,,theatre ,,arts ,,monographs4 ,no4 #a ,illustration3 ,faade and entrance of the ,beechwood ,theatre and ,scarborough ,school1 ,scarborough1 ,new ,york4 ,welles ,bosworth1 ,architect4 7,photograph by ,arnold ,genthe47 ,,on ,,building ,a ,,theatre ,,stage ,,construction ,,and ,,equipment ,,for ,,small ,,theatres1 ,,schools ,,and ,,community ,,buildings ,,by ,,irving ,,pichel ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,theatre ,,arts ,,inc4 #aibj ,copyright #aibj by ,,theatre ,,arts1 ,inc4 ,,contents ,,introduction ,i4 ,,architectural ,,tradition ,,in ,,the ,,theatre3 ,,the ,,auditorium ,,ii4 ,,the ,,stage ,,plan ,,iii4 ,,provision ,,for ,,back-,,stage ,,workers ,,iv4 ,,the ,,equipment ,,of ,,the ,,stage ,v4 ,,stage ,,lighting ,,vi4 ,,stage ,,machinery ,,and ,,settings ,,bibliography ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,entrance of the ,beechwood ,theatre ,frontispiece ,stage of the ,teatro ,farnese at ,parma #ae ,sketch of an ,elizabethan ,theatre #af ,interior of the ,little ,theatre1 ,new ,york #be ,exterior of the ,little ,theatre1 ,new ,york #bf ,the ,munich ,art ,theatre #ci ,exterior of the ,munich ,art ,theatre #dj ,section of the ,munich ,art ,theatre #da ,auditorium of the ,munich ,art ,theatre #db ,the ,arts and ,crafts ,theatre1 ,detroit #ee ,the ,carnegie ,institute ,theatre1 ,pittsburgh #ef ,the ,neighborhood ,playhouse1 ,new ,york #fe ,the ,artist's ,guild ,theatre1 ,st4 ,louis #ff ,,illustrations ,,in ,,the ,,text-- #a4 ,plan of the ,teatro ,olympico at ,vicenza #ai #b4 ,plans of the ,berlin ,volksbhne #bj #c4 ,plan and section of the ,little ,theatre1 ,new ,york #bb #d4 ,plan of the ,carnegie ,institute ,theatre1 ,pittsburgh #bh #e4 ,first-floor plan of the ,munich ,art ,theatre #cj #f4 ,second-floor plan and section of the ,munich ,art ,theatre #ca #g4 ,plan of the #cith ,street ,theatre1 ,new ,york #ce #h4 ,plan of the ,beechwood ,theatre #cg #i4 ,stage of the ,thtre du ,vieux ,colombier #ga ,,introduction ,architectural ineptitudes are more likely to be perpetuated and in time condoned than those in any other art4 ,generally speaking1 a bad painting is scrapped1 poor music remains unpublished and unplayed 7along with much good music1 no doubt71 and bad books1 after a time1 cease to be read4 ,but a building is somehow inescapable4 ,having a durability that needs no treasuring1 and being erected more often for use than for beauty1 a building generally achieves longevity1 and the bad art crumbles no sooner than the good stone4 ,usefulness1 great initial cost1 sturdy stuff1 are all against a building's being put out of the way merely because it is ugly4 ,or even1 as a matter of fact1 because it does not successfully serve the purpose for which it was erected4 ,as people live in a house1 or work1 day after day1 in a store or factory or public building1 they become used to inconveniences1 bad arrangement1 and lack of proper facilities4 ,they complain for a time1 perhaps1 and then forget4 ,and after a while1 when the house has become home1 or the large building has gathered tradition1 a sort of admiration settles upon it4 ,what is really plain ugly or wrong or bad appears quaint and full of 8atmosphere40 ,and is imitated4 ,style and tradition embalm the very features that make the building a bad building4 ,in the theatre1 this perpetuation of musty1 tradition-hallowed faults of construction has been carried to an extraordinary extreme4 ,there is more ritual1 one might believe1 in constructing a stage and auditorium in accordance with honored custom than there is in the building of a church4 ,in the more modern theatres1 there have been notable improvements over the theatres of a generation ago2 but in the auditoriums and stages of schools1 clubs and societies1 and in other public or semi-public buildings in which such facilities are included as a sort of side issue1 the ancient law is observed4 ,the average high school stage seems to be inspired by the faint recollection of a visit to the theatre1 supplemented by the examination of old prints illustrating the stage of ,inigo ,jones4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to-day1 by a concerted movement throughout the country1 hundreds of community houses are being planned as war memorials4 ,these buildings are designed to include facilities for all the social and recreational interests of the communities they will serve4 ,practically all of them will include stages and auditoriums4 ,at the same time1 hundreds of new school buildings are being planned1 and these1 too1 will have stages intended to be useful for dramatic productions4 ,but unless architects have at their disposal much more technical knowledge of the producers' requirements than in the past1 it is certain that most of these auditoriums and stages will be bad--as are the auditoriums and stages in most existing schools4 ,it is to forestall some of the common mistakes that this paper has been prepared--to describe them in detail1 and to set up against them the ideal features toward which the designers of such structures should strive4 ,i believe that the memorial halls are destined to play so large a part in community life that they must have removed from them every obstacle to their fullest usefulness4 ,in every community of moderate size and culture there is a releasing to-day of dramatic impulse1 and folks turn more and more toward the theatre as a mode of group expression4 ,the ,little ,theatre movement1 with its eighty-five or more centers renewing their life1 now that the war is over1 is an evidence of the birth of a new theatre in this country4 ,innumerable community pageants and masques are an indication that people turn to the drama as a means of expressing their corporate sthetic4 ,the production of worthy plays by schools and colleges1 the interest such institutions are showing in the writing of plays and in the fostering of an indigenous drama1 the widespread discussion of the drama and the theatre by clubs1 reading circles and drama leagues1 all are portents of a theatre that shall be a vital and integral part of our daily community life4 ,and at the very moment these words are being written1 the commercial theatre that has so long held the arena is being convulsed by a revolution that may mean nothing short of its eventual extinction4 ,the system of wholesale manufacture and distribution of theatre products is on the wane1 and the theatre as an art1 as a social institution of the rank and significance of the school or the church1 may soon have the field to itself4 ,hourly1 in the little theatres1 in community drama undertakings1 in the municipal theatres1 in the classrooms and the clubs1 and on the school stages1 the new theatre is growing up4 ,one of the finest services that the memorial community house can render is to provide a home for the dramatic impulse of the community--not a makeshift home1 but one worthy of the fine art of the drama and the fine craft of the theatre4 ,it does not matter whether or not the building is to be large and pretentious or small and inexpensive2 but it matters that it should be fitted to the least detail to fulfill its function efficiently and beautifully4 ,i do not write these pages as an architect or as an instructor of architects1 but as one knowing fairly well the conditions which a stage has to meet when it is used for dramatic representations of any sort4 ,in the course of a rather varied experience in the theatre--amateur and professional1 little and big1 commercial and 8art0--,i have encountered practically all the mistakes that are made in stage construction4 ,i have found them to be of two sorts3 mistakes of imitation1 and mistakes of ingenuity4 ,the first type of mistake is easy enough to account for4 ,usually1 the auditoriums and stages of schools have been intended primarily for use as 8chapels0 or assembly halls4 ,there has been a feeling on the part of school authorities that the dramatic instinct is in some way unwholesome and that its expression should be discouraged4 ,as often as not the design of the school stage has been a conspiracy to thwart its growth4 ,the attitude of the authorities has recently changed somewhat1 but with the change has come very little more intelligence in the matter4 ,where1 before1 they were careful to obstruct1 they are now merely negligent1 leaving the architect to his own devices4 ,the proceeding is very much at random1 and experts are rarely consulted4 ,it is not wholly the architect's fault that he builds as he does4 ,opportunities to build stages are not frequent2 he knows more about building them than using them1 and the models he follows have not been often enough refreshed by the innovations of theatre experts4 ,his patterns are largely outmoded4 ,in the largest high school in one of the greatest midwestern cities1 ,i have seen a stage built no more than five years ago in which is exemplified almost every stage feature of the civil war period--a vast curved apron1 grooves for wings1 and a stage floor sloping from the back wall toward the footlights4 ,in addition1 there are one or two mistakes peculiar to high schools1--notably the omission of an entrance to the stage1 save on one side4 ,the other type of error which one encounters is usually made by a clever man who has observed the more modern practices in building large theatres and attempts to adapt them to a space utterly inadequate or wrongly shaped for the purpose4 ,usually he cramps his space hopelessly and renders it even less useful for its purpose than it might have been had no such ingenuity been displayed4 ,the finely equipped stage of the ,artists' ,guild ,theatre in ,st4 ,louis is an admirable replica in little of a fully equipped stage of the commercial theatre4 ,but the stagehouse is so small that the fly gallery at the left and the paint bridge at the back are a constant embarrassment4 ,the stage would have been more workable if these devices had not been employed4 ,these errors of construction1 after all1 indicate but one thing--that the stage has been regarded as a characteristic type of structure1 to be built according to established rules1 rather than as a place designed to fulfill a peculiar function4 ,a stage is a space on which a dramatic action is to be revealed before an audience4 ,whatever the space at the builder's disposal--its size or shape--or whatever the building he must remodel1 that is the only thing to be considered4 ,a play is to be given4 ,the players must be seen and heard4 ,there must be means for them to enter the presence of the audience1 and exit4 ,the space on which they appear must be illuminated4 ,somehow the space set aside for the player shall be able to suggest1 either by means of scenery as it is commonly understood1 or by some conventional arrangement1 permanent or variable1 a world in which the character he portrays might move4 ,beginning with this much specification and no more1 ,i propose to work out with some definiteness the principles underlying the construction of an ideal stage and the relation of the auditorium to it1 bearing in mind all the while the fact that many of the stages in the ,war ,memorial ,buildings and little theatres are to be small1 that large sums cannot always be spent on them1 and that they must in most cases serve a variety of purposes4 ,if we remember always the function our stage is to fulfill1 we have two good sources from which to draw practical details for its construction1 and a third source1 debatable but interesting4 ,first1 there are the errors which ,i have referred to4 ,some of these ,i shall discuss in detail in the next chapter4 ,then1 most valuable of all sources1 are the conclusions to be drawn from the practice of the most skilled architects and artists of the theatre4 ,and finally1 to be considered briefly1 there are speculations as to the demands which the drama of the future may make on the theatre1--demands that can be forecasted inaccurately at best1 but deserving a glance1 perhaps1 if only to call attention to the certainty that such demands will be made4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,architectural ,,tradition ,,in ,,the ,,theatre3 ,,the ,,auditorium ,there are1 of course1 other types of auditorium and platform than that of the theatre4 ,churches1 lecture halls1 and the chambers of legislative assemblies are planned with the same general end of making a person or persons at one part of the room audible and visible to many persons gathered in another part4 ,the ready defense of much bad planning in school auditoriums is that they were not modelled after theatres but after one of these other forms4 ,to-day this will not serve as a defense4 ,interest in the drama is too widespread1 and recognition of the social potency of the theatre is too general4 ,and whereas none of these other forms of audience chamber meets the needs of the theatre1 a well-planned theatre can serve any use to which a gathered community may care to put it4 ,the rocks which threaten disaster to our intent to devise a room which may serve as theatre1 assembly hall1 chapel1 or whatever1 are1 if we go to beginnings1 the traditional form of the theatre and its traditional dcor4 ,in the latter1 time has wrought many changes4 ,it was once felt that a theatre was not a theatre if it was not adorned with a wealth of gilded cupids1 masks1 tambours1 and daggers1 surrounded by stucco wreaths and garlands in high relief1 and interspaced with pictured panels of the muses1 especially those most at home in a playhouse4 ,and1 indeed1 about those old houses1 their garishness now mellowed1 there is a glamor peculiarly of the theatre1 and a sweet mustiness in the air bespeaking audiences of perfumed ladies1 long since dead1 the grease-paint and pomade of a long line of players1 old scenery1 the fine fustian of the old plays4 ,it is somewhat like the odor in a garret stored with the treasures of our grandparents1 or the mustiness of an old book4 ,but these are faded flowers that cannot be brought to life1 and the theatre of to-day1 its plays and its players1 are moved by a different spirit4 ,whatever lure these tinselly old temples have is a reminiscent one4 ,to-day1 there may be found theatres with the simplicity and peace of a church1 the unobtrusive luxury of the drawing-room1 and even1 by overshooting the mark of simplicity1 the bareness of the lecture-room or the legislative chamber4 ,the greater sincerity that has come into the theatre1 and that fear of romance that marks the first decade or more of the ,twentieth ,century1 did much to overcome traditional over-elaboration4 ,there has come1 too1 a marked freedom from tradition in the planning of the usual large show-houses4 ,the more modern theatres are1 for the most part1 free from those glaring structural ineptitudes that several centuries of custom had imposed4 ,in ,germany especially 7the traditional form of the theatre did not develop there71 great progress has been made1 and the theatres of such architects as ,max ,littmann and ,oskar ,kaufmann serve as models4 ,stage machinery in ,germany has been brought to a point of perfection not yet reached in any other country4 ,lautenschlager1 ,brandt1 and ,fortuny 7a ,spaniard7 have contributed inventions that have only occasionally been experimented with in this country1 and then somewhat half-heartedly4 ,tradition clings close to its native heath1 nevertheless1 and in ,england1 to which ,america looks first1 perhaps1 and in the ,latin countries1 it has enough vitality still to be a source of danger4 ,it may be worth while to scan the history of the tradition1 especially from the 8front of the house01 before we consider the stage itself4 ,for it is from here that the gravest criticism against a stage can be made1--that it is not easily visible from all parts of the house4#a #a ,i shall not consider it expedient1 in any part of this discussion1 to go into questions of engineering detail4 ,it is assumed that the architect is equipped or will equip himself with such technical knowledge4 ,nor shall ,i refer to structural modifications brought about by the regulations of ,boards of ,fire ,underwriters4 ,these matters have been treated more or less efficiently in several other works1 to which reference will be found in the ,appendix4 ,the form of the stage and the manner in which it has been used have1 throughout the history of the theatre1 been the primary factors in determining the shape of the auditorium4 ,the ,greek theatre was devoted to a ceremonial drama in honor of ,dionysus1 acted about an altar erected to him4 ,so the stage took