,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4 ,italics are represented thus italic1 bold thus bold4 ,there are many apparent subsections within the text variously indicated by bold1 italic and capital text4 ,there is some1 inconsistent1 correspondence between these and the sup-topics in the ,contents4 ,because of this no attempt has been made to establish a hierarchy of these headings and they remain as printed in the original4 ,equally1 paragraph numbering is not always consistent but remains unchanged4 ,,hand-,,book ,,of ,,sanitary ,,information ,,for ,,householders1 ,,containing ,,facts ,,and ,,suggestions ,,about ,,ventilation1 ,,drainage1 ,,care ,,of ,,contagious ,,diseases1 ,,disinfection1 ,,food1 ,,and ,,water4 ,,with ,,appendices ,,on ,,disinfectants ,,and ,,plumbers' ,,materials4 ,,by ,,roger ,s4 ,,tracy1 ,m4 ,d41 ,,sanitary ,,inspector ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,city ,,health ,,department4 ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 #a1 #c1 ,,and #e ,,bond ,,street4 #ahhd4 ,,copyright ,,by ,,roger ,s4 ,,tracy1 ,m4 ,d4 #ahhd4 ,,preface4 ,the preparation of this hand-book was suggested by persistent questioning about the matters it contains4 ,its purpose is to furnish householders with information which has been so scattered1 or buried so deep in technical discussions1 that it has not been easy for them to find it for themselves4 ,it is1 of course1 mainly a compilation1 and the only difficulties met with have been those incident to the arrangement and condensation of a large mass of material4 ,i have intended to give credit1 where credit seemed to be due1 for everything borrowed1 and1 if ,i have failed to do so in any case1 it is not my fault1 but my misfortune4 ,r4 ,s4 ,t4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4--,,air #g-ba ,normal ,air4--,contamination of the ,air4--,test for ,carbonic ,acid in ,air4--,diseases caused by ,foul ,air4--,composition of ,sewer-,air4--,ground ,air4--,ventilation4--,smoky ,chimneys4 ,,ii4--,,drainage #ba-ff ,privy-,vaults4--,tanks4--,pails4--,eart h-,closets4--,water-,carriage4--,plumbin g ,regulations of ,new ,york ,city ,board of ,health4--,explanatory ,remarks4--,drainage of ,country ,houses4--,subsoil ,drainage4--,defective ,drainage4--,sources of ,bad ,odors4--,examination of ,house-,drainage4--,peppermint ,test4--,summary4--,exclusion of ,ground-,air4 ,,iii4--,,disinfection #ff-gc ,directions issued by the ,national ,board of ,health4--,comments4--,precautions in ,special ,diseases4 ,,iv4--,,food #gc-he ,adulterations1 and ,methods of detecting them4 ,v4--,,water #hf-ij ,pollution of ,water4--,filters4--,tests for ,impurities4--,precautions4 ,,appendix ,a4--,,disinfectants #ia-ii 0 ,b4--,,plumbers' ,,materials #ajj-ajb ,,index #ajc ,,hand-,,book ,,of ,,sanitary ,,information4 ,necessary to continued good health are ,,good ,,air1 ,,good ,,food1 and ,,good ,,water4 ,it is the object of ,sanitary ,science to secure these4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,air4 ,normal air contains #gi per cent of nitrogen1 #bj4if per cent of oxygen1 and 4#jd per cent 7#d parts in #aj1jjj7 of carbonic acid4 ,oxygen supports animal life2 carbonic acid1 vegetable life2 and the use of the nitrogen1 otherwise than as a diluent1 is not known4 ,very pure air contains #gh4ih per cent of nitrogen1 #bj4ii per cent of oxygen1 and 4#jc per cent of carbonic acid4 ,air begins to be very bad when the oxygen is reduced to #bj4fj parts in #ajj4 ,in mines1 where candles go out1 oxygen is reduced to #ah4ej parts in #ajj1 and1 in the worst specimen yet examined by ,angus ,smith1 to #ah4bg4 ,air in which the percentage of oxygen has been reduced to #ag4bj is very difficult to remain in for many minutes4 ,aside from impurities due to local causes1 the purest air is found from six to forty feet above the ground1 and the most impure from seventy to ninety feet1 where the air from chimneys is poured forth4 ,air is contaminated by the products of respiration and the bodily emanations of healthy persons1 and by the products of combustion4 ,an adult man1 in ordinary work1 gives off in twenty-four hours from twelve to eighteen cubic feet of carbonic acid1 according to his size2 women1 children1 and old persons less4 ,edward ,smith found that an adult asleep exhaled about nineteen grains of carbonic acid per hour1 and1 when he walked three miles an hour1 the amount was increased to #ajj4f grains4 ,w4 ,r4 ,nichols1 of ,boston1 found in passenger-cars #bc4b parts of carbonic acid to #aj1jjj parts of air1 and in the ,berkeley ,street sewer #aj4d parts per #aj1jjj4 ,wilson found in ,portsmouth ,prison1 in cells containing six hundred and fourteen cubic feet of air1 always occupied1 #g4bj parts per #aj1jjj1 and in cells containing two hundred and ten cubic feet1 occupied only at night1 #aj4dd per #aj1jjj4 ,besides the carbonic acid1 there is exhaled from the lungs a small amount of organic matter1 of unknown composition4 ,it forms a glutinous coating on the furniture1 walls1 and windows of closed rooms1 decomposes rapidly1 imparts a peculiarly offensive odor to the air of a badly-ventilated room1 and poisons those who inhale it4 ,its quantity is so small that it has so far defied analysis4 ,in a room contaminated by respiration alone1 the odor of this substance begins to be perceived when the carbonic acid has increased to about #g parts in #aj1jjj1 and #aj parts in #aj1jjj may be considered the maximum amount of carbonic acid allowable in dwellings4 ,the following table shows how much carbonic acid artificial lights produce per hour3 ,petroleum1 slit-burner1 #aj candle-light1 #a4ih cubic feet1 ,petroleum1 round-burner1 #g4f 0 #b4ae 0 ,oil-lamp1 #d 0 #a4ji 0 ,candle1 #a 0 4#ci 0 ,coal-gas1 slit-burner1 #g4h 0 #c4be 0 ,coal-gas1 flat-burner1 #aj 0 #c 0 ,a five-foot gas-burner produces as much carbonic acid per hour as five men4 ,as the most poisonous element of the breath can not readily be detected by analysis1 the amount of carbonic acid is taken as a measure of the impurity of air contaminated by respiration4 ,test for carbonic acid in air 7,pettenkofer's method73 ,shake up a definite volume of the air in a closed vessel with a definite amount of lime-water4 ,the carbonic acid unites with the lime1 forming carbonate of lime4 ,this compound1 being insoluble in water1 renders it turbid4 ,the degree of turbidity may be judged of by looking through the water at a cross marked in lead-pencil on the inside of a piece of paper pasted on the opposite side of the bottle1 and a standard may be fixed by shaking up ordinary external air in a sixteen-ounce bottle1 as described below1 which will show the degree of turbidity produced by #d parts of carbonic acid in #aj1jjj4 ,lime-water can be bought of a druggist1 or made by shaking distilled water with slaked lime1 allowing it to settle1 and pouring off the clear liquid4 ,with a common hand-ball syringe1 the end of the rubber tube resting on the bottom of the bottle1 pump in air1 until the bottle is filled with the air to be tested4 ,put in half an ounce of lime-water1 cork the bottle1 and shake it up well4 ,let it stand for five minutes1 and if the water becomes turbid1 as if a little milk had been dropped into it1 the presence of carbonic acid in the air will be indicated in the following proportions4 ,size of bottle4 ,amount of lime-water4 ,parts in #aj1jjj4 #af ounces #a-b ounce ,a little less than #d #ab 0 0 ,a little more than #e #aj 0 0 0 0 0 #f #h 0 0 #h #f 0 0 ,a little more than #aj #d 0 0 0 0 0 #ae ,dangers of such ,contamination4 ,air contaminated by the products of respiration and by bodily emanations 7perspiration1 etc47 contains substances which have been ejected from human bodies as useless or injurious4 ,what all systems reject can not be healthy for any1 and it is found that long-continued exposure in an atmosphere laden with these impurities produces anmia1 general debility1 and poor nutrition1 conditions likely to result in the development of scrofula and consumption4 ,it is believed1 too1 that typhus fever may originate in this manner1 while when such poisons are inhaled in a more concentrated form1 as in the famous ,black ,hole of ,calcutta1 nausea1 vertigo1 convulsions1 and even death are produced4 ,the air is at certain times and places contaminated by the products of respiration and the bodily emanations of diseased persons4 ,in certain diseases1 commonly known as contagious1 organic matters are thrown off by the lungs and skin of the sick1 which tend to reproduce these diseases in the bodies of other persons4 ,the exact nature of these poisons is in most cases unknown1 but they are generally believed to be living microscopic organisms 7bacteria1 bacilli1 micrococci1 etc471 which multiply their kind in the blood of the person who has inhaled them4 ,of such diseases1 the dangerous ones are small-pox1 measles1 scarlet fever1 typhus fever1 and diphtheria1 and their contagious quality is marked very nearly in the order in which they are here mentioned4 ,the less harmful of these diseases are whooping-cough1 chicken-pox1 mumps1 and ,german measles4 ,there is strong evidence that consumption is contagious1 though not as markedly so as the diseases above enumerated4 ,the air may be contaminated by the products of the decomposition of the excreta of healthy persons4 ,the contents of cesspools1 privy-vaults1 and sewers1 are generally composed of discharges from the bowels and kidneys1 various matters washed off from the bodies of animals and from culinary and household utensils1 and dissolved soap1 constituting a mixture which rapidly decomposes and affords a fine soil for the nourishment and propagation of microscopic organisms4 ,air contaminated in this way1 popularly known as sewer-gas1 contains sulphide of ammonium and sulphureted hydrogen 7which cause the characteristic odor of rotten eggs71 carbureted hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and carbonic acid 7odorless71 and certain undetermined organic matters4 ,professor ,nichols analyzed the air of the ,berkeley ,street sewer in ,boston1 a type of a badly-constructed and badly-ventilated sewer4 ,the sulphureted hydrogen1 etc41 were in too small quantity to be measured4 ,the highest percentages found were1 of oxygen1 #bj4ij2 of nitrogen1 #gi4bf2 of carbonic acid1 4#d 7#dj parts in #aj1jjj74 ,the lowest were1 oxygen1 #bj4dh2 nitrogen1 #gh4hi2 and carbonic acid1 4#je 7#e parts in #aj1jjj74 ,letheby found that sewer-water 7containing #abh4h grains of organic matter to the gallon7 excluded from air yielded1 for nine weeks1 #a4b cubic inches of gas per hour4 ,in one hundred volumes of this mixture there were #gh4hc parts of marsh-gas 7carbureted hydrogen71 #ae4ij parts of carbonic acid1 #aj4ai parts of nitrogen1 and 4#jh of sulphureted hydrogen4 ,examination of sewage-mud in the ,seine by ,durand-,claye gave #gb4hh parts of marsh-gas1 #ac4cj of carbonic acid1 #f4gj of sulphureted hydrogen1 #b4ed of carbonic oxide1 #d4eh of nitrogen1 and some other gases4 ,such mixtures are sometimes found in long-closed cesspools and privy-vaults1 but not in sewers proper4 ,of these gases1 sulphureted hydrogen and carbonic acid are very poisonous1 and when they are inhaled in concentrated form produce almost immediate unconsciousness1 and often death4 ,when less concentrated1 sewer-air may cause nausea and vomiting1 followed by a low fever which sometimes kills1 and1 if not1 results in a tedious convalescence4 ,as a rule1 it is so largely diluted that it produces no immediate effects1 excepting the discomfort due to offensive odor1 and the mental anxiety resulting therefrom4 ,the effects usually attributed to the continued breathing of diluted sewer-air are general malaise1 loss of appetite1 anmia1 impaired nutrition1 and therefore diminished power of resistance to attacks of disease which are not directly attributable to sewer-air poisoning4 ,it is doubtful whether these effects are due to the constant introduction of sewer-air in minute quantities into the blood1 or to the inhalation of particles of organic matter floating in such a contaminated atmosphere4 ,the greatest danger1 however1 in the breathing of sewer-air is that of inhaling with it the living particles 7bacilli1 etc47 contained or developed in the excreta of diseased persons4 ,the diseases believed to be propagated in this way are cholera1 typhoid fever1 and dysentery4 ,the discharges both from the mouth 7stomach7 and bowels are known to be poisonous4 ,it believed by many that the poisons of typhoid fever and diphtheria may be developed de novo by the decomposition of the mixtures found in cesspools and sewers4 ,there also seems to be a connection1 imperfectly understood1 between bad drainage and malarial fevers1 and perhaps cerebro-spinal meningitis4 ,the origin of yellow fever is not yet ascertained4 ,surgical erysipelas1 puerperal fever1 and hospital gangrene1 are only developed on and about wounded surfaces1 and seem to be due to the organisms developed in the secretions of such surfaces1 where ventilation and drainage are bad4 ,air may be contaminated by the products of organic decomposition rising from the ground and drawn into the house through furnace-flues1 etc4 ,ground-air contains from #a4di to #hj parts per #a1jjj of carbonic acid1 and frequently contains products of organic decomposition4 ,a damp soil is also very unhealthy1 as shown by ,bowditch and others4 8,a persistently low ground-water1 say fifteen feet down or more1 is healthy2 a persistently high ground-water1 less than five feet from the surface1 is unhealthy2 and a fluctuating level1 especially if the changes are sudden and violent1 is very unhealthy0 7,de ,chaumont74 ,such soils are especially productive of consumption4 ,,ventilation4 ,the contamination of the atmosphere by the respiration and bodily emanations of human beings and other animals is unavoidable1 but the noxious matters thus added to the air are being constantly changed in the following ways3 #a4 ,oxidation4 ,the organic matters1 which have been mentioned as especially injurious1 are gradually decomposed by the oxygen of the air1 and changed into harmless substances1 which either remain as constituents of the atmosphere1 or are washed into the earth by rains4 #b4 ,vegetable growth4 ,plants absorb carbonic acid 7which is composed of carbon and oxygen7 through their leaves1 and give back oxygen to the air1 retaining the carbon for their own nourishment4 ,there is thus a constant interchange between animals and vegetables1 the former exhaling carbonic acid and appropriating oxygen1 and the latter appropriating carbonic acid and exhaling oxygen4 ,the small percentage of carbonic acid always found in the air is1 therefore1 essential to vegetable life1 while harmless to animals4 ,it is necessary1 for the proper purification of a contaminated atmosphere1 that it should be largely diluted with fresh air4 ,hence arises the need of the constant change of air in dwellings4 ,air expands when heated and so becomes lighter4 ,local differences of temperature1 created by natural and artificial means1 therefore bring about currents in the atmosphere1 the cooler and heavier column of air always descending1 and the warmer and lighter always rising4 ,this fact is taken advantage of in ventilation4 ,it has been estimated that1 to keep the air pure1 three thousand cubic feet of fresh air per hour are required for a male adult1 and that a sleeping-room should contain at least twelve hundred cubic feet of air-space for each occupant4 ,when the temperature of the external air is such that the doors and windows can be constantly open1 they afford the best means of ventilation for dwellings4 ,an exposure to draughts1 however1 is dangerous to many persons1 and it is desirable1 therefore1 in cooler weather1 to devise means of admitting fresh air without creating a draught4 ,at a temperature of #fj1 a draught is perceived when the air moves at a higher rate of speed than three feet a second4 ,now it is obvious that a draught may be rendered harmless if the entering current of air is guided in such a direction as not to strike the occupants of a room4 ,this is accomplished simply and cheaply by either of two devices3 ,if the lower sash of a window is raised a few inches 7say four71 and the space between the bottom of the sash and the window-sill is filled by an accurately fitted board1 there will be a space between the panes of the two sashes1 through which air will enter1 spouting upward toward the ceiling and not falling until its momentum is so much diminished that it will not be felt as a draught4 ,the other plan is to make the upper portion of the upper sash movable1 so that it can be tilted inward at such an angle as to direct the entering current upward 7essentially the ,sherringham valve1 though this is made of iron1 with side-cheeks to prevent a lateral outflow of air74 ,there are various patent apparatuses for the admission of fresh air through windows without draught1 but they are mostly modifications of the methods above mentioned4 ,in weather when artificial heat is necessary for comfort1 thorough ventilation is not difficult1 provided expense is not considered4 ,as the removal of the foul air1 however1 involves a considerable waste of heat and consumption of fuel1 the means of procuring the best ventilation at the least cost becomes a problem of great intricacy1 which has not yet been satisfactorily solved4 ,fireplaces1 or open grates1 are excellent ventilators4 ,an ordinary fireplace renews the air of the room four or five times