,,mountain ,,craft ,illustration3 ,,the ,,alps ,,sydney ,,spencer ,,mountain ,,craft ,,edited ,,by ,,geoffrey ,,winthrop ,,young ,,with #bh ,,illustrations ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #aibj ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,gallant ,,comrades ,,in ,,the ,,mountains ,,frank ,,bergne ,,guy ,,butlin ,c4 ,k4 ,,carfrae ,,foster ,,cunliffe ,g4 ,t4 ,,ewen ,e4 ,n4 ,,finlay ,r4 ,w4 ,,fletcher ,w4 ,g4 ,,fletcher ,h4 ,o4 ,,gibson ,,edmund ,,hartley ,s4 ,w4 ,,herford ,,terence ,,hickman ,,trevenen ,,huxley ,h4 ,o4 ,,jones ,,muriel ,,gwendolen ,,jones ,e4 ,l4 ,,julian ,,horas ,,kennedy ,f4 ,m4 ,,levi ,,josef ,,lochmatter ,,frank ,,lucas ,,sidney ,mc,d,o,u,g,a,l,l ,,nigel ,,madan ,,kenneth ,,moorsom ,l4 ,e4 ,,noon ,l4 ,,oppenheimer ,,hugh ,,pope ,,kenneth ,,powell ,,paul ,,preuss ,j4 ,e4 ,,raphael ,c4 ,j4 ,,reid ,c4 ,,donald ,,robertson ,,jack ,,sanders ,h4 ,,jones-,,sabin ,,laurence ,,slingsby ,,morris ,,slingsby ,,frank ,,sparrow ,,wilbert ,,spencer ,,thoby ,,stephen ,,louis ,,theytaz ,h4 ,w4 ,,thomas ,j4 ,m4 ,,archer ,,thomson ,,erik ,,todd ,,kenneth ,,trayes ,,georgina ,,mary ,,tuke ,,harry ,,walker ,,charles ,,werner ,c4 ,a4 ,,wordsworth ,c4 ,s4 ,,worthington ,,lawrence ,c4 ,h4 ,,young ,,preface ,this book is for mountaineers2 and a mountaineer is not only one who climbs mountains1 but anyone who likes to walk1 read1 or think about them4 ,i do not myself attach much value to mountaineering handbooks3 an open-air pursuit can only be learned by practical attempt and from good example4 ,i used to read them for the fun of surprising some hero of my youth as he strained his imagination to squeeze a grave principle out of a random holiday memory1 and for the sympathetic pleasure of reconstructing for myself the real day of irresponsible adventure the recollection of which was bringing a thrill of forbidden joy to his mind before he composed his face to inflict it upon me in the form of an edifying three-line precept4 ,i can read them now no more than ,i can read the #8climbing accident' type of fiction popular with magazines1 which used to provide a less sensitive digestion with some acrid food for mirth4 ,on the other hand ,i would still set myself to learn ,chinese1 if that would enable me the better to understand one more record of genuine mountain adventure or discover some unfamiliar attitude of the human mind towards the mountains and their symbolism4 ,i do not expect other mountaineers to read1 or to refrain from reading1 these opinions in a different spirit4 ,mountaineering1 like other arts1 has suffered much1 for all its youth1 from the limitations imposed by hasty tradition and by doctrine prematurely crystallized2 and1 as in other crafts1 if ever a period comes that shall find the traditional rules too rigid to admit of a wholesome influx of new and original conception1 mountaineering will cease to deserve the name of an art or craft1 and become at best an #8organized game4' ,but the opinions as they stand may yet serve a limited purpose4 ,some men are born climbers4 ,they will learn little about climbing from precepts4 ,at the same time many of the finest climbers fall short of our ideal of safe method because they have never concerned themselves with the possible existence of any fundamental principles governing the various unrelated movements in which they delight2 and so it comes that1 though they may do nine things1 by instinct1 right1 they do the tenth1 by habit1 wrong4 ,for these climbers ,i am not without hope that the statement1 made ,i believe here for the first time1 of the principles which underlie all correct climbing motions1 and which have been steadily emerging during fifty years of practical mountaineering1 may not be entirely useless4 ,if they find that nine spokes of their practice lead back to my hub1 and the tenth does not1 they may learn how to correct the tenth4 ,if1 on the contrary1 they find that only one leads back to it1 and nine radiate elsewhither1 well then1 no doubt they will decide that ,i am wrong4 ,but whatever we may be as climbers1 no one of us is a born mountaineer4 ,mountaineering1 in its wider aspects1 can only be learned by experiment2 and even the natural climber may be able to get some guidance from the collective expression of other men's mountaineering experience4 ,many efficient climbers1 again1 never bother themselves at all with mountaineering as a craft4 ,they simply take its pleasures1 and leave its responsibilities to guides or to chance4 ,mountaineering will profit1 if they can be led to discover something of all that they are missing4 ,more of us are1 in a sense1 specialists2 interested in one department alone1 and neglectful or ignorant of the rest4 ,for such of us there is some benefit in surveying1 if only superficially1 the immense field that a man must set himself to traverse who aspires to lead a party safely4 ,yet another group1 with whom ,i have a particular sympathy1 who belong to the class of #8made' climbers rather than to that of #8natural' climbers1 may often find that they have stuck fast at a certain point in their technique and are abandoning the prospect of improving further4 ,experience encourages the hope that they may be able1 after learning something of the essential principles of method1 to recast or amplify their own methods1 so as to make further progress on sounder lines4 ,or they will discover that a man may be useful to a party as an expert in one of the less common but no less important branches of mountaineering craft4 ,their inferiority in a single department--for instance1 rock climbing1 in which excellence is often overrated as compared with other equally valuable qualifications--will then be seen in better proportion4 ,and those who are not climbers1 but who are interested in or perhaps even resentful of the fascination which mountains exercise1 may discover1 if they have the patience1 that mountaineering as it is now practised is no simple outlet for an athletic impulse1 and no selfish indulgence in a game which has the demerit of risking lives often of notable value2 but that it is a genuine craft1 as well as a genuine enthusiasm2 an education alike in self-development and in self-subordination2 a discipline of character1 of infinite variety in its demands and in its reactions upon strength1 endurance1 nerve1 will1 and temper1 upon powers of organization as upon powers of dealing with men2 a test of personality for which no preparation may be considered excessive1 and a science for whose mastery the study of all our active years is barely sufficient4 ,of its rewards1 in health1 self-knowledge1 sthetic pleasure1 and incomparable adventure1 it is not the place to speak in a book of practical counsel4 ,for the opinions on technical points1 and their elaboration in theory1 ,i must be held alone responsible4 ,where the multiplication or repetition of detail may appear tedious1 it has been inserted for the better illustration of some underlying principle1 or to provide the more material for the future settlement of some point still under discussion among mountaineers4 ,those who disagree with the methods recommended may still make use of the advice1 much as ,i should do in their case1 treating it as yet another statement of an individual point of view1 such as may at least act as a serviceable standard of comparison for their own practice4 ,our object will be gained if the suggestions are found to provide a basis for more general discussion and thought1 an available condensation of a good deal of theory floating and partially formulated among modern mountaineers of experience1 and something of a book of reference and reminder for those who may not have known1 or cared to admit1 that there was so much about which they ought to form an opinion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the innovation of giving a prominent position to considerations of personal management and leadership there has been a special purpose4 ,for reasons not difficult to assign1 most manuals dealing with the practice of active pursuits have been in the habit of ignoring the dominant influence that is exerted upon all combined action by the psychological factor1 and the extent to which changing conditions of mood and humour1 and the more stable divergences between the individual temperaments of men acting in association1 must contribute to success or failure4 ,the accentuation of the human problem1 as it presents itself in mountaineering1 has therefore been intentional4 ,in mountains1 where personality counts before everything1 men are forced back upon their elemental selves2 they become very different beings from their drawing-room semblances1 and unless they allow for this in the adjustment of their relations on the hills1 they can achieve only the mediocrity of performance1 the barrenness in results1 or the complete break-down which are the common fate of all ill-constituted parties1 for exploration1 for mountaineering1 for warfare1 or for any other active adventure that depends for its success upon effective combination4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mountaineering1 in its modern development1 involves a large number of matters for arrangement which cannot be classed under the headings of technique or of specific equipment for climbing2 such as methods of travel1 care of health1 choice of districts in less-known countries1 special routes of access1 and details of topography and equipment peculiar to any particular district chosen4 ,most of these vary in detail in the different ranges4 ,it has1 therefore1 seemed most convenient to deal with the special conditions which characterize a number of the regions now most frequently visited in separate chapters1 each chapter devoted to one of the great ranges4 ,these chapters have been undertaken by experts who will be recognized as speaking with authority by mountaineers of every school and nationality4 ,their intention is to give just the amount of practical information which we all need1 and which we find it so hard to procure1 when we are in process of making up our minds what region we will visit2 and to add sufficient indication of where we may find all the more particular information which we shall require when once we have decided upon our region4 ,captain ,farrar's suggestions on ,mountain ,equipment1 ,mr4 ,arnold ,lunn's on ,equipment and ,method for ,mountaineering on ,ski1 ,dr4 ,wollaston's on the ,care of ,health1 and ,mr4 ,sydney ,spencer's on ,photography1 apply1 generally speaking1 to all mountaineering regions and to all organized expeditions4 ,to ,captain ,farrar's advice the suggestions on ,outfit made in the regional chapters are complementary1 dictated by the special conditions of the district or of the season4 ,besides that which is owing to innumerable contributors to discussions which have extended over many years and exercised a variety of languages1 ,i have to acknowledge a very special debt of gratitude to ,mr4 ,h4 ,v4 ,reade1 ,c4,b41 for his helpful suggestions and careful revision2 to ,captain ,farrar1 ,d4,s4,o41 for constant encouragement and a characteristically kindly criticism2 to ,mr4 ,oscar ,eckenstein1 for having most generously placed at my disposal the notes of much accumulated experience and illuminating inductive theory1 and for having provided me with information and reminder in several of the less-known branches of mountaineering2 and to ,mr4 ,sydney ,spencer1 ,mr4 ,charles ,mead1 and ,professor ,norman ,collie1 ,f4,r4,s41 for a group of illustrations1 which may be found to lighten the practical detail of the text and serve as reminders of the beauty1 the mystery1 and the strangeness of the mountain world into which--safely and superficially or masterfully and understandingly1 according to the degree of our preparation--the study of mountain craft purposes to enable us to penetrate4 ,june #aiad 99 99 99 99 99 ,six years ago these papers were sent in for publication4 ,for my own share in them ,i made the decision1 then1 with some reluctance4 ,in mountaineering there is always something new to learn1 and they might all too soon need correction or amplification4 ,but the chance of battle which delayed their appearance has1 in the event1 confirmed the resolution4 ,my colleagues have brought their regional contributions up to date3 ,i have added the substance of the notes jotted down during my last climbs in ,july #aiad2 and ,i can now let the opinions go with much less hesitation1 since from the annual demonstration of their deficiencies by their most obstinate critic they must1 in future1 be exempt4 ,g4 ,w4 ,y4 ,june #aibj ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i4 ,,management ,,and ,,leadership #a ,by the ,,editor ,management in anticipation--physical well-being--food--thirst--smoking--ailme nts--bathing--young folk--preventable humours--boredom--over-excitement4 ,leadership in action--the collective confidence--keeping touch--temper--abnormal moods--reaction--disappointment--over-co nfidence--hysteria--vertigo --the effect of height4 ,social composition of the party4 ,walking manners--some notes on hill-walking4 ,choice of district4 ,incidental duties--hut usages--consideration--some night notes--a last task4 ,weather--clouds--wind--signs in general--habit of the season--persistence4 ,training--the framework--the organs--will and nerves--nerve--height and reach4 ,pace--adjustment of time--benightment--weight handicaps--continuous going--combination-halts--the maximum rhythm4 ,,ii4 ,,equipment ,,for ,,the ,,alps #hj ,by ,j4 ,p4 ,,farrar ,equipment--boots--clothes--some alternatives 7,g4 ,w4 ,y47--costume for women 7,miss ,,bronwen ,,jones74 ,outfit--sack--axe--rope--knots --necessaries--bivouac--tent1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,,guided ,,and ,,guideless ,,mountaineering #aja ,by the ,,editor ,old-time errors--the guide of the chronicles--the guide as he is--the amateur as he may be--the composite mountaineer--the guide as mountaineer--the amateur as mountaineer--the question for the leader--the social consideration--the technical compensation--examples--the expert--the tourist--the beginner--the moderate mountaineer--summary--a supreme example4 ,management of guides--guide nature--the right footing--before the ascent--on the mountain--fine shades--the terms of the association--the rare crisis--the reward4 ,,iv4 ,,rock ,,climbing #ach ,by the ,,editor ,a theory of the development--balance climbing--the individual standard--solitary climbing--initial practice--the use of the foot--hard soles--soft soles--foothold--anticipation--the ankle--the knee--the hand--cling holds--push and press holds--in cracks--on slabs--chimney climbing--rib riding--wet rock--glazed rock--summary4 ,unsound rock--semi-detached--detached--moraine and scree4 ,unusual rock--in quarries--along sea cliffs--on freaks4 ,climbing down--positions--facing outward--facing sideways--facing inward--down chimneys or cracks--the rope in continuous descent--the doubled rope--brakes--springing the rope--the long rope4 ,pegs and aids4 ,the axe on rocks--carriage--the extra hand--the ,manx leg4 ,v4 ,,climbing ,,in ,,combination #bji ,by the ,,editor ,collective rhythm--imitation--the rope while moving together--to the man in front--from the man behind--while moving singly--following and leading--stances--with belays--without belays--holding the rope--the order on the rope--on ascents and descents--on traverses--the order of merit--the order with beginners--the order of moving--the duties of first man--of second man--backing up metaphysically--backing up physically--of third man--more about the rope during climbing--with stones--during halts--coiling--suitable lengths--funicula4 ,,vi4 ,,corrective ,,method #bef ,by the ,,editor ,human fallibility--warning--easing--checking on traverses--the case of the end man--the measure of courage--the second man's action--after a fall--accidents4 ,mountain perversity--falling stones--snow slides--ice fragments--evil weather4 ,,vii4 ,,ice ,,and ,,snow ,,craft #bgi ,by the ,,editor ,the age for glaciers4 ,ice craft--the nature of ice--ice-claws--cutting steps--using steps--the rope on ice--glacier work--snow-covered glacier4 ,snow craft--some characteristics and counter-moves--snow travail--snow slopes--the rope and axe--bergschrund and bridge--cornices--snow in couloirs--snow at home--confusing weather--the sense of direction4 ,glissading--on ice--positions--arrests4 ,on snow--positions--steering--jumping--brak es --sitting--stone-tests--the rope--some variations--alternate glissading--face inward--plunging-on claws4 ,on other grounds--on scree--in winter gullies--on grass and heather4 ,,viii4 ,,reconnoitring #cgj ,by the ,,editor ,things seen--snow surface condition--angle on snow--snow cornices--wind and snow signs--ice--couloirs--rock--faces--ridge s--slabs--rocks in ,britain4 ,the ,half-seen4 ,the ,unseen4 ,,ix4 ,,mountaineering ,,on ,,ski #cig ,by ,,arnold ,,lunn ,technique--equipment4 ,the alpine calendar4 ,snow craft4 ,winter snow--powder snow--the effect of wind on powder snow--the effect of sun on powder snow--summary of winter snow4 ,spring snow4 ,the effect of ,fhn and thaw--,fhn in winter--,fhn in spring4 ,summer snow4 ,snow avalanches4 ,classification of avalanches4 ,summer snow avalanches4 ,tactics on avalanche ground4 ,the ,high ,alps in winter--weather conditions--the approaches to the ,high ,alps--snow conditions in the ,high ,alps--rock ridges and ice slopes4 ,glaciers in winter--ski-ing on a rope4 ,the ,high ,alps in spring--,march--,april--,may--,june4 ,the spring time-table4 ,summer and autumn ski-ing4 ,summer ski4 ,x4 ,,mountain ,,photography #dga ,by ,,sydney ,,spencer ,camera and apparatus--the choice of subject--colour photography--stereoscopic photography4 ,,xi4 ,,mountaineering ,,in ,,tropical ,,countries #dgi ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,r4 ,,wollaston ,health and remedies4 ,equipment--food--canteen--clothing--fur niture --tents4 ,management--loads and packing--trade goods1 natives1 etc4--carriers--camps1 and things in general4 ,,xii4 ,,mountaineering ,,in ,,the ,,arctic 7,,spitsbergen7 #dig ,by ,sir ,w4 ,,martin ,,conway ,modes of access--plans of campaign--from the coast--into the interior--exceptional phenomena--summary1 cost1 etc4 ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,caucasus #ejf ,by ,,harold ,,raeburn ,topography--literature--routes of access--modes of travel--centres--equipment--organization --maps--expense4 ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,mountains ,,of ,,corsica #eag ,by ,,george ,,finch ,season--equipment--centres1 access1 and topography--nature of the climbing4 ,,xv4 ,,the ,,himalaya #ebb ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,,longstaff ,general considerations--configuration--condition s--conduct of the campaign--season4 ,chief districts--,eastern ,himalaya--,sikkim--,nepal --,kumaon and ,garhwal--,tehri ,garhwal--,simla ,hill ,states--,kashmir and ,karakoram--,hindu ,khush1 etc4 ,personal matters--expense--outfit--food --the high camp outfit--clothing--instruments4 ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,mountains ,,of ,,norway #ecf ,by ,w4 ,,cecil ,,slingsby ,guide-books and literature--season--routes of access1 travel1 etc4--expense--equipment--guides--topogr aphy--local conditions4 ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,southern ,,alps ,,of ,,new ,,zealand #edh ,by ,,malcolm ,,ross ,routes of access--local conditions1 guides1 etc4--topography--flora and fauna--glaciers4 ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,pyrenees #eef ,by ,,claude ,,elliott ,topography--centres--guides--maps--huts and inns--equipment--expense--literature4 ,,xix4 ,,the ,,rocky ,,mountains #egb ,by ,a4 ,l4 ,,mumm ,topography--the ,c4,p4,r4 district--the ,selkirks--guides and equipment--the ,northern ,selkirks--the ,purcell range--some minor ranges--the main chain from ,laggan to ,jasper--the groups east of the main chain--the main chain north of the ,g4,t4,p4--modes of travel--outfit--season--the annual camps--access1 cost1 etc4 ,,index #eic ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,the ,,alps ,frontispiece ,from a ,photograph by ,,sydney ,,spencer ,,facing ,,pages ,,knots ,,for ,,use ,,in ,,alpine ,,ropes #ib1 #id1 #if1 #ih ,from ,photographs by ,o4 ,,eckenstein ,,rock ,,and ,,ice #bhj ,from a ,photograph by ,,sydney ,,spencer ,,mountain ,,architecture #cgj ,from a ,photograph by ,c4 ,f4 ,,meade ,,snow ,,ways #cih ,from a ,photograph by ,,jean ,,gaberell1 ,thalwil ,,the ,,himalaya #ebb ,from a ,photograph by ,c4 ,f4 ,,meade ,,norwegian ,,peaks #ecf ,from a ,photograph by ,,norman ,,collie ,,in ,,the ,,text ,,page ,,tricouni ,,boot-,,nails #hc ,,ice-,,axe #ib ,,diagrams ,,showing ,,slopes #dbf ,,sketch-,,map ,,of ,,part ,,of ,,cis ,,and ,,trans-,,caucasia #ejg ,,sketch-,,map ,,of ,,the ,,pyrenees #eeh ,,mountain ,,craft ,,chapter ,i ,,management ,,and ,,leadership ,a party consists usually of from two to four climbers1 exclusive of guides4 ,a larger number inevitably divides into two or more units for mountaineering purposes4 ,the management devolves upon the most experienced mountaineer4 ,his selection as leader1 in this sense1 is more often than not tacit and unexpressed1 especially among ,british climbers4 ,over-management is fatal to the effective co-operation of a party2 and a formal selection of a leader#a1 or a precise insistence upon the performance of particular duties by individual members1 may only disturb the pleasant relationship of friends on a climbing holiday4 ,if a man is not felt to be qualified as leader by personality and experience1 no vote will make him so4 ,large or democratic parties1 of equal inexperience1 can carry out very delightful sub-alpine wanderings without leadership4 ,if they attempt serious mountaineering1 it is usually at the cost to their friends of sleepless nights and of expensive search parties4 ,among men of equal experience1 equally able to grasp a situation and to co-operate without words of command1 the duties of leadership are slight and their operation never obtrusive4 ,experience teaches them to accept1 as a matter of convenience1 the management of their daily routine by some one of their number1 and to acknowledge1 as a matter of security and of economy of time1 the leadership of the most expert in the incidents of the climbing day4 ,in a pursuit so exacting as mountaineering1 charged with the unexpected and dependent upon continuous harmony of action for its ordinary progress1 some such voluntary subordination is essential4 ,the leader may be only the focus of the collective opinion of an experienced party3 like the conductor of an orchestra he may not be equally competent to play all the instruments he directs2 but if there is no one to whom to look for the word1 in mountaineering as in music the time is lost and the harmony vanishes for easy and for difficult passages alike4 ,in parties of unequal experience the leader's responsibility is greater1 and his direction has to be the more formally and unquestioningly accepted4 ,a child has to learn to take his elders' #8yes' or #8no' as final in the crisis of some new experience3 there is often no time to give him reasons1 and his experience would be insufficient to enable him to convert them into the immediate action required4 ,but it is more difficult for a man1 possibly with a brilliant record behind him upon ,british rocks1 to accept a decision unquestioningly1 especially if he has been accustomed in moments of crisis to depend upon his own skill or judgment4 ,to delay1 however1 or to argue is as fatal as to disobey4 ,the leader may be wrong1 but his error will probably be on the side of over-caution1 since he will be consciously directing for a party that has not yet learned to work together4 ,to prove him wrong1 by the successful issue of our disobedience or disagreement1 is as destructive of the future harmony and activity of the party as to prove him right1 by its ill-success1 may be to the actual safety of the party at the moment4 ,a good-tempered party of beginners1 with a mild leader1 may continue to climb together on these undefined terms1 but there will be hesitation and consultation where there should be decisive action2 it will never grow fit for any serious expedition4 ,a leader of greater experience or shorter temper will clear matters up at once4 ,he will know that though his judgment may not be infallible1 the fact that it may be questioned at a moment of crisis must be dangerous4 ,a mountaineering party has to establish a habit of friendly discipline4 ,most young men when first taken out to the ,alps have had experience of this discipline in other pursuits2 but in moments of excitement the national spirit of independence1 or the instinct of self-preservation1 is apt to assert itself1 and these moments1 if they occur before the party is welded into a climbing unit1 may be fatal to its constitution4 ,a wise leader will insist on a reasonable discipline or suggest a dissolution as the lesser evil4 ,if it is the duty of the young mountaineer to learn to accept a constitutional authority for the good of his party1 it is that of the leader or manager to see that it is used only for the good of the party1 and to make it personally the less obvious1 the more it grows to be accepted in understanding4 ,an early alpine tradition1 historically traceable to the isolated and responsible position of the first guideless parties1 who had to face the dangers of the mountains1 still unfamiliar1 and the army of their hostile critics as if going forth against an enemy1 made the leader an absolute autocrat1 the commander of a forlorn hope4 ,many leaders of this type were frankly bullies1 ordering their friends for their good like old-time schoolmasters4 ,occasionally1 when one man was marked out by experience or personality1 the results were effective in climbing4 ,but the tyranny would not now be considered tolerable1 and under modern conditions it would constitute bad leadership4 ,knowledge of the craft is far more widely spread1 and the climbing attempted is of a standard that demands an equal share of responsible work from us all4 ,it is now recognized that the strength of a party lies in its collective capacity1 not in its leader as one outstanding exponent4 ,but the tradition still survives1 and some oppressed parties will still awaken in the casual climber a wonder at the large amount of hectoring they will endure from their leader compared with the little which his methods enable them to achieve4 ,,management ,,in ,,anticipation ,three things only are necessary for the salvation of a mountaineering holiday3 good health1 good fellowship and good climbing4 ,these three conditions are mutually contributory and interdependent2 and the last1 the declared object of the association1 is only attainable when the other two are secure4 ,it goes without saying that a good leader must be able to design and direct an ascent so far as the actual climbing is concerned2 but he will discount beforehand half his chances of successful performance unless he has learned how to bring his party on to the glacier1 at four in the morning1 fit in health and on good terms with themselves and one another4 ,sidenote3 ,physical ,well-being4 ,fortunately1 in dealing with healthy men1 special attention to the first condition of health is confined to the first two or three days of a tour4 ,after these are safely passed1 air and exercise and increasing general fitness take over medical charge and deal summarily with the beginnings of any lesser or local ailments4 ,there is no need to bother overmuch about the party before the tour commences4 ,of course men1 for their own sakes1 will come as fit as they can4 ,attention to the diet and1 if it can be got1 some regular exercise in the open air--walking1 running or tennis--may be suggested2 but ,i have never seen any particular benefit accrue from exercising particular sets of climbing muscles4 ,i return to this elsewhere2 and ,i would only make one exception here1 for a leader's attention4 ,some men1 especially as they get on in years1 are liable to cramp in the trunk muscles from the fatigue of general climbing1 and in the hands after severe rock-work4 ,in these cases it is well worth while recommending anticipatory #8local' exercises for the hand and forearm and for the walls of the trunk1 to keep the muscles supple and #8long4' ,dancing1 skipping1 fencing and wood-chopping are all worth mentioning to men who cannot get into the open air4 ,and1 above all1 the morning cold bath6 ,the first few days of the tour1 however1 are vital4 ,mountaineers are sound men1 and have usually only two weak points1 the feet and the stomach4 ,new boots or overwork attack the first2 unaccustomed food1 changing atmospheric pressures1 and revolutionary hours of sleep1 food and exercise upset the second4 ,for the feet precautionary measures are the safest4 ,in ordinary life we accept their constant service unconsciously1 and it requires an effort to give our own and1 even more1 other men's feet the additional attention they require on the first few days of any tour4 ,to see that the boots fit1 on the second day even more than on the first2 to make sure that one or even two extra pairs of socks are put on if any boot has become stretched after wetting2 to discover if there is any beginning of rub or blister1 and to check it by boracic powder or other ointment in the sock at once1 even if this means a halt in the middle of a climb2 to suggest bracing with cold water in the evenings or whenever opportunity offers2 in the case of anyone whose skin is tender1 to double these precautions3 these are some of the first duties of management4 ,internal chill is a constant risk during the first few days of exposure to unaccustomed changes of temperature4 ,damp clothes next to the skin are principally to be avoided4 ,a spare vest1 flannel shirt or #8woolly' should always be taken in the sack1 for a change at hut or bivouac1 even if the other clothes have to be worn wet or slept in4 ,in a hut it is preferable to take the wet clothes off and to sleep rolled in a blanket1 even though that may be also damp4 ,during the day it is unwise to sit on damp or cold rocks4 ,a coil of rope may be used as a seat1 or a useful habit is to carry a small square of waterproof1 in which the spare shirt can also be wrapped4 ,when nearing the #8gte' or hut1 it is well to reverse the usual practice1 and go slow for the last twenty minutes1 so that the perspiration may dry gradually from the body while in motion1 and not after it is at rest4 ,by the fire in the evening1 during the snooze on the summit1 and especially in an enforced bivouac1 the stomach is the vital point to protect4 ,in case we get benighted1 any spare clothes1 or even paper1 should be wrapped round the stomach4 ,the coat should be taken off and fastened round the shoulders outside the arms1 so as to concentrate all the body's warmth within it4 ,the feet can be put in a rucksack4 ,if possible1 the boots should be kept on1 to avoid their freezing hard4 ,if they have to come off so as to save the feet from frost-bite1 they should be sat upon1 to keep them soft4 ,wind is another enemy to guard against while resting during the day or sleeping out1 and a light wind-cloak is a sound protection4#b ,on returning to the hotel1 a hot bath1 if procurable1 or a hot sponge-down1 should always be taken2 it not only clears the pores and supples the muscles1 but it restores the normal circulation and removes congestion1 due to great exertion and changing temperatures1 which often produces a general feeling of discomfort1 especially in the head4 ,sidenote3 ,food4 ,care in the choice of food1 discouragement of the inclination to starve during the day and to overeat in the evenings1 insistence upon a regimen to get the subconscious stomach working by its new time-table1 and1 in case of failure1 the employment of the simple domestic remedies at once and in time1 these are all indispensable during the first days4 ,but their observance cannot be left without prompting to the individual discretion4 ,especially is this the case in looking after young mountaineers1 who are unacquainted with the treacherous dealings of odd meals and broken sleep at high altitudes4 ,in the matter of the choice of food the leader has to overcome the repugnance natural after a satisfying evening meal to attend himself to all the rather messy details of provisioning for the next day4 ,no guide or hotel-keeper can be trusted to do this4 ,during the first days of hard exercise the average man will eat but little solid food1 and turns from meats and tins such as hotels love to load into the sacks4 ,he has to be tempted with sweet-stuffs1 jams 7the small tins are irresistible71 chocolate1 and meat-essences and eggs for support4 ,the disposition to eat little during the effort of the first days1 and to eat largely in the reaction of the evenings1 has to be countermined by the offer1 at not infrequent intervals1 of pleasant luxuries that go down easily4 ,it is old-fashioned and entirely wrong1 especially with young people1 to give them only what used to be termed wholesome1 nourishing food4 ,in healthy open-air conditions the body knows what it wants1 and the palate interprets the desire4 ,food that is not palatable or eaten with pleasure is of little benefit1 and cloying sugar compounds1 the best muscle fuel1 become again surprisingly attractive4 ,after the new regimen has become a habit the air and the exercise will make almost any food welcome1 and at any time2 but even then the secret of vigour is still plenty of sweet-stuffs4 ,one of the small matters that contribute almost absurdly to maintaining the good spirits even of a trained party is the production at suitable or surprising moments of small indulgences--chocolate1 raisins1 preserved fruit1 honey or sweet-meats4 ,they weigh little1 but the body's appreciation of and response to differences of food is exceedingly fine when it is making great exertions1 and their immediate effect upon muscle and spirit is as rapid as that of stimulants in ordinary life4 ,a whole summer tour in a bad season of soft snow has been lightened by a large bag of acid drops reappearing each day at weary moments with a new delight4 ,in the plains ,i am myself a small and careless eater4 ,but among my mountaineering memories days of fierce sun-glare on interminable white passes still remain rosy with the recollection of #8a raspberry-jam snow' or golden with the cool glow of a tin of yellow plums scooped up with ice-splinters4 ,good management will consider no such detail of provisioning too small for attention4 ,and it is not sufficient to order3 each bag or packet should be opened1 to see that the order has been fully executed1 before the sacks are packed4 ,sidenote3 ,thirst4 ,thirst is another difficulty at the beginning of a tour4 ,to a large extent such thirst is merely feverish2 it is impossible of satisfaction1 and to indulge it swamps and upsets the human machinery4 ,some resolute men1 to avoid the delicious temptation1 train themselves not to drink at all during the day2 and then make it up in the evening4 ,but a certain amount of liquid is as essential1 in action1 as a certain amount of food1 and the moderate habit has to be acquired by practice4 ,the exact amount necessary1 as distinguished from acceptable1 varies with the individual4 ,the merely feverish thirst of the first day can be dodged by letting water run through the mouth1 swallowing1 as a special indulgence1 only a mouthful or so4 ,sucking a prune-stone1 or even a pebble1 keeps the saliva flowing and is a consolation on hot snowy tramps4 ,to the same end1 of prolonging the pleasant assuaging process1 devices such as sipping water slowly from a pearl-shell or cup cool to the eye1 chewing orange peel1 sucking a lemon or tea or wine slowly through lumps of sugar1 or crushing a handful of snow till it becomes an ice-pear in the hand and then sucking the end of it1 are all worth remembering4 ,meat-fed men do not require strong stimulants4 ,a little wine in the water1 chilled by snow1 is often pleasanter to the taste than water alone4 ,mountain water has often a flat flavour of cold stones1 or recalls the flask or pouch in which it has been carried4 ,wine removes this suspicion4 ,spirits should be kept for a last resource1 for cases of injury or collapse1 and then used only if the head is not affected4 ,their stimulus1 under the conditions of climbing1 is too evanescent to be of any service2 the reaction is almost immediate1 and the resulting condition worse than before4 ,cold tea and cold coffee are popular beverages3 or the juice of many lemons can be carried in a small aluminium flask1 to mix with the chosen blend4 ,sugar lessens the quenching power4 ,if sugar cannot be dispensed with1 a lemon squeezed into the tea restores its effect upon the saliva-ducts of the mouth4 ,snow1 crushed ice or water can be added as the supply diminishes4 ,the danger of drinking snow water is1 in my view1 a superstition disproved by experience4 ,its supposed ill effects are usually to be traced to the amount of cold liquid actually consumed rather than to its character4 ,some men prefer to take their liquid in the form of snow sprinkled over any food they eat4 ,this is an excellent way of making food of all kinds palatable in the early stages of a tour1 while the disinclination for solid food lasts4 ,a device that never fails to entice even the youngest mountaineer past the clogged-up #8can't eat' phase of early training1 is to make a small hollow in the snow1 empty a jam-tin into it1 and mix the jam with loose snow into a fruit ice4 ,in colour1 flavour and immediate effect it is one of the few undisputed additions that the ingenuity of man has been able to make to the charms of the mountains4 ,a good manager should never fail to remark a man who is constantly stopping to drink at passing streams4 ,spartan example in abstinence will do much to check him1 but if this fails1 he must use his wits to substitute one of the devices mentioned1 so as to save the man's interior without injuring his feelings by direct comment4 ,sidenote3 ,smoking4 ,smoking ,i believe to be a question for personal decision4 ,i have never found the moderate indulgence in pipes or cigars affect wind or training in the slightest degree during the hardest days4 ,the rule that halts should be few and short ensures moderation2 for smoking during actual climbing is all but impossible4 ,one famous mountaineer prefers to light a pipe before any particularly hard problem1 but experiment suggests that the art is not worth learning4 ,it is uncomfortable for the lungs and costly in pipe-stems4 ,a pipe makes a good temporary substitute for food1 drink or sleep4 ,it comforts many cold moments of waiting and makes a soothing counsellor in difficulties4 ,ability to smoke1 and consequently to sustain his part in the effortless silence which characterizes the true comradeship of mountaineering1 should be among the qualifications of any climbing companion4 ,sidenote3 ,ailments4 ,a manager's functions are precautionary rather than corrective4 ,it is well that he should know something of medical treatment and of first aid4 ,but advice under these headings is best obtained from the many good handbooks4 ,from them he will learn how to use the contents of the pocket medical and surgical cases without which no party should ever attempt to climb4 ,without trespassing upon their special province1 there are yet certain practical observations and precautions which a manager should make and take as part of his routine4 ,the readiness or unreadiness for food1 and the disposition to drink or abstain between halts1 are useful indications of the extent to which a party is coming into condition1 and a leader must observe them and take them into account in his choice and conduct of the next climb4 ,the desire to drink early in the morning is a sure sign that a man is slightly #8feverish1' or that he has not slept well1 and his condition must be mentally noted4 ,a sudden inclination to sleep at odd moments usually means that the nerves are exhausted by some shock or by over-long strain4 ,the desire to sleep should be indulged1 and a condition of lower vitality must be temporarily allowed for4 ,the slight trembling of the knee in the tension of climbing that often recurs at the beginning of a tour is1 of course1 only a purely muscular sign that the leg muscles are out of training4 ,it will pass in the first few days1 but it cannot afford to be entirely neglected4 ,while he is liable to it no man should be allowed to lead a difficult passage4 ,many men suffer at first from violent headaches above a certain height1 often with giddiness and an inclination to #8mountain' sickness4 ,this occurs more particularly on snow2 usually it passes off after the first few days1 as the changes of altitude become customary4 ,in these cases1 during the initial period1 constant supervision is needed in the matter of food1 of bodily regimen1 and above all of pace4 ,easy going is the best precautionary treatment4 ,wet handkerchiefs round the head1 and bending forward whilst walking1 so as to ease the heart's action1 often afford partial relief2 to cough1 or hold the breath1 gives a momentary respite4 ,rests are of little use1 and often increase the pain4 ,the attack should cease at the particular lower level which suits the individual circulation4 ,if it persists1 a hot bath will cure it for the night4 ,half the sickness that so often spoils climbing or camping parties during the first few days is due to an interrupted or irregular habit of the body1 such as is imposed by the new topsy-turvy time-table and the unfavouring conditions of living4 ,a leader must let no reserve stand in his way1 especially with young climbers1 in warning against this risk or in securing its immediate correction4 ,frost-bite is an insidious enemy3 it attacks young people of weak circulation without any warning of pain and at very short notice4 ,inexperience treats it as just a passing numbness and not worth mentioning4 ,i have known only one hour's walking over cold autumn snow1 on the way up to a hut in the evening1 to take all life out of a hand2 and it took us another hour's hard rubbing to restore the circulation4 ,there should always be spare gloves and socks in all of the sacks2 and1 until he knows his men1 a manager should insist upon instant notice of a finger or toe that has #8no feeling in it4' ,immediate and continued friction with snow or brandy is the remedy2 but it must be applied at once4 ,the limb affected should be lifted and kept up4 ,fires and warm rooms should be avoided4 ,when fingers or toes have once been1 if only partially1 touched1 they are more liable to a return4 ,extra socks and gloves should then always be worn4 ,a mitten1 with or without a glove1 is of comfort where the climbing is too difficult to permit of the use of #8fingerless' snow-gloves4 ,cold is not only a danger as it produces local chills or frost-bite1 it also has an immediate deleterious effect upon the general climbing power and confidence4 ,wind1 in this respect also1 is the greatest enemy of the climber4 ,the muscles generate their own warmth1 which is the body's energy2 but once they get chilled from outside by wind or cold1 they lose a great part of their power4 ,a cold limb should at once be rubbed2 and1 as a precaution1 clothes should always err on the side of being too thick rather than too light4 ,the human body can endure great windless cold1 but little cold wind4 ,with the chilling of the muscles the nerve and will-power diminish also4 ,for the reactions of cold1 local and general1 a leader must be always on the watch4 ,the sun has three dangers for inexperience4 ,snow-blindness rarely gives warning4 ,it is often only painfully realized on the following day4 ,therefore until a man knows the power of his eyes he should use precaution and put on coloured or smoked glasses when he sees the first flash from the prisms on glacier or snow-field4 ,but on rock coloured glasses are a great nuisance1 where they are rarely needed however strong the glare4 ,again1 in traversing snow-covered glacier such glasses are frequently an interruption to the observation of hidden crevasses4 ,further1 experience suggests that as many as a quarter of those now climbing really require no protection at all4 ,for others it would be sufficient to have their eyes blackened round with burnt cork4 ,for others again it would be enough protection to wear clear glasses over eyes so blackened4 ,experiment alone will find our individual equation1 and1 unfortunately1 the experiment may often be trying4 ,but it is one well worth making1 on suitable occasions1 for the sake of the permanent gain if we find that glasses can be dispensed with4 ,if a man who finds he needs glasses has forgotten or lost them1 a mask should be made of any piece of paper1 with the smallest possible slits for the eyes4 ,he should also blacken round his eyes with cork4 ,if only a single glass is broken1 a paper or card1 with a minute hole1 should be inserted in the empty frame4 ,sun-blistering is as permanent and excruciating in its consequences as it is gradual in its attack4 ,it may be produced by the direct sun-rays2 more severely by light reflected from snow or water or diffused through thick mist2 less severely by wind and reflected light from rock or road4 ,grease is generally useless as protection2 colour salves1 as elsewhere recommended1 are the only preventive4 ,it is to be noted that the facets of the face most exposed to the reflection from the snow1 the underside of the nose1 the lips and the cheeks1 are usually given an insufficient allowance4 ,bathing in cold water is deadly1 especially to the lips1 once the skin has scorched4 ,one compensation for the loss of our complexion with advancing years is the lessening of our susceptibility to this infliction4 ,sunstroke in a mild form is constantly mistaken for mountain sickness1 for 8poisoning at the hotel10 and so on4 ,the surest precaution is to wear a loose handkerchief hanging from the hat1 to protect the neck4 ,the coat-collar can also be turned up4 ,it is excellent1 on all sun-glaring days1 to make a habit of filling the hollow in the crown of the hat with snow1 and1 when it melts and trickles refreshingly down1 of renewing the snow4 ,until men have got accustomed to being alternately baked and frozen three times a day1 they have to be reminded of these and similar small precautions4 ,in the event of slight sun-touches1 ice or wet cloths1 shade1 light food1 and no alcohol are the local treatment4 ,plenty of moisture outside and inside is essential1 and1 as for all other ailments1 rest4 ,sidenote3 ,bathing4 ,bathing in lake or stream1 or even in glacier pools1 is one of the most perfect rewards of mountaineering effort4 ,in the very early morning or at a night-start it is not advisable1 as it checks the necessary business of getting the bodily machinery working2 nor is it often desired at these hours4 ,during the day1 the inclination at great heights fortunately appears to diminish1 coincident with the disappearance of the opportunities to indulge it4 ,when the human machine is centring all its powers on the continuance of a single exceptional effort1 it has an instinctive shrinking from submitting itself to processes1 however delightful1 that will interfere with this concentration4 ,rest is a necessary interruption and must be suffered1 but short exposures of the body to hot sunlight upon cold rocks1 or in colder water1 in most cases do us more harm by producing a general relaxation than they benefit us by their momentary refreshment4 ,but when the main effort of the day is past1 and the body has no fear of calling out its last reserves1 the bathe on the descent is an indescribable delight and refreshment4 ,we may have still some way to go1 but to perform this we shall have1 in any case1 to summon up our energies afresh2 and at such natural moments of interruption the bracing impetus of a bathe will help to regulate our circulation anew and to store mind and nerves with new energy for the new commencement4 ,we climb for pleasure2 and when body and mind are working in harmony the pleasures our mind suggests are generally the remedies or relaxations our body needs4 ,if no water is to be found1 to get rid of the stuffiness of alpine clothes1 and to give all the skin surfaces a bath of air and sunlight1 is only one degree less pleasant or stimulating than a bathe in water itself4 ,caution at the same time is necessary in encouraging men1 and especially young people1 of whose circulation or heart we may have doubts1 to risk the intensely cold shock of glacier water upon baked and sun-congested surfaces4 ,it is perhaps worth remembering that the risk of actual chill is greater during the process of drying in cold air or wind after a bathe 7always a lengthy process in the towel-less ,alps7 than during the bathe itself4 ,it is unpleasant for the time1 but far warmer in feel and after effect1 to put on clothes without waiting to get dry4 ,minute attention to such details of provisioning1 health1 and regimen can be relaxed as a party of men comes into training and begins to know its business1 but it should never be entirely discontinued4 ,one day's carelessness in revising the food1 or the disregard of a cold toe1 a blister1 or a #8bad night1' may at any time upset the plans of a whole tour4 ,sidenote3 ,young ,folk4 ,in the management of boys and girls below twenty-two or so1 it is impossible to exercise too much care4 ,boys especially1 whose activity depends upon the impulse of their interest and rarely settles to an automatic rhythm1 may #8shut up' with startling suddenness1 both mentally and physically4 ,nor can our observation tell us for certain beforehand when they are really beginning to draw upon their reserves of vitality1 or when they are only getting bored4 ,they have no conception of economy in their movement1 so long as the impulse of excitement lasts4 ,as the interest of a climb diminishes1 on the evening tramp or the prolonged snow slope1 their mental vivacity may die down1 and with it ends their energy4 ,at such times1 if they have not been allowed actually to exhaust their physical strength1 they will revive as rapidly in response to a new mental stimulus1 of talk1 or sight1 or varied exertion4 ,in their case it is the mind that calls for first attention and first aid4 ,girls move less on springs and more by rhythm4 ,their activity is less reflective of external stimulus1 and less dependent upon mental impulse for its continuance4 ,they have not the boy's natural armour of nervous sensibility against overwork4 ,it is1 therefore1 more possible in their case to watch the degree of positive physical fatigue in outward signs1 and to anticipate more exactly the moment of exhaustion by suitable measures4 ,though their endurance is on the whole greater than that of boys1 or at least fluctuates less in proportion to the amount of mental distraction or interest present in the physical effort1 the effects of over-fatigue are more lasting4 ,with both boys and girls1 the only safe precaution is to allow very broad margins of time and distance1 to select climbs which both in difficulty and length shall be well within the powers of young growing bodies1 and above all not to be induced by the suppleness of youth or its momentary enthusiasm to make exceptions #8just this once' to sound general rules4 ,sidenote3 ,preventable ,humours4 ,the influence of the mind upon the body has its special concern for mountaineering management4 ,an athletic body1 if it be nervously constituted1 may be as susceptible of fatigue after two hours' walking on a dull road as after twelve hours on an exciting ascent4 ,mental distraction is as important as change of movement for the easy performance of sustained physical effort4 ,mountaineering owes for this reason to its infinite variety of motion and interest a record of feats of sheer endurance such as no other human pursuit or sport has excelled4 ,but not all mountaineers are conscious of their debt to this peculiar virtue of the hills1 or allow sufficiently for its full enjoyment in making their plans4 ,far more than any muscular strength or even physical fitness1 will-power is the dominant force in maintaining normal energy and in subduing abnormal accidi1 to which reference is made later4 ,the leader is most efficient who can best protect his party against influences that irritate the nerves and so interfere with the power or desire to bring the will into play4 ,men bored1 men irritated1 men disappointed1 men overwrought1 without pleasure in retrospect or prospect to refresh them1 lose the wish to throw off their mood4 ,it is against the causes of boredom1 the effects of exaltation or of disappointment1 that the leader has to take his precautions4 ,if1 in spite of him1 the moods are created1 he must be ready1 in anticipation1 to provide some remedy of distraction that can release the will from the oppression of the nerves and associate it in the effort to master the mood4 ,external distractions are the most effective4 ,the alarm of fire has been known to banish rheumatism or paralysis2 the sound of an avalanche electrifies a twisted ankle into painless activity2 the sight of the hotel round the corner cures exhaustion like a cold douche2 an ingenious conversational opening will carry a limping band over unconscious miles of extra effort4 ,anything that for the moment can release the consciousness from its over-mastering nervous affection1 nervous in effect however physical in origin1 enables the will to recover control of the muscles4 ,these external provocations excite states of anger1 interest or alarm wholly different in character and effect from passive states of irritation and obstinacy which are produced by the reaction from an internal consciousness of fatigue4 ,a leader will welcome them1 in fact1 as antidotes to their apparently kindred humours4 ,sidenote3 ,boredom4 ,it may be assumed that a modern leader will not make the elementary1 although traditional1 blunder of taking beginners or young people or women for their first expedition upon the weariness of snow trudges1 such as the traditional first tour up the ,zermatt ,breithorn4 ,but even with an expert party he has to remember that boredom is one of his chief enemies4 ,monotonous snow slopes1 long moraines before dawn1 long zigzags on the path when the excitement of the day is over1 make an undue call upon the will1 such as suggests fatigue to the mind before the muscles are really exhausted4 ,they are part of the day's work1 but they put a strain upon the temper of an untrained party that is more wisely avoided4 ,with the same danger in view1 a leader1 while he insists on early starts1 should not give his party too much to do before daylight4 ,men without guides lose endless time1 energy1 and1 worse still1 temper and tone in losing their way and their footing on the preliminary paths and glaciers in the dark4 ,it is better to start an hour later1 and recover half of it from the easier1 surer going of daylight progress4 ,but best of all for a guideless party is to reach the inn1 hut or bivouac in sufficient time the evening before to allow them to make thoroughly sure of their next morning's dark exit from the mazy streets and fields1 or of the easy route on to and through the nearer glacier4 ,men are irritable enough in the dark1 and if they cannot get going at once to a sure rhythm on a certain route1 their harmony of movement and mood may be impaired for half or all of a day4 ,of the means of meeting the special boredom peculiar to snow tramps1 something is said under ,snow ,craft4#c ,sidenote3 ,over-excitement4 ,during the early days of a tour1 on the other hand1 there is always the contrary possibility to guard against1 that the mere excitement and novel sensation of meeting difficulty may urge men beyond their strength and conceal from them that the limit of their endurance is already crossed4 ,when the nervous tension is over1 physical exhaustion sets in very suddenly4 ,the situation is awkward to deal with2 but physical crises are definite and yield to definite remedies4 ,the sympathy and efforts of the whole party are at once concentrated upon the victim4 ,fatigue is lost sight of in the greater common need and the supreme effort for which it calls4 ,the individual may suffer1 but the tone of the party1 if anything1 profits4 ,the leader may take comfort in this thought1 and also in the fact that even if a climb turns out unforeseenly sensational1 it has none the less to be carried through1 and that there is some cause for his gratitude if undue excitement will help to sustain a weaker member of his party over the serious part of the day1 even at the expense of an off-day on the morrow4 ,the effects of fatigue from mental suggestion or boredom upon temper1 will and1 ultimately1 energy are less preventable4 ,they tend to divide a party socially and to make them irritable1 carelessly reckless1 or obstinately languid4 ,mental tonics1 distractions and talk are less easily administered than helping hands4 ,but a leader1 whatever his own state1 has to pull himself together to anticipate or to meet the occasion1 and use all his tact to distract attention and create a new interest in anything but the individual consciousness of fatigue4 ,,leadership ,,in ,,action ,the manager as leader has a special responsibility to himself4 ,he is the stroke of the party4 ,like a good stroke1 while exerting himself to the utmost1 he has always to keep some strength1 nervous and physical1 in reserve1 to meet a sudden emergency or to vitalize unexpectedly depressing hours of dull return4 ,as a duty to the party he should save himself by making use of the stronger members1 should there be any1 to take something of his share of the more laborious and less vital labour4 ,a party which knows his value as reserve and management will save him1 for instance1 some part of his portion in the work of carrying1 of leading in soft snow1 or of easy step-cutting4 ,they too must recognize he has always to keep something in reserve for a crisis4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,collective ,confidence4 ,at the same time1 no matter what the crisis or his private doubts1 he must never appear1 if he can possibly help it1 to have called out his last reserves1 or to be feeling any diminished confidence in his own ability1 or in that of his party1 to force a successful issue4 ,he must1 too1 avoid mystery4 ,nothing is more nerve-trying in critical moments1 to men whose experience cannot measure the extent of a crisis1 than tense silence or too obvious self-control on the part of those who can4 ,it is better1 if the situation is genuinely serious1 to bring it down to a human level by blowing off a few words of violent commonplace expletive1 than to leave it in that daunting remoteness of gravity for which words are inadequate4 ,the more crucial the occasion1 the more does the nerve of the party centre in the leader4 ,their confidence in his confidence is a more important asset than their confidence in his skill4 ,the combined ability of a party1 each one confident in the others and relieved of individual responsibility by his sense of the general confidence1 goes further towards success in the solution of difficulties or the repulse of danger than the brilliant independent success which any one individual in it could achieve by reliance on his single skill and nerve4 ,for this confidence the leader is the focus1 and an important decision1 such as the resolve to advance or retreat in a given crisis1 should be guided by his estimate of the amount of confident capacity represented by the party at the moment1 and not merely by his opinion as to his own power to force the passage as an individual4 ,if he decides to turn back on a climb1 he should take the odium of the decision without fear of later criticism4 ,he knew or felt what the collective ability of the party was at the time in relation to the effort demanded1 and it is unimportant what an individual may afterwards think might have been his own chances of overcoming the particular difficulty 8had he been allowed to try40 ,if he continues the climb1 with the same consciousness advising him1 it must be his object to better the chances of success by stimulating the existing confidence into that cheerful humour in which men do their skill most justice4 ,sidenote3 ,keeping ,touch4 ,to keep in touch with every one of a party of friends1 so as to continue aware of the way in which their minds and their bodies are being affected by the circumstances1 is not easy4 ,on severe climbs it is all but impossible to prevent the rear men1 separated by lengths of rope and interruptions of difficult ground1 from remaining in ignorance of what is being done in front1 or of what is guiding the choice of problems which they are expected in their turn to surmount4 ,for this reason it is helpful to break the habit of silence which falls upon men dealing with serious work1--and which1 like the inclination to whisper in a dark room1 seems to have behind it some primitive feeling of fear of provoking further attention from unseen but very present forces1--and talk down the rope occasionally1 passing question and answer up and down1 and cheering the tail with a renewed feeling of unity and confidence drawn from the confidence of the leader4 ,with the same object in view1 wherever the climb allows it1 the party should be allowed to collect for a moment and forget in talk the depression or doubt inevitable to solitude1 before the leaders start again4 ,guides are great offenders in this respect4 ,they have no conception of the extra force given by a single united consciousness to a party1 of the means to keep in touch with it1 or of the help they themselves may draw from it4 ,they climb absorbedly ahead lost in the sense of their own responsibility4 ,consequently they often turn back1 from a doubt of their party or a lack of confidence to carry a climb through on their single responsibility1 on occasions where a good amateur leader1 with or without guides1 can feel himself justified in proceeding4 ,he is in a position to take the even chance of a turn of weather1 of the possibility of a return at a later and more unpleasant stage1 of the crossing of an exposed couloir or the ascent of a snow or ice slope down which there may be no safe return1 because he is confident in his knowledge of the condition of his party1 of their concerted action and reserves of strength and cheerfulness1 and feels that these are sufficient to carry them over the possible chances of worse weather or more trying conditions1 and to lead them through a longer day to a later descent even by another line4 ,he has to earn his right to his more confident decision in thus matching his men against the mountain by supplementing his single mountaineering experience and instinct firstly by his precautionary care for their condition and humour1 and secondly by his ability to keep in close touch with their collective capacity at any and every moment4 ,his reward will be their increasing confidence in themselves1 in him1 and in their united strength1 and the increasing power which this brings with it4 ,sidenote3 ,temper4 ,a mountaineering party1 when in action1 is dependent for its good-humoured and hearty co-operation on more than the external interests of the climbs1 however well selected beforehand and sustained1 on more even than its good health and food1 however well cared for4 ,it has to be welded into a fine instrument3 its temper is its strength2 and its temper has to be kept at just the right heat4 ,hot words on occasions will do it little harm4 ,men in a state of primitive well-being are apt to become elemental in temper4 ,a sudden crisis sets off a shower of sparks of language4 ,these do no harm4 ,no experienced man looks upon them as personally directed1 or remembers them when the crisis is past4 ,what has really to be guarded against is the effect of monotony in any form1 even the irritating repetition of some small unconscious personal trick4 ,slight resentments become magnified grotesquely during the long hours of silent effort1 especially of monotonous effort1 on snow1 glaciers or path4 ,any ordinary mountaineer will probably remember occasions when some trifling habit of a good friend1 some unintentional or momentary lack of consideration1 has taken advantage of the dull ending of a strenuous day to come back upon him irresistibly1 and fill him unaccountably with sullen growing resentment4 ,he may realize its foolishness1 but1 like the similar insistence of the refrain of some silly comic song1 it becomes part of the mechanical movement in which his whole being is for the time absorbed4 ,if he has been fortunate enough to escape such an attack himself1 he must at times have been aware of the dangerous electricity accumulating in some one or other of the members of a tired party4 ,it is the commonest symptom of fatigue4 ,a manager has to look out for this4 ,its consciousness will disappear with the sight of the hotel door1 and be secretly regretted on the morrow1 but in the meantime he has to prevent the unforgettable being said4 ,silence is his chief enemy4 ,it is useless to try and tempt tired men1 usually tramping in single file1 into agreeable conversation1 unless some happy accident of the way rests the mind with a new distraction1 but he has to seize any desperate occasion for casual remarks4 ,it does not signify what he chatters1 provided he is not inappropriately cheerful1 and shows himself at least to be completely and seemingly idiotically unconscious of any strain in the situation4 ,even if he draws the discharge of temper on himself1 he has averted all serious danger4 ,song is the best outlet since it fits in with the mechanical movement while it withdraws attention from it2 but song can only be employed when the ground allows of the feet moving in accord4 ,if he himself is one of the two between whom one of these smouldering irritations is getting ominously overcharged in the silence1 he has a harder task4 ,but he will have his reward if he can sacrifice his own humour to his sense of responsibility4 ,there is nothing more refreshing to an irritated man who has succeeded1 at last1 in forcing himself to make a suitably casual and unconscious remark1 than to watch the visible efforts of his friend1 suddenly deprived of his sure conviction that the resentment was mutually conscious1 to pull himself hurriedly together and answer in the lighter key4 ,both men are so fully aware that their savage humour is ungrounded and absurd1 that neither wishes to appear to be left alone in his folly4 ,temper is the one permanent peril to all climbing parties1 and it is never allowed for sufficiently1 or openly treated in its true character as a largely physical phenomenon4 ,men who have to live long together at great heights1 as in the ,himalaya1 or in great solitudes1 as at sea1 know that its outbreaks are practically uncontrollable1 and many an expedition has failed on its account alone4 ,it is best to treat it frankly as a necessary contingency1 and to take the only two precautions possible3 the one1 to make sure that the men know one another well enough to accept each other's abusive outbursts as a sick mood1 to be answered in like manner1 if they will1 but not to be remembered2 and the other1 to impress on them that it is the keen edge of silent resentment or sarcasm that leaves permanent scars1 and that blunt abuse or invective1 obviously uncontrolled1 clears the air like an electric storm1 and can be safely countered by retort as noisy and superficial4 ,it is superfluous1 no doubt1 to make these suggestions for what may be called the social conduct of a climbing tour4 ,but friends1 because they are good friends1 are apt to reckon too little with the severe strain put upon comradeship by the circumstances of their mountain association4 ,personality is tried by the realities of mountaineering in deadly earnest3 your good comrade in the hills is a very different man from your pleasant neighbour at the mountaineering dinner4 ,and just as there is no comradeship that can grow so intimate or lasting as that of men who have climbed long together1 and faced death1 storm1 fatigue1 success and failure in company1 so there is no compact which should be entered upon1 with more precaution1 or protected with more sedulous care in the trifles of its daily routine4 ,unless it be to men whom he is definitely initiating into the pursuit1 a leader should not give advice or make direct suggestions2 in fact1 the less he fusses or appears to be consciously setting the tone1 the better4 ,there is nobody so tiresome1 in daily contact1 as some one who is constantly being cheerful or tactful or managing4 ,example is the leader's medium for correction1 in humour as in action4 ,he must see to it that no loophole is left for discord1 in small arrangements as in small talk4 ,for this reason it is helpful to let each man look after some department3 one to see to the ropes1 another to the drinks1 and so on2 but it is a mistake ever to remind a man of his duty to the party4 ,management is the leader's business in the end2 and he should see to any omission himself rather than suggest forgetfulness by a criticism4 ,similarly1 as an instance1 in dealing with a foreign language1 with a new hotel or with a new guide1 the negotiation should be entrusted to one alone4 ,he may be chaffed afterwards1 but not interrupted at the time4 ,it is feeble in effect and rather humiliating to see1 as one often does1 two or more sedate ,englishmen effusively answering a head waiter in chorus1 or treating any remark that has to be made in a foreign language1 say to the guide1 as an occasion for a collective assertion of individual capacity to speak with tongues and of equal right to use them in giving orders4 ,again1 as a small instance of what ,i mean1 there should be no question of comparing the weights of respective sacks before a climb4 ,it is assumed that each man will carry what he can4 ,if a man is a poor carrier and intentionally lightens his personal luggage1 it is a blunder on all counts to ask him to carry more than he offers to take of the common provisions4 ,it may seriously handicap him1 and will certainly hurt his feelings4 ,as an exception1 however1 since it is no reflection on his comradeship1 a man who is found to be constantly carrying more than his share may be checked for his own physical good4 ,there are a few men who by development and disposition are unhappy unless heavily weighted4 ,they may be indulged1 especially with the charge of the agreeable extra luxuries4 ,once he has got his party started1 fit and fed1 and with no failure or dispute in arrangement or humour that may give room for later discomfort or irritation1 the manager has to be especially on the watch for the different effects on his men of the hours before dawn and of the hours of evening return4 ,the habit of talking before sunrise should be tacitly discouraged4 ,most men are inclined to surliness in the early dark hours1 which will disappear with the sun and improved circulation4 ,silence at this period is fraught with no dangers which the beginning of active climbing will not remove4 ,during these early hours mind and nerves and muscles have got to rediscover their harmonious working for the exertions of the day4 ,their process of adjustment should not1 therefore1 be distracted4 ,in the morning mechanical action and the automatic reflexes have to be re-established1 and the mind has to be induced to co-operate4 ,in the evening1 as has been shown1 when mechanical action tends to degenerate into monotony1 and muscular and nervous fatigue become master of the mind1 an exactly contrary line of action in management is necessary1 and the mind has to be helped to escape from the infection and to reassert its independence by intentional distraction4 ,sidenote3 ,abnormal ,moods4 ,but there are certain abnormal states1 unforeseen but inevitable effects of the direct action of mountain incident upon nerve1 harmony and energy1 which on occasion must be met1 and which should therefore be mentioned4 ,apart from preventable physical exhaustion1 and the languor and ill-humour produced by boredom1 there are several conditions of mind which may evilly affect the power of a party1 and for varying lengths of time4 ,sidenote3 ,reaction4 ,on the first splendid glow of success1 when the difficult ascent has ended triumphantly on the summit1 there follows a phase of complete relaxation1 of surrender to the simple realization of rest and physical enjoyment4 ,it is a period of indescribable sensations1 of imagination run riot1 and of will and self-control alike in abeyance4 ,when the subsequent descent is begun it is at first1 for many men1 a matter of real difficulty to recover complete control of their machinery1 and for the leader to reconstitute the different individuals into a single working unit4 ,for a time the pace must be diminished1 and the care redoubled4 ,precautions1 of remonstrance and doubled ropes and moving singly1 none of them possibly necessary in the same place with the party in working order must be put into force1 until the normal condition is regained4 ,the assumption that the state of mind makes no difference1 and that a party can descend as securely the final slopes that it raced up light-heartedly in the bracing moment of success1 is all too commonly made1 and only too frequently regretted4 ,sidenote3 ,disappointment4 ,if success has its short following period of danger1 disappointment has a longer and more insidious effect4 ,however necessary or admittedly correct the decision to turn back may have been1 the disappointment works afterwards1 often unconsciously1 upon each individual1 as he realizes his wasted effort and envisages his fatigue1 with now no excitement or bracing of hope to counteract it4 ,so come discouragement1 and careless treading1 and a resentful attitude towards precautions and manuvres which no longer have any triumphant object as their excuse4 ,any weakness in condition or humour will grow doubly apparent at such a time2 and as the disappointment is equally present in all minds1 it is impossible to pretend unconsciousness of it1 and often vain to attempt to raise the atmosphere by a counterfeit of cheerfulness4 ,mental and social tonics are for the time alike useless4 ,the condition has to be accepted as an indisputable lowering of tone1 which in its effects will prejudice the physical capacity of the party in many subtle ways4 ,since in this one case he cannot check the evil influence at its source in the mind1 the leader must employ every concrete mountaineering device to prevent its endangering the actual safety4 ,he must bring out all his reserves of spirit and technique to keep the party concentrated on the momentary details of their descent1 and redouble his own activities in order to anticipate or correct any slip or mistake that the lowered tone may induce4 ,on such occasions he can look himself for no relaxation of effort or release from anxiety until the rope is off at last and the safe path regained1 no matter how little conscious his party may like to show themselves individually of any depreciation in their skill or good-will4 ,sidenote3 ,over-confidence4 ,equally difficult to deal with1 and far more frequent in its appearance1 is the state of mind to which most mountaineers are subject--and guides also--who have accomplished a great climb successfully and are retracing the comparatively easy passages of the lower ridges1 glaciers and tracks4 ,conscious of their successful performance1 confident in their skill and unwearied muscles1 intoxicated by air and effort and fortune1 they are unaware of fatigue1 and the easier ground lulls their judgment into a condition of fatalistic confidence1 almost of exaltation4 ,danger1 obvious and immediate1 has become familiar1 and has been safely avoided2 they can neglect its threat when it is not so present4 ,they jump the bergschrund rather than look for the bridge2 they chance the unseen rock foothold rather than lose time in using the doubled rope2 they glissade the loose snow slope and scorn its possible avalanche2 the rope hampers them1 it is taken off2 and recklessly self-reliant1 a reliance that success has fooled them into thinking justified1 they rush the risks of hidden crevasses on the glacier1 of false steps or loose stones on the easy ridges1 with an abandon that it will make them shudder the next day to recall4 ,even the lower zigzag path to the valley is a danger in such a condition of mind4 ,safe as ,rotten ,row for the sure foot1 it has a dozen times proved a fatal trap for the stumble of fatigue or the careless swing of over-confidence4 ,few men can look back on a long mountaineering record without remembering some such evenings of mountain madness2 and while they blush 7let us hope7 even in memory at their folly1 they may wish they had had some cool leader to call them1 grumbling1 to their senses4 ,for while reaction and disappointment reflect at once upon the vitality1 lowering the tone and1 like a flat liquor1 offering little chance of reanimation1 over-confidence is an effervescence1 an overflow of spirits1 which can be more easily regulated by apt manipulation4 ,the leader must take control1 sharply and steadily4 ,he has little to fear from the effect of his interference upon a party in such spirits2 any resentment will be temporary1 and his own labour1 of repressing and directing a surplus of energy1 will be far less than in the cases where1 as has been shown1 he may have to provide a stimulus or even a substitute for its absence4 ,there is an insidious danger common to all these mental states4 ,as one of a party working together1 a leader must remember that he himself is subject to infection from a collective mood4 ,he may consider that his confident action on occasion is entirely individual and calculated2 or1 again1 he may be certain that his resolution to retreat represents only his own unbiased judgment2 and in either case he may be puzzled later to account for an obvious error4 ,he must learn to allow for his #8atmospheric' error1 the unconscious perversion of his saner judgment by some collective mood of his party4 ,the risk is very subtle4 ,a leader has no defence against it except to keep its possibility constantly in mind4 ,he must acquire the habit of challenging1 mentally1 his own opinions of the moment1 and of confronting them1 detachedly1 with the sternest of mountain precepts and rules of thumb4 ,the habit will stand him in good stead in moments of more dangerous decision1 of excitement1 and1 therefore of more probable collective infection4 ,it will at least check him from joining1 even in his most ecstatic moments1 in an unroped glacier stampede or in a #8go-as-you-please' skelter down a buttress2 it may save him some of the lasting regrets of the leader who afterwards recognizes that he has turned back prematurely2 and it will certainly protect him on many long tramps from that curious infection1 hours of united1 unreasoning mountain gloom4 ,sidenote3 ,hysteria4 ,from a fourth state1 actual hysteria or hill-shock1 a leader is presumably exempt4 ,it occurs more frequently among mountains than anywhere else off the battlefield1 since their conditions may put an excessive strain upon unaccustomed nerves4 ,old climbers are inoculated against most of its risks4 ,if a type of danger has once been experienced1 on any subsequent recurrence1 even faintly resembling it in character1 the consciousness flashes out at once to meet it1 in all its possible reactions2 the mind takes control of the nerve communications and blocks the way against any evil effects resulting from the sudden shock to the subconscious nervous system4 ,only an entirely unfamiliar form of danger or an unduly prolonged strain can rout the presence of mind of a tried climber4 ,but it is well to remember that every man has his #8cracking point1' and that this is sooner reached in the case of an uneducated guide1 however experienced1 than in the person of an expert amateur1 whose imagination will widen his experience4 ,it may originate in three ways4 ,firstly1 from exhaustion1 irritating brain and nerves until self-control is lost and any slight shock may cause the hysteria to break out1 either in the usual violent symptoms1 or1 more intimidating because less anticipated1 in silent tears4 ,exhaustion1 not fear1 is the basis4 ,if it has not been possible to anticipate the crisis by precautionary rest or distraction1 immediate inaction and quiet reassurance1 without remonstrance or contradiction1 are the best assistance to recovery4 ,or1 secondly1 it may result from sudden shock1 the realization of completely unexpected danger in a placid moment before the mind has time to assert its control over its own group of spinal nerves4 ,this is the moment of panic which is the terror of all who have the charge of collections of human beings1 in a theatre or on shipboard4 ,if the shock can be anticipated by even the briefest of introductions1 if a collective instantaneous realization of the danger can only be prevented by any method of more gradual communication of the news1 half the risk of panic ensuing is gone4 ,for if only the mind has the chance to realize the meaning of the news before the physical shock to the group of subconscious nerves has time to react1 it takes command2 and the man begins to act1 and even to overact1 for his own benefit if for no wider audience1 in accordance with his conception of suitable gentlemanly behaviour under the circumstances4 ,in climbing1 indeed1 there is often no time for such a gradual introduction4 ,but in climbing1 wherever danger is not cumulative1 and therefore gradual1 in its approach1 the peril is over and past almost as soon as the shock is felt3 for instance1 the rock has fallen--and missed the party2 the slip has occurred--and not pulled them down4 ,so much the leader has in his favour in meeting its after-effects of fear4 ,the crisis being over1 it is best1 if possible1 to pretend to ignore its existence altogether1 and to find some reason for a halt and for continued inattention until the nerves have had time to settle down4 ,if this fails1 the incident should be cheerfully recalled and discussed until its idea has become familiar1 and so harmless4 ,it is useful to remember that no individual panic1 and for that matter no form of extreme emotion1 can long survive the bland disregard of its existence by some one else in the same circumstances4 ,but if a repetition of the peril still threatens1 as might be the case after a rock or snow avalanche1 and therefore immediate movement is desirable1 the orders for action should be sharp and decided1 but quite impersonal3 they should neglect any individual more particularly affected1 and apparently be addressed to the whole party4 ,personal attention only tends to increase the self-consciousness and the self-pity which1 in the frightened man1 will be militating against the recovery of his self-command4 ,the third and most difficult manifestation1 that of hysterical obstinacy1 may be the outcome of a long-continued state of nervousness or of1 often1 groundless fear1 accumulating and indulged by self-compassion until it gets beyond control4 ,the hysteria takes the form of a refusal to move up or down1 and1 without any violent symptoms1 remains impervious to reason or direct remonstrance4 ,a halt1 and a deliberate disregard1 emphasized by general talk about some unrelated matter1 will often result in a gradual loosening of the tension1 mental and muscular1 and the beginnings of unwilling movement4 ,once the rigidity is past1 the rope and quick and not too gentle impulse will do the rest4 ,but if the situation does not allow of even so much delay1 stronger measures are necessary4 ,i have seen a guide use a startling slap on the cheek in an extreme case with good effect2 or a jerk on the rope1 that forces the victim to scramble to recover his own footing1 may break the spell4 ,in any case1 if the leader is unfortunate enough to suffer such inconvenience with a beginner1 he will be wise not to risk the like chance on a mountain a second time1 in both their interests4 ,sidenote3 ,vertigo4 ,what is called giddiness1 the paralysing effect of sheer height1 suddenly revealed1 sometimes produces unexpectedly a similar condition of immobility4 ,fortunately1 in this case it is not accompanied by the same objection to being moved into security by others4 ,habit also will remove the inclination1 sometimes felt on the edges of sheer walls or cliffs1 to #8throw oneself over4' ,this is another of the symptoms of slight vertigo4 ,in spite of its frequent and sensational appearance in narrative1 the inclination would seem invariably to confine itself to remaining merely an inclination4 ,giddiness1 the inclination to fall and the impulse to throw oneself over1 is the result of the inability of the eye at the moment to obtain an assurance that the body is upright or in balance4 ,when a child is learning to walk it tumbles all over the place4 ,then it learns to fix some point on a level with its eye1 and it can retain its balance in walking just so long as it can keep its eyes moving towards this point more or less on a level plane4 ,gradually it learns to get the same assurance from some distant point on the floor ahead3 its eye has been educated to reason from a diagonal as much as from a level glance2 and the #8semicircular canal' has been taught to interpret the message1 and convert it into automatic balance4 ,as it moves forward it shifts the point ahead1 unconsciously obtaining that the third side of the triangle thus formed by its glance shall always demonstrate that the other two sides1 the line of the floor and the vertical line through its own centre of gravity1 are forming an approximate right angle4 ,still later it learns to apply the same principle to uphill or downhill gradients1 where the line of gravity makes1 not a right angle1 but an acute or obtuse angle with the visible surface4 ,that is1 it learns to take the constant line of its own centre of gravity as the base-line of its triangle and not the fickle flooring2 and it still keeps in balance in movement by measuring the third side with its eye1 in order to be assured that whatever angle its body in balance is making with the ground1 be it uphill and acute1 or downhill and obtuse1 shall remain the same during its next movement4 ,even as men we cannot be sure that we are upright1 that is1 in balance--for our muscles permit us a few degrees of sway either way from our line of gravity--unless we are somehow in contact with the visible surface at two successive points in the line of direction in which we are moving1 be the contact maintained by the touch of our second foot1 by the hand1 or by the glance of our eye4 ,shut your eyes1 stand on one foot1 and you will have proof of this4 ,men accustomed only to walking on the level make a habit of selecting the rest-point for their eye some distance ahead4 ,consequently1 when they find themselves on a steep hillside1 where the fall of the ground below makes a wider angle with their line of gravity than their eye has been trained to estimate1 their glance wanders helplessly1 they lose their assurance of balance1 and they become #8giddy' or feel that they #8must' fall over4 ,but habit will correct this4 ,the climber soon learns to shorten his glance1 to accept a reduced distance between his two requisite points of contact4 ,the few inches of visible surface near his feet1 be it only the edge of a rock ledge or the curve of a snow wall1 projected against nothingness1 will serve him1 with practice1 as sufficient rest-point for his eye1 and give him the assurance that his body is upright and his balance secure4 ,wherever1 in climbing1 the angle of the surface is so steep that even these few inches of margin for the eye's reassurance are lacking1--for instance1 on a precipitous rock wall with only minute stances1 or on an almost vertical ice slope1--then1 by the nature of the case1 the climber can use his hands2 and from this second point of contact1 through his fingers1 the climber gets an even more concrete assurance of his balance than from the judgment of his eye4 ,there are cases1 however1 where the hands cannot or should not be used1 and where the eye is so far confused that it must divide its responsibility for the second point of contact with some other agent2 and for this we learn to use the second foot4 ,take the case of traversing along the summit of a narrow rock ridge1 or across a knife-edge of ice4 ,the hands are useless1 and the eyes1 unable to remain focused upon the narrow edge1 wander away into the depths4 ,the inexpert man will get giddy1 and will only save himself1 on the rock1 by crawling across on hands and knees1 thus forcing from his hands the assurance that his eyes refuse2 while on the ice he will get giddy and--not get across at all4 ,but the expert can step across either1 rapidly and securely4 ,in the first place he learns to focus his eyes undeviatingly upon the thin edge ahead1 or upon some fixed point on the same line with it beyond2 and in the second place he learns1 since an expert's eye is human and embraces a large field1 to divide its balancing duty with his second foot4 ,this foot1 advanced in the direction of progress1 provides a second rest-point for the assurance of balance quite good enough to complement the eye4 ,he strides out rapidly1 so as to shorten the doubtful interval while this foot is in the air1 and for assurance in this doubtful interval he trusts again to his fixed glance4 ,a blind-folded tight-rope walker balances on the same principle1 only he obtains his assurance from two points of contact even nearer together1 from one foot only just in advance of the other1 or even from one foot alone1 the two requisite points being then represented by his toe and his heel4 ,loose-wire walkers1 who apparently deprive themselves of all fixed points for their estimate1 substitute the pole or the parasol in their hands4 ,this their trained sense continues to adjust at such an inclination to the shifting but relatively fixed point of their feet as may always give their hand a second relatively fixed point of judgment by which they can estimate the angle that then body is making1 at any instant of rest or motion1 with the line of gravity2 and its leverage enables them to correct this angle whenever hand plus foot give warning that the body has so far departed from the line as to be entering upon the #8forbidden degrees4' ,the normal mountaineer1 however1 need never expect to have to do with less than two stable points of judgment1 for foot and hand or eye1 and these at least a few inches apart4 ,it is entirely incorrect1 therefore1 for anyone to assume that1 because he feels #8giddy' looking down from the top of a wall1 he is disqualified from high mountaineering4 ,some degree of giddiness would be excusable in any mountaineer1 however expert1 who might be asked to look down off the edge of a sheer wall1 where there was no handhold1 no room to shift a foot forward or backward1 and which was too vertical to afford any rest-point below for the eye4 ,if he were asked to walk along the wall1 he would probably do it cheerfully4 ,in mountaineering1 also1 we may count upon handholds when the eye is obstructed or the assurance of a second foot denied us4 ,we need only train our sense of balance to assure us of security upon a basis of narrowly spaced but still quite natural points of judgment4 ,and in the process of learning we shall find that we lose all inclination to giddiness4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,effect of ,height4 ,there remains one state1 of whose nature and origin we at present know very little4 ,it is generally called the #8psychological' effect of height2 which it almost certainly is not4 ,it has none of the bodily symptoms of mountain sickness2 and ,i know no remedy for it1 mental or physical4 ,it is simply that certain men above certain heights appear to lose some portion of their nervous energy4 ,training or habit seem powerless to restore it4 ,they become incapable of moving with the certainty or rhythm which are theirs at lower levels4 ,you can watch the effects in tentative1 slower movements1 a visible effort in balancing1 clumsiness with the rope1 insecurity in steps1 sometimes a vagueness or absence of mind1 as if the vitality were running low4 ,and yet the men will be most vigorous and competent mountaineers up to their limit of height4 ,liability to suffer from it appears to depend on no question of physique or of probabilities4 ,as its result many fine climbers on lower hills never achieve marked success in the ,alps1 and many fine alpinists1 including most guides1 are failures1 relatively1 in the ,himalaya4 ,if we were to go high enough1 we should probably find that every man has his limit of height1 above which no training or habit would enable him to climb with his normal vigour or efficiency4 ,but what concerns a leader in the ,alps1 or an explorer in higher ranges1 is to discover which of his party is subject to it1 and at what heights1 and make his dispositions accordingly if he is planning an expedition or series of expeditions which will exceed this limit4 ,otherwise1 just at those heights and in those situations where the greatest individual skill is called for and the least attention can be spared to others1 he will find that the symptoms will begin to put in an unwelcome appearance4 ,the mountaineer himself is rarely aware of his weakness2 he probably explains it to himself as a touch of passing mountain sickness4 ,it is only when he1 or more probably his leader1 notices that it recurs at the same height and that the symptoms are not physical or mental1 but affect the mysterious half-way region that we must call #8nervous1' that the true cause suggests itself4 ,a leader must watch every new member of his party1 and if he finds that he has such a height limit1 he must not take him above it1 if the ascent is severe1 or he must be prepared to give him much increased attention and shepherding until the limit is repassed on the descent4 ,,social ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,party ,the social and psychological conditions that regulate the relations of any collection of human beings associated for a common effort or pursuit are seldom taken sufficiently into account4 ,the interaction of individual temperaments in mountaineering and the reactions of common mood under the stress of elemental conditions or of great physical effort have1 in consequence1 seldom been allowed for in anticipatory organization or made a matter for previous agreement1 or for the acceptance of precautionary control4 ,when the crises have arisen1 it has been often1 consequently1 too late for remedy or for the exclusion of the dissonant elements4 ,this must be my excuse for sketching these superficial classifications of nervous and mental states that are as positive in their influence upon the success or harmony of a mountaineering holiday as the possession or lack of a developed trapezius major or a sound digestion4 ,explorers of experience sometimes recognize the importance of choosing men for temper and temperament as much as for physique1 and make their arrangements with this in view1 in practice if not in their printed records4 ,mountaineering is done under much the same conditions2 but its temporary1 holiday character leads us generally1 as we sit at home in the comfort of pleasant prospect1 to overlook in our arrangements the almost primitive conditions of temper1 health and fierce struggle under which we shall be living during our mountain association4 ,a mountaineer1 in the composition and management of his party1 cannot afford to neglect the action of health and condition upon temper1 or of temperament and mood upon achievement4 ,he must select men1 therefore1 not by their promise of the plains1 but by what he knows or concludes will be their conduct under the harder test of the heights4 ,if he has to take anyone on chance1 he must be on the watch from the first1 and1 if he finds he has made a mistake1 content himself with a less ambitious programme4 ,in big mountaineering no man has more than a momentary margin4 ,in less exacting work no man has a continuous margin of will-power1 nerve and temper1 to say nothing of skill1 for more than himself and one other4 ,every party of more than two should contain two men of tried nerve--that is1 of an experience that has learned to control the effects of shock or of fatigue upon the nerves4 ,every party1 for its own peace1 should contain one expert rock climber and one reliable iceman4 ,a good second-man1 or #8backer-up1' and a weight-carrier are invaluable assets4 ,these parts may1 of course1 be doubled in a single individual4 ,the ability to heal1 or cook1 or sing may be allowed to outweigh some minor defects--but not temper1 clumsiness or a sluggish vitality4 ,a manager has also to remember that that party earns the best success which works with the most collective good-humour and good-will4 ,with the object of maintaining the genial atmosphere that best resists local disturbances1 mental or physical1 one member of a party of three or four may well be either younger or less experienced than the rest4 ,rowing eights in training have discovered the merits of a mascot or protg1 whom the rest can look after and laugh with or at4 ,no party of men or women can quarrel if there are children 7not belonging to them7 of their number4 ,one considerably younger member of a party1 or one younger in the sense that he or she is a novice to the work1 and in so far is a child1 gives the climbing group the pleasant sense of centring round some one as a common care4 ,he is a permanent distraction4 ,in moments of excitement1 pleasure or fatigue1 every member of such a party unconsciously puts himself first into the new-comer's attitude of mind1 and speculates how the sensation will present itself to him4 ,the process provides our individual consciousness with an external interest that diverts us from the oppression of absorption in ourselves4 ,in a holiday party of four1 which is the best number for serious guideless climbing1 enabling the break into the ideal pairs for rock climbing1 and the safer combination for glaciers1 one member may well be an #8infant' or beginner of this sort2 but if such an element is included the #8breaking' must be confined to very safe passages4 ,in a party of three1 provided that two are thorough experts1 and one of these possibly a first-class guide1 and provided that no severe climbing is contemplated1 maleficent psychic influences may be combated by the inclusion of our less responsible third4 ,if serious work is in prospect1 the third must be at least strong and efficient2 in fact1 in parties of less than four1 considerations of skill or experience must always take precedence of purely social qualifications4 ,in a party of two1 for rock climbing1 both must be1 primarily1 expert1 and our social selection must be confined to this class4 ,for glacier work any party of two1 even though1 socially1 they speak with the tongues of angels1 must always be unsound4 ,the popularity of the party of two as a rock climbing combination compels us continually to reconsider its suitability under new aspects4 ,as a social companionship the association of two friends1 equally expert1 is ideal4 ,the association of two friends1 one of them less expert but equally competent to share in the responsibility for a joint decision1 is quite defensible4 ,but it must be remembered that any external feeling strong enough to interfere with the complete concentration of a leader upon his climbing reduces the efficiency of his normal standard and still more of his standard of the day4 ,his feeling of a particular responsibility for an individual1 other than his general responsibility to a party1 may act as a dangerous distraction4 ,a man1 therefore1 who climbs alone with a novice1 a younger person or a pupil1 towards whom he is in a position of personal trust1 handicaps himself to an extent that should forbid him to attempt any but absolutely safe and elementary climbing4 ,the usual risks1 even of merely external chance1 which he may take lightly for himself or for a second companion of equal discretion1 he may not take for his charge2 and the cheerful consent of an inexperienced comrade to #8share' in taking such a chance cannot be considered as relieving the single expert of any part of his exclusive responsibility4 ,if he has the sense of it constantly in mind1 the feeling turns to anxiety in moments of crisis1 and interferes with his coolness of judgment and with the nervous harmony upon which his skill depends2 at more ordinary times its presence materially biases his ordinary mental and physical climbing habit4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he undertakes such a charge1 and then does not keep it in mind in all his decisions and actions1 no one will consider him to have been a happy choice for the responsibility entrusted to him4 ,where the sense of responsibility is further complicated by an emotional relationship its debilitating effect is increased4 ,it is a commonplace of all active undertakings that relationship is irreconcilable with cool command and undisturbed performance4 ,similarly1 a father climbing alone with his child or children1 a husband climbing with his wife1 cannot preserve the nervous concentration or the emotional detachment indispensable for an unsupported leader4 ,whatever their normal ability as mountaineers1 in such a companionship both their discretion and their execution must be subject to a hundred distracting influences4 ,the disturbance1 even the danger1 of an emotional state in a member of a party has already been indicated4 ,in these cases1 however1 it is the leader1 whose business it should be to correct1 who is the man affected2 and1 further1 in a party of two so constituted1 where the leader alone is morally or by nature responsible1 no other can compensate for his abnormality or qualify the effects of his state or of his action4 ,in my view no mountaineer should ever climb alone with anyone less competent for whom he must be held responsible either by relationship or by delegated authority2 unless the climbing is so short and so safe that he can be sure of always safeguarding his charge against the ill consequence of any and every form of #8accident' however remote or unlikely4 ,practically this means that1 except for simple #8bouldering' or elementary1 separate #8pitch' climbs1 without the addition of a second fully competent mountaineer all parties of this description are unsound4 ,in larger parties it is wise to give full value to social considerations in selecting the members1 since we can always secure1 by addition or subtraction1 that any element of weakness introduced by relationship or private responsibility is balanced by a greater proportion of mountaineering skill4 ,but for combinations of two our first business is to make absolutely certain that each man is equally competent1 in his own and his friend's eyes even more than in the eyes of the world1 to take his full share of responsibility4 ,we may then1 if we will1 treat the separate contributions of skill as a collective whole1 and not quarrel with an expert who takes a less expert companion1 provided he be competent and responsible1 if by so doing he secures a wider field for his social choice4 ,,walking ,,manners ,there are several points of what may be termed walking manners1 common to all types of long mountain walking and not only to climbing1 whose observance contributes a great deal to the individual peace of mind during the early and late hours of a long alpine day4 ,men when they are off the rope1 or who have never been on a rope1 almost universally neglect them1 and are blind to the cumulative effect upon a tired companion's temper or upon their own humour4 ,every one thinks he can walk1 and most men never bother to discover why the excellent companion of the ,sunday afternoon ramble proved a failure on a long walking tour4 ,the first point of manners for the man in control is that of pace4 ,most climbers suffer from the weakness of increasing the pace the moment they take the lead on a path1 slope or glacier4 ,this is trying to the party1 consciously or not1 and wasteful4 ,a manager should either block the way himself1 or1 if he is behind1 keep consistently to what he considers the right tempo4 ,it is better he should be thought to be getting old or lazy than that the party should be rushed inopportunely4 ,a second and frequent failing is the #8half step' trick4 ,some fifty per cent4 of fast walkers1 whenever they walk abreast on road or path or hill1 persistently keep half a stride in front1 their shoulder just clear of their companion4 ,it may be due to some half-formed feeling of satisfaction in setting the pace and having a margin to turn round and talk from4 ,its effect is that the friend is perpetually straining to catch up1 and the pace thus steadily accelerates till both are practically racing4 ,then one gives up1 and both lag1 until the game starts again4 ,the habit is often unconscious1 but it is extraordinarily irritating on a long tramp1 or to a tired companion4 ,a third breach of manners1 all too common1 is passing ahead in the line of march4 ,over most broken country1 glacier1 snow or rough hillsides1 men naturally fall into single file4 ,cattle tracks or man tracks are rarely wide enough for two abreast1 and if it is a question of selecting a line1 it saves reduplication of the effort to leave the task to one and to drop in behind him4 ,there are few inexperienced walkers who do not take advantage of the slightest error in the choice of route on the first man's part1 to break off and pass him on the shorter line4 ,in doing so1 they take the responsibility of taking all the rest who follow off the line also4 ,on an ordinary hill walk1 when the going is all free and easy1 this is excusable1--no one is compelled to follow another longer than suits him2 as also in the case when the first man is obviously mistaken1 and to cut his line is a distinct saving of effort for those who follow4 ,but1 done as by one of a line of men either tired or with a big day before them1 where one has been taking the extra burden of route-selecting for the rest1 it is a serious breach of mountain manners4 ,the gain is probably only a yard or two1 and the front man may justly resent having been left the labour of choosing the route at a hundred points1 only to have advantage taken of his single doubtful choice in order to displace him4 ,he either runs ahead to regain his place1 and the rhythm of the party is broken in a silly competition none the less irritating that it is rarely acknowledged in words1 or he plods behind with a slight sense of injury4 ,a more debatable occasion1 where the same point comes into prominence1 is on the ascent of steep slopes or open hillsides4 ,an experienced front man will probably take these on a zigzag4 ,to a less experienced walker1 and to all beginners of energy and leg muscle1 it is generally a temptation to cut the zigzags on the direct line1 and so pass ahead4 ,this is bad walking1 but there is the more excuse for it in that on such slopes men rarely do follow each other exactly1 and most of the party will probably be preferring each to take his zigzag at the most comfortable angle to himself4 ,the best rule of manners to remember is that1 while every man is free to choose any line and pace he likes on such places1 yet1 if one man has been definitely leading and choosing the line1 the others ought to drop into their places in the line behind him again so soon as the single-file formation is resumed4 ,it is more politic to be considered a well-mannered tramp than to assert one's powers as a limber hill-rusher4 ,another blunder1 from which many a good walker is not free1 is the inclination to hurry the pace if the line or short-cut he has chosen takes the party for a while over worse ground1 or proves1 for other reasons1 not to have been the best route4 ,his almost unconscious acceleration is due to some impulse to get back quickly and unnoticed to good going1 and so to slur over the mistake1 or the momentary disagreeability of the route for which he is responsible1 as much to himself as to those who follow4 ,it is a trick to notice and avoid4 ,it forces the rhythm and pace over just the ground where it should1 if anything1 be eased4 ,men who walk much with parties which are afflicted with the #8racing' or #8passing' manias1 are particularly liable1 from a sort of nervous self-defence1 to develop this failing also4 ,a leader must not walk carelessly or break the rhythm of step arbitrarily4 ,the man who forces a plodding following to change feet unexpectedly does not know his business4 ,again1 when walking in single file1 or any way but comfortably abreast1 men inexpert in acting as guides do not realize that although the man in front can hear all that is said behind him1 yet that1 unless he turns his head over his shoulder and throws his words out1 he himself is inaudible down the line behind him4 ,as the remarks from the leader on a long tramp1 and when men are tired1 have usually some direct bearing on the way1 those behind him crowd up to hear2 they break step1 and are often put irritably on the strain4 ,the complaint of many a young mountaineer1 that his elder companion will never answer at all while walking1 usually finds its explanation in the fact that the young man's energy carries him ahead1 and as his remarks are addressed to the scenery1 his companion prefers consistent silence and inattention to the strain of trying to hear1 or to the irritation to himself and his friend of continually repeating1 8,what d'you say80 ,these matters may seem too slight to mention1 but neglect of their observance brings many a party home with some member or other out of harmony and unappreciative of the sunset4 ,in the grumpy morning start or during the evening tired return it is for such details that the manager has to be most on the look out4 ,he should1 if possible1 set the pace himself1 and keep it without questioning or remark to what he judges to be the best pace of the laggard of the day4 ,he should never let himself be pressed by some one at his heels1 race ahead1 or allow others to do so1 except for some specified and universally beneficial reason 7such as ordering tea ahead671 merely because the difficulties seem to be over and the way plain for the stronger members of his party4 ,there is no pleasure in being left behind2 it provokes a tired man and generally makes him obstinately slower4 ,it used to be said1 and by the best authorities1 that with a tired or tramping party it is essential to keep the pace always the same1 or they will lose the rhythm that alone can keep them going4 ,this is a mistake4 ,in the first place1 variations in pace are a rest in themselves1 provided that the actual effort put into each step does not vary4 ,in the second place1 it is definitely more fatiguing to be held back to a fixed pace on a sudden downhill gradient2 and it is vexatious to pass from a long uphill grind on to a level stretch without the relief of a #8swing out4' ,similarly1 it is futile to change from a level to an uphill gradient and attempt to keep a party to the same rate4 ,the mistaken teaching has been due to a confusion between actual rate of movement over the ground and the amount of effort required for each step4 ,rhythm is essential to ensure good tramping1 and to minimize fatigue4 ,to secure rhythm the amount of effort put into each step1 and not necessarily the pace1 should be kept constant4 ,thus1 in changing from uphill to level ground1 the pace can be pleasantly quickened and the step lengthened1 without any increase of effort in the stride or any change of rhythm4 ,a longer stride is often a positive relief4 ,in changing from level to uphill the length of the step shortens1 since a lifting step is always more fatiguing1 and the pace should be taken more slowly1 though the output of effort is kept the same4 ,on a change to a downhill gradient it is possible to change to a longer stride1 or even a run1 without altering the rhythm or increasing the amount of effort exacted of the muscles or of the lungs4 ,in resuming1 after a halt1 a frequent error is to start too fast4 ,young climbers1 like young giants refreshed with wind1 rush off at top pace4 ,the re-start should always be slow--if anything slower than the average pace before the halt4 ,gradually1 as the circulation and organs begin to readjust themselves to their work1 the previous pace can be recovered4 ,but a halt is definitely making reparation for the past1 not accumulating a margin to waste in the immediate future4 ,when the energy of the party is running out1 it is better to avoid halts altogether4 ,to break the rhythm in such case and relax the mechanism is to make the resumption each time more difficult and the recovery of an equal rate afterwards very improbable4 ,to lead and choose the line is definitely more fatiguing than to follow4 ,to save strength and maintain pace1 during a long day1 the leader ought to be changed at regular intervals4 ,this is too rarely done4 ,sidenote3 ,some ,notes on ,hill ,walking4 ,there are one or two further points connected with walking up or down hill which are matters of method rather than of manners1 but which in so far as they affect the individual comfort react upon the peace of a party4 ,in walking uphill1 the foot should always be placed so that the heel rests on the ground4 ,it is a beginner's mistake to rush a hill and spring from the toes alone4 ,if the flex of the ankle is stiff--men vary much in this respect--and the gradient is too steep to allow the heel to drop1 look out for any little stone or excrescence1 however small1 to set it upon4 ,if the path is very steep1 and without stones1 it is more comfortable to set the foot slightly sideways1 so that the heel gets some support4 ,this is often particularly useful at the turns of the interminable zigzags on alpine paths1 where the track is apt to swoop up steeply round the bend4 ,if the foot is thus placed slightly aslant at every turn1 it is ready to advance at once after the bend in the direction of the new zag4 ,a very slight economy1 you may say3 but multiply it by several thousand zags in a day6 ,always take the outside and easiest line round such curves in ascending tracks4 ,the secret of all long grinds uphill is to set1 and maintain1 a regular pace that becomes rhythmic from the first4 ,the moment you get behind a good hill walker1 you will see the difference between his regular1 restrained swing1 more of the whole body than the leg1 and the uneven jumping step1 that seems each time to be a separate balancing effort1 of the inexperienced walker4 ,do not take long steps uphill1 or lift the foot high4 ,raise it by slightly swaying the body across the firm leg and let the loose foot swing forward with its own weight4 ,a good hill walker1 of the #8tireless' variety1 always moves with a slight balance or sway4 ,always #8accept a slip4' ,that is1 if the foot slips back on a loose surface1 do not tire the muscles by a convulsive effort to stop it and to keep your balance4 ,let the foot go till it stops of itself as the topple of your weight1 out of balance1 comes upon it2 and then swing from that point with the other foot4 ,the effort you put into each step should be kept the same1 whatever the change in the angle of the surface4 ,if you are leading and doubtful of your pace1 try to sing4 ,so long as you can sing or whistle two lines without panting or effort1 you are keeping within your measure4 ,on a zigzag uphill1 do not take the apparent short-cuts4 ,they are made by men descending1 and only waste strength and spoil rhythm4 ,on an open hillside1 zigzag as if on a path1 starting at the angle which lets you comfortably get the heels down4 ,for a step or two1 if there is no room to zag1 you can walk with only the one heel down1 and the other foot springing from the toe2 but not for more4 ,if circumstances make it imperative to go fast1 lean well forward over the feet1 and as it were #8tumble up' the slope4 ,this eases the work of the heart4 ,if you have to race1 and legs and breath begin to give out1 make the hands do their share1 and unashamedly pull the knees up to the stride by the breeches4 ,you can thus keep a long uphill stride at a fast pace going long after the leg muscles1 unaided1 would have given out4 ,in descending take the shortest cuts you like4 ,there are two weak points to look to3 one the toes1 and the other the muscles of the back1 which do most of the balancing4 ,the toes are protected by well-fitting boots and a well-placed foot4 ,the back muscles are best indulged by letting the shoulders go loose1 as you do when jog-trotting on horseback4 ,this eases the effort of balance and the amount of holding back and taut that the muscles have to perform4 ,it also diminishes the jar4 ,except for grown men1 of exceptionally strong ankles and knees1 it is best not to plunge #8all-out' downhill1 leaping straight-legged from heel to heel4 ,the legs should be kept under control1 and the feet pointed down and kept well under the body4 ,the knees should be bent1 tense1 but not rigid2 they will serve to take up all the jar1 and act as springs4 ,the step resembles a dancing pace1 with a bent knee4 ,do not be shy of using the arms and hands1 on trees1 rocks or scrub1 to ease in any way the effort of balance and the leg-strain during rapid descents4 ,an ankle or sinew once wrenched is permanently weakened4 ,long1 hard road-tramping1 with the leg swung straight1 is not a good preparation for climbing4 ,it jolts and stiffens the muscles1 and fixes them in certain stereotyped movements4 ,good climbing guides are rarely good or fast road walkers4 ,a long trudge often breaks them down and renders them unfit temporarily for severe climbing4 ,standing about on the feet while the arms are being exercised merely tires the legs1 and does not strengthen them4 ,many guides1 who work hard at wood-chopping or in quarries during the winter1 find their legs are all to pieces when the season begins4 ,the knees are especially sensitive in this respect4 ,a climber's leg machinery is a delicate engine of educated springs and fine interactions4 ,it can do a rough-and-tumble better than most1 at need1 but it should be guarded for its special and exacting work1 and not battered or shaken out of gear unnecessarily4 ,hill walking exercises and develops all the movements of foot1 ankle1 knee and trunk which we use in balance-climbing on rock or snow4 ,it is the best training for the fine and precise motions that we need to educate4 ,there is no doubt of the soundness of a man's climbing if he is seen to be a light and tireless hill walker4 ,he may not necessarily be brilliant on rocks1 but what he does he will do in good style4 ,if we wish to interest our young folk in climbing1 the surest way is to let them walk and run loose by themselves upon the hills in early years4 ,rocks will meet them naturally1 and if they are going to climb1 they will begin to climb them naturally as they occur1 with the feet and with the balance they have practised on their hill walks4 ,to take them to rocks too early1 as to a gymnasium1 is to spoil their taste and deprive them of the chance of developing a personal enthusiasm and a natural style4 ,every good mountaineer must rediscover the hills and the passion for climbing them as of himself4 ,,choice ,,of ,,district ,one consideration remains for the leader1 if it has not been already decided by the preferences of his party--that of the district he will choose for the season4 ,a few general principles may help to guide his choice4 ,the tour may be either concentric1 with ascents made from one or from a succession of centres1 or eccentric1 in which case the party will be moving forward and carrying its own luggage4 ,the first is the more luxurious1 the second the more attractive1 holiday4 ,the choice depends upon the character of the party and upon the weather of the season4 ,with beginners1 in a good season1 it is more instructive and independent to move along a range1 crossing passes and taking only the climbs that come4 ,the same progressive type of tour is the best to follow in a really bad season1 when the big peaks are out of the question1 for the time at least1 and when there may yet be a delightful holiday spent in wandering among the lower ,alps below the cloud-level4 ,even for those who may be ambitious of big peaks1 this is a better alternative than sitting cooped up with other murmurers waiting for the impossible in high hotels4 ,on the other hand1 in good but uncertain weather1 if the party is desirous of big climbs1 and has to economize its time1 it is better to move by express routes from centre to centre1 and to strike for the big peaks without loss of days1 when the good weather comes1 and while it lasts4 ,in more doubtful weather1 when the days are playing at #8alternates' but the peaks are still possible on fair days1 and when consequently we are not forced down to the pleasures of low rambling1 it is well to climb still from centres1 and from the hotel itself4 ,if1 indeed1 the party is aiming at a special peak1 it should occupy the nearest hut1 and provision it as a centre1 ready to start on the first clear morning4 ,but if1 as is wiser in a bad season1 it is wishful to take anything that offers1 it is even better to stay at the central hotel below--since peaks enclosing a valley are often differently affected by different kinds of weather--and the party is then in a position to set out at once for whichever mass first becomes feasible4 ,it can start overnight1 and so avoid the hut altogether4 ,the fatigue and romance of an all-night tramp are less prejudicial to the chances of a successful climb on the following day than the depression of a dull and stiff morning start after a comfortless night4 ,on the other hand1 there is no more memorable experience than to sleep out in the open air during a spell of settled weather1 with the stars for company and the first stir of wind before dawn as a strange awakening4 ,the man who wishes to taste the full pleasure of a mountaineering day should sleep out whenever he can the night before1 and he should lie far enough from his companions to be able to feel himself alone4 ,possibly the pleasantest holiday of all is obtained by a combination of the concentric and eccentric methods1 according as weather and inclination direct4 ,to wander forward independent of times and plans1 and to make pauses when we wish for more prolonged assaults upon peaks that tempt us1 is a twofold delight4 ,but it postulates leisure4 ,at home it is natural to base our calculations upon an estimate of a climb every day4 ,only when we are faced with the facts on the spot1 the distances1 portages and weather1 do we recognize that we are lucky if we can make two or three good climbs a week4 ,we must allow two days for each big climb1 and leave a margin for the off-days4 ,younger heads or less experienced legs must be taught this last doctrine for their own good4 ,the more practised will more easily recall that contrast is the essence of enjoyment1 and that the days of hard going on ice and heated rocks are only fully realized and remembered if they are relieved by occasional lapses into tranquil lounging in the grassy valleys1 amid the cool temptations of lemon-ices and clinking teetotal glasses4 ,if the party1 having settled its general plan1 has no preference for any particular district1 it may be guided1 in the ,alps1 by a few broad distinctions as between the best known districts4 ,the ,oberland offers the best opportunities for snow and ice work of almost all kinds4 ,for this reason the ,oberland is often the best choice in a moderately fine or uncertain summer when the snow has stayed late4 ,the snow slopes of the gentler ,oberland peaks are climbable when the big ridges of the ,pennines or the ,mont ,blanc region are still closed to us by snow cloaks and cornices4 ,on the other hand1 in a bad summer the weather is usually at its worst in the ,oberland1 and the long snow wades may become intolerable1 unless we are prepared to snatch a winter tour from a bad summer month by traversing the ,oberland1 with its high connecting glaciers and summits of easier angle1 on ski4 ,again1 the comparative easiness of the ascents and the training they offer on ice and snow suggest the ,oberland as a good choice for an introductory tour with beginners1 and as an equally good choice for the preliminary week's training in any later season4 ,there is no better introduction1 or reintroduction1 to alpine work than practice on the ice of the ,aletsch glacier1 varied by ascents of the snow and small rock peaks in the vicinity4 ,the ,pennines offer finer individual peaks1 with greater names1 and they are more specially adapted for those who prefer concentric mountaineering1 with bigger single efforts and the company of their kind4 ,their variety of type and aspect makes them suitable for selection in #8alternating' weather4 ,often when other regions are closed up1 and when even its neighbours are shrouded1 personal idiosyncrasies will keep some single ,pennine peak open for quick1 comfortable ascent4 ,the merit of the ,pennines is their mixed general climbing4 ,they have fewer great ice and snow climbs to offer than the ,oberland or ,mont ,blanc1 and their rock is inferior to the ,aiguilles4 ,the ,pennines of the west1 more especially the ,val d',evolna1 have the pleasant characteristic of offering short1 condensed and possible climbs in bad seasons1 when the bigger peaks are unapproachable1 and when the ,oberland may be indulging its habit of making bad weather worse4 ,they1 too1 are an excellent introduction to mountaineering2 but their miniature attractions have a somewhat dangerous fascination for ,british climbers1 whom they are apt to hold spellbound even in good seasons1 and withdraw from hardier and greater enterprise4 ,in a fair summer1 the ,chamonix ,aiguilles are the flame-points on the crown of great rock climbing4 ,for length1 and as a test of skill1 they have no equal in ,europe4 ,they also include some magnificent snow and ice ascents4 ,but it is their rock that marks them out as supreme4 ,as a consequence1 many ,british climbers make the mistake of going to them too soon1 before they are equal to their demands4 ,it is better to keep them as a great reward for labour when our developed mountaineering technique can enable us not only to overcome1 but to enjoy the infinite variety of problems1 and when we can feel not only participators in an ascent1 but masters of ourselves and of the difficulties throughout their exceeding length4 ,i have seen more than one of the most noted performers on ,british rocks and from the eastern ,dolomites1 men who could frolic up the ,grpon crack1 forced1 from pure muscular fatigue1 to ask for the rope before the ,grpon summit was reached1 and only rediscover the pleasure of the ascent of the ,dru a full day after their return from the traverse4 ,to men who can get all that they want of difficult rock in our own islands1 the ,dolomites of the ,eastern ,alps present fewer attractions in sunny seasons4 ,their greater distance is a disability1 and they offer small snow and ice practice4 ,but in bad seasons they are an admirable last resort1 and an escape to their warm1 dry and coloured levels1 or rather heights1 may send many a party1 disappointed elsewhere by ill weather of its alpine season1 home in good health and firm muscle4 ,the great southern wall of the ,alps1 from ,courmayeur to ,macugnaga and farther1 offers the greatest combined ice and rock mountaineering on the largest and most formidable scale4 ,for those who know its secrets there is also the attraction of many smaller ascents1 with the incomparable views as background4 ,but it is not a region for bad weather1 or for any but very competent parties4 ,early in the season the ,southern ,alps1 from ,savoy and ,cogne almost down to the ,mediterranean1 make an exquisite wandering-ground1 all too little visited4 ,in ,may and ,june we can often enjoy among them flowers1 clear climbing and free wandering1 long before their big northern brothers have shaken off their winter coats of snow and storm4 ,they retain much of the undiscovered charm of the great ,alps in earlier days1 and a variety of beauty that can challenge comparison with the impressiveness of greater heights4 ,i have intentionally avoided mentioning those secluded and particular districts which it must be the fortune of all faithful mountaineers to discover for themselves1 and where every enterprising party may gain the reward of its independence and experience in the certainty that it has found1 at last and alone1 the one perfect region1 perfectly contrived1 for all purposes of climbing and enjoyment4 ,,incidental ,,duties ,sidenote3 ,hut ,usages4 ,launched in his chosen region1 and with his chosen comrades1 the management of a leader has to observe1 beyond his primary duty to his own party1 one or two usages of an extraneous or incidental character4 ,if he is using huts1 in the ,alps or elsewhere1 he should acquaint himself with the rules1 written or not1 of hut usage4 ,most will suggest themselves4 ,to tidy up and leave everything in better order than he usually finds it4 ,if other parties are in the hut1 to keep the axes from cumbering the ground1 and confine the wet clothes and wet boots to harmless corners4 ,to arrange provisions and the rest the night before1 so as to diminish the general confusion in starting by at least the quiet exit of his own party4 ,to disturb sleepers as little as their customary assumption1 that they are the only tired men who may1 or will1 ever use the hut again1 will generally allow4 ,not to break open a hut or use any part of it for firewood except in desperate need2 and to pay somewhere1 or somehow1 for any inevitable or accidental damage4 ,there is a further duty1 which he owes to the position of his own party and to that of others also occupying the huts4 ,if his party are merely guests1 they are dependent upon the courtesy of other inhabitants for any treatment they receive more cordial in character than the sufferance usually extended to uninvited guests4 ,but if1 as every mountaineer in his chosen region should do1 they have made themselves members of the local organization1 he should insist1 without demonstration1 for the sake of sound hut tradition as well as for the improvement in the morals and manners of the other occupants 7supposing they show themselves disobliging71 upon the relations being those of courteous equality4 ,as between his own and other amateur parties this insistence will rarely be needed2 for the tradition of comradeship among amateur climbers of all nations has seldom to be recalled by remonstrance4 ,but as between his own guides and other guides1 or other guides and his own guideless party1 the footing sometimes calls for a prompt clearing away of the stones4 ,local guides are apt to take any advantage of a foreign or younger guide who appears4 ,as is elsewhere described1 the mental attitude of a guide in hut or hotel becomes generally that of the servant or dependent of his employer4 ,he is no longer the free man on the hills1 who will be himself the first to resent any incursion on the rights of his party4 ,once in the hut the amateur1 in his turn1 becomes responsible for looking after his guide4 ,a guide's hut manners prevent him making any fuss1 even though his own party's interests are suffering2 as1 for instance1 when he is deprived of his precedence at the cooking-stove1 or is left an unfair share of the collective washing-up4 ,like a swan on a new reach of a river1 the young or stranger guide is very shy4 ,he will often let himself be put upon by some parochial swaggerer or bullied by a lazy senior of his own valley4 ,it is in our own interests1 and the interests of the future1 to protect him4 ,apart from the local or obstreperous guide1 the worst offenders against hut manners are not the guideless parties1 who are usually anxious to do as they would be done by1 but the chance #8professors1' and other cunning folk1 who have discovered that alpine huts provide free summer lodging for themselves and their families1 or the erratic solitary wanderers and grouped holiday trippers1 who have never learned mountain manners4 ,with these types decided action1 or the decided appearance of passion1 is sometimes the only course4 ,it is only courteous to use the hut books which are provided for entries2 even though the sight of our own names and objectives in other company may offend our ,british habit of climbing hauteur1 to which we ourselves give the titular rank of modesty4 ,the information has a sentimental interest2 it is required by the maintainers of the hut1 and1 further1 it may be of real service if anything untoward happens and it becomes necessary to follow the traces of our party4 ,sidenote3 ,consideration4 ,outside the huts we have a duty also to the fragile paths1 which lead us to the glacier or the hut4 ,they are easily depreciated by careless use1 especially in wet weather1 by breaking away the edges1 kicking down boulders1 slithering down inclines1 etc4 ,beyond the paths and the huts1 there is a first law not to spoil the mountains3 to leave no traces of meals on the summits or hillsides4 ,whoever discovers a portable contrivance for atomizing old bottles will confer an incalculable benefit upon conscientious mountaineers4 ,there is also an obligation not to spoil the mountains for others by heedless manners4 ,this means not merely not to throw or kick stones on to other parties1 or to pass them without their consent1 which are matters that are regulated by positive mountaineering tradition1 but also not to treat them #8negatively' when we meet them on the hills1 as if we were all passers-by in the ,city at the luncheon-hour4 ,i can call to mind still the annihilating stare of a lady whom ,i met on the top of the ,weisshorn1 because ,i ventured to remark about the weather without waiting for the introduction which there was no third party present in the vast panorama to perform2 and again1 two sterling ,britons passing on a track in the highlands of ,arcadia without greeting1 because it transpired they did not feel that their slight degree of acquaintance was sufficient to cover a general conversation in which two other members of their parties1 not similarly acquainted1 would have had to be included6 ,these are somewhat fine shades to preserve under primitive conditions1 and foreigners are apt to misunderstand their respectable origin4 ,it is better1 on the whole1 to be thought a cheerful idiot by our own countrymen if we hail their distant appearance on the chance of their belonging to a more sociable nationality1 than to earn the reputation of racial surliness by allowing our shyness of what our own party may think to prevent us replying to the shouts of strangers of possibly more ,gallic temperament4 ,it costs little effort to make a cheerful remark to another party on the hills when we meet or pass them1 and it saves an awkward restraint on both sides if we are fated to meet them afterwards again1 in a hut or somewhere where we have to be together in harmony4 ,in other countries we may safely imitate more demonstrative ways without loss of self-respect4 ,a courteous manner and a ready explanation will take the edge of offence off many a decided course of mountaineering action1 that may run us for a while beside or across the way of other human beings4 ,it might even be better if we could introduce into our chance encounters on our own hills something more of a superficial cordiality1 so as to acquire the habit of conveying to strangers less obscurely the undoubted fellowship we feel with all other pilgrims of the mountains4 ,of course every leader must acquaint himself with the code of rescue signals now recognized in the mountains1 by waving or flashing or shouting4 ,but he should further consider it as more than discourteous to refrain from replying to any shout directed at himself or his party4 ,it is impossible for him to know by instinct what is merely the salute of high spirits and what may express some more urgent need4 ,similarly1 if one member of a party gets separated from the rest1 and is out of sight1 it is not sufficient for him merely to guide himself back secretly by their shouts2 he should reply to each of their calls1 and so indicate that he is approaching4 ,it is oddly irritating to keep shouting for an unseen man1 realizing that his silence may mean that he is getting more and more astray1 and then see him walk round the next rock1 reproving by his silent proximity both our growing anxiety and our clamorous waste of breath4 ,our co-,britons will never shout unnecessarily1 and we should reply each time1 and leave the interpretation to them4 ,sidenote3 ,some ,night ,notes4 ,in using paths or tracks at night1 if a light cannot be procured1 it is worth while remembering that the instinct of the feet is often a better guide than the straining of the eyes to see4 ,the feet1 left to themselves1 will balance naturally along the track1 much as the original makers of the natural paths found it expedient to balance over the same ground4 ,they will be able to keep the track better of themselves than if they are driven forward by an ill-balanced body along an ill-seen line4 ,a leader following a track by daylight may often wonder in advance at small wanderings which seem to the eye unaccountable2 but as soon as the body in balance reaches the spot1 it follows their sequence quite naturally4 ,left to themselves1 the feet and body will do much the same in the dark1 and keep surprisingly well upon a track that is not arbitrarily interrupted4 ,in following a lamp1 unless the leader holds it himself1 his best place is not that immediately behind the lamp-bearer1 which the selfish will press for4 ,detail and dim outline ahead are better seen from farther back in the line1 where the actual glare of the lamp is hidden and the light is diffused over the way4 ,the eye soon accustoms itself to half-light1 but not to the dazzle of a flame4 7,to procure light for a lamp1 fire or pipe1 especially in a wind1 a familiar method may not be universally known4 ,part of the stern of a wax match should be unravelled and a few strands wound loosely round the head1 so as to catch the first flare4 ,to light a wood fire1 in camp or hut1 without paper1 the wood should be shaved thinly upwards towards one end of a stick4 ,the shavings should not be completely detached1 but left curling up at the end like the flower on a stalk4 ,lit at this end1 the stick easily burns and the fire follows47 ,a compass and watch with radium points are always useful for all night hours or hut intervals4 ,if a path or track is lost in the dark1 especially on snow-covered ground1 the party should rope up at the full length of the rope1 and make casts round the end man1 who waits at a fixed point 'till it is1 or may be1 recovered4 ,the motionless man at the fixed point acts as pointer for the original direction1 and will prevent the complete loss of orientation in the circle of search4 ,in the dark on a track the increased risk from the axe-points before and behind us1 as well as from our own1 must be kept in mind1 and extra intervals maintained4 ,where there is no track1 the last man on the rope should carry the radium compass and correct the direction1 as in mist4 ,even without a compass he is the better able to keep a line1 guided by the rope ahead4 ,a leader measuring the remainder of a climb against the coming of darkness must recollect that snow retains light very late--in summer1 in fact1 it rarely becomes quite dark4 ,but the snowless lower slopes1 which he will reach last1 will be far darker4 ,he must not be deceived1 therefore1 by the apparent amount of light still illuminating the higher snows1 into taking things easily4 ,a party frankly benighted1 if it has only a short distance to descend over ground known to be safe1 supposing that a right route1 not difficult to find1 can be followed1 does best to rope up4 ,this has the merit of keeping the party together and in line1 and confines the disturbances of falling over rocks and into holes to the person of the responsible leader4 ,if he gets benighted on higher ground1 as in the ,alps1 or sees that he must necessarily become so1 the leader should look about for a good bivouac before the light fails2 not press on to the last and then take the chance of hurriedly finding a suitable shelter or ledge4 ,whenever there is no short or easy descent in near prospect1 and night is at hand1 it is always wiser to sit out for the few hours of darkness than to let impatience risk the chance of a sprained ankle or broken leg4 ,in selecting a rock for a bivouac in doubtful weather1 he has to remember that unless the roof is absolutely concave1 rain will trickle in and across the roof and make trouble even far within the shelter2 also1 that in sleeping on rock or sand or turf it is more important to comfort to secure a hole for the hip-bone than a pillow for the head of his charges4 ,where only a ledge is available1 the members of a party should rope together1 to prevent anyone wandering away or slipping off in sleep4 ,song promotes warmth1 and preserves harmony--in a sense4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,last ,task4 ,of the management of the guides during the tour something is said in a later section4 ,if he has employed them1 the leader's last task of management1 one of regretful but presumably proud memory1 will be to write up the guides' books4 ,his fashion of entry is governed by no tradition2 which makes these books the more entertaining and varied reading during dim days in the huts4 ,but if he does not wish to blush in later years over his early paragons and phrases1 and desires to make the notice1 as it should be1 of some service to other leaders1 he may be guided by one or two common-sense principles4 ,a mountaineer of experience1 when he looks at a guide's book before engaging him1 looks first for the signatures he knows1 then at the opinions about the guide which they underwrite1 and makes his allowance for the opinions according to his knowledge of the mountaineering equation of the owners of the names4 ,secondly1 he looks at what the man has done1 both with the names he knows and with the names he does not know4 ,the opinions of those whom he does not know he reads merely in relation to the actual climbs which the man is stated to have done with them4 ,thus1 when we are writing1 since our name is likely to be known but to few1 especially among climbers of other races1 it is of importance first to state clearly what the man has done with us1 and under what conditions1 of weather1 party1 etc42 more particularly1 to state if he has #8led1' and what1 or if he has come as second guide or porter4 ,then1 for the benefit of our own race1 who will know how to interpret the #8atmosphere' of an ,english testimonial even though they do not know our name1 we may add an opinion of the man1 written very carefully so as to be read in relation to that which we have stated he has done with us4 ,for instance1 if we have included several big snow climbs among our list1 and then write our opinion that the man is a #8brilliant rock climber1' those who can read testimonials will know what to conclude about his icemanship4 ,if we wish to guard against such a conclusion being drawn1 and yet have had no opportunity of forming a clear opinion1 we should add something conventional1 such as that the man #8had no opportunity to lead on snow1' or that #8the climbs must speak for themselves3--the conditions were perfect4' ,at the end of a list of fine ascents to say only that a man is #8willing1' leaves us in the dark as to how far he took any real part4 ,to say that he is #8enterprising' gives a clearer idea of his initiative4 ,if the conditions of any climbs on the list are stated to have been trying1 and the opinion adds that he is #8safe and good-tempered1' we have learned something positive to go upon4 ,these are small instances4 ,the comments should only be made with definite regard to what we have seen and what we state to have been executed in our employment4 ,unrelated generalities are valueless4 ,similarly1 we must confine our appreciations to what our experience enables us to say with authority4 ,it is better for this reason to refer our estimate to an absolute standard of merit1 such as other mountaineers will understand1 than to indulge our friendship by writing a character that means nothing to the initiated1 and may get the man a place of responsibility with the uninitiated for which he is not fit4 ,our first duty is to other mountaineers4 ,to say a man is a #8first-class rock climber1' if we feel ourselves competent to pronounce so much1 is a definite classification2 but to say he is a #8first-rate rock climber' is to err into the meaningless weakness of superlatives4 ,to say he is a #8fine iceman' gives the guide the benefit of an authoritative reference to an accepted standard2 but to say #8there is no finer iceman in the ,alps' risks the calling of our own experience in question by those to whom our qualifications for making such a statement are unknown1 and does the guide little good4 ,we are all inclined to think that our first good guide1 or the man who has brought us well through a difficult situation1 must be the finest fellow in the ,alps2 and in the moments of generous after-enthusiasm we are in a hurry to say so with an emphasis that we hope will convince a cold-blooded later reader that he is at least a very fine fellow4 ,we produce the same effect better by stating exactly what he did1 and our opinion of this rather than of him1 leaving it to other leaders to draw their own conclusions about the man himself4 ,we avoid then for the guide the peril of that natural revulsion towards an attitude of antagonistic criticism into which all northern humanity is prone to lapse in the presence of other people's enthusiasm1 and for ourselves the tolerant smile of the time and guide worn mountaineer4 ,when we read in a guide's book1 returning like an echo from the records we wrote in our own earlier and romantic days1 that #8there is no greater rock climber in the present generation1 a born iceman1 an intuitive route-finder1 a delightful companion and an unrivalled cook1' we turn on hastily to another reference1 with yet a half-sigh of good cheer and thankfulness for the assurance that one more very young climber has started wholeheartedly on our pleasant mountain ways4 ,,weather ,there is one variable which belongs to the mountaineering rather than to the human division of the problems with which management has to deal4 ,the weather is the background1 foreground and middle distance of all big mountaineering4 ,a change can upset the nicest adjustment of a climb to the strength of a party or to the length of a day4 ,every climber keeps one eye on this irresponsible neutral1 which may at any time turn the scale of the campaign against him4 ,as a result1 no mountaineer will endure1 and no leader can afford1 not to be thought a good weather prophet1 even though the reputation be confined to his own mind4 ,in reality1 so unaccountable are changes in the hills1 any fame acquired for infallibility must be the result of a large share of good fortune4 ,the happy confidence in his own forecasts1 that every leader owes it to his party to display1 can only be based upon a few broad considerations1 and upon bluff4 ,no previous appearance of a mountain sky can be taken as sure ground for certain prophecy4 ,a particular wind or #8sign' may mean totally different weather in two adjacent valleys2 or the whole doctrine of the winds may be unaccountably reversed in an exceptional season4 ,in the ,alps1 for instance1 a north wind usually means clear1 brisk1 settled weather2 a west wind1 the continuance of unsettled weather2 a south wind1 a succession of storms that come and pass4 ,but the seasons from #aiji to #aiab will provide instances of the north wind blowing continuously through alternate days of excessive and moderating rain and snow1 and of the south and west winds attending an unbroken season of hot sunshine4 ,a leader1 therefore1 besides his groundwork of elementary knowledge1 has to make himself acquainted with local signs of wind and weather in every season and in any new district2 with such details1 for instance1 as that in the ,zermatt valley 8the weather comes from the west10 or that in ,courmayeur we watch the south and west and do not bother with anything north of the range4 ,further1 that in the ,oberland a north-west wind brings storm1 but a north-east wind brings clearing weather2 that bad weather follows closely on a wind blowing over ,col ,theodule and round the west of the ,matterhorn1 but that a wind over ,col du ,lion and round the ,matterhorn to the east is a fair-weather sign4 ,he has to discover the relation which the prevailing wind bears to the weather conditions of a particular season or month4 ,the one thing he can count upon is the habit that weather establishes in the ,alps during two summers out of three of remaining one thing or the other for a continued period1 once it has started1 and of returning to this #8habit of the season' whenever there are not evident signs that it means to recommence or continue a spell of change4 ,the scientific study of weather1 and its prediction by the barometer and thermometer1 are matters for a whole book1 and the authoritative textbooks are available4 ,instruments larger than of pocket size are something of an encumbrance to a climbing party1 although ,i have always made an exception in favour of the pocket aneroid1 because of the excellent humour with which it blesses its possessor whenever its statements and those of the atmosphere or the map happen to coincide4 ,i limit myself here to recalling briefly some of the visible1 ordinary and less esoteric #8signs' which have proved of common use in my own experience1 more especially in the ,alps4 ,sidenote3 ,clouds4 ,clouds form our principal sign4 ,it is important to remember that clouds1 while they continue to retain their original form1 whatever that may be1 will inflict no rain on us4 ,it is their changes1 when they alter1 that we watch1 and we predict rain or not according to their character during and after the changes4 ,we distinguish between the upper strata of clouds1 whose character and direction are important as giving us the eventual direction of the wind and the more permanent character of the weather1 and the lower strata1 which have only a meaning for the day or hour1 and are not prophetic4 ,in general1 clouds in the east alone are a fair sign2 clouds in the west1 especially dark clouds1 mean rain soon4 ,high-travelling cirrus clouds portend rain4 ,in the ,alps1 where the winds are our real prophets1 a distinction is introduced3 cirrus1 high and fast on a south or south-west wind1 has its usual meaning2 but cirrus on a north1 east or south-east wind may accompany or1 more rarely1 precede good weather4 ,castellated cirrus is always a bad sign1 and1 where the horizon can be seen1 the appearance of cirrus in bands lengthening up towards the zenith 7cirro-stratus7 is an unwelcome event4 ,dappled cirrus1 the so-called #8roses' of the south and the #8sheep flocks' of the north1 implies a change of wind and weather4 ,as the presence of high cirrus1 upon which the change of wind can produce the dappling1 usually means1 in the mountains1 that uncertain or bad weather has been preceding the change1 the dappling is most often1 and with justice1 taken as a good sign4 ,if1 however1 the weather has been dull1 with merely clouds of heat1 and the wind has been good before1 the change portended will be probably for the worse4 ,cumulus clouds1 when they tower rapidly1 and more especially when they #8topple over1' or show a tendency to do so1 are signals of a change to rain4 ,a sure method of observing cumulus is to watch some small portion of the cloud for a space of time4 ,if it grows larger1 the sign is a change for worse weather2 if it ravels out and disappears on the warm air round it1 the sign is for good1 and the cloud can be disregarded4 ,stratus1 the long stratified bands of cloud at any height1 means bad weather1 and the tendency of cirrus or cumulus to stratify is ominous4 ,the edges of clouds tell us much of their import3 harmless if they are filmy and ravel out on the warmer air2 suspicious if they are hard1 heavily outlined or charged4 ,an approaching rain-cloud in action is recognizable by the vertical or slanting lines in the air below it1 or by the #8torn lace' on the lower edge4 ,a hail-cloud shows heavier lines4 ,a snow-cloud carries fuller1 harder marginal protuberances1 and may be lighter in tone4 ,heavy cumulus of this cumbrous sort may often surprise strong sunlight by a sudden snow-break4 ,usually we go by temperature and height in predicting if a #8wet' cloud will break in rain or snow4 ,high #8mare's-tails' betray wind1 and predict rain according to their direction4 #8,fish' clouds pointing east and west usually mean foul weather2 pointing north and south1 fair weather4 ,black wisps of cloud before sunrise1 especially in a clear sky1 mean early rain4 ,lighter-toned wisps at this hour have no signification4 ,but if the lower edges of cloud-films are charged and dark1 looking like ink which has run down into the borders of blotting-paper1 we look out for rain4 ,long fingers of cloud radiating from a peak portend storm1 particularly if any one of them betrays the typical thunder-curve4 ,thunder on a peak means snow1 so we must look out for a cold and electric day4 ,thunder-clouds are easily distinguishable4 ,their form is always similar4 ,the duplicated outline in the masses of cloud above and below1 the connecting darker neck between1 and the leaf-like and invariable curve of strength where the neck runs out into the profile line of the upper mass1 are sufficiently distinctive4 ,a little further observation will enable their lines of system and the probable direction of their movement to be located4 ,the lower mass of cloud may1 in cases1 be absent1 but the truncated #8neck' and the leaf-like #8curve' will always enable us to identify them4 ,sidenote3 ,wind4 ,even more than the clouds1 once we have discovered the habit of the year and the local signs1 the winds are our firm basis for forecast4 ,the north wind in the ,alps is usually for good1 though in a bad season of habit it may1 if long continued1 bring snow4 ,the south wind is always fraught with suspicion1 until it justifies it4 ,it brings a succession of storms1 but leaves fine intervals4 ,the west wind1 if continuous1 means the continuance of unsettled weather1 with an inclination to preserve whatever may be the habit of the year4 ,it is perhaps the most forcible and trying of winds to encounter on the ridges exposed to it4 ,the east wind is infrequent and rarely long continued4 ,its portent is favourable4 ,the south-west wind means rain to follow4 ,a change from north to north-west threatens rain4 ,a change from south-west to north-west--generally a wind on its way to becoming a north wind--means a change for the better in bad seasons4 ,south-east1 and especially north-east1 winds share the good qualities and projects of the east wind4 ,the current of the ,fhn is recognizable by its accompanying oppression of warm-parched1 or in cases of warm-moist1 atmosphere1 and by its depressing effect upon our spirits4 ,it is a harbinger of evil of all kinds4 ,its own forerunners are often a massing of heavy-bordered clouds accompanied by a threatening vividness in all visible coloration4 ,the ,fhn is said to be able to infect1 or more probably alternate with1 any wind from any quarter2 but we know of it in summer usually in the south or south-west winds4 ,in the south it is #8dry1' in the south-west it is #8wet1' ,fhn4 ,its presence ruins the best-directioned wind2 it underthaws the snow dangerously and spoils our tempers inexplicably4 ,sudden gusts and round-the-compass winds are of ill omen4 ,as between cross-currents of wind1 at different levels1 the higher alone is worth attention4 ,valley currents1 particularly those off glaciers1 are only misleading4 ,the simple sky signs1 familiar not only in mountains1 give us further assistance4 ,sidenote3 ,signs in ,general4 ,a red sunrise is bad2 a red sunset good4 ,sunrise on a grey sky means a fair day2 sunset on a grey or pale yellow sky means a rainy day1 on a bright yellow sky a windy day4 ,a #8high dawn1' the sun showing first over a vapour belt1 is an ill sign2 a #8low dawn1' the sun leaping from the horizon1 a good sign4 ,if the distant sky at dawn1 especially to the west1 is low and dark1 there will be breaking weather by noon4 ,a dark blue sky tells of wind1 and probably rain to follow2 a light blue sky is of fair weather4 ,all over bright or gaudy colours at sunrise or sunset1 and all hard outlines1 foretell rain and wind4 ,delicate colours1 well-blended tones and filmy cloud edges are fine-weather prophets4 ,rings round the sun or moon1 and vivid twinkling stars in the later night1 are bad signs4 ,clear nights of cold1 and calm and quiet stars before dawn1 are good4 ,heavy dews and the falling of the wind at sunset are good signs4 ,the clearness and nearness of distant hills1 except just after rain1 is a bad sign2 but here we may distinguish between a clear landscape when we face towards the sun1 which is an ill sign1 and a clear landscape as we stand with our back to the sun1 which is quite usually a fair sign4 ,ascending mists on hillsides are bad4 ,mists in valleys at evening1 clouds lifting at sunset1 and hilltops smoking their pipe of evening peace1 are good4 ,warm airs as we pass up the lower alps or through the pinewoods mean us well2 but warm nights on the height and in the hut1 or the sickly puffs of warm breath that meet us from the large crevasses as we start up the glacier before dawn1 are omens of ill weather4 ,early rain1 #8rain before seven1' has no serious meaning2 it rarely lasts4 ,early white mists should never frighten us from starting1 but we must judge them by feel1 texture and direction of movement4 ,an early ominous mist has a different quality1 and lies differently from a simple mist of the hour4 ,during the day feeling or instinct is still our principal guide as to the durable character of changes or of threats of changes4 ,more especially we go by the feeling of the wind4 ,with a good wind1 local clouds may be disregarded4 ,the eye learns to distinguish between the heavy leaden-edged look of an increasing mist1 and the peculiar silvery wet aspect1 markedly round its edges1 of a mist that is in process of absorption in warm atmosphere4 ,one of the most beautiful1 and baleful1 warnings in the ,alps is the view out and across a golden sea of clouds washing up out of ,italy or from the south4 ,they often signify the ,fhn4 ,so long as the wind blows off the mountains1 they will be kept below for the day2 but once they begin to make breaches in the walls and surge over the battlements1 a bad afternoon or morrow is in prospect4 ,the change from their golden1 fairy-like distant greeting to their wet1 cold and gloomy embrace makes us reluctant to recall that they are really the same clouds we admired those hours before4 ,on large peaks there may be severe local storms even while the sky in general remains undisturbed4 ,rock peaks1 for example the ,matterhorn1 are conspicuous offenders4 ,a small blister of dark1 steady cloud may imply a raging storm on the face below it4 ,not only at the moment1 but as it affects the later condition of the mountain1 the occurrence of these storms has to be reckoned with4 ,from a spell of covered or of broken weather we look for a clearing snowfall as our deliverance2 and the more confidently if the wind has continued throughout to blow from a good quarter1 north or east4 ,if the fall is followed by clear days and three cold nights1 we shall find our high ridges in perfect condition again4 ,if the weather continues broken and therefore warmer1 the snow will at least not have made things worse2 it will have thawed rapidly4 ,it is also worth remembering that in warmer1 broken weather what has fallen as snow at one level may have been only rain at another1 even at a higher1 and the moment the clouds clear we shall1 be able to profit by the calculation4 ,i have known the same storm to have fallen as rain in the valley1 snow on the slopes1 and rain again on the high ridges4 ,sidenote3 ,habit of the ,season4 ,the habit of the season is always the first matter of study on returning to the hills4 ,in a habitually fine season1 it is safe to go up to a hut even on a bad day1 on the fair chance of a fine recovery on the morrow4 ,for the same reason1 in a habitually bad season1 it is too late to wait for the fine day1 and then go up to the hut or out to the camp4 ,a leader who braves the ridicule of the hotel and the gloom of the glass1 and takes his party up to the hut1 with hope undiminished by failure1 on bad days in uncertain seasons1 will catch each short break as it comes1 and get a record of climbs that will shock his valley advisers4 ,he must base his choice1 as between the bad days1 upon his observation of the habit that is governing the vagaries of the season4 ,a very common feature1 in unfavourable alpine months1 is the alternations of possible and impossible weather occurring almost every day--a wet day1 followed by a fine morning2 a breaking afternoon1 and again a wet day4 ,it is thus most important to 8get the alternate right10 and to correct the order of his going1 if to ascend to the hut on each first fine day proves disappointing4 ,in a recent so-called #8bad' season a party ascended thirteen peaks in three weeks1 by getting their #8alternates' right at the start1 while most parties got only four or five expeditions in the same time4 ,occasionally the alternate is one fine day1 or fine half-day1 in every three4 ,to meet this habit1 or to discover the order of the alternates in the first place1 it is sound to take up two full days' provisions to the hut1 and to wait there for a day1 if the first day fails to change4 ,a fine morning will suffice for most climbs suitable for uncertain weather1 and a party who have had courage1 and faced the mist1 and enjoyed the empty hut at night and a long fair morning's climb1 will often be granted the extra pleasure of meeting the usual crowd swarming up to the hut in the afternoon1 attended by every sign of the regular return of clouds and rain4 ,sidenote3 ,persistence4 ,the real principle is to keep on trying in unchancy seasons1 and back up the effort by whatever weather instinct or opportunity of observation we may enjoy4 ,in valleys continuously cloud-covered observation becomes uncertain2 often the weather may be already clear at higher levels while it lurks in mist in the valleys4 ,instinct as much as judgment must then tell us if we may chance a start1 on the probability that the cloud is really thin and the summits in sun4 ,an attempt is always worth while if the party is getting depressed by a succession of days of idle cloud in the hotel4 ,chance often helps our predictions4 ,the occasions when instinct or a momentary sight of the higher and important clouds has given the impulse1 added to the occasions when a bold face has been assumed1 in spite of a low blanket of mist round the hut or hotel1 and a start has been ordered on the chance at the best of clear weather above and at the worst of a bracing tramp up and back1 all taken together have made many a lasting reputation for miraculous weather wisdom4 ,some of the most enduring mountain memories are of days thus retrieved from weeks of ill weather1 and spent upon sunny peaks projecting1 with only a few isolated and lofty companions1 from the seas of cloud that covered all the valleys and lower heights1 and with them most of our less fortunate fellows4 ,until we possess local weather knowledge1 and have rather more to go upon than bluff1 a climb should never be actually started in threatening weather1 still less persisted in against bad weather2 which is a different thing from insisting upon going up to the hut or to the base of the peak on the chance of a change4 ,snow1 and continued rain1 which may mean snow at higher levels1 must be accepted as definite bars to starting at all4 ,cloud1 however1 is less justifiably used as an excuse for delay in leaving a warm hut on a dull morning4 ,the personal bias in prediction must be allowed for before dawn4 ,guides1 who are too often treated as infallible prophets1 are as susceptible as amateurs1 at this hour especially1 to specious promptings from the spirit of comfortable inaction4 ,they are apt to delay a start hour after hour1 in a hut or camp1 for the mist-bank to clear and the day to show its hand2 and this with entire unreason4 ,if the weather is going to clear at all1 it will do so at the earlier hour at higher levels2 and it is common sense not to lose valuable time4 ,the sooner we go up the sooner shall we meet the sun1 or find out that it is not there for the day4 ,even a stay in a hut is more tolerable than confinement in an hotel4 ,for this reason1 and to save the time and patience spent upon going up and down from the hut1 as well as to be on the spot to catch the right day1 it is often pleasanter to stay up at the hut1 and send down a porter each day for provisions4 ,we are then ready when the change comes in uncertain seasons4 ,snowfall1 however1 with its hopeless prospect and unpleasing chilly presence1 will suffice to send us down without question4 ,continued snow will send us yet further2 unless we can arm ourselves with the short summer ski4 ,in that case we may still refuse to admit defeat1 and mint golden days out of the ashes of a heartless season4 ,i am speaking here only of weather in the ,alps4 ,in more distant and less hospitable ranges1 where the base camp and the rescue of civilization are more remote1 the same persistent course cannot be maintained in face of continued bad or changeable weather4 ,in small climbing1 as in ,britain1 we need not regard weather at all4 ,it enforces all the observation it deserves by the definite limits which wet or snowy rocks put upon the degree of difficulty which it is safe or comfortable for us to attempt1 and by the temporary discomforts and restrictions that wind or snow inflict upon our daily expeditions4 ,,training ,sidenote3 ,the ,framework4 ,if any layman in anatomy has ever kept his fingers on trunk or sides while walking down or up hill1 he will have been astonished at the amount of work that is done by groups of muscles wholly remote from the calves or thighs upon whose development he has proudly relied4 ,suppleness and an even development of hardened muscle all over the body are what tell in climbing1 not local bulges4 ,most men are designed by nature to develop most spring1 suppleness and strength at a point of general muscular development which will never earn their portraits a place beside the corrugated limbs of the gentlemen on the hoardings4 ,of course a naturally big-muscled man must remain big-muscled4 ,but it is the quality of the muscle that counts4 ,whatever there is1 large or small1 it has to be spun into fine silk4 ,any effort to develop unduly some group of muscles1 in arm or leg1 will even prejudice the ease with which a man can recover in training the harmonious control of his machinery at its best1 and the artificial muscle is apt to degenerate into fat when he goes out of training4 ,a man1 evenly developed according to his potential strength1 even when he goes out of training has little difficulty in preserving a level1 if lower1 plane of general fitness and suppleness2 and when the time comes for winding up or for relaxing1 his condition moves evenly and easily up or down1 and he is ready1 in a few days if he is young1 in rather more as time goes on1 to climb again at his best4 ,to keep in moderate training out of season1 any regular exercise in the open air is sufficient which exercises different parts of the apparatus of the body in their relation to one another1 and which holds the attention4 ,monotonous repetitions of particular muscular movements are of little service4 ,they bore the mind and weary the nerves2 and it is the interworking of his nerves1 muscles and will that a climber has to train4 ,if he is prevented by circumstances from getting open air exercise1 he may find fencing the most effective1 concentrated and lasting indoor practice which he can fit conveniently into his working day4 ,an hour's hard fencing with both hands1 comprising exercises1 free play and a cold douche to finish1 uses every muscle and connection of the body to the full1 but risks no local strain4 ,for in fencing every movement must be supple and yet controlled2 the whole system is kept concentrated1 and at full tension1 upon movements minute1 quick and fine4 ,the training in rapid adjustments and lightning reactions is invaluable to the climber1 and its unboisterous character makes it possible of continuance without prejudice well into old age4 ,if he can face them1 dancing and skipping are admirable exercises to the same end4 ,tree climbing1 or even haystack climbing1 where possible1 are also fine climbing practice4 ,swimming and sculling exercise organs and muscles smoothly and develop them evenly4 ,swimming has no equal as an exercise for growing strength4 ,it runs no risk of violent local strain1 and it cannot be continued beyond the point of wholesome fatigue4 ,in all its varieties and attendant circumstances it combines more educative merits than any other form of open air sport4 ,my own view is that the development of special groups of muscles is best left for the climbing days themselves to effect4 #8,morning exercises1' before the cold bath1 are excellent to get the circulation right1 and better than nothing for climbers whose day allows them no more wholesome outdoor activity4 ,among special exercises ,i should put first those that strengthen the forearm and fingers1 for #8gripping'2 those that build up the muscles of the trunk1 which have the greatest share of work to do in climbing2 those that train the body to balance easily up and down on one leg1 for balance2 and those 7if there are any but wood chopping7 which prepare the shoulders and trunk for the movement of step cutting4 ,but the working in easy combination of groups of muscles is what the climber aims at4 ,excessive exercise of independent groups is apt to militate against quick muscular interaction4 ,it is well1 therefore1 to make movements in combinations1 and constantly to vary them4 ,this helps to keep the attention concentrated4 ,so does a looking-glass4 ,boredom invalidates the whole effort4 ,each movement should represent a separate effort of the will4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,organs4 ,for a climber the lungs and heart must be the chief care4 ,the action of walking