine themes to discuss it is considered to be rather beneath him4 ,clement1 however1 felt the need of coaching ,peter up a little in ,greek mythology4#agea ,this mingled attitude of contempt for 8the babblings of the ,greeks0 when compared to divine revelation1 and of respect for ,greek philosophy when compared with anything else is1 it is hardly necessary to say1 a very common one with ,christian writers throughout the ,roman ,empire4 ,sidenote3 ,science and religion4 ,the same attitude prevails toward natural science4 ,at the very beginning of the ,clementines the curiosity of the ancient world in regard to things of nature is shown by the question which someone propounded to ,barnabas when he began to preach1 at ,rome according to ,the ,recognitions1 at ,alexandria according to ,the ,homilies1 of the ,son of ,god4 ,the heckler wanted to know why so small a creature as a fly has not only six feet but wings in addition1 while the elephant1 despite its enormous bulk1 has only four feet and no wings at all4 ,barnabas did not answer the question1 although he asserted that he could if he wished to1 making the excuse that it was not fitting to speak of mere creatures to those who were still ignorant of their ,creator4#ageb ,sidenote3 ,interest in natural science4 ,this unwillingness to discuss natural questions by no means continues characteristic of the ,clementines1 however4 ,not only does ,peter explain to ,clement the creation of the world and propound the extraordinary#agec doctrine that after completing the process of creation ,god 8set an angel as chief over the angels1 a spirit over the spirits1 a star over the stars1 a demon over the demons1 a bird over the birds1 a beast over the beasts1 a serpent over the serpents1 a fish over the fishes10 and 8over men a man who is ,christ ,jesus40#aged ,not only does he later in public defend baptism with water on the ground that 8all things are produced from waters0 and that waters were first created4#agee ,we also find ,niceta accepting the ,greek hypothesis of four elements1 of the sphericity of the universe1 and of the motions of the heavenly bodies 8assigned to them by fixed laws and periods10 citing ,plato's ,timaeus1 mentioning ,aristotle's introduction of a fifth element1#agef disputing the atomic theory of ,epicurus1#ageg and alluding to 8mechanical science40#ageh ,he further discusses the generation of plants1 animals1 and human beings as evidences of divine design and providence1#agei in which connection he collects a number of examples of marvelous gen eration of animals such as moles from earth and vipers from ashes1 and affirms that 8the crow conceives through the mouth and the weasel generates through the ear40#agfj ,simon ,magus declared himself immortal on the theory1 which we shall find cropping out again in the thirteenth century in ,roger ,bacon and ,peter of ,abano1 that his flesh was 8so compacted by the power of his divinity that it can endure to eternity40#agfa ,on the other hand1 ,niceta describes the action of the intestines in a fairly intelligent manner1#agfb and tells how the blood flows like water from a fountain1 8and first borne along in one channel1 and then spreading through innumerable veins as through canals1 irrigates the entire territory of the human body with vital streams40#agfc ,a little later on ,aquila gives a natural explanation of rainbows4#agfd ,sidenote3 ,god and nature4 ,there is noticeable1 it is true1 a tendency1 common in patristic literature and found even among those fathers who hold the dualism of the ,manichees in the deepest detestation1 to make a distinction between ,god and nature and to attribute any flaws in the universe to the latter4#agfe ,niceta cannot agree with 8those who speak of nature instead of ,god and declare that all things were made by nature02 he holds that ,god created the universe4 ,but ,aquila1 who supports his brother in the discussion1 seems to think that ,god's responsibility for the universe ceased1 at least in part1 after it was once created4 ,at any rate he admits that 8in this world some things are done in an orderly and some in a disorderly fashion4 ,those things therefore10 he continues1 8that are done rationally1 believe that they are done by ,providence2 but those that are done irrationally and inordinately1 believe that they befall naturally and happen accidentally40#agff ,sidenote3 ,sin and nature4 ,but even nature sometimes rises up against the sins of mankind according to ,peter and his associates4 ,aquila believes that the sins of men are the cause of pestilences2#agfg that 8when chastisement is inflicted upon men according to the will of ,god1 he0 7i4 e4 the ,sun1 already called 8that good servant0 and whom the early ,christians found it difficult to cease to personify7 8glows more fiercely and burns up the world with more vehement fires02#agfh and that 8those who have become acquainted with prophetic discourse know when and for what reason blight1 hail1 pestilence1 and such like have occurred in every generation1 and for what sins these have been sent as a punishment40#agfi ,peter gives the impression that nature sometimes acts rather independently of ,god in thus punishing the wicked4 ,he says3 8,but this also ,i would have you know1 that upon such souls ,god does not take vengeance directly1 but ,his whole creation rises up and inflicts punishments upon the impious4 ,and although in the present world the goodness of ,god bestows the light of the world and the services of the earth alike upon the pious and the impious1 yet not without grief does the ,sun afford his light and the other elements perform their services to the impious4 ,and1 in short1 sometimes even in opposition to the goodness of the ,creator1 the elements are worn out by the crimes of the wicked2 and hence it is that either the fruit of the earth is blighted1 or the composition of the air is vitiated1 or the heat of the sun is increased beyond measure1 or there is an excess of rain or cold40#aggj ,this is a close approach to the notion of ,the ,book of ,enoch that human sin upsets the world of nature1 and an even closer approach to the theory of the ,brahmans in ,the ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana that prolonged drought is a punishment visited by the world-soul upon human sinfulness4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude to astrology4 ,such vestiges of the world-soul doctrine1 such a tendency to ascribe emotion and will to the elements and planets1 to personify them1 and to think of ,god as ruling the world indirectly through them1 prepare us to find an attitude rather favorable to astrological theory4 ,indeed1 in the first book of ,the ,recognitions#agga we are told in so many words that the ,creator adorned the visible heaven with stars1 sun1 and moon in order that 8they might be for an indication of things past1 present1 and future10 and that these celestial signs1 while seen by all1 are 8understood only by the learned and intelligent40 ,astrology is respectfully described as 8the science of mathesis10#aggb and1 as was common in the ,roman ,empire1 astrologers are called mathematici4#aggc ,a defender even of the most extreme pretensions of the art is not abused as a charlatan but is courteously greeted as 8so learned a man10#aggd and all admire his eloquence1 grave manners1 and calm speech1 and accord him a respectful hearing4#agge ,astrology1 far from being regarded as necessarily contrary to religion1 is thought to furnish arguments for the existence of ,god1 and it is said that ,abraham1 8being an astrologer1 was able from the rational system of the stars to recognize the ,creator1 while all other men were in error1 and understood that all things are regulated by ,his ,providence40#aggf ,the number seven is somewhat emphasized#aggg and the twelve apostles are called the twelve months of ,christ who is the acceptable year of the ,lord4#aggh ,somewhat similarly the ,gnostic followers of the heretic ,valentinus made much of the ,duodecad1 a group of twelve aeons1 and believed1 according to ,irenaeus1 8that ,christ suffered in the twelfth month4 ,for their opinion is that ,he continued to preach for one year only after ,his baptism40#aggi ,peter1 too1 has a group of twelve disciples4#aghj ,niceta speaks of 8man who is a microcosm in the great world40#agha ,it is admitted that the stars exert evil as well as good influence1#aghb and that the astrologer 8can indicate the evil desire which malign virtue produces40#aghc ,but it is contended that1 8possessing freedom of the will1 we sometimes resist our desires and sometimes yield to them10 and that no astrologer can predict beforehand which course we will take4 ,sidenote3 ,arguments against genethlialogy4 ,in fine1 astrology is criticized adversely only when it goes to the length of contending that 8there is neither any ,god1 nor any worship1 neither is there any ,providence in the world1 but all things are done by fortuitous chance and genesis02 that 8whatever your genesis contains1 that shall befall you02#aghd and that the constellations force men to commit murder1 adultery1 and other crimes4#aghe ,on this point ,niceta and ,aquila1 and finally ,clement himself1 have long discussions with an aged adept in genethlialogy which fill a large portion of the last three books of ,the ,recognitions1 and include a dozen chapters which are little more than an extract from ,the ,laws of ,countries of ,bardesanes4 ,divine ,providence and human free will are defended1 and genethlialogy is represented as an error which has received confirmation through the operations of demons4#aghf ,it is asserted that men can be kept from committing crimes by fear of punishment and by law1 even if they are naturally so inclined1 and races like the ,seres 7,chinese7 and ,brahmans are adduced as examples of entire races of men who never commit the crimes into which men are supposed to be forced by the constellations4 ,the argument is also advanced1 8,since ,god is righteous and since ,he ,himself made human nature1 how could it be that ,he should place genesis in opposition to us1 which should compel us to sin1 and then that ,he should punish us when we do sin80#aghg ,it is further charged that the constellations are so complicated1 that for any given moment one astrologer may infer a favorable and another a disastrous influence1#aghh and that most successful explanations of the effects of the stars are made after the event1 like dreams of which men can make nothing at the time1 but 8when any event occurs1 then they adapt what they saw in the dream to what has occurred40#aghi ,finally the aged defender of genesis1 who believed that his own fate and that of his wife had been accurately prescribed by their horoscopes1 turns out to be ,faustinianus 7called ,faustus in ,the ,homilies71 the long-lost father of ,clement1 ,niceta1 and ,aquila2 is also restored to his wife2 and learns that his previous interpretation of events from the stars was quite erroneous4#agij ,sidenote3 ,the virtuous ,seres4 ,the ideal picture of the ,seres or ,chinese1 8who dwell at the beginning of the world10 which ,the ,recognitions apparently borrows from ,bardesanes1 is perhaps worth repeating here as an odd admission that a non-,christian people can attain a state of moral perfection and sinlessness1 as well as an interesting bit of ancient ethnology4 8,in all that country which is very large there is neither temple nor image nor harlot nor adulteress1 nor is any thief brought to trial4 ,but neither is any man ever slain there4444 ,for this reason they are not chastened with those plagues of which we have spoken2 they live to extreme old age1 and die without sickness40#agia ,perhaps these virtuous ,seres are the blameless ,hyperboreans in another guise4 ,sidenote3 ,theory of demons4 ,demons and angels abound in ,the ,recognitions4 ,one may be rebuked and scourged at night by an angel of ,god4#agib ,peter says that every nation has an angel1 since ,god has divided the earth into seventy-two sections and appointed an angel as governor and prince of each4#agic ,once1 before beginning to preach1 ,peter expelled demons from a number of persons in the audience4#agid ,in another passage is described the cure of a girl of twenty-seven who for twenty years had been vexed by an unclean spirit and had been shut up in a closet in chains because of her violence and superhuman strength4 ,the mere presence of ,peter put this demon to rout and the chains fell off the girl of their own accord4#agie ,besides these personal encounters with demons1 the theory of demoniacal possession is discussed more than once1 and anything of which the author does not approve1 such as the art of horoscopes1 heathen oracles1 the excesses of pagan rites and festivals1 and the animal gods of the ,egyptians1 is attributed to the influence of demons4#agif ,one becomes susceptible to demoniacal possession who eats meat sacrificed to idols or who merely eats and drinks immoderately4#agig ,demons are apt to get into the very bowels of those who frequent drunken banquets4#agih ,incontinence1 too1 is accompanied by demons whose 8noxious breath0 produces 8an intemperate and vicious progeny4444 ,and therefore parents are responsible for their children's defects of this sort1 because they have not observed the law of intercourse40#agii ,as much care should be taken in human generation as in the sowing of crops4 ,but while demons abound1 ,god has given every ,christian power over them1 since they may be driven out by uttering 8the threefold name of blessedness40#ahjj ,moreover1 8what is spoken by the true ,god1 whether by prophets or varied visions1 is always true2 but what is foretold by demons is not always true40#ahja ,sidenote3 ,origin of magic4 ,with demons is associated the origin of the magic art4 8,certain angels 444 taught men that demons could be made to obey man by certain arts1 that is1 by magical invocations40#ahjb ,the first magicians were ,ham and his son ,mesraim1 from whom the ,egyptians1 ,babylonians1 and ,assyrians are descended1 and who tried to draw sparks from the stars#ahjc but set himself on fire 8and was consumed by the demon whom he had accosted with too great importunity40#ahjd ,but on this account he was called ,zoroaster or 8living star0 after his death4 ,moreover1 the magic art did not perish but was transmitted to ,nimrod 8as by a flash40#ahje ,with this may be compared the slightly different account of the origin of magic given by ,epiphanius in the ,panarion1 written about #cgd-cge ,a4 ,d4 ,magic is older than heresy and was already in existence before the time of ,ham or ,mesraim in the antediluvian days of ,jared1 when it coexisted with 8pharmacy10 a term here used to cover sorcery and poisoning1 licentiousness1 adultery1 and injustice4 ,after the flood ,epiphanius mentions ,nimrod 77 as the first tyrant and the inventor of the evil disciplines of astrology and magic4 ,he states that the ,greeks incorrectly confuse him with ,zoroaster whom they regard as the founder of magic and astrology4 ,according to ,epiphanius1 8pharmacy0 and magic passed from ,egypt to ,greece in the time of ,cecrops4#ahjf ,sidenote3 ,frequent accusations of magic4 ,in ,the ,recognitions everyone1 ,christian1 heretic1 pagan1 and philosopher1 condemns or professes to condemn magic1 and reference is made to the laws of the ,roman emperors against it4#ahjg ,but ,christians1 pagans1 and heretics1 while claiming divine power and protection for themselves1 freely accuse one another of the practice of magic4 ,an unnamed person1 by whom ,paul is perhaps meant1 stirs up the people of ,jerusalem to persecute the apostolic community there as 8most miserable men1 who are deceived by ,simon1 a magician40#ahjh ,the guards at the sepulcher1 unable to prevent the resurrection1 said that ,jesus was a magician1 a charge which is repeated by one of the scribes and by ,simon ,magus4 ,simon also calls ,peter a magician on more than one occasion4#ahji ,peter1 of course1 makes similar charges against ,simon2 he had been especially sent by ,james to ,caesarea in order to refute this magician who was giving himself out to be the ,stans or ,christ4#ahaj ,the gods of ,greek mythology1 too1 are accused of having resorted to magic transformations and sorcery4#ahaa ,philosophy1 however1 escapes the accusation of magic in ,the ,recognitions1#ahab and it was a philosopher who deterred ,clement1 before the latter had become a ,christian1 from his plan of investigating the problem of the immortality of the soul by hiring an ,egyptian magician to evoke a soul from the infernal regions by the art of necromancy4#ahac ,the philosopher condemned such an attempt as unlawful1 impious1 and 8hateful to the ,divinity40#ahad ,sidenote3 ,marvels of magic4 ,but while magic is condemned1 its great powers are admitted4 ,simon ,magus makes great boasts of the marvels which he can perform4 ,these include becoming invisible1 boring through rocks and mountains as if they were clay1 passing through fire without being burned1 flying through the air1 loosing bonds and barriers1 transformation into animal shapes1 animation of statues1 production of new plants or trees in a moment1 and growing beards upon little boys4#ahae ,he also asserted that he had formed a boy by turning air into water and the water into blood1 and then solidifying this into flesh1 a feat which he regarded as superior to the creation of ,adam from earth4 ,later ,simon unmade him and restored him to the air1 8but not until ,i had placed his image and picture in my bedchamber as a proof and memorial of my work40#ahaf ,not only does ,simon himself make such boasts2 ,niceta and ,aquila1 who had been his disciples before their conversion by ,zaccheus1 also bear witness to his amazing feats4 8,who would not be astonished at the wonderful things which he does8 ,who would not think that he was a god come down from heaven for the salvation of men80#ahag ,he can fly through the air1 or so mingle himself with fire as to become one body with it1 he can make statues walk and dogs of brass bark4 8,yea1 he has also been seen to make bread of stones40#ahah ,when ,dositheus tried to beat ,simon1 the rod passed through his body as if it had been smoke4#ahai ,the woman called ,luna who goes about with ,simon was seen by a crowd to look out of all the windows of a tower at the same time1#ahbj an illusion possibly produced by mirrors4 ,when ,simon fears arrest1 he transforms the face of ,faustinianus into the likeness of his own1 in order that ,faustinianus may be arrested in his place4#ahba ,sidenote3 ,how distinguish miracle from magic8 ,so great1 indeed1 are the marvels wrought by ,simon and by magicians generally that ,niceta asks ,peter how they may be distinguished from divine signs and ,christian miracles1 and in what respect anyone sins who infers from the similarity of these signs and wonders either that ,simon ,magus is divine or that ,christ was a magician4 ,speaking first of ,pharaoh's magicians1 ,niceta asks1 8,for if ,i had been there1 should ,i not have thought1 from the fact that the magicians did like things 7to those which ,moses did71 either that ,moses was a magician1 or that the feats displayed by the magicians were divinely wrought8444 ,but if he sins who believes those who work signs1 how shall it appear that he also does not sin who has believed on our ,lord for ,his signs and occult virtues80 ,peter's reply is that ,simon's magic does not benefit anyone1 while the ,christian miracles of healing the sick and expelling demons are performed for the good of humanity4 ,to ,antichrist alone among workers of magic will it be permitted at the end of the world to mix in some beneficial acts with his evil marvels4 ,moreover1 8by this means going beyond his bounds1 and being divided against himself1 and fighting against himself1 he shall be destroyed40#ahbb ,later in ,the ,recognitions1 however1 ,aquila states that even the magic of the present has found ways of imitating by contraries the expulsion of demons by the word of ,god1 that it can counteract the poisons of serpents by incantations1 and can effect cures 8contrary to the word and power of ,god40 ,he adds1 8,the magic art has also discovered ministries contrary to the angels of ,god1 placing the evocation of souls and the figments of demons in opposition to these40#ahbc ,sidenote3 ,deceit in magic4 ,but while the marvels of magic are admitted1 there is a feeling that there is something deceitful and unreal about them4 ,the teachings of the true prophet1 we are told1 8contain nothing subtle1 nothing composed by magic art to deceive10#ahbd while ,simon is 8a deceiver and magician40#ahbe ,nor is he deceitful merely in his religious teaching and his opposition to ,peter2 even his boasts of magic power are partly false4 ,aquila1 his former disciple1 says1 8,but when he spoke thus of the production of sprouts and the perforation of the mountain1 ,i was confounded on this account1 because he wished to deceive even us1 in whom he seemed to place confidence2 for we knew that those things had been from the days of our fathers1 which he represented as having been done by himself lately40#ahbf ,moreover1 not only does ,simon deceive others2 he is himself deceived by demons as ,peter twice asserts3#ahbg 8,he is deluded by demons1 yet he thinks that he sees the very substance of the soul40 8,although in this he is deluded by demons1 yet he has persuaded himself that he has the soul of a murdered boy ministering to him in whatever he pleases to employ it40 ,sidenote3 ,murder of a boy4 ,this story of having sacrificed a pure boy for purposes of magic or divination was a stock charge1 which we have previously heard made against ,apollonius of ,tyana and which was also told of the early ,christians by their pagan enemies and of the ,jews and heretics in the middle ages4 ,simon is said to have confessed to ,niceta and ,aquila1 when they asked how he worked his magic1 that he received assistance from 8the soul of a boy1 unsullied and violently slain1 and invoked by unutterable adjurations40 ,he went on to explain that 8the soul of man holds the next place after ,god1 when once it is set free from the darkness of the body4 ,and immediately it acquires prescience1 wherefore it is invoked in necromancy40 ,when ,aquila asked why the soul did not take vengeance upon its slayer instead of performing the behests of magicians1 ,simon answered that the soul now had the last judgment too vividly before it to indulge in vengeance1 and that the angels presiding over such souls do not permit them to return to earth unless 8adjured by someone greater than themselves40#ahbh ,niceta then indignantly interposed1 8,and do you not fear the day of judgment1 who do violence to angels and invoke souls80 ,as a matter of fact1 the charge that ,simon had murdered or violently slain a boy is rather overdrawn1 since the boy in question was the one whom he had made from air in the first place and whom he simply turned back into air again1 claiming1 however1 to have thereby produced an unsullied human soul4 ,according to ,the ,homilies1 however1 he presently confided to ,niceta and ,aquila that the human soul did not survive the death of the body and that a demon really responded to his invocations4#ahbi ,sidenote3 ,magic is evil4 ,nevertheless1 the charge of murder thus made against ,simon illustrates the criminal character here as usually ascribed to magic4 ,simon is said to be 8wicked above measure10 and to depend upon 8magic arts and wicked devices10 and ,peter accuses him of 8acting by nefarious arts40#ahcj ,simon in his turn calls ,peter 8a magician1 a godless man1 injurious1 cunning1 ignorant1 and professing impossibilities10 and again 8a magician1 a sorcerer1 a murderer40#ahca ,sidenote3 ,magic is an art4 ,a further characteristic of magic which comes out clearly in ,the ,recognitions is that it is an art4 ,demons and souls of the dead may have a great deal to do with it1 but it also requires a human operator and makes use of materials drawn from the world of nature4 ,it was by anointing his face with an ointment which the magician had compounded that the countenance of ,faustinianus was transformed into the likeness of ,simon1 while ,appion and ,anubion1 who anointed their faces with the juice of a certain herb1 were thereby enabled still to recognize ,faustinianus as himself4#ahcb ,in another passage one of ,simon's disciples who has deserted him and come to ,peter tells how ,simon had made him carry on his back to the seashore a bundle 8of his polluted and accursed secret things40 ,simon took the bundle out to sea in a boat and later returned without it4#ahcc ,simon not only employed natural materials in his magic1 but was regarded as a learned man1 even by his enemies4 ,he is 8by profession a magician1 yet exceedingly well trained in ,greek literature40#ahcd ,he is 8a most vehement orator1 trained in the dialectic art1 and in the meshes of syllogisms2 and what is most serious of all1 he is greatly skilled in the magic art40#ahce ,and he engages with ,peter in theological debates4 ,it is also interesting to note as an illustration of the connection between magic and experimental science that ,simon1 in boasting of his feats of magic1 says1 8,for already ,i have achieved many things by way of experiment40#ahcf ,sidenote3 ,other accounts of ,simon ,magus3 ,justin ,martyr to ,hippolytus4 ,in the ,pseudo-,clementines we are told that ,simon intended to go to ,rome1 but ,the ,recognitions and ,the ,homilies deal only with the conflicts between ,peter and ,simon in various ,syrian cities and do not follow them to ,rome1 where1 as other ,christian writers tell us1 they had yet other encounters in which ,simon finally came to his bitter end4 ,justin ,martyr1 writing about the middle of the second century1 states that ,simon1 a ,samaritan of ,gitto1 came to ,rome in the reign of ,claudius and performed such feats of magic by demon aid that a statue was erected to him as a god4 ,in this matter of the statue ,justin is thought to have confused ,semo ,sancus1 a ,sabine deity1 with ,simon4 ,justin adds that almost all ,samaritans and a few persons from other nations still believe in ,simon as the first ,god1 and that a disciple of his1 named ,menander1 deceived many by magic at ,antioch4 ,justin complains that the followers of these men are still called ,christians and on the other hand that the emperors do not persecute them as they do other ,christians1 although ,justin charges them with practicing promiscuous sexual intercourse as well as magic4#ahcg ,irenaeus gives a very similar account4#ahch ,origen1 as we have seen1 denied that there were more than thirty of ,simon's followers left1#ahci but his contemporary ,tertullian wrote1 8,at this very time even the heretical dupes of this same ,simon are so much elated by the extravagant pretensions of their art1 that they undertake to bring up from ,hades the souls of the prophets themselves4 ,and ,i suppose that they can do so under cover of a lying wonder40#ahdj ,but ,origen and ,tertullian add nothing to the story of ,simon ,magus himself4 ,hippolytus1 too1 implies that ,simon still has followers1 since he devotes a number of chapters to stating and refuting ,simon's doctrines and to 8teaching anew the parrots of ,simon that ,christ 444 was not ,simon40#ahda ,but ,hippolytus also gives further details concerning ,simon's visit to ,rome1 stating that he there encountered the apostles and was repeatedly opposed by ,peter1 until finally ,simon declared that if he were buried alive he would rise again upon the third day4 ,his disciples buried him1 as they were directed1 but he never reappeared1 8for he was not the ,christ40 ,sidenote3 ,peter's account in the ,didascalia et ,constitutiones ,apostolorum4 ,peter himself is represented as briefly recounting his struggle at ,rome with ,simon ,magus in the ,didascalia ,apostolorum1 an apocryphal work of probably the third century1 extant in ,syriac and ,latin1 and more fully in the parallel passage of the ,greek ,constitutiones ,apostolorum1 written perhaps about #djj ,a4 ,d4#ahdb ,peter found ,simon at ,rome drawing many away from the church as well as seducing the ,gentiles by his 8magic operation and virtues10 or1 in the ,greek version1 8magic experiments and the working of demons40#ahdc ,in the ,syriac and ,latin account ,peter then states that one day he saw ,simon flying through the air4 8,and standing beneath ,i said1 #8,in the virtue of the holy name1 ,jesus1 ,i cut off your virtues4' ,and so falling he broke the arch 7thigh87 of his foot 7leg8740#ahdd ,but he did not die1 since ,peter goes on to say that while 8many then departed from him1 others who were worthy of him remained with him40 ,in the longer ,greek version ,simon announced his flight in the theater4 ,while all eyes were turned on ,simon1 ,peter prayed against him4 ,meanwhile ,simon mounted aloft into mid-air1 borne up1 ,peter says1 by demons1 and telling the people that he was ascending to heaven1 whence he would return bringing them good tidings4 ,the people applauded him as a god1 but ,peter stretched forth his hands to heaven1 supplicating ,god through the ,lord ,jesus to dash down the corrupter and curtail the power of the demons4 ,he asked further1 however1 that ,simon might not be killed by his fall but merely bruised4 ,peter also addressed ,simon and the evil powers who were supporting him1 requiring that he might fall and become a laughing-stock to those who had been deceived by him4 ,thereupon ,simon fell with a great commotion and bruised his bottom and the soles of his feet4 ,it will be noted that here1 as in the accounts by some other authors1 ,peter alone struggles with ,simon ,magus1 lending color to the ,tbingen theory once suggested in connection with the ,pseudo-,clementines1 that ,simon ,magus is meant to represent the apostle ,paul4 ,sidenote3 ,arnobius1 ,cyril1 and ,philastrius4 ,arnobius1 writing about #cjj ,a4 ,d41 gives a somewhat different account of ,simon's mode of flight and fall4 ,he says that the people of ,rome 8saw the chariot of ,simon ,magus and his four fiery horses blown away by the mouth of ,peter and vanish at the name of ,christ4 ,they saw1 ,i say1 him who had trusted false gods and been betrayed by them in their fright precipitated by his own weight and lying with broken legs4 ,then1 after he had been carried to ,brunda1 worn out by his shame and sufferings1 he again hurled himself down from the highest ridge of the roof40#ahde ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 #cae-chf ,a4 ,d41 also speaks of ,simon's being borne in air in the chariot of demons1 8and is not surprised that the combined prayers of ,peter and ,paul brought him down1 since in addition to ,jesus's promise to answer the petition of two or three gathered together it is to be remembered that ,peter carried the keys of heaven and that ,paul had been rapt to the third heaven and heard secret words40#ahdf ,philastrius1 another writer of the fourth century1 describes ,simon's death more vaguely1 stating that after ,peter had driven him from ,jerusalem he came to ,rome where they engaged in another contest before ,nero4 ,simon was worsted by ,peter on every point of argument1 and1 8smitten by an angel died a merited death in order that the falsity of his magic might be evident to all men40#ahdg ,but it is hardly worth while to pile up such brief allusions to ,simon in the writings of the fathers4#ahdh ,sidenote3 ,apocryphal ,acts of ,peter and ,paul4 ,other fuller accounts of ,simon's doings at ,rome are contained in the ,syriac ,teaching of ,simon ,cephas#ahdi and in the apocryphal ,acts of ,peter and ,paul4#ahej ,in the former ,peter urges the people of ,rome not to allow the sorcerer ,simon to delude them by semblances which are not realities1 and he raises a dead man to life after ,simon has failed to do so4 ,in the latter work ,simon opposes ,peter and ,paul in the presence of ,nero and as usual they charge one another with being magicians4 ,simon also as usual affirms that he is ,christ1 and we are told that the chief priests had called ,jesus a wizard4 ,simon had already made a great impression upon ,nero by causing brazen serpents to move and stone statues to laugh1 and by altering both his face and stature and changing first to a child and then to an old man4 ,nero also asserts that ,simon has raised a dead man and that ,simon himself rose on the third day after being beheaded4 ,it is later explained1 however1 that ,simon had arranged to have the beheading take place in a dark corner and through his magic had substituted a ram for himself4 ,the ram appeared to be ,simon until after it had been decapitated1 when the executioner discovered that the head was that of a ram but did not dare report the fact to ,nero4 ,when ,simon met the apostles in ,nero's presence1 he caused great dogs to rush suddenly at ,peter1 but ,peter made them vanish into air by showing them some bread which he had been secretly blessing and breaking4 ,as a final test ,simon promised to ascend to heaven if ,nero would build him a tower in the ,campus ,martius1 where 8my angels may find me in the air1 for they cannot come to me upon earth among sinners40 ,the tower was duly provided1 and ,simon1 crowned with laurel1 began to fly successfully until ,peter1 tearfully entreated by ,paul to make haste1 adjured the angels of ,satan who were supporting ,simon to let him drop4 ,simon then fell upon the ,sacra ,via and his body was broken into four parts4#ahea ,nero1 however1 chose to regard the apostles as ,simon's murderers and put them to death1 after which a ,marcellus1 who had been ,simon's disciple but left him to join ,peter1 secretly buried ,peter's body4 ,sidenote3 ,an account ascribed to ,marcellus4 ,to this ,marcellus is ascribed a very similar narrative which is found in an early medieval manuscript and was perhaps written in the seventh or eighth century4#aheb ,fabricius and ,florentinus give its title as1 ,of the marvelous deeds and acts of the blessed ,peter and ,paul and of ,simon's magic arts4#ahec ,i have read it in a ,latin pamphlet printed at some time before #aejj1 where the full title runs3 ,the ,passion of the ,apostles ,peter and ,paul1 and their disputation before the emperor ,nero against ,simon1 a certain magician1 who1 when he saw that he could not resist the utterances of ,st4 ,peter1 cast all his books of magic into the sea lest he be adjudged a magician4 ,then when the same ,simon ,magus presumed to ascend to heaven1 overcome by ,st4 ,peter he fell to earth and perished most miserably4 ,at its close occurs the statement1 8,i1 ,marcellus1 a disciple of my lord1 the apostle ,peter1 have written what ,i saw40 ,when this ,marcellus began to desert his former master1 ,simon1 to follow ,peter1 ,simon procured a big dog to keep ,peter away from ,marcellus1 but at ,peter's order the dog turned upon ,simon himself4 ,peter then humanely forbade the beast to do ,simon any serious bodily injury1 but the dog tore the magician's clothing off his back1 and ,simon was chased from town by the mob and did not venture to return until after a year's time4#ahed ,sidenote3 ,hegesippus4 ,a chapter is devoted to ,simon ,magus in the ,history of the ,jewish ,war of the so-called ,hegesippus1 a name which is thought to be a corruption of ,josephus1 since the work in large measure reproduces that historian4 ,at any rate it was not written until the fourth century and is probably a translation or adaptation by ,ambrose4 ,its account of ,simon ,magus combines the story of his competition with ,peter in raising the dead1 8for in such works ,peter was held most celebrated10 with that of his flight and fall4 ,he is represented as launching his flight from the ,capitoline ,hill and leaping off the ,tarpeian rock4 ,the people marveled at his flight1 some remarking that ,christ had never performed such a feat as this4 ,but when ,peter prayed against him1 8straightway his propeller was tangled up in ,peter's voice1 and he fell1 nor was he killed1 but1 weakened by a broken leg1 withdrew to ,aricia and died there40#ahee ,sidenote3 ,a sermon on ,simon's fall4 ,finally1 passing over other ,latin accounts of the contest between the apostles and ,simon ,magus to be found in the ,apostolic ,histories of the ,pseudo-,abdias#ahef and in a work ascribed to ,pope ,linus1#aheg we may note a sermon which has been variously ascribed in the manuscripts and printed editions to ,augustine1 ,ambrose1 and ,maximus4#aheh ,this sermon1 intended for the anniversary of the day of martyrdom of ,peter and ,paul1 proceeds to inquire the cause of their death and finds it in the fact that among other marvels they 8prostrated by their prayers that magician ,simon in a headlong fall from the empty air4 ,for when the same ,simon called himself ,christ and asserted that as the ,son he could ascend unto the ,father by flying1 and1 suddenly raised up by magic arts1 began to fly1 then ,peter on his knees prayed the ,lord1 and by sacred prayer overcame the magical levitation4 ,for the prayer ascended to the ,lord before the flier1 and the just petition arrived ere the iniquitous presumption4 ,peter1 ,i say1 though placed on the ground1 obtained what he sought before ,simon reached the heaven towards which he was tending4 ,so then ,peter brought him down like a captive from high in air1 and1 falling precipitately upon a rock1 he broke his legs4 ,and this in contumely of his feat1 so that he who just before had tried to fly1 of a sudden could not even walk1 and he who had assumed wings lost even his feet4 ,but lest it appear strange that1 while the apostle was present1 that magician should fly through the air even for a while1 let it be explained that this was due to ,peter's patience4 ,for he let him soar the higher in order that he might fall the farther2 for he wished him to be carried aloft where everyone could see him1 in order that all might see him when he fell from on high40 ,the preacher then draws the moral that pride goes before a fall4 ,sidenote3 ,simon ,magus in medieval art4 ,the struggle of ,peter and ,paul with ,simon ,magus at ,rome appears in ,the ,golden ,legend1 compiled by ,jacopo de ,voragine in the thirteenth century1 and was likewise a favorite theme of ,gothic stained glass4 ,at ,chartres and ,angers ,peter may be seen routing ,simon's dogs by blessing bread2 at ,bourges and ,lyons ,simon and ,peter compete in raising the dead2 while windows at ,chartres1 ,bourges1 ,tours1 ,reims1 and ,poitiers show the apostles praying and ,simon falling and breaking his neck4#ahei ,this last scene and also the disputation before ,nero are represented in the earlier mosaics of the eleventh or twelfth century which the ,norman rulers of ,sicily had executed in the cathedral of ,monreale and the royal chapel of their castle at ,palermo4#ahfj ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,confession ,,of ,,cyprian ,,and ,,some ,,similar ,,stories ,the ,confession of ,cyprian--,his initiation into mysteries--,his thorough study of nature1 divination1 and magic--,the lore of ,egypt--,and of ,chaldea--,cyprian's practice of magic at ,antioch--,a ,christian virgin defeats the magic of the demons--,summary of ,cyprian's picture of magic--,christians accused of magic--,a story from ,epiphanius--,joseph's experience of miracle and magic--,legend of ,st4 ,james and ,hermogenes the magician--,other contests of apostles and magicians in ,the ,golden ,legend4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,confession of ,cyprian4 ,to the accounts of the contests of ,peter and ,paul with ,simon ,magus which were recorded in our last chapter we shall add in this some other encounters of early ,christians with magicians1 and to the picture of magic contained in the ,pseudo-,clementines that presented by ,cyprian in his ,confession4 ,if ,simon ,magus died impenitent in the midst of his magic1 very different was the end of ,cyprian1 a magician by profession in the third century1 who1 after being educated from childhood in heathen mysteries and the magic art1 repented and was baptized1 became bishop of ,antioch1 and finally achieved a martyr's crown4 ,in the ,confession#ahfa current under his name and which most critics agree was composed before the time of ,constantine#ahfb is described his education in and subsequent practice of magic4 ,for us perhaps the most interesting feature of his account of his education is the association of magic1 not only with pagan mysteries and the operations of demons1 but also with natural science4 ,sidenote3 ,his initiation into mysteries4 8,i am ,cyprian10 says the author1 8who from a tender age was consecrated a gift to ,apollo and while yet a child was initiated into the arts of the dragon40 ,when not yet seven years old1 he entered the mysteries of ,mithra1 and at ten his parents enrolled him a citizen at ,athens1 and he carried a torch in the mysteries of ,demeter and 8ministered to the dragon on the citadel of ,pallas40 ,when not yet fifteen1 he also visited ,mount ,olympus for forty days1 and 8was initiated into sonorous speeches and noisy narrations40#ahfc ,there he saw in phantasy trees and herbs which seemed to be moved by the presence of the gods1 spirits who regulated the passage of time1 and choruses of demons who sang1 while others waged war or plotted1 deceived1 and permeated4#ahfd ,he saw the phalanx of each god and goddess1 and how from ,mount ,olympus as from a palace spirits were despatched to every nation of the earth4 ,he was fed only after sunset and upon fruits1 and was taught the efficacy of each of them by seven hierophants4 ,sidenote3 ,his thorough study of nature1 divination1 and magic4 ,cyprian's parents were determined that he should learn whatever there was in earth and air and sea1 and not merely the natural generation and corruption of herbs and trees and bodies1 but also the virtues implanted in all these1 which the prince of this world impressed upon them in order that he might oppose the divine constitution4 ,cyprian also participated at ,argos in the sacred rites of ,hera1 and saw the union of air with ether and of ether with air1 also of earth with water1 and water with air4 ,he penetrated the ,troad and to ,artemis ,tauropolos who is at ,lacedaemon to learn how matter was confused and divided 8and the profundities of sinister and cruel legends40 ,from the ,phrygians he learned liver divination2 among the barbarians he studied auspices and the significance of the movements of quadrupeds1 and how to interpret omens and the language of birds1 and the sounds made by every kind of wood and stone1 or by the dead in tombs and the creaking of doors4 ,he became acquainted with the palpitations of the limbs1 the movement of the blood and pulse in bodies1 all the extensions and corollaries of ratios and numbers1 diseases simulated as well as natural1 8and oaths which are heard yet are not audible1 and pacts for discord40 ,there was1 in fine1 nothing whatever in earth or sea or air that he did not know1 whether it was a matter of science or phantasy1 of mechanics or artifice1 8even down to the magic translation of writings and other things of that sort40 ,sidenote3 ,the lore of ,egypt4 ,at twenty ,cyprian was admitted to the shrines at ancient ,memphis in ,egypt and learned what communication and relationship existed between demons and earthly things and 8in what stars and laws and objects they delight40 ,he witnessed imitations of earthquakes1 rain1 and storms at sea4 ,he saw the souls of giants held in darkness and fancied that they sustained the earth as a load on their shoulders4 ,he saw the communications of serpents with demons1 ideas of transfigurations1 impious piety1 science without reason1 iniquitous justice1 and things topsy-turvy generally4 ,besides the forms of various sins and vices1 such as fornication and avarice1 which suggest the medieval personification of the seven deadly sins1 he saw the three hundred and sixty-five varieties of ailments1 8and the empty glory and the empty virtue0 with which the priests of ,egypt had deceived the ,greek philosophers4 ,sidenote3 ,and of ,chaldea4 ,at thirty ,cyprian left ,egypt for ,chaldea in order to acquire its lore concerning air1 fire1 and light4 ,here he was instructed in the qualities of stars as well as of herbs1 and their 8choruses like drawn-up battle lines40 ,he was taught the house and relationships of each star and its appropriate food and drink4 ,also the meetings of spirits with men in light1 the three hundred and sixty-five demons who divide as many parts of the ether between them1 and the sacrifices1 libations1 and words appropriate to each4 ,cyprian's education had now advanced to such a point that the devil himself hailed him1 mere youth as he was1 as a new ,jambres1 a skilful and reliable practitioner1 and worthy of communication with himself4 ,cyprian again explains at this point that in all the stars and plants and other works of ,god the devil has bound to himself likenesses in preparation to wage war with ,god and ,his angels1 but these likenesses are shadowy images1 not solid substances4 ,the devil's rain is not water1 his fire does not burn1 his fish are not food1 and his gold is not genuine4 ,the devil obtains the material for his products from the vapors of sacrifices4 ,sidenote3 ,cyprian's practice of magic at ,antioch4 ,cyprian now returned from ,chaldea and wrought marvels at ,antioch 8like one of the ancients10 and 8made many experiments of magic and became celebrated as a magician and philosopher endowed with vast knowledge of things invisible40 ,men came to him to be taught magic or to secure their ends by his assistance4 ,and he easily helped them all1 some to the gratification of pleasure1 others to triumph over their adversaries or even to slay their rivals4 ,his conscience sometimes pricked him at the evil deeds which he thus wrought with the aid of demons1 but as yet he did not doubt that the devil was all powerful4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,christian virgin defeats the magic of the demons4 ,but then the case of the ,christian girl ,justina revealed to him the weakness and fraud of the devil4 ,determined to dedicate herself to a life of virginity1 ,justina repulsed the love of the youth ,aglades1 who sought ,cyprian's assistance4 ,but in vain3 the demon failed to alter ,justina's determination and was not even able to give another girl the form of ,justina and so deceive ,aglades4 ,justina was shown the form of her lover1 but she called upon the ,virgin1 and the devil was forced to vanish in smoke4 ,nor did disease and other plagues and torments affect her resolution4 ,her parents1 however1 were similarly afflicted until they besought her to marry ,aglades1 but instead she cured them of their ailments by the sign of the cross4 ,the devil then inflicted a plague on the entire community and delivered an oracle to the effect that the pest could be stayed only by the marriage of ,justina and ,aglades1 but her prayers turned the wrath of the public from herself against ,cyprian4 ,when the magician in disgust cursed the demon for the evil pass to which he had thus brought him1 the demon made a ferocious attack upon him1 from which ,cyprian saved himself just in the nick of time by calling upon ,god for aid and making the sign of the cross4 ,he then publicly confessed his crimes as a magician1 burned his books of magic1 and was baptized into the ,christian faith4#ahfe ,sidenote3 ,summary of ,cyprian's picture of magic4 ,cyprian's ,confession thus represents magic as a very elaborate art1 requiring long study and a thorough knowledge of natural objects and processes4 ,the magician has his books1 and he must also be able to read the book of nature4 ,astrology and other arts of divination are integral parts of magic4 ,but magic is also represented as the work of evil spirits4 ,this involves not merely a ,neo-,platonic sort of association of demons with natural forces and regions of earth or sky1 but also the specific association of the devil for evil purposes with objects in nature1 a doctrine which we shall find again in the works of a medieval saint1 ,hildegard of ,bingen4 ,furthermore1 magic aids in the commission of crime and is dangerous even to the magician against whom the devil may turn4 ,while magic involves study of nature and use of natural forces and associations1 and we also hear of 8many experiments of magic10 it is scarcely represented as operating scientifically in the ,confession4 ,it is mystic1 confused1 shadowy1 imitative1 imaginary1 lacking in solidity and reality1 fraudulent and deceptive4 ,finally1 this complex art1 this universal system of knowledge1 is easily balked and overthrown by the far simpler counter-magic of ,christianity1 by such methods as a prayer to the ,virgin1 calling on the name of ,god1 or merely making the sign of the cross4 ,sidenote3 ,christians accused of magic4 ,such counter-magic was apt to be regarded as magic by the pagans1 and the account of the martyrdom of ,cyprian states that the devil1 that 8very bad serpent10 suggested to the ,count of the ,orient that ,cyprian1 together with a certain virgin who is assumed to be ,justina1 was destroying the ancient worship of the gods by his magic tricks as well as stirring up the orient and the whole world by his epistles4 ,he was accordingly arrested and finally beheaded4 ,according to one account he and ,justina were first placed together in a cauldron of tallow and pitch over a fire4 ,but when they sang a hymn1 the flames left them uninjured and instead shot out and caused the death of an unreformed magician who happened to be standing near by4#ahff ,another case of ,christian martyrs who were probably accused of magic is found in ,spain about #bhg ,a4 ,d4 ,two ,christian sisters who were dealers in pottery refused to sell their earthenware for purposes of pagan worship4 ,one day1 as a pagan religious procession passed by their shop1 the crowd trampled upon their wares which were exposed for sale4 ,but thereupon the idol which was being borne in the procession fell and broke in pieces4 8,being probably suspected of magical practices10 the two sisters were arrested2 one died in prison and the other was strangled2 whereupon the bishop rescued their bones1 and these were cherished as the remains of martyrs4#ahfg ,sidenote3 ,a story from ,epiphanius4 ,epiphanius in the next century tells a story similar to that of ,cyprian1 ,aglades1 and ,justina1 of a youth who was led astray by evil companions who employed magic arts1 love philters1 and incantations to force free women to gratify their licentious desires4 ,by means of magic the youth went through the air to a very beautiful woman in the public bath1 but she repelled him by making the sign of the cross4 ,his companions then tried to devise some more powerful magic for his benefit1 and took him at sunset to a cemetery full of caves where for three successive nights the wizards vainly plied their arts in the attempt to gratify his lust4 ,but in every instance they were foiled by the name of ,christ and the sign of the cross4#ahfh ,sidenote3 ,joseph's experience of miracle and magic4 ,joseph1 the guardian of this same young man1 finally became converted to ,christianity after ,christ had appeared repeatedly to him in dreams and cured him of diseases and after he himself1 by employing the name of ,jesus1 had cured a man of a demoniacal possession which made him go shamelessly about the town in a nude state4 ,after his conversion1 ,joseph started to complete as a ,christian church an unfinished structure in ,tiberias called the ,adrianaion1 which the citizens previously had tried to convert into a public bath4 ,when the ,jews endeavored to ruin his undertaking by bewitching the furnaces which he had erected for the preparation of quick-lime1 he counteracted their magic by making the sign of the cross1 sprinkling his furnaces with holy water1 and saying in the name of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 8,let there be power in this water to counteract all pharmacy and magic employed by these men and to instill sufficient energy into the fire to complete the house of the ,lord40 ,with that his fires blazed up violently4#ahfi ,sidenote3 ,legend of ,st4 ,james and ,hermogenes the magician4 ,very similar both to the ,confession of ,cyprian and the story of ,simon ,magus is the legend of ,st4 ,james the ,great and ,hermogenes the magician1 which is found in ,the ,golden ,legend and which was often reproduced in medieval stained glass windows4#ahgj ,james converted to ,christianity a disciple of ,hermogenes whom the magician had sent against him when he was preaching in ,judea4 ,when the angry wizard cast a spell over his erstwhile disciple1 the latter was freed by means of ,st4 ,james's cloak4 ,when the magician sent demons to fetch both the convert and the saint1 ,james made them bring ,hermogenes to him instead1 but then set him free1 telling him that ,christians returned good for evil4 ,hermogenes now feared the vengeance that the demons would take upon himself1 and so ,james gave his staff to him to protect himself with4 ,soon afterwards ,hermogenes threw all his books of magic into the sea and was baptized4 ,sidenote3 ,other contests of apostles and magicians in ,the ,golden ,legend4 8,in ,the ,golden ,legend10 in fact1 as ,mle says1 8almost all the apostles have to contend with magicians4 ,but it is ,st4 ,simon and ,st4 ,jude who strive with the most formidable of sorcerers1 and they challenge him even in the very sanctuary of magic art1 the temple of the ,sun at ,suanir1 near ,babylon4 ,undismayed by the science of ,zoroaster and ,aphaxad1 they foretell the future1 they cause a new-born babe to speak1 they subdue tigers and serpents1 and from a statue they cast out a demon1 which shows itself in the shape of a black ,ethiopian and flees uttering raucous cries40#ahga ,if this last exorcism reminds us somewhat of the exploits of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 still more do the performances of ,st4 ,andrew1 who 8must surpass all the marvels of the magicians before he can convert ,asia and ,greece4 ,he drives away seven demons who in the shape of seven great dogs desolate the town of ,nicaea1 and he exorcises a spirit which dwells in the thermae and is wont to strangle the bathers40#ahgb ,,chapter ,,xix ,,origen ,,and ,,celsus ,celsus' charges of magic against ,christianity--,hebrew magic as depicted by ,celsus--,various recriminations of magic--,origen's distinction between miracles and magic--,origen frees ,jews as well as ,christians from the charge of magic--,celsus' sceptical description of magic--,celsus suggests a connection between magic and occult virtues in nature--,celsus on magicians and demons--,origen ascribes magic to demons--,magic is an elaborate art--,the ,magi of ,scripture were not different from other magicians--,origen's ,biblical commentaries--,balaam and the power of words--,limitations to the power of ,pharaoh's magicians--,was ,balaam a prophet of ,god or a magician8--,balaam's magic experiments--,limitations to his magic power--,divine prophecy distinct from magic and divination--,the ventriloquist really invoked ,samuel for ,saul--,christians less affected by magic than philosophers are--,their superstitious methods against magic--,incantations--,the power of words--,origen admits a connection between the power of words and magic--,jewish and ,christian employment of powerful names is really magic--,celsus' theory of demons--,origen calls demons wicked--,but believes in presiding angels--,a law of spiritual gravitation--,attitude of ,celsus toward astrology--,attitude of ,origen toward astrology--,further discussion in his ,commentary on ,genesis--,problems of the waters above the firmament and of one or more heavens--,augury1 dreams1 and prophecy--,animals and gems--,origen later accused of countenancing magic4 ,sidenote3 ,celsus' charges of magic against ,christianity4 ,in the celebrated work of ,origen ,against ,celsus1#ahgc written in the first half of the third century1 the subject of magic is often touched upon1 largely because ,celsus in his ,true ,discourse had so frequently brought charges of magic against ,jesus1 ,his ,christian followers1 and the ,jewish people from whom they had sprung4 ,celsus had called ,jesus 8a wicked and ,god-hated sorcerer02#ahgd had contended that ,his miracles were wrought by magic1 not by divine power2#ahge and had compared them unfavorably1 as less wonderful1 to the tricks performed by jugglers and ,egyptians in the middle of market-places4#ahgf ,it was the opinion of ,celsus that ,jesus in warning ,his disciples that 8there shall arise false ,christs and false prophets1 and shall show great signs and wonders10 had tacitly convicted ,himself of the same magical practices4#ahgg ,celsus1 for his part1 warned the ,christians that they 8must shun all deceivers and jugglers who will introduce you to phantoms02#ahgh he accused them of employing incantations and the names of certain demons2#ahgi he asserted that he had seen in the hands of ,christian presbyters 8barbarous books containing the names and marvelous operations of demons10 and that these presbyters 8professed to do no good1 but all that was calculated to injure human beings40#ahhj ,sidenote3 ,hebrew magic as depicted by ,celsus ,celsus regarded ,moses equally with ,jesus as a wizard1#ahha and he evidently1 like ,juvenal and other classical writers1 considered the ,jews and ,syrians as a race of charlatans1 especially given to superstition1 sorcery1 incantations1 ambiguous oracles and conjuration of spirits4 8,they worship angels10 he declared1 8and are addicted to sorcery1 in which ,moses was their instructor40#ahhb ,he stated that the ,jews traced back their origin to 8the first generation of lying wizards10 by which phrase ,origen thinks he referred to ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 whose names ,origen admits are much employed in the magic arts4#ahhc ,celsus further characterized the ,jews as 8blinded by some crooked sorcery1 or dreaming dreams through the influence of shadowy specters10#ahhd and as 8induced to bow down to the angels in heaven by the incantations employed by jugglery and sorcery1 in consequence of which certain phantoms appear in obedience to the spells employed by the magicians40#ahhe ,celsus1 also1 in describing the many self-styled prophets1 ,redeemers1 and ,sons of ,god in the ,phoenicia and ,palestine of his own time1 states that they make use of 8strange1 fanatical1 and quite unintelligible words1 of which no rational person can find any meaning10#ahhf and that those prophets whom he himself had heard had afterwards confessed to him that these words 8really meant nothing40#ahhg ,yet even the ,christians--,celsus complains--who condemn all other oracles1 regard as marvelous and accept unquestioningly 8those sayings which were uttered or were not uttered in ,judea after the manner of that country1 as indeed they are still delivered among the peoples of ,phoenicia and ,palestine40#ahhh ,sidenote3 ,various recriminations of magic4 ,to these accusations of ,celsus ,origen himself adds that the ,jews affirm that ,jesus passed ,himself off as ,christ by means of sorcery1#ahhi while the ,egyptians charge ,moses and the ,hebrews with the practice of sorcery during their stay in ,egypt4#ahij ,origen1 on the other hand1 speaks of 8the magical arts and rites of the ,egyptians0 and holds that it was by divine aid and not by superior magic that ,moses prevailed over ,pharaoh's magicians4#ahia ,celsus for his part had accused ,jesus during ,his residence in ,egypt of 8having there acquired some miraculous powers1 on which the ,egyptians greatly pride themselves40#ahib ,sidenote3 ,origen's distinction between miracles and magic4 ,origen repudiates the charges of magic made against ,christ and ,his followers as slanders4 ,he asserts that ,christianity on the contrary strictly forbids the practice of magic arts1#ahic and that these lost much of their force at the birth of ,christ4#ahid ,he contends that no magician would teach such noble doctrines as those of ,christianity4#ahie ,origen goes so far as to deny that even the 8false ,christs and false prophets10 who 8shall show great signs and wonders10 will be sorcerers1 and he states that no sorcerer has ever claimed to be ,christ#ahif--;an amazing assertion in view of his own allusions to ,simon ,magus4 ,works of magic and miracles1 ,origen affirms1 are no more alike than are a wolf and a dog or a wood-pigeon and a dove4 ,they are1 however1 so closely related that if one admits the reality of magic he must also believe in divine miracles1 just as the existence of sophistry proves that there is such a thing as sound argument and an art of dialectic4#ahig ,moreover1 in one passage ,origen admits that 8there would indeed be a resemblance0 between miracles and magic1 8if ,jesus1 like the dealers in magic arts1 had performed ,his works only for show2 but now there is not a single juggler who1 by means of his proceedings1 invites his spectators to reform their manners1 or trains those to the fear of ,god who are amazed at what they see1 nor who tries to persuade them so to live as men who are to be justified by ,god40#ahih ,on the contrary1 ,origen asserts that the magicians' 8own lives are full of the grossest and most notorious sins40 ,sidenote3 ,origen frees ,jews as well as ,christians from the charge of magic4 ,since it is one of ,origen's chief concerns to uphold ,hebrew prophecy as a proof of ,christ's divinity1 although ,celsus subjects the argument from prophecy to ridicule2 to defend the ,old ,testament against ,celsus' attacks as an inspired record of greater antiquity than ,greek philosophy1 history1 and literature1 which he asserts have stolen truths from it2 and to maintain that 8there is no discrepancy between the ,god of the ,gospel and the ,god of the ,law03#ahii--since this is so1 it is incumbent upon him to rebut also the accusations of magic laid by ,celsus at the door of the ,jews4 ,origen therefore asserts that the ,jews 8despised all kinds of divination as that which bewitches men to no purpose10 and cites the prohibition of ,leviticus 7xix1 #ca7 against wizards and familiar spirits4#aijj ,sidenote3 ,celsus' sceptical description of magic4 ,the ,reply to ,celsus is of especial interest to us because it presents as it were in parallel columns for our inspection the classical and the ,christian conceptions of and attitudes towards magic4 ,before proceeding1 therefore1 to inquire how far justified ,origen seems to be in thus acquitting1 or ,celsus1 on the other hand1 in condemning ,christians and ,jews on the charge of magic1 it is essential to note what magic means for either author4 ,both evidently regard it as a term of reproach and as usually evil in character4#aija ,celsus lists as feats of magic the expelling of demons and diseases from men1 or the sudden production of tables1 dishes1 and food as for an expensive banquet1 or of animals who move about as if alive4 ,celsus1 however1 seems to speak with a sneer of 8their most venerated arts0 and describes the banquet dishes as 8dainties having no real existence0 and the animals as 8not really living but having only the appearance of life40 ,therefore the ensuing comment of ,origen seems unusually stupid or unfair1 when he tries to convict ,celsus of inconsistency on the ground that 8by these expressions he allows as it were the existence of magic10 whereas ,origen hints that it was he 8who wrote several books against it40 8,these expressions0 are1 on the contrary1 precisely those which a man who had attacked magic as deceptive would use4 ,celsus further stated that an ,egyptian named ,dionysius had told him that magic arts had power 8only over the uneducated and men of corrupt morals10 but had no effect upon philosophers1 8because they were careful to observe a healthy manner of life40#aijb ,celsus himself observed that 8those who in market-places perform most disreputable tricks and collect crowds around them 444 would never approach an assembly of wise men40#aijc ,it was at the request of a ,celsus1 moreover1 that the second century satirist ,lucian wrote his ,alexander or ,pseudomantis#aijd in which some of the tricks of a magician-impostor and oracle-monger are exposed1 and in which allusion is made to the 8excellent treatises against the magicians0 written by ,celsus himself4 ,it seems reasonably certain that the ,celsus of ,lucian and the ,celsus of ,origen are identical1 as there are no chronological difficulties and the same point of view is ascribed in either case to ,celsus1 whom both ,lucian and ,origen regard as an ,epicurean or at least in sympathy with the ,epicureans4 ,galen1 in a treatise in which he lists his own writings1 mentions an 8,epistle to ,celsus the ,epicurean40#aije ,this1 too1 might be the same man4 ,sidenote3 ,celsus suggests a connection between magic and occult virtues in nature4 ,another passage in which ,celsus1 according to ,origen at least1 8mixed up together matters which belong to magic and sorcery0 runs as follows3 8,what need to number up all those who have taught methods of purification1 or expiatory hymns1 or spells for averting evil1 or images1 or resemblances of demons1 or the various sorts of antidotes against poison in clothing1 or in numbers1 or stones1 or plants1 or roots1 or generally in all kinds of things80#aijf ,in another passage ,celsus again closely connected sorcery with the knowledge of occult virtues in nature1 arguing that men need not pride themselves upon their power of sorcery when serpents and eagles know of antidotes to poisons and amulets and the virtues of certain stones which help to preserve their young4#aijg ,origen objects that it is not customary to use the word sorcery 77 for such things1 and suggests that ,celsus is such an 8,epicurean10 i4 e41 so sceptical1 that he wishes to discredit all those other beliefs and practices 8as resting only on the professions of sorcerers40 ,but we have already had proof enough in other chapters that ,celsus was not unjustified in connecting the occult virtue of natural objects with magic1 if not with sorcery4 ,sidenote3 ,celsus on magicians and demons4 ,celsus1 as we shall see1 believed in the existence of demons whom1 however1 he did not regard as necessarily evil spirits1 and whom he probably regarded as above any connection with magic4 ,origen once says that if ,celsus 8had been acquainted with the nature of demons0 and their operations in the magic arts1 he would not have blamed ,christians for not worshiping them4#aijh ,the natural inference from this statement is that ,celsus did not associate demons with magic4 ,origen1 however1 depicts him as 8speaking of those who employ the arts of magic and sorcery and who invoke the barbarous names of demons10#aiji and we have already heard him censure certain ,christian presbyters for their 8barbarous books containing the names and marvelous doings of demons40#aiaj ,it therefore becomes evident that magicians attempt to avail themselves of the aid of demons1 whether ,celsus believes that they succeed in their attempt or not4 ,sidenote3 ,origen ascribes magic to demons4 ,origen at any rate believes that magicians are aided by evil spirits1 and for him demons became the paramount factor in magic1 just as it is they who are worshiped in pagan temples as gods and who inspire the pagan oracles4#aiaa ,indeed1 just as ,celsus has kept calling the ,christians sorcerers1 so ,origen is inclined to label all heathen religions1 rites1 and ceremonies as magic4 ,he quotes the ,psalmist as saying that 8all the gods of the heathen are demons40#aiab ,he states that the dedication of pagan temples1 statues1 and the like are accompanied by 8curious magical incantations 444 performed by those who zealously serve the demons with magic arts40#aiac ,divination in general1 he believes1 8proceeds rather from wicked demons than from anything of a better nature40#aiad ,he does not think of magic as a deception1 he does not endeavor to expose its frauds1 he accepts its marvels as facts1 but declares that 8magic and sorcery are produced by wicked spirits1 held spellbound by elaborate incantations and yielding themselves to sorcerers40#aiae ,origen seems in doubt whether the demons are coerced by the spells and charms of magic or yield themselves willingly4#aiaf ,sidenote3 ,magic is an elaborate art4 ,as we shall see1 ,origen is at least ready to attribute great power to incantations1 and he does not deny that magic is an elaborate art4 ,with such various arts of magic he contrasts the simplicity of ,christian prayers and adjurations 8which the plainest person can use10 or the ,christian casting out of demons which is performed for the most part by 8unlettered persons40#aiag ,origen also suggests that the natural properties of plants and animals are a factor in magic1 when he cites ,numenius the ,pythagorean's description of the ,egyptian deity ,serapis4 8,he partakes of the essence of all the animals and plants that are under the control of nature1 that he may appear to have been fashioned into a god1 not only by the image-makers with the aid of profane mysteries and juggling tricks employed to invoke demons1 but also by magicians and sorcerers 7 7 and those demons who are bewitched by their incantations40#aiah ,another passage pointing in the same direction is ,origen's description of 8the man who is curiously inquisitive about the names of demons1 their powers and agency1 the incantations1 the herbs proper to them1 and the stones with the inscriptions graven on them1 corresponding symbolically or otherwise to their traditional shapes40#aiai ,thus although ,origen lays the emphasis upon demons1 we see that he admits most of the other customary elements in magic4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,magi of ,scripture were not different from other magicians4 ,origen does not1 like ,philo ,judaeus1 ,apuleius and some ,christian writers1 distinguish two uses of the word magic1 one good and one evil4 ,he does not differentiate between vulgar magic and malignant sorcery on the one hand and the lore of learned ,magi of the east on the other hand4 ,he simply says that the art of magic gets its name from the ,magi and that from them its evil influence has been transmitted to other nations4#aibj ,celsus had ranked the ,magi among divinely inspired nations but ,origen objects to this4 ,yet he recognizes that the wise men of the east who followed the star of ,bethlehem and came to worship the infant ,christ were ,magi4#aiba ,but he seems to regard them as ordinary magicians1 who were accustomed to invoke evil spirits4#aibb ,he thinks that the coming of ,christ dispelled the demons and hindered the ,magi's spells and charms from working as usual4 ,trying to find the reason for this1 they would note the new star in the sky4 ,origen will not admit that they could do all this by means of astrology1 nor even that they were astrologers at all2 he accuses ,celsus of blundering in calling them ,chaldeans or astrologers4#aibc ,rather he thinks that they could find an explanation of the star in the prophecies of ,balaam#aibd which they possessed and which predicted1 as ,moses too records1#aibe 8,there shall arise a star out of ,jacob1 and a man 7or1 as in the ,king ,james' version1 a scepter7 shall rise up out of ,israel40#aibf ,in another treatise than the ,reply to ,celsus ,origen further explains that the ,magi were descended from ,balaam and so owned his written prophecies4#aibg ,balaam was perhaps alluding to these very ,magi descended from him who came to adore ,jesus when he prophesied that his seed should be as the seed of the just4#aibh ,origen seems to have been the first of the church fathers to state the number of these ,magi as three1 which he does in one of his homilies on the ,book of ,genesis4#aibi ,sidenote3 ,origen's ,biblical commentaries4 ,at this point indeed1 we may well turn for a little while from the ,reply to ,celsus to those ,biblical commentaries of ,origen where he discusses such ,old ,testament passages connected with magic as the stories of ,balaam and of the witch of ,endor or ventriloquist4 ,the commentary of ,origen upon the ,book of ,numbers is extant only in the ,latin translation by ,rufinus1 who literally snatched it for posterity as a brand from the burning1 for he did not refrain from this learned and literary labor1 although as he plied his pen in ,messina in #daj ,a4 ,d4 he could see the invading barbarians ravaging the fields and burning ,reggio just across the narrow strait which separates ,sicily from ,italy4#aicj ,sidenote3 ,balaam and the power of words4 ,in commencing to speak of ,balaam and his ass#aica ,origen implies that much has already been written on this thorny theme and that he approaches it with considerable diffidence4 ,he prays ,god again and again for grace to be able to explain it1 not by means of fabulous ,jewish narrations--by which expression he perhaps alludes to commentaries of the rabbis such as have reached us in the ,talmud--but in a sense that shall be reasonable and worthy of the divine law4 ,to begin with he admits the power of words1 and not merely that of holy words or words of ,god1 but of certain words used by men4 ,that such words are in some respects more powerful than bodies is shown by the fact that ,balaam's cursing could accomplish what armies and weapons could not effect4 ,this calls to mind one of the ,mohammedan tales concerning ,balaam to the effect that by reading the books of ,abraham he learned 8the name ,yahweh by virtue of which he predicted the future1 and got from ,god whatever he wished40#aicb ,sidenote3 ,limitations to the power of ,pharaoh's magicians4 ,the magicians of ,egypt1 too1 who withstood ,moses and ,aaron before ,pharaoh1 were able to turn rods into snakes and water into blood1 feats which no man could accomplish by mere bodily strength4 ,indeed1 because the king of ,egypt knew that his magicians could do such things by a human art of words1 he thought1 at first at least1 that ,moses too was doing the same things not by the help of ,god but by the magic art4 ,there was1 however1 a very serious limitation to the magicians' power4 ,by the aid of demons they could turn good into evil but they could not repair the damage which they had done or restore the evil to good4 ,the rod of ,moses1 on the other hand1 not only devoured theirs but turned back from a snake into its original form1#aicc and it was necessary for ,moses to pray to ,god in order to stay the other plagues4 ,sidenote3 ,was ,balaam a prophet of ,god or a magician8 ,origen classifies ,balaam as a magician1 not as a prophet4 ,this seems to have been the prevalent patristic and medieval view1 although the ,biblical account in ,numbers represents ,balaam as in close and constant communication with ,god and the ,second ,epistle of ,peter#aicd calls him a prophet although it condemns his temporary madness in seeking 8the wages of unrighteousness40 ,josephus too calls him the best prophet of his time but one who yielded to temptation4#aice ,a fifteenth century treatise on the translation of the relics of the three kings to ,cologne tells us that 8concerning this ,balaam there is an altercation in the east between the ,christians and the ,jews02 the ,jews holding that he was no prophet but a diviner who predicted by magic and diabolical arts1 the ,christians asserting that he was the first prophet of the ,gentiles4#aicf ,the problem continued to exercise the ingenuity of ,lutherans and theologians of the ,reformed ,churches1 and in #ahdb was the main theme of a treatise of #bij pages in which ,hebrew words and quotations from ,calvin abound4#aicg ,sidenote3 ,balaam's magic experiments4 ,origen remarks that magicians differ in the amount of power they possess4 ,balaam was a very famous and expert one1 known throughout the whole orient4 ,he had given many experimental proofs 7experimenta7 of his skill and ,balak had frequently employed him4 ,the translator ,rufinus's repeated use of the words experimenta and expertus here is an interesting indication of the close connection between magic and experiment4#aich ,sidenote3 ,limitation to his magic power4 ,great1 however1 as was ,balaam's fame and power1 he could only curse and not bless1 an indication that he operated by the agency of demons who also only work evil and not good4 ,it is true that ,king ,balak said to him3 8,i know that whom you bless will be blessed10 but ,origen regards this as false flattery4 ,magicians employ the services of evil spirits1 but cannot invoke such angels as ,michael1 ,raphael1 and ,gabriel1 much less ,god or ,christ4 ,christians alone have the power to do this1 and they must cease entirely from the invocation of demons or the ,holy ,spirit will flee from them4 ,sidenote3 ,divine prophecy distinct from magic and divination4 ,it is true also that ,god in the end did speak through the mouth of ,balaam and that he blessed instead of cursed ,israel4 ,origen will not admit1 however1 that ,balaam was worthy of this1 or that a man can be both a magician and a prophet2 if ,god spake through ,balaam1 it was only to prevent the demons from coming and helping ,balaam to curse ,israel4 ,origen also attempts to solve the difficulties and inconsistencies involved in the repeated appearances and conflicting commands of ,god and the angel to ,balaam4 ,finally we may note that ,origen sees the similarity between the use of cauldron-shaped tripods in human arts of divination and the donning of the ephod by the prophets described in the ,old ,testament4#aici ,but he affirms that divine prophecy and divination are two different things and cites the ,biblical prohibition of the latter4 ,sidenote3 ,the ventriloquist really invoked ,samuel for ,saul4 ,in his commentary upon the ,first ,book of ,samuel1#aidj ,origen takes the ground that when ,saul consulted the witch or ventriloquist 771 ,samuel's ghost really appeared and spoke to ,saul1 for the ,scriptural account plainly says that the woman saw ,samuel#aida and that ,samuel spoke to ,saul4 ,consequently ,origen cannot agree with those who have held that the woman deceived ,saul or that both she and he were deluded by a demon who assumed the guise of ,samuel4 ,no demon1 he thinks1 could have prophesied that the kingdom would pass to ,david4 ,it has been objected that the enchantress could not raise the spirit of ,samuel from the infernal regions because he was a good man1 but ,origen holds that even ,christ descended to hell and that all before ,him had their abode there until ,he came to release them4 ,from this position not even the parable of ,dives and of ,lazarus in ,abraham's bosom with the great gulf fixed between them can shake ,origen4 ,sidenote3 ,christians less affected by magic than philosophers are4 ,origen disputes the statement of ,celsus that philosophers are not affected by the magic arts by pointing out that in ,moiragenes's ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 who was himself both a philosopher and magician1 it is affirmed that other philosophers were won over by his magic power 8and resorted to him as a sorcerer40#aidb ,on the other hand ,origen makes the counter-assertion that the followers of ,christ 8who live according to ,his gospel1 using night and day continuously and becomingly the prescribed prayers1 are not carried away either by magic or demons40 ,sidenote3 ,their superstitious methods against magic4 ,if these 8prescribed prayers0 were set forms of words1 they would seem not far removed in character from the incantations of the magicians which they were supposed to counteract4 ,an even clearer example of preventive magic is seen in ,origen's explanation that the practice of circumcision was a safeguard against some angel 7sic7 hostile to the ,jewish race4#aidc ,sidenote3 ,incantations4 ,if demons are for ,origen of primary importance in magic1 incantations run a close second1 since it is chiefly through them that men are able to utilize the power of the demons4 ,some of the barbarians1 ,origen tells us1 8are admired for their marvelous powers of incantation40#aidd ,and when he mentions the miraculous releases of ,peter and ,paul and ,silas from prison1 he adds that if ,celsus had read of these events he 8would probably say in reply that there are certain sorcerers who are able by incantations to unloose chains and to open doors40#aide ,but ,celsus did not say this2 we must therefore attribute the thought rather to ,origen himself4 ,speaking elsewhere in his own person ,origen more than once informs us that 8almost all those who occupy themselves with incantations and magical rites0 and 8many who conjure evil spirits0 employ in their spells and incantations such expressions as 8,god of ,abraham40#aidf ,origen grants that these phrases are used by the ,jews themselves in their prayers to ,god and exorcisms1 and that the names of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob possess great efficacy 8when united with the word of ,god40#aidg ,yet he will not acknowledge that the ,jews practice magic4 ,he also denies the charge of ,celsus that ,christians use incantations and the names of certain demons1 although he admits that ,christians ward off magic by regular use of prescribed prayers and frequently expel demons by repetition of 8the simple name of ,jesus1 and certain other words in which they repose faith1 according to the holy ,scriptures10 or 8the name of ,jesus accompanied by the announcement of the narratives which relate to ,him0 7presumably a repetition of the names of the four ,evangelists74#aidh ,it is even possible for persons who are not true ,christians to make use of the name of ,jesus to work wonders just as magicians use the ,hebrew names4#aidi ,sidenote3 ,the power of words4 ,origen1 however1 does not try to justify these ,hebrew and ,christian formulae1 adjurations1 and exorcisms on the ground that they are simply prayers to ,god1 who ,himself then performs the cure or miracle without compulsion4 ,origen believes that there is power in the words themselves1 as we have already heard him state in speaking of ,balaam4 ,this is seen from the fact that when translated into another language they lose their operative force1 as those who are skilled in the use of incantations have noted4#aiej ,thus not what is signified by the words1 but the qualities and peculiarities of the words themselves1 are potent for this or that effect4 ,it seems strange that ,origen should thus cite enchanters1 when in the sentence just preceding he had spoken of 8our ,jesus1 whose name has been manifestly seen to have driven out demons from souls and bodies44440 ,was the divine name alone and not ,god the cause of the miracle8 ,it may be added1 however1 that ,origen denied that languages were of human origin4#aiea ,but he has already gone far along this line and in the previous chapter has stated that 8the nature of powerful names0 is a 8deep and mysterious subject40#aieb ,some such names1 he goes on to say1 8are used by the learned amongst the ,egyptians1 or by the ,magi among the ,persians1 and by the ,indian philosophers called ,brahmans40 ,sidenote3 ,origen admits a connection between the power of words and magic4 ,later on in the work1 in a passage which we have already cited1 ,origen waxed indignant with ,celsus for speaking favorably of the ,magi1 inventors of the destructive magic art4 ,but now he speaks almost in a tone of respect of magic1 stating that if 8the so-called magic also is not1 as followers of ,epicurus0 7i4 e41 men like ,celsus whom ,origen accuses of being an ,epicurean7 8and ,aristotle think1 an entirely chaotic affair but1 as those skilled in such matters show1 a connected system comprising words known to very few persons10 then such names as ,adonai and ,sabaoth 8pertain to some mystic theology10 and1 8when pronounced with that attendant train of circumstances which is appropriate to their nature1 are possessed of great power40 ,sidenote3 ,jewish and ,christian employment of powerful names is really magic4 ,these last clauses make it clear that ,jews and ,christians were guilty both of incantations and magic1 however much ,origen may protest to the contrary4 ,it can hardly be argued that ,origen means to distinguish this 8so-called magic0 from the magic art which he condemns in other passages1 for not only is it evident that the followers of ,epicurus and ,aristotle make no such distinction1 but ,origen himself in other passages ascribes the employment of such ,hebrew names to ordinary magicians and declares that such invocations of ,god are 8found in treatises on magic in many countries40#aiec ,origen also states in his ,commentary upon ,matthew#aied that the ,jews are regarded as adepts in adjuration of demons and that they employ adjurations in the ,hebrew language drawn from the books of ,solomon4 ,moreover1 he continues in the present passage1 8,and other names1 again1 current in the ,egyptian tongue1 are efficacious against certain demons who can only do certain things2 and others in the ,persian language have corresponding power over other spirits2 and so on in every different nation1 for different purposes40 8 444 ,and when one is able to philosophize about the mystery of names1 he will find much to say respecting the titles of the angels of ,god1 of whom one is called ,michael1 and another ,gabriel1 and another ,raphael1 appropriately to the duties which they discharge in the world4 ,and a similar philosophy of names applies also to our ,jesus40 ,between such mystic theology and philosophy of names1 the ,gnostic diagram of the ,ophites1#aiee and the downright incantations of the magicians1 there is surely little to choose4 ,sidenote3 ,celsus' theory of demons4 ,from the names of ,god and angels1 by uttering which such wonders may be performed1 we turn to the spirits themselves4 ,celsus seems to think of demons as spiritual beings who act as intermediaries between the supreme ,deity and the world of nature and human society4 ,he believes that 8in all probability the various quarters of the earth were from the beginning allotted to different superintending spirits40#aief ,he warns the ,christians that it is absurd for them to think that they can escape the demons by simply refusing to eat the meat that has been offered to idols2 the demons are everywhere in nature1 and one cannot eat bread or drink wine or taste fruit or breathe the very air without receiving these gifts of nature from the demons to whom the various provinces of nature have been assigned4#aieg ,the ,egyptians teach that even the most insignificant objects are committed to demon care1 and they divide the human body into thirty-six parts1 each in charge of a demon of the air who should be invoked in order to cure an ailment of that particular part4#aieh ,celsus mentions some of the names of these thirty-six demons3 ,chnoumen1 ,chnachoumen1 ,cnat1 ,sicat1 ,biou1 ,erou1 and others4 ,celsus1 however1 does not accept this ,egyptian doctrine without qualification4 ,he suspects1 ,origen tells us1 that it leads toward magic1 and hence adds 8the opinion of those wise men who say that most of the earth-demons are taken up with carnal indulgence1 blood1 odors1 sweet sounds and other such sensual things2 and therefore they are unable to do more than heal the body1 or foretell the fortunes of men and cities1 and do other such things as relate to this mortal life40#aiei ,celsus himself1 however1 seems as unwilling to accept this ,egyptian view as he is to condone magic1 and concludes that 8the more just opinion is that the demons desire nothing and need nothing1 but that they take pleasure in those who discharge toward them offices of piety40#aifj ,celsus believes that divine providence regulates the acts of the demons and so asks3 8,why are we not to serve demons80#aifa ,sidenote3 ,origen calls demons wicked4 ,origen's reply to this question is that the demons are wicked spirits and concerned with magic and idolatry4 ,he maintains that not only ,christians 8but almost all who acknowledge the existence of demons0 regard them as evil spirits4#aifb ,his own attitude toward them is invariably one of hostility4 ,the thirty-six spirits who1 as the ,egyptians believe1 have charge of different parts of the human body1 ,origen spurns as 8thirty-six barbarous demons whom the ,egyptian ,magi alone call upon in some unknown way40#aifc ,really we probably have here to do with the astrological decans or sub-divisions of the signs of the zodiac into sections of ten degrees each4 ,sidenote3 ,but believes in presiding angels4 ,yet ,origen's notion of the spiritual world rather closely resembles that of ,celsus1 for he is ready to ascribe to angels or other good invisible beings much the same functions which ,celsus attributed to demons4 ,he does not1 for example1 dispute the theory that different parts of the earth and of nature are assigned to different spirits4 ,instead he 8ventures to lay down some considerations of a profounder kind1 conveying a mystical and secret view respecting the original distribution of the various quarters of the earth among different superintending spirits40#aifd ,he quotes the ,septuagint version of ,deuteronomy1 8,when the most ,high divided the nations4444 ,he set the bounds of the people according to the number of the angels of ,god40#aife ,he narrates how after ,babel1 men 8were conducted by those angels who imprinted on each his native language to the different parts of the earth according to their deserts40#aiff ,he concludes by saying1 8,these remarks are to be understood as being made by us with a concealed meaning10#aifg but there seems little doubt as to his substantial agreement with the view of ,celsus4 ,indeed1 later when ,celsus asserts that ,christians cannot eat1 drink1 or breathe without being indebted to demons1 ,origen responds1 8,we indeed also maintain 444 the agency and control of certain beings whom we may call invisible husbandmen and guardians2 444 but we deny that those invisible agents are demons40#aifh ,in his fourteenth homily on ,numbers1 as extant in ,rufinus's translation1#aifi ,origen again speaks of presiding angels in these words4 8,and what is so pleasant1 what is so magnificent as the work of the sun or moon by whom the world is illuminated8 ,yet there is work in the world itself too for angels who are over beasts and for angels who preside over earthly armies4 ,there is work for angels who preside over the nativity of animals1 of seedlings1 of plantations1 and many other growths4 ,and again there is work for angels who preside over holy works1 who teach the comprehension of eternal light and the knowledge of ,god's secrets and the science of divine things40 ,how this passage might be used to encourage a belief in magic is made evident by the paraphrase of it in ,the ,occult ,philosophy of ,henry ,cornelius ,agrippa1#aigj written in #aeaj at the close of the middle ages4 ,he represents ,origen as saying1 8,there is work in the world itself for angels who preside over earthly armies1 kingdoms1 provinces1 men1 beasts1 the nativity and growth of animals1 shoots1 plants1 and other things1 giving that virtue which they say is in things from their occult property40 ,in the treatise ,de ,principiis1#aiga ,origen states that particular offices are assigned to individual angels1 as curing diseases to ,raphael1 and the conduct of wars to ,gabriel4 ,this notion he perhaps derived from the ,book of ,enoch which1 however1 he states in his ,reply to ,celsus is not accepted by the churches as divinely inspired4#aigb ,he further declares on the authority of passages in the ,new ,testament that to one angel the ,church of the ,ephesians was entrusted2 to another1 that of ,smyrna2 that ,peter had his angel and ,paul his1--nay that 8every one of the little ones of the ,church0 has his angel who daily beholds the face of ,god4#aigc ,sidenote3 ,a law of spiritual gravitation4 ,origen advances a further theory concerning spirits1 which may be described as a sort of law of spiritual gravitation4 ,it is that when souls are pure and 8not weighted down with sin as with a weight of lead10 they ascend on high where other pure and ethereal bodies and spirits dwell1 8leaving here below their grosser bodies along with their impurities40 ,polluted souls1 on the contrary1 have to stay close to earth where they wander about sepulchers as ghosts and apparitions4#aigd ,origen therefore infers that pagan gods 8who are attached for entire ages to particular dwellings and places0 on earth1 are wicked and polluted spirits4 ,origen of course will not admit that ,christians or ,jews bow down even to angels2 such worship they reserve for ,god alone4#aige ,sidenote3 ,attitude of ,celsus toward astrology4 ,both ,celsus and ,origen closely associate with the world of invisible spirits1 whether these be angels or demons1 the visible heavenly bodies1 and thus lead us from magic1 which ,origen makes so dependent upon demons1 to the kindred subject of astrology1 the pseudo-science of the stars4 ,celsus had censured the ,jews and by implication the ,christians for worshiping heaven and the angels1 and even apparitions produced by sorcery and enchantment1 and yet at the same time neglecting what in his opinion formed the holiest and most powerful part of the heaven1 namely1 the fixed stars and the planets1 8who prophesy to everyone so distinctly1 through whom all productiveness results1 the most conspicuous of supernal heralds1 real heavenly angels40#aigf ,this shows that ,celsus was much more favorably inclined toward astrology than toward magic and less sceptical concerning its validity4 ,origen also represents ,celsus--and furthermore the ,stoics1 ,platonists1 and ,pythagoreans--as believing in the theory of the magnus annus1 according to which1 when the celestial bodies all return to their original positions after the lapse of some thousands of years1 history will begin to repeat itself and the same events will occur and the same persons live over again4#aigg ,origen also complains that ,celsus regards as a divinely-inspired nation the ,chaldeans1 who were the founders of 8deceitful genethlialogy10#aigh as well as the ,magi whom ,celsus elsewhere identified with the ,chaldeans or astrologers1 but whom ,origen as we have seen regards rather as the founders of magic4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude of ,origen toward astrology4 ,origen is opposed both to this art of casting horoscopes and determining the entire life of the individual from his nativity1 and to the theory of the magnus annus1#aigi because he is convinced that to admit their truth is to annihilate free-will4 ,but he is far from having freed himself fundamentally from the astrological attitude toward the stars2 indeed he still shows vestiges of the old pagan tendency to worship them as divinities4 ,he is convinced that the celestial bodies are not mere fiery masses1 as ,anaxagoras teaches4#aihj ,the body of a star is material1 it is true1 but also ethereal4 ,but furthermore ,origen is inclined to agree1 both in the ,de principiis#aiha and in the ,contra ,celsum1#aihb that the stars are rational beings 7 --the latter word had already been applied to them by ,philo ,judaeus7 possessed of free-will and 8illuminated with the light of knowledge by that wisdom which is the reflection of everlasting light40 ,he interprets a passage in ,deuteronomy#aihc to mean that the stars have in general been assigned by ,god to all the nations beneath the heaven1 but asserts that from this system of astral satrapies ,god's chosen people were exempted4 ,he is willing to admit that the stars foretell many things1 and puts especial faith in comets as omens4#aihd ,he states that they have appeared on the eve of dynastic changes1 great wars1 and other disasters1 and inclines also to agree with ,chaeremon the ,stoic that they may come as signs of future good1 as in the case of the star announcing the birth of ,christ4#aihe ,but while ,origen will grant reasoning faculties and a certain amount of prophetic power to the stars1 he refuses to permit worship of them4 ,rather he is persuaded 8that the sun himself and moon and stars pray to the supreme ,god through his only begotten ,son40#aihf ,pierre ,daniel ,huet 7#afcj-agba71 the learned bishop of ,avranches and editor of ,origen1 in his commentaries upon ,origen#aihg cites other works1 commentaries on ,matthew1 the ,psalms1 the ,epistle to the ,romans1 and ,ezekiel1 in which ,origen again states that the stars are reasoning beings1 honor ,god1 praise and pray to ,him1 and even that they are capable of sin1 a point upon which he agrees with the ,book of ,enoch and ,bardesanes but not with ,philo ,judaeus4 ,nicephorus#aihh states that ,origen was condemned in the fifth synod for his error concerning the stars being animated4 ,sometimes1 however1 ,huet points out1 ,origen leaves it an open question whether the heavenly bodies are animated or not4#aihi ,huet also asserts that in his own time such great men as ,tycho ,brahe and ,kepler have defended the view that the stars are animated beings4 ,sidenote3 ,further discussion in his ,commentary on ,genesis4 ,in a fragment from ,origen's ,commentary on ,genesis preserved by ,eusebius we have a further discussion of the stars and astrology4#aiij ,here he represents even ,christians as troubled by the doctrine that the stars control human affairs absolutely4 ,this theory he attacks as destructive to all morality1 as rendering prayer to ,god of no avail1 and as subjecting even such events as the birth of ,christ and the conversion of each individual to ,christianity to fatal necessity4 ,like ,philo ,judaeus ,origen holds that the stars are merely signs instituted by ,god1 not causes of the future1 and quotes passages from the ,old ,testament in support of his view2 like the ,book of ,enoch he holds that men were instructed in the interpretation of the stars' significations by the fallen angels4 ,he argues at length that divine foreknowledge does not impose necessity4 ,while1 however1 ,god instituted the stars as signs of the future1 ,he intended that only the angels should be able to read them1 and deemed it best for mankind to remain in ignorance of the future4 8,for it is a much greater task than lies within human power to learn truly from the motion of the stars what each person will do and suffer40#aiia ,the evil spirits have1 however1 taught men the art of astrology1 but ,origen believes that it is so difficult and requires such superhuman accuracy that the predictions of astrologers are more likely to be wrong than right4 ,his tone toward astrology is thus distinctly more unfavorable here than in the ,reply to ,celsus4 ,in arguing that the stars are merely signs1 ,origen asks why men admit that the flight of birds and condition of entrails in augury and liver-divination are only signs and yet insist that the stars are causes of future events4#aiib ,the answer1 of course1 is simple enough3 all nature is under the control of the stars which alike produce the events signified and the action of the birds or condition of the liver signifying them4 ,but the question is notable because it was also put by ,plotinus a little later in the same century4 ,sidenote3 ,problems of the waters above the firmament and of one or more heavens4 ,in explaining the ,book of ,genesis ,origen said that celestial and infernal virtues were represented by the waters above and below the firmament respectively4 ,this figurative interpretation gave offence to many later ,christian writers1 although some of them were ready to interpret the waters above as celestial virtues1 but not to take the waters below as signifying evil spirits4#aiic ,concerning the question of a plurality of heavens ,origen says in the ,reply to ,celsus1 8,the ,scriptures which are current in the ,churches of ,god do not speak of seven heavens or of any definite number at all1 but they do appear to teach the existence of heavens1 whether that means the spheres of those bodies which the ,greeks call planets or something more mysterious40#aiid ,sidenote3 ,augury1 dreams1 and prophecy4 ,of other pagan methods of divination than astrology ,origen disapproved and classed them1 as we have seen1 as the work of demons4 ,he was impressed by the weight of testimony to the validity of augury1#aiie although he states that it has been disputed whether there is any such art1 but he attributed the truth of the predictions to demons acting through the animals and pointed out that the ,mosaic law forbade augury#aiif and classified as unclean the animals commonly employed in divination4 ,the true ,god1 he held1 would not employ irrational animals at all to reveal the future1 nor even any chance human being1 but only the purest of prophetic souls4 ,origen would appear for the moment to have forgotten ,balaam's ass6 ,moreover1 he himself accepted other channels of foreknowledge than holy prophecy1 and believed that dreams often were of value in this respect4 ,when ,celsus1 criticizing the ,scriptural story of the flight into ,egypt1 stated that an angel descended from heaven to warn ,joseph and ,mary of the danger threatening the ,christ child1 ,origen retorted that the angelic warning came rather in a dream--an occurrence which seemed in no way marvelous to him1 since 8in many other cases it has happened that a dream has shown persons the proper course of action40#aiig ,origen grants that all men desire to ascertain the future and argues that the ,jews must have had divine prophets1 or1 since they were forbidden by the ,mosaic law to consult 8observers of times and diviners10 they would have had no means of satisfying this universal human craving4 ,it was to slake this popular curiosity concerning the future1 ,origen thinks1 that the ,hebrew seers sometimes predicted things of no religious significance or other lasting importance4#aiih ,once ,origen alludes to physiognomy1 saying1 8,if there be any truth in the doctrine of the physiognomists1 whether ,zopyrus or ,loxus or ,polemon40#aiii ,sidenote3 ,animals and gems4 ,the allusions to natural science in the ,reply to ,celsus are not numerous4 ,there are a few passages where animals or gems are mentioned4 ,the remarks concerning animals mention the usual favorites and embody familiar notions which we either have already met or shall meet again and again4 ,celsus speaks#bjjj of the knowledge of poisons and medicines possessed by animals1 of predictions by birds1 of assemblies held by other animals1 of the fidelity with which elephants observe oaths1 of the filial affection of the stork1 and of the ,arabian bird1 the phoenix4#bjja ,origen implies the belief that the weasel conceives through its mouth when he says1 8,observe1 moreover1 to what pitch of wickedness the demons proceed1 so that they even assume the bodies of weasels in order to reveal the future40#bjjb ,origen also adduces the marvelous methods of generation of several kinds of animals in support of the virgin birth of ,jesus4#bjjc ,origen's allusions to gems can scarcely be classified as natural science4 ,he contends that ,plato's statement that our precious stones are a reflection of gems in that better land is taken from ,isaiah's description of the city of ,god4#bjjd ,in another passage ,origen again quotes ,isaiah regarding the walls1 foundations1 battlements1 and gates of various precious stones1 but states that he cannot stop to examine their spiritual meaning at present4#bjje ,in one of his homilies on the ,book of ,numbers ,origen displays a favorable attitude towards medical and pharmaceutical investigation1 saying1 8,for if there is any science from ,god1 what will be more from ,him than the science of health1 in which too the virtues of herbs and the diverse properties of juices are determined40#bjjf ,sidenote3 ,origen later accused of countenancing magic4 ,origen's belief that the stars were rational beings continued to be held by the sect called ,origenists and also by the heretic ,priscillian and his followers in the later fourth century4 ,priscillian1 as we have seen1 was accused of magic and executed in #che4 ,but we are surprised to find ,theophilus of ,alexandria1 who attacked some of ,origen's views as heretical and persuaded ,pope ,anastasius to do the same1 accusing ,origen in a letter written in #dje and translated into ,latin by ,jerome1 of having defended magic4#bjjg ,theophilus states that ,origen has written in one of his treatises1 8,the magic art seems to me a name for something which does not exist0--a bold and admirable assertion1 but one which1 as we have seen1 the ,epicurean ,celsus would have been much more likely to make than the ,christian ,origen--8but if it does1 it is not the name of an evil work40 ,theophilus cannot understand how ,origen1 who vaunts himself a ,christian1 can thus make himself a protector of ,elymas the magician who opposed the apostles and of ,jamnes and ,mambres who resisted ,moses4 ,huet1 the learned seventeenth century editor of ,origen1 knew of no such passage in his extant works as that which ,theophilus professes to quote4#bjjh ,,chapter ,,xx ,,other ,,christian ,,discussion ,,of ,,magic ,,before ,,augustine ,plan of this chapter--,tertullian on magic--,astrology attacked--,resemblance to ,minucius ,felix--,lactantius--,hippolytus on magic and astrology--,frauds of magicians in answering questions--,other tricks and illusions--,defects and merits of ,hippolytus' exposure of magic and of magic itself--,hippolytus' sources--,justin ,martyr and others on the witch of ,endor--,gregory of ,nyssa and ,eustathius concerning the ventriloquist--,gregory of ,nyssa ,against ,fate--,astrology and the birth of ,christ--,chrysostom on the star of the ,magi--,sixth ,homily on ,matthew--,the spurious homily--,number1 names1 and home of the ,magi--,liturgical drama of the ,magi2 ,three ,kings of ,cologne--,another homily on the ,magi--,priscillianists answered--,number and race of the ,magi again4 ,sidenote3 ,plan of this chapter4 ,in this chapter we shall supplement the picture of the ,christian attitude towards magic supplied us in preceding chapters by some accounts of magic in other ,christian writers of the period before ,augustine4 ,after giving the opinions of a few ,latin fathers1 ,minucius ,felix1 ,tertullian1 and ,lactantius1 we shall consider the exposure of magic devices in ,hippolytus' ,refutation of ,all ,heresies1 then compare the utterances of other fathers concerning the witch of ,endor with those of ,origen1 and finally discuss the treatment of the ,magi and the star of ,bethlehem in both the genuine and the spurious homily of ,chrysostom on that theme1 adding some account of the medieval development of the legend of the three ,magi1 although leaving until later the statements of medieval theologians and astronomers concerning the star of the ,magi4 ,this makes a rather omnibus chapter1 but its component parts are too brief to separate as distinct chapters and they all supplement the preceding chapter on ,origen and ,celsus4 ,sidenote3 ,tertullian on magic4 ,some important features of ,origen's account of magic are duplicated in the writings of the western church father1 ,tertullian1 who wrote at about the same time or perhaps a few years before ,origen4 ,again the ,jews are represented as calling ,christ a magician1#bjji and when ,tertullian challenges the emperors to allow a ,christian exorcist to appear before them and attempt to expel a demon from someone so possessed and force the spirit to confess its evil character1 he expects that his ,christian exorcist will be accused of employing magic4#bjaj ,again divination and magic are attributed to the fallen angels2 in fact1 ,tertullian follows the ,book of ,enoch in stating that men were instructed by the fallen angels in metallurgy and botany as well as in incantations and astrology4#bjaa ,the demons are represented as invisible and 8everywhere in a moment40 ,living as they do in the air near the clouds and stars1 they are enabled to predict the weather4 ,they send diseases and then pretend to cure them by the recommendation of novel remedies or prescriptions quite contrary to accepted medical practice4#bjab 8,there is hardly a human being who is unattended by a demon40#bjac ,magicians are described by ,tertullian as producing phantasms1 insulting the souls of the dead1 injuring boys for purposes of divination1 sending dreams1 and performing many miraculous feats by their complicated jugglery4#bjad 8,the science of magic0 is well defined as 8a multiform contagion of the human mind1 an artificer of every error1 a destroyer of safety and soul40 ,as examples of well-known magicians ,tertullian lists ,ostanes and ,typhon and ,dardanus and ,damigeron#bjae and ,nectabis#bjaf and ,berenice4 ,tertullian states that a literature is current which promises to evoke ghosts from the infernal regions1 but that in such cases the dead are really impersonated by demons1 as was the fact when the pythoness seemed to show ,samuel to ,saul1 a point on which ,tertullian disagrees with ,origen4 ,magic is therefore fallacious1 a point which ,tertullian emphasizes more than ,origen did1 although ,tertullian is not very explicit4 ,he avers that 8it is no great task to deceive the outer eye of him whose mental insight it is easy to blind40 ,the rods of ,pharaoh's magicians seemed to turn into snakes1 8but ,moses'#bjag reality devoured their deceit40 ,sidenote3 ,astrology attacked4 ,tertullian further diverges from ,origen in definitely classifying astrology as a species of magic along with that other variety of magic which works miracles4 ,astrology is an art which was invented by the fallen angels and with which ,christians should have nothing to do4 ,tertullian would not mention it but for the fact that recently a certain person has defended his persistence in that profession1 that is1 presumably after he had become a ,christian4 ,tertullian states1 again unlike ,origen1 that the ,magi who came from the east to the ,christ child were astrologers--8,we know the union existing between magic and astrology0--but that ,christ's followers are under no obligation to astrology on their account1 although he again implies the existence of ,christian astrologers in the sarcastic remark1 8,astrology now-a-days1 forsooth1 treats of ,christ2 is the science of the stars of ,christ1 not of ,saturn and ,mars40 ,as ,origen affirmed that the power of the demons and of magic was greatly weakened by the birth of ,christ1 so ,tertullian affirms that the science of the stars was allowed to exist until the coming of the ,gospel1 but that since ,christ's birth no one should cast nativities4 8,for since the ,gospel you will never find sophist or ,chaldean or enchanter or diviner or magician who has not been manifestly punished40#bjah ,tertullian rejoices that the mathematici or astrologers are forbidden to enter ,rome or ,italy1 the reason being1 as he states in another passage1#bjai that they are consulted so much in regard to the life of the emperor4 ,sidenote3 ,resemblance to ,minucius ,felix4 ,tertullian's account of magic is perhaps borrowed from the dialogue entitled ,octavius by ,m4 ,minucius ,felix1#bjbj which is generally regarded as the oldest extant work of ,christian ,latin literature and was probably written in the reign of ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,some of the words and phrases used by ,tertullian and ,minucius ,felix in describing magic are almost identical1#bjba and a third passage of the same sort appears in ,cyprian of ,carthage in the third century4#bjbb ,ostanes1 one of ,tertullian's list of magicians1 is also mentioned as the first prominent magician by both ,minucius ,felix and ,cyprian4 ,minucius ,felix ascribes magic to demons and seems to regard it as a deceptive and rather unreal art1 saying1 8,the magicians not only are acquainted with demons1 but whatever miraculous feats they perform1 they do through demons2 under their influence and inspiration they produce illusions1 making things seem to be which are not1 or making real things seem non-existent40 ,sidenote3 ,lactantius4 ,a century after ,tertullian ,lactantius of ,gaul treats of magic and demons in about the same way in his ,divine ,institutes1#bjbc written at the opening of the fourth century4 ,he denies that ,christ was a magician and declares that ,his miracles differed from those attributed to ,apuleius and ,apollonius of ,tyana in that they were announced beforehand by the prophets4 8,he worked marvels10 ,lactantius says to his opponents1 8and we should have thought ,him a magician1 as you think now and as the ,jews thought at the time1 had not all the prophets with one accord predicted that ,christ would do these very things40#bjbd ,lactantius believes that the offspring of the fallen angels and 8the daughters of men0 were a different variety of demon from their fathers and more terrestrial4 ,be that as it may1 he affirms that the entire art and power of the magicians consist in invocations of demons who 8deceive human vision by blinding illusions so that men do not see what does exist and think that they see what does not exist10#bjbe the very expression that we have just heard from ,minucius ,felix4 ,more specifically ,lactantius regards necromancy1 oracles1 liver-divination1 augury1 and astrology as all invented by the demons4#bjbf ,like ,origen he emphasizes the power of the sign of the cross and the name of ,jesus against the evil spirits1#bjbg and he implies the power of the names of spirits when he states that1 although demons may masquerade under other forms and names in pagan temples and worships1 in magic and sorcery they are always summoned by their true names1 those celestial ones which are read in sacred literature4#bjbh ,sidenote3 ,hippolytus on magic and astrology4 ,from these accounts of magic in ,latin fathers1 which do little more than reinforce the impressions which we had already gained concerning the ,christian attitude1 we come to a very different discussion by ,hippolytus who wrote in ,greek although he lived in ,italy4 ,eusebius and ,jerome state that ,origen as a young man heard ,hippolytus preach at ,rome2 in #bce he was exiled to ,sardinia2 the next year his body was brought back to ,rome for burial4 ,in ,hippolytus1 instead of attacks upon astrology as impious1 immoral1 and fatalistic1 and upon magic as evil and the work of demons1 we have an attempt to prove astrology irrational and impracticable1 and to show that magic is based upon imposture and deceit4 ,in the first four of the nine books of his ,philosophumena or ,refutation of ,all ,heresies#bjbi ,hippolytus set forth the tenets of the ,greek philosophers1 the system of the astrologers1 and the practice of the magicians in order later to be able to show how much the various heretics had borrowed from these sources4 ,his second and third books are not extant2 it is in the fourth book or what is left of it that we have portions of his discussion of astrology and magic4#bjcj ,sidenote3 ,frauds of magicians in answering questions4 ,in exposing the frauds of magicians ,hippolytus uses the word 1 and not 1 a sorcerer4 ,he tells how the magicians pretend that the spirits give response through a medium to questions which those consulting them have written on papyrus1 perhaps in invisible ink1 and folded up1 after which the papyrus is placed on coals and burned4 ,the magician1 however1 operating in semi-darkness and making a great noise and diversion and pretending to invoke the demon1 is really occupied in sprinkling the burnt papyrus with a mixture of water and copperas 7vitriol87 or fumigating it with vapor of a gall nut or employing other methods to make the concealed letters visible4 ,having by some such method discovered the question1 he instructs the medium1 who is now supposed to be possessed of demons and is reclining upon a couch1 what answer to give by whispering to him through a long hidden tube constructed out of the windpipe of a crane or ten brass pipes fitted together4 ,it will be recalled that it was by such a tube made of the windpipes of cranes that ,alexander the false prophet1 according to ,lucian1 caused the artificial head of his god to give forth oracles4 ,hippolytus adds that at the same time the magician produces alarming flames and liquids by such chemical mixtures as fossil salts and ,etruscan wax and a grain of salt4 8,and when this is consumed1 the salts bound upward and give the impression of a strange vision40#bjca ,sidenote3 ,other tricks and illusions4 ,hippolytus also reveals how magicians secretly fill eggs with dyes1 how they cause sheep to behead themselves against a sword by smearing their throats with a drug which makes them itch1 how a ram dies if its head is merely bent back facing the sun1 how they obstruct the ears of goats with wax so that they cannot breathe and presently die of suffocation1 how out of sea foam they make a compound which1 like alcohol1 will itself burn but not consume the objects over which it is poured4#bjcb ,he tells how the magician produces stage thunder1 how he is able to plunge his hand into a boiling cauldron or walk over hot coals without being burnt1 and how he can set a seeming pyramid of stone on fire4 ,he tells how the magicians loosen seals and seal them up again1 just as ,lucian did in his ,alexander or ,the ,pseudo-,prophet2 how by means of trap-doors1 mirrors1 and the like devices they show demons in a cauldron2 how they pretend to show flaming demons by igniting drawings which they have sketched on the wall with some inflammable substance or by loosing a bird which has been set on fire4 ,they make the moon appear indoors and imitate the starry sky by attaching fish scales to the ceiling4 ,they produce the sensation of an earthquake by burning the ordure of a weasel with the stone magnet upon an open fire4 ,they construct a false skull from the caul of an ox1 some wax1 and some gum1 make it speak by means of a hidden tube1 and then cause it suddenly to collapse and disappear or to burn up4#bjcc ,sidenote3 ,defects and merits of ,hippolytus' exposure of magic and of magic itself4 ,this exposition of the frauds of the magicians by ,hippolytus is rather broken and incoherent1 at least in the form in which his text has reached us4#bjcd ,also we do not have much more faith in some of the methods by which he says the feats of magic are really done than he has in the ways by which the magicians claim to perform them4 ,but while his notions of the chemical action of certain substances and of the occult virtue of others may be incorrect1 the noteworthy point is that he endeavors to explain magic either as a deception or as employing natural substances and forces to simulate supernatural action1 and that his exposure of magic devices leaves no place for the action of demons4 ,moreover1 we see that magic fraud involves chemical experiment and considerable knowledge or error in the field of natural science4 ,under the guise or tyranny of magic experimental science is at work4 ,sidenote3 ,hippolytus' sources4 ,the question then arises whether ,hippolytus himself discovered these tricks of the magicians or whether he is simply copying his explanations of them from some previous work4 ,an examination of the earlier chapters of his fourth book is sufficient to solve the question4 ,his arguments against the practice of the ,chaldean astrologers of predicting man's life from his horoscope at the time of his birth are drawn from the pages of the sceptical philosopher1 ,sextus ,empiricus1 whom he follows so closely that his editors are able to rectify his text by reference to the parallel passage in ,sextus4 ,we are therefore probably safe in assuming1 especially in view of the resemblances to the ,alexander of ,lucian which have already been noted1 that ,hippolytus' attack on magic is also largely indebted to some classical work1 possibly to that very treatise against magic by ,celsus to which both ,origen and ,lucian refer1 or perhaps to some account of apparatus with which to work marvels like ,hero's ,pneumatics4 ,sidenote3 ,justin ,martyr and others on the witch of ,endor4 ,turning back now to the subject of the witch of ,endor1 we find that some of the church fathers agree with ,origen rather than ,tertullian that the witch really invoked ,samuel4 ,before ,origen's time ,justin ,martyr in ,the ,dialogue with ,trypho#bjce had mentioned as a proof of the immortality of the soul 8the fact that the soul of ,samuel was called up by the witch1 as ,saul demanded40 ,huet1 who edited the writings of ,origen1 lists other ,christian authors#bjcf who agreed with ,origen on this question1 and further informs us that the ancient rabbis were wont to say that a soul invoked within a year after its death as ,samuel's was1 would be seen by the ventriloquist but not heard1 and heard by the person consulting it but not seen1 an observation which suggests that ,saul was deceived by ventriloquism1 while by others present the ghost would be neither seen nor heard4 ,sidenote3 ,gregory of ,nyssa and ,eustathius concerning the ventriloquist4 ,two ecclesiastics of the fourth century composed special treatises upon the ventriloquist or witch of ,endor in which they took the opposite view from that of ,origen4 ,the briefer of these two treatises is by ,gregory of ,nyssa#bjcg who states1 without mentioning ,origen by name1 that some previous writers have contended that ,samuel was truly invoked by magic with divine permission in order that he might see his mistake in having called ,saul the enemy of ventriloquists4 ,but ,gregory believes that ,samuel was already in paradise and hence could not be invoked from the infernal regions2 but that it was a demon from the infernal regions who predicted to ,saul1 8,to-morrow you and ,jonathan shall be with me40 ,the longer treatise of ,eustathius of ,antioch is a direct answer to ,origen's argument as its title1 ,concerning the ,ventriloquist against ,origen1#bjch indicates4 ,eustathius holds that it was illegal to consult ventriloquists in view of ,saul's own previous action against them and other prohibitions in ,scripture1 and that ,origen's remarks are to be deplored as tending to encourage simple men to resort to arts of divination4 ,eustathius contends that the witch did not invoke ,samuel but only made ,saul think that she did1 and that ,saul himself did not see ,samuel4 ,pharaoh's magicians similarly deceived the imagination with shadows and specters when they pretended to turn rods into snakes and water into blood4 ,eustathius does not agree with ,origen that ,samuel was in hell4 ,he holds that the predictions made by the pseudo-,samuel were not impossible for a demon to make1 and indeed were not strictly accurate1 since ,saul did not die the very next day but the day after it1 and since not only ,jonathan but his three sons were slain with him4#bjci ,furthermore1 ,david was already so prominent in public affairs that a demon might easily guess that he would succeed ,saul4 ,sidenote3 ,gregory of ,nyssa ,against ,fate4 ,gregory of ,nyssa also composed a treatise1 entitled ,against ,fate1#bjdj in the form of a disputation between a pagan philosopher and himself at ,constantinople in #chb ,a4 ,d4 ,his opponent holds that the life of man is determined by the constellations at his nativity1 upon whose decree even conversion to ,christianity would thus be made dependent4 ,gregory assumes the position of one hitherto ignorant of the principles of the art of astrology1 of which the philosopher has to inform him1 but on general grounds it seems very unlikely that he really was as ignorant as this of such a widespread superstition4 ,furthermore1 he is sufficiently read in the subject to incorporate some of ,bardesanes' arguments1 of whose treatise both ,gregory's title and dialogue form are reminiscent4 ,some of ,gregory's reasoning1 however1 might well be that of a tyro and is scarcely worth elaborating here4 ,sidenote3 ,astrology and the birth of ,christ4 ,when the writer of the ,gospel according to ,matthew included the story of the wise men from the east who had seen the star1 there can be little or no doubt that he inserted it and that it had been formulated in the first place1 not merely in order to satisfy the ordinary1 unlearned reader with portents connected with the birth of ,jesus1 but to secure the appearance of support for the kingship of ,jesus from that art or science of astrology which so many persons then held in high esteem4 ,to an age whose sublimest science was star-gazing it would seem fitting and almost inevitable that ,god should have announced the coming of the ,prince of ,peace in this manner1 and the account in the ,gospel of ,matthew is in a sense an attempt to present the birth of ,christ in a way to comply with the most searching tests of contemporary science4 ,but the early ,christians were relatively rude and unlettered1 and this effort to construct a royal horoscope for ,jesus is a crude and faulty one from the astrological standpoint4 ,for this1 however1 the author of the ,gospel and not the art of astrology is obviously responsible4 ,as a result1 however1 of the ,gnostic reaction against astrological fatalism or of an orthodox ,christian opposition to both ,gnostics and astrologers1 most of the early fathers of the church denied that this passage implied any recognition of the truth of astrology and attempted to explain away its obvious meaning4 ,in doing this they often made the crude and imperfect astrology of the ,gospel a criterion for criticizing the art of astrology itself4 ,sidenote3 ,chrysostom on the star of the ,magi4 ,of patristic commentaries upon the passage in the ,gospel of ,matthew dealing with the ,magi and the star of ,bethlehem one of the fullest and most frequently cited by medieval writers is that attributed to ,chrysostom4 ,i say 8attributed10 because in addition to his genuine sixth homily upon ,matthew#bjda there was generally ascribed to ,chrysostom in the middle ages another homily which is extant only in ,latin#bjdb and has been thought to be the work of some ,arian4 ,the famous ,st4 ,john ,chrysostom was born at ,antioch about #cdg ,a4 ,d4 and there studied rhetoric under the noted sophist ,libanius4 ,from #cih to #djd he held the office of patriarch of ,constantinople2 then he was exiled to ,cappadocia where he died in #djg4 ,one detail of his boyhood may be noted because of its connection with magic4 ,when he was a lad1 the tyrants in the city became suspicious of plots against them and sent soldiers to search for books of magic and sorcery4 ,one of the men who was arrested and put to death had tried to rid himself of the damaging possession of a book of magic by throwing it into the river4 ,chrysostom and a playmate later unsuspectingly fished an object out of the water which turned out to be this very book1 and when a soldier happened to pass by just then1 they were very frightened lest he should see what they had and they should be severely punished for it4#bjdc ,sidenote3 ,sixth homily on ,matthew4 ,in his sixth homily upon ,matthew ,chrysostom recognizes the difficulties presented by the ,scriptural account of the ,magi and the star1 and approaches the task of expounding it with prayers to ,god for aid4 ,some1 he informs us1 take the passage as an admission of the truth of astrology4 ,it is this opinion which he is concerned to refute4 ,he argues that it is not the function of astronomy to learn from the stars who are being born but merely to predict from the hour of birth what is going to happen1 which seems a quite fallacious distinction upon his part4 ,he also criticizes the ,magi for calling ,jesus the king of the ,jews1 when as ,christ told ,pilate ,his kingdom was not of this world4 ,he further criticizes them for coming to ,christ's birthplace when they might have known that it would cause difficulties with ,herod1 the existing king1 and for coming1 making trouble1 and then immediately going back home again4 ,but these shortcomings would seem to be those of the ,scriptural narrative rather than of the art of astrology1 although of course ,chrysostom is trying to make the point that the ,magi had not foreseen what would happen to themselves4 ,he further argues that the star of ,bethlehem was not like other stars nor even a star at all1#bjdd as was proved by its peculiar itinerary1 its shining by day1 its rare intelligence in hiding itself at the right time1 and its miraculous ability in standing over the head of the child4 ,chrysostom therefore concludes that some invisible virtue put on the form of a star4 ,he thinks that the star appeared to the ,magi as a reflection upon the ,jews1 who had rejected prophet after prophet1 whereas the apparition of a single star was sufficient to bring barbarian ,magi to the feet of ,christ4 ,at the same time he believes that ,god especially favored the ,magi in vouchsafing them a star1 a sign to which they were accustomed1 as the mode of announcement4 ,thus he comes dangerously near to admitting tacitly what he has just been denying1 namely1 that the stars are signs of the future and that there is something in the art of astrology4 ,in short1 the star appeared to the ,magi because they as astrologers would comprehend its meaning4 ,chrysostom denies this openly and does his best to think up arguments against it1 but he cannot rid his subconscious thought of the idea4 ,sidenote3 ,the spurious homily4 ,the other homily ascribed to ,chrysostom repeats some of the points made in the genuine homily1 but adds others4 ,the preacher has read somewhere1 perhaps in ,origen where we have already met the suggestion1 that the ,magi had learned that the star would appear from the books of the diviner ,balaam1 8whose divination is also put into the ,old ,testament3 #8,a star shall arise from ,jacob and a man shall come forth from ,israel1 and he shall rule all nations4'0 ,but the preacher does not state why it is any better to have such a prediction made by a diviner than by an astrologer4 ,the preacher has also heard some cite a writing1 which is not surely authentic but yet is not destructive to the ,faith and rather pleasing1 to the effect that in the extreme east on the shores of the ocean live a people who possess a writing inscribed with the name of ,seth and dealing with the appearance of this star and the gifts to be offered4 ,this writing was handed down from father to son through successive generations1 and twelve of the most studious men of their number were chosen to watch for the coming of the star1 and whenever one died1 another was chosen in his place4 ,they were called ,magi in their language because they glorified ,god silently4 ,every year after the threshing of the harvest they climbed a mountain to a cave with delightful springs shaded by carefully selected trees4 ,there they washed themselves and for three days in silence prayed and praised ,god4 ,finally one year the star appeared in the form of a little child with the likeness of a cross above it2 and it spoke with them and taught them and instructed them to set out for ,judea4#bjde ,when they had set out1 it went before them for two years1 during which time food and drink were never lacking in their wallets4 ,on their return they worshiped and glorified ,god more sedulously than ever and preached to their people4 ,finally1 after the resurrection1 the apostle ,thomas visited that region and they were baptized by him and were made his assistant preachers4 ,this tale is indeed pleasing enough1 and it saves the ,magi from all imputation of magic arts and employment of demons and even denies that they were astrologers4 ,but as a device to escape the natural inference from the ,gospel story that the birth of ,christ was announced by the stars and in a way which astronomers could comprehend it is certainly far-fetched1 and shows how ,christian theologians were put to it to find a way out of the difficulty4 ,the homily goes on to advance some of the usual arguments against astrology1 such as that the stars cannot cause evil1 that the human will is free1 and that a science of individual horoscopes cannot account for all men worshiping idols before ,christ and abandoning idolatry and other ancient customs thereafter1 or for the perishing in the deluge of all men except the family of ,noah1 or for national customs such as circumcision among the ,jews and incest among the ,persians4 ,here we again probably see the influence of ,bardesanes4 ,sidenote3 ,number1 names1 and home of the ,magi4 ,we have already noted that ,origen seems to have been the first of the fathers to state the number of the ,magi as three1 whereas the homily just considered implies that there were twelve of them4 ,their representation in art as three in number did not become general until the fourth century1#bjdf while the depiction of them as kings was also a gradual and1 according to ,kehrer1 later growth4#bjdg ,bouch-,leclercq1 citing an earlier monograph1#bjdh states that the royalty of the ,magi was invented towards the sixth century to show the fulfillment of ,old ,testament prophecies1#bjdi and that ,bede is the first who knows their names4 ,but ,mle says1 8,their mysterious names are first found in a ,greek chronicle of the beginning of the sixth century translated into ,latin by a ,merovingian monk10 and are 8,bithisarea1 ,melichior1 ,gathaspa40#bjej ,the provenance of the ,magi was variously stated by the ,christian fathers3#bjea ,arabia according to ,justin ,martyr1 ,epiphanius1 and ,tertullian or ,pseudo-,tertullian2 ,persia according to ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,basil1 and ,cyril2 ,persia or ,chaldea according to ,chrysostom and ,diodorus of ,tarsus2 ,chaldea according to ,jerome and ,augustine and the philosopher ,chalcidius in his commentary upon ,plato's ,timaeus4#bjeb ,the homily which we were just considering gave the impression that they came from ,india4 ,sidenote3 ,liturgical drama of the ,magi3 ,the ,three ,kings of ,cologne4 ,in the middle ages the ,magi appeared in liturgical drama as well as in art4 ,an early instance is a tenth century lectionary from ,compigne1 now preserved at ,paris1#bjec where after homilies by various fathers there is added in a hand only slightly later the liturgical drama of the adoration of the ,magi4 ,in the later middle ages there came into existence the ,history or ,deeds of the ,three ,kings of ,cologne1 as the ,magi came to be called from the supposed translation of their relics to that city4 ,their bodies were said to have been brought by the empress ,helena from ,india to ,constantinople1 whence they were transferred to ,milan1 and after its destruction by ,barbarossa1 to ,cologne4 ,this 8fabulous narration10 as it has well been entitled1#bjed also has much to say of the miracles of the apostle ,thomas in ,india and of ,prester ,john1 to whom we shall devote a later chapter4 ,it asserts that the three kings reached ,jerusalem on the thirteenth day after ,christ's birth by a miraculously rapid transit by day and by night of themselves and their armies to the marvel of the inhabitants of the towns through which they passed1 or rather1 flew4#bjee ,after they had returned home and had successively migrated to ,christ above1 another apparition of a star marked this fact4#bjef ,the treatise exists in many manuscripts#bjeg and was printed more than once before #aejj4 ,sidenote3 ,another homily on the ,magi4 ,finally we may note the contents of the homily on the ,magi which immediately precedes the liturgical drama concerning them in the above mentioned tenth century lectionary4#bjeh ,the ,magi are said to have come on the thirteenth day of ,christ's nativity4 ,that they came from the ,orient was fitting since they sought one of whom it had been written1 ,ecce vir oriens4 ,it was also fitting that ,christ's coming should be announced to shepherds of ,israel by a rational angel1 to ,gentile ,magi by an irrational star4 ,this star appeared neither in the starry heaven nor on earth but in the air2 it had not existed before and ceased to exist after it had fulfilled its function4 ,although he has just said that the star appeared in the air and not in the sky1 the preacher now adds that when a new man was born in the world it was fitting that a new star should appear in the sky4 ,he also1 in pointing out how all the elements recognized that their ,creator had come into the world1 states that the sky sent a star1 the sea allowed ,him to walk upon it1 the sun was darkened1 stones were broken and the earth quaked when ,he died4 ,sidenote3 ,priscillianists answered4 ,since the heretics known as ,priscillianists have adduced the star at ,christ's birth to prove that every man is born under the fates of the stars1 the preacher endeavors to answer them4 ,he holds that since the star came to where ,jesus lay ,he controlled it rather than vice versa4 ,then follow the usual arguments against genethlialogy that many men born under the sign ,aquarius are not fishermen1 that sons of serfs are born at the same time as princes1 and the case of ,jacob and ,esau4 ,the star was merely a sign to the ,magi and by its twinkling illuminated their minds to seek the new-born babe4 ,it seems scarcely consistent that a star which the preacher has called irrational should illuminate minds4 ,sidenote3 ,number and race of the ,magi again4 ,the homily goes on to say that opinions differ as to who the ,magi were and whence they came4 ,owing to the prophecy that the kings of ,tarsus and the isles offer presents1 the kings of the ,arabs and ,sheba bring gifts1 some regard ,tarsus1 ,arabia1 and ,sheba as the homes of the ,magi4 ,others call them ,persians or ,chaldeans1 since ,chaldeans are skilled in astronomy4 ,others say that they were descendants of ,balaam4 ,at any rate they were the first ,gentiles to seek ,christ and they are well said to have been three1 symbolizing faith in the ,trinity1 the three virtues1 faith1 hope and charity1 the three safeguards against evil1 thoughts1 words and works1 and the three ,gentile contributions to the ,faith of physics1 ethics1 and logic1 or natural1 moral1 and rational philosophy4 ,the preacher then indulges in further allegorical interpretation anent ,herod and what was typified by the gifts of the ,magi4#bjei ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,christianity ,,and ,,natural ,,science3 ,,basil1 ,,epiphanius1 ,,and ,,the ,,physiologus ,lactantius not a fair example--,commentaries on the ,biblical account of creation--,date and delivery of ,basil's ,hexaemeron--,the ,hexaemeron of ,ambrose--,basil's medieval influence--,science and religion--,scientific curiosity of ,basil's audience--,allusions to amusements--,conflicts with ,greek science--,agreement with ,greek science--,qualification of the ,scriptural account of creation--,the four elements and four qualities--,enthusiasm for nature as ,god's work--,sin and nature--,habits of animals--,marvels of nature--,spontaneous generation--,lack of scientific scepticism--,sun worship and astrology--,permanence of species--,final impression from the ,hexaemeron--,the ,medicine ,chest of ,epiphanius--,gems in the high priest's breastplate--,some other gems--,the so-called ,physiologus2 problem of its origin--,does the title apply to any one particular treatise8--,and to what sort of a treatise8--,medieval art shows almost no symbolic influence of the ,physiologus--,physiologus was more natural scientist than allegorist4 ,sidenote3 ,lactantius not a fair example4 ,the opposition of early ,christian thought to natural science has been rather unduly exaggerated4 ,for instance1 ,lactantius1 one of the least favorable to ,greek philosophy and natural science of the fathers1 should hardly be cited as typical of early ,christian attitude in such matters4 ,nor does his opposition impress one as weighty4#bjfj ,he ridicules the theory of the ,antipodes1#bjfa which he perhaps understands none too well1 asking if anyone can be so inept as to think that there are men whose feet are above their heads1 although he knows very well that ,greek science teaches that all weights fall towards the center of the earth1 and that consequently if the feet are nearer the center of the earth that they must be below the head4 ,he continues1 however1 to insist that the philosophers are either very stupid1 or just joking1 or arguing for the sake of arguing1 and he declares that he could show by many arguments that the heaven cannot possibly be lower than the earth--which no one has asserted except himself--if it were not already time to close his third book and begin the fourth4 ,apparently ,lactantius is the one who is arguing for the sake of arguing1 or just joking1 or else very stupid1 and ,i fear it is the last4 ,but other ,christian fathers were less dense1 and we already have heard the cultured pagan ,plutarch scoff at the notion of a spherical earth and of antipodes4 ,we may grant1 however1 that the ecclesiastical writers of the ,roman ,empire and early medieval period normally treat of spiritual rather than material themes and discuss them in a religious rather than a scientific manner4 ,sidenote3 ,commentaries on the ,biblical account of creation4 ,but in the commentaries upon the books of the ,bible which the fathers multiplied so voluminously it was necessary for them1 if they began their labors with ,genesis1 to deal at the very start in the first verses of the first book of the ,bible with an explanation of nature which at several points was in disagreement with the accepted theories of ,greek philosophy and ancient science4 ,such comment upon the opening verses of ,genesis sometimes developed into a separate treatise called ,hexaemeron from the works of the six days of creation which it discussed4 ,of the various treatises of this type the ,hexaemeron of ,basil#bjfb seems to have been both the best#bjfc and the most influential1 and will be considered by us as an example of ,christian attitude towards the natural science and1 to some extent1 the superstition of the ancient world4 ,sidenote3 ,date and delivery of ,basil's ,hexaemeron4 ,basil died on the first day of ,january1 #cgi ,a4 ,d41 and was born about #cbi4 ,when or where the nine homilies which compose his ,hexaemeron were preached is not known1 but from an allusion to his bodily infirmity in the seventh homily and his forgetfulness the next day in ,homily ,,viii we might infer that it was late in life4 ,to all appearances these sermons were taken down and have reached us just as they were delivered to the people1 to whose daily life ,basil frequently adverts4 ,the sermons were delivered early in the morning before the artisans in the audience went to their work and again at the close of the day and before the evening meal1 since ,basil sometimes speaks of the approach of darkness surprising him and of its consequently being time to stop4#bjfd ,one of the surest indications either that the sermons were delivered extemporaneously1 or that ,basil was repeating with variations to suit the occasion and present audience sermons which he had delivered so often as to have practically memorized1 occurs in the eighth homily where he starts to discuss land animals1 forgetting that the last day he did not get to birds1 but is presently brought to a realization of his omission by the actions of his audience and1 after a pause and an apology1 makes a fresh start upon birds4 ,the ,hexaemeron was highly praised by ,basil's contemporaries and was regarded as the best of his works by later ,byzantine literary collectors and critics4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,hexaemeron of ,ambrose4 ,basil's work1 however1 was not the first of its kind1 as ,hippolytus and ,origen1 at least1 are known to have earlier composed similar treatises1 and still earlier in the treatise of ,theophilus ,to ,autolycus we find a few chapters#bjfe devoted to the six days of creation4 ,in one of his letters ,jerome states that 8,ambrose recently so compiled the ,hexaemeron of ,origen that he rather followed the views of ,hippolytus and ,basil40#bjff ,this ,latin work of ,ambrose is extant and seems to me to follow ,basil very closely4 ,at times the order of presentation is slightly varied and the work of ,ambrose is longer1 but this is due to its more verbose rhetoric and greater indulgence in ,biblical quotation1 and not to the introduction of new ideas4 ,the ,benedictine editors of ,ambrose admit that he has taken a great deal from ,basil but deny that he has servilely imitated him4#bjfg ,but a striking instance of such servile imitation is seen in ,ambrose's duplicating even ,basil's mistake in omitting to discuss birds and then apologizing for it1 reminding one of the ,chinese workman who made all the new dinner plates with a crack and a toothpick stuck in it1 like the old broken plate which he had been given as a model4 ,it is true that ,ambrose does not first discuss land animals for a page as ,basil did1 but makes his apology more immediately4 ,the opening words of the eighth sermon in the twelfth chapter of his fifth book are1 8,and after he had remained silent for a moment1 again resuming his discourse1 he said44440 ,then comes his apology1 expressed in different terms from ,basil's and to the effect that in his previous discourse upon fishes he became so immersed in the depths of the sea as to forget all about birds4 ,thus the incident which in ,basil had every appearance of a natural mistake1 in ,ambrose has all the earmarks of an affected imitation4 ,it is barely possible1 however1 that ,origen made the original mistake and that ,basil and ,ambrose have both imitated him in it4 ,on the other hand1 we are told that the ,hexaemerons of ,origen and ,basil differed fundamentally in this respect1 that ,origen indulged to a great extent in allegorical interpretation of the ,mosaic account of creation1#bjfh while ,basil declares that he 8takes all in the literal sense10 is 8not ashamed of the ,gospel10 and 8admits the common sense of the ,scriptures40#bjfi ,sidenote3 ,basil's medieval influence4 ,at any rate1 ,basil's ,hexaemeron seems to have supplanted all such previous treatises in ,greek1 while its western influence is shown not only by ,ambrose's imitation of it so soon after its production1 but by ,latin translations of it by ,eustathius ,afer in the fifth1 and perhaps by ,dionysius ,exiguus in the sixth century4 ,medieval manuscripts of it are fairly numerous and sometimes of early date1#bjgj and include an ,anglo-,saxon epitome ascribed to ,aelfric in the ,bodleian ,library4 ,bartholomew of ,england#bjga in the thirteenth century quotes 8,rabanus who uses the words of ,basil in the ,hexaemeron0 for a description of the empyrean heaven which ,i have been unable to find in the works of either ,rabanus or ,basil4 ,bede1 in a similar1 though much abbreviated1 work of his own1 states that while many have said many things concerning the beginning of the ,book of ,genesis1 the chief authorities1 so far as he has been able to discover1 are ,basil of ,caesarea1 whom ,eustathius translated from ,greek into ,latin1 ,ambrose of ,milan1 and ,augustine1 bishop of ,hippo4 ,these works1 however1 were so long and expensive that only the rich could afford to purchase them and so profound that only the learned could read and understand them4 ,bede had accordingly been requested to compose a brief rendition of them1 which he does partly in his own words1 partly in theirs4#bjgb ,sidenote3 ,science and religion4 ,the general tenor of ,basil's treatise may be described as follows4 ,he accepts the literal sense of the first chapter of ,genesis as a correct account of the universe1 and1 when he finds ,greek philosophy and science in disagreement with the ,biblical narrative1 inveighs against the futilities and follies and conflicting theories and excessive elaborations of the philosophers4 ,on such occasions the simple statements of ,scripture are sufficient for him4 8,upon the essence of the heavens we are contented with what ,isaiah says4444 ,in the same way1 as concerns the earth1 let us resolve not to torment ourselves by trying to find out its essence4444 ,at all events let us prefer the simplicity of faith to the demonstrations of reason40#bjgc ,these three quotations illustrate his attitude at such times4 ,but at all other times he is apt to follow ,greek science rather implicitly1 accepting without question its hypothesis of four elements and four qualities1 and taking all his details about birds1 beasts1 and fish from the same source4 ,sidenote3 ,scientific