hourly1 removing in that time from fifteen to twenty thousand cubic feet of air4 ,but only about #ab or #ad per cent4 of the heat given off by the fuel is utilized1 the rest passing off by the chimney4 ,the objections to the fireplace as a sole means of heating are1 its wastefulness1 and the fact that it warms only by radiation1 so that the room is unequally warmed1 and may be too cold in one place and insupportably hot in another4 ,stoves and furnaces can not be relied on for ventilation1 the ventilating power of a close stove being only one tenth of that required for a single adult4 ,modern fireplaces are sometimes built with a metallic flue extending upward into the chimney4 ,between this flue and the masonry is an air-chamber opening to the external air and communicating with the room near the ceiling1 so that fresh air from outside the house is continuously warmed1 and discharged into the room at a temperature of #hj or #ij4 ,the ,galton fireplace 7,fig4 #a7 is of this kind1 and utilizes #ce per cent4 of the fuel4 ,the best combined heating and ventilating arrangement at present seems to be that which warms the fresh air by means of a soapstone furnace or steam-coils1 and removes the foul air through a fireplace4 ,in milder weather1 gas may be burned in the chimney at a slight expense4 ,according to ,morin1 seven cubic feet of gas burned in a flue eleven inches square and sixty-six feet high1 will draw thirteen thousand three hundred cubic feet of air per hour from a room4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,galton's fireplace4 ,the dampers of stoves should never be in the pipes1 for they dam back the gases which ought to enter the chimney1 and force them into the room4 ,the fire should be regulated by dampers which prevent the access of air1 and not its escape after contamination4 ,ventilating flues in walls do very little good1 unless special means are provided to heat them 7e4 g41 gas lights or lamps74 ,the common whirling ventilators in window-panes are of very little use4 ,as a rule1 fresh air should enter a room near the ceiling1 and foul air be removed near the floor4 ,in very cold climates1 dangerous draughts are often produced by the cooling of the air in contact with the window-panes1 so that it falls and sweeps along the floor4 ,this danger may be prevented by double windows1 which also save fuel4 ,double windows may be utilized in ventilation1 by raising the lower outer sash a few inches1 and lowering the upper inner one4 ,smoky ,chimneys4 ,when a chimney smokes1 the draught is downward4 ,this may be1 caused--#a4 ,by an obstruction in the flue or stove-pipe4 #b4 ,by a higher chimney in the same house1 the air coming down the shorter chimney1 and going up the other4 ,the remedy is to equalize the heights1 or close the doors between the two4 #c4 ,if1 when the fire is started1 the air outside is warmer than that in the chimney1 the heavier column will of course fall4 ,this effect will vanish in a few minutes1 when the flue becomes heated4 #d4 ,the doors and windows of the room may be so tight as to prevent a sufficient supply of fresh air to burn the fuel4 ,if so1 they must be opened4 #e4 ,the chimney may be lower than the adjoining wall1 and the wind from certain directions1 striking the wall1 may be directed down the flues4 ,this may be remedied by extending the chimney above the wall1 or by capping the flues with one of the various cowls that prevent a downward draught4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,drainage4 ,how to prevent the contamination of the air by the products of decomposition4 ,there is no evidence to show that the emanations from fresh house-slops1 or the excreta of healthy animals1 are injurious to health1 but it has been proved that when these matters decompose they become dangerous4 ,the bubbles of gas which rise to the surface of such decomposing matters1 when they burst1 throw up solid particles of organic matter in the air1 which float about for some time before falling to the ground4 ,it is1 therefore1 essential to health that all such matters shall be removed from the vicinity of human beings promptly1 before decomposition sets in1 or else so manipulated as to prevent decomposition1 or promote rapid oxidation4 ,the lower animals seem to recognize by instinct that their excreta are dangerous1 and they deposit them 7except when penned up by men7 in places remote from their abodes1 or else carefully cover them with fresh earth4 ,man alone retains his excreta in carefully prepared receptacles near his place of residence1 until the accumulation is so large that he is forced to remove it4 ,the ordinary privy-vault should never be allowed4 ,its only advantage is its cheapness1 while it involves constant danger of contamination of the water of adjoining wells or cisterns4 ,many an epidemic of typhoid fever has been unmistakably traced to this source4 ,if such a vault is a necessity1 it should be made water-tight1 be small and frequently emptied1 the contents should be frequently disinfected1 preferably by being covered with fresh earth1 and it should be built in such a spot that the current of ground-water 7which furnishes the well-water7 shall be from the well toward the vault1 and never in the opposite direction4 ,better still is a movable tank1 in which the excreta are received and covered with fresh earth daily4 ,this can be emptied over a garden or field without offense4 ,in villages where sewerage is impossible1 pails are sometimes used4 ,they have tight covers1 and are removed frequently 7once or twice a week1 clean ones being substituted at the time of removal by the proper authorities71 the contents being converted into poudrette at some place remote from habitations4 ,a better means of disposing of the excreta1 where water-closets can not be had1 is the earth-closet1 of which there are several varieties4 ,these are so constructed that they resemble a water-closet in appearance1 but the excreta are caught in a receptacle beneath the seat1 and covered with earth1 when the handle beside the seat is raised4 ,dry earth is an excellent disinfectant1#a and when excreta are thus mingled with it they are gradually oxidized and disappear1 so that after a time the same earth may1 with proper precautions1 be used again4 #a ,its disinfectant properties have been shown to be due to the presence of microscopic organisms1 which decompose the excreta in the act of nourishing themselves4 ,a little chloroform paralyzes them1 and deprives the earth of its disinfecting properties1 which return1 however1 when the chloroform is washed out1 and the organisms recover their natural vigor4 ,the earth for these closets must be dry1 and sifted of coarse particles1 and enough must be deposited upon the excreta to cover them and to absorb the urine4 ,its advantages1 as compared with the water-closet1 are1 that it is cheaper1 requires less repair1 is not hurt by frost1 is not injured when improper substances are thrown down it1 and requires no water4 ,its disadvantages are1 the trouble of collecting and drying the earth1 the necessity of frequently removing the soil1 the dust sometimes caused by its use1 and the necessity of providing additional means for the disposal of slops4 ,a perfect method of disposal of excreta and other house refuse would be one which would insure their prompt and rapid removal in such a way as to prevent the contamination of the air of any inhabited locality during such removal1 or after their final deposition4 ,the most convenient and economical means yet invented of accomplishing this object is water-carriage2 i4 e41 the matters referred to are conveyed from the house1 with the addition of sufficient water to insure a rapid flow1 through a series of pipes and tunnels into a large body of running water1 or over the surface of the earth1 under conditions which insure their rapid conversion into harmless substances4 ,the water-carriage system includes bowls or sinks for the deposit of refuse matters1 connecting-pipes to remove such matters from the house1 and public sewers for their further conveyance away from human abodes4 ,the construction and care of public sewers belong to the local government2 we have here only to do with house-drainage4 ,the essentials of house-drainage are3 #a4 ,the primary receptacles 7bowls1 sinks1 water-closets1 etc47 should be of such material and so constructed as to be impervious to fluids1 and easy to clean and keep clean4 #b4 ,the pipes should be of such material as to be as durable as possible1 and so laid and connected as to form gas-tight conduits1 and to insure the rapid passage of whatever enters them1 so as to prevent the formation of deposits or incrustations4 #c4 ,the drainage system should be so planned and constructed that neither the atmosphere of the house nor the drinking-water can be polluted by anything escaping from it1 and no noxious matters can enter it from any other house4 ,the following plan of construction is that recommended by the ,board of ,health of ,new ,york city3 #a4 ,all materials must be of good quality and free from defects2 the work must be executed in a thorough and workmanlike manner4 #b4 ,the arrangement of soil and waste pipes must be as direct as possible4 #c4 ,the drain1 soil1 and waste pipes1 and the traps1 must1 if practicable1 be exposed to view for ready inspection at all times1 and for convenience in repairing4 ,when necessarily placed within partitions or in recesses of walls1 soil and waste pipes must be covered with wood-work1 so fastened with screws as to be readily removed4 ,in no case shall they be absolutely inaccessible4 #d4 ,it is recommended to place the soil and other vertical pipes in a special shaft1 between or adjacent to the water-closet and the bath-room1 and serving as a ventilating shaft for them4 ,this shaft should be at least two and a half feet square4 ,it should extend from the cellar through the roof1 and should be covered by a louvered sky-light4 ,it should be accessible at every story1 and should have a very open but strong grating at each floor to stand upon4 ,shafts not less than three feet square in area are required in tenement-houses1 to ventilate interior water-closets4 #e4 ,every house or building must be separately and independently connected with the street-sewer4 #f4 ,where the ground is made or filled in1 the house-sewer--that is to say1 the portion of the drain extending from the public sewer to the front wall--must be of cast-iron1 with the joints properly calked with lead4 #g4 ,where the soil consists of a natural bed of loam1 sand1 or rock1 the house-sewer may be of hard1 salt-glazed1 and cylindrical earthenware pipe1 laid on a smooth bottom1 free from all projections of rock1 and with the soil well rammed to prevent any settling of the pipe4 ,each section must be wetted before applying the cement1 and the space between each hub and the small end of the next section must be completely and uniformly filled with the best hydraulic cement4 ,care must be taken to prevent any cement being forced into the drain to become an obstruction4 ,no tempered-up cement shall be used4 ,a straight-edge must be used inside the pipe1 and the different sections must be laid in perfect line on the bottom and sides4 #h4 ,where there is no sewer in the street1 and it is necessary to construct a private sewer to connect with a sewer on an adjacent street or avenue1 it must be laid under the roadway of the street on which the houses front1 and not through the yards or under the houses4 #i4 ,the house-drain must be of iron1 with a fall of at least one quarter inch to the foot1 if possible1 and not more than one inch to the foot4 #aj4 ,where water-closets or a school-sink discharge into it1 the drain must be at least four inches in diameter4 #aa4 ,it must be hung on the cellar wall or ceiling1 unless this is impracticable1 in which case it must be laid in a trench cut at a uniform grade1 walled upon the sides with brick laid in hydraulic cement1 and provided with movable covers1 and with a hydraulic concrete base of four inches in thickness1 on which the pipe is to rest4 #ab4 ,it must be laid in a straight line1 if possible4 ,all changes in direction must be made with curved pipes1 and all connections with ,y-branch pipes and one-eighth bends4 #ac4 ,any house-drain or house-sewer1 put in and covered without due notice to the ,health ,department1 must be uncovered for inspection at the direction of the inspector4 #ad4 ,a running or half ,s-trap must be placed on the house-drain at an accessible point near the front of the house4 ,this trap must be furnished with a hand-hole for convenience in cleaning1 the cover of which must be properly fitted and made gas and air tight with some proper cement4 #ae4 ,there must be an inlet for fresh air entering the drain just inside the trap1 of at least four inches in diameter1 leading to the outer air and opening at or near the street curb1 or at a convenient place not less than ten feet from the nearest window4 ,no cold-air box for a furnace shall be so placed that it can by any possibility draw air from this inlet-pipe4 ,the inlet-pipe should never be carried up to the roof inside or outside the house4 #af4 ,no brick1 sheet-metal1 earthenware1 or chimney-flue shall be used as a sewer-ventilator1 nor to ventilate any trap1 drain1 soil1 or waste pipe4 #ag4 ,every vertical soil-pipe and waste-pipe must be of iron1 and1 where it receives the discharge of fixtures on two or more floors1 it must be extended at least two feet above the highest part of the roof or coping1 of undiminished size1 with a return bend or cowl4 ,it must not open near a window1 nor an air-shaft which ventilates livingrooms4 #ah4 ,soil1 waste1 and vent pipes1 in an extension1 must be extended above the roof of the main building1 when otherwise they would open within twenty feet of the windows of the main house or the adjoining house4 #ai4 ,horizontal soil and waste pipes are prohibited4 #bj4 ,the minimum diameter of soil-pipe permitted is four inches4 ,a vertical waste-pipe1 into which a line of kitchen-sinks discharge1 must be at least two inches in diameter1 with one inch and a half branches4 #ba4 ,where lead pipe is used to connect fixtures with vertical soil or waste pipes1 or to connect traps with vertical vent-pipes1 it must not be lighter than ,d-pipe4 #bb4 ,there shall be no traps on vertical soil-pipes or vertical waste-pipes4 #bc4 ,all iron pipes must be sound1 free from holes1 and of a uniform thickness of not less than one eighth of an inch for a diameter of two1 three1 or four inches1 or five thirty-seconds of an inch for a diameter of five or six inches2 and1 in case the building is over sixty-five feet in height above the curb1 the use of what is known as extra heavy pipe1 and corresponding fittings1 are required1 which weigh as follows3 #b inches1 #e pounds per lineal foot4 #c 0 #i 0 0 #d 0 #ac 0 0 #e 0 #ag 0 0 #f 0 #bj 0 0 #g 0 #bg 0 0 #h 0 #cc 0 0 #aj 0 #de 0 0 #ab 0 #ed 0 0 #bd4 ,before they are connected they must be thoroughly coated inside and outside with coal-tar pitch1 applied hot1 or some other equivalent substance4 #be4 ,when required by an inspector from the ,board of ,health1 the plumbing must be tested with the peppermint or the water test1 by the plumber in the presence of the inspector1 and all defective joints made tight1 and other openings made impermeable to gases4 ,defective pipe discovered must be removed and replaced by sound pipe4 #bf4 ,all joints in the iron drain-pipes1 soil-pipes1 and waste-pipes must be so calked with oakum and lead1 or with cement made of iron filings and sal-ammoniac1 as to make them impermeable to gas4 #bg4 ,all connections of lead with iron pipes must be made with a brass sleeve or ferrule1 of the same size as the lead pipe1 put in the hub of the branch of the iron pipe1 and calked in with lead4 ,the lead pipe must be attached to the ferrule by a wiped joint4 #bh4 ,all connections of lead pipe should be by wiped joints4 #bi4 ,every water-closet1 urinal1 sink1 basin1 wash-tray1 bath1 and every tub or set of tubs1 must be separately and effectively trapped1 except where a sink and wash-tubs immediately adjoin each other1 in which case the waste-pipe from the tubs may be connected with the inlet side of the sink-trap2 in such a case the tub waste-pipe is not required to be separately trapped4 #cj4 ,traps must be placed as near the fixtures as practicable1 and in no case shall a trap be more than two feet from the fixture4 #ca4 ,all exit-pipes must be provided with strong metallic strainers4 #cb4 ,in no case shall the waste from a bath-tub or other fixture be connected with a water-closet trap4 #cc4 ,traps must be protected from siphonage1 and the waste-pipe leading from them ventilated1 by a special air-pipe1 in no case less than two inches in diameter for water-closet traps1 and one inch and a half for other traps4 ,except in private dwellings1 the vertical vent-pipes for traps of water-closets in buildings more than four stories in height must be at least three inches in diameter1 with two-inch branches to each trap1 and for traps of other fixtures not less than two inches in diameter1 with branches one and a half inches in diameter1 unless the trap is smaller1 in which case the diameter of branch vent-pipe must be at least equal to the diameter of the trap4 ,in all cases vertical vent-pipes must be of cast or wrought iron4 #cd4 ,these pipes must either extend two feet above the highest part of the roof or coping1 the extension to be not less than four inches