uphill1 the lifting of foot and arm continuously and with effort1 make a sustained extra demand upon these organs especially4 ,in climbing they have to supply the fuel consumed in muscular effort1 and to throw off the poisonous residue1 in greater quantity than in normal action1 and at an increased pace4 ,the effects of the extra effort1 shortness of breath1 fatigue1 exhaustion1 even1 in cases1 suffocation1 are symptoms of the failure of the heart and lungs1 in varying degrees1 to maintain the equilibrium between the supply and discharge of fuel4 ,the muscle cells and the lungs are being starved of their substance1 and the acids are accumulating too rapidly to be naturally got rid of4 ,the heart is consequently enfeebled1 the lungs get choked1 and the exhaustion increases progressively4 ,the severe muscular strain of a difficult rock feat is in this way doubly exhausting4 ,the local tension is consuming the muscle cells at an abnormal rate1 and therefore putting an excessive demand upon the heart and lungs to keep them supplied2 and at the same time the contraction of all the great muscles of the trunk1 involved in the local effort1 is compressing the great organs from outside1 and thus impeding their action in producing the increased supply required4 ,hence the #8panting' of an untrained climber after any severe rock passage1 however short the effort4 ,now1 both heart and lungs can learn by practice to perform their normal functions at more than double their normal rate1 and yet to maintain the equilibrium in the supply and discharge of fuel such as is needed to allow them to continue their free action4 ,hence a climber is concerned to accustom his heart to accelerate1 without enfeebling its action and thus diminishing the amount of fuel which each pulsation is supplying4 ,also1 so to exercise his lungs that a number of breathing sacks1 not usually employed1 may be ready and accustomed for easy use whenever the extra call may be put upon them4 ,by practice a number of dormant lung sacks1 as well as those in normal use1 may be actually increased in elasticity and volume1 so that the lungs as a whole will be prepared to receive a far greater quantity of #8breath1' whenever that may be required for a greater effort4 ,the training for the heart is a regular and increasing graduation of effort1 developed in healthful exercises such as walking1 running1 swimming1 wood chopping1 etc41 and practised until even a violent or long-sustained effort can be made without panting or discomfort4 ,the training for #8breath' is deep breathing2 from the bottom of the lungs1 and through the nose as much as through the mouth2 practised either in the course of natural open air exercise1 or1 almost as effectively1 by slow inhalation and exhalation1 for a few moments each day1 in the best air obtainable4 ,to increase the capacity of the lungs is to increase the chest measurement1 that healthful vanity which mountaineering1 above all exercises1 flatters4 ,contrary to our ideas as boys1 this is effected from the inside1 by breathing1 and not from the outside1 by arm exercises1 etc4 #8,chest' exercises1 indeed1 help to make supple the ligaments of the outside framework1 and so permit of a greater elasticity in the breathing cells within4 ,otherwise they are only of use in so far as they demand1 or are accompanied by1 deep breathing4 ,sidenote3 ,will and ,nerves4 ,a climber has also to remember the very active share that his will power must take in difficult or prolonged mountaineering4 ,he depends upon his will to supply to a large extent the impulse1 physical and moral1 when nerves and muscles begin to show signs of unwilling service4 ,among some of the greatest of mountaineers1 will has to a notable extent supplied the place of physique4 ,they have climbed on their #8vitality1' as we say2 on the success of their will in maintaining the impulse to movement long after the muscles have protested their inability to continue the rate of consumption of energy4 ,the impulses of the will are communicated physically4 ,their transmission exhausts nerve-fibre as materially as muscular action4 ,as the muscles tire1 the messages from the will quicken and increase4 ,the nerve transmitters get irritated1 and finally revolt4 ,as a result1 we have the frequent mountaineering symptoms of ennui1 irritation1 conscious fatigue and1 in extreme cases1 of complete nervous incapacity to resolve upon making another step4 ,but the nerves call for a truce before the muscles are actually exhausted4 ,the muscles1 male fashion1 invariably protect themselves by retaining some reserve of energy1 if only a way can be found of exacting it4 ,some new interest or excitement may do this2 the messages are then switched on to other nerve-lines1 the congestion of monotony is relieved1 and the will resumes control of the communications1 to the extent of obtaining whole hours of further effort from the striking muscles4 ,but training offers us a surer way of postponing or avoiding these strikes4 ,the body is animated in two fashions from the spinal nerves3 by the messages that pass through the brain--,i speak as a layman--and by those which serve that mysterious but autocratic regent of our habits1 the #8subconsciousness4' ,under the latter are grouped all our automatic actions1 and the more actions we can qualify for admission to its extremely select group of well-ordered subjects1 the fewer sequences of orders will the dictator-brain have to promulgate on their account1 and the less congested will be the nerve-lines of communications4 ,walking1 for instance1 is1 with most people1 a subconscious action4 ,once the impulse to step out has been given1 the legs will continue to walk automatically so long as the look or feel of the familiar smooth surface continues to suggest the familiar reflex4 ,a change of surface may disturb and therefore make the effort conscious2 otherwise the walking can be maintained without fatigue for a much longer time than the same group of muscles could have held out had they been performing some unfamiliar action1 and therefore been under the direction of conscious impulses4 ,the human frame1 in attaching itself at two1 three or four points to any ordinary surface1 is capable of only a limited number of positions4 ,holds upon rock or ice1 suitable for use1 not unnaturally recur frequently in similar groupings upon the same type of surface4 ,consequently1 there are whole series of positions of the body and limbs which are constantly repeating themselves in climbing4 ,the more of these subconscious associations which a climber can succeed1 by practice1 in establishing1 as between familiar sequences of holds and automatic adjustments of his motions to their requirements1 the fewer calls will he have to make upon nerves and will1 and the greater1 therefore1 will be his endurance4 ,it is largely on this account that a climber1 as he gets experience1 finds that he can climb with always decreasing effort4 ,it is for this reason also that long1 continuous rock ridges1 with oft-recurring situations1 form the best initial training for young mountaineers and the best annual reintroduction for their elders4 ,a climber who can get away1 if only for a day or so1 at frequent intervals1 to rocks small or big behind his house or on convenient hills1 secures the best training for his balance1 his nerves and his muscles1 not by attempting extravagant gymnastic problems1 but by practising1 and always adding to1 the number of his sequences of familiar climbing movements4 ,he must learn to perform these with such facility that1 finally1 their execution becomes subconscious4 ,on a long climb ten out of every twelve situations will be familiar to experience4 ,suitable training will enable him to meet these ten with the right motions1 without conscious effort1 automatically4 ,the nerves and the will-power are thus economically kept in reserve for the remaining two4 ,sidenote3 ,nerve4 ,many of us take a day or two at the beginning of the season to get back our #8nerve4' ,we boggle at a bold reach1 or feel inclined to crawl where we know we should stride4 ,this is not due to any fine new sensitiveness to mountain danger1 acquired during our civilized sojourn in the plains2 it has nothing to do with vertigo or effect of height4 ,it is simply lack of condition4 ,by inaction we have allowed sets of automatic motions to become unfamiliar4 ,the will has1 therefore1 to take charge1 and does so tentatively1 like a professor of metaphysics left in charge of a class of elementary school-children4 ,the nerve communications are sluggish from disuse2 the muscles are out of control1 and distrustful of what the arbitrary will may ask of them4 ,we become #8nervous1' and potter4 ,this can all be avoided by reasonable and light practice4 ,regular exercise of the heart1 the lungs1 the muscles and the nerve-lines of communications1 with occasional repetitions of our groups of familiar subconscious motions1 will maintain a general level of fitness even out of training4 ,if the machinery is kept working smoothly1 we can soon get it going at high pressure again1 and can return to top condition without any local strikes or nerve signals4 ,the final tuning up to meet the call of the mountain holiday will then proceed easily1 of itself1 in action4 ,for a man whose system is set1 and who practises a consistent habit of living1 the amount of actual exercise required during the intervals to preserve his elasticity is usually small1 and tends to diminish4 ,this is one of the compensations of advancing years4 ,sidenote3 ,height and ,reach4 ,no man by any pleasing afterthought can add to his height2 although by suppling his shoulders and lengthening by exercise his trunk muscles he can extend his apparent upward reach4 ,the stride of the tall man before us over soft snow2 the long-armed man's careless caress of a salvation hold well beyond our reach2 the inimitable and perpetual rhythm maintained by the ,agile ,gibbon of the ,zoological ,gardens1 on the security of his four whiplash limbs1--these are natural advantages1 whose injustice we may challenge but not compete with4 ,their regretful contemplation suggests1 however1 the possible usefulness of a warning1 and some consolations4 ,a man of great reach1 whose span from toe to upstretched finger approaches or exceeds eight feet1 has one undoubted advantage on difficult rocks1 where holds are rare and precious4 ,if his legs are long enough to allow him to sit across the smooth sheer walls of a chimney or to straddle it on small footholds1 he has yet another4 ,but he must expect to suffer from the drawbacks incidental to height4 ,a tall man may be weak in the body muscles1 with less suppleness and ease of balance1 or1 if he is muscularly developed all over1 his weight is apt to increase with time out of all proportion to the suspensory power of his fingers on small holds4 ,if he is tall1 slight and sinewy1 his strength of arm and hand is rarely proportionate to his greater weight1 or equal to the greater expenditure on leverage which height requires of arms in balance climbing4 ,if he is tall1 muscular and heavy1 this weakness pursues him in the same ratio4 ,if chimneys are narrow1 he is too long to #8bridge' them securely2 if the holds are tricky and slight1 he finds greater difficulty and effort in #8folding up' so as to use them1 and in keeping his centre of balance well in and above his feet4 ,it is a consolation for a short or slight man that great experts in climbing are to be found among men of every build1 with a preponderance in favour of those of medium height and of sinewy and supple rather than of big muscular development4 ,the outside feats of rock climbing1 the abnormal climbs made by a few men in recent years1 undoubtedly require abnormal strength of finger and arm1 not seldom accompanied by great size of hand4 ,but these men have also possessed an equal development of strength and rhythm in body and leg2 their all-round design has been abnormal4 ,when1 as in one or two cases1 their exceptional physical development has been assisted by great height or great reach1 without loss to rhythm or balance or to the sterling quality of supple sinews1 the perfection of the climbing machine has been attained4 ,for the normal climber to imitate the performance of these men is to incur a proportion of danger1 the measure of the interval between their abnormal reach and power and his own1 expressed in terms of all too distant or too indefinite rock holds1 such as no sane man has the right to risk from any emulative or competitive feeling4 ,every climber has to recognize that there is an absolute upper limit to that which it is physically possible for a body of his design1 when developed to its utmost1 to perform4 ,if he concentrates upon an even and efficient training of his own measure of power1 and climbs always well within his confident capacity1 he will have the gratification1 as time goes on1 of finding that his improving knowledge of himself1 added to his increasing experience1 enables him1 little by little1 to reduce the margin between his own achievements and the humanly impossible4 ,by a pleasing accident in rock structure1 rock is either utterly impossible1 smooth or stratified at gigantic intervals1 or its cleavages and intrusions1 and consequently its holds1 occur at intervals within the average man's reach4 ,while a tall man has1 therefore1 a greater choice of holds1 qualified in his case by a greater effort in using them1 a shorter man has only to perfect his skill1 and to profit by his lightness and balance1 to be able to keep level with him in performance on all normal rock4 ,again ,i except the superman climbs1 which are climbs made by exceptional men upon exceptional accidents in rock structure4 ,as a further compensation1 peculiar to advancing years1 a lightly built man who lives healthily finds less difficulty in recovering a condition of hard training and in keeping up his standard of achievement4 ,failure in wind or increase in weight may make the process of recovery longer each year by a few days1 but he has not the handicap to contend with which threatens the big or heavily muscled man1 who requires constant and intensive exercise to check the local degenerations which increase with time4 ,climbing is one of the few exercises that can be continued well into what used to be deemed old age4 ,trained nerve1 tough sinew1 supple muscle1 experience in adjustments1 in balance1 in foresight and in economy of strength1 compensate for the loss of youth1 for its fire and spring4 ,an old climber of the balance school can mountaineer in the front rank until the last1 and1 by a happy compensation which no other interest enjoys1 when the deterioration of the body finally begins and the natural powers fail1 the desire for the fiercer emotions of difficult climbing contentedly diminishes4 ,in their place the inexhaustible mountains discover a whole range of subtler sensations2 returning for our feet the echo of lost rhythmic movements perfected by complacent memory1 and using even the shadows of our sunset years to throw into relief treasures both of human and picturesque interest1 which were unnoticed or hurried over in the daylit enthusiasm of athletic youth4 ,,pace ,pace is a matter of vital importance in mountaineering of any magnitude4 ,unfortunately1 guide-books of recent years1 by recording the #8best times' taken on ascents for future guidance1 have given a certain amount of encouragement to racing for records and so to competitive climbing4 ,a confusion has thus been produced between pace and racing in the minds of many sound mountaineers4 ,the mere mention of the word #8pace' provokes them to a protest against record-breaking4 ,a natural1 but equally dangerous1 reaction has followed1 which condemns consideration of #8times' altogether1 and advocates 8idling on the great ridges0 as the peculiar joy of the guideless or the true-hearted mountaineer4 ,sidenote3 ,adjustment of ,time4 ,pace does not mean racing4 ,it means the adjustment of the length of the climb to the length of the day1 and the adjustment of the progress of the of climber to the length of the climb4 ,a certain amount of ground must be covered in all great ascents1 and there are only certain hours of daylight in which to cover it4 ,no mountaineer is competent who cannot relate in advance the measure of daylight at his disposal to the measure of the distance to be traversed1 and keep to that measure in action4 ,only the men who know how to save time upon this calculation have it to spend upon hours of luxurious rest and interval4 ,there is nothing more fatal to pleasure or to safety than to realize1 perhaps too late1 that the race with darkness and benightment has begun4 ,those who are loudest in the valley in their protest against climbing by the watch are the most often challenged or beaten by night in this1 the most dangerous form of racing4 ,sidenote3 ,benightment4 ,getting benighted is not a pleasure1 and it is rarely necessary4 ,it has been given a false halo of romance by the practice and the picturesque descriptions of a number of guideless mountaineers1 who first render it inevitable by attempting what is beyond them1 or by carrying great weights1 and then seek to convince themselves and the world that the consequent night out on a lofty ledge or glacier forms an essential and agreeable part of mountaineering4 ,it is neither4 ,on a rare occasion it may be unavoidable1 as the result of unforeseen circumstances1 bad weather or altered conditions coming on too late to allow of the proper alternative1 which is to turn back in time4 ,if benightment is frequently incurred1 it is a sign of some grave defect in mountaineering judgment4 ,as a habit it is folly4 ,by daylight the climber has the hundred chances of activity1 warmth and sight in his favour4 ,at night he is the passive and blinded recipient of any evil chance that storm1 cold1 wind1 illness or accident may bring him4 ,to be on a mountain unprepared at night is to increase the percentage of danger incalculably2 and stars1 sunrise and sunset can be enjoyed without its unaccountable risk4 ,most ,european mountains are of a height to be climbed1 with a reasonable calculation of pace1 in a single day4 ,when they are beyond this range1 huts are to be found1 or a bivouac can be contrived4 ,the night out by intention at the beginning of an ascent has more than the romantic pleasure1 because none of the dangerous discomfort1 of the night out by miscalculation at its end4 ,this reasonable anticipation presupposes a precise estimate in advance of the pace required1 as well as of the length of the climb4 ,such an estimate does not mean fixing such and such hours for so much of the ridge1 and so much time for every halt1 which is slavery2 but it implies a general preconsideration of what ground must be covered and within what general divisions of time certain fixed points should be reached in order to allow of a safe return by daylight4 ,pace is the regulation of the progress1 and of the halts1 of the party in relation to these general fixed points4 ,sidenote3 ,weight ,handicaps4 ,to carry unnecessarily heavy loads as a precaution against cold or hunger in case of benightment--a very common custom--is to increase the actual probability of the event by further checking the rate of progress4 ,it is better to go as light as possible1 with the minimum of portable protection sufficient to preserve life in case of ill-fortune1 and to concentrate all the energy upon a timely conquest of difficulty1 such as will ensure a return before night4 ,the muscles1 not unduly weighted1 must see to it that there is always a margin of time in hand upon the estimate1 to allow for unforeseen checks4 ,with regard to this there is another common error4 ,those who confuse pace with racing1 picture a party rushing breathlessly over easy and difficult alike1 and panting at their rest-points watch in hand4 ,as a reaction from the picture1 they themselves make the long1 easy passages that constitute the major part of most ascents the occasion for a relenting rather than a quickening of pace2 with the result that they have no margin of time for the unforeseen or the unexpectedly difficult passages4 ,a party that does good times takes each passage at the maximum pace consistent with comfort1 allowing for its degree of difficulty4 ,it has consequently always time in hand to allow of leisurely exploration1 when found expedient1 and of a more careful overcoming of the real problems when they occur4 ,sidenote3 ,continuous ,going4 ,pace means the continuous progress of a party over the whole length of a climb1 allowing reasonable variations for more complicated passages or for halts4 ,it will be found that a party that does good times rarely hurries4 ,it is1 after all1 human1 and it dislikes being pressed4 ,nor has it any need to be4 ,an experienced party starts slowly--more slowly1 usually1 than less expert climbers4 ,it knows that pace to be good must be effortless1 and must become mechanical1 and that the muscles must be given time to get warm and work up to their automatic rhythm4 ,once this rhythm is attained it will1 for the sake of good progress1 avoid alike both hurrying and frequent halting4 ,to hurry will interfere with the bodily functions1 and react upon heart and lungs and will2 and to halt will disturb the rhythm and chill the muscles4 ,it will aim at continuous steady going1 and save its seconds and minutes over ground of easy movement1 ready to spend time freely again so as to economize effort on more difficult passages4 ,sidenote3 ,combination4 ,combination is the secret of saving seconds4 ,consider for a moment the case of a roped party that has not learned the secret of pace1 and is moving all together on easy rock4 ,inattentive to a common rate1 one man lags1 one goes unevenly1 there is constant check or turning round to talk1 each with its break of continuity of rhythm4 ,on a three hours' traverse of broken ridge half an hour will have been lost only in disentangling the rope on such interrupted1 uneven going4 ,the leader1 at the end1 will be vexed at the shorter time given in the guide-book1 and expostulate1 with justice1 8,why1 ,i was hurrying all the time60 ,or again1 watch a party of average amateurs moving one at a time on steep rock4 ,the first man reaches his ledge1 preens his plumes for a second or two in the sun of his success1 possibly discusses it in detail with his second man below1 looks round for a hold or belay1 takes a position1 alters it1 and shouts1 8,come along40 ,the second calls1 8,are you all right80 ,the first man is disturbed1 readjusts his body1 gets back to the old position1 and says 8,yes10 or 8,half a moment40 ,thirty seconds or more will be gone before the second man can start4 ,he reaches the ledge1 does not take note of the first man's position for holding before it is surrendered to him1 and has to rediscover it anew1 all with the same delay2 and another half-minute is gone4 ,if this performance is repeated1 as it will be1 several hundred times in the day1 by one or more of a party1 two invaluable hours at least will have dropped completely out of the allowance of time for the climb6 ,the party will remember that they did their actual climbing fast2 on their return they will look up the better #8times' of the book1 and abuse their predecessors for #8racing1' for #8dangerous pace1' etc41 whereas the only difference has been that their predecessors saved1 while they wasted1 innumerable1 all-important1 intervening seconds4 ,sidenote3 ,halts4 ,continuous progress is the essence of pace4 ,while a party is in motion1 the effort should be directed at keeping the pace constant1 not at hurrying it4 ,there will then be larger margins for completer rests at the proper halting times and places4 ,time can also be saved during halts4 ,it is a great mistake to hurry men over their food2 a due allowance of time should be made both for food and rest4 ,but the time of rest should be used for resting4 ,too much of it is usually lost1 and more than intended is often taken1 in standing about at the beginning of a halt1 or by slackness at the end3 one man has misplaced his axe2 another finds out for the first time that his puttie wants rewinding2 and so on4 ,once the time allowed for the halt is over1 the packing and restart should be brisk and immediate4 ,rest intervals are assuredly a part of the day's measure1 but dawdling at their edges is time lost from the climbing hours1 not time added to the resting4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,maximum ,rhythm4 ,moving slowly is not less effort than moving reasonably fast4 ,the muscles in movement generate their own warmth1 which is the body's energy4 ,muscles when in training can consume and create their own energy at more than their normal rate without more effort4 ,the maximum pace for a man is the highest rate of effort at which his system will carry on its functions without demanding direct impulses of will from the brain1 and without generating more waste matter than it can naturally consume and discharge4 ,each man has his maximum rhythm1 which varies according to his condition4 ,up to this maximum he can climb1 when in training1 without feeling increased fatigue4 ,above it1 his system will soon feel symptoms of exhaustion2 below it1 he gets no profit from the relaxation1 and even suffers some prejudice to his energy in the loss of a sustained rhythm4 ,the pace of a party is the maximum rhythm of its weakest member4 ,a good mountaineering party moving continuously and in combination in the common time of its comfortable maximum rhythm will gain steadily on a less experienced rope1 although it may allow itself longer definite intervals of 8idling on the great peaks10 and spend even more moments on its difficult passages4 ,the margin in time which it will save will serve1 on a well-calculated day1 to see the party of sustained pace down to easy going before darkness4 ,the one party will be home to dinner2 the other may be still struggling at midnight with the quadrupling of difficulties night brings in its train1 or sitting out and relieving its feelings by accusing the former party of #8racing4' ,gradual beginning1 gradual acceleration and uninterrupted moving on a steady top-gear of comfortable pace keep a party fresh1 and leave it free to appreciate the beauty of the day or of the climb4 ,its mind is relieved of care as to a timely return1 and it can enjoy a margin of leisure1 when it pleases1 in pleasant exploration1 in essaying experimental routes or in the meditation that mimics slumber4 ,the real freedom to rest1 to idle and to enjoy themselves where and when they will1 is only for those who have the measure of their day well in hand1 and who know that their collective pace1 their maximum rhythm of comfort1 before it can rise to a rate of disagreeable effort1 has a point or two of pressure still to spare1 to recover lost ground or to meet emergency4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,except where it is expressly stated1 or is plain from the context1 that the word #8leader' refers to the #8first man' on the rope1 it is used of the most experienced mountaineer of a party1 the one who exercises the functions of manager in matters of organization or arrangement and of leader or director in the actual business of climbing4 #b ,see 8,equipment10 pp4 #hb and #hf4 #c ,see 8,snow ,craft10 p4 #ccb4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,equipment ,,for ,,the ,,alps ,,by ,j4 ,p4 ,,farrar ,,equipment ,too much attention cannot be paid to the question of equipment4 ,the careful mountaineer must always be prepared to face bad weather and the possibility of an involuntary bivouac when the exposure maybe very severe4 ,at the same time1 his outfit must be as light and simple as possible4 ,my recommendations are based on the experience of a great many years' active service in mountaineering1 during which ,i have had to face most of the contingencies which the pursuit involves4 ,sidenote3 ,boots4 ,boots should be made of very stout cowhide1 unlined1 worked to the softness of thick buckskin4 ,the back and sides should be in one piece 7#8navvy back'7 and of rather thinner hide1 and as soft as buckskin gloves4 ,the front part must1 above all things1 not be tight over the big toe-joint which needs plenty of play1 or over the toes1 i4e4 there must be plenty of height 7i4e4 like a modified ski-boot7 as well as width for the toes4 ,the test is1 that one must be able to move one's toes readily--in fact1 crumple them up inside the boot4 ,the boots must fit tightly over the instep1 so as to prevent the foot jamming forward when descending4 ,the eyelet holes should be close together1 not more than half an inch centre to centre1 the first and last ones being put close to the ends of the lacing4 ,the tongue of thin1 soft leather must be sewn to the sides4 ,for many years ,i have had the uppers of my boots made very short--just over the ankles like a rather high shoe 7four inches from the top of the heel to the upper edge74 ,they leave the foot very free1 lighten the boot1 and1 when properly fitting and of soft leather1 lace up tightly and prevent any snow or stones getting into the boot1 thus dispensing entirely with putties or gaiters except on big1 cold snow-mountains4 ,the soles should be not over -inch thick1 and the same thickness in the waist4 ,they should not project1 but must give width enough for a full tread4 ,the heels should be not more than one inch thick1 made long and rather projecting1 so as to give a firm1 wide tread4 ,they must be sewn--not pegged--to the sole4 ,fatal accidents have occurred through the heel tearing away from the sole4 ,attention must be paid to the inner sole or floor of the boot1 the edges of which must be bevelled off or they will damage the sole of the foot4 ,a loose sole of cork or felt should be worn inside the boot4 ,i dispense with toecaps1 or have a very short one just covering the ends of the toes1 as ,i have never found a bootmaker who could put on a toecap of the regular length without contracting the end of the boot and compressing the toes in a dangerous manner4 ,the ordinary bootmaker knows nothing about an alpine boot1 which is very different from a shooting boot4 ,the fault of ,swiss-made mountain boots is that the leather is very hard and the boots much too cumbersome and heavy4 ,a guide's equipment is the very last to be imitated4 ,the measurements for boots should be taken standing evenly on both feet and over the mountain sock and stocking intended to be worn4 ,the boots must not press uncomfortably at any point even when quite new4 ,they need not permit of the inner sole being worn for the first time or two of using1 but must after then permit of lacing up quite tightly4 ,no hesitation must be permitted in rejecting boots that do not fit perfectly well1 as damaged feet may lay a man up and cause his party delay and loss4 ,of course1 a mountain boot should be broken in beforehand4 ,a good pair of ,london-made boots will cost1 pre-war1 from #b1 #ajs4 to #c1 and are worth the money4 ,the fit and make of boots is of the utmost importance4 ,boots tight in the toes cost one of my companions the loss from frost-bite of the toes of both feet4 ,never let your boots out of your possession4 ,boots burnt in the drying caused severe frost-bite to a very well-known alpine climber and ,himalayan explorer4 ,an unlined boot such as described will dry very quickly if stuffed with dry paper1 hay1 straw or oats--changed at intervals--and only requires a little castor-oil rubbed in before each expedition to render it quite supple and able to turn a lot of water4 ,boots should never be dried by a fire nor put in a hot sun for more than a very few minutes4 ,the unlined boot is also more porous1 so that the foot has less tendency to get hot and damp and subsequently cold4 ,in a hut1 boots should always be stuffed as described1 and this is even more important in a planned as well as an impromptu bivouac1 as otherwise they freeze hard in a bent or twisted shape1 and are very awkward to get on4 ,a pair of light cloth slippers may be carried1 or a pair of very light shoes for walking on occasion4 ,sidenote3 ,nailing ,boots4 ,do not use too many nails4 ,the so-called wing-nails overlapping each other all round the soles are absurd1 and wear perfectly smooth4 ,about six wing-nails kept in position by flanking hobnails as described may be used for the toes4 ,wrought-iron cube-headed nails with long shafts1 obtainable in the alpine centres1 set all round the edge of the soles -inch centre to centre1 including the waists1 and clenched through1 do all right4 ,about seven or eight nails placed at suitable intervals are enough for the tread part of the soles4 ,the front edge of the heel should have about six nails set close together1 as it takes a lot of strain downhill2 the others can be placed as on the sole-edges4 ,one nail is enough for the centre of the heel4 ,several patent nails have been introduced1 among which the so-called ,u4,h4,u4 ,stollen1 which are screwed on1 are very efficient1 but require some attention to see that the screws do not work loose4 ,i have used them for years with satisfaction4 ,they are obtainable from ,max ,seib1 ,karlsruhe4 ,an even better nail appears to be the lately invented ,tricouni nail obtainable from ,w4 ,stern1 #dj ,brazennose ,street1 ,manchester1 illustrated opposite4 ,the notched pattern 7,model ,d71 price now #aas4 per #ajj1 are best4 ,they must be set as close to the edge of the sole as possible1 with intervals of -inch to #a inch1 and continued right up to the heel4 ,they must1 of course1 not be driven in the sewing of the boot4 ,along and close up to the front edge of the heel should be set four of the nails broadside on1 the two outer ones reinforced close behind by two nails endwise and with three others round the heel at equal intervals4 ,tricouni nails can be used for the tread of the soles1 or almost preferably half a dozen wrought-iron hobnails suitably spaced4 ,tricouni nails are specially hardened1 and are said to retain their sharpness till quite worn out4 ,the plates1 no doubt1 protect the sole somewhat4 ,they certainly give a firmer stand than any ordinary nail1 besides saving considerable weight4#d ,a few small hobnails may be set in the waist of the boot4 ,illustration ,sidenote3 ,stockings4 ,a short sock of ,norwegian natural wool--thick and coarse--and perfectly easy1 especially over the toes1 should be worn4 ,they are obtainable at the alpine centres1 and also at ,lockwoods1 #db ,jermyn ,street1 ,s4,w41 being used for ski-boots4 ,over this should be worn a long woollen stocking of stout1 rough wool4 ,the feet must be big enough to fit comfortably over the inner sock without contracting the toes in the least4 ,they should be long enough to come #d to #f inches above the knee in case of an impromptu bivouac or very cold weather4 ,continental climbers wear #8,wadenstutzen1' i4e4 stockings without feet4 ,with these only spare socks need be carried4 ,buy socks and stockings big enough1 as they shrink4 ,the double sock and stocking and inner sole are meant not only for warmth1 but also to save the foot from damage ensuing from long days on rocks and rough paths4 ,remember your whole journey may be spoilt1 and your own and your companions' time and money wasted by damaged feet4 ,sidenote3 ,gaiters4 ,gaiters are not really needed except for long snow expeditions4 ,putties are1 however1 often worn even for an ordinary climb2 since they tend to stop the circulation they must be used with caution in very cold weather4 ,if for big snow mountains1 the pattern with spat keeps the foot warmer1 and can be kept tight on the boot by a bit of stout string passing under the instep4 ,this is easily replaced when worn4 ,if an ordinary puttie is worn1 it is best1 in order to prevent the end slipping loose on the greasy upper of the boot1 to have a large size of hook 7#8hook-and-eye' pattern7 sewn to the end of the puttie4 ,this can be hooked into the lacing of the boot at the start of the winding4 ,a good gaiter is the old-fashioned buttoned gaiter to come well down nearly to the toes1 made fairly loose of unlined loden1 kept in position by bits of stout string attached to leather lugs sewn outside the lower edges of the gaiters1 on each side1 the string passing under the waist1 and brought over to tie on the spat1 which is thus kept in place and prevents any snow working up4 ,such gaiters are warm1 light and effective4 ,sidenote3 ,clothes4 ,the coat should be of stout tweed4 ,i use a specially made #8,double ,twist' ,scotch ,cheviot1 treated with alum1 which renders it showerproof4 ,the coat must button up tight round the throat to exclude driving snow4 ,the sleeves must be made with gussets like shirt sleeves1 so that one can lift one's arms without stirring the body of the coat4 ,this is very important when climbing rocks and step-cutting4 ,a belt to the coat is a nuisance4 ,no lining whatever1 except a bit of woollen lining to protect the outside of the arm from shoulder to elbow--not even padding or stiffening pieces4 ,four outside pockets1 all unlined1 and all made with flaps and buttons4 ,two large inside pockets with flaps and buttons4 ,the pockets should be rather larger at the bottom than at the opening4 ,if safe pockets are desired1 to protect watch or glasses on severe rock-climbing1 small pockets with flaps should be placed inside and high up1 almost under each armpit4 ,the coat should be made double thickness of cloth on the front1 and should be perfectly loose everywhere4 ,the buttons should be closer together than usual1 so as to keep out driving snow4 ,the lower pockets should be set high enough1 so that when full they do not catch in the groin when mounting steep slopes4 ,the sleeves must have a second button to button tight round the wrist in storm4 ,such a coat1 if taken off now and again and shaken1 will stand quite a little rain1 and will in any case be lighter and dry far quicker than a lined coat4 ,pin half a dozen stout safety pins under the collar4 ,waistcoat should be of the same cloth throughout1 including the back--unlined throughout--made rather longer than the ordinary waistcoat1 especially at back--no back strap--four pockets outside with flap and button--all unlined--one inside pocket with flap and button for letter-case4 ,collar to button close up4 ,knickerbockers of the same cloth1 made very long in the seat so that they do not catch at the knee when mounting steep slopes--waistband to be unlined--two outside hip-pockets with flap and buttons besides the ordinary pockets--to be made wide at the knees1 but the width to be on the outside of the knee1 as if on the inside the crampons are apt to catch4 ,the riding-breeches pattern is no good1 as the knees get wet much quicker and remain wet longer4 ,i myself have my knickerbockers made wide enough to turn right up over the knees1 being kept there by safety pins2 one walks thus bare-kneed with great ease and comfort4 ,the seat and knees may be made double by means of patches4 ,pin half a dozen stout safety pins in the waistband4 ,sidenote3 ,hat4 ,the best hat is a grey or buff stout felt 7unlined7 #8smasher' hat--medium width brim and with a felt ,jger lining-band instead of the usual leather one4 ,if too thin1 the brim flaps about in the wind and needs pinning back with a safety pin4 ,fit a #8sweat-band' of oiled silk under the lining band1 to prevent the hat getting stained with sweat4 ,the cow-boy pattern with stiff brims does not do1 as it is apt to get knocked off by contact with rocks1 and one cannot sleep in it4 ,carry some sort of light cap4 ,sidenote3 ,shirt1 etc4 ,the #8,k' or #8,,kk' ,jaeger shirts answer well4 ,their short #8,g' pants also answer well4 ,no undervest should be worn4 ,remember1 if you do not want to feel cold1 avoid getting hot4 ,the proper place for the coat1 except in very cold weather or on difficult work1 is over the shoulders or in the sack1 the sleeves being tucked through the shoulder straps4 ,even when starting very early do not pile on clothes4 ,sidenote3 ,extra ,clothes4 ,carry a light woollen sweater and a very light woollen muffler1 about one foot wide and six feet long at least4 ,in very cold weather1 or if sleeping out1 pass this tight twice round the stomach and fasten with safety pins4 ,carry two or three large silk handkerchiefs4 ,the coat1 sweater and a silk handkerchief will protect the throat enough4 ,keep your stomach warm1 as it furnishes the heat to the rest4 ,carry a light waterproof cape4 ,they are obtainable at ,fritsch ,co41 ,zurich1 made of ,japanese silk--cost about #cjs41 weight about a lb4 ,they save one the annoyance of getting wet going up to a hut or bivouac or in the valley1 and are useful in the case of an impromptu bivouac1 as they keep off the wind4 ,they cannot1 of course1 be well used when climbing4 ,carry a light woollen helmet or passe-montagne to come right over the head and neck1 with opening for eyes1 nose and mouth4 ,carry1 without fail1 an extra pair of stockings a bit thinner1 since weight counts1 than your heavy climbing stockings1 but strong enough to use in an emergency or to change if benighted4 ,and it is also very desirable to carry a light spare shirt on long-exposed expeditions4 ,carry two pairs of gloves made of coarse1 thick wool1 without separate fingers and amply large4 ,they should also be long enough to cover the wrist of the sleeve4 ,short gloves are useless4 ,pin each pair together with a safety pin4 ,carry one pair at the bottom of the sack1 the other pair in the outside pocket of the sack4 ,a pair of mittens is useful4 99 99 99 99 99 ,captain ,farrar allows me to insert some suggestions on an alternative dress suitable for men sensitive to sudden changes of temperature4 ,sidenote3 ,some ,alternatives 7by ,g4,w4,y474 ,,the ,,coat4--,unlined except for the lining on the outside of the arms1 before mentioned1 and a single strip of loose ,jaeger fabric1 stitched only at the upper edge and ends1 across the shoulders4 ,i prefer also a lighter material1 very close woven1 for both coat and breeches4 ,heavy friezes1 as often worn1 absorb wet and admit wind as the fabric slackens with wear4 ,sidenote3 ,for the ,alps4 ,so-called #8tropical' and #8waterproof' materials dissolve like paper on rough rock work4 ,the collar turns down well away from the neck1 and1 when needed1 buttons in front with a flap which is sewn on to the coat1 under the collar1 along its lower edge1 so that when buttoned up to the two sides of the collar the flap leaves no hole where snow or wind can enter4 ,,the ,,breeches4--,trousers1 such as used to be worn1 had the advantage of leaving the knee free2 but they are uncomfortable with putties and clumsy at the ankle4 ,best of all leg-gear1 in some respects1 are the #8shorts1' as worn by the ,tyrolese2 but these leave the knee unprotected for rocks or against bad weather4 ,i prefer a compromise3 the breeches made loose to the knee1 as above described1 but the leg of the breech below the knee carried on and down1 in the same material and shaped to the calf1 low enough to be easily covered at the end by a sock4 ,to allow passage to the foot1 the extension opens down the inside of the calf1 and is secured there by a row of four small press springs4 ,buttons or buckles at the knees are always breaking on rocks1 and can be painful4 ,lacing is better1 but apt to be too tight4 ,one set of these small press springs1 in spite of warnings1 has lasted me for five years1 without a single one coming open or losing its strength4 ,they are1 of course1 well protected1 as placed on the inside against the #8give' of the calf4 ,the advantage of such long breeches is that they do not1 like the usual type1 constrict the knee or calf1 and they do not1 like trousers1 drag over it1 since the weight of the leg is partly carried by shaping and by the support of the sock4 ,they are worn with socks and not stockings4 ,this both economizes carrying and avoids the clumsy #8gump' where a puttie is twisted at its upper end over the stocking top4 ,with two pairs of socks worn1 one holding the end of the breech leg and one turned down over the boot1 the climber need only put on the puttie for deep snow1 or to protect the shin on sharp rocks4 ,in contact with rough surfaces the cloth leg is1 of course1 more durable than any woollen stocking4 ,they should be made ample between the legs1 and the seam stitched strongly and far up the front1 closing with a flap or fob1 as in riding-breeches4 ,for snow1 wind and wear this is a better protection than the usual single row of buttons4 ,two buckle-straps above the seat behind1 the lower set rather far down and kept the tighter1 enable one1 if the breeches are well cut1 to do without braces or belt4 ,at the same time1 they avoid constricting the waist or lower part of the lungs1 as the line of tension1 or close-fit1 hangs thus round the outside of the hip-bone1 and the waistband can be left quite loose4 ,,underwear4--,i prefer1 as an alternative to a shirt1 two or three very light silky-woollen #8,shetlands1' opening down the front and sitting close to the body all the way4 ,one at least should come right down to the thighs4 ,the lowest1 a zephyr or almost silk-web1 with short sleeves2 the second1 an ordinary warm light ,shetland1 with longer sleeves over the elbow2 the third1 thicker1 of looser fabric1 with no sleeves4 ,these can be thrown open1 put on or taken off1 one or more1 in a few seconds1 as the temperature varies4 ,they dry at once1 in wind or sun1 or from the heat of the body1 and are at once warmer1 drier and less oppressive wear than a full absorbent shirt4 ,i wear no waistcoat4 ,a silk scarf is pleasant to the feel1 and protective against sun or cold4 ,i find the best and cheapest to be a yard and a half of silk motor veiling4 ,this dries at once1 and can be used for any purpose1 from a sling to a turban or dressing-gown4 ,sidenote3 ,for ,rock ,climbing in ,britain4 ,corduroy or close-woven frieze provides the best wear4 ,coat and breeches should be unlined4 ,the knees can be strengthened by a double thickness or by buckskin4 ,in the latter case ordinary #8strapping' will do1 set over and not inside the knee4 ,it is well to have removable oilskin bags for some of the pockets1 to keep food1 etc41 dry in rain1 or1 at need1 to sit upon4 ,a sweater worn1 as is often done1 without a coat is a mistake4 ,it catches on rocks1 absorbs mist and rain1 admits wind1 and has no pockets4 ,experience teaches that the wet or windy cold of ,british hills can be far more trying than the dry cold of alpine days4 ,boots may be lighter and more lightly nailed than for the ,alps4 ,for this see 8,rock ,climbing10 p4 #aed4 ,as they are liable to get over-wet on ,british hills1 and over-dried and warped in ,british kitchens1 it is well to have a pair of very light aluminium toe-trees1 adjusted to the size of the boot1 which can be inserted the moment the boots are taken off in the evening4 ,these serve to keep the shape4 ,rubber or rope soled boots or shoes are now considered almost indispensable3 made of light canvas1 to go in a pocket4 ,putties are superfluous2 a light leather anklet1 or a couple of feet cut off an old puttie and twisted round the boot-top1 sufficiently prevents the entrance of small scree4 ,for wear in snow1 and this applies also to the winter snow of the ,alps1 it is a good device to have a narrow band of strong1 soft material sewn on round the top of the boot1 which laces up1 close round the ankle1 in a line with the bootlacing4 ,this is adequate protection for all but prolonged snow wear4 ,a good ,british head-wear is a strong tam-o'-shanter4 ,it is better wind and rain protection1 and cooler1 than a cap1 and leaves the forehead freer than a felt hat4 ,best of all is no head-gear at all4 ,for those whose hands suffer from cold on wet rocks1 or who1 like myself1 have once had their fingers frost-touched1 some sort of gloves are necessary4 ,in rock climbing1 gloves1 and still more fingerless #8gubs1' destroy the touch and grip4 ,i find the best compromise to be strong woollen finger-mittens1 with fingers extending as far as the first joint4 ,some climbers profess to get comfort from warming their fingers 7and thawing out their rock holds7 with the small pocket ,japanese #8,instra4' ,it is well to have everything marked1 or of distinctive colouring4 ,in ,britain1 the orgies of the #8drying-room' are a daily trial to temper and time4 ,it is well also to remember that1 in all mountaineering1 we are to form the foreground of our companions' holiday views of great scenery1 and that it is our duty not to inflict a larger proportion of the incongruous or ugly upon their daily outlook than is required by the first condition of our own comfort and protection4 99 99 99 99 99 ,women have learnt by experience that convention must give way to common sense in the matter of costume4 ,sidenote3 ,costume for ,women 7by ,miss ,bronwen ,jones74 ,for alpine work1 clothing should be entirely woollen2 the suit1 comprising coat1 breeches and skirt1 of light weight and colour1 and--this is essential--wind-proof4 ,for ,british climbing1 gaberdine or cord can be substituted for wool1 as1 here1 protection against rain is of more importance than protection against wind4 ,the coat should be shaped like a man's jacket1 furnished with an adjustable collar1 storm sleeves1 and an ample supply of pockets1 closed by flaps4 ,it should be of such a length as to reach within eight inches of the knee4 ,the skirt is still often looked upon as a necessity in the ,alps1 but it is discarded early in an ascent4 ,it should therefore be of a soft and light material1 so as to be easily carried in a rucksack4 ,it should stop at least ten inches from the ground1 and be not more than two yards wide4 ,the breeches should be as close-fitting as those of a man1 as over-fullness is apt to be a hindrance on rocks4 ,they should also be laced rather than buttoned at the knee1 buttons being a source of discomfort when kneeling4 ,a sweater is generally preferred to a blouse for wear under the coat1 as it is loose-fitting1 warmer and does not impede the movements of the arms4 ,the most suitable hat is made of either grey or white soft felt1 wide enough to provide a shade from the sun4 ,a stiff brim should be avoided on account of the discomfort caused by its coming into contact with the rope4 ,hatpins should obviously be replaced by an elastic4 ,it is not advisable to wear gloves for rock climbing1 as they lessen the sense of touch4 ,woollen gloves1 with no divisions for the fingers1 are recommended for wear on snow or when stationary4 ,a silk scarf1 tied tightly over the hat1 has been found a great boon during high winds in the ,alps4 ,boots1 stockings1 etc41 are the same as those advised for men4 ,in order to avoid great subsequent discomfort1 the face and neck should be carefully protected against sunburn4 ,for this purpose an even layer of some good colour salve is most effective4 ,failing this1 a layer of lanoline covered with toilet powder has proved a fairly good substitute4 ,a small pocket-mirror should be carried for use when applying the mixture1 so that one can see that no place is left uncovered4 ,should the face become sunburnt it should be bathed in very hot water and then covered with grease4 ,,outfit ,,by ,j4,p4 ,,farrar ,even the beginner had better accustom himself to carry a sack1 which may contain his gloves1 sweater1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,rucksack4 ,a good size is #ba inches wide and #ba inches deep1 the bottom and side walls #d inches wide1 as this gives a flatter sack4 ,two outside pockets with flap and button--the carrying straps of woollen webbing #a inch wide--the whole made of waterproof sailcloth with a flap4 ,a good pattern is supplied by ,alpine outfitters such as ,fritsch ,co4 of ,zurich1 who issue elaborate catalogues of alpine equipment4 ,the ,continental dealers supply a very light frame which goes between the back and the sack1 thus preventing the back getting hot4 ,the best ,i know is the 8,touristenfreund ,rucksacksttze10 ,no4 #bj1 #c marks1 supplied by ,fritsch4 ,the ,norwegians make a novel kind of sack1 the weight of which is carried partly by the hips4 ,sidenote3 ,ice-axe4 ,the best ice-axes ,i know are made by ,schenk in ,grindelwald 7difficult to get delivery74 ,the same pattern is also made by ,fritz ,jrg1 ,zweiltschinen1 near ,interlaken1 from whom ,i have had several good axes4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to specify the pattern1 as he makes several4 ,sizes are as follows3 ,length of adze-side of head from centre of handle #e0 7#ab cms47 ,length of pick-side of head from centre of handle #g0 7#ah cms47 ,width of blade of adze #b0 7#f cms47 ,depth of socket of head 7to give weight7 #b0 7#e cms47 ,length of side irons of head from lower edge of socket #g0 to #h0 7about #bj cms47 ,side ,irons should be fastened to the stock by #c copper rivets1 not screws4#e ,length of ferrule of axe handle #b0 7#f cms47 ,length of point of axe handle #b0 7#e cms47 ,the point must not be sharp1 and if longer than stated1 may tear one's clothes when cutting4 ,the point and ferrule made in one piece are very objectionable1 as they allow the point no play if caught4 ,length of stock or handle1 including point #ci0 7#a m47 ,this is a good average length for general purposes4 ,longer axes offer no advantages1 and are awkward4 ,i use a #cf-;inch axe1 which is very handy1 but it is short for cutting downhill4 ,diameter of handle immediately under socket of axehead #a0 by #a01 say #cj by #ce mm4 ,diameter of handle immediately above ferrule #a-a_/af0 by #a-e_/af01 say #bg by #cc mm4 ,these sizes give strength enough4 ,if exceeded1 they fill the grasp of an ordinary hand so that1 as is often needed1 nothing else can be gripped4 ,if the lower end is thinner it will cramp the hand when cutting4 ,the axe should balance at about #i inches from the top4 ,an axe as described weighs #c lb41 and will be equal to any work usually met with on a mountain expedition4 ,if the balance and the curves of the head come out well1 it will cut ice clean and without any recoiling jar to the arms4 ,notches on the underside of the head of the axe1 often seen in shop axes1 are very objectionable4 ,illustration ,mr4 ,eckenstein has designed an ice axe differing radically from the normal type1 to be used in conjunction with his crampons4 ,it is #cd inches long over all1 and has a much smaller head4 ,the few who have used it in conjunction with the special crampons claim for the combination advantages in difficult ice4 ,the subject has been treated by ,dr4 ,j4 ,jacot ,guillarmod in an elaborate paper with scale drawings and many sketches in the ,jahrbuch des ,s4 ,a4 ,c41 vol4 xlv4 pp4 #cdd-ec1 and undoubtedly deserves the closest attention4#f ,this axe1 and crampons1 are made by ,a4 ,hupfauf1 ,einsiedeln1 ,switzerland4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,thumb ,,knot4 ,,correct ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,incorrect ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,figure ,,of #h ,,knot4 ,,correct ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,figure ,,of #h ,,tie4 ,,correct ,sidenote3 ,axe ,sling4 ,when climbing rocks the axe has often to be slung on the arm4 ,a good sling for rocks only is made of lamp wick joined to form a circle of #be inches4 ,this is carried in the pocket1 and is easily put on and off4 ,the fixed hemp sling1 so often seen1 gets wet and cut if any steps have to be cut4 ,the best combined sling1 invented by ,mr4 ,v4 ,fynn1 and supplied by ,fritsch ,co41 ,zurich1 consists of a leather loop attached to a brass ring running on the axe handle between the head and a stop4 ,this sling serves for rock work like an ordinary sling1 and1 in addition1 is looped round the wrist when step-cutting1 thus preventing the loss of the axe1 which to a party of climbers engaged in difficult work might be a source of danger4 ,i always use it4 ,sidenote3 ,rope4 ,the greatest attention must be paid to ropes1 as fatalities due to the breakage of these have been very numerous4 ,i was1 in consequence1 induced to institute some very careful inquiries into the question of the most suitable ropes for alpine work1 and some very exhaustive tests were thereupon made of various ropes by ,mr4 ,o4 ,eckenstein1 which have been confirmed by subsequent tests made by ,swiss climbers4 ,the result was the evolution of a flax rope1 which1 in point of ultimate tensile strength and extension 7i4e4 elasticity71 surpasses considerably any other rope1 weight for weight4 ,the following table gives the ascertained results of the two best ropes tested3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,ultimate ,work required tensile to break test strength1 ,exten- length of #e in sion1 feet1 in ,circum- ,weight pounds4 measured foot-pounds4 ,make4 ference1per #ajj -------------- on test-------------- in feet1 in ,relative1 length ,relative1 inches4pounds4 ,abso-for rope of #e ,abso-for rope lute4 of feet1 lute4 of standard per standard weight4 cent4 weight4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,no4 #a4-- ,english1 ,flax #ad #dcge #aijd #bagf #afc #dea #eae ,no4 #b4-- ,english1 ,manila #ad #dfe #agib #aibg #abc #ccae #cef ,no4 #c4-- ,no4 #a1 worn #ad #dfi #adef #aeeb #acb #bhh #cjg ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,the ,no4 #a rope is manufactured by ,frost ,brothers ,ltd41 #cdb ,commercial ,road1 ,london1 ,e41 and is known as ,frost's left-hand alpine rope1 #a inch4 ,it is beautifully flexible to handle and knot1 and after the first wetting shows no tendency to kink4 ,i do not know much of its wearing capacities--in this respect it is probably excelled by the harder ,manila ropes4 ,for the haulage of duffers where the rope is constantly dragged against rocks1 no doubt a much heavier rope of ,manila or possibly wire would be preferable4 ,the ,frost rope now described is designed for the use of trained mountaineers4 ,all that ,i demand and all that ought to be demanded of an alpine rope is that it shall not show undue wear during a single season4 ,i never use for a second season a rope on which life may depend when a new one can be obtained for a few shillings4 ,even when a rope shows no appreciable wear1 it may have been subjected to some sudden severe strain which has robbed it of a portion of its virtue4 ,i go so far as to say that used ropes ought not to be given away to guides who will go on using them for an indefinite time4 ,the ,no4 #c rope in the table was a ,frost rope used by the late ,mr4 ,h4 ,o4 ,jones for one season4 ,the decline in its resisting power is marked1 although it is still a fairly strong rope4 ,sidenote3 ,knots4 ,with respect to knots for use in alpine ropes1 ,mr4 ,eckenstein was again good enough to investigate the question1 and the accompanying illustrations have been prepared from photographs taken under his instructions4 ,they are all applicable to a left-hand rope4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,single ,,fisherman',s ,,bend4 ,,correct ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f--;,,incorrect ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,incorrect ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,bowline ,,and ,,overhand ,,knot4 ,,correct ,the following is an extract from his covering letter to me3 8,a laid rope usually consists of three strands twisted together4 ,each strand thus forms a helix4 ,the strands are #8laid' together to form the rope1 and the way in which they are laid together is called the #8lay4' ,now if we begin to tie a knot1 we similarly #8lay' together1 two ropes1 and each rope then forms a portion of a helix4 ,the general rule is this3 if the strands of the rope used form right-hand helices 7as is the case with the old ,alpine ,club rope71 then in that part of the knot which is subjected to the greatest strain 7,i use the word #8strain' in its popular sense7 the two ropes must each form a left-hand helix4 ,conversely1 if we use a rope the strands of which form left-hand helices 7as is the case with the new ,frost rope71 then in that part of the knot which is subjected to the greatest strain the two ropes must each form a right-hand helix4 ,see also my paper1 8,knots with the ,lay10 in the ,climbers' ,club ,journal1 vol4 xi41 ,no4 #dd1 p4 #add1 ,june #aiji4 8,the annexed figures include three classes of knots3 simple or elementary knots2 knots for uniting two ropes2 loop knots4 ,all are shown tied with left-hand rope4 ,the correct way of tying the knots is shown in each case1 as well as some incorrect ways4 ,each knot is shown open1 before it is drawn taut4 8,the single fisherman's bend1 shown in ,fig4 #g1 is excellent for uniting two ropes of similar size for temporary purposes1 as it can readily be undone4 ,hence it has a tendency to work loose in course of time1 and if it is necessary to unite two ropes of similar size for longer periods1 it is better to use the figure of #h tie1 also known as the ,flemish tie1 shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,this1 though somewhat complicated1 is strong and reliable and has no tendency to work loose4 8,as regards making a loop in the middle of a rope1 no entirely satisfactory knot has yet been devised4 ,the #8middleman noose1' shown in the #ahib ,alpine ,club ,report of the ,special ,committee on ,equipment for ,mountaineers 7p4 #d71 has the fatal disadvantage that under certain conditions1 when a pull is applied in a certain direction1 it acts as a true noose--that is1 as a slip or running knot4 ,the best middle loop at present known is the open-handed loop1 which is free from this disadvantage1 and which is shown in ,fig4 #ad4 8,for an end loop1 the bowline1 shown in ,fig4 #aa1 is excellent4 ,the loose end should be secured by a half-hitch 7see #ahib ,report1 p4 #d71 or by an overhand knot2 the latter1 shown in ,fig4 #ab1 is preferable4 8,finally1 a bowline on a bight1 the most important #8first aid' knot for transporting an injured person1 is shown in ,fig4 #af40 ,messrs4 ,kirkaldy made in my presence some interesting tests of knots1 with the following results3 ,middleman ,knot4 ,strength relative to rope4 ,manila rope #dd per cent4 ,flax rope #ej per cent4 ,single bowline ,knot4 ,strength relative to rope4 ,manila rope #ee per cent4 ,flax rope #ei per cent4 ,this again shows that a knot reduces the efficiency of a flax rope less than that of the ,manila rope4 ,new ropes should not be wetted or stretched before use1 but the kinks should be carefully worked out by hand4 ,and a wet rope must be dried in the shade4 ,the best length of rope for a party of three is #ajj to #abj feet4 ,it is a good plan on long1 snow-covered glacier expeditions to carry a spare #ej-;foot rope1 and on some difficult rock climbs a long spare rope is necessary4 ,this can be of a lighter kind1 about #a inch circumference4 ,beale1 #aid ,shaftesbury ,avenue1 ,london1 supplies a ,manila alpine line very suitable for such a purpose4 ,sidenote3 ,pitons4 ,pitons are occasionally necessary for difficult rock climbs4#g ,they are spikes of ,swedish iron -inch in diameter and about #f to #i inches long1 turned over to form a loop at one end1 through which the rope can be passed1 and drawn at the other to a wedge-shaped edge so as to allow of driving into a crevice of rock4 ,sidenote3 ,kletterschuhe4 ,kletterschuhe are much used in the ,dolomites1 and it has lately been shown that they can be used with advantage not only on dry rocks but also in great climbs like the ,ecrins and the ,ailefroide4 ,a good kind is the so-called ,sexten pattern1 the soles of which are built up of layers of cloth4 ,sidenote3 ,crampons4 ,crampons add security1 and are very useful in saving step-cutting on great ice climbs2 but otherwise1 especially on journeys1 are scarcely worth carrying4 ,mr4 ,eckenstein has designed a very effective kind1 the only drawback being their weight 7about #c lb4 the pair74 ,a useful crampon is the so-called ,allguer model1 #h-spiked1 weight about #a lb4 per pair4 ,a4 ,hupfauf of ,einsiedeln1 ,switzerland1 is a reliable maker 7also of ice-axes if pattern is sent74 ,the crampons should have a hemp strap with branches sewn on to the two pairs of back rings and buckling over the instep1 and a separate toe-strap sewn on to the front pair of rings and buckling over the fore-foot4 ,this strap must not be buckled tight1 as hemp shrinks when damp1 and pressure might cause frost-bite4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,,bowline4 ,,correct ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,incorrect ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,,incorrect ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,,incorrect ,this form of fastening 7as on the old wooden skate7 cramps the foot less1 and is much more quickly adjusted than a single long cross-over strap4 ,the crampon requires careful fitting to the sole of the boot 7a stiff cardboard template of each sole should be sent to the maker of the crampon71 and when nailing the boots1 gaps should be left for the limbs of the crampons4 ,in using crampons care must be taken to keep the feet apart and not lift them more than necessary1 as serious accidents have occurred through the spikes catching in the stockings or even knickerbockers4 ,crampons are not for use on rocks1 except possibly when iced1 but they are particularly necessary on steep grass mountains1 like the ,hfats4 ,sidenote3 ,spectacles and ,grease4 ,both spectacles and grease are very necessary on glacier expeditions4 ,the spectacles can either be smoked glasses or1 better still1 the new green-yellow glasses4 ,i prefer #a inch convexo-concave glasses in strong steel or horn frames without any wire netting4 ,the best grease for the face which ,i know is the ,pomade ,schehaye2 but there are other similar preparations which rightly depend upon colour for their effectiveness4 ,lanoline is too thin4 ,blackening the face and all round the eyes with burnt cork is also an efficient remedy against sunburn1 and suffices in the case of loss or breakage of spectacles4 ,or a mask of paper1 with eye-slits1 can be made4 ,sidenote3 ,field-glass4 ,a ,zeiss #h-power monocular prismatic glass weighs about a lb41 and can be carried in the pocket without any case for instant use4 ,the binocular glasses are too cumbersome4 ,this glass can also be used for sweeping terrain for chamois1 but for detailed work a #cj-power aluminium telescope is better4 ,less effective1 but lighter to carry1 and sufficient for most alpine prospecting1 is the pocket telescope1 made by ,messrs4 ,ross1 for sporting purposes4 ,it is about #d inches in length1 and weighs only a few ounces4 ,sidenote3 ,aneroid and ,compass4 ,good mountain aneroids1 graduated to #ejjj metres1 are made by ,casella1 ,london1 and by ,usteri-,reinacher1 ,zurich4 ,even on an ordinary expedition they are interesting1 and can be useful to elucidate one's position in thick weather4 ,a compass must always be carried4 ,hughes1 #ei ,fenchurch ,street1 ,e4,c41 make an excellent liquid-filler compass which renders the needle very steady4 ,sidenote3 ,maps4 ,the best map of the district must always be carried with the party4 ,sidenote3 ,water-bottle and ,drinking-cup4 ,i have for many years used bottles made of ,para rubber with wide 7#a-;inch7 mouth and screw stopper4 ,contents #a litre1 weight #f ounces1 price #f marks 7,h4 ,schwaiger1 ,munich74 ,if cured for a few days with weak white wine and water or coffee they do not impart any taste to contents1 even if left in for a couple of days4 ,when empty1 they take next to no room4 ,the full bottle must1 of course1 be perched on top of the other things in the sack4 ,guides prefer a tin or aluminium receptacle to hold two or three litres1 and the goatskin bottles usual in ,dauphin are also very practical4 ,as a drinking-cup ,i know nothing better than the -litre oval aluminium mug of the ,federal troops4 ,carry an aluminium dessertspoon4 ,sidenote3 ,lantern4 ,several patterns of folding lantern are made4 ,schwaiger supplies one in aluminium 7,alpenvereins71 weight #f ounces1 price #f marks4 ,sidenote3 ,cooking ,apparatus4 ,i have never carried cooking apparatus1 as cooking on an expedition takes far too long and is a needless luxury4 ,a good one is the ,ideal-,kocher in aluminium supplied by ,schwaiger and others1 size #a litre1 #f marks2 #b litres1 #h marks4 ,they are useful for guideless climbers in crowded huts4 ,it is not at all a bad plan to carry an aluminium saucepan with lid 7about #a quart71 which will often enable one to cook in a crowded hut without waiting one's turn4 ,for a bivouac1 a couple of aluminium saucepans fitting into each other save carrying heavy cooking pots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,open-,,handed ,,ikop4 ,,correct ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,incorrect ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,bowline ,,on ,a ,,bight4 ,,correct ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,,incorrect ,sidenote3 ,outfit for ,bivouac4 ,the best sleeping sack ,i know is made of thin ,willesden canvas lined with opossum4 ,the sack should be made to button all round--not sewn4 ,a suitable size is #f feet #f inches long and #b feet #f inches wide when done up4 ,opossum fur is1 however1 now expensive1 and a very efficient lining is eiderdown made up in thin merino covering4 ,w4 ,ratcliff1 saddler1 ,olney1 ,bucks1 can supply a good sack1 made with straps to roll up1 cost #c to #d1 according to the weight of down used 7price pre-war74 ,a light silk sack is made by ,heal ,sons1 ,tottenham ,court ,road1 cost #b1 #ajs41 but requires a waterproof sheet4 ,for putting under the hip1 a square rubber air-cushion about #b feet square is very desirable4 ,a tent is rarely necessary for a bivouac for one night1 as if the weather were bad enough to need a tent1 the conditions next day would not permit a big climb4 ,the ,mummery silk tents are well spoken of4 ,a light tent of the ,mummery pattern1 tested and improved upon by ,dr4 ,longstaff in the ,himalayas1 and with further improvements by ,mr4 ,young1 is made by ,messrs4 ,piggott1 ,bishopsgate ,street ,without4 ,the ,cottage tent of the ,amateur ,camping ,club1 ,london 7address1 #d ,new ,union ,street1 ,e4,c42 sub41 #es4 per annum71 is very light1 roomy and strong4 ,their catalogue is well worth study4 ,for extended expeditions ,i have used a tent made of ,egyptian flax1 so-called silk4 ,a good size is #i by #f by #f feet to ridge1 or better1 #ab by #h by #f feet to ridge1 unless the country is too mountainous4 ,it only needs two poles1 which can in some countries be improvised on the spot2 or the ridge cord can be tied to trees or other obstacles1 and poles dispensed with4 ,these tents are quite waterproof and stand weather well1 whilst they are very light4#h ,one's endurance and enterprise are not improved by sleeping on the ground1 even on spruce1 night after night4 ,the ,x ,compactum bed is a good portable bed1 folds up to #c feet by #e inches by #e inches1 weight #bj lb41 cost #bds4 #f;d4 ,this1 with a sleeping sack1 a couple of ,hudson ,bay ,no4 #d red blankets1 a waterproof sheet #g feet by #e feet and a hair pillow1 make a good sleeping outfit for a main camp4 ,sidenote3 ,medicine4 ,for alpine purposes ,i find chlorodyne1 ,cockle's pills1 a couple of bandages and a roll of -inch ,american plaster very useful to carry in the sack4#i ,small and very light pocket-cases1 suitable for mountaineering purposes 7one of medical and the other of surgical remedies71 are now supplied by ,messrs4 ,burroughs ,wellcome4 ,these notes cover the special requirements of the mountaineer in the ,alps1 and ,i have not thought it necessary to enumerate the many small things which he needs anyhow1 and of which he is the best judge4 ,note4--,all prices are pre-war except where stated4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,cf4 an article by ,o4 ,eckenstein in the ,climbers' ,club ,journal1 #aiad4 #e ,see article in the ,climbers' ,club ,journal1 #aiab1 p4 #adg4 #f ,see also pp4 #bjf1 #bib4 #g ,see 8,pegs and ,aids10 p4 #bjj4 #h ,see also 8,the ,himalaya0 and 8,mountaineering in the ,tropics40 #i ,for further medical outfit1 see 8,mountaineering in the ,tropics40 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,guided ,,and ,,guideless ,,mountaineering ,the question of climbing with or without guides is one of traditional importance4 ,but the long controversy has proceeded without taking into account the change in modern conditions2 and the terms #8guided' and #8guideless' are still used with a signification that now bears little relation to actual circumstance4 ,consequently the discussion for mountaineers has become profitless1 for it is based upon definite misconceptions4 ,sidenote3 ,old-time ,errors4 ,the great public1 or that part of it which has reached the point of accepting mountaineering as a legitimate background for sensational magazine stories1 cherishes one fixed idea on the subject of climbing--that the guide is a providence who knows and shows and goes the one sacred and impeccable #8path' which every genuine mountain possesses3 to go without him is to tempt destruction deliberately2 something like ejecting the engine-driver1 starting the lever and retiring to smoke in a first-class carriage4 ,the importance of the error is that its persistence permits it to dominate the minds of a large number of men who #8do mountains' every year from the hotels4 ,to them1 mountaineering means only the traditional route up in the traditional way2 and tradition demands the surrender of their intelligence and personal inclinations for a day to the unimaginative tyranny of any two chance peasants between whom they are advised to suspend the exercise of their own finer faculties and the direction of their very differently constituted frames4 ,their ambition is laudable1 but they are in no sense mountaineers1 and they may never become so1 any more than those who cross the ,channel in a steamboat are qualifying as sailors4 ,but they form a considerable portion of those who go among the mountains1 and include a large number of those who give the public their experiences4 ,in so far their patronage contributes to confirm and perpetuate the long-lived error4 ,among a large number1 also1 of climbers proper the error1 though different in kind1 is as constant4 ,the magnificent school of foreign rock climbers which has of late years grown up in the regions of lesser peaks north1 east and south of the ,alps1 and which1 with some notable exceptions1 has little conception of what independent mountaineering on the great peaks means1 accepts the performance and narration of these tourists in the big ,alps as typical of #8guided climbing1' and very justly condemns it for its obvious lack of many of the features which constitute the pleasure or merit of their own mountaineering4 ,in so far as they accept the popular and mistaken classification into guided and guideless1 these climbers help in continuing it4 ,our equally brilliant school of ,british rock climbers1 recognizing the absurdity of taking guides on the short climbs of ,scotland or the ,lakes or ,wales1 often adopts the same attitude4 ,only by slow experience1 and in individual cases1 when they meet the problems and actual conditions of real mountaineering in the great ,western ,alps1 do they learn the magnitude of the traditional fallacy4 ,there is1 therefore1 excuse for the ,press and the lay public4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,guide of the ,chronicles4 ,there is yet further justification to be found for them in the only literature accessible to them--the famous alpine classics1 and the original relationship of amateur and guide therein set forth4 ,we mountaineers owe so much to these early explorers and to their inspiring records1 which first set our feet on the mountain way and which remain our most cherished and revered companions1 that it is an ungrateful task to have to forsake them for a moment in the interests of veracity and of our modern mountain craft4 ,but many of these notable pioneers1 or at least those whose personality is most permanent in literature1 were not mountaineers in the technical sense in which we understand the word to-day4 ,mountaineering1 as an art1 has made immense strides among amateurs and professionals alike since their time1 due largely to the force of their original impulse4 ,what was true of their time is no longer true2 and while their writing will remain the source of every climber's inspiration until mountaineering may be forgotten in the passion for winter sports and aviation1 it is not in the best interests of the sport that their pronouncements should be considered as absolutely or1 even on technical points1 as relatively true of modern conditions4 ,they were undoubtedly fortunate in their guides4 ,when they were not1 we do not hear of it1 or only in a passing sentence4 ,the amateurs were themselves few in number1 and the most enterprising naturally attracted to themselves the few considerable personalities among a race of as yet unspoiled mountain peasants and hunters4 ,they found them companions1 men of intelligence1 manners and courage4 ,the knowledge of mountaineering conditions was in its infancy1 and the peasant was accustomed from childhood to such knowledge as existed4 ,relatively to the present day he was better physically equipped than his employer1 who was primarily an explorer or a walking enthusiast4 ,he was therefore not undeserving of the implicit confidence placed in his judgment and skill4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,guide as he is4 ,conditions have changed4 ,guides have no longer the opportunity of travelling up and down the ,alps to secure the same wide basis of experience4 ,only a few of them are taken beyond their own valleys2 and when they are1 they are associated in most cases with local experts1 who relieve them of the necessity of exerting their brains to discover the new conditions4 ,only in very rare cases among their multiple employers do they ever get the same opportunity of long contact with more active or educated intelligences1 such as could react upon their own appreciation of their own mountain problems4 ,the organized conditions for tourist life in the ,alps1 the separate quarters in hotel and hut1 the rapid succession of engagements with men of different nationalities and divergent types1 and their own guide-schools1 inculcating precise codes of manners to use with #8,herren1' forbid the old freedom of intercourse4 ,the best and most travelled of guides has a different manner on the mountain and in the hotel4 ,there is no authority so absolute as that of the hotel-keeper in a small democratic ,swiss community in all that affects the tourist traffic4 ,and the ideas of an average hotel-keeper as to the nature of tourists and as to the proper behaviour towards them on the part at least of his1 the hotel-keeper's1 dependents or inferiors are not unlike those of a head waiter in a city restaurant4 ,the tradition that the guide is a professional servant has become engrained4 ,the stoutest of mountaineering democrats has to accept its restrictions1 once off the mountains1 if only to save his guide's discomfort4 ,and the average guide on his side1 dealing every summer with succeeding varieties of incapable amateurs often ignorant of his language1 and accustomed to the passive acceptance of his service to hoist them up conventional peaks1 has grown up in a traditional atmosphere of aloofness and of courteous disregard for his employers as mountaineers in his own professional sense4 ,a collective professional attitude has established itself of which the early days knew little or nothing2 the most independent of guides1 however well he may know his employer's capacity by experience1 cannot but find the utmost difficulty in discarding tradition and associating himself with the amateur's judgment if it happens to conflict with local hear-say or with the view of some inferior professional using the familiar patois4 ,and just in so far as a collective opinion1 in theatre or crowd or guild1 is inferior to the individual judgment of the majority of intelligent individuals who compose it1 and echoes1 as if unanimously1 the more blatant voice of the more vulgar elements1 in so far is the capacity1 even of good individual guides of the present day1 inferior to that of their predecessors in matters requiring the exercise of wider intelligence upon unforeseen problems or new conditions4 ,just in so far1 also1 are guides hampered by their body of tradition and prejudice from profiting by their contact with more educated minds1 or from learning to apply new principles to the special circumstances of their profession4 ,with the formalizing1 even in details1 of the route up every regular peak1 the stimulus of romance and adventure has gone for them far more than for the amateur4 ,the new generation finds its only outlet in the autumn chamois-hunting1 if at all4 ,its mountaineering is just business4 ,there are some rare and notable exceptions--perhaps as many in actual number as formed the chosen band of guides who led the early mountaineers in their pleasant comradeship of triumph--but they are attached in almost all cases for each season to affectionate and jealous employers1 and for the general mass of climbers there exists only a general mass of guides of the limited and professional cast of mind4 ,in continuance of early pioneering tradition some great amateurs of the old school still maintain that the guide's word should be law in all tactical and even strategical decisions4 ,these are the fortunate men1 whose knowledge and reputation can command the services of the surviving body of exceptions4 ,if they were not so fortunate1 they would have to reconsider their view1 or they would1 at the present date1 see more of hotels than of huts1 of pastures than of peaks4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,amateur as he may be4 ,if guides have1 as a whole1 not progressed in the responsible and sympathetic qualities essential for management1 amateurs have improved out of all proportion4 ,mountain craft1 the mastery of the laws that govern ice and rock and of their application1 has become an exact science1 and the educated intelligence1 under right guidance1 is able in a season or so to enter upon a whole inheritance of knowledge1 of detail and principle1 which it took decades of tentative experiment to discover4 ,in the matter of purely technical skill also1 of physical performance1 of balance1 the use of the feet1 of the axe1 the rope and the eyes1 the phenomenon common to all sports has made itself evident3 each new generation of climbers appears to inherit1 almost as an instinct and without visible or conscious study1 a greater adaptability1 an easier apprehension1 as it were1 of the necessary and improving physical adjustments which had to be laboriously acquired by the previous generation4 ,consequently the good amateur now brings to the partnership a mountaineering qualification unimagined fifty years ago1 possessed of an accumulated knowledge of all varying and recorded conditions and of a transmitted instinct for the novel athletic requirements4 ,in stating this1 ,i do not wish for a moment to be thought to undervalue either the spirit or the skill of the few great early guideless parties who first broke loose from the growing oppression of the professional guiding traditions4 ,they had to face a hostile criticism of whose intensity we have now little conception4 ,in the then condition of mountaineering knowledge their independent action1 undertaken deliberately in the best interest of mountaineering as a great pursuit1 postulated a resolute courage and a readiness for responsibility that proved to be as well justified by their record of performance as it remains deserving of our wholehearted admiration4 ,the relations of amateur and guide would probably in any case have followed the same line of development4 ,but these pioneers did more than anticipate4 ,they first taught the amateur that it was safe for him1 if he wished1 to prosecute the craft for himself1 and that he possessed advantages that could make him1 if he followed them up independently1 all but the equal of the best guides4 ,a guide is1 in fact1 only a #8guide' in the sense that he belongs to a professional class4 ,the name can no longer be used to imply an inherent supremacy in all fields of mountaineering4 ,similarly an amateur possesses an inheritance and opportunities which make it possible for him to make himself as good as a guide in many1 and better than a guide in several1 important qualifications4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,composite ,mountaineer4 ,the title mountaineer can no longer be confined to the man of the mountains4 ,it connotes the perfect mastery of a difficult craft to which guide and amateur alike aspire4 ,this mountain science consists of several departments of equal importance1 in some of which the amateur1 in others the guide1 starts with an initial advantage4 ,in relation to its absolute acquisition there are bad professionals and medium professionals1 and bad amateurs and moderate amateurs1 according to their personal and not their class values4 ,if they develop their experience and skill at an even rate1 either will retain his initial advantage over the other according as the degree of difficulty or the special character of the climbing gives the greater opportunity to the special qualities of the one or of the other4 ,ultimately1 in the highest flights of mountaineering1 a point of difficulty is reached which calls for the highest degree of efficiency in all the departments2 and since human endurance is limited and economy is essential for emergencies1 the ideal combination for swift and secure progress in these ultimate expeditions is to be found in the association of the qualities of the guide and the amateur1 each supremely qualified in his own department4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,guide as ,mountaineer4 ,a good guide is acclimatized1 accustomed from his youth to the food1 heights and discomforts of sleep4 ,the necessary muscles have been hardened by years of practice4 ,no average amateur1 coming out for a few weeks each year and unaccustomed to manual labour1 whatever his skill or talent1 can hope to compare with him in endurance and consistent pace1 be it in step-cutting for long hours on an ice slope or in facing struggle after struggle on an exhausting rock climb4 ,the guide is inured to snowstorms and cold winds1 and his fingers can usually outlast an amateur's in clearing out and clinging to snowy holds or iced rocks4 ,he possesses thus more powerful reserves against unexpected bad weather or against unforeseen difficulty or exertion continued for an undue length of time4 ,he has also another advantage4 ,amateurs who attempt big climbs are accustomed only to climb with safe companions4 ,they have had1 therefore1 little practice in dealing with unexpected slips in easy places4 ,even if they have trained their observation and protective movement by leading beginners on ,british rock climbs1 the duration of the attention demanded has been short1 and they have known where to be on their guard1 and with whom4 ,but in the ,alps the larger part of the day is spent in traversing comparatively easy ground well within the power of the party1 but where the height and position may always convert an inattentive stumble into a fatal accident4 ,a guide has been accustomed to looking after the unaccountable vagaries of beginners and incompetents over long days on easy and difficult ground alike4 ,in his association even with a strong party this survives as an instinct4 ,he is not caught napping by the misstep into which even fine amateurs or other guides in his party may be entrapped at the end of a long day by fatigue1 wind1 darkness or over-confidence4 ,a good guide has1 thus1 special initial qualities which make him a sort of insurance policy in certain very important respects4 ,his gifts reduce the percentage of accidental risk present on every climb1 and his consistency of pace and endurance ensures a larger margin of time for emergencies4 ,he can also carry more4 ,he brings to the partnership physique1 endurance1 professional technique and watchfulness1 and a local instinct for time or weather4 ,his opinion in his own sphere is invaluable2 it has generally the additional weight of freedom from the enticements of romance and enthusiasm4 ,the amateur in control should give it every consideration2 but it does not relieve him of his own responsibility4 ,a first-class workman may make a very bad managing director4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,amateur as ,mountaineer4 ,on his side the good amateur has antecedents and opportunities1 such as the guide cannot possess1 for developing his initial advantages in his own peculiar department4 ,he has1 or ought to have the superiority of the educated mind over the uneducated1 of the liberal intelligence over the narrow1 of contact with men1 of reading1 of the chance of learning principle and precedent from books and men instead of from small experience1 and of the application of imagination and a trained mind to the acquisition of all the details of mountain craft4 ,he can learn how to judge of the individual capacity of his amateur party and of their condition on the day4 ,he can estimate the guide's ability in his own line1 by comparison1 better than the guide can himself1 and from knowledge of his character he can judge of the value of the guide's opinion on technical points4 ,in an important decision as to advance or retreat he is1 consequently1 in a better position to weigh the value of the party against the resistance of the mountain4 ,in all that may be called the human department of mountaineering1 the judgment and management of the men1 the application of wider experience1 of accepted general principles1 of imagination and reasoning powers to the solution of particular problems1 the good amateur is1 or can be1 the good guide's superior4 ,he has also the advantage of being able to make up rapidly1 by means of reading1 imitation and the progressive adaptability already mentioned1 much of his inferiority to the guide in pure technique4 ,in route finding and local knowledge he can run the guide close by availing himself of previous records1 of maps 7always a mystery to most guides71 of local information1 of the tracks or presence of other parties1 and of the admirable climbers' guide-books of all nations4 ,it is in fact no longer possible to designate climbing done under these conditions by amateurs of this class as #8guideless' climbing in the sense that climbing fifty years ago was entitled #8guideless' and looked upon as unjustifiable4 ,it is therefore easily to be understood that a large number of modern mountaineers1 conscious of the amount of the field that their own qualifications and those of their party can cover1 prefer to be free from any professional check upon their enjoyment of the mountains4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,question for the ,leader4 ,if good leaders know the power of their companions1 where they fall short of those of a guide and how they can be supplemented1 and if they choose climbs within those powers so far as is personally or climatically calculable1 they have a right to decide whether the balance of pleasure and efficiency is on the side of using or of not using professional assistance1 with its merits and demerits4 ,there is an immense area in mountaineering where the special superiority of a guide in the directions ,i have indicated has no opportunity of making itself apparent4 ,for the majority of difficult rock peaks1 which are by nature short1 for the ordinary route finding up big mountains1 for the endless variety of climbing on passes and in regions of the lesser ranges1 a first-rate amateur can make himself as effective as a first-rate guide4 ,he can climb exhausting rocks as brilliantly1 provided it is not for as long2 he can cut steps on the steepest ice only a little less fast1 for a sufficient number of hours2 he can be as watchful on all but the most fatiguing expeditions4 ,if the leader and party are efficient and know and observe their limitations1 no mountaineer in more than name will now criticize them for going without #8guides1' even if the occasional accident1 against which no knowledge is security1 may in the course of time select their #8guideless' party for its undiscriminating attack4 ,a mountaineer who has qualified himself as a good leader of a party as well as a sound climber has earned the right to weigh the social disadvantage of taking a guide against the technical strengthening his presence will contribute1 in relation to the character of the climbing he intends to undertake1 and to make his own decision4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,social ,consideration4 ,the technical advantage of taking a guide has been explained2 the social objection may be shortly stated4 ,there is an inherent restraint upon the feeling of independence and holiday fun among a party of friends in the presence of some one of foreign speech and of different habits of thought and body2 above all1 of one who climbs with them for pay and not for their common pleasure4 ,the association is intimate in climbing1 and the atmosphere is inevitably affected1 and the spirits checked1 if any one of the party is not in key with the rest1 does not use their shibboleths or is unable to laugh with their jokes4 ,when a party consists of more than one amateur1 and often in the case of only one1 etiquette usually insists upon a second guide being taken4 ,if there is a second guide1 a division into two camps is formed--one felt if not expressed--which no geniality or linguistic ability can dissolve4 ,the second professional is nearly always1 by the nature of the case1 an inferior1 more bound by his caste and with less interest in1 because less responsibility for1 the success of the party4 ,he will generally voice valley prejudices and professional doctrines which are enemies to enterprise and individual achievement1 and he will form a sort of unreasoning counterpoise to any effect that less hampered amateur opinions might otherwise have upon the views of the first guide4 ,situations are thus created whose solution demands more tact and attention than a man on holiday feels disposed to devote to his sport4 ,the possibility of their occurrence forces him to put a constraint upon himself1 in view of contingencies1 which is antagonistic to the complete comradeship of mountaineering4 ,he cannot1 as the leader of such a party1 merge his identity1 and therefore his authority1 in the pleasant fluctuations of the common mood4 ,the association of guides also throws upon him many small additional details of daily management1 if he is going to get the best use out of them and keep them in good temper4 ,his attention to health1 food1 personal variations and humour has to embrace a whole new and foreign group of traditions and idiosyncrasies of which he has small experience4 ,he has not only to attend to these1 but also to bring them into harmonious co-operation during all the incidents of the day with the preferences1 conditions and peculiarities of his amateur members1 and with their--to the guides--incomprehensible ideals of adventure and fun4 ,other things being equal1 a leader who knows that his party is competent should be free1 on the ground of the extra call their presence puts upon his management1 to decide to do without guides4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,technical ,compensation4 ,but if he is not sure of himself1 or if his party is unequal or inexperienced1 he has no right to risk the possibility of disaster to his party and the certainty of premature grey hairs for himself by omitting to take a good guide on this social ground alone4 ,and supposing him to be a man of conscience and competence1 and not a reckless #8kraxler' of no mountaineering claims1 he will not allow his decision to take a guide to be influenced by any fear that the credit of his party will be diminished in any competent mountaineer's eyes by the fact that a prejudiced or a thoughtless modern virtuosity might jeer at it as #8guided4' ,sidenote3 ,examples4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,expert4 ,in proportion as the collective efficiency of the amateur element is less1 the necessity of taking a guide on the technical grounds described is emphasized4 ,the good amateur1 if he is alone in the ,alps with one beginner or with two beginners1 should certainly always take a guide4 ,if he has one beginner and a man of second-rate skill or experience1 he should in most cases take a guide2 but something then depends upon the nature of the climbing he has in view4 ,similarly1 if he is alone with a second-rate amateur1 he should take a guide for glacier work and for all #8mixed' climbing1 unless it be of a character to be well within the second amateur's powers as well as within his own4 ,if he is aiming only at what may be called #8one-man climbs1' such as short1 difficult rock peaks1 his own skill may be considered adequate for the safe mastery of the difficulties1 and the second man need only be responsible and capable of following without undue exertion to both4 ,but in this case he must remember that he is making no allowance for accident1 injury or the unforeseen4 ,in all cases the first-class amateur remains the leader or manager of any party4 ,he is always supreme in his own department of management2 and the fact that the unequal or doubtful competence of his party1 technically speaking1 or the difficulty of the climb in prospect1 may make it advisable to take a guide1 and may render the party during the day more dependent upon the guide's single contribution than would be the case in a party of more equal technical skill1 should only be considered to give the guide a rather larger share in the general responsibility4 ,the fact that a guide is taken does not justify the leader in throwing the whole responsibility upon him or in allowing his party to do so2 and in the event of any unfortunate issue it will be no defence for his surrender of his proper functions in the eyes of good mountaineers that he is able to plead that he was technically #8guided4' ,on the descending scale of climbing competence1 when parties are in question which contain no first-class amateur1 a guide is1 of course1 essential2 and in this case his supremacy in skill1 accompanied by any proportion of managing ability which he has acquired1--and which will naturally be greater than that of such inexperienced amateurs1--entitle him to all the control1 and consequently to much of the responsibility which in former days used to be considered his alone in every department of mountaineering4 ,such parties may be of three kinds3 moderate mountaineers of some experience1 who by choice confine themselves to modest climbs and wish to do them with the utmost security and the least personal exertion2 beginners1 who have still to learn all their business2 and those tourists already mentioned1 who merely wish to #8do a mountain4' ,sidenote3 ,the ,tourist4 ,to take the last first1 that of the tourists 7and there are many of them71 whose ambition it is to be taken up a big peak with a big name1 without concerning themselves with learning anything of the craft4 ,in such cases they do well to tie themselves between the strongest and most highly recommended peasants they can secure and leave everything to them4 ,after the experience they will either desire to become mountaineers1 when they will join the class of beginners1 or they will desist4 ,i should be the last to depreciate any manifestation of the spirit that has brought us all to the hills1 but in this chrysalis condition their performance is not titularly mountaineering1 and--it is bad for the guides6 ,an occasion comes back to mind--an ascent of the ,matterhorn on one of the two days upon which it was climbable in a bad season4 ,nine members of a far-western gymnastic club chose the same day for the one ascent of their lives4 ,each was led on a short rope by a more or less competent peasant4 ,they climbed with a magnificent output of muscle4 ,on reaching the summit1 with its incomparable view and terrific memories1 they looked neither down nor round1 but joined hands in a circle facing inwards1 and gave nine fearful and prolonged college yells4 ,the bear-leaders1 each gravely holding his separate radiating rope1 stood contemplating them in a silent outer circle4 ,the simple ceremony accomplished1 each guide gave a solemn twitch to his spoke1 or rather to his rope4 ,the hub of the universe obediently dissolved itself1 and the descent began4 ,one wonders what passed through the guides' minds4 ,if any of these men had been killed on the descent1--and it was a miracle in view of the condition of the mountain and of the way they climbed that they all escaped1 with nothing worse than a night out on the rocks for seven of the couples1--popular censure would have spared their memories3 they were not guideless4 ,whereas1 if any one of our experienced and cautious guideless party had been hit by one of the countless stones with which the athletes converted the mountain side for long hours into an active volcano1 there would have followed the inevitable outcry over 8reckless guideless climbing02 not only from ,press and public but even1 ,i fear1 from some of the guardians of ancient mountaineering tradition in our climbing associations4 ,to the chance of this absurdity does the perpetuation of the outworn distinction between #8guided' and #8guideless' condemn any modern mountaineer of enterprise4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,beginner4 ,beginners call for more careful consideration1 though they may be the least likely to be tolerant of advice4 ,for ,i include among beginners not only those who have had no experience of adverse alpine conditions1 but also all prophets who are in the habit of asserting that alpine mountaineering only differs from crag climbing in degree1 as well as all climbers who1 because their modern balance technique has proved sufficient to carry them through a season or so of standard expeditions in fair weather1 consider themselves fully qualified to exercise all the discretionary functions of management and leadership without first learning them4 ,men are all beginners who have never discovered what a lot there is that they do not know4 ,there are men climbing in the ,alps to-day who1 finding that their first guide was inferior to themselves in pure cragsmanship1 have dispensed with guides altogether2 and a very slow progress in mountain craft and in achievement has been the result4 ,there are also mountaineers1 and good ones1 whose competence appeared to justify them in doing without guides from the start1 but whose brilliant performances are still marred by mountaineering errors which a more thorough grounding would have eliminated in time4 ,where the preparation has been deficient1 management and leadership must remain voyages of unnecessarily slow discovery4 ,for beginners or ought-to-have-been beginners of these sorts ,i can only hope that the awakening may be as harmless1 if not as prompt1 as mine was in like case4 ,looking back from the summit of our second peak in our first season1 ,i remarked to my single companion3 8,look where that fool of a fox has run up our ridge all along the edge of the snow-cornice6 ,and yet they say that animals----0 ,and then ,i realized1 with an amused horror that has never been forgotten1 that we were looking at our own ascending tracks6 ,well2 on the descent we found that1 though we had ascended without a thought for cornices1 we were equally in error on the summit in thinking we saw a cornice to the ridge over which our tracks passed6 ,the next season we were content to take guides4 ,so will any sage beginner in the ,alps or other great range1 if he is not fortunate enough1 and few are1 to be introduced to the science between two first-rate alpine amateurs4 ,if he is well advised1 he will choose his first trainer as much for his knowledge of management--that is1 his experience of amateurs1 his power of estimating their potentiality and of encouraging their interest--as for his skill4 ,good second-class local guides in small centres1 in contact with moderate but faithful local patrons1 have often had more opportunities in this respect than more brilliant experts at large centres in constant engagement with changing employers4 ,he should follow his trainer implicitly1 note what he does and how he does it1 and accept his judgments2 but he should watch him persistently1 and discover upon what he bases his actions or directions4 ,few peasants will be able to help him much by explanation4 ,they act on instinct or experience2 the reasons they may be induced to give are less likely to be correct than the conclusions which an intelligent amateur can draw for himself4 ,they are also easily daunted4 ,for this reason the amateur1 even if he thinks he knows better on occasion1 should hold his tongue4 ,his object is to learn all he can1 not to choke the possibly adulterated springs of wisdom4 ,he will soon acquire a mass of small precedents1 and out of them he will evolve a number of general principles such as will enable him to take an increasing share in the management of his climbs4 ,a very small amount of principle1 acquired and intelligently applied1 will prove often of even more service than the local guide's instinct1 which1 unless he be a really first-class man1 is apt to prove faulty under novel conditions of weather or of the unforeseen4 ,during his novitiate he should keep off the big exacting ascents1 where he will have little leisure to observe1 and where the amount he can learn of the reasons for following accepted lines1 for avoiding others and so on1 is small compared to the mere physical exertion that is called for4 ,he should confine himself to the less known regions where some route finding is necessary1 and to the glaciers and near rock ridges1 where points of technique can be studied in repetition and variety1 and beginnings and endings and alternatives of route and all the other matters common to small and big peaks alike--and vital to his education--are to be found in far greater numbers in proportion to the ground that an active man can cover in the day4 ,one helpful variety he should allow himself during his study under a single guide in a home region4 ,he should take an occasional tour of two days or so to climb a big peak in a different valley4 ,this is a rapid way to acquire experience of all that guides can teach4 ,it will be advisable to take on a second and really good guide from the new district to help the permanent trainer1 who will generally have been1 if he works in a less important centre1 a man of second-rate technical1 and of intensive rather than wide1 guiding experience4 ,the contrast in their styles will be worth watching2 and the expense is in any case less than that of engaging two regular guides for a longer period--an alternative which1 if he climbs in his first season from a popular centre1 he will be unable to avoid4 ,in his second season he may1 if he wish1 attempt some guideless expeditions1 in a suitable region1 with friends of equal or greater competence4 ,but he should not allow this or any subsequent season in his early experience to pass without spending at least some period under a good guide or a first-rate amateur4 ,he has so much to learn that he should not try to rediscover it all for himself4 ,a genius who devotes years to rediscovering the first propositions of ,euclid merely wastes time4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,moderate ,mountaineer4 ,the last case is that of mountaineers of some standing1 who either on account of marriage1 or of years and a comfortable habit1 or from the philosophical attitude of mind which succeeds the enthusiasm of youth and smiles at its ambitions while it still enjoys a measured indulgence in its pleasures1 prefer to be relieved of any kind of responsibility4 ,these men take guides as a matter of course1 and leave to them from choice the management even in those departments which their own experience would entitle them to direct4 ,their interest in mountaineering is a personal one1 as an occasion for healthful exercise1 for air and refreshing views4 ,they pursue it for its distraction from other more worldly interests1 not simply for its own sake4 ,they are not concerned with its higher developments as a fine art1 and as much from a modest appreciation of their own powers as from a deliberate depreciation of its possibilities1 they renounce on their own behalf all the further opportunities which it offers for self-discovery and self-training1 in the management of men and the progressive mastery of physical difficulty4 ,the attitude has our sympathy4 ,those whose graver appreciation of the mountains1 whose less tutored spirit of romance and adventure impel them to accept labour1 responsibility1 hardship1 danger and sorrow as integral parts of their mountain service1 and as a high discipline for body and spirit such as no other outlet from the enervating oppression of civilized life now affords1 will recognize in this gentler manifestation of their own impulse a grateful proof of the fascination which mountaineering can still exercise upon every variety of civilized brain and character1 upon men of finer intellect1 wider opportunities for usefulness1 and perhaps more balanced temperament than their own4 ,this considerable and often distinguished body needs no advice with regard to the conduct of its guided climbing2 but it may not be superfluous to remind it of an obligation which it owes to mountaineering as an institution4 ,if only because of their number and their more frequent meetings in centres--for the minority of wholehearted devotees are generally isolated1 and guideless parties are independent and migratory by choice--these somewhat temperate mountaineers form the central body of alpine opinion4 ,whatever their desire to make their climbing merely a personal pleasure trip and to avoid the more strenuous currents1 yet in so far as they use many guides and make with them the large majority of the guided ascents made in any year1 they must be held responsible for the training of the guides1 mentally and morally1 while in their pay4 ,they are assisting to create a considerable amount of abstract alpine doctrine both for the present and the future1 and are establishing many more particular conventions affecting the attitude of guides towards amateurs1 and of amateurs towards guides1 and of the public towards both4 ,but the attitude of mind in which they prefer to approach the pursuit makes them too often neglectful of the charge and of the lasting effect of their participation4 ,some from mere passive acceptance of the treatment as part of the game1 others with an amused inward detachment1 encourage young guides and old guides alike to manage every moment and movement of their day2 satisfied that they themselves are getting all the profit in health and safety which is their limited holiday object4 ,they are like genial uncles who join in a game and submit with an interior smile to the hectoring of their nephews1 retiring when they please to make criticisms for their own and their neighbours' amusement in the pavilion4 ,but in mountaineering the rigour of the game is essential to its good conduct4 ,a guide indulged is a guide spoiled4 ,an amateur indolently criticized may mean a position permanently falsified4 ,our small public opinion is not easily corrected4 ,from the start1 a right reputation is as essential for our social influence with the guides as it is vital for our mutual climbing safety4 ,in the ,alps we have a large number of professionals whose living depends upon their maintaining a satisfying relationship with their employers1 and a small number of amateurs whose pleasure in their holiday depends upon maintaining a suitable influence with their guides4 ,the balance is difficult to preserve1 and there is no room for dilettantism4 ,irresponsible handling of guides may in any decade result in a mass of amateurs speeding1 by preference1 guideless and insecurely uphill in a mountain sense1 and in a mass of vocationless guides speeding surely downhill in a financial sense4 ,sidenote3 ,summary4 ,a first-rate amateur1 therefore1 will take guides without hesitation1 whenever he considers the powers of his friends too weak in general for absolute safety on the technical side1 or the particular climbs they desire on occasion to attempt too exacting for their normal collective efficiency4 ,his own concern with guides is to learn how to manage them and to get the best use out of their special qualifications4 ,responsible1 but less expert mountaineers1 who wish to be independent1 will nevertheless take first-rate guides for the same reason on occasions when their experience advises them of the advantage of their particular services to the party4 ,they have to learn how to reconcile the retention of their own proper share of management with the greater share of responsibility in all departments which in this case falls to the first-rate guide4 ,mountaineers who wish to be free of all responsibility will take guides because they choose to4 ,they have to learn how not to spoil them1 and how to prevent the example of their own voluntary surrender of their heritage from biasing their own and the public view of such of their contemporaries as may attempt to enjoy a different form of independence4 ,novices will take guides as soon as they have discovered that there is anything they themselves do not know4 ,they have to learn from guides all they can1 so as to earn the right to do without them later if they desire4 ,tourists1 or experimentalists1 intent to #8do a mountain1' will take guides4 ,it will be seen that the question of taking guides is no longer to be decided on the traditional single issue1 whether the guide is #8better' than the amateur4 ,the question has now two aspects1 even as #8leadership' has now developed two main divisions4 ,in the earliest stages of amateur accomplishment1 while the beginner has no qualifications1 the guide is taken because he is technically better qualified and has also1 by local knowledge1 instinct1 etc41 a larger proportion of the qualities necessary for management4 ,the guide enjoys in this case his historic position of single responsibility4 ,in the second stage1 where the climber may be only a novice in the alpine sense1 the guide may possibly be technically inferior to his employer as a rock climber1 a pace maker and so on2 but in the absence of the amateur's alpine experience the guide deserves to retain his #8leadership' when his qualifications in both mountaineering fields are considered together4 ,as we move up the scale of experience1 and the amateur is found to have developed more and more his initial advantages in the qualities necessary for management1 the decision to employ or not to employ a guide depends more and more upon how far it may be thought advisable to supplement the technique of the party4 ,again1 in proportion as the amateur and his party continue to remedy their technical inferiority1 while they improve their experience in management1 pari passu the need of a guide1 in either department1 diminishes4 ,if he is employed1 however1 his general responsibility is proportionately decreased4 ,in these later stages the relation of guide and employer is one of expert with expert1 and the guide's position1 if he is employed at all1 corresponds to that of a professional in a team1 who is selected for some individual qualification which he is able to supply4 ,it would be as ludicrous nowadays to rate the performances of such climbing combinations as praiseworthy or censurable1 according as they were #8guided' or #8guideless1' in the old sense of the term1 as it would be for us to assume that any cricket team which contained a professional must be ipso facto captained by him1 or to refuse our recognition to any team which did not contain professionals among its members4 ,when1 therefore1 we are considering the case of a party of finished amateurs1 men who are first rate in both divisions of mountain craft1 as climbers and as leaders in management1 and who have no need of guides as a technical complement1 we must be prepared to concede that for them there is now no rule4 ,the matter becomes purely a question of personal preference and of personal discretion in the choice of the climb4 ,sidenote3 ,a ,supreme ,example4 ,i have left to the last the consideration of the one exceptional case where1 for want of sufficient material as a basis for judgment1 no clear crystal of modern mountaineering opinion has had opportunity to fashion itself1 and where the old debate as between #8guided' and #8guideless' still survives with something of its old vivacity4 ,this is the case of the highest flights possible in mountaineering1 the ascent of the limited number of really great ridges and faces in the ,alps and in less explored ranges4 ,these climbs provide the most magnificent exercise of strength1 endurance1 nerve and spirit1 all acting in harmony and all at their utmost tension1 that human daring or ingenuity has yet discovered or invented4 ,if they do not represent the limit of possible human achievement1 they represent the limit of achievement possible with security in a single day of human effort4 ,they are the ambition of every wholehearted mountaineer1 but they fall to the lot of only the few4 ,many of them are seldom repeated2 on others the conditions vary greatly between the rare ascents4 ,even among the fortunate few who succeed1 it will be still fewer who can honestly say that they remained sufficiently masters of themselves and of the situation throughout the long day of extraordinary effort1 sufficiently in command of muscle and nerve to meet all the physical demands unassisted and with a critical judgment1 sufficiently conscious of all the tactical1 human and technical manuvres by which the success was finally won1 to be able to recover from memory a detached opinion as to the relative difficulty of the climb1 or to be able to estimate fairly their own ability to repeat the day #8unguided' in all its problems for leadership as well as in its tests of pure skill and endurance4 ,it is a common failing among even the best of mountaineers to forget how much they have been #8morally' assisted by their company1 or how little they may have personally contributed to the actual carrying through of a great climb1 in the afterglow of its success4 ,the more we allow for the unusual physical and emotional reaction of these great ascents1 the less security we feel in applying standards of common judgment to the opinions and narratives of their few conquerors4 ,the body of ordinary expert mountaineering opinion is of little assistance4 ,mountaineers whose experience is limited to normal ascents1 or who may even have #8done' some of these greater climbs between two expert professionals with their bodies and their judgments equally in a condition of suspense1 are only a few degrees better qualified than the climbing public to judge of the combination of human faculties required for leadership and management in their secure conquest4 ,we are forced1 therefore1 to take as our basis for comparison in forming our opinion the few records of such supreme ascents as have been performed by both guided and guideless parties4 ,if1 then1 we examine these dispassionately1 and allow for the golden spectacles of a natural exaltation1 the greater where it is the less professional and the more personal1 we may decide that the sum of purely dangerous incident1 of benightments1 races with darkness1 breakages of cornice1 etc41 which they narrate1 adds up to the disadvantage of the guideless ascents4 ,the proportion of danger incurred is the one absolute standard by which all mountaineering can be judged4 ,between danger and difficulty there is a clear line of demarcation1 which shifts according to our ability1 but which is always perceptible4 ,in doing without guides1 these gallant parties1 from their own accounts1 while they triumphed equally over the difficulties1 skirted more closely and more continuously along the border-line of danger4 ,reason would bring us to the same conclusion4 ,when we are estimating the limit of what is humanly safe in mountaineering1 we are considering not what is securely possible for a single individual1 a comparatively low standard1 but that which it may be possible for an ideal combination of mountaineering qualities to achieve in one day4 ,up to the present time we find in certain of the best of the guides the highest development yet attained in one of the two groups of necessary qualifications2 in certain of the best of the amateurs we find the highest development in the other4 ,until guides are enabled to enjoy all the advantages of the amateur's education and mental training while they still retain their own natural conditions of life1 or until amateurs can live the lives of guides and yet remain all that wider circumstance and opportunity assist to make them as amateurs1 the finest mountaineering combination will and must still remain that of the associated group-qualities of guide and amateur1 each group in its highest degree of individual development4 ,if a small but concrete proof were needed that neither the combination of the best of guides alone nor of the best of amateurs alone represents the most efficient type of mountaineering machine1 it might be found in the history of the conquest of a number of great alpine climbs1 which for years defeated alike good guides in association and good amateurs in association1 but finally yielded in almost all cases to the combination of good guides and good amateurs4 ,but it is dangerous to dogmatize4 ,when we are talking of exceptional ascents we are dealing with exceptional men2 and if we say that for the safe performance of these exceptional ascents the best amateur parties will be strengthened by the addition of the best of guides1 it is with the knowledge that amateur climbing has made extraordinary strides of recent years1 and that in any season the conjunction of two or more hitherto unimagined amateur stars may yet further raise the recognized limits of the safely possible in guideless climbing4 ,in such case1 the time-honoured discussion as to what degree of difficulty makes a guide indispensable to an expert amateur party1 in order to minimize its dangers1 with all its heartburnings and rash intrusions1 will be removed into an even more remote sphere than the already rarefied atmosphere of exceptional climbs in which alone it is still permissible4 ,the matter may then be for super-mountaineers to debate4 ,the discussion is now1 in all but these extreme cases1 dead4 ,sentiment or ignorance may still return to the old war-cries #8guided' and #8guideless1' used with the old significance1 in fireside journals2 in safe print moonshine may yet confuse the climbing ways which troops of stars have illuminated2 but in the mountains new developments have established new doctrine1 and a mountaineer is safe from criticism worthy of the name if he regulates his practice according to modern interpretation4 ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,guides ,if or when a leader decides to take guides1 he has to know how to manage them4 ,i have already said that he is not now entitled merely to engage the best guides available1 and then leave all the direction and responsibility to them4 ,few modern guides expect or deserve this4 ,his abdication will be followed by starts on wrong days1 amazing meals1 more visits to huts than mountains1 unaccountable retreats1 and final disgust with guides altogether4 ,his party1 at the close1 will have attained no harmony and have lived divided into two camps4 ,the amateur members will have been the least considered2 they will either have been dry-nursed or oppressed4 ,the surrender of their leader's functions to the guides will have left them with no authoritative channel through which to secure their proper share of responsibility and independence4 ,they will have become discontented and adopted the conventional language of the lower criticism1 abusing the guides for their tobacco1 their peaty clothes1 their drinking and want of enterprise2 much as is still set forth in accredited climbing books of the #8picture-me-then6' class4 ,the guides for their part1 undirected and uninspired1 will have fallen back upon their professional traditions and caution1 meeting the unsympathetic atmosphere1 which they do not understand1 with taciturnity1 aggravating interference or childish assertiveness4 ,the whole blame will have lain with the leader4 ,just for a handful of silver he left them1 renouncing his entire responsibilities because one or two of his party were to receive certain shillings in return for their skilled companionship4 ,the party has had no leader1 no focus for authority and opinion1 and it could attain no success4 ,sidenote3 ,guide ,nature4 ,a guide is as much a human being as any amateur in the party4 ,if it is necessary for the manager to have constant care of the health and morale of his friends1 it is doubly so in the case of his guides4 ,the average guide is a peasant1 with the limitations that frame peasant virtues4 ,his guiding motive is the struggle for existence under hard conditions4 ,his winters are spent in wood chopping1 hard work and keeping warm1 with cards1 wine and village gossip for distraction4 ,his public is preponderatingly masculine3 in many mountain villages the proportion of boys to girls is five to three4 ,his winter society consists of a fluctuating population1 crudely packed for the cold months1 and dispersed in parasitic occupations during the summer2 it has therefore not even a parochial sense of responsibility in the creation of its prejudices4 ,all talk circulates round #8francs4' ,his short summer season is a succession of conflicts with varying degrees of incompetence1 in a business in which his conscious superiority is seldom challenged4 ,it is impressed upon him that his most paying accomplishments are an obliging manner and a smattering of spoken tongues4 ,he has small occasion to measure himself against other men or get an idea of his own personal value1 because the world comes to him in its most artificial form1 and plays him only at his own game with a fantastic handicap4 ,he is a child1 with a precocious development on a special line which gives him his one standard for manhood in general4 ,outside his valley he has to fear the antagonism1 even the petty violence1 of any local trade union2 inside it he has all a schoolboy's fear of outraging some point of rigid local etiquette4 ,there is no more of ,william ,tell and the edelweiss post card in the material life of a ,swiss valley than there is of ,robin ,hood and ,merrie ,england in an agricultural village4 ,if the guide turns back on an ascent1 after hearing some incomprehensible patois from a fellow-villager the evening before in a hut1 or if he refrains from bullying a surly official on our behalf1 on whose good offices he may be dependent1 or if he shows no active sympathy in our condemnation of a recalcitrant porter1 who may be his wife's cousin1 we have no right to expect anything different4 ,if after a gorgeous sunset and a romantic ascent he still cares more for our francs than our fellowship1 it is perfectly natural4 ,we should look for nothing else1 if we had not fashioned our typical guide in youth from the narrative of the great literary pioneers1 who still found here and there a sympathetic village unspoiled by hotels and tourists1 or a natural son of the hills whose responsive courtesy could reflect1 if it did not comprehend1 the symbolical attributes1 born of the realization of romantic success and physical well-being1 with which the imagination of the contented employer invested his guide's leadership4 ,we too find a few such men4 ,but we recognize them as exceptions1 or as beings who visit us in their full splendour only in the roseate hours of reminiscence following on a great climb4 ,the guide as we know him is hill-born1 hill-bred1--that is1 a child1 with a child's capacity for becoming much what we make him1--a companion1 a valet or a machine1--and with a child's suspicion and shyness1 which he hides under an appearance of professional reserve or a formal politeness4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,right ,footing4 ,a leader must not be content with either the polite manner or the professional aloofness4 ,he must first get to know his man thoroughly1 watch his reactions on a climb1 and notice his weak and strong points1 where he is confident from knowledge and where he is merely bluffing4 ,from his movements or silences he will soon be able to deduce more than from his speech4 ,he should avoid direct opposition or discussion during the actual climbing4 ,the guide is as sensitive and as inarticulate as any other uneducated handicraftsman on points that touch his professional skill or caste pride1 and ill-timed interference will drive him to the polite manner for his protection4 ,it is a mistake1 also1 to allow the relationship to become too personal1 to expect a guide to act as valet or to perform small menial services in bivouac or hotel4 ,there are many offices which a guide performs as part of his business1--cooking and carrying and the care of the party's comfort as a whole4 ,but when an amateur has been indebted to his guide for putting on his putties in peace-time1 it is impossible for him to resent being treated as equally dependent when the crises of battle take place4 ,the relationship cannot be changed in a moment1 much less in a crucial moment4 ,the footing established in the valley1 in the hut or on the long tramp1 will remain the footing on the mountain side4 ,small hardships and small comforts have to be shared equally1 that there may be an equal sharing of the big responsibilities of the campaign and in the decisions that go to meet difficulty or danger4 ,start with your guide on a right footing1 so that he sees that you recognize your duties towards him as much as his towards you4 ,see that he gets decent food in the hotels2 some head-waiters1 portly with that authority which a tourist traffic inevitably confers1 never learn to handle a guide as anything but a servant in your employment and something less in their own2 but the guide is generally too loyal or too aloof in spirit to tell you so4 ,let him have what wine he desires3 he will have to carry it himself4 ,no good guide drinks to excess1 some not at all4 ,but fine-drawn men1 not regularly nourished on meat1 will frankly admit that failing such reserves the extra stimulus is occasionally really needed if some feat calling upon all their strength or endurance has to be carried through4 ,a well-trained body1 under primitive conditions1 knows by instinct what particular nourishment it needs1 and responds to its stimulus with startling suddenness4 ,a good guide1 on serious work1 will never take more than nature tells him is required1 whatever your opinion of that amount may be4 ,of course if he is a regular or irregular sipper in idle moments it is best to get rid of him4 ,be careful that he has not too much to carry2 when there are several of a party1 and each adds some trifle of personal luggage without knowing that the others may have done the same1 the load often gets far beyond what the leader intended in selecting the provisions4 ,his own food--he generally prefers his own of its kind--should be unrolled and seen to with the other packages4 ,sleepy hotel-porters1 under the heading of 8provisions for guide10 are apt to stuff in mosaics of strange meats2 and again the guide is too polite to tell you3 it is not manners to worry the gentlemen4 ,this is just the distinction which on all accounts you have got to break down4 ,consider his comfort as that of any other member of the party during the day1 without seeming to fuss or to be condescending4 ,it is hopeless to try and make him #8one of yourselves'2 he has his own pride1 and would shrug his shoulders over premature familiarity4 ,but quiet consideration will gradually convert the relations into a pleasant mutual understanding4 ,take his sack as well as your own if he is leading and you judge the extra weight is taxing him unduly4 ,take your turn at leading in deep1 soft snow4 ,this is the only task of sheer endurance in which ,i believe good amateurs can outlast good guides4 ,look after his getting his food and a proper place to sleep in1 unobtrusively1 when you get down from a big climb to new quarters1 no matter how tired you are4 ,it is in your own interest for the morrow4 ,if possible1 laugh him out of the common trick of dropping behind and making a sort of tail to your triumph as you return into the village or meet another party4 ,he is taught that this is good manners and will please your touristship2 but it is really insulting to both1 if a man has been your companion or leader during a great climb of united effort1 to accept this mock tribute to your poor dignity when there is no longer any chance of going a step wrong4 ,the transparent imposition impresses nobody you meet1 and least of all yourself or him4 ,in the valley let the guide see that1 as between yourselves1 you consider that the fellowship remains unaltered1 that you do not barter your right to be treated as his equal as a mountaineer for the sake of posturing as his #8,herr4' ,at the same time accept1 for the sake of his comfort and his opinion of your tact1 the outward appearance of differentiation which his training has taught him to consider consistent with his position and yours in this valley and hotel life4 ,you will soon find out what you can or cannot do4 ,you cannot traditionally invite him to dinner at the same table with other strangers in a large hotel1 but he will join you for coffee at your separate table4 ,let him pay for you as you go4 ,the confidence will make him feel of the party1 and has the advantage of getting you large reductions through his local knowledge6 ,once he recognizes you as a human being and you have found the way through the crust of his professional suspicion and local upbringing1 you will know him to be very human also1 with a temperament as easy as a child's to understand and as difficult as a child's to manage2 loyal1 sympathetic1 often sensitive1 and naturally honest4 ,he enters more into your aspirations than he ventures to show4 ,without sentiment1 without sharing your thoughts or being able to exchange a word about all the varied interests that make up your own different outlook1 without even understanding your motives1 you may yet1 if you are fortunate1 find him a man who will become your close friend1 with whom you can share silence and danger and sorrow in a community of feeling that needs no speech4 ,in contact with elemental realities1 it is the essential personalities1 not their different decorations of race or education1 that count and that make contact4 ,anyone who has followed me so far will probably be yawning1 and asking1 8,is this really all necessary in order to enjoy a mountain holiday80 ,it is not4 ,if you want to follow a hunt1 you have only to learn to stick on2 if your object is to cross the ,atlantic1 you can do it in a liner2 if you want just to do mountains1 you can engage guides1 behave like a gentleman1 and you will have got your desire4 ,but if you ever wish to realize the incomparably greater pleasures of hunting your own pack or sailing your own boat1 you will have to set about it in a different fashion4 ,ask a platoon-leader or good company-officer what proportion of time he gave to the study and training of his men before an offensive4 ,and then be assured that mountaineering is a pursuit in which1 just as there is no limit to the ascending scale of pleasures which it offers1 sthetic and physical1 so also there is no end to the progressive study and preparation it demands from those who would follow its higher walks4 ,the better a man knows his child-guide1 the more he will know how to manage him1 so as to get the best out of his mountaineering precocity4 ,the happiest arrangement is no doubt to keep a careful eye open1 during your preliminary years of training under the first professional1 so as to mark down any enterprising young guides or porters4 ,the young guide need not yet be an expert2 it is for the amateur to give him the opportunity for developing his technical skill in their seasons of progressive climbing1 while pari passu the amateur is establishing his own position in the partnership and perfecting himself in his own department4 ,the companionship of amateur and guide as friends is the ideal combination for great mountaineering wherever the ground permits of it4 ,so soon as a second professional is added the amateur is in a minority2 and no matter how close his personal association with his first guide1 the professional comradeship1 recalling the atmosphere of youth1 may always override his influence for the day4 ,a single amateur1 therefore when he finds it necessary to take on extra help for a season or for some expedition1 will do well to choose some young man1 the most athletic possible1 who has his name to make and is still only thinly crusted with professional tradition4 ,his inexperience may keep him at least silent in the discussion of important decisions4 ,sidenote3 ,before the ,ascent4 ,the principles of management are the same1 whether the amateur is alone or with friends1 and whether the guides are old friends or comparative strangers taken on for the season or even the day4 ,your concern is primarily with the guide's state of mind1 so that he may make the best use of his skill4 ,if your object is merely an ordinary ascent1 it is still important that the leading guide should be kept in the right mood1 both because of the greater contribution to the social pleasure of your party if things go rightly1 and because1 if checks of weather or of circumstance arise1 as they always may1 you have then neglected nothing that can contribute to a successful continuance of your climb4 ,if your intention is something beyond the ordinary1 your task of preparation is more difficult4 ,for the greater the technical difficulties of a climb1 the larger must be the technical expert's 7or guide's7 share in deciding whether they can or cannot be overcome4 ,the idea of the ascent has generally first to be made the guide's own by subtle suggestion at convenient moments4 ,if you have got him up out of the valley in good health and spirits1 you have still the danger of the hut to meet1 where the patois of local guides1 should your plan leak out1 will affect his next day's humour fatally1 even if it does not turn you back at once4 ,in view of this danger it is sometimes best to treat your attempt as an #8exploration' only1 until you are safely off on to the lower glaciers1 otherwise you may find1 when you wake in the hut1 that the #8wrong rope' has been brought or #8the weather' is miraculously portentous4 ,a mountaineer may hear these and similar whispered euphuisms1 which are the preliminary to retreat1 passing between a #8prompted' guide and his expostulating employer any night in any full hut4 ,he will not feel it his business to intervene on behalf of another employer unless he is very sure of his ground4 ,after all1 the guide may have good reason to mistrust his employer's competence1 and have chosen this polite way of saving his life or comfort in anticipation4 ,but the leader will be wise if he takes good note of the machinations1 and of all their meanings1 for his own protection in like case4 ,of course this kind of excuse may1 in cases1 be dictated by actual cowardice and not only by hut talk4 ,my disregard of this possibility lost me one of the finest climbs ,i have planned4 ,after all the gambits of hut excuses1 #8weather' and #8rope1' had been countered1 and we were actually on the mountain1 my single guide1 of fine reputation and great name1 at the first sight of our formidable final ridge developed a #8sprained wrist4' ,it was a forlorn hope1 which put an end to our association1 and proved the downward turning-point in a promising career4 ,i must instance one other weakness that comes into special prominence in the bivouac or hut under the influence of other guides or of those fluctuations in mood to which the peasant is very subject in the prospect of some formidable climb4 ,very few guides know anything about #8weather' except a few local signs4 ,but they will make use of their supposed instinctive knowledge to the utmost if they feel lazy in the morning or nervous of the undertaking4 ,possibly the #8head-shaking' is half genuine1 as a guide has a child's fear of two things chiefly3 a cloud and a falling stone4 ,but the leader must not be imposed upon1 and must use his own judgment about starting4 ,i remember once in a bivouac1 literally under a huge stone1 beside the ,mer de ,glace1 twice sending out quite a decent guide to see if his #8cloud-bank' was thinning4 ,on the third occasion1 when ,i asked if there were really no stars visible1 he murmured drowsily1 8,only two now10 and snuggled down to sleep again4 ,it is unnecessary to add that the guide and the party were wafted out of the gte on the wind of the unspoken and ate their breakfast on the run4 ,i recall these instances only to emphasize the necessity of a close observation of character1 so that flaws may be discovered in time1 as well as the weak points shielded past the times of contact with external influences4 ,sidenote3 ,on the ,mountain4 ,once the climb is begun the task of shepherding is simpler2 there are only the effects of untoward or premature mountain incident upon mood to guard against4 ,but even so1 occasionally1 the effect of other parties on the same climb may have to be reckoned with4 ,their presence often extends the debilitating effect of #8hut' promptings to the mountain side4 ,if the feeblest of several parties on a mountain turns back1 it requires a serious effort to prevent panic1 and the fear of later valley criticism1 from inducing a general retreat4 ,to relieve your guide of this chance you may have to make it very audibly apparent to the other parties that it is you1 and not he1 who are insisting upon the advance4 ,similarly1 a guided party ahead of you1 which may happen to take even an obviously wrong route1 will exercise a paralysing attraction upon your leading guide's mind4 ,it is overpowering if the two guides are acquainted4 ,once on a famous ridge of the greatest of ,swiss peaks1 when the guide of the party ahead of us chose the traditional but1 on the day1 the more dangerous of two lines1 ,i had to say firmly that ,i should retreat rather than take the risk1 before my own admirable guide could shake off the spell and consent to try the demonstrably better alternative route4 ,incidentally ,i may add that we had the satisfaction of sitting and watching from a secure ledge the sensational struggles of the other party for fully half an hour before they caught us up again4 ,on the other hand1 if the party ahead is led by a #8foreigner' or enemy guide1 you may have to look out for the repellent effect upon your own guide1 who will be only too ready to break off on any freakish alternative line which may give him the chance of cutting out his rival in front4 ,these cases illustrate a particular danger2 but as a rule once the climbing commences the good guide is best left as much as possible to his free devices4 ,your authority must encourage the idea that in tactics the technical expert's responsibility becomes greater1 and that in details the leading guide conducts the operations without question or dissent4 ,sidenote3 ,fine ,shades4 ,if he has been judiciously nursed on to his mountain1 a good leading guide will be equal1 unaided1 to all ordinary situations and to exceptional ones according to his ability4 ,but if your climb proves to belong throughout to the exceptional class1 you must remain on the watch1 ready to employ in time those fine shades of management to which alone nerves and muscles working near their limit respond4 ,a good first man on the rope1 guide or amateur1 is always an emotional subject1 though his self-control may conceal his inward fluctuations4 ,the leading guide's mood in the early morning hours of climbing will frequently be clouded by his sense of the serious work before him and the threat of responsibility it shadows for him4 ,if difficult problems present themselves before he has warmed to his work1 as they are apt to do on a severe climb1 or before he has realized the support of the harmonious working of the party behind him1 his mood will exaggerate their difficulty and the discouraging prospect of a long day of such problems4 ,if you can then lift him over the crucial point without risk to your party1 your pains and study will have been well justified4 ,you must not give direct orders4 ,a guide who will hurl himself against anything because he is told to1 against his judgment1 is a bad guide1 or at least one whose temper and discretion are spoiled for the day4 ,nor must you abuse the power of indirect suggestion which your study of your man will have given you4 ,a guide's instinct on technical points is an invaluable asset1 and it may be harmed if it is tampered with tactlessly4 ,you must first make up your own mind whether his objection to proceed is really based on genuine instinct or is only the outcome of a depressed and cumulative mood4 ,and here your knowledge of the man and your observation of his condition before the crisis will help you even more than your examination of the obstacle which is checking him4 ,once you have decided that his objection is only due to mood1 it is your business to bring him into the right key again2 to make him feel that1 while you realize the seriousness of the problem1 yet your judgment1 unbiased by the infection of gloom1 is cheerfully confident that his skill can surmount it4 ,undue cheerfulness or obviously pretended confidence will defeat your object by merely making him think that you are out of touch with the situation or unaware of the gravity of the decision4 ,both words and tone1 therefore1 need very delicate choosing4 ,the clouds must be given both time and a constant gentle impulse to clear off4 ,once the black hour is past1 as it passes with most men as they warm to their work1 the point comes1 sooner or later1 when every good guide catches fire4 ,the amateur can then relax much of his attention even on a severe climb1 enjoy the fun and attend to the lighter problems of mere climbing4 ,a day comes back to mind1 the occasion of a first ascent of the snow slopes of a famous peak1 when weather and evening company had alike contributed to oppress the wayward spirits of a peasant guide4 ,every form of inducement1 #8exploration1' #8a nearer view for the next day1' had had to be employed in turn in order to coax a gloomy morning progress up the glacier1 over the bergschrund and up the initial ridges4 ,and then suddenly1 and fully a third of the way up the ascent1 a ,napoleonic attitude with outstretched arm appeared in silhouette against the snow wall above us4 ,we heard a cheerful shout1 8,who follows me to-day will reach the summit60 ,and we knew that all need for nursing on our part had ended for the day4 ,remember that however well things are going1 unforeseen circumstances may always upset humour1 and that you must be always looking out for its effects4 ,you have to bring your party up1 for each round with the unforeseen1 at the top of its climbing form4 ,a guide in the lead must be relieved of all anxiety about the performance of the rest of the party2 his judgment of the succeeding problems must be kept clear of bias from extraneous considerations4 ,he must feel that the whole party is in tune behind him1 and is confident in him1 or he will not be free to put out his best powers4 ,mood or circumstance may1 however1 on occasion prove too much for your management1 and then you need not hesitate to take over the lead yourself for a while4 ,it is well for this1 and for many other reasons1 to have accustomed your guides to the idea of your leading4 ,when this extreme course is taken1 it should be done quietly and1 if possible1 under pretext of trying some alternative line of your own4 ,so soon as the guide's humour readjusts itself1 as it will all the quicker for watching your mistakes1 the lead can be as quietly surrendered again4 ,i remember a new ascent we made upon a formidable rock peak4 ,our excellent guides1 overawed by the terrific threat of the sections far above us1 tried prematurely to prove the whole climb impossible1 by taking a fancy line early in the day which obviously led to a hopeless impasse4 ,as it is the huntsman's privilege and duty1 when scent is overrun1 to make the cast and lift the pack on to the right line again1 we exercised it from the tail-end of the rope4 ,our ultimate success helped us to a mutual forgetfulness of the incident4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,terms of the ,association4 ,if you are climbing alone with a guide1 of course either goes first as may be convenient at the moment4 ,this should be taken for granted4 ,whether the your party contains guides or not1 you should always insist on taking your share of leading and encourage other amateurs to take theirs4 ,it is good for your climbing to do so1 it is far the best fun1 and it promotes a proper footing with the guides4 ,a guide has no prescriptive right to the pleasantest place4 ,only where the climbing is difficult1 or danger is involved1 the best man must lead2 and this may mean more usually the guide4 ,it is a mistake for an amateur1 however brilliant1 to let himself appear to be competing with a guide on his own ground4 ,the guide will always be politely admiring of brilliance1 but he is really only concerned to know that an amateur climbs safely1 and equally safely all the day4 ,the common good is better served by your appearing to take his superiority in the technical field for granted1 and confining your attention to deserving the command you intend to exercise in the field of general responsibility4 ,it is a sign that you are beginning to take your proper position1 in your own sphere1 when your guides cease to assure you that you are climbing1 like a #8chamois' or a #8devil4' ,but a young mountaineer is apt to feel injured that guides take so much longer in learning to pay him the first real compliment1 the admission by their acts and not their speech that he has learned to go #8safely4' ,i remember in early days bitterly resenting being coddled on a short rope down an ice slope by two guides with whom ,i had just been sharing a sensational day1 during at least four hours of which1 if ,i had slipped1 no effort of theirs could have saved the party4 ,a guide1 until he is trained by a good manager1 never unlearns the most deep-rooted tradition of his caste4 ,for him all amateurs alike remain the amateur1 that is1 a thing to be watched over1 so long as the mountain remains a mountain1 that is1 a thing up which the guide leads4 ,for years after he has forgotten to bother about his amateur on difficult places1 where he has other things to think about1 a return to familiar ground will recall to him the familiar tradition1 and he will begin again to coddle his employer exasperatingly4 ,and for seasons after he has unlearned this habit1 a guide will continue to prefer the #8backing up1' in a bad place1 of a second-rate professional to that of the best amateurs in the ,alps4 ,perhaps this is natural2 the two natives can calculate on each other's actions and reactions more closely their co-operation must always be more instinctive and consequently more reassuring to one another4 ,an amateur must be content first to study the trade-winds of mountaineering1 and then gradually try his wings on the more complicated cross-currents of its direction4 ,once he is qualified for his duties as manager1 his old guides by habit1 and any new guides by instinct or discovery1 will soon concede him his full authority4 ,with this as his fulcrum he will find it1 in due time1 easy to secure that both he and other amateurs of his party shall be left free to do their own share of the climbing on their own climbing merits1 and only receive assistance 7or what is intended for it7 when they ask for it4 ,when these terms are established it is happier for the party1 and far happier as a permanent teaching for the guides4 ,i was puzzled once to read in a hut book a notice that for the third year in succession the same gentleman had been forced to turn back by #8wind' at the same point of an easy ascent1 although the book showed that on the same day other climbs on the mountain had gone well4 ,then we remarked that he had employed the same two guides on each occasion4 ,they were earning their money1 apparently1 without undue exertion or interference in a permanent engagement4 ,possibly they may even have discovered that there is a humorous value in repetition6 ,a few years later ,i heard of them as men of #8unmanageable stiff-neckedness1' and out of employment4 ,but climbers will know of countless instances2 and we must all have seen the village street tragedies of once famous guides drifting downward to chance engagements1 trading on their names1 irascible with their few patrons1 still efficient1 but spoiled1 arrogant and accomplishing nothing4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,rare ,crisis4 ,no matter how well the guide's temperament is analysed and his moods managed1 every guide's nervous system has a snapping point1 when self-control may be momentarily lost4 ,as ,i have said when speaking of amateurs1 to some it comes sooner1 to others later2 but to the best guides1 as to men of little or less education1 it will come sooner than to the best amateurs4 ,the crisis is a disagreeable one1 and very rare4 ,a thunderstorm1 with its dangers that cannot be met by any skill1 may produce it2 a sudden fall of rocks or ice where they had no right to fall2 or the shock of a realization of imminent peril4 ,it will be always the unexpected4 ,the amateur is then happy who has never weakened his influence by making mistakes outside his province or by exhibitions of his own temper or lack of self-control4 ,if he has never given himself away under pressure of shock or disappointment or fatigue1 then the greater the crisis the more effective will be his personal intervention4 ,a few sharp words1 startling but not angry1 will prove with all good guides sufficient restorative4 ,i have had occasion even to pay off an hysterical shouting guide on a mountain side before his frenzy1--the result of an uncontrolled temper and sudden panic1--yielding then to the fear of a solitary descent1 died down sufficiently to make it safe to take him on the rope again4 ,he was a bad guide1 and dismissed on that account4 ,but for the case of a good guide who has been tried too highly1 the momentary correction will suffice1 and the incident should not afterwards be recalled4 ,i know of no other occasion which should justifiably tempt us into sharp speech or the exhibition of direct authority during an actual climb4 ,the secret of maintaining control is never to appear to claim it4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,reward4 ,in effect1 an amateur is free now to take or not to take guides in accordance with circumstances and not with tradition4 ,if he engages them1 except as a beginner1 it must be on the terms of mountaineer with mountaineer and not tourist with professional4 ,he should get to know them as human beings1 make friends of them if he keeps them1 and treat them with the same tact as his other friends4 ,in addition he has to give them the increased study and supervision which primitive temperaments1 unknown antecedents1 probable prejudices and possible personal value to his party deserve4 ,his reward will be to find that his guided party remains free from many of the anxieties and disappointments with which other guided and guideless parties have to put up4 ,he will find that the modern guide1 if he has little of the demigod of last-century tradition1 has the potentialities of any wholesome1 hill-bred human being4 ,he will also1 if he has deserved it1 discover that the better a man1 guide or amateur1 becomes as a mountaineer1 the closer he grows as a companion2 until a point is reached1 in the fellowship of great ascents1 when the distinction altogether disappears4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,rock ,,climbing ,rocks are the framework of mountains4 ,rock climbing is a joyous method of getting up attractive mountains by attractive ways4 ,but it is possible to be a rock climber without becoming a mountaineer4 ,it is possible to earn a reputation by leading climbs upon some special type of rock without becoming even a good rock climber4 ,the good rock climber is the man who moves equably1 speedily and safely up or down sound and unsound rock1 of every description and of any degree of difficulty that is within his physical powers4 ,a man who knows rocks and their structure and can climb them with understanding is potentially a good mountaineer4 ,he has opportunities now of perfecting his craft which did not exist for his predecessors4 ,each succeeding climbing generation can enter without effort or loss of time upon an inheritance of skill and knowledge that its predecessors won with tentative effort and slow discovery4 ,during the last twenty-five years the standard of difficulty that can be accomplished with ease and safety by a rock climber of ability has gone up some #be per cent4 ,to this rapid advance the literature published on the subject has contributed4 ,the majority of climbs have now been charted and described2 their difficulties can be allowed for4 ,the mystery and uncertainty of new discovery affecting the mind1 and the novelty of new adjustments imposed upon the body are alike eliminated as complications from the fair field of achievement4 ,the climber goes out to meet purely objective difficulties1 with his mind informed and expectant and his body trained and anticipating4 ,the novice1 or the expert in a district new to him1 guided by his reading1 can economize his nerve and muscle for the more difficult passages1 and1 finding them the easier for this restraint1 can pass on to always more exacting attempts with pleasurable assurance4 ,the presence in the hills of an increasing number of men who climb well and confidently has had even more effect than the publication of books and periodicals4 ,directed by advice1 and by what is still more effective1 by imitation1 the beginner is no longer in danger of getting into habits of false positions and of false judgment1 whether of the angles or of the character of rock holds4 ,he grows up in an atmosphere where these matters are common knowledge1 and he learns almost unconsciously4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,theory of the ,development4 ,rock climbing in our modern sense is a young craft4 ,the early mountaineers were drawn to the hills primarily by the attraction of exploration4 ,their principal interest was to find the best route to the summits4 ,the snow slopes1 to which the peasants and hunters who led the early ascents had been for generations accustomed1 presented the natural means4 ,where snow failed and angles grew steeper they took to the ice walls and ice couloirs1 since to their developing snow technique ice presented a more familiar alternative than rock4 ,steep1 bare rocks were incidentally negotiated1 but not from choice4 ,the steeper1 snowless rock peaks which offered no royal snow routes were thus naturally left to the last1 and when the succeeding generation wished to find new outlet for the satisfaction of its own desire for discovery1 it had to invent a new rock technique to solve the new problems4 ,the history has been the same in every form of sport or of adventure which has had the movements of the body and their perfecting in skill as basis4 ,the passion for the sport that the many may possess engenders in the few who are better physically or nervously gifted a desire to heighten and prolong the sensation and to exercise their improving skill upon always more difficult variations4 ,to the love of wandering in the mountains1 shared by all mountaineers1 is added the enduring pleasure to any healthy man of finding occasion for a higher self-realization1 a more vital physical consciousness4 ,the evolution has been continuous2 the generations1 of course1 overlap1 and the different phases of mountain enthusiasm can still find their several satisfaction4 ,for the explorer there are still the untrodden ranges4 ,for those with means and time sufficient to indulge their love of climbing among the great ,alps1 the old snow ways of the mountains still remain sufficient in number and in sensation4 ,but for the ever-increasing number of men whom circumstances limited to the lesser hills of our own islands or to the lower alpine ranges1 the grass and snow ways began to prove too unexciting as their novelty became exhausted1 and the rock peaks and the sheer rock faces of the ,lake ,fells1 ,skye or the ,dolomites offered a new temptation4 ,rock surface1 unlike snow1 proved to be almost infinite in its variety and inexhaustible in its offer of novel routes4 ,consequently the development of difficult rock climbing in snowless regions like our own proceeded at a pace somewhat out of proportion to the leisurely progress of the art among the ,british frequenters of the greater ,alps4 ,even among the guides it was only the few1 fired by emulation or educated by their employers1 who maintained a rate of improvement at all commensurate with that which was taking place in the average standard of amateur home rock climbing2 ,i am speaking here purely of difficulty and primarily of ascents4 ,in the art of continuous climbing1 and of climbing down1 the comparison1 as will appear later1 was not equally to the home climber's advantage4 ,the principal agent in the change has been the study of the possibilities of balance in motion1 and the training successively of the foot1 the hand and the eye to secure a complete rhythmic movement of the body while climbing4 ,the primitive belief1 if we may make a deduction from the practice and recitals of early mountaineers1 was that the body could not be balanced with safety unless the width of the foot had firm standing4 ,snow was found to satisfy this condition once the study of snow craft had taught guides and amateurs how to fashion a level tread1 no matter what the angle of the snow slope4 ,when the period of the great ice climbs followed1 in the historical order of exploration1 it became merely a question of discovering how to fashion a corresponding security of step in ice4 ,when the new impulse developed for the undertaking of routes upon the rock peaks1 a similar breadth and comfort of tread were at first looked for4 ,consequently the rock ascents of former days were limited in number and character by this condition4 ,of the hands little account was taken4 ,a walking balance was the only rhythm recognized4 ,we might almost call this the #8walking epoch4' ,but the new generation1 inheriting an always improving mountain craft1 with a new goal in view1 could not long remain at this point4 ,the problem of finding sound routes up the rock angles of unexplored peaks and faces had to be faced4 ,the great gullies or rifts in the rock walls offered the first natural lines of temptation4 ,the shelter of their enclosing walls promised a comfortable reassurance to nerve1 and even more to the eye1 as yet unaccustomed1 as ,i have shown elsewhere1 to the direct view into empty space1 above1 below and on either side1 without its customary rest-point for the assurance of balance4 ,so began what may be called the #8gully epoch1' a cul-de-sac which for a decade shut in1 with a few exceptions1 all the efforts of our rock climbers4 ,since the level tread could rarely be obtained in these gullies1 body1 shoulders and arms were all brought into the service1 in order that the feet might still be able to jam against the requisite breadth of foothold1 even though in such places tilted at an angle4 ,at angles where these sloping footholds failed1 the stemming of the shoulders and knees between the vertical rock walls on either side was discovered to be a means of bridging gaps on the climb that would before have passed for insurmountable4 ,the substitute of this rough friction and purely muscular effort for the walking balance of the exploring age exercised for a time a restricting influence1 although the freer use it made of the body in general prepared the way for a better tradition4 ,climbers got up steeper cliffs by their new methods at the sacrifice of their education as mountaineers4 ,by specializing on a convenient accident of mountain architecture1 one which cramped their outlook and left them little opportunity for achieving rhythm or perfecting balance1 they even unlearned something of the general mountaineering knowledge which had been acquired by the wider1 milder practice of their predecessors4 ,it was this departure1 with its somewhat clamorous record1 that introduced the period of widest separation between the old school of classical alpine mountaineers and the commencing school of island rock climbers1 and which brought upon the latter the blast of1 not unmerited1 #8grease-polarized' criticism1 that still whispers spasmodically and archaically4 ,it deepened the rift that during this epoch the greater number of first ascents of the cliffs in ,england and ,wales were made by means of those enticing gullies4 ,for the classical mountaineers1 trained in the ,alps1 when they took an occasional holiday in the ,lakes or ,skye1 looked chiefly for the class of climbing which most closely recalled the varied types of ridges to whose structure they had been accustomed in ,switzerland4 ,their successors1 the ,fell climbers1 lacking their alpine training1 yielded to the temptation of unexplored gullies1 and for years enclosed our home climbing in these uncomfortable channels4 ,wales1 with less potent climbers1 followed the example4 ,but ,wales1 with fewer gullies wherein to win fame1 would appear to have been the quarter where the first bid was made for freedom4 ,almost simultaneously a similar change of view was taking place among the rock peaks of the ,eastern ,alps4 ,gullies are the natural lines for the descent of stones1 water and snow rather than for the ascent of human beings4 ,of their nature #8faults' in the sound structure of the cliffs1 intrusions of softer rock whose weakness water has discovered1 their surviving walls present an undue proportion of unsound rock4 ,these objections1 combined with the gradual exhaustion of their temptation as new ascents1 eventually forced our climbers to escape from their sunless recesses and to adjust their methods to less restricting requirements4 ,the first impulse came from a few individuals whose exceptional physical advantages led to their discovery that they could trust to their fingers as securely as to the full tread of their feet or the jam of their bodies4 ,the discovery enabled them to attempt places where there were no containing walls to be relied upon as support for the body if the feet failed--problems such as wide-angled corners and even what would now be called slab climbs4 ,finger and hand holds in their turn became everything2 footwork was neglected4 ,to some exponents the feet were useful only as auxiliaries1 scraped downward indiscriminately upon the rocks to give some extra propulsion4 ,it was the epoch of #8grip'-climbing4 ,its merit1 apart from fine individual achievements1 was that1 in its turn1 it set the succeeding generation free to trust itself more confidently on to the open ribs and exposed rock faces4 ,bare slabs which had hardly been looked at were then found to be covered with firm holds1 upon which the toe or the side of the boot could stand as firmly and advance far more rapidly2 while hands and eyes were free to assist them to an extent unknown before4 ,the balance of the body in continuous motion above the feet was1 as it were1 rediscovered1 and an upright position became again possible4 ,the hands returned to their proper function of aids to the balance1 and the feet1 climbing in natural positions1 became again of principal importance4 ,with the discovery that the underlying principle of all climbing movement is rhythm1--a rhythm of the whole body and not only of the legs1 as in walking1--and that the basis of such rhythm is balance1 and not grip or stride or struggle1 rock craft moved into its proper place in the forefront of mountaineering qualifications4 ,such in rough outline is the history of the last eighty years of climbing technique4 ,we must allow for much overlapping of the epochs in so short a period1 and for many notable individual exceptions2 but in the main this summary represents where we were and where we are1 and what happened on the way4 ,in classifying the stages of our climbing progress into epochs or compartments1 ,i am doing no injustice to the achievements of the past4 ,a chronicler must always face the dilemma whether to say that the great man by his example produces the general change of practice in the next generation1 or whether to class him as the conspicuous anticipatory ripple of a general current of coming change4 ,very young climbers may be often only human in their criticisms of their contemporaries and in their faint patronage of the collective past2 for no really enthusiastic mountain-lover ever in his heart believes that anyone else has ever owned the hills and discovered climbing quite in the sense that he has4 ,but every climber who is on the way to becoming a permanent mountaineer is a keen student of mountain history1 and the services rendered to the world's mountaineering by the conservation of a body of central alpine tradition are never likely to be underrated4 ,a good house rises higher than its foundations1 but it rests upon them4 ,the men who first ventured on the discouraging angles of buttress and gully and cleared the grass and earth from small holds performed greater feats technical and moral than the most outside variations which may remain to be done on the same rocks by their present-day successors4 ,they had everything against them1 even the atmosphere of their generation4 ,they not only led the way to the steep rocks2 they started the assault upon degrees and varieties of difficulty that forced upon their successors the cultivation of the superior technique which they now enjoy4 ,the mountaineering world has a tenacious memory2 we cherish the names and exploits of the heroic age2 the feet of our gods were solidly shod1 and we will admit no clay to be visible about them but that which was honourably collected in their stout tramping4 ,sidenote3 ,balance ,climbing4 ,the change in style from epoch to epoch was a considerable one1 and it has not been brought to perfection in several climbing generations4 ,to acquire a balance rhythm in motion the whole body has to learn a habit of continuous simultaneous adjustments4 ,both feet and hands must develop a very fine sensitiveness of touch1 so as to inform us not only of the exact amount of security each is contributing at the moment1 but also--a different matter--of the value of their leverage for initiating a fresh movement upwards4 ,according to these messages the balance is continuously adjusted1 so as to relieve or compensate any extremity that may require it4 ,the feet need only a sufficiency of hold to carry the weight of the body at whatever angle it is being held in balance by the hands4 ,the hands need only that amount of hold which will enable them to keep the body balanced while the weight is being thrust upward by the feet4 ,the feet learn to move inevitably on to holds no longer seen1 but previously selected by the eye4 ,simultaneously1 the eyes are already occupied in choosing the next holds for hand and feet1 guided in their choice not only by the compensating quality of the hold which the balance at the instant may demand for one or other of the four extremities1 but also by the direction in which the next movement can most securely be made4 ,a system of continuous compensations1 partly drawn from the rhythmic balance of the moving body1 partly from a corrective choice of succeeding holds1 means a great saving of effort for the feet and hands4 ,the walking rhythm1 of the first period1 called for large1 flat holds1 and therefore for long strides between them4 ,between each hold the centre of gravity was thus forced out insecurely4 ,the hands1 when used1 had the extra labour of dragging the weight inward against the outward thrust of the legs4 ,the effort and the insecurity set a low limit to the angle of rock which could be conveniently ascended4 ,the grip habit1 of the middle period1 demanded for its assurance sharp-edged cling holds1 such as would enable the whole lifting movement to be executed by the hands alone4 ,the body in suspension was thus wrenched inwards continuously1 and sight and balance were interrupted4 ,rhythm on either method became impossible4 ,on the other hand1 a foot climber who climbs by balance or compensation appears to creep easily and continuously up the most severe slabs on an even line4 ,his moving foot rarely lifts above the knee of his stationary leg1 for he has his balance first to consider1 and as he only needs small footholds at any angle to sustain it1 he can find them at shorter intervals in greater abundance4 ,his hands feel the almost imperceptible rugosities of surface with sensitive fingers1 that press as often as they cling4 ,his body moves upward1 swinging out or in on a curve of balance with astonishing freedom1 as the messages from hand1 eye and feet are collated and complied with4 ,a man in sound condition1 with his nerves and muscles trained1 can acquire this mastery of balance in motion far more easily than would appear when it is thus set out4 ,his body1 at rest1 instinctively assumes the right balance for a given position4 ,he has only to train his eye to select holds ahead which will allow of a sequence of harmonic positions2 to train his instinct to imagine beforehand what these positions will be2 and to train his body to move from each one of these positions to the next1 in balance and with an ordered and unbroken rhythm4 ,in this ladder of modern technique the first rungs of easier progress have been the relief to the hands and feet4 ,a further step has been the relief to the knee1 and incidentally to the clothes that cover it4 ,it is now rare to see a good climber return even from a week of conflict with that most destructive of all rock1 the ,chamonix granite1 in the tatters of tradition4 ,in ,wales1 succeeding ,mrs4 ,owens need no longer 8mend them with stuff of various colours03 the dark returns for decency's sake to ,zermatt or ,wasdale are adventures of the past4 ,even the style of clothes has something altered with the style of climbing4 ,practised climbers wear in all lighter materials1 chosen for wind and water purposes more than for an armadillo-like power of resisting friction4 ,the change in the knee is most significant4 ,the armour plating of thicknesses has tended to disappear4 ,the knee is usually innocent of patches and often left1 in ,tyrolese fashion1 uncovered4 ,the change is due to our change in style4 ,while the foot still demanded broad holds1 necessarily found at longer intervals1 for its balance1 the knee was constantly in requisition for an intermediate push up4 ,while grip climbing obtained1 the knee was more useful than the foot to jam with or to scrape downward against the rocks4 ,it was also recommended for use in mountaineering manuals as a relief to those long strides and arm-pulls6 ,now the foot works for both4 ,the knee is kept in reserve for cracks and rococo mantelpieces1 in interrupted climbing1 or for a friction hold on spaces of smooth slab to raise the body the few inches necessary to reach new handhold4 ,since the knee is useless even on such occasions unless it adheres firmly1 the breeches should not get dragged or torn4 ,in continuous climbing it only serves us for light balancing touches1 when the hands are needed elsewhere4 ,yet another step has been the setting free of the eyes to perform their proper functions of balancing and of selecting4 ,this release has been the main factor in confirming the rapid improvement in modern technique4 ,during the walking era1 and still more during the gully and grip eras1 the climber had generally to take what his hands1 unaided by his eyes1 found for him4 ,a climber by balance or compensation keeps his head well away from the rock1 at the maximum distance permitted by the necessity of keeping his body in balance above his moving feet4 ,his eye is almost uninterruptedly free to trace out his general line above1 to choose immediate holds and to exercise1 even as he moves1 a comfortable and leisurely discretion4 ,he can see what he is doing all the time4 ,to take one instance4 ,on very steep rock that which has passed below the level of the knee is often already out of sight4 ,a man who climbs convulsively1 with his nose against the rock1 has often missed the sight of some minute ledge to right or left of his line which alone offers a foothold from which his hands can reach above the next bare slab4 ,even if he afterwards finds it by the grope of his foot1 it is too late for his eyes to estimate its security or shape4 ,similarly1 he is unable to keep continuous watch ahead1 and may often lose sight of a line of holds already marked from below2 or he may overlook altogether some other easier line of holds which could have been reached by a timely divergence to right or left4 ,thus his chances of accomplishing a difficult climb are incalculably diminished4 ,and yet another step has been the economy in nervous and physical output4 ,rock climbs can now be repeated by the average modern climber with only about half the effort they cost their first conquerors1 who did them by force of heart and muscle4 ,they can keep1 consequently1 more strength in reserve4 ,the interrupted continuity of our earlier struggle step and grip hold involved a disturbance of the balance and a break in the continuity of mental concentration4 ,the recovery from every such movement put an extra strain upon both muscle and nerve4 ,in the re-start after each #8jam' position1 with its absolute arrest of rhythm of all kinds1 the disturbance was even greater4 ,severe climbing of the modern standard demands controlled1 continuous movements1 so that the body's adjustments may continue automatically1 and that there may be no interruption in the co-operation of nerve and eye and brain4 ,the beginner must expect to find that balance climbing does not come to him as a first instinct4 ,swinging from the hands to every hold which may be visible1 and struggling and jamming with the rest of the body anyhow1 so as to secure safety and impetus1 are the primitive movements proper to self-preservation and common to all muscular animals like men and monkeys4 ,much muscular instinct has to be unlearned to overcome this instinct1 which is the reason that athletes who have accustomed themselves to reliance upon particular groups of muscles are generally bad climbers4 ,but there is no more cramping fault than to yield to the muscular temptation1 and to cling or jam when it is not absolutely essential to safety4 ,the rule holds good for easy or hard rock1 sound or unsound4 ,the sense of balance in motion has to be acquired1 or1 at the beginning of each climbing holiday1 recovered4 ,the lines of communication between toe and finger and eye1 with the brain as clearing-station1 have to be opened up or reopened4 ,the ability to compensate1 by the balance of the body1 between hand and foot hold1 and to relate the process to the task of selecting holds in anticipation with the eyes1 has to be acquired or regained4 ,movement has to become rhythmic1 and not convulsive4 ,the sense of comfort or ease in performing individual movements is the test of the degree of balance and rhythm acquired4 ,the consciousness of comfort in continuous climbing movement is the assurance of a developed style4 ,easy rock ridges1 of sufficient length1 provide the best commencing practice4 ,on them alone can practice rapid enough or continuous enough be obtained to convert what in the commencement must be separate efforts1 each executed by a conscious effort of the will1 into unconscious rhythmic movement as the habit of the body4 ,the adjustment of the poise of the body and the judgment of the adjustment next required must become instinctive1 otherwise an unexpected attitude forced upon us by the exigencies of the holds may upset the sense of comfort2 and with the comfort goes the style2 and with the style goes the security4 ,the feeling of confidence is our test4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,individual ,standard4 ,if1 and this happens to the most expert when out of training1 a feeling of discomfort or mistrust intrudes1 even for a flash1 we are climbing beyond our standard4 ,there is no error more fatal than the assumption that because we have once done a particular climb or perfected our skill to a particular rhythm1 we can always and at once climb up to that standard again or recover our normal rhythm4 ,it must be repeated that the standard of difficult rock climbing has now been forced up to a point that practically represents the limit of human possibility4 ,if we may assume that there is a minimum of handhold or foothold to which fingers or toes however powerful or prehensile can cling1 and that there is a maximum angle above which human strength cannot force its way up rocks by friction alone1 that minimum and maximum have now been attained4 ,men of abnormal physique1 confidence and endurance have of recent years perfected their individual rhythm of skill to the point of being able to ascend without discomfort or violent effort rock climbs that present the maximum angle with the minimum of holds4 ,beyond that point lies1 not danger1 which for ordinary climbers begins some degrees earlier1 but impossibility4 ,it is folly for beginners or for ordinary climbers1 as it would be folly for these men themselves when they were out of practice1 to attempt such climbs out of mere courage or conscious fitness1 or because they have heard that they are frequently done4 ,what one man has done in climbing every man cannot do4 ,in many cases the final conquest of these particular climbs has been due to some accident of abnormal reach or other development such as no skill could acquire1 superimposed upon a perfection of normal style4 ,if the climbs seem to be repeated frequently1 it is because1 though the parties may be numerous and various1 the leaders of those parties remain few and the same--men drawn from the small group of the super-climbers4 ,again1 ability to climb rocks of the modern exacting standard is even as much a matter of mental fitness as of bodily fitness1 of continuity in nervous control as of physique4 ,an instant's failure of will or confidence1 an instant's interruption in the nerve communications1 due to fatigue or over-tension1 will disturb the delicate adjustments of balance as fatally as a broken leg4 ,several of the most serious accidents of recent years have been undoubtedly due to momentary suspensions of consciousness1 breaks in the nerve communications1 produced by over-exertion of the nerves as much as of the muscles4 ,before nerve and sinew are alike fit and in training they can establish no rhythmic co-operation with one another or with the brain4 ,and in this condition they are all alike liable to error in estimating the amount of effort or of compensation they can justly expect from each other4 ,the pleasant custom of association among climbers has its drawbacks in this respect4 ,climbers are gregarious1 if exclusive4 ,they tend to form eclectic associations in certain centres at certain times4 ,they re-form into different parties under the same leaders4 ,consequently a number of men may begin and climb for years without arriving at an idea of what they are individually worth1 or of what would be their normal standard if left to themselves4 ,they may do a number of the severest ascents and discuss them with an equal confidence1 and yet remain ignorant of what progress they have made in their own standard of performance or in nerve control4 ,a climbing party pools its ability and its confidence4 ,the longer and closer its association1 the less are its individuals conscious of how much they contribute and how much they draw from the collective power4 ,a weak climber may climb on some such rope with satisfaction to himself and no obvious personal inferiority1 while he is drawing all the time on the common stock contributed by his more capable associates4 ,a leader similarly1 well backed up by a good party1 may get into the way of deceiving himself badly as to the extent to which his secure performance really derives from them4 ,instances are not wanting of the trap this may become4 ,a weak or moderate climber thinks he can lead a moderate party up a climb which he may have done comfortably several times with his usual strong party of friends4 ,alone1 he gets into serious difficulties4 ,a good leader1 over-confident from the habit of always feeling a sound party behind him1 may attempt a difficult or familiar climb with too large a proportion of novices on his rope4 ,the amount of ability pooled by the party behind him will no longer provide a margin of safety against accidents4 ,the slip of one will involve others1 and his individual contribution of skill cannot be sufficient to check the disaster4 ,no man is fit to lead on easy rocks until he knows exactly his own unaided normal standard4 ,no man is fit to lead on difficult rocks until he can gauge not only his normal standard1 but also1 accurately1 his standard of the day4 ,the second is as important as the first1 but it is almost universally disregarded in practice4 ,to lead rock climbs of the modern high standard of difficulty demands a high degree of initiative1 imagination and nervous force1 added to a suitable physique4 ,first-rate leaders are1 therefore1 in a large majority men of highly strung nervous temperament2 they are #8built on wires4' ,to have become great leaders they must have learned to dominate their wires completely4 ,for such men1 unusually aware of their normal standard1 it is all the more difficult to consider or allow for accidental fluctuations in their physical or nervous condition of the day4 ,but a particular climb may find even them either out of condition or suffering from an off-day4 ,the off-day feeling1 arising from countless causes1 is one from which all mountaineers suffer2 the more frequently1 the more nervous their temperament1 and therefore the more frequently in the case of this type of leader4 ,if they disregard its presence or attempt to overtighten their wires to resist it1 they run serious risks4 ,the good climber must find compensation in the knowledge that the more he perfects his technique and rhythm of comfort1 the less variation will he find in his normal standard2 and the better he knows his normal standard1 the less difficulty will he find in determining the fluctuations in his standard of the day4 ,the climber then must1 from the first1 learn to estimate his own performance irrespective of the contribution made to it by the rest of his party4 ,sidenote3 ,solitary ,climbing4 ,to secure this self-knowledge he need not climb alone4 ,solitary climbing has its own delights3 of independence of movement and of remoteness from the whims of others2 of a more intimate appreciation of beauties of sight and sound and incident1 and of a sense of almost personal identification with the forces of nature1 in their visible activity of movement and growth as in their passive compliance of line1 colour and form with laws of slower change4 ,the mystical moments in mountaineering1 which are the source of its fascination for men of intellect and imagination1 are found more easily in solitude4 ,but these moments are to be experienced almost equally in solitary rambling or walking1 and although their intensity is increased by the rhythm of climbing1 the rhythm of mind and nerve and muscle working at the same high tension to the same deep tune1 yet this superlative indulgence is only excusable for the supremely expert4 ,to climb alone a man must know his own measure2 he must be confident that he can allow for his standard of the day2 he must restrict his ambition to climbing of a class well below the utmost he could manage with a good rope behind him2 he must allow something more for the nervous effect of solitude2 and he must remember that all rock climbing is subject to a large number of pure accidents1--a strained sinew1 a falling stone1 or a breaking hold1--whose effects can be corrected or at least minimized by a united party1 but any one of which may prove fatal to a solitary climber4 ,if he is confident that he can make all these allowances1 he may go alone on rock if he so desires4 ,the question of what further limits he ought to observe out of regard for the apprehensions of others1 his own circumstances or his relatively greater value in some other sphere1 is a matter for private or domestic decision1 and is not for the consideration of mountaineering opinion4 ,as concrete instances of the degree of difference that should be made1 ,i take a few examples from rock climbs familiar to ,british climbers4 ,a man who could lead the ,grpon or the ,dru 7so far as their rocks are concerned7 would be justified on his skill1 if he kept all the conditions1 in attempting all but the most severe ,lake or ,welsh climbs single-handed4 ,a man whose limit in leading a rope was the rocks of the ,gant or the ,moine1 or who found the ,rquin fatiguing1 could only safely undertake alone easy rock climbs1 the orthodox ridges in ,skye1 the moderate ,napes ridges1 the buttresses of ,tryfan and so on4 ,any man who found comfort in the presence of the rope1 even behind him1 on such ridges and buttresses as these last1 should never attempt1 when he is alone1 more than the scrambling incidental to mountain walking4 ,finished experts must discover their own personal code of differentiation4 ,they have only to keep in mind the distinction between difficulty and danger1 as climbers know it1 and to remember that to the solitary climber every difficulty may be dangerous in result4 ,i say nothing here about solitary climbing on snow or ice4 ,beginners do not come under any of the categories which permit of solitary effort4 ,sidenote3 ,initial ,practice4 ,the introduction to climbing customarily inflicted upon novices is practice upon single rocks1 low cliffs1 quarries and erratic boulders1 with or without the aid of a rope held from above4 ,this #8bouldering1' or problem climbing1 may serve to discover a talent or encourage an inclination1 but it is of little use as commencing practice4 ,the scrambles are short4 ,they give no opportunity for a groundwork in rhythm or for balance in motion4 ,if they are easy1 they are done at once on the head or the heels1 and no one the better4 ,if they are more difficult1 muscle can either manage them1--a bad error to commence with1--or1 if muscle fails1 the ground close below or the rope close above deprives failure and success alike of any training for the nerve or moral for the memory4 ,their real value is only for the expert1 who has learned to treat every rock with the same respect1 be it of five feet or of five hundred feet4 ,they make fine riders upon special propositions1 of toe or finger joint1 once we have mastered the general principles2 but beginners get more benefit from easy1 continuous exercises on the simple rules--and ridges4 ,this practice is best begun as a member of a roped party of about equal capacity1 and under the direction of a leader who will only allow the rope to be used as a protection1 and not as a method of traction4 ,the climber is then to a large extent insured against the consequences of his early blunders1 which will give him some necessary confidence2 he will get some profit from watching other methods1 and he can devote himself to working out his own style4 ,imitation1 conscious or not1 will give him right position1 and the collective movement will infect him with the beginnings of rhythm4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,use of the ,foot4 ,sidenote3 ,hard ,soles4 ,in balance climbing1 footwork must be placed first4 ,for footwork on rock the right footgear with the right sole is all-important4 ,if we wear a nailed boot1 it should be as light as is consistent with strength and the weight of the climber--that is1 of the lightest alpine pattern4#aj ,large men often like the heavy iron-clad boot for the impetus it gives to a longer swing on levels or downhill4 ,but this is no recommendation in ascending rocks1 where the weight of the boot alone1 since it has to be lifted and swung an indefinite number of thousand times a day1 is a wasteful drain upon the leg muscles4 ,at the same time the boot must be strong enough to protect the foot against bruise or jar on all kinds of rugged surface1 and the soles thick enough to be firm1 otherwise in climbing with the toe or the side of the boot there is unfair strain upon the finer fabric of the foot4 ,the welt1 for rock work more especially1 should not project1 as this increases the strain upon foot and leg in toe and side-foot climbing4 ,a heavy welted boot or one with stiff leather uppers crushes the foot and interferes with its delicate sense of touch4 ,the method of nailing the boots is important4#aa ,rock climbers pursue different fancies of their own3 some prefer a double line of small nails close to the edge1 for a better stance on small ledges2 some dislike the edge or wing nails1 and prefer a single row of small sharp heads2 and so on2 but the chief thing for rock is to make sure that the edge-nails1 whatever they be1 are set well apart1 so as to give a rough catching edge between each nail against a pull either way4 ,on the toe this separation is not so imperative1 and they can be set closer together for mutual protection and for a division of the strain1 which1 in their case1 will chiefly be on the back of the nail and not on its sides4 ,to edge the boot with overlapping nails1 which may become a smooth bar1 is ineffective1 and even more likely to produce a slip on rock than if the sole were left altogether unprotected4 ,one good rough nail rightly driven in and rightly placed is quite enough to ensure a perfectly safe stance under a well-balanced body2 and on much modern slab climbing one nail-hold is all that is sought or obtained4 ,the neater the action the fewer the nails needed4 ,sidenote3 ,soft ,soles4 ,for a number of rock surfaces a soft sole serves better than a nailed boot4 ,it permits of a sharper flex of the ankle1 and restores to the foot much of the sensitive and prehensile quality of the hand4 ,its more flexible surface will cling to or over excrescences and flat planes upon which a boot could find little or no support4 ,it enables the foot to be thrust toe-forward into narrower horizontal cracks or pockets1 and toe-downward1 for leverage1 behind flakes split vertically4 ,it is more secure upon steep1 smooth slabs1 in back-and-toe chimney climbing and upon delicate traverses4 ,its lightness and close fit give greater elasticity to the movements of the leg and greater exactitude to the placing of the foot4 ,on the other hand1 it has not the grip in the smooth angle of a vertical crack or corner that a hard sole has2 in side-foot or toe climbing on narrow ledges of sheer rock it strains the foot unduly2 it is treacherous on greasy or glazed rock1 and absolutely useless on snow1 ice1 sharp rubble or in greater mountaineering4 ,from my own experience ,i should say that there are few steep places that the ordinary rock climber meets where a nailed boot cannot be used as securely as a soft sole1 but that there are many where the soft sole is more comfortable and reassuring4 ,we have1 of recent years1 imitated ,dolomite climbers more generally in their use upon abrupt crags1 and when we have finally got over our prejudice against carrying extra footgear with us and bothering to put it on1 there will be as wide a popularity for the soft sole1 discreetly used1 upon rock as the claw has at last begun to enjoy upon ice4 ,according to the texture and condition of the rock1 soft soles of raw hide1 thin leather1 woollen cloth1 canvas1 flat or ribbed rubber1 rope1 and even the soles of bare feet of a naturally leathery quality1 are all and each declared to be the best possible wear4 ,it is impossible to assign them geographically and geologically in detail1 and ,i doubt if anyone will carry with him all the types on the chance of using one quite correctly4 ,the average rock climber1 even though he knows the truth that on some rock boots with hard nails1 and on others boots with soft nails1 give the better grip1 shows himself still discouragingly reluctant to carry even these two pairs with him in our own islands4 ,i myself preferred a light rubber sole on dry difficult rock1 and a rope or cloth sole on wet rough rock 7not greasy71 whenever the difficulty made it distinctly safer than a nailed boot4 ,rubber is less durable than rope1 but it remains more evenly prehensile4 ,the rope sole1 recently used with great effect even in the greater ,alps1 gets hard and1 still worse1 hardens in patches that give a fickle tread4 ,for prolonged wear a soft-soled canvas boot is more comfortable than the traditional shoe4 ,many rock climbers wear very thick stockings or several pairs of socks4#ab ,their protection to the foot is greater than that of weighty or rigid boot leather1 and1 according as feet and boots vary in size from day to day1 they allow of a corresponding addition or subtraction4 ,but for pure rock work their thickness should never be allowed to interfere with the sense of touch in the toes4 ,any constriction round the ankle1 by the boot1 or round the knee1 by the breeches1 is for the same reason to be avoided4 ,to check the circulation or to cramp a sinew or muscle is to interrupt the telegraphic messages upon which balance and safety depend4 ,sidenote3 ,foothold4 ,the feet in all climbing should be placed lightly1 and the swing of the leg kept under control4 ,to aim the foot1 as many do1 from the thigh and knee1 bang it in1 and then leave it to settle itself on the hold1 is to jar the foot and fatigue the leg4 ,the movement should be precisely directed from start to finish1 and no sinew slackened until the other foot has taken charge4 ,in continuous climbing the position of the foot on the new foothold should be chosen with a view to its supporting the balance during the next movement up or down1 and the foot must be placed exactly as the eye designed4 ,if not1 the balance will not rise true on the lift1 and there will be a flurried hand cling and a clumsy foot shuffle until the right foot position is found4 ,small inexactitudes mean clumsiness and waste of power4 ,good skating calls for the same precise adjustment of the feet in anticipation of the next movement of the body4 ,but the closest parallel is to be found in good dancing4 ,the motion of foot and leg in both dancing and continuous climbing is free yet under control1 rhythmical and balanced to the appearance of ease1 but precise2 ready for the new position required for fresh movement1 and yet keeping the body in balance during the momentary transference of weight4 ,in both1 the actual contact of the feet with the surface is always light4 ,in either1 a heavy or loose tread not only breaks the rhythm1 so that the balance has to be recovered by an effort1 but it destroys the sensitiveness of touch1 and delays for a perceptible moment the beginning of the next movement4 ,dancing is1 in fact1 an excellent preparation for climbing4 ,good climbers are1 or can be1 nearly always good dancers4 ,the account often given in joke of a fine climber that he #8literally danced down the rocks' is a truthful picture4 ,a good dancer has to adjust the continuous motion of his feet and body over an even surface to the swift and varied rhythm of music4 ,a good climber has only to keep true to his own rhythm2 but he has the more difficult task of adjusting his continuous movement to the varied angles1 checks and impulses of uneven rock holds4 ,the more difficult the rock1 the slower must be his rhythm2 but slow or fast1 each motion must remain equally exact and finished4 ,the more precise he renders each movement1 the safer will be his progress and the more polished will appear to be his style4 ,all false positions1 sudden convulsions or recoveries that will break the continuity of movement1 have therefore to be avoided4 ,in ascending upon a vertical line it is1 for instance1 obviously better to take footholds slightly to the right and left with either foot rather than immediately below the body4 ,the knee thus turned sideways can be flexed without thrusting out the centre of gravity and interrupting the continuity4 ,again1 as between two footholds that may offer1 the one large and reassuring in promise but inconveniently placed1 the other less comforting but at a happier interval1 the latter is to be selected4 ,the first would be sound1 but would need two interrupted movements and a readjustment between them2 the second will fit in with our continuous movement and be secure enough to reach and to leave again4 ,rock holds are not required for a permanent residence4 ,the foot1 the toe and the side nail are not looking for snug berths with a pension1 but only for such security of tenure as will permit them to promote the career easily from one balanced movement to the next4 ,sidenote3 ,anticipation4 ,upon very steep rock1 holds rarely occur in the convenient1 ladder-like sequence that allows of a continuous lifting of the body in the same position and line4 ,each succeeding set of hand and foot holds may here require a new attitude for purposes of balance4 ,for this interrupted type of climbing1 however1 it is just as important to remember that it is too late to begin to twist the body into the new position required by the new holds when already those holds have been reached4 ,a climber who makes this mistake gets no help even from his slower rhythm1 and looks to be spasmodic and insecure4 ,all the more here a good climber should look beforehand what his new attitude will have to be on the new holds1 and1 like a skater1 he should move his body into the new position while he is in the act of passing from the one set of holds to the other4 ,in the case of an awkward step it is even admissible for him to go up and down to it1 tentatively1 before committing himself to it1 in order to make certain that he will arrive upon the hold in the right position4 ,he has then no need to readjust his feet or hands when the movement is complete and the next begins4 ,this fine point in style is invaluable to master2 anticipation saves energy and assures safety on long or difficult rock climbs4 ,the sinuous progress of the expert on an #8interrupted' passage is effortless as compared with the jerks and quick contortions of a less finished climber on the same place2 and on long1 easier climbs1 where all are moving together1 he is always the sooner ready to meet at any second the failure in his own case of a single hold1 or to give the immediate check to the rope which shall correct a slip behind him4 ,even if he is in mid-movement when the call comes1 in an instant of time his feet and hands can lock his balance into the new position already half attained1 or they will bring him back with nicety to his last firm holds4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,ankle4 ,in the mastery of balance climbing the ankle plays a very important part4 ,so that the body may progress smoothly when the feet are clinging only to small or very inclined holds1 the ankle must be strong enough and supple enough to support the weight at rest or in motion1 no matter at what angle it may be bent1 forward or backward or sideways4 ,the extent to which the ankle can be flexed varies with the individual4 ,extreme in babyhood1 the flexibility can be preserved by early and suitable exercise4 ,once it is lost1 and the foot #8set1' it is very difficult to recover or increase it in later life4 ,those whose ankles will only flex city-wise may only envy the ease with which mountaineering peasants walk straight up steep inclines1 getting their heels down each step1 or coastal fisher-folk hurry safely on flat soles along slippery sea slabs at impossible angles4 ,if your ankle won't bend so far1 it won't4 ,but what can be and has to be acquired is suppleness and strength in the ankle1 whatever its flex1 so that it will hold as securely when bent to the full as when straight1 and will relate through its changing but steely arch the balance movement of the body above to the unshifting cling of the foot below4 ,like skating1 ski-ing or crabbing on claws1 walking securely with a flexed ankle has to be learnt by practice2 and the first essential is confidence4 ,balance boldly on slabs4 ,if you lean inwards1 or seek support with the hand1 you will never improve your ankle work4 ,such practice on ice with claws and practice on slabs with shoes or nails are mutually helpful4 ,it is excellent exercise for the ankle and foot to practise doing ridge or slab climbs of progressive steepness without using the hands at all4 ,the flex of the ankle1 the bow of the leg and balancing power of the trunk muscles working together1 can learn to do a great deal for which we are ordinarily too ready to use the hands4 ,by educating ankle and foot to work alone we keep the hands in reserve for increasingly difficult passages4 ,often the #8prop' of a bent ankle above a side-foot hold gives us the second point of contact with the rock which is all that our balance requires4 ,i have known of climbers whose standard improved markedly owing to a hand injury or arm wound4 ,compelled to develop their ankle and foot work1 by the time the arm recovered they had learned a better #8balanced' style1 and the fresh help of the hand came in as so much more gain in power4 ,careful hill walking or rock climbing in a light shoe is better training for the ankle and balance than walking in a heavy boot4 ,the heavy boot restricts the flex and weakens the ankle by always supporting it4 ,on all but rock surface it compels the surface to its service4 ,on rock its rigidity and good side nails generally save us the trouble of flexing the ankle at all4 ,in a light shoe the foot and ankle have to adjust themselves to the surface1 and bend and adhere at any angle the hillside or the sloping rock may dictate4 ,the ankle gets strengthened and suppled4 ,be it noted that the going must be #8careful'2 an unprotected ankle until it gets trained is easily turned or wrenched4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,knee4 ,as ,i have said1 the knee is not now so often used in good balanced climbing4 ,nine times out of ten when we use a kneehold it is from pure laziness1 and eight times out of ten we immediately repent it1 because it is quite three times as difficult and six times as painful to start again off a kneehold as off a foothold4 ,of course on stiff #8mantelpiece' work or in cracks we may have to use it1 together with all other convenient projections of our frame4 ,and1 on occasion1 in continuous climbing1 if the hands are occupied with the management of the rope1 and the foothold is too high to reach with sound balance1 the knee can be used on a suitable hold as a quick half-way thrust between distant footholds4 ,this avoids breaking our rhythm by an overlong reach up with the foot1 or interrupting the party by dropping the rope in order to take hold with the hands4 ,some men1 and nearly all women1 when they use the knee incline it inward across the front of the body1 so as to place it on a hold with its point or outside surface in the direct line of ascent4 ,this leads to a very constricted attitude4 ,the lower foot cannot be brought up below in support to any hold on the direct line1 and1 after the lift1 a pull on the rope or a violent effort will be necessary to recover the balance or get started off the knee again4 ,the knee should be inclined outward away from the body1 and should use a hold with its inside surface1 to the right or left of the direct line of ascent4 ,the spring off knee and shin from such a hold lifts the weight lightly in the direct line1 with the body continuously close to the rock1 and the lower foot can be brought up easily to a supporting hold in the direct line below the body1 so as to relieve the knee4 7,try the positions on the edge of a table or on a step-ladder1 and the difference becomes clear47 ,on very smooth slabs1 when foothold fails1 the knees and shins can be used to relieve by their friction a pull-up on the hands4 ,if we are wearing shoes this is a rare case1 as a soft sole can cling anywhere 7and more safely7 that a knee can4 ,such a friction-cling need necessarily be only for a short distance1--about the stretch of a man's reach1--since the boot1 as soon as it has reached it1 will be able to use anything that has before been sufficient for the fingers to hold on by4 ,there is only the one exception--the problem of a vertical or sharply inclined slab1 offering us only a smooth narrow crack or a smooth sloping outside edge4 ,the crack or edge may be good enough for the fingers1 but too smooth or steep for a sideways boot toehold4 ,in this case the whole outside surface of thigh1 knee and leg come into play to give friction-holds on the slab1 while the hands are shifted upwards in the crack or up along the edge4 7,the positions can be tried on a heavy door or gate1 set on one corner and inclined steeply in the angle of a wall4 ,for the one case the door must be sun-cracked67 ,sidenote3 ,the ,hand4 ,the hands and arms have to learn less than the legs4 ,they are less important for anything but purely gymnastic climbing2 they have more inherited instinct for their work2 they are under the constant direction of the eye1 and therefore do not need the same training in automatic movements to carry out anticipatory judgments4 ,the hands are always auxiliary to the feet and to the adjustment of the body4 ,their power only misleads into a bad style if they are used to the neglect of other parts of the machine4 ,in continuous climbing they complement the lifting movement and assist the balance4 ,their service is for impulse1 adhesion1 occasionally for traction1 but never1 if avoidable1 for suspension at rest4 ,footwork1 not handwork1 is the basis of balance climbing4 ,sidenote3 ,cling ,holds4 ,in steep climbing1 where they come more into play1 instinct directs them how to cling4 ,but in taking finger-holds1 especially for pulls1 it must be remembered the hand is as fine a piece of machinery as the foot1 and less protected4 ,it can be easily cut or bruised1 or the tips rendered callous so that they lose their sense of touch4 ,a well-used hand after a few days on rough rock gets if anything more sensitive2 the fingers become #8violin tipped' with a certain prickle of sensitiveness4 ,a hold should be grasped like a nettle1 firmly and almost finickingly1 so that the skin does not shift afterwards or drag4 ,it is always a bad sign if the climber finds cuts on the insides of his hands4 ,they have no business there4 ,the sharpest of holds1 if rightly gripped1 can be used for the lift of the weight without puncturing the skin4 ,abrasions on back or side of the hand1 or on the inside of the wrist and forearm1 are another matter4 ,they almost inevitably follow upon the action of arm-levering and on the taking of press and push holds 7afterwards described74 ,incidentally1 also1 frequent knee and shin scrapes and bruises are the signals of clumsy footwork and scrambling methods4 ,as a complement to the ordinary cling holds1 when the fingers cling over an edge or knob and hold the weight in suspense1 balance climbing based upon footwork enables us to make use of a whole group of invaluable #8under'-holds4 ,in these the hand1 gripping palm upwards under a down-turned edge or point1 is getting security and propulsion by pulling the body inwards against the upward thrust of the balance from the feet4 ,the value of these holds depends upon our practice in balance climbing1 which enables us to #8compensate' as between our hand and foot hold and to maintain a careful counterpoise of the hand-pull against the foot-thrust4 ,we can use them with effect anywhere between the level of our eyes and our waist1 according to our strength1 and our ability to use them adds immensely to our ease in climbing vertical or overhanging rock4 ,a cling #8over'-hold on such rock pulls us inward1 and adds blindness and body friction to the other forces working against us4 ,a cling #8under'-hold keeps body and eyes free at the length of our arms1 bent or straight according to our convenience4 ,granite is rich in such fashion of hold1 and on rough1 catchy aiguille climbs many of us would use them by preference before the more obvious over-holds4 ,cognate with the under-holds are #8side'-holds1 where the edge or point of rock projects and is grasped sideways4 ,the principle of their use is the same as for the under-hold1 except that the hand is turned sideways4 ,their commonest occasion is in the ascent of cracks1 when the outward side-pull of the hand against the inside edge of the crack is set against the upward thrust from our foothold or knee-jam in the crack below1 and our balance technique is occupied in compensating between them4 ,in cases both hands may be pulling against opposite sides of such a crack1 and the compensation will then have to be made between the two arm-pulls instead of between the single arm-pull and the foot-thrust4 ,to make any upward progress on such holds without any help from foothold or body friction calls for immense arm and finger power2 but in connection with a foot-thrust or knee-jam the opposing side-pulls are often of use4 ,a square-cut or rounded edge1 without any projection1 is sufficient to give good side-holding4 ,sidenote3 ,push and ,press ,holds4 ,instinct will tell us how to hang on to over-holds and pull up at the length of the arms4 ,practice in balance and footwork will teach us how to avail ourselves of the varieties of the more accommodating under and side cling holds4 ,but the balance climber has to learn1 for the yet greater convenience of his eye1 the ease of his balance and the economy of his arm-power1 to take his handholds as low as possible1 and in co-operation with1 not in opposition to1 his foot-thrusts4 ,he soon discovers that #8push' and #8press' holds are more powerful and accommodate themselves better to continuous upward progress in balance than any form of cling holds4 ,i use #8push' of a direct upward thrust of the arm from a horizontal or inclined ledge or hold1 and #8press' of a lateral or diagonal thrust against a vertical or inclined side-wall4 7,the first can be tried on any secure mantelpiece2 the second1 not so well1 in any narrow passage47 ,the arm1 for push holds1 is used after the fashion of a leg2 the hands are pushed1 palm downward1 on ledges at a height that will allow of the weight1 with often the impulse of a spring or foot-thrust1 being lifted on the straightening arms4 ,the arms for this movement possess much of the strength and the ease in balancing usually attributed only to the legs4 ,to lift the weight on a direct push is easier for many than to raise it by a long-arm pull4 ,on push holds the weight of the body keeps the hands firmly in place2 and a hold by thrusting friction1 even if it be only on a rounded or sloping ledge1 calls for less effort than to keep the same weight in suspension from the crook of a muscular finger round an ideal hold at the stretch of the arm4 ,the strongest position for push holds is that with the fingers turned inward1 the palms downwards1 in front of the body1 at a level anywhere between the waist and neck1 according to the individual power of spring from the feet4 ,but push holds outside the body are also useful2 the fingers are then turned outwards1 palms down4 ,either of these positions secures the help of the twisting arms as levers for retaining the balance during the upward movement4 ,upon slabs or on rounded holds at awkward angles a very useful hand device is the combination of the push and cling holds4 ,the wrist or forearm rests along or over some protuberance so as to secure a downward push hold1 while the fingers are turned to cling across some edge of this hold and keep the arm from slipping off it4 ,the arm would slip off the push hold but for the anchor of the fingers2 the fingers would slip out of their awkward cling hold but for the friction anchor of the arm4 ,thus by a delicate compensation between the forearm pushing and the fingers clinging we obtain one sound combination hold out of two separately insecure holds4 ,ledges are more frequently rounded or inclined against us than square and convenient4 ,the reinforcement of an arm push hold by a finger cling1 or the giving of a right direction to a finger cling by the friction anchor of wrist or forearm1 is therefore of constant service and deserving of all practice4 ,in press holds the flat of the hands is thrust sideways against a smooth surface of vertical or steep rock1 which may be the retaining wall of a chimney1 or a projecting leaf or corner4 ,it is a help if the outer edge of the hand can rest against any seemingly valueless excrescence4 ,with the hand so held the elbow has only to be lifted1 and the arm becomes a lever1 thrusting the balance inward1 secured by1 and itself securing1 the friction of the hand4 ,two hands so pressed against any sloping surfaces can lift the whole weight4 ,pressed against vertical surfaces--the inside walls of cracks1 for instance1 too narrow to admit the body--they are sufficient to retain the balance1 while the feet find any slight hold1 or even only friction holds1 to supply propulsion4 ,how good the foothold must be to complement such handholds is a matter of practice in compensations4 ,push and press holds with the hands1 combined with the twist and leverage of the arms1 in combinations innumerable1 are the refinements of exceptionally difficult climbing4 ,their merit is the saving of muscular effort and the substitution for it of the mechanism of balance4 ,their use has inevitably grown out of the new fashion of footwork developed in balance climbing1 grounded on the recognition that the more extended the body and the wider apart feet and hands are fixed1 the less is the power and the greater is the effort of single movement1 and therefore the greater the interruption to continuous rhythm4 ,to keep the balance steady1 the eyesight free and the rhythm constant1 footholds and handholds must be taken at convenient distances well within the compass of the reach4 ,sidenote3 ,in ,cracks4 ,in difficult crack climbing the extent to which pressure1 the jamming of a leg1 the touch of a calf or knee1 or the twisting of a hand or forearm can be used to ease the muscular strain must be learned by practice4 ,a fist or finger may be hooked in a smooth rift1 or a foot slanted into a crack1 with only friction attachment1 and a slight twist to arm or leg converts either into a secure lever for lifting the weight4 ,the clenching of the fist or the tightening of the muscles of a jammed forearm1 or even the inflation of the chest1 may at need serve the same purpose4 ,the inexpert eye might see little difference between such movements and those of gripping or clinging4 ,as a matter of fact1 the difference is maintained even here4 ,where a grip climber aims at rest-points of pendent security1 and struggles between them by muscular pulls1 the balance climber is primarily concerned to keep freedom and continuity of movement4 ,he is using the balance of the body1 if only for fractions of a second1 to relieve the direct weight on his arms or the indirect strain on his legs4 ,his arms and legs are levers in converting proportionately slight muscular efforts into big continuous movements1 making friction and the mere weight of the balancing body do a large share of the work4 ,consequently1 to the expert eye1 his body is seen to ascend on a line slightly farther out from the rock than the grip climber in the same place1 and in a different sequence of attitudes4 ,he will be avoiding at all costs the grip climber's temptation to be too secure1 to fix himself in attitudes or on holds from which he will have to emerge by direct muscular pulls4 ,in corners or chimneys he will use a set of slighter and less attractive holds1 if they exist1 farther out1 so as to keep his body free from friction against the rock4 ,if such a set of holds is lacking altogether1 he will be employing press holds with the hands1 lever holds with arm or leg1 twisted pressure-thrusts from his foot and ankle against one wall to his knee against the other--any device that will relieve him of direct pulls and will leave his body free to help him at any second with some balance adjustment4 ,for1 once the body is really jammed up against the rock or in a crack1 arms and legs are usually working only against one another or against the friction of shoulders or thighs1 and the mechanism can merely struggle and exhaust itself4 ,sidenote3 ,on ,slabs4 ,similarly upon slabs he will be selecting holds1 not according to their size and obviousness1 but according as they are arranged well within his comfortable span4 ,he avoids at all costs getting #8spread-eagled4' ,the surest safeguard against getting stuck is to select the holds beforehand1 and then be certain that your feet and hands use them as you designed4 ,let nothing tempt you to alter your plan once you are moving4 ,this is the hardest lesson to learn4 ,if you have any eye at all1 your alteration will never be for the better4 ,whenever1 as must occur in awkward places1 your sight of the holds is interrupted1 keep your head and stick coolly to your recollection4 ,many climbers get slightly flurried once they are #8blind4' ,they forget their plan1 even the existence perhaps of the one hold that made the passage seem possible in anticipation4 ,they revert to struggling and arm-clinging4 ,their agitation often takes the form of a combative recklessness4 ,they feel they will fight it out with the holds they have got rather than descend and recover the safer line they planned4 ,this liability to flurry may take years to master4 ,most of us have suffered from it2 and notably in those attractive holes under chockstones or overhangs--holes so irresistibly tempting to thrust one's head and shoulders into1 but from which1 blinded and out of balance1 it is extremely trying to emerge4 ,notably1 again1 on those steep problem-slabs1 where a single tempting hold has spread-eagled us helplessly and left us wondering how long the single nail will support us4 ,the only protection is foresight1 a steady adherence to plan1 and the resolution always to climb as far out as possible from the rock4 ,if the hands are allowed to pull the nose into the rock we are easily pounded4 ,the protection is footwork and the flexible ankle4 ,it is the business of the ankle to bend and stay bent at whatever angle may keep our body in safe balance and away from the rock1 and to transmit our weight to the foot at just the right angle to hold it firm on its sloping stance4 ,the farther out from the rock we can keep the weight1 the steeper the apparent angle of foothold which it is safe to use4 ,on steep slabs a very flexible ankle will often let the foot rest flat1 getting an overlapping or friction hold on several rugosities of surface with its whole sole where a less practised ankle or a stiff-sided boot must trust to the less secure catch of a side-nail on one such roughness4 ,quiet movement is essential2 to leave a slight hold hurriedly is as dangerous as to arrive on it clumsily4 ,if you have to use a knee or hip or forearm as a friction hold1 set it as gently and relieve it as lightly as if it were a single finger4 ,sidenote3 ,chimney ,climbing4 ,chimney climbing is another occasion for too alluring rest positions and for tempting but over-close contacts4 ,by a #8chimney' we usually mean a rift that will admit the body1 as contrasted with a #8crack' which will not4 ,the method of ascending between the vertical or steeply sloping walls of chimneys1 wherein holds for ordinary foot and hand work are lacking1 is usually called #8back and knee'2 more correctly it should be named #8back and foot1' as the knee need rarely be used4 ,the position is with the back against one wall and the feet against the other1 the legs bent or straight according to the width1 and the thrust of the spine and shoulders providing the security4 ,here again the proper object is continuous movement1 and such attitudes as may assist towards it4 ,the temptation for the safety climber is to sit across the chimney1 with the legs straight and almost at right angles to the body4 ,the body is then wedged2 it sinks slightly inside the clothes1 which are fast to the rock by friction1 and1 while it is quite secure1 presents also the utmost resistance to any upward impulse4 ,the right position for the feet against the opposite wall is slightly below the body1 as low as will allow of an easy upward impulse being given to the body without risk of the feet slipping4 ,the hands and arms are stretched downward1 past the body1 with the arms bent and the palms flat against the rock behind4 ,for movement upward1 one foot is brought across from the opposite wall and thrust with the flat sole against the rock close under the body4 ,the friction of the foot then allows the bent knee to be partially straightened1 and the body raised4 ,while it rises1 and the shoulders thus come clear of the rock1 the thrust of the arms and hands backward against the rock takes the place of the jam with the shoulders1 and so keeps the foot against the opposite wall in its place4 ,so soon as the lift is completed and the back is at rest against the rock again1 the under foot that has been used is shot across to a higher position against the opposite wall1 the hands move up1 and the other leg comes across1 to act as spring in its turn4 ,the body is thus really ascending1 poised1 between the shifting pressures of the arms and feet1 and is only taking instants of rest against the rock to allow them to take new positions4 ,it is entirely wrong1 but very usual1 to walk up the opposite wall with the feet1 and wriggle the shoulders up the near rock in accord4 ,this is wasteful of clothes and of energy1 and not so secure in its actual movement4 ,for1 on the right method1 if the foot against the opposite wall shows an inclination to slip as the shoulders rise1 the arms can thrust away from their wall and so apply extra pressure to keep the foot in place1 even while they are still pushing the body upward2 whereas1 on the wrong method1 the back has no such elastic margin2 it cannot push across and downwards while it is itself moving up4 ,in all such feats the more freedom that can be kept for movement1 even at the cost of adopting more exposed positions and of bridging ourselves across intimidatingly wider angles1 the greater in reality is the safety4 ,in narrow chimneys1 too smooth for foot or hand hold and too narrow to allow of secure bridging with the back against the one wall1 it is possible to move up with the feet pressed flat against the two walls1 one on each side3 one with the toe pointing up in front of us1 the other with the toe down below us2 the body is kept upright in the middle on the spring of the bent knees and supported by the pressure of the hands1 placed like the feet one against each wall4 ,in this fashion we can #8rock' up satisfactorily4 ,but the method is only safe to practise with soft soles1 and it is of course very strenuous4 ,wherever possible we prefer to keep outside a chimney1 or corner1 altogether1 and use our feet up the edges of its retaining walls4 ,if we are forced inside1 we adopt any sets of holds for our feet up the opposing walls1 however wide a split they mean for the legs and however fearsome the depth may look between our feet1 before we resort to the cramping1 waterworn recess and the slower method of #8back and foot4' ,balance climbers return1 as it were1 to the gully epoch only under protest and where footholds fail4 ,sidenote3 ,rib ,riding4 ,in clambering up sharp noses1 flakes or ribs1 where bodily contact with the rock is enforced1 the same principle of keeping far out and aiming at continuous movement again holds good4 ,to sit close astride1 and claw up the rock by means of the thighs1 elbows and hands1 is customary1 and seemingly safe2 but the really safer method1 because it admits of uninterrupted progress1 is to keep the body away1 and to grip with the sole and flexed ankle1 or with the knees and sides of the feet1 on either side of the rib1 or to lock one leg diagonally across the edge so that the foot and knee press against its opposing facets4 ,meanwhile the hands1 holding opposite ways1 grip across the edge above4 ,in such a position the body can sink at any instant1 for rest1 into contact with the rock1 and can rise again from the feet1 knees or shin without effort4 ,it is useful to remember that when the friction of loosely clothed parts of the body is solely relied upon for hold 7as when we are clinging close with thighs and body to a rib71 the body always sinks slightly inside the clothes1 and has so much the more difficulty in restarting a fresh movement4 ,sidenote3 ,wet ,rock4 ,it must be added that when rocks are wet1 friction cannot be relied upon1 and at the same time the security of foot and hand hold is greatly diminished4 ,wet rocks may mean slimy rocks1 and always mean cold rocks4 ,cold soon chills the muscles1 lessens the sense of touch1 and notably impairs both the confidence and the power to climb4 ,on a wet day it is well to carry some spare dry gloves4 ,if1 then1 we have to make some particularly awkward balance or lift1 and the fingers are wet and cold1 a fresh glove will give us a few holds of better friction1 until it1 too1 gets wet4 ,in the ,alps wet rocks mean glazed rocks1 and we avoid them4 ,in our own hills we accept wet rocks as part of the day1 but we treat them with an extra degree of respect4 ,men in soft soles1 on dry1 hot rock in sunshine1 can climb with complete and hilarious security places that rain and wind make it foolish to attempt4 ,for most men the standard of possibility varies as much as #dj per cent4 ,this is never sufficiently allowed for in youth4 ,fired by emulation1 young climbers arrive in rain where their rivals have passed on sun-dry holds4 8,a rock is a rock2 and1 by ,george1 it must go60 is their motto2 and if their fortune is better than their knowledge1 they accomplish a climb which substitutes a danger happily escaped for every difficulty reasonably mastered by their predecessors4 ,on the other hand1 to accustom ourselves to find our rock climbs1 and to climb their wet rocks under all conditions of weather1 is necessary training4 ,provided we allow for the difference in permissible attempt1 we risk little1 in our small-scale home climbing1 by persisting against moderately uncomfortable circumstances4 ,we are the better able to endure them when they surprise us on more serious alpine expeditions4 ,a little adverse circumstance restores much of their original difficulty and adventure to many fine mountaineering climbs too apt to be neglected by modern specialists because of their straightforwardness under sunny conditions4 ,a man who can work cheerfully up an old-fashioned ,british rock climb against rain and wet holds is a sounder climber than the expert who will only do the supreme #8inventions1' and those only in fair weather for fear of spoiling his record4 ,in this country the finest rock climbs1 both scenically and as mountaineering training1 are not the most difficult2 rather than that they should be neglected1 we should seek them and climb them on the wet days4 ,sidenote3 ,glazed ,rock4 ,glazed rock is its own prophet and policeman4 ,in the summer ,alps we need only expect to find it after a snowfall1 or where snow commanding rock may have been melted1 run down and refrozen4 ,it makes an unexpected and more dangerous appearance when a sudden fall of temperature freezes the mist1 fine rain or thawing snow after its fall or as it falls on to the rocks1 while we may be actually on them4 ,i know of no more treacherous move in the mountain game or one which calls for more cautious1 laborious and ingenious countermoving4 ,in ,britain1 as ,i have said elsewhere1 we have to beware of it almost as much1 in the winter and early spring months4 ,it may follow a silver thaw1 a cold fog or a mist on a change of wind4 ,by starting our climbing early upon hoar-frosted rocks or fresh snow we may create our own glaze by hand and foot pressure4 ,on really bad film-glaze nothing is sure for hand or foot hold2 but a glove or soft sole 7not rubber7 has a better chance of #8freezing on' than a boot or cold finger4 ,a thick sock1 pulled over the boot1 will help1 or we may take off our boots and climb in the safer stockings4 ,on steep glazing rock1 and upon wet rock if its surface grows greasy with the moisture1 continuous climbing becomes immediately interrupted climbing4 ,we have to consider the chances of a hold failing or breaking or of a man slipping as increased some tenfold4 ,we must take precautions as for unsound rock and protect ourselves with anchors1 belays and the like4 ,however easy the rock may normally be1 glaze or grease introduces a new element of #8danger1' and the transparent threat forces us1 if we are wise1 to treat any moderate climb with the respect due to serious difficulty4 ,sidenote3 ,summary4 ,i have only selected for description a few conspicuous features of ordinary rock surface1 which might illustrate the underlying principles of a good rock climbing style4 ,their detail is negligible except as illustration4 ,climbing situations are infinitely various1 and men vary as whimsically in their personal adjustments4 ,long before he has reached the point of leading difficult passages1 the climber will have got his own obstinate idea of how to apply the principles in detail to particular rock features4 ,for the benefit of the less instructed ,i would only repeat that rock climbing is best learned upon long and varied passages1 away from the staccato allurements of boulders1 trick climbs and belays4 ,style is the mastery of rhythmic movement1 movement continuously secure and continuously effortless over every modulation of hold during a long day4 ,when a climber can traverse a long ridge of average difficulties safely and quickly1 stepping the edge by balance or dropping on either side as he goes and using balance holds with either hand1 without check to his party1 he is already a safe climber and on the way to be a sound mountaineer4 ,if he proceeds to follow the craft into some of its more ingenious departures1 it will only mean a more elaborate application of the same principles that he has already learned to practise3 to trust to his feet2 to make use of his ankles2 to tread lightly and precisely2 to keep the hands low2 to choose holds in advance and stick to them2 to move well out from the rock2 to rely on balance rather than muscle2 to make continuous1 supple and eventually graceful movement his ideal2 not to rest satisfied until he has acquired rhythm2 and lastly1 never to get flurried4 ,,unsound ,,rock ,while a climber is still only concerned with perfecting his own adjustments in relation to rock requirements1 he will be unconsciously collecting a great deal of practical information about different types of rock4 ,if he is of a curious habit1 he will be led on to some superficial study of petrology or geology4 ,but even if he have no memory for names or imaginative grasp of ons1 he cannot help gradually amassing a quantity of empirical knowledge as to what kinds of holds to expect if a rock looks so and so in outline1 whether to reckon upon finding chimneys or traverses or flakes if its main lines of cleavage or fracture are such and such1 and what to allow for in detail according to his distant observation of the general structure and weathering4 ,the discovery of the name of a prevalent rock will tell him what kind of climbing to prepare himself for in a particular district1 or the sight of it when he gets there will guide him in the selection and management of his climbs4 ,he may never have been able to master the difference between ,tertiary and ,secondary1 any more than remember the order of the ,popes of ,rome1 and yet have qualified himself insensibly for that most fascinating form of speculative discussion1 the designing of new routes in known or unknown districts4 ,on a lower but still more useful plane he will have learned to judge from its general appearance whether rock is sound or unsound1 and from its closer aspect where to expect unsound intrusions upon good rock4 ,the increased information now available about our hills enables us to avoid rock faces of uncomfortable notoriety and to attack eccentric types with precaution4 ,a large number of climbs1 even whole mountain walls1 that used to be popular on account of the attraction of their weathered angles1 are now left for the same reason almost unvisited4 ,but unsound rock cannot always be eluded1 and a climber has to be ready to deal with short bands or intrusions of inferior rock on any climb which he does not personally know1 and on many to which he returns for love of their sounder sections4 ,fortunately1 according to the nature of rock1 these intrusions are rarer and shorter on steeper rock1 and any more considerable section will provide its own alleviation in a relenting angle1 where the softer surface has disintegrated more rapidly than its firmer surroundings4 ,this may1 of course1 mean an overhang1 to the climber's disadvantage4 ,if not1 it will at least offer him an easier angle for advance over its unattractive trespass4 ,on unsound rock every merit that characterizes finished climbing by balance1 or compensation1 is emphasized4 ,a novice should never be allowed to lead4 ,a grip climber is a danger on the rope and a suicidal choice as leader4 ,sidenote3 ,semi-detached4 ,on bad rock every hold is an object of suspicion1 since almost all the holds will be liable to fail under one or another direction of pull4 ,the obviously bad hold1 the hold that comes away at the first touch1 anyone will reject4 ,but our object on unsound rock is to get over it2 and for that purpose to use its holds for what they are worth rather than to start casting them down in an attitude of righteous indignation--and insecurity4 ,with a caressing hand the good climber discovers what pull the hold is likely to be good for1 and his judgment telling him the direction and amount of pull that his next movement will demand from it1 he will avoid loosening it beforehand by any test not necessary for this movement4 ,the grip climber1 therefore1 who puts half a dozen directions of strain upon each handhold in any one lifting movement1 will make no progress at all on unsound holds4 ,if he does not test them beforehand1 in the end he will fall4 ,if he tests them properly in all the directions that his lift will demand1 he will remove most of the holds before he can use them4 ,the balance climber1 who has practised putting only that direction of strain upon a hold which his own next movement and the hold's security agree upon1 is in less of a quandary4 ,for1 except in the case of fragments which are already detached1 and clearly ready to fall1 nearly every surface accident which is still in attachment to the main rock will stand light additional strain in at least one direction4 ,this1 of course1 varies according to the stratification of the rock and its fractures4 ,as an instance1 on a steep face the ordinary lines of fracture may be vertical and horizontal to the discoverable inclination of the strata4 ,if the #8hold' is already detached from the rock on both these lines1 and only resting on a support1 it is useless4 ,if1 however1 the excrescence is fractured at its base1 horizontally1 but attached to the rock behind1 vertically1 it will be good for a straight outward pull4 ,it can also be tested1 but it cannot otherwise be trusted1 for a downward or diagonal pull4 ,if it is detached from the rock behind1 vertically1 but still part of the rock below it1 horizontally1 it is sound for a direct downward pull1 but not for any outward or cross strain4 ,if the strata strike diagonally1 and the cleavages correspond1 mutatis mutandis1 the same rules apply for the different directions of pull1 permissible or not1 upon their holds4 ,a climber has not only to make sure what direction of strain he may safely put upon a hold1 but to keep this direction of pull or thrust constant all through his upward or downward movement1 irrespective of the changing position of his body in relation to the hold4 ,the vital importance of climbing by compensating balances becomes then apparent4 ,a climber who has trained his mechanism to the habit of translating the support of any hold that any one of his extremities engages1 by means of the balance of his body1 into movement in any direction he requires1 has little difficulty in keeping the strain he puts upon a single hand or foot hold constant in direction4 ,he can do so even while he is using its support to lift his weight through a succession of angles past and over the hold4 ,it is1 in fact1 the process that he has had to learn for his ordinary #8sound' climbing1 if he has become a balance climber of precision or pace4 ,a clumsy climber1 or one who depends on grip normally1 is helpless when faced with handholds of this #8one-direction' kind4 ,he may discover by test how he ought to use them1 but the moment the lifting or lowering movement begins the habit of his mechanism will reassert itself1 and he will change the direction of his pull as his body nears or passes the hold4 ,even if he maintains the direction by an effort of will at the moment1 his body will not have been trained to carry out the mechanical conversions with sufficient power to overcome the pure difficulty of many a passage1 altogether apart from its insecurity4 ,he will be forced to fall back upon muscle or grip to finish his movement1 and the hold may break4 ,a grip climber who normally neglects footwork is in even worse case on unsound rock1 when he has to use1 or test1 such #8one-direction' holds with his feet4 ,on unsound rock good footwork is1 if anything1 more important than good handwork4 ,only exactly the same strain may be applied by the less sensitive feet1 when they take the place of the hands on the hold4 ,since the downward thrust of a foot can only be slightly modified in direction1 this limitation must be remembered in selecting and testing a hold by the hand4 ,otherwise it may not be sound for the later and different requirements of the foot4 ,foothold is always the danger-point on unsound rock2 and this constitutes the peculiar demerit of such rock for #8climbing down1' when the foot alone must test and lead4 ,a climber1 especially when he is descending1 must never trust to his feet alone1 but protect them by at least one tested handhold4 ,a good rule to remember in all very exacting climbing is that never less than three extremities should have hold4 ,on unsound rock the better rule is1 never less than four4 ,the dangerous moment comes when one hand or foot is in process of testing or shifting to a new hold4 ,the movement must be made without jerk2 the weight must be distributed between the other points according to their merit2 and the direction of the pull1 as tested and found secure on each hold1 must be remembered4 ,hence our motion over unsound holds may be properly described as creeping4 ,every attachment must be light but tenacious1 and one tentacle is only released when the others are secure4 ,on insecure rock we are no longer concerned to keep the body as far out as possible4 ,our object is secure1 not free1 movement4 ,consequently1 we move with the body as close in to the rock as is consistent with sight and its freedom from catching4 ,if1 then1 one hold does break1 there is less outward pull upon the others1 and the body can sink instantaneously against the rock and help to sustain us by its friction4 ,sidenote3 ,detached4 ,small1 loose fragments should be thrown well out from the cliff1 or tucked away discreetly on ledges that need not be used4 ,large1 loose fragments are best left in situ1 and the word passed down the line of their presence1 until the last man1 if he likes1 may remove them4 ,often a block or large stone1 which is detached from the parent rock both behind and through its base1 may yet afford very sound foothold for a good foot climber1 supposing it is seen to be resting on a level and sufficient ledge4 ,the same may be the case with pinnacles or splinters1 partially fractured or jammed in cracks4 ,tested and tactfully used1 they are often stable for a steady thrust or pull in one direction at least2 but much depends upon the nature of their bedding4 ,rock on walls and ridges facing south1 in the ,alps or at home1 must be suspected of detached leanings1 until its family connections are demonstrated by investigation4 ,holds which have been covered by verdure or subjected to the action of moisture in any form have to be judiciously proved4 ,rocks projecting from ice or snow--those pleasant oases towards which we steer with such relief to ease our step-cutting or snow-wading--must always be approached as unsound rock4 ,if1 on occasion1 they prove our suspicions wrong1 they have only proved themselves an exception to a melancholy rule4 ,except on frequented routes1 it is never safe to assume the security of big detached blocks1 poised on ridges or choked in gullies1 unless their fashion of support is absolutely demonstrable4 ,they should be left to the last man to test4 ,from all accounts rash leaders who neglected this precaution have escaped more often and more miraculously than their intelligence1 at least1 deserved4 ,a leader1 if he has any doubt1 should avoid touching such blocks altogether4 ,if1 for all his caution1 a block gives unaccountably1 he must hang on to it for all he knows1 until the men below have got what shelter they can4 ,nor must he forget the rope4 ,if the block catches the rope in falling1 the danger is as great as if it strikes one of the party4 ,apart from these and other permanent idiosyncrasies1 most normally sound rock surface will be found to have its times and places of weathering or weakness4 ,we have to learn to recognize the symptoms1 forgetting our prejudices in favour of old and trusted rock types1 and treat their intrusion with all the delicacy and consideration of tread and touch which we owe to the small infirmities of tried friends4 ,in so far as they are1 or were1 rock1 moraine and scree may be called unsound4 ,sidenote3 ,moraine and ,scree4 ,the occasional stone on a steep glacier is a find for a foothold2 but the stones that coat the ice-core of moraine slopes are merely treacherous4 ,if we have to traverse a few steps on such a slope1 it is best to knock the stone out and tread in its ice-socket4 ,the summit edges of moraines often offer passable going1 especially if previous parties have knocked off the final blocks4 ,their side walls1 whether of stone or of stone and mud conglomerate1 are the least scalable and most exasperating inclines in the mountain world4 ,they are often even too hard to make steps in1 and it is fatal to attempt short cuts upon them4 ,in traversing along scree slopes1 if the scree is small1 the one thing to remember is to #8accept the slip'2 to place the foot lightly and let it slip till it stops2 not to make convulsive efforts to recover it1 or to keep the foot up to the same line of traverse4 ,if the foot slips too far on steep scree1 lean inward on the axe or stick1 which is held point inward across the body4 ,to #8rush' scree on anything but the downgrade is merely to waste energy and time4 ,in ascending or traversing take short steps2 tread always for a particular stone1 and do not brown the mass of stones vaguely with a loose foot4 ,in travelling up or along big scree or moraine1 balance and a sustained rhythm are the thing to aim at4 ,on flat-stone moraine1 step for the middle of the stone2 on round or cornered stones1 #8dance' from one upper edge to the next4 ,rather than break the rhythm1 if no good hold1 or possibly only an insecure-looking block1 presents itself for the next foot1 slacken the knee and put no weight on the leg while you are using the loose block2 skimmer over it with the dropped leg of a horse at a big bank1 and trust to the next step to bring you up again4 ,if you balance lightly and move fast1 a moving foothold is all but as good as a fixed one4 ,on moraine the axe is always our third leg of balance4 ,on long moraines1 or in traversing up or across scree slopes1 it saves labour in the task of choosing stones to follow close behind another man1 and let the swing of his feet draw yours mechanically on to the footholds he has used4 ,to descend light scree is one of the chief rewards of a long climbing day3 to descend big scree one of its worst penances4 ,the method falls more properly under the section devoted to ,glissading4 ,,unusual ,,rock ,unsound rock is counterchecked by an intensification of sound method4 ,to unusual rock we retort by an extension of our usual method4 ,it would exaggerate its importance to discuss its varieties in greater detail than has seemed sufficient in the case of normal rock4 ,a few instances will serve to show that our principles remain1 for all rock1 unaltered4 ,slate has an insidious surface4 ,the exposed edges1 or spillikins1 of strata may always break under a pull1 unless they have allowed us to grasp a sufficiency of thickness4 ,but slate has a worse trick4 ,in chimney climbing1 if we are using the usually safe and gentle hold of a thrust with the flat foot1 or a press or push hold with the hand1 against even a wide1 smooth surface1 the upper skin may crack locally at an uncertain distance from the point of pressure and allow foot or hand to shoot into space2 and this always1 unless the thrust is applied exactly at right angles to the lie of the strata4 ,our only safeguard is to extend to push and press holds on slate our practice with pull holds in general1 and keep the direction of the pressure constant through all our lifting movement4 ,quartz ledges and bands1 which are the grateful solutions of many of our cliff problems1 are treacherous4 ,quartz brittles off1 in crystals or in masses1 in unexpected directions4 ,we cannot test it adequately until our full weight comes upon it2 when it may be too late4 ,and so we never step on to projecting quartz1 or scale the vertical face of a seam1 unless we have hand or foot hold upon good rock above or below it4 ,happily1 quartz seams are usually narrow4 ,we prefer soft-soled shoes1 which will distribute the pressure over the uneven facets4 ,boot-nails snap the projecting crystals or slide on the flat facets1 especially after rain4 ,the fingers similarly must take general holds1 and not trust to salient prisms4 ,the direction of the growth of the crystals can guide us in applying our pressures4 ,a seam lying back at a steep angle sometimes leaves good rock holds along its edges1 where quartz and rock have weathered at an unequal rate4 ,a seam at a gentle angle as often provides a delightful traverse of escape4 ,soft sandstone1 which in quarries and elsewhere is frequently used as a practice ground1 has its own fashion of soft crumbling and its own body of hardened adherents4 ,its outlines are recognizable1 and in mountain masses we avoid it altogether4 ,but those who attempt it locally must remember that it is peculiarly deceptive for footwork4 ,its ledges dissolve under a stiff boot4 ,sand shoes1 or still better1 boots1 are the only wear4 ,beginners should look for lines of ascent where the subjacent heaps are still uncarted and propitious in the event of failure4 ,old sandstone1 when it emerges1 is firmer for the feet but offers little handhold1 and makes very fatiguing climbing4 ,chalk1 and the methods of dealing with it1 form a study by themselves4 ,chalk climbing provides the missing link between rock and ice technique4 ,those who frequent its cliffs use big claws and ice methods1 and pronounce it to be an unrivalled training for ice work4 ,its occasional hard surface and its abundant projecting flints1 whose security is in inverse ratio to their graspability1 have to be treated with the measures of precaution proper to unsound rock4 ,marble builds peaks of imposing outline1 but its edges are not constructed with an eye to good foot climbing4 ,its surfaces1 where exposed1 slope against us2 its slipperiness dictates the use of soft soles2 while the rubble with which it is cumbered makes soft soles comfortless4 ,it has appeared to me more often dangerous than difficult4 ,old lava is as tiresome as quartz1 and less often available as a last resource4 ,desperately hard for the feet1 it yet snaps out in diamond cubes and litters with wrenching rubble its already jarring surface4 ,i know of no sound climbs upon it4 ,gritstone has its own devotees and a growing literature4 ,its climbs and their mosaic perils have all the charm of a well-executed miniature4 ,limestone1 as the layman uses the term1 is deceitful1 and offers ridiculously little good climbing in proportion to the amount of it that protrudes plausibly from the surface of ,europe4 ,one of the closest escapes ,i have experienced was from a spontaneous fall of limestone rock on a venerable and bland-looking western cliff4 ,in the form of #8dolomite' it offers very agreeable sharp-edged dwarf-climbs even in our islands1 and it is to be regretted we have so little of good stature4 ,sidenote3 ,in ,quarries4 ,scrambling in home quarries1 on chalk1 gravel1 blue-stone1--all kinds of rock1--is excellent practice4 ,the surfaces are1 however1 raw and untempered by time1 and the crude fractures and ledges by which we climb are made by man and survive by no natural law of the fittest4 ,no experience of rock structure can therefore suffice to allow of calculation upon their security4 ,each hold must be separately tested before use4 ,the risk is generally out of all proportion to the height4 ,a rope from above should be used on any passage of doubt4 ,sidenote3 ,along ,sea ,cliffs4 ,sea cliffs have many votaries4 ,it is perhaps ungrateful to class them as unusual rock1 but their unfamiliar conditions1 their wave-polished and often undercut bases1 their summits artificially sculptured and constantly strained and fractured afresh by the fall of the cliff below1 exclude them from a normal category4 ,their charm lies in their variety of rock1 revealed in forms pensive1 brooding1 surprised1 jovial or defiant1 upon headland1 island and stack4 ,there are few more exhilarating scrambles than the granite outcrops of ,cornwall1 set in green seas1 surf-spray and sunlight4 ,the upper end of the coast of ,sutherlandshire alone provides eight or nine different varieties of rock1 and therefore of ascents4 ,the whole island of ,sark can be circumambulated at about the mid-height of its cliffs4 ,traverses are the peculiar property of sea cliffs1 which are often awkward or impossible of approach from their base for more direct ascent4 ,whole days1 in fact if it were desirable a whole holiday lifetime of delightfully varied traversing at different levels may be had along the cliffs1 high or low1 of the west coasts of ,scotland and of its islands1 of ,ireland1 of ,england1 and of parts of ,wales4 ,the north coast of ,ireland has attractive sections alternating in this instance with pinnacles and scarps of decadent blends4 ,usually the return from such traverses can be made in the evening up a gully1 by which we resume1 if we wish1 on the morrow4 ,as a last resource in difficulties there is always the sea for a header of escape4 ,rubber soles are the best wear2 or1 for some varieties1 raw soft hide with the hair on1 as worn in the west of ,ireland2 but rubber is1 of course1 treacherous on wet or weedy tidal rocks4 ,this fact should be remembered in our stimulating races with the waves for the foot of a promising crack4 ,during the novitiate even hardy heads must beware of the intimidating1 often vertiginous1 effect produced by the constant movement of water below the feet4 ,both the sound and the motion are found to react almost unconsciously upon toughened climbing nerves4 ,the cliffs of the east coast of ,england consist too often of subsiding clay and water1 or of a hard pebbly conglomerate2 but they provide at least unusual climbing4 ,a good earth glissade can occasionally be found down their rifts2 and every section affords opportunity for a cautious scramble or an ingenious trick route4 ,on the harder earth and pebble mixtures there is sometimes occasion for step-cutting practice4 ,the cliff edges frequently overhang1 and present all the dangers of unseen cornices if approached from above1 and more than their difficulties if reached from below4 ,boots are best on these east cliffs4 ,vertigo is unknown1 since the waves are all too rarely in close proximity to the cliffs6 ,ireland1 on the east1 is more fortunate2 it possesses some fine firm stacks and cliffs4 ,parts also of the east cliffs of ,scotland are excellent4 ,sidenote3 ,on ,freaks4 ,some regions are rich in incidental pillars1 pinnacles1 stacks1 needles1 pins1 fingers1 boulders1 erratics 7#8off-comduns'71 ,wellington's ,noses1 ,grey ,ladies1 ,devil's domestic utensils1 or their fantastic like4 ,it is difficult to connect the records of their 7periodic7 first conquests with any general principles except those forming the groundwork of a local literary reputation4 ,a long rope over the summit would seem to be the preliminary to many such a climb1 and statuesque photography its culmination4 ,but between these extremes a peripatetic climber can find many joyous and gentle passages1 where he may even remain anonymous if he goes armed only with such sound method as the type of rock suggests1 and shod with soft soles4 ,one experienced companion would be found of more service than many onlookers2 and a tradition of classical mountaineering demands that the rope between two men should not pass over the summit before either has started4 ,to save time1 once1 when we were crossing a series of smooth needles two of us agreed to climb continuously1 in the hope that if the man descending on the far side of one needle slipped 7as was the more probable7 the man on its near side would be assisted to the summit more quickly by the rope2 and so no impulse would be wasted4 ,unhappily1 it was the rear man1 ascending1 who slipped1 and at a moment when1 owing to the length of the rope1 the front man was already himself ascending the next needle4 ,neither1 at all events1 was left long in suspense4 ,bouldering is the pleasantest of off-day distractions2 but too many men allow themselves to spend the time on the merely difficult4 ,its use should be for safe exercises on rules of style4 ,when you can climb an easy block without your hands1 or balance up a wall with such light finger-hold that a friend can pass his hand under yours1 or have discovered how to solve a shelf climb by a push hold and a twisting arm-lever1 you have made a fair test that will be of future use4 ,to wrestle up pure difficulty1 such as you would not attempt in exposed higher climbing1 by dint of muscle and strenuosity1 proves nothing and does no good2 it only reduces the restful value of the off-day4 ,our object on such unusual rock should be to extract from it the soundest practice for our usual method4 ,,climbing ,,down ,it is more difficult to climb down than to climb up4 ,so long as the majority of rock climbers continued to grip and struggle1 they could find no pleasure in descending4 ,the characters of our hills abetted the neglect4 ,the labour of the day went in finding the steep climb and then forcing a way up it2 there remained for the evening too great a choice of easy slopes to run down4 ,even in the ,alps the habit followed the early rock climber2 he was too ready to choose a peak 8which would give plenty of sport on the ascent1 and an easy snow-route down40 ,during our gully and grip epochs1 when this self-imposed limitation was almost universal1 rock climbing reached its furthest point of divergence from real mountaineering4 ,the development of balance climbing perforce broke down the tradition4 ,climbing down had to be learned when really big mountaineering was attempted4 ,where mountains have no easy ways down1 it is as important to be able to descend as to ascend4 ,on new or difficult climbs the method and time-calculation for a return in case of failure call for more forethought than the ascent itself4 ,but beyond this1 climbing down was discovered to have its own pleasure as motion4 ,a good climber in training1 and descending upon rock that gives continuous hold1 enjoys a sense of swift restrained rhythm1 and a rushing thrill through his own extremities1 that has something of the pleasure of flying and a pleasure from quick light contacts that even flying does not possess4 ,his hands and feet appear to adhere almost accidentally underneath him1 like the spokes of a revolving rimless wheel4 ,they move across a sound hold with his change of balance rather than check him at each contact4 ,his eye has selected a whole succession of small holds ahead1 or rather afoot4 ,he balances down them as a complementary sequence4 ,he does not ask of every hold that it should become the basis for a fresh beginning4 #8,touch and pass' as contrasted with #8grip and hang' perhaps sums up the method4 ,of course each hold must in itself be adequate to check and direct the passage of the body1 otherwise momentum is acquired1 and the method might be defined with justice as only a fine fashion of falling4 ,the check is distributed over a series of holds1 each of which serves only to retard the downward movement just sufficiently to direct it1 with no acquired impetus1 on to the next hold4 ,the holds on such a passage complement one another4 ,each is used transiently but safely1 because the action of the next is anticipated4 ,the definite arrest-points of course occur1 but they are selected by the eye at longer convenient intervals4 ,to read rock holds and their balance values ahead in this fashion requires a more practised eye and judgment than were needed merely to decide on the reliability of the next grip hold4 ,it was this art of the longer glance1 the practice of descending as a regulated movement rather than as a succession of stances and rests1 which rock climbers neglected1 and still too largely neglect4 ,the shortness of our island climbs1 as our young climbers increased in numbers and in ambition1 drove them to the discovery of a rapid progression of more and more difficult variations4 ,these climbs could not be ascended #8continuously4' ,the art of continuous up-climbing was almost forgotten1 and with it disappeared any idea that continuous down-climbing need even be practised4 ,the strenuous up-climb exhausted our interest in a particular series of problems2 the prospect of a similarly #8interrupted' descent of the same places seemed rather boring2 in fact1 we preferred to run down an easy way1 and begin upon a new ascent of new problems4 ,climbing down joined climbing continuously1 up or down1 in a limbo1 from which it had to be desperately rescued when we went to the ,alps or to regions of longer climbs4 ,some years ago1 on perceiving that the neglect was spoiling the style and achievement of climber after climber of the ,british school who came out to the ,alps1 ,i ventured to publish something of a protest4 ,happily this made a few important converts4 ,and now it would appear that the evil spell is broken4 ,no good cragsman would nowadays seem to be happy until he has done his fine rock climb both ways2 a few are beginning to specialize upon descents4 ,the admirable practice of traversing or #8girdling' great cliffs1 which involves the ascent and descent of the steepest sections of many difficult climbs1 has finally placed climbing up and climbing down on a footing of mountaineering equality4 ,it may be said that this result was inevitable once balance climbing had come to its own4 ,once the eye and the body were set free from their confining and convulsive habit1 it could not be long before hands and feet opened up the new ways of pleasure in moving downwards and sideways as readily as upward4 ,we have made a great step in advance3 we practise climbing down as an art in ,britain1 but we have still a long way to go in developing our practice of #8continuous' climbing1 down even more than up4 ,i have seen the start of many of our finest island rock climbers in the ,alps1 men whose feats on difficult rock still stand unsurpassed1 and ,i have never seen one who1 when he came out1 was even the equal of a good average guide in continuous going on moderate or steep rock1 especially in descending4 ,these men quickly recognized their defect when they saw the styles contrasted1 and set themselves to correct it4 ,but others1 who have gone guideless and never enjoyed the opportunity of comparison1 have continued even in the ,alps their interrupted method and1 consequently1 have achieved a degree of performance in no way equal to their real standard of climbing ability4 ,a very illuminating instance was that of one of the greatest of our rock pioneers1 whose style was as finished and deliberate as his enterprise was remarkable4 ,after many years of climbing in our islands1 with an unrivalled record1 and of climbing guideless in the ,alps1 with practically nothing to show for it1 he spent one season1 later in life1 with a fast first-class guide4 ,as a result he1 admittedly1 changed his whole habit1 and subsequently climbed with an accomplished continuity that without diminishing his security multiplied his amount of performance three and four fold4 ,climbing down requires more practice than climbing up1 because the mechanism of the body is contrived more conveniently for upward movement1 and because we have eyes in our head and not in our toes or heels4 ,the eye has to learn to select its holds from awkward angles4 ,the hands and feet have to learn accurately to follow the eye's choice1 in movements mechanically more difficult to execute4 ,consequently in descending the inclination to grip and hang becomes even stronger than in ascending1 and until the right attitudes become instinctive it requires some resolution to force the body steadily outward until it is in balance over its footholds and is not depending from the hands4 ,once the natural impediments are mastered the gain to pace and to security which we obtain from our balance and foot method soon makes even the memory of our desire to cling strange4 ,the muscular strain is less4 ,we are free to use the friction of the body1 in any part1 to regulate the pace or suggest direction4 ,the body descends naturally on to firm positions on the feet1 and stands ready without readjustment of balance or holds to give any assistance required to the man below on the rope4 ,it is on continuous descending1 and on the management of the rope this involves1 that the improvement in our method has had most effect4 ,the principle of descent in balance is to keep face outwards or face sideways as long as possible4 ,in such positions our eye commands both the whole rope and the rock almost continuously1 and we can decide at any instant whether we should proceed1 or pause1 or tauten the rope on the man below4 ,it is almost startling to see a first-class mountaineer come down steep rock1 as last man1 in a series of well-timed rushes1 while he still protects the continuous descent of his less expert front-men4 ,he never allows the rope to slacken4 ,he keeps the safety check while the man in front is moving2 but in any intervals his lightning rushes make up the necessary ground4 ,in descending1 a slight tension of the rope is sufficient to check a weak climber1 whereas in going up he would have required a hard pull2 and a light guide or a quick amateur1 judging his moments well1 can #8anchor' and secure the safe descent of a whole rope of heavy-weights below him1 and yet never check their progress while he interpolates his own flights of descent4 ,sidenote3 ,positions4 ,in descending1 so long as is conveniently possible1 and practice alone discovers how much longer the position is tenable than appears to us at first1 the face should be kept turned outward4 ,so soon as the outward position becomes insecure1 that is1 when nothing but holds for the heels present themselves and the balance is felt to be thrust out by the steepness of the rock beyond the feet1 thus throwing a clinging strain upon the hands1 the body should be turned sideways to the rock4 ,only as a last extremity1 on perpendicular or overhanging rock where the eye is no longer of use to find footholds1 should the face be turned in to the rock1 in the position most natural for ascending4 ,sidenote3 ,facing ,outward4 ,in the face-outward position the action of the feet remains still that of the balance step4 ,for easy movement footholds should be selected1 if the choice offers1 outside1 to right and left of the vertical descending line1 rather than directly below the body4 ,the legs are used as tense springs to break the jar4 ,in fact1 the motion is that of #8dancing down4' ,the heels are little used2 the toes and sides of the feet take the holds1 much as in ascending4 ,the hands have to find their hang holds or pressure holds at the level of the thighs or knees4 ,for the hang holds the knuckles are turned backwards1 on either side of the body1 and the fingers grip the rock much as in ascending4 ,for the pressure holds the heels of the hands are pressed downward on to the ledges1 close to the sides1 and rest in the position of a reversed push hold4 ,it should be remembered that this last fashion of hold1 always the most tempting in starting a descending movement1 becomes useless and even dangerous because of the outward thrust of the arm1 so soon as the waist has sunk below the level of the hands4 ,for this reason1 before lowering down on this hold we must make sure that the reach for the leg to the next foothold will be short4 ,in the face-outward position the hands can be relieved of much of their effort in holding by the backward or sideways pressures of the calf1 of the back of the thigh1 or even of the elbow or shoulder1 against the rock4 ,a twist of the firm knee in a convenient angle of the rock1 or a sidelong #8steady' with the heel of the firm foot against the back or side of its rock hold1 gives us often balance enough to allow the other foot to descend without using the hands at all4 ,this is what is really happening in the #8rushing' movements alluded to above4 ,the expert is using any and every part of him1 from ankle to elbow or shoulder1 for friction and balance touches while his feet descend2 and consequently he has both hands free to tighten or pull in the rope as he goes1 even in mid step4 ,the eyes1 since they can see uninterruptedly1 guide the feet accurately4 ,elbows1 legs1 thighs1 etc41 by judicious touches help out the balance and relieve the hands to a large extent for other work4 ,sidenote3 ,facing ,sideways4 ,the sideways position1 which is admirably adapted for balanced climbing1 is still all too seldom practised4 ,climbers instinctively turn face inward the instant the holds get small or the rocks steep4 ,but to turn sideways is safer1 because the eye can see both holds and rope1 and the body is in a good position to adjust itself for anchoring2 it is better suited to the normal lie of holds1 because holds rarely occur in vertical sequence on rock1 and a diagonal descent is often possible where direct descent is interrupted2 and it is more in balance4 ,for in the sideways position the single hand employed takes the natural hold1 such as it is accustomed to use in ascending3 either a cling hold1 or even more often a lower push hold reinforced by an inward curving of the arm towards the rock as a lever4 ,the outer hand is left free to manage the rope or to use the axe4 ,the feet fall naturally into position on the ledges1 with the side of the foot1 and not merely the toe1 on the hold4 ,the flex of the knee and thigh works parallel to the face of the rock2 and neither the bending of the knee1 as happens while descending face inward1 nor the curve of the flank1 as in descending face outward1 can get in the way of an easy lowering of the body above the firm foot4 ,the climber also1 as he leans out to the full length of one arm1 is far more free to prospect his descent in advance4 ,lastly1 while actually more comfortably balanced1 a man so descending is in a better discretionary position to adopt any alternative attitude1 face inward or outward1 by a half turn on the foot1 according as his larger range of vision advises4 ,in traversing the big ridges or crossing the great rock faces of the ,alps a large proportion of the climbing must be done in this sideways attitude4 ,economy of effort1 ease of balance1 and the carriage of rope and axe in a free hand demand it4 ,the technique is one that it is essential to master1 and once acquired it will be found to become the normal position for pace and comfort in descending4 ,sidenote3 ,facing ,inward4 ,it is the exception when the conditions make it imperative to turn the body face inward4 ,the occasions are the descent of vertical or rounded convex surfaces1 of overhanging #8cave pitches' and the like1 where the holds do not permit of an upright or balanced position1 and where the legs have to be swung in underneath and out of sight in order to find the next holds for the feet4 ,here1 if it is more than the question of a step or so1 there can be no question of the whole party moving together4 ,the rope is therefore dropped from the hand1 since both hands will be needed to lower the whole weight during the movement4 ,as soon as the feet can find hold1 the balance should be readjusted upon them1 and the eyes set free to look round again and prospect4 ,even though it may appear to be more comfortable and safe to continue in a jammed or face inward position after it ceases to be absolutely indispensable1 the inclination should be resisted4 ,the longer the duration of the face inward descent1 the longer must continue the interruption to the advance of the whole rope4 ,it is one of the principal objections to this position1 which is individually safe enough1 that it necessitates an interruption and break of rhythm for the party4 ,climbers1 from an instinct of safety1 turn into it too frequently1 and continue it too long1 in places where a sideways descent if the problem be a slab1 or a face outward straddle if it be a steep chimney1 would be the correcter and quicker method4 ,it is not only retarding in its effect on the rope1 it is always slow in actual performance4 ,men move into it ponderously and reluctantly if they have been face outwards before4 ,they continue in it slowly1 because they cannot see and are using clinging methods2 and a natural reluctance to take the slight risk of turning round again before they have reached a large #8turning' stance makes them keep the position usually longer than the difficulties demand4 ,meanwhile the whole party waits4 ,if a man is a practised sideways climber he can turn into this face inward attitude when necessary1 and out again the moment he finds balance foothold1 with a minimum of check to the rope4 ,from a sideways position he has only got to bring round his other hand1 and he is ready to climb face inward for as long as he has estimated will be needed4 ,sidenote3 ,down ,chimneys or ,cracks4 ,in jamming down chimneys or cracks the face outward or sideways positions are always to be preferred4 ,the eye1 free to select1 can generally find footholds close or far out on the side-walls1 which would be invisible to the face inward position4 ,if these holds fail1 the jam with outstretched arms1 or knee or thigh or shoulder against the containing walls1 is still always safer for a man in the outward and sideways attitudes1 unless he be on an absolute overhang4 ,at the same time1 since his hands are free in descending sideways or outwards1 he can still manage the rope even in his moments of descent1 and so save any check to the progress of the party4 ,whereas in the face inward position the hands are useless except for holds4 ,i have seen a guide serpentining down a crack of this sort1 face outward1 by the pressure of his shoulders and thighs against the walls alone4 ,the fact that he was free to watch the party even while he moved down enabled him to anticipate the slip of a climber below2 and he took the whole pull upon one quick outward pressure of his knees and arms against the side walls4 ,an average climber1 with the slightest of holds for his feet1 in this attitude can hold practically any usual weight4 ,it is a question of balance and judgment4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,rope in ,continuous ,descent4 ,to secure the safety of the party on the descent a right position will do much4 ,a man who climbs face outward or face sideways is ready mechanically to take a very considerable and sudden strain4 ,but a right use of the rope over the accidents of the rock will enable him to do still more4 ,on steep or unsound rock we are always on guard against the unexpected slip or the breaking hold4 ,therefore1 while on the rope1 we note at every step how we are placed to take a jerk4 ,if we are all moving together down steep rock we note1 as we pass1 every corner or point round which we could with a single motion of the hand throw the rope as an #8anchor' in case a man below us slipped4 ,if we are all moving quickly1 and therefore presumably a safe party1 we need not do more than note them4 ,but if the party is weak1 or we are moving interruptedly1 then1 no matter how easy our own sector1 we should not only note but use points suitable for the anchor4 ,it must be remembered that such anchoring on a descent is designed to assure the balance of the stationary man1 in case of a sudden jerk2 and only indirectly to support the man descending below4 ,the actual pull of a slip1 if it comes1 should be taken up on the arm1 but never directly on the rock anchorage4 ,it is useful for every one to practise this cursive anchoring on any descent which is too steep to allow of the party moving really rapidly together4 ,there will be time then to swing the rope over and off the points as we pass them1 without check4 ,once the trick is acquired1 the eye will go on instinctively always selecting the anchors1 but the actual movements we can discontinue4 ,habit will at once make the movements actual again wherever expedient1--on all descents of medium difficulty1 or on easy descents where a slip might have dangerous consequences1 such as the edge of a lofty ridge1 or an easy gallery above a sheer wall4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,doubled ,rope4 ,it is a sound general rule that a climber has never been justified in going on up where he finds that he cannot get down without fixing a rope4 ,now that good cragsmen consider nothing mastered unless it has been climbed both ways1 the occasions for the fixed rope are or should be rare4 ,but there are exceptions1 and in such cases we use the #8doubled rope4' ,the first would be the case of a party descending by a line which they have not previously ascended1 or which has never been ascended or descended at all--a not infrequent experience in making new traverses of peaks4 ,in this case a doubled rope may be the only method of descending a holdless passage4 ,but when he employs it in such places a climber is again taking a serious responsibility1 supposing that he judges it to be a place which he could not reascend4 ,he must be certain from observation that the rest of the descent will go below1 or he will be cutting off his retreat unjustifiably4 ,if he cannot make sufficiently certain1 the doubled rope should be left behind so that the reascent may be possible if a return becomes necessary4 ,the second exception is the change that is often produced by a change of weather4 ,a fall of snow1 or an ice-glazing on the rocks1 may make a descent both difficult and dangerous where the ascent on dry rocks was sound4 ,in this case constant use of the doubled rope may be the only chance of ensuring a safe descent4 ,such changes are not infrequent in the ,british ,isles as well as in the ,alps1 and they are the most trying occasions in a mountaineer's experience4 ,a picnic ascent of an easy buttress may be1 and has been in ,wales1 turned by a light shower of rain1 freezing immediately into a coat of verglas on the rocks1 into a dangerous duel of descent against darkness and difficulty2 and a joyous frolic up the walls of an aiguille above the ,mer de ,glace1 owing to a hailstorm that coated the rocks with freezing particles1 has become a prolonged wrestle with fate1 demanding painful hours where the ascent took minutes1 and necessitating the descent of almost every foot of the thousand-metre wall by each man in turn on the #8long rope' or the #8doubled rope4' ,the third exception is when it is necessary for the last man to save time in a race with darkness4 ,then1 after letting the rest down1 he follows on the #8double' as fast as he can4 ,and the last is the rare case when it is expressly intended to force the descent of a passage which has defeated all attempts to ascend4 ,in such case we use all the help that we need for safety4 ,the double rope can be used in these cases of difficulty or haste to assist the descent of every member of a party4 ,usually it is only to protect the last man4 ,the method of using the #8double' is to lay the rope round any point or knob which prevents it slipping off under an outward and downward strain1 and from which it can be conveniently released by pull or flick from below4 ,if such a generally comfortable point is not discoverable1 a length of the rope should be cut off and knotted into a secure sling1 which is wound in a triple coil round any excrescence good enough to hold it permanently secure4 ,the triple coil cannot break under the friction1 and allows the rope to play through more easily4 ,the rope to be used is then passed through the sling4 ,some climbers carry ready-made slings2 others favour iron rings1 which they slip on to the slings1 and then pass the rope through the ring4 ,the rope runs more easily1 but ,i have never liked the practice4 ,a ring can never be carried of sufficient size to use on more than a single thickness of rope1 to say nothing of a safe triple sling4 ,and not only is the single sling more likely to snap under the rub of the hard ring as we descend than under the more springy pull of another rope passed through it1 but if left it is more likely to be a danger to the next party descending4 ,guides are always ready to use a finished-looking piece of mechanism1 like a ring on a loop1 without testing it fully1 where they would be suspicious of a mere weathered sling of rope4 ,the metal reassures just where it should warn them2 for the ring1 where it touches1 will have rusted into and eaten the rope strands4 ,the same point comes up under the heading of ,pegs and ,aids4 ,it must always be remembered that the use of the sling or ring involves unroping1 which the #8double' on a good belay does not2 and in so far it uses more time4 ,for short descents the last man can use the slack of the rope between himself and the next man as a double1 provided he sees that1 when doubled1 it will allow him to descend as far as his next stance1 and there leave him slack enough to flick it off the belay4 ,he should always use the double as a fixed rope1 that is1 it should never be paid out to him round the belay1 as he descends1 by the man below2 nor should he ever attempt to pay it out to himself as he descends on the double4 ,either attempt will certainly fray the rope round the belay1 possibly jam it1 and probably jerk it off the belay4 ,for any considerable height it is better to use a spare doubled rope4 ,in this case the last man can at once see if the two ends of the double reach to the next stance below4 ,if no spare rope is available1 the next man below may have to unrope1 in order to leave the last man enough to double and descend upon4 ,if the descent is of exceptional difficulty1 e4g4 an overhang1 a spare rope should always be used4 ,the second1 or climbing1 rope round the last man's waist is then held by the man below1 as a protection in case the effort of clinging to the double exhausts the last man's hands2 or1 still better1 it also can be laid over the belay and paid out to him1 lightly1 as he descends4 ,as it will then be sliding upon the fixed rope1 and there will be no strain upon it1 it will be the less likely to jam on the belay1 fray or jump off4 ,to descend on the double the last man grasps both ropes in his hands immediately below the belay1 drawing them taut before he starts to see that the belay is rightly arranged for the strain4 ,he descends1 using what footholds he can on the rock1 or1 failing them1 by frankly swarming down4 ,if he is unroped from his party1 and using the only rope as a double1 a protection in case of a slip is to tie both ends of the doubled rope to his own waist before descending4 ,the arms in such descending should be kept bent4 ,the most trying point is just before he reaches the stance1 where the double ropes are resting on the ledge and are no longer kept taut by their own weight in suspension4 ,if the climber is using one of the leg brakes below described1 its tension will still keep the ropes taut for his hands4 ,if not1 and he is descending by hands alone1 finding what foothold he can upon the rocks1 he should get the man below to pull on the ends of the two ropes and keep them taut till he is down4 ,if he is descending first of the party1 and therefore there is no one below1 a convenient device to the same end is to sling his sack down on the end of the ropes and leave it just suspended4 ,sidenote3 ,brakes4 ,gloves protect the hands2 but long descents are often too great a strain for amateur fingers1 and the chance of their slipping or cramping cannot be risked4 ,in this case one of the following leg brakes should be used4 ,experienced climbers always use them where footholds fail1 for however short a distance4 ,the ,foot ,brake4--,this is the commonest device in gymnasium rope-climbing4 ,the body is turned sideways to the rock1 the double rope inside it4 ,the twin ropes are caught up under the sole of the inside boot and out over the instep of the outside boot4 ,the boot edges are clenched upon the ropes between them1 and the amount of friction over the boots resulting allows the weight1 with small effort of boot clenching1 to slip in easy control down the ropes4 ,the body is kept upright by the hands grasping the rope above4 ,the ,thigh ,brake4--,this is the most frequently used in the ,alps1 as rock descents are seldom entirely vertical or overhanging1 and a sudden extrusion of rock under the feet when using the foot brake upsets the balance2 whereas with the thigh brake the body can lie sideways against a projecting or convex curve of rock1 and slide down the boss1 swinging to the perpendicular again where it ends1 without effort at balancing4 ,the right method is to turn sideways to the rock1 slightly raise the outside thigh1 pass the double rope under it high up between the legs1 and grip the farther lengths of rope so passed with the outside hand1 palm upwards4 ,the inside hand grasps the tightened ropes above1 with bent arm1 at about the level of the head4 ,the outside hand1 by lowering or lifting the slack lengths below or above the level of the raised thigh1 diminishes or increases the friction of the rope round the thigh1 and so controls the pace4 ,if a complete rest is needed1 the outside hand merely brings up its double rope to join that held by the inside hand1 and a very light clasp of the two hands together on the four ropes so united1 aided by the almost total arrest of the rope passing under the thigh1 easily stops the descent4 ,it is a mistake1 but a frequent one1 to start the rope round the inside thigh4 ,round the outside thigh is safer and more comfortable2 and it leaves the inside leg free to use any foothold that turns up4 ,the same fashion of brake can be used under the foot instead of under the outside raised thigh4 ,but this necessitates holding the leg very rigid1 and makes it more difficult to balance4 ,nor does the rope run as smoothly under the boot as under the thigh4 ,the ,body ,brake4--,this brake1 which has several variants1 need practically never be used4 ,the amount of friction introduced demands of a climber almost more effort to push his way down the rope in constricting jerks than he would use in swarming down it without a brake at all4 ,the simplest form is to pass the double rope under both thighs slightly bent1 back1 across and in front of the body1 and out1 round and behind the shoulders1 to the control of the outside hand4 ,the ,chair4--,as ,i am dealing with these devices1 a note upon this may not be out of place4 ,except for an injured man it can rarely be required in descending2 although ,i have1 on occasion1 employed it for a beginner who could not be trusted to manage any form of brake that left anything to his discretion4 ,but it may be found of use in excessively difficult passages of ascent1 where the leader has only got through with great difficulty and where the possibility of a less brilliant member of his following having to be hauled up clear on the rope and remain suspended for a perceptible time makes it necessary to find some sort of attachment that will not suffocate him4 ,men vary in their resistance1 but no man can hang clear1 on a rope tied round his chest1 for more than two minutes without partial suffocation and considerable pain4 ,in ascending1 both hands are needed for climbing1 and no form of the usual descending brake is therefore suitable4 ,the chair is formed by making two easy loops for the thighs opposite one another on the rope1 secured by a sound central knot 7triple bowline74 ,through these loops the climber passes his legs1 as through breeches4 ,if he then straightens his thighs1 he can sit in easy balance in the loops2 but as security against falling out backwards he should knot a scarf or cord round his body and make it fast to the main rope in front of him4 ,in this chair he is perfectly free to climb and use his hands and feet so long as they help him2 and when he slips off1 he swings comfortably clear in his loops4 ,he has only to remember to keep his body and thighs straight1 so as not to sag backwards and downwards out of the slings4 ,the men above do the rest4 ,the chair is much used by bird's-nesting cliff climbers1 who desire to keep their hands free1 and who may have to remain suspended for long periods4 ,sidenote3 ,springing the ,rope4 ,after the last man is down on the double rope comes the crucial moment1 when the rope has to be run or #8sprung' off the belay from below4 ,nothing is more irritating1 or of more frequent occurrence1 than to find that the double rope1 after running a certain distance round the belay1 has stuck1 and that a laborious and often hazardous reascent1 trusting to its partial attachment1 is necessary in order to release it4 ,if the belay has been well chosen1 or the sling well fixed1 it ought to run without difficulty4 ,to pull it off without hitch it is essential first to see that there is no knot in it1 especially at the running end1 where the fatal knot beloved of guides and many amateurs1 for purposes of their waist-noose1 generally lurks as a permanent threat4 ,the rope should be pulled round the belay slowly but continuously at first2 any re-start implies a dangerous jerk that may entangle the loose end as it jumps about4 ,the last ten feet are the danger1 for the short1 swinging loose end may at any second jam or catch round the taut rope in its dance4 ,to break any slight friction or hitch1 and give the end of the rope a springing release from its belay1 these last few feet should be rushed with a sharp continuous pull by two or more of the party1 who must then look out for their heads6 ,if there is not sufficient rope to allow of its being used as a double rope down the whole descent required to the next stance1 it is possible to attach a ring to one end1 and1 putting the end with the ring round the belay1 to pass the hanging rope through the ring1 making a sort of running noose4 ,the rope is then used as a single1 not a double1 fixed rope for descent4 ,to loosen it afterwards1 it is necessary at the start to tie an equal length of light cord to the ring4 ,this is pulled from below1 dragging the ring downwards and the rope after it round the belay4 ,i have never liked the method1 and never seen it work properly4 ,it incurs all the disadvantages of the rope jamming1 and of the single sling breaking1 and gives only a single thickness of slight alpine rope to climb down4 ,it is very rare that a climber cannot reach some sort of a stance by using all the rope he has1 as a double1 even if he has no spare rope4 ,if he has1 for security1 to let the rest of the party down farther to some larger platform on the whole rope used as a #8long rope1' as last man he can usually find some half-way stance sufficient to let him pull the #8double' down after him4 ,he can then refix it1 or1 failing a belay1 descend the rest of the passage without the double1 first roping on again to the men below1 and directed and helped by their advice as to his holds4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,long ,rope4 ,it infrequently happens on big descents that weather conditions1 giant slabs or deciduous holds make it necessary for a party while descending to move down greater distances1 in order to find safe stances1 than their allowances of rope will permit4 ,sometimes each member of the party will have to be lowered a hundred feet or more1 not once1 but several times in succession4 ,this does not necessarily imply that no holds are to be found over all this distance1 or that the individuals are not able to climb much of it unaided4 ,but once unroping has become necessary1 and the time it takes is lost in any case1 it is quicker and safer to let each man down the full length of the whole rope at once1 so as to reach some really secure stance where he can stay unroped in safety while the next descends4 ,the whole object1 then1 should be to save as much time as possible4 ,the best way is for two men to remain in charge of the rope above1 one directing and lowering1 the other anchoring and paying out4 ,neither of them need necessarily be attached to the rope1 provided it is well secured4 ,the moment the man below reaches safety he should untie1 without losing a second4 ,meanwhile1 the next man to come can already have tied on to the other loose end above1 and be beginning his descent4 ,while one man above holds him the other pulls up the loosened rope from the man who has finished descending4 ,if the rope is long enough1 and the men prompt and not #8loose stone kickers1' two men1 at sufficient intervals1 can be descending at the one time1 on either end of the rope2 while the two ropes are managed1 one for each of them1 by the lowerer and by the anchor man above4 7,in descending easy rocks with two beginners or weak climbers1 a variant on the same method serves excellently to save time4 ,the expert ties himself on to the rope between them1 and lets them both descend1 at intervals1 ahead of him4 ,he holds both their ropes meanwhile1 and he follows himself when they reach security4 ,the same economical method can be used in ascending easy rocks with a like party47 ,the last man1 when the party has used the #8long rope' and the rocks baffle even his skill in employing short1 crafty #8doubles1' does best1 if he has a good second1 to keep him close to him when their turn comes to descend4 ,he lets the second down to the nearest place he can stand at all1 and uses a double or a shuffle down to him1 helped by his directions or arms4 ,two good men thus weaving spells together1 and keeping the cauldron bubbling1 can shepherd one another down passages of toil and trouble where a last man would require constant #8doubles' to help him1 but would conjure them in vain alone2 and where the rest may have had to submit to the full witch-dance of a descent upon the long rope4 ,,pegs ,,and ,,aids ,artificial aids have never been popular with us4 ,if a climber does not feel safe in descending1 he ought to practise on rock which he can climb1 not spoil rock which he cannot with blacksmith's leavings4 ,if a security greater than rock can afford him remains his object1 it would be more consistent to fix up a ladder or windlass at once4 ,i am told that a delightful contrivance--a pulley or block--has been advertised1 which enables the climber to haul himself up or down without effort4 ,as to how we may fix the pulley to draw ourselves up1 or unfasten it after we have descended1 we have clearly only to adopt the method followed by ,baron ,munchausen when he descended from the moon on a short rope--and the thing is done6 ,for those who cannot climb down in ,britain there is always an easy way round4 ,the only two pegs ,i can recall having seen in our hills were left by two foreigners1 and were not needed4 ,in big mountaineering there may be more excuse4 ,a descent may have really become more difficult1 even unsafe1 owing to the coming on of darkness or the glazing of rocks4 ,in such case1 pegs to hammer in and anchor to are a remedy for our failures1 our failure to carry on1 to adjust the climb to the day-length1 or to watch the weather4 ,their use then is corrective1 not auxiliary4 ,my party has taken pegs three times in all1 as a precaution1 and used one once 7on a new descent where the precise #8impossible' passage had been previously located74 ,pegs taken for this purpose should be short and sharp1 and sheathed for carriage in pocket or sack4 ,they should be made with a ring or eye to pass the rope through4 ,they are smitten in and out as convenience and the rock dictate4 ,pegs should never be left as memorials4 ,prongs and rings poked permanently into popular routes are more harmful than helpful4 ,the mountaineer will not need them1 and they may mislead him1 as they usually follow the best lowering rather than the best climbing line4 ,where fixed irons are placed with fixed ropes attached1 as on the ,matterhorn or the ,dent du ,gant1 they spoil the climber and the climbing alike4 ,they attract feckless folks on to the peaks1 and torment them with the rock-barrages of pantechnicon parties or the stonier sharp-shooting of daft solitary scramblers4 ,on the rock peaks of the ,eastern ,alps1 however1 the peculiar character of the climbing has created a different tradition4 ,already a large literature has grown up on the subject of mechanical contrivances for descents4 ,pitons and ring-pegs and slings are taken and used to an extent that almost relieves a climber of the need of considering his descent at all4 ,a practice which is sanctioned by many fine cragsmen who have developed their methods to suit their own type of rock1 and not ours1 must be respected in its own territory4 ,but just as among our own countrymen the over-use of the rope and of belays has contributed towards a diminution in individual responsibility and to an increase in ill-chosen associations1 so also the opinion suggests itself that the over-use of pegs and other contrivances by our colleagues abroad has led to a recklessness in leading and a disregard of what we mean by collective safety and power1 which have proved even more fatal in result than our own error4 ,recently among the best continental experts there have been indications of a change of doctrine4 ,they are finding1 as we did1 that the neglect of the art of climbing down is a definite bar to achieving success in greater mountaineering4 ,there would be no purpose in discussing the technicalities of a practice so little likely to be popular with us4 ,in ascending1 a peg is no protection to a leader1 although its insertion may tempt him perilously to go beyond what he should4 ,his second man1 #ej to #fj feet below him1 can give him as much #8safety' with the rope as a rigid peg #aj to #bj feet down4 ,if he has room to drive in a number of shorter-distance pegs1 there should certainly be room for him to have up his second man4 ,if he has got to run out more than the #ej to #fj feet before he can get a stance1 it is useless to waste time driving in a peg2 no rope light enough to run out in this way could be trusted to stand the jerk of a fall of any height upon a rigid bar or ring4 ,on long horizontal or diagonal traverses on very steep rock1 pegs may have a purpose1 as a moral support to the leader2 although1 if he is free to hammer in pegs and loop ropes1 it would probably be better for him to get on with his leading and get it over4 ,on such a traverse also a peg may serve to carry the rope1 and relieve the waist of some of the drag from the lengthening run-out4 ,a peg is really only #8sound1' in our sense1 for ascending or traversing1 if the rope over it is being #8played' by a human being4 ,then it may become an extra anchor or belay where natural belays may be lacking2 it can secure a second man while he is looking after the leader's rope1 and enable him to protect the party below against the consequences of the fall of the leader above4 ,the occasions are so rare when a little ingenuity cannot find or contrive a better stance and anchor out of the natural features than out of a driven peg1 that pegs are seldom worth taking on this chance1 except for some known difficulty4 ,any man who feels when he looks at a passage that he wants more protection behind him than the character of the rock allows his second man to give him1 should not attempt the passage at all4 ,if he decides to take the risk1 he should do so only on his own account1 and unrope from his party4 ,he can send the rope down afterwards1 or1 in the case of a traverse1 leave them one loose end to hold4 ,as a protection to the party it is even better to unrope than to drive in pegs to carry the lengthening rope2 and as a protection to more than the morale of the leader the peg is futile on such passages4 ,the times when it is justifiable to use pegs on a descent are the same as ,i have already mentioned in dealing with rope doubles3 the intentional descent of that which has not or cannot be ascended1 the retreats in worse conditions1 or over glazed rock1 and the races against time4 ,the first is a praiseworthy exercise in gymnastics1 for which rings1 bars and poles may be taken and used according to taste2 the last two allow of pegs or any other precautionary means we may have with us being used that may prevent defeat or miscalculation from becoming disaster4 ,i can imagine no other cases where a climber should not feel that he is confessing to incapacity or some misjudgment if he has to fall back upon pegs and aids to help him to come down what he1 or some other man1 has ascended4 ,after one such experience1 any conscientious climber would now set himself to practise climbing down1 until he had remedied a very serious defect in his qualification to rank as a good mountaineer4 ,so long as a man depends upon his own hands and feet and his knowledge of the rock1 he remains master of the situation4 ,he has four chances always in his favour4 ,whereas1 if he is swinging loose from an inserted artificial peg1 he has only one chance2 and that one neither so much under his physical control as his own fingers and toes1 nor even as calculable in its efficiency as a natural rock-borne belay4 ,,the ,,axe ,,on ,,rocks ,sidenote3 ,its ,carriage4 ,the axe is only less useful on rocks than on ice and snow4 ,it is at once a long third leg and a third claw hand of honourable service4 ,its correct carriage in walking is important1 and must become instinctive4 ,guides carry it1 and it is the best position1 over the hollow of the elbow1 like a gun1 with the head under the shoulder1 and so turned that the curve of the pick adheres upward along the shoulder-blade and only the balanced weight of the shaft rests across the forearm4 ,the only absolute rule is that1 whether carried in hand or over or under the shoulder1 the axe should always be held with the spike end of the shaft pointing forward4 ,nothing betrays the beginner or the badly instructed climber so fatally as an axe swung with the head to the front and the spike out behind4 ,habit should be trained so as to avoid this false position as instinctively as that of carrying a gun with the muzzle pointing directly to the rear4 ,much walking1 and all climbing1 in the ,alps is done in single file4 ,even the chance that one of the file may in carelessness swing up his axe into the wrong position1 on path or easy ridge1 is a perpetual threat to the eyes and teeth of anyone following him1 and its possibility1 in the person of one ill-trained companion1 is an irritation for the whole party to contemplate4 ,it is one of the slight jeopardies to harmony which a leader is justified in directly correcting4 ,it is best for actual climbing on easy rocks to carry the axe on a wide1 soft sling on the wrist4 ,if then both hands are needed for holds1 it can be safely dropped for the moment on to the sling1 and jerked back again1 cup-and-ball fashion1 into the hand1 without interruption or the waste of even an arm movement4 ,if a steeper1 and short1 passage occurs where the arm must be entirely free1 and the axe on the wrist-sling would hamper movement1 the sling can be thrust right up on to the shoulder4 ,the axe then hangs behind the body and well out of the way of both arm and leg motions4 ,on rocks1 whenever and wherever practicable1 the axe should be carried in the hand4 ,the machinations of an axe under control can be allowed for2 but an axe swinging free from wrist1 shoulder or back is a devil of stumbling and catching unchained4 ,for this reason1 the device1 employed by most guides on long difficult passages or chimneys where the hands and shoulders must be kept free1 of wearing a string loop attached to sack or rope1 through which they pass the axe1 is not sound4 ,the axe is out of sight1 loose and out of control4 ,it is better to shove it through the loop of rope round the waist1 where it is kept fairly rigid and its position can be allowed for4 ,with a single movement it can be pulled to either side or behind1 as convenience dictates4 ,it is useful to practise carrying the axe on ,british rock climbs1 in order to acquire the instinct of its proper carriage for later indispensable service in the ,alps4 ,the alpine climber is never without his axe2 and when he looks ahead at a rock section to select his holds1 he subconsciously decides at the same time how he must carry his axe2 in the left or the right hand1 according as to which will be the outer or free hand2 on the wrist1 if it be only for a step or two2 slung on his shoulder1 for a longer passage2 or thrust through his waist-rope on the left1 right or behind1 for a chimney or severe struggle4 ,if the rock problem is of great severity or length1 it saves time in the end to tie all the axes on to a rope1 and to send them up separately4 ,so sent1 they should be tied with a clove-hitch1 not at the end of the rope1 but so as to leave sufficient rope hanging below to guide them and prevent their catching4 ,this also applies to sending up the sacks4 ,an axe of some ingenuity has lately been designed for use by a leader on difficult rock4 ,this will take in half4 ,on severe passages both halves can be packed into the sack for the time1 or if the crack contains ice in places where there is no room to manipulate a long axe1 the head half can be retained in the hand or in the waist-noose1 and be conveniently used to make nicks in the ice or to serve as a claw-hand in minute cracks4 ,it has stood some severe testing1 but time has still to show if the convenience of the shortening is secured at too great a sacrifice of strength in the shaft to make the axe sound for long or heavy step-cutting4 ,the short axes popular with those modern climbers who rely exclusively upon their ice-claws1 have a habit in rock climbing of working out of the waist-noose or sling and disappearing down the cliff at crucial moments4 ,they are also of no use as the invaluable third leg on easy rock or in descending4 ,when halts are made it is important to see that the axes are put in safety1 where they cannot be dislodged by forgetful movements4 ,a climber without his axe is like a lion-hunter without his rifle--and no tree to climb4 ,sidenote3 ,as an ,extra ,hand4 ,in ascending rocks the axe comes into use as a long claw-hand1 where snow1 ice1 grass or heather covers the ledges and hides the holds4 ,the pick can then either be driven in as a handhold--in which case it is important to remember that the axe must be held rigid in the position in which it is first driven in1 whatever the subsequent alterations in the direction of the pull upon it--or it can be used to clear out the obstruction4 ,on bare rock1 if the pick is driven into a crack and the shaft set firm against the rock below1 the head can provide a useful handhold or foothold2 it can be further secured if it is held in this position by a man below4 ,as a pull handhold1 with the pick hooked over an edge1 in ascending rocks1 it should be used with caution4 ,the direction of the pull upon a handhold always tends to change1 as the weight is raised near or past it2 and an axehold can rarely be found of a kind to resist the outward or slanting strain as a climber raises himself4 ,one or two guides in the ,alps have perfected a remarkable trick that may be mentioned4 ,when a vertical or sloping crack in a slab gets too small even to admit a finger1 and all other holds are lacking1 they force the point of the pick into the crack above their heads1 and give a slight outward and upward twist to the shaft with the wrist1 so that the point of the pick and its square edges are jammed slantwise and upwards in the crack4 ,holding the shaft rigid in this position1 they then raise their weight by sheer strength inside the bent arm which holds the shaft1 at the same time using whatever friction-holds they can find for their feet to help them4 ,a second's catlike clinging of the feet and of their free hand to the rock gives them just time to thrust the pick farther up the crack and twist it firmly in again4 ,the feat is one that demands exceptional strength and skill1 and it is only employed in circumstances from which the best amateur would retire without choice4 ,but it is worth practising1 if only to be held in reserve as a relief or extra security1 when1 on rocks less naturally desperate1 a crack or a slab proves unexpectedly iced or nasty4 ,i have occasionally seen an axe-head made use of in the fashion of a #8peg4' ,where a belay point was lacking1 a climber has jammed his axe-pick in a crack1 and anchored or belayed the rope over it4 ,i never came upon such a contrivance without a distinct feeling of relief that1 in once again avoiding #8coming upon the rope1' ,i had once again shirked being the first to make trial of the doubtful efficacy of this sort of belay4 ,in well-chosen spots1 the familiar ledges or terraces where slopes of deep heather or grass cover the rock and leave no sure stance1 the axe can also be used for belaying4 ,the spike should then be driven in deeply1 the shaft sloping away from the pull1 and the rope be passed low down round its base1 getting some extra friction upon the grass or heather immediately round the shaft4 ,but these belays should be employed with discretion4 ,sidenote3 ,as a ,manx ,leg4 ,in traversing the crests of long ridges1 with their constant rise and fall1 and in descending easy or moderate rocks1 the axe1 well handled1 is an invaluable telescopic third leg4 ,the spike of the shaft reached forward or downward to some cranny or lower step beyond the reach of the foot1 preserves the balance in free walking or during a long downward step4 ,its practised use enables the body to balance continuously and rhythmically in a walking upright attitude over broken crests or down angles and high steps of rock that would otherwise demand a constant effort of balance and much help from handholds4 ,even in the hands of a beginner it prevents him from crawling where he should be learning to walk in the rhythm of balance4 ,in so far as it makes for upright movement it is the first instructor in balance climbing on easy ridges and descents4 ,in descending sideways to the rock1 the axe-head1 short held on the ledges1 can give relief to the continued drag on the hands4 ,or again1 if either hand is occupied with the rope1 the spike of the axe thrust down to a lower edge with the free hand gives balance for the next awkward descending step1 and avoids the check to the rope that the search for handhold1 and the turn of the body to use it1 would produce4 ,in traversing or descending easy faces or ridges1 the axe1 held straight across the body with the spike towards the rock1 can give just those touches which the balance in easy movement from time to time demands1 especially when there is loose rubble on the passing footholds or their angle slopes inconveniently4 ,in dancing down or across loose scree or moraine1 that last test of rhythmical leg movement1 which becomes a step-dance of delight or a slow1 unhappy crawl according as it is rightly or wrongly performed1 the axe held in the same position makes at any moment1 with a passing touch1 a third leg for balance4 ,but it is wrong and retarding to make a perpetual tripod with it1 and to lose the rhythm of balanced movement by continually leaning upon it4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,see on ,boots1 8,equipment10 p4 #hj4 #aa ,see on ,nailing1 8,equipment10 p4 #hb4 #ab ,see 8,equipment10 p4 #hc4 ,,chapter ,v ,,climbing ,,in ,,combination ,in no craft or sport is combination so vital as in climbing4 ,the brilliant individual run or single score is impossible4 ,the members of a party are combined for life or death4 ,their achievement is that of their united efficiency4 ,their progress depends upon their success in realizing complete harmony of thought and movement4 ,the rope is their nervous link4 ,there are few things more pleasing to watch than the co-operation of a good rope on a stiff rock climb4 ,to the untutored eye the party may all appear to be doing different things--some pausing1 some turning1 some climbing4 ,only the expert may discover the continuity of motion passing from one end to the other of the rope through the separate actions of each climber4 ,like the progress of a snake1 seen in a slow cinema film1 the sinuous connection is only apparent to the eye that can read in each apparently stationary phase its relation to the phase which precedes and follows it4 ,sidenote3 ,collective ,rhythm4 ,to climb as an individual1 each man has to learn how he can most safely and economically manage his muscles1 his will and his nerves1 and how to accommodate his personal rhythm to the accidents of rock structure4 ,to climb in a party1 he has to adjust this to the collective rhythm of whatever men he climbs with4 ,he has not only to get up rocks1 he has to do so as part of a machine4 ,if all the party is moving together1 he has to watch the hands and feet of the man in front1 so as to lose no time in renewed searching for his own holds2 to see that the rope in front does not catch or lie about1 but take it up in loose1 neat coils in his hand1 and let it out again as required2 to keep his distances1 so as not to hurry or jerk the men in front or behind him2 to carry his axe and generally a loose coil of rope2 and at the same time to climb securely himself1 with a view to having to meet at any moment an unexpected slip by some one else4 ,if the party is moving singly1 he has to see exactly where the man in front goes2 to watch his position on the next stance above1 so as to adopt at once the right attitude for belaying or holding the man below when he himself reaches the stance in his turn1 and to pull in the rope of the man behind as he comes up1 while seeing that the rope of the man in front runs out without hitch4 ,climbing on the rope falls naturally into two divisions of technique1 alternating in their employment according to the difficulty of the rock traversed and the ability of the party3 that of all moving together1 or #8continuous climbing1' on easy and moderately difficult rock2 and that of moving singly1 #8interrupted' or #8one at a time1' on difficult rock2 in the latter case the man above will always be stationary and #8anchoring' the rope for the succeeding climber4 ,this distinction is made throughout in discussing the different uses of the rope4 ,the mastery of continuous movement on the rope is the more important2 it is the finer art1 and the better foundation for big mountaineering4 ,but it has become too much the fashion with our climbers to ignore its importance1 and to treat1 and therefore to train their following to treat1 each section of rock as an individual #8problem4' ,the necessity of learning how to move singly is forced upon us in any case by the sectional character of most of our difficult ,british rock climbs1 which are apt to divide themselves into separate #8pitches4' ,unfortunately1 the effect has gone deeper4 ,not only do we practise moving singly almost to the exclusion of collective continuous climbing1 but we allow the interrupted method to destroy the rhythm and pace that properly form part of good #8one-at-a-time' climbing4 ,such sectional climbing establishes a habit which is bad for the individual style and disastrous in big mountaineering4 ,a mountaineer on a rope has to learn to feel that he is charged with a portion of a united personality represented by the rope4 ,in proportion as he himself is secure or not1 at any moment when others are less well placed1 he carries a greater or lesser share of this collective responsibility4 ,if all are moving together1 his own movements are of importance to the party in so far as they coincide with the collective rhythm and contribute to the pool of safety against accidents4 ,if the party is moving singly1 at the moments when he himself is actually climbing he is free to look after himself alone1 but the instant he has ceased to move he has a double measure of security to assure for those starting to move above or below him4 ,this is his contribution to the combined safety of the party4 ,his contribution to the collective pace is that he should climb as quickly as is consistent with safe progress and not as slowly as his own comfort might desire4 ,slack habits on short ,english climbs prevent a party ever finding its rhythm1 or even discovering its value as a combination4 ,a good party acquires a fine collective momentum from the impulse transmitted by the sharp ending of one climber's effort to the immediate start of the next man4 ,there is as attainable a rhythm in #8interrupted' climbing as in continuous climbing4 ,when a party can move singly or together1 slow or fast1 and yet retain its collective rhythm1 it will have bridged the gap between the severe problem-climb that may have seemed to it the limit of individual performance1 and the great alpine expedition which may pile fifty such problems into a day without coming to the end of the greater collective power of a roped party4 ,sidenote3 ,imitation4 ,a climber's first task on a rope is to learn to watch the man in front4 ,this must become a second nature4 ,it should be sufficient that one man has found the right holds2 it is a waste of time and a bad break of rhythm if all1 or even one other man following1 finds it necessary to look for them again4 ,on continuous climbing1 pace cannot be achieved without this subconscious imitation4 ,on difficult #8one-at-a-time' climbing1 to fail to start or to follow with the correct hand or foot often means failure to follow at all where another has easily led4 ,there is nothing lowering in imitation4 ,big climbing is not competitive puzzle-work4 ,the man behind is in any case handicapped by the rope1 and by his extra share of responsibility in guarding his leader4 ,he owes it to the party not to waste time in working out the leader's job for himself over again4 ,this habit of observation may become quite unconscious4 ,as a personal instance1 ,i once traversed the ,matterhorn with a well-known guide as companion4 ,in descending1 ,i was occupied subconsciously in choosing holds and consciously in examining a prospected route on the distant ,dent d',hrens4 ,we were unroped1 and the guide was some distance in front4 ,i have no recollection of noticing him4 ,after a time ,i found myself constantly adjusting my line so as to take holds always with the same hand4 ,i remarked the fact gradually1 because ,i became conscious that it was not always the obvious or most convenient adjustment4 ,in an instant the explanation flashed across me4 ,the guide climbed admirably1 but an accident some years before had left him only one hand to climb with4 ,unconsciously1 or as a third mental operation1 ,i had been noting his adjustments and imitating them without being even aware that ,i saw him4 ,a criticism very frequently made1 especially of a man untrained in combined climbing1 is3 8,you can't depend on him2 he takes different holds3--,i never feel sure with him on the rope behind40 ,if the man moving in front knows what holds the next man is using he knows where he will be encountering a difficulty or a loose hold1 and he is already half prepared in case of his help being needed4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he knows only that a new set are being discovered1 he has to be constantly turning round and waiting1 and uncertainty is added to his necessary watchfulness4 ,the criticism applies1 primarily1 to climbing on rock of a certain difficulty1 where there will be only one #8best' line of holds to use4 ,on easy rock greater liberty is permissible4 ,at the same time a distinction must be drawn between the duty of noting the holds1 and their fashion of use by the man in front1 and the duty of using them in precisely similar fashion4 ,on very difficult rock passages a man of different physique may1 from lack of reach or a divergence in proportions1 find it necessary to employ different adjustments4 ,none the less will he profit by having noted the holds his front man used1 and1 in most cases1 by imitating his actual fashion of using them4 ,on such passages of course the party will be moving singly4 ,the front man will therefore in any case be on his guard1 and no extra risk or loss of time is involved in the enforced departure from his method4 ,if the party is moving one at a time1 it is easier to notice the exact holds taken by one's predecessor1 but it is also easier in this case to forget them again in the excitement of watching his further progress4 ,therefore1 in moving singly1 the effort of noticing has to be more directly conscious4 ,if we are moving together1 conscious observation is assisted1 and in part supplied1 by the continuous action of the body1 as it adjusts its poise of its own accord not to one hold1 but to a sequence of holds4 ,if a man is swinging along to the same rhythm as his leader1 his body automatically makes use of the same holds as the leader has found to suit his balancing progress4 ,but if we are moving one at a time1 each man has to watch the holds4 ,we have to notice not only what holds the leader tried and rejected1--as these will be the obviously convenient holds whose temptation must be resisted if his example is to be of service1--but what were the actual holds and movements by which he finally conquered4 ,for the sake of those following it is important to imitate these as closely as we can4 ,it is astonishing how many good climbers fail to notice even1 say1 such an important point as the fact that the leader turned round so as to face the opposite wall of a crack at a particular point2 and how many more can give no account of what holds they themselves used1 even the moment afterwards4 ,it is a sign of a poor mountaineer if he has to call out to his front man for guidance3 8,did you go to the right here80 or 8,what do ,i do now80 ,it is generally impossible to direct him from above1 however well the leader may remember the holds1 especially if he is standing back1 as he should be1 in order to hold the rope4 ,all the necessary guidance should have been noted during the front man's ascent4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,rope while ,moving ,together4 ,apart from acquiring this faculty of imitation1 the climber has to learn how to manage the rope4 ,it might be maintained that1 on places where all the party are able to move together1 the rope is not needed4 ,but in big mountaineering the easy and the hard passages alternate so frequently that the constant taking off and on1 the coiling and uncoiling of the rope1 would involve great loss of time4 ,there is also1 even on easy rock1 always the possibility of a slip or of a breaking hold to be considered1 even with a first-rate party4 ,often there may be danger when there is little or no difficulty4 ,and since good men can hold almost anywhere1 even while moving1 if one of them does slip1 the rope protects him against any worse consequences4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,rope to the ,man in ,front4 ,in continuous climbing1 with a good party1 each man1 unless he be the leader1 is primarily concerned with the section of rope in front of him4 ,it is best to keep this always a little slack1 and to gather up one coil or two coils in the outside hand4 ,these loops can either be retained while the hand is used for holding on1 or they can be dropped for the second if the full grip of both hands is needed4 ,but your first concern is not to jerk the man in front2 it is only of minor importance to get up comfortably yourself4 ,for the jerk on your friend will be unexpected1 and therefore disturbing1 if not upsetting2 whereas inconvenient holds for yourself1 or the extra effort required to keep the rope clear1 you can foresee1 and therefore discount4 ,to break your own rhythm under these circumstances1 in order to avoid breaking that of the man in front1 does less injury to the collective movement4 ,it is often better1 for the same end1 to take an awkward touch-hold1 with elbow or knee1 rather than to lose time in dropping the coils so as to free your hand4 ,if the coils have to be dropped1 the time can yet be saved and the rhythm remain unbroken1 if you quicken up for a step or two and close in on the man in front4 ,the loose coil in the hand of the man behind you will leave you this margin4 ,when you drop your coil1 see that it falls into a position in which it will not be likely to hitch and from which it can be caught up again at once4 ,the arm1 with the hand1 has above all things to learn the mechanical swing which frees1 frees1 frees the rope in front of you1 before1 after1 and even during each step1 at whatever inconvenience to yourself4 ,it is something of the motion of cracking a whip slowly1 upwards or sideways according to the lie of the rock4 ,the art of the swing1 from all positions1 can only come with practice4 ,fortunately for us1 the business of watching the rope combines conveniently with that of watching the movements and holds of the man ahead1 and does not withdraw our eye from its first duty4 ,meanwhile1 for our own holds we must trust to the hastiest of passing glances1 and depend for the rest on our imitation of our front man4 ,to this extent combined climbing makes a further demand upon the ability to take holds previously marked1 unaided at the moment by sight2 an art which the feet and hands have had to learn in acquiring balance method4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,rope from the ,man ,behind4 ,with the man behind1 in continuous climbing1 we are less concerned4 ,if he is of equal strength1 he can be left to himself4 ,yet we have to remember where the checks of difficulty or bad holds occurred that broke our own rhythm1 and we must allow for them in turn by slackening our pace slightly when instinct tells us that the man following is approaching these check-points4 ,if a party is moving well in tune1 we shall know without looking round when the next man will probably be checking or when he will be forced to drop his coils of rope for better hold4 ,we shall therefore be prepared for a check1 or even a jerk to our rope should a blunder occur4 ,if the man behind is distinctly less expert1 some allowance in pace and attention has to be made at such times2 and it is as well1 without necessarily stopping or turning round1 to feel backwards with one hand1 and discover if the rope is advancing freely4 ,the hand can even take up a coil or so of the rope behind1 and hold it together with the coils it holds of the rope in front4 ,we then have some margin of rope to let go in case it is checked from behind on such expected places4 ,a weaker man behind may be expected to check where his predecessor passed without pause2 and to take up a loop or so of his rope1 bringing it taut in the act1 keeps us in touch with his movements1 and ready to help him if needed1 without forcing us to take our eyes off our leader or our attention off our own progress4 ,if the man behind is a novice1 it is best always to adopt this plan1 and leave him free to use his hands1 while we ourselves hold the loose coils which normally would be his care4 ,this throws a double task on the middle man1 who thus has two ropes to manage2 but a good centre will be able to keep all his eyes for his leader and yet discern all he needs to know about the progress of his rear man from the feel of the rope4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,rope while ,moving ,singly4 ,in steep climbing1 where the party moves one at a time1 the rope is used for direct protection and not merely as a precautionary link4 ,the rope is for safety2 it is not for assistance4 ,above all1 there is no magic in its use4 ,it does not or cannot level up the powers of an unequal party to the standard of its best members4 ,in so far as members of a rope find it necessary to have recourse to it as direct aid1 they are drawing upon the reserve of strength and security which the party pools1 and thus diminishing the margin which is required for their feats in the lead by the more expert members4 ,they are depriving the party of its rhythm1 and the leader of the sense of a safe collective capacity behind him1 which is the impetus that makes for his success4 ,this warning is not unneeded at the present time4 ,it has become the custom for a group of first-class leaders to conduct various assortments of less capable climbers up the most difficult climbs in our islands4 ,for them it is only a friendly effort4 ,the climbs are short2 the reserve of a good leader is sufficient for such #8one-man' climbs1 which are climbed #8one at a time4' ,but the harm for the individuals who follow may be great4 ,they are depriving themselves of any chance to develop their own balance and confidence4 ,they are confusing their judgment as to their own unaided capacity1 and are spoiling their taste by sensations they cannot digest4 ,they may be getting into careless habits of trusting to the rope as an auxiliary engine whenever their wind or power fails4 ,when these methods and ill-assorted companionships are transferred to the ,alps1 the results are lamentable4 ,with difficulties magnified a hundredfold in length1 upon climbs which can only be expected to yield in a whole day to the attack of combined efficiency1 and with far longer hours of easy climbing to face1 of a kind to demand the utmost individual precision for its timely passage1 such methods make impossible demands upon the margin of power and security that the ablest of leaders has over for the common #8pool' of his party4 ,there follow late returns1 and exhaustion1 and ill-temper1 and nights out1 if no worse4 ,in this respect ,british climbing may be the very reverse of a preparation for the ,alps4 ,the rope can be abused until it becomes a danger4 ,there is no harm in taking an occasional pull from the man above2 some rock passages are more difficult for certain types of figure1 others for others4 ,the hour and the weather may on occasion make it better not to waste the time of the party4 ,but any man who has habitually to give #8trunk calls' is climbing with a leader and on a class of climb beyond his capacity4 ,he is delaying the party and injuring his own climbing permanently4 ,if it is only practice he lacks1 he should insist upon better opportunity for real practice and a slower pace4 ,if this does not relieve him from the necessity of #8rope-riding1' he will do himself more good by working for a period on easier rock with a humbler rope4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he finds that as his technique improves he can manage unaided all that his leader sets him1 he should insist on being given his share of leading4 ,sidenote3 ,following and ,leading4 ,this will be the more necessary if he begins to find himself in doubt whether he could lead places over which he knows he can follow capably4 ,he has clearly then been neglecting a most important side of his climbing education1 his self-knowledge and confidence4 ,it is a fact that any moderate climber who has not sacrificed his own sound training and the education of his nerve to the exactions of too rapid a party1 climbs twenty per cent better1 when he is leading1 than he ever does when he is following4 ,there have been plenty of cases of men who for years remained average climbers behind some dominating leader1 and who1 when placed by some chance reluctantly in the lead1 suddenly developed powers beyond all expectation1 and retained them4 ,they had merely to add self-knowledge and confidence to their technically thorough training4 ,conversely1 it is a fact that a man who has been accustomed only to lead climbs some twenty per cent worse when he has on occasion to follow4 ,the habit of imitation1 the instinct for rope management1 and the necessity of taking and not setting the rhythm are all novel to him4 ,to this defect in education is in part due the disappointing performances of some excellent rock climbers when they first mountaineer in the ,alps4 ,men always accustomed to lead at home never climb at their best behind a guide4 ,and men who have always followed have never acquired confidence or self-dependence sufficient to meet new circumstances happily4 ,for these reasons every habitual leader should accustom himself to follow at home2 he will be far more efficient when he starts to learn his business behind professionals in the ,alps1 or when1 with a guideless party1 he has to alter the order1 and follow himself1 as is sometimes necessary for greater safety4 ,again1 every one upon whom circumstances force the position of generally following1 either on ,british rocks or in the ,alps1 should insist upon his share of leading where he feels that it is within his physical powers4 ,sidenote3 ,stances4 ,the extent to which the rope is now used as a general assistance or as a decoration on easy passages is apt to contribute to a neglect of the study of positions proper to its secure use in places where its protection is really needed4 ,it is as vital for a leader to know what character of stance he requires in order to bring up his following safely1 as to get up a passage himself4 ,many old climbers are frankly inept in their choice of stance and of attitude upon it4 ,it would seem simple enough for a man to think out from what direction a pull will come upon him1 and how he can best place his body to meet it4 ,but many minds can never get beyond the sense of a comfortable attitude of body at the moment1 and quail before the further step of considering how that attitude is suited to a pull from a particular direction4 ,it brings a shudder to remember occasions when we have arrived at a platform after a severe struggle and found our anchor man carefully jammed in a position that could not have resisted the faintest pull from the only important direction6 ,and behind the possible doubt in many a man's mind1 so placed1 seems always to be the dangerous feeling3 8,anyhow1 it's only for a moment1 and old ,so-and-so won't slip40 ,perhaps ,so-and-so half-way up calls out1 8,can you give me a little pull80 ,for ,so-and-so has been climbing probably with something of the same sort of feeling3 8,i'll have a shot2 and anyhow1 there's always old ,such-and-such up there with the rope60 ,at the call comes further doubt above1 and even that ominous 8,wait a second60 while the upper man hastily tries to alter his position4 ,this is as common an event as it is unpardonable4 ,the #8,wait a second' man may be a perilous goose2 but even he is not so bad as the #8,all right6 come along6' man in like situation4 ,a leader--and ,i am not writing without knowing of instances--who under any circumstances of excitement or difficulty says he is all right to hold when he knows or even suspects that he is not1 and who allows his next man to enter on a doubtful passage on this false understanding1 is guilty of constructive manslaughter1 only partially redeemed by the possibility that it may be also constructive suicide4 ,a climber has to think out exactly how the pull on the rope will come1 and what hold he has about him to help him to meet it4 ,our object is to stay in balance on the feet as long as possible1 so as to be able to pivot on our legs and meet the strains1 if and as they come4 ,to sit down is an all too vulgar error4 ,on steep sloping ledges where we stay the heels against rock or herbage1 or astride of a ridge1 or jammed in a crack or chimney1 we may have to sit down2 but our position is weak4 ,we are out of balance and out of the true line of the rope1 which almost of necessity will be fraying over some edge1 interrupting our information as to how the invisible man below us is getting on1 and not improbably loosening stones on to him4 ,whenever the stance permits we stand in free balance on the feet1 with our outside or firm leg in line with the pull of the moving rope4 ,the body inclines inward1 ready to take the pull1 if it comes1 down the thrust of our rigid leg4 ,if the ledge is narrow1 we rest against the rock with shoulder or our inside knee1 but still keep a free poise of the body to meet any slight alterations in the direction of strain4 ,if the ledge is too narrow to allow us to lean back and so take the strain down through our leg to the rock1 or if the stance does not even allow of balancing without handholds1 then we must look out for a belay or anchor1 any knob or split corner of rock1 round which to pass the rope as extra security4 ,sidenote3 ,with ,belays4 ,we make the distinction between an #8anchor1' the loop of inactive rope with which a stationary climber secures himself to a rock point1 in order to protect himself and the rest of the party while somebody else is climbing1 and a #8belay1' which is the rock-and-rope attachment by which the active rope of a moving man is protected while it is running out or being pulled in4 ,we distinguish again between a #8direct belay1' where the rope in action connects directly on to or round rock1 and an #8indirect belay1' where some form of human spring is interposed between the active rope and the solid rock4 ,the anchor should not be made with a section of the rope momentarily in action4 ,the man on the stance takes a loop of the inactive rope between himself and the next stationary climber and puts it over a point4 ,he can either hold it there looped1 or secure it by putting on a second coil1 which will confirm it by friction4 ,an anchor is not much good unless it is quite close to or vertically above us4 ,the farther off it is1 the more open it becomes to all our objections to a direct belay4 ,its object is to assure the balance of a stationary climber while he is managing the rope of a moving climber1 and safeguard the rest of the party in case of the fall of both4 ,the same point of rock may have to serve for both anchor and belay1 but their affixing should be quite independent4 ,if a leader1 wearing necessarily only the one rope1 the active rope to his second man1 wishes to secure an anchor1 he must divide his anchor loop from that portion of his active rope which he is using to belay his second man by very secure friction coils round the rock4 ,if there is no place for both anchor and belay1 the anchor must be sacrificed1 and the belay then made as indirect as ingenuity can devise4 ,the direct belay is unsound to protect a leader4 ,if the rope is playing round rock1 it may at any second jerk him1 a fatal fault4 ,if he falls with a long rope out1 the rope will1 or ought to1 break1 when the jerk comes directly upon a solid point1 and very often a point with sharp edges4 ,if he falls on a short rope1 similarly attached directly to rock1 the chance of its snapping is only slightly less4 ,for a long rope may take up much jerk in its elastic spring1 but a short rope cannot4 ,this should be more widely known4 ,many leaders think they will be safe in trying a risky passage if they can find a direct belaying-point which only leaves a short run-out4 ,they either use it like a #8peg1' passing the rope behind it and taking out enough slack to let them do the passage1 or they bring up their second men on to bad stances to hold the rope over it4 ,neither course lessens the risks of the direct belay4 ,some preventable accidents have been due to this dangerous misconception4 ,an exception would appear to be the case of the leader #8threading the rope1' behind a jammed stone1 in order to protect himself in attempting a bad bit from a stance not good enough for him to bring his second