the form of a circular space with an altar in the center4 ,the seating was arranged in concentric tiers1 with the altar as a center1 and more than half surrounded the stage space or orchestra4 ,tangent to this circle1 and perpendicular to a line drawn through the center of the seating space1 was built the skene1 or back scene4 ,at first1 this was merely a dressing tent2 later it was a wall1 of wood or stone1 masking the dressing-rooms of the actors4 ,it was pierced with doors1 giving access to the stage before it1 and served as the palace1 temple1 or city wall1 in front of which the scene of the play was laid4 ,there is no satisfactory evidence that it gave on to a raised space conforming to the later stage platform4 ,chorus and actors were on the ground level of the orchestra4 ,all the seats being raised1 the spectator looked down upon the action of the play1 and all the seats were set on radial lines drawn from the altar or center of the orchestra4 ,illustration3 ,stage of the ,teatro ,farnese at ,parma1 ,italy4 ,an example of the picture-frame stage set into the plastic stage of an antique theatre4 ,see page #ah4 7,from ,hammitzsch's ,der ,moderne ,theaterbau47 ,illustration3 ,contemporary sketch of an ,elizabethan ,theatre4 7,from ,caffin's ,appreciation of the ,drama47 ,in the ,roman theatre1 a number of radical changes are to be noted4 ,the large orchestra is no longer needed for a chorus1 and the space is cut to a semicircle1 in which are placed the chairs of the ,senators4 ,since spectators are now on the ground level1 the actors must be raised1 and the stage becomes a long1 shallow platform1 beginning at the diameter of the circle4 ,raised tiers of seats1 as in the ,greek theatre1 surround the semicircular ground space4 ,at the back of the stage is a wall1 or scna1 which also closes in each side of the stage1 meeting the seats at the diameter ends4 ,it is built to the height of the uppermost tier of seats4 ,since the stage extended almost the whole width of the seating1 and was raised above the ground1 sight lines were ideal4 ,between the fall of the ,roman ,empire and the revival of classic learning in ,italy1 the theatre had no settled home4 ,the drama went through various vicissitudes1 took on new functions1 expressed itself in new forms4 ,the medival theatre of mysteries and miracles1 after it had become secularized1 went forth from the chancel of the church1 and became a vagrant and an opportunist4 ,it set up its paraphernalia in the public square1 in the inn-yard1 in the guild hall4 ,for the most part1 it was a daylight1 outdoor recreation1 with no fixed home1 and no such special ceremonial functions as in the ,greek and ,roman state4 ,it was proletarian1 distinctly4 ,with the ,renaissance1 in addition to the popular itinerant theatre of the people1 there were two new manifestations4 ,the humanists1 in their academies1 revived the ,roman comedies of ,plautus and ,terence2 the courts of the ruling families of the free cities became the scenes of magnificent productions of masques1 pageants1 8triumphs0 and ftes4 ,these were usually allegories based on classic mythology or on ancient history1 but presented largely in the form and manner of the popular drama of the time4 ,to the presentation of the court ftes1 the greatest artists1--,bramante1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,giulio ,romano1 etc41--brought their talents4 ,they were given in the gardens of the palaces at night1 illuminated by flares and fireworks4 ,the 8pageant0 or wheeled stage of the medival popular drama1 was used for the display of some large piece of decoration or machinery4 ,as early as #adia1 however1 at ,perugia1 the first indoor performances were given4 ,the stage went through various modifications1 still keeping its resemblance to the stage of the medival drama1 until one invention enforced the most radical development that had yet taken place1--perspective scenery4 ,hammitzsch#b traces the invention of scenery in painted perspective to ,bramante's decoration of the sacristy of the ,church of ,san ,satiro in ,milan4 ,the wall painting represents in perspective an extended vista of the sacristy1 in an attempt to make it appear larger4 ,the modern counterpart is the mirrored restaurant4 ,it is certain1 at all events1 that ,peruzzi employed such scenery in dramatic representations in ,rome before #aeaj4 ,with these painted prospects came a variety of changes in the arrangements of the rooms in which the masques were given2 the stage became more a place apart2 it was set at the end of the room rather than along the sides1 that the effect of distance produced by the painted prospects might be enhanced1 and the proscenium frame enclosed it4 ,however1 when the theatre as a building designed specifically for the presentation of plays came into being1 the form of auditorium was not so thoughtfully adapted to this new type of stage as had been the case with the ancient theatres4 ,for it was to them that architects turned for models for the auditorium1 though the stage was no longer the stage that went with the amphitheatre form of seating4 #b ,hammitzsch1 ,der ,moderne ,theaterbau1 ,i4 ,teil1 p4 #aa4 ,the theatre of the ,academy of ,olympians at ,vicenza1 begun in #aehj by the architect ,palladio and completed in #aehd by his son ,scillo 7,fig4 #a71 is practically a ,roman theatre roofed over1 and equipped with a stage that compromises with the stage then in mode4 ,it has a sloping floor 7to increase the effect of the perspective7 and alleys of scenery giving off each entranceway in the stage wall4 ,the ,teatro ,farnese in ,parma1 completed in #afai by ,aleotti1 is the first modern theatre4 ,in it appear theatre features that have come down to our own day1--the elongation of the amphitheatre auditorium into the horseshoe form1 and a stage completely separated from the auditorium and equipped not only to handle the new scenery but to manipulate it quickly1 so that changes of scene might be effected in the presence of the audience4 ,in this theatre1 ,aleotti not only broke away from the classic stage but also from the multiple setting of the medival stage and definitely introduced the modern form of picture stage4 ,less completely did he break away from the classic seating1 but he modified it somewhat to meet new conditions4 ,illustration3 ,figure #a--,plan of the ,teatro ,olympico1 ,vicenza4 ,with ,aleotti passed the period of primitive experiment with a new instrument4 ,from his day until very recent years1 there was to be no marked change1 except the introduction of balconies1 a feature already anticipated in the theatres of other countries and soon employed in ,italy1 and the further accentuation of the horseshoe form4 ,the old circle plan became an ellipse1 and still later1 as the side balconies were brought in closer to the stage1 an oval4 ,in ,england1 very much the same history was enacted4 ,the old ,english miracle and mystery gave the theatre its platform stage1 but the imitations of ,latin comedy first gave it a permanent home4 ,public performances of university-made imitations of ,roman comedy were common during the reign of ,edward the ,sixth1 and during the reign of ,elizabeth 7#aeeh-afjc7 seventeen professional theatres were licensed for the exhibition of contemporary plays4 ,in something like sixty years1 the ,english drama and the ,english theatre had grown from crude beginnings to the highest point they have yet reached4 ,and it was by professional companies of actors presenting dramas and not by the court or academic presentations1 that the theatre was first given form4 ,these companies1 like the craftsmen bands of miracle and mystery players1 acted wherever they could find a place or wherever they were bidden1--at court1 in great halls1 in the provinces1 in the church or the moot hall or the inn1 and in ,london1 in the inn-yard or bear pit4 ,it was the inn-yard that was most used and had the greatest influence on the form of the playhouse4 ,illustration3 ,figure #b--,plans of the theatre just completed in ,berlin for the ,berliner ,volksbhne4 ,the form of the auditorium is typical of the latest practice in continental and ,american theatre design 7see page #bg74 ,the large amount of stage space1 in proportion to the auditorium1 however1 is unfortunately not typical of ,american theatres4 ,the second-floor plan is included to illustrate the general arrangement rather than to show the balcony form1 which is neither typical nor particularly good4 ,the inns were usually built in the form of a hollow square4 ,a small passage gave access to the inner court1 which was surrounded by galleries4 ,the stage would be erected at the end of the court opposite the entrance1 and spectators stood on the level ground of the yard or found seats in the galleries4 ,the bear pits or bull rings were usually circular buildings with several galleries similar to those of the inn-yards4 ,the earliest theatres1 built about #aegf1 were round in shape1 with these characteristic galleries4 ,they seem to have been used interchangeably for theatrical performances and for bear-baiting4 ,the centers were open to the sky1 like the inn-yards1 and only the galleries and part of the stage were roofed4 ,the stages projected into the center1 and could be viewed1 both by spectators on the ground and by those in the galleries1 from three sides4 ,the only contemporary drawing of the ,elizabethan stage is that of ,johannes ,de ,witt of the ,university of ,utrecht1 who visited ,london in #aeif4 ,his drawing of the ,swan ,theatre differs in many details from the specifications of the contract1 but it gives a general idea of the form of auditorium and stage4 ,with the building of these theatres1--,the ,theatre1 ,the ,curtain1 ,the ,hope1 ,the ,globe1 ,blackfriar's1 ,the ,swan1--the use of the inn-yards did not cease1 and the ,queen's men performed regularly at ,the ,boar's ,head in ,eastcheap as late as #afjc4c #c ,ashley ,h4 ,thorndike1 ,shakespeare's ,theatre1 p4 #db4 ,contemporaneously1 there were in ,england1 as abroad1 spectacular performances at court1 richly costumed and decorated4 ,they were performed in spacious palace halls1 being acted on pageant wagons or on the main floor1 and were viewed from benches and balconies around the sides4 ,eventually the pageant gave way to a stage temporarily erected at one end of the room1 the dancers descending to the main floor for large ensembles and ballets4 ,as early as #afjg1 scenery1 curtains1 and a proscenium arch had been used4 ,the picture stage1 with its scenery in painted perspective1 was an importation from ,italy1 following a visit there of ,inigo ,jones1 and under his hand reached a high degree of development during the third decade of the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,illustration3 ,figure #c--;,above is the section of the ,little ,theatre1 ,new ,york1 showing clearly the relationship of the stage1 auditorium and other portions of the building4 ,the dressing-rooms are above the auditorium and are reached by both stairs and elevator4 ,on the opposite page is the first-floor plan of the building4 ,it is a notable example of the best contemporary ,american practice in auditorium arrangement4 ,these drawings illustrate the building as originally constructed1 without the recently added balcony and other changes4 ,harry ,creighton ,ingalls and ,f4 ,b4 ,hoffman ,jr41 ,associate ,architects4 ,illustration ,with the reopening of the theatres after the ,restoration1 the practice of the ,italian theatre and opera house superseded the old-,english tradition practically altogether1 the only noteworthy remnant being the social distinction that made the ground level or 8pit0 the place of the proletariat in the theatre4 ,the visits of the aristocracy to the theatre during the ,elizabethan period1 even when theatres were under court patronage1 were something in the nature of an escapade4 ,the sheltered galleries were reserved for the gentry1 and the unroofed ground space or pit was open to the crowd4 ,from the galleries1 moreover1 a better view of the protruding three-sided stage was to be had4 ,in the later1 wholly-roofed theatres1 the stage still protruded somewhat4 ,a great curved 8apron0 projected beyond the proscenium4 ,nor was the proscenium the mere picture-frame of to-day1 but a deep portal4 ,the balconies extended over the stage to the curtain1 so that spectators at the forward ends of the balconies were directly above the stage4 ,the balconies were given swelling curves1 bringing them further toward the center of the stage1 so that those who occupied these forward seats could not only see but could be seen4 ,the stage boxes of to-day are a relic of this type of apron-stage theatre1 and to-day1 with the picture frame stage1 serve no purpose but the stupid social one of self-display4 ,the apron stage preserved one great advantage of the platform stage3 that of keeping the stage grouping1 for at least a part of the audience1 plastic4 ,and the dimness of candle or oil footlights compelled the actors to keep to the front of the stage as much as possible4 ,the disappearance of the apron has been due wholly to the improved lighting of the modern theatre4 ,with its disappearance should go the auditorium features that belonged with it4 ,and even though there have been occasional reversions to the platform stage and apron in the productions of ,granville ,barker or ,jacques ,copeau1 there is no occasion for the revival of the horseshoe balcony or the stage box4 ,in later pages of this paper1 where ,i deal specifically with the stage1 ,i shall recommend provision being made for an apron1 either permanent or movable2 but the auditorium should not revert4 ,illustration3 ,auditorium of the ,little ,theatre1 ,new ,york4 ,this building1 constructed for ,winthrop ,ames in #aiab1 still stands as probably the best-designed small theatre in ,america4 ,this photograph shows the absence of boxes1 the carefully adjusted floor slope1 and the harmony of all the decorative elements1 although it hardly does justice to the intimate 8feel0 of the room4 ,recently large changes have been made in the building1 a balcony having been added and a new decorative scheme carried out4 ,harry ,creighton ,ingalls and ,f4 ,b4 ,hoffman ,jr41 ,associate ,architects4 ,illustration3 ,exterior of the ,little ,theatre1 ,new ,york4 ,harry ,creighton ,ingalls and ,f4 ,b4 ,hoffman ,jr41 ,architects4 7,from ,the ,new ,movement in the ,theatre1 by courtesy of ,mitchell ,kennerley47 ,with modern resources in lighting and construction engineering1 most of the 8practical0 considerations that determined the form of the old houses do not apply1 and the social considerations that called for the display of certain parts of the audience are not even tacitly acknowledged in the more democratic theatre of to-day1 except at the opera4 ,accordingly1 the procedure of the architect should be governed wholly by considerations of utility4 ,the first consideration is that of visibility4 ,a sight line drawn from any seat in the auditorium should give a clear view of the entire stage4 ,as a general rule1 therefore1 the seating space should be very little wider than the stage opening4 ,a sight line drawn from a seat to the right or the left of the proscenium arch past the corresponding side of the arch will cut off that corner of the stage4 ,the closer the seat is to the stage the greater is the part of the stage concealed4 7,see ,fig4 #d47 ,accordingly1 it is the custom in most modern theatres to narrow the auditorium as it approaches the stage1 so that the front of the seating is no greater in width than the width of the proscenium4 ,the rear of the auditorium is slightly wider4 7,see ,figs4 #b and #c47 ,as a concession to this plan1 the back of a stage setting is often narrower than the front4 ,that is1 in the case of an interior setting1 the side walls of the room represented1 instead of being set at right angles to the back wall1 as is the case in most rooms1 are set at an angle corresponding to the sight lines drawn from the extreme right and left ends of the last row of seats4 ,this is purely a convention1 required by the shape of the playhouse1 and pardonable on the ground that it is less irritating to look at a distorted room than to be unable to see its corners4 ,at all events1 this form of auditorium affords a higher visibility than did the old horseshoe shape4 ,the most noteworthy move toward the adoption of this type of seating was made by ,richard ,wagner in the construction of the ,opera ,house at ,bayreuth4 ,here the auditorium is