in diameter to avoid obstruction from frost1 or they may be branched into a soil-pipe above the inlet from the highest fixture4 ,they may be combined by branching together those which serve several traps4 ,these air-pipes must always have a continuous slope1 to avoid collecting water by condensation4 #ce4 ,traps of fixtures near the fresh-air inlet may be ventilated by being connected with it4 #cf4 ,no trap vent-pipe shall be used as a waste or soil pipe4 #cg4 ,overflow-pipes from fixtures must1 in each case1 be connected on the inlet side of the trap4 #ch4 ,every safe under a wash-basin1 bath1 urinal1 water-closet1 or other fixture1 must be drained by a special pipe not directly connected with any soil-pipe1 waste-pipe1 drain1 or sewer1 but discharging into an open sink1 upon the cellar-floor1 or outside the house4 #ci4 ,the waste-pipe from a refrigerator shall not be directly connected with the soil or waste pipe1 or with the drain or sewer1 or discharge into the soil2 it should discharge into an open sink4 ,such waste-pipes should be so arranged as to admit of frequent flushing1 and should be as short as possible1 and disconnected from the refrigerator4 #dj4 ,the sediment-pipe from kitchen boilers must be connected on the inlet side of the sink-trap4 #da4 ,all water-closets within the house must be supplied with water from special tanks or cisterns1 the water of which is not used for any other purpose4 ,the closets must never be supplied directly from the ,croton supply-pipes4 ,a group of closets may be supplied from one tank2 but water-closets on different floors are not permitted to be flushed from one tank4 #db4 ,the valves of cisterns must be so fitted and adjusted as to prevent wasting of water1 especially where cisterns are supplied from a tank on the roof4 #dc4 ,the overflow-pipes from water-closet cisterns must discharge into an open sink1 or where its discharge will attract attention and indicate that waste of water is occurring1 but not into the bowl of the water-closet1 not into the soil or waste pipe1 nor into the drain or sewer4 ,when the pressure of the ,croton is not sufficient to supply these tanks1 a pump must be provided4 #dd4 ,tanks for drinking-water are objectionable2 if indispensable1 they must never be lined with lead1 galvanized iron1 or zinc4 ,they should be constructed of iron1 or wood lined with tinned and planished copper4 ,the overflow should discharge upon the roof1 or be trapped and discharge into an open sink1 never into any soil or waste pipe or water-closet trap1 nor into the drain or sewer4 #de4 ,rain-water leaders must never be used as soil1 waste1 or vent pipes2 nor shall any soil1 waste1 or vent pipe be used as a leader4 #df4 ,when within the house1 the leader must be of cast-iron1 with leaded joints2 when outside of the house1 and connected with the house-drain1 it must be trapped beneath the ground or just inside of the wall1 the trap being arranged in either case so as to prevent freezing4 ,in every case where a leader opens near a window or a light-shaft1 it must be properly trapped at its base4 #dg4 ,no steam exhaust or blow-off pipe from a steam-boiler will be allowed to connect with any soil or waste pipe1 or directly with the house-drain4 ,they should discharge into a tank or condenser1 the waste from which1 if to be discharged into the sewer through the house-drain1 must be connected on the sewer side of the running trap4 #dh4 ,subsoil drains must be provided whenever necessary4 #di4 ,yards and areas should always be properly graded1 cemented1 flagged1 or well paved1 and properly drained2 when the drain is connected with the house-drain1 it must be effectively trapped4 ,front-area drains must1 where practicable1 be connected with the house-drain inside of the running trap4 #ej4 ,cellar and foundation walls must1 where possible1 be rendered impervious to dampness1 and the use of asphaltum or coal-tar pitch1 in addition to hydraulic cement1 is recommended for that purpose4 #ea4 ,no privy-vault or school-sink will be allowed in any cellar or basement2 nor shall the general privy accommodation of a tenement or lodging house be allowed to be in the cellar or basement4 #eb4 ,no privy-vault1 or cesspool for sewage1 will be permitted in any part of the city where water-closets or a school-sink can be connected with a public sewer in the street4 #ec4 ,school-sinks must be of cast-iron1 not more than two feet in depth1 connected at the upper end with the ,croton supply1 and at the lower end with a drain leading to the street-sewer1 and provided with an outlet at the lowest point and on the bottom so as to admit of a complete discharge of the contents whenever the outlet is opened and the sink flushed with water4 #ed4 ,the sink must be set so that the flange will be at least two feet below the yard surface1 to prevent freezing4 ,it must be at least ten feet from any window1 or as near that distance as practicable4 #ee4 ,the waste-pipe from a hydrant-sink in the yard must be properly trapped1 especially where it discharges into a school-sink1 a privy-vault1 or cesspool1 or the house-drain4 #ef4 ,open light and air courts must be properly drained4 #eg4 ,when a privy-vault or cesspool must necessarily be used1 and the water-supply of the premises is from a well1 they must be at least fifty feet from the well2 and the privy-vault must be absolutely tight4 ,explanatory ,remarks4 #b4 ,as direct as possible4 ,to insure an uninterrupted flow4 ,when a pipe has to pass an obstruction 7a beam or post7 an offset is used 7,fig4 #b74 #c4 ,the soil-pipe is that which conveys the contents of water-closets to the house-drain3 the waste-pipes are intended to carry other refuse fluids only4 ,the house-drain is the large pipe which receives the contents of the soil and waste pipes and conveys them outside the house4 ,a trap is a bend 7with or without an enlargement7 of the pipe1 intended to retain a sufficient amount of the fluids that enter it to occlude the pipe and prevent the backward flow of air4 ,the effective water-seal is represented by the total depth of water in the trap1 minus the inside diameter of the pipe1 and should be at least one inch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,offset4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,s-trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,half ,s-trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,d-trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,bag-trap4 ,traps are of various kinds1 and many are patented4 ,the accompanying figures represent the principal types4 ,fig4 #c is the ,s-trap4 ,fig4 #d is the half ,s-trap4 ,there is also a three-quarter ,s-trap4 ,fig4 #e is a ,d-trap1 formerly much used1 but now mostly out of date1 because it retains dirt4 ,fig4 #f is a bag-trap4 ,it has no advantage over the ,s-trap1 and uses more material4 ,fig4 #g is a bottle-trap1 much used in ,boston4 ,this also retains dirt4 ,there are varieties of it1 the distinguishing feature of all being that the fluids enter them at the bottom and flow out at the top4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,bottle-trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,bell-trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,running-trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,mason's trap4 ,fig4 #h is the bell-trap1 so called from its shape4 ,much used for the drains of paved areas1 yards1 and cellars2 liable to retain dirt1 and needs frequent cleaning2 not a good trap4 ,fig4 #i is a running-trap1 used in house-drains and other pipes that are nearly horizontal4 ,fig4 #aj represents a mason's trap4 ,is built of brick or stone and cement4 ,used in brick-drains and sewers1 in receiving-basins at street corners1 etc4 ,requires frequent cleaning1 and should never be used inside a building4 ,fig4 #aa represents the method of trapping a cesspool4 ,the same plan is also used for grease-traps1 the outlet-pipe dipping below the surface of the contents so that it is never obstructed by the grease1 which floats on top4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,trapped cesspool4 ,a few patent traps are shown as samples3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,adee trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,bower trap4 ,fig4 #ab is the ,adee trap1 a modification of the ,d-trap4 ,fig4 #ac is the ,bower trap1 claimed to be secured against siphonage or back pressure by a rubber ball which floats up against the entering-pipe4 ,modification of the bottle-trap4 ,fig4 #ad is ,bedell's trap1 with a metallic flap or valve1 and an opening on the sewer side of the valve1 to relieve pressure4 ,fig4 #ae is ,stewart's trap1 intelligible from the diagram4 ,traps are also made of iron or glass1 with a mercury seal1 which1 it is claimed1 are proof against siphoning1 pressure1 or evaporation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,bedell's trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,stewart's trap4 #d4 ,a louvered sky-light is one with slats at the sides inclining outward1 so that air can escape but rain can not enter4 #f4 ,calked with lead4 7,see #bf47 #g4 ,tempered-up cement4 ,cement which has been used once1 and has been broken up and ground1 for using a second time4 #i4 ,house-drain1 of iron4 7,see 8,bad ,odors1 #b1 a407 #aj4 ,water-closets4 ,four principal classes1 with innumerable varieties1 mostly patented4 #a4 ,the pan-closet 7,fig4 #af74 ,its chief advantage is its cheapness and the ease with which it can be repaired4 ,its disadvantage is the odor that usually attends its use4 ,when the handle 7a7 is raised1 the contents of the pan 7b7 are thrown against the side of the iron container 7c71 and some filth adheres there and decomposes1 filling the container with a noisome stench1 which escapes into the room every time the closet is used4 ,an abundant flush1 an enameled container1 and proper ventilation of the container1 reduce this nuisance materially4 ,generally condemned by sanitarians4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--,pan-closet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,hopper-closet4 #b4 ,hopper-closets 7,fig4 #ag74 ,rather unsightly1 because the water and floating matter in the trap are visible1 and matters often cling to the sides1 but1 with an abundant flush suddenly discharged1 are very inoffensive4 #c4 ,plunger-closets1 of which the ,jennings closet 7,fig4 #ah7 may be taken as a type4 ,the handle lifts a plug1 which allows the contents of the bowl to run out1 and1 when the plug is dropped in place1 the bowl is filled again from a ball-cock4 ,these closets are liable to get out of order2 the plungers or plugs lose their rubber flanges and leak1 and the plunger-chamber is apt to retain filth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,jennings closet4 #d4 ,it is evident that if the hopper-closet could have its trap bent to one side out of sight1 and its hopper enlarged toward the bottom1 so that nothing would strike and cling to its sides1 it would be an excellent one4 ,of such a type are the ,tidal-,wave and ,national closets 7,fig4 #ai71 a being the water-pipe1 which discharges into a flushing rim1 and b a vent-pipe to relieve pressure between the two bodies of water during a discharge1 and prevent siphoning4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,tidal-wave closet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,y-branch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,quarter bend4 ,a water-closet1 to be well flushed1 should have a discharge of three gallons of water in five seconds1 sent directly downward all around the rim4 ,school-sink 7also called trough-sink or privy-sink74 ,an iron trough1 having a sewer-connected opening with a movable iron plug in the bottom at one end1 for the discharge of its contents1 and a pipe at the other end1 from which it is filled with water4 ,it is practically an elongated water-closet4 7,see #ec47 #ab4 ,y-branch 7,fig4 #bj71 so named from its shape4 ,there are also half ,y-branches4 ,eighth bends4 ,there are also quarter bends 7,fig4 #ba71 sixth bends1 and sixteenth bends4 ,these are used in pipe-connections in order to discharge the contents of the branch pipes in the same general direction with the current in the main pipes1 for1 if the discharge enters at a right angle1 a deposit is apt to form opposite the point of connection4 #ad4 ,trap in house-drain4 ,intended to cut off all communication between the house and the street sewer4 ,if a contagious disease occurs in one's own house1 he can be sure that the excreta are disinfected1 and that disease-germs can not escape into the air1 even if the pipes happen to be defective2 but he can not be sure that such excreta are properly disinfected in other houses4 ,the only safe way1 therefore1 is for each house to be cut off from all others by the means described4 ,the objections to the trap on the house-drain are1 that it forms a slight obstruction to the flow of drainage1 and is liable to be obstructed by deposits1 and that it favors 8cushioning10 i4 e41 the forcing of smaller traps1 when the air in the drain is compressed between this trap and a down-coming mass of water4 7,see 8,bad ,odors10 #a1 d47 ,the first of these objections is met by making the trap a half ,s one1 so that the fluids fall down one limb with sufficient force to wash out the bottom of the trap thoroughly with each discharge1 and the second by the fresh-air inlet1 which relieves the pressure that otherwise might force the traps4 #ae4 ,the fresh-air inlet affords free entrance for air1 and1 as the main lines of pipe are open above the roof1 the difference in length of the pipes will give rise to a constant current of fresh air through them1 in one direction or the other4 7,see 8,bad ,odors10 #a c47 ,this results in the oxidation of whatever filth may cling to the pipes1 and dilutes offensive gases so that they are rendered harmless4 ,it has also been shown that the various microscopic organisms1 which are believed to be the specific cause of certain diseases1 increase in virulence1 when they propagate in the absence or with a deficient supply of oxygen1 while the intensity of their action is diminished if they grow where oxygen is plentiful4 #af4 ,ventilation in chimney-flues4 7,see 8,bad ,odors10 #a1 c47 #ag4 ,vertical pipes of iron4 ,iron resists corrosion and the assaults of rats better than lead1 and lead pipes are sometimes occluded by pressure and settling4 ,branch wastes are generally of lead because it is easily cut and bent1 so as to be used in difficult situations4 ,return-bend or cowl4 ,to prevent senseless persons from throwing things down the pipe1 and thus obstructing it4 #bj4 ,diameter of pipes4 ,the inside diameter is always meant4 #ba4 ,d-pipe4 7,see ,appendix ,b47 #bb4 ,no traps on vertical pipes11 at the foot of such pipes1 because they would prevent the free circulation of air1 and thus render the fresh-air inlet practically useless4 ,also to prevent 8cushioning40 #bc4 ,cast-iron pipes are made in five-foot lengths1 with an enlargement at one end1 called the hub or bell1 and a bead around the edge of the other end 7the spigot-end74 ,the spigot-end of one pipe fits loosely into the hub of another1 sufficient room being left for calking4 7,see #bf47 #bd4 ,pipes are tarred by being heated to #ejj ,fahr4 and then dipped perpendicularly into a hot bath of coal-tar pitch mixed with a small proportion of heavy coal-oil4 ,this coating prevents corrosion1 or at least greatly retards it4 #be4 ,wrought-iron pipes1 with screw joints1 are used by the ,durham ,house ,drainage ,company1 the joints being gas-tight4 ,they have the advantage of being very durable and impervious to gases1 but the disadvantage of being too permanent4 ,if it is desired to change the position of a fixture1 or to connect a new one1 it is easy to break a hole in a cast-iron pipe1 or to remove a portion of it1 but where wrought-iron pipe is used this is almost impossible4 ,the ,durham system also costs about twenty-five per cent more than the common one1 and it is not strictly correct to say that its use renders a house absolutely secure against leakage of sewer-air1 because it does not do away with lead branch-pipes1 in which frequent leakages occur1 and all irregular portions of pipe1 with branches1 etc41 in this system are made of cast-iron with calked joints1 as in the ordinary system4 ,the water-test is applied by plugging the pipe carefully1 and closing all openings below a certain point1 and then filling it with water to that level4 ,if there is any leakage1 the water-level will gradually sink4 ,if the pipes are tight1 it will remain the same4 ,peppermint-test4 7,see hereafter47 #bf4 ,oakum is packed into the space between the spigot-end of one pipe and the hub of the other1 and driven against the bead above mentioned4 ,this packing is called a gasket4 ,melted lead is poured in on top of the oakum1 and1 when it has cooled1 is driven in tight with a calking iron and mallet4 ,when ordinary pipe is used1 the calking will sometimes split the hub1 and this furnishes an argument for the general use of extra-heavy pipe4 ,iron-filings1 etc41 making what is called a rust-joint4 #bg4 ,ferrules1 or sleeves1 are used because lead pipes are too soft and yielding to withstand the calking4 ,lead can not be soldered to iron1 and therefore brass or copper has to be used4 ,if iron ferrules are used1 the lead pipe must be turned up on the outside far enough so that its edge shall be covered by the melted lead used in calking1 so as to prevent