up to4 ,this #8threading' is only sound if1 firstly1 the run-out above it is only to be for a few feet2 and1 secondly1 if the rope will run freely behind the stone so that the second man below can play it and turn it into an indirect belay1 to some extent1 in case of a slip4 ,otherwise threading is really only a brittle reed of moral reassurance for a leader who is uncertain about his standard of the day4 ,as a protection to a man following us up rock the direct belay is almost equally unsound4 ,to drag the moving rope round rock frays it1 and runs the risk of there being a hitch or some slack rope to complicate matters if he slips or needs a pull4 ,few knobs can be trusted to retain a travelling rope unless the hands keep it in position4 ,a rope dragged round a point1 also1 rolls against the lay of the strands1 and may roll up and off a rounded knob unexpectedly4 ,again1 a rope may play easily round a splinter while it is loose1 but when a strain comes upon it it will jam in the crack behind1 and the sudden stopping of the #8give' in the rope pinches and may snap it4 ,in one-at-a-time climbing it should rarely be necessary to take a direct belay to protect a man following4 ,it is our business not to use a stance unless we can render its belay in some way indirect4 ,only in continuous climbing do we content ourselves sometimes with cursory direct belays1 generally in descending4 ,then they are simply a passing precaution1 not a definite protection2 and they are sound because the easy character of the climbing will permit us1 at need1 instantly to convert them into indirect belays or anchors4 ,otherwise direct belays are more often used in laziness or ignorance than from any dire climbing necessity4 ,for the indirect belay we loop the active rope of the man climbing round a convenient point1 and then make it our business to interpose our hands1 arms1 legs1 shoulders1 or any part of us which may prevent a jerk of his rope from coming uninterruptedly on to the solid rock4 ,if we have fair room to balance1 we play the rope entirely free with our arms and the spring of our body1 using only an anchor to the rock if we need it4 ,if we have not room1 and especially if we are protecting a leader1 whose fall would jerk us off most positions of free balance1 we put the rope over the point and play it round with both hands1 ready to grip and spring it upon our arms if a jerk comes4 ,or we pass the active rope round our forearm or over the thigh or across the shoulder1 on its way to the belay-point4 ,it often happens that the rope does not play easily round the belay as we pass it from one hand to the other4 ,we may have to free it and run a coil through quickly1 or alter its lie round the belay4 ,these shifts should never be made except when the man protected by the rope is momentarily at rest4 ,similarly we may have to take it off the belay for a second1 to let it run out quickly enough for a rapid leader1 who above all things must not be jerked4 ,for these adjustments it is better to keep always a small margin of slack in the rope1 which we continue to take up in the hands as they play the rope round the belay1 until a suitable moment comes for making the readjustment we intend4 ,this margin also leaves us a loose curl through which to twist wrist or arm1 as an extra spring1 in case of a fall on the rope4 ,as an extra precaution we may insert glove or cap or even earth between the rope and the knob1 if we think it may reduce the friction or ease the passage4 ,we may not always be satisfied that we have rendered our belay classically indirect1 but we can always prevent its being crudely direct4 ,our eye must learn to take instinctive offence at the sight of any active rope running direct from a moving man to a rigid rock4 ,sidenote3 ,without ,belays4 ,belays and handholds are almost synonymous1 for there is very little handhold which ingenuity cannot convert into some form of extra security for the rope4 ,where handholds fail us1 belays fail us1 and we have to fall back for our securing of the rope upon balance and the mechanics of our bodies4 ,the nature of the stance suggests the position4 ,the strongest holding attitude is that of the body turned somewhat sideways to the direction of the expected pull1 and inclined slightly inwards over the inner bent leg2 thus the strain is taken down the outer rigid leg to the rock4 ,this leg is planted firmly on the foot1 and sloped in the same line as the rope from the man ascending below us1 or1 alternatively1 in the line which the rope from the man above us may be expected to take1 supposing he were to fall4 ,the sideways turn enables us to make a spring of the body2 which we bend or straighten over the bent inner leg and behind our rigid leg1 as we pull in or check the rope1 without risk of being pulled off our stance4 ,whereas1 if we face squarely outward1 we cannot get behind both our legs1 to pull1 without sitting down2 and any forward bend of the body1 to meet a pull1 risks the balance and the foothold4 ,we use any roughness of the surface as extra purchase for the outer1 firm foot4 ,two such small holds1 if only for the side-nails of the boots1 give sufficient purchase1 under a body in balance1 to lift the whole weight of a heavy companion1 or1 less certainly1 to check a considerable weight falling from above4 ,sometimes it is best to bend the inner leg until the knee rests against the wall behind4 ,if the rock above us projects1 or is so steep that we cannot lean in behind our firm leg1 the stance is not sound without some belay4 ,but it is at times possible1 if the stance is broad and the slope of the projection above allows it1 to kneel on the inside knee1 and belay the rope over the outside knee with both hands4 ,a man with powerful legs can make this a secure spring for the rope4 ,the centre of gravity is so low in this position that a heavy jerk from below can safely be taken4 ,but it is useless1 of course1 without other hold1 as a belay against a fall from above4 ,no stance is sound without a belay or anchor where we feel we need handhold for our balance1 or where we feel we shall need it to resist the pull of a rope1 from below or above as the case may be4 ,no man1 dependent upon handhold himself1 is safe enough to secure the rope for another climber4 ,he must either be able to convert his handhold into an anchor for himself or into some form of indirect belay for the climber1 or else he must seek another stance4 ,the more we learn of the mechanics of climbing1 the more we incline to use only free stances if we wish to assist or protect a man below2 and free stances reinforced by anchors on the inactive rope to protect a leader above2 and the less and less we get to like even indirect belays1 for either1 on the active rope4 ,for a man below1 it is of more assistance that we should be able to give him the immediate pull or steady with his active rope which a free stance or body belay allows us to do1 and which will prevent him slipping at all1 than that1 when for lack of this instantaneous touch he has slipped1 his active rope should be rock-belayed1 and should be thus more stonily certain of stopping him in his further fall4 ,for a leader above us1 it is of more service that we should associate ourselves with his action1 keep a free stance or a body or arm belay on his active rope1 and1 if he falls1 be free to interpose all our human mechanism to ease the jar1 than that we should seek to diminish our responsibility and risk1 and increase his danger1 by entrusting his active rope to the perilous rigidity of a rock belay4 ,we must1 indeed1 always take an anchor for a leader on the inactive rope1 if we can2 because this strengthens our position in functioning as his human spring1 and protects the rest of the party in case of our failure to save him by our interposition4 ,and we should take it for a man below1 on severe rock1 whenever our free stance is not secure enough to safeguard ourselves and1 consequently1 those above us4 ,but the very human inclination which assails our novitiate upon all rock that tries our strength or imposes upon our nerves1 to shove off our responsibility on to any rock point that presents itself1 and to jam the active rope round it1 regardless as to whether our position will allow us to interpose any effective human spring upon it in case of a slip1 below or above us1 must be sternly resisted and unlearned4 ,unless we can be certain that we can keep the belay an indirect one when the pull comes upon the rope1 and not only while we are daintily handling its slack1 we must not take the belay4 ,if we cannot substitute for it a free stance or an anchor on the inactive rope1 we must reject such a stance altogether1 and move to another4 ,in my experience1 the better the mountaineer1 the more boldly he throws in his lot with the action and security of the man at the moment climbing above or below him2 that is1 the more he associates his human mechanism1 either as impulse or as check1 directly with the active rope2 and uses the rock1 for anchor or indirect belay1 as a protection behind him for the inactive rope and the rest of the party4 ,between good climbers the rope serves as a telegraph wire4 ,so long as it runs free we can receive our call for help or reassurance and return our instantaneous touch or impulse down it with a response that is almost anticipation4 ,any rock interposition interrupts the one and delays the other4 ,the rescue of rock should be held in ready reserve to reinforce us with an anchor or with an indirect belay1 after our human spring has performed its function and has at least absorbed most of the stock4 ,sidenote3 ,holding the ,rope4 ,climbing rope is as a rule too thin to be conveniently held or pulled with a heavy weight at the end1 except by men of abnormal grip or specially developed hands4 ,many men1 therefore1 when taking position for holding on a stance1 anchored or not1 give the rope one or two half-twists round the forearm4 ,this is convenient1 but not without risk4 ,the most comfortable position1 on a free or anchored stance1 is to pass the rope round the body just above the hips1 gripping it on either side in front with the two hands1 and passing it along from one to the other hand as required4 ,the best hand-grip is to turn the palms of the hands upward1 and to lay the rope between the first fingers and thumbs of each hand4 ,if the outside arm is then turned slightly outward1 palm up1 and the body1 as it stands sideways to the pull of the rope1 is inclined inwards1 thrusting against the outer firm foot1 the body1 the outer firm leg and the outer arm will all be approximately in line with the direction of the pull4 ,the utmost use is thus being made of the spring-pulley of arm and body1 with no energy wasted round corners4 ,the inside hand pulls in or lets out the rope round the body4 ,the spring1 up or down1 of the body from the waist is ready at any moment to help in absorbing the jerk of a pull from above1 or in giving the steady #8little pull' that prevents the jerk coming at all from the approaching man below4 ,the rope passing round the body and the forearm gives a surprising amount of resistance in friction2 more so1 owing to the elastic surface it embraces1 than is given by a rigid belay4 ,with its aid1 if the feet are firm and the balance good1 we can take a man's weight on one arm alone1 and leave the other hand free to hold the loop-anchor1 or pass the loose coils round the belay or round our body as they come in4 ,naturally we can resist a far greater strain on the rope round our hips1 and immediately above and behind our firm leg1 than our balance could support if the pull came higher1 upon our arms and shoulders4 ,it is sounder for this reason1 when we use the body belay1 always to pass the rope round both hips and out under the arm1 and not bring it out1 as is usually done1 over our inside shoulder4 ,the pull is sometimes1 but not often1 vertical enough to make this last a sound position4 ,the same rule applies even more strongly if we are forced to stand facing outward4 ,sometimes1 when there is no room to balance for the body belay1 and we find no rock belay or anchor low enough to allow of our using our arms as effective springs on the rope1 we have to be content with high handholds or an anchor-point well above us4 ,in such a case we can often interpose our shoulder as a spring4 ,while we hold the anchor on the point above us with the one hand1 with the other we pull a foot or so of the active rope down across our inner shoulder and upstretched arm1 springing the rope1 as it were1 across the bow of arm and shoulder4 ,we thus convert the high anchor into an indirect belay4 ,a very common position upon steep rock1 where our stance is too narrow to allow of turning sideways or of belaying the rope round the body balanced above the firm outer leg1 is to turn face inward1 and pass the rope round some belay-point from one hand to the other4 ,the only way to make this sound1 that is1 to prevent the rope in case of a slip coming upon the rock as upon a direct belay--since the grip of one hand on the active rope must be insufficient to act as an effective spring1--is to give the rope one twist round the forearm of the hand behind the belay4 ,with the rope half twisted round the free hand1 which is drawing the rope out in front of the belay1 we can apply1 as between the tug of the arm behind and the #8give' of the hand in front1 an efficient spring4 ,with such a hold we must wait for the pauses of the man climbing to pull in the rope round our belay4 ,to pull it in while he is actually climbing deprives us of any chance of applying the hand-spring in time4 ,i have noticed1 in confirmation of what ,i have said before1 that the more freely balanced and adroit a climber becomes1 the less often he appears to find it necessary to use this sort of quasi-sound stance4 ,on the same ledge where the average man would turn face inward for his rock belay1 the expert will find some good leg-thrust for a sideways body belay1 and will use the rock point for an anchor-loop to protect a man above1 or often only as an extra balance hold for his inside hand if he has to resist a pull from a man below4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,order on the ,rope4 ,to get the order on the rope right is as important a duty as to get men in their right places on the battlefield or the polo-ground4 ,every man should take his share of leading on suitable rock if he is ever to improve or discover himself2 but on difficult or unsound rock1 or on new climbs1 the best climber should always lead and come down last4 ,tossing for the lead is folly4 ,on easier rock1 if the order is not dictated by capacity or by fair alternations1 climbing is too gracious a sport for its precedence to be settled by chuck-penny rather than by courtesy4 ,the accepted manager1 in cases of doubt1 must decide4 ,a mountaineer who either from amiability or from incapacity to gauge a climb and his friend's power allows a less expert climber to lead or descend last on a climb which he knows or suspects would test his own strength1 is gravely at fault4 ,some men1 however1 seem incapable of remembering how much effort a climb cost them4 ,they have done an exposed climb themselves4 ,with the pride that apes humility they let some enthusiast1 their inferior1 have his way and lead it the next time1 confident in their own skill1 or the fallacious doctrine of the belay1 to find a remedy in the last resort4 ,but difficult climbs are full of passages where the second man cannot really protect his leader or last man4 ,the leader falls1 and the rope1 if it does not break1 only serves to support an injured or nervously shaken man4 ,whether the results are serious or slight1 the error is equally great1 and the expert of the party is to blame4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,order on ,direct ,ascents and ,descents4 ,in parties of equal merit1 of any number1 the order is unimportant1 except that1 as stated1 on difficult passages1 up or down1 the most experienced leads up and comes down last4 ,in efficient parties of four1 or of any even number1 on easy and moderate rock1 it is best to rope in parties of two1 ascending or descending4 ,in parties of three of unequal merit1 the weakest man goes up last and comes down first1--with two exceptions of which ,i speak later under the ,order with ,beginners4 ,in parties of four of unequal merit1 on easy and moderate ascents1 where the leader is good enough to require no special protection1 we may distribute the skill1 and put a weak man behind the leader1 the second best man third1 and the weakest man at the end4 ,the leader and the second string can then each look after one tiro4 ,this is especially advisable on ascents or descents where the rocks allow of all moving together4 ,the accidental slip of each weaker brother can be quickly corrected if he climbs below a good man2 whereas1 if the two weak men are put at the tail1 the slip becomes cumulatively perilous to the party4 ,on really easy ascents and descents with a party of this size and character1 the alternative is admissible of breaking into parties of two1 each of the two more expert taking one of the weaker men on his rope4 ,on ascents of a medium class1 where movement may1 however1 have incidentally to be one at a time1 the order of the tail in a party of this constitution is less important4 ,on harder sections the watchful eye of a stationary man above will always be on the motions of each climber in turn1 and a slip can be checked at once4 ,but if the novices have not even mastered the art of holding from a stance1 two ought not to be placed next to one another1 even for this moving one at a time4 ,but strong men1 even as novices1 will always be able to learn the art of stance-taking before that of continuous moving4 ,on really difficult rock1 or on new ascents or descents1 the leader must always be backed up and secured by the next best climber of the party4 ,on such climbs as many as two weaker men should never be taken in a party of four4 ,behind two good men one novice may justifiably be trailed at the end of the rope4 ,parties of five or more1 which are cumbrous for stiff climbs1 can take novices1 in the proportion of two to five or three to six1 if they feel so disposed4 ,on climbs where long traverses are anticipated1 either along ridges of moderate difficulty or diagonally up or down faces1 the best man still goes up first and comes down last4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,order ,for ,traversing on ,faces and ,ridges4 ,in a party of fairly equal strength1 the second best should still come next to the leader1 if it is anticipated that the major part of the climb will be upward or downward and not on horizontal traverses4 ,on difficult diagonal traverses1 upward or downward1 it is still of first importance that the leader or last man should be well secured4 ,with the same party on horizontal traverses the same order should be followed4 ,but if one member of a party of three is distinctly weaker1 and the amount of horizontal traversing expected along a ridge or across a face is considerable1--enough to involve a greater risk to the party in leaving the inexpert man unprotected than in lessening the support for the leader or last man1--the weaker man should be placed in the middle of a rope of three4 ,the second best man then traverses1 in ascending1 last1 and in descending1 first4 ,the weaker man is thus protected at either end of his traverses and cannot slip far4 ,such an irregular order1 however1 must depend upon the relative inferiority of the weaker member1 and on the amount of horizontal traversing expected4 ,its withdrawal of support from the leader1 in the case of a rope of three1 must be recognized as putting a lower limit upon the standard of difficulty which he1 thus less secured1 may warrantably attempt in ascending or descending4 ,to put the weaker man in the middle deprives both the first and last man of the confidence of each other's sounder protection4 ,it destroys the collective efficiency1 and leaves a party of individuals1 not a combination4 ,nevertheless1 it is an order too frequently adopted by climbers irrespective of the class of difficulty expected1 and even upon direct ascents and descents4 ,it should only be considered justifiable as a means of getting an inexperienced man over particular horizontal passages2 and on difficult climbs1 if they are undertaken with such a novice1 the order should be changed back again1 even at the risk of loss of time1 so soon as the horizontal passages cease1 or there is expectation of only a small proportion of them to come4 ,in a more equal party of three1 however1 where two are experts and the third not a novice at climbing but only less expert in alpine route finding1 whose presence in the middle does not1 therefore1 weaken the rope materially1 it is advisable for the second best of the experts to go in the lead in descending1 or in traversing along and down big ridges of no special difficulty4 ,he is better able to find the best line1 and thus leaves the weakest of the three with no other responsibility than to attend to his own going4 ,this is a usual order for a guided party in the ,alps on long ridge work3 the guide at the tail1 and the best amateur1 or the porter as the case may be1 in the lead4 ,the order again depends upon the comparative ease of the rock work for the man descending last4 ,in a party of four1 similarly1 if there are two weaker members1 these two may well be put in the centre for any period of difficult horizontal traversing4 ,the object is to avoid either weak climber having to make a traverse of this sort at the end of the rope and so only half protected4 ,in this order a party of four may move only one at a time1 and the best and second best men must act as fixed anchors at either end of the rope while the weaker men are successively moving4 ,on any such traverse1 wherever the leader feels that all can move together1 which will not be possible unless the rock is easy enough to allow of the weakest man traversing the passage unaided1 the second best man should again separate the two less expert1 and so prevent their association of inexperience and its cumulative effect in case of a chance slip4 ,on such a passage the leader or last man will not1 by the nature of the case1 require the support of a good second1 and he will be able to spare full attention to the single novice placed behind him or1 in descending1 in front of him1 upon the rope4 ,the same order may1 on occasion1 be adopted with similar party of four on the long easy traverse or descent of big alpine ridges1 when two weaker climbers are efficient but not expert at route finding4 ,it is often adopted with guided parties3 the guide at the tail1 the porter or the best of the amateurs in the lead1 to choose the line1 and the other two free to look after themselves and one another4 ,in a rope of four1 for exacting horizontal traverses or for diagonal lines up or down ridges or across faces of any difficulty1 when three men of the four are of almost equal merit and the fourth alone is inferior1 one of the three better men goes last1 with the other two in the lead1 in ascending1 and one of the three goes first1 with the other two at the tail1 in descending4 ,where there is only one expert on the rope and two or three less secure climbers behind him1 diagonal or horizontal traverses of any difficulty may never be attempted1 unless the leader is prepared himself to hold the rope and belay the advance of each of the others separately1 and in his turn1 across every doubtful passage4 ,no climber1 however good1 can count on checking in time the fall of two others2 and if one novice slips on a rope so constituted1 and the jerk comes first on another inexperienced climber1 it is too late to hope to be able to stop the catastrophe4 ,the neglect of this rule1 one which it is difficult for a man in the pride of strength and skill to observe1 has been the cause of some of the most melancholy of accidents4 ,there is one variation in the order1 only coming into question in big alpine mountaineering1 that must be mentioned separately4 ,occasionally on the traverse of long level or gradually inclined alpine ridges1 up or down1 where the technical difficulty of progress is not excessive1 but where1 owing to serrated ridges1 cornices1 snow-covered towers1 etc41 the risk of accident is greater than the difficulty1 and the safe and swift management of the rope is both intricate and important1 it is wiser for the most experienced climber of a party of three efficient amateurs to go in the middle1 and not in the lead4 ,he can then manage both ropes1 and leave his less expert friends free to attend only to their own holds and progress1 while he has them both1 as it were1 under his hand4 ,as some compensation for the extra hindrance which the management of the two ropes will put in the way of his own climbing1 he has the protection of the double support himself from either end4 ,this order will be found of service in saving time and in preventing risk where1 as often in amateur parties happens1 the rope contains one or more brilliant climbers1 good enough to lead and to follow1 but still inexpert in the advanced technique of the rope4 ,variegated alpine ridges of this broken1 crested type are the final test of rope management1 and progress is often quicker and safer1 for a party so constituted1 with the expert leader acting as pivot and anchor in the centre4 ,this sort of combination1 one or two more experienced mountaineers with one or two fine but still inexperienced climbers1 is frequently the party preferred by guideless ,british climbers in the ,alps2 and it is therefore worth while adding here that the same order may be soundly adopted1 with such a party1 not only on traverses of ridges1 but on big alpine ascents of length and severity4 ,it is especially important in such combinations for the accepted leader1 like a good stroke1 to keep something in reserve4 ,assuming he knows his men to be good cragsmen1 he may consider himself free to put one of them in the lead in ascending rocks1 for part of the day at least1 himself retaining the discretionary power which is as well exercised from the position of second man1 and keeping his actual strength in reserve for real emergencies or for situations calling for expert mountaineering rather than for rock climbing technique4 ,if his object is to train his men1 he is even better able to do so from this position4 ,this forms no exception to the rule that the best man should go first and last on new ascents and descents1 and on all climbs where the difficulty requires an expert mountaineer1 in the lead in ascending or at the tail in descending4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,order of ,merit4 ,to be able to go first and get up difficult places1 although a fine quality and necessary where only rock climbing is in question1 loses its unique importance when large mountaineering expeditions in the greater ,alps come into consideration4 ,it is the combined efficiency of the party in this case that chiefly counts4 ,qualities of management1 ability to contribute the most to the combinations of the party1 to its reserve of power1 confidence and cheerfulness1 and so to increase its continuous effectiveness1 are the marks of the #8leader' in great mountaineering4 ,the better mountaineer may not be the better able to go first up passages of excessive difficulty1 and may1 on occasions such as ,i have mentioned1 even operate more potently from the centre of the rope4 ,there have been cases of mountaineers who have seldom if ever led a big climb1 but to whose management1 reserve power and cool judgment the successes of their party1 under whatever first man of the moment1 have been really due4 ,one must not only see a rope in action1 one must climb with it1 if one wishes to discover the actual #8leading' mountaineer of the party1 who is contributing most in a long day to the collective efficiency and safety4 ,for the same reason we are not in a position to assign individual credit for the great mountaineering feats of the past1 or to say of a mountaineer1 8,he always had first-class guides2 he never led2 they did his mountaineering for him20 or of an amateur1 8,he always led his friends3 his was the credit60 ,it may safely be accepted that on great alpine climbs1 if the party has succeeded1 the success has not merely been due to the guide or first man4 ,on such climbs there are whole hours of the day during which the slip or shortcoming of any single climber may be fatal1 and where the fact that even one man draws his unfair share from the pool of efficiency can prevent any chance of success4 ,to the whole party belongs the credit for a great climb4 ,its members alone can venture to say whose was the moving spirit1 or what was the order of merit4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,order with ,beginners4 ,beginners may be either real novices1 or only beginners in alpine work1 route finding and so on4 ,a complete beginner is more bothered by the management of the rope than anything else2 therefore it is better for our progress to let him come up last and go down first4 ,the exception is when we are descending by a route which is not easy to find or retrace4 ,we may then put the beginner one from the end1 in a party of four1 with a route finder ahead and two sound men behind him4 ,in a party of three we may put him in the centre2 but not when the climbing is too stiff to justify our leaving to the last man all the tasks1 of coming down last1 looking after the beginner1 and seeing that the beginner looks after the rope of the route finder4 ,with such a party1 on such a descent1 ,i have often preferred to put the best mountaineer in the centre1 behind the beginner1 to coach him as to the route and look after him1 while the other expert descended on a short rope behind1 and looked after himself4 ,often he is more comfortable if he unropes altogether4 ,the justifiability of this inversion of the order must depend upon a judgment at the time as to the relative importance of protecting the last man or of finding the right route at the right pace4 ,if the rocks are really difficult1 the beginner should go first1 and the expert behind must coach as to the route4 ,such an occasion seems to me the only one that really offers a good case for the continental practice of putting red paper under stones at suitable points1 to guide the descent4 ,as a rule1 a man ought to be able to find the way down where he has gone up4 ,it is an important part of a beginner's training to learn the habit of turning and noting the look of passages from the reverse direction while he ascends4 ,in all cases of a descent where no previous ascent has been made1 the permissibility of any alteration in the usual order must depend upon our estimate of the difficulty for the last man4 ,if the rocks are severe1 the ordinary order must be preserved4 ,a beginner is always greatly hampered by the rope on both sides of him2 and if we are making a big expedition where progress and good temper are of more importance than a lesson in #8middleman' work1 it is better1 when consistent with safe mountaineering1 to arrange that he is either on a rope of two1 or at the free end of a rope4 ,again1 be it in a large or a small party1 it is always well to put him1 or her1 definitely in charge of some one1 if not of the leader2 who will precede him going up and follow him down1 whatever the other order on the rope may be2 acting as coach and general buffer4 ,for the same purpose1 in a rope of three on easy ascents1 while one of the two good climbers leads1 the other is often better placed climbing immediately behind the beginner1 shepherding his or her feet1 giving shoulders1 steadies1 etc4 ,in a rope of four1 similarly1 on easy or moderate ascents1 we put one of the three better climbers behind the beginner4 ,the man looks after his own rope1 and is of more use in coaching1 helping and succouring the beginner than he would be as an extra reinforcement above4 ,this is the soundest method with women novices or children4 ,it is not suitable on really difficult rock2 but then neither are women novices or children4 ,a single expert taking two such beginners up a very easy climb1 more especially if they are girls or boys1 whose stances and holding-power for each other cannot be depended upon1 often does best to put himself in the middle of a long rope4 ,he ascends first and descends last1 as usual2 but by this arrangement he can himself bring up or lower the two beginners separately to or from each stance1 with less confusion of ropes4 ,on very easy ridges1 with a light following1 if he ties himself between them so as to leave the ropes of different lengths1 he can often save time by bringing up both beginners simultaneously1 one starting after and climbing below the other4 ,an expert climbing with two such novices should always himself1 before attempting any passage not absolutely easy1 see that the rope or ropes to himself are anchored at the end close to his following1 leaving free for himself the full run-out of rope he will require4 ,he should never risk their security in case of his slip1 or his own security while climbing1 by allowing the rope to be paid out as he goes by anyone ignorant of its management or too weak to check his fall4 ,on ,british climbs1 such as may be1 in their general difficulty1 permissible to attempt with beginners1 there are sometimes passages1 say of slabs1 which a novice weak in the arms finds he or she simply cannot manage without being hoisted on the rope4 ,no expert will make one of a party of two with a beginner on any climb where he expects such a passage1 unless he is very sure of a good stance above it1 from which to haul1 and of his own strength in relation to the weight of the novice4 ,in a party of three when such hauling has to be done1 it saves the strain on the rope1 on the second man's arms and on the novice's nerves1 for the leader to wait with his second man on the stance above each particular pitch until the novice has been hauled up4 ,he can also send down a second rope1 and so divide the effort4 ,if necessary1 he unties from his end of the rope1 in order to have a second rope to send down4 ,if this is done quickly and efficiently1 less time is lost than if the second man has to do all the pulling alone and on his single rope4 ,in such cases we must see that the haulee uses his feet to scrape with at least1 and thrusts out from the rock with his hands4 ,if he clings with hands and body to the rock1 the effort1 for all parties1 is doubled by the friction4 ,frequently on such places it is only the matter of one arm-pull or so at the start of a pitch that proves insuperable1 especially for women4 ,if there is no third climber to propel the novice1 it is then better for the second man to wait on the stance below the pitch1 to pass up the rope to the leader above1 and himself to give a knee and shoulder as footholds up the difficult section4 ,the actual haul will thus be shorter2 or its necessity may be avoided altogether4 ,on exposed cliffs it is a mistake to leave the novice alone at the end of a long rope if there are difficult problems to tackle1 and especially if these include any traverses4 ,it is trying for the nerves and not good for the style4 ,if the party is not large enough to have one climber always in attendance on the novice1 the middle man should give him or her his company as often as his first duty to the leader will allow4 ,if1 upon easy rock1 a novice is taking his lesson in leading1 the best climber should follow him on as short a rope as the rocks will allow4 ,but he must avoid bustling or flurrying him1 and observe all the rules of etiquette due to a leader4 ,any request from a beginner for a #8little pull1' or for putting on the rope1 must be always and at once complied with4 ,delay or reasoning may be dangerous1 and will in any case shake confidence4 ,the rope is for protection1 nervous as much as physical4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,order of ,moving4 ,in ascending easy rock or in traversing easy ridges1 all can be moving together1 if the strength of the party allows it4 ,on difficult ascents or ridges1 in a party of three or less1 each moves singly4 ,in a party of four1 once the leader is up1 number three may bring up number four while the leader is bringing up number two4 ,on steep ascents of moderate difficulty1 in a party of three1 if the second man is really sound and the stances allow of his managing two ropes1 one running out and one running in1 he may bring up the third man while the leader is still climbing4 ,but the leader must be aware that he is doing so4 ,in a party of four1 on such ascents1 the second and fourth man can always be climbing simultaneously4 ,this double movement saves much time on long climbs4 ,on descents the same rules hold1 in the reverse order4 ,for a strong party a possible variant may be mentioned4 ,if the last man is sound1 and feels himself secure1 he can let numbers two and three descend to the full length of their ropes1 both climbing at the same time4 ,number two starts as soon as number three has run out his rope1 and so he enables number three to descend another length without pause4 ,the last man then descends to number two1 moving alone4 ,on his arrival the other two start simultaneously again4 ,if number three1 however1 is not dependable enough to move entirely without protection from number two1 it is sounder for number two to remain at anchor while number three descends2 but the last man meanwhile descends to number two4 ,in this case the last man and number three climb simultaneously1 while number two remains at anchor between them1 and descends alone4 ,on either system a third of the time is saved4 ,but all such accelerations must depend upon the relative difficulty of the several sections which each in turn is descending4 ,if the lowest man wishes to be secured over a section1 he must say so2 and then number two must not descend simultaneously with him4 ,if number two has found the passage of some section hard1 he will need to give his full attention to the last man while he is descending it2 and he must not then allow the lowest man to be descending at the same time as the last man4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,duty of the ,first ,man4 ,the leader on the rope may be the manager of the party2 but he should be1 on any climb of difficulty1 the best climber4 ,his business is to get up rocks capably1 and to get his party up4 ,he is responsible for getting them out of their difficulties1 and also for not taking them into them4 ,he must know what the men behind him can do1 as much as what he himself can do1 on any given day4 ,he sets the pace1 selects the stances and directs the movements throughout the climb4 ,he must be able to concentrate absolutely upon his task4 ,he must be competent to distinguish between difficulty and danger1 and to observe the differences between our two sorts of danger--between the objective perils of falling stones1 storm1 etc41 and the subjective dangers which form a nimbus of potential risk surrounding every point of difficulty1 contracting or enlarging according to the capacity of each climber dealing with the difficult point4 ,to excel1 he must be certain of knowing his normal standard and his standard of the day2 be steel against spasms of mistrust1 that consume strength even more than nerve2 be resolute in advance1 as resolute timely to retreat4 ,most leaders have their personal tricks when #8all out4' ,some are ,olympian and impassive2 some talk to themselves2 some like to lull a hostile pitch into security by loudly protesting its hopelessness1 with half a hope of catching it unawares2 some like to hum or whistle2 others have a tune or phrase running in their heads--most of us know the comfort of working our muscles to the accompaniment of some rhythm1 audible or imaginary4 ,consciously or not1 every leader draws upon the pooled confidence of the men behind him4 ,in return he owes it to them to cherish the confidence so far as he can4 ,he should avoid sharing his doubts over some difficult place with his friends unnecessarily4 ,they cannot help him1 and he will only undermine their confidence4 ,he should never make demonstrations which may alarm those of the party who cannot see their true origin1 or be of any use if they could4 ,if he has a well-tried second1 who knows too much about him to mind1 he may let off steam to him4 ,a little mystery and silence are rather a good fault in a first man2 men do not want to be over-enlightened before their turn comes4 ,but with a silent leader we are dependent upon a good second man to keep the party informed as to what is really happening4 ,it is very depressing to be kept shivering on holds1 and not even know whether the pitch is #8going1' or is even going to #8go4' ,a leader's solitary battle with natural forces is so personal and isolated that it is harder for him to remember always what a heavy responsibility he carries for the whole party4 ,no man but the leader ever knows what were the risks he ran or how near his shaves may have been4 ,he is induced to forget them by the relieved admiration of those who have followed him on the rope1 only too delighted to get up4 ,very few will be ill-mannered enough afterwards to recall their real feelings as they watched him take a rash chance1 or tell him they thought him a silly ass4 ,the leader has greater privileges1 greater freedom and greater responsibilities than any other man of a party4 ,to deserve them1 he must never cease to study for others1 never fear to decide for himself4 ,in the words of a very great mountaineer1 it is 8that detachment of mind1 commonly called courage1 which1 combined with high powers1 alone makes the great leader40 ,sidenote3 ,the ,duty of the ,second ,man4 ,the qualities required for a good second man are all but as important to a rope as those of the leader1 and are more rarely found in their perfection4 ,a few #8born' leaders1 who have learned their business by long experience1 are independent of actual help and advice2 but all leaders are1 consciously or not1 much influenced in their standard of the day1 by the feeling of the spirit or the experience that is backing them immediately behind4 ,a first man capable of rock work of the high modern standard must possess a #8temperament4' ,he is often a man of moods4 ,the limit of physical possibility is so constantly approached on rock1 that only men capable of high nervous concentration1 able to call out their full strength and borrow again from their vitality and will1 can keep their standard of performance securely up to the level demanded4 ,in such performance the faintest doubt in the leader's mind of the confidence or capacity of the man behind1 the merest suspicion that his second man is not absolutely sure of his own stance or confident in his1 the first man's1 leading1 may lower a sensitive leader's ability twenty or thirty per cent4 ,the leader's mind is distracted2 his concentration on the single effort is dissipated4 ,even good1 sound climbers1 who take the important second place on the rope without knowing its duties1 may retreat day after day to the inn speculating with their friends why their leader has so suddenly #8gone off'3 quite unconscious that they themselves are alone responsible4 ,the leader himself may be1 crossly1 unaware of the reason4 ,not infrequently in such cases1 in a vexed reaction from constant turnings back1 he loses his better judgment and forces himself to attempt something reckless the next time he goes out4 ,this will do him no good2 nor will anything1 until he changes his party or finds reason for better confidence in his second man4 ,sidenote3 ,backing up1 metaphysically4 ,a great university stroke used to say that1 give him a good #8seven1' and he didn't care how the rest of the boat was manned4 ,almost to the same extent1 a good second makes a rope4 ,he should be strong1 able to give a shoulder1 arm or hand1 and to carry his leader's sack as well as his own4 ,he must be a fine enough climber to be able to follow up a step or two in the most awkward places1 and thence to spare a hand to rest the leader's strength or give him a fresh start4 ,he must be equable in temper1 optimistic1 and1 whatever his private thoughts1 never less than cheerful4 ,above all1 he must have the knack of transmitting his own feeling of confidence1 so that the leader may feel a comfortable current of reassurance coming from his second's secure stance to his own precarious advance4 ,if his leader is of the highly strung1 nervous class from which many great leaders are drawn1 he must learn to gauge him exactly1 know what form he is in1 and decide whether he is up to doing the particular problem1 so far as his climbing powers are concerned4 ,if he decides he can1 he must lay himself out to give just the quiet encouragement that will put his leader in the right state of mind to use his powers at their best4 ,as to how he effects this1 much must depend on the personality of the leader4 ,many a leader objects to being talked to4 ,conversation is generally waste of climbing time4 ,he may take council how to do a place beforehand1 but once he has started it will only disturb or distract him to hear advice or be asked anxious questions4 ,none the less he is often quickly aware of the #8atmosphere' behind him2 and he becomes conscious1 without words1 if his second's attention wanders or if his confidence is wavering4 ,for this reason it is bad form1 as well as a sign of inattentive mountaineering1 for men to chatter to one another while the leader is doing something that requires all his skill4 ,much of his individual power is drawn from their sympathy1 that should be then centred upon him alone4 ,and this applies not only to the climbing of the leader4 ,it is quite as bad form for him1 when he is safely up1 to exchange airy jokes across the head of another climber in the throes of a passage4 ,a word or movement heard1 or still worse1 half heard1 takes off the climber's attention and dissipates the concentration necessary for a delicate balance or a supreme hoist4 ,some leaders like asking questions about their difficulties1 to which they expect answers1 without any intention of attending to them4 ,others let off steam by declaring that it #8won't go1' or they're #8coming down4' ,protest or argument will irritate them2 what they are really asking for1 unconsciously1 is the confidence note in the voice behind them1 the sense of a human sympathy that realizes their difficulty but yet feels them equal to it4 ,it helps them greatly to be assured1 by the tone more than by the words1 of another expert's complete belief in their ability to proceed4 ,the second man gives his leader not only the support of his own faith3 he is the funnel to the leader of the united spirit1 the mutual support1 which are pooled by the party1 and upon which each draws again for his individual efforts4 ,in his more dangerous and isolated work the leader1 who needs it most1 is most separated from its atmosphere1 and it is the second man's duty to keep him in touch with it1 to control1 as it were1 the signals and air-pipes that keep the diver in touch with humanity and reassure him in his work4 ,at the same time1 the second man should relieve the leader in difficult climbing1 as far as possible1 of all unnecessary physical labour3 for instance1 avoid asking help for himself with the rope2 relieve him of pulling up the rest of the party2 carry the sacks2 and so on4 ,he must be able1 at times1 to manage the leader's rope and that of the man behind himself simultaneously4 ,he has at such times to control the movement of the party1 and determine when it is proper for the next man to start4 ,he must decide where it is safe to let his leader run out his rope1 with no more attention than will suffice to prevent it catching1 and where1 on the other hand1 his rope will require every attention4 ,his rope1 belay and stance technique must be as practised as his judgment4 ,if he decides that the passage is beyond the leader on his standard of the day1 he should take the responsibility of saying so definitely1 and share the vexatious responsibility of turning back4 ,if a leader has been #8all out' on a pitch and yet failed1 his judgment will be for the moment disturbed1 and his decision as to whether he will try again or turn may not be a considered one4 ,but if he has learned to trust his second1 he will take his opinion in preference to his own1 even though he might be himself considered normally the manager of the party4 ,if it be to go forward1 in spite of preceding failure1 then he will renew his attempt with redoubled confidence2 if it be to turn back1 he will have the consolation of feeling that his second man was in the best position to watch the original effort1 and was therefore better able to judge if a new attempt could succeed under any circumstances4 ,the second man has thus a most responsible position4 ,while the leader is converting himself into a motor engine to get the party up the climb1 the second man1 even if he be not accepted as such already1 becomes the temporary manager or mind of the party1 conscious of it in all its mechanism1 and not only of its dynamic leader4 ,in severe rock climbing so much of the leader's energy and time is spent on the physical struggle and in isolated situations1 that the position of second may become for hours together the really vital one on the rope4 ,his selection and education should be the first consideration for a party of ambition or merit4 ,sidenote3 ,backing up1 physically4 ,in discussing the order on the rope1 we said that on all exacting rock the second man without exception backs up his leader1 behind him going up1 in front of him going down4 ,on easier passages he may either lead the rope on a descent1 or come between two weaker climbers on an ascent or descent4 ,the duties involved in backing up depend upon the situation4 ,if the passage of descent to be made is long and holdless1 and the leader1 after letting the rest down1 is unable to make use of the double rope1 his second should remain as close as possible to him4 ,a good second1 from very sketchy stances1 can often give just that touch of help or direction which makes the last man's descent less solitary and precarious1 and is of more use to him than much anchoring of his rope upon remote platforms below4 ,in ascending1 again1 by putting a hand or an axe under a leader's heel when his toe is not over-secure1 a second can often give his leader a security greater than his own may be at the moment4 ,in fact1 the duty of the second man1 if he judges the place will go at all1 is to sacrifice his own comfort and do anything that is not a definite risk to help the leader to get up more safely4 ,a touch to his balance or foothold1 judicious and opportune1 is worth more as a protection than nine coils round a billiard-table boulder would be to him after he has slipped4 ,but backing up is subject to certain restrictions2 a second must remember that he cannot do two things at once4 ,if he helps with hand or shoulder or head1--that is1 in climbing parlance1 if he selects to identify himself with the active rope1--he has generally to sacrifice much of his value as buffer or anchor-man between the leader and the party4 ,to be justified in so prejudicing his security as an anchor1 he must feel wholeheartedly certain that his leader will not fail4 ,it is often difficult to find a position of compromise1 such as will allow him really to help the leader and also to retain his protective anchor for the party4 ,he must be guided primarily by what he judges to be best for the collective safety1 and only secondly by what contributes most to their success in getting up the climb4 ,if he decides that no backing up on his part can make certain the leader's ascent1 whilst it sacrifices1 in the attempt1 his anchor in case of his fall1 he must stay by his secure anchorage1 and to such extent diminish the leader's chance of success4 ,but if he sees that his backing up can just make the difference to the leader's safe and certain ascent1 he is free to combine the claims of safety for the party and success for the leader1 and move decisively and promptly to the leader's support4 ,for a second man compromise1 in such a choice1 is always ineffective and sometimes dangerous4 ,as one small instance3 partly with the idea of doing both things1 and partly from nervousness1 many inexperienced seconds cling as close to the rock as they can when they are giving the leader a #8shoulder1' so as to remain more secure themselves4 ,this is wrong4 ,the nearer his human support stays to the rock1 the more difficult is it for the leader to keep his balance as he stands upon him4 ,if his second man then rises1 as is often required of him1 so as to give his leader an extra lift1 as he stands on his shoulder or his hand or his head1 his nearness to the rock thrusts the leader's feet inward and his balance outward4 ,the second man1 when he gives a #8shoulder1' should aim at giving a really secure step on knee or hip or shoulder or head 7for a good second can make his body a regular staircase1 and painlessly1 if he makes the right adjustments7 as far away from the rock as he can securely thrust himself1 even to full arm's length4 ,he is then in a position of some use2 and should the leader's re-descent be necessary1 he can sometimes let him pass down inside1 between himself and the rock4 ,a good hold can be given1 on a firm stance1 by making a stirrup of the locked hands for the leader's foot1 and then straightening the back with a lift4 ,the tightened muscles of the thigh1 well above the knee1 give a painless foothold4 ,the strong muscles at the junction of the neck1 back and shoulder of a stooping man1 but not on the point or in the curve of the shoulder1 are good for a foothold4 ,the hip-bone1 provided that the leg using it is pressed close against the ribs over the hip1 makes a useful foothold for a man descending from the shoulders4 ,in making use of these anatomical holds1 the climber must remember never to shuffle or screw his boot once it is placed2 otherwise the human frame is good for far more use than its owner will usually tolerate4 ,i have had a guide of some weight1 but of delicately managed feet1 walking from my shoulder to my head and back again for twenty minutes1 while he was trying to noose the lower pinnacle on the ,charmoz1 without feeling any great discomfort4 ,the second man should never give a leader so climbing any push or lift that will come to him unexpectedly4 ,it is not uncommon to see a second man grasp a leader's foot1 as soon as it moves off his shoulder1 and shove it indiscriminately upward1 regardless of the leader's balance or the holds he may be designing to use4 ,the human ladder is only of use in so far as the leader can calculate exactly upon its location and function2 it must remain for him as passive as any part of the rock he is engaged with4 ,he steps from the thigh1 puts his knee on one shoulder1 and brings his other foot up on to the other shoulder2 or he clings up his second's back1 if the second is standing upright1 by knee pressure against his sides4 ,once he is up1 he must know exactly where he will be able to put knee or foot in returning4 ,if he has to descend from the rock on to his second again1 he need barely use his boot at all4 ,the instant his toe has discovered the position of the shoulder below1 he can slide his leg down the back and let himself slip down1 and the friction of the two surfaces of clothes will regulate his descent until his hands have reached the supporting shoulders4 ,he must cling as close as possible to his second's body and bend inwards1 so as to relieve the outward strain upon his second's balance1 and he must never let his descending weight pull upon him askew4 ,the instant his leader is up and at rest1 by the help of his impulses1 moral and physical1 the second man should prepare to follow1 and as he approaches the leader's stance he should notice exactly how he has placed himself1 so that when the leader moves out he can put himself in the same position for holding4 ,there should be no need for him to have to #8get comfortable4' ,if the third man is required to come up before the leader starts again1 the second man should at once call1 8,come60 and not wait to be asked1 8,are you all right80 ,these seconds are1 cumulatively1 most valuable4 ,in a good party the third man will be ready to start the instant he gathers that the man above has taken his stance4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,duty of the ,third ,man4 ,in big alpine climbing1 or on long mountaineering expeditions in general1 yet another group of duties comes into prominence which cannot well be discharged by the leader and second man1 who will have sufficient to do in looking after their respective functions4 ,these create the position1 for such climbing1 of what may best be termed a #8third man1' though the party may consist of four or more1 and the duties may be subdivided4 ,if the second man's duties may be called #8backing up1' the third man's are those of #8following up4' ,he must be strong and able to carry1 so that the spare rope and sacks of the leaders in really serious situations can all be discharged on to his shoulders without hesitation4 ,he must be expert enough to manage a belay for both his leaders1 if the situation demands the second man backing up the leader on an exposed passage1 and be able to give them at least the moral support of his sound anchoring of the rope4 ,he must have no false pride1 and be prepared to get up himself as best and quickest he can1 using the rope to save time4 ,he must be always patient1 ready to stand and shiver in his steps without complaint while the difficulties are solved4 ,he must take the inevitable loosened stones1 flying ice-chips and cleared-off snow incidental to his lower position with a hardened heart and1 if possible1 on a hard head1 with no more than reasonable protest1 and be able to see the humour of snow melting down his neck with the cheerfulness that it will afterwards he found to have caused to his friends4 ,he must be prepared to go last1 behind any weaker member1 if there be four or more men in the party1 and to look after him1 following him up closely wherever he is able1 without expecting help himself or much attention to his own rope4 ,he must be good-tempered1 ready to set the example of accepting decisions to turn back without discussion and even without knowing their reasons1 and prepared in crises to remain quietly reassuring without bothering his occupied friends with questions4 ,his use is1 directly1 as a support of strength and cheeriness to the leader and the second man if the serious nature of the climbing demands their combined preoccupation1 and1 indirectly1 as an example of genial co-operation and #8following up' to other members of the party4 ,in a sense every member of the party should be a #8third man'2 but in big undertakings it is of undoubted help to the leader and second to have one man upon whom they can specially rely to look after the humour of the rest in the trying times of waiting while they themselves are working out the difficulties2 to relieve them of the minor tasks of carrying and directing2 and to come up without pride or protest in inconvenient ways1 to inconvenient places1 at convenient times4 ,sidenote3 ,more about the ,rope during ,climbing4 ,during all the intricate manuvres incidental to combined climbing1 the watch on the rope may never be relaxed1 and a few further hints as to its management may be useful to leaders and followers alike4 ,with a rope1 as with a horse1 anticipation is the secret4 ,once it catches1 or kinks1 or entangles1 the result is nightmare4 ,of its control1 when men are moving together1 ,i have already spoken3 the perpetual glance1 and flick1 and swing1 to keep it free1 that must become subconscious4 ,in climbing singly on steep ascents1 the rope1 as it is drawn out by the man climbing above1 must be watched as well as held1 and warning must be given to him that it is running out at least four feet before it is taut4 ,this is a primary rule4 ,to jerk the man climbing1 by a hitch1 or to let the rope closure his advance without sufficient warning1 is an unpardonable fault4 ,as we draw in the rope of a man ascending or descending to our stance1 it should be gathered in neat coils1 near the belay if one is used4 ,above all1 it should be laid well out of the way--at the back or side of the stance4 ,in pulling in the rope we must always consider exactly where the next man will come up and how he will stand2 and lay his coil1 as it runs in1 as well as the coil of the man ahead1 which is running out1 where there is no chance that the rear man will be forced to #8cross' either rope4 ,if our hands are occupied with holding or with the belay1 so that we have no time to coil it down1 the slack of the rope should be flung evenly over the arm1 or somewhere out of the way1 as it runs in4 ,the moment the next man is up it should be passed to him in its chance coils2 or else1 if it has coiled down neatly1 it may be left lying where it is4 ,if a belay has been used1 the end of the rope running in should be taken off the belay as the next man reaches the stance1 while the end of the rope nearest our own waist is put over it1 lying always in the direction in which it will afterwards have to be paid out4 ,these operations have to become practically mechanical4 ,the instant the next man takes our place on the stance and imitates our last position1 the rope1 rightly laid1 should be ready to his hand4 ,on severe climbs there is often not room for two men at the same time on the same stance or platform4 ,to avoid any awkward juggling on the ledge1 it is best for us1 if we are holding1 to move a step or two from the belay1 so soon as we see the next man has got a good handhold near the stance that will bring him securely and immediately to the belay4 ,in this case it is essential for us to leave the ropes lying exactly right1 so that the next man may take position to protect himself1 and us1 with the shortest possible interruption to the safe continuous anchor of the rope4 ,the man who is actually climbing is the man first to be considered4 ,to clear the way for him we must be prepared momentarily to sacrifice our own comfort or solidity4 ,this may seem a commonplace1 but it requires quite an effort of will4 ,i have remarked even among good cragsmen that seven times out of ten they wait too long on the stance1 until the next man is on the top of them1 and ropes and legs are all in a muddle4 ,but when1 with the object of leaving the next man room1 we move out of his way off a stance1 we must take note exactly of what is going to be our own line of advance when he is secure and we start the next section2 and we must avoid moving into any position which will mean repassing and unsettling him1 or even1 as one sometimes sees done1 climbing over him4 ,apart from the risk to his and our own balance1 we shall almost inevitably entangle the rope by a switchback of this sort4 ,in pulling in the rope of an ascending man1 we should be mindful to keep it just taut1 but never tightened or tugged1 unless he calls for it4 ,it requires some education of touch to distinguish between the three4 ,guides are wretched judges in this respect4 8,don't pull60 8,nicht ziehen60 8,ne tirez pas60 is the groan of protest that eddies all the week round alpine centres4 ,but the guide remains convinced he merely had the rope #8taut4' ,all leaders who have never or seldom practised going behind on the rope are apt to make the same mistake4 ,the complaint is constant4 ,the difference between #8taut1' #8tightened' and #8tugged' is best learnt from below4 ,on the other hand1 many climbers who have never led are equally unconscious of the difference1 and of how much they owe on occasion to a discreetly handled rope4 8,you didn't pull me there60 or1 8,i did that without the rope1 anyway60 are the common forms4 ,only a climber experienced in balance can honestly distinguish between the constricting tug that takes his whole weight1 the taut rope that is only precautionary1 and the delicate tightening that just serves to keep his body in balance and so allows freedom to hand and foot to find easy holds4 ,the first is called 8using the rope10 the second 8without using the rope10 and the last guileless but material aid to adjustment is often euphemistically entitled 8the moral support0 of the rope4 ,i must repeat that1 however easy the place or good the climbers1 a man who calls for the rope1 or a pull from the rope1 should always be helped at once4 ,inexperienced climbers are incurably prone to argue that the rope is not really needed4 ,some accidents have been caused in this way4 ,the rope should be put on before rather than when it is really wanted4 ,the rope of a man descending to our stance1 especially of a man descending last1 demands no discernment between subtler strains2 but it requires even more adroit handling4 ,it must never be jerked or tightened1 which may pull him off his balance holds4 ,if it appears to be catching on intervening points1 it must be loosened with the lightest of flicks3 a strong flick will run up the rope and jerk him like the crack of a heavy whip4 ,it must never be left loose to drag or catch close to his feet1 where it will get in the way of his foothold or get round his feet or legs4 ,if he has a long rope out1 the weight alone of the rope1 if we hold it anything like taut from below1 will drag on him4 ,it is best in such case to keep it sliding gently down the rock towards us4 ,as the climber moves down1 a very slight motion of our hand will just free it1 without taking its weight off the rock4 ,our eye should never for an instant leave a man so descending to1 or ascending from1 our stance1 so that if he finds it necessary to reascend or redescend a few inches in order to better his holds or position for the next movement1 we may at once be ready to relax or take in the extra coil he requires or releases4 ,if he is out of our sight while descending towards us1 we watch the rope1 which tells us as much as the sight of the man4 ,if he is out of sight while ascending above us1 our feel of the rope as it tautens or slackens will tell us almost as much as sight or speech4 ,but a man ascending or descending out of sight below us will have to tell us what he wants1 if it is anything more than the usual steady playing1 out or in1 of the taut rope4 ,if1 as often happens in the case of a man who is just climbing up off our stance1 the rope1 owing to his having tied his waist-knot in front1 or crossed the rope1 makes a spiral round his leg1 he should be warned at once1 and we must hold the rope ready to swing it from under his foot as he raises it for the purpose4 ,this sometimes also happens if a man is descending quickly on to our stance4 ,in neither case must the rope be jerked or swung1 to release it1 without his knowledge or the signal of his lifted foot4 ,similarly1 if a man is starting to descend from our stance1 and has his rope knotted in front1 as he turns face inward the rope makes a spiral round his neck or arm4 ,a warning1 and a light sway of the rope may prevent him from anticipating fate4 ,in climbing with beginners it is always worth while seeing1 before they leave our stance1 that the knot of their waist-loop is secure1 and pulled round well to the side1 under the arm4 ,for ascending1 the rope should run up straight from the knot1 in front of the shoulder2 for descending1 in front of or behind the shoulder1 as balance and the angle of the rock suggest4 ,a very risky practice1 common with beginners1 is that of using the active rope as a handhold in difficulties1 to pull themselves up by4 ,unless they can reach a balanced position in one pull1 they are forced then to keep hold of the rope for their balance1 and to take yet a second and higher hold upon it for their next movement4 ,they are thus accumulating a quantity of slack between their point of dependence from the rope and its noose on their waist4 ,and a slack rope is full of dangers4 ,if their grip fails1 they fall all the length of the slack1 and the rope may break4 ,if it does not1 the man above will be subjected to a most unfair jerk1 of whose possibility he may be all the time unconscious4 ,in any case1 the climber is depriving himself of the steady help and protection of a rope1 pulled in taut from above1 on just the passages where he has found himself least capable to cope with the difficulties unaided4 ,no climber should use the rope as handhold without full warning to the man above1 and without making certain that he can in a single pull reach a balanced stance1 where the rope can be again drawn taut upon him4 ,sidenote3 ,with ,stones4 ,to avoid sending down stones with the rope is a sure test of expert climbing4 ,a climber's responsibility in this respect extends the whole length of the rope between him and the companion whose progress he is superintending4 ,in the case of a man above us1 we have a personal interest in seeing that his rope does not drag over loose pebbles or catch on disintegrating points4 ,in that of the man below us1 our personal interest may be less1 but it will be no less appreciated4 ,it must be remembered that the rope as it comes in taut will touch and dislodge much that seemed out of its range when we selected its line of pull-in4 ,an inspection should be made to discover if there are any pebbles lurking just over or on the edges over which it will pass4 ,these last are a special danger in couloirs or ,british gullies1 which consist largely of steep pitches surmounted by accumulations of loose scree4 ,it is often safer and more tempting to move up to the top of these scree spits and not to anchor on the immediate lip of the pitch4 ,great care has then to be taken to remove all loose stones from the line of the rope2 for the rope when taut will drag over the edge of the pitch1 and even apparently firmly embedded stones may work loose under its friction when it is too late to move them into safety4 ,if a rope length has been allowed to sag against the rock1 it must not be pulled in or jerked free hurriedly1 unless we can see that there is nothing it might loosen4 ,over surface visibly friable or pasturing stray stones the rope must be kept from touching at all--a delicate task in continuous going4 ,when men are all moving together1 and our hand1 while seeking for its holds1 is also charged with loose coils and the task of freeing the rope1 it is often difficult to combine an attention to all the loose stones that may be caught by the swinging coils with a simultaneous precaution against possible loose stones under our feet or hands4 ,of course we give warning if one gets loose in spite of our care4 ,but ,i must add that it is considered no valid excuse among mountaineers to plead that a stone was dislodged by the rope4 ,sidenote3 ,during ,halts4 ,the rope1 during halts or interruptions1 should never be left lying about in a tangle4 ,it may catch over points from which it will be difficult to release it4 ,i remember an occasion on an ,aiguille when it took a quarter of an hour to extract some loose lengths1 which had jammed in a deep cleft of the slab on which we were standing4 ,halts for lunch are full of dangers4 ,men begin to cross and recross each other's ropes1 for matches or for conversation1 and at the end of the halt a maze presents itself which can only be solved by long1 impassioned moments of general untying and reroping4 ,it is better for the two end men to unrope for the halt1 and leave their coils ready for easy resumption4 ,two middle men can only get their rope twisted1 not crossed4 ,when a middle man finds1 as often happens1 that the ropes going backward and forward from his waist-knot have got twisted round one another and make a bunch at his waist1 he has only got to lift the upper of the two ropes over his head and pass it under his feet the requisite number of times1 to clear it4 ,once1 after an eighteen hour traverse of the ,dent ,blanche by the ,viereselgrat1 we took a midnight halt on the glacier1 and on re-starting found the rope inextricably interwoven between the five of us4 ,the guides were tired1 too tired to unrope1 or to move eurhythmically2 and the next ten minutes of frenzied gyrations1 with the lanterns whirligigging round one another in the darkness among the crevasses1 will remain a picture as precious as its moral4 ,sidenote3 ,coiling4 ,at the end of a climb the rope should be carefully coiled up1 so that the loops will run out without entanglement4 ,to coil with the lay of the strands avoids kinks4 ,we never know when next the rope may be needed in a hurry2 and the unknotting evolutions1 the passing of the long ends1 etc41 are more irritating before a late start than a late return4 ,during coiling1 the loops should be caught up in the hand1 with the lay1 and laid against one another1 but not allowed to cross4 ,for most men1 especially if they prefer to carry the rope round their chest1 the most convenient length of coil is that made round the sole of the boot and the knee4 ,some prefer coiling round the hand and the elbow4 ,a convenient trick for finishing off such coils is to bind the loose end once or twice round the whole mass of coils near one end1 and then thread it through the smaller of the loops into which the whole coil is thus divided4 ,the loose end1 so threaded1 makes a comfortable shoulder-strap1 by which the whole coil can be suspended over the back4 ,this method of fixing the end is less trouble to undo than the more usual method--to twine both loose ends of the rope through and round and round the finished coil in opposite directions1 and knot them where they meet4 ,this forms a single firm hoop to hang over one shoulder4 ,for this single hoop1 however1 a still better way to finish is to make a half-hitch on the coil with one loose end1 and then wind this one end in a spiral round the coil in the same direction as that of the spiral of the rope-strands4 ,while winding this loose end1 twist its strands tight with the fingers4 ,their inclination to untwist will keep the spirals clinging close round the coil4 ,yet another convenient and quick method of coiling the rope1 suitable for short intervals of disuse1 is that of linking it in #8chain knots'3 short loops are successively pulled through one another in a continuous linking chain1 and this is then swung over the shoulder4 ,the rope should only be left in chain-knots for short periods4 ,the rope can be carried either as a hoop round the shoulders1 or1 more conveniently1 hung over the shoulder-straps1 as a cushion between the rucksack and the back4 ,if it is wet or heavy1 it is best to put it in an empty sack1 or to fix it1 by means of string or its loose ends1 upright between the shoulders1 like a rucksack4 ,if the rope is new1 and has got wet1 it is well to uncoil it in the evening and suspend it1 neither strained nor taut1 round the banisters or looped along a wall4 ,it is wrong to strain a wet rope1 as many climbers do4 ,it stretches the twist and weakens the resilience which is its strength4 ,if a rope has kinked during a climb1 or from being left wet in coil1 in order to clear the kinks it is not necessary to untwist them with the hand4 ,the rope need be only grasped some distance from its end with one hand and swung round circularly in the direction opposed to the twist of the kinks4 ,they work themselves free1 and the hand can then be shifted farther up the rope1 and repeat the swing for another section4 ,the rope should never be dried in the sun or near a fire4 ,the rope should be examined after every ascent1 and at intervals during the day1 for bruises or frayed strands4 ,a single frayed strand justifies the cutting or rejecting of the rope4 ,an old rope should never be used4 ,guides are careless in this respect4 ,sidenote3 ,suitable ,lengths4 ,some parties prefer to have their rope in lengths of #de to #ee feet4 ,each climber is roped separately1 and the middle men thus wear two waist-nooses4 ,this method allows of rapid changes of order1 of easy separation into parties of two1 and so on4 ,for most rock climbing a length of #fj feet is all that is required for the leader4 ,a rope of #ajj to #abj feet is sufficient for three4 ,for parties of four1 one length of #fj feet for the leader1 and one of #ij to #ajj feet for the rest1 are generally found correct4 ,for parties of two1 the length depends on the character of the climb in prospect4 ,but the leader requires more initial allowance for absolute security1 since it is awkward1 with only two men1 for one to unrope in critical positions and give his leader more as he requires it4 ,in larger parties this is less risky4 ,a run-out of #ej to #fj feet is usually accepted as the maximum which a leader should allow himself1 and most sound climbs on rock offer good stances within or at this distance4 ,a few exceptional climbs need #hj or #ajj feet2 but their supposed number is constantly being reduced1 as later parties at their greater leisure discover adequate anchorages at shorter intervals4 ,at distances of #ajj feet1 or even less1 the rope ceases to be even a moral reassurance to the leader1 and its drag alone diminishes his security4 ,if he has a following on such climbs who cannot get up without the help of the rope1 to carry it coiled1 and let it down when he reaches his remote platform1 may be the safer course4 ,sidenote3 ,funicula4 ,our first lesson is to learn how to knot the waist-loop quickly1 and how to untie ourselves4 ,our second1 to unravel expeditiously the entanglements that invade the rope during the extra manuvring which the presence of inexperienced climbers entails4 ,the best end-man knot can be made with a single continuous movement of the hand4 ,the methods of roping and knotting are dealt with elsewhere2 but we must remember to re-examine waist-knots frequently1 for ourselves and the inexperienced4 ,the noose sometimes slips down or becomes dangerously loose amid the confused disarrangement of garments which stiff rocks excite4 ,cases have occurred where men1 slipping on rock or into a crevasse1 have all but fallen out of their careless waist-nooses1 and have remained suspended by one armpit4 ,theoretically we always rope round the chest2 but round a large chest or tapering ribs the rope will not stay up1 unless it is too tight to be comfortable4 ,consequently many men1 and all women1 prefer to rope round the waist4 ,anyone who1 like myself1 prefers to keep the rope up round the chest1 will find a convenient device is to pass the end of the rope1 after tying the knot1 over one shoulder1 and knot it lightly on to the noose again behind4 ,this prevents the weight of the rope1 especially in the case of a leader1 from pulling down the noose round the false chest4 ,if a climber has to make a jump while on the rope1 he must give notice first1 and be sure that he has enough slack rope not to jerk his friends or spoil his own jump4 ,beginners and boys are apt to jump in unexpected places1 and to forget that they have the rope on4 ,on boulders and such-like problems1 wherever height and difficulty make the protection of a rope from above advisable1 the climber should be roped on properly4 ,to dangle a loose cord past him1 as is so often done1 is worse than useless4 ,it tempts him to risky assays2 and then1 if he slips1 it is utterly impossible for him to save himself by snatching at the rope4 ,an unroped man who calls for the rope is generally unable to free more than one hand to tie himself on4 ,therefore the loop1 already tied1 should be sent down to him1 which he can work under his armpits seriatim4 ,failing a loop1 he should twist the rope round his forearm2 but never trust to the grip of the hand alone4 ,if he is within reach1 it is often easier to give him a hand than the rope4 ,a hand-clasp is not strong enough for a sheer lift4 ,each man should grasp the other's wrist2 or they should crook and interlock their fingers4 ,this last is a very powerful hold4 ,every climber should know how to make the simple hitches for sending up sacks or axes on the rope4 ,an undue proportion of the wasted moments of my own life have been spent in unravelling the labyrinthine #8granny' knots with which well-meaning friends have plotted to protect the ascents of their sacks4 ,the #8stirrup' and other marabout rope-tricks may be studied in rescue handbooks4 ,the rope1 as a support1 precautionary1 corrective or moral1 cannot be too minutely studied2 but as a means of evasive traction1 or detached therial flight1 it need not occupy the mundane climber4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,corrective ,,method ,mountain craft has for its object to get us up and down mountains without mistakes4 ,all our training aims at reducing continually the limits within which our mistakes might occur4 ,but human beings are fallible1 and mountains are perverse4 ,mistakes will still be made2 and it is our business to learn how to remedy them1 as well as how to avoid them4 ,our corrective technique must seek to prevent mistakes developing into disasters2 and1 a further step1 guide us to a right conduct when the disaster can no longer be prevented4 ,climbing accidents have a theatrical appeal1 because of their dramatic circumstance1 and the world at large has an exaggerated notion of their frequency4 ,compared with other active sports1 in which the element of danger is tacitly accepted as part of the fascination1 climbing has a singularly clear record4 ,aviation1 hunting1 sailing1 football--their toll of fatal accidents is accepted almost without comment4 ,only in mountaineering does the sudden and spectacular suggestion of annihilation make the isolated accident flare like innumerable stars in the imaginative public eye4 ,and yet of ,british mountaineers not one per cent are killed climbing4 ,,human ,,fallibility ,although fatal accidents are extremely rare1 falls1 slips and missteps are common1--as common1 and as a rule no more harmful than falls out hunting or skating4 ,there are falls from over-confidence1 falls from inexperience1 and falls from pure accident in all active sports4 ,it lies with the experience and skill of the party to prevent such a climbing fall being anything more than an interruption4 ,it were better avoided altogether3 but climbers are not all perfect at their start1 and mountains may be perverse2 and it is only sensible to recognize that mistakes must occur in spite of all precaution1 and to study how to deal with their effects4 ,a safe mountaineer climbs without stumble1 but he is also always alert to check some one else's incipient slip4 ,the management of the rope has prevention of accident as its first object4 ,but correction of the consequences is its second4 ,sidenote3 ,giving ,warning4 ,when men are moving singly1 up or down steep rock1 a fall that can injure should be impossible for anyone but the leader or last man4 ,if the ordinary precautions are observed1 a slip of a few inches is the most that can result4 ,but although we may count upon each other's alertness1 we must give the rope1 and ourselves1 every chance4 ,if we feel a hold giving or muscles failing1 we must give warning at once1 and then hang on for just the extra second--nearly always possible--which will allow our friend above to brace every muscle to meet the direct pull1 or to intrude his utmost #8spring' between the rope and the belay4 ,there exists a superstition that to fall silently is to fall courageously4 ,the man above is sure to hold--8that's his business02 whereas our own concern1 in such extremity1 lies only with our own dignity4 ,but even in falling we remain a member of the party1 and we have no right to indulge a personal gratification4 ,and so a quick #8,look out6' and the fraction of a second's hang-on1 which are enough to secure the concentration not only of the anchor-man but of all the rope1 must be counted as our bounden duty4 ,the same obligation holds good in the case of a party all moving together along a ridge1 or up or down an easy climb4 ,if one man feels his foothold or his balance going1 he has always the instant's time to shout a warning before his weight can come on the rope4 ,the man behind1 if there is one1 will have had his eyes on him and will be ready2 it is the man in front1 with his back turned1 whom he has to consider4 ,this front man will1 if he is climbing soundly1 have been all along taking holds with his margin of resistance in mind4 ,he will also have been noting1 if not using in rapid passage1 all the points for a possible anchor of the rope4 ,the instant's warning will enable him to brace as he stands1 without looking round1 or to fling the rope round a point to support himself before the jerk comes4 ,in such climbing the rope is never quite taut between climbers1 and there will be the run-out of the length of rope slackened by the man falling to add to the interval of time which his shout should have given for preparation4 ,the last man on the rope1 when all are moving together in ascent or descent1 has a special obligation to give this timely warning1 since no one has him in view4 ,the instant he hears the warning or the scrape on the rock1 every man braces his muscles1 and1 if possible1 anchors his rope4 ,a practised ear distinguishes at once between the ordinary clean scrape of a climbing boot and the scuffled scrape of a slip1 or the snap of a breaking handhold4 ,on a thoroughly united rope it sometimes seems as if a premonition of the imminent slip must have reached a good climber in front1 even before the sound1 some consciousness of an interruption in the current of sympathetic action1 so sure has been the anticipation and swift the check4 ,but a man who has himself passed a passage has already a half-realized idea of the sort of trap it may present1 even if he himself evades it1 and his quickened senses are the sooner prepared for the nerve-thrill that precedes the actual warning by as much as thought can out-distance sound4 ,sidenote3 ,easing the ,check4 ,if a climber has had no warning1 or for other reasons cannot at once brace into a secure position1 he should let the rope slip through his hand until he has had time to adjust his balance4 ,this is one of the occasions when gloves are a help4 ,the first touch will tell him if he can hold fast at once or must let the rope slip for the moment4 ,very few falls on places where a party is able to move together are absolutely clear1 or come with the full jerk of the whole weight at the start4 ,this is especially the case on snow1 where friction also checks the pace4 ,i have had on several occasions the man above or below me in a steep snow or ice couloir fall out of a breaking step while we were all descending together4 ,on an occasion when the man below me slipped1 my first effort to check the rope told me that ,i was not firm enough4 ,a second or two were needed to allow myself and the man roped to me above to get #8planted4' ,i partially checked the rope three times1 and had to let it go again at cost of hand and glove1 before ,i felt the rope from the man above tighten on my waist1 and so knew that we were ready to take the full jerk together1 from our combined stances4 ,the intermediate checks had broken the impetus sufficiently to make the final arrest easy4 ,on another occasion in a steep couloir1 when ,i was descending first1 the man above me slipped1 and the last man on the rope1 then in mid-stride1 was unable alone to check the slide at once4 ,he therefore let the rope rush through his hand until the sliding man had spun down past me4 ,then1 of course1 my rope to him also came into action1 and1 dividing the shock between us1 we easily stopped the fall4 ,on rock1 as a rule1 such gradual checks are impossible4 ,fortunately upon rock1 in proportion as the need for an immediate check is the more imperative1 firm stances1 with sound rock hand and foot holds and complementary anchors round rock points1 are more present and instantly serviceable4 ,sidenote3 ,checking on ,traverses4 ,the middle men on traverses are adequately protected1 and need only be checked in the usual manner4 ,but if a leader or last man falls1 before or behind us1 on a long traverse1 it is not sufficient merely to hold firmly or to hold the belay4 ,if we remain stoutly inactive1 he will have enough rope out to fall far enough for injury before the rope can tighten1 and far enough to risk a snap in the rope when the full jerk comes4 ,the rope must be snatched in as he falls1 round the belay or loose in the hands4 ,if the fall is from our own level1 or from only diagonally above us1 we can tighten the rope at once1 and this serves to give a sideways tug to the man falling1 which lessens the force of the final jerk as he swings in below us4 ,during a fall of fifty feet from a traverse on our level1 there may be time to race in a fifth of the length before the jerk comes4 ,on such traverses1 except in a party of two1 there will be usually some one else on our own level1 or near it1 who will share the shock with us by tightening his rope on our waist4 ,if the third man is near enough to help in actually holding the loose rope1 or in belaying it as it comes in1 so much the better4 ,we are the freer ourselves to rush in as much of the flying slack as time allows us4 ,if he is not near enough to help1 we must be prepared1 as we cannot pull in and secure the rope at the same time1 to let the rope tear out again when the jerk comes1 tightening and relaxing it through our hands until we are certain that our balance has survived the shock4 ,the action of the party of two in like circumstance is considered later4 ,after the #8fall' of a man from above or on our level1 or after the few inches of downward movement1 more properly termed a #8decline1' which are all that a well-managed rope will permit to a man below us1 it is better to lower the man down to a good stance1 rather than yield to a universal inclination and attempt to haul him up over the ground he has lost before he has recovered wind and nerve4 ,it means less effort for both4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,case of the ,end ,men4 ,a leader1 or a last man down1 does not fall4 ,it is the first condition of his hegemony that he must not4 ,his fall from any height must mean injury to himself1 and may involve the whole party4 ,in insular climbing1 where distances to hotels and rescue are small and easy descents usually available1 a man may1 if he desires it1 and his second man allows it1 take the chance of falling and hurting himself1 provided that his party is safely anchored4 ,his injury then only involves certain hours of delay and dangerous exposure for himself1 and such anxiety and fatigue to his friends as they may suffer in finding help and in rescuing him4 ,but in the ,alps1 to fall as a leader is to fail lamentably and egregiously as a mountaineer4 ,to fall1 get injured and survive in the ,alps is more actually dangerous to the rest of the party than to get killed4 ,its members must separate4 ,one at least must risk exposure and other objective dangers and stay with the injured man4 ,one1 or two1 if happily there are four in the party1 must face the peril of descent alone1 probably late in the day1 certainly shaken by the accident1 to seek help4 ,the risks and difficulties of mountaineering are increased tenfold for a lonely man1 or for a party returning thus shorthanded and unbalanced4 ,more than once the partial incapacitation of one climber has resulted in the death of one of the friends who went to get help for him4 ,in big mountains we may not take chances1 not even the youngest of us4 ,rock climbers who have learned how to take their risks only for themselves on our own hills1 with open eyes and in no rash spirit1 and think to take them also only for themselves when they go to the ,alps1 are all too commonly blind to their very different conditions and the far graver collective effects of an individual blunder4 ,an injured man in the ,alps means a crippled party4 ,those uninjured are handicapped in time1 combination and nerve to meet the consequent race with darkness or the chances of night1 and frost1 and crevasse1 and avalanche2 but they are forced to take these risks in double measure1 at double pace1 and with reduced strength1 disregarding most of the usual precautions on their own account1 if they are to give their injured companion a chance of timely rescue4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,measure of ,courage4 ,a leader or a last man in the ,alps absolutely must not fall4 ,we may accept the fact that daring leaders will take risks1 and that accidents can happen1 provided every leader is aware of the distinction between the risks which no man may allow himself to take for his party even with their consent1 and the risks which he may take for himself alone1 but which his friends will be ill-advised if they allow him to incur4 ,we cannot but be grateful for the spirit1 though it is but human to criticize the action1 of men who find joy in a contest with forces greater than themselves4 ,too often the profitable by-products of successful courage are alone admitted as justifications for the spirit in which adventure is undertaken4 ,deaths above the clouds or under the water are taken as heroic incidents1 excusable in the interests of human progress4 ,deaths upon rock or under snow1 inspired by the like and often by an even more disinterested spirit of adventure1 are condemned as folly4 ,mountaineering must be judged by a spiritual1 not a utilitarian1 standard4 ,courage1 moral and physical1 that has its source in vigorous vitality and its goal in the extension of human freedom1 finds on the hills its hardiest school4 ,it is a very wholesome emulation that leads men1 as their skill and power increase1 to measure them against ever-increasing natural difficulties4 ,our competition with the mountains injures no other human competitor by our success4 ,our conquest of them ends only in the conquest of ourselves4 ,during these last years by none has the sacrifice been made more willingly than by our younger climbers4 ,their courage was that of the races from which they sprang3 to mountaineering they owed its discovery and its training4 ,we may not reproach it to the hills if the self-reliance they teach leads1 here or there1 some high heart into danger1 before their harder lesson1 of experience1 has been learned4 ,and having said this1 ,i must repeat that a leader in the ,alps or big ranges1 before he takes a chance1 must make certain that the risk will be confined to himself1 supposing such certainty can ever be attained4 ,when he has made as certain of this as he can--he must not fall6 ,sidenote3 ,the ,second ,man's ,action4 ,but still1 miscalculation is possible and accidents may occur4 ,a hold may have broken1 and an end man1 leading or last1 has fallen4 ,in the case of a fall1 the second man's duty is to the party1 and only in so far as the greater includes the less1 to the leader4 ,the leader has endangered the safety of the whole rope1 which lay in his hands1 by risking a fall2 the duty devolves upon the second man to counteract the further consequences and to take up the leader's duty to the collective security of the rope4 ,no leader who deserves the position will have fallen on any but difficult rock1 where the party are moving singly and where they are properly secured4 ,his second man will therefore have him either well belayed1 or be in a position calculated to meet the chance of his fall4 ,on steep upward or downward climbing he will rarely be able to pull in much of the rope as it rushes past4 ,if he is alone on the stance1 he cannot take the chance1 as a man often can on a traverse where he is well backed up1 of doing anything that will risk the final jerk catching him unprepared4 ,if he1 too1 falls1 it is seldom that others of the party can arrest the twofold fall4 ,his corrective action is practically confined to doing all he can to spring the rope1 with arm1 hand or body1 so as to lessen the chance of its snapping4 ,it is one of the more serious attractions of climbing two alone1 that the two men can divide all responsibility equally1 and take their chances happily together1 without one of them ever being placed in the painful position of choosing between two duties4 ,in a party of two the second's duty is only to his leader4 ,he shares in the decision to try or not to try4 ,if the attempt fails1 and the leader falls1 he holds him or he falls with him4 ,he can give himself wholeheartedly to his first natural impulse1 which is to associate himself entirely with the man in danger4 ,if it is the best chance for both1 he will hold the belay1 and let the rope take its chance4 ,but he is free to take a greater risk for himself by attempting to rush in the rope or by hazarding more of his direct intervention between the leader and the belay1 if he thinks that by so doing he can lessen the even greater danger to his leader of the rope breaking4 ,the decision1 like all a second man's decisions about his duties1 is difficult1 and must be made like lightning2 but in a party of two it is at least not complicated by any hurried alteration in the order of his duties1 such as follows upon the fall of a leader in a larger party4 ,his first duty1 in that case1 is to the rest of the party2 the duty to the leader descending1 with him1 into second place4 ,sidenote3 ,after a ,fall4 ,if a leader has once fallen1 even if he is not physically injured1 he must be treated1 for the time at least1 as no longer in control4 ,the second1 in consultation with the rest of the party1 must decide whether advance is still possible4 ,no man's judgment1 nerve or temper can be entirely unaffected by a fall1 and even if the nerves appear unshaken at the moment1 a reaction follows later4 ,our object must be to postpone this inevitable nervous reaction1 both for the man and for the party4 ,if the leader is uninjured1 action is the best restorative2 and ,i believe the wiser course often is to encourage him to resume the lead1 and so force himself to concentrate all his faculties upon his immediate task1 and on that alone4 ,it requires some confidence to do this2 but if we know our leader1 and have been justified in allowing him to try the passage at all1 it is best for him and best for us to let him feel that our confidence is not diminished1 and that he has still a first duty1 to bring his party through the difficulty4 ,the reaction will thus be postponed1 at least as long as the necessity for serious action continues1 and may be put off altogether4 ,if the leader is really nervously shaken1 he will know it at once himself4 ,he must then be rested1 and the second takes over the lead4 ,but the preservation of the morale and good spirits of the party1 including the leader1 must be the first consideration4 ,there should be no hint of criticism1 even of words or tone1 in any rearrangement which is decided upon4 ,the affair should be treated at the time lightly1 as an incident4 ,if the leader has blundered through inexperience or a real defect of judgment1 or if the second has grounds to think that he is off his day or has been taking unjustifiable risks without consultation1 reasons which would make it unwise to trust him for the rest of a severe climb1 it should be quietly assumed that he does not wish to continue leading4 ,any moralizing or implied reproof will only hinder the recovery of equanimity in the case of an old hand2 and in the case of a less experienced man1 or of one leading on his trial1 criticism is better left for some more leisurely occasion4 ,one coincident effect even of a slight accident may perhaps be mentioned4 ,a number of strong men1 climbers among them1 turn faint at the sight of blood1 especially1 seemingly1 in times of nervous strain4 ,they are often unaware of the tendency until the occasion arises4 ,even if they foresee1 they cannot overcome the attack2 but they can give warning4 ,it has twice happened to me to see mountaineers of physique and nerve faint in their steps1 once on ice1 once on snow1 when a guide had cut his hand in front4 ,on the one occasion we had two minutes' warning1 on the other none4 ,sidenote3 ,accidents4 ,if a climber is injured by his fall1 more severely than will allow of his climbing unaided1 surgical ministrations are the first necessity2 with these ,i am not dealing here4 ,the subsequent action must depend on the place and people4 ,if it is possible for the party to convey him at least as far as some sheltered place where help can easily reach him1 this should be done at any risk4 ,the chief danger is collapse following on the shock1 and his period of cold and exposure must be shortened even at the hazard of increasing the local injuries by moving him4 ,on rock1 if the party consists of four men1 and one is strong1 the injured man should be slung on to his back by slings fixed round his shoulders and thighs1 and the rest of the party must assist the loaded man with rope and hand4 ,on easy rock men can act as the bearer's crutches1 to take part of the weight4 ,on steep rock where carrying is practically impossible1 especially if there are only two or three to bring him down1 he can be lowered over difficult places1 suspended in the triple-bowline chair or tied firmly and rigidly to the rope1 according as the injuries permit4 ,if possible1 two men should lower1 using ropes from different angles above1 and one should guide from below4 ,if he is unconscious1 his head should be supported by an extra sling to the rope1 with a coat as a cushion round which the extra sling is passed4 ,a broken leg should be bound with putties between ice-axes1 or to one ice-axe and then to the other leg4 ,a broken arm should be strapped with a puttie across the body4 ,on steep snow or ice1 where carrying is impracticable1 it is best for one man to convert himself into a sledge1 to lie on the snow1 take the injured man in his arms1 and let himself be lowered on the rope1 in steady stages1 down the slope4 ,as soon as the lower slopes are reached1 one man should go off for assistance 7two1 if possible1 when glaciers are in question72 and meanwhile a stretcher can be made of cross-linked rope1 or of boughs or axes combined with rope4 ,it is well to remember that carrying a stretcher over rough ground is exhausting work1 and not to spare men in the rescue party4 ,with a heavy man rapid shifts are necessary1 and twelve men have been found barely sufficient to bring down a heavy man with a broken leg1 in the dark1 over some hours of broken ground4 ,if the ground is too steep for a stretcher1 and too broken for lowering on a slide1 it is best to use a blanket or a web of rope2 upon this the man can be lowered sideways1 stage by stage1 the men on the under side holding up their edge so as to keep the lie level4 ,if the ground allows of the stretcher being carried freely1 but is still inclined1 one or1 better1 two men should act as a brake behind1 pulling back on a rope attached to the stretcher4 ,during the descent1 one man familiar with the ground should be sent ahead to select the easiest line4 ,a carriage or car should be brought to the nearest point of the road or track4 ,the surgeon should have been already sent for by any available car or horse4 ,if it is impracticable to get the man down until the rescue party arrives1 by reason of the difficulty of the climbing or the weakness of the party1 one man at least must stay with him1 and the other1 or more happily two others1 must make all speed consistent with caution to get assistance4 ,an injured man must never be left alone4 ,if the descent is severe1 the two most capable should descend2 and they must remember that even more depends upon their getting down safely than upon their getting down quickly1 and resist the insidious recklessness and #8it-can't-be-worse' spirit that affect the nerves of all men at such times4 ,a code of signals1 of shouts and lights1 should be arranged1 if not already known4 ,this is most important1 and often forgotten4 ,it is wonderfully cheering to hear the human voice4 ,nothing serves better to sustain the spirits and keep off dangerous lethargy or collapse than the shouts which let the waiting men know that their friends are safely down1 and help assured1 or which hearten them on the return long before the rescue party can reach them4 ,with the same object1 if the rescue party cannot start at once1 lights should be flashed at night from some point in the valley visible to the waiting men4 ,a single match is visible for miles4 ,the simplest code of call for help is six shouts or flashes in the minute1 followed by an interval of a minute's silence4 ,the reply1 signifying the call is heard and understood1 is three shouts or flashes in the minute1 with a minute's pause4 ,but men do well to arrange1 and write down1 a fuller code of communication before they divide on such occasions4 ,rescue parties1 of guides or local people1 are often slow in getting under way4 ,if they find they cannot get a sufficiently strong party together at once1 the friends or1 if possible1 some good substitutes1 should form an express advance party1 taking the few first necessaries and making the best pace they can4 ,of even more effect than their physical restoratives will be the moral reassurance they bring that the real rescue party is under way4 ,waiting and uncertainty materially lower the nervous resistance to injury or exposure4 ,the men most concerned should not leave the dispatch and direction of the main rescue party to the professionals or the local people alone1 who will always claim it as their business and1 more from ignorance than lack of sympathy1 often treat it as a function to be lingered over and discussed in all its details4 ,not infrequently in the ,alps the first men to volunteer will be the idle and unemployed1 and therefore the least competent4 ,the officious local man1 who may be only concerned to see his name in print and get credit and shillings1 is particularly to be guarded against4 ,unless some first-rate men can be at once secured1 or another amateur be found to take charge1 one of the original party must stay behind to take command himself1 and send his friend1 with the best auxiliaries available1 to conduct the first party of reassurance4 ,it seems advisable to mention these details1 as the natural inclination of men who have been shaken by an accident and by anxiety is to yield to well-meant pressure and leave the #8speeding up' of the often dilatory rescue column to the local hotel-keeper or the first discoverable guide2 only concerned themselves1 if they are fit1 to hasten back with reassurance to their waiting friends4 ,but1 of the two1 the first is the more urgent duty4 ,in the event of death and not injury swift action is of less importance4 ,the mountaineer's difficult task is then to get the rest of his crippled party down safely4 ,peasants of all lands1 accustomed to the accidents of life and death1 are insensitive to anything but their familiar realism4 ,their help may be counted upon1 but they cannot be expected to show a very understanding sympathy4 ,no later operation should therefore be left to their charge without the supervision of one of the party1 or of a friend4 ,the ,press may be expected to become for the time an extra burden2 its curiosity is better eluded by carefully worded anticipation than left to its own sensational inventiveness4 ,violent death is savage in its reactions2 and manners and taste1 which survive only as a thin glaze upon our semi-civilized communities1 evaporate at its first rumour4 ,although ,i have thought it right not to exclude entirely some suggestion as to dealing with cases of serious or fatal accident1 forty-eight out of fifty mountaineers may1 and do1 finish their career without ever being actively concerned in one4 ,,mountain ,,perversity ,besides the accidents which are produced by the classes of things which at times go away from us1 such as holds1 balance1 or our common sense1 there are other less evitable mishaps produced by the classes of things which at times come at us--stone falls1 snow slides1 or storms4 ,mountaineers are too sophisticated any longer to accept a naive statement1 that our mishap has been due to one of these causes1 as a complete exoneration4 ,sidenote3 ,falling ,stones4 ,stones1 indeed1 form the most convincing excuse4 ,good mountaineers may use all their discretion to avoid lines where stones fall1 but the casual stone1 or the stone loosened by human agency1 may yet overtake them4 ,a man hit by a stone falling from a height1 even if he laughs it off1 has nearly always received a greater shock than he realizes4 ,his nerves will be vibrating for a time like strings1 and we must be on the look out1 especially if we are in exposed places1 until we are certain that he is normal again4 ,i have known a man grow faint ten minutes after a stone had struck him and left no apparent mark2 and ,i have seen a guide slip half dazed from his steps a full minute after he had been hit by a spinning stone not the size of a button1 which did not even cut through his hat4 ,but even the peril of irresponsible stone falls can be caged within narrower limits as our experience and our foresight increase4 ,it is itself a small department of our science of reconnoitring to learn how to calculate their probability and recognize their signs4 ,couloirs and gullies are obvious funnels upon which wandering stones concentrate4 ,in a snow or ice-backed couloir we must study the difference between the ominous furrows made by stones or those made by water4 ,in a rock gully we have to look out not only for stones that may use it as a channel1 but for all that its weathering walls may contribute on their own account1 or that the changes of temperature1 or even the disturbance of our own passage1 may dislodge from the balanced accumulations4 ,the surest signs are the absence or presence of stones on the glacier below a couloir1 or the grey scars or bruises made by the cannonading stones on the rocks themselves4 ,but these may only indicate stone fall at certain hours of the day4 ,big grooves in steep precipices and hollows between ribs1 where stones may congregate1 or featureless flat faces1 where they may wander unconfined at their own wild will1 are alike suspicious1 and the bases of their cliffs must be inspected4 ,rock faces1 corrugated with very shallow ribs and hollows1 are particularly dangerous1 as falling stones may ricochet unaccountably across the ribs1--stones harder to foresee and to dodge than direct falls4 ,the edges of glaciers commanded by steep precipices are certain to be stone-shelled4 ,precipices commanded by glaciers--that is1 by the small glaciers hanging high up on great peaks1 which are often difficult to locate from below--have also their fixed hours2 as soon as the ice feels the sun it begins to discharge its surface stones1 and continues until the evening4 ,but without our own examination we need not condemn any face on general grounds or from hearsay4 ,a number of fine mountain walls in the ,alps have been unjustly condemned in their entirety for merely local weaknesses4 ,others offer salient ribs or lines sheltered by accidents of structure through the heart of suspected zones4 ,only inspection can say4 ,we may presume steep faces to be more safe than those of easier inclination1 because the rock should be sounder1 and because chance stones ought to fall outside us if they do fall4 ,if we have been unfortunate in our reconnoitring1 or if we have deliberately tempted fortune too far upon a suspected route1 we may on occasion have to put our pride and our progress in our pocket and be content to sit out under a grateful rock screen until evening or shadow has chilled the vehemence of the stone barrage4 ,it is better to risk a night out than persist in tackling a bad line at a bad time4 ,an overhanging rock is a sure refuge4 ,but we are also advised1 if ever we see that sunlight is increasing the hostile fire upon some passage that we have to negotiate1 to wait until a cloud has frozen up the ammunition sources4 ,as ,i have never yet lighted upon a stagnant party while they were spending some portion of a climbing day in a pensive examination of the sky for this purpose1 ,i must conclude either that clouds are as perverse as stone falls in the ill-timing of their arrival1 or that men are as perverse as both in their pigheaded prosecution of a fair-weather programme4 ,besides their customary routes1 which we avoid by experience or as the result of examination1 there are occasions both of place and time when stones fall unaccountably4 ,stones of large mass will fall at night2 the melted snow freezes into the cracks1 levers the stones from their attachment1 and their weight does the rest4 ,stones1 of smaller size but in larger profusion1 will fall in the morning1 as the sun again melts the ice in the cracks1 which has already detached these lighter stones but kept them for the night frozen in position4 ,during these morning hours1 therefore1 stones must be looked for on rock faces where they need not be expected during the rest of the day4 ,during all the hours of hot sunlight1 slopes of mixed rock and snow1 even of easy angle and harmless aspect1 may become operative4 ,rock extruding from ice is generally more disintegrated1 and much of its freshly exposed surface1 temporarily cemented by frost1 is liable to discharge in sunshine4 ,any slope of ascent which drains a wide stone-shed of such mixed character must be approached with caution4 ,again in hot seasons1 after snowless winters1 whole regions of rock1 gradually disintegrated under their normal covering of ice or snow1 become exposed2 and in such seasons stones must be looked for on the most respectable peaks4 ,impeccable cliffs1 of traditional mountaineering approach1 will be cinctured at their base1 and not only there1 by bands of discharging rock1 remote from and disregarding the time-honoured waste-shoots4 ,bad weather1 rain1 and especially wind1 will start volleys in unaccountable places at the most inconvenient times4 ,after storm or heavy rain1 even secure lower paths may be raked by a dropping fusillade4 ,but such passing exuberances have also their comfortable aspect4 ,the bruises that surprise us by their appearance on sheer hard crag1 where no stone had any business to fall1 or the intimidating fragments on the glacier below our firm and promising rib1 may be merely such a single past morning's effervescence or the excesses of a solitary thunderstorm4 ,other surprise stones may be due to the passing of goats or chamois above--a rare case in the ,western ,alps--or more frequently to the presence of other parties4 ,these are a very definite and constant danger1 especially on loose faces like the ,matterhorn ascent from ,zermatt1 where half a century of clumsy climbing seems only to have augmented the supply of mountain ammunition available for daily use4 ,it can only be avoided by keeping off these routes1 or by making sure of starting first4 ,if we succeed in so doing1 we must remember our mountain manners4 ,on any route where stones are likely to fall1 no party1 however expert1 has the right to increase the risk for others below by racing ahead4 ,unless our line takes us well out of range1 we must wait1 in ascending or descending1 before crossing any passages where there is a prospect of our dislodging loose stones1 until the party below is temporarily sheltered or near enough to suffer small damage from the event4 ,we may expect the same consideration from our forerunners1 or make ourselves clamorously audible until we secure it4 ,stones loosened by the party upon itself1 by rough grip climbing1 by sitting while descending1 by a rope carelessly managed1 and so on1 are matters for the correction of climbing technique1 and cannot be rated1 either mentally or vocally and emphatically1 as risks from external causes4 ,but there is still always the familiar terror of the single stealthy stone1 that shoots out for a solitary venture on the blandest of mixed rock and ice climbs1 sliding soundlessly or skipping venomously on a sharp edge4 ,it can only be countered by the warning of an alert leader and by prompt dodging4 ,the throwing of stones from the tops of peaks or cliffs is happily confined1 apart from a few classical recorded cases1 to tourists in our own islands4 ,it is not done by mountaineers2 and the method of impressing its serious dangers upon the offenders may be left to the emotional coefficient of the party imperilled to elaborate4 ,if1 in spite of all precautions1 a falling stone1 or a fall of stones1 threatens us1 our position at the moment decides our action4 ,in the case of a rock avalanche1 whose minatory sound is unmistakable1 we shall hear it before we see it2 there is nothing to be done but to crouch and get what cover the rock will afford1 especially for the head1 without trying to locate it4 ,if it is a single stone1 or a few stones1 sight and not sound will be giving us the warning 7unless the risk is already past71 and it is best to wait1 with back or side turned towards the stone1 and watch over our shoulder4 ,a stone falls surprisingly slowly to the eye2 its course can be followed1 and dodged most effectively at the last second1 if it is not in any case aimed to miss us4 ,in dodging or taking cover from stones1 the rope must not be forgotten4 ,it is little less serious for the rope to be caught by a large stone falling than for one of the party4 ,to run is often more dangerous1 for other reasons1 than to stand still4 ,most guides are terrified of falling stones4 ,they are the one risk external and unaccountable which they cannot train themselves to meet1 because no skill can foresee them4 ,some part of their allied dread of bad weather is due to the increased risk of stones it brings3 8,a terrible sound of stones cast down1 or a running that could not be seen of skipping beasts1 444 or a rebounding echo from the hollow mountains1 these things made them swoon with fear40 ,the majority of guides will shout and start skipping indiscriminately in panic4 ,men who do this must be brought sharply to their senses4 ,an effective1 if possibly fallacious1 argument is to point out that a stone by falling on a particular line has enormously reduced the chance that another will fall on the same line again4 ,this argument does not apply to the case of stones which converge from wider areas above1 to fall through a particular gully or couloir4 ,a mountaineer1 if he finds himself in such a conduit1 had certainly better get out of it as quickly as may be safely possible4 ,if it is absolutely necessary to cross a couloir where falling stones may be expected1 or heard1 it is best for the party to cross singly1 unroped4 ,but if crossing unroped involves a more immediate risk than the chance of a stone striking1 not more than two men should remain on the same rope together4 ,one man should cross the couloir alone1 with plenty of rope loose for a spring forward or backward to safety1 while the other anchors under shelter4 ,if there are three men on the rope1 the two end men should cross first1 each with plenty of rope2 the middle man follows last1 with the same allowance4 ,this reduces the danger for the middle man4 ,to be caught by stones in a couloir on the middle of a rope held at both ends is to be trapped4 ,there is no time for the man at either end to release his rope1 or1 even were that possible1 to discover towards which side the middle man intends to escape4 ,on the whole1 considering the amount of stones that fall in the ,alps1 especially on frequented peaks1 the amount of stones that are dislodged by inexperienced climbers on one another on our own cliffs1 and the amount of recent stones that litter all mountain bases1 and that must have fallen some time1 it is astonishing how few and how slight have been the injuries they have caused4 ,sidenote3 ,snow ,slides4 ,snow slides or avalanches are restricted in summer to more definite danger-zones than are the errant stones4 ,but when they come they are less evitable and more overwhelming in action4 ,snow falls not only according to the accident of its position1 which is ascertainable1 but also according to the chance of its condition2 and this is susceptible to influences more numerous and more volatile than the comparatively better delimited and more violent forces that produce the loosening and fall of stones4 ,again1 if we are forced to cross danger-areas of stones or snow1 we have the better chance in the case of stones4 ,each falling stone only occupies in its fall a fraction of the area of danger1 and may be eluded2 but every inch of snow in an area of avalanche risk is alike pregnant with danger4 ,it is no longer a question of artful dodging individually1 but of an escape in time by the whole party1 possibly over a considerable extent of slope1 all of it equally treacherous4 ,but snow makes these concessions to the skilful leader3 its presence can be located2 its condition can be tested in advance4 ,experienced reconnoitring beforehand may advise us to avoid a snow passage altogether3 precaution on the spot1 a thorough testing of its holding quality1 gives us a second chance of eluding an unpleasing surprise4 ,but these safeguards are precautionary rather than corrective1 and belong properly to the province of prevention1 that is of snow craft4 ,correction becomes needful when we have been deceived in our craft1 and find ourselves by error1 or perhaps by chance1 on a risky snow passage4 ,the snow threatens to slide or to avalanche1 because it is either powdery and superficially slithery1 or water-logged1 or crusted and detached below1 or bedded deceitfully upon ice4 ,now1 to continue to trough horizontally across suspicious snow is equivalent to sawing through a high branch1 on which you are seated1 between yourself and the trunk4 ,we must turn vertically up1 or down1 or follow as steep a diagonal as we may4 ,we make steps as far as possible apart1 and we tread exactly and lightly in each other's4 ,if there is firmer snow below1 we drive the axe to the head at each step1 and loop the rope4 ,in extreme cases we may turn face inward1 as the toe is less disturbing than the heel or side-boot4 ,or we may have to clear away the snow and make steps in the ice below4 ,all as our craft dictates4 ,on positively dangerous snow there is much to be said for unroping1 should we have to continue long in equal insecurity4 ,the rope can be little protection2 concerted action once a slide starts is impossible1 and if the slide embraces the footing of all the party1 the individual chances of survival are greater without it4 ,but while admitting that there is a case for unroping1 ,i have never known a party do it4 ,if1 in spite of all our discretion1 the snow slide or avalanche starts1 any further chance of corrective action passes out of our hands with the loss of our footing4 ,a good deal has been written about what we ought to do in an avalanche3 cut the rope1 adopt a swimming attitude1 roll sideways and so on4 ,to anyone who has ever bathed in broken surf1 or felt the weight of even a thin film of snow sliding about his ankles or on to his shoulders1 all such nostrums will seem about as practical as that delightful recommendation that we should all wear a red appendage of trailing string1 as a signal to those who search for us in an avalanche4 ,the vision of a line of sturdy mountaineers tripping intricately across a snowfield like embarrassed macaws in pursuit of each other's scarlet tails may give us some pleasurable moments4 ,possibly coloured air-balloons1 to keep the string-tails floating archly above our heads1 might add to their picturesque efficacy4 ,a man in an avalanche can only act by instinct2 and he will instinctively struggle4 ,if he keeps1 or ends1 upon the surface1 it will be due to the shallowness of the slide or the depth of his good fortune4 ,it is well to remember that a man1 by an accident of compression1 may live for some time although overwhelmed and out of sight under the snow2 the survivors therefore must take the risk of further snow falling and attempt the rescue work at once4 ,the chances of survival will always be greater in a slide of powdery snow than in one of wet snow4 ,sidenote3 ,ice ,fragments4 ,ice falls in fashions more fathomable than snow1 over more limited areas and by more discoverable rules4 ,we may find ourselves forced to pass below sracs on glaciers4 ,a srac may fall2 but sracs are very obvious as well as beautiful1 and the really capable eye is at fault if it cannot foretell when one is likely to fall1 within an hour or two1 and hurry out of its track4 ,even if it is too far above us for inspection1 there is plenty to guide us in the condition of the ice near us and in the feel of the atmosphere4 ,sracs are usually safer than they look2 and it is wiser1 if we find ourselves unwittingly under fire1 to glide out of it quietly and competently than to rush into the real frying-pan of a panicky flight4 ,if there is opportunity1 we get rid of the rope2 a man on claws1 without the rope1 has a much better chance of dodging the srac that topples4 ,heavy step-cutting just below a poised column had better be avoided2 but ,i am half sorry to record that the hallowed myth that it is dangerous to talk or breathe loudly on such passages is not borne out by latter-day sracs4 ,i have shouted very loudly and clearly into the ear of a number of very promising ones--of course from safe positions on their shoulders1 and not1 like ,lauener1 from their #8dangerous' heads--without eliciting even a nod of response4 ,only one other case suggests itself where falling ice might be classed as an external or objective risk2 and that more because the extent of its danger-zone is undiscoverable than because its position1 or the probability of its fall1 is concealed from ordinary foresight4 ,in a snowy season1 with alternates of melting sun and freezing wind1 the day comes when the rocks of a peak or ridge are armoured with ice plates or ice spears4 ,if we traverse unsuspectingly below such walls1 an hour's sunlight may expose us1 in the middle of our enjoyment of our postponed fine day1 to a raking and dangerous fire4 ,the missiles may come shooting over the edge of any innocent1 black jut or buttress far above us4 ,the only course is to watch1 and dodge1 and make carefully for open country4 ,that what has fallen once cannot fall again in the same place is even more true of these ice plates than of stones4 ,for our mischance1 also1 we may have to blame ourselves as much as the mountain4 ,rocks in such a state generally betray some gleam of their ice armour to a heedful examination1 and as the chance of such a condition occurring should have been suggested to us by the kind of weather that produced it1 we ought to have been able approximately to locate the peril beforehand1 and avoid its zone4 ,sidenote3 ,evil ,weather4 ,thunderstorms or blizzards may produce direct catastrophe4 ,of a blizzard we should have had premonitory signs2 and if we are caught in it1 we must just fight through it1 and we may not afterwards justly blame the mountains4 ,it is a foolish pride which thinks to show hardihood by persisting wilfully1 among big mountains1 against the threat or oncoming of evil weather4 ,but thunderstorms may take us unawares2 and then our only refuge is retreat4 ,their chief menace lies along the edges of ridges and on outstanding points4 ,if a storm threatens1 we must get off the ridges and away from pinnacles as quickly as possible1 even if it may mean cutting down an ice slope4 ,sometimes our first warning may be an electric shock1 coming out of a dark and windless silence or through a warm oppression of slow-falling and separate snow-flakes1 and thrilling us helplessly from heel to hair4 ,if there is no other sign1 and in the heart of the worst storms there is no flash and no thunder1 the singing of our axes and the hissing crackle of the discharge from every point of the ridge will give warning that it is well to go elsewhere4 ,we are generally advised to get rid of our axes4 ,if we are on a big peak1 this will mean our seeking scanty shelter not very far below the ridge where the storm caught us4 ,personally1 ,i prefer to keep my axe1 and use it to climb well down one of the flanking walls4 ,while we remain on the ridge or near it1 all points1 including ourselves1 are potential conductors1 and it is awkward to get far down without an axe4 ,we once came on a whole grove of axes abandoned on a summit4 ,when we saw1 later1 the angle and the condition of the snow slopes that this party had been driven to descend without their axes1 to escape from the storm1 we realized what frightening things men can do if they are only frightened enough4 ,thunderstorms apart1 the perils of bad weather are indirect1 and give us time to use precautionary rather than corrective skill4 ,a very strong wind may of course blow us right out of our steps4 ,i have only seen this actually happen once1 to a light-limbed mountaineer1 who pitched very neatly on the ice steps ten feet lower down4 ,ordinarily we cling on as we can1 and evade the direct blast by moving on to the other side of a ridge4 ,wind will also pelt us with stones and icicles in unexpected places1 or lacerate our faces with snow particles4 ,but its principal effect is usually upon men's nerves1 who get #8rattled' and lose their collective rhythm4 ,continuous loud noise always interrupts communications1 and breeds flurry or confusion4 ,it is worth while taking shelter behind rocks1 if only for a minute or two at intervals1 to steady the nerves again4 ,mist and fog can only harm us if our craft fails4 ,we meet them by compass and the sense of direction4 ,wind can make a gracious exception to its usual offensiveness1 and help us in mist4 ,if we have noted its direction1 and have observed that it is a constant and not a gusty or spinning wind1 we can keep a straight course by keeping it always on the same cheek4 ,again1 when he is approaching the crest of a ridge or a pass1 what mountaineer has not had cause1 in mist1 or even in sun1 to welcome the little rushes or breaths of wind that tell him the edge is near and assure him of his direction8 ,after a weary plough up foggy snow terraces or a harsh struggle on mist-wet rocks1 these soughs seem like the mountain1 too1 sighing with our relief1 or like the end of our travail surprising our mournful faces with a kindly but derisive #8pooh6' ,earthquakes are natural perversities outside the sphere of ordinary mountaineering prevision4 ,among mountains their danger is indirect or subsequent4 ,they injure a number of good rock routes1 and after a series of shocks we may expect some grievous deterioration in the condition of rock pinnacles and faces4 ,large masses will have been precariously loosened1 and our ledges will be littered with poised blocks and cranky rubble4 ,the peaks affected may require markedly cautious climbing for some seasons1 until time and weather shall have tidied down the surfaces again4 ,some years ago certain of the ,chamonix ,aiguilles had to be left unvisited for a time on this account4 ,as to how we should meet the uproar of the eruptive moments1 it is difficult to suggest an approved method4 ,a mountaineer of reputation relates how an earthquake caught him on the precipitous north face of the ,dent du ,gant2 and how that proud pinnacle rocked so portentously that his feet were flung free1 and he only saved himself by swinging perilously1 like a pendulum1 from his handholds4 ,it is reassuring to feel that such exceptional circumstance does generally select the exceptional man1 and that it invariably finds him inspired to deal with its crises imaginatively4 ,for upon such natural inspiration it would be difficult to improve by devising any more formal code4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,ice ,,and ,,snow ,,craft ,sidenote3 ,the ,age for ,glaciers4 ,rock is the framework of mountains1 and for those who discover their enthusiasm or train their activity among our western hills1 rock craft must always remain the basis of mountaineering4 ,many of us would not be dissatisfied if the chances of time and leisure offered us no wider field4 ,for our performance1 there is more than a lifetime could hope even to examine between the precipices of our mounting uplands and the descending cliffs of our long sea coasts2 and for our sthetic pleasure1 nature1 through the medium of a soft and variable atmosphere1 shrouds the settled lines of our hills with a delicacy of interrupted and changing colour1 and a grave reticence of shadow1 sun-break and mist1 that leave nothing incomplete for the fulfilment of that sense of power and wonder whose realization gives something of the quality of religion to our feeling for great mountains4 ,these ancient hills are at peace with their neighbours the fields1 and rest tranquilly among them2 content to contribute with their waters and pasture to the fertility1 and with their mists and rocks and seclusion to the holiday pleasure of the land which in youth they were wont to cumber with the fragments of each fiery insurgence1 or bury under the white burden of their glacial defeats4 ,in other lands1 to modify the harshness and to order the exuberance of younger ranges1 whose ambition would yet challenge the stars1 nature has still to avail itself of the sterner and more primitive discipline of ice and perpetual snow4 ,with this veil1 constant but always renewing1 it subdues the barrenness and the aggressive angularity proper to their period of immaturity and change1 and preserves for them the aloofness that is at once the protection and the charm of free-growing childhood4 ,it is a mistake to think of the ,alps or the ,himalaya as venerable because their heads are white3 theirs are all the irrepressible impulse1 the uneven humour1 the unconscious cruelty and the overflowing vitality of froward but jolly children4 ,a mountaineer may be satisfied to nurse his athletic infancy upon home rocks1 and he may be happy to pass the later years of his experience among the more elusive impressions and more subtle romance of our old and quiet hills4 ,but in the storm years of his strength he should test his powers1 learn his craft and earn his triumphs in conflict with the abrupt youth and warlike habit of great glacial ranges4 ,snow and ice are permanent upon the high hills1 and consequently ice and snow craft are essential departments of greater mountaineering4 ,to treat them as decorative adjuncts1 cultivated by a certain set of rather old-fashioned folk1 or to say1 as ,i have heard more than one promising climber say in effect1 8,rock is good enough for me3 snow and ice only mess it up2 ,i shan't bother with that sort of ,alp60 and then rush off to the ,dolomites as a relief from the ,fells1 is equivalent to refusing to exchange the foil play of practice for the rapier play of real contest with the best champions of the mountain realm3 it means the repudiation of the better half of mountain knowledge1 and the renunciation of almost all its rewards4 ,the higher craft of mountaineering begins above the line of perpetual snow4 ,a rock climber who leaves his rocks at that level can never discover even all that rocks may offer of difficulty and variety4 ,the refinements of climbing develop out of the modifications that rock and ice and snow produce in one another4 ,it is among the elastic extensions1 the frequent exceptions1 which their combination imposes upon our grammar rules for rock or snow1 that the mountaineer is evolved out of the climber4 ,illustration3 ,,rock ,,and ,,ice ,,sydney ,,spencer ,our strong years are the years in which to learn the complete craft of greater mountaineering4 ,and it is also in these years1 while the senses are keen and the imagination undimmed1 that the entries and illustrations most worthy of assembling in our book of memory can be collected from among the daring sights and hazardous incidents of high mountaineering as from no other region of adventure4 ,never to have broken too soon with sleep1 and issued up on to the grey coldness of night-frozen glaciers2 never to have felt rather than seen the loneliness of frosted grey peaks1 oppressed with a sanctity of reluctant seclusion2 never to have endured the enchantment of solitary space1 an intimate but hostile fascination that is found elsewhere only in the desert and among arctic silences2 never to have almost heard the strange expectancy that fills great snow fields before dawn with questions never uttered and never answered1 and whose insistence is only veiled under a livelier and more visible remoteness at the inquisitive approach of light2 never to have watched the night widen and the edges of the world draw closer round1 as the peaks begin to darken and the glaciers to pale1 and the vague shadows of mystery and of elusive presence shrink and harden into form and line and colour with the nearing of sunrise2 and1 at the moment when the first rose ray quickens the first high summit and day pours in about us1 never to have known the lassitude of odd illusion vanish and the summons to good sunlit action thrill every fibre1 from toe to finger-tip1 with a rush of human mastery in each stout blow of the axe and each fresh shock of the driving heel2--never to have known something of only this one hour of an alpine morning would have been to have missed the most vivid moments of living1 and to have deprived our working and our evening hours of their most faithful comrade memories4 ,,ice ,,craft ,for snow and ice as for rock we study primarily balance1--balance in motion1 and above joints flexed as well as straight4 ,the elementary movements and practice are identical4 ,rock is the substructure of mountains1 and ice and snow are its accretions4 ,similarly1 rock climbing is the groundwork of mountaineering technique2 and for ice and snow we employ the same principles1 availing ourselves of the mechanism of axe and claw and ski so as to render them equally applicable to new conditions of surface and texture4 ,for balance climbing1 footwork is all-essential4 ,on rock1 only where angle or unsound texture makes footwork alone insufficient1 do we help out with the hands4 ,on ice or snow1 only where angle or a texture too soft or too hard denies our feet their assurance1 do we supplement them with ice-axe and ice-claw1 or to a certain extent with ski4 ,while a man remains a grip climber1 he will never make an iceman2 and he had better go back and learn first how to climb in balance on rocks1 rather than set himself the twofold task of learning balance and axe or claw technique simultaneously and painfully on ice4 ,most of the early mountaineers learned what footwork they knew upon ice first1 and it was therefore very natural that they should in their mountaineering precepts give the larger share of space and attention to elementary movements and exercises in stepping on ice and snow4 ,these movements are now learned more easily and perfectly on rock1 sound and unsound1 and transferred1 when we go to the ,alps1 to snow and ice1 following a more logical and certainly more safe order of study4 ,in recent years ,i have taken some of the very best of the new generation of #8continuous' rock climbers for their first climbs in the ,alps1 and have found that their balanced footwork took only a few hours to adapt itself to snow or ice surfaces1 skipping all the elementary stages hallowed by tradition4 ,consequently they could start upon the more recondite branches of ice and snow craft with a rapid assurance that left the guides frankly interested4 ,largely because it was the only type of mountaineering that they really studied as a craft1 and consequently could fully enjoy when they mastered it1 ice and snow craft came to be considered by many of our predecessors as the only true mountaineering1 to the supersession of all other branches4 ,after the possibilities of rock surface began to be appreciated1 and while rock climbing was working through its successive and isolated stages1 the swing of the pendulum went all too far the other way4 ,ice and snow came to be regarded by all except the old alpine school as intrusions upon ascents1 to be got over as best one could4 ,their study was proportionately neglected by guides and amateurs alike1 who chose the ribs and rock faces for their routes1 and were apt to be bothered if they had to come off them4 ,the lack of any advanced technique became painfully apparent when mountaineering ambition progressed to the point of attempting great new alpine ridges and faces1 where a knowledge of ice and snow craft is indispensable4 ,many a failure and even accident revealed what a large lacuna our rock climbers had been nourishing in their alpine understandings4 ,during the development of balance climbing1 whose basis is footwork upon any angle and any kind of surface1 the scale has been steadily readjusting itself4 ,simultaneously with1 or possibly as a result of1 the unification of our several climbing methods upon rock1 ice and snow into a single technique of balance1 has come the new interest in foot-attachments1 the popularizing of the use of ice-claws and of ski4 ,while balance in climbing movement was still only rudimentary1 it was more comfortable to climb on a material like snow or ice1 where the human could make holds and steps of the shape and at the angle that best suited his standing or his #8walking' balance4 ,he preferred this to making a series of awkward bodily adjustments in order to fit himself on to existing accidents in the surface of rock4 ,but as climbers learned to master balance during any movement and in every attitude1 and to depend less and less upon the hand1 they became naturally alive to the advantage of adopting footgear which secured safer and more continuous progress by adapting the feet to the surface1 and saved them the time and rhythm lost in stopping to alter the surface to suit their feet4 ,hence the increase in our use of soft soles and scientific nailing1 on rock1 and the perfecting of ice-claws1 which allow our feet to walk on ice at whatever angle we find it1 and of ski1 which make a royal progress of the most voracious snow4 ,a man who is a good continuous balance climber should be able1 as ,i have said1 to transfer his footwork easily and quickly to snow and ice1 and to move safely upon moderate mountains1 satisfactorily managing the rope and cutting the occasional steps that such ascents demand4 ,here many climbers stop learning1 even among those who write books2 and just about here the real delights of icemanship and snow craft begin faintly to suggest themselves4 ,from this point on our rock technique cannot help us1 and may1 if persisted in1 merely embarrass and delay us4 ,ice and snow1 conjoined or apart1 with all their significations of colour1 texture and angle1 and in their local or ephemeral counter-changes1 form a study by themselves4 ,as it is certain that we cannot do much route inventing or advanced climbing upon rock without knowing something of the different sorts of rock and their meanings1 so is it far more certain that in really big mountaineering no one will get far or go secure whose knowledge of ice and snow is limited to the mere physical ability to climb upon them4 ,it is impossible to do more than suggest a few lines which training might follow1 in order to attain to a point of experience where the specialized study can be begun4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,nature of ,ice4 ,to start with1 it is as well to know something1 sufficient for the working purposes of practical summer mountaineering1 as to the different sorts of ice which we meet with in the mountains4 ,there are three principal varieties3 ,firstly1 #8grainy ice1' or #8blue ice' as it is usually called from its colour4 ,this is formed chiefly from snow1 by regelation4 ,nearly all glacier ice is of this character2 whence we also know it as #8glacier ice4' ,it is glacier ice with which we have by far the most to do in the ,alps1 and its successive stages have to become familiar to us as names1 and recognizable from their appearance1 if we ever wish to lead a party4 ,in the first stage pressure makes the fallen grains of snow cohere1 and an opaque white mass is thus formed1 a fine-grained solid1 containing a lot of imprisoned air4 ,this stage is usually but incorrectly named #8frozen snow4' ,under the further action of pressure these grains coalesce1 by regelation1 and larger grains are formed2 part of the entangled air escapes1 the solid becomes coarse-grained and less opaque and assumes a bluish tinge4 ,this is called nv 7or firn74 ,under the continuation of the process ultimately all the imprisoned air escapes1 the solid becomes transparent and very coarse-grained1 and its larger masses have a distinctive1 blue colour4 ,this is called #8ice4' ,as the process is a continuous one1 it is impossible to draw a hard-and-fast line between the different stages1 or always to be sure of saying with certainty that our feet are on the one or the other4 ,secondly1 there is #8black ice'2 ice more or less continuous and generally in layers1 formed by the freezing of water4 ,this is comparatively rarely encountered in the ,alps1 or in mountains1 but more often in winter than in summer4 ,where it intrudes1 it is very exacting1 as it calls for a different type of claw technique and a different sort of blow with the axe4 ,thirdly1 there is an intermediate1 and intermediately attractive and frequent1 class of ice1 produced by the infiltration of water with snow1 and by their subsequent freezing4 ,this is called #8snow ice4' ,in route designing and in climbing we have to be able to recognize these types and stages4 ,each has its own right method of treatment4 ,but grainy or glacier ice is the characteristic alpine ice1 and most of the suggestions made as to ice technique apply to ice of this description1 where it is not otherwise expressly stated4 ,a large1 dry glacier introduces us to almost every normal type of ice1 from hard blue to firn1 and is the best practice ground for finding our ice feet and transferring our rock balance to ice angles4 ,a week's good practice devoted exclusively to ice craft on a glacier1 under a good mentor1 will set our feet on the way of better icemanship than if we trust for our training to the hours of sporadic ice work1 generally of some difficulty1 which we may meet year after year1 and muddle through1 on our big climbs4 ,few men are systematic enough to devote all their first alpine enthusiasm to a restricted training of this kind2 but any man who hopes at some date to become a mountaineer should begin early to give his ice some intensive study4 ,even a mountaineer of experience has to allow for personal variations when he returns each season4 ,however well attuned he may keep his sense of touch on rock by practice in ,britain1 he takes some days to recover the feel of his feet on ice1 and his ice nerve2 very much as a skater or a skier has to do each winter4 ,some of us make a habit1 in theory at least1 of giving the first day of a tour to work of all sorts on a dry glacier2 the second day to some short climb1 combining both rock and snow work2 the third1 probably an off-day1 to going up to a hut1 and the fourth to a big climb1 which must embrace as much varied ice as possible4 ,but this is for resumptive practice in technique4 ,it is not sufficient for a commencing season1 or for a grounding in common ice law4 ,sidenote3 ,ice-,claws4 ,any man who wishes to make big ascents is well advised if he begins early to learn how to use ice-claws 7or crampons74 ,it is not that we cannot climb without them1 even as we could without nails in our boots1 but that we can learn to climb more securely1 and go faster and farther1 with them4 ,claws have been used by individuals for something like a century1 but the conservatism of mountaineers long refused to recognize them as more than an individual eccentricity4 ,it found itself able to draw a nice distinction between the #8sporting' character of the assistance given by a number of long spikes separately and laboriously screwed and unscrewed on the boot1 and that of a similar number of spikes affixed by a single simple mechanism4 ,it was not until the guides finally capitulated that the practice could grow at all general or that its extra security could become recognized as workmanlike4 ,claws were formerly assumed to be useless unless worn by every member of a party2 an assumption that prevented their use by many amateurs who failed to carry their guides' conviction with them4 ,as a fact1 even one expert furnished with claws can do much to assist the security and lighten the labour for his clawless party on difficult ice1 by preceding them and helping or protecting them with the rope4 ,let no amateur1 therefore1 ever be discouraged from taking his own where he expects ice work4 ,he will always be the happier himself1 and may on occasions be able to point a prolonged moral to his party4 ,up to the present they have still been looked upon as an experiment1 and men have been apt to get discouraged if they have taken them out once or twice and had no need for them4 ,sometimes they have then dropped carrying them2 found that they could #8get on all right without them'--as who cannot8--and so begun to exaggerate the labour of their portage and minimize their use4 ,the habit has to be formed4 ,it can become as natural to take them on a big ascent as to carry the axe1 spare rope and shoes upon a rock climb4 ,i must premise1 that claws postulate precise footwork4 ,a slovenly habit they cannot correct1 and may only confirm4 ,if we use claws neatly1 we need no longer cut steps upon all the easier angles of ice or hard snow4 ,we can walk straight ahead1 up1 down or along1 without check for step-cutting or loss of rhythm4 ,we can take foothold just as is most convenient for our balance as we move4 ,thus a good balance climber from the first moment gets all the advantage of the footwork he has learned upon rock3 the labour of #8finding his feet' upon ice is reduced to a minimum4 ,again1 claws increase our security1 if we step accurately1 when we are moving upon angles where1 for reasons of steepness or other difficulty1 steps may still have to be cut4 ,in using slippery steps they permit of a confidence of movement1 firm and continuous1 similar to that which previous experience will have taught us contributed most to our security upon rock4 ,in so far claws1 even while we are learning1 make for safer progress4 ,their fashion has been fully dealt with1 under ,equipment4 ,as to the character of claw which may be of greatest service1 there exist divergent schools of thought2 and each finds justification for its belief in the greater usefulness of its particular claw for some particular type of ice work4 ,in general1 heavy claws are better for a heavy man1 light for a light4 ,ten-point claws are better than eight for a large foot1 and six-point claws are hardly worth their weight in carrying4 ,a heavy claw1 with long1 sharp points1 which suffer in contact with rock1 is worth its extra weight if some big ice expedition is in prospect4 ,at the same time1 a good climber can1 if he is prepared for the extra labour and for the more careful technique which their use requires1 accomplish with safety all the ice work to be found on normal climbs with a lighter claw of slightly shorter points4 ,this lighter1 rougher type will be more useful to him for mixed ice and rock climbing1 as he will be able to sacrifice its shorter and inevitably more blunted points with less regret1 while he can retain the claw over every kind of surface4 ,the necessity of constantly putting off and on the long1 sharp claws on mixed climbing1 to avoid turning their points1 has the drawback of losing time1 and1 still more important1 of changing the action of the leg and the feel of the feet4 ,consequently the rhythm of foot and leg has to adjust itself1 after each change1 to the new character of surface and movement4 ,whereas the claw which can be worn all day if the conditions demand it1 regardless of rock or blunting surface1 and which can be thrown away or resharpened when it has suffered sufficiently1 while it may call for more skill and effort for its secure use on long1 steep passages of hard ice1 possesses the compensating advantage of keeping the action constant1 without change to the feel of the feet1 to the rhythm1 or to the greater or lesser security of the tread4 ,on the other hand1 the finer1 heavier claw1 by which ,i mean the claw of the ,eckenstein pattern1 has the merit of being the only claw at the present time in which both the metal is rightly wrought and the points are shaped and placed under the foot with any scientific regard for their use4 ,it is also the only type which it is safe to wear on hard #8black ice'2 which1 even if rarely1 is occasionally found on big summits in the ,alps or on sunless northern faces4 ,of course the claw must be made exactly to fit the boot on which it is used1 and it must fasten and take off easily and securely4 ,the theory of the use of the claw1 with all the various positions of the feet required1 can only be dealt with in a monograph to itself1 and this has been already more than adequately done4#ac ,it is sufficient for the commencing mountaineer to know that he has to learn how to use claws1 and that he cannot do so effectively without preliminary practice4 ,this practice should be on a glacier1 and under direction2 no man really discovers what the claw will enable him to do until he has seen what confidence and skill can accomplish in the conquest of angle and of natural nerve revulsions4 ,the movements are not entirely natural or self-suggesting1 more especially those of descending or of traversing on very steep slopes4 ,the masters of the art can walk1 and sustain weights1 sideways or straight upon their feet1 up to angles of #gj degrees or more4 ,an ordinary climber can learn to move with comfort on angles1 of good surface1 between #ee and #fj degrees4 ,when we are on claws1 the snow-shuffle and the normal forward swing of the walking foot1 heel and toe1 have to be forgotten4 ,the foot is lifted rather higher1 and is planted cleanly on the ice1 without the usual forward scrape4 ,the high1 clear lift of the foot must become mechanical1 otherwise the points will catch on boot or puttie1 and a nasty trip or fall may result4 ,the downward pressure or thrust of the foot varies in force according to the angle and the hardness of the surface4 ,to prevent the points working loose in the holes they make1 the foot has to be placed at once in the position and at the angle in which it will have to sustain the weight of the body passing across it4 ,a balance climber who has mastered the tense1 dancing action of the foot as it is set upon a rock hold will have to learn little new1 except the habit of the higher lift and the more vertical plant4 ,in ascending1 our object is to keep the feet pointing forward and straight as long as the angle will allow us to2 only turning the toes outward when we can no longer get the heels down4 ,on most ice it is sufficient if we get hold with two points of the claw alone2 and on a fair surface we can walk straight-foot up very steep angles1 trusting only to the two points on the toe4 ,up softer steep surfaces1 or literally precipitous angles1 we adopt a crab or sideways walk4 ,we descend steep angles with the knees bent and the toes forced down4 ,the ankles have to1 and soon do1 acquire an increased suppleness and strength1 in claw practice4 ,perhaps the most difficult task for the beginner is to learn the art of walking and balancing upon flexed ankles1 while traversing across steep faces4 ,to strike all the points in neatly and strongly sideways1 and with a flexed ankle1 so that the flat of the sole may meet the surface cleanly and without a scrape1 takes some practice2 but slab climbers1 who have suppled their ankles by foot-clinging upon steep rock angles1 will find themselves a day or two's frog-marching to the good on ice4 ,practice alone will bring us confidence in the new adjustments1 or allow us to feel as securely in balance above a foot inclined at a high angle1 over a bent ankle or a curved leg1 as upon a right-angled hold of rock or ice4 ,once confidence has come1 the sense of security in the attachment of the claw to the ice enables a freedom of movement astonishing at first to anyone accustomed only to the feel of the ordinary boot-nails on ice steps4 ,this additional and confident security1 which the claw gives to our foothold1 almost eliminates the chances of what are wrongly termed #8accidents' on ice2 the breaking foothold1 the faultily placed foot1 or the slide of the sole on a bad surface as the transference of the weight produces a change in the direction of the leg-thrust4 ,we can balance1 therefore1 on steep angles far more boldly1 and keep our hands free for better purpose4 ,a strong party on claws1 in a couloir of uniform surface or on a sound ridge of mixed ice and rock climbing1 is often free to do without the rope at all1 if it so pleases4 ,the rope is to guard against the results of #8accidents' to individual members2 and competent icemen1 if they are released from the distraction of the rope1 and able to concentrate on their own good progress and safety1 have all the less temptation to commit #8accidents4' ,once we have mastered the movements and become confident1 we begin to distinguish between varieties of ice1 and to vary our claw craft accordingly4 ,for instance1 in alpine #8grainy' ice there are three ordinary varieties3 hard1 soft and rotten4 #8,rotten' ice does not lie in the ,alps to more than the depth of an inch or two1 though it is found of a greater thickness in other continents2 when we find it in the ,alps1 we clear it away with the axe1 to leave a firm tread for the claw on the good ice below4 ,hard and soft grainy ice have their several adjustments1 whose differences have to be learned by practice4 ,hard ice will usually be found lying at high angles1 so steep that we shall sometimes be unable to get more than the hold of a single claw point4 ,experience alone can make us feel as safe upon the one talon as we have learned to feel upon a single boot-nail on sound rock4 ,for work of this advanced character1 for which the heavy1 long-pronged claw is better suited1 the best practice can be found upon the big fall-ice of dry glaciers4 ,we soon discover1 in such practice1 that balance is easier when we are confident to move fast1 a resuscitated platitude2 and that1 while moving1 we are satisfied with a single point where the whole ten would not have seemed superfluous1 had we halted to admire the panorama4 ,but holds1 on ice as on rock1 are not intended to be held in perpetuity4 ,the claw is not only useful upon steep ice3 on hard repellent snow it spares us the penance of stamping or scraping steps4 ,it is equally reassuring to foothold and nerve on ice-lacquered rocks1 or on broken rock surfaces coated with wind-snow or glaze4 ,in a bad season--that is1 a season during which snow has been frequently falling1 and the rocks are surpliced in various blends and qualities of snow1 frozen and refrozen--the claws are often retained for the whole day1 and become as natural to the feel of the feet as the more usual boot-nail4 ,it is sometimes even difficult to remember if they are on or off1 until they are removed1 when the feet become as helpless as they do when skates are first detached4 ,in a snowstorm1 for a descent1 they should always be put on2 and even in clear weather and on good footing it is an immense reassurance to the leader of a tired party ascending or descending a couloir or slope of suspicious or #8mixed' surface1 if he can count upon the extra security that claws will give to the deteriorating footwork of his party4 ,again1 on those early1 fasting1 glacier crawls by lamplight1 with which most of us are familiar1 when we are expected to balance1 with cold joints and often without the protection of the rope1 along crevasses and walls which may be easy enough by daylight but seem pulsing with danger and dread in the darkness1 claws come as a great safeguard2 their tactile value is a reassurance to eyes and to feet still leaden with insufficient sleep and superabundant cold4 ,the evening descent of a glacier1 dry or partly snow-covered1 with its crevasse jumping1 wearisome for tired legs1 and its balance traversing on ice too slippery for jaded feet or day-polished boot-nails1 becomes again a delight if it can be taken directly and at a rush1 with the new surety of foothold and the change of muscle movement that follow the putting on of our claws4 ,straight and time-saving lines through glacier falls can then be ventured1 even with men dragging heavy sacks or heavy legs1 if they have once the new feel of dancing security under their feet4 ,it is worth while putting claws on even for the short but offensive descent of the snout of a glacier4 ,they crackle crisply down its pebble-pimpled wrinkles and make light gliding of its glassy declivities4 ,a belated party returning crossly at night down the breakers of a big glacier whose surface has thawed only to be refrozen later to a polished1 leg-racking ice-slide1 will save temper and re-roping and time if the men stop to put on their claws4 ,two midnight descents of the ,mer de ,glace in this condition1 without claws1 are among the most penetrating and undignified of my remembrances4 ,on the steep sides of moraines1 or on new snow lying on grass1 claws1 if they happen to have been brought1 save much back-sliding4 ,on slippery rock surfaces1 such as snow-slimed slate and the like1 ,i have found light claws of constant use4 ,finally1 we need not take off our claws1 if they are light ones1 for every rock section of a climb where rock and ice are alternating4 ,on much easy soft rock they are of assistance2 and even in steep climbing1 if once the novelty of the feel is mastered and the foot has got accustomed to the precautionary tread that protects the points1 claws have often a positive value greater than the mere effort we save by not removing them4 ,to learn how to use claws1 however1 does not relieve us of the necessity of learning how to make and to walk in ice steps4 ,nor 7although this is a matter of more personal opinion7 do claws in my view justify climbers on big expeditions in substituting the small ice-axe recommended by some of the great authorities upon claws1 and only intended for making an occasional step or for holding on1 for a good step-cutting axe1 which has also the potentiality of the third leg on general climbing4 ,in practice on dry glaciers it is both profitable and amusing to experiment in manuvring on exceptional angles1 or in walking up between the vertical walls of crevasses4 ,such practice is good for confidence and for training1 and it is even of use to discover how comparatively easy claws make it to get out of crevasses1 or similar impasses1 without relying on the rescue of the rope alone4 ,a climber on claws1 for this reason1 can take a measure of liberty in solitary climbing that would be folly for a man without them to allow himself4 ,no doubt1 if amateurs were able to keep constantly in practice1 and had not each season to stop climbing when they have barely reached their best1 they would learn to move with equal freedom on angles of this character at great heights4 ,but as a matter of experience no holiday mountaineer can entirely acquire the same feeling of confidence and security if his ice slopes are subtended by dangerous mountain walls or are situated on exposed tracts4 ,fatigue1 diverse air-pressures and1 above all1 the psychological effect of height contribute to handicap him in venturing on claws risks which he would laugh at on a twenty-foot wall on a glacier4 ,consequently we find that most mountaineers on very steep1 hard ice at great heights prefer to cut steps to aid their claws4 ,in mountaineering on a big scale we usually begin to feel this need when the angle of the ice approaches anywhere near to our limit of average performance upon claws in glacier practice4 ,it is more our sensation than the angle of the ice slope which forces step-cutting upon us4 ,and there is yet another common occasion for steps4 ,on ice which is covered with snow1 where without claws we should clear away the snow and make a step in the ice1 it is of course similarly open to us to clear it away and step simply with the claw on the exposed ice4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 it is generally the practice in such case to make a nick for the claw4 ,unless the nick is made1 the mass of snow round the clearing prevents the foot from being placed conveniently and from providing a sense of security commensurate with the sensational situation4 ,thus to secure a good reassuring claw hold we should have to clear away an additional quantity of snow1 and we may just as well make a nick-step at once4 ,a step in ice when claws are worn need only be a nick for a proportion of the prongs4 ,it takes less labour and art to fashion than a step for a boot4 ,again1 ice at great heights is occasionally covered with a rotting coating1 or crust1 through which the prongs cannot reach to the good surface below4 ,here clearing the rotten ice will in any case be necessary1 and1 for the reason given above1 it is more comfortable and as quick to cut through it and make a step at once4 ,where1 also1 ice is really hard #8black ice1' it has an iron quality of surface1 through which the prongs have to be driven with real force2 and they make clean1 hard holes from which we have the feeling they might slip out1 as if from smooth metal sockets4 ,without steps1 at steep angles1 balance on such ice is a very delicate matter1 as this is a branch of claw technique in which the ,alps give us little practice4 ,the nerve of most men will call for auxiliary steps4 ,but whether steps are made or not1 on such ice the rope must always be retained4 ,for the average man1 therefore1 it is still needful to know how to fashion and how to walk in ice steps2 both for use on the brief intervals of ice and snow on climbs where the amount of difficult rock and the small proportion of ice in prospect have suggested leaving the claws behind1 and for occasions1 of which some have been mentioned1 that arise out of exceptional mountain or personal conditions4 ,sidenote3 ,cutting ,steps4 ,we have then to learn how to cut and use steps on ice1 at high angles1 in awkward places1 or when complicated by certain conditions4 ,claws cover the rest of the ice field4 ,a man who sets himself to learn how to cut steps well must begin by practising on ice4 ,theory can only help him to avoid certain false positions4 ,a word from a mentor on the spot will save aching shoulders and blistered hands1 and be of far more use than many books4 ,book-lore has rather hindered than helped us by some of the theory it has set down4 ,it is natural that amateurs who had the example of golfing and other #8arm-movement' sports on free angles before them should have been attracted by the idea of a step-cutting #8swing4' ,this has been therefore recommended as a saving of strength and an ideal in style4 ,possibly many climbers besides myself have formalized their style and retarded their acquisition of ease and security by practising the acrobatic feats of balance which an attempt to swing from the hips in step cutting necessitates4 ,on ice slopes of an easy angle1 where we need no longer cut steps at all if we use claws1 the swing may be graceful4 ,but on steep ice the swing from the hips is irreconcilable with a secure balance4 ,the most we can attain to is an interrupted swing or #8follow-through' with the shoulders alone1 to ease our pure armwork4 ,it is not unlikely that the appearance of body movement which this shoulder swing gives to the whole coat of a master iceman1 as seen from behind1 misled early students of the art1 who were following in ice steps1 into the belief that they were watching their ideal swing from the hips4 ,but such a swing on steep ice is impossible4 ,the step-cutter is balancing in many cases on one foot1 supposing him to be cutting steps at wide #8mountaineering' intervals1 or on the downgrade2 at best he is on two feet set in the same straight line4 ,he cannot1 therefore1 risk any swinging movement which would disturb his balance above his single base line or point4 ,let anyone try the hip swing standing thus on a single foot1 or on feet alined at a wide interval on the ground1 even without the complication of the narrow ice step or the obstruction of the side wall4 ,he will begin to doubt the advisability of our classic swing4 ,nor may a step-cutter let his swing travel inward with the axe on to the slope2 because it is the essence of good step-cutting that the axe shall stop with a jerk1 releasing itself from the #8stick' of the point in the ice while it jars loose the section of ice that it has split4 ,the hip swing1 therefore1 if we attempt it1 must be checked at both its ends2 and very little space remains between the two checks to get the swing going4 ,the steeper the ice the shorter the axe-strokes1 and the less and less the opportunity of introducing the swing4 ,as a further difficulty1 no one but a craftsman trained in the workshops could swing the whole body so exactly as to strike with his point within a fraction of an inch of the spot required4 ,in chopping wood1 which is done with the feet spread1 an amateur can achieve this2 but if he is balancing on feet alined1 it is beyond the skill of most experts to swing from the hips1 strike absolutely true1 and at the same time remain in secure balance4 ,even the shorter shoulder swing1 which we use on slopes of easier angle1 where we can get some support for our balance1 when standing on the outside foot1 by pressing the inside foot or the inside knee against the ice wall1 becomes impracticable when we are standing1 as we must be for half our cutting time1 on the inside foot1 with the outside foot in a line behind us or swinging free to our poise4 ,on steeper slopes1 where we have no margin of balance for any outward swing and no room to get a support for the inside foot against the ice1 the shoulder swing becomes impracticable even when we are cutting off the outside foot4 ,on such slopes we are only free to use the short play of the arms1 and cutting becomes simply accurate #8chopping4' ,not only on these steep angles of ice1 but on all awkward passages where we are not placed comfortably for free cutting1 but where we have to aim our steps at cramped angles with bent arms or with one hand alone1 our cutting can be no more than chopping from the elbow1 or sometimes only from the wrist4 ,since1 for men who wear claws1 these are the only passages on which much step cutting should be really needed1 the body and shoulder swings may be safely dropped out of the category of desirable ideals4 ,the characteristics of a good cutter are accuracy of aim in making the stroke1 with the right inclination of the pick and the right jerk of the point2 good balance upon both feet or on one foot2 and an easy but restrained arm