in the shape of a fan or blunt-nosed wedge1 with the stage at the narrow end4 ,the most approved type of modern auditorium follows this form to some extent4 ,in such theatres as the ,knstler ,theater in ,munich 7,littmann71 or his ,prinz-,regenten ,opera ,house1 this plan is developed4 7,see ,fig4 #e47 ,the general plan of the best modern ,american theatres is rectangular with the side walls converging toward the stage1 beginning at a point about two-thirds of the way from the back4 ,the seats are in concentric rows following a curve drawn from a center approximately at the middle of the back wall of the stage4 ,the back wall of the auditorium follows the curve of the seats4 ,the ,little ,theatre in ,new ,york is built on this plan4 ,where balconies are included1 they have only a slight curve1 approximately the same as that of the orchestra seats4 ,illustration3 ,figure #d--,plan of the theatre at the ,carnegie ,institute of ,technology1 ,pittsburgh4 ,the sight-lines from the sides of the auditorium are badly distorted1 evidently to preserve the novel architectural effect of an elliptical room4 ,by drawing lines from the outmost seats in the first five rows1 it can be seen that spectators there will be shut off from any view of more than half the stage space4 ,the one outstanding feature here is the large amount of space given to scenery storage-room and green-room4 ,it is a common fault of school auditoriums that the seating is extended to the right and the left of the stage1 so that a considerable number of seats are valueless for seeing4 ,they preserve1 also1 for no known reason1 other than that it has been the theatre practice1 the apron1 projecting far beyond the line of the proscenium arch4 ,a second requirement for assuring direct sight lines from every seat to the stage is an inclined floor4 ,in many cases1 this appears an insuperable difficulty4 ,auditoriums which must be used as gymnasiums or dance halls require level floors4 ,often1 then1 the stage is elevated at a greater height from the floor than usual1 in the belief that this device will overcome the lack of an inclined floor4 ,on the contrary1 it merely makes the spectator tilt his head at an uncomfortable angle1 makes the players appear preternaturally tall1 and1 as they move toward the back of the stage1 conceals the lower part of their bodies4 ,the best height for a stage1 whether with inclined or flat auditorium1 is three feet1 nine inches4 ,a number of means may be used to provide an inclined floor when performances are to be given in a hall which must be used for many purposes4 ,in ,copley ,hall1 ,boston1 movable risers were installed1 each row of seats being lifted about six inches above the row in front4 ,this scheme has the advantage of being the least costly at the beginning1 but this consideration is outweighed by a host of disadvantages4 ,the trestles and platforms occupy a large storage space when not in use1 they are not a hundred percent safe1 and they emit a squeak with every footstep4 ,moreover1 they increase1 to some degree1 the fire hazard4 ,far more ingenious and needing no storage space is the device employed by ,laurence ,ewald in building the ,little ,theatre of the ,artists' ,guild1 ,st4 ,louis4 ,the theatre occupies a wing of the building used ordinarily as an art gallery1 and has a level floor4 ,when performances are to be given1 the theatre seats are bolted to the floor1 and the back half of the floor1 which is built in one piece1 hinged at the middle of the auditorium1 is lifted at the rear by a four-ton hydraulic jack until a pitch of about one inch per foot is obtained4 ,mr4 ,ewald has provided me with the following account of the construction of the floor3 8,the movable part of the floor consists of a floor-bearing structure of steel which extends from a hinge half-way between the back of the house and the stage1 and parallel with the front of the stage1 to the back of the house4 8,this structure is made up of four ,i-beams at right angles to the front of the stage1 and another ,i-beam attached to them at right angles at the back end of the house4 ,in the cellar1 immediately beneath this cross beam1 is placed an ordinary four-ton hydraulic jack1 which1 when operated1 revolves the back floor structure on the hinges at the middle of the house4 ,when the floor has been raised thirty inches1 four legs suspended from the four ,i-beams drop of their own weight into position and support the load1 and the jack is removed40 ,had it not been for the structure of the room under the auditorium1 ,mr4 ,ewald would have constructed the entire floor on a steel frame1 as described above1 and balanced it on an axle at the center1 where the hinges now are4 ,with suitable space under the front half of the floor1 it could have been tipped on its axle1 depressing the front and elevating the back1 giving an incline to the entire auditorium4 ,built thus1 the floor would require no jack and would be amply supported at three points2 or1 with the understructure built in the form of a truss1 the floor could be made to rock on the apex of the truss4 ,with this arrangement1 the front half of the floor would have support along its entire length4 ,illustration3 ,figure #e--;,first-floor plan of the ,munich ,art ,theatre4 ,note that the seats shown here form only a part of the main floor section1 as indicated in the plans on the page opposite4 ,max ,littmann1 ,architect4 ,illustration3 ,figure #f--;,above is a section showing the arrangement and structural features of the ,munich ,art ,theatre4 ,below is the second-floor plan4 ,it should be noted that the seats here are not a balcony but a continuation1 on the same floor slope1 of the seats shown in the plan on the page opposite4 ,another device1 proposed for a great municipal auditorium in a western city1 will not so readily commend itself for general use1 because of the great initial cost and because of the depth of cellarage required under the auditorium4 ,here the entire floor was to make a semi-revolution4 ,on one side of the revolving plane was a smooth flooring2 on the other1 seats were bolted4 ,when the building was to be used as a theatre1 the side with the seats was turned uppermost and held at the proper pitch4 ,when the hall was used for a ball or for a dog show1 or any function needing a level floor1 the smooth side was turned up and secured at a horizontal position4 ,when the floor can be built with a permanent slope1 either a simple incline or an incline in the form of a parabolic curve is used4 ,the latter form is preferable4 ,in many places the fire laws limit the pitch of the floor to one inch per foot4 ,with rows of seats spaced at the legal minimum of thirty-two inches this does not give enough clearance for the people in each row to see over the heads of those in the row in front4 ,for a decent degree of comfort1 a little seating capacity should be sacrificed1 and the rows spaced thirty-six inches apart4 ,if possible1 there should be a gradient of two inches to the foot1 giving a difference of elevation between rows of six inches4 ,if the law prevents the two-inch grade1 the same effect can be produced by 8staggering0 the seats4 ,that is1 the seats of alternate rows are set in direct alignment1 while the intermediate rows are set half a seat-width to the right or left4 ,thus spectators will look between the shoulders of those immediately in front of them1 and will be able to see over the heads of those in the second row in front1 who1 by such an arrangement1 will be sitting in a direct line with them4 ,there will thus be a six-inch difference between each two rows of seats4 ,beyond all these considerations of adequate sight lines1 however1 there is another requirement far more important1 far less well understood1 even in the light of any guiding or misguiding tradition1 by the average architect4 ,that is the requirement of good acoustics4 ,until quite recently1 this was left wholly to accident4 ,buildings were erected1 and the acoustic properties were tested afterwards4 ,if they chanced to be good1 the owners were to be congratulated4 ,if they were bad1 great sums were spent stringing piano wires1 or nets of raw silk1 or padding the walls4 ,and then1 quite as often as not1 the acoustics remained bad4 ,the late ,wallace ,sabine1 however1 demonstrated that it was possible to predict the acoustic properties of a proposed structure with scientific accuracy1 and to forestall defects by structural modification4 ,in ,the ,american ,architect1 ,dec4 #ca1 #aiac1 ,professor ,sabine described the experiments by which the causes of the acoustic difficulties in the ,new ,theatre 7now the ,century7 in ,new ,york were discovered and overcome1 and the methods which he employed in helping plan a number of the theatres designed by ,c4 ,h4 ,blackhall1 perhaps the most experienced theatre architect in the ,united ,states4 ,this paper and others by ,professor ,sabine should be read by any architect who contemplates building an auditorium of any sort4 ,the matter is too vital to be left to a hit-or-miss chance of success4 ,with an auditorium from every part of which the stage can be seen1 from every seat of which all the words of the actors can be heard1 there will be little fault to be found4 ,its comfort1 its ventilation1 its isolation from street noises1 its protection against fire--these are matters which need not be treated here1 and which have been written of elsewhere more adequately than ,i could write of them4 ,as for its decoration1 there are no rules to govern that4 ,if the designer has bad taste1 there is no help for it1 except to avoid him4 ,if he is an artist1 let him exercise his art on the interior of the auditorium and forget the sort of thing that has traditionally adorned theatres and wedding cakes4 ,but1 most of all1 let him talk with the artist1 if there should luckily be one1 who is going to work in the particular theatre1 and learn from him the sorts of play that are to be done1 and the sthetic of the group that is to present them1 if it has one1 and so find some clue to the atmosphere the auditorium should evoke4 ,from then on1 his task is one of high creation4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,stage ,,plan ,we are accustomed to regard as the stage of a theatre that part on which the actors appear1 immediately behind the footlights1 bounded1 right and left1 by the proscenium arch4 ,as a matter of fact1 this is a very small part of the stage4 ,from the construction of many school stages and many of the stages of the little and experimental theatres1 ,i am convinced that this misconception really exists4 ,it is true that many little theatre groups have been obliged to choose between a cramped stage and no stage at all4 ,on the whole1 the work they have done1 in the light of their limited equipment1 is nothing short of amazing4 ,one well-known little theatre director has declared to me that he values these inadequacies because of the ingenuity required to overcome them4 ,and ,i imagine that very frequently admiration for this sort of ingenuity passes current for the evaluation on its own merits of work done in these theatres4 ,no director could be hindered1 however1 by having excellent facilities at his command4 ,his imagination1 instead of visioning means of overcoming too low a roof to his stage or the lack of off-stage space1 would be free to interpret the matter of the play itself4 ,it would be a great pity to lose the work of many earnest groups who have been presenting plays in remodelled dwellings1 saloons1 or stables1 with what appear to be hopelessly inadequate stages4 ,but if a building is to be erected for the purpose of housing a theatre1 it will mean greater freedom for the artists 7in fact or intent7 who are to occupy it1 if they are given every facility that foresight can provide4 ,the stage1 properly speaking1 is about five times as large as the part of it that is visible to the audience when the curtain is raised4 ,the spaces to right and left of the proscenium arch should equal the center space within the proscenium4 ,then there is the space above the stage1 the space under the stage and the space required adjacent to the stage for dressing rooms1 shops1 etc4 ,dimensions for practically all of these spaces can best be derived from the dimensions of the proscenium arch4 ,the width of the opening generally is equal to half the width of the auditorium at its widest part4 ,it may be somewhat less or somewhat greater1 but it is well to establish a minimum of twenty-four feet for the width of the opening4 ,less than this will not give adequate space without serious crowding for the presentation of scenes with more than a very few people4 ,illustration3 ,figure #g--,plan of the ,thirty-,ninth ,street ,theatre1 ,new ,york4 ,an example of good planning for sight-lines1 illustrating an auditorium with center aisle4 ,in height the proscenium should be fittingly proportioned to the width1 with a minimum of about twelve feet in mind4 ,a stage too low and too narrow will throw the human figure out of proportion to his surroundings on the stage4 ,let us assume that we have a stage with a proscenium opening twenty-four feet wide and not less than twelve feet high4 ,the aggregate off-stage space right and left should then equal about twenty-four feet1 making the total width of the stage-house forty-eight feet4 ,the depth of the stage should be not less than twenty-four feet4 ,the height of the stage1 from floor to 8rigging loft0 should be not less than thirty-six feet4 ,the cellar under the stage should be not less than ten or twelve feet deep4 ,this is merely a rough guide1 using the measurements of the proscenium as index4 ,claude ,b4 ,hagen1 construction engineer for the ,century ,theatre in ,new ,york1 suggests a 8rule of seven0 for the derivation of these dimensions1 making all of them multiples of seven4 ,the following table gives his measurements for stages of various sizes3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,proscenium width #bh ft4 #ce ft4 #db ft4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,proscenium height ,seven feet less than width ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,height of loft #ef ft4 #fc ft4 #gj ft4 to #hd ft4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,height of fly-gallery floor #bh ft4 #ce ft4 7#g ft4 back of proscenium7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,width of stage #db ft4 #ef ft4 #gj ft4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,depth of stage #ba ft4 #bh ft4 #ce ft4 to #db ft4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,cellar #ad ft4 #ba ft4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,distance between border lights ,seven feet from center to center ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,these measurements1 while customary1 are hardly ideal1 and are generalizations from the more or less arbitrary dimensions imposed by high land values4 ,it goes without saying that however small a theatre is1 its stage should be as large as the plot on which the building stands will allow4 ,the off-stage space at the sides is particularly important4 ,without it1 entrances to the scene are cramped1 there is no place to pack furniture and scenery for other acts than the one in progress on the stage1 and there is no place for the actors to await their entrances4 ,such space is needed1 often1 for the suggestion of other rooms than the one before the audience1 and an important part of the lighting of the scene is done from the sides4 ,next in importance is the space above the stage1 the 8flies10 in the technical vocabulary of the theatre4 ,in this space1 above the line of vision of the spectator1 much scenery is hung until needed1 lighting units are suspended1 and with good overhead space1 effects of height can be produced and ampler places revealed than that in which the audience sits4 ,the cellar under the stage is of especial importance where the off-stage spaces at the sides are cramped4 ,it is used for the storage of scenery and furniture1 for stage machinery and for entrances from a lower floor 7with the aid of traps71 and it often provides passage from one side of the stage to the other during the progress of a scene that occupies the entire depth of the stage4 ,in some theatres1 a part of the stage floor may be lowered by an elevator1 and properties or furniture disposed of during the changes of scene1 thus preventing crowding of the stage-house itself4 ,illustration3 ,figure #h--,plan of the ,beechwood ,theatre and ,scarborough ,school4 ,the entire space under the stage is given up to a workshop1 and over the vestibule and lobby is a library4 ,additional dressing-rooms and a property-room are over the stage-level dressing-rooms shown here4 ,the building is practically a complete theatre with two school-room wings4 ,welles ,bosworth1 ,architect4 ,hardwood should never be used for the stage floor4 ,the architect of the excellent ,arts and ,crafts ,theatre in ,detroit1 in his desire to use only the best of building materials1 specified a stage floor of maple4 ,as a consequence1 it is almost impossible to support scenery by the use of stage braces1 screwed to the floor with a stage screw or 8peg40 ,soft wood into which the pegs bite easily1 is the only sort to use4 ,it is particularly important in small theatres that the stage walls be as unbroken by entrances as possible4 ,at least two there must be3 a large high door1 opening to an alley or street1 by which scenery may be brought in and taken out1 and a small one1 a stage entrance for the people of the theatre4 ,it is well so to contrive the building that this one door gives access to the stage from the dressing-room corridors1 shops1 cellar1 stairs1 street and front of the house4 ,with many doors opening on the stage1 it is difficult to find space for the stacking of scenery without blocking them4 ,it is often desirable to have one dressing room very near the stage or opening immediately upon it1 not for the use of the star1 but for the player who may happen to have the quickest change of costume4 ,stages intended for the housing of large productions and traveling companies should include also a fly gallery1 built out from one of the side walls of the stage at a height of not less than twenty feet from the floor4 ,the ropes by which drop curtains1 ceilings1 and 8frame-pieces0 of scenery are raised and lowered are operated from this floor and are tied off to pins fastened in the gallery railing1 technically known as the pin-rail4 ,in smaller stages1 of no great height1 it will save space1 construction costs and operating expense to have the pin-rail at the floor level4 ,before discussing the equipment of the stage in detail1 ,i wish to digress for a moment and consider the provisions to be made for the work that is done out of sight of the audience1--by the carpenters and property men1 the seamstresses1 the electricians1 and the actors before they are ready to appear before the footlights4 ,illustration3 ,auditorium of the ,munich ,art ,theatre4 ,the plates on this and the following three pages1 and the plans on pages #cj and #ca illustrate the interior and exterior appearance1 as well as the structural features1 of a modern ,european theatre which comes close to being a model for architects everywhere4 ,above is a view of the auditorium as seen from a point near the boxes at the back4 ,the decoration in paneled wood 7for acoustic reasons71 the absence of proscenium boxes1 the uniform slope of the auditorium1 and the simple decorative curtain1 are characteristic of the best contemporary ,european practice4 7,the photographs are reproduced by courtesy of the architect1 ,prof4 ,max ,littmann47 ,illustration3 ,exterior of the ,munich ,art ,theatre4 ,illustration3 ,a cross-section model of the ,munich ,art ,theatre1 showing clearly the arrangement of boxes1 auditorium1 exits1 stage1 hidden orchestra pit1 double proscenium1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,a part of the auditorium of the ,munich ,art ,theatre as seen from the stage4 ,this is interesting chiefly as illustrating the arrangement of the boxes at the back1 and the unbroken tiers of seats with side exits4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,provision ,,for ,,back-,,stage ,,workers ,i have noted in an earlier chapter that the architecture of the theatre is always governed by the function of the drama performed in it4 ,the use to which the stage is put determines always the shape and style of the auditorium4 ,there is no doubt that some great change is soon to overtake the theatre2 the drama will assume a new form1 demanding a new mode of presentation1 and so a new theatre4 ,presently ,i shall discuss what forms this new theatre may assume1 but for the moment it is enough to observe that it will be marked by a closer bond1 one way or another1 between the audience and the players1 between the audience and the play4 ,for a long while1 the theatre has shrouded itself in a sort of pseudo-mystery4 8,back-stage0 has had the lure for the layman of a hat from which rabbits are drawn by a conjurer4 ,of course1 under inspection1 such a hat is found to be as empty as any other1 bearing even1 in most cases1 the mark of a respectable maker4 ,and the inspection deepens the mystery4 ,the stage has shunned this sort of scrutiny1 because our drama of to-day and our theatre live mostly by 8effects04 ,and if the effect is stripped of wonder1 the theatre is almost as good as dead4 ,what a sign of weakness this is6 ,if the snowstorm is seen to be bits of paper shaken out of a bag1 and if it is found that the imitation wind is produced by the scraping of paddles on canvas1 the public will lose interest in the theatre4 ,and the people of the stage6 ,how hungrily necks are craned for a glimpse of the popular actor or of the beautiful actress1 should one pass in a hotel or on the street4 ,they inhabit that mysterious1 unexplored back-stage4 ,and a clever manager will encourage this sort of curiosity by advising his people not to show themselves in the street1 except unavoidably4 ,the matter of seeing the actors close may be dismissed with a quip1--they might be found respectable upon acquaintance1 or1 more likely1 dull4 ,but the truth about the back of the theatre is the truth about the conjurer's hat1--there's nothing there to see1 except the pitiful little bag of tricks1 the snowstorm and the wind4 ,there is not even the maker's label4 ,but this emptiness is not all1 for as with the hat1 it's quite engrossing while the rabbits are there4 ,the worst of it is that it is so poor1 so mean often1 so dirty1 so cramped and littered1 to the last1 dark cranny1 that we wonder how the actor-rabbits endure it all and keep their fur so white4 ,a rudimentary shame on the part of the managers1 and a very human pride on the part of the actors1 have helped to keep these matters from the theatregoer4 ,out front1 there is warmth1 light1 comfort1 elegance4 ,the spectator is lulled into forgetfulness of work1 and the play casts its spell over him4 ,but a glimpse of the wretched barrenness of the dressing-room or shop would make short work of his peace of mind1 just as a knowledge of the tricks sheers them of illusion4 ,these things are becoming known1 because the bond between the spectator and the theatre-worker is already being formed4 ,when it is full grown1 such facts will not be discovered2 they will no longer exist4 ,for two movements that are bound to affect the theatre of the future are bringing the lay public clambering over the footlights and crowding in at the stage door4 ,one1 the ,little ,theatre ,movement1 is almost altogether a lay insurgency4 ,in scores of communities1 it has made its way2 tradesmen1 students1 clerks1 mechanics1 people of leisure and working people with a little leisure1 have come together and in a short time have plumbed the silly little mysteries of back-stage1 and have brought into their theatres a little bit of the real ,mystery of life and art that belongs there4 ,and the more extensive1 democratic ,community ,drama movement is making play-actors and theatre-workers of thousands who have heretofore been auditors4 ,there will always be a professional group of artists of the theatre1 but in their theatres there will be a close understanding and perhaps a physical connection between the audience and the stage2 in the great1 popular theatre it is conceivable that there will be very little distinction between the auditorium and the stage4 ,it may be that they will be interchangeable or be one and the same4 ,then1 it is certain that the conditions of comfort and convenience that apply to the one shall apply fully to the other1 that the actor shall be as well cared for in the theatre as the public4 ,let those who are building to-day look to this3 ,visit the dressing-rooms1 see the workplaces of the other workers of the theatre1--the carpenter1 electrician1 property-man1 and wardrobe workers4 ,consider these workplaces1 not only in comparison with the front of the house1 but as fit places for human beings to spend as much as an hour a day4 ,consider them as places where work that should have in it joy and beauty may develop4 ,the community theatres that are going to be built within the next few years are bound to be a blessing to those who have access to them4 ,but1 for the most part1 their projectors and builders are laymen1 knowing little of the vast work of preparation that must be done before a play is ready for an audience4 ,where the commercial theatre builder does not care how the actor and the theatre mechanic fare1 the lay builder is a little likely to overlook their existence4 ,i have seen dozens of clubs and schools1 with fairly adequate stages and auditoriums1 but with no more than two small dressing-rooms1 one for men and one for women4 ,i have seen several with no more than one1 originally intended for a closet but set aside as a dressing-room when it was discovered that something of the sort is indispensable4 ,aside from the fact that the players and the workmen are human beings1 quite often of the same tastes and breeding as those who occupy the front of the theatre1 they have a long and exacting work to perform1 most of which can be done only in the theatre4 ,and their domain is the part of the theatre behind the proscenium line4 ,the actors must rehearse for several weeks before the play can be acted4 ,they must be in the theatre some time before the curtain rises on the play and they leave it some time after the play has ended and the audience has gone home4 ,for they must dress and 8make-up01 and should be allowed a little while to shake off ,john ,smith and enter into ,hamlet4 ,there is1 moreover1 scenery to be built and painted1 furniture and properties to be made1 lights to be arranged1 effects to be devised1 costumes to be cut1 fitted and sewed4 ,how should these activities and these workers be taken care of8 ,first1 the actors4 ,for their rehearsals1 first of all1 the stage should be used4 ,if the stage is otherwise occupied1 with scenery1 or with the rehearsals of another production1 as it often is in busy theatres1 there should be another place in the same building where rehearsals can be held1 a room with as large a floor as that of the stage proper4 ,but1 as often as possible1 the stage should be used for rehearsals4 ,then1 for their preparation to appear in a performance1 their dressing and make-up4 ,dressing-rooms must be provided1 sufficient in number to accommodate the cast of the average play without crowding more than two people to a room4 ,under ideal conditions1 each player will have a separate room1 so that he can prepare for his performance1 mentally as well as physically1 without disturbance4 ,the rooms should be not less than eight by ten feet1 should each have a window1 and should be heated in winter4 ,against one wall there should be a long shelf or table1 about eighteen inches wide4 ,above it1 should be a good mirror1 with lights so placed that the face of an actor seated at the shelf and looking into the mirror will be well illuminated4 ,under the shelf1 there should be a drawer in which make-up materials may be kept4 ,each dressing room should be provided with a washstand and with hot and cold water4 ,there should be a high clothes-closet or wardrobe in which costumes may be hung4 ,where this is impractical1 there should be sufficient hooks to accommodate a number of costumes1 and means of covering them with a cloth to protect them from dust4 ,above the clothes hooks1 or at the top of the closet1 should be a shelf for hats1 shoes1 etc4 ,it is well to provide from eight to twelve dressing-rooms1 each large enough to accommodate two persons4 ,in addition1 there should be two large rooms1 each with space for about a dozen persons1 these to be used for chorus1 supernumeraries1 or players of small parts4 ,on each dressing-room floor there should be proper toilet accommodations for each sex4 ,also1 the ideally equipped building will have shower baths4 ,in these days of ,dunsany1 ,hindus and ,arabs and ,ethiopians may be met in many a town en route from the little theatre to their homes1 there to wash themselves white4 ,it has been noted that1 to preserve the unbroken wall space of the stage as far as possible1 dressing-rooms should not open directly upon the stage floor4 ,in many theatres1 they are ranged off galleries above the stage4 ,on the whole1 this is inadvisable4 ,a dressing-room door1 inopportunely opened1 will let a beam of light fall upon the stage1 often spoiling the lighting of a scene4 ,the slamming of doors1 sound of voices1 and other noises are almost unavoidable4 ,and the argument usually advanced for so arranging dressing-rooms--that the actors can hear what is going on on the stage and thus be in time for their entrances1 is fallacious4 ,this very fact breeds in them a confidence that makes them careless1 and they are more often late than if they were required to wait for their cues on the stage4 ,one more thing should be provided for the actor1 not indispensable1 but making for fellowship and comfort--the feature known in ,german theatres as the ,konverzations-,zimmer and in older ,english and ,american theatres as the ,green ,room4 ,this should be a comfortable lounge1 furnished more as a room in a home or club1 than in a theatre1 and stocked with books and periodicals relating to the theatre4 ,with the actor carefully considered in the matter of cleanliness and cheerfulness backstage1 a new pleasure will come into his work4 ,likewise1 with the other workers of the theatre4 ,closest to the actor1 perhaps1 the wardrobe people4 ,in the ideal theatre two rooms should be set aside for the wardrobe1 one for the making of clothes and another for their storage4 ,the sewing room1 needless to say1 should be well lighted1 should have a space partitioned off as a fitting room1 should be provided with proper closets in which to hang dresses in the process of making1 and should be large enough to allow for a number of seamstresses and a large cutting table4 ,there should be a built-in closet equipped with shelves and drawers in which to store cloths1 trimmings1 findings1 etc41 for the making of costumes4 ,for the costume storage room1 a loft space that might otherwise go to waste can often be utilized4 ,this room should have long closets1 fitted with bars on which dresses can be hung1 and should have drawers in which other items of dress can be packed--hats1 shoes1 wigs1 stockings1 tights1 etc4 ,these drawers should be numerous enough to allow for the sorting out of costumes by colors or periods1 and should be properly labelled4 ,each of the mechanical departments should likewise have its two rooms1 one a shop and the other for storage4 ,the carpenter1 if the scenery is built in the theatre1 often can use the space under the stage for building4 ,if he cannot build his scenery there1 either another place should be set aside or the scenery should be built outside the building4 ,he should not use the stage4 ,it must be kept free for rehearsals4 ,he should have1 however1 a room in which to keep his tools1 draw his plans1 and file his ground and framing plans1 bills1 time-sheets1 etc4 ,the matter of storage space for scenery is to be determined wholly by the amount of space at the builder's disposal and the use to which the theatre is to be put4 ,if many productions are to be made1 a space should be provided for a scene-dock1 adjacent to the stage but separate from it1 unless the building is small1 in which case a storehouse elsewhere may be used4 ,scenery should not be allowed to accumulate on the stage4 ,the theatre of the ,carnegie ,institute of ,technology at ,pittsburgh has an excellent dock1 shown on the ground plan1 ,figure #d4 ,the property department needs a shop for the making of furniture1 papier mch work1 etc41 and a storage room in which furniture and other stage furnishings can be stored4 ,often one large room can be made to do for both4 ,the electrical department likewise must not be overlooked4 ,there must be closets for the keeping of incandescent bulbs1 lamp dyes1 