leakage of gas1 as hereafter described4 7,see 8,bad ,odors10 #a1 b47 #bh4 ,wiped-joints are those always used for lead pipe1 and are indicated by a raised ring of solder surrounding the pipe4 #bi4 ,a trap1 with a good water-seal1 is an effective barrier against the passage of sewer-air or particles of organic matter4 ,the experiments of ,carmichael1 confirmed by ,wernich and ,pumpelly1 have amply demonstrated that sewer-air passes through the water-seal in such minute quantities that it can not possibly harm any one1 and that solid particles of matter can not pass at all4 ,separate traps1 except1 etc4 7,see 8,bad ,odors10 #a1 d47 #cc4 ,siphonage4 7,see 8,bad ,odors10 #a1 d #cg47 #cg4 ,overflow-pipes from fixtures4 ,it is better to connect them with the trap below the water-level4 7,see 8,bad ,odors10 #a1 d47 #ch4 ,safes are sheets of metal 7generally lead7 with turned-up edges1 placed beneath basins1 sinks1 water-closets1 etc41 to protect the floor in case of leakage4 ,the waste-pipes of safes are common sources of nuisance4 7,see 8,bad ,odors10 #a1 c47 #ci4 ,to prevent contamination of the contents of the refrigerator4 #da4 ,when water-closets are flushed directly from the common supply-pipe of the house1 as in the different kinds of valve-closets1 the water in the pipes1 under certain circumstances1 will be contaminated3 e4 g41 if a person opens a faucet on one floor at the same moment that the valve is opened to flush a water-closet on a higher floor1 water will be sucked back from the valve1 and the air of the closet will follow it4 ,check-valves have been used to prevent this1 but they should not be depended on4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,various forms of tanks or cisterns for water-closets are here shown4 ,fig4 #bb represents a tank1 b1 which discharges water as long as the handle 7attached to the chain a7 is raised4 ,it gives a flush also of the entire contents of the service-box c1 after the handle is lowered4 ,fig4 #bc shows a waste-preventing tank1 which is divided into two compartments1 b and d4 ,it will be seen that this allows only the contents of d to be discharged1 with an after-flush from c4 ,fig4 #bd shows a tank1 in which the chain a is attached to the seat1 and is pulled down when the seat is depressed4 ,it will be seen that no water can flow while the closet is in use1 but1 when the seat is released1 the contents of c are discharged with great force4 ,in all these figures1 e is a ball-cock4 ,this cock is controlled by a hollow copper ball1 which floats on water1 and is attached to the end of a lever4 ,when the water falls1 the ball falls with it1 and opens the cock4 ,when it is floated up to a certain point1 it closes the cock and stops the flow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--;,drainage plan for dwellings4 #de4 ,leaders should not be used as soil-pipes1 because1 during a rain1 the ventilation of the pipes is interfered with by the downward flow of water1 which will also empty unventilated traps by siphoning4 ,the necessity of having leaders open flush with the roof also interferes with proper ventilation4 #dg4 ,if steam enters a soil-pipe1 it heats the water in the traps1 injures joints on account of the extreme changes of temperature induced1 and hastens corrosion of the pipes4 ,fig4 #be shows a system of house-drainage for a city house planned in accordance with the above rules4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--;,field's flush-tank4 ,in country houses1 where there are no sewers1 the best method of disposing of the house-slops is subsoil drainage4 ,the house system may be the same as that already explained for city houses4 ,the fluids are conducted by a pipe with tight joints to a flush-tank 7,fig4 #bf7 near the house4 ,this tank is so constructed that it empties itself1 by a siphon action1 whenever it gets full1 discharging all its contents in a very short time1 and thus washing out thoroughly the pipes into which it empties4 8,the outlet-pipe from this tank is continued by a cemented vitrified pipe to a point about twenty-five feet farther away4 ,here it connects with a system of open-jointed drain-tiles1 consisting of one main1 fifty feet long1 and ten lateral drains1 six feet apart1 and each about twenty feet long4 ,these drains underlie a part of the lawn1 and are only about ten inches below the surface0 7,waring74 ,it will be understood that the purpose of this method of drainage is to have the organic matter contained in the house-refuse appropriated by vegetation1 and it must therefore be distributed within reach of the grass-roots4 ,if water-closets are used1 the following system is recommended in 8,the ,sanitary ,engineer03 ,collect all the sewage of the house in a small and perfectly tight tank or cesspool1 in which the paper and fecal matter soon become macerated by fermentation and reduced to a pulp4 ,this tank should overflow into the flush-tank1 the overflow-pipe dipping at least a foot below the point of discharge1 to avoid the scum4 ,the siphon of the flush-tank should be accessible by a man-hole1 so as to be readily cleaned4 ,if thus arranged1 and if no roots of trees are in the soil1 the distribution-pipes will not clog for a year or more1 sometimes not for ten years4 ,pipes should be laid at a depth of eight inches1 with a slight and uniform descent of not over six or eight inches in one hundred feet4 ,branches from a four-inch main to the two-inch distribution-pipes should lead from the bottom of the former1 instead of from the side1 as in ordinary drain connections4 ,there should be a grease-trap 7see 8,explanatory ,remarks10 #c7 attached to the kitchen waste-pipes1 in order to prevent clogging of the tanks and pipes by the congelation of fat4 ,bad ,odors4 ,when bad odors in a house are traceable to the drainage1 they will usually be found to be due to one or more of the following causes3 #a4 ,to faulty construction4 7a47 ,drains4--,these may be made of brick or stone and cement4 ,such materials are pervious to gases1 even when sound1 and are peculiarly liable to be channeled by rats1 especially where an iron or lead pipe enters them4 ,such a drain should be replaced by an iron one4 7b47 ,joints4--,cement-joints are pervious to gases4 ,putty-joints crack and so become pervious4 ,a lead pipe is sometimes connected with an iron one by means of an iron ferrule1 the lead pipe passing inside the ferrule and being turned over its lower edge1 extending up on the outside1 the ferrule then being calked into the hub4 ,when paper is used for the gasket or packing1 it rots away in time1 and a passage is left through which gas can escape as follows3 up between the hub and the turned-over lead pipe1 over its edge1 between it and the calking1 down between the lead pipe and the ferrule1 across the lower edge of the ferrule1 and out between the inner surface of the ferrule and the outer surface of the lead pipe4 7,see ,fig4 #bg47 ,sometimes a connection of lead with iron is made by means of a lead flange fastened around the iron pipe with wire1 and sometimes the lead pipe is simply stuck into a hole in the iron pipe and fastened with cement or putty4 ,such work should be replaced by properly made joints as described in the above regulations4 7,or in 8,bad ,odors10 #b1 c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,iron ferrule improperly calked4 7c47 ,pipes4--,if the leaders are not trapped at the bottom1 offensive gases from them may enter the nearest windows4 ,a leader is never of the same length as the soil-pipe1 and1 if there is direct communication between them through the house-drain1 there will always be a current of air through them in one direction or the other4 ,if the external air is colder than that inside the pipes1 then the heavier column of air will be over the shorter pipe1 and the current will be down that one and up the other4 ,if the external air is warmer than that in the pipes1 the heavier column will be that which includes the longer pipe1 and the current will be down that one and up the shorter4 ,so1 as a rule1 the current in winter is down the short pipe and up the long one1 while in summer it is reversed1 and1 as the short pipe often ends near windows1 the nuisance is greatest when these windows are open4 ,of course1 in such cases1 the leader must be trapped4 ,ventilating-pipes sometimes end in chimney-flues4 ,this is a bad plan1 for1 if the flue is in use1 the open end of the pipe will become choked with soot and finally be rendered useless4 ,if the flue is not used1 there will often be a down draught in it1 and the offensive gases may be conveyed through stove-pipes or fireplaces into the rooms of the house4 ,such gases may even penetrate the walls of the flue and so enter the house4 ,if such a pipe is ever run into a flue1 it should be extended at least two feet above the chimney-top4 ,ventilating-pipes are sometimes badly arranged1 so that they actually neutralize a trap and render it useless4 7,see ,fig4 #bh47 ,in this figure a is the soil-pipe and b the ventilating-pipe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,faulty arrangement of ventilating pipes4 ,safe-wastes and the overflow-pipes of tanks and cisterns may be connected with the soil or waste pipe4 ,when they are1 they are usually trapped4 ,it will often be found that the traps are empty and useless1 so that offensive gases escape from the pipes4 ,with tank-overflow pipes this is generally the case4 ,safe-waste traps are sometimes provided with small feed-pipes1 intended to discharge water into them every time the fixtures are used4 ,it will often be found1 however1 if the end of the feed-pipe is pulled up out of the waste1 that no water runs through it1 and it is useless1 sometimes because it is too small and is choked with dust and sediment1 and sometimes because it is wrongly attached to the source of supply4 ,safe-wastes1 discharging into the kitchen or cellar1 may convey to the rooms odors of cooking or of articles stored in the cellar 7onions1 turnips1 etc471 or from the servants' water-closet1 which is often offensive4 ,if urine or other offensive liquids from leakage flow through them1 the upward currents of air will be impregnated with odors from the filth that has clung to the pipe long after the leak has been repaired4 ,in any event these safe-wastes constitute a direct communication between different rooms of a house1 which is not always desirable4 ,it is better to do without them4 ,they are rarely of any use4 ,if required1 however1 they should either be trapped under the safe1 and means taken to insure a constant water-seal1 or they may be closed by a piece of paper pasted over the lower opening1 which will prevent the entrance of any odors from cellar or kitchen1 but will give way in case of leakage4 ,the safe-wastes of water-closets often discharge into the trap of the water-closet4 ,this is a bad plan1 because1 if there is an obstruction in the trap1 the safe-waste is1 of course1 useless4 ,if offensive odors are traced to safe-wastes1 the openings had better be sealed4 ,if overflow-pipes are the source1 they must be disconnected from the soil or waste pipe and made to discharge elsewhere 7e4 g41 into some sink or water-closet74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,cushioning illustrated4 7d47 ,traps4--,if two traps are so arranged that the air is compressed between them by an oncoming rush of water1 the trap containing the shallowest water-seal will be forced1 and a certain amount of air will escape through it from the interior of the pipe4 ,this result is due to 8cushioning10 as it is called1 and is illustrated in ,fig4 #bi4 ,such a fault is to be remedied by connecting the crown of one of the traps with a ventilating-pipe1 so that any pressure of the kind is immediately relieved without disturbing the seal of the trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,double-trapped waste-pipe 7air-bound74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,two sinks with but one trap4 ,if there are two traps on the same line of pipe 7,fig4 #cj71 so that a part of the interior of the pipe is cut off from the external air in both directions1 it becomes 8air-bound10 and one of two results will follow1 viz43 water discharged into the fixture above the higher trap will remain in the bowl and not run down1 on account of the compression of air between the traps2 or1 if it does run out of the fixture1 it will displace an equivalent bulk of foul air1 which will bubble up through the upper trap and cause offensive odors4 ,in such a case1 the lower trap should be removed4 ,if two or more waste-pipes 7as in sets of tubs1 in sinks1 and often in urinals7 are provided with but one trap for all 7,fig4 #ca71 there will be a constant current of air along the pipes1 sometimes emerging from one opening and sometimes from another4 ,this air will be contaminated by the filth that lines the pipes1 and will often be quite offensive4 ,in such cases1 each waste-pipe should be independently trapped1 or 7as in the case of bath-tubs or urinals7 the overflow-pipe should be connected with the trap of the waste-pipe below the water-seal1 as in ,fig4 #be4 ,when a body of water sufficiently large to nearly fill a pipe is discharged into it1 it drags air along with it1 and exhausts the air in all branch-pipes to a greater or less extent4 ,when this exhaustion amounts to a diminution of the pressure in the pipe of about #a_/cej1 the water in an ordinary trap 7with a one-inch seal7 will be forced out of it by the pressure of the external atmosphere1 or in other words will be sucked out of the trap into the pipe1 leaving no water-seal in the trap1 and1 therefore1 allowing free exit for sewer-air4 ,this effect is known as the 8siphoning0 of the trap1 and is most likely to occur when the main pipe is not open at its upper extremity 7is not ventilated71 and when the branch wastes are of the same size with the main one4 ,this fault is remedied by the ventilation of the traps1 and of the main pipes1 as described in the regulations above quoted 7#ag and #cc74 #b4 ,to defects in the pipes4 7a47 ,drains4--,bad odors in cellars often come from broken earthenware or tile drains1 cracked by settling1 or from rat-holes in cemented drains4 ,earthenware or brick drains inside a house should be replaced by iron ones4 7b47 ,joints4--,cement or putty joints are often cracked4 ,water-closets sometimes become loosened from the floor and leak fluids and gases4 ,the covers of hand-holes of traps sometimes get loose and leak gas4 ,sometimes trap-screws1 instead of being at the bottom of the trap1 where they are covered by water1 are at the top2 if these are loose1 gases may escape4 ,all such defects should be repaired4 7c47 ,pipes4--,both lead and iron pipes are corroded and in time perforated by sewer-air4 ,such corrosion is most likely to occur at points where gases come in contact with a dry part of the pipe1 viz41 at the crowns or domes of traps1 and in ventilating-pipes4 ,for this reason1 ventilating-pipes should never be made of thin iron 7galvanized iron71 and should always be protected by a tar-coating4 ,the crowns of lead traps 7especially of water-closets7 are often bitten into by rats in search of water4 ,in all cases when the crown of a trap is perforated1 there is rarely any leakage of fluid to indicate it1 but offensive gases escape4 ,all corroded traps and pipes should be replaced by new ones1 and not patched up4 ,holes in iron pipes may be closed by iron bands surrounding the pipe1 and fastened with red-lead putty and screw-bolts 7,fig4 #cb74 ,a new joint may be made by means of a saddle-hub 7,fig4 #cc7 carefully secured in a similar manner4 ,lead pipes are sometimes protected against rats by being encircled by tin1 or packed in pounded glass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,bands4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,saddle-hub4 #c4 ,to carelessness4 7a47 ,evaporation4--,if fixtures are not in constant use1 the water soon evaporates from the traps and gives exit to sewer-air4 ,this often happens in warm weather1 and when a house is vacant for a time4 ,to prevent evaporation1 a little oil may be poured into the trap1 to protect the surface of the water-seal1 or it may be made the special duty of a servant to keep the traps full of water when the fixtures are not in use4 7b47 ,dirt4--,the inside of a pipe often becomes coated with slime1 consisting largely of grease1 especially in kitchens4 ,this filthy lining rapidly decomposes1 and that portion above the trap may give out bad odors4 ,the pipes may be cleansed with a strong hot solution of soda4 ,examination of ,house-,drainage4 ,if the object of an examination is to determine whether the drainage is planned and constructed in accordance with the best methods of the day1 each point referred to in the above regulations should be carefully investigated4 ,if the object is to determine the source of offensive odors1 or if there has been sickness in the house of such a character as to indicate possible defects in the plumbing1 the several sources of bad odors just enumerated should each be carefully inquired into4 ,a few additional suggestions as to the method of examination will not be out of place4 ,it will be found much easier to determine the direction1 number1 and situation of the main lines of pipe1 if the examination is begun at the roof and continued downward4 ,if a beginning is made in the cellar1 confusion results4 8,cushioning0 is determined by causing the discharge of a considerable mass of water 7as from