movement1 so that he can continue the strokes with smooth precision for an indefinite time4 ,a man who has acquired these will naturally use any easing of the slope in his favour1 or any facilities it may offer him for better foot balance1 to lighten his armwork by means of a follow-through with his shoulder4 ,but if a mountaineer begins to learn with the idea that he has to #8swing' in order to cut well1 he will expend most of his energy upon easy angles where claws make it unnecessary to cut steps at all1 or in recovering his balance and making very bad steps upon steeper slopes--for the short spells that his strength and nerves will stand4 ,a good step-cutter need not #8swing1' but he also may not #8press4' ,it is mechanically obvious that if a man is not swinging1 but has his stroke under muscular control throughout its duration1 he will gain nothing1 and merely fight against himself1 if he tries to force the stroke or #8press' before he arrests his point with the final jerk4 ,once the stroke is started1 a good cutter lets the axe fall of its own weight2 that is1 he follows the stroke through with only just the amount of control needed to direct the point until its contact with the ice4 ,each man must discover his own fashion of sketching out a step4 ,the sequence and arrangement of his strokes will vary with the quality of the ice and with his position for cutting4 ,every step should slope slightly inward4 ,the angle of the tread is of more importance than the size of the step4 ,on steep ice the inside or back wall just above the step should be cleared away1 to allow the shin room and to let the leg stand upright above the foot4 ,the outside edge of the step should never be cleared entirely or flattened4 ,the ice dust or fragments1 if not too large1 should be left there1 to pack under the foot and give it a further prop inwards4 ,a good step looks like a rough notch before it has been used2 but after the first foot has passed over1 it should have taken the shape and size of the sole1 and look like its mould4 ,large steps or #8buckets1' such as the guides provide as the beginner's joy1 are useless to men who wear claws1 and more dangerous than small steps for those who do not4 ,a large step has a large uneven1 or a large smooth floor1 upon which the sole is apt to slip about as the weight is transferred4 ,its suggestion of moral reassurance is a poor compensation for a spoiled balance4 ,a step should be small1 just fitting the foot and gripping the side of the boot2 the back wall should just prop the ankle for better balance4 ,it should be comfortable to leave as well as comfortable to step on to4 ,an experienced step-cutter will always prefer to make small steps1 not because of the saving of time1 but because1 on all but exceptional passages1 the small1 close step gives him a better basis of balance for his next reach-out and cut4 ,large buckets only become necessary when the angle of the ice wall is so steep that there is no room for the shin and knee to stand upright above the foot4 ,a big slice has then to be cleared away above the step1 and this generally involves enlarging the size of the floor of the step1 especially if the cutter is not expert4 ,a man has to learn to cut off either shoulder4 ,he must also be able to cut steps with either hand alone1 in order to have his other hand free to take handholds on the exceptionally difficult passages or traverses where these are found necessary4 ,to aim a step with one hand needs practice4 ,to keep a firm grip on the axe shaft1 more especially as this gets iced1 makes it important to secure a shaft that is well balanced and easily grasped4 ,it may well have some protuberance or collar which prevents the hand slipping4 ,for the same reason the sling is a sound precaution4#ad ,to cut handholds in ice calls for a very fine touch4 ,the best that can be usually formed is no more than a steadying nick1 over the edge of which the glove can be hooked4 ,the hand shapes the edge of the nick to the curve of the fingers by pressure1 and in the process the glove freezes slightly to the ice4 ,the hand can rarely give more than a balance hold on ice4 ,security and anchorage must be given by the feet4 ,similarly1 the hand or rather axe hold that we make by driving in the pick above us1 in order to help us over a bad step1 is usually inadequate4 ,the pull that comes on the shaft with our weight must always be from a direction different to that in which we drove in the point1 and the strain will either loosen the point or lever out the section of ice which the blow has in part detached4 ,to drive in the pick straight and not on a swinging arc1 so that it may remain firm at an angle to take the pull of our weight in transference1 requires a kind of arm stroke very difficult to make with sufficient force in hard1 steep ice4 ,for men without claws the scrambling method1 which some leaders risk to save labour in cutting1 of alternating one good ice step with a scratch for the other foot1 covered by an axe hold1 can only be excused by rare circumstance4 ,it is far better to take the little extra time required for making sound steps under both feet4 ,men on claws1 however1 are better able to use handholds and pick holds in ice4 ,their feet are firm so long as the angle and their nerve allow them to stand upright in balance4 ,all they require is a balance hold1 to cover them in starting the next movement2 for so much assistance a hand nick or a driven pick can well be trusted4 ,the step for the foot which is passing inside and next to the ice slope can1 to save time1 be made smaller than that for the outside foot4 ,for a good party1 without claws1 the step for the inside foot need only be a nick for the side of the boot1 provided always that it is inclined at the right angle4 ,to use such steps it is obviously important that the whole party should follow with the same foot4 ,for men with claws there is no need to make this differentiation4 ,wherever steps are needed for claws1 they may all be made of the same small size--just a sufficient nick to take the side points of either claw4 ,in cutting on a diagonal uphill1 for men without claws1 it is better to make the interval between the steps shorter when the rising step is to be made from the inside foot on to the outside foot4 ,in rising from the outside foot on to the inside foot a longer stride can be made in balance1 and the interval between steps can be made longer4 ,in cutting diagonally on the downgrade1 the contrary is the case4 ,in dropping from the inside foot on to the outside foot a longer stretch can comfortably be made than from the outside foot on to the inside foot4 ,in cutting horizontally1 a longer stretch can be made from the outside foot on to a step for the inside foot1 than vice versa4 ,trifling distinctions2 but a good cutter who remembers them will save the inches on his alternate steps2 and many inches saved on long ice slopes mean a number of steps spared and minutes1 even hours1 economized4 ,for men without claws1 or not very expert1 it is better to make steps too near together than too far apart4 ,safe progress is the best progress4 ,this applies especially to cutting downhill4 ,until a climber is thoroughly practised in lowering his weight on the bending of a single knee1 he will always find one instant of delicate balance in a descending stride2 and the longer the interval between steps1 the more difficult the balance1 until the point comes at which he is reduced to axe scraping1 or shuffling himself down the ice leaning against his hand4 ,when he finds either help necessary1 the step cutter should be given warning at once that the intervals are too long4 ,cutting on the downgrade is usually found more difficult than cutting uphill4 ,at the same time1 the securing of the right fashion and inclination of the step is even more important on the downgrade than on the up1 since the balance in taking a down-step is more difficult1 not only for the cutter but for his following4 ,the steeper the angle at which steps have to be made downhill1 the more awkward becomes the balance2 until1 in descending at a very steep angle1 the cutting has practically to be done with one hand4 ,for this reason1 on very steep slopes it is better to cut short descending zigzags of an easier angle1 even in narrow couloirs where economy of time and labour would point to a vertical ladder4 ,where there is no room for a descending or an ascending zigzag1 it is better not to attempt to make steps for the side-length of the foot1 but to descend or ascend face inward1 cutting with one hand a perpendicular ladder of #8pigeon-holes1' or steps shaped like small church apses1 to be used both by the boot-toes and the hands4 ,for men on claws a vertical ladder of nicks1 for the fingers and the two front points of the claw1 is all that is needed4 ,in cutting zigzags for men without claws1 besides making allowance for the different size and length of step and interval needed for the inside and outside feet1 the turning-step at the corner has to be made of different size and shape4 ,it should always be larger in size and semicircular at the back1 so that the climber can pivot round in it on his toe1 without hitch1 until he faces the other way4 ,it is well to provide a good hand-nick or an obvious hold for the pick1 conveniently placed above the turning-step4 ,steps upon hard1 overhanging ice1 or upon ice near the perpendicular1 are practically impossible to make or use with any real security4 ,the chief difficulty is to make any sound hold for the hands1 such as may keep the body in balance above the feet4 ,it is also generally impracticable upon perpendicular or overhanging ice to cut away sufficient ice in the slope at the back of the step to allow the leg to stand erect above the foot1 especially if the tread is slanted downward and inward at a safe inclination4 ,when tours de force of this character are performed1 it is usually upon ice which has frozen in #8waterfall' fashion1 coat over coat1 so that it becomes possible to cut through one coat and get a downward handhold between the strata of ice4 ,such holds1 of course1 cannot be reckoned upon as dependable for more than a balance lift with the hand4 ,claws will help us for such nice feats2 but they are best only attempted on practice glaciers1 or where the rest of the party is soundly anchored4 ,on high exposed ridges we have often to deal1 in traversing across the faces of towers1 with a mixed coating of snow and ice1 in reality a snow cake in process of transformation into ice by infiltration4 ,the snow has to be cleared away1 and enough ice hacked from the rock to leave us on the lower sill of the gap1 so formed1 a sufficiently firm and broad ice edge for a step4 ,this is fine engraving for a leader3 if he cuts too roughly1 the whole plate may flake off and leave him smooth1 vertical rock to traverse2 and if he stops too soon1 the flake below may similarly peel away when his weight comes on the step formed by its upper edge4 ,on glacier ice1 any rib1 crack or flaw in the ice will naturally suggest itself as the groundwork of1 if not the substitute for1 an ice step4 ,a stone on the ice1 or the pocket which it leaves when cleared away1 makes generally an adequate toehold1--certainly a hold for the point of a claw4 ,in cutting across ice flakes1 or along narrow bridges through sracs1 if the bridge is solid enough it is best to make side-foot nicks along one side of the crest4 ,if it is not solid enough and the steps have to be made along the actual edge of crest1 it is well to remember that the fit1 and especially the exact length of the step1 are very important4 ,the boot sole slips about on the top of a flat ice surface1 and a step on a narrow crest which is made too short or too long for the boot renders the balance precarious4 ,if claws are worn1 the steps will be unnecessary1 and the party will use the side or truncated crest of the bridge according to its solidarity and their own convenience4 ,on glaciers1 the flaking ice that we meet with on the faces of big sracs demands great nicety of touch4 ,the steps are difficult to make1 as it is difficult to check the fracture at the right point4 ,they are difficult to use1 because our weight may continue the work1 and the whole flake surface below our feet may come away4 ,claws are of real service1 as they grip without starting a line of downward fracture4 ,if we are without them1 a deep pick hold must be secured1 driven through into a deeper stratum of ice1 to protect the precarious foothold on the flake surface or edge4 ,large flakes that boom or sound hollow to the axe are best left alone4 ,on #8crusted' snow1 snow that has melted and refrozen to an icy surface1 which is often too hard to permit of footholds being kicked1 steps are best made by a dragging stroke with one corner of the adze-blade along the face of the snow4 ,any attempt to swing or to cut with the pick will result in the point sticking at every stroke1 and thus in very slow progress4 ,on very hard1 sticky surfaces1 where the pick sticks monotonously and does not split the snow-ice1 and where the drag stroke of the adze-blade will not penetrate1 the corner of the adze should be struck lightly in1 and the axe shaft levered sharply in the direction away from the step-maker4 ,this will burst out a small cube of ice behind the blade4 ,two such blows and jerks are generally enough to clear a sufficiently long step for a boot4 ,on softer1 sticky surfaces a single well-aimed jerking blow of this sort1 made by a single motion of the one hand1 followed by a sharp1 driving kick with the boot1 usually forms steps rapidly enough to allow of the maintenance of a slow walking rhythm4 ,of course1 to a party on claws1 such surfaces1 which cannot lie at very steep angles1 present a pleasant ballroom or billiard-table vista of indulgent promenade4 ,sidenote3 ,using ,steps4 ,we learn to use steps before we are1 usually1 allowed to make them4 ,but we cannot use them until they are made4 ,hence the order ,i have followed here4 ,to use steps rightly calls primarily for good balance4 ,a man must learn to walk in steps upright1 merely resting his hand or axe point against the ice as he moves up or down from one step to the other4 ,if he leans inward1 or hangs on to axe or handhold1 he becomes a danger to his party4 ,the steps are not cut for the angle which his foot then makes with the ice2 he may easily slip1 and the faintest jerk of the rope will snatch his foot from the step4 ,a man upright and balanced on his foothold at the right angle can take a considerable weight or jerk if he has but a second's warning4 ,a man on claws has double this power4 ,in using a step a climber has not only a duty to his own balance movement1 but to every following member of the party4 ,he must use it exactly as it is made1 and leave it as he found it4 ,the foot must arrive neatly and leave cleanly4 ,a fractional mistread leaves for the next man an uncertain or blurred step1 if it does not ruin its security4 ,there may be no overtreading1 and no twisting or turning of the foot on any step1 except on the turning-steps which are designed for that purpose4 ,at the turning-step of a zigzag the climber twists round face inward on his toes4 ,if the step is only cut for one foot1 he must only use it with the one foot1 pointing it in the direction in which the imprint indicates that the leader used it4 ,otherwise he will spoil the step and get the sequence of his feet wrong4 ,on steep ice our main difficulty is to pass the inside foot from behind to in front1 between our outside foot on its step and the ice wall4 ,beginners and bad icemen are inclined to avoid this difficulty by shuffling from step to step with the outside foot always leading1 protecting each change of foot with an axe hold4 ,this is dangerous and ruinous to the steps4 ,on the very rare passages where it may be found necessary1--for instance1 on the few feet of traverse across the face of an ice-glazed rock wall1 or across a vertical ice bulge in a couloir1 where passing the foot is impossible1--the leader will have cut a continuous ledge1 on which he intends the feet to be thus shuffled and without risk4 ,otherwise the inside foot must always be passed in front1 whatever the difficulty2 and the better a man balances and the less he leans inward and clings to the slope1 the easier becomes the passing of the foot4 ,where the wall is so steep that to pass the leg and hip-bone means really a movement out of balance1 the leader may be trusted to have made some handhold above1 if only for his own protection4 ,on steep ice1 men on claws have to be very careful in passing the inside foot1 so as not to catch the prongs in the puttie or fastenings of the firm foot4 ,on the other hand a man on claws1 secured to the ice by his prongs and not merely by the friction of his sole1 can flex his firm ankle far more freely outward and allow his inside foot room to pass4 ,in descending a very steep ice staircase1 it is important not only to follow with the proper feet but to notice how the leader used the steps4 ,steps on a descending ladder are not infrequently cut with the intention that the inside foot should be dropped behind the outside foot as we stand sideways on a slope1 and not passed in front of the standing outside foot and then dropped1 as in the more usual movement for easier angles of descent4 ,step cutters should remember the device4 ,it is not only easier1 on occasion1 to cut a step in this fashion vertically below and not on a descending diagonal1 but it is mechanically an easier movement of descent1 on a steep wall1 to lower the inside foot thus behind the standing foot than to pass it in front4 ,on a diagonal descent1 if the shorter legs of a following man find the steps are made too far apart for his descending balance1 and he has no time to make fresh ones1 he will sometimes find it safer to turn right round and descend the steps backwards1 turning his other cheek to the wall4 ,his outstretched toe can reach farther in this attitude4 ,it is not sound for more than a few steps1 and not dignified2 but dignity must be sacrificed to security if the steps are already made and it is too late to protest1 and it is better to arrive cleanly with the toe on a step1 even the wrong way round1 than to scrabble down insecurely1 leaning against the ice with thigh or hand4 ,it is often asserted to be the business of the second man to #8finish off' the leader's steps and enlarge them4 ,this has grown out of the mistaken belief that large steps are safer than small1 well-shaped ones4 ,the bettering may1 on occasion1 be done by deliberate arrangement between two men4 ,a return by the same route may be intended1 when the larger steps will endure better through the heat of the day4 ,or if there are weaker icemen in the party it may save time to divide the labour of making the specially good and numerous steps they need4 ,otherwise the alteration is quite unjustifiable and improper4 ,the best cutter presumably is leading1 and he will have made the step of the right shape to start with4 ,if it has been good enough for him to stand upon and cut ahead from1 up or down1 it is good enough for the party to follow upon4 ,a second working-over of the step risks spoiling it4 ,a patched step is never as good as a clean step1 cut just to the right point and left raw for the kick of the foot to finish and to mould4 ,if he does not spoil it1 a second man by re-cutting postpones his real business1 which is to emphasize the mould of the step still further by the right planting of his foot4 ,if he has time to spare from his functions of anchoring the leader or the men behind1 he can employ his hands better elsewhere4 ,he may make additional handholds for balance on bad passages1 or1 by arrangement with the leader1 introduce intervening steps1 to save the leader time and to favour a weaker following4 ,if he introduces steps1 he must be careful not to upset the sequence of feet for which the leader is cutting the main line of steps4 ,he may1 also by arrangement1 devote himself to breaking up and dispersing any large fragments of ice left about the steps1 though not1 of course1 to clearing out the small stuff which is expressly left to take the imprint of the foot4 ,he thus incidentally relieves his party's bottled-up emotions by offering a fair target for the abuse from below which follows such clearing up1 but from which the leading step-cutter must always be exempt4 ,it is a graceful concession on a leading step-cutter's part if1 when he is doing his own clearing as well as cutting1 he recollects that his following have heads as well as feet4 ,men following on claws1 in steps1 nicks1 or only claw-tracks1 are freer to vary their sequence of feet or their fashion of using steps2 the good hold of the prongs is more than a substitute for the nice fit of the correct foot to the mould of a step4 ,but both for retention of rhythm and for security it is better as a rule to follow the leader's tracks and save the time which must be spent in selecting new treads4 ,this applies more especially to exposed hard ice where the rope is retained4 ,men moving without the rope may prefer to digress from the actual treads and find unbroken holding surface for their own claws4 ,the leader's general line should1 however1 be followed4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,rope on ,ice4 ,on ice1 if the rope is retained1 as it will be on exacting slopes by all parties without claws and by many parties with claws1 it is worn in its normal fashion1 with the waist-knot under the left shoulder and on the side towards or away from the slope according to the direction of the zigzag4 ,one hand1 generally the right1 holds a short length of slack1 as a precaution against jerk and to leave a margin for a longer or shorter stride in our own or our front man's advance4 ,the rope should never be quite taut4 ,if both hands are required for a moment1 to use the axe or to take a handhold1 and the slack has for the time to be dropped1 we must regulate our distance carefully1 step by step1 from the man in front1 so that the rope to him continues to hang in an easy curve1 which will neither catch on the ice nor be jerked by an extra length of stride on his part4 ,we expect the same care from the man behind us4 ,on hard grainy ice it is useless to attempt to belay the rope with the axe1 as is possible on snow where the rope can be looped round the driven shaft4 ,corrective measures must be left to the firm balance on a good step or on fast claws1 and to the spring that the arm1 holding the slack1 may be able to give to the rope before the jerk of a man sliding comes upon our waist4 ,if a man slips1 our natural inclination to lean inwards towards the slope and get some clamp with the axe or hand must at all costs be unlearned and avoided4 ,once the body is no longer in balance1 nor weighing upon the steps1 the feet are easily snatched from their hold4 ,on soft grainy ice it is sometimes possible to make a belay by striking in the pick at a sharp downward inclination above us1 and looping the rope round the pick and close to the ice4 ,the shaft must then be held rigid in its first position4 ,unless the footholds are exceptionally bad1 this anchor is not more secure than that given by good balance on the feet alone4 ,and men are very apt1 when a friend slips1 to throw their own weight inward upon the shaft in a clutch of security1 thus pulling the shaft down and loosening the pick from the one angle at which it could have been of any service as a belay4 ,on zigzags it is of no use trying to keep at even distances on the rope1 no matter how even the pace4 ,the intervals must alter as the men pass to and fro on the bends4 ,the rope has to be taken in1 as slack in the hand1 and again paid out1 as we cross below or above our front man on zigzags ascending or descending4 ,the turning-step is usually made face inward in ascending and face outward in descending1 though occasionally it is safer to make it face inward on a descent also4 ,the face-inward turn has two advantages3 one1 that we make the turn on the toes and not on the heels2 and two1 that if we are using a pick hold at the turn or balancing with our axe touching the ice1 we have not to make either the change of hand on the shaft of a fixed axe1 or the awkward swirl round of the whole axe outside us and back again on to the ice1 which a face-outward turn demands4 ,during either turn the rope should be held high1 and clear of the feet4 ,balance is always easier when moving in steps at a fair pace2 and steps of stationary comfort for turning or special anchoring1 and large enough for both feet1 are only made at intervals1 generally at the end of the zag4 ,consequently it is not always best to follow step for step with the step-cutter's necessarily slower progress4 ,if we do so1 we are constantly having to wait standing on one foot1 or with our legs straddled apart on two steps4 ,it is better to pause in the turning-steps and make up time on the series between them4 ,for example1 the second man secures his leader from a turning-step1 and can wait until his rope is nearly out4 ,he then follows more rapidly up or down the staircase4 ,he gathers up the rope as he goes if his leader is still cutting1 or1 on worse passages1 the leader takes it in as the second ascends4 ,his natural halts will be at the turning-step of a zag or at his leader's last anchor step4 ,this method is of particular use when1 as often in a couloir1 it is safer and more comfortable to make our longer pauses under the rocks at the sides1 and not all to move harmonically in criss-cross up the centre4 ,men on claws may prefer to be without the rope in such places2 in this case they make their advance when they please1 and are free to halt on any more comfortable nicks to allow for the leader's slower advance4 ,for continuous following up steps1 the rope and axe are usually held together in the outside hand1 the inside hand being left free to take balance touches against the ice or to take in the slack4 ,for slower movement1 advancing one at a time1 the axe is used for the touches or for resting against the ice during the pause on each step2 this saves the chill to the fingers4 ,the axe is at these times held across the body with both hands1 the outer of the two hands also holding the slack of the rope4 ,on very steep or otherwise dangerous ice we shall only be moving one at a time4 ,in this case the leader cuts a large anchor step to which he brings up his second2 and the halts will be made by the party only at the recurring large steps4 ,if the ice1 and party1 are sound enough for continuous progress1 we shall generally be pausing on steps made only for the one foot3 it is clearly of advantage1 at such times1 to have the freedom which claws allow us--especially if we are unroped--to move on until we have found a really comfortable nick to wait upon4 ,on traverses or zigzags1 unless we can reach a very good turning or anchor step from which to pull in the rope of the man following1 we do better to divide our stance between two steps4 ,our feet are then well planted to resist a pull coming diagonally or from straight behind us4 ,on a traverse1 if we are facing forward1 standing either on one or two steps1 it is best not to turn and watch the man following1 which will prejudice our balance1 but to trust to the feel of the rope to tell us what is happening4 ,the rope on ice with its smooth movement is even a surer telegraph than on rock4 ,moreover1 in the event of a slip behind us1 we have not only the sound of the slide as warning1 but the time taken by a slide down ice1 perceptibly longer than by a fall over rock1 gives us extra seconds to brace at our strongest4 ,we are more prepared to do this if we keep our body and head turned in the same direction as our feet1 than if we first turn round and then have to recover the best holding position4 ,sidenote3 ,glacier ,work4 ,on glaciers1 besides the task of making and using steps1 there is the more serious mountaineering business of finding the best route1 up or down1 or even any route at all4 ,the climber may or may not have been able to help himself by preliminary reconnoitring4 ,if not1 and he finds himself upon an unknown glacier1 he has one or two general principles to keep in mind4 ,the shady side of the glacier--there is usually one more sheltered from the sun--may offer the best chance of finding closed-up crevasses3 or of discovering bridges1 connecting flakes1 etc41 such as may help him through any system of open crevasses which extends right across the glacier4 ,on a curving glacier1 the concave side may present to the eye the steeper and more threatening waves of surface ice1 since the retardation will be greater on this side4 ,actually1 the ice on this concave side1 of slower movement1 will be less intricate and the crevasses more contracted4 ,often the steep crests of ice will be merely surface survivals of crevasses1 and their bases will be merged continuously in one another1 forming broad glacier dimples easy to negotiate4 ,on the convex side1 the ice crests of swifter movement may appear to be more negotiable1 but the crevasses will be open and deep2 and on this side there is always more possibility of finding a secondary or tertiary system of edge-crevasses intruding upon the normal side-system4 ,these crevasses are produced by the friction of the glacier against its containing walls1 and1 like other crevasses1 by the unevenness of the rock bed2 but being on the convex curve and unsubjected to compression they not only open but stay open4 ,most edge-crevasses are usually much covered with moraine and stones1 on lower glacier1 and by many treacherous forms of rotting snow on upper glacier1 and they are thoroughly unpleasant to work through4 ,it is best to avoid them by turning out towards the middle of the glacier1 until the side-rifts run out in harmless cracks4 ,on a glacier of approximately straight descent the ordinary systems of crevasses are three in number3 these various marginal crevasses1 transverse crevasses1 and crevasses running lengthways down the fall4 ,the transverse crevasses are caused by the falls in the rock bed of the descending glacier4 ,they are best crossed on a direct line of ascent or descent of the glacier4 ,according as the glacier is humped in the middle1 or flat and even hollow1 these crevasses will be found1 in the first case1 less open nearer the sides of the glacier1 and in the second1 less open towards the flat or concave centre4 ,the third system1 of lengthways crevasses1 is due to the opening out of the containing walls of rock1 or to long #8hog-back' elevations in the rock bed below1 which thrust up the centre of the glacier4 ,this is the more dangerous system to negotiate4 ,crevasses1 especially those whose edges are concealed1 must be approached1 for crossing1 at right angles to their run4 ,a party ascending or descending the glacier lengthways will have constantly to be swinging its whole length on the rope1 wheeling until at least two of the party at a time will be approaching the crevasse at right angles to its line and their former line of march4 ,so long as the glacier is clear of snow1 the crossings can be thus safely1 if tiresomely1 managed2 but when the crevasses are snow-covered1 or where we meet lengthways and transverse crevasses interlinked1 it calls for fine icemanship to prevent sometimes all the party finding themselves moving along the same line as the crevasse they intend to cross1 or even over its snow-covered length4 ,where a glacier1 straight or crooked1 has one of its sides unsupported by a rock wall1 and is therefore falling away at its own edge1 or where its marginal and transverse crevasses have joined hands1 a disagreeable system of curving crevasses must be expected4 ,this is difficult to prospect1 and dangerous to unravel if it is under snow4 ,to locate the direction of a #8scimitar' crevasse at one point1 and avoid it or cross it correctly1 does not protect us against its later loop of unexpected trespass upon our route4 ,the side of the falling away of a glacier should as far as possible be avoided1 in spite of the temptation of its easier-looking surface ice4 ,on large glaciers1 where two systems of big crevasses1 each equal and still active1 have met1 we find the worst problem of all3 that is1 separate #8cubes' or islands of ice with crevasses on all their four sides4 ,it leads only to disappointment to attempt to get through a big system of this character4 ,fortunately it is generally recognizable from a distance by its upstanding squared summits4 ,for a space1 also1 round the junction of any two glaciers these turbulent effects of cross-pressure must be expected1 and the area entered with caution4 ,on high snow-covered glacier1 the huge rotund depressions or mills cannot be disregarded4 ,but they can usually be skirted closely with confidence4 ,they are the result of strains that1 fortunately1 do not create subsidiary or flanking clefts4 ,they resemble mammoth ice sea urchins1 not glacial star-fish4 ,on glaciers of rapidly changing angle and surface1 a disagreeable phenomenon is the formation of an upper crust of ice1 or frozen snow1 over lesser depressions of the mill type4 ,the crust gets separated from the fall of the surface below it1 and while it continues to present a harmless appearance to all but very close inspection1 it may surprise a whole party by letting them down simultaneously into a sufficiently startling hollow4 ,the situation is generally more sensational than serious4 ,similarly1 in winter1 pools are formed in glacier hollows and frozen over4 ,then they are covered with snow1 and the water drains from under the crust4 ,thus ice-traps are formed very difficult to detect by the eye1 but which sound hollow under the testing tap of the axe point4 ,on covered glacier the axe may never rest idle4 ,glaciers in general1 like rivers1 alternate between distinct falls and more level slopes of smooth shoot or broken rapid4 ,the routes through the smooth sections are easy to trace out from above1 more difficult from below4 ,the falls are more difficult to unravel from above1 on a descent4 ,in coming down large dry glaciers we can assume that a fall rarely extends equally broken right across the glacier2 and that there will be a long bending eddy of smoother surface dallying close round the edge of the more broken section1 which may afford us a passage through or round the rapids4 ,on a small or steep glacier1 where the fall visibly occupies the whole breadth of the glacier1 and there is no eddy round it1 it is useful first to discover if there may not be a direct central line which appears to force through the fall a long arrow-point of lazier1 more level flow1 such as we look for when we are canoeing down rapids4 ,failing either of these1 on a small steep glacier the fall is often best skirted on the concave1 or on the shadowed side of the glacier4 ,only in rare years1 of hot seasons following mild winters1 do alpine crevasses1 or more often one great crevasse1 sometimes extend right across a narrow steep glacier1 and offer no through route1 or bridge4 ,as a last resort then it may be necessary to take to the rocks at the side of the glacier and circumvent the fall4 ,to get off a glacier at the right point in the evening1 and also to lose no time and patience when we turn down on to the big glaciers in the early morning1 it is our business to have noted beforehand from above the lie of the crevasses1 and the points where it will be best to start crossing their trend4 ,many glaciers tempt us with long sloping lines of good going where their crevasses slant inward and upward from the margin4 ,if we follow these without pre-examination1 we either find our entry carried out and across to where the systems meet and produce difficult ice1 or our exit balked of a landing-place4 ,a few resolute traverses of the side crevasses1 based upon observation1 will often take us on to the master-diagonal1 that launches us clear of the central fall or lands us on our chosen marge4 ,it will be seen that it is of value to train the eye to read a glacier from above1 and mark out the best route1 before we descend upon it4 ,this inspection should be made not only of the glacier on to which immediate descent is intended1 but of all the glaciers commanded by the ridges upon which we are climbing in a given season4 ,the information may be invaluable for a future day1 and the practice will serve conveniently to develop glacier prescience and glacier instinct4 ,in addition1 we secure a general idea of the condition of the glaciers in a particular season1 or in a particular locality1 which will assist by analogy to the unravelling of other glaciers which we may have been unable to prospect4 ,a good iceman not only notes from afar1 but retains his recollection of the route he noted when he is actually on the glacier and exposed to the constant temptation of following lines of deceptive least resistance4 ,a number of mountaineers learn to observe1 but few to remember2 and fewer still will uphold memory against the evidence of the moment4 ,conversely1 it is valuable practical training to note1 when we are on a glacier1 the character of its rock walls1 and the points at which the ice could be reached on a descent of the last rocks from the surrounding peaks4 ,the rock wall just above a glacier is like a sea cliff1 smoothed below1 and presents a perpetual problem1 of ascent or descent4 ,long returns may often be avoided by our recollection of inspections of a particular wall1 or by deductions from our memory of the fashion of rock finishes found on the local glaciers4 ,glaciers vary from year to year1 and change slightly from week to week1 and even on familiar ground it is wise to keep ourselves up to date by using all points of observation for the rediscovery of their annual or local variations4 ,with a few general principles as guide1 the instinct that comes with experience as our aid1 and backed by the usual allowance of climbers' luck1 there may be said to be scarcely a glacier1 in the ,alps at least1 which cannot be traversed by patience and skill in all but exceptional seasons4 ,an additional measure of precaution must of course be conceded1 if we are following a line after noon or after sunshine which we could take on trust in the frozen hours before sunrise4 ,and even before sunrise1 in negotiating steep glaciers1 dry or snow-covered1 a very careful eye has to be kept upon the chance of ice avalanches or of the fall of a srac4 ,for this risk is not confined to the afternoon hours1 when they are most likely to fall4 ,a warm night1 or frost1 tepid wind or rain1 will put the last touch to the career of many vagabond pinnacles depraved by the sun of previous days4 ,where we can command the distant glacier above us1 it is not difficult to mark the dangerous pinnacles and sracs1 and to calculate their direction of fall should they choose for it our moment of passage4 ,otherwise1 if we are launched in the morning1 without prospect1 into the blind intricacies of a big ice fall1 the traces of previous falls must be our signals4 ,they will be either scars1 from which we draw conclusions according to their appearance of age or newness1 or1 more frequently1 the remains themselves of a past fall1 shattered fragments of ice4 ,from the surface of the blocks we know whether the fall was recent or not4 ,if the surface is blue and new in the morning1 it has been a recent or night fall1 and another may be expected2 the same if it has only the rime of frost upon it4 ,if the surface has melted at all and been refrozen since the fall1 it is the fall of the day before or of still older date1 and it need not be especially regarded in making an early morning traverse4 ,the differences are notable1 and a practised eye1 backed by knowledge of the weather immediately preceding1 can say within a day or a night when the fall took place1 and whether it was a day or a night fall1 and judge accordingly1 with some probability of correctness1 when a similar fall may be expected4 ,again1 if there are traces of several falls of different dates1 the passage is exposed to the raking of more than one periodic srac mass1 and it must be avoided4 ,if it is but a single old fall1 of a complete srac1 which no expert will have difficulty in discovering1 it cannot fall again and may be disregarded4 ,after the sun has once risen1 all commanding and large sracs1 even if there is no trace of previous falls1 must become objects of suspicion1 if we have to pass below them4 ,their period of decline and fall is proceeding1 and its close cannot be calculated nearer than within a few hours4 ,but a skilled party1 with claws and experience1 need not be afraid of adventuring on to a crossing of the wettest1 bluest1 and nastiest-looking sracs1 provided that they can work out a route of safe footing and that the threatened zones are visible1 and therefore avoidable4 ,so long as snow does not conceal the cleavages or muffle the frailties1 the difficulties of ice1 as such1 are a delight to master4 ,with a good axe1 good claws and a good friend1 to set one's feet on the crisp spring of morning ice and feel battle joined with the white1 blue and silver giants of a glacier fall1 ,i know no excitement so sanely joyous2 and no sound so thrilling as the clean hollow smack of the axe and the bell-like rustle of the falling ice-chips returning from the deep crevasse2 and yet again1 no exultation more healthy than to look back through the glittering labyrinth of turquoise and grey precipice1 of sapphire chasm1 fretted spire1 and lucent arch1 flake and buttress1 and see the little serpent of our blurred blue steps1 edged with the tiny winking prisms of sunlit ice-dust1 soaring1 dipping1 circling1 hazarding on its absurd adventure3 surely a connected thread of very happy human purpose1 asserting its gay consequence triumphantly through the heart of the wildest and most beautiful of the conflicts between nature's silent armies4 ,sidenote3 ,snow-covered ,glacier4 ,higher glaciers1 and the higher reaches of glaciers covered with snow1 are the most complex of all mountain problems1 and their unravelling is the final test of mountaineering4 ,they demand for their duality of difficulty the mastery of snow and ice technique in combination2 and for their associated risk a fourfold measure of precautionary skill2 for on them we expect to encounter the ordinary risks of snow superimposed upon the hidden1 and therefore magnified1 possibilities of danger on ice4 ,the great icemen1 those who can disregard a late descent after a long day1 and by memory1 or by the ice instinct which is the emanation of recollected experience1 are able to lead a tired party unerringly through the fantastic1 often invisible entanglements of a snow-covered glacier system1 intensified by sunshine1 their own faculties unimpaired by darkness1 fatigue or danger1 are masters of the craft2 and they are few enough for us to give them ungrudgingly the title of genius4 ,the peculiar risks of snow glaciers force upon us a reconsideration of the numbers proper for a party4 ,solitary climbing is never justifiable on any type of expedition which involves either snow or ice2 in fact anywhere where the increase in the so-called objective risk makes it impossible to observe the super-precautionary conditions which must always limit a lonely climber's performance1--as elsewhere enumerated4#ae ,an expert on claws may pass a day alone on a dry glacier1 with the knowledge that he is taking some definite risk4 ,but anyone who ventures alone on snow-covered glacier1 whatever his skill1 is giving to everybody1 except himself1 a proof that he lacks the most important part of a mountaineer's mental equipment4 ,the question as it affects a single climber is simple4 ,with the consideration of the justifiability of a party of two venturing on snow-covered glaciers1 the complications begin4 ,a party of two1 ,i have said elsewhere1 if they are experts1 is the ideal party for most rock climbing4 ,for most normal mountaineering which includes straightforward ice work the addition of a third to a strong party adds little except a moral security1 and diminishes the complete harmony in rhythm and pace4 ,on clear ice slopes the additional protection is small4 ,if1 as between two men1 one has not been able to check the other's fall1 the third man will very rarely be able to stop the slip of both the others4 ,on snow slopes1 except to share the mechanical labour or in certain exceptional cases1 already mentioned1 to participate in the corrective anchoring1 two good mountaineers should not need reinforcement4 ,but on snow-covered glacier1 where hidden crevasses come into question1 not only are two insufficient but even three may find themselves hard put to it if two of them have to pull out the third from a bad crevasse4 ,some mountaineers have maintained1 and in print1 that it is never necessary to fall into crevasses2 that in every case a man with good eyesight1 knowledge of glacier signs and unfailing observation 7all of which the leader of a party of two must possess for any type of climbing7 can always distinguish their unseen presence and locate their line4 ,this view is nearer the truth than the large number of climbers who have never learned or never cared to use and train their senses would be prepared to admit4 ,in nine cases out of ten the crevasse is really perceptible4 ,but there is the tenth case1 with which all men who climb must on occasion have to deal1 where there has been no visible sign1 and where the crevasse is discovered too late or is only escaped by accident4 ,and further1 there is also the supernumerary case when the crevasse is visible1 but when its crossing must yet be risked1 as the milder of several critical alternatives1 and the consequences accepted4 ,as the matter must still be considered one for discussion1 and it is of real moment to clear the ground for a sounder tradition than at present regulates our diverse doctrine and chameleon practice1 ,i shall mention a few instances of what ,i have called the tenth case4 ,in a recent alpine season a mild winter and a long hot summer produced conditions of snow sub-surface entirely unfamiliar4 ,crevasses had opened below long-established snow slopes of unimpeachable aspect4 ,their coverings had become tenuous and fragile1 but until mid-,august the upper surface of old snow presented no appearance of subsidence or change4 ,no eyesight could have prevented the falls that resulted4 ,such a state of snow cannot be unique1 or confined to the ,alps2 and1 in fact1 the same phenomena1 in a less subtle form1 may entrap less experienced mountaineers almost any season--guides as well as guideless amateurs4 ,moreover1 even where the crevasse shadow would normally be visible1 failing light may trick the best eye1 a level sun may dazzle1 or low mist may wipe out all sign2 and then our expert may go through as easily as another4 ,few even of the most experienced guides but have suffered the experience4 ,some have been through2 others have had their following drop through where they had passed unsuspecting2 yet others have only averted the break by good luck or corrective gymnastics4 ,again1 there is the case when the presence of the crevasse may be visible or suspected1 but where its breadth is undiscoverable4#af ,or1 again1 where the bounds are discoverable1 but where their criss-crossing may elaborate new risks4 ,suppose us to be two grave men making the descent of a hanging glacier4 ,we find ourselves faced with the alternatives of returning up the peak1 of sitting out possibly in deteriorating weather1 or of taking the chance of unravelling one of those glacier cross-systems of spouting volcanoes1 where the ice is heaped and beaten up into snow-covered vault and dome1 and only the tinkle below our feet warns us that we are walking over the brittle cupola of some hidden ,st4 ,paul's4 ,one of us might be pardoned for breaking through here3 and how shall one other extricate him8 ,a more frequent1 #8supernumerary' case is that of the bergschrund1 with its single bridge which we have to cross to get at our peak at all1 or to get home before night4 ,in the morning it may have been secure2 on our return its security1 or the reverse1 has to be rediscovered ambulando4 ,the experience is common enough1 and few parties of two will be able to plead not guilty to having at some time taken the flying chance4 ,in these and similar cases precautionary and corrective icemanship can do much to reduce the risk for the party of two4 ,but unless such a party climbs so as never to cross snow-covered crevasses at all1 which is to postulate absurdity1 some risk there must always be of a break-through4 ,and if that once occurs1 for a party of two the situation is ten times as serious as for any greater number4 ,for if the fact that a man may excusably fall through may be considered established1--and ,i shall assume that it is1 sufficiently at all events for practical mountaineers1--it is only a question of further fortune whether the crevasse is so shaped that one of the party of only two can rescue himself or even be helped materially by the second man4 ,several corrective devices have been suggested1 such as wearing two ropes1 keeping a hand-loop ready near our hand on the rope1 etc4--devices which are now used in the confidence that they form a genuine safeguard4 ,the intention of the double rope is that if one man falls through1 the other will untie one rope from his waist1 and fasten it to his axe1 which he will drive in securely as a belay4 ,the man below will then pull on this rope1 and the man above on the rope still attached to him2 thus securing that the two men will each be pulling separately to raise the one weight4 ,the effectiveness of the double rope so used1 however1 assumes that the crevasse is one with open walls and clean firm edges1 which will allow the second man first to anchor the one rope round his axe1 and then move up and stand close enough to the edge to be able to pull in the second rope while his friend below does acrobatics up the anchored rope4 ,but these are not the crevasses into which any observant leader of a party of two has any right to fall4 ,good men1 if they fall1 are trapped by snow-covered crevasses of indeterminate edges1 or by the midway breaking of a visible but treacherous bridge4 ,in such crevasses the fallen man will be under the projection of a lip of snow4 ,he will be hanging free1 probably unable to do more than touch the walls with his axe4 ,the man above will have all he can do to hold on2 he may not be able to find secure snow within reach into which to drive his axe for the belay2 and his hands will rarely be sufficiently free to untie one waist rope1 drive the axe and fix the rope to it1 so that he can move up and clear away the overhang4 ,the ropes will cut deeply into the snow lip with the weight2 and the friction hold of the snow in which the ropes are embedded will militate against the effective pulling upon his rope by either man4 ,if the two ropes are1 as usual1 tied to the waist1 the one will probably have twisted round the other2 both will be jammed in this position in the snow cut1 and neither man will be able to distinguish on which rope he is supposed to pull4 ,even if they have been kept clear before1 the cutting through the snow will twist the ropes and jam them1 so that they cannot be used separately for pulling at all4 ,the projecting snow will interrupt communications and interfere with any simultaneous action in pulling from above and below4 ,nor can the man below1 suspended in air1 really do much to help4 ,tie a rope round your chest and a bough2 drop ten feet on it1 and then try to pull yourself up it6 ,and a man in a crevasse is much worse situated for attempting juggling feats4 ,the constriction of the rope alone will soon make him helpless and later unconscious4 ,the shock1 the imminent peril and the cold will contribute to weaken him for the strenuous efforts required4 ,further1 if the rope is tied1 as it usually is1 under the arm1 the knot will work up under his shoulder and practically put one arm out of action4 ,all the strength of the arm will be required for merely forcing down the knot and noose1 so as to keep it under the arm-pit2 the moment the arms are lifted to attempt a pull1 the knot will force itself up and half-paralyse the one arm4 ,it has been suggested1 as a partial solution1 that the two men should not rope at the ends of the rope1 but keep some feet of loose end wound round the body4 ,then if one falls in he can1 with luck helping him1 release this slack and make a foot or thigh noose on which the body can rest while suspended1 thus relieving the constriction of the chest4 ,anything that may help is worth trying1 and ,i should certainly advise the method as giving a small extra chance in a bad situation4 ,but this only deals with one of many difficulties4 ,experience has again and again shown me that the man below becomes incapable of active co-operation1 from cold and shock if not from constriction1 before the men above1 however prompt and expert they may be1 can arrange and carry out any effective scheme of rescue4 ,i have known of difficult situations where even two men above proved insufficient for the complex task of retaining firm fixed anchors1 clearing obstructions and pulling up4 ,in any case no mechanical device can be equivalent to the power of a third man1 and two men can never be as safe as three4 ,once this is conceded1 we may admit that a number of good mountaineers will probably continue to hold the view that two is the best number for many sorts of climbing2 and that therefore parties of two1 starting out with the best intentions1 will occasionally find themselves compelled by the necessity of avoiding even greater risk to hazard the crossing of snow-covered crevasses or bridges of dubious stability4 ,they should certainly then put on a doubled or a second rope4 ,one of the two rope-lengths when tied should be longer than the other4 ,this runs risks of twisting and is a nuisance1 but in case of a fall it secures that the ropes are at once distinguishable1 and it should be prearranged that the man who has fallen should always do his pulling upon this looser rope4 ,the second man should have the end of the looser rope attached1 not to his waist1 but to his axe shaft4 ,whenever the leader crosses an obvious bridge or pauses to probe1 the second man should plant the axe1 with the loose rope attached1 at once in the snow1 and hold the other1 tighter rope in his two hands1 ready for emergencies4 ,it is clear that on this method some practical use is made of the protection of the second rope4 ,if the leader goes through1 the second man avoids all the enormous difficulty of untying one of two taut ropes1 of fixing it to his axe1 and then anchoring it1 with the whole weight of the man below dragging on him4 ,the weight is on the one taut rope round his waist2 he has only to drive in the axe with its slack rope already attached1 and the fixed anchor is ready for the man below to start pulling upon1 while he himself at once has his hands free to pull on the taut rope4 ,again1 if the rear man falls in--which of course he has even less excuse for doing--this method has the advantage of keeping the second rope already loose and distinguishable in his hand1 to cling to or climb upon1 and also of saving his axe for him4 ,this double advantage is some remedy for the fact that the leader1 who in this case will be the man left above1 will have both ropes still fixed to his waist1 as on the old faulty system4 ,i do not suggest that the leader also should have the second rope attached to his axe4 ,he must have his axe quite free4 ,it might be well also to adopt the plan of the few feet of loose end wound round the waist1 to make a foot noose with1 if the circumstances and position allow4 ,when the double rope is worn1 the rear man should always carry the spare rope4 ,if the double ropes are then1 as is quite possible1 twisted and jammed in the snow groove1 he has yet a third chance of making free and quick connection with his leader2 and unless1 as ,i have said1 both men can begin instantly to use their full strength upon distinct ropes1 there is small chance that one man can get another out of an undercut crevasse4 ,in place of tying the looser rope to their axe1 some men prefer to compromise1 and make a fixed loop in the second rope near their waist1 through which1 in case of the fall of a man in front1 they can thrust the axe into the snow1 and so get a provisional anchor4 ,this loop in the rope close to the hand1 to snatch at or thrust the axe through in emergency1 is also used by men in larger parties when linked by the usual single rope4 ,the method has many objections2 and all the material security it gives is quite as usefully and less objectionably obtained from the coil or so of slack we are accustomed to grip in the hand4 ,in the case of a larger party1 if a leader or last man does fall in1 the first care should be to drive an axe1 or axes1 securely into the snow1 and loop the rope4 ,one man must then approach the edge of the crevasse and see the run of the rope1 the nature of the pull1 and the clearance of overhanging snow1 if any1 which has to be made4 ,if the crevasse has the character of a bergschrund1 with one lip higher than the other1 it is often easier to pull the man out from the opposite side to that from which he has fallen4 ,one1 or1 if the numbers allow1 two of the party must work round cautiously to the far side1 taking a spare rope to let down4 ,a noose should be made at the end of the rope before it is lowered4 ,the stirrup for the foot can also well be employed in such emergencies4 ,in a party of three1 on a suspicious glacier1 the spare rope should always be carried by the last man1 and not by the first man1 as is usually done in guided parties4 ,with the two ropes pulling from different sides the extrication is fairly easy4 ,if the farther lip cannot be reached1 or overhangs as much as or more than the near lip1 there is nothing for it but to cut back the lip of snow overhang above the suspended man until the rope is cleared4 ,this runs some risk of injuring the man below with the falling masses2 but the chance must be taken on occasion4 ,the longer a man hangs1 the more helpless he becomes4 ,promptitude is essential4 ,keen sight is the first quality for a good leader on snow-covered ice2 to be able to remark not only every change of shade or colour or angle on the surface immediately ahead1 but also to be able to read the surface well to right and left for its betrayal of crevasses that may be continuing1 better hidden1 across his path4 ,he must also know all about glacier structure and the inclinations and aspect of surfaces where hidden crevasses may be expected4 ,tinted glasses are1 for many men1 an interruption to the reading of ice or snow1 and often the cause of bad leading4 ,the man is fortunate who is able to do without them when he is leading1 or who finds enough protection in the clear spectacles which best suit his sight4 ,there is an exaggerated idea of the chances of breaking ordinary clear spectacles which has little foundation4 ,they can be worn safely on almost all rock and ice2 and even on very severe rock1 where they run some risk of smashing as the head is raised past a ledge1 they are as safe on the nose as in a pocket4 ,except right up under the arm-pit1 and not always there1 there is no contrivable pocket which can be sure of avoiding contact with rock in some attitude of climbing4 ,after our eyes--and our experience--we have still another criterion1 that of the hand4 ,the probing with the axe point at every step must become perfectly automatic1 and begin of itself to function as soon as sight or instinct makes us suspicious about the glacier surface4 ,we must have the right sort of axe point1 one without a large protuberant collar to the spike1 so that we can probe with nicety of touch2 and we must get to know exactly the feel of our axe and the meaning of the different resistances which its point signals to our hand4 ,for this reason it is well always to use the same axe or kind of axe4 ,where our eye or axe probe has given us reason to suspect a crevasse1 the next test is to flog the same spot lightly with the axe point4 ,in dealing with sun-soft surface this flick goes deeper1 with less exertion1 and practice can make it a very accurate reporter upon the consistency4 ,this too is its merit in testing the thoroughfaresomeness of visible bridges4 ,where also the snow cover is thin1 the flogging stroke tells us more quickly than the prod where sound footing ends and the crevasse begins4 ,snow testing1 like walking with the axe1 should be shared equally between the two hands4 ,it is not only exceedingly useful to be equally dexterous and sensitive with either hand1 but the practice keeps the muscular development even and the general condition of the body proportionately better4 ,when we are working through crevassed glacier the second man must always watch the meaning of his leader's movements1 and halt and brace at once if the leader checks4 ,the others watch each the man in front of him4 ,it is essential to follow exactly in the steps on a glacier of this sort1 even though the windings of the leader's tracks may suggest many pleasant short-cuts to the tail of the rope4 ,by watching the men ahead we know when we must be ready to let out rope1 so as to enable the man in front of us1 in his turn1 to make a long step across a dubitable crevasse or a short jump1 and when we shall have to pause and protect him with the rope1 as his turn comes to start delicately over a presumed bridge4 ,to hold the rope taut is irritating1 to jerk it dangerous1 and to leave it slack on the surface irritating and dangerous2 the correct touch comes with experience4 ,the leader will always be on the look out2 but the men behind will naturally be following with less close attention4 ,therefore if the leader comes upon a small crevasse or other easy obstacle too slight to cause him an obvious check1 he should warn the man behind of its presence1 as he strides on1 by beating the spot with his axe2 and the signal should be repeated by each man following4 ,again if1 when we are all moving together1 we have checked in order to make some awkward step or to test a bridge1 we must remember that in a few seconds the man behind us will be checking at the same place1 and we must slacken our pace at the right second to allow him time to cross4 ,it is common and aggravating error to hurry on again so as to get into rhythm with the man in front1 forgetting that the man behind will have slowed up for our pause1 and will be jerked or scuffled by our omission to allow him the same margin4 ,the same rule applies if we are serpentining rapidly down a glacier1 swinging so as to cross longitudinal or diagonal crevasses at the right angle4 ,if we resume the normal pace the moment we have swung #8into the straight' again ourselves1 we leave no time for the man behind to finish his parabola or cross his bridge4 ,this is a roguery ingrained in all but the best of guides4 ,glacier craft1 the ability to choose in anticipation the easiest line down or up a volatile succession of semi-visible obstructions1 and to surpass them safely as they become concrete1 can only become an actual possession by long experience and unwearying observation4 ,there is a family likeness between whole groups of surface configurations shaped by the same cause1 which1 however dissimilar their momentary association1 will recall to a recording eye some past occasion of encounter1 and will suggest to a cool head and skilful hands the proven method of avoiding or defeating them in their new combination4 ,glaciers form our avenues of tempting approach1 and1 as often1 of tedious return4 ,during the hours when human vivacity is on the wane the higher ice falls are opening always wider eyes of watchful malice4 ,towards their confounding not only ice craft but all the qualities which produce the collective strength of a party1 from temper to the sense of direction1 must contribute in concert4 ,among glacier ambuscades a party that has not found unity will fall to pieces4 ,they are yet more demoralizing to one whose leadership is in commission1--that grievous blunder of divided responsibility1 which1 arising out of the sociable conjunction of two or more self-contained parties for the purpose of a single climb1 leads too often through disjointed action to failure1 and even1 as our chronicles bear witness1 to disaster4 ,a really united rope1 well led1 which can work through disheartening glacier falls long1 and late1 and like them1 has graduated in mountaineering2 and may be considered to hold the freedom of the great peaks4 ,,snow ,,craft ,the technique of snow craft is identical in its principles with that of ice craft4 ,the upright balanced movement1 the management of the rope1 turning1 anchoring1 etc41 are the same1 or only slightly modified4 ,only points of detail1 therefore1 need be mentioned which are peculiar to the different qualities of snow surface4 ,in certain cases1 such as bridges and cornices1 both snow and ice are in question1 and the notes are then supplementary to those made under general ice craft4 ,to make snow steps is a matter of muscle and rhythm2 to use them1 one of balance and endurance2 but to know how to avoid making them and where not to make them is the science of snow craft4 ,we may learn to identify snow states by description3 nothing but experiment can teach us how to deal with them4 ,we may classify the states of snow under many heads2 but we are only practically concerned with three points3 which of these states are pleasant1 which are unpleasant1 and which are unsafe to walk upon4 ,of most importance is it to be certain which states are likely to be unsafe1 and to be able to recognize their presence beforehand4 ,under ,reconnoitring some suggestions are made as to the signs by which snow states may be interpreted from a distance1 and some of the certainly unsafe ones consequently avoided in anticipation4 ,as to whether the state on a particular day will be pleasant or unpleasant1 the weather of the day1 the hour and the angle of the snow can tell us much4 ,the final test must always be by touch4 ,sidenote3 ,some ,characteristics and ,countermoves4 ,snow lying at above an angle of #bj degrees may slide whenever its support is not equal to its mass4 ,its support comes either from behind1 the rock1 ice or snow surface upon which it rests2 or from its quality1 the cohesion of its particles2 or from below1 the angle and mass of the subtending snow slope4 ,in deciding about its safety we must take all those three points under our inspection4 ,of its sub-surface we know something if we can ascertain the lie of the rock strata or detect the presence of ice4 ,of its quality and mass we judge by surface signs and our recollection of the weather4 ,of its support from below we judge by the angle at which it lies2 not only by the angle of a specimen section1 but the angle of all sections of the slope below4#ag ,snow lying at easy angles1 exposed to the directer rays of the sun1 will usually be soft2 and while we may be able to mince over its night crust before sunrise1 we do well to avoid its possibilities of purgatory on our return later in the day4 ,snow on south and south-east faces for the same reason is the more to be respected1 and its earlier deterioration must be accepted without resentment4 ,if a strong wind has been blowing1 the snow on the sheltered side of a peak will be the softer and the more likely to avalanche4 ,snow on a sheltered face becomes loosened in fibre by the balance between the air-currents1 whereas1 on the windy side1 it will get blown off or blown superficially hard4 ,if there has been ,fhn in the wind1 the snow will be untrustworthy all round4 ,fhn has the insidious quality of disintegrating snow through all its depth2 it may appear to have affected the surface relatively little1 but it will have reduced the under-snow to slush4 ,this is the most perilous of avalanche states4 ,snow may be expected to slide1 under the usual conditions1 not only after hot days or days of wind4 ,days of warm mist and diffused sunlight may be even more deleterious4 ,certain states of snow may start sliding irrespective of all changes of temperature1 at any time and on calm days1 merely as the result of some slight disturbance4 ,first among these is #8powdery' snow4 ,this may be either fresh snow or old snow which has never been melted and refrozen4 ,older snow in a powdery state we shall only expect in summer to find at greater heights1 where the daily sun has little power4 ,since we shall recognize by sight that it is older snow1 and since it has neither blown off nor as yet fallen1 we shall be reassured about its holding quality1 provided that we can also make certain that it is not lying in great masses or at a minatory angle4 ,sometimes1 although we may not have seen it1 we shall get evidence of its presence above us1 in the appearance on gusty days of cascades of thin powdery snow streaming like dust down the lower ice or snow slopes4 ,in the ,alps these wind cascades of old powdery snow are sensational to see or to feel pouring round us on a steep wall1 but they are too light to be harmful4 ,the difference in weight between a flying veil of dry snow and one of wet snow must be felt on the shoulders or ankles to be appreciated4 ,cascades1 of a more threatening sound1 betray to us the presence above of old granular or crystal snow4 ,the grains are easily set in motion2 but in the ,alps snow of this sort rarely lies at a depth to be worth regarding4 ,old powdery or granular snow1 lying at a good angle and in light mass1 we shall expect to be laborious but not to avalanche3--at least until we have put it to its last test of touch4 ,new snow1 as a dry powder1 if it lies in large masses1 must be expected to avalanche on all slopes of steeper angle4 ,in lesser quantities1 it may be started by wind or by an incautious passage4 ,on ice or rock it is never stable1 until it has been cleared away or melted and refrozen4 ,new snow1 as a wet powder on rocks1 is desperately chilly for the hands1 and has the disagreeable quality of transforming itself into an ice glaze under the pressure of the boots or the glove4 ,if we are caught out by a fall of new wet snow on rock1 ice-claws will protect our foothold1 but nothing will save the hands4 ,i have known very few men whose hands would stand more than a very short spell of clearing out rock holds in wet snow4 ,gloves are soon saturated1 and the ice glaze forming under the hand still further reduces the effective grip of the numbed fingers4 ,it is this that makes climbing on rocks impossible for days after a snowfall2 while from snow or ice slopes1 where we are not so concerned with handhold1 the same storm will restrain us by its threat of avalanches4 ,after a storm of any length1 two or three fine days are required in summer for the rock to clear4 ,the first day of sun should melt the snow2 the night following will refreeze it into a glaze3 the second hot day will melt the glaze2 and1 with luck1 the third day may find the rocks clear4 ,all wet snow1 melting in heat or rain1 in ,fhn or after wind1 is liable to avalanche1 according to the angle at which it lies and in proportion to the amount of water which it contains4 ,only experience and touch can tell whether snow is or is not overcharged for the angle at which it is lying4 ,it is astonishing what a quantity of water snow will hold without moving2 and again1 what a trifle will set it falling or arrest it4 ,i have seen a whole quiet mountain face break into avalanches under the extra snow weight discharged during a few minutes of after-squall2 and ,i have watched water-logged snow streaming like thin milk over the slabs of a north precipice1 stopping suddenly as heavy1 cold grey clouds crept over the rocks1 only to begin again the instant the clouds passed and the sun broke through4 ,frothy snow1 neither powdery nor wet1 but of the texture of dry sea-foam1 is not so frequent in summer in the ,alps as in some other great ranges4 ,but ,i have found it occasionally near big summits or high up on northern snow faces4 ,in spite of its intimidating quality1 it is safe at almost any angle if it lies on a good sub-surface4 ,but it is infinitely laborious4 ,a step takes us up to our waist or shoulders4 ,progress is only possible by flogging a furrow up it with forearms and shins1 which leaves a trail like an ecstatic sea-serpent4 ,some relief can be got by slapping down the shaft of the axe flatwise above us and crossways to the line1 and pulling up on it as on a horizontal bar4 ,before venturing upon snow of definitely unstable type1 such as powdery snow or wet snow1 we must make certain of its mass1 its angle and the nature of the surface below it4 ,we then adapt our methods accordingly4 ,for instance1 if we find that wet or powdery snow is lying upon ice at anything but a very low angle1 we start by finding out if it is of the same quality for all its depth4 ,if it is1 we must clear it away at each pace and cut a step in the ice below4 ,if the poor quality is only superficial and improves below1 or if we notice that where the lowest skin of snow rests on the ice it adheres either in a film or in measle-patches1--which signifies that the ice and the snow surfaces are going through a gradual process of peaceful interpenetration1--we can count on this lower snow surface for sure footing4 ,we need not cut steps1 but only stamp through the snow to a safe depth for a sound step4 ,if we have any doubt as to the security of a slope1 which we shall have when the angle of the slope and quality of the snow are varying and the resultant stability is indeterminable1 we must ascend or descend it vertically1 if possible1 or on very steep zigzags4 ,we must take care to cross incipient cleavages1 or traces of horizontal strains on the surface1 at right angles1 and never encourage them by letting the weight of our party tramp parallel to their length4 ,a steep slope of doubtful quality1 if it has to be traversed1 should be crossed as near its upper edge as possible1 and this particularly if the slope is subtended by a cliff or a snow slope of steeper inclination4 ,on a slope actually showing traces of a recent slide1 secondary falls may be expected4 ,a snow slope is not a srac1 and it is not so safe to assume that all has fallen that can fall without close inspection4 ,if we cannot see the place of origin we can make a deduction1 as in the case of an ice fall1 from the appearance of the nearer debris3 as to whether it was a recent fall1 a night or day fall1 a surface skim1 a local powder-rush or a sample of gravitating under-slush4 ,on the lee side of ridges which have been exposed to the wind1 we must expect to find snow accumulations of a poorer quality1 and liable to slide according to the angle at which they lie4 ,this will be especially the case if the ridges are subordinate ribs descending from a principal ridge4 ,on such ribs1 if we find wind signs on the near side1 we must be careful of the snow on the far side of each rib1 and in all the adjoining protected hollows4 ,good snow is either snow with a hard surface1 or snow which1 below the surface1 remains sticky and light4 ,except at great heights1 we shall only find snow hard before the sun has touched it4 ,before sunrise1 after wholesome cold nights1 we count on finding all snow surface good and every bridge holding4 ,when we find soft surfaces in the early hours after a warm night1 it bodes us ill if we have to return the same way later4 ,on hard1 steep snow1 wherever our boots begin to scratt fretfully for foothold1 it is less fatiguing to put on claws1 or to make a notch with a single one-handed tug stroke of the adze-blade4 ,on very steep snow of medium hardness1 when a handhold is needed1 it is better to use the blade of the axe than the pick4 ,the more level the snow the more directly will it have felt the sun2 the thinner will be its night crust and the softer its under layers4 ,therefore we avoid1 especially later in the day1 launching out upon the great snow plateaux and valleys of the higher regions of glaciers1 such as are labelled #8,firn1' #8,nv1' #8,ewige ,schnee' on maps1 names of foreboding4 ,if we have to take to them1 we keep to the sides1 where the snow-levels begin to climb and the rays strike less directly4 ,if we have a choice1 we select the side or line which is subject to the shortest hours of full sunlight4 ,always1 if they are there1 we use old foot tracks4 ,the floor of an old step melts and refreezes and1 protected by its depth1 remains firmer than its surroundings4 ,on popular peaks these tracks can become immense frozen ruts1 very awkward and ankle-racking to descend4 ,it was reported one radiant year that a tourist on the final slopes of the ,jungfrau had fallen into one of these #8steps1' and had been extricated with difficulty4 ,sidenote3 ,snow ,travail4 ,when we are really in for a steady plough through deep snow1 the stride should be kept short1 the knee bent1 the weight well forward1 and the body swaying from side to side--in fact we adopt the #8tramp's walk4' ,to thrust with the straight knee is uselessly fatiguing4 ,on soft snow we are lost if we cannot achieve some sort of steady rhythm4 ,the feet should be planted straight1 and not toes outward4 ,the length of the stride with either leg should be absolutely equal4 ,if the weights of the party are very uneven1 the heavy man should precede4 ,it is less fatiguing for a heavy man to make his own steps1 where he allows beforehand for the #8give' of the snow1 than to stride out behind expecting a firm tread1 only1 in two out of three steps1 to find the floor give way under him4 ,irregular resistances are the negation of rhythm4 ,unless he has the shortest legs of his party1 the step maker must always shorten his normal stride on soft snow4 ,the length of the first man's stride is increased as each man behind slightly deepens the steps1 until the last man may have to be making a grasshopper bound to reach from tread to tread of what started as a normal pace4 ,on soft surfaces1 especially where the resistance is irregular1 it is difficult to keep in balance1 and the axe comes into use at every step4 ,i have usually found it better to reverse the axe4 ,the head1 like a ski-stick1 gives broader stay on level snow1 and firmer touches against inclined soft snow1 than the point4 ,crusted snow1 where the surface has melted and refrozen1 but too lightly to carry our weight1 is the worst snow of all4 ,when it lies at easy angles1 it may be extraordinarily wearisome to cross4 ,it just bears our weight until the body is fairly over the foot1 then it gives and lets us through4 ,at least the half of each lifting effort is thus lost1 and each fresh step has to be made from a yielding basis uphill on to a hard one4 ,rhythm is impossible1 and the prolonged aggravation is demoralizing4 ,for which reason ,i have found soft snow the one test of sheer endurance in which good guides are inferior to good amateurs4 ,we meet it not infrequently in our own islands1 and welcome it then as good #8alpine' training4 ,for really bad crust there is no countermove1 except strong thighs and a high flat-foot step4 ,on crust of a better character1 especially before sunrise1 a shuffling step1 which distributes the weight1 often saves the foot from going through1 or lets it sink to a less depth4 ,on some crusted surfaces it is possible to slide cautiously along on the shuffle-step1 where lighter men1 walking #8heel and toe1' are going through at each stride4 ,when the surface is too soft for even a shuffle to save us1 the tread should be made with the whole flat of the sole1 and not with the heel leading as is usual in road walking4 ,under the flat foot1 as under a snow-shoe1 the snow packs more quickly4 ,to pivot upon the foot1 before the weight comes upon it1 widens the bearing surface4 ,soft snow cannot be taken at a rush4 ,there is a peculiarly clinging and binding quality in the snow of old avalanche debris4 ,these are just the places where most folk start seven-leagued leaping4 ,if we cannot restrain them1 we make them take off the rope first4 ,to be tied to a hop-o'-my-thumb when our leg has just entered binding snow1 up to the thigh1 at an acute angle to the pull is full of unpleasant possibilities4 ,the wise man will continue even here to move lightly1 and only as rapidly as balance and rhythm will allow4 ,on long monotonous snow wades1 if we cannot get a good rhythm of legs or body1 it is sometimes of use to supply its place by an artificial rhythm1 counting the steps up to fifty and then pausing1 or whistling1 or following a tune in our head--anything that may introduce a rhythm1 with rests1 into the featureless vista of effort4 ,the boredom that may afflict a party on snow is peculiar to itself4 ,the even glare and the winding line of diminishing tracks hypnotize the eye and mind1 and produce a conviction of exhaustion which is often in great part self-suggested4 ,the wader feels that he absolutely cannot take another step4 ,if counting fails1 and other wiles and conversational red-herrings shrivel up in the silent white monotony1 rest is the only cure4 ,sleep follows easily in such states1 and a few minutes' slumber often restores a man or a party surprisingly4 ,on long snow plods it is best to get rid of the rope whenever the absence of crevasses will allow4 ,it but doubles the uneasy travail4 ,if it has to be kept on1 avoid spoken remonstrance when the man before or behind jerks you2 let the rope do the talking4 ,if you are leading1 keep a small1 loose coil in your hand1 so that the man behind shall not drag you in mid-step4 ,if you are last1 you can always exercise a salutary1 silent check4 ,if you are in the middle1 and you have1 as is frequent in tired parties1 an energetic leader trying provokingly to press the pace in front and the weakest member lagging slightly but protestingly upon your rope behind1 the best way to protect yourself1 inoffensively1 is to take up both their ropes in your one hand1 and so link their opposing pulls directly on to one another4 ,you can thus maintain equilibrium with no further discomfort to yourself4 ,when ,i was learning the craft in early years between two guides1 or a guide and amateur of unequal endurance1 ,i had many occasions for perfecting the device4 ,the use of ski upon snow is treated of separately4 ,whenever summer ski have been made as available as ice-claws1 there can be no doubt that they will cancel out for us as much of the technical consideration of these penitential snow fields as claws have simplified for us the labour upon all the angles of ice4 ,sidenote3 ,snow ,slopes4 ,to make steps upon inclined snow is a matter of little difficulty4 ,the direction and weight of the kick are suggested by the angle and texture of the surface4 ,but to use them calls for more care than is usually given to the matter4 ,on soft slopes it is a nuisance if the step stamper has a length of stride that makes each pace a slight effort for us4 ,it is better to remonstrate at once3 to shorten the pace by refashioning the step is to break rhythm for the whole line4 ,of course on easy slopes1 if we are out of the rope1 we go as we like1 provided that we do not exhaust1 by eccentric following1 the energy which we should be reserving for our turn in the lead4 ,but as the angle increases1 or where the going gets more heavy1 men of any experience fall into single file2 and then to make missteps1 to tread a step down at the heel1 or to step outside the line1 is to throw the whole march of those behind us out of gear1 and to waste our own energy in repeating the leader's work4 ,it is impossible on snow not to be conscious of the leg swing of the man ahead4 ,if he walks with the wrong foot for the trail1 we are either drawn into his error1 to our own inconvenience1 or we resist the attraction with a conscious and tiresome effort4 ,our common rhythm goes4 ,worse than this1 he spoils the steps for us4 ,nothing is more muddling1 in ascending or descending snow slopes1 than to find the steps broken or doubled4 ,we bungle1 and get the wrong foot for the leader's tracks2 our body as a result balances wrong for their angle of use4 ,in coming down especially1 a bad second man1 who lets himself lollop carelessly into tracks or makes #8tumble-steps' on either side1 confuses every one behind him as well as himself4 ,the whole party will be wasting temper and strength in choosing between a maze of #8joy' tracks1 or in remaking their own in despair1 where they should have been following mechanically on a ready-made line4 ,in using steps on steep snow of uncertain stability1 it is vital to tread right to the fraction of an inch4 ,a tired man who steps a nail-breadth false on a descending ladder of this character will certainly cause some step to give1 and endanger the general safety by a slide4 ,he may explain that the step #8broke away'2 but the fault has been his4 ,it is the ideal of all good climbers1 although very few men can live up to it1 to use steps as accurately and with as dancing and precise a foot at the end of a long day as they did at the beginning4 ,if a snow step on a steep slope looks insecure1 as it often may on wet snow after several men have passed1 it is best to tread slightly inside it and scrape down a shaving of fresh snow to strengthen the floor under the foot4 ,but this intentional over-tread should never be made on the outside of a step4 ,if a step has broken away and a new step has to be made1 it should be trodden1 similarly1 inside the old one1 over but not exactly in line above the broken step4 ,descending on snow of poor quality is oddly nervous work4 ,the descending action is awkward1 as upon ice1 and there is the added doubt as to what will happen when we drop on to the foothold4 ,every one has days when the muscles are stiff and when the descent of shaky steps does not go in easy balance4 ,at such times it is reasonable1 and safer1 to make #8arm-scoop' holds to help the balance on the step-down4 ,we may do on snow what we may not do on ice--take the weight momentarily off our foothold on to the arms2 because on snow1 if some one else slips1 we can at once drive another foothold with the heel and get into balance for the jerk4 ,in coming down steps in soft1 steep snow which have been worn away by previous members of the party1 it is often even advisable to make these arm-scoops in order to save the effort of making new steps and to lessen the weight on the old ones4 ,on high1 popular ridges in fine weather the lines of old steps with their floors refrozen and their shape spoilt are often uncomfortable to use on the descent4 ,for the mountaineer the whole day should be equally of pleasure4 ,the more the difficulty of the climb is over1 the more we may consider our comfort1 even to the point of demanding a new set of steps4 ,on steep zigzags1 if we are crossing and recrossing one another1 we remember to give the man below us ascending1 or above us descending1 time to make his turning step at the corners4 ,if we do not slacken1 we shall jerk him or force him to let out his hand coil just when he is most occupied with the turn4 ,on big faces1 of yielding snow1 we find firmer stepping up the wind-blown crests of the undulations1 often only detectable by their correspondence with the buttresses descending from the cliffs above4 ,conversely1 on faces of recalcitrant snow1 we foot it more lightly up the troughs between the waves4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,rope and ,axe4 ,except on hard morning snow1 or on snow where we can make absolutely certain of what is happening underneath1 it is a good principle to retain the rope4 ,progress is quicker than on ice1 but sight and prescience can ensure us less completely against the accident and the unseen4 ,as a partial illustration of the distinctions to be observed1 a strong party might be justified in making their way unroped and on claws up a formidable dry ice fall2 but they would1 if they knew their business1 then put on the rope to traverse the easy but snow-covered angles of the nv above1 seemingly far safer than the sracs they have just passed singly and unroped4 8,what is happening underneath0 must be interpreted to mean not only what may be lurking underneath the snow surface1 in the way of ice or crevasses1 but what is happening below us on the mountain side4 ,we keep the rope on unless we are certain that the breaking of a step or a slip will lead to no worse results4 ,if there is a long1 steep wall of ice or snow below1 or the suggestion of crevasses or a bergschrund1 or a rock cliff1 or even a section of the slope which we cannot see and which may contain a cliff1 we may take no chance1 and the rope must be retained4 ,on all smooth snow and ice slopes1 unless we are moving short-roped over safe and fairly even glacier1 the rope-lengths between us should be allowed to #8travel' lightly on the surface4 ,this lightens the draw of a heavy rope carried on the waist or hand1 and avoids the strain upon the balance4 ,too much travelling rope is a drag2 too little tightens on us like a brake4 ,the hand must get to know by feel when there is just enough down to let it travel lightly and freely4 ,the hand1 too1 as on rock1 must learn the habit of freeing1 freeing the rope continually1 so that it shall not catch4 ,over rough surface we raise it clear2 and over #8suspected' glacier we keep it all but taut1 taking up the slack in a hand coil4 ,we may never trust snow steps1 unless in a very fine quality of snow1 to carry more than our own weight4 ,in protecting others of the party1 therefore1 we cannot1 as upon ice1 rely exclusively on balance and our foothold to take the jerk upon our rope in case of a slip4 ,to anchor1 on all steep and doubtful snow slopes where the angle or the quality of the snow advises the retention of the rope1 the axe must be thrust into the snow beside and above us at every step4 ,it is driven to the head or to just beyond half its length according to the condition of the surface4 ,the rope is passed round the shaft and rests on the snow1 so that in case of a slip we get the friction of the snow into which it cuts to help us4 ,at a turning step on a zag the rope is put round the shaft in the reverse direction4 ,this driving of the axe and the looping of the rope men should execute when the feet are at rest on the holds1 and not1 as many do1 while they are taking the step4 ,it is often very difficult for tired men to continue for hours the regular thrust of the axe and the careful anchor of the rope at each pace4 ,but just on those angles and on those types of surface where the precaution is most laborious is the protection most needed4 ,snow is not ice1 and in proportion as snow steps are easier to make they are easier to break1 and more in need of assistance from the hand4 ,on the sharp edges of big ridges the true footing is often along the crest itself4 ,if the crest is too frail for the feet1 it can still provide the best bedding for the driven axe or an armhold4 ,if the snow is really threatening1 and it is unsafe to trust to steps along the side or on the edge1 it is occasionally preferable for two climbers to make their own steps along opposite sides of the crest1 with the rope riding across the snow edge between them la mode ,tartarin4 ,if rocks or obstacles forbid us to use the rope in this literary fashion1 on such risky snow we shall1 of course1 only move one at a time4 ,to secure a safe anchor step while the other man shifts1 ,i have used the device of driving the axe almost up to the head1 and then standing on the snow crook immediately behind it4 ,to arrest another man's slip on steep snow1 the snow itself must be used to minimize by friction the jerk of the rope on axe and arm4 ,any bulge or corner of snow will serve1 for the rope to play over and1 slowly1 cleave through4 ,i have seen a rope1 held across a sharp slanting edge1 cut four feet into the snow under the weight of a sliding man2 the friction stopping him gently before the jerk came upon the axe4 ,if there is no corner to help1 we must lean the whole weight of our body upon the rope where it runs out to us round the belay on our axe2 so crushing the racing rope into the snow and reducing the final tug upon the driven axe shaft4 ,sidenote3 ,bergschrund and ,bridge4 ,the crossing of the obvious bridges over the bergschrunds that subtend snow slopes is an art by itself4 ,flat or snub bridges are less secure than bridges that display a ,roman archness of irregular snow on their upper surface4 ,if the bridge is steep enough to call for steps1 the steps of the leader should be followed absolutely1 unless he has previously cast doubts upon their validity by falling through them4 ,if the centre of the bridge1 or the spring of the arch at its higher end1 appears too frail for steps1 and the word be given to crawl1 the crawling should be done quite flat1 and the body pulled along by the axe4 ,to fox-trot on hands and knees is little safer than to walk on the feet4 ,if the bridge is only doubtful1 we cat-step across it with the lightest foot we can4 ,we carry the axe at thigh level and at right angles to the body1 so that if a leg goes through1 the axe comes down on the snow like a rail under the arm1 and has a good chance of catching on firmer snow at either end4 ,i once dropped ten feet into a crevasse1 and was stopped thus by the axe under my arm-pit hitching between the narrowing walls4 ,if we feel a foot going through1 we must avoid above all things our first impulse1 to throw the weight convulsively on to the other foot4 ,the whole body should be allowed to fall forward flat4 ,a swimming movement with the arms then often extricates us without further collapse4 ,of course on no bridge may more than one man cross at a time2 and for a doubtful bridge at least two men must be stationary and anchoring the rope of any man crossing4 ,a steep bridge of unproven security is often best crossed1 on a descent1 by a prone glissade4 ,if the bridge has an obviously continuous surface1 we may prefer to fly it head forward and face down1 because clothes admit less snow in such fashion4 ,but if the continuity is doubtful--and the fact is often difficult to ascertain from above--it is best to shoot the bridge lying on the back and feet foremost4 ,the hands and feet are held ready to shove off backward against the snow1 and we are ready to finish the crossing on a flying jump1 should a breach appear in the bridge as we approach it4 ,if there is no bridge1 we sometimes have to jump considerable widths and depths4 ,it is better then to take off soon1 and not to yield to the temptation to creep just a little farther down the steep1 crumbling upper lip of the schrund4 ,too long a descent often ends in a slip as the wall steepens1 and it requires a nice judgment to continue the slip discreetly1 and shove off for the jump at just the right instant to carry us across to the other lip4 ,for a high jump into soft deep snow it is permissible to throw the axe ahead2 and it is essential to see that there is enough rope out for the jump4 ,again1 if a man has jumped and is shooting on down the snow slope beyond the rift1 it is kinder not to be in a hurry to stop him categorically with the rope4 ,on lower snow slopes the angle is rarely too steep for a man to be able to stop himself gradually and less painfully1 helped by friction and the merest suggestion of restraint4 ,jumps of more than twenty feet into soft snow have been made2 but they are not agreeable4 ,if the snow on landing is at all sticky1 it binds at once round the legs1 and threatens a break or a severe strain as the weight of the body travels forward above them4 ,sidenote3 ,snow ,cornices4 ,the cunning of hidden cornices cannot be overrated4 ,its detection is dealt with elsewhere4 ,once we have located what we take to be their line of junction with the parent snow crest1 we must allow a further broad margin in selecting a safe line for our steps4 ,i have known a section of cornice thirty feet deep break away along the line of our steps1 when we thought we had allowed a good ten-foot margin from its line of junction4 ,the heavier the cornice1 the deeper the margin we must leave2 not an easy rule to keep1 as the snow curve backing a big cornice will be all the more gradual and solid-looking4 ,leaders are always apt to cut the margin too fine1 for the reason that the farther we move away down the back of a cornice1 the steeper becomes the slope1 and the harder probably will be the snow for step-making4 ,at great heights the same cold winds which blew the cornice may have blown the snow slope to crusted snow or snow-ice2 whereas1 where the angle eases off right upon the crest and the back curves over into the cornice1 the direct exposure to the sun will often produce a band of softer snow1 easy to kick steps in4 ,when we are dealing with huge ridges and long distances1 it is very trying to have to continue to cut steps at a snail's pace1 on a steep wall1 when three feet above there is a line where we could walk4 ,but these are just the situations which differentiate between good and bad mountaineers4 ,danger is a matter for our individual judgment1 and if a guide1 however famous1 makes steps at a level that seems to our mountain sense to allow too narrow a margin1 we need never have the least hesitation in starting to make another line below4 ,the implied criticism is better than remonstrance4 ,occasionally when the cornice is not too big and its back is ice-crusted or exposed to a high wind1 it is possible to work along underneath it1 below the crest of the wave4 ,this must be done with caution2 the shock of step-making may easily loosen a section of the overhang on to our heads4 ,where a ridge is surmounted by a double cornice1 that is1 by two cornices curving opposite ways1 one on the top of the other1 there is simply no safe way of getting past them4 ,parties who persist in traversing a great ridge when they find it in this condition must be persuaded that their luck will take pity on their understanding4 ,in approaching the edge of any ridge1 if it is not otherwise obvious that no cornice exists1 the leader must test for the cornice every few inches with strong1 deep thrusts of the axe shaft4 ,the rest of the party1 protecting him with the rope1 must remain well below on the face until he has demonstrated that no cornice exists1 or until he has had time to locate its line and to return to a point well below the junction4 ,such a crest should never be approached diagonally1 lest two men might find themselves on the cornice together1 but always at right angles4 ,if an uncorniced ridge gives us reason to suspect1 as we follow along its crest1 that a cornice is beginning1 at least two of the party should descend well down the face 7if rock anchorage is not available71 and protect the leader while he investigates4 ,if we wish to cross a ridge or a pass and the far side is overhung by a cornice1 the leader must be strongly protected while he flogs away a section of the cornice1 back to the sound edge4 ,a large slice in this case should be cleared away1 as adjacent parts of the cornice weakened by the fracture may fall upon the party subsequently as they descend4 ,these crossings should never be made where the cornice is really heavy4 ,we shall never1 of course1 approach a crest up a wall crowned by a large cornice2 which is equivalent to climbing deliberately up under a toppling srac4 ,a light cornice we may approach1 but preferably at a point where it has broken away4 ,if no such gap exists1 we may be forced to cut our own skylight through it4 ,this calls for great caution and skill2 a small fragment may easily sweep away any man below us on the slope4 ,sidenote3 ,snow in ,couloirs4 ,in couloirs and chimneys snow can remain at a higher angle than on open slopes1 and presents therefore some exceptional features4 ,certain of these are dealt with under other headings4 ,snow in a rock couloir1 late in the day1 must always be tested before we descend on to it4 ,this can sometimes be done with less trouble by throwing heavy stones on to the surface4 ,the way the snow spurts or squelches or rives to receive them tells much to the practised eye4 ,if they start a surface avalanche they may either betray ice below1 or they may leave bare a tract of hard under-snow down which we can kick good steps4 ,the presence of ice below snow is often evident at the edges where the snow-ice splays out on to the containing walls4 ,the testing process should be repeated at intervals1 as we descend1 on doubtful snow4 ,a long couloir1 of pure snow above1 has frequently ice below snow in its lower sections4 ,in descending couloirs of uncertain snow1 we naturally make use of the rock walls1 when possible1 for belays or holds4 ,there are often good leg stances between the rock and the snow1 where the snow veil has shrunk away1 with an ice-trimmed border4 ,if the snow is of good quality1 we proceed as we like2 but if it is shallow1 lying on ice1 or of suspicious consistency1 we ascend it in as direct a line as possible1 or in steep zags1 with a disposition to keep near the sides4 ,on really threatening snow we ascend and descend by means of the vertical ladder of apses or pigeon-holes1 climbing face inwards1 and using both hands and feet4 ,our tread in this fashion is more feline1 and our weight better distributed4 ,if we desire to leave a snow couloir by the rocks on either hand1 or to use the rocks to help the ascent1 it is sage first to try the side which is exposed for the longest time to the sun3 the snow adhering to these rocks will be kindlier1 and there will be less chance of an ice glaze4 ,we have1 however1 to remember that the sunny side is usually that upon which falls of stones start earlier and occur more frequently2 and our decision must depend upon the evidences of their spoor on the snow4 ,outcrops of rock1 in large snow couloirs1 on ice or snow slopes1 often appear as welcome islands in a long labour of step-making4 ,but outcrops are apt to be more or less disintegrated1 according to the character of the rock4 ,if they are not rotten1 they are not unusually rubbed bare and holdless by the passage of ice1 stones and snow over them4 ,such islands1 on ice slopes1 are nearly always encircled by harder ice for a space round their lower walls1 which increases our labour in approaching or leaving them4 ,on their upper side they sometimes support a convenient spit of good snow4 ,on the whole1 they generally give more trouble than they save4 ,a particular type of couloir which is found in the ,alps is worth mentioning1 because of its false heart and honest1 grubby face4 ,these are the easy couloirs that debouch on to the glaciers at the bases of many sound granite peaks4 ,they are plastered inside with loose rubble and snow or gritty mud1 and we assume sound granite at the back4 ,with dirt and care they seem fair enough to scramble down4 ,but they are often in a precarious state of deeper decay4 ,the passage of the party will start a gradual or rapid dissolution2 and on occasion ,i have seen the whole cuticle of couloirs of this type1 grubble1 snow and large rocks1 slough itself off on to the glacier a few minutes after the descent of a party4 ,they should always be tested before entry by discharging large rocks down them1 to prove their honesty or expose their enamelled senility4 ,sidenote3 ,snow at ,home4 ,among the ,scottish mountains practice of a very useful character in our snow craft can be had during the winter months4 ,from ,november to ,may snow will be found of different qualities3 the best during ,march and ,april4 ,on northern and eastern faces we may get step-cutting on hard crust and ripple crust1 passable glissading1 and happy experience of small snow slides1 large cornices and snow travail4 ,on north faces1 exposed and crusted by the cold winds1 snow will stay at an exceedingly high angle1 and as there is small risk of underlying ice1 we can adventure admirable practice in very steep snow work with more excitement than peril4 ,the snow couloirs at times introduce us to bergschrunds1 and1 educatively1 to reconnoitring exercises in identifying the respective runnels of stone fall and water spurt4 ,on north faces in the ,lakes and in ,north ,wales normally the snow work is confined to the first quarter of a cold season4 ,ice is rare1 except as glaze or as frozen water-fall or drip in wet gullies sheltered from the sun4 ,step-making is commoner than step-cutting4 ,of snowy1 icy and glazed rocks we can get more than we may desire2 but for snow technique little but practice in travail1 step-kicking1 back-sliding1 rope craft and blizzard-facing1--all very pleasurable holiday experiences1 for which it is worth while taking down the ice-axe4 ,it is curious to note that ski-ing as a common device used once to be practised by the boys and herds of the north1 the primitive ski being formed out of the hoops of barrels4 ,the custom has now lapsed3 the effect of the enclosing of the hills by walls1 or of the boys by ,board ,schools4 ,the reintroduction of some less elaborate ski might revive a more romantic spirit4 ,sidenote3 ,confusing ,weather4 ,in fair weather route finding on snow has no difficulties comparable with those of ice or snow glacier4 ,the flaws are obvious1 and there are no hidden angles4 ,the one complication is weather and atmospheric condition4 ,as a result of the somewhat featureless simplicity of snow slight changes produce more serious confusions4 ,high wind is always an enemy1--not only on snow4 ,a mountaineer is more afraid of going out on windy days than on days of rain and snow fall4 ,on snow1 wind finds a new weapon to hand in the snow particles1 whose blinding assault interferes with the discretion4 ,the sight of the faint blur of snow as it is blown up from the skyline of a high ridge will always give us pause3 no passage there will be possible while the halo remains4 ,wind and snow combined may confuse the best of mountaineers1 and often the compass proves the one rescue from a complete reversal of direction4 ,however resolutely they march1 few men can resist on a long tramp the impulse of snow or wind on their faces to swing unconsciously one way or the other for protection4 ,a shift of wind in a mist may take a party1 steering by it on snow1 through a complete circle4 ,i have known of men1 attempting a descent on the sheltered side of a level but interrupted ridge1 who were led1 by a spinning wind in mist1 through the ridge and back along its other side to their starting-point1 and all in twenty minutes4 ,but even when unsupported by wind or obscurity1 a slight depression or a light cloud may make way-finding difficult on even snow1 where there are no rock outlines to penetrate its guile4 ,a diaphanous mist1 approaching in tint that of the snow surface1 is sufficient to conceal or completely alter distances and angles4 ,in cases where the mist exactly combines in tone with the snow1 a curious phenomenon makes itself uncomfortably evident4 ,the leader on a snowy crevassed glacier will suddenly1 and apparently wilfully1 begin to fall into crevasses which are visible to those following behind him on the rope4 ,they will marvel at his stupidity1 until they begin to lead themselves1 when they will reproduce it4 ,the reason will have been that whereas those behind have some dark object1 man or rope1 upon which to focus their eyes1 the eyes of the man in front1 looking only upon a uniform blank surface1 go out of focus1 and become unable to distinguish between details of the same tone4 ,any detail darker by contrast--a rock1 or the length of the rope ahead1 or even the sight of a distant peak1--for such mists are often transparent--will yield them a focal point again4 ,if he has no such natural assistance1 the leader must keep looking methodically at his feet1 and then forward4 ,this will discover to him the nearer crevasses4 ,for a longer view he may try the device of balling snow1 till it crushes to a darker colour1 and throwing it ahead3 he will then again be able to see more distant details in their relation to the passage of the snowball4 ,in a mist or at night1 on glaciers1 or on snow slopes where there is reason to suspect the neighbourhood of rocks1 it is possible to keep direction1 and to discover towards which side of a slope or glacier our march is tending1 by shouting1 and calculating our position by the time it takes for the echo to return from the rock on either side4 ,across smooth slopes a very small and remote obstruction will give echo to our appeal4 ,on open snow slopes where there are no retaining walls1 the best method is to have the full length of the rope out1 and put a man with the compass at the rear end to correct the leader's line4 ,if a compass is lacking--if it can ever be lacking in the mountains6--the man far behind is still in the better position to judge1 by the pointer of the rope1 whether the line is being maintained or is inclining either way4 ,if a return in mist over the same ground is expected1 the tracks should be made intentionally deep1 in order to reinforce the line against the sun's action1 which may be all the more rapid when the light is diffused through such mist4 ,the axe should be driven deeply into the snow at short intervals1 so as to leave marks which may last longer than footprints2 and this especially on hard snow4 ,on rocks or snow in mist1 and even with less excuse on clear days1 some other-land climbers adopt the device of marking the line of return at important points of divergence by squares of red paper fixed under stones4 ,in emergency these can be of service2 but they are unsightly1 and their frequent use encourages climbers to pay insufficient attention to a very important part of their work--which is to note and record in memory the details of a route against the time of their return4 ,a climber who has to find the return line on difficult rock or glacier1 or on any climb that winds by devious ways1 should never omit at all points of divergence or of salient indication to turn round and note how the passage or kink looks from the opposite direction2 which is generally very different from its aspect on the approach4 ,distant views are often confused and absurdly distorted by mist2 but details close at hand1 for whose memorizing alone red paper could be a substitute1 are seldom sufficiently obscured not to be recognizable by a trained observation and memory4 ,only in two cases--one1 the rare event of an expedition over fog-bound snow being continued with the intention of return over the same line2 and two1 equally singular1 the case of a party1 which contains only one mountaineer capable of leading the return route1 attempting in mist a climb whose difficulty will necessitate the expert going last on the descent--would the use of red paper seem to be justified4 ,waste paper is inelegant1 and makes an unimpressive substitute for hill craft4 ,but mist is a subtle enemy on glaciers1 and we may sympathize with folk who meet it by tricks when they happen to have brought a box of them with them4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,sense of ,direction4 ,in the end1 and behind all memory and observation1 we have to fall back upon that useful but mysterious faculty1 the sense of direction4 ,its existence is often denied1 especially by men who do not possess it1 and its workings are attributed to powers of observation1 to unconscious memorizing and to reasoning4 ,but no one who has mountaineered or travelled much in uncharted ground with men of very divergent or very similar powers of sight or experience will be found to discredit its positive but entirely accidental possession4 ,irrespective of sight and independently of the presence of any other respectable mental faculties1 some men are found to possess it and some not2 and no experience or study will ever equalize the capacity of those who cannot with that of those who can exercise it in dealing with misty conditions or unknown country4 ,men who have it only in a slight degree frequently impair its fidelity by training their observation and memory4 ,by taking thought we can nearly always confuse it1 in ourselves or in our neighbour2 and this fact has especially to be borne in mind in dealing with less educated brains1 such as those of guides1 where its working is unconscious when it exists at all4 ,a pertinent question or reminder may often set them1 or ourselves1 thinking or doubting1 and lead to hesitation or wandering where a moment before confident movement reigned4 ,if we have once made certain that a guide or even a younger or less experienced climber possesses it1 we may accept its leading thankfully in moments of doubt1 although its counsel may contradict our own reasoning or conscientious observation4 ,those who do not possess the instinct1 and those who possess it only in a small degree1 will find it almost impossible in thick mist on featureless snow to avoid the inclination to turn in a circle1 generally to the left4 ,in mist1 with the most resolute intentions1 it is at times even difficult to correct the inclination1 by allowing for the stronger thrust of the right foot 7or whichever may be the leading foot in our own case7 and by taking the axe in the opposite hand to that foot2 or by discovering and allowing for our exact amount of bias4 ,the compass is the only secure guide for the ungifted4 ,some men have the sense in the form of an ability to keep a straight line once set1 no matter what the obstruction or obscurity2 others in the form of knowing their position in relation to any near or distant point they have previously visited4 ,with a few the sense is polarized2 they #8feel' the north4 ,my own sense indicates only direction between points already visited4 ,although making all allowance for the leading foot1 and conscious that as leader ,i was being kept to a straight line by the compass in the hand of my last man1 ,i have myself in thick mist on level snow1 after forty-five minutes of what was actually straight marching1 felt positive that ,i had led the party through one complete and one half-circle to the right1 so strong was the instinct to turn to the left in spite of all precaution and prevision4 ,on the other hand1 ,i have watched a man who had been brought round from ,hammersmith to ,south ,kensington by ,underground on his first visit to ,london1 and set to the task without previous warning1 take and keep1 in thick fog1 the most direct line back again through the maze of cross streets2 which he could not be said to be seeing for the first time1 as they remained invisible4 ,a singular case was that of a high ,wrangler1 a mountaineer1 whose sense of direction was acute1 but inverted3 it indicated points precisely opposed to the correct ones4 ,once we had discovered this1 and allowed for the idiosyncrasy1 we made frequent use of his otherwise very exact sense4 ,for those who may have interested themselves in the faculty1 ,i will add that this friend similarly produced or wrote down the results of all mental calculations with the figures in the reverse order4 ,,glissading ,glissading is an art that rewards the skilful4 ,for the inexpert1 though the pleasure in its prospect never dies1 the actual performance is more often productive of aching shins and wet clothes1 than of birdlike exhilaration4 ,until ski-ing came in to complement it1 and we may say to improve upon it1 glissading gave its artists their nearest approximation to the sensation of flying4 ,its physical thrill is very little less intense than that of flying on machines through the air1 because the exciting vibration of the feet over the solid surface provokes a lively consciousness of pace and motion disproportionate to the actual rate usually attained4 ,but it has never been widely recognized that the art has to be learned4 ,very little has been written about it1 and much of that little has been fundamentally wrong4 ,all men glissade in a sort of way1 as a kind of amusing frolic1 with tumbles forming an integral part of the fun1 like the periodic shrieks of the ladies on the ,earl's ,court roundabouts4 ,but men who know how to glissade1 and how to use its opportunities as a real auxiliary to their mountain progress1 have always been the exceptions4 ,guides are seldom able exponents4 ,more than a dozen fatal accidents are directly traceable to bad glissading4 ,fortunately1 the greater popularity of ski-ing has come to the rescue1 and its more general practice should have prepared both the minds and feet of a much larger number for a more serious treatment of their mountaineering glissading4 ,a man who can ski is half-way to becoming a good glissader4 ,a good glissader1 once the first surprise of the ski feeling is overcome1 finds many of the simpler ski motions familiar4 ,in learning to glissade1 a man has three points of normal contact which he must learn to control3 his two feet1 and the shaft-point of his axe4 ,there is also a fourth point of possible contact1 with which ,i deal separately under sitting glissades4 ,the head of the axe1 except in one very rare case1 is useless for contact1 and should never be brought into play4 ,in fact1 during the time of learning1--and to learn properly will take as long as has to be devoted to the beginnings of ski-ing1--it is better to use only a stick with a single point1 or a ski-stick4 ,the axe head during the preliminary falls is apt to point too keen a moral4 ,a certain school of icemen1 the devotees of the short axe1 keep the axe head always sheathed in its leathern cover4 ,in glissading the practice has distinct advantages3 it preserves the keenness of the edge1 protects the climber1 and is far warmer to grasp4 ,those who learn to glissade with an axe and not a stick may well copy the practice4 ,this suggestion applies to learning both on snow and on glacier4 ,,on ,,ice ,glissading on ice is practically confined to short rushes on glaciers2 even there it is generally avoidable1 but its mastery adds a delightful possibility of directness and pace to the late returns down ice falls4 ,no sane man will ever start a glissade on ice on a mountain side1 unless the slope is evidently short and is seen to end in safe arresting snow1 or in the earth deposits found on ,himalayan glaciers4 ,the sheer pace and rude vibration produce helplessness and1 soon1 unconsciousness on a steep ice slide of any great length4 ,control cannot be maintained for more than a brief period of inevitable acceleration4 ,often1 however1 quick bands of ice intrude1 visibly or not1 on a steep snow glissade1 and it is then important to be able to make the new adjustments required by ice2 and so avoid being thrown out of balance by the sudden alterations in the quality of the surface flashing under our feet4 ,sidenote3 ,positions4 ,in ice-glissading the point of the axe takes practically all the weight4 ,it is essentially axe riding4 ,the feet become only props to the balance4 ,ice is rarely quite smooth1 and1 if the weight is at all on the feet1 the slightest irregularity or #8stick' in the surface at this high rate of speed throws the heels back and over the head4 ,the right hand grasps the shaft1 just sufficiently far from where the point touches the ice to avoid scraping the knuckles4 ,the left hand grips the head4 ,the more the left hand forces the head up1 and the greater the weight that we throw upon the right hand holding the shaft1 the sharper is the brake upon the pace1 and1 incidentally1 the more prepared is our balance against an accidental trip4 ,on hard ice the feet cannot be used to brake2 nor1 except by very gradual movements1 can they attempt to steer4 ,their business is to carry their small proportion of the weight as lightly as possible over the irregular surface1 and1 like the front wheel of a bicycle1 to prevent a forward or sideways fall4 ,on rotten ice1 if claws are worn1 braking with the feet is possible by driving in the heels2 but such surfaces are unusual in the ,alps4 ,the knees must be well bent1 with the body bowed almost into a sitting position1 so as to keep the centre of gravity well down upon the supporting tripod of legs and axe4 ,the zigzag spring1 formed by the curves of knees and body1 absorbs most of the jar4 ,the soles rest flat on the ice1 with the toes pointing down the slope4 ,the feet should be kept slightly apart1 for the better balance over roughnesses4 ,to avoid obvious lumps they can be slid more apart or brought together4 ,if they are used to steer at all1 they must both be pointed sideways in the desired direction2 but no attempt can be made to drive in the edges of the boot1 as is done on snow4 ,this would merely result in a fall4 ,steering1 in this position1 must be left to the gradual friction of the soles inclined sideways and downwards1 and1 in the main1 to the swing of the weight on the axe4 ,on very rough ice1 or on the rough icy surfaces found in snow couloirs1 where we cannot make certain of keeping on the feet if we face squarely forward1 it is best to adopt a sideways position of the body1 the sides of both feet in contact with the slope1 and one foot just below and slightly separated from the other4 ,the distance between the feet must depend upon the character of the surface and the angle of the slope4 ,on an easy angle of rough slope1 where it is desired to go slowly and stop at any sudden point1 the lower foot1 with the knee only slightly bent1 can be thrust well ahead1 taking somewhat more of the weight1 and acting as a shifting brake4 ,on steep1 rough ice1 or wherever it is desired to increase the pace1 and at the same time to protect the balance1 the feet1 still in the sideways position1 should be kept close together1 while the knees and thighs are drawn up into a crouching attitude4 ,the weight1 of course1 still rests mainly on the axe4 ,on steep1 rough slopes of snow and ice alternating1 where the balance is easily upset by the changing surface1 this squatting or crouching sideways position must always be adopted1 with the heels slightly apart and brought right up under the body1 which practically sits upon them4 ,the centre of gravity is then well down upon the three points of contact1 which are all in firm and close relation to one another1 and the balance is steady4 ,ice-glissading is possible for the expert1 in this position1 on many long ice intrusions where ordinary folk have to creep carefully down in steps4 ,for a beginner1 the under faces of the great ice hummocks below the falls on dry glaciers give the best practice1 as their length and angle can be selected4 ,since near the crest these concave faces are often vertical or overhanging1 early practice should be limited to their lower curves4 ,as in ski-ing1 the start-off from the rim of an ice slope or from the crest of an ice wave is the most difficult moment4 ,we cannot jump into our glissade as we can upon snow1 or at least only on ice of very mild angles4 ,the right position is to start in a #8crouch1' with the toes just over and the heels just holding the ice edge2 the weight is then thrown back upon the axe1 the toes turn down and the legs shoot out4 ,as soon as the balance in motion is secured1 the forward1 the sideways position or the crouch1 is assumed according to the feel of the surface and the angle4 ,on very steep dry ice1 for the first body length or so at the start of a slide over a vertical or overhanging crest1 be it on a glacier or at the top of an ice couloir1 it is sometimes necessary1 in order to remain in contact with the concave surface at all1 and not to be flung out head foremost by the kick of the axe point against the ice1 to leave the #8crouch' the instant the feet are launched1 and to shoot out the legs to their full extent4 ,the whole length of the body is then held rigid1 with the feet pressed as much as possible sideways and flat against the ice4 ,in such a position there is considerable risk of cutting knuckles or other surfaces against the ice4 ,the position is1 of course1 only required for a second or so1 as no glissade may be attempted where the angle does not ease off sufficiently after a few feet to allow of continuing the descent in one of the normal attitudes of controlled glissading4 ,the fortunate will sometimes find an admirable surface on the more easily inclined planes of lower dry glaciers1 where melting and freezing have followed one another during the day4 ,the ice is so slippery that it is only possible to walk with maddening dislocations1 and it is generally too level for a long glissade4 ,it is then often feasible to adopt a ski-ing or skating stride1 and strike out with either foot alternately4 ,on a good surface and angle one may find oneself travelling in this way almost as easily as on skates4 ,similarly1 on the wet lower ends of afternoon glaciers1 if rubber-soled shoes happen to have been brought1 it is worth while putting them on4 ,one can drift down on them as lightly as on ski4 ,sidenote3 ,arrests4 ,if the balance is once lost upon ice1 and there is no prospect of an early arrest on a softer surface lower down1 it is best to turn on the back1 keep the head and hands off the ice1 and force the point of the shaft back under the arm-pit and into the ice1 so that the weight dragging on the shaft may gradually arrest the progress4 ,the body must be kept head upwards2 the legs1 if slightly apart and rigid1 will help to check the pace by friction and by the rugosities encountered by the heels4 ,if in such case the ice slope has been badly chosen1 and the fallen glissader perceives that the only hope of avoiding a fall over rock is to stop the slide at all hazards1 the risk must be taken of turning over on the face4 ,the head of the axe must then be gripped with both hands1 so that the adze-blade rests just over the right shoulder1 and the pick-point is ground into the ice with the whole weight4 ,it is useless to attempt to force in the pick if the axe is held only by the shaft1 or at the stretch of the arms above the head4 ,the axe at arm's length will be torn from the hands the moment the pick touches the ice4 ,these two methods of arrest can also be turned to account in checking falls on steep and hard snow1 or snow with a crusted or icy surface4 ,,on ,,snow ,even more on snow do the positions for glissading vary with the angle and consistency of the surface4 ,the expert glissader changes from one attitude to another1 as the feel of his feet on the changing surface suggests1 without loss of balance or even a check to the pace4 ,sidenote3 ,positions4 ,the axe should be grasped as for ice-glissading4 ,the knees should be bent1 slightly or more according as the surface is slow or fast1 forming a convenient arch of balance for the body4 ,the bent leg acts as a strong spring to absorb jolts1 and it is more quickly and powerfully adjustable to the changing demands of balance1 when the body is in rapid motion1 than the straight leg4 ,to keep the knees straight is impracticable on all but perfectly uniform #8show' snow slopes4 ,those who have at times advised it have been influenced by some pictorial ideal which had small regard for the mechanism of the body or for the conditions of the glissade in action4 ,the body should not be bent forward or crouched1 as is done in ice-glissading1 but held upright or inclined slightly backward1 so as to form a continuous and concordant arc with whatever may be the curve of the leg at the moment4 ,the lower end of this curve will always be bent more sharply at the flex of the knee2 but in proportion as the knee is more or less bent1 the graceful inclination backward from the hips will vary correspondingly4 ,the shoulders1 especially that above the hand on the shaft1 should be braced well back1 and the head inclined a little forward1 for better sight4 ,the tendency to let the shoulders stoop forward and the body sag downward into a sitting position has to be resisted on snow surfaces4 ,it is a false position1 that follows inevitably on an attempt to keep the knees straight2 and it is as bad a beginner's error as the inclination to sit forward and not back when learning to jump on horseback4 ,the fact that it has been suggested as the ideal attitude1 both in description and in illustration1 may have been responsible for the large number of mountaineers who have never become more than #8axe riders' in snow-glissading4 ,sagging and axe riding are necessary in ice-glissading1 where we do not attempt to balance on the feet1 but depend for safety and steering upon the axe brake4 ,on snow the good glissader aims at reducing friction and riding by balance4 ,to sag or use the straight knee throws us back upon the axe for balance and for our steering4 ,straightened knees mean the weight on the heels and the toes up2 but if the weight is more on the heels than on the toes1 steering with the feet is impossible4 ,the feet should be kept close together1 with the toes pointing down the slope1 so as to reduce friction and facilitate foot-steering4 ,if the surface for a space gets icier and rougher1 the feet are allowed to separate slightly1 so as to secure the balance on their wider base and brake the pace by the angle that the two outward-pointing toes make with the direct line of descent4 ,on good snow surfaces to draw the feet slowly or sharply together1 so as to grip up a snow wrinkle between them1 or to thrust them apart1 with the toes slightly turned inwards1 produces each a different degree of brake1 or helps to reconfirm our balance1 if we require it4 ,small interruptions on the surface should be allowed to pass between the feet4 ,in practical glissading1 in fact1 the feet are very rarely kept long in one position2 they drift gently about1 as balance or the surface demand4 ,the decision as to when they should be kept exactly parallel to one another1 with the weight evenly distributed between the two1 or when the one should travel slightly in advance1 carrying the larger share of weight for the moment1 must depend upon the snow surface and angle1 and on the amount of work that is being done1 in consequence1 by the axe4 ,if the surface is roughish and steep or hard1 the weight will be more1 and for longer periods1 thrown back upon the axe shaft1 and this for reasons of balance4 ,so supported on the axe1 there is not the same risk on a bad surface of our being suddenly pitched outward1 head foremost4 ,in such case the feet are best kept parallel and together1 acting as supports supplementary to the axe1 as upon ice4 ,but if the surface is straightforward in angle and quality there is less threat to the balance1 and our object is to reduce the surface friction and increase the pace4 ,to this end all the weight will be brought forward off the axe and kept in balance above the feet4 ,the axe will only be lightly or occasionally in contact with the slope4 ,the body will be sailing down upright1 but on a curve of balance agreeing with the bend of the knees4 ,the feet1 in this case1 adopt a position and a motion familiar in ski-ing4 ,they remain close together1 but one foot travels slightly in advance of the other1 carrying for the moment the greater share of the weight4 ,the other foot runs in close support4 ,it is brought up1 and in turn passes into the lead1 according as ease of balance1 steering1 or need of rest for the employed leg suggest4 ,the balance sways lightly from one leg to the other as each is employed1 and the motion1 allowing for the different length of stroke1 is not unlike the smooth steady running in long-distance skating4 ,at any second1 if the surface demands it1 the weight can be thrown back upon the axe1 and the feet are then brought parallel again4 ,now that ski-ing experience is familiar1 it is unnecessary to explain why glissading on one foot--that is1 on a single line of contact1 with the other foot and axe in partial support and ready to take their turn if required--is easier1 quicker and less exposed to accident than moving on the two feet parallel1 with the weight distributed evenly between them4 ,the instance of the relative pace and security of bicycle and tricycle1 although not quite on all fours1 gives us a suggestive comparison4 ,on an obviously good and continuous snow slope the axe brake can be removed altogether1 and the axe is then carried easily in front across the body1 ready at any moment to be shot back under the arm into the snow4 ,the body then sways to the balance1 above the slight bend of the knees1 and is practically upright4 ,this is the most delightful of all positions3 there is no tension upon any of the body muscles1 and the sensation is that of a winged swoop4 ,to brandish the axe at arm's length over the head1 a fashion affected by performers of a theatrical type more familiar in illustrations than on the mountains1 adds nothing to the pleasure and diminishes the security4 ,the balance above the feet is prejudiced1 and the axe recovery in case of need is slower4 ,sidenote3 ,steering4 ,the steering is done1 as in skating or ski-ing1 firstly1 by canting the feet and twisting the toes in the required direction2 and secondly1 by swinging the weight of the body into the new position above them1 either by means of the sway of balance if we are glissading free1 or by the thrust from the axe point if we are axe riding4 ,for instance1 if we wish to turn to the right1 in order to avoid an obstacle or make a zigzag on a slope too steep for comfortable direct descent1 we twist the toes to the right1 and at the same time cant the feet in the same direction2 that is1 we press down the right-hand edge of both boots into the snow1 gently or hard according as we wish to make a sharp or an easy turn4 ,if we wish to accelerate the turn1 we bring the axe into use1 pressing back upon the point1 which we thrust into the snow slightly on our right4 ,similarly1 to make a turn to the left1 we twist the toes and cant the feet to the left1 and1 if required1 press on the axe transferred to our left side4 ,by making all three movements energetically at the same moment it is possible to execute very sharp turns4 ,the steeper the slope the higher the speed1 and the higher the speed the more acute the angle of turn possible4 ,if a glissader is expert enough to be able to descend steep slopes in balance on his feet alone1 without the axe as brake1 and has mastered the finer art of travelling upon alternating feet1 he can steer his turns also without the axe1 and can descend on a succession of sharp zigzags without the small awkwardness involved in transferring the axe from one side to the other of his body4 ,when he wishes to turn to the right out of a direct descent1 he sways his balance on to his right foot1 directs and cants it1 and as he turns brings across his less weighted left foot into line again below it4 ,when he wishes to turn back again to the left out of a zig to the right1 he throws his weight on to his heels1 as in a ski-ing turn1 directs and cants his feet to the left1 sways his weight over on to the left foot again1 and so continues on the new zag4 ,in travelling on the one-foot method1 sharp turns are made by throwing the weight on to both heels2 gradual turns can be made on the one foot4 ,slight changes of direction1 not big enough to be turns1 are more quickly made by bringing up the rear and less weighted foot1 sliding it in front into the new direction required1 and then swaying the weight across on to it4 ,an expert can thus swing quickly and safely down a slope or couloir too steep for direct descent1 zigzagging from side to side almost without help from the axe4 ,his turns are less crisp than those of ski or skates2 but he can descend on a snow ribbon or in a narrow couloir1 where only short boots could find room to travel or turn4 ,even if a glissader has only accustomed himself to descend travelling on his two feet parallel1 with his weight evenly distributed between them1 he can still make slight changes of direction1 without help from the axe1 by sliding one foot in front of the other4 ,this will deflect his course correspondingly in the opposite direction3 that is1 to turn to the right1 he brings forward the left foot2 to turn to the left1 he advances the right4 ,but his turns without the axe will never be effective or sharp until he has learned to glissade mainly on one foot4 ,the second foot1 for a one-foot glissader1 acts as a free auxiliary to indicate the new direction and to support the turning movement1 while the body swings in easy support from one foot to the other1 as the turn suggests4 ,sidenote3 ,jumping4 ,the hands alone should never be used as rudders4 ,supposing we wish completely and suddenly to change the line of descent1 because we see some obstruction below1 or discover better snow farther off1 this is best done by a half-turn1 and a spring on to the free leg4 ,for instance1 to get across to our left we swing our free right foot across us to the left until it touches the snow again at its utmost reach4 ,the weight is then flung across on to it by means of the axe1 or by a rub with the outside of our left arm against the snow4 ,the left leg follows 7all without checking the descent71 and we descend on the new line1 or swing the right leg again if a second spring is needed4 ,to make these changes of line1 a sideways jump across1 off the one travelling foot and alighting on the two feet held sideways and slightly apart1 is a neater method1 but it requires more practice4 ,jumping1 sideways or downward1 is as pleasant a refinement in glissading as it is on ski1 and very generally useful4 ,it is often more convenient to jump interruptions1 of ice blocks1 rock bands and snow humps1 than to steer round them4 ,a good glissader jumps off either foot1 and alights on both4 ,even large crevasses can be safely jumped by a skilful man1 with a great saving of the time usually spent in circumventing them4 ,but this requires considerable skill and a discreet eye in selecting the take-off4 ,the edges of bergschrunds are generally hidden or rotten1 and the crouch and spring have to be made well ahead of possible breakages4 ,the glissader has no hand-made wall to guide him and to dispatch him on his jump at the right instant1 angle and velocity2 and the angle of the slope below has not been chosen to accord with his curve of descent on to it1 and down it4 ,if we fall1 after a jump or stumble1 the first thing1 on a steep slope1 is to stop any tendency to roll1 which is the shortest road to unconsciousness4 ,the next is to get the head up4 ,then1 if we have held on to the axe1 we get it by the head and begin to brake1 as described above4 ,if the axe is lost1 we do the same with elbows and heels1 sliding on our back2 but never with fingers and toes1 face downwards4 ,sidenote3 ,brakes4 ,there are two methods of stopping or braking1 the axe brake and the foot brake1 which are used in conjunction for purposes of sudden arrest4 ,the axe brake is made by pulling the head of the axe upward with the one hand1 and forcing the shaft point down1 and into the snow1 with the other4 ,the weight of the body is thrown on to the lower arm1 and the thighs are brought close against the axe shaft4 ,if it is necessary to make a sudden stop on a hard snow surface where one is being #8run away with1' the most powerful brake of all is to bring the shaft of the axe under the right arm-pit1 grip the left hand on the head1 with the right hand close to it1 and turn the body slightly sideways1 so that the whole edge of each boot1 heel and toe1 scrapes against the surface4 ,the foot brake is made by turning the toes up and shoving the heels in and down into the snow1 at the same time straightening the legs4 ,if the surface is too hard to admit the heels easily1 or the pace and hard surface combined threaten that an attempt to check with the straight heels will mean one or both legs being torn up underneath the body1 so flinging us out and off our balance1 the feet must be turned sideways to the slope4 ,the heels at the same instant are thrust downwards1 the legs are straightened1 and the weight is thrown equally upon the axe shaft and upon the feet4 ,on any surface where a glissade is justifiable it is possible to stop with these combined brakes within a distance of a few feet1 provided that1 as with a motor-car1 they are not jammed on so suddenly as to upset the equilibrium and detach the points of contact from the surface4 ,for gentle checks to pace1 touching at intervals with the axe point1 or pressing on one or both heels momentarily1 is sufficient4 ,sidenote3 ,sitting4 ,practically no snow slope of right consistency and termination is too steep to glissade down2 but many incline at too low an angle1 or are of too soft a surface1 to glissade down in a standing position4 ,so long as we are young and thoughtless1 and place the enthusiastic memories of youthful tobogganing before the after-discomfort of wet clothing1--a youth which in the case of mountaineers appears to extend well on into the sixties1--we hail such soft slopes as the recovered opportunity of recalling a lost ideal2 and we descend them sitting-wise4 ,for sitting1 the methods of guiding and braking with the axe and the feet are much the same as for standing2 only they are more clumsy and proportionately less effective1 as the slope also is less exacting4 ,the axe is held under the arm1 in the same manner1 to brake1 and is transferred from side to side to steer4 ,the foot steering is performed by obstructing with one heel or the other4 ,for a sharper turn1 the legs are lifted and swung across in the desired direction4 ,to avoid rolling over in a quick turn like this1 the body leans over on the side towards which the turn is made1 and the weight is thrown inward and back upon the axe4 ,the whole length of the outside of the leg and thigh contributes to the steering action1 as an equivalent for the canting of the feet in a standing turn4 ,leg and thigh thus supplement the ineffective guidance of the heels4 ,the movement checks the pace usefully1 for the snow will begin to hummock under the thighs and up under the jacket1 whereas before it was merely percolating through the breeches4 ,in descending direct the legs are kept together1 and the body is converted into as rigid a reproduction of a torpedo as the incidents of descent permit4 ,to accelerate the pace the body can be thrown back and held stiff1 which takes off the brake made by the curves of the back and distributes the weight1 as on a sleigh or ski4 ,this movement adds the neck to the other potential snow orifices4 ,on unwilling slopes1 punting with the axe and a swimming motion of the legs can be resorted to1 for propulsion2 but the effort is not dignified4 ,shooting1 or #8chuting1' head-foremost has an exuberant appearance1 but does not add materially to the chances of pace4 ,braking is done upon easy slopes by opening the legs1 and allowing a triangle of travelling snow to pack between them4 ,to brake sharply1 the axe point is driven into the snow under the arm1 the body is arched stiffly upward clear of the slope on the support of the axe1 and the heels are driven down and in1 close together4 ,for standing glissading1 if the surface is good1 we generally each choose a line of virgin snow4 ,pace will come of itself1 and is not so important as uniformity of surface4 ,but in sitting glissading the first to descend has the worst place4 ,he has to make a clearer and harder track for the rest4 ,if a trough of this kind is once formed1 it will be most polished in its exact centre2 and men are well advised to turn slightly upon one thigh and shoot down upon their longest but narrowest available body-surface4 ,a very pleasant method of descending1 as a party1 is to form a fashion of bob-sleigh1 each man sitting close behind the man in front and having his legs held up by him clear of the slope4 ,the most is thus made of the collective weight and the least of the collective body-surface necessarily in contact with the snow4 ,the best situation is towards the rear of the human sleigh4 ,the man at the head will collect most of the snow pack1 and there will be only the usual moist permeations to be enjoyed by the tail4 ,the first man descending on an unknown slope after fresh snow1 or on the occasional snow patch found at lower levels1 should always make careful examination to see that there are not rock or stones near enough to the surface to inconvenience1 if not injure1 his descent4 ,sitting glissading is useful not only on snow too soft or too easily inclined for standing1 but also upon surfaces where a crust has formed over soft snow1 through which the feet break under any attempt to glissade standing4 ,on snow of this character both steering and stopping are even more difficult than they are in ordinary sitting glissading1 since any attempt to drive in the heels suddenly may result in a head-over-heels fling4 ,on such a surface it is best to lie as flat and stiff as possible1 and avoid making any abrupt local movements4 ,the sitting glissade has been already mentioned as of use in crossing schrunds with awkward-angled or dubitable bridges4 ,each man before he shoots for the bridge should make certain that he leaves enough free rope and good sense behind him to allow him to come to rest on the far side without a disruptive or a premature jerk4 ,sidenote3 ,stone ,tests4 ,it is always wise1 before glissading on a slope of uncertain consistency1 to throw a few large stones on to the snow to test the surface4 ,they should be as heavy as possible1 so as to ascertain the weight at which the snow will avalanche4 ,the practice has the further advantage1 on a slope whose termination we can see1 and where1 therefore1 a slight avalanche quality in the snow need not deter us from glissading1 of clearing away all the deciduous snow from at least one line of descent4 ,there is left a smooth1 harder track whereon a human being can descend comparatively dry4 ,at the best1 the stones may start a general avalanche1 and so leave a safe and clean slope where we can choose our line4 ,incidentally1 the stone track serves to discover the presence or absence of concealed stones or of rock points uncomfortably near the surface4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,rope4 ,to remain roped is impossible in ice-glissading1 and is a nuisance in snow-glissading4 ,the rope should never be necessary where there is any long and comfortable glissade in safe prospect4 ,pace and real foot-running are impossible on the rope4 ,its use enforces axe braking and slow-coach running at even distances1 so that the rope shall neither tighten upon the front man and upset his balance nor entangle in loose coils about his feet4 ,every one in a roped party1 however expert1 must be axe braking1 and wearying his shin muscles1 if no more1 in the vain effort to keep an even distance over surfaces of quickly varying quality and angle4 ,for the men in the middle of a rope1 to be thus glissading is simple weariness of the flesh4 ,on short glissades1 during long climbs1 the rope may have to be retained to save time1 but on slopes of any length it is always worth while to unrope4 ,if the rope has to be retained on such slopes for precautionary reasons1 because the end of the slope is not in sight or because there are beginners taking part1 the party should rope in pairs4 ,two experts can glissade fairly freely on a rope by descending on adjacent parallel lines with the rope loosely across between them4 ,they have only then to see that it does not catch on excrescences which they themselves are avoiding4 ,in the same choric fashion an expert can glissade alone with a beginner1 protecting him and accommodating himself to his uneven descent4 ,he follows beside or slightly behind1 and is at liberty to quicken up1 overtake1 and even get secure anchorage in time1 if he sees his companion beginning to descend the slope in other fashion than on his feet4 ,in glissading with a beginner on a rope the pace should never be allowed to become greater than one is absolutely certain of being able to regulate1 not only for oneself but for one's companion1 with plenty of margin for accidents4 ,once a man has been jerked off his balance1 it is far harder for him to stop himself and his companion by the travelling axe brake1 on a steep slope1 than when he is stationary and upright with his heels well in4 ,he must therefore keep the pace well within the speed limits4 ,the higher refinements of glissading1 the zigzag and the free sailing on one or both feet1 are of course out of the question for more than two on the rope2 and barely feasible for them4 ,sidenote3 ,some ,variations4 ,there are a few occasions where exceptional varieties of glissading may be found of use4 ,sidenote3 ,alternate ,glissading4 ,in descending snow slopes of doubtful consistency1 or slopes or couloirs whose lower end is concealed1 and therefore an object of suspicion for free glissading1 an alternate slide and anchor method can often be adopted4 ,it is especially good for protecting beginners who cannot be relied upon to arrest their glissade at any given instant4 ,the experienced man anchors firmly in the snow with the rope round his driven axe4 ,the front man then glissades down until he is arrested by the rope or a call from the rear4 ,the rear man follows1 and glissades either down to him or past him1 stopping himself in the latter case1 if he is wise1 before the rope runs out4 ,if he is wise1 because no inexperienced man can be relied upon to know what security of anchorage is required to resist the jerk of a man running out a double length of rope on steep snow4 ,the first man then1 in turn1 glissades past1 and is stopped by the expert with the rope4 ,the process can be repeated until the bottom of the slope is reached1 or the secure termination of a freer glissade is ascertained4 ,the method is a good time-saver1 especially in steep couloirs1 but it must be worked with all caution4 ,i tried it on one occasion with a mountaineer of confident self-security1 and after sailing past him1 and becoming certain that my rope must have run out1 ,i turned round1 to see him head-foremost after me down the slope4 ,he had been twitched from his stance without so much as a perceptible check to my rope4 ,since then ,i always1 in alternate glissading1 turn face inward when ,i feel the rope is near its end1 and stop myself1--for the first few #8runs-out' at least1 until ,i know ,i can depend on my second4 ,with a beginner it is best to stop1 as last man1 when one reaches him4 ,with a good second it is enough to arrange with him that each shall call out sharply to the man glissading some three yards or so before the rope runs out1 leaving him time to stop himself4 ,sidenote3 ,face ,inward4 ,any man who wants to get all he can out of the opportunities to glissade must be able to travel in every reasonable attitude1 and to change from one position to another at any instant without check or loss of control in the movement4 ,the axe is the transitional support during all movements involving sudden or marked alteration of balance4 ,as a convenient variety it is useful to be able to glissade face inward toward the snow4 ,on slopes of doubtful termination1 and in couloirs more especially1 where it proves impossible to discover if there may not be some #8cut-off' below1 or where the quality of the snow1 and perhaps the presence of ice beneath it1 make caution imperative1 a more controlled1 watchful and restful descent can be made with the face towards the slope4 ,the axe head is then gripped under the arm with the pick caught behind the shoulder4 ,the two hands are firm on the shaft in front1 ready to shove the point into the snow4 ,the legs are slightly apart1 with the feet parallel and the toes inclined upward4 ,the descent can be stopped in an instant by pressing on the axe shaft1 and by forcing the toes outward and downward1 so that the inside edges of the boots scrape downward against the surface4 ,on rough icy surfaces1 in order to allow us to look round1 and also to prevent the toes catching and throwing the body outward1 it is sometimes even safer to bend one leg up1 so that the flat of the one sole rests against the slope at about the level of the knee of the lower straighter leg4 ,the body then lies forward over this bent leg as on a firm spring1 with the centre of gravity low and the balance secure4 ,the head is freer to turn and prospect above or below4 ,a foot brake of extra power and rapidity can be made by scraping the upper1 raised foot downward along the slope with the whole force of the body--a sort of stopping kick4 ,for hurrying the descent of awkward couloirs where the glissade of short stretches may have to be stopped within inches1 ,i have usually preferred this face-inward glissade4 ,in this position we not only can stop1 but steer with great precision and power2 and in a very confined space1 as in a narrow couloir1 we can side-step or side-jump easily4 ,to jump obstacles or crevasses when glissading face inward1 we must of course turn round first2 but a good glissader should find no difficulty in twisting round1 especially out of the last position described1 with the one leg raised1 which is in itself already a half-turn attitude4 ,the position has the additional advantage of allowing us to watch companions above2 and1 in suspicious couloirs1 to keep a look out for their loosened stones or small following avalanches4 ,stones can be dodged once they are seen2 and a fine face-inward glissader1 whenever he sees the small1 wavering1 pursuing avalanche1 looks round and ahead for some lower bay of shelter in the walls of the couloir1 and1 if need be quickening his pace1 steers out of its way into safety at the edge4 ,sidenote3 ,plunging4 ,in couloirs or on slopes faced with soft sticky snow1 too soft or too gradual for a free glissade1 it is often possible to save a long trudge of descent by using the #8plunging' step4 ,a few long springing steps1 driving the heels hard along the surface1 will start a small surface snow slide1 and upon this we can ride down1 until it again packs1 when the plunges are again repeated4 ,if the snow joins in the game too heartily1 and there is a risk of losing control and of being swept down in a cumulative avalanche1 we use the swinging cross-step to the edge of the wave1 and jump clear4 ,when the avalanche has passed there may be a fine surface left for normal glissading4 ,on every slope where we begin to feel that the travelling mass of accompanying snow is getting beyond control1 the glissader must be ready to swing-step or to jump clear of it on one side or the other4 ,when it is past1 he has also to look out for the not infrequent chance of the furtive slides which will pursue the first4 ,if two men are glissading on a rope1 the upper will be in the best position to decide when the mass is growing too big1 and he must give timely warning to his companion before he jumps clear himself4 ,sidenote3 ,on ,claws4 ,in couloirs of a certain type1 where there is a thin covering of fresh snow over ice1 or where snow has partially melted into ice glaze over rock1 ,i have occasionally found light claws a great help to safe glissading4 ,the angle may be too steep1 and the snow upon ice too bad to allow of a prospect of descent without prolonged1 deep step-cutting or slow ambling on our prehensile claws4 ,a pair of light claws that one has no fear of blunting may then be found of great service to save time and labour4 ,glissading lightly and slowly on the feet1 side-crouching as upon ice1 or still better face inward1 the claws slip down with the surface snow4 ,where the snow is thin1 they scrape through on to the ice and retard the pace2 where it thickens1 they can still be forced through by throwing more of the weight off the axe on to the feet2 and the descent1 with the fitful brake of the axe1 remains perfectly controlled4 ,as before noted1 claws of the long-pointed pattern can be used in the same fashion on rotten ice4 ,on hard1 smooth ice at high angles1 claws of the light type are often safer than nailed boots4 ,a good position for such claw-glissading is one of those familiar in ski-ing4 ,we sit astride of the axe shaft with the point against the ice4 ,we can then throw the weight back upon the shaft1 and brake1 while we release the feet to steer1 or we can let the weight forward on to the feet and increase the pace4 ,either or both feet can be relieved of the share of weight if anything threatens to catch them and upset the balance4 ,this axe-riding position is occasionally convenient in icy couloirs1 or on fresh snow1 where only an absolutely slow and controlled glissade would be safe4 ,it can also be made use of on very rough surfaces1 on dry glaciers or practice ice slopes1 without the extra security of claws and trusting to the boot-nails alone4 ,but on nails alone the glissade is proportionately less regulated1 and we are more dependent upon the axe for control and braking4 ,,on ,,other ,,grounds ,many surfaces other than ice or snow give us good practice and pleasurable moments4 ,volcanic ash is said to provide the finest conceivable flying footing4 ,sand of sea-cliffs or quarries1 and even the mud shoots of the east-coast cliffs1 give excellent fun2 but the most common1 and perhaps the most admirable sub-alpine surface is a light1 steep scree slope4 ,sidenote3 ,on ,scree4 ,our method of descending these shoots is dictated by the size of the stones composing them4 ,when they are of shale1 or light enough to slide away under our weight1 we need only straighten the leg1 stiffen the ankle1 incline the body slightly forward from the hips1 and start with a long leaping stride1 forcing the heels well down and in4 ,small scree1 at a good angle1 will carry us on and down of itself4 ,the axe is held in the same way as on snow1 and is only used for balance touches4 ,on scree at a lower angle we shall have to continue the plunging strides1 leaping from heel to heel and travelling as far as possible on the stones set moving by each foot4 ,the stronger the leg the longer may be the stride4 ,the massing of the stones under the foot will stop each step with the softness of a slow spring1 and if we are thrown out of balance by one too abrupt foot check1 we can generally recover it on the next stride4 ,towards the end of the slope the scree grows larger1 and whether sliding or plunging1 we have to look out for knee and ankle twisting4 ,we go cautiously1 but driving always harder with the heel1 until the stones refuse to yield to the thrust2 and then we call in our loose legs under control1 and proceed to stumble or dance down the rest according to the perfection of our ankles and balance4 ,a man light of foot and supple of joint can let his feet drift1 as it were1 over even large rolling stones1 letting them adjust themselves to the varying resistances without checking his pace4 ,a man who judges his scree not by its size but by its angle1 its shape and the way it sits on the surface1 can continue his glissade often well beyond the point where the less expert begin to fall or crawl4 ,once the blocks grow too big to be kicked into harmless motion1 and the drifting feet begin to slip over them into the interstices1 the wise man begins to look for other shoots to carry him farther4 ,by using the swinging cross-step described already1 we can make diagonal descents of slopes on a succession of connected parallel glissades4 ,by choosing a line well ahead1 and crossing from shoot to shoot1 many hillside descents of weary prospect can be charmed into a few moments of stimulating racing4 ,it is well to remember that up-running spits of light scree often conceal themselves in depressions between ribs of rock or in hollows between slopes of heavier scree1 especially near the bottom of the slopes4 ,the light screes that lie in these lower furrows on hillsides are among the deepest and pleasantest4 ,our zagging from furrow to furrow will divert our thoughts if not our feet from the last tiresome steep grass drop4 ,where the lower spits of light shilla thin out1 generally at their lower ends1 it is wise to look out for the catch to the ankle of rocks or wet earth or grass1 stripped of their scree varnish by the driving heel4 ,it is best for each member of a party to choose a different line1 otherwise the larger stones dislodged1 often accumulating a torrent1 may surprise a speedier forerunner4 ,similarly1 it is safer to leap sideways occasionally ourselves1 and wait while our own attendant torrent passes4 ,the angle of inclination at which small scree lies is invariably the angle of disinclination for big scree4 ,big scree1 when we cannot avoid it1 is an unqualified worry1 and we worry out of it as we can4 ,the method1 traditionally recommended1 of sitting or standing on one large stone and tobogganing down on it over the others1 would seem to be only successful for distances not yet ascertained4 ,sidenote3 ,in ,winter ,gullies4 ,except in the ,north1 where winter snow gives much the same conditions for glissading as the summer ,alps1 winter glissading in ,britain is usually upon snow-covered scree or mixed snow and scree4 ,the end of our glissades in this case has a special risk3 where the snow thins and weakens among the larger blocks1 which it yet continues to cover--to our downfall4 ,to glissade near emerging rocks is risky1 on account of the probable holes and hidden pockets in the snow round them4 ,in gullies alone we find snow over rock4 ,here there is another special risk in the rock steps or pitches1 which may be only partially covered with snow4 ,the drop is often invisible from above1 and an inexperienced glissader may be unable to stop himself in time1 when he is close enough to recognize a break in the continuity of the snow slope4 ,sometimes there is a frail lid of snow more deceptive than an open break2 and ,i have seen a man shoot over a pitch of this sort through the snow lid and down the wet rock channel under the lower snow4 ,where the rock of such pitches is visible1 we have still to look out for another trap4 ,we may count upon stopping as we reach the rock2 but the very end of the slope1 where the melting snow has run down and refrozen over rock1 is usually of harder surface1 if not of ice4 ,hence we have to allow for a sudden and surprising acceleration just where we intended to slow up4 ,no man should start glissading down a gully or slope that he does not know2 or that he cannot see throughout its whole length2 or until he is expert enough to know what the snow1 as he finds it1 will do with his feet4 ,sidenote3 ,on ,grass and ,heather4 ,glissading is also possible and pleasant on slopes of grass1 heather or whortleberry growth1 if the angle of the hill is steep and the conditions right4 ,under snow1 even in small quantity or half melted1 any herbage will serve2 but the dry1 polished1 almost glassy surface of grass or short growth1 produced by drought or hot sun1 is almost as slippery as snow4 ,on firm covering snow over hill grass1 of course a standing glissade is indicated4 ,if the snow is soft or thin1 so that the feet would catch through it upon the grass or heather stems1 sitting is best4 ,on steep slopes sitting means rapid going1 while there is any snow at all showing between the stalks4 ,if the snow is merely a wet skim1 or if we are glissading upon dry glassy herbage1 it is better for clothes and comfort to use the feet4 ,the correct method is to sit or squat right down on the heels4 ,if we have an axe or stick1 we lean back upon it1 or push with it1 as balance or our relenting pace suggests4 ,if we have no stick1 we clasp the hands round the knees and shoot down in a honeypot attitude4 ,at a check1 the legs are shot out1 and a raking action of the heels starts the slide again4 ,this fashion of sliding crouched upon the feet is feasible upon nearly all steep slopes of smooth1 thick1 fatiguing herbage1 where the walking descent would be slippery and laborious2 but it must be used with caution4 ,stones1 roots and hummocks intrude2 and nowhere is a human being more helpless1 once he has lost control1 than on steep1 slippery grass4 ,if he once starts to roll1 a broken arm or a bad shaking may be the least disagreeable consequence4 ,there have been more serious accidents due to slips on grass than on all the snow mountains of the world put together4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,climb4 ,club ,ann41 #aiab4 ,also1 where there is danger of frost-bite to the feet1 as in the ,himalaya1 the risk of a nailed boot is avoided by wearing claws over soft hide boots or strong wrappings4 ,for the same reason it is better to wear warm ski-boots1 with removable claws1 rather than nailed boots in winter mountaineering in the ,alps1 where the ski-ing alternates with the climbing and a soft boot would be insufficient4 #ad ,see 8,equipment10 p4 #ic4 #ae ,see 8,rock ,climbing10 p4 #aea4 #af ,see 8,norway10 p4 #edf4 #ag ,see 8,mountaineering on ,ski10 p4 #dbd4 ,this chapter should be consulted for the more detailed study of snow phenomena required for winter and spring ski-ing4 ,in 8,snow ,craft0 ,i have limited myself to the conditions that a climber may meet with in the ordinary alpine summer season4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,reconnoitring ,reconnoitring precedes in action the exercise of mountain craft4 ,but as an art it is the gold cup in the sack mouth of a mountaineer's equipment4 ,its effective mastery must rest upon his previous accumulations of practical experience4 ,it may therefore1 fittingly1 be put in last4 ,in the ,alps and nearer ,european ranges1 maps and guide-books relieve the mountaineer of almost all occasion to apply his powers of observation to the interpretation of the ,seen or the reconstruction of the ,unseen4 ,the majority of men who climb in the ,alps or ,britain get no practice in making even elementary deductions from scenic details within sight2 and a number more1 whose experience and observation have been sufficient to enrich them with what they would call an instinctive feeling about the meaning of topographical details which they can see1 or about the probabilities of those which are out of their sight1 have never1 for lack of opportunity1 been forced to resolve this feeling into precise conclusions4 ,nothing but actual necessity1 the need of providing for safe progress or comfort1 will induce most men on a holiday to exercise or educate their observation4 ,the loss is considerable2 not only because a developed faculty of observing1 and of reasoning from the observations1 is in itself a valuable permanent possession1 but because the neglect involves the failure to see much that is beautiful4 ,if we are accustomed to wait until beauty imposes itself upon the eye1 as in the end it will1 and almost flauntingly1 in large mountain scenery1 we shall have already missed the discovery of the relations of line and colour and mass to which the beautiful effect is due1 and we are fated to overlook much that is lovely and much that is interesting in regions where there is grace and interest in the smallest detail1 but where detail escapes unperceived among the broad and salient features of familiar magnificence4 ,illustration3 ,,mountain ,,architecture ,c4 ,f4 ,,meade ,on a more material plane1 a man who aspires to lead a party must be able to #8see1' in the sense in which an artist or natural scientist #8sees1' and he must be able to make the necessary mountaineering deductions from his sights4 ,a mountaineer who wishes to conduct an expedition efficiently in unexplored ranges must be able to do more3 he must be practised in the art of confirming conjecture as to what is beyond his sight from #8signs' within view4 ,for an expert of this sort it is fortunately sufficient to indicate what he can discover and how to set about it2 fortunately1 because #8signs' in practice are so modified by place1 climate and season that no rules could be laid down without a page of exceptions to prove each one4 ,one day of practical demonstration under guidance will reveal more of what we ought to see and how to see it than much tabulation4 ,we may write of a #8snow sky' and an #8ice sky1' and a mountaineer who had them pointed out to him would recognize the difference2 but we cannot with truth say 8a snow sky is a whitish-blue1 or shows as a white underside on a cloud10 or 8an ice sky is a greyish-blue1 and reflects in a shade of grey from a cloud10 because a different climate or region might anywhere contradict our colour definitions4 ,but the distinction between the two would remain as a constant difference of tone under all identical conditions1 and it would be perceptible to a trained eye4 ,somewhat the same difficulty interferes with any accurate summary of more elementary signs to be looked for in reconnoitring1--signs whose discovery is1 or should be1 part of our daily alpine routine4 ,every mountaineer should know at a glance1 in the right conditions of light1 new snow from old snow1 ice from crusted snow surface1 open glacier from firn or nv4 ,but who could learn to recognize the differences1 under continually changing conditions of light1 from his recollections of a written classification8 ,the suggestions here made must be understood1 therefore1 only to affirm that between certain groups of surface appearances there are certain constant relative differences1 whose presence1 or absence1 can always be ascertained in the right weather and light4 ,they are intended to indicate a few lines of less obvious investigation1 which the trained eye can pursue in examining aspects and details of mountains that are visible to everybody but not equally intelligible to everybody2 and further1 to outline a province of yet more difficult discovery--the collection of information as to aspects and details which are not even in sight4 ,it may now be assumed that until a mountaineer knows something of his craft by actual experience1 the choice of a route up a peak need not be left to his unaided attempts at reconnoitring4 ,elementary mountaineering information is far more widely diffused1 and practical climbing ability has become almost an inherited instinct4 ,the method adopted by the ,badminton on ,mountaineering1 and by various excellent manuals in imitation of it1 first synthesized for us a sample peak or climb1 resolved the attributed features into their simple elements again1 and then directed us1 with natural confidence1 precisely how to deal with them4 ,a method advisable for purposes of picturesque propaganda in earlier1 darker days is of less service to a climbing generation whose acquired craft can be more generally trusted to know how to attack its peak1 if it can once attain to only a small part of the certainty about the real character and the momentary condition of distant detail which these illuminating studies could happily assume4 ,the path so well prepared by our predecessors for the straying or reluctant feet of the potential climber1 and so entertainingly bordered with composite examples1 need not be retrodden4 ,guidance in reconnoitring1 to be of later use1 must now wait for its opportunity further along the way1 and be ready to pester the progressive competence and self-assurance of zealous mountaineers with the well-meaning but aggravating importunity of an elder walking companion3 8,can't you see that80 