plugs1 connectors1 cable1 wire1 and other electrical hardware1 gelatines1 color frames1 etc4 ,there must be provision in the shop for the dyeing of lamps1 testing1 repairing1 etc4 ,the property and electrical departments1 like the carpenter's1 must also be fitted in a sense as offices1 for the keeping of electric and property plots1 full records relating to past and coming productions1 bills1 orders1 receipts1 time sheets1 and like data4 ,it may be objected at this point that these various demands presuppose a large-sized plant with elaborate equipment4 ,as a matter of fact1 they apply quite as much to the tiniest of little theatres--even more so1 for in such1 proper ordering of space and isolation of separate activities is equivalent1 in getting efficiency1 to more ample space less carefully sub-divided4 ,for1 inevitably1 these various kinds of work must be done in the theatre1 and the people who do them must find space here or there for their work1 and the things they make must be kept somewhere4 ,unless each job and each product is assigned its proper corner1 the building is soon a clutter of stuff1 accumulating dust1 getting jostled about and broken4 ,then we are back at the old1 dark1 dirty theatre we are trying so hard to improve upon4 ,the provisions discussed above1 though they are not on the stage1 are very much a part of it1 and go far toward making it an instrument of precision4 ,in community buildings and schools1 the various workshops1 rehearsal room1 etc41 can often be combined with rooms serving other purposes4 ,in any case some provision for them is quite as important as the open stage itself4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,equipment ,,of ,,the ,,stage#d #d ,throughout this chapter ,i am at a disadvantage in that ,i do not thoroughly believe in the standards which ,i here set up4 ,it is true that ,i am recommending higher standards than usually prevail in the sort of building which is here considered1 or higher even than those that prevail in the well-equipped professional theatre4 ,it is true1 also1 that these recommendations as viewed in the light of the known and tried methods of play production1 are in the nature of reform and improvement4 ,as such1 ,i believe in them4 ,as viewed in the light of the theatre of the future1 ,i do not so thoroughly believe in them4 ,but only a revolution in theatre methods can refresh our conceptions of what sort of place this theatre of the future is to be4 ,this matter we shall leave for discussion in a final chapter4 ,i should be ill-advised in advising ambitious groups interested in building adequate little playhouses to set aside finally the known and tried methods of play production and the stage they involve for methods adapted to a type of drama that may not yet exist1 for methods that must be evolved only by sensitive and versed artists of the theatre4 ,it is true that many signal new ideas come into any art through workers who do not know or trouble about tradition1 young hands who blunder upon valuable methods through attacking their medium experimentally4 ,for instance1 ,antoine1 a gas-fitter by trade1 who began his theatrical career as an amateur1 by his daring innovations in the ,thtre ,libre1 renewed the life-force of the ,french theatre4 ,but1 in the main1 ,i believe that the most important revolutionary changes in the stage are wrought by men who are thoroughly versed in the old practice1 as was ,gordon ,craig4 ,hence1 if the little theatres and community playhouses continue for the coming generation with a theatre modelled after the best practice of this our day1 they may in good season contribute mightily to that theatre of the future to which ,i referred4 ,hence1 for the present it is best that ,i continue in the rle of reporter1 rather than that of prophet4 ,the outstanding point about the stage1 apart from the life the actors bring to it1 is that it is a machine4 ,it is a mechanical device used to aid in the setting forth of a play1 much as a potter's wheel aids the maker of vases1 or a mortise and tenon machine helps the cabinet-maker4 ,perhaps the cabinet-maker is no less a hand-craftsman because he uses the mechanical device to shorten his labor1 and it is probable that the vase has a truer form for being turned on a wheel4 ,but cabinets have been made wholly by hand and vases turned without the potter's wheel4 ,there are people who treasure works made wholly by hand above the machine-aided work1 however artistic4 ,the theatre once did without the adventitious aids it now employs4 ,once it was merely a platform set in the sunlight1 revealed to the sight of an assembled audience4 ,many believe that the theatre of the future will be something of that sort1 welcoming1 however1 in addition to or instead of the sun1 the more constantly available1 controllable and subtly colorable electric light4 ,but the ,greeks had their machines for the revelation of gods1 and there is something about periaktoi1 or revolving pieces of scenery4 ,it is with the machines that the theatre has concerned itself most of all4 ,every developed stage has employed an amount of mechanism for the producing of those 8effects0 which ,i mentioned in the preceding chapter2 and it may be that the theatre always will1--one wing of the theatre1 the ,right1 doubtless4 ,of late years1 with the advent of the naturalistic or realistic type of drama1 the stage has sought more and more illusion1 not only in its imitations of the movements and acts of men and women but in its representation of their surroundings4 ,it has tried to become a more perfect machine1--more nearly an instrument of precision4 ,it may be significant to observe that1 although masterpieces of drama gave impetus to the development of the illusion stage1--outstandingly the plays of ,ibsen1--the illusion stage has brought forth no masterpieces4 ,in this country1 it may be held responsible for the buzz-saw1 train-wreck1 or horse-race type of melodrama1 a type now happily removed from the theatre by the moving picture with its still higher degree of visual veracity4 ,in ,germany1 the stage as machine has been developed to an extraordinary degree1 and1 for the most part1 never debauched by exhibitions of effects for their own sake1 as in our sensational melodrama of half a generation ago4 ,i shall discuss a number of these ,german inventions in a later chapter1 but for the present propose to consider the stage as a machine adapted to average demands4 ,there are two primary demands--that the machine shall be able to do the work demanded of it efficiently and with a minimum danger of breakdown1 and that the machine be subject to control4 ,the work of the stage-machine is1 of course1 the handling of scenery1 the illusion-stuff of the present-day stage4 ,this scenery is of two types3 pieces that are suspended from ropes 7hanging pieces71 and pieces that stand on the floor 7set pieces74 ,for exterior scenes1 the first type includes drops1 8borders0 representing foliage1 leg-drops representing trees1 pillars1 arches1 etc41 or sections of wall1 house-front1 or other flat architectural units1 large enough to warrant hanging overhead when out of use1 so as to save floor space2 and--for interior scenes--ceilings and back walls4 ,the second type includes1 for exterior scenes1 any low-standing units1 such as walls1 hedges1 fences1 tree trunks1 8wings0 or set-houses2 and for interior scenes1 the side-walls of the room and very often part or the whole of the back wall4 ,for the manipulation of hanging scenery1 the most important piece of stage machinery is the grid-iron4 ,this is a slatted platform of steel or iron joists1 built a few feet below the roof of the stage1 just enough below to allow head-room for a man standing on it4 ,along the center of the grid-iron1 on a line at a right angle to the foot-lights1 is set a row of blocks and sheaves of a special type1 manufactured for stage use4 ,equidistant right and left of this center row by half the width of the stage proper 7the part of the stage within the proscenium7 are other rows4 ,over these sheaves1 ropes are passed4 ,thus1 hanging over the stage parallel to the back wall1 in sets of three1 are lines to which scenery may be attached4 ,the other ends of the lines in each set are brought together at one side or the other of the stage1 so that the three ropes of each set may be operated as one4 ,on the side to which the lines are led is located the pin-rail1 either on a fly-gallery or at the floor level4 ,of each set of three1 the line hanging nearest the side from which the lines are operated--the pin-rail side--is known as the short line1 the line most remote from it is known as the long line1 and the other as the center line4 ,on very large stages1 with an opening of forty feet or more1 four lines to each set are advisable1 not only to bear the greater weight of the larger pieces of scenery required1 but also to secure a better trim1 or level hang of the scenery4 ,these lines1 needless to say1 should be of the best hemp rope1 of a weight adjusted to the size of the stage4 ,half-inch line is the lightest it is wise to use4 ,this rope should be subjected to periodical inspection1 to forestall breaking and the falling of scenery1 with consequent damage to the scenery1 the play1 or the actors4 ,on some grid-irons1 the blocks are screwed to the under side of the grid4 ,this is unsafe1 as they have been known to tear loose4 ,they should ride the joists1 the lines dropping between each two4 ,at least twenty-five sets of lines should be provided4 ,when a set of lines is not weighted with scenery1 sandbags are tied to the loose ends1 so that they may be lowered to the floor when needed4 ,frequently a piece of scenery will be found too heavy for one or two men to raise from the floor4 ,in such cases1 counterweights in the form of large sand-bags are hung on the part of the lines between the grid-iron and the pin-rail4 ,the primary purpose of hanging scenery in this fashion is to be able to haul it out of sight in the upper part of the stage when it is not in use4 ,hence large overhead space is necessary4 ,this system also makes possible the use of unstiffened scenic units1 such as drop curtains and borders1 which1 literally1 have no legs to stand on4 ,in large stages the lines are controlled from a pin-rail on a gallery1 built out from one of the side walls of the stage4 ,in smaller stages the pin-rail may be built against one of the side walls on the floor level4 ,this has various advantages--ease of access the foremost1 and the saving of a stage-hand1 who would otherwise have to remain on the fly-gallery1 besides4 ,the advantages to be claimed for the fly-gallery are that its use leaves the stage floor clear of ropes1 leaves the side wall clear for the stacking of scenery1 and is a valuable vantage point from which to cast light upon the stage4 ,the stage of the ,century ,theatre is equipped with a counterweight system that practically eliminates hand-power in the raising and lowering of hanging scenery4 ,to each set of lines is attached a metal case1 or container1 which rides up the stage wall between tracks4 ,at the top of the stage1 above each container1 there is a magazine filled with buckshot4 ,by an ingenious mechanism1 when a piece of scenery hanging in the loft is to be lowered to the floor level1 a quantity of the shot in the container is allowed to flow out1 so that the scenery outweighs the counterweight and descends4 ,its descent can be stopped at any point by brakes on the lines4 ,when it is to be raised1 shot from the magazine above is allowed to flow into the container until the counterweight outweighs the scenery1 and the scenery ascends4 ,the shot that flows to the bottom of the chute is conveyed by an endless chain-and-bucket conveyer to the magazines at the top4 ,such a system is only warranted on stages of opera-house proportions4 ,there are also systems for controlling the lines by motors2 but on the stage of average size1 man-power is the safest and most dependable4 ,scenery that stands on the floor requires little by way of machinery4 ,some of it is self-supporting1 as are the 8wings10--folding1 screen-like pieces used to mask the sides of the stage4 ,all set scenery is 8framed10 so that it stands rigid enough when braced from the back4 ,part of the equipment of every stage is a supply of stage-braces for the support of such scenery4 ,these are made of hardwood1 can be extended to any desired length1 have a prong at the top which hooks into a screw-eye fastened to the scenery1 and a foot-iron at the bottom which can he fastened to the stage floor by means of a stage screw or 8peg40 ,the use of these pegs demands a soft-wood stage floor into which they will bite easily4 ,good stage braces can be obtained from any reliable dealer in stage equipment4 ,the main curtain of the theatre1 if it raises and lowers1 is often operated from the fly-gallery4 ,it is better1 however1 to have it operated from the stage level1 on the same side of the stage as the fly-gallery or the pin-rail4 ,the draw type of curtain is always handled from the stage floor4 8,travelers0 for these curtains can be more cheaply bought than made1 and are kept in stock by any stage-rigging firm4 ,it is well to have the stage flooring built in lateral sections resting on joists that run the width of the stage4 ,when traps are needed in the floor1 they can then be cut without difficulty at any point4 ,the lighting equipment of the stage1 by far the most important of its mechanical attributes1 ,i shall describe later1 but ,i shall treat here of one device1 which is structural4 ,it is one of the ,german inventions for the perfection of illusion to which ,i have referred1 and the only one ,i recommend to little theatres1 far and wide4 ,i recommend it because of the added beauty it can bring into the playhouse1 rather than because of its merit as a part of the perfect machine4 ,this is the ,kuppel-horizont1 or sky-dome4 ,the sky-dome approximates in shape a quarter-sphere1 much like the shells commonly placed behind out-door band stands4 ,the base line begins far enough toward the front of the stage and behind the proscenium to be masked from the opposite side of the auditorium1 and sweeps around the back of the stage4 ,the back and sides of the dome rise vertically for some distance and then arch at the top toward the front of the stage4 ,the higher the dome is1 the less the canopy need overhang the front of the stage2 and the less it overhangs1 the more grid-iron space is available for hanging scenery4 ,but it will be seen at once that the more dome there is to take the place of the usual hanging stuff1 the fewer of the usual tawdry borders are needed4 ,the late ,wallace ,sabine1 in a series of experiments conducted with a model built at ,harvard ,university by ,theodore ,c4 ,browne and the present writer1 concluded that the quarter-sphere was disadvantageous to the acoustics of the stage and was not required in order to obtain the best results in lighting4 ,he recommended a form flatter at the back and with a sharper curvature at the sides and top4 ,three modifications of this device have been installed in little theatres in ,america--one at the ,neighborhood ,playhouse in ,new ,york1 one at the ,beechwood ,theatre in ,scarborough1 and one at the ,arts and ,crafts ,theatre in ,detroit4 ,the ,neighborhood ,playhouse 8dome0 is really little more than a cyclorama built in plaster4 ,it has no canopy overhead1 and the ends extend toward the front of the stage only a little distance4 ,the one at the ,beechwood ,theatre is similarly simplified4 ,but even this plaster cyclorama is a great improvement over the canvas cyclorama in its stability1 freedom from wrinkles1 and better diffusion of light4 ,at the ,arts and ,crafts ,theatre1 the ends of the dome do not curve toward the front of the stage at all1 but the top arches1 forming a canopy over the back part of the stage4 ,the only true dome in this country was installed by ,samuel ,j4 ,hume at the ,madison ,theatre in ,detroit1 now used as a moving-picture playhouse4 ,with such a dome1 a great deal of the litter of painted scenery can be done away with4 ,a background of light takes the place of the usual painted back-drop1 and much of the scenery usually set at the sides or hung overhead1 merely to keep the eye from penetrating to the back-regions of the stage1 is no longer needed4 ,added to the stage at the time of construction1 the dome costs little more than the price of its materials4 ,the initial cost will be saved many times over in the