a bath-tub or water-closet7 into the main pipe1 at some distance above the suspected fixture4 ,if there is a regurgitation in the fixture under observation1 there is certainly an obstruction in the pipe at some point below the fixture4 ,if the obstruction is caused by something lodged in the pipe1 the back-flow in the fixture will be a steady one1 because there will be some leakage through the obstruction1 while if it is due to compressed air1 which is elastic1 the regurgitation will be by spurts1 and the water in the trap may even be thrown up to a considerable height4 8,siphoning0 is also determined by filling the pipe with water in the manner just explained4 ,if the trap of the fixture under observation is emptied by siphoning1 a sucking or gurgling noise will be heard in it1 and a flame held over the outlet of the fixture will be drawn downward by the inward current of air4 ,one trap to several pipes 7when it is suspected but not certainly known because the trap is out of sight7 may be detected by the fact that there will always be a current of air in one direction or the other through such pipes1 and more or less odor will escape4 ,if the back of the hand is wet1 it becomes very sensitive to such a current1 and by holding alternately the palm and the back of the hand1 or even of the forefinger 7wet71 over an opening1 the existence and direction of such a current can be easily determined4 ,if the odors are from such a source1 it can then be made evident by covering all the outlets but one with wet paper1 so as to prevent the air-currents1 when the odors will temporarily disappear4 ,if a trap is accessible1 it is easy to determine whether its water-seal is preserved or not by tapping it from top to bottom with some metallic substance1 when the difference in sound will indicate the exact level of the water inside4 ,those parts of the plumbing which are not accessible to inspection must be examined by introducing into the pipes some strong-smelling substance1 which will indicate defects by its escape through them into the house4 ,oil of peppermint is often used for this purpose4 ,the ,peppermint-,test4 ,for testing the pipes of an ordinary dwelling1 one ounce of the oil of peppermint is sufficient4 ,for a large building more may be needed4 ,the drug costs from twenty-five to seventy-five cents an ounce1 according to its quality and the place where it is bought4 ,it is best to introduce the oil into the pipes from outside the house1 if possible1 so that the odor which inevitably attends the process may be dissipated in the external air4 ,the object being to ascertain the location of defects in the pipes inside the house1 the examiner must feel certain1 if he detects the odor of peppermint anywhere1 that the vapor has come to him from inside the pipes1 and not from the outside4 ,if the ventilating-pipes are so constructed that the oil can not be poured in from the roof1 then it must be poured into some basin or water-closet in the upper portion of the house4 ,the peppermint should first be mingled with a pailful of hot water to promote rapid volatilization1 and poured slowly down the pipe4 ,after it is poured down1 the openings at the upper extremities of the pipes should be closed1 so that the pressure of the vapor inside the pipes may not be relieved in that direction4 ,if the odor of peppermint1 thus introduced with the precautions mentioned below1 is perceived anywhere in the house1 it is an indication that there is an opening in some pipe1 through which sewer-air may escape4 ,this opening may be a defect1 or it may be due to siphoning of traps1 or to faults of original construction4 ,there will not usually be much difficulty in locating it with considerable exactness4 ,special ,precautions4 ,the peppermint should be kept on the roof1 or on a window-sill outside the house1 until needed1 for it is so volatile that the vapor escapes through the cork1 and if the odor gets into the house in this way1 it will vitiate the examination4 ,the person who pours the peppermint should remain on the roof or in the room where he does it1 with the doors closed1 until the examination is complete1 for the odor will cling to his clothing and follow him wherever he goes for an hour or more4 ,additional ,remarks4 ,if bad odors have been noticed1 and no defect can be found in the ways above mentioned1 they may be due to decaying animal matter 7dead rats1 etc471 or 7in the city7 to defects in the plumbing of the adjoining house1 offensive gases from which may penetrate the wall4 ,the source of bad odors need not necessarily be in the immediate vicinity of the place where they are noticed1 for the walls of buildings are full of channels and openings1 through which offensive gases may be carried by currents of air1 so as to emerge at a considerable distance from their origin4 ,thus1 in winter1 they are apt to be most noticeable near a fire4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,best ,,methods ,,of ,,drainage4 ,for houses where there are public sewers3 water-carriage4 ,for country houses1 if isolated from sewers1 and where expense is no objection3 water-carriage with subsoil drainage4 ,in villages and small towns1 without sewers3 subsoil drainage 7for slops71 and pails 7for excreta71 frequently removed by proper officers4 ,for farm-houses3 subsoil drainage for slops1 and a movable tank1 with dry earth disinfection1 for excreta4 ,for sea-side houses1 isolated3 if there is vegetation1 subsoil drainage for slops1 and earth-closets4 ,for sea-side villages3 subsoil drainage and the pail system4 ,for sea-side houses1 where there is no vegetation3 for excreta1 earth-closets or a movable iron tank1 with dry-earth disinfection2 for slops1 a water-tight cesspool1 with arrangements for emptying its contents into the sea when the tide is ebbing4 ,how to prevent contamination of the air from the ground4 ,have the house separated from the soil on which it is built by a layer of asphalt between two layers of cement1 extending over the whole cellar-floor1 through the foundation-walls and up above the point where the ground touches the walls outside4 ,or have the house built without a cellar1 and with perforated underpinning1 so as to allow a free circulation of air underneath it4 ,the subsoil should also be drained by tiles laid at least a foot lower than the cellar-bottom4 ,the cold-air boxes of furnaces should draw their supply from the external air4 ,it is advisable to have a thin layer of cotton held in place by wire gauze to filter the air as it enters them4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,disinfection4 ,how to prevent contamination of the air by the respiration1 bodily emanations1 and excreta of diseased persons4 ,it is not possible with our present knowledge to prevent the multiplication of morbid germs in the human body1 when they are once implanted there1 nor to prevent their discharge2 but we can destroy them after their exit from the body1 and so protect other persons who are not yet affected4 ,the following instructions for the management of contagious diseases were prepared for the ,national ,board of ,health by ,professors ,chandler1 ,henry ,draper1 ,barker1 ,vander ,poel1 ,e4 ,g4 ,janeway1 and ,ira ,remsen4 ,instructions for ,disinfection4 ,disinfection is the destruction of the poisons of infectious and contagious diseases4 ,deodorizers1 or substances which destroy smells1 are not necessarily disinfectants1 and disinfectants do not necessarily have an odor4 ,disinfection can not compensate for want of cleanliness nor of ventilation4 ,i4 ,disinfectants to be employed4 #a4 ,roll-sulphur 7brimstone7 for fumigation4 #b4 ,sulphate of iron 7copperas7 dissolved in water in the proportion of one and a half pounds to the gallon2 for soil1 sewers1 etc4 #c4 ,sulphate of zinc and common salt1 dissolved together in water in the proportion of four ounces sulphate and two ounces salt to the gallon2 for clothing1 bed-linen1 etc4 ,,ii4 ,how to use ,disinfectants4 #a4 ,in the sick-room4 ,the most available agents are fresh air and cleanliness4 ,the clothing1 towels1 bed-linen1 etc41 should on removal from the patient1 and before they are taken from the room1 be placed in a pail or tub of the zinc solution1 boiling-hot if possible4 ,all discharges should either be received in vessels containing copperas solution1 or1 when this is impracticable1 should be immediately covered with copperas solution4 ,all vessels used about the patient should be cleansed with the same solution4 ,unnecessary furniture1 especially that which is stuffed1 carpets and hangings1 should1 when possible1 be removed from the room at the outset2 otherwise they should remain for subsequent fumigation and treatment4 #b4 ,fumigation with sulphur is the only practicable method for disinfecting the house4 ,for this purpose1 the rooms to be disinfected must be vacated4 ,heavy clothing1 blankets1 bedding1 and other articles which can not be treated with zinc solution1 should be opened and exposed during fumigation1 as directed below4 ,close the rooms as tightly as possible1 place the sulphur in iron pans supported upon bricks placed in wash-tubs containing a little water1 set it on fire by hot coals or with the aid of a spoonful of alcohol1 and allow the room to remain closed for twenty-four hours4 ,for a room about ten feet square1 at least two pounds of sulphur should be used2 for larger rooms1 proportionally increased quantities4 #c4 ,premises4 ,cellars1 yards1 stables1 gutters1 privies1 cesspools1 water-closets1 drains1 sewers1 etc41 should be frequently and liberally treated with copperas solution4 ,the copperas solution is easily prepared by hanging a basket containing about sixty pounds of copperas in a barrel of water4 #d4 ,body and bed clothing1 etc4 ,it is best to burn all articles which have been in contact with persons sick with contagious or infectious diseases4 ,articles too valuable to be destroyed should be treated as follows3 7a47 ,cotton1 linen1 flannels1 blankets1 etc41 should be treated with the boiling-hot zinc solution2 introduce piece by piece1 secure thorough wetting1 and boil for at least half an hour4 7b47 ,heavy woolen clothing1 silks1 furs1 stuffed bed-covers1 beds1 and other articles which can not be treated with the zinc solution1 should be hung in the room during fumigation1 their surfaces thoroughly exposed and pockets turned inside out4 ,afterward they should be hung in the open air1 beaten and shaken4 ,pillows1 beds1 stuffed mattresses1 upholstered furniture1 etc41 should be cut open1 the contents spread out and thoroughly fumigated4 ,carpets are best fumigated on the floor1 but should afterward be removed to the open air and thoroughly beaten4 #e4 ,corpses especially of persons that have died of any infectious or malignant disease1 should be thoroughly washed with a zinc solution of double strength2 should then be wrapped in a sheet1 wet with the zinc solution1 and buried at once4 ,metallic1 metal-lined1 or air-tight coffins should be used when possible2 certainly when the body is to be transported for any considerable distance4 ,comments4 ,,section ,i4 #a4 ,copperas1 also called green vitriol4 #b4 ,about four tablespoonfuls of the zinc and two tablespoonfuls of the salt1 making a solution of the chloride of zinc4 ,,section ,,ii4 #a4 ,the windows should be kept open1 if possible1 but in such a way as to avoid draughts on the bed4 ,a fire should be constantly burning in an open fireplace4 ,the room should be on the top floor1 and all cracks and openings communicating with other rooms should be closed tightly4 ,the door which has to be used should have a wet sheet hanging entirely over it1 the windows and fireplace being alone relied on for ventilation4 #b4 ,the burning of sulphur produces sulphurous acid1 which is an irrespirable gas4 ,the person who lights the sulphur must1 therefore1 immediately leave the room1 and after the lapse of the proper time1 must hold his breath as he enters the room to open the windows and let out the gas4 ,after fumigation1 plastered walls should be whitewashed1 the wood-work well scrubbed with carbolic soap1 and painted portions repainted4 #c4 ,or put copperas in a pail of water1 in such quantity that some may constantly remain undissolved at the bottom4 ,this makes a saturated solution4 ,to every privy or water-closet1 allow one pint of the solution for every four persons when cholera is about4 ,to keep privies from being offensive1 pour one pint into each seat1 night and morning4 #d4 7a47 ,such articles should never be sent to a public laundry or mingled with the family washing4 7b47 ,the cutting open of stuffed articles may seem unnecessary1 but it is not4 ,the poison of contagious diseases clings to such stuffs 7called fomites7 with great tenacity for years1 and must be destroyed before they are fit to be used again4 #e4 ,it is also well to fill a large wad of cotton or fine shavings with coal-tar powder or chloride of lime and place it beneath the hips1 to absorb fluids4 ,contagious diseases are often caught at the funerals of those who have died of them1 and the sanitary code of ,new ,york city forbids a public funeral of any person who has died of small-pox1 diphtheria1 scarlet fever1 yellow fever1 typhus fever1 or ,asiatic cholera4 ,it is better to limit the attendance at such funerals to as few as possible4 ,additional ,precautions in ,special ,diseases4 ,small-pox4--,every one in the vicinity should be vaccinated with fresh virus4 ,every person should be vaccinated in infancy1 again after puberty1 and again within four days after exposure to small-pox4 ,special care should be paid to isolation4 ,inmates of the house should neither make nor receive visits while the patient is sick4 ,diphtheria and ,consumption4--,special care should be taken to avoid inhaling the breath of the patient1 as the diseases are communicated through the secretions of the nose1 throat1 and lungs4 ,the matter coughed up should be received on rags and immediately burned4 ,scarlet ,fever and ,measles4--,these are communicable during convalescence1 as well as during the illness4 ,the body of the patient should be anointed twice a day with sweet-oil1 lard1 or vaseline1 containing ten grains of carbolic acid or thymol to the ounce4 ,this should be continued until all bran-like scaling of the skin is at an end4 ,before again associating with unprotected persons1 the patient should have several complete ablutions1 including thorough washing of the hair with soap or borax2 and none of the clothing worn for several days before the disease declared itself should be again used until thoroughly disinfected1 and ventilated in the open air several days 7,new ,york ,state ,board of ,health circular74 ,typhoid ,fever1 ,asiatic ,cholera1 and ,dysentery4--,poison contained in discharges from the bowels4 ,particular attention should be paid to the disinfection of such discharges by the zinc or copperas solution4 ,yellow ,fever4--,poison possibly contained in discharges from stomach and bowels1 but requiring special conditions for development outside the body before it can affect other persons4 ,excreta should be immediately disinfected4 ,germs may be carried long distances in fomites 7clothing1 bedding1 and other porous substances71 and disinfection of such articles must be very thorough4 ,typhus ,fever4--,no visiting to be allowed4 ,when there is small-pox1 diphtheria1 scarlet fever1 measles1 or typhus fever in a house1 immediate attendants on the sick should not leave the house without a change of outside clothing4 ,general ,precautions for those entering a ,sick-,room4 ,never enter a sick-room with an empty stomach1 or when very tired4 ,never eat or drink anything that has been long exposed to the air of the sick-room4 ,breathe through your nose1 and keep your mouth shut except when you are talking4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,food4 ,how to distinguish a good article of food from a bad one1 when both are in their natural state1 is within the province of the cook-book4 ,in this place will be pointed out only the adulterations of food1 and those methods of detecting them which can be used by householders who have no special knowledge of the instrumental and chemical means which are generally necessary4 ,adulterations are of two kinds3 those which injure the consumer1 and those which simply cheat him4 ,the following details are chiefly taken from the ,new ,york ,state ,board of ,health report for #ahha-'hb1 the name of the analyst being in each case appended4 ,arrowroot4--,often mixed with cheaper starches4 ,twenty-three samples examined3 seventeen were arrowroot1 one was arrowroot and tapioca1 two arrowroot1 tapioca1 and potato1 and three tapioca and potato4 ,harmless4 7,e4 ,g4 ,love1 ,ph4 ,d47 ,bakers' chemicals4--7,saleratus47 ,this was originally bicarbonate of potash1 but the name is now applied to the bicarbonate of soda4 ,twenty samples3 none adulterated4--7,baking-soda47 ,twenty-three samples3 twenty samples unadulterated4 ,one contained #be per cent of gypsum2 one same quantity of gypsum and a little starch2 one a large amount of sulphate of soda and #ag per cent of carbonate of lime4--7,cream of tartar47 ,this is the bitartrate of potash4 ,twenty-seven samples3 sixteen adulterated and in some not a particle of cream of tartar found4 ,six adulterated with terra alba 7gypsum7 and starch1 one with starch alone1 two with starch1 terra alba1 and acid phosphate of lime4 ,six had tartaric acid and no cream of tartar4 ,in eight the amount of terra alba was found to vary from #c4bg to #ic per cent4 ,five samples contained over #gj per cent of this injurious adulteration4 7,love47 ,baking-powders4--,contain bicarbonate of soda and some acid or acid salt1 which combine when water is added and evolve carbonic-acid gas4 ,there are four classes in use4 ,one contains cream of tartar1 one tartaric acid1 one the acid phosphate of lime1 and one potash or ammonia alum4 ,many powders contain a salt of ammonia4 ,the pungent odor of this substance prevents its use in any but the smallest quantities1 and it can not affect the wholesomeness of the powder4 ,flour or starch forms an ingredient of many powders to prevent a premature combination of its constituents and a consequent deterioration of the powder4 ,eighty-four samples3 seventy-three had flour or starch2 thirty-five contained ammonia4 ,eight adulterated with terra alba1 phosphate of lime1 or tartrate of lime4 ,as a rule1 these powders are harmless4 7,love47 7,alum47 ,there does not seem sufficient evidence as to the injurious effects of alum upon the human system to warrant legislation against it4 7,love47 ,beer4--,most adulterations are harmless4 ,corn1 rice1 wheat1 glucose1 starch1 potatoes1 etc41 are used in making beer1 and in many countries are allowed by special laws 7as in ,england and ,germany74 ,the use of substitutes for hops within the last few years is hardly possible to believe1 since hops have been so cheap1 in fact1 almost the cheapest bitter1 and are1 moreover1 as every brewer knows1 the best material to preserve his beer4 7,f4 ,e4 ,engelhardt1 ,ph4 ,d47 ,brandy4--,cognac brandy is naturally colorless1 but public taste demands a brown color1 which is imparted by a mixture of caramel 7burned sugar74 ,a very large proportion of the brandy in the world is made of corn-spirit colored with burned sugar and flavored with oil of cognac 7an essential oil derived from the lees of wine2 twenty-five hundred pounds of lees make one pound of oil47 ,here is one recipe3 8,to every ten gallons of pure spirits add two quarts ,new ,england rum or one quart ,jamaica rum1 and from thirty to forty drops of oil of cognac cut in one half pint of alcohol2 color with burned sugar40 ,twenty-five samples examined3 sixteen contained fusel-oil1 six had traces of it1 and three none4 7,engelhardt74 ,the only injurious ingredient 7besides alcohol7 in the artificial brandies seems to be the fusel-oil contained in the corn-spirit or whisky used as a base4 ,rub suspected brandy on the palm of the hand until it has evaporated4 ,fusel-oil may then still be detected by the smell4 ,good brandy will leave no odor4 ,bread4--,ten samples3 no adulteration4 7,love47 ,in #ahgc1 ,elwyn ,waller1 for the ,new ,york ,city ,board of ,health1 examined fifty-one samples1 of which forty-one were unadulterated1 and ten contained traces of copper or alum4 ,butter4--,may be mixed with oleomargarine1 and the adulteration is hard to detect4 ,oleomargarine is more crumbly than butter in cold weather4 ,often colored with annotto1 and1 as this sometimes contains a little sulphate of copper1 a trace of copper may occasionally be found in butter4 ,as a rule1 adulterations of butter are harmless4 ,candy4--8,taffy0 and gum-drops are almost all glucose4 ,coloring-matters usually harmless1 but of ten samples of yellow candy1 seven contained chromate of lead4 7,w4 ,h4 ,pitt17 ,candy often contains terra alba1 flour1 and gum-arabic4 ,the only injurious ingredients usually found are terra alba 7recognized by its grittiness and insolubility7 and the chromate of lead4 ,on account of the latter it is best to avoid yellow1 green1 and orange candies4 ,canned fruits and vegetables4--,eighteen samples1 including peaches1 plums1 grapes1 strawberries1 cherries1 blackberries1 olives1 mushrooms1 corn1 beans1 succotash1 tomatoes1 pumpkin1 and peas4 ,no adulteration found4 ,attention was given to the possibility of the chemical reaction of the fruit acids upon the inner surface of the cans1 whereby salts of tin and lead might be produced1 rendering the contents in some degree poisonous4 ,there was no evidence of their presence4 ,some of the articles were canned over a year before4 7,s4 ,a4 ,lattimore1 ,ph4 ,d47 ,per contra1 other analysts have found from 4#a to #b4c grains of tin to the can4 ,there is no evidence1 however1 that this amount of tin in solution is injurious1 and the recent investigations of ,hall seem to show that the fruit acids do not act appreciably on the tin or the lead of the solder1 so long as the air is excluded4 ,cans once opened should therefore be emptied1 and not left partly full4 ,canned meats4--,no adulterations and no tin or lead found4 ,the heads of all cans should be slightly concave4 ,this shows that the contents were hot when the can was sealed4 ,if the heads are convex1 the contents are decomposing4 ,cereals4--,ninety-four samples1 including wheat and ,graham flour1 farina1 oatmeal1 rye1 barley1 corn-meal1 rice1 buckwheat1 sago1 and tapioca4 ,two adulterated4 ,adulterations consisted in mixture of other cereals1 and were harmless4 7,love47 ,cheese4--,skim-milk cheese often contains lard1 put in to replace the butter which has been removed4 ,this adulteration improves the quality of the cheese and often can not be detected by experts4 ,one sample of cheese1 which had caused sickness in those who ate it1 was examined1 and1 although it also made the analyst ill1 no known poisonous substance could be detected in it4 7,g4 ,c4 ,caldwell1 ,ph4 ,d47 ,all yellow cheese is colored with annotto1 which can therefore hardly be considered an adulteration4 ,the rind is sometimes washed with a mercurial or arsenical solution1 to protect it from insects1 and should therefore never be eaten4 ,cocoa and chocolate4--,six samples4 ,none adulterated4 7,lattimore47 ,coffee4--,thirty-five samples of unroasted1 three of roasted unground1 twenty-one of ground1 three of coffee extract4 ,of the thirty-five unroasted1 in five a few grains were found which had been slightly colored or faced1 apparently with ,prussian blue2 the three roasted unground were pure2 of the twenty-one ground1 nineteen contained chiccory1 beans1 wheat1 rye1 etc4 ,one sample consisted entirely of roasted hominy4 ,three samples of coffee extract consisted chiefly of caramel and licorice1 and contained no coffee4 7,lattimore47 ,pure coffee swims in water1 and colors it slowly4 ,chiccory sinks and colors water rapidly4 ,peas sink and color water slowly4 ,rye sinks more rapidly than coffee1 and colors water more quickly4 ,ground coffee is hard and crumbles between the teeth2 chiccory is soft and does not crumble4 ,gin4--,no injurious adulterations detected4 ,twenty-five samples4 7,engelhardt47 ,honey4--,three samples3 two pure4 ,one1 labeled 8white-clover honey10 contained #ej per cent of artificial glucose4 ,the presence of added glucose is indicated by the turbidity produced by oxalic acid in a solution of the honey in distilled water4 ,this turbidity is due to the presence of gypsum in artificial glucose--a substance which is not contained in pure honey4 7,pitt47 ,horse-radish4--,often harmlessly adulterated with grated turnip4 ,isinglass4--,two samples4 ,both were common gelatine4 7,chester47 ,jellies4--,fruit-jellies are often simple apple-jelly1 flavored with artificial essences and colored with aniline4 ,safest not to use them unless their source is known to be trustworthy4 ,lard4--,twenty-eight samples4 ,fifteen pure2 the rest contained water4 ,good lard should melt to a clear fat without sputtering4 ,meat4--,sound fresh meat is pale red when first cut1 the surface after exposure turning to a deep red4 ,the meat of animals that have died a natural death is of a deep purple color1 not having been bled4 ,the greatest danger in meat1 however1 is that due to the presence of trichin1 which are killed by a temperature of #afj ,fahr4 ,all forms of pork should therefore be cooked thoroughly before eating4 7,chester47 ,poisoning 7vomiting1 cramps1 and diarrha7 produced by meat is generally caused by some kind of preserved meat 7sausages1 pickled meats1 etc471 and is probably due to the presence of fungi4 ,milk4--,frauds consist generally in adding water or removing fat 7skimming74 ,as the milk of healthy cows varies in composition within certain limits1 it is necessary to have a standard of purity1 which has been fixed upon in ,new ,york as follows3 ,nearly #a1jjj cows have been examined1 with reference to the specific gravity of their milk1 in ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 and ,connecticut4 ,the maximum specific gravity was #a4jci in milk of an ,alderney cow4 ,the minimum for normal milk from a healthy cow was #a4jbi4 ,the specific gravity is determined by an instrument called a lactometer1 on which #j stands for #a1jjj1 the specific gravity of water1 and #ajj for #a1jbi1 that of the poorest milk from a healthy cow4 ,the composition of such milk1 adopted by the ,english ,society of ,public ,analysts and the ,new ,york ,city ,board of ,health1 as a result of fifty analyses1 is as follows3 ,fat #b4e ,solids1 not fat 7sugar1 salt1 etc47 #i4j ,water #hh4e ----- #ajj4j ,method of using the ,lactometer4--,put the milk in a vessel so deep that the lactometer1 when introduced and allowed to float1 shall not touch the bottom4 ,notice the reading of the scale at the surface of the milk4 ,if it is less than #ajj1 it gives the percentage of milk in the sample4 ,for example1 if the reading be #hj1 the sample contains #hj per cent of milk and #bj per cent of water4 ,sources of ,error4--,milk very rich in cream may possibly1 though not probably1 register less than #ajj1 but its very appearance will show that it has not been thinned by water or by skimming4 ,skimmed milk1 especially if a little salt has been added1 may register high above #ajj1 but its thinness and blueness will show that it has been doctored4 ,condensed milk was carefully analyzed1 and found to be unobjectionable4 7,c4 ,e4 ,munsell1 ,ph4 ,d47 ,olive-,oil4--,often adulterated with poppy1 cotton-seed1 ground or peanut1 sesame1 rape-seed1 colza or beechnut oil1 all harmless4 ,sixteen samples2 nine adulterated4 7,caldwell47 ,pickles4--,nine samples4 ,none contained copper or any other metal4 ,the only sample that possessed a suspiciously green appearance was found to contain alum4 7,lattimore47 ,rum4--,twenty-five samples4 ,no objectionable additions found4 7,engelhardt47 ,sirups4--,three samples of maple-sirup4 ,two were pure1 and one1 manufactured in ,chicago and sold in cans1 contained #ce per cent of artificial glucose4 ,in #ahgj ,dr4 ,chandler found 4#jb per cent of tin in each of two samples of sugar-house sirups4 ,this represents 4#h grain of tin to the gallon4 ,a common adulterant of sirups is glucose1 which diminishes their sweetening power1 but is not considered injurious4 ,spices4--,one hundred and eighty samples1 comprising mustard1 ginger1 allspice1 cinnamon1 cassia1 cloves1 white1 black1 and red pepper1 mace1 and nutmeg4 ,one hundred and twelve were adulterated from #dj to #ha4h per cent4 ,all the adulterations were harmless 7wheat and buckwheat bran1 hulls of different seeds1 middlings of corn-meal1 stale ship's bread1 peas1 beans1 etc474 ,no poisonous substance was found4 7,lattimore47 ,sugar4--,one hundred and sixteen samples1 principally collected in ,new ,york city4 ,care was taken to secure the samples from different sections of the city and from all classes of stores4 ,of these1 thirtyfour were microscopically clean1 fifty-four slightly contaminated with dust1 twenty-two contained considerable dirt1 and six were very dirty4 ,but in no case was there an intentional addition of insoluble mineral matters4 ,of forty-nine white sugars1 all were pure2 of sixty-seven brown sugars1 four were adulterated with glucose4 7,a4 ,l4 ,colby1 ,ph4 ,b47 ,there have been many exaggerated statements put forth regarding the adulteration of sugar4 ,in #ahgj ,dr4 ,chandler reported to the ,new ,york ,city ,board of ,health that sixty samples of sugar bought at small groceries were found pure and unadulterated without exception4 ,in #ahgb1 ,elwyn ,waller1 for the same board1 examined one hundred and nine samples of powdered sugar1 but found no adulteration4 ,powdered sugar is quite generally believed to be adulterated with gypsum or flour4 ,as both of these adulterants are insoluble in water1 it is easy for any one to convince himself of the purity of sugar by dissolving it in water4 ,teas4--,forty-three samples of green tea1 and eighteen of black4 ,many were cheap and of very inferior quality1 some mere tea rubbish1 yet no leaf1 or fragment of a leaf1 which was examined1 could be considered anything but tea4 ,no adulterations were found1 and even the admixture of exhausted leaves could not be positively asserted4 7,lattimore47 ,suspected leaves should be wet and spread out1 and then compared with leaves known to be genuine4 ,it is said that exhausted leaves of green tea are often colored or 8faced0 with plumbago1 ,prussian blue1 soapstone1 etc41 so artfully that only an expert can detect the fraud4 ,black tea is generally pure4 ,vinegar4--,four samples1 all poor1 but not adulterated1 unless with water4 7,lattimore47 ,whisky4--,twenty-five samples4 ,fusel-oil decided in twenty1 and traces in the rest4 ,no injurious adulteration found4 8,it is evident that the addition of water and coloring-matter is practiced more than any other adulteration40 7,engelhardt47 ,wine4--8,a good wine should be transparent1 and should have a bouquet4 ,when pouring it into a glass1 it should sparkle4 ,a sour taste is always a sign of poor wine4 ,dizziness and headache are not produced by drinking pure wine4 ,cloudy1 discolored1 highly colored wines are suspicious40 ,there are various substances used in the manufacture of wine which should be classed as adulterations1 e4g41 calcined plaster is added to the grape-juice during fermentation 7so-called plastering72 in this way is formed an insoluble tartrate of lime1 and a soluble sulphate of potash1 the latter having a bitter taste and acting as a purgative even in small doses4 ,the ,french ,government forbids the sale of wine containing over #j4b per cent of sulphate of potash4 ,this process also leads to the formation of acid sulphates and free sulphuric acid in wines4 ,plastering of wines is practiced in ,spain1 ,portugal1 and the south of ,france4 ,wines are often fortified by the addition of brandy1 cologne spirit1 or ,french spirit1 to arrest fermentation4 ,ports and sherries are almost invariably so4 ,red wines are often colored with logwood1 ,brazil-wood1 fuchsine1 cochineal1 black hollyhock and red poppy flowers1 alkana-root1 red beets1 cherries1 whortleberries1 elderberries1 pokeberries1 etc4 ,it is very difficult to detect these1 and fuchsin is the only one that is poisonous4 ,carpen gives the following very simple method to decide whether a red wine is naturally or artificially colored3 ,take a piece of good1 white burned lime1 break it into two pieces1 smooth the surfaces by a knife or file1 and place a few drops in succession on the same spot of the smooth surface1 and observe after a few minutes the color produced4 ,natural red wines give a yellowish-brown spot2 colored with fuchsine1 or ,brazil-wood1 a rose-colored spot2 colored with logwood1 a dark-violet spot2 colored with cochineal1 a reddish-violet spot2 colored with black hollyhock1 a yellowish-brown spot2 colored with pokeberries1 a yellowish somewhat red spot4 7,engelhardt47 ,another test is to concentrate the wine1 and dip in a piece of pure white woolen-yarn4 ,the natural red coloring-matter of wine does not dye without a mordant1 while fuchsine and cochineal dye it red or pink4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,water4 ,in cities and towns which have a common water-supply1 the water sometimes contains impurities dissolved from the pipes through which it runs1 or dirt and vegetable dbris stirred up from the bottom of the sources of supply1 or brought down into them by heavy storms or melting snows4 ,service-pipes are usually made of lead1 and1 after moderate use1 become coated on their internal surface with insoluble compounds 7sulphate of lead71 which prevent contamination of the water by them4 ,when the water is not very hard1 however1 a slight amount of lead may be dissolved by it4 ,it is said that ,cochituate water 7,boston7 always contains traces of lead1 but that no well-authenticated case of poisoning from this source has ever been reported4 ,croton water 7,new ,york71 which has stood overnight in the pipes1 is said to contain one tenth of a grain of lead per gallon--sufficient to produce poisoning in some instances4 ,one case of this sort has been known4 ,if drinking-water is drawn from tanks1 they should never be lined with lead1 but should be made of iron1 or of wood lined with tinned and planished copper4 7,see 8,plumbing ,regulations10 #dd47 ,water passing through galvanized-iron pipes always contains zinc salts--not1 however1 in injurious amount4 ,such pipes soon rust4 ,dirt and other suspended matters should be removed by means of a filter4 ,a good household filter must be made of a material which can not communicate any injurious or offensive quality to the water that passes through it2 it must remove all suspended particles1 so as to render the water bright and clear2 it must be easy to clean1 or so arranged that the filtering material can be readily renewed4 ,the action of a filter is either mechanical or chemical2 in the latter case1 the organic matters contained in the water are oxidized in the filter4 ,there are innumerable patent filters in the market1 to be attached to the faucet1 but these can only act as strainers4 ,there is no material known which can be introduced into the small space of a tap-filter and accomplish any real purification of the water which passes through at the ordinary rate of flow4 7,nichols47 ,the only points to be looked to1 therefore1 in purchasing a tap-filter1 are its efficiency as a strainer1 and the facility of cleansing or renewing the filtering material4 ,where the pressure is not too great1 a closely woven cotton-flannel bag1 fastened to the tap1 makes as good a filter as any4 ,for large filters 7in cisterns1 etc471 those which contain animal charcoal are the most efficient4 ,in places where the drinking-water is drawn from wells1 it is sometimes polluted by leakage from cesspools1 privy-vaults1 stables1 and refuse matters lying on the surface of the ground in their vicinity4 ,it has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that epidemics of typhoid fever have often originated and spread in this way4 ,even when no specific disease is caused1 water polluted from such sources often causes diarrhal disorders and various forms of indigestion in those who drink it4 ,the determination of such pollution is a matter of great delicacy and difficulty1 and can only be trusted to an expert4 ,waters polluted by organic matters often contain an excess of gaseous constituents1 and are clear1 sparkling1 and palatable1 presenting to the uninstructed eye no indication of impurity4 ,there are certain tests1 however1 which can be used by any person of intelligence1 when1 if positive results are obtained1 an expert should be called in to determine the source and character of the contamination4 ,the pollution of water by decomposing animal matters is always to be suspected1 if there are evidences of the presence of chlorine or nitrogen in the water1 as these are invariable constituents of animal excreta4 ,these substances are found in combination--the former in chloride of sodium1 and the latter in the so-called nitrites and nitrates4#b ,their presence is determined as follows3 #b ,the albuminoid ammonia test is too technical for insertion here4 ,chlorine4--,tests3 ,nitrate of silver 7twenty-five cents a drachm71 twenty-four grains to one ounce of distilled water1 and dilute nitric acid 7ten cents an ounce74 ,pour a few drops of each into the suspected water4 ,if chlorine is present1 there will be a cloudy-white precipitate of chloride of silver1 which will gradually turn darker4 ,one grain of chlorine to a gallon of water gives a haze2 four grains a marked turbidity1 and ten grains a considerable precipitate4 ,in case chlorine is found1 and any particular source is suspected1 a pailful of salt 7chloride of sodium7 and water may be thrown into the place from which the leakage is supposed to come1 and the water again examined1 after a few hours1 to see whether the amount of chlorine has increased4 ,nitrates4--,tests3 ,pure sulphuric acid and a saturated solution of sulphate of iron 7copperas74 ,add an equal bulk of the acid to any quantity of the water in a test-tube4 ,the mixture will become very hot4 ,wait until it is cool1 and then pour in the iron solution gently1 so that it will float above the mixed acid and water4 ,if nitrates are present1 there will be an olive-colored layer where the fluids meet4 ,nitrites4--,test-mixture3 ,iodide of potassium 7fifty cents per ounce71 one part2 starch1 twenty parts2 water1 five hundred parts4 ,make the starch-solution first1 and filter when cold2 then add the iodide of potash4 ,add to the suspected water this mixture1 and then a little dilute sulphuric acid4 ,if nitrites are present1 there will be an immediate blue color4 ,organic ,matters in general4--,test3 ,eight grains of chemically pure permanganate of potash in one ounce of distilled water4 ,in half a pint of the suspected water in a tumbler1 put one drop of the solution4 ,if the red color disappears in one half hour1 add more4 ,for every drop that loses color in the half-pint there will be found one and a half to two grains of putrid organic matter in a gallon of the water4 ,if the action is rapid1 the matter is probably animal2 if slow1 vegetable4 ,to purify such water1 if it must be used1 drop in the solution until a slight red tinge remains4 ,the organic matter is then all oxidized and rendered harmless4 ,it is better1 however to boil such water before using it for drinking4 ,precautions with regard to ,drinking-,water4 ,do not drink water that has been standing long in lead pipes1 or lead cisterns or tanks4 ,filter it before drinking4 ,see that the current of ground-water in the well from which you get your drinking-water is from the well toward any possible source of contamination 7privy-vault1 cesspool1 etc471 and not vice versa4 ,if the use of a suspected water is unavoidable1 boil it first4 ,it can be rendered palatable by an infusion of tea or coffee4 ,,appendix ,a4 ,,alphabetical ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,disinfectants1 ,,with ,a ,,brief ,,description ,,of ,,each1 ,,and ,,the ,,average ,,price ,,at ,,retail4 ,carbolic ,acid4--,a product of the distillation of coal-tar4 ,when pure and free from water1 a transparent crystalline solid4 ,dissolves in twenty parts of cold water4 ,coagulates albuminous matters4 ,a one-per-cent solution of it in water arrests putrefaction4 ,for disinfection use at least a one-per-cent solution4 ,the chief objection to its use is its odor4 ,this may be modified to some extent by mixing the pure acid with camphor1 forming a liquid1 which may then be diluted4 ,this acid is often used in combination with other disinfectants4 ,a preparation much used by the ,new ,york ,city ,board of ,health for the disinfection of clothing contains eight ounces of sulphate of zinc and three ounces of carbolic acid to three gallons of water4 ,another for privies1 water-closets1 etc41 is composed of ten pounds of copperas1 one pint of carbolic acid1 and five gallons of water4 ,the strong acid injures iron pipe4 ,do not use in combination with the permanganate of potash or the chloride of zinc4 8,dead ,oil0 7heavy oil of coal-tar7 contains from #e to #ae per cent of carbolic acid mingled with impurities4 ,it is used for the disinfection of drains1 streets1 stables1 etc4 ,thymol also occurs in coal-tar1 but is usually obtained from oil of thyme4 ,its action is similar to that of carbolic acid4 ,carbolic ,powders are made by mixing five parts of the pure acid1 or ten parts of the crude1 with one hundred parts of sawdust1 clay1 or lime4 ,squibb's ,carbolic ,acid 7,no4 #a71 containing #gg4ij per cent of pure acid1 costs #a a pint2 7,no4 #b71 with #cg4df per cent of pure acid1 #ge cents a pint4 ,different samples examined 7,waller71 containing from 4#bj to 4#gh per cent1 cost from #ej cents to #a a pint4 ,crude acid1 containing #ej per cent of acid1 with many tarry impurities1 costs less than #a a gallon4 ,thymol1 #a per ounce4 ,charcoal4--,absorbs putrid gases4 ,see ,lime4 ,chloride of ,lime4 ,see ,chlorine4 ,chloride of ,zinc4 ,see ,zinc4 ,chlorine4--,a pale1 yellowish-green gas1 of a suffocating quality1 possessing great bleaching and disinfecting powers4 ,when dry1 it does not bleach4 ,when moist1 it combines with the hydrogen of water or of organic substances1 and sets free the oxygen1 which constitutes its disinfecting power4 ,it decomposes sulphureted hydrogen1 ammonia1 and in general compounds arising from the putrid fermentation of organic matter4 ,it is obtained as follows3 ,pour one pound of sulphuric acid1 previously diluted with four times its volume of water1 on three pounds of chloride of lime4 ,mix in a large earthen dish to allow for frothing up4 ,or mix two parts1 by weight1 of the black oxide 7dioxide7 of manganese with three parts1 by weight1 of strong hydrochloric acid4 ,the gas is evolved very rapidly1 so that it is difficult to make the mixture complete before the fumes drive away the person manipulating it4 ,the colors of hangings1 etc41 are apt to be bleached out by it1 and metals are corroded4 7,see also ,sulphurous ,acid47 ,chloride of ,lime4--,made by saturating slaked lime with chlorine-gas4 ,it contains on an average about #cj per cent of available chlorine1 to be set free by an acid4 ,very useful for disinfection of cellars1 damp yards1 and areas4 ,one half pound in a gallon of water may be used for washing floors of sick-rooms1 etc4 ,heat destroys its disinfecting properties4 ,chloride of ,aluminum4--,action similar to but weaker than the iron and zinc salts1 ,sulphuric acid1 black oxide of manganese1 and hydrochloric acid1 each #e cents an ounce4 ,chloride of lime1 #ae cents a pound4 ,copperas4 7,green vitriol1 sulphate of iron47--,comes in pale-green crystals4 ,it is an efficient disinfectant for privies1 water-closets1 stables1 etc4 ,stains white goods4 ,acts by destroying sulphureted hydrogen and ammonia4 ,also oxidizes organic compounds and coagulates albuminous matters4 ,a good mixture is four pounds of copperas and three ounces of carbolic acid to a gallon of water4 ,ten cents a pound4 ,one hundred pounds for #c or less4 ,corrosive ,sublimate4 7,mercuric chloride47--,the most powerful disinfectant known4 ,coagulates albuminous substances4 ,a solution of one part in #b1jjj of water kills microscopic organisms4 ,two drachms of this substance in a gallon of water 7#a to #ejj7 makes a solution sure to destroy any disease-germ4 ,it is a deadly poison1 and can only be purchased under legal restrictions4 ,fifteen cents an ounce4 ,dead ,oil4 ,see ,carbolic ,acid4 ,green ,vitriol4 ,see ,copperas4 ,gypsum4 ,see ,lime4 ,heat4--,boiling is a good disinfectant4 ,boil for at least an hour4 ,if dry air is used1 the temperature must be from #bej to #cjj for five or six hours4 ,cotton and silk will stand a temperature of #bie for three hours without harm4 ,woolen suffers more4 ,iron1 ,sulphate of4 ,see ,copperas4 ,lime4--,twenty parts of quicklime1 mixed with two parts of dry1 fresh charcoal1 form the calx-powder1 as sold in the shops4 ,it is useful to absorb putrid gases1 when sprinkled in cellars1 etc4 ,sulphate of lime1 or gypsum 7plaster of ,paris71 mingled with coal-tar or impure carbolic acid1 is an effective deodorant for stables and manure-heaps4 ,it absorbs and retains ammonia1 and therefore preserves to the manure its most valuable constituent4 ,chloride of lime4 ,see ,chlorine4 ,quicklime1 #e cents a pound4 ,gypsum1 #aj cents a pound4 ,nitrate of ,lead4--,theoretically a good disinfectant1 but practically of little use4 ,five cents an ounce4 ,nitrous ,acid4--,evolved in the form of brownish-red fumes1 when nitric acid is poured on copper turnings4 ,very dangerous to inhale1 and little used as a disinfectant4 ,ozone4--,is a form of oxygen1 supposed to be three volumes condensed into two4 ,is a powerful oxidizer4 ,corrodes cork1 paper1 and other organic substances4 ,oxidizes very rapidly compounds of ammonia1 phosphorus1 and sulphur1 which are offensive1 instantly removing the odor4 ,simple vegetables1 like mould1 are completely destroyed by it4 ,obtained by gradually mixing three parts of sulphuric acid with two parts of permanganate of potash4 ,this mixture will continue to give off ozone for several months4 ,or1 put a piece of phosphorus on a plate1 and pour in water sufficient to cover two thirds of it4 ,these methods are used in the patented ozone generators4 ,phosphorus1 #dj cents an ounce2 sulphuric acid1 #e cents an ounce4 ,permanganate of ,potash4--,dark purple crystals1 almost black4 ,a solution is of a beautiful purple color1 but stains brown almost everything it touches4 ,can not be used with carbolic acid or the coal-tar disinfectants4 ,is a powerful oxidizer1 and is used to disinfect excreta1 and to purify drinking-water4 ,fifty cents an ounce4 ,sulphate of ,iron4 ,see ,copperas4 ,sulphate of ,lime4 ,see ,lime4 ,sulphate of ,zinc4 ,see ,zinc4 ,sulphurous ,acid4 ,an irrespirable gas1 produced by burning sulphur4 ,powerful disinfectant4 ,coagulates albuminous matters and probably destroys germs4 ,destroys sulphureted hydrogen and ammonia4 ,dry articles are not hurt by it1 but wet clothes are bleached4 ,can not be used with chlorine1 as they neutralize each other4 ,chlorine is as effective1 but is so destructive that it can only be used in empty rooms4 ,it requires about a tablespoonful of alcohol to light a pound of sulphur4 ,sulphur 7roll-brimstone71 #aj cents a pound4 ,thymol4 ,see ,carbolic ,acid4 ,zinc ,salts4--,the sulphate and the chloride of zinc are excellent disinfectants4 ,they are colorless1 and can therefore be used on clothing4 ,they form1 with albuminous matters1 extremely insoluble compounds1 and also absorb gases from putrefying material4 ,they are the best disinfectants of their class4 ,the sulphate is cheaper1 but the chloride more efficient4 ,sulphate of zinc1 #aj cents an ounce2 chloride of zinc1 #bj cents an ounce4 ,it is better and cheaper to buy and mix one's own disinfectants4 ,the many proprietary articles are no more efficient1 and are very expensive4 ,the composition of some of those most in use is here given4 7,analyses by ,waller1 of the ,new ,york ,city ,health ,department47 ,the first column gives parts in #ajj1 and the second1 ounces in a gallon in the case of liquids1 and ounces in a pound in case of powders4 ,bromo-chloralum 7,tilden ,co471 #ej cents a pint4 ,chloride of aluminum #h4aeb #ab4ga ,water1 bromide of aluminum1 lime salts1 etc4 #ia4hdh #adc4be ------- ------ #ajj4jjj #aee4if ,burnett's ,fluid is a solution of chloride of zinc 7#be grains to the drachm74 ,carbolate of lime1 in three-quarter pound boxes1 at #be cents4 ,lime #fd4bde #aj4bh ,magnesia #j4fjb #j4ji ,sand1 oxide of iron1 etc4 #j4fgj #j4aa ,carbolic acid #j4dgb #j4jg ,carbonic acid and organic impurities #cd4jba #e4de ------- ----- #ajj4jjj #af4jj ,chloralum 7,english ,chloralum ,co471 #ej cents a pint4 ,chloride of aluminum #ac4bac #bj4ad ,sulphate of lime #j4aig #j4cj ,water1 chloride of calcium1 etc4 #hf4eij #aca4ii ------- ------ #ajj4jjj #aeb4dc ,chloride of lime1 #bj cents a pound4 ,available chlorine #ca4ch #e4jb ,lime salts1 water1 etc4 #fh4fb #aj4ih ------ ----- #ajj4jj #af4jj ,condy's ,fluid is a solution of permanganate of potash 7#i4bf grains to a fluid ounce1 about #b-a_/b drachms to the pint74 ,darby's ,prophylactic ,fluid1 #ej cents a half-pint4 ,permanganate of potash #j4jee #j4jh ,sulphate of potash #a4gej #b4ej ,chloride of potassium #a4bgj #a4ha ,carbonate of potash #f4egj #i4dj ,water #ij4cee #abi4bd ------- ------ #ajj4jjj #adc4jc ,egyptian ,disinfectant1 #be cents a pound4 ,clay #hg4haj #ad4je ,lime #j4ced #j4jf ,carbolic acid #j4cbj #j4je ,other constituents of dead oil #e4fhe #j4ia ,organic matter and water #e4hca #j4ic ------- ----- #ajj4jjj #af4jj ,excelsior ,disinfectant1 #ae cents a pound4 ,protosulphate of iron 7copperas7 #ca4dfd #e4jc ,chloride of sodium 7salt7 #ai4bea #c4jh ,flowers of sulphur #g4hjj #a4be ,water of crystallization1 cassia-oil1 etc4 #da4dhe #f4fd ------- ----- #ajj4jjj #af4jj ,the ,germicide is a patented apparatus for discharging chloride of zinc into the bowl of the water-closet1 and impregnating the air at the same time with the vapor of thymol4 ,girondin ,disinfectant1 #ge cents a quart4 ,sulphate of zinc #ai4fib #cb4fd ,sulphate of copper #a4bjb #a4ii ,sulphate of lime #j4dhj #j4gi ,water1 traces of calcium chloride1 etc4 #gh4fbf #acj4cd ------- ------ #ajj4jjj #afe4gf ,labarraque's ,solution1 #ej cents a pint4 ,available chlorine #a4dbc #a4if ,water and soda salts #ih4egg #ace4ed ------- ------ #ajj4jjj #acg4ej ,metropolitan ,disinfectant1 #cj cents a quart4 ,protosulphate of iron 7copperas7 #aa4dac #ag4aj ,carbolic acid 7about7 #c4ccj #d4ii ,water1 dead oil1 and impurities #he4beg #abg4gd ------- ------ #ajj4jjj #adi4hc ,phenix ,disinfectant1 #ce cents a pound4 ,silicate of alumina 7clay7 #ef4hgf #i4aj ,sesquichloride of iron #a4aib #j4ai ,sesquioxide of iron #g4ajb #a4ad ,lime #b4dgj #j4ci ,carbolic acid #j4djj #j4jf ,carbonic acid and organic impurities #ca4ifj #e4ab ------- ------ #ajj4jjj #af4jj ,phenol ,sodique1 #ej cents a half pint4 ,carbolic acid #a4agg #a4fa ,soda salts1 water1 and impurities #ih4hbc #acd4bi ------- ------ #ajj4jjj #ace4ij ,platt's ,chlorides1 #ej cents a quart4 ,solution chloride of zinc 7saturated7 #dj parts4 0 0 0 lead 0 #bj 0 0 0 0 calcium 0 #ae 0 0 0 0 aluminum 0 #ae 0 0 0 0 magnesium 0 #e 0 0 0 0 potassium 0 #e 0 --- #ajj 0 ,,appendix ,b4 ,list of the prices of plumber's materials and labor1 from which a rough estimate may be formed of the probable cost of proposed plumbing4 ,the prices given are wholesale ones1 and it must be remembered that every plumber is also a retail merchant1 who obtains his materials at a discount1 and charges them to his customer at an average advance of #aj or #ae per cent on the prices here given4 ,all measurements are of inside diameters4 ,bands4--,ordinary thickness1 #b by #b inches1 #ge cents2 #f by #f inches1 #a4ij4 ,intermediate sizes at corresponding prices4 ,bends and ,offsets4--,two inches in diameter1 #dj cents2 extra heavy1 #ej cents4 ,six inches in diameter1 #a4bj2 extra heavy1 #a4ge4 ,cisterns and ,service-boxes 7for water-closets71 #aj to #bj2 7waste-preventing71 #ac to #bf4 ,offsets4 ,see ,bends4 ,pipe4--,tile or earthenware 7vitrified71 in lengths of #b-a_/b feet each1 #b-;inch1 #ac cents a foot2 #c-;inch1 #af cents a foot2 #d-;inch1 #bj cents a foot2 and #e cents more per foot for each additional inch of diameter4 ,iron1 in lengths of #e feet each3 ,ordinary1 about #aj cents a foot for every inch of diameter4 ,extra heavy1 about twice as much4 ,double-hub pipe1 about #f cents a foot more4 ,the tar-coating costs about #c cents a foot for #b-;inch pipe1 #d cents for #c-;inch pipe1 etc4 ,lead1 about #i cents a pound4 ,manufactured pipe 7traps1 etc471 #aj cents a pound4 ,qualities are marked according to thickness--i4 e41 weight for each size1 ,,aaa 7best71 ,,aa1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 and ,e4 #c_/h-;inch pipe1 ,,aaa weighs #a pound #ab ounces per foot2 ,b weighs #a pound per foot2 ,c weighs #ad ounces per foot2 ,d weighs #g ounces per foot4 #e_/h-;inch pipe1 ,,aaa weighs #c pounds #h ounces per foot2 ,,aa weighs #b pounds #ab ounces per foot2 ,b weighs #b pounds per foot4 #c_/d-;inch pipe1 ,,aaa weighs #d pounds #ad ounces per foot2 ,b weighs #b pounds #c ounces per foot4 #a-;inch pipe1 ,,aaa weighs #f pounds per foot2 ,,aa weighs #d pounds #h ounces per foot2 ,a weighs #d pounds per foot2 ,b weighs #c pounds #d ounces per foot2 ,d weighs #b pounds #d ounces per foot4 #b-;inch pipe1 ,,aaa weighs #aj pounds #aa ounces per foot2 ,,aa weighs #h pounds #ad ounces per foot2 ,a weighs #g pounds per foot2 ,b weighs #f pounds per foot2 ,d weighs #d pounds per foot4 #c-;inch pipe1 #c_/h thick1 weighs #ai pounds #i ounces per foot4 #d-;inch pipe1 #c_/h thick1 weighs #be pounds #f ounces per foot1 and so on4 ,for supply-pipes1 ,,aa pipe is generally used4 ,privy-,sinks4--,about #e for every foot in length4 ,saddle-,hubs4--#b by #b inches1 #cj cents2 extra heavy1 #dj cents4 #f by #f inches1 #a4aj2 extra heavy1 #a4dj4 ,school-,sinks4 ,see ,privy-,sinks4 ,traps4--,adee traps about #e cents apiece less than ordinary ,s-traps1 and ,bower traps about twice as much4 ,earthenware1 #b-;inch1 #a each2 #f-;inch1 #c4be each4 ,iron 7,s-traps71 #b-;inch1 #hj cents2 extra heavy1 #a4be2 #f-;inch1 #c4ge2 extra heavy1 #e4 ,running traps1 with or without hand-holes1 about the same4 ,lead1 made of #f-pound lead 7lead weighing #f pounds to the square foot71 #a-a_/d-;inch1 #fe cents2 #a-a_/b-;inch1 #hj cents2 #b-;inch1 #a4aj2 #d-a_/b-;inch1 #c4be1 etc4 ,urinals4--7,earthenware71 #e to #f each4 ,wash-,basins4--7,iron1 enameled or marbled71 #a4ej to #d4ej4 ,water-,closets4--,demarest's 7plunger71 #ae to #dj4 ,earthenware hopper1 #aj to #ab4 ,earthenware hopper1 with trap1 waste-preventing cistern1 chain and bracket1 wood-seat1 etc41 #cj4 ,hopper-valve closet1 with self-raising1 round seat1 #i4 ,pan-,closets4--#d4ej to #bb4 ,a journeyman and helper are charged for at the rate of from #e to #f per day4 ,,index4 ,acid1 carbolic1 #gb1 #ia4 carbonic1 #g-i1 #ac1 #ae4 carbonic1 test for1 #i4 hydrochloric1 #ic4 nitric1 #hh4 nitrous1 #ie4 sulphuric1 #hi1 #ic1 #ie4 sulphurous1 #gj1 #if4 ,adulterations of food1 #gc4 ,air1 contaminated by combustion1 #i4 contaminated by excreta1 #ab1 #ba4 contaminated by respiration1 #h1 #aa4 contaminated by the sick1 #aa4 dangers of impure1 #aa-ad4 ,air-bound pipes1 #eg4 ,air in ground1 #ae4 ,alum1 #ge4 ,aluminum1 chloride of1 #ic4 ,annotto1 #gg1 #gh4 ,areas1 drainage of1 #cd4 ,arrowroot1 #gd4 ,asphalt in walls1 #cd1 #ff4 ,bacilli1 #aa1 #ad4 ,bacteria1 #aa4 ,bad odors1 sources of1 #eb4 ,bakers' chemicals1 #gd4 ,baking-powders1 #ge4 ,ball-cock1 #dh4 ,bands1 #fj1 #ajj4 ,basins1 #cb1 #ajb4 ,bath-tubs1 #cj4 ,bedclothing1 disinfection of1 #fi4 ,beer1 #ge4 ,bends1 #db1 #ajj4 ,blow-offs1 #cc4 ,board of ,health1 plumbing rules of1 #be4 ,boilers1 sediment-pipe of1 #cb4 ,boiling1 disinfection by1 #id4 ,brandy1 #gf4 ,bread1 #gf4 ,brimstone1 #fg1 #if4 ,bromo-chloralum1 #ig4 ,burnett's ,fluid1 #ig4 ,butter1 #gf4 ,caldwell11 ,ph4 ,d41 #gh1 #hb4 ,calking of joints1 #de4 ,calx-powder1 #id4 ,candy1 #gg4 ,canned fruits and vegetables1 #gg4 ,canned meats1 #gh4 ,caramel1 #gf4 ,carbolate of lime1 #ig4 ,carbolic acid1 #gb1 #ia4 powders1 #ib4 ,carbonic acid1 #g-i1 #ac1 #ae4 ,carbureted hydrogen1 #ab4 ,carmichael1 #df4 ,carpen1 #he4 ,cast-iron pipes1 #dd1 #aja4 ,cellars1 #cd1 #ff4 ,cemented joints1 #eb4 ,cement1 tempered-up1 #bf1 #ci4 ,cereals1 #gh4 ,cesspools1 #ab1 #cd1 #ce4 ,chandler11 ,professor1 #fg1 #hb1 #hc4 ,charcoal1 #id4 ,cheese1 #gh4 ,check-valves1 #dg4 ,chester11 ,ph4 ,d41 #gi1 #hj4 ,chiccory1 #gi4 ,chicken-pox1 #ab4 ,chimneys as pipe-vents1 #dd4 ,chimneys1 smoky1 #bj4 ,chloralum1 #ig4 ,chloride of aluminum1 #ic4 of lime1 #ga1 #ic1 #ig4 mercuric1 #id4 of sodium1 #hi4 of zinc1 #gj1 #if4 ,chlorine1 method of obtaining1 #ib4 properties of1 #if4 test for1 #hh4 ,chocolate1 #gh4 ,cholera1 precautions vs41 #gb4 propagation of1 #ad4 ,chromate of lead in candy1 #gg4 ,cisterns for water-closets1 #cb1 #dg4 ,city houses1 drainage of1 #fe4 ,closet1 earth1 #bc4 ,closets1 water1 #ci1 #ajb4 ,clothing1 disinfection of1 #fi4 ,cocoa1 #gh4 ,coffee1 #gh4 extract of1 #gi4 ,coffins1 air-tight1 #gj4 ,cognac1 #gf4 ,colby11 ,ph4 ,b41 #hc4 ,combustion1 #i4 ,condensers1 #cc4 ,condy's fluid1 #ig4 ,confectionery1 #gg4 ,connections1 pipe1 #cj1 #eb4 ,construction1 faulty1 #eb4 ,consumption1 precautions vs41 #gb4 propagation of1 #ab1 #gb4 ,contagious diseases1 propagation of1 #aa4 ,copperas1 #gj1 #ic4 solution of1 #fg1 #gj4 ,copper1 sulphate of1 #gg4 ,corpses1 disinfection of1 #fi1 #ga4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #id4 ,country houses1 drainage of1 #ej1 #fe4 ,cream of tartar1 #gd4 ,cushioning1 #db1 #dd1 #ef4 how determined1 #fa4 ,damp soil1 danger of1 #ae4 ,dampers1 position of1 #ai4 ,darby's ,prophylactic ,fluid1 #ih4 ,dead bodies1 disinfection of1 #fi1 #ga4 ,dead oil1 #ib4 ,deodorizers1 #fg4 ,diphtheria1 precautions vs41 #gb4 propagation of1 #ab1 #gb4 ,discharges1 disinfection of1 #fh4 ,diseases1 contagious1 #aa4 ,disinfectant1 ,egyptian1 #ih4 ,excelsior1 #ih4 ,girondin1 #ih4 ,metropolitan1 #ii4 ,phenix1 #ii4 ,disinfectants1 #ia4 how to use1 #fg4 ,disinfection1 #ff4 ,national ,board of ,health rules for1 #fg4 of bedclothing1 #fi4 ,disinfection of clothing1 #fi1 #ia4 of corpses1 #fi1 #ga4 of furniture1 #fi4 of premises1 #fh1 #ib1 #id4 of privies1 #ga1 #ia4 of water-closets1 #ga1 #ia4 of woolen stuffs1 etc41 #fi4 ,double windows1 #bj4 ,drain1 fall of1 #bg4 house1 #ce4 house1 trap in1 #db4 location of1 #bg4 pipes1 #ei4 size of1 #bg4 ,drainage1 #ba4 diagram of1 #di4 essentials of1 #bd4 examination of1 #fa4 of city houses1 #fe4 of country houses1 #ej1 #fe4 of farm-houses1 #fe4 of sea-side houses1 #fe4 ,new ,york ,city ,board of ,health1 #be4 subsoil1 #ej4 ,drains1 defective1 #eb1 #ei4 ,draughts1 how produced1 #ag1 #bj4 how to avoid1 #bj4 when perceived1 #ag4 ,drinking-water1 tanks for1 #cc1 #hf4 tests of1 #hi4 ,durand-,claye1 #ac4 ,durham house-drainage system1 #dd4 ,dysentery1 precautions vs41 #gb4 propagation of1 #ad4 ,earth as a disinfectant1 #bc4 closet1 #bc4 ,earthenware pipes1 #bf1 #ei1 #ajj4 ,egyptian ,disinfectant1 #ih4 ,engelhardt11 ,ph4 ,d41 #gf1 #gi1 #hb1 #hd1 #he4 ,erysipelas1 propagation of1 #ad4 ,evaporation from traps1 #fj4 ,excelsior ,disinfectant1 #ih4 ,excreta1 contamination of air by1 #ad1 #ba4 dangers from1 #ad1 #ba4 removal of1 #bd4 ,exhaust-steam in soil-pipes1 #cc1 #ej4 ,farm-houses1 drainage of1 #fe4 ,faulty construction of drains1 #eb4 ,ferrules1 #cj1 #de1 #eb4 ,fever1 malarial1 #ad4 puerperal1 #ad4 scarlet1 #aa1 #gb4 typhoid1 #ad1 #gb4 typhus1 #aa1 #gc4 yellow1 #ad1 #gb4 ,field's flush-tank1 #ej4 ,filters1 #hg4 ,fireplace1 ,galton's1 #ah1 #ai4 ,fireplaces1 #ah4 ,flanges1 lead1 #ec4 ,flues for ventilation1 #bj4 ,flush-tank1 #ej4 ,fomites1 #ga1 #gc4 ,food1 #gc4 ,fresh-air inlet1 #bh1 #dc4 ,fruits1 canned1 #gg4 ,fumigation1 methods of1 #fh1 #fi4 precautions during1 #gj4 treatment of rooms after1 #gj4 ,funerals1 #ga4 ,furniture1 disinfection of1 #fi4 of sick-room1 #fh4 ,fusel-oil1 #gf1 #hd4 ,galton's fireplace1 #ah1 #ai4 ,gas1 sewer1 composition of1 #ab4 ,gasket1 #de4 ,general debility1 #aa1 #ac4 ,german measles1 #ab4 ,germicide1 #ih4 ,gin1 #gi4 ,girondin ,disinfectant1 #ih4 ,glucose1 #ge1 #gi1 #hb4 ,grains1 cereal1 #gh4 ,green vitriol1 #gj1 #ic4 ,ground air1 danger of1 #ae4 air1 exclusion of1 #ff4 water1 high and low1 #ae4 ,gum-drops1 #gg4 ,gypsum1 #gd1 #gi1 #id4 ,hand-holes1 #ei4 ,heat1 disinfection by1 #id4 ,honey1 #gi4 ,hops1 #ge4 ,horizontal pipes1 #bh4 ,horse-radish1 #gi4 ,hospital gangrene1 #ad4 ,house-drain1 #ce4 drain1 trap in1 #bg1 #db4 drainage1 ,durham system of1 #dd4 drainage1 essentials of1 #bd4 sewer1 material of1 #bf4 ,hydrant-sinks1 #ce4 ,hydrochloric acid1 #ic4 ,impurity of air1 measure of1 #i4 ,inlet1 fresh-air1 #bh1 #dc4 ,iodide of potassium1 #hi4 ,iron1 sulphate of1 #ic4 ,iron pipes1 weight of1 #bi4 ,isinglass1 #gi4 ,jellies1 #gi4 ,joints1 calking of1 #de1 #eb4 cement1 #eb1 #ei4 imperfect1 #ei4 lead1 #de1 #eb4 putty1 #eb1 #ei4 ,joints1 rust1 #cj1 #de4 wiped1 #df4 ,labarraque's ,solution1 #ii4 ,labor1 plumber's1 #ajb4 ,lactometer1 method of using1 #ha4 ,lard1 #hj4 ,lattimore11 ,ph4 ,d41 #gg-gi1 #hb-hd4 ,lead1 chromate of1 #gg4 dissolving of1 in water1 #hf4 flanges1 #ec4 nitrate of1 #ie4 ,leaders1 bad odors from1 #ec4 as soil-pipes1 #cc1 #di4 trapping of1 #cc1 #ec4 ,lead pipes1 weight of1 #aja4 ,letheby1 #ac4 ,lime1 #id4 chloride of1 #ic4 sulphate of1 #id4 ,louvered sky-light1 #ci4 ,love11 ,ph4 ,d41 #gd-gf1 #gh4 ,malarial fevers1 #ad4 ,manganese1 oxide of1 #ic4 ,marsh-gas1 #ac4 ,measles1 precautions vs41 #gb4 propagation of1 #aa4 ,meat1 #hj4 ,meats1 canned1 #gh4 preserved1 poisoning by1 #hj4 ,mercuric chloride1 #id4 ,mercury seal for traps1 #ci4 ,metropolitan ,disinfectant1 #ii4 ,microscopic organisms1 #aa1 #dc4 ,milk1 composition of1 #ha4 ,mines1 air of1 #g4 ,morin1 estimate by1 #ai4 ,movable tanks for excreta1 #bb4 ,mumps1 #ab4 ,munsell11 ,ph4 ,d41 #ha4 ,national ,board of ,health1 rules1 etc41 #fg4 ,nichols1 ,professor1 #h1 #ab1 #hg4 ,nitrate of lead1 #ie4 of silver1 #hh4 ,nitrates1 tests for1 #hi4 ,nitric acid1 #hh4 ,nitrites1 test for1 #hi4 ,nitrogen1 #g4 in sewers1 #ab1 #ac4 ,nitrous acid1 #ie4 ,new ,york ,city ,board of ,health1 rules1 etc41 #be4 ,new ,york ,state ,board of ,health1 rules1 etc41 #gd4 ,oakum1 #de4 ,odors1 offensive1 #eb4 ,offsets1 #ce1 #ajj4 ,oil1 dead1 #ib4 fusel1 #gf1 #hd4 of cognac1 #gf4 of peppermint1 #fc4 olive1 #ha4 ,oleomargarine1 #gf4 ,one trap1 etc41 how determined1 #eh1 #fb4 ,organic matter of respired air1 #i4 matters1 test for1 #hi4 ,organisms1 microscopic1 #aa1 #dc4 ,overflow-pipes1 #cb1 #cc1 #df1 #ed1 #eh4 ,oxidation1 #ae1 #dc4 ,oxide of manganese1 #ic4 ,oxygen1 #g1 #h1 #ac4 ,ozone1 #ie4 ,pails for excreta1 #bb4 ,paris1 plaster-of-1 #id4 ,peppermint test1 #fc4 ,permanganate of potash1 #ie4 ,pettenkofer's test for carbonic acid1 #i4 ,phenix ,disinfectant1 #ii4 ,phenol ,sodique1 #ii4 ,phosphorus1 #ie4 ,pickles1 #hb4 ,pipe connections1 #cj1 #eb4 ,pipes1 air1 #ca4 air-bound1 #eg4 cast-iron1 #bg1 #bh1 #dd1 #aja4 corrosion of1 #ej1 #ei4 drain1 #bg1 #ei4 earthenware1 #bf1 #ajj4 galvanized iron1 #ei1 #hf4 hub-end of1 #dd4 iron1 weight of1 #bi4 lead1 weight of1 #aja4 obstruction of1 #fa4 overflow1 #cb1 #cc1 #df1 #ed1 #eh4 rat-holes in1 #ei4 service1 #hf4 spigot-end of1 #dd4 tarring of1 #dd1 #aja4 traps on vertical1 #bi1 #dd4 ventilating1 size of1 #ca4 waste1 #bh4 wrought-iron1 #dd4 ,pitt111 #gg1 #gi4 ,plants1 action of air on1 #ae4 ,plaster-of-,paris1 #id4 ,platt's chlorides1 #ii4 ,plumber's labor1 #ajb4 materials1 #aja1 #ajb4 ,pork1 #hj4 ,potash1 permanganate of1 #ie4 ,potassium1 iodide of1 #hi4 ,powders1 calx1 #id4 carbolic1 #ib4 ,premises1 disinfection of1 #fh1 #ib1 #id4 ,privies1 disinfection of1 #ga4 ,privy-sinks1 #db1 #ajb4 ,privy-vaults1 construction of1 #bb1 #cd1 #ce4 contents of1 #ab4 dangers of1 #bb4 ,pumpelly1 #df4 ,purification of water1 #hg1 #ij4 ,putty-joints1 #eb1 #ed4 ,rat-holes in pipes1 #ei4 ,refrigerator wastes1 #cb4 ,respiration1 organic matter of1 #i4 ,return bend1 #dc4 ,rum1 #hb4 ,saddle-hubs1 #fj1 #ajb4 ,safes1 #cb1 #df4 draining of1 #cb1 #ed4 ,safe-wastes1 #cb1 #ed4 ,saleratus1 #gd4 ,salt1 #fg1 #gj1 #hi4 8,sanitary ,engineer10 #ea4 ,scarlet fever1 precautions vs41 #gb4 propagation of1 #aa4 ,school-sinks1 #cd1 #db1 #ajb4 ,seal of trap1 #cf4 ,sea-side houses1 drainage of1 #fe4 ,seine1 mud of1 #ac4 ,service-pipes1 #hf4 ,sewer-air1 effects attributed to1 #ac4 ,sewer-gas1 composition of1 #ab4 ,sewer1 house1 material of1 #bf4 ,sewer-water1 #ac4 ,sewers1 contents of1 #ab4 private1 #bf4 ,sherringham valve1 #ag4 ,sick-room1 care of1 #fg1 #gj4 precautions on entering1 #gc4 ,sinks1 #cj4 ,siphonage1 #eh4 how determined1 #fb4 prevention of1 #ca1 #eh4 ,sirups1 #hb4 ,sky-light1 louvered1 #ci4 ,sleeves1 #cj1 #de4 ,slops1 dangers from1 #ba4 ,small-pox1 precautions vs41 #ga4 propagation of1 #aa4 ,smoky chimneys1 #bj4 ,smith1 ,angus1 #h4 ,soil1 damp1 danger of1 #ae4 ,soil-pipe1 #ce4 material and size of1 #bh4 ,spices1 #hb4 ,stables1 disinfection of1 #id4 ,starch1 #ge1 #hi4 ,squibb's carbolic acid1 #ib4 ,steam in soil-pipes1 #cc1 #ej4 ,steam-coils1 heating by1 #ai4 ,subsoil drainage1 #ej4 ,sugar1 #hb4 ,sulphate of copper1 #gg4 of iron1 #hi1 #ic4 of lime1 #id4 of zinc1 #fg1 #if4 ,sulphide of ammonium1 #ab4 ,sulphur1 #fg1 #if4 use of1 in disinfection1 #fh4 ,sulphureted hydrogen1 #ab1 #ac4 ,sulphuric acid1 #hi1 #ie4 ,sulphurous acid1 #gj1 #if4 ,syrups 7see ,sirups74 ,tanks for drinking-water1 #cc1 #hf4 lining of1 #cc4 movable1 for excreta1 #bb4 ,tarring of pipes1 #dd1 #aja4 ,teas1 #hc4 ,terra alba1 #gd1 #ge1 #gg4 ,test1 ,carpen's1 for wine1 #he4 for carbonic acid1 #i4 for chlorine1 #hh4 for nitrates1 #hi4 for nitrites1 #hi4 ,test for organic matters in water1 #hi4 peppermint1 #fc4 water1 #de4 ,thymol1 #gb1 #ib1 #ih4 ,tin in canned fruits1 #gg4 in sirups1 #hb4 ,traps1 #ce1 #ajb4 cleaning of1 #fj4 efficiency of1 #df4 empty1 how to determine1 #fb4 in house-drains1 #bg1 #db4 on vertical pipes1 #bi1 #dd4 position of1 #cj4 unsealing of1 by cushioning1 #ef4 unsealing of1 by evaporation1 #fj4 unsealing of1 by siphoning1 #eh4 various kinds of1 #cf1 #ajb4 ventilation of1 #ca4 ,trap-screws1 #ei4 ,trichin1 #hj4 ,typhoid fever caused by water1 #hh4 precautions vs41 #gb4 propagation of1 #ad4 ,typhus fever1 precautions vs41 #gc4 propagation of1 #aa4 ,urinals1 #cj1 #ajb4 ,valve-closets1 dangers of1 #dg4 ,valves1 check1 #dg4 ,vegetables1 canned1 #gg4 ,ventilating shaft1 #be4 ,ventilation1 #ae4 different methods of1 #ag-ai4 flues for1 #bj4 ,ventilation of pipes1 #ca1 #ed1 #eh4 ,ventilators1 whirling1 #bj4 ,vent-pipes1 #ed4 ,vertical pipes1 traps on1 #bi1 #dd4 ,vinegar1 #hd4 ,waller1 ,elwyn1 ,ph4 ,d41 #hc1 #ig4 ,walls1 damp-proof courses in1 #ff4 ,wash-trays and tubs1 #cj4 ,waste-pipes1 #ce4 material of1 #bh4 trapping of1 #cj4 ,water1 #hf4 drinking1 tanks for1 #cc1 #hf4 drinking1 tests of1 #hi4 impure1 disorders due to1 #hh4 in lead pipes1 #hf4 iron pipes for1 #hf4 of sewers1 #ac4 pollution of1 #hg4 precautions regarding1 #ij4 purification of1 #ij4 typhoid fever caused by1 #hh4 ,water-carriage1 #bd4 ,water-closets1 #ci1 #ajb4 cisterns for1 #cb1 #dg1 #ajj4 disinfection of1 #ga1 #ia4 valve1 dangers of1 #dg4 ,water-seal1 #cf1 #df4 ,water test1 the1 #de4 ,weight of iron pipe1 #bi4 of lead pipe1 #aja4 ,wernich1 #df4 ,whirling ventilators1 #bj4 ,whisky1 #gf1 #hd4 ,whooping-cough1 propagation of1 #ab4 ,windows1 double1 #bj4 ,wine1 how to tell good1 #hd4 tests of1 #he4 ,wiped joints1 #df4 ,woolen stuffs1 disinfection of1 #fi4 ,wrought-iron pipes1 #dd4 ,y-branches1 #db4 ,yards1 drainage of1 #cd4 ,yellow fever1 #ad1 #gb4 ,zinc1 chloride of1 #gj1 #if4 sulphate of1 #fg1 #if4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,works ,,on ,,hygiene4 ,health ,primers4 ,edited by ,j4 ,,langdon ,,down11 ,f4 ,p41 ,,henry ,,power11 ,c4 ,s41 ,j4 ,,mortimer-,,granville1 ,m4 ,d41 ,,john ,,tweedy1 ,c4 ,s4 ,in square #afmo4 volumes4 ,cloth1 #dj cents each4 ,i4 ,,exercise ,,and ,,training4 ,,ii4 ,,alcohol3 ,its ,use and ,abuse4 ,,iii4 ,,premature ,,death3 ,its ,promotion or ,prevention4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,house ,,and ,,its ,,surroundings4 ,v4 ,,personal ,,appearance ,,in ,,health ,,and ,,disease4 ,,vi4 ,,baths ,,and ,,bathing4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,skin ,,and ,,its ,,troubles4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,heart ,,and ,,its ,,functions4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 ,hygiene for ,girls4 ,by ,,iren,,us ,p4 ,,davis1 #afmo4 ,cloth1 #a4be4 ,dangers to ,health3 ,a ,pictorial ,guide to ,domestic ,sanitary ,defects4 ,by ,t4 ,,pridgin ,,teale11 ,surgeon to the ,general ,infirmary at ,leeds4 ,with #gj ,lithographic ,plates4 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #c4jj4 ,health and ,education4 ,by ,rev4 ,c4 ,,kingsley4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ge4 ,physical ,education2 or1 ,the ,health ,laws of ,nature4 ,by ,,felix ,l4 ,,oswald1 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4jj4 ,,the ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,conducted ,,by ,e4 ,l4 ,,and ,w4 ,j4 ,,youmans4 ,,the ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly was established a dozen years ago to bring before the general public the results of scientific thought on many large and important questions which could find no expression in the current periodicals4 ,scientific inquiry was penetrating many new fields1 extending important knowledge1 and profoundly affecting opinion upon numberless questions of speculative and practical interest4 ,it was the policy of this magazine at the outset1 and has been constantly adhered to since1 to obtain the ablest statements from the most distinguished scientific men of all countries in their bearing upon the higher problems of investigation4 ,leaving the dry and technical details of science1 which 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