and1 8,what does it mean80 and1 finally1 8,well1 then1 ,i'll tell you60 ,snow and rock and ice1 as a triune element1 alone concern us4 ,what we need to find out about them is their respective angles1 to know if we can get up at all2 their several conditions1 to ascertain if we can do so with or without danger or difficulty2 and the degree of modification which their combination may be introducing1 in order to decide if we can do so within the appointed time4 ,for instance1 our agreeable opinion of the angle of a rock rib will counterbalance our unfavourable view of the state of a snow face1 which it relieves2 or our optimistic impression of the snow in a couloir will free us from the gloom created by our sight of the angle and character of a rock wall1 which it bisects4 ,with a peak as such we are only concerned in so far as it presents to us a greater or lesser mass of favourable or unfavourable angles and superficial conditions4 ,we take it that our climbing craft can get us up any mountain by any way visible or invisible4 ,it is for our reconnoitring craft1 first1 to reject those alternatives which are interrupted by the angle of the impossible2 secondly1 to condemn the lines where it detects surface conditions or direct menaces which will introduce too large an element of danger2 thirdly1 to except the routes where it decides that harsh angle and poor condition in unrelenting succession combine to form too great a volume of difficulty to be humanly vincible in a single expedition2 and lastly1 if no agreeable or interesting remainder be left over1 to use its utmost skill to determine whether some unseen aspect may not reveal sufficient of its character to encourage a hope that it will offer a more helpful line of attack4 ,the sum of the results of these investigations will of course add up differently with every peak1 and any discussion of it in the abstract could only be hypothetical4 ,the decision as to whether this sum in any concrete case represents a feasible or justifiable mountaineering attempt must take into further account the strength of the party proposing to make it1 and must be therefore1 for us1 equally hypothetical4 ,all that the grammar of reconnoitring can usefully define are the lines which investigation should follow in order to secure exact information about the elements which are the material for our calculations1 and therefore the chief factors in our decisions4 ,snow1 rock and ice are these elements2 and their state1 angle and influence upon each other in certain combinations form the only matter that need concern our examination on the spot1--or here4 ,,things ,,seen ,to discover whether a distant slope is snow or ice1 if the character of the surface is not apparent at once1 or deducible from its position1 aspect or angle1 we must wait for sun or strong daylight4 ,sidenote3 ,snow ,surface ,condition4 ,ice surfaces--that is1 the smooth ice surfaces found in the ,alps--reflect light as an even1 steely glimmer1 like elongated pools of water4 ,black ice1 not so often found in the ,alps1 has a different quality in reflection4 ,granular ice is distinguishable by its reflection of light in facets or prisms4 ,it will be noted that these tend to increase in size as our inspection descends the length of a glacial slope4 ,the honeycombed ice found in tropical ranges is quite distinct in character2 it can be recognized from a distance1 and in a photograph1 by its surface forms4 ,snow surfaces show plain white or grey in comparison4 ,an ice crust upon snow has an appearance much like that of ice1 but the reflected light is #8pockled' and uneven4 ,new snow1 which is best left alone1 has a brilliant fresh surface4 ,seen even from great distances1 and especially upon rock1 it shows a filmy1 gossamer1 veil-like quality4 ,this endures until the aeration has escaped and the feathery surfaces have subsided into harder contours4 ,old powdery snow1 as contrasted with new snow1 has a greyer tint when seen from a distance1 particularly if not seen in direct sunlight4 ,old wet snow1 laborious to cross1 and deciduous according to its angle1 shows a bluish1 luminous surface light1 especially in its depressions4 ,it is often transected by visible lines of strain or cleavage4 ,a thawing snow surface1 seen from near1 is dull and drenched looking1 or pitted with small holes4 ,surface hard-crusts1 or plates1 produced alike by wind and sun1 which afford pleasant going but possess the avalanche potentiality if the angle is steep and their attachment to the surface below is slight1 generally mark themselves off from the surrounding snow slopes by a lower1 duller tone2 sometimes they are tinged with a yellow shade4 ,the plates vary in thickness1 deepening towards the middle1 and they can often be recognized by their edges1 which run out on the neighbouring snow in darker wavelets1 sometimes with eyebrow-markings round their curves4 ,old hard snow1 of deep attachment and sound progress1 lies in alternating wave and hollow of different tones of light and shade1 where the sun has been at work on the surface4 ,it is often dust-speckled1 or shows bluish finger-prints4 ,granulated snow1 in strong light1 may show bright or prismatic reflections from its facets1 similar to1 but easily distinguishable from1 granular ice prisms4 ,as confirmation1 or correction1 of what distant observation may have revealed about the character of ice or snow surfaces1 general considerations must also be taken into account3 the recency of the snowfall1 the subsequent weather1 etc4 ,there is also the final test of touch1 which is made on the spot1 before any snow slope is traversed4 ,the change in the condition of the snow1 which may be produced by a day of sun before we can return down the slope1 must not be left out of the calculation4 ,many slopes whose surface may be adjudged and found safe for passage in the early morning cannot be trusted by nightfall4 ,sidenote3 ,angle on ,snow4 ,it is essential to be able to judge of the inclination of a slope2 for some harmless conditions may become dangerous if the snow is lying at above a certain angle4 ,new snow1 for instance1 has been known to slide at as low an angle as twenty degrees4 ,hard old snow1 melted and refrozen1 may be supported in small patches1 and remain reliable1 at as high an angle as sixty degrees4 ,the power to estimate the angle of a slope by the eye only comes with practice4 ,most slopes look precipitous in face4 ,but a mountaineer who has trained his eye by first going round to see a number of such slopes in profile1 and by then returning to see them in face1 has learned what he must deduct from an apparent angle4 ,he is then qualified to make a truer estimate of the real angle of slopes which he may be able to examine in face alone4 ,snow cannot lie at anything like the angle at which it often appears to lie when seen in face4 ,from the presence of snow1 in fact1 much can be argued as to the generally mild angle of the mountain face on which it lies4 ,except in narrow couloirs1 where it is supported by the walls1 snow does not lie permanently above or even up to an angle of fifty degrees4 ,most big snow slopes are considerably less4 ,the broader the face on which it lies1 usually the less the real angle of the snow4 ,the fact that a big snow peak presents a continuous slope of snow to its summit is evidence that the mean angle of the ascent is not great1 otherwise the even accumulation could not have proceeded4 ,in prospecting a new mountain1 therefore1 however tempting its rock face or ridge may be to a modern climber1 its snow side1 if it has one1 may be assumed to offer the inclination of easier ascent4 ,and this more particularly if the snow slopes face towards the south1 where the snow would naturally adhere least to the face4 ,interruptions to climbing on such snow faces1 whether as steeper slopes of snow or as ice walls 7such as it is well to note beforehand71 are at once apparent from their different shading if the snow slopes are inspected when the sun is overhead4 ,the inclination of a hanging slope of snow always appears still more exaggerated as seen from in front if it lies on the face of what is mainly a rock peak4 ,we have in such case to discover if the snow is lying on ice1 or only forms a coating to the rock4 ,if it is on ice1 the lower edge of the slopes1 where the snow runs out on to the rock1 will generally betray a rim or broken wall of ice4 ,to judge of the quality of such a snow surface1 and of the strength of its attachment to its ice or rock sub-surface1 the slopes below it must be examined1 and snow1 stone or water furrows looked for4 ,by the crumpled or the clean appearance of the edges of the slope itself1 where it touches the rock walls on either side of its descending fan1 much can be learned of its past transmutations and present condition4 ,long or short spits of lighter snow1 running up against darker snow or ice1 are the retentions of later falls1 and are indications of uneven angles of surface4 ,they betray the presence of bulges or ribs below1 and1 besides their promise of easier progress on slopes where the general surface may be frozen hard or over-steep1 they give us by their contrast a further basis for our estimate of the actual inclination4 ,the presence1 the shape1 and the number of cleavages or crevasses in a slope of ice or snow are a further guide to our estimate4 ,a certain type of crevasse is only found on slopes lying at an angle of about forty-five degrees4 ,we may get additional evidence1 in cases of doubt1 by waiting for the sun to throw the shadow of another peak or shoulder upon the slope4 ,when the sun and the interruption are located1 the distortion of the reflection will allow of an approximate estimate of the angle of the snow slope4 ,faces or ridges of mingled rock and snow1 and surfaces interrupted by the intrusion of any detail1 be it only of a shadow or tint1 are always easier for the experienced eye to estimate1 in angle and character4 ,where we have rock and snow or light and shadow in contrast1 practice in the reading of snow and ice surfaces1 and in the rules that govern their angles of inclination and attachment1 and practice in the interpretation of the details of rock structure1 become mutually and comfortably corrective4 ,sidenote3 ,snow ,cornices4 ,cornices form against the wind1 not with it4 ,the contrary is sometimes stated2 but the error is possibly due to the fact that irregularities in the configuration of a ridge often produce back eddies in a cross-wind4 ,if the prevailing wind is snow-bearing1 and across1 a snow-bearing back swirl may build a small cornice on the sheltered side of a ridge4 ,such a small cornice would appear to have been formed with the prevailing wind3 actually it would have grown against its return eddy4 ,a wind blowing along 7not across7 a serrated ridge may similarly produce very small cornices facing either way on the ridge1 and apparently at right angles to the prevailing current1 owing to some tower or curve on one side or the other having created an inward and upward cross-eddy1 and a shelter from the main-current in which the snow-laden eddy can work4 ,large cornices facing either way on the same ridge1 and the double cornices1 are produced by a shift in a snow-bearing cross-wind to the directly opposite quarter4 ,if we find ourselves on a corniced ridge when a strong wind1 and especially a strong wind from a warm quarter or with ,fhn in it1 is blowing against the back of big cornices1 i4e4 from the opposite direction to that from which the snow-bearing wind was blowing which formed the cornices1 we have to be even more careful1 if that be possible1 in dealing with them1 as such a wind will loosen their attachment and magnify the suddenness and the size of their collapse4 ,a cornice will always form more easily on the summit of a sheer or abrupt wall1 which creates a strong upward eddy in a wind blowing against it1 than upon a more gradual or snow-rounded inclination which offers less resistance to the current and less #8catch' to its snow burden4 ,for this reason1 upon a summit or a ridge which has1 as so often is the case1 one more gradual snow side and one rock side inevitably steeper1 we must be prepared to find cornices overhanging the rock face1 larger if produced by a wind-shift1 lesser if by a back eddy1 even though the prevailing wind has blown regularly upon the opposite snowy face1 and should have relieved us of the necessity of caution by its failure to develop cornices on that side4 ,in general1 therefore1 the direction of the prevailing wind can give us no certain guidance as to whether or not to expect the existence of cornices4 ,if a snow-bearing wind has blown against the visible side of our ridge or summit1 we shall see them4 ,if upon the invisible side1 we must assume their presence until we can disprove it4 ,but a wind-shift or variable current may always contradict our calculations4 ,a cornice is very quickly built4 ,if we have not been following the performances of the prevailing wind1 or if we mistrust its portent in any case1 we have to rely upon visual evidences when we are prospecting the approach to any snow summit or the traverse of any snow-crowned ridge4 ,in the case of a single summit it is less trouble to assume the presence of a cornice1 until we fail to find it4 ,in the case of a continuous ridge it may save us much tribulation to ascertain its condition in this respect before we start out for a long day upon it4 ,if there are cornices1 and they project towards us1 they will at once be recognizable2 if away1 it is not always easy to make certain1 without getting a sight of some part of the ridge in profile4 ,their detection at one point of a ridge will dictate the necessity of precaution along the rest4 ,a telescopic examination can often discover the thin dark line of junction or strain1 running parallel to the crest in the snow on the near side1 where the projection of a cornice towards the far side starts its inclination4 7,in more considerable snow ranges1 such as the ,andes1 this crack has1 ,i am told1 on occasion been proved to be due to a longitudinal crevasse on the ridge4 ,in the ,alps1 however1 ,i know of no case of this having been observed47 ,an alternative and rarer indication will be the discovery of a band of shadow or duller tint1 seen in the right light1 running along the snow wall just below some part of the crest4 ,this will be due to a relative steepening of the snow wall1 sometimes even taking the form of a concavity1 where the back of a high1 steep cornice1 facing towards the far side1 hummocks up off its supporting ridge4 ,the appearance ,i believe to be occasioned by a fall or a shift in the prevailing wind1--a fall permitting the snow to accumulate upon the head of the cornice and form a sort of bulbous whale-back over it1 or a shift of wind to the near side beginning a projection which may ultimately grow into a #8double' cornice1 with the higher of the two facing towards us4 ,failing either of these signs1 any two projecting points of rock or snow1 near together on the suspected ridge1 should be examined4 ,if the connecting line of snow between them shows sharp and continuous against the sky1 and ascends at its either end in a continuous single curve to the points selected1 the cornice on the far side1 if any1 will be slight and local4 ,if1 however1 the snow rim seems to merge indefinitely on the skyline1 and its curve ascends to the points at either end in a variable arc of different centres1 so that we seem to see1 as it were1 round the edge of a fold where the snow-curve hangs to the rock points1 a cornice is indicated4 ,if the breadth of the points or towers is sufficiently ascertainable to enable us to estimate the average thickness of the connecting rock ridge hidden below the snow between them 7as it usually is unless the towers are seen absolutely flat in face71 then the look1 almost a reflection1 in the sky immediately above the snow curve1 and the character of the snow curve where it wavers over against the sky1 will indicate to an expert eye whether the cornice is large or small4 ,where1 again1 sufficient rock points projecting from a snow ridge are visible1 as we see it in face1 to suggest what must be the actual line of the snow-covered rock connecting them1 any wayward sweep away from us in the visible line of the snow between them is an indication that the snow rim1 where the skyline thus unaccountably retreats from the eye1 is superintending a cornice on the far side4 ,the presence of a double cornice--the fatal cornices that face two ways1 one built up above the other--is not difficult to establish4 ,a band of shadow or low light on the near side of a snow crest1 below a band of higher light1 means a lower cornice facing towards us under an upper cornice curving away4 ,a band of markedly higher light1 below a band of shadow or obvious concavity1 means an upper cornice facing towards us above a lower cornice facing away4 ,for all such observations on snow1 which find their opportunity in the relative positions of light and shadow1 it is apparent that a time must be chosen when the sun shines from the right quarter4 ,their accuracy depends upon their being continued over a time sufficient for the sun to travel past1 and so indicate to us dimension1 by the change in1 or the disappearance of1 the shadows cast4 ,sidenote3 ,wind and ,snow ,signs4 ,wind is not #8seen1' but its immediate effects upon snow are1 more especially on high ridges1 corniced or otherwise4 ,the quality and quantity of the surface snow on a ridge1 which it is important to know beforehand1 can be discovered in times of wind from the amount and direction of the snow particles1 which are seen to be blowing off the ridge1 and appear as a film or puff of vapour upon the sky just above4 ,the absence of any halo to the ridge1 in spite of the manifest action of wind upon adjacent clouds1 is equally valuable evidence of the stable quality of the snow4 ,the direction and force of the wind will often suggest the side of the ridge to which we shall prefer to limit our passage on the morrow4 ,on the windy side1 if the ridge be snow-covered1 according to the quarter and character of the wind1 the snow will be crusted or hard1 or we may have to encounter a bare sheet of ice4 ,if it be rock1 again according to the wind1 we shall find the holds either cleared or ice glazed in the morning4 ,on the side sheltered from the wind1 on a high exposed ridge the snow should be just of good quality4 ,but even on such ridges it may be spongy and cantankerous if the wind has had ,fhn in it4 ,in a bad season1 or after a storm of #8dry' snow1 it is worth while examining high ridges that have been exposed to the wind1 on the chance that they may not have been closed by snow for the usual three days1 like other peaks4 ,a friend and ,i owed our own last great climb to having observed that the ,zmutt ridge of the ,matterhorn had been blown black and bravely snow-clear by the same storm that sheeted all the other ridges and summits of ,zermatt in white1 untimely mourning4 ,apart from the indirect evidences it brings1 wind1 keen or warm1 gusty or continuous1 has its direct bearing upon the comfort1 the safety and even the possibility of our climbing4 ,of its effects on snow surface1 on rock falls and upon morale ,i have written elsewhere4 ,sidenote3 ,ice4 ,ice sheets on snow peaks are located from a distance by their reflected light2 but it is well to memorize or sketch their position and extent beforehand1 especially if we expect to have to cross them upon our descent1 since they will be usually invisible from above4 ,if there is prospect of our glissading1 the exact positions of interruptions1 ice shields1 bosses1 etc41 must be known in advance4 ,ice upon rock is apparent1 either as a grey-blue1 bottle-glass bordering to the stippling and nestling of old snow1 or in the refrozen festoons of new ice1 exquisite and evil1 that complete the ,gothic character of granite pinnacles4 ,lazy1 main glaciers reveal themselves frankly4 ,the solution of their complexity is the business of ice craft2 but distant inspection is concerned to discover the easiest line of ascent or descent1 if the glacier is to form part of the expedition4 ,the most difficult hanging glaciers--that is1 those with the largest systems of crevasses--will be as a rule the most steeply inclined4 ,they will be therefore the easiest to prospect1 even in detail1 as seen in face from far off4 ,very few hanging glaciers descend evenly or straight4 ,either side or the centre will be moving the faster1 and receiving the fuller reinforcement4 ,the line of the great crevasses will slant upward or across1 from one side to the other1 or from both sides to the centre4 ,and along the edges where the lines of varying pace and pressure adjoin and descend in conflict will be found1 if there are no abrupt ice falls due to uneven bedding1 the least interrupted route4 ,contrary pressures often tend to squeeze up the ends of successive cross-lines of crevasses1 creating a tortuous but consecutive eddy of passage4 ,though the crevasses may still exist1 as walls1 sracs1 etc41 they will be more compressed and negotiable on this line4 ,frequently the cleavages will here survive only as partial splits1 and across and down the edges of the unsevered splinters or flakes a continuous descent will be possible4 ,but climbers may skirt round the mazes of glacier causation1 if they have but eyes for the visible surface clues4 ,it is enough for them to note from afar and remember by marginal marks where the best line of traverse from side to side1 or from side to centre1 should be started1 in order to keep or recover the mobile thoroughfare4 ,on large glaciers this is often very difficult to rediscover once we are on the ice1 when our view is restricted by its irregularities of surface4 ,similarly1 to enable us to get on or off any glacier1 we should note beforehand the position of convenient side-bays1 where the ice runs out on to the rock in smoother1 spent waves4 ,sidenote3 ,couloirs4 ,even as the passage of couloirs might be considered as belonging to snow and ice craft or to rock craft1 so also their consideration is transitional to rock reconnoitring4 ,on large mountains the important thing to know about a couloir beforehand1 if we intend to use it1 is whether it is filled with ice or with snow1 and whether it is subject to stone fall4 ,to information on the first point1 the study of the angle of the couloir is the first help4 ,a steep angle generally implies that the lining will be ice and not snow4 ,but as snow1 supported by retaining rock1 may remain at a very high angle1 we look to see if there are any furrows in the white surface4 ,if there are furrows and they are in ice1 they will show us ice reflections in sunlight4 ,if there are no ice reflections and they are therefore in snow1 or if they are only ice-backed and therefore in snow-covered ice1 the depth of the furrows will tell us what depth of snow we may expect upon the ice4 ,if there are no furrows1 the edges of the supposed snow must be inspected for further information4 ,where the snow runs out on to the rock at the side in ice webs1 the surface tone will appear of different qualities if it be snow on ice1 or if it be ice throughout4 ,and after all our examination1 we may be agreeably surprised to be able to ascend on hard snow in the early hours where we had calculated from the angle that we should be hacking in snow-ice2 or as disagreeably disappointed to find snow of avalanche quality1 on a late return or after warm wind1 where we had located snow of the best bearing variety during a morning inspection4 ,the base of the couloir should be inspected for traces of previous snow avalanches1 and for the character of its bergschrund4 ,we see if we can whether the summit of the couloir is commanded by glacier or slope likely to use it for the discharge of snow or stones4 ,if so1 we note during what hours the presence of sun will increase the risk1 and when shade to diminish it may be looked for4 ,in a big couloir we mark down islands of rock which1 in case we are detained in the recesses until stone fall time1 will provide us with screens below which to steer our line4 ,we study the lie of the strata and the containing walls for possible exits from the couloir4 ,on big peaks the top of a couloir often opens upon an amphitheatre of slabs1 too thinly ice coated for steps4 ,it is then important to mark down a line for escape in time4 ,if the base of the couloir selected can be seen1 the presence there of fallen stones is evidence that they have fallen2 but their absence there is not conclusive that they have not4 ,they may have been swallowed by the bergschrund1 disappeared into some crevasse1 or lodged in soft concealing snow4 ,for this end we must examine the edges of the schrund and of any cleavages for traces1 and the surface of the lower snow for pockling4 ,if there are channels worn in the snow or ice at the base or back of the couloir1 we shall get further evidence that something is accustomed to fall4 ,these channels may have been made by stones1 by ice trash or by water4 ,in sunshine the difference is distinguishable4 ,if the runnels are #8silver-backed' in sunlight1 and there are no stones apparent1 they have been made by water and are harmless4 ,if the couloir to be visited descends on to a visible glacier1 but is itself invisible1 the presence1 absence or scarcity of fallen stones discoverable at the bottom end of the glacier1 subject always to the possibility of the consumption by rift or crevasse1 will demonstrate the couloir1 or couloirs1 commanding the visible glacier to be proportionately infected with1 free from1 or only in some cases liable to1 the falling sickness4 ,sidenote3 ,rock4 ,in prospecting rock routes we have more to help us2 for rock1 unlike snow1 does not change its skin1 and when it hides itself1 under ice or snow or water or glaze1 the change from the black ,ethiopian is obvious and calculable4 ,we have also preliminary information1 if not in books yet in the outlines of the mountains themselves1 as to what is the character of the particular rock before us4 ,every climber1 if he can assume the presence of limestone or granite or dolomite1 sandstone1 trap1 chalk1 or a few other of the elementary and lay classifications1 has a clear picture in his own mind of the kind of climbing and of rock holds that he may expect4 ,sidenote3 ,faces4 ,the slopes of the hills will tell him in general2 good glasses will tell him more of his particular route or of local modifications in the characteristics3--such as how the rock is weathering2 in which direction the strata are dipping2 and what is the fashion of the jointing4 ,putting this information and his knowledge of the type of rock together1 he will know upon which side to attack his peak4 ,for instance1 if the strata dip through the peak1 the aspect of the mountain upon which the upper ends of the strata emerge will give him holds sloped upwards to his advantage4 ,this side1 with its retrouss ledges1 will also hold fresh snow longest after a fall1 and at such a time afford him a further chance of locating the lie of traverse and shelf4 ,if the main cleavages1 again1 are vertical1 he will select the most weathered face1 where the jointing will give him platform and shelf4 ,if they are in the main horizontal1 he has to seek the side that presents the most sequent line of weathering rifts or fractures1 in order to connect up the natural horizontal ledges4 ,just as a sunny day is of most help in prospecting an unknown snow climb1 so is the day after a snowfall invaluable for the examination of rock routes4 ,i owe several fine new rock climbs to snowfalls4 ,not only does the lodging snow indicate particular ledges and their intervals in detail1 but it discovers to the eye general connecting lines of traverse or slope1 which may be too interrupted or too foreshortened to be perceptible upon a distant inspection of the bare and broken rock face4 ,under snow the main lines of rock structure leap into sight4 ,by a convenient law of rock formation1 the little apes the great4 ,thus1 if we can discover the general inclination of traverses across a face1 however large in scale1 broken or interrupted their lines may be1 it is safe to assume that the small details which make up these lines1 the ledges1 etc41 will be reproducing the same fashion of structure in little4 ,where there are big terraces1 there will be small ledges copying their form and direction4 ,if there are big visible gaps1 giant slabs1 or terraces interrupted and continuing at a higher level as a result of uneven upheaval1 in the same or similar places1 although too small to be visible1 the climber has to look out for exposed passages on slabs1 or he will have to search for cracks to connect up his interrupted ledges4 ,it is all but impossible to inspect a distant climb with sufficient minuteness to be absolutely certain that a fifteen-foot wall or a broken ledge may not stop all progress at some point4 ,very rarely we can say1 8,it is impossible20 occasionally we can say1 8,it will go for certain20 but generally we have to leave some portion to the #8round the corner' chance4 ,in such case we can reason with advantage from the big to the small1 interpreting the main features of a face or ridge into terms of detail suitable for our lesser needs1 and justifying it by our experience of similar rock4 ,fortunately1 rocks generally prove us right4 ,they seldom cheat us1 by a petty exception1 of the fruits of general conclusions which we have based upon observation of their principal tendencies4 ,on the contrary1 we are constantly helped by kindly accidents and flaws1 where we might expect no mercy4 ,the ,grpon traverse is a delightful instance of unreasonable progress just made possible by a series of1 apparently1 gorgeous accidents4 ,the flukes are so brilliant and so timely that the layman cheerfully assumes them to be a rule in attacking similar ,aiguilles2 and he is rarely disappointed4 ,when the expected and the unexpected alike fail us1 on such rock we can still count upon a kindly roughness of surface and upon homely methods of friction to join up connections which structure and luck would have1 for once1 denied to us4 ,in reconnoitring all rock faces1 especially for new routes1 we are alert about the matter of falling stones4 ,on boldly sculptured faces the edges of the ribs will be the safest line4 ,on faces of shallow relief or much interrupted modelling1 we may assume that nothing but the angle or our fortune will secure us against cross-fire4 ,we used to be told that we should avoid stones by selecting aspects where the up-lie of strata emerged in sky-ward and stone-catching ledges4 ,but personally1 ,i have been seldom so badly bombarded as upon the ,zermatt face of the ,matterhorn1 where every schoolboy knows what happens to the strata4 ,if the rock is known to be good rock1 or if we can design a route which by reason of its angle or its salience on the face should be safe1 we may chance a few exposed connecting links4 ,but if the rock is notoriously bad1 or the disconnections in the safe route look to be numerous1 and this especially if they occur high up where the sun will have had long time to act before we reach them1 we must not risk the attempt4 ,years ago our party turned back from completing the ascent of the ,furggen ridge of the ,matterhorn on the ground of risk from stone fall4 ,later it was climbed2 and the story of the success might be read as a commentary on the mountaineering value of the virtue of renunciation4 ,sidenote3 ,ridges4 ,the same reasoning from the big to the little helps us in prospecting ridge climbs4 ,if the succeeding edges1 towers and large interruptions on a great ridge show a disposition towards maintaining a steady family connection1 each with its neighbour1 in spite of their bold skyline accidentation--7,i cannot put this more intelligibly1 but any student of natural outline will know what is meant7--then there is every reason to hope that the #8cuts-off' between them will also prove more relenting than they look4 ,in their smaller detail the same indulgences1 of ledge and flake and fluke in favour of the climber1 will manifest themselves4 ,a ridge seen end-on is very deceptive4 ,if it rises steeply1 it may appear to be a continuous incline1 whereas it consists really of separated1 ascending #8steps4' ,if a side view is not obtainable1 the look of the walls falling on either side from the ridge crest must be our guide4 ,the depth1 extent and number of depressions indicated in these side walls1 seen in profile1 will tell us that there are couloirs below1 and therefore probably syncopations in the seemingly continuous crest-line above4 ,the projection of bulges or articulated ribs on either side wall may1 similarly1 be identified as the edges or supporting buttresses of isolated towers1 whose depth of separation from each other is concealed from us in the foreshortening of the ridge4 ,towers on a ridge1 seen in flat from one side1 are equally misleading4 ,they are more often the ends of short ridges which run crosswise to the line of the main ridge than the needles which they appear to the eye4 ,an inspection of the general lie of the strata will often tell us whether we may assume this to be the case4 ,if we can get both an end-on view and some oblique view of the ridge1 or of any tower upon it1 we can reason fairly closely what the two unseen sides of any spire will be like1 and even whether they can be expected to offer traverses conveniently sloping1 or weathered surfaces1 such as the dip of the strata and the jointing deny to us upon the visible sides4 ,allowance must always be made for the deceptive outlines that are introduced by foreshortening4 ,a view from some second point is often necessary to counteract their false impression4 ,in prospecting a ridge for purpose of traverse in the early morning1 it is well also to note which side gets the sun soonest and keeps it longest4 ,on this side we shall find the holds most clear of snow or morning glazing1 and be able to escape the chill to the muscles of shadow on cold rock4 ,the rock on this side also will1 for the same reason1 be probably the more superficially disintegrated1 and so offer a greater choice of holds1 though not necessarily holds of such good quality4 ,sidenote3 ,slabs4 ,in reconnoitring slabs1 on faces or on the side walls of ridges1 we find that their apparent angle as seen in face is as misleading as that of snow slopes4 ,in their case we have not the presumptive knowledge that they cannot be as steep as they seem1 since rock may be as perpendicular as it looks4 ,nor have we the subtle variations in light and shadow which help us1 on snow1 to correct the eye4 ,rock faces are so broken that it is seldom possible to get the assistance of sun shadows in estimating the angle of portions of their surface4 ,on the other hand1 acquaintance with the characteristics of the particular type of rock1 and the visible general inclination of its strata1 give us a groundwork for a preliminary estimate of its slabiferous sections4 ,new snow can again come to our assistance4 ,snow will reveal to us an easy angle by lying over our slabs as an even cloak2 or it may display a vertical section by missing it altogether4 ,it will also indicate the surface in some detail1 by the fashion of its distribution on ledge or pocket4 ,otherwise we must try to secure a side view of bare slabs1 or at least a second1 oblique view4 ,if this is not to be managed1 it is of use to inspect any near and more approachable slab of similar formation4 ,by an examination of the profile of a #8sample' slab we are often able to revise our estimate of the angle and potential holds of its bigger1 remoter neighbours4 ,but on rock the final judgment of doubtful passages must be left in the end to the practical test of attempt4 ,the only infallible criterion is its tactile value4 ,when we have reduced the #8impossible' sections of a route to a few isolated passages1 it is always worth while going to see4 ,the accidents of rock1 its roughness1 its whimsicality and its reticences are nearly always in the end in our favour4 ,if we can only make sure that the rock is sound1 and fix a general line of ascent1 the overcoming of the #8impossibles' or the #8improbables' in detail can well be left to the moment4 ,if we could map out a whole climb before we did it1 much of the pleasure would be lost4 ,to the resources of rock technique no rock that is sound1 and not obviously absurd1 is impossible1 either by attack or turning movement4 ,and we may assume this to be so until we have ascertained by #8rubbing our noses against it' that we have lighted on the rare and unhappy exception4 ,sidenote3 ,rocks in ,britain4 ,in prospecting rock climbs in our own country1 reconnoitring is practically confined to scrutinizing familiar faces for alternative routes or to orienting our own climbing in an unfamiliar district4 ,the first is a simple matter of good glasses1 good sense and direct assault4 ,in the second1 there is still some room for general discretion4 ,we have to allow for a great difference in atmosphere as between ,britain and the ,alps4 ,all alpine measures have to be reduced by about two-thirds4 ,we can generally assume that the north or northward inclined aspects of ,british hills will give us the best climbing4 ,this judgment is subject to partial revision1 according as we come to know better the local characteristics or the rock formation of the particular hill before us4 ,if the rock wall faces to the south1 our prospect of good continuous climbing is reduced4 ,rocks facing south will be more disintegrated1 as they will have been less protected from the sun and more subject to strong variations in temperature4 ,if broken up or inclined on this side1 they will be covered with verdure1 which is offensive in itself and hastens the action of water on all the rocks it commands4 ,we have also to make sure of the lie of the strata1 not only for convenience of hold1 but also because on the side towards which the stratification dips the moisture fallen on the mountain will drain1 and we shall have to look out for our principal enemies--wet rock1 rock corrupted by moisture1 and1 in winter1 an icing or glaze4 ,our islands provide us with a great variety of rock structure and hill forms1 and1 according as we get to know the aspects of one hill of any local type1 it is interesting to reconstruct the unseen aspects of its neighbours4 ,several good climbing cliffs were first found in this way4 ,the look of the outline will suggest the sort of climbing we shall find on the faces4 ,we get further information from the nature and size of any scree slopes below a cliff4 ,the presence or absence of verdure1 and the sight of the belts1 knots and surface minuti1 tell us the rest4 ,all the local rock of the same aspect and in the same structural line will be similar1 and may be bad2 but if we can get at another aspect of it1 on an opposite hillside1 it may be of good holding character4 ,for which reason rickety ridgelets may be faced across the valley by sober and admirable slabs4 ,mist and cloud in ,britain are our frequent companions4 ,mist may do us good service by throwing an unsuspected ridge or pinnacle into relief4 ,but as a rule the alterations which cloud and fog effect in mountain details falsify rather than reveal4 ,their use is to place a greater value upon the fidelity with which previous reconnoitring has been conducted1 and its result remembered1 if we wish1 in mist1 to arrive at an intended climb at all1 or to make descent into the right valley on our return4 ,not impossibly they are sent by nature to complicate what is otherwise the over-easy mountaineering training of our hills2 to handicap the specializing gymnast1 and to enforce the practices of observing detail1 using the compass and map1 and exercising judgment1 memory1 and the precious sense of direction4 ,,the ,,half-,,seen ,in the ,alps or unfamiliar regions1 to discover the truth about what may be termed the half-seen1--that is1 about formation or detail which should be visible but for foreshortening1 distance1 angle or light1--new snow is again our best auxiliary4 ,its presence suggests1 even emphasizes1 much that is unsuspected4 ,seemingly straight ridges are shown to be crooked1 and plain faces rough4 ,it helps us with light in hidden corners1 and annihilates distance4 ,otherwise we have to use days of driving cloud1 or wait for the morning or evening moments of thin mist1 when the drift lies across the face or through the ridge1 and picks out its angles1 features and perspective4 ,mists will often reveal the existence of ridges and pinnacles1 whose separation from the face behind is undiscoverable as seen in front or in clear light4 ,of more frequent service are the hours when the sunlight falls across the face from the side1 and the protuberances and hollows jump into stereoscopic clearness in shadow and the modifications of light4 ,invisible snow depressions1 bosses and foreshortened angles of rock slab or ledge are cheerfully betrayed by the veracity of cross-shadows2 and points and lines of obstinate sunlight1 which remain salient and surprising after the sun has deserted all the rest of the seemingly even surface of snow or rock1 proclaim to us unexpected inequalities and therefore possibilities of passage4 ,in cases of outside difficulty upon rock1 where we are reconnoitring some great rock wall1 of a granite or dolomitic type1 we can generally make sure of the vertical rifts and clefts from below2 but the presence or size of transverse fractures or belts is hidden from us4 ,in this case assurance as to what has been only half-seen can be completed if a downward view of the rock1 or of its local type1 is also obtainable4 ,the information is best secured from the summit of the peak itself1 reached by another route1 and many great first ascents have owed their discovery and safe accomplishment to such complementary inspection4 ,only a short section need be in sight from above in order to indicate the general character of the cross belts1 and the last section on such peaks is always the more important to examine1 as it will generally be the severest in its details4 ,but even without this local visitation a downward or oblique view of any section of the face1 or of an allied or neighbouring wall of similar structure1 will give adequate information1 and convert the half-seen into the two-thirds made certain4 ,a familiar instance of the use of such inspection would be almost any great ,welsh cliff or ,irish sea cliff4 ,seen from below1 it appears to be continuous steep slabs1 with only vertical cracks for the climber2 seen from above1 it looks a jumble of vague cross-terraces of grass1 snow or rock1 hardly offering a chance of good articulated climbs4 ,both estimates would be false4 ,only by collating the two points of view can a fair judgment of the character of the climbing be formed4 ,a number of delightful climbs1 of late discovery1 have owed their neglect to the fact that they were only easily visible from a single aspect1 and that this produced an abiding false estimate of their quality4 ,the importance of securing corrective views1 from different angles1 be it only of a section of a proposed route1 or of a passage of similar character more conveniently situated1 attaches also to our inspection of the half-seen on big ridges4 ,with points to remember in such inspection ,i have already dealt4 ,it does1 in fact1 belong not a little to the reasoning from the seen to the unseen2 to which more metaphysical division of reconnoitring it leads over4 ,,the ,,unseen ,the investigation of the unseen is a chief concern of mountaineers in new regions4 ,but it can also be of service to the expert1 in examining even a peak he knows well1 to ascertain for him the condition of its invisible side on a particular day4 ,as ,i have said before1 it is possible only to indicate where signs may be sought1 and what relative differences the expert eye may discover and convert into information4 ,the mountaineer1 after inspection of the near side of a ridge or summit in a big range1 wishes to supplement this knowledge by the discovery of the character or general formation of the unseen side4 ,he wishes to know whether it will give him snow of easier progress1 or a subordinate ridge for better assault or descent2 also whether he can look for clear rock on the far side1 to assist his ascent of a ridge unfavourable in its visible aspects1 or whether he must be prepared for ice slopes4 ,the first conditions for the inspection are experience1 good glasses1 clear sunlight and no recent snowfall4 ,also1 if he wishes to confirm or increase the detail of his observations1 he must be prepared to spend a whole day of good light1 with the sun aiding him from different points in the sky4 ,as he looks over and across his high ridges from some distant view-point1 in good sunlight1 the mountaineer is able to distinguish several different kinds of sky1 according to the different character of the unseen surfaces from which the sunlight is being reflected upward on to clear atmosphere or on to low clouds4 ,the ,snow ,sky4--,this he will find has a distinguishable tint1 identifiable by the practised eye1 as different on a given day from the normal coloration of the sky above as is the light reflected from different qualities of steel1 or from silver as compared with electroplate4 ,if the sky seen over his ridge is purely a snow sky1 of uniform appearance1 it is just to assume that the unseen side of the ridge consists of large snow slopes1 and rises at a comparatively gentle angle1 since we know already that upon broad surfaces1 at a steep angle1 snow can only rest while it remains new and adhesive4 ,if1 again1 the sky above is purely a snow sky1 but is traversed by a band of slightly modified quality or tone1 leading away from the eye1 there will exist on the far side a correspondingly inclined great snow ridge1 from one side of which the sun1 in a given position1 will be reflecting high light1 but from the other1 lower4 ,by repeating the observation at different times of day1 so that the light will have fallen and been reflected from different directions1 we can confirm the existence of such a ridge1 and may be able to locate its position and determine its magnitude with some accuracy4 ,a second and characteristic appearance is visible on the sky above the unseen side1 if this far side consists of two large snow fields divided by a long rocky ridge extending away from us4 ,we then have a snow sky divided by a band of sky which is not catching any reflected higher light1 and which we may assume to be a #8rock' sky4 ,the ,rock ,sky4--,if the whole expanse of the sky above is seen to have a uniform and normal tone with no local alterations1 such as would be produced by partial snow reflection1 then the unseen side will consist of a large wall of rock--probably1 in such case1 steep rock4 ,under favourable conditions1 a very practised observer may detect in a uniform rock sky a band of slightly modified tone going away from the eye on the far side4 ,this will be produced by another great rock ridge extending in the corresponding direction4 ,by watching the sky above this ridge1 and observing the differences produced by the reflections of light at different hours from its different aspects1 we may even be able to discover to our satisfaction whether the invisible ridge is all rock or has one side covered with snow4 ,the ,ice ,sky4--,dry glacier or large fields of ice betray themselves upon the sky in a slightly greyer tinge1 distinguishable more by contrast than by an absolute tone from a snow sky under the same conditions4 ,there is also a #8water' sky--the unmistakable look in a sky which is reflecting great unseen sheets of water2 but its identification is more familiar and of more service to arctic or desert travellers than to mountaineers4 ,apart from these larger sky signs there are some more local indications that are of particular value to the climber4 ,the appearance of the sky as seen across the ridge will in most cases give us evidence of a mixed character--that the unseen side is partly rock1 partly snow4 ,it is thus essential to know1 if we propose to use the ridge we are prospecting for our ascent1 whether the rock just over or on the ridge is bare or ice glazed1 and whether the snow discovered on the far side rises up to the edge of the ridge or leaves a crest of clear rock4 ,if there are bare rocks close up to the edge on the unseen side1 these will be at certain hours heated by the sun1 and a hot current of air will be ascending4 ,the skyline above will have a wavering appearance1 showing a band of darker tint between the ridge and the normal sky4 ,if there is snow close up on the far side1 the air will not be disturbed1 and the skyline will be steady and clean4 ,if the rocks beyond are free from snow but glazed with ice1 the skyline will remain undisturbed1 but it will have a brilliant glistening appearance in strong sunlight1 like a strip of polished blue steel4 ,this last indication1 if the eye can learn its significance1 may often be of service on climbs where the unseen mountain structure is already known1 but when there is uncertainty as to the actual condition of the rocks on the day4 ,many fruitless ascents might have been saved if the ice glazing on such unseen sections of a ridge could have been detected in time4 ,some of these appearances may even be recognized in photographs1 if they have been taken under the right conditions and left untouched4 ,by watching a given section of ridge1 while the sun is moving across the sky1 all a sunny day1 and by using a map at first to discover what the different sky signs as they become visible actually mean1 and also how much they reveal of the unseen topography as displayed in the map1 it is possible for some men to train their sight to discriminate fairly closely between a number of even more complex signs1 and to ascertain actual details as to the character and direction of unseen walls and crests1 the location of unseen snow summits1 and the length of far ridges4 ,the process1 in practical application1 is of course throughout assisted1 corrected1 and its lines of observation suggested by the nearer features which the expert reconnoitrer already has in sight4 ,for an observer who knows the forms usual in the type of mountain before him1 and who has the local features1 on the side visible to him1 to indicate still more closely what he may look out for1 the interpretation of the meaning of sky signs presents fewer alternatives1 and the conclusions drawn from them can be far more detailed than would seem possible were his reasoning about the unseen based only upon one group of evidences4 ,final success in reconnoitring depends upon our ability to put together1 in order of their relative importance1 all our assembly of large and small evidences4 ,experience is able to deduce the small from the large and to reconstruct the large from the small2 and confirmation of the truth of our deductions1 from the seen or the unseen1 comes when two such lines of evidence meet3 when the detail which we discover in a single quarter confirms the speculations that we have based upon our experience or on our interpretation of larger evidences1 or when our induction from a number of small visible indications is proved correct by some revelation in a greater sky sign4 ,for a mountaineer who has to convert his observation of distant objects and signs1 of a size altogether incommensurate with his own1 into terms of a possible advance for his eight-foot reach or four-foot stride1 no evidence is too big or too small2--and this especially because the big1 in mountains1 repeats itself in the small with timely consistency4 ,a good mountaineer might almost claim to be able to construe a single favourable sky sign1 under certain conditions1 into the assurance of his atom-like advance up the infinite invisible detail of an unpromising-looking mountain giant4 ,sunny days1 patience and good glasses are first conditions for his task4 ,the same glasses should always be used4 ,a type should be selected that gives enhanced stereoscopic effect4 ,above all1 the sight of the eyes must be equal1 or corrective glasses should be worn4 ,many men never discover even what they ought to be able to see1 until they learn that their eyesight is1 if only slightly1 astigmatic1 and use spectacles for their reconnoitring4 ,reconnoitring is not merely the preparation for a single day or for a particular climb4 ,a mountaineer has to learn to see and to record all day and every day1 not only distant signs for future use1 but each and every detail of his surroundings4 ,the detail may be forgotten1 but its accumulation will gradually form in his mind a mass of general precedents and of knowledge of the characteristics of particular shapes and structures4 ,this will remain with him1 and will return instinctively to aid his judgment when some cognate detail presents itself to be interpreted as a piece of solitary evidence4 ,as a last personal illustration1 ,i may recall that one of the pleasantest new ascents in my recollection was the outcome of a simple reasoning from a detail in the seen to the memory of the unseen3 the sight of a layer of excellent snow1 covering for the time the usually bare slabs of one wall of a peak from which we were descending1 revived the recollection that on a famous peak in another valley was a similar wall of identical aspect and character1 as yet unascended on account of its normal impracticability4 ,without further examination we made the attempt upon it1 and the speculation was confirmed in the cheeriest manner4 ,if care so constant that it dominates alike the exhaustion of failure and the more dangerous enervation of triumph is essential for our safe climbing1 observation so continuous that it becomes unconscious is as necessary for our fortunate designing4 ,its habit may profit us by more even than by momentary success4 ,for a mountaineer may read a sky sign only for the promise that it brings him of the morrow's exercise2 but he has learned to see it1 and with the power of sight he has opened a new world of pleasure4 ,it was the first scientific student of the form and reflection of clouds1 of the structure and relation of hills1 who was the first understanding prophet of their significance for art and imagination4 ,the more we can learn to see or to reconstruct of the mountain forms visible or invisible about us as we climb1 the more vividly will memory interpret their meaning for our lives when we are no longer among them4 ,if we are of a mood to use both sight and its interpretation as servants of our spirit as much as of our performance1 we may discover a reflection from the mountains that will permanently colour our thought4 ,there is a reassurance no less for our journey through the years than for our march of a day in the perception that oncoming shadow1 by its very quality of darker relief1 can reveal to us some unsuspected and relenting aspect in the daunting precipice across our path2 and a twofold message1 for our mind even more than for our mountaineering1 in 8the light of the unseen snow-field1 lying level behind the visible peaks1 sent up with strange reflections upon the clouds2 an everlasting light of calm aurora in the north40 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,mountaineering ,,on ,,ski ,,by ,,arnold ,,lunn ,winter mountaineering may be said to date from ,mr4 ,moore's crossing of the ,strahlegg and ,finsteraarjoch ,passes in ,january #ahfe4 ,the first big peak to be climbed in winter was the ,wetterhorn1 which was ascended in #ahgd by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,coolidge and ,miss ,brevort2 a few days later this party climbed the ,jungfrau4 ,these brilliant expeditions set a fashion which was1 however1 only followed by a select company of mountaineers1 among whom a place of honour must be given to ,mrs4 ,le ,blonde4 ,it was not until ,paulcke crossed the ,oberland at the end of #ahig on the ski that winter mountaineering began to be a popular sport4 ,to wade up a big peak in deep snow on snow-shoes or on foot only appealed to a minority1 but the number of those who were attracted by the chance of combining mountaineering with ski-ing steadily increased4 ,the ,english were slow to follow the new fashion2 the number of ,british ski-runners who have a long list of glacier ski tours to their credit is still small1 but abroad hundreds of experienced mountaineers have explored the ,high ,alps on ski1 and abroad the advisability of using the ski in the ,high ,alps has passed beyond the limits of discussion4 ,the time is coming when most alpine huts will be provided with ski4 ,a steadily increasing number of mountaineers realize that such peaks as ,monte ,rosa or the ,zermatt ,breithorn provide excellent ski-ing at all months of the year1 and that the trouble of dragging a light pair of summer ski to the summit is well repaid by a magnificent run down to the hut4 ,there is no month in the year in which the writer has not enjoyed first-class ski-ing1 and there is no season in the whole alpine calendar in which ski cannot be used on the loftier snow peaks in the ,alps4 ,ski have come to stay as an indispensable adjunct to mountaineering4 ,to the rock climber the ski are perhaps mainly useful in bad seasons2 if the weather in summer were uniformly good the enthusiastic rock climber would have little use for the ski4 ,but long spells of bad weather are not unknown1 and many a climber who has engaged a guide or a couple of guides for a month has spent a week1 a fortnight1 or in some cases even longer without climbing a peak4 ,i venture to assert that if he took himself and his ski to a club hut he would at least have the satisfaction of making good use even of an afternoon's fine weather4 ,i remember once finding myself at the ,egon von ,steiger hut during bad weather4 ,it snowed all day and all night1 and cleared at ten o'clock the next morning4 ,two parties on foot attempted the easy ,ebnefluh4 ,both were driven back after a very brief struggle with deep soft snow4 ,myself and a friend reached the summit on ski in more or less normal time1 and enjoyed a wonderful run back to the hut1 where the disgruntled foot-sloggers had spent the day4 ,let the rock climber learn to ski1 and when the big rock peaks are deep in snow he will be able to snatch a ,monte ,rosa or ,breithorn from the first fine day4 ,in bad seasons individual fine days are often sandwiched between two or three days of bad weather4 ,such isolated days are useless to the foot-climber but invaluable to the ski-runner4 ,sidenote3 ,technique4 ,i cannot spare the space to explain the technique of ski-ing4#ah ,here ,i need only attempt to dispel a lingering belief1 that dies hard1 to the effect that there is one technique for ordinary ski-runners and another for mountaineers4 ,this curious superstition is the last relic of an exploded system of ski-ing taught by an ,austrian called ,zdarsky1 the main effect of which was to encourage timid1 slow and clumsy ski-ing4 ,the #8,lillienfeld' ski were short1 and made straight running very difficult and turning very easy4 ,the ,lillienfeld system taught people to ski very quickly by dodging all difficulties and encouraged a free use of the stick4 ,it was a bad system1 and is now quite discredited2 but there still lingers a curious belief that the ,norwegian style may be all very well for small mountains but is too dashing and insecure for the ,high ,alps4 ,as a rule1 glacier ski-ing is far easier than ski-ing among the lower mountains2 the most difficult of all ski-ing country is wooded country1 such as extends for miles round ,christiania1 the home of the #8,norwegian style4' ,let me therefore urge the reader to master the free ,norwegian style1 to make all his turns and swings without the aid of the stick1 and to acquire a free and dashing style4 ,the mountaineer even more than the low-level ski-runner should have complete control of his ski1 and complete control is impossible unless you have learned to control your ski not by means of the stick1 but by means of the ski themselves4 ,illustration3 ,,snow ,,ways ,,jean ,,gaberell ,there are a few occasions on which the use of the stick is permissible on tour2 but it is so dangerous to begin by using the stick as a brake1 that ,i would advise the beginner ,,never to use the stick until he has at least passed the #8,,third-,,class ,,test' which is held from time to time in all ski-ing centres patronized by ,british runners4 ,furthermore1 though of course it is absurd to take risks in the ,high ,alps1 occasions often arise where speed means safety4 ,with bad weather or night approaching1 the man who can run fast stands more chance than the man who can not1 and1 consequently1 the higher your speed consistent with safety the better your chances4 ,now1 a high speed consistent with safety can only be maintained by those who have lost no chance on small expeditions of raising the speed at which they feel comfortable1 and this1 again1 can only be achieved by running just a little faster than is quite comfortable4 ,in the ,high ,alps a reckless runner1 who is always falling1 is a danger to his companions and himself1 but a man who is quite incapable of a fair speed is always a nuisance on tour1 and may sometimes prove a danger4 ,steadiness is the first requisite in the ,high ,alps1 but speed is by no means unimportant4 ,any man with average balance and nerve1 if he is properly taught1 can learn to run steadily and to make slow turns on average snow at the end of a fortnight4 ,to become a really expert ski-runner is1 of course1 another matter1 but some of the finest ski-turns in the ,high ,alps have been carried through with success by men who were not even third-class runners4 ,let the mountaineer learn to ski and take such chances as a snowy summer may afford4 ,in a few hours he will begin to enjoy ski-ing1 and his enjoyment will steadily increase with his experience4 ,it is easy to become a third-class ski-runner1 and very well worth while taking sufficient trouble to become a second-class runner4 ,first-class ski-ing is1 of course1 not within the reach of all4 ,in order to make much that follows comprehensible to the reader1 who1 though a mountaineer1 has yet to become a ski-runner1 a short definition of the ski-ing turns and swings is necessary4 ,the object of every ski-runner is to approximate as nearly as possible in his course to a straight line between the point of departure and the goal4 ,obviously this ideal is impossible of attainment save on comparatively short open slopes1 which can be taken straight4 ,hence the regrettable necessity of turns and swings which1 unlike skating turns and swings1 are not an end in themselves1 and are only incidentally beautiful and graceful to execute and to watch4 ,there are three principal turns or swings3 the ,stemming turn1 the ,telemark1 the ,christiania4 ,each of these turns can be used either as a stop turn 7i4e4 in order to stop more or less suddenly71 or as a means of linking one tack to another4 ,for instance1 a slope may be too steep to take straight2 in this case the good runner descends in a series of linked curves4 ,according to the condition of the snow1 he will make these linked curves either by means of the ,stemming1 the ,telemark1 or the ,christiania turns4 ,the ,stemming turn is the easiest and slowest turn4 ,it is the key to alpine ski-ing1 and can be employed on snow on which a ,telemark or linked ,christiania would be either difficult or impossible4 ,the beginner should try to combine ,stemming with ,christianias1 to begin his turn as a ,stem and to finish with a ,christiania4 ,this swing1 which is sometimes called a ,stem-,christiania or a #8,closed ,christiania' 7as opposed to #8,open ,christianias'71 or by a natural abbreviation a #8,closti1' is the most generally useful of ski-ing swings4 ,the ,lillienfeld system placed exclusive reliance on the ,stemming turn and dismissed the other two as fancy tricks4 ,this was absurd1 for in many kinds of snow the ,telemark or ,christiania is much the more useful manuvre4 ,either of these latter turns can be executed at a very high speed1 whereas the ,stemming turn cannot be done at a high speed4 ,the ,telemark is mainly useful in deep soft snow or in soft breakable crust2 in either of which the ,stemming turn and the linked ,christiania is difficult or impossible4 ,the ,christiania1 as a stop turn1 is the safest method of stopping at high speed4 ,linked open ,christianias are not easy to master1 but are very satisfactory when mastered4 ,wherever a linked series of ,christianias can be executed1 linked ,stem-,christianias are easier1 and safer4 ,the power to make a series of continuous non-stop turns with the ,christiania marks out the expert2 nothing is more beautiful than fast descent on glacier snow1 film crust or crust slightly softened by means of a series of swift-running ,christianias4 ,for the ,high ,alps ,i consider that the ,stemming turn and the ,christiania should always be used in preference to the ,telemark1 excepting in very deep soft snow--rare in the ,high ,alps--or in soft breakable crust4 ,the ,telemark is a one-foot turn2 all the weight is on the leading foot2 consequently the ,telemark is less powerful and less sure than the ,christiania1 which is a two-foot turn4 ,furthermore1 the falls resulting from a ,telemark which has gone wrong are more dangerous than from any other turn4 ,from a faulty ,christiania or ,stemming turn one is usually thrown backwards or sideways against the slope2 from a faulty ,telemark one is often thrown on to one's head or outwards from the slope4 ,further1 the ski have a nasty habit of crossing behind in a badly timed ,telemark4 ,to sum up3 ,use the stick as little as possible4 ,make all your linked turns by ,stem-,christianias1 except in deep soft snow or breakable crust1 where the ,telemark should be used4 ,for a sudden stop use the ,christiania in preference to the ,telemark4 ,sidenote3 ,equipment4 ,in addition to the ordinary mountaineer's equipment1 the ski-runner must have ski1 sealskins1 ski-sticks and repair outfit for ski4 ,i have no space to advise on the choice of ski1 but ,i might warn the reader against the common illusion that ski for mountaineering should be markedly shorter than ski for short tours4 ,they should be a couple of inches shorter1 but very short ski should not be used save in the summer4 ,i have used the longest size obtainable 7#bcf in47 for quite long tours1 and the next longest size 7#bca in47 in the ,high ,alps4 ,sealskin are detachable1 and are fixed on to the ski to prevent the ski side-slipping while climbing a steep slope4 ,ski-ing boots are bigger than mountaineering boots4 ,they should be nailed--lightly nailed1 of course1 but on no account entirely nailless4 ,the nailless ski-ing boot is a superstition imported from ,norway1 where the hills are milder in gradient than in the ,alps4 ,for all glacier tours crampons1 or1 to use another word1 #8ice-claws1' should be taken4 ,eight-pointers are best1 though good work can be done with six-pointers4 ,the small four pointers are most insecure and uncomfortable4 ,for all further details as to equipment the reader may consult my book ,cross ,country ,ski-ing4 ,,the ,,alpine ,,calendar ,the first winter snows usually fall in ,october3 excellent ski-ing is often obtained at the ordinary winter sports centres in ,october4 ,glacier tours should certainly not be attempted before ,december1 as the danger from crevasses is at its maximum in ,october and ,november4 ,january and ,february are the best months for ski tours up to about ten thousand feet4 ,the winter proper is ,,not the best season for glacier ski tours1 though most of the classic ski tours in the ,high ,alps have been carried out between ,december and the end of ,february4 ,good ski-ing can be obtained at low levels well on to the end of ,april1 and sometimes even later4 ,as a rule1 the snow lies down to about five thousand feet on north slopes well on into the middle of ,may4 ,,may ,,and ,,june ,,are ,,the ,,best ,,months ,,for ,,glacier ,,ski-,,ing1 though excellent ski-ing may be obtained throughout the summer4 ,there is no month in the year in which the ,high ,alps do not yield good snow1 but the best all-round months for mountaineering on ski are undoubtedly ,may and ,june4 ,,snow ,,craft ,the expert cross-country ski-runner must not only be a fast and safe runner on all kinds of snow and ground1 but he must also possess a thorough knowledge of snow craft4 ,unfortunately1 there are nine ski-runners whose ,telemarks are perfect for one whose knowledge of snow is even adequate1 and the number of those whose understanding of snow in all seasons of the year is really expert is indeed small4 ,snow craft in winter and in spring is even more complex than in summer1 and requires a special study of its own4 ,even the most expert guides whose knowledge of summer snow leaves nothing to be desired require considerable winter experience before they are thoroughly competent to lead a party among the ,high ,alps in winter4 ,the same is true of spring2 each season1 in fact1 requires a separate study4 ,the ski-runner needs to possess a more exact knowledge of snow than that which the foot-mountaineer requires4 ,a mountaineer on foot is mainly interesting to discover whether the snow is hard enough to walk uphill without sinking in1 and whether the snow is likely to avalanche4 ,hard snow1 soft snow and avalanche snow are the three main categories in which the foot-mountaineer divides snow4 ,he need not bother with all the delicate gradations of value that distinguish snow which is so hard that it will not take a ,stemming turn1 and snow which1 though hard enough to bear a foot1 will yet take a ,christiania or even a ,telemark4 ,the ski-runner who neglects snow craft is severely punished for his carelessness4 ,he runs into fast and sticky snow and pitches heavily on his face1 or from soft snow on to hard snow and falls heavily backwards4 ,even the least observant ski-runner soon realizes that an elementary knowledge of snow is essential to his comfort and his safety4 ,his knowledge of snow needs to be instinctive4 ,on foot a man has time to probe and to examine1 but on ski he has to diagnose the snow while travelling at a high speed4 ,he has to possess an accurate sense of direction so that he can foretell the changes of snow that occur when travelling from1 say1 a north-east slope on to an eastern slope1 or an eastern slope on to a south-eastern slope4 ,quite as many bad ski-ing falls are caused by deficient snow craft as by deficient balance4 ,precisely because even the most casual ski-runner is bound to learn from the past experience of nasty falls1 ski-ing inevitably teaches even the most unobservant some knowledge of snow craft4 ,a ski-runner cannot hand over the whole strategy of the day's campaign to a guide4 ,he must think for himself and study for himself4 ,in summer the real business of climbing usually begins when the glacier or the summer snowline is reached1 but in winter a ski-runner can kill himself in an avalanche within an hour of the hotel4 ,snow craft begins in winter at the hotel door4 ,the careful study of snow is a fascinating branch of nature study4 ,more can be learned from books than the reader might imagine4 ,once a ski-runner has grasped how snow is affected by altitude1 orientation1 wind and sun1 he is in a better position to profit by his knowledge in practice than if he was forced painfully to unravel the laws of snow by personal observation4 ,in the early days of ski-ing in the ,alps the guides themselves were completely ignorant of the main laws of snow in winter4 ,they are still1 for the most part1 ignorant of the subtleties of spring ski-ing1 which is much more difficult to understand than winter ski-ing4 ,in winter1 if a snow slope holds good snow in the morning it will probably hold good snow throughout the day1 but in spring the same slope goes through a regular cycle of changes4 ,it may be unskiable at dawn1 yield perfect ski-ing at midday1 prove absolutely unsafe at three in the afternoon1 and yield good running again in the evening4 ,to time a descent accurately1 to forecast from a knowledge of the orientation and altitude of a given mountain that it will yield perfect ski-ing at a given hour1 is to know one of the most satisfactory intellectual pleasures that the mountains afford4 ,,winter ,,snow ,there are certain forms of snow which are characteristic of certain seasons4 #8,powder snow1' for instance1 is normal in winter and uncommon in the late spring2 none the less powder snow is often found even in summer1 just as certain forms of snow which are characteristic of spring or early summer are occasionally found even in midwinter4 #8,winter snow' must then be taken to mean the kind of snow which is common and characteristic of1 but not limited to1 winter4 ,sidenote3 ,powder snow4 ,in winter a normal snowfall is accompanied by a temperature below freezing2 snow that falls with the temperature just above freezing usually descends in the form of sleet4 ,fortunately1 such conditions are not common4 ,snow will even fall when the temperature registers a degree or two of thaw4 ,i have known dry snow fall with a temperature of two degrees above zero--centigrade1 at a height of #eejj feet above the sea4 ,similarly1 as icemakers know1 water will freeze on a rink even when the temperature is above freezing-point4 ,the explanation for this anomaly may be sought in the well-known law that pressure lowers the freezing-point4#ai ,it seems a natural deduction that diminished pressure will raise the freezing-point4 #j centigrade is the freezing-point of water at sea-level4 ,under a pressure greater than that of the air at sea-level1 the freezing-point is lowered so that the bottom of a glacier will be in a condition of liquefaction at a temperature below freezing4 ,it should follow that an air pressure less than that of the air at sea-level should raise the freezing-point2 or1 in other words1 that at any point above sea-level the freezing-point should be higher than zero4 ,from my own observations ,i believe that water will freeze and rain turn to snow when the temperature is #b degrees centigrade above zero at a height of #ejjj feet4 ,fortunately1 the normal snowfall is accompanied by a temperature below freezing1 for if the snow is on the point of turning to rain1 it forms a crust when the temperature falls4 ,a normal dry snowfall takes the form of small hexagonal crystals4 ,newly fallen snow is not compact1 and contains a great deal of air1 which slowly escapes as the snow settles1 so that after a day or two the new snow has lost nearly a half of its apparent depth4 ,new snow is very soft and slow1 but gives good running on steep slopes2 though1 of course1 long steep slopes are liable to avalanche4 ,good running is also often obtained during a snowfall by choosing south slopes1 previously covered by a hard crust2 for there is nothing pleasanter than two or three inches of snow on hard crust1 and during a gentle snowfall it is possible to enjoy quite good sport on such slopes4 ,in general1 expeditions--even quite short ones--are impossible till the snow stops1 and unsafe for a day or two after a heavy fall4 ,newly fallen snow sticks badly in the sun even if the temperature is well below freezing4 ,once1 however1 that the snow has settled it soon gives perfect running4 ,one night's really hard frost is sufficient to produce excellent snow4 ,powder snow remains good almost indefinitely in winter on northern slopes1 provided it is not spoiled by wind4 ,it steadily improves4 ,in sheltered places the crystals gradually grow in size so that sometimes you find large leaf-like formations1 which rustle under the ski like autumn leaves4 ,such snow is a dream of paradise4 ,powder snow is the ideal running surface4 ,it is equally good for straight running and for swings4 ,in deep soft powder the ,telemark is the best swing1 but in fairly compact powder any turn or swing is easy and safe4 ,the ski-runner who visits the ,alps in winter1 and has good luck1 may run for day after day on perfect powder4 ,he is in danger of thinking himself a better runner than he is4 ,if he concentrates on ,telemarks1 the first tour in the ,high ,alps1 where he will meet varieties of hard and soft crust1 will find him out badly4 ,he should therefore make a point of spending a day or two on south slopes so as to master the ,stemming turn on hard snow4 ,if he is getting pleased with his ,telemarks1 let him try a ,telemark on the soft breakable crust to be found on south slopes at midday1 and if he can do a series of fast-linked ,telemarks in such crust1 he may then return to his powder snow with a good conscience4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,effect of ,wind on ,powder ,snow4 ,snow which is spoiled by the sun is never quite impossible1 and is always curable by a hair of the dog that bit it2 in other words1 by another and stronger dose of sun4 ,but snow which has been wrecked by the wind is the despair of the ski-runner4 ,the wind does not affect snow that has once been crusted1 so that wind-swept snow is almost unknown in spring4 ,the favourite victim of wind is precisely that light1 dry powdery snow which is so common in winter4 ,the effect of wind depends on three factors1 the strength of the wind1 the time during which the snow is exposed to the wind1 and lastly the type of snow exposed to the wind4 ,powder snow is the most sensitive1 the quickest to spoil and the most trying when spoiled4 ,hard crust is entirely unaffected2 heavy wet snow is very little affected4 ,a light wind produces on powder snow the markings which are known as ripplemark1 a term which has been applied by scientists to the rippled effects which can be traced1 not only in snow1 but also in sand1 and even in clouds which have been influenced by wind4 ,sand and snow behave very similarly under the influence of wind4 ,a slightly stronger wind1 or a wind blowing for a longer spell1 produces caked powder1 which is dense and compact1 but has not quite lost its powdery quality4 ,the ski sink in to a depth of an inch or more1 and though fast running is dangerous and apt to produce broken ski points1 a good runner can derive much pleasure from caked powder1 and can force linked ,telemarks without much trouble4 ,the third stage in the deterioration of snow occurs when the wind produces a hard crust4 ,windboard is hard and slippery1 but so long as it is not varied with soft patches of sticky snow or of breakable crust1 windboard yields a surface which may annoy the novice but which should not prove1 at any rate on slopes of moderate gradient1 too troublesome to an expert who has mastered his hard snow turns4 ,windboard is common during the winter months in the ,high ,alps2 in appearance and texture it is not unlike the hard marble crust1 which is found on south slopes after a long spell of fine weather1 but it is vital to discriminate between windboard and marble crust1 because the former may sometimes break away in slab avalanches whereas the latter never avalanches4 ,windboard betrays its origin by ripple markings1 sometimes faint but seldom invisible to the practised eye4 ,windboard is often varied by pockets of sticky snow4 ,if wind produced nothing worse than caked powder or windboard1 the ski-runner would have less cause for complaint4 ,unfortunately the wind often produces horrible surfaces which resemble each other only in their general unsuitability for ski-ing4 ,skavla is the generic ,norwegian name for wind-swept snow1 and skavla is common on the exposed fjords of ,norway and ,sweden1 where it attains a degree of unpleasantness seldom matched in the ,alps4 ,skavla varies4 ,sometimes skavla consists of patches of glittering ice varied by treacherous pockets of sticky snow2 sometimes a breakable trap crust interspersed with windboard2 sometimes waves of hard1 icy snow which occasionally attain a height of two feet or more4 ,the prevailing wind determines the direction of the waves and acts in precisely a contrary fashion to that of wind on water2 for wind on snow has a burrowing effect1 and forms these waves by excavating and eroding a slope1 gradually forming a series of steps4 ,in other words1 whereas on the sea the wind will be found to be blowing up the longer slope of a wave1 on snow the wind will have been blowing against the short steep side of the snowy waves4 ,to sum up3 ,the effect of wind on powder snow is always bad4 ,the stronger the wind and the longer that it blows1 the worse the snow4 ,hence in winter avoid exposed slopes and seek out sheltered valleys4 ,the summit slopes of winter mountains will usually be spoiled by the wind1 which is one of many reasons why spring is so superior to winter as far as ski-ing in the ,high ,alps is concerned4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,effect of ,sun on ,powder ,snow4 ,powder snow acquires a crust if it is exposed to wind1 to sun shining at a sufficiently direct angle1 and to an air temperature above freezing4 ,wind alone has the power of forming crust without a preliminary melting of the surface4 ,i do not know why this should be so1 but no doubt the reason is to be found in the law that pressure lowers the freezing-point1 so that the increased pressure caused by wind lowers the freezing-point1 or1 in other words1 produces the effects of a thaw at the point where the wind acts even though the general air temperature may be well below zero centigrade4 ,at any rate1 sun1 wind and thaw are alike in producing a surface crust4 ,the effect of the sun depends mainly upon the angle of inclination4 ,in midwinter1 snow will remain unaffected by the sun on northerly slopes even though they receive several hours of sunshine in the course of the day4 ,in fact1 in midwinter eastern and western slopes retain powder snow for a very considerable time1 while a slope that is a few degrees north of west or a few degrees north of east retains powder snow throughout the winter1 always providing that it is not exposed to wind or to thaw4#bj ,i use the term #8thaw' to denote a general air temperature above freezing as opposed to the purely local melting caused by the sun's rays1 which may be1 and in fact normally is1 accompanied by an air temperature in the shade of several degrees below freezing4 ,the thermometer will often be registering more than ten degrees of frost in the shade and twenty or more degrees of warmth--centigrade--in the sun4 ,it is1 as icemakers know1 quite common to find a belt of cold air1 two feet in height1 just above the snow and just below a strata of warm air several degrees above freezing-point4 ,in normal winter weather you may be uncomfortably warm in the sunshine1 and yet the sun has no power to affect powder snow on any slope which has not a touch of south in it4 ,the steepest south slopes are the first to lose their powder snow4 ,afterwards1 the gentler south slopes follow suit4 ,towards the end of ,february western and eastern slopes begin to crust4 ,in ,march due north slopes still hold powder1--at any rate above #ejjj or #fjjj feet1--but slopes which are only a few degrees north of east or of west begin to crust4 ,finally1 the level outruns get crusted1 then the gentle due north slopes1 and last of all steep north slopes4 ,of course at high altitudes winter conditions prevail until well on into ,april4 ,in midwinter good ski-ing is usually to be had on south slopes for three or four days after a snowfall1 though steep due south slopes soon crust4 ,the time during which gentle south slopes or slopes which are just south of west or east will hold powder depends on the general air temperature and on the altitude4 ,i have known pretty steep due south slopes hold powder below #djjj feet for three days of cloudless weather1 but the temperature was about #ae degrees centigrade below freezing4 ,this is1 however1 unusual1 and south slopes soon crust up even in midwinter4 ,the sun melts the snow by day1 and the melted snow refreezes at night1 producing a crust4 ,such a crust will1 at first1 be soft and breakable4 ,soft breakable crust is not a bad running surface4 ,it is quite true1 i4e4 does not vary in pace from one place to another1 and is usually soft enough to enable the ski-runner to make ,telemark swings1 either stop or linked1 without much difficulty4 ,sometimes the crust is harder1 and in this case the jump-round or quersprung is the only possible manuvre4 ,a peculiarly villainous form of crust1 fortunately rather rare1 is known by the appropriate name of ,trap crust4 ,this crust is perfectly solid at one spot1 and bears the weight of the ski without breaking1 only to crack a few yards lower down4 ,the ski-runner skids with great speed over the hard crust1 only to be pulled up suddenly as his ski break through the soft crust below4 ,trap crust is more usual in spring than in winter1 especially on slopes which change in direction1 so that the ski-runner passes from snow which has been sufficiently thawed to form a hard solid crust at night to slopes which have only been superficially melted4 ,trap crust is only found after fairly heavy falls of snow which require considerable time to form a solid crust4 ,as a rule1 trap crust covers a foot or more of powder snow4 ,to return1 however1 to more normal winter conditions4 ,under normal conditions the snow on south slopes in winter is gradually transformed into crust4 ,this crust is at first soft and breakable1 but the continuous process of melting and refreezing gradually produces a solid unbreakable crust4 ,unbreakable crust1 as the ski-runner soon discovers1 varies greatly in quality from hard crust which is so hard that the ski slip sideways without obtaining the least grip1 crust which on any slope but the most gentle is almost unskiable1 to the other extreme1 crust which though quite hard and unbreakable is rough enough to permit even a ,telemark and to make ,christianias and ,stemming turns delightfully easy4 ,the solid crust formed in winter is usually very hard and slippery before the sun strikes it4 ,this crust is known as ,marble ,crust4 ,you find marble crust on southern slopes in winter1 and at high altitudes in spring4 ,it is common in the ,high ,alps4 ,even at the very end of ,april ,i have known a slope at a height of #ab1jjj feet remain hard1 slippery and unsoftened for some little time after the sun had struck it because a bitter north wind had lowered the temperature several degrees below freezing4 ,in mid-winter a slope of marble crust will yield good ski-ing after the sun has struck it1 unless the air temperature is several degrees below freezing4 ,marble crust1 touched by the sun1 yields a surface which will puzzle the beginner but which is pure delight to the man who has mastered ,stemming turns and ,christianias4 ,the excellent running that may be obtained on south slopes is too little exploited1 for winter ski-runners are firmly convinced that good ski-ing can only be found on north slopes where powder lies4 ,mid-winter may be said to last till the end of ,january4 ,in ,february you often find perfect spring snow1 ,telemark crust1 etc41 on south slopes1 and in ,february1 as often as not1 the best running is obtained on southern slopes4 ,this type of running will be dealt with later4 ,sidenote3 ,summary of ,winter ,snow4 ,winter snow may therefore be summarized as follows4 ,the normal winter snow which is found throughout the winter on northern slopes and occasionally on southern slopes is powder snow which is perhaps the ideal ski-ing snow4 ,powder snow deteriorates under the influence of wind and sun4 ,wind is the more mischievous4 ,a little wind does no great harm1 and the expert can even ski with pleasure on the hard crust formed by wind1 but the extreme action of wind often produces varieties of snow which are all but unskiable4 ,the ,high ,alps and lofty summits in general being most exposed to wind will usually yield inferior ski-ing to sheltered slopes4 ,the best ski-ing in winter will therefore seldom be found on the glaciers4 ,snow also deteriorates under the influence of sun1 which forms a crust4 ,this crust1 however1 once formed is often improved by a further dose of sun4 ,though the best ski-ing is usually obtained on north slopes1 excellent ski-ing is often obtained on south slopes by those whose knowledge of snow craft is sufficient to time their descent and to choose their route accurately4 ,abnormal conditions produced by ,fhn and thaw are dealt with on pp4 #dag-dbb4 ,,spring ,,snow ,we have seen that good ski-ing in winter depends largely on the absence of wind4 ,a sudden thaw may also produce a disastrous result1 for snow which has once been rained on and refrozen will remain covered with crust until there is a new snowfall4 ,the best winter snow is without rival1 but spring snow is1 on the whole1 safer and less capricious4 ,in normal spring weather all snow is crusted in the early morning1 for the sun is powerful enough to melt snow even on northern slopes4 ,but this spring crust1 as we shall soon show1 is much less troublesome than crust in winter and yields very fine ski-ing indeed4 ,wind1 the great enemy in winter1 has no effect in spring1 for wind cannot affect hard crust1 and if wind blows while the snow is falling a few days of strong sun will melt any wind-formed crust and produce exactly the same surface as if the snow had never been touched by wind4 ,it should1 however1 be added that1 in the early spring1 wind1 though powerless on snow which has once been melted and crusted1 is a great nuisance if it blows on snow which is still powdery1 as is usually the case for twenty-four hours or so after a snowfall2 snow which has once been crusted by the wind has a very strong resisting power to the action of the sun2 ,i have known south snow in ,march retain irritating effects of wind action after several days of strong sun that would have been sufficiently potent to melt any ordinary crust4 ,spring ski-ing is1 as a rule1 delightful4 ,snow is troublesome in the intermediate stage between powder and crust4 ,once a crust is formed1 the more often that crust is remelted and refrozen the better1 as there is nothing better than old crystalline snow which has been through the mill of melting and refreezing again and again4 ,unless wet ,fhn blows such snow will always retain its crystalline character1 even when remelted by the sun1 and will always yield good ski-ing4 ,of course in the late spring at low altitudes the sun is powerful enough thoroughly to thaw and drench the snow1 and in the middle of ,may below #gjjj feet wet snow in the middle of the day is unpleasant4 ,but in ,march and ,april ski-ing on melted crust is wholly delightful4 ,incidentally the best #8,spring snow' is often found at the end of or in the middle of ,february on southern slopes4 ,from the beginning of ,march onwards all slopes1 save those at very high altitudes1 begin to crust over4 ,the process is gradual on northern slopes4 ,there is a period when the northern slopes no longer hold the dry loose powder of winter but have not yet begun to crust4 ,spring powder is common on north slopes in ,march4 ,it is denser than winter powder1 and is not so dry4 ,it is slightly moist on the surface1 and much heavier4 ,it yields1 however1 a first-class running surface1 and will take any turn or swing4 ,its main objection is the fact that it is peculiarly liable to avalanche4 ,gradually1 however1 ,spring powder disappears1 save at great heights1 and all slopes are covered by crust4 ,in the afternoon the crust is melted1 and the snow is soft and wet on all slopes4 ,at night the snow is refrozen4 ,the normal cycle1 then1 of a normal spring 7say ,april1 at altitudes between #cjjj and #ijjj feet7 is as follows3 ,hard crust at dawn2 crust superficially softened between sunrise and midday2 soft melted snow in the afternoon2 soft breakable crust as the sun loses in strength2 and solid hard crust after the sunset4 ,first let us consider the hard crust usually found at dawn4 ,this differs materially from the marble crust of winter1 and from any of the crusts formed by wind action4 ,it is1 as a rule1 slightly softer4 ,what is more to the point1 it is rougher4 ,the surface of normal spring crust is perforated by numberless little holes4 ,sometimes these holes are quite small1 mere pockmarks1 sometimes they are as large as half-crown pieces4 ,it is the presence of these holes and the roughness of the crust that makes steering easy1 so that control is not difficult1 and linked ,christianias or ,stemming turns are within the power of the good runner4 ,perforated crust1 in fact1 is a delightful running surface4 ,it is common at low altitudes in ,march1 at moderate altitudes in ,april1 and is normal in the ,high ,alps in ,may1 ,june1 ,july and even ,august4 ,film crust is found in ,may and ,june on the glaciers1 and occasionally at low altitudes in ,april4 ,it forms a delightful running surface4 ,unlike marble and perforated crust1 it is not quite homogeneous4 ,it is composed of a hard under-surface of solid crust1 covered by a very thin1 soft1 and transparent film of ice1 which glistens in the sun like burnished silver4 ,this film of soft ice is shorn away as the ski begin to come round on a turn4 ,it provides a splendid purchase1 preventing effectually all side-slip1 and yet not sufficiently strong to make turns difficult4 ,film crust is admirable for fast straight running1 because at any moment the pace can be regulated by a swift turn4 ,there is nothing finer than a run down the glaciers in the early morning on film crust4 ,we have seen that the cold nights of winter produce marble crust1 which is hard and slippery4 ,marble crust is the kind of surface which needs crampons or a chip with the axe if it is climbed on foot4 ,further1 marble crust1 and all forms of crust produced by winter winds1 yield a very unsatisfactory surface1 too slippery to give good purchase4 ,we have seen that the milder nights of ,april produce perforated crust which is much rougher and gives good ski-ing1 while the even warmer nights of ,may and ,june produce film crust in which ,christianias and ,stemming turns are easy and safe4 ,in fact film crust gives such a wonderful grip that even ,telemarks are possible4 ,from this we deduce the following law3 ,provided the night's frost is sufficient to produce a solid unbreakable crust1 the crust will give the best ski-ing when the frost has been least severe4 ,in other words1 8,,the ,,milder ,,the ,,frost ,,the ,,better ,,the ,,crust40 ,this rule is important4 ,it often happens in spring that one has to start down before the sun has produced a surface melting4 ,again and again the first thousand feet or so of descent have been spoiled because the crust was too hard and slippery4 ,but the lower one ran down the better the ski-ing4 ,the hard marble crust of winter gave way to the perforated or film crust of spring4 ,in ,april1 in the ,high ,alps1 winter conditions often prevail at high altitudes to give way to spring conditions lower down4 ,you start a run on marble crust and end on perforated or film crust4 ,the lower the altitude the milder the night frost1 and hence the better the crust4 ,but of course the hard crust of dawn is soon changed under the influence of the sun4 ,at first the sun produces a slight surface softening which is1 however1 quite sufficient to make a great deal of difference4 ,even marble crust1 if superficially softened1 yields excellent running4 ,gradually the melting process becomes more pronounced4 ,sun-touched crust with a slight surface moistening--quite sufficient to make ,christianias and ,stemming turns a joy--yields to crust covered by an inch or two of melted snow4 ,such crust is known as ,telemark crust--not because ,christianias are not easy1 but because ,telemarks are very simple1 whereas ,telemarks are difficult1 if not impossible1 on hard crust4 ,telemark crust is a normal stage in the passage of hard crust to melted snow4 ,it is the practical certainty of finding ,telemark crust at certain hours in spring that makes spring ski-ing in fine weather such a delight4#ba ,as the sun increases in strength all trace of the underlying crust disappears4 ,the snow is melted through and through1 and becomes dangerous on steep slopes4 ,this wet snow is often slow1 but it never sticks like the wet snow of winter4 ,on steep slopes it gives good running--if unsafe4 ,snow sticks in the intermediate stage between freezing and thawing4 ,thus powder snow which is beginning to thaw sticks abominably1 but snow which is melted through and through does not stick4 ,snow which has once been thoroughly melted and then refrozen will never stick badly again4 ,a surface of wet snow overlying powder will1 of course1 stick1 but melting snow which rests either on hard crust or on the hard ground does not stick4 ,it may be slow1 but it does not adhere in sticky lumps to the running surface4 ,thus two inches of melted snow on top of crust 7,telemark crust7 gives a fine running surface1 and an inch or even less of wet snow on grass also gives excellent sport4 ,snow that has been melted and refrozen night after night soon acquires a crystalline character4 ,when the crust begins to melt after the sun has struck it1 the melting surface is composed of numerous wet crystals1 sometimes about the size of salt crystals1 sometimes much larger4 ,this granular snow is familiar to all spring runners1 and gives an excellent ski-ing surface4 ,occasionally towards sunset1 as the wet heavy snow that is usually found in the afternoon during the wet spring begins to freeze again1 you will find the snow assuming a very marked crystalline formation1 which resembles the wet hypo crystals with which photographers are familiar4 ,in general1 so long as snow retains a crystalline formation it gives good running4 ,salt snow or hypo snow yields excellent sport4 ,in ,may at low altitudes the sun1 however1 is so powerful that it dissolves the crystals and reduces all the snow to one consistent heavy wet slush4 ,such snow does not stick--that is to say1 it does not adhere to the running surface--but it is very slow4 ,furthermore it is dangerous1 because if you run suddenly on to a patch of this very heavy snow you are liable to be pitched on to your face4 ,often the snow is not only melted downwards but upwards1 for the ground is very warm in spring1 and thaws the snow from below1 so that you will often find a patch of soft heavy snow resting in the form of a shallow bridge on an empty space4 ,the ski break down the bridge of snow1 and the ski-runner pitches heavily forward4 ,such hollow snow is seldom found in ,april1 but is common in ,may at lowish altitudes4 ,in ,may the best ski-ing at low altitudes 7#ejjj-gjjj feet7 is obtained before #aj a4m4 and after #g p4m4 ,in the early morning and just after sunset ,i have often enjoyed first-class ski-ing right down to #ejjj feet and lower1 well on into the middle of ,may4 ,we may therefore sum up the normal cycle of a spring day as follows3 ,at dawn every slope will be covered by a hard homogeneous crust4 ,this crust will be either marble crust1 in which case it will yield very difficult and unpleasant ski-ing1 or perforated crust or film crust4 ,perforated and film crusts give excellent ski-ing even before the sun has begun to soften the crust4 ,when the sun begins to gain in strength the hard crust is superficially softened1 and gives good running even in the case of marble crust4 ,a later stage is reached when the hard crust is softened to a depth of about two or three inches 7,telemark crust74 ,this again gives good running4 ,either before or after midday1 according to altitude and inclination1 all traces of crust disappear1 and all slopes at moderate altitudes are reduced to wet1 heavy and more or less water-logged snow4 ,in the early spring this stage is perhaps only reached on southern slopes4 ,in the late spring it is reached on all slopes at low altitudes and on north slopes1 save1 perhaps1 at very high altitudes4 ,in general1 the ski-runner should not be abroad at such hours4 ,towards evening the slopes begin to refreeze4 ,there may be an interval of hypo snow--soft hypo-like crystals in which fast running and every kind of swing is perfectly safe and easy4 ,this is soon followed by the formation of a soft breakable crust1 which gradually hardens until at last the cycle is complete by the formation of a hard solid crust4 ,,thus ,,in ,,general ,,there ,,are ,,two ,,periods ,,of ,a ,,spring ,,day ,,when ,,ski-,,ing ,,is ,,easy1 ,,fast ,,and ,,safe4 ,,the ,,first ,,period ,,is ,,when ,,the ,,hard ,,crust ,,begins ,,to ,,soften1 ,,and ,,the ,,second ,,period ,,is ,,when ,,the ,,wet ,,melted ,,snow ,,begins ,,to ,,freeze4 ,,the ,,ski-,,ing ,,is ,,least ,,pleasant ,,and ,,most ,,dangerous ,,between ,,midday ,,and ,,sunset4 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,f,,hn ,,and ,,thaw ,so far we have discussed normal winter and spring conditions4 ,fhn is1 unfortunately1 associated not only with spring but with winter4 ,the conditions that are produced by ,fhn are1 however1 spring conditions rather than winter conditions2 for ,fhn1 though by no means uncommon in winter1 is at least abnormal1 whereas periods1 more or less prolonged1 of ,fhn weather may be regarded as normal in spring4 ,the peasants have a saying that1 if the ,fhn did not blow1 the good ,god and the warm sun could do little with the snow4 ,certainly but for ,fhn ,switzerland would still be covered with glaciers4 ,fhn1 strictly speaking1 should be used only for the warm dry wind that blows from the south1 and which has been the cause of so many fires4 ,the fire of ,grindelwald was caused by this type of ,fhn4 ,the wind dries up the wooden chalets1 and a spark from a cigar or a kitchen fire1 carried on the wind1 is enough to kindle wooden buildings from which the wind has absorbed every trace of moisture4 ,but the word ,fhn is also used for the warm1 damp south-west wind1 which is in every way utterly different from dry ,fhn4 ,they are alike only in that both dry and wet ,fhn raise the temperature and melt the snow4 ,i propose to call the true ,fhn ,,dry ,f,,hn and the wet1 warm south-west wind ,,wet ,f,,hn4 ,dry ,fhn is often associated with long spells of warm dry weather4 ,the skies are cloudless1 and there is no hint of rain to be seen4 ,you know that there is ,fhn in the air by a peculiar warm dryness1 a marked absence of coolness and moisture in the atmosphere4 ,the wet ,fhn always brings rain4 ,sometimes dry and wet ,fhn will fight for the mastery4 ,sometimes dry ,fhn will emerge into wet ,fhn and bring down the rain1 only to recover its mastery a day or two later4 ,sidenote3 ,fhn in ,winter4 ,let us consider the effect of wet ,fhn in winter proper4 ,the ski-runner is bound to detect the first hint of wet ,fhn in the air by a slight stickiness in any powder snow that he may chance to be ski-ing on4 ,if the wet ,fhn is slight1 copious waxing will eliminate its effects2 but if it is pronounced1 the snow will ball and stick atrociously4 ,should the ,fhn disappear1 it leaves its legacy behind4 ,all slopes of powder snow which have been affected are covered with a crust1 which will be more or less thick according as the thaw has been more or less severe4 ,i assume1 of course1 that the thaw had been followed by the frost at night1 without which crust cannot be produced4 ,only a new snowfall can restore a slope of powder snow which has once been melted by ,fhn to its pristine conditions4 ,sometimes the ,fhn is so slight that the surface of the powder snow is barely touched4 ,it is not covered by crust1 but there is a suspicion of resistance as the ski drive through due to an embryo crust4 ,telemarks are not quite so easy1 and a very fast swing is apt to throw the ski-runner outwards1 owing to the fact that the side-slip is less pronounced2 for the snow gives less easily when covered by the first hint of crust4 ,more usually the ,fhn1 if it once begins1 is accompanied by rain4 ,often even in ,december heavy rain will fall on all slopes below #ab1jjj feet4 ,directly the ,fhn disappears the usual winter frosts will convert such slopes into solid icy crust which is harder and more slippery than any marble crust produced by sun or wind4 ,i have seen crust1 formed by ,fhn followed by frost1 so hard that neither ski nor hobnailed boots left any perceptible trace2 and on an easy slope which a beginner could take straight ,i have slid down helplessly on my back some hundred yards1 only to be saved from a further and probably fatal fall by a guide1 who thoughtfully received my head in the pit of his stomach1 breaking a thumb in the effort to arrest me4 ,that was an extreme case of ice crust produced by ,fhn1 but it is not uncommon to find every slope below #aj1jjj feet covered by an icy crust1 on which ski-ing is impossible4 ,the wise ski-runner climbs on crampons1 and selects a due south slope for the descent1 and times his descent for midday4 ,the slight surface softening produced by the sun is usually enough to produce superficial stickiness1 which gives capital running1 provided that you have mastered the ,stemming turn and ,christiania4 ,but1 except at or near midday1 and except on south slopes1 ski-ing is impossible during such periods4 ,sometimes good ski-ing is obtained near stream beds when all other slopes are covered by hard crust4 ,the mist that rises from the stream bed descends in hoar frost and covers the crust with a layer of crystals deep enough to take a turn4 ,but such slopes are scarce4 ,occasionally the wet ,fhn is followed by a period of dry ,fhn4 ,in this case the frost at night is much milder1 and you will often find instead of marble or icy crust typical spring formations4 ,i have found perforated crust and even film crust in ,january1 when a period of dry ,fhn with high temperatures by day and mild frosts by night had followed two or three days of rain4 ,for weeks together ,i have known the crust formed by dry ,fhn to resemble perforated crust1 but formed of a much smoother and more slippery texture4 ,imagine a hard surface pitted by numberless smooth little round hollows about the size of half-crown pieces4 ,this type of hard perforated crust gives good running1 but calls for a thorough mastery of hard snow turns4 ,often the dry ,fhn produced a surface-melting to a depth of two or three inches--typical spring conditions in midwinter4 ,this again is an illustration of the law stated on p4 #dad3 8,the milder the frost the better the crust40 ,in other words1 once the snow in midwinter has been thoroughly spoiled by thaw followed by frost1 the ski-ing will be best when the conditions approximate as nearly as possible to those characteristic of spring4 ,spring snow is quite common in winter when dry ,fhn follows wet ,fhn1 and the wise ski-runner will seize every chance of securing spring conditions once he has despaired of proper winter conditions4 ,he will choose south slopes instead of north slopes1 low altitudes instead of high altitudes1 and time his descent for the sunny rather than the shady hours4 8,the milder the frost the better the crust40 ,from which it follows that the lower the altitude and the drier the ,fhn the better the ski-ing--once normal winter conditions have been interrupted4 ,it is most interesting to observe how the same slope will be composed of typical spring crust one day and of impossible slippery winter marble crust the next day4 ,the difference is solely due to the fact that1 in the first case1 the night's frost had been mild1 and in the second case severe4 ,after ,fhn you will often1 for instance1 find a queer kind of surface1 called ,foam crust1 composed of innumerable overlapping edges1 miniature cornices formed by a little trickle of water1 a mere drop1 which has run off a thin small eave of snow4 ,now hard frozen foam crust is very unpleasant1 but directly the dry ,fhn gains the mastery1 and directly the hard foam crust is exposed to a hot sun and a hot dry ,fhn atmosphere1 it immediately softens1 and yields very fine ski-ing not unlike the best ,telemark crust4 ,to summarize the effect of ,fhn in ,,winter3 ,wet ,fhn followed by frosts produces a crust on all slopes which have been exposed to thaw4 ,if the ,fhn is very pronounced1 and is accompanied by rain1 which is followed by frost1 all slopes will be covered by a hard solid crust4 ,if a period of normal cold winter weather sets in1 this crust will be very hard and very slippery1 and will only yield good ski-ing on south slopes exposed to the sun4 ,if the wet ,fhn is followed by dry ,fhn1 you will get spring conditions at any rate at low altitudes--a hard crust1 smoother but not unlike perforated crust1 in the early morning1 and a soft crust1 not unlike ,telemark crust1 on south slopes when the sun is shining on them4 ,sidenote3 ,fhn in ,spring4 ,the ,fhn is less deadly in spring1 because snow which has been crusted by ,fhn and frost is remelted by the sun1 and the sun and frost together will always produce the same surface1 whatever has gone before4 ,a wind-swept slope or a ,fhn-crusted slope are affected in precisely the same way4 ,in winter ,fhn spoils all snow that it has affected1 and1 save for the lucky accident of dry ,fhn1 one has to wait for a new fall till normal winter conditions are restored4 ,but in spring1 once the ,fhn has ceased1 a single sunny day followed by a single cold night's frost is sufficient to produce the normal spring conditions1 hard crust in the morning passing through the normal transformations of the spring day4 ,wet ,fhn is1 however1 most unpleasant in spring while it lasts4 ,if you are caught by wet ,fhn in a club hut you are imprisoned till the ,fhn passes1 for the wet ,fhn brings down the avalanches on every slope above #bc degrees 7see p4 #dcj74 ,ski-ing1 while there is a touch of wet ,fhn in the air1 is always unpleasant4 ,snow which has been melted by the sun in a dry atmosphere never entirely loses its crystalline formation1 excepting at low altitudes in the very late spring4 ,and even then sun-melted snow is never so unpleasant as snow melted by the ,fhn4 ,the ,fhn disintegrates the snow1 destroys the crystalline formation1 reduces the snow to one uniform heavy mass4 ,such snow does not stick in spring1 provided it has been through the usual process of melting and refreezing on previous days4 ,but though the spring ,fhn does not produce stickiness1 it gives the snow a dragging1 clogging grip4 ,it may not #8ball' under the ski like sticky snow in winter1 but on all but steep slopes it makes ski-ing desperately slow4 ,uphill work is most trying1 for the friction between wet ,fhn snow and the ski is very marked4 ,the ski have to be thrust through the clinging surface1 and the wet ,fhn not only affects the snow1 it affects one's whole body and produces a general sense of lassitude4 ,,summer ,,snow ,between ,july and the end of ,september the snowline climbs ever higher4 ,the snow above this snowline obeys the laws that we have tried to explain in the preceding pages4 ,snow is transformed into crust by the action of sun or thaw or wind1 and the crust itself affords good or bad ski-ing1 according to the conditions under which it has been produced and the conditions that affect it when once it has been formed4 ,in the summer you will meet with every type of snow in the ,high ,alps4 ,after a fresh snowfall the snow will often remain powdery for days on northern slopes at great altitudes4 ,between ,july and the beginning of the winter you will find typical winter snow1 powder snow or wind-driven snow3 you will find typical spring snow1 such as film crust or perforated crust1 but you will not find any type of snow which can fairly be described as mainly characteristic of the summer4 ,the conditions in ,july and the first half of ,august will approximate to those of ,june1 though of course there will be far less snow in ,august than in ,june4 ,towards the end of ,september the snow conditions will approximate to those of the winter proper1 with the important difference that the snow at the end of ,september approaches a minimum4 ,once the ski are left behind and the final climb begun on foot1 there will be many complex and difficult problems of snow craft to solve which1 however1 hardly come within the scope of pure ski-ing4 ,of these the most important is the problem of safety4 ,once the ski are left behind1 the climber's interest in the snow is reduced to two main problems3 ,is the snow hard enough to make going easy and yet not so hard as to need step-cutting8 ,is the snow safe or will it avalanche8 ,the avalanche question will be treated in its proper place4 ,summer ,ski-ing will be dealt with on pp4 #dfh-dgj4 ,i have tried to condense this section1 and1 like all condensed and theoretic writing1 it will no doubt prove rather dull reading4 ,in the later sections ,i shall try to provide concrete illustrations of the principles here explained1 and to show how the laws of snow craft may be applied in order to get good ski-ing in the months of the alpine calendar4 ,,snow ,,avalanches ,snow avalanches may be classified either as ,ground avalanches or as ,superficial avalanches4 ,,ground ,,avalanches--the #8,grundlawinen' of ,continental writers--may be defined as avalanches in which the entire snow surface is stripped off a slope1 revealing the underlying earth1 grass or rock4 ,,superficial ,,avalanches may be defined as avalanches in which a layer of snow1 more or less deep1 slides off an underlying layer of snow or ice4 ,before proceeding to discuss avalanches in general1 and to analyse more exactly the various subdivisions of these two principal categories1 it is essential to analyse the primary conditions that produce avalanches4 ,primary conditions may be defined as those which exist before the snow has covered a slope1 originally bare of snow4 ,these primary conditions are the contour and gradient of the slope and the nature of the surface that underlies the snow4 ,no avalanche has yet been observed on slopes whose gradient is less than #bc degrees1 though1 of course1 even level slopes have often been overwhelmed by avalanches falling from steep slopes above4 ,other things being equal1 the stability of a snow slope depends not only on its gradient1 but also on the gradient of the slopes just below and the slopes just above4 ,a concave slope1 for instance1 which has an even outflow so that there is no sudden change of gradient and so that the steeper slopes merge gradually into gentle slopes and these gentle slopes into a level outrun1 is infinitely safer than a convex slope the higher portions of which are more gradual than the lower portions below4 ,slopes that steepen suddenly below a comparatively safe gradient should always be treated with great respect4 ,a slope1 whose gradient would be perfectly safe if the slope petered out gradually1 may be highly dangerous if the gentler slope ends suddenly in a steep slope1 for the snow on the gentle slope is1 so to speak1 #8in the air4' ,it has lost the natural support which is afforded by a gradual concave base leading out on to the level1 and there is a reasonable chance of the weight of the snow on the safer slope proving just too much to stand the strain at the point where the slope steepens4 ,in general concave slopes are safer than convex slopes1 and slopes where the gradient steadily diminishes towards the base are safer than those in which the gradient increases before the base is reached4 ,of course1 any slope overhanging a cliff is always to be treated with very great care1 as even a superficial snow slide which would be quite innocuous if the slope ended on easy safe ground may prove fatal if it carries the ski-runner to the edge of a cliff below4 ,the chance of surviving an avalanche depends greatly on the nature of the ground where the avalanche comes to rest4 ,many ski-runners have escaped unhurt after being carried down several hundred feet because they have managed to keep on the surface of the avalanche and because the avalanche has gradually spread out fan-shaped on open1 gentle slopes4 ,but an avalanche falling into the bed of a narrow ,v-shaped valley with steep sides is almost certain to prove fatal1 for the victim of this avalanche will be buried by the snow falling above1 and this snow will fill up the narrow bed of the valley and freeze solid instantaneously by pressure4 ,thus all narrow valleys such as the ,urbachthal1 or the upper ,rhone valley between ,gletsch and ,oberwald1 should only be ascended when the snow is thoroughly safe4 ,an analogous case is where a tributary ridge runs across a hillside4 ,an avalanche falling down this hillside will pile itself up against the tributary ridge and a ski-runner will probably be crushed below the avalanche1 squeezed in between the tributary ridge and the main slope4 ,often a large moraine fulfils these conditions1 so that an avalanche falling from a neighbouring slope is arrested at the moraine and piled up against it4 ,similarly1 if you are caught by an avalanche while ascending a gully1 your chance of escape is much greater if the gully widens below the point where the avalanche overwhelms you4 ,if it contracts1 the pressure of the snow forcing its way through a narrow space may crush you to death4 ,compare the account of the avalanche that killed ,bennen quoted in ,scrambles in the ,alps4 ,the bottom of a valley is not only dangerous for reasons just stated1 but also because the stream at the bottom of a valley often exercises1 especially in spring1 an undercutting effect on the snow slopes that end in the stream bed4 ,the nature of the underlying surface1 apart from its contour and gradient1 is a factor of vital importance1 especially in the early winter and in the spring4 ,at intervening periods most avalanches are superficial1 and slide from an underlying surface of hard snow2 but in the early winter and in the late spring the whole snow slope slides away1 so that the nature of the underlying surface and the probable support that it affords is of great importance4 ,steep grass-slopes form a dangerous under-surface1 especially where it is never or seldom mown2 for long unmown grass generally lies facing downwards1 and offers a most slippery surface4 ,grass which is regularly mown is usually short and stubby in winter1 and gives better purchase to the snow4 ,a slope covered by stony boulders1 bushes or trees is usually fairly safe1 though a big avalanche1 once it is fairly under weigh1 will sweep over shrubs and even over small trees4 ,fairly dense wood may usually be considered as safe1 provided one avoids the long open clearings made by old avalanches1 which so often run down the middle of a forest4 ,an elementary knowledge of geology is useful2 the excellent geological maps published by the ,swiss ,survey can often be consulted with benefit4 ,rocks which suffer much surface disintegration provide a better purchase for snow than very hard and consequently very smooth rocks4 ,the hard #8,hochgebirgskalk1' an alpine variety of limestone1 which is very common1 especially in high regions1 is slippery1 and instead of disintegrating gradually1 as gneiss or granite disintegrates1 has a habit of breaking away along vertical and horizontal joints4 ,the common rock known as #8,flysch1' common in the lower ,alps1 provides a much safer surface4 ,glacier-polished rocks are1 of course1 especially dangerous1 and the whole ,grimsel region is consequently swept by avalanches throughout the winter4 ,the lie of the strata is an important factor4 ,where1 as is usually the case1 the strata are inclined1 one slope of a mountain will usually be safer than the other4 ,diagrams ,i and ,,ii represent the north and south slopes of a ridge running more or less east and west4 ,the ridge is formed by parallel but inclined bands of strata4 ,rock climbers know that the slope in ,diagram ,i1 though of the same gradient as the slope in ,diagram ,,ii1 is very much more difficult to climb4 ,it is also much more liable to avalanche1 as the outcrop of the strata provide a natural check to avalanches in ,diagram ,,ii2 whereas in ,diagram ,i each outcrop forms a small steep snow slope quite unsupported4 ,if the outcrops are of reasonable breadth1 there will be belts running across the face of the slope at ,a'1 ,b'1 ,c'1 ,d' which will be inclined into the slope1 and provide a safe line of traverse2 whereas there is no safe line for a ski-runner desiring to traverse or ascend the slope ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,i4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,ii4 ,geological maps indicate the #8strike' of the strata1 and therefore provide useful clues as to the varying liability of slopes to avalanche4 ,loose scree guarantees the ski-runner against ground avalanches1 but1 as the winter advances1 loose scree is soon covered with deep snow1 from which later layers of snow can slide uninfluenced by the underlying scree4 ,in fact1 as the winter advances1 the original underlying surface plays a smaller part in the problem of avalanches4 ,hard-crusted snow covered by soft snow is especially dangerous1 and of course ice1 as is so often met with in the ,high ,alps1 is the worst under-surface of all4 ,fortunately1 snow often attaches itself firmly to ice1 transforming an ice slope into a snow slope4 ,the conditions necessary for this transformation will be explained on pp4 #dbf-dbg4 ,so far we have dealt with primary conditions1 the nature of the ground before the snow has begun to fall and the gradient of the slope from which the avalanche slides4 ,an important factor is the quantity of snow on the slope4 ,it often happens that a shallow superficial layer detaches itself and carries a ski-runner down the slope4 ,if the slope ends on gentle ground1 no damage is done beyond the loss of height and the consequent waste of time and effort in reascending to the spot from which the avalanche started4 ,but if the snow slide carries the ski-runner over a cliff or into a bergschrund or crevasse1 it is clearly immaterial to the ski-runner whether his original snow slide was #a inch or #f feet in thickness4 ,i propose to use the word ,,snow ,,slide for such small avalanches as are only dangerous where they carry the ski-runner on to dangerous ground1 such as the edge of a precipice1 and to reserve the word ,,avalanche for avalanches deep enough in themselves to overwhelm and possibly to kill a ski-runner4 ,though a very small layer of snow--an inch or even less--is enough to produce a snow slide1 especially if the shallow layer rests on ice1 the amount of snow necessary to produce a real avalanche is much greater1 and varies very much with the quality of the snow4 ,,classification ,,of ,,avalanches ,the old writers divided avalanches into #8,grundlawinen' 7ground avalanches7 and #8,staublawinen' 7dust avalanches7--a misleading classification1 for a ground avalanche may be composed of dry powder snow1 and produce all the appearance of a #8,staublawinen'3 the clouds of white snow dust1 once supposed to be peculiar to avalanches of powder snow1 are really common in almost every type of big avalanche1 especially where the avalanche falls over steep cliffs4 ,i prefer to divide snow avalanches into four main classes3 ,i4 ,dry powder avalanches4 ,,ii4 ,wet new snow avalanches 7i4e4 powder snow which has begun to thaw as differentiated from old wet snow which is formed by crust which has been thoroughly melted74 ,,iii4 ,snow-slabs4 ,,iv4 ,wet old snow avalanches--the ,grundlawinen of the older authors4 ,i4 ,,dry ,,powder ,,avalanches4--,newly fallen snow1 which has not been subject to thaw or sun1 contains a great deal of air until it settles1 and even when it has settled it still imprisons a considerable quantity of air4 ,this makes for stability1 for snow is less likely to avalanche when it lacks cohesion4 ,i have often experimented on newly fallen snow at a low temperature1 and ,i have found it almost impossible to start an avalanche on any slope below about #ce degrees and less than about #bjj feet in height4 ,small snow slides are common enough if the underlying surface is hard2 but as a rule even snow slides come to a standstill after a few yards4 ,the really dangerous dry powder avalanches only occur on very long and steep slopes1 where the amount and mass of the snow is sufficient to produce the necessary momentum for a big avalanche4 ,dry powder has a strong internal friction1 and1 as a rule1 some powerful external impact is necessary to start an avalanche4 ,of such impacts wind is the most dangerous4 ,a sudden blizzard may convert a valley1 safe when the ski-runner entered it1 into a veritable death-trap4 ,further1 the fall of an avalanche on one side of a valley may precipitate other avalanches on the opposite side4 ,partly owing to the air imprisoned in dry powder1 and partly owing to the momentum of the avalanche itself1 the wind caused by a big fall of snow is extremely powerful and destructive4 ,houses and trees are torn away by the blast1 even though they may be beyond the track of the avalanche4 ,the force of the wind is multiplied manifold when the avalanche falls into a constricted space1 such as the floor of a narrow valley4 ,i have seen a bridge just below ,gletsch destroyed by a spring avalanche1 or rather by the wind caused by an avalanche on the opposite side of this very narrow valley4 ,a large part of the bridge1 weighing several tons1 had been thrown upwards to a height of about #aej feet6 ,after a heavy snowfall the danger of dry powder avalanches may last for a day or two1 or even more2 but as a rule two or three days of settled weather and keen frosts render most northern slopes--in winter1 though not in spring--safe enough4 ,when the powder snow has passed into the stage known as ,crystal powder--i4e4 when the small light dry powder has been converted into crystals of an appreciable size--the danger of avalanches is very remote4 ,on a windless day with a temperature in the shade below freezing1 ,i should not hesitate to cross almost any slope up to #ce degrees which was covered by genuine crystal powder snow1 provided that the slope petered out gradually on to the level and did not overhang a cliff4 ,,ii4 ,,wet ,,new ,,snow ,,avalanches4--,directly the powder snow is exposed to surface thaw1 either owing to a rise of temperature or to the sun1 its weight and cohesiveness increase1 and the danger of avalanches is consequently much greater4 ,sometimes the snow falls with a temperature above freezing4 ,this wet new snow is dangerous1 but as it is also extremely unpleasant for ski-ing1 few ski-runners are likely to be abroad4 ,on the other hand1 ski-runners are often tempted to cross a southern slope where the powder is beginning to melt4 ,snow on a steep southern slope soon gets thawed through the bottom1 so that ground avalanches are quite normal in winter on south slopes4 ,as a rule1 south slopes in winter get rid of their superfluous snow in the first two or three days of fine weather4 ,the snow that remains is thawed by day and frozen by night1 so that at the end of four or five days the south slopes have got rid of their avalanches1 and the snow that remains is a crust more or less hard and slippery4 ,this crust by day may become soft breakable crust1 but once it has crusted1 a slope in the winter is not likely to avalanche until there is a new snowfall4 ,a very marked rise in temperature may make a south slope that has been crusted dangerous again2 but such sudden and marked rises of temperature are rare in winter4 ,in general1 therefore1 south slopes in winter are safer than north slopes4 ,they give rise to more avalanches1 but such avalanches as fall off south slopes generally fall within two or three days after a snowfall1 after which a south slope is crusted and safe in winter2 and though after a few days of settled weather most north slopes are absolutely safe1 very steep and very long north slopes1 or short steep slopes overhanging a cliff1 are always dangerous4 ,of course1 whenever the wet ,fhn is blowing1 or whenever there is a general thaw1 all steep slopes1 and a great many moderate slopes1 become very dangerous indeed4 ,the effect of the thaw is to give the snow the cohesiveness and weight which it lacks in its pristine dry condition4 ,the dampness in the air saturates the snow with moisture and increases its weight4 ,during a severe ,fhn you will often see huge ground avalanches almost as destructive as those that fall in spring4 ,when the ,fhn is blowing ski-ing is always extremely dangerous4 ,fortunately1 it is also extremely unpleasant1 or fatal avalanche accidents would be more frequent4 ,the dry ,fhn 7see p4 #dah7 is much less dangerous4 ,unless it is very pronounced1 it will hardly affect northern slopes in winter1 though it may convert a south slope1 usually covered by hard crust1 and therefore safe1 into soft wet and dangerous snow4 ,in spring northern slopes usually hold powder snow for a few days at high altitudes1 and even at moderate altitudes in the early spring1 such as ,march4 ,this powder snow soon loses the dry1 light1 powdery characteristics of winter powder4 ,though it continues to yield excellent running1 spring powder is very liable to avalanche4 ,it is damper and more cohesive than dry powder1 and therefore more dangerous4 ,dry powder often rests on the ground below4 ,a northern slope will often be covered with a homogeneous layer of powder some feet in depth1 but spring powder 7see p4 #dac7 invariably rests on a hard-crusted slope below4 ,it therefore tends to slide away during the warm hours of the day1 and should be treated with very great caution4 ,avalanches composed of spring powder are1 properly speaking1 new wet snow avalanches4 ,they must be carefully distinguished from old wet snow avalanches1 for old wet snow is formed by the melting of crust1 whereas spring powder is formed by the melting of powder snow1 i4e4 #8new snow4' ,snow may be defined as #8new' before it has been crusted1 and as #8old' when it has been through the crusting process4 ,thus powder snow is always #8new1' however long it may be since it fell4 ,on the other hand1 a snowfall in ,june may be turned into crust within twenty-four hours1 and thereby become #8old snow4' ,crust and soft snow formed by the melting of crust are both #8old' snow4 ,spring powder is all the more dangerous1 because it yields wonderful ski-ing at a time when other slopes have been spoiled by the sun4 ,furthermore1 as spring powder is found on north slopes1 ignorant ski-runners underestimate its danger2 for it is a common fallacy among the inexperienced that south slopes are more dangerous than north4 ,in spring the reverse is usually the case1 for avalanches in spring are occasioned by the general air temperature just as much as by the sun4 7,see also below1 p4 #dch7 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,wind-,,slab4--,the wind-slab is the most treacherous of all avalanches1 the most difficult to foresee1 and the most incalculable in effect4 ,falling snow is usually accompanied in the ,high ,alps1 and often accompanied in the lower regions1 by wind4 ,if the wind is powerful1 the falling snow is driven over exposed ridges in whirlwinds1 and comes to rest on the lee-side and in sheltered hollows4 ,in this way the snowy avenues leading to glacier passes and the more sheltered snow-fields receive more than a fair share of snow4 ,this action of the wind1 denuding the exposed ridges and feeding the hollows and lee-sides1 takes place on both a large and a small scale3 on a large scale1 when snowy valleys are fed from the snow blown off the exposed ridges that rise out of them1 and on a small scale on any slope exposed to wind which is divided by ridges1 however small4 ,any tributary ridge on a slope across which a wind is blowing will have a wind-side and a lee-side1 and will accumulate snow on the lee-side and give off snow on the wind-side4 ,a stone wall or even a hedge provides an example of this on a small scale4 ,snow driven by wind and settled on lee-sides may either be more or less powdery1 a denser1 heavier powder than normal powder1 or it may assume one of the many forms of wind-caused crust4 ,we have described on p4 #djg the various forms of winded powder1 such as ripplemark1 caked powder1 etc41 and on p4 #djh the various forms of wind-formed crust1 such as windboard and ,skavla4 ,in general1 the greatest caution should be exercised when crossing any slope which has accumulated much wind-driven snow4 ,wind-driven powder snow is heavier and more adhesive than ordinary powder4 ,it is more detached from the underlying surface1 and is much more conducive to avalanches4 ,the ski-runner should keep his eyes open for traces of wind action1 and when he finds snow which has obviously been exposed to severe wind1 he should exercise the greatest possible caution on crossing over to the lee-side of a ridge dividing slopes1 whence the snow has obviously been blown away1 from slopes where the wind-driven snow may have fallen back to earth4 ,wind-driven powder may in turn be covered by a new snowfall1 which adds to the difficulties of diagnosing the avalanche risk4 ,so far we have been dealing with wind-driven snow which still retains some suggestion of powder1 which is soft and dense and caky4 ,a still more treacherous and dangerous wind formation is the wind-slab1 or #8,schneebrett1' of ,continental authors4 ,windboard1 as already explained 7p4 #djg71 is a hard1 slippery crust formed by wind4 ,windboard is common on glaciers in the winter months1 and though disagreeable to ski on1 it is safe enough in most cases4 ,sometimes1 however1 this windboard1 instead of being homogeneous with the underlying snow1 is loosely attached1 and in places forms a vault with a hollow space between the windboard and the snow beneath4 ,the windboard is1 then1 properly speaking1 a wind-slab4 ,the wind-slab1 or1 as some writers prefer to call it1 the snow-slab1 is formed by wind-driven snow1 which eventually settles into a hard crust4 ,as the wind-drifted snow is of a different density to the snow on which it settles1 it tends to form a distinct stratum from the underlying snow4 ,in winter the temperature is usually considerably below freezing1 so that snow which falls1 or snow which is drifted by the wind1 cannot bind with the snow below4 ,in order for two strata of snow of very different density to form a homogeneous whole1 there must be a period when the temperature is just above freezing in order to produce the melting followed by frost1 which is a necessary factor in the fusing together of two successive layers of different types of snow4 ,the wind-drifted snow1 ultimately transformed into a hard crust1 is then of a different density to the snow below1 to which it is loosely attached4 ,this underlying snow may be either soft snow or hard crust2 in either case the wind-slab forms a covering layer insecurely attached to the foundation snow4 ,this superficial layer is subject to different strains from those which affect the underlying snow2 for the tension due to the expansion and contraction which follows changes of temperature affects the layers formed of snows of different density and character in varying ways4 ,the surface layer1 or wind-slab1 may contract more obviously than the snow below1 so that if the slope is concave in shape1 the wind-slab1 in contracting1 tends to form an arch above a more or less shallow vault4 ,there is little if any surface indication to betray the fact that the wind-slab is not homogeneous with the underlying snow2 the ski-runner may cross some such slope without the least suspicion that the hard1 slippery crust is not quite so solid as it appears4 ,suddenly he will hear a sharp cracking noise2 the hard crust will settle under him and cave in2 the crust cracks along the line made by his ski1 and the whole slope comes down on top of him in a cataract of tumbling blocks4 ,the strata formed by the wind comes away1 tearing with it much of the soft underlying snow1 and pours down in a floor of hard1 icy blocks of snow4 ,the wind-slab is the most dangerous and deceptive form of avalanche4 ,its hard polished surface gives a false sense of security4 ,the temperature is no guide1 for wind-slabs can avalanche at any temperature4 ,indeed1 extreme frost tends to make the wind-slab more brittle4 ,it can avalanche after days or weeks of fine weather when all the more obvious avalanches have fallen4 ,lastly1 this wind-slab is to be found in the natural line of approach to glacier passes1 in the long sheltered avenues that collect the snow blown off the exposed ridges4 ,it is of primary importance to distinguish most carefully between the crust formed by sun action and the crust formed by wind4 ,a south slope crusted by sun followed by frost will never avalanche so long as the crust remains unmelted4 ,sun-formed crusts never avalanche4 ,a careful study of south slopes will soon teach the ski-runner to recognize crust formed by sun and to distinguish it from crust formed by wind4 ,the wind-slab is usually patchy1 granulated1 and often betrays the action of wind by a slight rippled appearance4 ,the expert can detect wind-formed crust and can distinguish it from sun-formed crust4 ,the contrast between crust formed by sun 7or by any process of alternate melting and frost7 and crust formed by wind is instructive4 ,the fact that the former is safe and the latter often dangerous is due not to any surface differences but to the difference in the nature of the connection between the under-surface of the crust and the underlying snow4 ,sun-formed crust always merges gradually into the underlying snow4 ,there is no sharp plane of cleavage4 ,the hard crust merges into softer crust2 the softer crust into soft snow4 ,there is often1 of course1 a plane of cleavage between two successive falls of snow--the upper layer may be soft snow resting on crust2 or it may be snow which is superficially crusted resting on crust4 ,and directly the sun melts the superficial crust there may be danger4 ,but so long as crust formed by alternate melting and frost remains unsoftened by the sun1 it may be deemed to be absolutely safe so far as avalanches are concerned1 for this sun-formed crust will merge gradually into the snow immediately below it4 ,wind-formed crust is1 however1 often sharply separated from the snow underneath it4 ,wind-swept crust may overlie powder snow with no intervening and softer crust to act as a binding influence4 ,the crust may be absolutely separate1 susceptible to different strains and tensions1 and forming the shallow vault described above4 ,should you suspect a wind-slab1 sound with the ice-axe1 and try to discover whether the snow is homogeneous or rests on a soft streak of snow below4 ,if1 at the border of the dangerous slope1 a sharp stamping with your ski produces a settling noise1 followed by the breaking away of detached fragments of snow-slab1 you will know that the slab is probably insecurely poised on a shallow vault below4 ,wind-slabs are1 fortunately1 not very common4 ,they can only exist under winter conditions1 heavy snowfalls1 severe wind and comparatively weak sun action4 ,after ,april1 for instance1 the formation of a wind-slab would be impossible1 for the ,may sun is strong enough to melt any crust formed by wind or by any other action4 ,in summer they are uncommon excepting under unusual conditions4 ,they sometimes occur in late summer1 when the sun has lost much of its strength and is no longer powerful enough to thaw snow which has been converted by wind into a wind-slab4 ,,iv4 ,,old ,,wet ,,snow ,,avalanches4--,for the distinction between old wet snow and new wet snow1 see p4 #dbg4 ,old wet snow avalanches are very common in spring4 ,the snow1 which has been melted and frozen1 and remelted again and again1 gradually becomes denser and heavier4 ,as the spring advances the power of the sun becomes very great4 ,in the afternoon1 and at lower altitudes long before midday1 most snow slopes are saturated to a greater or a lesser depth by the melting power of the sun4 ,such old wet snow is of course extremely dangerous4 ,the great spring avalanches1 the #8,grundlawinen' of ,continental writers1 usually select well-known tracks4 ,some of them have local names1 and their annual occurrence is as regular as the return of spring4 ,the long tongues of bare spaces between forests mark their track4 ,incredible quantities of snow are torn from the mountain side2 trees are uprooted and boulders carried downwards4 ,the avalanche comes to rest far below1 and spreads out a discoloured tongue of snow-blocks1 dark with the earth rooted from the mountain side1 and strewn with small trees and shrubs4 ,sometimes1 after an unusually severe winter1 these big spring avalanches extend their domain1 and destroy chalets1 and bridges1 and even villages4 ,roads that cross the line of these spring avalanches must be ensured against destruction by tunnels4 ,superficial avalanches of old wet snow are more common than these big ground avalanches4 ,these superficial avalanches occur daily in spring weather4 ,the snow is saturated with water1 which acts as a lubricant between one layer of snow and the harder crust beneath4 ,sometimes avalanches are started by the snow thawing from the ground upwards1 for the ground in the late spring is warm enough to thaw the snow immediately above it4 ,i have seen a vault one foot in height between the ground and the overlying snow4 ,the power of avalanches is best appreciated by those who have visited the ,alps in ,may4 ,it is an interesting1 if annoying1 experience to be confined to some high alpine club hut in ,may by a sudden invasion of ,fhn4 ,if the club hut can only be approached over steep ground or up a steep and narrow valley1 there is nothing to be done but to wait till the ,fhn disappears4 ,hardly a minute passes without an avalanche falling off some near or distant slope4 ,the roar of big avalanches is varied by the hiss of the smaller snow-slides4 ,thousands of tons of snow are removed from the steeper slopes every hour4 ,old wet snow avalanches are much more deadly than avalanches formed of new snow4 ,newly fallen snow weighs about #a cwt4 the cubic yard4 ,old wet spring snow weighs about #ae cwt4 or of a ton the cubic yard--in other words1 ten times as much as newly fallen snow4 ,furthermore1 if you are overwhelmed by old wet snow1 you will find the very greatest difficulty in freeing yourself1 even if you are only covered by a layer a foot or so in depth4 ,powder snow contains a great deal of air1 so that you can live for some time even if buried in a powder avalanche1 but the wet spring snow contains nothing but water1 and suffocation is a matter of minutes4 ,whenever the ,fhn blows in spring1 all slopes above a very moderate degree of steepness immediately become extremely dangerous4 ,in normal clear weather there is a frost at night1 so that any slope1 however steep1 can be crossed without fear of avalanches between sunset and dawn4 ,as soon as the superficial soft crust begins to form on the wet snow all danger of avalanches disappears4 ,on the lower slopes in ,may1 the interval after the dawn during which a steep slope may be crossed with safety varies greatly4 ,in ,may hard crust softens with surprising speed1 and after #i a4m41 or even earlier1 the risk of avalanches below the glacier level soon becomes formidable4 ,a vital distinction must be drawn between the kind of softening that is produced when a solid homogeneous crust softens superficially1 and the melting of a superficial layer or crust resting on an older crust below4 ,the second case occurs when a layer of soft snow1 or of crust1 rests on the older strata of crust4 ,once this new layer has melted it is very liable to slide off from the older layer below4 ,on the other hand1 a homogeneous crust softening superficially is usually safe enough so long as the underlying crust remains hard4 ,telemark crust1 which is crust softened superficially so that ,telemarks are easy 7p4 #dae71 is usually safe4 ,the great danger is the existence of a layer of crust formed by a recent snowfall resting on an older layer4 ,i was once climbing the steep slopes that lead from ,zinal to the ,mountet glacier4 ,it was on the last day of ,april1 and the sun had just struck the slope4 ,the local guide was leading1 and ,i ventured to suggest a detour to avoid a traverse across a slope that had begun to soften4 ,he ignored the risk1 and proceeded4 ,i remained behind and watched him4 ,suddenly a layer of snow about six inches in thickness1 which had softened down to the old hard crust beneath1 slid away with startling rapidity4 ,the guide gave a small jump1 and got his ski into the old layer1 while the softened snow slid away and disappeared over the cliff below4 ,the guide's top ski had cut through to the old layer before the snow slipped1 otherwise he would have been killed4 ,in ,may in the ,high ,alps the risks of such avalanches is small on all save very steep slopes4 ,most of the big spring avalanches fall below the limits of the summer snowline4 ,they slide off slopes which are bare of snow in summer4 ,once the region of the nvs is reached the danger is very much less1 though of course by no means non-existent1 especially when the ,fhn is blowing4 ,the ,may ski-runner must often time his ascent to a club hut to arrive in the early hours of the morning1 and wait for his descent from the glaciers to the lower valleys for the hour after sunset4 ,as the winter advances the danger from avalanches increases1 not only because the quantity of snow increases and because the sun is more powerful and the temperature higher1 but also because the inequalities on the underlying surface gradually disappear4 ,scree1 small boulders1 shrubs and other natural checks to the flow of an avalanche vanish in the ever-deepening snow4 ,roads and small shelving plateaus1 which break up a steep slope1 get buried4 ,each succeeding avalanche leaves some of its burden on all protruding shelves1 and thereby tends to smooth out the mountain side1 creating1 in place of a slope broken by inequalities1 one long1 even flow which presents no hindrance to the avalanche4 ,thus big avalanches tend to take the place of the smaller avalanches which fell down part of the slope1 only to be arrested at some convenient terrace1 such as a road or small plateau4 ,in the spring avalanches often fall right across rivers1 which very soon form a tunnel beneath the snow-bridge of the avalanche4 ,such snow-bridges should be crossed with caution4 ,more than one ski-runner has been killed by breaking through the remains of an avalanche into a river4 ,it is a common illusion among the inexperienced that north slopes are safer than south slopes in spring4 ,they are not--in fact1 north slopes are more dangerous than south slopes4 ,in spring it is the general air temperature which determines the fall of avalanches4 ,true1 the south slopes avalanche first1 and for this reason north slopes hold much more snow1 so that when they finally get rid of their superfluous snow they produce far and away the most destructive avalanches4 ,of course in spring the sun shines on all slopes1 and it shines with quite sufficient force even on due north slopes to produce an avalanche4 ,in fact1 the really great spring avalanches are those which fall from northerly slopes4 ,,summer ,,snow ,,avalanches ,during the summer months1 as already explained1 every type of snow can be found in the ,high ,alps from pure winter powder to the numberless varieties of spring crusts and spring soft snow4 ,it follows that avalanches in summer obey the same laws as in spring4 ,there are far fewer avalanches in summer than in spring1 for there is far less snow to fall4 ,quite enough1 however1 is left to make the avalanche problem of vital importance for the ski-runner and the summer climber4 ,the various types of avalanches described in this chapter are not confined to winter or spring1 with the possible exception of the wind-slab avalanche4 ,i should have said1 a priori1 that wind-slab avalanches were peculiar to winter and the early spring1 for they depend for their existence on snow falling at a very low temperature1 and on the snowfall being followed by strong and cold winds before the sun has time to melt the snow and to bind it into the underlying surface4 ,i am told by ,mr4 ,young that he has seen wind-slab avalanches in summer--probably1 ,i should imagine1 in the very late summer or early autumn1 when the conditions begin to approximate to winter conditions4 ,apart1 then1 from wind-slab avalanches1 which must be very uncommon in summer1 all the other types are by no means unusual4 ,avalanches of powder snow1 of old wet snow and new wet snow can occur at any month of the year4 ,it is not necessary to give separate rules for summer and for spring4 ,the important factors in the problem are not so much the season as the amount of snow that has fallen1 the temperature1 the angle of the sun1 etc4 etc4 ,if the reader thoroughly understands avalanche craft in winter and in spring1 he should be able to cope with the same or with similar problems in summer4 ,the majority of fatal avalanche accidents in summer are due to snow slides4 ,i have for convenience' sake adopted the arbitrary distinction of avalanches into avalanches proper--those which are dangerous owing to the weight and quantity of the snow that falls--and snow-slides1 which are only dangerous in so far as they carry the climber or ski-runner with them over a cliff or into a crevasse4 ,most summer avalanche accidents are due to snow slides1 and occur in places which the ski-runner could not reach on ski4 ,snow resting on ice in gullies1 or snow resting on smooth slabs1 etc41 are frequent causes of fatal accidents4 ,such avalanches or snow-slides have been described by ,mr4 ,young4 ,the classical device for testing whether snow is resting on ice--i4e4 throwing a big rock down the suspicious slope--is often of use to a ski-runner who is in doubt whether to descend a doubtful slope on ski or on foot4 ,,tactics ,,on ,,avalanche ,,ground ,the simplest rule is to avoid avalanche ground4 ,unfortunately1 this is not always possible4 ,the limits of danger are so wide that one may occasionally find oneself on a slope which might conceivably avalanche4 ,such a slope may provide the only possible means of getting down to the valley1 so that the choice is not merely between giving up an expedition or risking an avalanche1 but between the certainty of a night out if one recrosses the pass and the possibility of an avalanche4 ,it has sometimes been asserted that a ski-runner could escape an avalanche by turning his ski downhill and making a sudden dive downward4 ,of course this is wildly absurd4 ,i have only once been caught in an avalanche1 and1 long before ,i could have turned my ski downhill1 the avalanche had carried me some twenty yards downhill4 ,an avalanche does not start by a kind of snowball action4 ,it starts with a sharp crack1 and the sudden sliding away of a deep layer of snow4 ,watch snow sliding off a roof and you will understand that an avalanche is very sudden and overwhelming4 ,almost every avalanche leaves a clean line of cleavage behind--a wall of snow which is exactly as deep as the avalanche at its birth4 ,the chance of escaping an avalanche by flight is infinitesimal if you are near the point where the avalanche starts4 ,you are lucky if you have time enough to kick your ski off1 and you will only be able to do this if you have unloosened the bindings previous to crossing the dangerous slope4 ,there will be no chance of unstrapping them once the avalanche is upon you4 ,if you cannot kick them off instantaneously1 they will remain attached to you4 ,your chance of surviving is very much greater if you can get rid of your ski1 for the ski drag you under1 and prevent all hope of fighting your way to the surface of the avalanche4 ,once you are overwhelmed you should adopt a swimming motion4 ,above all1 try to keep your head uppermost4 ,a vigorous swimming motion with the hands is said to be useful by people who have survived4 ,dangerous slopes should always be crossed as high as possible4 ,an avalanche is much more dangerous if it overwhelms you from above than if it starts from the immediate neighbourhood of your ski4 ,steep slopes below a cliff usually yield a fairly safe passage just below the rocks1 for there is often a little gap between the edge of the snow and the rocks which affords a secure route4 ,take advantage of every belt or shelf of gentler ground that may run across a steep slope4 ,traces of old roads or even of footpaths are better than nothing4 ,clearly a man on ski is much more likely to start an avalanche than a man on foot4 ,i have often been surprised to see chamois-tracks down slopes #dj-ej degrees steep4 ,it is true chamois occasionally get killed by avalanches1 but they certainly possess a great immunity4 ,the reason is obvious4 ,the chamois' slender hoofs sink in very deeply4 ,they penetrate right through the snow to any hard underlying crust that there may be beneath4 ,further1 the chamois does not1 like the ski-runner1 cut the snow by a continuous line which divides the slope in two1 and deprives the snow above the ski-tracks of much of its support4 ,chamois-tracks form a row of small holes1 and therefore have a much less unsettling effect4 ,a man on foot has some of the advantages of the chamois4 ,he is at least much safer than on ski4 ,his feet get down to the old crust below unless the soft snow is very deep4 ,on ski it is extremely easy to start a small superficial avalanche or snow-slide2 and on ski it is very difficult to check such a small or big avalanche once it is started4 ,the ski may sink just into the superficial layer and help to detach it4 ,on dangerous ground you should therefore remove the ski and proceed on foot4 ,if possible1 tackle such slopes by a direct ascent or descent in single file4 ,traversing is much more likely to cut the snow slope and start an avalanche4 ,never rope on avalanche ground unless one member of the party can remain on safe ground1 i4e4 a cluster of rocks1 and secure the man who is traversing a short stretch of dangerous snow4 ,if two or three ski-runners are caught by an avalanche while roped together1 their chance of escape is slight1 as the rope tends to get caught1 to drag them under the snow and to suffocate them4 ,dangerous ground should1 of course1 be crossed by only one man at a time4 ,it has been suggested by an experienced mountaineer that each member of the party should drag behind him a long thin red cord1 which would provide a clue to the whereabouts of a man who had been buried by an avalanche4 ,the ski-ing mountaineer's kit is already so overcharged that few people would be likely to add to it for this purpose4 ,for the descent of dangerous slopes1 if the party do not proceed on foot1 they should put on their sealskins1 so as to run the slopes as steeply and directly as possible4 ,the ice-axe should always be driven in as far as possible1 so as to find purchase in the underlying snow4 ,ski-sticks that are provided with removable disks are very useful1 as they can be driven in much deeper than ordinary ski-sticks4 ,when in doubt1 sound with an axe or stick and try to discover whether the snow is homogeneous1 and if not1 what lies below the surface layer and what lies below the snow itself4 ,when in doubt1 turn back if possible4 ,if it is necessary to proceed1 take off your ski4 ,if speed is important1 keep on your ski2 and if you are descending1 put on sealskins4 ,if you cannot spare the time to put on sealskins1 sit on your ski and descend by a sitting ski-glissade1 which is1 by the way1 a knack in itself4 ,,the ,,high ,,alps ,,in ,,winter ,sidenote3 ,weather ,conditions4 ,the weather after the ,new ,year is usually more settled than in the summer4 ,a spell of absolutely unbroken weather lasting from three weeks to a month or more is almost inevitable some time in ,january or ,february4 ,as a rule1 ,february is the finest month in the winter4 ,these typical fine-weather periods are often accompanied by mild weather4 ,the temperature even by night is often surprisingly high on the glaciers1 even when there is no touch of ,fhn in the air4 ,this has led some observers to claim that the temperature in winter--even in the shade--is often lower in the valleys than on the mountains4 ,i have never seen any evidence produced for the phenomenon which has been romantically described as #8inverted temperature1' and have no reason to believe that any such violation of the laws of temperature really exists4 ,it is often1 of course1 colder in the plains when the plains are covered by nebelmeer than in sunny alpine stations1 but this is very different to any general inversion of temperature4 ,i have1 it is true1 sat on the summit of the ,finsteraarhorn in midwinter stripped to the waist1 and ,i have often been uncomfortably hot at great altitudes in the sun4 ,but it is dangerous to generalize from such experiences1 and though on a windless day1 winter mountaineering may be as warm and comfortable as summer climbing1 the ski-runner must always be prepared for sudden danger of temperature1 and severe cold4 ,the variations in temperature are surprising4 ,a cushion of cold air1 several degrees below freezing1 may exist near the surface of the snow1 and three feet above the surface of the snow the air may be quite mild4 ,this is a phenomenon well known to rink-makers4 ,in the sun the heat may be quite intense1 and yet1 a few yards off1 in the shade the temperature may be several degrees below freezing4 ,a suspicion of wind may transform a mild and equable into an unpleasantly cold atmosphere4 ,the changes of temperature are very sudden4 ,you may be basking in shirt-sleeves on one side of a ridge1 and be frost-bitten within a few minutes on turning a corner into the wind4 ,the great danger of winter mountaineering is the risk of a sudden change of weather4 ,storms seem to blow up out of clear skies with a suddenness to which summer affords no parallel4 ,the man who is caught in a big winter storm is lucky if he escapes without casualty4 ,a driving wind makes ski-ing almost impossible4 ,the snow is blown into one's face1 and in a few minutes one's eyelashes are gummed up with miniature icicles4 ,the big storms that sometimes prevail for more than a week at a time may imprison the climber in a club hut until all his provisions are exhausted4 ,from most club huts escape is completely impossible till the storm drops4 ,even when the storm has given place to fine weather1 retreat may be very dangerous owing to the avalanche peril4 ,under fair conditions winter mountaineering is often surprisingly easy4 ,men who have enjoyed unbroken good luck with their weather are tempted to discount the very real dangers of mountaineering in winter1 and to adopt a paradoxical attitude towards the ,alps in winter1 implying that the only danger to be feared is sunstroke and snow-blindness4 ,those who have not been so uniformly lucky realize that winter mountaineering on a big scale is a sport from which the element of danger will never be lacking2 that a sudden storm may transform even an easy expedition into a desperate struggle for safety4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,approaches to the ,high ,alps4 ,often the most difficult1 and sometimes the most dangerous1 part of a winter expedition in the ,high ,alps is the first day's march to the club hut4 ,once the upper regions are attained1 progress is usually fairly straightforward4 ,it is quite normal for ski-runners to make nearly as good time on the ascent of a snow-peak as summer climbers1 but it is very rare indeed that the club hut is reached in anything approaching summer time4 ,from one and a half to twice as long must be allowed for the ascent to most club huts4 ,the long1 narrow valleys that so often lead to huts are usually very deep in soft powdery snow1 so that progress must be slow1 whereas in the upper regions the snow is usually more or less packed by the wind1 which makes for easier going on the ascent1 even though the descent may be far from pleasant4 ,moreover1 the danger from avalanches is usually much more serious in the lower regions1 where the slopes are much steeper and the valleys narrower4 ,on the first day's march the guides will be heavily loaded1 for the full equipment for a serious expedition in the ,high ,alps is very much more bulky and weighty than that necessary in summer4 ,in the first place1 no prudent ski-runner commits himself to a ,high ,alp tour without ample reserves of food4 ,he must allow for the danger of finding himself stormbound in a hut for a period which may be anything from a day to a fortnight4 ,plenty of compressed reserve food is essential until the club huts begin to store emergency rations4 ,further1 as a broken ski may involve serious consequences1 he must burden himself with spare ski-tips and all the apparatus for mending ski4 ,extra clothes1 plenty of gloves1 and1 of course1 crampons add to the overburdened rucksacks4 ,unless one is prepared to carry very heavy sacks it does not pay to economize in porters4 ,as a rule1 you should reckon two guides or porters for every member of the party if you contemplate an expedition of some five to six days in length1 unless1 of course1 you are prepared to carry some thirty pounds or so in your own sack for the first day4 ,of course1 if you take two porters to the hut1 they may be sent back from the hut2 but it is obviously unfair to expect a solitary porter to make the descent alone4 ,everything should be done to make matters easy4 ,if the first part of the ascent lies up a path or a wood-track1 a boy should be hired to carry your ski4 ,if the ascent begins from some out-of-the-way alpine valley1 it will often pay to send a guide on ahead the day before to make tracks for part of the distance in soft snow4 ,this is especially useful if you are attempting a very big climb from one of the rather higher alpine valleys or mountain inns without using a club hut4 ,it is unwise to reckon on climbing more than an average of #ejj feet per hour for the first day4 ,an early start is essential4 ,the longest days pass fairly comfortably if you break them up with frequent short halts and short feeds4 ,it is often impossible in winter to make a prolonged halt owing to the cold4 ,a few caramels or some chocolate1 which can be easily got at1 should be kept in one's pocket1 and munched during short halts4 ,napoleon's rule of a short rest and something to eat every hour is a good rule for climbers1 especially winter climbers who are heavily laden4 ,the huts as a rule are comfortable enough in winter1 though the stoves often prove troublesome4 ,wood is usually kept in large quantities1 brought up at the end of the autumn1 though it is as well to make inquiries on this point before starting4 ,on reaching the hut1 set the aneroid barometer usually found in most huts4 ,a pocket-barometer is not so reliable1 for1 as ,whymper pointed out and conclusively proved1 the usual aneroid tends to lose on the mercurial4 ,in other words1 if you carry a pocket-aneroid up some thousands of feet and then set it at the hut1 it will usually fall a point during the night1 where a mercurial barometer would have remained stationary4 ,so1 too1 if you descend from a peak to a hut1 the pocket-aneroid will rise where a mercurial would remain stationary1 thereby often conveying very dangerous and misleading information4 ,it is most important to set the hut aneroid1 so as to have some warning of the approach of a sudden storm4 ,if you are unlucky enough to be caught by bad weather in a hut1 and if your provisions run short1 you should spend as much of your time as possible lying down and keeping warm1 for the less exercise you take the less food you will need4 ,people who practise the #8fast cure' have proved that a man can go without any food for a week and carry on his ordinary business without feeling unduly weakened4 ,it is therefore in every way better to stay at the hut fasting--even for three or four days--than to attempt to descend in a bad storm4 ,if the worst comes to the worst1 and the party is thoroughly weakened by lack of food1 they can always stay at the hut and await the search party4 ,if a sally is attempted in bad weather from a hut which is situated among glacier snow-fields1 it is advisable to cut up a number of small stakes from the firewood4 ,these can be planted in the snow at intervals of a hundred yards or so in order that a retreat can always be made back to the hut if further advance is impossible4 ,sidenote3 ,snow ,conditions in the ,high ,alps4 ,if the ,alps were windless1 the snow that falls between ,november and the end of ,february would remain powdery and unspoiled on all save very steep south slopes4 ,at high altitudes the sun is powerless to affect the snow in midwinter on gentle south slopes4 ,the snow would remain powdery on northern slopes till the middle of ,april but for wind4 ,unfortunately1 the ,high ,alps are swept by wind1 more especially during long spells of fine cloudless weather1 during which the #8bise1' or north wind1 sweeps across all exposed ridges and faces4 ,consequently1 the snow seldom remains long unspoiled4 ,in sheltered glacier valleys it may retain its powdery condition1 but on all more or less exposed slopes it soon hardens4 ,of course1 if an expedition is planned within two or three days of a fresh snowfall1 the party may have perfect powder snow2 but such snow is the exception in winter in the ,high ,alps1 whereas it is the rule in spring4 ,sidenote3 ,rock ,ridges and ,ice ,slopes4 ,rock climbing does not properly come within the scope of mountaineering on ski2 but so many ski-runners combine a ski tour with a final scramble up a rock ridge1 such as the last arte of ,monte ,rosa or the ,zinal ,rothhorn1 that some discussion of the condition of rocks and ice slopes in winter is essential4 ,as a rule1 rock ridges are as dry1 or drier1 in winter than in summer4 ,snow that falls in summer often falls at a temperature little below freezing4 ,it is often most adhesive stuff4 ,the strong summer sun followed by frosts at night turns this snow into crust1 or at least into snow with a considerable power of sticking to the rocks4 ,in summer it is often several days before the big rock peaks will go after a heavy snowfall4 ,but in winter the snow that falls in the ,high ,alps is light and powdery4 ,the low temperatures and the reduced power of the sun prevent the snow melting2 it retains its light powdery character1 and is swept away from exposed ridges by the wind4 ,it offers no resistance to the wind1 for it is composed of light dry crystals with no cohesive or adhesive power4 ,consequently1 the rock ridges in the winter are often freer from snow than in average summer weather1 which is a mixture of good and bad4 ,in winter1 cornices have little chance of forming4 ,in fact1 if the weather is mild and the ridge windless on the day of the ascent1 it is scarcely more difficult to climb a rock ridge of average difficulty in winter than in summer4 ,south ridges are1 of course1 much warmer than north ridges1 but they are not necessarily more free of snow2 for the agent that reduces the snow on the rock ridges is not the sun--powerless as a melting agent at these altitudes in winter--but the wind2 and in fine weather the wind1 as often as not1 blows from the north4 ,of course1 if the north wind is blowing1 a north ridge may be impossible1 for the rocks promptly become extremely cold to touch1 so that in general it is wisest to select south rock ridges in preference to north4 ,none the less1 rock ridges facing north1 such as the north ridge of the ,zinal ,rothhorn or the north ridge of the ,gspaltenhorn1 have been climbed without difficulty in midwinter4#bb ,the same causes which keep the rock ridges comparatively free from snow tend to remove any snow that may fall on to steep ice slopes4 ,inexperienced winter mountaineers are often surprised to find as much or more ice on summit slopes in winter than in summer4 ,as a matter of fact1 there is often quite as much ice on steep exposed slopes in winter as in summer4 ,an ice slope is transformed into a snow slope when falling snow is accompanied by a temperature just above freezing-point--in other words1 when the snow is very nearly sleet4 ,such snow adheres to the underlying ice1 and by the normal process of alternate thaw and frost becomes more and more firmly attached4 ,the next snowfall that occurs attaches itself to the underlying thin stratum of snow crust lying on ice1 so that in the course of time the ice slope is covered by a compact and reliable layer of crusted snow4 ,but the dry powder of midwinter has no chance of finding a permanent resting-place on steep ice4 ,the first strong wind that blows will remove it4 ,many slopes vary from season to season and from month to month4 ,sometimes they are ice1 sometimes snow4 ,such slopes1 if they are ice in ,october1 will remain ice until the following spring4 ,may and ,june are the months in which the conversion of ice slopes into snow slopes usually takes place4 ,,glaciers ,,in ,,winter ,the light powder snow which is swept from rock and ice ridges is deposited on the broad glacier snow-fields1 which therefore receive more than their fair share of snow4 ,in midwinter there are few open crevasses to be seen1 save at the icefalls1 and most traces of concealed crevasses disappear from the upper nvs4 ,none the less1 the danger from concealed crevasses is by no means trivial4 ,the dry powder snow forms the most brittle of snow-bridges4 ,in the ,grenz glacier accident a snow-bridge fourteen feet thick collapsed beneath a party of ski-runners4 ,of course1 sooner or later1 most crevasses are bridged1 not only by powder snow1 but various forms of wind-driven snow and wind-formed crust4 ,such crust is1 of course1 less brittle than powder snow-bridges1 but it is quite brittle enough4 ,the low temperature tends to increase the brittleness of snow-bridges4 ,in the early hours of a summer morning a snow-bridge two or three inches thick will usually be safe enough2 for such bridges are generally formed of a mixture of ice and hard snow which is due to alternate melting and freezing4 ,such crust is much more compact1 more solid1 and far less brittle than crust formed by wind4 ,glaciers are1 in fact1 safer in summer than in winter2 for though there are many more crevasses open1 there are far fewer dangerous crevasses whose existence cannot easily be detected4 ,the droop on the snow and other unmistakable signs in ordinary seasons betray most concealed crevasses to the experienced eye4 ,in winter the winds are so powerful1 and their effect is so much greater 7for reasons explained on pp4 #ddf-ddg71 that they obliterate all traces of underlying crevasses4 ,the surface of the snow is apparently one uniform field of wind-driven snow1 and even the most expert cannot possibly detect the presence of concealed crevasses4 ,this raises the very vexed question of ski-ing on a rope4 ,it is quite easy with a little practice to ski at a reasonably high speed on a rope1 and to make combined swings4 ,roped running is1 in fact1 quite enjoyable1 but it is