decreased cost of scenery4 ,the very least that should be done1 if the budget does not allow for the construction of an entire dome1 is to plaster the back wall of the stage4 ,this1 more than counterweights1 traps1 revolving stages1 and all the other paraphernalia of advanced construction1 will extend the possibilities of the stage machine1 not only for the uses of illusion but for the service of the imagination4 ,a familiar feature of most theatres in which productions are made is the paint-bridge and paint-frame at the back of the stage4 ,here the scenery to be painted1 mounted on the frame1 is raised and lowered before the bridge4 ,to my mind1 this is a waste of space and money4 ,primarily it is a waste of space at the back of the stage4 ,if the dome is used it is quite out of the question4 ,but1 strongest argument of all1 it is not needed4 ,if the scenery must be painted in the theatre1 it can be painted lying flat on the floor4 ,the saving on this item may well be enough to cover the cost of the sky-dome4 ,illustration3 ,auditorium of the ,arts and ,crafts ,theatre1 ,detroit4 ,this theatre is of particular interest in connection with the movement to build community houses as war memorials4 ,it shows how a playhouse may be fitted informally and beautifully into a building not designed primarily for dramatic purposes4 ,illustration3 ,auditorium of the theatre at the ,carnegie ,institute of ,technology1 ,pittsburgh4 ,this is an admirable example of dignified decoration1 uniform floor slope1 and generously spaced seats2 but the auditorium is too wide to secure adequate sight-lines from all seats4 ,see plan on page #bh4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,stage ,,lighting ,the most vital part of the stage machine is yet to be touched upon1 the only part in which any mystery is involved4 ,after all1 most of our machinery of the theatre is of the simplest type1--ropes and pulleys and simple bracing4 ,in a double sense1 the electrical equipment is approached with more awe4 ,while most people know a little about the simpler laws of mechanics1 electricity1 guarded by an element of danger1 is a matter too recondite to be brought into the fold of everyday information out of mere curiosity1 or to be reasoned out as the childish working of a pulley can be figured out by common sense2 it has to be studied and learned4 ,and besides being outside common matter-of-fact1 light is mystery itself1 unplumbed nature1 a fraction of the inscrutable life of the world led by strings to the stage4 ,if the little playhouse is without any mechanical convenience1 if its stage is cramped and mean1 it can still achieve visual beauty through light4 ,this force brings into the playhouse the most vibrant1 subtle and affecting gift of the physical world1 barring only the human presence4 ,ultimately it will be seen that a forthright attempt to imitate nature on the stage can result only in failure2 the painted or modeled semblances of rocks1 trees1 grass or distant prospects are in the long run seen to be what they are not what they pretend to be4 ,similarly1 close as the light of the stage can be brought to resemble the light of the outer world1 it will still be short of complete fidelity to its original4 ,but it is1 in itself1 a force of beauty1 an authentic transplanting of the revealer of nature's divers beauties1 so that1 if it fails to achieve what the manipulator tries to make it do1 it may achieve something possibly more beautiful4 ,more and more can this be true in the theatre1 as the artist comes to regard light as a pure medium1 as he learns more of its profound effect on human emotion1 even on the working of the body's organs1 and as he becomes familiar with the thousand subtle ways in which the earth and its atmosphere modify the light sent by the sun1 reflecting and refracting it1 stealing certain colors from its whiteness and leaving others1 resolving it prismatically by mists and clouds and the swirls of atmosphere4 ,these are a few of the ways in which nature plays the artist with light4 ,they point to unlimited lessons in technique that the theatre artist in light has yet to learn4 ,the little theatre1 or any theatre for that matter1 cannot go wrong by beginning at the beginning4 ,let it revalue the customary machinery for stage lighting1 and the results achieved by its use4 ,later ,i shall describe this customary equipment1 for it has its great uses1 and much of the criticism that ,i shall apply to it applies perhaps with greater justice to the manner in which it is used4 ,but1 implicit in the system itself1 is a criticism of its purpose to reproduce the effects of nature under conditions that in nowise resemble those of nature1 or its laying over a convention 7artistic at its best1 futilely anachronistic at its worst7 not another convention1 but a lantern of ,diogenes1 showing up shams4 ,go back to the beginning4 ,one candle rightly used1 as in ,robert ,edmond ,jones' lighting of the den scene in ,redemption1 is both drama and beauty4 ,imagine ,wallace ,stevens' ,carlos ,among the ,candles shown upon the stage by the candle light of the strange room-world which is the play's universe4 ,here is a complete wedding of drama and the mobile beauty of light itself1 a light we can readily achieve4 ,from these candles to the sun of ,shakespeare's comedies1 the storms of his ,lear or the mists and fogs of ,the ,tempest is a far cry4 ,he begged the question1 in extraordinary verse1 and acted the words and emotions of his plays in the plain light of day1 which is bound to be beautiful1 even when it is not illusive of the moon4 ,right here lies the crux of the problem of installing lights in the little theatre4 ,a dual approach is required1 as in any art3 the creator's vision of what he wishes to do1 and the technician's knowledge of how to go about it4 ,the greater responsibility rests on the first function1 for we must settle whether we are to try to reproduce nature or attain a correlative beauty4 ,to me the beauty of a stage sunset has rarely been the beauty of a real sunset2 it has been the beauty of rosy light4 ,if anything1 the unreality of the sunset has stood in the way of my appreciation of the reality of red4 ,the beauty of red was accidental1 and not the artist's intention4 ,it could not have been avoided1 for it is germane to sunset1 but the fact remains that the artist achieved something other than he set out to achieve4 ,it would have been better to go in for red and attain it than to go in for sunset and attain red4 ,if blue light intimates the moon1 well and good4 ,it is beautiful itself1 and does not awaken marvel at the cleverness with which we have contrived an effect4 ,whereas a nicely operated moonrise1 or a jiggling procession of stereoptican clouds leaves us gaping while the tragedy hobbles1 unattended1 to it close4 ,when the theatre forsook the sunlight1 it faced the question of light solely as illumination4 ,by various means1--torches and tapers1 gas1 8limes0 and electricity1--it has made its art visible indoors and at night4 ,the introduction of electric light into the theatre has made possible an illumination so dependable and controllable that of late years attention has been turned to other phases of the lighting problem4 ,thanks must be given for most of the advance thus far to the effort of the illusion-theatre to imitate the light of nature4 ,my belief is that the greater advance lies ahead1 in the study of light on the stage as an art medium per se4 ,two important things the stage worker of the modern theatre contributed1 through his rough approximations of realistic effect1 two things that will serve1 whatever our aim in lighting4 ,he saw that the light at some seasons1 in some weathers1 and at some times of day1 is less bright than at others1 and that it fades at dusk4 ,he devised means1 therefore1 of varying its intensity4 ,second1 he perceived that at sunset light is one color1 at noon another1 and by full moon another4 ,he gave us dyes and color screens1 and with them and his dimmers brought to the stage the important element of control4 ,other advances1 through other agencies in the theatre1 tend to subtilize the function of light1 carrying it beyond primary illumination4 ,second1 perhaps1 comes the scene designer1 who demands that the light1 in addition to illuminating the players and stating the time of day or year1 shall contribute values to his design as picture4 ,it shall be made to cast shadows where dark masses are wanted in his composition4 ,it shall highlight other features of the scene2 it shall reinforce the painter's work with color2 it shall give plasticity to the builder's work with its highlight and shadow4 ,next1 the dramatist and producer make their demands--the light shall reinforce the mood and meanings of the play4 ,by its intensity or dimness1 it gives 8atmosphere02 by its color it has a direct psychological and physiological effect on the spectator1 sensitizing him to values in the play he might not perceive were it enacted in light of another sort4 ,dramatist1 director and designer1 in the lighting of a play1 if nowhere else1 should be so much at one that it is easy to understand ,gordon ,craig's wish that one man should combine the functions of all three4 ,light1 in the theatre1 then3 7#a7 illuminates the stage and actors2 7#b7 states hour1 season1 and weather1 through suggestion of the light effects in nature2 7#c7 helps paint the scene 7stage picture7 by manipulation of masses of light and shadow and by heightening color values2 7#d7 lends relief to the actors and to the plastic elements of the scene2 and 7#e7 helps act the play1 by symbolizing its meanings and reinforcing its psychology4 ,to achieve these five functions of stage light1 five different kinds or sources of light are not1 of course1 needed4 ,one light may combine several1 or all1 of these functions4 ,in ,joseph ,urban's lighting and setting of the last act of ,tristan and ,isolde some years ago at the ,boston ,opera ,house1 a beam of late afternoon sunlight struck across the stage to the figure of ,tristan lying beneath a great oak tree4 ,slowly1 as the day waned1 the sun patch crept from the figure1 until1 at his death1 it had left him in cool shadow4 ,thus1 a light that illuminated1 that told the time of day1 that gave the figure of the singer and the bole of the great tree high relief by striking from only one side1 also aided symbolically and psychologically in the interpretation of the drama4 ,thus to make light function in many ways is to use it with a sense of its ductility and subtlety as a medium of theatre art4 ,in it we have the only single agency in the theatre that can work with all the other agencies1 binding them together--that can reveal with the dramatist1 paint with the designer1 and act with the actors4 ,the machinery by which this medium is brought to the stage and through which its wonders are wrought commands a deep respect4 ,tradition has already laid its heavy hand here1 and innovation in lighting equipment moves slowly4 ,it is almost wholly within the last five years in the ,united ,states that lighting units of marked novelty have been introduced4 ,of first importance is the machinery of control1 the switchboard and dimmers4 ,the customary place for the board in ,american theatres is at one side of the proscenium arch1 either on the stage floor level1 or on a perch raised some nine or ten feet above the stage floor4 ,the manifest disadvantage of this location is that the operator cannot see the whole of the stage1 and must depend for his cues upon a stage manager4 ,it has1 therefore1 become the practice in many ,european theatres to place the operator in a pit directly in front of the stage1 shielded from the auditorium and facing the actors4 ,from here he can watch the action and see the effects of his lights constantly4 ,telephone connections with lamp operators at the back of the stage enable him to keep them under his control4 ,the construction of the board and mounting of the switches are strictly prescribed by boards of fire underwriters in various cities1 and need not be detailed here4 ,the important consideration at this point is that1 so far as possible1 each light unit on the stage shall be subject to central control from a vantage point from which the stage can be seen2 that each unit shall be subject to separate control2 that groups of like units1 classed by location or color1 shall be subject to group control1 apart from other groups2 and that the stage light1 as a whole1 shall be controllable apart from the house lights4 ,that is1 assuming1 for purposes of illustration1 the arrangement of lights common to most theatres1 the white lights of the first border shall be controlled by a switch apart from that controlling the white lights of the second border or the third or the fourth4 ,so1 likewise1 for each color circuit of each border1 separately4 ,then there should be a white border main switch1 controlling the white lights of all the borders1 and a blue border main1 etc4 ,above these1 there should be a border main switch controlling all the border lights simultaneously4 ,and thus with each division of the stage lights4 ,over all1 one stage main switch should control all the lights of the stage4 ,the auditorium lights1 with their own switches1 should be controlled from the same board as the stage lights4 ,the outstanding item of expense in building a good switchboard is the cost of dimmers1 the resistance devices by which the intensity of the light is controlled4 ,they vary in capacity with their wattage and type4 ,but the dimmers1 more than any other part of the control system1 contribute to the flexibility of the machine4 ,in a modern theatre they are indispensable4 ,so far as possible1 there should be a dimmer for each switch on the board1 controlling each light unit separately4 ,with 8master0 levers1 related light units can be ganged and controlled simultaneously4 ,when only a limited number of dimmers can be afforded1 it is possible so to construct the switchboard that circuits to be dimmed can be 8shunted0 through the dimmers1 while circuits that need not be dimmed remain on constant4 ,a very ingenious board of this type was designed by ,mr4 ,bassett ,jones for the ,artists' ,guild ,theatre in ,st4 ,louis4 ,this board has eight dimmers which can be used for any eight light units on the stage1 giving it a far greater flexibility than it would have if only a particular eight could be dimmed4 ,it is1 however1 rather complicated1 with its dual system of constant and dimmer plugs and connectors1 so that only great familiarity with it makes it quick in action4 ,in addition to the switchboard type of dimmer1 there are also smaller dimmers made for use with nitrogen lamp spots and floods4 ,where these are used ,i believe they should be set by the main switchboard1 rather than on the lamp itself4 ,attached to the lamp they require an additional operator and break up the centralization of control4 ,the actual stage lights fall into two classes--stationary and movable4 ,the stationary or fixed equipment has remained1 on the whole1 highly conventional4 ,it consists1 primarily1 of the footlights1 a trough of lights set along the floor at the front edge of the stage1 throwing light upward upon the actors and the scene1 and the border lights1 hanging troughs1 adjustable in height1 throwing their light downward4 ,the first of these border lights1 often known as the concert border1 hangs immediately behind the curtain or proscenium drapery1 and the others are hung at intervals of seven feet from center to center4 ,the footlights and borders are usually wired in three circuits1 each circuit being filled with lamps of a different color1 customarily white1 red or amber1 and blue4 ,of late1 these customary units have been put on trial and found wanting4 ,they serve principally1 and almost exclusively1 the first function of stage light--illumination--and are found1 on the modern stage1 not to serve it well4 ,footlights1 especially1 have come under the ban1 though the campaign against them has been waged a little indiscriminately4 ,when footlights alone are used in a realistic scene1 they are bad4 ,if the light from the floor dominates1 the under surfaces of the face--chin1 nose-tip1 eyelids--are unnaturally and disagreeably accentuated4 ,if the light from below and above is balanced1 the result1 though more natural1 is perhaps as bad1 for the lighting is flat1 and there is no relief in the features or figures of the players4 ,for plays and scenes of a heroic or fantastic sort1 