curiosity of ,basil's audience4 ,moreover1 while ,basil may affirm that the edification of the church is his sole aim and interest1 it is evident that his audience are possessed by a lively scientific curiosity1 and that they wish to hear a great deal more about natural phenomena than ,isaiah or any other ,biblical author has to offer them4 8,what trouble you have given me in my previous discourses10 exclaims ,basil in his fourth homily1 8by asking me why the earth was invisible1 why all bodies are naturally endued with color1 and why all color comes under the sense of sight8 ,and perhaps my reason did not appear sufficient to you4444 ,perhaps you will ask me new questions40 ,basil gratifies this curiosity concerning the world of nature with many details not mentioned in the ,bible but drawn from such works as ,aristotle's ,meteorology and ,history of ,animals4 ,this scientific curiosity displayed by ,basil's hearers is the more interesting in that artisans who had to labor for their daily bread appear to have made up a large element in his audience4#bjgd ,it is perhaps on their account that ,basil often speaks of ,god as the supreme artisan or artificer or artist1#bjge or calls their attention to 8the vast and varied workshop of divine creation10#bjgf and makes other flattering allusions to arts which support life or produce enduring work1 and to waterways and sea trade4#bjgg ,he also seems to have a sincere appreciation of the arts and admiration of beauty1 which he twice defines4#bjgh ,sidenote3 ,allusions to amusements4 ,at the risk of digression1 it is perhaps worth noting further that ,basil's hearers seem to have been very familiar with1 not to say fond of1 the amusements common in the cities of the ,roman ,empire4 ,twice he opens his sermons with allusions to the athletes of the circus and actors of the theater1#bjgi apparently as the surest way of quickly catching the attention of his audience1 while on a third occasion1 in concluding his morning address on what appears to have been a holiday1 he remarks that if he had dismissed them earlier1 some would have spent the rest of the day gambling with dice1 and that 8the longer ,i keep you1 the longer you are out of the way of mischief40#bjhj ,he also alludes to the spinning of tops and to what was apparently the game of push-ball4#bjha ,sidenote3 ,conflicts with ,greek science4 ,taking up the contents of the ,hexaemeron more in detail1 we may first note those points upon which ,basil supports the statements of the ,bible against ,greek science and philosophy4 ,he of course insists that the universe was created by ,god and is not co-existent1 much less identical1 with ,him4#bjhb ,he also denies that the form of the world alone is due to ,god and that matter is of separate origin4#bjhc ,nor will he accept the arguments of the philosophers who 8would rather lose their tongues0 than admit that there is more than one heaven4 ,basil is ready to believe not merely in a second1 but a third heaven1 such as the apostle ,paul speaks of being rapt to4 ,he regards a plurality of heavens as no more difficult to credit than the seven concentric spheres of the planets1 and as much more probable than the philosophic theory of the music of the spheres which he decries as 8ingenious frivolity1 the untruth of which is evident from the first word40#bjhd ,he also defends the statement of ,scripture that there are waters above the firmament1 not only against the doctrines of ancient astronomy1#bjhe but also against 8certain writers in the church10 among whom he probably has ,origen in mind1 who interpret the passage figuratively and assert that the waters stand for 8spiritual and incorporeal powers10 those above the firmament representing good angels and those below the firmament standing for evil demons4 8,let us reject these theories as we would the interpretations of dreams and old-wives' tales40#bjhf ,in connection with ,basil's defense of the plurality of the heavens it may be noted that ,r4 ,h4 ,charles presents evidence to show 8that speculations or definitely formulated views on the plurality of the heavens were rife in the very cradle of ,christendom and throughout its entire development10 and that 8the prevailing view was that of the sevenfold division of the heavens40#bjhg ,he fails1 however1 to discriminate between the doctrine of ,greek philosophy that the universe was one1 although the circles of the planets are seven1 and the plurality of the heavens1 which ,basil insists that the philosophers deny2 and very probably the ,jewish and early ,christian notions of successive heavens full of angels and spirits developed from the spheres of the planets4 ,among the various early heresies described by the fathers are also found1 of course1 many allusions to these seven spheres or heavens4 ,the disciples of ,valentinus1 for example1 according to ,irenaeus and ,epiphanius1 8affirm that these seven heavens are intelligent and speak of them as angels 444 and declare that ,paradise1 situated above the third heaven1 is a powerful angel40#bjhh ,sidenote3 ,agreement with ,greek science4 ,on the other hand1 we may note some points where ,basil is in accord with ,greek science4 ,he warns his hearers not to 8be surprised that the world never falls2 it occupies the center of the universe1 its natural place40#bjhi ,he advances numerous proofs of the immense size of the sun and moon4#bjij ,he accepts the hypothesis of four elements but abstains from passing judgment upon the question of a fifth element of which the heavens and celestial bodies may be composed4#bjia ,he thinks that 8it needs not the space of a moment for light to pass through0 the ether4#bjib ,sidenote3 ,qualification of the ,scriptural account of creation4 ,moreover1 ,basil finds it necessary to qualify some of the statements in the first chapter of ,genesis4 ,he interprets the command1 8,let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place10 to apply only to the sea or ocean1 which he contends is one body of water1 and not to pools and lakes1#bjic recognizing that otherwise 8our explanation of the creation of the world may appear contrary to experience1 because it is evident that all the waters did not flow together in one place40 ,in this connection he states that 8although some authorities think that the ,hyrcanian and ,caspian ,seas are enclosed in their own boundaries1 if we are to believe the geographers1 they communicate with each other and together discharge themselves into the ,great ,sea40 ,he speaks of 8the vast ocean1 so dreaded by navigators1 which surrounds the isle of ,britain and western ,spain40#bjid ,later he contends that 8sea water is the source of all the moisture of the earth40#bjie ,he has also to meet the following objection made to the eleventh and twelfth verses of the first chapter of ,genesis3 8,how then1 they say1 can ,scripture describe all the plants of the earth as seed-bearing1 when the reed1 couch-grass1 mint1 crocus1 garlic1 and the flowering rush and countless other species produce no seed8 ,to this we reply that many vegetables have their seminal virtue in the lower part and in the roots40#bjif ,sidenote3 ,the four elements and four qualities4 ,basil regards the words of ,genesis1 8,god called the dry land earth10 as a recognition of the fact that drought is the primal property of earth1 as humidity is of air2 cold1 of water2 and heat1 of fire4 ,he adds1 however1 that 8our eyes and senses can find nothing which is completely singular1 simple1 and pure4 ,earth is at the same time dry and cold2 water1 cold and moist2 air1 moist and warm2 fire1 warm and dry40#bjig ,indeed1 as he has already stated in the previous homily1 the mixture of elements in actual objects is even more intricate than this last sentence might seem to indicate4 ,every element is in every other1 and we not only do not perceive with our senses any pure elements but not even any compounds of two elements only4#bjih ,sidenote3 ,enthusiasm for nature as ,god's work4 ,basil is alive to the absorbing interest of the world of nature and to the marvelous intricacies of natural science4 ,he tells his hearers that as 8anyone not knowing a town is taken by the hand and led through it10 so he will guide them 8through the mysterious marvels of this great city of the universe40#bjii ,as he had said in the preceding homily1 8,a single plant1 a blade of grass is sufficient to occupy all your intelligence in the contemplation of the skill which produced it40#bajj ,he sees 8great wisdom in small things40#baja ,thus by the argument from design he is apt to work back from nature to the ,creator1 so that his enthusiasm cannot be regarded as purely scientific4 ,going a step farther than ,galen's argument from design1 he contends that 8not a single thing has been created without reason2 not a single thing is useless40#bajb ,sidenote3 ,sin and nature4 ,basil also cherishes the notion1 which we have already found both in pagan and ,christian writers1 that human sin leaves its stain or has its effect upon nature4 ,the rose was without thorns before the fall of man1 and their addition to its beauty serves to remind us that 8sorrow is very near to pleasure40#bajc ,sidenote3 ,habits of animals4 ,basil discusses the habits of animals largely in order to draw moral lessons from them for human beings and he has several passages in the style supposed to be characteristic of the ,physiologus4 ,but he also refers in a number of places to the ability of animals to find remedies with which to cure themselves of ailments and injuries1 or to their power of divining the future4 ,the sea-urchin foretells storms2 sheep and goats discern danger by instinct alone4 ,the starling eats hemlock and digests it 8before its chill can attack the vital parts02 and the quail is able to feed on hellebore4 ,the wounded bear nurses himself1 filling his wounds with mullein1 an astringent plant2 8the fox heals his wounds with droppings from the pine tree02 the tortoise counteracts the venom of the vipers it has eaten by means of the herb marjoram2 and 8the serpent heals sore eyes by eating fennel40#bajd ,sidenote3 ,marvels of nature4 ,indeed1 far from being led by his acquaintance with ,greek science into doubting the marvelous1 ,basil finds 8in nature a thousand reasons for believing in the marvelous40#baje ,he is ready to ascribe astounding powers to animals1 and believes1 like ,pliny1 that 8the greatest vessels1 sailing with full sails1 are easily stopped by a tiny fish40#bajf ,he tells us that nature endowed the lion with such loud and forceful vocal organs 8that often much swifter animals are caught by his roaring alone40#bajg ,he also repeats in charming style the familiar story of the halcyon days4 ,the halcyon lays its eggs along the shore in mid-winter when violent winds dash the waves against the land4 ,yet winds are hushed and waves are calm during the seven days that the halcyon sits1 and then1 after its young are hatched and in need of food1 8,god in his munificence grants another seven days to this tiny animal4 ,all sailors know this and call these days halcyon days40#bajh ,sidenote3 ,spontaneous generation4 ,like most ancient scientists1 ,basil believes that some animals are spontaneously generated4 8,many birds have no need of union with males to conceive10 a circumstance which should make it easy for us to believe in the ,virgin birth of ,christ4#baji ,grasshoppers and other nameless insects and sometimes frogs and mice are 8born from the earth itself10 and 8mud alone produces eels10#baaj a theory not much more amazing than the assertion of modern biologists that eels spawn only in the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,basil states that 8in the environs of ,thebes in ,egypt after abundant rain in hot weather the country is covered with field mice10 but without noting that abundant rain in upper ,egypt in hot weather would itself be in the nature of a miracle4 ,sidenote3 ,lack of scientific scepticism4 ,basil is less sceptical than ,apollonius of ,tyana in regard to the birth of lions and of vipers1 repeating unquestioningly the statement that the viper gnaws its way out of its mother's womb1 and that the lioness bears only one whelp because it tears her with its claws4#baaa ,of purely scientific scepticism there is1 indeed1 little in the ,hexaemeron4 ,basil does1 however1 question one of the powers ascribed to magicians1 and this is his only mention of the magic art4 ,discussing the immense size of the moon and its great influence upon terrestrial nature1 he declares ridiculous the old-wives' tales which have been circulated everywhere that magic incantations 8can remove the moon from its place and make it descend to the earth40#baab ,sidenote3 ,sun worship and astrology4 ,sun worship still existed in ,basil's time and he hails the fact that the sun was not created until the fourth day1 after both light and vegetation were in existence1 as a severe blow to those who reverence the sun as the source of life4#baac ,however1 he does 8not pretend to be able to separate light from the body of the sun40#baad ,theophilus in his earlier discussion of creation had stated1 perhaps copying ,philo ,judaeus1 that the luminaries were not created until the fourth day1 8because ,god1 who possesses foreknowledge1 knew the follies of the vain philosophers1 that they were going to say1 that the things which grow on earth are produced from the heavenly bodies0--which is1 indeed1 a fundamental hypothesis of astrology--8so as to exclude ,god4 ,in order1 therefore1 that the truth might be obvious1 the plants and seeds were produced prior to the heavenly bodies1 for what is posterior cannot produce that which is prior40#baae ,basil does not make this point against the rule of inferior creation by the heavenly bodies1 but in a succeeding homily he feels it necessary to devote several paragraphs#baaf to refutation of the 8vain science0 of casting nativities1 which some persons have justified by the words of ,god concerning sun1 moon1 and stars in the first chapter of ,genesis1 8,and let them be for signs40 ,basil questions if it be possible to determine the exact instant of birth1 declares that to attribute to the constellations and signs of the zodiac the characteristics of animals is to subject them to external influences1 and defends human free will in much the usual fashion4 ,he is ready1 however1 to grant that 8the variations of the moon do not take place without exerting great influence upon the organization of animals and of all living things10 and that the moon makes 8all nature participate in her changes40#baag ,sidenote3 ,permanence of species4 ,basil's utterances concerning the world of nature are not always consistent4 ,in describing the creation of vegetation he asserts that species are unchanging1 affirming that 8all which sprang from the earth in the first bringing forth is kept the same to our time1 thanks to the constant reproduction of kind40#baah ,yet a few paragraphs later we find him saying1 8,it has been observed that pines1 cut down or even submitted to the action of fire1 are changed into a forest of oaks40#baai ,nevertheless in the last homily he again asserts that 8nature1 once put in motion by divine command1 444 keeps up the succession of kinds through resemblance to the last4 ,nature always makes a horse succeed to a horse1 a lion to a lion1 an eagle to an eagle1 and preserving each animal by these uninterrupted successions she transmits it to the end of all things4 ,animals do not see their peculiarities destroyed or effaced by any length of time2 their nature1 as though it had just been constituted1 follows the course of ages forever young40#babj ,sidenote3 ,final impression from the ,hexaemeron4 ,concerning ,basil in conclusion we may say that while he can scarcely be called much of a scientist1 he is a pretty good scientist for a preacher4 ,his knowledge of1 and errors concerning1 the world of nature will probably compare quite as well with the science of his day as those of most modern sermons will with the science of our days4 ,his occasional flings at ,greek philosophy are probably not to be taken too seriously4 ,but what interests us rather more than ,basil's attitude is that of his audience1 curious concerning nature4 ,just as it is evident that many of them go to theaters and circuses1 or play with dice1 despite ,basil's denunciation of the immoral songs of the stage and the evils of gambling2 just so1 we suspect1 it was the attractive morsels of ,greek astronomy1 botany1 and zoology which he offered them that induced them to come and listen further to his argument from design and his moral lessons based upon these natural phenomena4 ,nor were they likely to observe his censure of incantations and nativities more closely than his condemnation of theater and gaming4 ,it would be rash to infer that they always practiced what he preached4 ,by the same token1 even if the church fathers had opposed scientific investigation--and it hardly appears that they did--they would probably have been no more successful in checking it than they were in checking the commerce of ,constantinople1 although 8,s4 ,ambrose regards the gains of merchants as for the most part fraudulent1 and ,s4 ,chrysostom's language has been generally appealed to in a similar sense40#baba ,sidenote3 ,the ,medicine ,chest of ,epiphanius4 ,the same recognition of an interest in nature on the part of his audience and the same appeal to their scientific curiosity1 which we have seen in ,basil's sermons1 is shown by ,epiphanius of ,cyprus 7#cae-djc7 writing in #cgd-cge ,a4 ,d4#babb ,he calls his work against heresies the ,panarion1 or 8,medicine ,chest10 his idea being to provide antidotes and healing herbs in the form of salubrious doctrine against the venom of heretics whose enigmas he compares to the bites of serpents or wild beasts4 ,this metaphor is more or less adhered to throughout the work1 and particular heresies are compared to the asp1 basilisk1 dipsas1#babc buprestis1#babd lizard1 dog-fish or shark1 mole1 centipede1 scorpion1 and various vipers4 ,we are further told of substances that drive away serpents1 such as the herbs dictamnon1 abrotonum1 and libanotis1 the gum storax1#babe and the stone gagates4 ,as his authorities in such matters ,epiphanius states that he uses ,nicander for the natures of beasts and reptiles1 and for roots and plants ,dioscorides1 ,pamphilus1 ,mithridates the king1 ,callisthenes and ,philo1 ,iolaos the ,bithynian1 ,heraclides of ,tarentum1 and a number of other names4#babf ,sidenote3 ,gems in the high priest's breastplate4 ,if in his ,panarion ,epiphanius makes use of ancient botany1 medicine1 and zoology for purposes of comparison1 in his treatise on the twelve gems in the breastplate of the ,hebrew high priest#babg he perhaps gives an excuse and sets the fashion for the ,christian medieval ,lapidaries4 ,this work was probably composed after the ,panarion1 and in the opinion of ,fogginius even later than #cib ,a4 ,d4#babh ,this treatise probably was better known in the middle ages than the ,panarion1 since the fullest version of it extant is the old ,latin one1 while the ,greek text which has survived seems only a very brief epitome4 ,the ,greek version1 however1 embodies a good deal of what is said concerning the gems themselves and their virtues1 but omits entirely the long effort to identify each of the twelve stones with one of the twelve tribes of ,israel1 which is left unfinished even in the ,latin version4 ,epiphanius shows himself rather chary in regard to such virtues attributed to gems as to calm storms1 make men pacific1 and confer the power of divination4 ,he does not go so far as to omit them entirely1 but he usually qualifies them as the assertion of 8those who construct fables0 or 8those who believe fables40 ,it is without any such qualification1 however1 that he declares that the topaz1#babi when ground on a physician's grindstone1 although red itself1 emits a white milky fluid1 and1 moreover1 that as many vessels as one wishes may be filled with this fluid without changing the appearance or shape or lessening the weight of the stone4 ,skilled physicians also attribute to this liquid a healing effect in eye troubles1 in hydrophobia1 and in the case of those who have gone mad from eating grape-fish4 ,sidenote3 ,some other gems4 ,epiphanius mentions a few other gems than those in the high priest's breastplate4 ,among these is the stone hyacinth#bacj which1 when placed upon live coals1 extinguishes them without injury to itself and which is also beneficial to women in childbirth1 and drives away phantasms4 ,certain varieties of it are found in the north among the barbarous ,scythians4 ,the gems lie at the bottom of a deep valley which is inaccessible to men because walled in completely by mountains1 and moreover from the summits one cannot see into the valley because of a dark mist which covers it4 ,how men ever became cognizant of the fact that there are gems there may well be wondered but is a point which ,epiphanius does not take into consideration4 ,he simply tells us that when men are sent to obtain some of these stones1 they skin sheep and hurl the carcasses into the valley where some of the gems adhere to the flesh4 ,the odor of the raw meat then attracts the eagles1 whose keener sight is perhaps able to penetrate the mist1 although ,epiphanius does not say so1 and they carry the carrion to their nests in the mountains4 ,the men watch where the eagles have taken the meat and go there and find the gems which have been brought out with it4 ,in the middle ages we find this same story in a slightly different form told of ,alexander the ,great on his expedition to ,india4 ,epiphanius has one thing to tell of ,india himself in connection with gems1 which is that a temple of ,father ,liber 7,bacchus7 is located there which is said to have three hundred and sixty-five steps1--all of sapphire4#baca ,sidenote3 ,the so-called ,physiologus3 problem of its origin4 ,the problem of an early ,christian work entitled ,physiologus is no easy one1 although much has been written concerning it#bacb and more has been taken for granted4 ,for instance1 one often meets such wild and sweeping statements as that 8the name ,physiologus0 was 8given to a cyclopedia of what was known and imagined about earth1 sea1 sky1 birds1 beasts1 and fishes1 which for a thousand years was the authoritative source of information on these matters and was translated into every ,european tongue40#bacc ,my later treatment of medieval science will make patent the inaccuracy of such a statement4 ,but to return to the problem of the origin of ,physiologus4 ,the original ,greek text1#bacd which some would put back in the first half of the second century of our era1 if it ever existed1 is now lost1 and its previous existence and character are inferred from numerous apparent citations of it1 possible extracts from it1 and what are taken to be imitations1 abbreviations1 amplifications1 adaptations1 and translations of it in other languages and of later date4 ,thus we have versions or fragments in ,armenian1#bace ,syriac1#bacf ,ethiopian1#bacg and ,arabic2#bach a ,greek text from medieval manuscripts1 mostly of late date2#baci various ,latin versions in numerous manuscripts from the eighth century on2#badj in ,old ,high ,german a prose translation of about #ajjj ,a4 ,d4 and a poetical version later in the same language2#bada and ,bestiaries such as those of ,philip of ,thaon#badb and ,william the ,clerk#badc in the ,romance languages#badd and other vernaculars4#bade ,the ,physiologus has been thought to have originated in ,alexandria because of its use of the ,egyptian names for the months and because ,clement of ,alexandria and ,origen are supposed to have made use of it4 ,but it is difficult to determine whether the church fathers drew passages concerning animals and nature from some such work or whether it was a collection of passages from their writings upon such themes4 ,ahrens1 who thought he found the original form of the work in a ,syriac ,book of the ,things of ,nature1#badf regarded ,origen as its author4 ,in a medical manuscript at ,vienna is a ,physiologus in ,greek ascribed to ,epiphanius of ,cyprus1#badg of whom we have just been treating1 while we hear that ,pope ,gelasius at a synod of #dif condemned as apocryphal a ,physiologus which was written by heretics and ascribed to ,ambrose1#badh who so closely duplicated the ,hexaemeron of ,basil4 ,a work on the natures of animals is also attributed to ,john ,chrysostom4#badi ,i am not sure whether a ,physiologus ascribed to ,john the ,scot in a tenth century ,latin manuscript is the same work4#baej ,sidenote3 ,does the title apply to any one particular treatise8 ,the ,physiologus is commonly described as a symbolic bestiary1 in which the characteristics and properties of animals are accompanied by ,christian allegories and instruction4 ,some have almost gone so far as to hold that any passages of this sort are evidence of an author's having employed the ,physiologus1 which some have held influenced the middle ages more than any other book except the ,bible4 ,but ,pitra's point is well taken that the ,physiologus is one thing and the allegorical interpretation thereof another4 ,in the case of the discordant versions or fragments which he gathered and published from different manuscripts1 centuries1 and languages1 he noted one common feature1 that the allegorical interpretation was sharply separated from the extracts from ,physiologus and sometimes omitted entirely4 ,this is what one would naturally expect since a physiologus is a natural scientist on whose statements concerning this or that the allegorical interpretation is presumably based and added thereto4 ,but this suggests another difficulty in identifying ,physiologus as a single work4 ,the abbreviations for the word in medieval manuscripts are very easily confused with those for philosophers or phisici 7physical scientists71 and just as medieval writers often cite what the philosophers say or the phisici say without having reference to any particular book1 so may they not cite what physiologi or even physiologus says without having any particular writer in mind8 ,in the ,de bestiis ascribed to ,hugh of ,st4 ,victor of the twelfth century physici are cited#baea as well as ,physiologus4 ,when ,albertus ,magnus states in the thirteenth century in his work on minerals that the physiologi have assigned very different causes for the marvelous occult virtue in stones1 he evidently simply alludes to the opinions of scientists in general and has no such work or works as the so-called ,physiologus in mind4#baeb ,this is also clearly the case in a fragment from the introduction to a ,latin translation from the ,arabic of some treatise on the astrolabe1 in which we find phisiologi cited as astronomical authorities4#baec ,furthermore1 even in works which deal with the natures of animals and which either have the word ,physiologus in their titles or cite it now and then in the course of their texts1 there exists such diversity that it becomes fairly evident not only that it is impossible to deduce from them the list of animals treated in the original ,physiologus or the details which it gave concerning each1 but also that it is highly probable that the title ,physiologus has been applied to different treatises which did not necessarily have a common origin4 ,or at least the greatest liberties were taken with the original text and title1#baed so that the word ,physiologus came to apply less to any particular book1 author1 or authority than to almost any treatment of animals in a certain style4 ,sidenote3 ,and to what sort of a treatise8 ,but of what style8 ,it has too often been assumed that theology dominated all medieval thought and that natural science was employed only for purposes of religious symbolism4 ,of this general assumption the ,physiologus has been seized upon as an apt illustration and it has been represented as a symbolic bestiary which influenced the middle ages more than any other book except the ,bible#baee and whose allegories accounted for the animal sculpture of the ,gothic cathedrals and the strange or familiar beasts in the borders of the ,bayeux ,tapestry1 the margins of illuminated manuscripts1 and so on and so forth4 ,sidenote3 ,medieval art shows almost no symbolic influence of the ,physiologus4 ,the more recent scientific study of medieval art has largely dissipated this latter notion4 ,it has become evident that in the main medieval men represented animals in art because they were fond of animals1 not because they were fond of allegories4 ,their art was natural1 not symbolic4 ,they were1 says ,mle1 8craftsmen who delighted in nature for its own sake1 sometimes lovingly copying the living forms1 sometimes playing with them1 combining and contorting them as they were led by their own caprice40 ,st4 ,bernard1 although 8the prince of allegorists10 saw no sense in the animal sculptures in ,romanesque cloisters and inveighed against them4 ,in short1 with the exception of the symbols of the four evangelists1 8there are few cases in which it is permissible to assign symbolic meaning to animal forms10 and it is 8evident that the fauna and flora of medieval art1 natural or fantastic1 have in most cases a value that is purely decorative40 8,to sum up10 concludes ,mle1 8we are of the opinion that the ,bestiaries of which we hear so much from the archaeologists had no real influence on art until their substance passed into ,honorius of ,autun's book 7,speculum ecclesiae1 c4 #ajij-aabj7 and from that book into sermons4 ,i have searched in vain 7with but two exceptions7 for representations of the hedgehog1 beaver1 tiger1 and other animals which figure in the ,bestiaries but which are not mentioned by ,honorius40#baef ,sidenote3 ,physiologus was more natural scientist than allegorist4 ,these assertions concerning medieval art hold true also to a large extent of medieval literature and medieval science1 although they were perhaps less natural and original than it and more dependent on past tradition and authority4 ,but medieval men1 as we shall see1 studied nature from scientific curiosity and not in search for spiritual allegories1 and even ,goldstaub recognizes that by the thirteenth century the scientific zoology of ,aristotle submerged that of the ,physiologus in writers like ,thomas of ,cantimpr and ,albertus ,magnus who1 although they may still embody portions of the ,physiologus1 divest it of its characteristic religious elements4#baeg ,but were its characteristic elements ever religious8 ,were they not always scientific or pseudo-scientific8 ,ahrens holds that the title was taken from ,aristotle in the first place1 and that ,pliny was the chief source for the contents4 ,the allegories do not appear in such early texts as the ,syriac version or the fragments preserved in the ,latin ,glossary of ,ansileubus4 ,not even the introductory scriptural texts appear in the ,greek version ascribed to ,epiphanius4 ,moreover1 in the ,bestiaries where the allegorical applications are included1 it is for the natures of the animals1 the supposedly scientific facts on which the symbolism is based1 and for these alone that ,physiologus is cited in the text4 ,thus the symbolism would appear to be somewhat adventitious1 while the pseudo-science is constant4 ,it is obvious that the allegorical applications cannot do without the supposed facts concerning animals2 on the other hand1 the supposedly scientific information can and does frequently dispense with the allegories4 ,we do not know who was responsible for the allegorical interpretations in the first instance4 ,hommel would carry the origin of their symbolism back of the ,christian era to the animal worship of ,persia1 ,india1 and ,egypt4#baeh ,but we are assured over and over again that ,natural ,scientist or ,physiologus vouches for the statements concerning the natures of animals4 ,thus the symbolic significance of the literature that has been grouped under the title ,physiologus has been exaggerated1 while the respect for and interest in natural science to which it testifies have too often been lost sight of4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,augustine ,,on ,,magic ,,and ,,astrology ,date and influence of ,augustine--,christianity and magic--,censure of magic and theurgy as well as ,goetia--,magic due to demons--,marvels wrought by magic--,cannot be equalled by most ,christians--,miracles of heretics--,theory of demons--,limitations to the power of magic--,its fantastic character--,samuel and the witch of ,endor--,natural marvels--,relation between magic and science--,superstitions akin to magic--,survival of pagan superstition among the laity--,augustine's attack upon astrology--,fate and free will--,argument from twins--,defense of the astrologers--,elections--,are animals and plants under the stars8--,failure to disprove the control of nature by the stars--,natural divination and prophetic visions--,the star at ,christ's birth--,nature of the stars--,orosius on the ,priscillianists and ,origenists--,augustine's letter--,attitude toward astronomy--,perfect numbers4 ,sidenote3 ,date and influence of ,augustine4 ,the utterances of ,augustine concerning magic and astrology have been reserved for separate treatment in this chapter1 partly because of his late date1 #ced to #dcj ,a4 ,d41 partly because of the voluminousness of his writings1 but especially because of his approach to and influence upon the thought of the middle ages4 ,it is1 moreover1 in his epoch-making book1 ,the ,city of ,god1 which better than any other single event marks1 or at least sums up1 the transition from classical to medieval civilization1 from the life of the ancient city to that of the medieval church1 that he descants with especial fulness upon magic1 demons1 and astrology1 although he often also refers to these themes in his other treatises1 which we shall cite as well4 ,i separate the words1 magic and astrology1 here because ,augustine1 like most of the fathers1 does so4 ,of ,augustine's discussion of the ,biblical account of creation in his ,confessions and ,de ,genesi ad litteram ,i shall not treat1 having already presented ,basil's ,hexaemeron as an example of this type of work and of the ,christian attitude toward natural science4#baei ,but later in treating of medieval writers on nature ,i may have occasion to point out certain passages in which they may have been influenced by ,augustine4 ,sidenote3 ,christianity and magic4 ,even though writing in the fifth century ,augustine still finds it necessary to defend ,christ against those who imagine that ,he has converted peoples to ,himself by means of the magic art4#bafj ,and he tells us of books of magic which are ascribed to ,christ ,himself or to the apostles ,peter and ,paul4#bafa ,in reply to such charges or assertions he insists that ,christians have nothing to do with magic1 and that their miracles 8were wrought by simple confidence and devout faith1 not by incantations and spells compounded by an art of depraved curiosity40#bafb ,and he brings the counter-charge against ,roman religion that ,king ,numa1 its founder1 learned its secrets and sacred rites by means of hydromancy or necromancy4#bafc ,he admits1 however1 that condemnation of magic and legislation against it had begun before ,christianity4#bafd ,sidenote3 ,magic and theurgy censured as well as ,goetia4 ,augustine uniformly speaks of magic with censure and several times adverts to 8the crimes of magicians40#bafe ,he speaks1 however1 of goetia or sorcery as 8a more detestable name0 than magia and of 8theurgy0 as 8an honorable name40 ,he also states that some persons draw a distinction between the malefici or sorcerers or practitioners of goetia1 whom they call truly guilty of illicit arts and deserving of condemnation1 and those who practice theurgy1 whom they call praiseworthy4 ,porphyry1 for instance1 had stated that theurgy was useful to purge the soul and prepare it to receive spirits and to see ,god4 ,augustine1 however1 holds that in other passages ,porphyry condemned theurgy1 and in any case he himself refuses to sanction it4#baff ,he stoutly denies that 8souls are purged and reconciled to ,god through sacrilegious likenesses and impious curiosity and magic consecrations40#bafg ,very possibly ,augustine would have classed as improper theurgy some of the use of powerful names described by ,origen4 ,sidenote3 ,magic due to demons4 ,at any rate ,augustine declares that theurgists and sorcerers alike 8are entangled in the deceitful rites of demons who may masquerade under the names of angels40#bafh ,for it is to demons that ,augustine1 like most of our ,christian writers1 attributes both the origin and the success of magic4 ,the demons are enticed by men to work marvels1 not by offerings of food1 as if they were animals1 but by symbols which conform to the individual taste of each as a spirit1 namely1 various stones1 plants1 trees1 animals1 incantations1 and ceremonies1#bafi--;a good brief summary of the materials and methods of magic4 ,augustine believes that the spirits had first to instruct men what rites to perform and by what names to call them in order to summon them4 ,sidenote3 ,marvels wrought by magic4 ,but when once the demons have revealed their secrets1 henceforth the charms of the magic art have efficacy4 ,of the marvels worked by means of magic ,augustine has little doubt2 to deny them would indeed in his opinion be to deny the truth of the ,scriptures1 to whose accounts of ,pharaoh's magicians1#bagj the witch of ,endor1 and the ,magi and the star1 he adverts many times in his various works4 ,if actors in the theater and performers in spectacles are able by art and exercise to display astounding alterations in the appearance of their earthly bodies1 why may not the demons with their aerial bodies produce marvelous changes in elementary substances or by occult influence construct phantom images to delude human senses8#baga ,augustine even grants that the magicians are able to terrify the inferior spirits into obedience to their commands by adjuring them by the names of superior spirits1 and thereby with divine permission 8to exhibit to the eye of sense certain results which seem great and marvelous to men who through weakness of the flesh are incapable of beholding things eternal40 ,he does not regard this as inconsistent with the assertion of ,jesus that ,satan cannot cast out ,satan1 since while it may be that thus demons are expelled from sick bodies1 the evil one thereby only the more surely takes possession of the soul4#bagb ,sidenote3 ,cannot be equalled by most ,christians4 ,augustine further grants that magicians1 although stained with crime1 can at present work miracles which most ,christians and even most saints cannot perform4 ,for this1 however1 he finds ,scriptural precedent4 ,pharaoh's magicians performed feats which none of the ,children of ,israel could equal except ,moses who excelled them by divine aid4 ,augustine1 like earlier fathers1 usually fails to mention ,aaron in this connection4#bagc ,this superiority of magicians to most ,christians in working marvels ,augustine believes is divinely ordained so that ,christians may remain humble and practice works of justice rather than seek to perform miracles4 ,magicians seek their own glory2 the saints strive only for the glory of ,god4 ,and the more marvelous are the feats of magic1 the more ,christians should shun them2 the greater the power of the demons1 the closer ,christians should cling to that ,mediator who alone can raise men from the lowest depths4#bagd ,sidenote3 ,miracles of heretics4 ,like ,origen1 ,augustine further distinguishes the miracles wrought by heretics both from magic and from the miracles of true ,christians4 ,he holds that every soul in part controls itself and exercises as it were a private jurisdiction1 in part is subject to the laws of the universe just as any citizen is amenable to public jurisdiction4 ,therefore magicians perform their marvels by private contracts with demons2 good ,christians perform theirs by public justice2 bad ,christians perform theirs by the appearance or signs of public justice4#bage ,this view would seem to indicate that ,god1 like the demons1 regards the signs alone and not the character and purpose of the performer1 so that ,christian miracles1 if they can be duplicated by heretics1 would appear to be largely a matter of procedure and art1 like magic4 ,sidenote3 ,theory of demons4 ,for his theory of demons and their characteristics ,augustine seems largely indebted to ,apuleius1 whom he cites in several chapters of the eighth and ninth books of ,the ,city of ,god4 ,in his separate treatise1 ,the ,divination of ,demons1#bagf he explains their ability to predict the future and to perform marvels by the keenness of their sense1 their rapidity of movement1 their long experience of nature and life1 and the subtlety of their aerial bodies4 ,this last quality enables them to penetrate human bodies or affect the thoughts of men without men being aware of their presence4 ,augustine1 however1 of course does not believe that the world of nature is completely under the control of the demons4 ,god alone created it and ,he still governs it1 and the demons are able to do only as much as ,he permits4#bagg ,sidenote3 ,limitations to the power of magic4 ,there were1 for example1 some things which ,pharaoh's magicians could not do and in which ,moses clearly excelled them4 ,they were able to change their rods into snakes but his snake devoured theirs4 ,how the magicians got their rods back1 if at all1 neither ,augustine nor the ,book of ,exodus informs us4 ,but whether with or without their magic wands1 they were still able to duplicate one or two of the plagues sent upon ,egypt4 ,augustine explains that neither they nor the demons who helped them really created snakes and frogs1 but that there are certain seeds of life hidden away in the elemental bodies of this world of which they made use4 ,but their magic failed them when it came to the reproduction of minute insects4#bagh ,augustine furthermore has some hesitation about accepting the stories of magic transformations of men into animals1 which he represents as current in his own day as well as in times past1 so that certain female inn-keepers in ,italy are said to transform travelers into beasts of burden by a magic potion administered in the cheese1 just as ,circe transformed the companions of ,ulysses and as ,apuleius says happened to himself in the book that he wrote under the title1 ,the ,golden ,ass4 ,these stories1 in ,augustine's opinion1 8are either false or such uncommon occurrences that they are justly discredited40#bagi ,he does not believe that demons can truly transform the human body into the limbs and lineaments of beasts1 but the strange personal experiences of reliable persons have convinced him that men are deceived by dreams1 hallucinations1 and fantastic images4 ,sidenote3 ,its fantastic character4 ,thus1 as we have already seen over and over again1 the fantastic and deceptive character of magic is dimly realized4 ,usually1 however1 when ,augustine represents 8the powers of the air0 as deceiving men by magic1 the deceit consists merely in the magicians' imagining that they are working the marvels which are really performed by demons1 or in men being lured into subjection to ,satan and to their ultimate and eternal damnation through the attractions of the magic art4#bahj ,sidenote3 ,samuel and the witch of ,endor4 ,augustine twice responded to questions concerning the witch of ,endor's apparent invocation of the spirit of ,samuel1 repeating in his ,de octo ,dulcitii quaestionibus#baha what he had already said in ,de diversis quaestionibus ad ,simplicianum4#bahb ,in certain respects ,augustine's treatment of the problem differs from those which we have previously examined4 ,what1 he asks1 if the impure spirit which possessed the pythonissa was able to raise the very soul of ,samuel from the dead8 ,is it not much more strange that ,satan was allowed to converse personally with ,god concerning the tempting of ,job1 and to raise the very ,christ aloft upon a pinnacle of the temple8 ,why then may not the soul of ,samuel have appeared to ,saul1 not unwillingly and coerced by magic power but voluntarily under some hidden divine dispensation8 ,augustine1 however1 also thinks it possible that the soul of ,samuel did not appear but was impersonated by some phantasm and imaginary illusion made by diabolical machinations4 ,he can see no deceit in the ,scripture's calling such a phantom ,samuel1 since we are accustomed to call paintings1 statues1 and images seen in dreams by the names of the actual persons whom they represent4 ,nor does it trouble him that the spirit of ,samuel or pretended spirit predicted truly to ,saul1 for demons have a limited power of that sort4 ,thus they recognized ,christ when the ,jews knew ,him not1 and the damsel possessed of a spirit of divination in ,the ,acts testified to ,paul's divine mission4 ,augustine leaves1 however1 as beyond the limits of his time and strength the further problem whether the human soul after death can be so evoked by magic incantations that it is not only seen but recognized by the living4 ,in his answer to ,dulcitius he further calls attention to the passage in ,ecclesiasticus 7,,xlvi1 #bc7 where ,samuel is praised as prophesying from the dead4 ,and if this passage be rejected because the book is not in the ,hebrew canon1 what shall we say of ,moses who appeared to the living long after his death8 ,sidenote3 ,natural marvels4 ,augustine had some acquaintance with ancient natural science and in one passage rehearses a number of natural marvels which are found in the pages of ,pliny and ,solinus in order to show pagans their inconsistency in accepting such wonders and yet remaining incredulous in regard to analogous phenomena mentioned in the ,bible4 ,so ,augustine rehearses the strange properties of the magnet2 asserts that adamant can be broken neither by steel nor fire but only by application of the blood of a goat2 tells of ,cappadocian mares who conceive from the wind2 and hails the ability of the salamander to live in the midst of flames as a token that the bodies of sinners can subsist in hell fire4 ,augustine also admits 8the virtue of stones and other objects and the craft of men who employ these in marvelous ways40#bahc ,he denies1 however1 that the ,marsi who charm snakes by their incantations are really understood by the serpents4 ,there is some diabolical force behind their magic1 as when ,satan spoke to ,eve through the serpent4#bahd ,sidenote3 ,relation between magic and science4 ,once at least1 however1 ,augustine associates science and magic4 ,in his ,confessions1 after speaking of sensual pleasure he also censures 8the vain and curious desire of investigation0 through the senses1 which is 8palliated under the name of knowledge and science40 ,this is apt to lead one not only into scrutinizing secrets of nature which are beyond one and which it does one no good to know and which men want to know just for the sake of knowledge1 but also 8into searching through magic arts into the confines of perverse science40#bahe ,sidenote3 ,superstitions akin to magic4 ,of this dangerous borderland between magic and science ,augustine has more to say in some chapters of his ,christian ,doctrine4#bahf ,after mentioning as prime instances of human superstition idolatry1 other false religions1 and the magic arts1 he next lists the books of soothsayers 7aruspices7 and augurs as of the same class1 8though seemingly a more permissible vanity40 ,in his ,confessions1#bahg however1 he tells of a soothsayer who offered not only to consult the future for him1 but to insure him success in a poetical contest in which he was to engage in the theater4 ,the incident is a good illustration of the fact that prediction of the future and attempting to influence events go naturally together1 and that arts of divination cannot be separated either in theory or practice from magic arts4 ,in the ,christian ,doctrine ,augustine is inclined further to put in the same class all use of invocations1 incantations1 and characters1 which he regards as signs implying pacts with evil spirits1 and the use of which in working cures he asserts is condemned by the medical profession4 ,he is also suspicious of ligatures and suspensions1 and states that it is one thing to say1 8,if you drink the juice of this herb1 your stomach will not ache10 and is another thing to say1 8,if you suspend this herb from the neck1 your stomach will not ache4 ,for in one case a healing application is worthy of approval1 in the other a superstitious signification is to be censured40 ,augustine recognizes1 however1 that such ligatures and suspensions are called 8by the milder name of natural remedies 7physica702 and if they are applied without incantations or characters1 possibly they may heal the body naturally by mere attachment1 in which case it is lawful to employ them4 ,but they may involve some signal to demons1 in which case the more efficacious they are1 the more a ,christian should avoid them4 ,sidenote3 ,survival of pagan superstition among the laity4 ,the same attitude toward superstitious medicine is shown in a sermon attributed to ,augustine but probably spurious4#bahh ,here a tempter is represented as coming to the sick man and saying1 8,if you had only employed that enchanter1 you would be well now2 if you would attach these characters to your body1 you could recover your health40 ,or another comes and says1 8,send your girdle to that diviner2 he will measure and scrutinize it and tell you what to do and whether you can recover40 ,or a third visitor may recommend someone who is skilled in fumigation4 ,the preacher warns his hearers not to succumb to such advice or they will be sacrificing to the devil2 whereas if they refuse such treatment and die1 it will be a glorious martyr's death4 ,the preacher1 however1 is not over-sanguine that his advice will be heeded1 as he has often before admonished his hearers against pagan superstitions1 and yet reports keep coming to him that some are continuing such practices4 ,he therefore 8warns them again and again0 to forsake all diviners1 aruspices1 enchanters1 phylacteries1 augury1 and observance of days1 or they will lose all benefit of the sacrament of baptism and will be eternally damned unless they perform a vast amount of penance4 ,the observance of days other than the ,lord's ,day is here condemned on the ground that ,god made the other six days without distinction4 ,in another supposititious sermon#bahi the practice of diligently observing on which day of the week to set out on a journey is censured as equivalent to worshiping the planets1 or rather the pagan gods whose names they bear and who are said here to have originally been bad men and women who lived at the time that the ,children of ,israel were in ,egypt4 ,the preacher is even opposed to naming the days of the week after such persons or planets and exhorts his hearers to speak simply of the first day1 second day1 and so on4 ,sidenote3 ,augustine's attack upon astrology4 ,nor will ,augustine1 to return to his remarks in the ,christian ,doctrine1#baij exempt 8from this genus of pernicious superstition those who are called genethliaci from their consideration of natal days and now are also popularly termed mathematici40 ,he holds that they enslave human free will by predicting a man's character and life from the stars1 and that their art is a presumptuous and fallacious human invention1 and that if their predictions come true1 this is due either to chance or to demons who wish to confirm mankind in its error4#baia ,in his youth1 when a follower of the ,manichean sect1 ,augustine had been a believer in astrology and thereby 8sacrificed himself to demons0 at the same time that1 owing to his ,manichean scruples against animal sacrifice1 he refused to employ a haruspex4#baib ,perhaps on this account he felt the more bound to warn his readers against astrology in his old age4 ,he often attacks the casters of horoscopes in his works and especially in the opening chapters of the fifth book of ,the ,city of ,god1 on which we may center our attention as being a rather more elaborate discussion than the other passages and including almost all the arguments which he advances elsewhere4 ,these arguments are not original with him1 but his presentation of them was perhaps better known in the middle ages than any other4#baic ,sidenote3 ,fate and free will4 ,the objection to astrology as fatalistic does not come with the best grace from ,augustine1 the great advocate of divine prescience and of predestination1 and in his discussion in ,the ,city of ,god he is forced to recognize this fact4 ,he holds that the world is not governed by chance or by fate1 a word which for most men means the force of the constellations1 but by divine providence4 ,he starts to accuse the astrologers of attributing to the spotless stars1 or to the ,god whose orders the stars obediently execute1 the causing of human sin and evil2 but then recognizes that the astrologers will answer that the stars simply signify and in no way cause evil1 just as ,god foresees but does not compel human sinfulness4 ,sidenote3 ,argument from twins4 ,thus thwarted in his attempt to show that the astrologers enslave the human will1 although in other passages he still gives us to understand that they do1#baid ,augustine adopts another line of argument1 that from twins1 an old favorite1 which he twists first one way and then another1 proposing to the astrologers a series of dilemmas as he finds them likely to escape from each preceding one4 ,he seems to have been much impressed by the thought that at the same instant and hence with the same horoscope persons were born whose subsequent lives and characters were different4 ,he brings forward ,esau and ,jacob as examples1 and states that he himself has known of twins of dissimilar sex and life4 ,moreover1 he tells us in his ,confessions that he was finally induced to abandon his study of the books of the astrologers1 from which the arguments of 8,vindicianus1 a keen old man1 and of ,nebridius1 a youth of remarkable intellect10 had failed to win him1 by hearing from another youth that his father1 a man of wealth and rank1 had been born at precisely the same moment as a certain wretched slave on the estate4#baie ,sidenote3 ,defense of the astrologers4 ,but the astrologers reply that even twins are not born at precisely the same instant and do not have the same horoscope1 but are born under different constellations1 so rapidly do the heavens revolve1 as the astrologer ,nigidius ,figulus neatly illustrated by striking a rapidly revolving potter's wheel two successive blows as quickly as he could in what appeared to be the same spot4 ,but when the wheel was stopped and examined1 the two marks were found to be far apart4 ,augustine's counter argument is that if astrologers must take into account such small intervals of time1 their observations and predictions can never attain sufficient accuracy to insure correct prediction2 and that if so brief an instant of time is sufficient to alter the horoscope totally1 then twins should not be as much alike as they are nor have as much in common as they do1--for instance1 falling ill and recovering simultaneously4 ,to this the astrologers are likely to respond that twins are alike because conceived at the same instant1 but somewhat dissimilar in their life because of the difference in their times of birth4 ,augustine retorts that if two persons conceived simultaneously in the same womb may be born at different times and have different fates after birth1 he sees no reason why persons who are born of different mothers at the same instant with the same horoscope may not die at different dates and lead different lives4 ,but he does not recognize that very likely the astrologers would agree with him in this1 since they often held that the influence of the stars was received variously by matter4 ,he also asks why a certain sage is said to have selected a certain hour for intercourse with his wife in order to beget a marvelous son--possibly an inaccurate allusion to the story of ,nectanebus#baif--unless the hour of conception controls the hour of birth1 and consequently twins conceived together must have the same horoscope4 ,he also objects that if twins fall sick at the same time because of their simultaneous conception1 they should not be of opposite sex as sometimes happens4 ,sidenote3 ,elections4 ,with this ,augustine turns from the case of twins to urge the inconsistency of the astrological doctrine of elections1 suggested by the story of the sage who chose the favorable moment for intercourse with his wife4 ,he holds that this practice of choosing favorable times is inconsistent with the belief in nativities which are supposed to have determined and predicted the individual's fate already4 ,he also inquires why men choose certain days for setting out trees and shrubs or breeding animals1 if men alone are subject to the constellations4 ,sidenote3 ,are animals and plants under the stars ,this last clause indicates how exclusively ,augustine's attacks are directed against the prediction of man's life from the stars1 and how little he has to say regarding the stars' control of the world of nature in general4 ,he now goes on to consider this latter possibility1 but interprets it too in the narrow sense of horoscope-casting1 and as implying that every herb and beast must have its fate absolutely determined by the constellations at its moment of birth4 ,this appears1 however1 to have been a widespread belief then1 since he tells us that men are accustomed to test the skill of astrologers by submitting to them the horoscopes of dumb animals1 and that the best astrologers are able not only to recognize that the reported constellations mark the birth of a beast rather than that of a human being1 but also to state whether it was a horse1 cow1 dog1 or sheep4 ,nevertheless1 ,augustine feels that he has reduced the art of casting horoscopes to an absurdity1 as he feels sure that beasts and plants which are so numerous must frequently be born at precisely the same instant as human beings4 ,furthermore1 it is plain that crops which are sown and ripen simultaneously meet with very diverse fates in the end4 ,augustine thinks that by this argument he will force the astrologers to say that men alone are subject to the stars1 and then he will triumphantly ask how this can be1 when ,god has endowed man alone of all creatures with free will4 ,having thus argued more or less in a circle1 ,augustine regains the point from which he had started1 or rather1 retreated4 ,sidenote3 ,failure to disprove the control of nature by the stars4 ,augustine cannot then be said to have advanced any telling arguments against some sort of control of inferior nature by the motions and influence of the heavenly bodies4 ,he leaves the fundamental hypothesis of astrology unrebutted4 ,his attention is concentrated upon genethlialogy1 the superstition that the time and place of birth and nothing else determine with mathematical certainty and mechanical rigidity the entirety of one's life4 ,this seems nevertheless to have been a superstition which was very much alive in his time1 which he felt he must take pains repeatedly to refute1 and to which he himself had once been in bondage4 ,but he could not have studied the books of the astrologers very deeply1 as he ascribes views to them which many of them did not hold4 ,also he seems never to have read the ,tetrabiblos of ,ptolemy4 ,his attack upon and criticism of astrology was therefore narrow1 partial1 and inadequate1 and did not prevent medieval men from devoting themselves to that subject1 although they might cite his objections against ascribing to the constellations an influence subversive of human free will4 ,but he cannot be said to have admitted the control of the stars over the world of nature4 ,apparently the most that he was willing to concede was that it was not absurd to say that the influence of the stars might produce changes in material things1 as in the varying seasons of the year caused by the sun's course and the alternating augmentation and diminution of tides and shell-fish due1 as he supposed1 to the moon's phases4 ,he concludes his discussion of the subject in ,the ,city of ,god by saying that1 all things considered1 if the astrologers make many marvelously true predictions1 they do so by the aid and inspiration of the demons and not by the art of noting and inspecting horoscopes1 which has no sound basis4 ,sidenote3 ,natural divination and prophetic visions4 ,in another work ,augustine tells of some young men who1 while traveling1 as a boyish prank pretended to be astrologers and either by mere chance or by natural and innate power of divination hit upon the truth in the predictions which they supposed that they were inventing4 ,in the same context he proceeds to discuss in a credulous way the possibility of marvelous prophetic visions1 concerning which he tells one or two other tall tales from his personal experience4 ,he is1 however1 doubtful how far the human soul itself possesses the power of divination1 which he is inclined to attribute rather to spirits1 good or bad4 ,but owing to ,satan's ability in disguising himself as an angel of light it is often very difficult to tell to which sort of spirit to ascribe the vision in question4#baig ,sidenote3 ,the star at ,christ's birth4 ,in ,augustine's time there were those who held that ,christ ,himself had been 8born under the decree of the stars10 because of the statement in the ,gospel according to ,matthew that the ,magi had seen ,his star in the east4 ,of this matter ,augustine treats in several of his works4#baih ,he denies that this would be true even if other men were subject to the fatal influence of the stars1 which he denies as usual on the ground of free will4 ,he contends that the star was not one of the planets or constellations but a special creation1 since it did not keep to a regular course or orbit1 but came to where the child lay4 ,but how did the ,magi know that it was the star of ,christ when they saw it in the east1 unless by astrology8 ,augustine can only suggest that this was revealed to them by spirits1 whether good or bad he does not know4#baii ,augustine further affirms that the star did not cause ,christ to live a marvelous life1 but ,christ caused the star to make its marvelous appearance4 8,for1 when born of a mother1 ,he showed earth a new star in the sky1 ,who1 when born of the ,father1 formed both heaven and earth40 ,and1 8when ,he is born1 new light is revealed in a star2 when ,he dies1 old light is veiled in the sun40 ,but these rhetorical flourishes and antitheses seem to attest rather than dispute the significance of celestial phenomena1 so that ,augustine cannot be said to have answered the astrological contention anent ,christ's birth very satisfactorily4 ,sidenote3 ,nature of the stars4 ,the problem of the nature of the stars is one which ,augustine prefers to leave unsolved1 although it comes up several times in his writings4#bbjj ,whether they are simply lucid bodies without sense or intelligence1 as some think2 or have happy intellectual souls of their own1 as ,plato taught2 whether they are to be classed with the ,seats1 ,dominions1 ,principalities1 and ,powers of whom the apostle speaks2 and whether they are ruled and animated by spirits3 all these are questions which ,augustine puts1 but concerning whose answers he feels uncertain4 ,his fullest discussion of the matter is in a letter against the ,priscillianists to which we now come4 ,sidenote3 ,orosius on the ,priscillianists and ,origenists4 ,an interchange of letters between ,augustine and his ,spanish disciple ,orosius deals with the error of the ,priscillianists and ,origenists4#bbja ,nothing is said to convict them of magic1 which was1 however1 the charge on which ,priscillian was put to death1 but astrological tenets are ascribed to them4 ,orosius states that ,priscillian taught that the soul was born of ,god and instructed by angels1 but that it descended through certain circles of the heavens and was caught by evil principalities and thrust into different bodies2 and that it remained subject to ,mathesis or the laws of astrology until ,christ set it free by ,his passion on the cross4 ,like the astrologers1 continues ,orosius1 ,priscillian associated the signs of the zodiac with the different members of the human body1 ,aries and the head1 ,taurus and the neck1 and so on2#bbjb and he also taught that the names of the patriarchs of the twelve tribes were 8members of the soul10 ,reuben in the head1 ,judah in the breast1 ,levi in the heart1 and so on4 ,orosius adds that the ,origenists regard the sun1 moon1 and stars not as elemental luminaries but as rational powers2 and we have seen that ,origen himself did so4 ,sidenote3 ,augustine's letter4 ,augustine in his reply states that we can see that the sun1 moon1 and stars are celestial bodies1 but not that they are animated4 ,he agrees firmly with ,paul that there are ,seats1 ,dominions1 ,principalities1 and ,powers in the heavens1 8but ,i do not know what they are or what the difference is between them40 ,on the whole1 ,augustine is inclined to regard this state of ignorance as a blissful one4 ,he is somewhat troubled by the verses in the ,book of ,job1 8,how shall man be just in the sight of ,god1 or how shall one born of woman purify himself8 ,if ,he commands the moon and it does not shine1 and if the stars are not pure before ,him1 how much more is man rottenness and the son of man a worm80 ,from this passage the ,priscillianists infer that the stars have a rational spirit and are not free from sin1 yet are placed in the heaven because their fault is less than that of sinful mankind4 ,origen too had argued1 8,if the stars are living and rational beings1 there will undoubtedly appear among them both an advance and a falling back4 ,for the language of ,job1 #8the stars are not clean in ,his sight1' seems to me to convey some such idea40#bbjc ,augustine evades this difficulty by questioning whether this passage is to be received as of divine authority1 since it is uttered by one of ,job's comforters and not by ,job himself1 of whom alone it is said that he had not sinned with his lips against ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude towards astronomy4 ,so set is ,augustine against astrology that he even holds that ,christians may well leave the subject of astronomy alone1 8because it is related to the most pernicious error of those who utter a fatuous fatalism10 although he recognizes that there is nothing superstitious in predicting the future positions of the stars themselves from knowledge of their past movements4 ,but except that to know the course of the moon is useful in determining the date of ,easter1 knowledge of the stars is of little or no help in interpreting the divine ,scriptures4#bbjd ,in another passage ,augustine is somewhat perturbed by the assertion of astronomers that there are many stars equal to or greater than the sun in size1 but which seem smaller because they are farther off1--an assertion which seems to conflict with the statement of ,genesis that in creating the sun and moon 8,god made two great lights40 ,augustine1 however1 does not stop to contest the point at length but leaves it with the excuse that ,christians have many better and more serious matters to occupy their time than such subtle investigations concerning the relative magnitude of the stars and the intervals of space between them4#bbje ,sidenote3 ,perfect numbers4 ,augustine himself1 however1 was not above occupying his readers' time with discussion of the occult significance of numbers1 towards belief in which he shows himself inclined4 ,six was a perfect number in his estimation1 since ,god had created the world in six days1 although ,he might have taken less or more time2 and the ,psalmist made no idle remark in saying that the ,deity had ordered all things according to measure1 number1 and weight4 ,also six is the first number which can be obtained from adding together its factors3 one1 two1 and three4 ,augustine was going on to say that seven was also a perfect number1 when he checked himself lest he digress at too great length and seem 8too eager to display his smattering of science40 ,hence he merely added that one indication of seven's perfection was its composition of the first complete odd number1 three1 and the first complete even number1 four4#bbjf ,it is therefore not surprising to find ascribed to ,augustine a sermon on the correspondence between the ten plagues of ,egypt and the ten commandments which opens by remarking that it is not without cause that the number of precepts in ,god's law is the same as the number of plagues with which ,egypt was afflicted4#bbjg ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,fusion ,,of ,,pagan ,,and ,,christian ,,thought ,,in ,,the ,,fourth ,,and ,,fifth ,,centuries ,need of qualifying the patristic attitude--,plan of this chapter--,julius ,firmicus ,maternus--,date of the ,mathesis--,are the attitudes in ,firmicus' two works incompatible8--,de errore is not unfavorable to astrology--,attitude of both works to the emperors--,religious attitude of the ,mathesis--,an astrologer's prayer--,christian objections to astrology met--,astrology proved experimentally--,information to be gained from the third and fourth books--,religion and magic2 exorcists--,divination--,magic as a branch of learning--,interest in science--,diseases in antiquity--,place of ,firmicus in the history of astrology--,libanius accused of magic--,declamation against a magician--,faith of ,libanius in divination--,magic and astrology in ,pseudo-,quintilian declamations--,fusion of ,christianity and paganism in ,synesius of ,cyrene--,his career--,his interest in science--,belief in occult sympathy between natural objects--,synesius on divination and astrology--,synesius as an alchemist--,macrobius on number1 dreams1 and stars--,martianus ,capella--,absence of astrology--,orders of spirits--,the ,celestial ,hierarchy of ,dionysius the ,areopagite4 ,sidenote3 ,need of qualifying the patristic attitude4 ,in reading the writings of the ,christian fathers one is impressed by the fact that their tone is almost invariably that of the preacher4 ,in estimating therefore the practical effect of their utterances it is well to remember that these are counsels of perfection which were probably often not realized even by those who gave utterance to them4 ,this is not to accuse the fathers of being pharisaical1 but to suggest that as both clerics and apologists they were professionally bound to take up an irreproachable position morally and dogmatically4 ,basil has shown us that the audience who listened to his sermons were still under the spell of ,roman amusements1 dice1 theater1 and arena4 ,and the average lay ,christian mind was probably more easy-going in its attitude toward magic and superstition than ,augustine4 ,not merely laymen1 moreover1 but ,christian clergy and apologists of the declining ,roman ,empire might still hold to divination and astrology4 ,it was a time1 as has often been remarked1 of religious syncretism1 of fusion of pagan and ,christian thought1 when it is not always easy to tell whether the author of an extant writing is ,christian or ,neo-,platonist or both4 ,mr4 ,gwatkin states that 8the surface thought0 of ,constantine's time1 8,christian as well as heathen1 tended to a vague monotheism which looked on ,christ and the sun as almost equally good symbols of the ,supreme40#bbjh ,others believed that astrology was the truth back of all religions4#bbji ,sidenote3 ,plan of this chapter4 ,in this chapter we shall therefore consider some writers of the fourth and fifth century who attest the existence of magic and astrology then1 the influence of paganism on ,christianity and of ,christianity on paganism1 and the fusion of ,neo-,platonism1 ,christianity1 and astrological theory4 ,this1 indeed1 we have already done to some extent1 as our previous chapters on ,neo-,platonism and on the ,christian fathers have carried us more or less into those centuries4 ,but now as an offset to ,augustine we take up other writers who have not yet been treated3 ,firmicus1 the ,latin ,christian apologist and the astrologer of the mid-fourth century2 ,libanius1 the ,greek sophist of the same century2 ,macrobius and ,synesius1 ,neo-,platonists writing respectively in ,latin and ,greek at the beginning of the fifth century1 and of whom one was a ,christian bishop2 and probably in the same century the discussion of spirits by ,martianus ,capella in ,latin and the ,pseudo-,dionysius the ,areopagite in ,greek4 ,except for ,libanius and ,synesius1 these authors were very influential in medieval ,latin learning and might serve as well for an introduction to our following book on ,the ,early ,middle ,ages as for a conclusion to this4 ,sidenote3 ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus#bbaj flourished during the reigns of ,constantine the ,great and his sons4 ,sicily was his native land2 he was of senatorial rank and very well educated for his time1 showing interest in natural philosophy1 literature1 and rhetoric4 ,two works are extant under his name3 one1 ,on the ,error of ,profane ,religions1#bbaa is addressed to ,constantius and ,constans1 #cdj-cej ,a4 ,d41 and urges them to eradicate pagan cults4 ,the other1 ,mathesis1#bbab is a work of astrology written at the request of a similarly cultured friend1 ,lollianus or ,mavortius1 who is spoken of in the preface as ordinario consuli designato1#bbac an office which we know that he held in #cee ,a4 ,d4 ,the writing of two such works by one man has long given critics pause1 and is a splendid warning against taking anything for granted in our study of the past4 ,not long ago the general opinion was that there must have been two different authors by the name of ,firmicus4 ,this very unlikely theory has now been universally abandoned1 as unmistakable similarities in style and wording have been noted in the two works4 ,but it is still maintained that 8there is no question but that he was a pagan when he wrote his astrological book40#bbad ,this involves two considerations1 whether the attitude expressed in the two works is really incompatible and whether the ,mathesis was written before or after the ,de errore4 ,sidenote3 ,date of the ,mathesis4 ,mommsen contended that 8it is beyond doubt0#bbae that the ,mathesis was written between #ccd and #ccg ,a4 ,d41 relying chiefly upon several apparent mentions of ,constantine the ,great as still living4 ,the names1 ,constantine and ,constantius are frequently confused in the sources1 however1#bbaf and even while the words1 8,constantinum maximum principem et huius invictissimos liberos1 domines et ,caesares nostros10 seem to refer unmistakably to ,constantine1 it must be remembered that they occur in a prayer to the planets and to the supreme ,god that ,constantine and his children may 8rule over our posterity and the posterity of our posterity through infinite succession of ages40 ,as this is simply equivalent to expressing a hope that the dynasty may never become extinct1 it is scarcely proof positive that ,constantine the ,great was still living when ,firmicus published his book4 ,on the other hand1 to maintain the early date ,mommsen was forced to treat the mention of ,lollianus as ordinario consuli designato as mere prophetic flattery or as an appointment held up by ,constantius for eighteen years4 ,we know that ,firmicus addressed the ,de errore to ,constantius and ,constans1 probably between #cde and #cej2 we know that ,lollianus was city prefect of ,rome in #cdb1 consul ordinarius in #cee1 and praetorian prefect in the following year2 whereas we know nothing certainly of either of them before #ccg4 ,furthermore ,firmicus explicitly states that the writing of the ,mathesis has been long delayed1#bbag and when the promise to compose it was first made1 it is evident that neither he nor ,lollianus was a young man4 ,lollianus was already consularis of ,campania and according to inscriptions had previously held a number of other offices2 while still in this position ,lollianus had frequently to spur his friend on to the task which ,firmicus as frequently 8gave up in despair40 ,then ,lollianus became ,count of all the ,orient and continued his importunities4 ,finally1 after ,lollianus has become proconsul and ordinary consul elect1 ,firmicus completes the work and presents it to him4 ,meanwhile ,firmicus himself--who had formerly 8resisted with unbending confidence and firmness0 factious and wicked and avaricious men1 8who from fear of law-suits seemed terrible to the unfortunate02 and who 8with liberal mind1 despising forensic gains1 to men in trouble 444 displayed a pure and faithful defense in the courts of law10 by which upright conduct he incurred much enmity and danger2#bbah--;has retired from the sordid sphere of law courts and forum to spend his leisure with the divine men of old of ,egypt and ,babylon and to purify his spirit by contemplation of the everlasting stars and of the ,god who works through them4 ,yet we are asked to believe--if we accept a date before #ccg for the ,mathesis--not merely that he writes a vehement invective against 8profane religions0 a decade later1 but also that twenty years after ,lollianus is still a vigorous administrator4#bbai ,it is possible1 but seems unlikely4 ,sidenote3 ,are the attitudes in ,firmicus' two works incompatible8 ,certainly the date of the ,mathesis should be determined without any assumption as to what ,firmicus' religion was when he wrote it4 ,for1 if we regard his attitudes in ,mathesis and ,de errore as incompatible1 it will be as difficult to explain how he could write the ,de errore after having composed the ,mathesis as vice versa4 ,after the steadfast affirmation of astrological principles in the ,mathesis it is no easier to explain the fierce spirit of intolerance toward paganism in the ,de errore than it is after the mention of ,christ in the ,de errore to explain the omission of that name in the ,mathesis4 ,but are the two works really incompatible8 ,my answer is1 ,no4 ,the divergences are such as may be explained by the different character of the two works and the different circumstances under which they were written4 ,de errore is an impassioned polemic very possibly delivered as an oration before the emperors2 ,mathesis is a learned compilation on a pseudo-scientific subject composed at leisure for a friend with the help of previous treatises on the subject4 ,why should ,firmicus mention ,christ in the ,mathesis8 ,does ,boethius1 after nearly two centuries more of ,christian growth and although he wrote a work on the ,trinity1 mention ,christ in ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy8 ,some apparent petty inconsistencies there may be between ,firmicus' two works1 but if we accept a host of contradictions in ,constantine the ,great1 the first ,christian emperor1 why balk at some inconsistency in a writer who urges ,constantine's children against profane cults8 ,on the other hand1 there are some striking correspondences between the ,de errore and ,mathesis4 ,sidenote3 ,de errore is not unfavorable to astrology4 ,it is noteworthy in the first place that in the ,de errore ,firmicus does not attack astrology4 ,but if he had been converted to ,christianity since writing the ,mathesis and had abandoned the astrological doctrine there expounded1 would he have failed to attack the error of that art like ,augustine who testified that he had once believed in nativities8 ,it is therefore obvious that ,firmicus does not regard astrology as an error even at the time when he is penning the ,de errore as a ,christian apologist4 ,moreover1 his view of nature in the ,de errore is quite in accord with that of the astrologer1 and he manifests the respect for natural science or physica ratio which one would expect from the author of the ,mathesis4 ,thus we find him criticizing certain pagan cults as sharply for their incorrect physical notions as he does others for travestying ,christian mysteries4 ,in its opening chapters certain oriental religions are criticized for exalting each some one of the four elements above the others1 and for neglecting that superior control of the world of terrestrial nature in which both ,christian and astrologer confided4 ,another argument against pagan worships is that they include human and immoral elements which cannot be explained as based upon natural law#bbbj and the rule of that supreme ,god or 8,god the fabricator10 8who composed all things by the orderly method of divine workmanship10--phrases which1 as ,ziegler has shown1#bbba occur both in the ,de errore and ,mathesis4 ,furthermore1 in the ,de errore ,firmicus' allusions to the planets1 which include a representation of the ,sun making a reproachful address to certain pagans1#bbbb indicate that he regarded the stars as of immense importance in the administration of the universe4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude of both works to the emperors4 ,it is also worth remarking that in both works ,firmicus sets the emperors above the rest of mankind and closely associates them with the celestial bodies and 8the supreme ,god40 ,if in ,mathesis he prays for the perpetuation of the line of ,constantine and forbids astrologers to make predictions concerning the emperor on the ground that his fate is not subject to the stars but directly to the supreme ,god1 8and inasmuch as the whole surface of the earth is subject to the emperor1 he too is reckoned in the number of those gods whom the principal divinity has established to perform and preserve all things03#bbbc--;if he says this in ,mathesis1 in ,de errore he repeatedly addresses the emperors as 8most holy0#bbbd and in one passage says1 8,you now1 ,o ,constantius and ,constans1 most holy emperors1 and the virtue of your venerated faith must be implored4 ,it is erected above men and1 separated from earthly frailty1 joins in alliance with things celestial and in all its acts so far as it can follows the will of the supreme ,god4444 ,your felicity is joined with ,god's virtue1 with ,christ fighting at your side you have triumphed on behalf of human safety40#bbbe ,sidenote3 ,religious attitude of the ,mathesis4 ,if the author of ,de errore is not unfavorable to astrology the author of the ,mathesis is strongly inclined towards monotheism and decidedly religious4 ,he indignantly repels the accusation that astrology1 which teaches that 8all our acts are arranged by the divine courses of the stars10 draws men away 8from the cult of the gods and of religions40 8,we cause the gods to be feared and worshiped1 we demonstrate their might and majesty40#bbbf ,the passage just quoted and some others are suggestive of polytheism1 and ,firmicus frequently speaks of the planets as 8gods40 ,probably in this he is reproducing the phraseology and reflecting the attitude of the astrological works which he uses as his authorities and which belong to the period of the pagan past4 ,his apotelesmata1 too1 or predictions of nativities for various horoscopes1 give little or no indication of being especially adapted to a ,christian society1 although in some other respects they fit his own age4#bbbg ,but while the work contains a considerable residue of paganism1 its prevailing conception of deity is one supreme ,god1 the rector of the planets1 8who composed all things by the arrangement of everlasting law10#bbbh and who made man the microcosm from the four elements4#bbbi ,he is prayed to thus3 ,sidenote3 ,an astrologer's prayer4 8,but lest my words be bereft of divine aid and the envy of some hateful man impugn them by hostile attacks1 whoever thou art1 ,god1 who continuest day after day the course of the heavens in rapid rotation1 who perpetuatest the mobile agitation of ocean's tides1 who strengthenest earth's solidity in the immovable strength of its foundations1 who refreshest with night's sleep the toil of our earthly bodies1 who when our strength is renewed returnest the grace of sweetest light1 who stirrest all the substance of thy work by the salutary breath of the winds1 who pourest forth the waves of streams and fountains in tireless force1 who revolvest the varied seasons by sure periods of days3 sole ,governor and ,prince of all1 sole ,emperor and ,lord1 whom all the celestial forces serve1 whose will is the substance of perfect work1 by whose faultless laws all nature is forever adorned and regulated2 thou ,father alike and ,mother of every thing1 thou bound to thyself1 ,father and ,son1 by one bond of relationship2 to ,thee we extend suppliant hands1 ,thee with trembling supplication we venerate2 grant us grace to attempt the explanation of the courses of thy stars2 thine is the power that somehow impels us to that interpretation4 ,with a mind pure and separated from all earthly thoughts and purged from every stain of sin we have written these books for thy ,romans40#bbcj ,doubtless these words might have been written by a ,neo-,platonist or a pagan1 but it also seems likely that they were penned by a ,christian astrologer4 ,sidenote3 ,christian objections to astrology met4 ,firmicus provides not only for divine government of the universe and creation of the world and man1 but also for prayer to ,god and for human free will1#bbca since by the divinity of the soul we are able to resist in some measure the decrees of the stars4 ,he also holds that human laws and moral standards are not rendered of no avail by the force of the stars but are very useful to the soul in its struggle by the power of the divine mind against the vices of the body4#bbcb ,indeed1 not only is the astrologer himself urged at considerable length to lead a pure1 upright1 and unselfish life1 but 8to show the right way of living to sinful men1 so that1 reformed by your teaching1 they may be freed from the errors of their past life40#bbcc ,the human soul is also immortal1 a spark of that same divine mind which through the stars exerts its influence upon terrestrial bodies4#bbcd ,all this may be consistent or not both with itself and with the art of astrology1 but it meets the chief objections that ,christians might make and had made to the art4 ,sidenote3 ,astrology proved experimentally4 ,these and other objections to the art of nativities are the theme to which the first of the eight books of the ,mathesis is devoted4 ,firmicus points out that some of the other objections to astrology do not correctly state the doctrines of that art2 others he admits are ingenious arguments which sound well on paper but he insists that if the opponents of astrology1 instead of protesting that the influence of the stars at a given instant is incalculable1 would put the matter to the test experimentally1#bbce they would soon be convinced of the truth of astrologers' predictions1 although he grants that unskilful astrologers sometimes give wrong responses4 ,but he insists that persons who have not tested astrology experimentally are unfit to pass upon its merits4#bbcf ,he affirms that the human spirit which has discovered so many other sciences and to which so much of divinity and religion has been revealed is capable also of casting horoscopes1 and that astrological prediction is a relatively easy task compared to the mapping out of the whole heavens and courses of the stars which the mathematici have already performed so successfully4#bbcg ,and he does not see why anyone persists in denying the power of fate in human affairs when all about him he can see the innocent suffering and the guilty escaping2 the best men such as ,socrates1 ,plato1 and ,pythagoras meeting an ill fate2 and unprincipled persons like ,alcibiades and ,sulla prospering4#bbch ,sidenote3 ,information to be gained from the third and fourth books4 ,the remaining seven books of the ,mathesis are given over to the art of horoscope casting4 ,the second book consists chiefly of preliminary directions1 but the others state what men will be born under various constellations4 ,of these the last four books are extant only in manuscripts of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 while the first four are found in manuscripts going back to the eleventh century4 ,moreover1 although books five to eight cover more pages than books three and four1 they do not supply so many details or so satisfactory a picture of human society in their predictions4 ,these divergences1 which are mainly ones of omission1 do not invalidate the results which we gain from an analysis of the third and fourth books1 but do raise the question whether the later books1 especially the fifth and sixth1 are genuine4 ,in them the wording becomes vaguer1 little knowledge is shown of conditions at the time that ,firmicus wrote1 the predictions are more sensational and rhetorical4 ,only the latter part of the eighth book carries the conviction of reality that books three and four do4 ,these two books are both independent units and through their predictions of the future supply a general picture of human society1 presumably that of ,firmicus' own time or not long before4 ,one naturally assumes that those matters to which ,firmicus devotes most space and emphasis are the prominent features of his age4 ,let us see what his picture is of religion1 divination1 the occult science and magic1 natural science and medicine4#bbci ,sidenote3 ,religion and magic2 exorcists4 ,to religion ,firmicus gives less space than to politics4 ,there are no clear references to ,christianity1 but there are few allusions to any particular cults4 ,firmicus1 however1 indicates the existence of many cults1 speaking five times of the heads of religions1 and characterizing men as 8those who regard all religions and gods with a certain trepidation10 8those devoted to certain religions10 8those who cherish the greatest religions10 and so on4 ,temples1#bbdj priests1 and divination#bbda are the three features of religion that he mentions most4 ,magic and religion are closely associated in his predictions1 for instance1 8temple priests ever famed in magic lore40 ,sacred or religious literatures and persons devoted to them are mentioned thrice1 while in a fourth passage we hear of men 8investigating the secrets of all religions and of heaven itself40 ,other interesting descriptions#bbdb are of those who 8stay in temples in an unkempt state and always walk abroad thus1 and never cut their hair1 and who would announce something to men as if said by the gods1 such as are wont to be in temples1 who are accustomed to predict the future02 and of 8men terrible to the gods and who despise all kinds of perjuries4 ,moreover1 they will be terrible to all demons1 and at their approach the wicked spirits of demons flee2 and they free men who are thus troubled1 not by force of words but by their mere appearing2 and however violent the demon may be who shakes the body and spirit of man1 whether he be aerial or terrestrial or infernal1 he flees at the bidding of this sort of man and fears his precepts with a certain veneration4 ,these are they who are called exorcists by the people40 ,religious games and contests are mentioned four times3 the carving1 consecrating1 adoring1 and clothing of images of the gods1 twice each2 porters at religious ceremonies1 thrice2 hymn singers1 twice2 pipe-players once4 ,five passages represent persons professionally engaged in religion as growing rich thereby4 ,sidenote3 ,divination4 ,we are told that men 8predict the future either by the divinity of their own minds or by the admonition of the gods or from oracles or by the venerable discipline of some art40#bbdc ,augurs1 aruspices1 interpreters of dreams1 mathematici 7astrologers71 diviners1 and prophets are mentioned4 ,once ,firmicus alludes to false divination but he usually implies that it is a valid art4 ,sidenote3 ,magic as a branch of learning4 ,from religion and divination we easily pass to the occult arts and sciences1 and thence to learning and literature in general1 from which occult learning is scarcely distinguished in the ,mathesis4 ,magicians or magic arts are mentioned no less than seven times in varied relations with religion1 philosophy1 medicine1 and astronomy or astrology1 showing that magic was not invariably regarded as evil in that age1 and that it was confused and intermingled with the arts and philosophy as well as with the religion of the times4#bbdd ,there are a number of other allusions to secret and illicit arts or writings2 these1 however1 appear to be more unfavorably regarded and probably largely consist of witchcraft and poisoning4 ,sidenote3 ,interest in science4 ,the evidence of the ,mathesis suggests that the civilization of declining ,rome was at least not conscious of the intellectual decadence and lack of scientific interest so generally imputed to it4 ,we find three descriptions of intellectual pioneers who learn what no master has ever taught them1 and one other instance of men who pretend to do so4 ,we also hear of 8those learning much and knowing all1 also inventors10 and of those 8learning everything10 and 8desiring to learn the secrets of all arts40 ,this curiosity1 it is true1 seems to be largely devoted to occult science1 but it also seems plain that mathematics and medicine were important factors in fourth-century culture as well as the rhetorical studies whose rle has perhaps been overestimated4 ,let us compare the statistics4 ,oratory is mentioned eighteen times1 and it is to be noted that literary attainments and learning as well as mere eloquence are regarded as essential in an orator4 ,men of letters other than orators are found in six passages1 and poets in only three4 ,a passage reading 8philologists or those skilled in laborious letters0 suggests that four instances of the phrase difficiles litterae should perhaps be classed under linguistic rather than occult studies4 ,there are four allusions to grammarians and two to masters of grammar1 as against one description of 8contentious1 contradictory dialecticians1 professing that they know what no teaching has acquainted them with1 mischievous fellows1 but unable to do any effective thinking40#bbde ,on the other hand1 there are fourteen allusions to astronomy and astrology 7not including the mathematici already listed under divination71 three to geometry1 and six to other varieties of mathematics4#bbdf ,philosophers are mentioned five times2 practitioners of medicine1 eleven times2#bbdg surgeons1 once2 and botanists1 twice4 ,these professions seem to be well paid and are spoken of in complimentary terms4 ,sidenote3 ,diseases in antiquity4 ,death1 injury1 and disease loom up large in ,firmicus' prospectus for the human race1 making us realize the benefits of nineteenth-century medicine as well as of modern peace4#bbdh ,no less than #agd passages deal with disease and many of them list two or more ills4 ,mental disorders are mentioned in #cg places2#bbdi physical deformities in six4 ,other specific ailments mentioned are as follows3 blindness and eye troubles1 #aj2 deafness and ear troubles1 #e2 impediments of speech1 #d2 baldness1 #a2 foul odors1 #a2 dyspeptics1 #d2 other stomach complaints1 #g2 dysentery1 #b2 liver trouble1 #a2 jaundice1 #a2 dropsy1 #e2 spleen disorders1 #a2 gonorrhoea1 #b2 other diseases of the urinary bladder and private parts1 #f2 consumption and lung troubles1 #f2 hemorrhages1 #f2 apoplexy1 #c2 spasms1 #e2 ills attributed to bad or excessive humors1 #ab2 leprosy and other skin diseases1 #f2 ague1 #a2 fever1 #a2 pains in various parts of the body1 #f2 internal pains and hidden diseases1 #i2 diseases of women1 #e4 ,there remain a large number of vague allusions to ill-health3 #ba to debility1 #ab to languor1 #c to invalids1 and #di other passages4 ,only eight passages allude to the cure of disease4 ,among the methods suggested are cauterizing1 incantations1 ordinary remedies1 and seeking divine aid1 which last is mentioned most often4 ,the eleven references to medical practitioners should1 however1 be recalled here4 ,the predictions as to length of life are inadequate to the drawing of conclusions on that point4 ,sidenote3 ,place of ,firmicus in the history of astrology4 ,firmicus regards his work as a new contribution so far as the ,latin-speaking world is concerned4#bbej ,not that there had not been previous writing in ,latin on the subject4 ,fronto 8had written predictions very accurately10 but 8as if he were addressing persons already perfect and skilled in the art1 and without first instructing in the elements and practice of the art40#bbea ,firmicus supplies this essential preliminary instruction1 which hardly anyone of the ,latins had given1 and corrects ,fronto's faulty presentation of antiscia1 in which he followed ,hipparchus1 by the correcter method of ,navigius 7,nigidius87 and ,ptolemy4#bbeb ,firmicus gives no systematic account of his authorities#bbec but occasionally cites them for some particular point and in general professes to follow not only the ,greeks but the divine men of ,egypt and ,babylon1 chief among whom seem to be ,nechepso and ,petosiris and the ,hermetic works to or by ,aesculapius and ,hanubius4 ,an ,abram or ,abraham is also cited several times4 ,but ,firmicus also gives the ,sphaera ,barbarica1 8unknown to all the ,romans and to many ,greeks10 and which escaped the notice even of ,petosiris and ,nechepso4#bbed ,firmicus himself is named by no ancient author#bbee but was well known in the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 as we shall see4 ,in the ,mathesis he cites two previous astrological treatises of his own#bbef and expresses his intention of composing another work in twelve books on the subject of ,myriogenesis4#bbeg ,the astrologer ,hephaestion of ,thebes1 who wrote later in the fourth century1 seems also to have been a ,christian1 so that ,firmicus was not a solitary case or an anomaly4#bbeh ,sidenote3 ,libanius accused of magic4 ,the writings of ,libanius1 #cad-cia ,a4 ,d41 the sophist and rhetorician1 throw some light on the relations between magic and learning in the fourth century1 show that sorcery and divination were actually practiced1 and largely duplicate impressions already received from ,apuleius1 ,apollonius1 and ,galen1 and a ,christian like ,john ,chrysostom as well as just now from ,firmicus4 ,libanius tells us how ,bemarchius1 a rival of his at ,athens1 who would have poisoned him if he could1 instead circulated reports that he 7,bemarchius7 was the victim of enchantments1 and that ,libanius had consulted against him an astrologer who was able to control the stars1 so that he could confer benefits upon one man and work sorcery against another4 ,this incidentally is another good illustration of how easily astrology passed from mere prediction of the future to operative magic1 and of the essential unity of all magic arts4 ,the mob was aroused against ,libanius and a praetor who tried to protect him was ousted and another installed at daybreak who was ready to put ,libanius to death4 ,torture was prepared and ,libanius was advised to leave ,athens1 if he did not wish to die there1 and took the advice and left4#bbei ,sidenote3 ,declamation against a magician4 ,among the declamations of ,libanius is one against a magician1#bbfj supposed to have been delivered under the following circumstances4 ,the city was afflicted with a pestilence and finally sent an embassy to the ,delphic oracle to learn how to escape the scourge4 ,apollo replied that they must sacrifice the son of one of the inhabitants who should be determined by lot1 and the lot fell to the son of a magician4 ,the father then offered to stay the plague by means of his magic art1 if they would agree to spare his son4 ,against this proposal ,libanius argues1 urging the people to carry out their original decision and not to anger the ,delphic god by violating his oracle1 whose reliability is attested by 8long time and much experience and common testimony40 ,he declares that magic is an evil art1 and that magicians make no one happy but many wretched1 ruining homes1 bringing disaster to persons who have never harmed them1 and disturbing even the spirits of the dead4 ,he also censures the magician for not having offered to save the city from the plague before1 and expresses some scepticism as to his magic power1 asking why he did not prevent the fatal lot from falling to his son1 or why he does not save him now by causing him to vanish from sight1 or vouchsafe some other unmistakable sign of his magic power4 ,it appears that the magician had asked a delay1 saying that he must wait for the moon before he could operate against the plague4 ,libanius points out that meanwhile the citizens are perishing and that fulfillment of ,apollo's oracle will bring instant relief4 ,it would seem1 however1 that some of the citizens had more faith in the magician than in the god1 which supports the oft-made general assertion that the magic arts waxed as pagan religion and its superstitious observances waned4 ,libanius concludes his oration or imaginary oration with the cutting and heartless witticism that the magician can lose his son more easily than can anyone else1 since he will of course still be able to invoke his spirit from the dead4 ,sidenote3 ,faith of ,libanius in divination4 ,libanius' own faith in divination is not only suggested by the attitude toward the ,delphic oracle in the foregoing declamation but is attested by two passages in his autobiography4 ,his great-great-grandfather had so excelled in mantike that he foresaw that his children would die by steel1 although they would be handsome and great and good speakers4 ,it also was rumored that a celebrated sophist had predicted many things concerning ,libanius himself1 which ,libanius assures us had since come to pass4#bbfa ,sidenote3 ,magic and astrology in the pseudo-,quintilian declamations4 ,of the same type as ,libanius' declamation against the magician is the fourth pseudo-,quintilian declamation in ,latin concerning an astrologer's prediction1 which we shall later in the twelfth century find ,bernard ,silvester enlarging upon in his poem entitled ,mathematicus4 ,in another of the pseudo-,quintilian declamations the word experimentum is used of a magician's feat4 8,o harsh and cruel magician1 ,o manufacturer of our tears1 ,i would that you had not given so great an experiment6 ,we are angry at you1 yet we must cajole you4 ,while you imprison the ghost1 we know that you alone can evoke it40#bbfb ,sidenote3 ,fusion of ,christianity and paganism in ,synesius of ,cyrene4 ,that more than fifty years after ,firmicus adherence to ,christianity might be combined with trust in divination of the future1 occult science1 and magical invocation of spirits1 and with various other pagan and ,neo-,platonic beliefs1 is well illustrated by the case of ,synesius of ,cyrene1#bbfc a fellow-,african and contemporary of ,augustine4 ,synesius1 however1 traced his descent from the ,heracleidae1 wrote in ,greek1 and displayed a ,hellenism unusual for his time1#bbfd and1 while he did not find the ,athens of his day entirely to his taste1 continued the philosophical and rhetorical traditions of the sophists of the ,roman ,empire1 like ,libanius of whom we have just spoken4 ,his extant letters show that ,hypatia was numbered among his friends and had been his teacher at the ,neo-,platonic and mathematical school of ,alexandria4 ,hypatia was murdered by the fanatical ,christian mob of that city in #dae4 ,but very different was the attitude of the people of ,ptolemais to the like-minded ,synesius4 ,a few years before they had elected him bishop6#bbfe ,moreover1 he distinctly stipulated#bbff that he should not renounce his wife and family nor his philosophical opinions1 which seem to have involved a sceptical attitude towards miracles and the resurrection1 and a belief in the eternity of the world and pre-existence of the soul rather than in creation1#bbfg in addition to the views which we are about to set forth4 ,it has been observed also that his doctrine of the ,trinity is more ,neo-,platonic than ,christian4#bbfh ,sidenote3 ,career of ,synesius4 ,the dates of ,synesius' birth and death are uncertain4 ,he seems to have been born about #cgj4 ,his last dateable letter appears to be written in #dab1 but some give the date of his death as late as #dcj4 ,others contend that he did not live to hear of ,hypatia's murder4 ,before he was made bishop he had been to ,constantinople on a mission to the emperor to secure alleviation of the oppressive taxation in ,cyrene4 ,he had lived in ,athens and ,alexandria as a student1 and in ,cyrene on his country estate4 ,here1 if in his fondness for books and philosophy he constituted a survival of the past1 in his fondness for the chase and dogs and horses and his repulsion of an invasion of ,libyan marauders he was the forerunner of many a medieval feudal bishop4 ,and after he became bishop1 he launched an excommunication against the tyrannical prefect ,andronicus4 ,sidenote3 ,his interest in science4 ,but our particular interest is less in his political and more purely literary activities than in his taste for mathematics and science4 ,he knew some medicine and was well acquainted with geometry and astronomy4 ,he believed himself to be the inventor of an astrolabe and of a hydroscope4 ,sidenote3 ,belief in occult sympathies between natural objects4 ,with this interest in natural and mathematical science went an interest in occult science and divination4 ,his belief that the universe was a unit and all its parts closely correlated not only led him to maintain1 like ,seneca1 that whatever had a cause was a sign of some future event1 or to hold with ,plotinus that in any and every object the sage might discern the future of every other1 and that the birds themselves1 if endowed with sufficient intelligence1 would be able to predict the future by observing the movements of human bipeds4#bbfi ,it led him also to the conclusion that the various parts of the universe were more than passive mirrors in which one might see the future of the other parts2 that they further exerted1 by virtue of the magic sympathy which united all parts of the universe1 a potent active influence over other objects and occurrences4 ,the wise man might not only predict the future2 he might1 to a great extent1 control it4 8,for it must be1 ,i think1 that of this whole1 so joined in sympathy and in agreement1 the parts are closely connected as if members of a single body4 ,and does not this explain the spells of the magi8 ,for things1 besides being signs of each other1 have magic power over each other4 ,the wise man1 then1 is he who knows the relationships of the parts of the universe4 ,for he draws one object under his control by means of another object1 holding what is at hand as a pledge for what is far away1 and working through sounds and material substances and forms40#bbgj ,synesius explained that plants and stones are related by bonds of occult sympathy to the gods who are within the universe and who form a part of it1 that plants and stones have magic power over these gods1 and that one may by means of such material substances attract those deities4#bbga ,he evidently believed that it was quite legitimate to control the processes of nature by invoking demons4 ,sidenote3 ,synesius on divination and astrology4 ,the devotion of ,synesius to divination has been already implied4 ,he regarded it as among the noblest of human pursuits4#bbgb ,dreams1 on which he wrote a treatise1 he viewed as significant and very useful events4 ,they aided him1 he wrote1 in his every-day life1 and had upon one occasion saved him from magic devices against his life4#bbgc ,warned by a dream that he would have a son1 he wrote a treatise for the child before it was born4#bbgd ,of course1 he had faith in astrology4 ,the stars were well-nigh ever present in his thought4 ,in his ,praise of ,baldness he characterized comets as fatal omens1 as harbingers of the worst public disasters4#bbge ,in ,on ,providence he explained the supposed fact that history repeats itself by the periodical return to their former positions of the stars which govern our life4#bbgf ,in ,on the ,gift of an ,astrolabe he declared that 8astronomy0 besides being itself a noble science1 prepared men for the diviner mysteries of theology4#bbgg ,sidenote3 ,synesius as an alchemist4 ,finally1 he held the view common among students of magic that knowledge should be esoteric2 that its mysteries and marvels should be confined to the few fitted to receive them and that they should be expressed in language incomprehensible to the vulgar crowd4#bbgh ,it is perhaps on this account that one of the oldest extant treatises of ,greek alchemy is ascribed to him4 ,berthelot1 however1 accepted it as his1 stating that 8there is nothing surprising in ,synesius' having really written on alchemy40#bbgi ,sidenote3 ,macrobius on number1 dreams1 and stars4 ,synesius influenced the ,byzantine period but probably not the western medieval world4 ,but the ,commentary of ,macrobius on ,the ,dream of ,scipio by ,cicero is one of the treatises most frequently encountered in early medieval ,latin manuscripts4 ,in the twelfth century ,abelard made frequent reference to ,macrobius and called him 8no mean philosopher02 in the thirteenth ,aquinas cited him as an authority for the doctrines of ,neo-,platonism4#bbhj ,macrobius himself affirmed that ,vergil contained practically all necessary knowledge#bbha and that ,cicero's ,dream of ,scipio was a work second to none and contained the entire substance of philosophy4#bbhb ,macrobius believed that numbers possess occult power4 ,he dilated at considerable length upon every number from one to eight1 emphasizing the perfection and far-reaching significance of each4 ,he held the ,pythagorean doctrine that the world-soul consists of number1 that number rules the harmony of the celestial bodies1 and that from the music of the spheres we derive the numerical values proper to musical consonance4#bbhc ,his opinion was that dreams and other striking occurrences will reveal an occult meaning to the careful investigator4#bbhd ,as for astrology1 he regarded the stars as signs but not causes of future events1 just as birds by their flight or song reveal matters of which they themselves are ignorant4#bbhe ,so the sun and other planets1 though in a way divine1 are but material bodies1 and it is not from them but from the world-soul 7pure mind71 whence they too come1 that the human spirit takes its origin4#bbhf ,in his sole other extant work1 the ,saturnalia1 ,macrobius displays some belief in occult virtues in natural objects1 as when ,disaurius the physician answers such questions as why a copper knife stuck in game prevents decay4#bbhg ,sidenote3 ,martianus ,capella4 ,the medieval vogue of the fifth century work of ,martianus ,capella1 ,the ,nuptials of ,philology and ,mercury1 and the ,seven ,liberal ,arts1#bbhh has been too frequently demonstrated to require further emphasis here1 although it is still a puzzle just why a monastic ,christian world should have selected for a text book in the liberal arts a work which contained so much pagan mythology1 to say nothing of a marriage ceremony4 ,nor need we repeat its fulsome allegorical plot and meager learned content4 ,cassiodorus tells us that the author was a native of ,madaura1 the birthplace of ,apuleius1 in ,north ,africa1 and he appears to be a ,neo-,platonist who has much to say of the sky1 stars1 and old pagan gods1 often1 however1 by way of brief and vague poetical allusion4 ,sidenote3 ,absence of astrology4 ,of astrology there is very little trace in ,capella's work4 ,in a discussion of perfect numbers in the second book the number seven evokes allusion to the fatal courses of the stars and their influence upon the formation of the child in the womb2 but the eighth book1 which is devoted to the theme of astronomy as one of the liberal arts1 is limited to a purely astronomical description of the heavens4 ,sidenote3 ,orders of spirits4 ,the chief thing for us to note in the work is the account of the various orders of spiritual beings and their respective location in reference to the heavenly bodies4#bbhi ,juno leads the virgin ,philology to the aerial citadels and there instructs her in the multiplicity of diverse powers4 ,from highest ether to the solar circle are beings of a fiery and flaming substance4 ,these are the celestial gods who prepare the secrets of occult causes4 ,they are pure and impassive and immortal and have little or no direct relation with mankind4 ,between sun and moon come spirits who have especial charge of soothsaying1 dreams1 prodigies1 omens1 and divination from entrails and auguries4 ,they often utter warning voices or admonish those who consult their oracles by the course of the stars or the hurling of thunderbolts4 ,to this class belong the ,genii associated with individual mortals and angels 8who announce secret thoughts to the superior power40 ,all these the ,greeks call demons4 ,their splendor is less lucid than that of the celestials1 but their bodies are not sufficiently corporeal to enable men to see them4 ,lares and purer human souls after death also come under this category4 ,between moon and earth the spirits subdivide into three classes4 ,in the upper atmosphere are demi-gods4 8,these have celestial souls and holy minds and are begotten in human form to the profit of the whole world40 ,such were ,hercules1 ,ammon1 ,dionysus1 ,osiris1 ,isis1 ,triptolemus1 and ,asclepius4 ,others of this class become sibyls and seers4 ,from mid-air to the mountain-tops are found heroes and ,manes4 ,finally the earth itself is inhabited by a long-lived race of dwellers in woods and groves1 in fountains and lakes and streams1 called ,pans1 ,fauns1 satyrs1 ,silvani1 nymphs1 and by other names4 ,they finally die as men do1 but possess great power of foresight and of inflicting injury4#bbij ,it is evident that ,capella's spiritual world is one well fitted for astrology1 divination1 and magic4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,celestial ,hierarchy of ,dionysius the ,areopagite4 ,very different are the orders of spirits described in ,the ,celestial ,hierarchy1 supposed to be the work of ,dionysius the ,areopagite1 where are set forth nine orders of spirits in three groups of three each3 ,seraphim1 ,cherubim1 and ,thrones2 ,dominions1 ,virtues1 and ,powers2 ,princes1 ,archangels1 and ,angels4 ,the threefold division reminds us of ,capella1 but there the resemblance ceases4 ,the pseudo-,dionysius takes all his suggestions from the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 rather than from classical mythology and such previous classifications of spirits as that of ,apuleius4 ,and while his starting from such verses of the ,bible as 8,every good gift and every perfect gift is from above1 descending from the ,father of lights10 and 8,jesus ,christ the true light that lighteth every man that cometh into the world10 and his using such phrases as 8archifotic ,father0 and 8thearchic ray10 lead us to expect some ,gnostic-like scheme of association of the spirits with the various heavens and celestial bodies1 in fact he throughout speaks of the spirits solely as celestial and deiform and hypercosmic minds1 and unspeakable and sacred enigmas of whose invisibility1 transcendence1 infinity1 and incomprehensibility any description can be merely symbolic and figurative4 ,their functions seem to consist chiefly in contemplation of the deity or their superior orders and illumination of man and their inferior orders4 ,they are not specifically associated by ,dionysius with the celestial bodies1 much less with any terrestrial objects1 and so his account lays no foundation for magic and astrology1 unless as its transcendent mysticism might pique some curious person to attempt some very immaterial variety of theurgy and sublimated theosophy4 ,although the ,pseudo-,dionysius wrote in ,greek1#bbia his work was made available for the ,latin middle ages by the translation of ,john the ,scot in the ninth century4#bbib ,,book ,,iii4 ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages ,chapter #bd4 ,the ,story of ,nectanebus4 0 #be4 ,post-,classical ,medicine4 0 #bf4 ,pseudo-,literature in ,natural ,science of the ,early ,middle ,ages4 0 #bg4 ,other ,early ,medieval ,learning4 0 #bh4 ,arabic ,occult ,science of the ,ninth ,century4 0 #bi4 ,latin ,astrology and ,divination1 ,especially in the ,ninth1 ,tenth1 and ,eleventh ,centuries4 0 #cj4 ,gerbert and the ,introduction of ,arabic ,astrology4 0 #ca4 ,anglo-,saxon1 ,salernitan1 and other ,latin ,medicine in ,manuscripts from the ,ninth to the ,twelfth ,century4 0 #cb4 ,constantinus ,africanus4 0 #cc4 ,treatises on the ,arts before the ,introduction of ,arabic ,alchemy4 0 #cd4 ,marbod4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,nectanebus ,,or ,,the ,,alexander ,,legend ,,in ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages#bbic ,the ,pseudo-,callisthenes--,its unhistoric character--,julius ,valerius--,oriental versions--,medieval epitomes of ,julius ,valerius--,letters of ,alexander--,leo's ,historia de praeliis--,medieval metamorphosis of ancient tradition--,survival of magical and scientific features--,who was ,nectanebus8--,a scientific key-note--,magic of ,nectanebus--,nectanebus as an astrologer--,a magic dream--,lucian on ,olympias and the serpent--,more dream-sending2 magic transformation--,an omen interpreted--,the birth of ,alexander--,the death of ,nectanebus--,the ,amazons and ,gymnosophists--,the ,letter to ,aristotle4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,pseudo-,callisthenes4 ,the oldest version of the legend or romance of ,alexander is naturally believed to have been written in the ,greek language but is thought to have been produced in ,egypt at ,alexandria4 ,but the ,greek manuscripts of the story are all of the medieval or ,renaissance period2 indeed1 none of them antedates the eleventh or twelfth century4 ,furthermore1 they differ very considerably in content and arrangement1 so that the problem of distinguishing or recovering the original text of the ,pseudo-,callisthenes1 as the work is commonly called1 and of dating it1 is one with which various scholars have grappled4 ,it has been held that the original ,greek text which lies back of the later versions was written not later than #bjj ,a4 ,d4 ,but ,basil1 writing in ,greek in the fourth century and well-versed in ,greek culture1 is apparently unfamiliar with the story of ,nectanebus1 since he says1 8,without doubt there has never been a king who has taken measures to have his son born under the star of royalty40#bbid ,fortunately we are less interested in the original version than in the medieval development of the tradition4 ,it should1 however1 perhaps be premised that certain features of the ,alexander legend may be detected in embryo in ,plutarch's ,life of him4 ,the true ,callisthenes was a historian who accompanied ,alexander upon his ,asiatic campaigns but then offended the conqueror by opposing his adoption of oriental dress1 absolutism1 and deification1 and was therefore cast into prison on a charge of treason1 and there died in #cbh ,b4 ,c4 either from ill treatment or disease4#bbie ,since ,callisthenes was also a relative and pupil of ,aristotle1 his name was an excellent one upon which to father the romance4 ,however1 the oldest ,latin version of it professes to employ a ,greek text by one ,aesopus1 possibly because ,aesop's fables accompany the story of ,alexander in some of the manuscripts4 ,yet other versions cite an ,onesicritus1#bbif and the ,pseudo-,callisthenes has also been attributed to ,antisthenes1 ,aristotle1 and ,arrian4 ,sidenote3 ,its unhistoric character4 ,perhaps no better single illustration of the totally unhistorical and romantic character of the ,pseudo-,callisthenes can be given than the perversion of ,alexander's line of march in most of the ,greek and all of the ,latin versions4 ,he is represented as first proceeding to ,italy and receiving royal honors at ,rome2 then he goes to ,carthage and reaches the shrine of ,ammon by traversing ,libya2 next he passes through ,egypt into ,syria and destroys ,tyre1 after which he crosses ,arabia and has his first battle with ,darius4 ,presently he is found back in ,greece sacking ,thebes and dealing with ,corinth1 ,athens1 and ,sparta4 ,then his ,asiatic conquests are resumed4 ,sidenote3 ,julius ,valerius4 ,the oldest ,latin version of the ,alexander romance is the ,res gestae ,alexandri ,macedonis of ,julius ,valerius4 ,who he was and when he lived are matters still veiled in obscurity2 but it is customary to place him in the early fourth century on the basis of ,zacher's contention that the ,res gestae is copied in certain portions of the ,itinerarium ,alexandri1 which was written during the years #cdj-cde ,a4 ,d4 ,this dating would also serve to explain why ,basil1 writing in ,greek before #cgi1 had never heard of a king who had taken steps to have his son born under the star of royalty1 while ,augustine1 writing in ,latin between #dac and #dbf1 mentions the story of a sage who selected a certain hour for intercourse with his wife in order that he might beget a marvelous son4 ,this would also suggest that the ,latin version was older than the ,greek1 as in fact the extant manuscripts of it are4 ,the oldest manuscript of ,valerius1 however1 is a badly damaged palimpsest of the seventh century at ,turin4 ,other manuscripts are one at ,milan of the tenth century and another at ,paris dating about #abjj4bbig ,the text of ,valerius differs considerably from the ,greek ,pseudo-,callisthenes and was to undergo further alteration in later medieval ,latin versions4 ,sidenote3 ,oriental versions4 ,before speaking of these we may mention other oriental versions of the story4 ,an ,armenian text dates from the fifth century4 ,a ,syriac version1 which dates from the seventh or eighth century and was 8much read by the ,nestorians10 was itself derived from an earlier ,persian rendering4 ,it seems to make use of both the ,greek ,pseudo-,callisthenes and ,julius ,valerius since it includes incidents from either which are not found in the other4 ,and it omits a considerable section of the ,greek version besides adding episodes which are not found in it1 although contained in ,julius ,valerius4 ,we hear further of ,arabic and ,hebrew versions of the romance1 while manuscripts of recent date supply an ,ethiopic version of the ,pseudo-,callisthenes of unknown authorship and date1 together with other ,ethiopic histories and romances of ,alexander4 ,these are based partly upon ,arabic and ,jewish works but take great liberties with their sources in making alterations to suit a ,christian audience1 omitting for example1 as ,budge points out1 ,alexander's victory in the chariot race1 and transforming ,philip and ,alexander into ,christian martyrs1 or the ,greek gods into patriarchs and prophets like ,enoch and ,elijah4 ,even the ,greek version did not remain unaltered in the ,byzantine period when two recensions in prose and two more in verse are distinguished4 ,indeed1 none of the ,greek manuscripts of the work antedates the eleventh or twelfth century1 they differ greatly1 and some of them ascribe the romance to ,alexander himself4 ,sidenote3 ,medieval epitomes of ,julius ,valerius4 ,such variations in the eastern versions of the story of ,alexander illustrate how the middle ages made the classical heritage their own and prepare us for similar alterations in the ,latin account current in western ,europe4 ,the work of ,julius ,valerius1 though written in the rhetorical style characteristic of the declining ,roman ,empire and composed almost on the verge of the middle ages1 was to undergo further alterations to adapt it more closely to medieval taste and use4 ,by the ninth century1 if not earlier1 two epitomes of it had been made1 and1 beginning with that century1 manuscripts of the shorter of these epitomes become far more numerous than those of the original ,valerius4#bbih ,sidenote3 ,letters of ,alexander4 ,two sections of the ,alexander legend were omitted in the ,epitome1 not because medieval men had lost interest in them but because they had become so fond of them as to enlarge upon them and issue them as distinct works4 ,they often1 however1 accompany the ,epitome in the manuscripts4 ,one of these was the ,letter of ,alexander to ,aristotle on the ,marvels of ,india4#bbii ,it is longer than the corresponding chapter of ,valerius#bcjj where a letter of ,alexander to ,aristotle is quoted and also differs from any known ,greek text4 ,the fact that reference is made to it in the longer ,epitome leads to the conclusion that the ,letter is older4 ,this would also seem to be the case with the other work1 a short series of letters interchanged between ,alexander and ,dindimus1 the king of the ,brahmans1 since the ,epitome omits the two chapters of ,valerius which tell of ,alexander's interview with the ,brahmans4 ,it is believed that ,alcuin1 who died in #hjd1 in one of his letters to ,charlemagne speaks of sending these epistles exchanged between ,alexander and ,dindimus along with the equally apocryphal correspondence of the apostle ,paul and the philosopher ,seneca4 ,no such letters are found in the ,pseudo-,callisthenes1 for the ten chapters on the ,brahmans found in one ,greek codex are interpolated from the treatise of ,palladius1 likewise in the form of a correspondence4#bcja ,julius ,valerius does not even mention ,dindimus1 but a third epistolary discussion of the ,brahmans exists in ,latin1 ,de moribus ,brachmannorum1 ascribed to ,st4 ,ambrose4#bcjb ,sidenote3 ,leo's ,historia de praeliis4 ,leo1 an archpriest of ,naples1 who went to ,constantinople about #ida-idd on an embassy for two dukes of ,campania1 ,john and ,marinus1 brought back with him a ,history containing the conflicts and victories of ,alexander the ,great1 ,king of ,macedon4 ,later ,duke ,john1 who was fond of science1 had ,leo translate this work from ,greek into ,latin1 in which tongue it is entitled ,historia de praeliis4 ,we learn these facts from its prologue which is found only in the oldest extant manuscript1 a ,bamberg codex of the eleventh century1#bcjc and in a manuscript of the twelfth or thirteenth century at ,munich4 ,the location of these two manuscripts suggests that the work was early carried from ,italy to ,germany1 lands then connected in the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,of the ,de praeliis apart from the prologue there came to be many copies1 but most of them date from the later middle ages1 and the importance of the work as a source for the vernacular romances of ,alexander has been somewhat overestimated1 since ,meyer has shown that no manuscript of it is found in ,france until the thirteenth century and since the manuscripts of the ,epitome are far more numerous4#bcjd ,sidenote3 ,medieval metamorphosis of ancient tradition4 ,in the foregoing observations we may seem to have digressed too far from our main theme of science and magic into the domain of literary history4 ,but the development of the ,alexander legend1 which happens to have been traced more thoroughly than perhaps any other one thread in the medieval metamorphosis of ancient tradition1 throws light at least by analogy upon many matters in which we are interested3 the state of medieval manuscript material1 the continuity and yet the alteration of ancient culture during the early middle ages1 the process of translation from the ,greek which went on even then1 and the varying rapidity or slowness with which books circulated and ideas permeated4 ,sidenote3 ,survival of magical and scientific features4 ,moreover1 the story of ,alexander1 especially as adapted by the middle ages1 contained a large amount of magic and science1 more especially the former4 ,the ,epitome might omit a great deal else1 but it kept intact the opening portion of the ,pseudo-,callisthenes and of ,julius ,valerius concerning the adventures of ,nectanebus1 the sage and magician from ,egypt1 the astrologer and the natural father of ,alexander4 ,indeed1 the titles in some manuscripts suggest that ,nectanebus came to rival ,alexander for medieval readers as the hero of the story4 ,thus we find a ,history of ,alexander1 ,king of ,macedon1 and of ,nectanebo1 ,king of ,egypt1#bcje or an account ,of the ,life and ,deeds of ,neptanabus1 astronomer of ,egypt1#bcjf or a ,latin metrical version by 8,uilikinus0 or ,aretinus ,quilichinus of ,spoleto in #abcf entitled1 ,the ,history of the ,science of the ,egyptians and of ,neptanabus their king who afterwards was the true father of ,alexander4#bcjg ,sidenote3 ,who was ,nectanebus8 ,pliny in the ,natural ,history describes the obelisk of ,necthebis1 king of ,egypt1 whom he places five centuries before ,alexander the ,great4#bcjh ,plutarch1 however1 in his life of ,agesilaus and ,nepos in his life of ,chabrias mention a ,nectanebus ,,ii who struggled against ,persia for the throne of ,egypt about #cfa ,b4 ,c4 and later was forced to flee to ,ethiopia4 ,in the ,alexander romance1 however1 it is to ,macedon that ,nectanebus retreats4 ,a ,nectabis is listed as a magician along with ,ostanes1 ,typhon1 ,dardanus1 ,damigeron1 and ,berenice1 by ,tertullian1 writing about #bjj ,a4 ,d4#bcji ,as a matter of fact1 in the ,thirtieth ,dynasty were two kings named respectively ,nektanebes or ,nekht-,har-ehbt1 who ruled #cgh to #cfa ,b4 ,c41 and ,nektanebos or ,nekhte-nebof1 who ruled #ceh to #cda ,b4 ,c4 ,both have left considerable buildings4#bcaj ,it is the latter who was forced by the ,persians to flee to ,ethiopia nine years before ,alexander conquered ,egypt and who is the hero of our story4 ,the stele of ,metternich is covered with magical formulae ascribed to ,nectanebo4#bcaa ,sidenote3 ,a scientific key-note4 ,a note suggestive of both natural science and occult science is struck by the opening passage of the ,latin epitomes and of the oldest ,greek manuscript2 the first page of ,julius ,valerius is missing and has to be supplied from the epitomes4 ,the first words are 8,the ,egyptian sages10 and the first sentence describes their scientific ability in measuring the earth and in tracing the revolutions of the heavens and numbering the stars4 8,and of them all ,nectanabus is recognized to have been the most prudent 444 for the elements of the universe obeyed him40 ,in the opening sentences of the oldest ,greek version and of the ,ethiopic version even more emphasis is laid than in the ,epitomes upon the learning of the ,egyptians in general and of ,nectanebus in particular1 and of the close connection of that learning with astrology and magic4#bcab ,we read1 8,now there lived in the land of ,egypt a king who was called ,bektanis1 and he was a famous magician and a sage1 and he was deeply learned in the wisdom of the ,egyptians4 ,and he had more knowledge than all the wise men who knew what was in the depths of the ,nile and in the abysses1 and who were skilled in the knowledge of the stars and of their seasons and in the knowledge of the astrolabe and in the casting of nativities4444 ,and by his learning and by his observations of the stars ,nectanebus was able to predict what would befall anyone who was about to be born40#bcac ,in one ,latin manuscript of the fifteenth century the ,history of ,alexander the ,great begins with the #e sentence1 8,books tell us how powerful the race of the ,egyptians were in mathematics and the magic art40#bcad ,sidenote3 ,magic of ,nectanebus4 ,next we are told1 and the account is practically the same in all the versions of the story1 how by means of his basin filled with water1 his wax images of ships and men1 his rod or wand of ebony1 and the incantations with which he addressed the gods above and below1 ,nectanebus had been hitherto able to destroy all the armies and to sink all the fleets that had come against him4 ,but when one day he found his magic unavailing to save him1 he shaved his head and beard and fled to ,macedon1 where in linen garb he plied the trade of an astrologer4 ,sidenote3 ,nectanebus as an astrologer4 ,in this he soon became so celebrated that the fame of his predictions reached the ears of the queen ,olympias1 who consulted him during an absence of ,philip4 ,when she asked ,nectanebus by means of what art he divined the future so truthfully1 he answered that there were many varieties of divination4 ,julius ,valerius and the ,latin epitomes mention specifically only interpreters of dreams and astrologers1 but the ,greek1 ,syriac1 and ,ethiopic versions give more elaborate lists of various kinds of diviners4#bcae ,nectanebus next produced an astrological tablet adorned with gold and ivory and with each planet and the horoscope represented by a different stone or metal4 ,with the aid of this he read the queen's horoscope and told her that she would have a son by the ,god ,ammon and would be forewarned soon to that effect in a dream4 ,olympias replied that if such a dream came to her1 she would no longer employ ,nectanebus as a magus but honor him as a god4 ,sidenote3 ,a magic dream4 ,nectanebus thereupon sought for herbs useful to command dreams1 plucked them1 and pressed a syrup out of them4 ,he placed a wax image of the queen inscribed with her name upon a little couch1 lighted lamps1 and poured his syrup over the wax figure1 muttering a secret and efficacious incantation the while4 ,by this means he brought it about that the queen would dream or think she dreamed whatever he said to the wax image of her4 ,later ,nectanebus himself played the part of the god ,ammon1 announcing his coming beforehand to ,olympias by making by his 8science0 a dragon which glided into her presence4 ,sidenote3 ,lucian on ,olympias and the serpent4 ,lucian of ,samosata in the second century tells us that it was a common story in his time that ,olympias had lain with a serpent before giving birth to ,alexander4 ,he suggests as the explanation of how this tale originated the fact that at ,pella in ,macedonia there is a breed of large serpents1 8so tame and gentle that women make pets of them1 children take them to bed1 they will let you tread on them1 have no objection to being squeezed1 and will draw milk from the breasts like infants4444 ,it was doubtless one of these that was her bedfellow40#bcaf ,as is apt to be the case in ancient efforts to give a natural explanation of what purports to be miraculous or supernatural1 ,lucian's biology is only slightly less incredible than ,nectanebus's magic transformations4 ,sidenote3 ,more dream-sending3 magic transformation4 ,as the queen became pregnant1 8,nectanebus consecrated a hawk and told it to go to ,philip10 who was still absent1 8to stand by him through the night and to instruct him in a dream as it was ordered40#bcag ,the vision in question was explained by an interpreter of dreams to ,philip as signifying that his wife would have a son by the god ,ammon4 ,nevertheless ,philip was somewhat suspicious and hastened to bring his wars to a close and hurry home4 ,nectanebus1 however1 rendering himself invisible by means of the magic art1 continued to deceive both king and queen4 ,once he terrified the court by appearing again in the form of a huge hissing serpent1 but put his head in ,olympias's lap and then kissed her4 ,thereupon he turned from a serpent into an eagle and flew away4 ,philip was then really convinced that his wife's lover was the god ,ammon4 ,sidenote3 ,an omen interpreted4 ,before the birth of ,alexander the following omen befell ,philip4 ,as he sat absorbed in thought in a place where there were many birds flying about1 one of them laid an egg in his lap4 ,it rolled to the ground1 the shell broke1 and a snake issued forth4 ,it circled about the egg-shell but when it tried to re-enter the shell was prevented by death4 ,when ,antiphon1 the interpreter of omens1 was consulted concerning this portent1 he said that it signified that a son should be born who would conquer the world but die before he could regain his native land4 ,sidenote3 ,the birth of ,alexander4 ,the day of ,olympias's delivery now approached and ,nectanebus1 in his office of astrologer1 stood by her side to tell her when the favorable moment had arrived for the birth of her child4 ,once he urged her to wait1 since a child born at that moment would be a slave and a captive4 ,again he bade her restrain herself1 for at that moment an effeminate would be born4 ,at last the favorable instant came for the birth of a world conqueror1 and ,alexander was born amid an earthquake1 thunder1 and lightning4 ,in this case1 therefore1 the moment of birth is regarded as controlling the destiny4 ,many astrologers1 however1 considered the moment of conception as of greater importance2 we have already heard ,augustine tell of the sage who chose a certain hour for intercourse with his wife in order to beget a marvelous son2 and in the thirteenth century ,albertus ,magnus1 in his treatise on animals1 informs us that 8,nectanebus1 the natural father of ,alexander1 in having intercourse with his mother ,olympias1 observed the time when the sun was entering ,leo and ,saturn was in ,taurus1 since he wished his son to receive the form and power of those planets40#bcah ,sidenote3 ,the death of ,nectanebus4 ,the death of ,nectanebus was as closely in accord with the stars as was the birth of ,alexander4 ,at the age of twelve ,alexander found ,nectanebus in consultation with ,olympias and1 attracted by his astrological tablet1 made him promise to show him the stars at night4 ,then as ,nectanebus walked along star-gazing1 ,alexander pushed him into a steep pit which they chanced to pass1 and ,nectanebus lay there with a broken neck4 ,when he asked ,alexander the reason for his act1 the boy replied that it was in order to convince him of the futility of his art1 since he gazed at the stars unmindful of what threatened him from the ground4 ,but ,nectanebus rebuts this revised version of the maid servant's taunt to ,thales by telling ,alexander that he had been forewarned by the stars that he should be killed by his own son1 and by revealing to ,alexander the secret of his birth4#bcai ,in concluding the story of ,nectanebus it is perhaps worth while to emphasize the fact that the epitomes and ,julius ,valerius often use the word magus of ,nectanebus as an astrologer and that in general magic1 astrology1 and divination are indissolubly connected4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,amazons and ,gymnosophists4 ,some account is given both in ,julius ,valerius and the longer epitome of ,alexander's exchange of letters with the ,amazons and of questions which he put to the ,gymnosophists of ,india 7i4 e4 the ,brahmans7 and their replies4 ,neither of these promising themes1 however1 results in the introduction of any magic or occult science4 ,we also find in the ,stromata of ,clement of ,alexandria#bcbj a list of ten questions which ,alexander propounded to ten of the ,gymnosophists of ,india and their ingenious answers given under pain of death if their responses proved unsatisfactory4 ,sidenote3 ,the letter to ,aristotle4 ,nor does ,alexander's letter to ,aristotle on the marvels of ,india reveal many specific instances of superstition that are at all interesting4 ,for the most part it recounts his marches1 the sufferings of his army from thirst1 combats with wild beasts1 serpents1 and hippopotamuses1 and the treasures which he captured4 ,alexander states that 8in former letters ,i informed you about the eclipse of the sun and moon and the constancy of the stars and the signs of the air40#bcba ,he tells now1 however1 of a place where there are two trees of the sun and moon1 speaking ,indian and ,greek1 one masculine and the other feminine1 from which one may learn what the future has in store for good or evil4 ,as to this ,alexander was inclined to be incredulous1 but the natives swore that it was true1 and his companions urged him 8not to be defrauded of the experience of so great a thing40 ,accordingly he made his way to the spot despite the innumerable beasts and snakes which beset his path4 ,chastity was essential in order to approach the trees1 and he also had to lay aside his rings1 royal robes1 and shoes4 ,the sun tree then told him at dawn that he would never see home or his mother and sisters again4 ,at eventide the moon tree added that he would die at ,babylon4#bcbb ,the third and final response1 vouchsafed by the sun tree1 was that his death would be from poison1 but the name of the poisoner the oracular tree refused to divulge lest ,alexander try to kill him first and thus cheat the three ,fates4 ,alexander has consequently had to content himself1 as he informs ,aristotle in the closing sentence of his letter1 with building a monument to perpetuate his name among all mortals4#bcbc ,of other spurious treatises ascribed to ,alexander in the middle ages1 works of alchemy and works of astrology1 we shall treat in a later chapter on the ,pseudo-,aristotle4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,post-,,classical ,,medicine ,three representatives of post-classical medicine--,bibliographical note--,medical compendiums3 ,oribasius and ,paul of ,aegina--,atius of ,amida--,how superstitious are ,atius and ,alexander of ,tralles8--,compound medicines--,atius merely reproduces the superstition of ,galen--,occult science mixed with some scepticism--,alexander of ,tralles--,originality of his work--,his medieval influence--,his personal experience--,extent of his superstition--,physica--,occult virtue of substances applied externally--,other things used as ligatures and amulets--,astrology and sculpture of rings--,incantations--,conjuration of an herb--,medieval version seems less superstitious than the original text--,marcellus3 date and identity--8,marcellus ,empiricus0--,superstitious character of his medicine--,preparation of goat's blood--,a rabbit's foot--,magic transfer of disease--,pliny and ,marcellus compared on green lizards as eye-cures--,more lizardry--,use of stones and an herb--,right and left3 number--,incantations and characters--,the art of medicine survives the barbarian invasions4 ,sidenote3 ,three representatives of post-classical medicine4 ,in this chapter as representatives of post-classical medicine and its influence upon medieval ,latin medicine we shall consider three writers whose works date from the close of the fourth to the middle of the sixth century1 ,marcellus of ,bordeaux or ,marcellus ,empiricus1 ,atius of ,amida in ,mesopotamia1 and ,alexander of ,tralles in ,asia ,minor4#bcbd ,they have just been mentioned in their chronological order1 but although ,marcellus antedates the other two by a full century1 we shall consider him last1 since he wrote in ,latin while they wrote in ,greek1 and since he includes ,celtic words and probably ,celtic folk-lore1 and since he seems to have been a native of ,gaul1 if not of ,bordeaux1#bcbe and thus is geographically closer to the scene of medieval ,latin learning4 ,atius and ,alexander have the closer connection not only with the eastern and ,greek world but also with the past classical medicine of ,galen and so will provide a better point of departure4 ,presumably from the places and periods in which they lived1 all three of our authors were ,christians1 but it must be said that the chief evidence of ,christianity in their works is the use of ,christian or ,hebrew proper names in incantations1 and there are some analogous relics of pagan superstition4 ,sidenote3 ,medical compendiums3 ,oribasius and ,paul of ,aegina4 ,as ,tribonian and ,justinian boiled down the voluminous legal literature of ,rome into one ,digest1 so there was a similar tendency to reduce the past medical writings of the ,greeks into one compendious work4 ,paul of ,aegina1 writing in the seventh century1 observes in his preface#bcbf that it is not right1 when lawyers who usually have plenty of time to reflect over their cases have handy summaries of their subject to which they can refer1 that physicians whose cases often require immediate action should not also have some convenient handbook1 and the more so since many of them are called upon to exercise their profession not in large cities with easy access to libraries1 but in the country1 in desert places1 or on shipboard4 ,oribasius1 friend and physician of the emperor ,julian1 #cfa-cfc ,a4 ,d41 had made such a compendium by that emperor's order4 ,in this he embodied so much of ,galen's teachings that he became known as 8the ape of ,galen10#bcbg although he also used more recent writers4 ,but ,paul of ,aegina regarded this work of ,oribasius as too bulky1 since it originally comprised seventy-two books although only twenty-five are now extant1 and so essayed a briefer compilation of his own4 ,two centuries ago1 however1 ,friend and ,milward protested against regarding ,paul1 ,atius1 and ,alexander as mere compilers and maintained that they 8were really men of great learning and experience0#bcbh who 8have described distempers which were omitted before2 taught a new method of treating old ones2 given an account of new medicines1 both simple and compound2 and made large additions to the practice of surgery40#bcbi ,puschmann more recently states that ,paul's compendium was 8composed with great originality and independence0 and is of great value 8particularly in its surgical sections40#bccj ,after ,paul1 however1 the ,byzantine medical writers1 such as ,palladius1 ,theophilus1 ,stephen of ,alexandria1 ,nonus1 and ,psellus1 were of an inferior caliber4#bcca ,with ,paul's work1 however1 we are not now further concerned1 nor with that of ,oribasius1 but with the somewhat similar compendiums of ,atius and ,alexander which lie chronologically between these other two4 ,it is ,atius and ,alexander whom ,payne accuses of 8introducing into classical medicine the magical elements derived from the ,east0#bccb and whom we might therefore expect to possess an especial interest for our investigation4 ,sidenote3 ,atius of ,amida4 ,of the life and personality of ,atius we know very little1 but inasmuch as he mentions ,st4 ,cyril1 archbishop of ,alexandria1 and ,peter the ,archiater1 a physician of ,theodoric1 while he himself is cited by ,alexander of ,tralles1 he seems to have lived at the end of the fifth and beginning of the sixth century4#bccc ,and since ,alexander cites him only in his book on fevers which seems to have been composed after the rest of his work1 it seems probable that ,atius was almost contemporary with him and wrote in the sixth rather than the fifth century4 ,his ,tetrabiblos--each of the four books subdivides into four sections and often these are spoken of as sixteen books--occupies a middle position not only in time but in length between the works of ,oribasius and ,paul1 and resembles the latter in making a great deal of use of the former4 ,atius' extracts from the older writers are shorter than those of ,oribasius1 however1 and he also differs from him in combining several authorities in a single chapter1 the method usually adopted by the medieval ,latin encyclopedists4 ,it has been noted that the wording of the original authorities was often preserved in the oldest medieval manuscripts of ,atius1 until the copyists of the time of the ,italian ,renaissance began to touch up the style in accordance with their erroneous notions of what constituted classical ,greek4#bccd ,it may also be said that these systematically arranged handbooks of ,oribasius1 ,atius1 and the rest1 where one could find what one was looking after1 were far superior in systematic and orderly presentation to the discursive works of ,galen which1 like many other classical writings1 often seem rambling and without any particular plan4#bcce ,this more logical1 if somewhat cut-and-dried method1 was also to be a virtue of medieval ,latin learning4 ,whether ,atius directly influenced the ,latin middle ages is doubtful1 since no early ,latin translation of him seems to be known4#bccf ,the work of ,oribasius1 however1 exists in ,latin translation in manuscripts of the seventh century as well as in others of the ninth and twelfth4#bccg ,sidenote3 ,how superstitious are ,atius and ,alexander8 ,the works of ,atius and ,alexander of ,tralles do not impress me as containing an unusually large amount of superstitious medicine4 ,much less am ,i inclined to agree with ,payne that they are responsible for the introduction into classical medicine of magical elements derived from the east4 ,these elements1 whether derived from the orient any more than any other feature of classical civilization or not1 at any rate had been a prominent feature of classical medicine long before the days of ,atius and ,alexander1 as ,pliny's review of medicine before his time abundantly proved and as is also shown by the extraordinary virtues which ,pliny himself1 his contemporary ,dioscorides1 and even the great ,galen attributed to medicinal simples4 ,sidenote3 ,compound medicines4 ,it is true that ,atius and ,alexander abound in recipes for elaborate medical compounds composed of numerous ingredients4 ,of such concoctions one example must suffice1 a plaster which ,atius recommends for tumors1 hard lumps1 and gout4 8,of the terebinth-tree1 of the stone of ,asia1 of bitumen three hundred and sixty drams each2 of washing-soda 7spumae nitri71 calf-fat1 wax1 laurel berries1 ammonia1 and thyme three hundred and forty drams each2 of the stone pyrites and quick-lime one hundred and twenty drams each2 of the ashes of asps which have been burned alive one hundred and forty drams2 of old oil two pounds4 ,first liquefy the oil and wax1 then the bitumen1 which should have first been pulverized4 ,add to these the fat1 and presently the ammonia and terebinth2 and when these are taken off the fire mix in the lime and stone of ,asia1 then the laurel berries and washing-soda1 and finally after the medicament has cooled sprinkle the ashes of asps upon it40#bcch ,such concoctions are to a large extent borrowed by ,atius1 ,alexander1 and ,marcellus from earlier writers4 ,moreover1 while ,pliny had excluded such compounds from the pages of his ,natural ,history1 he had also made it abundantly evident that they were already in general use by his time1 and they are to be found in great numbers in the works of ,galen who cites many from preceding writers4 ,sidenote3 ,atius merely reproduces the superstition of ,galen4 ,indeed1 it was from ,galen himself and not from the east that ,atius at least derived his most strikingly superstitious passages4 ,this was accidentally and convincingly proven by my own experience4 ,it so happened that ,i wrote an account of the passages in the ,tetrabiblos of ,atius before ,i had read extensively in ,galen's works4 ,when ,i came to do so1 ,i found that almost every passage that ,i had selected to illustrate the superstitious side of ,atius was contained in ,galen3 for example1 the use as an amulet of a green jasper suspended from the neck by a thread so as to touch the abdomen2#bcci the story of the reapers who found the dead viper in their wine and cured instead of killing the sufferer from elephantiasis to whom they gave the wine to drink2#bcdj the tale of his preceptor who roasted river crabs to an ash in a red copper dish in ,august during dog-days on the eighteenth day of the moon1 and administered the powder daily for forty days to persons bitten by mad dogs4#bcda ,such passages are usually repeated by ,atius in such a way as to lead the reader to think them his own experiences1 a fact which warns us not to accept the assertions of ancient and medieval authors that they have experienced this or that at their face value1 and which makes us wonder if ,friend and ,milward were not too generous in regarding ,atius at least as more than a compiler4 ,he also repeats some of ,galen's general observations anent experience as that the virtues of simples are best discovered thus1 and that he will not discuss all plants but only those 8of which we have information by experience40#bcdb ,he further reproduces ,galen's attitude of mingled credulity and scepticism concerning the basilisk1 combining the two passages into one2#bcdc also ,galen's questioning the efficacy of incantations and telling of having seen a scorpion killed by the mere spittle of a fasting man without any incantation4#bcdd ,like ,galen again1 he omits all injurious medicaments and expresses the opinion that men who spread the knowledge of such drugs do more harm than actual poisoners who perhaps cause but a single death4#bcde ,like ,galen he announces his intention to omit all 8abominable and detestable recipes and those which are prohibited by law10 mentioning as instances the eating of human flesh and drinking urine or menses muliebres4#bcdf ,but also like ,galen1 he devotes several chapters to the virtues of human and animal excrement1 especially recommending that of dogs after they have been fed on bones for two days4#bcdg ,somewhat similar to ,galen's recommendation to fill cavities in the teeth with roasted earthworms is the recipe of ,atius for painless extraction of teeth 8without iron40 ,the tooth must first be thoroughly scraped or the gum cut loose about it1 and then sprinkled with the ashes of earthworms4 8,therefore use this remedy with confidence1 for it has already often been celebrated as a mystery40#bcdh ,such use of earthworms continued a feature of medieval dentistry4 ,sidenote3 ,occult science mixed with some scepticism4 ,of my original selections from ,atius very few are now left1 and it is not unlikely that they too might be found somewhere in ,galen's works if one looked long enough4 ,atius asserts that drinking bitumen or asphalt in water will prevent hydrophobia from developing1#bcdi and recommends for wounds inflicted by sea serpents an application of lead with a slice of the serpent itself4#bcej ,he takes the following prescription from ,oribasius4 ,to cure impotency anoint the big toe of the right foot with oil in which the pulverized ashes of a lizard have been mixed4 ,to check the operation of this powerful stimulant one has merely to wash off the ointment from the toe4#bcea ,on the other hand1 an instance of a sceptical tendency is the citation of the view of ,posidonius that the so-called incubus is not a demon but a disease akin to epilepsy and insanity and marked by suffocation1 loss of voice1 heaviness1 and immobility4#bceb ,it may also be noted that in discussing the medicinal virtues of the beaver's testicles ,atius does not include the story of its biting them off in order to escape its hunters4#bcec ,he does1 however1 cite several authorities1 ,piso1 ,menelbus1 ,simonides1 ,aristodemus1 and ,pherecydes for instances of the remarkable powers of certain animals in discovering the presence of poisons and preserving themselves and their owners from this danger3 a partridge who made a great noise and fuss whenever any medicament or poison was being prepared in the house2 a pet eagle who would attack anyone in the house who even plotted such a thing2 a peacock who would go to the place where the dose had been prepared and raise a clamor1 or upset the receptacle containing the potion1 or dig up a charm1 if it had been buried underground2 and a pet ichneumon and parrot who were endowed with very similar gifts4#bced ,atius shows a slight tendency in the direction of astrological medicine1 giving a list of 8times ordained by ,god0 for the risings and settings of various stars1 since these affect the air and winds1 and since 8the bodies of persons in good health1 and much more so those of the sick1 are altered according to the state of the air40#bcee ,but on the whole1 of our three authors1 ,atius seems to contain the smallest proportional amount of superstitious medicine and occult science4 ,sidenote3 ,alexander of ,tralles4 ,alexander of ,tralles was the son of a physician and1 according to the ,byzantine historian1 ,agathias1#bcef the youngest of a group of five distinguished brothers1 including ,anthemius of ,tralles1 architect of ,st4 ,sophia at ,constantinople1 and ,metrodorus the grammarian1 whom ,justinian summoned also to his court4 ,alexander had visited ,italy1 ,gaul1 and ,spain as well as all parts of ,greece#bceg before settling down in old age1 when he could no longer engage in active medical practice1#bceh to the composition of his magnum opus in twelve books beginning with the head1 eyes1 and ears1 and ending with gout and fever4 ,aside from his citation of ,atius in the book on fevers1 the latest writer named by ,alexander is ,jacobus ,psychrestus1 physician to ,leo the ,great about #dgd4bcei ,it seems rather strange that ,alexander says nothing of the pestilence of #edb4bcfj ,sidenote3 ,originality of his work4 ,alexander embodied the results of his own practice to a much greater extent than ,oribasius and ,atius4 ,his book is more a record of his own medical observations and experiences than a compilation from past writings1 a fact recognized in the first edition which entitled it ,practica1 and 8though he pays a due deference to the ancients1 yet he is so far from putting an implicit faith in what they have advanced that he very often dissents from their doctrines40#bcfa ,puschmann regarded him as the first doctor for a long time who had done any original thinking1#bcfb and esteemed his pathology as highly as his therapeutics had been esteemed by his sixteenth century translator1 ,guinther of ,andernach4#bcfc ,friend wrote of him in the early eighteenth century1 8,his method is extremely rational and just and after all our discoveries and improvements in physick scarce anything can be added to it40#bcfd ,alexander seems to have been a practitioner of much resource and ingenuity1 stopping hemorrhage of the nose by blowing down or fuzz up the nostrils through a hollow reed1 and directing patients1 a thousand years before the discovery of the ,eustachian tube1 to sneeze with mouth and nose stopped up in order to dislodge a foreign object from the ear4#bcfe ,according to ,milward1 ,alexander was the first ,greek medical writer to mention rhubarb and tape-worms1 and the first practitioner to open the jugular veins4#bcff ,indeed1 ,alexander advises blood-letting a great deal1 but ,milward1 whose age still approved of that practice1 notes that he was 8no ways addicted to those superstitious rules of opening this or that vein in particular cases which several of the ancients and some even among the moderns have been so very fond of40#bcfg ,finally1 ,alexander's concise and orderly method of presentation compares favorably with that of the classical medical writers4 ,sidenote3 ,his medieval influence4 ,alexander's book traveled west1 as its author had done1 and was current in a free and abbreviated ,latin translation from an early date4#bcfh ,in fact1 it was from the ,latin version that the work was translated into ,hebrew and ,syriac4#bcfi ,not only are ,latin manuscripts of ,alexander's work as a whole or of extracts from it#bcgj found from the ninth century on1 while printed editions in ,latin were numerous through the sixteenth century1 but it was much used and cited by medieval writers such as ,constantinus ,africanus1 ,gariopontus1#bcga and ,gilbert of ,england4#bcgb ,it is not1 however1 always safe to assume that citations of ,alexander medicus1 encountered in thirteenth century writers on the nature of things like ,thomas of ,cantimpr and ,bartholomew of ,england1 have reference to ,alexander of ,tralles1 since a treatise on fevers is also ascribed to ,alexander of ,aphrodisias1#bcgc while a work on the pulse and urine in fevers is thought to be by some medieval ,alexander4#bcgd ,and medical treatises are sometimes ascribed even to ,alexander the ,great of ,macedon in the medieval manuscripts4#bcge ,sidenote3 ,his personal experience4 ,we have already said that ,alexander is no mere compiler but embodies the results of his own observation and experience during a long period of travel and medical practice4 ,he frequently asserts that he has tested this or that for himself1 or that the prescription in question has been 8approved by long use and experience10#bcgf so that it is not surprising that we find the name ,alexander still associated with medical 8experiments0 in manuscripts dating from the twelfth to fifteenth centuries4#bcgg ,one of his cures for epilepsy he learned 8from a rustic in ,tuscany0 7,thuscia87 but afterwards often employed with success himself4#bcgh 8,it is a marvelous and exceptional medicine which you will communicate to no one10 concludes ,alexander1 a rather surprising prohibition in view of the fact that it was a popular remedy to begin with4 ,folk-lore1 however1 is often supposed to be kept secret4 ,another general rule which holds true in ,alexander's case is that these empirical remedies are apt to be the most superstitious1 and conversely that marvels are apt to be supported by solemn assurance of their experimental testing4 ,sidenote3 ,extent of his superstition4 ,two centuries ago ,milward wrote of ,alexander of ,tralles1 8,but there is another objection to our author's character which ,i cannot pretend to say much in defence of1 and that is1 his being addicted to charms and amulets4 ,it is very surprising that one who discovers so much judgment in other matters should show so much weakness in this40#bcgi ,alexander certainly devotes more space to superstition relatively to the length of his book than ,atius does and also is hospitable to a wider range of more or less magical notions and practices4 ,one notices1 however1 in his book that the treatment of certain diseases1 such as epilepsy1 colic1 gout1 and quartan fever1 is more likely to involve magical and astrological procedure than that of other ailments such as earache and disorder of the spleen4 ,this is also apt to be the case with other ancient and medieval medical works4 ,but it is doubtful if the distinction can be sharply drawn that magic was resorted to more in those diseases which seemed most mysterious and incurable4 ,sidenote3 ,physica4 ,the chief circumstance which renders some parts of ,alexander's work more superstitious than others is that he sometimes1 after concluding the usual medical description of the disease and prescriptions for it1 adds a list of what he calls physical or natural medicines 771 which are for the most part ligatures and suspensions but involve also the employment of incantations and engraved images or characters4 ,apparently he calls these remedies physica1 because they supposedly act by some peculiar property or occult virtue of the substance which is bound on or suspended and constitute a sort of natural magic4 ,alexander explains that 8since some cannot observe a diet nor endure medicine1 they compel us in the case of gout to employ physical remedies and ligatures2 and in order that the well-trained physician may be instructed in every side of his art and able to help all sick persons in every way1 ,i come to this subject40#bchj ,this rather apologetic tone and the fact that he separates the physica from his other remedies show that he regards them as not quite on the same level with normal medical procedure4 ,he goes on to say1 however1 that although there are many of these 8physical0 remedies which are efficacious1 he will write down only those proved true by long use4 ,in discussing fevers he again justifies the inclusion of physica in much the same way and says that those now mentioned were learned by him during a long-extended practice and experience4#bcha ,it is to be noted that some of these chapters on physical ligatures do not appear in the ,latin version in three books1 at least as it was printed in #aejd4 ,sidenote3 ,occult virtue of substances applied externally4 ,one ligature which is 8quite celebrated and approved by many0 and which instantly lessens the pain of ulcers in the feet1 makes use of muscles from a wild ass1 a wild boar1 and a stork1 binding the right muscles about the patient's right foot and the left muscles about the left foot4 ,some persons1 however1 do not intertwine the muscles of the stork with the others but put them separately into the skin of a sea-calf4 ,also they take care to bind the other muscles about the patient's feet when the moon is in the west or in a sterile sign and approaching ,saturn4 ,others bind on the tendons and claws of a vulture1 or the feet of a hare who should remain alive4#bchb ,alexander seems to regard the carcass of the ass as especially remedial in the case of epilepsy4 ,in ,spain he learned to use the skull of an ass reduced to ashes and he recommends employing the forehead and brain of an ass as amulets4#bchc ,a suspension for quartan fever consists of a live beetle firmly fastened on the outside of a red linen cloth and hung about the neck4 8,this is true and often tested by experience10 ,alexander assures us4 ,also excellent for this purpose are hairs from a goat's cheek or a green lizard combined with clippings of the patient's finger nails and toe nails4 ,it is confirmed by the testimony of all 8natural0 physicians that the blood qui primus a virgine fuerit excretus is naturally hostile to quartan fever4 ,even if the girl is not chaste1 the blood will be efficacious1 if applied to the patient's right hand or arm4#bchd ,alexander knew a man who treated quartan fever by giving an undergarment of the patient to a woman in childbirth to wear1 after which the patient wore it again and was cured 8miraculously by some antipathy and occult influence40#bche ,sidenote3 ,other things used as ligatures and in amulets4 ,the materials employed in ,alexander's therapeutics are sometimes those which we associate especially with magic arts1 such as the hair and nail-parings already mentioned4 ,against epilepsy he employs nails from a cross or wrecked ship1 or the blood-stained shirt of a gladiator or criminal who has been slain4 ,the nails are bound to the patient's arm2 the shirt is burned and the patient given the ashes in wine seven times4 ,the use of a nail from a cross is a method ascribed to ,asclepiades4 ,other materials recommended by ,alexander against gout and epilepsy include the herb night-shade1 the stones magnet and aetites1 blood of a swallow and urine of a boy1 chameleons in varied forms1 and the stones found in dissected swallows of which we have heard before and shall hear yet again4 ,for ,alexander these stones are black and white1 but he states that they are not found in all young swallows but are said to appear only in the first-born1 so that one often has to dissect a great many birds before one finds any4 ,in these passages on ,physica ,alexander cites such authors of magical reputation as ,ostanes and ,democritus1 and tells how the latter suffered in youth from epilepsy until an oracle from ,delphi instructed him to make use of the worms in goats' brains4 ,when a goat sneezes violently1 some of these worms are expelled into his nostrils1 whence they should be carefully extracted in a cloth without allowing them to touch the ground4 ,either one or three of them should then be worn about the epileptic's neck wrapped in the thin skin of a black sheep4#bchf ,sidenote3 ,astrology and sculpture of rings4 ,one passage has already been cited where astrological conditions were observed4 ,alexander sometimes prescribes the day of the month upon which things shall be done2 an oil1 for instance1 is to be prepared on the fifth of ,march4#bchg ,in one place ,alexander advises engraving upon a copper die a lion1 a half-moon1 a star1 and the name of the beast4 ,this is to be worn enclosed in a gold ring upon the fourth finger4#bchh ,that the lion may not stand for a sign of the zodiac is suggested by another instruction concerning an engraved stone to be set in a gold ring1 and which is to be carved with a figure of ,hercules suffocating a lion4#bchi ,for gout1 however1 one writes a verse of ,homer on a copper plate when the moon is in ,libra or ,leo4#bcij ,for colic one inscribes upon an iron ring with an octangular circumference a charm beginning1 8,flee1 flee1 colic40#bcia ,sidenote3 ,incantations4 ,the employment of such incantations is expressly justified by ,alexander1 who maintains that even 8the most divine0 ,galen1 who once thought that incantations were of no avail1 came after a long time and much experience to be convinced that they were of great efficacy4 ,alexander then quotes from a treatise which is not extant but which he asserts is a work by ,galen entitled1 ,on medical treatment in ,homer4#bcib 8,so some think that incantations are like old-wives' tales and so ,i thought for a long while1 but in process of time from perfectly plain instances ,i have become persuaded that there is force in them1 for ,i have experienced their aid in the case of persons stung by scorpions4 ,and no less in the case of bones stuck in the throat1 which were straightway expelled by an incantation40 ,alexander himself thereupon continues1 8,if such is the testimony of divinest ,galen and many other ancients1 what prevents us too from communicating to you those which we have learned from experience and which we have received from trustworthy friends80 ,sidenote3 ,conjuration of an herb4 ,both incantations and observance of astrological conditions play an important part in the instructions given by ,alexander for digging and plucking with imprecations an herb to be used in the treatment of fluxions of hands or feet4 8,when the moon is in ,aquarius under ,pisces1 dig before sunset1 not touching the root4 ,after digging with two fingers of the left hand1 namely1 the thumb and middle finger1 say1 #8,i address you1 ,i address you1 sacred herb4 ,i summon you to-morrow to the house of ,philia to stay the fluxion of feet and hands of this man or this woman4 ,but ,i adjure you by the great name1 ,iaoth1 ,sabaoth1 ,god who established the earth and fixed the sea abounding in fluid floods1 who desiccated ,lot's wife and made her a statue of salt1 receive the spirit of thy mother earth and its powers1 and dry up this fluxion of feet or of hands of this man or woman4' ,on the morrow ere sunrise1 taking the bone of some dead animal1 dig up the root1 and holding it say1 #8,i adjure you by the sacred names1 ,iaoth1 ,sabaoth1 ,adonai1 ,eloi1' and sprinkle a pinch of salt on that root1 saying1 #8,as this salt is not increased1 so be not the ailment of this man or of this woman4' ,then bind one end of the root to the patient1 taking care that it is not moist1 and suspend the rest of it over the fire for #cfj days40#bcic ,the mention of mother earth in this charm perhaps indicates an ultimate pagan origin1 but the allusions to one ,god1 and to incidents in the ,old ,testament1 and the use of names of spirits show ,jewish or ,christian influence1 while the number #cfj perhaps points to the ,gnostics4 ,sidenote3 ,medieval version seems less superstitious than the original text4 ,while in conformity with the character of our investigation we have emphasized those passages in ,alexander which are suggestive of magic and its methods1 it should be said that many of the passages which we have cited are apparently#bcid not found in the medieval ,latin versions which seem to omit many1 although not all1 of the chapters devoted to physical ligatures4 ,here then apparently is a case where the early medieval translator and adapter1 instead of retaining and emphasizing the superstition of the past1 has largely purged his text of it4 ,but we have next to consider a ,latin work1 written apparently about the year #djj ,a4 ,d4 and known to us through two manuscripts of the ninth century1 in which magic is far more rampant than in any version of ,alexander of ,tralles4 ,judging1 however1 from the small number of extant manuscripts1 it was less influential through the medieval period than was ,alexander's book4 ,sidenote3 ,marcellus3 date and identity4 ,the ,de medicamentis opens in one of the two extant manuscripts with a dedicatory letter from 8,marcellus1 an illustrious man of the main office of ,theodosius the ,elder 7870 to his sons4#bcie ,this ascription is generally accepted as genuine1 and ,grimm believed this to be the same ,marcellus as the physician who is gratefully mentioned1 together with his sons1 then mere infants1 in the letters of ,libanius1 whose severe headaches ,marcellus had alleviated1 and as the ,marcellus magister officiorum who is mentioned twice in the ,theodosian ,code under the year #cie4 ,the date of the ,de medicamentis may be further fixed from its including 8a singular remedy for spleen which the patriarch ,gamaliel recently revealed from proved experiments40 ,this ,gamaliel was ,jewish patriarch at ,constantinople from some time before #cie on to #dae or later4 ,the question1 however1 of ,marcellus' authorship is complicated by the fact that he is twice cited in the work itself4 ,one of these passages concerns an 8oxyporium which ,nero used for the digestion1 which ,marcellus the eminent physician revealed1 which we too have tested in practice40#bcif ,this sounds as if some later person had had a hand in the work as it has reached us1 since ,marcellus himself would scarcely have cited another person of the same name without some distinguishing epithet4 ,furthermore ,atius cites a ,marcellus for a passage which does not appear in the ,de medicamentis concerning wolfish or canine insanity1 in which men imagine themselves to be wolves or dogs and act like them during the night in the month of ,february4 ,but the ,de medicamentis as a whole is of the character promised by ,marcellus in the introductory letter to his sons and so may be taken as his work4 ,sidenote3 8,marcellus ,empiricus40 ,the empiricism which we have already noted in ,alexander of ,tralles becomes most pronounced and most extreme in ,marcellus1 who indeed is often called ,marcellus ,empiricus on this account1 and many of whose chapter and other headings#bcig terminate with these words descriptive of their contents1 8various rational and natural remedies learned by experience0 7remedia rationabilia et physica diversa de experimentis74 ,in his preface1 too1 he speaks of his book not as ,de medicamentis but as ,de empiricis4 ,he has1 it is true1 utilized 8the old authorities of the medical art set down in the ,latin language10 and likewise more recent writers and 8the works of studious men0 who were not especially trained in medicine2 but he also includes what he has learned from hearsay or from personal experience1 and 8even remedies chanced upon by rustics and the populace and simples which they have tested by experience40 ,one prescription1 which he characterizes as efficacious beyond human hope and incapable of being satisfactorily lauded1 he purchased from an old-wife of ,africa who cured many at ,rome by it1 while the author himself has employed it in the cure of 8several persons neither of humble rank nor unknown1 whose names it is superfluous to mention40 ,this remedy is a concoction of such things as ashes of deer-horn1 nine grains of white pepper1 a little myrrh1 and an ,african snail pounded shell and all while still alive in a mortar and then mixed with ,falernian wine4 ,very detailed and explicit directions are given as to its preparation and administration1 including an instruction to drink the dose facing towards the east4#bcih ,in another passage ,marcellus says of certain compounds1 8,if there is any faith1 both ,i myself have always found them by experience to be useful remedies and ,i can state that others are of the same mind2 and ,i will add this1 that other medicines can not compare to this liniment1 which in similar cases several of my friends1 whom ,i trust as ,i do myself1 have affirmed on oath they have found by experience a remarkable cure40#bcii ,of an eye-remedy he remarks1 8,and that we may believe the author of this remedy from experience1 he states that after he had been blind for twelve years it restored his sight within twenty days40#bdjj ,marcellus also frequently couples marvelousness with experimentation1 saying1 8,you will experience a wonderful remedy40 ,in one passage he uses the word 8experiment0 as a verb rather than as a noun1 coining a new expression1 experimentatum remedium1#bdja but his commonest expressions are de experimento or de experimentis1 expertum1 and experieris or experietur4#bdjb ,some of his 8experiences0 really are purposive experiments1 as where one discovers whether a tumor is scrofulous by applying an earthworm to it4 ,then put the worm on a leaf and if the tumor was scrofulous1 the worm will turn into earth4#bdjc ,the following experiment indicates that sufferers from spleen should drink in vinegar the root or dried leaves of the tamarisk4 ,give tamarisk to a pig to eat for nine days1 then kill the animal and you will find it without a spleen4#bdjd ,sidenote3 ,superstitious character of his medicine4 ,as ,marcellus appeals the most to experience1 so he is by far the most given to superstition and folk-lore of our three authors4 ,practically his entire work is of the character of the passages devoted to ,physica by ,alexander of ,tralles4 ,he indulges in no medical theory1 he does not diagnose diseases1 nor prescribe a regimen of health in the form of bathing1 diet1 and exercise4 ,his work is wholly composed of medicaments and for the most part empirical ones4 ,besides the elaborate compounds which were so frequent in ,atius and ,alexander1 he is extremely addicted to absurd rigmarole and all sorts of superstitious practices in the application or administration of medicinal simples4 ,his pharmacy includes not only herbs and gems1 to which he attributes occult virtue and which he sometimes directs to have engraven with characters and figures1 such as ,,sss or a dragon surrounded with seven rays#bdje--the emblem of the ,agathodaemon1 but also all kinds of animals1 reptiles1 and parts of the same1 after the fashion of ,pliny's medicine4 ,he is constantly calling into requisition such things as the ashes of a mole1 the blood of a bat1 the brains of a mouse1 the gall of a hyena1 the hoofs of a live ass1 the liver of a wolf1 woman's milk1 sea-hares1 a white spider with very long legs1 and centipedes or multipedes1 especially the variety that rolls up into a ball when touched4 ,but it is scarcely feasible to separate ,marcellus' materials from his procedure1 so we will begin to consider them together in some prescriptions where animals play the leading part4 ,sidenote3 ,preparation of goat's blood4 ,for those suffering from stone is recommended a remedy prepared in the following fashion4 ,in ,august shut up in a dry place for three days a goat1 preferably a wild one who is one year old1 and feed him on nothing but laurel and give him no water to drink2 finally on the third day1 which should fall on a ,thursday or ,sunday1 kill him4 ,both the person who kills the goat and the patient should be chaste and pure4 ,cut the goat's throat and collect his blood--it is best if the blood is collected by naked boys--and burn it to an ash in an earthen pot4 ,after combining it with various herbs and drugs1 there are further directions to follow as to how it may best be administered to the patient4 ,marcellus1 by the way1 affirms that adamant can be broken only by goat's blood4#bdjf ,sidenote3 ,a rabbit's foot4 ,the following prescription involves the familiar superstition that a rabbit's foot is lucky3 8,cut off the foot of a live rabbit and take hairs from under its belly and let it go4 ,of those hairs or wool make a strong thread and with it bind the rabbit's foot to the body of the patient and you will find a marvelous remedy4 ,but the remedy will be even more efficacious1 so that it is hardly credible1 if by chance you find that bone1 namely1 the rabbit's ankle-bone1 in the dung of a wolf1 which you should guard so that it neither touches the earth nor is touched by woman4 ,nor should any woman touch that thread made of the rabbit's wool40 ,marcellus further recommends that in releasing the rabbit after taking its wool you should say1 8,flee1 flee1 little rabbit1 and take the pain away with you40#bdjg ,sidenote3 ,magic transfer of disease4 ,of such magical transfer of disease to other animals or objects there are a number of examples4 ,toothache may be stopped by standing on the ground under the open sky and spitting in a frog's mouth and asking it to take the toothache away with it and then releasing it4#bdjh ,even consumptives who seem certain to die and who labor continually with an unbearable cough1 may be cured by giving them to drink for three days the saliva or foam of a horse4 8,you will indeed cure the patient without delay1 but the horse will die suddenly40#bdji ,splenetic persons are benefited by imposing any one of three kinds of fish upon the spleen and then replacing the fish alive in the sea4#bdaj ,warts may be got rid of by rubbing them with something the moment you see a star falling in the sky2 but if you rub them with your bare hand1 you will simply transfer them to it4#bdaa ,another superstition connected with falling stars which ,marcellus records is that one will be free from sore eyes for as many years as he can count numbers while a star is falling4#bdab ,the first time you hear or see a swallow1 hasten silently to a spring or well and anoint your eyes with the water and pray ,god that you may not have sore eyes that year1 and the swallows will bear away all pain from your eyes4#bdac ,with slight variations the same procedure may be employed to prevent toothache4 ,in this case you fill your mouth with water1 rub your teeth with the middle fingers of both hands1 and say1 8,swallow1 ,i say to you1 as this will not again be in my beak1 so may my teeth not ache all year long40#bdad ,marcellus advises anyone whose nose is stuffed up to blow it on a piece of parchment1 and1 folding this up like a letter1 cast it into the public way1#bdae--which would very likely spread the germs1 if not take away the cold4 ,sidenote3 ,pliny and ,marcellus compared on green lizards as eye cures4 ,in his preface ,marcellus refers to ,pliny as one of his authorities and many of his quaint animal remedies will be found substantially duplicated in the ,natural ,history4 ,both1 for example1 state that one can stop one's nose from running by kissing a mule4#bdaf ,marcellus1 however1 adds much from other sources or of his own4 ,this may be illustrated by comparing their accounts of the use of lizards to cure eye diseases4#bdag ,marcellus omits the following portion of ,pliny's account3 8,some shut up a green lizard in a new earthen pot1 and they mark the little stones called cinaedia1 which are bound on for tumors of the groin1 with nine signs and take out one daily4 ,on the ninth day they let the lizard go1 and keep the pebbles for pains of the eyes40 ,pliny next proceeds3 8,others put earth under a green lizard that has been blinded and shut it up in a glass vase with rings of solid iron or gold4 ,when through the glass the lizard is seen to have recovered its sight1 it is released and the rings are used for sore eyes40 ,this recipe is in ,marcellus who1 however1 words it differently and adds that the lizard must be blinded with a copper needle1 that the rings may be of silver1 electrum1 or copper1 that the vase must be carefully sealed and opened on the fifth or seventh day following1 and that one should not only wear the rings afterwards on one's fingers but also frequently apply them to one's eyes and strengthen the sight by looking through them4 ,he further cautions to leave the vase in a clean grassy spot1 to collect the rings only after the lizard has departed1 to catch the lizard in the first place on a ,thursday in ,september between the nineteenth and twenty-fifth day of the moon1 and to have the operation performed by a very pure and chaste man4 ,marcellus also states that an amulet made either of the eyes of the said lizard enclosed in a lead bull or gold coin1 or of its blood caught on clean wool and wrapped in purple cloth will effectually prevent eye diseases4 ,meanwhile ,pliny for his part has gone on to tell how efficacious the ashes of green lizards are4 ,sidenote3 ,more lizardry4 ,marcellus employs green lizards in other connections which are not paralleled in ,pliny4 ,to stay colic one binds about the patient three times with an incantation a string with which a copper needle has been threaded and drawn through a lizard's eyes1 after which the reptile is released at the same point where it was captured4#bdah ,in another passage ,marcellus recommends the drawing by a silver needle of threads of nine different colors other than black or white through the eyes of a new-born puppy before they open and ita ut per anum eius exeant1 after which the puppy is to be thrown into the river4#bdai ,but to return to our lizards4 ,for those suffering from liver complaint the liver of a lizard is to be extracted with the point of a reed and bound in purple or black cloth to the patient's right side or suspended from his arm1 while the lizard is to be dismissed alive with these words1 8,lo1 ,i send you away alive2 see to it that no one whom ,i touch henceforth has liver complaint40#bdbj ,to insure a wife's fidelity one touches her with the tip of a lizard's tail which has been cut off by the left hand4#bdba ,here again the lizard is released but apparently is not expected to survive for long1 since one is instructed to 8hold the tail shut in the palm of the same hand until it dies40 ,in a fourth example the lizard is neither mutilated nor released but hung in the doorway of a splenetic's bedroom where it will touch his head and left hand as he comes and goes4#bdbb ,sidenote3 ,use of stones and an herb4 ,one or two other prescriptions may be added where the procedure is connected with herbs or stones rather than with animals4 ,on entering a city one is advised to pick up some of the pebbles lying in the road before the city gate1 stating that they are being collected for headache4 ,then bind one of them on the head and throw the others behind your back without looking around4#bdbc ,a certain herb must be gathered on ,thursday in a waning moon4 ,when it is administered in drink1 the recipient must take it standing and facing the east4 ,he receives the cup from the right hand and then1 in order not to look back1 returns it to the left to him who gave it4 ,only these two persons should touch the drink4#bdbd ,sidenote3 ,right and left number4 ,right and left1 as just illustrated1 are much observed in ,marcellus' medicine4 ,when a tooth aches on the left side of the mouth1 a hot cooked dried bean is applied to the right elbow for three days1 a process which is reversed if the tooth is on the right side4#bdbe ,the following exercise recommended for a stiff neck would seem to stand more chance of success than most of ,marcellus' prescriptions4 ,while fasting the patient should spit on his right hand and rub his right thigh1 and then do the same with his left hand and thigh4 ,thrice repeated this is warranted to work an immediate cure4#bdbf ,a ring worn on the middle finger of the left hand is said to stop hiccough4#bdbg ,the power of the planets or of mere number is indicated in the advice1 given several times1 to make seven knots in a string4#bdbh ,once instructions are given to make as many knots as there are letters in the patient's name4#bdbi ,sidenote3 ,incantations and characters4 ,incantations and characters1 as has already been incidentally illustrated1 abound in ,marcellus' pages4 ,some are in ,greek1 some in ,latin1 some perhaps in ,celtic2 many1 as we have seen1 are coherent statements1 commands1 or requests2 many others are to all appearance a jargon of meaningless words1 like the jingle1 ,argidam1 margidam1 sturgidam1#bdcj which is to be repeated seven times on ,tuesday and ,thursday in a waning moon to cure toothache4 ,marcellus well calls one of these carmen idioticum4#bdca ,for stomach and intestinal troubles he recommends pressing the abdomen with the left thumb and saying1 8,adam1 bedam1 alam1 betur1 alem1 botum40 ,this is to be repeated nine times1 then one touches the earth with the same thumb and spits1 then says the charm nine more times1 and again for a third series of nine1 touching the ground and spitting nine times also4 ,alabanda1 alabandi1 alambo is another incantation1 variously repeated thrice with hands clasped above and below the abdomen4 ,yet another consists in rubbing the abdomen with the left thumb and two little fingers and saying1 8,a tree stood in the middle of the sea and there hung an urn full of human intestines2 three virgins went around it1 two make it fast1 one revolves it40 ,as you repeat this thrice1 you touch the ground thrice and spit1 but if the charm is for veterinary purposes1 for the words 8human intestines0 should be substituted 8the intestines of mules0 or horses or asses as the case may be4#bdcb ,the following is a specimen of the characters prescribed by ,marcellus3#bdcc ,sidenote3 ,the art of medicine survives the barbarian invasions4 ,it is perhaps worth while to point out in concluding this chapter that apparently at no time during the period of barbarian invasions and early medieval centuries did medical practice or literature cease entirely in the west4 ,we have seen that there is reason to suspect that portions of the work ascribed to ,marcellus may be contributions of the centuries following him1 and that there were early medieval ,latin translations of the works of ,oribasius and ,alexander of ,tralles4 ,furthermore1 the laws of the ,german kingdoms1 the allusions of contemporary chroniclers and men of letters1 the advice of ,gregory the ,great to a sick archbishop to seek medical assistance1 and many other bits of evidence#bdcd show that physicians were fairly numerous and in good repute1 and that medieval ,christians at no time depended entirely upon the healing virtues of relics of the saints or other miraculous powers credited to the church or divine answer to prayer4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,pseudo-,,literature ,,in ,,natural ,,science ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,ages ,general character--,medicine of ,pliny--,herbarium of ,apuleius--,specimens of its occult science--,a 8,precantation of all herbs0--,other treatises accompanying the ,herbarium--,cosmography of ,aethicus--,its medieval influence--,character of the work--,its attitude to marvels--,the ,geoponica--,magic and astrology therein--,dioscorides--,textual history of the ,de materia medica--,alterations made in the ,greek text--,dioscorides little known to ,latins before the middle ages--,partial versions in ,latin--,de herbis femininis--,the fuller ,latin versions--,peter of ,abano's account of the medieval versions--,pseudo-,dioscorides on stones--,conclusions from the textual history of ,dioscorides--,macer on herbs2 its great currency--,problem of date and author--,virtues ascribed to herbs--,experiments of ,macer4 ,sidenote3 ,general character4 ,a class of writings which seems to have been very characteristic of the waning culture of the declining ,roman ,empire and the scanty erudition of the early medieval period were the brief epitomes of1 or disorderly collections of fragments from1 the writers of the classical period4 ,such works often passed under the name of some famous author of the previous period and sometimes are more or less based upon his writings4 ,most of the works in the field of natural science are of such derivative or pseudo-authorship3 the ,medicine of the ,pseudo-,pliny1 the ,herbarium of the ,pseudo-,apuleius1 the geographical work ascribed to ,aethicus1 the ,geoponica1 the treatises on herbs attributed to ,macer and ,dioscorides4 ,indeed1 the whole textual history of the latter's ,de materia medica is so full of vicissitudes and uncertainties that ,i have postponed its treatment until this chapter4 ,the names of the actual compilers or abbreviators of these works are usually unknown and it is also usually impossible to date them with any approach to accuracy4 ,roughly speaking of them as a whole1 they may be said to have gradually taken on their present form at almost any time between the third and tenth centuries4 ,in the case of these works of natural science at least1 it is not quite fair to class them all as brief epitomes or disorderly collections4 ,in some we see an obvious attempt to rearrange the old materials in a form more convenient for present use4 ,in others to the stage of abbreviation from ancient authors has succeeded another stage of later additions from other sources4 ,sidenote3 ,medicine of ,pliny4 ,the ,medicina1 or ,art of ,medicine1 of the ,pseudo-,pliny#bdce consists of three books in which medical passages1 drawn from ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 are rearranged according to diseases instead of1 as in the genuine ,pliny1 by simples4 ,the first two books deal with diseases of the human body in descending order from top to toe and from headache to gout1 a favorite arrangement throughout the course of medieval medicine4 ,the last book then considers afflictions which are not necessarily connected with any particular part of the body1 such as wounds and fevers4 ,thus this compilation attests ,pliny's medieval influence and the practical use made of his work1 while it of course continues much of his medical magic and superstition4 ,the compiler's rearrangement is an essential one1 if the medical recommendations of the ,natural ,history were to be made available for ready reference4 ,in this case1 therefore1 the epitomizer has rather improved upon than disordered the arrangement of the original4 ,this compilation is believed to have been used by ,marcellus ,empiricus1 and a ,letter of ,plinius ,secundus to his friends about medicine1 which ,marcellus gives along with other medical epistles1 is thought to be the preface of the abbreviator1 who in that case depicts himself as composing his volume so that his friends and himself when traveling may avoid the payment of exorbitant fees asked by strange physicians4 ,if we can regard everything in the work of ,marcellus as we have it as having been written by #djj1 the ,medicine of ,pliny must have been written during the declining ,roman ,empire4 ,the manuscripts used by ,rose in his edition were of the tenth and twelfth centuries4 ,there is also a later version of the ,medicine of ,pliny in five books1#bdcf of which the two last are entirely new additions1 the fifth being an extract from the old ,latin translation of ,alexander of ,tralles4 ,and in the first three books the earlier ,pseudo-,pliny has been worked over with additions4 ,the ,pseudo-,pliny is also embodied with alterations and accompanied by some prayers and incantations in a tenth century manuscript at ,st4 ,gall4#bdcg ,sidenote3 ,the ,herbarium of ,apuleius4 ,several works besides the six commonly regarded as genuine#bdch were attributed to ,apuleius in the middle ages1 grammatical#bdci and rhetorical#bddj treatises1 the ,hermetic ,asclepius1#bdda a treatise on physiognomy1#bddb and the very widespread ,sphere of ,life and ,death1 of which we shall treat in another chapter4#bddc ,we shall now consider the ,herbarium of ,apuleius1#bddd the one of his spurious works1 which has most to do with the world of nature1 and1 with the exception of the brief ,sphere1 the one which occurs most often in the manuscripts4 ,the ,herbarium was first printed about #adhj by the physician of ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv from a manuscript at ,monte ,cassino1 and then1 after various other editions1 was included in #aedg in the collection of ancient ,latin medical writers issued by the ,aldine ,press4 ,we are told1 however1 that with the close of the fifteenth century the ,apuleius began to be superseded by ,german herbals4 ,the medieval manuscripts of the ,herbarium are often noteworthy for their illuminations of the herbs in vivid colors4 ,those of the mandragora root are especially interesting1 showing it as a man standing on the back of a dog or a human form with leaves growing on the head and led by a dog chained to his waist4#bdde ,the oldest manuscripts are of the sixth century1 and there are some in ,anglo-,saxon1 but as one would expect1 the work underwent many additions and alterations1 and different manuscripts of it vary considerably4 ,the author is usually spoken of as ,apuleius the ,platonist and is sometimes said to have received his work from the centaur ,chiron1 the master of ,achilles1 and from ,esculapius4#bddf ,sidenote3 ,specimens of its occult science4 ,in the ,herbarium the plants are listed and described and their virtues1 especially medicinal1 stated4 ,usually the names for each herb in several languages or regions are given--,latin1 ,greek1 ,punic1 ,biblical 7by the ,prophets71 ,egyptian1 ,syrian1 ,gallic1 ,dacian1 ,spanish1 ,phrygian1 ,tuscan4 ,by no means all of these are listed in every case1 however4 ,the virtues of the herbs often operate in an occult manner1 or procedure suggestive of magic is involved in collecting or applying them4 ,often diseases are cured merely by holding an herb in the hand1 wearing it with a string about the neck1 or placing it behind one ear1 or wearing it in a ring4 ,lunatics1 for example1 are treated by binding an herb about the neck with red cloth when the moon is waxing in the sign of the bull or the first part of the scorpion4 ,not only does observance of astrology assist the medicinal application of herbs2 plants are in turn of assistance in the pursuit of astrology4 ,to learn under the rule of what star you are1 be in a state of purity1 pluck the herb ,montaster1 keep it in a bit of clean linen until you find a whole grain of wheat in a loaf of bread1 then place this with the herb under your pillow and pray to the seven planets to reveal your guardian star to you in your sleep4 ,indeed prayers and incantations are frequently employed and in one case must be repeated nine times4 ,sometimes the herb itself is addressed1 as in the conjuration1 8,herb ,erystion1 ,i implore you to aid me and cheerfully afford me all your virtues and cure and make whole all those ills which ,aesculapius and ,chiron the centaur1 masters of medicine1 healed by means of you40 ,sometimes the earth is conjured as in the prayer beginning1 8,holy goddess ,earth40 ,such prayers are scarcely consonant with ,christianity and in some manuscripts have been omitted and replaced by the ,lord's ,prayer or other ,christian forms1 or left in with their wording slightly altered to avoid paganism4#bddg ,personal purity and clean clothing are often enjoined upon those gathering the herbs and such instructions are added as to mark the circle about the plant with gold1 silver1 ivory1 the tooth of a wild boar1 and the horn of a bull1 or to fill the hole with honeyed fruits4 ,some herbs protect their bearers from all serpents or even from all evils4 ,others1 like asparagus if you use a dry root of it to sprinkle the patient with spring water1 break the spell of witchcraft4 ,asparagus is also beneficial for toothache and wonderfully relieves a tumor or bladder trouble1 if it is boiled in water and drunk by the patient fasting for seven days and also used in bathing for a number of days4 ,but one must be careful not to go out in the cold during this time nor to take cold drinks4#bddh ,sidenote3 ,a 8,precantation of ,all ,herbs40 ,in some manuscripts a 8,precantation of all herbs0 is placed at the beginning of the treatise4#bddi ,it prescribes such procedure as holding a mirror over the herb before plucking it before sunrise under a waning moon4 ,the person plucking the herb and uttering the incantation must be barefoot1 ungirded1 chaste1 and wear no ring4 ,the plant is adjured not only 8by the living ,god0 and 8the holy name of ,god1 ,sabaoth10 but also by ,seia1 the ,roman goddess of sowing1 and by 8,,gs10 which presumably stands for ,gaia ,seia1 an expression which is once written out in full4 ,some meaningless words are also repeated4 ,sidenote3 ,other treatises accompanying the ,herbarium4 ,the ,herbarium is often accompanied in the manuscripts by other treatises on herbs ascribed to ,dioscorides and ,macer1 of which we shall speak presently2 by a work on the medicinal properties of animals1 or more particularly of quadrupeds1 by ,sextus ,papirius ,placidus#bdej ,actor#bdea--;an otherwise quite unknown personage2#bdeb by a 8letter concerning a little beast0 from the king of ,egypt or ,aesculapius to the emperor ,octavian ,augustus2#bdec and by introductory letters1 such as we find prefaced to the ,de medicamentis of ,marcellus ,empiricus1 of 8,hippocrates to his ,moecenas0#bded and 8,antonius ,musus to ,moecenas ,agrippa40 ,the epistle of the ,egyptian king or ,aesculapius to ,augustus1 however1 really forms the introduction or opening chapter to the treatise of ,sextus ,papirius ,placidus on the medicinal properties of animals1 and after the little beast or quadruped called mela or taxo#bdee follow fast the stag1 serpent1 fox1 hare1 scorpion1 and so forth4 ,as for the taxo1 ,augustus is told that by means of it he can protect himself from sorcerers1 avoid defections in his army1 and preserve his troops from the pestilence which the barbarians bring1 and the city of ,rome from both pestilences and fires4 ,to this end a lustration should be performed with its flesh1 and it should then be buried at the city gates4 ,one way to appropriate its virtue is to extract its large teeth1 repeating a jargon of strange words the while4 ,sidenote3 ,cosmography of ,aethicus4 ,another characteristic product of declining antique learning and of early medieval effort is found in the field of geography in the ,cosmography of ,aethicus ,istricus1 translated into ,latin by the priest ,jerome 7,hieronymus ,presbyter74 ,the oldest manuscript is one of the eighth century in the ,british ,museum1#bdef where it is also found in several other fairly early manuscripts#bdeg in the respectable company of ,vitruvius1 ,vegetius1 ,sallust1 and ,suetonius1#bdeh as well as with the more congenial work of ,solinus4 ,this ,cosmographia was not printed until #aheb1 when it was edited at ,paris by ,m4 d',avezac and again in #ahed at ,leipzig by ,m4 ,h4 ,wuttke4 ,it is an entirely different work from what had hitherto been repeatedly printed as the ,cosmography of ,aethicus but is really to be identified with fragments of ,julian ,honorius and ,orosius4 ,the ,latin translator of our treatise had been identified in the middle ages with ,st4 ,jerome1 the church father1 and ,wuttke still ascribed it to him1 but ,bunbury protested against this1#bdei and ,mommsen placed our treatise not earlier than the seventh century4#bdfj ,sidenote3 ,its medieval influence ,bunbury added1 however1 that the ,cosmography 8appears to have been much read in the middle ages1 and is therefore not without literary interest40 ,the apparent greatness of the names on the title page seems to have given the middle ages an exaggerated notion of the work's importance4 ,aethicus himself is spoken of as from ,istria and according to the ,explicit of at least one manuscript#bdfa was a ,scythian1 but this does not mean that his attitude towards learning was that of a ,hun1 for the same ,explicit goes on to inform us that he was of noble lineage and1 if ,i correctly interpret the faulty syntax of its ,latin1 that from him the ethical philosophy of other sages drew its origins4 ,somewhat later ,roger ,bacon said in discussing faults in the study of theology in his day1 8,from the authorities of the philosophers whom the saints cite ,i shall abstain1 except that ,i will strengthen the utterances of ,ethicus the astronomer and ,alchimus the philosopher by the authority of the blessed ,jerome1 since no one could credit that they had said so many marvelous things about ,christ and the angels and demons and men who are to be glorified or damned unless ,jerome or some other saint proved that they had said so40#bdfb ,sidenote3 ,character of the work4 ,as ,bacon's words indicate1 ,christian influence is manifest in the ,cosmography1 although1 as they also indicate1 the original ,aethicus is not supposed to have been a ,christian1 but1 as one manuscript informs us1 an ,academic philosopher4#bdfc ,oriental influence1 too1 is perhaps shown in flights of poetical language and unrestrained imagination1 in a number of allusions to ,alexander the ,great1 and in an extraordinary ignorance of early ,roman history which leads the author to tell how ,romulus invaded ,pannonia and fought against the ,lacedaemonians4 8,how great carnage10 he exclaims1 8in ,lacedaemonia1 ,noricum and ,pannonia1 ,istria and ,albania1 northern regions near my home1 first at the hands of the ,romans and the tyrant ,numitor1 then under the brothers ,romulus and ,remus1 and later under the first ,tarquin1 the ,proud40 ,the author eulogizes ,athens as well as ,alexander1 and mentions a people called ,turchi1 but whether or not he has ,turks in mind would be hard to say4 ,sidenote3 ,its attitude to marvels4 ,as we have it1 the ,cosmography cites both the ,ethicus and the ,alchimus to whom ,roger ,bacon referred4 ,indeed1 our treatise does not pretend to be the original work of ,aethicus1 which it repeatedly cites1 but is apparently the work of some epitomizer or abbreviator who intersperses remarks and comments of his own1 and1 according to one manuscript1 makes the statements of ,aethicus conform to ,christian ,scripture4 ,from the volumes of the original work he makes only a few excerpts1 professing to omit what is unheard of or unknown or seems too formidable1 and including only with hesitancy a few bits concerning unknown races on the testimony of hearsay4 ,the enigmas of ,aethicus and other philosophers often give our abbreviator pause1 and he regards as incredible the story of ,aethicus that the ,amazons nurse young minotaurs and centaurs who fight for them in return4 ,aethicus also tells of the wonderful armor of the ,amazons which they treat with bitumen and the blood of their own offspring4 ,in ,crete ,aethicus found herbs unknown in other lands which ward off famine4 ,very beautiful gems are mentioned1 including those extracted from the brains of immense dragons and basilisks1 but little is said of their virtues1 occult or otherwise4 ,indeed1 the amount either of specific information or specific misinformation in the book is very scanty4 ,it deals largely in uncouth rhetoric1 glittering generalities1 and obscure allusion anent the wanderings of ,aethicus over the face of the earth and the strange marvels which he encountered in distant lands4 ,he is described as well versed in astrology and as reproving the astrologers of ,scythia787 and ,mantua7871 and one passage vaguely speaks of the stars as signs of the present and future2 but otherwise the abbreviator gives little evidence of knowledge of the subject1 although ,roger ,bacon#bdfd cited ,ethicus ,astronomicus in ,cosmographia as one of his authorities when discussing the question of ,jesus ,christ's nativity and its relation to the stars1 and although ,pico della ,mirandola ranked the ,cosmography as one of the most absurd of astrological works4#bdfe ,as for magic1 in one passage malefici and magi are censured along with idolaters1 and the author presently speaks of vain characters and superstitious doctrines4 ,but elsewhere a magician 7,pirronius magus7 is named as the inventor of ships and discoverer of purple4 ,on the whole1 in its loose and hazy way the ,cosmography not only is romantic and religious enough to appeal to medieval readers1 it also is of a character to offer encouragement1 if not data1 to a later and more detailed interest in alchemy1 occult virtues1 astrology1 and magic4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,geoponica4 ,upon the subject of agriculture in the early middle ages we have the collection known as the ,geoponica4 ,it properly belongs to ,byzantine literature and perhaps had little direct influence upon western ,europe4 ,nevertheless at least a portion of it upon vineyards was translated into ,latin by ,burgundio of ,pisa in the twelfth century4#bdff ,in any case as the 8only formal treatise on ,greek agriculture0 extant it is a rather important historical source2 it also is a good specimen of early medieval compilations from classical works2 and in its inclusion of superstitious and magical details it is probably roughly representative of the period1 whether in east or west4 ,in the form which we now possess it was published about #iej ,a4 ,d4 and dedicated to the ,byzantine emperor1 ,constantine ,,vii or ,porphyrygennetos4 ,but this issue was perhaps little more than an abbreviated revision of the work of ,cassianus ,bassus of the sixth century1 whose introductory words to his son are still given at the beginning of the seventh book4 ,cassianus is believed in his turn to have been especially indebted to two fourth century writers1 ,vindanius ,anatolius of ,beirut1 whose agricultural teaching was of a sober and rational sort1 and ,didymus of ,alexandria1 who was more given to superstition and magic4#bdfg ,sidenote3 ,magic and astrology therein4 ,nevertheless1 magic and astrology find no place in the index to the most recent edition of the work4#bdfh ,a survey1 however1 of the text itself reveals some indications of the presence of both4 ,the very first of its twenty books deals with astrological prediction of the weather and cites some spurious work or works by ,zoroaster a great deal4 ,in later books1 too1 ,zoroaster is sometimes cited for semi-astrological advice1 such as guarding wine jars against sun or moon-beams when opening them1 or testing seed by exposing it to the rays of the dog-star4#bdfi ,zoroaster is also used as an authority on the sympathy and antipathy existing between natural objects4#bdgj ,damigeron and ,democritus are other names cited which are suggestive of the occult and magical4#bdga ,there are not1 however1 many cases of extreme superstition in the ,geoponica4 ,something is said of the marvelous properties of gems1 of the effect of a hyena's shadow falling upon a dog by moonlight1 and how dogs will not attack a person who holds a hyena's tongue in his hand4#bdgb ,incantations of a sort are occasionally recommended4#bdgc ,to keep wine from turning sour one is directed to write the divine words1 8,taste and see that the ,lord is good0 upon the wine-jar4#bdgd ,another passage advises a person who finds himself in a place full of fleas to cry1 8,ouch6 ,ouch60 and then they will not bite him4#bdge ,sidenote3 ,dioscorides4 ,perhaps the chief ancient work on pharmacology was the ,de materia medica or of ,pedanius ,dioscorides of ,anazarba4 ,galen1 as we have seen1 found things to criticize in it but nevertheless made great use of it in his own work on medicinal simples4 ,dioscorides of course had his previous sources but seems to have surpassed them in fulness and orderliness of arrangement4 ,of the man himself his preface tells us all that we know1 and his dedication shows that he probably wrote during the reign of ,nero4 ,he was born in ,cilicia near ,tarsus1 he had traveled in many lands as a soldier1 and his work was based partly upon personal observation and experience as well as previous books4 ,sidenote3 ,textual history of the ,de materia medica4 ,dioscorides' influence continued and even increased as time went on2 but if future centuries were deeply influenced by his book1 it was also seriously affected by them1 for it seems to have been subjected to a long series of repeated abbreviations and omissions1 additions and interpolations1 changes in form and in order4 ,thus all sorts of versions of what was called ,dioscorides came into being1 but which in some cases can hardly be regarded as more than compilations from all the favorite pharmacies of the time1 in which the genuine ,dioscorides constituted but a remnant or a core4 ,thus most early printed editions of what purports to be the ,de materia medica must be handled with great caution1 and it may perhaps be doubted if even the latest effort of ,max ,wellmann to recover the original ,greek text has been entirely successful4#bdgf ,of the five books regarded as genuine and original the first dealt with spices1 salves1 and oils2 the second1 with parts of animals and animal products like milk and honey1 with grains1 vegetables1 and pot-herbs4 ,other plants and roots were considered in the third and fourth books1 while the last dealt with wines and minerals4#bdgg ,sidenote3 ,alterations made in the ,greek text4 ,whether we now possess ,dioscorides' original text or not1 at any rate the oldest ,greek manuscripts do not contain it1 but only that portion dealing with herbs4 ,moreover1 this has been rearranged in alphabetical order and has been adapted to fit a set of pictures of plants which were perhaps taken over from the work of ,crateuas1 one of ,dioscorides' chief sources4 ,such is the famous early sixth century illuminated manuscript made for ,juliana ,anicia1 daughter of the emperor ,olybrius 7#dgb ,a4 ,d47 and wife of the consul ,areobindus 7about #eab ,a4 ,d474#bdgh ,the alphabetical rearrangement of the ,greek text of ,dioscorides was made at some time between ,galen and ,oribasius1 who cites from it in the fourth century4 ,not only were the five books of the genuine ,de materia medica interpolated1 but additional spurious books were added 8,on ,harmful ,drugs0 and 8,on ,poisons40#bdgi ,the work on medicinal simples attributed to ,dioscorides is extant in no manuscript earlier than the fourteenth century and some versions of it are much more interpolated than others4 ,as ,galen does not cite it while ,oribasius and ,atius do use it1 it is assumed that it was composed in the third or early fourth century with a forged dedication to a contemporary of ,dioscorides1 but that it made considerable use of the genuine ,dioscorides1 to which it bore much the same relation as the ,medicina ,plinii did to the ,historia ,naturalis4 ,later1 however1 some ,byzantine compiler of the eleventh1 twelfth1 or thirteenth century introduced a great deal of new material from ,galen's genuine and spurious works in that field and from ,john of ,damascus4#bdhj ,sidenote3 ,dioscorides little known to ,latins before the middle ages4 ,what more especially concern us are the medieval ,latin versions of ,dioscorides4 ,as a matter of fact1 although the ,de materia medica was from the start highly regarded and widely used by ,greek physicians1 it seems to have been little known to ,latin writers until the verge of the medieval period4 ,gargilius ,martialis1 a ,roman writer on agriculture in the third century of our era1 was the only old ,latin author to cite ,dioscorides1 which he did1 however1 no less than eighteen times in his ,medicinae ex oleribus et pomis4 ,this has led to the suggestion that he was perhaps responsible for the first ,latin translation or version of ,dioscorides2 but it seems unlikely that the work had been put into ,latin as early as his time1 since it is not cited again by a ,latin writer until the sixth century and is not used by such medical authors as ,serenus ,sammonicus1 ,cassius ,felix1 ,theodorus ,priscianus1 and ,marcellus ,empiricus4 ,sidenote3 ,partial versions in ,latin4 ,but at least a portion of ,dioscorides seems to have been translated into ,latin by the time of ,cassiodorus1 who1 writing in the first half of the sixth century1 states that those who cannot read ,greek may consult the ,herbarium ,dioscoridis4#bdha ,this naturally suggests a version limited to medicinal plants like the early ,greek text in the manuscript of ,juliana ,anicia4 ,this impression is confirmed by the preface to some early ,latin version of ,dioscorides1 which ,rose discovered in one of the manuscripts of the ,herbarium of ,apuleius in the ,british ,museum4#bdhb ,this preface implies that the translation which it introduced was limited to the botanical books of ,dioscorides and states that it was accompanied by illustrations of herbs4 ,sidenote3 ,de herbis femininis4 ,based upon this partial translation rather than identical with it is believed to have been the ,de herbis femininis1#bdhc which was ascribed to ,dioscorides in the middle ages and which often accompanies the ,herbarium of the ,pseudo-,apuleius in the manuscripts4 ,in this case the herbs of the ,pseudo-,apuleius are sometimes called masculine1 but as a matter of fact only a minority of those in the ,pseudo-,dioscorides seem to be distinctly feminine4 ,of seventy-one plants ,kaestner classed fifteen or sixteen as feminine1 while in only thirty cases are they prescribed for female complaints4 ,rose dated this work before ,isidore of ,seville by whom he believed it was used4#bdhd ,it seems to combine a free ,latin translation of excerpts from the genuine ,dioscorides with numerous additions from other sources4 ,sidenote3 ,the fuller ,latin versions4 ,besides such abbreviated and interpolated ,latin versions or perversions of ,dioscorides1 there was also in existence in the early middle ages a literal translation of all five books of the ,de materia medica4 ,it is full of ,latinisms and barbarisms but otherwise reproduces the complete and genuine ,dioscorides1 or is supposed to do so4 ,rose and ,wellmann#bdhe say that it was current from the sixth century on1 and the few extant manuscripts of it date from the early medieval period4#bdhf ,one reason for this seems to be that this literal translation was replaced by another ,latin version which in a ,bamberg manuscript#bdhg is ascribed to ,constantinus ,africanus1 the medical translator and writer of the eleventh century4 ,in this version the items are arranged alphabetically1 and additions are embodied from other sources4 ,this version apparently became much better known than the earlier literal translation and has been called 8the most widely disseminated handbook of pharmacy of the whole later middle ages40#bdhh ,it is stated by ,rose to be identical with the 8,dyascorides10 upon which ,peter of ,abano lectured and commented about #acjj and which was printed at ,colle in #adgh and again at ,lyons in #aeab4bdhi ,sidenote3 ,peter of ,abano's account of the medieval versions4 ,peter of ,abano tells us in his preface#bdij that in his time there were current two different versions1 although both had the same preface4 ,one of these was in five books with a great many short chapters1 so short in fact that often the treatment of a single thing was scattered over several chapters4 ,this version was rare in ,latin4 ,the other version contained fewer but longer chapters with material added from ,galen1 ,pliny1 and other writers4 ,this version was arranged alphabetically4 ,it was this version which ,aggregator#bdia had followed and imitated1 but sometimes there were chapters in either 8,dyascorides0 which were missing in ,aggregator4 ,peter had also seen an alphabetical version of ,dioscorides in ,greek4 ,sidenote3 ,pseudo-,dioscorides on stones4 ,there seems also to have been current1 at least in the later middle ages1 a ,pseudo-,dioscorides on stones1 drawn in part1 like the ,feminine ,herbs1 from the genuine ,de materia medica1 whose discussion of the virtues of stones is incredible enough4#bdib ,this ,dioscorides on ,stones is cited by ,arnold of ,saxony and ,bartholomew of ,england in the thirteenth century1 and portions at least of the work are extant in manuscripts at ,erfurt and ,montpellier4#bdic ,a work on physical ligatures is ascribed to ,dioscorides in a late manuscript1#bdid but is really a collection of items from various authors since ,dioscorides on the marvelous virtues of animals1 herbs1 and stones1 especially when bound on the body1 held in the hand1 or worn around the neck4 ,sidenote3 ,conclusions from the textual history of ,dioscorides4 ,the history of the medieval versions of ,dioscorides1 even in the brief and incomplete outline given here1 is instructive1 showing us in general the vicissitudes to which the transmission of the text of any ancient author may have been subjected1 but more especially proving that the middle ages1 whether ,latin or ,byzantine1 were ready to take great liberties with ancient authorities and to adapt them to their own taste and requirements4 ,and indeed1 why should they not rearrange and make additions to their ,dioscorides8 ,after all it was a compilation to begin with4 ,but the case of ,dioscorides has also taught us that we do not have to wait until the medieval period for the appearance of new versions of an ancient author4 ,sidenote3 ,macer on herbs2 its great currency4 ,with the possible exception of the ,herbarium of the ,pseudo-,apuleius1 probably the best known single and distinct treatment of the virtues of herbs produced during the middle ages was the poem ,de viribus herbarum which circulated under the name of ,macer ,floridus4#bdie ,it was often cited by the medieval encyclopedists and other writers on nature and medicine in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4#bdif ,it is found in an ,anglo-,saxon version#bdig and was even translated into ,danish in the early thirteenth century4#bdih ,manuscripts of it are very numerous#bdii and there are many early printed editions4#bejj ,even as recently as the first half of the nineteenth century a historian of medicine and natural science1 in the preface of his edition of ,macer1 stated as one argument for the modern study of medieval medicine that much might be learned from writings of that period concerning the virtues of herbs4#beja ,sidenote3 ,problem of date and author ,the poem was certainly not written by the classical poet1 ,aemilius ,macer1 who was a friend of ,vergil and ,ovid1 and whose descriptions of plants1 birds1 and reptiles are cited by ,pliny in his ,natural ,history and also preserved in some extracts by the grammarians4 ,proof of this is that our poem cites ,pliny2 in fact1 it cites him more frequently than any other author4 ,it also cites ,galen six times1 ,dioscorides four1 and as late an author as ,oribasius twice4#bejb ,but ,oribasius is not the latest author cited since ,walafrid ,strabo is also used4#bejc ,strabo was born about #hjf1 became abbot of ,reichenau in #hdb1 and died in #hdi4 ,in his ,hortulus1 a poem dedicated to ,grimoald1 the abbot of ,st4 ,gall1 he described twenty-three herbs in #ddd hexameters4#bejd ,indeed ,stadler holds that the ,pseudo-,macer uses the ,de gradibus of ,constantinus ,africanus who did not die until #ajhg4beje ,the true author of our poem ascribed to ,macer is said on the authority of certain manuscripts to have been an ,odo of ,meung on the ,loire1 apparently the same town as the birthplace of ,jean ,clopinel or de ,meun1 the learned author of the latter portion of ,the ,romance of the ,rose4 ,choulant1 however1 did not regard this as sufficiently proved1 and ,stadler has recently noted that some manuscripts ascribe the poem to a physician1 ,odo of ,verona2 and others to the ,cistercian1 ,odo of ,morimont1 who died in #aafa4bejf ,in any case1 unless the mentions of ,strabo are later interpolations1 the author must be regarded as post-,carolingian1 while he cannot be later than the eleventh century in view of a remark of ,sigebertus ,gemblacensis in #aaab1bejg the ,anglo-,saxon version1 the many twelfth century manuscripts1 and the frequent use of his poem in the ,regimen ,salernitanum4#bejh ,although ,macer seems a pseudonym to begin with1 the original poem1 consisting of #bbfi lines in which #gg herbs are discussed1 is sometimes accompanied by additional lines regarded as spurious4#beji ,sidenote3 ,virtues ascribed to herbs4 ,our poet does not appear to have much of his own to offer on the subject of the virtues of herbs4 ,when he does not cite his authority by name1 he usually qualifies the statement made by a vaguer 8they say0 or 8it is said40 ,he does not connect certain herbs with certain stars or otherwise introduce anything that can be called astrological4 ,he repeats ,pliny's statement of the powers ascribed to vervain by the magi1 such as to gain one's desires1 win the friendship of the powerful1 and dispel disease and fever4 ,pliny had spoken of the magi as 8raving about this herb02 our poet says3 8,although potent ,nature can grant such virtues1 ,yet they really seem to us idle old-wives' tales40#beaj ,nevertheless he himself about fifteen lines before had said of the vervain3 8,if1 holding this herb in the hand1 you ask the patient1 #8,say1 brother1 how are you8' and the patient answers1 #8,well1' ,he will live2 but if he says #8,ill1' there is no hope of safety40#beaa ,our poet not only thus associates with herbs the virtue of divination1 but is guilty of sympathetic magic when he believes that the ancients learned by experience that ,dragontea or snake-weed dispels poisons1 wards off snakes1 and is good for snake-bite from observing the similarity between the spotted rind of the herb and the skin of a snake4#beab ,odo or ,macer repeats ,galen's story of curing an epileptic boy by suspending a root of peony about his neck1#beac and later asserts the same virtue for the herb pyrethrum4#bead ,even more magical is the ceremony for curing toothache which he takes from ,pliny and which consists in digging up the herb ,senecion without use of iron1 touching the aching tooth with it three times1 and then replacing the plant in the place where it came from so that it will grow again4#beae ,pliny is also cited concerning the swallow's restoring the sight of its young by swallow-wort4#beaf ,our poet also repeats such beliefs as that the herb ,buglossa preserves the memory1#beag or that the smoke of ,aristochia dispels demons and exhilarates infants4#beah ,if the hives are anointed with the juice of the herb ,barrocus1 the bees will not desert them2 while carrying that plant with one is a protection against the stings of bees1 wasps1 and spiders4#beai ,among the virtues most frequently attributed to herbs are expelling or killing worms1 curing pestiferous bites or poisons1 and provoking urine or vomiting4 ,on the whole1 8,macer0 contains only a moderate amount of superstition1 although rather more proportionally than ,walafrid ,strabo4 ,sidenote3 ,experiments of ,macer4 ,although ,odo or ,macer seems to make no original contribution to botany1 cites authorities frequently1 and speaks often of the ancients or men of old1 he also at least once cites 8experts0#bebj and we have also seen his belief that the ancients had tested the virtues of plants by experience4 ,this rather slight experimental character of the work is further emphasized in some manuscripts of it1 where the title is 8,experiments of ,macer0 and the matter seems to have been rearranged under diseases instead of by herbs4#beba ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,other ,,early ,,medieval ,,learning3 ,,boethius1 ,,isidore1 ,,bede1 ,,gregory ,,the ,,great ,aridity of early medieval learning--,historic importance of ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy--,medieval reading--,influence of the works of ,boethius--,his relation to antiquity and middle ages--,attitude to the stars--,fate and free will--,music of the stars and universe--,isidore of ,seville--,method of the ,etymologies--,its sources--,natural marvels--,isidore is rather less hospitable to superstition than ,pliny--,portent--,words and numbers--,history of magic--,definition of magic--,future influence of ,isidore's account of magic--,attitude to astrology--,in the ,de natura rerum--,bede's scanty science--,bede's ,de natura rerum--,divination by thunder--,riddles of ,aldhelm--,gregory's ,dialogues--,signs and wonders wrought by saints--,more monkish miracles--,a monastic snake-charmer--,basilius the magician--,a demon salad--,incantations in ,old ,irish--,the ,fili4 ,sidenote3 ,aridity of early medieval learning4 ,the erudite fortitude of students of the ,merovingian period commands our admiration1 but sometimes inclines us to wonder whether anyone without a somewhat dry-as-dust constitution could penetrate far or tarry long in the desert of early medieval ,latin learning without perishing of intellectual thirst4 ,as a rule the writings of the time show no originality whatever1 and least of all any scientific investigation2 they are of value merely as an indication of what past books men still read and what parts of past science they still possessed some interest in4 ,under the same category of condemnation may be placed most of the ,carolingian period so far as our investigation is concerned4 ,we shall therefore traverse rapidly this period of sparse scientific productivity and shall be doing it ample justice1 if from its meager list of writers we select for consideration ,boethius of ,italy at the opening of the sixth century and ,gregory the ,great at its close1 ,isidore of ,spain at the opening of the seventh century1 and ,bede in ,england at the beginning of the eighth century1 with some brief allusion to the riddles of ,aldhelm1 bishop of ,sherborne1 and to ,old ,irish literature4 ,we should gain little or nothing by adding to the list ,alcuin at the close of the eighth century and ,rabanus ,maurus in the ninth century1 although it may be noted now that later medieval writers cite ,rabanus for statements which ,i have failed to find in his printed works4 ,in general it may be said that the writers whom we shall consider are those during the period who are most cited by the later medieval authors4 ,sidenote3 ,historic importance of ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy4 ,of the distinguished family and political career of ,boethius who lived from about #dhj to #ebd ,a4 ,d41 and his final exile1 imprisonment1 and execution by ,theodoric the ,east ,goth1 we need scarcely speak here4 ,our concern is with his little book1 ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy1 one of those memorable writings which1 like ,the ,city of ,god of ,augustine1 stand out as historical landmarks and seem to have been written on the right subject by the right man at the most dramatic moment4 ,the timely appearance of such works1 produced in both these cases not under the stimulus of triumphant victory but the sting of bitter defeat1 is nevertheless perhaps less surprising than is their subsequent preservation and enormous influence4 ,we often are alternately amused and amazed by the mistakes concerning historical and chronological detail found in medieval writers4 ,yet medieval readers showed considerable appreciation of the course of history1 of its fundamental tendencies1 and of its crucial moments by the works which they included in their meager libraries4 ,sidenote3 ,medieval reading4 ,but were medieval libraries as meager as we are wont to assume8 ,bede and ,alcuin both tell of the existence of sizeable libraries in ,england1#bebb and ,cassiodorus urged those monks whose duty it was to tend the sick to read a number of standard medical works4#bebc ,i sometimes wonder if too much attention has not been given to medieval writing and too little to medieval reading1 of which so much medieval writing1 in ,latin at least1 is little more than a reflection4 ,we get their image1 faint perhaps and partial2 but they had the real object4 ,it has been assumed by some modern scholars that medieval writers had usually not read the works1 especially of classical antiquity1 which they profess to cite and quote1 but relied largely upon anthologies and florilegia4 ,in the case of various later medieval authors we shall have occasion to discuss this question further4 ,for the present ,i may say that in going through the catalogues of collections of medieval manuscripts ,i have noticed few florilegia or anthologies from the classics in medieval ,latin manuscripts1--perhaps ,byzantine ones from ,greek literature are more common--and few indeed compared to the number of manuscripts of the old ,latin writers themselves4 ,we owe the very preservation of the ,latin classics to medieval scribes who copied them in the ninth and tenth centuries2 why deny that they read them8 ,latin florilegia of any sort do not exist in impressive numbers1 but other kinds are as often met with as are those from classic poets or prose writers1 for instance1 selections from the church fathers themselves4 ,on the whole1 the impression ,i have received is that those authors included in florilegia1 commonplace books1 and other manuscripts made up of miscellaneous extracts1 were likewise the authors most read in toto4 ,i am therefore inclined to regard the florilegia as a proof that the authors included were read rather than that they were not4 ,but from extant ,latin manuscripts one gets the impression that the whole matter of florilegia is of very slight importance1 and that the theory hitherto based upon them is a survival of the prejudice of the classical renaissance against 8the dark ages40 ,sidenote3 ,influence of the works of ,boethius4 ,at any rate1 however scanty medieval libraries may have been1 they were apt to include a copy of ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy1 and however little read some of their volumes may have been1 its pages were certainly well thumbed4 ,lists of its commentators1 translators1 and imitators1 and other indications of its vast medieval influence may be found in ,peiper's edition4#bebd ,other writings of ,boethius were also well known in the middle ages and increased his reputation then4 ,his translations and commentaries upon the ,aristotelian logical treatises#bebe are of course of great importance in the history of medieval scholasticism4 ,his translations and adaptations of ,greek treatises in arithmetic1 geometry1 and music occupy a similar place in the history of medieval mathematical studies4#bebf ,indeed1 his treatise on music is said to have 8continued to be the staple requisite for the musical degree at ,oxford until far into the eighteenth century40#bebg ,the work on the ,trinity and some other theological tracts1 attributed to ,boethius by ,cassiodorus and through the middle ages1 are now again accepted as genuine by modern scholars and place ,boethius' ,christianity beyond question4#bebh ,sidenote3 ,his relation to antiquity and middle ages4 ,boethius has often been regarded as a last representative of ,roman statesmanship and of classical civilization4 ,his defense of ,roman provincials against the greed of the ,goths1 his stand even unto death against ,theodoric on behalf of the rights of the ,roman senate and people1 his preservation through translation of the learned treatises of expiring antiquity1 and the almost classical ,latin style and numerous allusions to pagan mythology of ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy3--all these combine to support this view4 ,but the middle ages also made ,boethius their own1 and several points may be noted in which ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy in particular foreshadowed their attitude and profoundly influenced them4 ,both a ,christian and a classicist1 both a theologian and a philosopher1 ,boethius set a standard which subsequent thought was to follow for a long time4 ,the very form of his work1 a dialogue part in prose and part in verse1 remained a medieval favorite4 ,and the fact that this sixth century author of a work on the ,trinity consoled his last hours with a work in which ,christ and the ,trinity are not mentioned1 but where ,phoebus is often named and where ,philosophy is the author's sole interlocutor3--this fact1 combined with ,boethius' great medieval popularity1 gave perpetual license to those medieval writers who chose to discuss philosophy and theology as separate subjects and from distinct points of view4 ,the great medieval influence of ,aristotle and ,plato1 and in particular of the latter's ,timaeus1 also is already manifest in ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy4 ,aristotle1 it is true1 appears to be incorrectly credited by ,boethius with the assertion that the eye of the lynx can see through solid objects1#bebi but this ascription of spurious statements to the ,stagirite also corresponds to the attribution of entire spurious treatises to him later in the middle ages4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude to the stars4 ,of the ways in which ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy influenced medieval thought that which is most germane to our investigation is its attitude toward the stars and the problem of fate and free will4 ,the heavenly bodies are apparently ever present in ,boethius' thought in this work1 and especially in the poetical interludes he keeps mentioning ,phoebus1 the moon1 the universe1 the sky1 and the starry constellations4 ,per ardua ad astra was a true saying for those last days in which he solaced his disgrace and pain with philosophy4 ,it is by contemplation of the heavens that he raises his thought to lofty philosophic reflection2 his mind may don swift wings and fly far above earthly things 8,until it reaches starry mansions ,and joins paths with ,phoebus40#becj ,he loves to think of ,god as ruling the universe by perpetual reason and certain order1 as sowing stars in the sky1 as binding the elements by number1 as ,himself immovable1 yet revolving the spheres and decreeing natural events in a fixed series4#beca ,the attitude is like that of the ,timaeus and ,aristotle's ,metaphysics1 closely associating astronomy and theology1 favorable to belief in astrology1 in support of which later scholastic writers cite ,boethius4 ,sidenote3 ,fate and free will4 ,we may further note the main points in ,boethius' argument concerning fate and free will1 providence and predestination1#becb which was often cited by later writers4 ,he declares that all generation and change and movement proceed from the divine mind or ,providence1#becc while fate is the regular arrangement inherent in movable objects by which divine providence is realized4#becd ,fate may be exercised through spirits1 angelic or daemonic1 through the soul or through the aid of all nature or 8by the celestial motion of the stars40#bece ,it is with the last that ,boethius seems most inclined to identify fati series mobilis4 8,that series moves sky and stars1 harmonizes the elements one with another1 and transforms them from one to another40 ,more than that1 8,it constrains human fortunes in an indissoluble chain of causes1 which1 since it starts from the decree of immovable ,providence1 must needs itself also be immutable40#becf ,boethius1 however1 does not believe in a complete fatalism1 astrological or otherwise4 ,he holds that nothing escapes divine providence1 to which there is no distinction between past1 present1 and future4#becg ,as the human reason can conceive universals1 although sense and imagination are able to deal only with particulars1 so the divine mind can foresee the future as well as the present4 ,but there are some things which are under divine providence but which are not subject to fate4#bech ,divine providence imposes no fatal necessity upon the human will1 which is free to choose its course4#beci ,the world of nature1 however1 existing without will or reason of its own1 conforms absolutely to the fatal series provided for it4 ,as for chance1 ,boethius agrees with ,aristotle's ,physics that there is really no such thing1 but that what is commonly ascribed to chance really results from an unexpected coincidence of causes1 as when a man plowing a field finds a treasure which another has buried there4#bedj ,thus ,boethius maintains the co-existence of the fatal series expressed in the stars1 divine providence1 and human free will1 a thesis likely to reassure ,christians inclined to astrology who had been somewhat disturbed by the fulminations of the fathers against the genethliaci1 just as his constant rhapsodizing over the stars and heavens would lead them to regard the science of the stars as second only to divine worship4 ,indeed1 his position was the usual one in the subsequent middle ages4 ,sidenote3 ,music of the stars and universe4 ,the stars also come into ,boethius' treatise on music1 where one of the three varieties of music is described as mundane1 where the music of the spheres is declared to exist although inaudible to us1 and where each planet is connected with a musical chord4 ,plato is quoted as having said1 not in vain1 that the world soul is compounded of musical harmony1 and it is affirmed that the four different and contrary elements could never be united in one system unless some harmony joined them4#beda ,sidenote3 ,isidore of ,seville4 ,isidore was born about #efj or #egj1 became bishop of ,seville in #eii or #fjj1 and died in the year #fcf4 ,although mention should perhaps be made of his briefer ,de natura rerum1#bedb a treatise dedicated to ,king ,sisebut who reigned from #fab to #fbj1 ,isidore's chief work from our standpoint is the ,etymologiae4#bedc ,his friend1 bishop ,braulio1 writing after ,isidore's death1 says that he had left unfinished the copy of this work which he made at his request1 but this was apparently a second edition1 since in a letter written to ,isidore probably in #fcj1 ,braulio speaks of copies as already in circulation1 although he describes their text as corrupt and abbreviated4 ,but apparently the work had been composed seven years before this4#bedd ,the ,etymologies was undoubtedly a work of great importance and influence in the middle ages1 but one should not be led1 as some writers have been1 into exaggerated praise of ,isidore's erudition on this account4#bede ,for the work's importance consists chiefly in showing how scanty was the knowledge of the early middle ages4 ,its influence also would seem not to have been entirely beneficial1 since writers continued to cite it as an authority as late as the thirteenth century1 when it might have been expected to have outlived its usefulness4 ,we suspect that it proved too handy and convenient and tended to encourage intellectual laziness and stagnation more than any anthology of literary quotations did4 ,arevalus listed ten printed editions of it before #aebg1 showing that it was as popular in the time of the ,renaissance as in the middle ages4 ,sidenote3 ,method of the ,etymologies4 ,the ,etymologies is little more than a dictionary1 in which words are not listed alphabetically but under subjects with an average of from one to a half dozen lines of derivation and definition for each term4 ,the method is1 as ,brehaut well says1 8to treat each subject by 444 defining the terms belonging to it40#bedf ,pursuing this method1 ,isidore treats of various arts and sciences1 human interests and natural phenomena3 the seven liberal arts1 medicine1 and law2 chronology and bibliography2 the church1 religion1 and theology2 the state and family1 physiology1 zoology1 botany1 mineralogy1 geography1 and astronomy2 architecture and agriculture2 war and sport2 arms and armor2 ships and costume and various utensils of domestic life4 ,such is the classification which later medieval writers were to adopt or adapt rather than the arrangement followed in ,pliny's ,natural ,history4 ,isidore's association of words and definitions under topics makes an approach1 at least1 to the articles of encyclopedias3 sometimes there is a brief discussion of the general topic before the particular terms and names are considered2 sometimes there are chronological tables1 family trees1 or lists of signs and abbreviations4 ,in short1 ,isidore forms a connecting link between ,pliny and the encyclopedists of the thirteenth century4 ,sidenote3 ,its sources4 ,in a prefatory word to ,braulio ,isidore describes the ,etymologies as a collection made from his recollection and notes of old authors1#bedg of whom he cites a large number in the course of the work4 ,it has been suspected that some of these writers were known to ,isidore only at second or third hand2 at any rate he has not made a very discriminating selection from their works and he has been accused more than once of not clearly understanding what he tried to abridge4 ,on the other hand1 ,isidore seems to me to display a notable power of brief generalization1 of terse expression and telling use of words4 ,we should not have to go back to the middle ages for textbook writers who have written more and said less4 ,this power of condensed expression probably accounts for ,isidore's being so much cited4 ,many of the derivations proposed for words are so patently absurd that we would fain ascribe them to ,isidore's own perverse ingenuity1 but it is doubtful if he possessed even that much originality1 and they are probably all taken from classical grammarians such as ,varro4#bedh ,isidore1 however1 still displays a considerable knowledge of the ,greek language4 ,and again it may be said in excuse of ,isidore and his sources that the absurd etymologies are usually proposed in the case of words whose derivation is still problematic4 ,in the passages dealing with natural phenomena and science ,isidore borrows chiefly from ,pliny and ,solinus1 sometimes from ,dioscorides1 giving us a faint adumbration of their much fuller confusion of science and superstition4 ,occasionally bits of information or misinformation are borrowed through the medium of the church fathers4 ,a work of ,galen1 for instance1 is cited#bedi through the letter of ,jerome to ,furia against widows remarrying4 ,galen1 indeed1 is seldom mentioned by ,isidore who draws his unusually brief fourth book on medicine chiefly from ,caelius ,aurelianus4#beej ,sidenote3 ,natural marvels4 ,in his treatment of things in nature ,isidore seldom gives their medicinal properties as ,pliny does1 and this reduces correspondingly the amount of space devoted to marvelous virtues4 ,indeed1 of the twenty books of the ,etymologies but one is devoted to animals other than man1 one to vegetation which is combined in the same book with agriculture1 and one to metals and minerals4 ,the book on animals is the longest and is subdivided under the topics of domestic animals1 wild beasts1 minute animals1 serpents1 worms1 fish1 birds1 and minute flying creatures4 ,isidore also tends to ascribe more marvelous virtues to animals than to plants or stones4 ,from ,pliny and ,solinus are repeated the tales of the basilisk1 echeneis1 and the like1#beea while ,augustine's ,commentary on the ,psalms is cited for the story of the asp resisting the incantations of its charmers by laying one ear to the ground and stopping up the other ear with the end of its tail4#beeb ,on the other hand1 ,isidore omits ,pliny's superstitious assertions concerning the river tortoise and gives only his criticism that the statement that ships move more slowly if they have the foot of a tortoise aboard is incredible4#beec ,even in the books on minerals and vegetation we still hear of animal marvels3#beed how the coloring matter1 cinnabar1 is composed of the blood shed by the dragon in its death struggle with the elephant1 how the fiercest bulls grow tame under the ,egyptian fig-tree1 how swallows restore the sight of their young with the swallow-wort1 or of the use of fennel and rue by the snake and weasel respectively1 the former tasting fennel to enable him to shed his old skin1 and the latter eating rue to make him immune from venom in fighting the snake4 ,all these items1 too1 are from ,pliny4 ,sidenote3 ,isidore is rather less hospitable to superstition than ,pliny4 ,but on the whole ,i should estimate that ,isidore contains less superstitious matter even proportionally to his meager content than ,pliny does in connection with the virtues of animals1 plants1 and stones4 ,in discussing plants he says nothing of ceremonial plucking of them and he contains practically no traces of agricultural magic4 ,he describes as a superstition of the ,gentiles the notion that the herb scylla1 suspended whole at the threshold1 drives away all evils4#beee ,he mentions the use of mandragora as an anaesthetic in surgical operations1 and remarks that its root is of human form1 but says nothing of its applications in magic4#beef ,in his discussion of stones he repeats after ,pliny and ,solinus the marvelous virtues ascribed to a number of them1 but follows ,pliny's method of making the magicians responsible for these assertions or of inserting a word of caution such as 8if this is to be believed0 with each statement4 ,finally he introduces together a number of cases of marvelous powers ascribed to stones with the introduction1 8,there are certain gems employed by the ,gentiles in their superstitions40#beeg ,sidenote3 ,portents4 ,isidore lists a number of mythical monsters as well as cases of portentous births in the third chapter1 ,de portentis1 of his eleventh book4 ,he there affirms that ,god sometimes wishes to signify future events by means of monstrous births as well as by dreams and oracles1 and declares that this 8has been proved by numerous experiences40#beeh ,sidenote3 ,words and numbers4 ,brehaut is impressed by ,isidore's 8confidence in words10 which he thinks 8really amounted to a belief1 strong though perhaps somewhat inarticulate1 that words were transcendental entities40#beei ,isidore's faith in the power of words does not seem1 however1 to have led him to recommend the use of any incantations2 he was content with etymologies and allegorical interpretation4 ,he was also a great believer in the mystic significance of numbers and wrote a separate treatise upon those numbers which occur in the sacred ,scriptures4 ,in the ,etymologies1 too1 he more than once dwells upon the perfection of certain numbers4 ,we have already heard how perfect most of the numbers up to twelve are1 but this is our first opportunity to hear the ,pythagorean method applied to the number twenty-two4 ,however1 ,isidore is not the first to do this2 he is1 indeed1 simply quoting one of the fathers1 ,epiphanius4#befj 8,the modius is so-called because it is of perfect mode4 ,for this measure contains forty-four pounds1 that is1 twenty-two sextarii4 ,and the reason for this number is that in the beginning ,god performed twenty-two works4 ,for on the first day ,he made seven works1 namely1 unformed matter1 angels1 light1 the upper heavens1 earth1 water1 and air4 ,on the second day only one work1 the firmament4 ,on the third day four things3 the seas1 seeds1 grass1 and trees4 ,on the fourth day three things3 sun and moon and stars4 ,on the fifth day three3 fish and aquatic reptiles and flying creatures4 ,on the sixth day four3 beasts1 domestic animals1 land reptiles1 and man4 ,and all twenty-two kinds were made in six days4#befa ,and there are twenty-two generations from ,adam to ,jacob4444 ,and twenty-two books of the ,old ,testament4444 ,and there are twenty-two letters from which the doctrine of the divine law is composed4 ,therefore in accordance with these examples the modius of twenty-two sextarii was established by ,moses following the measure of sacred law4 ,and although various peoples have added something to or ignorantly subtracted something from its weight1 it is divinely preserved among the ,hebrews for such reasons40 ,with such mental magic and pious 8arithmetic10 as ,isidore's friend ,braulio called it1 might the ,christian attempt to sate the inherited thirst within him for the operative magic and pagan divination in which his conscience and church no longer allowed him to indulge4 ,sidenote3 ,history of magic4 ,isidore's chapter on the ,magi or magicians1 which occurs in his eighth book on the church and divers sects1 is a notable one1 of whose great future influence we shall presently speak4 ,his own borrowing here is only in small part from ,pliny's famous passage on the same theme4 ,on such a subject ,isidore naturally has recourse mainly to ,christian writers3 ,augustine1 ,jerome1 ,lactantius1 ,tertullian4 ,from the occasional similarity of his wording to these authors it seems fairly certain that his account is a patchwork from their works1 and the context is too ,christian to have been drawn in toto from some ,roman encyclopedist now lost to us4 ,perhaps the most noteworthy point about ,isidore's chapter is that he has made magic and magicians the general and inclusive head under which he presently lists various other minor occult arts and their practitioners for separate definition4 ,but first we have a longer discussion1 though long only by comparison1 of magic in general4 ,its history is sketched2 ,zoroaster and ,democritus1 as in ,pliny1 are mentioned as its founders1 but it is not forgotten that the bad angels were really responsible for its dissemination4 ,from the first ,isidore identifies magic and divination2 after stating that the magic arts abounded among the ,assyrians1 he quotes a passage from ,lucan which speaks of the prevalence of liver divination1 augury1 divination from thunder1 and astrology in ,assyria4 ,also the magic arts are said to have prevailed over the whole world for many centuries through their prediction of the future and invocation of the dead4 ,brief allusion is further made to ,moses and ,pharaoh's magicians1 to the invocation of ,samuel by the witch of ,endor1 to ,circe and the comrades of ,ulysses1 and to several other passages in classical literature anent magic4 ,sidenote3 ,definition of magic4 ,next comes a formal definition of the ,magi4 ,they are 8those who are popularly called malefici or sorcerers on account of the magnitude 7a characteristic bit of derivation7 of their crimes4 ,they agitate the elements1 disturb men's minds1 and slay merely by force of incantation without any poisoned draught4 ,hence ,lucan writes1 #8,the mind1 though polluted by no venom of poisoned draught1 perishes by enchantment4'#befb ,for1 summoning demons1 they dare to work their magic so that anyone may kill his enemies by evil arts4 ,they also use blood and victims and sometimes corpses48 ,after this very unfavorable1 although sufficiently credulous1 definition of magic1 which is represented as seeking the worst ends by the worst means1 ,isidore goes on to list and briefly define a number of subordinate or kindred occult arts4 ,first come necromancers2 then hydromancy1 geomancy1 aeromancy1 and pyromancy2 next diviners1 those employing incantations1 arioli1 aruspices1 augurs1 auspices1 pythones1 astrologers and their cognates1 the genethliaci and mathematici1 who as ,isidore notes are spoken of in the ,gospel as ,magi1 and horoscopi4 0,sortilegi are those who profess the science of divination under the pretended guise of religion through certain devices called sortes sanctorum and predict by inspection of certain scriptures40 ,salisatores are those who predict from the jerks of their limbs4 ,to this list of magic arts ,isidore adds in the words of ,augustine all ligatures and suspensions1 incantations and characters1 which the art of medicine condemns and which are simply the work of the devil4 ,with mention of the origin of augury among the ,phrygians1 the discovery of praestigium which deceives the eye by ,mercury1 and the revelation of aruspicina by ,tagus to the ,etruscans1 ,isidore closes the chapter4 ,some of its items will be found again in his ,de differentiis verborum1#befc listed under the appropriate letters of the alphabet4 ,it may also be noted that he briefly treats of transformations worked by magic in the fourth chapter of the eleventh book of the ,etymologies4 ,sidenote3 ,future influence of ,isidore's account of magic4 ,we turn to the future influence of this account of magic which seems to have been first patched together by ,isidore4 ,juiceless as it is1 it seems to have become a sort of stock or stereotyped treatment of the subject with succeeding ,christian writers down into the twelfth century4 ,somewhat altered by omission of poetical quotations or the insertion of transitional sentences1 it was otherwise copied almost word for word by ,rabanus ,maurus 7about #ghd to #hef71 in his ,de consanguineorum nuptiis et de magorum praestigiis falsisque divinationibus tractatus1 and by ,burchard of ,worms and ,ivo of ,chartres 7died #aaae7 in their respective collections of ,decreta1 while ,hincmar of ,rheims in his ,de divortio ,lotharii et ,tetbergae copied it with more omissions4#befd ,it was also in substance retained in the ,decretum of ,gratian in the twelfth century1 when1 too1 ,hugh of ,st4 ,victor probably made use of it and ,john of ,salisbury made it the basis of his fuller discussion of the subject4 ,isidore's account of magic1 like his discussion of many other topics1 sounds as if he had ceased thinking on the subject1 and it must have meant still less to those who copied it4 ,john of ,salisbury is the first of them to put any life into the subject and give us any assurance that such arts were still practiced in his day4 ,we have1 however1 other evidence that magic continued to be practiced in the interval4 ,and such practices as the sortes sanctorum1 though included in ,isidore's stock definition of magic1 were probably not generally regarded as reprehensible4#befe ,sidenote3 ,attitude to astrology4 ,isidore's repetition of the views of the fathers concerning demons is so brief and trite#beff that we need not further notice it1 but turn to his attitude toward astrology4 ,we have just heard him associate astrologers with practitioners of the magic arts1 but in his third book in discussing the quadrivium he states that astrology is only partly superstitious and partly a natural science4 ,the superstitious variety is that pursued by the mathematici who augur the future from the stars1 assign the parts of the soul and body to the signs of the zodiac1 and try to predict the nativities and characters of men from the course of the stars4 ,such superstitions 8are without doubt contrary to our faith2 ,christians should so ignore them that they shall not even appear to have been written40 ,mathesis1 or the attempt to predict future events from the stars1 is denounced1 according to ,isidore1 8not only by doctors of the ,christian religion but also of the ,gentiles1--,plato1 ,aristotle1 and others40 ,isidore also states that there is a distinction between astronomy and astrology1 but what it is1 especially between astronomy and natural astrology1 he fails to elucidate4#befg ,sidenote3 ,in the ,de natura rerum4 ,in the preface to his ,de natura rerum1 which deals chiefly with astronomical and meteorological phenomena1 ,isidore asserts that 8it is not superstitious science to know the nature of these things1 if only they are considered from the standpoint of sane and sober doctrine40 ,he also states that his treatise is a brief sketch of what has been written by the men of old and especially in the works of ,catholics4 ,in it some of the stock questions which gave difficulty to ,christian scientists are briefly discussed1 for instance1 8,concerning the waters which are above the heavens10 and 8,whether the stars have souls80#befh ,isidore rejects as 8absurd fictions0 imagined by the stupidity of the ,gentiles their naming the days of the week from the planets1 8because by the same they thought that some effect was produced in themselves1 saying that from the sun they received the spirit1 from the moon the body1 from ,mercury speech and wisdom1 from ,venus pleasure1 from ,mars ardor1 from ,jupiter temperance1 from ,saturn slowness40#befi ,yet later in the same treatise we find him saying that everything in nature grows and increases according to the waxing and waning of the moon4#begj ,moreover1 he calls ,saturn a cold star and explains that the planets are called errantia1 not because they wander themselves but because they cause men to err4#bega ,he also describes man as a microcosm4#begb ,like most ecclesiastical writers1 no matter how hostile they may be to astrologers1 he is ready to assert that comets signify political revolutions1 wars1 and pestilences4#begc ,in the ,etymologies he not only attributes racial and temperamental differences among the peoples of different regions to 8force of the star0#begd and 8diversity of the sky10#bege phrases which seem to imply astrological influence rather than the mere influence of climate in our sense4 ,he also encourages astrological medicine when he says that the doctor should know astronomy1 since human bodies change with the qualities of the stars and the change of times4#begf ,isidore might as well have taken the planets as signs in the astrological sense as have ascribed to them the absurd allegorical significance in passages of ,scripture that he did4 ,he states that the moon is sometimes to be taken as a symbol of this world1 sometimes as the church1 which is illuminated by ,christ as the moon receives its light from the sun1 and which has seven meritorious graces corresponding to the seven forms of the moon4#begg ,sidenote3 ,bede's scanty science4 ,the scientific acquisitions of ,bede have too often been referred to in exaggerated terms4 ,sharon ,turner said of him1 8,he collected and taught more natural truths with fewer errors than any ,roman book on the same subjects had accomplished4 ,thus his work displays an advance1 not a retrogradation of human knowledge2 and from its judicious selection and concentration of the best natural philosophy of the ,roman ,empire it does high credit to the ,anglo-,saxon good sense40#begh ,dr4 ,r4 ,l4 ,poole more moderately says of ,bede1 8,he shows an extent of knowledge in classical literature and natural science entirely unrivalled in his own day and probably not surpassed for many generations to come40#begi ,bede perhaps knew more natural science than anyone else of his time1 but if so1 the others must have known practically nothing2 his knowledge can in no sense be called extensive4 ,as a matter of fact1 we have evidence that his extremely brief and elementary treatises in this field were not full enough to satisfy even his contemporaries4 ,in the preface to his ,de temporum ratione#behj he says that previously he had composed two treatises1 ,de natura rerum and ,de ratione temporum1 in brief style as he thought fitting for pupils1 but that when he began to teach them to some of the brethren1 they objected that they were reduced to a much briefer form than they wished1 especially the ,de temporibus1 which ,bede now proceeds to revise and amplify4 ,it is noteworthy that in order to fulfill the monks' desire for a fuller treatment of the subject he found it necessary to do some further reading in the fathers4 ,in addition to ,bede's own statement of his aim1 the frequency with which we find manuscripts of early date#beha of the ,de natura rerum and ,de temporibus suggests that they were employed as text-books in the monastic schools of the early middle ages4 ,as the ,carolingian poet expressed it1 ,beda dei famulus nostri didasculus evi ,falce pia sophie veterum sata lata peragrans4 ,sidenote3 ,bede's ,de natura rerum4 ,of ,bede's ,hexaemeron we spoke in an earlier chapter4 ,his chief extant genuine scientific treatise is the aforesaid ,de natura rerum1#behb a very curtailed discussion of astronomy and meteorology4 ,it is very similar to ,isidore's treatise of the same title1 but is even briefer1 omitting for the most part the mention of authorities and the ,biblical quotations and allegorical applications which make up a considerable portion of ,isidore's brief work4 ,one of the few authorities whom ,bede does cite is ,pliny in a discussion of the circles of the planets4#behc ,like ,isidore he accepts comets as signs of war and political change1 of tempests and pestilence4#behd ,he also states that the air is inhabited by evil spirits who there await the worse torments of the day of judgment4#behe ,in his ,biblical commentaries ,bede briefly echoes some of the views of the fathers concerning magic and demons1 for instance1 in his treatment of the witch of ,endor4#behf ,sidenote3 ,divination by thunder4 ,bede also translated into ,latin a treatise on divination from thunder1 perhaps from the works of the sixth century ,greek writer1 ,john ,lydus4 ,in the preface to ,herefridus1 at whose request he had undertaken the translation1 he speaks of it as a laborious and dangerous task1 sure to expose him to the attacks of the invidious and detractors who will perhaps insinuate that he is possessed of an evil spirit or is a practitioner of magic4 ,the three chapters of the treatise give the significance of thunder for the four points of the compass1 the twelve months of the year1 and the seven days of the week4 ,for instance1 if thunder arises in the east1 according to the traditions of subtle philosophers there will be in the course of that year copious effusion of human blood4 ,each signification is introduced with some bombastic phraseology concerning the agile genius or sagacious investigation of the philosophers who discovered it4#behg ,other tracts on divination which were attributed to ,bede are probably spurious and will for the most part be considered later in connection with other treatises of the same sort4#behh ,sidenote3 ,riddles of ,aldhelm4 ,some interest in and knowledge of natural science is displayed in the metrical riddles#behi of ,st4 ,aldhelm1 abbot of ,malmesbury and bishop of ,sherborne1 who died in #gji1 8the first ,englishman who cultivated classical learning with any success and the first of whom any literary remains are preserved40 ,most of them are concerned with animals1 such as silkworms1 peacock1 salamander1 bee1 swan1 lion1 ostrich1 dove1 fish1 basilisk1 camel1 eagle1 taxo1 beaver1 weasel1 swallow1 cat1 crow1 unicorn1 minotaur1 ,scylla1 and elephant2 or with herbs and trees1 such as heliotrope1 pepper1 nettles1 hellebore1 and palm2 or with minerals1 such as salt1 adamant1 and magnet2 or with terrestrial and celestial phenomena1 such as earth1 wind1 cloud1 rainbow1 moon1 ,pleiades1 ,arcturus1 ,lucifer1 and night4 ,there is a close resemblance between some of these riddles and a score of citations from an ,adhelmus made in the thirteenth century by ,thomas of ,cantimpr in his ,de natura rerum4#beij ,pitra1#beia however1 suggested that the ,adhelmus cited by ,thomas of ,cantimpr was a brother of ,john the ,scot of the ninth century4 ,sidenote3 ,gregory's ,dialogues4 ,the total lack of originality and the extremely abbreviated character of the infrequent scientific writing in the west is not1 however1 a fair example of the total thought and writing of early medieval ,latin ,christendom4 ,when we turn to the lives of the saints1 to the miracles recorded of contemporary monks and missionaries1 we find that in the field of its own supreme interests the pious imagination of the time could display considerable inventiveness and was by no means satisfied with brief compendiums from the ,bible and earlier ,fathers4 ,here too the superstition and credulity1 which had been held back by fear of paganism in the case of natural and occult science1 ran luxuriant riot4 ,such literature lies rather outside the strict field of this investigation1 but it is so characteristic of the ,christian thought of the period that we may consider one prominent specimen1 the ,dialogues of ,gregory the ,great1#beib pope from #eij to #fjd4 ,we shall sufficiently illustrate the nature of this farrago of pious folk-lore by a rsum of the contents of the opening pages of the first of its four books4 ,we need not dwell upon the importance of ,gregory in the history of the papacy1 of monasticism1 and of patristic literature1 further than to emphasize the point that so distinguished1 influential1 and for his times great1 a man should have been capable of writing such a book4 ,similar citations which might be multiplied from other authors of the period could not add much force to this one impressive instance of the nave pious credulity and superstition of the best ,christian minds of that age4 ,not only were the ,dialogues well known throughout the medieval period in the ,latin reading world1 but they were translated into ,greek at an early date and in #ggi from that language into ,arabic1 while ,king ,alfred made an ,anglo-,saxon translation of the ,latin in the closing ninth century4 ,sidenote3 ,signs and wonders wrought by saints4 ,in the ,dialogues ,gregory narrates to ,peter the ,deacon some of the virtues1 signs1 and marvelous works of saintly men in ,italy which he has learned either by personal experience or indirectly from the statements of good and trustworthy witnesses4 ,the first story is of ,honoratus1 the son of a colonus on a villa in ,samnium4 ,when the lad evinced his piety by abstaining from meat at a banquet given by his parents1 they ridiculed him1 declaring that he would find no fish to eat in those mountains4 ,but when the servant presently went out to draw some water1 he poured a fish out of the pitcher upon his return which provided the boy with enough food for the entire day4 ,subsequently the lad was given his freedom and founded a monastery on the spot4 ,still later he saved this monastery from an impending avalanche by frequent calling upon the name of ,christ and use of the sign of the cross4 ,by these means he stopped the landslide in mid-course and the rocks may still be seen looking as if they were sure to fall4 ,sidenote3 ,more monkish miracles4 ,a tale follows of ,goths who stole a monk's horse1 but found themselves unable to force their own horses to cross the next river to which they came until they had restored his horse to the monk4 ,in another case where ,franks came to plunder this same monk1 he remained invisible to them4 ,this same monk was a disciple of the afore-mentioned ,honoratus and once raised a woman's child from the dead by placing upon its breast an old shoe of his master which he cherished as a souvenir4 ,thus he contrived to satisfy the mother's pleading and at the same time preserve his own modesty and humility4 ,gregory does not doubt that the woman's faith also contributed to the miracle4 ,gregory adds1 however1 that he thinks the virtue of patience greater than signs and miracles and tells another story of the same monk to illustrate that virtue4 ,sidenote3 ,a monastic snake-charmer4 ,we may pass on1 however1 to the third chapter which contains a story of the gardener of a monastery who set a snake to catch a thief who had made depredations upon the garden1 adjuring the snake as follows3 8,in the name of ,jesus ,i command you to guard this approach and not permit the thief to enter here40 ,the serpent obediently stretched its length across the path1 and when the gardener returned later1 he found the thief hanging head first from the hedge1 in which his foot had caught as he was climbing over it and had been surprised by the sight of the serpent4 ,the monk of course then freely gave the thief what he had come to steal1 but also of course gave him a brief moral lecture which was perhaps less welcome4 ,sidenote3 ,basilius the magician4 ,after a brief account of a miraculous release from sexual passion ,gregory comes to a tale of ,basilius the magician4 ,this is the same man concerning whose arrest and trial on the charge of practicing magic and sinister arts we find directions given in two of the letters of ,cassiodorus4#beic ,according to ,gregory he took refuge with the aid of a bishop in a monastery1 although the abbot saw something diabolical about him from the very start4 ,soon a virgin who was under the charge of the monastery became so infatuated with ,basilius as to call publicly for him1 declaring that she should die unless he came to her aid4 ,the abbot then expelled him from the monastery1 on which occasion ,basilius confessed that he had often by his magic arts suspended the monastery in mid-air but that he had never been able to injure anyone who was in it4 ,this is more detailed information concerning the nature of ,basilius' magic than ,cassiodorus gives us4 ,gregory further adds that not long after ,basilius was burned to death at ,rome by the zeal of the ,christian people4 ,sidenote3 ,a demon salad4 ,a female servant of this same monastery once ate a lettuce in the garden without making the sign of the cross first1 and became possessed of a demon straightway4 ,when the abbot was summoned1 the demon attempted to excuse himself1 exclaiming1 8,what have ,i done8 what have ,i done8 ,i was just sitting on a lettuce when she came along and ate me40 ,the abbot nevertheless indignantly proceeded to drive the evil spirit out of his serf4 ,such are a few specimens of the monkish magic that was considered perfectly legitimate and rapturously admired at the same time that men like ,basilius were burned at the stake on charges of magic by the zealous ,christian populace4 ,sidenote3 ,incantations in ,old ,irish4 ,we may add a word at this point concerning ,old ,irish literature#beid which1 as it has reached us1 is almost entirely religious in character1#beie produced and preserved by the ,christian clergy4 ,yet we find a number of traces of magic in these remains of ,celtic learning and literature during the dark ages4 ,indeed1 the sole document in the ,irish language which is ascribed to ,st4 ,patrick is a ,hymn or incantation in which he invokes the ,trinity and the powers of nature to aid him against the enchantments of women1 smiths1 and wizards4 ,by repeating this rhythmical formula ,patrick and his companions are said to have become invisible to ,king ,loigaire and his ,druids4 ,the spell is perhaps as old as ,patrick's time4 ,three other incantations for urinary disease1 sore eyes1 and to extract a thorn are contained in the ,stowe ,missal4 ,an ,irish manuscript of the eighth or ninth century in the monastery of ,st4 ,gall has four spells for similar purposes and another is found in a ninth century codex preserved in ,carinthia4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,fili4 ,the ,irish had their ,fili corresponding somewhat to the ,druids of ,gaul or ,britain4 ,they were perhaps less closely connected with heathen rites1 since the church seems to have been less opposed to them than to the ,druids4 ,they were poets and learned men1 and a large part of their learning1 at least originally1 seems to have consisted of magic and divination4 ,there are many instances in ,irish literature of their disfiguring the faces of their enemies by raising blotches upon them by the power of words which they uttered4 ,st4 ,patrick forbade two of their three methods of divination4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,arabic ,,occult ,,science ,,of ,,the ,,ninth ,,century ,plan of the chapter--,works of ,alkindi--,on ,stellar ,rays1 or ,the ,theory of the ,magic ,art--,radiation of occult force from the stars--,magic power of words--,problem of prayer--,figures1 characters1 and sacrifice--,experiment and magic--,alkindi's medieval influence--,divination by visions and dreams--,weather prediction--,alkindi as an astrologer--,alkindi on conjunctions--,alkindi and alchemy--,astrological works of ,albumasar--,the ,experiments of ,albumasar--,albumasar in ,sadan--,book of ,rains--,costa ben ,luca's translation of ,hero's ,mechanica--,latin versions of his ,epistle concerning ,incantation--,form of the epistle--,incantations directly affect the mind alone--,men imagine themselves bewitched--,how are amulets effective8--,citations from the lapidary of the ,pseudo-,aristotle--,from ,galen and ,dioscorides--,occult virtue--,on the ,difference between ,soul and ,spirit--,the nature of spiritus--,thought explained physiologically--,views of other medieval writers--,thebit ben ,corat--,the ,sabians--,thebit's ,relations to ,sabianism--,thebit as encyclopedist1 philosopher1 astronomer--,his occult science--,astrological and magic images--,life of ,rasis--,his #bcb works--,charlatans discussed--,his interest in natural science--,rasis and alchemy--,titles suggestive of astrology and magic--,conclusion4 ,sidenote3 ,plan of the chapter4 ,in this chapter we shall consider a number of learned men who wrote in ,arabic or other oriental languages in the ninth and early tenth century3 ,alkindi1 ,albumasar1 ,costa ben ,luca1 ,thebit ben ,corat1 and ,rasis--to mention for the present only the brief and convenient form of their names by which they were commonly designated in medieval ,latin learning4 ,not all of these men were ,mohammedans2 not one was an ,arab1 strictly speaking2 but they lived under ,mohammedan rule and wrote in ,arabic4 ,we shall note especially those of their works which deal with occult science and which were plainly influential upon the later medieval ,latin learning4 ,indeed1 most of the works of which we shall treat seem to be extant only in ,latin translation4 ,this chapter aims at no exhaustive treatment of ,arabic science and magic in the ninth century1 but merely1 by presenting a few prominent examples1 to give some idea of it and of its influence upon the middle ages4 ,in subsequent chapters we shall have occasion to mention many other such medieval translations from ,arabic and other oriental languages4 ,sidenote3 ,works of ,alkindi4 ,one of the great names in the history of ,arabic learning is that of ,alkindi 7,ya#8kb ibn ,ishk ibn ,sabbh al-,kind71 who died about #hej or #hgc ,a4 ,d4#beif ,comparatively few of his writings have come to us1 however1 although some two hundred titles prove that he covered the whole field of knowledge in his own day4 ,he translated the works of ,aristotle and other ,greeks into ,arabic1 and wrote upon philosophy1 politics1 mathematics1 medicine1 music1 astronomy1 and astrology1 discriminating little between science and superstition in his enthusiasm for extensive knowledge4 ,the first treatise of his to appear in print was an astrological one on weather prediction in ,latin translation4#beig ,in #ahge ,loth printed an ,arabic text of his treatise on the theory of conjunctions4 ,more recently ,nagy has edited ,latin versions of some of his philosophical opuscula1 and ,bjrnbo has published an optical treatise by him entitled ,de spectaculis4 ,sidenote3 ,on ,stellar ,rays1 or ,the ,theory of the ,magic ,art4 ,in a manuscript of the closing fourteenth century are contained several sets of errors of ,aristotle and various ,arabs1 also others condemned at ,paris in #acdh and #acfc1 at ,oxford in #acgf1 and so on4 ,among these are listed the ,errors of ,alkindi in the ,magic ,art4#beih ,the allusion is to a treatise by ,alkindi1 variously styled ,the ,theory of the ,magic ,art or ,on ,stellar ,rays1 which is found in ,latin version in a number of medieval manuscripts1#beii but which has never been published or described at all fully4 ,sidenote3 ,radiation of occult force from the stars4 ,alkindi begins the treatise by asserting the astrological doctrine of radiation of occult influence from the stars4 ,the diversity of objects in nature depends upon two things1 the diversity of matter and the varying influence exerted by the rays from the stars4 ,each star has its own peculiar force and certain objects are especially under its influence1 while the movement of the stars to new positions and 8the collision of their rays0 produce such an infinite variety of combinations that no two things in this world are ever found alike in all respects4 ,the stars1 however1 are no the only objects which emit rays2 everything in the world of the elements radiates force1 too4 ,fire1 color1 and sound are examples of this4 ,the science of physics considers the action of objects upon one another by contact1 but the sages know of a more occult interaction of remote objects suggested by the power of the magnet and the reflection of an image in a mirror4 ,all such emanations1 however1 are in the last analysis caused by the celestial harmony1 which governs by necessity all the changes in this world4 ,thus the men of old1 by experiments and by close scrutiny of the secrets of both superior and inferior nature and of the disposition of the sky1 came to comprehend many hidden things in the world of nature and were able to discover the names of those who had committed theft and adultery4 ,sidenote3 ,the border-line between science and magic4 ,alkindi has thus prepared the reader's mind for the consideration of phenomena beyond the realm of ordinary physical action4 ,at the same time he has approached the occult by arguing on the analogy of natural phenomena and he has laid down as a fundamental scientific premise what we now regard as a superstition of astrologers4 ,in other words1 he is not unaware of a difference in method and character between physics and astrology1 between science and superstition1 yet he tries to formulate a scientific basis for what is really a belief in magic4 ,sidenote3 ,magic power of words4 ,although ,alkindi does not1 as ,i recall1 use the word magic1 he next argues in favor of what is commonly called the magic power of words4 ,he affirms that the human imagination can form concepts and then emit rays which will affect exterior objects just as would the thing itself whose image the mind has conceived4 ,muscular movement and speech are the two channels by which the mind's conceptions can be transformed into action4 ,frequent experiments have proven clearly the potency of words when uttered in exact accordance with imagination and intention1 and when accompanied by due solemnity1 firm faith1 and strong desire4 ,the effect produced by words and voices is heightened if they are uttered under favorable astrological conditions4 ,some go best with ,saturn1 others with the planet ,jupiter1 some with one sign of the zodiac and others with another4 ,the four elements are variously affected by different voices2 some voices1 for instance1 affect fire most powerfully4 ,some especially stir trees or some one kind of tree4 ,thus by words motion is started1 accelerated1 or impeded2 animal life is generated or destroyed2 images are made to appear in mirrors2 flames and lightnings are produced2 and other feats and illusions are performed which seem marvelous to the mob4 ,sidenote3 ,problem of prayer4 ,alkindi even ventures to touch upon the subject of prayer4 ,he states that the rays emitted by the human mind and voice become the more efficacious in moving matter1 if the speaker has fixed his mind upon and names ,god or some powerful angel4 ,human ignorance of the harmony of nature also often necessitates appeal to a higher power in order to attain good and to avoid evil4 ,faith1 and observance of the proper time and place and attendant circumstances have their bearing1 however1 upon the success or failure of prayer as well as of other utterances4 ,and there are some authorities who would exclude spiritual influence entirely in such matters and who believe that words and images and prayers as well as herbs and gems are completely under the universal control exercised by the stars4 ,sidenote3 ,figures1 characters1 and sacrifice4 ,the treatise concludes by discussing the virtues of figures1 characters1 images1 and sacrifices in much the same way as it has treated of the power of words4 ,we are assured that 8,the sages have proved by frequent experiments that figures and characters inscribed by the hand of man on various materials with intention and due solemnity of place and time and other circumstances have the effect of motion upon external objects40 ,every such figure emits rays having the peculiar virtue which has been impressed upon it by the stars and signs4 ,there are characters which can be employed to cure disease or to induce it in men or animals4 ,images constructed in conformity with the constellations emit rays having something of the virtue of the celestial harmony4 ,alkindi also defends the practice of animal sacrifice4 ,whether ,god or spirits are placated thereby or not1 none the less the sacrifice is efficacious1 if made with human intent and due solemnity and in accordance with the celestial harmony4 ,the star and sign which are dominant when any voluntary act of this sort is begun1 rule that work to its finish4 ,the material and forms employed should be appropriate to the constellation1 or the effect produced will be discordant and perverted4 ,sidenote3 ,experiment and magic4 ,it will have been noted that ,alkindi more than once asserts that his conclusions have been demonstrated experimentally4 ,thus we have one more example of the connection1 supposititious or real1 between magic and experimental method4 ,sidenote3 ,alkindi's medieval influence4 ,the doctrine here set forth by ,alkindi of the radiation of force and his explanation of magic by astrology were both to be very influential conceptions in ,latin medieval learning4 ,we shall find ,roger ,bacon1 for example1 repeating the same views in almost the same language concerning stellar rays and the power of words1 and it is appropriate that in two manuscripts his utterances are placed together with those of ,alkindi4#bfjj ,sidenote3 ,divination by visions and dreams4 ,alkindi's treatise ,de somno et visione1 as we have it in the ,latin translation by ,gerard of ,cremona1#bfja accepts clairvoyance and divination by dreams as true and asks why we see some things before they happen1 why we see other things which require interpretation before they reveal the future1 and why at other times we foresee the contrary of what is to be4#bfjb ,his answer is that the mind or soul has innate natural knowledge of these things1 and that 8it is itself the seat of all species sensible and rational40 ,vision is when the soul dismisses the senses and employs thought1 and the formative or imaginative virtue of the mind is more active in sleep1 the sensitive faculties when one is awake4 ,sidenote3 ,weather prediction4 ,while by some persons1 at least1 opinions of ,alkindi in his ,theory of the ,magic ,art were regarded as erroneous1 ,albertus ,magnus in his ,speculum astronomiae listed among works on judicial astrology with which he thought that the church could find no fault 8a book of ,alchindi0 which opened with the words ,rogatus fui4#bfjc ,this is a work on weather prediction which still exists in a number of manuscripts#bfjd and was printed in #aejg at ,venice1 and in #aedj at ,paris1 together with a treatise on the same theme by ,albumasar1 of whom we shall say more presently4#bfje ,sidenote3 ,alkindi as an astrologer4 ,a majority1 indeed1 of the works by ,alkindi extant in ,latin translation are astrological4#bfjf ,several were translated by ,gerard of ,cremona1 and one or two by ,john of ,spain and ,robert of ,chester4#bfjg ,geomancies are attributed to ,alkindi in manuscripts at ,munich4#bfjh ,loth notes concerning ,alkindi's astrology what we have already found to be the case in his theories of radiation and magic art and of divination by dreams2 namely1 that while he believes in astrology unconditionally1 he tries to pursue it as a science in a scientific way1 observing mathematical method and physical laws--as they seemed to him--while he attacked the vulgar superstitions which were popularly regarded as astrology4 ,sidenote3 ,alkindi on conjunctions4 ,the astrological treatise by ,alkindi1 of which ,loth edited the ,arabic text1 is a letter on the duration of the empire of the ,arabs4 ,this bit of political prediction was1 as far as ,loth knew1 the first instance of the theory of conjunctions in ,arabian astrology4 ,the theory was that lesser conjunctions of the planets1 which occur every twenty years1 middling conjunctions which come every two hundred and forty years1 and great conjunctions which occur only every nine hundred and sixty years1 exert a great influence not only upon the world of nature but upon political and religious events1 and1 especially the great conjunctions1 open new periods in history4 ,thus1 as ,loth says1 the conjunction is for the macrocosmos what the horoscope is for man the microcosmos2 the one forecasts the fate of the individual2 the other1 that of society4 ,loth knew of no ,latin translation of ,alkindi's letter1 and medieval writers in ,latin cite ,albumasar usually as their authority on the subject of conjunctions4 ,but ,loth held that ,albumasar1 who was a pupil of ,alkindi1 merely developed and popularized the astrological theories of his master1 and ,loth showed that ,albumasar embodied our letter on the duration of the ,arabian empire in large part in his work ,on ,great ,conjunctions without mentioning ,alkindi as his authority4 ,sidenote3 ,alkindi and alchemy4 ,although a believer in astrology to the point of magic1 and not unacquainted with metals as his work ,on the ,properties of ,swords shows1 ,alkindi regarded the art of alchemy as a deception and the pretended transmutation of other metals into gold as false4#bfji ,he affirmed this especially in his treatise entitled1 ,the ,deceits of the ,alchemists1 but also in his other writings4#bfaj ,sidenote3 ,astrological works of ,albumasar4 ,something further should be said concerning the astrological treatises of ,albumasar 7,abu ,ma'shar ,ja'far ben ,muhammad al-,balkh7 whence also his briefer appellations1 ,japhar and ,dja'far4 ,he died in #hhf and has been called the most celebrated of all the ninth century ,bagdad astrologers1 although he has also been accused of plagiarism1 as we have seen4 ,in #adhi at ,augsburg ,erhard ,ratdolt published three of his works1 the ,greater ,introduction to ,astronomy in eight books1 the ,flowers--which ,roger ,bacon cites as severely condemning physicians who do not study astrology#bfaa--;and the eight books concerning great conjunctions and revolutions of the years4 ,of these the ,introduction was translated both by ,john of ,spain and ,hermann of ,dalmatia1 but the former translation1 although found in many manuscripts1 remains unprinted4 ,the ,flores is found in numerous manuscripts and was reprinted in #adie4 ,the work on conjunctions and revolutions was printed again in #aeae and also exists in many manuscripts4#bfab ,a ,french translation which ,hagins the ,jew1 working for ,henri ,bate of ,malines1 made in #abgc of 8,le livre des revolutions de sicle10 of whose six chapters he translated only four1#bfac probably applied to a part of this work4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,experiments of ,albumasar4 ,albertus ,magnus in the ,speculum astronomiae1 in listing irreproachable works of astronomy and astrology1 mentions a 8,book of ,experiments0 by ,albumasar instead of the ,conjunctions and ,revolutions along with his ,flowers and ,introduction4#bfad ,this book of experiments by ,albumasar is often met with in the manuscripts4 ,it is a different and shorter work than that in eight parts on ,conjunctions1 but itself deals with the subject of revolutions4 ,it is not1 however1 to be confused with still another work by ,albumasar on revolutions as connected with nativities4#bfae ,sidenote3 ,albumasar in ,sadan4 ,another work on astrology with which the name of ,albumasar is connected is cited by medieval writers1 notably ,peter of ,abano1#bfaf as ,albumasar in ,sadan 7or ,sadam71 and is also found in ,latin manuscripts where it is also called 8,excerpts from the ,secrets of ,albumasar40#bfag ,steinschneider regarded the ,latin translation as a shortened or incomplete version of an ,arabic original entitled al-,mudsakaret1 or ,memorabilia by ,abu ,sa'id ,schdsn1 who wrote down the answers of his teacher to his questions4#bfah ,there is also a ,greek text1 entitled ,mysteries1 which differs considerably from the ,latin and of which ,sadan perhaps made use4#bfai ,the ,latin version might be described as a miscellaneous collection of astrological teachings1 anecdotes1 and actual cases of ,albumasar gathered up by his disciples and somewhat resembling ,luther's ,table-,talk in form4 ,sidenote3 ,book of rains4 ,we have already alluded to the treatise on weather prediction by ,albumasar which was printed with a similar work by ,alkindi in #aejg and #aedj1 and also often accompanies it in the manuscripts4 ,in this 8book of rains according to the ,indians0#bfbj ,albumasar is variously disguised under the names of ,gaphar1 ,jafar1 and ,iafar and is called an ,indian1 ,egyptian1 or ,babylonian4#bfba ,in his ,latin translation of it ,hugo ,sanctellensis tells his patron1 the 8antistes ,michael0 that the treatise was written by ,gaphar1 an ancient astrologer of ,india1 and has since been abbreviated by a ,tillemus or ,cilenius or ,cylenius ,mercurius4#bfbb ,to ,japhar is also attributed a ,minor ,isagoga to astronomy in seven lectures or sermones1 which ,adelard of ,bath is said to have translated from the ,arabic4#bfbc ,sidenote3 ,costa ben ,luca's translation of ,hero's ,mechanica4 ,we turn next to ,costa ben ,luca1 or ,qust ibn ,lq1 of ,baalbek1 and especially to his treatise ,on ,physical ,ligatures1 or more fully1 ,the ,epistle concerning ,incantations1 ,adjurations1 and ,suspensions from the ,neck4 ,the scientific importance of ,costa ben ,luca may be seen from the circumstance that the ,mechanica of ,hero of ,alexandria1 of which the ,greek text is for the most part lost1 has been preserved in the ,arabic translation which ,costa prepared in #hfb-hff for the caliph al-,musta4 ,several manuscripts of this ,arabic text are still extant at ,cairo1 ,constantinople1 ,leyden1 and ,london1 and it has been twice printed4#bfbd ,sidenote3 ,latin versions of his ,epistle concerning ,incantation1 etc4 ,the work in which we are more especially interested has also been printed in editions of the works of ,galen1 of ,constantinus ,africanus1 of ,arnald of ,villanova1 and of ,henry ,cornelius ,agrippa4#bfbe ,the treatise is also attributed to ,rasis in the library at ,montpellier4#bfbf ,its inclusion among ,galen's works is a manifest error2 in the edition of ,agrippa it is appended as ,the ,letter of an ,unknown ,author 7,epistola incerti authoris72 while ,arnald is represented as translating the work from ,greek--a language of which he was ignorant--into ,latin4 ,he could read ,arabic1 however1 and perhaps rendered the treatise from that language4#bfbg ,but it had certainly been translated before his time1 the end of the thirteenth century1 and presumably by ,constantinus ,africanus1 c#ajae-ajhg1 since it not merely appears in his printed works but is found together with an imperfect copy of his ,pantegni in a manuscript of the twelfth century4#bfbh ,in a fifteenth century manuscript ,unayn or ,honein ben ,ishak is named as the author of our treatise1 but this seems to be a mistake4#bfbi ,albertus ,magnus in the middle of the thirteenth century cites our treatise both in his ,vegetables and ,plants1#bfcj where he alludes to 8the books of incantations of ,hermes the philosopher and of ,costa ben ,luca the philosopher1 and the books of physical ligatures10 and in his ,minerals1#bfca where the ,liber de ligaturis physicis1 as he calls it1 is the source whence he has borrowed statements concerning gems ascribed to ,aristotle and ,dioscorides4 ,sidenote3 ,form of the epistle4 ,our treatise is in the form of a reply by ,costa ben ,luca to someone whom he addresses as 8dearest son0 and who has asked him what validity there is in incantations1 adjurations1 and suspensions from one's neck1 and what the books of the ,greeks and ,indians have to say upon these matters4 ,the wording of ,costa's epistle varies considerably in the printed editions owing probably to careless interpretation of the manuscripts or careless copying by the earlier scribes1 but its general tenor is the same4 ,sidenote3 ,incantations directly affect the mind alone4 ,costa first affirms that all the ancients have agreed that the virtue of the mind affects the state of the body4 ,galen in particular is cited as to the effect of passions upon health and the advisability of the physician's cheering the minds of gloomy patients even by resort to deception to a limited extent1 if it seems necessary4 ,a perfect mind generally goes with a perfect body and an imperfect mind with an imperfect body1 as is seen in the case of children1 old men1 and women1 or in the inhabitants of the intemperate zones1 either torrid ,ethiopia or the frozen north4 ,here one text specifies ,scotland 7,scotie72 another1 ,schytie1 which is perhaps intended for ,scythia4 ,costa therefore argues that if anyone believes that an incantation will help him1 he will at least be benefited by his own confidence4 ,and if a person is constantly afraid that incantations may be directed against him1 he may easily fret himself into a fever4 ,this1 ,costa thinks1 was what ,socrates had in mind when he described incantations as 8words deceiving rational souls by their interpretation or by the fear they produce or by despair40 ,according to ,albertus ,magnus1 who embodies a good deal of ,costa's ,epistle in his ,minerals1 ,socrates said more fully that incantations1 or perhaps better1 enchantments1 were made in four ways1 namely1 by suspending or binding on objects1 by imprecations or adjurations1 by characters1 and by images2 and that they dement rational souls so that they fall into fear and despair or rise to joy and confidence2 and that through these accidents of the mind bodies are altered either in the direction of health or of chronic infirmity4#bfcb ,costa states that the medical men of ,india believe that incantations and adjurations