not1 and never can be1 as enjoyable or as easy as free ski-ing4 ,consequently1 many ski-runners will never consent to rope on the descent1 save on glaciers1 which are known to be badly crevassed4 ,there are three methods of ski-ing on a glacier3 #a4 ,a ,roped ,descent4--,for the technique of ski-ing on a rope1 see pp4 #deb-def4 #b4 ,a ,descent in exactly the same ,tracks as were used for the ,ascent4--,this method is based on the presumption that a snow-bridge which held in the morning during the ascent will hold during the descent4 ,obviously the strain is much less during the fast descent than during the climb4 ,also1 as the variations of temperature in winter are of no great importance1 provided that the temperature remains below freezing1 a snow-bridge which holds in the morning should hold in the afternoon1 though the same cannot1 of course1 be said in summer4 ,as the tracks of the ascent were presumably made on sealskins1 the descent must also be made on sealskins if it be desired to follow with any accuracy the line of the ascent and to avoid rapid swings and turns which are liable to test severely a snow-bridge strong enough to resist the ordinary uphill track4 ,for my part1 though this method is sometimes used1 ,i consider that the necessity to wear skins and to keep exactly along one line is just as troublesome and not nearly so safe as the rope4 ,what usually happens when people start a descent without skins1 but with the pious intention of keeping to the uphill tracks1 is that they very soon find themselves curving and swinging some considerable distance from their old tracks4 #c4 ,a ,free ,descent ,unroped4--,if you discard the rope1 you should be doubly careful to reduce risk to a minimum by paying attention to the general laws of crevasse formation4 ,the middle of a glacier is usually the safest part of the glacier in winter4 ,lateral crevasses1 i4e4 crevasses at the side of the glacier1 are wider1 more numerous1 and more complicated than transverse crevasses4 ,the crevasses in the middle of a glacier are usually at right angles to the line of flow1 so that a ski-runner who is running straight will cross them at their narrowest breadth4 ,lateral crevasses usually run at an angle of #cj-de degrees to the line of flow1#bc so that they will usually be crossed by a ski-runner at a more or less wide angle1 and the danger of running along the whole length instead of across a snow-bridge is therefore great4 ,the principal rules for glacier ski-ing in order of importance are as follows3 7#a7 ,don't fall4 7#b7 ,don't make sudden swings4 7#c7 ,run straight4 7#d7 ,don't use your stick4 7#e7 ,keep to the middle of the glacier4 ,in other words1 run as straight as you can consistent with not falling4 ,it is better to run straight and to use your stick to reduce your speed than to check your speed by swings and turns1 for a swing to a standstill above a crevasse is more likely than any other ski-ing manuvre to break a snow-bridge4 ,keep close together on the descent1 but not too close4 ,above all things1 avoid crossing the same snow-bridge while another member of the party is crossing it4 ,in the ,grenz glacier accident three members of the party fell into the same crevasse4 ,avoid short sharp turns1 and cultivate long gentle turns if you cannot run straight4 ,it is often advisable to follow the leader's tracks1 for if the leader has passed over a crevasse without falling in1 the chances are that you will be equally fortunate4 ,there should be two ropes in the party1 so that if one rope disappears with its bearer into a crevasse the second rope may be available to pull him out4 ,at least one rope1 and1 in addition1 the first-aid case and mending apparatus for ski1 should be in the rear of the party1 as nothing is more annoying than to see the leader disappearing far below with the spare ski-tip just as your ski-point has snapped off4 8,always rope on snow-covered glaciers40 ,this is the law1 and in theory the law admits of no exceptions4 ,but in winter1 as in summer1 this law is often broken4 ,few climbers have a clear record on this point4 ,the temptation to break the law is1 of course1 much stronger for the ski-runner than for the foot-climber4 ,there have been comparatively few accidents in which ski-runners have fallen into crevasses4 ,on glaciers that are known to be little1 if at all1 crevassed in summer1 only a pedant would rope in winter4 ,local knowledge is therefore very useful indeed1 and if a local guide can be taken1 so much the better4 ,such accidents as have happened have been either on the ascent1 or during a more or less level traverse1 or as the result of a sudden swing or stem which has disturbed the snow4 ,i know of no case in which a ski-runner has fallen into a crevasse during a fast1 free1 unchecked descent4 ,indeed1 ,i should doubt if it would be possible to break through a snow-bridge while moving fast and running straight4 ,i have myself shot an open crevasse about ten feet or more in breadth while travelling at a fairly high speed4 ,most ski-runners would rope in winter on a glacier that was known to be very crevassed in summer4 ,many ski-runners always rope in winter1 but far more only rope when they know the glacier to be very crevassed4 ,in ,may or ,june there is no reason to rope for the descent1 save under very exceptional circumstances4 ,the risk of falling into a crevasse in ,may or ,june is so slight that the rope may usually be discarded4 ,sidenote3 ,ski-ing on a ,rope4 ,ski-ing on a rope is not so difficult as the inexperienced might suppose4 ,experts who have practised together can attain high speeds1 and perform all the turns while roped together4 ,a couple of good runners with a little practice should be able to run safely at a fair speed4 ,but practice is necessary1 and an hour or two of roped running in the valley is well worth while4 ,two is the most manageable number on a rope1 and of course1 there need never be more than three1 for larger parties can divide up into two twos1 a two and a three1 etc4 ,first a word as to roping4 ,most guides make a loop at the very end of the rope4 ,this is quite unsound4 ,the loop should be made about four feet from the end of the rope1 and this four feet of spare rope should again be tied round the waist4 ,otherwise1 if you fall into a crevasse1 the pressure on your waist may almost suffocate you before you are withdrawn2 whereas1 if you have four feet of spare rope1 you can uncoil this1 make a new loop into which you can place a foot1 thereby at once relieving the pressure on your body4 ,with a little effort you should be able to wriggle out of the main noose1 standing in what may be called the stirrup noose4 ,if you are not exhausted1 you might then be able to swarm up the rope1 which would of course be quite impossible if1 as would otherwise be the case1 the end of the rope was originally tied round your body4 ,two men on a glacier alone sometimes adopt ,mummery's plan of wearing a second rope1 which1 in the event of a fall into a crevasse1 is untied by the man above and wound round the head of an axe driven into the snow4 ,the man below pulls on to the rope wound round the axe4 ,the man above pulls on to the rope round the fallen man's body4 ,thus there are virtually two men pulling one4 ,there is another method of roping sometimes used when three ski-runners are tied to the same rope1 which--though it has been employed by experienced guides--seems to me most unsound4 ,in this method two ski-runners are tied to one rope1 along which runs a small iron ring4 ,to this ring a second rope is fastened1 and to this second rope the third ski-runner attaches himself4 ,the theory is that the third ski-runner1 being attached to a rope which in turn is attached to a movable ring free to slide on the main rope1 is far less constrained in his movements than if all three were on the same rope4 ,this is true1 but ,i should be sorry to be the third ski-runner if ,i was to fall into a crevasse4 ,suppose the other two ski-runners are on opposite sides of this crevasse4 ,the man in the crevasse is then attached to a rope which slides helplessly with the ring along the main rope4 ,the iron ring probably buries itself in the lower lip of the crevasse4 ,i do not quite see how any tension is to be exerted on the secondary rope4 ,it is simpler to begin by considering the case of two ski-runners1 ,a and ,b1 running on a rope4 ,if there is a marked difference in the ability of ,a and ,b1 the poorer ski-runner should lead1 for it is much easier to lead on a rope than to be the last man4 ,the last man on the rope has to moderate his pace and his direction in accordance with the movements of the leader4 ,if1 however1 ,a and ,b are equally good runners1 then the leader should be the one whose ski are the faster3 ,i do not mean the faster ski-runner1 but the one whose ski are running better1 either because the ski themselves are faster and more slippery1 or because their owner is the heavier of the two1 and therefore1 other things being equal1 tends to get downhill quicker4 ,for if1 on a gradual slope which is to be taken straight without braking or stemming1 ,a 7whose ski are faster7 is constantly overrunning ,b1 the rope will get mixed up with the ski1 and ,a will have to regulate his pace by stemming or braking in order to keep the proper distance4 ,on the other hand1 if ,a leads1 his extra speed will keep the rope taut1 and the tension of the rope will enable ,b to keep a uniform distance4 ,on easy ground ,a and ,b can ski in single file4 ,b1 whose ski are slower1 will be kept in line by the tension of the rope4 ,it is not necessary nor desirable for ,b to follow exactly the same spoor as ,a3 his spoor should be an inch or two to the side of1 and parallel to1 ,a's spoor4 ,b must be on the look out for sudden increases in pace on the part of ,a3 ,a may1 for instance1 come to a steeper gradient1 and ,b1 if he is not on the look out1 is liable to be pulled over and pitched on to his head4 ,similarly ,b1 if ,a runs on to a gentler gradient1 will have to guard against overrunning ,a1 and thereby rendering the rope useless2 for if ,a and ,b are on the same snow-bridge they may both fall in4 ,at least #ge feet of rope should be allowed between ,a and ,b4 ,on easy ground this rope may be allowed to be taut2 on more difficult ground ,b should keep a coil of rope in his hand to allow a margin in the event of ,a suddenly increasing his speed4 ,the normal position for straight running should be modified4 ,in free running lateral strains may usually be disregarded2 the main risk of a fall lies in fore and aft changes of speed4 ,consequently1 for normal running the narrow groove and the lengthened base1 as in the ,telemark position1 are usually preferable to a broad track4 ,but a ski-runner on a rope is always liable to lateral strains4 ,it is rare that one runs exactly in line2 whenever one's track is parallel rather than coincident with the track of the leader1 and whenever the leader changes his direction1 however slightly1 the rope exercises a certain amount of sideways pull4 ,the greater the distance between the parallel tracks1 the greater the lateral tension of the rope4 ,consequently1 the ski-runner on a rope must be prepared1 not only for forward and1 in the case of the leader1 for backward jerks1 but also for sideway strains4 ,the best position for roped running is to hold the ski about #h inches apart4 ,one ski should be a few inches ahead of the other1 and the knees should be loose4 ,the body should be slightly bent below the waist4 ,the ,telemark position is1 of course1 most unsound4 ,on average ground the ski-sticks should be held together in the left hand1 leaving the right hand free to hold a spare coil of rope4 ,if it is necessary to brake or to control your speed1 you should do so by stemming and not by the stick4 ,on difficult ground you should use the stick to control your speed--a recourse which is seldom1 if ever1 justified1 except when running on the rope4 ,it is quite easy to hold both the sticks and also a spare coil of rope in your two hands2 and if you intend to brake with your sticks1 you must1 of course1 put your sticks together and get both your hands on to them4 ,the most efficient stop turn on a rope is the ,christiania helped out with the sticks4 ,if you are unroped1 a yard or two of sideslip after a sudden stop is quite a good thing1 but if you are roped1 you need to stop in the smallest possible compass1 especially if you are leading and the man behind falls4 ,for this purpose there is nothing to beat the stop ,christiania helped out with the sticks4 ,as a rule1 however1 stemming is sufficient without using the sticks4 ,good runners can1 of course1 make a series of linked turns on ski1 and there are few prettier sights than a skilful party on a rope descending in a series of ,stemming turns4 ,whether leading or going last1 always keep your partner fully informed as to your changes of speed or direction4 ,if the back man feels that he is going to fall1 he must shout out at once1 so as to give the leader time to stop by a stick ,christiania4 ,similarly the leader1 if he comes to a steeper gradient1 should warn his partner that the speed is likely to increase4 ,be prepared to fall neatly and with the maximum of effect4 ,should the leader fall into a crevasse1 don't allow yourself to be dragged after him4 ,throw yourself on the ground1 and bring your ski round1 as you fall1 at right angles to the track and below you4 ,this is more difficult than might be imagined4 ,an indifferent runner1 or even a good runner who had not trained himself to expect a fall1 would run a big risk of being pulled into the crevasse by the first man4 ,the #8falling ,christiania' is the best method of avoiding being pulled after the leader into a crevasse4 ,on fairly steep slopes it is best not to run in line4 ,a and ,b should run side by side4 ,provided the rope is long enough 7and at least #ge feet should be allowed between each partner71 there is no danger that ,a and ,b will fall into the same crevasse4 ,a and ,b will probably not be exactly side by side4 ,b will be just a little behind ,a4 ,in other words1 the line of the rope will not be exactly at right angles to the parallel lines of the two tracks cut by ,a and ,b4 ,this side-by-side method is much easier than running in line2 if ,a suddenly quickens in speed1 the only result is that ,a1 instead of being side by side with ,b1 tends to run on ahead1 and the two tracks tend to close up together until the speed is readjusted4 ,so1 too1 if ,b falls suddenly1 ,a has much more chance and more room in which to make a stop ,christiania than if they were running exactly in line4 ,also it is not necessary for either ,a or ,b to hold a coil of rope in his hands4 ,if the snow is smooth1 the rope need not be taut between the runners if they are running side by side4 ,it cannot be allowed to hang loose and to sweep the snow4 ,all that has been said above applies equally to three men on a rope3 three on a rope is1 however1 a more difficult combination2 the position of the middle man liable to both fore and aft jerks is far from enviable4 ,the best man should be placed in the middle4 ,it is1 however1 surprising how easily a party of three practised roped runners can execute straight running and even combined turns on a rope4 ,ropes that are employed in winter should be new4 ,old summer ropes should not be used up in winter4 ,ropes break much more easily in winter than in summer1 and the strain is much greater in the event of a fall into a crevasse owing to the greater speed on ski than on foot4 ,,the ,,high ,,alps ,,in ,,spring ,there is a fascination about the ,high ,alps in winter that is unique4 ,never are the great peaks so icily aloof1 the silences of the glaciers so inviolate4 ,no moon compares with the full moon of ,january shining on some great glacier causeway2 no views are clearer than the summit panorama of ,february4 ,none the less1 winter is not the proper season for ski tours in the ,high ,alps4 ,it is true that the rock ridges are usually free from snow in the winter and corniced in spring1 so that for expeditions which combine ski-ing with more or less difficult rock climbing1 winter is preferable to spring4 ,at the same time1 it is possible to exaggerate this point4 ,an ardent champion of winter mountaineering once cited to me the ,lyskamm as a mountain that could not be climbed in ,may owing to cornices4 ,unfortunately for his case1 the ,lyskamm had been climbed in ,may4 ,i have known the cornice on the ,wetterhorn almost invisible in ,may1 whereas in many winters it is quite formidable4 ,still we may concede that rock ridges are certainly far easier in ,february than in ,may1 and cornices in general much larger in spring than in winter4 ,and of course the snowline is lower in winter than in spring2 but1 as we shall try to prove1 this is not of very great importance4 ,the winter is the season for ski tours of modest length4 ,it is the season for what may be called sub-alpine ski-ing4 7,we need some handy expression in ,english for the most useful ,german word ,mittelgebirge47 ,spring1 on the other hand1 is eminently suitable for ski tours in the ,high ,alps4 ,the best month for glacier ski-ing is ,may4 ,june is also excellent4 ,indeed1 from about the middle of ,may to the middle of ,june is1 on the average1 as good a month as any in the year for glacier ski-ing4 ,february is usually the best of the winter months1 and ,may is the best month for spring ski-ing4 ,may is1 among other things1 usually fine4 ,april is almost always stormy2 but the weather usually mends at the end of ,april1 and a long spell of perfect weather is as common in ,may as in ,february4 ,let us then compare ski-ing among the glaciers in ,may and in ,february from the point of view of 7#a7 ,safety2 7#b7 ,quality of ski-ing2 7#c7 ,effort2 7#d7 ,scenery4 7#a7 ,safety4--,the shortness of the days and the great variations of temperature1 from mild and equable to bitterly cold1 all add an element of danger to the ,high ,alps in ,february4 ,a small mishap may have very serious consequences4 ,a broken leg half-way down ,monte ,rosa or the ,wetterhorn probably means a night in the open1 and a night in the open may mean a fatal ending4 ,the sudden changes of weather1 the storms that rise in a night and last for days1 all make ,february ski-ing among the glaciers a sport with its own dangers4 ,in ,may all these risks are reduced almost to vanishing-point4 ,a broken leg is a broken leg in ,february or in ,may1 but a night in the open in ,may should have no permanent effect on any but a very badly wounded climber4 ,we have already dealt with avalanches4 ,here we need only repeat that though avalanches are of daily occurrence in ,may1 an experienced party has no difficulty in avoiding them4 ,they have a regular time-table1 and1 provided one times one's ascent or descent so as to avoid crossing certain slopes at certain hours1 one is absolutely safe4 ,in winter1 avalanches can fall at any hour of the day1 under certain circumstances1 and at any temperature4 ,to take a concrete example3 the ,gauli hut4 ,this hut lies at the head of a very steep and narrow valley1 the ,urbachthal4 ,in winter one would never be quite safe in this valley4 ,a sudden wind might rise and bring down a powder avalanche2 and even in steady weather the risk of a powder avalanche from the very steep sides of this valley is never entirely absent4 ,in spring one leaves ,meiringen before midnight1 climbs this valley at night1 and1 provided the weather is fine1 one is absolutely safe2 for in spring1 avalanches fall in the afternoon and never fall at night1 save when the ,fhn is blowing4 ,and when the ,fhn is blowing the ski-runner stays at home1 or remains in a club hut4 ,finally1 the glaciers are not oversafe in winter1 for reasons explained on pp4 #ddh-ddi4 ,in ,may all save very badly crevassed glaciers can be descended on ski by an unroped party1 without greater risks than those which must be faced by every bold pedestrian that crosses ,piccadilly ,circus4 ,the crevasses are never so securely bridged as in spring4 7#b7 ,quality of the ,ski-ing4--,in winter it is the exception to find good snow in the ,high ,alps4 ,the wind1 as has already been explained1 spoils the snow on all exposed slopes4 ,but in ,may the wind is powerless1 for the first fine day and hot sun will melt the snow so thoroughly that all traces of wind action during the snowfall will entirely disappear4 ,thenceforward the wind is powerless1 for the wind cannot churn up the heavy melted snow of spring1 still less the hard crust which is found in the early morning4 ,snow in spring is hard crust in the early morning1 ,telemark crust up to midday or later on high north slopes4 ,in the afternoon it is usually soft and heavy1 but in the evening it once again yields fine ski-ing4 ,the ski-runner who visits the ,high ,alps in winter can form no forecast as to the possible conditions of the snow1 for the snow is dependent on the direction and on the strength of the winds that have blown since the snow fell4 ,it is therefore a matter of chance whether the snow is good or bad1 for nobody can foretell the conditions which depend on such a fickle element as the wind4 ,the longer fine weather endures in winter1 the greater the chance that the snow will be spoiled4 ,in spring the reverse is the case4 ,the more often snow is melted and refrozen the better it becomes4 ,in general1 provided the weather remains fine1 the spring ski-runner can count almost with certainty on perfect ski-ing and perfect snow4 ,an important point in favour of spring is the fact that one usually gets good ski-ing for every foot that one climbs on snow4 ,in winter the summit snow slopes are often so windswept1 that the ski are left some distance below the actual top and the final ascent is made on foot4 ,in spring the snow is just as good on the most exposed summit slope as lower down4 ,i have started spring or summer ski descents from the actual summits of such peaks as the ,dom1 ,ebnefluh1 ,galmihorn1 etc4 ,this is an important advantage1 and more than counterbalances the fact that the snowline is higher in ,may than in ,february2 for though one may lose a thousand feet of ski-ing on the last day1 one more than balances this loss by the fact that good ski-ing is obtained from the highest limit of the snow4 ,the snowline in ,may usually extends down to #ejjj feet4 ,i have spent three ,may months in the ,alps1 and ,i have always been able to get good ski-ing well on to the middle of ,may down to about #eejj feet1 and sometimes lower4 ,in narrow valleys the remains of spring avalanches survive into the summer4 ,i have skied in the middle of ,june below #fjjj feet in the ,gredetschthal1 and ,i have often1 in the middle or end of ,june1 obtained first-class ski-ing below #gjjj feet4 ,of course the height of the snowline is of no very great importance if1 as is usually the case1 one spends four or five days on the glaciers4 ,one can sacrifice a thousand or two thousand feet of ski-ing on the last day with complete composure if one is certain1 as one is never certain in winter1 that one will get really good ski-ing for every foot of snow slope that one climbs4 7#c7 ,effort4--,much less energy is expended on a spring than on a winter ski tour4 ,in winter most of the climbing is done on ski4 ,tracks have to be made in the soft snow2 a gradual zigzag course has to be taken2 time is wasted over #8kick turns4' ,in spring one climbs on foot or on crampons4 ,the ski are dragged behind on string4 ,on level or gentle slopes the weight of the ski is almost imperceptible if they are pulled along on string4 ,on steep slopes they are by no means a great hindrance4 ,it is surprising what can be accomplished by a man who is dragging instead of carrying ski4 ,i have seen ,knubel climb a short but very steep snow and ice wall in which he had to cut half a dozen handholds1 and on which he had to steady himself with one hand while he cut hand and foot holes with the axe held in his right hand4 ,meanwhile his ski were dangling on string--attached to his waist--over the bergschrund below4 ,the ski should1 of course1 always be secured by two strings in case one breaks4 ,in spring on hard snow one climbs very nearly as fast dragging one's ski as one would climb without ski1 and from #ej-ajj per cent faster than one would climb if one was forced to ascend the same slope on ski with soft winter snow4 ,the saving of effort is as remarkable as the saving of time1 for it is much easier to climb direct on foot than to zigzag up soft snow on ski4 ,apart from the upper snows1 the approaches to the ,high ,alps are easier in spring than in winter4 ,the snow at night is nearly always hard in ,may4 ,the narrow valleys1 filled with soft powder snow1 are covered with a firm groundwork of hard crust in spring4 ,the climb to the club hut is usually done at night or in the early morning4 ,though the snow lies down to five thousand feet well on into the middle or end of ,may1 so that the ski descent can be prolonged down to very low levels1 it is usually possible to pick a route up snow-free slopes 7either on southern or south-westerly or south-easterly slopes7 far higher than the lowest levels of the snowline4 ,paths can be utilized instead of snow slopes1 more especially if the peasants have begun to tramp out the paths for their own purposes4 ,the long detours1 often necessary in winter1 to avoid dangerous avalanche slopes are needless in spring1 for such slopes can always be crossed with safety at night when the snow is crusted4 7#d7 ,scenery4--,i have tried to show that the ,high ,alps yield better and safer ski-ing in ,may than in winter4 ,even if this were not so1 ,may would possess a charm for the mountaineer that no other month affords4 ,it is perhaps idle to compare the rival beauties of the four great alpine seasons1 for1 even if one season could be proved paramount1 the true mountaineer would wish to study the mountains in all their moods4 ,the icy virginity of the ,high ,alps in winter reveals secrets that are hidden in spring and in summer4 ,none the less1 if it be permitted to state a preference1 ,i for one should give my vote to ,may months4 ,contrast is the greater teacher1 and ,may is the month of contrasts4 ,i think of moments when one stepped on to a high ridge after hours among the burning snow-fields of ,may1 and looked down1 with a shock of surprise1 on to the valleys dressed in a green that was different1 transfigured1 miraculous--a green that the valley-dweller has never seen4 ,i think of quiet evenings after long days among the snows1 when one strolled down through the scented pines with one's ski on one's back and the music of a perfect run still echoing in one's heart--of the ,dollfuss in ,may1 a little oasis of green young turf covered with gentian and anemone in a wilderness of burning snow and granite ridges4 ,i think of a sunset hour just above ,rosenlaui1 following four perfect days among the ,may glaciers1 the foreground of marsh-marigolds a sheet of flame1 and the whole valley one full-throated chorus of spring4 ,running water is always beautiful1 but there is no music in all the harmonies of ,nature to compare with mountain torrents in spring after days among the dead silence of the upper snows4 ,such are the contrasts that reward the mountaineer in ,may4 ,within the compass of dawn and sunset he can live through the cycle of the seasons1 can pass from winter to spring1 can enjoy the best that snow yields to the ski-runner1 and the chiefest rewards that the hills yield to those that explore them when the great rebirth of colour and music has finally prevailed over the stubborn obstinacy of the retreating snows4 ,in order to understand the conditions that prevail in the ,high ,alps in spring1 the effect of sun on snow and the various habits of sun-formed and sun-melted crust must be grasped4 ,these are dealt with on pp4 #dab-dag4 ,avalanches are analysed on pp4 #dbc-dch4 ,all that now remains is to consider the application of the principles laid down to the various months of spring4 ,sidenote3 ,march4 ,the winter of the calendar ends officially on #bc ,march1 and the calendar spring lasts from #bd ,march to #bc ,june4 ,none the less ,march1 whatever the calendar may say1 is winter in the ,high ,alps4 ,the snow1 unless disturbed by wind1 remains powdery on all north slopes and gentle south slopes4 ,march is often a month of snowstorms1 though occasionally it is distinguished by really fine weather4 ,on the whole1 however1 it cannot be said to be a good month for glacier ski-ing1 though1 on the other hand1 the days are longer than in ,february4 ,the sun is stronger and the crevasses more securely bridged4 ,sidenote3 ,april4 ,april marks the transition from winter to spring4 ,as a rule1 ,april is marked in the ,alps by frequent storms1 varied by periods of wet ,fhn4 ,occasionally one gets a week of really good weather and fine ski-ing1 even at very low altitudes1 and it often happens that the last week in ,april is perfect succeeding to a long period of snowstorms4 ,but as a rule good weather is less common in ,april than in any month of the alpine year4 ,the snow itself varies4 ,powder snow is found on north slopes at high altitudes4 ,south slopes are usually crusted4 ,the crust varies a great deal1 and resembles1 in general1 the crust found in winter at low altitudes4 ,in other words1 ,april crust on the glaciers is usually marble crust in the early mornings4 ,the law1 explained on p4 #dad1 8,the milder the frost the better the crust10 often gives the clue to timing a successful descent4 ,as one descends on an early morning in ,april the crust usually improves4 ,as a rule1 the sun is strong enough to melt the crust just before or just after midday1 and in this case you get perfect running on ,telemark crust4 ,owing to the lower temperature the snow remains good much longer than in ,may4 ,in fact1 at high altitudes it seldom becomes completely thawed1 so that the ski-ing on ,april afternoons is usually better than on ,may afternoons4 ,it is important to notice that when1 as in spring and summer1 the sun remains above the horizon after #f p4m41 the northern slopes will be in the sun after the southern slopes have lost the sun1 for the sun at #f p4m4 is due west and after #f p4m4 is north of west4 ,of course1 as the sun is low in the sky only north slopes that are not shut in by neighbouring slopes will keep the sun4 ,if a north wind is blowing1 the snow on north slopes1 previously crusted by sun and frost1 may remain quite unmelted throughout the day4 ,i have found hard slippery crust in the late afternoon at the end of ,april just below the rocks of the ,zinal ,rothhorn1 with the result that the ski-ing was most unpleasant4 ,a bitter north wind was blowing at the time4 ,so1 too1 south slopes when the north wind is blowing may resist the sun1 and though they will not1 like north slopes1 remain really hard1 they will not be thoroughly melted4 ,if you are lucky enough to get fine weather1 ,april ski-ing is often delightful4 ,after a few days of sun traces of wind action disappear from all slopes1 save perhaps north slopes at very high altitudes4 ,telemark crust towards midday1 and even later1 and salt snow or hypo snow 7p4 #dag7 as you descend from the glaciers to the lower regions1 are characteristic of ,april ski-ing4 ,it may be necessary to time your descent to the valley so as to pass a dangerous slope before the sun has struck it4 ,with ordinary caution an experienced party should run no risk whatever of being caught by an avalanche2 but it is undeniable that inexperienced parties come to grief more frequently in ,april than in any other month4 ,this does not prove that the avalanche danger is really greater1 but only that it is greater for the inexperienced4 ,sidenote3 ,may4 ,in ,may newly fallen snow usually remains powdery for one or two days on north slopes1 and even longer at high altitudes4 ,but1 in general1 powder snow is the exception in ,may4 ,at high altitudes you will find hard marble crust in the early morning4 ,at lower altitudes you will usually find #8film crust' and #8perforated crust4' ,for the formation of these excellent running surfaces1 see p4 #dad4 ,the main difference between marble crust on the one hand1 and either film crust or perforated crust on the other hand1 is that the former is too slippery to give the ski purchase1 whereas film or perforated crust is a splendid surface for ,stemming turns or ,christianias4 ,as a rule1 in spring one descends after the sun has softened the crust4 ,whether the original morning crust was hard and slippery1 or covered by a film or perforated crust1 does not matter once the sun has melted its surface4#bd ,in any case1 there will be a period of ski-ing on ,telemark crust 7p4 #dae74 ,the main importance of film or perforated crust is its value when you have to begin a descent before the sun has softened the snow4 ,i remember starting one morning just after the dawn from the ,oberaarjoch4 ,i intended to ski down to the ,grimsel and thence to climb the ,galenstock1 and ,i hoped to go from the ,oberaarjoch hut to the ,furka between dawn and sunset1 taking the ,galenstock en route4 ,it was obvious that an early start was necessary4 ,at that date ,i had done little ski-ing in ,june1 and ,i fully expected that the top slopes of the ,oberaarjoch would be covered by very hard and slippery marble crust4 ,to my great surprise the crust1 though hard1 was covered by a beautiful film of soft1 transparent brittle ice4 ,as the ski swung round on a turn1 this soft film peeled away and rustled down the slope with a soft splashing sound4 ,no surface could be finer4 ,straight running was absolutely safe on the even1 unchanging gradients of those summit slopes4 ,there were no hidden rocks or hidden crevasses to fear4 ,the film crust was absolutely true4 ,there was no risk of running into a soft sticky patch or a windswept pocket4 ,one could run as fast as one liked1 secure in the knowledge that at any moment one could stop by a long-drawn-out ,christiania4 ,on really steep slopes one could link a succession of sweeping ,christianias1 the loveliest of all conceivable turns1 and on gentle slopes one could run straight4 ,the soft film gave an excellent purchase and prevented the ski side-slipping helplessly as one began to turn1 for the ski cut in under the film and peeled it away4 ,until a man has skied down from some glacier pass at dawn on film crust he has yet to learn the best that ski-ing can yield4 ,that run from the ,oberaarjoch stands out as one of the finest runs of my life4 ,the great charm of film crust is that fast running can be combined with absolute safety1 for a dangerous fall is almost impossible on this surface4 ,i remember that we took twenty minutes from the pass to the snout of the glacier1 and duly arrived at ,gletsch after taking the ,galenstock en route before sunset4 ,perforated crust is harder and firmer than film crust4 ,on very steep slopes it is a little too slippery1 but on anything below #be degrees it gives perfect running4 ,in ,may film crust and perforated crust are common in the early morning1 and marble crust is unusual4 ,after fresh snow one finds all sorts of shades of snow from pure winter snow to film crust1 but a few days of cloudless weather is usually sufficient to change powder into crust on all but very high north slopes4 ,sidenote3 ,june4 ,june differs mainly from ,may in that the snowline is higher and that winter snow is even more uncommon4 ,film crust and perforated crust is the rule at all save high altitudes and just after fresh snow4 ,as a rule the snow is even better in ,june than in ,may4 ,the more frequently spring snow is melted and refrozen the better it becomes4 ,old snow that has passed through this process again and again acquires a granular and crystalline character4 ,it does not melt so thoroughly4 ,provided there is no touch of ,fhn in the air1 it retains this crystalline form even when it is melted4 ,in ,june the snow remains good for ski-ing much later in the day than in ,may1 even though the sun is higher in the sky4 ,in ,may the period of transition from wet snow to crust is very sudden4 ,one moment the snow is wet and heavy1 and half an hour later the first crust has formed4 ,in ,june there is often a well-marked intermediate period when the snow gradually gets colder and more crystalline4 ,this granular snow is very fast and very true1 and suitable for every kind of turn and swing at high speed4 ,on ,may evenings the soft crust is very pleasant1 but it is a little too soft and the snow underneath the crust is a little too woolly2 but in ,june when the sun goes off the slopes the snow becomes crystalline1 cold1 fast and just compact enough to prevent the ski sinking in too deep4 ,in ,june the lower limits of the nv often show signs of furrowing4 ,the action of the sun forms ridges and furrows producing a wavy effect4 ,these ridges are unpleasant to ski on or to ski over when the snow is hard1 but quite harmless when the snow has begun to soften4 ,on steep slopes the ridges run roughly parallel with the fall of the slope4 ,on the level the snow is divided into numberless little hillocks with corresponding holes4 ,the action is similar on a small scale to the erosive action of water on a large scale4 ,water furrows an even mountain side with gullies and a more or less level plain with intersecting ravines that produce a series of hills4 ,and just as in the geological cycle the last stage of a mountainous country is a peneplane1 so on snow the action of the sun acts on the ridges and hillocks formed by previous action of the sun and once again reduces the surface to a plain4 ,i have seen in winter one heavy rainstorm furrow the hillsides with miniature ridges and a level snow slope with miniature hillocks1 and ,i have seen the next rainstorm--which followed two days later--erode the ridges and hillocks formed by the first storm and once again produce slopes of even contour and levels unbroken by hillocks4 ,,the ,,spring ,,time-,,table ,the spring ski-runner has1 in general1 the choice of two periods of the day for his descent4 ,he can descend in the morning just after the sun has begun to soften the surface of the hard crust1 or in the evening when the soft melted snow is beginning to freeze again4 ,if the day's run ends at some club hut situated at a reasonable height1 say #ijjj-aj1jjj feet1 he can usually leave the hut about dawn and return about midday1 for the snow at this height is usually perfect just before midday2 or he can time his descent for just before or just after sunset4 ,if he is descending to the valley1 it is usually best to time his descent a great deal earlier4 ,in ,may the snow below #hjjj feet softens very quickly directly the sun touches it1 and becomes dangerous on steep slopes4 ,in this case1 should the snow on the glaciers be film or perforated crust1 he can start his descent before the sun has softened the crust1 so as to reach the lowest limits of the snow before they have been softened by the sun4 ,as this is often impossible1 it is best to time the descent from the peak to the club hut for midday1 or rather before midday1 and then to wait in the hut till sunset1 and continue the run down to the valley after the sun has set and the snow begun to freeze again4 ,guides are often dreadfully impatient1 and have the greatest objection to spending a long time on the summit of a peak4 ,many guides seem to regard summit views with studied malevolence1 and very few guides really understand spring snow4 ,if1 as often happens1 the arrival on the summit occurs after midday1 it is absurd to spoil a perfect descent by running down in the afternoon4 ,the amateur must exercise reasonable restraint and insist on waiting4 ,there are many things more unpleasant than to lie about on the summit of some great peak for three or four hours studying the changing effect of a ,may afternoon on distant hills and valleys1 what time the snow gradually improves4 ,great judgment is required in spring to get the best value out of the descent2 it will often pay a party to wait three or four hours for the snow to improve4 ,summer climbers seldom linger on the summit1 for in summer the wind usually makes itself felt1 but in ,may or ,june one can bask on the top of a peak in shirt sleeves even after the sun has set4 ,eastern slopes1 of course1 are the first to soften in the morning and the first to freeze at night4 ,the best moment to descend varies with the orientation of a slope4 ,it is often possible to choose one of two alternatives1--an eastern or a western route1--and the wise ski-runner can often improve the quality of the descent by a clever choice of line and slope4 ,considerable experience is needed after a fresh fall of snow4 ,snow usually remains powdery for a day or two on north slopes in ,may or ,june4 ,perfect powder snow is by no means the exception in spring2 an inch or two of winter powder on spring crust provides a surface which is absolutely unrivalled4 ,when1 however1 the powder begins to turn into crust the ski-ing may often be difficult4 ,after a snowfall you should try either to find slopes holding winter snow or slopes holding spring snow1 but not slopes on which the snow is just changing from powder to crust4 ,you may1 for instance1 have spent the night at a club hut at a height of #ijjj feet above the sea4 ,you have arrived in the middle of ,june on the first fine day after a snowstorm4 ,the snow near the hut has been thoroughly melted by the sun before your arrival4 ,the weather is clear1 and there is a north wind blowing4 ,you may reasonably expect powder snow on north slopes down to about #aj1jjj feet1 so that if you have a choice of an expedition on north snow1 say a peak #ac1jjj feet high1 you should attempt it1 and you will probably find powder snow most of the way4 ,on the other hand1 a peak of the same height that faced south might be an unpleasant condition1 powder turning into sticky snow or crust4 ,it might therefore be best to choose a small peak1 say #aa1jjj feet1 facing south1 and run down below the hut1 remounting in the evening4 ,such an expedition might yield better ski-ing than a high peak4 ,after a day or two of fine weather all snow1 excepting snow on north slopes at a very great height1 is transformed into ordinary spring snow4 ,thenceforward the ski-runner may count on perfect snow1 provided he times his descent right4 ,it is only with forty-eight hours of a snowfall that there is any real difficulty4 ,during such short periods the experienced spring ski-runner will know whether to go for north slopes in the hope of winter snow or for southern slopes1 or north slopes at lower altitudes1 in search of spring snow4 ,,summer ,,and ,,autumn ,,ski-,,ing ,in summer the snowline climbs ever higher1 and the scope of the ski-runner is accordingly limited4 ,climbers who go straight up a peak and down again to the valley will therefore be unwilling to burden themselves with ski2 but for a man who spends several days in club huts without ever descending far below the summer snowline1 the use of ski for snow-peaks is as valuable as at any other season of the year4 ,monte ,rosa1 ,ebnefluh1 ,fiescherhorn1 etc41 yield quite as good ski-ing down to the club-hut levels in ,august as in ,january--better1 in fact1 for the snow is usually better in ,august than in ,january4 ,of course the crevasses are more open than in spring1 and the greatest care is needed after a fresh fall of snow4 ,the snow conditions as the summer advances gradually change4 ,july is not unlike ,june1 excepting that there is less snow on the mountains and that the snowline is higher4 ,otherwise one finds in ,july all the varieties of spring snow from film crust to granular snow4 ,on #bj ,august the sun is at the same altitude as on #bj ,april1 and on #bj ,september it is at the same altitude as on #bj ,march4 ,so that towards the end of ,september we should expect that the sun would be powerless to affect powder snow on north slopes just as it is powerless at the end of ,march to transform powder into crust on north slopes at reasonably high altitudes4 ,in ,august powder snow on north slopes usually remains uncrusted for two or three days after a fall4 ,the wind1 which was powerless in ,may or ,june1 begins to regain its ascendancy4 ,in ,august one finds at high altitudes on north slopes all the usual effects of wind action that one may observe in ,april4 ,one does not see the same traces of wind that one observes in ,january1 for the snowfalls are lighter and the sun is stronger1 but windboard and rippled snow are common enough in ,august4 ,in ,september and ,october snow remains powdery unless affected by ,fhn on north slopes above #ijjj feet4 ,in ,october the snowfalls usually begin at the ordinary alpine centres4 ,i have enjoyed perfect ski-ing at ,mrren by the middle of ,october2 ski expeditions in the ,high ,alps have also been carried out at this date1 though the practice is to be discouraged2 for1 of course1 the glaciers are never so dangerous as in ,october or ,november1 when the maximum number of crevasses are open and the snow bridges more insecure than at any other period of the year4 ,in a few years' time many club huts will be provided with ski1 so that the trouble of carrying ski to the summer snowline will no longer exist4 ,when once this obstacle to summer ski-ing is removed1 ,i confidently expect that it will be the exception rather than the rule to see climbers ascending ,monte ,rosa or similar peaks without ski at any period of the year4 ,,summer ,,ski ,short summer ski are very useful4 ,a handy size is about #e feet in length4 ,such ski are very light and easily carried1 and can be tied on between the rucksack and the back4 ,they are becoming very popular1 and have a great future4 ,on hard snow short ski are nearly as fast and as steady as long ski4 ,on soft snow they are1 of course1 nothing like so fast1 and are apt to be jerky and unpleasant if the snow varies in density or in speed4 ,on steep slopes of soft snow they are quite as good as long ski1 for they are very easy to turn2 and so long as the slope is steep enough to descend with continuous turns1 short ski are as good or better than long ski4 ,it is on gradual slopes of soft snow or crust that their disadvantage is marked4 ,they are amazingly handy for really steep narrow slopes1 such as gullies4 ,on short summer ski one can descend a gully #dj degrees steep and about #ab feet wide with sharp continuous turns4 ,stemming turns and ,christianias are ridiculously easy4 ,mountaineers who have never been on ski will find short ski quite easy to manage4 ,a man who can glissade with safety down a steep gully will be able to ski almost at once on good snow and on easy slopes without too many falls1 and should be able to make slow turns on short ski after a day or two's practice4 ,provided the snow is good1 the average nv is an ideal practice-ground for beginners owing to the absence of obstacles4 ,even very short ski1 #c feet or #d feet in length1 are a great deal better than no ski4 ,on steep slopes they are most useful1 and even on gentle slopes1 provided the snow is hard1 one can get a really fine run on a pair of ski no more than a yard in length4 ,,footnotes3 #ah ,i may perhaps refer the reader to my own book ,cross ,country ,ski-ing 7,methuen7 or to ,v4 ,caulfeild's book ,how to ,ski for the technique of ski-ing4 #ai ,i am ignorant of physics and should be glad to have this guess corroborated by a physicist4 #bj ,eastern slopes retain powder snow rather longer than western slopes1 possibly because the morning sun is less powerful than the evening sun1 as the atmosphere warms up as the day proceeds4 ,further1 as the prevailing alpine winds blow from the west1 slopes that face east are less often spoiled by wind than those which face west4 #ba ,sometimes when the night is unusually mild the crust is not sufficiently firm1 and at the first touch of sun1 it does not merely melt superficially producing ,telemark crust1 but gives under the ski and yields very nasty running4 ,this is usually the case at low altitudes in ,may4 #bb ,as the prevailing alpine winds blow from the west1 western rock ridges and rock faces are usually more free from snow than eastern ridges4 ,see footnote1 p4 #dji4 #bc ,as the middle of the glacier moves faster than the sides1 and as the line of cleavage is at right angles to the line of tension1 lateral crevasses1 contrary to what casual deduction might suppose1 run backwards from the side of the glacier to the centre4 #bd ,provided that the night has been cloudless4 ,an overcast sky1 or ,fhn1 will only produce a very weak crust which gives at once when the sun rises4 ,see footnote on p4 #dae4 ,a couple of hours of a cloudless sky is1 however1 quite enough to produce a good firm crust at night4 ,,chapter ,x ,,mountain ,,photography ,,by ,,sydney ,,spencer ,it is somewhat superfluous to draw attention to the immense popularity attained by photography in the mountains4 ,among climbers very few are content to supply their requirements from the work of others1 and it may safely be asserted that a camera is almost certain of its place in the outfit of at least three-fourths of the climbing parties of the present day4 ,it is true that the majority of these confine themselves to snapshot photography4 ,this cannot be regarded as a serious form of the art1 seeing that it is practically impossible to compose a picture on the diminutive scale of the usual view-finder1 and that the films generally used are too uncertain in results4 ,photographers1 also1 of this class very rarely trouble to do their own developing4 ,excellent work can1 however1 be done with a hand camera4 ,it has one drawback3 the lens is usually a fixture1 and provides only one fixed focus1 a very important consideration in serious photography4 ,but if the climber decides to use such a hand camera1 the following remarks may be of service4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,camera4 ,the best form for mountain work is the folding variety4 ,there are innumerable good makes from which to choose4 ,reflex cameras are too bulky for mountain work4 ,the adjustments should be as simple as possible2 and for good work a focussing glass is essential4 ,the lens1 by far the most important portion of the camera1 should be the very best obtainable4 ,it should be fitted with automatic shutter for instantaneous and time exposures1 and also with a lens cap4 ,this latter ,i have always preferred to use for long exposures in preference to an automatic shutter4 ,it is much easier to avoid shaking the camera in removing a lens cap than it is in pressing the lever of an automatic shutter4 ,the use of a wooden folding tripod with a triangle top ,i strongly recommend in preference to the brass or aluminium tripod with telescoping legs1 since such legs are not sufficiently rigid4 ,i advocate the use of glass plates2 and three dark slides1 or better still1 a changing box to hold six plates or twelve cut films1 complete the apparatus4 ,so far1 the most satisfactory changing box ,i have come across is one #8made in ,germany'2 of which the description is given on another page of this chapter4 ,an adapter for a film-pack adds very little to the weight1 and is a useful addition to the outfit4 ,a hand camera such as ,i have described is of great service on rock climbs of difficulty1 where it is not expedient to embarrass the party by taking the more complicated paraphernalia of a stand camera4 ,there is a type of climber to whom the merely gymnastic or1 we will say1 athletic side of climbing is not the sole aim and object of the sport4 ,he is an enthusiastic lover of the marvellous beauties of the mountain recesses1 and wishes to take home impressions of the peaks and glaciers as he himself has seen them2 for climbers know well that the mountains are ever changing in aspect from one year to another1 or even from season to season4 ,he sees and desires to record atmospheric effects which may never be repeated during his climbing experience4 ,he takes his photography seriously1 and he is consequently prepared to put himself to a considerable amount of trouble to obtain really artistic records of the scenery amongst which he climbs4 ,for such a type of climber ,i decidedly recommend the stand camera in preference to the hand camera4 ,it entails rather more trouble1 but this is certain to be justified by the superior results4 ,the component parts of a stand camera outfit may be enumerated shortly as follows3 #a4 ,body of the ,camera4--,this should be of the best possible make1 with metal-bound corners1 and fitted with a metal turn-table4 ,all the metal parts should be of aluminium1 for the sake of lightness4 ,it should have the usual rising front and swing-back1 and an adjustable focussing glass for horizontal or vertical pictures4 ,the body must1 of course1 fold up1 and it is most important that all the adjustments should be as simple as possible1 so as not to waste valuable time in a climbing day4 #b4 ,the ,lens4--,this1 as ,i have already remarked1 is the most vital feature of a camera4 ,for stand camera work ,i would urge the adoption of a set of three or four interchangeable lenses1 as this gives the photographer a wide range of focal angles to choose from1 and practically enables him to include in his pictures just as much as he desires4 ,for a half-plate camera1 two #ad-;inch1 one #aa-;inch and one #i-;inch lens make a good set1 giving a series of focal lengths ranging from #e inches to #ad inches4 ,for a quarter-plate camera1 two #aa-;inch1 one #i-;inch and one #g-;inch lens will give a range of focal lengths from #d inches to #aa inches4 ,the lens mount is fitted with an iris diaphragm and a detachable ring marked with the apertures suitable for each lens combination4 ,a yellow screen1 of such a shade as to increase the exposure by three times1 is useful where there are trees or grass in the foreground1 and serves also to soften the shadows4 ,its use ensures clouds not being lost in development through over-exposure1 although it cannot be claimed that successful results may not be obtained without it4 ,it is also of distinct advantage in a hazy atmosphere4 ,a ,thornton ,pickard shutter will be found useful1 but for time exposures the lens cap is really all that is necessary4 #c4 ,three ordinary double-back slides are usually taken2 but they may be replaced by a changing box--a more convenient and compact way of carrying the plates4 ,most of the changing boxes on the market are made with a folding leather bag at one end1 and the changing of the plates from front to back is effected by hand2 but the writer has always used a changing box in which an inner shell pulls out like a drawer1 taking with it1 by means of a clip1 the exposed plate in its sheath4 ,as soon as the inner shell is drawn out to its full length the sheath drops to the bottom of the shell4 ,this is then pushed back again1 and the used plate slides in at the back of the unexposed plates1 which have meanwhile been pushed up by a spring4 ,the metal sheaths are numbered on the back4 ,the photographer can see which number has been taken by turning over the box when he has partly pushed back the inner shell after the exposed plate has dropped to the bottom4 ,he will then see the number through a red glass-covered opening4 ,as this appears to be the only box of the kind which is made1 it may be advisable to state that it is known as the #8,grundmann' changing box4 ,some enterprising ,british firm should be induced to bring out something similar4 ,the movements are so simple that it can hardly fail to work properly4 ,six plates are generally sufficient for one day's work1 and a changing box made for that number will not weigh more than three dark slides with the same number of plates4 ,if desired1 the six plates can be replaced by twelve cut films in suitable thin sheaths4 #d4 ,the ,tripod4--,the ordinary camera legs on the market are1 even when folded1 inconveniently long for mountain work1 and for rock climbing may prove a real source of danger4 ,for comfort1 legs when folded should not measure more than #ab inches at the utmost4 ,it is best to have a set specially made1 and ,i know of nothing better than a set made in the following manner4 ,the bottom section of each leg is a solid square-sided aluminium bar with a very sharp point4 ,this slides into a square wooden frame4 ,over the frame the two next sections are folded2 the top one folds inside the second1 so as to unfold in the same direction4 ,made in this way1 the tops need only to be pressed together in order to fit them1 with a slight spring1 on to the pegs of the turn-table4 ,a cross strut makes the fit tight and immovable4 ,the total length of the legs opened out is about #db inches1 which is quite as long as is necessary for mountain work4 ,a set of legs made in this way stands perfectly rigid2 it will also go easily into the side pocket of the rucksack1 or it can be carried on the top of the sack without the slightest inconvenience to the climber4 #e4 ,the outfit is completed by a focussing cloth1 with a running tape along one side1 which prevents the cloth from blowing about in the wind4 ,as regards the comparative merits of glass plates and films1 the latter have the one great advantage of lightness1 but they are notoriously uncertain and much more difficult to control in development4 ,the most satisfactory results are obtained with slow plates1 of which six are enough for any ordinary expedition4 ,it is not a bad plan to take in addition an adapter with a film-pack1 for snapshots of climbing incidents4 ,the best size of camera to take is a debatable point4 ,half plate is the largest which can be carried with convenience2 and for the best results there is no question whatever that the larger size is the better to work with4 ,a half-plate camera1 as described1 can be carried on most ascents of average difficulty2 with the possible exception1 perhaps1 of strenuous rock climbs1 such as the ,dru or the ,grpon1 where anything but a hand camera is liable to be a distinct incumbrance4 ,but on the whole1 for all-round utility ,i am inclined to recommend the quarter-plate size4 ,in addition to the economy in weight and bulk of the whole apparatus1 the quarter-plate negatives are a more convenient size from which to make lantern slides1 and excellent enlargements can always be made from good negatives of this dimension4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,choice of ,subject4 ,we come now to the all-important question of choice of subject2 one on which it is most difficult to give definite advice1 seeing that so much depends on the artistic perceptions of the photographer4 ,photography to a certain extent is a mechanical art1 but good photographers invest their work with a decided individuality2 and it is this at which the novice should aim4 ,the first thing to bear in mind is the proper balance of proportions4 ,to achieve this the set of interchangeable lenses already recommended are indispensable4 ,without them a photographer must find considerable difficulty in conveying the true impressions of the mountain landscape as seen from the point at which the photograph is taken4 ,panoramic views of distant ranges will of course always continue to be taken2 but as pictures they are of small value unless they are assisted by atmospheric effects of cloud or mist4 ,in photographing peaks close at hand1 it is usually best not to include more than one summit in the picture1 or at any rate to make one peak the central point of interest4 ,others may only be included if they can be made to enhance the value of the main feature in the composition4 ,the majority of views of this type look best if they are taken on plates placed vertically2 but this is by no means a rule to be rigidly followed4 ,broad mountain masses1 such as ,mont ,blanc and the ,grandes ,jorasses1 or composite peaks1 of the type of ,monte ,rosa1 should always be taken horizontally4 ,the chief feature in the picture should never be placed in the centre1 but rather to one side of the view2 and the lines of intervening ridges and glaciers should be included1 so as to lead the eye towards the main object4 ,this produces the necessary impression of distance and depth2 an easy effect generally1 if the photo is taken from below1 but not always feasible if the view is from a summit4 ,the effect of distance and depth is always much helped by a good foreground1 but the foreground must not on any account draw the attention from the main feature4 ,such a foreground is of special value in the case of views of peaks as seen from a summit1 where it is not possible to include the base of the peaks in the picture4 ,a few rocks intruding in the immediate foreground1 or a ridge running so as to connect the distant view with the standpoint of the photographer1 removes the feeling of blankness and of lack of distance which the absence of any foreground is apt to produce4 ,the amount of sky which may be properly included should occupy from about a quarter to a third of the plate4 ,too much sky produces a very bad effect2 whilst1 on the other hand1 many photographers make the mistake of bringing the peaks too near the top of the picture1 giving them an unnaturally attenuated appearance4 ,ice-falls and much-broken glaciers compose very easily4 ,on the other hand1 broad expanses of snow-field are about the most difficult subject the mountain photographer can tackle4 ,the texture of the snow is the one thing to aim at4 ,if this is not brought out1 the picture is valueless4 ,slight under-exposure is the secret of success4 ,for these subjects it is better to have the sun well in front1 as the light on the snowy surface is then well broken by shadows4 ,for the other kinds of mountain subjects ,i should recommend the novice1 where slow plates are used1 to err on the side of over-exposure1 and to develop slowly4 ,by this method he will find it is easier to get atmosphere into his pictures4 ,a certain amount of detail may be lost in the distant objects1 but he will secure a much truer gradation between his distances4 ,as regards the development of slow plates1 it should be noted that this can be carried out with comparative strong light1 provided it is suitably shaded4 ,the developer should be gradually increased in strength4 ,the photographer can then see easily what he is doing1 and1 by means of brushwork1 can control the development of any portion of the negative4 ,broken light is essential to the success of most mountain photographs1 and for this reason the best time for taking them is usually early and late in the day4 ,this is of course not an invariable rule1 and the photographer must be guided by the subject he has in front of him4 ,moreover1 the climber is not always able to choose the time of day for his work4 ,if the midday light is very brilliant1 the yellow screen can be utilized4 ,personally1 ,i have used it very seldom1 but have made a practice of using a very small stop1 and have trusted to slow development for the rest4 ,sidenote3 ,colour ,photography4 ,i should like also to draw attention to two other forms of photography which have been introduced in recent years1 and have proved very attractive to climbers4 ,colour photography exercises an extraordinary fascination1 and it would doubtless become still more popular if the plates were less costly4 ,there are several forms of plates and processes1 and with all of them some remarkable results have been obtained4 ,the different processes vary somewhat in simplicity of manipulation4 ,one of the simplest is the ,lumire ,autochrome4 ,the photograph is taken in the ordinary way1 but with the proper light filter1 as prescribed1 fixed on the lens front4 ,it is to be remembered that the focussing glass must be reversed owing to the fact that the plate is placed in the dark slide with the film turned inside4 ,the essential point is to learn to judge of the correct exposure4 ,over-exposure can be corrected by intensification1 but it is a troublesome process4 ,the development is perfectly simple if the instructions given are carefully followed4 ,it is very important to see that the solutions used are cold enough1 otherwise the unhappy photographer runs the risk of watching a perfectly successful colour picture melt away in front of his eyes4 ,sidenote3 ,stereoscopic ,photography4 ,the other form referred to is stereoscopic photography1 which is more particularly adapted to snapshots of climbing incidents and to studies of rock and glacier scenery near at hand1 since the pictures can be taken with the camera held at any angle1 even pointing directly above the head or below the feet1 and the scenes are afterwards reproduced in marvellously lifelike manner in the stereoscope4 ,to secure the full stereoscopic effect the #8lines' of the picture should start from the immediate foreground and carry the eye away to the main object1 i4e4 the camera should be held close down to the surface of water or glacier1 or with one side close against a wall of rock as foreground4 ,a rock crest running immediately away from the camera1 or two1 containing walls of ice or rock on either hand1 give the best results1 and provide the framework of illusion for the more distant scene4 ,the stereoscopic effect is lost in distant views4 ,the handiest size in this camera1 the #8,verascope1' is #ajg cm4 by #de cm4 ,it is made of metal throughout4 ,it carries a detachable magazine of twelve plates1 and weighs rather more than a pair of field-glasses4 ,films can be substituted for plates for lightness1 but the results are on the whole inferior4 ,if it is carried in a strong leather case1 the camera will stand an extraordinary amount of rough treatment on rocks and immersion in rivers4 ,it is especially suited for difficult climbing and exploration1 where it is desired to record special passages and incidents1 at angles1 and in circumstances and climates1 in which the ordinary camera is useless4 99 99 99 99 99 ,my final piece of advice is1 never leave the camera behind1 and never waste plates or time unless the result is likely to be successful4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,mountaineering ,,in ,,tropical ,,countries ,,by ,a4 ,f4 ,r4 ,,wollaston 7,the suggestions contained in this chapter are based on some experience of travel in the mountains of ,africa and ,new ,guinea1 and it is assumed that the conditions are not materially different in the mountains of tropical ,south ,america4 ,it is taken for granted that the transport animal is man1 and that after entering the mountains the traveller must depend entirely on the provisions he carries with him4 ,the medical suggestions are intended only for those who have no special knowledge of the subject1 and for conditions in which only the simplest treatment is possible47 ,,health ,the first essential to the success of an expedition lies in the good health of the various members of the party4 ,hard work in the trying conditions of tropical mountains soon saps the energy of the most robust1 but by taking proper precautions a man may continue in good health for six months or even longer4 ,sidenote3 ,prevention of ,sickness4 ,when the body is for many hours daily bathed in sweat and smeared with mud1 personal cleanliness becomes of the first importance4 ,a bath1 if it can be managed1 or a sponge-down1 should be the rule every evening1 and all cuts and scratches must be carefully attended to and protected from infection4 ,the question of hot or cold water may be left to the preference of the individual1 with this reservation1 that no man should ever take a cold bath when he has cooled down after freely perspiring4 ,the teeth are liable in hot climates to become loose and even to fall out4 ,they should be kept scrupulously clean1 and the mouth may be washed out with a weak solution of ,condy's fluid4 ,the hair should at all times be cropped short both for comfort and cleanliness1 and paraffin or some other oil should be rubbed into the scalp4 ,a regular action of the bowels is even more necessary in tropical than in temperate climates4 ,there may be some difficulty about this on a diet of tinned foods1 but it can generally be ensured by a daily plate of porridge 7see below1 ,constipation74 ,to avoid malaria every effort must be made to escape the attacks of the anopheles mosquito4 ,it will not be possible for the traveller to carry with him a mosquito-proof tent1 but failing this1 he must use a well-constructed mosquito net1 made in one piece1 without an opening at the side4 ,the lower edge of the net should not hang loosely1 but should be tucked under the edge of the mattress if one be used1 or otherwise stretched tightly round the edge of the bed4 ,the meshes of the muslin should not be less than twelve to the inch4 ,it is good economy1 as well as being more humane1 to provide your #8boys' and other servants with mosquito nets4 ,mosquito boots1 i4e4 light boots with long loose uppers of canvas or thin leather1 into which the trousers can be tucked1 are conveniently worn in the evening to prevent mosquitoes biting the ankles4 ,if a camp be occupied for several days1 it is advisable to see that stagnant pools near by are filled up1 and that no discarded tins are lying about to become filled with rain-water1 in which mosquitoes may breed4 ,here it may be convenient to state that very many diseases of the ,tropics--cholera1 dysentery1 typhoid1 bilharzia1 etc4--are spread chiefly by means of water4 ,it is therefore of the greatest importance to make sure of a supply of pure water4 ,filters will remove mud and other suspended matter from water1 and a good filter in perfect condition may provide a sterile water2 but it is seldom possible to keep a filter perfectly clean1 and it is better to do without it altogether4 ,if the water is stagnant1 or if there is any possibility of its having been contaminated in any way1 it is always advisable to boil it and make tea1 or if it is preferred1 to aerate it with sparklets4 8,when in doubt1 boil10 is a golden rule4 ,as a medicinal prevention of malaria there is nothing more effectual than to take a daily dose of #e grains of quinine bihydrochloride4 ,as this is a somewhat expensive drug1 the native members of the expedition1 if they are numerous1 may be given the less costly 7but less soluble7 quinine bisulphate1 #e grains4 ,if it is not convenient to give quinine to the natives every day1 it may be given to them in #aj-;grain doses twice a week on consecutive days4 ,the tabloids may be sugar-coated for the natives1 who may otherwise surreptitiously reject them4 7,the following suggestions are intended for the necessarily limited possibilities of a mountain camp47 ,sidenote3 ,treatment4 ,malaria4--,so long as his temperature is above normal1 the sick man should1 if possible1 be kept in bed4 ,give #c grains of calomel followed by a dose of ,epsom salts to clear the liver and bowels4 ,continue to give three doses of #e grains each of quinine bihydrochloride every day that the fever lasts2 but do not give the quinine while the temperature is raised4 ,when the attack has ceased give #aj grains daily for a week1 and afterwards continue with the regular daily dose of #e grains4 ,at the same time it is very important to make sure of a regular action of the bowels4 ,if1 while the attack lasts1 headache is very severe and persistent1 #e or #aj grains of phenacetin may be given2 but this drug is greatly abused and is often of little or no use4 ,sweating may be stimulated by giving copious draughts of hot tea2 when the sweating stage is at an end1 the pyjamas should be immediately changed4 ,diarrha is a very common trouble1 particularly when no fresh food is obtainable4 ,it is usually sufficient to take a dose of castor oil and to eat as little as possible for #bd hours4 ,if this treatment is not effective1 give #aj grains of bismuth subnitrate three times daily1 and a diet of milk and arrowroot or ,horlick's malted milk4 ,if the diarrha ceases1 but there is still discomfort in the bowels1 #aj drops of chlorodyne may be given1 but in most cases it is better to avoid the use of this drug4 ,dysentery4--,rest in bed1 warmth1 a diet of milk and water and arrowroot1 and a preliminary dose of castor oil are the first essentials of the treatment4 ,severe cases may be well treated by the use of emetine hydrochloride1 in keratin-coated cachets1 containing one -grain dose4 ,one dose should be taken each day1 and the treatment should be continued until he has taken altogether #h grains4 ,as an after-treatment it may be good practice to take #b drams of liquid paraffin every night4 ,there are some who advocate the regular use of this every day as a preventative of intestinal disease1 but such a thing will be hardly practicable on a mountain expedition with limited transport4 ,the treatment by ipecacuanha cannot be recommended for camp use4 ,less severe types of dysentery may be treated by giving small doses 7#a dram7 of sulphate of magnesia every two or three hours to ensure a free watery purgation1 which may be continued until the pain has ceased4 ,if the disease proves to be intractable1 the sick man should be removed to the nearest place of civilization as soon as possible4 ,constipation is not a very common trouble in tropical mountain expeditions4 ,it may generally be avoided by eating a daily plate of porridge and1 if they can be carried1 by eating prunes and figs4 ,if the camp arrangements make bread-making possible1 it is a good plan to mix with the white flour some whole meal1 or1 in countries where it is grown1 the meal made from millet4 ,if none of these measures ensures a daily action of the bowels1 a dose of sulphate of magnesia 7 to #a ounce7 may be taken early in the morning1 or one #8,livingstone ,rouser' or cascara sagrada or two vegetable laxatives 7,burroughs ,wellcome7 may be taken over-night4 ,sunstroke is not at all likely to occur1 but if a serious case should happen1 and the temperature rise to #aje or #ajf1 the patient should be stripped and wrapped in cold wet blankets until the temperature falls to #ajc1 after which he should be placed in bed in the darkest and coolest place possible2 the bowels must be kept open and a liquid diet given for some days4 ,coughs and ,colds are sometimes exceedingly troublesome4 ,they may often be cured at the outset by taking a hot bath 7if that be practicable7 with mustard in it1 followed by bed with many blankets and a dose 7#aj to #ae grains7 of ,dover's powder4 ,a sore throat may be treated by frequent gargles of weak solution of potassium permanganate 7,condy's fluid7 and by sucking tabloids of chlorate of potash4 ,nasal catarrh may sometimes be cured by sniffing the vapour arising from the open mouth of a bottle of formalin4 ,toothache is one of the most frequent and most distressing troubles of a mountain expedition1 and it ought1 as far as possible1 to be avoided by visiting a dentist before leaving civilization4 ,if the pain is in a decayed tooth1 it is sometimes sufficient1 after clearing away the debris1 to put into the cavity some powdered carbonate of soda2 it is more efficacious to put in very carefully a small drop of pure carbolic acid on a plug of cotton wool4 ,pain at the root of a tooth may be relieved by painting the gum with tincture of iodine1 but the cheek should be held away from the jaw until the tincture has dried4 ,some forms of toothache can only be treated by extraction1 and no expedition ought to make a long journey without three or four forceps4 ,the sufferer will probably prefer extraction at the hands of an amateur to the horrors of prolonged toothache4 ,sleeplessness is often a very serious trouble1 not less at high altitudes than in the sweltering heat of the foothills4 ,sleep may sometimes be induced by drinking a cup of hot cocoa shortly before going to bed2 it is also a good plan to have biscuits within reach during the night4 ,if the insomnia is very persistent1 it may become necessary to give up smoking and to reduce as far as possible the consumption of tea4 ,the use of powerful sleeping-draughts is strongly to be deprecated1 except in extreme cases4 ,conjunctivitis is certain to occur to one or more members of the expedition4 ,it is easily treated by a weak solution of boric acid1 or an astringent solution of zinc sulphate 7#a grain in #a ounce of water74 ,an eye-bath is easily carried1 and is very useful4 ,skin ,diseases4--,the most common that is likely to be met with is #8prickly heat1' which is due to extensive sweating4 ,the amount of fluids drunk should be cut down as much as possible1 and some relief may be obtained by the use of a weak solution of carbolic acid 7#a in #ej74 ,it is a good plan to use a dusting powder before going to bed4 #8,scrub ,itch' and #8,dhobie ,itch' are names given to a very irritating and inflamed condition of the skin1 more especially of the moister parts1 such as the arm-pits and the inside of the thighs4 ,it is in many cases particularly troublesome at night1 and it is not at all easy to cure4 ,the part should be kept scrupulously clean1 and a sulphur ointment 7#aj per cent7 may be applied4 ,a dusting powder of zinc and boric acid often gives temporary relief from the irritation4 ,ringworm of one kind or another is almost certain to occur among a large number of men4 ,it is hopeless to expect to cure a case during the course of an expedition1 but the spread of it may be checked by the use of a sulphur ointment or by painting the part with liniment of iodine4 ,body ,parasites4--,in places where #8jiggers' are found1 it is certain that the men are adepts at their extraction2 but a ,european1 who takes proper care of his feet and wears long boots in camp1 need not be troubled by them4 ,if the body is invaded by lice1 they can be got rid of by the use of a mercury ointment4 ,snake ,bite requires the most prompt treatment4 ,without loss of time a strong ligature must be tied about the limb above the bite3 thus1 for a bite on the finger the ligature may be at the base of the fingers1 for a bite on the hand or forearm it must be above the elbow1 and for a bite on the foot or leg the ligature must be above the knee4 ,the ligature must be twisted tightly by means of a stick1 and at intervals of about half an hour it should be relaxed for a few seconds to prevent the risk of gangrene4 ,with a sharp knife the whole of the area about the puncture should be freely cut away1 and the wound should be washed with a strong solution of permanganate of potash4 ,a less heroic1 but less reliable1 treatment is to make two or three incisions into the flesh about the puncture1 and to rub into the cuts crystals of permanganate of potash4 ,a small quantity of alcohol may be given1 and the patient may be put to bed and kept warm4 ,the popular remedies of large quantities of brandy1 walking about1 and sucking the wound are of no value4 ,leeches1 by reason of their delicate gait1 often find their way into the most intimate and unexpected places1 and may be gorged with blood before they are detected4 ,they should never be pulled off3 a touch with the juice out of a well-smoked pipe will cause them to shrivel and drop off4 ,in the early mornings1 when leeches stretch themselves expectant on every twig1 a wise man will walk in the rear of his caravan4 ,cuts and ,scratches1 if not attended to at once1 may lead to abscesses and #8veldt-sores' and an infinity of trouble4 ,even the smallest scratch should be treated at once with the iodine bottle1 which may be easily carried in a pocket1 or if necessary1 with a bandage4 ,boils are best treated by dusting with boric acid powder and protecting them with a gauze dressing4 ,when they come to a head1 the top may be cut off and a drop of pure carbolic acid applied1 after which a gauze dressing must be used until it is completely healed4 ,abscesses may be opened with a sharp knife1 when they #8point1' and dressed with a wet gauze dressing1 frequently changed1 until the discharge has ceased4 ,the smallest abscesses and boils should be treated with extreme care1 as they are very liable in the ,tropics to develop into ulcers if neglected4 ,the treatment of ,sprains and ,fractures must be learnt from one of the many small handbooks of ,first-aid4 ,sidenote3 ,medicine ,cases and ,drugs4 ,for use in ,africa no better case has been devised than the #8,congo ,chest' 7,no4 #bej7 of ,messrs4 ,burroughs1 ,wellcome ,co41 and in other countries1 where it cannot be carried far1 it is useful as a store to be kept at the base camp4 ,a smaller case1 which will fulfil most of the ordinary requirements1 is the ,no4 #bca case1 weight about #g lb4 ,for the higher ascents1 where only the barest necessities can be carried1 a leathern pocket-case 7such as ,no4 #aad1 ,b4 ,w4 ,co47 should be taken4 ,in all circumstances it will be advisable to take an additional supply of bandages and dressings1 which cannot be contained in the case itself4 ,it is important that all drugs should be obtained fresh from the makers shortly before the departure of the expedition4 ,the following is a list of drugs1 etc41 which may be found useful in a tropical expedition3 ,quinine bihydrochloride gr4 v4 ,quinine bisulphate gr4 v4 ,blaud pill gr4 iv4 ,potassium chlorate gr4 v4 ,dover powder gr4 v4 ,iron and arsenic compound4 ,bismuth subnitrate gr4 v4 ,ginger essence min4 x4 ,potassium permanganate gr4 ii4 ,calomel gr4 i4 ,salol gr4 v4 ,salicin gr4 v4 ,laxative vegetable4 #8,livingstone ,rouser4' ,zinc sulphate gr4 i4 ,opium gr4 i4 ,aspirin gr4 v4 ,phenacetin gr4 v4 ,soda mint4 ,easton syrup dr4 ,cascara sagrada gr4 ii4 ,ipecacuanha 7sine emetine7 gr4 v4 ,in addition to the above1 which are taken in tabloid form1 a supply should be taken of the following3 ,pure carbolic acid4 ,boric acid4 ,castor oil4 ,sulphate of magnesia4 ,iodoform4 ,lanolin4 ,vaselin4 ,sulphur ointment 7#a in #aj74 ,ammoniated mercury ointment 7#a in #aj74 ,iodine liniment4 ,and the following various articles3 ,metal-handled lancet4 ,dressing scissors4 ,dissecting forceps4 ,probe4 ,clinical thermometers4 ,caustic holder and points4 ,suture needles and silk4 ,safety pins4 ,mustard leaves4 ,adhesive plaster1 #a inch and #b inch4 ,court plaster4 ,oiled silk4 ,large supply of bandages of #a-;inch and #b-;inch width4 ,supply of lint4 ,gauze4 ,,equipment 7,these notes are merely intended to supplement1 with special reference to the ,tropics1 the information on this subject contained in other chapters47 ,sidenote3 ,food4 ,the mainstay of the #8,sahib' or #8,bwana' or #8,tuan' must be the same as the food of his men3 thus1 in a wheat country his food is flour1 in a millet country1 millet1 and in a rice country1 rice2 and to the ordinary ,englishman the worst of these is rice4 ,an important point to arrive at in selecting tinned provisions is to take as great a variety as possible4 ,though it is true that after a few months all tins1 meat or fish or fruit1 seem to have one and the same flavour1 it is possible that a stomach jaded by a long course of beef or mutton may welcome jugged hare or curried prawns4 ,it is worth while1 too1 to take a few tins de luxe for special festivals4 ,in hot places there is often a craving for strong flavours1 and a palate which shuns such things at home cries out for pickles and sauces4 ,there is perhaps little need to say that all tinned foods should be obtained from the best manufacturers1 and that any tin which shows a suspicion of #8bulging' should be at once discarded4 ,it is probable that no fresh vegetables will be available1 and it is unfortunate that of those in tins the wet vegetables are too heavy for limited transport1 while the dried variety are tasteless and require a long time for cooking3 an exception must be made in favour of ,murray ,cooksley's dried potatoes which can be strongly recommended4 ,failing vegetables1 it is very important to eat fruit3 dried apple chips1 pears1 prunes1 peaches and apricots1 more particularly the latter1 should be eaten daily4 ,raisins and figs are good food1 and are conveniently carried in the pocket with biscuits for lunch4 ,ginger is useful in counteracting the prevailing flavour of tin4 ,some of the cheeses1 notably the flat ,dutch variety1 are a useful food1 and should certainly be taken2 nor should anchovies and olives be forgotten4 ,in the higher regions there will be a strong desire--even stronger than in the ,alps1 possibly on account of the distaste for it in the hot country below--for butter1 and this should be of the best kind3 it is a good plan to take two varieties1 as the flavour of tinned butters varies considerably4 ,the usual drink will probably be tea1 as coffee is heavy to carry1 and is usually undrinkable as made by the native cook4 ,a cup of cocoa before bedtime is an easily carried luxury4 ,condensed milk should certainly be taken in considerable quantities for use in sickness2 the #8,ideal' brand of unsweetened milk mixes well with porridge or stewed fruit4 ,a great saving in transport may be effected by the use of saccharine 7or preferably saxin7 tabloids4 ,the use of alcohol is a question about which no one will dare to dogmatize4 ,it should certainly not be taken during the day1 but1 in the opinion of the writer1 a small glass of whisky or1 in the ,dutch fashion1 of gin at or before the evening meal adds to the enjoyment of monotonous food and assists digestion4 ,a bottle or two of brandy should be taken for emergencies1 and champagne is of great value in the convalescent stage of malaria or other fevers3 this latter should be taken in pint bottles1 which may be left at the base camp1 whither sick men will necessarily be sent4 ,sidenote3 ,canteen4 ,a great deal of ingenuity has been devoted to the invention of canteens1 but most of them are useless to the mountain explorer1 who can only afford to carry the fewest and most necessary articles4 ,weight may be saved by using plates of aluminium1 and cooking-pots may be of the same metal if it is possible to ensure their thorough cleaning4 ,kettles should be made of iron1 and cups or mugs of enamelled iron2 cups can be made to pack more conveniently one inside the other if the lower half of the handle is cut off4 ,in those ,eastern countries1 where kerosene tins are used for the transport of provisions1 an excellent fire-place can be made by using discarded tins laid on their side--a few holes are knocked in the top and the fire placed inside4 ,tins of the same kind can be easily adapted to the purpose of baking bread2 and in this connection it may be mentioned that in countries where banana wine cannot be obtained1 a very good substitute is yeast cakes1 one tin of which 7price about #as4 #f;d47 makes bread enough for one man for six months3 bread made with baking powder very quickly becomes dry and uneatable4 ,tin-openers are very liable to be lost or broken1 and a quantity of them should be taken4 ,sidenote3 ,clothing4 ,the most important parts of the clothing in tropical mountaineering are the head-gear and foot-gear4 ,in the lower hills and in the early part of the day when the sun is really hot1 a wide-brimmed hat or a helmet with a good protection for the back of the neck should be used2 if the helmet is made of #8pith' it should be covered on the outside with the thinnest waterproof material1 otherwise it becomes sodden and heavy with the first rain4 ,hats and helmets should be lined with thin red cloth2 the latter are more cheaply bought in tropical towns than in this country4 ,the most careful attention should be devoted to the question of boots1 and it is in all cases wise to take more pairs than are thought to be necessary4 ,most people will find it impossible to wear in the ,tropics the heavy boots to which many are accustomed in the ,alps2 the excessive perspiration makes the feet soft and more easily blistered1 and every extra ounce of weight is a serious consideration4 ,the most suitable are ordinary nailed shooting boots1 with a plentiful supply of spare nails or #8saccorb' screws for the higher ascents4 ,it is a good plan to have the uppers made in one piece1 i4e4 with no seam down the back4 ,in the ,tropics all leathern objects become coated with mould in a few hours1 and rot with astonishing rapidity1 so that it is advisable to expose spare boots to the sun whenever the opportunity occurs4 ,dubbin1 or some other preparation of the kind1 should be freely used4#be ,at the end of a hard day it is the greatest comfort to be able to change into a pair of light and soft shoes or boots2 when transport is very limited it will still be possible to carry a pair of ,canadian moccasins4 ,in the lower country and at the base camp it is advisable in the evening to wear mosquito boots 7see above1 ,malaria74 ,khaki or drill suits are more cheaply made locally than in this country2 they should be made very amply1 and large pockets provided4 ,sleeves are an almost intolerable nuisance in the lower ground1 and they may be cut very short or dispensed with altogether4 ,shorts are cool and comfortable1 but they should not be worn in places where leeches are found1 and they cannot be recommended in any case1 as the bruises and scratches on the knees are very liable to suppurate in hot climates4 ,trousers are preferable to breeches or knickerbockers1 and light canvas anklets holding the ends of the trousers over the boots are cooler than putties4 ,for underclothing every man must decide for himself4 ,there are those who can wear woollen vests and flannel shirts in the ,tropics2 but both of those garments quickly become #8felted' with profuse sweating1 and no amount of washing will restore their softness4 ,linen or cotton vests are easily washed1 and are usually found to be the most comfortable4 ,a flannel shirt and soft woollen sweater should be taken to wear at night in the mountains4 ,thick woollen socks1 several sizes too large1 will often help you to sleep on a cold night3 a warm woollen cap is useful in the same way4 ,cholera belts have been strongly recommended by some travellers1 but they are often a source of danger rather than otherwise4 ,the important thing to aim at is to protect the vital organs of the abdomen from chill during the night1 and this may be effected by fastening a wide towel about the middle of the body2 even in the hottest night this will not be found oppressive3 the same purpose will be answered by a folded blanket1 which may be pulled up and down over the shoulders and feet when the night becomes chilly4 ,a light mackintosh cape or poncho reaching to the knees is of great use for wearing about the camp1 when a dry change of clothes has been put on after a day's march4 ,sidenote3 ,furniture4 ,of beds none has yet been found better than the ordinary ,x-pattern1 but as this is somewhat heavy to carry1 it will probably have to be left behind when the mountains are reached4 ,in countries where bulky loads can be carried1 the #8,wolseley' valise is of the greatest value4 ,one load carries a man's bedding1 spare boots1 clothing and a variety of odds and ends1 and the valise itself is used as a bed1 which can be made tolerably comfortable by putting leaves and moss underneath it2 if the flaps are sufficiently wide1 the valise can also be used as a sort of makeshift tent4 ,blankets should be of large size 7#if by #fj inches71 and it will be found that two or three light blankets are better than a single heavy one2 by sewing tapes at the edges of one of the blankets it can be converted into a sleeping-bag when required4 ,clothes should be carried1 not haphazard with the blankets1 but in thin cotton bags 7about #cj by #bj inches73 one of these bags1 filled with soft clothes1 may be used as a pillow2 but the extra labour of carrying a well-made hair or feather pillow is more than balanced by the comfort it ensures4 ,in mountain regions1 where vegetation is luxuriant1 a more comfortable bed can be made in this fashion3 four ,y-shaped pieces of wood are driven into the ground at intervals corresponding to the four corners of a bed2 two short pieces of stiff wood are laid across the forks of the ,y's at the head and foot of the bed1 and on them are laid long saplings from one end to another--these are easily secured in their place by rattans or other creepers or fibres1 which are sure to be found growing in such places1 or by string4 ,on the top of the bedstead thus made leaves or grass may be laid1 and on the top of this the bedding4 ,in places where there is no vegetation1 and where the ,wolseley valise cannot be carried1 the bedding must be laid on a thin waterproof sheet1 which should measure not less than #if by #fj inches4 ,such a waterproof sheet may be of use in other places also3 it is not generally known that fleas have a strong dislike to india-rubber1 and in places where these little creatures abound a complete immunity from them may be enjoyed by sleeping on a mackintosh sheet4 ,a camp-chair is a necessity which must be carried as far as circumstances will allow4 ,the best is the #8,rhoorkee' chair1 which accommodates itself to the most uneven ground1 and can be taken to pieces and packed with the bedding2 spare canvas should be taken for mending4 ,a useful but less strong type is the ,x-pattern folding chair4 ,washing ,apparatus4--,an aluminium basin with a canvas cover will hold all the necessary gear4 ,duplicates should be taken of everything1 particularly sponges1 which are very liable to be attacked and devoured by crickets4 ,a pair of barber's clippers is indispensable4 ,sidenote3 ,tents4 ,tents are among the most important part of the equipment1 and at the same time they present the greatest difficulty4 ,in an expedition to high mountains in the ,tropics every variety of climate will be experienced1 from the sweltering heat of the plains to the alpine cold of the heights1 and it will not be possible to carry tents suitable to all these conditions4 ,the only thing to do is to effect a compromise by taking tents which will not be unbearably hot in the low country1 and which at the same time are not too heavy to be carried into the mountains4 ,the first of these requirements is met by using a tent provided with an outer fly--an absolute essential in a hot country2 the second is achieved by making the tent such that the fly and the tent itself can be used separately when transport is strictly limited4 ,one condition is certain to be met with at all altitudes1 and that is the frequent and abundant rainfall2 this makes it imperative that both the outer fly and the roof of the tent should be made of rain-proof canvas4 ,in the lower country it is advisable to aim at the ideal of one man one tent1 as the close proximity of persons in a small1 hot tent is likely to lead to friction of another kind4 ,the smallest compatible with comfort for one man is a #8,whymper' pattern tent1 #f by #f feet on the ground1 and #f feet high at the ridge4 ,a tent of this size may be occupied by two people in the mountains1 but a tent of #g by #g feet would be preferable1 though heavier4 ,the inner tent is slung from the ridge pole by loops about #f inches long2 the outer fly is stretched over the ridge pole1 and should project beyond the inner tent not less than #a foot at each end and #b feet at the sides4 ,the outer fly and the roof of the tent should be made of some form of ,willesden canvas capable of withstanding a heavy downpour of rain2 to ensure lightness1 the ends and side walls of the tent may be made of a lighter material1 such as waterproof duck4 ,both ends should be made to open1 and also to be laced up tightly in the event of heavy rain or strong wind or cold4 ,large pockets sewn on to the side walls1 and a light cord stretched from end to end under the ridge1 will be found useful4 ,in heavily timbered countries a considerable amount of transport may be saved by discarding tent-poles and cutting wood for the purpose from the neighbouring jungle4 ,if a belt of bamboos is met with1 some of these may be cut and carried on from camp to camp4 ,at the base or other long-occupied camp it will generally be found possible to build a house thatched with grass or leaves1 which will be always cooler than a tent1 as well as more commodious for the ,europeans4 ,one or more #8,mummery' tents for the ,europeans may be taken for the final ascents of mountains4 ,a great disadvantage of these tents1 if made of some light waterproof material1 is the excessive condensation that takes place inside them in places where the atmosphere is saturated with moisture4 ,special attention must be devoted to the tents of the #8boys' and carriers1 who1 if they want less #8head-room' and less protection from the sun than their masters1 require an equal amount of protection from the cold and rain4 ,their tents may be made without an outer fly1 of the same material as above described1 and it may be calculated that a tent of #aj by #f feet with a height of #d feet is sufficient for six men4 ,a light rope should be sewn firmly along the outside of the ridge1 terminating at either end in a free loop1 which can be attached to a tree or to a post driven into the ground4 ,the roof may be made sloping to reach the ground2 more room1 with a little extra weight and cost1 is provided by bringing the roof to within #a foot of the ground and sewing to the edge of it a hanging wall or valence #a foot wide4 ,to accommodate a large number of men1 a good plan is that practised by the ,dutch army in the ,east ,indies4 ,two upright poles are driven into the ground1 and a horizontal pole tied from one to the other at a height of about #g feet4 ,many poles #ab to #ae feet long are then laid about #a foot apart1 with one end on the ground and the other resting on the horizontal1 to which they may be tied by rattan or cord2 the angle at which these poles are laid should be as low as is consistent with the waterproofness of the roofing material1 and they may be strengthened by tying horizontal poles across them at intervals of #b to #c feet4 ,on the structure thus made1 which resembles the framework of half the roof of a house1 is laid a light ,willesden canvas #aj feet wide1 and of a length calculated according to the weight of the material and the average loads carried1 and to the number of men to be accommodated4 ,it is obvious that such a shelter1 which gives plenty of room and has many advantages in a hot climate1 can only be made in districts where timber is plentiful1 and is not suited to cold weather1 nor to places where strong winds are frequent4 ,it is advisable to provide each man with a waterproof ground sheet measuring #gb by #cj inches2 an even better plan1 which will cause much gratification and good-will1 is to give to each man a waterproof canvas sack of the same dimensions1 which he can use as a ground sheet or as a sleeping-bag1 and at all times as a #8hold-all' for his clothes and personal belongings4 ,,management ,sidenote3 ,loads and ,packing4 ,the conditions of transport vary so much in different places--in one place men carry loads on their heads1 and in another on their backs3 here they carry a #fj-lb4 load1 there only #dj lb41 and so on--that it is impossible to specify in detail here the size and shape of the loads1 and only a few general principles can be suggested4 ,after finding out the local conditions1 it is important1 so far as it is possible1 to pack provisions in loads as they will be required1 so that it will not be necessary to open one box for salt1 another for meat1 another for jam1 and so on4 ,by a careful calculation it will be possible to pack the boxes with all 7or most of7 the food required for a certain number of days4 ,the #8,vanesta' case of three-ply wood 7made by the ,vanesta ,company7 is by far the lightest and strongest box for packing provisions and other gear4 ,the boxes should be made of the size suited to the local conditions of porterage1 and each one should be fully addressed on the lid1 and a number attached with reference to a list of its contents2 it is advisable also to put the numbers on the ends of the boxes1 so that when they are all piled up on board ship or at the base camp or elsewhere1 a sought-for box may be found with the minimum of trouble4 ,when their contents have been used1 these boxes should not be thrown away1 but should be kept for the use of natural history specimens or other curious objects found during the course of the expedition4 ,all loads should be as nearly as possible of the same weight1 but some will necessarily be heavier than others1 and a few days' experience of the men will suffice for their proper distribution4 ,much time will be saved at the beginning of the day if the same man always carries the same load4 ,double loads are to be avoided at all cost4 ,personal loads1 i4e4 bedding1 tents1 kitchen apparatus1 and other things that may be wanted on the march or as soon as camp is reached1 should be given to strong men who are not likely to dawdle behind the caravan4 ,if it can be arranged1 it is wise to have one or two spare or lightly loaded men to take up the burdens of any who fall out by sickness or any other accident4 ,sidenote3 ,trade ,goods1 ,natives1 etc4 ,in ,africa1 where the manufactured products of civilization have penetrated even to the remotest districts1 the question of trade goods is a constant worry4 ,every inquiry1 therefore1 must be made beforehand as to the kind of goods required in the district to be visited and in the regions to be passed through on the way4 ,but fashions are constantly changing2 on one side of a river you can get nothing without brass wire1 and on the other glass beads are the only currency3 if the people ask for small white beads nothing will induce them to take your large red ones2 so it is necessary in those places to go provided with many different kinds of goods to suit the local tastes4 ,salt is in some places of the greatest value for barter1 and in places where the people understand their use1 fish-hooks are greatly appreciated4 ,in unexplored regions1 such as parts of ,new ,guinea1 where the natives have received nothing from the outside world1 the question is simpler1 and it is only necessary to take those things which the people are certain to appreciate1 such as glass beads1 red cloth 7turkey twill7 and straight knives4 ,even the most uncultured of 8savages0 are expert barterers1 and it is advisable to establish a definite scale of payment--such as1 for example1 one bead for one sweet potato1 a piece of cloth for a spear or club1 and so on4 ,they are quick to appreciate justice and honesty1 and attempts on the part of the carriers of the expedition to defraud them must be checked4 ,on first coming into contact with a new tribe it is necessary1 without making a display of force1 to be on the watch against a treacherous attack4 ,presents should be given to the head-men and 7if they are seen7 to the old women4 ,it is well to learn and practise the native form of greeting1 and to submit to any ceremony of blood-brotherhood or the like4 ,if it is possible to learn the names of individuals and to so address them1 it will always be appreciated as a compliment4 ,undue familiarity between the carriers of the expedition and the native women will inevitably lead to trouble1 and should be severely punished4 ,it is unwise to point at native people1 and 7in some cases7 to laugh at them4 ,unless they are travelling with the expedition1 natives should never be allowed to remain in the camp after nightfall4 ,medical treatment is one of the surest ways to win the affection and respect of the #8savage1' and castor oil or bandages will often make a way easier where words or rifles would be of no avail4 ,sidenote3 ,carriers1 etc4 ,the management of the carriers themselves is a matter which can be learnt by experience alone4 ,generally speaking1 it may be said that a just and strict impartiality to all men is a foundation of their good services2 men of all colours are quick to notice and to take advantage of the smallest sign of weakness or of favouritism on the part of their master4 ,cases of insubordination or other faults must be punished in some way2 but1 unfortunately1 the use of the stick1 which alone among certain races appeals to the delinquent 7and is indeed expected by him71 is forbidden by the constituted authority1 and an infringement of the rule leads to trouble after returning to civilization3 the appeal to the pocket by cutting off a part of the man's wages is the most effectual punishment that remains4 ,one of the most annoying troubles that the leader of an expedition has to contend with is malingering4 ,this does not often present much difficulty to anyone with a knowledge of medicine1 and others may often detect it by means of the clinical thermometer2 the most appropriate punishment for it is the administration of a powerful purgative4 ,finally1 it may be said that very little trouble will be experienced if the men have hard work1 adequate food1 tobacco1 and days of rest at stated intervals4 ,sidenote3 ,camps1 and ,things in ,general4 ,when a camp is made on the banks of a river1 the tents of the ,europeans should be pitched upstream of those of the men4 ,a careful examination of the high-water mark should be made before the tents are pitched4 ,the cook-house should be made within a very short distance of the ,europeans' tents1 as it rains more often than not at the time of the evening meal4 ,a good #8boy' is one who has a fire going to make tea while the camp is being pitched4 ,at a base camp latrines should be constructed1 and at a temporary camp the men should be instructed to go to a certain definite distance4 ,trenches to carry off water should be made round the tents1 even if there seems to be no probability of rain4 ,in choosing a site for a camp1 avoid as far as possible the proximity of a native village2 and if strong winds are frequent1 avoid the neighbourhood of large and decaying trees4 ,the leader of an expedition should often personally supervise the distribution of rations to the men2 and1 except in the case of very large expeditions1 he should always supervise the apportionment of loads at the beginning of a journey4 ,flies are often an intolerable nuisance in a camp2 they may be driven out of the tent at dusk by putting a lamp outside and then shaking the roof of the tent1 so that they are unable to settle3 after a few minutes they will have settled elsewhere and the lamp may be brought inside4 ,the following is a list of articles which might be overlooked in preparing the equipment for an expedition3 ,a spring balance for weighing loads2 a steel measuring-tape2 a cold chisel2 wire for mending2 assorted nails and screws2 a housewife with needles and cottons1 etc42 stencil and ink for marking boxes2 a small electric torch2 many bootlaces2 spare watch-glasses2 a flint and steel2 pocket-books in which notes can be written in duplicate4 ,finally1 it may be appropriate to quote the advice given by a distinguished traveller1 the late ,mrs4 ,bishop3 8,never take anything you can possibly do without40 ,to this we might add another counsel3 ,take everything you are likely to require1 and leave things behind when they can no longer be carried4 ,,footnotes3 #be ,see also 8,equipment10 p4 #hb4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,mountaineering ,,in ,,the ,,arctic 7,,spitsbergen7 ,,by ,,sir ,w4 ,,martin ,,conway ,since the expedition which ,i took to ,spitsbergen in the years #ahif and #ahig1 ,i have not heard of any parties of mountaineers going to that country4 ,mountains were incidentally climbed by the ,russian-,swedish surveyors1 who went up there in several successive years to measure an arc of the ,meridian4 ,indeed1 they discovered and climbed the highest point in the main island1 which ,garwood and ,i had beheld afar off in #ahig but were unable to reach4 ,mountaineering1 however1 was merely an incident in the work of those parties4 ,it has always seemed to me strange that ,english climbers have never followed our example in the ,far ,north1 and it is therefore with little hope of being very serviceable that ,i now accede to the request of the editor of this work to contribute a chapter on 8,arctic ,mountaineering10 and how to set to work about it4 ,truth to tell1 my own memory of details has become feeble2 but such as it is1 it shall be placed at the reader's service4 ,sidenote3 ,modes of ,access4 ,the first question1 of course1 is how to get to ,spitsbergen1 and having got there1 how to get away from it2 for though tourist steamers not infrequently visit the western coast of the main island1 they stop so short a time as to be useless for even the briefest mountaineering expeditions4 ,the climber who wishes to have the best of the season should arrive not earlier than the end of ,june1 and start away at latest towards the end of ,august1 when the sun has already begun to set4 ,nowadays a good many industrial enterprises1 such as mines and1 ,i believe1 quarries1 are being prosecuted in ,spitsbergen1 so that there must really be plenty of opportunities of being carried thither from ,troms and brought back again2 but it is impossible to predict beforehand what they will be4 ,probably the easiest way would be to make arrangements with the owner of one of the ,troms or ,hammerfest fishing sloops to convey the party up to its selected base and call for it again on a day fixed in advance4 ,the price that should be charged for such accommodation ought to be moderate2 but my experience of the ,north ,norwegians was that they are liable to open their mouths pretty wide when they think they have a traveller in their power4 ,in any case1 such arrangements are best made by an agent long in advance and with all legal exactitude4 ,sidenote3 ,equipment and ,outfit4 ,the equipment necessary for ,spitsbergen mountaineering need not be very elaborate4 ,the temperatures to be faced will not exceed those of an ordinary ,english winter1 and clothes will therefore not require to be of the ,arctic character we associate with ,polar expeditions4 ,but a man does need to be really warmly clad with plenty of thick underclothing and thoroughly strong garments4 ,for when the wind blows and the snow drives on the higher levels it is cold enough even at ,midsummer1 though on rare occasions in still air the warmth of the sun may be felt to a quite surprising degree4 ,near the sea-level and on the moraines and rocks the strongest mountaineering boots are none too strong4 ,i doubt whether the ski-ing boots commonly worn for winter sport would adapt themselves for use in such places4 ,once the upper levels of the glaciers have been gained1 which generally involves two or three days' work with sledges from sea-level1 travelling becomes easier and more agreeable1 and is done almost entirely on ski4 ,sledges1 ski1 warm sleeping-bags1 goat-hair stockings and warm clothing generally can be bought very well at ,bergen or ,trondhjem on the way out2 but it would be well1 as far as the sledges are concerned1 to write beforehand and make sure that they would be available4 ,british consuls at those places or the ,norwegian ,consul-,general in ,london would doubtless inform inquirers as to the names of the best shops to deal with4 ,reindeer sleeping-bags are delightfully comfortable and warm1 but they are distinctly heavy and bulky4 ,good eiderdown sleeping-bags with a rug or two would1 ,i think1 be quite warm enough till the #bjth of ,august at any rate4 ,the best tents to take are relatively large tents of the #8,mummery' type1 made of strong ,willesden canvas with rubber sheeting floor sewn in4 ,it is absolutely essential that the floor should be sewn in1 otherwise the tent could be easily blown away in a gale4 ,i do not remember the exact arrangements of the tents of this kind made for me by ,edgington's4 ,the floor space was probably about #f feet or #f feet #f inches by #d feet4 ,the height may be judged by the fact that for poles we used ice-axes1 with extra pieces about #ah inches long to fit over the points with a socket to lengthen them4 ,three or even four people might be crowded into such a tent1 but no one would wish to share such a tent with more than one companion on a pleasure journey of a few weeks' duration4 ,the remainder of the kit would consist of cooking apparatus and supplies1 to wit1 a primus stove1 some aluminium plates and pans1 aluminium spoons and forks2 and for provisions the usual tinned goods1 concentrated soups and pots of jam1 and a sufficient quantity of highly nutritious biscuits to take the place of bread4 ,far the best biscuits for this purpose we found were named #8,triticumina1' which contained plasmon2 but the biscuits which have currants sandwiched into them form a very welcome change4 ,a liberal supply of brown sugar in tins should on no account be forgotten1 though jam is almost as good4 ,if the party contemplate spending their time in one district of the island1 they will probably make for themselves a heavy and comfortable base camp1 which may be as well stored as they please1 as it will1 of course1 be situated close to the shore of some bay or harbour1 and everything belonging to it will be landed direct from the boat1 so that the question of porterage will not arise4 ,this base camp ought to be equipped with a rowing boat of the type called a whale boat1 such as can be readily hired from any ,north ,norwegian port4 ,it would be well to have one or two able-bodied ,norwegian sailors to man the boat and help drag the sledges1 and no difficulty would be experienced in finding in or about the ,lofoten ,islands suitable men1 skilful also in going on ski4 ,our experience was that young unmarried men were to be preferred4 ,the others got home-sick4 ,sidenote3 ,plans of ,campaign4 ,a mountaineering expedition to ,spitsbergen might lay out its plans on many different lines1 but1 broadly speaking1 there are two main choices between which to select4 ,in one1 the mountains of the coast region accessible directly in one day1 or at most in two days1 from the sea would be the principal object of attention4 ,in the other1 the high interior regions of inland ice remote from the shore1 and the mountains rising out of them1 would be the goal4 ,there is much to be said for either plan4 ,the former would be the less laborious and the more comfortable2 the latter harder work1 more adventurous1 and opening up a stranger and more wonderful world4 ,there is also a third region1 that of the unglaciated1 boggy valleys around ,advent ,bay and ,bell ,sound2 but this1 after a season's experience1 ,i cannot honestly recommend as pleasant travelling country4 ,sidenote3 ,from the ,coast4 ,let us then take the other two alternatives one by one4 ,climbers who would hug the coast may go up with a fairly large party prepared to subdivide on arrival1 and pitch base camps in different bays if so they please4 ,but a large party is1 of course1 not essential1 and a couple of good friends1 with one or two ,norwegian sailors at their disposal1 would have a very good time on shore or afloat in their whale boat4 ,having chosen a well-protected landing-place with a shelving beach up which to haul their boat1 and having pitched their tents well out of reach of the highest tides and storms1 they could either climb the mountains close at hand1 or they could row off or sail away in their boat to any others accessible from their fjord1 taking with them a light camp and provisions only for two or three days4 ,or1 again1 they can make short trips of one or two days' duration merely into the interior1 not cumbering themselves with a sledge1 but carrying on their backs a very light camping equipment of a kind brought to much perfection by the ,amateur ,camping ,club4 ,on this system the same base camp need not be adhered to for the whole season1 but in suitable weather it could be moved1 by help of the whale boat1 even from one of the western fiords to another4 ,the great question which naturally arises is what sites by the seashore are best suited for climbing centres4 ,broadly speaking1 the north half and the south toe of the main island alone come into consideration1 for the east islands are not practically accessible1 nor would it often be wise to make a sea-base at all far to the eastward on the north coast4 ,practically1 therefore1 we may take the coast-line round from ,wijde ,bay westward and then southward down the coast to ,king's ,bay1 then all along either coast to ,foreland ,sound to the mouth of ,ice ,sound1 whilst at the south end of the island only ,horn ,sound need be considered4 ,coming now to detail1 in the high summer of a very open season1 when the ice-pack has withdrawn to somewhere in the neighbourhood of #hj #cj81 it might be safe to make a base camp for a week or two in ,wijde ,bay itself1 preferably on its eastern shore1 from which the high peaks of #gjjj feet and thereabouts1 which range down the west side of ,new ,friesland1 can be climbed in a two-day expedition4 ,these peaks are very indifferently explored2 only the highest of them has ever been climbed2 they stand in the midst of a region of extraordinary interest1 and must command wonderful views to the eastward over the little-known north-east land and away off to the romantic ,wyches ,islands4 ,probably there is no district in the whole ,archipelago which would so well reward the season's work2 whilst if the ice-pack were to come down and seal the mouth of ,wijde ,bay1 retreat is always open overland to ,cape ,thordsen in ,ice ,sound by one or other of two obvious routes4 ,a less heroic base could be found at a dozen points near the north-east angle of the island1 and this is probably the best and most practical region to choose2 for here it would be possible to shift the base camp every few days1 whilst there are any number of mountains rising from the coast built of the hard primary rocks and apparently offering delectable scrambles4 ,the main bay1 called ,mauritius ,bay by the ,dutch in the old days1 and in particular the south-east corner1 would probably be the best place to begin4 ,the labyrinth of glaciers that empty into ,redcliff ,sound must be well worth a visit1 and the same is true of the peaks and glaciers of ,magdalena ,bay4 ,the fact that the whole of this region has been admirably mapped by the ,prince of ,monaco is a further advantage for the prospective climber4 ,between ,magdalena ,bay and ,close ,cove 7now wrongly called ,cross ,bay7 there is no place for a base camp2 but ,close ,cove1 ,king's ,bay1 ,cove ,comfortless and the north part of ,prince ,charles's ,foreland form together an enclosed area containing innumerable excellent coast-line bases4 ,probably one of the narrow bays at the head of ,close ,cove would provide an attractive situation1 besides giving access to an intimately glaciated and beridged interior4 ,but the south-east extremity of ,king's ,bay1 as we found1 is a delightful situation1 and from it the ,three ,crowns and countless other peaks can be reached4 ,prince ,charles's ,foreland has been excellently mapped by ,dr4 ,bruce1 and seems to have some good climbing peaks1 most of which1 and all of those along the opposite side of ,foreland ,sound1 await their first experience of a human foot4 ,it must be admitted that the region nearest the west coast suffers from the worst weather1 for it continually happens that the clouds lie low1 whilst above the level of #ajjj or #abjj feet there is brilliant sunshine for days and perhaps weeks together1 and of course no night at all4 ,from ,horn ,sound in the south some splendid peaks are accessible1 only one of which has ever been climbed4 ,this is perhaps the best place for a week or two at the close of the season1 though it might be rather difficult to get there in an open boat from the northern parts4 ,the hospitality of some passing steamer1 however1 might be available for such transfer4 ,sidenote3 ,into the ,interior4 ,far more interesting and delightful1 however1 than merely climbing peaks from a sea-base is a bold venture into the far interior4 ,indeed1 a climber standing on the summit of any peak and looking inland over the vast glaciers and at the countless ranges and beautiful mountains spread abroad before him on a clear day will1 ,i think1 be irresistibly drawn into that white labyrinth4 ,of course the most delightful experience is a traverse of some part of the island from sea to sea4 ,this requires a good deal of organization1 because it is necessary to have a boat to meet the party arriving from the other side at some point arranged in advance4 ,from ,magdalena ,bay to ,cross ,bay the traverse has been made1 and leads through splendid scenery4 ,more interesting1 because new1 would be the traverse from ,wood ,bay to ,king's ,bay1 or from ,king's ,bay along the ,king's ,highway and down to ,north ,fjord2 or again1 from the head of ,sassen ,bay over to the east coast and back4 ,it would scarcely be possible to have a boat prepared to meet a party on the east coast1 so that either from ,ice ,sound or ,bell ,sound journeys to the east coast must be made to and fro by the same route4 ,in the nature of things little general advice can be given for such expeditions2 each must be organized according to its own special circumstances4 ,it is obvious1 in any case1 a large margin would have to be provided for the unexpected4 ,a sledge may break down1 or delays may be caused in a thousand ways1 so that a considerable reserve stock of provisions must be taken4 ,the first day from the coast1 sometimes the first two days1 will be very laborious4 ,a sledge and its load will have to be carried by repeated journeys over rough ground and generally over broad moraines before the camp can be pitched at the edge of the clear ice4 ,then1 generally speaking1 there will be a crevassed region to traverse1 where progress must be slow2 but after two or three days at the outside easier conditions will be met with4 ,soon1 however1 the snow-covered belt of the glacier will be reached1 and as at this time of year a slight but continuous thaw is proceeding1 it necessarily follows that1 where there are no crevasses to drain off the water1 there will be a wild belt covered with water-logged snow and intersected by wide and rushing streams which it is often very difficult to cross4 ,the water-logged snow is merely unpleasant and laborious1 as the ski and the sledge will sink into it1 and every hollow thus made is instantly filled with ice-cold water4 ,the only way to deal with the big streams is to follow up alongside of them till they divide into smaller brooks which can be crossed in detail4 ,yet higher up1 however1 the thaw is left behind and a splendid hard surface is found1 over which ski-ing and sledging are a pleasant pastime1 and longer distances can be covered in a day's march4 ,out of this higher region peaks1 of no great absolute height indeed1 but of fine form1 arise in all directions1 and from a suitably chosen high camp it will be possible in a few days to make many ascents1 either of summits in the ranges bordering one's own glacier on either hand1 or in other ranges behind them which can be readily reached over undulating passes4 ,sidenote3 ,exceptional and ,beautiful ,phenomena4 ,a traveller who has made one such expedition into the interior of ,spitsbergen will have become acquainted with glacier phenomena such as no ordinary alpine region can display4 ,the pools and ice caverns of ,arctic glaciers1 the strange blue river-tunnels through the ice1 the burst lakes scattering huge ice-blocks afar1 the curious sheaves of crystalline ice-rods1 the rivers of water stained crimson by disintegrating dolomite rock and flowing over the white ice-like veins of jasper in marble1 the frozen heaps of ice1 in shape like volcanoes1 which rise where springs force themselves out of the ground--these and many other strange and beautiful sights await the student of glaciers in the ,arctic regions4 ,moreover1 the glaciers themselves have quite a different look from alpine glaciers4 ,they appear to be far more viscous1 as in fact they are1 so that if they end on a piece of flat ground and do not reach the sea1 the end spreads out into a great round mass1 as a stream of honey might if it emerged from some narrow gap on to a flat area4 ,but where a glacier reaches the sea1 and especially a great glacier perhaps seven miles in width1 it has to terminate1 of course1 in a splendid cliff1 and this cliff is1 as it were1 made of towering sracs1 blue in the hollows and white on the crown1 in height perhaps #ajj feet above the water-level1 and these sracs are continually falling into the sea and breaking up into little icebergs1 causing a great commotion in the waters as they plunge in their fall and jostle against one another till they come to rest4 ,nor must ,i forget to mention another of the great glories of this mountain region1 to wit1 the long sunset4 ,towards the middle of ,august the sun1 in the hours corresponding to midnight1 approaches close to the horizon1 and presently actually dips beneath it4 ,it follows that a sunset colouring1 paler and more delicate but not less beautiful than that we know in the ,alps1 illumines the sky1 the clouds1 the mountains and the glaciers at this time1 and that not merely for a few minutes but for four or five hours on end1 according to the atmospheric conditions4 ,i know of nothing more wonderful than to climb a mountain which commands a wide view over the flat1 fog-covered ocean and the clear1 snow-covered interior when the whole of this enormous expanse shines pink in the lights and blue in the shadows1 and the effect lasts on for four or five hours spent amid such surroundings4 ,sidenote3 ,summary1 ,cost1 etc4 ,but it is not my business to describe the beauties of ,arctic scenery in this place1 but only to indicate as best ,i may how the intending mountain traveller in those regions may set to work4 ,conditions1 of course1 of accessibility and the like change from year to year1 especially nowadays when ,spitsbergen has become the scene of industrial undertakings2 it will be necessary for any intending traveller to make inquiries well ahead as to the circumstances attending his own case4 ,i feel convinced1 however1 that an enterprising party of three or four climbers could spend a season in ,spitsbergen and have an excellent time at not more than twice the cost of a corresponding season in the ,alps1 and possibly for a good deal less4 ,ingenuity1 adaptability and enterprise will be essential4 ,after all1 for what kind of travel that is worth while are they not8 ,note4--,the foregoing was written before the war4 ,recent commercial developments have made ,spitsbergen much more easy of access4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,caucasus ,,by ,,harold ,,raeburn ,the ,caucasus of the mountaineer is that more or less continuous chain of great glaciated peaks which extends for nearly #fjj miles between the ,caspian and ,black ,seas4 ,sidenote3 ,general ,topography and ,structure4 ,geographically1 the water-parting of the ridge forms the boundary between ,europe and ,asia4 ,politically speaking the mountains run1 with a general south-east to north-west direction1 through almost the centre of the ,russian province of the ,caucasus1 dividing it into the two districts of ,cis-,caucasia1 with the chief city of ,vladikavkaz1 and ,trans-,caucasia1 with ,tiflis as the centre of government4 ,situated in about the same latitude as the ,pyrenees1 with a more continental climate1 the ranges of temperature are much greater than in the ,alps4 ,in such an extensive tract of elevated country great variation of conditions must naturally occur4 ,speaking generally1 and with more special reference to the central group of summits1 the glaciation is somewhat less than in the ,alps in proportion to the elevation1 about #bjjj feet greater than that of the central ,pennines4 ,the average level to which the glaciers descend is rather higher4 ,as the average slope of the mountains is more abrupt1 the glaciers are steeper4 ,in consequence1 the ,caucasian glaciers are as a rule more difficult and broken1 and the ice-falls more continuous4 ,the prevailing wind is warm and moisture-laden1 blowing from the south-west1 off the almost sub-tropical shores of the ,black ,sea2 condensed by the cold peaks1 the moisture is thereon deposited in the form of snow4 ,thus1 in spite of its northern aspect1 the glaciation of the ,european slope is little greater than that of the southern4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,part ,,of ,,cis ,,and ,,trans ,,caucasia ,showing approaches to the ,mountains ,the height at which trees cease is very much the same on both sides 7#gjjj-hjjj feet74 ,a feature of the country is the great forests which cover the upper basins of many valleys1 particularly on the south side4 ,in many of the southern valleys these forests are composed of deciduous trees of various species1 such as birch1 beech1 oak1 maple and chestnut1 giving a variety and charm which the more sombre pine forests of the north do not provide4 ,some of the northern valleys are destitute of timber1 and the fuel difficulty is one which confronts the climbing explorer4 ,the whole mountain system may for present purposes be divided into three principal groups4 #a4 ,all the peaks south and east of the line of the ,dariel1 more correctly the ,krestovaya ,gora1 ,pass2 in which though many peaks exist as high as the ,oberland ,mountains1 yet the glaciation is not continuous for long distances4 #b4 ,the great central group4 ,this is the most important and best known4 ,it extends from ,kasbek1 immediately west of the above pass1 to the ,klukhor ,pass1 west of ,elbrus1 a distance of about #acj miles4 ,in the whole of this distance there is only one driving road1 that of the ,mamison ,pass 7#ibhj feet71 the highest road in ,europe4 ,all other routes across the range1 except one or two grass passes1 must be made over glacier passes1 the lowest about #aj1ejj feet above sea-level4 #c4 ,west and north of the ,klukhor ,pass lies a tangled group of somewhat lower glaciated summits1 some of which are still unascended4 ,sidenote3 ,records and ,literature4 ,if we pass over the ancient traditions and tales of the ,arabians1 ,greeks and ,jews1 mountaineering in the ,caucasus is of very modern growth4 ,the ,arabian ,kaf1 the ,jewish ,ararat and the great mountain celebrated by schylus as the prison of ,prometheus1 are all situated in or near the ,caucasus range2 whether it be true or not that the ,tower of ,babel was built not far from the borders1 this mountain land remains a ,tower of ,babel to this day4 ,in the city of ,baku there are even now said to be one hundred different languages and dialects spoken4 ,the ,caucasus ,mountains themselves give homes to as many tribes and dialects as there are rivers4 ,these tribes were almost always more or less at enmity amongst themselves4 ,this lack of nationality rendered the task of absorption by ,russia an easy one4 ,it should not be forgotten that a good part of the ,caucasus proper was not conquered by ,russia4 ,the nominal sovereignty possessed by the kings of ,georgia over many of the mountain tribes only began to be made real when the last king placed himself under ,russian protection4 ,this great diversity of peoples1 languages1 religions and customs renders travel in the ,caucasus1 if more interesting1 much more difficult4 ,most of the people know nothing of ,russian1 and it is therefore necessary for a climbing party to have an interpreter with them who has knowledge of as many of the different languages as possible4 ,apart from the fabulous1 the earliest effort of mountaineering in the ,caucasus appears to have been an attempt to ascend ,elbrus by a party of four savants1 attached to the politico-geographical expedition of ,general ,emanuel1 in #ahbi4 ,the first writer to draw attention to the ,caucasus as a field for mountain exploration was the ,rev4 ,h4 ,b4 ,george1 in a paper read before the ,alpine ,club on #b ,may #ahfe4 ,the pioneer expedition was that of ,messrs4 ,freshfield1 ,moore and ,tucker1 with ,franois ,devouassoud1 in #ahfh4 ,mr4 ,grove's party followed1 in #ahgd1 and his book1 ,the ,frosty ,caucasus1 is now a valuable alpine classic4 ,during the '#hj's ,british mountaineers1 with ,swiss guides1 conquered the majority of the highest peaks4 ,mr4 ,cockin was the most successful3 three of the greatest peaks fell to him and his guides in one season4 ,messrs4 ,dent1 ,woolley and ,holder were also very successful4 ,my ,climbs in the ,alps and ,caucasus1 by ,mr4 ,a4 ,f4 ,mummery1 describes his expedition in #ahhh1 when the great peak of ,dykh-,tau was ascended4 ,in the '#ij's a number of ,british guideless parties went out1 but from various causes had little success4 ,since then1 in spite of three splendidly illustrated volumes1 ,the ,exploration of the ,caucasus1 by ,freshfield and ,sella1 in #ahif1 ,aus den ,hochregionen des ,kaukasus1 by ,merzbacher1 in #aija1 and ,kaukasus ,reisen und ,forschungen1 by de ,dchy1 in #aijd1 ,british interest in the district has been slight4 ,messrs4 ,longstaff and ,rolleston had1 however1 a very successful guideless campaign in ,suanetia1 in #aijc4 ,a ,russian author1 ,afanasief1 published in ,german1 in #aiac1 a very useful little compendium of the ascents made up to date1 #ajj ,kaukasus ,gipfel4 ,as a proof that the ,caucasus as a new mountaineering centre is still very far from being exhausted1 ,british expeditions in #aiac and #aiad succeeded in effecting the ascents of ten new summits1 none of which was below #ac1ejj feet in height4 ,sidenote3 ,routes of ,access4 ,the easiest1 cheapest and quickest way to the central group from ,london is that to the north side1 overland4 ,the route is via ,berlin1 ,warsaw and ,rostoff on the ,don4 ,thence either by the ,baku train to ,beslan1 for ,vladikavkaz1 or by the ,russian ,spas express to ,mineralnia ,vod1 for ,piatigorsk4 ,an even better starting-point for the mountains is ,naltshik1 to which a branch railway1 opened in ,july #aiab1 should run in two hours from the junction on the main ,rostoff-,baku line of ,kotliarefskaia4 ,the south side may be reached by driving from ,vladikavkaz or from ,darkop on the main line over the ,mamison ,pass4 ,another excellent way of reaching the south side of the range from the north side would be by taking the motor service 7office in the annex of the ,grand ,hotel7 from ,vladikavkaz over the ,dariel--correctly the ,krestovaya ,gora--,pass to ,tiflis1 and round by the ,tiflis-,batum railway4 ,the motor line passes close under the huge mass of ,kasbek 7#af1edf feet71 and its glaciers can be reached in a few hours from ,vladikavkaz4 ,the old route to the south side of the range followed by most of the earlier ,english parties is that by ,vienna and ,odessa1 thence by steamer1 in from two to four days1 across the ,black ,sea--calling at ,sevastopol--to ,batum4 ,from ,batum a short branch-line connects with ,kutais4 ,from here the ,mamison road leads up to ,oni on the ,upper ,rion1 and can be utilized for driving for part or the whole of the distance1 according to which valley or group of peaks it is desired to visit4 ,for the most westerly group1 that lying west of ,elbrus1 the port of ,sukhum ,kal on the ,black ,sea will probably be found most convenient4 ,for the extreme eastern groups ,tiflis will prove the best starting-point4 ,sidenote3 ,modes of ,travel4 ,the usual1 and the best mode of travel in the mountains is on foot4 ,all the railhead towns mentioned are more than a day's march distant from the hills4 ,kasbek alone is closely approached by a motorable road4 ,at the towns elected for approach--,tiflis1 ,kutais1 ,vladikavkaz1 ,piatigorsk or ,naltshik--it is necessary to engage vehicles or horses1 and a cook-interpreter4 ,whether it is advisable to buy horses for the whole journey depends upon whether much travelling1 and in consequence little climbing1 is to be done4 ,the purchase of horses sets the party free from the endless haggling1 delay and annoyance which seem inseparable from hiring4 ,on the other hand1 the purchase necessitates engaging at least one man for every two horses1 and this adds greatly to the expense and to the commissariat difficulties4 ,though considerably improved of late years1 the various roads up ,caucasian valleys1 where they exist at all1 are not of the best4 ,a ,russian road on the steppe is not a road in the usual sense of the word2 it is merely a part of the ground over which one drives1 and is not made in any way except by the wheels of passing traffic4 ,the road of the ,mamison ,pass is a built road2 but it is exceedingly rough in places1 and is frequently interrupted by landslides1 tree-falls and avalanches4 ,the most comfortable vehicle to obtain is the troika or phaeton1 a light1 low carriage something like the alpine char4 ,a rougher and more usual carriage is the lineika1 seated like a low-set ,irish jaunting-car on four wheels4 ,it is wonderfully elastic1 its light1 loose method of construction allowing it to adapt itself to the potholes1 boulders and tree-trunks of the rougher parts of the road4 ,most of these vehicles will be found to suffer from the general debility consequent upon extreme old age4 ,it is advisable to have each one carefully inspected before the start4 ,in the more out-of-the-way parts1 where such luxurious modes of travel cannot be indulged in1 an arba can often be obtained4 ,this is a light1 springless two-wheeled cart4 ,it is often drawn by a pair of small but strong oxen1 and though the pace is very slow1 a large quantity of baggage can be conveyed in one4 ,the horses--almost invariably mares--are small1 light animals showing evident trace of ,arab blood4 ,they are docile1 free from vice1 and marvellously sure-footed4 ,indeed1 in this last respect they far surpass an average mule4 ,some of the #8horse passes' on the south side of the range would be considered by most people impossible for horses and more fitted for goats4 ,the saddles are ,turkish1 i4e4 with a high pommel in front and behind4 ,some travellers have recommended taking out an ,english saddle4 ,few riders1 however1 would be able to retain their seat on an ,english saddle while their mounts were scrambling down or up the precipitous broken bank of some ravine or bed of a glacier stream4 ,sidenote3 ,centres4 ,as in the ,alps1 so in the ,caucasus1 more climbing will be got by settling at a centre than by travelling about from one place to another4 ,on this method the necessity of carrying heavy tents1 large supplies of stores1 etc41 is avoided4 ,a couple of light tents1 to accommodate two or three men each1 are all that is necessary4 ,good centres for the various districts are1 on the north side1 ,urusbieh1 ,chegem1 ,balkar1 ,bezingi1 ,stirdigor and ,dsinago2 in the ,tsaya valley1 the sanatorium kept by ,m4 ,sanghiev in the pine forest near ,rekom2 the inn at ,saramag on the ,upper ,ardon2 the ,russian road-houses of ,kalaki on the north and ,tshantshakhi on the south side of the ,mamison ,pass2 ,gebi on the ,west ,rion ,river2 ,ushkul on the headwaters of the ,ingur2 ,mestia or ,mulakh on the ,mulkhora2 and ,betsho just below the giant precipices of ,ushba4 ,to ,gebi and ,tshantshakhi ,kasarma on the south1 and to most places on the ,european side of the range1 driving should be possible nowadays4 ,sidenote3 ,equipment and ,commissariat4 ,mountaineering in the ,caucasus is still very much on exploring lines4 ,save in the case of ,kasbek or1 in a minor degree1 of ,elbrus1 no huts1 guides or organization for climbing exists4 ,the success of an expedition must therefore largely depend upon the care and forethought bestowed upon the equipment and organization of the party before it leaves railhead4 ,the climbing equipment should be exactly similar to that of the ,alps2 but as anything lost cannot be replaced1 everything must be at least in duplicate4 ,indeed1 it is advisable to take out three pairs of climbing boots--the odd pair for the purpose of lending to porters if it is found necessary to take them over a glacier1 since it is not fair or safe to take heavily loaded men with #8gloved' feet up steep and slippery ice and snow4 ,two ice-axes are essential3 one may easily get broken1 lost or stolen4 ,tents1 of any of the lighter ,english makes1 are best taken out4 ,eastern bags1 with padlock and key1 are the most convenient method of carrying spare clothes4 ,among these1 two or three complete changes of underclothing--of course all wool--are necessary4 ,plenty of spare flannel collars and abundance of stockings1 and1 of course1 undersocks1 are well worth their slight extra weight4 ,crampons are almost a necessity1 though cumbrous and annoying to carry4 ,it is advisable to have a tin case for these4 ,they are of immense service in levelling up the good and the inferior icemen of a party1 and in conserving the energies of the step-cutter1 or step-cutters1 for really difficult work on rocks or ice slopes higher up4 ,with two pairs of new--but broken-in--modern mountaineering boots it ought to be quite unnecessary to take out nails1 iron boot anvil or hammer for a two months' campaign4 ,the general stores--cooking utensils1 plates or bowls1 cups 7mugs are preferable71 table cutlery1 travelling stoves 7primus and alpine71 candles1 etc4--are best obtained in the country4 ,the most convenient packages are strong baskets4 ,these should be made at home1 and covered with strong waterproof material4 ,size #be inches by #ae inches by #aa inches is convenient for horse carriage1 and should be furnished with a strong lock4 ,they can also serve as seats in or outside the tents4 ,the personal equipment should include a roll-up mattress--hair is the best--#f feet #f inches by #b feet #d inches1 a down quilt or sleeping-bag and a small pillow4 ,if the tent has a ground sheet1 a waterproof cover for the mattress is not required4 ,to save trouble and expense on the journey and at the ,customs1 it is much the best plan to bring as little as possible into the country in the way of consumable stores4 ,jam is perhaps the one exception4 ,for high work jam is of great importance1 and the little -lb4 tins to be obtained in ,london are extremely convenient4 ,a few soups--powder or tabloid--are also useful for emergencies4 ,excellent shops are to be found at all the chief railhead towns1 such as ,tiflis1 ,vladikavkaz1 ,piatigorsk and ,naltshik2 also at ,kutais and ,oni on the ,mamison road4 ,in them almost everything obtainable in western ,europe may be got4 ,many different kinds of tinned meats1 fruits and fish are to be had1 but the party would do well to have as little to do with these as possible1 except perhaps a few boxes of sardines4 ,in the country1 mutton1 fowls and eggs are always to be obtained1 and these are safer and more palatable than the tinned foods1 which should be kept for emergencies and given away at the end of the trip4 ,the great weakness of the ,caucasian commissariat is in the all-important item of bread4 ,away from the towns this is invariably very bad4 ,it is made of maize or wheat flour mixed with rye1 or of rye alone2 no yeast or baking powder is used1 and it is never properly cooked4 ,naturally it is exceedingly trying to a western stomach4 ,when forced to use it1 one should have it well toasted4 ,very good bread can be bought in the towns1 and as large a supply of this as possible should be taken4 ,there is also an excellent form of bread to be got in some of the small dukhans or shops up country4 ,it is in hard glazed small rings1 and is threaded on strings and hung up like onions to the roof4 ,it keeps well1 and is quite palatable and digestible4 ,one way of overcoming the bread difficulty would be to engage a cook-interpreter1 who could bake1 and to carry flour and a small portable oven with the party4 ,sidenote3 ,organization4 ,interpreter-couriers are to be found at ,tiflis and ,vladikavkaz4 ,these1 however1 would not care to attach themselves to a climbing party1 or1 in fact1 to leave the roads at all2 walking for even a few miles is not in their line4 ,there are guides and tariffs--fairly reasonable--for both ,kasbek and ,elbrus4 ,good material undoubtedly exists for the development of a school of real mountain guides1 but their time is not yet4 ,a climbing party must bring its own guides1 or1 better still1 have some one in the party who1 by previous experience or knowledge of guideless climbing in the ,alps1 is qualified to act as guide and leader on high ascents4 ,after bread and horses1 porters are the principal worry for the leader of a party in the ,caucasus4 ,the mountain tribes are independent and #8huffy1' and great tact and patience are needed in dealing with these semi-civilized children of nature4 ,the men are not1 like the ,swiss1 accustomed to carry heavy burdens1 and are quite ready to throw up their job and throw down their loads at or without a moment's notice4 ,the cook is a very important member of the party4 ,he stands for creature comforts1 and the party is fortunate which succeeds in engaging a capable man at the town from which the expedition starts4 ,it is very necessary for all purposes that one at least of the party should know some ,russian4 ,the cook-interpreter1 if only one man is engaged1 must speak1 besides ,russian1 at least one western ,european language1 and he must have a good knowledge of as many of the ,caucasian languages as possible4 ,sidenote3 ,maps4 ,the general map of the country is that known as the #e-verst map1 which is to be obtained in ,tiflis or from the principal ,london map-sellers4 ,it is on the scale of #e versts #c miles #a in #baj1jjj1 to the inch4 ,this1 though quite accurate as far as the low country is concerned1 is of little use in the mountains4 ,the best known map is that issued with ,messrs4 ,freshfield ,sellas's ,the ,exploration of the ,caucasus 7,edward ,arnold1 ,london1 #ahif74 ,it is on the #e-verst scale1 and is a useful general map1 though the scale is too small to show the mountains properly4 ,herr ,merzbacher issued with his weighty work1 ,aus den ,hochregionen des ,kaukasus 7,leipzig1 #aija71 a very convenient map on the scale of #c versts #a in #adj1jjj4 ,this map is to be obtained from the publishers4 ,it endeavours to give more names1 heights and details of mountains than ,mr4 ,freshfield's2 but this1 in some cases1 has led to a multiplication of errors4 ,mountains have been inserted which explorers of the locality have failed to find1 and in the south-eastern portion of the central group the nomenclature and heights given are often very misleading4 ,by far the most useful map1 and the map which is practically indispensable for the mountain explorer who is not prepared to make his own1 is the ,russian #a-verst map4 ,this is on a large scale 7#a_/dbjjj74 ,it gives with very considerable accuracy the forms of such glaciers and mountains as are visible from positions reasonably accessible to the surveyors4 ,it seldom commits itself by giving any names at all to the peaks1 except to the principal ones--although the more important glaciers are generally named4 ,the printing of the names and figures--of course in ,russian characters--is often exceedingly bad4 ,the maps are on the hchure system4 ,with the exception of the sheet covering ,kasbek1 which is on sale at ,vladikavkaz1 they can only be obtained through the military authorities in ,tiflis4 ,sidenote3 ,expense4 ,this will1 of course1 greatly depend upon the style in which the expedition is conducted4 ,if a courier-interpreter is engaged1 and ,swiss guides are brought1 the expense must be expected to be considerable4 ,in spite of the general rise in the cost of living and in the price of labour1 which of late years has increased in the ,caucasus--between #ej and a #ajj per cent--an eight or nine weeks' journey out from ,london and back can be done comfortably at a cost not exceeding #ajj for each member of a party of four1 five or six4 ,below are given a few prices1 based on the experience of the expeditions made in the years #aijd1 #aiaa and #aiac4 ,they are1 of course1 only approximate4 ,foodstuffs will be found not to vary so much in cost as the hire of horses and porters4 #aijd4 #aiaa4 #aiac4 ,horse1 per day #a-c ,r4 #a-b ,r4 #c-d ,r4 ,porter1 per day -- #a ,r4 #a-d ,r4 ,sheep 7small7 #d-f ,r4 -- #c-e ,r4 ,hens 7small7 #bj-dj ,k4 -- #ce-ej ,k4 ,eggs 7small7 #a-b ,k4 -- #a-b ,k4 ,bread 7about #b lb47 #h ,k4 -- #aj ,k4 ,cheese #ae ,k4 -- #aj-bj ,k4 ,wine 7,kakhetinskoe71 litre -- -- #a ,r4 ,beer -- -- #ae-bj ,k ,sucking-pig 7very small7 #b-c ,r4 -- #b ,r4 ,rouble #bs4 #a;d4 ,kopeck d4 ,note4--,all prices given are pre-war4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,mountains ,,of ,,corsica ,,by ,,george ,,finch ,sidenote3 ,season4 ,the best time of the year for climbing in ,corsica is the spring4 ,the weather is fine during the months of ,april1 ,may1 ,june and ,july2 but in the latter half of ,june and in ,july the midday heat is often oppressive4 ,this is seldom the case in ,april or ,may4 ,during these two months the melting snows ensure a supply of water1 which is often deficient in the hot summer months4 ,in ,april1 also1 the snowline is still very low2 from the mountaineer's point of view this is an advantage1 as the approach to the climbs often lies over long slopes covered with dense undergrowth1 known as #8maquis1' and most troublesome for walking when not snow-covered4 ,as early as towards the end of ,march the steeper rocks are already sufficiently free from snow for climbing1 while the snow on the gentler slopes remains to facilitate the crossing of the #8maquis4' ,another point in favour of an early season is the greater clearness of the atmosphere4 ,in ,march and ,april of #aiji from every summit we had a clear view of the ,apennines and of the ,maritime ,alps even late in the day4 ,in the summer months mists rising from the ,mediterranean partially obscure the view shortly after sunrise4 ,sidenote3 ,equipment4 ,a light tent and sleeping-bags should be taken1 as the nights are often cold4 ,a primus oil-stove 7petroleum used to be obtained almost anywhere1 but methylated spirits were difficult to procure71 and tinned milk1 meats1 vegetables1 fruit and jam must all be imported1 as they are not procurable in ,corsica4 ,such provisions are dutiable1 but my personal experience has been that the ,customs are indulgent if informed of the mountaineering object4 ,for porterage1 mules can be procured4 ,one mule will carry #bej lb41 and costs1 together with the services of the mule-driver1 according to the locality1 from four to eight francs a day4 ,both driver and mule entertain a dislike to snow1 and will shy at the prospect of crossing even the most diminutive snow-patches4 ,otherwise they will go almost anywhere4 ,i have covered as much as #ch miles of road1 scrub and mountain-track in a day with one mule carrying rather over #bjj lb4 ,the character of the usual hotel accommodation in the interior will be found to bias the climber in favour of camping out4 ,he can thus also move at once nearer to the base of his climbs4 ,wood for fires is plentiful1 and many streams provide trout-fishing 7three to the pound74#bf ,the two most important mountain groups are those of the ,rotondo and the ,cinto4 ,sidenote3 ,centres1 ,modes of ,access1 and ,topography4 ,the garrison town of ,corte will act as a centre to both these districts4 ,it is reached by a four hours' rail journey from either ,bastia or ,ajaccio4 ,a steamship service connects ,bastia with ,leghorn three times a week 7five hours' crossing74 ,fairly frequent services likewise connect ,ajaccio with ,nice 7twelve hours7 and with ,marseilles 7sixteen hours74 ,the approach to ,corsica by all three routes is magnificent1 especially that of ,nice to ,ajaccio4 ,it is well worth while to make this crossing by a day service4 ,from ,corte a good camping centre at the head of the ,restonica valley1 in the heart of the ,rotondo group1 can be reached in four hours 7mule-track most of the way74 ,the true centre of the ,cinto group is ,calacuccia4 ,this village can be reached from ,corte in six hours1 walking over the ,col de la ,rinella2 but there is no mule-track4 ,the view from this ,col embraces practically the whole ,cinto group4 ,an alternative route1 advisable when it is necessary to transport baggage1 is from ,corte to ,francardo 7half an hour's rail71 and thence in three hours by carriage 7postal service1 or hired conveyance1 #ae francs7 to ,calacuccia4 ,convenient camping centres in the ,rodda1 ,erco1 ,viro and ,golo valleys can thence be reached in from three to five hours4 ,for the northern slopes of the ,cinto group ,asco is the best centre 7three hours by road from the railway station1 ,ponte ,leggia74 ,this village also serves as a base for the magnificent chain of mountains running eastwards from ,monte ,padro 7#bdjj metres7 to ,monte ,corona 7#badc metres71 and thence in a southerly direction to ,punta ,minuta 7#bedg metres7 in the ,cinto group4 ,to the north of ,monte ,padro lies the ,tartagine valley1 at the head of which is the ,capo al ,dente 7#bjcb metres71 one of the most sporting peaks in the island4 ,a number of unclimbed peaks close in the valley to the north4 ,the approach to the ,tartagine valley is rather troublesome4 ,from ,palasca 7on the ,bastia-,calvi railway line7 via ,mausolo to the maison forestire1 the best centre1 takes eight to ten hours by a good road4 ,other groups offering good climbing and an abundance of #8first ascents' and #8new routes' are the ,monte d',oro and ,monte ,renoso groups4 ,vizzavona1 the centre for both these ranges1 boasts of good hotel accommodation1 and can be reached in three hours by rail from ,ajaccio and in one hour from ,corte4 ,the above-mentioned mountain groups are those which will attract the climber most of all4 ,they offer almost endless possibilities for first-rate climbing over both known and virgin ground4 ,with the exception of ,monte ,renosa1 the main mountain groups lie to the east of the ,ajaccio-,bastia railway1 and for this reason most climbers prefer to approach the mountains from the east1 from ,corte1 the half-way station on the line4 ,there is1 however1 little to choose between the eastern and western slopes--both offer high-class climbing1 and preference might now well be given to the western slopes1 as here much more remains to be accomplished in the way of pioneer work4 ,as a general rule1 camp centres for climbing on the western slopes of the d',oro1 ,rotondo1 ,cinto and ,corona groups are best reached by crossing the main chains from ,corte4 ,in these cases the mountaineer will have to act as his own beast of burden unless the route be entirely free from snow1 which is very unlikely in the spring4 ,there are a great number of mountain groups either of minor importance or difficult of access 7the ,incudine1 #bacf metres2 ,punta di ,capella1 #bjdd2 etc471 but as a rule from the climbing point of view they are of little interest4 ,mention should be made of the chain of hills1 attaining heights of over #acjj metres1 which forms the backbone of the promontory of ,cap ,corse4 ,the main ridge can be traversed throughout its length in one long day from ,bastia1 and the splendour of the views down on to the ,mediterranean and towards the ranges of the interior is beyond all description4#bg ,sidenote3 ,nature of the ,climbing4 ,there are no glaciers in ,corsica1 though in the ,cinto and ,rotondo groups snow-patches occasionally survive the summer's heat4 ,both these groups show marked traces of glacier action4 ,the ice work is limited to cutting in ice-choked chimneys and to clearing rocks4 ,long1 steep1 hard-frozen snow slopes necessitating a sustained use of the axe are seldom encountered1 and ice-claws may safely be dispensed with4 ,on the other hand1 ski might prove to be of great value1 as the return on foot from a climb over the long slopes of soft snow lying on the #8maquis' is often very trying4 ,devotees of ski-ing will find plenty of splendid ground1 especially on the eastern and southern slopes of the ,cinto group4 ,the rock is sound1 and handholds are only too abundant4 ,as a general rule1 only those climbs are difficult which lead up over apparently perpendicular rock walls or ridges1 rocks which from the distance look hopelessly impossible4 ,this deceptive appearance may account for the fact that until #aiji no climb of exceptional difficulty was accomplished in the island4 ,paglia ,orba 7#bejj metres71 the ,matterhorn of ,corsica and the most conspicuous mountain of the ,cinto group1 may be taken as an instance4 ,the east wall was first climbed in the ,spring of #aiji4 ,the final #ajjj feet of this wall appear to overhang1 and actually do so for considerable sections of the ascent4 ,the unique character of this climb would alone justify a visit to the island4 ,the possibilities of new climbs--both new routes and first ascents--are still numerous4 ,nothing need be declared impossible on the strength of an inspection from a distance2 the chances are that a route of the most hopeless appearance will #8go1' and also provide the best of climbing4 ,the view from almost any summit embraces greater or lesser portions of the sunny coast-line1 which adds the charm of contrast to the alpine surroundings4 ,,footnotes3 #bf ,from the point of view of expense1 the mountaineer will find mountaineering in ,corsica exceptionally cheap4 ,hotel prices average five to six francs per diem1 but the climber who spends most of his time in tents will incur even this moderate expense only for comparatively brief periods4 ,the return fare to ,ajaccio is about #h1 and1 provided the climber imports his own stock of tinned provisions1 a further sum of #ae to #bj should be more than ample for a month's sojourn in the island1 on a pre-war estimate4 #bg ,when one considers the proximity of the mountains to the coast1 their height 7,monte ,cinto1 #bgaj metres7 is considerable2 and many magnificent walls of well over #bjjj or even #cjjj feet are to be met with4 ,joanne's guide-book1 ,la ,corse 7,hachette et ,cie1 ,paris71 and ,baedeker1 contain very full information as regards accommodation1 etc4 ,baedeker supplies much useful information on the mountains themselves4 ,the best maps are those of the ,corps d'tat-,major1 on a scale of #a to #hj1jjj4 ,they are somewhat unreliable1 and the reverse of clear4 ,these and other maps are procurable at the stationers' shops in ,ajaccio and ,bastia4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,himalaya ,,by ,t4 ,g4 ,,longstaff ,although the natural and physical conditions in those ranges loosely called the ,himalaya are probably more diverse than in any other mountain region in the world1 still a certain amount of generalization is possible4 ,,general ,,considerations ,sidenote3 ,configuration4 ,essentially1 we find two more or less parallel ranges4 ,the southern and highest is visible from the plains4 ,on this stand the great peaks whose names are familiar to us4 ,this outer range is pierced by numerous rivers which burst through a series of deep1 narrow gorges4 ,the low elevation of these river valleys brings an almost tropical fauna and flora up to the foot of the ,snows4 ,the snowline on this range1 owing to greater precipitation1 reaches down lower than on the second range1 that to the north4 ,this second1 or northern1 range constitutes the local water-parting between ,india and the countries to the north4 ,it is reached by broad1 open1 treeless valleys almost ,tibetan in character as in fauna4 ,its snowline is high owing to the drier climate4 ,the peaks seldom attain #be1jjj feet1 and1 in general1 are not so precipitous as the great line of peaks to the south4 ,even in ,kashmir this arrangement of two parallel ranges may be traced2 but though there is plenty of fine climbing on the ranges which enclose between them the ,vale of ,kashmir1 most of which have already fallen to the attacks of residents and ,british officers1 yet the eyes of the mountaineer from ,england will be fixed on the vast range of the ,karakoram beyond the ,indus4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,himalaya ,c4 ,f4 ,,meade ,this grand chain has a character of its own1 though there are points of resemblance to both ranges of the ,himalaya4 ,the glaciers are the largest outside the ,polar regions4 ,the peaks are very high and very precipitous4 ,it is the country par excellence for the mountain explorer2 but for the mountain climber the greatest drawback is the journey of four to six weeks from ,england to the scene of operations4 ,sidenote3 ,climbing ,conditions4 ,rock climbing is the same all the world over in that the conditions vary on every mountain in any range4 ,also1 a rock peak cannot be really reconnoitred from a distance2 we must come to grips with the rocks before we can know the practicability of a route4 ,as to snow and ice1 ,i think conditions are worse in the ,himalaya than in the ,alps or ,caucasus1 chiefly owing to greater variations of temperature4 ,avalanches of all kinds are bigger1 and great caution must be exercised in the choice of camps and bivouacs4 ,snow and ice slopes in the ,alps appear to me to look steeper than they eventually turn out to be4 ,in the ,caucasus they are about as steep as they look4 ,in the ,himalaya ,i have usually found them markedly steeper than their distant appearance led me to expect4 ,sidenote3 ,management4 ,diverse as are the physical conditions of the ,himalayan regions1 the inhabitants thereof show an even greater variety of character4 ,some general rules of conduct may1 however1 be indicated1 though most of them may be considered by mountaineers as truisms not worth the stating4 ,the first object to keep in view is to create such an impression amongst the natives as will make the path of subsequent visitors easier and not harder4 ,almost all hill men are superstitious4 ,you must expect timidity at first4 ,remember particularly that native servants are very prone to abuse the authority which in the eyes of the villagers is acquired by the mere fact of their being in your service4 ,the hill man is usually inarticulate2 he knows you cannot speak his dialect1 and probably your servants are the only interpreters4 ,your watchfulness is his only chance of a square deal4 ,pay for everything with your own hand1 if it be only an anna for a few eggs4 ,of course always pay your day-to-day coolies yourself1 and1 if they desire it1 give each his four or eight annas separately1 only paying over a whole rupee to a group from the same hamlet4 ,religious beliefs are very mixed in the hills1 and it is a good rule to keep well away when your coolies1 whatever their race1 are cooking or eating4 ,of course you must never offer them cooked food4 ,away from the villages1 and if only two or three men are with you1 such things as biscuits and jam--being assumed not to be made by hand--may be offered if necessary4 ,this applies more especially to ,hindus2 but though ,moslems should eat with ,christians1 the same rules had better be applied4 ,with ,gurkhas 7though nominal ,hindus7 or others with the strain of ,mongolian blood in them--who are or have till lately been ,buddhists--the code need not be quite so strict4 ,these remarks might seem unnecessary to anyone having experience only of sport or travel in ,high ,asia2 but for the mountaineer who essays to take coolies or shikaris to high bivouacs it is obviously of great advantage to get them to adopt ,european foods and methods of cooking4 ,this was successfully done by the ,italian expedition to the ,karakoram in #aiji4 ,tea 7native green is best7 and the vilest cigarettes may be offered to any coolie without fear of offence as a reward after an extra hard day4 ,the gift of a sheep or goat on suitable occasions produces a glow of contentment all through the camp4 ,as to more general conduct3 ,refrain from whistling4 ,do not bathe naked before natives4 ,never lose your temper except on purpose and with a definite object4 ,never allow your servants to be familiar or to enter your tent with their shoes on4 ,do not laugh or joke with your men unless you are master of the language4 ,if you do1 you may be as broad as possible1 especially with ,gurkhas4 ,exact proper respect from all village officials with whom you come in contact4 ,conversely1 treat a native gentleman with the same courtesy that you expect yourself4 ,hindu religious mendicants and devotees are easily irritated1 and are best left severely alone4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,campaign4 ,it is absolutely essential that the climber planning a visit to the ,himalaya should make up his mind exactly what he wants to do4 ,leaving aside exploration1 the most dangerous lure on the path of the mountaineer1 we may for convenience confine ourselves to two courses--the attack on some particular and probably very high peak2 or a less ambitious and more general campaign in some selected district in which climbing for its own sake1 apart from any design of raising #8the record1' is the object aimed at4 ,having settled the strategic idea1 we must next consider tactics4 ,in the case of a single big mountain1 the method of attack will be in the nature of siege operations2 and in this case a siege train1 in the form of ,piedmontese guides1 makes for success4 ,still1 a siege is dull1 and to get the full pleasure out of a trip in the ,himalaya1 amateurs and not guides are the best companions4 ,the difficulty is to get them for an absence of several months from ,england4 ,as a matter of tactics1 the writer prefers1 with or without guides1 to try and #8rush' peaks2 for by this means far the most climbing is secured4 ,on the other hand1 more frequent failure is risked by such direct attacks4 ,unless the weather is favourable1 a successful high ascent is quite impossible2 and if a climber is moving about and continually attacking different peaks1 he loses chances on particular peaks which the besieger1 waiting upon their favourable moments1 can take instant advantage of4 ,there is1 further1 the vexed question of the actual final assault4 ,should it be a gradual pushing of bivouacs higher and higher1 in the hope of acclimatizing ourselves to the want of oxygen2 or should we make the last bivouac as low down as possible1 in the hope that better conditions for digestion and sleep will enable us to put forth one tremendous effort on the final day of the adventure8 ,subjection to low pressures1 or want of oxygen1 for days or weeks will find out our weakest spots4 ,with some the belly1 with others the mind4 ,for myself1 ,i know that after several nights at very high altitudes my mind is dull and my courage reduced to vanishing-point4 ,in all cases1 so far as ,i know1 there is considerable loss of weight4 ,to actual mountain sickness we can acclimatize ourselves by going as frequently as possible above #bj1jjj feet4 ,but we cannot stay for long at very high altitudes and preserve all our strength4 ,we must come down again soon to #ae1jjj feet1 or lower if we can4 ,it is easier to deny than to prove the existence of mountain sickness2 but although we do not bleed from the ears1 or even the nose1 nowadays1 most of us suffer some diminution of our powers4 ,this being so1 it appears that the best chance of success on a very high mountain is to send some one else to examine the final route and to lay the last bivouac for the storming party2 just high enough for them1 supposing they are in good condition1 to reach the summit well on in the following afternoon4 ,this may seem a soulless way to wear a mountain down2 but it is merely the application of ,polar methods to slightly changed conditions4 ,as in the ,polar regions1 also1 the weather decides between success and failure1 between return and no return4 ,because of the cold1 it is unwise to start before sunrise4#bh ,the risk is less in descending easy ground at night--perhaps because movement is then quicker4 ,a concrete example puts the case shortly4 ,trisul is only some #bc1djj feet high1 but it appears to be the highest peak of which the complete ascent is universally admitted4 ,after two nights1 at about #bj1jjj feet1 in bad weather1 the party retreated to #ad1jjj feet4 ,three days later1 after one bivouac at about #ah1jjj feet1 the summit was reached at #d p4m4 7#aj hours71 and the night was spent on the return at about #af1ejj feet4 ,sidenote3 ,season4 ,generally speaking1 the regular rainy season 7#8monsoon'7 commences in ,july and ends in ,september2 but all the world over more rain falls1 and falls more frequently1 on mountains than on the country immediately surrounding them4 ,hence1 though probably ,june is the best month for the high peaks1 we cannot even then count on continuous fine weather4 ,it is always easy to avoid the monsoon by pushing north into the second range2 but here again it must not be expected that the highest peaks will completely conform to the rainless character of the rest of this region4 ,when the rains are over1 in ,september and ,october spells of gloriously fine and clear weather are the rule2 but the nights are then bitterly cold above the tree-line4 ,,the ,,chief ,,districts ,though the ,himalaya1 in the widest sense of the term1 extend beyond the ,brahmapootra on the east and beyond the ,indus on the west1 we may impose these limits upon them for present purposes4 ,furthermore1 only sections of these ranges are at present politically accessible to the mountaineer4 ,practically the whole of the ,himalayan region is covered by the ,great ,trigonometrical ,survey of ,india on a scale of one inch to four miles4 ,the sheets are obtainable in ,london4 ,it would be easy to criticize this map in detail4 ,for reasons of finance and policy1 the surveyors were ordered to cover a very large area each season and not to attempt detailed surveys of uninhabited areas4 ,it would be1 therefore1 manifestly unfair to set up claims which were never made by the authors and then to demolish them4#bi ,sidenote3 ,the ,eastern ,himalaya4 ,for ,bhutan1 it is best to consult ,claude ,white's ,sikkim and ,bhutan 7,arnold1 #aiji74 ,it would be necessary to obtain special leave from the ,government of ,india to travel here2 and the country is not very promising from our point of view4 ,sidenote3 ,sikkim4 ,for ,sikkim1 consult ,mr4 ,freshfield's ,round ,kangchenjunga1 and several papers by ,dr4 ,kellas in the ,alpine and ,geographical ,journals4 ,sikkim is a region of tropical contrasts1 merging on the north into ,tibetan conditions4 ,the vegetation is magnificent4 ,the great peaks in the south are difficult2 in the north much easier1 where the isolated peak of ,chumolhari 7#bc1icj feet7 has long challenged attention4 ,the starting-point is ,darjeeling1 reached by rail in a day and night from ,calcutta1 or in three days from ,bombay4 ,a call should be made on the ,deputy ,commissioner1 especially if the climber intends to enter native ,sikkim4 ,at present permission would not be given to enter ,nepal or ,tibet1 and probably not for ,bhutan4 ,stores can be bought beforehand at ,darjeeling1 and a ,buddhist cook should be1 if possible1 secured4 ,the semi-,tibetan natives of ,upper ,sikkim1 and similar immigrants from north-eastern ,nepal1 are splendid material for glacier work4 ,dr4 ,kellas with these people found himself quite able to dispense with alpine guides4 ,they are cheerful1 smiling and easy for ,europeans to get on with1 fond of a joke1 and1 if handled well1 honest and reliable4 ,for the first part of the journey in the lower country temporary coolies can well be used4 ,sidenote3 ,nepal4 ,in ,nepal1 though in certain circumstances the