treated decoratively1 rather than literally1 lighting entirely from above gives interesting and picturesque results4 ,it shadows the features heavily1 and lends a sculptured1 massive quality to the face4 ,more and more1 this overhead lighting has come to be used1 and with some producers has been made a fetish4 ,the very quality that makes this sort of lighting interesting in scenes of a certain kind exhibits its strongest disadvantage in naturalistic lighting4 ,in the average room1 during the daytime1 light pours in through windows1 striking faces at face level4 ,the light comes mostly from one side of the room1 or if there are windows on more than one side1 and the light comes in several directions1 it comes in varying degrees4 ,the sun does not shine in two directions at once4 ,that is to say1 though light may come from more than one direction1 and be reflected multitudinously by walls and ceiling and1 in less degree1 the floor1 the balance of intensity is always in favor of one direction4 ,and this direction is not up or down1 but in a line approaching a right angle to the erect figure4 ,something of the same sort is usually true out-of-doors4 ,only at noon do we have literally overhead lighting4 ,even then1 the beam of light is so broad as to envelop the figure on all sides1 and is so variously reflected by the dome of the sky1 by trees1 rocks1 water1 houses1 that there is1 in addition to the direct downward light1 a considerable 8general0 diffused illumination4 ,at most hours of the day1 the rays of the sun fall upon the earth and its people at a long angle4 ,the factor that gives relief and prevents a dull flatness in the light of nature is the dominance of east over west in the morning and of west over east in the afternoon4 ,night illumination indoors1 though usually from fixtures above head-level1 is reflected by all the walls of the room and by all the objects in it4 ,a soft1 diffused face-level lighting is thus warranted in almost all circumstances4 ,the hard glare of foots and borders1 used unrestrictedly1 does not supply this need most happily4 ,used moderately1 footlights have a distinct function1 until better means of moderating the crude shadows cast from above shall have been devised4 ,an effort to throw light upon the stage at an angle less perpendicular than that of footlight and border has been made at the ,little ,theatre in ,new ,york4 ,here1 certain sections of the ceiling panelling can be lowered and light thrown upon the stage by diffused spot lamps at an angle of #de4 ,in ,mr4 ,belasco's theatre1 lights have been installed in the face of the balcony1 achieving the same result even more satisfactorily4 ,i believe that1 in good time1 beautifully designed lighting units will be frankly set or hung in the auditorium of the theatre4 ,the footlight equipment of most theatres is1 as it has long been1 unmodified1 consisting merely of rows of incandescent lamps of low standard 7usually forty watts74 ,the border lights have seen more innovation during the past few years1 especially the first 7or concert7 border1 most used in lighting interior scenes4 ,originally1 these border lights were intended to light not only the stage1 but also the hanging strips of canvas 7known as borders7 formerly used to suggest a ceiling in interior scenes1 and still used to represent foliage and to misrepresent the blue sky in exterior scenes4 ,with the use of flat ceilings for interiors comes a demand for a light that illuminates the scene rather than the ceiling4 ,this is best supplied by the ,x-,ray border1 made up of a smaller number of lamps than the old border but of higher standard1 each lamp being #aej or #bej watts4 ,each lamp is set in a separate compartment1 separated from its neighbor1 and each lamp is backed by an ,x-,ray reflector of mirrored glass with whorled corrugations1 diffusing the light evenly over a large area4 ,each compartment may be fitted with a color screen of gelatine or dyed glass4 ,often1 too1 spot lamps1 large and small1 are mounted on this border to accentuate the light on certain areas of the stage4 ,the other borders1 used mostly for exterior scenes1 must serve to flood stage and scene with light4 ,the old type of border does not serve adequately1 even in the type of scene for which it was designed4 ,the use of sky borders has largely given way to the high cyclorama of canvas or plaster1 leaving the sky prospect open to the eye as far as the sight line reaches4 ,the overhead lighting must be powerful enough to flood stage and sky with light4 ,it is becoming more and more common to reinforce the ordinary border-light equipment with hanging thousand-watt lamps in specially constructed steel hoods4 ,in the ,arts and ,crafts ,theatre1 in ,detroit1 ,sam ,hume installed his entire overhead equipment of such hanging lamps1 and did away with the old border light altogether4 ,in the average theatre1 however1 these lamps are more in the nature of movable lamps than of permanent equipment1 and will be further spoken of below4 ,illustration3 ,the ,neighborhood ,playhouse1 ,new ,york4 ,this building is one of the most satisfying examples of recent theatre design in ,america1 being free from overdecoration and admirably fitted to its purpose technically4 ,harry ,creighton ,ingalls and ,f4 ,b4 ,hoffman ,jr41 ,associate ,architects4 ,illustration3 ,auditorium of the ,artists' ,guild ,theatre1 ,st4 ,louis4 ,this little auditorium is made useful for both dramatic productions and art exhibitions by means of an ingenious device for tilting the floor1 described on page #bi4 ,above is the view toward the balcony1 below the view toward the stage4 ,laurence ,ewald1 ,architect4 ,the footlights and border lights1 and1 occasionally1 vertical strips inside the proscenium frame at the sides1 constitute the whole of the stage-lighting equipment that is more or less a part of the structure4 ,they 8go with the building40 ,everything else is movable and falls into the second classification of lighting units4 ,but1 in the structure of the stage1 provision must be made for the use of such additional lights4 ,outlets in the form of 8stage pockets0 are set at regular intervals in the stage floor2 into these pockets1 spot and flood lamps may be plugged4 ,the pockets are set in the stage floor in two lines running up and down stage1 a short distance behind the proscenium opening1 at either side of it4 ,there are usually from four to six such pockets on each side of the stage4 ,sometimes there is one at the back of the stage1 and one or more in the fly-gallery4 ,occasionally1 also1 in houses served by alternating current1 there are pockets served by a small house generator1 supplying direct current for the use of arc lamps4 ,in some theatres1 also1 there are pockets connected with storage batteries1 intended to supply an emergency service or for use with lighting units of a voltage other than the usual #aaj volts4 ,the pockets must1 of course1 be carefully insulated1 and covered with a hinged iron lid set flush with the floor4 ,the movable lights are of two general types3 flood lights1 for general diffused illumination1 and lens lights1 for concentrated1 direct 8spotting40 ,under the first heading may be classed all special lights known1 in stage parlance1 as strips1 floods1 or bunches4 ,strips are small troughs1 fitted with from three to ten sockets1 and are used in lighting off-stage 8backings10 set-pieces of scenery1 and small areas where a special accent of color or intensity is wanted4 ,bunches1 now largely obsolete1 are hoods set on extension standards1 fitted with ten or twelve sockets each4 ,these have been replaced by flood lamps1 burning #ejj and #a1jjj-watt nitrogen-filled mazda bulbs4 ,the hoods of these flood lamps have diverging sides or are fitted with a reflector behind the light1 and have grooves at the front of the hood for carrying color-frames4 ,formerly such lamps were equipped with arc lights1 but the nitrogen lamp has wholly displaced the arc in flood lighting4 ,its advantages are that it does not require an attendant to 8feed0 the light1 that it can be dimmed1 giving it range of intensity to make up for decreased brilliance1 and that it can be burned on either direct or alternating current1 without the annoying buzz of an arc light burning alternating current4 ,spot lamps are mounted in closed iron hoods1 emitting light from only one end through a lens4 ,the hoods1 like those of flood lamps1 are set on extension standards1 and can be tipped up or down and turned from side to side4 ,arc spots are still in general use1 as the thousand-watt lamp is not sufficiently brilliant for use on large stages or for long throws4 ,in little theatres1 however1 the thousand-watt spot is bright enough and has all the advantages over the arc that apply to the newer type of flood lamp4 ,for such small stages1 the principal consideration always should be centralized control1 and it cannot be got with the arc light4 ,as incandescent1 gas-filled bulbs of still higher standard are developed1 the arc spot will cease to be used1 even in large theatres4 ,there is also a small variant of the spot light1 known as a 8baby0 spotlight1 burning a lamp of #aej or #bej watts4 ,used with care1 this is one of the most valuable stage lights we have for producing delicate variations in light volume and color in particular areas of the stage4 ,these small lights may also be dimmed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have referred above to hanging hoods with thousand-watt lamps for general illumination4 ,where these are not made a part of the permanent lighting equipment of the theatre1 they may be introduced for special scenes and effects1 being hung where desired1 and massed in such numbers and of such colors as needed4 ,the hoods are equipped with chains by which they may be hung upon pipe battens and tipped as desired4 ,they are plugged1 like other movable lights1 into floor pockets or fly-gallery pockets4 ,the color of light on the stage is obtained in three ways4 ,where lamps of low standard 7twenty-five or forty watts7 are used1 as in the foots or borders1 they may be coated with dyes1 put up for the purpose1 made with a collodion base4 ,the burning lamp is dipped into the liquid and left alight until the dye coat has thoroughly dried and hardened4 ,bulbs of high standard1 however1 cannot be dyed1 as the dye does not stand up under the intense heat generated by a lamp of one hundred or more watts4 ,as a matter of fact1 few of the commercial dyes are wholly satisfactory1 even with smaller bulbs4 ,the blues especially deteriorate under heat1 either fading or cracking1 or burning to a purple or black4 ,the rays of larger lamps1 burned either in flood or spotlight hoods1 are colored with gelatine mediums1 held before the light in frames of proper size4 ,the gelatine colors also fade under heat1 and1 being very fragile1 crack and tear1 and must be frequently renewed4 ,for durability1 the best color medium is a sheet of glass with the color blown in4 ,unfortunately such glass is very costly1 cannot be had in a large range of colors1 and is usually not as translucent as might be wished4 ,mr4 ,munroe ,pevear of ,boston has made interesting experiments with mediums of dyed glass4 ,he manufactures his own dyes1 and claims for them a much longer life than the commercial variety enjoys4 ,his mediums are highly translucent1 and are1 of course1 far more durable than the gelatine mediums4 ,he makes them1 however1 in only the three primary colors1 for his development of color screens has been ancillary to experiments of a larger intent--the development of a synthetic lighting system4 ,the principle of his color system is simply the principle of the prism inverted4 ,the prism breaks white light up into its primaries4 ,mr4 ,pevear unites the primaries to make white4 ,by combining his red1 green1 and blue light in varying degrees of each1 he is able to obtain any color in the spectrum4 ,to pale out his lights to tints1 he includes in his border and footlight equipment a fourth circuit of white lights4 ,to my knowledge1 only one theatre has been equipped by ,mr4 ,pevear--the ,toy ,theatre of ,boston1 now the ,copley4 ,but in the short-lived tenancy of the house by the ,toy ,theatre ,company there was never a whole-hearted effort to test ,mr4 ,pevear's equipment4 ,experiments with synthetic lighting have been conducted at various times and places by ,sam ,hume1 ,norman ,geddes1 the present writer1 and others4 ,the results more than reward the effort of such experiment1 and ,i commend a study of its possibilities to all workers in little theatres4 ,in addition to the typical theatrical lighting units1 other units1 not designed primarily for theatrical use1 are being adopted4 ,foremost among these are the reflectors of the ,x-,ray type4 ,these are made in a number of sizes and shapes1 but are of two types1 the whorled reflector and the parabolic reflector4 ,the first type gives a diffused light and the second a concentrated beam4 ,the ,x-,ray flood lamps1 manufactured for lighting the exteriors of buildings and for illuminating night construction jobs1 are coming to be used on the stage4 ,they can be focused1 have a higher efficiency than a lens light burning the same number of watts1 and produce a more pleasant spot than the sharply defined light-area of the conventional spot light1 projecting a brilliant ray1 most intense at the center and fading toward the edges of the field4 ,there are a number of firms manufacturing lights of this type1 and they are now generally used for lighting outdoor pageants4 ,they are quite as valuable in the indoor theatre as on the pageant field4 ,i have used frequently1 instead of baby spots of the regular type1 automobile windshield spots1 burning a six-volt lamp4 ,these cost perhaps one-tenth as much as the regular type1 and can be used on a special circuit supplied with current either through a small step-down transformer or from a storage battery1 kept continually charged by running current into it from a strip of carbon lights wired in series-multiple4 ,these windshield spots are usually equipped with a swivel and trunnion mounting1 so that they can be turned in any direction1 are focusable1 and have a clamp by which they can be fastened to pieces of scenery or upright pipe standards in the proscenium entrance4 ,besides a goodly number of well-distributed stage pockets into which movable lamps may be plugged1 there should be points of vantage from which lights may be cast1 perches and bridges elevated above the level of the stage4 ,most useful is a bridge across the stage1 just inside and above the proscenium4 ,from this bridge1 special flood and spot lamps may be manipulated4 ,often perches are built out from the wall at either side of the proscenium from which spots may be thrown down to the stage4 ,occasionally these are movable structures with several levels and can be wheeled to various points off stage4 ,the fly-gallery1 also1 is used for spot lighting4 ,when a false proscenium is used1 the overhead bridge and side perches are sometimes built into the structure4 ,in planning the lighting equipment for a small stage1 all thought of the usual theatre installation can be set aside4 ,border lights of the old type are not useful enough to warrant the expenditure of the money they cost4 ,footlights1 too1 though useful when no better means of front lighting can be devised1 can well be replaced by face-level lights from the auditorium1 concealed by wall traps or by the balcony rail1 or hidden in decorative coverings suspended1 chandelier-like1 from the ceiling4 ,the essentials for a flexible1 adaptable lighting system are centralization and delicacy of control1 numerous and well-situated current outlets1 and as wide a variety as possible of movable lamps for flooding and spotting4 ,there should be enough circuits to allow the use of a three- or four-color system1 along the lines of the synthetic system of ,mr4 ,pevear1 described above4 ,along with this there must be facilities for throwing light from above the stage from bridges and movable platforms4 ,the only permanently installed piece of lighting equipment that is absolutely necessary is the ,x-,ray border at the front of the stage for the lighting of interior scenes4 ,with a carefully planned switchboard and dimmer-bank1 and numerous pockets or current outlets1 for the initial equipment1 there is hardly any limit to the development of the little theatre's lighting facilities1 for if it must begin with only a few lighting units1 it can acquire more from time