are beneficial4 ,but he says nothing to indicate that they1 much less the ,greeks or himself1 have faith in the efficacy of incantations or words to work changes in matter per se or directly1 nor does he say anything to indicate that demons may be summoned and given orders by this method4 ,perhaps his discussion of incantations is a trifle constrained and not sufficiently outspoken1 but it is moderate and scientific and shows a fair degree of scepticism for that period1 especially when we compare it with ,alkindi's attitude towards the power of words4 ,sidenote3 ,men imagine themselves bewitched4 ,costa ben ,luca's attitude towards sorcery seems the same as towards incantations4 ,he concludes his discussion of this point by a story of 8a certain great noble of our country0 who had convinced himself that he had been bewitched and consequently became impotent4 ,after vainly endeavoring to convince him that this was simply due to his imagination1 ,costa decided that there was nothing to do but humor him in his delusion4 ,he therefore showed him a passage in ,the ,book of ,cleopatra which prescribed as an aphrodisiac the anointing of the entire body with the gall of a crow mixed with sesame4#bfcc ,the noble followed the prescription and had so much faith in it that his imaginary complaint disappeared4 ,sidenote3 ,how are amulets effective8 ,finally ,costa considers the question of the validity of amulets1 or ligatures and suspensions1 which we have heard ,socrates class with incantations1 adjurations1 characters1 and images4 ,costa says that he has read in many works by the ancients that objects suspended from the neck are potent not through their natural1 but their occult properties4 ,he will not deny that this may be so1 but is inclined as before to attribute the result rather to the comforting effect which such things have upon one's mind4 ,he proceeds1 however1 to list a number of suspensions recommended by ancient writers4 ,sidenote3 ,citations from the lapidary of the ,pseudo-,aristotle4 ,first he cites from 8,aristotle in the ,book of ,stones10 a spurious treatise of which we shall have more to say in the chapter on ,aristotle in the middle ages1 a number of examples of the marvelous powers of gems worn suspended from the neck or set in a ring upon the finger4 ,one augments the flow of saliva1 another checks the flow of blood4 ,the stone hyacinth enables its bearer to pass safely through a pestilent region1 and makes him honored in men's thoughts and procures the granting of his petitions by rulers4 ,the emerald wards off epilepsy1 8wherefore we often prescribe to nobles that their children should wear this stone hung about the neck lest they incur this infirmity40 ,sidenote3 ,from ,galen and ,dioscorides4 ,costa also cites some recommendations of ligatures and suspensions from ,galen1 such as curing stomach-ache by suspending coral about the neck or abdomen1 or the dung of wolves who have eaten bones1 which should preferably be bound on with a thread made from the wool of a sheep eaten by that wolf4 ,to ,dioscorides are attributed such amulets as the teeth of a mad dog who has bit a man1 which will safeguard their wearer from ever being so bitten--and it would be somewhat of a coincidence1 if he were--and the seed of wild saffron which1 held in the hand or worn about the neck1 is good for the stings of scorpions4 ,the ,indians are cited for what is a recipe rather than an amulet3 stercum elephantinum cum melle mixtum et in vulva mulieris positum numquam permittit concipere4 ,and some say that a woman who spits thrice in a frog's mouth will not conceive for a year4 ,a number of other examples are given without mention of any particular authority4 ,some of them1 indeed1 are very familiar and could be found in many authors1 and we shall meet them in other contexts4 ,sidenote3 ,occult virtue4 ,costa concludes by saying that he himself has not tested these statements extracted from the works of the ancients1 but that neither will he deny them1 since there exist in nature many strange phenomena and inexplicable forces4 ,we would not believe that the magnet attracts iron1 if we had not seen it4 ,similarly lead breaks adamant which iron cannot break4 ,there is a stone which no furnace can consume and a fish which paralyzes the hand of the person catching it4 ,these strange properties act in some subtle and mighty fashion which is not perceptible to our senses and which we cannot account for by reasoning4#bfcd ,but it is noteworthy that as in discussing incantations ,costa said nothing of demons1 so he fails to ascribe occult virtue to the influence of the stars4 ,sidenote3 ,on the ,difference between ,soul and ,spirit4 ,another treatise by ,costa ben ,luca1 ,on the ,difference between ,soul and ,spirit1#bfce has little to do with occult science1 but gives too good a glimpse of medieval notions in the field of physiological psychology to pass it by4 ,it was translated into ,latin by ,john of ,spain for ,archbishop ,raymond of ,toledo in the twelfth century1#bfcf and is found in many manuscripts1 often together with the works of ,aristotle4#bfcg ,probably by a confusion of the names ,costa ben ,luca and ,constantinus#bfch it was printed among the latter's works1#bfci and indeed we find very similar views in his ,pantegni#bfdj and in his treatise ,on ,melancholy4 ,the work has also been ascribed to ,augustine1#bfda ,isaac1#bfdb ,avicenna1#bfdc ,alexander ,neckam1 ,thomas of ,cantimpr1 and ,albertus ,magnus4#bfdd ,a different work with a similar title and somewhat similar contents is the ,de spiritu et anima1 which is printed with the works of ,augustine#bfde but which cites such later authors as ,boethius1 ,isidore1 ,bede1 ,alcuin1 ,st4 ,bernard1 and ,hugh of ,st4 ,victor1 to whom also it has been attributed4#bfdf ,thomas ,aquinas called it the work of an anonymous ,cistercian4#bfdg ,but to return to our treatise4 ,sidenote3 ,the nature of spiritus4 ,costa ben ,luca has1 as we have hinted1 some diverting passages in the fields of physiological psychology4 ,he believes in the existence of spiritus1 which is not spirit in one of our senses of that word1 but 8a subtle body10 unlike the soul which is incorporeal4 ,this subtle spiritus perishes when separated from the body and it operates most of the vital processes of the body such as breathing and the pulse1 sensation and movement4 ,the two former processes are operated by spiritus 8arising from the heart and borne in the pulsating veins to vivify the body40 ,the two latter processes are caused by spiritus which arises from the brain and operates through the nerves4 ,thus spiritus is the cause of life in the body and it leaves this mortal frame with our dying gasp4 ,the clearer and more subtle this spiritus is1 the more readily it lends itself to mental processes1 while the more perfect the human body1 the more perfect the spiritus and the human mind4 ,hence the intellectual powers of children and women are inferior1 and the same is true of races subjected to excessive heat or cold like the ,ethiopians or ,slavs4 ,here we have the same views repeated as in the ,epistle concerning ,incantation4 ,some physicians and philosophers think that there are two vessels in the heart and that there is more spiritus than blood in the left hand vessel and more blood than spiritus in the right hand vessel4 ,the spiritus in the brain becomes more subtle and apt to receive the virtues of the soul by its passage from one cavity of the brain to another4 ,the less subtle spiritus the brain uses for the five senses2 ,costa speaks of 8hollow nerves0 from the brain to the eye through which the spiritus passes for the purpose of vision4 ,the most subtle spiritus is employed in the higher mental processes such as imagination1 memory1 and reason4 ,sidenote3 ,thought explained physiologically4 ,costa ben ,luca gives an amusing explanation of how these processes take place in the brain4 ,the opening between the anterior and posterior ventricles of the brain is closed by a sort of valve which he describes as 8a particle of the body of the brain similar to a worm40 ,when a man is in the act of recalling something to memory1 this valve opens and the spiritus passes from the anterior to the posterior cavity4 ,moreover1 the speed with which this valve works or responds differs in different brains1 and this fact explains why some men are of slow memory and why others answer a question so much sooner4 ,the habit of inclining the head when deep in cogitation is also to be explained as tending to open this valve4 ,however1 the relative subtlety of the spiritus is another important factor in intellectual ability4 ,sidenote3 ,views of other medieval writers4 ,other medieval writers differed somewhat from these views of ,costa ben ,luca as to the nature of spiritus and the cavities of the brain4 ,for instance1 ,constantinus ,africanus in his treatise ,on ,melancholy states that the spiritus of the brain is called the rational soul1 which is inconsistent with the distinction drawn between soul and spirit in the other treatise4 ,in the eleventh century both ,constantinus in his ,pantegni and ,anatomy or ,de humana natura1#bfdh and ,petrocellus the ,salernitan in his ,practica2#bfdi in the twelfth century both ,hildegard of ,bingen#bfej and the ,pseudo-,augustinian ,liber de spiritu et anima2#bfea in the thirteenth century both ,bartholomew of ,england1 who seems to cite ,johannitius 7,hunain ibn ,ishak7 on this point1#bfeb and ,vincent of ,beauvais agree that the brain has three main cavities4 ,the first is phantastic1 from which the senses are controlled1 where the sensations are registered1 and where the process of imagination goes on4 ,the middle cell is logical or rational1 and there the forms received from the senses and imagination are examined and judged4 ,the third cell retains such forms as pass this examination and so is the seat of memory4#bfec ,the ,pseudo-,augustine1 however1 represents it further as the source of motor activity4 ,constantinus and ,vincent of ,beauvais1 who quotes him in the thirteenth century1 further distinguish the phantastic cavity as hot and dry1 the logical cell as cold and moist1 and the seat of memory as cold and dry4 ,moreover1 the phantastic cell which multiplies forms contains a great deal of spiritus and very little medulla1 while the cell of memory which retains the smaller number of forms selected by reason contains much medulla and little spiritus4 ,thus the general point of view of these other authors resembles that of ,costa ben ,luca despite the divergence from him in details4 ,they perhaps also owe something to ,augustine1 who in his genuine works speaks of the three cells of the brain but makes the hind-brain the center of motor activity1 and the mid-brain the seat of memory4#bfed ,sidenote3 ,thebit ben ,corat4 ,thabit ibn ,kurrah ibn ,marwan ibn ,karaya ibn ,ibrahim ibn ,marinos ibn ,salamanos 7,abu ,al ,hasan7 ,al ,harrani or ,thabit ben ,corrah ben ,zahrun el ,harrani1 or ,tabit ibn ,qorra ibn ,merwan1 ,abu'l-,hasan1 el-,harrani1 or ,thabit ben ,qorrah or ,thabit ibn ,qurra1 or ,tabit ibn ,korrah1 or ,thabit ben ,korra1 as he is variously designated by modern scholars2#bfee or ,thebit ben ,corat1 or ,thebith ben ,corath1 or ,thebit filius ,core1 or ,thebites filius ,chori1 also ,tabith1 ,tebith1 ,thabit1 ,thebeth1 ,thebyth1 and ,benchorac1 ben corach1 etc41 as we find it in the medieval ,latin versions--,thebit ben ,corat seems the prevalent medieval spelling and so will be adopted here--was born at ,harran in ,mesopotamia about #hcf1 spent much of his life at ,bagdad1 and lived until about #ija4bfef ,he wrote in ,arabic as well as ,syriac1 but was not a ,mohammedan1 and ,roger ,bacon alludes to him as 8the supreme philosopher among all ,christians1 who has added in many respects1 speculative as well as practical1 to the work of ,ptolemy40#bfeg ,as a matter of fact1 he was a heathen or pagan1 a member of the sect of ,sabians1 whose chief seat was at his birthplace1 ,harran4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,sabians4 ,the ,sabians appear to have continued the paganism and astrology of ,babylonia1 but also to have accepted the ,agathodaemon and ,hermes of ,egypt1#bfeh and to have had relations with ,gnosticism and ,neo-,platonism4 ,they seem to have laid especial stress upon the spirits of the planets1#bfei to whom they made prayers1 sacrifices1 and suffumigations1#bffj while days on which the planets reached their culminating-points were celebrated as festivals4#bffa ,they observed the houses and stations of the planets1 their risings and settings1 conjunctions and oppositions1 and rule over certain hours of the day and night4#bffb ,some planets were masculine1 others feminine2 some lucky1 others unlucky2#bffc they were related to different metals2#bffd the different members of the human body were placed under different signs of the zodiac2#bffe and in general each planet had its own appropriate figures and forms1 and ruled over certain climates1 regions1 and things#bfff in nature4 ,most of this1 however1 is astrological commonplace whether of pagans1 ,mohammedans1 or ,christians4 ,nor were the ,sabians peculiar in associating intellectual substances or spirits with the planets4#bffg ,it was only in worshiping these and denying the existence of one ,god and in their practice of sacrificial divination that they could be distinguished as heathen or pagan4 ,however1 they seem to have devoted a rather unusual amount of attention to astrology and other forms of magic such as oracular heads1#bffh magic knots and figures1#bffi and seal-rings carved with peculiar animal figures4 ,these last they often buried with the dead for a time in order to increase their virtue4#bfgj ,sidenote3 ,thebit's relations to ,sabianism4 ,thebit1 at any rate1 seems to have prided himself upon being a descendant of pagan antiquity4 ,in a passage praising his native town he said1 8,we are the heirs and posterity of heathenism10#bfga and he described with veneration a ruined ,greek temple at ,antioch4#bfgb ,he had1 however1 some religious disagreement with the ,sabians of ,harran and was finally forced to leave4#bfgc ,he met a philosopher who took him to ,bagdad where he became one of the ,caliph's astronomers#bfgd and founded there a ,sabian community to his own taste4 ,his numerous religious writings show the value which he attached to various ,sabian usages and rites3 ceremonials at burials1 hours of prayer1 rules of purity and impurity and concerning the animals to be sacrificed1 readings in honor of the different planets4#bfge ,sidenote3 ,thebit as encyclopedist1 philosopher1 astronomer4 ,thebit was a writer of encyclopedic range and translated from the ,greek#bfgf into ,arabic or ,syriac such authors as ,apollonius1 ,archimedes1 ,aristotle1 ,euclid1 ,hippocrates1 and ,galen4 ,he 8was famed above all as a philosopher10#bfgg but most of his philosophical works are lost1 but some geometrical treatises by him are extant1 and a work on weights appears in ,latin translation4#bfgh ,a group of four astronomical treatises by him also occurs with fair frequency in medieval manuscripts4#bfgi ,on the basis of these specimens of his astronomy ,delambre was not moved to assign him any great place in the history of the science2#bfhj ,chwolson objects that they are too brief to do him justice1#bfha but they are probably the cream of his own contributions to the subject or the middle ages would not have translated and preserved them so sedulously4 ,sidenote3 ,his occult science4 ,whatever ,thebit's contributions to positive knowledge may or may not have been1 there is no dispute as to the fact that he was given to occult science and even superstition4 ,his attitude towards alchemy1 indeed1 is doubtful1 as a work of alchemy is ascribed to him in one manuscript of the fourteenth century and some notes against the art in another#bfhb4 ,but of his adhesion to astrology there is no doubt#bfhc1 and ,chwolson notes his interest in the mystic power of letters and magic combinations of them#bfhd4 ,but the one outstanding example of his occult science is his treatise on images1 which seems to have been a favorite with the ,latin middle ages1 since it appears to have been translated into ,latin twice1 by ,adelard of ,bath#bfhe and by ,john of ,seville#bfhf1 since the manuscripts of it are numerous1#bfhg and it also was printed1#bfhh and since ,thebit is cited as an authority on the subject of images by such medieval writers as ,roger ,bacon1 ,albertus ,magnus1#bfhi the author of ,picatrix1#bfij ,peter of ,abano1#bfia and ,cecco d',ascoli4#bfib ,sidenote3 ,astrological and magic images4 ,the work begins by emphasizing the need of a knowledge of astronomy in order to perform feats of magic 7praestigia74 ,the images described are astronomical or astrological and must be constructed under prescribed constellations in order to fulfill the end sought4 ,often1 however1 they are human forms rather than astronomical figures4 ,it is not necessary to engrave them upon gems2 ,thebit expressly states that the material of which they are made or upon which they are engraved is unimportant1 and that lead or tin or bronze or gold or silver or wax or mud or anything you please will do4 ,the essential thing and 8the perfection of mastery0 is careful conformity to astrological conditions4 ,this science of images is indeed1 as ,aristotle and ,ptolemy have testified1 the acme of astrology4 ,nevertheless1 after the image has been properly constructed1 there is usually some non-astrological ceremony to be executed in connection with it which savors of magic4 ,often the image is to be buried1 not however in a grave as in the case of the ancient curses upon lead tablets1 but in the house of someone concerned4 ,once two images are to be placed facing each other and wrapped in a clean cloth before burying them4 ,instructions are also given as to the direction in which the person burying the image should face4 ,also forms of words are prescribed which are to be repeated as the image is buried4 ,once the name of the person whom it is desired to injure is to be written with 8names of hate on the back of the image40 ,among the objects supposed to be achieved by such images are driving off scorpions1 destroying a given region1 causing misfortunes to happen to others1 recovery of stolen objects1 success in business or politics1 protection from possible injury at the hands of the king1 or the causing of an enemy's death by bringing him into disfavor with the monarch4 ,the treatise closes1 at least in the printed text1 with an admission of its essentially magic character by saying1 8,and this is what ,god the highest wished to reveal to his servants concerning magic1 that ,his name may be honored and praised and ever exalted through the ages40 ,but no mention is made of demons1 unless an instruction to name one image 8by a famous name0 alludes to some spirit4 ,we shall now conclude the present survey with some account of ,rasis and his writings1 with the exception of a number of books of experiments ascribed to him1 but which it is impossible to separate from those ascribed to ,galen and other authors1 and of which we shall treat later under the head of such experimental literature4 ,sidenote3 ,life of ,rasis4 ,the full name of ,rasis or ,rhazes was ,abu ,bakr ,muhammad ibn ,zakariya ar-,razi1#bfic the last word indicating his birthplace in ,persia4 ,the date of his birth is uncertain1 perhaps about #hej4 ,he died in #ibc or #ibd4bfid ,for the facts of his life we are dependent upon two ,arabic writers of the thirteenth century#bfie who do little except tell one 8good0 story after another about him1 or quote his famous sayings1 most of which sound as if culled from the works of ,galen4 ,when about thirty years of age ,rasis came to ,bagdad and is said to have been attracted to the study of medicine by hearing how an inflamed and swollen forearm which gave great pain was marvelously cured by the application of an herb1 which came to be called 8the vivifier of the world40 ,in the early years of the tenth century ,rasis served as physician in the hospital at ,bagdad4 ,according to ,withington he has been called 8the first and most original of the great ,moslem physicians40 ,he also was interested in philosophy and alchemy1 as his writings will show4 ,sidenote3 ,his #bcb works4 ,there has come down to us a list of some #bcb works ascribed to ,rasis4#bfif ,some of them are probably merely different wordings of the same title1 others are very likely chapters repeated from his longer works1 but at any rate they serve to give us some idea of his interests and the ground he covered1 although of course some may be incorrectly attributed to him4 ,editions of the ,latin translations of some of his chief medical works were printed before the end of the fifteenth century at ,milan in #adha and ,bergamo in #adig4bfig ,these contain the famous ,liber ,almansoris or ,liber ,el-,mansuri dictus with its ten subordinate treatises3 7#a7 introduction to medicine and discussion of human anatomy1 7#b7 the doctrine of temperaments and humors and a discussion of the art of physiognomy1#bfih with a chapter on how to select slaves1 7#c7 diet and drugs1 7#d7 hygiene1 7#e7 cosmetics1 7#f7 rules of health and medicines for travelers1 7#g7 surgery or 8the art of binding up broken bones and concerning wounds and ulcers10 7#h7 poisons1 7#i7 treatment of diseases from head to foot1 7#aj7 fevers4 ,following this in both editions come his works on ,divisions1 on diseases of the joints1 on the diseases of children1 and his ,aphorisms or six books of medicinal secrets4 ,other writings by ,rasis found in one or both of the printed editions are a brief treatise on ,surgery1 ,cautery1 and ,leeches1#bfii the book of ,synonyms1 the table of antidotes1 and some others which we shall have occasion to mention later4 ,his treatise on the pestilence or on smallpox and measles was printed many times from the fifteenth to sixteenth century4 ,sidenote3 ,charlatans discussed4 ,in the list of #bcb titles are three works which all seem to bear on the same point and are perhaps different descriptions of one treatise1 or else show that this was a favorite theme with ,rasis4 ,the idea in all three seems to be that no physician is perfect or can cure all diseases of all patients1 that this is why many persons go to charlatans1 and why sometimes quacks1 old-wives1 and popular practice succeed in certain cases where the most learned doctors have failed4#bgjj ,sidenote3 ,his interest in natural science4 ,other titles show that ,rasis was interested in natural science and not merely in the practice of medicine4 ,besides what would appear to have been a general treatise entitled1 ,opinions concerning ,natural ,things1 he wrote on optics1 holding that vision was not by rays sent forth from the eye1 and discussing some of the figures in the work on optics ascribed to ,euclid4 ,in a letter he inquired into the reason for the creation of wild beasts and venomous reptiles2 and in a third treatise wrote of the magnet's attraction for iron and of vacuums4#bgja ,his interest in natural philosophy of a rather theoretical sort is indicated by an ,explanation of the book of ,plutarch or commentary on the book of ,timaeus4#bgjb ,other titles attest his experimental tendency4#bgjc ,sidenote3 ,rasis and alchemy4 ,eight titles deal with alchemy#bgjd and show that ,rasis regarded transmutation as possible4 ,one is a reply to ,alkindi who held the opposite opinion4#bgje ,none of these writings seem to be extant in ,arabic1 however1 and the ,latin works of alchemy ascribed to ,rasis are generally regarded as spurious4 ,the thirteenth century encyclopedist1 ,vincent of ,beauvais1 made a number of citations from the treatise ,de salibus et aluminibus attributed to ,rasis1 but ,berthelot#bgjf regarded this work as later than ,rasis and it is not found among our eight titles4 ,the ,lumen luminis1 which is ascribed to ,rasis#bgjg and seems to have been translated by ,michael ,scot#bgjh in the early thirteenth century1 is also mainly devoted to these two substances1 salts and alums4 ,a ,book of ,seventy is ascribed to ,rasis as well as to ,geber4 ,berthelot was inclined to think that a ,book of ,secrets perhaps went back to ,rasis4 ,at least some good stories are told by ,arabic chroniclers of ,rasis' connection with alchemy4 ,one is to the effect that he abandoned the art as a result of a sound beating to which the caliph subjected him when he failed to transmute metals at order4 ,another states that in preparing the elixir he injured his eyes with its vapors and was cured by a physician who charged him a fee of five hundred dinars4 ,rasis paid the doctor's bill1 but1 remarking that at last he had discovered the true alchemy and the best art of making gold1 devoted the remainder of his life to the study and practice of medicine4#bgji ,sidenote3 ,titles suggestive of astrology and magic4 ,rasis also wrote treatises on mathematics and the stars but it is not always easy to infer their contents from the titles which have alone reached us or to tell when mathematica means astrology4 ,in one work he seems to have shown the excellence and utility of mathematica1 but to have confuted those who extolled it beyond measure4#bgaj ,in a letter he denied that the rising and setting of the sun and other planets was because of the earth's motion and held that it was due to the movement of the celestial orb4#bgaa ,in another letter he discussed the opinion of natural philosophers concerning the sciences of the stars and whether or not the stars were living beings4#bgab ,rasis also discussed the difference between dreams from which the future can be forecast and other dreams4#bgac ,the title1 ,of exorcisms1 fascinations1 and incantations1 under which1 according to ,negri's ,latin translation ,rasis discussed the causes and cures of diseases by these methods and magic arts1 should1 in ,ranking's opinion1 be more accurately translated as ,the ,book of ,divisions and ,branches4#bgad ,a work ,on the ,necessity of ,prayer is also included in the list of #bcb works ascribed to ,rasis1#bgae while a ,lapidary produced for ,wenzel ,,ii of ,bohemia 7#abgh-acje7 cites ,rasis ,on the virtues of words and characters4#bgaf ,sidenote3 ,conclusion4 ,herewith we conclude our present survey of ,arabian occult science especially in the ninth century1 although in the following chapters we shall frequently encounter its influence4 ,we have found the occult science closely associated with natural science and difficult to sever from it4 ,in the authors and works reviewed we have found both scepticism and superstition1 both rationalism and empiricism4 ,but perhaps the most impressive point is that even superstition pretends to be or attempts to be scientific4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,latin ,,astrology ,,and ,,divination3 ,,especially ,,in ,,the ,,ninth1 ,,tenth1 ,,and ,,eleventh ,,centuries ,astrology in ,gaul before the twelfth century--,figures of astrological medicine--,the divine quaternities of ,raoul ,glaber--,celestial portents and other marvels--,an eleventh century calendar--,astrology and divination in ecclesiastical compoti--,notker on the mystic date of ,easter--,prediction from the ,kalends of ,january--,other divination by the day of the week--,divination by the day of the moon--,authorship of moon-books--,spheres of life and death3 in ,greek--,medieval ,latin versions--,survival of such methods in medical practice of about #adjj--;,egyptian days--,their history--,medieval attempts to explain them--,other perilous days--,firmicus read by an archbishop of ,york--,relation of ,latin astrology to ,arabic--,appendix ,i4 ,some manuscripts of the ,sphere of ,pythagoras or ,apuleius--,appendix ,,ii4 ,egyptian days in early medieval manuscripts4 ,sidenote3 ,astrology in ,gaul before the twelfth century4 ,astrology had continued to flourish in ,gaul in the last declining days of the ,roman ,empire1 despite the strictures of ,christian writers and clergy1#bgag and it was one of the first subjects to revive after the darkness of the ,merovingian period4 ,two centuries ago ,goujet in a treatise on the state of the sciences in ,france from the death of ,charlemagne to that of ,king ,robert noted that from the reign of ,charlemagne astronomy continued to be increasingly studied4 8,the councils in their decrees1 the bishops in their statutes1 the kings in their capitularies1 expressly recommended the study of it to the clergy40#bgah ,with the study of astronomy naturally developed a belief in astrology4 ,according to the ,histoire ,littraire de la ,france it became quite the fashion during the reign of ,louis the ,pious1 ,charlemagne's successor1 when we are told that there was no great lord but had his own astrologer4 ,adalmus1 before he became abbot of ,castres1 wasted much time upon this pseudo-science1 and ,rabanus ,maurus showed tendencies in that direction4 ,in the tenth century such celestial phenomena as comets and eclipses were feared as sinister portents1 and men resorted to enchantments1 auguries1 and other forms of divination4#bgai ,a brief treatise in a manuscript of the ninth century in the ,vatican library also develops the thesis that comets signify disasters4#bgbj ,in the eleventh century ,engelbert1 a monk of ,lige1 and ,odo1 teacher at ,tournai1 were devoted to the study of the stars2 and ,gilbert ,maminot1 bishop of ,lisieux1 and for a time chaplain and physician to ,william the ,conqueror1 would rather spend his nights in star-gazing than in sleep4 8,but what was the outcome of all this toil and study80 inquires the ,histoire ,littraire and replies to its own question1 8,the making of some wretched astrologers and not a single true astronomer60#bgba ,sidenote3 ,figures of astrological medicine4 ,these words were written nearly two hundred years ago1 but such a recent investigation of manuscripts in ,french libraries as that of ,wickersheimer on figures illustrative of astrological medicine from the ninth1 tenth1 and eleventh centuries has on the whole confirmed the importance of astrology in the meager learning of that time4#bgbb ,the manuscripts in ,english libraries1 ,i have found1 tell a similar story4 ,of the human figures marked with the twelve signs of the zodiac1 which become so common in the manuscripts by the fourteenth century1 and in which the head rests upon the ,ram1 the feet on ,pisces1 while the intervening members of the body are marked by their respective signs1--of these ,wickersheimer found none before the twelfth century4 ,but in a medical manuscript of the eleventh century the twelve signs with their names and the names of the parts of the human body to which they apply are grouped about a half figure of ,christ1 who has ,his right hand raised to bless1 while about ,his head is a halo or sun-disk with twelve rays4#bgbc ,less favorable to astrology is the accompanying legend1 8,according to the ravings of the philosophers the twelve signs are thus denoted40 ,on the page following the text describes the twelve signs 8according to the ,gentiles40 ,schemes in which the world1 the year1 and man were associated1 and where are shown the four elements1 four seasons1 four humors1 four temperaments1 four ages1 four cardinal points1 and four winds1 are frequently found in extant manuscripts of the ninth1 tenth1 and eleventh centuries4#bgbd ,sidenote3 ,the divine quaternities of ,raoul ,glaber4 ,such association reminds one of the opening of the chronicle of ,raoul ,glaber1 written in the eleventh century1 8,since we are to treat of events in the four quarters of the earth1 it will be well to touch first upon the power of divine and abstract quaternity40 ,there are four elements1 he gives us to understand1 four virtues and four senses4 ,there are four ,gospels and they have their relation to the four elements4 ,matthew1 dealing with ,christ's incarnation1 corresponds to earth2 ,mark to water1 since it emphasizes baptism2 ,luke to air1 because it is the longest ,gospel2 and ,john to fire or ether as the most spiritual4 ,in like manner can be associated with the four cardinal virtues those four famous rivers which had their sources in ,paradise3 ,phison and prudence1 ,geon and temperance1 the ,tigris and fortitude1 the ,euphrates and justice4 ,finally the ages of the world are found to be four by ,raoul1 instead of the six eras corresponding to the days of creation which we find in ,isidore1 ,bede1 and other medieval historians2 and these four ages also relate to the four virtues4 ,the days of ,abel1 ,enoch1 and ,noah were days of prudence2 but on leaving ,noah we have temperance marking the age of ,abraham and the patriarchs2 fortitude is the feature of the time of ,moses and the prophets2 while justice characterizes the period since the incarnation of the ,word4 ,sidenote3 ,celestial portents and other marvels4 ,the faith of ,raoul and his contemporaries in the mystic significance of numbers1 if not also in astrology1 and the fact that they were constantly on the lookout for portents and prodigies1 are further attested by the stress laid in his chronicle upon the thousandth anniversaries of ,christ's birth and of ,his passion4 ,says ,raoul1 8,after the multiplicity of prodigies which1 although some came a little before and some a trifle afterwards1 happened in the world around the thousandth year of ,christ the ,lord1 there were many industrious men of sagacious mind who prophesied that there would be others not inferior to these in the thousandth year of our ,lord's passion40 ,that they were not mistaken in this premonition he shows later by several chapters1 including an account of the eclipse of the sun in that year4 ,like many another medieval historian1 ,raoul is careful to note the appearance of comets--in the ,bayeux tapestry of the same century one marks the death of ,edward the ,confessor2 ,raoul also believes that if a living person is visited by spirits1 either good or evil1 it is a sign of his approaching death2 he holds the usual view that demons may sometimes work marvels by divine permission1 and tells of a magician-impostor whom he saw work miracles upon pseudo-relics4 ,but from the superstition of medieval chroniclers we must turn back to astrological manuscripts proper4 ,sidenote3 ,an eleventh century calendar4 ,an eleventh century calendar at ,amiens#bgbe reveals both a simple form of astrological medicine and a belief in some peculiar significance of the number seven1 whether as a sacred or an astrological number4 ,at the head of each month are brief instructions as to what herbs to use during that month1 as to bleeding and bathing1 and what disease may most easily be cured then4#bgbf ,in the same manuscript one miniature shows someone striking seven bells with a hammer1 perhaps as notes in a scale1 and another miniature represents a seven-branched candlestick1 of which the branches are respectively labeled1 8,spirit of piety1 ,spirit of fortitude1 ,spirit of intellect1 ,spirit of wisdom1 ,spirit of prudence1 ,spirit of science1 ,spirit of the fear of ,god40#bgbg ,sidenote3 ,astrology and divination in ecclesiastical ,compoti4 ,indeed works of astrology and divination are especially likely to be found in the same manuscripts with ecclesiastical calendars and computi4 ,computus or compotus1 as one manuscript states1 was 8the science considering times40#bgbh ,for example1 in a brief compotus of the ninth century#bgbi a divining sphere of ,pythagoras occurs twice1 and we have also a moon book1 an account of the ,egyptian days1 and a method of divination from winds4 ,in a twelfth century manuscript1#bgcj sandwiched in between calendars and reckonings of ,easter and eclipses and ,bede's work ,on the ,natures of ,things1 are a sphere of divination1 an account of ,egyptian days1 a method of divination from thunder1 and a portion of a work on judicial astrology beginning with the eleventh chapter which tells how to determine whether anyone will be poor or rich by inspection of the planet in his nativity4#bgca ,sidenote3 ,notker on the mystic date of ,easter4 ,the very dating of ,easter itself might be the occasion for indulging in mystic speculation of a semi-astrological nature4 ,thus ,notker ,labeo1 c #iej-ajbb1 the well-known monk of ,st4 ,gall1#bgcb in a treatise to his disciple ,erkenhard on four questions of compotus1#bgcc states that the principal problem1 with which all others are connected1 is that of the date of ,easter4 ,he gives the time as in the first full moon after the vernal equinox1 but adds that this is because of a certain mystery4 ,for if there were no mystery connected with the date of ,easter1 and it merely celebrated like other festivals the memory of an event which once happened1 there is no doubt but that it would occur every year without variation upon the twenty-seventh of ,march1 which was the day of the ,lord's resurrection4 ,but as after the vernal equinox the days grow longer than the nights1 and as at the full of the moon its splendor is revolved on high1 so we should overcome the darkness of sin by the light of piety and faith and turn our minds from earthly to celestial things1 if we wish to celebrate ,easter worthily4 ,sidenote3 ,prediction from the ,kalends of ,january4 ,but let us consider in more detail the methods of divination found in such manuscripts4 ,simplest of all perhaps are predictions as to the character of the ensuing year according to the day of the week upon which the first of ,january falls4 ,for example1 8,if the kalends of ,january shall be on the ,lord's day1 the winter will be good and mild and warm1 the spring windy1 and the summer dry4 ,good vintage1 increasing flocks2 honey will be abundant2 the old men will die2 and peace will be made40#bgcd ,in some manuscripts these predictions concerning the weather1 crops1 wars1 and king for the ensuing year are called ,supputatio ,esdrae or signs which ,god revealed to the prophet ,esdras4#bgce ,in another manuscript#bgcf the weather for winter and summer is predicted according to the day of the week upon which ,christmas falls and ,lent begins4 ,christmas of course was sometimes regarded as the first day of the new year and in any case it falls on the same day of the week as the following first of ,january4 ,in a ninth century manuscript#bgcg predictions for the ensuing year are made according as there is wind in the night on ,christmas eve and the eleven nights following4 ,for instance1 8,if there is wind in the night on the night of the natal day of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 in that year kings and pontiffs will perish10 and 8,if on twelfth night there shall be wind1 kings will perish in war40 ,sidenote3 ,other divination by the day of the week ,divination from thunder is another form of judicial astrology1 if it may so be called1 found in these early manuscripts4 ,perhaps the simplest variety of it is according to the day of the week on which thunder is heard4#bgch ,predictions were also made according to the month in which thunder was heard1#bgci or the direction from which it was heard4#bgdj ,it may be recalled that the three chapters of ,bede's translation of some work on divination from thunder had been respectively devoted to these three methods by the direction from which the thunder is heard1 the month1 and the day of the week4 ,nativities of infants are also given according to the day of the week on which they are born1 and further taking into account whether the hour of birth is diurnal or nocturnal4#bgda ,it is also regarded as important to note upon which day of the week the new moon occurs1#bgdb and we are further informed of the various hours of the days of the week when it is advisable to perform blood-letting4#bgdc ,in a method of divination according to the day of the week and the letters in the boy's or girl's name the ,lord's day is assigned the number thirteen1 the day 8of the moon0 eighteen1 and that 8of ,mars0 fifteen4#bgdd ,since the days of the week bore the names of the planets1 it was not strange that they should have been credited with something of the virtues of the stars4 ,sidenote3 ,divination by the day of the moon4 ,a commoner method of divination and one more nearly approaching approved astrological doctrine was that by the day of the month or moon4 ,briefest of such moon-books is that which merely designates each of the thirty days as favorable or unfavorable4#bgde ,we also find a ,lunarium for the sick1 stating the patient's prospects from the day of the moon on which he contracted his illness2#bgdf a work ascribed to 8,saint ,daniel0 on nativities by the day of the moon2#bgdg and an equally brief interpretation of dreams upon the same basis4#bgdh ,or all these matters may be considered in the same treatise and each of them somewhat more fully1 and we may be told whether the day is a good one on which to buy and sell1 to board a ship1 to enter a city1 to operate upon a patient1 to send children off to school1 to breed animals1 to build an aqueduct or mill1 or whether it is best to abstain on it from most business4 ,also such predictions as that the boy born on that day will be illustrious1 astute1 wise1 and lettered2 that he will encounter danger on the water1 but will live to old age if he escapes2 while the girl born on the same day will be 8chaste1 benign1 good-looking1 and pleasing to men40 ,that anyone who takes to his bed on that day will suffer a long sickness1 but that it is a favorable day for blood-letting1 and that one should not worry about dreams he has then1 since they possess no significance either for good or evil4 ,also what chance there is of recovering articles stolen on that day4#bgdi ,in later manuscripts at least it is further stated that certain ,biblical characters were born on this day or that day of the moon3 ,adam on the first1 ,eve on the second1 ,cain on the third1 ,abel on the fourth1 and so on4#bgej ,sidenote3 ,authorship of moon-books4 ,in the early manuscripts moon-books are anonymous or ascribed to ,daniel1 but in later medieval manuscripts other authors are named4 ,the name of ,adam is coupled with that of ,daniel in both of two rather elaborate moon-books in a fourteenth century manuscript1#bgea where ,adam is said to have worked out these 8lunations0 8by true experience40 ,a fifteenth century one is attributed to a philosopher1 astrologer1 and physician named ,edris1#bgeb perhaps the ,esdras of the method of divination by the kalends of ,january rather than the ,arab ,edrisi4 ,it briefly predicts from the relation of the moon to the twelve signs whether patients will recover and captives escape4 ,in a sixteenth century manuscript at ,paris are 8,significations of the days of the moon which the most excellent astronomer ,bezogar revealed to his disciples and transmitted to them as a very great secret and most precious gift40#bgec ,but such an ascription is rather obviously a late fiction4 ,sidenote3 ,spheres of life and death3 in ,greek4 ,determining the fate of the patient from the day of the moon upon which his illness was incurred enters also into certain spheres of life and death which were much employed in the early middle ages4 ,but in these the number of the day of the moon is combined with a second number obtained by a numerical evaluation of the letters forming the patient's name4 ,this method came down from the ancient ,greek-speaking world1 as in a 8,sphere of ,democritus1 prognostic of life and death0 found in a ,leyden papyrus1#bged while the very similar ,sphere of ,petosiris1 the mythical ,egyptian astrologer1 is variously dated by ,w4 ,kroll from the second century before ,christ1 by ,e4 ,riess from the first century before ,christ1 and by ,f4 ,boll in the first century of our era4#bgee ,the so-called 8,sphere0 is really only a wheel of fortune1 circle1 or other plane figure divided into compartments where different numbers are grouped under such headings as 8,life0 and 8,death40 ,having calculated the value of a person's name by adding together the ,greek numerals represented by its component letters1 and having further added in the day of the moon1 one divides the sum by some given divisor and looks for the quotient in the compartments4 ,this method of divination was also employed in regard to fugitive slaves and the outcome of gladiatorial combats4#bgef ,sidenote3 ,medieval ,latin versions4 ,in the medieval ,latin versions of these ,spheres of life and death the numerical value of the ,greek letters was naturally usually lost and arbitrary numerical equivalents were assigned to the ,roman letters or some other method of calculation was substituted4 ,the ,sphere of ,petosiris was perpetuated in the form of a letter by him to ,nechepso1 king of ,egypt4#bgeg ,but more common than this in manuscripts of the ninth1 tenth1 and eleventh centuries was the ,sphere of life and death of ,apuleius or ,pythagoras or both#bgeh which replaced that of ,democritus4 ,like it1 it consisted of the numbers from one to thirty arranged in six compartments1 three above a line each containing six numbers1 and three below the line having four each4 ,john of ,salisbury1 in the twelfth century1 presumably refers to it when he speaks of divination or lot-casting 8by inspection of the so-called ,pythagorean table02#bgei and it continues to be found with great frequency in the manuscripts of subsequent centuries4#bgfj ,it is not to be confused1 however1 with the ,prenostica ,pitagorice1 a more elaborate1 although somewhat similar1 method of divination by means of geomantic tables1 of which we shall treat later in the chapter on ,bernard ,silvester4 ,a ,sphere ascribed to ,st4 ,donatus in a twelfth century manuscript includes instructions how to determine the sign of the zodiac under which a person was born by computing the difference between his name and his mother's name4 ,if this amounts to four letters1 he was born under the fourth sign1 and so on4#bgfa ,sidenote3 ,survival of such methods in medical practice of about #adjj4 ,the survival of such superstitious methods of divination into the later middle ages is attested not only by the frequent recurrence of the ,sphere of ,apuleius and the divinations from the kalends of ,january in manuscripts of the later centuries1 but by the medical notebook1 written in middle ,english1 of ,john ,crophill1 who practiced medicine in ,suffolk under ,henry ,,iv4#bgfb ,besides a record of his patients and the sums of money due from them1 rules of dieting and blood-letting for the twelve months of the year1 and his 8more regular and masterly observations upon ,urin10 his notes include a treatise on astrological medicine which1 in the sarcastic language of the old catalogue of the ,harleian ,manuscripts1 concludes 8with a masterpiece of art1 namely1 a tretys or chapter of #8,calculation to know what thou wilt1' and this by observation of persons' names40 ,the notebook also contains 8,oracular ,answers prepared beforehand by this great ,doctor for those of both ,sexes who shall come to consult him in the momentous affair of ,matrimony2 according to the several ,months of the year wherein they should apply themselves40 ,further contents are an incantation in ,latin for women in child-birth1 and 8,the names of the #ab signs with such marks as shew that this ,john ,crophill was a dabbler in ,geomancy40 ,sidenote3 ,egyptian days4 ,brief lists of 8,egyptian ,days0 are of rather common occurrence in both ,latin and ,anglo-,saxon manuscripts of the ninth1 tenth1 and succeeding centuries4#bgfc ,often it is merely stated what days of the year they are2 sometimes it is simply added that the doctor should not bleed the patient upon them4 ,as early as a ninth century manuscript1#bgfd however1 we are further warned not to take a walk or plant or carry on a lawsuit or do any work upon these days4 ,and under no circumstances1 no matter what the seeming necessity1 is it permitted to bleed man or beast on these days4 ,two ,egyptian days are then listed for each month1 one reckoned as so many days from the beginning and the other as so many days before the close of the month4 ,eleven days is the farthest removed that any ,egyptian day is from the first of the month and twelve the most from the close1 so that they never fall in the middle of a month nor on the very first or last day4 ,our ninth century manuscript then mentions three of these days in ,april1 ,august1 and ,december as especially dangerous4 ,whoever falls ill or receives a potion on them is sure to die soon4 ,whoever1 male or female1 is born on one of them will die an evil and painful death4 8,and if one drinks water on those three days1 he will die within forty days40 ,the account then closes with the statement that on the ,egyptian days the people of ,egypt were cursed with ,pharaoh4 ,in another ninth century manuscript a bare list of the ,egyptian days is followed by a somewhat similar account of the three which must be observed with especial care4#bgfe ,in a calendar of saints' days in this same manuscript only the third of ,march and the third of ,july are marked dies egiptiagus4#bgff ,egyptian days are also marked in the calendar of ,marianus ,scotus1 the well-known chronicler and chronologist4#bgfg ,a somewhat different account in a twelfth century manuscript states that 8these are the days which ,god sent without mercy40 ,it also1 however1 lists two of them for each month and distinguishes the three in ,april1 ,august1 and ,december as especially dangerous4#bgfh ,sidenote3 ,their history4 ,there seems to be no doubt that these ,egyptian days were a relic of the unlucky days in the ancient ,egyptian calendar1#bgfi of which we learn from several papyri1 although of course the ancient ,egyptians were also accustomed to distinguish further the three divisions of each day as lucky or unlucky4 ,the ,egyptian days are noted in official calendars of the ,roman ,empire about #ced ,a4 ,d41 and in the ,fasti ,philocaliani there are twenty-five in all1 of which three fall in ,january4 ,in the middle ages1 as has already been illustrated1 there were usually but twenty-four1 two to each month4#bggj ,they were mentioned in the ,life of ,proclus by ,marinus1 and both ,ambrose and ,augustine testified that many ,christians still had faith in them4#bgga ,indeed1 they passed into the ecclesiastical calendar1 as the ,franciscan1 ,bartholomew of ,england1 states in the thirteenth century4#bggb ,sidenote3 ,medieval attempts to explain them4 ,by that time the notion had become prevalent that they were anniversaries of the days upon which ,god afflicted ,egypt with plagues1 as our citations from the manuscripts have shown4 ,bartholomew1 indeed1 is at pains to explain that the days are placed in the church calendar1 8not because one should omit anything upon them more than upon other days1 but in order that ,god's miracles may be recalled to memory40 ,the circumstance that there are twenty-four days does not embarrass him2 he simply explains that this proves that ,god sent more plagues upon ,egypt than the ten which are especially famed4 ,our citations from earlier manuscripts have shown that most people would not agree with ,bartholomew that nothing should be omitted on these days4 ,moreover1 other explanations of their origin had been already given in the middle ages than that from the plagues of ,egypt4 ,honorius of ,autun stated in the twelfth century that they were called ,egyptian days because they had been discovered by the ,egyptians1 and since ,egypt means dark1#bggc they are called tenebrosi1 because they are declared to bring the incautious to the shadows of death4#bggd ,the ,dominican1 ,vincent of ,beauvais1#bgge who probably wrote his encyclopedia soon after that of ,bartholomew1 did not find the discrepancy between ten plagues and twenty-four days so easy to explain away4 ,he states that of the two ,egyptian days in each month one comes near the beginning and the other near the close1 as we have already learned4 ,he adds that some call them lucky days1 while others say that the astrologers of ,egypt discovered that they were unlucky4 ,yet another explanation of their origin is that on these days the ,egyptians were accustomed to sacrifice to demons with their own blood1 a circumstance which would not seem to recommend them for inclusion in the ecclesiastical calendar4 ,bernard ,gordon1 a medical writer at the end of the thirteenth century1 reverts to the position that the ,egyptian days were in memory of the plagues in ,egypt4 ,he declares that there is no sense in the prohibition of blood-letting upon these days1 since they have no astrological significance1 but are the anniversaries of miracles worked by special providence4#bggf ,gilbert of ,england1 earlier in the thirteenth century1 had advised against bleeding on ,egyptian days1 if the moon was then influenced by any evil planet4#bggg ,sidenote3 ,other perilous days4 ,on the other hand1 not only did the twenty-four ,egyptian days and the three in ,april1 ,august1 and ,december which were considered especially dangerous1 continue to be listed in the fourteenth and fifteenth century manuscripts1 but imitations of them appeared4 ,thus in a fourteenth century manuscript we read of forty perilous days which should be observed with the utmost care and which ,greek masters have tested by experience2#bggh while in a second manuscript of the closing medieval period appear fifty-eight dangerous days 8according to the ,arabs40#bggi ,of the ,greek days only twenty-nine are actually listed1 seven in ,january1 three in ,february1 and so on1 omitting the months of ,july and ,august entirely1 which perhaps should contain the missing eleven days4#bghj ,the ,arabic days vary in number per month from seven in ,march1 which is the first month listed1 to three in ,february4 8,and there are four other days and nights according to ,bede on which no one is ever born or conceived1 and if by chance a male is conceived or born1 its body will never be freed from putridity40#bgha ,sidenote3 ,firmicus read by an archbishop of ,york4 ,that astrological knowledge in ,england1 at least soon after the ,norman conquest1 was not limited to such meager and simple treatises as the moon-books described above from ,anglo-,saxon manuscripts1 is seen from the closing incident in the career of ,gerard1 a learned and eloquent man1 bishop of ,hereford under ,william ,rufus and archbishop of ,york under ,henry ,i1 whom he supported in the investiture struggle with ,anselm and the pope4 ,the story goes that ,gerard1 who had been feeling slightly indisposed1 lay down to rest and enjoy the fresh air and fragrance of the flowers in a garden near his palace1 asking his chaplains to leave him for a while4 ,on their return after dinner they found him dead1 and beneath the cushion upon which his head rested was a copy of the astrological work of ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus4 ,gerard had not been popular with the inhabitants of ,york1 and when his corpse was brought back to town1 boys stoned the bier and the canons refused it burial within the cathedral1 which1 however1 his successor granted4 8,his enemies10 we are told1 8interpreted his death1 without the rites of the church1 as a divine judgment for his addiction to magical and forbidden arts40 ,at any rate the story shows that the work of ,firmicus was well known by this time2 it is from the eleventh century that the oldest manuscripts of it date2 and we suspect that some of his enemies were rather hypocritical in the horror which they expressed at a bishop's reading such a book4 8,too independent a thinker for his contemporaries10 writes ,miss ,bateson1 8his opponents held up their hands in horror that an astrological work by ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus should be found under his pillow when he died40#bghb ,the style of ,firmicus is much imitated by the anonymous author of ,the ,laws of ,henry ,i and another legal work entitled ,quadripartitus written in #aaad4 ,f4 ,liebermann states that the author was in the service of archbishop ,gerard aforesaid4#bghc ,sidenote3 ,relation of ,latin astrology to ,arabic4 ,charles ,jourdain once made the generalization that before the translation of the ,quadripartite of ,ptolemy and the works of the ,arabian astrologers into ,latin in the twelfth century1 astrology had little hold among men of learning in western ,europe4#bghd ,an even more erroneous assertion was that in ,burckhardt's ,die ,kultur der ,renaissance in ,italien that 8at the beginning of the thirteenth century0 the superstition of astrology 8suddenly appeared in the foreground of ,italian life40#bghe ,even ,jourdain's assertion the entire present chapter tends to disprove1 but since it has been quoted with approval by a subsequent writer on the thirteenth century1#bghf we may deal with it a little farther4 ,the reason which ,jourdain added in support of his generalization was that before the translations from the ,arabic 8those who cultivated astrology had no other guides than ,censorinus1 ,manilius1 and ,julius ,firmicus1 who might indeed seduce a few isolated dreamers but did not have enough weight to convince philosophers4 ,ptolemy and the ,arabs1 on the contrary1 appeared as masters of a regular science having its own principles and method40 ,this sounds as if ,jourdain had not read ,firmicus who gives a more elaborate presentation of the art of astrology than the elementary ,quadripartite of ,ptolemy4 ,it is true that ,ptolemy had a great scientific reputation from his other writings1 but ,manilius is a poet of no small merit1 and there would be no reason why an age which accepted ,ovid and ,vergil as authorities concerning nature and regarded such works as ,de vetula and the ,secret of ,secrets as genuine works of ,ovid and ,aristotle1 should draw delicate distinctions between ,firmicus and ,albumasar or ,manilius and ,alkindi4 ,it was because reading ,firmicus and even practicing the cruder modes of divination which we have described had already aroused an interest in astrology that other works in the field were sought out and translated4 ,moreover1 there is an even more cogent objection to ,jourdain's generalization which will be developed in the following chapter1 and it is that the taking over of ,arabic astrology had already begun long before the twelfth century4 ,we have1 indeed1 in the present chapter told only half the story of astrology in the tenth and eleventh centuries1 and must now turn back to ,gerbert and the introduction of ,arabic astrology4 ,,appendix ,i ,,some ,,manuscripts ,,of ,,the ,,sphere ,,of ,,pythagoras ,,or ,,apuleius ,besides the copies noted by ,wickersheimer 7#aiac7 in ,french manuscripts from the ninth to the eleventh centuries1 such as ,laon #djg1 ,orlans #bgf1 and ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afaf1 where in fact it occurs twice3 at fol4 #gv1 8,ratio spere phytagor philosophi quem epulegus descripsit10 and at fol4 #adr1 8,ratio pitagere de infirmis10--the following may be listed4 ,,bn #ebci1 #ajth century1 #ab4 ,harleian #cjag1 #ajth century1 fol4 #ehr1 8,ratio spherae ,pythagorae philosophi quam ,apuleius descripsit40 ,cotton ,tiberius ,c1 ,,vi1 #aath century1 fol4 #fv1 ,imagines vitae et mortis quarum utraque rotulum tenet longum literis et numeris quae ad sphaeram ,apuleii ad latera adscriptis1 cum versibus pagina circumscriptis4 ,the figures are of ,vita with halo1 robes1 and angelic face1 and of ,mors1 who wears only a pair of drawers1 whose ribs show through his flesh1 and who has wings like a demon4 ,one has to turn the page upside down in order to read some of it4 ,,cu ,trinity #acfi1 #aath century1 fol4 #ar1 just before the ,calendar of ,marianus ,scotus1 8,racio spere pytagorice quam apuleius descripsit40 ,chartres #aac1 #ith century1 fol4 #ii1 following works by ,alcuin1 8,spera ,apuleii ,platonis40 ,ivrea #ai1 #ajth century1 #e1 ,de spera ,putagorae4 ,,clm #bbcjg1 #aj-aath century1 fol4 #aid1 ,ratio sphaerae ,phitagoreae philosophi quam ,apulegius descripsit1 8,petosiris philosophus ,micipso regi salutem 44401 where it would seem to be confused with the letter of ,petosiris to ,nechepso4 ,vatican ,palat4 ,lat4 #agf1 #ajth century1 fol4 #afbv1 8,eulogii ratio sperae ,pitagorae philosophi10 in a ,,ms containing works of ,jerome1 ,augustine1 and ,ambrose4 ,vatican ,urb4 ,lat4 #bij1 #aa-acth century1 fol4 #bv1 ,ratio spere ,pitagoras quam ,apuleius descripsit2 fol4 #c1 ,petosiris ,micipso regi salutem4 ,i suspect that the following would also prove upon examination to be one of these ,spheres of life and death4 ,,clm #ahfbi1 #ajth century1 fol4 #ie1 ,characteres literarum secretarum1 item incantationes4 ,alphabetum ,graecorum et numeri per tabulam dispositi2 fol4 #ajf1 ,tractatus de literis alphabeti 7mysticus74 ,vatican ,palat4 ,lat4 #dhe1 #ith century1 fol4 #ad1 ,litterae graecae cum interpretatione alphabetica et numerica4 ,vatican #fdd1 #aj-aath century1 fol4 #afv4 ,of the numerous occurrences of the ,sphere of ,pythagoras or of ,apuleius in ,,mss later than the eleventh century ,i have noted only a few examples4 ,vienna #becb1 #abth century1 fols4 #a-b1 ,tractatus astrologicus de divinando exitu morborum e positionibus lune et de sphere ,pythagore4 ,vatican #fdb1 #abth century1 fol4 #hb1 a somewhat different mode of divination1 by which one tells what another is thinking or is holding in his hand1 is attributed to ,bede4 ,madrid #ajjaf1 early #acth century1 fol4 #c1 8spera de morte vel vita02 fol4 #hev1 the letter of ,petosiris to ,nechepso4 ,it is interesting to note that this ,,ms originally belonged to an ,english ,cluniac monastery3 ,haskins1 ,,ehr 7#aiae71 p4 #fe4 ,,bn #gdhf1 #adth century1 fol4 #ffv1 8,canon supra rotam ,pictagore10 opens1 8,pictagoras is said to have written thus to ,nasurius1 king of the ,chaldees20 then at fol4 #fgr comes 8,the ,sphere of ,pictagoras the philosopher which ,epuleus ,platonicus briefly described20 which is followed at fol4 #fhr by a long treatise ascribed to ,ptolemy1 ,exortatio ad artem prescientie ptholomei regis egypti1 in which various questions are answered by numerical and alphabetical calculations and one is also by the same method referred to nativities arranged under the #bh mansions of the moon4 ,,cu ,trinity #aaji1 #adth century1 fol4 #ae1 ,spera apulei et platonici2 fol4 #bj1 8,ratio spere pictagis philosophe quod apollonius scripsit20 fol4 #cib1 ,s7p7era ,fortune4 ,digby1 #eh1 #adth century1 fol4 #av1 8,spera philosophorum40 ,bodleian #bf 7,bernard #ahga71 #ac-adth century1 fols4 #bjg and #bafv4 ,bodleian #agg 7,bernard #bjgb71 late #adth century1 #a1 ,pythagorae sphaera quam ,apuleius exaravit ut scias an aeger convalescat2 #ad1 fol4 #bbr1 ,apuleii ,platonici ,sphaera de vita et morte et de omnibus negotiis quae inquirere volueris4 ,amplon4 ,quarto #chj1 #adth century1 at the close of a ,geomancy by ,abdallah1 8,spera ,apuley de vita et morte vel de omnibus negociis de quibus scire volueris2 sic facias44440 ,additional #aebcf1 #ac-adth century1 fol4 #ajh1 8,spera 7,pictagore7 de vita et morte sive de re alia quacunque secundum ,apuleium40 ,harleian #ecaa1 #aeth century1 folder i1 8,spera ,apullei40 ,s4 ,marco ,,xi1 #aaa1 #afth century1 ascribes a wheel of life and death to 8,bede the presbyter10 and another to ,apollonius and ,pythagoras4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,,egyptian ,,days ,,in ,,early ,,medieval ,,manuscripts ,the following citations could probably be greatly multiplied4 ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afaf1 #ith century1 fol4 #abr4 ,digby #fc1 end of #ith century1 ,anglo-,saxon minuscule1 fol4 #cf1 8,dies ,egiptiachi40 ,berlin #aca 7,phillips #ahfi1 ,trier71 #ith century1 fol4 #abr4 ,lucca #bcf1 about #ijj ,a4 ,d41 on its last #c leaves are ,egyptian days and a dream-book2 described by ,giacosa 7#aija71 p4 #cdi4 ,harleian #cjag1 #ajth century1 fol4 #eir1 ,de diebus ,egiptiacis qui mali sunt in anno circulo4 ,the catalogue dates this ,,ms as #ibj ,a4 ,d4 but at fol4 #ffr the date is given as ,d,c,c,clxii or ,d,c,c,c,clxii 7#ifb ,a4 ,d47--a letter seems to have been erased which probably was the fourth ,c4 ,harleian #cbga1 #ajth century 7871 fol4 #aba1 ,versus ad dies ,egyptiacas inveniendas4 ,see also ,baehrens1 ,poet4 lat4 min4 ,v1 #ced-f2 ,mommsen ,,cil ,i1 #daa4 ,sloane #dge1 this portion of the ,,ms #aj-aath century1 fol4 #bafv1 ,versus de significatione dierum mensis1 opening1 8,tenebrae ,aegyptus ,grecos sermone vocantur44440 ,additional #bbcih1 #ajth century1 fol4 #ajd4 ,cotton ,caligula ,a1 ,,xv1 written mostly in ,gaul before #ajjj ,a4 ,d41 fol4 #abf1 a list of lucky and unlucky days for medical purposes1 in ,anglo-,saxon4 ,cotton ,titus ,d1 ,,xxvi1 #ajth century1 fol4 #cv4 ,cotton ,vitellius ,a1 ,,xii1 fol4 #civ4 ,cotton ,vitellius ,c1 ,,viii1 in ,anglo-,saxon1 fol4 #bc1 de tribus anni diebus ,aegyptiacis4 ,,cu ,trinity #ide1 early #aath century1 fol4 #cg4 ,,cu ,trinity #acfi1 #aath century 7perhaps #ajhf ,a4 ,d471 fol4 #av4 ,vatican #fdd1 #aj-aath century1 fol4 #ggr1 versus duodecim de diebus aegyptiis1 and a fragment 8de tribus diebus aegyptiis40 ,dijon #ddh1 #aj-abth century1 fol4 #hh1 ,calendrier1 avec jours gyptiaques ajouts2 fol4 #aia1 8,de ,egyptiacis diebus40 ,bede's ,de temporibus and ,de natura rerum occur twice in this ,,ms and at fol4 #aha is an incantation for use in fevers4 ,harleian #aehe and ,sloane #aige1 where the ,egyptian days are found with the ,herbarium of ,apuleius1 are both #abth century but probably copied from earlier ,,mss4 ,so in ,chalons-sur-,marne #g1 #acth century1 fol4 #da1 verses on the ,egyptian days occur with the ,ars calculatoria of ,helpericus of ,auxerre who wrote in the ninth century4 ,i have usually not noted the occurrence of the ,egyptian days in later manuscripts4 ,a few exceptions are3 ,,bn #gbii;,a1 #abth century1 fol4 #cgr4 ,,clm #bccij1 #ab-acth century1 the last item is1 8,verses concerning the twelve signs and the ,egyptian days40 ,the previous contents were mainly religious4 ,cambrai #aie1 fol4 #bjh2 #bbi1 fol4 #ef2 #hbi1 fol4 #ed2 all three ,,mss of the #abth century4 ,cambrai #hfa1 early #acth century1 fol4 #ef4 ,sloane #bdfa1 end of #acth century1 fols4 #fbr-#fdv4 ,the verses concerning the ten plagues of ,egypt contained in ,,clm #ahfbi1 #ajth century1 fol4 #ic1 and ascribed by the catalogue to ,eugenius ,toletanus have1 ,i presume1 no connection with the ,egyptian days4 ,such proved to be the case with ,,bn #afbaf1 #acth century1 fol4 #beav1 de decem plagis ,egyptiorum et de vii diebus1 although from the fact that it follows 8,precepta ,pithagore0 ,i suspected before examining it that it might have something to do with divination4 ,but not even the ,pythagorean precepts have in this case4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,gerbert ,,and ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,arabic ,,astrology ,arabic influence in early manuscripts--,a preface and twenty-one chapters on the astrolabe--,are they parts of one work8--,their relation to ,gerbert and the ,arabic--,hermann's ,de mensura astrolabii--,attitude towards astrology in the preface--,question of ,gerbert's attitude towards astrology--,his posthumous reputation as a magician--,an anonymous astronomical treatise2 its possible relation to ,gerbert--,contents of its first two books--,attitude towards astrology--,the fourth book--,citations3 ,arabic names--,mathematica of ,alchandrus or ,alhandreus--,an account of its contents--,astrological doctrine--,nativities and name-calculations--,interrogations and more name-calculations--,alchandrus or ,alhandreus not the same as ,alexander--,alkandrinus or ,alchandrinus on nativities according to the mansions of the moon--,albandinus--,geomancy of ,alkardianus or ,alchandianus--,an anonymous treatise or fragment of the tenth century4 ,sidenote3 ,arabic influence in early manuscripts4 ,the usual view has been that western ,latin learning was not affected by ,arabic science until the twelfth or even the thirteenth century4 ,we shall see in other chapters that the translations of the ,aristotelian books of natural philosophy were current rather earlier than has been recognized1 that in medicine a period of ,neo-,latin ,salernitan tradition can scarcely be distinguished from one of ,arabic influence1 and that in chemistry owing to the misinterpretation of the date of ,robert of ,chester's translation of the book of ,morienus ,romanus--in which ,robert says that the ,latin world does not yet know what alchemy is--,berthelot in his history of medieval alchemy placed the introduction of ,arabic influence half a century too late4 ,in the present chapter we shall see that the voluminous work of translation of ,arabic astrologers which went on in the twelfth century--and to which another chapter will later be devoted--was preceded in the eleventh and even tenth centuries by numerous signs of ,arabic influence in works of astronomy and astrology and also by translations of ,arabic authors4 ,i was somewhat startled when ,i first found works by ,arabic authors and use of astronomical terminology drawn from the ,arabic in a manuscript of the eleventh century in the ,british ,museum#bghg and ,wickersheimer was similarly surprised at the traces of ,arabic influence in a similar but still earlier manuscript of the tenth century at ,paris4#bghh ,bubnov1 however1 had already noted this ,paris manuscript as a proof that ,arabic books were being translated into ,latin in ,gerbert's time1#bghi and one of ,gerbert's letters1 written in #ihd to a ,lupitus of ,barcelona 7,lupito ,barchinonensi71 asking him to send ,gerbert a book on 8astrology0 which he had translated1 points in the same direction4 ,in the present chapter we shall discuss the contents of the early manuscripts just mentioned and of some others which seem to have some connection either with ,gerbert or the introduction of ,arabic astrology into ,latin learning4 ,sidenote3 ,a preface and twenty-one chapters on the astrolabe4 ,in an eleventh century manuscript at ,munich#bgij the astrological work of ,firmicus is preceded by writings in a different hand upon the astrolabe4 ,one of these1 in its present state an anonymous fragment1 is a stilted and florid introduction to a translation from the ,arabic of a work on the astrolabe4#bgia ,another is a treatise on the astrolabe in twenty-one chapters and containing many ,arabic names4#bgib ,bubnov lists three other copies of the introductory fragment1 and they are all in manuscripts where the second treatise is also included2#bgic it1 however1 is often found in other manuscripts where the anonymous fragment does not appear1 and it must be admitted that its omission is no great loss4 ,sidenote3 ,are they parts of one work8 ,although the fragment precedes the other treatise in only one manuscript mentioned by ,bubnov1 there is reason to think that they belong together1 since both are concerned with the ,wazzalcora or planisphere or astrolapsus of ,ptolemy1 and since the plan outlined by the writer of the introduction is followed in the treatise of twenty-one chapters except that it ends incompletely4 ,bubnov recognized this1 yet did not unite them as a single work4#bgid ,in #ihd ,gerbert wrote to a ,lupito ,barchinonensi asking ,lupitus to send him a work on 8astrology0 which ,lupitus had translated4#bgie ,if ,lupitus was of ,barcelona1 his translation was probably from the ,arabic1 and as such translations were presumably not common in the tenth century1 it is natural to wonder if he may not be the above-mentioned anonymous translator4 ,this ,bubnov suggested in the case of the introductory fragment1#bgif but the treatise in twenty-one chapters he placed among the doubtful works of ,gerbert1#bgig because a monastic catalogue composed before #ajhd speaks of a work of ,gerbert on the astrolabe1 while six manuscripts of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 although none earlier to his knowledge1 ascribe this very treatise of twenty-one chapters to ,gerbert4 ,bubnov believed that whoever the author of the treatise in twenty-one chapters was1 he had utilized the full work of the anonymous translator4 ,but this seems a rather unnecessary refinement4 ,for what has become of that translation8 ,why is only its wordy and rhetorical preface extant8 ,if the writer of the twenty-one chapters destroyed its text after plagiarizing it1 why did he not also make away with the preface8 ,it seems more plausible that the twenty-one chapters are the original translation from the ,arabic1 and that many makers of manuscripts have copied it alone and omitted the wordy and rather worthless preface of the translator4 ,if1 as ,bubnov suggested1 the treatise in twenty-one chapters is ,gerbert's revision and polishing up of ,lupitus' translation1#bgih why did he not prefix a new introduction of his own8 ,and why should anyone try to polish up the style of so rhetorical a writer as he who penned the extant anonymous introduction8 ,sidenote3 ,their relation to ,gerbert and the ,arabic4 ,if we accept this anonymous introduction as the preface to the twenty-one chapters1 ,gerbert would be the most likely person to ascribe both to1 unless we argue that he could not make a translation from the ,arabic and that his letter asking to see a translation from the ,arabic by ,lupitus is a proof of this4 ,if ,gerbert is not the author1 ,lupitus would perhaps be the next most likely person1 but the hint contained in ,gerbert's letter is all that points to ,lupitus1 and indeed the only mention that we have of him4 ,if the translator is some third unknown person1 at least he is not later than the eleventh century4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we regard the introduction of the translator and the twenty-one chapters as by different persons1 who perhaps had no connection with each other1 and ,gerbert's letter of #ihd as having nothing to do with either1 we have the more evidence of an early and widespread interest in astronomy and knowledge of ,arabic in the western ,latin learned world4 ,sidenote3 ,hermann's ,de mensura astrolabii4 ,one reason why the treatise on the astrolabe in twenty-one chapters is so seldom found in the manuscripts preceded by the introduction of the translator may be that it is more often found with and preceded by another treatise on the astrolabe1 sometimes entitled ,de mensura astrolabii1 and attributed to a ,hermann who modestly calls himself 8the offscouring of ,christ's poor and the butt of mere tyros in philosophy40#bgii ,this treatise tells how to construct an astrolabe1 thus filling in the deficiency left by the incomplete ending of the treatise in twenty-one chapters1 which fails to carry out fully this last item in the plan of the introductory fragment4 ,a note in one manuscript1 reproduced in part by ,macray in his catalogue of the ,digby ,manuscripts in the ,bodleian ,library1 states that the treatise in twenty-one chapters is by ,gerbert and that when a certain ,berengarius read it1 he found it told how to exercise the art but not to make the instrument and asked ,hermann to tell him how to make one4 ,hermann therefore composed the work in question1 dedicated it to ,berengarius1 and prefixed it to ,gerbert's treatise4#bhjj ,of late there has been a tendency to identify this ,hermann with ,hermann of ,dalmatia1 the twelfth century translator from the ,arabic1#bhja rather than with ,hermann the ,lame1 the chronicler1 who died in #ajed1 but if ,bubnov is correct in dating two manuscripts#bhjb containing ,hermann's treatise on the astrolabe in the eleventh century1 they could not be the work of ,hermann the translator of the next century4#bhjc ,moreover1 in the thirteenth century the treatise seems to have been regarded as the work of ,hermann the ,lame4#bhjd ,the author's self-depreciatory description of himself is also a mark of ,hermann the ,lame1 who in another treatise addressed to his friend ,herrandus and discussing the length of a moon calls himself 8of ,christ's poor a vile abortion40#bhje ,sidenote3 ,attitude towards astrology in the preface4 ,in the treatise of twenty-one chapters1 which simply tells how to use the astrolabe1 there is naturally no reference to judicial astrology4 ,but in the introduction of the anonymous writer to his translation from the ,arabic of a work on the astrolabe there is mention of the influence of the stars4 ,their 8concord with all mundane creatures in all things0 is regarded as established by 8secret institution of divinity and by natural law0 and testified to by scientists4#bhjf ,not only is the effect of the moon on tides adduced as usual as an example1 but ,god is believed to have set the seal of ,his approval upon 8this discipline10 when ,he made miraculous use of the stars and heavens to mark the birth and passion of ,his ,son4 ,the writer1 however1 stigmatizes as a 8frivolous superstition0 the doctrine of the ,chaldean genethlialogi1 8who account for the entire life of man by astrological reasons0 and 8try to explain conceptions and nativities1 character1 prosperity and adversity from the courses of the stars40 ,something nevertheless is to be conceded to them1 provided all things are recognized as under divine disposition4 ,but their doctrine is an egg which is not to be sucked unless rid of the bad odors of error4#bhjg ,the translator urges the importance of a knowledge of astronomy in determining the date of church festivals and canonical hours4 ,he cites ,josephus concerning ,abraham's instruction of the ,egyptians in arithmetic and astronomy1 but regards ,ptolemy as the most illustrious of all astronomers and the astrolabe as the invention of his 8divine mind40 ,the translator wishes his readers to understand that he is offering them nothing new but only reviving the discoveries of the past1 and that he is simply presenting what he finds in the ,arabic4 ,sidenote3 ,question of ,gerbert's attitude toward astrology4 ,if ,gerbert could be shown to be the translator who wrote this introduction1 it would be a more valuable bit of evidence as to his attitude toward astrology than anything that we have at present4 ,his surely genuine mathematical works1 as edited by ,bubnov1 consist solely of a short geometry and a few of his letters in which mathematical topics1 mainly the abacus1 are touched upon4 ,his contemporary and disciple1 the historian ,richer1 tells in the well-known passage#bhjh how ,borellus1 8the duke of ,hither ,spain10 took ,gerbert as a youth from the monastery at ,aurillac in ,auvergne back with him across the ,pyrenees and entrusted his education to ,hatto1 bishop of ,vich1 in the north-eastern part of the peninsula4 ,whether ,gerbert studied ,arabic or not ,richer does not state4 ,since he is still described as adolescens when the duke and bishop take him with them to ,italy and leave him there with the pope1 one would infer that he probably had not engaged in the work of translation from the ,arabic4 ,another almost contemporary writer1 alluding very briefly to ,gerbert1 makes him visit ,cordova1 but is perhaps mistaken4#bhji ,richer does1 however1 state that ,berbert especially studied mathesis1 a word which1 as various medieval writers inform us1 may mean either mathematics or divination4 ,apparently ,richer uses it in the former sense1 for later he mentions only ,gerbert's achievements in arithmetic1 geometry1 music1 and astronomy4#bhaj ,but ,robert1 king of ,france1 #ihg-ajca1 whose teacher ,gerbert had been1 seems to refer to him as 8that master ,neptanebus0 in some verses1#bhaa a name which certainly suggests an astrologer1 as well as an instructor of royalty1 if not also a magician4 ,sidenote3 ,his posthumous reputation as a magician4 ,but ,gerbert's reputation for magic seems to start with ,william of ,malmesbury in the first half of the twelfth century1 who makes him flee by night from his monastery to ,spain to study 8astrology0 and other arts with the ,saracens1 until he came to surpass ,julius ,firmicus in his knowledge of fate4 ,there too1 according to ,william of ,malmesbury1 8he learned what the song and flight of birds portend1 to summon ghostly figures from the lower world1 and whatever human curiosity has encompassed whether harmful or salutary40 ,william then adds some more sober facts concerning ,gerbert's mathematical achievements and associates4#bhab ,michael ,scot in his ,introduction to ,astrology in the early thirteenth century speaks of a master ,gilbertus who was the best nigromancer in ,france and whom the demons obeyed in all that he required of them day and night because of the great sacrifices which he offered and his prayers and fastings and magic books and great diversity of rings and candles4 ,having succeeded in borrowing an astrolabe for a short time he made the demons explain its purpose1 how to operate it1 and how to make another one4 ,later he reformed and became bishop of ,ravenna and pope4#bhac ,in a manuscript early in the thirteenth century is a statement that ,gerbert became archbishop and pope by demon aid and had a spirit enclosed in a golden head whom he consulted as to knotty problems in composing his commentary on arithmetic4 ,when the demon expounded a certain very difficult place badly1 ,gerbert skipped it1 and hence that unexplained passage is called the ,saltus ,gilberti4#bhad ,sidenote3 ,an anonymous astronomical treatise2 its possible relation to ,gerbert4 ,in a manuscript in the ,bodleian library which seems to have been written early in the twelfth century#bhae is an astronomical treatise in four books which ,macray suggested might be the ,liber de planetis et mundi climatibus which ,ethelwold1 bishop of ,winchester from #ifc to #ihd1 is said to have composed4#bhaf ,the present treatise indeed embodies a ,letter of ,ethelwold to ,pope ,gerbert on squaring the circle4#bhag ,it seems1 however1 that this letter on squaring the circle was really written by ,adelbold1 bishop of ,utrecht from #ajaj to #ajbg4bhah ,adelbold speaks of himself in the letter as a young man#bhai and of course wrote it before ,gerbert's death in #ajjc1 and very probably before ,gerbert became ,pope ,silvester ,,ii in #iii4 ,but he could scarcely have written the letter early enough to have it included in a work written by ,ethelwold who died in #ihd4 ,our astronomical treatise in four books is therefore not by ,ethelwold1 unless the letter be a later interpolation1 but it is possibly by ,adelbold or by ,gerbert4#bhbj ,its opening words1 8,quicumque mundane spere rationem et astrorum legem 44410 are similar to those of the treatise on the uses of the astrolabe which has often been ascribed to ,gerbert1 8,quicumque astronomice peritiam discipline44440#bhba ,sidenote3 ,contents of its first two books4 ,our treatise then may be by ,gerbert or it may be a specimen of the astronomy of the eleventh or early twelfth century4 ,as it appears to be little known and never to have been published1 it may be well to give a brief summary of its contents4 ,an introductory paragraph outlines some of the chief points with which the treatise will be concerned1 such as the twelve signs of the zodiac1 their positions1 8most varied qualities10 the reasons for their names1 and the diverse opinions of gentile philosophers and ,catholics as to their significations2 the four elements2 and the seven planets4 ,in the text which follows1 these topics are considered in rather the reverse order to that in which they were named in the preface4 ,after some discussion of 8the founders of astronomy and the doctors of astrology10 the first book is occupied with a description of the sphere or heavens4 ,the second book is largely geographical1 beginning with the question of the size of the earth1 the zones1 the ocean1 and how to draw a ,t map4 ,this geographical digression the author justifies in the prologue to his third book by the statement that often the position of the stars can be determined from the location of countries1 and that if the habitat of peoples is known one can more easily arrive at the effect of the stars4#bhbb ,sidenote3 ,attitude towards astrology4 ,this suggests that the author believes in astrological influence1 and in the two following books he states a number of astrological doctrines1 not1 however1 as his own convictions but as the opinions of the genethliaci or astrologers1 or 8those who will have it that prosperity and adversity in human life are due to these stars40#bhbc ,on the other hand1 he seldom subjects the astrologers to any adverse criticism4 ,indeed1 early in the third book1 he states that the belief of the genethliaci that human wealth and honors1 poverty and obscurity1 depend upon the stars1 pertains to another subject than that which he is at present discussing2 namely1 prognostication1 concerning which he will treat fully in later chapters4 ,but ,i cannot see that he fulfills this promise in the present manuscript1 which seems to end rather abruptly1#bhbd so that possibly there is something missing4 ,in the previous passage1 however1 he immediately proceeded to admit that the sun and moon greatly affect our life and to tell further how it is connected with the other five planets4 ,in the star of ,saturn the soul is said to busy itself especially with reasoning and intelligence1 logic and theory4 ,jupiter is practical and represents the power of action4 ,mars signifies animosity2 ,venus1 desire2 ,mercury1 interpretation4 ,men have proved the moon's moist influence by sleeping out-of-doors and finding that more humor collected in their heads when they slept in the moonlight than when they did not4#bhbe ,after mentioning the twelve signs1 8through which the aforesaid planets revolving exert varied influences1 and even1 according to the genethliaci1 make a good man in some nativities and a bad man in others10#bhbf the author goes on to tell which signs are masculine and which are feminine1 to relate them to the four cardinal points and to the four elements1 to define the twenty-eight mansions and their distribution among the twelve signs and seven planets1#bhbg and to tell how the planets differ in quality4#bhbh ,all this is providing at least the basis for astrological prediction4 ,sidenote3 ,the fourth book4 ,the fourth book of the treatise is mainly taken up with descriptions and figures of the constellations1 concerning which the author often repeats the fables of antiquity4 ,after discussing the six ages of the world1 the author intended to insert a figure on what is the next to last page of the present text to show 8the harmony of the elements1 climates of the sky1 times of the year1 and humors of the human body10 for1 as he goes on to say1 man is called a microcosm by the philosophers4 ,this missing figure or figures would have been analogous to those which ,wickersheimer investigated in the early medieval manuscripts in the libraries of ,france4 ,sidenote3 ,citations3 ,arabic names4 ,our author does not make many citations1 but among them are ,eratosthenes1#bhbi ,aratus1 ,ptolemy1 ,macrobius1 and ,martianus ,capella4 ,some of these authors are perhaps known to him only indirectly1 and he seems to make use of ,isidore and ,pliny without mentioning them4 ,he shows1 however1 an acquaintance with foreign languages1 listing the seven heavens as 8oleth1 lothen1 ethat1 edim1 eliyd1 hachim1 atarpha10 and giving ,greek1 ,hebrew1 and 8,saracen0 names for the seven planets1 as well as a 8,similitudo10 or corresponding metal1 and 8,interpretatio10 or quality such as 8,obscurus1 ,clarus1 ,igneus40#bhcj ,he also gives the ,arabic names for the twenty-eight mansions into which the circle of the zodiac subdivides4#bhca ,we now turn to another treatise1 found in tenth and eleventh century manuscripts1 in which ,arabian influence is apparent4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,mathematica of ,alchandrus or ,alhandreus4 ,william of ,malmesbury1 writing in the first half of the twelfth century concerning ,gerbert's studies in ,spain1 says1 probably with a great deal of exaggeration1 that ,gerbert surpassed ,ptolemy in his knowledge of the astrolabe1 ,alandraeus in his knowledge of the distances between the stars1 and ,julius ,firmicus in his knowledge of fate4#bhcb ,it is rather remarkable that a work ascribed to ,alhandreus or ,alcandrus1 8supreme astrologer10 should be found in two manuscripts of the eleventh century#bhcc in both of which occurs also the work on the astrolabe which is perhaps by ,gerbert1 while in one is found also the ,mathesis of ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus4 ,alchadrinus or ,archandrinus is cited in ,michael ,scot's long ,introduction to ,astrology as the author of a 8book of fortune making mention of the three facies of the signs and the planets ruling in them10 and ,michael adds that a similar method of divination is employed in general among the ,arabs and ,indians as can be seen in the streets and alleys of ,messina where 8learned women0 answer the questions of merchants4#bhcd ,peter of ,abano in his ,lucidator astronomiae1#bhce written in #acaj1 mentions ,alchandrus as a successor of ,hermes ,trismegistus in the science of astronomy but as flourishing before the time of ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,alchandrus was probably scarcely as ancient as that1 but the treatise ascribed to him also exists in ,latin in a manuscript of the tenth century1#bhcf and seems to be a translation from the ,arabic4 ,in any case it is full of ,arabic and ,hebrew words1 and professes to cite the opinions of ,egyptians1 ,ishmaelites1 and ,chaldeans in general as well as those of ,ascalu the ,ishmaelite and ,arfarfan or ,argafalan or ,argafalaus#bhcg the ,chaldean in particular4 ,since the name ,alchandrus or ,alhandreus is found so far as ,i know in no historian or bibliographer of ,arabian literature or learning1#bhch we shall treat somewhat fully of the work and its author here4 ,sidenote3 ,an account of its contents4 ,the 8,mathematic of ,alhandreus1 supreme astrologer10 as it is entitled in one manuscript1 opens somewhat abruptly with a terse statement of the qualities of the planets4 ,two estimates of the number of years between creation and the birth of ,christ are then given1 one 8according to the ,hebrews10 the other 8according to others40#bhci ,there follow letters of the ,greek alphabet with ,roman numerals expressing their respective numerical values1 perhaps for future reference in connection with some sphere of life or death4 ,next is considered the division of the zodiac into twelve signs for which ,hebrew as well as ,latin names are given4 ,the movements of the planets through the signs are then discussed1 and it is explained in the usual astrological style that ,leo is the house of the sun1 ,cancer of the moon1 while two signs are assigned to each of the other five planets4 ,every planet is erect in some one sign and falls in its opposite1 and any planet is friendly to another in whose house it is erect and hostile to another in whose house it declines4 ,presently the author treats of 8the order of the planets according to nature and their names according to the ,hebrews10#bhdj and then of their sex and courses1 which last leads to considerable digressions anent the solar and lunar calendars4#bhda ,then the twelve signs are related to the four 8climates0 and elements4 ,sidenote3 ,astrological doctrine4 ,all this implies a favorable attitude to astrology1 and the author has already expressed his conviction more than once that human affairs are disposed by the seven planets according to the will of ,god4#bhdb ,since man like the world is composed of the four elements it is no false opinion which persuades us that under ,god's government human affairs are principally regulated by the celestial bodies4#bhdc ,to make this plainer the author proposes to insert an astrological figure 8which ,alexander of ,macedon composed most diligently10 and which presumably would have been of the microcosmus or ,melothesia type1 but the space for it remains blank in the manuscript4 ,next comes a paragraph on the sex of the signs and their rising and setting1 and then lists of the hours of the day and night governed by the signs and by each planet for all the days of the week4#bhdd ,sidenote3 ,nativities and name-calculations4 ,then we read1 8,these are the twenty-eight principal parts or stars 7i4e4 constellations7 through which the fates of all are disposed and pronounced indubitably1 future as well as present4 ,anyone may with diligence forecast goings and returnings1 origins and endings1 by the most agreeable aid of these horoscopes40#bhde ,these twenty-eight parts are of course the sub-divisions of the zodiac into mansions of the sun or moon which we have already encountered1 and ,arabic names are given for them beginning with ,alnait1 the first part of the sign ,aries4 ,first1 however1 we are instructed how to determine under which one of them anyone was born by a numerical calculation of the value of his name and that of his natural mother similar to that of the spheres of life and death except that it is based upon ,hebrew instead of ,greek letters4#bhdf ,then follow statements of the sort of men who are born under each of the twenty-eight mansions1 their physical1 mental1 and moral characteristics1 and any especial marks upon the body1--either birth-marks or inflicted subsequently by such means as hot irons and dog-bite1--their health or sickness1 term of life1 and manner of death1--which in the case of ,alnait1 the first mansion1 will be 8by the machinations or imaginations of the magic arts40#bhdg ,also the number of their children is roughly predicted4 ,sidenote3 ,interrogations and more name-calculations4 ,next is discussed the course of the planets through the signs1 the houses of the planets1 and their positions in the signs at creation4#bhdh ,the author then turns to the influence of the planets upon men and gives another method of numerical calculation of a man's name in order to determine which planet he is under4#bhdi ,under the heading 8,excerpts from the books of ,alexander1 the astrologer king10#bhej directions are given for the recovery of lost or stolen articles and descriptions of the thief are provided for the hour of each planet4 ,the letter of ,argafalaus to ,alexander instructs how to read men's secret thoughts as ,plato the ,philosopher used to do1 and how to tell what is hidden in a person's hand by means of the hours of the planets4#bhea ,after some further discussion of astrological interrogations the manuscript at the ,british ,museum closes with the ,breviary of ,alhandreus1 supreme astrologer#bheb1 for learning anything unknown by a method of computation from ,hebrew and ,arabic letters4 ,sidenote3 ,alchandrus or ,alhandreus not the same as ,alexander4 ,someone may wonder if the names ,alhandreus and ,alchandrus may not be mere corruptions of ,alexander who is cited and quoted even more than has yet been indicated#bhec1 and if some careless head-line writer has not inserted the name ,alchandri or ,alhandrei instead of ,alexandri in the ,titulus4 ,but this would leave the statements of ,william of ,malmesbury and of ,peter of ,abano to be explained away4 ,or1 if it is argued that the name of ,alhandreus should be attached only to the ,breviary1 it must be remembered that in the earliest manuscript1 which does not contain the ,breviary1 the treatise is none the less called the ,book of ,alchandreus4 ,as a matter of fact there is found also in the manuscripts a 8,mathematica ,alexandri summi astrologi10#bhed but while the title is the same1 the contents are different from the 8,mathematica ,alhandrei summi astrologi40 ,however1 the treatise itself is found together with the ,mathematica ,alhandrei in a tenth century manuscript4#bhee ,but no author is mentioned1 and instead of ,mathematica the title reads 8,incipiunt proportiones cppfcfntfs knkstrprx indxstrkb10 which may be deciphered as 8,incipiunt proportiones competentes in astrorum industria40#bhef ,possibly therefore this treatise is a part of the work of ,alchander1 and the title ,mathematica ,alexandri is an error for ,mathematica ,alhandrei4 ,sidenote3 ,alkandrinus or ,alchandrinus on nativities according to the mansions of the moon4 ,moreover1 in later manuscripts we encounter authors with names very similar to ,alchandrus and works by them of the same sort as that we have just considered4 ,in a fifteenth century manuscript at ,oxford we find ascribed to ,alkandrinus an account of the types of men born in each of the twenty-eight mansions of the moon#bheg such as we have seen formed a part of the ,mathematica ,alhandrei4 ,and in a fifteenth century manuscript at ,paris occurs under the name of ,alchandrinus what seems to be a ,christian revision of that same part of the ,mathematica ,alhandrei4#bheh ,what appears to be another revision and working over of this same discussion of nativities according to the twenty-eight mansions of the moon#bhei appeared in print a number of times in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and in ,french and ,english translations as well as ,latin4 ,the author's name in these printed editions is usually given as ,arcandam1 but the ,english edition of #afbf adds 8or ,alchandrin40#bhfj ,sidenote3 ,albandinus4 ,two other manuscripts at ,paris#bhfa contain under the name of ,albandinus a 8book of similitudes of the sons of ,adam1 fortunate and unfortunate1 of life or death1 according to nations1 that is1 their nativities according to the twelve signs40 ,the treatise opens with a method of calculating a person's nativity from the letters in his own and his mother's name similar to that which occurs in the course of the ,mathematica ,alhandrei1 but then applies it directly to the twelve signs rather than to the twenty-eight mansions of the moon4 ,it also does not bother with the ,hebrew alphabet but gives numerical equivalents directly for the ,latin letters4 ,some treatise by ,albandinus on sickness and the signs in a manuscript at ,munich#bhfb is perhaps identical with the foregoing4 ,sidenote3 ,geomancy of ,alkardianus or ,alchandiandus4 ,to an ,alkardianus or ,alchandiandus is ascribed a geomancy1#bhfc and since it also is arranged according to the twenty-eight divisions of the zodiac with #bh judges and #bh chapters each consisting of #bh lines in answer to as many questions1 it would seem almost certain that it is by the same author who treated of the influences of the #bh houses or facies of the twelve signs upon those born under them4 ,moreover1 this ,alkardianus or ,alchandiandus states in his preface that he has composed certain books on the dispositions of the signs and the courses of the planets and on prediction of the future from them4 8,but since moderns always rejoice in brevity10 he has added this handy and rapid geomantic means of answering questions and ascertaining the decrees of the stars4 ,the #bh tables of #bh lines each of this ,alkardianus or ,alchandiandus are identical with one of the two such sets#bhfd commonly included in the ,experimentarius#bhfe of ,bernard ,silvester1 a work of geomancy which he is said to have translated from the ,arabic4#bhff ,he lived in the twelfth century and will be the subject of one of our later chapters4 ,sidenote3 ,an anonymous treatise or fragment of the tenth century4 ,it still remains to speak of a portion of our tenth century manuscript at ,paris which begins1 after the book of ,alchandrus seems to have concluded1 with the words1 8,quicunque nosse desiderat legem astrorum44440#bhfg ,this ,incipit is so similar to that of the twenty-one chapters on the astrolabe1 8,quicumque astronomiam peritiam disciplinae 4440 and to that of the four books of astronomy1 8,quicumque mundane spere rationem et astrorum10 that one is tempted to imply some relation between them1 and1 in view of the tenth century date of the one at present in question1 to connect it like the others with the name of ,gerbert4 ,our present treatise or fragment of a treatise is largely astrological in character1 8following for the present the wisdom of the mathematici who think that mundane affairs are carried on under the rule of the constellations40 ,this refusal to accept personal responsibility for astrological doctrine is similar to the attitude of the author of the four books of astronomy1 so that perhaps the present text is the missing fragment required to fulfil his promise to treat of the subject of prognostication in later chapters4 ,if so it indulges in some repetition1 as it goes into the relations existing between signs1 planets1 and elements1 and gives the 8,saracen0 names#bhfh for the twenty-eight mansions of the moon4 ,it includes a way to detect theft for each planet and a method of determining if a patient will recover by computation of the numerical value of the letters in his name4 ,these features are suggestive of the ,mathematical of ,alchandrus4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,anglo-,,saxon1 ,,salernitan1 ,,and ,,other ,,latin ,,medicine ,,in ,,manuscripts ,,from ,,the ,,ninth ,,to ,,the ,,twelfth ,,century ,plan of this chapter--,instances of early medieval additions to ancient medicine--,leech-,book of ,bald and ,cild--,magical procedure and incantations--,a superstitious compound--,summary--,cauterization--,tre atment of demoniacs--,incantations and characters--,in a twelfth century manuscript--,magic with a split hazel rod--,more incantations and the virtues of a vulture--,lots of the saints--,superstitious veterinary and medical practice--,two ,paris manuscripts--,blood-letting--,resemblanc es to ,egerton #hba--,virtues of blood--,pious incantations and magical procedure--,more superstitious veterinary practice--,the ,school of ,salerno--,was ,salernitan medicine free from superstition8--,the ,practica of ,petrocellus--,its sources--,fourfold origin of medicine--,therapeutics of ,petrocellus--,the ,regimen ,salernitanum--,its superstition--,the ,practica of ,archimatthaeus--,a ,salernitan treatise of about #abjj--,the wives of ,salerno4 ,sidenote3 ,plan of this chapter4 ,in this chapter our purpose is to treat of early medieval medicine as distinct on the one hand from post-classical medicine1 to which we have already devoted a chapter1 and on the other hand from later medieval medicine as affected by translations from the ,arabic and other oriental influence4 ,perhaps one of the outcomes of our discussion will be to suggest that any such distinctions cannot be at all sharply or chronologically drawn4 ,however1 the writings which we shall discuss now are contained mainly in manuscripts dating from the ninth to the twelfth century1 although some of them may have been first composed at an earlier date than that of the manuscript in which they chance to be preserved4 ,some are in ,anglo-,saxon2 more1 in ,latin4 ,some it has been customary to classify under the caption of ,salernitan4 ,we shall postpone until the next chapter our consideration of ,constantinus ,africanus1 although the dates of his life fall within the eleventh century1 because he already at that early date represents the introduction of ,arabic medicine to the western world4 ,sidenote3 ,instances of early medieval additions to ancient medicine4 ,a good instance of the working over by men of the early medieval period of the medical writings of the late ,roman period is provided by a manuscript of the ninth or tenth century at ,berlin4#bhfi ,it now consists of a number of fragments whose original order can no longer be determined4 ,these are made up of extracts from different sources or from other collections1 but the collection also bears the mark of its last compiler who has introduced new remedies of his own and words derived from the vernacular of his day4 ,even extracts on fevers taken from the old ,latin adaptation of ,galen#bhgj are added to by some ,christian physician1 who introduces among other things some incantations1 such as1 8,i adjure you1 spots1 that you go away and recede from and be destroyed from the eye of the servant of ,god40#bhga ,the manuscript also comprises more than one tract on how dreams or the fate of the patient or child born can be foretold from the day of the moon4#bhgb ,another tract#bhgc tells how ,god made the first man out of eight parts1 of which the first was the mud of the earth and the last the light of the world4 ,this would seem to be rather a novel departure from the usual four element theory but perhaps involves ancient ,gnostic error4 ,the author further argues that individual divergences of character depend upon the preponderance of one or another of the eight constituents of the body4 ,sidenote3 ,leech-,book of ,bald and ,cild4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,leech-,book of ,bald and ,cild#bhgd has been called 8the first medical treatise written in western ,europe which can be said to belong to modern history40#bhge ,it was produced in the tenth century4 ,however1 it extracts a good deal from late ,greek medical writers1 such as ,paul of ,aegina and ,alexander of ,tralles1 and cites ,pliny1 8the mickle leech10 for the cure of baldness by application of dead bees burnt to ashes1#bhgf a remedy also found in the ,euporista ascribed to ,galen4 ,on the whole1 however1 it uses parts of animals somewhat less than ,pliny1 although sometimes a powdered earthworm is recommended1 or a man stung by an adder is to drink holy water in which a black snail has been washed1 or the bite of a viper is to be smeared with ear-wax while thrice repeating 8the prayer of ,saint ,john40#bhgg ,and a man about to engage in combat is advised to eat swallow nestlings boiled in wine4#bhgh ,herbs are as useful against a woman's tongue as birds against a foeman's steel1 for we are told3 8,against a woman's chatter2 taste at night fasting a root of radish2 that day the chatter cannot harm thee40#bhgi ,there are directions for plucking herbs similar to those in ,pliny1#bhhj and the significance which he ascribed to cart ruts is paralleled by the injunction1 after one has treated a venomous bite by striking five scarifications1 one on the bite and four around it1 to 8throw the blood with a spoon silently over a wagon way40#bhha ,eight virtues of the stone agate are enumerated4#bhhb ,sidenote3 ,magical procedure and incantations4 ,not only such occult virtues of animals1 vegetables1 and minerals1 but also magical procedure and incantations abound in the work4 ,in a prescription 8for flying venom and every venomous swelling0 butter is to be churned on a ,friday from the milk of a 8neat or hind all of one color10 and a litany1 paternoster1 and incantation of strange words are to be repeated nine times each4#bhhc ,a great deal of superstitious use is made of such ,christian symbols1 names1 and forms of prayer as the sign of the cross1 the names of the four evangelists1 and masses1 psalms1 and exorcisms4 ,fear of witchcraft and enchantment is manifested1 and the ills both of man and beast are frequently attributed to evil spirits4 8,a drink for a fiend-sick man0 is on one occasion 8to be drunk out of a church bell10 with the accompaniment of much additional ecclesiastical hocus-pocus4#bhhd 8,if a horse is elf-shot1 then take the knife of which the haft is horn of a fallow ox1 and on which are three brass nails4 ,then write upon the horse's forehead ,christ's mark1 and on each of the limbs which thou may feel at4 ,then take the left ear2 prick a hole in it in silence4 ,this thou shalt do2 then take a yerd1 strike the horse on the back1 then it will be whole4 ,and write upon the horn of the knife these words1 ,benedicite omnia opera domini dominum4 ,be the elf what it may1 this is mighty for him to amends40#bhhe ,sidenote3 ,a superstitious compound4 ,neither ,bald and ,cild nor their continuator shared ,pliny's prejudice against compound medicines4 ,in the third book by the continuator is described 8a salve against the elfin race and nocturnal visitors1 and for women with whom the devil hath carnal commerce40 ,one takes the ewe hop plant1 wormwood1 bishopwort1 lupin1 ashthroat1 henbane1 harewort1 viper's bugloss1 heatherberry plants1 cropleek1 garlic1 grains of hedgerife1 githrife1 and fennel4 ,these herbs are put in a vessel and placed beneath the altar where nine masses are sung over them4 ,they are then boiled in butter and mutton fat2 much holy salt is added2 the salve is strained through a cloth2 and what remains of the worts is thrown into running water4 ,the patient's forehead and eyes are to be smeared with this ointment and he is further to be censed with incense and signed often with the sign of the cross4#bhhf ,sidenote3 ,summary4 ,the 8modern0 character of ,bald's and ,cild's book cannot be said to have produced any diminution of superstition as against the writings of antiquity4 ,but we do find native herbs introduced1 also popular medicine1 and probably a considerable amount of ,teutonic and perhaps also ,celtic folk-lore1 which1 however1 has been more or less ,christianized4 ,indeed the connection between medicine and religion is remarkably close4 ,sidenote3 ,cauterization4 ,the medicine of this period may be further illustrated by two ,latin manuscripts of the eleventh century in the ,sloane collection of the ,british ,museum4#bhhg ,one contains a brief treatise which illustrates the common tendency at that time to employ cauterization not only for surgical purposes in connection with wounds1 but as a medical means of giving relief to internal diseases and trivial complaints with which cauterization could have no connection4 ,that the practice was very largely a superstition is further evident from the fact that one part of the body often was cauterized for a complaint in another or opposite portion or member4 ,in the present example1 under the alluring names of ,apollonius and ,galen as professed authors1#bhhh are presented a series of human figures showing where the cautery should be applied4 ,these pictures of naked patients marked all over their anatomy with spots where the red-hot iron should be applied1 or submitting with smiling or wry faces to its actual administration in the most tender places1 are both amusing and1 when we reflect that this useless pain was actually repeatedly inflicted through long centuries1 pathetic4#bhhi ,sidenote3 ,treatment of demoniacs4 ,in a general and much longer work on diseases and their remedies which follows in the same manuscript and which is professedly compiled from ,hippocrates1 ,galen1 and ,apollonius1 the treatment prescribed for demoniacs1#bhij who1 it states1 are in ,greek called epilemptici 7epileptics71 includes among other things vaporization between the shoulder blades with various mixtures1 scarification and bleeding1 application of leeches to the 8stomach where you ought not to operate with iron10#bhia shaving and 8imbrocating0#bhib the scalp1 and anointing the hands and feet with oil4 ,both our manuscripts contain recipes for expelling or routing demons4#bhic ,for this purpose such substances are employed as the stone gagates and holy water1 and elsewhere the usual confidence is reposed in the virtues of herbs and such parts of animals as the liver of a vulture4 ,sidenote3 ,incantations and characters4 ,in one of the manuscripts is a treatise in which much use is made of incantations and characters4 ,there are prayers to 8,lord ,jesus and ,holy ,mary0 to heal the sick1 while characters1 sometimes engraved upon lead plates1 are employed not only for medical purposes1 but to prevent women from conceiving1 to make fruit trees bear well1 and against enemies4#bhid ,later on in the manuscript instructions for plucking a medicinal herb include facing east and reciting a paternoster4#bhie ,sidenote3 ,in a twelfth century manuscript4 ,the twelfth century portion of this same manuscript consists mainly of a long medical medley with no definitely marked beginning or ending but apparently originally in five books4#bhif ,towards its close occur a number of incantations and characters quite in the style of ,marcellus ,empiricus4#bhig ,indeed1 8a marvelous charm0 for toothache is an exact copy of his instructions to repeat seven times in a waning moon on ,tuesday or ,thursday an incantation beginning1 8,aridam1 margidam1 sturgidam40#bhih ,to make all his enemies fear him a man should gather the herb verbena on a ,thursday1 repeating seven times a formula in which the plant is personally addressed and the desire expressed to triumph over all foes as the verbena conquers winds and rains1 hail and storms4#bhii ,if here the influence of pagan religion is still present1 many of the incantations are in ,christian form and expressed in the name of ,god or the ,father4 ,to find a thief characters are employed together with the incantation1 8,abraham bound1 ,isaac held1 ,jacob brought back to the house40#bijj ,a charm against fever opens1 8,christ was born and suffered2 ,christ ,jesus rose from the dead and ascended unto heaven2 ,christ will come at the day of judgment4 ,christ says1 ,according to your faith it shall be done40 ,then the sign of the cross is employed and 8sacred words10 which seem1 however1 to include not only ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john1 but ,maximianus1 ,dionysius1 ,john1 ,serapion1 and ,constantinus4 ,as we have to do with a twelfth century manuscript the last two names might be presumed to have reference to the medical writers of the eleventh century1 but another manuscript which contains a similar incantation states that they are the names of the seven sleepers4#bija ,our charm then continues 8,in the name of ,christ0 and with a prayer to ,god to free from sickness anyone who 8bears this writing in ,thy name40#bijb ,sidenote3 ,magic with a split hazel rod4 ,in the same work occurs the earliest instance of which ,i am aware of the magical 8experiment0 with a split rod and an incantation1 to which we shall hear ,william of ,auvergne1 ,albertus ,magnus1 ,john of ,st4 ,amand1 and ,roger ,bacon refer in the thirteenth century4 ,a rod of four cubits length is to be cut with repetition of the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,it is to be split1 and the two halves are to be held apart at the ends by two men4 ,then1 making the sign of the cross1 one should repeat the following incantation1 8,ellum sat upon ella and held a green rod in his hand and said1 ,rod of green reunite again10#bijc together with the ,lord's ,prayer until the two split halves bend together in the middle4 ,one then seizes them in one's fist at the junction point1 cuts off the rest of the rods1 and makes magic use of the section remaining in one's grasp4#bijd ,sidenote3 ,more incantations and the virtues of a vulture4 ,another manuscript of the twelfth century#bije contains many similar charms1 incantations1 prayers1 and characters for healing purposes4 ,one formula employed is1 8,christ conquers1 ,christ reigns1 ,christ commands40 ,in cases of miscarriage a drink of verbena is recommended and repetition of the following incantation with three ,paternosters1 8,saisa1 laisa1 relaisa1 because so ,saint ,mary did when she bore the ,son of ,god40 ,presently a paragraph opens with the assertion that the human race does not know how great virtue the vulture#bijf possesses and how much it improves health4 ,but certain ceremonial directions must be observed in making use of it4 ,the bird should be killed in the very hour in which it is caught and with a sharp reed rather than a sword4 ,before beheading it1 one should utter an incantation containing such names as ,adonai and ,abraam4 ,various healing virtues appertain to the different parts of its carcass1 although here again there are instructions to be observed4 ,the bones of its head should be bound in hyena skin2 its eyes should be suspended from the neck in wolf's skin4 ,binding its wings on the left foot of a woman struggling in child-birth produces a quick delivery4 ,one who wears its tongue will receive the adoration of all his enemies2 if one has its heart bound in the skin of a lion or wolf1 all demons will avoid one and robbers will only worship one4 ,its gall taken in quite a mixture cures epileptics and lunatics2 its lung in another compound cures fevers2 and so on4 ,sidenote3 ,lots of the saints4 ,there follow ,sortes sanctorum1 introduced by a page and a half of prayers of this tenor1 8,in the name of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 we ask ,father and ,son and ,holy ,ghost1 ,three and ,one2 we ask ,saint ,mary1 the mother of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ2 we ask the nine orders of angels2 we ask the whole chorus of patriarchs2 we ask the whole chorus of apostles1 martyrs1 confessors1 and virgins1 and the whole chorus of ,god's faithful that they deign to reveal to us these lots which we seek1 and that no seduction of the devil may deceive us40 ,the treatise closes1 8,these are the lots of the saints which never fail2 so ask ,god and obtain what you desire40 ,sidenote3 ,superstitious veterinary and medical practice4 ,the next items in the manuscript are some cases of superstitious veterinary practice1 with such pious incantations as 8,may ,god who saved the thief on the cross save this beast60#bijg and with instructions concerning the religious invocations and written characters to be employed in blessing the food and salt to be given to domestic animals in order to keep them in good health4 ,characters are also mentioned which will prevent the blood of a pig from flowing when it is slaughtered1 provided they are bound upon the breast or are written on the knife with which the pig is to be stuck4#bijh ,holy water and bread that has been blessed are used for medical purposes and instructions are given on what days medicinal herbs should be gathered4 ,the prayers employed are usually put in ,christian form1 but one for the cure of toothache has slipped by at least partially uncensored4 ,it opens with the words 8,o lady ,moon1 free me44440#biji ,sidenote3 ,two ,paris manuscripts4 ,if we turn from medical manuscripts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the ,british ,museum to those of the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 we find the same occurrence of superstitious passages4 ,in an eleventh century codex which contains parts of the medical work of ,celsus and the ,de dinamidis of ,galen are also found prayers to ,god for the medicinal aid of the angel ,raphael against the treacherous attacks of the demons1 a work on the virtues of stones which has much to say of their marvelous properties1 and figures and text concerning the twelve signs of the zodiac and twelve winds4#biaj ,much more superstitious1 however1 is an anonymous treatise occupying the first ten leaves of a twelfth century manuscript#biaa which is apparently of ,german origin from the number of ,german words and phrases introduced near its close4 ,this treatise is followed in the manuscript by the works of ,notker1 ,hermann the ,lame1 and others on computus and the astrolabe4 ,sidenote3 ,blood-letting4 ,after discussing the effect of food upon health1 listing potions of herbs to be drunk in each month of the year1#biab treating of the veins and of the four winds1 four seasons1 and four humors1 and the relations existing between the two last-named1 the author enumerates the many advantages of blood-letting in a long passage which is worth quoting in part4 8,it contains the beginning of health1 it makes the mind sincere1 it aids the memory1 it purges the brain1 it reforms the bladder1 it warms the marrow1 it opens the hearing1 it checks tears1 it removes nausea1 it benefits the stomach1 it invites digestion1 it evokes the voice1 it builds up the sense1 it moves the bowels1 it enriches sleep1 it removes anxiety1 it nourishes good health 44403 and so on4 ,the operation of bleeding should not be performed on the tenth1 fifteenth1 twenty-fifth1 or thirtieth day of the moon1 nor should a potion be taken then4 ,the ,egyptian days and dog-days are to be similarly observed4 ,the hours of the day when each humor predominates are then given4 ,sidenote3 ,resemblances to ,egerton #hba4 ,there then is introduced rather abruptly an account of the medicinal virtues of the vulture almost identical with that in the ,british ,museum manuscript4 ,once again1 too1 herbs are to be plucked with repetition of the ,lord's ,prayer4#biac ,the use of characters to prevent a slaughtered pig from bleeding is introduced somewhat otherwise than in the other manuscript4 ,having first recommended as a cure for human sufferers from flux of blood the binding about the abdomen of a parchment inscribed with the characters in question1 the author adds1 8,and if you don't believe it1 write them on a knife and kill a pig with it1 and you will see no blood flow from the wound40#biad ,sidenote3 ,virtues of blood4 ,considerable medicinal use is made of blood in this treatise4 ,for cataract is recommended instilling in the eye the blood which flows from a certain worm 7oudehsam87 when 8you cut it in two near the tail40#biae ,to break the stone one employs goat's blood caught in a glass vessel in a waning moon and dried eight days in the sun together with the pulverized skin of a rabbit caught in a waning moon and roasted over marble4 ,these are to be mixed in wine and given in the name of the ,lord to the patient to drink while he is in the bath4#biaf ,another remedy consists of three drops of the milk of a woman nursing a male child given in a raw egg to the patient without his knowledge4#biag ,sidenote3 ,pious incantations and magical procedure4 ,the work abounds in characters and in incantations which consist either of seemingly meaningless words or of ,biblical phrases and allusions4 ,these are very much like those in the manuscripts already considered and are often accompanied by elaborate procedure4 ,for example1 the prayer1 8,o ,lord1 spare your servant ,n41 so that chastised with deserved stripes he may rest in your mercy10 is to be written on five holy wafers which are then to be placed on the five wounds of a figure of ,christ on a crucifix4 ,the patient is to approach barefoot1 eat the wafers1 and say3 8,almighty ,god1 who saved all the human race1 save me and free me from these fevers and from all my languors4 ,by ,god ,christ was announced1 and ,christ was born1 and ,christ was wrapped in swaddling clothes1 and ,christ was placed in a manger1 and ,christ was circumcised1 and ,christ was adored by the ,magi1 and ,christ was baptized1 and ,christ was tempted1 and ,christ was betrayed1 and ,christ was flogged1 and ,christ was spat upon1 and ,christ was given gall and vinegar to drink1 and ,christ was pierced with a lance1 and ,christ was crucified1 and ,christ died1 and ,christ was buried1 and ,christ rose again1 and ,christ ascended unto heaven4 ,in the name of the ,father and of the ,son and of the ,holy ,ghost1 ,jesus1 rising from the synagogue1 entered the house of ,simon4 ,moreover1 ,simon's daughter was sick with a high fever4 ,and they entreated ,him on her behalf4 ,and standing over her ,he commanded the fever and it departed40#biah ,to cure epilepsy an interesting combination of scriptural incantation and rather unusual magic procedure is recommended4 ,before the attack comes on1 the words of the ,gospel of ,matthew1 8,jesus was led by the spirit into the desert2 and angels came and ministered unto ,him10 are to be written on a wooden tablet with some black substance which will wash off readily4 ,then1 when the fit comes on1 this writing is to be washed off into a vessel with still water and given to the patient to drink in the name of ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost4 8,if you do this three times1 ,god helping the patient will be cured40#biai ,sidenote3 ,more superstitious veterinary practice4 ,our manuscript further resembles ,egerton #hba of the ,british ,museum in containing remedies for beast as well as man4 ,if a horse suffers from over-eating1 one should learn his name and procure some hazel rods4 ,then one is to whisper in his right ear an incantation consisting of outlandish words accompanied by the ,lord's ,prayer1 and is to bind his thighs and feet with the rods4 ,this ceremony1 too1 is to be repeated thrice4#bibj ,sidenote3 ,the ,school of ,salerno4 ,we now come to the consideration of treatises supposed to have been produced by the school of medicine at ,salerno4 ,but not only are the origins of the so-called ,school of ,salerno 8veiled in impenetrable obscurity10#biba much of its later history is scarcely less uncertain1 and it is no easy matter to say what men and what writings may be properly called ,salernitan1 or when they lived or were composed4 ,the manuscripts of ,salernitan writings seem to have been found more frequently north of the ,alps than in ,italian libraries4 ,it would perhaps be carrying scepticism too far to doubt if medicine developed much earlier or more rapidly at ,salerno than elsewhere1 since it seems certain that the town was famous for its physicians at an early date1 and that we have medical writings of ,salernitans produced in the early eleventh century4 ,but one is inclined to view with some scepticism the assumption of historians of medicine#bibb that the word ,salernitan represents a separate body of doctrine1 or of method in practice1 which may be sharply distinguished from ,arabic medicine or from later medieval medicine as affected by ,arabic influence4 ,rather the medical literature and practice of ,salerno is an integral and scarcely distinguishable part of medieval medicine as a whole4 ,many ,salernitan treatises themselves belong to the later medieval period1 and very few of them can be shown to antedate ,constantinus ,africanus1 whose translations seem to mark the beginning of ,arabic influence4 ,and on the other hand there are equally early medieval medical treatises1 such as those we have hitherto been considering1 which are not ,salernitan and yet show no sign of ,arabic influence4 ,thus the word ,salernitan cannot accurately be identified with a first period of medieval ,latin medicine based upon early or ,neo-,latin translations of ,greek medical authors and upon independent medical practice4 ,such activity was not confined to ,salerno4 ,but if we so employ the word ,salernitan for a moment1 there seems no reason for thinking that such a development would be very different from the ,arabic and ,byzantine continuations of ,greek medicine4 ,a place so open to ,saracen and ,byzantine influence as the coast of southern ,italy is hardly the spot where we should look for a totally distinct medical development1 and the influence of ,celtic and ,teutonic folk-lore upon medical practice would presumably be more felt north of the ,alps4 ,and it is to ,salerno that ,constantinus ,africanus1 the earliest known importer of ,arabic medicine1 comes4 ,sidenote3 ,was ,salernitan medicine free from superstition8 ,the notion1 too1 that the ,salernitan or early medieval ,latin medical practice was sound and straightforward and sensible and free from the superstition with which the holders of this opinion represent ,arabic and later medieval medicine as overburdened1 is also probably illusory4 ,we have already seen evidence of rather extreme superstition in early medieval ,latin medicine which shows no trace of ,arabic influence1 and the medical practitioners of ,salerno are sometimes represented in the sources as empiricists or old-wives4 ,the place was peculiarly noted for its female practitioners1 of whom more anon2 and one of the earliest mentions of a physician of ,salerno is the account in ,richer's chronicle#bibc of the mutual poisoning of two rival physicians in #idf ,a4 ,d4 ,here the ,salernitan is described as lacking in ,latin book-knowledge and skilful from natural talent and much experience4 ,he was the queen's favorite physician1 but was worsted by another royal physician1 ,bishop ,deroldus1 in a debate which the king1 ,louis ,,iv1 instituted in order to find out 8which of them knew more of the natures of things40 ,the defeated ,salernitan then 8prepared sorcery0 and tried to poison the bishop1 who cured himself with theriac and secretly poisoned his rival in turn4 ,the ,salernitan was then reduced to the humiliating position of being forced to beseech the prelate to cure him1 but in his case the theriac only drove the poison into his foot1 which had to be amputated by a surgeon4 ,this tale1 be it true or not1 suggests that there were good ,latin physicians and surgeons outside of ,salerno at an early date as well as that ,salernitan medicine was far from being free from magic and empiricism4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,practica of ,petrocellus4 ,it is fairer1 however1 to judge ,salerno by its own best written productions rather than by the stories of perhaps jealous northerners1 and we may note ,payne's comparison of the ,practica of ,petrocellus1#bibd written probably in the early eleventh century1 with the earlier ,leech-,book of ,bald and ,cild4 ,selected recipes1 it may first be said1 were translated from the ,practica into ,anglo-,saxon4#bibe ,dr4 ,payne was impressed by 8the complete freedom of the former from the magic and superstition which tainted the ,anglo-,saxon and all other ,european medicine of the time40 ,payne noted that the compounds of ,petrocellus contained fewer ingredients1 and regarded the ,salernitan selection of drugs as 8more intelligent40 ,the ,salernitan formulae are 8clear1 simple1 and written on a uniform system which implies traditional skill and culture40#bibf 8,the pharmacy is generally very simple2 and1 as might be expected1 there is an entire absence of charms and superstitious rites40#bibg ,such simplicity1 however1 is at best a negative sort of virtue2 and we wonder if this early specimen of the ,school of ,salerno is free from elaborate superstition for the very reason that the work is simple and elementary4 ,the less medicine1 the less superstition perhaps4 ,moreover1 superstition is not quite absent1 since ,payne himself quotes the following recipe3 8,for those who cannot see from sunrise to sunset4444 ,this is the leechcraft which thereto belongeth4 ,take a kneecap of a buck#bibh and roast it1 and1 when the roast sweats1 then take the sweat and therewith smear the eyes1 and after that let him eat the same roast2 and then take fresh asses' dung and squeeze it1 and smear the eyes therewith1 and it will soon be better with them40#bibi ,sidenote3 ,its sources4 ,petrocellus is thought to have used ,greek writings directly without the intermediary of ,arabic versions4#bicj ,he says in the introductory letter which opens the ,practica that he reduces to brief form in the ,latin language those 8authors who have culled the dogmas of all cases from ,greek places40#bica ,but these words might be taken to indicate that he has used ,greek sources only indirectly1 while the fact that the person to whom the work is addressed is called 8dearest son0 and 8sweetest son0 is rather in the style of ,arabian and ,hebrew medieval writers4 ,he goes on to assure this person that everything in the work has been tested by experience and that nothing should be added to or subtracted from it4 ,sidenote3 ,fourfold origin of medicine4 ,this introductory epistle also embodies an account of the origin of medicine which1 while not exactly superstitious1 is quite in the usual nave and uncritical style so often employed by both ancient and medieval writers in treating of a distant past4 ,apollo and his son ,esculapius1 ,asclepius and 8,ypocras0 are named as the four founders of the medical art4 ,apollo discovered methoyca1 which presumably means methodism1 but which ,petrocellus proceeds to identify with surgery4 ,esculapius invented empirica1 which is described as pharmacy rather than empiricism1 although perhaps the distinction is slight4 ,asclepius founded loyca1 which is probably meant for the dogmatic school4 ,hippocrates' contribution was theoperica1 which may mean therapeutics but is further described as the prognostication or 8prevision of diseases40 ,it is in this same introductory epistle that ,petrocellus makes the division of the brain into three cells of which we spoke in the chapter on ,arabic occult science4 ,besides distinguishing the three cells as phantastic1 logical1 and mnemonic1 he adds that good and evil are distinguished in the middle cell and that the soul is in the posterior one4 ,sidenote3 ,therapeutics of ,petrocellus4 ,in the ,practica proper the method of ,petrocellus is to take up one disease at a time1 tell what the ,greeks call it1 and briefly describe it1 sometimes listing its symptoms or causes1 but devoting most of his space to such methods of curing it as diet and bleeding1 simples and compounds4 ,i saw no instance of astrological medicine nor of resort to amulets and incantations in the version published by ,renzi from a twelfth century manuscript at ,paris4 ,but in a fragment of the work from a ,milan manuscript where twenty-six lines are devoted to the treatment of epilepsy instead of but seven as in the other text1#bicb one is advised to use antimony in the holy water 8which the ,greeks bless on ,epiphany0 and to chant the ,lord's ,prayer three times4 ,if this passage be a later addition1 it shows that ,petrocellus was less inclined to superstitious methods than others and that his injunction that nothing should be subtracted from or added to his work was not well observed4 ,but in any case it illustrates my previous point that the more medicine1 the more superstition4 ,in twenty-six lines on epilepsy one is much more likely to find something superstitious than in seven4 ,indeed1 the treatment of epilepsy was so generally superstitious that my recollection is that any account of it of any considerable length which ,i have seen in medieval writings contained some superstition4 ,in fact1 even if ,petrocellus wrote the longer passage1 he could be praised for having resorted to charms and formulae only in the case of that mysterious disease4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,regimen ,salernitanum4 ,the work most generally known as a characteristic product of the ,school of ,salerno is the ,latin poem#bicc which opens with the line1 8,to the ,king of the ,english writes the whole ,school of ,salerno40#bicd ,this poem has been variously entitled ,schola ,salernitana1 ,regimen ,salernitanum1 and ,flos medicinae4 ,how much more influential and widespread it was than the ,practica of ,petrocellus may be seen from the fact that manuscripts of the text of the latter are rare1 though the introductory letter is more common1 and that it was first published by ,renzi in the nineteenth century1 whereas about one hundred manuscripts and two hundred and fifty printed editions of the poem have been found4 ,it was known chiefly through the brief version of #cfb verses1 upon which ,arnald of ,villanova commented at the close of the thirteenth century1 until as a result of the researches of ,baudry de ,balzac1 ,renzi1 and ,daremberg the number of lines was increased to #cebf4 ,this patchwork from many manuscripts can scarcely be regarded as the work of any one author1 time1 or even school1 and it may be seriously questioned how many of the verses really emanated from ,salerno4 ,certainly it is not free from ,arabic influence1 since it cites ,alfraganus as well as ,ptolemy4#bice ,pliny is used a great deal for the virtues of herbs4 ,much of it sounds like a late versification of commonplaces for mnemonic purposes4 ,sudhoff has recently pointed out that it was not generally known until the middle of the thirteenth century1 before which time ,frederick ,,ii1 the cultured monarch1 and ,giles de ,corbeil1 the medical poet1 appear unaware of its existence4#bicf ,sidenote3 ,its superstition4 ,the brief version of the poem commented upon by ,arnald of ,villanova naturally contains only one-tenth of the superstition found in the fuller text which is ten times longer4 ,in some respects this brief version might pass as a restrained1 though quaint1 early set of directions how to preserve health1 to which later writers have added superstitious recipes4 ,but as a matter of fact it is too superstitious for even one as hospitable to theories of occult influence as ,arnald1 who rejects as false and worthless#bicg its assertion that the months of ,april1 ,may1 and ,september are lunar and that in them consequently fall the days upon which bleeding is prohibited4 ,in the lines upon which ,arnald comments marvelous properties are mentioned in the case of the plant rue1 but the fuller text has many mentions of the occult virtues of herbs1 stones1 and animals4 ,almost at a glance we read that the urine of a dog or the blood of a mouse cures warts2 that juice of betony should be gathered on the eve of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 that rubbing the soles of the feet cures a stiff neck1 and that pearls or the stone found in a crab's head are of equal virtue for heart trouble4#bich ,and not far away is a passage#bici on the virtue of the ,agnus ,dei1 made of balsam1 pure wax1 and the ,chrism4 ,it protects against lightning and the waves of the sea1 aids women in child-birth1 saves from sudden death1 and in short from 8every kind of evil40 ,astrology is by no means omitted from the ,regimen ,salernitanum2 in fact ,balzac seems to have taken the fact that verses were astrological in character as a sign that they belonged in the ,salernitan collection4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,practica of ,archimatthaeus4 ,a third work which may be considered as an example of the medicine of ,salerno is the ,practica of ,archimatthaeus which ,renzi placed in the twelfth century and conjectured to be the work of ,matthaeus ,platearius the ,elder4#bidj ,one or two expressions1 however1 might be taken as indications that the writer is neither of early date nor himself a ,salernitan4 ,he speaks of curing pleurisy in a different way from the treatment recommended in the ,practica's and tells how the ,salernitans try to prevent their hair from falling out by reason of their pores opening too wide when they frequent the bath4#bida ,renzi hailed this treatise with delight as 8a true medical clinic10#bidb since the author describes some twenty-two specific cases4 ,he states at the beginning that he does not propose to write a systematic treatise or to deal with every variety of disease1 but only with those in which he has learned new and better methods by experience1 8and in which ,god has put the desired effect in my hand40#bidc ,through the work we encounter such phrases as expertum est1 aliud probatissimum1 8,i tell you what ,i have proved10 8,we have tested this by experience and rejoiced at the result40 ,these utterances seem really to refer to the writer's own experience and not to be copied from previous authors4 ,the following is an example of his cases4 8,a certain lady incurred paralysis of the face during sleep after the bath10 which he attributes to dissolution of humors which affected the muscles4 ,first he bled the cephalic vein1 hoping thereby to draw off somewhat the humors from the afflicted place4 ,then for three successive days he gave her 8the potion of ,st4 ,paul with wine of a decoction of salvia and castoria which in part prevent dissolution1 in part consume it40 ,he also had her hold that wine in her mouth for a long time before swallowing it4 ,at length he gave her a purgative with pills of yerapiga 7sacrum amarum71 mixed with golden pills4 8,afterwards we injected pills of diacastoria into her nostrils and placed her near the fire4 ,finally we gave opopira 7bread free from furfure7 with the aforesaid wine1 and so she was cured1 only a certain tumor remained in her face and made her eye water4 ,we anointed her face with golden unguent and the potion of ,st4 ,paul mixed together and the tumor disappeared2 for the tears we gave golden ,alexandrina and they were checked2 and thus it was that this year in your presence we cured a certain paralytic40#bidd ,like ,galen's accounts of his actual cases this makes us realize that all the gruesome mixtures of which we read in the books were actually forced upon patients1 often several of them upon one poor sick person1 and that medical practice was rather worse than medical theory4 ,an interesting observation concerning the lot of the lower classes is let fall by our author when1 in discussing involuntary emission of urine1 he states that serfs and handmaids are especially subject to this ailment1 since they go about ill-clad and with bare feet and become thoroughly chilled4#bide ,sidenote3 ,a ,salernitan treatise of about #abjj4 ,giacosa classed one of the treatises which he published as ,salernitan because it was written in a ,lombard or ,monte ,cassino hand of about #abjj4bidf ,he described its contents as purely therapeutical and regarded its author as showing 8a certain repugnance0 to the popular remedies and superstitions recommended by other contemporary treatises4 ,for this conclusion the chief evidence seems to be a passage where the author1 after listing such means to prevent a woman from conceiving as binding her head with a red ribbon or holding the stone found in the head of an ass1 says that he thinks that such remedies 8operate more by faith than reason40#bidg ,but he makes much use of parts of animals and of suffumigations1 advising for example on the same page that after conception there should be fumigation with a root of mandragora or peony or the excrement of an ass mixed with flour1 an operation which he characterizes as expertissimum4 ,and on the preceding page1 as ,giacosa has noted1 he recommends a procedure which is even more improbable than it is immoral1 whereby patients who show themselves ungrateful to the physician after they have been cured may be made to suffer again4#bidh ,sidenote3 ,the wives of ,salerno4 ,we promised to say something of the female practitioners of ,salerno4 ,trotula is no longer believed to be a woman and we have to judge the women of ,salerno mainly by what others say of them4 ,in a commentary of a ,master ,bernard of ,provence1 who ,i suspect may be ,bernard ,gordon1 the medical writer at ,montpellier of the closing thirteenth century1 are a number of practices attributed to the women of ,salerno which ,renzi has already brought together4#bidi ,in these cases the practices are chiefly those employed by the women themselves in child-birth4 ,we may note three from the list that savor strongly of magic4 8,the women of ,salerno cook doves with the acorns which the doves eat2 then they remove the acorns from the gizzard and eat them1 whence the retentive virtue is much comforted40 8,when the women of ,salerno fear abortion1 they carry with them the pregnant stone10 which our author explains is not the magnet4 ,the other recipe had perhaps better remain untranslated3 ,stercus asini comedunt mulieres ,salernitanae in crispellis et dant viris suis ut melius retineant sperma et sic concipiant4 ,as we shall see in our chapter on ,arnald of ,villanova1 another medical writer of the late thirteenth and early fourteenth century1 he condemned the use of incantations in cases of child-birth by old-wives of ,salerno but approved of a very similar procedure by which a priest had cured him of warts1 and also mentioned favorably the cures wrought by female practitioners at ,rome and ,montpellier4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,constantinus ,,africanus3 ,c4 #ajae-ajhg4 ,reputation and influence--,his studies in the ,orient--,his later life in ,italy--,his works were mainly translations--,pantegni--,viaticum--,oth er translations--,the book of degrees--,on melancholy--,on disorders of the stomach--,medical works ascribed to ,alfanus--,constantinus and experiment--8,experiments0 involving incantations--,superstition comparatively rare in ,constantinus--,and of ,greek rather than ,arabic origin--,some signs of astrology and alchemy--,constantinus and the ,school of ,salerno--,liber aureus and ,john ,afflacius--,afflacius more superstitious than his master4 ,sidenote3 ,reputation and influence4 ,constantinus ,africanus will be here considered at perhaps greater length than his connection with the history either of magic or experimental science requires1 but which his general importance in the history of medicine and the lack of any good treatment of him in ,english may justify4#biej ,our discussion of him as an importer of ,arabic medicine will also serve to support our attitude towards the ,school of ,salerno4 ,daremberg wrote in #ahec1 8,we owe a great debt of gratitude to ,constantinus because he thus opened for ,latin lands the treasures of the east and consequently those of ,greece4 ,he has received and he deserves from every point of view the title of restorer of medical literature in the west40#biea ,daremberg proceeded to propose that a statue of ,constantinus be erected in the center of the ,gulf of ,salerno or on the summit of ,monte ,cassino4 ,yet in #ahgj he made the surprising assertion that 8the voice of ,constantinus towards the close of the eleventh century is an isolated voice and almost without an echo40#bieb ,but as a matter of fact ,constantinus was a much cited authority during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in the works both of medicine and of natural science produced in ,latin in western ,europe1 and his translations were cited under his own name rather than those of their original authors4#biec ,sidenote3 ,his studies in the ,orient4 ,a brief sketch of ,constantinus' career and a list of his works#bied is twice supplied us by ,peter the ,deacon1 who wrote in the next century1#biee and who treats of ,constantinus both in the chronicle of ,monte ,cassino1 which he continued to the year #aach1bief and in his work on the illustrious men of ,monte ,cassino4#bieg ,peter tells that ,constantinus was born at ,carthage1 by which he probably means ,tunis1 since ,carthage was no longer in existence1 but went to ,babylon1 by which ,cairo is presumably designated1 since ,babylon had ages before been reduced to a dust heap1#bieh to improve his education4 ,his birth must have been in about #ajae4 ,there he is said to have studied grammar1 dialectic1 geometry1 arithmetic1 8mathematics10 astronomy1 and physics or medicine 7physica74 ,to this curriculum in the ,chronicle ,peter adds in the ,lives of ,illustrious ,men the subjects of music and necromancy4 ,when so little was said of spirits in the occult science of the ,arabic authors of the ninth century whom we considered in an earlier chapter1 it is rather a surprise to hear that ,constantinus studied necromancy1 but that subject is listed along with mathematical and natural sciences by ,al-,farabi in his ,de ortu scientiarum1#biei and we shall find this classification reproduced by two western ,christian scholars of the twelfth century4#bifj ,the mathematica and astronomy which ,constantinus studied very likely also included considerable astrology and divination4 ,at any rate we are told that he not only pursued his studies among 8the ,chaldeans1 ,arabs1 ,persians1 and ,saracens10 and was fully imbued with 8all the arts of the ,egyptians10 but even1 like ,apollonius of ,tyana1 visited ,india and ,ethiopia in his quest for learning4 ,it was only after a lapse of thirty-nine or forty years that he returned to ,north ,africa4 ,most modern secondary accounts here state that ,constantinus was soon forced to flee from ,north ,africa because of the jealousy of other physicians who accused him of magic1#bifa or from fear that his fellow citizens would kill him as a wizard4 ,in view of his study of necromancy1 this may well have been the case4 ,peter the ,deacon1 however1 simply states that when the ,africans saw him so fully instructed in the studies of all nations1 they plotted to kill him1#bifb and gives no further indication of their motives4 ,sidenote3 ,his later life in ,italy4 ,constantinus secretly boarded ship and made his escape to ,salerno1 where he lived for some time in poverty1 until a brother of the caliph 7regis ,babiloniorum7 who chanced to come there recognized him1 after which he was held in great honor by ,duke ,robert ,guiscard4 ,the secondary accounts say that he became ,robert's confidential secretary and that he had previously occupied a similar position under the ,byzantine emperor1 ,constantine ,monomachos1#bifc but of these matters again ,peter the ,deacon is silent4 ,when ,constantinus left the ,norman court1 it was to become a monk at ,monte ,cassino1 where he remained until his death in #ajhg4 ,in a work addressed to the archbishop of ,salerno he speaks of himself as ,constantinus ,africanus ,cassinensis#bifd and ,albertus ,magnus cites him as ,constantinus ,cassianensis4#bife ,what purports to be a picture of ,constantinus is preserved in a manuscript of the fifteenth century at ,oxford4#biff ,sidenote3 ,his works were mainly translations4 ,peter the ,deacon states both in the ,chronicle and in the ,illustrious ,men that while at the monastery of ,monte ,cassino ,constantinus ,africanus 8translated a great number of books from the languages of various peoples40 ,peter then lists the chief of these4 ,it is interesting to note1 in view of the fact that ,constantinus in prefaces and introductions appears to claim some of the works as his own1 and that he was accused of fraud and plagiarism by medieval writers who followed him as well as by modern investigators1 that ,peter the ,deacon speaks of all his writings as translations from other languages4 ,peter does not1 however1 give us much information as to who the ,greek or ,arabic authorities were whom ,constantine translated4 ,it may be added that if ,constantinus claimed for himself the credit for ,latin versions which were essentially translations1 he was merely continuing a practice of which ,arabic authors themselves had been repeatedly guilty4 ,indeed1 we are told that they sometimes even destroyed earlier works which they had copied in order to receive sole credit for ideas which were not their own4#bifg ,sidenote3 ,pantegni4 ,the longest of ,constantinus' translations and the one most often cited in the middle ages was the ,pantechni or ,pantegni1 comprising ten books of theory and ten of practice as printed in #aeae with the works of ,isaac1#bifh although ,peter the ,deacon speaks of ,constantinus' dividing the ,pantegni into twelve books and then of a ,practica which also consisted of twelve books4 ,what is the ninth book of the ,practica in this printed version is listed as a separate book on surgery by ,peter in his ,illustrious ,men1 although omitted from his list in the ,chronicle1 and was so printed in the #aecf edition of the works of ,constantinus4#bifi ,and the ,antidotarium which ,peter lists as a separate title is probably simply the tenth book of the ,practica as printed with the works of ,isaac4#bigj ,the ,pantegni1 however1 is not a translation of any work by ,isaac1 but an adaptation of the ,khitaab el ,maleki1 or ,royal ,art of ,medicine1 of ,ali ,ibn ,abbas4 ,the preface of ,constantinus#biga says nothing of ,ali but tells the abbot ,desiderius that1 failing to find in the many works of the ,latins or even in 8our own writers1 ancient and modern10 such as ,hippocrates1 ,galen1 ,oribasius1 ,paulus1 and ,alexander1 exactly the sort of treatise desired1 he has composed 8this little work of our own0 7hoc nostrum opusculum74 ,but ,stephen of ,pisa1 who also translated ,ali into ,latin in #aabg1bigb accused ,constantinus of having suppressed both the author's name and title of the book and of having made many omissions and changes of order both in preface and text but without really adding any new contributions of his own4#bigc ,stephen further justified his own translation by asserting that not only had the first part of ,the ,royal ,art of ,medicine of ,ali ,ibn ,abbas been 8corrupted by the shrewd fraud of its translator10 but also that the last and greater portion was missing in the version by ,constantinus4#bigd ,also ,ferrarius said in his gloss to the ,universal ,diets of ,isaac that ,constantinus had completed the translation of only three books of the ,practica1 losing the rest in a shipwreck4#bige ,a third medieval writer1 ,giraldus ,bituricensis1 adds#bigf that ,constantinus substituted in its place the ,liber simplicis medicinae and ,liber graduum1 and that it was ,stephen of ,pisa who translated the remainder of the work of ,ali ben ,abbas which is called the ,practica ,pantegni et ,stephanonis4 ,stephen's translation is indeed different from the ten books of the ,practica printed with the works of ,isaac4 ,from these facts and from an examination of the manuscripts of the ,practica ,rose concluded#bigg that ,constantinus wrote only its first two books#bigh and the first part of the ninth1 which is roughly the same as the ,surgery published separately among ,constantinus' works4 ,the rest of this ninth book was translated into ,latin at the time of the expedition to besiege ,majorca1 that is1 in #aaad-aaae1 by a ,john#bigi who had recently been converted to ,christianity#bihj and whom ,rose was inclined to identify with ,john ,afflacius1 8a disciple of ,constantinus10 of whom we shall have more to say presently4 ,rose further held that this ,john completed the ,practica#biha commonly ascribed to ,constantinus with the exception of its tenth book which1 as we have suggested1 seems originally to have been a distinct ,antidotarium4 ,different from the ,pantegni is the ,compendium megategni ,galeni by ,constantinus published with the works of ,isaac1 and the ,librum ,tegni1 ,megategni1 ,microtegni listed by ,peter the ,deacon4 ,sidenote3 ,viaticum4 ,perhaps the next best known and the most frequently printed#bihb of ,constantinus' translations or adaptations from the ,arabic is his ,viaticum which1 as ,peter the ,deacon states1 is divided into seven books4 ,in the preface ,constantinus states that the ,pantegni was for more advanced students1 this is a brief manual for others4 ,he also adds that he appends his own name to it because there are persons who profit by the labors of others and1 8when the work of someone else has come into their hands1 furtively and like thieves inscribe their own names40 ,daremberg designated ,abu ,jafar ,ahmed ,ibn-al-,jezzar as author of the ,arabic original of the ,viaticum4 ,moses ,ibn ,tibbon1 who made a ,hebrew translation in #abei1 criticized the ,latin version of ,constantinus as often abbreviated1 obscure1 and seriously altered in arrangement4#bihc ,constantinus seems to be alluded to in the ,ephodia or ,greek version of the same work4#bihd ,sidenote3 ,other translations4 ,if neither the original of the ,pantegni nor of the ,viaticum is to be assigned to ,isaac1 ,constantinus nevertheless did translate some of his works1 namely1 those on diets1 urines1 and fevers4#bihe ,moreover1 ,constantinus himself admits that these ,latin works are translations1 stating in the preface to the treatise on urines that1 finding no satisfactory treatment of the subject in ,latin1 he turned to the ,arabic language and translated the work which ,isaac had compiled from the ancients4 ,constantinus also states that he translated the treatise on fevers from the ,arabic4 ,we have already seen that the alphabetical ,latin version of ,dioscorides which had most currency in the middle ages is ascribed in at least one manuscript to ,constantinus4 ,he also translated some treatises ascribed to ,hippocrates and ,galen1 such as ,galen's commentary on the ,aphorisms and ,prognostics of ,hippocrates#bihf and the ,tegni of ,galen4 ,constantinus has also been credited with translating works of ,galen on the eyes1 on diseases of women1 and on human nature1 but these are not genuine works of ,galen4 ,sidenote3 ,the book of degrees4 ,in his list of the works which ,constantinus translated from various languages4#bihg ,peter the ,deacon includes ,the book of degrees1 but it has not yet been discovered from what earlier author1 if any1 it is copied or adapted4 ,the work is a development of ,galen's doctrine that various medicinal simples are hot or cold1 dry or moist1 in varying degrees4 ,constantinus presupposes four gradations of this sort4 ,thus a food or medicine is hot in the first degree if its heating power is below that of the normal human body2 if it is of the same temperature as the body1 it ranks as of the second degree2 if its heat is somewhat greater than that of the body1 it is of the third degree2 if its heat is extreme and unbearable1 it is of the fourth degree4 ,the rose is cold in the first degree1 is dry towards the end of the second degree1 while the violet is cold towards the end of the first degree and moist in the beginning of the second degree4 ,thus ,constantinus distinguishes not only four degrees but a beginning1 middle and end of each degree1 and ,peter the ,deacon once gives the title of the work as ,the book of twelve degrees4#bihh ,this interesting though crude beginning in the direction of scientific thermometry and hydrometry unfortunately rested upon incorrect assumptions as to the nature and causation of heat and moisture1 and so was perhaps destined to do more harm than good4 ,sidenote3 ,on melancholy4 ,a glossary of herbs and species and a work on the pulse1 which ,peter the ,deacon includes in both his lists of ,constantinus' works or translations1 do not seem to have been printed or identified as ,constantinus'4 ,on the other hand1 the printed edition of the works of ,constantinus includes treatises on melancholy and on the stomach#bihi which are not mentioned in ,peter's list4 ,in a preface to the ,de melancholia which is not included in the printed edition#biij ,constantinus ,africanus speaks of himself as a monk of ,monte ,cassino and states that1 while he has often touched on the disease of melancholy in the many medical books which he has added to the ,latin language1 he has decided also to write a separate brochure on the subject because it is an important malady and because it is especially prevalent 8in these regions40 8,therefore ,i have collected this booklet from many volumes of our adepts in this art40 ,whether the word 8our0 here refers to ,greek or ,arabic writers would be hard to say4 ,constantinus states that melancholy is a disease to which those are especially liable who are always intent on study and books of philosophy1 8because of their scientific investigations and tiring their memories and grieving over the failure of their minds40 ,this ailment also afflicts 8those who lose their beloved possessions1 such as their children and dearest friends or some precious thing which cannot be restored1 as when scholars suddenly lose their books40 ,constantinus also describes the melancholy of 8many religious persons who live lives to be revered1 but fall into this disease from their fear of ,god and contemplation of the last judgment and desire of seeing the summum bonum4 ,such persons think of nothing and seek for nothing save to love and fear ,god alone1 and they incur this complaint and become drunk as it were with their excessive anxiety and vanity40#biia ,such passages would seem to describe ,constantinus' own associates and environment1 but they may possibly be a mere translation of some work of an earlier ,christian ,arab1 such as ,honein ben ,ishak who translated or pretended to translate a number of works of ,greek medicine into ,arabic4 ,in a later chapter#biib we shall find that ,honein perhaps had something to do with another work called ,the ,secrets of ,galen1 in which remedies for religious ascetics who have ruined their health by their austerities form a rather prominent feature4 ,sidenote3 ,on disorders of the stomach4 ,that the treatise on disorders of the stomach is ,constantinus' own work is indicated by its preface1 which is addressed to ,alfanus1 archbishop of ,salerno from #ajeh to #ajhg and earlier a monk of ,monte ,cassino4 ,alfanus had himself translated ,nemesius #biic and was the center of a group of learned writers3 the dialectician1 ,alberic the ,deacon1 the historian1 ,amatus of ,salerno1 and the mathematician and astronomer1 ,pandulf of ,capua4#biid ,constantinus states that he writes this treatise for ,alfanus as a compensation for his recent failure to relieve a stomach-ache with which that prelate was afflicted4 ,such instances of self-confessed failure1 be it noted in passing1 are rare indeed in ancient and medieval medicine1 and for this reason we are the more inclined to deal charitably with the charges of literary plagiarism which have been preferred against ,constantinus4 ,he goes on to say that he has sought with great care but in vain among ancient writings for any treatise devoted exclusively to the stomach1 and has only succeeded in finding here and there scattered discussions which he now presumably combines in the present special treatise4 ,sidenote3 ,medical works ascribed to ,alfanus4 ,this archbishop ,alfanus appears to have written on medicine himself1 since ,a treatise of ,alfanus of ,salerno concerning certain medical questions was listed among the books at ,christchurch1 ,canterbury about #acjj4biie ,also a collection of recipes entitled1 ,experiments of an archbishop of ,salerno1 in a manuscript of the early twelfth century are very likely by him4#biif ,they follow a treatise on melancholy which does not1 however1 appear to be that of ,constantinus ,africanus4#biig ,sidenote3 ,constantinus and experiment4 ,peter the ,deacon's bibliography of the works of ,constantinus includes a ,de experimentis which1 if extant1 has not been identified as ,constantinus'4 ,in such works of his as are available1 however1 we find a number of mentions of experience and its value4 ,it is of course to be remembered that such expressions as 8we state what we have tested and what our authorities have used10#biih and 8we have had personal experience of the confection which we now mention10#biii may refer to the experience of the past authors whose works ,constantinus is using or translating rather than to his own4 ,in the ,pantegni#cjjj 8ancient medical writers0 are divided into experientes and rationabiles1 and we are told that the empirics declare that compound medicines can be discovered only in dreams and by chance1 while the rationalists hold that these can be deduced from a knowledge of the virtues and qualities and accidents of bodies and diseases4 ,this much is of course simply ,galen over again4 ,constantinus occasionally gives medical 8experiments10 as in the case of 8proved experiments to eject reptiles from the body10#cjja or the placing of a live chicken on the place bitten by a mad dog4 ,the chicken will then die while the man will be cured 8beyond a doubt40#cjjb ,such medical 8experiments0 by ,constantinus were often cited by subsequent medieval writers4 ,sidenote3 8,experiments0 involving incantations4 ,incantations are involved in some of these 8experiments40 ,one approved experiment1 we are told1 consists in whispering in the ear of the patient the words1 ,recede demon quia dee fanolcri precipiunt4 ,the effect of this procedure is that when the epileptic rises1 after remaining like one dead for an hour1 he will answer any question that may be put to him4 ,another experiment to cure epilepsy is frequently cited by subsequent medieval medical writers from ,constantinus1 and1 while it may not have originated with him1 is apparently of ,christian rather than ,greek or ,mohammedan origin4 ,if the epileptic has parents living1 they are to take him to church on the day of the four seasons and have him hear mass on the sixth day and also on ,saturday4 ,when he comes again on ,sunday the priest is to write down the passage in the ,gospel where it says1 8,this kind is not cast out save by fasting and prayer40 ,presumably the epileptic is to wear this writing1 in which case a sure cure is promised1 8be he epileptic or lunatic or demoniac40 ,but it is added that the charm will not work in the case of persons born of incestuous marriages4#cjjc ,sidenote3 ,superstition comparatively rare in ,constantinus4 ,but as a rule incantations and superstitious ceremony are comparatively rare in the works of ,constantinus1 which contain little to justify the charge of magic said to have been made against him in ,africa or the charge of superstition made against the ,arabic medicine which his writings so largely reflect4 ,also these superstitious passages seem limited to the treatment of certain ailments of a mysterious character like epilepsy and insanity1 which1 ,constantinus says1 the populace call divinatio and account for by possession by demons4#cjjd ,it is against epilepsy and phantasy that it is recommended to give a child to swallow before it has been weaned the brains of a goat drawn through a golden ring4 ,and it is for epilepsy that we find such suspensions as hairs from an entirely white dog or the small red stones in swallows' gizzards1 from which they must have been removed at midday4 ,when ,constantinus is treating of eye and ear troubles1 or even of paralysis of the tongue and toothache1 use of amulets is infrequent and there is only an occasional suggestion of marvelous virtue4 ,gout is treated with unguents and recipes but without the superstitious ligatures often found in medieval works of medicine4#cjje ,parts of animals are employed a good deal3 thus if you anoint the entire body with lion fat1 you will have no fear of serpents1 and binding on the head the fresh lung of an ox is good for frenzy4#cjjf ,but ,constantinus more often explains the action of things in nature from their four qualities of hot1 cold1 moist1 and dry1 than he does by assuming the existence of occult virtues4 ,sidenote3 ,and of ,greek rather than ,arabic origin4 ,it is also to be noted that those passages where ,constantinus' medicine borders most closely upon magic are apt to be borrowed from1 or at least credited to1 ,galen and ,dioscorides4 ,neither ,constantinus nor his ,arabic authorities introduced most of these superstitious elements into medicine4 ,in his work on degrees ,constantinus repeats ,galen's story of the boy who fell into an epileptic fit whenever the suspended peony was removed from his neck4#cjjg ,in the ,viaticum#cjjh he ascribes the suspension of a white dog's hairs and the use of various other parts of animals for epileptics to ,dioscorides1 but they do not seem to be found in that author's extant works4 ,water in which blacksmiths have quenched their irons is another remedy prescribed for various disorders upon the authority of ,dioscorides and ,galen4#cjji ,theriac and terra sigillata are of course not forgotten4 ,that there is a magnetic mountain on the shore of the ,indian ,ocean which draws all the iron nails out of passing ships1 and that the magnet extracts arrows from wounds is stated on the authority of the ,lapidary of ,aristotle1 a spurious work4 ,constantinus adds that ,rufus says that the magnet comforts those afflicted with melancholy and removes their fears and suspicions4#cjaj ,however1 it is without citation of other authors that ,constantinus states that the plant agnus castus will mortify lust if it is merely suspended over the sleeper4#cjaa ,sidenote3 ,some signs of astrology and alchemy4 ,there is not a great deal of astrological medicine in the works of ,constantinus ,africanus4 ,there are some allusions to the moon and dog-days1#cjab ,galen being twice cited to the effect that epilepsy in a waxing moon is a very moist disease1 while in a waning moon it is very cold4 ,in a chapter of the ,pantegni#cjac the relation of critical days to the course of the moon and also to the nature of number is discussed4 ,in another passage of the same work#cjad we read that if other remedies fail in the case of a patient who cannot hold his water while in bed1 he should eat the bladder of a river fish for eight days while the moon is waxing and waning and he will be freed from the complaint4 ,but ,hippocrates testifies that in old men the ailment is incurable4 ,but the principal astrological passage that ,i have found in the works of ,constantinus is that in ,de humana natura#cjae where he traces the formation of the child in the womb and the influence of the planets upon the successive months of the process1 and explains why children born in the seventh or ninth month live while those born in the eighth month die4 ,this passage was cited by ,vincent of ,beauvais in his ,speculum naturale4#cjaf ,belief in alchemy is suggested when ,constantinus repeats the assertion of some book on stones that lead would be silver except for its smell1 its softness1 and its inability to endure fire4#cjag ,sidenote3 ,constantinus and the ,school of ,salerno4 ,the relation of ,constantinus ,africanus to the ,school of ,salerno has been the subject of much dispute and of divergent views4 ,some have held that ,salerno's medical importance practically began with him2 others have tried to maintain for ,salernitan medicine a ,neo-,latin character quite distinct from ,constantinus' introduction of ,arabic influence4 ,from the fact that ,constantinus passed from ,salerno to ,monte ,cassino1 where most1 if not all1 of his writing seems to have been done1 it has been assumed that there was an intimate connection between the monks and the rise of a medical school at ,salerno4 ,on the other hand1 ,renzi and ,rashdall have ridiculed the notion1 declaring the distance and difficulty of communication between the two places to be an insurmountable difficulty4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that ,constantinus himself both attended the archbishop of ,salerno in a case of stomach trouble and sent a treatise on the subject to him afterwards4 ,a strong personal influence by him upon the practice and still more upon the literature of ,salernitan medicine is therefore not precluded1 though his stay at ,salerno may have been brief and his literary labor performed entirely at the monastery4 ,in any case a ,master ,john ,afflacius1 who is associated with other ,salernitan writers in a compilation from their works1 was a disciple of ,constantinus and1 as we are about to see1 perhaps the author of some of the treatises which have been published under ,constantinus' name4 ,it certainly would seem that ,constantinus and his disciple have as good a right to be called ,salernitan as most of the authors included in ,renzi's collection4 ,sidenote3 ,liber aureus and ,john ,afflacius4 ,in a medical manuscript which ,henschel discovered at ,breslau in #ahcgcjah and which he regarded as a composition of the ,school of ,salerno and dated in the twelfth century1 he found in the case of two works compiled from various authors#cjai that the passages ascribed to a ,master ,john ,afflacius1 who was described as 8a disciple of ,constantinus10#cjbj were identical with passages in the ,liber aureus or ,de remediorum et aegritudinum cognitione published as a work of ,constantinus in the ,basel edition of #aecf4 ,he also identified a ,liber urinarum attributed to the same ,john ,afflacius1 disciple of ,constantinus1 in the ,breslau manuscript with the ,de urinis which follows the ,liber aureus in the printed edition of ,constantinus' works4 ,thus either the pupil appropriated or completed and published the work of his master1 or ,constantinus had the same good fortune in having his own name attached to the compositions of his pupil#cjba as in the case of the writings of his ,arabic predecessors4 ,sidenote3 ,afflacius more superstitious than his master4 ,it may be further noted that the disciple seems to have been more superstitious than the master1 for in one of the passages ascribed to ,afflacius in the aforesaid compilation1 after the correspondence with the ,liber aureus has ceased1 the text goes on to prescribe the suspension of goat's horn over one's head as a soporific and gives the following 8prognostic of life or death40 ,smear the forehead of the patient from ear to ear with musam eneam4 8,if he sleeps1 he will live2 but if not1 he will die2 and this has been tested in acute fevers40 ,another method is to try if the patient's urine will mix with the milk of a woman who is suckling a male child4 ,if it will1 he will live4 ,another procedure to induce sleep is then given1 which consists in reading the first verse of the ,gospel of ,john nine times over the patient's head1 placing beneath his head a missal or psalter and the names of the seven sleepers written on a scroll4 ,this is not the first instance of such ,christian magic that we have encountered in connection with the ,school of ,salerno and we begin to suspect that it was rather characteristic4 ,at any rate it was not uncommon in medieval medicine in general and was almost certainly introduced before ,innocent ,,iii who in #abae forbade ordeals and who frowned on other superstitious practices4 ,probably such ,christian magic dates from a period before ,arabic influence began to be felt4 ,thus again we have reason to doubt whether early medieval medicine or ,salernitan medicine was less superstitious than ,arabic medicine or than medieval medicine after the introduction of ,arabic medicine4 ,at least ,constantinus ,africanus who represents the introduction of translations from the ,arabic is comparatively free from superstition4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,treatises ,,on ,,the ,,arts ,,before ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,arabic ,,alchemy ,latin treatises on the arts and colors--,progress of the arts even during the early middle ages--,scantiness of the sources--,character of ,arabic alchemy--,different character of our ,latin treatises--,compositiones ad tingenda--,mappe ,clavicula--,some of its recipes--,question of symbolic nomenclature--,magical procedure with goats3 in ,mappe ,clavicula--,similar passages in ,heraclius--,and ,theophilus--,a magic figure--,use of an incantation in tenth century alchemy--,experimental character of the work of ,theophilus--,how to make ,spanish gold--,the question of symbolic terminology again--,alchemy in the eleventh century--,st4 ,dunstan and alchemy and magic--,introduction of ,arabic alchemy in the twelfth century4 8 444 campum latissimum diversarum artium perscrutari44440 --,theophilus1 ,schedula1 ,i1 ,praefatio4 ,sidenote3 ,latin treatises on the arts and colors4 ,we come to the consideration of several treatises dealing with colors and the arts and dating from about the eighth to the twelfth centuries and probably in part of earlier origin4 ,these are the ,compositiones ad tingenda in a manuscript of the eighth or ninth century1 the ,mappe clavicula found in part in a tenth century manuscript and more fully in one of the twelfth century1 the poem of ,heraclius on ,the colors and arts of the ,romans1 and the remarkable treatise of ,theophilus ,on diverse arts in three books4#cjbb ,the oldest known manuscripts of ,theophilus are of the twelfth century and he has been dated at the beginning of that century or end of the eleventh1 and ,heraclius1 from whom he takes a number of his chapters1 still earlier4 ,but it scarcely seems that some of ,theophilus' descriptions of ecclesiastical art would have been written before the twelfth century4 ,mrs4 ,merrifield regarded only the first two metrical books of ,the colors and arts of the ,romans as the work of ,heraclius1 and the third book in prose as a later addition of the twelfth or thirteenth century and probably written by a ,frenchman1 whereas she believed that ,heraclius wrote in southern ,italy under ,byzantine influence4#cjbc ,his poem sounds to me like an attempt to imitate ,lucretius1 while one also is inclined to associate it with the perhaps nearly contemporary poems in which the so-called ,macer and ,marbod recounted in verse form some of the properties of herbs and stones which they had learned from ancient writers4 ,sidenote3 ,progress of the arts even during the early middle ages4 ,berthelot regarded these treatises on the arts as proof that the knowledge of industrial and alchemical processes continued unbroken even in western ,europe from ,egypt to the middle ages1 although he held that the theories of transmutation and the like reached the west only in the twelfth century through the ,arabs4#cjbd ,moreover1 there is progress in the technical processes just as there was progress in ,romanesque and ,gothic art4 ,new items and recipes appear in the lists4 ,even in the declining ,roman ,empire and earliest middle age we have evidence of new discoveries4 ,the artificial fabrication of cinnabar becomes known at some time after ,dioscorides and ,pliny and before the eighth century4#cjbe ,the hydrostatic balance is described not only in the ,mappe clavicula but in the ,carmen de ponderibus of ,priscian or of ,q4 ,remnius ,fannius ,palaemo of the fourth or fifth century ,a4 ,d4#cjbf ,heraclius speaks more than once in his poem with admiration of the works of art of the ,roman 8kings0 and people1 and asks1 8,who now is capable of investigating these arts1 is able to reveal to us what those potent artificers of immense intellect discovered for themselves80#cjbg ,however1 his aim is to resurrect these arts2 he assures the reader that he writes nothing which he has not first proved himself2#cjbh and he tells in particular how he discovered by close scrutiny of a piece of ,roman glass that there was gold-leaf placed between two layers of glass1 a work which he successfully imitated4#cjbi ,on the other hand1 lead glazing1 according to ,alexandre ,brongniart1 director of the ,svres manufactory1 is not found in ,european pottery before the twelfth century1 when it was applied in ,pesaro about #aajj and is found on pottery in a tomb at ,jumiges of about #aabj4cjcj ,sidenote3 ,scantiness of the sources4 ,during the early medieval centuries the ,byzantine ,empire1 ,syria and ,egypt after they were conquered by the ,arabs1 the busy streets of ,bagdad and ,cordova1 and ,persia undoubtedly produced a far more flourishing activity in the fine arts and the industrial arts than was the case in backward western ,christian ,europe4 ,yet the surviving evidence for such activity is disappointing1 and seems limited to some notices and allusions in ,arabian and ,jewish travelers and historians1 and to the dust-heaps of ruined cities like ,fostat1 ,rai1 and ,rakka4 ,as the finest early specimens of ,byzantine mosaics are preserved in ,italy at ,ravenna1 so our ,latin treatises concerning the arts are perhaps the best extant for the early medieval period up to the twelfth century4 ,sidenote3 ,character of ,arabic alchemy4 ,a number of treatises on alchemy in ,arabic have reached us but they1 like the ,byzantine1 chiefly continue the fantastic mysticism and obscurity1 the astrology and magic1 of the ancient ,greek alchemists4 ,thus in the ,book of ,crates we have a virgin priestess of the temple of ,serapis at ,alexandria1 and the snake ,ouroburos1 also a vision of the seven heavens of the planets4 ,the ,book of ,alhabib invokes ,hermes ,trismegistus and says that the sages have not revealed the secret of transmutation for fear of the anger of the demons4 ,the ,book of ,ostanes1 in which ,andalusia is mentioned1 has eighty-four different names for the philosopher's stone1 and a fantastic dream concerning seven doors and three inscriptions in ,egyptian1 concerning the ,persian ,magi1 and a citation from an ,indian sage concerning the healing virtues of the urine of a white elephant4 ,the ,book of ,like ,weights of ,geber states that the sage can discern the mixture of the four elements in animals1 plants1 and stones by astrology and many other signs involving varied superstition4 ,his ,book of ,sympathy again emphasizes the seven planets as the key to alchemy and has much about the spirit in matter4 ,his ,book on ,quicksilver1 although it promises clarity1 is the most mystic and incomprehensible of all4 ,in it we read of raising the dead and of use of such liquids as 8a divine water0 and the milk of an uncorrupted virgin4#cjca ,sidenote3 ,different character of our ,latin treatises4 ,our ,latin treatises are as free from mysticism and obscurity1 from dreams and visions1 as they are from theoretical discussion4 ,they are collections of recipes and directions which are supposed at least to be practical and which are written in a simple and straightforward style4 ,they are not1 however1 taken together1 by any means entirely free from astrological directions or belief in occult virtue or yet other superstition1 and they include recipes for making gold4 ,of this there is least in the first treatise we have to consider4 ,sidenote3 ,compositiones ad tingenda4 ,the ,compositiones ad tingenda1#cjcb a treatise or collection of notes and recipes preserved in a manuscript dating from the time of ,charlemagne1 throws some light on the technical processes preserved in the ,latin west in the early middle ages and on the amount of knowledge of natural phenomena preserved in connection with the arts1--applied science in other words4 ,it tells how to color glass and make mosaics1 and describes a glass furnace2 how to dye skins and make parchment2 how to make gold-leaf1 gold-thread1 silver-leaf and tin-leaf2 how to give copper the color of gold2 it gives various directions and preparations for painting and gilding2 and a description of various minerals and herbs employed in the above processes4 ,much is repeated that is found already in ,pliny and ,dioscorides1 or in ,aristotle and the ,greek alchemists4 ,but several things are mentioned1 at least so far as we know1 for the first time1 although ,berthelot believed that the compiler of the ,compositiones ad tingenda had copied them from earlier works1 very probably ,byzantine or late ,roman1 and not invented them himself4 ,we find here the first mention of vitriol and of 8bronze10--a word apparently derived from ,brundisium4 ,amor aquae is used for the first time for the scum formed on waters containing iron salts and other metals1 and we also meet the first instance of the preparation of cinnabar by means of sulphur and mercury4 ,the work contains very little superstition with the exception of one passage which ,berthelot has already noted4#cjcc ,once a stone is spoken of as having solar virtue2 lead is distinguished as masculine and feminine2 the gall of a tortoise is used in a composition for writing golden letters1 and pig's blood is employed in another connection4 ,but these are trifling signs of occult science4 ,sidenote3 ,mappe ,clavicula4 ,more alchemistic in character is the ,mappe ,clavicula1#cjcd which1 in its fuller twelfth century form1 embodies the ,compositiones ad tingenda in a different order1#cjce and adds about twice as many more recipes for making gold1 making colors1 writing with gold1 glues and various other matters1 including building directions4 ,berthelot regarded two items instructing how to make images of the gods as signs of an ancient pagan origin for the work4#cjcf ,one of these items occurs in the twelfth century text1 the other in the tenth century table of contents4 ,on the other hand ,berthelot believed that the twelfth century version contained the oldest directions for the distillation of alcohol4#cjcg ,the ,mappe ,clavicula adds a good deal that is of a superstitious character to the ,compositiones ad tingenda which it includes1 and at the same time lays considerable stress upon experimental method4 ,sidenote3 ,some of its recipes4 ,it opens with a recipe 8for making the best gold10 the first of a long series4 ,one of the ingredients in this case is 8a bit of moon-earth1 which the ,greeks call ,affroselinum40 ,the third recipe advises one to experiment at first with only a little of the compound in question1 until one learns the process more thoroughly4#cjch ,the ingredients for gold-making in the sixth recipe include the gall of a goat and of a bull1 and saffron from ,lycia or ,arabia1 which is to be pounded in a ,theban mortar in the sun in dog-days4 ,at the close of the fourteenth recipe1 into which the gall of a bull again enters we have one of the injunctions to secrecy so dear to the alchemist3 8,hide the sacred secret which should be transmitted to no one1 nor give to anyone the prophetic40#cjci ,it is also implied that alchemy is a religious or divine art in the twentieth recipe where it is said that operators should concede all things to divine works4 ,but such mystic allusions are infrequent as well as brief4 ,in the same twentieth item gold is supposed to be made from a mixture of iron rust1 magnet1 foreign alum1 myrrh1 gold1 and wine4 ,it is also stated that those who will not credit the great utility that there is in humors are those who do not make demonstration for themselves1 another instance of the experimental character of the work4 ,the forty-first recipe states that gold may be dissolved in order to write with it by dipping it in the blood of an ,indian dragon1 placing it in a glass vessel1 and surrounding it with coals4 ,in the sixty-ninth item the blood of a dragon or of a cock is mixed with urine and the stone celidonius4 ,the gall of a bull and the blood of a pig are used again in recipes sixty-eight and one hundred and twenty-eight4 ,sidenote3 ,question of symbolic nomenclature4 ,it has sometimes been contended1 chiefly by persons who did not realize how universal was the ascription of great virtue to the parts of animals in ancient and medieval science and their use as remedies in the medicine of the same periods1 that they are not to be taken literally in alchemical recipes but are to be understood symbolically and are cryptic designations for common mineral substances4 ,thus ,berthelot cites a passage from the ,latin ,de anima1 ascribed to ,avicenna1 which says1 8,i am going to tell you a secret3 the eye of a man or bull or cow or deer signifies mercury10 and so on4#cjdj ,but despite what ,berthelot goes on to say about the 8old prophetic nomenclature0 of the ,egyptians1 ,i am inclined to think that such symbolism is mainly a refinement of later alchemists1 and that originally most such expressions were intended literally4 ,certainly it would be impossible to explain all the medicinal use of parts of animals in ,pliny's ,natural ,history as either symbolic or derived from the ,egyptian priests4 ,like the suggestion that ,roger ,bacon wrote in cipher1 the symbolic nomenclature theory is based on the assumption that the men of old concealed great secrets under an appearance of error4 ,and where such cryptograms and symbols were employed1 it was almost invariably done1 we may be sure1 with the object of impressing the reader with an exaggerated notion of the importance of what was written rather than because the writer really had any great discovery that he wished to conceal4 ,that symbolic language was employed by alchemists1 especially in the latest middle age and early modern centuries1 is not to be questioned4 ,the use of the names of the planets for the corresponding metals is a familiar example4 ,but most such symbolic nomenclature is equally obvious1 while there is no reason for not taking the use of parts of animals literally4 ,indeed1 in many passages it must be so taken1 as in a later item of the ,mappe ,clavicula#cjda which has no concern with alchemy and where in order to poison an arrow for use in battle1 we are instructed to dip it in the sweat from the right side of a horse between the hip-bones4 ,the following experiments with goats also illustrate the great value set upon animal fluids and substances4 ,sidenote3 ,magical procedure with goats in the ,mappe ,clavicula4 ,we are reminded of the directions given by ,marcellus ,empiricus for the preparation of goat's blood by a recipe for making figures of crystal which occurs near the close of the ,mappe ,clavicida4#cjdb ,a he-goat which has never indulged in sexual intercourse is to be shut up in a cask for three days until he has completely digested everything that he had in his belly4 ,he is then to be fed on ivy for four days1 at the end of which time he is to be slain and his blood mixed with his urine which is now collected from the cask4 ,by soaking the crystal overnight in this mixture it can be moulded or carved at will4 ,this experiment is immediately preceded by a somewhat similar procedure for cutting glass with steel4#cjdc ,the glass is to be softened and the steel is to be tempered by placing them either in the milk of a ,saracen she-goat1 who has been fed upon ivy and milked by scratching her udders with nettles1 or in the lotion of a small girl of ruddy complexion1 which must be taken before sunrise4 ,sidenote3 ,similar passages in ,heraclius4 ,very similar passages are found in the works of ,heraclius and ,theophilus1 the former of whom gives the following directions for glass engraving3 8,oh6 all you artists who wish to engrave glass correctly1 now ,i will show you just as ,i myself have proven4 ,i sought the fat worms which the plow turns up from the earth1 and the useful art in such matters bade me at the same time seek vinegar and the hot blood of a huge he-goat1 which ,i had taken pains to tie up under cover and to feed on strong ivy for a while4 ,next ,i mixed the worms and vinegar with the warm blood and anointed all the bright shining phial4 ,this done1 ,i tried to engrave the glass with the hard stone called pyrites40#cjdd ,in another passage ,heraclius recommends the use of the urine and blood of a goat in engraving gems1#cjde and he also states that the blood of a goat makes crystal easier to carve4#cjdf ,sidenote3 ,and ,theophilus4 ,theophilus states that poets and artificers have greatly cherished the ivy1 8because they recognized the occult powers which it contains within itself40#cjdg ,he also affirms that the blood of a goat makes crystal easier to carve1 but he recommends the blood of a living goat two or three years old and repeated insertion of the crystal in an incision between the animal's breast and abdomen4#cjdh ,he also recommends a somewhat similar procedure to that of the ,mappe ,clavicula with a goat and a cask4#cjdi ,in this case the goat should be three years old1 and after being bound for three days without food should be fed for two days on nothing but fern4 ,the following night he should be shut up in a cask with holes in the bottom through which his urine can be collected in another vessel for two or three nights1 when the goat may be released and the urine employed to temper iron tools4 ,or the urine of a small red-headed boy may be employed1 as it is better for tempering than plain water4 ,indeed1 both ,theophilus and ,heraclius make much use of parts of animals in the arts3 various animals' teeth to shine and polish things with1 horse dung mixed with clay1 skins and bladders1 saliva and ear-wax to polish niello1 and so forth4 ,sidenote3 ,a magic figure4 ,returning to the ,mappe ,clavicula we note the employment of a magic figure called arragab1 which ,berthelot thinks is a small lead image4#cjej ,by means of it the flow of a spring may be stopped2 a cup may be made either to retain or to empty its contents2 if the cows drink first from the trough1 there will be enough water for both the cows and the horses1 but if the horses drink first1 there will not be enough for either4 ,the same figure enables one to fill a pitcher from a cask without diminishing the amount of liquid in the cask1 or to construct a lamp which will produce phantoms4 ,it also makes soldiers leave their camp without their spears and yet return with them4 ,after this flight into the realm of magic we come back to a more plausibly physical basis for marvels in a description of four revolving hoops or circles within which a vessel may be revolved in any direction without spilling its contents4#cjea ,sidenote3 ,use of an incantation in tenth century alchemy4 ,the passages which we have just noted in the ,mappe ,clavicula cannot be surely traced back earlier than the twelfth century version of it and do not appear in the table of contents which is preserved in the tenth century ,schlestadt manuscript and which covers only a portion of the chapters of the twelfth century manuscript1 but also some other chapters which are not extant4 ,but that magic was not entirely absent from the earlier version to which this table of contents seems to apply is evidenced by the fact that one of the chapter headings dealing with the fabrication of gold mentions a prayer or incantation to be recited during the process4#cjeb ,sidenote3 ,experimental character of the work of ,theophilus4 ,the great importance of the work of ,theophilus in the history of art is too generally recognized to need elaboration here4 ,our purpose is rather to point out that in it information of great value is found side by side with a considerable amount of misguided natural theory and magical ceremony4 ,the stress laid by ,theophilus upon personal observation1 experience1 and experimental method should not1 however1 pass unnoticed4 ,he has scrutinized the works of art in the church of ,st4 ,sophia one by one 8with diligent experience10 has tested everything by eye and hand1 has as a 8curious explorer0 made all sorts of experiments1 and appears to represent transparent stained glass as his own discovery or idea4#cjec ,nor is he the only experimenter2 he also speaks of 8modern workmen0 who deceive many incautious persons by their imitation of the appearance of most precious ,arabian gold which 8is frequently found employed in the most ancient vases40#cjed ,sidenote3 ,how to make ,spanish gold4 ,theophilus1 however1 believes that other metals can really be transmuted into gold1 and we may repeat his amusing account of how ,spanish gold 8is made from red copper and powdered basilisk and human blood and vinegar40 8,for the ,gentiles1 whose skill in this art is well known1 create basilisks in this wise4 ,they have an underground chamber completely walled in on all sides with stone1 and with two windows so small as scarcely to admit any light4 ,in this they put two cocks of twelve or fifteen years and give them plenty of food4 ,these1 when they have grown fat1 from the heat of their fat have commerce together and lay eggs4 ,as soon as the eggs are laid the cocks are ejected and toads are put in to sit on the eggs and are fed upon bread4 ,when the eggs are hatched chicks come forth who look like young roosters1 but after seven days they grow serpents' tails and would straightway burrow into the ground1 were the chamber not paved with stone4 ,guarding against this1 their masters have round brazen vessels of great amplitude1 perforated on all sides1 with narrow mouths1 in which they put the chicks and close the mouths with copper covers and bury them underground1 and the chicks are nourished for six months by the subtle earth which enters through the perforations4 ,after this they uncover them and apply a strong fire until the beasts within are totally consumed4 ,when this is over and it has cooled off1 they remove and carefully pulverize them1 adding a third part of the blood of a ruddy man1 which blood is dried and powdered4 ,having compounded these two they temper them with strong vinegar in a clean vessel2 then they take very thin plates of the purest red copper and spread this mixture over them on both sides and place them in the fire4 ,and when they grow white hot1 they take them out and quench and wash them in the same mixture1 and this process they repeat until the mixture has eaten through the copper1 and so obtain the weight and color of gold4 ,this gold is suited for all operations40#cjee ,sidenote3 ,the question of symbolic terminology again4 ,mr4 ,hendrie held that ,theophilus was here describing in symbolic language a process 8for procuring pure gold by the means of the mineral acids20 and that 8the toads of ,theophilus which hatch the eggs are probably fragments of the mineral salt1 nitrate of potash2 444 the blood of a red man 444 probably a nitrate of ammonia2 fine earth1 a muriate of soda 7common salt72 the cocks1 the sulphates of copper and iron2 the eggs1 gold ore2 the hatched chickens1 which require a stone pavement1 sulphuric acid produced by burning these in a stone vessel1 collecting the fumes4444 ,the elements of nitro-muriatic acid are all here1 the solvent for gold40#cjef ,mr4 ,hendrie leaves1 however1 a number of details unexplained and he admits that 8,unfortunately each chemist appears to have varied the symbols in use40 ,certainly one would have to vary them in almost every case to make any sense out of such procedures as this of ,theophilus4 ,on the other hand1 there is nothing very surprising in his procedure taken literally to one who is acquainted with the beliefs of ancient and medieval science and magic4 ,and certainly ,shakespeare's line concerning the precious jewel in the toad's head1 which ,hendrie quotes in this connection1 is much more likely to be meant literally than to be the symbolic 8jargon of the alchemist40 ,later we shall hear again from ,alexander ,neckam1 in a passage which has no connection with alchemy1 of the basilisk hatched by a toad from an egg laid by a cock1 and we shall hear from ,albertus ,magnus of an experiment in which a toad's eye was proved superior in virtue to an emerald4 ,sidenote3 ,alchemy in the eleventh century4 ,the treatises which we have been considering appear1 at least for the most part1 to antedate the ,latin translations of works of alchemy from the ,arabic1 although it is possible that1 just as the first translations of mathematical and astronomical works from the ,arabic go back to the tenth century at least1 so the reception of ,arabic alchemy may have begun in a small way before the twelfth century4 ,at any rate we find that in the eleventh century not only were ,michael ,psellus and other ,byzantine scholars spreading the doctrines of alchemy1#cjeg but a scholium to ,adam of ,bremen records the presence at the court of ,bishop ,adalbert of ,bremen of an alchemist in the person of a baptized ,jew4#cjeh ,sidenote3 ,st4 ,dunstan and alchemy and magic4 ,to ,st4 ,dunstan1 the famous abbot of ,glastonbury1 archbishop of ,canterbury1 and statesman of the tenth century 7#ibd or #ibe to #ihh71 is attributed a treatise on the philosopher's stone contained in a ,corpus ,christi manuscript of the fifteenth century at ,oxford and printed at ,cassel in #afdi4 ,no genuine works by him seem to be extant1 however1 but it is interesting to note that along with his reputation for learning and mechanical skill went the association of his name with magic4 ,in his studious youth he was accused of magic1 driven from court1 and thrown into a muddy pond4 ,his contemporary biographer also narrates how the devil appeared to him in various animal and other terrifying forms4 ,his favorite studies were mathematics and music1 and he was said to own a magic harp which played while hanging by itself on the wall4#cjei ,sidenote3 ,introduction of ,arabic alchemy in the twelfth century4 ,berthelot has associated the introduction of ,arabic alchemy into ,christian western ,europe with the ,latin translation by ,robert of ,chester of ,the ,book of ,morienus1 but incorrectly dated it in #aahb ,a4 ,d41#cjfj whereas the mention of that date in the manuscripts has reference to the ,spanish era and denotes the year #aadd ,a4 ,d4#cjfa ,the main reason for regarding ,robert's translation as one of the earliest is that he remarks in his preface1 8,what alchemy is and what is its composition1 your ,latin world does not yet know truly40 ,of the work translated by ,robert we shall treat more fully in a later chapter on ,hermetic ,books in the ,middle ,ages4 ,here we may further note the existence of a work of alchemy in another twelfth century manuscript4#cjfb ,it is a brief work in four chapters and its superstitious character may be inferred from its opening instruction to 8take four hundred hen's eggs laid in the month of ,march10 and its citation of ,artesius concerning divination by the reflection or refraction of the sun's rays or moon-beams in liquids or a mirror4 ,since the treatise bears the title ,alchamia1 it is probably safe to assume that it represents ,arabic influence4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,marbod1 ,,bishop ,,of ,,rennes1 #ajce--aabc ,career of ,marbod--,relation of his ,liber lapidum to the prose ,evax--,problem of ,marbod's sources--,influence of the ,liber lapidum--,occult virtue of gems--,liber lapidum meant seriously--,de fato et genesi4 8,nec dubium cuiquam debet falsumque videri ,quin sua sit gemmis divinitus insita virtus2 ,ingens est herbis virtus data1 maxima gemmis40 --,marbod1 ,liber lapidum4 ,sidenote3 ,career of ,marbod4 ,of medieval ,latin ,lapidaries the earliest and what also seems to have been the classic on the subject of the marvelous properties of stones is the ,liber lapidum seu de gemmis by ,marbod1 bishop of ,rennes1#cjfc who lived from #ajce to #aabc and so had very likely completed this work before the close of the eleventh century4 ,indeed one manuscript of it seems to date from that century#cjfd and there are numerous twelfth century manuscripts4 ,these early manuscripts bear his name and the style is the same as in his other writings4 ,born in the county of ,anjou1 ,marbod attended the church school there1 became the schoolmaster himself from #ajfg to #ajha1 during which time he probably composed the ,liber lapidum1 then served as archdeacon under three successive bishops1 and finally himself became a bishop in #ajif4 ,he attended church councils in #aajc and #aajd and died in ,september1 #aabc1 in an ,angevin monastery1 whose monks issued a eulogistic encyclical letter on that occasion1 while two archdeacons celebrated his integrity1 learning1 and eloquence in admiring verse4 ,marbod's own productions are also in poetical form4 ,it is interesting to note that despite his early date he was eulogized not as a lone man of letters in an uncultured age but as 8the king of orators1 although at that time all ,gaul resounded with varied studies40 ,sidenote3 ,relation of the ,liber lapidum to the prose ,evax4 ,the ,liber lapidum is a ,latin poem of #gcd hexameters describing sixty stones4 ,in the opening lines ,marbod writes3 8,evax1 king of the ,arabs1 is said to have written to ,nero1 ,who after ,augustus ruled next in the city4#cjfe ,how many the species of stones1 what names1 and what colors1 ,from what regions they came1 and how great the power of each one40 ,making use of this worthy book1 ,marbod has decided to compose a briefer account for himself and a few friends only1 believing that he who popularizes mysteries lessens their majesty4 ,as a result of this opening line and the fact that in some manuscripts ,marbod's own name is not given1 his poem is sometimes listed in the catalogues as the work of ,evax4#cjff ,there is also1 however1 extant a work in ,latin prose which opens1 8,evax1 king of ,arabia1 to the emperor ,tiberius greeting40#cjfg ,but as this prose work is not much longer than ,marbod's poem1 and seems to be known only from a single manuscript of the fourteenth century1 it is doubtful if it is the work which he professed to abbreviate4 ,this prose work is also ascribed to ,amigeron or ,damigeron1#cjfh to whom we have already seen that the author of ,lithica was supposed to be indebted and whose name was regarded as that of a famous magician4 ,after alluding to the magnificent gifts which the emperor had sent to ,evax by the centurion ,lucinius ,fronto and offering this book in return1 the author of the prose version lists seven stones appropriate1 not1 strangely enough1 to the seven planets1 but to seven of the signs of the zodiac4#cjfi ,fifty chapters are then devoted to as many stones1 beginning with ,aetites1 which is twenty-fifth in ,marbod's list1 and ending with ,sardo1 while ,sardius comes tenth in ,marbod's poem4 ,marbod's own order1 however1 sometimes varies in the manuscripts4#cjgj ,sidenote3 ,problem of ,marbod's sources4 ,king1 and ,rose after him1 asserted#cjga that despite ,marbod's professed abridgement of a work which ,evax was supposed to have presented to ,tiberius1 he drew largely from ,isidore of ,seville's ,etymologies4 ,rose thought that some of the descriptions of stones were from ,solinus1 the rest from ,isidore1 but that the account of their virtues was from ,evax4 ,king also noted occasional extracts from the ,orphic work1 ,lithica1 which is not surprising in view of the fact that both ,evax and the ,lithica seem based on ,damigeron4 ,this question of sources and ultimate origins is1 however1 as usual of relatively little moment to our investigation4 ,my own impression would be that in antiquity and the middle age there exists a sort of common fund of information and stock of beliefs concerning gems which naturally is drawn upon and appears in every individual treatise upon them4 ,but the number of gems discussed and the order in which they are considered or classified varies with each new author1 and there is apt to be a similar variation in the number of statements made concerning any particular stone and the way in which these are arranged4 ,in fine1 all ancient and medieval accounts of the natures and virtues of stones bear a general resemblance to one another which is more impressive than is the similarity between any two given accounts1 and testify to a consensus of opinion and to a common learned tradition concerning gems which is more significant than the possible borrowings of individual authors from one another4 ,sidenote3 ,influence of the ,liber lapidum4 ,however1 there seems to be little doubt that the poem of ,marbod is itself an outstanding work among medieval accounts of precious stones1 first because of the early date of its authorship1 and second because of its late persistence and popularity1 which is indicated by the fourteen editions that appeared after the invention of printing4#cjgb ,its convenient form perhaps accounts to a considerable extent for its popularity4 ,at any rate the manuscripts of it are numerous1 and it was much used by subsequent writers of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 although citations of ,lapidarius cannot always be assumed to refer to ,marbod4 ,but at least the notions concerning gems which we find in his poem are a fair sample of what we should find in any ,latin treatment of the same subject for several centuries to come4 ,it is found also in a medieval ,french version4 ,sidenote3 ,occult virtue of gems4 ,it does not make much difference where we begin or what stones we select from ,marbod's list as examples1 since the same sort of marvelous powers are ascribed to all of them4 ,in his prologue ,marbod describes the occult virtues of gems as those 8whose hidden cause gives manifest effects40 ,no one should doubt them or think them false1 8since the virtue in gems is divinely implanted4 ,enormous virtue is given to herbs1 but the greatest to gems40 ,adamant1 hard as it is1 cracks when heated with goat's blood4 ,it counteracts the action of the magnet4 ,it is used in the magic arts and makes its bearer indomitable4 ,it drives off nocturnal specters and idle dreams4 ,it routs black venom1 heals quarrels and contentions1 cures the insane1 and repels fierce foes4 ,allectory1 found inside cocks1 slakes thirst4 ,milo overcame other athletes1 and kings have won battles by its aid4 ,it restores promptly those who have been banished1 enables orators to speak with a flow of language1 makes one welcome on every occasion1 and endears a wife to her husband4 ,it is advised to carry it concealed in the mouth4 ,the sapphire nourishes the body and preserves the limbs whole4 ,its bearer1 who should be most chaste1 cannot be harmed by fraud or envy and is unmoved by any terror4 ,it leads those in bonds from prison4 ,it placates ,god and makes ,him favorable to prayers4 ,it is good for peace-making and reconciliation4 ,it is preferred to other gems in hydromancy1 since prophetic responses can be obtained by it4 ,as for medicinal qualities1 it cools internal heat1 checks perspiration1 powdered and applied with milk it heals ulcers1 cleanses the eyes1 stops headache1 and cures diseases of the tongue4 ,gagates1 worn as an amulet1 benefits dropsy2 diluted with water1 it prevents loose teeth from falling out2 fumigation with it is good for epileptics and it is thought to be hostile to demons2 it remedies indigestion and constipation and overcomes magical illusions 7praestigia7 and evil incantations4 ,also ,per suffumigium mulieri menstrua reddit 99 99 99 99 99 ,et solet1 ut perhibent1 deprehendere virginitatem4 ,praegnans potest aquam triduo qua mersus habetur ,quo vexabatur partum cito libera fundit4 ,gagates burns when washed with water2 is extinguished by anointing it with olive oil4 ,the magnet is especially used in the illusions of magic4 ,the great ,deendor is said to have first used it1 realizing that there was no more potent force in magic1 and after him the famous witch ,circe employed it4 ,among the ,medes experience revealed still further virtues of the stone4 ,it is used to test a wife's chastity while she is sleeping2 if she is unchaste1 she will fall out of bed when the gem is applied to her head4 ,a burglar can commit theft unmolested by sprinkling it over hot coals and so driving away all the occupants of the house4 ,in the case of ,chelonitis ,marbod's account is very similar to that in ,pliny's ,natural ,history1#cjgc citing the ,magi for the power of divination it bestows when carried under the tongue at certain times of the moon1 according to whose phases its power varies4 ,of the gems hitherto described only in the case of adamant and gagates was there any resemblance between ,marbod and ,pliny and there only partial4 ,pliny also briefly states that the stone diadochos resembles beryl1 but does not have ,marbod's statements that it is employed in water divination to show varied images of demons1 8nor is there other stone stronger to evoke shades40 ,but if by chance it comes in contact with a corpse1 it loses its wonted force1 since the stone is sacred and abhors dead bodies4#cjgd ,sidenote3 ,liber lapidum was meant to be taken seriously4 ,the vast powers1 not only medicinal and physical1 but of divination and magic1 over the mind and affections1 miraculous and supernatural1 even over ,god1 as in the statement that the sapphire can be employed to secure a more favorable answer to prayer1 which ,marbod assigns to gems without a sign of scruple or scepticism or disapproval on his part1 have so shocked some moderns that suggestions have been made1 in order to explain away the acceptance of talismanic powers of gems to such a degree by a ,christian clergyman who became a bishop1 that ,marbod must have composed his poem when quite young and lived to repent it1 or that he regarded it merely as a poetical flight and exercise1 not as an exposition of scientific fact4 ,but wherefore then was it not only widely read in the literary twelfth century but also widely cited as an authority in the scientific and equally ,christian thirteenth century8 ,no2 everyone else took it precisely as ,marbod meant it1 as a serious statement of the marvelous powers which had been divinely implanted in gems4 ,and why should not ,god be more easily reached through the instrumentality of gems1 since ,he had endowed them with their marvelous virtues8 ,marbod affirms his own faith in the great virtues of gems not only at the beginning but the close of his poem1 stating that while some have doubted the marvelous properties attributed to them1 this has been due to the fact that so many imitation gems are made of glass1 which deceive the unwary but of course lack the occult virtues of the genuine stones4 ,if the stones are genuine and duly consecrated1 the marvelous effects will without a doubt follow4 ,sidenote3 ,de fato et genesi4 ,marbod's belief in the almost boundless talismanic virtues of gems is thrown into the higher relief by the fact that in another of his poems he makes an attack upon genethlialogy or the prediction of the entire life of the individual from the constellations at his birth4 ,in ,de fato et genesi he writes against 8the common notion0 7opinio vulgi7 that all things are ruled by fate1 that the hour of nativity controls man's entire life1 and the contention of the mathematici that the seven planets control not only the external forces with which man comes in contact but also human character4 ,he objects to such a doctrine as that1 when ,venus and ,mars appear in certain relations to the sun1 the babe born under that constellation will be destined to commit incest and adultery in later life4 ,he objects that such beliefs destroy all the foundations of morality1 law1 and future reward or punishment2 contends that there are certain races which never commit adultery or crime1 yet have the same seven planets2 and argues that since ,jews are all circumcised on the eighth day1 they should all have the same horoscope4 ,these are familiar contentions1 at least as old as ,bardesanes4 ,marbod declares further that the astrological writer1 ,firmicus1 employs 8infirm arguments10 and that his own horoscope1 taken according to ,firmicus' methods and interpreted likewise1 turned out to be false1 8as ,i proved when once ,i dabbled in that art40 ,this is interesting as showing that ,gerard of ,york#cjge was not the only bishop of the eleventh century who was acquainted with the work of ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus1 and that even opponents of astrology are apt to have once been dabblers in it4 ,marbod concludes his poem with this neat turn3 8,i thought ,i ought to write these lines briefly against genethlialogy4 ,nevertheless1 that ,i may not seem to repel fate and horoscope utterly1 ,i assert that my fate is the ,word of the supreme ,father1 ,by ,whom should all things be ruled and all men confess2 ,and ,i say that the computation of my constellation is innate in me ,and the liberty by which ,i can tend whither ,i will4 ,therefore1 if my will shall be in conjunction with reason ,in the sign of the ,balances with ,christ regarding me1 ,all things will turn out prosperously for me here and everywhere3-- ,this is the favorable horoscope of all ,christ's followers40 ,,general ,,index ,names of men of learning will be found for the most part in the bibliographical index4 ,aaron1 #ceg1 #cgi1 #dfd1 #ejg ,abacus1 #fih1 #gjd ,abbreviation1 #ace1 #ejj1 #fbd ,abdomen1 diseases of1 #egg ,abimelech1 #cii ,abortion1 #fa1 #id ,abraham the patriarch1 astrology and science of #cej1 #cec1 #cee1 #daa1 #gjc2 magic use of name of1 #dcg1 #ddi1 #gbf ,abraxas1 #cga1 #cgi ,abrotonum1 an herb1 #die ,abscess1 #ic ,abstinence from animal food1 #bie1 #cjh1 #cad ,academy1 the1 #bfh1 #bgj1 #fjb ,accusation of magic against1 ,galen1 #abe1 #afe-g2 alchemists1 #aid2 ,apuleius1 #bbb1 #bcb-dj2 ,apollonius of ,tyana1 #bdf2 the emperor ,julian1 #cah2 ,jews1 #ccg1 #dcf-i2 ,christ and ,christians1 #ccg1 #chc1 #cie-f1 #dae1 #dbd1 #dcc1 #dcf-i1 #dfc1 #dfe1 #eje2 pagans1 #dae2 philosophers1 #daf2 heretics1 #dae1 #dbd2 ,origen1 #dfa2 ,priscillian1 #chj-a1 #eai-bj2 ,libanius1 #ech2 ,bede1 #fce2 ,gerbert1 #gjd-e2 ,constantinus ,africanus1 #gdd1 #gee2 ,dunstan1 #ggc ,achilles1 ghost of1 #bfd2 master of1 #eig ,aconite1 #gd1 #aga ,acorn1 #gdj ,acoustics1 #ahe ,acron1 #ef ,adalbert1 bishop of ,bremen1 #ggc ,adam1 first man1 #fha ,adamant1 #ha1 #bid1 #fcf2 swords of1 #bec1 #beh2 breakable by goat's blood1 #ef1 #he1 #eaa1 #ehh1 #ggi2 by lead1 #feg ,adder1 #bgi1 #gba ,adonai1 #cfe1 #cfg1 #dea1 #ehc1 #gbf ,adrianaion1 #dcd ,adultery1 discovery of1 #cfd1 #fdd ,advertising1 #ahf ,aeetes1 #cbi ,aegina1 #hf1 #cja ,aelian1 a consul1 #bfb ,aemilianus1 #bbd ,aeon1 #cfc-d1 #cgh1 #chc1 #daa ,aerimancy or ,aeromancy1 #cdd1 #fbi ,aesculapius1 shrine of1 #bhc1 #cbi1 #cgi2 and see other index ,aetites1 a gem1 #beg1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #eha1 #ggg ,affroselinum1 #gfe ,agate1 #bid1 #gba ,agathodaemon1 #agc1 #bib1 #cgi1 #ehg1 #ffa2 and see other index ,aglaides1 #dca ,aglaonice1 #bjc ,agnus castus1 an herb1 #gef ,agnus ,dei1 #gcg ,agricultural magic1 #ba1 #gj1 #gi-hj1 #ic-d1 #baf1 #bai1 #bid1 #fjd-e1 #fbf ,ague1 #ecf ,air1 importance of pure1 #adb1 #aea2 pressure of1 #ahh2 experiments with1 #aij-b2 and continuity of universe1 #bjf2 star in1 #dgh ,albicerius1 #eah ,alchemy1 ,egyptian1 #ab-c2 ,greek1 #ei1 #aca1 #aic-bjj1 #cbj1 #edd-e1 #gfd2 ,pliny1 #ha1 #aic2 ,arabic and ,latin1 chap4 xxxiii1 #cfh1 #cih1 #fdi1 #ffc-d1 #ffi-gj1 #fig1 #geg1 #ggc ,alcmaeon1 #cbd ,alcohol1 #dfh1 #gfe ,alcoholism1 #bec ,alexander the ,great1 chap4 xxiv1 #ahf1 #dif1 #fjb2 and see other index ,alexander of ,abonutichus1 #bgg-h ,alexander ,v1 pope1 #ajf ,alexandria1 as a center of ancient learning1 #bg1 #ci1 #dh1 #aje1 #aji1 #abc1 #ade1 #ahg1 #bbd1 #bia1 #cah1 #cdh1 #ddi1 #eda1 #eeb1 #gfc2 dissection at1 #adg2 measures of1 #add2 relations with ,india1 #bde2 in the pseudo-,clementine ,homilies1 #djd1 #djh ,alexandrina1 golden1 #gci ,alexandrinus ,olympius1 #cjj ,alive1 taken from1 #ehj1 #eia2 burned1 see ,crab ,allectory1 a gem1 #ggi ,allegory and allegorical interpretation1 in alchemy1 #aie-h2 of the ,bible1 #cej1 #dgi1 #dhd1 #fcc2 in zoology1 #cif1 #ejj1 #ejb2 miscellaneous1 #ede1 #fbf2 and see ,symbolism ,almanac1 #cah ,almond1 #gh ,aloaeus1 see ,eloeus ,alphabet in magic and divination1 #aig1 #cgj1 #chj1 #eib1 #ffd1 #gaa2 and see ,vowel ,alphabetical order1 #aff1 #agf1 #fjf1 #faj ,alpheus1 river1 #ajb ,altar1 #hj1 #bci1 #bie1 #cgh ,alum1 #gfe ,amazons1 #aad1 #efd1 #fjc ,ambassador1 see ,embassy ,amber1 #di1 #bac ,american ,indians1 #af-ag ,amiantus1 a gem1 #ha1 #bac ,ammon1 the god1 #edf1 #eec1 #efa-b ,ammon 7or1 ,hammon71 ,king of ,egypt1 #bia ,ammonia1 #ega ,amnael1 an angel1 #aie ,amor aquae1 #gfd ,amulet1 ,egyptian1 #aj2 in ,pliny1 #gj1 #gg1 #ha1 #he1 #hg1 #hi1 #ib2 in ,galen1 #aff1 #agb-c1 #agf2 in ,plutarch1 #bjd1 #bid2 ,gnostic1 #chj2 ,aristotle represented as an adept in1 #efc2 post-classical and early medieval medicine1 #egb1 #ehj1 #gee2 ,arabic1 #fee-f2 and see ,ligatures and suspensions ,amusements1 ancient1 #acg1 #dhf ,anaesthetics1 #adb1 #fbf ,anastasius1 ,pope1 #dfa ,anatomy1 of ,galen1 #ade-ea2 ,empirics hostile to1 #aeg2 of ,rasis1 #ffh ,andrew1 ,st41 legend of1 #dce ,andronicus1 the prefect1 #edb ,anemone1 #fe ,angel1 see ,spirit ,angitia1 #cbi ,anglo-,saxon1 manuscripts1 chap4 xxix1 #eig1 #fab-c2 medicine1 chap4 xxxi ,angobatae1 #ahh ,animal1 incapable of magic1 #d2 in early ,greek religion1 #bc2 habits1 intelligence1 jealousy1 and remedies employed by1 #bf1 #eg1 #gc-e1 #bag-h1 #bed1 chap4 xii1 #dfj1 #dij1 #egd1 #fbf2 use of parts of1 #aa1 #bj1 #fg-gj1 #ge-f1 #hg1 #acc1 #afg1 #bbi1 #ehg1 #fjf1 #gba1 #gdj1 #gee1 #gff2 living in fire1 #bdj2 sacred1 #caa2 minute1 #bge2 in art1 #ejb2 breeding and horoscopes of1 #eaf2 and see ,abstinence from animal food1 ,gods1 ,language1 ,sculpture1 ,transformation1 and the names of individual animals ,anise1 #bbi ,annacus1 king1 #cdj ,annunciation1 #bfc ,anonymity1 #acc1 #gbh ,ant1 #ga-b1 #ge1 #ha1 #ih1 #cbi1 #cca2 ,indian1 #fcf ,anthemius of ,tralles1 #ege ,anthropology1 #cjj ,anthropos1 ,gnostic1 #chj ,antichrist1 #dag ,antidote1 #acj1 #aed1 #bec1 #dda1 #did ,antimony1 #gce ,antioch1 #bed1 #bif1 #djd1 #dba1 #dbh1 #dca1 #dgb1 #ffb1 #gdg ,antipathy1 #hd1 #agc1 #bac1 #bag1 #bai1 #bci1 #eha1 #fje ,antiphon1 an interpreter of omens1 #efb ,antipodes1 #bai1 #dhj-a ,antiscia1 #ecg ,anubion1 #dbj ,ape1 #adh1 #bef2 and see ,cynocephalus ,apelles the painter1 #ee ,apollo1 #bc1 #ic1 #bab1 #bec1 #bid1 #cag1 #cbf1 #cga1 #dbi1 #gce ,apollobeches1 #eh ,apollonius of ,tyana1 chap4 viii1 #afe1 #bdd1 #bhh1 #bie1 #cij1 #dce1 #dfe ,apoplexy1 #ecf ,apothecary1 #hd1 #abi ,apparatus1 magical1 #bh1 #aij2 and see ,magic1 materials ,apparition1 #ff1 #fh1 #bjd1 #bjh1 #bae1 #dcg-h1 #dee1 #dif1 #eji-aj1 #ggi2 and see ,spirit ,appion1 #dai-bj2 and see ,apion in other index ,appius1 friend of ,cicero1 #bgj ,applied science1 ancient1 chap4 v1 #djh2 early medieval1 chap4 xxxiii ,aquila1 disciple of ,peter1 chap4 xvii ,aquileia1 #abd ,arab1 ,arabia1 and ,arabic1 early poetry1 #f2 drugs and spices from1 #hd1 #abi1 #gfe2 ,apollonius of ,tyana in1 #bfa1 #bie2 magic of1 #bhj2 home of the ,magi1 #dgf2 learning1 #ca1 #aei1 #agd1 #ahi1 #egh1 chaps4 xxviii1 xxx1 xxxii2 and see ,middle ,ages1 ,translations ,arcadia1 #bad1 #bdi1 #bhc ,archiater1 #abe1 #afa1 #ecf ,architecture1 #abb1 chap4 v ,archon1 see ,spirit ,arcturus1 #cca1 #fcf ,arena1 #acc1 #adg2 and see ,gladiator ,areobindus1 a consul1 #fjg ,arethusa1 #ajb ,argemon1 an herb1 #gi ,ariolus1 #fbi ,aristochia1 an herb1 #fae ,arithmetic1 #abf1 #cai1 #fai1 #fbh1 #gjd ,armenian1 #cea1 #cgd1 #dig1 #eed ,arms and armor1 #cdd ,aromatics1 #caa2 and see ,spice1 ,unguent ,arrow1 extracted1 #gef2 poisoned1 #gfg ,art and the ,arts1 magic and1 #f1 #bh2 standards of1 #ahg1 #djg2 early medieval1 chap4 xxxiii2 and see ,artisan and the names of various arts ,artemis ,tauropolos1 #dbi ,artemisia1 #hi ,artery1 #adg ,artisan1 #dhb1 #dhf ,aruspex1 see ,haruspex ,asbestos1 #bac-d1 #dcd ,ascension1 of ,romulus1 #bgd2 of ,simon ,magus1 #dbb ,ascetic1 see ,monasticism ,asclepius1 a god1 #bec1 #bgg1 #edf1 #gce2 and see other index ,ash1 tree1 #hf ,ashes1 reduced to1 #fh1 #hj1 #ia1 #agj1 #ega-d1 #eha1 #ehf-h1 #eij1 #gba ,ashthroat1 an herb1 #gbb ,asp1 #eg1 #he1 #cbd1 #did1 #ega1 #ehj1 #ehg1 #fbf ,asparagus1 #eii ,asphalt1 #acb1 #egd ,asphodel1 #hh ,ass1 #gf1 #hh1 #bcj1 #bge1 #cbf1 #cfg1 #gcd1 #gdj ,assurbanipal1 #ae1 #bg ,assyria1 magic of1 #aa1 #ae-bj1 #eh1 #bie1 #fbi2 bibliography1 #cc-e ,astanphaeus1 #cfe1 #cfg ,asthma1 #gf ,astral theology1 #ae1 #ag1 #cfj-a2 and see ,astrology1 ,star ,astrolabe1 #aae1 #eja1 #edb1 #eei1 chap4 xxx1 #gbh ,astrological medicine1 #agi1 #ege1 #fcc1 #gch ,astrology1 chaps1 iii1 ix1 xi1 xv1 xxix1 xxx2 also1 ,egyptian1 #ac-d2 ,sumerian or ,chaldean1 #ae-g1 and see ,chaldean2 ,greek1 #bb1 #be-f2 ,pliny1 #ia1 #id-g2 popular ,roman1 #abg1 #bhe2 ,galen1 #abg1 #aff1 #agh2 ,greek philosophy and1 #ahj-a2 ,vitruvius1 #ahd-e1 #ahg2 ,hero1 #aic2 alchemy and1 #aig2 ,plutarch1 #bjg1 #bji2 ,apuleius1 #bca1 #bci-dj2 ,brahmans1 #bec2 ,lucian1 #bhb-c2 ,nechepso1 ,petosiris1 and ,manetho1 #bib-c2 ,solinus1 #ccj2 ,horapollo1 #ccc2 ,hermes1 #bij-b2 ,enoch1 #cdj-a2 ,philo ,judaeus and ,jewish1 #cec-f2 ,pseudo-,clement1 #daj-c2 church fathers1 #ddd1 #dee-h1 #dfd1 #dff1 #dga-e1 #dib2 ,augustine1 #eac-ba2 ,firmicus1 #ebi-ch2 ,pseudo-,quintilian1 #edj2 ,synesius1 #edc2 ,nectanebus1 #efj-c2 ,alexander of ,tralles1 #ehc2 ,herbarium of ,apuleius1 #eih2 ,geoponica1 #fjd-e2 ,boethius1 #fba-b2 ,isidore1 #fcb-c2 ,arabic1 #fdd-eb1 #ffa-f1 #fgj2 ,salernitan1 #gch2 ,constantinus ,africanus1 #gef2 ,marbod1 #gha-b2 alchemy and1 #gfc2 magic and1 #cjj1 #dcb1 #dfd1 #ech1 #edj2 and see ,christ1 birth of2 ,image2 ,magi2 ,planet2 ,star ,astronomy1 of ,egypt1 #ac1 #edb1 #ede1 #eei2 ,tigris-,euphrates1 #ae-f1 #cd2 ,india1 #ca2 ,greek1 #ca-b2 benefits of1 #dg1 #if2 of ,ptolemy1 #aje1 #ajg2 and architecture1 #abb1 #ahe2 history of1 #cff1 #gjg2 miscellaneous1 #bai1 #cie1 #ebj1 #ecf1 #ffc1 #gjd ,atavism1 #ada ,atheism1 #bcd ,athens1 #bh1 #ie1 #adb1 #bag1 #bcj1 #bdi1 #dbi2 as center of learning1 #ace1 #bjj1 #bbb1 #bdb1 #bfi1 #bgg1 #ech1 #eda1 #fjb ,athlete1 #ahf1 #bdh1 #dhf ,atlas1 ,mt41 #ed ,atom1 ,atomic theory1 ,atomism1 #adj1 #afi1 #agh1 #bje1 #djh ,attalus1 king of ,pergamum1 #ace1 #aga ,attalus ,,iii1 #bcf ,augury1 in ,assyria1 #ag2 ,rome1 #ie2 ,seneca1 #ajc2 ,galen1 #aga2 denied by ,atomists1 #agh2 accepted by ,stoics1 #ahj2 ,neo-,platonists1 #cae2 ,jews and early ,christians on1 #ceb1 #deh-i1 #dff1 #eaa1 #eac1 #ecd1 #fcj2 miscellaneous1 #efj1 #fbi1 #fgc1 #gje ,auspices1 #dcj1 #fbi ,authority and ,authorities1 attitude to1 citation by1 ,pliny1 #df1 #di1 #ge2 ,ptolemy1 #ajg2 ,galen1 #aah1 #aeb-h1 #afg2 ,vitruvius1 #ahf-g2 ,zosimus1 #aih2 bogus1 #bae2 ,cicero1 #bgj2 ,solinus1 #cbg-h2 ,hippolytus1 #dfi2 ,firmicus1 #ecg2 ,atius1 #egj2 ,marcellus1 #ehe-f2 medieval freedom with1 #faa2 ,macer1 #fad2 ,isidore1 #fbd-e2 ,petrocellus1 #gcd2 miscellaneous1 #cb1 #bae1 #ggh ,automaton1 #ahh1 #aib1 #bcj1 #ddj ,axle-grease1 #ib ,baal1 priest of1 #chf ,babel1 #dec ,babylon and ,babylonia1 #aa1 #ad-ba1 #bc-d1 #ca1 #cc-e1 #ie1 #ig1 #bbg1 #bci1 #bdg-h1 #bff1 #bhc1 #cfj-a1 #cgf1 #chc-d1 #dad1 #ebg1 #ecg1 #feb1 #ffa1 #gdd ,bagdad1 #ffa-b1 #ffg1 #gdd1 #gfb ,balaam1 prophet or magician8 #bfg1 #ceb-c1 #che1 #dde-h1 #dei2 and the ,magi1 #che1 #ddd1 #dgd1 #dgi1 #eai ,balach or ,balak1 #ddg ,baldness1 #ecf ,balis1 an herb1 #ge ,balsam1 #cib1 #gch ,baptism1 #cfh1 #cgc1 #dje1 #djh1 #dcb ,barbarians1 #adh1 #cgf1 #dde1 #ddi1 #fai1 #fch ,barbarossa1 see ,frederick ,i ,barber1 #bbi ,barcelona1 #fii ,barefoot1 #eii ,barley1 #hh2 water1 #adc ,baroptenus1 a gem1 #ha ,barrocus1 an herb1 #fae ,basilica at ,fano1 #ahg ,basilides1 the heretic1 #cgb ,basilisk1 #fg1 #gj1 #ge1 #afi1 #did1 #egc1 #fjc1 #fbf1 #fcf2 and cock1 #cbd1 #gga ,basilius the magician1 #fci ,basin1 #efj ,bat1 #fh-i1 #aei1 #cca1 #ehg ,bath1 #adb-c1 #bha1 #ehg1 #fgf1 #gbi2 public1 #adj1 #bie1 #dcd-e2 sea1 #bca-b1 #dje ,battle predicted1 #bge ,bayeux ,tapestry1 #ejb1 #fge ,bean1 #eia ,bear1 #ge1 #ib1 #bai1 #cfg1 #dij2 licks cubs into shape1 #afh1 #agg1 #cca2 constellation of the1 #agi ,beard1 #daf ,beast1 name of the1 #ehb ,beasts1 wild1 #baf1 #bbi1 #efd1 #ffi2 dealers in1 #acc ,beauty1 #cjj1 #dhf ,beaver1 #ejb1 #fcf2 castration of1 #bca1 #ccb1 #egd ,bed-bug1 #fh1 #he1 #hi1 #age ,bee1 #gf1 #he1 #bai1 #fae1 #fcf1 #gba2 and see ,honey ,beech tree1 #bac ,beetle1 #ha1 #bai1 #eha ,behbit el-,hagar1 #eei ,behemoth1 #cdf-g1 #cfg ,bektanis1 #eei ,bell1 church1 #gbb ,bellerophon1 #bhb ,bell's palsy1 #gch ,belt1 see ,girdle ,bemarchius1 rival of ,libanius1 #ech ,berenice1 #dfc1 #eeh ,beryl1 #ghj ,bethlehem1 star of1 see ,christ1 birth of2 ,magi1 who came to ,christ child ,betony1 #gg1 #hf1 #gcg ,bibliography1 of ,pliny1 #df1 #bae2 ,isidore1 #fbc2 ,peter the ,deacon1 #gdf ,bile1 #aga1 #agg ,bird1 #gc1 #gh1 #hj1 #bja1 #bah1 #bcf1 #cbe1 #dfj1 #edd2 rite of strangling1 #cja2 mechanical1 #aib1 #bff2 and see ,augury and the names of individual birds ,birth-control1 #id ,birth-mark1 #gac ,bishop1 #edb ,bishopwort1 #gbb ,bitumen1 #ega1 #egd1 #fjc ,bituminous trefoil1 #age ,black1 #fh1 #age1 #ehb1 #eia ,bladder1 #ecf1 #eii1 #gfi ,bleeding1 #ge1 #abe1 #ada-b1 #afb1 #agg1 #egf1 #fgf1 #fgi1 #fha1 #fhd-e1 #fhh1 #gbd1 #gbh1 #gce1 #gcg-h ,blind1 #ecf1 #eij ,blood1 miraculous1 #bca2 human1 use of1 #fa1 #ajb1 #age1 #bbg1 #eha1 #fjc1 #fbi1 #gba2 human1 and the moon1 #ih1 #adf1 #cia2 circulation of1 #dji1 #dcj2 of various animals used1 #hf-g1 #hi1 #aca1 #aei1 #aff1 #age1 #ehg1 #eij1 #gbg1 #gbi1 #gcg1 #gff-g2 and see ,adamant1 ,bleeding1 ,hemorrhage ,blotch1 #fdj ,boar1 #fi1 #ib1 #ehj1 #eii ,bothus1 #acd ,boil1 #hh ,bones1 stuck in throat1 #ga1 #ehc2 number in body1 #cgb2 prehistoric1 #djg2 use of1 #egc1 #ehc1 #fef ,book1 trade in ,roman empire1 #acd-e2 magic1 #dcb1 #dce1 #dgb1 #eje1 #gje2 loss of1 #geb ,bordeaux1 #efh ,borellus1 duke1 #gjd ,botany1 #bj1 #fe1 #abi1 #cdc1 #dfc2 and see ,herb ,box1 #bbi1 #bej ,boy1 in divination and magic1 #ha1 #bci1 #bdi1 #daf-i1 #dfc2 and peony1 #agc ,bracelet1 #ha1 #hi ,brahmans1 #bdh-ed1 #beh1 #bff1 #cgf1 #djg1 #daj1 #dab1 #dej-a1 #eef1 #efd ,brain1 center of nervous system1 #ade-f2 cavities of1 #fei-fj1 #gce2 inflammation of1 #ecf2 of various animals used1 see names of individual animals ,bread1 #hi1 #dbd2 blessing and breaking1 #gbg ,breastplate of high priest1 #die ,breath and breathing1 #acd1 #adf1 #bjg1 #feh ,brindisi1 #gfd ,britain and ,briton1 #ei1 #ada1 #bjf-g1 #cgf1 #dhi ,bronze1 #gfd ,buddha1 #bea ,bugloss1 viper's1 an herb1 #gbb ,buglossa1 an herb1 #fae ,bull1 #gi1 #hf1 #afh1 #bfa1 #cfg1 #eii1 #gfe-f2 tamed by fig-tree1 #gg1 #bac1 #ccb1 #fbf ,bulrush1 #ib ,buprestis1 #gg1 #did ,burial1 magic1 #fi-gj1 #hj1 #hh1 #ffb1 #fff2 alive1 #dba ,burned to death1 #dcc1 #ega1 #fci ,business1 #ig1 #ajg1 #abh1 #bdh1 #fff2 early ,christian attitude to1 #did ,butter1 #aed1 #gba-b ,byzantine1 #ahi1 #aid-e1 #cbc1 #cih1 #dhb1 #eee1 #efi1 #fjg1 #gcb1 #gde1 #gfa-b ,cabbage1 #hf1 #age ,cabbala1 #g1 #cfe ,caesarea1 #djd-f ,cairo1 #h ,calchas1 #bga ,calculus1 #ecf ,calendar1 #ac-d1 #cbg1 #cde1 #fgf1 #fhf1 #gab ,calf1 #aej1 #ega ,caligula1 emperor1 #aic1 #cdi ,caliph1 #fjg1 #fec1 #fgj1 #gde ,camaleon1 #fjj2 and see ,chameleon ,camel1 #cif1 #fcf ,campus ,martius1 #dbd-e ,canal1 ,isthmian1 #bfb ,candelabrum1 #chj ,candle1 magic1 #hg1 #chj1 #che1 #dfi ,candlestick1 seven-branched1 #che1 #fgf ,cannibal1 #fa-b1 #egc ,canute1 king1 #cea ,carolingian1 #faf1 #fce ,carpenter1 #cic ,carpesium1 a drug1 #acb ,carpocrates1 a heretic1 #cga ,cart rut1 #ha1 #hh-ia1 #gba ,carthage1 #bbb1 #bfi1 #eec1 #gdd ,carton1 #abi ,carystus1 #bac ,cask1 #gfg-h ,caspian ,sea1 #dhi ,castoria1 #gci ,cat1 #fh1 #fcf ,cataract1 in eye1 #age1 #gbi ,catarrh1 #hb1 #hh-i1 #adb1 #agf ,caterpillar1 #hj ,cathedral1 #eja-b1 #gfa ,catochites1 a gem1 #ccj ,caul of an ox1 #dfi ,cauldron1 #dfh ,cauterization1 #ecf1 #gbc ,cecrops1 #dae ,cedar1 #bj ,celidonius1 see ,swallow-stone ,celt and ,celtic1 #bde1 #efg-h1 #gbb1 #gcb ,cemetery1 #dcd ,cenchrea1 #acf ,centaur1 #fjc2 and see ,chiron in other index ,centipede1 #gf1 #did1 #ehg ,cerberus1 #bhj ,ceremonial1 ,egypt1 #aj2 ,assyria1 #ah1 #bj2 ,pliny1 #fd1 #fi1 #ga1 #gg-hb1 #ij2 ,apuleius1 #bcj1 #bce2 ,orphic1 #bie2 rite of strangling birds1 #cja2 ,gnostic1 #cgh2 ,marcellus1 #eij-b2 ,arabic1 #ffc2 medieval medicine1 #gbf2 and see ,herb1 plucking of2 ,spirit1 invocation of2 etc4 ,chalcite1 #acb ,chaldean 7mostly mere mentions of71 #af-g1 #ih1 #ajb1 #ahe1 #bja1 #bcj1 #bci1 #bej1 #bec1 #bgb-d1 #bgi1 #bha1 #bhg1 #caf1 #cbc1 #cec1 #cge-f1 #chj1 #cii1 #dcj1 #ddd1 #def1 #dfi1 #dgf1 #dgi1 #eai1 #efj1 #fcb1 #gjc1 #gaa1 #gdd ,chalkydri1 #cdg ,cham1 see ,ham ,chameleon1 #fb1 #age1 #eha ,chance1 experience1 #cf1 #ge1 #aef1 #agb1 #ged2 and fate1 #baj ,chaplet1 #bie ,characters1 magic use of1 #bbi1 #beg1 #cad1 #cag1 #eab1 #egi1 #eib-c1 #fjd1 #fcj1 #fde1 #fed1 #gbd-cj ,charicles1 #bcb ,chariot1 #dbc ,charlatan1 #ffh-i2 and see ,old-wives ,charlemagne1 #bad1 #eef1 #fgb1 #gfd ,charon1 #bgg ,chastisements1 #bjd ,chastity1 #gh1 #ha1 #hc1 #bjd1 #baf1 #bie1 #cjh1 #cbf1 #efd1 #eha1 #ehh1 #eij1 #eii1 #gii-hj2 and see ,virgin ,cheese1 #adb1 #cbe1 #eji ,chelidonia and ,chelidonius1 see ,swallow-wort and ,swallow-stone ,chelonitis1 a gem1 #ghj ,chemical and ,chemistry1 #acb-dj1 #dfg-i2 and see ,alchemy ,chick1 #gf1 #ged1 #gga2 ,aristotle on embryology of1 #cj1 #adf ,chickpea1 #hh ,child-bearing and ,child-birth1 #gf1 #gh1 #hd1 #hg1 #ib1 #id1 #ajb1 #age1 #agg1 #baf1 #bec1 #bfj1 #bie1 #cbe1 #dif1 #eha1 #fhe1 #gac1 #gbf1 #gch1 #gdj2 formation of child in womb1 #aej1 #ede1 #eeg1 #geg2 child born after eight months dies1 #aha1 #cef1 #geg2 monstrous birth1 #fbg2 and see ,abortion1 ,birth-control ,chimaera1 #cfg ,china and ,chinese1 #f-g1 #bad2 and see ,seres ,chiromancy1 #chf ,chneph or ,chnuphis1 #cgi ,chrism1 #gch ,christ1 #acg-i1 #bdc1 #cfc1 #cgi1 #chf1 #djd-e1 #dbb1 #eaj1 #ebg1 #ebi1 #fbj1 #fgd-e1 #ghb2 accused of magic1 see ,accusation2 birth of1 and astrology1 #chf1 #dch1 #deg1 #dfd1 #dga-i1 #gjc2 birth1 virgin1 #dfj2 child1 chap4 xvi1 #cij2 power of name of1 #dcd1 #deb1 #dff1 #fch-i1 #gbe1 #gbi-cj ,christian and ,christianity1 ,book ,,ii1 passim2 #acg1 #aci1 #bjg1 #bge-f1 #bhe1 #bif1 #bih1 #cjf1 #cab1 #cbj1 #cbg1 #eed1 #efh1 #ehd1 #fjb1 chap4 xxvii1 #fdb1 #gae2 and see ,religion1 ,theology ,christmas1 #fgh ,chronology1 #ace1 #bji1 #fbd1 #gaa2 and see ,calendar ,church fathers1 ,book ,,ii1 passim1 #ahj1 #bbe1 #bda1 #cjb1 #fah ,cicada1 #afi ,cinaedia1 #eij ,cinnabar1 #fbf1 #gfa1 #gfd ,cinnamon1 #abi-cj1 #bef ,circe1 #ba1 #fe1 #cbd1 #dcd1 #eji1 #fbi ,circle1 magic1 #gh1 #hf-g1 #ia1 #aig1 #bha1 #cff1 #eii2 squaring the1 #gjf2 ,cardan's concentric1 #gfi ,circumcision1 #ddi1 #dge1 #gha ,circus1 #bie1 #dhf ,city1 fortune of1 predicted1 #bgc1 #bhc2 ancient1 #dhi1 #ejd2 ideal1 #cdi-ej1 #dfj ,civilization1 magic and origin of1 #e-f2 ,pliny as source for history of1 #dc ,clairvoyance1 #fdg2 and see ,divination1 natural ,clarus1 #bbd ,classical heritage1 #eee1 #fah1 #fcf2 and see ,middle ,ages ,classics1 superstition in1 #ba-d ,claudia1 #ee ,clay1 animals1 #cic1 #gfi2 and see ,pottery ,climate1 #ahd ,cloak1 virtue of1 #cig1 #dce ,clock1 see ,time ,clothing1 virtue in1 #acf1 #bie1 #chb1 chap4 xvi1 #djg1 #dda1 #ecd1 #eih1 #fff2 and see names of various articles of ,clyster1 #adb ,cock1 #afh1 #age1 #cbj1 #cbd-e1 #gff1 #gga1 #ggi2 cock-crow1 #bhj1 #dje ,cog-wheel1 #aib ,cold1 quality1 #adj1 #afa1 #bai2 drink1 #ada2 disease1 #ehi ,colic1 #hg1 #afi1 #egi1 #ehb1 #eij ,cologne1 three kings of1 #ddf1 #dgg ,colonus1 #fch ,colony1 ,greek1 #cah ,color1 discussed1 #adj1 #dhf2 changing1 #baf2 in magic1 #ij1 #cfg1 #cfi1 #eij1 #gba2 and see the names of individual colors ,combustible compounds1 see ,candle ,comedy1 ,greek1 #bb-d ,comet1 #if1 #aae1 #deg1 #edc1 #fcc1 #fce1 #fgc ,commodus1 emperor1 #abe1 #abi ,compass1 points of1 #ia1 #aad1 #cgh1 #ehf1 #eia1 #gbd ,compotus or ,computus1 #ecf1 #fgf-g1 #gbh ,compound1 magical or medicinal1 #aj1 #hc1 #adj1 #aeb1 #aei-fj1 #agb1 #ega1 #ehf-g1 #gbb1 #gcd ,conception1 #efb1 #fef1 #gbd1 #gdj ,condrion1 an herb1 #gd ,confederate1 in magic fraud1 #dfg ,conjunction1 astrological1 #ajd1 #fdb1 #fdh-i ,conjuration of an herb1 #ehc2 and see ,incantation1 ,spirit1 invocation of ,consecration1 of a painted grape1 #hj2 of gems1 #bie1 #gha2 and see ,holy ,constantine the ,great1 #ebe;ff4 ,constantine ,monomachos1 #gde ,constantine ,porphyrygennetos1 #fjd ,constantius1 emperor1 #ebe;ff4 ,constans1 emperor1 #ebe;ff4 ,constantinople1 #dgb1 #dgg1 #did1 #ecc1 #eda2 and see ,byzantine ,constellation1 #ad1 #aad1 #agh1 #cjd1 #gji ,constipation1 #ggi ,consumption1 #bac1 #cgc1 #ecf1 #ehh ,cook1 #adh ,copernican theory1 #cb ,copperas1 #dfg ,coptic1 #cfa1 #cgg ,coral1 #fef ,cordova1 #gjd1 #gfb ,corinth1 #abc1 #acf1 #bcj1 #bfb1 #bhj ,corn extracted1 #ga ,corpse1 #adg1 #bbi1 #cji1 #fbi1 #ghj2 and see ,necromancy1 ,resurrection ,cosmetics1 #aeb1 #ffh ,cotton1 #beb ,couch1 #efa ,cough1 #hh1 #agf ,counter-irritant1 #gbc ,cow1 #gg1 #gi1 #ha1 #he1 #cbe1 #gfi ,crab1 and snake1 #ii2 river1 use of eye of1 #fh-i2 burned alive1 #hj1 #agh2 use of ash of1 #agj1 #egb2 stone in head of1 #gcg ,crane1 sentinel1 #bag2 windpipe of1 used in magic1 #bgh1 #dfg ,craw-fish1 #bag ,creation1 #af1 #cdf1 #djh1 chap4 xxi1 #ejd-e1 #fbg-h2 position of stars at1 #gaa1 #gac ,credulity and scepticism1 chap4 ix2 in ,pliny1 #ej-a1 #fa-d1 #fg1 #gj1 #gg1 #hj-a1 #hh1 #ih2 ,galen and the ,empirics1 #aeg-h1 #afh-i1 #age2 ,seneca1 #ajb-c2 ,plutarch1 #bjd1 #bab-c2 other cases1 #bbe1 #bdd1 #bee1 #chh1 #ddj1 #dia-b1 #eci1 #egc-d1 #fbf1 #fcg1 #fee1 #fga1 #ghj ,crete1 #abi1 #ace1 #bdi1 #bfj ,cricket1 #fg1 #gcg ,crime and criminal1 #adg1 #afg1 #aga1 #bjg1 #bbe1 #eha2 and see ,magic1 evil and criminal2 ,sin ,critical days1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afd1 #agi-hj1 #cef1 #gef ,crocodile1 #gd1 #aff1 #bah1 #bch1 #bhj ,cropleek1 #gbb ,cross1 nail from1 #bhj2 in sky1 #dge2 sign of1 #dcb1 #dcd1 #dff1 #fch-i1 #gbb ,crow1 #bjg1 #cad1 #cbd1 #dji1 #fcf1 #fee ,cruelty1 #acf1 #bbe ,crystal1 #bid1 #gfg ,cube1 #ahd ,cuckoo1 #ha ,cummin seed1 #ic ,cuneiform1 #ae ,cup1 ,joseph's divining1 #chf ,cupping glass1 #aib ,curlew1 #bag ,curse1 #bh1 #ic1 #cff1 #dcd ,cynics1 #bgg ,cynocephalia1 an herb1 #fg ,cynocephalus1 #gj1 #ccc ,cyprus1 magic of1 #ei2 oil of1 #fh2 ,galen's visit to1 #aca-b ,cyrene1 #eda ,dacian1 #eig ,daedalus1 #bhc ,daily life1 magic in1 #i-aj1 #bj2 experience from1 #ed ,danish1 #fab ,dardanus1 a magician1 #eh-i1 #dfc1 #eeh ,darius1 #bef1 #bfj 8,dark ,ages10 #fah ,date1 the fruit1 #bj ,date1 discussed of1 ,ptolemy1 #aje2 ,hero1 #ahh2 ,greek alchemists1 #aic-d2 works of ,apuleius1 #bbb-e2 ,solinus1 #cbf-g2 ,horapollo1 #cca2 ,enoch literature1 #cda-b2 apocryphal ,gospels1 #chh-i2 ,pseudo-,clementines1 #djd-f2 ,physiologus1 #dig-i2 ,augustine1 #ejd2 ,mathesis of ,firmicus1 #ebf-g2 ,synesius1 #eda2 ,pseudo-,callisthenes and ,julius ,valerius1 #eeb-e2 ,atius1 #egj2 ,marcellus1 #ehd-e2 early medieval pseudo-literature1 #eid-f2 ,macer1 #fab-c2 ,thebit1 #ffa2 introduction of ,arabic alchemy1 #ggc2 and see ,calendar1 ,chronology1 ,compotus1 ,creation1 ,easter ,day1 observance of1 lucky and unlucky1 #ad1 #ba1 #ajf1 #chc1 #eac1 #ehb1 #ehh1 #eij1 #eib1 #ffa1 chap4 xxix1 #gba1 #gbe1 #gbg1 #ged2 and see ,critical2 ,egyptian2 ,moon1 day of2 ,planetary week ,dead ,sea1 #ach ,deaf1 #ecf ,decans1 #agh1 #bia1 #cae1 #cgf1 #dec ,deendor1 a magician1 #ghj ,deer1 #fh1 #gj1 #gd1 #hd1 #id1 #bjg1 #bid1 #cbd1 #ehf1 #gcd ,degree1 academic1 #fai2 medical1 #gea-b ,delirium1 #ecf ,delphic oracle1 #bja1 #bff1 #bhc1 #cbf1 #ech1 #ehb ,demeter1 #dbi ,demigod1 #edf ,demiurge1 #bab1 #chc ,demon1 see ,spirit ,dentistry1 #ab2 and see ,tooth ,depilatories1 see ,hair ,deroldus1 bishop1 #gcc ,desert1 herbs in1 #ed ,desiderius1 abbot1 #gdg ,design1 argument from1 #aci1 #adh1 #djh1 #dij ,desire1 as a factor in magic1 #fdd ,deucalion1 #cda ,devotio1 see ,curse ,dew1 #ajb ,diacastoria1 #gci ,diadochos1 a gem1 #ghj ,diagram1 #cff-g1 #fgd ,dialectic1 #dbj1 #dci1 #ecf ,diana1 #acj ,dice1 #acf1 #dhf ,dick1 ,mr41 #fd ,dictamnon1 see ,dittany ,dictation1 ancient1 #de1 #acd ,dictionary1 #eii1 #fbd ,dictynna1 #bdi ,die1 #ehb2 and see ,dice ,diet1 #ih1 #acg1 #adb1 #aei1 #bhb1 #dad1 #dbi1 #egg1 #ehg1 #ffh1 #fhd1 #gce ,digestion1 #acg1 #bje1 #ehe ,dinocrates1 #ahf ,diocletian1 emperor1 #aid ,diomedes1 #ccj ,dionysius1 an ,egyptian1 #ddj ,dionysus1 the god1 #bea1 #edf ,dioptrics1 #ajh ,dipsas1 a snake1 #agb1 #bhd1 #did ,direction1 observance of1 in magic1 #ij-a1 #fff2 and see ,compass1 ,right1 ,left ,disease1 #be1 #ih1 #aej1 #bjh1 #bai1 #caj1 #dcj1 #dcd1 #ecf2 magic transfer of1 #ai1 #fa1 #ga1 #gi1 #bac1 #ehh-i2 and see ,spirit1 ,woman1 and the names of individual diseases ,dissection1 #hh1 #acd1 #adf-h1 #afd1 #eha1 #gdf ,dittany1 #bah1 #die ,dives and ,lazarus1 #ddh ,divinatio1 a disease1 #gee2 and see #aej-a ,divination1 chaps4 ix1 xxix1 #hf1 #abg1 #adc1 #afe1 #ahj1 #bec1 #bhe1 #ecc1 #eci-dj1 #gac2 varieties listed1 #efj2 in ,china1 #f-g2 ,egypt1 #ac2 ,tigris-,euphrates1 #ag2 ,india1 #bea2 relation to magic1 #e1 #ad1 #ag1 #fj1 #bbf1 #bcc1 #bie1 #dcb1 #eab1 #edc1 #fbi2 by divine revelation1 #bje1 #bdi1 #cad1 #cfd1 #ecc1 and see ,prophecy2 by demons1 #ddb-c1 #eaj1 #edf2 natural1 #ajc1 #bje1 #bci1 #cje1 #cad1 #cah-i1 #dai1 #eah1 #edb-c2 by animals1 #cae1 #cbe-f1 #dij1 and see ,augury2 by eating parts of animals1 #gj1 #beg1 #cad2 by boys1 #bdi1 #dah-i1 #dfc2 by enthusiasm1 #ahj2 by herbs1 #ff1 #gg1 #fad2 by drinking or inhaling1 #cac2 by ,kalends1 #fgg1 #fhd2 by lots1 numbers1 names1 #aab1 #fgi1 #fhb1 #gaa1 #gac1 and see ,lot-casting2 by polished surfaces1 #ggd2 by sounds1 #cac1 #dcj2 by stones1 #gj2 by symbols1 #aff2 by winds1 #fgf1 #fgh2 and see ,aerimancy1 ,cup1 ,dream1 ,geomancy1 ,haruspex1 ,hydromancy1 ,knot1 ,liver1 ,moon1 ,omen1 ,pyromancy1 ,sacrifice1 ,sieve1 ,selenomancy1 ,thunder ,dog1 kennel1 #fi2 jealous1 #ge2 puppyhood1 #aej2 omens from1 #bca2 prescience of1 #cbe2 as symbol1 #cfg2 demons as1 #dce2 and mandragora1 #fjg2 torn to pieces by1 #bgg1 #dbe2 to stop bark or attack of1 #gg1 #baf1 #bdi1 #dbd1 #fje2 disease transferred to1 #hh1 #eij-a2 use of parts of1 #fh1 #gj1 #hi1 #ij1 #aei1 #afh-i1 #egc-d1 #gcg1 #gee2 mad1 and bite of1 #fh1 #hb1 #hf1 #aca1 #afi1 #agh1 #bei1 #bfc-d1 #bhd1 #cgc1 #cia1 #egb1 #fef1 #gac1 #ged ,dog-days1 #egb1 #gbh1 #gef1 #gfe ,dogmatism1 #aed1 #aei1 #gce ,dog-star1 #ff1 #ih1 #agh1 #fjd ,dolphin1 #ee1 #bah1 #bfj ,domitian1 emperor1 #bdi-ej1 #bei-fe ,door1 used in magic1 #ga1 #eia2 affected by magic1 #bbf-g1 #cad1 #ddi2 trap1 #dfi ,dorians1 #bai ,dositheus1 #cfe1 #dag ,dove1 #adb1 #afh1 #cbd1 #ccb1 #fcf1 #gdj ,draconites1 a gem1 #ge ,dragon1 #ge1 #bca1 #beg1 #cbf1 #cfg1 #cib1 #dbi1 #efa1 #fjc1 #gff2 use of parts of1 #fh1 #gj2 combat with elephant1 #gd1 #beg1 #fbf2 flying1 #cdg ,dragontes1 an herb1 #fad ,drama1 and magic1 #bb-c1 #cbd2 liturgical1 #dgf-g ,dream and divination from1 in ,egypt1 #ac-d2 in cuneiform texts1 #ag2 ,pliny1 #ef1 #ha2 ,galen1 #abc1 #aed1 #aef1 #aff1 #agj1 #agg-hj2 ,plutarch1 #bjd1 #bje2 ,apuleius1 #bca2 ,apollonius1 #bfj2 ,lucian1 #bhc2 ,neo-,platonists1 #cad1 #ede2 ,philo1 #ced1 #ceh2 ,pilate's wife1 #cie2 ,origen1 #dei2 ,nectanebus1 #efj-b2 ,alkindi1 #fdf2 miscellaneous1 #aig1 #cbi1 #dab1 #dcd1 #dcg1 #dei1 #dfc1 #dhg1 #eji1 #ecd1 #fbg1 #fga1 #fhj-a1 #gbj1 #ged1 #gfc1 #ggi 8,dream-senders10 #cfh ,dropsy1 #fi1 #bac1 #ecf1 #ggi ,drugs1 #ee1 #fa1 #hd1 #hi1 #abh1 #acb1 #cgj1 #dfg1 #efa1 #ffh ,druid1 #df1 #ei1 #fg1 #gi1 #fdj ,drum1 #bjd1 #cac ,dualism1 #cfa1 #dji ,duck1 #hg-h ,dung1 #fh1 #fi1 #hf1 #aff1 #afh1 #ehh1 #fef1 #gcd1 #gdj1 #gfi ,dye1 #cbd1 #dfg1 chap4 xxxiii ,ea1 a god1 #ah ,eagle1 #hg1 #ij1 #agf1 #bag1 #beg1 #cbe-f1 #ccb1 #dda1 #dif1 #egd1 #fcf ,ear1 #ecf ,earache1 #afi1 #egi1 #gee ,ear-wax1 #gba1 #gfi ,earth1 appeased1 conjured1 personified1 and deified1 #ff1 #gi1 #hf1 #bea1 #bie1 #ehc1 #eih2 virtue of1 #ha1 #hh1 #eib1 and see ,cart rut1 ,terra sigillata2 things not allowed to touch the ground1 #gj1 #gi1 #ha1 #agc1 #ehb1 #ehh2 sphericity of1 #dhj2 miscellaneous1 #baa1 #cgc2 and see ,burial1 ,land and ,water1 ,underground ,earthquake1 #ig1 #aja1 #bej1 #bed1 #bfd1 #bga1 #dcj1 #dfi1 #efb ,earthworm1 #fh-i1 #hi1 #agf1 #egc-d1 #ehg1 #gbj ,easter1 #eba1 #fgg2 mystery of1 #fgg ,ebionites1 #dje ,ebony1 #efj ,echeneis1 #bab1 #dia1 #fbf ,eclipse1 #if1 #ih1 #bjc-d1 #bji1 #bfb1 #ccc1 #chf1 #efd1 #fgc ,editions1 especially early printed1 ,pliny1 #ec2 ,ptolemy1 #ajf1 #aaj2 ,galen1 #aai2 ,solinus1 #cbf2 ,firmicus1 #ebe2 ,pseudo-,callisthenes and ,julius ,valerius1 #eea-b2 ,letter of ,alexander1 #eee2 post-classical medicine1 #eff-g1 #egg2 ,herbarium of ,apuleius1 #eig2 ,ethicus1 #fja2 ,geoponica1 #fjd2 ,dioscorides1 #fjf-aj2 ,macer1 #fab2 ,isidore1 #fbc2 ,latin translations from ,arabic1 #fdb1 #fdi;ff41 #fec1 #feg1 #ffe1 #ffh1 #gaf2 ,regimen ,salernitanum1 #gcf2 ,constantinus ,africanus1 chap4 xxxii2 treatises on arts1 #gfj2 ,marbod1 #gge1 #ggh ,education1 as experienced or discussed by1 ,galen1 #aah-bh2 ,vitruvius1 #ahg2 ,plutarch1 #bjj-a2 ,apuleius1 #bbb-d2 ,lucian1 #bgg2 ,christ child1 #cid2 ,cyprian1 #dbi-ca2 ,firmicus1 #ebe2 ,synesius1 #edj-a2 ,bede1 #fcd-e2 ,rasis1 #ffg2 ,gerbert1 #gjd2 ,constantinus1 #gdd2 ,dunstan1 #ggc2 ,marbod1 #gge ,eel1 #dia ,egg1 shell1 #ed2 test of freshness1 #ee2 made by hiss of snakes1 #fg2 addled by certain men1 #hc2 so-called1 of alchemy1 #aih2 goose1 #bgg2 filled with dye1 #dfg2 portents from1 #efb1 #ggc2 raw1 #gbi ,egypt1 #g-ad1 #bg-h1 #cj-a1 #aic-e1 #aih1 #bjf1 #bbh-cj1 #bci1 #bdh1 #bej1 #bhg1 #bhi1 #cjj1 #cbe1 #cca-d1 #cfj1 #cgf1 #cgi1 #cia1 #dad-f1 #dcj1 #dcg-h1 #ddf1 #dej1 #deb1 #dei1 #ejc1 #ebg1 #ecg1 #edc1 #eeh-fj1 #eih1 #gdd2 and see ,plagues of ,egyptian ,days1 #ad1 chap4 xxix1 #gbh ,elchasaites1 #cgc ,elections1 astrological1 #cgb-c1 #chf1 #eag ,electrum1 #eij ,elements1 various theories of1 #be1 #aci1 #aeg1 #bah1 #bed1 #chb1 #djh1 #daj1 #dgh1 #dhe1 #dhh1 #ebh-i1 #fbb1 #fde1 #gbj2 not found in a pure state1 #adj1 #dhi ,elephant1 intelligence of1 #gc1 #ge1 #afi1 #bah1 #bef1 #fcf2 habits1 #bac1 #cbb1 #cbd1 #ccb1 #dfj2 dissection of1 #adh2 compared with fly1 #djh2 white1 #gfc2 and see ,dragon for combat with ,elephantiasis1 #eg1 #agj1 #egb ,eleusinian mysteries1 #aja1 #adh ,elijah1 #chf1 #eee ,elixir1 #fgj ,eloeus1 #cfe1 #cfg ,eloi1 #ehc ,elymas the sorcerer1 #dfa ,elysian fields1 #bjg ,embalming1 magic in1 #h ,embassy1 of ,philo1 #cdi2 ,synesius1 #eda2 ,leo1 #eeg ,embryology1 see ,chick1 ,child-birth ,emerald1 #dcd1 #fef1 #ggb ,emperor1 ,roman1 #dg1 #ej1 #abd1 #abi-cj1 #ace1 #agf1 #ahf1 #aid1 #ebi2 and see names of individual emperors ,empiric1 ,empirica1 ,empiricism1 #ef-g1 #aee-g1 #agb1 #gce1 #ged ,empousa1 #caj ,empyrean1 see ,heaven ,enceladus1 #bed ,encyclopedia1 ancient1 #dc2 ,arabic1 #ffc2 medieval1 #eb1 #efi ,endor1 witch of1 #che1 #ddh1 #dfd1 #dfi-ga1 #ejf1 #eji-aj1 #fbi1 #fce ,entrails1 see ,intestines1 ,liver divination ,ephesus1 #bei-fb ,ephod1 #ddh ,epic1 #af1 #ah ,epicurean1 #ach1 #aej1 #bhc1 #djh1 #dda ,epidaurus1 #cbi ,epilepsy1 #fi1 #hg1 #ij1 #agc1 #bce1 #bch1 #ecf1 #egh-ha1 #fad1 #gbc1 #gbf1 #gcj1 #gce-f1 #ged-f1 #ggi ,epitome1 #die1 #eed-e1 #efh-i1 #eid1 #fjc;ff4 ,er1 vision of1 #bab ,erataoth1 a spirit1 #cfg ,eretrians1 #bfj ,eridu1 #ae ,erigeron1 an herb1 #hi ,erystion1 an herb1 #eih ,essenes1 #dje ,ether1 #bed1 #cgc2 and see ,heaven ,ethics1 #fjb ,ethiopia and ,ethiopic1 #ada1 #bde1 #bef1 #bhc1 #cbg1 #cda1 #cde1 #cih1 #dce1 #dih1 #eed1 #eeh-fj1 #fed1 #feh1 #gdd ,etruscan1 #dfg1 #fcj ,etymology1 #fbe ,eucharist1 #cfi ,eucrates1 #bhj-a ,eugenianus1 #acc ,eugenics1 #dad ,eumeces1 a gem1 #ha ,euphrates1 a philosopher1 #bdf1 #bec1 #bfc2 and see ,tigris- ,eustachian tube1 #egf ,evangelists1 four1 #ejb1 #fgd1 #gba ,eve1 #cej1 #eaa1 #fha ,evil1 problem of1 #cje1 #cji1 #cdi2 eye1 see ,fascination ,evolution1 doctrine of1 #adi1 #dic ,ewe hop plant1 #gbb ,excommunication1 #edb ,excrement1 human1 #gd1 #adc1 #egc2 and see ,dung ,exercise1 physical1 #ehg ,exorcism1 #ah1 #bd1 #bhj1 #bii1 #cfh1 #chf1 #dce1 #ecc-d1 #fhb1 #gbb ,experience1 ,experiment1 ,experimental method1 and magic1 #eg1 #dca-b1 #ddg1 #dfi1 #edj2 in ,pliny1 #ec-g1 #hc1 #hh2 ,ptolemy1 #ajf-g2 ,galen1 #aah1 #aba1 #add-fc1 #afi1 #agc1 #age1 #agi2 ,vitruvius1 #ahg2 ,hero1 #aij2 ,greek alchemists1 #aih2 ,plutarch1 #bac2 ,apuleius1 #bcg2 ,simon ,magus1 #dbj-b2 ,firmicus1 #ecb2 post-classical medicine1 #efi1 #egc1 #egh-hj1 #ehc-g2 ,dioscorides1 #fjf2 ,macer1 #fae2 ,arabic1 #fdd-f1 #feg1 #ffi2 early medieval medicine1 #gcd-e1 #gch1 #gec-d2 arts and alchemy1 #gfb1 #gfe-gj2 and see ,empiric1 ,observation ,eye complaints and cures1 #ef1 #hb1 #hg1 #ih1 #aff1 #age1 #bhi1 #cbe1 #dij1 #dif1 #ecf1 #ehf1 #ehi-ij1 #fdj1 #fgj1 #gbj1 #gee1 #ggi2 evil1 see ,fascination ,eyebrow1 #aea1 #aei1 #age ,eyelash1 #ib1 #aea ,facies1 astrological1 #gaj1 #gaf ,faith1 requisite in magic1 #fdd ,falernian wine1 #acb1 #ehf ,familiar spirit1 see ,spirit ,family1 #cjj ,famine1 #fjc ,fascination1 #ga1 #hc1 #bag1 #bid1 #cbd ,fasting1 #gh1 #hb1 #ic1 #agd1 #eic1 #gje ,fat1 #fg1 #ia1 #acj1 #afh1 #gee ,fate1 #aha1 #bdj1 #cjf1 #caj1 #cae-f1 #cec1 #cge1 #fbj ,fates1 three1 #baj1 #efe ,faust1 ,faustus1 or ,faustinianus1 #djd1 #djf1 #dac1 #dag ,feather1 #gj1 #bcf ,fee1 physician's1 #fgj1 #fhd1 #fhh1 #gdj ,fennel1 #gbb2 tasted by snake1 #gd1 #dij1 #fbf ,fern1 #hj1 #gfi ,festival1 #bb1 #ajg ,fever1 #ah1 #di1 #fe-f1 #ga1 #hi1 #ia1 #ada1 #ecf1 #efi1 #ege1 #ffh1 #gbj1 #gbg1 #gei2 and see ,quartan1 ,tertian ,fibula1 #cja ,fifty1 #cef1 #chc ,fig-tree1 see ,bull1 tamed by ,figure1 #gji-aj2 human1 #gbc2 and see ,image1 ,mannikin1 ,statue ,fili1 ,irish1 #fdj ,finger1 middle1 #ehi1 #eib2 use of two1 #ehc ,fire1 the element1 #hh1 #bbi1 #caj1 #dag2 marvelous1 #beb1 #bef1 #cfh2 at ,rome in #aib ,a4 ,d41 #abe1 #acd2 universal1 #ajd2 not burned by1 #daf ,fire engine1 #aib ,firmament1 see ,heaven2 ,waters above the ,first-born1 #eha ,fish1 #cj1 #di1 #gd1 #gg1 #bah1 #bcf-g1 #bfj1 #cbe-f1 #dfi1 #ehi1 #fcf1 #feg1 #gef ,five1 #ib1 #afi1 #ceg1 #chc1 #eij ,flea1 #fje ,float1 #aib ,flood1 #af1 #cdj1 #dge1 #dic ,florilegia1 #fah ,fluxion1 #ehc ,fly1 insect1 #gf1 #age1 #djh ,flying1 #cig2 of ,simon ,magus1 #daf-g1 #dbb-g ,foam1 of snake1 #fg2 horse1 #gj1 #hf1 #ehi ,folk-lore1 #cjj1 #efg1 #ehg1 #gbb-c1 #gcb ,foot1 #ehj2 and see ,barefoot ,form1 #dhg1 #edb ,fossil shells1 #dic ,fotis1 #bbi ,fountain1 marvelous1 #ajb1 #cah1 #cdg1 #edf1 #gfi ,four1 #ia1 #cef1 #fgd-e1 #gbh1 #gfg ,fox1 #hj1 #hi1 #ij1 #afh1 #dij ,franklin1 ,benjamin1 #dad ,frederick ,i1 ,barbarossa1 emperor1 #dgg ,free-,masonry1 #ahc ,free will1 see ,will ,frenzy1 #gee ,frog1 #fh1 #hj1 #ij1 #ib1 #aei1 #afh1 #bca1 #dia1 #ejh1 #ehh1 #eia1 #fef ,fruit1 #he1 #adb1 #eii1 #gbd ,fumigation1 #fi1 #bhb1 #eab1 #gdj1 #ggi ,funeral1 #bad ,furnace1 #ha1 #cic1 #dcd1 #feg1 #gfd ,future life1 #h1 #be1 #dg2 and see ,soul1 immortality of ,gabriel1 angel1 #cdc1 #cfg1 #ddg1 #deb1 #ded ,gagates1 a gem1 #aed1 #die1 #gbd1 #ggi ,gaia ,seia1 #eii ,galactis1 #bid ,galactites1 #cbi ,gall1 #fh1 #ga1 #ehg1 #gbf1 #gfd-f ,gall nut1 #dfg ,games1 ,greek national1 #ahf1 #bja ,ganges1 #beh ,garamantica1 a gem1 #ig ,garlic1 #bac1 #gbb ,gas1 #ee1 #adb ,gate1 city1 #eia1 #fjj ,gaudentius1 #djd ,gaul1 #df1 #gf1 #ib1 #efh1 #eig1 #fgb1 #ggf2 and see ,druid ,gazelle1 #fh1 #gj1 #hg ,gehenna1 #cfg ,gem1 ,assyrian1 #bj2 ,pliny1 #fh1 #gj-a1 #hj-a2 ,apollonius1 #bed-h2 ,orphic1 #bic-f2 ,gnostic1 #bg1 #cgh-hj2 ,pseudo-,plutarch1 #baf2 ,solinus1#cbh-i2 ,st4 ,john and1 #cih2 ,origen1 #dfj2 ,epiphanius1 #die-f2 ,augustine1 #eaa2 in medicine1 #eij2 ,pseudo-,dioscorides1 #faa1 #fed2 ,geoponica1 #fje2 ,isidore1 #fbf-g2 found in animals1 #ge1 #bid1 #fjc1 #gcg1 #gdj1 #gee1 #ggb1 #ggi2 ,marbod1 chap1 xxxiv2 and see ,consecration2 ,image1 engraved on2 and names of individual gems ,genealogical table1 #fbd ,generation1 spontaneous1 #hf1 #bai1 #bch1 #cbd1 #eji1 #eaa2 of various animals1 #djh-i1 #dfj2 in fire1 #ajb1 #cbd2 human1 #baa2 and corruption1 #baj2 ruled by stars1 #ig2 organs of1 used in magic1 #aa1 #fh-i1 #cef2 and see ,child-birth1 ,conception1 ,eugenics1 ,private parts ,genethlialogy1 #aae1 #bgc1 #cec1 #dab1 #def1 #eac1 #eag1 #efj1 #fbb1 #fbi1 #gjc1 #gjh1 #gha ,genius1 see ,spirit1 orders of ,gentiles1 #dgi1 #fgd1 #gga ,geocentric theory1 #cb1 #aje1 #dhh ,geography1 discussed by ,pliny1 #dc-d2 ,ptolemy1 #aje-g2 ,philostratus1 #bdd2 ,solinus1 #cbg2 other ancient1 #dhh2 ,ethicus1 #fjj-d2 other medieval1 #gjg ,geology1 #dic ,geomancy1 #cad1 #cdc1 #fbi1 #fdh1 #fhe ,geometry1 #abb-c1 #abf1 #ahe1 #cah1 #ecf1 #edb1 #fai1 #ffc1 #gj ,gerard1 archbishop of ,york1 #fhi1 #ghb ,germ of disease1 #bai ,german1 invaders1 #adh1 #cea2 language1 #dih1 #gbh2 scholarship1 #ae-f1 #cj-a1 #cej1 #fhd ,germany1 #de1 #eeg ,ghost1 #bcc1 #bfc1 #bhj1 #dee1 #edj1 #gje2 and see ,necromancy2 ,endor1 witch of ,giant1 #bed1 #djg1 #dcj ,girdle or ungirded1 #fi1 #hg1 #bhd1 #eab1 #eii ,girl1 magic power of1 #baf2 and see ,virgin ,githrife1 an herb1 #gbb ,gladiator1 #abd1 #adi1 #eha1 #fgc ,glass1 ,egyptian1 #ab2 ,roman1 #eij1 #gfb2 medieval1 #gbi1 #gfd-g2 gems of1 #gha2 and see ,stained ,glaucon1 #adc1 #afa ,glossopetra1 a gem1 #ih ,glue1 #gfe ,gnostic and ,gnosticism1 chap4 xv1 #aig1 #baa1 #bij1 #bih1 #cje1 #cfj1 #cig1 #dje1 #daa1 #dgb1 #edg1 #ehd1 #ffa1 #gbj ,goat1 #fi1 #hg1 #acj1 #afh1 #bac1 #bah1 #bef1 #cbe1 #cfg1 #dfg1 #dij1 #eha-b1 #gbi1 #gee1 #gei1 #gfe-i2 and see ,adamant and blood of ,goblet1 #beh ,god and gods1 antiquity of belief in1 #e-f1 #bjc2 animal1 #ad1 #bhc1 #ejc2 celestial1 #ad1 #ag1 #be-f1 #bhi1 #cji1 #ecj2 and nature1 #dji2 and man1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bed1 #bgd1 #daf2 and ,roman emperors1 #acj1 #ebi2 and art1 #dhf2 and magic1 #h1 #bcj1 #bce-f1 #bdi1 #cab1 #cbj1 #edc2 ,pliny concerning1 #dg1 #ig2 ,seneca1 #ajc2 ,galen1 #aci1 #aea1 #afg1 #ahj2 ,plutarch1 #baj2 ,gnostic1 #cfb1 #cge2 ,christian attitude to pagan1 #cag2 ,firmicus1 #ebg-cj2 ,boethius1 #fba2 name of1 #eii2 winged1 #cja2 and see ,apollo and other individual names of gods1 ,christ1 ,first cause1 ,trinity1 etc4 ,goetia1 #bb1 #bdg1 #bej1 #eje ,gold1 #fi1 #gh-ha1 #bae1 #beg1 #cja1 #cbe1 #chf1 #eij1 #eii1 #gci1 #gee2 chap4 xxxiii2 and see ,alchemy ,gonorrhoea1 #ecf ,goose1 #afh1 #cja ,gorgon1 #cja ,gothic art1 #eja-b1 #gfa ,gout1 #ha1 #adb1 #bgg1 #bhd1 #ega1 #ege1 #egi-ha1 #gee ,grafting1 #ee ,grain1 #cbe ,grammar1 #ece1 #eif1 #fab1 #fbe ,grasshopper1 #dia ,gravitation1 #dha ,greece and ,greek1 magic1 #bj-h1 #eh2 science1 #bh-cb1 #df-g1 #ea1 #fb1 #fd2 culture1 #bgd1 #bhc2 animals1 #gc2 language1 ancient1 #aed1 #ahf1 #bbb-c1 #cgg1 #dbj2 language1 medieval1 #cca-b1 #fbe ,greek church1 #cig1 #gce ,greek fire1 #bef-g ,griffin1 #beg1 #cbe ,grimoald1 abbot1 #fac ,groin1 #ga1 #eij ,ground1 see ,earth1 ,underground ,gruel1 #adb ,guadalquivir1 #bed ,gull1 #aei ,gum1 #dfh ,gyges1 #beg ,gymnosophists1 #bdg1 #bea1 #bfj1 #efd ,gynecology1 see ,women1 diseases of ,hades1 see ,underworld ,hadrian1 emperor1 #acf1 #bjj1 #bdd1 #cah ,hail1 see ,weather ,hair1 #fi-gj1 #ha1 #aea1 #aei1 #agf1 #eha2 net1 #age1 #bac2 tonic1 #gch ,halcyon days1 #bee1 #dia ,halicacabum1 #gg ,hallucination1 #eji ,ham1 son of ,noah1 first magician1 #dad ,hand1 laying on of1 #chf2 and see ,left1 ,right ,handkerchief1 #bac1 #chf ,hangman's noose1 #ga ,hare1 #aei1 #afi1 #bec1 #ehj ,harewort1 #gbb ,harp1 magic1 #ggc ,harran1 #ffa-b ,haruspex1 #ie1 #ajd1 #eaa1 #eac1 #ecd1 #fbi ,hathor goddesses1 #ad ,hatto1 bishop of ,vich1 #gjd ,hawk1 #gd1 #cad1 #ccb1 #efa ,hawkweed1 #gd1 #ccb ,hazel rod1 #gbe-f1 #gcj ,head1 habit of inclining1 #fei2 magical speaking1 #ffb1 #gje ,headache1 #ah1 #ga1 #ib1 #age1 #eia ,hearsay1 #ehe ,heart1 physiology of1 #cj1 #adf-i1 #aec1 #gcg2 used in medicine and magic1 #gj1 #hi1 #gbg ,heat and ,hot1 #adj1 #adb1 #afa1 #age-f1 #aia2 and see ,qualities ,heathen1 see ,pagan ,heatherberry1 #gbb ,heaven and ,heavens1 one or many8 #af1 #cde1 #cfc1 #cfe1 #cgb1 #chb1 #dei1 #dhg-h1 #gji2 empyrean1 #dhd2 and see ,music of spheres1 ,star1 ,universe1 ,waters above the firmament ,hebdomad1 sacred1 #af1 #cfe1 #chj ,hebrew1 #eed1 #egg-h1 #gji1 #gaa1 #gdi2 and see ,jew ,hecate1 #bae1 #bhj ,hedge1 #ia ,hedge-hog1 #cbe1 #ejb1 #gcd ,hedgerife1 #gbb ,helen1 ,simon's1 #cfc-e ,helena1 empress1 #dgg ,helenus1 seer1 #bid ,heliocentric theory1 #cb1 #ig ,heliotrope1 an herb1 #fe1 #hg1 #fcf ,hell1 see ,underworld ,hellebore1 #gd1 #dij1 #fcf ,hellene and ,hellenism1 #bj-a1 #bde1 #eda ,hellenistic1 #af1 #bb1 #cj-b1 #ci1 #ea1 #ahc1 #ahi1 #bhh1 #bid ,hemlock1 the poison1 #dij ,hemorrhage1 #ecf1 #egf ,hen1 omen from1 #bca ,henbane1 #gbb ,hera1 goddess1 #dbi ,heracles1 #bea1 #edf1 #ehb ,heracleidae1 #eda ,herb1 ,egyptian1 #aj2 ,assyrian1 #ai-bj2 ,greek1 #bc2 ,cretan1 #abi2 sacred1 #gf1 #agh2 ,anglo-,saxon1 #gbb2 ,pliny1 #ed-g1 #fe-g1 #gf-i2 ,galen1 #aed1 #afg2 ,plutarch1 #bae-f2 ,apuleius1 #bbi2 ,orphic1 #bie-f1 #dbi-cj2 ,gnostic1 #cga2 ,nectanebus1 #efa1 post-classical medicine1 #ehc1 #eia2 ,herbarium of ,apuleius1 #eig-i2 ,pseudo-,dioscorides1 #fjf2 ,macer1 #fad-e2 used by animals1 #cbd-e1 and see ,animals1 remedies employed by2 conjuration of1 #ehc2 plucking of1 #eg1 #fe1 #ic1 #afj1 #agc1 #beb1 #bia1 #ehc1 #fad1 #fbf1 #gba1 #gbd1 #gbg1 #gbi ,herbal1 #eif-i ,herbalist1 #gi1 #abh ,hercules1 see ,heracles ,heredity1 #ge1 #bec2 and see ,atavism ,herefridus1 #fce ,heresy1 chap4 xv1 #dhh1 #did1 #ejg-h ,hermesias1 a compound1 #hd ,hermogenes the magician1 #dce ,hero1 a kind of spirit1 #ahj-a1 #cji-aj1 #dfi1 #edf ,herod the king1 #dgc1 #dgi ,heron1 #bah1 #cbd ,hind1 #bgi1 #gba ,hippomanes1 #cbd ,hippopotamus1 #ge1 #afi ,history and ,historians1 relation to this investigation1 #bja2 ,roman1 #ad1 #id1 #if1 #bja1 #fjb2 omens and portents in1 #ad1 #fge2 attitude to1 of ,empirics1 #aef2 ,vitruvius1 #ahe2 ,lucian1 #bhe-f2 ,cicero1 #bgd2 ,horapollo1 #ccc-d2 of medicine1 #aec1 #aef1 #gce2 of philosophy1 #ahj2 of astronomy1 #ecg1 #gjg2 of alchemy1 #aie2 ages of1 #chc1 #fdh1 #fge1 #gji2 astrological interpretation of1 see ,conjunctions1 ,planets1 ,magnus ,annus2 quantitative method and source-analysis in1 #ecc;ff42 medieval attitude to1 #fag2 harlequins of1 #cei ,holy ,ghost or ,spirit1 #cfc-d1 #cgb1 #cig1 #ddg ,holy salt1 #gbb1 #gbg ,holy wafer1 #gbi ,holy water1 #dcd1 #gba1 #gbd1 #gbg1 #gce ,honey1 #ff1 #fh1 #gj1 #gf1 #abi1 #adb1 #bbi1 #bie1 #eii2 ,attic and ,hymettus1 #acb ,honoratus1 #fch ,hoopoe1 #cbd ,horaeus1 #cfg ,horn1 #dif1 #ehf1 #eii1 #gbb2 magic drinking1 #aia1 #bee ,horoscope1 #ad1 #aae1 #bji1 #cae1 #eaf1 #ecb1 #efj1 #fcj ,horse1 #ee1 #gj1 #hf1 #afh1 #ehi1 #gbb1 #gcj1 #gfg2 and see ,mare ,horus1 #aie ,hour1 observance of1 #gab1 #gad1 #gbf ,house1 astrological1 #aad1 #cig ,household magic1 #i1 #fi2 and see ,door1 ,threshold1 ,wall1 etc4 ,human body1 symmetry of1 #ahd1 #eai2 eight parts of1 #deb1 #gbj2 use of parts of1 #fa1 #ha1 #afg1 #bbi1 #egc2 and see ,blood2 ,sacrifice1 human2 ,saliva1 ,sweat1 etc4 ,humanism1 #bj1 #cch ,humors1 #ecf1 #gch ,hyacinth1 a gem1 #dif1 #fef ,hydromancy1 #bcc1 #eje1 #fbi1 #ggi-hj ,hydromel1 #gi ,hydrophobia1 #ef1 #afi1 #aga1 #dif1 #egd2 and see ,dog1 mad ,hydroscope1 #edb ,hydrostatic balance1 #gfa ,hyena1 #fg1 #fi-gj1 #ccb1 #cif1 #ehg1 #fje1 #gbh ,hymn1 #ah1 #bc1 #cag-h1 #cgd1 #dcc1 #dda1 #fdj ,hypatia1 #eda ,hyperborean1 #bhj1 #dac ,hyphasis1 river1 #bef ,hyrcanian ,sea1 #dhh ,ialdabaoth1 #cfg1 #chc ,iao1 ,iaoth1 etc41 #cfg1 #cgi-hj1 #ehc ,iarchas the ,brahman1 #bea;ff4 ,ichneumon1 #gd1 #bah1 #ege ,idolatry1 #dba1 #dcc1 #deb1 #dge1 #fjc2 and see ,image ,ikhnaton1 #i ,illuminated manuscripts1 #dih1 #ejb1 #edg1 #eig1 #fgf1 #gdf ,image1 engraved and astrological1 #agc1 #bfg1 #bib1 #caf1 #ddc1 #egi1 #ehb1 #fde-f1 #ffd-f2 ,apuleius' wooden1 #bcc2 ,egyptian mannikins1 #h2 sacrificial1 #bfa2 mystic seal1 #cfg1 #cgh1 #chb2 of wax1 #aj1 #ai1 #be1 #efj-c2 other magic1 #aj1 #ai1 #bcf1 #bhj1 #cad1 #cdd1 #dda1 #gfi ,imagination1 power of1 #fdd1 #ffj ,iman1 doctrine of the hidden1 #cef ,immortality1 see ,soul ,impotence1 #cia ,incantation1 antiquity of1 #f2 ,egyptian1 #h1 #ab-d2 ,assyrian1 #ag-i2 in ,pliny1 #fi-gb1 #gi1 #hh1 #ib-d2 ,galen1 #aff1 #agc-d2 ,apuleius1 #bcj1 #bcc1 #bci2 other classical authors1 #be1 #bec1 #beg1 #bgi-ha1 #cad2 ,gnostic1 #bii1 chap4 xv2 ,jewish and early ,christian1 #ceb1 #cih1 #dah-i1 #dcg1 #ddb-c1 #ddi-ej1 #dfc1 #dib1 #eaj1 #eab2 pseudo-literature and post-classical medicine1 #ecg1 #efj-a1 #efh1 #egc1 #egi-hc1 #ehh-ic1 #eih-i1 #fje2 ,arabic1 #fed-e2 early medieval1 #eif1 #fbf-i1 #fge1 #fif2 in medicine1 chap4 xxxi1 #ged1 #gei2 alchemy1 #gfi-gj2 old ,irish1 #fdj2 and see ,words1 power of ,incense1 #gbb ,incest1 #dge1 #ged ,incubus1 #egd ,india1 chap4 viii2 science of1 #ca2 drugs from1 #hd1 #acb2 home of ,magi1 #dgf-g2 marvels of1 #cbe-f1 #dif1 #efd1 #gef2 occult science of1 #feb-f1 #gaj1 #gfc2 miscellaneous1 #ejc1 #gdd ,indigestion1 #ggi ,industry1 and magic1 #ab1 chap4 xxxiii ,infant1 exposure of1 #adg2 ailments1 #fi1 #afi1 #fae ,ink1 invisible1 #dfg ,innocent ,,iii1 pope1 #gei ,insanity1 #baf1 #ecf1 #ehe1 #gee1 #ggi2 and see ,frenzy1 ,lunacy1 etc4 ,insomnia1 #ij ,instruments1 scientific1 #ajg1 #gea2 and see ,musical ,intent1 as a factor in magic1 #fdd-f ,interrogations1 astrological1 #gac-d ,intestines1 #hg-h1 #age1 #dji1 #dad1 #eib ,inventions1 #dd1 #adi1 #ahg-i1 #dbf1 #fjd ,invisible1 to become1 #ga1 #bea1 #daf1 #efb1 #fch1 #fdj2 writing1 #bfe ,invocation1 see ,necromancy and ,spirit ,iris1 #acb ,iron1 magic use of1 #ff1 #fi-ga1 #ha1 #hi1 #bac1 #gfe1 #gfi2 taboo of1 #gh1 #ha1 #ib1 #fad2 oxide of1 #acj2 quenching hot1 #gac1 #gef ,isaac the patriarch1 #dcg ,ishmaelite1 #gaa ,isis1 goddess1 #aie1 #bbc1 #bhj1 #cjj1 #edf1 #eei ,island1 floating1 #ajb ,ismuc1 #ahc ,israel1 twelve tribes of1 #die ,istria1 #fja-b ,itacius1 bishop1 #cha ,italian ,renaissance1 see ,renaissance ,italians and ,italy1 #ahd1 #eeg ,iunx1 #bfe-g ,ivory1 #cja1 #eii ,ivy1 #gfg-h ,jacob the patriarch1 #ced1 #ceh1 #ddd2 and ,esau1 #cfi1 #dgi1 #ead ,jambres1 ,jamnes1 or ,jannes1 the magician1 #ei1 #dca1 #dfa ,james1 brother of ,jesus1 #cib1 #dja1 #djc1 #dje ,james the ,great1 ,st41 #dcd-f ,jannes the magician1 see ,jambres ,jared1 and magic1 #dae ,jasper1 #bid1 #egb ,jaundice1 #di1 #bag1 #ecf ,jealousy1 see ,animal1 and ,professions1 learned ,jeremiah1 legend of1 #cii ,jerusalem1 #cic1 #cii1 #dae1 #dbc1 #dgg ,jesus1 see ,christ ,jew and ,jewish1 #bai1 #dcd1 #dcf1 #dfe1 #dgd-e1 #ehc1 #gdf1 #gfb1 #ggc1 #gha2 magic1 #ei1 #dcg-i1 #ddi2 religion1 #acg2 tradition1 #dgc ,jewelry1 #cja2 and see ,gem ,john the ,baptist1 #cfd1 #gcg ,john1 duke of ,campania1 #eeg ,jonathan1 #dga ,joseph the patriarch1 his coat of many colors1 #ceb1 #ceh2 divining cup1 #chf2 dream1 #ced1 #ceh1 #che ,joseph1 father of ,jesus1 #cic ,joseph1 mentioned by ,epiphanius1 #dcd ,judea1 see ,palestine ,judas ,iscariot1 #cia ,juggler1 #bcj1 #cab-c1 #ceb1 #dcg ,juliana ,anicia1 #fjf ,juno1 goddess1 #edf ,jupiter1 planet1 #ig1 #ahd ,justina1 #dca-c ,karnak1 #eei ,khrgeh1 #eei ,kid1 #cic ,kidney1 #bid ,king1 prediction for1 #ag1 #ff2 to gain favor of1 #ai1 #fg1 #ga1 #hi1 #bid2 magic power of1 #hc1 #dgf1 #dgi2 and alchemy1 #ac1 #aie ,kiss1 #hh1 #cia1 #ehi ,knife1 #ede1 #gbb1 #gbg2 surgical1 #adi ,knot1 in divination1 #g2 other magic1 #ai1 #be1 #ff1 #fi1 #ga1 #eib1 #ffa ,kruno1 a star1 #cdf ,labartu1 #ah ,laboratory1 #bbh ,lacedaemon1 #dbi1 #fjb ,ladder1 #cfh ,laelius1 #bgd ,lamb1 #efa1 #gfi ,lamia1 #bfc ,lamp1 #abi1 #chj2 experiment with1 #ee2 inextinguishable1 marvelous1 etc41 #aib1 #bad1 #bca1 #bci2 and see ,candle ,land and water on earth's surface1 #ed1 #aje1 #bed1 #dhh ,language of birds and beasts1 learning1 #beg1 #bfa1 #bid-e1 #dcj ,laodicea1 unguent of1 #acc ,lar1 #hj1 #edf ,laser1 a simple1 #hc ,laurel1 #bbi1 #cbd1 #ccb1 #dbd1 #ega1 #ehh ,lavinian grove1 #cbf ,law1 and magic1 #b1 #f1 #ie2 ,roman1 #afg-h1 #bbd1 #bcc-d1 #bgg1 #ebg1 #efh2 of nature1 #bgb1 #cej1 #ecj-a2 ,mosaic1 #cie1 #dei2 national1 #cgf2 early ,german1 #eic2 a medieval lawsuit1 #fhh ,lead1 #feg1 #geg1 #gfd2 application of1 #egd1 #eij2 glazing1 #gfb2 tablets1 #bh1 #cff1 #gbd ,leaves1 falling1 effect on dreams1 #bjf ,lebadea1 #bdi ,lectionary1 #dgf ,lecture-notes1 #acd ,leech1 #gbd ,left1 hand etc4 used or preferred1 #fe-f1 #gh1 #hb1 #hh1 #ij1 #ib1 #agc1 #baf1 #bca1 #cbe1 #ccb1 #ehj1 #ehc1 #eia-b1 #gbb1 #gbf ,legends of saints1 chaps4 xvi1 xviii1 #fcg2 and see names of individuals ,legislation1 #b1 #be1 #ei1 #ie1 #abf1 #aid1 #bic1 #dae1 #eje2 and see ,law ,lentils1 #cfi ,lemnos1 #acj-b1 #aed1 #bdb1 #bfd ,lent1 #fgh ,leopard1 #bef ,leprosy1 #aga1 #bai1 #cij1 #cib1 #ecf ,letter1 see ,alphabet1 ,vowel ,lettuce1 #fci ,lever1 #aib ,leviathan1 #cdf-g1 #cfg ,levitation1 #bea-b1 #cid1 #dbg ,libanotis1 an herb1 #die ,libation1 #dca ,libraries1 ancient1 #ae1 #bg1 #abe1 #acd-e2 medieval1 #fag-h1 #gdc ,ligatures and suspensions1 #fe1 #fh1 #gj-b1 #hj1 #hi-ij1 #id1 #agc1 #age1 #bjd1 #bgi1 #bid1 #egb1 #egi1 #eia1 #eih1 #faa1 #fad1 #fed-f1 #gbf1 #gbi-cj1 #gdj1 #gee-f1 #gei2 condemned1 #eab1 #fcj ,light1 #aia1 #dhh1 #gbj2 and see ,radiation ,lightning1 #ga1 #ie1 #ajb1 #gch ,ligusticum1 #fac ,like cures like1 #fh1 #hf1 #id ,lily1 #fh ,linen1 use of1 #hh1 #ij1 #bcj1 #bdi1 #bfj1 #cgh1 #efj1 #eha1 #eih ,liniment1 #ehf ,lion1 habits and traits1 #gd1 #bef1 #cai1 #cbf1 #ccb1 #cfg1 #cid1 #fcf2 roar of1 #dia2 use of parts of1 #fg1 #gj1 #afh1 #bgi1 #gbf1 #gee2 whelps of1 #bee1 #dia2 amours of lioness1 #gd2 figure of1 #ehb2 made by magic1 #bae2 lion-faced1 #cfd ,liparaios1 a gem1 #bie ,litany1 #gba ,liturgy1 #cih1 #dgf ,liver1 disease1 #ecf1 #eia2 divination1 #ag1 #be1 #bdi1 #bgb1 #cac1 #cah1 #dcj1 #deh1 #dff ,lizard1 #fh1 #ib1 #bch1 #cbd1 #did1 #egd1 #eha1 #ehi-ia ,logic1 #aed-e1 #aeg-i2 magic1 #aj-a1 #gb1 #bad ,logos1 doctrine of1 #cej ,loigaire1 king1 #fdj ,lollianus ,avitus1 #bbc ,lollianus ,mavortius1 #ebe;ff41 #ecg ,longevity1 #ada1 #agj1 #agf1 #bjg1 #ecg ,looking around1 #eia ,loosing bonds1 etc41 #bfe1 #daf1 #ddi1 #ggi ,lord's ,prayer1 #eih1 #gba1 #gbd-f1 #gbi-cj1 #gcf ,lot-casting1 #gg1 #aab1 #eci1 #gbg2 and see ,geomancy and ,sortes sanctorum 7other index7 ,lotapes1 a magician1 #ei ,lot's wife1 #ehc ,love charms and potions1 #bb1 #gf1 #id1 #bja1 #bae1 #bag1 #bcf1 #beh1 #bie1 #cfh1 #cgj ,lucifer1 #fcf ,lucius1 hero of ,golden ,ass1 chap4 vii ,lucius ,verus1 emperor1 #abd ,lucullus1 #id1 #bja ,lumbago1 #ij1 #age ,luna1 goddess1 #bcf1 #dag2 and see ,helen1 ,simon's ,lunacy1 #ecf1 #gbg1 #ged2 and see ,insanity ,lung1 #adh1 #ecf1 #gbg ,lupin1 #gbb ,lutheran1 #ddg ,lychnis and ,lychnites1 a gem1 #beg1 #bie ,lycia1 #aed1 #cbe1 #gfe ,lycurgus1 #bhc ,lynx1 #ha1 #cbe1 #fbj ,lyre1 #cef ,macedon1 #bgh1 #efj ,machine1 #ahb1 #ahg2 and see ,mechanical ,maerotis1 lake1 #cdi ,magi1 in ,pliny1 #fd-gb1 #hj1 #hd2 of ,persia and the east1 #bbh1 #bce-f1 #bdg1 #bej1 #bff1 #bie1 #ceb1 #daf1 #dej1 #gfc2 who came to the ,christ child1 #cgb1 #cif1 #ddc-d1 #dga-i1 #ejf1 #eah-i1 #gcj ,magic 7only leading passages where magic in general is discussed under that name are here included71 preliminary definition1 #d-f2 primitive1 #e-f2 ,egyptian1 #g-ab2 ,babylonian and ,assyrian1 #ae-i1 #cc2 ,greek and ,roman1 #bj-h2 ,pliny1 #dd1 #eh-fd2 ,plutarch1 #bjc2 ,apuleius1 #bcd-g2 ,philostratus1 #bdg-ej2 ,neo-,platonists1 #bii-cjj2 ,enoch1 #cdc2 ,philo1 #ceb2 heretics and ,gnostics1 #cfa2 church fathers1 #dad-bj1 chap4 xix1 #dff-i1 chap4 xxii2 ,nectanebus1 #efj2 ,isidore1 #fbh-cj2 ,alkindi1 #fdc-f2 as an art or discipline1 #cab1 #dbj1 #ddc2 relation to science and medicine1 #fj-fd1 #bcf1 #cab1 #ccj1 #dcb1 #eaa1 #ecd-e1 #fdd2 use of materials1 #fe-gj1 #dda1 #ejh2 procedure1 #fh-ga1 #ejf2 false and illusive1 #fa1 #dah1 #dbc-d1 #dca-b1 #ddj1 #dfd-h1 #eji2 evil and criminal1 #fa-b1 #cac1 #cdd1 #cgg1 #dca-b1 #dci1 #eje1 #eci1 #edc2 good or natural1 #bce1 #ceb2 marvelous results1 #ff-g1 #gj-a1 #ejf2 reality of1 #ejf2 history of1 #eh-i1 #dad-e1 #fbh-i2 immunity from1 #ddj1 #ddh-i ,magnet1 #ha1 #he1 #bac1 #dfi1 #eaa1 #eha1 #fcf1 #fdd1 #feg1 #ffh1 #gfe1 #ghj ,magnus annus1 #bf1 #ahj1 #baj1 #ccc1 #cgb1 #chd1 #def1 #edc ,majoram1 #dij ,maleficium1 #bcd-e1 #cha1 #ejf1 #fjc1 #fbi ,mambres1 a magician1 #dfa ,mana1 #f ,mandaeans1 #chc-d1 #dej ,mandragora1 #bb1 #bca1 #beh1 #eig1 #fjg1 #fbf1 #gdj ,manes1 a kind of spirits1 #edf ,manes or ,mani1 founder of ,manicheism1 and ,manicheism1 #cha-b1 #cih1 #dji1 #eac ,mansions of moon or sun1 #fic1 #gac1 #gae ,mantike1 #bei2 and see ,divination ,manuscripts1 of ,pliny1 #ea-b2 ,ptolemy1 #ajf1 #ajh-aj2 ,galen1 #acd-e2 ,gentile da ,foligno1 #afd2 ,greek alchemy1 #aid-f2 ,apuleius1 #bda2 ,aelian1 #cbb2 ,solinus1 #cbf-h2 ,hermes and ,enoch1 #bia1 #cdj2 ,manichean1 #chc2 ,apocrypha1 #chg-i2 ,recognitions1 #dja;ff42 ,basil and ,ambrose1 #dhd2 ,physiologus1 #dih;ff42 ,firmicus1 #ecb2 and ,book ,,iii passim ,maps1 #ajg1 #aad1 #gjg ,marble1 #gbi ,marcus ,aurelius1 emperor1 #abd-e1 #acj1 #adh ,marcus the heretic1 #cfi-gj ,marcus of ,memphis1 #cha ,mare1 #hg1 #cbd1 #ccb1 #eaa ,marinus1 duke of ,campania1 #eeg ,market-place1 magic of1 #dcg1 #ddj ,marriage1 #fhe1 #fhh ,mars1 planet1 #gh1 #ig1 #ahd ,marsi1 #agb1 #eaa ,martin of ,tours1 ,st41 #cha ,martyr and ,martyrdom1 #dbh1 #dcc1 #eab1 #eee ,mary ,magdalene1 #cfd ,mary1 ,virgin1 #cij1 #gbd ,mass1 sacrament of1 #ac1 #gbb ,mathematical method1 #ajg ,mathematics1 #aed1 #ece-f ,mathematicus1 #dfd1 #eac1 #ecb1 #ecd1 #fcb1 #gag1 #gha ,mathesis1 #daa1 #fcb1 #gjd ,matter1 #aaa1 #aii1 #cje1 #cji1 #cdi1 #dhg1 #edb1 #fdc1 #gfc ,mavortius1 see ,lollianus ,maximilian ,,ii1 emperor1 #fjg ,maximus1 emperor1 #cha ,meal1 #cad2 evening1 #dhb ,measles1 #ffh ,measurement1 #add2 and see ,instruments1 ,time ,meat offered to idols1 #deb ,mecca1 #ccg ,mechanical devices and toys1 #afg1 #dbf2 ,applied ,science2 see ,bird1 mechanical2 ,machine ,mede and ,medea1 #ba1 #fe1 #bae1 #bie1 #cbd1 #cbi1 #ghj ,medicine1 chaps4 iv1 v1 xxxi1 xxxii1 #bhi1 #ece-f1 #edb2 ,egypt1 #aj-b2 ,babylonian and ,assyrian1 #ah2 and magic1 #be1 #gj1 and see ,magic2 ,pliny1 #gb2 ,greek1 #cah2 ,apuleius1 #bba1 #bcg2 ,brahmans1 #beb-c2 ,lucian1 #bgi1 #bhd2 ,solinus1 #cbi2 church fathers and theologians1 #dfj-c1 #eic1 #fag2 and see ,animal1 remedies employed by2 ,astrological2 ,compound2 ,disease2 ,history2 ,pharmacy2 ,poison2 ,simple2 etc4 ,medicine man1 #e1 #bbg ,medinet ,habu1 #eei ,medium1 #big1 #dfg ,medulla1 #ffj ,mela1 see ,taxo ,melancholy1 #acg1 #ecf1 #gef ,melanteria1 #acb ,melothesia1 #gab ,memory1 #cjc1 #ffj ,memphis1 #aih1 #dcj ,menander the heretic1 #cfh1 #dba ,menippus1 #bfc ,menstrual fluid1 #hb1 #cfi1 #egc ,merchant1 #bad1 #bde1 #gaj ,mercury1 god1 #bcc1 #bcf1 #fcj1 and see ,hermes2 metal1 #gfd1 and see ,quicksilver2 planet1 #cah1 #chc ,mero1 a witch1 #bbf ,merovingian1 #faf1 #fgb ,mesraim1 first magician1 #dad ,messiah1 #cee1 #chc ,messina1 #dde1 #gaj ,metal and ,metallurgy1 #dd1 #ajb1 #aih1 #cdf1 #dfc1 #gfg2 and see ,alchemy2 ,planets and2 and the names of individual metals ,metamorphosis1 see ,transformation ,meteor1 #ajc ,meteorology1 #dd1 #fcf ,methodism1 in medicine1 #aee1 #gce ,michael1 an angel1 #cfg1 #ddg1 #deb ,michael1 bishop of ,tarazona1 #feb ,microcosm1 #chb1 #daa1 #ecj1 #fcc1 #gji1 #gab ,midday1 see ,noon ,middle ,ages1 influence in1 of ,pliny1 #ea-c1 #ef1 #gc1 #he1 #eie1 #fbh1 #fce2 ,seneca1 #ajj2 ,ptolemy1 #aji2 ,galen1 #afa1 #ahj1 #egb-d2 ,hero1 #ahh2 ,de placitis philosophorum1 #ahj2 ,apollonius1 #bfg2 ,solinus1 #cbf2 early ,christian literature1 #cch2 ,enoch1 #cdj-b2 ,philo1 #cea2 ,apocrypha1 #chi-ij2 ,simon ,magus1 #dbg2 legends of saints1 #dce2 ,basil1 #dhd2 ,physiologus1 #dig;ff42 ,augustine1 #ejd2 ,alexander legend1 chap4 xxiv2 post-classical medicine1 #ega1 #egf-h1 #ehd2 ,ethicus1 #fja-d2 ,dioscorides1 #fjf-ab2 ,boethius1 #fah-bj2 ,isidore1 #fbc1 #fcj-a2 ,arabic learning1 #fdf1 #ffc1 chap4 xxx1 #gcb2 ,constantinus ,africanus1 #gdc1 #ged2 ,greek learning1 #gcd2 and see ,classical heritage2 ,greek1 medieval2 ,textual history2 ,translation ,midnight1 #bdh ,milan1 #dgg ,mildew1 #hj ,milesian tales1 #bbe ,milk1 cow's1 #bbi1 #bie2 woman's1 #hb1 #age1 #ehg1 #gbi1 #gei1 #gfc2 other1 #gba1 #gfg ,milk-stone1 #bid ,milo1 #ggi ,milt1 see ,spleen ,mind1 #baj1 #eca1 #fed ,mine and ,mining1 #acb1 #adb1 #cdd ,mineralogy1 #fjf ,minerva1 #gi ,minotaur1 #fjc1 #fcf ,mint1 wild1 #eg ,miracle1 #h1 #cbg1 #eda1 #fcg1 #fhf2 distinguished from magic1 #bdb1 #bfe1 #chg-h1 #dag1 #dcg-i1 #dfe1 #eje2 by heretics1 #ejg-h ,mirror1 #ahj1 #bcf1 #dag1 #dfh1 #fdd2 and see ,divination by polished surfaces1 ,optics ,missal1 #gei ,misy1 #acb ,mistletoe1 #bc1 #gi ,mithra1 #cfh1 #dbi ,mithrobarzanes1 a magician1 #bha 8,modern10 #gag ,mohammed and ,mohammedan1 #aci1 #ccg1 #cef1 #dde1 ,chap4 xxviii1 #fhh ,mole1 #fc1 #fg1 #gj1 #hj-a1 #hh1 #dji1 #did1 #ehg ,monastery1 ,monasticism1 and ,monk1 #eje1 #fcg-i1 #fgi ,monkey1 #adh ,monreale1 #dbg ,monster1 #fbg ,mont1 temple of1 #eei ,montaster1 an herb1 #eih ,monte ,cassino1 #eig1 #faj1 #gdc;ff4 ,month1 specified1 #ehe1 #ehh1 #eij1 #fgf1 #fhe-i1 #gbh1 #gcg1 #ggd2 and see ,moon1 observance of ,montpellier1 #aji1 #gda ,monument1 #efe ,moon1 addressed1 #gbg2 affected by magic1 #bjc1 #bbe1 #bhj1 #cjh1 #dfh1 #dib2 controls generation and corruption1 #baj1 #bai1 #ced1 #fcc1 #gjh2 day of the1 #gi1 #egb1 chap4 xxix2 duration of1 #ahj1 #gjb2 and ,easter1 #eba2 observance of1 #fi-ga1 #gh1 #hj1 #ij-a1 #ih1 #agh1 #baf1 #bhc1 #cbb1 #cbd1 #ccc1 #cfd1 #eci1 #ehj1 #ehb1 #eij-b1 #eih-i1 chap4 xxix1 #gbj1 #gbd1 #gbi1 #gef1 #ghj2 relation to other planets and to the signs1 #agi1 #baa2 spots on1 #ced2 size of1 #dhh2 and see ,bleeding1 ,luna1 ,selene1 ,tide ,moon-earth1 #gfe ,moon-god1 #chb ,moon-stone1 #bej ,moon-tree1 #efd ,moralizing1 #aja1 #dij1 #fch ,mortar1 pounded in a1 #hb1 #gfe ,mortuary magic1 #h-i ,mosaic1 #cfg1 #dbg1 #gfd ,mosaic law1 see ,law ,moses1 see other index ,mother1 goddess or ,great1 #baf1 #cfj ,mouse1 #bc1 #hj1 #aff1 #age1 #bac1 #cbe1 #dia1 #ehg1 #gcg2 field-1 #ih1 #bgi2 shrew-1 #gf1 #hf1 #hh ,mountain1 marvelous1 #cdf-g2 magnetic1 #gef2 affected by magic1 #bbf1 #daf ,mule1 #hh1 #ahc1 #cij1 #ehi1 #gcf ,mullein1 #dij ,muscle1 #ade1 #aej1 #ehj ,muses1 #cga ,mushroom1 #bai ,music1 #cai1 #cbe1 #ecd1 #fai1 #gdd2 and magic1 #f2 and medicine1 #abd2 and architecture1 #ahe2 of the spheres1 #bf1 #ahd1 #aic1 #cga1 #dhg1 #edd1 #fbb ,mutton-fat1 #gbb ,mycenaean art1 #cja ,myriogenesis1 #ecg ,myrmecia1 a gem1 #aff ,myrrh1 #ehf1 #gfe ,mysia1 #baf ,mysteries1 #aci1 #baf1 #bba1 #bbc1 #bdc1 #bde1 #bdh1 #cag1 #cfj-a1 #cfh1 #cgg1 #dbh-i2 and see ,eleusis1 ,mithra ,mysticism1 #baa1 #bed-e1 #fgg1 #gfc ,mythology1 and magic1 #h1 #ba2 and astrology1 #af1 #bhb-c2 miscellaneous1 #baa1 #bae1 #bhb1 #bid1 #cbg1 #djg1 #dae-f1 #ede-f1 #fbj ,nail1 metal1 #gh1 #ha1 #hg1 #ij1 #bhj1 #eha1 #gbb ,nail parings1 toe and finger1 #ga1 #eha ,names1 see of ,christ and ,god1 and ,words1 power of ,nannacus1 see ,annacus ,nard1 #afi ,nativities1 #be1 #ie1 #ajd1 #aae1 #ahe1 #dga1 #eei-fj1 #fcb1 #fgi1 #gab ,nature1 ,pliny on1 #db1 #df-g2 ,seneca1 #aja2 ,galen1 #aej-a2 as a teacher1 #aee2 ,plutarch1 #baj2 in contrast to fate1 #cge ,neck1 stiff1 #gcg ,necromancy1 #ba1 #aig1 #bbh1 #bcc1 #bfd1 #bgj1 #bhj1 #cjj1 #dai1 #dff1 #eci1 #fbi1 #gje2 as proof of immortality1 #daf2 relation to science1 #gdd ,nectabis1 #dfc ,nectanebo or ,nectanebus1 chap4 xxiv1 #cia1 #dfc1 #eaf1 #gjd ,needle1 copper1 #eij2 eye of1 #cif ,nektanebes1 ,nekht-,har-ehbet1 ,nekhte-nebof1 #eeh-i2 and see ,nectanebus ,neo-,latin1 #gcb1 #geg ,neo-,platonism1 chap4 xi1 #aaf1 #bjh1 #bif-g1 #cdi1 #edj1 #edd-e1 #ffa ,nero1 emperor1 #fa1 #aga1 #bja1 #bfj1 #bfb1 #dbc-e1 #eec1 #ehe ,nerva1 emperor1 #bdd ,nerve and nervous system1 #ade-f ,nestorian1 #eed ,nettle1 #fcf1 #gfh ,neuri1 #ccj ,nias ,island1 #agj ,niceta1 a character in the ,recognitions1 chap4 xvii ,nicias1 #bb1 #bjd ,niello1 #gfi ,night-shade1 an herb1 #eha ,night time and magic1 #fh1 #gh1 #abi1 #bbd-f1 #bcd ,nigromancy1 see ,necromancy ,nikon1 father of ,galen1 #abb ,nile1 #ajb1 #agi-hj1 #aih1 #bed1 #eei2 horses1 #afi ,nimrod and magic1 #dac ,nine1 #hh1 #cga1 #eij1 #eib1 #eih1 #gba1 #gbg ,nineveh1 #bdc ,nitrate1 #ggb ,nitro-muriatic acid1 #ggb ,noah's ark1 #bj2 and see ,flood ,noon1 #bdh1 #gee ,norman and ,normandy1 #dbg1 #gde ,nose1 #egf1 #ehi ,notebook1 #de-f2 and see ,lecture notes ,notory art1 #bfg ,nude and ,nudity1 #hc1 #ic1 #bie1 #efe1 #ehh ,numa1 king1 #bgd1 #eje ,number1 observance of1 and theory of perfect1 #bf1 #fi1 #ia1 #agh1 #bab1 #beh1 #bgc1 #cag1 #cee-g1 #cgj1 #cgc1 #chc1 #dcj1 #dda1 #eba1 #edd-e1 #fba1 #fbg1 #fge2 and see ,five1 ,four1 ,nine1 ,seven1 ,ten1 ,three ,numitor1 king1 #fjb ,nymph1 #edf ,oak1 #dic ,oath1 #dcj ,obelisk1 #eeh ,obscenity in magic and medicine1 #fa-b1 #afg-h1 #bjd1 #bjg1 #bcf ,observation1 ,pliny1 #dh1 #ec-d2 magicians1 #fd-e2 ,ptolemy1 #aje1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #aab2 ,galen1 #aef2 reputed ,chaldean1 #ie1 #caf2 ,dioscorides1 #fjf2 and see ,experimental method ,obstetrics1 see ,child-birth ,occult virtue1 discussions of and references to of a general character1 in ,egypt1 #aj2 ,pliny1 #fd-e1 #ge-f1 #ha1 #hi2 ,galen1 #afi-gj2 ,vitruvius1 #ahc2 ,plutarch1 #bab-c2 ,neo-,platonists1 #cjd1 #cjg1 #caa1 #cbj1 #edb-c2 ,brahmans1 #beg-h2 ,marbod1 #ggh-ha2 miscellaneous1 #dda1 #ded1 #dfh-i ,ocean1 #dhi ,ocimum1 an herb1 #ic ,oculist1 #bhd1 #fgj ,odor1 foul1 #ecf ,odysseus1 #bfd1 #bha1 #eji1 #fbi ,oea1 #bbb;ff4 ,oil1 #fh1 #ij1 #ib1 #acj1 #adb1 #aed1 #afh-i1 #aga1 #age1 #bac1 #bef1 #cgc1 #egb1 #fjf1 #gbd1 #ggi ,ointment1 see ,unguent ,old-wives1 #aff1 #bjd1 #bcd1 #bej1 #bgb1 #ehf2 and see ,witch ,olybrius1 emperor1 #fjf ,olympias1 mother of ,alexander1 #efj;ff4 ,olympic games1 #bb1 #ajb ,olympus1 ,mt41 #aih1 #bif1 #dbi ,omens and portents1 #ad1 #ib1 #agh1 #bja1 #bca1 #bea1 #bed1 #bfj1 #cah1 #dcj1 #dga1 #edc1 #efj1 #efb1 #fge ,one1 ,once1 for the first time1 #hb1 #ib1 #baj1 #ehb ,onesiphorus1 #cif ,onion1 #bj ,onoel1 a spirit1 #cfg ,ophites1 a marble1 #hg ,ophites1 a sect1 #cfe1 #chc ,opium1 #gbd ,opobalsam1 #abh ,optics1 #ajh1 #bah1 #bcg1 #bgf1 #ffi ,oracle1 #ba1 #ie1 #bjc1 #bjf-g1 #bec1 #bgh1 #bie1 #cah1 #dcb1 #ddb1 #dff1 #ecd1 #fbg ,oratory1 #ece1 #ggf ,ordeal1 #chf1 #dfh1 #gei ,oreites1 a gem1 #bie ,orestes1 #cbd ,oreus1 #cfe ,organ1 musical1 #ahg-h1 #aib ,oriental attitude1 exaggerated estimate of1 #bj-a1 #chh ,originality1 #efi1 #ege1 #faf ,origanum1 an herb1 #bah ,origenists1 #dfa1 #eai ,oromazes1 a magician1 #bcf ,orphic rites1 #bif1 #dbi ,osiris1 #ac1 #aif1 #bbc1 #bcc1 #edf ,ossifrage1 #hg ,ostrich1 #fcf ,ouroboros1 the encircling serpent1 #aig1 #gfc ,owl1 #fc1 #fh1 #gj1 #bec ,ox1 #dfh1 #gbb1 #gee ,oxford1 #fdb ,oxygen1 #adc ,oyster1 #bah ,padua1 #afd ,paeanites1 a gem1 #cbi ,paganism1 #bjc1 #bid1 #cag1 #cbg1 #eab1 chap4 xxiv1 #ffa-b ,painting1 #agg1 #ahg1 #gfd ,palatine hill1 #abe1 #acd ,palermo1 #dbg ,palestine1 #acb1 #bhj1 #dch ,palimpsest1 #eec ,palm1 #fb1 #bcj1 #ccc1 #fcf ,pamphile1 a witch1 #bbi;ff4 ,pamphylia1 #acb ,pan1 the god1 #bea1 #edf ,panacea1 #agb ,pancrates1 a magician1 #bhj-a ,pantarbe1 #beb ,panther1 #gd1 #bef ,papacy1 #gje2 see ,sixtus ,,iv for patronage of learning by ,papyri1 #ab1 #ad1 #bb1 #bg-h1 #aic1 #aif1 #cfe1 #dfg1 #fhf ,paradise1 #cfg1 #dgj1 #dhh ,paralysis1 #gci2 of the face1 #gch2 tongue1 #gee ,parchment1 #ehi1 #gbi1 #gfd ,pard1 #gd1 #afh ,paris1 #fdb ,parrot1 #ege ,parthians1 #cgc1 #cgf ,partridge1 #afh1 #cbd1 #egd ,pastoral magic1 #gj ,paternoster1 see ,lord's ,prayer ,pathology1 #egf ,paul the apostle1 #dje1 #dac1 #dbd1 #ddi1 #eje2 potion of1 #gci ,peacock1 #egd1 #fcf ,pebble1 #eia ,pelican1 #cbd ,pella1 #bgh ,penalty1 #bic1 #cac1 #dcc ,penance1 #eac ,pendant1 #cja ,peony1 #gh1 #agc1 #fad1 #gdj1 #gef ,pepper1 #afi1 #agf1 #bef1 #ehf1 #fcg ,pergamum1 #abb1 #abd1 #acj1 #acf1 #adi1 #aga1 #bcf ,peristereos1 an herb1 #gg ,persecution1 fear of1 #aid ,persia and ,persian1 #eh1 #ff1 #cgf1 #dea1 #dge1 #dgi1 #ejc1 #eec1 #eeh1 #gdd1 #gfb ,personification1 #aih1 #cdc ,perspective1 see ,optics ,peru1 #g1 #ag ,peter the apostle1 #bca1 chap xvii1 #eje ,petroselinon1 #acb ,phaethon1 #bhc ,phalangium1 an insect1 #hf ,phallic ritual1 #cjh ,phantasm and ,phantom1 see ,apparition1 ,ghost ,phanuel1 an angel1 #cdb ,pharaoh's dream1 #ceh2 magicians1 #cgi1 #che1 #dag1 #dch1 #ddf1 #dfd1 #dgj1 #ejf-h1 #fbi ,pharmacy and ,pharmacology1 #aj1 #bj1 #hc1 #abb1 #acc1 #cdc1 #dac1 #dcd1 #faj1 #gcd-e ,phidias1 #bd1 #djg ,philae1 #eei ,philip of ,macedon1 #cca1 #efj;ff4 ,philoctetes1 #bid ,philology1 #ece1 #ede ,philosopher's stone1 #eb1 #aig1 #cih1 #gfc2 and see ,alchemy ,philosophy1 ,greek1 #ba2 and alchemy1 #ac1 #aii2 and magic1 #bd1 #fa1 #bcd1 #bdf1 #caj1 #ddj1 #ece2 and astrology1 #fgd2 and business1 #ig2 ,seneca1 #ajc2 ,galen and pseudo-,galen1 #abc-d1 #abg1 #acc1 #aci1 #adf1 #adi-ej1 #agf1 #ahj2 ,vitruvius1 #ahe-f2 other mentions of1 #bbj1 #bbc1 #bgi1 #cfj1 #daf1 #dff1 #dga1 #dha1 #dhe1 #dic1 #ecf1 #fbj1 #gjg2 and see names of individuals 7largely in other index7 and schools4 ,phlebotomy1 see ,bleeding ,phoebus1 #fbj2 and see ,apollo ,phoenicia1 #dch ,phoenix1 #bjg1 #beg1 #ccb-c1 #cdg1 #dfj ,phraotes1 #beh ,phrygia and ,phrygian1 #bjf1 #dcj1 #eig1 #fcj ,phylactery1 #eac ,physica1 #eab1 #egi-hj ,physics1 #fdd ,physiognomy1 #bf1 #agf1 #agi1 #dfj1 #ffh ,physiology1 #ade1 #cie1 #feg-fj ,pig1 #gf1 #he1 #afh1 #bai1 #cic1 #ehg1 #gbg1 #gbi1 #gfd1 #gff2 and see ,swine ,pill1 #gci ,pillow1 beneath one's1 #ij ,pine-tree1 #dij1 #dic ,piper1 #bag ,pirronius1 a magician1 #fjd ,piston1 #aib ,place1 observed in magic1 #fde ,plagiarism1 #ahf1 #dhc1 #fdi1 #gdb1 #gdf-g ,plague1 ,galen and1 #abd1 #adb1 #aga2 of #acdh ,a4 ,d41 #afd2 ,apollonius and1 #bei1 #cia2 of #edb ,a4 ,d41 #ege2 of ,egypt1 #cbe1 #ceg1 #dia1 #ebb1 #fhe1 #fhg1 #fif2 miscellaneous1 #daj1 #dcb1 #ech-i1 #fjj ,planetary week1 #af1 #eac1 #fcc ,planets1 when distinguished1 #ac-d1 #af2 properties of1 #ig1 #aac-d1 #cdf1 #chc1 #ebf1 #ebi1 #ffb1 #gaa2 in ,gnosticism1 #cfa2 in art1 #cgi2 and the metals1 #cdg1 #cfh1 #gji1 #gfc1 #gfg2 and herbs1 #bia2 position at creation1 #gaa1 #gac2 and formation of foetus1 see ,child-birth ,plate1 metal1 #bbi1 #chf1 #egb1 #ehb ,platonism1 #bba1 #bdc1 #def2 for ,plato see other index ,pleiades1 #agi1 #cee1 #fcf ,pleurisy1 #gch ,plough1 #hj ,pneumatics1 #ahh ,poetry1 #f1 #ie1 #eaa1 #ece ,poison and ,poisoning1 relation to magic1 #be1 #fa1 #dda2 to medicine1 #ef2 venomous human beings1 #cbd2 safeguards against1 #fg1 #gj-a1 #chf1 #fad1 and see ,antidote2 miscellaneous1 #ha1 #hf-g1 #bca-b1 #cig1 #dag1 #dfj1 #ece1 #efe1 #egb1 #egd1 #ffh1 #gba1 #gcc ,polar star1 #chd ,polion1 an herb1 #gg ,politics1 #ceh1 #fff ,pompholyx1 #acb ,pontianus1 #bbc-d ,pontiff1 #abd1 #adi ,pontus1 drugs from1 #hg1 #acb ,poplar1 #ij ,poppy1 bearing stones1 #baf ,population1 #acf ,pork1 #adb ,pot-herbs1 #fjf ,potter and ,pottery1 #chd1 #dcc1 #ehh-i ,praestigium1 #fcj1 #ffe ,praetor1 #ech ,prayer1 #ab1 #gi1 #ajd1 #bai1 #bcc1 #chb1 #cih1 #dab1 #dbc1 #dbf1 #ddc1 #deg1 #ecj-a1 #ehi1 #fde1 #fga1 #gje1 #gbh2 procuring answer to1 #gj1 #bid1 #eic1 #ggi2 by others than man1 #deg2 to others than ,god1 #bfj1 #bfd1 #cjc1 #ebf1 #eih-i1 #ffa2 of ,st4 ,john1 #gba2 and see ,lord's ,prayer1 ,incantation ,predestination1 #ead ,prefect1 #ebf ,pregnant stone1 #gdj ,presbyter1 #dcg ,prescription1 medical1 #aeb1 #aei1 #agb ,presentation1 literary and scientific1 #egj1 #eie1 #fbe ,prester1 ,john1 #dgg ,priest1 #i1 #ac1 #ae1 #ba1 #gi1 #he1 #aca1 #aie1 #aig1 #cjj1 #chf1 #ecc1 #ged1 #gfc1 #gff ,priscillianists1 #dgh1 #eai ,private parts1 #cdc1 #ecf ,procharus1 #cig ,proconsul1 #bce1 #ebg ,professions1 learned1 #e1 #abe-f1 #ahf-g1 #gdd ,prognostication1 medical1 #afd ,prophecy and ,prophet1 #be1 #gg1 #bje1 #bcj1 #ceb1 #cgj1 #dci1 #ddg1 #dei1 #dfe1 #dgf1 #dgi1 #ecd ,proteus1 #bfc ,psychology1 #ge1 #add-e1 #feg-fj ,ptah-,seker-,ausar1 #bcc ,ptolemais1 #eda ,ptolemy1 king of ,egypt1 #ace ,pulse1 #add-e1 #dcj1 #feh ,pump1 #ahg1 #aib ,punic1 #eig ,puppy1 see ,dog ,purging1 #ffg2 the lungs1 #adc ,purification1 #fb1 #bjd1 #bcb1 #dda1 #eca1 #eih ,purple1 #agc1 #aig-h1 #eij-a1 #fjd ,push-ball1 #dhg ,pylades1 #add-e ,pyrethrum1 an herb1 #fad ,pyrigoni1 #cbd ,pyrites1 #ega1 #gfh ,pyromancy1 #bfj1 #fbi ,pyrrhus1 #hc ,pytho1 #fbi ,pythagorean1 #bf1 #cb1 #ej1 #eh1 #fa1 #fc1 #fe-f1 #agi1 #ahd1 #bdc1 #beh1 #bfj1 #bhj1 #cgj1 #def1 #edd ,quail1 #dij ,quadrivium1 #fcb ,qualities1 the four1 #aad1 #aci-dj1 #aed1 #aeg1 #bah1 #dhe1 #gea1 #gee2 and see ,cold1 ,heat ,quartan fever1 #bfi1 #egi-ha1 #gcf ,quaternities1 divine1 #fgd ,quick-lime1 #dcd1 #ega ,quinsy1 #gg1 #hi ,quintus ,cicero1 #bfi;ff4 ,rabbi1 #cee1 #dde4 #dgj ,rabbit1 #ehh1 #gbi ,race1 #ahd1 #gha2 for strange races see ,hyperboreans1 ,seres1 etc4 ,radiation of force or light1 #fdc-f ,radish1 #gba ,rainbow1 #dji ,rain-making1 #bc-d1 #ajc1 #chf1 #dcj ,rain-water1 #ha-b ,ram1 #bac1 #ccb1 #dbd1 #dfg ,raphael1 the angel1 #cdb1 #cfg1 #ddg1 #deb1 #ded ,rat1 #gf ,ravenna1 #cfg1 #gfc ,raymond1 archbishop of ,toledo1 #feg ,reading1 medieval1 #fjd1 #fag-h ,reason1 #bah1 #ffj2 free from magic1 #cjj2 and experience1 #aeg ,red1 used1 #fe1 #eha1 #ejh1 #gdj ,red ,sea1 #hd1 #bjh ,redeemer1 #cfa1 #cfc1 #dch ,reed1 #ge-f1 #hj1 #ij1 #bae1 #eia1 #gbf ,reformed churches1 #ddg ,reggio1 #dde1 #gde ,relics of saints1 #ddd1 #ddf1 #eic1 #fge ,religion1 and magic1 #e-f1 #h-i1 #ae1 #ah1 #bj1 #bb-c1 #cc-d1 #fj1 #bcb1 #bef1 #eje1 #ecc2 and astrology1 #ae-g1 #ebd1 #ebi-ca2 and science1 #djg-h1 #dgi1 chap4 xxi2 other than ,christian1 #id1 #cfa1 #gbe1 and see ,mohammedanism1 ,paganism1 etc42 medieval religious attitude1 #gdf1 #geb2 and see ,christianity1 ,god1 ,theology1 ,trinity1 etc4 ,renaissance1 #bj1 #abb1 #egj1 #fah ,reseda1 an herb1 #ic ,respiration1 see ,breathing ,resurrection of the body1 #dg1 #dae1 #eda ,resuscitation of corpses1 #bhj1 #cia1 #cid1 #cig1 #dbd1 #dbf1 #fch1 #gfc ,revelation1 #ef1 #bec1 #djg2 and see ,divination by ,revolutions1 astrological1 #bf1 #cgg1 #fej ,rhetoric1 #abd1 #bba1 #bfi1 #dhc1 #eah1 #ecc1 #ece1 #eee1 #eif1 #fjc1 #gjj ,rhodes1 #bfi1 #cja ,rhododendron1 #age ,rhubarb1 first mention of1 #egf ,riddles1 #fcf ,right hand1 etc41 used or preferred1 #gj1 #gh1 #ha1 #hc1 #hh1 #ij1 #ib1 #cbd-e1 #ccb1 #egd1 #ehj-a1 #eia-b1 #gfg ,ring1 #fi1 #gh1 #agc1 #bai1 #bea1 #bec1 #bhj1 #bib1 #cgi1 #efd1 #ehb1 #eij1 #eib1 #eii1 #fef1 #ffb1 #gje1 #gee ,ring-worm1 #ic ,rip van ,winkle1 #cii ,ritual1 #ab1 #bc2 and see ,ceremonial ,roads1 ,roman1 #ace-f ,robber1 #aag ,robert1 king of ,france1 #fgb1 #gjd1 #gcf ,robert ,guiscard1 #gde ,romance1 ,greek1 #bb1 #bba1 #bcb1 #eec2 ,medieval1 #eeg ,romanesque1 #ejb ,romans1 traits of1 #ahd ,rome1 as center of learning1 #abd1 #abh-ca1 #ace1 #afb1 #bja1 #bbb1 #bdb1 #bfi1 #bgg1 #ecg1 #ehf1 #gda2 other mentions1 #bji1 #bcj1 #cff1 #cgb1 #djc1 #djh1 #dba1 #dbc-d1 #dfd1 #eec ,romulus1 #bji1 #bgd1 #ccj1 #fjb ,root1 see ,herb ,rose1 #bcj1 #gea2 wild1 #ef ,royal ,society1 #bad ,rubbing1 #adb ,ruddy complexion1 #gfh-ga ,rue1 #gcg2 eaten by weasel1 #gd1 #cbd1 #fbf ,ruin1 excavated1 #gfb ,russet1 #hi ,rust1 #gff ,rustic1 experience1 #egh1 #ehe ,sabaoth1 #cfe1 #cfg1 #cgi1 #dea1 #ehc1 #eii ,sabbath1 #bjd1 #eac ,sabians1 #ffa-c ,sacerdos1 #bce ,sacra ,via1 #abe1 #acc1 #dbd ,sacrifice1 #fh1 #gi1 #ajd1 #aca1 #aff1 #bae1 #bdh1 #bej-a1 #bfa1 #bid-e1 #cjh-i1 #cag1 #cfc1 #dad1 #dca1 #fde1 #ffa-c1 #gje2 human1 #fb1 #bjg1 #bdi1 #dah1 #eci1 #fhg ,sacrum amarum1 #gci ,saffron1 #fef1 #gfe ,sagmina1 sacred herbs1 #gf ,st4 ,gall1 #fdj1 #fgg ,st4 ,sophia1 #ege1 #ggj ,sakkara1 #i ,salamander1 #ed1 #fh1 #he1 #bad1 #cbd1 #eaa1 #fcf2 8wool10 #bad ,salerno1 chaps4 xxxi1 xxxii ,salisatores1 #fcj ,saliva1 #bj1 #hb1 #hh-i1 #ib-c1 #agd1 #bha1 #cgc1 #cib1 #egc1 #ehh1 #eib1 #fef1 #gfi ,salmon1 #dbd ,salt1 #bac1 #cgc1 #dfg1 #ehc1 #fgj2 and see ,holy1 ,sodom ,saltus ,gilberti1 #gje ,salve1 #hg1 #fjf1 #gbb ,salvia1 #gci ,samaria1 #cfc-d1 #cfh1 #dba ,samothracian orgies1 #adi ,samuel1 ghost of1 see ,endor1 witch of ,sandal-,makers1 street of1 #acd ,sandals1 #bcj ,sandastros1 a gem1 #ig ,sapphire1 #dif1 #ggi ,saracen1 #ach1 #gah ,sarcophagus1 #dgf ,sard1 #ggg ,sardinia1 #cbi ,sardis1 #bee ,sardonia1 an herb1 #cbi ,sardonic laugh1 #cbi ,satire1 #bhe ,saturn1 god1 #bjg2 planet1 #ig1 #ahd1 #ehj1 #fcc1 #gfh ,saturninus1 a heretic1 #cgb ,satyr1 #bfc-d1 #edf ,saul1 #ddh1 #dfi ,scarab1 #aj1 #fh1 #ccc ,scarification1 #gba ,scepticism1 see ,credulity and ,sciatica1 #fi ,scientific spirit1 curiosity1 etc41 #add1 #bcd1 #cjh1 #cgh-i1 #dcg1 #dhe-f1 #did1 #ejb-d1 #ebh1 #ece1 #eei1 #ffi1 #geb2 and see ,experiment1 ,observation ,scipio ,orfitus1 #bbc ,scorpion1 #gd1 #ha1 #he-h1 #aga1 #agd1 #did1 #egc1 #ehc1 #fef1 #fff ,scotland1 #fed ,scrofula1 #hb1 #hi1 #ia1 #ehg ,sculpture1 #bgg1 #eja ,scylla1 the monster1 #bfc1 #fcf2 an herb1 #ebf ,scythian1 #ei1 #gg1 #bde1 #djg1 #dif1 #fed ,sea1 #bbe1 #gch2 and see ,bath ,sea-calf1 #ehj2 faring1 #bde2 foam1 #dfh2 gull1 #aei2 hare1 #aga1 #bcf1 #bch1 #ehg2 holly1 #bac2 serpent1 #cbe1 #egd2 star1 #hi2 urchin1 #fh1 #dij-a ,seal of ,diana1 #acj ,sealing1 #fi1 #bgh1 #dfh ,seasons1 four1 #aad ,secrecy1 #aid1 #bbg1 #bcc1 #bci1 #bed1 #bhg1 #bie1 #cgb1 #dje1 #dbj1 #egi1 #gfe1 #ggf ,seed1 #fje2 seedless herbs1 #dhi ,seia1 #eii ,selene1 #bae ,selenomancy1 #ih ,semen1 #cfi ,semitic1 #ae ,semo ,sancus1 #dba ,senecion1 an herb1 #fad ,sense and ,senses1 #aej1 #aeh1 #ahj1 #cee ,sepia1 #hg ,septimius ,severus1 emperor1 #bdc1 #bec1 #bic2 and see ,severi ,septizonium1 #bec ,serapis1 #cgi1 #ddb1 #gfc ,seres1 #cgf1 #djb1 #dab-d ,serf and ,servant1 #gci2 and see ,colonus2 ,slavery ,sermon1 #dbf1 #dhb;ff4 ,serpent1 lifted up in the wilderness1 #cgi2 and see ,snake1 ,dragon1 ,sea-serpent ,sesame1 #fee ,sethians1 #cfe ,sethos1 #ad ,seven1 #ad1 #af1 #di1 #fg1 #fi1 #afi1 #agi1 #aih1 #bab1 #bcb1 #bec1 #beh1 #bgi1 #bhb1 #cah1 #ccc1 #cdf1 #cee-f1 #cfe1 #cga1 #cgc1 #cgf1 #cgh1 #chc1 #che1 #daa1 #dbi1 #dce1 #dia1 #ebb1 #ecg1 #ede1 #eha1 #eij1 #eib1 #eii1 #fcc1 #fgf1 #gbd1 #gga1 #ggg ,seven sleepers1 #gbe1 #gei ,severi1 dynasty of1 #abe1 #acj2 and see ,septimius ,svres1 #gfb ,sex1 observed in magic1 #fi1 #gh1 #hj-b1 #id1 #gbi1 #gei2 of hyena1 #cig2 of herbs and stones1 #ha1 #gfd2 of numbers1 #agi1 #cga2 of planets and signs1 #bhb1 #ffb1 #gji-ab2 predicted1 #age-f1 #eaf2 intercourse1 #ada1 #fci1 #gfg ,shadow1 #fje ,shadow-footed1 #bef ,shark1 #did ,shaving the head1 #adb1 #efj1 #gbd ,sheba1 #dgi ,sheep1 #fh1 #ajb1 #afh1 #agc1 #bai1 #dfg1 #dij1 #ehb1 #fef2 the lost1 #cfc2 and see ,lamb1 ,ram1 ,shepherd1 ,pastoral ,shellfish1 #ih1 #eag ,shepherd1 #dgh ,ship1 #fjd2 wreck1 #gdh ,shirt1 #eha ,shoe1 #fch ,short-hand1 #acd1 #bcb ,showbread1 #che ,sibyl1 #edf2 for ,sibylline books see other index ,sicily1 #he1 #dbg1 #ebe ,sideritis1 a stone1 #bie ,sieve1 #ia1 #bej1 #cbe ,signatures1 #caj ,sign1 see ,abbreviation1 ,divination1 ,prognostication1 ,sex predicted1 ,star1 ,zodiac ,silence observed1 #gbb ,silas1 #ddi ,silk1 #fjh ,silvanus1 #edf ,silver1 #eij1 #eii ,similarity1 argument from1 #bch1 #fad2 and see ,like cures like ,simon the ,canaanite1 #cib ,simon ,magus1 chap4 xvii1 #cfb-e1 #cig1 #dci ,simon1 ,st41 #dce ,simples1 medicinal1 in ,pliny1 #df1 #hc2 ,galen1 #abh1 #aec1 #afj1 #afh1 #ega ,sin1 #cdd1 #cgb-e1 #dcj1 #deg1 #ebj2 effect on nature1 #bed1 #cde1 #cej1 #dji-aj1 #dij ,sinew1 #fh1 #adh ,siphon1 #ahi1 #aia ,siren1 #bfc ,sisebut1 king1 #fbc ,sisinnios1 #cih ,six1 #ahd1 #cef1 #eba ,sixtus ,,iv1 pope1 #cdi1 #eif ,skeleton1 #bcc ,skin1 #ada1 #gfi2 changing one's1 #agj1 #bch1 #cbd2 disease1 #ajb1 #ecg2 see ,animals1 parts of2 and the names of particular animals for the use of their skins ,skull1 #hj1 #ehj ,sky1 see ,heaven ,slav1 #feh ,slavery1 #acf1 #agj1 #cej1 #eae1 #ffh1 #fhc ,slavonic1 #cdb1 #cde1 #cih ,sleep1 magic1 #cii ,sleight-of-hand1 #cgj ,slot-machine1 #aig ,smallpox1 #ffh ,smilax1 #ib ,smoke1 #hi1 #fae ,smyrna1 #abc ,snail1 #hi1 #ib1 #ehf ,snake1 remedies against1 #hd-i1 #ii1 #age1 #beh1 #bie1 #cfe1 #chf1 #cib1 #die1 #eii1 #fad2 animals antipathetic to1 #hd-e1 #ii1 #bca2 virtue in1 #bc1 #afh1 #aig2 of ,india1 #bad1 #efd2 ,satan and demons as1 #cfe1 #cia1 #dcj2 charming1 #hc1 #bgh-hj1 #cbe1 #eaa1 #efa-b1 #fch-i2 sting and venom of1 #ef1 #ha-b1 #ajb2 foam of1 #fg2 sloughing of1 #agj2 not found in ,ismuc1 #ahc2 at ,delphi1 #bhc2 on a pendant1 #cja2 medical knowledge of1 #dda2 and see ,fennel1 tasted by ,sneeze1 divination from1 #ie1 #bje1 #bjg ,social aspect of magic1 #ei2 life in antiquity1 #acg1 #ahe ,socrates1 #acg1 #aci1 #bjd1 #bcd1 #bdj1 #bgj1 #bhh1 #ecb ,soda1 washing1 #ega ,sodom1 salts of1 #ach ,soldier1 #ef-g ,solemnity1 required in magic1 #fdd-f ,solon1 #cbf1 #cee ,son of ,god1 #cgb1 #dch ,soot1 #bcf ,sopater1 #cac ,sophist and ,sophistry1 #edj-a ,soporific1 #geh ,sorcery1 #aj1 #be1 #fa1 #if1 #aff1 #bgj1 #bgi1 #cbd1 #cdd1 #ceb1 #chf1 #cij1 #cic1 #dcg-h1 #dda1 #fee1 #fij1 #gcc2 counter-magic against1 #ag-bj1 #gj1 #ha1 #id1 #cja1 #cia1 #fjj2 and see ,goetia1 ,witchcraft ,sortilegi1 #fcj ,sory1 #acb ,soul1 human1 ,plato on1 #be-f2 ,pliny1 #dg1 #if2 ,galen1 #aej1 #agh1 #ahj2 ,plutarch1 #bjf-g1 #bac1 #bag2 ,neo-,platonists1 #cji-aj1 #cah2 ,gnostics1 #cfd2 location of1 #gce2 apart from body1 #cii1 #dah1 #dee1 #eaj1 #edf2 immortality of1 #daf1 #dai1 #dfi1 #eca1 #eda2 other than human1 #aih1 #bac2 and see ,world-soul ,sound1 #adc1 #bja1 #dcj1 #edb ,sousnyos1 ,st41 #cih ,spain1 #chj1 #dcc1 #dhi1 #ehj1 #eig1 #fjg ,spanish era1 #ggc ,sparrow1 #bga ,sparta and ,spartan1 #ba-b1 #baf1 #cja ,species1 #cjd1 #dic1 #gea ,speech1 impediment of1 #ecf ,sphaera barbarica1 #ecg ,sphere1 see ,earth1 ,universe1 and other index ,spice1 #bej1 #beg1 #bie1 #fjf ,spider1 #ij1 #id1 #afh-i1 #aga1 #age1 #ehg ,spinal cord1 #adf ,spirit1 good or evil 7including angel and demon1 but see also ,apparition1 ,ghost1 ,necromancy1 ,soul71 in early ,arabic poetry1 #f2 in the ancient orient1 #aa1 #ae1 #ah-i1 #bd2 classical ,greece1 #bd1 #bf1 #ahj-a2 on nature of1 ,plutarch1 #bjc-d1 #bjf-h2 ,apuleius1 #bdj2 ,philostratus1 #bfc-d2 ,iamblichus1 #cji-aj2 ,enoch1 #cdc2 ,origen and ,celsus1 #dda-c1 #deb-c2 ,augustine1 #ejh2 ,martianus ,capella1 #ede-f2 ,dionysius the ,areopagite1 #edf-g2 ,christian ascription of other religions to demons1 #cgj1 #dad1 #dbi;ff41 #ddb1 #dec2 disease and1 #aa1 #ah-i1 #bii1 #cdc1 #deb1 #gbb2 expulsion of1 and power over1 #bec1 #bfb1 #chf1 #dje1 #dad1 #dag-h1 #dda1 #ddc1 #ged1 #ggi1 and see ,exorcism2 fall of1 #cdc1 #cgd-e2 familiar and guardian1 #bjg1 #baj1 #cfh1 #cgj2 in the air1 #bjf1 #bdj1 #dbd1 #dfc1 #ejh1 #fce2 in heavens and stars1 chap4 xv1 #cdc1 #cig1 #dca1 #deh1 #dhg-h1 #eai2 in the moon1 #bjg2 in nature1 #aha1 #bif1 #cjh1 #caj1 #cdg1 #chb1 #dad1 #dcj1 #ddc1 #deb-d1 #edc2 invocation of1 #cja1 #cjh1 #caj1 #cbj1 #cfa1 #cfg-h1 #cga-b1 #chd1 #dai1 #dcg1 #ddb1 #ddg1 #ddi-eb1 #edc1 #fee1 #fgd1 and see ,necromancy1 ,notory art2 magic1 astrology1 arts and sciences ascribed to1 #aie1 #bdj1 #cac1 #cdc1 #cfh1 #cgj1 #dab1 #dad1 #dag-h1 #dbb1 #dbi-cb1 #dda-c1 #ddg-h1 #dec1 #deh-i1 #dfc1 #dfe-f1 #ejf-g1 #eji1 #eac1 #eah1 #fbi1 #fge1 #gje2 mediums between ,god or gods and men1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bdj1 #cdi1 #deb-d1 #dei1 #fba1 #fge2 orders of1 #cjh-i1 #cbj1 #cfc1 #djh1 #dee1 #ejg1 #ede-g1 #gbg2 possessed by1 #cjh1 #cib1 #dac-d1 #dcd1 #eaj1 #fdj1 #gbc-d1 #ged-e2 safeguards against1 #ah1 #baf1 #bic1 #cia1 #cih1 #ddi1 #fae1 #gbf1 #gbh ,spiritus1 #adg1 #feh-fj ,spit1 see ,saliva ,spleen1 #eg1 #fh-i1 #he1 #ecf1 #egg1 #egi1 #ehd1 #ehg-h1 #eia ,spodium or ,spodos1 #acb ,sponge1 #bbg ,spoon1 #gba ,spring1 water #bbi2 caused to flow1 #gfi2 and see ,fountain1 ,seasons ,staff1 #beb1 #dce1 #fgi ,stag1 #hd1 #bjg1 #bid1 #cbd2 and see ,deer ,stained glass1 #dbg1 #dce1 #ggj ,stans1 the1 #dae ,star1 nature of1 god or animal1 etc41 #be-f1 #ajc1 #bjf1 #baj1 #bab1 #bdj1 #cjc1 #cae1 #cdc-d1 #cec1 #dcf1 #def1 #eai-ba1 #ecj1 #fbj-a1 #fcb1 #ffb1 #fgj2 as sign1 #cjb1 #daj1 #deh1 #edd2 not cause of evil1 #cje1 #ced1 #dge1 #ead2 cause of evil1 #daa2 affected by magic1 #bbe-f2 shooting1 #ga1 #ehi2 fixed1 #aad2 and see ,astrology2 ,christ1 birth of2 ,magi ,star-fish1 #ef ,starling1 #dij ,statue1 #ia1 #bgi1 #bhj1 #gfd2 healing1 #bhd2 animated1 #ahh1 #daf-g1 #dbd1 #dce2 and see ,image1 ,sculpture ,steam1 #aib ,stele of ,metternich1 #eei ,stepmother1 #bae ,stoic1 #ej1 #ada1 #agh-ha1 #baj1 #bfi-gj1 #bhc1 #cej1 #cig1 #def ,stomach1 #ib1 #agc1 #ecf1 #eib1 #fef1 #geg ,stone1 the disease1 #hg1 #ehh1 #gbi2 and see ,gem ,stoning to death1 #bfb1 #cii ,storax1 a gum1 #die ,stork1 #beg1 #cbd-e1 #cca1 #dfj1 #ehj ,storm-averting magic1 #ga1 #hj1 #ib1 #ajb1 #beb1 #cac ,stream1 #ia1 #bbe-f1 #edf2 and see ,fountain ,stupa1 #bea1 #dac ,style1 literary1 #bbb-c1 #ebe1 #egj1 #fbj ,styx1 river1 #cbf ,suanir1 #dce ,suffumigation1 see ,fumigation ,suggestion1 force of1 #bfe ,sulla1 #ecb ,sulphur1 #bgi1 #gfd ,sumerian1 #ae1 #ag ,summun bonum1 #geb ,sun1 god and worship1 #ig1 #bea1 #bfa1 #bid-e1 #cag-h1 #chb1 #dib1 #ebd2 personified1 #cdg1 #daj1 #deg1 #ebi2 and magic1 #ada1 #bbe-g1 #cjh1 #chf2 astrological influence of1 #ii1 #agi1 #baa2 rising and dawn1 #bae1 #bcj-a1 #bef1 #bfa2 before sunrise1 #fi1 #ga1 #gh1 #ia1 #id1 #aca1 #agc1 #bha1 #ehc1 #eii1 #gfh2 before sunset1 #ehc2 experiment with1 #ee2 dial1 #ahe1 #ahg2 distance and size of1 #bai1 #dhh2 tropical1 #bad2 tree of1 #efd ,superstition1 ,plutarch on1 #bjc-d2 in medicine1 chaps4 xxv1 xxxi ,surgery1 #adh-i1 #ecf1 #efi1 #ffh1 #gbc1 #gce ,suriel1 a spirit1 #cfg ,swaddling cloth1 #cib1 #cif ,swallow1 habits of1 #ge1 #cbd1 #fae1 #fcf2 use of1 #fh1 #gj1 #afh1 #age1 #eha1 #gba ,swallow-stone1 #gee1 #gff ,swallow-wort1 #ge1 #fae1 #fbf ,swan1 #fcf2 song1 #bee1 #ccb ,sweat1 #afg1 #cib1 #gfg1 #ggi ,swine1 #gj1 #gg1 #gi1 #ii1 #bag2 and see ,pig ,sword1 #gh1 #bie2 magic #beh ,sylvia1 #djd ,symbol and ,symbolism1 #aff1 #bea1 #caj1 #cfa1 #cfg1 #ejb1 #ejf1 #edf1 #fgf-g1 #fgi1 #gba2 in alchemy1 #gff-g1 #gga-b ,sympathetic magic1 #fh1 #hd-g1 #ib1 #bch1 #bga1 #bif1 #bii1 #cjd1 #cab1 #cad1 #cbj1 #ced1 #edb-c1 #fad ,symposium1 #acg1 #bja-b ,symptoms1 #gce ,syncretism1 #ebe ,synod at ,rome1 #chi1 #djb ,syracuse1 #dgf ,syria1 ,syriac1 and ,syrian1 #bhj1 #cgd1 #chg1 #cie1 #djc-d1 #dbb1 #dcg1 #dig1 #dii1 #ejc1 #eed1 #eei-fa1 #egg1 #eig1 #fja1 #ffa1 #ffc1 #gdg1 #gfb ,syrian goddess1 #bca ,syringe1 #aib ,syrup1 #efj ,tablecloth1 #bad ,tables1 astronomical1 #ad2 of contents1 #ej1 #aec4 ,tablet1 astrological1 #efj1 #efc2 and see ,cuneiform1 ,lead ,taboo1 #ba2 and see ,iron ,tagus1 #fcj ,tamarisk1 #he1 #ehg ,tape-worm1 first mentioned1 #egf ,tarpeian rock1 #dbf ,tarquin the ,proud1 #fjb ,tarrutius1 an astrologer1 #bji1 #ccj ,tarsus1 #bei1 #dgi ,taste1 sense of1 #eje ,taxo1 #fjj1 #fcf ,teiresias1 #bha ,telines1 #ba ,temperaments1 four1 #ffh ,temple1 #ecc2 of ,peace1 #abe2 devices1 #aib-c2 in alchemy1 #aig-h1 #gfc2 ,egyptian1 #bfa1 #cja1 #eei2 ,jewish1 #cie2 ,greek1 #djg2 of the ,sun1 #dce2 of ,liber1 #dif2 ,christian1 #ecc ,terebinth-tree1 #ega ,terra sigillata1 #acj-b1 #aed1 #gef ,tetter1 #ic ,textbook1 #fce ,text and ,textual criticism and history1 magic1 #i2 cuneiform1 #ae1 #ag-h2 classics1 #ba1 #bg2 ,aristotle1 #bd1 #bg2 ,pliny1 #eb2 ,ptolemy1 #ajf1 #ajh2 ,galen1 #aai-ba2 ,hero1 #ahi2 alchemy1 #aic2 ,plutarch1 #bjb2 ,aelian1 #cbb2 ,philo1 #cdh-i2 patristic1 #cgd1 #cgg1 #chi1 #dja-f1 #dgg1 #die2 ,physiologus1 #dig-i2 ,alexander legend1 chap4 xxiv2 ,medicine of ,pliny1 #eif2 ,dioscorides1 #eid1 #fjf-ac2 medicine1 #efg1 #gca2 ,isidore1 #fbc2 medieval alterations1 #c1 #cch1 #fhc1 #gbj ,thaphtabaoth1 a spirit1 #cfi ,thaumaturgy1 #aij ,thautabaoth1 a spirit1 #cfg ,theater1 #ahd1 #dbb1 #dbe1 #dhf1 #ejf1 #eab ,thebes and ,theban1 #agi1 #dia1 #eec1 #gfe ,theft1 discovery of1 and recovery of object1 #fdd1 #fff1 #fha1 #gah1 #gbe2 aids1 #ghj ,theodamas1 #bid ,theodoric the ,east ,goth1 #efi1 #fag1 #fai ,theodosius ,i1 emperor1 #ehd ,theodosius ,,ii1 emperor1 #cbg ,theology1 astral1 #ae1 #ag1 #cfj-a1 #edc1 #fba2 and magic1 #ah1 #bcd2 ,galen1 #adi2 ,egyptian1 #cgj2 attitude shown1 #fai-bj ,therapeutae1 #cdi1 #cef ,therapeutics1 #aj1 #abb1 #ada1 #gce ,theriac1 #acj1 #gcc1 #gef ,thersites1 #bfi ,thessaly1 home of witches1 #eh1 #bjc1 #bbf ,theurgy1 chap4 xi1 #eje1 #ece ,thomas the apostle1 in ,india1 #dge1 #dgg ,thoth1 #bhh ,thotmes ,,iv1 king of ,egypt1 #ac ,thought1 history of1 #c-d2 explained physiologically1 #fei ,thread1 #hi1 #eij1 #fef ,three1 ,thrice1 etc41 #fi1 #gi1 #hb1 #hh-i1 #ia1 #ic1 #afi1 #agd1 #bie1 #dgf1 #dgi1 #ehb1 #ehh-i1 #eib1 #fad1 #fef1 #gba1 #gcj1 #gcf1 #gfg ,threshold1 #fi1 #hi ,throat1 disease of1 #hb ,thunder1 divination from1 #eg1 #if1 #bfb1 #edf1 #efb1 #fbi1 #fce-f1 #fgd1 #fgi2 other observance of1 #gh2 thought to produce mushrooms1 #bai2 stage1 #dfh ,thyme1 #ega ,tiberius1 emperor1 #ei1 #ggf ,tick1 #fg ,tide1 #bed1 #bgd1 #cea1 #eag1 #ecj1 #gjc ,tigellinus1 #bei1 #bfc1 #bfe ,tiger1 #bef1 #ejb ,tigris-,euphrates1 #ac-f1 #bha-b ,ti'i1 #ah ,time1 devices for telling1 #aae1 #add1 #ahg1 #bgf1 #ccc1 #cie2 observed in magic1 #fde ,titus1 emperor1 #db1 #de ,toad1 #gga ,tobias nights1 #fhh ,toledo1 #feg ,tomb1 ,egyptian1 #i1 #ad ,tongue1 #ih1 #aej2 use of1 #age1 #gbf1 #ggi2 gift of1 #bjh1 #chf ,tooth1 #fh1 #hb1 #hd1 #aei1 #bgi1 #eii1 #fjj1 #fef1 #gfi2 extracting1 filling1 etc41 #age1 #egc1 #ggi ,toothache1 cures for1 #ef1 #fh1 #hh-ij1 #afi1 #age1 #egg1 #ehh-i1 #eib1 #eii1 #fad1 #gbd1 #gbg1 #gee ,toothpowder1 #bcf ,topaz1 #die ,top1 spinning1 #dhg ,torpedo1 #aei ,tortoise1 #fh1 #gd1 #gf1 #hh1 #ia1 #cbe1 #fbf1 #gfd ,torture1 #cha1 #ech ,touch1 #cbd ,tower1 of ,babylon1 #af ,trade1 #dhf1 #did2 and see ,merchant1 ,business ,tradition1 see ,authority1 ,legend1 ,textual history ,trajan1 emperor1 #ace1 #cgc ,transfer1 magic1 see ,disease ,transformation1 magic1 #ba1 #bc1 #bbf1 #bej1 #bhj1 #cij1 #cic1 #cii1 #dae-g1 #dbd1 #ddf1 #dgj1 #eji1 #efa-b1 #fcj1 #ggc2 and see ,werwolf ,translation1 ,latin1 of ,ptolemy1 #ajf1 #aji-aj2 ,galen1 #aba1 #agf2 ,hero1 #ahi2 church fathers1 #dde1 #dhd2 post-classical and early medieval1 #egj1 #egf1 #fai1 chap4 xxiv2 from the ,arabic1 #faa1 #fij-a1 chaps4 xxviii1 xxx1 xxxii2 pretended1 #bib2 ,anglo-,saxon1 #fch2 other vernacular1 #dih1 #fab1 #fgg1 #ggh2 ,greek1 #cca1 #cdb1 #fcg2 magic1 #dcj2 ,arabic1 #ajf1 #ahi1 #bib1 #dih1 #eed1 #fjg1 #feb-c ,travel1 #ege1 #ffh1 #gdc ,tree1 #bee2 of knowledge1 #cfg1 #dgd2 of life1 #cej2 sun and moon1 #dgd ,trial1 for heresy or magic1 ,apuleius1 #bbb1 #bcb-dj2 ,apollonius1 #bdi2 ,priscillian1 #cha2 ,basilius1 #fci ,triangle1 #bjf1 #cef ,trigona1 ,trigones1 or ,triplicitates1 #aad1 #ahd ,trigonometry1 #ajg ,trinity1 #dgi1 #eda1 #fai-bj ,triptolemus1 #edf ,trivia1 #bcf ,trojan war1 #bfj1 #bga1 #bid1 #cfc ,trophonius1 cave of1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bdh1 #bhb ,truth1 devotion to1 #djj2 ,galen1 #aah-i1 #abc1 #abg2 ,plotinus1 #cjj2 ,plain of1 #baa2 ,simon's ,helen and1 #cfd-e ,tube1 hidden1 #dfi ,tbingen theory1 #dbc ,tumor1 #ga1 #hb1 #ic1 #ega1 #ehg1 #eij1 #eii ,tunis1 #gdd ,tunny fish1 #bah ,turpentine1 #acb ,tuscan1 #eih ,tutia1 #acb ,twelve1 #ad1 #chc1 #che1 #daa1 #die ,twins1 #ha2 argument from1 against astrology1 #bgc1 #bge1 #ead ,typhon1 #dfc1 #eeh ,tyriac1 see ,theriac ,ulcer1 #ehj1 #ggi ,underground1 magic learned1 #bhj2 and see ,burial ,underwear1 #chf1 #eha ,underworld1 #af1 #bea1 #bhb1 #chc1 #dgj ,unguent1 #ee1 #abh-cj1 #acc1 #adb1 #afi1 #bbi1 #cfg1 #dbj1 #gci1 #gee ,unicorn1 #bee1 #fcf ,universals and particulars1 #fbb ,universe1 theories of1 #ahj-a1 #aic1 #baj1 #bed1 #cab1 #cfa-d1 #cga1 #cig2 duration of1 #cgd-f1 #eda2 sphericity of1 #djh ,urine1 use of1 #ha-c1 #cbe1 #egc1 #eha1 #fdj1 #fhd1 #gcg1 #gdf1 #gfc1 #gff-i2 emission of1 #fi1 #gci1 #gef ,ursa ,major1 #cee ,utensils1 #fbd ,vacuum1 #ahi1 #ffi ,valentinus the ,gnostic1 #cfd1 #cgd1 #daa1 #dhh ,valve1 #aib2 in brain1 #fei ,vampire1 see ,empousa1 ,lamia ,vapor1 #ada ,vaporization1 #gbd ,vascular system1 #cj ,vases1 ,greek1 #bff1 #ggj ,vein1 #adg1 #egf1 #gbh ,venesection1 see ,bleeding ,ventriloquism1 #ceb1 #ddh1 #dgj1 #efj2 and see ,endor1 witch of ,venus1 goddess1 #bcf2 planet1 #if-g ,verbena1 an herb1 #ff1 #gf1 #fad1 #gbe ,vernacular literature1 #c2 and see ,translation ,verus1 ,l41 emperor1 #abd ,vervain1 see ,verbena ,vespasian1 emperor1 #bec ,vesuvius1 ,mt41 #de ,veterinary1 #eic1 #gbb1 #gbd1 #gcj ,vinegar1 #eg1 #ga1 #afi1 #age1 #gfh ,vineyard1 #fjd ,violet1 #gea ,viper1 use of1 #ia1 #adb1 #aei1 #agj1 #agc1 #bah1 #bid1 #cca1 #egb1 and see ,theriac2 remedy against1 #bac1 #dij1 #gba2 mode of generation1 #agb1 #bch1 #bee1 #bgg1 #cbc1 #dji1 #dia ,virgin and ,virginity1 #ee1 #hc1 #ij1 #ic1 #baf1 #bgi1 #cbf1 #dca1 #dia1 #fci1 #gfc2 and see ,chastity1 and ,mary1 ,virgin ,virtue1 see ,occult ,virtues1 three1 #dgi2 four1 #fge ,vision1 theory of1 #fei1 #ffi ,vitriol1 #gfd ,vivisection1 #adg ,voice1 #acd1 #adf1 #ahj1 #ahd ,volcano1 #bed ,vowels1 #ib1 #cef1 #cga1 #cgi ,vulture1 #hi1 #ccc1 #ehj1 #gbd1 #gbf1 #gbi ,wall1 of house1 #fi ,wand1 magic1 #bj1 #beb1 #ejh1 #efj ,war and ,warfare1 #ahg1 #ceh2 decried1 #f1 #df-g1 #abb ,warts1 to get rid of1 #ga1 #hh1 #aff1 #ehi1 #gcg ,washing1 ceremonial1 #bie1 #gcj ,wasp1 #ccb ,water1 and ,waters1 #adb1 #cgc1 #djh1 #dij2 above the firmament1 #aha1 #cdf1 #deh1 #dhg1 #fcb2 drinking1 #fhe2 dissolves magic1 #bbg1 #gbb2 in which feet washed1 #age2 marvelous1 medical1 and chemical1 #ajb1 #ahc1 #aig1 #cbi1 #gfc2 -jar and -works1 #ahg1 #aia-b2 clock1 see ,time2 underground1 #ee2 and see ,fountain1 ,holy1 ,stream1 ,sea1 etc4 ,wave theory1 see ,sound ,wax1 #ga1 #bbi1 #dfg-h1 #ega1 #gch2 and see ,image ,weasel1 #hj1 #bca1 #cca1 #cif1 #dji1 #dfj1 #fcf2 and see ,rue1 tasted by ,weather1 observed1 #agh2 predicted1 #ig1 #aae1 #aha1 #ahe1 #bca1 #cbe1 #dfc1 #fje1 #fdb1 #fdg2 and see ,rain-making1 ,storm-averting magic ,well1 #ee1 #bea1 #bga ,werwolf1 #bc1 #ea1 #cci ,whale1 #di ,wheat1 #cgc1 #eih ,wheel1 #aib1 #chb2 magic or solar1 #bff2 of fortune1 #fhc ,whetstone1 #ga ,white1 #gh-i1 #bae1 #bie1 #gee ,widow1 #ga ,will1 free1 relation to fate and the stars1 #baj1 #bge-f1 #cjf1 #cae1 #cgd-e1 #dab1 #def1 #dge1 #eac1 #eah1 #eca1 #fbj-b ,william ,rufus1 king of ,england1 #fgc ,wind1 #af1 #gh1 #cgc1 #fgf1 #fgh1 #gbh ,wine1 #ee1 #fh-i1 #acb1 #acg1 #adb1 #bca1 #bfc1 #bie1 #egb1 #eha1 #fje-f1 #gba1 #gci1 #gfe2 and see ,falernian ,witch1 ,witchcraft1 and ,wizard1 #b1 #ah-i1 #afd1 #agb1 #bjc1 #bbe-ca1 #bea1 #cdd1 #cgc1 #djg1 #ece1 #eii1 #gbb2 and see ,goetia1 ,old-wives1 ,sorcery ,wolf1 #hj1 #ic1 #agb1 #bai1 #ccb1 #ehg-h1 #fef1 #gbf2 and see ,werwolf ,woman1 #cif1 #ehh1 #gaj1 #gdj-a2 diseases of1 #hb1 #adb1 #bhi1 #ecf1 #gdf ,wood1 #bcc ,woodpecker1 #bc1 #gh ,wool1 #hi1 #agc1 #eij1 #fef ,words1 power of1 #aj1 #bd1 #aeb1 #bjg1 #bca1 #bci1 #bgi1 #bii1 #caa1 #cgj1 #cgh1 #chd1 #dad1 #dbb-ca1 #dch1 #dde1 #ddi-eb1 #dgf1 #ejg1 #efa-b1 #fje1 #fbg1 #fdd1 #fff2 and see ,incantation ,world-soul1 #if1 #aej1 #baj1 #bed1 #bii1 #cjc1 #cdi1 #ceh1 #daj1 #edd1 #fbb ,worm1 #hi1 #id1 #ehb1 #gbi1 #ged1 #gfh2 and see ,earthworm1 ,tape-worm ,wormwood1 #gbb ,writing1 a sin1 #cdd2 invisible1 #bfe ,wryneck1 #bfe-g ,yahweh1 #ddf ,year #ajjj ,a4 ,d41 #fge ,yew1 #ha ,york1 #fhi ,youth1 renewed or perpetual1 see ,elixir1 ,fountain1 ,longevity ,zeus1 #bc1 #aic1 #bhd1 #chj ,zodiac1 #ad1 #af1 #if1 #ih1 #aad1 #agi1 #ahd1 #bhc1 #ced1 #cgh1 #dib1 #ebj1 #fgi1 #gaa1 #gbh2 and parts of human body1 #ffb1 #fgc-d1 #ggg ,zoology1 #bcg1 #ejc2 and see ,animal ,zone1 #cgf ,,bibliographical ,,index ,names of authors1 editors1 translators1 publishers1 etc41 in ,roman type4 ,titles and periodicals in italics4 ,leading passages in italics4 ,bibliographical abbreviations1 such as ,,eb1 ,,hl1 ,,pg1 ,,pl1 are as a rule not indexed4 ,in the abbreviated titles such opening words as ,de and ,liber are omitted to facilitate alphabetical arrangement4 ,in proper names ,de and ,von are usually designated by d4 and v41 and are treated as initials4 ,abammon1 #cjg ,abano1 ,peter of1 #afb1 #agi1 #dji1 #fjj1 #faj1 #fea1 #ffe1 #gaj1 #gad ,abdallah1 #fic ,abdias1 #dbe-f ,abel1 ,a41 #dcd ,abel1 ,e41 #bia1 #bic1 #dfc ,abelard1 ,peter1 #dge1 #edd ,abgarus1 #cie ,abhandlungen d4 bayr4 ,akad41 #efg-h ,abhandlungen d4 ,berlin ,akad41 #aba1 #dfh1 #gcb ,abhandlungen z4 ,gesch4 d4 ,math4 ,wiss41 #fdb ,abraham the patriarch1 reputed book of1 #dde ,abraham1 cited by ,firmicus1 #ecg ,abraham of ,tortosa1 #faa ,abt1 ,apologie d4 ,apuleius1 #bb1 #bci ,abu ,jafar ,ahmed ,ibn-al-,jezzar1 #gde ,abu ,sa'id ,schdsan1 #fea ,accad4 dei ,lincei1 ,rendiconti dell'1 #dii ,accad4 di ,monaco1 ,atti dell'1 #eea ,acta ,sanctorum1 #bif ,acts of the ,apostles1 #acf1 #eaj ,acts 7,apocryphal7 of ,archelaus1 #cih of ,barnabas1 #cig of ,john1 #cig of ,nereus and ,achilles1 #dbe of ,paul1 #cif of ,paul and ,thecla1 #cie of ,peter1 #dje of ,peter and ,andrew1 #cif of ,peter and ,paul1 #cig1 #dbd of ,philip1 #cig of ,pilate1 #cij1 #cie of ,thomas1 #cgd1 #cig ,adalmus1 #fgc ,adam1 ,moon-,book1 #fhb ,adam of ,bremen1 #ggc ,adam of ,st4 ,victor1 #cih ,adams1 ,f41 #efh ,ad-,damr1 #cic1 #fhh ,adelard of ,bath1 #ajj1 #dfh1 #feb1 #ffd1 #gjf1 #ggc ,adelbold1 #gjf-g ,ademarus ,cabannensis1 #gjd ,adhelmus1 see ,aldhelm ,aelfric1 #dhd1 #fgg ,aelian1 #bch1 #cjj1 #cbb-f1 #cca ,aemilius ,macer1 #fab ,aeschrion1 #agh ,aeschylus1 #cbe ,aesculapius1 #ecg1 #eig-h1 #fjj1 #gce ,aesop1 #eec ,aethicus1 see ,ethicus ,aetius of ,amida1 #afc1 #agj1 #bib1 chap4 xxv ,agathodaemon1 #aie ,agathias1 #ege ,aggregator1 #faa ,agricola1 ,de re metal41 #acb1 #cbi ,agrippa1 ,h4 ,c41 ,occult ,philosophy1 #ded1 #fec ,ahrens1 ,k41 #dig1 #dii1 #ejc ,ajasson1 #db ,alandraeus1 see ,alchandrus ,albaihaqi1 #fgj ,albandinus1 #gaf ,alberic the ,deacon1 #geb ,albertus ,magnus1 #aeh1 #afc1 #cbf1 #fjj1 #feh1 #gbe1 #ggb ,animal41 #ejc1 #efc1 #gdf ,causis et propriet41 #efc ,mineral41 #eja1 #fec ,somno et vigilia1 #cei ,speculum astronomiae1 #fdg1 #fej1 #ffd ,veget4 et plantis1 #fec ,albucasis1 #gdb ,albumasar1 #ebd1 #fdg1 #fdi-eb1 #fia ,conjunctions1 #fdi-ea ,experiments1 #fdi ,flores1 #fdi-ej ,greater ,introduction1 #fdi ,lesser ,introduction1 #feb ,mysteries1 #fea ,rains1 #fea-b ,revolutions1 #fea ,sadan1 #fea ,searching of the ,heart1 #fdi ,alchadrinus or ,alchandrinus1 see ,alchandrus ,alchandrus1 #gaj-ai ,breviary1 #gad;ff4 ,mathematica1 #gaj;ff4 ,alchamia1 #ggd ,alchimus1 #fja ,alcibiades1 see ,helxai1 ,book of ,alcuin1 #eef1 #fag1 #feh ,aldhelm1 #fcf ,aldus1 see ,medici antiqui ,alexander the ,great1 #cca1 #egh astrological treatises1 #gab;ff4 ,mirabilibus ,indiae1 #eee-f1 #efd ,responsio ad ,dindimum1 #eef ,alexander of ,aphrodisias1 #egh ,alexander ,polyhistor1 #cda ,alexander of ,tralles1 chap4 xxv1 #acg-h1 #agd1 #eif1 #gba1 #gdg ,alexandre1 ,oracula ,sibyllina1 #bhg ,alexis1 ,mandragorizomene1 #bb ,alfanus1 #geb-c ,al-,farabi1 #gdd ,alfraganus1 #gcg ,alfred the ,great1 king1 #fcg ,algazel1 #gdd ,alhabib1 ,book of1 #gfc ,alhandreus1 see ,alchandrus ,ali ibn ,abbas1 ,khitaab el ,maleki1 #gdg ,alkindi1 chap xxviii ,deceits of ,alchemists1 #fdi ,empire of ,arabs1 #fdh ,judgments1 #fdh ,geomancy1 #fdh ,pluviis1 #fdg-h ,properties of ,swords1 #fdi ,somno et visione1 #fdf ,spectaculis1 #fdb ,stellar ,rays1 #fdc-f ,allard1 ,p41 #bih ,alma1 ,j4 d'1 #cdi ,alphita1 #fjj ,alte ,orient1 #g1 #cc-e ,amatus of ,salerno1 #geb ,ambrose1 #dbf1 #ddg1 #did1 #dii1 #eje1 #fhf ,hexaemeron1 #dhb-c1 #dhe ,moribus ,brachmannorum1 #eeg ,amlineau1 #cfj1 #cgg ,american ,historical ,association ,papers1 #fcb ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 #ag ,american ,mathematical ,monthly1 #ca ,american ,society of ,church ,history ,papers1 #djf ,amigeron1 see ,damigeron ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 #bhe1 #bhh1 #cah-i1 #ebg ,amplonius1 ,catalogue of ,,mss1 #bfg ,anastasius ,antiochenus1 #dfi ,anaxagoras1 #def ,anaxandrides1 #bb ,anaxilas1 #bb ,anaxilaus1 #hh1 #bad ,anaximenes1 #aha ,andreas1 #aed ,andrian1 ,f4 v41 #af ,andromachus1 #aga ,angelus1 ,j41 #ajf1 #ebe ,annales de la ,facult des ,lettres de ,bordeaux1 #gjd ,annales du ,service des ,antiquits de l',egypte1 #ad ,anne ,sociologique1 #f ,ansileubus1 #ejc ,ante-,nicene ,fathers1 #chg1 and ,book ,,ii passim ,anthropologie1 ,l'1 #f ,antipater1 #ahe ,antisthenes1 #eec ,antonius ,eparchus1 #gde ,antonius ,musus1 #fjj ,anz1 ,gnostizismus1 #cfj1 #chc ,aomar1 #fdg ,aphaxad1 #dce ,apion1 #dje ,apocrypha1 chap4 xvi1 #cdb1 #djf ,apollonius1 to whom works of magic are ascribed1 #bfg ,apollonius of ,perga1 #ffc ,apollonius of ,tyana1 ,epistles and ,will1 #bdd2 and see other index ,apollonius and ,galen1 #gbc ,apostles1 see ,acts1 ,constitutiones1 ,didascalia ,apuleius of ,madaura1 chap4 vii1 #afe1 #bdb1 #bij1 #cji1 #cij1 #dfe1 #ejh ,apology1 #bbb-e1 #bcb-da1 #dfc ,dogma of ,plato1 #bbb1 #bda1 #eif ,florida1 #bbb1 #bcc ,god of ,socrates1 #bbb1 #bdj-a ,golden ,ass or ,metamorphoses1 #bbb-cb1 #bda1 #ccb1 #djf1 #eji ,natural ,questions1 #bcg ,universe1 #bbb dubious or spurious ,asclepius1 see ,hermes ,trismegistus grammatical and rhetorical1 #eif ,herbarium1 chap4 xxvi1 #fif ,sphere1 chap4 xxix1 #aig1 #eif ,aquinas1 ,thomas1 #eai1 #edd1 #feh ,aratus1 #gji ,arcandam1 #gaf ,archaeologia1 chap4 xxxiii ,archandrinus1 see ,alchandrus ,archigenes1 #acg1 #aeb1 #afh1 #agf ,archimatthaeus1 #gch ,archimedes1 #bi1 #ffc ,catoptrica1 #bcg ,archinapolus1 #ahe ,archiv f4 ,gesch4 d4 ,medizin1 #ahh1 #gcg ,archiv f4 ,kunde sterreich4 ,geschichtsquellen1 #dih ,archiv f4 ,studium d4 ,neuer4 ,sprachen1 #fgc ,arendzen1 ,j4 ,p41 #cfj1 #cga ,aretaeus1 #egj ,aretinus ,quilichinus1 #eeh ,arevalus1 #djb1 #fbc ,arfarfan or ,argafalan or ,argafalaus1 #gaa ,aristarchus1 #ca1 #bai ,aristodemus1 #egd ,aristophanes1 #bd ,birds1 #cbd ,goetes1 #bb ,aristotle1 #c1 #bf1 #cb1 #ajc1 #aci1 #adf1 #aec1 #ahj1 #bje1 #baj1 #bcg-h1 #cag1 #djh1 #dea1 #eec1 #efc1 #efe1 #fai-bj1 #fcb1 #fdb1 #feg1 #ffc-e1 #gfd ,animals1 ,history of1 #bd-cj1 #ej1 #abi1 #bdj1 #bee1 #cca1 #dhf1 #dia1 #ejc ,categoriis1 #fgg ,generatione1 #cj ,interpretatione1 #fgg ,metaphysics1 #fba ,meteorology1 #dhf ,partibus1 #cj ,physics1 #fbb ,politics1 #ig dubious or spurious ,images1 #fff ,lapidary1 #fed1 #fef1 #fga1 #gef ,secret of ,secrets1 #eee ,arnald of ,villanova1 #afb1 #fec1 #fhh1 #gcf-g1 #gda ,arnheim1 #caf ,arnobius1 #dbc1 #eje ,arnold of ,saxony1 #faa ,arrian1 #eec ,artemidorus1 #bja ,artephius or ,artesius1 #ggd ,asakki marsti1 #ah ,ascalu the ,ishmaelite1 #gaa ,ascension of ,isaiah1 #cii ,asclepiades1 #ada1 #afh ,asclepius1 see ,hermes ,trismegistus ,ashmole1 ,e41 ,theatrum chemicum ,britannicum1 #ggc ,astrolabe1 anonymous treatises on1 chap4 xxx ,athenaeus1 #abj1 #aif1 #bjb ,athenagoras1 #bhh ,aubert u4 ,wimmer1 #gc ,audollent1 #bh ,aufidius ,bassus1 #de ,augustine1 chap4 xxii1 #bda-b1 #bhh1 #cjc1 #ddg1 #dgf1 #dhe1 #fag1 #fbf1 #fbh1 #feh1 #ffj1 #fhf1 #fib ,anima1 #adg ,cataclysmo1 #ejg ,city of ,god 7,civitate ,dei71 #cbj1 #cbf1 chap4 xxii1 #ece1 #eeb-d ,confessions1 #dei1 #ejd-e1 #eji1 #eaa ,consensu ,evangelistarum1 #eje ,contra ,academicos1 #eah ,contra ,faustum1 #eah ,contra ,priscillianistas1 #eai ,diversis quaestionibus1 #ejh1 #eaj1 #ead ,divinatione daemonum1 #ejh ,doctrina ,christiana1 #ejh1 #eba ,enchiridion1 #eai ,epistolae1 #bda1 #ead ,genesi ad litteram1 #dhc1 #ejd-e1 #eji1 #eaa1 #ead1 #eah-i1 #eba-b1 #ffj-a ,haer41 #cfi ,octo ,dulcitii quaest41 #eaj ,quaestiones ex ,novo ,test41 #eah ,sermones1 #dbf1 #ejg1 #ead1 #eah ,sermones supposititi1 #ebb ,trinitate1 #ejf-i ,aulus ,gellius1 #ej1 #ei1 #bjb1 #bfi1 #ced ,auracher1 ,t4 ,m41 and ,stadler1 ,h41 #faj ,ausfeld1 ,a41 #eea ,ausfeld and ,kroll1 #eea ,avezac1 d'1 #fja ,avicenna1 #feh1 #ffj ,anima1 #gff ,divis4 philos41 #gdd ,axt and ,riegler1 #bic ,babelon1 ,e41 #cda ,babut1 ,e4 ,c41 #cha ,bacon1 ,roger1 #ajh1 #afc1 #cda1 #dji1 #fja1 #fjc1 #fdf1 #ffa1 #ffe1 #gff ,baethgen1 #gc ,bald and ,cild1 #gbj-b1 #gcc ,barach1 ,s41 #feh ,bardaisan or ,bardesanes1 #cgc-g1 #cha1 #dab1 #deg1 #dga1 #dge1 #ghb ,barlama1 #ach ,barnabas1 #djd1 #djh ,epistle1 #cif1 #dji2 and see ,acts 7,apocryphal7 ,barnes1 ,c4 ,l41 #ggc ,bartholomew of ,england1 ,de proprietatibus rerum1 #agj1 #dhd1 #eja1 #ejc1 #egh1 #faa1 #ffj1 #fhf ,baruch1 ,book of1 #cii ,basil1 ,hexaemeron1 chap4 xxi1 #cbb1 #deh1 #dgf1 #ejd1 #eeb-d ,basil and ,gregory1 ,philocalia1 #dje-f ,basset1 ,r41 #cih-i ,bate1 ,henri1 #fej ,bateson1 ,m41 #fhi-ij ,bath ,occult ,reprint ,series1 #bia ,battle1 ,w4 ,c41 #bh ,baudry de ,balzac1 #gcf ,baur1 ,l41 #gdd ,beazley1 ,r41 #cbf1 #dhj1 #fja ,becker1 ,h41 #eea ,beckh1 ,h41 #fjd ,beckmann1 ,marbod1 #gge ,bede1 #dgf1 #fag1 #fcd-f1 #feh1 #fge1 #fhc1 #fhh1 #fid1 #gjb ,hexaemeron1 #dhe ,natura rerum1 #fcd-e1 #fgf1 #fie ,samuel1 #fce ,temporibus1 #fcd-e ,tonitruis1 #fce-f1 #fgi ,belenus1 #bfg ,bellarminus1 #dfi ,belon1 ,p41 #aca ,bennett1 ,w4 ,h41 #ddf ,bentwich1 ,n41 #cdi ,berengarius1 #gja-b ,bernadakes1 ,g4 ,n41 #bjb ,bernard of ,clairvaux1 ,st4 #ejb1 #feh ,bernard ,gordon1 see ,gordon ,bernard of ,provence1 #gdj ,bernard ,silvester1 #gag ,bernays1 #gc ,berosus1 #ie1 #ajd1 #ahe ,berthelot1 ,p4 ,e4 ,m41 #edj ,archologie 7#aijf71 #ab ,chimie 7#ahic71 #fgj1 #fig1 #gfa ,introduction 7#ahhi71 #ab1 #aii1 #edd ,origines 7#ahhe71 #ab-c1 #ei1 #aic1 #bib1 #cfi1 #edd1 #eei ,voyages 7#ahie71 #aca ,berthelot et ,ruelle 7#ahhg-h71 #aic1 #cbj1 #fhc ,bestiary1 #dih ,bevan1 ,a4 ,a41 #cgd ,bezogar1 #fhb ,bezold1 #af ,bezold1 ,c41 #cd ,bible1 #af1 #ach1 #bdf1 #cdb1 #cej1 #ceb1 #cfa-b1 #che-f1 #dje1 #dci1 chap4 xxi1 #eaa1 #edf1 #ehc1 #fha1 #gbi2 and see names of individual books of ,bibliotheca ,mathematica1 #ahh1 #aic ,bibliotheca ,patrum1 #dbf ,bibl4 d4 l'cole des ,hautes tudes1 #cha1 #gfe ,biklas1 #gc ,billerbeck1 #gc ,bisse1 ,e41 #eeg ,bivilaqua1 #ebe ,bjrnbo and ,vogl1 #fdb1 #ffc ,bl4 f4 bayr4 ,gymn41 #gc ,boethius1 #aji1 #ebg1 #fah-bb1 #feh1 #fgg ,boissier1 ,a41 #cd ,boll1 ,f41 #ad1 #af1 #aje1 #aaa1 #bia1 #caf1 #ebd-e1 #fhc ,bollettino della ,societ geografica italiana1 #dhj ,bolus de ,mendes1 #ej ,boncompagni1 ,b41 ,gherardo ,cremonese1 #afc ,bonnet1 ,acta apostolorum apocrypha1 #cig ,book of ,changes1 #f ,book of the ,dead1 #i1 #cfb ,book of the ,saviour1 #cfi1 #cgg ,book of ,secrets1 #fgj ,book of ,seventy1 #fgj for ,book of1 see also ,alhabib1 ,baruch1 ,crates1 ,enoch1 ,helxai1 ,je ,borgnet1 ,a41 #ffd ,bostock1 ,j41 and ,riley1 ,h4 ,t41 chap4 ii1 #age1 #bad1 #cbi ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,a41 #ej1 #ei1 #aab1 #bib-c1 #big1 #cjh1 #caf1 #dgf1 #fhc1 #fhg ,bouchier1 ,e4 ,s41 #cac1 #chj1 #dcd ,bousset1 ,w41 #cdi1 #cfa ,box1 ,e4 ,b41 #fai ,box1 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,compound medicines1 #abe1 #aeb1 #afj1 #agb ,critical days1 #aeg1 #agi ,diagnosis from ,dreams1 #agg ,differentiis pulsorum1 #acg ,dinamidis1 #gbg-h1 #gdb ,euporista1 see ,remediis parabilibus ,foetuum formatione1 #aej ,healing art1 #agf ,hippocratic commentaries1 #aai-ba1 #agg1 #gdi ,libriis propriis1 #abd1 #acc ,malitia complexionis diversae1 #abe ,medicinal simples1 #aba1 #acb1 #aeh1 #aff-ga1 #egb1 #faa ,methodo medendi1 #abc1 #abg1 #acc1 #aee1 #agh ,naturalibus facultatibus1 #abc ,ordine librorum1 #acc ,platonic commentaries1 #abd1 #ach ,prognos4 ad ,epigenem1 #abd ,remediis parabilibus1 #abg1 #afa1 #age ,substantia facultatum naturalium1 #agj ,temperamentis1 #aai ,theriaca ad ,pamphilianum1 #agj ,throat and lungs1 #acd ,usu partium1 #aai1 #ach1 #aej-a ,venae sectione1 #abe ,victu1 #aai dubious or spurious ,experiments1 #afb1 #gbj ,liber medicinalis1 #fjj ,medical ,treatment in ,homer1 #ehb ,placitis philosophorum1 #ahj-a ,prognostication by astrology1 #agh ,secrets1 #geb and see ,apollonius and ,gamaliel1 ,jewish patriarch1 #ehd-e ,ganschinietz1 #dfg ,garcilasso1 #ag ,gargilius ,martialis1 #fjh ,gariopontus1 #egg1 #gcc ,garrison1 ,f4 ,h41 #afd ,garrod1 ,h4 ,w41 #ie ,garver1 ,m41 #dii ,geber1 #fgj1 #gfc ,geikie1 see ,clark and ,gelasius1 pope1 #chi1 #djd1 #djf ,genealogus1 #cbf ,gentile da ,foligno1 #afd ,genesis1 #aha1 #aic1 #cda1 #chf1 #dde1 chap4 xxi1 #eba ,geoponica1 #ei1 #dfc1 #fjd-e ,gerard ,bituricensis1 see ,gerard de ,solo ,gerard of ,cremona1 #aji-aj1 #fdf1 #fdh1 #gej ,gerard de ,solo1 #gdg1 #gdi ,gerbert1 chap4 xxx ,gerson1 #ajf ,gesner1 #cbb ,giacosa1 ,p41 #gca1 #gci ,gibbon1 ,e41 #bhe ,gibson1 ,m4 ,d41 #dbh ,gilbert of ,england1 #afb1 #egg1 #fhh ,gilbert ,maminot1 #fgc ,giles de ,corbeil1 #gcg ,giles1 ,j41 #fcf and see ,egidius de ,tebaldis ,gillert1 ,k41 #fhd ,ginzel1 ,f4 ,k41 #cd ,giovannino di ,graziano1 #fhb ,giovene1 ,g4 ,m41 #fhf ,giry1 ,a41 #gfd ,glaber1 see ,raoul ,glover1 ,t4 ,r41 #edd ,golden ,legend1 see ,jacobus de ,voragine ,goldstaub1 ,m41 #dig1 #ejc ,goldstaub and ,wendriner1 #dii ,gollancz1 ,h41 #chj ,goodwin1 ,w4 ,w41 #bjb-c ,gordon1 ,bernard1 #fhh1 #gdj ,gospels1 #fgd1 #gbe1 #ged2 and see individual names ,gospel of the ,infancy1 chap4 xvi ,goujet1 #fgb ,goupyl1 ,j41 #efg ,govi1 ,g41 #ajg ,graetz1 #cdi ,gratian1 ,decretum1 #fcj-a ,gray1 ,c4 ,d41 #cc ,gray1 ,l4 ,a41 #bif ,greenwood1 ,j4 ,g41 #ahh ,gregory ,i1 the ,great1 pope1 ,dialogues1 #dje1 #eic1 #fcg-i ,gregory ,bar-,hebraeus1 #ffb ,gregory of ,nyssa1 #ddg1 #eje ,against ,fate1 #dga ,hexaemeron1 #dei1 #dha ,ventriloquist1 #dgj ,grenfell1 ,b4 ,p41 #bh1 #bic1 #cfa ,grenfell and ,hunt1 #cfa ,griffith1 ,f4 ,l41 #g2 and see ,thompson and ,grimm1 ,jacob1 #efg-h1 #ehd ,groff1 ,egyptian ,sorcery1 #g ,grosseteste1 ,robert1 #ajf1 #ahi ,grtzmacher1 ,g41 #edj ,guido of ,arezzo1 #fih ,guinther of ,andernach1 #efg1 #egf-g ,guldenschoff1 ,j41 #dgg ,gundissalinus1 #gdd ,guthrie1 ,k41 #bih1 #cjc-d1 #cdi ,guyot1 ,h41 #cdi ,gwatkin1 ,h4 ,m41 #ebd ,haase1 ,seneca1 #aja ,haase1 ,f41 #cgc ,hagins the ,jew1 #fej ,hain1 #dih ,halliwell1 ,j4 ,o41 #gjf ,hamilton1 ,g4 ,l41 #fca ,hamilton1 ,mary1 #fhh ,hamilton1 ,n4 ,e4 ,s4 ,a41 #fij ,haly ,heben ,rodan1 ,dispositione aeris1 #fdg ,pluviis1 #fdg ,ptolemy's ,quadripartitum1 #aaj ,hammer-,jensen1 #ajg ,hannubius1 #ecg ,hansen1 ,j41 #b1 #fca ,hardouin1 #db ,harleian ,,mss1 ,catalogue of1 #fhd-e ,harnack1 ,a41 #dje ,gesch4 d4 altchr4 ,lit41 #djj ,medicinisches aus d4 ltest4 ,kirchengesch41 #ach-i ,harpestreng the ,dane1 #fab ,harrington1 ,school of ,salerno1 #gca ,harris1 ,rendel1 #bc ,harrison1 ,j4 ,e41 #bb1 #bea1 #cja ,hartel1 ,w41 #cfi ,hartfelder1 ,k41 #bfh ,harvard ,studies in ,classical ,philology1 #ajh-i ,harvey1 ,john1 #bia ,haskins1 ,c4 ,h41 #gjb ,adelard of ,bath1 #feb1 #ffd ,further ,notes1 #aji ,reception of ,arabic ,science1 #fic1 #ggc ,haskins and ,lockwood1 #ajh-i ,havell1 ,e4 ,b41 #ab1 #bea ,heath1 ,t4 ,l41 #bi1 #cb1 #ahh ,heeg1 ,pseudodemocrit4 ,studien1 #gcc ,hegel1 ,philosophy of ,religion1 #a ,hegesippus1 #dbe-f ,hehn1 ,siebenzahl u4 ,sabbat1 #af1 #cd ,heiberg1 ,j4 ,l41 #aje1 #aji1 #ahh-i ,heider1 ,g41 #dih-i ,heigl1 ,g4 ,a41 #bii ,heim1 ,r41 #efh1 #fje ,heinsch1 ,p41 #cdi ,heintze1 ,w41 #cii1 #djc1 #djf ,heliodorus1 #bcb ,heller1 ,a41 #ajh1 #ahh ,helmreich1 ,g41 #aai1 chap4 xxv ,helpericus1 #fif ,helxai1 ,book of1 #cgb ,hendrie1 ,r41 chap4 xxxiii ,hengstenberg1 ,gesch4 ,bileams1 #cec1 #ddg ,henschel1 #egh1 #gca1 #geh ,hephaestion of ,thebes1 #aae-f1 #ech ,heraclides of ,pontus1 #cb ,heraclides of ,tarentum1 #aec1 #die ,heraclitus1 #aha ,heraclius1 chap4 xxxiii ,heraeus1 #eeb ,heras1 #aec ,herbarium1 #eig2 and see ,apuleius ,hercher1 ,r41 #bae1 #cbb ,hermanni de ymbribus et pluviis1 #fdg ,hermannus ,contractus1 chap4 xxx1 #gja1 #gbh ,hermann of ,dalmatia1 #fdi1 #gja ,hermes1 #aje1 #aji1 #aba1 #ahh1 #bih1 #ebf1 #egf1 #eie1 #fjf1 #fji-aj1 #fab ,hermes ,trismegistus1 #agh1 chap4 x1 #ecg1 #fec1 #ffa1 #gaj1 #gfc ,asclepius1 #bba1 #bij1 #eif ,fifteen ,stars1 ,herbs1 ,stones1 #cdj1 #ffd ,images and ,incantations1 books of1 #ffd ,poimandres1 #bij-a1 #cgi ,virgin of the ,world1 #bia ,hermippus1 #ebd ,hermogenes1 #cdb1 #dce ,hero of ,alexandria1 #ajh-i1 #ahh-ic1 #bff1 #feb works listed at1 #ahh ,herodotus1 #ba-b1 #abi1 #aef ,herophilus1 #cb1 #gg1 #ade-f1 #ahj ,herrandus1 #gjb ,herrick1 ,f4 ,h41 #bfg ,hesiod1 #ba1 #gg1 #bjg ,hieg1 #aai ,hierocles1 #bdf ,hieronymus1 see ,jerome ,higden1 see ,ranulf ,hildebert1 #dih ,hildegard of ,bingen1 #cdb1 #dcb1 #ffj ,hilgenfeld1 ,a41 #cii-dja1 #dje ,hincmar of ,reims1 #fcj ,hipparchus1 #cb1 #if1 #ecg ,hippocrates 7and ,hippocratic writings71 #bg1 #bi1 #di1 #eh1 #aci1 #adb1 #add1 #aej1 #agh-i1 #cef1 #ega1 #fbe1 #ffc1 #gbc1 #gce1 #gdg1 #geg ,aphorisms1 #agf ,astrology1 #agh-i ,letter to ,antigonus or ,maecenas1 #fjj1 #gbd ,hippolytus1 chaps4 xv1 xx1 #ajg1 #bgh1 #chg1 #cii1 #dba1 #dhb1 #gfe ,hirn1 ,y41 #f ,hirschberg1 ,j41 #eff ,histoire ,littraire de la ,france1 #afc1 #fgb1 etc4 ,historisch4 ,jahrbuch1 #eda ,history of ,three ,kings of ,cologne1 #ddd1 #ddf1 #dgg ,holmes and ,kitterman1 #aj ,homer1 #di1 #afi1 #bde1 #bfj1 #bgc1 #ehb ,fourteenth ,epigram1 #dcd and see ,iliad and ,odyssey ,homily on ,magi1 #dgh-i ,hommel1 ,aethiop4 ,physiologus1 #dih1 #ejc ,hommel1 ,f41 ,gestirndienst1 #cee ,hone1 #chg1 #cie ,honein ben ,ishak1 #fec1 #ffj1 #geb ,honorius of ,autun1 #ejb ,hooten1 #ab ,hoover1 ,h4 ,c4 and ,h4 ,l41 #acb1 #cbi ,hopf1 ,l41 #gc ,hopfner1 ,papyri1 #bh ,hopfner1 ,t41 #gc ,horapollo1 ,hieroglyphics1 #cca-d ,hosthanes1 see ,ostanes ,howitt1 ,a4 ,w41 #bbg ,hubert1 ,h41 #bb1 #bg1 #bfe ,huet1 ,g41 #bda ,huet1 ,p4 ,d41 #ced1 #deg-h1 #dfa1 #dfi ,hugh of ,st4 ,victor1 #fca1 #feh ,bestiis1 #dih1 #eja ,didascalicon1 #chi1 #djb ,hugh of ,santalla1 #feb ,hugutius1 #abi ,humboldt1 ,a4 v41 #ajg ,hunain ibn ,ishak1 see ,honein ben ,ishak ,hunt1 see ,grenfell and ,husik1 ,i41 #gdg ,huvelin1 ,p41 #f ,hystaspes1 #bif ,iamblichus1 chap4 xi1 #bif ,fato1 #caf ,mysteriis1 #bhh1 #cjg;ff4 ,ibn ,abi ,usaibi'a1 #ffg ,ibn ,khallikan1 #ffg ,ignatius1 #cif ,ilg1 ,a41 #gfj ,iliad1 #ba1 #eh ,imhoof-,blumer1 ,f4 und ,keller1 ,o41 #gc ,inchofer1 #dgf ,infancy1 ,gospels of1 chap4 xvi ,inge1 ,w4 ,r41 #bii ,international ,congresses1 see ,congress ,ioachos1 #ach ,ioannes1 see ,john ,iolaos the ,bithynian1 #die ,irenaeus1 chap4 xv1 #daa1 #dba1 #dhh ,isaac ,israeli1 #feh1 #gdf;ff4 ,isaiah1 #dfj1 #dhe2 ,ascension of1 #cii ,isidore of ,seville1 #cbf1 #fja1 #fbc-cc1 #feh1 #fge1 #gji ,differentiis verborum1 #fcj1 #fcb ,etymologiae1 #fji1 #fbc-cc1 #ggg ,natura rerum1 #dja1 #fbc1 #fcb-c ,origines1 #dei1 #dic ,viris illus41 #chj ,israelson1 ,l41 #ada ,itinerarium ,alexandri1 #eec ,ivo of ,chartres1 #fcj ,jackson1 ,a4 ,v4 ,w41 #bif ,jacobitz1 #bhb ,jacobus ,angelus1 #ajf ,jacobus de ,partibus1 #efg ,jacobus ,psychrestus1 #ege ,jacobus de ,voragine1 ,golden ,legend1 #dbg1 #dce1 #dge ,jacques de ,bergame1 #gjb ,jahn's ,neue ,jahrb41 #eb ,jahrbuch 7,austrian71 #fjg ,jahrb4 d4 k4 deutsch4 archol4 ,instit41 #bh ,jahrb4 f4 ,class4 ,philologie1 #cdi1 #fje ,jahrb4 f4 ,philol4 u4 ,pdagogik1 #aje ,james1 ,protevangelium of1 chap4 xvi ,james1 ,m4 ,r4 ,apocrypha anecdota1 #cdb ,biblical ,antiquities1 #cea ,cambridge ,,mss1 #efd1 #eig1 #fjb1 #gbc ,canterbury and ,dover1 #gec ,eton ,,mss1 #eb ,janus1 #egh ,janus1 ,l41 #db ,jastrow1 ,m41 #ag1 #ai1 #cd ,jayakar1 ,s4 ,g41 #cic1 #fhh ,jean ,clopinel1 #fac ,jennings1 ,h41 #bia ,jensen1 ,p41 #cd ,jeremias1 #ae1 #cd ,jergis1 #fdh ,jerome1 #cfi1 #cih1 #ddg1 #dei1 #dfa1 #dff1 #dgf1 #dhc1 #fjj-b1 #fbe1 #fbh1 #fib ,je1 ,book of1 #cgh ,jevons1 ,f4 ,b41 #bb ,jewish ,quarterly ,review1 #cdh ,job1 ,book of1 #eaj1 #ebj ,johannitius1 see ,honein ben ,ishak ,john1 ,gospel of1 #chf1 #gei ,john ,afflacius1 #gdh1 #geg ,john ,agarenus1 #gdh ,john ,angelus1 #ajf1 #ebe ,john of ,antioch1 #aid ,john ,crophill1 see ,crophill ,john of ,damascus1 #fjh ,john of ,hildesheim1 #ddf1 #dgg ,john of ,london1 #fdc1 #gad ,john ,lydus1 see ,lydus ,john of ,st4 ,amand1 #afb-c1 #gbe ,john of ,salisbury1 ,polycraticus1 #bda1 #cjb-c1 #fca1 #fhc-d ,john the ,scot1 #ejj1 #edg1 #fcg ,john of ,spain1 chap4 xxviii ,joret1 ,c41 #aa1 #gf ,josephus1 #ced1 #cff1 #dbe1 #ddf1 #gjc ,joshua1 ,book of1 #ceb ,jourdain1 ,c41 #fgb1 #fij ,journal ,asiatique1 #fec ,journal des ,savants1 #aca ,journal f4 praktische ,chemie1 #gfc ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 #bff1 #cja ,journal of ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #ccg ,jowett1 #bf ,juba1 king of ,numidia1 #di1 #bah1 #bef ,jude1 ,epistle of1 #cdb1 #dce ,julian the ,chaldean1 #bif1 #cag ,julian1 emperor1 #cag1 #efh ,julian ,honorius1 #fja ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus1 see ,firmicus ,julius ,valerius1 ,res gestae1 chap4 xxiv ,justinian1 #ege ,digest1 #cef1 #efh ,justin1 ,book of ,baruch1 #cii ,justin ,martyr1 #cfc1 #daf1 #dba1 #dfi1 #dgf ,juvenal1 #abf1 #dcg ,kaestner1 ,h41 #fji ,karpinski1 ,l4 ,c41 #ca ,katrarios1 ,j41 #ebd ,kehrer1 ,h41 #dgf ,keil1 #di-ej ,keller1 ,o41 #gc ,kennedy1 ,h4 ,a4 ,a41 #cdi ,kenyon1 ,f4 ,g41 #cfe ,kepler1 #deg1 #dgc ,kessler1 ,k41 #chc ,kidd1 ,j41 #adg ,king1 ,c4 ,w41 #di1 #agd1 #bic1 #cbi1 #cgi1 #efh1 #gge1 #ggg ,king1 ,l4 ,w41 #ag1 #cc ,king ,james' ,version1 #dga ,kings1 ,first ,book of1 #chf ,kirchoff1 ,a41 #bii ,kitterman and ,holmes1 #aj ,klatsche1 ,e4 ,h41 #bd ,kleffner1 ,a4 ,j41 #eda ,knyghton1 #fij ,knudtzon1 ,j4 ,a41 #cd ,kbert1 ,h41 #eif ,koch1 ,h41 #eda ,koch1 ,k41 #aba ,koechly1 #bic ,koeler1 ,g4 ,d41 #aja ,koetschau1 ,p41 #dcf ,kopp1 ,u4 ,f41 #ede-f ,koran1 #cde ,kostomoiros1 ,g4 ,a41 #eff ,krabinger1 ,j4 ,g41 #edj ,kraus1 ,f4 ,x41 #edj ,kritzinger1 #dgc ,krohn1 ,f41 #ahc ,kroll1 ,w4 ,analecta1 #cah-i ,hermes1 #bij ,oraculis ,chaldaicis1 #big1 #cjh ,vettius ,valens1 #aaf ,kroll and ,ausfeld1 #eea ,kroll et ,skutsch1 chap4 xxiii1 #cjb1 #fij ,krper1 #gc ,kbler1 ,b41 #eea ,kchler1 ,f41 #bj ,kugler1 ,f4 ,x41 #af1 #cd ,khn1 ,c4 ,g41 chap4 iv1 #egb1 #fje ,kster1 ,e41 #gc ,lactantius1 #bbj1 #bda1 #bdc1 #bdf1 #dfe1 #dgi ,la ,grande ,encyclopdie1 #bib ,lagarde1 ,p4 ,d41 #djj ,lagrange1 ,m4 ,j41 #cd ,lamm1 ,o4 ,v41 #dbh ,lancet1 #aai-bb1 #adf-g ,lancet-,clinic1 #aj ,land1 ,otia ,syriaca1 #dig-h ,langdon1 ,s41 #cd ,lapidarius1 #die1 #ggh ,laplace1 #ajh ,lascaris1 ,c41 #dbd ,lauchert1 ,f41 #dig-eja ,laurence1 #cii ,laurent1 ,a41 #cb ,laws of ,henry ,i1 #fij ,lea1 ,h4 ,c41 #b ,lebour1 #gc ,leclerc1 #ej ,le ,coq1 ,a4 v41 #chc ,leech-,book of ,bald and ,cild1 #gbj-c ,leemans1 #fhb ,lehmann1 ,p41 #fhc ,lemaire1 #db1 #cbi ,leminne1 ,j41 #aci ,lenormant1 #e1 #ag-bj1 #cb ,leo ,i1 the ,great1 pope1 #ebj1 #ege ,leo ,allatius1 #dfi ,leo1 archpriest1 #eeg ,leo of ,ostia1 #gdc ,leonicenus1 ,n41 #ec ,letronne1 #dhj ,leucippus1 #aic ,levi1 #eea ,leviticus1 #dci1 #dei ,lewes1 ,g4 ,h41 #bi-cj1 #ej ,lewysohn1 #gc ,libanius1 #dgb1 #ech-dj1 #ehd ,library of ,harvard ,university1 ,bibliographical ,contributions1 #aff ,liddell and ,scott1 #abj1 #bfe ,lidzbarski1 ,m41 #chc ,liebermann1 ,f41 #fij ,liechtenstein1 ,p41 #fdb ,lilius ,tifernates1 #cdg ,lindermayer1 ,a41 #gc ,linnaeus1 #age ,linus1 pope1 #dbf ,lippmann1 ,e4 ,o4 v41 #ab1 #af1 #aid1 #fdi1 #fgj1 chap4 xxxiii ,lipsius et ,bonnet1 #cig ,lithica1 see ,orpheus ,lobeck1 ,g4 ,a41 #bhh ,locard1 #gc ,lockwood1 see ,haskins and ,locy1 ,w4 ,a41 #bi-cj ,lods1 ,a41 #cda-b ,lones1 ,t4 ,e41 #bf1 #bi ,lorenz1 #gc ,loth1 ,o41 #fda1 #fdi ,lweneck1 ,m41 #gcc ,loxus1 #dfj ,lucan1 #fbi ,lucian1 #bgf-hf ,alexander1 #bdg1 #bgg1 #cgi1 #ddj1 #dfg-i1 #efa ,apologia1 #bgg ,astrologia1 #bhb-c ,dialogues of the ,gods1 #bhc ,dipsadibus1 #bhd ,dream1 #bhc ,how to write history1 #bhd-f ,lucius1 #bgf ,menippus1 #bha1 #daf ,nigrinus1 #bhd ,peregrinus1 #bgg ,philopseudes1 #bgi ,tragopodagra1 #bhd ,lucius1 #cdi ,lucretius1 #gfj ,lumby1 #fij ,lupitus of ,barcelona1 chap4 xxx ,lring1 ,h4 ,l41 #aj ,luther1 ,martin1 #fea ,lycon1 #bcg ,lydus1 ,john1 #fce ,lydus1 ,laurentius1 #bdj ,macdonald1 ,d4 ,b41 #bcb1 #cef1 #fii ,macer ,floridus1 ,de viribus herbarum1 #fab-e ,macer1 ,theophilus1 #gfa ,mackinnon1 #fci ,macray1 #fdb1 #gje ,macrobius1 #cee1 #edd-e ,dream of ,scipio1 #cjb1 #ejj1 #edd1 #gji ,saturnalia1 #cjb1 #ede ,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p41 #ace ,mai1 ,classici auctores1 #dih ,maimonides1 ,moses ,aphorisms1 #ach1 #aea1 #afd1 #agf-g ,more ,nevochim1 #ceh ,maklu1 #ah ,mle1 ,e41 #cij1 #cig1 #dbg1 #dce1 #dge-f1 #ejb ,manetho1 #bhi1 #bib-c ,mangey1 #cdh ,manilius1 #ie1 #fij-a ,manitius1 ,max1 #fai1 #fbc1 #fca ,mann1 ,m4 ,f41 #dig-i ,mansi1 #dii ,mantuani1 ,j41 #fjg ,mappe clavicula1 #dfh1 chap4 xxxiii ,marbod1 #dfc1 #gfa1 chap4 xxxiv ,fato et genesi1 #gha-b ,lapidum1 #gge-ha ,marcellus1 disciple of ,peter1 #dbe ,marcellus ,empiricus1 chap4 xxv1 #eie1 #fjj1 #fjh1 #gbd1 #gfg ,marcianus1 see ,martianus ,marco ,polo1 #acb1 #bad1 #dgi1 #efd ,marett1 ,r4 ,r41 #f1 #bb ,margoliouth1 #gdf ,marianus ,scotus1 #fhf1 #fib ,marinelli1 #dhj ,marinus1 #ajg ,marinus1 ,life of ,proclus1 #fhf ,mark1 ,gospel of1 #chf ,mark1 ,k4 ,f4 ,h41 #adf ,marquardt1 ,i41 #aai ,martianus ,capella1 #cbf1 #ede-f1 #fgg1 #gji ,martin1 ,hron1 #ahh ,martin1 ,j41 ,philon1 #cdg ,martin1 see ,cahier and ,martyrium of ,cyprian and ,justina1 #dbh ,marx1 ,a41 #gc ,marx1 ,f41 #dbc ,mary the ,jewess1 #aif-g ,masselieau1 ,l41 #cdi ,matthew1 ,gospel of1 #cig1 #dee1 #dga;ff41 #gcj2 ,pseudo-1 #cij ,maximus1 #dbf ,maximus of ,aegae1 #bdd ,maximus ,taurinensis1 #dbe ,mc,kenzie1 ,k41 #dii ,mead1 ,g4 ,r4 ,s41 #bij1 #bii1 #cfi1 #cgd1 #cgg-h1 #dja1 #dbe ,mechitarists1 #ie1 #cff ,medicae artis principes1 #eff;ff4 ,medici antiqui1 #efg1 #fab ,mela1 see ,pomponius ,mmoires couronns par l',acadmie de ,belgique1 #aci ,menander1 #bb1 #di ,menecrates1 #ace ,menelbus1 #egd ,mentz1 ,f41 #gf ,mercurius ,cilenius 7or ,tillemus71 #feb2 and see ,hermes ,merrifield1 ,mrs41 chap4 xxxiii ,merx1 ,a41 #aba1 #cgc ,mesue 7,yuhanna ibn ,masawaih71 #afb1 #afd ,metrodorus1 ,letter to ,celsus1 #dda ,metrodorus1 ,byzantine grammarian1 #ege ,meusel1 #eea ,mewaldt1 #aai1 #agf ,meyer1 ,e4 v41 #ggb ,meyer1 ,m4 ,p4 ,h41 #eea ,meyer-,steineg1 ,t41 #aba ,micah1 #ceb ,michael ,scot1 #ffd1 #gjd1 #gaj ,migne1 ,dict4 d4 ,apocryphes1 #cig ,mills1 ,l4 ,h41 #cdi ,milne1 ,j4 ,s41 #ade ,milward1 ,e41 #acg1 chap4 xxv ,minucius ,felix1 #dfe ,miskati1 #ah ,mithridates1 #hg1 #aga1 #die ,mitteilungen d4 anthrop4 ,gesell4 in ,wien1 #af ,mitteilungen d4 ,vorderasiat4 ,gesell41 #dgc ,modern ,language ,publications1 #dii ,moeragenes 7or ,moiragenes71 #bdd1 #bdf1 #bec1 #ddh ,molbech1 ,c41 #fab ,mommsen1 ,t41 #gc1 #cbf-ca1 #ebf1 #fja1 #fie ,monaci1 ,e41 #dii ,monist1 ,the1 #fcj ,montgomery1 ,j4 ,a41 #chd ,moon-,books1 chap4 xxix ,morellus ,federicus1 #ech ,moret1 ,a41 #g ,morf1 ,h41 #eeb ,morfill and ,charles1 chap4 xiii ,morgan1 ,m4 ,h41 #ahc-h ,morgenlndische ,forschungen1 #fdb ,morienus ,romanus1 #fig1 #gfa ,moser1 ,g4 ,h41 #bii ,moses the law-giver1 #ei1 #acg-h1 #aea1 #aie1 #cej1 #ceg1 #dcg1 #ejg ,moses ben ,maimon1 or1 of ,cordova1 see ,maimonides ,moses ibn ,tibbon1 #gdi ,moyen ge1 ,le1 #bda ,mucianus1 #ha ,mueller1 ,i41 #aai ,muhammad b4 ,muh4 b4 ,tarchn b4 ,uzlag1 ,ab ,nasr1 see ,al-,farabi 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,butler and ,padmuthiun ,acheksandri ,maketonazwui1 #eeb ,pagel1 ,j4 ,l41 #afc ,palaemo1 ,q4 ,remnius ,fannius1 #gfa ,palladius1 #eef1 #efi ,pamphilus1 #aed1 #aff-g1 #agh1 #bhh1 #bia1 #die ,panaetius1 #bfh ,panckoucke1 #eb1 #aja ,pandulf of ,capua1 #gec ,pannier1 ,l41 #gge ,panodorus1 #aid ,pappus1 #aji ,paret1 #cha ,parthenius1 #bae ,parthey1 ,g41 #cjg1 #cfe ,patrick1 ,st41 #fdj ,paul1 the apostle1 #dje1 #eef ,paul of ,aegina1 #efh;ff41 #gba1 #gdf ,paul of ,alexandria1 #aaf ,pauly and ,wissowa1 #abd1 #bac1 #bda1 #bij ,pausanias1 #bad ,payne1 ,j4 ,f4 ,english ,medicine1 #efi1 #gba1 #gcc ,relation of ,harvey to ,galen1 #aai-bb1 #ade-g ,peiper1 ,r41 #fai;ff4 ,pelliot1 see ,chavannes and ,pelops1 #abc1 #agj ,pentateuch1 #cej ,pertz1 #gjb ,petavius1 #cfc1 #edj1 etc4 ,petavius1 ,d41 #ege ,peter1 the apostle1 chap4 xvii ,acts of1 #dje ,second ,epistle of1 #ddf ,teachings of1 #dje ,peter of ,abano1 see ,abano ,peter the ,archiater1 #efi ,peter the ,deacon1 chap4 xxxii ,peter of ,spain1 #afc 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#dbi1 #dig1 #edj1 #fhc ,philostratus1 ,apollonius of ,tyana1 chap4 viii1 #bje1 #cbi1 #cib1 #djf1 #daj ,sophists1 #cbb ,philumenus1 #efg1 #egg ,photius1 #bgf1 #cch ,physiologus1 #dij1 #dig-ejc ,picatrix1 #ffe ,pico della ,mirandola1 #fjc ,pietschmann1 ,r41 #bhh ,pighinuccius1 ,t41 #eif ,pilate1 ,acts of1 #cij ,pindar1 #bff ,piper1 #fgg ,piso1 #egd ,piso1 ,domitius1 #dd ,pistis-,sophia1 #cfd1 #cgg-i ,pitra1 ,j4 ,b4 ,analecta ,sacra1 #bia1 #big ,spicilegium1 #dfc1 #dig;ff41 #fcf1 #ggg ,platearius1 ,matthaeus the ,elder1 #gch ,plato1 #bb1 #bd-f1 #eh1 #fa1 #acg1 #aci1 #aea-b1 #ahj-a1 #bce1 #bdj1 #bdg1 #bij1 #cjc1 #cdi-ej1 #cec1 #cee1 #dfj1 #eai1 #ecb1 #fbb1 #fcb1 #gac ,laws1 #be ,republic1 #bf1 #ach1 #bab ,symposium1 #be ,timaeus1 #bd-f1 #bcg1 #big1 #djh1 #dgf1 #fbj ,plato of ,tivoli1 #aaj ,pliny the ,elder1 ,natural ,history1 chap4 ii1 #c1 #ajj1 #acb1 #aed1 #ahg-h1 #aic1 #aii1 #bac-d1 #bch1 #bdh1 #bee1 #beg1 #bfh1 #bgc1 #bib-c1 #bif1 #cbb1 #cbe1 #cbg-i1 #cca1 #cea1 #ejc1 #eaj1 #eeh1 #ega-b1 #ehi-ia1 #fab1 #fad1 #fbd1 #fbf1 #fbh1 #gcg1 #gfa1 #gfd1 #gff1 #ghj ,other works listed1 #de ,medicina ,plinii1 #eb1 #egg1 #eie-f ,pliny the ,younger1 #de1 #dh1 #ej ,plotinus1 chap4 xi1 #cfa-b1 #edb ,plutarch1 chap4 vi1 #ahj1 #bfi1 #cee1 #dha1 #ffi ,agesilaus1 #eeh ,alexander1 #eeb ,banquet of ,seven ,sages1 #bah ,bruta ratione uti1 #bag ,defectu oraculorum1 #bjc1 #bje1 #bab-c1 #bai1 #bgh ,ei apud ,delphos1 #bje1 #bab ,facie in orbe lunae1 #bjf1 #baa1 #bai ,genio ,socratis1 #bje1 #bjg1 #bdj ,isis and ,osiris1 #bai ,lives1 #bja1 #bdd ,principle of ,cold1 #bah ,procreation of ,soul1 #bab ,pythiae oraculis1 #bje ,quaestiones naturales1 #bag1 #bai ,romulus1 #bji1 #ccj ,sera numinis vindicta1 #bac ,solertia animalium1 #bah ,superstitione1 #bjc-d ,symposiacs1 #bje1 #baa-c1 #bag1 #bai ,whether an old man should engage in politics1 #bja dubious or spurious ,fato1 #bjb1 #baj ,institutione principis1 #bjj ,placitis philosophorum1 #bjb ,rivers and ,mountains1 #bjb1 #bae ,pognon1 ,h41 #chd ,poire1 see ,ruelle et ,polemon1 #dfj ,politian1 #ec ,polybius1 #bde ,pomponius ,mela1 #cbh-i ,ponce de ,leon1 #dii ,poole1 ,r4 ,l41 ,medieval ,thought1 #fag1 #fcd ,porphyry1 chap4 xi1 #ece ,abstinentia1 #cad1 #cag ,introduction to ,tetrabiblos1 #aaf1 #caf ,letter to ,anebo1 #cjg-bj ,philosophia ex oraculis1 #big ,vita ,plotini1 #bif1 #cjj-b ,posidonius1 #aaa ,prchter1 ,k41 #eda ,preisendanz1 ,k41 #bh ,preller1 ,l41 #bif1 #dbi ,premerstein1 ,a4 v41 #fjg ,prenostica ,pitagorice1 #fhd ,preuschen1 ,e41 #cff ,priaulx1 ,indian ,travels1 #bdd ,prince1 ,j4 ,d41 #ae ,priscian1 #cbf1 #gfa ,priscillian1 #chj-a1 #dfa ,proceedings1 ,biblical ,archaeology1 #cc ,proceedings1 ,royal ,society of ,medicine1 #bhd ,procharus1 #cig ,proclus1 #aaf1 #cjg1 #caf ,sacrificio et magia1 #cai-bj ,protevangelium of ,james1 chap4 xvi ,pruckner1 ,m41 #ebe ,prudentius1 #ejj ,psalms and ,psalter1 #ddb1 #eba1 #gei ,psellus1 ,michael1 #bij1 #efi1 #ggb ,ptolemy1 chap4 iii1 #cb1 #aah1 #ace1 #bgb1 #cjg1 #cda1 #ecg1 #ffa1 #ffd1 #fff1 #gjc1 #gji-aj1 #gcg ,almagest1 #aje-i ,centiloquium1 #aaa ,exortatio ad artem1 #fic ,geography1 #aje-g ,music1 #ajg ,optics1 #ajg-h ,planisphere1 #fii ,quadripartitum1 see ,tetrabiblos ,speculis1 #ahi ,tetrabiblos1 #aaj-af1 #cjc1 #eag1 #fij-a ,puccinotti1 ,storia delle ,medicine1 chap4 xxxii ,puschmann1 ,t4 ,alexander v4 ,tralles1 #efg;ff41 #egg;ff4 ,hist4 of ,medical ,education1 #abj-a1 #abi1 #adc1 #efi1 #gca ,pythagoras1 #ej1 #eh1 #fa-c1 #fe-f1 #hj1 #ia-b1 #agf1 #ahj-a1 #bjd1 #bcb-d1 #bdg1 #bfc1 #bfi1 #bgd1 #bhh1 #cag1 #cdi-ej1 #cee1 #cgc1 #ecb ,precepta1 #fif ,prenostica1 #fhd ,sphere of1 chap4 xxix1 #cgj ,quadripartitus1 #fij ,quid pro quo1 #fjh ,quiggin1 ,e4 ,c41 #fdj ,quilichinus1 ,aretinus1 #eeh ,quintillian1 ,pseudo-1 #edj ,rabanus ,maurus1 #djb1 #dhd1 #fag1 #fcj1 #fcd1 #fgc ,radloff1 ,w41 #chb ,raidel1 ,g4 ,m41 #ajf ,ramsay1 ,w4 ,m41 #ajf ,rand1 ,e4 ,k41 #fai ,ranking1 ,g4 ,s4 ,a41 #ffg-ga ,ranulf ,higden1 #fij ,raoul ,glaber1 #fgd ,rasche1 ,c41 #cjg ,rashdall1 ,h41 #gca1 #geg ,rasis1 #afd1 #fec1 #ffg-ga1 #gdh works listed1 #ffh ,ratdolt1 ,e41 #fdi ,read1 ,c41 #e ,realencyklopdie f4 protest4 ,theol41 #cha1 #cii ,regimen ,salernitanum1 #gcf;ff4 ,reginald or ,retinaldus1 #eb ,regulae 444 de compositione astrolapsus1 #fii ,reinach1 ,s41 #f ,reisner1 ,g4 ,a41 #cd ,reitzenstein1 ,r41 #bij1 #cgi1 #eec ,renzi1 ,s4 ,d41 ,collectio ,salernitana1 #egh1 #fjj1 #ffj1 chap4 xxxi ,reuss1 ,f4 ,a41 #fac ,reuvens1 #cfi ,revelation1 ,book of1 #chf ,rville1 ,j41 #cej ,revue des tudes anciennes1 #fgb ,revue des tudes juives1 #eea ,revue d4 l'hist4 d4 religs41 #cda1 #cdi ,revue ,phil41 #bia ,revue des ,questions ,historiques1 #aac1 #fij ,rhazes1 see ,rasis ,rhein4 ,mus41 #eb ,richardson1 ,e4 ,c41 #djj1 #djc1 #djf ,richer1 #gjd1 #gcc ,riegler1 see ,axt and ,riess1 ,e41 #bd1 #bib-c1 #fhc ,riley1 ,h4 ,t41 see ,bostock and ,robert1 #dih ,robert of ,chester1 #fdh1 #fig1 #gfa1 #ggc ,robertson ,smith1 ,w41 #cd ,roger ,bacon1 see ,bacon ,rohde1 ,psyche1 #bic ,rolleston1 ,j4 ,d41 #bhd ,rom4 ,forsch41 #faj ,romanic ,review1 #dii1 #fca ,roscher1 ,lexicon1 #cd ,rose1 ,v41 #abj1 #dfc1 #efg1 #egf1 #fja ,analecta1 #aba ,anecdota1 #eif1 #faj ,aristoteles ,de lapidibus1 #gge1 #ggg ,,hss ,verzeichnisse1 #gjb1 #gbj1 #gdh1 #ggd ,medicina ,plinii1 #eie1 #fjj1 #fji1 #fab ,ptolemaeus1 #fab ,soranus1 #ega ,roussat1 ,r41 #aaf ,roux de ,rochelle1 #efd ,rck1 ,plinius im ,mittelalter1 #ea ,ruelle1 #aie1 #bia2 and see ,berthelot and ,ruelle et ,poire1 #cga ,ruellius1 #fjj ,ruffer1 ,m4 ,a41 #aa ,rufinus1 chap4 xvii1 #dde ,rufus1 ,melancholia1 #gef ,ruska1 ,j41 #faa ,sackur1 ,sibyl4 ,texte1 #bhe ,sadan1 #fea ,st4 ,george ,stock1 #cfb ,salmon1 ,g41 #cfb ,salomon the archiater1 #afa ,samuel1 ,first ,book of1 #ddh ,satyrus1 #abc ,sayce1 ,a4 ,h41 #ce ,schanz1 #eif ,schenkel1 ,c41 #dhc ,schepss1 ,g41 #cha1 #eai ,schiaparelli1 #af1 #cb1 #ce ,schiche1 ,t41 #bfh ,schlurick1 ,h41 #djj ,schmertosch1 ,r41 #bjb ,schmid1 ,w41 #aje1 #ajh ,schmidt1 #ahh ,schmidt1 ,c41 #bii1 #cfa1 #cgg-h ,schneider1 ,j4 ,g41 #bcg ,schneider1 ,o41 #bcg ,schneidewin1 #dff ,schultze1 ,v41 #dig ,schwab1 ,m41 #cc ,schwartze und ,petermann1 #cfi1 #cgg ,scientific ,monthly1 #aid ,scribonius ,largus1 #fjj ,scylax1 #bef ,seeck1 ,o41 #edj ,seleucus1 #bhi ,seneca ,natural ,questions1 chap4 in1 #aif1 #edb1 #eec ,apocryphal correspondence with the apostle ,paul1 #eef ,septuagint1 #dec1 #dei ,serapion1 #faj ,serenus ,sammonicus1 #fjh ,seth1 #cfe1 #dgd ,sethe1 #i ,sextus ,empiricus1 #aaf1 #bfi1 #bge-f1 #dfi ,sextus ,papirius ,placidus1 #eii ,shakespeare1 #ggb ,shelley1 #dcb ,sibylline ,books1 #bgb1 #bhe ,sigebertus ,gemblacensis1 #fac ,sijthoff1 ,a4 ,w41 #fjg ,sikes1 ,e4 ,e41 #ba ,silvester ,,ii1 pope1 see ,gerbert ,simon ,cephas1 ,teaching of1 #dbd ,simon ,cordo of ,genoa1 #efg1 #faj ,simon ,papiensis1 #ebe ,simon1 the heretic1 ,great ,declaration1 #cfb2 and see ,simon ,magus in other index ,simonides1 #egd ,singer1 ,charles1 #cde1 #eig1 #fjg1 #fji1 #ffj1 #fgd ,sitzungsberichte 7,bavaria71 #ea 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,strabo1 #bac2 and see ,walafrid ,strassmeier1 ,j4 ,n41 see ,epping and ,strzygowski1 ,j41 #dig ,stubbs1 ,w41 #ggc ,stcken1 #ae1 #ce ,studi ,romanzi1 #dii ,stumfall1 ,b41 #bda ,sudhoff1 ,k41 #ahh1 #fhc1 #gcg ,suetonius1 #bdd1 #dbe1 #fja ,sulla1 ,memoirs1 #bja ,sulpicius ,severus1 #cha1 #dbc1 #dfi ,sundevall1 #gc ,symeon ,seth1 #afd ,symon1 see ,simon ,syncellus1 #aid1 #aif1 #cda ,synesius of ,cyrene1 #aif1 #cbj1 #ecc1 #edj-d1 #eee ,tabit ben ,corra1 see ,thebit ben ,corat ,tacitus1 #bja1 #bda ,tallquist1 ,k4 ,l41 #cc ,talmud1 #cee ,taylor1 ,h4 ,o41 #ecc ,taylor1 ,t41 #bii1 #cjg ,tennulius1 #caf ,tertullian1 #ddg1 #dfi1 #dgf1 #fbh ,anima1 #dfc1 #dfi ,apology1 #dfc1 #dfe ,cultu feminarum1 #dfc ,idolatria1 #dba ,pallio1 #dic ,praescript41 #cfi ,testaments of ,twelve ,patriarchs1 #cde ,texte und ,untersuchungen1 #bii1 ,book ,,ii passim ,thabit ben ,corra1 see ,thebit ben ,corat ,thales1 #ig1 #efc ,thatcher1 ,g4 ,w41 #chc ,theatrum chemicum ,britannicum1 see ,ashmole1 ,e4 ,thebit ben ,corat1 #ffa-f ,almagest1 #aji ,imaginibus1 #ffd-f ,iudiciis1 #ffd ,motu octave spere1 #ffc ,ponderibus1 #ffc ,theobald1 #dih1 #ejj ,theocritus1 #bb1 #bff ,theodoret1 #cfi1 #dbc1 #ddg ,theodorus ,priscianus1 #fjh ,theodosian ,code1 #ecf1 #ehd ,theol4 ,quartalschrift1 #edj ,theon of ,alexandria1 #aji ,theophilus1 medical writer1 #efi ,theophilus of ,alexandria1 #dfa ,theophilus1 ,to ,autolycus1 #dhc1 #dib ,theophilus1 ,schedula diversarum artium1 chap4 xxxiii ,theophilus ,macer1 see ,macer ,theophrastus1 #bg1 #bi1 #ge1 #ha1 #ahf1 #bcf-h ,thessalus1 #abg ,thilo1 ,j4 ,c41 #chg1 #dgf ,thomas1 apostle1 ,acts of1 #cgd1 #cif ,gospel of1 chap4 xvi ,thomas of ,cantimpr1 #ejc1 #egh1 #fjj1 #fcf1 #feh ,thomas1 ,w4 ,i41 #e1 #ag ,thompson1 ,d',arcy ,w4 ,aristotle as ,biologist1 #bi-cj1 #gc1 #adf ,glossary of ,greek ,birds1 #gc1 #acj1 #bee1 #bfe1 #cbd ,history of ,animals1 #bf1 #cj1 #gc1 #dia ,thompson1 ,c4 ,j4 ,s41 #aca ,thompson1 ,h41 #g1 #bg-h ,thompson1 ,r4 ,c41 #ae1 #ah1 #cc ,thorndike1 ,l41 #ba1 #bf1 #ebe ,thrasyllus1 #ii ,thucydides1 #bdd ,tischendorf1 chap4 xvi ,tittel1 ,k41 #aic ,tobit1 ,book of1 #fhh ,todd1 ,t4 ,w41 #aj1 #gbc ,torinus1 ,a41 #efg1 #egg ,tozer1 #aca ,transactions of ,american ,philological ,association1 #bd1 #bh1 #bic ,transactions of ,provincial ,medical and ,surgical ,association1 #adg ,transactions of ,society of ,biblical ,archaeology1 #ce ,treitel1 ,l41 #cdi ,tribonian1 #efh ,trithemius1 #feh1 #gjb ,trotula1 #gdj ,turner1 ,s41 #fcc ,twelve ,tables1 #bcd ,twysden1 #fij ,tycho ,brahe1 #deg ,tychsen1 ,o4 ,g41 #dig ,tyrwhitt1 #bic ,unger1 ,f41 #gf ,university of ,nebraska ,studies1 #bd ,usener1 #fai ,valentinelli1 ,j41 #afd ,valerius ,soranus1 #ej2 and see ,julius ,valerius ,valois1 ,n41 #djb ,valpy1 #db ,varro1 #ej1 #bji1 #bci1 #ccj1 #fbe ,vedas1 #bea ,vergil1 #ig1 #edd1 #fja1 #fab1 #fia ,vettius ,valens1 #aaf ,vincent of ,beauvais1 #cdb1 #chi1 #djb-c1 #ejc1 #fjj1 #feh1 #ffj1 #ffi-gj1 #fhg1 #gdd1 #geg ,vindanius ,anatolius1 #fjd ,virchow's ,archiv1 #ffh1 chap4 xxxii ,virolleaud1 ,c41 #ce ,vitruvius1 #adc1 #ahc-h1 #aii1 #fja ,vogelstein1 #eeb ,vogl1 ,s41 see ,bjrnbo and ,voigt1 ,h4 ,g41 #dgc ,volkmann1 ,r41 #bii1 #edj ,vossius1 ,i41 #bef ,vulgate1 #fhh ,waitz1 ,h41 #djj1 #dje1 #ffc ,walafrid ,strabo1 #fab-c1 #fae ,walker1 ,a41 #chg ,waztalkora1 #fii ,webb1 ,c4 ,c4 ,i41 #cjc1 #fca1 #fhd ,weber1 ,c4 ,f4 and ,caesar1 ,j41 #dbf ,weber1 ,o41 #cc ,webster1 ,h41 #af1 #fhf ,weissenberger1 ,b41 #bjb ,wellmann1 ,m41 #aba1 #ach1 #fjf1 #fjh1 #faj ,wendland1 ,p41 #cdh1 #cej ,wescher1 ,c41 #ahh ,wessely1 ,c41 #cfe1 #fjg ,westenberger1 #aai ,westermann1 ,a41 #eeb ,westermarck1 ,e41 #gc ,wickersheimer1 ,e41 #fgc-d1 #fhc1 #fib1 #fih1 #gji ,wiedemann1 ,a41 #g-h1 #ad ,wiedemann1 ,e41 #fdi1 #gfc ,wilcken1 #ab ,william of ,auvergne1 #djb1 #gbe ,william le ,clerc1 #dig-i ,william of ,malmesbury1 #fij1 #gjd-f1 #gaj1 #gad ,william of ,moerbeke1 #agi ,william de ,saliceto1 #fja ,wimmer1 see ,aubert and ,winckler1 #ae1 #ce ,windelband1 ,w41 #bf ,windisch1 ,h41 #cdi ,windischmann1 #bif ,winsor1 ,j41 #ajf ,withington1 ,e41 #ebj1 #ffg-h ,wolf1 ,c41 #fjg ,wolf1 ,h41 #caf ,wolff1 ,g41 #big ,woltmann and ,woermann1 #fjg ,woolston1 ,t41 #chh ,wright1 ,t41 #eef ,wnsch1 ,r41 #bh1 #cff ,wuttke1 ,m4 ,h41 #fja ,wynkyn de ,worde1 #dgh ,wyttenbach1 #bii ,xanthus1 #ge ,xenocrates ,aphrodisiensis1 #afg ,xenophanes1 #ahj1 #bgj ,xenophon1 #bb ,ya'kb ibn ,ishk ibn ,sabbh1 see ,alkindi ,yonge1 ,c4 ,d41 #cdi ,yuhanna ibn ,masawaih1 see ,mesue ,yule1 ,h41 ,marco ,polo1 #acb1 #bad1 #dgi ,zacher1 ,j41 chap4 xxiv ,zeitschrift f4 gypt4 ,sprache1 #aj1 #ce ,zeitschrift f4 deutsch4 ,morgendl4 ,gesell41 #aba1 #bfg ,zeitschrift f4 klass4 ,philol41 #geb ,zeitschrift f4 ,math41 #ffa ,zeitschrift f4 neutest4 ,wiss41 #dja ,zeitschrift f4 wiss4 ,theol41 #djj ,zeller1 ,e41 #bd1 #caf ,zervs1 ,s41 #eff ,ziegler1 ,k41 chap4 xxiii ,zimmern1 #ai1 #cb1 #cd ,zopyrus1 #dfj ,zoroaster1 #eh-i1 #bjf1 #bce1 #bha1 #bie1 #cif1 #dae1 #dce1 #fje1 #fbi ,zosimus1 #aca1 #aie1 #aih1 #bij1 #bib ,,index ,,of ,,manuscripts ,additional #hibh1 p4 #fji ,additional #aajce1 p4 #ejj ,additional #aebcf1 pp4 #fid1 #gaf ,additional #aghjh1 chap4 xxx ,additional #bbcih1 p4 #fie ,additional #bbgai1 p4 #fed ,additional #cdaaa1 p4 #egh ,alenon #aj1 p4 #dhd ,amiens #bbb1 p4 #fcd ,amiens #dha1 p4 #dgh ,amiens fonds ,lescalopier #b1 p4 #fgf ,amiens fonds ,lescalopier #cj1 p4 #dhd ,amplon4 ,folio #da1 p4 #faa ,amplon4 ,octavo #fb1 p4 #gdg ,amplon4 ,octavo #fb;a1 p4 #fab ,amplon4 ,octavo #fb;b1 p4 #fab ,amplon4 ,quarto #ab1 p4 #eeh ,amplon4 ,quarto #aea1 p4 #fdc ,amplon4 ,quarto #agd1 p4 #ffe ,amplon4 ,quarto #bjd1 p4 #egh ,amplon4 ,quarto #cab1 p4 #ffd ,amplon4 ,quarto #cdi1 p4 #fdc ,amplon4 ,quarto #ceb1 p4 #fea ,amplon4 ,quarto #cfe1 p4 #fej ,amplon4 ,quarto #chj1 p4 #fid ,amplon4 ,quarto #cha1 p4 #cdj ,amplon4 ,math4 #dh1 #fdc ,amplon4 ,math4 #ec1 p4 #cdj ,amplon4 ,math4 #ed1 p4 #bfg ,arsenal #hhj1 p4 #fej ,arsenal #iha1 p4 #ajf ,arsenal #ajcf1 p4 #fej ,arundel #bdb1 p4 #eef ,arundel #bie1 p4 #fae ,arundel #cai1 p4 #fhc ,ashburnham 7,florence7 #acj1 p4 #fhb ,ashmole #agi1 p4 #fdh ,ashmole #ahi1 p4 #fha ,ashmole #bji1 p4 #fdh ,ashmole #cdf1 p4 #ffe ,ashmole #cfa1 pp4 #fha1 #fhh ,ashmole #cfi1 pp4 #fdh1 #gad ,ashmole #cfi-,v1 p4 #fej ,ashmole #cic1 p4 #fej ,ashmole #dcd1 p4 #fdh ,ashmole #adca1 pp4 #eig1 #eii1 #fji ,ashmole #adfb1 p4 #eig ,avranches #bce1 p4 #ffd ,balliol #abd1 p4 #eb ,balliol #adf;,a1 p4 #eb ,balliol #bca1 p4 #aba ,bamberg ,l-,,iii-#i1 pp4 #faj1 #gdg ,barberini 7,rome7 ,,ix1 #bi1 p4 #fji ,berlin #abh1 p4 #fcd ,berlin #acj1 p4 #fcd ,berlin #aca1 p4 #fie ,berlin #afe1 p4 #gbj ,berlin #gii1 p4 #dgg ,berlin #hjj1 p4 #dgg ,berlin #hih1 p4 #gdh ,berlin #ijb1 p4 #afc ,berlin #ijc1 p4 #afc ,berlin #ief1 pp4 #gjb1 #ggd ,berlin #ifc1 pp4 #cdj1 #ffe ,berlin #ifd1 p4 #ffe ,bernard #bcbe1 p4 #dgh ,,bn ,greek #icj1 p4 #dja ,,bn ,greek #bagi1 p4 #fjg ,,bn ,greek #bcaf1 p4 #egh ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #bbi1 pp4 #fgg1 #gjb1 #gbe1 #gbh;ff4 ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #dij1 p4 #dhd ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #faf1 p4 #fdc ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afab1 p4 #fcd ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afae1 p4 #fcd ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afaf1 chap4 xxix ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afai1 p4 #ega ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afcb1 p4 #fcd ,,bn #agja and #agjb1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #agah to #agbg1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #aghg;,a1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #bbjj1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #bchg1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #beih1 p4 #gaj ,,bn #bfba1 p4 #ggf ,,bn #bfcc1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #bfcg1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #bfch1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #bfie;,a1 p4 #eef ,,bn #bghj1 p4 #ejj ,,bn #bhgd1 p4 #eef ,,bn #cffj;,a1 pp4 #fha-b ,,bn #chcf1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #dabf1 p4 #eef ,,bn #dafa1 p4 #gad ,,bn #dhja to #dhjd1 p4 #ajf ,,bn #dhch1 p4 #ajf ,,bn #dhgg1 p4 #eef ,,bn #dhhj1 p4 #eef ,,bn #ejfb1 p4 #eef ,,bn #ebci1 p4 #fib ,,bn #eedc1 p4 #fcd ,,bn #faba1 p4 #eef ,,bn #fahf1 p4 #eef ,,bn #fbif1 p4 #feg ,,bn #fcai1 p4 #feg ,,bn #fcbb1 p4 #feg ,,bn #fcbc;,a1 p4 #feg ,,bn #fcbe1 p4 #feg ,,bn #fcfe1 p4 #eef ,,bn #fche1 p4 #eef ,,bn #fejc1 p4 #eef ,,bn #fead1 pp4 #ffd1 #fgj ,,bn #fefg;,a1 p4 #feg ,,bn #fefi1 p4 #feg ,,bn #fhaa1 p4 #eef ,,bn #fhca1 p4 #eef ,,bn #fhhj1 pp4 #efg1 #ehd ,,bn #fhha1 p4 #egg ,,bn #fhhb1 p4 #egg ,,bn #fied1 p4 #fjj ,,bn #fieg1 p4 #fjj ,,bn #figh1 p4 #fdh ,,bn #gjbh1 pp4 #fgd1 #gbh ,,bn #gaef1 p4 #fgj ,,bn #gaie1 p4 #ffc ,,bn #gbhb1 p4 #ffe ,,bn #gbii;,a1 pp4 #fgf1 #fgi1 #fhf1 #fif ,,bn #gcaf1 pp4 #fdg1 #feb ,,bn #gcbh1 p4 #fdg ,,bn #gcbi1 p4 #feb ,,bn #gccb1 p4 #fdg ,,bn #gccg1 pp4 #ffd1 #fhg ,,bn #gcdi1 p4 #gaf ,,bn #gcea1 ,p4 #gaf ,,bn #gcgg;,b1 p4 #ffc ,,bn #gdab1 p4 #fii ,,bn #gdah1 pp4 #dfc1 #ggg ,,bn #gdbd1 p4 #ffc ,,bn #gddj1 p4 #fdg ,,bn #gdhb1 p4 #fdg ,,bn #gdhf1 pp4 #fic1 #gaf ,,bn #gefa1 p4 #eef ,,bn #hbdg1 p4 #feg ,,bn #heja;,a1 p4 #eef ,,bn #heah1 p4 #eef ,,bn #heba;,a1 p4 #eef ,,bn #hfjg1 p4 #eef ,,bn #iccb1 pp4 #ega1 #egf1 #faj ,,bn #ajbcc1 p4 #ega ,,bn #ajbfj1 p4 #ffc ,,bn #ajbga1 p4 #gae ,,bn #aafbd1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #abacd1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #abace1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #abacf1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #abiie1 p4 #fji ,,bn #acjad1 p4 #cdj ,,bn #acccf1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #accej1 p4 #dde ,,bn #aciea1 p4 #bfg ,,bn #adgjj1 p4 #gdd ,,bn #adhdg1 p4 #dhd ,,bn #aefhe1 p4 #fcd ,,bn #afjhb1 p4 #feg ,,bn #afjhc1 p4 #feg ,,bn #afjhh1 p4 #feg ,,bn #afadb1 p4 #feg ,,bn #afbjd1 p4 #fej ,,bn #afbaf1 p4 #fif ,,bn #afdij1 p4 #feg ,,bn #afhai1 pp4 #dgf1 #dgh ,,bn #aghfh1 p4 #fhc1 chap4 xxx ,bodleian #bf1 p4 #fid ,bodleian #agg1 p4 #fid ,bodleian #bff1 pp4 #ffd1 #gje1 #gaj ,bodleian #dfc1 pp4 #feb1 #ffe ,bodleian #bjfj1 p4 #geh ,bologna #ieb1 p4 #eb ,bologna ,university ,library #cgh1 p4 #faj ,bruce ,papyrus1 p4 #cgh ,brussels 7,library of ,dukes of ,burgundy7 #aghb1 p4 #dhd ,brussels #bghd1 p4 #feg ,brussels #hhij1 p4 #ggf ,brussels #ajjgd1 p4 #dih ,brussels #aedhi1 p4 #geh ,cambrai #aie1 p4 #fif ,cambrai #bbi1 p4 #fif ,cambrai #hbi1 p4 #fif ,cambrai #hfa1 p4 #fif ,cambrai #ijg1 p4 #geh ,cambrai #iad1 p4 #geh ,cambrai #ibe1 p4 #fcc ,canon4 ,misc4 #cgj1 p4 #fdc ,canon4 ,misc4 #eag1 p4 #fhb ,casin4 #ig1 p4 #egg ,chalons-sur-,marne #g1 p4 #fie ,chartres #fc1 p4 #dhd ,chartres #aac1 p4 #fib ,chartres #cdb1 p4 #egg ,,clm #bg1 p4 #ffe ,,clm #ea1 p4 #fej ,,clm #ei1 p4 #ffe ,,clm #afa1 pp4 #gdi-ej ,,clm #afh1 p4 #gej ,,clm #ahg1 p4 #gej ,,clm #bae1 p4 #efj ,,clm #bgj1 p4 #gej ,,clm #ccg1 p4 #faj ,,clm #cdd1 p4 #cgg ,,clm #cib1 p4 #fdh ,,clm #dhi1 p4 #fdh ,,clm #ebg1 p4 #gaf ,,clm #efj1 pp4 #eei1 #fih1 #gaj ,,clm #ehh1 p4 #ffd ,,clm #fba1 p4 #bda ,,clm #hbf1 p4 #fea ,,clm #adhg1 p4 #fej ,,clm #aejc1 p4 #fej ,,clm #bedi1 p4 #dhd ,,clm #cgbh1 p4 #dhd ,,clm #fbeh1 p4 #dhd ,,clm #fchb1 pp4 #fgh1 #fhj ,,clm #iiba1 p4 #fgh ,,clm #aacai1 p4 #eef ,,clm #acjcd1 p4 #gdi ,,clm #acjgi1 p4 #dhd ,,clm #adcii1 p4 #dhd ,,clm #adehc1 p4 #ajf ,,clm #adhcf1 p4 #gja ,,clm #ahaeh1 p4 #fcd ,,clm #ahfba1 p4 #dgg ,,clm #ahfbi1 pp4 #fgd1 #fic1 #fif ,,clm #ahgfd1 p4 #fgd ,,clm #aidag1 p4 #ejj ,,clm #aiedd1 p4 #dgg ,,clm #aifdh1 p4 #dih ,,clm #baeeg1 p4 #fcd ,,clm #bafbg1 p4 #dgg ,,clm #bbcjg1 p4 #fib ,,clm #bccij1 p4 #fif ,,clm #bcdgi1 p4 #gge ,,clm #bcece1 p4 #ega ,,clm #bcghg1 p4 #dih ,,clm #bchci1 p4 #dgg ,,clm #bdega1 p4 #dgg ,,clm #bejgc1 p4 #dgg ,,clm #bffhh1 p4 #dgg ,corpus ,christi #hb1 p4 #eee ,corpus ,christi #aad1 p4 #feg ,corpus ,christi #acd1 p4 #dgf ,corpus ,christi #aed1 p4 #feg ,corpus ,christi #ahi1 p4 #egh ,corpus ,christi #bcc1 p4 #feb ,corpus ,christi #bed1 p4 #fdh ,cortona #aaj1 p4 #afd ,cotton ,appendix ,,vi1 pp4 #fdc1 #fdf ,cotton ,caligula ,a1 ,,xv1 pp4 #fhj1 #fie ,cotton ,galba ,e1 ,,viii1 p4 #dgg ,cotton ,nero ,d1 ,,viii1 p4 #eef ,cotton ,tiberius ,a1 ,,iii1 chap4 xxix ,cotton ,tiberius ,c1 ,,vi1 p4 #fib ,cotton ,titus ,d1 ,,xxvi1 chap4 xxix ,cotton ,titus ,d1 ,,xxvii1 p4 #fha ,cotton ,vespasian ,b1 ,x1 p4 #fja ,cotton ,vitellius ,a1 ,,xii1 p4 #fie ,cotton ,vitellius ,c1 ,,iii1 pp4 #eig1 #fab ,cotton ,vitellius ,c1 ,,viii1 p4 #fie ,,cul #bac1 p4 #fjb ,,cul #gfh1 p4 #gge ,,cul #acch1 p4 #fgh ,,cul #adbi1 p4 #eeh ,,cul #afhg1 p4 #fgi ,,cul #agfg1 pp4 #aaj1 #ffc ,,cul ,ii-i-#ac1 p4 #feb ,,cu ,clare #ae1 p4 #fdg ,,cu ,corpus #aic1 p4 #dhd ,,cu ,jesus #dd1 p4 #faj ,,cu ,trinity #hhd1 p4 #dih ,,cu ,trinity #ijf1 p4 #gdh ,,cu ,trinity #icf1 p4 #fdc ,,cu ,trinity #ide1 p4 #fie ,,cu ,trinity #ihg1 p4 #fhj ,,cu ,trinity #ajda1 pp4 #dja1 #eeg ,,cu ,trinity #ajdd1 p4 #gbd ,,cu ,trinity #ajfd1 p4 #gdi ,,cu ,trinity #aaji1 pp4 #fgh1 #fic ,,cu ,trinity #aaeb1 pp4 #eig1 #eii ,,cu ,trinity #acfe1 p4 #gec ,,cu ,trinity #acfi1 pp4 #fhf1 #fib1 #fie ,,cu ,trinity #addf1 p4 #efd ,digby #cj1 p4 #dbh ,digby #dj1 p4 #fdf ,digby #dc1 p4 #fjj ,digby #ea1 p4 #aaj ,digby #eh1 p4 #fic ,digby #fc1 pp4 #fhf1 #fie ,digby #fg1 pp4 #cdj1 #fdg ,digby #fh1 pp4 #fdg1 #feb ,digby #gi1 p4 #egh ,digby #hc1 pp4 #gje-g ,digby #hf1 p4 #fgh ,digby #hh1 p4 #fha ,digby #ia1 pp4 #fdc1 #fdf1 #fdh ,digby #ib1 p4 #fdg ,digby #ic1 p4 #fdg ,digby #adg1 p4 #fdg ,digby #agd1 pp4 #gja-b ,digby #agf1 p4 #fdg ,digby #ahc1 pp4 #fdc1 #fdf ,digby #aid1 pp4 #feb1 #ffe ,dijon #ddh1 p4 #fie ,dijon #ajde1 p4 #fej ,edwin ,smith ,papyrus1 p4 #ab ,egerton #hba1 pp4 #fgg-ha1 #fhd1 #gbf-i ,egerton #hbc1 p4 #fii ,escorial ,q-,i-#d1 pp4 #eb-c ,escorial ,r-,i-#e1 pp4 #eb-c ,escorial -,,ii-#i1 p4 #gde ,eton #acc1 ,bl4#d4f1 p4 #eef ,eton #acd1 ,bl4#d4g1 p4 #eb ,exon4 #bc1 p4 #feh ,florence ,,ii1 iii1 #bad1 pp4 #fec1 #ffe ,gonville and ,caius #aji1 p4 #feh ,gonville and ,caius #cde1 p4 #eii ,gonville and ,caius #djj1 p4 #egg ,gonville and ,caius #daa1 p4 #gdb ,grenoble #bjh1 p4 #ejf ,grenoble #beh1 p4 #dhd ,gubbio #be1 p4 #dii ,harleian #a1 p4 #fej ,harleian #ac1 pp4 #fdc1 #ffc ,harleian #hj1 pp4 #cdj1 #ffe ,harleian #ebg1 p4 #eeg ,harleian #aehe1 pp4 #eig1 #fji1 #fif ,harleian #afab1 p4 #cdj ,harleian #agce1 p4 #fhd ,harleian #bbeh1 p4 #fgg ,harleian #cjag1 pp4 #fgg1 #fhj1 #fie ,harleian #cjii1 p4 #fbc ,harleian #cbga1 p4 #fie ,harleian #cfdg1 pp4 #ffc1 #ffe ,harleian #chei1 p4 #fja ,harleian #cifi1 p4 #bda ,harleian #dcdf1 p4 #fab ,harleian #dihf1 pp4 #eig1 #fjh ,harleian #ebid1 p4 #fji ,harleian #ecaa1 p4 #fid ,hatton #gf1 p4 #ggf ,hunterian #dd1 p4 #ffg ,ivrea #c1 p4 #fcd ,ivrea #f1 p4 #fcd ,ivrea #ai1 p4 #fib ,laon #djg1 p4 #fib ,laud4 ,misc4 #bdg1 pp4 #dih1 #eef ,laud4 ,misc4 #efg1 pp4 #gdi1 #gea ,laud4 ,misc4 #eid1 pp4 #fej-a ,laud4 ,misc4 #feh1 pp4 #ddd1 #dgg ,laurentianus xxxviii1 #bd1 p4 #fhc ,laurentianus ,plut4 #fh1 #b1 p4 #bda ,lincoln ,college #cd1 p4 #cea ,lucca ,i1 ,l1 p4 #gfd ,lucca #bcf1 pp4 #eig1 #fie ,lyons #cbh1 p4 #ffd ,madrid #ajjaf1 p4 #fic ,magliabech4 ,,iv1 #fc1 p4 #dii ,magliabech4 ,,xi1 #aag1 p4 #ffc ,magliabech4 ,,xx1 #bj1 p4 #ffe ,le ,mans #ae1 p4 #dhd ,le ,mans #bfc1 p4 #eb ,merton #bai1 p4 #abe ,monte ,cassino #ig1 p4 #egg ,montpellier #bgg1 pp4 #fjj1 #faa1 #ggf ,munich1 ,latin ,,mss41 see ,,clm ,new ,college ,,ms41 unnumbered1 p4 #eb ,novara #dj1 p4 #dhd ,orlans #ce1 p4 #dhd ,orlans #aib1 p4 #dhd ,orlans #bgf1 p4 #fib ,ottobon4 #ddc1 p4 #dja ,palat4 ,lat4 #dhg1 p4 #fgc ,pembroke #bgh1 p4 #fgf ,perugia #gcf1 p4 #eih ,rawlinson ,c-#aag1 p4 #fdc ,rawlinson ,c-#cbh1 pp4 #eig1 #fjj1 #gdf ,riccard4 #aai1 p4 #fgj ,riccard4 #abbh1 p4 #ggf ,royal #b-;,c-,,xii1 p4 #dih ,royal #d-;,a-,,xiii1 p4 #fe ,royal #ab-;,b-,,xvi1 p4 #egg ,royal #ab-;,c-,,iv1 pp4 #eed1 #eef ,royal #ab-;,c-,,xviii1 pp4 #bfg1 #cdj1 #ffd ,royal #ab-;,e-,,xx1 p4 #egg ,royal #ab-;,f-,x1 p4 #fe ,royal #ac-;,a-,i1 pp4 #eed-e1 #efd-e ,royal #ae-;,b-,,ii1 p4 #fja ,royal #ae-;,b-,,ix1 p4 #gja ,royal #ae-;,c-,,iv1 p4 #fja ,royal #ae-;,c-,,vi1 pp4 #eed1 #eef ,royal #ag-;,a-,i1 p4 #gje ,st4 ,augustine's ,canterbury #aaff1 p4 #fdc ,st4 ,augustine's ,canterbury #aagb1 p4 #gad ,st4 ,gall #gea1 p4 #eif ,ste4 ,genevive #bbdj1 p4 #fdc ,st4 ,john's #ag1 p4 #fhj ,st4 ,john's #he1 p4 #gdg ,st4 ,john's #abh1 p4 #cdi ,s4 ,marco #agi1 p4 #feh ,s4 ,marco ,,xi1 #ajb1 p4 #ffe ,s4 ,marco ,,xi1 #aaa1 p4 #fid ,s4 ,marco ,,xiv1 #g1 p4 #afd ,s4 ,marco ,,xiv1 #bf1 p4 #afd ,savile #ae1 p4 #feb ,schlestadt ,,ms41 pp4 #gfe1 #gfi ,selden #cdfg1 p4 #fdc ,selden supra #gf1 p4 #fdc ,semur #aj1 p4 #dhd ,sloane #dge1 chap4 xxix1 pp4 #gbc-f ,sloane #acje1 p4 #ffe ,sloane #aega1 p4 #eii ,sloane #afai1 p4 #eef ,sloane #agcd1 p4 #bia ,sloane #aige1 pp4 #eig1 #fji1 #fif ,sloane #bjcj1 p4 #feb ,sloane #bded1 p4 #feg ,sloane1 #bdfa1 pp4 #fha1 #fif ,sloane #bdgb1 p4 #gaf ,sloane #bhci1 pp4 #gbc-d ,sloane #ceed1 p4 #gaf ,sloane #chba1 p4 #cdj ,sloane #chbf1 p4 #bfg ,sloane #chdf1 p4 #ffe ,sloane #chdg1 pp4 #cdj1 #ffe ,sloane #chdh1 pp4 #bfg1 #faa ,sloane #cheg1 p4 #gaf ,sloane #chhc1 p4 #ffe ,soissons #aba1 p4 #dhd ,tanner #aib1 p4 #ffc ,turin ,k-,,iv-#c1 p4 #fji ,university ,college #cc1 p4 #dgg ,university ,college #hi1 p4 #gej ,vatican #ahj to #ahe1 p4 #cdi ,vatican #bfi to #bgc1 p4 #dhd ,vatican #fdb1 p4 #fic ,vatican #fdd1 pp4 #fic1 #fie ,vatican #fde1 p4 #fgd ,vatican ,palat4 ,lat4 #agf1 p4 #fib ,vatican ,palat4 ,lat4 #bce1 chap4 xxix ,vatican ,palat4 ,lat4 #dhe1 chap4 xxix ,vatican ,palat4 ,lat4 #hei1 p4 #dgg ,vatican ,urb4 ,lat4 #bij1 p4 #fic ,vendme #aji1 pp4 #egg-h ,vendme #abb1 p4 #dhd ,vendme #abi1 p4 #dhd ,vendme #agb1 p4 #egg ,vendme #age1 p4 #egg ,vienna #cjc1 p4 #dii ,vienna #bbde1 p4 #fgi ,vienna #bbgb1 p4 #fjd ,vienna #bcgh1 p4 #ffe ,vienna #bche1 p4 #fdg ,vienna #bdcf1 pp4 #fdg1 #fej ,vienna #beaa1 p4 #dii ,vienna #becb1 pp4 #fae1 #fha1 #fic ,vienna #cabd1 p4 #bfg ,vienna #cbjg1 p4 #fac ,vienna #cbee1 p4 #ccb ,vienna #ebjc1 p4 #ffc ,vienna #ebaf1 p4 #cdj ,vienna #ecga1 p4 #fji ,vienna #ajehc1 p4 #fea ,vind4 ,med4 #bi1 p4 #dii ,westcar ,papyrus1 p4 #h ,wolfenbttel #bgbe1 p4 #cdj ,wolfenbttel #bhhe1 p4 #ffh ,wolfenbttel #cbff1 p4 #dgg ,wolfenbttel #ddce1 p4 #dih ,wolfenbttel palimpsest1 p4 #aba ,,footnotes3 #a ,h4 ,cotton1 ,five ,books of ,maccabees1 #ahcb1 pp4 ix-x4 #b ,but ,professor ,haskins' recent article in ,isis on 8,michael ,scot and ,frederick ,,ii0 and my chapter on ,michael ,scot were written quite independently4 #c ,lectures on the ,philosophy of ,religion2 quoted by ,sir ,james ,frazer1 ,the ,magic ,art 7#aiaa71 ,i1 #dbf4 #d ,that field has already been treated by ,joseph ,hansen1 ,zauberwahn1 ,inquisition und ,hexenprozess im ,mittelalter1 #aijj1 and will be further illuminated by ,a ,history of ,witchcraft in ,europe1 soon to be edited by ,professor ,george ,l4 ,burr from ,h4 ,c4 ,lea's materials4 ,see also a work just published by ,miss ,m4 ,a4 ,murray1 ,the ,witch-,cult in ,western ,europe1 ,oxford1 #aiba4 #e ,some of my scientific friends have urged me to begin with ,aristotle1 as being a much abler scientist than ,pliny1 but this would take us rather too far back in time and ,i have not felt equal to a treatment of the science of the genuine ,aristotle per se1 although in the course of this book ,i shall say something of his medieval influence and more especially of the ,pseudo-,aristotle4 #f ,frazer has1 of course1 repeatedly made the point that modern science is an outgrowth from primitive magic4 ,carveth ,read1 ,the ,origin of ,man1 #aibj1 in his chapter on 8,magic and ,science0 contends that 8in no case 444 is ,science derived from ,magic0 7p4 #ccg71 but this is mainly a logical and ideal distinction1 since he admits that 8for ages0 science 8is in the hands of wizards40 #g ,i am glad to see that other writers on magic are taking this view2 for instance1 ,e4 ,doutt1 ,magie et religion dans l',afrique du ,nord1 ,alger1 #aiji1 p4 #cea4 #h ,golden ,bough1 #ahid1 ,i1 #dbj4 ,w4 ,i4 ,thomas1 8,the ,relation of the ,medicine-,man to the ,origin of the ,professional ,occupations0 7reprinted in his ,source ,book for ,social ,origins1 #dth edition1 pp4 #bha-cjc71 in which he disputes ,herbert ,spencer's 8thesis that the medicine-man is the source and origin of the learned and artistic occupations10 does not really conflict with ,frazer's statement1 since for ,thomas the medicine-man is a priest rather than a magician4 ,thomas remarks later in the same book 7p4 #dcg71 8,furthermore1 the whole attempt of the savage to control the outside world1 so far as it contained a theory or a doctrine1 was based on magic40 #i ,chaldean ,magic and ,sorcery1 #ahgh1 p4 #gj4 #aj ,jules ,combarieu1 ,la musique et la magie1 ,paris1 #aiji1 p4 v4 #aa ,ibid41 pp4 #ac-ad4 #ab ,among the early ,arabs 8poetry is magical utterance0 7,macdonald 7#aiji7 p4 #af71 and the poet 8a wizard in league with spirits0 7,nicholson1 ,a ,literary ,history of the ,arabs1 #aiad1 p4 #gb74 #ac ,see ,s4 ,reinach1 8,l',art et la ,magie10 in ,l',anthropologie1 ,,xiv 7#aijc71 and ,y4 ,hirn1 ,origins of ,art1 ,london1 #aijj1 ,chapter xx1 8,art and ,magic40 ,j4 ,capart1 ,primitive ,art in ,egypt4 #ad ,p4 ,huvelin1 ,magie et droit individuel1 ,paris1 #aijg1 in ,anne ,sociologique1 ,x1 #a-dga2 see too his ,les tablettes magiques et le droit romain1 ,mcon1 #aija4 #ae ,r4 ,r4 ,marett1 ,psychology and ,folk-,lore1 #aibj1 ,chapter iii on 8,primitive ,values40 #af ,e4 ,a4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,egyptian ,magic1 #ahii1 p4 vii4 ,some other works on magic in ,egypt are3 ,groff1 tudes sur la sorcellerie1 mmoires prsents l'institut gyptien1 ,cairo1 #ahig2 ,g4 ,busson1 ,extrait d'un mmoire sur l'origine gyptienne de la ,kabbale1 in ,compte ,rendu du ,congrs ,scientifique ,international des ,catholiques1 ,sciences ,religieuses1 ,paris1 #ahia1 pp4 #bi-ea4 ,adolf ,erman1 ,life in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,english translation1 #ahid1 8describes vividly the magical conceptions and practices40 ,f4 ,l4 ,griffith1 ,stories of the ,high ,priests of ,memphis1 ,oxford1 #aijj1 contains some amusing demotic tales of magicians4 ,erman1 ,zaubersprche fr ,mutter und ,kind1 #aija4 ,f4 ,l4 ,griffith and ,h4 ,thompson1 ,the ,demotic ,magical ,papyrus of ,london and ,leiden1 #aijd4 ,see also ,j4 ,h4 ,breasted1 ,development of ,religion and ,thought in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 ,the following later but briefer treatments add little to ,budge3 ,alfred ,wiedemann1 ,magie und ,zauberei im ,alten gypten1 ,leipzig1 #aije1 and ,die ,amulette der alten gypter1 ,leipzig1 #aiaj1 both in ,der ,alte ,orient2 ,alexandre ,moret1 ,la magie dans l',egypte ancienne1 ,paris1 #aijf1 in ,muse ,guimet1 ,annales1 ,bibliothque de vulgarisation4 ,,xx4 #bda-ha4 #ag ,budge 7#ahii71 p4 #ai4 ,at pp4 #g-aj ,budge dates the ,westcar ,papyrus about #aeej ,b4 ,c4 and ,cheops1 of whom the tale is told1 in #chjj ,b4 ,c4 ,it is now customary to date the ,fourth ,dynasty1 to which ,cheops belonged1 about #bijj-bgej ,b4 ,c4 ,breasted1 ,history of ,egypt1 pp4 #abb-c1 speaks of a folk tale preserved in the ,papyrus ,westcar some nine 787 centuries after the fall of the ,fourth ,dynasty4 #ah ,budge1 p4 ix4 #ai ,budge1 pp4 xiii-xiv4 #bj ,for magical myths see ,e4 ,naville1 ,the ,old ,egyptian ,faith1 ,english translation by ,c4 ,campbell1 #aiji1 p4 #bcc et seq4 #ba ,budge1 pp4 #c-d2 ,lenormant1 ,chaldean ,magic1 p4 #ajj2 ,wiedemann 7#aije71 pp4 #ab1 #ad1 #ca4 #bb ,so labelled in the ,egyptian ,museum at ,cairo4 #bc ,budge1 p4 #ahe4 #bd ,breasted 7#aiab71 pp4 #hd-e1 #ic-e4 8,systematic study0 of the ,pyramid ,texts has been possible 8only since the appearance of ,sethe's great edition10--,die ,altgyptischen ,pyramidentexte1 ,leipzig1 #aijh-aiaj1 #b vols4 #be ,budge1 pp4 #ajd-g4 #bf ,many of them are to enable the dead man to leave his tomb at will2 hence the ,egyptian title1 8,the ,chapters of ,going ,forth by ,day10 ,breasted1 ,history of ,egypt1 p4 #age4 #bg ,budge1 p4 #bh4 #bh ,history of ,egypt1 p4 #age2 pp4 #bdi-ej for the further increase in mortuary magic after the ,middle ,kingdom1 and pp4 #cfi-gj1 #cij1 etc41 for ,ikhnaton's vain effort to suppress this mortuary magic4 ,see also ,breasted 7#aiab71 pp4 #ie-f1 #bha1 #bib-f1 etc4 #bi ,breasted 7#aiab71 pp4 #bij-a4 #cj ,budge1 pp4 xi1 #agj-a4 #ca ,budge1 p4 #d4 #cb ,budge1 pp4 #fg-gj1 #gc1 #gg4 #cc ,budge1 pp4 #bg-bh1 #da1 #fj4 #cd ,from the abstract of a paper on ,the ,history of ,egyptian ,medicine1 read by ,t4 ,wingate ,todd at the annual meeting of the ,american ,historical ,association1 #aiai4 ,see also ,b4 ,holmes and ,p4 ,g4 ,kitterman1 ,medicine in ,ancient ,egypt2 the ,hieratic ,material1 ,cincinnati1 #aiad1 #cd pp41 reprinted from ,the ,lancet-,clinic4 #ce ,see ,h4 ,l4 ,lring1 ,die ber die medicinischen ,kenntnisse der alten gypter berichtenden ,papyri verglichen mit den medic4 ,schriften griech4 u4 rmischer ,autoren1 ,leipzig1 #ahhh4 ,also ,joret1 ,i 7#ahig7 #caj-aa1 and the article there cited by ,g4 ,ebers1 ,ein ,kyphirecept aus dem ,papyrus ,ebers1 in ,zeitschrift f4 gypt4 ,sprache1 ,,xii 7#ahgd71 p4 #ajf4 ,m4 ,a4 ,ruffer1 ,palaeopathology of ,egypt1 #aiba4 #cf ,history of ,egypt1 p4 #aja4 #cg ,ibid1 p4 #ajb4 #ch ,budge1 p4 #bjf4 #ci ,history of ,egypt1 p4 #aja4 #dj ,archologie et ,histoire des ,sciences1 ,paris1 #aijf1 pp4 #bcb-c4 #da ,professor ,breasted1 however1 feels that the contents of the new ,edwin ,smith ,papyrus will raise our estimate of the worth of ,egyptian medicine and surgery3 letter to me of ,jan4 #bj1 #aibb4 #db ,petrie1 8,egypt10 in ,,eb1 p4 #gc4 #dc ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 p4 #bce4 ,see ,e4 ,b4 ,havell1 ,a ,handbook of ,indian ,art1 #aibj1 p4 #aa1 for a combination of 8exact science10 ritual1 and 8magic power0 in the work of the ancient ,aryan craftsmen4 #dd ,berthelot 7#ahhi71 pp4 vi-vii4 #de ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 pp4 #bdg-gh2 ,e4 ,o4 v4 ,lippmann 7#aiai71 pp4 #aah-dc4 #df ,budge1 pp4 #ai-bj4 #dg ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 p4 #aj4 #dh ,lippmann 7#aiai71 pp4 #aha-b1 and the authorities there cited4 #di ,budge1 pp4 #bad-e4 #ej ,budge1 pp4 #bbe-h2 ,wiedemann 7#aije71 p4 #i4 #ea ,wiedemann 7#aije71 pp4 #g1 #h1 #aa4 ,see also ,g4 ,daressy1 ,une ancienne liste des dcans gyptiens1 in ,annales du service des antiquits de l',egypte1 ,i 7#aijj71 #gi-ij4 #eb ,f4 ,boll in ,neue ,jahrb4 7#aijh71 p4 #ajh4 #ec ,budge1 pp4 #bbb-c4 #ed ,budge1 p4 #bbi4 #ee ,some works on the subject of magic and religion1 astronomy and astrology in ,babylonia and ,assyria will be found in ,appendix ,i at the close of this chapter4 #ef ,thompson1 ,semitic ,magic1 pp4 xxxvi-xxxvii2 ,fossey1 pp4 #ag-bj4 #eg ,farnell1 ,greece and ,babylon1 p4 #ajb4 #eh ,prince1 8,sumer and ,sumerians10 in ,,eb4 #ei ,webster1 ,rest ,days1 pp4 #bae-bb1 with further bibliography4 ,see ,orr 7#aiac71 #bh-ch1 for an interesting discussion in ,english of the problem of the origin of solar and lunar zodiac4 #fj ,lippmann 7#aiai71 pp4 #afh-i4 #fa ,although ,schiaparelli1 ,astronomy in the ,old ,testament1 #aije1 pp4 v1 #e1 #di-ea1 #ace1 denies that 8the frequent use of the number seven in the ,old ,testament is in any way connected with the planets40 ,i have not seen ,f4 von ,andrian1 ,die ,siebenzahl im ,geistesleben der ,vlker1 in ,mitteil1 d4 anthrop4 ,gesellsch4 in ,wien1 ,,xxi 7#aija71 #bbe-gd2 see also ,hehn1 ,siebenzahl und ,sabbat bei den ,babyloniern und im alten ,testament1 #aijg4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer 7#aiah71 ,i1 #adj1 has an interesting passage on the prominence of the number seven 8alike in the ,jehovistic and in the ,babylonian narrative0 of the flood4 #fb ,webster1 ,rest ,days1 pp4 #baa-b4 ,professor ,webster1 who kindly read this chapter in manuscript1 stated in a letter to me of #b ,july #aiba that he remained convinced that 8the mystic properties ascribed to the number seven0 can only in part be accounted for by the seven planets2 8,our ,american ,indians1 for example1 hold seven in great respect1 yet have no knowledge of seven planets40 ,but it may be noted that the poet-philosophers of ancient ,peru composed verses on the subject of astrology1 according to ,garcilasso 7cited by ,w4 ,i4 ,thomas1 ,source ,book for ,social ,origins1 #aiji1 p4 #bic74 #fc ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,history of ,babylon1 #aiae1 p4 #bii4 #fd ,fossey 7#aijb71 pp4 #b-c4 #fe ,farnell1 ,greece and ,babylon1 pp4 #cja-b4 ,on liver divination see ,frothingham1 8,ancient ,orientalism ,unveiled10 ,american ,journal of ,archaeology1 ,,xxi 7#aiag7 #ee1 #ahg1 #cac1 #dbj4 #ff ,fossey1 p4 #ff4 #fg ,fossey1 p4 #af4 #fh ,lenormant1 pp4 #ce1 #adg1 #aeh4 #fi ,thompson1 ,semitic ,magic1 pp4 xxxviii-xxxix4 #gj ,greece and ,babylon1 p4 #bif4 #ga ,lenormant1 pp4 #adf-g4 #gb ,ibid41 p4 #aeh4 #gc ,jastrow1 ,religion of ,babylon and ,assyria1 pp4 #bhc-d4 #gd ,zimmern1 ,beitrge1 p4 #agc4 #ge ,ibid41 p4 #afa4 #gf ,fossey1 p4 #cii4 #gg ,fossey1 p4 #hc4 #gh ,ibid41 pp4 #hi-ia4 ,f4 ,kchler1 ,beitrge zur ,kenntnis der ,assyr4-,babyl4 ,medizin2 ,texte mit ,umschrift1 ,uebersetzung und ,kommentar1 ,leipzig1 #aijd1 treats of twenty facsimile pages of cuneiform4 #gi ,lenormant1 p4 #aij4 #hj ,ibid41 p4 #aei4 #ha ,so enlightened in fact that they spoke with some scorn of the 8levity0 and 8lies0 of the ,greeks4 #hb ,oriental ,religions in ,roman ,paganism1 ,chicago1 #aiaa1 p4 #ahi4 #hc ,thorndike 7#aije71 p4 #fc4 #hd ,e4 ,e4 ,sikes1 ,folk-lore in the ,works and ,days of ,hesiod1 in ,the ,classical ,review1 ,,vii 7#ahic74 #cij4 #he ,freeman1 ,history of ,sicily1 ,i1 #aja-c1 citing ,herodotus ,,vii1 #aec4 #hf ,butler and ,owen1 ,apulei ,apologia1 note on #cj1 #cj4 #hg ,for details concerning operative or vulgar magic among the ancient ,greeks see ,hubert1 ,magia1 in ,daremberg-,saglio2 ,abt1 ,die ,apologie des ,apuleius von ,madaura und die antike ,zauberei1 ,giessen1 #aijh2 and ,f4 ,b4 ,jevons1 8,grco-,italian ,magic10 p4 #ic-1 in ,anthropology and the ,classics1 ed4 ,r4 ,marett2 and the article 8,magic0 in ,,ere4 #hh ,i think that this sentence is an approximate quotation from some ancient author1 possibly ,diogenes ,laertius1 but ,i have not been able to find it4 #hi ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,themis1 ,cambridge1 #aiab4 ,the chapter headings briefly suggest the argument3 8#a4 ,hymn of the ,kouretes2 #b4 ,dithyramb1 1 and ,drama2 #c4 ,kouretes1 ,thunder-,rites and ,mana2 #d4 a4 ,magic and ,tabu1 b4 ,medicine-bird and ,medicine-king2 #e4 ,totemism1 ,sacrament1 and ,sacrifice2 #f4 ,dithyramb1 ,spring ,festival1 and ,hagia ,triada ,sarcophagus2 #g4 ,origin of the ,olympic ,games 7about a year-daimon72 #h4 ,daimon and ,hero1 with ,excursus on ,ritual ,forms preserved in ,greek tragedy2 #i4 ,daimon to ,olympian2 #aj4 ,the ,olympians2 #aa4 ,themis40 #ij ,f4 ,m4 ,cornford1 ,origin of ,attic ,comedy1 #aiad1 see especially pp4 #aj1 #ac1 #ee1 #aeg1 #bjb1 #bcc4 #ia ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 ,zeus1 ,cambridge1 #aiad1 pp4 #acd-e1 #ab-ad1 #ff-gf4 #ib ,rendel ,harris1 ,picus who is also ,zeus1 #aiaf2 ,the ,ascent of ,olympus1 #aiag4 #ic ,farnell1 ,greece and ,babylon1 pp4 #bib1 #agh-i4 #id ,see ,ernest ,riess1 ,superstitions and ,popular ,beliefs in ,greek ,tragedy1 in ,transactions of the ,american ,philological ,association1 vol4 #bg 7#ahif71 pp4 #e-cd2 and ,on ,ancient superstition1 ibid4 #bf 7#ahie71 #dj-ee4 ,also ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,some ,popular ,superstitions of the ,ancients1 in ,folk-lore1 #ahij1 and ,e4 ,h4 ,klatsche1 ,the ,supernatural in the ,tragedies of ,euripides1 in ,university of ,nebraska ,studies1 #aiai4 #ie ,see ,zeller1 ,pre-,socratic ,philosophy1 ,,ii 7#ahha71 #aai-bj1 for further boasts by ,empedocles himself and other marvels attributed to him by later authors4 #if ,laws1 ,,xi1 #icc 7,steph474 #ig ,timaeus1 p4 #ga 7,steph474 #ih ,symposium1 p4 #ahh 7,steph472 in ,jowett's translation1 ,i1 #eeh4 #ii ,timaeus1 p4 #dj 7,steph472 ,jowett1 ,,iii1 #dei4 #ajj ,ibid41 pp4 #da-db 7,steph474 #aja ,timaeus1 p4 #ci 7,steph472 ,jowett1 ,,iii1 #deh4 #ajb ,w4 ,windelband1 ,history of ,philosophy1 ,english translation by ,j4 ,h4 ,tufts1 #ahih1 p4 #adg4 #ajc ,windelband1 ,history of ,ancient ,philosophy1 ,english translation by ,h4 ,e4 ,cushman1 #ahii4 #ajd ,for a number of examples1 which might be considerably multiplied if books ,,vii-,x are not rejected as spurious1 see ,thorndike 7#aije71 pp4 #fb-c4 ,t4 ,e4 ,lones1 ,aristotle's ,researches in ,natural ,science1 ,london1 #aiab1 #bgd pp41 discusses 8,aristotle's method of investigating the natural sciences10 and a large number of ,aristotle's specific statements showing whether they were correct or incorrect4 ,the best translation of the ,history of ,animals is by ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson1 ,oxford #aiaj1 with valuable notes4 #aje ,see the edition of the ,history of ,animals by ,dittmeyer 7#aijg71 p4 vii1 where various monographs will be found mentioned4 #ajf ,perhaps pure literature was over-emphasized in the ,museum at ,alexandria1 and magic texts in the library of ,assurbanipal4 #ajg ,a list of magic papyri and of publications up to about #aijj dealing with the same is given in ,hubert's article on ,magia in ,daremberg-,saglio1 pp4 #aejc-d4 ,see also ,sir ,herbert ,thompson and ,f4 ,l4 ,griffith1 ,the ,magical ,demotic ,papyrus of ,london and ,leiden1 #c vols41 #aiji-aiba2 ,catalogue of ,demotic ,papyri in the ,john ,rylands ,library1 ,manchester1 with facsimiles and complete translations1 #aiji1 #c vols4 ,grenfell 7#aiba71 p4 #aei1 says1 8,a corpus of the magical papyri was projected in ,germany by ,k4 ,preisendanz before the war1 and a ,czech scholar1 ,dr4 ,hopfner1 is engaged upon the difficult task of elucidating them40 #ajh ,w4 ,c4 ,battle1 ,magical ,curses ,written on ,lead ,tablets1 in ,transactions of the ,american ,philological ,association1 ,,xxvi 7#ahie71 pp4 liv-lviii1 a synopsis of a ,harvard dissertation4 ,audollent1 ,defixionum tabulae1 etc41 ,paris1 #aijd1 #efh pp4 ,r4 ,wnsch1 ,defixionum ,tabellae ,atticae1 #ahig1 and ,sethianische ,verfluchungstafeln aus ,rom 7#cij-dbj ,a4 ,d471 ,leipzig1 #ahih4 #aji ,since #ahih various volumes and parts have appeared under the editorship of ,cumont1 ,kroll1 ,boll1 ,olivieri1 ,bassi1 and others4 ,much of the material noted is of course post-classical and ,byzantine1 and of ,christian authorship or ,arabic origin4 #aaj ,for example1 see ,r4 ,wnsch1 ,antikes ,zaubergert aus ,pergamon1 in ,jahrb4 d4 kaiserl4 deutsch4 archol4 ,instit41 suppl4 ,,vi 7#aije71 p4 #ai4 #aaa ,t4 ,l4 ,heath1 ,the ,works of ,archimedes1 ,cambridge1 #ahig1 pp4 xxxix-xl4 #aab ,on 8,aristotle as a ,biologist0 see the ,herbert ,spencer lecture by ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson1 ,oxford1 #aiac1 #ca pp4 ,also ,t4 ,e4 ,lones1 ,aristotle's ,researches in ,natural ,science1 ,london1 #aiab4 ,professor ,w4 ,a4 ,locy1 author of ,biology and ,its ,makers1 writes me 7,may #i1 #aiba7 that in his opinion ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes1 ,aristotle2 a ,chapter from the ,history of ,science1 ,london1 #ahfd1 8dwells too much on ,aristotle's errors and imperfections1 and in several instances omits the quotation of important positive observations1 occurring in the chapters from which he makes his quotations of errors40 ,professor ,locy also disagrees with ,lewes' estimate of ,de generatione as ,aristotle's masterpiece and thinks that 8naturalists will get more satisfaction out of reading the ,historia animalium0 than either the ,de generatione or ,de partibus4 ,thompson 7#aiac71 p4 #ad1 calls ,aristotle 8a very great naturalist40 #aac ,this quotation is from ,professor ,locy's letter of ,may #i1 #aiba4 #aad ,the quotations are from a note by ,professor ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson on his translation of the ,historia animalium1 ,,iii1 #c4 ,the note gives so good a glimpse of both the merits and defects of the ,aristotelian text as it has reached us that ,i will quote it here more fully3 8,the ,aristotelian account of the vascular system is remarkable for its wealth of details1 for its great accuracy in many particulars1 and for its extreme obscurity in others4 ,it is so far true to nature that it is clear evidence of minute inquiry1 but here and there so remote from fact as to suggest that things once seen have been half forgotten1 or that superstition was in conflict with the result of observation4 ,the account of the vessels connecting the left arm with the liver and the right with the spleen 444 is a surviving example of mystical or superstitious belief4 ,it is possible that the ascription of three chambers to the heart was also influenced by tradition or mysticism1 much in the same way as ,plato's notion of the three corporeal faculties40 #aae ,professor ,locy called my attention to it in a letter of ,may #ag1 #aiba4 ,see also ,thompson 7#aiac71 p4 #ad4 #aaf ,thompson 7#aiac71 p4 #ai4 #aag ,l4 ,c4 ,karpinski1 8,hindu ,science10 in ,the ,american ,mathematical ,monthly1 ,,xxvi 7#aiai71 #bih-cjj4 #aah ,sir ,thomas ,heath1 ,aristarchus of ,samos1 the ,ancient ,copernicus3 a history of ,greek astronomy to ,aristarchus together with ,aristarchus's treatise1 8,on the ,sizes and ,distances of the ,sun and ,moon10 a new ,greek text with translation and notes1 ,oxford1 #aiac1 admits that 8our treatise does not contain any suggestion of any but the geocentric view of the universe1 whereas ,archimedes tells us that ,aristarchus wrote a book of hypotheses1 one of which was that the sun and the fixed stars remain unmoved and that the earth revolves round the sun in the circumference of a circle40 ,such evidence seems scarcely to warrant applying the title of 8,the ,ancient ,copernicus0 to ,aristarchus4 ,and ,heath thinks that ,schiaparelli 7,i precursori di ,copernico nell'antichit1 and other papers7 went too far in ascribing the ,copernican hypothesis to ,heraclides of ,pontus4 ,on ,aristotle's answer to ,pythagoreans who denied the geocentric theory see ,orr 7#aiac71 pp4 #ajj-b4 #aai 8,farewell1 ,nature1 parent of all things1 and in thy manifold multiplicity bless me who1 alone of the ,romans1 has sung thy praise40 #abj ,for the ,latin text of the ,naturalis ,historia ,i have used the editions of ,d4 ,detlefsen1 ,berlin1 #ahff-ahhb1 and ,l4 ,janus1 ,leipzig1 #ahgj1 #f vols4 in #c2 #e vols4 in #c4 ,there is1 however1 a good ,english translation of the ,natural ,history1 with an introductory essay1 by ,j4 ,bostock and ,h4 ,t4 ,riley1 ,london1 #ahee1 #f vols4 7,bohn ,library71 which is superior to both the ,german editions in its explanatory notes and subject index1 and which also apparently antedates them in some readings suggested for doubtful passages in the text4 ,three modes of dividing the ,natural ,history into chapters are indicated in the editions of ,janus and ,detlefsen4 ,i shall employ that found in the earlier editions of ,hardouin1 ,valpy1 ,lemaire1 and ,ajasson1 and preferred in the ,english translation of ,bostock and ,riley4 #aba ,bostock and ,riley 7#ahee71 ,i1 xvi4 #abb ,,nh1 ,preface4 #abc ,,nh1 ,preface4 #abd ,,nh1 ,,xxii1 #g4 #abe ,,nh1 ,,ii1 #f4 #abf ,,nh1 ,,ii1 #df4 #abg ,,nh1 ,,ii1 #e4 8,deus est mortali iuvare mortalem44440 #abh ,,nh1 ,,vii1 #ef4 #abi ,letter to ,macer1 ,ep4 ,,iii1 #e1 ed4 ,keil4 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 #acj ,,nh1 ,,vii1 #a2 ,,xxiii1 #fj2 ,,xxv1 #a2 ,,xxvii1 #a4 #aca ,,xxvi1 #gf4 #acb ,,xxxvii1 #aa4 #acc ,,xxi1 #hh4 #acd ,,xxxii1 #bd4 #ace ,yet ,c4 ,w4 ,king1 ,natural ,history of ,precious ,stones1 p4 #b1 deplores the loss of ,juba's treatise1 which he says1 8considering his position and opportunities for exact information1 is perhaps the greatest we have to deplore in this sad catalogue of desiderata40 #acf ,,nh1 ,,xxxii1 #d4 #acg ,,xxx1 #cj4 #ach ,bouch-,leclercq 7#ahii71 p4 #eai1 notes1 however1 that ,aulus ,gellius 7,x1 #ab7 protested against ,pliny's credulity in accepting such works as genuine and that 8,columelle 7,,vii1 #e7 cite un certain ,bolus de ,mendes comme l'auteur des attribus ,dmocrite40 ,bouch-,leclercq adds1 however1 8,rien n'y fit3 ,dmocrite devint le grand docteur de la magie40 #aci ,,nh1 ,,vii1 #ba4 #adj ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes1 ,aristotle2 a ,chapter from the ,history of ,science1 ,london4 #ahfd4 #ada ,letters of ,pliny the ,younger1 ,,iii1 #e1 ed4 ,keil1 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 #adb ,,nh1 ,,viii1 #cd4 #adc ,,xxviii1 #a4 #add ,rck1 ,die ,naturalis ,historia des ,plinius im ,mittelalter1 in ,sitzb4 ,bayer4 ,akad4 ,philos-,philol4 ,classe 7#aijh7 pp4 #bjc-cah4 ,for citations of ,pliny by writers of the late ,roman empire and early middle ages1 see ,panckoucke1 ,bibliothque ,latine-,franaise1 vol4 ,,cvi4 #ade ,concerning the ,,mss see ,detlefsen's prefaces in each of his first five volumes and his fuller dissertations in ,jahn's ,neue ,jahrb41 #gg1 #fec;ff1 ,rhein4 ,mus41 ,,xv1 #bfe;ff2 ,,xviii1 #bbg;ff1 #cbg4 ,detlefsen seems to have made no use of ,english ,,mss1 but a folio of the close of the #abth century at ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 contains the first nineteen books of the ,natural ,history and is described by ,coxe as 8very well written and preserved40 ,nor does ,detlefsen mention ,le ,mans #bfc1 #abth century1 containing all #cg books except that the last book is incomplete1 and with a full page miniature 7fol4 #ajv7 showing ,pliny in the act of presenting his work to ,vespasian4 ,escorial ,q-,i-#d and ,r-,i-#e are two other practically complete texts of the fourteenth century which ,detlefsen failed to use4 #adf ,see ,m4 ,r4 ,james1 ,eton ,manuscripts1 p4 #fc1 ,,ms #acd1 ,bl4 #d4 #g41 ,roberti ,crikeladensis ,prioris ,oxoniensis excerpta ex ,plinii ,historia ,naturali1 #ab-acth century1 in a large ,english hand1 giving extracts extending from ,book ,,ii to ,book ,,ix4 ,of ,balliol #abd1 fols4 #a-ach1 ,cosmographia mundi1 by ,john ,free1 born at ,bristol or ,london1 fellow at ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford1 later professor of medicine at ,padua and a doctor at ,rome1 also well instructed in civil law and ,greek1 ,coxe writes1 8,this work is nothing but a series of excerpts from ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 beginning with the second and leaving off with the twentieth40 ,i wonder if ,john ,free may not have used the very ,,ms of the first nineteen books mentioned in the foregoing note1 since the second book of the ,natural ,history is often reckoned as the first4 ,in ,balliol #adf;,a1 #aeth century1 fol4 #c-1 the ,natural ,history appears in epitome1 with a prologue opening1 8,i1 ,reginald 7,retinaldus71 servant of ,christ1 perusing the books of ,pliny44440 #adg ,bologna1 #ieb1 #aeth century1 fols4 #aeg-fj1 8,tractatus optimus in quo exposuit et aperte declaravit plinius philosophus quid sit lapis philosophicus et ex qua materia debet fieri et quomodo40 #adh ,fossi1 ,catalogus codicum saeculo ,,xv impressorum qui in publica ,bibliotheca ,magliabechiana ,florentiae adservantur1 #agic-agie1 ,,ii1 #cgd-ha4 #adi ,de erroribus ,plinii et aliorum in medicina1 ,ferrara1 #adib4 #aej ,pliniana defensio1 #adid4 #aea ,escorial ,q-,i-#d1 and ,r-,i-#e1 both of the #adth century4 #aeb ,,nh1 ,v1 #a1 #ab4 #aec ,,xxvi1 #f1 8usu efficacissimo rerum omnium magistro02 ,,xvii1 #b1 #ab1 8quare experimentis optime creditur40 #aed ,,ii1 #ff4 #aee ,,xxix1 #bc4 #aef ,,xxix1 #aa4 #aeg ,,xxv1 #ed1 8coramque nobis02 ,,xxv1 #ajf1 8nos eam ,romanis experimentis per usus digeremus40 #aeh ,sometimes another term1 as usus in note #b above1 is employed4 #aei ,see ,,ii1 #da1 #a-b2 ,,ii1 #ajh2 ,,vii1 #da2 ,,vii1 #ef2 ,,viii1 #g2 ,,xiv1 #h2 ,,xvi1 #a2 ,,xvi1 #fd2 ,,xvii1 #b2 ,,xvii1 #ce2 ,,xxii1 #a2 ,,xxii1 #dc2 ,,xxii1 #di2 ,,xxii1 #ea2 ,,xxv1 #g2 ,,xxxiv1 #ci and #ea4 ,experience is also the idea in the two following passages1 although the word experimentum could not smoothly be rendered as 8experience0 in a literal translation3 ,,vii1 #ej1 8,accedunt experimenta et exempla recentissimi census 44402 ,,xxviii1 #de1 8,nec uros aut bisontes habuerunt ,graeci in experimentis40 #afj ,,xvi1 #bd2 ,,xxii1 #eg2 ,,xxvi1 #fj4 #afa ,x1 #ge4 #afb ,,xxxv1 #cj4 #afc ,,vii1 #ce #afd ,,xiii1 #c4 #afe ,,xiv1 #be4 #aff ,,xvii1 #d2 ,,xx1 #c and #gf2 ,,xxii1 #bc2 ,,xxix1 #ab2 ,,xxxiii1 #ai and #dc and #dd and #eg2 ,,xxxiv1 #bf and #dh2 ,,xxxvi1 #ch and #ee2 ,,xxxvii1 #bb and #gf2 such phrases as sinceri experimentum and veri experimentum are used for 8test of genuineness40 #afg ,,xxiii1 #ca2 ,,xxxi1 #bh4 #afh ,,xxxi1 #bg4 #afi ,,xvii1 #bf4 #agj ,,ii1 #ge4 #aga ,,ix1 #g4 #agb ,,xxviii1 #f4 #agc ,,xxviii1 #ad4 #agd ,,xxix1 #h4 8,discunt periculis nostris et experimenta per mortes agunt40 ,bostock and ,riley translate the last clause1 8,and they experimentalize by putting us to death40 ,another possible translation is1 8,and their experiments cost lives48 #age ,,xxv1 #ag4 0 444 adeo nullo omnia experiendi fine ut cogerentur etiam venena prodesse48 #agf ,,xxix1 #d 0 444 ab experimentis se cognominans empiricen48 #agg ,,ix1 #hf4 #agh ,,xxxvii1 #ae4 #agi ,according to ,galen1 as we shall hear later1 the ,empirics relied a good deal upon chance experience and dreams4 #ahj ,,xxv1 #f4 #aha ,,xx1 #eb4 #ahb ,,xxv1 #bj4 #ahc ,,xxiii1 #bg4 #ahd ,among other virtues of vinegar1 besides its supposed property of breaking rocks1 ,pliny mentions that if one holds some in the mouth1 it will prevent one from feeling the heat in the baths4 #ahe ,,xxv1 #f and #ba and #ej2 ,,xxvii1 #b4 #ahf ,,xvi1 #bd2 ,,xxvi1 #fj4 #ahg ,,xxiii1 #ei4 #ahh ,,xxviii1 #g4 #ahi ,in the opening chapters of ,book ,,xxx1 unless otherwise indicated by specific citation4 #aij ,aulus ,gellius1 ,x1 #ab1 and ,columella1 ,,vii1 #e1 dispute this 7,bouch-,leclercq1 ,l',astrologie grecque1 p4 #eai74 ,berthelot 7,origines de l'alchimie1 p4 #ade7 believes in a ,democritan school at the beginning of the ,christian era which wrote the works of alchemy attributed to ,democritus as well as the books of medical and magical recipes which are quoted in the ,geoponica and the ,natural ,history4 #aia ,,xvi1 #ie4 #aib ,,xxx1 #b4 0 444 quamquam animadverto summam litterarum claritatem gloriamque ex ea scientia antiquitus et paene semper petitam40 #aic ,examples are3 ,,xxv1 #ei1 8,sed magi utique circa hanc insaniunt02 ,,xxix1 #bj1 8magorum mendacia02 ,,xxxvii1 #fj1 8magorum inpudentiae vel manifestissimum 444 exemplum02 ,,xxxvii1 #gc1 8dira mendacia magorum40 #aid ,see ,,xxii1 #i2 ,,xxvi1 #i2 ,,xxvii1 #fe2 ,,xxviii1 #bc and #bg2 ,,xxix1 #bf2 ,,xxx1 #g2 ,,xxxvii1 #ad4 #aie ,,xxxvii1 #dj4 #aif ,,xxx1 #e-f4 #aig ,,xxx1 #f4 8,proinde ita persuasum sit1 intestabilem1 inritam1 inanem esse1 habentem tamen quasdam veritatis umbras1 sed in his veneficas artis pollere1 non magicas40 #aih ,,xxv1 #g4 #aii ,,xxviii1 #bc4 #bjj ,,xxviii1 #b4 #bja ,,xxx1 #d4 #bjb ,,xxviii1 #ai2 ,,xxx1 #f4 #bjc ,,xxviii1 #bi4 #bjd ,,xxx1 #g4 #bje ,,xxix1 #bf4 #bjf ,for instance1 ,,xxx1 #bg1 he mentions the magi1 but not in ,,xxx1 #bh4 ,nor are they mentioned in ,,xxx1 #bi1 but in ,,xxx1 #cj 8plura eorum remedia ponemus0 seems to refer to them1 although we must look back three chapters for the antecedent of eorum4 #bjg ,,xxxvii1 #ad1 he says that he is going to confute 8the unspeakable nonsense of the magicians0 concerning gems1 but makes no specific citation from them until the thirty-seventh chapter on jasper4 #bjh ,,xxx1 #dg4 #bji ,,xxxvii1 #aa4 #baj ,,xx1 #cj2 ,,xxi1 #ch1 #id1 #ajd2 ,,xxii1 #bd1 #bi4 #baa ,,xxi1 #cf2 ,,xxiv1 #ii4 #bab ,,xxv1 #e4 #bac ,,xxiv1 #ii-ajb4 #bad ,see ,,xx1 #cj2 ,,xxi1 #cf1 #ch1 #id1 #ajd2 ,,xxii1 #i1 #bd1 #bi2 ,,xxiv1 #ii1 #ajb2 ,,xxv1 #ei1 #fe1 #hj-ha2 ,,xxvi1 #i4 #bae ,,xxi1 #ch4 #baf ,,xxi1 #ajd2 ,,xxii1 #bd4 #bag ,,xxi1 #id4 #bah ,,xxii1 #bi4 #bai ,,xx1 #cj4 #bbj ,,xxi1 #ch4 #bba ,,xxiv1 #ii and #ajb4 #bbb ,,xxv1 #e4 #bbc ,,xxv1 #ei4 #bbd ,,xxvi1 #i4 #bbe ,,xxx1 #f4 #bbf ,,xxx1 #g4 #bbg ,,xxviii1 #bg4 #bbh ,,xxviii1 #be4 #bbi ,,xxx1 #bd4 #bcj ,,xxix1 #ci4 #bca ,,xxix1 #ab4 #bcb ,,xxx1 #f4 #bcc ,,xxviii1 #eg2 ,,xxx1 #ag4 #bcd ,use of goat1 ,,xxviii1 #ef1 #fc1 #gh-gi2 cat1 ,,xxviii1 #ff2 puppy1 ,,xxix1 #ch2 dog1 ,,xxx1 #bd4 #bce ,,xxviii1 #fj1 #ff1 #gg2 ,,xxix1 #bf4 #bcf ,,xxviii1 #ff2 ,,xxix1 #ae2 ,,xxx1 #g2 ,,xxx1 #bg2 ,,xxxii1 #ch4 #bcg ,,xxx1 #h and #cf2 see also ,,xxviii1 #fj2 ,,xxxii1 #ai and #bd4 #bch ,,xxix1 #bc2 ,,xxx1 #ah1 #bj1 #cj1 #di2 ,,xxxii1 #ad1 #ah1 #bd4 #bci ,,xxx1 #bg4 #bdj ,,xxx1 #bd4 #bda ,,xxx1 #bd4 #bdb ,,xxviii1 #bg4 #bdc ,,xxviii1 #ff2 and see ,,xxix1 #ab4 #bdd ,,xxviii1 #fj4 #bde ,,xxviii1 #fh4 #bdf ,,xxviii1 #gh4 #bdg ,,xxx1 #ag4 #bdh ,,xxx1 #ah4 #bdi ,,xxxii1 #ch4 #bej ,,xxix1 #bf4 #bea ,,xxviii1 #fc4 #beb ,,xxviii1 #ef2 ,,xxix1 #ae4 #bec ,,xxix1 #ai4 #bed ,,xxix1 #bj4 #bee ,,xxix1 #bf2 ,,xxx1 #g4 #bef ,pliny ascribes statements concerning stones to the magi in the following chapters3 ,,xxxvi1 #cd2 ,,xxxvii1 #cg1 #dj1 #di1 #ea1 #ed1 #ef1 #fj1 #gj1 #gc4 #beg ,,xxxvii1 #ed and #dj4 #beh ,,xxxvii1 #dj1 #fj1 #ef1 #gc4 #bei ,,xxviii1 #ab1 8,magorum haec commenta sunt44448 #bfj ,,xxviii1 #bc4 #bfa ,some works upon animals in antiquity and ,greece are3 ,aubert und ,wimmer1 ,aristoteles ,thierkunde1 #b vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahfh4 ,baethgen1 ,de vi et significatione galli in religione et artibus ,graecorum et ,romanorum1 ,diss4 ,inaug41 ,gttingen1 #ahhg4 ,bernays1 ,theophrasts ,schrift ber ,frmmigkeit4 ,biklas1 ,o41 ,la nomenclature de la ,faune grecque1 ,paris1 #ahgi4 ,billerbeck1 ,de locis nonnullis ,arist4 ,hist4 ,animal4 difficilioribus1 ,hildesheim1 #ahjf4 ,dryoff1 ,a41 ,die ,tierpsychologie des ,plutarchs1 ,progr4 ,wrzburg1 #ahig4 ber die stoische ,tierpsychologie1 in ,bl4 f4 bayr4 ,gymn41 #cc 7#ahig7 #cii;ff42 #cd 7#ahih7 #daf4 ,erhard1 ,fauna der ,cykladen1 ,leipzig1 #aheh4 ,fowler1 ,w4 ,w41 ,a ,year with the ,birds1 #ahie4 ,hopf1 ,l41 ,thierorakel und ,orakelthiere in alter und neuer ,zeit1 ,stuttgart1 #ahhh4 ,hopfner1 ,t41 ,der ,tierkult der alten gypter nach den griechisch-rmischen ,berichten und den wichtigen ,denkmlern1 in ,denkschr4 d4 ,akad4 ,wien1 #aiac1 ii ,abh4 ,imhoof-,blumer1 ,f41 und ,keller1 ,o41 ,tier-und ,pflanzenbilder auf ,mnzen und ,gemmen des klassischen ,altertums4 illustrated1 #ahhi4 ,keller1 ,o41 ,thiere des class4 ,altertums4 ,krper1 ,zeiten des ,gehens und ,kommens und des ,brtens der ,vgel in ,griechenland und ,ionien1 in ,mommsen's ,griech4 ,jahreszeiten1 #ahge4 ,kster1 ,e41 ,die ,schlange in der griechischen ,kunst und ,religion1 ,giessen1 #aiac4 ,lebour1 ,zoologist1 #ahff4 ,lewysohn1 ,zoologie des ,talmuds4 ,lindermayer1 ,a41 ,die ,vgel ,griechenlands1 ,passau1 #ahfj4 ,locard1 ,histoire des mollusques dans l'antiquit1 ,lyon1 #ahhd4 ,lorenz1 ,die ,taube im ,alterthume1 #ahhf4 ,marx1 ,a41 ,griech4 ,mrchen von dankbaren ,tieren1 ,stuttgart1 #ahhi4 ,mhle1 ,h4 v4 d41 ,beitrge zur ,ornithologie ,griechenlands1 ,leipzig1 #ahdd4 ,sundevall1 ,thierarten des ,aristoteles1 ,stockholm1 #ahfc4 ,thompson1 ,d',arcy ,w41 ,a ,glossary of ,greek ,birds1 #ahie4 ,aristotle as a ,biologist1 #aiac4 ,also the notes to his translation of the ,historia animalium4 ,westermarck1 ,e41 ,the ,origin and ,development of ,moral ,ideas1 ,i 7#aijf7 #bea-fj1 gives further bibliography on the subjects of animals as witnesses and the punishment of animal culprits4 #bfb ,,viii1 #a-ab4 #bfc ,,viii1 #ag-ba4 #bfd ,,xxxii1 #e4 #bfe ,,viii1 #cg4 #bff ,,viii1 #aa-ab4 #bfg ,,xxvii1 #b2 ,,xviii1 #a4 #bfh ,,xxvii1 #b2 ,,viii1 #da4 #bfi ,,xx1 #ea and #fa2 ,,xxii1 #cg and #de4 #bgj ,,xx1 #bf4 #bga ,,viii1 #da2 ,,xx1 #ie4 #bgb ,,xxix1 #ci4 #bgc ,,xxv1 #ej4 #bgd ,,xxv1 #e4 #bge ,,viii1 #dj2 ,,xxviii1 #ca4 #bgf ,for further remedies used by animals see ,,viii1 #da2 ,,xxix1 #ad1 #ch2 ,,xxv1 #eb-ec2 ,,xxviii1 #ha4 #bgg ,,xxvii1 #b4 8 444 quod certe casu repertum quis dubitet et quotiens fiat etiam nunc ut novom nasci quoniam feris ratio et usus inter se tradi non possit80 ,perhaps ,pliny would have denied the inheritance of acquired characteristics4 #bgh ,,xxv1 #ea4 #bgi ,,xxxvii1 #eg4 #bhj ,,viii1 #d4 #bha ,,viii1 #cc4 #bhb ,,xxix1 #cd2 ,,xxx1 #aj1 #ai2 ,,xxviii1 #df2 ,,xxix1 #aa2 ,,xxx1 #af4 #bhc ,,xxx1 #df4 #bhd ,,xxxii1 #ad4 #bhe ,,xxviii1 #cg4 #bhf ,a recent work on the general theme is ,joret1 ,les plantes dans l'antiquit1 ,paris1 #aijd2 see also ,f4 ,mentz1 ,de plantis quas ad rem magicam facere crediderunt veteres1 ,leipzig1 #agje1 #bh pp42 ,f4 ,unger1 ,die ,pflanze als ,zaubermittel1 ,vienna1 #ahei4 #bhg ,,xxii1 #c2 ,,xxv1 #ei2 ,,xxvii1 #bh4 #bhh ,,xxi1 #aje4 8,halicacabi radicem bibunt qui vaticinari gallantesque vere ad confirmandas superstitiones aspici se volunt40 #bhi ,,xxv1 #dc-dd4 #bij ,,xxi1 #ba1 #hd4 #bia ,,xxv1 #e4 #bib ,,xxiii1 #fd4 #bic ,,xxv1 #ce4 #bid ,,xxii1 #cf4 #bie ,,xxiv1 #id4 #bif ,,xxv1 #df4 #big ,,xxv1 #ed4 #bih ,,xxv1 #gh4 #bii ,,xxiii1 #ge4 #cjj ,,xxiv1 #ef-eg4 #cja ,,xxv1 #ah2 ,,xxvii1 #ajj4 #cjb ,,xx1 #ad2 ,,xxiv1 #hb2 ,,xxv1 #ib4 #cjc ,,xxv1 #aj2 ,,xxvii1 #fj4 #cjd ,,xxiv1 #f1 #ic4 #cje ,,xxv1 #f4 #cjf ,,xx1 #di2 ,,xxi1 #hc2 ,,xxiii1 #ed2 ,,xxiv1 #fc2 ,,xxv1 #ei2 ,,xxvi1 #ab4 #cjg ,,xxiii1 #ei4 #cjh ,,xxiv1 #fb4 #cji ,,xxv1 #ba1 #id4 #caj ,,xxiv1 #fc and #aah4 #caa ,,xxi1 #ai4 #cab ,,xxiv1 #fb2 ,,xxiii1 #ei4 #cac ,,xxiii1 #ha2 ,,xxiv1 #f1 #fb1 #aaf4 #cad ,,xxvi1 #ab4 #cae ,,xxi1 #ai2 ,,xxv1 #ba1 #id4 #caf ,,xxiii1 #ga1 #ha2 ,,xxiv1 #f2 ,,xxvii1 #fb4 #cag ,,xxi1 #hc2 ,,xxv1 #aji2 ,,xxvi1 #ab4 #cah ,,xxii1 #af2 ,,xxiii1 #ed2 ,,xxiv1 #hb2 ,,xxvii1 #aac4 #cai ,,xxiv1 #aaf4 #cbj ,,xxv1 #ib4 #cba ,,xxi1 #ai2 ,,xxv1 #aa4 #cbb ,,xxiv1 #fb2 ,,xxv1 #ba4 #cbc ,,xxiv1 #fb-fc4 #cbd ,,xvi1 #ie4 #cbe ,see ,,xxiv1 #f1 for other methods of plucking the mistletoe4 #cbf ,,xviii1 #de4 #cbg ,see also ,,xxv1 #f4 #cbh ,,xix1 #eh4 #cbi ,,xviii1 #gj4 #ccj ,,xviii1 #gc4 #cca ,,xxviii1 #ha4 #ccb ,,xviii1 #h4 #ccc ,,xxxvii1 #ad1 #gc4 #ccd ,,xxxvii1 #ee-ef4 #cce ,,xxxvii1 #ac4 #ccf ,for instance1 ,,xxxvii1 #ab amber1 #cg jasper1 #ci aetites1 #ee 8baroptenus40 #ccg ,,xxxvi1 #ca4 #cch ,,xxxvii1 #ae1 #eh1 #fg4 #cci ,,xxxvi1 #be1 #ci4 #cdj ,,xvi1 #bj4 #cda ,,xxxiii1 #be4 #cdb ,,xxx1 #ab1 #be4 #cdc ,,xx1 #c2 ,,xxviii1 #f1 #i2 etc4 #cdd ,,ii1 #fc2 ,,xxix1 #bc4 #cde ,,xxxiii1 #cd #cdf ,,xx1 #ea2 ,,xxviii1 #ba4 #cdg ,,vii1 #ac2 ,,xxviii1 #bc4 #cdh ,,xx1 #cc2 ,,xxii1 #cj2 ,,xxviii1 #ah-ai4 #cdi ,,xxviii1 #h4 #cej ,,xxviii1 #i4 #cea ,,xxviii1 #i-aa4 #ceb ,,xxviii1 #g4 #cec ,,vii1 #b4 #ced ,,xxviii1 #f4 #cee ,,xxii1 #di4 #cef ,,xxiv1 #ajb4 #ceg ,in this paragraph ,i have combined views expressed by ,pliny in three different passages3 ,,xxii1 #di and #ef2 ,,xxiv1 #a4 #ceh ,,ix1 #hh2 ,,xxiv1 #a2 ,,xxviii1 #bc2 ,,xxxii1 #ab2 ,,xxxvii1 #ae2 etc4 #cei ,,xxiv1 #a2 ,,xxix1 #ag4 #cfj ,,viii1 #ej2 ,,xxviii1 #db4 #cfa ,,xxix1 #ag and #bc4 #cfb ,,xxviii1 #dc4 #cfc ,,xx1 #a4 8,odia amicitiaque rerum surdarum ac sensu carentium 444 quod ,graeci sympathiam appellavere40 ,,xxiv1 #a4 8,surdis etiam rerum sua cuique sunt venena ac minimis quoque 444 ,concordia valent40 #cfd ,,xxviii1 #da2 ,,xxxvii1 #ae4 ,yet a note in ,bostock and ,riley's translation1 ,,iv1 #bjg1 asserts1 8,pliny is the only author who makes mention of this singularly absurd notion40 #cfe 8,nunc quod totis voluminibus his docere conati summus de discordia rerum concordiaque quam antipathiam ,graeci vocavere ac sympathiam non aliter clarius intelligi potest40 #cff ,,xxiv1 #da4 #cfg ,,xxi1 #dg4 #cfh ,,xx1 #cf4 #cfi ,,xvi1 #bd4 #cgj ,,xxv1 #ee4 #cga ,,xxxvii1 #ed4 #cgb ,,xxiii1 #fb2 ,,xxiv1 #a4 #cgc ,,xxviii1 #da4 #cgd ,,xxix1 #cb4 #cge ,,xxviii1 #fa4 #cgf ,,xxix1 #bg4 #cgg ,,xxvii1 #gd4 #cgh ,,xxxvi1 #aa4 #cgi ,,xxv1 #c4 #chj ,,xxii1 #bi4 #cha ,,xxviii1 #i4 #chb ,,xxviii1 #ag4 #chc ,,xxviii1 #dg4 #chd ,,xxix1 #ch4 #che ,,xxx1 #bj4 #chf ,,xxviii1 #di4 #chg ,,xxxii1 #eb4 #chh ,,xxix1 #bg4 #chi ,,xxx1 #g4 #cij ,,xxxii1 #ad4 #cia ,,xxx1 #bj and #ad4 #cib ,,xxxii1 #bi2 ,,xxx1 #aa4 #cic ,,xxviii1 #db4 #cid ,,xxii1 #fe4 #cie ,,xxii1 #gb4 #cif ,,xxii1 #cb4 #cig ,,xxx1 #ab4 #cih ,,xxv1 #ajf4 #cii ,,xx1 #ha4 #djj ,,xxviii1 #dg4 #dja ,,xxx1 #ab1 #ae4 #djb ,,xxvii1 #fb4 #djc ,,xxix1 #ag4 #djd ,,xxix1 #bd4 #dje ,,xxvi1 #hi4 #djf ,,xxxii1 #af2 also ,,xx1 #ci4 #djg ,,xxii1 #cj4 #djh ,,xxiv1 #cb1 #ch4 #dji ,,xx1 #gb1 #hb4 #daj ,,xxvi1 #fi4 #daa ,,xxix1 #cf4 #dab ,,xxx1 #h4 #dac ,,xxviii1 #aj4 #dad ,,xxxii1 #bd4 #dae ,,xxx1 #ah4 #daf ,see also ,,xxx1 #h4 #dag ,,xxiv1 #ajf and #aji4 #dah ,,xxiv1 #ajg and #aaj4 #dai ,some examples are3 ,,xviii1 #ge1 #gi2 ,,xxii1 #gb2 ,,xxiii1 #ga2 ,,xxviii1 #dg2 ,,xxix1 #cf2 ,,xxxii1 #ad1 #be1 #ch1 #df4 #dbj ,,xxxii1 #ad4 #dba ,,xxx1 #ab4 #dbb ,,xxiv1 #aab4 #dbc ,,viii1 #ej4 #dbd ,,xxviii1 #f4 #dbe ,,xxiv1 #ag4 #dbf ,,xxx1 #ae4 #dbg ,,xxix1 #cd4 #dbh ,,xxxii1 #bd4 #dbi ,,xxxii1 #ch4 #dcj ,,xvii1 #dg4 #dca ,,xix1 #cf4 #dcb ,,xviii1 #ce4 #dcc ,,xxvi1 #fj4 #dcd ,,xxviii1 #g4 #dce ,,xxvii1 #ge4 #dcf ,,xxvii1 #ajf4 #dcg ,,xxviii1 #c-d4 #dch ,,xxvii1 #ce4 8,catanancen ,thessalam herbam qualis sit describi a nobis supervacuum est1 cum sit usus eius ad amatoria tantum40 ,,xxvii1 #ii4 8,phyteuma quale sit describere supervacuum habeo cum sit usus eius tantum ad amatoria40 #dci ,,xxv1 #g4 8,ego nec abortiva dico ac ne amatoria quidem1 memor ,lucullum imperatorem clarissimum amatorio perisse44440 #ddj ,a few examples are3 ,,xx1 #ae1 #hd1 #ib2 ,,xxiv1 #aa1 #db2 ,,xxvi1 #fd2 ,,xxvii1 #db1 #ii2 ,,xxviii1 #gg1 #hj2 ,,xxx1 #di2 ,,xxxii1 #ej4 #dda ,,xxii1 #i4 #ddb ,,xxv1 #g4 #ddc ,,xxix1 #bg4 #ddd ,,xxx1 #a4 ,on the general attitude to astrology of the preceding ,augustan ,age and its poets see ,h4 ,w4 ,garrod1 ,manili ,astronomicon ,liber ,,ii1 ,oxford1 #aiaa1 pp4 lxv-lxxiii1 but ,i think he overestimates the probable effect of the edict of #af ,a4 ,d4 upon the poem of ,manilius4 #dde ,,ii1 #e4 8,astroque suo eventus adsignat nascendi legibus semelque in omnes futuros umquam deo decretum in reliquom vero otium datur40 #ddf ,,vii1 #cg4 #ddg ,,vii1 #ej4 #ddh ,,vii1 #eg4 #ddi ,,ii1 #bd4 #dej ,,ii1 #f1 8,non tanta caelo societas nobiscum est ut nostro fato mortalis sit ibi quoque siderum fulgor40 #dea ,,ii1 #i4 #deb ,,ii1 #ah4 #dec ,,ii1 #bc4 #ded ,,ii1 #cj4 #dee ,,xxv1 #e4 #def ,,ii1 #a4 #deg ,,ii1 #d4 #deh ,,ii1 #af4 #dei ,,ii1 #ac4 #dfj ,,ii1 #f2 and see ,,ii1 #ci4 #dfa ,,ii1 #f4 8,potentia autem ad terram magnopere eorum pertinens40 #dfb ,,ii1 #f4 #dfc ,,xviii1 #e1 #eg1 #fi4 #dfd ,,xviii1 #fh4 ,other authorities tell the story of ,thales2 see ,cicero1 ,de divinatione1 ,,ii1 #bja2 ,aristotle1 ,polit4 ,i1 #g2 and ,diogenes ,laertius4 #dfe ,,xviii1 #gh4 #dff ,,ii1 #ha4 #dfg ,,xxxvii1 #bh4 #dfh ,,xxxvii1 #ei4 #dfi ,,xxix1 #e4 #dgj ,,xxx1 #bi4 #dga ,,ii1 #dj4 #dgb ,,ii1 #ajb4 #dgc ,,ii1 #da4 #dgd ,,xxxii1 #ai4 #dge ,l4 ,annaei ,senecae ,naturalium ,quaestionum ,libri ,septem1 ,,vi1 #d1 8,aliquando de motu terrarum volumen iuvenis ediderim40 ,the edition by ,g4 ,d4 ,koeler1 ,gttingen1 #ahai1 devotes several hundred pages to a ,disquisitio and ,animadversiones upon ,seneca's work4 ,i have also used the more recent ,teubner edition1 ed4 ,haase1 #ahha1 and the ,english translation in ,clark and ,geikie1 ,physical ,science in the ,time of ,nero1 #aiaj4 ,in ,panckoucke's ,library1 vol4 #adg1 a ,french translation accompanies the text4 #dgf ,,vii1 #be4 #dgg ,,vii1 #ca4 #dgh ,,iii1 #bf4 #dgi ,v1 #f1 for animals generated in flames2 ,,ii1 #ca1 for snakes struck by lightning2 ,,iii1 passim for marvelous fountains4 #dhj ,,iii1 #be4 #dha ,,iv1 #g4 #dhb ,,ii1 #cb4 #dhc ,,ii1 #df4 #dhd ,i1 #a4 #dhe ,,vii1 #cj4 #dhf ,,ii1 #aj4 #dhg ,,vii1 #bh4 #dhh ,that is to say1 five in addition to the sun and the moon4 #dhi ,,ii1 #cb4 #dij ,,iii1 #bi4 #dia ,,ii1 #ca-ej4 #dib ,,ii1 #cb4 #dic ,a complete edition of ,ptolemy's works has been in process of publication since #ahih in the ,teubner library by ,j4 ,l4 ,heiberg and ,franz ,boll4 ,they are also the authors of the most important recent researches concerning ,ptolemy4 ,see ,heiberg's discussion of the ,,mss in the volumes of the above edition which have thus far appeared2 his articles on the ,latin translations of ,ptolemy in ,hermes ,,xlv 7#aiaj7 #eg;ff1 and ,,xlvi 7#aiaa7 #bjf;ff2 but especially ,boll1 ,studien ber ,claudius ,ptolemus4 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,geschichte der griechischen ,philosophie und ,astrologie1 #ahid1 in ,jahrb4 f4 ,philol4 u4 ,pdagogik1 ,neue ,folge1 ,suppl4 ,bd4 #ba4 ,a recent summary of investigation and bibliography concerning ,ptolemy is ,w4 ,schmid1 ,die ,nachklassische ,periode der ,griechischen ,litteratur1 #aiac1 pp4 #gag-bd1 in the fifth edition of ,christ1 ,gesch4 d4 ,griech4 ,litt4 #did ,some strictures upon ,ptolemy as a geographer are made by ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay1 ,the ,historical ,geography of ,asia ,minor1 #ahij1 pp4 #fi-gc4 #die ,schmid would appear to be mistaken in saying that the ,geography was already known in ,latin and ,arabic translation in the time of ,frederick ,,ii 7p4 #gah1 8,seine in erster ,linie die ,astronomie1 dann auch die ,geographie und ,harmonik betreffenden ,schriften haben sich nicht bloss im ,originaltext erhalten2 sie wurden auch frhzeitig von den ,arabern bersetzt und sind dann1 hnlich wie die ,werke des ,aristoteles1 schon zur ,zeit des ,kaisers ,friedrich ,,ii1 noch ehe man sie im ,urtext kennen lernte1 durch lateinische1 nach dem ,arabischen gemachte bersetzungen ins ,abendland gelangt071 for in his own bibliography 7p4 #gbc7 we read1 8,geographie 444 ,frhste latein4 bersetzung des ,jacobus ,angelus gedruckt ,bologna1 #adfb40 ,apparently ,schmid did not know the date of ,angelus' translation4 ,however1 ,duhem1 ,,iii 7#aiae7 #dag1 also speaks as if the ,geography were known in the thirteenth century3 8les considrations empruntes la ,gographie de ,ptolme fournissent ,robert de ,lincoln une objection contre le mouvement de prcession des quinoxes tel qu'il est dfin dans l',almageste40 ,see also ,c4 ,a4 ,nallino1 ,al-,huwarizmi e il suo rifacimento della geografia di ,tolomeo1 #ahid1 cited by ,suter 7#aiad7 viii-ix1 for a geography in ,arabic preserved at ,strasburg which is based on ,ptolemy's ,geography4 #dif ,in this ,latin translation it is often entitled ,cosmographia4 ,some ,,mss are3 ,,clm #adehc1 #aeth century1 fols4 #ha-bae1 ,cosmographia ,ptolomei a ,jacobo ,angelo translata4 ,also ,,bn #dhja1 #dhjb1 #dhjc1 #dhjd1 #dhch4 ,arsenal #iha1 in an ,italian hand1 is presumably incorrectly dated as of the #adth century4 ,this ,jacobus ,angelus was chancellor of the faculty of ,montpellier in #adcc and is censured by ,gerson in a letter for his superstitious observance of days4 #dig ,the several editions printed before #aejj seem to have consisted simply of this ,latin translation1 such as that of ,bologna1 #adfb1 and ,vincentiae1 #adge1 and the ,greek text to have been first published in #aejg4 ,see ,justin ,winsor1 ,a ,bibliography of ,ptolemy's ,geography1 #ahhd1 in ,library of ,harvard ,university1 ,bibliographical ,contributions1 ,no4 #ah3--;a bibliography which deals only with printed editions and not with the ,,mss4 ,according to ,schmid1 however1 the editio princeps of the ,greek text was that of ,basel1 #aecc4 ,c4 ,mller's modern edition 7,didot1 #ahhc and #aija7 gives an unsatisfactory bare list of #ch ,,mss4 ,see also ,g4 ,m4 ,raidel1 ,commentatio critico-literaria de ,claudii ,ptolemaei ,geographia eiusque codicibus1 #agcg4 #dih ,l'ottica di ,claudio ,tolomeo da ,eugenio ammiraglio di ,sicilia ridotta in latino1 ed4 ,gilberto ,govi1 ,turin1 #ahhe4 #dii ,schmid 7#aiac7 still cites it without qualification4 ,hammer-,jensen has an article1 ,ptolemaios und ,heron1 in ,hermes1 ,,xlviii 7#aiac7 #bbd1 et seq4 #ejj ,haskins and ,lockwood1 ,the ,sicilian ,translators of the ,twelfth ,century1 in ,harvard ,studies in ,classical ,philology1 ,,xxi 7#aiaj71 #hi4 #eja ,ibid41 #hi-id4 #ejb ,a4 ,heller1 ,geschichte der ,physik von ,aristoteles bis auf die neueste ,zeit1 #b vols41 ,stuttgart1 #ahhb-ahhd4 ,the statement sounds a trifle improbable in view of the number of ,,mss still in existence4 #ejc ,opus ,maius1 ,,ii1 #g4 #ejd ,the ,dioptra of ,hero is really geodetical4 #eje ,govi 7#ahhe71 p4 #aea4 #ejf ,ptolemy in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,biography4 #ejg ,it was also so printed in ,sphera cum commentis1 #aeah3 8,explicit secundus et ultimus liber ,ptolomei de ,speculis4 ,completa fuit eius translatio ultimo ,decembris anno ,christi #abfi40 #ejh ,c4 ,h4 ,haskins and ,d4 ,p4 ,lockwood1 ,the ,sicilian ,translators of the ,twelfth ,century and the ,first ,latin ,version of ,ptolemy's ,almagest1 in ,harvard ,studies in ,classical ,philology1 ,,xxi 7#aiaj7 #ge-ajb4 ,c4 ,h4 ,haskins1 ,further ,notes on ,sicilian ,translations of the ,twelfth ,century1 ,ibid41 ,,xxiii1 #aee-ff4 ,j4 ,l4 ,heiberg1 ,eine mittelalterliche ,uebersetzung der ,syntaxis des ,ptolemaios1 in ,hermes ,,xlv 7#aiaj7 #eg-ff2 and ,noch einmal die mittelalterliche ,ptolemaios-,uebersetzung1 ,ibid41 ,,xlvi1 #bjg-af4 #eji ,digby #ea1 #acth ,century1 fols4 #gi-aad1 8,liber iiii tractatuum ,batolomei ,alfalisobi in sciencia judiciorum astrorum4444 ,et perfectus est eius translatio de ,arabico in ,latinum a ,tiburtino ,platone cui ,deus parcat die ,veneris hora tertia ,x,xa die mensis ,octobris anno ,domini ,,mcxxviii 7sic7 ,,xv die mensis ,saphar anno ,arabum ,,dxxxiii 7sic7 in civitate ,barchinona44440 ,the date of translation is given as ,october #b1 #aach1 in ,,cul #agfg1 #abgf ,a4 ,d41 fols4 #bdj-gf1 8,liber #d ,partium ,ptholomei ,auburtino ,palatone40 #eaj ,it is found in an edition printed at ,venice in #adic1 8per ,bonetum locatellum impensis nobilis viri ,octaviani scoti civis ,modoetiensis40 #eaa ,in the ,british ,museum are editions of ,venice1 #adhd1 #adic1 #aeai2 ,paris1 #aeai2 ,basel1 #aecc2 ,louvain1 #aedh2 it was also printed in #aeea1 #aeee1 #aegh4 #eab ,in the ,british ,museum are but three editions of the ,greek text1 all with an accompanying ,latin translation3 ,nrnberg1 #aece2 ,basel1 #aeec2 and #aehc4 #eac ,studien ber ,claudius ,ptolemus1 #ahid4 #ead 8,c'tait la capitulation de la science40 ,bouch-,leclercq in ,rev4 ,hist41 ,,lxv1 #beg1 note #c4 #eae ,in the medieval ,latin translation the ,slavs replace the ,scythians of ,ptolemy's text4 #eaf ,indeed1 ,hephaestion's first two books are nothing but ,ptolemy repeated4 ,about contemporary with ,ptolemy seems to have been ,vettius ,valens whose astrological work is extant3 ,vettius ,valens1 ,anthologiarum libri primum edidit ,guilelmus ,kroll1 ,berlin1 #aijh4 ,see also ,,ccag passim concerning both ,hephaestion and ,vettius ,valens1 and ,engelbrecht1 ,hephstion von ,theben und sein astrologisches ,compendium1 ,vienna1 #ahhg4 #eag ,james ,finlayson1 ,galen3 ,two ,bibliographical ,demonstrations in the ,library of the ,faculty of ,physicians and ,surgeons of ,glasgow1 #ahie4 ,since then ,i believe that the only work of ,galen to be translated into ,english is ,on the ,natural ,faculties1 ed4 ,a4 ,j4 ,brock1 #aiaf 7,loeb ,library74 #eah ,j4 ,f4 ,payne1 ,the ,relation of ,harvey to his ,predecessors and especially to ,galen3 ,harveian ,oration of #ahif1 in ,the ,lancet1 ,oct4 #bd1 #ahif1 p4 #aacf4 #eai ,in the ,teubner texts3 ,scriptora minora1 #a-c1 ed4 ,i4 ,marquardt1 ,i4 ,mueller1 ,g4 ,helmreich1 #ahhd-ahic2 ,de victu1 ed4 ,helmreich1 #ahih2 ,de temperamentis1 ed4 ,helmreich1 #aijd2 ,de usu partium1 ed4 ,helmreich1 #aijg1 #aiji4 ,in ,corpus ,medicorum ,graecorum1 ,v1 #i1 #a-b1 #aiad-aiae1 ,the ,hippocratic ,commentaries1 ed4 ,mewaldt1 ,helmreich1 ,westenberger1 ,diels1 ,hieg4 #ebj ,carolus ,gottlob ,khn1 ,claudii ,galeni ,opera ,omnia1 ,leipzig1 #ahba-ahcc1 #ba vols4 ,my citations will be to this edition1 unless otherwise specified4 ,an older edition which is often cited is that of ,renatus ,charterius1 ,paris1 #afgi1 #ac vols4 #eba ,the article on ,galen in ,,pw regards some of the treatises as printed in ,khn as almost unreadable4 #ebb ,although ,khn's ,index fills a volume1 it is far from dependable4 #ebc ,liddell and ,scott often fail to allude to germane passages in ,galen's works1 even when they include1 with citation of some other author1 the word he uses4 #ebd ,perhaps at this point a similarly candid confession by the present writer is in order4 ,i have tried to do a little more than ,dr4 ,payne in his modesty seems ready to admit of himself1 and to look over carefully enough not to miss anything of importance those works which seemed at all likely to bear upon my particular interest1 the history of science and magic4 ,in consequence ,i have examined long stretches of text from which ,i have got nothing4 ,for the most part1 ,i thought it better not to take time to read the ,hippocratic commentaries4 ,at first ,i was inclined to depend upon others for ,galen's treatises on anatomy and physiology1 but finally ,i read most of them in order to learn at first hand of his argument from design and his attitude towards dissection4 ,further than this the reader can probably judge for himself from my citations as to the extent and depth of my reading4 ,my first draft was completed before ,i discovered that ,puschmann had made considerable use of ,galen for medical conditions in the ,roman ,empire in his ,history of ,medical ,education1 ,english translation1 ,london1 #ahia1 pp4 #ic-aac4 ,for the sake of a complete and well-rounded survey ,i have thought it best to retain those passages where ,i cover about the same ground4 ,i have been unable to procure ,t4 ,meyer-,steineg1 ,ein ,tag im ,leben des ,galen1 ,jena1 #aiac4 #fc pp4 #ebe ,for an account of the ,,mss see ,h4 ,diels1 ,berl4 ,akad4 ,abh4 7#aije71 #eh;ff4 ,some fragments of ,galen's work on medicinal simples exist in a fifth century ,,ms of ,dioscorides at ,constantinople and have been reproduced by ,m4 ,wellmann in ,hermes1 ,,xxxviii 7#aijc71 #bib;ff4 ,the first two books of his were discovered in a ,wolfenbttel palimpsest of the fifth or sixth century by ,k4 ,koch2 see ,berl4 ,akad4 ,sitzb4 7#aijg71 #ajc;ff4 #ebf ,lancet 7#ahif71 p4 #aace4 #ebg ,for these see ,v4 ,rose1 ,analecta ,graeca et ,latina1 ,berlin1 #ahfd4 ,as a specimen of these medieval ,latin translations may be mentioned a collection of some twenty-six treatises in one huge volume which ,i have seen in the library of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford3 ,balliol #bca1 a large folio1 early #adth century 7a note of ownership was added in #accd at ,canterbury7 fols4 #dcg1 double columned pages4 ,for the titles and incipits of the individual treatises see ,coxe 7#aheb74 #ebh ,a4 ,merx1 8,proben der syrischen ,uebersetzung von ,galenus' ,schrift ber die einfachen ,heilmittel10 ,zeitsch4 d4 ,deutsch4 ,morgendl4 ,gesell4 ,,xxxix 7#ahhe71 #bcg-cje4 #ebi ,payne1 ,lancet 7#ahif71 p4 #aacf4 #ecj ,ch4 ,v4 ,daremberg1 ,exposition des connaissances de ,galien sur l'anatomie1 la physiologie1 et la pathologie du systme nerveux1 ,paris1 #ahda4 #eca ,lancet 7#ahif71 p4 #aadj4 #ecb ,brock 7#aiaf71 p4 xvi1 says in #aca ,a4 ,d4 ,clinton1 ,fasti ,romani1 placed it in #acj4 #ecc ,these details are from the ,de cognoscendis curandisque animi morbis1 cap4 #h1 ,khn1 ,v1 #dj-dd4 #ecd ,de naturalibus facultatibus1 ,,iii1 #aj1 ,khn1 ,,ii1 #agi4 #ece ,khn1 ,x1 #fji 7,de methodo medendi72 also ,,xvi1 #bbc2 and ,,xix1 #ei4 #ecf ,de anatom4 administ41 ,khn1 ,,ii1 #bag1 #bbd-be1 #ffj4 ,see also ,,xv1 #acf2 ,,xix1 #eg4 #ecg ,his recorded astronomical observations extend from #abg to #aea ,a4 ,d4 #ech ,khn1 ,x1 #af4 #eci ,fragments du commentaire de ,galien sur le ,time de ,platon1 were published for the first time1 both in ,greek and a ,french translation1 together with an ,essai sur ,galien considr comme philosophe1 by ,ch4 ,daremberg1 ,paris1 #ahdh4 #edj ,khn1 ,,xiii1 #eii-fjj4 #eda ,clinton1 ,fasti ,romani1 ,i1 #aea and #aee1 speaks of a first visit of ,galen to ,rome in #afb and a second in #afd1 but he has misinterpreted ,galen's statements4 ,when ,galen speaks of his second visit to ,rome1 he means his return after the plague4 #edb ,khn1 ,,xix1 #ae4 #edc ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #fbb1 #fbe1 #fdh2 see also ,i1 #ed-eg4 and ,,xii1 #bfc4 #edd ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #fdi-ej4 #ede ,r4 ,m4 ,briau1 ,l',archiatrie ,romaine1 ,paris1 #ahgg1 however1 held that ,galen never received the official title1 archiater2 see p4 #bd1 8il est difficile de comprendre pourquoi le mdecin de ,pergame qui donnait des soins l'empereur ,marc ,aurle1 ne fut jamais honor de ce titre40 ,but he is given the title in at least one medieval ,,ms--,merton #bai1 early #adth century1 fol4 #cfv--8,incipit liber ,galieni archistratos medicorum de malitia complexionis diversae40 #edf ,de venae sectione1 ,khn1 ,,xix1 #ebd4 #edg ,khn1 ,,xiii1 #cfb-fc2 for another allusion to this fire see ,,xiv1 #ff4 ,also ,,ii1 #baf2 ,,xix1 #ai and #da4 #edh ,for the statements of this paragraph see ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #fjc-e1 #fbj-bc4 #edi ,khn1 ,x1 #aad4 #eej ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #eii-fjj4 #eea ,khn1 ,x1 #a1 #gf4 #eeb ,khn1 ,x1 #fji4 #eec ,khn1 ,x1 #d-e4 #eed ,khn1 ,x1 #aj4 #eee ,khn1 ,,xii1 #iji1 #iaf1 and in vol4 ,,xiv the entire treatise ,de remediis parabilibus4 #eef ,khn1 ,x1 #efj4 #eeg ,khn1 ,x1 #ajaj-aa4 #eeh ,khn1 ,,xiii1 #ega-gb4 #eei ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #fb1 and see ,puschmann1 ,history of ,medical ,education 7#ahia71 p4 #ajh4 #efj ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #aj1 #cj1 #gi2 and see ,puschmann 7#ahia71 #aji-aa1 where there is bibliography of the subject4 #efa ,khn1 ,x1 #gib4 #efb ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #bf4 #efc ,the meaning of the word 8apothecary0 is explained as follows in a fourteenth century manuscript at ,chartres which is a miscellany of religious treatises with a bestiary and lapidary and bears the title1 8,apothecarius moralis monasterii ,s4 ,petri ,carnotensis40 8,apothecarius est1 secundum ,hugucium1 qui nonnullas diversarum rerum species in apothecis suis aggregat44 44 ,apothecarius dicitur is qui species aromaticas et res quacunque arti medicine et cirurgie necessarias habet penes se et venales exponit10 fol4 #c4 8,according to ,hugutius an apothecary is one who collects samples of various commodities in his stores4 ,an apothecary is called one who has at hand and exposes for sale aromatic species and all sorts of things needful in medicine and surgery40 #efd ,the nest of the fabled cinnamon bird was supposed to contain supplies of the spice1 which ,herodotus 7,,iii1 #aaa7 tells us the ,arabian merchants procured by leaving heavy pieces of flesh for the birds to carry to their nests1 which then broke down under the excessive weight4 ,in ,aristotle's ,history of ,animals 7,,ix1 #ac7 the nests are shot down with arrows tipped with lead4 ,for other allusions to the cinnamon bird in classical literature see ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson1 ,a ,glossary of ,greek ,birds1 ,oxford1 #ahie1 p4 #hb4 #efe ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #fd-ff4 #eff ,ad ,pisonem de theriaca1 ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #bag4 #efg ,khn1 ,,xiii1 #gjd4 #efh ,khn1 ,,xii1 #afh-gh4 #efi ,m4 ,berthelot1 8,sur les voyages de ,galien et de ,zosime dans l',archipel et en ,asie1 et sur la matire mdicale dans l'antiquit10 in ,journal des ,savants 7#ahie71 pp4 #chb-g4 ,the article is chiefly devoted to showing that an alchemistic treatise attributed to ,zosimus copies ,galen's account of his trips to ,lemnos and ,cyprus4 ,of such future copying of ,galen we shall encounter many more instances4 ,as for the terra sigillata1 ,c4 ,j4 ,s4 ,thompson1 in a paper on 8,terra ,sigillata1 a famous medicament of ancient times10 published in the ,proceedings of the ,seventeenth ,international ,congress of ,medical ,sciences1 ,london1 #aiac1 ,section ,,xxiii1 pp4 #dcc-dd1 tells of various medieval substitutes for the ,lemnian earth from other places1 and of the interesting religious ceremony1 performed in the presence of the ,turkish officials on only one day in the year by ,greek monks who had replaced the priestess of ,diana4 ,pierre ,belon witnessed it on ,august #fth1 #aecc4 ,by that time there were many varieties of the tablets1 8because each lord of ,lemnos had a distinct seal40 ,when ,tozer visited ,lemnos in #ahij the ceremony was still performed annually on ,august sixth and must be completed before sunrise or the earth would lose its efficacy4 ,mohammedan khodjas now shared in the religious ceremony1 sacrificing a lamb4 ,but in the twentieth century the entire ceremony was abandoned4 ,through the early modern centuries the terra sigillata continued to be held in high esteem in western ,europe also1 and was included in pharmacopeias as late as #ahcc and #ahdh4 ,thompson gives a chemical analysis of a sixteenth century tablet of the ,lemnian earth and finds no evidence therein of its possessing any medicinal property4 ,agricola in the sixteenth century wrote in his work on mining 7,de re metal41 ed4 ,hoover1 #aiab1 ,,ii1 #ca71 8,it is1 however1 very little to be wondered at that the hill in the ,island of ,lemnos was excavated1 for the whole is of a reddish-yellow color which furnishes for the inhabitants that valuable clay so especially beneficial to mankind40 #egj ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #gb4 #ega ,khn1 ,,xii1 #bbf-i4 ,see the article of ,berthelot just cited in a preceding note for an explanation of the three names and of ,galen's experience4 ,mr4 ,hoover1 in his translation of ,agricola's work on metallurgy 7#aiab71 pp4 #egc-d1 says1 8,it is desirable here to enquire into the nature of the substances given by all of the old mineralogists under the ,latinized ,greek terms1 chalcitis1 misy1 sory1 and melanteria40 ,he cites ,dioscorides 7,v1 #ge-gg7 and ,pliny 7,,nh1 ,,xxxiv1 #bi-ca7 on the subject1 but not ,galen4 ,yule 7#aijc7 ,i1 #abf1 notes that ,marco ,polo's account of ,tutia and ,spodium 8reads almost like a condensed translation of ,galen's account of ,pompholyx and ,spodos40 #egb ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #g-h2 ,,xiii1 #daa-b2 ,,xii1 #bae-f4 #egc ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #bb-bc1 #gg-gh2 ,,xiii1 #aai4 #egd ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #bee-ef4 ,the beasts of course were also in demand for the arena4 #ege ,khn1 ,x1 #def-eg1 opening passage of the seventh book4 #egf 1 ,khn1 ,,xix1 #h;ff42 and 1 ,,xix1 #di ff4 #egg ,see1 for instance1 in the ,de methodo medendi itself1 ,x1 #hie-if and #iee4 #egh ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #fea3 henceforth this text will generally be cited without name4 #egi ,,xix1 #h4 #ehj ,,ii1 #bag4 #eha ,,xix1 #i4 #ehb ,,xix1 #da4 #ehc ,,ii1 #bhc4 #ehd ,,xiv1 #fcj4 #ehe ,,xix1 #cd4 #ehf ,,xv1 #aji4 #ehg ,,xiii1 #iie-if2 ,,xiv1 #ca-cb4 #ehh ,x1 #fcc4 ,duruy refers to the passage in his ,history of ,rome 7ed4 ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy1 ,boston1 #ahhf1 ,v1 i1 #bgc71 but says1 8,extensive sanitary works were undertaken throughout all ,italy1 and the celebrated ,galen1 who was almost a contemporary1 extols their happy effects upon the public health40 ,but ,galen does not have sanitary considerations especially in mind1 since he mentions ,trajan's road-building only by way of illustration1 comparing his own systematic treatment of medicine to the emperor's great work in repairing and improving the roads1 straightening them by cut-offs that saved distance1 but sometimes abandoning an old road that went straight over hills for an easier route that avoided them1 filling in wet and marshy spots with stone or crossing them by causeways1 bridging impassable rivers1 and altering routes that led through places now deserted and beset by wild beasts so that they would pass through populous towns and more frequented areas4 ,the passage thus bears witness to a shifting of population4 #ehi ,v1 #di4 #eij ,v1 #ag-ai4 #eia ,mentioned in ,acts1 xviii1 #ah1 8 444 having shorn his head in ,cenchrea3 for he had a vow40 #eib ,v1 #df-dg4 #eic ,x1 #c-d4 #eid ,x1 #hca-cf2 ,,xiii1 #eac2 ,,xiv1 #bg-bi1 and #ad-ai on the heating and storage of wine4 #eie ,,iv1 #ggg-gi4 #eif ,similarly ,milward 7#agcc71 p4 #ajb1 wrote of ,alexander of ,tralles1 8,he has in most distempers a separate article concerning wine and ,i much doubt whether there be in all nature a more excellent medicine than this in the hands of a skillful and judicious practitioner40 #eig ,,iv1 #hba4 #eih ,khn1 ,,viii1 #egi1 #eii ,ibid41 p4 #feg1 ,i have been unable to find a passage in which1 according to ,moses ,maimonides of the twelfth century in his ,aphorisms from ,galen1 ,galen said that the wealthy physicians and philosophers of his time were not prepared for discipline as were the followers of ,moses and ,christ4 ,perhaps it is a mistranslation of one of the above passages4 ,particula #bd 7#ef71 8medici et philosophi cum aere augmentati non sunt preparati ad disciplinam sicut parati fuerunt ad disciplinam moysis et christi socii predictorum4 decimotercio megapulsus40 #fjj ,khn1 ,,iii1 #ije-g4 #fja ,khn1 ,,xi1 #fij-d2 ,,xii1 #cgb-e4 #fjb ,finlayson 7#ahie72 pp4 #h-i2 ,harnack1 ,medicinisches aus der ltesten ,kirchengeschichte1 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 #fjc ,wellmann 7#aiad71 p4 #af note4 #fjd ,khn1 ,,iv1 #haf4 #fje ,khn1 ,,iv1 #hae4 #fjf ,quoted by ,eusebius1 ,v1 #bh1 and reproduced by ,harnack1 ,medicinisches aus der ltesten ,kirchengeschichte1 #ahib1 p4 #da1 and by ,finlayson 7#ahie71 pp4 #i-aj4 #fjg ,khn1 ,x1 #af-ag4 ,j4 ,leminne1 ,les quatre lments1 in ,mmoires couronns par l',acadmie de ,belgique1 vol4 #fe1 ,brussels1 #aijc1 traces the influence of the theory in medieval thought4 #fjh ,kuhn1 ,,xiii1 #gfc-d4 #fji ,khn1 ,i1 #dbh4 #faj ,khn1 ,x1 #aaa4 #faa ,khn1 ,,xii1 #aff4 #fab ,i1 #dag4 #fac ,,xiv1 #bej-ec4 #fad ,,xiii1 #idh4 #fae ,x1 #feg4 #faf ,x1 #hgb4 #fag ,,xix1 #cdd-de4 #fah ,more recently ,galen's ,materia medica has been treated of in a ,german doctoral dissertation by ,l4 ,israelson1 ,die materia medica des ,klaudios ,galenos1 #ahid1 #bjd pp4 #fai ,x1 #fbd4 #fbj ,,xiv1 #bec-ed4 #fba ,v1 #iaa4 #fbb ,x1 #hag-ai4 #fbc ,x1 #hdc4 #fbd ,,xiv1 #bha4 #fbe ,,xii1 #bgj-ga4 #fbf ,x1 #cfh-ga4 #fbg ,khn1 ,,viii1 #cfc4 ,finlayson 7#ahie71 pp4 #ci-dj1 gives an ,english translation of ,galen's full account of the case4 #fbh ,puschmann 7#ahia71 pp4 #aje-f4 ,vitruvius1 too1 however 7,v1 iii71 states that sound spreads in waves like eddies in a pond4 #fbi ,,xiii1 #dce1 #hic1 are two instances4 #fcj ,v1 #hj2 ,,xiv1 #fgj4 #fca ,various treatises on the pulse by ,galen will be found in vols4 ,v1 ,,ix1 and ,x of ,khn's edition4 #fcb ,galen's contributions to the arts of clock-making and time-keeping have been dealt with in an article which ,i have not had access to and of which ,i cannot now find even the author and title4 #fcc ,,xiv1 #fca-cd4 #fcd ,c4 ,v4 ,daremberg1 ,exposition des connaissances de ,galien sur l'anatomie1 la physiologie1 et la pathologie du systme nerveux1 ,paris1 #ahda4 ,j4 ,s4 ,milne discussed 8,galen's ,knowledge of ,muscular ,anatomy0 at the ,international ,congress of ,medical ,sciences held at ,london in #aiac2 see pp4 #chi-djj of the volume devoted to the history of medicine1 ,section ,,xxiii4 #fce ,lancet 7#ahif71 p4 #aaci4 #fcf ,i have failed to obtain ,k4 ,f4 ,h4 ,mark1 ,herophilus1 ein ,beitrag zur ,geschichte der ,medizin1 ,carlsruhe1 #ahch4 #fcg ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson 7#aiac71 #bb-bc1 thinks that the precedence of the heart over all other organs in appearing in the embryo of the chick led ,aristotle to locate in it the central seat of the soul4 #fch ,,xiv1 #fbf-cj4 #fci ,,ii1 #fhc1 #fif4 ,this and the other quotations in this paragraph are from ,dr4 ,payne's ,harveian ,oration as printed in ,the ,lancet 7#ahif71 pp4 #aacg-ci4 #fdj ,khn1 ,v1 #baf1 cited by ,payne4 #fda ,khn1 ,,ii1 #fdb-di2 ,,iv1 #gjc-cf1 8,an in arteriis natura sanguis contineatur40 ,j4 ,kidd1 ,a ,cursory ,analysis of the ,works of ,galen so far as they relate to ,anatomy and ,physiology1 in ,transactions of the ,provincial ,medical and ,surgical ,association1 ,,vi 7#ahcg71 #bii-ccf4 #fdb ,lancet 7#ahif71 p4 #aacg1 where ,payne states that ,colombo 7,de re anatomica1 ,venet4 #aeei1 ,,xiv1 #bfa7 was the first to prove by experiment on the living heart that these veins conveyed blood from the lungs4 #fdc ,,ii1 #adf-dg4 #fdd ,,ii1 #chd-hf4 #fde ,,ii1 #bbj-ba4 #fdf ,augustine testifies in two passages of his ,de anima et eius origine 7,migne ,,pl #dd1 #dge-edh71 that vivisection of human beings was practiced as late as his time1 the early fifth century3 ,,iv1 #c1 8,medici tamen qui appellantur anatomici per membra per venas per nervos per ossa per medullas per interiora vitalia etiam vivos homines quamdiu inter manus rimantium vivere potuerunt dissiciendo scrutati sunt ut naturam corporis nossent02 and ,,iv1 #f 7,migne1 ,,pl #dd1 #ebh-i74 #fdg ,,ii1 #ecg4 #fdh ,,ii1 #fai-bj4 #fdi ,,ii1 #gja4 #fej ,,ii1 #fca ff4 #fea ,,xiii1 #eii-fjj4 ,galen states that the pontifex's term of office was seven months1 a fact which perhaps had some astrological bearing4 #feb ,x1 #ded-ee4 #fec ,,ii1 #fhb4 #fed ,,ii1 #bia4 #fee ,,iv1 #cfj1 et passim4 #fef ,,iv1 #fhg4 #feg ,,iv1 #fid1 #fif4 #feh ,,iv1 #fhh4 #fei ,,iv1 #gjj4 #ffj ,,iv1 #fib2 ,,ii1 #ecg4 ,others contend1 he says 7,,iv1 #fic71 that one soul constructs the parts and another soul incites them to voluntary motion4 #ffa ,,iv1 #gja4 #ffb ,,ii1 #bh4 #ffc ,,xviii ,b1 #ag;ff4 #ffd ,de usu partium1 ,,xi1 #ad 7,khn1 ,,iii1 #ije-g74 ,the passage seems to me an integral part of the work and not a later interpolation4 ,moses ,maimonides in the twelfth century took exception at some length1 in the #beth ,particula of his ,aphorisms from ,galen1 to this criticism of his national law-giver4 #ffe ,,iv1 #eac2 see also ,,ii1 #ee1 1 4 #fff ,x1 #fjh2 ,,xiii1 #hhg-hh4 #ffg ,,xiii1 #ifd4 #ffh ,,ii1 #acf2 ,x1 #che2 ,,xii1 #caa2 he credited ,plato with the same attitude1 see ,,ii1 #eha4 #ffi ,,ii1 #fei-fj4 #fgj ,,xii1 #ddf4 #fga ,,ii1 #ada1 #agi4 #fgb ,,ii1 #agi2 ,x1 #fji4 #fgc ,,ii1 #fba4 #fgd ,,xiii1 #hia4 #fge ,,xiii1 #dcj-ca4 #fgf ,,xiii1 #gag4 #fgg ,,xi1 #gid2 also ,,xiii1 #feh2 ,,xiv1 #fa-fb1 and many other passages of the ,antidotes4 #fgh ,,xii1 #bjc4 ,pliny1 ,,nh ,,xxxvi1 #cd1 makes the same statement as ,dioscorides4 #fgi ,,xii1 #bgb4 #fhj ,pliny1 ,,nh ,,xxviii1 #ce1 however1 both tells how butter is made and of its use as food among the barbarians4 #fha ,x1 #dj-da4 #fhb ,x1 #abg1 #ifb4 #fhc ,x1 #ca4 #fhd ,x1 #bi4 #fhe ,x1 #ffh4 #fhf ,x1 #abc4 #fhg ,x1 #iae-af4 #fhh ,i1 #ge-gf2 ,,xiv1 #cfg4 #fhi ,i1 #ade2 ,,ii1 #da-dc2 ,x1 #cj-ca1 #ghb-hc2 ,,xiii1 #ahh1 #cff1 #cge1 #dfc1 #egi1 #eid1 #hib2 ,,xiv1 #bde1 #fgi4 #fij ,x1 #aei4 #fia ,,xiv1 #fge-gf4 #fib ,i1 #add-ee4 #fic ,,xvi1 #hb4 #fid ,i1 #ace4 #fie ,,xiv1 #fhj4 #fif ,i1 #aca4 #fig ,i1 #acd4 #fih ,,xvi1 #hb4 #fii ,,ii1 #bhh4 #gjj ,,ix1 #hdb2 ,,xiii1 #hhg4 #gja ,,xiii1 #aaf-ag4 #gjb ,x1 #bh-bi4 #gjc ,x1 #fhd4 #gjd ,x1 #ded-ee4 #gje ,,xi1 #dbj4 #gjf ,,xi1 #dcd-ce4 #gjg ,,xi1 #def4 #gjh ,,xii1 #bdf4 #gji ,,xii1 #ccf4 #gaj ,,xii1 #cfe4 #gaa ,,xii1 #beh1 #bfb1 #bfi1 #cca4 #gab ,,xii1 #ccd4 #gac ,,vi1 #dec-ee4 #gad ,,xiii1 #dfc4 #gae ,,xii1 #hie4 #gaf ,,xiv1 #bbb4 #gag ,,xiii1 #gjj-gja4 #gah ,,xiii1 #gjf-gjg4 #gai ,,xiii1 #dfg4 #gbj ,,xiii1 #hfg4 #gba ,,xii1 #cib-ic1 #hhd2 ,,xiii1 #aaf-ag1 #abc1 #abe1 #abh-bi1 #ced1 #dhe1 #ejb-ejc1 #ehb1 #fef4 #gbb ,,xii1 #ifh1 #ihh4 #gbc ,see ,,xii1 #ihh2 ,,xiii1 #ifj-fa2 ,,xiv1 #ab1 #fj1 #cda4 #gbd ,,xiv1 #hb4 #gbe ,,xiii1 #egj4 #gbf ,,xii1 #cej4 #gbg ,,xvi1 #hf-hg2 ,,xi1 #eah4 #gbh ,,xi1 #dhe4 #gbi ,,xvi1 #he4 #gcj ,,ix1 #hdb4 #gca ,,ii1 #bjf4 #gcb ,i1 #ach4 #gcc ,,xvi1 #hj4 #gcd ,there would seem to be something wrong1 at least with its arrangement as it now stands1 for the first book ends 7,,xiv1 #chi7 with the words1 8,this my fourth book1 ,o ,glaucon1 ends thus4 ,if it has been useful to you1 you will readily follow what ,i've written to ,salomon the archiater40 ,but then the present second book opens with the words 7,,xiv1 #cij71 8,since you've asked me to write you about easily procurable remedies1 ,o dearest ,solon10 and goes on to say that the author will state what he has learned from experience beginning with the hair and closing with the feet4 #gce ,,xiv1 #cgh4 #gcf ,,xiv1 #dfb4 #gcg ,,xiv1 #ecd4 #gch ,,xi1 #bje4 #gci ,john of ,st4 ,amand1 ,expositio in ,antidotarium ,nicolai1 fol4 #bca1 in ,mesuae medici clarissimi opera1 ,venice1 #aefh4 ,pietro d',abano1 ,conciliator1 ,venice1 #aebf1 ,diff4 ,x1 fol4 #ae2 ,diff4 ,,lx1 fol4 #hc4 ,arnald of ,villanova1 ,repetitio super ,canon 8,vita brevis10 fol4 #bgf1 in his ,opera1 ,lyons1 #aecb4 #gdj ,gilbertus ,anglicus1 ,compendium medicinae1 ,lyons1 #aeaj1 fol4 #cbhv41 8,experimenta ex libro experimentorum ,gal4 experta40 #gda ,in his ,expositio in ,antidotarium ,nicolai1 as cited above 7note #e74 #gdb ,j4 ,l4 ,pagel1 ,die ,concordanciae des ,johannes de ,sancto ,amando1 ,berlin1 #ahid1 pp4 #ajb-ajd4 ,john also wrote commentaries on ,galen1 7,histoire ,littraire de la ,france1 ,,xxi1 #bfc-fe74 #gdc ed4 ,lyons1 #aeae1 fols4 #aiv-#b,ov4 #gdd ,berlin1 #ijb1 #adth century1 fol4 #age2 ,berlin #ijc1 #acdb ,a4 ,d41 fol4 #b4 #gde ,boncompagni 7#ahea71 pp4 #c-d4 #gdf ,moses ben ,maimon1 ,aphorisms1 #adhi4 8,incipiunt aphorismi excellentissimi ,raby ,moyses secundum doctrinam ,galieni medicorum principis 444 collegi eos ex verbis ,galieni de omnibus libris suis4444 ,et ego protuli super his afforismis quedam dicta que circumspexi et ea meo nomine nominavi et similiter protuli aliquos aphorismos aliquorum modernorum quos denominavi eorum nomine40 #gdg ,ed4 ,c4 ,v4 ,daremberg1 ,notices et ,extraits des manuscrits mdicaux1 #ahec1 pp4 #dd-dg1 ,greek text2 pp4 #bbi-cc1 ,french translation4 #gdh ,garrison1 ,history of ,medicine1 #bnd edition1 #aiag1 p4 #ada4 ,but at p4 #aea ,garrison would seem mistaken in stating that ,gentile died in #acdh1 for in the ,,ms of which ,i shall speak in the next footnote his treatise on critical days is dated back in the year #acfb3 8,tractatus de enumeratione dierum creticorum m'i ,gentilis anni #acfb10 at fol4 #abe2 while at fol4 #afb we read1 8,explicit questio 444 m'i ,zentilis anno ,domini #acei de mense marcii1 et scripta ,pisis de mense octobris #acei40 ,it is possible but rather unlikely that the dates later than #acdh refer to the labors of copyists4 ,venetian ,,mss contain not only a ,de reductione medicinarum ad actum by ,gentile1 written at ,perugia in ,april1 #acdb 7,s4 ,marco1 ,,xiv1 #g1 #adth century1 fols4 #dd-dh72 but also 8,suggestions concerning the pestilence which was at ,genoa in #acdh10 by him 7,s4 ,marco1 ,,xiv1 #bf1 #aeth century1 fols4 #ii-ajj1 consilia de peste quae fuit ,ianuae anno #acdh74 ,valentinelli's catalogue of the ,,mss in the ,library of ,st4 ,mark's does not help1 however1 to clear up the question when ,gentile died1 since in one place 7,,iv1 #bce7 ,valentinelli assures us that he died at ,bologna in #acaj1 and in another place 7,v1 #ai7 says that he died at ,perugia in #acdh4 #gdi ,cortona #aaj1 early years of #aeth century1 fol4 #abh1 ,rationes ,gentilis contra ,galenum in quinto aphorismi4 ,this ,,ms contains several other works by ,gentile da ,foligno4 #gej ,,xiv1 #fja4 #gea ,,xiv1 #fje4 #geb ,,xiv1 #fae4 #gec ,,xiv1 #fbe4 #ged ,,xiv1 #fee4 #gee ,i1 #ed-ee4 #gef ,,xii1 #bfc4 #geg ,,xii1 #cjf4 #geh ,,xii1 #cjg4 #gei ,,xi1 #gib-ic4 #gfj ,,xii1 #bhc4 #gfa ,,xii1 #bea-ec4 #gfb ,,iv1 #fhh4 #gfc ,natural ,history1 ,,xxviii1 #b4 #gfd ,,xii1 #bdh1 #bhd-he1 #bij4 #gfe ,,xii1 #bic4 #gff ,,xiv1 #bee4 7,to ,piso on theriac47 #gfg ,,xii1 #bia-ib4 #gfh ,,xii1 #bih4 #gfi ,,xii1 #cjd4 #ggj ,,xii1 #cdb4 #gga ,,xii1 #bgf-gg4 #ggb ,,xii1 #cfg-fi4 #ggc ,,xiii1 #idi-ej1 #ied-ee4 #ggd ,,xii1 #cdc4 ,these form the titles of four successive chapters1 ,de simplic41 ,,xi1 i1 caps4 #ai-bb4 #gge ,,xii1 #cei1 #idb-dc1 #igg4 #ggf ,,xii1 #hef4 #ggg ,,xii1 #hfj4 #ggh ,,xii1 #cfj4 #ggi ,,xii1 #cff-fg4 #ghj ,,xii1 #cce4 #gha ,a fact which--one cannot help remarking--considering the character of most ancient remedies for hydrophobia1 only tends to make their recovery seem the more marvelous4 #ghb ,,xiv1 #bcc4 #ghc ,,xii1 #bej-ea4 #ghd ,,xiv1 #bbd-be4 #ghe ,,ii1 #de-dh4 #ghf ,,xii1 #ceh-ei4 ,concerning the virtue of river crabs we may also quote from a story told in ,nias ,island1 west of ,sumatra3 8for had he only eaten river crabs1 men would have cast their skin like crabs1 and so1 renewing their youth perpetually1 would never have died40--,from ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer 7#aiah71 ,i1 #fg4 ,the belief that the serpent annually changes its skin and renews its youth may account for the virtues ascribed to the flesh of vipers and to theriac in the following paragraphs4 #ghg 4 #ghh ,,iv1 #gfj-fa1 ' 4 #ghi ,,xii1 #caa-ae4 #gij ,ad ,pisonem de theriaca2 ,de theriaca ad ,pamphilianum4 #gia ,,xiv1 #b-c4 #gib ,,xiv1 #bag4 #gic ,,xiv1 #bga-hj4 #gid ,,xiv1 #bhc4 #gie ,,xiv1 #bid4 #gif ,,xii1 #cag-ah2 ,,xiv1 #de-df1 #bch4 #gig ,,xiv1 #bch-ci4 #gih ,,xiii1 #cga1 #cgd4 #gii ,,xiii1 #acd4 #hjj ,,xiii1 #bdb4 #hja ,,xi1 #hei4 #hjb ,,xii1 #egc2 see also ,,xiii1 #bef4 #hjc ,,xi1 #hfj4 #hjd ,,xii1 #bie-if4 #hje ,,xii1 #bjg4 #hjf ,a representation of the ,agathodaemon2 see ,c4 ,w4 ,king1 ,the ,gnostics and their ,remains1 ,london1 #ahhg1 p4 #bbj4 #hjg ,,xii1 #bhh-hi4 ,at ,,ii1 #afc1 ,galen again accepts the notion that human saliva is fatal to scorpions4 #hjh ,,xiv1 #cba4 #hji ,,xiv1 #cdi4 #haj ,,xiv1 #chf-hg4 #haa ,,xiv1 #cdc4 #hab ,,xiv1 #dac4 #hac ,,xiv1 #dbg4 #had ,,xiv1 #dcj4 #hae ,,xiv1 #dga4 #haf ,,xiv1 #dgb4 #hag ,,xiv1 #dgf4 ,and others1 8,ut ne cui penis arrigi possit10 and 8,ad arrectionem pudendi40 #hah 8,the ,psoranthea bituminosa of ,linnaeus4 ,it is found on declivities near the sea-coast in the south of ,europe10 says a note in ,bostock and ,riley's ,the ,natural ,history of ,pliny 7,bohn ,library71 ,,iv1 #ccj4 ,pliny1 too 7,,xxi1 #hh71 states that trefoil is poisonous itself and to be used only as a counter-poison4 #hai ,,xiv1 #dia2 a good example of the power of suggestion4 #hbj ,,xiv1 #dih4 #hba ,,xiv1 #ejb4 #hbb ,,xiv1 #eje4 #hbc ,,xiv1 #eag4 #hbd ,,xiv1 #efg;ff4 #hbe ,i1 #cje-dab4 #hbf ,galen in ,,pw4 #hbg ,i1 #cbe-f4 #hbh ,,xvii ,b1 #bab and #hcd4 #hbi ,partic4 #f1 ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #bec4 #hcj ,khn1 ,,xiv1 #bee4 #hca ,these passages all come from the #bdth ,particula of ,maimonides' ,aphorisms1 which is devoted especially to marvels3--8,incipit particula xxiiii continens aphorismos dependentes a miraculis repertis in libris medicorum10 from an edition of the ,aphorisms dated #adhi and numbered ,,ia4#bhhgh in the ,british ,museum4 ,the same section contains still other marvels from the works of ,galen4 #hcb ,khn1 ,,vi1 #hcb-e4 #hcc ,,vi1 #hcc4 #hcd ,,xvi1 #bbb-bc4 #hce ,i1 #ec4 #hcf ,coeli status1 or 4 ,x1 #eic-if1 #fbe1 #fcd1 #fde1 #fdg-dh1 #feh1 #ffb1 #fhe1 #gcg1 #gei-fj1 #ggh1 #hbi1 etc4 #hcg ,x1 #fhh2 ,,xiii1 #edd2 ,,xiv1 #bhe4 #hch ,,xii1 #cef4 #hci ,,xiv1 #bih4 #hdj ,,xi1 #gih4 #hda ,,ii1 #bf-bh4 #hdb ,,xix1 #ebi-cj4 #hdc ,,xix1 #ecd-gc4 #hdd ,,ix1 #gid4 #hde ,,ix1 #ija-b4 #hdf ,,ix1 #ijd4 #hdg ,,ix1 #ijh-aj4 #hdh ,,ix1 #iac4 #hdi ,,ix1 #ibb4 #hej ,,ix1 #ice4 #hea ,khn1 ,,xix1 #bb-cde4 ,plutarch1 ,opera1 ed4 ,didot1 ,de placitis philosophorum1 pp4 #ajfe-aaad2 in ,plutarch's ,miscellanies and ,essays1 ,english translation1 #ahhi1 ,,iii1 #ajd-ib4 ,the wording of the two versions differs somewhat and in ,galen's works it is divided simply into #cg chapters1 whereas in ,plutarch's works it is divided into five books and many more chapters4 #heb ,,xix1 #cbj-ba2 ,de plac4 philos41 ,v1 #a-b4 #hec ,,xix1 #bec2 ,de plac4 philos41 ,i1 #h4 #hed ,khn1 ,,xix1 #bfa-fb2 ,de placitis philosophorum1 ,i1 #bh2 8 4 48 #hee ,,xix1 #ccc4 #hef ,,xix1 #bgd2 ,de plac4 philos41 ,,ii1 #ai4 #heg ,,xix1 #bfe2 ,de plac4 philos41 ,,ii1 #e4 #heh ,as much can hardly be said of our present day architects1 whose fantastic tin cornices projecting far out from the roofs of high buildings and rows of stones poised horizontally in mid-air1 with no other visible support than a plate glass window beneath1 remind one forcibly and painfully of the deceits and levitations of magicians4 #hei ,de architectura1 ed4 ,f4 ,krohn1 ,leipzig1 ,teubner1 #aiab1 ,,viii1 iii1 #bd4 ,a recent ,english translation of ,vitruvius is by ,m4 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,harvard ,university ,press1 #aiad4 #hfj ,,viii1 iii1 #af1 #bj-ba1 #bd-e4 #hfa ,,iii1 i4 #hfb ,v1 ,introduction1 #c-d4 #hfc ,v1 vi1 #a4 ,the wording is that of ,morgan's translation4 #hfd ,,vi1 i1 #c-d1 #i-aj4 #hfe ,,ix1 vi1 #b-c1 ,morgan's translation4 #hff ,,iii1 ,introduction1 #c1 0 444 ,there should be the greatest indignation when1 as often1 good judges are flattered by the charm of social entertainments into an approbation which is a mere pretence40 #hfg ,idem4 #hfh ,,vi1 ,introduction1 #e4 #hfi ,,ii1 ,introduction4 ,vitruvius continues1 8,but as for me1 ,emperor1 nature has not given me stature1 age has marred my face1 and my strength is impaired by ill health4 ,therefore1 since these advantages fail me1 ,i shall win your approval1 as ,i hope1 by the help of my knowledge and my writings40 #hgj ,,iii1 ,introduction1 #b4 #hga ,,vii1 ,introduction1 #a-aj4 #hgb ,,vi1 ,introduction1 #b4 ,also ,,ix1 ,introduction1 where authors are declared superior to the victorious athletes in the ,olympian1 ,pythian1 ,isthmian1 and ,nemean games4 #hgc ,,vii1 ,introd41 #aa-ad2 ,,ix1 ,introd4 #hgd ,,ix1 ,introd41 #ag4 #hge ,,vii1 ,introd41 #aj4 #hgf ,,viii1 iii1 #bg4 #hgg ,,ix1 vii1 #g4 #hgh ,,ix1 ,introd4 #hgi ,,vii1 v4 #hhj ,,vii1 ,introd41 #ah4 #hha ,v1 i1 #f-aj4 #hhb ,x1 i1 #d4 #hhc ,x1 vii4 #hhd ,,ix1 viii4 #hhe ,,ix1 viii1 #b and #d2 ,x1 vii1 #d4 #hhf ,,nh1 ,,vii1 #ch4 #hhg ,the work of ,martin1 ,recherches sur la vie et les ouvrages d',hron d',alexandrie1 ,paris1 #ahed1 and the accounts of ,hero in histories of physics and mathematics such as those of ,heller and ,cajori1 must now be supplemented by the long article in ,pauly and ,wissowa1 ,realencyclopdie der classischen ,altertumswissenschaft1 7#aiab71 cols4 #iib-ajhj4 ,a recent briefer summary in ,english is the article by ,t4 ,l4 ,heath1 ,,eb1 #aath edition1 ,,xiii1 #cgh4 ,see also ,hammer-,jensen1 ,ptolemaios und ,heron1 in ,hermes1 ,,xlviii 7#aiac71 p4 #bbd1 et seq4 ,the writings ascribed to ,hero1 hitherto scattered about in various for the most part inaccessible editions and ,,mss1 are now appearing in a single ,teubner edition1 of which five vols4 have appeared1 #ahii1 #aijj1 #aijc1 #aiab1 #aiad1 including respectively1 the ,pneumatics and ,automatic ,theater1 the ,mechanics and ,mirrors1 the ,metrics and ,dioptra1 the ,definitions and geometrical remains1 ,stereometrica and ,de mensuris and ,de geodaesia4 ,for the ,belopoiika or work on military engines see ,c4 ,wescher1 ,poliorctique des ,grecs1 ,paris1 #ahfg4 ,in ,english we have ,the ,pneumatics of ,hero of ,alexandria1 translated for ,bennet ,woodcroft by ,j4 ,g4 ,greenwood1 ,london1 #ahea4 ,a number of articles on ,hero by ,heiberg1 ,carra de ,vaux1 ,schmidt1 and others will be found in ,bibliotheca ,mathematica and ,sudhoff's ,archiv f4 d4 ,gesch4 d4 ,naturwiss4 u4 d4 ,technik4 #hhh 4 #hhi ,heath in ,,eb1 ,,xiii1 #cgh2 ,heiberg 7#aiad71 ,v1 ix4 #hij ,,pw1 ,heron4 #hia ,baur 7#aiab71 p4 #dag4 #hib ,in the first chapter of the ,automatic ,theater he says1 8,the ancients called those who constructed such things thaumaturges because of the astounding character of the spectacle40 #hic ,,pw1 #ajde4 #hid ,but perhaps this is a medieval interpolation in the nature of a crude ,christian attempt to depict 8the firmament in the midst of the waters0 7,genesis1 ,i1 #f74 ,however1 it also somewhat resembles the universe of the ,greek philosopher1 ,leucippus1 who 8made the earth a hemisphere with a hemisphere of air above1 the whole surrounded by the supporting crystal sphere which held the moon4 ,above this came the planets1 then the sun0--,orr 7#aiac71 p4 #fc and ,fig4 #ac4 ,see also ,k4 ,tittel1 8,das ,weltbild bei ,heron10 in ,bibl4 ,math4 7#aijg-aijh71 pp4 #aac-g4 #hie ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 pp4 #fh-i4 ,for the following account of ,greek alchemy ,i have followed ,berthelot's three works1 ,les ,origines de l',alchimie1 #ahhe2 ,collection des anciens ,alchimistes ,grecs1 #c vols41 #ahhg-ahhh2 ,introduction l'tude de la ,chimie1 #ahhi4 ,berthelot made a good many books from too few ,,mss2 went over the same ground repeatedly2 and sometimes had to correct his previous statements2 but still remains the fullest account of the subject4 ,e4 ,o4 v4 ,lippmann1 ,entstehung und ,ausbreitung der ,alchemie1 #aiai1 is still based largely on ,berthelot's publications4 ,in ,english see ,c4 ,a4 ,browne1 8,the ,poem of the ,philosopher ,theophrastos upon the ,sacred ,art3 ,a ,metrical ,translation with ,comments upon the ,history of ,alchemy10 in ,the ,scientific ,monthly1 ,september1 #aibj1 pp4 #aic-bad4 #hif ,the earliest of them is ,john of ,antioch of the reign of ,heraclius1 about #fbj ,a4 ,d41 although they seem to use ,panodorus1 an ,egyptian monk of the reign of ,arcadius4 ,even he would be a century removed from the event4 #hig ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 pp4 #bf1 #gb1 etc41 took this story about ,diocletian far too seriously4 #hih ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 #aib-c4 #hii ,but the ,labyrinth of ,solomon1 which ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 p4 #af1 had cited as an example of the sort of ancient magic figures which had been largely obliterated by ,christians1 and of the antiquity of alchemy among the ,jews 7ibid41 p4 #ed71 although he granted 7ibid41 p4 #aga7 that it might not be as old as the ,papyrus of ,leyden of the third century1 later when he had secured the collaboration of ,ruelle 7#ahhh71 ,i1 #aef-g1 and ,,iii1 #da1 he had to admit was not even as old as the eleventh century ,,ms in which it occurred but was an addition in writing of the fourteenth century and 8a cabalistic work of the middle ages which does not belong to the old tradition of the ,greek alchemists40 #ijj ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 p4 #ei4 #ija ,ibid41 p4 #ec4 #ijb ,berthelot 7#ahhh71 ,,iii1 #bea4 #ijc ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 p4 #ef4 #ijd ,berthelot 7#ahhh71 ,,iii1 #bc4 #ije ,berthelot 7#ahhh71 ,,iii1 #bea4 #ijf ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 p4 #afd4 #ijg ,ibid41 pp4 #agi-hj4 #ijh ,ibid41 p4 #fj4 #iji ,berthelot 7#ahhh71 ,,ii1 #aae-f2 ,,iii1 #abe4 #iaj ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 pp4 #baa-b4 #iaa ,berthelot 7#ahhi71 p4 vi4 #iab ,de institutione principis epistola ad ,traianum1 a treatise extant only in ,latin form4 #iac ,,iv1 #gb4 ,on the biography and bibliography of ,plutarch consult ,christ1 ,gesch4 d4 ,griechischen ,litteratur1 #eth ed41 ,munich1 #aiac1 ,,ii1 #b1 8,die nachklassische ,periode10 pp4 #cfg;ff4 #iad ,see also the essay1 8,whether an old man should engage in politics10 cap4 #af4 #iae ,see ,r4 ,schmertosch1 in ,philol4-,hist4 ,beitr4 z4 ,ehren ,wachsmuths1 #ahig1 pp4 #bh;ff4 #iaf ,language and literary form are surer guides and have been applied by ,b4 ,weissenberger1 ,die ,sprache ,plutarchs von ,chronea und die pseudoplutarchischen ,schriften1 ,,ii ,progr4 ,straubing1 #ahif1 pp4 #ae;ff4 ,in #ahgf ,w4 ,w4 ,goodwin1 editing a revised edition of the seventeenth century ,english translation of the ,morals1 declared that no critical translation was possible until a thorough revision of the text had been undertaken with the help of the best ,,mss4 ,since then an edition of the text by ,g4 ,n4 ,bernadakes1 #ahhh-ahif1 has appeared1 but it has not escaped criticism4 #iag ,the ,english translation of ,plutarch's ,morals 8by several hands10 first published in #afhd-afid1 sixth edition corrected and revised by ,w4 ,w4 ,goodwin1 #e vols41 #ahgj-ahgh1 ,,iv1 #aj1 renders a passage in the seventh chapter of ,de defectu oraculorum1 in which complaint is made of the 8base and villainous questions0 which are now put to the oracle of ,apollo1 as follows3 8some coming to him as a mere paltry astrologer to try his skill and impose upon him with subtle questions40 ,but the corresponding clause in the ,greek text is merely 1 and there seems to be no reason for taking the word 8sophist0 in any other than its usual meaning4 ,the passage therefore cannot be interpreted as an attack upon even vulgar astrologers4 #iah ,de defectu oraculorum1 #ac4 #iai ,cap4 #ab4 #ibj ,cap4 #g4 #iba ,cap4 #h4 #ibb ,cap4 #i4 #ibc ,cap4 #aj4 #ibd ,de genio ,socratis1 #ba-bb4 #ibe ,ibid41 #bd4 #ibf ,de defectu oraculorum1 #dj4 #ibg ,de genio ,socratis1 #ab4 #ibh ,sympos41 ,,viii4 #aj4 #ibi ,de defectu oraculorum1 #dd4 #icj ,ibid41 #dh4 #ica ,ibid41 #ac4 #icb ,ibid41 #aj4 #icc ,ibid41 #ac4 #icd ,de genio ,socratis1 #bb4 #ice ,cap4 #bf4 #icf ,cap4 #bi4 #icg ,cap4 #cj4 #ich ,cap4 #bd4 #ici ,cap4 #bb4 #idj ,de defectu oraculorum1 #aj4 #ida ,ibid41 #ah4 #idb ,ibid41 #ac-ad4 #idc ,de defectu oraculorum1 #ba4 #idd ,de genio ,socratis1 #aa4 #ide ,ibid41 #bj4 #idf ,romulus1 cap4 #ab4 #idg 4 #idh ,cap4 #b4 #idi ,cap4 #bb4 #iej ,cap4 #c4 #iea ,caps4 #e-h4 #ieb ,cap4 #i4 #iec ,de facie in orbe lunae1 #bh4 #ied ,,viii1 #i4 #iee ,de defectu oraculorum1 #ca-cb4 ,the resemblance of the stranger's tale to the vision of ,er in ,plato's ,republic is also evident4 #ief ,ibid41 #cd4 #ieg ,ibid41 #cg4 #ieh ,ibid41 #cf2 and see #aa-ab4 #iei ,caps4 #h-af4 #ifj ,cap4 #ag4 #ifa ,cap4 #ca4 #ifb ,cap4 #cc4 #ifc ,symposiacs1 ,,ii1 #g4 ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson in his translation of ,aristotle's ,history of ,animals comments on ,,ii1 #ad1 8,the myth of the #8ship-holder' has been elegantly explained by ,v4 ,w4 ,elkman1 #8,on ,dead ,water1' in the ,reports of ,nansen's ,north ,polar ,expedition1 ,christiania1 #aijd40 #ifd ,see above p4 #gg for the somewhat different statement of ,pliny 7,,nh1 ,,xxiii1 #fd74 #ife ,symposiacs1 ,v1 #aj4 #iff ,de sera numinis vindicta1 #ad4 #ifg ,de defectu oraculorum1 #dc4 #ifh ,x1 #a 7,casaub41 #ddf72 for this and some other source citations and a brief bibliography of modern discussions on the subject see the article1 8,amiantus0 7#c7 in ,pauly-,wissowa4 #ifi ,article on 8,asbestos0 in the ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 #aath edition1 which further states that ,charlemagne was said to own a tablecloth which was cleaned by throwing it into the fire1 and that in #afgf a merchant from ,china exhibited to the ,royal ,society a handkerchief of 8salamander's wool0 or linum asbesti 7asbestos linen74 ,see also ,marco ,polo1 ,i1 #db1 and ,cordier's note in ,yule 7#aijc71 ,i1 #baf4 #igj ,,xix1 #d4 ,in ,bostock and ,riley's ,english translation1 note #dd states that 8the wicks of the inextinguishable lamps of the middle ages1 the existence of which was an article of general belief1 were said to be made of asbestus40 ,on its use in lamp-wicks see also ,pausanias1 ,i1 #bf1 #g4 #iga 8,in the year #agjb there was found near the ,naevian ,gate at ,rome a funeral urn1 in which there was a skull1 calcined bones1 and other ashes1 enclosed in a cloth of asbestus of a marvelous length4 ,it is still preserved in the ,vatican10 7,bostock and ,riley1 note #de74 #igb 8,on the contrary1 it is found in