frontier is not inviolable1 yet for a variety of reasons1 not all political1 an ,englishman is not likely to be able to penetrate to any of the great peaks4 ,at the same time1 for the mountaineer as well as for the explorer1 few journeys are better worth making than that up the valley of the ,gandak1 or the ,kosi1 into the heart of the grandest of all mountain ranges4 ,sidenote3 ,kumaon and ,garhwal4 ,to my mind this is the finest part of the ,himalaya at present accessible4 ,it is the most #8alpine' portion of the ,himalaya1 possessing peaks over #be1jjj feet4 ,the scenery1 flora and fauna are exceedingly beautiful and varied4 ,it contains much difficult ground1 even below the tree-line4 ,most of the highest peaks are very severe4 ,towards ,tibet the country opens out and the mountains are easier4#cj ,the approach is by rail to ,kathgodam4 ,there follows a short drive to ,naini ,tal1 where all ordinary supplies may be obtained4 ,thence a driving road to ,ranikhet and a pony road to ,almora1 where fair supplies are also obtainable4 ,a formal permit must be obtained from the ,deputy ,commissioner of ,almora1 and two chuprassis will be told off to engage coolies from village to village4 ,for ,garhwal it will probably be necessary to get a separate permit and chuprassis from the ,deputy ,commissioner at ,pawri4 ,when the base of operations is reached in ,garhwal or ,kumaon1 it is advisable to engage a few local men as permanent coolies4 ,the ordinary stages are worked by relays of coolies from village to village4 ,in these1 native flour 7ata71 rice1 fowls1 goats and1 higher up1 sheep can usually be obtained4 ,a ,mussulman cook can be obtained in ,naini ,tal4 ,an army reservist--,garhwali or ,gurkha--would be found of assistance4 ,he should be provided with an extra broad pair of good nailed boots4 ,gurla ,mandhata 7#be1cej feet7 is just over the frontier in ,tibet4 ,access to it is at present barred by our own ,government4 ,it can be reached through ,kumaon in a fortnight from ,almora1 and is probably easily climbable from the ,gurla ,glacier4#ca ,in ,garhwal the ,rishi ,nali with ,nanda ,devi 7#be1ffj feet7 is the centre of attraction4#cb ,under present conditions it is not likely to be climbed4 ,dunagiri 7#bc1ahd feet71 an outlier of this group1 is pretty certainly climbable by ,graham's route--the south-west ridge--from a bivouac at the head of the ,tolma valley4 ,farther north1 ,kamet 7#be1ddc feet71 allied with bad weather1 has so far defied repeated attacks4 ,every variety of climbing is to be found on these mountains1 and it is a region that seems to exert an extraordinary fascination on every one who has visited it4 ,in the matter of securing coolies for climbing purposes1 it is well to remember that the ,kumaonis are a poor lot2 the ,danpurias and ,garhwalis are better2 the partially ,hinduized ,bhotias of ,badrinath ,niti and ,milam are good2 the still more ,mongolian people of ,gharbyang1 and of the north-west corner of ,nepal1 are splendid1 and can be taken on into ,tibet4 ,sidenote3 ,tehri ,garhwal4 ,this small native hill state1 west of ,british ,garhwal1 contains some very fine peaks around ,gangotri4 ,it is reached from ,lansdowne or ,mussoori4 ,to facilitate travel1 an introduction should be obtained to the ,rajah4 ,the mountains present a most promising and practically untouched field for the mountaineer4 ,as coolies1 the local men in the north are probably pretty good4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,simla ,hill ,states4 ,kangra1 ,kulu1 ,spiti1 ,lahaol and ,bushahr embrace a very large mountain area1 and offer unlimited scope to the less ambitious mountaineer4 ,it is an #8alpine' region1 but still on the ,himalayan scale4 ,the peaks rarely attain #bc1jjj feet4 ,but probably more actual climbing can be obtained in one season here than in any other section of the ,himalaya4 ,general ,bruce's book1 ,kulu and ,lahoul1 should be consulted4 ,the entry is from ,dharmsala or ,simla4 ,the latter1 probably1 will be easiest for new-comers to ,india1 since there is a railway to ,simla2 and at ,simla supplies and servants can be obtained4 ,hindus1 ,buddhists1 and nominal ,moslems are met with1 and for coolies1 it would seem that the quality of the natives improves as we move north4 ,chamba is a semi-independent hill state4 ,the arrangements for travelling must be made with the ,rajah4 ,it is a difficult country1 and not very promising4 ,manimais 7or ,mani ,mahais71 however1 looks magnificent4 ,sidenote3 ,kashmir and ,karakoram4 ,the mountaineering literature on the ,karakoram is voluminous1 and it would be out of place to enter into details4 ,a drawback to this region is the time it takes to reach the mountains4 ,the railway runs to ,rawal ,pindi2 thence by carriage or motor to ,srinagar1 two to ten days1 according to the state of the road4 ,from there it is a matter of coolie or pony transport1 according to the time of year and the route chosen4 ,the time taken from ,srinagar to ,astor 7for the ,nanga ,parbat group7 will be again about ten days2 or from ,srinagar to ,skardu 7for the western ,karakoram7 about a fortnight4 ,from ,srinagar to ,leh takes about three weeks4 ,the routes themselves vary considerably according to the time of year4 ,it may be remarked that there is a very promising #be1jjj-;foot group1 which can be easily reached from ,panamik in the ,upper ,nubra ,valley4#cc ,unfortunately1 our party was prevented by bad weather from making anything like a thorough reconnaissance4 ,it would probably take two months to reach the foot of the peak from ,england4 ,the ,kashmiris 7mainly ,moslems7 on the whole are a poor lot1 and as servants and followers they are apt to ill-treat and rob the up-country villagers4 ,but both ,baltis 7,moslems7 and ,ladakhis 7,buddhists7 are splendid as coolies if they are handled properly4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,hindu ,khush1 etc4 ,with regard to the ,gilgit ,agency1 of which the native states of ,hunza and ,nagar form part1 it must be borne in mind that permission to travel is difficult to obtain4 ,the country is poor1 and transport and supplies are hardly sufficient for the use of the garrison and the frontier officers1 who have to be constantly on tour4 ,the seven distinct tribes inhabiting the ,agency vary in quality from the point of view of the mountaineer4 ,most of the shikaris are splendid cragsmen1 and some of the ,hunza men are acquainted with axe and rope4 ,the ,hindu ,khush1 extending from ,hunza through ,ishkoman1 ,punyal1 ,yasin1 ,ghizr and ,chitral to the ,afghan border1 contains many1 almost untouched1 fine mountains and glaciers1 culminating in the wonderful group of ,tirich ,mir 7#be1dbf feet74 ,but the conditions of transport and frontier policy will render access difficult for some years to come4 ,yet the region is a most interesting one and the scenery very varied1 for it includes the water-parting between the ,indus and the ,oxus4 ,many aspects of the country1 both physical and human1 vividly recalled to me memories of the ,caucasus4 ,,personal ,,matters ,sidenote3 ,expense4 ,the cost of a climbing expedition in the ,himalaya entirely depends on the scale of preparation4 ,if guides are taken1 their fares1 outfit and pay will be a heavy item--not less than #bej each4 ,it is obvious that the further ,english stores have to be transported the more they will cost by the time the mountains are reached4 ,it is cheaper in the end to get most of the stores at the last hill station1 and to pay a little more for them4 ,the equipment for the high bivouacs1 however1 must be brought out from home4 ,this will cost1 say #ej4 ,a first-class return by ,p4 ,o41 plus fare to the end of the railway transport1 may be put at #ajj4 ,if the expedition is on a modest scale1 and the climber has some knowledge of the language and customs of the country1 and can limit himself and his servants to a dozen loads1 the actual expense of travel in the hills is not great4 ,twenty pounds a month is a liberal estimate for each ,european4 ,this includes everything3 food1 servants and coolies' wages4 ,two amateurs1 contributing #ejj in all between them1 and with four months to spare1 ought to be able to put in ten weeks in the hills without any difficulty4 ,in ,kashmir1 with the same allowance of time and money1 they would only get eight or nine weeks in the mountains1 and in the ,karakoram not more than a month4 7,all estimates are pre-war47 ,obviously a big expedition with guides must cost a great deal more than this1 but the amount can be calculated on the basis of the figures given above4 ,for a large party it would be advisable to bring out all the supplies for the mountains packed in numbered ,vanesta cases4 ,a number must be put on every side of each package1 and lists of contents to correspond prepared4 ,these cases also serve as good substitutes for chairs and tables4 ,sidenote3 ,outfit4 ,the days or weeks of travel to the foot of the ,snows require an outfit distinct from that required for high mountaineering4 ,the extent of the travelling outfit depends primarily upon the time and money at the disposal of the individual4 ,a camp-bed and an #hj-lb4 ,kabul tent1 ordered beforehand from the ,elgin ,mills at ,cawnpore or through the ,a4 ,n4 ,stores at ,bombay1 is worth serious consideration4 ,personally1 ,i prefer a ,whymper tent1 with an extra fly to keep the sun off and with the floor-cloth sewn in4 ,a ,whymper tent can also be used by the cook and followers1 without the double fly and with a loose floor-cloth2 if this is sewn in1 it is apt to get burned when fires are lighted inside the tent on wet evenings4 ,on all railway journeys1 in most bungalows--public and private--and even in some hotels1 bedding must be carried4 ,a very thin cork or hair mattress is a luxury2 the sleeping-bag does nearly as well4 ,two ,jaeger sheets1 two ,jaeger blankets1 a pillow and a couple of pillow-cases1 aided by a bath towel1 really suffice4 ,the whole is wrapped up and strapped in a strong ground sheet laced down the middle1 or in a more complicated valise sold in ,india4 ,this bundle constitutes the bistra1 one coolie-load2 it should be as rain- and vermin-proof as possible4 ,a folding ,x-table and chair are almost necessary concessions to caste4 ,a spare chair should be available if natives of chair rank are likely to be met4 ,an india-rubber or canvas bath is also necessary for other purposes4 ,when bathing in the open1 as before said1 drawers at least should always be worn out of respect for native sentiment4 ,toilet kit is carried in an enamelled iron basin with a leather cover1 called a chilamchi4 ,cooking vessels 7degchis7 should be of aluminium1 but cups and plates and teapot may be enamel-ware4 ,either hurricane lanterns 7kerosene71 or candle-lanterns that can stand on a table1 are necessary in camp4 ,all these should be obtained from the ,a4 ,n4 or other stores in ,india4 ,sidenote3 ,food4 ,as to food1 the necessary tinned butter1 biscuits1 jam and other groceries can be bought at the last hill station4 ,in most places in the hills sheep or goats can be bought as required4 ,farther on you must bring your own live stock along with you2 this should ensure milk of sorts4 ,chickens and eggs1 rice and native flour 7ata71 can be purchased in most villages4 ,on the glaciers1 cocoa1 chocolate or tea1 with plasmon1 are needed for breakfast1 and1 for the evening1 maggi 7vegetable7 soups with rice4 ,at the highest camps by far the best drink is some sort of dried malted milk preparation1 like ,horlick's or ,allen ,hanbury's diet4 ,the above must be brought out from ,england1 unless it is found to be obtainable from the ,a4 ,n4 ,stores in ,bombay4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,high ,camp ,outfit4 ,the tent should be the ,mummery pattern if carried by yourself1 but may be ,whymper pattern if coolies are still available4 ,ice-axes can be lengthened to serve as tent poles1 if desired1 by means of a piece of hollow bamboo #aj or #ab inches long which is slipped over the point4 ,the bamboo must be bound round with wire at the end to prevent splitting4 ,in bad weather a small ventilator to the tent is necessary1 as it may be found impossible to open the door4 ,sleeping-bags can be made of any thickness and warmth of goose-down4 ,balloon-silk should be sewn underneath the bag1 and brought up for at least #ah inches over the feet4 ,at high altitudes only a primus stove1 burning kerosene1 will serve4 ,absolute alcohol should be carried to start the apparatus1 and a flat strip of perforated brass as a wind-shield is necessary4 ,the primus stove and reserve of kerosene1 in old petrol tins1 must not be carried in the same load with any food4 ,this must be specially remembered during the whole of the expedition4 ,it is a good plan to camp not later than #c p4m41 and to start melting snow at once4 ,the first melting will probably be drunk tepid4 ,then the evening meal1 or rather drink1 of soup or cocoa or malted milk must be taken2 following this1 while the stove is still alive1 more snow should be melted and the morning's drink prepared4 ,if this is placed in large thermos-bottles inside the sleeping-bags it will last1 if untouched1 till the following afternoon4 ,it is worse than useless to invite frost-bite by a very early start4 ,but in any case the time cannot be spared to melt snow in the morning4 ,sidenote3 ,clothing4 ,so long as you wear a good #8,cawnpore' pith helmet 7topi7 nothing else matters much4 ,sunburn will prevent you wearing too little4 ,some people prefer a turban4 ,this consists of the pugari or loonghi and the koolla or conical cap affected by ,mohammedans and ,europeans1 and round which the pugaree is worn4 ,on a cold morning the tail of the pugaree can be wrapped round the neck4 ,it is easy to tie--in a fashion4 ,it is in some ways better than a pith helmet1 but does not protect the eyes from glare4 ,shorts are very cool for marching2 but beware of blisters at the back of the knees4 ,a spine pad is necessary in the valleys1 and pleasant at even the greatest altitudes4 ,footgear for high climbing is still a vexed problem4 ,you must have very heavily nailed boots for the moraines4 ,on snow ,i have worn a covering of raw cowhide1 hair outside over the front half of the boot4 ,the half sole is made of stoutest canvas4 ,the whole may be garnished with a common pair of ,swiss ice-claws4 ,boots should be large enough for two pairs of socks to be worn4 ,since putties will be invariably used1 stockings will only be needed for a change in the evening4 ,no doubt for very high work some ,polar footgear would be better than climbing boots4#cd ,possibly ski-boots may meet the difficulty4 ,but a piece of blanket wrapped over the whole boot and held in place with a large pair of claws1 or by the boot-nails as they wear through1 ought to be an efficient substitute4 ,swiss snow-shoes are hardly worth carrying1 but on easy slopes at high altitudes they can be very useful1 and ,i have been glad of them4 ,ski are probably useless1 for our purpose1 owing to transport difficulties4 ,smoked glasses are only better than nothing2 the proper colour is something between yellow and green1 such as ,sinclair's #8,n4,w4,v4' glasses1 or their like4 ,sidenote3 ,instruments4 ,you cannot produce a good map without sacrificing much time and energy4 ,but apart from this1 it is useful to know the heights of camps1 etc4 ,for this purpose use at your camps a boiling-point thermometer 7hypsometer71 specially constructed for high altitudes3 you must observe the air temperature with a swing thermometer at the same time4 ,also take a large 7#d inch7 ,watkin mountain aneroid 7,j4 ,hicks1 ,hatton ,garden71 graduated from #ca to #aj inches4 ,keep it permanently out of action as soon as you go above #ejjj feet1 and only throw it into gear when taking a reading--allowing not more than a few minutes for it to settle4 ,put it out of gear as soon as the reading has been made4 ,a reading should be taken with the ,watkin whenever the hypsometer is used1 as a check on both instruments4 ,when climbing1 and at the highest camp1 probably only the ,watkin will be used1 since1 even with absolute alcohol1 an hour may be spent over an hypsometer observation at great heights4 ,the ,watkin must be read both on leaving camp and on returning4 ,the air temperature ought to be taken at each observation2 but this is a refinement4 ,all observations must be immediately entered in a special notebook with hour1 date and place4 ,these should be worked out by some one else on a return to civilization4 ,the ,indian ,meteorological ,department or the ,survey at ,dehra ,dun or the ,royal ,geographical ,society would be the natural referees4 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,alpine ,journal1 vol4 xxiii4 p4 #bbc4 #bi ,alpine ,journal1 vol4 xxv4 p4 #chi4 #cj ,consult ,a4 ,l4 ,mumm's ,five ,months in the ,himalaya 7,arnold74 #ca ,alpine ,journal1 vol4 xxiii4 p4 #bag et seq41 and map4 #cb ,consult ,alpine ,journal1 vol4 xxiii4 p4 #bjb1 and maps1 and vol4 xxiv4 p4 #ajg1 and map4 #cc ,alpine ,journal1 vol4 xxv4 p4 #dhg1 with map1 and ,neve's ,picturesque ,kashmir1 chap4 xii4 #cd ,consult ,appalachia1 ,oct4 #aiad1 vol4 xiii4 p4 #afj4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,mountains ,,of ,,norway ,,by ,w4 ,,cecil ,,slingsby ,concerning the mountains of ,norway1 their geography and the history of their exploration1 a considerable amount of published information is already available for mountaineers3 it is1 therefore1 unnecessary to do more than give a general idea of the mountaineering potentialities of the country1 and of the facilities of travel and provisioning4 ,sidenote3 ,guide-books and ,literature4 ,baedeker is excellent as a general guide1 and a copy should be in the hands1 and to some extent also in the head1 of at least one member of every mountaineering party4 ,in addition1 maps should be obtained of each district which the climbers intend to visit4 ,the ,amts ,karter1 price #a krone each1 will answer this purpose4 ,there are no #8,climbers' ,guides' for ,norway1 though many books deal more or less with its mountains4 ,the great mountain classic is ,norway and its ,glaciers1 by ,professor ,j4 ,d4 ,forbes4 ,mrs4 ,aubrey le ,blond has dealt solely with one group1 the mountains of ,lyngen ,fjord1 in ,mountaineering in the ,land of the ,midnight ,sun4 ,this is of use to those who wish to climb between lat4 #fi and #gj1 but is not of service in ,central ,norway4 ,new ,climbs in ,norway1 by ,mr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,oppenheim1 deals also with certain individual peaks4 ,there is an excellent book in ,norsk on the ,sndmre ,alps1 near ,aalesund4 ,norway1 the ,northern ,playground1 is the result of many years' experience on my own part1 but barely touches the romantic regions of ,arctic ,norway4 ,the ,alpine ,journal has many papers by many authors on all parts of the country4 ,illustration3 ,,norwegian ,,peaks ,,norman ,,collie ,of late years ,norsk mountaineers have been very active1 not only in ,norway and in the ,alps1 but also in far-off ,himalaya and the ,southern ,andes4 ,the ,aarbog of 8,den ,norske ,turist ,forening0 virtually resembles an alpine journal1 and its illustrations of glaciers and aiguilles are valuable4 ,it has had for many years mountaineering papers both in ,english and ,norsk4 ,every one who intends to climb in ,norway should become a member of this most useful club4 ,he will have considerable privileges1 connected with mountain huts1 etc4 ,no mountaineering qualification is required2 merely a small subscription4 ,t4 ,bennett ,sons1 or ,f4 ,beyer 7,tourist ,agents at ,bergen71 as well as the keepers of the tourist huts1 will enrol members4 ,there is also an inner circle1 the 8,norske ,tinder ,klub10 whose mountaineering qualification is at least as high as that of the ,alpine ,club4 ,a slight knowledge of the language is essential4 ,norsk is easier for north-country folk to acquire than for southerners1 as much of our northern dialect is almost identical with ,norsk4 ,as an outcome of perhaps laudable ultra-patriotism1 great changes1 which in the main lead to a simplification of the language1 are being made4 ,the natives themselves during this period of transition apparently have no fixed rules of spelling1 and a foreigner need not feel uneasy on the subject4 ,the greatest difficulty in connection with this phase is that--so far as ,i am aware--there is no ,norsk-,english dictionary which has adopted1 or at present can adopt1 the spelling mostly in use4 ,sidenote3 ,season4 ,as in ,switzerland1 ,july and ,august are the best months for mountaineering in ,norway1 though1 speaking generally1 there is more often settled weather in ,june and ,september4 ,in some years1 the two last weeks in ,june are perfect for climbing1 but as in the ,alps again1 there is often too much snow for pleasant mountaineering before ,july4 ,similarly1 there is often ideal weather in ,september1 and though the days are getting short1 grand climbing may be done during the whole of the month4 ,once the weather breaks1 and heavy snows fall1 no good climbing can be done4 ,the presence of the ,gulf ,stream causes a rather larger rainfall in ,norway than in the ,alps4 ,often bad weather in the ,alps means excellent weather in ,norway1 and vice versa4 ,sidenote3 ,routes of ,access1 ,travel1 etc4 ,travelling facilities have much improved during the last few years4 ,the steamboat service from ,england is better1 but more remains yet to be done in this respect4 ,the ,north ,sea has not improved1 and never will4 ,a quickened train service from ,christiania to ,throndhjem shortens the journey up to the romantic north by a good day4 ,the completion of the picturesque ,bergen to ,christiania railway has revolutionized travel in many ways1 both good and bad4 ,the usual routes to ,norway are by ,hull or ,newcastle to ,bergen1 ,christiania or ,throndhjem4 ,dozens of public steam-yachts1 some starting from ,london1 run every summer4 ,some are ocean liners of a large tonnage1 and they may occasionally be used4 ,to #8consult ,cook' is good advice4 ,bergen is the best starting-place4 ,from thence mountaineers may proceed direct by steamer to ,skjolden at the head of the ,sogne ,fjord1 and from thence may now drive up to ,turtegr1 the favourite centre for the ,horungtinder--one of the finest ranges in ,norway2 or1 and better still1 they may go by rail to ,vossevangen1 drive to ,gudvangen and then take steamer4 ,or further1 by rail to ,myrdal1 and drive to ,aurland and take steamer there4 ,bergen is reached in about thirty-six hours from ,hull or ,newcastle4 ,numerous steamers leave there for every mountaineering district4 ,three days must be allowed by steamer from ,bergen to ,svolvaer1 the centre of the ,lofotens4 ,another day to ,troms and ,lyngen ,fjord4 ,it is always advisable to book berths on the north-going boats a fortnight before leaving4 ,thos4 ,cook ,son can do this4 ,christiania is a good starting-point1 and the railway to ,throndhjem much shortens the time to get to ,arctic ,norway4 ,the mineral railway1 terminating at ,narvik1 near the mouth of the ,ofoten ,fjord1 close to lat4 #fi1 is in direct communication with ,stockholm1 from which a #8,lapland ,express' runs two or three times a week4 ,by means of this1 ,arctic ,norway can readily be reached by those who prefer railway travelling to steamboats--mostly within the ,skjaergaard 7or ,skerries74 ,sidenote3 ,expense ,the return fare1 ,newcastle to ,bergen1 food included1 is #f first class4 ,rather more by ,wilsons4 ,the cost of two men for a three weeks' tour in ,central ,norway1 including going and returning1 should be from #bj to #be each4 ,i have done it for considerably less4 ,it may also easily be increased to #cj or #ce if the travellers are ultra-luxurious in their ways and habits4 ,it should never be forgotten that a krone 7#a kr47 is worth #as4 #a;d4 ,many novices1 used to francs and lire1 forget this fact4 ,one pound only produces about #ah krone1 and not #be4 ,a large number of persons who take yachting cruises in huge steamboats1 and who only land here and there1 throw about their money in a wicked manner1 and have much spoiled the very few natives with whom they have come in contact4 ,away from the haunts of the tourist horde1 on the west coast1 prices are still very reasonable4 ,tips must not be given on quite so generous a scale as in the ,alps4 7,these prices are pre-war47 ,sidenote3 ,equipment4 ,for camp life excellent provisions are obtainable in ,christiania1 ,throndhjem and ,bergen1 and by getting them in the country the worry of passing the ,customs1 which is not very serious1 is avoided4 ,experience shows that bacon and porridge form a great stand-by for a camp breakfast4 ,first-rate sides of ,yorkshire bacon and good oatmeal can be bought in the three above-named cities4 ,as tinned meats1 useful as they are1 have their limitations1 it is well to purchase a leg or two of mutton whenever possible4 ,there is no doubt at all that one can climb infinitely better when fortified by fresh1 rather than by tinned1 meats4 ,a trout-rod1 and the ability to use it efficiently1 is often most serviceable anywhere in ,norway1 and in the ,lofotens a few sea-fishing appliances frequently add a welcome change to camp meals4 ,one result of the great cod fishery in the ,far ,north is that excellent ,french and ,spanish wines are procurable at the posting stations at reasonable prices in ,arctic ,norway4 ,speaking generally1 the farther north one goes the more comfortable are the steamers1 and certainly the more interesting is the company met with4 ,ashore1 the hospitality which many of us have met with leaves behind most happy memories4 ,with regard to the equipment requisite1 generally speaking what is suitable for ,switzerland is fit for ,norway4 ,it must1 however1 be taken for granted that1 except in ,christiania1 and possibly to some extent now in ,bergen1 no alpine nails1 ice-axes1 goggles1 alpine rope1 etc41 are procurable4 ,if extra boots are not taken1 it is also very desirable to take an ample supply of spare nails or screws4 ,with these much can be added to the security of a party1 by fitting up a casual porter or two with nails of a kind which he has probably never seen before4 ,he may at first object1 but in the course of the first day on the snows he will heartily approve1 unless he may happen to come upon the--not uncommon--highly polished roches moutonnes of gneiss4 ,no longer is it necessary to take tents into ,jotunheim or elsewhere in ,central ,norway1 as comfortable inns and mountain huts are to be found here1 there and everywhere4 ,in ,arctic ,norway it is otherwise4 ,in many places not only are tents a luxury but also a necessity1 unless mountaineers have the use of a yacht where they can sleep1 or unless they charter a small steamboat4 ,even then it is advisable to have tents1 as now and then the question of safe anchorage is a difficult one4 ,nowadays the well-to-do merchants in ,lofoten1 and also on the mainland1 very often possess motor-boats1 which can be hired to take mountaineers to remote fjords together with their tents4 ,in ,scandinavia it is a safe maxim to hold that the farther north one goes the more numerous are the mosquitoes4 ,hence mosquito nets should always be taken north of ,throndhjem4 ,mosquitoes1 fortunately1 are not always in evidence even in hot summers4 ,sidenote3 ,guides4 ,the question of guides is a difficult one4 ,at least #ij per cent of the best climbing in ,norway has been done without them1 solely because they were non-existent when most needed4 ,there are a few excellent men1 experienced alike on difficult glaciers1 on steep snow slopes and on rocks of the ,chamonix ,aiguille type1 but their number is very limited4 ,several are to be met with in various places in the ,jotun ,fjelde1 which include the ,horungtinder4 ,in the neighbourhood of the ,justedals-brae1 which is by far the largest snow field in ,continental ,europe1 and over #djj square miles in extent1 there are naturally a few good icemen able and willing to tackle the very complex glacier problems4 ,they can be found at ,fjaerland1 in the valley of ,justedal1 at ,stryn1 ,olden and ,loen1 and probably also by now in ,stardal and ,jlster4 ,at or near ie on the ,hjrund ,fjord1 two or three very fair guides may be found for the ,sndmre ,alps4 ,these men have been trained more or less by ,british mountaineers4 ,the same may be said for ,romsdal1 ,eikisdal1 as well as for ,sundal in ,nordmre1 where in the adjacent ,troldheim are a few fine glaciers and interesting peaks of gneiss4 ,at the same time1 it is true that in every mountain valley in ,central ,norway there is at least one excellent cragsman to be found1 who is invariably called to rescue crag-fast sheep or goats4 ,these men1 shod in snaukopper1 or soft-soled shoes1 climb fearlessly on the smooth glaciated crags of gneiss1 and make excellent guides so far as rock climbing is concerned4 ,in ,norway1 which is at the same time the most democratic and the most conservative country in ,europe1 the guides and porters are often much better educated than their fellows in ,switzerland1 and know how to read a map intelligently4 ,they are frequently landowners on a moderate scale1 and consider that they confer a favour by acting as guides4 ,they will not use the prefix #8,mr4' or #8,herr'2 and why should they8 ,frequently they can trace their ancestry back to the ,viking ,age1 and even occasionally to the 8,early ,kings of ,norway40 ,though generally very nice fellows1 they are fully conscious of the monetary value of their services1 i4e4 when they are really capable men4 ,they have not yet learned to carry as much as the ,swiss4 ,as the summer is short1 there is more than enough work to occupy the whole manhood of any particular district on the land without question of mountains4 ,this condition has become of late years much aggravated by the enormous emigration to ,canada and the ,united ,states4 ,within the ,arctic circle1 amongst the hundred and twenty miles of aiguilles of gabbro and granite in the ,lofoten ,islands1 there are no real mountain guides4 ,this is the case1 too1 on the whole mainland of ,norway within the magic circle1 whether it be amongst the aiguilles of ,lyngen ,fjord or the weird truncated pyramids of gneiss along the coast1 though even here a few good cragsmen are to be found4 ,we must to some extent make an exception in the case of the nomad ,lapps who wander with their reindeer across the glaciers4 ,the gallant ,french explorer of the snow fields and glaciers along the ,swedish border1 ,monsieur ,charles ,rabot1 made use of some of these men1 and in his interesting book1 ,au ,cap ,nord1 has recorded his experiences4 ,sidenote3 ,general ,topography and ,structure4 ,though ,norway is #aajj miles in length1 the mountains which afford scope for indulging in the sport of mountaineering are confined between lat4 #fj and #gj1 i4e4 from the glaciers of the ,folgefond to the north point of the peninsula of ,lyngen ,fjord4 ,more or less they are groups where gabbro has been upheaved through the surrounding silurian strata1 granite or gneiss4 ,these groups are unconnected save by relatively uninteresting rolling fjelde1 the haunt of the wild reindeer and its enemy the lynx4 ,though there is as good climbing to be found in ,norway as in the ,alps1 no mountain attains the height of #ijjj feet1 and consequently there is no continuous ice stream falling so far as that from the summit of ,mont ,blanc to the snout of the ,glacier des ,bossons4 ,but there are many continuous icefalls of over #ejjj feet1 and some glaciers which descend over #fjjj feet nearly to the fjords below4 ,in many cases1 as these ice streams are exceptionally steep and are hemmed in by straight-cut mountain walls of gneiss1 the ice is more compressed1 harder and of a deeper blue colour than what one sees in ,switzerland4 ,notably is this the case in the glaciers of the ,justedals-brae4 ,there are also similar conditions in ,lyngen ,fjord in ,arctic ,norway1 e4g4 in the case of the noble ,fornsbrae1 descending from ,gjkkevarre--the ,mont ,blanc of the ,north4 ,the finest range in ,central ,norway is that of the ,horungtinder and portion of the ,jotun ,fjelde4 ,its dominating point is ,skagastlstind4 ,this range has the advantages1 and likewise possibly the disadvantages1 of possessing a well-recognized centre at ,turtegr1 which1 from a picturesque point of view1 is at the wrong side of the range4 ,the many fine peaks are nowadays being worked out with a persistency worthy of ,wasdale ,head or ,pen-y-,pass4 ,those of us who know the ,coolin in ,skye well1 know what grand climbing is suggested by the word #8gabbro1' the formation of the ,horungtinder4 ,in several other districts gabbro spires give the tone to the picture and afford magnificent climbing to the mountaineer4 ,notably is this the case in ,sndmre1 on each side of the ,hjrund ,fjord1 where some lovely mountains1 such as ,slogen1 bathe their feet in the sea4 ,unfortunately1 they frequently have their heads bound up with fleecy clouds1 owing to their proximity to the ,gulf ,stream and to nature's condensers in the form of huge snow fields4 ,the #abj miles' length of the ,lofoten ,islands are also built up of granite and gabbro4 ,the first view of these islands gives a sensation of exaltation and joy4 ,and their colour6 ,it is the same formation as the ,coolin1 and the same influences are at work4 ,the ,gulf ,stream1 that rare and subtle painter1 simply touches the mountains with its moisture-laden breezes1 and1 helped by the sun1 a richness and delicacy of tint appears which is unknown elsewhere in ,europe4 ,it lacks only the contrast which the ,coolin possess of the changing colour of heather4 ,the mountains of the ,lyngen ,peninsula1 a grand region of rugged aiguilles and huge glaciers1 which stream down seawards from1 in some cases1 a height of over #fjjj feet1 all consist of gabbro4 ,but it must not be concluded that the only good climbing is confined to mountains of this order4 ,as in the ,alps1 granite and gneiss hold their own1 and very many beautiful mountains afford arte and face climbing of exceptional interest4 ,in ,romsdal1 ,eikisdal and ,troldheim1 the latter until recently a much neglected district1 there is grand sport to be had1 not only on rocks but on steep and difficult glaciers as well4 ,north of ,throndhjem are the ,oxtinder4 ,though high and girt about their loins with glaciers1 they are1 it is said1 disappointing4 ,the glacier region of ,svartisen and a few rock peaks south of ,bod1 but yet within the ,arctic circle1 deserve more detailed attention from our countrymen than they have yet met with4 ,on the mainland1 north of ,bod and the ,salten ,fjord but south of the ,ofoten ,fjord1 are some of the most beautiful and some of the most fiendish-looking rock mountains conceivable in a mountaineer's nightmare4 ,in the first category is the ,strandaatind1 which has a most lovely outline1 and is also a difficult mountain to ascend4 ,not far away are two hideous and truncated obelisks4 ,these are in ,south ,folden ,fjord4 ,at the head of this fjord1 and on and within the ,swedish frontier1 there is a grand glacier region4 ,sixty-five miles farther north the ,stedtind1 or ,anvil peak1 a monolith with one diagonal crack across the face1 rises #ebjj feet out of the sea4 ,probably it is the most hideous mountain monster on our planet4 ,yet there are only #ae feet of especial difficulty to be crossed when the ascent is made from the back4 ,true1 but these #ae feet are highly sensational6 ,there are still left unclimbed in this region other gruesome peaks which await mountaineers capable of taking the initiative4 ,the glaciers of ,frostisen and a few of the high peaks rising out of this snow field have been fairly well explored1 but as yet little information has been given us on the subject4 ,up to comparatively recent years there was a strange ignorance about the higher mountains in ,norway1 and great uncertainty as to which was the highest4 ,once upon a time ,sulitelma held the honour4 ,snehaettan also had a short reign4 ,in an old atlas of mine1 ,skagastlstind is termed 8the culminating point of ,scandinavia40 ,then came the plea for ,galdhpiggen2 and not many years ago a claim was put in for ,knutshultind1 which was never looked upon seriously4 ,for a good many years1 however1 ,galdhpiggen has been recognized as the king1 though its neighbour1 ,glittertind1 was only twenty odd feet lower4 ,the summit of the former consists of a narrow rock ridge terminating abruptly in a precipice at one end1 which therefore cannot hold much snow4 ,the latter is a snow dome4 ,i pointed out many years ago the probability that after two or three years of unusually heavy snows the snow dome would rise1 that ,glittertind would be raised to the throne1 and ,galdhpiggen be deposed4 ,this has come to pass1 and now ,glittertind--a much duller mountain than its rival--is 8the culminating point of ,scandinavia40 ,it may and ought to be deposed ere long4 ,sidenote3 ,local ,conditions4 ,in both ,central and ,arctic ,norway there are some conditions which do not prevail in the ,alps4 ,the long nightless days have both their advantages and their disadvantages4 ,in ,arctic ,norway there is a topsy-turvyness to which we are unaccustomed4 ,one never knows when to go to bed1 and1 as the snow does not get so soft as in ,central ,norway1 there is a great temptation to delay departure and waste much time on the way4 ,there is naturally a feeling of romance in arriving on the summit of a difficult mountain a few minutes before midnight1 and of watching the sun roll along several degrees above the mountain horizon4 ,still1 for the sake of the sub-conscious machinery of the body1 it is best to observe the usual hours for work and for sleep4 ,in ,central ,norway ,i have seen the sun both set and rise again a couple of hours later while ,i was traversing a difficult mountain ridge4 ,but there is an enormous difference between the length of days in the end of ,june or ,july and that in the middle of ,august4 ,occasionally mountaineers who do not recognize this fact get benighted4 ,in ,central ,norway the snows become soft by #i a4m41 though not to the same extent as in the ,alps4 ,still1 an early start is desirable when a fine expedition is contemplated4 ,especially is this the case when crossing the ,justedals-brae or other huge snow fields4 ,avalanches fall as they do in the ,alps1 but rarely between the end of ,june and the beginning of ,september1 and stones1 icebound at night1 are loosened by the sun in the morning1 and come toppling down in the orthodox manner1 and may1 perchance1 be a danger to the unwary4 ,in fact1 the ordinary dangers associated with high mountains exist equally in ,norway4 ,in some regions magnetic rocks occur1 and then the compass is of no use4 ,where this is the case1 and mists come on1 and there is no wind to indicate the cardinal points1 the interest of the expedition may unexpectedly be increased4 ,ice1 hard blue ice1 is much more often encountered on the ,norwegian glaciers and gullies than in the ,alps4 ,on very steep snow slopes and glaciers in the ,far ,north one frequently comes upon a deep square-sided groove in the snow2 at the top of the slope it may be #ab feet wide and #d feet deep4 ,this imperceptibly widens1 during a descent of between #aejj and #bjjj feet1 to a groove1 still square-sided but now #bj to #be feet in width and #g or #h feet deep4 ,such grooves are most difficult to cross1 and on one memorable expedition on ,rulten1 when victory was almost assured1 the party was driven back by the apparent danger of making such a crossing4 ,these grooves show no sign of the work of falling stones or rocks1 but are probably1 at an earlier period of the year1 caused by water4 ,i have never met similar grooves in ,central ,norway1 nor yet in the ,alps4 ,after a long spell of fine weather during the nightless days of the summer months1 the glaciers may become very dangerous by reason of a peculiarity in the character of their crevasses4 ,the larger and the flatter the glacier1 the greater the danger4 ,this is especially the case on the ,justedals-brae1 though by no means confined to that region4 ,the condition is caused1 in my belief1 principally by the comparatively low altitude of the sun above the horizon4 ,the rays of the sun are directed more horizontally upon the snow1 and for a considerably larger number of hours during the long days in ,norway than is the case in the ,alps4 ,this approximation to horizontality causes an abnormal melting power to be directed to the under side of the snow eaves and of the bridges of open crevasses4 ,especially is this the case when these eaves are attached and frozen to the north or northerly walls of the crevasses4 ,under these conditions crevasses of #be or #cj feet in width may only have the appearance of a width of #b or #c feet4 ,not only this1 but they often have clear-cut and well-defined edges and not jagged lines4 ,on the surface there may be little or no indication of the hidden dangers which are shielded from view4 ,the interest in hot seasons may be much increased by the presence of #8pink snow1' ,protococcus nivalis1 which has been known to lie in patches covering several acres4 ,in ,norway there are several great snow fields1 ,greenlands in miniature4 ,hill and dale on these snowy uplands are alike covered with glacier1 and only here and there rocky islets or nunataks appear1 and usually as alpine gardens4 ,in nearly all cases the rock below the ice sheet is gneiss1 and if the glaciers were to disappear1 rolling fjelde1 or rounded hog-backed peakless mountains #ejjj to nearly #gjjj feet in height1 would appear4 ,such snow fields are rare in the ,alps2 consequently ,british mountaineers have little experience1 on a large scale1 of glaciers which rest on broad1 gently sloping ridges1 and which slowly descend1 maintaining connection at the same time with glaciers on either side moving nearly in the same direction4 ,the process is natural enough4 ,the results are more or less novel and appalling4 ,on the ridges gravitation is at work1 and the ice moves onwards in three directions3 down the main axis of the ridge and downwards on each side4 ,in years of little snow1 consequently1 scores of quadrangular masses of nv and ice are left1 on every side of which are deep square-walled crevasses4 ,woe betide the party which descends such a ridge without using the greatest care4 ,few men may have experienced these conditions1 but those who have will always retain a lively memory of them4 ,it is not necessary to repeat1 to mountaineers1 that most ,englishmen who have climbed in ,norway return again and again1 to a country which has still much of the romance of exploration1 and1 for them1 the sympathetic interest of an historical connection with their racial consciousness4 ,i myself like to believe that we1 who take our pleasures on the mountains--and the more grisly these mountains are the better we like them6--have inherited the passion from our #8,norsk ancestry1' who1 as we gather from an old ,saga1 indulged in the sport of cliff climbing nearly one thousand years ago4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,southern ,,alps ,,of ,,new ,,zealand ,,by ,,malcolm ,,ross ,while distance lends enchantment1 it also1 not infrequently1 presents difficulties4 ,the mountaineer1 probably more than most people1 realizes this as1 beside his winter fire in ,england1 he sees through the smoke-rings of evening pipes alluring visions of the pine-clad ,rockies1 of the lonely ,caucasus1 of the giant ,himalaya1 of the high ,andes and of the far-distant ,southern ,alps4 ,most climbers are also workers1 and it is the time taken and the expense of the journey that no doubt give them pause when they think of the distant ranges2 but more particularly of the ,himalaya or the ,new ,zealand ,alps4 ,in regard to the latter1 however1 the expedition need not be an expensive one4 ,the return passage from ,london to ,new ,zealand by the big direct liners is not costly4 ,sidenote3 ,routes1 etc4 ,a good service is run by the ,new ,zealand ,shipping ,company and the ,shaw ,savill ,albion ,company4 ,the voyage out is by the ,cape of ,good ,hope and the return by ,cape ,horn4 ,the return passages by the alternative and more interesting route between ,london and ,lyttelton cost #acb first class and #ge1 #ajs4 second class4 ,the ,british steamers on this route belong to the ,p4 ,o4 ,company and the ,orient ,company4 ,the passage occupies about six weeks1 but it can be shortened by a week by crossing the ,english ,channel1 taking train across ,france and joining the steamer at ,marseilles4 ,the advantage of this route is that we are often within sight of interesting lands and call at quite a number of ports--,gibraltar1 ,marseilles1 ,port ,said1 ,suez1 ,aden1 ,ceylon1 ,perth1 ,adelaide1 ,melbourne and ,sydney4 ,at the southern end of the journey time can be saved by taking train from ,adelaide to ,melbourne1 and thence a ,union ,company's steamer to the ,bluff1 which is the southernmost port in ,new ,zealand4 ,the ,new ,zealand steamers on this route may not1 however1 be considered so good as those running from ,sydney to ,auckland or ,wellington1 and the passage to the ,bluff is generally a colder and more stormy one than that from ,sydney in the more northern latitude4 ,besides1 ,sydney1 with its charming harbour1 is well worth seeing1 and time can still be saved by taking train right through from ,adelaide to ,sydney4 ,still quicker though slightly more expensive routes are those across the ,atlantic via ,san ,francisco or ,vancouver4 ,a change of scene is provided by either of these routes1 which avoid the heat of the ,red ,sea and the cold of the more southern route taken by the direct steamers4 ,another alternative would be to go ,east and return by the ,western line1 thus circumnavigating the globe2 and variations in the latter route can be made by which ,java1 ,china and ,japan can be visited4 ,yet a further choice will be opened up with the completion of the ,panama ,canal4 ,my own preference would be to take a return ticket by ,p4 ,o4 steamer between ,marseilles and ,adelaide1 travel by train from the latter port to ,sydney1 and from ,sydney proceed direct to ,wellington1 ,new ,zealand1 by one of the ,union ,company's steamers4 ,at ,wellington full particulars regarding the charges en route to ,mount ,cook and the cost of guides and accommodation can be obtained from the ,tourist ,department or from the writer of this chapter1 who will willingly place at the disposal of any climber any information and advice that he can give4 ,sidenote3 ,local ,conditions1 ,guides1 etc4 ,at ,mount ,cook there is an accommodation house1 under ,government control1 and all charges are reasonable4 ,the best guides are servants of the ,government4 ,their services1 however1 may not always be available when most wanted1 and a man will do better1 if he can afford it and desires it1 to bring with him his own guide4 ,the ideal party would be one of three first-rate amateurs1 or two amateurs and a good guide1 used to both rock and ice work4 ,it would be practically independent of local assistance1 and ready to seize all opportunities of fine weather to do first-class climbs or new expeditions4 ,the local guides would willingly co-operate with or advise such a party regarding local conditions1 weather1 routes1 etc4 ,the weather in ,new ,zealand1 as in all mountainous countries1 plays an important part in such expeditions1 and the climber of high peaks will be well advised to keep his eye on the dreaded north-wester1 which sweeps across the ,pacific ,ocean and assails the beetling crags and snowy summits of the great range with a force and fury which it is difficult successfully to combat4 ,our mountains1 though not so high as those of the ,european ,alps1 are practically the same height from a mountaineering point of view1 because in ,new ,zealand the snowline is so much lower and the ranges rise directly from lower elevations than they do in ,switzerland4 ,our alpine chain seems to be more heavily glaciated and the rocks more friable than is the case in ,europe4 ,our glaciers are certainly larger1 and the moraines upon and beside them such as to tax the patience if not the endurance of the climber unused to them4 ,the scenery is grand from the purely alpine point of view1 but one used to ,swiss mountains will miss the well-formed road1 the fine hotels and the high mountain hut1 to say nothing of the mountain railway1 which we must hope may never become the vogue in ,new ,zealand4 ,on the west coast the scenery is more varied than on the east1 because of the forest that clothes the lower ,alps2 but the weather is wetter1 and the dense vegetation often a bar or at least a hindrance to the attainment of a high bivouac4 ,the difficulty is accentuated when one has to carry one's own tent and provisions on one's own back1 although there is not nowadays the same difficulty in obtaining porters which the pioneers had to put up with4 ,such huts as there are1 are low down in the valleys2 and if new ground is to be broken1 the expedition should come provided with its own tents and sleeping-bags1 and be prepared often to spend the night under the more or less friendly shelter of some detached rock4 ,to the mountaineer1 however1 the dispensing with such luxuries will only add to the joy of his new climbs and tend to make him more fully appreciate the luxuries of civilization when1 with his peak in his pocket1 he returns again to the lower altitudes4 ,from the technical point of view the climbing is very much like what it is in ,switzerland2 but the strange climber would always do well to remember that the dangers from avalanches and falling rocks are not so accurately mapped out as they are in ranges that have been climbed by several generations of experienced mountaineers4 ,while the new field will certainly prove fascinating from the climber's point of view1 it is also worth remembering that it abounds in objects of interest to the geologist1 the botanist and the zoologist4 ,the glaciers are among the largest and most interesting in the world2 the flora is of the most diversified character2 and the fauna1 though limited1 is curious4 ,sidenote3 ,topography and ,structure4 ,large as the glacier system is at the present day1 it is small as compared with the extent of the glaciers which descended far down the plains in the ,pleistocene period4 ,the greatest accumulation of ice and snow lies at the head of the ,tasman and ,murchison glaciers1 on the eastern side of the main range of the ,alps4 ,the ,mueller1 the ,hooker and the ,godley glaciers1 on the same side1 are1 however1 likewise of large extent2 while on the western side of the ,mount ,cook ,range there are other glaciers of large size1 one of which--the ,franz ,josef glacier--descends to within about #fjj feet of the sea1 and has beautiful tree-ferns1 and a vegetation which appears almost semi-tropical1 growing within a few yards of its terminal face4 ,one peculiar feature of the ,southern ,alps is the absence of any number of low sub-alpine passes over the main range4 ,the principal low passes are the ,haast ,pass1 leading from ,lake ,wanaka to the west coast2 the ,hurunui ,pass1 dividing the sources of the river of that name2 and ,arthur's ,pass1 over #cjjj feet high1 across which the coach runs through the wonderful scenery of the ,otira ,gorge to ,hokitika and ,greymouth4 ,the first point to be noticed in regard to the central chain is that it does not present an unbroken line of watershed1 but rather a series of peaks and broken ridges1 separated from each other by deep ravines1 and for the most part not easy of access4 ,the clue to this system of ravines and ridges is to be found in the fact that the ,palozoic rocks forming the main range have been at a very early period subjected to extensive pressure1 the effect of which has been to crumple them up into huge folds1 the upper portions of which have been removed1 leaving the remaining portions of the strata standing up on edge1 either in a vertical position or at very steep inclinations4 ,the strike of the beds differs from the general direction of the dividing range by #cc4 ,the rule which has been found to prevail in other mountain chains of similar formation appears also to hold good in the central chain--viz41 that the greatest amount of denudation has taken place along the original ridges1 which are now occupied by valleys1 whilst the existing peaks and ridges are on the sites of former depressions4 ,the next feature to be noticed is the jointed structure of the rocks4 ,although the joints cross each other in all directions1 apparently without order1 there are two prevailing systems of joints which have an important influence on the configuration of the surface4 ,these are3 ,first1 a system of vertical cross-joints at right angles to the stratification1 and running in unbroken lines for great distances1 with such regularity that they might easily be mistaken for planes of stratification were it not for the frequent occurrence of beds of trap-rock1 the outcrop of which marks unmistakably the true bedding2 secondly1 a system of joints1 more or less inclined to the horizon1 not running in parallel planes1 but arranged in a series of curves radiating from a common centre4 ,the effect of this system of jointing1 combined with the strike of the beds1 or the direction of the axis of folding1 is to produce two distinct systems of valleys in the central chain1 the direction of which is very remarkable4 ,the one radiates from a common centre1 situated about fifty miles north of ,mount ,darien1 in the sea near ,cliffy ,head4 ,this system includes all the principal valleys from the ,teremakau on the north to the ,makarora on the south1 their direction varying from ,n4 #hb ,e4 to ,s4 #cj ,w41 giving the idea that the country has been starred1 just as a mirror is starred by a violent blow4 ,to the other system belong the valleys of rivers and watercourses1 running either on the strike of the beds1 or in the direction of the cross-joints1 or in a zigzag course1 following alternately these two directions and giving to the cliffs which bound these valleys a peculiar rectangular appearance1 resembling ruined masonry on a gigantic scale4 ,the western slope and part of the central chain consist of crystalline rocks and metamorphic schists resting on a basis of granite1 that presents itself here and there to the view in the rugged bluffs and declivities on the west coast4 ,to the eastward of the crystalline zone stratified sedimentary rocks appear1 such as slates1 sandstones1 conglomerates and indurated shales4 ,these compose the greater part of the eastern side of the central chain1 exhibiting everywhere huge foldings4 ,the extensive development of limestones such as are peculiar to the ,european ,alps is totally lacking1 and it is easily seen that only the eastern half of a complete mountain system has been preserved1 while the western half is buried in the depth of the main4 ,sidenote3 ,flora and ,fauna4 ,at ,mount ,cook the botanist has a splendid field before him4 ,the alpine and sub-alpine flora is of the most beautiful and diversified character1 and to the traveller making his first visit from ,australia or the ,northern ,hemisphere it will also have the charm of novelty4 ,among the shrubs there is considerable variety1 and many of the bushes are during the autumn laden with prettily coloured berries4 ,among the larger trees a variety of beech is most prominent4 ,the pretty green foliage of the broadleaf is also conspicuous1 and a number of the ,conifer4 ,but it is probably among the herbaceous plants that the botanist will delight most to linger4 ,on ,mount ,torlesse1 in the lower and more eastern range1 ,dr4 von ,haast1 during his early explorations1 collected over two hundred flowering plants1 over thirty of which were new to science1 and even in these later years new discoveries are still being made4 ,splendid herds of red deer inhabit the heights and vales of the lesser ,alps1 so that after the mountaineer has bagged his peaks he can change his ice-axe for his rifle and bag a few fine heads as well4 ,recently chamois have been successfully acclimatized in the ,mount ,cook region1 while elk and moose have been liberated in other localities4 ,in the rivers of both the ,north and the ,south ,island there are fish that will make the rods bend and the reels give to some purpose4 ,the birds of the alpine and sub-alpine regions are especially interesting4 ,the kiwi and the kakapo1 those strange flightless birds of the ,south and ,west1 will prove a novelty to the explorer from northern climes2 while the inquisitive friendly weka1 with his rudimentary wings1 and the curious kea1 who digs into the loins of the living sheep with his powerful hooked beak to make a meal of the kidney fat1 will be a never-failing source of interest to the traveller1 who will find the former a thief and the latter rather a noisy companion whilst he is endeavouring to seek repose in one or other of the iron-roofed mountain huts4 ,wood-pigeons and a bush parrot known as the kaka are also to be found1 and1 in unexplored country1 may make a welcome addition to the larder4 ,a native thrush1 two species of cuckoo that come down from the equatorial islands1 wrens and fly-catchers are also met with2 while the tui and the bell bird sometimes fill the woods with glorious song4 ,in a chapter on mountains there is not space to do them all justice2 but anyone who is specially interested in that strange bird1 the kea1 will find his habits and his character more fully described in my recently published book1 ,a ,climber in ,new ,zealand4 ,sidenote3 ,glaciers4 ,the following table1 showing comparative sizes of the ,canterbury or east coast glaciers compiled by ,mr4 ,t4 ,n4 ,brodrick of the ,new ,zealand ,government ,survey ,department1 will give some idea of the extent of the glaciation and prove interesting to anyone contemplating a mountaineering expedition to the ,southern ,alps3 ,,table ,,showing ,,comparative ,,sizes ,,of ,,the ,,canterbury ,,glaciers ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,name4 ,area of ,area of ,length of ,average ,greatest,narrowest ,glacier4,country from ,glacier4 ,width4 ,width4 ,width4 which ,supply of ,ice is drawn4#ce ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,acres4 ,acres4 ,mls4 ,cs4,mls4 ,cs4 ,mls4 ,cs4,mls4 ,cs4 ,tasman #ac1ffd #be1jjj #ah #j #a #ae #b #ad #j #fj ,murchison #e1hjj #ad1jjj #aj #gj #j #ff-g_/aj #a #e #j #db ,godley #e1cab #aj1efj #h #j #a #c #a #ee #j #eh ,mueller #c1bjj #g1gdj #h #j #j #ej #j #fa #j #cg ,hooker #b1daf #d1aab #g #be #j #da-c_/aj #j #ed #j #cj ,classen #a1gjg #c1igb #d #gj #j #dc #j #gc #j #ba ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,first-class mountains in the ,new ,zealand ,alps may be said to range in height from #aj1jjj feet to #ab1cdg feet1 which latter is the height of ,mount ,cook4 ,all the mountains of #aj1jjj feet and over have now been climbed2 but there is much interesting work yet to be done in connection with new routes and high pinnacles and passes on the main range1 while there are still many untrodden peaks of the second class scattered over a wide extent of explored and unexplored country4 ,in short1 there is in ,new ,zealand work for generations of climbers yet to do4 ,,footnotes3 #ce ,this is not the whole watershed1 but only that portion on which the nv snow lies4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,pyrenees ,,by ,,claude ,,elliott ,the claims of the ,pyrenees on the alpine climber have been set forth with charm and vigour by ,count ,henry ,russell and ,mr4 ,packe1 and yet they remain singularly neglected4 ,possibly it is the very ardour of their advocates that has betrayed their cause4 ,for it is not as the rival of the ,alps1 but as a preparatory training-ground for the ,alps or as a refuge from the cosmopolitan tourist1 that the ,pyrenees should be regarded4 ,let it be said at once that as a climbing-ground pure and simple there can be no comparison between the ranges4 ,the biggest peak in the ,pyrenees has a height of #aa1afj feet2 their glaciers are small--their total area is about #ac square miles--they do not flow down into the valleys1 but as a rule are as broad as they are long2 and the snowline is about #ajjj feet higher than it is in ,switzerland4 ,the very lack of snow and ice at once renders the ordinary routes up the larger ,pyrenean peaks infinitely more easy than the ordinary first-class alpine ascent4 ,of course rock climbs of great difficulty can be found if search is made for them1 but the normal routes up the rock peaks of reputation1 such as the ,fourcanade or the ,pic du ,midi d',ossau1 do not present difficulties approaching those1 say1 of the ,chamonix ,aiguilles4 ,the climbing on the whole resembles that of the western end of the ,oberland or of ,tyrol4 ,with some exceptions the angles are not steep1 the rock is inclined to be rotten1 and the snow and ice work is easy4 ,the mountains possess1 however1 a peculiar charm of their own1 which is not nowadays to be found in the ,alps1 and is due to their solitude1 their wildness1 their freedom from the works of man4 ,and this very desolation provides the ,pyrenees with peculiar difficulties3 there the mountaineer will find himself almost completely alone2 there are few guides1 few climbing parties1 few huts1 no good climbing centres1 no good maps1 and seldom any detailed descriptions of routes4 ,he will have to be dependent on himself and himself only1 and it is in this that their appeal and their value lie4 ,sidenote3 ,general ,topography and ,structure4 ,the portion of the ,pyrenees which will most interest the mountaineer is that which lies between the ,valle d',aspe immediately to the south of ,pau1 on the west1 and the ,val d',aran1 immediately beyond ,luchon1 on the east--a distance of some #gj miles4 ,the structure is more complicated than appears at first sight1 because the biggest peaks do not lie on the central frontier range1 but on one side or the other1 and because the subsidiary ridges often join the main range at very acute angles4 ,the reason for this is that the lines of original folding lie at an acute angle to the general direction of the chain2 ,m4 ,schrader has pointed out that 8while the chain as a whole lies in the direction ,e4 #i ,s41 this particular direction is not produced by a continuous line1 but by a series of oblique folds whose direction is about ,e4 #cj ,s40 ,the folds are of granite1 schist or limestone1 and thus provide a great variety of rock work4 ,the sketch overleaf only indicates general topography4 ,starting at the ,valle d',aspe and proceeding eastwards1 we find that the main frontier range is comparatively low1 while the higher peaks are thrown out to the north1 the chief being the ,pic du ,midi d',ossau 7#idfj feet7 above the village of ,gabas1 a fine double-peaked mountain of rotten granite and schist1 the traverse of which makes an excellent climb4 ,the main range1 however1 still keeping its schistous character1 soon rises to over #aj1jjj feet in the ,balaitous1 which lies at the head of the ,val d',azun and provides good climbing4 ,after this it maintains its high level1 but it is overtopped by the ,pic d',enfer 7#aj1bjj feet71 a granite mass immediately to the south and above the ,baths of ,panticosa in ,spain4 ,the frontier chain after passing the ,pic d',enfer culminates in the ,vignemale 7#aj1hjj feet71 a schistous peak with a fine glacier1 and then bends south to the ice-covered limestone massif above the ,cirque de ,gavarnie1 comprising the ,taillon 7#aj1cjj feet7 and the ,marbor 7#aj1fjj feet71 on the frontier1 and ,mount ,perdu 7#aj1ijj feet7 immediately to the south4 ,a little farther eastwards it throws out a high rib1 running into ,france and culminating in the ,pic ,long 7#aj1djj feet74 ,continuing along the main range we find that it maintains its height1 and though it never rises much above #aj1jjj feet it only twice falls below #hjjj1 and then only by a few feet1 till it reaches the ,val d',aran4 ,the formation of this easterly portion is of granite1 and provides a quantity of good rock climbing4 ,the highest mountains1 however1 lie in two massifs on the ,spanish side of this part of the range4 ,the most westerly of these contains the ,pic des ,posets 7#aa1jdj feet71 an interesting peak of granite and schist rising from an easy glacier1 and the other is the massif of the ,maladetta1 culminating in the ,pic de ,nthou 7#aa1afj feet71 the highest summit of the ,pyrenees1 on whose flank lies the largest glacier of the range4 ,the two massifs are separated from one another by the deep valley of the ,esera1 where ,venasque is situated1 which can be reached easily from ,luchon1 in ,france1 by the mule-track over the ,port de ,venasque4 ,beyond the ,port the main range is cut across by the ,val d',aran1 running roughly west-north-west1 which marks a line of geological folding4 ,south of the ,val d',aran and east of the ,maladetta group lies the ,montarto massif 7not to be confused with the ,pic de ,montarto d',aran71 a rocky ridge1 rising out of a snow field on the east resembling a small glacier1 of which the highest point is the ,comolo ,forno 7c4 #aj1ajj feet7 and the most striking the ,pic de ,bcibri1 some #ajj feet lower4 ,farther eastward and still south and east of the ,val d',aran1 is an unusually wild and complex region of granite peaks1 averaging #iejj feet1 and innumerable small lakes1 comprising the ,cirques of ,coloms1 ,sabouredo and the ,sierra de los ,encantados4 ,the main frontier chain starts again beyond the ,val d',aran some miles to the northward1 and though it still remains high and still forms one of the most remarkable mountain barriers in ,europe1 it contains no glacier and little perpetual snow1 and on the whole the mountains are less steep4 ,so from a purely technical point of view it is of comparatively small interest to the climber4 ,but there are few people who would not enjoy visiting it1 both because of the wildness and desolation of the country1 and because hidden away in its recesses is the principality of ,andorra1 which lies immediately to the south of the watershed1 some #dj miles beyond the ,val d',aran1 and accessible without great difficulty from the railway at ,ax in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,pyrenees ,it will be seen from this brief description that the range is an extended one1 and that the larger peaks are far apart from one another4 ,moreover1 there are few towns among the mountains1 and the higher summits are separated from one another by difficult country4 ,on the ,french side there are a certain number of good roads connecting the northward running valleys1 but on the ,spanish side there is often not even the faintest of paths4 ,also from the ,val d',ossau to ,ax1 #aej miles to the east1 no large road actually crosses the main range1 and even footpaths across are surprisingly rare4 ,it follows1 then1 that the ,pyrenees are not mountains for the climber who is fond of the comforts of life4 ,a tent or sleeping-bag is absolutely necessary for their real appreciation4 ,sidenote3 ,centres4 ,the only centres are ,luchon and ,gavarnie1 but these are not good2 the climbing round them is limited1 and would soon be exhausted by a competent party1 unless it were content with infinite small variations4 ,gavarnie 7#ejjj feet7 is easily reached from ,paris via ,bordeaux1 ,dax and ,lourdes to ,pierrefitte in under #bd hours2 thence by a short electric railway to ,luz1 and finally by #ab miles of excellent road4 ,it contains several good hotels1 and in summer it is crowded with tourists4 ,from here a number of interesting peaks can be climbed direct4 ,immediately to the south is the magnificent ,cirque de ,gavarnie1 above which lies the frontier ridge rising to the points of the ,gabitou 7#aj1jjj feet71 the ,taillon 7#aj1cbj feet71 the ,casque1 the ,tour de ,marbor 7#aj1fgj feet7 and the ,pic d',astazou4 ,from the ,marbor a still higher ridge runs south-east1 on which lie the ,cylindre 7#aj1ijj feet71 ,mont ,perdu 7#aj1iij feet7 and the ,soum de ,ramond 7#aj1gfj feet74 ,the frontier peaks may all be climbed in a day from ,gavarnie1 and the energetic may traverse two or even three of them in the day4 ,the others also are not too far for a day's excursion2 but it may be found preferable to sleep in the ,cabane de ,gaulis1 on the flank of the ,perdu1 or better still1 to bivouac4 ,hanging on these peaks is a mass of nv and broken glacier1 allowing difficult variations to be made on the usual routes1 which are easy2 here alone1 indeed1 can glacier work of any difficulty be found4 ,for instance1 a route has been made up the ,perdu from the north1 which involves the ascent of an ice-fall4 ,the rock work is not so satisfactory1 but some really hard and interesting ascents have been made straight up these frontier peaks from the ,cirque de ,gavarnie4 ,farther to the east we find first the ,cirque d',estaub1 and then the ,cirque de ,troumouse1 facing north1 and cut off from ,gavarnie and from each other by subsidiary ridges4 ,surrounding the ,cirque d',estaub are ranged in order the ,tuqueroye1 the ,pic de ,pinde and other peaks1 providing some difficult rock routes1 and accessible in a day from ,gavarnie4 ,above the ,cirque de ,troumouse is an interesting rock ridge1 of which the chief point is the ,pic de la ,munia 7#aj1cjj feet74 ,it is1 however1 rather far from ,gavarnie1 and many people will prefer to spend the night at the small but expensive inn at ,has before attacking it4 ,from near the ,munia a ridge runs due north to the ,pic ,long4 ,this mountain can be climbed by its glacier or by its sound granite rocks in a long day from ,gavarnie1 or the night can first be spent at ,gdre1 where also the inn is dear4 ,to the west of ,gavarnie lies the ,vignemale1 which is ascended by a crevassed1 but easy1 glacier4 ,here again difficult climbing can be found if search is made2 for instance1 it has been ascended by a very difficult couloir on the north side4 ,luchon 7#bjjj feet7 is even more easily reached than ,gavarnie4 ,trains run direct from ,paris via ,toulouse and ,montrejeau1 and the whole journey from ,london should take just over #bd hours4 ,it is altogether a larger town than ,gavarnie1 and is one of the fashionable watering-places of the ,pyrenees4 ,it has some good if expensive shops4 ,from here it is easy to attack the interesting granite peaks on the main range4 ,running southward1 a little to the west of ,luchon1 is the ,val d',oo or d',astau1 enclosed by the ,pic du ,port d',oo 7#aj1cjj feet71 the ,perdighero 7#aj1ejj feet71 the ,crabioules 7#aj1bjj feet7 and the ,quairat 7#aj1jjj feet74 ,the ordinary routes up these can be accomplished in a longish day from ,luchon1 and are quite easy according to alpine standards4 ,they may also be visited on the way to the ,posets1 which lie immediately to the south4 ,immediately to the east of the ,val d',oo and nearer ,luchon is the ,valle de ,lys1 which is dominated by the ,pic de ,quairat1 the ,crabioules1 the ,maupas 7#aj1bjj feet7 and the ,boum 7#aj1jjj feet71 and the small glaciers on their flanks4 ,the ascents of these are again rather long from ,luchon1 but there is an inn some #c hours up the valley where the night may be spent4 ,farther to the east1 and running south-east from ,luchon1 is the ,valle de la ,pique1 which leads up to the ,port de ,venasque4 ,the mountains round this valley are not so fine1 and are mostly too easy to demand attention4 ,one exception is the ,pic de la ,pique 7c4 #hjjj feet71 a small1 sharp rock peak in the valley1 with a great local reputation1 but not really of serious difficulty4 ,these are the only peaks of interest in the immediate neighbourhood of ,luchon4 ,but by crossing the ,port de ,venasque 7#gijj feet71 or preferably some more interesting col to the west1 and sleeping out1 the ,maladetta group can easily be climbed4 ,this massif faces the ,port de ,venasque1 and consists of a somewhat amorphous base from which rise several granite ridges and summits--the ,pic d',albe 7#aj1gjj feet7 on the west1 then the ,maladetta 7#aj1hjj feet7 and the ,nthou 7#aa1afj feet71 from which flow two large glaciers1 then the ,pic de ,salenques1 the ,pic ,moulires1 and finally also the ,fourcanade 7#idjj feet74 ,at the foot of the ,glacier du ,nthou is a hut called the ,rencluse4 ,most people would have preferred a bivouac to the old refuge there1 but a new building has just been opened1 and the track thereto from the ,port de ,venasque was in #aiai being marked with blazes of green paint 7a unique phenomenon in the ,pyrenees1 at all events on the ,spanish side74 ,the climbing on the ,maladetta group is very easy on the whole4 ,the glaciers are simple1 and the rock1 though rotten1 is easy4 ,the ,fourcanade1 a bold granite peak1 more easily approached from ,las ,bordas or ,viella in the ,val d',aran than from ,luchon1 presents no difficulty by the ordinary route from the south1 but might afford some very interesting fancy routes on the precipitous northern side4 ,the best climbing from ,luchon lies on the main range1 and the peaks here have not been so thoroughly explored as those round ,gavarnie2 indeed there is room for some most interesting new rock routes to be made4 ,the rock again is granite1 and is much sounder than the limestone of the ,gavarnie peaks2 and the main range provides some beautifully sound rock artes4 ,the mountains round ,gavarnie and ,luchon are not big1 are grouped closely together1 and the ascent of more than one can often be made in a moderately long day4 ,therefore a party which clings to civilization will soon exhaust the more important routes and be driven back on making minor variations4 ,yet there are no other centres worthy of the name4 ,of course there are places such as ,cauterets1 or the ,baths of ,panticosa in ,spain1 from which a few peaks can be ascended1 but these can hardly be called centres4 ,it follows1 then1 that a party which wishes for any quantity or variety of mountaineering proper must sleep either in inns or huts or must camp out1 and inns are so rare and huts are so dirty that it will be forced to camp out if it is to see the most attractive parts of the range4 ,for it is precisely the wildness and solitude of these parts1 far from human habitation1--of the ,posets1 for instance1 or the ,balaitous1 or the region east of the ,maladetta group1--that mark off the ,pyrenees from the ,alps and give them a charm that is all their own4 ,the wise climber will abandon centres and inns and move along the main range1 sleeping out1 climbing such peaks as attract him1 and occasionally visiting some high village for the sake of renewing his food supplies4 ,this is the only way in which to see and appreciate the ,pyrenees1 and if the climber adopts it he will have to face problems very different from those of the ,alps4 ,though the ascents will be far easier than those of first-class alpine peaks1 yet the external help will be infinitely smaller4 ,he will find the country a primitive one1 and if he is to achieve success he must depend mainly on himself and little on professional or artificial aid4 ,sidenote3 ,guides4 ,in the first place1 little help can be obtained locally4 ,at ,gavarnie and ,luchon there are a few capable men2 but the majority of the class called guides in the ,pyrenees are guides rather in the old sense of the word than in the newer sense of professional climbers4 ,they are1 of course1 competent to show the way over the mountains from one place to another1 and often even the easy routes up the peaks2 sometimes they are good rock climbers4 ,but of actual mountaineering1 as a rule they know nothing4 ,most of them have little knowledge of snow craft or of the use of the rope--which they are apt to regard as a danger to themselves rather than as a safeguard to their party2 and above all1 they have nothing of the high tradition of the alpine guide4 ,a guided party in the ,pyrenees would save time below the snowline in getting across country2 but1 provided they had a little experience of the ,alps and of ,english climbing1 above the snowline they would usually be safer alone4 ,there is also in the more remote districts a class of men who offer themselves as guides1 but in whom it would be unwise to put any trust for any purpose whatever1 especially in the off season when the mountains are more than usually desolate4 ,though brigandage is now extinct in the ,pyrenees1 there are still persons who will seize any chance of returning to a modified form of it4 ,but even if we allow that some guides are better than others1 the ,pyrenees remain essentially mountains for the guideless1 and if the climber takes a guide1 he will lose half their charm while adding little to his own safety or achievements4 ,sidenote3 ,maps4 ,again1 in ,switzerland1 the climber rightly puts implicit confidence in the accuracy of his maps even for minute detail4 ,in the ,pyrenees he is unable to do so4 ,there are three maps of importance1 and none of them approaches the excellence of the ,siegfried map4 ,the first is that issued by the ,french ,ministre de l',intrieur1 and published by ,hachette et ,cie1 in plain paper sheet4 ,its scale is small 7#a_/ajjjjj71 it has no contour lines1 it is rather indistinctly printed1 it makes little attempt to delineate accurately the higher mountains1 and on the ,spanish side it gives no more than a general indication of the geography of the country4 ,the map of the tat-,major de la ,guerre1 which is on a larger scale 7#a_/hjjjj71 formerly sold at #a fr4 #bj c4 a sheet1 is even worse2 this also is not a contour map1 and it stops entirely at the frontier1 and leaves the ,spanish side a complete blank4 ,its printing1 moreover1 is blurred and indistinct4 ,the third map is the most useful2 it is drawn by ,m4 ,schrader1 and issued by the ,club ,alpin ,franais1 in #f sheets1 and covers only the ,high ,pyrenees4 ,it is absolutely essential for the ,spanish side1 and it is best for the ,french side also4 ,its scale is only #a_/ajjjjj1 and it is not quite so detailed as we might wish4 ,but it gives the contours1 and it is clearly printed4 ,unfortunately most1 if not all1 of the sheets are out of print and difficult to obtain4 ,finally1 there is said to be a ,spanish military map of the ,high ,pyrenees2 whether it exists or not1 it is unobtainable by the public4 ,the defects of these maps are felt even more in the valleys than in the high mountains4 ,in climbing a peak in good weather comparatively little help is needed from a map2 but the configuration of the higher valleys and gorges is such that for them a really good detailed map would be invaluable4 ,they are often narrow1 steep and heavily wooded2 paths are few and very hard to find1 or to keep to when found1 and the existing maps give little accurate indication of them4 ,in consequence1 it is here that a guideless party has special difficulties1 and these are increased by the prevalence of the cirque formation4 ,the upper valleys are often cut into two parts by a horseshoe wall of rock1 extending right across them from one side to the other1 and thus consist of an upper and lower plane with a precipice between4 ,in ascending a valley it is usually not difficult to see an easy way up these cirques1 but in descending1 when nothing can be seen between the immediate foreground and the valley below1 it is often hard to tell where the line of least resistance lies4 ,the map as a rule gives no clue1 and a guideless party may have to make several attempts to find a feasible route4 ,thus it is really in the valleys1 and especially in the ,spanish valleys1 where all difficulties seem to be accentuated1 that the lack of a good map is most felt4 ,there is1 however1 a prospect that soon we shall be better equipped in this respect1 as the publication of the ,pyrenean sheets of the new ,french #a_/ejjjj map is expected in the course of the next few years1 and there is also talk of the issue of a #a_/bjjjj map of the ,gavarnie peaks4 ,the reproduction of the #a_/djjjj manuscript map1 which forms the basis of the #a_/hjjjj tat-,major map 7,france only71 has also been discussed4 ,sidenote3 ,huts and ,inns4 ,another respect in which the ,pyrenees will be found more primitive than the ,alps is in the absence of climbing huts4 ,there are1 indeed1 huts in the ,pyrenees in certain numbers1 but they are shepherds' huts1 built of uncemented stones with no flooring1 and as a rule so filthy that no civilized person would use them unless driven to it by great stress of weather4 ,the majority of the huts marked on the maps are of this nature1 and as they are liable to fall to pieces from time to time1 here also the maps may become untrustworthy4 7,a special instance of this is the ,cabane de ,turmes1 under the ,pic des ,posets2 this is marked in the ,schrader map1 but has for some time ceased to exist47 ,there are1 however1 a very few climbing huts proper1 especially near ,luchon and ,gavarnie1 either kept by private individuals for profit1 or erected by the ,c4,a4,f4 on alpine lines4 ,inns also are rarely to be found high up in the mountains2 on the ,french side they are more common than on the ,spanish1 and they are also more likely to be good2 in ,spain they are sometimes fairly clean1 but always very primitive1 with a peculiar style of cooking1 involving a lavish use of oil1 which is extremely unpalatable to most ,englishmen4 ,probably the best inn in the high valleys on the ,spanish side1 except at the ,baths of ,panticosa1 which are on a high road1 is at the thermal establishment and shrine of ,caldas de ,bolis4 ,it may be useful to mention this for those who wish to explore the region east of the ,maladetta1 as it finds no place in ,joanne's guide4 ,sidenote3 ,equipment4 ,in these circumstances1 huts and inns being both few and bad1 a tent or a sleeping-bag is an absolute necessity in the ,pyrenees4 ,the latter is preferable for a party which wishes to be as free as possible2 a tent is1 of course1 more comfortable1 but it almost necessarily involves the taking of a mule1 and the party will be at once restricted in its movements2 the mule will be unable to traverse peaks1 and more especially it will be unable to cross a large number of low cols which involve no serious climbing1 but which would be too difficult for four legs4 ,this means that the party would be able to cross the main range only at a few points1 and in moving along the range it would often be forced down into the lower valleys4 ,again1 in bad weather sleeping-bags are not such a disadvantage in the ,pyrenees as elsewhere1 for their limestone and schist tend to weather into caves1 and if a bivouac is made near a cave or an overhang or a shepherds' hut 7and there will generally be little difficulty about finding one of these71 shelter can at once be found in the event of storm4 ,on the other hand1 a party travelling without porters or mules and sleeping out will find that it has a great weight to carry4 ,the sleeping-bags ought to be thick1 as it will often be necessary to bivouac at about #gjjj feet1 which is occasionally above the tree-level1 and warmth at night is worth a few extra pounds4 ,below the tree-level it is easy to make a fire1 but a large supply of wood must be collected1 and some wakefulness is required to prevent the fire from going out in the small hours of the morning when the cold is greatest4 ,for cooking it is usually best to use an aluminium cooker with methylated spirits4 ,a large quantity of food must also be carried1 especially on the ,spanish side1 where a human habitation may not be met with for four days on end4 ,occasionally a shepherd may be able to provide some cheese1 or a limb of an izzard1 the ,pyrenean chamois2 but a climbing party will have to rely mainly on the high villages for supplies1 and these are few and far between4 ,the ,french villages are more civilized1 and will provide more luxurious food2 but the ,spanish villages are more worth visiting1 the people are kindly1 and at least the necessaries of life are obtainable4 ,usually they can provide coffee1 chickens1 sardines1 eggs and1 of course1 bread4 ,but jam1 potted meats1 compressed soups1 etc41 are better brought straight from ,england1 though they can be bought as a rule at the larger towns on the ,french side4 ,chocolate is better bought on the ,french side1 though generally obtainable on the ,spanish4 ,it is curious that cows are rarely kept in the high villages1 and milk and butter are often unobtainable4 ,on the ,spanish side most people will prefer to drink water1 as the wine has a peculiar taste2 in ,france it is good1 but rough4 ,streams1 of course1 are plentiful in the mountains4 ,the natives carry their liquor in bags of goatskin1 smooth on the outside and hairy inside2 the hair imparts a very goaty taste to the contents1 so it is wise to add an ordinary ,english metal water-bottle to one's equipment4 ,if one of the party is a fisherman1 it would probably pay to take a rod and line1 as many of the small lakes abound with trout4 ,some people carry with them rope-soled shoes1 alpargatas1 which are used by the natives for walking on the rough mule-paths and over grass4 ,they are certainly light and restful for one's feet1 but it is doubtful whether they are worth their weight and bulk in one's rucksack2 for rock climbing they would be here of doubtful use4 ,the usual alpine clothing should be worn4 ,the valleys are very hot in summer1 but the temperature and weather in the mountains are similar to those of ,switzerland4 ,it is important to remember that often civilization is several days distant1 and in consequence many extras must be taken4 ,most of these must be brought from ,england1 as it is impossible to obtain real climbing equipment on the spot4 ,it is quite essential to carry a first-aid case1 including a few simple medicines1 extra pairs of snow-glasses1 an extra folding lantern1 plenty of candles and matches1 string1 waterproof bags--sponge-bags do very well--to protect matches1 maps1 etc4 ,a prismatic compass with a protractor and an aneroid will be found very useful for ascertaining the exact position of the party4 ,a passport should on no account be forgotten3 the ,customs officers and frontier police give little serious trouble1 but occasionally they are apt to assert themselves1 and in this case a passport has a most soothing influence upon them4 ,if no member of the party knows ,spanish1 a conversation book would be of use4 ,a small knowledge of ,french is essential1 and in each ,spanish village there is usually some one who knows ,french and will act as interpreter4 ,still1 it would save some trouble to be able to talk a little ,spanish2 since the war especially knowledge of ,french seems to have become rarer at some of the more remote ,spanish inns4 ,english1 of course1 is unknown except in the larger ,french towns4 ,basque would only be of use in the country west of the ,valle d',aspe1 where the range is lower4 ,it is clear1 then1 that each member of a party ought to have a rucksack of the largest size4 ,his sleeping-bag1 if he takes one1 will fill most of it1 and the rest will be taken up by his extra clothes or his share of food and equipment4 ,in all1 he will be carrying more than is usual in the ,alps 7probably between #bj and #be lb471 but not too much to affect his enjoyment4 ,it is possibly a wise precaution for a party1 starting out of condition1 to hire a mule to convey their rucksacks--which will be at their heaviest at the start--as far as the first bivouac4 ,sidenote3 ,expense4 ,one great advantage of a holiday spent in the ,pyrenees is its cheapness4 ,this is partially due to the fact that the climber will spend much of his time either in camp or else in small mountain inns1 where the charges are quite moderate as a rule1 the chief exceptions being the inns round the tourist centres1 which tend to be extortionate4 ,on the ,spanish side the stranger ought to make a bargain with his host1 who expects it of him as a matter of course4 ,this is particularly necessary if the hire of a mule is in question4 ,in addition1 the journey from ,england is not expensive2 the pre-war return fare to any of the mountain termini ranged from #i to #aj or #aa first class1 and from #g to #h second class4 ,existing rates are perhaps #cj per cent or #dj per cent higher4 ,guides1 if they are used1 are also cheap1 #aj to #ae francs a day with food was a normal wage before the war1 though they would often demand more4 ,most mountains near any civilization have a fixed tariff2 the bigger peaks as a rule run from #bj to #cj francs1 with a few running to #dj francs 7pre-war prices74 ,thus a party accustomed to the ,alps will be surprised at the cheapness of a holiday spent in the ,pyrenees1 unless1 indeed1 it spends much time in the centres on the ,french side4 ,it is necessary to provide oneself with ,spanish money for ,spain4 ,french money is not accepted as a rule4 ,if considerable loss over exchange is to be avoided1 it is desirable to obtain both ,french and ,spanish notes before leaving ,england4 ,english money can be changed1 at a price1 in the bigger ,french towns4 ,sidenote3 ,literature4 ,some knowledge of the literature of our mountains is almost essential to the success of a climbing tour1 and there is no lack of books and articles on the subject4 ,baedeker's ,south-,western ,france is1 of course1 good for the more civilized region1 but makes no pretence at being a mountaineer's guide4 ,joanne's ,pyrnes 7,hachette et ,cie1 #aiab1 revised to #aiad7 is better1 as it gives fairly detailed accounts of the principal climbs1 and contains a good general introduction4 ,count ,henry ,russell's ,grandes ,ascensions des ,pyrnes 7,hachette1 #ahff7 and ,souvenirs d'un ,montagnard 7,pau1 #ahhh7 are both of value2 they describe all the more important routes1 but the style is emotional rather than practical4 ,probably the climber will find ,packe's ,guide to the ,pyrenees 7,longmans1 #ahfg7 of the greatest use2 it is essentially a mountaineer's guide1 and restricts itself to the region between the ,valle d',aspe and the ,val d',aran2 its directions for climbing the peaks are of a practical nature1 and often give as much detail as is necessary4 ,unfortunately it is out of print1 and difficult to find4 ,in addition to these guides we have an account of two climbing holidays1 called ,through the ,high ,pyrenees 7,innes1 #ahih71 by ,h4 ,spender and ,h4 ,llewellyn ,smith4 ,this book gives a good picture of the country and of the type of climbing1 and it contains an excellent appendix on the 8,pyrenees as a ,climbing ,centre10 and an extremely useful bibliography1 including a full list of the many papers on ,pyrenean climbing to be found in past numbers of the ,alpine ,journal and the ,annuaire of the ,c4,a4,f4 ,it is in these journals1 and especially in the latter1 that the more difficult modern routes1 accomplished since the publication of ,packe's guide1 are recorded1 and here we have a ready means of knowing in which volume to find them4 ,finally1 ,belloc's ,pyrenees makes interesting reading1 but it is of more value to the walker than to the climber1 and it contains some imaginative detail4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from this short account it will be seen that the ,pyrenees make no appeal to climbers who are only content with long and arduous peaks and difficult ice-work1 or to those who prefer to climb from a comfortable hotel or a clean hut and who dislike attending in person to the troublesome details of bivouacking and cooking4 ,but to the climber of moderate ambitions1 who is weary of the clatter of ,swiss hotels or the picnic-parties on ,swiss peaks1 there are no near mountains which offer so attractive a refuge4 ,the novice1 also1 who has spent a few summers behind guides in the ,alps will discover that one season of guideless climbing in the ,pyrenees will infinitely increase his knowledge of mountaineering in the larger sense of the word2 he will have experience of route-finding both in the valleys and on rock and glacier1 of step-cutting1 of using aneroid and compass and of camping1 and he will return to the greater peaks with a heightened capacity for appreciating the mountains and their craft4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,rocky ,,mountains ,,by ,a4 ,l4 ,,mumm ,sidenote3 ,general ,topography4 ,the ,rocky ,mountains form the backbone of the ,north-,american ,continent1 and the ,canadian ,rockies extend from the ,united ,states frontier in a north-westerly direction for some hundreds of miles4 ,of the regions which are of interest to mountaineers1 the northern limit is marked by ,mount ,sir ,alexander1 a peak which rises a few miles to the west of the continental divide or watershed1 a little over #djj miles1 as the crow flies 7very roughly speaking71 from the frontier1 and from #fj to #hj miles beyond ,mount ,robson4 ,the country situated between these two mountains is full of interest for explorers and climbers1 but is at present very imperfectly known and mapped4 ,from ,mount ,robson southward we possess mountaineering knowledge which is extensive1 but not quite continuous and far from complete1 as far as ,mount ,assiniboine1 a distance in a direct line of about #bjj miles 7another rough estimate74 ,till quite recently nothing of alpine or mountaineering interest was known to exist in the main chain of the ,canadian ,rockies south of ,mount ,assiniboine1 but1 in the course of an official survey of the watershed between ,kicking ,horse ,pass and the frontier 7#aiac-af71 no less than four groups of mountains1 clad in snow fields and glaciers1 and containing three peaks of over #aa1jjj feet1 were discovered4 ,no climbing has as yet been attempted on any of them4 ,they extend for about #dj miles beyond the ,assiniboine group4#cf ,the continental watershed pursues a very tortuous and irregular course1 and is probably at least half as long again as the #8air-line' length of the range4 ,east of the watershed the mountain region extends for a comparatively short distance and ends with remarkable abruptness4 ,through much of its length there is a succession of minor groups and ranges situated close to the main chain1 but separated from it by the upper valleys of the great rivers1 which show a striking tendency to run parallel to it4 ,these possess some extensive snow fields and considerable glaciers1 and will probably receive attention from climbers in the near future1 but very little is known of them at present4 ,beyond them is a belt of mountains1 not attaining to the snow-level but often rocky and bold in outline1 which reaches to the edge of the great central plain1 and presents to the traveller approaching it by the railway the appearance of a solid impenetrable wall4 ,there are no snow fields or glaciers in this outer belt so far as ,i am aware4 7,it may be as well to say here once for all that this qualification is often unavoidable in dealing with an area so extensive and little known as the mountain region of ,canada2 it is impossible to give any information at all without putting forward as probable statements which may turn out to be erroneous47 ,to the west of the watershed1 on the other hand1 the country is continuously mountainous all the way to the ,pacific ,coast1 three hundred miles away1 and there are several ranges1 alpine in size and character1 standing quite apart from and independent of the main chain4 ,of these the ,selkirks1 an immense mountain system1 enclosed by the great loops of the ,columbia and ,kootenay ,rivers1 are by far the largest and most important4 ,the outstanding feature of all this region is that till quite modern times it was entirely uninhabited1 and for the most part still remains so4 ,indians in old days came up into the mountains to hunt1 and to some extent for purposes of trade1 but they did not live among them4 ,two or three outposts of the ,hudson ,bay ,company1 long since abandoned1 were the only permanent human habitations4 ,this differentiates mountain travel in ,canada in many ways--as soon as the immediate neighbourhood of the railway is left--from mountain travel in the ,caucasus or the ,himalaya1 particularly with respect to food supplies1 roads and methods of transport4 ,in the high mountain region the railways have had little or no effect on the character of the country1 except within a few miles of the line4 ,the ,rockies are now accessible by two lines of railway4 ,of these the ,grand ,trunk ,pacific was completed early in #aiad4 ,it enters the mountains by the valley of the ,athabasca ,river1 and at the point where it leaves the ,athabasca to ascend to the ,yellowhead ,pass 7#ag miles away7 stands ,jasper1 destined to become a tourist centre1 to which we shall return later4 ,the other line1 the ,canadian ,pacific1 which has been in existence more than thirty years1 crosses the main chain at the ,kicking ,horse ,pass1 and then1 after descending into the deep trench of the ,columbia ,river1 passes through the very heart of the ,selkirk ,range4 ,climbing has now been carried on continuously and systematically for nearly thirty years among the mountains adjacent to this railway both in the main chain and in the ,selkirks4 ,it will be convenient to deal at once with the region here indicated1 which will be referred to as the ,c4,p4,r4 district4 ,it is the only region where at the present moment conditions prevail at all resembling those of the ,european ,alps1 and climbing within its limits is quite a different affair from climbing elsewhere in ,canada4 ,a climber wishing to see something of the mountains of ,canada1 who has not ample time at his disposal after arriving among them--,i should be inclined to say at the very least a month--would be well advised to confine himself to the ,c4,p4,r4 district1 making1 perhaps1 one short trip of the kind mentioned below4 ,he would find enough1 and more than enough1 to occupy him4 ,sidenote3 ,the #8,c4,p4,r4' ,district4 ,taking the main chain first1 the extent of the ,c4,p4,r4 district may be taken to be the area dealt with in ,baedeker's ,canada 7#aijg71 which contains about ten pages packed with accurate and highly condensed information4 ,the alpine particulars given are mainly based on chapters i4 to ix4 of ,in the ,heart of the ,canadian ,rockies1 by the ,rev4 ,sir ,james ,outram1 who has been over almost the whole district and has supplemented his own experiences by copious extracts from the original narratives of ,dr4 ,collie1 ,mr4 ,wilcox1 and the members of the ,appalachian ,mountain ,club4#cg ,the railway enters the mountains from the east by the valley of the ,bow ,river1 the principal constituent of the ,south ,saskatchewan1 and soon afterwards arrives at ,banff4 ,the excellent ,c4,p4,r4 ,banff ,springs ,hotel is the most frequented place in the ,rockies2 but ,banff itself is not a mountaineering centre1 though ,dr4 ,collie discovered a good rock climb in the neighbourhood on ,mount ,edith1 and doubtless others might be found4#ch ,it is1 however1 of interest to climbers as the site of the ,club ,house of the ,alpine ,club of ,canada 7of which more anon71 and as the starting-point for ,mount ,assiniboine4 ,this peak is the highest to the south of the railway1 and its ascent is a very fine expedition4 ,given favourable conditions it can be reached and climbed1 and the return journey to ,banff completed1 within six days4 ,this involves travelling with a camp outfit and pack-horses2 but it would be well worth while for a climber visiting ,canada for the first time to make one such trip 7and this one is probably the most repaying71 for1 besides being pleasant and interesting in itself1 it would give him much useful experience in case he contemplated returning another year1 and making a more extended journey off the beaten track4 ,soon after leaving ,banff1 the valley of the ,bow ,river runs parallel with the main chain1 passing ,storm ,mountain and ,mount ,ball1 which can be reached via the ,vermilion ,pass in two days from ,banff4#ci ,thirty-five miles beyond ,banff is ,laggan1 where the railway leaves the ,bow ,river1 and ascends by ,bath ,creek to the ,kicking ,horse ,pass4 ,laggan#dj is the station for ,lake ,louise1 where there is another first-class ,c4,p4,r4 hotel 7#c miles from the railway71 the principal centre for the mountains on the south side of the line4 ,several of these can be climbed from the hotel itself2 and there may be a permanent summer camp for the use of climbers in the valley of the ,ten ,peaks4 ,if not1 it is easy to have a tent1 provisions1 etc41 sent there from the hotel4#da ,a similar arrangement could be made either at ,lake ,louise or ,field for a camp at ,lake ,o',hara1 and this would bring within easy reach all the other peaks which deserve attention1 except those of the ,ottertail ,range4 ,the last-mentioned group is best attacked from ,field1 #af miles beyond ,laggan and #h miles to the west of the ,kicking ,horse ,pass1 where there is another ,c4,p4,r4 hotel1 the ,mount ,stephen ,house1 the best centre for visiting the mountains on the north side of the railway4 ,besides the hotel at ,field there are a chalet hotel on ,emerald ,lake and two permanent summer camps1 one at the ,takakkaw ,falls2 the other1 ,camp ,warren1 ,i have not been able to locate4 ,it is1 of course1 also possible to approach the mountains of the ,waputik ,range by making a short trip up the ,bow ,river1 but the ,yoho and ,emerald ,valleys seem to be more attractive4 ,from the climber's point of view these mountains are distinctly inferior in interest to those on the south side of the line1 and the same may be said of ,mount ,hector1 the highest summit between the ,bow and ,pipestone ,valleys4 ,east of the ,pipestone the mountains of the ,ptarmigan ,lake district1 just opposite ,laggan1 should be worth a visit4#db ,the best general map that ,i can discover of this part of the ,c4,p4,r4 district is the southern sheet of a map of 8,the ,rocky ,mountains between lat4 #ea and lat4 #ec10 published by the ,department of the ,interior4 ,unfortunately1 it comes to an end four or five miles short of ,mount ,assiniboine4 ,the part of it which is material for present purposes is given in a pamphlet issued by the ,c4,p4,r4 ,company1 entitled ,the ,challenge of the ,mountains4 ,the scale is #d miles to an inch4 ,the large-scale maps accompanying the ,report mentioned on p4 #egb show the mountains actually forming the watershed 7and this includes the ,assiniboine group7 southward from ,vulture ,col and ,mount ,gordon in the ,waputik ,range4 ,coming now to the ,selkirks1 ,glacier ,house 7about #ij miles by rail beyond ,field and #c miles beyond ,rogers ,pass1 where the line crosses the crest of the range71 is probably the best of the centres of the ,c4,p4,r4 district1 in so far that the largest number of expeditions can be carried out from the hotel itself1 or with only one night out4 ,in this respect ,glacier ,house has very few rivals even in ,switzerland4 ,baedeker gives a short summary of these expeditions and an excellent little map of the mountains1 which literally surround the hotel4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,selkirks4 ,but much more than ,baedeker is available4 ,besides ,mr4 ,palmer's exhaustive book 7of which more presently71 no visitor to the ,selkirks should omit to secure a copy of ,mr4 ,a4 ,o4 ,wheeler's ,selkirk ,range and the accompanying map in four large sheets1 which covers a large portion of the range on a scale of practically #a mile to an inch4 ,the topographical information secured by ,mr4 ,wheeler during his survey is embodied in the form of a ,climbers' ,guide in chapter ii4 of ,the ,selkirk ,mountains1 a ,guide for ,mountain ,pilgrims and ,climbers1 where very full particulars are given as to the number of days and nights required for each expedition1 whether pack-horses are available1 etc4 ,huts or cabins are mentioned at ,rogers ,pass and the ,caves of ,cheops4 ,there seem to be no huts or summer camps south of the railway1 and it must be borne in mind that pack-horses cannot be taken southward into the mountains direct from ,glacier ,house4#dc ,the limits in the ,selkirks of the ,c4,p4,r4 district can be easily grasped by examining together the map in ,baedeker and that in the ,climbers' ,guide 7difficult to read1 but useful as showing at a glance the area comprised in ,mr4 ,wheeler's large maps74 ,it will be seen at once that the latter covers a wider area1 and in particular has a large extension to the west and south-west1 reaching even beyond the ,columbia ,river to the ,gold ,range--a quite independent group4 ,this extension seems to come well within the ,c4,p4,r4 district3 one or two of the expeditions in it can be taken from ,glacier ,house2 the remainder are treated in chapter vi4 of the ,guide in connection with ,revelstoke1 which accordingly must be added to the list of ,c4,p4,r4 centres4 ,since the publication of the ,guide fine climbing has been accomplished on ,mount ,moloch and other peaks reached by the north branch of the ,illecillewaet ,river4#dd ,the extension of ,mr4 ,wheeler's map to the north is unimportant2 the notices in the ,guide of ,mountain ,creek and ,mount ,pearce are not encouraging1 and1 so far as ,glacier ,house is concerned1 the crest of the ,hermit ,range forms the limit of ordinary mountaineering in this direction4 ,to the south1 on the other hand1 both maps extend to regions which can only be reached by a journey of some days1 and several of the expeditions described in the ,guide clearly lie outside the category now under consideration4 ,no hard-and-fast line can be drawn1 and the traveller must use his own judgment2 only1 if he is at all tied as to time1 let him bear in mind that estimates of a journey's length by little-trodden trails are necessarily very rough1 and that what is called a week's trip may easily turn out to require two or three days less or more4 ,sidenote3 ,guides and ,equipment4 ,swiss guides1 to the number of six or eight1 are imported every summer by the ,c4,p4,r4 ,company1 and endeavours are being made to induce some of them to settle permanently at ,edelweiss1 near ,golden1 on the ,columbia4 ,they are distributed during the season among the four or five centres which have been mentioned4 ,anyone desiring their services1 the charge for which is 7or used to be7 #e per day1 should communicate as early as possible with the hotel from which he intends to climb4 ,a mountaineer arriving in the ,c4,p4,r4 district with his ordinary ,swiss outfit could thus enjoy plenty of climbing without any special preparations4 ,even ropes and ice-axes are supplied at ,glacier ,house1 and1 probably1 at the other centres also4 ,the ,hudson ,bay ,company's excellent blankets can be procured at ,banff1 and for a single odd night out bedding could probably be borrowed4 ,there is also plenty of scope for guideless climbing4 ,some of the expeditions are undoubtedly difficult1 and only suitable for an exceptionally strong unguided party2 but three reasonably experienced amateurs could accomplish a great deal4 ,as compared with the main chain1 the ,selkirks offer more snow and ice work and less rock work1 and there seem to be more climbs of only moderate difficulty than in the ,rockies on the south side of the railway4 7,for a general comparison of the ,selkirks with the ,rockies1 see ,palmer1 op4 cit4 pp4 #c-aj47 ,sidenote3 ,the ,northern ,selkirks4 ,turning now to remoter and less known ground in the ,selkirks1 to the north of the railway1 beyond the ,hermit and ,clach na ,cooden ,ranges1 a very considerable mountain area is enclosed in the ,great ,bend of the ,columbia ,river4 ,pack-horses cannot be used in it effectively1 and the conditions of travel are exceptional and extremely difficult2 but a large part of it1 probably the most interesting part1 was explored with extraordinary perseverance by ,mr4 ,howard ,palmer's party from #aijh to #aiab4 ,only in the latter year1 on their fifth visit1 did they succeed in attaining the summit of ,mount ,sir ,sandford1 the monarch of the region4 ,for further information the reader is referred to part iii4 of ,mr4 ,palmer's ,mountaineering and ,exploration in the ,selkirks4 ,part ii4 of this fascinating book is equally valuable as a guide to the mountains immediately south of ,glacier ,house1 which have already been noticed4 ,beyond these a still more extensive region remains to be dealt with4 ,it will have been noticed that ,mr4 ,wheeler's map1 breaking off abruptly along most of its southern margin in the very middle of untrodden snow fields1 is itself a challenge to further exploration4 ,his work has been carried a short distance further by the ascents of ,mount ,beaver and ,mount ,duncan1 and some climbs in the ,battle ,range1 but the regions beyond are still1 so far as ,i am aware1 a terra incognita1 and ,i am quite unable to say how much further the southern portion of the ,selkirks proper continues its alpine character4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,purcell ,range4 ,between this southern portion and the main chain of the ,rockies is another large mountainous tract forming part of the ,selkirks system and known as the ,purcell ,range1 comprising the ,dogtooth1 ,spillimacheen and ,south ,purcell ,ranges4 ,a rough idea of its extent and situation may be obtained from the sketch map accompanying ,dr4 ,longstaff's paper in the ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1#de bearing in mind that ,mounts ,beaver and ,duncan rise close to the watershed between the two rivers which also bear those names4 ,the ,dogtooth ,range appears to be sub-alpine1 and is disposed of in chapter v4 of the ,guide2 but from the ,beaver-,duncan divide to the neighbourhood of ,wells ,pass there is a continuous stretch of alpine country1 which rivals in height1 beauty and general interest the main ,selkirk ,range itself4 ,the ,spillimacheen ,range has as yet hardly been touched1 but south of ,bugaboo ,pass a series of energetic campaigns have1 since #aiaj1 been carried on from the ,upper ,columbia ,valley4 ,the district is far from being an #8exhausted' one1 but the remarkable group of mountains situated between ,horse ,thief ,creek and ,toby ,creek has been thoroughly explored and mapped4#df ,sidenote3 ,some ,minor ,ranges4 ,it has been said that the range rapidly loses its interest to the south of ,wells ,pass1 but it is rash to make such a statement in ,canada1 where the alpine area is being continually enlarged by fresh discoveries so rapidly that it is difficult to keep pace with them4 ,in illustration of this1 reference may here be made to an entirely unexpected alpine region found in #aiab in ,vancouver ,island1 and to ,dr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,coleman's recent explorations in the ,torngats 7,labrador7 on the other side of the continent4#dg ,another outlying district which deserves mention1 though not so recent a discovery1 is the ,garibaldi ,range1 near ,vancouver ,city4#dh ,sidenote3 ,the ,main ,chain from ,laggan to ,jasper4 ,returning now to the main chain1 there is nothing to be added1 so far as the south side of the ,c4,p4,r4 is concerned1 to what has been already said4 ,there remains the main chain to the north1 which falls naturally into two sections--that lying beyond the ,g4,t4,p4 railway1 and that situated between the two railways1 the largest1 and in many respects the most interesting1 of all the areas with which we have to deal4 ,this section1 or rather that part of it lying south of the ,athabasca ,pass1 was divided by ,dr4 ,norman ,collie#di into four main groups3 7#a7 ,the ,balfour 7or ,waputik7 group1 between the ,kicking ,horse ,pass and ,howse ,pass2 7#b7 the ,forbes group1 between ,howse ,pass and ,thompson ,pass1 #cj miles farther north2 7#c7 the ,columbia group1 extending over the #ce miles from ,thompson ,pass to ,fortress ,lake ,pass2 7#d7 the ,mount ,hooker group1 between the ,fortress ,lake ,pass and the ,athabasca ,pass1 #be miles farther4 ,sir ,j4 ,outram's divisions and subdivisions1#ej so far as they are carried1 practically coincide with those of ,dr4 ,collie4 ,to these must now be added a fifth group1 the mountains between the ,athabasca and ,yellowhead ,passes1 which may be called the ,edith ,cavell group4 ,as far as the ,athabasca ,pass the range has a very definite western boundary consisting of the great trench of the ,columbia ,river1 and it is this portion of it which ,sir ,j4 ,outram refers to when he says the ,rockies are #fj miles in breadth4 ,at the ,athabasca ,pass the range connects with the mass of mountains that separate the ,columbia and ,fraser ,river basins1 and from this point northward no precise statement as to the breadth of the chain is possible4 ,of the groups above mentioned the first falls within the ,c4,p4,r4 district1 and has been already dealt with2 the second and third were the scene of much climbing and exploration from #ahih to #aijb1 in which the leading part was played by ,dr4 ,collie4 ,he and ,mr4 ,stutfield have described his three expeditions in ,climbs and ,exploration in the ,canadian ,rockies1 one of the ,alpine classics of ,canada4 ,the whole of this exploratory work is well summarized in the second half 7chapters x4-xv47 of ,sir ,j4 ,outram's book4 ,since that time the energies of pioneers have been diverted in other directions1 and few1 if any1 additions have been made to our knowledge of the region4#ea ,the credit of having mapped it belongs to ,dr4 ,collie2 all subsequent maps are based on his2 the only extensions of importance are due to ,dr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,coleman4#eb ,a study of the records will show that there is still plenty of scope for exploration in groups #c and #d1 and if first ascents are not the principal object1 groups #b1 #c and #d probably offer as fine a field for climbing as any district in ,canada4 ,attempts have been made to approach the crest of the range from the west by the lateral valleys descending to the ,columbia ,river1 but the travelling proved to be exceptionally bad even for the ,rockies1 and this line of attack is only mentioned to be dismissed4 ,the explorations above mentioned were carried on wholly on the eastern side of the range1 and the route generally followed holds so important a place in mountaineering geography that it must be described in some detail4 ,starting from ,laggan1 it ascends the valley of the ,bow ,river1 running parallel to the ,waputik ,range1 to the ,bow ,pass4 ,thence it descends into the basin of the ,north ,saskatchewan by the south branch of that river 7also called ,bear ,creek1 and1 more rarely1 the ,mistaya ,river71 and leaves it again by the north branch4 ,both these streams1 as their names suggest1 also run parallel to the main chain4 ,at the head of the north branch the ,wilcox ,pass leads to the valley of the ,athabasca1 which also runs nearly due north1 and is followed till the ,g4,t4,p4 ,railway is reached at ,jasper4 ,the #8air line' from ,laggan to ,jasper is just #acj miles1 and a good idea of the scale and character of the journey may be formed by comparing it with that from ,chur to ,martigny1 which are almost precisely the same distance apart4 ,starting from ,chur1 the ,vorderrhein represents the ,upper ,bow1 and the ,oberalp the ,bow ,pass4 ,the ,reuss corresponds to the ,north ,saskatchewan1 the ,furca to ,wilcox ,pass1 and the ,rhone to the ,athabasca4 ,in each case the main chain is on the traveller's left hand1 while other ranges of varying size and importance rise on his right1 though1 unfortunately1 the ,rockies have nothing comparable to the ,bernese ,oberland4 ,of course there is no correspondence1 in point of distance1 between the intervening points4 ,very roughly speaking1 it is #gj miles to ,wilcox ,pass1 the valleys of the ,upper ,bow and the two branches of the ,saskatchewan being each a little over #bj miles in length1 while it is about #fj miles from ,wilcox ,pass to ,jasper4 ,the early explorers all started from ,laggan1 and only one of them1 ,dr4 ,coleman1#ec followed the route here described throughout its whole length4 ,it is scarcely necessary to point out how enormously its importance and value have been enhanced by the construction of the second line of railway4 ,the groups mentioned above are progressively more imperfectly known as one moves farther north1 mainly owing to the difficulty of time and the necessity which formerly existed of a long return journey4 ,the mountains north of ,wilcox ,pass can now be much more rapidly and easily reached from ,jasper4 ,those which enclose the ,whirlpool ,river are still almost untouched1 and would well repay a prolonged visit4 ,the best line of attack for those on the left bank 7the fifth or ,edith ,cavell group7 would probably be found by going through the depression to the west of ,mount ,edith ,cavell4 ,the ascent from the ,whirlpool trail to it is steep1 but a good packer could get horses up it4 ,mount ,edith ,cavell was approached by this route and climbed by ,mr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,holway in #aiae4 ,some of the mountains to the west of the depression look difficult4#ed ,on the opposite side of the ,whirlpool1 which in its ordinary condition is fordable here1 a large valley running deeply into the mountains on the right bank looks well adapted to facilitate the exploration of the blank space on ,dr4 ,coleman's map between the ,whirlpool and ,wood ,rivers2 horses could probably be taken up it4 ,the starting-point for this valley or for the ,edith ,cavell depression can be reached in three days from ,jasper4#ee ,close to the ,yellowhead ,pass1 ,mount ,fitzwilliam1 a prominent rock peak1 must be of exceptional interest as a view-point1 and may be a good climb as well4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,groups ,east of the ,main ,chain4 ,of the groups situated to the east of the main chain1 the one between the ,bow and ,saskatchewan ,rivers can be traversed by the ,pipestone ,creek and ,pass and ,siffleur ,creek4 ,this route1 which reaches the ,saskatchewan a few miles below the confluence of its north and south branches1 was several times used as an alternative to that by the ,bow ,pass2 and there are transverse passes from the ,upper ,bow ,valley to both the ,pipestone and the ,siffleur ,creeks1 but the early explorers seem to have found no great inducements to linger in this region4#ef ,a much larger block of mountains is that which separates the ,saskatchewan from the ,athabasca1 and gives rise to its important tributary1 the ,brazeau2 its southern portion was crossed in three or four directions by ,dr4 ,coleman1#eg who is the only authority on it that ,i have come across4 ,in the northern portion1 between ,mount ,brazeau and the ,athabasca1 is ,maligne ,lake1 reached in #aijh by ,mrs4 ,schffer's party1#eh the first white visitors1 via ,poboktan ,creek1 and probably also accessible by a pass nearly opposite the mouth of the ,whirlpool ,valley4 ,the few people who have visited ,maligne ,lake are remarkably enthusiastic about it1 and1 judging from photographs1 the peaks round its head should prove very interesting to climbers4 ,much more is likely to be heard of them in the near future1 as the lower end of the lake is only fifteen miles from ,jasper by the valley--hitherto impassable for horses--of the ,maligne ,river1 up which a trail will certainly be made very shortly1 if it has not been already completed1 and the results of further investigation will have an important effect on the reputation of ,jasper as a centre4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,main ,chain ,north of the ,g4,t4,p4 ,we now come to the mountains north of the ,g4,t4,p4 ,railway1 which spread over an extensive and indefinite area1 of which our present knowledge may be described as considerable but patchy4 ,mount ,robson1 the magnet which first drew explorers here in the pre-railway days1 is1 and must remain1 the principal centre of interest4 ,it is the great alpine asset of the ,g4,t4,p41 and an hotel will probably soon arise somewhere near ,mount ,robson ,station1 opposite the mouth of the ,grand ,forks ,river1 a tributary of the ,fraser4 ,up the ,grand ,forks ,valley the base of its western face--the best line of ascent--can now be reached in a long half-day1 by rail and trail1 from ,jasper4 ,very full information with regard to this great peak1 the highest in the ,canadian ,rockies1 and its satellites and surroundings1 is now available1 but it would take too long to deal with it here4#ei ,swift ,current ,creek and two or three other valleys descending into the ,fraser below the ,grand ,forks were visited by ,mr4 ,holway in #aiae and #aiaf2 he reports3 8,a wonderful field for exploration1 especially in the big bend of the ,fraser40 ,the same energetic explorer paid a brief visit in #aiaf to the ,cariboo ,range1 on the other side of the ,fraser1 probably the most important of the independent minor ranges4#fj ,the main watershed immediately to the north of ,mount ,robson 7,robson ,pass7 consists of a long flat plain1 so level that the water issuing from the ,robson ,glacier flows both ways4 ,all climbing hitherto has been done from camps on this plain1 which was formerly inaccessible1 except by actual climbing1 from the much lower ,grand ,forks ,valley1 and attainable only by a roundabout route from the east via the ,moose ,river and ,pass4 ,it can now be reached via the ,grand ,forks by a trail engineered in #aiac1 in seven or eight hours from ,mount ,robson ,station4 ,if an ascent of ,mount ,robson itself be the sole object1 it would probably be the quickest way--as above suggested--to go up to a bivouac direct from the ,grand ,forks ,valley2 but the higher camping-ground on the divide is much the best centre for exploring the neighbourhood generally4 ,the round trip by the ,moose ,river route is also worth making for its own sake1 especially if time permits of some climbing being done on the way4 ,there are interesting expeditions to be made near the ,moose ,pass3 ,resplendent ,valley1 at the head of the ,west ,fork of the ,moose ,river1 is well worth a visit1 and1 though the actual line of the divide has been laid down by ,mr4 ,wheeler1 there is still exploratory work to be done among the mountains between the ,east ,fork and ,grant ,creek4 ,for the whole of this region ,mr4 ,wheeler's map#fa is indispensable4 ,the mountains facing ,mount ,robson immediately on the other side of the level plain above mentioned have all been climbed1 but behind these there is a remarkable region which is still very little known4 ,the range duplicates itself in a curious way difficult to explain on paper1 enclosing a low plateau1 along which1 strange to say1 the main divide seems to run4 ,on the eastern side of the plateau is the ,chown group1 first visited by ,dr4 ,collie's party in #aiaa4fb ,our further knowledge of the country in this direction is mainly due to ,donald ,phillips1 who has made a rough sketch-map extending considerably farther north1#fc and conducted three expeditions farther still1 through very difficult country1 to ,mount ,sir ,alexander#fd and ,jarvis ,pass4 ,this is the farthest north yet reached by climbers4 ,whether there are any alpine regions beyond it is1 ,i believe1 quite uncertain4 ,north of the ,yellowhead ,pass there are no blocks of mountains to the east of the main chain1 and definitely separated from it1 of a character at all comparable to those found between the ,g4,t4,p4 and the ,c4,p4,r42 but there is a considerable area lying just outside the limits of ,mr4 ,wheeler's map1 and shown as a blank on ,dr4 ,collie's map1 closely connected with the divide itself1 which would certainly repay farther exploration1 and is within fairly easy reach of ,jasper4 ,there are three possible lines of attack3 ,first it may be possible to approach it from the west1 by the ,miette ,river2 secondly1 there is the valley of the ,snaring ,river1 which joins the ,athabasca a few miles below ,jasper3 whatever else he may find there1 all the charm of the unexpected awaits the first visitor to its mysterious upper basin4 ,it is said to be very difficult1 if not impossible1 of access1 but the attempt would be well worth making4 ,anyone contemplating it should1 before starting1 make the ascent of ,pyramid ,peak at the head of ,jasper ,lake1 and carefully note what he sees from there4 ,lastly1 there is the much larger ,stony ,river1#fe which enters the ,athabasca below ,jasper ,lake1 and should provide a happy hunting-ground to a climber with topographical inclinations4 ,the southern branch already referred to calls most urgently for attention1 but higher up the main valley several fine glaciers offer tempting roads to the skyline4 ,a pass at the head of the main ,stony leads to the ,smoky ,river1 which it strikes just opposite the ,chown group1 and thus supplies an attractive though lengthy alternative route to the ,robson region4 ,there are some wild and striking rock peaks on the right hand of the traveller crossing this pass from ,jasper1 but apart from these1 there is nothing beyond the ,stony ,river of any interest to a climber4 ,an attempt on that remarkable mountain1 the ,roche ,miette1 is recorded in the ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 ix4 #ada4 ,sidenote3 ,modes and ,manners of ,travel4 ,travel away from the railway1 as has already been indicated1 means travelling with a camp outfit and a pack-train4 ,the business of #8packing' is a highly organized one1 and it is a vocation which1 in untrodden country at least1 makes as severe demands as that of a guide1 and more varied in character1 on the courage and resourcefulness of those who follow it4 ,the packers1 indeed1 hold a position which presents many analogies to that of guides in the ,alps1 and a first-rate packer1 like a first-rate guide1 is a treasure beyond all price4 ,it may be as well to mention here1 for the benefit of those who have not visited the ,rockies1 that they are a very independent set of men1 and that the social distinctions which are universally taken for granted in ,europe simply do not exist for them4 ,the sooner and more completely the traveller can get himself into the same mental attitude on this point1 the more pleasantly will he fare4 ,he will also discover1 if he keeps his eyes and ears open1 that there is a very well-defined1 unwritten code of camp manners1 of which the outstanding rules are3 ,never grumble2 never be impatient2 never tell anybody to do anything1 always ask him4 ,the usual way of making arrangements with a packer is to inform him1 as long as possible beforehand1 of the number of the party and the proposed duration of the trip4 ,he then takes charge of everything1 providing saddle-horses1 pack-horses1 tents1 cooking equipment1 provisions1 etc41 for a fixed sum per day3 the only thing which the traveller is expected to provide is his bedding4 ,in the ,c4,p4,r4 district packing is now almost wholly in the hands of the ,brewster ,transfer ,co4 ,ltd41 whose head-quarters are at ,lake ,louise4 ,they have a good reputation1 and are said to provide good men4 ,their usual rates are--for one person #ae per day2 for two persons #ab4ej for each person2 and #aj per day for three persons1 8with liberal reduction for larger parties40 ,outside the ,c4,p4,r4 district packing is still a matter of individual private enterprise2 some of the packers who formerly worked in the ,c4,p4,r4 district have migrated to ,jasper1 and probably others will make it their head-quarters as time goes on2 but at present the principal centre of the packers of ,northern ,alberta is at ,lac ,st4 ,anne1 near ,edmonton4 ,their ordinary charges are about the same as those of the ,brewster ,company4 7,n4,b4--,written in #aiac2 charges may now be higher47 ,sidenote3 ,outfit4 ,a few suggestions with regard to some of the above-mentioned items may be useful4 #a4 ,having once tried the experiment of dispensing with saddle-horses1 partly on general ascetic principles1 partly with a view to getting into training1 ,i have no hesitation in saying that it is a great mistake4 ,if one keeps with the rest of the outfit1#ff it is dreary work2 if one goes at one's own time and pace1 trouble arises when rivers have to be crossed--either the traveller has to wait for the outfit or the outfit for the traveller 7and to check a lot of pack-horses when on the move is a tiresome matter72 while it is surprisingly easy for the unwary pedestrian to lose touch with the outfit altogether1 even on such a well-trodden trail as the ,jasper trail in pre-railway days4 #b4 ,the traveller should make sure that one of the tents is a teepee4#fg ,during a spell of cold1 wet weather 7and even snow is sometimes encountered in ,august at quite low levels7 a teepee makes things much less intolerable4 ,a packer with a large and varied experience of both summer and winter travel told me he preferred a large ordinary tent with a stove4 ,i have no personal experience of this1 but one or the other is essential4 ,the other tents provided by the packers satisfy all ordinary requirements1 but are sometimes inadequate under stress of prolonged wet weather4 ,i once took a ,whymper tent made of extra light material1 which1 besides being absolutely watertight1 possessed two great advantages3 first1 it had a floor2 secondly1 it could be put up immediately on arriving in camp3 other tents have to wait till the necessary poles can be cut down1 and a good many other things have to be attended to before this can be done4 ,the drawback to it--a serious one--was that the poles were inconveniently long for packing purposes3 this might perhaps be got over by making the poles with two joints instead of one4 ,a small ,mummery tent for making a flying camp is not required so often as alpine experience would lead one to expect1 but on the whole it is worth taking4 #c4 ,as to clothing1 the same sort is required as in the ,alps4 ,it is well to bear in mind that one spends more time--generally much more time--#8on the trail' than in climbing1 and heavily nailed climbing boots are not very suitable for riding2 they are apt to stick in the stirrups1 which might easily be a source of great danger in case of a fall4 ,shooting boots with ordinary 7not projecting7 nails are much better for an ordinary day's travel4 ,gloves are useful in riding through thick forest1 and a silk neckerchief is some protection against mosquitoes4 ,fortnum ,mason1 ,jermyn ,street1 ,london1 have a good camp boot which is also useful for this purpose4 ,either a mackintosh or a suit of #8oilies' is indispensable for riding in wet weather4 #8,oilies' are a more complete protection against rain1 but difficult to get in and out of quickly1 and appallingly hot when the character of the trail makes it necessary to dismount and walk4 ,on the whole1 a mackintosh is to be preferred4 ,for bedding1 a couple of blankets are all that is required in fine weather2 spruce boughs make a perfect mattress4 ,but there is much to be said in favour of a camp-bed1 especially if the tent has no floor to it4 ,with an ,x-bed1 a sleeping-bag and a blanket any weather can be faced with equanimity1 and the extra weight of the bed is not a matter of importance4 ,it is much more necessary that the packages containing one's personal baggage should be tightly packed1 compact and easy to handle1 than that they should be light4 ,a couple of suit-cases 7preferably of crushed cane7 not more than #bf inches long1 hold all that is wanted for a two months' trip1 and go well on each side of a pack-saddle4 ,a chilamchi#fh of the ,indian type is useful1 but rather unwieldy2 it is easy to get a rather smaller basin 7preferably not enamelled7 at the ,army and ,navy ,stores1 and have a leather case specially made for it4 #d4 ,camping out is very extensively practised in ,canada1 and it is quite unnecessary to think of taking out any special luxuries from ,england in the way of provisions4 ,anything of that nature1 also whisky of excellent quality1 and cigars 7good and cheap71 can be obtained at the ,hudson ,bay ,company's ,stores at ,edmonton or ,calgary4 ,as to provisions generally1 packers usually have a very good idea of what is wanted2 but if one has any special preferences--e4g4 for cocoa or coffee over tea--it is as well to mention them4 ,sidenote3 ,season4 ,the season for climbing in ,canada and weather conditions generally are1 roughly speaking1 similar to those in the ,alps2 but the season closes rather earlier1 and the spell of fine weather which is so often met with in the ,alps early in ,september does not seem to occur there4 ,when well-trodden ground is left1 it must be borne in mind that rivers are more likely to be troublesome early in the summer 7i4e4 till towards the end of ,july7 than later on2 but quite insignificant creeks may suddenly become impassable obstacles for a day or two at any time4 ,trails1 moreover1 which are not regularly used often deteriorate1 and1 as was remarked above1 snowstorms sometimes make travel temporarily impossible even in ,august4 ,the moral of all which is1 that it is rash to try and work out cut-and-dried plans beforehand1 so far as dates and times are concerned4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,annual ,camps4 ,no account of mountaineering in ,canada would be complete which omitted to make mention of the ,alpine ,club of ,canada1 and the annual camps of its members in the mountains1 which indeed have become the outstanding feature of mountaineering as practised by ,canadians themselves4 ,they are usually held towards the end of ,july1 and last for eight or ten days4 ,they are necessarily situated near one or other of the railways1 but their area is sometimes extended by the formation of subsidiary camps1 and parties for more distant expeditions are frequently formed when the camp breaks up4 ,a climber intending to make a first acquaintance with the ,rockies could not do so in a pleasanter and more profitable manner than by paying a visit to one of these camps1 and for this and many other reasons he would be well advised to become a member of the club4 ,the cordial welcome offered to ,english mountaineers generally1 and to members of the ,alpine ,club in particular1 must be experienced in order to be properly appreciated1 and it is hardly necessary to point out that the camps give an unequalled opportunity of obtaining first-hand information from the most authoritative sources with regard to topography1 new expeditions1 methods of travel and similar matters4 ,if a visit to the camp was not practicable1 the traveller1 as a member of the club1 could procure advice and assistance from its officials and other members which would otherwise be unattainable4 ,sidenote3 ,access1 ,cost1 etc4 ,with regard to the journey from ,england1 the following particulars were given in the invitation issued to members of the 7,english7 ,alpine ,club in #aiac3 8,the steamer fare1 first class1 from ,liverpool to ,montreal is #ah1 #ajs4 each way 7#aa by one-class boats74 8,the cost of return ticket1 first class1 from ,montreal to ,laggan 7,c4,p4,r47 is #ac4 ,the extra charge for a berth in a sleeping-car is #f for the double journey4 8,the cost of return ticket1 first class1 from ,montreal to ,mount ,robson ,station 7,g4,t4,p47 is #ad4 ,the extra charge for a berth in a sleeping-car is about #f1 #ajs4 for the double journey4 8,the time occupied by the journey from ,liverpool to ,mount ,robson or ,laggan ,stations is ten to eleven days40 ,n4,b4--,the voyage in one-class boats takes some days longer4 ,a berth in the sleeping-car is practically indispensable4 ,two persons taking a #8compartment' can make the journey in far greater comfort at an additional expense of #b1 #cs4 each4 ,the time and fares to ,jasper would be rather less than to ,mount ,robson4 ,the times from ,liverpool to ,laggan or ,mount ,robson ,stations are short1 and involve hard and continuous travelling4 ,full particulars1 together with pamphlets1 descriptive time-tables1 etc41 can be obtained at the ,london offices of the ,c4,p4,r4 and the ,g4,t4,p41 both in ,cockspur ,street1 ,london1 within one hundred yards of each other4 ,the only alternative route to ,montreal of any importance is that via ,new ,york1 as to which see ,baedeker's ,canada4 ,,footnotes3 #cf ,see ,report of the ,commission appointed to determine the ,boundary between the ,provinces of ,alberta and ,british ,columbia1 part i4 7#aiag74 ,it is illustrated by numerous photographs and accompanied by many large-scale maps4 ,a summary of it is given in the ,alpine ,journal1 xxxii4 #cg ,climbs and ,exploration in the ,canadian ,rockies1 by ,h4 ,e4 ,m4 ,stutfield and ,j4 ,norman ,collie2 ,camping in the ,canadian ,rockies1 by ,w4 ,d4 ,wilcox2 ,appalachia1 vols4 viii4 to xi4 #ch ,e4g4 ,mount ,louis1 see ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 viii4 #gi1 ix4 #cb2 and ,alpine ,journal1 xxxii4 #fh2 ,mount ,norquay1 ibid4 viii4 #acd4 #ci ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 i4 ,no4 #a1 p4 #he1 v4 #abb4 #dj ,the name of the station has been altered to ,lake ,louise1 but it is known as ,laggan in all the books4 #da ,cf4 8,a ,glimpse of the ,rockies10 ,alpine ,journal1 xxiv4 #bbi2 ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 x4 #f4 #db ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 iv4 #aaj1 #adb1 vii4 #eh1 #abd4 #dc ,see1 on this point1 ,alpine ,journal1 xxix4 #ie4 #dd ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 v4 #cd1 vii4 #cc1 #dh1 ix4 #ag2 ,palmer1 ,mountaineering and ,exploration in the ,selkirks1 ch4 xx4 #de ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 iii4 #bf4 ,see also ,geographical ,journal1 xxxvii4 #ehi1 #fja4 ,mr4 ,wheeler's promised map does not seem to have materialized4 #df ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 iii4 #ad1 #bf1 #adg1 iv4 #ih1 vi4 #ajc1 #aab1 vii4 #ab1 viii4 #ag1 #dc4 #dg ,ibid4 vii4 #e1 #fg1 viii4 #cd4 #dh ,ibid4 iv4 #adj1 viii4 #aba4 #di ,climbing in the ,himalaya and other ,mountain ,ranges1 p4 #add4 ,the whole of this chapter on the ,rockies is still well worth reading4 #ej ,op4 cit4 pp4 #ae-af4 #ea ,mr4 ,eaton made some new ascents in the ,freshfield ,range1 a subdivision of group #b1 in #aiaj4 ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 iii4 #a4 #eb ,the ,canadian ,rockies1 ,new and ,old ,trails4 ,a delightful book4 #ec ,op4 cit41 chapters xxvii4-xxix4 ,see ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 v4 #hd1 #hg4 #ed ,alpine ,journal1 xxviii4 #cee2 ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 vi4 #gd1 #hd1 vii4 #fc4 #ee ,much new information as to the country round ,jasper is contained in an article by ,mr4 ,m4 ,p4 ,bridgland in the ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 x4 #gj2 and the recently published ,guide to ,jasper ,park 7see ibid4 #aje7 would probably be found very useful4 #ef ,as to ,mount ,hector1 see p4 #egf4 #eg ,see his map and book1 chapters xvii41 xxi4 and xxvi4 #eh ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 iv4 #ib2 ,old ,indian ,trails1 by ,mrs4 ,schffer4 #ei ,coleman1 op4 cit41 chapters xxx4-xli42 ,geographical ,journal1 xxxvi4 #eg1 xxxix4 #bbc2 ,alpine ,journal1 xxv4 #bic1 xxvi4 #e1 #chb1 xxvii4 #cbi1 xxx4 #ceh 7summary of the expeditions of #aiac72 ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 ii4 part i4 #a1 part ii4 #a1 #ba 7ascent of ,g4 ,b4 ,kinney and ,d4 ,phillips71 iv4 #a1 vi4 #aa-gc 7the expeditions of #aiac74 #fj ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 vii4 #fc1 viii4 #cj1 #acc4 #fa ,alpine ,journal1 xxvi4 #djd2 ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 iv4 #fb ,see his map1 ,geographical ,journal1 xxxix4 #cab4 #fc ,canadian ,alpine ,journal1 vi4 #agh1 #ahf4 #fd ,ibid4 vi4 #agj1 #ahh1 vii4 #hb1 ix4 #gi4 #fe ,see ,dr4 ,collie's map and papers1 ,alpine ,journal1 xxvi1 #e2 ,geographical ,journal1 xxxix4 #bbc4 #ff ,the whole caravan--men1 horses1 baggage1 etc4--is generally compendiously referred to as an #8outfit4' #fg ,a large ,indian tent in which a fire can be kept going4 #fh ,metal basin in a leather case4 ,,index ,accidents1 mountaineering1 causes of1 #adi1 #bef -- -- how to deal with1 #bfd-g -- -- prevention of1 #bef-gh -- -- their effect on others1 #bfd ,afanasief's #ajj ,kaukasus ,gipfel cited1 #eji1 #eaj ,ailments1 #i ,alpine ,club of ,canada1 annual camps of the1 #eij -- ,ski-ing1 ,calendar for1 #djb1 #djc1 #def-gj ,alps1 the ,dolomites of the ,eastern1 #dg -- the ,eastern1 #bja -- the ,high1 hints for winter equipment for1 #ddd-f -- -- in spring1 #def-fh -- -- in winter1 #ddb-ef -- -- snow conditions in the1 #ddf -- the ,southern1 #dg ,amateur mountaineer1 the1 #ajh1 #aji1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf -- -- improvement in his skill1 #aje1 #ajf ,anchor1 the1 #bbj1 #bbc ,anchoring on a descent1 #aia1 #aib ,andorra1 #eei1 #efj ,aneroid1 #ih1 #dde -- the ,watkin1 #ece ,angle of lie of snow1 the1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cbh1 #cbi -- -- reconnoitring1 #cge1 #cgf -- of rock1 #chg1 #chh ,ankle1 part played by the1 in climbing1 #aeh1 #aei1 #bhi1 #cjc ,anticipation in climbing1 importance of1 #aeg1 #aeh ,arctic mountaineering1 #dig-eje ,arms1 use of the1 in climbing1 #afa1 #afb ,association among climbers1 #aej ,automatic actions and adjustments in climbing1 #fi1 #gj ,autumn ski-ing1 #dfh1 #dfi ,avalanche ground1 tactics on1 #dci-db ,avalanche1 liability of snow to1 #cbh ,avalanches1 #bgc-e -- classification of1 #dbg1 #dbh -- conditions for their production1 #bgc1 #dbc-g -- dangers of1 #dbd1 #dbe1 #dbf1 #dcj1 #dcb1 #dcc-h -- dry powder1 #dbh1 #dbi -- ground1 #dbc1 #dbg1 #dce -- in ,norway1 #ede -- new wet snow1 #dbi-ca -- old wet snow1 #dce-h -- power of1 #bgd1 #dbh1 #dce1 #dcf -- rock1 #bga -- summer snow1 #dch1 #dci -- wind slab1 #dca-d ,axe1 the1 #ia1 #ib -- as an extra hand1 #bjf1 #bjg -- as a third leg1 #agh1 #bjg1 #bib -- in descent1 #bjh -- on rocks1 #bjd-h -- on snow1 #ccf1 #ccg ,baedeker's ,canada cited1 #egd1 #egg -- ,norway cited1 #ecf -- ,s4 ,w4 ,france cited1 #egj ,balaitous1 the1 #eeg ,balance climbing1 #add-h1 #aef1 #aeg -- factors involved in1 #bh-cb1 #adj1 #adi1 #aef1 #aeg ,barometer4 ,see ,aneroid ,bath1 the hot1 #e -- in tropics1 #dgi -- morning1 cold1 #d ,bathing1 #ab1 #ac1 #ebd1 #ecb ,bed1 portable1 #ii ,beginner1 the1 #aac-f1 #aah -- his choice of trainer1 #aad1 #aae ,beginners1 initial practice for1 #adh1 #aeb1 #aec2 and see under ,rope ,behind1 the rope1 #bae ,belay1 the direct1 #bbj1 #bba -- the indirect1 #bba1 #bbb ,belays1 #bai-be ,belloc's ,pyrenees cited1 #egj ,benightment1 #eb1 #ec1 #gd1 #ge ,bergschrund1 #cag1 #ccg ,bhutan1 #ebg ,bise1 the1 #ddf ,bivouac1 outfit for1 #ii -- selection of a1 #ec ,blindness1 snow1 #aa1 #cdc ,blistering from sun1 #aa1 #ab1 #ij1 #ig ,blizzards1 danger of1 #bgf ,body brake1 the1 #aif ,boils1 #dhd1 #dhe ,boots1 #d1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 #aec-e -- canvas1 #aee -- care of1 #ha1 #hb -- for the ,himalaya1 #ecd -- for ski-ing1 #djb -- nailing1 #hb1 #hc1 #aed1 #aee -- rubber1 #hi ,boracic powder for the feet1 #e ,boredom1 #ae1 #af -- of tramps over snow1 #ccb ,bouldering1 #aec1 #aga1 #ahc ,boum1 the1 #efb ,brakes1 #aie1 #aif -- for glissading1 #ceh1 #cei ,breeches1 #hg1 #hh ,breithorn1 ski-ing on the ,zermatt1 #cig ,bridges1 ice1 #ccg1 #cch ,bridgland's ,guide to ,jasper ,park1 etc41 cited1 #ehc n4 ,britain1 mist and cloud in1 #chi1 #cij -- rocks in1 #chh1 #chi -- snow in1 #cdb ,bruce's ,kulu and ,lahoul cited1 #ebi ,bucket steps1 #big ,calendar for ,alpine ,ski-ing1 #djb1 #djc1 #def-gj ,camera1 the folding1 #dga -- the hand1 #dga1 #dgb -- the ,verascope1 #dgh ,canadian ,pacific ,railway ,district1 the1 #egd-ha ,canteen for tropics1 #dhg1 #dhh ,canvas boots1 #aee ,capo al ,dente1 the1 #eai ,carriers in tropics1 #die ,casque1 the1 #efj ,caucasus1 the1 climate of1 #ejf -- forests of1 #ejh -- literature of1 #eji1 #eaj -- maps of1 #eae1 #eaf -- modes of travel in1 #eaa1 #eab1 #ead1 #eae -- mountain system of1 #ejh -- mountaineering in1 #ejf-af -- -- centres for1 #eab ,caucasus1 mountaineering in1 commissariat for1 #eac1 #ead -- -- cost of1 #eaf -- -- equipment for1 #eab1 #eac -- records of1 #ejh -- routes of access to1 #eaj -- topography and structure of1 #ejf-i ,caulfield's ,how to ,ski cited1 #cih n4 #8,chair1' the1 #aif1 #aig ,chalk1 its peculiarities and risks1 #ahj ,chamois1 as a danger1 #bga -- in relation to avalanches1 #dda ,chamonix ,aiguilles1 the1 #df1 #dg1 #bgg -- granite1 #adf ,check1 easing of a1 #beh-fj ,checking on the rope1 #bei1 #bfj ,chill1 avoidance of1 #he -- risk of1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #ac ,chimney climbing1 #afg-i ,chimneys1 descent of1 #aia ,chocolate1 #f1 #dde ,christiania turn1 the1 #dja ,claws1 #if1 #ig1 #bhg-id -- in glissading1 #cfe1 #cff -- in mountain ski-ing1 #djb1 #dai -- their value1 #bhf1 #bid1 #eac -- theory of their use1 #bhh1 #bhi -- types of1 #bhg1 #bhh ,cliffs1 sea1 #aha1 #ahb ,climbing down1 #ahd-ii -- in combination1 #bji-ee ,closti turn1 the1 #dja ,clothing1 #e1 #aa1 #hd-ij -- for the tropics1 #dhh1 #dhi -- for women1 #hi1 #ij -- for the ,himalaya1 #ecd ,clouds as weather portents1 #eg-i -- cirrus1 #eh -- cumulus1 #eh -- #8fish'1 #ei -- #8mare's-tails1' #eh -- stratus1 #eh -- thunder1 #ei ,coat1 the1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #ij ,col du ,lion1 the1 #eg -- ,theodule1 the1 #eg ,cold1 effect of1 on endurance1 #aj1 #aa ,coleman's ,the ,canadian ,rockies1 ,new and ,old ,trails1 etc41 cited1 #eha n41 #ehb1 #ehc1 #ehd1 #ehf ,collective confidence of party1 #ag1 #ah1 #bdj -- rhythm1 #bji1 #baa ,colour photography1 #dgg ,combination1 climbing in1 #bji-ee -- the secret of time-saving1 #gf ,comolo ,forno1 the1 #eei ,compass1 #ih -- the radium1 #eb ,confidence1 danger of over-1 #bd1 #be -- necessity of self-1 for leader1 #ag1 #bch ,confusing effects of weather when on snow1 #cdb-e ,conjunctivitis1 #dhc ,constipation1 #dhj1 #dha1 #dhb ,continuous going1 #gf-h ,cooking apparatus1 #ih ,cornices1 snow1 #cch-dj -- -- double1 #chj -- -- reconnoitring1 #cgg-hj ,cornwall1 cliff climbing in1 #aha ,corsica1 literature of1 #ebj -- modes of access to1 #eah -- mountaineering in1 #eag-ba -- -- centres for1 #eah1 #eai -- -- cost of1 #eah n4 -- -- equipment for1 #eag1 #eah -- -- season for1 #eag -- nature of climbing in1 #ebj -- topography and maps of1 #eah-ba ,coughs and colds1 #dhb ,couloirs1 #bfh1 #bgb -- glissading on claws in1 #cfe -- reconnoitring1 #chb-d -- snow in1 #cdj-b -- the plunging step in1 #cfd1 #cfe ,courage1 the measure of1 #bfa1 #bfb ,courmayeur1 weather in1 #ef ,cover for the axe1 use of a1 #cdi ,crabioules1 the1 #efa ,cracks1 climbing1 #afe1 #aff -- descent of1 #aia ,crampons4 ,see ,claws ,crevasses1 #caf-ba1 #deb1 #dee -- hidden1 #cae-bb1 #ddi -- marginal1 #cji1 #dej -- reconnoitring1 #cha1 #chb -- scimitar1 #caj -- systems of1 #cji-aa ,crust1 snow1 #cja1 #cca -- effect of ,fhn on1 #dac -- -- -- frost on1 #dad -- -- -- sun on1 #dae -- -- film1 #dad -- -- forms of1 #daj1 #daa -- -- marble1 #daa1 #dad -- -- perforated1 #dad -- -- soft breakable1 #daj -- -- trap1 #daj -- -- unbreakable1 #daj1 #daa ,cups1 drinking1 #ih ,cushion1 rubber1 #ii ,cuts and scratches1 #dhe ,cutting4 ,see under ,steps ,cylindre1 the1 #efj ,damp1 risks of1 #e ,dancing1 as training1 #d1 #ff1 #aef -- movements analogous to those of climbing1 #aef1 #aeg1 #bjh ,danger1 #bf1 #bg1 #gb1 #adi1 #aeb1 #bcg1 #bfj1 #bfa ,de ,dchy's ,kaukasus ,reisen und ,forschungen cited1 #eji ,descent1 #db1 #ahd-ii ,detached rock1 #agf1 #agg ,diarrha1 #dha ,direction1 the sense of1 #cde-g ,disappointment1 #bd ,discipline of parties1 #b1 #c ,district1 the choice of1 #dc-h ,dogtooth ,range1 the1 #ehj ,dollfuss in ,may1 #dfa ,dom1 the1 #dei ,doubled rope1 the1 in descent1 #aib-e -- on glaciers1 #cag-ba ,down1 climbing1 #ahd-ii ,drinks1 #g1 #h ,dru1 the1 #dg1 #aeb ,dunagiri1 #ebi ,dysentery1 #dha1 #dhb ,earth glissade1 #ahb ,earthquakes1 #bgg1 #bgh ,ebnefluh1 ski-work on the1 #cih1 #dei1 #dfh ,eckenstein1 ,mr41 crampons designed by1 #ib1 #if1 #bhh -- ice-axe designed by1 #ib -- on knots for ,alpine ropes1 #id1 #ie -- on nails for boots1 #hc -- on ropes for ,alpine work1 #ic1 #id1 #ie ,elbrus1 #eji ,end man1 dangers of his fall1 #bfj ,equipment1 for ,alps1 #hj-h -- for ,arctic mountaineering1 #dih1 #dii -- for ,caucasus1 #eab-d -- for ,corsica1 #eag1 #eah -- for ,himalaya1 #ecb-e -- for mountain ski-ing1 #djb -- for ,norway1 #eci1 #edj -- for ,pyrenees1 #eff-i -- for rock climbing in ,britain1 #hh1 #hi -- for ,rocky ,mountains1 #ehh-ij ,ewige ,schnee1 #ccj ,exceptional ascents1 #abj-b1 #adi ,excitement1 dangers of over-1 #af ,exercise1 forms of preliminary1 #d1 #aef1 #aeh1 #aei1 #aha ,exhaustion1 #bf1 #bg ,experts1 guide and amateur as1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aah1 #aai ,eyes1 right use of the1 in climbing1 #adf1 #adg1 #aff1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #aib1 #cab1 #cac1 #cba1 #cgj-cif ,face-inward position in descent1 #aij1 #aia ---- in glissading1 #cfc1 #cfd ,face-outward position in descent1 #ahh1 #ahi ,face-sideways position in descent1 #ahi1 #aij ,fall1 #bef -- after a1 #bfb-d ,fallibility1 human1 #bef1 #beg ,fatigue1 temper as a sign of1 #bj ,fear1 #bf1 #bg ,feet1 care of the1 #d1 #e1 #hc ,fell climbers1 #adb ,fellowship1 necessity of good1 #c ,fencing as training1 #d1 #ff ,fiescherhorn1 the1 #dfh ,finsteraarhorn1 the1 #ddb ,finsteraarjoch ,pass1 in winter1 #cig ,firn1 #bhe1 #ccj ,first man on the rope1 duty of the1 #bcg-i ,flysch1 #dbe ,fog4 ,see ,mist ,fhn1 the1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa1 #dag-bb -- effects of1 on snow1 #cbf1 #cbh1 #cgg1 #chj1 #dab1 #dac -- in spring1 #dba1 #dbb1 #dcf -- in winter1 #dah-ba -- the dry1 #dah1 #dcj -- the wet1 #dac1 #dah1 #dbi1 #dcj ,folgefond1 the1 #edb ,following and leading1 #bag1 #bah ,food1 the choice of1 #f -- -- for tropics1 #dhf1 #dhg ,foot brake1 the1 #aie ,footing1 the right1 for guide and climber1 #abe-i ,footwork1 #adj1 #ada1 #aec-h1 #afa1 #agf -- for balance climbing1 #bhb-d ,forbes1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,d41 his ,norway and its ,glaciers cited1 #ecf ,fourcanade1 the1 #eef1 #efb1 #efc ,freak climbs1 #ahb1 #ahc ,freshfield's ,round ,kangchenjunga cited1 #ebg ,freshfield and ,sella's ,the ,exploration of the ,caucasus cited1 #eji1 #eae ,front1 the rope in1 #bad1 #bae ,frost-bite1 precautions against1 #e1 #bhh n4 -- remedies for1 #aj ,frostisen1 #edd ,fruit ice1 #h ,funicula1 #bed1 #bee ,furka1 the1 #dfd ,gabbro1 #edb1 #edc ,gabitou1 the1 #efj ,gaiters1 #hd ,galdhpiggen1 #edd ,galenstock1 the1 #dfc1 #dfd ,galmihorn1 the1 #dei ,garhwal1 #ebh ,gauli ,hut1 the1 #deg ,gant1 the ,dent du1 #aeb1 #bja1 #bgh ,geology1 value of knowledge of1 #dbe1 #dbf ,giddiness1 #i1 #bh-ca1 #ahb ,gjkkevarre1 the1 #edb ,glacier falls1 #caa1 #cad -- mills1 #caj ,glaciers1 #bgi-ha1 #bhe1 #cjh-bd -- in the ,himalaya1 #eca -- in ,new ,zealand1 #eed -- in ,norway1 #ede1 #edf -- in the ,pyrenees1 #eef-fb -- in the ,rocky ,mountains1 #ehf -- in ,spitsbergen1 #ejc1 #ejd -- practice in ice work on1 #bhe1 #bhf -- ski-ing on1 in winter1 #ddh-ef -- snow-covered1 #cad-bb ,glacier work1 #cjh-bd ,glasses1 field1 #ig1 #ih -- for prevention of snow-blindness1 #aa1 #ig1 #cba1 #cbb1 #ecd -- for reconnoitring1 #cie ,glazed rock1 risks of1 #agj1 #aga1 #aic ,glissading1 #cdh-fi -- alternate1 #cfb1 #cfc -- arrest of1 #ceb -- face-inward1 #cfc1 #cfd -- jumping while1 #ceg1 #ceh -- on claws1 #cfe1 #cff -- -- in couloirs1 #cfe -- on earth1 #ahb -- on grass1 #cfh1 #cfi -- on heather1 #cfh1 #cfi -- on ice1 #cdi-eb -- -- position for1 #cdi-eb -- on sand1 #cff -- on scree1 #cff-h -- on snow1 #cec-ff -- on volcanic ash1 #cff -- -- braking1 #ced1 #cee1 #ceh1 #cei1 #cfj -- positions for1 #cec-fa -- -- steering1 #cee-g -- stone tests for1 #cfa -- the axe brake for1 #ced1 #ceh1 #cei -- the foot brake for1 #ceh1 #cei -- the rope in1 #cfa1 #cfb ,glittertind1 #edd ,gloves1 #aj1 #hf1 #hi1 #aie1 #beh ,goats as a danger1 #bga ,grand ,trunk ,pacific ,railway1 the1 #ehb-d ,grease on the face1 #aa1 #ij1 #ig ,gredetschthal1 the1 #dei ,grpon1 the1 #dg1 #aeb1 #che ,grimsel region1 the1 #dbe1 #dfc ,grip climbing1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade1 #agd1 #agf ,gritstone1 #ahj ,grove's ,the ,frosty ,caucasus cited1 #eji ,grundlawinen4 ,see ,avalanches1 ground ,gspaltenhorn1 the1 #ddg ,guide as mountaineer1 the ideal1 #ajg1 #ajh -- companionship of amateur and1 #abh1 #abi1 #acf1 #acg -- nature1 #abc-cg ,guides1 ,alpine1 changed conditions of1 #ajc1 #ajd -- as experts1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aai -- care for their comfort1 #abf1 #abg -- estimation of their qualities1 #ec-e -- management of1 #abc-cg -- misconceptions of their function1 #aja-c -- question of engaging1 #aah-bb -- traditional idea of1 #ajb ,guides' books1 hints as to writing up1 #ec-e ,gullies1 #ada1 #adb1 #bfh -- glissading in winter1 #cfh ,gurla ,mandhata1 #ebh1 #ebi #8,half step' trick1 the1 #cg ,halts1 #dj1 #gg1 #gh1 #ccb -- the rope during1 #bea1 #beb ,handholds1 to cut1 in ice1 #bih ,hands1 use of the1 #afa-g ,hat1 the1 #he1 #hi ,headaches1 #i ,health1 importance of1 #c1 #d ,heart1 training and development of the1 #fg1 #fh ,height1 advantages of1 #ga -- the psychological effect of1 #ca1 #cb1 #bic ,helmet1 woollen1 #hf ,hill-shock4 ,see ,hysteria ,himalaya1 the1 climbing conditions in1 #ebc1 #ebe1 #ebf -- configuration of1 #ebb1 #ebc -- glaciers of1 #ebi -- management of expedition to1 #ebc-ebe -- mountaineering in1 #ebb-ce -- -- clothing for1 #ecd -- -- cost of1 #eca1 #ecb -- -- equipment for1 #ebh1 #ecb1 #ecc1 #ece -- -- food for1 #ecc -- -- hints for1 #ecc1 #ecd -- -- instruments for1 #ece -- -- season for1 #ebf -- -- use of claws in1 #bhh n4 -- topography of1 #ebg-i ,hindu ,khush1 the1 #ecj1 #eca ,hochgebirgskalk1 #dbe ,holding the rope1 #bbe-g ,holds1 anatomical1 #bdd -- cling1 #afa-b -- finger1 #afa -- friction1 #afj1 #afa1 #afi -- on rock and ice1 practice of1 #fi -- over1 #afb -- press1 #afc1 #afd1 #agi -- pull1 #agd1 #agg1 #agi -- push1 #afc -- side1 #afb -- under1 #afb ,humours1 preventable1 #ad-g ,hurry1 the blunder of1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #gf1 #gg1 #ccb ,hut usages1 #dh-ej ,hysteria1 or hill-shock1 #bf-h ,ice1 black1 #bhe1 #bhh1 #bid1 #cgd -- blue1 #bhd -- glacier1 #bhd -- grainy1 #bhd -- -- hard1 #bij1 #bia1 #ede -- honeycombed1 #cgd -- -- rotten1 #bij1 #bid -- -- soft1 #bij -- snow1 #bhe ,ice axe4 ,see ,axe ,ice claws4 ,see under ,claws -- climbing in relation to rock climbing1 #bhb-d -- craft1 #bhb-cbd -- fragments1 danger from falling1 #bge1 #bgf -- sky1 the1 #cic1 #cid ,imitation1 in collective climbing1 #baa-c ,incudine1 the1 #ebj ,infection of leader by party1 #be1 #bf ,injured man1 a danger to his party1 #bfj1 #bfa ,instruments1 #eg1 #ece ,ireland1 cliff climbing in1 #aha1 #ahb1 #cia ,joanne's ,pyrnes cited1 #egj ,jungfrau1 first winter ascent of1 #cig ,justedals-brae1 the1 #ede1 #edf ,kamet1 #ebi ,kasbek1 #eab ,kashmir and ,karakoram1 #ecj ,kellas1 ,dr41 on ,sikkim1 cited1 #ebg1 #ebh ,kletterschuhe1 #if1 and see ,soles ,knee1 right use of the1 in climbing1 #adf1 #afj ,knickerbockers1 #he ,knots for ropes for mountaineering1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #bee -- tests of1 #if ,knutshultind1 #edd ,kumaon1 #ebh ,lakes1 the1 #adj1 #aeb -- snowcraft in1 #cdb ,lantern1 folding1 #eb1 #ih ,lava1 old1 #ahj ,leader1 duties of the1 #a1 #f1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #ac1 #ah1 #bc1 #ci1 #dc1 #dd1 #dh-ee1 #abe1 #aej1 #aea1 #bcg-i1 #cbc1 #ccb -- guide or amateur as1 #aji1 #aaa -- qualifications for1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #i1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #be1 #cc1 #ef1 #aej1 #aea1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bci1 #cba -- responsibilities of1 #b1 #f1 #i1 #aj1 #af1 #ag1 #bg1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #ch1 #ci1 #aaa1 #acc1 #acd1 #aej1 #aea1 #aec1 #bbg1 #bcg-i1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bfc ,le ,blonde's1 ,mrs41 ,mountaineering in the ,land of the ,midnight ,sun cited1 #ecf ,leeches1 #dhd ,lens1 #dga1 #dgc ,light1 to procure a1 #eb ,lillienfeld ski1 #cih -- system1 #cii1 #dja ,limestone1 #ahj1 #aha ,loads1 risks of unnecessary1 #bb1 #ge1 #gf ,long rope1 the1 #aih1 #aii ,longstaff1 ,dr41 on the ,purcell ,range1 cited1 #egi ,loops in ropes for glacier work1 #cbj ,lumire autochrome1 the1 #dgg ,lungs1 training and development of the1 #fg1 #fh ,lunn's ,cross ,country ,ski-ing cited1 #cih n41 #djb ,lyskamm1 the1 #d ,malaria1 #dhj ,maps1 #ih ,marble1 #ahj -- crust1 #daa1 #dad ,marbor1 the1 #eeg ,mascot1 uses of a1 #cd ,matterhorn1 the1 #eg1 #aab1 #aac1 #bja1 #bga1 #bgb1 #cha1 #chf ,maupas1 the1 #efb ,may in the ,high ,alps1 #def-fa1 #dfc1 #dfd ,medicine chest for tropics1 #dhe1 #dhf ,medicines1 #ajj ,merzbacher's ,aus den ,hochregionen des ,kaukasus cited1 #eji1 #eae ,mind1 influence of1 on the body1 #ad1 #abi1 #bdj ,mist and cloud1 uses of1 #chi1 #cij -- dangers of1 #bgg1 #cdc1 #cdf ,moine1 the1 #aeb ,mont ,perdu1 the1 #eei1 #efj1 #efa ,monte ,cinto1 #ebj -- ,corona1 #eai -- d',oro1 #eai -- ,padro1 #eai -- ,renosa1 #eai -- ,rosa1 #ddf1 #deg1 #dfh1 #dfi -- -- ski-ing on1 #cig ,moraines1 #agh1 #bjh1 #bib ,mosquitoes1 #dhj1 #edj ,moods1 abnormal1 #bc-h ,mount ,assiniboine1 #ege -- ,ball1 #ege -- ,beaver1 #egi -- ,cook1 #eea1 #eec -- ,duncan1 #egi -- ,edith ,cavell1 #ege1 #ehc -- ,fitzwilliam1 #ehc -- ,hector1 #egf -- ,moloch1 #egg -- ,robson1 #ehd1 #ehe -- ,sir ,sandford1 #egi -- ,torlesse1 #eec ,mountain photography1 #dga-h -- sickness1 #i1 #aj ,mountaineer1 the amateur1 contrasted with the guide1 #ajc-h -- the composite1 #ajf -- the moderate1 #aaf-h -- the true1 #bhj ,mountaineering in winter1 #cig ,muffler1 #hf ,mumm's ,five ,months in the ,himalaya cited1 #ebh n4 ,mummery's ,my ,climbs in the ,alps and ,caucasus cited1 #eji ,mrren1 #dfi ,muscular fitness1 #i1 #fe1 #ff ,nails1 special1 for climbing boots1 #hb1 #hc1 #aed ,nanda ,devi1 #ebi ,napes ridges1 the1 #aeb ,natives1 management of1 #did1 #die ,nepal1 #ebh ,nerve1 #gj -- exhaustion1 #i1 #bf1 #bg ,nerves1 #fh1 #fi ,nv1 #bhe1 #ccj1 #cce1 #ddh1 #dfe1 #dgj ,neve's ,picturesque ,kashmir cited1 #ecj n4 ,new ,zealand1 flora and fauna of1 #eec1 #eed -- glaciers in1 #eed -- guides for the ,alps of1 #edi -- mountains of1 #eej1 #eea1 #eee -- routes to1 #edh1 #edi -- the ,southern ,alps of1 #edh-ee -- topography and structure of1 #eea-c -- weather of1 #eej ,night dangers4 ,see ,benightment ,night1 hints for walking at1 #ea-c ,norway1 glaciers of1 #edj1 #eda1 #edb1 #edc -- guide books and literature1 #ecf1 #ecg -- local conditions in1 #edd-g -- mountaineering in1 #ecf-dg -- -- equipment for1 #eci1 #edj -- -- expense of1 #ech1 #eci -- -- guides for1 #edj1 #eda1 #edb -- -- season for1 #ecg -- mountains of1 #edb-d -- routes of access to1 #ech -- topography and structure of1 #edb-d ,norway and ,sweden1 wind-swept snow in1 #djh ,numbers suitable for parties1 #cd1 #ce ,oberaarjoch1 the1 #dfc1 #dfd ,oberland1 the1 crossed on ski1 #cig -- its opportunities and characteristics1 #de1 #df -- weather in the1 #eg ,obstinacy1 hysterical1 #bh ,old age1 climbing in1 #gc ,oppenheim's ,new ,climbs in ,norway cited1 #ecf ,order1 the1 on the rope1 #bbg-cf -- of moving on the rope1 the1 #bcf1 #bcg2 and see under ,rope ,outfit for the ,alps1 #ia-ajj ,outram's ,in the ,heart of the ,canadian ,rockies cited1 #egd1 #eha ,overhang1 in descent1 #aid1 #aie ,pace1 adjustment of1 to the task1 #gd-i -- setting the1 #cg ,packe's ,guide to the ,pyrnes cited1 #egj ,paglia ,orba1 #eba ,palmer's ,mountaineering and ,exploration in the ,selkirks cited1 #egh n41 #egi ,panic1 #bg1 #bgb ,parasites1 body1 #dhd ,passing ahead1 #cg1 #ch ,paulcke1 #cig ,pegs and aids1 #if1 #bjj-c ,pennines1 characteristics of the1 #df ,perdighero1 #efa ,persistence in uncertain weather1 #fc1 #fd ,perversity1 mountain1 #bfg-gb ,photography1 mountain1 #dga-h -- -- choice of subjects1 #dge-g -- -- equipment for1 #dga-e -- -- in colour1 #dgg -- -- stereoscopic1 #dgg-h ,pic d',albe1 #efb -- d',astazou1 #efj -- de ,bcibri1 #eei -- d',enfer1 #eeg -- ,long1 #eei1 #efa -- du ,midi d',ossau1 #eef1 #eeg -- ,moulires1 #efb -- du ,munia1 #efa -- de ,nthou1 #eei1 #efb -- de la ,pique1 #efb -- de ,pinde1 #efa -- du ,port d',oo1 #efa -- des ,posets1 #eei1 #efb -- de ,salenques1 #efb ,pitons4 ,see under ,pegs ,port de ,venasque1 #efb ,positions in descent1 #ahg-ia ,powder snow1 #cbf1 #cbg1 #dje-aa -- -- effect of sun on1 #djh-aa -- -- -- wind on1 #djg1 #djh -- -- the ideal ski-ing surface1 #djf -- -- reconnoitring1 #cgd -- -- in spring1 #dab-g1 #dcj -- -- in winter1 #daa1 #dab ,preparations1 psychological1 for ascent1 #abi1 #acj ,punta di ,capella1 #ebj ,purcell ,range1 the1 #egi-hj ,putties1 #hi1 #abe1 #bhi ,pyramid ,peak1 #ehf ,pyrenees1 the1 #eef-ga -- centres for climbing1 #efj -- huts and inns1 #eff -- literature of the1 #egj -- maps of1 #efd-f -- mountaineering in1 #eef1 #eeg1 #efc -- -- cost of1 #efi -- -- equipment for1 #eff-i -- -- guides for1 #efc1 #efd -- topography and structure of1 #eeg-efc ,quairat1 the1 #efa ,quarries1 scrambling in1 for practice1 #aha ,quartz1 its peculiarities and risks1 #agi1 #ahj ,rabot's ,au ,cap ,nord cited1 #edb ,reach1 advantages of1 in climbing1 #ga ,reconnoitring1 #cgj-if -- angle on snow1 #cge-g -- couloirs1 #chb-d -- glaciers1 #caa-d1 #cha1 #chb -- the half-seen1 #cij1 #cia -- ice1 #cgd1 #cha1 #chb -- importance of1 #cgj-c -- ridges1 #chf1 #chg -- rock1 #chd -- rock faces1 #chd-f -- rocks in ,britain1 #chh-ij -- slabs1 #chg1 #chh -- snow cornices1 #cgg-hj -- snow surface conditions1 #cgd1 #cge -- the unseen1 #cia-f -- wind and snow signs1 #chj1 #cha ,rquin1 the1 #aeb ,rescue parties1 #bff1 #bfg ,rhone ,valley1 the upper1 #dbd ,rhythm1 balance1 #add1 #aef1 #aeg -- collective1 #bji-aa -- of movement1 importance of1 #adj1 #ada1 #adc1 #ade1 #adh1 #aef1 #aeg -- of step1 importance of1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #gf1 #gg1 #gh1 #gi1 #ade1 #adh ,rib riding1 #afi ,ring1 use of the1 #aic -- risks of the1 #aid1 #aih ,ringworm1 #dhd ,ripple mark1 #djg ,roche ,miette1 the1 #ehg ,rock avalanche1 #bga ,rock climber1 the good1 #ach1 #adf-i1 #aga ,rock climbing1 #ach-bjh -- -- in relation to ice climbing1 #bhb-d -- -- development of1 #ach-dd ,rock sky1 the1 #cic ,rocks1 knowledge of structure of1 #ach -- in ,britain1 #chh1 #chi ,rocky ,mountains1 access to the1 #egd1 #eia -- -- literature of the1 #egd1 #ehf -- -- maps of the1 #egf1 #egi1 #eha1 #ehe1 #ehf -- -- minor ranges of the1 #ehj -- -- modes and cost of travel in the1 #ehg-h -- -- mountaineering in the1 #egb-ia -- -- -- guides and equipment for1 #egh1 #ehh-ij -- -- topography of the1 #egb-hg ,rope1 best handgrip on the1 #bbe -- carrying the1 #bec -- choice of the1 #ic-d -- coiling the1 #bdf1 #beb1 #bec -- in collective climbing1 #bac-g -- danger of abuse of the1 #baf1 #bag -- drying the1 #bec -- first man on the1 #bcg-i -- frequent examination of the1 necessity for1 #bec -- on ice1 #cje-h -- kinks in the1 #bec -- length of the1 #bec1 #bed -- management of the1 #bdf-ee -- order of moving on the1 #bcf-g -- order on the1 #bbg-cf -- -- on difficult or new ascents and descents1 #bbh -- -- on direct ascents and descents1 #bbg1 #bbh -- -- on easy ascents and descents1 #bbh -- -- on traverses1 #bbi-cb -- -- with beginners1 #bcc-f -- right use of the1 in descent1 #aia-i -- -- on snow1 #cce-g -- second man on the1 #bci-de -- third man on the1 #bde-f2 and see under ,doubled1 ,knots1 ,long1 ,funicula1 and ,halts 8,rope-riding10 #bag ,rosenlaui1 #dfa ,ross's ,a ,climber in ,new ,zealand cited1 #eed ,rubber soles1 #aee1 #ahb ,rucksack1 the1 #e1 #ia ,rulten1 #ede ,running as training1 #d ,russell's ,grandes ,ascensions des ,pyrnes cited1 #egj -- ,souvenirs d'un ,montagnard cited1 #egj ,safety-pins1 #he1 #hf ,sandstone1 risks and peculiarities of1 #ahj ,sark1 the island of1 cliff climbing on1 #aha ,schaeffer1 ,mrs41 her ,old ,indian ,trails cited1 #ehd n4 ,schneebrett4 ,see ,wind slab ,schrader1 ,m41 on the ,pyrenees1 quoted1 #eeg ,scotland1 cliff climbing in1 #aha1 #ahb ,scottish mountains1 snow craft on1 #cdb ,scree1 #agh1 #agi -- glissading on1 #cff1 #cfh -- in relation to ski-ing1 #dbf ,sea cliffs1 #aha1 #ahb ,sealskins for ski-ing1 #djb1 #ddi ,season1 habit of the1 #fb1 #fc ,second man on the rope1 the1 duty of the1 #bci-de -- -- -- in case of accident1 #bfb1 #bfc ,selkirk mountains1 the1 #egg-i ,sracs1 #bge1 #cja1 #cac1 #cce ,shirts1 #he1 #hh ,signals1 code of rescue1 #ea1 #bff ,sikkim1 #ebg ,silence1 dangers of1 #ah1 #bj1 #ea1 #bch -- uses of1 #bc1 #bdj ,simla ,hill ,states1 the1 #ebi ,sitting glissading1 #cfj1 #cfa ,skagastlstind1 #edb1 #edd ,skating movements1 analogous to those of climbing1 #aef ,skavla1 #djh ,ski1 mountaineering on1 #cig-dgj -- ,lillienfeld1 #cih -- for mountain work1 #djb -- for summer work1 #fd1 #cig1 #dfi1 #dgj ,ski-ing in the ,high ,alps1 #cii1 #djj -- ,lillienfeld system of1 #cii1 #dja -- ,norwegian style of1 #cii -- technique of1 #cih-dja -- turns1 #djj1 #dja -- ,zdarsky's system of1 #cih ,skin diseases1 #dhc ,skipping as training1 #d1 #ff ,sky1 ice as affecting its tint1 #cic1 #cid -- rock as affecting its tint1 #cic -- snow as affecting its tint1 #cib1 #cic ,skye1 climbing in1 #aeb ,slab climbing1 #adb1 #adc1 #aff1 #afg1 #chg1 #chh ,slate1 its peculiarities and risks1 #agi ,sleeping sack1 #ii1 #dih1 #dii1 #eac1 #ecb1 #efg1 #ehi ,sleeplessness1 #dhc ,slides1 photographic1 #dgc1 #dgd ,sling for axe1 #ic1 #bih ,slings1 rope1 #aic1 #aid ,slingsby's ,norway the ,northern ,playground cited1 #ecf ,slips1 how to accept1 #da1 #db ,smoking1 #hi ,snake-bite1 #dhd ,snow a bar to starting1 #fc1 #fd -- avalanches1 #dbc-db -- bridges1 #ccg -- cornices1 #cch -- craft1 #af1 #cbe-df -- -- for ski-ing1 #djc1 #djd -- crusted1 #cca -- -- reconnoitring1 #cgd -- granular1 #daf -- in couloirs1 #cdj-b -- new1 risks of1 #cbg -- pink1 #edf -- powdery1 #cbf1 #cbg2 and see under ,powder snow -- the rope and axe on1 #cce-g -- sky1 the1 #cib1 #cic -- slides1 danger of1 #bgc-e -- slopes1 reconnoitring1 #cge-g -- -- security of1 #cbi1 #ccc-e -- soft1 its risks and difficulties1 #ccj-ccb -- spring1 for ski-ing1 #dab-g -- steps1 #ccc1 #ccd -- summer1 for ski-ing1 #dbb1 #dbc -- travail1 #ccj-c -- winter1 for ski-ing1 #daa1 #dab ,snow-blindness1 #aa1 #cdc ,snow-line1 the1 #dei ,snow-water1 its supposed danger1 #h ,social composition of a party1 #cb-f1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aej ,socks1 #d1 #e1 #aj1 #hc1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi1 #aee1 #aef ,soles1 hard1 #aec1 #aed -- rubber1 #aee1 #ahb -- soft1 #aed1 #aee1 #aga1 #agi1 #bhd ,solitary climbing1 #aea1 #aeb -- -- unjustifiable on snow or ice1 #cae ,soum de ,raymond1 #efj ,spectacles4 ,see under ,glasses ,spender and ,llewellyn ,smith's ,through the ,high ,pyrenees cited1 #egj ,spitsbergen1 coast of1 #ejj-b -- glaciers of1 #eja1 #ejb1 #ejc1 #ejd -- interior of1 #ejb-d -- modes of access to1 #dig1 #dih -- mountaineering in1 #dig-eje -- -- cost of1 #eje -- mountains of1 #ejb-d ,spring in the ,high ,alps1 #def-fh -- snow for ski-ing1 #dab-g -- ,time-table for ski-ing1 the1 #dff-h ,springing the rope1 #aig1 #aih ,stances1 on rock1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbc-g1 #bdf1 #bdg -- on snow1 #ccf1 #ccg -- on ice1 #bih1 #cjf1 #cjg ,stedtind1 #edd ,stemming turn1 the1 #djj1 #dja ,step-cutting practice1 #ahb ,steps1 cutting1 #bid-cjb -- using1 #cjb-e ,stereoscopic photography1 #dgg1 #dgh ,stick1 use of the1 in ski-ing1 #cii1 #djj1 #dja1 #ddb1 #dej1 #ded ,stimulants1 their use1 #g1 #h -- -- in the tropics1 #dhg ,stockings1 #hc1 #hf1 #aee ,stomach1 care of the1 #d1 #e1 #hf1 #dgi1 #dhj1 #dhb ,stones1 dangers of falling1 #bej1 #bea1 #bfh-gc -- reconnoitring couloirs for1 #chb-d -- -- faces for1 #chf ,storm ,mountain1 #ege ,strahlegg ,pass1 crossing in winter1 #cig ,strandaatind1 #edc ,strata1 rock1 importance of acquaintance with1 #chc-e1 #chh1 #dbe1 #dbf ,stutfield and ,collie's ,climbs and ,explorations in the ,canadian ,rockies1 cited1 #ege n41 #ehj n41 #eha ,subconsciousness1 sphere of1 in mountaineering1 #fi ,sulitelma1 #edd ,summer ski4 ,see under ,ski ,sun1 dangers of1 #aa ,sunburn1 #ij1 #ig ,sunstroke1 #ab1 #dhb ,sutherlandshire1 cliff climbing in1 #aha ,sweater1 #hf1 #hh ,sweet-stuffs1 value of1 #f1 #g ,swimming as training1 #ff ,taillon1 the1 #eeg1 #efj ,teeth1 care of the1 #dgi1 #dhj1 #dhb1 #dhc ,tehri ,garhwal1 #ebi ,telemark turn1 the1 #djj1 #dja ,temper of mountaineering party1 the1 #ai-bc ,tennis as training1 #d ,tents1 #ii1 #eac2 and see ,equipment -- for tropics1 #dia-c -- ,mummery1 #dib1 #dii1 #ecc -- teepee1 #ehh -- ,whymper1 #dia1 #ecb ,thawing of snow1 the1 #dji1 #dae1 #daf ,thigh brake1 the1 #aie1 #aif ,third man on the rope1 duty of the1 #bde-f ,thirst1 #g1 #h ,thunderstorms1 danger of1 #bgf ,tirich ,mir1 #eca ,tour de ,marbor1 #efj ,tourist1 the mountaineer1 #aab1 #aac1 #aah ,trade goods for tropics1 #did1 #die ,training1 #fe-gc ,trap crust1 #daj ,tricouni nails for boots1 #hb1 #hc ,tripod for camera1 #dgb1 #dgd ,tropical diseases1 #dhj1 #dha -- mountaineering1 #dgi-if -- -- equipment for1 #dhf-ic -- -- health in1 #dgi-hf -- -- management of expedition for1 #dic-f ,tryfan1 the buttresses of1 #aeb ,u4,h4,u4 ,stollen nails for boots1 #hb ,underwear1 #hh1 and see ,equipment ,unsound rock1 #agc-i ,unusual rock #agi-hc ,urbachthal1 #dbd1 #deg ,val d',evolna1 #df ,vanesta packing-case1 the1 #dic1 #did1 #ecb ,verascope camera1 the1 #dgh ,vertigo1 #bh-ca ,vignemale1 the1 #eeg1 #efa ,waistcoat1 the1 #he ,wales1 cliffs in1 #adb1 #aeb1 #aha1 #ahb1 #cia -- ,north1 snowcraft in1 #cdb ,walking as training1 #d -- manners1 #cf-da -- notes on hill-1 #da-c ,warmth1 the conservation of1 #e ,warning1 to give1 #beg1 #beh ,water-bottles1 #ih ,waterproof cape1 #hf ,weather1 the1 #ef-fd -- alternating1 #dd1 #de -- confusing1 #cdb-e -- evil1 #bgf1 #bgg -- signs1 #fj-b ,weight handicaps1 #ge1 #gf ,wet rock1 risks of1 #afi1 #agj ,wetterhorn1 the1 #def1 #deg -- -- first winter ascent of1 #cig ,wheeler's ,selkirk ,range1 etc41 cited1 #egg ,white's ,sikkim and ,bhutan cited1 #ebg ,wilcox's ,camping in the ,canadian ,rockies cited1 #ege n4 ,will1 function of1 in climbing1 #fh ,wind1 an enemy1 #aa1 #beh1 #bgf1 #cdc -- a friend1 #bgg1 #chj1 #cha -- as weather portent1 #ei-fj -- effect of1 on snow1 #cbf -- protection against1 #e ,windboard1 #djg1 #djh1 #dcb ,wind #8signs1' #chj1 #cha ,wind slab1 #dcb1 #dcc ,wine1 #g ,winter conditions in the ,high ,alps1 #ddb-ef -- mountaineering1 #cig -- snow for ski-ing1 #daa1 #dab ,woman mountaineers1 dress for1 #hi1 #ij ,wood-chopping as training1 #d ,young climbers1 care of1 #ac1 #ad ,zermatt1 weather at1 #ef1 #cha ,zinal ,rothhorn1 #ddf1 #ddg1 #dfb ,,printed ,,by ,,morrison ,,and ,,gibb ,,limited ,,edinburgh ,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious errors or omissions in punctuation have been corrected4 ,page #gh3 8when the deterioriation0 changed to 8when the deterioration0 ,page #aei3 8changing but steelly arch0 changed to 8changing but steely arch0 ,page #ccc-ccd3 8possibility of the i consumption0 changed to 8possibility of the consumption0 ,page #dbe3 8,the hard #8,hochgebirgsalk1'0 changed to 8,the hard #8,hochgebirgskalk1'0 ,page #efd3 8,ministre de l',interieur0 changed to 8,ministre de l',intrieur0 ,page #ehj3 ,the footnote #b ,ibid4 v4 #bj1 #dd1 #hb4 was removed from the page because it has no corresponding marker in the text4 ,page #ehi3 8ordinary's day's travel0 changed to 8ordinary day's travel0 ,in the index1 8d',astazon0 changed to 8d',astazou0