to time1 and with each acquisition build up its means of achieving beauty4 ,and in this direction the most vital contributions to the craft of the theatre are yet to be made4 ,illustration3 ,figure #i--,the permanent 8scene0 of the ,thtre du ,vieux ,colombier4 ,see page #gd4 7,from ,album du ,vieux ,colombier by ,fauconnet47 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,stage ,,machinery ,,and ,,settings ,i have made mention earlier of the ingenuity so often demanded of the little theatre stage director4 ,the limitations of his stage often compel him to an inventiveness different only in scale from that displayed by the great ,german technicians of the theatre4 ,no ,harvard student who ever shifted scenery for the ,dramatic ,club in ,brattle ,hall can outgrow his enthusiasm for the feats achieved on that absurd stage4 ,at the ,artists' ,guild in ,st4 ,louis1 it gave us unbounded glee to set the massive chamber of ,the ,queen's ,enemies on the cramped stage there4 ,to be confronted with deficiencies of one sort or another--mechanical or fiscal--which must be overcome1 is unquestionably a spur to ambition4 ,to struggle with material barriers1 space1 time1 physical means1 and accomplish results in spite of them2 to wring beauty out of meagre cheesecloth and tinsel when there is no money for silk and gold galloon1 is a victory of sorts2 and without the fighting and winning of such battles as these1 half our little theatres might never have been1 and much of their best work might not have been done4#e ,practically all modern stage machinery has been devised to heighten effects of nature1 and therein it differs from the machinery of the theatre of the greatest eras1 which was devised to produce effects beyond nature4 ,the ,greeks and ,elizabethans left ,nature strictly to herself1 but had a fairly elaborate mechanical system by which they exhibited gods1 demons1 ghosts1 and visions4 #e ,,note4--,i wish to qualify fundamentally my admiration for the ingenuity of the mechanical features of the modern stage4 ,in fact1 ,i do not believe they can advance the theatre one jot4 ,they are marvelously ingenious in denying the limitations of the stage and in part triumphing over them4 ,yet ,i have a persistent feeling that the recognition of the limitations and the acceptance of them is more fundamental in the development of an art or craft than the denial of them and the triumphing over them4 ,even such a triumph has its ultimate boundaries1 and when they have been reached1 there is little to do but acknowledge defeat4 ,when matter has been twisted and beaten into the cunningest perversions of its first form1 the craftsman is still not satisfied2 for his spirit can soar to further reaches where none of the elements can follow4 ,this is truer of the theatre artist1 perhaps1 than of any other1 save the musician 7who is1 after all1 a theatre artist74 ,the theatre has been1 these many centuries1 the theatre because of the limitations that encompass it1 not in spite of them4 ,likewise is the church 7as a field of art7 limited1 and it is by merit of its limitations that the church has been great4 ,utter churchliness owes little to the style of architecture of any specific church edifice4 ,and the transcendent theatre art of the ,deutsches ,theater in ,berlin or of the ,art ,theatre in ,moscow does not hang upon the skill with which the one has used a revolving stage or with which the other has devised its scenery4 ,the ,german theatres have to a remarkable degree increased natural illusion in scenery and lighting2 but in spite of that there is about as much bad theatre art in ,germany as good4 ,where greatness is found1 where the artist has most truly realized the function of the theatre1 it will be seen that his spirit has transcended utterly the possibilities of his physical stage2 and1 like as not1 he has made no effort to strain the capacities of his medium1 but has worked utterly within them4 ,one of the remarkable facts about the stage technique of ,robert ,edmond ,jones is that he demands nothing impossible to achieve4 ,his designs are easy to execute1 and his scenery easy to handle4 ,here1 again1 is the dilemma which we faced in the discussion of the approach to the stage lighting problem4 ,there are limits to our ability to reproduce on the stage the light effects of nature4 ,but there are practically no limits to the theatrical expressiveness of light1 regarded as a medium1 per se4 ,there are limits beyond which mechanical skill or inventive genius cannot alter the obdurate confines of the physical stage4 ,but there are no heights to which a human spirit1 set in public upon a platform1 however narrow and close-walled1 cannot rise4 ,in view of this great spiritual fact1 ,i would solemnly warn any little theatre or community house that has money to spend for modernity1 not to spend it on the kind of advance stage machinery discussed in this chapter1 but to spend it on artists4 ,one of the first mechanical improvements of our present-day stage was the drehbhne1 or revolving stage1 invented by ,herr ,lautenschlager4 ,its purpose is to move1 without inordinate intermissions between acts1 scenery far heavier than men can handle4 ,the cult for realism demanded a greater plasticity in scenery1 and consequent increase in mass and structural complexity4 ,the revolving stage is a great turntable on which as many as six or seven scenes can be set at one time1 and revealed successively to an audience by revolving the table4 ,the scenery for the entire play is set up on the day of the performance1 and no shifting of scenes need be done during the progress of the play4 ,the designing of scenery to fit the revolving stage1 developed to its highest point by ,reinhardt1 is so little understood in this country that our few revolving stages are seldom used4 ,the ,century ,theatre stage in ,new ,york has a turntable1 but ,i do not know of any instance in which the scenery for an entire performance was set upon it4 ,mr4 ,winthrop ,ames had a revolving stage installed in his ,little ,theatre in ,new ,york2 but1 as this stage is only thirty-five feet in diameter1 he found it inadequate for the setting of many of the scenes4 ,mr4 ,harry ,bishop1 in building the ,liberty and ,fulton ,theatres in ,oakland1 ,california1 constructed revolving stages of adequate size1 but evaded the problem of devising scenery especially for them by installing a revolving gridiron also1 so that the old-fashioned sky and foliage borders could ride around the stage with the set to which they belong4 ,a little labor is saved in shifting scenes during performances1 but ,i doubt whether the saving equalizes the cost of installation of these expensive devices4 ,a device of similar intent is the sliding stage1 a great wagon the size of the stage opening--or1 rather1 two or three of them--run1 as desired1 before the proscenium opening1 and capable of being pushed off1 after being used1 into houses at either side of the stage or lowered to the basement1 there to be reset for another scene4 ,this device avoids some of the limitations of the revolving stage1 in that scenes need not be made to articulate closely as they must in order to fit the circular bounds of the turntable2 but it is tremendously costly1 and requires a great stage space4 ,there are other devices of like intent1 such as the ,asphalia stage1 built in transverse sections that can be raised and lowered on hydraulic plungers1 and ,steele ,mac,kaye's elevator stage installed in the old ,madison ,square ,theatre1 ,new ,york4 ,none of these devices can serve either the little theatre movement or the art of the theatre4 ,they are deadening1 and divert effort from the true end of all experiment and advance in the theatre4 ,there is no doubt in my mind that the sort of theatre that wants to be built is one in which the machinery is reduced to a minimum1--efficient1 controllable1 but never controlling the sort of work that must be done on the stage4 ,in order to have a modern1 well-equipped stage1 none of these innovations is needed4 ,of far more purpose1 for the modern theatre1 are certain tendencies now manifest that appear at first glance like reversions to an older type of stage4 ,i refer chiefly to such a stage as that built by ,m4 ,jacques ,copeau for his ,thtre du ,vieux ,colombier1 which1 for two seasons1 was a strange intruder among the more literal stages of ,new ,york4 ,indeed1 save for the use ,m4 ,copeau made of modern mechanical flexibility1 his stage was a first cousin to the ,elizabethan stage1 though his arrival at its particular form was not a case of atavism but a philosophic realization of the true limitations of the theatre4 ,his stage consisted of three parts3 a fore-stage1 reached from the rear stage1 or from the main floor of the auditorium by steps upward1 or from doors high in the walls flanking the proscenium1 whence steps led down to the stage level2 second1 the stage proper2 and third1 an upper stage1 or balcony1 engirdling the main stage4 ,this balcony and the space below it might be variously shut off from the main portion of the stage1 by tapestries1 lattices1 screens1 or sections of scenery1 flat or pierced with windows or doors4 ,steps could be variously placed to give access to the balcony4 ,thus1 without the use of strictly representative scenery1 ,copeau had a stage which provided every facility for the presentation of a play1--entrances1 exits1 and elevations4 ,it gave scope to the necessities of action and the agility of the actor4 ,such a construction may be said to be as much scenic reform as reform in mechanics1 except that it largely renders the latter unnecessary4 ,i should not deem it part of the purpose of this paper to mention scenic matters at all1 were it not that1 very often1 a certain amount of scenery1 like a certain amount of lighting equipment1 8goes with the building04 ,the contract for the building and its rigging often specifies also a 8garden01 8plain chamber number one01 and 8fancy parlor number three01 or the like4 ,whether they are thrown in or not1 without extra charge1 they should be courteously but firmly refused4 ,they stunt the timid imagination1 and somehow1 perhaps because they are 8real0 scenery1 never get thrown away4 ,for the scenic equipment of the stage ,i can do nothing better than refer the reader to the permanent setting devised by ,sam ,hume for the ,detroit ,arts and ,crafts ,theatre1 of which he was for two seasons the director4 ,this setting consists of a certain number of interchangeable units1 flats1 door pieces1 window pieces1 arches1 and pylons4#f ,its initial cost is low1 far lower than that of several sets out of the scene painter's catalogue1 and its usefulness infinitely greater4 ,in addition to this it has beauty4 #f ,mr4 ,sheldon ,cheney in his ,the ,art ,theatre has fully described and illustrated this set1 showing the multiple variations it is capable of4 ,it may be that the stage of the future is to be something quite different than that we now have4 ,as a theatre of truth supplants the theatre of illusion1 it may be found that the stage of to-day does not answer at all4 ,the theatre is undoubtedly in a transitional period and artists are striving for new forms and new methods of presentation4 ,what directions these tendencies may take it is not the purpose of this paper to forecast4 ,nor would it do to advise the adoption of a type of stage not yet tested or of widespread use4 ,where there is an experimental and creative attitude toward the theatre such types will be evolved without any such rudimentary manual as this4 ,where a manual is wanted1 a stage should be built that can be used easily1 by everybody who wishes to use it1 and which will give readily1 in return for effort spent upon it1 a revenue of beauty4 ,these pages will achieve enough if they go a little way toward eliminating the usual inept1 difficult constructions that for these many years have cumbered the way of folks1 young and old1 who wish to entertain themselves in the theatre4 ,more and more1 they seek such entertainment at their own hands4 ,more and more1 their efforts are being fostered by educational bodies and organizations allied with the theatre4 ,such aid as this pamphlet may bring them is hopefully dedicated to their service4 ,a ,,selected ,,bibliography ,,historical ,,and ,,descriptive ,martin ,hammitzsch1 ,der ,moderne ,theaterbau 7,teil ,i74 ,berlin3 ,e4 ,wasmuth1 #aije4 7,this is perhaps the best book on the historical aspect1 although only the first volume has so far appeared47 ,edwin ,o4 ,sachs and ,e4 ,a4 ,woodward1 ,modern ,opera ,houses and ,theatres4 #c volumes4 ,london3 ,b4 ,t4 ,batsford4 #ahif-ih4 7,this monumental and very useful series is generally considered the standard descriptive and technical work1 but is now somewhat out of date47 ,edwin ,o4 ,sachs1 ,stage ,construction4 ,london3 ,b4 ,t4 ,batsford1 #ahih4 7,a supplement to the above47 ,manfred ,semper1 ,theater4 ,stuttgart3 ,arnold ,bergstrsser1 #aijd4 7,handbuch der ,architektur1 ,teil #d1 ,halb-,band #f1 ,heft #e47 ,roy ,c4 ,flickinger1 ,the ,greek ,theatre and ,its ,drama4 ,chicago3 ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press1 #aiah4 7,contains the best summary of the conflicting views about the form of the ancient theatre47 ,arthur ,elam ,haigh1 ,the ,attic ,theatre4 ,third ,edition1 revised4 ,oxford3 ,the ,clarendon ,press1 #aijg4 7,a standard work on the ,greek ,theatre47 ,brander ,matthews1 ,a ,study of the ,drama4 ,boston3 ,houghton ,mifflin ,company1 #aiaj4 7,chapter ,,iii treats of the form of the theatre in relation to the forms of drama47 ,william ,harvey ,birkmire1 ,the ,planning and ,construction of ,american ,theatres4 ,new ,york3 ,j4 ,wiley and ,sons1 #ahif4 7,contains many plans and descriptions of the older ,american theatres47 ,max ,littmann1 ,das ,mnchner ,knstlertheater4 ,munich3 ,i4 ,werner1 #aijh4 7,a monograph describing one of the best small theatres in ,europe1 fully illustrated with plans and photographs47 ,julius ,bab1 ,die ,volksbhne in ,berlin4 ,berlin3 ,e4 ,wasmuth1 #aiai4 7,describes and illustrates one of the best large buildings of the 8people's theatre0 type47 ,max ,littmann1 ,die ,kniglichen ,hoftheater in ,stuttgart4 ,darmstadt3 ,a4 ,koch1 #aiab4 7,describes and illustrates an excellent example of the institutional or 8court0 playhouse1 in a building containing two complete theatres47 ,,technical ,edward ,bernard ,kinsila1 ,modern ,theatre ,construction4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,moving ,picture ,world1 #aiag4 ,arthur ,s4 ,meloy1 ,theatres and ,motion ,picture ,houses4 ,new ,york3 ,architects' ,supply and ,publishing ,company1 #aiaf4 ,william ,paul ,gerhard1 ,theatres3 ,their ,safety from ,fire and ,panic1 ,their ,comfort and ,healthfulness4 ,new ,york3 ,baker and ,taylor1 #aiae4 ,arthur ,edwin ,krews1 ,play ,production in ,america4 ,new ,york3 ,henry ,holt and ,company1 #aiaf4 7,contains brief but comprehensive chapters on stage machinery1 lighting1 and other technical matters47 ,bhnen ,beleuchtung ,system ,fortuny4 7,describes the important ,fortuny lighting system47 ,,scenery ,edward ,gordon ,craig1 ,towards a ,new ,theatre3 ,forty ,designs for ,stage ,scenes4 ,new ,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,dutton and ,company1 #aiac4 ,jacques ,rouch1 ,l',art ,thtrale ,moderne4 ,paris3 ,edouard ,cornly ,cie41 #aiaj4 ,sheldon ,cheney1 ,the ,art ,theatre4 ,new ,york3 ,alfred ,knopf1 #aiag4 ,hiram ,kelly ,moderwell1 ,the ,theatre of ,to-,day4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,lane ,company1 #aiad4 ,theatre ,arts ,magazine4 #aiaf to date4 7,contains several hundred illustrations of stage settings1 stage plans1 etc47 ,,theatre ,,arts ,,magazine ,an ,illustrated ,quarterly ,subscription price1 #b4jj a year ,,back ,,numbers containing articles1 plays and sketches by ,gordon ,craig ,lee ,simonson ,w4 ,b4 ,yeats ,robert ,e4 ,jones ,gilbert ,cannan ,stark ,young ,walter ,prichard ,eaton ,susan ,glaspell ,eugene ,o',neill ,sam ,hume ,arthur ,hopkins ,rollo ,peters ,zoe ,atkins ,john ,drinkwater ,,prices--,,unbound--,,postpaid ,volumes ,i-,,iv 7complete71 #bj4jj2 ,volume ,,ii1 #c4jj2 ,volume ,,iv1 #d4jj4 7,volumes ,i and ,,iii sold only with complete sets74 ,all issues except those for ,february and ,may #aiag1 ,may #aiah1 ,october #aiai1 ,january and ,october #aibj1 can still be had singly at #ge cents4 ,,special3 ,volume ,i-,,iv1 bound1 #be4jj4 ,,theatre ,,arts ,,magazine ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained4 ,perceived typographical errors have been changed4