the ,higher ,alps in the vicinity of glaciers1 in ,scotland1 and in ,siberia even0 7,bostock and ,riley1 note #df74 ,the article on 8,amiantus 7#c70 in ,pauly-,wissowa incorrectly assumes that in ,,xix1 #d1 ,pliny has it in mind4 ,in ,,xxxvi1 #ca1 however1 ,pliny briefly describes the stone amianthus1 which ,bostock and ,riley 7note #eb7 call 8the most delicate variety of asbestus10 as 8losing nothing in fire0 and 8resisting all potions 7or1 spells7 even of the magi10--8,amiantus alumini similis nihil igni deperdit4 ,hic veneficis resistit omnibus privatim magorum40 ,in ,,xxxvii1 #ed1 in an alphabetical list of stones1 he briefly states that asbestos is iron-colored and found in the mountains of ,arcadia1--8,asbestos in ,arcadiae montibus nascitur coloris ferrei40 #igc ,ed4 by ,r4 ,hercher1 ,lipsiae1 #ahea2 and by ,c4 ,mller in ,geograph4 ,graeci ,minores1 ,,ii1 #fcg;ff4 #igd ,in ,christ's ,gesch4 d4 ,griech4 ,litt41 not only is the ,on ,rivers and ,mountains itself called a 8,schwindelbuch10 but these citations are rejected as fraudulent4 #ige ,cap4 #e4 #igf ,cap4 #ah4 #igg ,cap4 #ba4 #igh ,cap4 #f4 #igi ,cap4 #a4 #ihj ,cap4 #g4 #iha ,caps4 #i1 #aj1 #ab4 #ihb ,caps4 #af1 #ah1 #bd4 #ihc ,cap4 #ag4 #ihd ,v1 #g4 #ihe ,bruta animalia ratione uti1 cap4 #i2 also ,quaest4 ,nat41 cap4 #bf1 8,why certain brutes seek certain remedies40 #ihf ,de solertia animalium4 #ihg ,ibid41 #cf-cg2 also the closing chapters of ,the ,banquet of the ,seven ,sages4 #ihh ,cap4 #ca4 #ihi ,cap4 #be4 #iij ,cap4 #ab4 #iia ,cap4 #aj4 #iib ,cap4 #bi4 #iic ,isis and ,osiris1 #aj4 #iid ,,viii1 #i1 4 #iie ,nat4 ,quaest41 caps4 #f1 #ad1 #bb1 #bd1 #cf4 #iif ,symposiacs1 ,,ii1 #i2 ,,iv1 #b2 ,,iii1 #aj2 ,,iv1 #e4 #iig ,de facie in orbe lunae1 #i-aj2 also the opening chapters of ,de defectu oraculorum4 #iih ,cap4 #g4 #iii ,cap4 #ah4 #ajjj 8,tam graece quam latine1 gemino voto1 pari studio1 simili studio40 #ajja ,florida1 cap4 #i4 #ajjb ,apologia1 cap4 #d4 #ajjc ,caps4 #gc and #ee4 #ajjd ,caps4 #ee-ef4 #ajje ,cap4 #ag4 #ajjf ,apologia1 cap4 #gj4 #ajjg ,cap4 #hi4 #ajjh ,to ,professor ,butler 7,apulei ,apologia1 ed4 ,h4 ,e4 ,butler and ,a4 ,s4 ,owen1 ,oxford1 #aiad7 this difficulty seems so insurmountable that he places the ,apology earlier4 ,but for the reasons already given ,i agree with the article on ,apuleius in ,pauly and ,wissowa and its citations that the ,metamorphoses is ,apuleius's first work4 #ajji ,the work opens with the statement that the author 8will stitch together varied stories in the so-called ,milesian manner10 and that 8we begin with a ,grecian story40 #ajaj ,i1 #c4 #ajaa ,,ii1 #a4 #ajab ,i1 #h4 #ajac ,,ii1 #e4 #ajad ,,iii1 #ae4 ,the wording of the translated passages throughout this chapter is mainly my own1 but ,i have made some use of existing ,english translations4 #ajae ,,iii1 #af4 #ajaf ,i1 #h4 #ajag ,i1 #i-aj4 #ajah ,i1 #aa-ac4 #ajai ,,ii1 #bb and #be4 #ajbj ,,ii1 #bj and #cj2 ,,ix1 #bi4 #ajba ,i1 #aa2 ,,ii1 #aa4 #ajbb ,,ii1 #bj1 #bb2 ,,iii1 #ah4 #ajbc ,very similar practices are recounted by ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,native ,tribes of ,south-,east ,australia1 pp4 #cee-if2 8the medicine-men of hostile tribes sneak into the camp in the night1 and with a net of a peculiar construction garotte one of the tribe1 drag him a hundred yards or so from the camp1 cut up his abdomen obliquely1 take out the kidney and caul-fat1 and then stuff a handful of grass and sand into the wound40 #ajbd ,,vi1 #bf4 #ajbe ,,ii1 #bb4 #ajbf ,i1 #aj2 ,,vii1 #ad2 ,,ix1 #bc1 #bi4 #ajbg ,,ii1 #bh4 #ajbh ,,ii1 #f2 ,,iii1 #ai4 #ajbi ,,iii1 #bi4 #ajcj ,,iii1 #ag4 #ajca ,,iii1 #ba4 #ajcb ,i1 #aj2 ,,ii1 #bj-ba4 #ajcc ,,iii1 #af4 #ajcd ,,ii1 #bc-cj4 #ajce ,i1 #ac4 #ajcf ,,ii1 #e4 8,surculis et lapillis et id genus frivolis inhalatis40 #ajcg ,,iii1 #ah4 #ajch ,,iii1 #ba4 #ajci ,,iii1 #bc4 #ajdj ,,iii1 #be4 #ajda ,,ii1 #bh4 #ajdb ,examples are3 ,i1 #c1 magico susurramine2 ,,ii1 #a1 artis magicae nativa cantamina2 ,,ii1 #e1 omnis carminis sepulchralis magistra creditur2 ,,ii1 #bb1 diris cantaminibus somno custodes obruunt2 ,,iii1 #ah1 tunc decantatis spirantibus fibris2 ,,iii1 #ba1 multumque cum lucerna secreta collocuta4 #ajdc ,i1 #aa1 quo numinis ministerio4 #ajdd ,i1 #h1 saga1 inquit1 et divina2 ,,ix1 #bi1 saga illa et divini potens4 #ajde ,,iii1 #ai4 #ajdf ,,ii1 #ab-ad4 #ajdg ,,viii1 #bf-bg2 ,,ix1 #h4 #ajdh ,i1 #d4 #ajdi ,x1 #aa1 #be4 #ajej ,,viii1 #bd2 ,,xi1 #bb1 #be4 #ajea ,i1 #e4 #ajeb ,,ii1 #bf4 #ajec ,,ix1 #cc-cd4 #ajed ,,ii1 #aa-ab4 #ajee ,x1 #aa4 ,for bibliography on the mandragora see ,frazer 7#aiah7 ,i1 #cgg note #b in his chapter 8,jacob and the ,mandrakes40 #ajef ,,viii1 #ba4 #ajeg ,,xi1 #a4 #ajeh ,macdonald 7#aiji71 p4 #abh4 #ajei ,,viii1 #i4 #ajfj ,cap4 #a4 #ajfa ,florida1 caps4 #bd-bf4 #ajfb ,caps4 #fa-fc4 ,the following passages from ,e4 ,a4 ,w4 ,budge1 ,egyptian ,magic 7#ahii71 perhaps furnish an explanation of the true purpose and character of ,apuleius's wooden figure3 p4 #hd1 8,under the heading of #8,magical ,figures' must certainly be included the so-called ,ptah-,seker-,ausar figure1 which is usually made of wood2 it is often solid1 but is sometimes made hollow1 and is usually let into a rectangular wooden stand which may be either solid or hollow40 ,to get the protection of ,ptah1 ,seker1 and ,osiris1 says ,budge at p4 #he1 8a figure was fashioned in such a way as to include the chief characteristics of the forms of these gods1 and was inserted in a rectangular wooden stand which was intended to represent the coffin or chest out of which the trinity ,ptah-,seker-,ausar came forth4 ,on the figure itself and on the sides of the stand were inscribed prayers44440 ,such a figure in a coffin might well be described by the accusers as the horrible form of a ghost or skeleton4 #ajfc ,cap4 #ca4 #ajfd ,cap4 #db4 #ajfe ,cap4 #dc4 #ajff ,caps4 #a-c4 #ajfg ,cap4 #b4 #ajfh ,caps4 #bg and #ca4 ,for the same thought applied in the case of medieval men see ,gabriel ,naud1 ,apologie pour tous les grands personages qui out est faussement souponnez de ,magie1 ,paris1 #afbe4 #ajfi ,cap4 #be4 #ajgj ,cap4 #dg4 #ajga ,cap4 #be4 #ajgb ,caps4 #i1 #db1 #fa1 #fc4 #ajgc ,cap4 #bh4 #ajgd ,cap4 #dh4 #ajge ,cap4 #be4 #ajgf ,cap4 #bf4 #ajgg ,cap4 #ca4 #ajgh ,cap4 #f4 #ajgi ,cap4 #ac4 #ajhj ,caps4 #cj1 #cc4 #ajha ,cap4 #fa4 #ajhb ,cap4 #ec4 #ajhc ,cap4 #eh4 #ajhd ,cap4 #da4 #ajhe ,nicander lived in the second century ,b4,c4 under ,attalus ,,iii of ,pergamum4 ,of his works there are extant the ,theriaca in #ieh hexameters and another poem1 the ,alexipharmaca1 of #fcj lines2 ed4 ,j4 ,g4 ,schneider1 #agib and #ahaf2 by ,o4 ,schneider1 #ahef4 ,there is an illuminated eleventh century manuscript of the ,theriaca in the ,bibliothque ,nationale at ,paris1 which ,o4 ,m4 ,dalton 7,byzantine ,art and ,archaeology1 p4 #dhc7 says 8is evidently a painstaking copy of a very early original1 perhaps almost contemporary with ,nicander himself40 #ajhf ,cap4 #dj4 #ajhg ,caps4 #di-ea4 #ajhh ,caps4 #ae-af4 #ajhi ,cap4 #dj4 #ajij ,cap4 #cf4 #ajia ,cap4 #h4 #ajib ,cap4 #he4 #ajic ,cap4 #ch4 #ajid ,cap4 #de4 #ajie ,cap4 #ea4 #ajif ,caps4 #cj1 #db4 #ajig ,cap4 #dj4 #ajih ,p4 #ih4 #ajii ,cap4 #ce4 #aajj ,so ,abt has pointed out3 ,die ,apologie des ,apuleius von ,madaura und die antike ,zauberei1 ,giessen1 #aijh1 p4 #bbd4 #aaja ,caps4 #db-dc4 #aajb ,cap4 #ch4 #aajc ,cap4 #ij4 #aajd ,cap4 #ig4 #aaje ,cap4 #hd4 #aajf ,de mundo1 cap4 #a2 ,de deo ,socratis1 cap4 #d4 #aajg ,de mens41 ,,iv41 #g1 #gc2 ,de ostent41 #c1 #d1 #g1 #aj1 #dd1 #ed4 #aajh ,cap4 #dc4 #aaji ,cap4 #f4 #aaaj ,de deo ,socratis1 cap4 #h4 #aaaa ,hist4 ,anim41 ,v1 #ai4 #aaab ,de deo ,socratis1 cap4 #ac4 #aaac ,ibid41 caps4 #i-aj4 #aaad ,,xviii1 #ah4 #aaae ,,viii1 #ad-bb4 #aaaf ,epistles #ajb1 #acf1 #ach1 in ,migne1 ,,pl1 vol4 #cc4 #aaag ,divin4 ,instit41 ,v1 #c4 #aaah ,codex ,laurentianus1 plut4 #fh1 #b4 ,the same ,,ms contains the ,histories and ,annals 7,,xi-,,xvi7 of ,tacitus4 ,a subscription to the ninth book of the ,metamorphoses indicates that the original manuscript from which this was derived or copied was produced in #cie ,a4 ,d4 and #cig ,a4 ,d4 ,g4 ,huet1 8,le roman d',apule tait-il connu au moyen ge10 ,le ,moyen ,age 7#aiag71 #dd-eb1 holds that the ,metamorphoses was not known directly to the medieval vernacular romancers4 ,see also ,b4 ,stumfall1 ,das ,mrchen von ,amor und ,psyche in ,seinem ,fortleben1 ,leipzig1 #aijg4 #aaai ,,clm #fba4 #aabj ,harleian #cifi4 #aaba ,,vii1 #e4 #aabb ,ep4 #acf4 #aabc ,divin4 ,instit41 ,v1 #b-c4 #aabd ,concerning other writers named ,philostratus and which works should be assigned to each1 see ,schmid 7#aiac7 #fjh-bj4 #aabe ,see article on ,apollonius of ,tyana in ,pauly-,wissowa4 ,priaulx1 ,the ,indian ,travels of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 ,london1 #ahgc1 p4 #fb1 found the geography of ,apollonius's ,indian travels so erroneous that he came to the conclusion that either ,apollonius never visited ,india1 or1 if he did1 that ,damis 8never accompanied him but fabricated the journal ,philostratus speaks of40 #aabf ,priaulx1 however1 regarded its statements concerning ,india as such as might have been 8easily collected at that great mart for ,indian commodities and resort for ,indian merchants--,alexandria10 or from earlier authors4 #aabg ,,iii1 #bc1 #ce2 ,,iv1 #i1 #cb2 ,v1 #bj2 ,,vi1 #ab1 #af2 ,,vii1 #aj1 #ab1 #ae-af4 #aabh ,see the treatise of ,eusebius ,against ,apollonius4 ,lactantius 7,divin4 ,inst41 ,v1 #b-c7 probably had reference to ,hierocles in speaking of a philosopher who had written three books against ,christianity and declared the miracles of ,apollonius as wonderful as those of ,christ4 #aabi ,so ,origen says 7,against ,celsus1 ,,vi1 #da7 and ,philostratus implies 7,i1 #c74 #aacj ,see the ,against ,apollonius1 caps4 #ca1 #ce4 #aaca 1 1 cap4 #e4 ,in the passage quoted ,i have used ,fowler's translation4 #aacb ,in other respects1 however1 ,i have usually found this translation1 which accompanies the ,greek text in the recent ,loeb ,classical ,library edition1 both racy and accurate1 and have employed it in a number of the quotations which follow4 #aacc ,i1 #cb4 #aacd ,i1 #bi4 #aace ,i1 #bf4 #aacf ,i1 #dj4 #aacg ,v1 #ab4 #aach ,,vii1 #ci4 #aaci ,v1 #ab4 #aadj ,,iv1 #ah4 #aada ,,viii1 #ai4 #aadb ,,viii1 #cj4 #aadc ,,viii1 #g4 #aadd ,,vii1 #bj4 #aade ,,vii1 #cd4 #aadf ,,vii1 #ci4 #aadg ,,vi1 #aa2 ,,iii1 #dc4 #aadh ,,vi1 #da4 #aadi ,i1 #b4 #aaej ,v1 #ab4 #aaea ,,vi1 #aa4 #aaeb ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,themis1 ,cambridge1 #aiab1 p4 #gb4 8,the ,buddha himself condemned as worthless the whole system of ,vedic sacrifices1 including in his ban astrology1 divination1 spells1 omens1 and witchcraft2 but in the earliest ,buddhist stupas known to us1 the symbolism is entirely borrowed from the sacrificial lore of the ,vedas30 ,e4 ,b4 ,havell1 ,a ,handbook of ,indian ,art1 #aibj1 p4 #f1 and see p4 #cb for the birth of ,buddha under the sign ,taurus4 #aaec ,,vi1 #aj4 #aaed ,,iii1 #ab4 #aaee ,,iii1 #af4 #aaef ,,iii1 #ac4 #aaeg ,,iii1 #ab4 ,but perhaps the translation should be1 8men who are exceedingly wise40 #aaeh ,,iii1 #ae4 #aaei ,,iii1 #df-dg4 #aafj ,,iii1 #ag4 #aafa ,,iii1 #bg4 #aafb ,,iii1 #ch-dj4 #aafc ,,iii1 #dd4 #aafd ,,iii1 #da4 #aafe ,,iii1 #ba4 #aaff ,,iii1 #da4 #aafg ,v1 #cg4 #aafh ,v1 #cg4 #aafi ,,iii1 #cd4 #aagj ,,iii1 #cg4 #aaga ,,vi1 #ch4 #aagb ,,iii1 #cd4 #aagc ,v1 #ag4 #aagd ,i1 #bb4 #aage ,,nh1 ,,viii1 #ag2 ,hist4 ,anim41 ,,vi1 #ca4 #aagf ,,vi1 #cg4 #aagg ,the ancient authorities1 pro and con1 will be found listed in ,d4 ,w4 ,thompson1 ,glossary of ,greek ,birds1 #ajf-ajg4 ,he adds3 8,modern naturalists accept the story of the singing swans1 asserting that though the common swan cannot sing1 yet the ,whooper or whistling swan does so4 ,it is certain that the ,whooper sings1 for many ornithologists state the fact1 but ,i do not think that it can sing very well2 at the very best1 dant sonitum rauci per stagna loquacia cygni4 ,this concrete explanation is quite inadequate2 it is beyond a doubt that the swan's song 7like the halcyon's7 veiled1 and still hides1 some mystical allusion40 #aagh ,,ii1 #ad4 #aagi ,i1 #bb4 ,pliny1 ,,nh1 ,,viii1 #ag1 repeats a slightly different popular notion that the lioness tears her womb with her claws and so can bear but once2 against this view he cites ,aristotle's statement that the lioness bears five times1 as described above4 #aahj ,,iii1 #b4 #aaha ,,iii1 #dg2 ,,vi1 #be4 ,scylax was a ,persian admiral under ,darius who traveled to ,india and wrote an account of his voyages4 ,the work extant under his name is of doubtful authorship 7,isaac ,vossius1 ,periplus ,scylacis ,caryandensis1 #afci71 but some date it as early as the fourth century ,b4,c4 #aahb ,,ii1 #aa-af4 #aahc ,,ii1 #b2 ,,iii1 #d4 #aahd ,,ii1 #bh4 #aahe ,,iii1 #a4 ,greek fire8 #aahf ,,iii1 #dh-i4 #aahg ,,iii1 #f2 ,,ii1 #ag4 #aahh ,,iii1 #g4 #aahi ,,nh1 ,,viii1 #aa4 #aaij ,,iii1 #h4 #aaia ,,iii1 #i4 #aaib ,,iii1 #g4 #aaic ,,iii1 #h4 #aaid ,,ii1 #ad4 #aaie ,,ii1 #dj4 #aaif ,,iii1 #bg4 #aaig ,,iii1 #ba4 #aaih ,,iii1 #a4 #aaii ,,viii1 #g4 #abjj ,,iii1 #cj4 #abja ,,iii1 #db4 #abjb ,,viii1 #g4 #abjc ,,iv1 #dd4 #abjd ,,viii1 #g4 #abje ,,viii1 #g4 #abjf ,,viii1 #bf2 ,,vi1 #dc4 ,the historian1 ,dio ,cassius1 a contemporary of ,philostratus1 also states that ,apollonius announced the assassination of ,domitian and even named the assassin in ,ephesus on the very day that the event occurred at ,rome4 ,his account differs too much from that by ,philostratus to have been copied from it4 ,he concludes it with the positive assertion1 8,this is really what took place1 though there should be ten thousand doubters40 7,,lxvii1 #ah47 #abjg ,,iii1 #db4 #abjh ,,vi1 #aa4 #abji ,i1 #bc4 #abaj ,,iv1 #cd4 #abaa ,,viii1 #g4 #abab ,,iv1 #cg4 #abac ,i1 #bb4 #abad ,v1 #ac4 #abae ,,viii1 #g4 #abaf ,i1 #bj4 #abag ,i1 #ca4 #abah ,v1 #be4 #abai ,,iv1 #d4 #abbj ,,iv1 #bd4 #abba ,,iv1 #dc4 #abbb ,v1 #ah4 #abbc ,,vii1 #ah4 #abbd ,,iv1 #aj4 #abbe ,,viii1 #g4 #abbf ,,iv1 #dd4 #abbg ,,ii1 #d4 #abbh ,,vi1 #bg4 #abbi ,,iv1 #bj4 #abcj ,,iv1 #be4 #abca ,i1 #d4 #abcb ,i1 #ai4 #abcc ,epist4 #ej4 #abcd ,,vii1 #cb4 #abce ,,vi1 #bg4 #abcf ,,iv1 #aa1 #ae-af4 #abcg ,,vi1 #dc4 #abch ,,iv1 #de4 #abci ,,iv1 #dd4 #abdj ,,viii1 #h4 #abda ,,vii1 #ch4 #abdb ,,viii1 #cj4 #abdc ,the passages are not listed in ,liddell and ,scott1 nor mentioned by ,professor ,bury in his note on 8,the in ,greek ,magic10 ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies 7#ahhf71 pp4 #aeg-fj4 ,hubert's article on 8,magia0 in ,daremberg-,saglio cites only one passage and seems to regard the iunx solely as a magic wheel4 ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson1 ,a ,glossary of ,greek ,birds1 ,oxford1 #ahie1 also cites but one passage from ,philostratus4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 ,zeus1 ,cambridge1 #aiad1 ,i1 #bec-fe1 notes both main passages but tries to interpret the iunges as solar wheels rather than birds4 ,but the iunx is found as a bird on several ,greek vases of the latest period2 see ,british ,museum ,catalogue of ,vases1 vol4 ,,iv1 figs4 #id1 #ih1 #cdb1 #afc1 #cca;b2 magic wheels are also represented on the vases1 but are not described as iunges in the catalogue2 see vol4 ,,iv1 figs4 #cca;a1 #cgc1 #che1 #cii1 #dji1 #dcf1 #dej1 #deh1 and vol4 ,,iii1 ,e #ggd1 ,f #bbc1 ,f #bgi4 #abdd ,,vi1 #aj2 see also ,,viii1 #g4 #abde ,i1 #be4 #abdf ,,vi1 #aa4 #abdg ,cited by ,cook1 ,zeus1 ,i1 #bff1 who1 however1 fails to connect it with the iunx4 #abdh ,newton's ,dictionary of ,birds2 a reference supplied me by the kindness of my colleague1 ,professor ,f4 ,h4 ,herrick4 #abdi ,professor ,bury's theory that 8the bird was called from its call which sounded like 2 and it was used in lunar enchantments because it was supposed to be calling on ,io1 the moon03 and that 8 originally meant a moon-song independently of the wryneck10 which came to be employed in magic moon-worship on account of its cry1 has already been refuted by ,professor ,thompson1 who pointed out that 8the bird does not cry 11 1 and the suggested derivation of its name and sanctity from such a cry cannot hold40 #abej ,see ,chapter #di for a fuller account of it4 #abea ,see ,chapter #ga4 #abeb ,math4 #ed1 ,liber ,appollonii magi vel philosophi qui dicitur ,elizinus4 #abec ,,bn #aciea1 #abth century1 ,liber ,apollonii de principalibus rerum causis4 ,vienna #cabd1 #aeth century1 fols4 #egv-#ehv1 8,verba de proprietatibus rerum quomodo virtus unius frangitur per alium4 ,adamas nec ferro nec igne domatur 444_/ 444 cito medetur40 #abed ,royal #ab-;,c-,,xviii1 ,baleni de imaginibus2 ,sloane #chbf1 fols4 #ajjv-#aja1 ,beleemus de imaginibus2 ,sloane #chdh1 fols4 #eb-h1 ,liber ,balamini sapientis de sigillis planetarum1 fols4 #ei-fb1 liber sapientis ,baleym de ymaginibus septem planetarum4 ,but these forms might suggest ,balaam4 ,we also hear of ,flacius ,affricus1 a disciple of ,belenus4 #abee ,m4 ,steinschneider1 8,apollonius von ,thyana 7oder ,balinas7 bei den ,arabern10 in ,zeitschrift der ,deutschen ,morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1 ,,xlv 7#ahia71 #dci-df4 #abef ,t4 ,schiche1 ,de fontibus librorum ,ciceronis qui sunt de divinatione1 ,jena1 #ahge2 ,k4 ,hartfelder1 ,die ,quellen von ,ciceros zwei ,bchern de ,divinatione1 ,freiburg1 #ahgh4 #abeg ,aulus ,gellius1 ,noctes ,atticae1 ,,xiv1 ,i4 #abeh ,adv4 astrol41 in ,opera1 ed4 ,johannes ,albertus ,fabricius1 ,leipzig1 #agah4 #abei ,de divinatione1 ,i1 #ci4 #abfj ,ibid41 ,i1 #eh4 #abfa ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #aa4 #abfb ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #cc4 #abfc ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #cf4 #abfd ,i1 #ej4 #abfe ,,ii1 #c-d4 #abff ,,ii1 #e4 8,quae enim praesentiri aut arte aut ratione aut usu aut coniectura possunt1 ea non divinis tribuenda putas sed peritis40 #abfg ,,ii1 #cj4 #abfh ,,ii1 #ab4 ,an astrologer1 however1 would probably say that seeming contradiction could be accounted for by the varying influence of the constellations upon different regions4 #abfi ,,ii1 #ab4 #abgj ,,ii1 #ai4 8,quid igitur minus a physicis dici debet quam quidquam certi significari rebus incertis80 #abga ,,ii1 #fj-ga4 #abgb ,,ii1 #ed4 #abgc ,,ii1 #af4 #abgd ,,ii1 #db-dg4 #abge ,,nh1 ,,vii1 #ba4 #abgf ,republic1 ,,ii1 #aj4 #abgg ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #ae4 #abgh ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #ah4 #abgi ,apologia pro mercede conductis4 ,most of ,lucian's ,essays have been translated into ,english by ,h4 ,w4 ,fowler and ,f4 ,g4 ,fowler1 #aije1 #d vols4 #abhj ,de defectu oraculorum1 #de4 #abha ,fowler's translation4 #abhb ,fowler omits it4 ,it appears in the ,teubner edition1 ,luciani ,samosatensis opera1 ed4 ,c4 ,jacobitz1 ,,ii 7#ahhg71 #ahg-ie1 but both ,jacobitz and ,dindorf mark it as spurious4 ,croiset1 ,essai sur la vie et les uvres de ,lucien1 ,paris1 #ahhb1 p4 #dc1 also rejects it4 #abhc ,see the interesting paper of ,j4 ,d4 ,rolleston1 8,lucian and ,medicine10 #aiae1 #bc pp41 reprinted from ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society of ,medicine1 ,,viii1 #di-eh1 #gb-hd4 #abhd ,see the close of ,nigrinus4 #abhe ,rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt1 ,,xxi1 i1 #ad4 #abhf ,the wording of these excerpts is that of ,fowler's translation4 #abhg ,see ,sackur1 ,sibyllinische ,texte und ,forschungen1 ,halle1 #ahih2 ,alexandre1 ,oracula ,sibyllina1 #bnd ed41 ,paris1 #ahfi2 ,charles 7#aiac7 ,,ii1 #cfh ff4 #abhh ,besides the works to be cited later in this chapter1 the reader may consult3 ,a4 ,dieterich1 ,abraxas 7,studien z4 relig4 gesch4 d4 spt4 alt471 ,leipzig1 #ahia1 especially chapter ,,ii 7pp4 #acf;ff471 8,jdisch-orphisch-gnostiche ,kulte und die ,zauberbcher02 and ,g4 ,a4 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 #ahbi1 #b vols4 #abhi ,steinschneider 7#aijf71 #bd4 ,he mentions the dissertation of ,r4 ,pietschmann1 ,hermes ,trismegistus1 ,leipzig1 #ahge4 #abij ,see ,galen1 citing ,pamphilus1 ,khn1 ,,xi1 #gih4 #abia ,,xxi1 #ad1 #ae4 #abib ,,vi1 #d4 #abic ,i1 #a2 ,,viii1 #a-d4 #abid ,,viii1 #a4 #abie ,,viii1 #b4 #abif ,,viii1 #d4 #abig ,i1 #a4 #abih ,r4 ,reitzenstein1 ,poimandres1 ,leipzig1 #aijd1 p4 #cai4 ,this work is the fullest scientific treatment of the subject4 #abii ,citations supporting this and the preceding sentences may be found in ,kroll's article on ,hermes ,trismegistus in ,pauly-,wissowa1 #hji-hbj4 ,the ,poimandres was translated into ,english by ,john ,everard1 ,d4,d41 a mystic but also a popular preacher whose outspoken sermons caused his frequent arrest and imprisonment during the reigns of ,james ,i and ,charles ,i4 ,james is reported to have said of him1 8,what is this ,dr4 ,ever-out8 ,his name shall be ,dr4 ,never-out10 7,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog474 ,dr4 ,everard's translation was printed in #afej and again in #afeg when the 8,asclepius0 was added to it4 ,in #ahhd it appeared again in the ,bath ,occult ,reprint ,series with an introduction by ,hargrave ,jennings1 and the second volume in the same series was ,hermes' ,the ,virgin of the ,world1 published at ,london4 ,kroll mentions only the more recent translation by ,mead1 ,thrice ,greatest ,hermes4 ,london1 #aijf4 #acjj ,consult the bibliography in ,kroll's article in ,pauly-,wissowa4 #acja ,see the various volumes of ,catalogus codicum astrologorum ,graecorum1 passim4 #acjb ,unprinted4 #acjc ,an ,english translation by ,john ,harvey was printed in ,london1 #afeg1 #abmo4 ,it also exists in manuscript form in the ,british ,museum2 ,sloane #agcd1 fols4 #bhc-ih1 8,the learned work of ,hermes ,trismegistus intituled hys ,phisicke ,mathematycke or ,mathematicall ,physickes1 direct to ,hammon ,kinge of ,egypte40 #acjd ,orphica1 ed4 ,abel 7#ahhe71 p4 #ada4 #acje ,it was to a work on this last subject that ,pamphilus1 cited by ,galen1 referred in mentioning the herb 1 but this plant is not named in the extant treatise on the decans4 ,such treatises are more or less addressed to ,asclepius3 printed in ,j4 ,b4 ,pitra1 ,analecta ,sacra1 ,v1 ii1 #bgi-ij2 ,cat4 cod4 astrol4 ,graec41 ,,iv1 #acd2 ,,vi1 #hc2 ,,vii1 #bca2 ,,viii1 ii1 #aei2 ,,viii1 iii1 #aea2 and by ,ruelle1 ,rev4 ,phil41 ,,xxxii1 #bdg4 #acjf ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 pp4 #acc-f1 and his article on ,hermes ,trismegistus in ,la ,grande ,encyclopdie2 also ,kroll on ,hermes in ,pauly-,wissowa1 #gii4 #acjg ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 p4 #acd4 #acjh ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,l',astrologie grecque1 #ahii1 pp4 xi1 #eai-bj1 #efc-d4 #acji ,,nh1 ,,ii1 #ba2 ,,vii1 #ej4 #acaj ,khn1 ,,xii1 #bjg4 #acaa ,they have been collected and edited by ,e4 ,riess1 ,nechepsonis et ,petosiridis fragmenta magica1 in ,philologus1 ,supplbd4 ,,vi1 ,gttingen 7#ahia-ic71 pp4 #cbc-cid4 ,see also ,f4 ,boll1 ,die ,erforschung der antiken ,astrologie1 in ,neue ,jahrb4 fr das klass4 ,altert41 ,,xi 7#aijh71 p4 #ajf1 and his dissertation of the same title published at ,bonn1 #ahij4 ,i have found that ,riess1 while including some of the passages attributed to ,nechepso by the sixth century medical writer1 ,aetius1 seems to have overlooked the 8,emplastrum ,nechepsonis e cupresso10 ,aetius1 ,tetrabibl41 ,,iv1 ,sermo ,,iii1 cap4 #ai 7p4 #gga in the edition of ,stephanus1 #aefg74 #acab ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,l',astrologie grecque1 #ahih1 p4 xiii4 ,axt and ,riegler1 ,manethonis ,apotelesmaticorum libri sex1 ,cologne1 #ahcb4 ,also edited by ,koechly4 #acac ,e4 ,riess1 ,on ,ancient ,superstition1 in ,transactions ,american ,philological ,association 7#ahie71 ,,xxvi1 #dj-ee4 ,grenfell 7#aiba71 p4 #aea1 announces that ,j4 ,g4 ,smyly is about to publish 8a remarkable fragment of an ,orphic ritual0 among some thirty papyrus texts in the ,cunningham ,memoirs of the ,royal ,irish ,academy4 #acad ,the ,greek text of the ,lithica is contained in ,orphica1 ed4 ,e4 ,abel1 ,lipsiae et ,pragae1 #ahhe4 ,a rather too free ,english verse translation1 ,orpheus on ,gems1 is given in ,c4 ,w4 ,king1 ,the ,natural ,history1 ,ancient and ,modern1 of ,precious ,stones and ,gems and of ,precious ,metals1 ,london1 #ahfe4 #acae ,pp4 #cig-ih4 #acaf ,line #id1 2 line #afe1 4 #acag ,lines #daj-daa4 #acah ,confessio ,s4 ,cypriani1 in ,acta ,sanctorum1 ed4 ,bollandists1 ,sept41 ,,vii1 #bbb2 ,l4 ,preller1 ,philologus 7#ahdf71 ,i1 #cdi;ff42 cited by ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 ,zeus1 ,cambridge1 #aiad1 ,i1 #aaj-aaa4 ,the work is treated more fully below in ,chapter #ah4 #acai ,franz ,cumont1 op4 cit41 ,chicago1 #aiaa1 p4 #ahi4 ,see also ,windischmann1 ,zoroastrische ,studien1 ,berlin1 #ahfc4 #acbj ,see below1 ,chapter #bf4 #acba ,cap4 #af4 #acbb ,edited by ,kroll1 ,de oraculis ,chaldaicis1 in ,breslau ,philolog4 ,abhandl41 ,,vii 7#ahid71 #a-gf4 ,cory1 ,ancient ,fragments1 ,london1 #ahcb4 #acbc ,l4 ,a4 ,gray in ,a4 ,v4 ,w4 ,jackson1 ,zoroaster1 #aija1 pp4 #bei-fj4 #acbd ,g4 ,wolff1 ,porphyrii de philosophia ex oraculis hauriendis1 ,berlin1 #ahhf4 ,pitra1 ,analecta ,sacra1 ,v1 #b1 pp4 #aib-ie1 4 ,many quotations of oracles from ,porphyry's ,de philosophia ex oraculis hausta are made by ,eusebius1 ,praeparatio evangelica1 in ,,pg1 ,,xxi4 #acbe ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,l',astrologie grecque1 p4 #eii4 #acbf ,paul ,allard1 ,la transformation du ,paganisme romain au ,i,ve sicle1 pp4 #aac-cc1 in ,compte ,rendu du ,congrs ,scientifique ,international des ,catholiques4 ,deuxime ,section1 ,sciences religieuses4 ,paris1 #ahia4 #acbg ,plotini opera omnia1 ,porphyrii liber de vita ,plotini1 cum ,marsilii ,ficini commentariis 444 ed ,d4 ,wyttenbach1 ,g4 ,h4 ,moser1 and ,f4 ,creuzer1 ,oxford1 #ahce1 #c vols4 ,page references in my citations are to this edition1 but ,i have also employed3 ,plotini ,enneades1 ed4 ,r4 ,volkmann1 ,leipzig1 #ahhc2 ,select ,works of ,plotinus translated from the ,greek with an ,introduction containing the substance of ,porphyry's ,life of ,plotinus1 by ,thomas ,taylor1 new edition with preface and bibliography by ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead1 ,london1 #aiji2 ,k4 ,s4 ,guthrie1 ,the ,philosophy of ,plotinus1 ,philadelphia1 #ahif1 and ,plotinos1 ,complete ,works1 #d vols41 #aiah1 ,english ,translation4 ,where my citations give the number of the chapter in addition to the ,ennead and ,book1 these agree with ,volkmann's text and ,guthrie's translation1--which1 however1 are not quite identical in this respect4 ,a noteworthy recent publication is ,w4 ,r4 ,inge1 ,the ,philosophy of ,plotinus1 #aiah1 #b vols4 #acbh ,h4 ,f4 ,mller1 ,plotinische ,studien ,,ii1 in ,hermes1 ,,xlix1 #gj-hi1 argues that the philosophy of ,plotinus was genuinely ,hellenic and free from oriental influence1 that all theurgy was hateful to him1 and that he opposed ,gnosticism and astrology4 ,mller seems to me to overstate his case and to be too ready to exculpate ,plotinus1 or perhaps rather ,hellenism1 from concurrence in the superstition of the time4 #acbi ,for ,gnosticism see ,chapter #ae4 #accj ,ennead1 ,,ii1 #i1 #ad4 1 ed4 ,g4 ,a4 ,heigl1 #ahcb2 and ,plotini ,de ,virtutibus et ,adversus ,gnosticos libellos1 ed4 ,a4 ,kirchhoff1 #ahdg2 are simply extracts from the ,enneads4 ,see also ,c4 ,schmidt1 ,plotin's ,stellung zum ,gnosticismus u4 kirchl4 ,christentum1 #aijj2 in ,,tu1 ,x1 #ij pp4 #acca ,ennead1 ,,iv1 #d1 #dj 7,,ii1 #hje or #dcd74 2 1 1 4 ,ibid4 #db 7,,ii1 #hjh or #dcf7 444 4 ,ennead1 ,,iv1 #i 7,,ii1 #hia or #dgi74 ,greek3 1 4 #accb ,ennead1 ,,iv1 #d 7,,ii1 #haj or #dcg74 #accc ,ennead1 ,,iv1 #d1 #dc-dd4 #accd ,ennead1 ,,iv1 #d1 #dd4 #acce ,see ,chapter ,,xii1 pp4 #cbc-d4 #accf ,vita ,plotini1 cap4 #aj4 #accg ,vita1 cap4 #aj4 #acch ,cap4 #aj4 #acci ,a#gdh4 #acdj ,shown in the article on 8,jewelry0 in the eleventh edition of the ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 ,plate ,i1 ,figure #ej4 ,the article says of the pendant1 8,here we find the themes of archaic ,greek art1 such as a figure holding up two water-birds1 in immediate connexion with ,mycenaean gold patterns40 ,see further ,a4 ,j4 ,evans in ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 #ahic1 p4 #aig4 #acda ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,themis1 ,cambridge1 #aiab4 p4 #aad1 ,fig4 #bj4 #acdb ,vita1 cap4 #ae4 ,it will be noted that like some of the church fathers ,plotinus attacked genethlialogy rather than astrology4 1 4 77 4 #acdc ,ennead ,,ii1 #c1 4 ,porphyry arranged his master's treatises in the form of six enneads of nine each and perhaps somewhat revised them at the same time4 #acdd ,matheseos libri ,,viii1 ed4 ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,lipsiae1 #ahig4 ,i1 #g1 #ad-bb4 #acde ,see below1 pp4 #cec-d4 #acdf ,ennead ,,ii1 #c 7p4 #bdb71 ' 1 1 4 ,see also ,ennead ,,iii1 #a1 and ,,iv1 #c-d4 #acdg ,i1 #ah4 #acdh ,cap4 #ai4 #acdi ,polycraticus1 ,,ii1 #ai1 7ed4 ,c4 ,c4 ,i4 ,webb1 #aiji1 ,i1 #aab74 ,mr4 ,webb 7,i1 xxviii7 holds that ,john of ,salisbury 8certainly did not have ,plotinus10 and derived some passages from his works through ,macrobius and ,augustine2 but he is unable to state in what intermediate source ,john could have found the passage now in question4 ,it does not seem to reflect ,plotinus' doctrine very accurately4 #acej ,ennead ,,iv1 iv1 #f and #h4 #acea ,ibid41 #cj4 ,guthrie's translation1 8,we have shown that memory is useless to the stars3 we have agreed that they have senses1 namely1 sight and hearing10 is quite misleading1 as caps4 #dj-db make evident4 #aceb ,ennead ,,ii1 iii1 #f and #ac 7#bdi-ej74 #acec ,ennead ,,iv1 iv1 #ca4 444 1 4 #aced ,idem4 ,guthrie heads the passage1 8,absurdity of ,ptolemean ,astrology40 ,see also ,ennead1 ,,ii1 iii1 #a-e4 #acee ,ennead ,,ii1 iii1 #f4 #acef ,ennead ,,ii1 iii1 #d4 #aceg ,guthrie's translation1 ,ennead ,,iv1 iv1 #ce4 1 4 #aceh ,idem4 ' 1 1 1 4 #acei ,ennead ,,iv1 iv1 #cd4 4 #acfj ,ennead ,,ii1 iii 7p4 #bef74 #acfa ,ibid4 7pp4 #bej-a74 #acfb ,ibid41 ,,ii1 iii 7pp4 #bdc-f1 #bed-e1 #bfc-e74 #acfc ,ennead1 ,,ii1 ix1 #ac4 1 1 4 #acfd ,the references for the statements in this paragraph are in the order of their occurrence3 ,ennead1 ,,ii1 iii 7pp4 #beg1 #bea-b72 ,,iii1 iv 7p4 #eba72 ,,iv1 iv 7p4 #hac72 ,,ii1 iii 7p4 #bfj72 ,,iii1 iv 7p4 #ebj72 ,,iv1 #c 7p4 #gaa73 in these cases the higher page-numbering is used4 #acfe ,edited ,venice1 ,aldine ,press1 #adig and #aeaf2 ,oxford1 #afgh2 by ,g4 ,parthey1 ,berlin1 #aheg4 ,in the following quotations from it ,i have usually adhered to ,t4 ,taylor's ,english translation1 ,london1 #ahba4 #acff ,carl ,rasche1 ,de ,iamblicho libri qui inscribitur de mysteriis auctore1 ,aschendorff1 #aiaa1 #hb pp4 #acfg ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,l',astrologie grecque 7#ahih71 p4 #eii1 citing ,kroll1 ,de oraculis ,chaldaicis4 #acfh ,de mysteriis1 ,i1 #e4 #acfi ,,viii1 #b4 #acgj ,i1 #i4 #acga ,i1 #ag 7,taylor's translation74 #acgb ,,iv1 #f4 #acgc ,i1 #aj4 #acgd ,v1 #aj-ab4 #acge ,i1 #bj4 #acgf ,,ii1 #f4 #acgg ,,ii1 #g4 #acgh ,,iv1 #a4 #acgi ,,iv1 #b4 #achj ,,iv1 #aj4 #acha ,,ii1 #aa4 #achb ,,ii1 #c4 #achc ,v1 #bj4 #achd ,i1 #i2 ,,vi1 #f2 ,,ii1 #aa4 #ache ,i1 #aa4 #achf ,v1 #bc4 #achg ,,iv1 #b4 #achh ,i1 #ab4 #achi ,i1 #ae2 ,,iii1 #bd 7,taylor's translation74 #acij ,,vii1 #d4 #acia ,,vii1 #e4 #acib ,,iii1 #bi4 #acic ,,ii1 #aj4 #acid ,,iv1 #aj4 #acie ,,iv1 #ab4 #acif ,,iv1 #c4 #acig ,,iv1 #aj2 ,,iii1 #ca4 #acih ,,iv1 #g4 #acii ,,ii1 #aj4 #adjj ,,vi1 #e2 ,,iii1 #be2 ,,iii1 #ac4 #adja ,,ii1 #aj4 #adjb ,e4 ,s4 ,bouchier1 ,syria as a ,roman ,province1 ,oxford1 #aiaf1 p4 #bca4 #adjc ,de abstinentia1 ,,ii1 #dh4 #adjd ,,iii1 #a1 #aj4 #adje ,,iii1 #b-c4 #adjf ,,iii1 #aa4 #adjg ,,iii1 #bd2 ,,iii1 #ag4 #adjh ,,iii1 #ad4 #adji ,,iii1 #be4 ,although1 as stated above1 one may be divinely inspired while diseased4 ,but there is no causal connection between the two4 #adaj ,,iii1 #bf4 #adaa ,,iii1 #ae4 #adab ,i1 #ag4 #adac ,,viii1 #d4 #adad ,,viii1 #f4 #adae ,,ix1 #c-d4 #adaf ,i1 #ah4 #adag ,iamblichus1 ,in ,nicomachi ,geraseni arithmeticam introductionem et ,de fato1 published by ,tennulius1 ,deventer and ,arnheim1 #affh4 #adah ,zeller1 ,philos4 d4 ,gr41 ,,iii1 #b1 #b1 p4 #fjh4 cites passages to show ,porphyry's leanings towards astrology2 but ,f4 ,boll1 ,studien ber ,claudius ,ptolemaeus1 #aae-ag1 and ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,l',astrologie grecque1 #fja-fjb1 are inclined to the opposite view4 #adai ,,ccag1 passim4 #adbj ,ed4 ,hieronymus ,wolf1 ,basel1 #aeei1 ,greek and ,latin4 #adba ,,iii1 #bh4 #adbb ,,iii1 #bi4 #adbc ,eusebius1 ,praep4 evang41 ,,iv1 #f-ae1 #bc2 ,v1 #f1 #aa1 #ad-ae2 ,,vi1 #a1 #d-e2 etc41 in ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xxi4 #adbd ,loeb ,library edition of ,julian's works1 ,i1 #cih1 #dab1 #dcc4 #adbe ,i1 #dhb1 #dih4 #adbf ,i1 #dje4 #adbg ,i1 #cgd-ge4 #adbh ,i1 #cff-fg4 #adbi ,i1 #cfh4 #adcj ,i1 #dai4 #adca ,,xxii1 xii1 #h4 #adcb ,,xxi1 i1 #g4 #adcc ,,xxviii1 iv1 #bd4 #adcd ,,xxii1 xvi1 #ag-ah4 #adce ,published at ,venice 7,aldine71 #adig1 along with the ,de mysteriis1 and other works edited or composed by ,marsilius ,ficinus4 ,see also ,procli ,opera1 ed4 ,cousin1 ,paris1 #ahbj-ahbg1 ,,iii1 #bgh2 and ,kroll1 ,analecta ,graeca1 ,greisswald1 #aija1 where a ,greek translation accompanies the ,latin text4 #adcf ,eusebii ,caesariensis ,opera1 ,pars ,,ii1 ,apologetica1 ,praep4 ,evang41 ,,iv1 #bb2 ,v1 #f1 #h1 #aj1 #ab1 #ad2 ,,vi1 #a1 #d2 ,,xiv1 #aj 7,migne1 ,patrologia ,graeca1 vol4 #ba74 #adcg ,x1 #i-aj4 #adch ,berthelot 7#ahhi71 p4 ix4 #adci 4 ,i have used both the editio princeps by ,gesner1 ,zurich1 #aeef1 and the critical edition by ,r4 ,hercher1 ,paris1 #aheh1 and ,teubner1 #ahfd4 ,the work will henceforth be cited without title in the notes4 #addj ,see ,,pw1 and ,christ1 ,gesch4 d4 griech4 ,litt41 for further details4 #adda ,i1 #bb4 #addb ,i1 #bd4 #addc ,i1 #ce4 ,d4 ,w4 ,thompson1 ,glossary of ,greek ,birds1 p4 #eg1 notes that in the ,birds of ,aristophanes1 where the hoopoe appears1 8the mysterious root in verse #fed is the magical 40 #addd ,i1 #dh4 #adde ,i1 #eb4 #addf ,i1 #ed4 #addg ,,ii1 #b and #ca2 ,,iii1 #e4 #addh ,,iii1 #ag4 #addi ,,iii1 #bc and #be4 #adej ,,iii1 #bf2 in ,i1 #de1 the woodpecker similarly employs the virtue of an herb to remove a stone blocking the entrance to its nest4 #adea ,,iii1 #cb and #ch4 #adeb ,,iv1 #aj1 #ad1 #ag4 #adec ,,iv1 #bg4 #aded ,,iv1 #bi4 #adee ,,iv1 #ec4 #adef ,v1 #cg4 #adeg ,,vi1 #d4 #adeh ,,vi1 #af4 #adei ,,vi1 #cc4 #adfj ,,vi1 #da4 #adfa ,,vi1 #ei4 #adfb ,,vii1 #g-h4 #adfc ,,vii1 #ad4 #adfd ,,vii1 #af4 ,the story is also found in ,pliny ,,nh1 ,x1 #c1 where it is added that ,aeschylus remained out-doors that day1 because an oracle predicted that he would be killed by the fall of a 7tortoise's7 house4 #adfe ,,viii1 #e4 #adff ,,viii1 #bb4 #adfg ,,ix1 #a4 #adfh ,x1 #dj4 #adfi ,,xi1 #b and #af4 #adgj ,,xii1 #ba4 #adga ,,xiii1 #c4 #adgb ,,xiv1 #ai4 #adgc ,c4 ,iulii ,solini ,collectanea rerum memorabilium iterum recensuit ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,berlin1 #ahie1 pp4 xxxi-li4 ,beazley1 ,dawn of ,modern ,geography1 ,i1 #ebj-b1 lists #aeb ,,mss4 #adgd ,beazley1 ,dawn of ,modern ,geography1 ,i1 #bdg4 #adge ,mommsen 7#ahie71 p4 #dh4 #adgf ,ibid41 p4 #g4 #adgg ,yet one medieval ,,ms of ,solinus is described as ,de variarum herbarum et radicum qualitate et virtute medica2 ,vienna #ciei1 #aeth century1 fols4 #ef-gd4 #adgh ,in ,mommsen's edition critical apparatus occupies more than one-half of the #baf pages4 #adgi ,c4 ,w4 ,king1 ,the ,natural ,history1 ,ancient and ,modern1 of ,precious ,stones and ,gems1 ,london1 #ahfe1 p4 #f4 #adhj ,mommsen 7#ahie71 pp4 #acb1 #ahh4 #adha ,ibid41 #df-g4 ,mommsen could give no source for these statements concerning ,sardinia1 and they do not appear to be in ,pliny4 ,but it is from a footnote in the ,english translation of the ,natural ,history by ,bostock and ,riley 7,,ii1 #bjh1 citing ,dalechamps1 and ,lemaire1 ,,iii1 #bja7 that ,i learn that the laughter which ,pliny 7,,nh1 ,,vii1 #eb7 speaks of as a premonitory sign of death in cases of madness1 8is not the indication of mirth1 but what has been termed the risus ,sardonicus1 the #8,sardonic laugh1' produced by a convulsive action of the muscles of the face40 ,this form of death may be what ,solinus has in mind4 ,agricola in his work on metallurgy and mines still believes in the poisonous ants of ,sardinia2 ,de re metallica1 ,,vi1 near close1 pp4 #baf-g1 in ,hoover's translation1 #aiab4 #adhb ,mommsen 7#ahie71 p4 #eg4 #adhc ,ibid41 p4 #ci4 #adhd ,mommsen 7#ahie71 p4 #hb4 #adhe ,ibid41 pp4 #de-df4 #adhf ,ibid41 pp4 #ac1 #fh4 #adhg ,ibid41 pp4 #ah1 #da1 #aei4 #adhh ,ibid41 p4 #ej1 and elsewhere1 8siderum disciplinam40 #adhi ,ibid41 p4 #e1 8mathematicorum nobilissimus40 ,solinus probably takes this from ,varro1 who1 as ,plutarch informs us in his ,life of ,romulus1 asked 8,tarrutius1 his familiar acquaintance1 a good philosopher and mathematician10 to calculate the horoscope of ,romulus4 ,see above1 p4 #bji4 #adij ,mommsen 7#aije71 pp4 #ge-f4 #adia ,ibid41 p4 #ff4 #adib ,,pw1 for the problem of his identity and further bibliography4 #adic ,i have used the text and ,english translation of ,a4 ,t4 ,cory1 ,the ,hieroglyphics of ,horapollo ,nilous1 #ahdj4 ,philip's ,greek is so bad that some would date it in the fourteenth or fifteenth century4 ,the oldest extant ,greek codex was purchased in ,andros in #adai4 ,the work was translated into ,latin by the fifteenth century at latest2 see ,vienna #cbee1 #aeth century1 #hb fols41 ,horapollo1 ,hieroglyphicon latine versorum liber ,i et libri ,,ii introductio cum figuris calamo exaratis et coloratis4 #adid ,i1 #a2 ,,ii1 #fa2 ,,ii1 #fe2 ,,ii1 #cf and #ei2 ,,ii1 #eg2 ,,ii1 #hc2 ,i1 #cd-e2 ,,ii1 #eg2 ,,ii1 #dd and #ci and #gf-g and #he-f and #hh4 #adie ,,ii1 #de4 #adif ,,ii1 #df2 ,aelian says the same1 however1 as we stated above4 #adig ,,ii1 #fd4 #adih ,,nh1 ,,xxviii1 #bg4 #adii ,,ii1 #gb4 #aejj ,i1 #f4 ,according to ,pliny 7,,nh1 ,,xx1 #bf71 the hawk sprinkles its eyes with the juice of this herb2 ,apuleius 7,metamorphoses1 cap4 #cj7 says that the eagle does so4 #aeja ,i1 #c4 #aejb ,,ii1 #eg4 #aejc ,i1 #aj4 #aejd ,i1 #aa4 #aeje ,i1 #ad4 #aejf ,i1 #af4 #aejg ,i1 #ac4 #aejh ,i1 #bc4 #aeji ,sir ,william ,muir1 8,ancient ,arabic ,poetry1 its ,genuineness and ,authenticity10 in ,royal ,asiatic ,society's ,journal 7#ahhb71 p4 #cj4 #aeaj ,ascribed to ,enoch in ,harleian ,,ms #afab1 fol4 #aer1 ,incipit3 8,enoch tanquam unus ex philosophis super res quartum librum edidit1 in quo voluit determinare ista quatuor3 videlicet de xv stellis1 de xv herbis1 de xv lapidibus preciosis et de xv figuris ipsis lapidibus sculpendis10 and ,wolfenbttel #bgbe1 #adth century1 fols4 #hc-idv2 ,,bn #acjad1 #adth century1 fol4 #agdv2 ,amplon1 ,quarto #cha 7,erfurt71 #adth century1 fols4 #db-de3 for 8,enoch's prayer0 see ,sloane ,,ms #chba1 #agth century1 fols1 #aijv-#aic4 ,ascribed to ,hermes in ,harleian #hj1 ,sloane #chdg1 ,royal #ab-;,c-,,xviii2 ,berlin #ifc1 fol4 #aje2 ,vienna #ebaf1 #aeth century1 fols4 #fcr-#ffv2 8,dixit ,enoch quod #ae sunt stelle _/ ex tractatu ,heremeth 7i4 e4 ,hermes7 et enoch compilatum02 and in the ,catalogue of ,amplonius 7#adab ,a4 ,d471 ,math4 #ec4 ,see below1 ,,ii1 #bbj-ba4 ,the stars are probably fifteen in number because ,ptolemy distinguished that many stars of first magnitude4 ,dante1 ,paradiso1 ,,xiii1 #d1 also speaks of 8quindici stelle40 ,see ,orr 7#aiac71 pp4 #aed-f1 where ,ptolemy's descriptions of the fifteen stars of first magnitude and their modern names are given4 #aeaa ,digby #fg1 late #abth century1 fol4 #fir1 8,prologus de tribus ,mercuriis40 ,they are also identified by other medieval writers4 ,some would further identify with ,enoch ,nannacus or ,annacus1 king of ,phrygia1 who foresaw ,deucalion's flood and lamented4 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer 7#aiah71 ,i1 #aee-f1 and ,p4 ,buttmann1 ,mythologus1 ,berlin1 #ahbh-ahbi1 and ,e4 ,babelon1 ,la tradition phrygienne du dluge1 in ,rev4 d4 l'hist4 d4 religs41 ,,xxiii 7#ahia71 which he cites4 ,roger ,bacon stated that some would identify ,enoch with 8the great ,hermogenes1 whom the ,greeks much commend and laud1 and they ascribe to him all secret and celestial science40 ,steele 7#aibj7 #ii4 #aeab ,r4 ,h4 ,charles1 ,the ,book of ,enoch1 ,oxford1 #ahic1 p4 #cc1 citing ,euseb4 ,praep4 ,evan41 ix1 #ag1 #h 7,gaisford74 #aeac ,charles 7#ahic71 p4 #aj1 citing ,ewald4 #aead ed4 ,dindorf1 #ahbi4 #aeae ,lods1 ,ad4 ,le ,livre d',hnoch1 ,fragments grecs dcouverts ,akhmin1 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,charles1 ,r4 ,h41 ,the ,book of ,enoch1 ,oxford1 #ahic1 8translated from ,professor ,dillman's ,ethiopic text1 amended and revised in accordance with hitherto uncollated ,ethiopic manuscripts and with the ,gizeh and other ,greek and ,latin fragments1 which are here published in full40 ,the ,book of ,enoch1 translated anew1 etc41 ,oxford1 #aiab4 ,also translated in ,charles 7#aiac7 ,,ii1 #afc-bha4 ,there are twenty-nine ,ethiopic ,,mss of ,enoch4 ,charles1 ,r4 ,h4 and ,morfill1 ,w4 ,r41 ,the ,book of the ,secrets of ,enoch1 translated from the ,slavonic1 ,oxford1 #ahif4 ,also by ,forbes and ,charles in ,charles 7#aiac7 ,,ii1 #dbe-fi4 #aeaf ,charles 7#ahic71 p4 #bb4 #aeag ,charles 7#aiac71 ,,ii1 #afe-f4 #aeah ,charles 7#ahic71 pp4 #b and #da4 #aeai ,v41 #ed4 #aebj ,,xv1 #bc4 #aeba ,introd41 vi4 #aebb ,spec4 ,nat41 ,i1 #i4 ,a ,latin fragment1 found in the ,british ,museum in #ahic by ,dr4 ,m4 ,r4 ,james and published in the ,cambridge ,texts and ,studies1 ,,ii1 #c1 ,apocrypha ,anecdota1 pp4 #adf-ej1 8seems to point to a ,latin translation of ,enoch0--,charles 7#aiac7 ,,ii1 #afg4 #aebc ,book of ,enoch1 ,,xl1 #i4 #aebd ,ibid41 ,,xliii2 ,secrets of ,enoch1 ,,iv4 #aebe ,book of ,enoch1 ,,xliii2 ,,xc1 #ba4 #aebf ,ibid41 ,,lx1 #ag-ah4 #aebg ,secrets of ,enoch1 ,,xix4 #aebh ,caps4 ,,vi-,,xi in both ,lods and ,charles4 #aebi ,book of ,enoch1 ,,viii1 #c1 in both ,charles and ,lods4 #aecj ,book of ,enoch1 ,,lxv1 #f4 #aeca ,ibid41 ,,lxv1 #g-h2 ,,lxix1 #f-i4 #aecb ,ibid41 ,,lxix1 #aj-aa4 #aecc ,secrets of ,enoch1 ,x4 #aecd ,book of ,enoch1 ,,xviii1 ,,xxi4 #aece ,ibid41 ,,xc1 #bd4 #aecf ,singer's translation4 ,studies in the ,history and ,method of ,science1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ec1 of ,scivias1 ,,iii1 #a1 in ,migne1 ,,pl1 #aig1 #efe4 ,see also the ,koran ,,xv1 #ah4 #aecg ,charles1 p4 #cb and cap4 ,,lxxx4 #aech ,singer1 #be-bf4 #aeci ,pp4 #ahg-bai4 #aedj ,secrets of ,enoch1 ,i and ,,xxx4 #aeda ,see ,morfill-,charles1 pp4 xxxiv-xxxv1 for mention of three and seven heavens in the apocryphal ,testaments of the ,twelve ,patriarchs1 8written about or before the beginning of the ,christian era10 and for 8the probability of an ,old ,testament belief in the plurality of the heavens40 ,for the seven heavens in the apocryphal ,ascension of ,isaiah see ,charles' edition of that work 7#aijj71 xlix4 #aedb ,secrets of ,enoch1 ,,xxvii4 ,charles prefaces this passage by the remark1 8,i do not pretend to understand what follows03 but it seems clear that the waters above the firmament are referred to from what the author goes on to say1 8,and thus ,i made firm the circles of the heavens1 and caused the waters below which are under the heavens to be gathered into one place40 ,it would also seem that each of the seven planets is represented as moving in a sphere of crystal4 ,in the ,ethiopic version1 ,,liv1 #h1 we are told that the water above the heavens is masculine1 and that the water beneath the earth is feminine2 also ,,lx1 #g-h1 that ,leviathan is female and ,behemoth male4 #aedc ,secrets of ,enoch1 ,,xxx4 #aedd ,ibid41 #de-df1 see also the ,ethiopic ,book of ,enoch1 ,,xciii1 for 8seven weeks40 #aede ,book of ,enoch1 ,,xviii1 ,,xxiv4 #aedf ,ibid41 ,,xxxii4 #aedg ,book of ,enoch1 ,,lii1 #b4 #aedh ,ibid41 ,,lxv1 #g-h4 #aedi ,ibid41 ,,lx1 #g4 #aeej ,ibid41 ,,xxxiii4 #aeea ,secrets of ,enoch1 ,,xii1 ,,xv1 ,,xix4 #aeeb ,the literature dealing in general with ,philo and his philosophy is too extensive to indicate here1 while there has been no study primarily devoted to our interest in him4 ,it may be useful to note1 however1 the most recent editions of his works and studies concerning him1 from which the reader can learn of earlier researches4 ,see also ,leopold ,cohn1 ,the ,latest ,researches on ,philo of ,alexandria 7,reprinted from ,the ,jewish ,quarterly ,review71 ,london1 #ahib4 ,the most recent edition of the ,greek text of ,philo's works is by ,l4 ,cohn and ,p4 ,wendland1 ,philonis ,alexandrini opera quae supersunt1 ,berlin1 #ahif-aiae1 in six vols4 ,the earlier edition was by ,mangey4 ,recent editions of single works are3 ,f4 ,c4 ,conybeare1 ,philo about the ,contemplative ,life1 critically edited with a defence of its genuineness1 #ahie4 ,e4 ,brhier1 ,commentaire allgorique des ,saintes ,lois aprs l'uvre des six jours1 ,greek and ,french1 #aiji4 ,in the passages from ,philo quoted in this chapter ,i have often availed myself of the wording of the ,english translation by ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge in four vols41 #ahed-ahee4 ,the ,latin translation of ,philo's works made from the ,greek by ,lilius ,tifernates for ,popes ,sixtus ,,iv and ,innocent ,,viii is preserved at the ,vatican in a series of six ,,mss written during the years #adgi-adhd3 ,vatic4 ,lat41 #ahj-ahe4 ,j4 d',alma1 ,philon d',alexandrie et le quatrime vangile1 #aiaj4 ,n4 ,bentwich1 ,philo-,judaeus of ,alexandria1 #aiaj 7a small general book74 ,t4 ,h4 ,billings1 ,the ,platonism of ,philo ,judaeus1 #aiai4 ,w4 ,bousset1 ,jdisch-,christlicher ,schulbetrieb in ,alexandria und ,rom1 #aiae4 ,e4 ,brhier1 ,les ,ides philosophiques et religieuses de ,philon d',alexandrie1 #aijh1 a scholarly work with a ten-page bibliography4 ,m4 ,caraccio1 ,filone d',alessandria e le sue opere1 #aiaa1 a brief indication of the contents of each work4 ,k4 ,s4 ,guthrie1 ,the ,message of ,philo ,judaeus1 #aiaj1 popular4 ,h4 ,guyot1 ,les ,rminiscences de ,philon le ,juif chez ,plotin1 #aijf4 ,p4 ,heinsch1 ,der ,einfluss ,philos auf die lteste christliche ,exegese1 #aijh1 #bif pp4 ,h4 ,a4 ,a4 ,kennedy1 ,philo's contribution to ,religion1 #aiai4 ,j4 ,martin1 ,philon1 #aijg1 with a five-page bibliography4 ,l4 ,h4 ,mills1 ,zarathustra1 ,philo1 the ,achaemenids and ,israel1 #aije1 #dfj pp4 ,l4 ,treitel1 ,philonische ,studien1 #aiae1 is of limited scope4 ,h4 ,windisch1 ,die ,frmmigkeit ,philos und ihre ,bedeutung fr das ,christentum1 #aiji4 #aeec ,the genuineness of this treatise1 denied by ,graetz and ,lucius in the mid-nineteenth century1 was amply demonstrated by ,l4 ,massebieau1 ,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1 ,,xvi 7#ahhg71 #agj-ih1 #bhd-cai2 ,conybeare1 ,philo about the ,contemplative ,life1 ,oxford1 #ahie2 and ,p4 ,wendland1 ,die ,therapeuten und die ,philonische ,schrift vom ,beschaulichen ,leben1 in ,jahrb4 f4 ,class4 ,philologie1 ,band #bb 7#ahif71 #fic-ggj4 ,in ,st4 ,john's ,college ,library1 ,oxford1 in a manuscript of the early eleventh century 7,,ms #abh1 fol4 #bae ff7 with ,dionysius the ,areopagite on the ecclesiastical hierarchy1 is1 ,philonis de excircumcisione credentibus in ,aegypto ,christianis simul et monachis ex suprascripto ab eo sermone de vita theorica aut de orantibus4 #aeed ,de mundi opificio1 caps4 #di and #ej4 #aeee ,on the ,contemplative ,life1 ,chapter #i4 #aeef ,so he states in the opening sentences of the other treatise2 it is not extant4 #aeeg ,de mundi opificio1 caps4 #ed and #ee4 #aeeh ,rville1 ,j41 ,le logos1 d'aprs ,philon d',alexandrie1 ,genve1 #ahgg4 #aeei ,lincoln ,college1 ,oxford1 has a #abth century ,,ms in ,greek of the ,de vita ,mosis and ,de virtutibus1--,,ms #cd4 #aefj ,the ,alexander sive de animalibus and the complete text of the ,de providentia exist only in ,armenian translation1--see ,cohn 7#ahib71 p4 #af4 ,the ,biblical ,antiquities1 extant only in an imperfect ,latin version1 is not regarded as a genuine work1--see ,w4 ,o4 ,e4 ,oesterley and ,g4 ,h4 ,box1 ,the ,biblical ,antiquities of ,philo1 now first translated from the old ,latin version by ,m4 ,r4 ,james 7#aiag71 p4 #g4 #aefa ,cohn 7#ahib71 #aa4 #aefb ,,ii1 #ag4 #aefc 7,quod omnis probus liber sit1 cap4 xi72 also ,the ,law ,concerning ,murderers1 cap4 #d4 #aefd ,on ,dreams1 ,i1 #ch4 #aefe ,numbers ,,xxii-,,xxv4 ,balaam is1 of course1 referred to in a number of other passages of the ,bible3 ,deut41 ,,xxiii1 #c-f2 ,joshua1 ,,xiii1 #bb2 ,,xxiv1 #i-aj2 ,nehemiah1 ,,xiii1 #a;ff2 ,micah1 ,,vi1 #e2 ,second ,peter1 ,,ii1 #ae-af2 ,jude1 #aa2 ,revelation1 ,,ii1 #ad4 #aeff ,vita ,mosis1 ,i1 #dh-ej4 ,besides discussion of ,balaam in various ,biblical commentaries1 dictionaries1 and encyclopedias1 see ,hengstenberg1 ,die ,geschichte ,bileams und seine ,weissagungen1 #ahdb4 #aefg ,de migrat4 ,abrahami1 cap4 #cb4 #aefh ,idem1 and ,de somniis1 cap4 #aj4 #aefi ,de monarchia1 ,i1 #a4 ,de mundi opificio1 cap4 #ad4 #aegj ,de mundi opificio1 caps4 #ah1 #ej and #bd4 ,see also his ,de gigantibus and 4 #aega ,ibid41 ,cap4 #ej4 ,huet1 the noted ,french scholar of the #agth century1 states in his edition of ,origen that 8,philo after his custom repeats an opinion of ,plato's and almost his very words for 444 he asserts that the stars are not only animals but also the purest intellects40 ,migne ,,pg1 ,,xvii1 col4 #igh4 #aegb ,de monarchia1 ,i1 #a2 ,de mundi opificio1 cap4 #ad4 #aegc ,de monarchia1 ,i1 #a2 ,de migratione ,abrahami1 cap4 #cb2 ,de mundi opificio1 cap4 #dj4 #aegd ,eusebius1 ,de praep4 ,evang41 cap4 #ac4 #aege ,de mundi opificio1 cap4 #ai4 #aegf ,de somniis1 ,,ii1 #af4 #aegg ,ibid41 ,i1 #bb4 #aegh ,de bello ,jud41 ,v1 #e1 #e2 ,antiq41 ,,iii1 #g1 #g-h4 #aegi ,der ,stern der ,weisen 7#ahbg71 p4 #cf4 8,nur war ihre ,astrologie dem ,theismus untergeordnet4 ,der ,eine ,gott erschien immer als der ,herrscher des ,himmelsheeres4 ,sie betrachteten aber die ,sterne als lebende gttliche ,wesen und ,mchte des ,himmels40 #aehj ,mnter 7#ahbg71 pp4 #ch-ci1 #dc1 #de1 etc4 ,on the subject of ,jewish astrology see also3 ,d4 ,nielsen1 ,die altarabische ,mondreligion und die mosaische berlieferung1 ,strasburg1 #aijd2 ,f4 ,hommel1 ,der ,gestirndienst der alten ,araber und die altisraelitische berlieferung1 ,munich1 #aija4 #aeha ,such as ,aulus ,gellius1 ,macrobius1 and ,censorinus4 ,these writers seem to have taken it from ,varro4 ,we have also noted number mysticism in ,plutarch's ,essays4 #aehb ,browne 7#afej7 ,,iv1 #ab4 #aehc ,de mundi opificio1 cap4 #dj4 #aehd ,ibid41 caps4 #cj-db4 #aehe ,for the later influence of such doctrines in the ,mohammedan world see ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald1 ,muslim ,theology1 ,jurisprudence1 and ,constitutional ,theory1 #aijc1 pp4 #db-c1 concerning the 8,seveners0 and the 8,twelvers0 and the doctrine of the hidden ,iman4 #aehf ,ibid41 8,thus we have a series of seven times seven ,imans1 the first1 and thereafter each seventh1 having the superior dignity of ,prophet4 ,the last of the forty-nine ,imans1 this ,muhammad ibn ,isma'il1 is the greatest and last of the ,prophets40 #aehg ,de vita contemplativa1 cap4 #h4 ,it will be recalled that the fifty books of the ,digest of ,justinian are similarly divided4 #aehh ,de mundi opificio1 cap4 #c4 #aehi ,de mundi opificio1 caps4 #ae-af4 ,see also on perfect numbers ,on the ,allegories of the ,sacred ,laws4 #aeij ,ibid41 cap4 #bj4 #aeia ,vita ,mosis1 ,i1 #ag4 #aeib ,de mundi opificio1 cap4 #bd4 #aeic ,ibid41 cap4 #ej4 #aeid ,de somniis1 ,,ii1 #ba-bb4 #aeie ,de somniis1 ,,ii1 ,i4 #aeif ,cap4 #ch4 #aeig ,,ii1 #cg4 #aeih ,cap4 #e4 #aeii ,since ,i finished this chapter1 ,i have noted that the 8folk-lore in the ,old ,testament0 has led ,sir ,james ,frazer to write a passage on 8the harlequins of history0 somewhat similar to that of ,philo on ,joseph's coat of many colors4 ,after remarking that friends and foes behold these politicians of the present and historical figures of the future from opposite sides and see only that particular hue of the coat which happens to be turned toward them1 ,sir ,james concludes 7#aiah71 ,,ii1 #ejb1 8,it is for the impartial historian to contemplate these harlequins from every side and to paint them in their coats of many colors1 neither altogether so white as they appeared to their friends nor altogether so black as they seemed to their enemies40 ,but who can paint out the bloodstains8 #afjj ,a good account of the ,gnostic sources and bibliography of secondary works on ,gnosticism will be found in ,,ce1 8,gnosticism0 7#aiji7 by ,j4 ,p4 ,arendzen4 #afja ,anz1 ,zur ,frage nach dem ,ursprung des ,gnostizismus1 #ahig1 #aab pp41 in ,,tu1 ,,xv1 #d4 #afjb ,amlineau1 ,essai sur le gnosticisme gyptien1 ses dveloppements et son origine gyptienne1 #ahhg1 #ccj pp41 in ,muse ,guimet1 tom4 #ad2 and various other publications by the same author4 #afjc ,bousset1 ,hauptprobleme der ,gnosis1 #aiaa2 and 8,gnosticism0 in ,,eb1 #aath edition4 #afjd ,the dating is somewhat disputed4 ,some of the ,gnostic writings discovered in #ahif have1 ,i believe1 not yet been published1 although announced to be edited by ,c4 ,schmidt in ,,tu4 ,grenfell and ,hunt will soon publish 8a small group of #ba papyri 444 among which is a gnostic magical text of some interest03 ,grenfell 7#aiba71 p4 #aea4 #afje ,the ,gospel of ,matthew1 ,,xxiv1 #bi-ca4 ,not to mention ,paul's 8angels and principalities and powers40 #afjf ,st4 ,george ,stock1 8,simon ,magus10 in ,,eb1 #aath edition4 ,see also ,george ,salmon in ,dict4 ,chris4 ,biog41 ,,iv1 #fha4 #afjg ,irenaeus1 ,against ,heresies1 ,i1 #bc4 #afjh ,homilies1 ,,xviii1 #a-4 #afji ,epiphanius1 ,panarion1 ,a-,b-,,xxi2 ,petavius1 #ee-fj2 ,dindorf1 ,,ii1 #f-ab4 #afaj ,first ,apology1 cap4 #bf4 #afaa ,irenaeus and ,epiphanius as cited above2 also ,hippolytus1 ,philosophumena1 ,,vi1 #b-ae2 ,x1 #h4 #afab ,see1 for example1 ,irenaeus1 ,against ,heresies1 ,i1 i1 #c1 where we are told among other things that the disciples of the ,gnostic ,valentinus affirm that the number of these aeons is signified by the thirty years of ,christ's life which elapsed before ,he began ,his public ministry4 #afac ,homilies1 ,,ii1 #bc-be2 ,recognitions1 ,,ii1 #h-i4 #afad ,homilies1 ,,ii1 #be4 #afae ,reply to ,celsus1 ,i1 #eg1 and ,,vi1 #aa4 #afaf ,irenaeus1 ,against ,heresies1 ,i1 #cj4 #afag ,g4 ,parthey1 ,zwei griech4 ,zauberpapyri des ,berliner ,museums1 #ahfj1 p4 #abh2 ,c4 ,wessely1 ,griech4 ,zauberpapyrus von ,paris und ,london1 #ahhh1 p4 #aae2 ,f4 ,g4 ,kenyon1 ,greek ,papyri in the ,british ,museum1 #ahic1 p4 #dfi;ff4 #afah ,josephus1 ,antiquities1 ,i1 ii1 #c4 #afai ,r4 ,wnsch1 ,sethianische ,verfluchungstafeln aus ,rom1 ,leipzig1 #ahih4 #afbj ,e4 ,preuschen1 ,die apocryph4 gnost4 ,adamschrift1 #aijj4 ,mechitarist collection of ,old ,testament ,apocrypha1 ,venice1 #ahif4 #afba ,the diagram is described in the ,reply to ,celsus1 ,,vi1 #bd-ch2 in the following description ,i have somewhat altered the order4 ,an attempt to reproduce this diagram will be found in ,,ce1 8,gnosticism10 p4 #eig4 #afbb ,reply to ,celsus1 ,,vi1 #bb4 #afbc ,anz4 7#ahig71 p4 #gh4 #afbd ,adv4 haer41 ,i1 #bc4 #afbe ,wm4 ,hartel1 ,s4 ,thasci ,caecili ,cypriani ,opera ,omnia1 ,pars ,,iii1 ,opera ,spuria 7#ahgj71 p4 #ij1 ,de rebaptismate1 cap4 #af1 8quod si aliquo lusu perpetrari potest1 sicut adfirmantur plerique huiusmodi lusus ,anaxilai esse1 sive naturale quid est quo pacto possit hoc contingere1 sive illi putant hoc se conspicere1 sive maligni opus et magicum virus ignem potest in aqua exprimere40 #afbf ,contra haereses1 ,,ii1 #b4 #afbg ,pistis-,sophia1 ed4 ,schwartze and ,petermann 7#ahea71 pp4 #chf-g2 ed4 ,mead 7#ahif71 p4 #cij4 #afbh ,irenaeus1 ,against ,heresies1 ,i1 #ac1 et seq42 ,hippolytus1 ,philosophumena1 ,,vi1 #cd1 et seq42 ,epiphanius1 ,panarion1 ed4 ,dindorf1 ,,ii1 #bag1 et seq4 7ed4 ,petav41 #bcb1 et seq474 ,concerning ,marcus see further ,tertullian1 ,de praescript41 ,l2 ,theodoret1 ,haeret4 ,fab41 ,i1 #i2 ,jerome1 ,epist41 #bi2 ,augustine1 ,haer41 xiv4 8,d'aprs ,reuvens10 says ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 p4 #eg1 8le papyrus no #ge de ,leide renferme un mlange de recettes magiques1 alchimiques1 et d'ides gnostiques2 ces dernires empruntes aux doctrines de ,marcus40 #afbi ,hippolytus1 ,philosophumena1 ,,vi1 preface2 ,i1 #b2 and ,,iv1 #dc-d4 #afcj ,censorinus1 ,de die natali1 caps4 #g and #ad4 #afca ,arendzen1 ,gnosticism1 in ,,ce4 #afcb ,ruelle et ,poire1 ,le chant gnostico-magique1 ,solesmes1 #aija4 #afcc ,irenaeus1 ,i1 #be2 ,hippolytus1 ,,vii1 #bj2 ,epiphanius1 ed4 ,dindorf1 ,,ii1 #fd4 #afcd ,irenaeus1 ,i1 #bd2 ,epiphanius1 ed4 ,dindorf1 ,,ii1 #bg-h4 #afce ,hippolytus1 ,,vii1 #ad-ae4 #afcf ,the more correct title for the ,philosophumena1 see ,,ix1 #h-ab4 #afcg ,dindorf1 ,,ii1 #aji-aj1 #ejg-i4 #afch ,a4 ,merx1 ,bardesanes der letzte ,gnostiker1 ,jena1 #ahfd4 ,f4 ,haase1 ,zur bardesanischen ,gnosis1 ,leipzig1 #aiaj1 in ,,tu1 ,,xxiv1 #d4 #afci ,english translation in ,,an1 ,,viii1 #gbc-cd4 #afdj ,recognitions1 ,,ix1 #ag and #ai-bi4 #afda ,english translations by ,a4 ,a4 ,bevan1 #ahig2 ,f4 ,c4 ,burkett1 #ahii2 ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead1 #aijf4 #afdb ,f4 ,nau1 ,une biographie indite de ,bardesane l'astrologue1 #ahig4 #afdc ed4 ,coptic and ,latin by ,m4 ,g4 ,schwartze and ,j4 ,h4 ,petermann1 #ahea2 ,french translation by ,e4 ,amlineau1 #ahie2 ,english by ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead1 #ahif2 ,german by ,c4 ,schmidt1 #aije4 ,the ,coptic text is thickly interspersed with ,greek words and phrases4 ,in the same manuscript occurs the ,book of the ,saviour of which we shall also treat4 #afdd ,pistis-,sophia1 #be-f4 #afde ,ibid41 #ccf-ej4 #afdf ,ibid41 #cee1 et seq4 #afdg ,ibid41 #chi-ij4 #afdh ,ibid41 #bee and #beh4 #afdi ,pistis-,sophia1 #bi-cj4 #afej ,ibid41 #cai-ce4 #afea ,ibid41 #ceg-h1 #cge-f4 #afeb ,carl ,schmidt1 ,gnostische ,schrifte in koptischer ,sprache aus dem codex ,brucianus1 #ahib1 #fib pp41 in ,,tu1 ,,viii1 #b1 with ,german translation of the ,coptic text at pp4 #adb-bbc4 ,portions have been translated into ,english by ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead1 ,fragments of a ,faith ,forgotten1 #aijj4 #afec ,pistis-,sophia1 #bje-ae4 #afed ,c4 ,w4 ,king1 ,the ,gnostics and their ,remains1 #ahhg1 pp4 xvi-xviii1 #bae-h4 ,also his ,the ,natural ,history1 ,ancient and ,modern1 of ,precious ,stones and ,gems1 ,london1 #ahfe4 #afee ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 ,zeus1 p4 #bce1 citing ,j4 ,spon1 ,miscellanea eruditae antiquitatis1 ,lyons1 #afhe1 p4 #big4 #afef ,reitzenstein1 ,poimandres1 pp4 #aaa-c4 ,on the planets in later medieval art see ,fuchs1 ,die ,ikonographie der #g ,planeten in der ,kunst ,italiens bis zum ,ausgange des ,mittelalters1 ,munich1 #aiji4 #afeg ,e4 ,s4 ,bouchier1 ,spain under the ,roman ,empire1 p4 #abe4 #afeh ,hermann ,gollancz1 ,selection of ,charms from ,syriac ,manuscripts1 #ahih2 also pp4 #gg-ig in ,acts of ,international ,congress of ,orientalists1 ,sept41 #ahig2 ,syriac text and ,english translation4 #afei ,in #ahhe-ahhf eleven tracts by ,priscillian were discovered by ,g4 ,schepss in a ,wrzburg ,,ms4 ,they shed1 however1 little light upon the question whether he was addicted to magic4 ,they have been published in ,priscilliani quae supersunt1 etc41 ed4 ,g4 ,schepss1 #ahhi1 in ,,csel1 ,,xviii4 ,see also ,e4 ,ch4 ,babut1 ,priscillien et la ,priscillienisme1 ,paris1 #aiji 7,bibl4 d4 l'cole d4 ,hautes tudes1 ,fasc4 #afi71 which supersedes the earlier works of ,paret1 #ahia2 ,dierich1 #ahig2 and ,edling1 #aijb4 #affj ,sulpicii ,severi ,historia ,sacra1 ,,ii1 #df-ea 7,migne1 ,,pl1 ,,xx1 #aee1 et seq47 ,s4 ,isidori ,hispalensis ,episcopi1 ,de viris illustribus1 ,cap4 #ae 7,migne1 ,,pl1 ,,lxxxiii1 #ajib74 #affa ,realencyklopdie fr protestantische ,theologie1 ,,xvi1 #fc4 #affb ,my following statements in the text are based upon ,e4 ,chavannes et ,p4 ,pelliot1 ,un trait manichen retrouv en ,chine1 #aiac1--they date the ,chinese translation about #ijj ,a4 ,d4 and the ,,ms of it within a century later2 ,w4 ,radloff1 ,chuastuanift1 ,das ,bussgebet der ,manicher1 ,petrograd1 #aiji2 ,a4 v4 ,le ,coq1 ,chuastuanift1 ein ,sndenbekenntnis der ,manichischen ,auditores1 ,berlin1 #aiaa4 ,there are further publications on the subject4 #affc ,the following details are drawn from the articles on the ,mandaeans in ,,eb1 #aath edition1 by ,k4 ,kessler and ,g4 ,w4 ,thatcher1 and in ,,ere by ,w4 ,brandt1 author of ,mandische ,religion1 #ahhi1 and ,mandische ,schriften1 #ahic1 and from ,anz 7#ahig71 pp4 #gj-h4 ,further bibliography will be found in these references4 #affd ,the number five also appears in the ,pistis-,sophia and other ,gnostic literature4 #affe ,h4 ,pognon1 ,une ,incantation contre les gnies malfaisants en ,mandite1 #ahic2 ,inscriptions mandates des coupes de ,khonabir1 #ahig-ahii4 ,m4 ,lidzbarski1 ,mandische ,zaubertexte1 in ,ephemeris f4 semit4 ,epig41 ,i 7#aijb71 #hi-ajf4 ,j4 ,a4 ,montgomery1 ,aramaic ,incantation ,texts from ,nippur1 #aiac4 #afff ,genesis ,,xliv1 #e1 and ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer 7#aiah71 ,,ii1 #dbf-cd4 #affg ,in the apocryphal ,protevangelium of ,james1 cap4 #af1 both ,joseph and ,mary undergo the test4 #affh ,joachim consults the plate in the ,protevangelium1 cap4 #e4 #affi ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,folk-,lore in the ,old ,testament1 #aiah1 #c vols41 and also his other works2 for instance1 ,the ,magic ,art1 #aiaa1 ,i1 #beh1 for the contest in magic rain-making between ,elijah and the priests of ,baal in ,first ,kings1 ,chapter ,,xviii1 while ,i do not understand why ,joshua is not mentioned in connection with 8,the magical control of the sun10 ,ibid41 ,i1 #caa-ai4 #afgj ,however1 the ,apocrypha of the ,new ,testament may be read in ,english translation by ,alexander ,walker in ,the ,ante-,nicene ,fathers 7,american edition71 ,,viii1 #ceg-eih1 and in that by ,hone in #ahbj1 which has since been reprinted without change4 ,it includes only a part of the apocrypha now known and presents these in a blind fashion without explanation4 ,it differs from ,tischendorf's text of the apocryphal gospels 7,evangelia ,apocrypha1 ed4 ,tischendorf1 ,lipsiae1 #ahgf7 both in the titles of the gospels1 the distribution of the texts under the respective titles1 and the division into chapters4 ,i have1 however1 sometimes used ,hone's wording in making quotations4 ,older than ,tischendorf is ,thilo1 ,codex apocryphus ,novi ,testamenti1 ,leipzig1 #ahcb2 ,fabricius1 etc4 #afga ,it is ascribed to the second century both by ,tischendorf and ,the ,catholic ,encyclopedia 78,apocrypha10 #fjg74 ,there are plenty of fairly early ,greek ,,mss for it4 #afgb ,the ,greek ,,mss are of the #aeth and #afth centuries2 ,tischendorf examined only partially a ,latin palimpsest of it which is probably of the fifth century4 #afgc ,so argues ,the ,catholic ,encyclopedia1 #fjh2 ,tischendorf seems inclined to date the ,gospel of ,thomas a little later than that of ,james1 and to hold that we possess only a fragment of it4 #afgd ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 cap4 #be1 8fecitque dominus ,iesus plurima in ,egypto miracula quae neque in evangelio infantiae neque in evangelio perfecto scripta reperiuntur40 #afge ,tischendorf 7#ahgf71 p4 xlviii4 ,as ,i have already intimated on other occasions1 it seems to me no explanation to call such stories 8oriental40 ,christianity was an oriental religion to begin with4 ,moreover1 as our whole investigation goes to show1 both classical antiquity and the medieval west were ready enough both to repeat and to invent similar tales4 #afgf ,it may be noted1 however1 that the chief miracles of the ,gospels were attacked as 8absurd or unworthy of the performer0 nearly two centuries ago by ,thomas ,woolston in his ,discourses on the ,miracles of our ,saviour1 #agbg-agcj4 ,the words in quotation marks are from ,j4 ,b4 ,bury's ,history of ,freedom of ,thought1 #aiac1 p4 #adb4 #afgg ,migne1 ,,pl1 #ei1 #afb ff4 ,the list was reproduced with slight variations by ,hugh of ,st4 ,victor in the twelfth century in his ,didascalicon 7,,iv1 #ae71 and in the thirteenth century by ,vincent of ,beauvais in the ,speculum ,naturale 7,i1 #ad74 #afgh ,tischendorf 7#ahgf71 pp4 xxiii-xxiv4 #afgi ,mle 7#aiac71 pp4 #bjg-h4 #afhj ,since writing this1 ,i find that ,mle has been impressed by the same resemblance4 ,he writes 7#aiac71 p4 #bjg1 8,some chapters in the apocryphal gospels are like the ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana or even like ,the ,golden ,ass1 permeated with the belief in witchcraft and magic40 ,the resemblance to ,apuleius is also noted in ,,an1 ,,viii1 #cec4 #afha ,tischendorf1 ,evang4 ,infantiae ,arabicum1 caps4 #bj-ba4 #afhb ,ibid41 cap4 #ag4 #afhc ,ibid41 cap4 #bj1 8nullum in mundo doctum aut magum aut incantatorem omisimus quin illum accerseremus2 sed nihil nobis profuit40 #afhd ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 cap4 #ce1 8,extemplo exivit ex puero illo satanas fugiens cani rabido similis40 ,the apocryphal gospel adds1 8,this same boy who struck ,jesus10 i4 e41 while he was still possessed by the demon1 8and out of whom ,satan went in the form of a dog1 was ,judas ,iscariot1 who betrayed ,him to the ,jews4 ,and that same side1 on which ,judas struck him1 the ,jews pierced with a lance40 #afhe ,ibid41 cap4 #dd2 ,evang4 ,thomae ,lat41 cap4 #g2 ,ps4 ,matth41 cap4 #cb4 #afhf ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 cap4 #ae4 #afhg ,ibid41 cap4 #ai1 8qui veneficio tactus uxore frui non poterat40 #afhh ,ibid41 cap4 #ad4 #afhi ,ibid41 cap4 #af4 #afij ,see below1 chapter #bd4 #afia ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 caps4 #cc-cd4 #afib ,ibid41 caps4 #aj-aa4 #afic ,ibid41 caps4 #bg-cb4 #afid ,ibid41 cap4 #cj4 #afie ,ibid41 cap4 #bd4 #afif ,ibid41 caps4 #db-dc2 ,ps4 ,matth41 #da2 ,evang4 ,thom4 ,lat41 #ad4 ,compare pp4 #bgi-hj above4 #afig ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 cap4 #cg4 #afih ,ibid41 #ch-ci2 ,ps4 ,matth41 #cg2 ,evang4 ,thom4 ,lat41 #aa4 #afii ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 cap4 #cf2 ,ps4 ,matth41 #bg2 ,evang4 ,thom4 ,lat41 #d4 #agjj ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 cap4 #dj4 ,see ,ad-,damr1 translated by ,a4 ,s4 ,g4 ,jayakar1 #aijf1 ,i1 #gjc1 for a ,moslem tale of ,jews who called ,jesus 8the enchanter the son of the enchantress10 and were transformed into pigs4 #agja ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 #df2 ,evang4 ,thom4 ,lat41 #d2 ,ps4 ,matth41 #bf1 where ,mary afterwards induces ,jesus to restore him to life1 and #bh4 #agjb ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 cap4 #dg2 ,evang4 ,thom4 ,lat41 #e2 ,ps4 ,matth41 #bi4 #agjc ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 cap4 #di2 ,evang4 ,thom4 ,lat41 #ab2 ,ps4 ,matth41 #ch4 #agjd ,ps4 ,matth41 caps4 #ce-cf4 #agje ,ibid41 cap4 #bi4 #agjf ,ibid41 cap4 #dj4 #agjg ,later the same gospel 7cap4 #ed7 rather inconsistently represents ,jesus as engaged in the study of law until his thirtieth year4 #agjh ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 caps4 #ea-eb4 #agji ,eusebius states that he discovered these letters written in ,syriac in the public records of ,edessa4 ,hone says that it used to be a common practice among ,english people to have the epistle ascribed to ,christ framed and place a picture of the ,saviour before it4 #agaj ,gospel of ,nicodemus1 ,i1 #a-b4 #agaa ,,ce1 ,apocrypha1 p4 #faa4 #agab ,greek text in ,tischendorf1 ,apocalypses ,apocryph41 pp4 #afa-g2 ,english translation1 ,the ,ante-,nicene ,fathers1 ,,viii1 #ebf-g4 #agac ,evang4 ,inf4 ,arab41 #g-h4 #agad ,cap4 #ai 7,,an1 ,i1 #eg74 #agae ,ante-,nicene ,fathers1 ,,viii1 #did4 #agaf ,w4 ,anz1 ,zur ,frage nach dem ,ursprung des ,gnostizisnus 7#ahig71 pp4 #cf-da4 ,lipsius et ,bonnet1 ,acta apostolorum apocrypha1 #ahia-4 #agag ,mle 7#aiac71 #bii4 ,for the text of this apocryphal work see ,migne1 ,dictionnaire des ,apocryphes1 ,,ii1 #gei1 et seq41 or more recently1 ,bonnet1 ,acta apostolorum apocrypha1 #ahih1 ,,ii1 #aea-baf4 #agah ,mle 7#aiac71 #cjj4 ,but one would think that they must needs be ,byzantine alchemists1 if the legend did not reach the west until the sixteenth century4 #agai ,,hl1 ,,xv1 #db4 ,when the gems1 all smashed to pieces1 ,he had mended1 then their prices ,to the poor he handed2 ,quite exhaustless was his treasure ,who from sticks made gold at pleasure1 ,gems from stones commanded4 #agbj ,ren ,basset1 ,les apocryphes thiopiens1 ,paris1 #ahic-ahid1 vol4 iv4 #agba ,see ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,x 7#aheg71 for the old ,latin version2 the ,greek text is extant only in fragments2 the tradition1 going back to ,jerome1 that there was a ,syriac original is unfounded2 the work is first cited by ,cyril4 #agbb ,the ,ethiopic version1 made from the ,greek between the fifth and seventh centuries1 is translated by ,basset 7#ahid71 vol4 iii2 and was printed before him by ,dillmann1 ,ascensio ,isaiae aethiopice et latine1 ,leipzig1 #ahgg1 and by ,laurence1 ,ascensio ,isaiae vatis1 opusculum pseudepigraphus1 ,oxford1 #ahai4 ,see also ,r4 ,h4 ,charles1 ,ascension of ,isaiah1 #aijj2 reprinted #aiag in ,oesterley and ,box1 ,translations of ,early ,documents1 ,series ,i1 vol4 #g4 #agbc ,the fragments of the ,book of ,baruch by ,justin1 preserved in the ,philosophumena of ,hippolytus1 are from an entirely different ,gnostic work4 #agbd ,r4 ,basset1 ,les apocryphes thiopiens1 ,paris1 #ahic-ahid1 vol4 i1 ,le ,livre de ,baruch et la lgende de ,jrmie4 #agbe ,text of ,the ,recognitions in ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,i2 of ,the ,homilies in ,,pg1 ,,ii1 or ,p4 de ,lagarde1 ,clementina1 #ahfe4 ,e4 ,c4 ,richardson had an edition of ,the ,recognitions in preparation in #ahic1 when a list of some seventy ,,mss communicated by him was published in ,a4 ,harnack's ,gesch4 d4 altchr4 ,lit41 ,i1 #bbi-cj1 but it has not yet appeared4 ,in quoting ,the ,recognitions ,i often avail myself of the language of the ,english translation in the ,ante-,nicene ,fathers4 ,since ,a4 ,hilgenfeld1 ,die klement4 ,rekogn4 u4 ,homilien1 #ahdh1 the ,pseudo-,clementines have provided a much frequented field of research and controversy1 of which the articles in ,,ce1 ,,eb1 and ,realencyklopdie 7#aiac71 ,,xxiii1 #cab-f1 provide fairly recent summaries from varying ecclesiastical standpoints4 ,for bibliography see pp4 #d-e in the recent monograph of ,w4 ,heintze1 ,der ,klemensroman und seine griechischen ,quellen1 #aiad1 in ,,tu1 ,,xl1 #b4 ,in the same series1 ,,tu1 ,,xxv1 #d1 ,h4 ,waitz1 ,die ,pseudo-,klementinen1 #aijd4 ,concerning ,simon ,magus may be mentioned3 ,h4 ,schlurick1 ,de ,simonis ,magi fatis ,romanis2 ,a4 ,hilgenfeld1 ,der ,magier ,simon1 in ,zeitschr4 f4 wiss4 ,theol41 ,,xii 7#ahfi71 #cec ff42 ,g4 ,frommberger1 ,de ,simone ,mago1 ,pars ,i1 ,de origine ,pseudo-,clementinorum1 ,diss4 inaug41 ,warsaw1 #ahff2 ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead 7,fellow of the ,theosophical ,society71 ,simon ,magus1 #ahib2 ,h4 ,waitz1 ,simon ,magus in d4 altchr4 ,lit41 in ,zeitschr4 f4 d4 neutest4 ,wiss41 ,v 7#aijd71 #aba-dc4 #agbf ,,bn1 ,greek1 #icj2 ,ottobon1 #ddc4 #agbg ,isidore1 ,de natura rerum1 caps4 xxxi1 xxxvi1 xxxix-xli 7,,pl1 #hc1 #ajjc-ab74 #agbh ,,pl1 #hc1 #ajjc1 note1 8,sunt haec lib4 ,,viii ,recognitionum sed apparet ,isidorum alia interpretatione usum ac dubitare posse an ea quae circumfertur ,rufini sit40 #agbi ,see ,,cu1 ,trinity #ajda1 #adth century1 fols4 #g-aje1 8,inc4 prologus in librum quem moderni itinerarium beati ,petri vocant40 #agcj ,valois 7#ahhj71 p4 #bjd4 #agca ,,pl1 #ei1 #afb1 8,notitia librorum apocryphorum qui non recipiuntur40 #agcb ,vincent of ,beauvais1 ,speculum naturale1 #adhe1 ,i1 #ad4 #agcc ,,pl1 #agf1 #ghg-h1 ,erudit4 ,didasc41 ,,iv1 #ae4 #agcd 8,itinerarium nomine ,petri apostoli quod appellatur sancti ,clementis libri octo apocryphum 7or1 apocryphi740 #agce ,speculum naturale1 ,,xxxii1 #abi1 concerning the morality of the ,seres4 #agcf ,compare ,recognitions1 ,i1 #bg 7,,pg1 ,i1 #abb7 with ,rabanus1 ,comment4 in ,genesim1 ,i1 #b 7,,pl1 #ajg1 #dej74 #agcg ,speculum naturale1 ,i1 #g4 ,peter is represented as saying1 8,when anyone has derived from divine ,scripture a sound and firm rule of truth1 it will not be absurd if to the assertion of true dogma he joins something from the education and liberal studies which he may have pursued from boyhood4 ,yet so that in all points he teaches what is true and shuns what is false and pretense40 ,this corresponds to the close of the #dbnd chapter of the tenth book of ,the ,recognitions4 #agch ,since writing this ,i learn that ,professor ,e4 ,c4 ,richardson has examined most of the known ,,mss of ,the ,recognitions and has found them all to be the version by ,rufinus1 except for a few additional chapters which someone has added in the ,french group of ,,mss1--chapters which ,rufinus seems to have omitted because they were difficult to translate4 #agci ,heintze 7#aiad71 #bc1 however1 argues that the conclusion of ,the ,recognitions is dependent upon ,the ,homilies4 #agdj ,professor ,e4 ,c4 ,richardson1 after kindly reading this chapter in manuscript1 writes me 7,sept4 #e1 #aiba7 that he doubts if this ,syriac ,,ms is correctly described as three books of ,the ,recognitions and four books of ,the ,homilies1 and that he thinks it may represent an earlier form in the evolution than either of them4 ,he writes further1 8,i have a strong notion that a study of ,greek ,,mss of the ,epitomes will reveal still more variant forms in ,greek1 and there are certainly other oriental compilations not yet brought into comparison with the ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,syriac forms40 #agda ,in ,the ,homilies it is a trip only from ,alexandria to ,caesarea that consumes this number of days4 #agdb ,about #cge ,a4 ,d4 ,epiphanius 7,dindorf1 ,,ii1 #ajg-i7 describes ,the ,circuits in such a way that he might have either ,the ,homilies or ,the ,recognitions in mind4 ,on the other hand1 the ,philocalia1 composed about #ceh by ,basil and ,gregory1 cites a passage on astrology from the fourteenth book of ,the ,circuits which is in the tenth book of ,the ,recognitions and not in ,the ,homilies at all4 #agdc ,heintze 7#aiad71 p4 #aac4 #agdd ,waitz 7#aijd71 pp4 #aea and #bdc4 #agde ,see ,e4 ,c4 ,richardson in ,papers of the ,american ,society of ,church ,history1 ,,vi 7#ahid74 #agdf ,neither ,philostratus nor ,apollonius of ,tyana is mentioned1 however1 in the index of ,w4 ,heintze's ,der ,klemensroman und seine griechischen ,quellen 7#aiad71 #add pp4 #agdg ,recogs41 ,,vii1 #f4 #agdh ,recogs41 ,i1 #bi2 not mentioned in the corresponding chapter of ,the ,homilies1 ,,viii1 #ae4 #agdi ,recogs41 ,,ix1 #ai-bi4 #agej ,recogs41 ,,vii1 #ab4 #agea ,recogs41 ,x1 #ae1 et seq4 #ageb ,recogs41 ,i1 #h2 ,homilies1 ,i1 #aj4 #agec ,extraordinary1 of course1 only in that single animals instead of angels1 as in the ,enoch literature1 are set over birds1 beasts1 serpents1 etc4 #aged ,recogs41 ,i1 #bg and #de4 #agee ,recogs41 ,,vi1 #h4 #agef ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #i1 #bj-bb4 #ageg ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #ae-ag4 #ageh ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #ba4 #agei ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #be-cb4 #agfj ,on the other hand1 in the apocryphal ,epistle of ,barnabas1 ,,ix1 #i1 it is stated that the weasel conceives with its mouth and hence typifies persons with unclean mouths4 #agfa ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #g4 #agfb ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #ca4 #agfc ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #cj4 #agfd ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #db4 #agfe ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #cd4 #agff ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #dd4 #agfg ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #de4 #agfh ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #df4 #agfi ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #dg4 #aggj ,recogs41 ,v1 #bg4 #agga ,recogs41 ,i1 #bh4 #aggb ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #eg1 8frater meus ,clemens tibi diligentius respondebit qui plenius scientiam mathesis attigit20 ,,ix1 #ah1 8quoniam quidem scientia mihi mathesis nota est40 #aggc ,recogs41 ,x1 #aa-ab4 #aggd ,recogs41 ,,ix1 #ah4 #agge ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #b4 #aggf ,recogs41 ,i1 #cb4 #aggg ,recogs41 ,i1 #ba1 #dc1 #gb4 #aggh ,recogs41 ,,iv1 #ce4 #aggi ,irenaeus1 ,i1 #c4 #aghj ,recogs41 ,,iii1 #fh4 #agha ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #bh1 8qui est parvus in alio mundus40 #aghb ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #de4 #aghc ,recogs41 ,x1 #ab4 ,in ,homilies1 ,,xiv1 #e1 the existence of astrological medicine is implied when ,peter promises to cure by prayer to ,god any bodily ill1 even 8if it is utterly incurable and entirely beyond the range of the medical profession--a case1 indeed1 which not even the astrologers profess to cure40 #aghd ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #b4 ,in ,the ,homilies1 however1 ,peter argues that1 even if ,genesis prevails1 which he does not admit1 still he can 8worship ,him who is also ,lord of the stars10 and that the doctrine of genesis is far more destructive to polytheism and pagan worship4 #aghe ,recogs41 ,,ix1 #af-ag4 #aghf ,recogs41 ,,ix1 #f and #ab4 #aghg ,recogs41 ,,ix1 #cj4 #aghh ,recogs41 ,x1 #aa4 #aghi ,recogs41 ,x1 #ab4 #agij ,recogs41 ,,ix1 #cb-g4 #agia ,recogs41 ,,ix1 #ai1 and ,,viii1 #dh4 #agib ,recogs41 ,x1 #ff4 #agic ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #db4 #agid ,recogs41 ,,iv1 #g4 #agie ,recogs41 ,,ix1 #ch4 #agif ,recogs41 ,,ix1 #f and #ab2 ,,iv1 #ba2 ,v1 #bj and #ca4 #agig ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #ga2 ,,iv1 #af4 #agih ,recogs41 ,,iv1 #cj4 #agii ,recogs41 ,,ix1 #i4 #ahjj ,recogs41 ,,iv1 #cb-cc4 #ahja ,recogs41 ,,iv1 #ba4 #ahjb ,recogs41 ,,iv1 #bf4 #ahjc ,reminding one of ,benjamin ,franklin's more successful attempt to 8snatch the thunderbolt from heaven40 #ahjd ,recogs41 ,,iv1 #bg1 and ,i1 #cj4 #ahje ,recogs41 ,,iv1 #bi4 #ahjf ,dindorf1 ,i1 #bhb1 #bhf-g4 #ahjg ,recogs41 ,x1 #ee2 ,,iii1 #fd4 #ahjh ,recogs41 ,i1 #gj4 #ahji ,recogs41 ,i1 #db and #eh2 ,,iii1 #ab1 #dg1 and #gc2 ,x1 #ed4 #ahaj ,recogs41 ,i1 #gb4 #ahaa ,recogs41 ,x1 #bb and #be4 #ahab ,but by no means always in early ,christian writings3 thus ,clement of ,alexandria 7c#aej-;c#bbj7 in the ,stromata1 ,,ii1 #a1 asserts that the ,greeks eulogize 8astrology and mathematics and magic and sorcery0 as the highest sciences4 #ahac ,in contrast to ,lucian's ,menippus or ,necromancy1 in which the ,cynic philosopher ,menippus resorts to a ,magus at ,babylon in order to gain entrance to the lower world and question ,teiresias4 ,necromancy is given as a proof of the immortality of the soul in ,justin's ,first ,apology1 cap4 #ah1 where we read1 8,for let even necromancy1 and the divinations you practise by means of immaculate children1 and the evoking of departed human souls 444 let these persuade you that even after death souls are in a state of sensation40 #ahad ,recogs41 ,i1 #e4 #ahae ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #i4 #ahaf ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #ae4 #ahag ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #f4 #ahah ,recogs41 ,,iii1 #eg4 #ahai ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #aa4 #ahbj ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #ab4 #ahba ,recogs41 ,x1 #ec1 et seq4 #ahbb ,recogs41 ,,iii1 #eg-fj2 ,x1 #ff4 #ahbc ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #ec4 #ahbd ,recogs41 ,,viii1 #fj4 #ahbe ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #e4 #ahbf ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #aj4 #ahbg ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #af1 and ,,iii1 #di4 #ahbh ,similarly1 in a passage contained only in ,the ,homilies1 ,v1 #e1 ,appion1 recommending to ,clement a love incantation which he had learned from an ,egyptian who was well versed in magic1 explains that demons obey the magician when invoked by the names of superior angels1 who in their turn may be adjured by the name of ,god4 #ahbi ,concerning this boy see ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #ac-ae2 ,,iii1 #dd-de21 ,homilies1 ,,ii1 #be-cj4 #ahcj ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #f2 ,,iii1 #ac4 #ahca ,recogs41 ,,iii1 #gc2 ,x1 #ed4 #ahcb ,recogs41 ,x1 #eh4 #ahcc ,recogs41 ,,iii1 #fc4 #ahcd ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #g4 #ahce ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #e4 #ahcf ,recogs41 ,,ii1 #i1 8,multa etenim iam mihi experimenti causa consummata sunt48 #ahcg ,first ,apology1 caps4 #bf and #ef2 ,dialogue with ,trypho1 #abj4 #ahch ,adv4 haer41 ,i1 #bc4 #ahci ,see above1 chapter #ae1 p4 #cfe4 #ahdj ,tertullian1 ,de anima1 cap4 #eg1 in ,,pl1 ,,ii1 #gid2 ,de idolatria1 cap4 #i4 #ahda ,philosophumena1 ,,vi1 #b-ae4 #ahdb ,f4 ,x4 ,funk1 ,didascalia et ,constitutiones ,apostolorum1 #aije1 ,i1 #cbj-a4 #ahdc 4 #ahdd 8 444 in una die procedens vidi illum per aera volantem et ferebatur4 ,et subsistens dixi3 ,in virtute sancti nominis ,iesu excido virtutes tuas4 ,et sic ruens femur pedis sui fregit40 #ahde ,arnobius1 ,adversus gentes1 ,,ii1 #ab4 #ahdf ,cyril1 ,cathechesis1 ,,vi1 #ae1 in ,,pg #cc1 #efd4 #ahdg ,filastrii diversarum hereseon liber1 cap4 #bc1 ed4 ,f4 ,marx1 #ahih1 in ,,csel2 also in ,,pl1 vol4 #ab4 #ahdh ,sulpicius ,severus1 #cfc-dbj1 ,chron41 ,,ii1 #bh1 and ,theodoret1 c#chf-def1 ,haereticarum fabularum compendium1 ,i1 #a 7,,pg #hc1 #cdd7 have nothing new to say4 #ahdi ,,an1 ,,viii1 #fgc-e4 #ahej ,ibid41 #dgg-he2 ,greek text in ,tischendorf1 ,acta ,apostolorum ,apocrypha1 #ahea1 pp4 #a-ci4 ,the ,greek scholar1 ,constantine ,lascaris1 translated part of the work into ,latin in #adij4 #ahea ,mead 7#ahib71 p4 #cg1 notes that ,dr4 ,salmon 7article ,simon ,magus in ,dict4 ,chris4 ,biog4 ,,iv1 #fhf7 8connects this with the story1 told by ,suetonius and ,dio ,chrysostom1 that ,nero caused a wooden theater to be erected in the ,campus1 and that a gymnast who tried to play the part of ,icarus fell so near the emperor as to bespatter him with blood40 ,hegesippus 7,de bello judaico1 ,,iii1 #b71 ,abdias 7,hist4 #a71 and ,maximus ,taurinensis 7,patr4 ,,vi1 ,synodi ad ,imp4 ,const4 ,act4 #ah7 compare ,simon's flight with that of ,icarus4 #aheb ,tischendorf 7#ahea71 p4 xix4 #ahec 8,de mirificis rebus et actibus beatorum ,petri et ,pauli1 et de magicis artibus ,simonis30 ,fabricius1 ,cod4 apocr41 ,,iii1 #fcb2 ,florentinus1 ,martyrologium ,hieronymi1 #ajc4 #ahed ,a slightly different version of the dog incident is found in the ,acts of ,nereus and ,achilles 7,,as1 ,may ,,iii1 #i74 #ahee ,hegesippus1 ,,iii1 #b ed4 ,c4 ,f4 ,weber and ,j4 ,caesar1 ,marburg1 #ahfd1 8et statim in voce ,petri implicatis remigiis alarum quas sumserat corruit1 nec exanimatus est1 sed fracto debilitatus crure ,ariciam concessit atque ibi mortuus est40 ,i earnestly recommend this passage to those who delight in finding ancient precursors of modern inventions as an example of remarkable insight into the effect of air-waves upon delicate mechanisms4 #ahef ed4 ,fabricius1 ,cod4 apocr41 ,i1 #daa2 ,,as1 ,june ,v1 #dbd4 #aheg ,biblioth4 ,patrum1 ,cologne1 #afah1 ,i1 #gj4 #aheh ,printed ,,pl1 #ci1 #baba-b1 among the works of ,augustine1 ,sermones ,supposititi1 ,,ccii4 ,the greater number of ,,mss assign it to ,maximus4 #ahei ,mle1 ,religious ,art in ,france1 #aiac1 p4 #big1 notes #c and #d2 p4 #bih1 note #a4 #ahfj ,the two representations are essentially identical4 ,simon falls head first1 and the accompanying legend reads1 8,hic praecepto ,petri oratione ,pauli ,simon ,magus cecidit in terram10--8,here at ,peter's command and ,paul's prayer ,simon ,magus falls to earth40 #ahfa ,greek and ,latin text in parallel columns in ,,as1 ,sept4 ,,vii 7#ahfg71 pp4 #bjd;ff4 ,for an account of previous editions see ,ibid41 p4 #ahb4 ,bishop ,john ,fell published a ,latin text from three ,oxford ,,mss4 ,in ,digby #cj1 #aeth century1 fol4 #bi-1 which ,i have examined1 the wording differed considerably from that of the ,latin text in ,,as4 ,the brief ,martyrium of ,cyprian and ,justina follows in the same volume of ,,as at pp4 #bbd-f4 ,sahidische ,bruchstcke der ,legende von ,cyprian von ,antiochen1 ed4 ,o4 v4 ,lamm1 #ahii1 ,ethiopic1 ,greek1 and ,german1 in ,petrograd ,acad4 ,scient4 ,imper4 ,mmoires1 ,,viii srie1 ,cl4 hist4 philol41 ,,iv1 #f4 1 with an ,arabic version1 ed4 ,margaret ,d4 ,gibson1 #aija1 in ,studia ,sinaitica1 ,no4 #h4 #ahfb ,ibid41 p4 #ahj1 8ipsa ,s4 ,cypriana nomine vulgata ,confessio quam ante ,constantini aetatem scriptam esse critici plurimi etiam rigidiores fatentur40 #ahfc ,ibid41 p4 #bje1 8et initiatus sum sonis sermonum ac strepitum narrationibus40 ,l4 ,preller in ,philologus1 ,i 7#ahdf71 #cdi;ff41 and ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 ,zeus1 #aaj-a1 suggest that these rites on ,mount ,olympus were ,orphic4 #ahfd 8,et aliorum insidiantium decipientium permiscentium44440 #ahfe ,shelley1 it may be recalled1 in #ahbb translated some scenes1 published in #ahbd1 from ,caldern's ,magico ,prodigioso1 in which ,cyprian1 ,justina1 and the demon figure4 #ahff ,bouchier1 ,syria as a ,roman ,province1 p4 #bcg4 #ahfg ,bouchier1 ,spain ,under the ,roman ,empire1 p4 #abc1 citing ,,as1 ,july #ai4 #ahfh ,epiphanius1 ,panarion1 ed4 ,dindorf1 ,,ii1 #ig-ajd2 ed4 ,petavius1 #aca;,a-#acg;,c4 #ahfi ,idem4 ,the attempt to bewitch the furnaces reminds one of the fourteenth ,homeric epigram1 in which the bard threatens to curse the potters' furnaces if they do not pay him for his song1 and to summon 8the destroyers of furnaces10--' 1--words usually interpreted as names for mischievous ,pucks and brawling goblins who smash pottery4 ,but the two middle names suggest the stones1 smaragdus or emerald1 and asbestos4 ,the poet also invokes 8,circe of many drugs0 to cast injurious spells1 and appeals to ,chiron to complete the work of destruction4 ,he further prays that the face of any potter who peers into the furnace may be burned4 ,this epigram is probably of late date4 ,see ,a4 ,abel1 ,homeri ,hymni1 ,epigrammata1 ,batrachomyomachia1 ,lipsiae1 #ahhf1 pp4 #abc-d4 #ahgj ,mle1 ,religious ,art in ,france1 #aiac1 pp4 #cjd-f4 #ahga ,mle 7#aiac71 p4 #cjf4 #ahgb ,ibid41 p4 #cjg4 #ahgc ,greek text in ,migne ,,pg1 ,vol4 ,,xi4 ,english translation in the ,ante-,nicene ,fathers1 of which ,i generally make use in quotations from the work4 ,on the ,,mss of the ,against ,celsus see ,paul ,koetschau1 ,die ,textberlieferung der ,bcher des ,origenes gegen ,celsus in den ,handschriften dieses ,werkes und der ,philokalia4 ,prolegomena zu einer kritischen ,ausgabe1 #ahhi1 #aeg pp41 7,,tu1 ,,vi1 #a74 #ahgd ,i1 #ga2 also ,,ii1 #cb4 #ahge ,i1 #ch2 also ,,viii1 #i2 ,,ii1 #dh4 #ahgf ,i1 #fh2 ,,iii1 #eb4 #ahgg ,,ii1 #di4 #ahgh ,,vii1 #cf4 #ahgi ,i1 #f4 #ahhj ,,vi1 #dj4 #ahha ,v1 #ea4 #ahhb ,i1 #bf4 #ahhc ,,iv1 #cc4 #ahhd ,v1 #f4 #ahhe ,v1 #i4 #ahhf ,,vii1 #i4 #ahhg ,,vii1 #aa4 #ahhh ,,vii1 #c4 #ahhi ,,iii1 #a4 #ahij ,,iii1 #e4 #ahia ,,iii1 #df2 ,,iv1 #ea4 #ahib ,i1 #bh4 #ahic ,i1 #ch4 #ahid ,i1 #fj4 #ahie ,i1 #ch4 #ahif ,,ii1 #di4 #ahig ,,ii1 #ea4 #ahih ,i1 #fh4 #ahii ,,vii1 #be4 #aijj ,v1 #db4 #aija ,i1 #fh4 #aijb ,,vi1 #da4 #aijc ,,iii1 #eb4 #aijd ,see cap4 #ba4 #aije ,khn1 ,,xix1 #dh 7de libris propriis74 4 #aijf ,,vi1 #ci4 #aijg ,,iv1 #hf4 #aijh ,,vii1 #fg4 #aiji ,,vi1 #ci4 #aiaj ,,vi1 #dj4 #aiaa ,,vii1 #c and #ce4 #aiab ,ps4 ,,xcvi1 #e4 #aiac ,,vii1 #fi4 #aiad ,v1 #db4 #aiae ,,ii1 #ea4 ,see also ,v1 #ch2 ,,vi1 #de2 ,,vii1 #fi2 ,,viii1 #ei2 ,i1 #fj4 #aiaf ,see ,,vii1 #fg1 8demons 444 and their several operations1 whether led on to them by the conjurations of those who are skilled in the art1 or urged on by their own inclinations44440 ,also ,,vii1 #e1 8those spirits that are attached for entire ages1 as ,i may say1 to particular dwellings and places1 whether by a sort of magical force or by their own natural inclinations40 ,also ,,vii1 #fd1 8444 the demons choose certain forms and places1 whether because they are detained there by virtue of certain charms1 or because for some other possible reason they have selected those haunts44440 #aiag ,,vii1 #d4 4 #aiah ,v1 #ch4 #aiai ,,viii1 #fa4 #aibj ,,vi1 #hj4 #aiba ,i1 #eh4 #aibb ,i1 #fj4 #aibc ,i1 #eh4 ,the ,magi had been confused with the ,chaldeans several centuries before by ,ctesias in his ,persica1 cap4 #ae2 see ,d4 ,f4 ,mnter1 ,der ,stern der ,weisen3 ,untersuchungen ber das ,geburtsjahr ,christi1 ,kopenhagen 7#ahbg71 p4 #ad4 #aibd ,balaam himself was something of an astrologer according to ,mnter1 ,der ,stern der ,weisen1 #ahbg1 p4 #ca4 8,die sieben ,altre die der moabitische ,seher ,bileam an verschiedenen ,orten errichtete 7,,iv ,b4 ,mose1 ,,xxiii7 waren gewiss den sieben ,planetfrsten gewidmet40 #aibe ,numbers1 ,,xxiv1 #ag4 #aibf ,similarly an ,english version 7in an ,oxford ,,ms of the early #aeth century1 ,laud ,misc41 #feh7 of ,the ,history of the ,three ,kings of ,cologne1 or medieval account of the translation of the relics of the ,magi1 in forty-one chapters with a preface1 opens its first chapter with the words1 8,the mater of these three worshipful and blissid kingis token the begynnyng of the prophecye of ,balaam40 #aibg ,in ,numeros ,homilia ,,xiii1 in ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xii1 #fge4 #aibh ,in ,numeros ,homilia ,,xv1 col4 #fhi4 #aibi ,in ,genesim ,homilia ,,xiv1 #c1 in ,,pg1 ,,xii1 #bch4 #aicj ,origenis in ,numeros ,homiliae1 ,prologus ,rufini ,interpretis ad ,ursacium4 ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xii1 #ehc-hf4 #aica ,origenis in ,numeros ,homilia ,,xiii1 ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xii1 #fgj-fgg4 ,in at least one medieval manuscript we find the homily upon ,balaam preserved separately1 ,,bn #accej1 #abth century1 fol4 #ibv1 et omeliae de ,balaham et ,balach4 #aicb ,w4 ,h4 ,bennett1 ,balaam1 in ,,eb1 #aath edition4 #aicc ,one cannot help wondering whether ,pharaoh's magicians lost their rods for good as a result of this manuvre1 but it is a point upon which the ,scriptural narrative fails to enlighten us4 #aicd ,,ii1 #ae-af4 #aice ,antiq41 ,,iv1 #f4 #aicf ,johannis ,hildeshemensis1 ,liber de trium regum translatione1 #adgh1 cap4 #b4 #aicg ,e4 ,w4 ,hengstenberg1 ,die ,geschichte ,bileams und seine ,weissagungen1 ,berlin1 #ahdb4 ,hengstenberg tried to take middle ground between ,philo ,judaeus1 ,ambrose1 ,augustine1 ,gregory of ,nyssa1 ,theodoret1 and others who regarded ,balaam as a godless false prophet and magician1 and the contrary opinion of ,tertullian1 ,jerome1 and some moderns who hold that ,balaam was originally a devout man and true prophet who fell through his covetousness4 #aich 8,et ideo quasi expertus in talibus in opinione erat omnibus qui erant in ,oriente 444 ,certus ergo ,balach de hoc et frequenter expertus40 #aici ,in ,homily ,,xiv4 #aidj ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xii1 #ajaa-bh4 #aida ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer 7#aiah71 ,,ii1 #ebb1 note1 however1 says of ,i4 ,samuel1 ,,xxviii1 #ab3 8,it seems that we must read1 #8,and when the woman saw ,saul1' with six manuscripts of the ,septuagint and some modern critics1 instead of1 #8,and when the woman saw ,samuel4'0 #aidb ,,vi1 #da4 #aidc ,v1 #dh4 #aidd ,i1 #cj4 #aide ,,ii1 #cd4 #aidf ,,iv1 #cc1 and ,i1 #bb4 #aidg ,,iv1 #cc4 ,on the use of mystic names of ,god among the ,jews of this period and 8the new and greatly developed angelology that flourished at that time in ,egypt and ,palestine0 see the ,introduction to ,m4 ,gaster's edition of ,the ,sword of ,moses1 #ahif1--;a book of magic found in a #ac-adth century ,hebrew ,,ms1 but which is mentioned in the #aath century and which he would trace back to ancient times4 #aidh ,i1 #f4 ,it also1 however1 suggests the efficacy ascribed by the ,mandaeans to the repetition of passages from their sacred books4 #aidi ,,ii1 #di4 #aiej ,i1 #be2 ,v1 #de4 #aiea ,v1 #de4 #aieb ,i1 #bd4 #aiec ,,iv1 #cc2 ,i1 #bb1 etc4 #aied ,in ,math4 ,,xxvi1 #bc 7,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xiii1 #ageg74 #aiee ,see p4 #cff in ,chapter ,,xv on ,gnosticism4 #aief ,v1 #be4 #aieg ,,viii1 #bh4 #aieh ,,viii1 #eh4 #aiei ,,viii1 #fj4 #aifj ,,viii1 #fc4 #aifa ,,vii1 #fh4 #aifb ,,vii1 #fi4 #aifc ,,viii1 #ei4 #aifd ,v1 #bh4 #aife ,v1 #bi2 see ,deut4 xxxii1 #h4 #aiff ,v1 #cj4 #aifg ,v1 #cb4 #aifh ,,viii1 #ca4 #aifi ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xii1 #fhj4 #aigj ,,iii1 #ab4 #aiga ,i1 #h4 #aigb ,v1 #ed2 see ,book of ,enoch1 ,,xl1 #i4 #aigc ,matthew1 ,,xviii1 #aj4 #aigd ,,vii1 #e4 #aige ,v1 #f-i4 #aigf ,v1 #f4 #aigg ,,iv1 #fg2 ,v1 #bj-ba4 #aigh ,,vi1 #hj4 #aigi ,duhem 7#aiac-aiag7 ,,ii1 #ddg1 treats of 8,les ,pres de l'glise et la ,grande ,anne40 #aihj ,v1 #aa4 #aiha ,de principiis1 ,i1 #g4 #aihb ,v1 #aj4 #aihc ,deut41 ,,iv1 #ai-bj4 #aihd ,v1 #ab4 #aihe ,i1 #ei4 #aihf ,v1 #aa4 #aihg ,p4 ,d4 ,huet1 ,origenianorum ,lib4 ,,ii1 ,cap4 ,,ii1 ,quaestio ,,viii1 ,de astris1 in ,migne1 ,patrologia ,graeca1 ,,xvii1 #igc1 et seq4 #aihh ,,xvii1 #bh4 #aihi 8,in prooemio libri prioris eiusdem 1 num4 #aj40 #aiij ,eusebius1 ,praep4 ,evang41 ,,vi1 #aa1 in ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xxi1 #dgg-ejf4 #aiia ,,pg1 ,,xxi1 #dhi4 #aiib ,ibid41 #eja-ejb4 #aiic ,p4 ,d4 ,huet1 ,origenianorum ,lib41 ,,ii1 ii1 v4 #aj1 cites ,basil1 ,homil4 #c in ,hexaem42 ,epiphanius1 ,haer41 ,,lxiv1 #d1 and ,epist4 ad ,joan4 ,jerosolymit41 cap4 #c2 ,jerome1 ,epist4 #fa ad ,pammach41 cap4 #c2 ,gregory ,nyss41 lib4 in ,hexaem42 ,augustine1 ,confess41 ,,xiii1 #ae2 ,isidore1 ,origin41 ,,vii1 #e4 ,see also ,duhem 7#aiac-aiag7 ,,ii1 #dhg1 8,les eaux supraclestes40 #aiid ,,vi1 #ba4 #aiie ,,iv1 #ij-ie4 #aiif ,origen quotes1 8,ye shall not practise augury nor observe the flight of birds10 which is found in the ,septuagint1 ,levit41 ,,xix1 #bf4 #aiig ,i1 #ff4 #aiih ,i1 #cf4 #aiii ,i1 #cc4 #bjjj ,,iv1 #hf-hh4 #bjja ,,iv1 #ih4 #bjjb ,,iv1 #ic2 it will be recalled that the witches in ,the ,golden ,ass of ,apuleius assume the bodies of weasels in order to rob a corpse4 #bjjc ,i1 #cg4 #bjjd ,,vii1 #cj4 #bjje ,,viii1 #ai-bj4 #bjjf ,homily #ah on ,numbers1 ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xii1 #gae4 #bjjg ,epistola #if in ,migne1 ,,pl1 ,,xxii1 #gh4 #bjjh ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xvii1 #ajia-ib4 #bjji ,tertullian1 ,apology1 cap4 #ba2 so also ,cyprian1 ,liber de idolorum vanitate1 cap4 #ac4 ,latin text of ,tertullian in ,,pl1 vols4 #a-b2 ,english translation in ,,an1 vol4 #c4 #bjaj ,apology1 cap4 #bc4 #bjaa ,de cultu feminarum1 ,i1 #b4 #bjab ,apology1 cap4 #bb4 #bjac ,de anima1 cap4 #eg4 #bjad ,apology1 cap4 #bc4 #bjae ,de anima1 cap4 #eg4 ,damigeron is mentioned in the ,orphic poem1 ,lithica1 and in the ,apology of ,apuleius1 cap4 #de2 is cited in the ,geoponica1 and was regarded by ,v4 ,rose as the ,greek source of the ,latin 8,evax0 and ,marbod on stones4 ,,bn #gdah1 #adth century1 ,amigeronis de lapidibus1 was printed by ,pitra1 ,spic4 ,solesm41 ,,iii1 #cbd-ce1 and ,abel1 ,orphei ,lithica1 p4 #aeg1 et seq4 ,see further ,,pw1 8,damigeron40 #bjaf ,presumably ,nectanebus4 #bjag ,it is ,aaron's rod in the ,king ,james version4 #bjah ,de idolatria1 cap4 #i4 #bjai ,apology1 cap4 #ce4 #bjbj ,,pl1 vol4 #c2 ,,an1 vol4 #d4 #bjba ,thus ,minucius ,felix says1 ,octavius1 cap4 #bf1 8,magi 444 quidquid miraculi ludunt 444 praestigias edunt10 while ,tertullian1 ,apology1 cap4 #bc1 writes1 8,porro si et magi phantasmata edunt 444 si multa miracula circulatoriis praestigiis ludunt40 #bjbb ,cyprian1 ,liber de idolorum vanitate1 caps4 #f-g4 #bjbc ,,pl1 vol4 ,,vi2 ,,an1 vol4 ,,vii2 the following references are all to this work4 #bjbd ,v1 #c4 #bjbe ,,ii1 #ae4 #bjbf ,,ii1 #ag4 #bjbg ,,iv1 #bg4 #bjbh ,,ii1 #ag4 #bjbi ,the work was discovered in #ahdb at ,mount ,athos and edited by ,e4 ,miller in #ahea1 ,duncker and ,schneidewin in #ahei1 and ,abb ,cruice in #ahfj4 ,greek text in ,,pg1 vol4 ,,xvi1 part #c2 ,english translation in ,,an1 vol4 ,v4 #bjcj ,r4 ,ganschinietz1 ,hippolytos' ,capitel gegen die ,magier1 #aiac1 in ,,tu1 #ci1 #b1 is a commentary on the text4 #bjca ,refutation of ,all ,heresies1 ,,iv1 #bh4 #bjcb ,since writing this sentence ,i have found an article by ,diels on the discovery of alcohol in ,societas ,regia ,scientiarum1 ,abhandl4 ,philos4-,hist4 ,classe1 ,berlin1 #aiac1 in which he argues from this passage in ,hippolytus that the discovery was made in the ,alexandrian period and that it reached western ,europe again only through the ,arabs about the twelfth century1 since alcohol is not mentioned in the older ,schlettstadt version of the ,mappae clavicula4 ,if this be so1 ,adelard of ,bath was perhaps the first to introduce it from the ,arabs or the orient1 although ,diels does not say so4 #bjcc ,refutation of ,all ,heresies1 ,,iv1 #bi-da4 #bjcd ,in some places the text is illegible4 #bjce ,cap4 #aje4 #bjcf ,leo ,allatius 8in syntagmate0 ,de engastrimytho1 cap4 #g2 ,sulpicius ,severus1 ,historia sacra1 liber ,i2 ,anastasius ,antiochenus1 1 quaest41 #aab2 8et eorum quos laudat ,bellarminus liber ,,iv de ,christo1 cap4 #aa40 #bjcg 1 ,,pg1 ,,xlv1 #ajg-ad4 #bjch ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xviii1 #fac-gd4 #bjci ,the ,king ,james version1 ,first ,samuel1 ,,xxviii1 #ai1 reads1 8and to morrow shalt thou and thy sons be with me10 instead of 8thou and ,jonathan40 #bjdj ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,xii1 #adc-gd4 #bjda ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,lvi1 #fa1 et seq4 #bjdb ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,lvi1 #fcg1 et seq4 ,homily ,,ii1 8,opus imperfectum in ,matthaeum quod ,chrysostomi nomine circumfertur40 ,ibid41 #fjb1 et seq41 for opinions of various past writers as to its authenticity4 #bjdc ,migne1 ,,pg1 ,,lx1 #bgd-e1 in the #chth homily on the ,book of ,acts4 #bjdd ,on the other hand1 ,d4 ,friedrich ,mnter1 ,der ,stern der ,weisen3 ,untersuchungen ber das ,geburtsjahr ,christi1 ,kopenhagen1 #ahbg1 adopted the astrological theory that the star of ,bethlehem was really a major conjunction of ,saturn and ,jupiter in ,pisces1 which ,jewish tradition1 too1 seems to have regarded as the sign of the ,messiah1 and that therefore ,jesus was born in #f ,b4 ,c4 ,this view had already been advanced by ,kepler1 but recent writers seem to prefer a conjunction in ,aries3 see ,h4 ,g4 ,voigt1 ,die ,geschichte ,jesu und die ,astrologie1 ,leipzig1 #aiaa2 ,kritzinger1 ,der ,stern der ,weisen1 ,gtersloh1 #aiaa2 von ,oefele1 ,die ,angaben der ,berliner ,planetentafel ,p#hbgi verglichen mit der ,geburtsgeschichte ,christi im ,berichte des ,matthus1 ,berlin1 #aijc1 in ,mitteil4 d4 ,vorderasiatischen ,gesellschaft4 #bjde ,mle1 ,religious ,art in ,france1 #aiac1 p4 #bjh1 was not able to trace the legend that the star of the ,magi appeared with the face of a child beyond ,the ,golden ,legend compiled by ,james of ,voragine in the thirteenth century4 ,we shall1 however1 find it mentioned in the twelfth century by ,abelard1 who derived it from this spurious homily of ,chrysostom4 #bjdf ,they are twice so represented on the elaborately carved ,christian sarcophagus in the museum at ,syracuse1 ,sicily1 where also the manger1 ox1 and ass are shown 7compare note #d below74 #bjdg ,hugo ,kehrer1 ,die ,heiligen drei ,knige in ,litteratur und ,kunst1 ,leipzig1 #aijh1 #b vols4 ,an earlier work on the three ,magi is ,inchofer1 ,tres ,magi ,evangelici1 ,rome1 #afci4 #bjdh ,j4 ,c4 ,thilo1 ,eusebii ,alexandrini oratio 7praemissa de magis et stella quaestione7 e ,cod4 ,reg4 ,par4 primum edita1 ,progr4 ,halae1 #ahcd4 #bjdi ,a4 ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,l',astrologie grecque1 #ahii1 p4 #faa1 8,la royaut des ,mages fut invente 7vers le ,v,ie sicle71 comme la crche 7sic6 see ,luke1 ,,ii1 #ab and #af71 le buf et l'ne pour montrer l'accomplissement des prophties40 #bjej ,religious ,art in ,france1 #aiac1 p4 #bad note1 following1 ,i presume1 ,kehrer's work1 as he does on p4 #bac4 #bjea ,for detailed references see ,mnter1 ,der ,stern der ,weisen1 #ahbg1 p4 #ae2 and ,bouch-,leclercq1 #ahii1 p4 #faa1 where they are stated somewhat differently4 #bjeb ,comm4 in ,platonis ,timaeum1 ,,ii1 vi1 #abe2 quoted by ,mnter 7#ahbg71 pp4 #bg-h4 #bjec ,,bn #afhai1 fol4 #dir4 ,corpus ,christi #acd1 early #abth century1 fol4 #a v41 has a brief 8,magorum trium qui ,domino ,infanti aurum obtulere nomina et descriptio40 #bjed ,cotton ,galba ,e1 ,,viii1 #aeth century1 fols4 #c-bh1 ,fabulosa narratio de tribus magis qui ,christum adorarunt sive de tribus regibus ,coloniensibus4 #bjee ,cap4 #ab in the #adgh edition4 #bjef ,ibid41 cap4 #cd4 #bjeg ,at ,munich all the following ,,mss are #aeth century3 ,,clm #ahfba1 fol4 #ace1 ,liber trium regum1 fol4 #bae1 ,legenda trium regum excerpta ex praecedenti2 #aiedd1 fols4 #cad-di1 and #bffhh1 fols4 #aeg-ib1 ,laudes et gesta trium regum1 etc42 #bafbg1 fols4 #bab-ca1 ,historia de tribus regibus2 #bchci1 fols4 #aab-cg1 and #bdega1 fols4 #ej-ajd1 ,gesta trium regum2 #bejgc1 fols4 #bfj-hc1 de nativitate domini et de tribus regibus4 ,at ,berlin ,,mss #gii and #hjj1 both of the #aeth century1 have the ,gesta trium regum ascribed to ,john of ,hildesheim4 ,so ,wolfenbttel #cbff1 anno #adfa4 ,the printed edition of #adgh in #df chapters and about #cj folios is also ascribed to ,john of ,hildesheim4 ,we read on the binding1 8,ioannis ,hildeshemensis ,liber de trium regum translatione40 ,the ,incipit is3 8,reverendissimo in ,christo patri ac domino domino florencio de weuelkouen divina providencia monasteriensis ecclesie episcopo dignissimo40 ,the colophon is3 8,liber de gestis ac trina beatissimorum trium regum translacione 444 per me ,johannem guldenschoff de moguncia40 ,some other ,,mss1 also of the #aeth century1 are3 ,vatic4 ,palat4 ,lat4 #hei1 de gestis et translationibus trium regum1 and at ,oxford1 ,university ,college #cc1 ,liber collectus de gestis et translationibus sanctorum trium regum de ,colonia2 ,laud ,misc41 #feh1 ,the history of the three kings of ,cologne1 in forty-one chapters with a preface4 ,it is thus seen that the number of chapters varies4 ,coxe's catalogue of the ,laud ,,mss states that the ,latin original was printed at ,cologne in quarto in #adha1 and that it is very different from the version printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde4 8,the ,story of the ,magi10 in ,bodleian 7,bernard7 #bcbe1 covers only folio #fh4 ,at ,amiens is a ,,ms which the catalogue dates in the #adth century and ascribes to ,john of ,hildesheim1 and its ,incipit is practically that of the printed edition3 ,amiens #dha1 fols4 #a-eh1 8,reverendissimo in ,christo ,patri ac domino domino ,florentino de ,wovellonem 7sic7 divina providencia ,monasteriensis ecclesie episcopo dignissimo4 ,cum venerandissimorum trium ,magorum1 ymo verius trium ,regum40 ,the work ends in the ,,ms with the words1 8444 summi ,regis servant legem incole ,colonie4 ,amen4 ,explicit hystoria40 #bjeh ,,bn #afhai1 #ajth century1 fols4 #dfr-#dir4 #bjei ,marco ,polo 7,i1 #ac-ad1 ed4 ,yule and ,cordier1 #aijc1 vol4 ,i1 #gh-ha71 who located the ,magi in ,saba1 ,persia1 recounts further legends concerning them and their gifts4 ,see also ,f4 ,w4 ,k4 ,mller1 ,uigurica1 ,i1 i1 ,die ,anbetung der ,magier1 ein ,christliches ,bruchstck1 ,berlin1 #aijh4 #bjfj ,beazley1 ,dawn of ,modern ,geography1 ,i1 #bgd1 says1 8,augustine and ,chrysostom felt and spoke in the same way1 though in more measured language1 and nearly all early ,christian writers who touched upon the matter did so to echo the voice of authorities so unquestioned40 ,but ,i cannot agree with this statement4 ,he goes on to imply that a majority of the fathers1 like ,cosmas ,indicopleustes1 attacked the belief in the sphericity of the earth2 but here1 too1 ,i wonder if he is not following ,letronne1 ,des ,opinions ,cosmographiques des ,pres1 without having examined the citations4 ,certainly no such attitude is found in ,basil's ,hexaemeron1 ,hom4 #c and #i as the citation implies4 ,i have not seen ,marinelli1 ,la geographia e i ,padri della ,chiesa1 estratto dal ,bollettino della ,societ geografica italiana1 anno #ahhb1 pp4 #aa-ae4 #bjfa ,divin4 ,instit41 ,,iii1 #bd4 #bjfb ,migne1 ,,pg1 vol4 #bi2 ,,pn1 vol4 #h4 #bjfc ,duhem 7#aiad7 ,,ii1 #cid1 however1 prefers ,gregory of ,nyssa's work as 8 la fois plus sobre1 plus concis1 et plus philosophique44440 #bjfd ,homily ,i was delivered in the morning1 ,,ii in the evening2 ,,iii was in the morning and speaks of a coming evening address4 ,at the close of ,homily ,,vii ,basil urges his hearers to talk over at their evening meal what they have heard this morning and this evening4 ,if we regard ,homily ,,vi as the morning address referred to1 we shall have ,homily ,v left to cover an entire day4 ,homily ,,vi1 however1 is the longest of the nine4 ,in any case ,homily ,,viii is clearly preached in the morning1 and ,,ix at evening4 #bjfe ,bk4 ,,ii1 caps4 #aj-ag4 #bjff ,epistola #fe1 ad ,pammachium4 ,augustine's ,de ,genesi ad litteram1 which ,cassiodorus 7,institutes1 ,i1 #a7 esteemed above the commentaries of ,basil and ,ambrose upon ,genesis1 is a somewhat similar work1 but1 after a briefer treatment of the work of creation1 continues to comment on the text up to ,adam's expulsion from ,paradise4 #bjfg ,migne1 ,,pl1 #ad1 #aca-b4 ,the most recent edition of the ,hexaemeron of ,ambrose is by ,c4 ,schenkl4 ,vienna1 #ahif4 #bjfh ,fialon1 tude sur ,st4 ,basile1 #ahfi1 p4 #bif4 #bjfi ,homily ,,ix4 #bjgj ,for example1 in the catalogue1 published in #agdd1 of ,,mss in the then ,royal ,library at ,paris there are listed five copies of ,eustathius' ,latin translation1 dating from the ninth to the fourteenth century--#bbjj1 #d2 #agja1 #a2 #agjb1 #a2 #aghg;,a1 #b2 #bfcc1 #a2 and fifteen copies of the ,hexaemeron of ,ambrose--#agah2 #agjb1 #b2 #agai to #agbg inclusive2 #bchg1 #d2 #bfcg and #bfch4 ,i have not noted what ,,mss of the ,hexaemerons of ,basil and ,ambrose are found in the ,british ,museum and ,bodleian libraries4 ,some other medieval copies of ,basil's in ,latin translation are3 ,,bn #abacd1 #ith century ,lombard hand2 ,vendme #abb1 #aath century1 fols4 #a v-#fj2 ,soissons #aba1 #abth century1 fol4 #ig1 ,eustathius' prologue and a part of his translation2 ,grenoble #beh1 #abth century1 fols4 #a-de1 8,eustathii translatio44440 ,the ,hexaemeron of ,ambrose1 since written originally in ,latin1 is naturally found oftener4 ,the oldest ,,ms is said to be ,,cu ,corpus ,christi #aic1 large ,lombard script of the #hth century which closely resembles ,,bn #chcf4 ,other ,,mss are3 ,,bn #aafbd1 #aath century2 ,,bn #abace1 #ith century2 ,,bn #abacf1 #ab-acth century2 ,,bn #acccf1 #aath century2 ,,bn #adhdg1 #abth century1 fol4 #afc2 ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #dij1 #abth century2 ,vatican #bfi-bgc inclusive1 #aj-aeth centuries2 ,alenon #aj1 #abth century2 ,vendme #abi1 #abth century1 fols4 #dh-abf2 ,semur1 #aj1 #abth century2 ,chartres #fc1 #aj-aath century1 fols4 #c-df2 ,orlans #ce1 #aath century2 ,orlans #aib1 #gth century1 part of the first two books only2 ,amiens fonds ,lescalopier #cj1 #abth century2 le ,mans #ae1 #aath century2 ,brussels #aghb1 #ajth century2 ,,clm #bedi1 #abth century2 ,,clm #cgbh1 #ajth century2 ,,clm #fbeh1 #ajth century2 ,,clm #acjgi1 #abth century2 ,,clm #adcii1 #abth century2 ,novara #dj1 #abth century2 and many other ,,mss of later date in these and other libraries4 #bjga ,de proprietatibus rerum1 ,,viii1 #d4 #bjgb ,bede1 ,hexaemeron1 sive libri quatuor in principium ,genesis usque ad nativitatem ,isaac et electionem ,ismaelis1 in ,migne1 ,,pl1 #ia1 #i-ajj4 ,bede originally intended to carry his work only to the expulsion of ,adam from ,paradise1 but subsequently added three more books4 #bjgc ,homilies ,i1 ,,viii1 and ,x4 #bjgd ,homily ,,iii1 #a and #aj4 #bjge ,i1 #g2 ,,iii1 #e and #aj4 #bjgf ,,iv1 #a4 #bjgg ,i1 #g2 ,,iii1 #e2 ,,iv1 #c1 #d1 and #g2 ,,vi1 #i2 ,,vii1 #f4 #bjgh ,,ii1 #g2 ,,iii1 #aj4 #bjgi ,,iv1 #a2 ,,vi1 #a4 #bjhj ,,viii1 #h4 #bjha ,homily ,v1 #aj2 ,,ix1 #b4 #bjhb ,i1 #c4 #bjhc ,,ii1 #a4 #bjhd ,,iii1 #c4 #bjhe ,,ii1 #d1 et seq4 #bjhf ,,iii1 #i4 #bjhg ,charles1 ,the ,book of the ,secrets of ,enoch1 ,introduction1 pp4 xxxi1 xxxix4 #bjhh ,irenaeus1 ,i1 #e2 ,epiphanius1 ed4 ,petavius #ahf;,,ab4 #bjhi ,homily ,i1 #aj4 #bjij ,,vi1 #i-aa4 #bjia ,i1 #aa4 #bjib ,,ii1 #g4 #bjic ,,iv1 #b-d4 #bjid ,homily ,,iv1 #d4 #bjie ,,iv1 #f4 #bjif ,v1 #b4 #bjig ,,iv1 #e4 #bjih ,,iii1 #d4 #bjii ,,vi1 #a4 #bajj ,homily ,v1 #c4 #baja ,v1 #i4 #bajb ,v1 #d4 #bajc ,v1 #f4 #bajd ,,vii1 #e2 ,,ix1 #c4 #baje ,,viii1 #f4 #bajf ,homily ,,vii1 #f4 #bajg ,,ix1 #c4 #bajh ,,viii1 #e4 ,see also ,aristotle1 ,history of ,animals1 ,v1 #h4 #baji ,homily ,,viii1 #f4 #baaj ,,ix1 #b4 #baaa ,,ix1 #e4 #baab ,homily1 ,,vi1 #aa4 #baac ,v1 #a4 #baad ,,vi1 #c4 #baae ,ad ,autolycum1 ,,ii1 #ae4 #baaf ,homily ,,vi1 #e-g4 #baag ,homily ,,vi1 #aj4 #baah ,v1 #b4 #baai ,v1 #g4 ,but perhaps he simply means that oaks will grow where pines used to4 ,tertullian1 ,de pallio1 cap4 #b1 dwelling on the law of change1 speaks of the washing down of soil from mountains1 the alluvial formation by rivers1 and of sea-shells on mountain tops as a proof that the whole earth was once covered by water4 ,he seems to have in mind a gradual process of geological evolution rather than ,noah's flood1 and ,sir ,james ,frazer states that ,isidore of ,seville is the first he knows of the many writers who have appealed 8to fossil shells imbedded in remote mountains as witnesses to the truth of the ,noachian tradition10--,origines1 ,,xiii1 #bb1 cited by ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,folk-,lore in the ,old ,testament 7#aiah71 ,i1 #aei1 who cites the passage in ,tertullian at pp4 #cch-i4 #babj ,homily ,,ix1 #b4 #baba ,cunningham1 ,christian ,opinion on ,usury1 p4 #i4 #babb ,twice in the course of the ,panarion 7,dindorf1 ,i1 #bhj1 and ,,ii1 #dbh2 ,petavius1 #b;,d and #djd;,a7 he gives the year of the reign of ,valentinian and ,valens1 namely1 the eleventh and the twelfth4 #babc ,lucian's ,de dipsadibus will be recalled2 see also ,pliny1 ,,nh1 ,,xxiii1 #hj2 ,lucan1 ,pharsalia1 ,,ix1 #gai4 #babd ,pliny1 ,,nh1 ,,xxiii1 #ah2 ,,xxx1 #aj4 #babe ,pliny1 ,,nh1 ,,xxv1 #ec2 ,,xxi1 #ib2 ,,xix1 #fb2 ,,xii1 #dj and #ee4 #babf ,dindorf1 ,,ii1 #dej2 ,petavius1 #dbb;,c4 #babg ,liber de ,,xii gemmis rationalis summi sacerdotis ,hebraeorum1 published in ,dindorf's edition of the ,opera of ,epiphanius1 vol4 ,,iv1 pp4 #ada-bdh1 with the preface and notes of ,fogginius1 and both the ,latin and ,greek versions4 #babh ,ibid41 #afj-fb4 #babi ,p4 #agd4 #bacj ,pp4 #aij-ia4 #baca ,ibid41 #ahd4 #bacb ,pitra1 ,spicilegium ,solesmense1 ,paris1 #ahee1 ,,iii1 xlvii-lxxx4 ,k4 ,ahrens1 ,zur ,geschichte des sogenannten ,physiologus1 #ahhe4 ,m4 ,f4 ,mann1 ,bestiaire ,divin de ,guillaume ,le ,clerc4 ,heilbronn1 #ahhh1 pp4 #af-cc1 8,entstehung des ,physiologus und seine ,entwicklung im ,abendlande40 ,f4 ,lauchert1 ,geschichte des ,physiologus1 ,strassburg1 #ahhi4 ,e4 ,peters1 ,der griechische ,physiologus und seine orientalischen ,uebersetzungen1 ,berlin1 #ahih4 ,m4 ,goldstaub1 ,der ,physiologus und seine ,weiterbildung1 besonders in der lateinischen und in der byzantinischen ,litteratur1 in ,philologus1 ,suppl4 ,bd4 ,,viii 7#ahih-aija71 #ccg-djd4 ,also in ,verhandl4 d4 #da4 ,versammlung deutscher ,philologen u4 ,schulmnner in ,mnchen1 ,leipzig 7#ahib71 pp4 #bab-ba4 ,v4 ,schultze1 ,der ,physiologus in der kirchlichen ,kunst des ,mittelalters1 in ,christliches ,kunstblatt1 ,,xxxix 7#ahig71 #di-ee4 ,j4 ,strzygowski1 ,der ,bilderkreis des griechischen ,physiologus1 in ,byz4 ,zeitsch4 ,ergnzungsheft1 ,i 7#ahii74 ,e4 ,p4 ,evans1 ,animal ,symbolism in ,ecclesiastical ,architecture1 #ahif1 is disappointing1 being mainly compiled from secondary sources and having little to say on ecclesiastical architecture4 #bacc ,,eb1 #aath ed41 8,arthropoda40 #bacd ,lauchert 7#ahhi71 pp4 #bbi-gi1 attempts a critical edition of the ,greek text4 #bace ,pitra 7#ahee71 ,,iii1 #cgd-ij2 ,french translation in ,cahier1 ,nouveaux mlanges 7#ahgd71 ,i1 #aag1 et seq4 #bacf ,o4 ,g4 ,tychsen1 ,physiologus ,syrus1 #agie2 from an incomplete ,vatican ,,ms4 ,land1 ,otia ,syriaca1 p4 #ca1 et seq41 or in ,anecdota ,syriaca1 ,,iv1 #aae1 et seq41 gives the complete text with a ,latin translation4 #bacg ,hommel1 ,die aethiopische ,uebersetzung des ,physiologus1 ,leipzig1 #ahgg4 ,a bit of it was translated by ,pitra 7#ahee71 ,,iii1 #daf-g4 #bach ,land1 ,otia ,syriaca1 p4 #acg1 et seq41 with ,latin translation4 ,a fragment in ,pitra 7#ahee71 ,,iii1 #ece4 #baci ,pitra 7#ahee71 ,,iii1 #cch-gc1 used ,,mss from the #acth to #aeth century4 ,the earliest known illuminated copies are of #aajj ,a4 ,d4 and later3 see ,dalton1 ,byzantine ,art and ,archaeology1 ,oxford1 #aiaa1 pp4 #dha-b4 #badj ,the oldest ,latin ,,mss seem to be two of the #hth and #ith centuries at ,berne4 ,edited by ,mai1 ,classici auctores1 ,rome1 #ahce1 ,,vii1 #ehe-if1 and more completely by ,pitra 7#ahee71 ,,iii1 #dah2 also by ,g4 ,heider1 in ,archiv f4 ,kunde sterreich4 ,geschichtsquellen1 ,vienna1 #ahej1 ,,ii1 #ede2 ,cahier et ,martin1 ,mlanges d'archologie1 ,paris1 ,,ii 7#ahea71 #he;ff41 ,,iii 7#ahec71 #bjc;ff41 ,,iv 7#ahef71 #ee;ff4 ,cahier1 ,nouveaux mlanges 7#ahgd71 p4 #ajf;ff4 ,mann 7#ahhh71 pp4 #cg-gc1 prints the ,latin text which he regards as ,william le ,clerc's source from ,royal #b-;,c-,,xii1 and gives a list of other ,,mss of ,latin ,bestiaries in ,english libraries4 ,other medieval ,latin ,bestiaries have been printed in the works of ,hildebert of ,tours or ,le ,mans 7,migne1 ,,pl1 #aga1 #abag-bd3 really this poem concerning only twelve animals is by ,theobald1 who was perhaps abbot at ,monte ,cassino1 #ajbb-ajce1 and it was printed under the name of ,theobald before #aejj1--see the volume numbered ,,ia4#abcfg in the ,british ,museum and entitled1 ,phisiologus ,theobaldi ,episcopi de naturis duodecim animalium4 ,indeed1 it was printed at least nine times under his name1--see ,hain1 #aedfg-ge73 and in the works of ,hugh of ,st4 ,victor 7,migne1 ,,pl1 #agg1 #i-afd1 ,de bestiis et aliis rebus libri quatuor74 ,both of these versions occur in numerous ,,mss1 as does a third version which opens with citation of the remark of ,jacob in blessing his sons1 8,judah is a lion's whelp40 ,the author then cites ,physiologus as usual concerning the three natures of the lion4 ,see ,wolfenbttel #ddce1 #aath century1 fols4 #aei-fhv1 ,liber bestiarum4 8,de leone rege bestiarum et animalium 7est7 etenim iacob benedicens iudam ait ,catulus leonis iuda4 ,de leone4 ,leo tres naturas habet40 ,laud4 ,misc4 #bdg1 #abth century1 fol4 #adj-1 444 caps4 #cf1 praevia tabula 444 ,tit4 8,de tribus naturis leonis40 ,incip4 8,bestiarium seu animalium regis2 etenim ,jacob benedicens filium suum ,udam ait ,catulus leonis ,judas filius meus quis suscitabit eum2 ,fisiologus dicit1 ,tres res naturales habere leonem44440 ,library of ,dukes of ,burgundy #ajjgd1 #ajth century1 8,etenim ,jacob benedicens40 ,,clm #aifdh1 #aeth century1 fols4 #ahj-ie1 8,igitur ,jacob benedicens40 ,,clm #bcghg1 #aeth century1 fols4 #ab-bj1 8,igitur ,jacob benedicens40 ,,cu ,trinity #hhd1 #acth century in a fine hand1 with #ajg ,english miniatures1 fol4 #hi-1 8,et enim iacob benedicens filium suum iudam ait catulus leonis est iudas filius meus02 this ,,ms ends imperfectly4 #bada ,printed by ,lauchert 7#ahhi71 pp4 #bhj-ii4 #badb ,max ,f4 ,mann1 ,der ,physiologus des ,philipp von ,thaon und seine ,quellen1 ,halle1 #ahhd1 #ec pp4 #badc ,mann1 ,bestiaire ,divin de ,guillaume ,le ,clerc1 ,heilbronn1 #ahhh1 in ,franzsische ,studien1 ,,vi1 #b1 pp4 #bja-cjf4 ,most recent edition by ,robert1 ,leipzig1 #ahij4 #badd ,besides the two foregoing see ,goldstaub und ,wendriner1 ,ein tosco-venez4 ,bestiarius1 ,halle1 #ahib4 ,magliabech4 ,,iv1 #fc1 #acth century1 mutilated1 #ec fols41 bestiario moralizato1 in ,italian prose4 ,e4 ,monaci1 ,rendiconti dell' ,accad4 dei ,lincei1 ,classe di scienze morali1 storiche e filol41 vol4 ,v1 fasc4 #aj and #ab1 has edited a ,bestiario in #fd sonetti on as many animals from a private ,,ms at 8,gubbio nell' archivio degli avvocati ,pietro e ,oderisi ,lucarelli10 ,,ms #be1 fols4 #aab-bg4 ,see also ,m4 ,garver and ,k4 ,mc,kenzie1 ,il ,bestiario ,toscano secondo la lezione dei codice di ,parigi e di ,roma1 in ,studi romanzi1 ,rome1 #aiab2 ,mc,kenzie1 ,unpublished ,manuscripts of ,italian ,bestiaries1 in ,modern ,language ,publications1 ,,xx 7#aije71 #b2 and ,garver1 8,some ,supplementary ,italian ,bestiary ,chapters10 in ,romanic ,review1 ,,xi 7#aibj71 #cjh-bg4 #bade ,for instance1 ,a4 ,s4 ,cook1 ,the ,old ,english ,elene1 ,phoenix1 and ,physiologus1 ,yale ,university ,press1 #cfd pp41 #aiai4 #badf ,k4 ,ahrens1 ,das 8,buch der ,naturgegenstnde10 #ahib4 #badg ,cod4 ,vind4 ,med4 #bi1 4 ,in the edition of ,ponce de ,leon1 ,rome1 #aehg1 there are twenty animals described1 and the symbolic interpretation is very short compared to later versions4 ,heider 7#ahej71 p4 #edc1 regarded this as the oldest version and as extant in complete form4 #badh ,mansi1 ,concil41 ,,viii1 #aea1 8,liber ,physiologus ab hereticis conscriptus et beati ,ambrosii nomine presignatus apocryphus40 #badi ,heider 7#ahej71 ,,ii1 #eda-hb1 8,physiologus nach einer ,handschrift des ,,xi4 ,jahrhunderts03 the text opens at p4 #eeb1 8,incipiunt ,dicta ,johannis ,chrysostomi de naturis bestiarum40 ,lauchert used another ,,ms1 ,vienna #cjc1 #adth century1 fol4 #abdv-1 which was considerably different and was furthermore combined with the ,physiologus of ,theobald4 ,an earlier ,,ms than either of the foregoing is ,,clm #aidag1 #ith century1 fols4 #bi-ga1 ,liber ,sancti ,johannis episcopi regiae urbis ,constantinopoli 444 ,crisostomi quem de naturis animalium ordinavit4 ,another ,vienna ,,ms is #beaa1 #adth century1 fols4 #ace-dj1 8,incipiunt dicta ,johannis ,chrysostomi de naturis animalium et primo de leone 444_/ 444 ,sic erit et scriba doctus in regno celorum qui profert de thesauro suo noua et uetera4 ,expliciunt dicta ,johannis ,crisostomi40 ,a ,paris ,,ms of the same is ,,bn #bghj1 #acth century1 #ad1 ,sancti ,ioannis ,chrysostomi liber qui physiologus appellatur4 #baej ,additional #aa1jce1 ,johannis ,scottigenae ,phisiologiae liber4 ,in the same ,,ms are ,macrobius' ,dream of ,scipio and the poems of ,prudentius4 #baea ,de bestiis et aliis rebus1 ,,ii1 #a 7,migne1 ,,pl #agg1 #eg74 8,physici denique dicunt quinque naturales res sive naturas habere leonem44440 #baeb ,mineral41 ,,ii1 i1 #a 7ed4 ,borgnet1 ,v1 #bd74 #baec ,bubnov 7#ahii71 p4 #cgb4 #baed ,thus even ,lauchert 7#ahii71 p4 #aje1 admits that ,bartholomew of ,england1 the thirteenth century ,latin encyclopedist1 cites ,physiologus for much which does not come from ,physiologus4 #baee ,goldstaub 7#ahii-aija71 p4 #cda4 #baef ,this and the preceding quotations in the paragraph are from ,mle 7#aiac71 pp4 #dh1 #ce1 #di1 #de4 #baeg ,goldstaub 7#ahii-aija71 pp4 #cej-a4 ,the same statement could be made with equal truth of ,vincent of ,beauvais and ,bartholomew of ,england4 #baeh ,hommel 7#ahgg71 pp4 xii1 xv4 #baei ,duhem1 ,,ii 7#aiad71 #cad1 seems to me to have overestimated the significance of ,confessions1 ,v1 #e1 and ,de ,genesi ad litteram1 ,i1 #ai1 in saying1 8,l'assurance avec laquelle les ,basile1 les ,grgoire de ,nysse1 les ,ambroise1 les ,jean ,chrysostome opposaient aux enseignements de la ,physique profane les naves assertions de leur science purile contristait fort l'vque de ,hippone40 ,there is nothing1 ,i think1 to indicate that ,augustine had these men or men of their stamp in mind1 and ,i doubt if his scientific attainments were superior to ,basil's4 #bafj ,de consensu ,evangelistarum1 ,i1 #aa2 in ,migne1 ,,pl #cd1 #ajdi-ej4 #bafa ,ibid41 ,i1 #i-aj4 #bafb ,de civitate ,dei1 ,x1 #i2 ,,pl vol4 #da4 #bafc ,ibid41 ,,vii1 #cd-ce2 and see ,arnobius1 ,against the ,heathen1 ,v1 #a1 for ,augustine's probable source4 #bafd ,de civ4 ,dei1 ,,viii1 #ai4 #bafe ,ibid41 ,,viii1 #ah1 #ai1 #bf2 ,,ix1 #a4 #baff ,de civ4 ,dei1 ,x1 #i-aj4 #bafg ,de trinitate1 ,,iv1 #aa2 in ,migne1 ,,pl #db1 #hig4 #bafh ,de civ4 ,dei1 ,x1 #i4 #bafi ,de civ4 ,dei1 ,,xxi1 #f4 #bagj ,in ,grenoble #bjh1 #abth century1 containing works of ,augustine1 there is listed separately at fol4 #edv1 8,de magis ,pharaonis10 to which the ,,mss catalogue adds1 8et de ,,cliii piscibus40 ,probably it is an extract from one of ,augustine's longer works as it covers only one leaf4 #baga ,de trinitate1 ,,iv1 #aa4 #bagb ,de diversis quaestionibus1 cap4 #gi2 ,migne1 ,,pl #dj1 #ib-c4 #bagc ,see also ,de cataclysmo 7perhaps spurious71 cap4 #e1 ,migne1 ,,pl #dj1 #fif2 and ,sermo ,,viii1 ,,pl #ch1 #gd4 ,sermo ,,xc1 ,,pl #ch1 #efb1 however1 speaks of 8,moyses et ,aaron40 #bagd ,de civ4 ,dei1 ,,xxi1 #f2 ,,xviii1 #ah4 #bage ,de diversis quaestionibus1 cap4 #gi2 ,de doctrina ,christiana1 ,,ii1 #bj1 in ,migne1 ,,pl #cd1 #ej4 #bagf ,migne1 ,,pl #dj1 #eha-ib4 #bagg ,de trinitate1 ,,iii1 #h2 ,,pl1 #db1 #hge4 #bagh ,de trinitate1 ,,iii1 #g-h4 ,it seems strange to me that they should have failed on minute insects who in ancient and medieval science are often represented as produced by spontaneous generation4 ,the ,talmudists also1 however1 state that the ,egyptians were unable to duplicate the plague of lice1 as their art did not extend to things smaller than a barleycorn4 #bagi ,de civitate ,dei1 ,,xviii1 #bb4 ,in commenting on ,genesis 7,,pl #cd1 #dde7 he speaks even more harshly of 8that absurd and harmful notion of the changing of souls and of men into beasts1 or of beasts into men02 but perhaps he has reference to the doctrine of transmigration of souls rather than to magic transformations4 #bahj ,confessions1 ,x1 #db1 in ,,pl vol4 #cb4 #baha ,quaest4 ,,vi2 ,,pl #dj1 #afb-e4 #bahb ,,ii1 #c2 ,,pl #dj1 #adb-d4 #bahc ,de civitate ,dei1 ,,xxi1 #d-f2 ,,pl #da1 #gab-f4 #bahd ,de ,genesi ad litteram1 ,,xi1 #bh-i2 ,,pl #cd1 #ddd-e4 #bahe ,confessions1 ,x1 #ce2 in ,,pl vol4 #cb4 #bahf ,,ii1 #bj and #bi4 #bahg ,,iv1 #b-c4 #bahh ,,pl #ci1 #bbfh-gb4 #bahi ,sermo ,,cxxx1 ,,pl #ci1 #bjjd-e4 #baij ,,ii1 #ba-c2 ,,pl #cd1 #ea-c4 #baia ,de civitate ,dei1 ,v1 #g4 #baib ,confessions1 ,,vii1 #f4 #baic ,unless otherwise noted1 the ensuing arguments are found in ,the ,city of ,god1 ,v1 #a-g4 #baid ,de ,genesi ad litteram1 ,,ii1 #ag2 ,,pl #cd1 #bgh4 ,de diversis quaestionibus1 cap4 #de2 ,,pl #dj1 #bh-i4 ,epistola #bdf2 ,,pl #cc1 #ajfa4 ,sermo #aji2 ,,pl #ch1 #ajbg4 #baie ,confessions1 ,,iv1 #b-c4 #baif ,see below1 chapter #bd4 #baig ,de ,genesi ad litteram1 ,,xii1 #bb and #ag and #ab2 ,,pl #cd1 #dgb-c1 #dfg-i1 #dfd-e4 ,see also the marvelous divinations of ,albicerius recounted in ,contra ,academicos1 ,i1 #f2 ,,pl #cb1 #iad-e4 #baih ,sermones #aii and #cgd2 ,,pl #ch1 #ajbg-h1 and #ci1 #afff4 ,contra ,faustum1 ,,ii1 #ae2 ,,pl #db1 #bab4 #baii ,in ,quaestiones ex ,novo ,testamento1 ,quaest4 #fc1 ,,pl #ce1 #bbeh1 which is probably a spurious work but was cited as ,augustine's by ,thomas ,aquinas 7,summa1 ,,iii1 #cf1 v71 ,balaam is said to have warned the ,magi to watch for the star4 ,it is also asserted1 however1 that 8these ,chaldean ,magi watched the course of the stars1 not from malevolence1 but curiosity concerning nature0 7,hi ,magi chaldaei non malevolentia astrorum cursum sed rerum curiositate speculabantur74 #bbjj ,enchiridion1 sive de fide1 spe1 et charitate1 ,i1 #eh2 ,,pl #dj1 #bei-fj4 ,de civitate ,dei1 ,,xiii1 #af2 ,,pl #da1 #chh4 ,de ,genesi ad litteram1 ,,ii1 #ah2 ,,pl #cd1 #bgi-hj4 #bbja ,orosii ad ,augustinum ,consultatio sive ,commonitorium de errore ,priscillianistarum et ,origenistarum1 ,,pl #ca1 #abaa-bb2 also in ,g4 ,schepss 7#ahhi71 in ,,csel ,,xviii4 ,augustini ad ,orosium contra ,priscillianistas et ,origenistas1 ,,pl #da1 #ffi1 et seq4 ,augustine also discusses the ,priscillianists in ,epistle #bcg1 ,,pl #cc1 #ajcd1 et seq41 where he makes no charge either of magic or astrology against them4 #bbjb ,this charge was later repeated by ,st4 ,leo1 ,epistola ,,xv2 see ,withington1 ,history of ,medicine1 #ahid1 p4 #agh2 but the offense would seem a trivial one in any case4 #bbjc ,de principiis1 ,i1 #g4 #bbjd ,de doctrina ,christiana1 ,,ii1 #bi1 in ,migne1 #cd1 #eg4 #bbje ,de ,genesi ad litteram1 ,,ii1 #af1 in ,migne1 #cd1 #bgg4 #bbjf ,de civitate ,dei1 ,,xi1 #cj-ca4 ,he says about the same things concerning six and seven in ,de ,genesi ad litteram1 ,,iv1 #b4 #bbjg ,sermo supposititius #ba1 in ,migne1 ,,pl ,,xxxix1 #aghc1 8,de convenientia decem preceptorum et decem plagarum ,egypti4 ,non est sine causa1 fratres dilectissimi1 quod preceptorum legis ,dei numerus cum numero plagarum quibus ,aegyptus percutitur exaequari videtur40 #bbjh ,cambridge ,medieval ,history1 ,i1 #i4 #bbji ,the ,greek work1 ,hermippus or ,concerning ,astrology1 however1 can no longer be regarded as an example of ,christian belief in astrology at this period1 since ,f4 ,boll1 ,heidelberger ,akad4 ,sitzb41 #aiab1 ,no4 #ah1 has shown it to be a fourteenth century work of ,john ,katrarios1 who makes use of a ,greek translation of ,albumasar4 #bbaj ,for bibliography see ,f4 ,boll's 8,firmicus0 in ,,pw4 ,it does not include my article written subsequently on 8,a ,roman ,astrologer as a ,historical ,source3 ,julius ,firmicus ,maternus10 in ,classical ,philology1 ,,viii1 ,no4 #d1 pp4 #dae-ce1 ,october1 #aiac4 ,for bibliography see also ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,,ii1 xxxiv4 #bbaa ,the edition of ,de errore profanarum religionum by ,k4 ,ziegler1 ,leipzig1 #aijg1 is more critical than that in ,migne1 ,,pl4 #bbab ,iulii ,firmici ,materni ,matheseos ,libri ,,viii1 ed4 ,w4 ,kroll et ,f4 ,skutsch1 ,fasciculus prior libros ,,iv priores et quinti prooemium continens1 ,leipzig1 #ahig2 ,fasciculus alter libros ,,iv posteriores cum praefatione et indicibus continens1 #aiac4 ,my references will be by page and line to this text1 unless otherwise noted4 ,earlier editions1 which ,i used for the later books before #aiac1 are the editio princeps1 ,julius ,firmicus de nativitatibus1 444 ,impressum ,venetiis per ,symonem papiensem dictum bivilaqua1 #adig die #ac ,iunii1 cxv fols42 the ,aldine edition of #adii containing apparent interpolations1 ,julii ,firmici ,astronomicorum libri octo integri et emendati ex ,scythicis oris ad nos nuper allati44442 and the ,basel editions of #aecc and #aeea by ,m4 ,pruckner which reproduce the ,aldine text4 ,see ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,,ii1 xxxiii1 for another reproduction of the ,aldine text1 printed in #aejc1 and p4 xxviii for a partial edition of books #c-e of the ,mathesis in #adhh and #adid in ,opus ,astrolabii plani 444 a ,iohanne ,angeli4 #bbac ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,i1 #c1 #bg4 #bbad ,boll in ,,pw1 ,,vi1 #bcfe4 #bbae ,hermes1 ,,xxix1 #dfh-gb4 ,the treatise could not have been composed before #ccd since ,firmicus 7,i1 #ac1 #bc7 refers to an eclipse in the consulship of ,optatus and ,paulinus which occurred in that year4 #bbaf ,for instance1 at ,i1 #cg1 #be1 8,constantinus scilicet maximus divi ,constantini filius10 might as well be rendered1 8,constantius1 son of ,constantine10 as 8,constantine1 son of ,constantius40 #bbag ,i1 #a1 #c1 8,olim tibi hos libellos1 ,mavorti decus nostrum1 me dicaturum esse promiseram verum diu me inconstantia verecundiae retardavit40 #bbah ,i1 #aie-f4 #bbai ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 ,,xvi1 #h1 #e1 8iubetur ,mavortius1 tunc praefectus praetorio1 vir sublimis constantiae1 crimen acri inquisitione spectari40 #bbbj ,ziegler1 p4 #g1 8,physica ratio quam dicis1 alio genere celetur02 p4 #i1 8quod dicant physica ratione conpositum40 #bbba ,ziegler1 p4 #e4 #bbbb ,ziegler1 p4 #bc4 #bbbc ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,i1 #hf1 #ab-ba4 #bbbd ,ziegler1 pp4 #ae1 #ch1 #ci1 #fd1 #fg1 #ha1 #hb1 8sacratissimi imperatores02 pp4 #ca1 #dj1 8sacrosancti principes02 p4 #fe1 8sanctarum aurium vestrarum40 #bbbe ,ziegler1 pp4 #ec-d4 #bbbf ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,i1 #ag-ah4 #bbbg ,see my 8,a ,roman ,astrologer as a ,historical ,source10 ,classical ,philology1 ,,viii1 #dae-ce1 especially p4 #dba4 #bbbh ,i1 #af1 #bj1 8,summo illi ac rectori deo1 qui omnia perpetua legis dispositione composuit44440 #bbbi ,i1 #af1 #ad2 ,i1 #eg1 #b2 ,i1 #ij1 #aa1 to #ia1 #aj4 #bbcj ,i1 #bhj1 #b-bh4 #bbca ,besides the prayer just quoted1 see ,i1 #ah1 #aj-ac4 ,see also the long prayer at the end of the first book to the planets and supreme ,god for the successful continuance of the dynasty of ,constantine4 #bbcb ,i1 #ah1 #be-i4 #bbcc ,i1 #he-hi 7,book ,,ii1 chapter #cj74 #bbcd ,i1 #ag1 #b-bc4 #bbce ,i1 #aj1 #c-4 #bbcf ,i1 #aa1 #g-4 #bbcg ,book ,i1 ,chapter #d 7,i1 #aa-ae74 #bbch ,book ,i1 ,chapter #g 7,i1 #ai-cj74 #bbci ,for a fuller exposition of this quantitative method of source-analysis and the results obtained thereby see ,thorndike 7#aiac71 pp4 #dae-ce4 #bbdj ,temple-robbers1 #e2 servile or ignoble employ in temples1 #e2 spending one's time in temples1 #d2 builders of temples1 #c2 beneficiaries of temples1 #c2 temple guards1 #b2 neocori1 #c2 and so on1 making #ce references to temples in all4 ,it is perhaps worth remarking that ,h4 ,o4 ,taylor1 ,the ,classical ,heritage1 #aija1 p4 #hj1 notes that ,synesius about #djj ,a4 ,d4 speaks of the ,christian churches at ,constantinople as 8temples40 #bbda ,chief priests1 #e2 priests1 #i2 of provinces1 #a2 priestess1 #a2 priests of ,cybele 7archigalli71 #c2 ,asiarchae1 #a2 priest of some great goddess1 #a2 illicit rites1 #a4 ,there are #bg passages concerning divination4 #bbdb ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,i1 #adh1 #h and #abc1 #d4 #bbdc ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,i1 #bja1 #f4 #bbdd ,cumont says 7,oriental ,religions in ,roman ,paganism1 p4 #ahh73 8,but the ancients expressly distinguished #8magic1' which was always under suspicion and disapproved of1 from the legitimate and honorable art for which the name #8theurgy' was invented40 ,this distinction was made by ,porphyry and others1 and is alluded to by ,augustine in the ,city of ,god1 but it is to be noted that ,firmicus does not use the word 8theurgy40 ,cumont also states 7p4 #agi7 that in the last period of paganism the name philosopher was finally applied to all adepts in occult science4 ,but in ,firmicus1 while magic and philosophy are associated in two passages1 there are five other allusions to magic and three separate mentions of philosophers4 #bbde ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,i1 #afa1 #bf4 #bbdf ,computus1 #c2 calculus1 #b2 and 8those who excel at numbers10 #a4 #bbdg ,including two mentions of court physicians 7archiatri74 ,see ,codex ,theod41 ,lib4 ,,xiii1 ,tit4 #c1 passim1 for their position4 #bbdh ,i leave this sentence as ,i wrote it in #aiac4 #bbdi ,aestus animi1 #e2 insanity1 #ac2 lunatics1 #aj2 epileptics1 #h2 melancholia1 #c2 inflammation of the brain 7frenetici71 #d2 delirium1 dementia1 demoniacs1 alienation1 and madness1 one or two each2 vague allusions to mental ills and injuries1 #e4 #bbej ,in his last chapter he says1 8,take then1 my dear ,mavortius1 what ,i promised you with extreme trepidation of spirit1 these seven books composed conformably to the order and number of the seven planets4 ,for the first book deals only with the defense of the art2 but in the other books we have transmitted to the ,romans the discipline of a new work10 7,,ii1 #cfj1 #aj-ae74 ,and in the introduction to the fifth book he writes1 8,we have written these books for your ,romans lest1 when every other art and science had been translated1 this task should seem to remain unattempted by ,roman genius10 7,i1 #bhj1 #bh-cj74 #bbea ,i1 #da1 #g and #ae2 ,i1 #dj1 #i-aa4 #bbeb ,i1 #da1 #e and #aa2 ,i1 #dj1 #h4 #bbec ,they are listed by ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,,ii1 #cfb1 ,index auctorum4 #bbed ,,ii1 #bid1 #ab-ba4 #bbee ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,,ii1 p4 iii4 #bbef ,i1 #beh1 #aj1 8in singulari libro1 quem de domino geniturae et chronocratore ad ,murinum nostrum scripsimus02 ,,ii1 #bbi1 #bc1 8exeo libro qui de fine vitae a nobis scriptus est40 #bbeg ,,ii1 #ah1 #bd2 ,,ii1 #bhc1 #ai4 #bbeh ,engelbrecht1 ,hephstion von ,theben und sein astrologisches ,compendium1 ,vienna1 #ahhg4 #bbei ,de vita sua1 in ,libanii sophistae praeludia oratoria ,,lxxii declamationes ,,xlv et dissertationes morales1 ,federicus ,morellus regius interpres e ,,mss maxime reg4 bibliothecae nunc primum edidit idemque ,latine vertit 444 ad ,henricum ,,iv regem ,christianissimum1 ,paris1 #afjf1 ,,ii1 #ae-ah4 #bbfj ,magi accusatio1 ,ibid41 ,i1 #hih-iaa4 #bbfa ,de vita sua1 ,opera1 ,,ii1 #b-c4 #bbfb ,x1 #aif1 #aa1 ,de sepulcro incantato4 #bbfc ,my citations of ,synesius' works1 unless otherwise noted1 are from the edition3 ,synesii ,cyrenaei ,quae ,extant ,opera ,omnia1 ed4 ,j4 ,g4 ,krabinger1 ,landshut1 #ahej1 vol4 ,i1 which has alone appeared4 ,the older edition of ,petavius with ,latin translation is reprinted in ,migne ,,pg1 vol4 #ff1 #ajba-agef4 ,for a ,french translation1 with several introductory essays1 see ,h4 ,druon1 uvres de ,synsius1 ,paris1 #ahgh4 ,the ,letters and ,hymns have often been published separately4 ,for this and other further bibliography see ,christ1 ,gesch4 d4 griech4 ,litt41 #aiac1 ,,ii1 ii1 #aafg-ga1 where1 however1 no note is taken of ,berthelot's discussion of ,synesius as a reputed author of alchemistic treatises4 ,some works on ,synesius are3 ,h4 ,druon1 tudes sur la vie et les uvres de ,synsius1 ,paris1 #ahei2 ,r4 ,volkmann1 ,synesius von ,cyrene1 ,berlin1 #ahfi2 ,w4 ,s4 ,crawford1 ,synesius the ,hellene1 ,london1 #aija2 ,g4 ,grtzmacher1 ,synesios von ,kyrene1 ,leipzig1 #aiac4 ,in periodicals3 ,f4 ,x4 ,kraus in ,theol4 ,quartalschrift1 #ahfe and #ahff2 ,o4 ,seeck1 in ,philologus1 #ahic4 #bbfd ,see ,crawford1 op4 cit41 and monographs listed in ,christ1 op4 cit41 p4 #aafh1 notes #d and #h4 #bbfe ,the date is variously stated as #daa1 #djf1 or #daj4 #bbff ,a4 ,j4 ,kleffner1 ,synesius von ,cyrene 444 und sein angeblicher ,vorbehalt bei seiner ,wahl und ,weihe zum ,bischof von ,ptolemais1 ,paderborn1 #aija4 ,h4 ,koch1 ,synesius von ,cyrene bei seiner ,wahl und ,weihe zum ,bischof1 in ,hist4 ,jahrb41 ,,xxiii 7#aijb71 pp4 #gea-gd4 #bbfg ,christ1 op4 cit41 p4 #aafh1 note #a4 #bbfh ,ibid41 p4 #aagj1 citing ,k4 ,prchter1 in ,genethliakon fr ,c4 ,robert1 #aiaj1 p4 #bdd1 et seq4 #bbfi 7,on dreams71 ch4 #b4 #bbgj 7,on ,dreams71 ch4 #c4 1 1 1 4 2 ' 1 4 ' 1 1 1 4444 ,evidently ,synesius did not regard the magi as mere imposters4 #bbga 1 ch4 #c4 1 4 ,in his ,praise of ,baldness 7 71 ch4 #aj1 ,synesius tells how the ,egyptians attract demons by magic influences4 #bbgb 1 ch4 #a4 4 #bbgc ,ibid41 ch4 #ah4 #bbgd ' 4 #bbge 1 ch4 #aj4 #bbgf 1 bk4 ii1 ch4 #g4 #bbgg 1 ch4 #e4 #bbgh 1 ch4 #g4 1 ch4 #d4 1 #d1 #di1 and #adb4 #bbgi ,on ,synesius as an alchemist see ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 pp4 #fe1 #ahh-ij2 7#ahhi71 p4 ix4 #bbhj ,t4 ,r4 ,glover1 ,life and ,letters in the ,fourth ,century ,a4 ,d41 ,cambridge1 #aija1 p4 #ahg1 note #a4 #bbha ,saturnalia1 ,i1 xvi1 #ab4 #bbhb ,commentary on the ,dream of ,scipio1 ,,ii1 #ag1 8,universa philosophiae integritas02 ed4 ,nisard1 ,paris1 #ahhc4 #bbhc ,ibid41 ,i1 #e-f2 ,,ii1 #a-b4 #bbhd ,ibid41 ,i1 #g4 #bbhe ,ibid41 ,i1 #ai4 #bbhf ,ibid41 ,i1 #ad4 #bbhg ,glover 7#aija71 p4 #agh4 #bbhh ,de nuptiis philologiae et mercurii et de septem artibus liberalibus libri novem1 ,lugduni apud haeredes ,simonis ,vincentii1 #aeci2 ed4 ,u4 ,f4 ,kopp1 ,frankfurt1 #ahcf2 ed4 ,f4 ,eyssenhardt1 ,leipzig1 #ahff4 #bbhi ,it occurs toward the close of the second book4 #bbij ,in ,kopp's edition pp4 #bjb-bc are almost entirely taken up with notes setting forth other passages in the classics concerning such spirits4 #bbia ,greek text in ,migne1 ,,pg #c1 #aai-cgj4 #bbib ,migne1 ,,pl #abb1 #ajcg-gj4 #bbic ,the following bibliography includes the editions of the texts concerned and the chief critical researches in the field4 ,a4 ,ausfeld1 ,zur ,kritik des griechischen ,alexanderromans2 ,untersuchungen ber die unechten ,teile der ltesten ,ueberlieferung1 ,karlsruhe1 #ahid4 ,a4 ,ausfeld and ,w4 ,kroll1 ,der griechische ,alexanderroman1 ,leipzig1 #aijg4 ,h4 ,becker1 ,die ,brahmannen in der ,alexandersage1 ,knigsberg1 #ahhi1 #cd pp4 ,e4 ,a4 ,w4 ,budge1 ,history of ,alexander the ,great1 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #ahhi2 the ,syriac version of the ,pseudo-,callisthenes edited from five ,,mss1 with an ,english translation and notes4 ,e4 ,a4 ,w4 ,budge1 ,the ,life and ,exploits of ,alexander the ,great1 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #ahif2 ,ethiopic ,histories of ,alexander by the ,pseudo-,callisthenes and other writers4 ,d4 ,carrarioli1 ,la leggenda di ,alessandro ,magno1 #ahib4 ,g4 ,g4 ,cilli1 ,de ,iulii ,valerii epitoma ,oxoniensi1 ,strasburg1 #aije4 ,g4 ,favre1 ,recherches sur les histoires fabuleuses d',alexandre le ,grand1 in ,mlanges d'hist4 litt41 ,,ii 7#ahef71 #e-ahd4 ,eth1 ,alexanders ,zug zur ,lebensquelle im ,lande der ,finsterniss1 in ,atti dell' ,accademia di ,monaco1 #ahga4 ,b4 ,kbler1 ,julius ,valerius2 ,res gestae ,alexandri ,macedonis1 ,leipzig1 #ahhh 7see pp4 xxv-xxvi for further bibliography74 ,levi1 ,la lgende d',alexandre dans le ,talmud1 in ,revue des tudes juives1 ,i 7#ahhj71 #bic-cjj4 ,meusel1 ,pseudo-,callisthenes nach der ,leidener ,handschrift herausgegeben1 ,leipzig1 #ahga4 ,m4 ,p4 ,h4 ,meyer1 ,alexandre le ,grand dans la littrature franaise du moyen ge1 #b vols41 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,c4 ,mller1 ,scriptores rerum ,alexandri ,magni1 ,firmin-,didot1 ,paris1 #ahdf and #ahgg 7bound with ,arrian1 ed4 ,fr4 ,dbner72 the first edition of the ,greek text of the ,pseudo-,callisthenes from three ,paris ,,mss1 also ,julius ,valerius1 etc4 ,noeldeke1 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte des ,alexanderromans1 ,denkschriften der ,kaiserlichen ,akademie der ,wissenschaften in ,wien1 ,philos4 ,hist4 ,classe1 vol4 #ch1 ,vienna1 #ahij2 ,budge says of this work1 8,professor ,noeldeke discusses in his characteristic masterly manner the ,greek1 ,syriac1 ,hebrew1 ,persian1 and ,arabic versions1 and ably shows how each is related to the other1 and how certain variations in the narrative have arisen4 ,no other writer before him was able to control1 by knowledge at first hand1 the statements of both the ,aryan and ,semitic versions2 his work is therefore of unique value40 ,padmuthiun ,acheksandri ,maketonazwui1 ,i ,wenedig i dparani serbuin ,chazaru1 ,hami1 #ahdb2 the ,armenian version published by the ,mechitarists1 ,venice1 #ahdb4 ,f4 ,pfister1 ,kleine ,texte zum ,alexanderroman1 ,heidelberg1 #aiaj2 ,sammlung vulgrlateinischer ,texte herausg4 v4 ,w4 ,heraeus u4 ,h4 ,morf1 #d ,heft4 ,spiegel1 ,die ,alexandersage bei den ,orientalen1 ,leipzig1 #ahea4 ,vogelstein1 ,adnotationes quaedam ex litteris orientalibus petitae quae de ,alexandro ,magno circumferuntur1 ,warsaw1 #ahfe4 ,a4 ,westermann1 ,de ,callisthene ,olynthio et ,pseudo-,callisthene ,commentatio1 #ahch-ahdb4 ,j4 ,zacher1 ,pseudo-,callisthenes3 ,forschungen zur ,kritik und ,geschichte der ltesten ,aufzeichnung der ,alexandersage1 ,halle1 #ahfg 7see pp4 #b-c for further bibliography of works written before #ahea74 ,j4 ,zacher1 ,julii ,valerii ,epitome1 zum ersten mal herausgegeben1 ,halle1 #ahfg4 #bbid ,hexaemeron1 ,,vi1 #g4 ,on the other hand1 ,augustine1 ,de civitate dei1 ,v1 #f-g1 alludes to the sage who selected a certain hour for intercourse with his wife in order that he might beget a marvelous son4 #bbie ,seneca in the ,natural ,questions 7,,vi1 #bc7 called the death of ,callisthenes 8the eternal crime0 of ,alexander which all his military victories and conquests could not outweigh1--a passage which did not keep ,nero from forcing ,seneca to commit suicide4 #bbif ,reitzenstein1 ,poimandres1 ,leipzig1 #aijd1 pp4 #cjh-cji4 #bbig ,res gestae of ,alexander of ,macedon1 contained in three ,,mss of the ,royal ,library in the ,british ,museum1 dating according to the catalogue from the eleventh and twelfth centuries3 ,royal #ac-;,a-,i1 ,royal #ab-;,c-,,iv1 and ,royal #ae-;,c-,,vi1 are not the full text of ,julius ,valerius1 but the epitome of which ,i shall soon speak4 #bbih ,the longer epitome is known from an ,oxford ,,ms1 ,corpus ,christi ,,ms #hb1 and was believed by ,meyer to be intermediary between ,valerius and the other briefer epitome4 ,cilli1 however1 tries to prove the shorter epitome to be the older4 #bbii ,alexandri ,magni ,epistola ad ,aristotelem de mirabilibus ,indiae1 first printed with ,synesii ,epistolae1 graece2 adcedunt aliorum ,epistolae1 ,venice1 #adii2 then ,bologna1 #aeja2 ,basel1 #aeag2 ,paris1 #aebj1 fols4 #ajbv-#adv1 following the ,pseudo-,aristotle1 ,secret of ,secrets2 etc4 ,these early printed editions give the oldest ,latin text1 dating back as we have seen to at least #hjj4 ,some ,,mss of the same version are3 ,,bm ,royal #ac-;,a-,i1 fols4 #eav-#ghr1 a beautifully clear ,,ms of the late #aath century with clubbed strokes4 ,the ,epistola is preceded by the ,epitome of ,valerius and followed by the correspondence with ,dindimus4 ,royal #ab-;,c-,,iv1 #abth century4 ,royal #ae-;,c-,,vi1 #abth century4 ,cotton ,nero ,d ,,viii1 fol4 #afi4 ,sloane #afai1 #acth century1 fols4 #ab-ag4 ,arundel #bdb1 #aeth century1 fols4 #afj-hc4 ,,bl ,laud4 ,misc4 #bdg1 #abth century1 fol4 #ahf2 preceded at fol4 #aga by the 8,ortus vita et obitus ,alexandri ,macedonis10 and followed at fol4 #aifv by the letter to ,dindimus4 ,,bn ,,mss #bhgd1 #dabf1 #dhgg1 #dhhj1 #ejfb1 #faba1 #fcfe1 #fejc1 #fhca1 #gefa1 #heah1 #heba;,a1 ,epistola de itinere et situ ,indiae2 #hfjg1 ,epistolae eius nomine scriptae2 and #bfie;,a1 #fahf1 #fcfe1 #fche1 #fhaa1 #fhca1 #heja;,a1 for ,responsio ad ,dindimum4 ,,clm #aacai1 #acth century1 fol4 #hh1 ,alexandri epistola ad ,aristotelem de rebus in ,india gestis1 preceded at fol4 #gb by the ,epitome and followed at fol4 #ig by the ,dindimus4 ,in the library of ,eton ,college an imperfect copy of the ,epistola follows ,orosius in a ,,ms of the early #acth century1 #acc1 ,,bl #d1 #f1 fols4 #her-#hg4 ,a somewhat different and later version of the ,letter to ,aristotle was published in #aiaj at ,heidelberg by ,friedrich ,pfister from a ,bamberg ,,ms of the #aath century1 together with ,palladius and the correspondence with ,dindimus4 ,pfister believed all these to be translations from the ,greek4 ,an ,anglo-,saxon version of the ,letter to ,aristotle was edited by ,cockayne in #ahfa 7see ,t4 ,wright1 ,,rs #cd2 xxvii74 #bcjj ,,iii1 #ag4 #bcja ,first published by ,joachim ,camerarius about #aega4 #bcjb ,published with ,palladius by ,sir ,edward ,bisse in #affe2 ,,mss are numerous4 #bcjc ,from this same ,,ms ,pfister published the ,letter to ,aristotle and other treatises mentioned above4 #bcjd ,its influence would therefore seem to have been upon the later prose romances and not upon ,french vernacular poetry4 ,known at first only in ,italy and ,germany1 its popularity became general in western ,europe toward the close of the middle ages4 #bcje ,harleian #ebg1 fols4 #dg-ef4 #bcjf ,amplon4 ,quarto #ab1 fols4 #bjj-bja2 presumably it includes only those chapters concerned with ,nectanebus4 #bcjg ,,cul #adbi 7,gg4 ,i1 #cd71 #adth century1 ,no4 #e1 #ce fols4 ,also in ,,cu ,trinity #ajda1 #adth century1 fols4 #bjjv-#babv1 8,de ,nectanabo mago quomodo magnum genuerit ,alexandrum4 ,egipti sapientes44440 #bcjh ,,nh ,,xxxvi1 #ad and #ai4 #bcji ,de anima1 cap4 #eg1 in ,migne1 ,,pl ,,ii1 #gib4 #bcaj ,the former built a ,temple of ,isis1 now a heap of ruins1 at ,behbit el-,hagar and a colonnade to the ,temple of ,hibis in the oasis of ,khrgeh2 and his name appears upon a gate in the ,temple of ,mont at ,karnak4 ,besides the ,vestibule of ,nektanebos at ,philae there is a court of ,nektanebos before the ,temple of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty at ,medinet ,habu4 #bcaa ,berthelot 7#ahhe71 pp4 #bi-cj4 #bcab ,the ,syriac version1 on the contrary1 emphasizes this point less4 #bcac ,budge's translation of the ,ethiopic version4 #bcad ,,clm #bae1 fols4 #agf-id1 8,egiptiorum gentem in mathematica magica quam in arte fuisse valentem littere tradunt40 #bcae ,pseudo-,callisthenes1 ,i1 #d1 8casters of horoscopes1 readers of signs1 interpreters of dreams1 ventriloquists1 augurs1 genethlialogists1 the so-called magi to whom divination is an open book40 ,budge1 ,syriac version1 p4 #d1 8,the interpreters of dreams are of many kinds and the knowers of signs1 those who understand divination1 ,chaldean augurs and casters of nativities2 the ,greeks call the signs of the zodiac #8sorcerers'2 and others are counters of the stars4 ,as for me1 all of these are in my hands and ,i myself am an ,egyptian prophet1 a magus1 and a counter of the stars40 ,budge1 ,ethiopic ,histories1 p4 #aa1 8,then ,nectanebus answered and said unto her1 #8,yea4 ,those who have knowledge of the orbs of heaven are of many kinds4 ,some are interpreters of dreams1 and some have knowledge of what shall happen in the future1 and some understand omens1 and some cast nativities1 and there are besides all those who know magic and who are renowned because they are learned in their art1 and some are skilled in the motion of the stars of heaven3 but ,i have full knowledge of all these things4'0 #bcaf ,from ,fowler's translation of ,alexander3 the ,false ,prophet4 ,see also ,plutarch's ,alexander4 #bcag ,the ,syriac and ,ethiopic versions are somewhat more detailed as to the magic by which ,philip's dream was produced4 ,budge1 ,syriac version1 p4 #h1 8,then ,nectanebus 444 brought a hawk and muttered over it his charms and made it fly away with a small quantity of a drug1 and that night it shewed ,philip a dream40 ,budge1 ,ethiopic ,histories1 p4 #ba1 8,then ,nectanebus took a swift bird and muttered over it certain charms and names1 and 444 in one day and one night it traversed many lands and countries and seas1 and it came to ,philip by night and stopped4 ,and it came to pass at that very hour 444 that ,philip saw a marvelous dream40 #bcah ,in another place1 however1 ,albert calls ,philip ,alexander's father1 ,de causis et proprietatibus elementorum et planetarum1 ,,ii1 ii1 #a4 #bcai ,the story is better told in the ,syriac version 7,budge1 #ad-ag71 where ,alexander does not push ,nectanebus into the pit until after he has asked the astrologer if he knows his own fate and has been told that ,nectanebus is to be slain by his own son4 ,alexander then attempts to foil fate by pushing ,nectanebus into the pit1 but only fulfills it4 ,in the ,ethiopic version ,nectanebus is represented as educating ,alexander from his seventh year on in 8philosophy and letters and the working of magic and the stars and their seasons40 ,aristotle becomes ,alexander's tutor only after the death of ,nectanebus4 ,aristotle1 too1 is represented as an adept in astrology1 amulets1 and the use of magic wax images4 7,budge1 ,ethiopic ,histories1 pp4 #ca1 xlv74 #bcbj ,,vi1 #d4 #bcba ,royal #ac-;,a-,i1 fol4 #ecv4 #bcbb ,in ,,cu ,trinity #addf 7#abej ,a4 ,d47 ,the ,romance of ,alexander in ,french verse by ,eustache 7or ,thomas7 of ,kent1 among #aeb pictures listed by ,james 7,,iii1 #dhc-ia7 are two representing the hero's colloquy with the moon tree 7fol4 #car74 ,marco ,polo also tells of these marvelous trees4 ,and see ,roux de ,rochelle1 8,notice sur l',arbre du ,soleil1 ou ,arbre ,sec1 dcrit dans la relation des voyages de ,marco ,polo10 in ,bulletin de la ,socit de gographie1 srie #c1 ,,iii 7#ahde71 #ahg-id4 #bcbc ,for the ,letter to ,aristotle ,i have employed the ,paris1 #aebj edition and ,royal #ac-;,a-,i1 which follow the early ,latin version4 ,as stated above1 ,pfister's edition 7,heidelberg1 #aiaj7 gives a later version probably translated from the ,greek4 #bcbd ,there appears to have been no complete edition of ,atius in ,greek4 ,the first eight of his sixteen books were printed at ,venice in #aecd1 and the ninth at ,leipzig in #ageg1 but for the entire sixteen books one must use the ,latin translation of ,cornarius1 ,basel1 #aedb1 etc41 which ,i have read in ,stephanus1 ,medicae artis principes1 #aefg4 ,recent editions of portions of ,atius are3 4 1 pp4 #aab1 #aca1 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,die ,augenheilkunde des ,atius aus ,amida1 ,griechisch und deutsch herausg4 von ,j4 ,hirschberg1 pp4 xi1 #bjd1 ,leipzig1 #ahii4 ,aetii sermo sextidecimus et ultimus 7 etc474 ,erstens aus ,,hss verffentl4 mit ,abbildungen1 etc41 v4 ,s4 ,zervs1 pp4 k'1 #agb1 ,leipzig1 #aija4 1 ed4 ,s4 ,zerbos1 #aiji1 in 1 1 vol4 #ba4 ,my references to ,alexander of ,tralles are both to the text of ,stephanus 7#aefg7 and the more recent edition by ,theodor ,puschmann1 ,alexander von ,tralles1 ,originaltext und bersetzung nebst einer einleitenden ,abhandlung1 ,vienna1 #ahgh-i1 #b vols4 ,this gives a more critical text than any previous edition1 but unfortunately ,puschmann adopted still another arrangement into books than those of the ,,mss and previous editions1 and also in my opinion did not make a sufficient study of the ,latin ,,mss4 ,his introduction contains information concerning ,alexander's life and the ,,mss and previous editions of his works4 ,a valuable earlier study on ,alexander was that of ,e4 ,milward1 published in #agcc under the title1 ,a ,letter to the ,honourable ,sir ,hans ,sloane ,bart41 etc41 and in #agcd as ,trallianus ,reviviscens1 #bbi pp4 ,milward was preparing an edition of ,alexander of ,tralles1 but it was never published4 ,his estimate of ,alexander's position in the history of medicine furnishes an incidental picture of interest of the state of medicine in his own time1 the early eighteenth century4 ,the old ,latin translation of ,alexander of ,tralles was the first to be printed at ,lyons1 #aejd1 ,alexandri yatros practica cum expositione glose interlinearis ,jacobi de ,partibus et 7,simonis7 ,januensis in margine posite2 also ,pavia1 #aebj and ,venice #aebb4 ,next appeared a very free ,latin translation by ,torinus in #aecc and #aeda1 ,paraphrases in libros omnes ,alexandri ,tralliani4 ,the ,greek text of ,alexander was first printed by ,stephanus 7,robert tienne7 in #aedh 7ed4 ,j4 ,goupyl74 ,the ,latin translation by ,guinther of ,andernach1 which is included in ,stephanus 7#aefg71 first appeared in #aedi1 ,strasburg1 and was reprinted a number of times4 ,another work by ,puschmann may also be noted3 ,nachtrge zu ,alexander ,trallianus4 ,fragmente aus ,philumenus und ,philagrius nebst einer bisher noch ungedruckten ,abhandlung ber ,augenkrankheiten1 ,berlin1 #ahhf1 in ,berliner ,studien f4 class4 ,philol4 und ,archaeol41 ,v1 #b2 #ahh pp41 in which he segregates as fragments of ,philumenus and ,philagrius portions of the text of ,alexander as found in the ,latin ,,mss4 ,my references for the ,de medicamentis of ,marcellus apply to ,helmreich's edition of #ahhi in the ,teubner series4 ,this edition is based on a single ,,ms of the ninth century at ,laon which ,helmreich followed ,valentin ,rose in regarding as the sole extant codex of the work4 ,as a result ,rose indulged in ingenious theories to explain how the editio princeps by ,ianus ,cornarius1 ,basel1 #aecf1 included the prefatory letter and other preliminary material not found in the ,laon ,,ms1 whose first leaves and some others are missing4 ,but as a matter of fact ,,bn #fhhj1 a clear and beautifully written ,,ms of the ninth century1 contains the ,de medicamentis entire with all the preliminary letters4 ,moreover1 it is evident that the editio princeps was printed directly from this ,,ms1 which contains not only notes by ,cornarius but the marks of the compositors4 ,the text of the edition of #aecf was reproduced in the medical collections of ,aldus1 ,medici antiqui1 ,venice1 #aedg1 and ,stephanus1 ,medicae artis principes1 #aefg4 ,jacob ,grimm1 ber ,marcellus ,burdigalensis1 in ,abhandl4 d4 kgl4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss4 z4 ,berlin 7#ahdg71 pp4 #dbi-fj1 discusses the evidence for placing ,marcellus under the older ,theodosius1 lists the ,celtic words and expressions found in the ,de medicamentis1 and also one hundred specimens of its folk-lore and magic4 ,this article was reprinted in ,kleinere ,schriften1 ,,ii 7#ahfe71 #aad-ea1 where it is followed at pp4 #aeb-gb by a supplementary paper1 ber die ,marcellischen ,formeln1 likewise reprinted from the ,academy ,proceedings for #ahee1 pp4 #ea-fh4 ,the magic of ,marcellus was further treated of by ,r4 ,heim1 ,de rebus magicis ,marcelli medici1 in ,schedae philol4 ,hermanno ,usener oblatae 7#ahia71 pp4 #aai-cg1 where he adds nova magica ex ,marcelli libris collata which ,grimm had omitted4 #bcbe ,marcellus is often called of ,bordeaux1 notably in ,grimm's article1 ber ,marcellus ,burdigalensis1 #ahdg2 also by ,c4 ,w4 ,king1 ,the ,gnostics and their ,remains1 #ahhg1 p4 #bai2 and by ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,i1 #bc2 but there seems to be no definite proof that he was from that city4 ,jules ,combarieu1 ,la musique et la magie1 #aiji1 p4 #hg1 says in reference to the following incantation recommended by ,marcellus1 tetunc resonco bregan gresso1 8,je remarque en passant qu'il faut frotter l'il en disant ce carmen1 et que dans le patois du ,midi1 brgua ou brge1 signifie frotter4 ,marcellus1 si je ne me trompe1 tait de ,bordeaux40 ,grimm1 however 7#ahdg71 p4 #dee1 interpreted bregan as 8lies0--8breigan gen4 pl4 von breag lge10 and the whole line as in modern ,irish teith uainn cre soin go breigan greasa 78fleuch von uns staub hinnen zu der lgen genossen6074 #bcbf ,stephanus 7#aefg71 ,i1 #cdg1 et seq4 ,for an ,english translation of the text see ,f4 ,adams1 ,the ,seven ,books of ,paulus ,aegineta1 ,london1 #ahdd-ahdg4 #bcbg ,simia ,galieni1 according to ,guinther in his translation of ,alexander of ,tralles1 ,stephanus 7#aefg71 ,i1 #aca4 #bcbh ,milward 7#agcc71 #i-aa4 #bcbi ,john ,friend 7or ,freind71 ,history of ,physick 7#agbe71 ,i1 #big4 #bccj ,puschmann1 ,history of ,medical ,education1 #ahia1 p4 #aec4 #bcca ,milward 7#agcc71 p4 #aa4 #bccb ,j4 ,f4 ,payne1 ,english ,medicine in ,anglo-,saxon ,times1 #aijd1 pp4 #ajb-h4 #bccc ,milward 7#agcc71 p4 #ai2 ,puschmann 7#ahgh71 ,i1 #ajd4 #bccd ,ch4 ,daremberg1 ,histoire des ,sciences ,mdicales1 ,paris1 #ahgj1 ,i1 #bdb4 #bcce ,this general impression received from reading many classical and medieval works ,i was glad to find confirmed by ,milward 7#agcc71 p4 #bi1 in the particular case of ,alexander of ,tralles1 of whom he writes3 8,as our author's stile is excellent1 so likewise is his method1 and there is no respect in which he is more distinguished from the other ,greek writers in physick than in this4 ,the works of ,hippocrates1 ,galen1 and indeed of all of them except it be ,aretaeus are not only very voluminous but put together with little or no order1 as is evident enough to all such as have been conversant with them40 #bccf ,daremberg 7#ahgj71 ,i1 #beh-i1 said that a mass of ,,mss in a score of ,european libraries contained as yet unidentified ,latin translations of ,greek medical writers4 #bccg ,,bn #ajbcc1 #gth century uncial2 ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afai1 #g-hth century1 demi-uncial2 ,,bn #iccb1 #ith century1 fol4 #a-1 ,oribasii synopsis medica2 ,,clm #bcece1 #abth century1 fols4 #gb and #aab4 ,v4 ,rose1 ,soranus1 #ahhb1 pp4 iv-v1 speaks of a sixth century ,latin version of ,oribasius4 #bcch ,tetrabiblos1 ,,iv1 iii1 #ae4 #bcci ,ibid41 ,i1 iv1 #i1 where ,galen is not cited1 and ,,iii1 i1 #i1 where ,galen is cited4 ,in ,galen1 ,de simplicibus1 ,,ix1 ii1 #ai 7,khn1 ,,xii1 #bjg74 #bcdj ,ibid41 ,i1 ii1 #agj1 where ,galen is not cited2 ,de simplicibus1 ,,xi1 i1 #a 7,khn1 ,,xii1 #caa-d74 #bcda ,tetrabiblos ,i1 ii1 #age2 ,khn ,,xii1 #cef-i4 ,galen is not cited in this1 nor in any of the following passages from the ,tetrabiblos listed in the notes1 unless this is expressly stated4 #bcdb ,tetrabiblos at the beginning1 pp4 #f-g in ,stephanus 7#aefg74 #bcdc ,tetrabiblos ,,iv1 i1 #cc2 ,khn ,,xiv1 #bcc1 and ,,xii1 #bej-a4 #bcdd ,tetrabiblos ,i1 ii1 #aji2 ,khn ,,xii1 #bhh4 #bcde ,tetrabiblos ,i1 ii1 #hd2 ,khn ,,xii1 #bec4 #bcdf ,tetrabiblos ,i1 ii1 #hd2 ,khn ,,xii1 #bdh1 #bhd-e4 #bcdg ,tetrabiblos ,i1 ii1 #aaa2 ,khn ,,xii1 #bia-c4 #bcdh ,tetrabiblos ,,ii1 iv1 #cd2 ,khn ,,xii1 #hfj4 ,perhaps a closer correspondence than this could be found4 ,in his preceding #ccrd chapter1 headed ,curatio erosorum dentium ex ,galeno1 ,atius includes use of the tooth of a dead dog pulverized in vinegar1 which is to be held in the mouth1 or filling the ear next the tooth with 8fumigated earthworms0 or with oil in which earthworms have been cooked4 #bcdi ,tetrabiblos ,i1 ii1 #di4 #bcej ,tetrabiblos ,,iv1 i1 #ci4 #bcea ,tetrabiblos ,,iii1 iii1 #ce4 #bceb ,tetrabiblos ,,ii1 ii1 #ab4 ,marcellus1 cap4 #bj 7p4 #ahh7 also speaks of 8those who often think that they are made sport of by an incubus40 #bcec ,tetrabiblos1 ,i1 ii1 #agg4 #bced ,tetrabiblos1 ,,iv1 i1 #hf4 #bcee ,tetrabiblos1 ,i1 iii1 #afd4 ,this passage was printed separately in the ,uranologion of ,d4 ,petavius1 ,paris1 #afcj and #agjc4 #bcef ,agathias1 ,de imperio et rebus gestis ,justiniani1 ,paris1 #ahfj1 p4 #adi4 #bceg ,milward 7#agcc71 p4 #ag1 8he travel'd through ,greece1 ,gaul1 ,spain1 and several other places whose mention we find up and down in his works40 #bceh ,puschmann 7#ahgh71 ,i1 #bhh1 4444 #bcei ,milward 7#agcc71 p4 #be4 #bcfj ,puschmann 7#ahgh71 ,i1 #hc4 #bcfa ,milward 7#agcc71 p4 #bg4 #bcfb ,puschmann 7#ahia71 #aeb-c4 #bcfc ,stephanus 7#aefg71 ,i1 #aca4 #bcfd ,friend 7#agbe71 ,i1 #ajf4 #bcfe ,milward 7#agcc71 pp4 #fe-f1 #eg et seq4 #bcff ,ibid41 pp4 #ajd1 #ib-c1 #ga4 #bcfg ,ibid41 pp4 #dh-i4 #bcfh ,see ,v4 ,rose1 ,hermes1 ,,viii1 #ci2 ,anecdota1 ,,ii1 #ajh4 ,i presume that ,,bn #iccb1 #ith century1 fol4 #aci1 8,alexandri hiatrosofiste therapeut7i7con0 7libri tres7 is the free ,latin translation in a ,paris ,,ms of the ninth century alluded to by ,daremberg 7#ahgj71 ,i1 #beh-i4 ,puschmann 7#ahgh7 ,i1 #ia-b1 in a blind and inadequate account of the ,latin ,,mss1 does not mention it1 but lists a ,monte ,cassino codex 7#ig7 of the #i-ajth century and an ,angers ,,ms of the #aj-aath century4 ,he also alludes to a ,,ms at ,chartres without giving any number or date for it1 but probably has reference to ,chartres #cdb1 #abth century1 fols4 #a-aci1 8,libri tres ,alexandri ,yatros40 ,he alludes to ,,bn #fhha and #fhhb1 both #acth century1 libri tres de morbis et de morborum curatione2 but not to ,,clm #cdd1 #ab-acth century1 fols4 #a-fj1 libri ,,iii de medicina1--integra versio ,latina ,lugduni a4 #aejd edita4 ,other ,,mss are3 ,gonville and ,caius #djj1 early #acth century1 fols4 #dv-#hcv1 8,inc4 ,alexander yatros sophista02 ,royal #ab-;,b-,,xvi1 late #acth century1 fol4 #aac1 ,practica ,alexandri4 ,it will be noted that the text in all these ,latin ,,mss is in only three books1 but it follows the same order as the twelve books4 ,it is also1 at least in the edition of #aejd1 not as abbreviated as one might infer from ,rose4 ,rather the later editors1 ,albanus ,torinus and ,guinther of ,andernach1 seem to have taken greater liberties with1 and made unwarranted additions to ,alexander's text4 ,at the same time the early ,latin text treats of some topics such as toothache which are not included in ,puschmann's ,greek text1 and also includes 7,,ii1 #gi-ajc1 and #ajd-ej7 treatments of diseases of the abdomen and spleen for which there seems to be no genuine ,greek text and which ,puschmann1 ,nachtrge1 #ahhf1 has published separately as fragments of ,philumenus and ,philagrius1 medical writers of the first and fourth centuries4 ,his chief reason seems to be that cap4 #gi is entitled1 ,de reumate ventris filominis1 and cap4 #ajd1 ,ad splenem philogrius1 while cap4 #aea is headed1 ,causa que est ydropicie alexandri4 ,these passages are1 however1 found in the ,latin ,,mss of ,alexander's work from the first1 and the use of ,romance words by the unknown ,latin translator indicates that the translation was made in the early medieval period1--,puschmann 7#ahhf71 p4 #ab4 #bcfi ,puschmann 7#ahgh71 ,i1 #ia4 #bcgj ,as in ,vendme #aji1 #aath century1 fol4 #a1 ,mulsa ,alexandri 7,tralliani71 fol4 #fhv1 8,de reuma ventris1 de libro ,alexandri0 7not here ascribed1 it will be noted1 to ,philumenus71 fol4 #ga1 8,de secundo libro ,alexandri de cura nefreticorum40 ,the ,mulsa ,alexandri is found also in two other #aath century ,,mss of the same library3 ,vendme #agb1 fol4 #a1 and #age1 fol4 #b4 ,in ,royal #ab-;,e-,,xx1 #abth century1 fols4 #adfv-#aeav1 8,incipit liber dietarum diversarum medicorum1 hoc est ,alexandri et aliorum40 ,this extract1 made up of a number of ,alexander's chapters on the diet suitable in different ailments1 is often found in the ,,mss1 as here1 with the ,pseudo-,pliny and was printed as its fifth book in #aeji and #aeaf4 #bcga ,puschmann 7#ahgh71 ,i1 #ig4 #bcgb ,milward 7#aggc71 p4 #agi4 #bcgc ,thus in ,vendme #aji 7see note #b1 p4 #egg7 besides the extracts from ,alexander of ,tralles we find at fol4 #eh1 8,alexander 7,aphrodisiensis7 amicus veritatis in tertio libro suo ubi de febribus commemorat40 ,the ,arabs seem to have confused these two ,alexanders3 see ,steinschneider 7#ahfb71 p4 #fa2 ,puschmann 7#ahgh71 ,i1 #id-e4 #bcgd ,see the discussion by ,choulant in ,janus 7#ahde71 p4 #eb1 and ,henschel in ,de ,renzi 7#aheb-i7 ,,ii1 #aa1 of a #abth century ,,ms at ,breslau1 8,liber ,alexandri de agnoscendis febribus et pulsibus et urinis02 also ,puschmann 7#ahgh7 ,i1 #aje-f1 concerning ,,bn ,greek ,,ms #bcaf1 which seems to be a late ,greek translation of it1--another instance that a ,greek text is not necessarily the original4 #bcge ,corpus ,christi #ahi1 #aa-abth century1 fols4 #a-e1 8,antidotum pigra magni ,alexandri ,macedonii quod facit stomaticis epilenticis40 ,steinschneider1 cited by ,puschmann 7#ahgh7 ,i1 #ajf1 has also noted the attribution in ,hebrew ,,mss to ,alexander the ,great of a work on fever1 urine1 and pulse1 presumably identical with that mentioned in the foregoing note4 #bcgf ,stephanus 7#aefg7 ,i1 #agf1 #bjd1 #baf1 #bbe2 and ,puschmann1 ,,ii1 #ege1 are a few specimens4 #bcgg ,amplon4 ,quarto #bjd1 #ab-acth century1 fols4 #ij-e1 ,experimentorum ,alexandri medici collectio succincta4 ,digby #gi1 #acth century1 fols4 #ahj-ibv1 8,alexandrina experimenta de libro percompendiose extractata meliora ut nobis visum est ad singulas egritudines40 ,additional #cdaaa1 #aeth century1 fol4 #gg1 8,experimenta ,alexandri10 in ,english4 #bcgh ,stephanus ,i1 #aef2 ,puschmann ,,ii1 #efc4 #bcgi ,milward 7#agcc71 p4 #afh4 #bchj ,stephanus ,i1 #cab2 ,puschmann ,,ii1 #egi4 #bcha ,stephanus ,i1 #cde1 see also #bif and #cci2 ,puschmann ,i1 #djg1 #dcg4 #bchb ,stephanus ,i1 #cab2 ,puschmann ,,ii1 #egi4 #bchc ,stephanus ,i1 #aef2 ,puschmann ,i1 #efe4 #bchd ,stephanus ,i1 #cde2 ,puschmann ,i1 #dcg4 #bche 4 #bchf ,for the passages in this paragraph see ,stephanus ,i1 #aef-g1 #cac2 ,puschmann ,i1 #efa1 #efg-gc4 #bchg ,stephanus ,i1 #cab4 #bchh ,stephanus ,i1 #bha2 ,puschmann ,,ii1 #dge4 #bchi ,stephanus ,i1 #bif2 ,puschmann ,,ii1 #cgg4 #bcij ,stephanus ,i1 #cac4 #bcia ,stephanus ,i1 #bif2 ,puschmann ,,ii1 #cgg4 #bcib ,stephanus ,i1 #bha2 ,puschmann ,,ii1 #dge4 #bcic ,stephanus ,i1 #cad2 ,puschmann ,,ii1 #ehe4 #bcid ,if the ,,mss1 which ,i have not examined1 agree with the #aejd edition4 #bcie ,both in ,,bn #fhhj and the edition of ,basel1 #aecf1 8,marcellus vir inluster ex magno officio ,theodosii ,sen4 filiis suis salutem d7icit740 ,in the ,,ms1 however1 a later hand has written above the now faded line an incorrect copy in which 8,theodosii ,sen40 is replaced by 8theodosiensi40 ,helmreich 7#ahhi71 on the other hand1 has replaced 8ex magno officio0 by 8ex magistro officio40 ,it is perhaps open to doubt whether the 8,sen40 goes with 8,theodosii0 or 8,marcellus40 #bcif ,cap4 #bj 7#ahhi71 p4 #bjd4 #bcig ,in ,,bn #fhhj there are other headings written in capitals than those which mark the openings of the #cf chapters4 #bcih ,cap4 #bi 7#ahhi71 pp4 #cjd-f4 #bcii ,cap4 #ce 7#ahhi71 p4 #cfa4 #bdjj ,cap4 #h 7#ahhi71 p4 #hj4 #bdja ,cap4 #e 7#ahhi71 p4 #di4 #bdjb ,for such mentions of experience and experiment see the following passages in the #ahhi edition1 numbers referring to page and line3 #ca1 #g2 #cd1 #c2 #ce1 #ad2 #dd1 #b2 #ec1 #a2 #eh1 #ba2 #fd1 #cd2 #fe1 #cj2 #ff1 #bf2 #gb1 #bb2 #gc1 #g2 #gd1 #b2 #gg1 #i2 #hj1 #bh2 #ha1 #bi2 #hi1 #c and #bi2 #if1 #ad and #ca2 #ajb1 #bg2 #abj1 #cb2 #abc1 #ae2 #abi1 #ba2 #acc1 #aj2 #ade1 #cc2 #adh1 #be2 #adi1 #bf2 #afj1 #ah2 #agf1 #e2 #agh1 #be2 #ahf1 #ae2 #aij1 #bj2 #aib1 #ca2 #baa1 #a2 #bbb1 #ah2 #bbd1 #ca2 #bcj1 #c2 #bce1 #ae2 #bcf1 #ad2 #bci1 #h and #bf2 #bdb1 #h and #bc2 #bdh1 #bj2 #bef1 #i2 #beh1 #e2 #bfd1 #ba2 #bgf1 #ce2 #bha1 #ai and #bg2 #bhb1 #ae2 #cjh1 #ba2 #cab1 #f and #ai and #bb2 #cad1 #be2 #cbf1 #bh2 #cbg1 #ac2 #ccd1 #bi2 #cdc1 #bc2 #cea1 #bc and #be2 #cec1 #d2 #ced1 #ai2 #cef1 #f2 #cfb1 #cb2 #cgj1 #bb and #cg4 #bdjc ,cap4 #ae 7#ahhi71 p4 #adf4 #bdjd ,cap4 #bc 7#ahhi71 p4 #bci4 #bdje ,caps4 #bj and #bd 7#ahhi71 pp4 #bjh and #bdd4 #bdjf ,cap4 #bf 7#ahhi71 pp4 #bfd-f4 #bdjg ,cap4 #bi 7#ahhi71 p4 #caa2 and see cap4 #bh1 p4 #bih4 #bdjh ,cap4 #ab1 p4 #abc4 #bdji ,cap4 #af1 p4 #aff4 #bdaj ,cap4 #bc1 p4 #bch4 #bdaa ,cap4 #cd1 p4 #ceg4 #bdab ,cap4 #h1 p4 #fi4 #bdac ,cap4 #h1 p4 #ff4 #bdad ,cap4 #ab1 p4 #abe4 #bdae ,cap4 #aj1 p4 #aac4 #bdaf ,cap4 #aj1 p4 #aab2 ,,nh #cj1 #aa4 #bdag ,cap4 #h1 p4 #fh2 ,,nh #bi1 #ch4 #bdah ,cap4 #bi1 p4 #cac4 #bdai ,cap4 #bi1 p4 #cad4 ,pliny has a similar procedure with a frog and a reed4 #bdbj ,cap4 #bb1 p4 #bcj4 #bdba ,cap4 #cc1 p4 #cdg1 8mulierem verendaque eius dum cum ea cois tange40 #bdbb ,cap4 #bc1 p4 #bci4 #bdbc ,cap4 #a1 p4 #cd4 #bdbd ,cap4 #be1 p4 #bdg4 #bdbe ,cap4 #ab1 p4 #abf4 #bdbf ,cap4 #ah1 p4 #agh4 #bdbg ,cap4 #ag1 p4 #agf4 #bdbh ,cap4 #cb1 pp4 #ccg1 #cch1 #cdj4 #bdbi ,cap4 #h1 p4 #gj4 #bdcj ,cap4 #ab1 p4 #abc4 #bdca ,cap4 #cf1 p4 #cgi4 ,marcellus employs the phrase1 of course1 to indicate a private or personal incantation1 and as a matter of fact it is somewhat less absurd than a number of others4 #bdcb ,cap4 #bh1 p4 #cja4 #bdcc ,cap4 #bi1 p4 #caj4 ,for further instances of incantations and characters in the ,de medicamentis see page #aaj1 lines #ah-bg2 #aaa1 #bf-cc2 #aab1 #bi-aac1 #b2 #aaf1 #h-aa2 #acc1 #ah-bb1 #bf-ca2 #aci1 #ag-bf2 #adb1 #ai-bf2 #adi1 #d-aa2 #aea1 #ah-cc2 #aeb1 #i-ad1 #ai-bd2 #ahj1 #a-c2 #bbj1 #aa-bj2 #bba1 #b-f2 #bbc1 #ae-ah2 #bda1 #a-f1 #ad-bb2 #bdd1 #bf-bh2 #bdh1 #af-ai2 #bfj1 #bb-bd2 #bie1 #ah-bb2 #ccc1 #i-ae2 #chb1 #af-ah4 #bdcd ,daremberg 7#ahgj7 ,i1 #beg-h4 #bdce ,plinii ,secundi ,iunioris de medicina libri tres1 ed4 ,v4 ,rose1 ,lipsiae1 #ahge4 ,v4 ,rose1 8,ueber die ,medicina ,plinii10 in ,hermes1 ,,viii 7#ahgd7 #ai-ff4 #bdcf ,c4 ,plinii ,secundi ,medicina1 ed4 ,thomas ,pighinuccius1 ,rome1 #aeji4 #bdcg ,codex ,st4 ,gall #gea2 described by ,v4 ,rose1 ,hermes1 ,,viii1 #dh-ee2 ,anecdota ,,ii1 #ajf4 #bdch ,for the list of his six genuine works see above p4 #bbb4 #bdci ,de nota aspirationis and ,de diphthongis1 ed4 ,osann1 ,darmstadt1 #ahbf1 with ,de orthographia1 a forgery by a sixteenth century humanist4 #bddj 1 sometimes printed as the third book of the ,de dogmate ,platonis4 ,some scholars1 however1 regard it as genuine1 and there are a number of ,,mss of it from the #ith1 #ajth1 and #aath centuries4 ,see ,schanz 7#aije71 #abg-h4 #bdda ,see above p4 #bij4 #bddb ,see ,schanz 7#aije71 #aci-dj4 #bddc ,see below p4 #fhc4 ,schanz fails to mention it among the apocryphal works of ,apuleius4 #bddd ,h4 ,kbert1 ,de ,pseudo-,apulei herbarum medicaminibus1 ,bayreuth1 #ahhh4 ,schanz 7#aije7 #ach1 mentions only continental ,,mss1 although there are numerous ,,mss of it in the ,british ,museum and ,bodleian libraries1 some of which have been used and others described by ,o4 ,cockayne in his edition of the ,herbarium and the other treatises accompanying it in his ,leechdoms1 ,wortcunning1 and ,starcraft of ,early ,england1 ,vol4 ,i 7#ahfd7 in ,,rs ,,xxxv4 ,nor does ,schanz note ,cockayne's book4 #bdde ,see ,sloane #aige1 a vellum ,,ms of the #abth or early #acth century written in fine large letters and beautifully illuminated2 ,ashmole #adca1 end of #aath century1 and #adfb1 #acth century1 fol4 #der4 ,harleian #dihf1 ,apuleii ,platonici de medicamentis cum figuris pictis1 is another early illuminated ,english ,,ms4 ,cockayne ,i1 lxxxii1 does not date it1 but the ,,mss catalogue lists it as tenth century4 ,in ,,cu ,trinity #aaeb1 #adth century1 ,james 7,,iii1 #afb-c7 estimates the number of colored drawings as between #hjj and #ajjj2 he describes only a few4 ,singer 7#aiba7 reproduces a number of such illuminations from ,,mss of the ,herbarium and of ,dioscorides4 #bddf ,lucca #bcf1 #i-ajth century1 8,herbarium ,apuleii ,platonici quem accepit a ,chironi magistro ,achillis et ab ,escolapio explicit feliciter40 ,in ,cotton ,vitellius ,c-,,iii1 early #aath century1 in ,anglo-,saxon1 although the title reads1 8,the ,herbarium of ,apuleius the ,platonist which he received from ,esculapius and ,chiron the centaur1 the master of ,achilles10 a full page painting shows ,plato and ,chiron receiving the volume from ,aesculapius 7,cockayne1 ,i1 lxxxviii74 ,and ,sloane #aige and ,harleian #aehe speak of the ,herbarium as 8,liber ,platonis ,apoliensis40 ,in a #aeth century ,,ms 7,rawlinson ,c-#cbh1 fol4 #aacv-1 ,incipit de herbis ,galieni ,apolei et ,ciceronis7 ,galen and ,cicero1 who perhaps replace ,chiron and ,aesculapius1 are associated with ,apuleius as authors4 #bddg ,daremberg 7#ahec71 #aa-ab1 said that the pagan incantations were preserved intact in a number of ,,mss at ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,conjurations of herbs are not limited to the ,pseudo-,apuleius in medieval ,,mss but sometimes occur singly as in ,perugia #gcf1 #acth century1 where at fol4 #bfg a #adth century hand has added a passage in ,latin which may be translated3 8,in the name of ,christ1 ,amen4 ,i conjure you1 herb1 that ,i may conquer by lord ,peter etc4 by moon and stars etc4 and may you conquer all my enemies1 pontiff and priests and all laymen and all women and all lawyers who are against me etc40 ,in ,sloane #aega1 #aeth century1 fols4 #a-f1 at the close of fragments of a ,latin-,english dictionary of herbs is a ,latin prayer entitled1 ,benedictio omnium herbarum4 #bddh ,the above passages are from ,sloane #aige and the edition of #aedg4 #bddi ,ashmole #adca1 #aath century1 fol4 #cr1 8,in nomine domini incipit herboralium apuleii platonis quod accepit ascolapio et chirone centauro magistro4 ,lege feliciter4 ,precantatio omnium herbarum ad singulas curas40 ,,cu ,trinity #aaeb1 #adth century1 fol4 #a4 ,gonville and ,caius #cde1 #adth century1 fol4 #hiv4 #bdej ,or ,papyriensis ,placitus4 #bdea ,perhaps merely for 8auctor40 ed4 ,fabricius1 ,bibl4 ,graec4 ,,xiii1 #cie-dbc1 ,sexti ,placiti liber de medicina ex animalibus4 #bdeb ,in ,montpellier #bgg1 #aeth century1 8,liber ,sesti platonis de animalibus10 perhaps because the ,apuleius of the ,herbarium is called a ,platonist4 ,in ,digby #dc1 late #adth century1 fol4 #ae1 8,liber ,septiplanti ,papiensis de bestiis et avibus medicinalis40 ,in ,rawlinson ,c-#cbh1 #aeth century1 fol4 #abh1 8,incipit liber ,papiriensis ex animalibus ex avibus40 ,the work is sometimes found in juxtaposition with a somewhat similar 8,liber medicinalis de secretis ,galieni10 concerning which see below1 chapter #fd1 ,,ii1 #gfa4 #bdec ,v4 ,rose 7#ahge7 #ccg-h suggests that this is a fragment from a fuller work of ,aesculapius to ,augustus cited by ,thomas of ,cantimpr1 ,albertus ,magnus1 and ,vincent of ,beauvais4 ,see also ,peter of ,abano1 ,de venenis1 cap4 #e1 8in epistola ,esculapii philosophi ad ,octavianum40 ,but perhaps these writers refer to the entire work of ,sextus ,papirius4 #bded ,ed4 ,ruellius1 with ,scribonius ,largus1 ,paris1 #aebi4 #bdee ,in a later medieval vocabulary taxus is given as a synonym for the animal called camaleon3 ,alphita1 ed4 ,daremberg from ,,bn #fied and #fieg in ,de ,renzi1 ,collectio ,salernitana1 ,,iii1 #bgb-cbb4 #bdef ,cotton ,vespasian ,b1 ,x1 #f4 #bdeg ,harleian #chei1 called tenth century in the ,harleian catalogue which is often incorrect in its dating1 but #aath or #abth century by d',avezac1 ,mommsen in his edition of ,solinus1 and ,beazley1 ,dawn of ,geography1 ,i1 #ebc4 ,royal #ae-;,b-,,ii and #ae-;,c-,,iv1 both of the #abth century4 ,for other ,,mss at ,paris1 ,leyden1 and ,rome see ,beazley1 op4 cit4 #bdeh ,but after all is ,suetonius any more respectable a historian than ,aethicus and ,solinus are geographers8 #bdei ,bunbury1 ,history of ,ancient ,geography1 ,,ii1 ,appendix3 8,how ,m4 ,wuttke can attach any value to such a production is to me quite incomprehensible2 still more that he should ascribe the translation to the great ecclesiastical writer10 ,jerome4 ,bunbury believed that the work was not earlier than the seventh century4 ,beazley1 ,dawn of ,geography1 ,i1 #cee-fc1 is of the same opinion4 #bdfj ,in his edition of ,solinus1 p4 xxvii1 he contends that certain passages which ,wuttke pointed out as common to ,aethicus and ,solinus are borrowed by ,aethicus from ,isidore who died in #fcf4 #bdfa ,harleian #chei4 #bdfb ,steele1 ,opera hactenus inedita1 #aije1 ,fasc4 ,i1 pp4 #a-b4 #bdfc ,,cul #bac1 #adth century1 fols4 #ajcv-#ad1 8,qui hunc librum legit intelligat ,ethicum philosophum non omnia dixisse que hic scripta sunt1 set ,solinus 7so ,james1 but ,jeronimus in d',avezac1 p4 #bcg7 qui eum transtulit sententias veritati consonas ex libro eiusdem excerpsit et easdem testimonias scripture nostre confirmavit4 ,non enim erat iste philosophus ,christianus sed ,ethnicus et professione ,achademicus40 #bdfd ,bridges ,i1 #bfg-h4 #bdfe ,cited by d',avezac1 pp4 #beg and #bfg4 #bdff ,vienna #bbgb1 #adth century1 fol4 #ib1 ,de vindemiis a ,burgundione translatus3 ,pars ,geoponicorum4 #bdfg ,such is the view set forth in ,,pw ,geoponica4 #bdfh ,h4 ,beckh1 ,geoponica sive ,cassiani ,bassi scholastici de re rustica eclogae1 ,lipsiae1 ,teubner1 #ahie4 ,,pw criticizes this edition as 8leider vllig verfehlten40 ,its preface lists the earlier editions4 #bdfi ,geoponica1 ,,vii1 #e2 ,,ii1 #ae4 #bdgj ,,vii1 #aa2 ,,xv1 #a4 #bdga ,i1 #ab2 ,,vii1 #ac2 etc4 #bdgb ,,xv1 #a4 #bdgc ,r4 ,heim1 ,incantamenta magica graeca latina1 in ,jahrb4 f4 class4 ,philologie1 ,suppl4 ,bd4 #ai1 ,leipzig1 #ahic1 pp4 #dfc-egf1 drew from the ,geoponica #ac out of his total of #bde instances of incantations from ,greek and ,latin literature4 #bdgd ,,vii1 #ad4 #bdge ,,xiii1 #ae4 #bdgf ,the first two volumes1 published at ,berlin in #aijg1 #aijf1 covered the first four of the five genuine books4 ,a previous attempt was ,k4 ,sprengel's edition in vols4 #be-bf of ,c4 ,j4 ,khn's ,medici ,graeci1 ,leipzig1 #ahbi4 ,on the textual history and problems see further ,wellman's articles3 8,dioskurides0 in ,pauly-,wissowa1 and in ,hermes1 ,,xxxiii1 7#ahih7 #cfj;ff4 #bdgg 1 1 1 1 1 is another order suggested4 #bdgh ,the ,,ms is said by ,singer 7#aiba7 #fj1 to have now been removed from ,vienna to ,st4 ,mark's ,library at ,venice2 it was procured from ,constantinople in #aeee for the future ,emperor ,maximilian ,,ii 7#aefd-aegf74 ,a photographic copy was published in #aijf in the ,leiden ,collection1 ,codices ,graeci et ,latini1 by ,a4 ,w4 ,sijthoff1 with an introduction by ,a4 von ,premerstein1 ,c4 ,wessely1 and ,j4 ,mantuani 7,c4 ,wessely1 ,codex ,anciae ,iulianae1 etc41 #aijf74 ,see also ,a4 v4 ,premerstein in the ,austrian ,jahrbuch 7#aijc7 ,,xxiv1 #aje;ff4 ,i have examined the facsimile of this ,,ms and found the large but faded and partially obliterated illuminations which precede the text rather disappointing after having read the description of them in ,dalton's ,byzantine ,art1 7#aiaa7 #dfj-fa1 which1 however1 ,i presume is accurate and so reproduce here4 ,these large illuminations include a portrait of ,juliana ,anicia1 an ornamental peacock with tail spread1 groups of doctors engaged in medical discussions1 and ,dioscorides himself seated writing1 and again seated on a folding stool receiving the herb mandragora 7which1 of course1 was a medieval favorite7 from a female figure personifying ,discovery 771 8while in the foreground a dog dies in agony10 presumably from the fatal effects of the herb4 ,there are rough reproductions of this last picture in ,woltmann and ,woermann1 ,history of ,painting1 ,i1 #aib-c1 and ,singer 7#aiba7 #fb4 ,when the text proper begins the illuminations are confined to medicinal plants4 ,other early ,greek manuscripts are the ,codex ,neapolitanus1 formerly at ,vienna1 now at ,st4 ,mark's1 ,venice1 an eighth century palimpsest from ,bobbio1 and a ,paris codex1 7,,bn ,greek #bagi7 of the ninth century4 ,an ,arabic translation from the ,greek seems to have been made about #hej2 a century later the ,byzantine emperor sent a ,greek manuscript of ,dioscorides to the caliph in ,spain4 ,for the full text of the ,de materia medica we are dependent on ,,mss of the #aath1 #abth1 #acth and later centuries4 #bdgi and 1 edited by ,sprengel in ,khn 7#ahcj71 ,,xxvi1 as was the 4 ,the 1 78,experimental ,pharmacy071 of which a ,latin version1 ,alphabetum empiricum1 sive ,dioscoridis et ,stephani ,atheniensis 444 de remediis expertis1 was edited by ,c4 ,wolf1 ,zrich1 #aeha1 is an alphabetical arrangement by diseases ascribed to ,dioscorides and ,stephen of ,athens 7and other writers74 #bdhj ,max ,wellmann1 ,die ,schrift des ,dioskurides 1 #aiad1 and col4 #aadj of his article 8,dioskurides0 in ,pauly-,wissowa4 #bdha ,de inst4 div4 lit4 cap4 #ca4 #bdhb ,v4 ,rose in ,hermes ,,viii1 #ch;,a4 ,harleian #dihf1 fol4 #ddv1 8444 marcelline libellum botanicon ex dioscoridis libris in latinum sermonem conversum in quo depicte sunt herbarum figure ad te misi44440 #bdhc ,heinrich ,kaestner1 ,kritisches und ,exegetisches zu ,pseudo-,dioskorides de herbis femininis1 ,regensburg1 #ahif2 text in ,hermes ,,xxxi 7#ahif7 #egh-fcf4 ,singer 7#aiba7 #fh1 gives as the earliest ,,ms1 ,rome ,barberini ,,ix1 #bi1 of #ith century4 ,some other ,,mss are3 ,,bn #abiie1 #ith century2 ,additional #hibh1 #aath century1 fol4 #fbv-2 ,ashmole #adca1 end of #aath century1 fols4 #cav-#dc1 8,incipit liber ,dioscoridis ex herbis feminis02 ,sloane #aige1 #abth or early #acth century1 fols4 #div-#gc2 ,harleian #aehe1 #abth century1 fol4 #gi-2 ,harleian #ebid1 #abth century2 ,turin ,k-,,iv-#c1 #abth century1 #e1 8,incipit liber dioscoridis medicine ex herbis femininis numero ,,lxxi 444_/ 444 ,liber medicine dioscoridis de herbis femininis et masculinis explicit feliciter40 ,in ,vienna #ecga1 #aeth century1 fols4 #abav-#abdv1 is a briefer ,latin treatise ascribed to ,dioscordes1 which begins with the herb aristologia and mentions silk 7sericum7 at its close4 ,i have not seen the ,,ms but from the title1 ,quid pro quo1 and the fact that the writer dedicates it to his uncle1 one might fancy that it was a work written by ,adelard of ,bath's nephew in return for the ,natural ,questions of his uncle4 7,see below1 chapter #cf74 #bdhd ,hermes ,,viii1 #ch1 comparing ,etymologies ,,xvii1 #ic1 with cap4 #cj of the ,de herbis femininis4 #bdhe ,anecdota graeca et graeco-latina1 ,berlin1 #ahfd1 ,,ii1 #aae and #aai2 ,hermes ,,viii1 #ch2 ,wellmann 7#aijf71 p4 xxi4 #bdhf ,,bn #iccb1 #hth century2 ,,clm #ccg1 #i-ajth century from ,monte ,cassino2 ed4 ,t4 ,m4 ,auracher et ,h4 ,stadler1 in ,rom4 ,forsch4 ,i1 #di-aje2 ,x1 #aha-bdg and #cfh-ddf2 ,,xi1 #a-aba2 ,,xii1 #afa-bdc4 #bdhg ,cod4 ,bam4 ,l-,,iii-#i4 #bdhh ,,pw 8,dioskurides40 ,a fairly early ,,ms is ,,cu ,jesus #dd1 #ab-acth century1 fols4 #ag-ader1 8diascorides per modum alphabeti de virtutibus herbarum et compositione olerum40 ,i have not seen it but1 if correctly dated1 it and ,bologna ,university ,library #cgh1 #abth century1 which is said to differ from the printed editions1 are too early to be ,peter of ,abano's version4 #bdhi ,explicit dyascorides quem petrus paduanensis legendo corexit et exponendo quae utiliora sunt in lucem deduxit1 ,colle1 #adgh4 ,dioscorides digestus alphabetico ordine additis annotatiunculis brevibus et tractatu aquarum1 ,lugduni1 #aeab4 ,and see ,chap4 #gj1 ,appendix ,,ii4 #bdij ,i have read it in ,,bn #fhbj1 fol4 #ar1 as well as in the #adgh edition4 #bdia ,a work by ,serapion which ,simon ,cordo of ,genoa translated from ,arabic into ,latin with the help of ,abraham1 a ,jew of ,tortosa4 ,serapion states at the beginning that his work is a combination of ,dioscorides and of the work of ,galen on medicinal simples4 ,aggregator was printed in #adgi1 ,liber ,serapionis aggregatus in medicinis simplicibus4 ,translatio ,symonis ,ianuensis interprete ,abraam iudeo tortuosiensi de arabico in latinum4 #bdib ,ruska 7#aiab71 p4 #e1 says that ,dioscorides1 ,v1 #hd-acc1 among other things describes 8eine ganze ,reihe von hchst zweifelhaften ,steinen mit unglaublichen ,wirkungen die in den ,arabischen ,arzneimittelverzeichnissen und ,steinbchern niederkehren40 #bdic ,amplon4 ,folio #da1 fols4 #cf-g2 ,montpellier #bgg1 caps4 #df-fg of the treatise entitled1 ,liber aristotelis de lapidibus preciosis secundum verba sapientium antiquorum4 #bdid ,sloane #chdh1 #agth century1 fols4 #cf-dj4 #bdie ,macer ,floridus de viribus herbarum una cum ,walafridi ,strabonis1 ,othonis ,cremonensis et ,ioannis ,folcz carminibus similis argumenti1 ed4 ,ludovicus ,choulant1 #ahcb4 #bdif ,v4 ,rose himself corrected 7,hermes1 ,,viii1 #ccj-a7 the strange statement which he had made 7,hermes1 ,,viii1 #fc7 that the name 8,macer0 is not found in connection with this work until ,,mss of the #adth and #aeth centuries4 ,both the treatise and the name are frequent in the earlier ,,mss4 #bdig ,cotton1 ,vitellius ,c1 ,,iii4 #bdih ,the ,dane1 ,harpestreng1 who died in #abdd1 translated and commented upon the poem2 published by ,christian ,molbech1 ,copenhagen1 #ahbf4 #bdii ,there are a large number in the ,,mss collections of the ,british ,museum alone4 ,some said to be of the #abth century are ,harleian #dcdf1 and at ,erfurt ,amplon1 ,octavo #fb;a and #fb;b4 #bejj ,see the ,british ,museum catalogue of printed books4 ,i have used besides ,choulant's text of #ahcb an illustrated octavo edition probably of #adhi4 ,the poem also appears in medical collections such as ,medici antiqui omnes1 ,aldus1 ,venice1 #aedg1 fols4 #bbc-df4 #beja ,choulant 7#ahcb7 ,preface4 #bejb ,choulant 7#ahcb7 ,prolegomena ad ,macrum1 p4 #ad4 #bejc ,see the description of ,ligusticum1 lines #ijj-f4 #bejd ,often printed3 ed4 ,f4 ,a4 ,reuss1 ,wrzburg1 #ahcd2 in ,migne ,,pl #aad1 #aaai-cj4 #beje ,h4 ,stadler1 ,die ,quellen des ,macer ,floridus1 in ,sudhoff 7#aiji74 #bejf ,stadler1 op4 cit42 ,choulant 7#ahcb71 p4 #d4 #bejg 8,macer scripsit metrico stilo librum4 de viribus herbarum10--,stadler 7#aiji71 #fe4 #bejh ,it was1 however1 a good deal subject to later interpolation4 #beji ,choulant 7#ahcb7 adds as ,macri spuria #dhg lines concerning twenty herbs4 ,in ,vienna #cbjg1 #aeth century1 fols4 #a-ej1 ,macer ,floridus1 ,de viribus herbarum2 fols4 #ej-eb1 ,pseudo-,macer1 ,de animalibus et lignis4 #beaj ,lines #aija-b1 ,quae1 quamvis natura potens concedere posset ,vana tamen nobis et anilia iure videntur4 #beaa ,lines #ahha-c1 ,hanc herbam gestando manu si queris ab egro ,dic frater quid agis8 bene si responderit eger1 ,vivet1 si vero male1 spes est nulla salutis4 #beab ,herb #ed1 lines #agbh-4 #beac ,herb #di1 lines #afag-bg4 #bead ,herb #fg1 lines #bjie-4 #beae ,herb #ea1 lines #afhe-i4 #beaf ,herb #eb4 #beag ,herb #cd1 lines #aace-h4 #beah ,herb #da1 lines #adba-b4 #beai ,herb #ej1 lines #afda-fc4 #bebj ,herb #fi1 ,cyminum1 lines #baah-i1 8,hoc orthopnoicis miram praestare medelam ,experti dicunt cum pusce saepius haustum40 #beba ,vienna #becb1 #abth century1 fols4 #ajf-ag1 8,experimenta ,macri4 ,ad dolorem capitis4 ,accipe balsamum et instilla 444_/ 444 adde sucum celidonie et superpone vulneribus40 ,arundel #bie1 #adth century1 fols4 #bbb-cc1 8,experimenta ,macri collecta sub certis capitulis a ,gotefrido40 #bebb ,r4 ,l4 ,poole1 ,medieval ,thought1 #ahhd1 pp4 #ai1 #ba4 #bebc ,migne1 ,,pl #gj1 #aadf4 #bebd ,anicii ,manlii ,severini ,boetii ,philosophiae ,consolationis ,libri quinque1 ed4 ,r4 ,peiper1 ,lipsiae1 #ahga1 pp4 xxxix-xlvi1 li-lxvii4 ,see also ,manitius 7#aiaa71 pp4 #cc-e4 ,it was by seeking comfort in ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy after the death of ,beatrice that ,dante was led into a new world of literature1 science1 and philosophy1 as he tells us in his ,convivio2 cited by ,orr 7#aiac71 p4 #a4 #bebe ,manitius 7#aiaa71 pp4 #bi-cb4 #bebf ,ibid41 #bf-h4 ,at the time ,i went through the various catalogues of ,,mss in the ,british ,museum item by item it was not my intention to include ,boethius in this investigation1 and ,i am therefore unable to say whether the ,museum has ,,mss which may throw further light upon the problems connected with the mathematical treatises ascribed to ,boethius4 ,manitius mentions no ,english ,,mss in this connection1 but there are likely to be some at ,london1 ,oxford1 or ,cambridge4 #bebg ,boethius' ,consolation of ,philosophy1 translated from the ,latin by ,george ,colville1 #aeef2 ed4 with ,introduction by ,e4 ,b4 ,box1 ,london1 #ahig1 p4 xviii4 #bebh ,manitius 7#aiaa7 pp4 #ce-f2 ,usener1 ,anecdota ,holderi1 ,bonn1 #ahgg1 pp4 #dh-ei2 ,e4 ,k4 ,rand1 ,der dem ,boethius zugeschriebene ,traktat ,de fide catholica1 #aija4 ,the ,de fide catholica1 however1 is not mentioned by ,cassiodorus and is regarded as spurious4 #bebi ,de consol4 philos41 ,,iii1 #h1 #ba4 #becj ,de consol4 philos41 ,,iv1 #a4 #beca ,ibid41 ,,iii1 #i1 #a2 ,,iii1 #ab1 #ad2 ,,iii1 #i1 #aj2 ,,iii1 #ab1 #ii2 ,,ii1 #h1 #ac4 #becb ,ibid41 ,,iv1 #f1 #aj1 8,in hac enim de providentiae simplicitate1 de fati serie1 de repentinis casibus1 de cognitione ac praedestinatione divina1 de arbitrii libertate quaeri solet40 ,to the ensuing argument are devoted the sixth and seventh chapters of ,book ,,iv and all of ,book ,v4 #becc ,ibid41 ,,iv1 #f1 #ba4 #becd ,ibid41 ,,iv1 #f1 #cj4 #bece ,ibid41 ,,iv1 #f1 #dh4 #becf ,ibid41 ,,iv1 #f1 #gg4 #becg ,de consol4 philos41 ,v1 #d-f4 #bech ,ibid41 ,,iv1 #f1 #eh4 #beci ,ibid41 ,v1 #b-c and #f1 #aaj1 8tametsi nullam naturae habeat necessitatem atqui deus ea futura quae ex arbitrii libertate proveniunt praesentia contuetur40 #bedj ,ibid41 ,v1 #a4 #beda ,de musica libri quinque1 ,i1 #a-b and #bg2 in ,migne1 ,,pl #fc1 #aafg-acjj4 #bedb ,migne1 ,,pl #hc1 #ifc-ajah4 ,in ,harleian #cjii1 #aacd ,a4 ,d41 the ,etymologies at fols4 #a-aed1 are followed by the ,de natura rerum1 the last chapter of which 7fol4 #afdv7 is numbered #db instead of #dh as in ,migne4 ,but up to chapter #bg1 ,utrum sidera animam habeant1 the division into chapters seems the same as in the printed text4 #bedc ,migne1 ,,pl #hb1 #gc-gbh1 a reprint of the edition of ,arevalus1 ,rome1 #agif4 ,large portions of the ,etymologies have been translated into ,english with an introduction of some seventy pages by ,e4 ,brehaut1 ,an ,encyclopedist of the ,dark ,ages2 ,isidore of ,seville1 #aiab1 in ,columbia ,university ,studies in ,history1 etc41 vol4 #dh1 pp4 #a-bgd4 ,for ,isidorean bibliography see pp4 #ag1 #bb-c1 #df-g of ,brehaut's introduction4 #bedd ,manitius 7#aiaa71 pp4 #fj-fa2 ,brehaut 7#aiab71 p4 #cd4 #bede ,to say1 for example1 that 8so hospitable an attitude toward profane learning as ,isidore displayed 444 was never surpassed throughout the middle ages0 7,brehaut1 p4 #ca71 is unfair to many later writers1 as our discussion of the natural science of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries will show4 #bedf ,brehaut 7#aiab71 p4 #cd4 #bedg ,migne1 ,,pl #hb1 #gc1 8,opus de origine quarumdam rerum1 ex veteris lectionis recordatione collectum1 atque ita in quibusdam locis adnotatum1 sicut exstat conscriptum stylo maiorum40 #bedh ,see1 for example1 ,etymol41 ,,viii1 #g1 #c1 8,vates a vi mentis appellatos1 ,varro auctor est40 #bedi ,etymol41 ,,xx1 #b1 #cg4 #beej ,cassiodorus1 however1 urged the monks of the sixth century who cared for the sick to read ,hippocrates and ,galen as well as ,dioscorides and ,caelius ,aurelianus2 ,brehaut 7#aiab71 p4 #hg1 note1 citing ,,pl #gj1 #aadf1 in the ,de instit4 divin4 litterarum4 #beea ,etymol41 ,,xii1 #d1 #f and #f1 #cd4 #beeb ,ibid41 ,,xii1 #d1 #ab4 #beec ,ibid41 ,,xii1 #f1 #ef4 #beed ,ibid41 ,,xvii1 #g1 #ag and #i1 #cf2 ,,xix1 #ag1 #h4 #beee ,ibid41 ,,xvii1 #i1 #he4 #beef ,ibid41 ,,xvii1 #i1 #cj4 #beeg ,etymol41 ,,xvi1 #ae1 #ba-bf4 #beeh ,ibid41 ,,xi1 #c1 #d1 8quod plurimis etiam experimentis probatum est40 #beei ,brehaut 7#aiab71 p4 #c4 #befj ,etymol41 ,,xvi1 #bf1 #aj1 from ,epiphanius1 ,liber de ponderibus et mensuris4 #befa ,hence1 presumably1 the sextarii1 from sex4 #befb 8,mens hausti nulla sanie polluta veneni ,incantata perit44440 #befc ,migne1 ,,pl #hc1 #i4 #befd ,for ,rabanus' account see ,migne1 ,,pl #aaj1 #ajig-aaaj2 ,burchard1 ,,pl #adj1 #hci et seq42 ,ivo1 ,,pl #afa1 #gfj et seq42 ,hincmar1 ,,pl #abe1 #gaf-bi4 ,moreover1 ,burchard continues to follow ,rabanus word for word for some ten columns after the conclusion of their mutual excerpt from ,isidore1 while ,ivo is identical with ,burchard for fifteen more columns4 ,in 8,some ,medieval ,conceptions of ,magic10 ,the ,monist1 ,january1 #aiae1 ,,xxv1 #ajg-ci1 ,i stated 7p4 #aji1 note #b7 that ,i thought that ,i was the first to point out the identity of these four accounts with ,isidore's4 ,since then1 however1 ,i have noticed that ,manitius 7#aiaa71 p4 #bii1 notes the identity of ,rabanus with ,isidore1 8,dass ,hraban sich auch sonst ganz an ,isidor anlehnt1 beweist er in der ,schrift ,de consanguineorum nuptiis im ,abschnitt de magicis artibus 7,migne1 #aji1 #ajig;ff47 der aus ,etym4 #h1 #i stammt40 ,also ,mr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,i4 ,webb1 in his #aiji edition of the ,polycraticus notes ,john of ,salisbury's borrowings from ,isidore and ,ivo of ,chartres4 ,finally1 ,j4 ,hansen1 ,zauberwahn1 ,inquisition1 und ,hexenprozess im ,mittelalter1 #aijj1 at p4 #di notes that ,isidore's sketch of the history of magic keeps recurring in medieval writings1 at p4 #ga the dependence of ,rabanus and ,hincmar upon ,isidore1 and perhaps he somewhere notes the identity with the foregoing of the accounts of magic in ,burchard and the other decretalists1 but in the absence of an index to his volume ,i do not find such a passage4 ,at p4 #abh1 however1 he notes that ,john of ,salisbury's description of magic is in part taken word for word from ,isidore and ,rabanus4 ,professor ,hamilton1 in one of his papers on ,storm-,making ,springs1 which appeared at about the same time as my article 7,romanic ,review1 ,v1 #c1 #aiad2 but1 owing probably to war conditions1 this issue did not actually appear until after the number of ,the ,monist containing my article71 came near noting the same thing when he spoke 7p4 #bbe7 of ,isidore's chapter as 8quoted at length0 by ,gratian--who seems to me1 however1 to give the substance of ,isidore's chapter rather than his exact wording--and further noted that four lines of ,latin which he quoted were found alike in ,rabanus1 ,hincmar1 ,ivo1 and the ,polycraticus of ,john of ,salisbury4 ,in my article ,i also stated3 8,professor ,burr1 in a note to his paper on #8,the ,literature of ,witchcraft' 7,american ,historical ,association ,papers1 ,,iv 7#ahij71 p4 #bda7 has described the accounts of ,rabanus and ,hincmar but without explicitly noting their close resemblance1 although he characterizes ,rabanus' article as #8mainly compiled4'0 ,professor ,burr subsequently wrote to me1 8,that ,i did not mention the relation in my old paper on 8,the ,literature of ,witchcraft0 was partly because they borrowed from other sources as well and partly because ,isidore is himself a compiler4 ,i hoped to come back to the matter in a more careful study of the whole genesis of these stock passages40 #befe ,see below1 chapter #fj on ,aquinas4 #beff ,etymol41 ,,viii1 #aa1 #ae-ag2 ,differentiarum1 ,,ii1 #ad4 #befg ,indeed1 ,differentiarum1 ,,ii1 #ci1 he defines astrology as he had astronomy in ,etymol41 ,,iii1 #bg4 ,in ,etymol41 ,,iii1 #be1 he ascribes the invention of astronomy to the ,egyptians and that of astrology to the ,chaldeans4 #befh ,caps4 #ad and #bg4 #befi ,de nat4 rer41 ,,iii1 #d2 ,,pl #hc1 #ifh4 #begj ,ibid41 ,,xix1 #b4 #bega ,ibid41 ,,xxii1 #b-c4 #begb ,ibid41 ,,ix1 #a-b4 #begc ,ibid41 ,,xxvi1 #ae2 ,etymol41 ,,iii1 #ga1 #af4 #begd ,etymol41 ,,xiv1 #e1 8vim sideris40 #bege ,ibid41 ,,ix1 #b1 8secundum diversitatem enim coeli40 #begf ,ibid41 ,,iv1 #ac1 #d4 #begg ,de nat4 rerum1 ,,xviii1 #e-g4 #begh ,history of the ,anglo-,saxons1 ,,iii1 #djc4 #begi ,illustrations of the ,history of ,medieval ,thought1 #ahhd1 p4 #bj2 p4 #ah in #aibj edition4 #behj ,migne1 ,,pl #ij1 #bic-d4 #beha ,a few ,,mss1 chiefly from ,france1 earlier than the #abth century1 are3 ,,bn #eedc1 #ith century2 ,,bn #aefhe1 #ith century2 ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afab1 #afae1 and #afcb1 all #ith or #ajth century2 ,amiens #bbb1 #ith century2 ,cambrai #ibe1 #ith century2 ,ivrea #c1 #ith century2 ,ivrea #f1 #ajth century2 ,berlin #abh1 #h-ith century2 ,berlin #acj1 #i-ajth century2 ,,clm #ahaeh1 #aath century2 ,,clm #baeeg1 #aath century4 ,i have not noted the ,,mss of ,bede in the ,british ,museum and ,bodleian collections4 #behb ,,pl #ij1 #ahg-bgh2 the text occupies but a small portion of these columns4 #behc ,ibid41 ,cap4 #ad4 #behd ,ibid41 ,cap4 #bd4 #behe ,ibid41 ,cap4 #be4 #behf ,in ,samuelem prophetam allegorica expositio1 ,,iv1 #g2 ,,pl #ia1 #gja4 #behg ,de tonitruis libellus ad ,herefridum1 ,,pl #ij1 #fji-ad4 #behh ,see below1 chapter #bi4 #behi ,the ,aenigmatum ,liber forms a part of the ,liber de septenario et de metris in ,aldhelm's works as edited by ,giles1 ,oxford1 #ahdd1 and reprinted in ,migne1 ,,pl #hi1 #ahc-ii4 #beij ,cantimpr's citations of ,adhelmus seem almost certainly drawn from the ,aenigmata in the cases of ,leo1 ciconia1 hirundinus1 nycticorax1 salamander1 luligo 7or1 loligo71 perna1 draguntia lapis 7natrix71 myrmicoleon1 colossus1 and molossus4 ,on the other hand1 the citations concerning onocentaur do not correspond to the riddle ,de monocero sive unicorni2 the two accounts of ,scylla are different2 and ,i do not find cacus or onager or harpy or siren or locust or the ,indian ants larger than foxes in the ,riddles as edited by ,giles4 ,the passages in which ,thomas of ,cantimpr cites ,adhelmus are printed together by ,pitra 7#ahee7 ,,iii1 #dbe-g4 #beia ,pitra 7#ahee7 ,,iii1 xxvi4 ,only in the case of the salamander does ,pitra say1 8,thomas huc adduxit ,adhelmi ,shirbrunensis aenigma de ,salamandra vatemque a philosopho clare distinxit40 #beib ,i have used the text in ,migne1 ,,pl vol4 #gg4 #beic ,variarum ,,iv1 ,epist4 #bb-bc1 ,migne1 ,,pl #fi1 #fbd-be4 #beid ,i derive the following facts from ,e4 ,c4 ,quiggin1 8,irish ,literature10 in ,,eb ,v1 #fbb et seq41 where further bibliography is given4 #beie 8,the ,gaelic medical ,,mss1 whether preserved in ,ireland1 ,scotland1 or elsewhere1 444 are all1 or nearly all1 of foreign origin03--,mackinnon1 in the ,international ,congress of ,medicine1 ,london1 #aiac1 p4 #dac4 #beif ,g4 ,flgel1 ,alkindi1 genannt der ,philosoph der ,araber1 ein ,vorbild seiner ,zeit1 ,leipzig1 #aheg4 ,f4 ,dieterici1 ,die ,naturanschauung und ,naturphilosophie der ,araber im zehnten ,jahrhundert1 ,berlin1 #ahfa4 ,o4 ,loth1 ,al-,kindi als ,astrolog4 in ,morgenlndische ,forschungen4 ,festschrift fr ,fleischer1 ,leipzig1 #ahge1 pp4 #bfc-cji4 ,a4 ,nagy1 ,die philosophischen ,abhandlungen des ,al-,kindis1 #ahig in ,beitrge z4 ,gesch4 d4 ,philos4 d4 ,mittelalt41 ,,ii1 #e4 ,a4 ,a4 ,bjrnbo and ,s4 ,vogl1 ,alkindi1 ,tideus1 und ,pseudo-,euclid1 ,drei ,optische ,werke1 ,leipzig1 #aiaa1 in ,abhandl4 z4 ,gesch4 d4 ,math4 ,wiss41 ,,xxvi1 #c4 ,for further bibliography see the last-named work and ,steinschneider 7#aije7 #bc-d1 #dg1 7#aijf7 #ca-cc4 ,the ,apology of ,al ,kindy 7,sir ,wm4 ,muir1 ,london1 #ahhb7 is a defense of ,christianity by another writer of about the same time4 #beig ,astrorum iudicis ,alkindi1 ,gaphar de pluviis imbribus et ventis ac aeris mutatione1 ex officina ,petri ,liechtenstein3 ,venetiis1 #aejg4 #beih ,amplon4 ,quarto #aea1 fols4 #ag-ai4 #beii ,in the #adab catalogue of ,amplonius1 ,math4 #dh was 8,theorica ,alkindi de radiis stellicis seu arcium magicarum vel de phisicis ligaturis02 and at present ,amplon4 ,quarto #cdi1 #adth century1 fols4 #dgv1 #fev1 #ffr-v1 #afr-v1 #bir1 contains 8,liber ,alkindi de radiis ,omnes homines qui sensibilia _/ ,explicit theorica artis magis 7sic74 ,explicit ,alkindi de radiis stellicis40 ,harleian #ac1 #acth century1 given by ,john of ,london to ,st4 ,augustine's ,abbey1 ,canterbury 7#aaff1 ,james1 #ccj-a71 fols4 #aff-gd1 8de radiis stellicis ,omnes homines qui sensibilia _/ explicit ,theoria ,artis ,magice ,alkindi40 ,digby #ia1 #afth century1 fols4 #ff-hj1 ,alkindus de radiis stellarum1 8,omnes homines qui sensibilia sensu percipiunt44440 ,digby #ahc1 end #adth century1 fols4 #ch-de4 ,selden supra #gf 7,bernard #cdfd71 fols4 #dgr-#fjv1 8,incipit theoreita artium magicarum4 ,capitulum de origine scientie4 ,omnes homines qui sensibilia sensu percipiunt444402 ,selden #cdfg1 #d4 ,canon4 ,misc4 #cgj1 fols4 #bdj-ei1 8,explicit theoria magice artis sive libellus ,alkindi de radiis stellatis anno per me ,theod4 scriptus ,domini #adhd44440 ,rawlinson ,c-#aag1 #aeth century 7according to ,macray1 but since the ,,ms once belonged to ,john of ,london it is more likely to be #acth century71 fols4 #aeg-fi1 8,incipit theorica ,alkindi et est de causis reddendis circa operationes karacterum et conjurationes et suffumigationes et ceteris huiusmodi quae pertinent ad artem magicam4 #8,omnes homines qui sensibilia4' 4440 ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #faf1 #addb ,a4 ,d41 ,liber ,jacobi ,alchindi de radiis4 ,,cu ,trinity #icf 7,r4 #ae1 #ag7 #agth century1 ,alkyndus de ,radiis4 ,ste4 ,genevive #bbdj1 #agth century1 fol4 #cb 787--since the treatise is listed between two others which begin at fols4 #fh and #aab1 respectively--8,alkyndus de radiis2 de virtute verborum40 ,steinschneider 7#aijf71 #cb1 has already listed four of these ,,mss1 but was mistaken in thinking ,cotton ,appendix ,,vi1 fols4 #fcv-#gjr1 8,explicit ,iacob alkindi de theorica planetarum10 the same treatise as ,the ,theory of the ,magic ,art4 #bfjj ,in ,digby #ia ,roger ,bacon on ,perspective is followed by ,alkindi on the rays of the stars1 while in ,digby #ahc a marginal note to ,alkindi's treatise reads 8,nota hoc quod est extractum de libro ,rogeri ,bakun de celo et mundo1 capitulo de numero celorum10 and following the work of ,alkindi we have ,bacon on the retardation of old age and perhaps also de radiis solaribus4 #bfja ,edited by ,nagy 7#ahig74 ,a ,,ms of the late #abth or early #acth century which ,nagy fails to note is ,digby #dj1 fols4 #aev-#be1 de somno et visionibus4 #bfjb ,nagy1 p4 #ah1 8,quare autem videamus quasdam res antequam sint8 et quare videamus res cum interpretatione significantes res antequam sint8 et quare videamus res facientes nos videre contrarium earum80 #bfjc ,spec4 astron4 cap4 #g4 ,more fully the ,incipit is1 8,rogatus fui quod manifestem consilia philosophorum44440 #bfjd ,digby #fh1 #adth century1 fols4 #abd-ce1 ,liber ,alkindii de impressionibus terre et aeris accidentibus4 ,,cu ,clare ,college #ae 7,kk4 #d1 #b71 c4 #abhj1 fols4 #h-ac1 8,in nomine dei et eius laude ,epistola ,alkindi de rebus aeribus et pluviis cum sermone aggregato et utili de arabico in latinum translata40 ,steinschneider 7#aijf7 #cb gives the title as ,de impressionibus aeris1 and suggests that it is the same as a ,de pluviis or ,de nubibus1 which seems to be the case1 as they have the same ,incipit--,steinschneider 7#aije7 #ac--;as does a ,de imbribus in ,digby #agf1 #adth century1 fols4 #fa-fc4 ,steinschneider also suggested that ,,bn #gccb1 ,de impressionibus planetarum was probably the same treatise2 and this is shown to be true by the ,explicit of ,alkindi's treatise in another ,,ms1 ,cotton ,appendix ,,vi1 fol4 #fcv1 8,explicit liber de impressionibus planetarum secundum iacobum alkindi40 ,see also ,,bn #gcaf1 #gcbh1 #gddj1 #gdhb4 ,the opening words of an anonymous ,tractatus de meteorologia in ,vienna #bche1 #acth century1 fols4 #df-di1 show that it is the ,alkindi4 ,a very similar treatise on weather prediction1 ,de subradiis planetarum or ,de pluviis1 is ascribed to ,haly and exists in three ,digby ,,mss 7#fg1 fol4 #abv2 #ic1 fol4 #ahcv2 #adg1 fol4 #aagv7 and in some other ,,mss noted by ,steinschneider4 ,it belongs1 ,i suspect1 together with a brief ,haly de dispositione aeris 7,digby #ib1 fol4 #e7 which ,steinschneider listed separately4 #bfje ,some notion of the number of these astrological treatises on the weather may be had from the following group of them in a single ,,ms4 ,vienna #bdcf1 #adth century1 fols4 #acd-f1 8,finitur ,hermanni liber de ymbribus et pluviis0 #acf-h1 ,iohannes ,hispalensis1 ,tractatus de mutatione aeris #aci1 ,haomar de pluviis #aci-dj1 ,idem de qualitate aeris et temporum #adj1 de pluvia1 fulgure1 tonitruis et vento #adj-a1 ,dorochius1 ,de hora pluvie et ventorum caloris et frigoris #ada1 ,idem1 ,de hora pluvie #ada-b1 ,alkindus1 alias ,dorochius1 ,de aeris qualitatibus #adb1 ,idem1 ,de imbribus #adc1 ,jergis1 ,de pluviis #aih1 #bjf1 ,iacobus ,alkindus1 ,liber de significationibus planetarum et eorum naturis1 alias de pluviis4 #bfjf ,their titles are listed by ,steinschneider 7#aijf7 #ii2 #ca-c4 ,we may note ,,bn #figh1 #adth century1 ,incipit epistola ,alkindi ,achalis de ,baldac philosophi de futurorum scientia2 ,corpus ,christi #bed1 fol4 #aia1 8de aspectibus0--a fragment from a #adth century ,,mss4 #bfjg ,,mss of ,robert's translation of ,alkindi's ,judgments are numerous in the ,bodleian library3 ,digby #ia1 fol4 #hj-2 ,ashmole #agi2 #bji2 #cfi2 #dcd2 and extracts from it in other ,,mss4 ,it opens1 8,quamquam post ,euclidem40 #bfjh ,,clm #cib1 #aeth century1 fol4 #hj-2 #dhi1 #afth century1 fols4 #bjg-ba4 #bfji ,o4 ,loth 7#ahge71 pp4 #bga-b2 at #bhj-b he gives the ,latin of the passage in question from ,albumasar1 following the ,arabic of ,alkindi at #bgc-i4 #bfaj ,e4 ,wiedemann in ,journal f4 praktische ,chemie1 #aijg1 p4 #gc1 et seq42 cited by ,lippmann 7#aiai7 p4 #cii4 #bfaa ,bridges1 ,opus ,maius1 ,i1 #bfb1 note4 #bfab ,steinschneider 7#aije71 p4 #dg4 #bfac ,,hl #ba1 #dii-ejc4 #bfad ,spec4 astron4 cap4 #f4 ,he gives the ,incipit of the ,experiments of ,albumasar as 8,scito horam introitus0 which serves to identify it with the following3 ,amplon4 ,quarto #cfe1 #abth century1 fols4 #a-ah1 liber experimentorum4 ,ashmole #cfi-,v1 #acth century1 fols4 #ajc-bcv1 8444 incipit liber in revolutione annorum mundi4 ,perfectus est liber experimentorum44440 ,ashmole #cic1 #aeth century1 fol4 #iev1 8,item ,albumasar de revolutionibus annorum mundi sive de experimentis44440 ,,bn #afbjd1 #acth century1 pp4 #cjb-ccc1 8,revolutio annorum mundi4444 ,perfectus est liber experimentorum ,albumasar44440 ,arsenal #hhj1 #aeth century1 fol4 #a-4 ,arsenal #ajcf1 #adth century1 fol4 #ajdv4 ,dijon #ajde1 #aeth century1 fol4 #ha-4 ,other ,,mss containing ,experiments of ,albumasar but where ,i am not sure of the wording of the ,incipit are3 ,laud4 ,misc4 #eid1 #ad-aeth century1 fol4 #abc-1 ,liber experimentorum4 ,harleian #a1 fols4 #ca-da1 de experimentis in revolutione annorum mundi4 ,,clm #ea1 #adhg1 and #aejc4 ,vienna #bdcf1 #adth century1 following ,john of ,spain's translation of the ,introductorium magnum at fols4 #a-he and a ,liber magnarum coniunctionum at fols4 #add-ih1 comes at fol4 #bdb1 8,liber experimentorum seu ,capitula stellarum oblata regi magno ,sarracenorum ab ,albumasore40 ,the ,incipit here is 8,dispositio est ut dicam ab ariete sic initium0 but the treatise is incomplete4 ,in some ,,ms at ,oxford which ,i cannot now identify the ,flores of ,albumasar close with the statement that the book of ,experiments will follow4 ,a different hand then adds 8,the following work is ,albumazar on the revolutions of years10 while a third hand adds the explanation1 8,and according to some authorities it and the book of experiments are one10 which is the case4 ,in some ,,mss1 however1 another treatise on revolutions accompanies the ,experiments4 ,in ,amplon4 ,quarto #cfe it is followed at fols4 #ah-bg by ,sentencie de revolucione annorum1 while in ,laud4 ,misc4 #eid it is preceded at fol4 #ajf by ,liber ,albumasar de revolutionibus annorum collectus a floribus antiquorum philosophorum1 which is the same as the ,flores4 #bfae ,the distinction between these various works is made quite clear in ,,bn #afbjd1 #acth century1 where at pp4 #a-ahc is ,john of ,spain's translation of the ,liber introductorius maior in eight parts2 at #ahc-cjb the ,conjunctions1 also in eight parts2 at #cjb-ccc the ,revolutio annorum mundi or ,liber experimentorum2 at #ccc-cec the ,flores1 and at #cec-cfi the ,de revolutione annorum in revolutione nativitatum1 which opens 8,omne tempus breve est operandi44440 ,at the same time the ,explicit of this treatise bears witness to the ease with which these works of ,albumasar are confused1 for it was at first written1 8,explicit liber albumasar de revolutione annorum mundi10 and some other hand has crossed out this last word and substituted 8nativitatis40 #bfaf ,conciliator1 ,diff4 #aef4 #bfag ,laud4 ,misc4 #eid1 #ad-aeth century1 fols4 #acg-da1 ,liber ,sadan1 sive ,albumasar in ,sadan4 8,dixit ,sadan1 ,audivi ,albumayar dicentem quod omnis vita viventium post ,deum est sol et luna _/ ,expliciunt excerpta de secretis ,albumasar40 ,cat4 cod4 astrol4 ,graec4 ,v1 i1 #adb1 quotes from a #aeth century ,,ms1 8,expliciunt excerpta de secretis ,albumasaris per ,sadan discipulum cuius 7eius87 et vocatur liber ,albumasaris in ,sadan40 ,the treatise1 according to ,steinschneider 7#aijf71 #cf-h1 is also found in ,amplon4 ,quarto #ceb4 ,,clm #hbf1 #adth century1 written and illuminated in ,bohemia1 fols4 #bg-cc1 ,tractatus de nativitatibus1 8,dixit ,zadan3 audivi ,albumazar dicentem44440 #bfah ,steinschneider 7#aijf71 #cf-ch4 #bfai ,cat4 cod4 astrol4 ,graec4 ,v1 i1 #adb4 ,in ,vienna ,,ms #ajehc1 #aeth century1 #ii fols41 we find a 8de revolutionibus nativitatum0 by ,albumasar 8greco in latinum40 #bfbj ,,bn #gcaf1 #aeth century1 #ac1 liber imbrium secundos ,indos 444 authore ,jafar2 so too ,,bn #gcbi1 #aeth century1 #f2 ,,bn #gcaf #af1 de mutatione temporum secundum ,indos1 seems1 however1 to be another anonymous treatise on the same subject4 ,perhaps the following1 although not so listed in the catalogue1 is by ,albumasar4 ,digby #aid1 fol4 #adgv- 8,sapientes ,indi de pluviis indicant secundum lunam1 considerantes ipsius mansiones _/ quum dominus aspectus aspicit dominum vel est ei conjunctus40 #bfba ,corpus ,christi #bcc1 #ac-aeth century1 fol4 #abb-8;,japhar philosophi et astrologi ,aegyptii4 ,cum multa et varia de nubium congregatione precepta ,indorum traxit auctoritas44440 ,cod4 ,cantab4 ,ii-,i-#ac1 8,incipit liber ,gaphar de temporis mutatione qui dicitur ,geazar ,babiloniensis4 ,universa astronomiae iudicia prout ,indorum44440 #bfbb ,the text printed in #aejg and #aedj is ,hugo's translation4 ,so is ,bodleian #dfc 7,bernard #bdef7 #adth century1 fols4 #bjr-#bdr1 8,incipit liber imbrium editum a ,iafar astrologo et a lenio et mercurio 7,cilenio ,mercurio7 correcto40 ,see also ,savile #ae 7,bernard #fefa71 ,liber imbrium ab antiquo ,indorum astrologo nomine ,jafar editus1 deinde a ,cylenio ,mercurio abbreviatus4 #bfbc ,digby #fh1 #adth century1 fol4 #aaf-8,ysagoga minor ,japharis mathematici in astronomiam per ,adhelardum ,bathoniencem ex ,arabico sumpta4 ,quicunque philosophie scienciam altiorem studio constanti inquireris44440 ,sloane #bjcj1 fols4 #hc-hfv1 according to ,haskins in ,,ehr 7#aiac71 but my notes1 which it is now too late to verify1 suggest that it is a fragment occupying less than a page at fol4 #hg4 #bfbd ,by ,carra de ,vaux in ,journal asiatique1 #i;e srie1 ,i1 #chf1 ,,ii1 #aeb1 #dbj1 with a ,french translation2 and by ,nix1 ,leipzig1 #aijj1 with a ,german translation1 also printed separately in #ahid4 #bfbe ,galen1 ed4 ,chart4 ,x1 #ega2 ,constantinus ,africanus1 ed4 ,basel1 #aecf1 pp4 #cag-ba2 ,arnald of ,villanova1 ,opera1 ,lyons1 #aecb1 fol4 #bie1 and also in other editions of his works2 ,h4 ,c4 ,agrippa1 ,occult ,philosophy1 ,lyons1 #afjj1 pp4 #fcg-dj4 #bfbf ,,hl ,,xxviii1 #gh-i4 #bfbg ,idem4 #bfbh ,additional #bbgai1 #abth century1 fol4 #bjjv1 8,quesivisti fili karissime de incantatione adjuratione colli suspensione44440 ,in view of this and the citations of the work by ,albertus ,magnus who wrote before ,arnald of ,villanova1 ,i cannot agree with ,steinschneider 7#aije71 pp4 #f and #ab1 in denying that ,constantinus translated the work and in ascribing the translation exclusively to ,arnald4 #bfbi ,florence ,,ii1 ,,iii1 #bad1 #aeth century1 fols4 #gb-d1 8,liber ,unayn de incantatione4 ,quesisti fili karissime44440 #bfcj ,de vegetabilibus1 ,v1 ii1 #f4 #bfca ,mineral4 ,,ii1 ii1 #g1 and ,,ii1 iii1 #f4 #bfcb ,mineral4 ,,ii1 iii1 #f 7ed4 ,borgnet1 ,v1 #ee-f74 #bfcc ,i am not certain as to this word3 it is sizamelon in one text1 sesameleon in another4 #bfcd 8,quorum enim actio ex proprietate est non rationibus1 unde sic comprehendi non potest4 ,rationibus enim tantum comprehenduntur que sensibus subministrantur4 ,aliquando ergo quedam substantie habent proprietatem ratione incomprehensibilem propter sui subtilitatem et sensibus non subministratum propter altitudinem sui magnam40 ,i doubt if these last three words refer to the influence of the stars4 #bfce ,liber de differentia spiritus et animae1 or ,de differentia inter animam et spiritum4 ,the prologue opens3 8,interrogasti me--honoret te ,deus6--de differentia44440 #bfcf ,steinschneider 7#ahff71 p4 #djd2 7#aije71 p4 #dc1 8wovon ich das ,original in ,gotha #aaeh erkannte48 #bfcg ,so in ,corpus ,christi #aad1 late #acth century1 fol4 #bbi1 and at ,paris in the following ,,mss of the #acth or #adth century mostly3 ,,bn #fcai1 #aa2 #fcbb1 #aa2 #fcbc1 #f2 #fcbc;,a2 #fcbe1 #ag2 #fefg;,a2 #fefi2 #hbdg2 #afjhb2 #afjhc2 #afjhh2 #afadb2 #afdij4 #bfch ,specific illustrations of such confusions between the two names in the ,,mss are3 ,,bn #fbif1 #adth century1 #ae1 8444 authore filio ,lucae ,medici ,constabolo02 ,brussels1 ,library of ,dukes of ,burgundy #bghd1 #abth century1 8,constaben02 ,sloane #bded1 late #acth century1 8,liber differentiae inter animam et spiritum quem ,constantinus ,luce amico suo scriptori ,regis edidit40 #bfci ,constantinus ,africanus1 ,opera1 ,basel1 #aecf1 pp4 #cjg-ag1 8,qui voluerit scire differentiam1 que est inter duas res 444_/ 444 ,hec igitur de differentiis spiritus et anime tibi dicta sufficiant1 valeto40 ,edited more recently by ,s4 ,barach1 ,innsbruck1 #ahgh1 pp4 #abj-ci4 #bfdj ,theorica1 ,,iii1 #ab4 #bfda ,corpus ,christi #aed1 late #acth century1 pp4 #cef-gd1 ascribed to ,augustine in both ,titulus and ,explicit4 #bfdb ,s4 ,marco #agi1 #adth century1 fols4 #eg-i1 #hc1 ,liber ,ysaac de differentia spiritus et animae4 #bfdc ,,cu ,gonville and ,caius #aji1 #acth century1 fols4 #a-fv1 8,avicenna de differencia spiritus et anime40 #bfdd ,so says ,coxe1 anent ,corpus ,christi #aad1 and ,steinschneider 7#aije71 p4 #dc4 #bfde ,migne1 ,,pl #dj1 #ggi-hcb4 #bfdf ,by ,trithemius2 but earlier so cited by ,vincent of ,beauvais 7,,pl #dj1 #ggi-hj74 ,see also ,exon4 #bc1 #acth century1 fol4 #aifv4 #bfdg ,migne1 ,,pl #dj1 #ggi-hj4 #bfdh ,both passages were excerpted by ,vincent of ,beauvais1 ,speculum naturale1 ,,xxix1 #da4 #bfdi ,de ,renzi 7#aheb-i7 ,,iv1 #ahi2 ,petrocellus is very brief on the cells of the brain4 #bfej ,singer 7#aiag71 pp4 #de and #ea1 has noted that ,hildegard's description of the brain as divided into three chambers is anteceded by the ,liber de humana natura of ,constantinus1 and contained 8in the writings of ,st4 ,augustine40 #bfea ,,pl #dj1 #gie1 cap4 #bb4 #bfeb ,de proprietatibus rerum1 ,,iii1 #aj and #af2 ,v1 #c4 #bfec ,similarly ,e4 ,g4 ,browne 7#aiba71 p4 #abc1 writing of ,arabian medicine and ,avicenna1 says1 8,corresponding with the five external senses1 taste1 touch1 hearing1 smelling1 and seeing1 are the five internal senses1 of which the first and second1 the compound sense 7or #8sensus communis'7 and the imagination1 are located in the anterior ventricle of the brain2 the third and fourth1 the co-ordinating and emotional faculties1 in the mid-brain2 and the fifth1 the memory1 in the hind-brain40 ,galen had somewhat similar ideas4 #bfed ,de ,genesi ad litteram1 ,,vii1 #ah 7,,pl #cd1 #cfd74 #bfee ,the fullest treatment of him will be found in ,d4 ,a4 ,chwolson1 ,die ,ssabier und der ,ssabismus1 ,petrograd1 #ahef1 #b vols41 passim4 ,for a list of his works see ,steinschneider4 ,zeitschrift f4 ,math41 ,,xviii1 #cca-ch4 #bfef ,there is some difficulty with these dates or their ,arabic equivalents1 because we are not certain whether the length of his life is given in lunar or solar years3 see ,chwolson1 ,i1 #ecb-c1 #edg-h4 #bfeg ,bridges1 ,i1 #cid4 #bfeh ,carra de ,vaux1 ,avicenne1 ,paris1 #aijj1 p4 #fh4 #bfei ,chwolson1 ,,ii1 #djf1 #dbb1 #dca1 #ddj1 #dec1 #faj1 #gjc4 #bffj ,ibid41 ,i4 #gda2 ,,ii1 #g1 #beh1 #chf1 #fgg1 etc4 #bffa ,chwolson1 ,,ii1 #chf-ig1 #ejj1 #ebe1 #ecj1 #fgf4 #bffb ,ibid41 ,i1 #gcg4 #bffc ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #cj1 #cgc4 #bffd ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #daa1 #feh1 #hci4 #bffe ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #bec4 #bfff ,ibid41 ,i1 #gch4 #bffg ,ibid41 ,i1 #gcc-d4 #bffh ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #ai1 #adh1 #aej4 #bffi ,ibid41 ,,ii1 #ba1 #ach-i4 #bfgj ,ibid41 ,i1 #ebf2 ,,ii1 #ada4 #bfga ,quoted by ,bishop ,gregory ,bar-hebraeus in his ,syrian ,chronicle3 ,chwolson1 ,i1 #agg-hj4 #bfgb ,chwolson1 ,i1 #aie2 ,,ii1 #fbc4 #bfgc ,ibid41 ,i1 #dhb-c4 #bfgd ,again there seems to be uncertainty as to dates1 since the ,arabic sources name a caliph who was not contemporary with the philosopher in question3 ,chwolson1 ,i1 #edh-i4 #bfge ,chwolson1 ,i1 #dhe4 ,chwolson perhaps lays himself open a little to the charge of arguing in a circle1 since ,thebit's writings are his main source concerning ,sabianism4 #bfgf ,ibid41 ,i1 #eec-fd1 for a list of his translations of1 extracts from1 and commentaries upon ,greek works4 #bfgg ,ibid41 ,i1 #dhd4 #bfgh ,,bn #ajbfj1 #afth century1 8,incipit liber ,karastoni de ponderibus 444_/ 444 editus a ,thebit filio ,core40 ,also in ,,bn #gcgg;,b1 #ad-aeth century1 #c2 #gdbd1 #adth century1 #f2 ,vienna #ebjc1 #aeth century1 fols4 #agb-hj4 ,for other ,,mss see ,bjrnbo 7#aiaa7 #adj4 #bfgi ,harleian #ac1 fol4 #aah-,thebit de motu octave spere2 fol4 #abjv- ,liber ,thebith ben ,corath de his qui indigent expositione antequam legitur ,almagestum2 #abc- ,liber ,thebit de ymaginatione spere et circulorum eius diversorum2 #abdv- ,liber ,thebith de quantitatibus stellarum et planetarum4 ,also in ,harl4 #cfdg1 #aa-ad2 ,tanner #aib1 #adth century1 fol4 #ajc-2 ,,bn #gaie1 #adth century1 #ab-ae2 ,magliabech4 ,,xi-#aag1 #adth century2 ,,cul #agfg 7,ii4 ,,iii1 #c7 #abgf ,a4 ,d41 fols4 #hf-if2 and many other ,,mss4 #bfhj ,delambre 7#ahai7 #gc4 #bfha ,chwolson1 ,i1 #eea4 #bfhb ,,bn #fead1 #aj1 ,thebit de alchymia2 ,amplon4 ,quarto #cab1 written before #acbc ,a4 ,d41 fol4 #bi1 ,notule ,thebith contra alchimiam4 #bfhc ,a work on judgments is ascribed to him in a ,munich ,,ms1 ,,clm #ehh1 #adth century1 fol4 #ahi- ,thebites de iudiciis2 followed by1 #bbj- ,liber iudicialis ,ptolomei1 #bcc- ,libellus de iudiciis1 and #bch- ,modus iudicandi4 ,the treatise on fifteen stars1 fifteen herbs1 and fifteen stones1 which as we have seen is usually ascribed to ,hermes or ,enoch1 is attributed to ,thebit in at least one ,,ms1 ,,bn #gccg1 page #abi-4 #bfhd ,i1 #eea4 #bfhe ,lyons #cbh1 fols4 #gj-gd1 ,liber prestigiorum ,thebidis 7,elbidis7 secundum ,ptolemeum et ,hermetem per ,adhelardum bathoniensem translatus1 opening1 8,quicunque geometria atque philosopia peritus astronomiae expers fuerit ociosus est40 ,in this ,,ms the treatise closes with the words1 8ut prestigiorum artifex facultate non decidat40 ,this seems to be the only ,,ms known where the translation is ascribed to ,adelard of ,bath4 ,it seems to have once been part of ,avranches #bce1 #abth century1 where the same title is listed in the table of contents4 ,haskins1 in ,,ehr 7#aiaa7 #die1 fails to identify the work1 calling it 8a treatise on horoscopes40 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that ,albertus ,magnus in listing bad necromantic books on images in the ,speculum astronomiae 7cap4 xi1 ,borgnet1 ,x1 #fda7 gives the same ,incipit for a liber praestigiorum by ,hermes1 8,qui geometriae aut philosophiae peritus1 expers astronomiae fuerit 4440 ,undoubtedly the two were the same4 #bfhf ,of ,john of ,seville's translation the ,,mss are more numerous4 ,the following will serve as a representative4 ,royal #ab-;,c-,,xviii1 #adth century1 fols4 #ajv-#abr1 8,dixit thebyth bencorat et dixit aristoteles qui philosophiam et geometriam exercet et omnem scientiam legit et ab astronomia vacuus fuerit erit occupatus et vacuus quod dignior geometria et altior philosophia est ymaginum scientia4 _/ ,explicit tractatus de imaginibus ,thebith ,bencorath translatus a ,iohanne ,hyspalensi atque ,limiensi in ,limia ex ,arabico in ,latinum4 ,sit laus deo maximo40 ,this is the version cited by ,michael ,scot in his ,liber ,introductorius 7,bodleian #bff1 fol4 #bjj7 where he gives the ,incipit1 8,dixerunt enim thebith benchorath et aristoteles quod si quis philosophiam 44410 etc41 substantially as above4 ,but now comes a good joke on ,albertus1 who has listed among good astronomical books of images 7,speculum astronomiae1 cap4 xi1 ,borgnet1 p4 #fdb7 the work of 8,thebith eben chorath0 opening 8,dixit ,a4 qui philosophiam 4440 which of course is that just mentioned4 ,thus he condemns one translation of the same book and approves the other2 is he perhaps having some fun at the expense of the opponents of both astrology and necromancy8 ,it will be noted that it is ,aristotle1 rather than ,hermes or ,ptolemy1 who is cited at the start in ,john of ,seville's translation4 ,i therefore am uncertain whether ,chwolson has our treatise in mind1 when he speaks of ,thebit's commenting upon 8eine pseudohermetische ,schrift ber ,talismane u4s4w40 ,in the printed text of #aeei ,aristotle and ,ptolemy are cited in the first paragraph1 but in the ,,mss ,aristotle is cited twice4 #bfhg ,some other ,,mss differ slightly from the foregoing in their opening words1 but perhaps not enough to suggest a third translation3 ,ashmole #cdf1 #afth century1 fols4 #aac-aev1 8,incipit liber de ymaginibus secundum ,thebit4 ,in nomine pii et misericordis ,dei4 ,dixit ,thebit qui geometrie aut ,philosophie expers fuerit40 ,bodleian #dfc 7,bernard #bdef71 written in ,spain1 #adth century1 fols4 #ger-#gev1 8,dixit thebit bencorat ,ar4 qui legit phylosophiam et geumetriam et omnem scientiam et alienus fuerit ab astronomia erit impeditus vel occupatus40 ,the following ,,mss ascribe the translation to ,john of ,spain and have the usual opening words1 8,dixit ,thebit ben ,corat1 ,dixit ,aristoteles1 qui philosophiam1 etc40 ,digby #aid1 #aeth century1 fol4 #adev-4 ,s4 ,marco ,,xi-#ajb1 #adth century1 fols4 #aej-ec4 ,berlin #ifc1 #aeth century1 fol4 #adj- 8,dixit thebit ben corach ,cum volueris operari de ymaginibus10 but then at fol4 #aii1 with the usual ,incipit4 ,harleian #hj has the first part missing but ends1 fol4 #gfr1 like ,john's translation4 ,still other ,,mss are3 ,harleian #cfdg1 #acth century4 ,sloane #chdf1 fols4 #hfv-#ic2 #chdg2 and #chhc1 fols4 #hg-ic3 all three #agth century4 ,amplon4 ,quarto #agd1 #adth century1 fols4 #abj-a4 ,,bn #gbhb1 #aeth century1 #d1 interprete ,joanne ,hispalensi4 ,berlin #ifd1 #aeth century1 fols4 #bac-e4 ,vienna #bcgh1 #adth century1 fols4 #da-fc4 ,,clm #bg1 #ad-aeth century1 fols4 #ga-gg2 #ei1 #aeth century1 fols4 #bci-dc4 ,florence ,,ii-iii-#bad1 #aeth century1 fols4 #a-d1 8,incipit liber ,thebit ,benchorac de scientia omigarum et imaginum47,d7 ixit ,aristotiles qui40 #bfhh ,de tribus imaginibus magicis1 ,frankfurt1 #aeei4 #bfhi ,mineral4 ,,ii1 iii1 #c4 #bfij ,magliabech4 ,,xx-#bj1 fol4 #abr2 ,sloane #acje1 fol4 #air4 #bfia ,conciliator1 ,diff4 ,x41 fol4 #af;,,gh1 in ed4 ,venice1 #aebf4 #bfib ,commentary on the ,sphere1 cap4 #c4 #bfic ,also given as ,muhammad ibn ,zakariya 7,abu ,bakr7 ar-,razi and ,abu ,bekr ,mohammed ben ,zachariah4 #bfid ,withington in his ,medical ,history1 #ahid1 gives the date as #icb1 perhaps by a misprint4 #bfie ,ibn ,abi ,usaibi'a 7#abjc-abfi1 himself a physician and son of an oculist7 8,sources of ,information concerning ,classes of ,physicians10 compiled at ,damascus1 #abde-abdf1 ed4 by ,mller1 ,cairo1 #ahhb2 and ,ibn ,khallikan 7#abaa-abhb71 8,obituaries of ,men of ,note10 written between #abef and #abgd4 ,for these titles and most of the general account of the life and works of ,rasis which follows ,i am indebted to ,g4 ,s4 ,a4 ,ranking's 8,the ,life and ,works of ,rhazes10 pp4 #bcg-fh1 in ,transactions of the ,seventeenth ,international ,congress of ,medicine1 ,section ,,xxiii1 ,london1 #aiac4 #bfif ,the list is reproduced by ,ranking 7#aiac7 in ,arabic and ,latin1 largely on the basis of a ,,ms at the ,university of ,glasgow1 which contains a ,latin translation by a ,greek priest1 who died in #agbi1 of the ,arabic work of ,usaibi'a1 or part of it1 mentioned in the previous note3 ,hunterian ,library1 ,,ms #dd1 fols4 #a-aiv4 #bfig ,i have examined both these editions at the ,british ,museum2 ,withington does not mention them in his ,history of ,medicine1 but cites editions of the ,continens1 ,venice1 #aedb1 and ,opera ,parva1 #aeaj1 and a modern edition 7#aheh7 by the ,sydenham ,society of ,on the ,small ,pox and ,measles4 ,the pages are not numbered in the edition of #adha1 so that ,i shall not be able to give exact references to them4 #bfih ,this was sometimes reproduced separately3 see ,wolfenbttel #bhhe1 #aeth century1 fol4 #a1 ,phisonomia ,rasis1 fol4 #b1 ,phisonomia ,aristetelis1 ,rasis et ,philomenis1 summorum magistrorum in philosophia4 #bfii ,it occupies but a little over three pages in the #adha edition4 ,since in the middle of the treatise we read 8,magister rasis fecit cauterizari quidem artheticum 44410 etc41 it is perhaps by a disciple rather than ,rasis himself4 #bgjj #gi1 ,dissertatio de causis quae plerorumque hominum animos a praestantissimis ad viliores quosque medicos solent deflectere4 #abd1 ,liber1 ,quod medicus acutus non sit ille qui possit omnes curare morbos quoniam hoc non est in hominum potestate 4441 #abe1 ,epistola1 ,quod artifex omnibus numeris absolutus in quacumque arte non existat nedum in medicina speciatim3 et de causa cur imperiti medici1 vulgus1 et etiam mulieres in civitatibus1 foeliciores sint in sanandis quibusdam morbis quam viri doctissimi et de excusatione medici hoc propter4 ,there appears to be a ,german translation by ,steinschneider of this work by ,rasis on the success of quacks and charlatans in ,virchow's ,archiv f4 ,pathologische ,anatomie1 ,,xxxvi1 #egj-hf4 #bgja ,ranking 7#aiac71 #ahj1 #ae1 #ach1 #afc4 #bgjb ,ibid41 #acg2 also #ade1 ,supplementum libris ,plutarchi4 #bgjc ,ibid4 #abf1 ,liber1 ,de probatis et experientia compertis in arte medica2 per modum syntagmatis est digestus4 #bje1 ,liber1 ,quod in morbis qui determinari atque explicari non possunt oporteat ut medicus sit assiduus apud aegrotantem et debeat uti experimentis ad illos cognoscendos4 ,et de medici fluctatione4 #bgjd ,ibid4 #be1 #bf1 #cb-ce1 #ch1 #dj4 ,i should guess that #bja1 ,arcanum arcanorum de sapientia1 was the same as #ce1 ,arcanum arcanorum4 #bgje ,ibid4 #dj1 ,responsio ad philosophum el-,kendi eo quod artem al-,chymi in impossibili posuerit4 #bgjf ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #fh and #bhf-g4 ,on the alchemy of ,rasis see further in this same volume the chapter1 ,l',alchimie de ,rasis et du ,pseudo-,aristote4 #bgjg ,,bn #fead and #gaef4 #bgjh ,riccardian #aai1 fol4 #cev1 8,incipit liber luminis luminum translatus a magistro michahele scotto philosopho40 ,printed by ,j4 ,wood ,brown 7#ahig71 p4 #bdj et seq4 #bgji ,lippmann 7#aiai71 p4 #djj1 citing the ,biographies of ,albaihaqi 7#aaje-aafi74 #bgaj ,ranking1 #h4 #bgaa ,ibid4 #ajg4 #bgab ,ranking1 #acd4 ,other titles in mathematics and astronomy are3 #gc1 ,liber de sphaeris et mensuris compendiosis2 #abh1 ,de septem planetis et de sapientia2 #aee1 ,de quadrato in mathesi epistola2 also #aji and #aaj4 #bgac ,ibid4 #ac4 #bgad ,ibid4 #ea4 #bgae ,ibid4 #aeh1 ,de necessitate precationis4 #bgaf ,printed as the ,lapidary of ,aristotle1 ,merseburg1 #adgc1 p4 #b4 #bgag ,see ,de la ,ville de ,mirmont1 ,l',astrologie chez les ,gallo-,romains1 ,bordeaux1 #aijd2 also published in ,revue des tudes anciennes1 #aijb1 p4 #aae-2 #aijc1 p4 #bee-2 #aijf1 p4 #abh-4 #bgah ,goujet 7#agcg71 p4 #ej2 cited by ,c4 ,jourdain 7#ahch71 pp4 #bh-i4 #bgai ,,hl ,,iv1 #bgd-e2 ,v1 #ahb-c2 ,,vi1 #i-aj4 #bgbj ,palat4 ,lat4 #dhg1 fol4 #dj1 opening1 8,nouo et insolito siderum ortu infausta quaedam uel tristitia potius quam laeta uel prospera miseris uentura significari mortalibus pene omnia ueterum aestimauit auctoritas40 #bgba ,,hl ,,vii1 #acg4 #bgbb ,ernest ,wickersheimer1 ,figures mdico-astrologiques des neuvime1 dixime et onzime sicles1 in ,transactions of the ,seventeenth ,international ,congress of ,medicine1 ,section ,,xxiii1 ,history of ,medicine1 ,london1 #aiac1 p4 #cac et seq4 ,i have not seen ,a4 ,fischer ,aberglaube unter den ,angelsachsen1 ,meiningen1 #ahia1 or ,m4 ,frster1 ,die ,kleinlitteratur des ,aberglaubens im ,altenglischen1 in ,archiv4 f4 d4 ,studium d4 ,neuer4 ,sprachen1 vol4 #aaj1 pp4 #cdf-eh4 #bgbc ,charles ,singer1 ,studies in the ,history and ,method of ,science1 ,oxford1 #aiag1 ,plate ,,xv1 opposite p4 #dj1 reproduces this illumination4 ,the ,,ms1 ,,bn #gjbh1 seems to have once belonged to the abbey of ,st4 ,hilary at ,poitiers4 #bgbd ,besides those in ,france mentioned by ,wickersheimer may be noted two of the tenth century at ,munich3 ,,clm #ahfbi1 fol4 #aje1 8,tabula cosmica cum nominibus ventorum1 germanicorum quoque02 ,,clm #ahgfd1 fols4 #gi-hj1 8,schema de genitura mundi40 ,also ,vatic4 ,lat4 #fde1 #ith century1 fol4 #ff1 ,ventorum imagines et in circulo ,adam in medio ferarum2 fol4 #ffv1 ,planetarum figura4 ,this same ,,ms contains a conjuration written in a later hand of the eleventh or twelfth century3 fol4 #dv1 8,in nomine patris4444 ,tres angeli ambulaverunt in monte44440 ,for such an astrological diagram in an ,arabic work of the tenth century see ,e4 ,g4 ,browne 7#aiba71 #aag-h4 #bgbe ,amiens1 fonds ,lescalopier1 #b1 #aath century1 fols4 #a-ab4 #bgbf ,for instance1 for ,february1 8,bibe agrimoniam et apii semen2 oculos turbulentos sanare debes03 for ,march1 8,merum dulce primum bibe1 assum balneum usita1 sanguinem non minuas1 ruta et levestico utere40 #bgbg ,ibid41 fols4 #aa and #ai4 #bgbh ,pembroke #bgh1 early #adth century1 fol4 #be1 8,compotus est sciencia considerans tempora40 #bgbi ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afaf1 #ad leaves4 #bgcj ,,bn #gbii;,a4 #bgca ,,bn #gbii;,a1 fols4 #cev1 #cgv1 #efr4 #bgcb ,notker is especially famed for his translations with learned commentaries from ,latin into ,german1 of which five are extant1 namely3 ,the ,consolation of ,philosophy of ,boethius1 ,the ,marriage of ,mercury and ,philology of ,martianus ,capella1 the ,psalter1 and ,aristotle1 ,de categoriis and ,de interpretatione3 see ,piper1 ,die ,schriften ,notkers1 ,freiburg1 #ahhb-ahhc1 vols4 ,i-,,iii4 #bgcc ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #bbi1 fols4 #ajv-#adv4 ,notker erkenhardo discipulo de ,,iiii questionibus compoti4 ,it seems not to have been printed4 #bgcd ,cotton ,tiberius ,a1 ,,iii1 a ,,ms written in various hands before the ,norman conquest1 partly in ,latin and partly in ,anglo-,saxon1 and containing among other things the ,colloquy of ,aelfric4 ,our item occurs at fol4 #cdr in ,latin with an ,anglo-,saxon interlinear version1 and at fol4 #civ in ,anglo-,saxon only4 ,cotton ,titus ,d1 ,,xxvi1 #ajth century1 fols4 #ajv-#aav1 gives a slightly different version for some days of the week4 #bgce ,harleian #cjag1 #ajth century1 fols4 #fcr-#fdv1 ,,clm #fchb1 #aath century1 fol4 #db1 ,supputatio ,esdrae2 ,incipit1 8,kal4 ,jan4 si fuerint dominico die hiems bona erit40 ,vatican1 ,palat4 ,lat4 #bce1 #aj-aath century1 fol4 #ci1 8,subputatio quam subputavit ,esdras in templo ,hierusalem10 opening1 8,si in prima feria fuerint kl4 ,ianuarii hiemps bona erit40 ,also found in ,egerton #hba1 fol4 #ar1 which is of the twelfth century and adds a more elaborate method of divination according to what planet rules the first hour of the first night of ,january and which of its #bh mansions the moon is in4 ,,clm #iiba1 #abth century1 fol4 #a1 is a calendar with verses beginning1 8,jani prima dies et septima fine timetur40 #bgcf ,sloane #dge1 this portion perhaps #aath century1 fol4 #bagr4 ,other ,,mss of later date than the period we are now considering are3 ,harleian #bbeh1 fol4 #aia1 8prognostica a die nativitatis ,domini a luna et somniis petita10 predictions from ,christmas1 the moon1 and dreams4 ,,cul #acch1 #aeth century1 fol4 #fev1 ,prognostications derived from the day on which ,christmas falls 7in ,latin72 fol4 #gdv1 ,prognostications drawn from the day of the week on which the year commences4 ,,cu ,trinity #aaji1 #adth century1 fol4 #adh1 8,prognostica anni sequentis ex die natalium ,domini40 #bgcg ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afaf1 #ith century1 fol4 #abv4 ,similar later ,,mss are3 ,digby #hf1 #acth century1 fols4 #cb-d1 ,prognosticatio ex vento in nocte ,natalis ,domini1 and fols4 #djv-#dar1 8,les singnes del jour de ,nouel10 predictions in ,french according to the day of the week on which ,christmas falls4 ,digby #hh1 #aeth century1 fol4 #gg1 8,howe all ye yere ys rewlyde by the day that ,christemas day fallythe on10 and fol4 #djr1 8,prognostication from the sight of the sun on ,christmas and the ten days following0 7,prognosticatio ex visione solis in die ,natalis ,domini et in decem diebus subsequentibus71 and fol4 #ge1 a poem of prognostications for ,christmas day4 ,this same ,,ms contains a large number of other brief anonymous treatises in the fields of astrology and divination4 #bgch ,titus ,d1 ,,xxvi1 fol4 #iv4 ,tiberius ,a1 ,,iii1 fols4 #chr and #cer4 ,cockayne1 ,leechdoms etc41 ,,iii1 #aej-bie1 in ,,rs vol4 #ce1 published this and a number of other extracts from ,tiberius ,a1 ,,iii1 and other early ,english ,,mss4 ,vienna #bbde1 #abth century1 fols4 #eir-#fiv are devoted to various prognostications1 beginning with1 8,three days are to be observed above all others10 and ending with1 8,thunder at dawn signifies the birth of a king40 ,a dream book by ,daniel follows at fols4 #fiv-#ger4 #bgci ,vatican ,palat4 ,lat4 #bce1 fol4 #dj1 8,in mense ,ianuario si tonitru fuerit40 ,in ,egerton #hba1 #abth century1 the significance of thunder is given according to the twelve signs of the zodiac1 and we are told of what the ,egyptians write1 and of famine in ,babylon4 ,in ,,cul #afhg1 #ac-adth century1 fols4 #fhv-#fir1 ,latin verses containing prognostications concerning thunder are followed by 8a list of the number of quarters of flour1 beer1 etc41 used in the year at the monastery0 and by 8a note on the symbolism of the pastoral staff40 #bgdj ,combined with the method by the day of the week in ,,bn #gbii;,a1 #abth century1 fol4 #cgv4 #bgda ,tiberius ,a1 ,,iii1 fol4 #fcr2 ,vatican ,palat4 ,lat4 #bce1 fol4 #dj4 #bgdb ,tiberius ,a1 ,,iii1 fol4 #chv4 #bgdc ,sloane #dge1 fol4 #acev4 #bgdd ,sloane #dge1 fol4 #accr4 ,the method is almost identical with that of the spheres of life and death1 of which we shall speak presently4 ,in ,,cu ,trinity #ihg1 ,the ,canterbury ,psalter1 about #aaej ,a4 ,d41 the value assigned ,dies ,solis is #bd4 #bgde ,vatic4 ,palat4 ,lat4 #bce1 fol4 #dj1 8,de lunae observatione3 ,luna ,i omnibus rebus agendis utilis40 ,tiberius ,a1 ,,iii1 fol4 #fcr1 where1 however1 such parts of the day as morning and evening are further distinguished4 ,vatic4 ,palat4 ,lat4 #dhe1 #ith century1 fol4 #aev1 8,ad sanguinem minuendum10 merely states which days of the moon are favorable or unfavorable for blood-letting4 ,st4 ,john's #ag1 #aaaj ,a4 ,d41 fol4 #d1 ,luna quibus diebus bona est et quibus non2 fol4 #aedv1 a table of lucky and unlucky numbers4 #bgdf ,harleian #cjag1 fol4 #ehv2 the ,incipit states that it is by the same author as the preceding ,sphere of ,pythagoras and ,apuleius4 ,titus ,d1 ,,xxvi1 fol4 #h4 ,cotton ,caligula ,a1 ,,xv1 #ajth century1 fol4 #abav1 ,latin and ,anglo-,saxon4 ,egerton #hba1 fol4 #cbr1 is a twelfth century instance4 ,the method seems combined or confused with the ,egyptian days in ,vatic4 ,palat4 ,lat4 #dhe1 #ith century1 fol4 #acv1 8,dies aegyptiaci4 ,signa in quibus aegrotus an periclitare aut evadere non potest10 but opening1 8,luna ,i4 qui ceciderit in infirmitatem difficile euadit40 #bgdg ,harleian #cjag1 fol4 #ehv1 8,incipit lunarium sancti danihel de nativitate infantium4 ,luna ,i qui fuerit natus vitalis erit2 ,luna ,,ii1 mediocris erit 444 ,luna ,,iiii1 tractator regum erit 444 ,luna ,,xii1 religiosus erit 444 ,luna ,,xxx1 negotias multas tractabit40 ,tiberius ,a1 ,,iii1 fols4 #fcr and #cdv4 ,titus ,d1 ,,xxvi1 fols4 #gv and #fv4 #bgdh ,tiberius ,a1 ,,iii1 fol4 #ccv4 ,titus ,d1 ,,xxvi1 fol4 #ir4 ,,clm #fchb1 #aath century1 fol4 #db1 ,de somni ueris uel mendosis quidam incipiunt in aetatibus lunae exploratis4 #bgdi ,tiberius ,a1 ,,iii1 fols4 #cjv-#ccv1 8,finiunt somnia danielis prophete40 ,sloane #dge1 fols4 #baa-f1 is almost identical1 but ,i believe does not mention ,daniel as its author4 ,vatic4 ,palat4 ,lat4 #bce1 fol4 #civ4 ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afaf1 #ith century1 is roughly similar but names no author and does not distinguish the fates of boys and girls4 ,it usually states whether slaves who run away and thieves who steal on the day in question will be caught or escape4 ,it opens and closes thus3 8,luna prima qui incenditur in ipsa sanabitur et bona et in omnibus dare et accipere et nubere et navigare in mare et vendere et emere et omnis quicumque fugerit in ipsa aut servus aut liber non poterit sed capitur aut qui incendit incendio sanabitur 7presumably an allusion to the medical practice of cauterization7 et qui natus fuerit vitalis erit 444_/ 444 ,luna ,,xxx bona est ambulare in piscatione et qui fugit post multos annos revertitur in loco suo et qui natus fuerit dives erit et honoratissimus erit et qui incadit aut manducet aut non vivet periculo mortis habebit40 ,titus ,d1 ,,xxvii1 fols4 #bb-ber1 8judicia de diebus quibusdam cuiusque mensis02 fols4 #bg-i1 8argumentum lunare1 quando et qualiter observentur tempora ad res agendas40 ,of the twelfth century1 ,vienna #becb1 fols4 #ee-i1 8,luna ,i4 ,hec dies omnibus egrotantibus utilis est 444_/ 444 ,puer natus negotia multa sectabit40 #bgej ,sloane #bdfa1 end of #acth century1 fols4 #fb-d4 ,no ,biblical character is mentioned for the fifth and sixth days1 but we are told that on the seventh day of the moon ,abel was slain by ,cain4 ,,bn #cffj;,a1 #afth century1 fols4 #ecr-#egr1 ascribes the birth of ,nebuchadnezzar to the fifth day1 leaves the sixth blank1 has ,abel slain on the seventh1 ,methusaleh born on the eighth1 ,lamech on the ninth1 and so on4 ,egerton #hba1 #abth century1 fol4 #abr1 8,natus est ,samuel propheta44440 ,digby #hh1 #aeth century1 fol4 #fbr1 has ,english verses beginning3 8,god made ,adam the fyrst day of the moone1 ,and the second day ,eve good dedis to doone40 ,a similar poem occurs at fol4 #fd of the same ,,ms and in ,ashmole #ahi1 fol4 #bacv4 #bgea ,ashmole #cfa1 mid #adth century1 fols4 #aefv-#aehv1 8,iste sunt lunaciones quas ,adam primus homo disposuit secundum veram experientiam quam etiam suis filiis tradidit et quam maxime ,abel et ceteris de posteritate ad quos etiam concordavit ,daniel propheta 44402 fol4 #aei1 8,modo agitur de numero lune ad videndum que sit bona vel que mala et usum istarum lunacionum invenerunt ,adam et ,daniel propheta40 #bgeb ,canon4 ,misc4 #eag1 fol4 #cer1 8,incipit scientia edita ab edri philosopho astrologo et medico40 #bgec ,,bn #cffj;,a1 fols4 #ecr-#egr4 ,in the catalogue of ,ashburnham ,,mss at ,florence the name of ,giovannino di ,graziano is connected with a moon-book in ,ashburnham #acj1 #ac-aeth century1 fols4 #be-f1 8,luna prima ,adam natus fuit44440 ,but perhaps this name should go only with some prognostications1 exorcisms1 and recipes which occur at the close of the predictions for the thirty days of the moon4 #bged ,ed4 ,leemans1 #ahcc-ahhe4 #bgee ,bouch-,leclercq 7#ahii71 #ecg-db2 7#ahgi-ahhb71 ,i1 #beh-fe4 ,berthelot1 ,alchimistes grecs 7#ahhh71 ,i1 #hf-ij4 ,k4 ,sudhoff 7#aijb71 pp4 #d-f4 #bgef ,arundel #cai1 #acth century1 fol4 #br1 ,versus de faustis vel infaustis nominibus pugnantium1 is a medieval ,latin example4 #bgeg ,printed among treatises of dubious or spurious authorship with ,bede's works1 ,migne1 ,,pl #ij1 #ifc-f2 and more recently in ,riess' edition of the fragments of ,nechepso and ,petosiris 7,philologus1 ,suppl4 ,,vi1 #ahia-ahic1 pp4 #chb-c7 from ,cod4 ,laur4 ,,xxxviii1 #bd1 #i-ajth century1 fol4 #agdv4 ,wickersheimer 7#aiac71 pp4 #cae-g1 notes ,,bn #aghfh1 #ajth century1 fol4 #ac4 ,for other ,,mss see ,appendix ,i to this chapter4 #bgeh ,printed by ,paul ,lehmann1 ,apuleiusfragmente1 ,hermes ,,xlix 7#aiad71 #fab-bj4 ,for a list of some ,,mss of it see ,appendix ,i at the close of this chapter4 #bgei ,polycraticus ,i1 #ac1 ed4 ,webb1 ,i1 #ed4 ,mr4 ,webb in a note refers to an article in a ,german periodical 7,k4 ,gillert1 ,neues ,archiv d4 ,gesellschaft f4 ltere deutsche ,geschichtskunde1 ,v1 #bed7 concerning a ,,ms of the ,sphere of ,pythagoras preserved at ,petrograd1 but says nothing of the ,,mss in the ,british ,museum listed in ,appendix ,i to this chapter1--a good illustration of the unnecessary obsequiousness of ,english towards ,german scholarship which has frequently prevailed in the past4 #bgfj ,a few of them will be found listed in ,appendix ,i to this chapter4 #bgfa ,egerton #hba1 #abth century1 fol4 #aer1 8,hec est spera quod fecit sanctus ,donatus4 ,quicumque egrotare incipit44440 ,it is followed on the next page by the usual figure for the ,sphere of ,apuleius4 #bgfb ,harleian #agce2 the passages referred to in the following account occur at fols4 #cfv1 #da1 #dc1 #bi1 #ddv1 #dj1 and #civ respectively4 #bgfc ,see ,appendix ,,ii to this chapter for a list of ,,mss other than those mentioned in the following notes4 #bgfd ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #afaf1 #ith century1 fol4 #abr4 #bgfe ,digby #fc1 end of #ith century1 fol4 #cf4 #bgff ,ibid41 fols4 #dj-e4 #bgfg ,,cu ,trinity #acfi1 #aath century1 fol4 iv4 #bgfh ,,bn #gbii;,a1 #abth century1 fol4 #cgv4 #bgfi ,for further information on this point see ,budge1 ,egyptian ,magic1 #ahii1 pp4 #bbe-h2 ,webster1 ,rest ,days1 #aiaf1 pp4 #bie-g4 #bggj ,webster 7#aiaf71 pp4 #cjj-cja1 however1 speaks of #cj in a #adth century ,,ms1 #cb in an ,english ,,ms of ,henry ,,vi's reign1 and #ca in another #aeth century ,,ms4 #bgga ,cited by ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,l',astrologie grecque1 #ahii1 pp4 #dhe-f1 #fbc4 #bggb ,de proprietatibus rerum1 #adhh1 ,lindelbach1 ,heidelberg1 ,,ix1 #bj4 ,this is not to say1 however1 that they always appear in medieval calendars2 ,i did not find them in any of the #adth and #aeth century calendars from ,apulia and ,iapygia published by ,g4 ,m4 ,giovene1 ,kalendaria vetera1 ,naples1 #ahbh4 ,his calendars consist of little save saints' days1 although in some of them the beginning of dog-days is marked and when the sun enters each sign of the zodiac4 #bggc 8,black earth0 was the name given by the ,egyptians to their country4 #bggd ,imago mundi1 ,,ii1 #aji4 #bgge ,speculum naturale1 ,,xvi1 #hc1 printed by ,anth4 ,koburger1 ,nrnberg1 #adhe4 #bggf ,,hl #be1 #cbi4 ,my impression is that some medieval astronomers also denied to these ,egyptian days any astrological importance1 since they always came upon the same days of the months without reference to the phases of the moon or courses of the other planets3 but ,i cannot put my hand on such passages4 #bggg ,and is approvingly cited to that effect by ,arnald of ,villanova1 ,regulae generales curationis morborum4 ,doctrina ,,iv4 #bggh ,ashmole #cfa1 mid #adth century1 fols4 #aehv-#aei4 #bggi ,,bn #gccg1 #ad-aeth century1 p4 #ge4 ,ad-,damr states in his zoological lexicon1 7ed4 ,a4 ,s4 ,g4 ,jayaker1 #aijf1 ,i1 #acd7 that ,mohammed is reported to have said1 8,be cautious of twelve days in the year1 because they are such as cause the loss of property and bring on disgrace or dishonor40 #bghj ,m4 ,hamilton1 ,greek ,saints and ,their ,festivals1 #aiaj1 p4 #ahg1 states that 8in all parts of 7modern7 ,greece on certain days of ,august and ,march it is considered necessary to abstain from particular kinds of work in order to avoid disaster40 #bgha ,mention may perhaps be made in this connection of the 8,tobias nights10 three nights of abstinence which newly wedded couples were sometimes accustomed to observe in the middle ages in order to defeat the demons4 ,the practice is mentioned in the ,vulgate1 but not in most ancient versions of the ,book of ,tobit4 ,in #adji the citizens of ,abbeville won a lawsuit with the bishop of ,amiens who claimed the right to grant dispensations from the observance of the ,tobias nights and required that fees be paid him for that purpose4 ,see ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer 7#aiah71 ,i1 #dih-ebj1 where analogous practices of primitive tribes are listed4 #bghb ,bateson1 ,medieval ,england1 #aijd1 p4 #gb2 ,i have in the main followed the fuller account in ,,dnb 8,gerard10 from which the previous quotation is taken4 ,william of ,malmesbury1 ,gesta ,pontificum ,anglorum1 ,,iii1 #aah 7ed4 ,n4 ,e4 ,s4 ,a4 ,hamilton1 ,,rs1 vol4 #eb1 #ahgj7 does not say definitely that the book found under ,gerard's pillow was ,firmicus4 ,also he says nothing of boys stoning the bier or of ,gerard's enemies interpreting his death as a divine judgment1 and in his autograph copy of the ,gesta ,pontificum he afterwards erased the statements that rumor accused ,gerard of many crimes and lusts1 and that he was said to practice sorcery because he read ,julius ,firmicus on the sly before the midday hours1 and that people say that a book of curious arts was found beneath his pillow when he died4 ,this1 the late medieval chroniclers say1 was ,firmicus3 see ,ranulf ,higden1 ed4 ,lumby1 ,,vii1 #dbj1 and ,knyghton1 ed4 ,twysden1 ,x1 ,,ss41 #bcge4 #bghc ,firmicus ,maternus1 ed4 ,kroll et ,skutsch1 ,,ii 7#aiac71 p4 iv2 and ,f4 ,liebermann1 ed4 ,quadripartitus1 ,halle1 #ahib1 p4 #cf1 and ,die ,gesetze der ,angelsachsen1 ,halle1 #aijc-aijf1 ,i1 #edh4 #bghd ,c4 ,jourdain1 ,nicolas ,oresme et les astrologues la cour de ,charles ,v1 in ,revue des ,questions ,historiques1 #ahge1 p4 #acf4 #bghe ,english translation1 ed4 of #ahih1 p4 #ejh4 #bghf ,n4 ,valois 7#ahhj71 p4 #cje4 #bghg ,additional #ag1hjh1 a narrow folio in vellum with all the treatises written in the same large1 plain hand with few abbreviations4 ,a considerable part of the ,,ms is occupied by the work on music of ,guido of ,arezzo 7c4 #iie-ajej74 ,this ,,ms is not noted by ,wickersheimer or by ,bubnov1 although it includes treatises on the abacus and the astrolabe which are perhaps by ,gerbert4 #bghh ,,bn #ag1hfh1 from the chapter of ,notre ,dame of ,paris1 #ba leaves4 ,wickersheimer 7#aiac71 #cba-c1 states that it has all the marks of the writing of the tenth century3 ,delisle so dated it4 ,bubnov 7#ahii71 ,,lxvii1 regards fols4 #adr et seq4 as by a slightly older hand than the first portion4 #bghi ,bubnov 7#ahii71 #abd-f1 note4 #bgij ,,clm #efj1 described in ,bubnov1 ,gerberti opera mathematica1 #ahii1 p4 xli4 #bgia ,ibid41 fols4 #afr-#ai1 ,fragmentum libelli de astrolabio a quodam ex ,arabico versi4 ,incipit1 8,ad intimas summe phylosophie disciplinas et sublimia ipsius perfectionis archisteria40 ,printed by ,bubnov 7#ahii71 pp4 #cgj-ge4 #bgib ,incipit 8,quicumque astronomiam peritiam disciplinae02 the printed editions insert a discere after astronomiam1 but it has not been there in the ,,mss which ,i have seen and is not needed4 ,printed by ,pez1 ,thesaurus ,anecdotorum ,noviss4 ,,iii1 ii1 #aji-cj1 7#agba7 and incorrectly ascribed by him to ,hermannus ,contractus1 because it often occurs in the ,,mss together with another treatise on the astrolabe by a 8,herimannus ,christi pauperum peripsima et philosophiae tyronum asello imo limace tardior assecla40 ,of this last we shall have more to say presently4 ,the edition of ,pez reappears in ,migne1 ,,pl vol4 #adc4 ,bubnov 7#ahii71 #aad-dg1 gives a new edition1 and at pp4 #aji-ac a list of the ,,mss of the work1 in which1 however1 he fails to note the following3 and they are also absent from his general index of #aec codices at pp4 xvii-xc4 ,,bm ,additional ,,ms #aghjh1 #aath century1 fols4 #gcv-#gir1 under the title as in other ,,mss of 8,regulae ex libris ,ptolomei regis de compositione astrolapsus40 ,yet ,bubnov says1 p4 cxvi1 8,catalogues of ,additional ,,mss 7omnia volumina inspexi1 quae ante a4 #ahie edita sunt740 ,,bm ,egerton #hbc1 #abth century1 fol4 #dr4 ,,bn #gdab1 #abth and #acth centuries1 fols4 #a-i1 8,waztalkora sive tract4 de utilitatibus astrolabii40 ,professor ,d4 ,b4 ,macdonald suggests that ,waztalkora is for rasmu-l-kura1 8the describing of the sphere in lines40 #bgic 7#ahii71 p4 #cgj4 #bgid 7#ahii71 p4 #cgd4 #bgie ,ep4 #bd4 #bgif 7#ahii71 p4 #cgj4 #bgig ,p4 #aji4 #bgih ,bubnov 7#ahii71 #cgj4444 8,hoc opusculum ex ,arabico versum ad manum habuit1 retractavit dicendique genere expolivit40 #bgii ,printed by ,pez4 ,thesaur4 ,anecdot4 ,noviss4 ,,iii1 ii1 #ie-ajf4 8,herimannus ,christi pauperum peripsima et philosophiae tyronum asello imo limace tardior assecla40 ,the ,,mss are numerous4 #bhjj ,digby #agd1 fol4 #bajv2 also noted by ,bubnov 7#ahii71 p4 #aac4 ,hermann's dedicatory prologue1 however1 does not give his friend's name in full1 but reads in this ,,ms1 8,b4 amico suo40 #bhja ,see ,clerval1 ,hermann le ,dalmate1 ,paris1 #ahia1 in ,compte rendu du ,congrs scientifique international des catholiques1 ,sciences ,historiques1 #afc-i4 ,also1 ,i believe1 published separately as ,hermann le ,dalmate et les premires traductions latines des traits arabes d'astronomie au moyen ge1 ,paris1 ,picard1 #ahia1 #aa pp4 ,clerval adduced only one ,,ms in support of his contention and took up the untenable position that ,arabic astronomy was unknown in ,latin until the twelfth century4 ,he also did not distinguish between the different works on the astrolabe4 #bhjb ,munich ,,clm #adhcf1 fols4 #afv-#bdr4 ,,bm ,royal #ae-;,b-,,ix1 fol4 #ear-3 in both cases followed by the treatise of twenty-one chapters4 #bhjc ,professor ,haskins has announced as in preparation an article on ,hermann the translator which will perhaps solve the difficulties4 #bhjd ,in a ,berlin manuscript of the twelfth century 7,berlin #ief1 fol4 #aa7 there is added a note in a thirteenth century hand recounting the legend that this ,hermann was the son of a king and queen and that1 his mother having been asked before his birth whether she would prefer a handsome and foolish son or a learned and shamefully ugly one and she having chosen the latter alternative1 he was born hunchbacked and lame4 ,it was from this ,,ms of the treatise on the astrolabe that ,pertz edited the legend in the ,monumenta ,germaniae 7,scriptores1 ,v1 #bfg74 ,rose 7#aije71 p4 #aagi1 calls the writer of this note ,berengar1 too1 asking anent the opening words of the note1 8,de isto hermanno legitur in historia10 8,aus welcher historia hat der ,schreiber 7,berengarius7 seine ,fabeln80 ,the note at the close of the treatise in ,digby #agd1 fol4 #bajv1 gives a different version of the legend1 stating that ,hermann was a good man and dear to ,god and that one day an angel offered him his choice between bodily health without great wisdom and the greatest science with corporal infirmity4 ,hermann chose the latter and afterwards became a paralytic and gouty4 #bhje ,this treatise1 in which ,hermann expresses amazement that ,bede has so underestimated the duration of the moon1 immediately precedes the one on the astrolabe in ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #bbi1 a ,german ,,ms of the twelfth century1 fols4 #agr-#air 7formerly pp4 #bfe-bfi74 ,after the treatise on the astrolabe follows a third work by ,hermann1 8de quodam horologio10 fols4 #bev-#bhr4 ,then follows the treatise in twenty-one chapters on the astrolabe4 ,these citations alone are sufficient to demonstrate the error of ,clerval's assertion3 7#ahia71 #afe4 8,on ne peut invoquer aucune preuve srieuse en faveur d',hermann ,contract4 ,jacques de ,bergame et ,trithme 444 sont les premiers qui aient attribu au moine de ,constance les traits en question40 #bhjf ,bubnov 7#ahii7 #cgb4 8,habet etiam ex divinitatis archana institutione et physica lata ratione cum omnibus mundanis creaturis concordiam in rebus omnibus1 secundum phisiologos non parvam congruentiam44440 ,bubnov unfortunately used only one of his four ,,mss in printing this text1 and there often seems to be something wrong with it or with his punctuation4 ,this criticism applies more especially to the passage quoted in the following footnote4 #bhjg ,ibid41 8,et ut ,chaldaicas reticeam gentilogias 7sic7 qui omnem humanam vitam astrologicis attribuunt rationationibus et quosdam constellationum effectus per xii signa disponunt1 quique etiam conceptiones et nativitates1 hominumque mores1 prospera seu adversa ex cursu siderum explicare conantur4 ,quod illorum tamen frivolae superstitiositati concedendum est1 dum omnia divinae dispositioni commendanda sint4 ,illud est ovum a nullo forbillandum 7,bubnov suggests the reading furcillandum in parentheses1 but sorbillandum seems to me the obvious reading71 nisi prius foetidos inscitiae exhalaverit ructus et feces mundialium evomerit studiorum40 ,the passage is rather incoherent as it stands1 but ,i hope that ,i have correctly interpreted its meaning4 #bhjh ,,iii1 #dc-de4 #bhji ,ademarus ,cabannensis1 who died about #ajce 7,bubnov1 #ahii1 #chb-c74 ,for ,gerbert's sources in ,barcelona see ,j4 ,m4 ,burnam1 8,a ,group of ,spanish ,manuscripts10 in ,bulletin ,hispanique1 ,annales de la ,facult des ,lettres de ,bordeaux1 ,,xxii1 #d1 p4 #cbi4 #bhaj ,,iii1 #dh-ec4 #bhaa 8,plurima me docuit ,neptanebus ille magister0 7,bubnov1 #cha74 #bhab ,de rebus gestis regum ,anglorum1 ,,ii1 #afg-h4 #bhac ,bodleian #bff1 fol4 #ber4 #bhad ,bubnov 7#ahii71 #cia4 ,on ,gerbert as a magician see further ,j4 ,j4 ,i4 ,dllinger1 ,die ,papst-,fabeln des ,mittelalters1 ,munich1 #ahfc1 pp4 #aee-ei4 #bhae ,digby #hc1 quarto in skin1 well written in large letters with few abbreviations and illustrated with many figures in red1 #gf leaves4 ,for the ,incipits of the four books and their prologues see ,macray's ,catalogue of the ,digby ,,mss4 #bhaf ,another indication of mathematical activity in tenth century ,england is provided by some old verses in ,english in ,royal #ag-;,a-,i1 fols4 #bv-#c1 which state that ,euclid's geometry was introduced into ,england 8,yn tyme of good kyng ,adelstones day40 ,usually the first ,latin translation of ,euclid is supposed to have been that by ,adelard of ,bath in the early twelfth century4 ,halliwell 7#ahci71 #ef4 #bhag ,digby #hc1 fol4 #bd1 8,epistola ,ethelwodi ad ,girbertum papam4 ,domino summo pontifici et philosopho ,girberto pape athelwoldus vite felicitatem44440 ,gerbert of course did not become pope until long after ,ethelwold's death1 but this ,titulus and ,incipit are open to suspicion anyway1 since if ,gerbert had become pope he should have been addressed as ,pope ,silvester4 ,the article on ,ethelwold 7,,dnb7 states that 8a treatise on the circle1 said to have been written by him and addressed to ,gerbert1 afterwards ,pope ,silvester ,,ii1 is in the ,bodleian ,library 7#afhd1 ,bodl4 ,,ms4 ,digby #hc1 f4 #bd740 ,william of ,malmesbury mentioned 8,adelboldum episcopum1 ut dicunt1 ,winterbrugensem0 as the author of the letter to ,gerbert1 quoted by ,bubnov 7#ahii71 #chh4 #bhah ,it has always been so printed3 by ,pez1 ,olleris1 ,curtze1 and ,bubnov1 and seems to be ascribed to him in most ,,mss1 for which and other evidence pointing to the bishop of ,utrecht as author see ,bubnov 7#ahii71 #cjj-cji1 #da-de1 #chd1 etc4 ,bubnov1 however1 failed to note ,digby #hc either in connection with this letter or at all in his long list of mathematical ,,mss 7,,xvii-,,cxix74 ,it may therefore be well to note that the letter as given in ,digby #hc differs considerably from the version printed by ,bubnov4 ,it in general omits epistolary amenities which do not bear directly on the mathematical question in hand1 notably the entire first paragraph of ,bubnov's text and the close of the second and third paragraphs4 ,it also abbreviates portions of the fifth paragraph and the last sentence of the eighth and last paragraph4 ,on the other hand after the first sentence of the fifth paragraph of ,bubnov's text it inserts the following passage which seems to be missing in ,bubnov's text of the letter3 8,si quis ergo vult invenire quadraturam circuli dividat lineam in ,,vii partes spatiumque unius septime partis semotim ponat4 ,deinde lineam in ,,vii divisam in duo distribuat et spatium alterius duorum separatim ponat4 ,post hoc lineam in ,,vii partitam triplicet cui triplicate spatium unius septime quod semoverat adiciat4 ,ipsa denique totam in ,,iiii partiatur quarum quarta angulis directis per lineam quadrangulam metiatur4 ,ad ultimum sumpto spatio alterius duorum quod prius reposuerat deposito puncto in medio quadranguli eodem spatio circumducat circinum 7circulum7 et sic inveniet circuli quadraturam40 #bhai ,bubnov 7#ahii71 #da-db1 8quod tantum virum quasi conscolasticum iuvenis convenio40 #bhbj ,bubnov does not include it in his edition of the mathematical works of ,gerbert1 but as we have seen he was unaware of the existence of this ,,ms1 i4e41 ,digby #hc4 #bhba ,and also to the ,incipit of a treatise in a tenth century ,,ms at ,paris1 ,,bn #ag1hfh1 fol4 #adr1 8,quicumque nosse desiderat legem astrorum44440 ,the treatise or fragment in this ,paris ,,ms seems to end at fol4 #agr1 or at least at fol4 #agv1 after which most of the few remaining leaves of the ,,ms1 which has only #ba leaves in all1 are blank4 ,there is some similarity of contents1 but the ,paris ,,ms is more astrological4 ,possibly1 however1 it is a different part of1 or rather extracts from the same work1 since we shall see reasons for thinking that the text in ,digby #hc is incomplete4 #bhbb ,at least such seems to me to be the meaning of the passage1 fol4 #bar1 8,quippe cum aliquando per situm gentium ipsarum positionem stellarum demonstrati simus precognita populorum habitatione rei effectus ad faciliorem curret eventus40 #bhbc ,fol4 #bbr4 #bhbd ,fol4 #gfr1 the closing words are1 8,quod autem de elementis diximus idem de temporibus deque humoribus intellige sicut hec figura evidentissime designat40 ,but the figure is not given4 #bhbe ,fol4 #bgv4 #bhbf ,fol4 #cav1 8per que predicti planete revoluti diversa in diversis possunt et etiam secundum genethliacos bonum quidam in quibusdam malum vero in quibusdam quidam nativitatibus hominem astruunt40 #bhbg ,fol4 #cbr4 #bhbh ,fol4 #cfr4 #bhbi ,fol4 #eir1 8,herastotenes40 #bhcj ,fol4 #bar-v4 #bhca ,fol4 #cbr4 #bhcb ,de rebus gestis regum ,anglorum1 ,,ii1 #afg4 #bhcc ,addit4 #aghjh1 fols4 #hev-#iiv1 8,mathematica ,alhandrei summi astrologi4 ,luna est frigide nature et argentei coloris _/ oculis descriptio talis subiciatur03 and ,,clm #efj1 fols4 #fa-hg1 which ,i have not seen but which from the description in the catalogue is evidently the same treatise and has the same ,incipit1 although no author or title seems to be given4 #bhcd ,bodleian #bff1 fol4 #agiv1 8libellum fortune faciens mentionem de tribus faciebus signorum et planetis regnantibus in eisdem 444 mulieres docte40 #bhce ,,bn #beih1 #aeth century1 fol4 #ajhr4 #bhcf ,,bn #aghfh1 fols4 #br-#abv4 8,incipit liber ,alchandrei0 7,wickersheimer7 or ,alchandri 7,bubnov7 8philosophi4 ,luna est frigide nature et argentei coloris40 ,in a passage of ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #hfv1 where the years from the beginning of the world are being reckoned1 the year of writing is apparently given as #ajdj ,a4 ,d41 but the existence of the treatise in ,,bn #aghfh shows that it was written before #ajjj4 ,also there is something wrong with the passage mentioned in ,addit4 #aghjh--;as is very apt to be the case with such figures in medieval ,,mss--for the number of years from the beginning of the world to the birth of ,christ is given as #digj and then the sum of the two as #fjah instead of #fjaj years1 while at fol4 #hev other estimates are given of the number of years between the ,creation and the ,incarnation4 #bhcg ,the spellings of such proper names vary in the different ,,mss or even in the same one4 #bhch ,steinschneider 7#aije7 #cj1 briefly notes 8,alcandrinus10 however4 ,see below1 p4 #gae of the present chapter4 #bhci ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #hev2 ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #br4 #bhdj ,addit4 #aghjh1 fols4 #hfr-#hgr2 ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #cv4 #bhda ,addit4 #aghjh1 fols4 #hgv-#hhr4 #bhdb ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #br2 ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #hev2 8,iuxta que quia omnia humana secundum nutum dei disponuntur per septem planetas que subter 7subtus7 feruntur eorum nobis potestas innuitur03 ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #cr2 ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #hfv1 8,per has autem vii planetas quia ut diximus et adhuc probabimus humana fata disponuntur regulam certam demus qua in quo signo queque sit pronoscatur40 ,only in a third passage does he attribute such views to the mathematici2 ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #hhv1 8,cum sint signa xii in zodiaco cumque iuxta mathematicos et secundum horum diversissimos potestates fata omnium ita volente sapientissimo domino disponantur44440 #bhdc ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #hir1 8,que quum ita discernuntur non falsa opinio persuasit istis humana principaliter gubernante domino moderari cum itaque ut mundus homo unusquisque ex his iiii compaginetur elementis40 #bhdd ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #hiv4 ,but the lists are left incomplete and a blank leaf1 which is also left unnumbered1 follows in the ,,ms4 #bhde ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #er3 ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #ijr1 8,hec sunt xxviii principales partes vel astra per que omnium fata disponuntur et indubitanter tam futura quam presentia prenuntiantur a quocumque itus reditus ortus occasus horum horoscoporum iocundissimo auxilio diligenter providentur40 #bhdf ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #ev4 #bhdg ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #fr4 #bhdh ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #ir-2 ,addit4 #aghjh1 fols4 #idv-#iev4 #bhdi ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #ajr2 ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #ifr4 #bhej ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #igr4 #bhea ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #igv4 ,in ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #aar1 we read1 8,explicit liber primus4 ,incipit liber secundus40 ,and then begins the letter of ,argafalaus with the words1 8,regi macedonum ,alexandro astrologo et universa philosophia perfectissimo ,argafalaus servuus suus condicione et nacione ingenuus caldeus1 professione vero secundus ab illo astrologus40 #bheb ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #iir-v4 ,this does not appear in ,,bn #aghfh which goes on to discuss various astrological influences of the #ab hours of the day and of the night4 ,after this there is a space left blank in the middle of fol4 #abv3 then more is said concerning hours of the planets and interrogations until at the bottom of fol4 #acr comes the letter of ,phethosiris to ,nechepso4 ,but no definite ending is indicated either of the letter of ,argafalaus or the ,liber ,secundus of ,alchandrus4 ,in a ,,ms now missing but listed in the late #aeth century catalogue of the ,,mss in the library of ,st4 ,augustine's ,abbey1 ,canterbury 7,no4 #aagb1 ,james #ccb7 was a 8,breviarium alhandredi su'm astrologi et peritissimi de soia 7scienda87 qualibet ignota nullo decrete40 ,this was one of the ,,mss donated to the monastery by ,john of ,london4 ,,bn #dafa1 #afth century1 #e1 ,breviarium ,alhandriae1 summi ,astrologi de scientia qualiter ignota nullo indicante investigari possit4 #bhec ,addit4 #aghjh1 fol4 #hir1 8figuram quam super hac re ,alexander ,macedo composuit diligentissime posterius describemus02 fol4 #ier1 8,hinc ,alexander macedo dicit eclipsin solis et lune certissima ratione colligi02 fol4 #ifr4 8,aut iuxta alexandrum macedonem draco quasi octava planeta40 #bhed ,ashmole #cfi1 late #acth century1 fols4 #gg-hdv4 8,mathematica ,alexandri summi astrologi4 ,in exordio omnis creature herus huranicus inter cuncta sidera ,,xii maluit signa fore 444_/ 444 nam quod lineam designat eandem stellam occupat4 ,explicit40 ,a further discussion of the contents of this work will be found below in ,chapter #dh1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bei4 #bhee ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #agr4 ,the ,incipit is the same as in ,ashmole #cfi4 ,the work here seems to be incomplete1 since after fol4 #agv most of the remaining leaves of the ,,ms 7which has #ba fols4 in all7 are blank4 #bhef ,the vowels being represented by the consonants following1 a common medieval cipher4 #bheg ,all ,souls #ha1 #aeth century1 fols4 #adev-#afdr4 8,cum sint #bh mansiones lune44440 ,coxe was mistaken in thinking that the work of ,alkandrinus continued to fol4 #ahh and was in two parts1 for at fol4 #afcr we read1 8,expliciunt iudicia libri ,alkandrini que sunt in divisione triplici #ab signorum que sunt apparencie per certa tempora super terram40 ,moreover1 the seven chapters on the planets which follow end at fol4 #ahcv 8444 finem fecimus4 ,completa fuit hec compilatio in conversione sancti pauli apostoli anno domini #acej 7#acje87 vacante sede per mortem ,benedicti undecimi cuius anima requiescat in pace4 ,amen40 ,it would therefore seem that some compiler has made an extract from ,alchandrus on the twenty-eight mansions4 #bheh ,,bn #ajbga1 fols4 #ir-#ebv1 8,incipit liber alchandrini philosophi de nativitatibus hominum secundum compositionem duodecim signorum celi1 quem reformavit quidem philosophus cristianus prout patet1 quia in quibusdam differt iste liber ab antiquo primordiali4 ,primo facies arietis in homine sive in masculo4 ,alnaliet est prima facies arietis44440 #bhei ,steinschneider 7#aije71 #cj4 #bhfj ,the editio princeps seems to be 8,arcandam doctor peritissimus ac non vulgaris astrologus1 de veritatibus et praedictionibus astrologiae et praecipue nativitatum seu fatalis dispositionis vel diei cuiuscunque nati1 nuper per ,magistrum ,richardum ,roussat1 canonicum ,lingoniensem1 artium et medicinae professorem1 de confuso ac indistincto stilo non minus quam e tenebris in lucem aeditus1 re cognitus1 ac innumeris 7ut pote passim7 erratis expurgatus1 ita ut per multa maxime necessaria et utilissima adiecerit atque adnotaverit modo eiusdem dexteritate praelo primo donatus40 ,paris1 #aedb4 ,the ,british ,museum also contains another ,latin edition of ,paris1 #aeec2 ,french editions of ,rouen1 #aehd and #aehg1 ,lyons #afbe2 and ,english versions printed at ,london1 #afbf 7translated from the ,french71 #afcj1 #afcg1 and #afgj4 #bhfa ,,bn #gcdi1 #aeth century1 fol4 #efr1 seems only a fragment of the work2 ,,bn #gcea1 #adth century1 takes up the various signs4 #bhfb ,,clm #ebg1 #ac-adth century1 fols4 #cf-db1 de physica signorum et supernascentium et aegrotantium4 #bhfc ,addit4 #aebcf1 ,english hand of #ac-adth century1 fols4 #acj-ebr 8libellus ,alchandiandi40 ,,bn #gdhf1 #adth century1 8,incipit liber alkardiani phylosophi4 ,cum omne quod experitur sit experiendum propter se vel propter aliud44440 #bhfd ,the set in which the first line reads1 8,tuum indumentum durabit tempore longo40 #bhfe ,very probably this title was derived from the ,incipit just given in note #d1 p4 #gaf4 #bhff ,see ,sloane #bdgb1 #ceed1 #cheg4 #bhfg ,,bn #aghfh1 fol4 #adr-#afv4 ,the letter of ,petosiris on the sphere of life and death at fol4 #acr-v 8,incipit epistola ,phetosiri de sphaera0 separates this treatise or fragment from the preceding liber ,alchandri philosophi4 ,also this treatise is in a different and slightly older hand than fols4 #b-ac are1 or at least such was ,bubnov's opinion 7#ahii71 #abe1 note4 #bhfh ,,bn #agfhf1 fol4 #adv1 8que sarraceni nuncupant ita40 #bhfi ,berlin #afe 7,phillips #agij71 #i-ajth century4 ,i have not seen the ,,ms1 but follow ,rose's full description of it in his ,verzeichnis der lateinischen ,handschriften1 ,i1 #cfb-i4 #bhgj ,cod4 ,casin4 #ig ,gal4 ,i1 #bd-ea4 #bhga ,berlin #afe1 fol4 #hh4 #bhgb ,ibid41 fols4 #dj-b4 #bhgc ,ibid41 fol4 #civ4 #bhgd ,edited with an ,english translation1 which ,i employ in my quotations1 by ,rev4 ,oswald ,cockayne in vol4 ,,ii of his ,leechdoms1 ,wortcunning1 and ,starcraft of ,early ,england1 in ,,rs vol4 #ce1 in #c vols41 ,london1 #ahfd-ahff4 ,the relation of ,bald and ,cild to the work is indicated by the colophon at the close of the second book3 8,bald habet hunc librum1 ,cild quem conscribere iussit10--8,bald owns this book2 ,cild is the one he told to write 7or copy87 it40 ,the following third book is therefore presumably of other authorship4 #bhge ,j4 ,f4 ,payne1 ,english ,medicine in ,anglo-,saxon ,times1 #aijd1 p4 #aee4 #bhgf ,book ,i1 cap4 #hg4 #bhgg ,i1 #de4 #bhgh ,i1 #he4 #bhgi ,,iii1 #dg4 #bhhj ,i1 #hf4 #bhha ,i1 #fh4 #bhhb ,,ii1 #ff4 #bhhc ,i1 #de4 #bhhd ,i1 #fc4 #bhhe ,,ii1 #fe4 #bhhf ,,iii1 #fa4 #bhhg ,sloane #dge 7olim ,fr4 ,bernard #aaf71 #bca leaves1 including two codices1 one of the #abth century1 which is also medical but with which we shall not deal at present1 and the other of the #ajth or #aath century and written in different hands4 ,the ,,ms is mutilated both at the beginning and the close4 ,sloane #bhci1 #aath century1 #aab leaves4 #bhhh ,sloane #bhci1 fols1 iv-#c1 8,liber ,cirrurgium ,cauterium ,apollonii et ,galieni40 ,james1 ,western ,,mss in ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,,iii1 #bf-h1 describes fifty drawings1 chiefly of surgical operations1 in ,,ms #ajdd1 early #acth century4 ,by that date cauterization seems to have become less common4 #bhhi ,professor ,t4 ,w4 ,todd thinks that ,i am too severe upon the practice of cauterization1 and that it may sometimes have served as a counter-irritant like mustard plasters and the blister4 #bhij ,sloane1 #bhci1 fols4 #giv-#hjv4 #bhia 8,ad stomachum ubi ferro operare non oportes sansugias apponas40 #bhib ,imbrocare4 ,i have not discovered exactly what it means4 #bhic ,sloane #dge1 fol4 #bbdr2 ,sloane #bhci1 fol4 #igr4 #bhid ,sloane #dge1 fol4 #acc1 et seq4 #bhie ,sloane #dge1 fol4 #bbdv4 #bhif ,sloane #dge1 fols4 #a-abd4 ,at fol4 #cfr occurs the familiar pseudo-letter of ,hippocrates to ,antigonus2 at fols4 #hv-#ajr is a passage almost identical with that at the close of the ,de medicamentis of ,marcellus1 #ahhi1 p4 #chb2 an incantation from ,marcellus is repeated at fol4 #aagv4 ,at fol4 #cgr we read 8,explicit ,liber ,,ii4 ,incipit ,liber ,tertius ad ventris rigiditatem02 at fol4 #fjr1 8,explicit liber tertius4 ,incipit ,liber ,,iiii02 at fol4 #her1 8,incipit ,liber ,v40 #bhig ,see fol4 #aajr1 8,cros1 oros1 comigeos1 delig7c7ros1 falicros1 spolicros1 splena mihi02 and fol4 #aadr1 8,opas1 nolipas1 opium1 nolimpium40 ,those who delight in ciphers will perhaps detect in the latter incantation a hidden allusion to opiates4 #bhih ,fol4 #aagv2 see ,marcellus 7#ahhi71 p4 #abc1 cap4 #ab4 #bhii ,fol4 #aaar4 #bijj ,fol4 #aaav4 #bija ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #bbi1 fol4 #gv 7once p4 #bdf71 8nomina septem sanctorum germanorum dormientium que sunt hec1 ,maximianus1 ,malchus1 ,martinianus1 ,constantinus1 ,dionisius1 ,iohannes1 ,serapion40 #bijb ,sloane #dge1 fol4 #abbv4 #bijc 8,ellum super ellam sedebat et virgam viridem in manu tenebat et dicebat1 ,virgam viridis reunitere in simul40 #bijd ,sloane #dge1 fol4 #aabv4 ,unintelligible letters follow4 #bije ,egerton #hba1 #abth century1 fols4 #ebv-#fjv4 #bijf ,ibid41 fol4 #ecv1 vultilis1 which ,i assume should be vulturis rather than vituli1 or bull-calf4 #bijg ,egerton #hba1 fol4 #eg4 #bijh ,ibid41 fol4 #ehv4 #biji ,ibid41 fol4 #fjr4 #biaj ,,bn #gjbh1 #aath century1 fols4 #acfv1 #adj-c1 #aedr1 and #aefr4 #biaa ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #bbi1 #abth century1 fols4 #ar-#ajr 7once pp4 #bcc-ea71 opening1 8,rationem observationis vestre pietati secundum precepta doctorum medicinalium ut potui44440 #biab ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #bbi1 fol4 #br4 ,march is treated first and ,february last1 while a similar discussion later in the same work 7fols4 #hr-#ir1 ,quid unoquoque mense utendum quidve vitandum sit7 begins with ,january4 #biac ,,bn nouv4 acq4 #bbi1 fol4 #g4 #biad ,fol4 #fr4 #biae ,fol4 #dv4 #biaf ,fols4 #dv-#er4 #biag ,fol4 #gr4 #biah ,fol4 #gr-v4 #biai ,fol4 #gv4 #bibj ,fol4 #iv4 #biba ,what is known of the ,school of ,salerno has already been briefly indicated in ,english by ,h4 ,rashdall1 ,universities of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 #ahie1 ,i1 #ge-hf1 and ,t4 ,puschmann1 ,history of ,medical ,education1 ,english translation1 ,london1 #ahia1 pp4 #aig-baa4 ,the standard work on the subject is ,salvatore ,de ,renzi1 ,collectio ,salernitana1 in ,italian with ,latin texts1 published at ,naples in five volumes from #aheb to #ahei4 ,it contains a history of the ,school of ,salerno by ,renzi and various texts brought to light and dissertations discussing them by ,renzi1 ,daremberg1 ,henschel1 and others4 ,unfortunately this publication proceeded by the unsystematic piecemeal and hand-to-mouth method1 and new texts and discoveries were brought to the editor's attention during the process1 so that the history of the school and the texts in the earlier volumes have to be supplemented and corrected by the fuller versions and dissertations in the later volumes4 ,it is too bad that all the materials could not have been collected and more systematically arranged and collated before publication4 ,also some of the texts printed have but the remotest connection with ,salerno1 while others have nothing to do with medicine4 ,to this collection of materials some further additions have been made by ,p4 ,giacosa1 ,magistri ,salernitani nondum editi1 ,turin1 #aija4 ,for further bibliography see in the recent reprint of ,harrington's ,english translation1 ,the ,school of ,salerno 7#aibj71 pp4 #ej-eb4 #bibb ,notably ,daremberg4 #bibc ,,ii1 #ei 7,,mg4 ,,ss4 ,,iii1 #fjj74 #bibd ,s4 de ,renzi1 ,collectio ,salernitana1 ,,iv1 #ahe1 ,practica ,petroncelli1 perhaps from an imperfect copy2 ,,iv1 #cae1 ,sulle opere che vanno sotto il nome di ,petroncello4 ,heeg1 ,pseudodemocrit4 ,studien1 in ,abhandl4 d4 ,berl4 ,akad4 7#aiac71 p4 #db1 shows that what ,renzi printed tentatively as the table of contents and an extract from the third book of the ,practica1 is not by ,petrocellus but by the ,pseudo-,democritus1 and that one ,,ms of it dates from the ninth or tenth century4 #bibe ,petrocellus1 1 ,eine ,sammlung von ,rezepten in englischer ,sprache aus dem #aa-ab ,jahrhundert4 ,nach einer ,handschrift des ,britischen ,museums herausg4 v4 ,m4 ,lweneck 7in ,anglo-,saxon and ,latin71 #ahif1 pp4 viii1 #eg1 ,heft #ab in ,erlanger ,beitrge z4 englischen ,philologie4 ,the treatise perhaps also contains selections from the ,passionarius of ,gariopontus4 ,it had been published before in ,cockayne1 ,anglo-,saxon ,leechdoms1 #ahfd-ahff1 ,,iii1 #hb-adc4 #bibf ,payne 7#aijd71 pp4 #aee-f4 #bibg ,ibid41 p4 #adh4 #bibh ,the ,latin text reads1 8liver of a hedgehog10 and doubtless either would be equally efficacious4 #bibi ,quoted by ,payne 7#aijd71 p4 #aeb1 from ,cockayne's translation4 #bicj ,renzi 7#aheb-i71 ,,iv1 #ahe4 #bica ,renzi1 ,,iv1 #aij1 8,propterea fili karissime cum diuturno tempore de medicina tractassemus omnipotentis ,dei nutu admonitus placuit ut ex grecis locis sectantes auctores omnium causarum dogmata in breviloquium latino sermone conscriberemus40 #bicb ,for the two passages on epilepsy see ,renzi1 ,,iv1 pp4 #bce and #bic4 #bicc ,renzi1 ,i1 #dag-eaf1 ,flos medicinae1 a text of #bacj lines2 ,v1 #a-ajd1 the fuller text of #cebf lines2 #aac-gb1 ,notice bibliographique2 #che-djf1 ,notes choisies de ,m4 ,baudry de ,balzac au ,flos ,sanitatis4 #bicd 8,anglorum ,regi scribit ,schola tota ,salerni40 ,some ,,mss have ,francorum or ,roberto instead of ,anglorum4 #bice ,lines #bfib-c4 #bicf ,k4 ,sudhoff1 ,zum ,regimen ,sanitatis ,salernitanum1 in ,archiv f4 ,gesch4 d4 ,medizin1 ,,vii 7#aiad71 #cfj1 and ,,ix 7#aiae-aiaf71 #a-i4 #bicg ,arnald de ,villanova1 ,opera1 ,lyons1 #aecb1 fol4 #adgv4 #bich ,lines #aiah-i1 #aicb-c1 #aigc-d1 #aihe1 in ,renzi's first text of #bacj lines2 in the fuller version they are somewhat more widely separated3 lines #cjec1 #cacj1 #cbbg1 #cbfg4 #bici ,lines #ahde-ee or #bhgc-hc4 #bidj ,renzi1 ,v1 #cgg-h4 #bida ,ibid41 #cgb-c4 #bidb ,ibid41 #cgi-ha4 #bidc ,ibid41 #cej4 #bidd ,professor ,t4 ,wingate ,todd comments upon this passage3 8,of course this is post hoc propter hoc1 but it is the typical history of a case of ,bell's palsy occurring after a #8chill4'0 #bide ,renzi1 ,v1 #cga1 8,involuntariam urine emissionem quidam patiebantur et adhuc multi patiuntur et maxime servi et ancille qui male induti et discalciati incedunt1 unde frigiditate incensa vesica fit quasi paralitica cum urinam nequeat continere40 #bidf ,giacosa 7#aija71 pp4 #ga-aff4 #bidg ,giacosa 7#aija71 p4 #adf4 #bidh ,ibid41 p4 #ade4 #bidi ,renzi1 ,v1 #cca-b4 #biej ,many of the works listed by ,peter the ,deacon and some others which he does not name have been printed under ,constantinus' name1 either in the edition of the works of ,isaac issued at ,lyons in #aeae1 or in the partial edition of the works of ,constantinus printed at ,basel in #aecf and #aeci1 or in an edition of ,albucasis published at ,basel in #aeda4 ,an early ,,ms containing several of ,constantinus' works is ,gonville and ,caius #daa1 #ab-acth century1 fol4 #a-1 ,viaticum1 #fi- de melancholia1 #ggv- de stomacho1 #ihv- de oblivione1 #ajjr- de coitu1 7no author is named for #ajiv- liber elefantie1 #aac- de modo medendi71 #aba- liber febrium1 7#afi- de inamidarium ,galieni74 ,the chief secondary investigations concerning ,constantinus ,africanus are3 ,daremberg1 ,notices et ,extraits des ,manuscrits ,mdicaux1 #ahec1 pp4 #fc-ajj1 8,recherches sur un ouvrage qui a pour titre ,zad el-,monafir en arabe1 ,ephrodes en grec1 ,viatique en latin1 et qui est attribu dans les textes arabes et grecs ,abou ,djafar1 et dans le texte latin ,constantin40 ,puccinotti1 ,storia della ,medicina1 ,,ii1 i1 pp4 #bib-cej1 #ahee1 devoted several chapters to ,constantinus and tried to defend him from the charge of plagiarism and to maintain that the ,viaticum and some other works were original4 ,steinschneider1 ,constantinus ,africanus und seine arabischen ,quellen1 in ,virchow's ,archiv fr ,pathologische ,anatomie1 etc41 ,berlin1 #ahff1 vol4 #cg1 pp4 #cea-daj4 ,this should be supplemented by pp4 #i-ab of his ,die europischen bersetzungen aus dem ,arabischen 7#aije74 #biea ,notices et ,extraits des ,manuscrits ,mdicaux 7#ahec71 p4 #hf4 #bieb ,histoire des ,sciences ,mdicales 7#ahgj71 ,i1 #bfa4 #biec ,indeed ,daremberg said in #ahec 7p4 #he1 note7 8dans le moyen ge beaucoup d'auteurs citent volontiers ,constantine comme une autorit40 #bied ,perhaps through the fault of the printer the list of the writings of ,constantinus given by ,peter the ,deacon is defective as reproduced in tabular form by ,steinschneider 7#ahff71 pp4 #cec-d4 ,steinschneider also incorrectly speaks of ,leo of ,ostia as well as ,peter the ,deacon as a source for ,constantinus 7p4 #ceb1 8,die ,schriften ,constantins sind bekanntlich von seinen alten ,biographen1 ,petrus ,diaconus und ,leo ,ostiensis verzeichnet worden071 since ,leo's portion of the ,chronicle ends before ,constantinus is mentioned4 #biee ,peter was born about #aajg and was placed in the monastery of ,monte ,cassino by his parents in #aaae4 ,he became librarian4 ,monumenta ,germaniae1 ,scriptores1 ,,vii1 #efb and #efe4 #bief ,chronica ,mon4 ,casinensis1 ,lib4 ,,iii1 auctore ,petro1 ,,mg4 ,,ss4 ,,vii1 #gbh-i2 ,muratori1 ,scriptores1 ,,iv1 #dee-f 7lib4 ,,iii1 cap4 #ce74 #bieg ,petri ,diaconi ,de viribus illustribus ,casinensibus1 cap4 #bc1 in ,fabricius1 ,bibl4 ,graec41 ,,xiii1 #abc4 #bieh ,yet modern compilers and writers of encyclopedia articles invariably repeat 8,carthage0 and 8,babylon40 #biei ,,bn #adgjj1 fol4 #agav1 cited by ,baur 7#aijc71 who also notes parallel passages in ,al-,gazel1 ,phil4 tr4 ,i1 #a2 and ,avicenna1 ,de divis4 philos41 fol4 #ada4 #bifj ,gundissalinus and ,daniel ,morley4 ,al-,farabi's list of eight mathematical sciences1 including 8the science of spirits10 was also reproduced by ,vincent of ,beauvais in the thirteenth century1 ,speculum doctrinale1 ,,xvi4 #bifa ,possibly there is some confusion with ,galen's similar experience with the physicians of ,rome1 which ,constantinus may have reproduced in some one of his translations of ,galen in such a way as to lead the reader to consider it his own experience4 #bifb ,the words are the same both in the ,chronicle and ,illustrious ,men3 8quem cum vidissent ,afri ita ad plenum omnibus 7omnium87 gentium eruditum1 cogitaverunt occidere eum40 #bifc ,pagel 7#aijb71 p4 #fdd1 8,vorher soll er kurze ,zeit noch in ,reggio1 einer kleinen ,stadt in der ,nhe von ,byzanz1 als ,protosekretr des ,kaisers ,constantinos ,monomachos sich aufgehalten und das ,reisehandbuch des ,abu ,dschafer bersetzt haben40 ,but ,pagel gives no source for this statement4 ,apparently the notion is due to the fact that a ,greek treatise entitled ,ephodia1 of which there are numerous ,,mss and which seems to be a translation of the same ,arabic work as that upon which ,constantinus based his ,viaticum1 speaks of a ,constantine as its author who was proto-secretary and lived at ,reggio or ,rhegium4 ,daremberg 7#ahec71 p4 #gg1 held that a ,vatican ,,ms of the ,ephodia was of the tenth century and therefore this ,greek translation could not be the work of ,constantinus ,africanus in the next century1 but ,steinschneider 7#ahff71 p4 #cib1 only says1 8,die griechische ,uebersetzung des ,viaticum soll bis in die ,zeit ,constantins hinaufreichen40 ,another ,,ms1 ,escorial -,,ii-#i1 #afth century1 fol4 #a-1 contains a 8,commeatus ,peregrinantium0 whose author is called 8,ebrubat ,zafar filio ,elbazar10 which perhaps designates ,abu ,jafar ,ahmed ,ibn-al-,jezzar1 whom ,daremberg and ,steinschneider call the author of the ,arabic original of the ,viaticum4 ,the work is said to have been translated into ,greek 8a ,constantino ,primo a secretis ,regis10 which suggests that ,constantinus was perhaps first of the royal secretaries rather than of ,reggio either in ,norman ,italy or near ,byzantium4 ,the translation from ,greek into ,latin is ascribed to ,antonius ,eparchus4 ,the opening sentences of each book of this ,latin version from the ,greek by ,eparchus differ in wording but agree in substance with those of the ,viaticum of ,constantinus ,africanus1 if we omit some transitional sentences in the latter4 #bifd ,opera 7#aecf71 p4 #bae4 #bife ,de animalibus1 ,,xxii1 i1 #a4 #biff ,rawlinson ,c1 #cbh1 fol4 #c4 ,it is accompanied by the legend1 8,this is ,constantinus1 monk of ,monte ,cassino1 who is as it were the fount of that science of long standing from the judgment of urines1 and it has exhibited a true cure in all the diseases in this book and in many other books4 ,to whom come women with urine that he may tell them what is the cause of the disease40 ,the illumination shows ,constantinus seated1 holding a book on his knees with his left hand1 while he raises his right hand and forefinger in didactic style4 ,he wears the tonsure1 has a beard but no mustache1 and seems to be approached by one woman and two men carrying two jars of urine4 #bifg ,see ,margoliouth1 ,avicenna1 #aiac1 p4 #di4 #bifh ,only the ten books of theory are printed in the #aeci edition of ,constantinus4 #bifi ,chirurgia1 at pp4 #cbd-da4 #bigj ,opera omnia ysaac 7#aeae71 fol4 #abfv1 8,liber decimus practice qui antidotarium dicitur in duas divisus partes40 ,isaac ,israeli is the subject of the first chapter in ,husik 7#aiaf71 who calls him 7p4 #b7 8the first ,jew1 so far as we know1 to devote himself to philosophical and scientific discussions40 #biga ,daremberg 7#ahec71 pp4 #hb-e1 gives the prefaces of ,ali and ,constantinus in parallel columns4 #bigb ,printed in #adib with the works of ,ali ben ,abbas2 ,stephen's translation was made at ,antioch in ,syria4 #bigc ,steinschneider 7#ahff71 p4 #cei4 #bigd 8,ultimam et maiorem deesse sensi partem1 alteram vero interpretis callida depravatam fraude40 #bige ,amplon4 ,octavo #fb4 #bigf ,in his gloss to the ,viaticum of ,constantinus4 #bigg ,berlin ,,hss ,verzeichnis 7#aije71 pp4 #ajei-fe1 to whom ,i owe the preceding references to ,ferrarius and ,giraldus4 #bigh ,rose cites ,bamberg ,l-iii-#i4 ,the two following ,,mss are perhaps also worth noting3 ,the ,pantegni as contained in ,,cu ,trinity #ijf1 #abth century1 finely written1 fols4 #a-adav1 comprises only ten books4 ,the first opens1 8,cum totius generalitas tres principales partes habeat02 the tenth ends1 8,unde acutum oportet habere sensum ad intelligendum4 ,explicit40 ,st4 ,john's #he1 close of #acth century1 8,constantini africani ,pantegnus in duas partes divisus quarum prima dicitur ,theorica continens decem libros secunda dicitur ,practica #cc capita continens10 as a table of contents written in on the fly-leaf states4 ,the ten books of theory end at fol4 #ajjr1 8,explicit prima pars pantegni scilicet de theorica4 ,incipit secunda pars scilicet practica et est primus liber de regimento sanitatis40 ,this single book in #cc chapters on the preservation of health ends at fol4 #aafv1 and at fol4 #aagr begins the ,liber divisionum of ,rasis4 #bigi ,in ,berlin #hih1 a #abth century ,,ms of ,stephen's translation of ,ali's ,practica1 this ninth section by ,constantinus and ,john is for some reason substituted for the corresponding book of ,stephen4 #bihj ,he calls himself1 8iohannes quidam agarenus 7,saracenus87 quondam1 qui noviter ad fidem christiane religionis venerat cum rustico pisano belle filius ac professione medicus40 #biha ,the main objection to this theory is that ,stephen of ,pisa1 translating in #aabg1 speaks as if the latter portion of ,ali's work was still untranslated4 ,rose therefore holds that ,john had not yet published his translation1 although we have seen that he completed the surgical section by #aaae4 #bihb ,in ,opera omnia ysaac1 ,lyons1 #aeae1 ,,ii1 fols4 #add-gb1 8,viaticum ysaac quod constantinus sibi attribuit02 in the ,basel1 #aecf1 edition of the works of ,constantinus1 pp4 #a-afg1 under the title1 8,de morborum cognitione et curatione lib4 vii02 in the ,venice1 #aeje1 edition of ,gerardus de ,solo 7,bituricensis71 8,commentum eiusdem super viatico cum textu02 and in the ,lyons1 #aeaa1 edition of ,rhazes1 ,opera parva ,albubetri4 ,a fairly early but imperfect ,,ms is ,,cu ,trinity #ajfd1 #ab-acth century4 ,laud4 ,misc4 #efg1 late #abth century1 fol4 #b1 recognizes in its ,titulus that the ,viaticum is a translation1 8,incipit ,viaticum a ,constantino in ,latinam linguam translatam40 #bihc ,steinschneider 7#ahff71 #cfh-i4 #bihd ,see above1 page #gde1 note #b4 #bihe ,in the #aeae edition of ,isaac's works1 ,i1 #aa-1 #aef-1 and #bjc-4 ,peter the ,deacon presumably refers to these three works in speaking of 8,dietam ciborum4 ,librum febrium quem de ,arabica lingua transtulit4 ,librum de urinis40 ,whether the two initial treatises in the #aeae edition of ,isaac1 dealing with definitions and the elements1 were translated by ,constantinus or by ,gerard of ,cremona is doubtful4 #bihf ,see ,,clm #ahg1 fol4 #h2 #afh1 fol4 #bc2 #afa1 fol4 #da2 #bgj1 fol4 #aj2 #acjcd1 fol4 #di1 for #ac-adth century copies of ,galen's commentary upon the ,aphorisms of ,hippocrates with a preface by ,constantinus4 ,university ,college ,oxford #hi1 early #adth century1 fol4 #ij1 ,incipiunt amphorismi ,ypocratis cum commento domini ,constantini ,affricani montis ,cassienensis monachi2 fol4 #aee1 ,eiusdem ,prognostica cum ,galeni commento1 eodem interprete2 fols4 #bjc-fa1 ,eiusdem liber de regimine acutorum cum eiusdem commento eodem interprete4 #bihg ,de viris illustribus1 cap4 #bc1 8444 transtulit de diversis gentium linguis libros quamplurimos in quibus praecipue 44403 ,chronica1 ,lib4 ,,iii1 8444 transtulit de diversorum gentium linguis libros quamplurimos in quibus sunt hi praecipue44440 #bihh 8,librum duodecim graduum0 in ,de viris illus43 in the ,chronicle1 8,liber graduum40 #bihi ,edition of ,basel1 #aecf1 at pp4 #bhj-ih and #bae-gd respectively4 #biij ,it is found in ,laud4 ,misc4 #efg1 late #abth century1 fol4 #eav4 #biia ,edition of #aecf1 pp4 #bhc-d4 #biib ,see below1 ,chapter #fd4 #biic ,zeitsch4 f4 klass4 ,philol4 7#ahif71 pp4 #ajih;ff4 #biid ,j4 ,a4 ,endres1 ,petrus ,damiani und die weltliche ,wissenschaft1 #aiaj1 p4 #ce1 in ,beitrge1 ,,viii1 #c4 #biie ,james 7#aijc71 p4 #ei1 8,tractatus ,alfani ,salernitanus de quibusdam questionibus medicinalibus40 #biif ,,cu ,trinity #acfe1 early #abth century1 fols4 #aee-afbv1 ,experimenta archiep4 ,salernitani4 #biig ,judging from its opening and closing words as given by ,james4 #biih ,de coitu1 edition of #aecf1 p4 #cjf4 #biii ,viaticum1 ,,vi1 #ai4 #cjjj ,practica1 ,x1 #a2 in ,isaac1 ,opera1 #aeae1 ,,ii1 fol4 #abf4 #cjja ,ibid41 ,,vii1 #ca2 fol4 #aaar4 #cjjb ,ibid41 ,,iv1 #cg2 fol4 #ifr4 #cjjc ,ibid41 ,v1 #ag2 fol4 #iir4 #cjjd ,de melancholia 7#aecf71 p4 #bij4 #cjje ,practica1 ,,viii1 #dj2 ed4 of #aeae1 fol4 #aahv4 #cjjf ,practica1 ,,iv1 #ci1 and ,v1 #g2 ed4 of #aeae1 fols4 #ifr and #ihr4 #cjjg ,ed4 of #aecf1 p4 #ceh2 also in the ,viaticum1 ,i1 #bb2 p4 #bj4 #cjjh ,viaticum1 ,i1 #bb2 p4 #ba4 #cjji ,viaticum1 ,,vii1 #ac3 ,de gradibus 7#aecf71 p4 #cgg4 #cjaj ,according to ,steinschneider 7#ahff71 p4 #djb1 it is only from the citations of ,constantinus that we know of a work by ,rufus on melancholy4 ,see especially ,de melancholia 7#aecf71 p4 #bhe1 8,invenimus ,rufum clarissimum medicum de melancholia fecisse librum44440 #cjaa ,de gradibus 7#aecf71 p4 #cgh4 #cjab ,edition of #aecf1 pp4 #bj1 #bij1 #cef4 #cjac ,theorica1 ,x1 #i2 ed4 of #aeae1 fol4 #ed4 #cjad ,practica1 ,,vii1 #ei 7#aeae71 fol4 #aadv4 #cjae ,ed4 of #aeda1 pp4 #cai-ba4 #cjaf ,spec4 nat41 ,,xvi1 #di4 #cjag ,de gradibus 7#aecf71 p4 #cfj1 8de quo ,arab 7,aristotle87 in libro de lapidibus intitulato40 #cjah ,manoscritto ,salernitano dilucidato dal ,prof4 ,henschel1 in ,renzi 7#ahec71 ,,ii1 #a-hj1 especially pp4 #af1 #da1 #ei4 #cjai ,de aegritudinum curatione tractatus1 ,renzi1 ,,ii1 #ha-chf2 ,de febribus tractatus1 ,,ii1 #gcg-fh4 #cjbj ,the preface to ,constantinus' translation of ,isaac on fevers is addressed to his 8dearest son1 ,john03 see ,brussels1 ,library of ,dukes of ,burgundy #aedhi1 #adth century1 8,quoniam te karissime fili ,iohanne02 ,cambrai #iad1 #ac-adth century2 ,cambrai #ijg1 #adth century1 fol4 #a1 ,prefatio ,constantini ad ,johannem discipulum4 #cjba ,however1 in an ,oxford ,,ms the ,liber aureus itself is ascribed to 8,john1 son of ,constantinus03 ,bodleian #bjfj1 #a1 ,joannis filii ,constantini de re medica liber aureus4 #cjbb ,interest in such works was aroused by the almost simultaneous publication of ,r4 ,hendrie's ,english translation of ,theophilus1 ,london1 #ahdg2 the publication of the ,mappe clavicula in a 8,letter from ,sir ,thomas ,phillipps to ,albert ,way0 in ,archaeologia1 ,,xxxii1 #ahc-bdd1 ,london1 #ahdg2 and the inclusion of ,heraclius1 ,de coloribus et de artibus ,romanorum1 in ,mrs4 ,merrifield's ,ancient ,practice of ,painting1 ,london1 #ahdi4 ,hendrie printed the ,latin text of ,theophilus with his translation4 ,a4 ,ilg published a revised ,latin text with a ,german translation in #ahgd1 with a fuller account of the ,,mss4 #cjbc ,merrifield 7#ahdi71 ,i1 #aff-gd4 #cjbd ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #bi4 ,he dated1 however1 ,robert of ,chester's translation of ,morienus thirty-eight years too late in that century1 mistaking the ,spanish for the ,christian era4 #cjbe ,ibid41 p4 #ah4 #cjbf ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #afi4 #cjbg ,merrifield 7#ahdi71 ,i1 #ahc4 ,see also pp4 #ahi-ia4 #cjbh ,ibid41 p4 #ahc1 8,nil tibi scribo equidem quod non prius ipse probassem40 #cjbi ,ibid41 p4 #ahg4 #cjcj ,trait des ,arts ,cramiques1 p4 #cjd1 cited by ,merrifield1 ,i1 #agg4 ,this is not1 however1 to be regarded as the invention of lead glazing1 since1 as ,william ,burton writes 78,ceramics0 in ,,eb1 p4 #gjf71 8lead glazes were extensively used in ,egypt and the nearer ,east in ,ptolemaic times40 ,he adds1 8,and it is significant that1 though the ,romans made singularly little use of glazes of any kind1 the pottery that succeeded theirs1 either in western ,europe or in the ,byzantine ,empire1 was generally covered with glazes rich in lead40 #cjca ,for these works see ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,,iii1 or ,lippmann 7#aiai71 who follows him4 ,i have not had access to ,e4 ,wiedemann1 ,zur ,chemie bei den ,arabern1 in ,sitzungsberichte der physikalisch-medizinischen ,societt in ,erlangen1 ,,xliii 7#aiaa72 and his ,die ,alchemie bei den ,arabern1 in ,journal fr praktische ,chemie1 ,,lxxvi 7#aijg71 #he-hg1 #aje-bc4 #cjcb ,the full title is 8,compositiones ad tingenda musiva1 pelles et alia1 ad deaurandum ferrum1 ad mineralia1 ad chrysographiam1 ad glutina quaedam conficienda1 aliaque artium documenta40 ,the ,,ms1 ,bibliotheca capituli canonicorum ,lucensium1 ,arm4 ,i1 ,cod4 ,l1 was printed in ,muratori1 ,antiquitates ,italicae1 ,,ii 7#agci71 #cfd-hg4 ,it is described by ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #g-bb1 whose comparison of it with previous treatises ,i follow4 #cjcc ,berthelot 7#ahhh71 ,i1 #ab1 note4 #cjcd ,text and some discussion thereof in ,archaeologia1 ,,xxxii 7#ahdg71 #ahc-bdd4 ,analyzed by ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #bc-fe4 ,on the ,schlestadt ,,ms of the #ajth century1 see ,giry in ,bibliothque de l'cole des ,hautes tudes1 ,,xxxv 7#ahgh71 #bji-bg4 #cjce ,see recipes #aje-ic4 #cjcf ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #eg4 #cjcg ,ibid41 #fa4 ,others1 however1 would trace the discovery of alcohol back to ,hippolytus4 ,see above1 p4 #dfh4 #cjch 8,accipies ad experimentum donec primitus discas non multum cum semel facias40 #cjci 8,absconde sanctum et nulli tradendum secretum neque alicui dederis propheta40 #cjdj ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #cjc-d4 #cjda ,item #bfe4 #cjdb ,item #bij4 #cjdc ,item #bhi4 #cjdd ,de coloribus et artibus ,romanorum1 ,i1 iv4 ,i have somewhat altered ,mrs4 ,merrifield's translation 7,i1 #ahf74 #cjde ,ibid41 ,i1 xi2 ,mrs4 ,merrifield 7#ahdi71 ,i1 #ahi-ia4 #cjdf ,ibid41 ,i1 xii3 8,sed vim cristalli cruor antea temperet hirci ,sanguis enim facilem ferro facit his adamantem40 ,mrs4 ,merrifield 7,i1 #aid7 has incorrectly rendered this passage1 8,but let the blood of a goat first temper it1 for this blood makes the iron so hard that even adamant is soft compared to it40 ,what ,heraclius says is1 8,but first let the blood of a he-goat temper the force of the crystal1 ,for this blood makes adamant soft to the iron40 #cjdg ,schedula diversarum artium1 ,,iii1 #ih4 #cjdh ,ibid41 ,,iii1 #id4 #cjdi ,ibid41 ,,iii1 #ba4 #cjej ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #fc4 ,his ,french translation omits some of the ,latin text as published in ,archaeologia1 cap4 #bhh4 #cjea 8,cardan's concentric circles10 according to ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #fd4 #cjeb ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #ee4 #cjec ,,ii1 prologus 7closing passage74 8,huius ergo imitator desiderans fore1 apprehendi atrium agiae ,sophiae conspicorque cellulam diversorum colorum omnimodo varietate refertam et monstrantem singulorum utilitatem ac naturam4 ,quo mox inobservato pede ingressus1 replevi armariolum cordis mei sufficienter ex omnibus1 quae diligenti experientia sigillatim perscrutatus1 cuncta visu manibusque probata satis lucide tuo studio commendavi absque invidia4 ,verum quoniam huiusmodi picturae usus perspicax non valet esse1 quasi curiosus explorator omnibus modis elaboravi cognoscere1 quo artis ingenio et colorum varietas opus decoraret1 et lucem diei solisque radios non repelleret4 ,huic exercitio dans operam vitri naturam comprehendo1 eiusque solius usu et varietate id effici posse considero1 quod artificium1 sicut visum et auditum didici1 studio tuo indagare curavi40 ,ilg's ,latin text 7#ahgd74 #cjed ,,iii1 #dg4 #cjee ,i have followed ,ilg's rather than ,hendrie's text2 ,,iii1 #dh4 #cjef ,hendrie 7#ahdg71 pp4 #dcb-c4 #cjeg ,ernst von ,meyer1 ,history of ,chemistry1 #aijf4 #cjeh ,migne1 ,,pl #adf1 #ehc-d4 ,some accused the bishop of resort to magic arts3 ,ibid41 #fjf4 #cjei ,w4 ,stubbs1 in ,,rs ,,lxiii1 p4 cix4 ,c4 ,l4 ,barnes1 ,science in ,early ,england1 in ,smithsonian ,report for #ahie1 p4 #gcb4 ,of the alchemy ascribed to ,dunstan1 ,elias ,ashmole remarked in his ,theatrum ,chemicum ,britannicum1 #afeb1 8,he who shall have the happiness to meet with ,st4 ,dunstan's work ,de occulta philosophia 444 may therein read such stories as will make him amazed to think what stupendous and immense things are to be performed by virtue of the ,philosopher's ,mercury1 of which a taste only and no more40 #cjfj ,berthelot 7#ahic71 ,i1 #bcd4 #cjfa ,karpinski 7#aiae71 pp4 #bf-cj2 ,haskins1 ,,ehr1 ,,xxx 7#aiae71 #fb-e4 #cjfb ,berlin #ief1 #abth century1 8,hic incipit alchamia4 ,accipe ,,cccc ova gauline que generata sunt et facta in mense martii 444_/ 444 ut recentiora sint semper et calidiora4 ,explicit alchamia40 ,the titles of the last three chapters are1 8de iiii ollis1 de cognitione1 de observatione stestarum40 ,i have not seen the ,,ms but follow ,rose's description in the ,berlin ,,mss catalogue4 #cjfc ,i have used the edition of ,marbod's poems in ,migne1 ,,pl vol4 #aga1 which also contains a life of ,marbod4 ,two secondary accounts of ,marbod are ,c4 ,ferry1 ,de ,marbodi ,rhedonensis ,episcopi vita et carminibus1 ,nemansi1 #ahgg2 ,l4 ,v4 ,e4 ,ernault1 ,marbode1 vque de ,rennes1 ,sa vie et ses uvres1 in ,bull4 et ,mm4 de la ,socit ,archologique du dept4 d',ille-et-,vilaine1 ,,xx1 #a-bfj1 ,rennes1 #ahhi4 ,see also ,v4 ,rose1 ,aristoteles ,de ,lapidibus und ,arnoldus ,saxo1 in ,zeitsch4 f4 deutsches ,alterthum1 ,,xviii 7#ahge71 p4 #cba1 et seq42 ,l4 ,pannier1 ,les lapidaires franais du moyen ge1 ,paris1 #ahhb4 ,c4 ,w4 ,king1 ,the ,natural ,history1 ,ancient and ,modern1 of ,precious ,stones and ,gems1 ,london1 #ahfe4 #cjfd ,,clm #bcdgi1 #aath century1 fols4 #d-aj1 ,carmina de lapidibus eadem quae ,marbodo tribuuntur sed alio ordine4 ,of ,,cul #gfh1 #aeth century1 fols4 #fg-hj1 8,marbodi liber lapidum10 the ,catalogue says1 8,this ,latin poem has been often printed but it does not appear that the editors have collated this ,,ms4 ,the order of the sections is different from all those of which ,beckmann speaks in his edition 7,gttingen1 #agii71 answering1 however1 most nearly to his own40 #cjfe ,the full name of ,tiberius was1 of course1 ,tiberius ,claudius ,nero ,caesar4 #cjff ,library of ,dukes of ,burgundy #hhij1 #abth century1 ,evacis regis4 ,,bn #bfba1 #abth and #aeth centuries1 #f1 ,poemation de gemmis cuius author dicitur ,evax1 ,rex ,arabiae4 ,montpellier #bgg1 ,liber lapidum preciosorum ,evax rex ,arabum4 ,riccard4 #abbh1 #abth century1 fols4 #da-ed2 ,incipit prologus ,evacis regis ,arabie ad ,neronem ,tyberium de lapidibus4 ,incipit lapidarius ,evacis habens nomina gemmarum lx4 ,,bl ,hatton #gf contains two letters of ,evax1 king of the ,arabs1 to ,tiberius ,caesar1 on the virtues of stones1 according to ,cockayne 7#ahfd71 ,i1 xc and lxxxiv4 #cjfg ,printed by ,j4 ,b4 ,pitra1 ,,iii 7#ahee71 #cbd-ce4 #cjfh ,,bn #gdah1 #adth century1 fol4 #aaf-1 7,d7amigeronis peritissimi de lapidibus4 ,since this is the sole ,,ms known of the prose version 7,rose1 #ahge1 p4 #cbf7 and is of the #adth century1 whereas we have numerous early ,,mss of ,marbod's poem1 it would seem that this may be derived from ,marbod rather than even from the earlier and fuller work which he is supposed to have used4 #cjfi ,namely1 ,leo1 ,cancer1 ,aries1 ,sagittarius1 ,taurus1 ,virgo1 and ,capricorn4 #cjgj ,see page #gge1 note #b4 #cjga ,king 7#ahfe71 p4 #g2 ,rose 7#ahge71 p4 #cce4 #cjgb ,ferry 7#ahhg71 p4 #fi4 #cjgc ,,nh ,,xxxvi1 #ef4 ,pliny1 however1 makes these statements about chelonia and not chelonitis which follows it4 #cjgd ,the stones which ,i have taken as examples are numbers #a1 #c1 #e1 #ah1 #ai1 #ci1 and #eg respectively4 #cjge ,see above1 chapter #bi1 page #fhi4